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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT  or 


THE  BANCROFT  LIBRARY 


Class 


( 


THE   MANUAL   OF  DATES. 


LOW 

i'UI  NTi:i>      I.  V      WOO  I'l-  AM.      AND      KIN 

1  W.C. 


THE 


MANUAL   OF   DATES: 


ktbtr&rg  0f 


TO 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANKIND 
TO  BE  FOUND  IN  AUTHENTIC  RECORDS, 


R 


GEOEGE     H.     TOWNSEND. 


SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED^  AND  ENLARGED. 


LONDON: 
FREDERICK      WARNE     &     Co., 

BEDFORD  STREET,   COVENT  GARDEN. 

NEW    YORK:     SCRIBNER,    WELFORD,    &    Co. 

1867. 


,--;' 


PREFACE. 


IT  has  been  the  aim  of  the  Author  to  render  "  THE  MANUAL  OP  DATES"  a  concise  and 
trustworthy  compendium  of  the  principal  events  of  Ancient  and  Modern  times.  As 
the  value  of  a  work  of  reference  must  necessarily  depend  upon  the  character  of  the 
sources  whence  information  is  derived,  the  best  authorities  have  in  all  cases  been 
consulted,  and  their  statements  have  been  carefully  examined  and  compared.  On 
disputed  points,  conflicting  accounts  have  been  subjected  to  rigid  scrutiny,  and  the 
view  supported  by  the  best  evidence  has  been  invariably  adopted. 

Biographies,  with  the  exception  of  short  notices,  are  not  included  in  the  alpha- 
betical arrangement,  though  much  information  respecting  the  lives  of  great  men  of 
every  age  and  country  will  be  found  in  various  articles. 

In  so  large  a  collection  of  facts — the  number  of  articles,  alphabetically  arranged, 
being  nearly  double  that  contained  in  any  similar  work,  in  one  volume* — certain 
errors  and  inaccuracies  must  occur.  The  critical  reader  and  the  student,  who  can 
form  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  labour  involved  in  the  extensive  researches  re- 
quired for  a  work  of  this  kind,  will  make  due  allowance  for  the  same.  The  Author 
will  feel  greatly  obliged  for  suggestions  or  corrections  for  future  editions. 

A  carefully  prepared  index  to  subjects  which  do  not  come  under  the  alphabetical 
arrangement,  and  a  list  of  some  of  the  principal  authorities,  have  been  inserted. 

The  SECOND  EDITION,  now  presented  to  the  Public,  has  undergone  thorough  revision, 
and  is  in  many  respects  a  new  work.  Every  date  has  been  verified,  the  original 
authorities  for  each  subject  have  been  again  consulted,  many  articles  have  been 
re- written,  much  additional  matter  has  been  introduced  into  those  which  appeared 
in  the  first  edition,  and  a  large  number  f  (3,662)  of  entirely  new  ones  has  been 

*  The  statement  made  in  the  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates, 
and  repeated  in  every  edition  to  the  twelfth  inclusive,  published  in  1866,  to  the  effect  that  it 
contains  "  upwards  of  FIFTEEN  THOUSAND  ARTICLES,  alphabetically  arranged,"  is  altogether 
inaccurate.  The  tenth  edition  of  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates,  PUBLISHED  IN  1861,  contains 
5,034  ARTICLES,  alphabetically  arranged,  and  the  first  edition  of  Townsend's  Manual  of  Dates, 
published  in  1862,  contains  7,383  ARTICLES,  alphabetically  arranged.  The  twelfth  edition  of 
Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates,  PUBLISHED  IN  1866,  contains  5,743  ARTICLES,  alphabetically  ar- 
ranged, and  the  second  edition  of  Townsend's  Manual  of  Dates  (1867)  contains  11,045  ARTICLES, 
alphabetically  arranged.  These  figures,  based  not  upon  an  estimate,  but  upon  actual  calcu- 
lation, require  no  comment.  It  will  be  seen  that  neither  work  contains  UPWARDS  OF 
FIFTEEN  THOUSAND  ARTICLES,  alphabetically  arranged,  though  Haydn's  Dictionary  contains 
ABOVE  FIVE  THOUSAND,  and  Townsend's  Manual  above  ELEVEN  THOUSAND  ARTICLES. 

t  First  Edition,  1862,  7,383  articles.     Second  Edition,  1867,  11,045  articles. 


235166 


PREFACE. 


added.     Though  the  columns  in  this  edition  are  much  broader  than  those  in  the 
first,  one  hundred  and  fifty  additional  pages  have  been  inserted.* 

The  Author  believes  that,  on  some  points,  he  has  brought  together  in  this  Manual 
information  only  to  be  found  by  consulting  different  authorities  and  a  large  number 
of  books,  and  refers,  as  an  instance  of  this,  to  the  account  of  each  Administration, 
which  contains  the  principal  changes  that  occurred  during  its  tenure  of  office. 

In  conclusion,  the  Author  begs  to  express  his  acknowledgments  for  the  favour 
with  which  the  first  edition  of  this  Manual  has  been  received,  and  to  add  that  he 
has  laboured  diligently  to  render  it  a  store-house  of  "  the  memorials  and  the  things 
of  fame"  of  the  past.  It  is  only  by  frequent  revision  that  a  book  of  general 
reference  can,  considering  the  increased  facilities  and  the  higher  requirements  of 
these  days,  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  advances  which  are  being  made  in  every  depart- 
ment of  knowledge.  In  too  many  cases  the  version  which  has  been  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation,  as  a  true  account  of  some  bygone  transaction,  cannot 
endure  the  sharp  ordeal  of  modern  investigation.  The  consequence  is  that  not 
authentic  history,  but  that  which  has  long  usurped  its  place,  is  being  entirely 
recast.  The  wonderful  precision  with  which  fiction  is  being  separated  from  fact, 
the  clear  light  thrown  upon  characters  and  events  by  the  stores  of  original  docu- 
ments that  are  daily  becoming  accessible  to  the  inquirer,  the  student,  and  the 
scholar,  and  the  severer  tests  to  which  all  historical  narratives  are  subjected, 
though  they  may  lead  to  the  reversal  of  many  time-honoured  judgments,  conduce 
to  the  elucidation  of  the  truth,  do< -hired  by  Lord  Bacon  to  be  "the  sovereign  good 
of  human  nature."  In  this  Second  Edition,  the  Author  has  endeavoured  to  record 
much  of  the  progress  made,  and  to  embody  many  of  the  results  achieved  since  the 
first  edition  appeared,  and  (anxious  to  give  honour  where  honour  is  due)  1ms 
sought  to  point  out  the  source  wheinv  the  information  was  obtained,  because,  though 
his  own  labour  has  been  great,  it  is  the  labour  of  others,  in  every  department  of 
literature,  science,  and  art,  that  gives  vain*-  to  his  work. 

LONDON,  May,  1867. 


*  First  Edition,  not  including  Index,  917  pages ;  Second  Edition,  not  including  I: 
1,067  pages. 


LIST    OF    AUTHORITIES. 


A  manyst  the  numerous  Works  which  I 

fallowing  may 

AMOMMIUS'S  History  of  England,  from  the  Accession  to 

the  Decease  of  George  III.     1840-45. 
Alibone's  Dictionary  of   British  and  American  Authors. 

Vol.  I.      1859. 

Alison's  History  of  Rurope,  from  the  Commencement  of 
tin-  Erciirh  Revolution  in  178910  the  Restoration  of 
tin-  l'.ourl...ns  in  1815.  gth  edit.  1853-55. 

Ali-niiV  Hi>t.irv  of  Europe,  from  tlio  Full  of  Napoleon  in 
1815  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  1853. 
I853-59- 

Almanac  de  Gotha.     1787  to  1867. 

Anderson's  History  of  the  Colonial  Church.     1856. 

Andrews'*  History  of  British  Journalism. 

Annuls  of  England:  an  Epitome  of  English  History. 
1855-57- 

Annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland.  By  the  Four 
.Meters. 

Annual  liegister.     1758—1867. 

Arnold's  History  of  Home.     1838-43. 

Asiatic  Annual  Register.     1799—1810. 

Baker's  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England,  with  a  Con- 
tinuation by  E.  1'hillips.  1730. 

Bayle's  Historical  and  Critirnl  Dictionary.     1734-7. 

Benr1!  nirtionivry  of  Il.-raldry. 

Bingham's  Antir,uiii,.s  of  tin-  Christian  Church.     1840. 

Biographle  rtmersellc. 

BlograpbU  I'.rii  muica.    Enlarged  by  Dr.  Kippis.   1777-93. 

Birch's  an<l  Marryat's  History  of   IVtterv  and  Porcelain. 

Hlackie's  Imperial  Gazetteer.    Neweditiou. 

I'.lakcy's  llisi.iry  of   Literature. 

Detail  Antiquarian  Library.    Various  Work*. 

Holm's  Classical  l.ilirarv.     Vari.ms  Works. 

i:..hn's  >ciemi!ie  Librnry.     Various  Works. 

Bonn's  Standard  Library.     Various  Works. 

Bouillet.  PietiMimaircd'Hlstoireetde  Geographic. 

IM.UI  r's  History  of  the  Popes.     1748-66. 

Brady's  Claris  Ciilendaria. 

Bnnde'l  Dictionary  of  Scieive,  Literature,  andArt 

Brandt's  History  of  the  Ke  formation  in  the  Low  Coun- 

tiies.     1720-3. 

British  Almanac  and  Companion.     1829-67. 
Broughton's  Historical  Dictionary  of  all   Religions,  from 

the  Creation  of    the  World  to  this  Present   Time. 

I75f'. 

Bryce  s  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Buckingham,  Duke  of,  Court  and  Cabinets  of  George  III. 
Buckingham,   l)uke   of,  Memoirs  of  the   Court  of  the 

Ragtocj. 

Buckingham,  Duke  of,  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  George  IV. 
Buckingham,  Duke  of,  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  William 

IV.  and  Vi. •!• 

Bum's  Ecclesiastical  Law,  by  Robert  Phillimore.     1842. 
Buckle's  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe. 
Buniet's  History  of  His  Own  Times.     1833. 
Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation.    Edited  by  the  Rev. 

N.  Pocock. 

Buniet's  History  of  James  II.  1853. 
Burney's  History  of  Music.  1776-89. 
Burney's  Chronological  History  of  the  Discoveries  in  the 

South  Sea  or  Pacific  Ocean,  &c.    1776-89. 
Calendan  of  State  Papers. 

Cainden's  Britannia.    By  Richard  Gough.     1806. 
Carlisle's  Foreign  Orders  of  Knighthood. 
Carlyle's  History  of  Frederic  II.  (the  Great)  of  Prussia. 
Carte's  History  of  England.     1747-55. 
Cave's  Antiquitates  Apostolictc.     1675. 
Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary.     1812-17. 
Chambers's  Handbook  of  Astronomy. 
Chambers's  Encyclopaedia. 
Chevalier's  Mexico,  Ancient  and  Modern. 
Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion.     1849. 
Clark's  Concise  History  of  Knighthood. 
Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenic!.     1834-51. 
Clinton's  Fasti  Romani.     1845-50. 

Collier's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain.     1852. 
Comyn's  History  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Cooper's  Athense  Cautabrigienses. 


consulted  in  the  compilation  of  this  Manual  the 
be  mentioned:— 

Cotton's  Fasti  Ecclesite  Hibernicte.    1847-60. 

Crabb's  History  of  the  English  Law. 

Craik's  History  of  English  Literature. 

Creasy's  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks. 

Croker's  Essays  on  the  French  Revolution. 

Crutnycll's  Gazetteer. 

Cunningham's  Handbook  of  London.    1850. 

Cunningham's  London  Past  and  Present 

Cost's  Annals  of  the  Wars  of  the  Eighteenth   Century. 

1858-60. 
Cast's  Annals  of  the  Wars  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 

1863-3. 

Darling's  Cyclopaedia  Bibliographica. 
D'Aubigne's  History  of  the  Reformation. 
D'Aubigne's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  England. 
De  Lamartine's  History  of  the  Girondins. 
De  Lamartine's  History  of  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation  et  Supplement 
Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Literature. 
Disraeli's  Curiosities  of  Literature. 
Doddridgu's,  Sir  J.,  History  of  Wales.  "1714. 
Ducanges  Glossarium  ad  Scriptores  Media  et  Infinite 

Latin!  tatis.     1733-36. 

Dugdule'a  Monasticum  Anglicanum.     1817-30. 
Dugdale's  Origines  Juridiciales.     1666. 
Dyer's  History  of  the  City  of  Rome. 
Dyer's  History  of  Modern  Europe. 
Eden,  Sir  K.,  State  of  the  Poor.     1797. 
Edinburgh  Gazetteer. 

Ed  wan  la's  Libraries  and  the  Founders  of  Libraries.  1864. 
Edwards's  History  of  the  Opera, 
Elphinstone's  History  of  India.     1843. 
Emanuel's  Diamonds  and  Precious  Stones. 
Encyclopedia  Britannioa.     8th  edit 
Encyclopedia  Metropolitana.    410  edit,  and  the  revised 

treatises  in  8vo. 
Engel's  Music  of  the  Ancients. 
English  Cyclopaedia.     By  Charles  Knight 
Fairholt's  Costume  in  England.     1846. 
Fergusson's  History  of  Architecture. 
Furrier's  History  of  the  Affghans. 
Finlay's  History  of  Greece  under  the  Romans.    1844. 
Finlay's  History  of  Greece  and  Trebizond.    1851. 
Finlay's  History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires.  1854. 
Fosbroke's  Encyclopaedia  of  Antiquities.     1843. 
Foss's  Judges  of  England. 
Foss's  Tabulte  Curiales. 
Foulke's  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Freeman's  History  of  Federal  Government 
Froissart's  Chronicles,  by  Lord  Berners.    1813. 
Froude's  History  of  England.     1856-67. 
Fuller's  Church  History.     Edited  by  Rev.  J.  8.  Brewer. 

1845. 

Geneste's  History  of  the  Stage. 
Gentleman's  Magazine  from  1731. 
Georgian  ^Era.     1832-6. 
Gibbon's  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 

Empire.    By  W.  Smith.     1854-55. 
Gilchrist's  Display  of  the  Origin  and  History  of  Ordeals, 

Trials  by  Battle,  Courts  of  Chivalry  or  Honour,  and 

Single  Combat 

Goguet's  Origin  of  the  Laws,  Arts,  and  Sciences,  &c.  1775. 
Gorton's  Biographical  Dictionary. 
Grote's  History  of  Greece.    1846-56. 
Guicciardini's  History  of   Italy.     Translated  by  A.   P. 

Goddard.    1753-61. 
Guizot's  History  of  Civilization. 
Guizot's  Historical  Works. 
Guizot's  Memoirs. 

Gwilt's  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture. 
Hakluyt  Society's  Publications. 

Hales's  New  Analysis  of  Chronology  and  Geography,  His- 
tory and  Prophecy.    1830. 
Hallam's  England.    1857. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages.    1855. 
Hallam's  Literary  History.     1855. 
Hamilton's  East  India  Gazetteer.    1838. 


viii 


LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


Hammer's  Ottoman  Empire. 

Hardy's  Catalogue  of  Lords,  Chancellors,  Ac. 

Heeren's  Hi-tor 

-Danish  Con.Miest  in  America. 
Herbelot's  Hibliotheque  <  Irientale.     1697. 
Herbert's  History  of    yie  Twelve  Great  Companies    of 

London. 

Herschei's,  Sir .!.,  Astronomy. 
Hertslet's  Treat!..-. 

Hewitt's  Ancient  Armour  and  Weapons  in  Europe. 
lli.-torical  .Notes,  153.1-    1714.     Compiled  by  F.  8.  Thomas. 

1856. 

.!  IJegi-fer.     1714-38. 

II I'sTabU  Book.  Year  Hook,  &C. 

Hook's  Lives  of  the  An-hbi-hop.,  of  Canterbury. 

Hook'-  Church  Dictionary. 

Home's,    Hev.  T.  II..   Introduction    to   the  Critical    Study 

iind  Knowledge..!    the  Holy  .-scriptures.     1856. 
IIumliol.lt'-.  I  'o-nio*.      Holm's  edit. 

Hume  m,  :  listory  ..f  England,  continued  by 

the  l!ev.  T.  S.  Hughes.      1854-55. 
Hunt's.   I  .  K  .   PoOTtt   i 

Hunt's,  K.,  Mineral  Stati-lie.  of  the  United  Ki; 
Inett's  Church  Historv.    Edited  by  Kcv.  .1.  (iritliths,    1855. 
.Ian, .--on  -.  Mr-  lers. 

Jameson's,  Mrs.,  Sacn-d  and  Leg.-ndary  Art. 
KBIT'S  Collection  ot  \ovages.    1811-17. 
King's  Antique  <•• 
Knight's  London.     i-<4l-44. 
Knight's  Topniar  lli-t..rv  of  England. 

ire  ubri-gi-c  des  Traites  de  Palx. 

1817-18. 

Laiidon's  .Manual  of  C.inncils. 

Lan/.i'-  History  of   I'ainMng  in  Italy. 

Lapp.-nbcrg's    History    ot     |..:,^l.ind    nnd.r   the    Anglo- 

Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia. 

,-(.43, 
Lascelles'  Liber  Munerim,  pnbliconim  Hibcrniae.  1844-30. 

in*.     5th  edit. 
l.avard  .-  Nim-v.-1. 

-i;c    Anglicanae.      By  T.   Duffus 
Ilardj 

Lewis's  Credibility  Of  Eurlv  llonian  Hist-iry.     1855. 
Liber  Albus. 
Living-tone's  Travels. 

a's  Annals  of  i 

Mali. Hi's   Lord.  II  :id.      I--<39-54. 

Mar.-dcn'-  Ili-t. „  -  and  Sects.  1856. 

Martin'-  Ili-toi. .  .  ..  edit. 

McCulloch's    DictionaiA 


N:ni-;iti..|,. 
MeCiill-  . 
' 


IMerivnle's  Ili-torv  Of  thl  I   the  ElllpirO. 

Mielielc,    | 

Mill's  History  of  Chivalrv. 

Mill's  llritisl.'ln.liM.      1^40-8. 

Miliinin's  Ili-torv  of  the  Jews. 

Million's  llistorV  of  Christianity. 

Mihnan's  History  of  Latin  Christianity.    1354-55- 

Mittonl's  History  of  .,, 

Moinniscn's  l!i-torv  ot    Koine. 

Montfiilioon's  l'Anti.|iiite  Kxpli,|iiee.      1719-84. 

Moreri's  Dictionnnire  llistori.|iie. 

Miishcim  I  History.     UySoames.    1850. 

Mailer'*  History  of  the  i. 

Mure's    Language    and    Litt-ruturo    of    Anciei.- 

Napier's  f'eninsular  War.     1853. 

Nares's  (Jlossary.   eilite.l  by   James    O.    Ilalliwell   and 

-  \Vri.-'ht.     1859. 
National  CvelnpaMia  ami  Supplement 

Neale'sB  ,    1818. 

Nicholl's  History  of  the  I'.nirli-li  1'o.n-  Law. 

Nicolas's  Historic  ..Maud,  by  Courthopo. 

.Nicolas.  Sir  II..  Tile  Chroin>lo:ry  ot    ili-torv. 
Nicolas,  Sir  II.  ,   History  of  the  '  Koyal  .Navy. 
Nielmhr's  IINt.-rv  of   Koine. 
Notes  ami  Queriet,     1st.  jnd.  and  3rd  series. 
Nouvello  Dictionnaire  de  liio^rrajihie  I  niverseilc. 
Paget's  Hungary  and  Transylvnnin. 
Palgrave's  Hi-tory  ..I   Normandy  and  England. 
Palmer's  Origines  I  .itnr-iea-.     i  -45. 

Parry's  Parliament-  and  Cuuncils  <>f   England. 

I'etrie   and   Sharj'i1'"   Mimnmetita    Ilistorica    liritannica. 
1848. 

Ticnrt's  Ftcligious  Ceremonies  nnd  Customs  of  i 
Nations  of  the  Known  World.     1733-9. 


Pictorial  History  of  England. 

i-edbyR.  J.  LJoyd.    183* 
as  the  Fifth. 

i  •Tdinnnd  and  Isabella. 
I're-eott's  History  of  the  Coiinuest  of  Mexico. 

BSl  of  1'eru. 

Prideaux's  Uld  and  New  Testament  Connected.     1845. 
I'ublie  Keeord-  and  Mate  I'apurs. 
(Quarterly  Ke\i.-w. 

v  ..f  the  United  States.    1818. 
llist.,ry'.,f  the 
'   ivil  Wars  in  Pi 

ttd.      I'.yN.  Tindal.      I-J-47- 
Kapin'-  Ai 
Kawlin-  •  :     Monarchies    of    the    Ancient 

World. 
. '.  s  I Icrodotus. 

^14-29. 
I8W-J9. 

Christian  Clmrch. 
i  the  Coinage  of  Great  Britain.    1840. 

i,    I   nit.-d  Kiiv 

rope.      1856. 

I  "47- 
:i  Republics. 

•  f    Greek   and   Koman 

Bible. 

Smith's  1C  Id.     Ancient  li 

smith'..  Dictionary  ..f  C.r.  .  U  and  K an  Antio- 

t.hy  nnd 
Myth 

Smith  s  Dictionary  of  Oi  apliy. 

8.     rce  of  *ho 

:  aim. 

nimeiitaries  on  the  Laws  of  England. 
1858. 

masteries, 
Hospitals, Cathedral  undCoii, 

n  and  \Ve-tmiiister.      1730. 
Stri.kla: 

•  pie  of   England. 

•:..,il  Memorial- 

.lamesNasmith 
Tennent'i 

K. -volution. 

Thlrlwall's  Hi»t<iry  of  (.r 

rhornton's  QasetteCC   of  the   Tcrritorie*   under  the   Go- 
vernment of  the  I.a-t    India  Company.     1858. 

Ancient     Laws    and    Institutes    of    England. 

tutesof  Wales. 

Tomlin's  Law  Dictionary 

I'l  History  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Town-did'-  Historical  and  Chronological  Arrangement  of 
the  Hihle. 

il  and  Civil  History-.     1847. 
-haronl  History  of  England.     1836-39. 

oniiry  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines.     By 
Holi.-rt  Hunt. 

i.  Iiietionnnii.  rains. 

Vasari's  Lues  .if  c.-le! .: 

Walpole's  Letters.    Baited  by  Peter  Cmmmgbam.    1861. 

Ili-torv  ol    th. 
Warrington's  Ilistorv  of   Wal.-s. 

i;.  Price. 
1-^4. 
Wharton'sLaw  I 

Wilklnson'l  Dahnatin  and  Montenegro. 

AVilkins.. 

Williams' .s  Fiji  and  the! 

Wright's    Dom.stii-    Manners    in    England   during    the 

Midd! 
Wright'?  History  of  C'aricaturr. 


A  NEW 

MANUAL    OF    DATES. 


AAI.BORG  (Jutland).— The  capital  of  the 
peninsula,  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in 
\a  taken  by  storm  in  1534,  during  a  re- 
bellion of  the  Jutlanders,  when  2,000  of  the 
male  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  1643,  and 
atfain  early  in  1658;  but  was  restored  to  Den- 
mark by  the  peace  of  Roskild,  Feb.  25,  1658. 
The  bishopric,  founded  in  the  i  ith  century  at 
Bureau,  was  transferred  to  this  city  in  1540. 
Aalborg,  occupied  by  the  Prussians  Mays,  1864, 
was  visited  by  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark  Nov. 
29,  1864. 

AAKAU  (Switzerland).— This  ancient  town 
ui  formed,  in  the  loth  century,  part  of 
the  possessions  of  the  counts  of  Rohr.  In 
1333  it  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  chief 
Switzerland,  and  in  1415  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Bernese.  Aarau  became  the  place 
•  ing  for  the  Protestant  cantons  in  1528, 
and  was  the  scene  of  many  subsequent  diets. 
In  1798  Aarau  was  declared  the  capital  of  the 
i  in  Republic,  established  by  the  French. 

A  A  UAU  (Treaty).— The  third  and  last  of  the 
religious  wars  that  devastated  Switzerland 
was  terminate"  1  in  Aug.,  1712,  by  a  treaty  con- 
cluded at  this  place.  The  Roman  Catholics, 
who  had  sustained  severe  losses,  surrendered 
Baden.  Hremgarten,  Mellingen,  and  other 
bailiwicks,  to  /urieh  and  Berne,  and  admitted 
the  latter  canton  to  the  co-sovereignty  of 
Thurgau,  Rheinthal,  and  Sargans. 

A  A  KfiAU,  or  ARG<  >VI  A  (Switzerland).—  This 
province  was  invaded,  in  1415,  by  all  the  Swiss 
cantons,  except  Uri,  and  divided  among  the 
conquerors,  Berne  retaining  the  largest  terri- 
tory. It  was  made  an  independent  canton  by 
the  Act  of  Mediation,  promulgated  Feb.  19, 
1803.  Part  of  the  Frickthal,  which  Austria, 
by  the  sixth  secret  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  had  relinquished, 
was  incorporated  with  it,  in  consequence  of 
which  a  treaty  between  Argovia  and  Baden 
was  signed  at  Aarau,  Sep.  17,  1808.  By  the 
constitution,  finally  settled  in  1815,  Aargau 
ranked  among  the  22  Swiss  cantons.  An 
insurrection  occurred  in  Aargau,  Jan.  10,  n, 
and  12,  1841  ;  and  in  1844  the  people  de- 
manded the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  The 
castle  of  Habsburg,  the  seat  of  the  ancestors 
of  the  imperial  family  of  Austria,  is  situated 
in  this  canton. 

AARHUS  (Denmark).— Gustavus  Vasa  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Kalo,  near  this 
town,  in  1518.  Aarhus  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1541  and  1556.  The  plague  com- 
mitted great  ravages  in  1578.  The  spire  of 
the  cathedral,  600  feet  high,  originally  erected 
in  the  isth  century,  which  was  destroyed  by 


lightning  in  1642,  was  replaced  by  a  smaller 
tower,  which  met  with  a  similar  fate  in  1822. 
Here  the  Danes  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Prussians  May  31,  1849.  Aarhus  was  occupied 
by  the  allied  Austrian  and  Prussian  forces, 
March  13,  and  April  28,  1864. 

AATH,  AETH,  or  ATH  (Belgium).— Tho 
"  Tour  de  Burbard  "  was  erected  in  this  city  in 
1150,  and  the  town  hall  towards  the  close  of 
the  i6th  century.  Aath,  taken  by  the  French 
in  1667,  and  strongly  fortified  by  Vauban, 
was  lost  by  them  in  1678,  and  recovered  in 
1697.  The  allies,  under  General  Owerkirke, 
seized  it,  Oct.  4,  1706,  and  in  1716  it  was  taken 
by  the  Dutch,  who  surrendered  it  to  Louis  XV., 
Sep.  28,  1745.  Captured  by  the  army  of  the 
French  Republic  under  General  Berneron,  in 
1792,  it  was  finally  lost  by  France  in  1814. 
The  fortifications  have  since  been  considerably 
strengthened.  The  church  of  St.  Julien, 
erected  in  1393,  was  nearly  destroyed  by 
lightning  in  1817. 

ABACOT.— Mention  of  the  cap  of  state  worn 
by  some  of  our  kings  occurs  in  the  Chronicle 
of  Fabyan,  who  includes  amongst  the  spoils 
that  fen  into  the  hands  of  Edward  IV.,  after 
the  battle  of  Hexham  (q.  v.)  Henry  the  Sixth's 
"bycoket,  garnysshed  with  ii.  crownes  of 
golde,  and  fret  with  perle  and  ryche  stone." 
This  account  is  repeated  by  later  authors. 
Graf  ton  uses  the  term  "abococket,"  and  Cam- 
den  says:  "In  that  fatal  battle  fought  here, 
1463,  on  the  plains  called  the  Levels,  was  taken 
the  cap  of  state  called  Abacot,  adorned  with 
two  rich  crowns." 

ABACUS,  in  architecture,  is  the  uppermost 
part  of  the  capital  of  a  column,  often  erro- 
neously represented  as  the  capital  itself,  to 
which,  as  well  as  the  column,  it  serves  as  a 
kind  of  crown.  Bailey  says:  "The  abacus, 
according  to  Vitrvrvius,  was  originally  designed 
to  represent  a  square  tfle  laid  over  an  urn  or 
basket.  The  rise  of  this  first  regular  order  of 
architecture  is  said  to  have  been  as  follows  : — 
An  old  woman  of  Athens  having  placed  a 
basket  covered  with  a  tile  over  the  root  of  an 
acanthus,  the  plant,  shooting  forth  the  follow- 
ing spring,  encompassed  the  basket  all  round, 
till,  having  met  the  tile,  it  curled  back  in  a 
kind  of  scrolls,  which  being  observed  by  an 
ingenious  sculptor,  he  formed  a  capital  upon 
the  plan  ;  representing  the  tile  by  the  abacus, 
the  basket  by  the  vase  or  body  of  the  capital, 
and  the  leaves  by  the  volutes."  The  form  of 
the  abacus  varies  in  the  different  orders. — This 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  board  with  counters, 
sometimes  in  grooves,  and  sometimes  on  wires, 
used  for  facilitating  calculation.  These  instru- 
ments, fashioned  in  different  ways,  were  com- 


'-  •  *•":      •  A.BA^QAY LJ 

jn»u**an  Juijgst  "tl^;*. Greeks,  the  Romans,  and 
other  nation's*  *of  airtufulty,  by  whom  the  in- 
vention was  ascribed  to  Pythagoras.  Hero- 
dotus, for  the  purpose  of  making  a  distinction 
between  the  customs  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
Egyptians,  says  the  latter,  in  calculating  with 
counters,  moved  the  hand  from  right  to  left, 
instead  of,  as  the  Greeks,  from  left  to  right. 
These  counters  were  made  of  various  materials, 
and,  as  nations  lapsed  into  luxury,  of  the 
choicest  kind.  Ivory,  and  even  silver  and  gold, 
were  employed.  The  swan-pan,  or  computing 
table  of  the  Chinese,  was  of  similar  construction 
to  the  abacus.  It  is  said  to  have  been  in  use 
amongst  them  from  remote  ages.  The  abacus, 
or  modification  of  the  same,  was  in  general 
use  amongst  Kuropean  nations  until  the  i6th 
century.  Shakespeare  makes  the  clown  in  the 
Winter's  Tale  allude  to  the  practice,  when  lie 
gives  up  the  attempt  at  a  calculation,  with  the 
remark:  "  I  cannot  do  it  without  counters." — 
An  instrument,  consisting  of  a  frame  with 
cross-wires  and  beads,  and  styled  a 
(ilxx-n.x,  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Reid  in  1839, 
to  facilitate  the  study  of  chemical  compounds. 

ABAN'CAY  (Battle).— At  this  place,  in  Peru, 
during  the  eivil  war  amongst  its  Spanish  con- 
querors, Almagro  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  Alvarado,  July  12,  1537. 

ABATTOIR.— By '4  «fc  5  Hen.  VII.  c.  3(1490), 
butchers  were  made  subject  to  a  tine  for 
slaughtering  beasts  within  the  walls  of  the 
city  of  London.  The  act  extended  to  all  towns 
of  England  except  Berwick  and  Carlisle.  The 
butchers,  having  constructed  drains  to  carry  o)T 
the  filth,  <kc.,  petitioned  to  be  relieved  from 
its  operation,  and  this  was  done  by  24  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  16(1533).  Stow  (Survey,  b.  v.  eh.  i-.-) 
relates  that,  on  the  visitation  of  the  plague  in 
the  reign  of  Kli/abeth,  an  ingenious  Italian 
gentleman  and  physicia'  .no  great 

cause  of  it,  to  be  the  killing  of  cattle  within 
the  city,  and  proposed  that  slaughterhouses 
should  be  erected  in  the  suburbs  of  London 
and  other  cities.  By  a  decree  of  Napoleon  I., 
dated  Fel).  9,  1810,  it  was  ordered  that  five 
abattoirs,  or  public  slaughter-houses,  should  be 
erected  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris.  They  were 
opened  in  1818.  Koule  and  Villejuif  i 
tained  32  slaughter-houses;  Grenelle  48;  and 
Monilmontant  and  Mont  mart  re  each  64;  mak 
ing  in  all  240  slaughter-houses.  Simi; 
lishments  have  been  erected  in  the  precincts 
of  all  large  towns  in  France.  The  abattoir 
erected  in  Edinburgh  in  1851  was  the  first  in 
trodueed  into  the  United  Kingdom.  Petitions 
for  the  removal  of  Smithfield  market,  and  the 
substitution  of  these  useful  establishments, 
were  presented  to  Parliament  April  23,  1833  ; 
and  abattoirs  form  part  of  the  new  cattle- 
market  in  Copenhagen-fields,  opened  June  13, 

ABBACOMITES.— Lay-abbots,  who,  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  obtained  from  the  sovereign 
certain  monasteries  in  the  way  of  benefices, 
became  very  numerous  in  France,  and  several 
decrees  on  the  subject  are  found  in  the  records 
of  the  period.  Fosbroke  (British  Monachism, 
c.  vii.  p.  83)  states  that  "  there  were  anciently 
.'lay-abbots,  which,  it  seems,  was  owing  to  the 
.laity  seizing  the  church  lands,  and  leaving 


ABBAYE 


only  the  altar  and  tithes  to  the  clergy.  Lay- 
abbots  were  also  called  Abbacomites,  and  Ab- 
lates milite*, — 'noble  abbots,'  and  'knightly 
abbots.'  They  were  great  persons,  under 
whose  protection  the  monasteries  voluntarily 
placed  themselves;  but  these  protectors  be- 
came their  oppressors.  They  had  another 
title,  that  of  'Commendatory  Abbots.'  and 
often  filled  the  first  offices  in  the  court  and 
army."  Bernard,  the  youngest  of  diaries 
Martel's  six.  sons,  was  lay -abbot  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Sithin,  or  .St.  Queiitin,  in  the  middle 
of  the  8th  century;  and  Prince  Eugene,  when 
he  made  his  first  campaign  (1683),  was  com- 
mendatory abbot  of  two  ancient  monasteries. 

AHHASSAHAD.—  This  Persian  fortress  was 
captured  by  the  Russians  July  31,  i827,a  battle 
having  been  fought  here  June  20;  and  an- 
other, called  thebattlc  of  Djevaii-Boulak  (q.  v.), 
July  1 8. 

ABBASSIDFS. —This  race  wrested  tho 
sceptre  of  the  Saracens  from  the  house  of  the 
Ommiades,  and  occupied  the  caliphate  for  more 
than  five  centuries.  They  were  descendants 
of  Abbas-Ben-Abul-Motalleb,  uncle  of  the  Pro- 
phet. Gibbon  remarks  :  "  In  the  visib; 
ration  of  parties,  ;/,•>•, >  was  consecrated  to  the 
Fatimites;  the  Ommiades  were  distinguished 
by  the  tr/,;tr;  and  the  /iluck,  as  the  in 

.lurally   adopted    by  the  Abbas- 

1  heir    turbans    and    garments    were 

stained  with  that   gloomy   colour:    two  black 

standards,    on  nine    cubits   long, 

;  ne  aloft  in  the  van  of  Abu  .M 
and  their  allegorical  names  of  the  ni;i/<t  and 
•itcd  the  in- 
dissoluble union  and  perpetual  success!. m  of 
the  line  of  llashem."  They  rebelled  against 
the  Ommiades  in  746,  and  gained  several  vic- 
tories. .M.-rwan  II.,  the  fourteenth  and  last 
caliph  of  the  Ommiades,  having  suffered  a 
terrible  defeat  on  the  banks  of  the  Zab,  tied 
ypt,  and  was  slain  in  a  mosque  at 
Busiris  </.'•.  ,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  <  i 
750).  Abul  Abbas,  or  Al  Satt'ah  (the  Sangui- 
nary), became  the  tirst  caliph  of  the 
sides  ;  and  their  empire  lasted  until  Feb.  20, 
1258,  when  the  Mongol  leader,  Uolagon  Khan, 
stormed  Bagdad,  and  put  Mostasem,  the  last 
of  the  race,  to  death.  The  Abbassides  removed 

ipiiv  from  Damascus  to    I 

in  762.  The  following  is  a  complete  list  of 
these  caliphs,  with  the  date  of  their  elevation 
to  power : — 


Abul  Abbas  

A.D. 

....    750 

Al  Rndhi  

A.D. 

\1   Mutiiki 

Al  Mulicli 

•  •    775 

Al  .M.,stakfl  
M  Moti  

«* 

Al  Had!  
llaroun  Al  i:a-!,i,l. 
AlAmin    

....    4«6 
....    609 
813 

Al   lai     
Al  Kader  

Si 

\!  Kiiiin    ..  .. 

...   833 

Al  .M-.ktadi   
Al  Mort.-nl.T  

1075 

1004 

Al  \V,.tli.-k   
Al  M..til\vakki-l  .... 
Al  M.,staiiMT  
Al  M..st:iiil   
Al  Mntaz          

84? 

::::  & 

....    861 
....    863 
....    866 
....    869 

....    870 
...    802 

Al  .M<>>t  ar^Uud  
Al  l!a-l,id      
Al  M,,kt   fi    
Al  .M..-tanj..-d  
••llii  
Al  Naser   
Al  Zaher  
Al  Mostanser  
Al  Mostasem  

).—  Among  the 

.......   MI* 

•;::::  !i£ 

J«5 
1236 
1240 

fearful 

Al  Mohtadi  
Al  Motamed  

Al  Motadhed   

Al  Moktaft   903 
Al  Moktader   908 
AlKah.-r      93* 

ABBAYE   (Prison  of 

ABBESS 


[    3    1 


ABBOT 


scenes  enacted  under  the  rule  of  Danton, 
Robespierre,  and  their  associates,  were  the 
massacres  at  the  prisons  of  Paris,  in  1792.  The 
prison  of  the  Abbaye  was  the  first  assailed. 
The  attack  commenced  at  three  o'clock  in 
the  morning  of  Sep.  3,  when  many  of  the 
prisoners  were  put  to  death,  under  circum- 
stances of  unparalleled  atrocity.  A  mock 
tribunal  was  formed  for  the  trial  of  the  unfor- 
tunate captives. 

ABBESS,  the  lady  superior  of  a  religious 
house  of  females.  The  first  of  these  societies  for 
females  was  founded  by  Pachomius,  who  died 
in  348.  Martene  says  that  the  abbesses,  in 
early  times,  exercised  some  of  the  spiritual 
functions  belonging  to  the  priesthood,  and  even 
cuufessfd  their  nuns.  This  practice,  having  led 
to  various  inconveniences,  was  suppressed. 
Bingham  (Antiq.  b.  vii.  c.  3,  s.  13),  referring  to 
the  statement  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  that  ab- 
besses were  present  at  the  council  held  at  Be- 
cancL-lde  (q.  v. ),  or  Baccancelde,  in  694,  remarks : 
"It  is  justly  noted  by  learned  men  as  a  new 
thing,  to  find  abbesses,  as  well  as  abbots,  sub- 
scribing in  the  Council  of  Ikvanceldc,  in  Kent, 
anno  694,  and  that  before  both  presbyters  and 
temporal  lords,  as  the  author  of  the  Saxon 
Chronicle  reports  it.  For  this  is  the  first  time 
we  meet  with  any  such  thing  in  the  records  of 
the  ancient  church." 

ABBEVILLE  (Treaties).— Though  finally  set- 
tk->l  in  Paris,  the  treaty  concluded  between 
Henry  III.  of  England  and  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
May  20,  1259,  has,  from  the  meeting  of  the 
two  monarchs  at  Abbeville,  been  named  after 
this  town.  The  former  renounced  all  claim 
to  the  provinces  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  Tou- 
raine,  Maine,  and  Poitou,  receiving  300 
small  pounds  of  Tours,  and  being  guaranteed 
in  the  possession  of  some  other  provinces  in 
France,  which  he  was  to  hold  as  fiefs.  Henry 
III.  was  to  sit  among  the  peers  of  France  as 
Duke  of  Guienne,  and  he  soon  after  dropped 
the  titles  of  "  Duke  of  Normandy  and  Count 
of  Anjou."  The  cognisance  on  his  seal  was 
changed,  a  sceptre  taking  the  place  of  the 
sword,  which  circumstance  furnished  a  theme 
for  an  olden  rhyme  : — 

"Peace  marks  the  year,  on  which  may  fortune  shine, 
One  thousand,  hundreds  two,  and  fifty-nine. 
Then  Anjou,  Poitou,  Normandy— the  boast 
Of  England's  warlike  kind's,  resigned  and  lost, 
Were  the  rirli  trophies  of  the  power  of  France; 
And  Henry  changed  his  seal  and  cognisance, — 
Assumed  the  sceptre  for  the  conqueror's  sword,— 
Though  still  a  king,  no  longer  Neustria's  lord." 

Wolsey  arrived  here  in  July,  1527,  having  been 
sent  by  Henry  VIII.  to  conclude  a  treaty  with 
Francis  I.  Wolsey,  who  travelled  in  great 
state,  was  kept  waiting  at  Abbeville,  and  it  was 
not  until  Aug.  3  that  Francis  I.  met  the  car- 
dinal, and  they  entered  Amiens  together,  where 
the  negotiations  were  concluded,  Aug.  18. 

ABBEY,  a  religious  house,  presided  over  by 
an  abbot  or  abbess,  into  which  persons  retired, 
dwelling  in  seclusion  from  the  world.  In  times 
of  persecution,  the  primitive  Christians  took 
refuge  in  mountains,  caves,  and  desert  places, 
and  were  afterwards  collected  together  and 
formed  into  religious  communities.  Mosheim 
says  that,  long  before  the  Christian  aura,  this 
mode  of  life  prevailed  in  Egypt,  Syria,  India, 


and  Mesopotamia.  It  was  probably  first  prac- 
tised by  Christians  during  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion, in  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century.  Paul 
of  Alexandria,  the  first  Christian  hermit,  re- 
tired to  the  desert  in  251.  Antony  shut  himself 
up  in  a  tomb  in  285,  and  formed  his  cell  at 
Phaim,  in  Upper  Egypt,  between  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Nile,  in  305.  Hilarion,  about  the  same 
period,  according  to  Moshcim,  introduced  the 
system  into  Syria  and  Palestine.  Pachomius 
was  the  first  to  introduce  regular  monasteries. 
He  built  several  in  the  Thebais,  in  Egypt, 
during  the  4th  century.  Bingham  says  (Antiq. 
b.  vii.  c.  i,  s.  4),  "  Till  the  year  250  there  were 
no  monks,  but  only  ascetics,  in  the  Church  ; 
from  that  time  to  the  age  of  Constantino 
monachism  was  confined  to  the  anchorets  living 
in  private  cells  in  the  wilderness :  but  when 
Pachomius  had  erected  monasteries  in  Egypt, 
other  countries  presently  followed  the  exam  pie, 
and  so  the  monastic  life  came  to  its  full  ma- 
turity in  the  Church."  By  some  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Saragossa,  in  Spain,  381,  prohibiting 
clerks  from  leaving  their  ministry  to  take 
monastic  vows,  and  also  specifying  the  age  at 
which  virgins  might  take  the  veil,  it  is  evident 
that  in  this  part  of  Europe  monastic  institu- 
tions were  established  at  an  early  period. 
Martin,  Bishop  of  Tours,  built  a  monastery  at 
Poitiers  in  the  4th  century.  Cassian  founded 
two,  one  for  monks  and  the  other  for  nuns,  at 
Marseilles,  about  409.  Twelve  religious  houses 
were  established  in  Italy,  within  40  miles  of 
Rome,  by  Benedict,  in  529,  that  of  Monte 
Casino,  erected  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  temple 
of  Apollo,  in  Campania,  being  the  chief.  Bene- 
dict was  the  first  to  institute  monastic  vows 
and  rules.  One  founded  in  the  isle  of  Bardsey 
at  the  end  of  the  sth,  and  another  at  Bangor- 
Iscoed  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  monasteries  in 
Britain.  An  establishment  of  the  kind  was 
founded  at  Banchor,  in  Ireland,  about  520.  St. 
Columba  founded  one  in  the  isle  of  Huy,  or 
lona  (q.  v.),  in  565  ;  and  the  abbey  of  Old  Mel- 
rose  was  founded  before  the  end  of  the  7th 
century.  By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  28  (1536),  all 
monasteries  and  religious  houses  not  possess- 
ing more  than  .£200  per  annum  were  sup- 
pressed; and  by  31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1539),  all 
institutions  of  the  kind  were  abolished.  They 
amounted  to  186  greater  and  374  lesser  monas- 
teries, besides  48  houses  of  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars ;  making  a  total  of  608.  The  income  was 
estimated  at  ^137,000  per  annum. 

ABBOT,  or  ABBAT.— The  term  is  derived 
from  the  Syriac  abba  and  the  Hebrew  ab,  the 
Greek  form  being  abbas,  a  father.  When  her- 
mits, or  holy  men,  formed  themselves  into  reli- 
gious societies,  one  of  their  number  was  chosen 
as  a  chief.  The  monks  must  not,  however,  be 
confounded  with  ascetics,  for,  as  Bingham 
states,  "there  were  always  ascetics  in  the 
Church,  but  not  always  monks  retiring  to  the 
deserts  and  mountains,  or  living  in  monasteries 
and  cells,  as  in  after  ages."  The  practice  of  dwell- 
ing together  in  communities,  and  under  a  chief, 
arose  with  Pachomius,  in  the  reign  of  Constan- 
iine  I.  They  were  first  styled  Archimandrites, 
and  the  use  of  the  term  "abbot"  commenced 
n  472.  The  custom  for  an  abbot  to  be  in  orders 


ABBOT 


[    4    1 


ABDICATION 


originated  in  the  6th  century.  Abbots  gradu- 
ally grew  important,  were  called  to  councils, 
and  aspired  to  an  ascendancy  over  bishops.  In 
order  to  check  this  tendency,  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  enacted  that  "all  monks, 
whether  in  city  or  country,  shall  be  subject  to 
the  bishop,  and  concern  themselves  in  no  busi- 
ness, sacred  or  civil,  out  of  their  own  monas- 
tery, except  they  have  his  license  and  per- 
mission upon  urgent  occasion  so  to  do."  In 
spite  of  this,  and  other  stringent  laws,  the 
abbots  managed  to  engross  power.  Hence 
arose  mitred  abbots,  who  wore  a  mitre,  and 
had  absolute  authority.  They  were  exempt 
from  diocesan  jurisdiction,  having  episcopal 
authority  within  their  precincts.  In  Kngland, 
they  had  a  scat  in  parliament,  and  were  called 
abbots  sovereign,  or  general,  to  distinguish 
them  from  other  abbots.  At  the  Reformation, 
according  to  some  authorities,  there  were  26 
abbots  and  two  priors.  Fuller  mentions  27 par- 
liamentary abbots  and  t\v<>  priors.  There  were 
also  crosiered  abbots,  from  the  crosier  or  pas- 
toral staff,  which  they  bore  in  the  right  hand, 
and  not,  as  the  biahopo,  in  the  left.  Abbots 
ruling  over  establishments  1  . 
branches  were  styled  cardinal  abboi  I,  and.  on 
the  continent,  the  titles  of  prim 
abbots,  and  abbot-counts  were  used.  (,sv-^ 
AIII-.ACOMI  TI:S).  In  olden  times,  instead  of  the 
'  ion  since  employed  at  what  is  called 
the  consecration,  the  abbot  uas  invested  with 
the  cowl,  the  pastoral  staff  was  placed  in  his 
hand,  and  the  shoes  on  hi  - 

AI;I;OT  or  FOOLS,  at  MISKFLF,  called  in 

Scot  land  the  "A  lil  iot  of  F  nreasi  >n."  \\  a --a  mast  er 
appointed  during  the  Mid  preside 

over  the  Christ  mas  festivities.  This  m,,ck 
prince  was  frequently  crowned,  and  ., 
with  all  the  para] ihernalia  of  royalty.  A 
(similar  custom  prevailed  in  n. 
France,  and  is  evidently  derived,  as  1'rynne 
declares,  from  the  ancient  Saturnalia.  The 
Abbot  of  I'nreason  was  suppressed  by  the 
Scotch  legislature  in  1555.  The  allowance 
granted  to  an  Abbot  of  M  isrule  by  a  n  .bleman 
early  in  the  i6th  century,  according  to  an 
entry  in  the  Karl  of  Northumberland's  llouse- 
hold'  F.ook.  was  one  pound.  The  "Abbot  of 
Misrule  "  was  changed  into  "Lord  of  Misrule  " 

at  the  Reformation.    (£M  \'»>\  r.isii.n-.) 
AJBBOT  OF  HI  5T,  or  ION  A,  also  Icolumnkffl, 

an  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  This 
island,  Hede  (b.  iii.  c.  4),  writing  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  8th  century,  says,  "was 
always  governed  by  a  presbyter-abbot,  under 
whose  power  the  whole  province,  and  the 
bishops  also,  were  subjected,  after  an  unusual 
manner,  pursuant  to  the  example  of  the  first 
founder,  who  was  not  a  bishop,  but  only  a 
presbyter  and  a  monk."  This  statement  gave 
rise  to  a  controversy  on  church  government,  in 
the  1 7th  century.  Bingham  (b.  vii.  c.  3,  s.  14), 
referring  to  Bishop  Lloyd  on  Church  Govern- 
ment, contends  that  Bedc  speaks  of  "only 
one  small  part  of  Scotland;"  and  this  subjec- 
tion was  not  in  spirituals.  Indeed,  it  seems- 
to  have  been  "an  acknowledgment  of  some 
civil  jurisdiction  over  the  bishops,  which  may 
very  well  consist  with  their  superiority  in 
spirituals."  (See  ABBEY.) 


ABBOTSFORD  (Scotland)  stands  near  the 
abbot's  ford  on  the  river  Tweed,  between  two 
and  three  miles  from  Melrose,  and  30  from 
Edinburgh.  Sir  Walter  Scott  purchased  the 
property,  consisting  of  a  small  farm  called 
Cartley  Hole,  in  1811,  and  the  present  residence 
was  completed  in  1824. 

ABB<  KI'SFORD  CLUB.—  This*eociety,  for  the 
publication  of  miscellaneous  works,  illustrative 
of  history,  literature,  and  aiitiquiti, 
established  at  Edinburgh  in  1834,  in  honour  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  It  has  issued  no  publication 
since  1859. 

A  m:i;K  VIATORS.—  These   officers    of    the 
pontifical  court,  72  in   number,  employed   in 
preparing  the  letters  and  minutes  issued  by 
the    1'ope,   were  divided  into   several   orders, 
one  of  which  was  secular,   and  the  remainder 
ecclesiastical.        1'ope      Paul      II.      sup; 
the  order  of   Abbre  viators  in  1466,   in 
quence   of    the    corruptions   practised  by   its 
mem! 

A  I  !  I  )  I  ;  |{  A  (Greece).  —  According  to  the  mytho- 
logical account,  this  cityof  Thrace  was  founded 
by  Hercules,  in  honour  of  his  favourite  Ab- 
derus;  but  history  ascribes  its  establishment  to 
Timesias  or  Timesius  of  (  'la/.ornentB,  B.C.  656. 
The  original  inhabitants  having  been  expelled 
by  the  Thracians,  a  new  settlement  was  made 
by  some  colonists  from  Teos,  B.C.  541,  and  the 
city  rapidly  attained  considerable  importance. 

:mbod  to    the    power  of    Atlu  ;; 
408,    and  suffered   considerably  during  a  war 
with  the  Triballi,  B.C.  376.      During  the  Middle 
A-j-,'s.  Abdcra  is  said  to  have  been  called  1'oly- 
stylus.     No  remains  of    the  ancient    city  are 

A  I  ;i>KH  A  (Spain).  -Thisancient  city,  situated 

on    the   southern    coast  of  Spain,   and  founded 

rthaginians.  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 

Which  was  transferred  to  AlmeriabyAlphcaao 


II.  of    Ca^til".   in    I  147. 

ABDICATION.—  The    most   remarkable    in- 

f  the  abdication,  by  rulers,  of  supremo 

power,  an:  those  which  have  occurred,  not  under 

--lire  of   political  .  ,1    from 

the  prompt  ings  of  purely  personal  motives.  The 

act  of  abdication   committed  by  James  II.    of 

Kngland  was  not  formal,  but  constructive:   he 

rted   the  throne,  and  parliament  de- 

clared it  vacant.     The  abdications  of  Napoleon 

I.,  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  of  many  other  rulers, 

were  compulsory  ;  and  it  is  only  by  a  perver- 

sion of  the  meaning  of  the  word  that  it  can 

IKJ  applied  to  such  transactions. 

B.C. 

665.  Tirhnkah,   Kinpr  of   Ethiopia,  defeated    in  a   great 
battle  by  Asxluir-bani-pul,  King  of  Assyria,  abdi- 

79.  Abdication  of  Sylla,  the  dictator. 

A.D. 

305,  May  I.     The  Emperor  Diocletian,  called  by  f.ibbon 
"the  first  example."     Maximian  abdicated  at  the 
same  time,  but  re-assumed  the  purple  in  306. 
747.  Carloman,  eldest  son  of  Charles  Martel,  abdicated 

nnd  became  a  monk. 

I2Q4.  Peter  Morone,  tho  hermit  Pope,  elevated  to  the  papa 

chair  as  Ctelcstinc  V.,  July  ;.   :il«li'Mt'-d   Dee.    13, 

and  retired  to  his  old  mountain  hermitage,  above 

the  pleasant  valley  of  Sulmona,  in  the  Alirnz/.i. 

Igcc    Oct.  ^5.     Ci  Bed  the  imperial   dignity. 

ai,  .,1  ,!,«.  Sp..mi>li  throne  Jan.  ifi,  1556. 
1654,  June  16.  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  abdicated 
1730,  Sep.  2,  Victor  Amadeus  I.,  Sardinia, 


ABECEDARIANS 


[    5    1 


ABERDEEN 


1808,  March  19.     Charles  IV.,  Spain.     (See  ABANJUEZ.) 

1809,  March  13.     Gustavus  IV.,  Sweden. 
1814,  April  4.     Xapoli'ou  I.,  France. 
1830,  August  z.     Charles  X.,  Franco. 
1848,  Feb.  24.     Louis  Philippe,  Fran.v. 
1848,  March  3,1.     Louis  Charles,  Bavaria. 

1848,  Dec.  2.     Ferdinand  I.,  Austria. 

1849,  March  23.     Charles  Albert,  Sardinia, 

ABECEDARIANS.— This  branch  of  the  Ana- 
baptists was  founded,  in  the  i6th  century,  by 
Nicholas  Stork,  a  disciple  of  Luther.  Stork, 
who  died  at  Munich  in  1530,  maintained  that 
all  knowledge  only  prevented  men  from  attend- 
ing to  the  divine  instruction  inwardly  com- 
municated, and  refused  to  learn  anything,  even 
the  alphabet :  hence  their  peculiar  designa- 
tion. 

ABELITES,  sometimes  called  Abelians,  a  sect 
of  heretics  that  sprang  up  at  Hippo,  in  Africa, 
about  the  year  370.  They  married,  but  ab- 
stained from  matrimonial  intercourse,  follow- 
ing, as  they  pretended,  the  example  of  Abel, 
because  no  mention  is  made  in  Scripture  of  his 
children.  When  a  man  and  a  woman  entered 
tins  society  they  adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl. 
The  heresy  was  not  of  long  duration.  It  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  commenced  just 
before  the  final  separation  of  the  Eastern  and 
\\VsUm  empires,  under  Arcadius  (395),  and  to 
have  terminated  during  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosius  II.  (the  Younger,  408 — 450). 

AKKNCKKK.UiKS  and  ZEGRIS,  two  Moor- 
ish families,  whose  quarrels  are  said,  by  some 
writers,  to  have  deluged  Granada  with  blood 
(1478—1490). 

A  m:\SBKRG  (Battle),  fought  April  20,  1809, 
between  the  Austrians  and  the  French.  "  The 
Austrians,"  says  Alison,  "  were  not  routed  at 
any  point,  and  no  artillery  was  taken ;  never- 
1h<  Kss,  they  had  to  lament  the  loss  of  8,000 
men  ;  the  Archduke  Charles's  communications 
with  Landshut  were  thrown  open  to  the 
enemy  ;  they  had  been  deprived  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  initiative ;  and,  what  is  of  incalcu- 
lable importance,  had  been  unsuccessful  in  the 
first  considerable  action  of  the  campaign." 

ABEOKUTA  (Africa).  —  This  independent 
town  of  Yoruba,  in  Guinea,  has  arisen  within 
the  last  50  years  around  a  huge  rock,  called 
"Olumo,"  which  was  long  the  haunt  of  a  band 
of  robbers.  They  retired  in  1825,  and  it  be- 
came the  retreat  of  fvigitives  from  the  slave- 
hunting  expeditions  of  the  King  of  Dahomey. 
These  were  joined  by  other  exiles  from  the 
surrounding  country,  who  gave  to  the  little 
tracts  of  land  on  which  they  settled  the  names 
of  the  districts  whence  they  had  fled,  the 
entire  settlement  receiving  the  title  of 
"  Abeokuta,"  or  "  Understone,"  from  the  rock 
which  formed  its  centre.  In  1829  these  dis- 
tricts were  united  and  organized  by  a  chief, 
named  Shodeke,  and  in  1839  the  rising  colony 
was  enabled  to  commence  an  independent 
trade  with  the  surrounding  tribes.  An  English 
mission,  established  in  1846  under  the  Rev.  H. 
Townsend,  materially  aided  in  the  advance- 
ment of  Christianity  and  civilization.  In 
1848  the  inhabitants,  who  had  been  taken 
under  British  protection,  were  attacked  by  the 
King  of  Dahomey,  and  one  of  the  invader's 
Amazonian  regiments  (see  AMAZONS)  was 
entirely  destroyed.  The  King  of  Dahomey 


made  another  attempt,  March  3,  1851,  and  was 
again  defeated.  A  third  attack,  which  took 
place  March  16,  1864,  was  repulsed  with  a  loss 
to  the  invaders  of  1,000  killed  and  2,000 
prisoners. 

ABERDEEN,  in  Scotland,  is  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  seat  of  a  settlement  during  the  3rd 
century,  and  is  said  to  have  been  erected  into 
a  city  about  the  year  89.3.  The  episcopal  see 
was  transferred  hither  from  Mortlach  (q.  v.), 
Banff  shire,  by  David  I.,  in  1139.  The  cathedral 
was  commenced  in  1357.  George  Haliburton, 
promoted  in  1682,  was  the  last  bishop.  The 
see  was  restored  after  the  Revolution,  James 
Gadderar  being  consecrated  Bishop  of  Aberdeen 
at  London,  Feb.  24,  1712  ;  and  an  assembly  of 
the  bishop*  of  the  church  in  Scotland  was  held 
here  April  24,  1788,  when  it  was  unanimously 
resolved  to  submit  to  the  House  of  Hanover. 
Old  Aberdeen  was  made  a  free  royal  burgh  in 
1154.  In  1296  Edward  I.  passed  through  this 
city,  after  defeating  and  deposing  John  Baliol. 
The  castle  was  taken,  and  the  fortifications 
were  levelled,  in  1308 ;  and  the  city  was 
burned  by  the  English  in  1336.  New  Aberdeen 
was  then  erected,  and  became  an  important 
$eat  of  commerce  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but 
suffered  greatly  from  the  wars  between 
England  and  Scotland.  In  1497  a  block-house 
was  erected,  to  protect  the  entrance  of  the 
harbour  against  the  English  ;  and  in  1514, 
1546,  and  1647,  many  lives  were  destroyed  by 
the  plague.  The  inauguration  of  the  memorial 
statue  of  Prince  Albert  took  place  in  presence 
of  Queen  Victoria  and  several  members  of  the 
royal  family,  Oct.  13,  1863. 

ABERDEEN  (King's  College)  was  chartered 
by  papal  bull  Feb.  10,  1494,  and  completed  in 
1500.  It  is  an  extensive  building,  containing 
a  chapel,  library,  and  museum.  Marischal 
College,  in  the  new  town,  was  founded  April 
2,  1593,  by  George  Keith,  fifth  Earl  Marischal. 
The  two  colleges  were  united  by  a  deed  of 
union  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  It  was  re- 
pealed in  1 66 1. 

ABERDEEN  ADMINISTRATION,  known  as 
the  "Coalition  Ministry,"  and  formed  soon  after 
the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby's  first  adminis- 
tration, Dec.  17,  1 852,  was  presided  over  by  the 
fourth  Earl  of  Aberdeen.  The  feeble  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  against  Russia  by  this  cabinet 
rendered  it  unpopular,  and  its  resignation 
followed  the  motion  for  inquiry  into  the  state 
of  the  army  before  Sebastopol,  carried  in  the 
House  of  Commons  Jan.  29,  1855,  by  a  ma~ 
jority  of  157.  The  cabinet  was  thus  con- 
stituted :— 

Treasury    Earl  of  Aberdeen. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Cranworth. 

President  of  the  Council  Earl  Granville. 

Privy  Seal Duke  of  Argyle. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Mr.  Gladstone. 

Home  Secretary Lord  Palmerston. 

Foreign  Secretary Lord  John  RusselL 

Colonial  Secretary Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Admiralty Sir  James  Graham,  Bart 

Board  of  Control    Sir  C.  Wood,  Bart 

Secretary  at  War   Mr.  Sidney  Herbert. 

Public  Works Sir  W.  Molesworth,  Bart. 

Without  Office Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 

The  following  changes  occurred  : — The  Earl  of 
Clarendon  became  Foreign  Secretary  Feb.  21 


ABERLEMNO 


ABJURATION 


1853,  in  place  of  Lord  John  Russell,  who  re- 
tained a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  without  office.  He 
became  President  of  the  Council  in  the  place 
of  Earl  Granville,  who  was  made  Chancellor  of 
the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet,  June  g,  1854.  The  War  Department 
was  separated  from  the  Colonies  June  8,  1854. 
The  Duke  of  Newcastle  retained  the  former, 
and  Sir  George  Grey  acceded  to  the  Colonial 
Secretaryship.  Lord  John  Russell  resigned 
office  Jan.  23,  1855  ;  but  as  the  ministry  re- 
tired Feb.  i,  the  vacancy  was  not  filled  up. 
(See  PALMERSTON  [First]  ADMINISTRATION.) 

ABERLEMNO  (Scotland).— The  churchyard 
of  this  parish,  in  Forfarshire,  contains  a  curious 
antique  cross,  supposed  to  commemorate  the 
defeat  of  a  division  of  Sweyn's  Danish  army, 
by  Malcolm  II.,  at  Mortlach  (?.  v.),  in  Banff- 
shire,  in  1010. 

ABHORRERS.— The  elections  of  1679  having 
proved  unfavourable  to  the  court  party, 
Charles  II.,  by  repeated  prorogations,  pre- 
vented the  aaaembl£bg  of  the  new  parliament. 
Petitions  praying  for  the  immediate  com- 
mencement of  the  session  poured  in  from 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  church 
and  court  party  encountered  these  demonstra- 
tions by  addresses  to  the  king,  abounding  in 
loyal  expressions,  supporting  the  prerogative, 
and  declaring  the  deepest  abhorrence  of  those 
who  sought  to  interfere  with  the  same  by 
dictating  to  him  with  respect  to  the  meeting 
of  parliament  (1680).  Hence  the  rival  parties 
were  called  "Addressers,  or  Petitioners,"  and 
"Abhorrers."  These  appellations  afterwards 
gave  place  to  the  well-known  terms  Whig  and 
Tory. 

ABILENE  (Syria).— This  district  of  Coele, 
Syria,  called  also  Abila,  passed,  about  r..c.  .)<>, 
from  the  government  of  Ptolem:c.u>-. 
Mcnmuus,  to  his  son  I.ysanias,  who  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Cleopatra,  B.C.  33,  when  his 
territories  were  transferred  fco  jMBOdotUB. 
Herod  the  Great  having  acquired  poss 
Abilene,  B.C.  31,  on  his  death,  A.I>.  ^  it  was 
divided  between  his  son  Philip  and  I. 
mentioned  as  tetrarch  of  the  province  by  St. 
Luke(iii.  i),  A.D.  29.  On  the  death  of  Tiberius, 
A.D.  37,  the  province  was  reunited  and  bestowed 
by  Caligula  upon  Herod  Agrippa,  who  was 
confirmed  in  this  possession  on  the  accession  of 
Claudius  in  41.  Placidius,  a  general  in  Ves- 
pasian's anny,  captured  Abilene,  A.D.  69  or  70, 
when  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria. 

ABINGDON  (Berkshire).— A  monastery  said 
to  have  been  founded  at  this  ancient  town  by 
Lucius,  King  of  the  Britons,  who  reigned 
about  the  year  181,  is  alleged  by  monastic 
chroniclers  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the 
education  of  the  Emperor  Constantino  I. 
Having  fallen  into  decay,  it  was  restored  in 
675  by  Cissa,  Viceroy  of  Kentwin,  King  of 
Wessex,  and  after  being  ravaged  by  the  Danes 
during  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great,  it  was 
restored  by  Abbot  Ethelwold  in  954.  The 
last  abbot  surrendered  Feb.  9,  1538.  Geffrey 
Barbar,  who  died  in  1417,  founded  the  Hospital 
of  St.  Helen,  which  was  refounded  iznder  the 
name  of  Christ's  Hospital  by  Sir  John  Mason, 
May  19,  1553.  The  free  grammar  school  was 


instituted  by  John  Roysse,  citizen  and  mercer 
of  London,  in  1563.  The  market  house  was 
erected  in  1678. 

ABINGDOX  LAW.— On  the  capture  of  this 
town  by  the  Earl  of  Essex,  May  25,  1644,  a 
garrison  was  placed  in  it  by  the  Parliamenta- 
rians. During  the  various  attempts  made  by 
the  Royalists  to  regain  this  important  place,  a 
singular  custom  is  said  to  have  prevailed ;  and 
from  this  the  term  "Abingdon  Law"  arose. 
The  cruel,  practice  of  the  garrison  was  to  hang 
all  the  Irish  prisoners  without  trial ;  and  many 
Englishmen  suffered,  either  by  design  or  from 
accident. 

A  1 5 1 1 '( )  X I A  XS.— This  warlike  aboriginal  tribe 
of  South  American  Indians,  who  formerly  in- 
habited the  province  of  Chaco,  in  the  centre  of 
Paraguay,  have  since  been  driven  southwards 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  Jesuits  appear  to  have 
made  attempts  for  their  conversion  as  early  as 
1 6 10,  but  little  is  known  of  them  until  1641, 
when  they  are  mentioned  in  the  annals  of 
Paraguay  as  a  nation  remarkable  for  skill  in 
horsemanship,  whereby  they  earned  on  suc- 
cessful warfare  with  the  Spaniards,  :ind  the 
native  American  tribes.  A  peace,  concluded  in 
1747.  Put  an  end  to  these  incursions  for  a  time, 
but  their  hatred  of  their  European  oppressors 
continually  broke  through  every  restraint,  and 
quarrels.  In  1749  they  received 
a  7iiissii.nary  visit  from  Martin  Dobrizhoffer, 
a  (lermau  Jesuit,  who  laboured  among  them 
or  in  the  adjacent  country  for  18  years,  and 
established  the  colony  of  San  Carlos  and  the 
Rosary,  Nov.  24,  1763.  This  settlement  was 
attacked  by  600  savages,  Aug.  2,  1765,  when 
its  founder  received  some  severe  wounds  in 
defending  his  house  and  church.  In  1767 
Dobrixholfcr  returned  to  Kuropc,  and  published 
an  account  of  his  mission  in  1784.  After  his 
departure  the  bulk  of  the  tribe  migrat 
ward,  and  established  the  colony  of  Las  (Jar/as 
in  1770. 

ABJURATION'  OATH.— The  last  act  (13  and 
14  Will.  III.  c.  6)  to  which  the  royal  assent  was 
given  by  William  I II.  on  his  deathbed;  March  L-, 
1702,  required  all  persons  in  office,  members  of 
the  universities  above  18,  members  of  the 
legal  profession,  and  schoolmasters,  peers,  and 
members  of  parliament,  to  take  the  oath 
abjuring  the  claims  of  the  Stuarts.  The  oath 
was  altered  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  and 
put  into  a  new  form  by  6  Geo.  III.  c.  53  (1766). 
It  was  changed  for  Roman  Catholics  by  31 
Geo.  III.  c.  32  (1791),  and  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Relief  Act,  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7  (April  13,  1829). 
By  the  statute  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  48  (July  23,  1858), 
one  oath  was  substituted  for  the  three  oaths  of 
Abjuration,  Allegiance,  and  Supremacy. 

ABJURATION  OF  THE  REALM  was  an 
engagement,  on  oath,  to  quit  the  realm,  and 
never  return  to  it  without  the  king's  license. 
The  ancient  common  law  of  England  allowed 
a  person  who  had  committed  any  felony,  ex- 
cept treason  and  sacrilege,  to  make  such  an 
oath  before  the  coroner  within  40  days  after 
taking  sanctuary,  under  the  penalty  of  death 
by  hanging  if  he  broke  it,  unless  he  was  a 
clerk  ;  in  which  case  he  was  allowed  benefit  of 
clergy.  Abjuration  underwent  several  modi- 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  was 


ABO 


[    7 


ABSENTEE 


abolished  as  a  privilege,  together  with  that  of 
sanctuary  (q.  v.\  by  21  James  I.  c.  28,  s.  7,  (1624). 
By  35  Eliz.  cc.  i  and  2  (1593)  Roman  Catholics 
and  Protestant  Dissenters  convicted  of  having 
refused  to  attend  the  service  of  the  Church  of 
England,  or  of  having  been  present  at  any 
assemblies,  conventicles,  or  meetings,  under 
colour  or  pretence  of  any  exercise  of  religion, 
were  to  be  imprisoned  until  they  conformed, 
and  if  they  failed  to  do  so  in  three  months 
might  be  required  to  abjure  the  realm.  From 
these  acts  Protestant  Dissenters  were  exempted 
in  1689  (see  ACT  OF  TOLERATION),  but  Popish  re- 
cusants not  until  1791,  by  31  Geo.  III.  c.  32. 

ABO  (Finland.)— This  city,  built  by  Eric  X., 
King  of  Sweden,  1157,  was  taken  from  the 
Swedes  by  the  Russians  in  1713  and  1808  ;  and 
was.  with  the  whole  of  Finland,  to  the  Tornea, 
finally  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Fred- 
eriukshamm  (q.  v.},  Sep.  17,  1809.  A  fire 
occurred  here  Aug.  22,  1775,  by  which  above 
200  houses  and  15  mills  were  consumed,  and 
some  lives  lost ;  and  another  Sep.  4,  1827,  de- 
stroyed 780  buildings,  with  the  university, 
founded  hi  1640.  Abo,  made  a  bishopric  in  1158, 
became  an  archbishopric  July  20,  1817. 

ABO  (Treaty)  between  Russia  and  Sweden, 
Aug.  17  (O.S.  6),  1743,  terminated  the  war  com- 
menced in  1741.  Sweden  confirmed  in  per- 
petuity to  Russia  the  territory  ceded  by  the 
4th  &  8th  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Nystadt 
(Aug.  30,  1721),  consisting  of  Livonia,  Esthonia, 
Ingria,  part  of  Carelia,  together  with  the 
eastern  portion  of  Finland,  making  the  river 
Kyiiiiueno  the  boundary  between  the  two 
states ;  whilst  Russia  relinquished  to  Sweden 
the  remainder  of  her  conquests  in  Finland. 

AI!i  M.ITK  INISTS.— A  party  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  United  States  opposed  to  slavery. 
llic  "American  Anti-Slavery  Association," 
having  for  its  object  the  unconditional  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves,  established  at  Philadel- 
phia, grew  out  of  a  smaller  society  formed  at 
JJoston,  Jan.  i,  1832.  A  new  association  arose 
in  1839,  called  the  American  and  Foreign  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  and  a  congress  of  abolitionists 
from  various  countries  assembled  at  a  meeting 
of  the  "  Society  for  the  Extinction  of  the 
Slave  Trade,  and  for  the  Civilization  of  Afriea,'' 
held  at  Exeter  Hall  under  the  presidency  of 
Prince  Albert,  June  i,  1840.  The  Christian 
Anti-Slavery  Association  was  established  at 
Chicago,  in  July,  1851. 

ABOMEY  (Africa).— This  town,  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  was  besieged  by 
Jacoodonon,  King  of  the  Foys,  who  captured 
and  murdered  its  king,  Da,  about  1625.  It  was 
visited  by  Norris  in  1772  and  by  Duncan  in  1845. 

ABORIGINES,  or  ABERRIGINES.— Some 
writers  consider  the  term  to  represent  a  colony 
of  Greeks,  who  settled  in  Italy  long  before  the 
Trojan  war.  Niebuhr  states  that  the  name 
means  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  from  the 
beginning,  answering  to  the  Greek  autochthones; 
and  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  declares  the  obvious  Latin 
etymology  of  aborigines  to  be  the  true  one, 
adding,  "  The  name  was  applied  to  a  primitive 
Italian  race,  at  a  comparatively  early  date ; 
but  there  is  no  ground  for  adopting  the  view 
of  Dionysius,  which  makes  it  a  national 
appellation,  and  identifies  it  with  the  people 


having  an  historical  existence."  Hence  the 
later  application  of  the  term  to  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  any  country. 

ABOUKIR  (Egypt).— The  Turks  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  French,  under  Napoleon  I., 
July  25,  1799.  An  English  army,  under  Aber- 
crombie,  effected  a  landing  near  this  place, 
March  8,  1801,  and  compelled  the  French  to 
retreat.  (See  NILE.) 

ABRAHAM  (.Era),  so  called  from  the 
Patriarch  Abram,  commenced,  according  to  the 
best  authorities,  Oct.  i,  2016  B.C. 

ABRAHAM,  HEIGHTS  OF  (Battle).— (-See 
QUEBEC.) 

ABRAHAM-MEN,  beggars,  who  roamed  about 
the  country,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  religious 
houses  in  the  i6th  century.  They  were  also 
called  "  Tom  of  Bedlam's  Men."  The  term  "  to 
sham  Abraham"  is  supposed  to  have  been, 
derived  from  the  tricks  or  these  vagrants. 

ABRAHAMITES,  ABRAHAM1ANS,  or 
IBRAHIMIAH.— A  sect  of  heretics,  the  fol- 
lowers of  one  Abraham  of  Antioch,  called  by 
the  Arabs  Ibrahim,  who  attempted  to  revive, 
towards  the  close  of  the  8th  century,  the 
errors  of  the  Paulicians  (q.v.).  Several  Syrians 
were  seduced  ;  but  Cyriacus,  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  vigorously  opposed  the  new  heresy, 
and  it  was  extinguished  at  the  commencement 
of  the  gth  century. 

ABRAHAMITES.— An  order  of  monks  were 
thus  named.  They  rose  in  the  gth  century, 
and  were  exterminated,  on  account  of  their 
idolatry,  by  the  Emperor  Theophilus  (circ.  835.) 
— A  modern  sect  of  Abrahamites  was  discovered 
in  Bohemia  in  1782.  They  professed  the  reli- 
gion of  Abraham  before  his  circumcision,  and 
held  various  peculiar  opinions :  some  were 
Jews  by  birth,  others  Protestants,  and  a  few 
Roman  Catholics.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
called  Abrahamites  from  their  doctrine,  and 
Adamites  from  their  real  or  supposed  prac- 
tices. Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  in 
1783,  banished  a  large  number  of  these  secta- 
ries to  Transylvania  and  Temeswar,  on  account 
of  their  obstinate  refusal  to  incorporate  them- 
selves with  one  of  the  religions  tolerated  by 
law.  These  Abrahamites  are  sometimes  called 
Deists,  or  Nihilists. 

ABRANTES  (Treaty).— Disgusted  at  the  pro- 
visions of  the  treaty  of  Badajos  (q.  v.),  con- 
cluded between  Portugal  and  Spain,  June  6, 
and  ratified  June  16,  1801,  Napoleon  I.  overran 
the  former  kingdom.  The  war  was  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  treaty  of  Abrantes,  signed  Sep. 
29,  1801,  by  which  Portugal  agreed  to  shut  its 
ports  against  England,  relinquished  one  half  of 
Guiana  to  France,  making  the  river  Carapana- 
tuba  the  boundary  between  the  possessions  of 
the  two  states  in  that  part  of  the  world.  The 
commerce  of  France  was  to  be  placed  on  the 
same  footing  as  that  of  the  most  favoured  na- 
tions; and,  by  a  secret  article,  Portugal  agreed 
to  pay  ,£800,000  for  the  immediate  evacuation 
of  the  country  by  the  French  troops.  This 
treaty  having  been  ratified  at  Madrid,  is  some- 
times named  after  that  city. 

ABRUTUM  (Battle).— (See  FORUM  TREBONII.) 

ABSENTEE  TAX.— Parry  (Parliaments,  &c., 
of  England,  p.  142)  notices  a  petition  on  Irish 
absenteeism  presented  to  Parliament  in  1380, 


ABSENTEES 


ABYSSINIA 


during  the  reign  of  Richard  II.     Complaints 

were  frequently  made  on  this  subject ;  and,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  estates  of  sevei-al 
non-resident  landlords  were  seized.  A  curious 
debate  occurred  in  Parliament  (Saturday,  Dec. 
12,  1601)  respecting  a  proposal  to  fine  absentees 
from  church  12  pence  every  Sunday.  It  w.-is  t<> 
be  levied  by  a  distress  wan-ant  from  a  justice 
of  the  peace.  The  proposal  was  rejected,  the 
numbers  being,  ayes  105,  noes  106.  Some  mem- 
ber called  on  the  Speaker  to  give  his  vote  for 
the  bill ;  but  Cecil  said,  "The  Speaker  hath  no 
voice  ;  and,  though  I  am  sorry  for  it,  the  bill 
is  lost,  and  farewell  to  it."  A  bill,  entitled 
"An  Act  whereby  certain  <>f  the  Nobility  of 
this  kingdom  of  Irelaml,  dwelling  within  mo 
land,  or  elsewhere  out  of  this  realm,  are  made 
liable  unto  certain  charges  within  'this  king- 
dom," was  read  a  third  time  in  the  Irish  Par- 
liament, and  passed  into  law,  Feb.  17,  1634. 
In  1715  a  tax  of  4«.  in  the  pound  was  levied  on 
all  profits,  fees,  pensions,  kc.,  derived  from 
Ireland,  in  all  cases  whore  the  re-rip 
not  reside  in  that  country  six  months  in  the 
year.  The  crown  reserved  the  right  of  giving 
leave  of  absence.  Tin-  tax  ceased  in  1753,  and 
attempts  at  its  reimposition  were  tried,  but 
without  success,  in  1773  an(l  *n  *7$3-  ^b'  t'"' 
Irish  Act  of  Parliament,  40  Geo.  III..  V.  4 
(March  24,  1800),  a  similar  tax  was  imposed, 
but  it  was  removed  by  the  English  Act,  41 
Geo.  III.  c.  TOO  (July  2,  1801). 

ABSENTEES  Parliament  of),  held  at  Dublin, 
May  10,  1517  (8  Hen.  VIII.),  is  mriitiuiied  in 
letters  patent,  dated  -.-.,  lien.  VIII. 

ABSOLUTION,  In  the  early  ChrirtianCliTirch, 

simply  signified  reeonciliation  with  tin-  <  'hureh 
and  restoration  to  its  communion.  During 
the  2nd  century  it  was  granted  by  bishops 
in  presence  of  the  whole  congregation,  after 
the  penitent  had  publicly  entreated  fi>r  pardon, 
and  it  was  never  permitted  to  those  who  had 
lapsed  a  second  time  into  crime.  U,,.  doctrine 
of  the  priest's  authority  to  pronounce  absolu- 
tion on  the  part  of  (iod  dates  from  the  3rd 
century,  and  the  elevation  of  the  ordinance 
into  the  list  of  sacraments  is  first  mentioned 
by  Otho,  Bishop  of  Bamberg.  in  1124.  Absolu- 
tion ad  cautelam,  or  conditional  absolution 
granted  to  an  excommunicated  person  during 
his  appeal  against  the  sentence,  was  first 
granted  by  Ccelestine  III.  in  1195.  The  indica- 
tive form,  "  1  absolve  thee,"  instead  of  "Christ 
absolve  thee,  "was  first  used  in  the  i2th  or  i3th 
century,  and  was  warmly  defended  by  Thomas 
Aquinas  about  the  year  1250.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  Dec.  13,  1545  to  1563,  directed  the  use  of 
the  form  "I  absolve  thee  from  all  thy  sins  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Amen." 

ABSTINENCE.— Many  cases  of  extraordinary 
cures  effected,  and  of  a  great  age  attained,  by 
use  of  spare  diet,  are  mentioned  by  different 
writers.  Abstinence  from  particular  meats  was 
enjoined  upon  the  Jews  by  the  Divine  law,  and 
many  of  the  early  Christians  adopted  a  similar 
practice.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
selected  special  seasons  and  days  on  which  par- 
ticular kinds  of  abstinence  are  strictly  enforced. 
Among  the  primitive  Christians  in'ti 
several  hermits,  who  retired  to  the  deserts, 


and  lived  upon   bread   and  water,  and  even 
roots,  are  said  to  have  attained  an  e.\ 
narv  age.       N<-    I.O.M  ;r.vi  TV. 

ABSTINENTS,  Ai;s  I'INKXTKs,  ,.r  AB- 
STAINERS, heretics  who  appeared  in  France, 
and  Spain  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  or  early  in  the 
4th  century,  during  the  persecutions  oi  Diocle- 
tian and  Maximian.  They  condemned  m 
and  the  use  of  tlesh  and  wine  :  some  of  their 
opinions  were  borrowed  from  the  linostics  and 
Manich;e;jns.  Baronius  believes  these  heretics 
to  have  been  identical  with  an  K-yptian  sect 
called  the  llieracians  //.  ,-.  or  Hier'ai-ites,  that 
arose  at  the  same  period,  and  held  similar 
opiniomi. 

A  MY  DOS,  an  ancient    town    on  the 
shore  of  the  Hellespont,  or  Dardanelles,  is  said 
to  have  become  the  seat    of  a   Milesian   colony 
n.c.  71-.  -tructed  a  bridge  of  boats 

from  this  pl.i  i-opcaii  side  of  the 

Hellespont,    over   which     his    immense    army 

i'-.c.  480.      It  is  ce] 

from  t).  [   in   the 

habit  of  swimming  from  Abydos  to  the  other 
side  of  the  Hellespont  to  visit  Hero,  was  at. 
last  drowned.  Lord  Myron,  who  frequently 
performed  tliis  feat,  ridicules  tin-  story.  Tin's 
town  must  not  K-  confounded  with  another  of 
the  same  name  in  I 

A  BY  I"         -  the   Athenian 

and  the  IV1..J,  .    ,irj  B.C. 

•MS. 

A  MY  IM  >S  (Tablet  of),  contain!' 

M-ly  kings  nf  ! 
by  Mr.  W.  M  lake*, OH  an  interior  wall  of  a  huild- 

Lbydoc,  an  ancient  city  nf 

The  tabl.-t,    which  has    been   deposited    in    the 

British    Museum,    consist s    of    three    compart- 

-nd   contains    .•••  shields   of   th< 

AMYSSIMA     (Africa),    part   of    the 

Kthiopia,  of  which  the  capital  was  .\u\umr,  <u- 
A.xum  \  oyssiniuns  had  a  tradition 

h.  Noah's  grandson,   \vas   their  proge- 
nitor,  and  that  Axum  was  lniilt  in  the  time  nf 
Abraham.     Tin-  fragment  - 
by   Mn;  .  ol.  ii.  p.  ?0;)  are   i 

as  proofs  that  the  Ahy^inians  embr 
baism,  or  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
a  superstition  into  which  Noah's  descendants 
fell.  The  Abyssinians  were  powerful  in  the 
'''tli  century,  about  which  period  Yemen  was 
subjugated  by  them.  In  925  a  Jewess,  named 
Sague,  subverted  the  native  dynasty,  and  de- 
stroyed Axum.  The  kingdom  was  restored  in 
1255  by  the  Kmperor  Iquon  Amlaq.  Little  is 
•picnt  state  until  the  i6th 

century,   when   the     Port  ,  ;ed   the 

Abyssinians  against  a  powerful  enemy.  The 
introduction  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and  the 
various  struggles  to  which  it  led,  are  related 
under  Am  -SIM AN  1'iiritcii.  The  country  was 
by  Bruce  during  his  exploration  of 
the  source  of  the  Nile  in  1769.  In  1805  Lord 
Valentia  and  Mr.  Salt  travelled  in  the  coun- 
try, and  in  1810  Mr.  Salt  arrived  the;-. 
envoy  of  the  British  Government.  'I  i 
S.  Gobat  and  the  Kev.  ( '.  Kugler,  despatched 
by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  landed 
at  Massnwa  in  1829.  The  following  year  Mr. 
Gobat  visited  Gondar,  the  capital,  which  had 


ABYSSINIAN 


[    9    1 


ABYSSINIAN 


not  been  entered  by  a  European  since  the 
time  of  Bruce.  Dr.  RUppell,  the  eminent 
German  naturalist,  who  arrived  at  Massowa 
in  Sep.,  1831,  and  made  two  journeys  into 
Abyssinia,  added  much  to  European  know- 
ledge of  the  resources  of  the  country,  which 
was  explored  by  Combes  and  Tamisier  from 
April,  1835,  to  June,  1836.  Subsequent  ex- 
peditions were  made  by  Dufey  and  Aubert 
in  1837,  by  the  brothers  D'Abaddie,  Antoine, 
and  Arnault  in  1838,  and  by  Lefevre,  Dillon, 
and  Petit,  and  M.  Blondeel  von  Koelmbroeck, 
the  Belgian  consul  in  Egypt,  in  1839.  Isen- 
berg  and  Krapf,  missionaries  from  the  Church 
of  England,  visited  the  country  from  the  south 
in  1839,  and  remained  till  April,  1843,  when 
they  were  expelled  by  the  King  of  Shoo,  and  the 
uii>sic>n  was  abandoned.  Rochet  also  entered 
from  the  south  in  Sep.,  1839,  and  was  followed 
by  Airston  and  Lieut.  Kiehnaier,  who  both 
died  in  1840.  Dr.  Beke,  who  visited  Abys- 
sinia in  Nov.,  1840,  and  Sir  W.  C.  Harris,  who 
was  despatched  on  a  political  mission  in  1841, 
remained  till  Feb.,  1843,  and  made  many  im- 
p.  .rt.uit  geographical  discoveries.  Other  expe- 
ditions were  made  by  Johnston  and  by  Even 
in  1841,  by  De  Goutin,  the  French  consul  at 
Massowa,  who  visited  Gondar  in  1842  to  ascer- 
tain the  possibility  of  establishing  a  trade  be- 
tween that  place  and  France,  and  by  Bell  and 
Plowden  in  May,  1843.  Plowden,  the  British 
consul  at  Massowa,  concluded  a  treaty  of 
friendship  and  commerce  with  Ras  AH  at 
Gondar,  Nov.  2,  1849,  by  which  it  was  agreed 
that  ambassadors  should  be  mutually  sent  and 
received  by  the  English  and  Abyssinian  courts. 
Ha*  AH  was  deposed  in  1854  by  one  of  hissons- 
in-law,  who  was  subsequently  crowned  em- 
peror under  the  name  of  Theodore,  and  refused 
to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of 
1849.  Mr.  Plowden,  having  been  wounded  and 
in.Kli'  prisoner  by  the  rebels, died  immediately 
after  his  release,  and  was  avenged  by  King 
Theodore,  who  defeated  3,000  of  his  opponents 
under  their  leader  Gerat,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Taccazy,  Oct.  31,  1860,  and,  in  requital,  mas- 
sacred in  cold  blood  1,500  prisoners,  whose 
wives  and  children  he  sold  into  slavery.  Capt. 
Cameron,  appointed  consul  in  the  place  of  Mr. 
Plowden  in  1861,  proceeded  in  1862  to  Massowa, 
bearing  presents  from  Queen  Victoria  to  Theo- 
dore, who  replied  by  a  letter  which  was  re- 
ceived in  England  Feb.  12,  1863.  No  notice 
having  been  taken  of  this  despatch,  the  king, 
towards  the  end  of  1863,  arrested  Capt.  Came- 
ron, with  several  other  Englishmen,  whom  he 
kept  in  cruel  bondage.  A  reply  to  his  letter, 
sent  May  26,  1864,  failed  in  procuring  their  re- 
lease, because  it  was  transmitted  through  Mr. 
Rassam,  the  assistant  English  resident  at 
Aden,  and  a  subject  of  Turkey,  with  which 
country  Abyssinia  was  at  variance.  A  debate 
upon  the  subject  took  place  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  June  30,  1865.  Dr.  Beke  left  Lon- 
don on  a  mission  to  procure  the  release  of  the 
captives,  Nov.  4,  1865. 

ABYSSINIAN  jERA.— (See  MUNDANE  ^RA 
OF  ALEXANDRIA.) 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH,  had  its  origin,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  authorities,  about  330, 
when  Frumentius  was  ordained  Bishop  of 


Axum,  by  Athanasius,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  Abys- 
sininns  were  first  converted  in  the  apostolic 
age,  by  the  eunuch  of  Queen  Candace,  Sep.,  37. 
(Acts  viii.  27—39.)  The  Abyssinians  formed  a 
branch  of  the  Jacobite  or  Coptic  Church,  hold- 
ing the  Monophysite  doctrine  of  one  incarnate 
nature  ;  into  which  heresy  they  fell  in  the  6th 
century.  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  signed  a  decree  for 
the  union  of  the  Abyssinian  Church  with  that 
of  Rome,  at  the  Synod  of  Florence,  Feb.  4, 
1441.  This  was  not  carried  out,  and  Abys- 
sinia continued  almost  entirely  unknown 
to  Europeans  until  1484,  when  Diego  Cam 
ascended  the  Zaire,  and  learned  from  the 
people  of  Congo  that  the  country  to  the  south 
of  Upper  Egypt  was  inhabited  by  a  Christian 
nation.  On  his  return  to  Portugal,  he  com- 
municated this  intelligence  to  John  II.,  who 
resolved  to  establish  a  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sion ;  but  it  failed,  the  missionaries  being 
ignorant  of  the  African  languages.  He  after- 
wards sent  Pedro  Cavilham,  who  entered 
Abyssinia  in  1490.  Two  more  envoys  arrived 
in  1507;  and  in  1509  the  Empress  Helena, 
regent  during  the  minority  of  the  infant 
Emperor  David,  wrote  letters,  soliciting  the 
alliance  and  friendship  of  the  King  of  Portugal. 
ThVse  overtures  were  received  at  Lisbon  in 
1513,  and  resulted  in  a  special  embassy,  which 
reached  Abyssinia  in  1520.  Zaga  Zaba  arrived 
in  Portugal,  as  ambassador  from  the  court  of 
Abyssinia,  in  1527,  bearing  letters  to  the  king 
and  to  the  Pope.  After  a  delay  of  five  years,  he 
proceeded  to  Rome,  and  had  an  audience  with 
the  pontiff,  Jan.  29,  1533,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  Lisbon,  and  wrote  a  statement  of 
the  religious  and  political  state  of  his  country, 
dated  April  24,  1534.  Meanwhile  King  David 
of  Abyssinia,  being  pressed  by  neighbouring 
Mohammedan  nations,  had  caused  John 
Bermudes,  a  Portuguese,  resident  at  his  court, 
to  receive  consecration  as  a  bishop  from  the 
abuna  or  patriarch  of  the  National  Church, 
and  had  despatched  him  to  Europe  to  entreat 
the  aid  of  the  Christian  princes.  Bermudes 
arrived  at  Rome  in  1538,  and,  after  proceeding 
to  Lisbon,  returned  to  his  own  country  in 
1539.  A  Portuguese  force  of  400  men,  under 
Don  Christopher  de  Gama,  son  of  the  famous 
Vasco,  entered  the  country  to  assist  the  sove- 
reign, July  9,  1541,  and,  after  some  reverses, 
their  leader  having  been  captured  and  exe- 
cuted, eventually  established  him  firmly  on 
his  throne.  Disputes  soon  arose,  however, 
in  consequence  of  the  emperor's  refusal  to 
adopt  the  Romish  faith  and  worship,  and  Ber- 
mudes, whose  importunities  had  become  dis- 
tasteful, was  ejected  from  his  office,  and  impri- 
soned. A  Jesuit  mission,  under  Father  Rodri- 
guez, arrived  at  the  emperor's  court  May  26, 
1555.  A  series  of  religious  disputes  ensued, 
which  resulted  in  the  excommunication  of  the 
entire  nation,  by  Andrew  Oviedo,  the  Jesuit 
Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  Feb.  2,  1559.  The  mis- 
sion having  failed  in  establishing  Romanism, 
was  recalled  by  a  bull,  dated  Feb.  i,  1560.  A 
second  Jesuit  mission  was  established  in  1603, 
by  Peter  Pays,  who  intrigued  with  all  the 
parties  that  successively  attained  influence, 
until  the  emperor  was  induced  to  make  a 


ACACIAN8 


ACARNANIA 


formal  statement  of  submission  to  the  Pope, 
Dec.  ii,  1624.  This  concession,  however,  was 
exceedingly  unpopular  with  the  nation,  who 
compelled  the  Roman  patriarch  to  retire,  in 
1633.  In  1646  the  Propaganda  .Society  sent  a 
mission  of  Capuchins,  who  were  all  murdered 
l>y  order  of  the  emperor.  No  further  effort 
was  made  till  1750,  when  the  same  body  sent 

ranciscan  friars)  who  were  also  expelled 
by  the  popular  voice.  In  1809  Mr.  Salt,  having 
travelled  in  Abyssinia,  in  behalf  of  tin/  : 
Government,  recommended  the  establishment 
of  a  Protestant  mission,  which  was  at  length 
effected,  in  1827,  by  Dr.  Gobat,  who  was,  how- 
ever, compelled  to  withdraw,  in  1842,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  opposition  of  the  natives  and 
Roman  Catholic  priesthood.  Mosheim  states 
that  the  Kthiopic  Church  continues  to  receive 
her  bishop  from  Alexandria,  and  is  dependent 
upon  it.  The  religion  of  the  Abyssinians  i.s 

.ited  as  a  compound  of  Christianity, 
Judaism,  and  Heathenism.  They  practise 
circumcision,  believe  in  sorcery  and  evil 
spirits,  and  make  use  of  amulets.  They  pray 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  for  the  dead,  though 
not  holding  the  Romish  <io<-t  rin<;  of  purgatory, 
and  do  not  in  general  believe  in  traiisubstan- 
tiatii  >n.  They  acknowledge  their  en,i 

•d    of   the    church,    but    the    abuna,*or 

patriarch,     is    the    controlling    power.       They 

agree  wi tli  the  Greek  (  hunh  in   maintaining 

•si   of  the    Holy  Ghost  from  the 

Father  alone. 

AC ACI  ANS.—  The  followers  of  Acaeius,  sur- 
namcd  Luscus,  or  Moiiophthaln: 
hail  but  one  eye,   Bishop  ,  !  (O — 365  J 

and  the  followers  of  Aeaeius,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, 471—4;-;,,,  were  known  by  this 
name.  The  former  neither  held,  with  the 
Arians  '/.  P.  ,  that  Christ  was  a  ereated  being, 
nor  with  the  Seuii-Ari.ms  </.  ,-.  ,  that  he  was  of 
like  substance,  but  simply  that  he  was  like  the 
Father.  1'isdoctrii  •ieiulied  at  t  he 

Council  of  Sardica,  ^47,  and  at  the  Council  of 
Selcueia,  Sep.  27,  359.— Acaeius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  sided  with  the  Kmpemr  Xeiio, 
whose  Ilenoticon  '/.  i\  ,  or  Edict  of  1,'nioii,  in- 
tended to  appease  the  feud  between  the  rival 
churches  01  Constantinople  and  Alexandria, 
was  issued  in  482,  and  was  drawn  up.  it  is  sup- 
posed, by  Acacius  himself.  Tin:  edict  was  re- 
jected by  Felix  III.,  in  483,  and  Aeaeius  him- 
self was  excommuni  ;  inate  commu- 
nion with  heretics  (July  28,  484).  Acaeius  in 
his  turn  ordered  that  Felix  111.,  Bishop  of 
Home,  should  be  erased  from  the  list  of 
bishops  in  communion  with  the  Fast  (Aug.  i, 
484).  "  The  ban  of  Rome,"  asMilman  says,  "was 
encountered  by  the  ban  of  Constantinople." 
Acacius  pcrsist'cd  in  his  refusal  to  submit  to 
Rome,  and  died  in  489.  His  supporters  were 
called  Aeaeians.  Other  sects  of  heretics  were 
thus  designated. 

AC  A DEM  I A  (Athens),  described  by  Diogenes 
Laertius  as  a  suburban  place  of  exercise 
planted  like  a  grove,  and  said  to  be  thus 
called  from  an  ancient  hero,  named  Hecademus. 
In  this  place  Plato  formed  his  school  (B.C.  388), 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Spcusippns 
(B.C.  347).  The  trees  composing  the  grove  were 
cut  down  by  Sylla,  during  the  siege  of  Athens, 


(B.C.  86).  Others  were  subsequently  planted, 
and  the  Academia  preserved  something  of  its 
ancient  repute,  as  late  as  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Julian  (A.D.  193 — 211).  From  this 
term  the  modern  word  academy  is  derived. 

AC  A  I  >FM  V.—  The  custom  for  learned  men  to 
form  themselves  into  associations  called,  after 
the  ancient  schools,  academies,  originated  in 
Italy  in  the  i4th  century,  and  gradually  ex- 
tended over  Europe.  The  Society  of  St.  Luke, 
founded  at*  Florence  by  the  Venetian  painters, 
in  1345,  is  the  earliest.  Ilallam  says  (Lit. 
Hist.  vol.  i.  pt.  i.  ch.  ix.),  "  Italy  in  the  i6th 
century  was  remarkable  for  the  number  of  her 
literary  academies  ;  institutions  which,  though 
by  no  means  peculiar  to  her,  have  in  III 
country  been  so  general  or  so  conspicuous." 
The  Italian  academies  of  that  period  are  re- 
markable for  the  ridiculous  titles,  or,  as 
Ilallam  terms  them,  "names  humorously 
quaint,"  by  which  they  were  known.  Florence 
had  its  academy  of  "  Bran,"  or  "the  B 
Perugia,  of  "the  In.-  QeDMt,  of  "  the 

Sienna,  of  "the  Blockheads  ;"  and 
ViterDO,  of  "the  Obstinates."  Disraeli's 
theory  (Curiosities  of  Lit.  ii.  48.,)  is,  that  "the 

n  of  these  ridieuloiis  titles  for  litt  rary 

was  an  attempt  to   throw  a  sportive 

veil    o\    -  which    had    alarmed    tin; 

papal   and  the   other  petty  courts  of  Italy,  and 

to  quiet  their  fears  and   turn  aside  their  j.oli- 

.ih.       They    implied    the  inno, 
their   pursuits  by    the   jocularity  with    which 
treated    themselves,    and   were 
willing  that  others    should    treat   them."     The 

the  establishment  of  the  most  cele- 
brated academies  is  given  under  the  names  of 

M  in  which  they  tlourished.  Many 
Italian  towns  j  .  era],  and  Tii 

furnishes  full  details  on  the  academies  of  that 
part  of  Europe. 

AC  ADI  A   (North     '  Discovered  by 

John  Cabot,  in  1497.  The  French  settled  here 
in  1604,  and  came  into  frequent  collision  with 

;i-h  settlers  in  Virginia.    In  1621  Acadia 

Mcd  by  charter  to  Sir  William  Alexan- 
der and  its  name  ch.  .  S.  i  >TIA  (7.-!'.). 
A.CAPULCO  (Mexico).— During  the  Spanish 
rule  in  America,   a  galleon,  laden  with  specie, 

-  sent  every  spring  from  Acapulco  to 
.Manilla,  returning  in  the  autumn  with  a  costly 

f  a  different  kind.  Commodore,  after- 
wards Lord  Ansoii,  intercepted  one  of  these 

worth  .£313,000,  July  i  (O.  S.  June  20), 
1743.  Capt.  Hyde  Parker  captured  another, 
valued  at  half  a  million,  Oct.  31,  1762,  during 
the  siege  of  Manilla.  An  earthquake  that  took 
.••re  Dec.  4,  1852,  overthrew  the  greater 
part  of  the  town,  with  most  of  the  chief 
building*. 

ACARNANIA.— This  province  of  ancient 
Greece,  according  to  tradition, received  its  name 
from  Acarnan,  son  of  Alcmaeon,  who  settled  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Achelous.  The  Corinthians 
are  said  to  have  founded  several  towns  on  the 
coast  iu  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  u.c. 

'•nanians  lived  in  villages  which  were 
united  in  a  political  league.  Eittle,  however, 
is  known  respecting  its  constitution.  The 
Acamanians  first  came  into  prominent  notice 
about  the  time  of  the  Pcloponnesian  war. 


ACBATALBACAR 


ACHAEAN 


They  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Amphilochians 

expelled  from  Argos  Amphilochicum  by  the 

Ambraciots,  B.C.  432,  and  both  applied  to  the 

Athenians  for  aid. 

B.C. 

433.  The  Athenians  defeat  the  Ambraciots  and  drive  them 

from  Argos  Aniphilochicum. 

430.  The  Ambriiri'its  arc  foiled  iu  an  attempt  to  recover 
Argos  AinpIiiliK-liicuin. 

\miiiMi-i. .t-  inilin'c  tho  Spartans  to  aid  them  in 
an  attack  upon  Acaruania,  but  are  ill  i 
436.  The  Acarnaniaiis  defeat  tin-  Ambraciots   and  their 
iilli.'.,  atolpae  and  Idomene.     Peace  for  a  hundred 
years  is  concluded  between  Acamania  and  Anibracia. 
391.  Agesilaus,  King  of  Sparta,  invades  Acamania. 
390.  The  Acarnauiaus  submit  to  the  terms   imposed  by 

Agesilaus. 

343.  The  Athenians  send  an  expedition  against  the  Acar- 
imnmi.s.  who  support  the  cause  of   Philip  II.  of 
Macedon. 
443.  Ttie  Acarnanians  invade  JEtolio.  and  are  compelled 

to  retii.'. 

239.  The  ^tolians  invade  Acarnania. 
318.  The   ^tolians,  who  had    conquered  a  considerable 
}x>rtion  of  Acarnunia,  cede  it  to  I'hilip  V.,  iu  order 
to  obtain  peace. 

too.  The  Acanuiniun.4  support  Philip  V.  against  Home. 
!<)-.  'ihf  Ararn.-iiimiis  Milmiit  to  limuc. 
145.  Acaruania  subject  to  Home. 

ACBATALBACAB  (Battle) .  —  Mohammed 
Boa  Hixern,  at  the  head  of  a  united  Moslem 
and  Christian  force,  defeated  Snleinrin  Urn 
Alkahem  and  his  Africans  at  this  place,  near 
Cordova,  in  1009. 

NTS  wore  introduced  about  B.C.  200,  by 
Arlcfcophaneo,  a  grammarian  of  Byzantium. 
BuriK-y  states  that  they  were  principally  con- 
fined to  prosody,  only  being  used  in  music 
occasionally.  The  practice  of  using  accents  in 
the  texts  of  the  old  Greek  writers  was  dcvlaix-.  1 
to  be  a  modern  innovation  during  a  discussion 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Philological  Society  of 
London,  held  May  25,  1855. 

ACCEPTANTtf,  or  CONSTITUTIONI8TS.— 
In  1713  Clement  XI.  issued  his  famous  consti- 
tution or  bull  Unigenitus  (q.  v.)  condemning  as 
heretical  101  propositions  selected  from  the 
commentary  of  Qucsnel.  This  triumph  of  the 
Jesuits  over  the  Jansenists  caused  great  agita- 
tion in  I'Y.in.-e,  and  the  two  parties  were  called, 
the  Const  it, it  ii,,,  <W.<  <  >r  Acceptants,  and  the  Aj>j>tl- 
lants  or  Recusant*.  The  latter,  who  appealed  to 
a  general  council,  were  imprisoned,  and  suf- 
fered persecution.  The  death  of  Louis  XIV. 
caused  a  temporary  cessation  of  the  strife,  and 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  as  regent,  induced  the 
:it  bishops  to  accept  the  bull,  with  cer- 
tain modifications.  Most  of  them  consented  to 
do  so  for  the  sake  of  peace  (1720) ;  but  the  Ap- 
pellants were  again  oppressed  and  persecuted 
(1723).  The  Uuigenitus  was  made  national  law 
(1730),  and  the  Appellants  continued  their  re- 
sistance. 

ACCLIMATISATION  SOCIETY.— This  asso- 
ciation, for  the  "acclimatisation  of  animals, 
birds,  fishes,  insects,  and  vegetables,  within  the 
United  Kingdom,"  was  established  at  a  meet- 
ing held  June  26,  1860.  Similar  societies  have 
since  been  established  in  New  South  Wales, 
New  Zealand,  and  other  parts.  The  French 
Soctete"  Imperiale  d'Acclimatation  was  founded 
byGeoffroy  de  St.  Hilaire  in  1854.  The  "  Jardin 
Zoologique  d'Acclimatation"  was  opened  in  1 860. 
ACCORDION.— This  musical  instrument  was 
first  introduced  into  England  from  Germany 
about  1828. 


ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL.— This  officer  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery  was  first  appointed  by 
12  Geo.  I.  c.  32  (1726) — an  "Act  for  securing  the 
moneys  and  effects  of  the  suitors ; "  and  the 
office  was  abolished  by  5  Viet.  c.  5,  s.  15  (Oct. 
15,  1841). 

ACCUSERS,  FALSE.— The  ancient  Romans 
punished  false  accusers  by  casting  them  head- 
long from  the  Tarpeian  rock  ;  and  by  a  subse- 
quent law  (Lex  Remmia),  they  were  ordered  to 
be  burned  in  the  face.  By  the  law  of  Valentiniau 
and  Gratian,  in  the  Theodosian  code  (q..v.)t 
offenders  of  this  kind,  "against  men's  fame  and 
reputation,  against  their  fortunes,  and  against 
their  lives,"  were  condemned  to  the  same  pun- 
ishment as  that  to  which  the  person  falsely  ac- 
cused would  have  been  subjected  had  he  been 
convicted.  Those  who  endeavoured  by  false 
accusation  to  deprive  other  men  of  their  pro- 
perty, were  ordered  to  be  prosecuted  to  tho 
last  degree,  with  confiscation  and  death.  The 
early  ecclesiastical  laws  were  severe  on  this 
point.  The  Councils  of  Vanncs  (465)  and  Agda, 
in  France  (Sep.  ir,  506),  imposed  a  penance 
upon  them,  and  the  first  Council  of  Aries  (314) 
obliged  them  to  do  penance  all  their  lives.  In 
the  earlier  periods  of  English,  as  well  as  of 
German  history,  the  accuser  was  obliged  to 
prove  the  crime,  or  suffer  the  same  punish- 
ment the  accused  would  have  undergone  had 
he  been  convicted ;  and  a  similar  law  was  in 
fotve  in  the  time  of  Henry  III.  They  were 
also  branded  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
many  severe  punishments  are  recorded  in  our 
statute-book. 

ACEPHALI.— The  term  was  first  employed  by 
ecclesiastical  writers,  and  applied  to  those  who 
followed  neither  Cyril,  nor  John  of  Antioch,  in 
the  disputes  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (third 
General),  June  22  to  July  31,  431.  As  a  natural 
consequence,  it  was  used  to  describe  the  various 
divisions  of  the  Eutychians,  who  denied  the 
property  of  two  substances  in  Christ,  and  con- 
tended that  there  is  but  one  nature  in  his 
person.  They  resisted  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (fourth  General),  in  451, 
and  were,  as  Bingham  says,  "  called  Acephali, 
that  is,  without  head,  because  the  first  authors 
of  the  sect  at  Alexandria  separated  from  their 
bishop  and  held  conventicles,  and  gave  bap- 
tisms in  private  houses."  The  heresy,  revived 
in  463,  was  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  536.  The  term  has  been  ap- 
plied to  various  sects,  the  members  of  which 
followed  no  particular  leader,  and  came  to  be 
applied  to  a  body  of  levellers  in  this  country, 
in  the  time  of  Henry  I.  Cowel,  with  reference 
to  these  men,  remarks,  "Those  are  called 
acephali  who  were  the  levellers  of  that  age, 
and  acknowledged  no  head  or  superior." 

ACHAEAN  LEAGUE.— This  celebrated  confe- 
deracy, originally  formed  between  twelve  cities 
of  Achaia,  was  dissolved  by  the  factions  that 
prevailed  soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
III.,  B.C.  323.  Four  of  the  principal  cities  of 
Achaia,— Dyme,  Patrse,  Tritsea,  and  Pharse, 
united  for  its  restoration,  B.C.  280;  .ZEgiumand 
Bura  joined  B.C.  275 ;  Cerynea  B.C.  274  ;  and 
Leontium,  Pellene,  and  ^gira  soon  after. 
Aratus  formed  the  idea  of  extending  it  to  the 
>ther  Grecian  states,  and,  having  liberated 


ACHAIA 


ACHAIA 


Sicyon,  persuaded  his  fellow-citizens  to  join 
the  League,   B.C.  251. 

246.'  Aratus  first  appointed  poner.il  of  the  Lenprue. 
243-  Aratus  takes  Corinth,  and  annexes  it  to  the  League. 
242-  Megara  and  other  (irecian  cities  join  the  League. 
239-  Megalopolis  joins  the  League. 
233.  -(Egina  joins  the  League. 
_'os  joins  the  League. 
327.   A  struggle,   called  bv  Polybius  the  Cleomenie  wnr, 

breaks  out  between  theAcha-an  Leu-rue  am!  Sparta. 
226.  The    Achaeans    are   defeated   by  CleOOMBM  111.,  at 

l.adocea. 
221.  Cleomenes  III.  is  defeated  by  the  Acbrcans,  assisted 

by  Antitronus  Jion.n  of  M,- Ion.  to  w  tiom  they  had 

applied  for  aid.  at  the  battle  of  Scllasiu  (q.v.). 
320-  A  contest  called  the  Social  War  breaks  out  between 

HM-  .-Ktoiian  and  the  Achaian  Leagues. 
317.  Peace  is  concluded  at  Naupactus. 

th  of  Aratus. 

2-.M.    Philop.i-men  -eneral  of  the-    ! 
207.  Philopd-men  effects  important  reforms  in  the  League, 

and  defeat  the  Spartans  at  Miiiilinca 
198.  'Hie  League  conclude.,  an  alliance  with  Home. 
192.   Philop.emcu  unite,  Sparta  to  the  I 
191.   The    whole   of    the    Peloponnesus    U    included   in    the 

Achiean   League. 

183.  The  Mi -•.eniaii-  separate  from  the  League,  but  again 

submit.     (Sf  KCMl 

167.  One  thousand  Aeh.-cans  are  carried  off  to  lioine. 
ISO.  Koine  declare.,  u.,,-  a-aiu-t  the  Aeli.-i-;in  League. 
147.  Mummius  defeats  the  Acha;ans  at  the  battle  of 

LjCUCOpetla. 
146.   The  Aclneaii  Lenjrue   is    AMfeOfBd,  HU    the  whole    of 

Southern  Civee.-  made  ;1  Koman  JIHA  ince  under  the 

name  of  Achaia  (q.v.). 

Freen, an  (History  of  Federal  < ;.  .venmient,  vol.  i. 
p.   713)  gives   tlie   following  list  of  tl. 
of  tin'  Achaean  League,  with  the  dates  of  their 
,"ii : — 


B.C. 
28o    

Patral. 

B.C. 

•  'don? 

380    

I  )\  me. 

Tellthrolle  ? 

cisc.  279... 
275  

Ti'itnia. 
n.arai. 

Pvnrhli 

KainepolU? 

275    

lioiira. 

275   

l.eo'ntion. 

Lmktmt 

1  h.damai? 

-     "••  

Aip-ira. 

IMI.I.e. 

251    

Sik.NO". 

Ak'naiV 

196^146*  . 

Corinth. 

195 

2^4-3*" 

Megara. 

Kpidauros  I.im 

2J.3 

Troi/en. 

243    
340-235  ». 

Kjiidauros. 
lleraia. 
Khv.nai. 

(icronthrai? 
•oatl 

.*.. 

Kynaitha. 

jMMtl 

KliphasU?? 

... 

Kleltol. 

o  o 

... 

\   h.  11'  ox. 

A  lea 

o  o 

_ 

Telpliollsa. 

Alipheiwi. 

^—~- 

Mantineiii    or 

A  sea. 

AntiKoneia. 

]>ipaia. 

233(?)-2io 

AiJ"ina. 

193   H 

CortvR. 
Palhintion. 

233  (?)  

Ilermionfi. 

ItetoML 

228    

192...  Sparta. 

228    

Pldious. 

191...  Elis. 

227    

Ka],hyia. 

191...  Mes^ene. 

222    

'1'c^ea. 

1*4...  KordnS. 

210    

}>s6phis. 

i  A  bin. 

2o8    

182   \  Tliourla. 

308  or  196  . 

1'hi^alcia. 

[Phai. 

208  or  196  . 

Lepr  i. 

199  or  196  . 

Orchomenos. 

ACHAIA,   or  ACH^EA,   an  ancient  Grecian 
state,  comprising  a  narrow  district  of  the  north- 

*  Corinth  was  out  of  the  League  from  223  to  196,  and 
Megara  from  223  to  204- 


ern  Peloponnesus.  Accordingtotradition.it  was 
pled  by  a  Pelasgian  tribe,  expelled  by 

the  Ionian*.  S».n  after  the  Dorian  migration, 
the  Achaeans,  driven  from  .\rj<^  and  I 
mon,  settled  in  this  part  of  Greece,  which, 
after  them,  was  called  Achaia  (circ.  B.< 
.Monarchical  institutions  are  said  to  have  ] ire- 
vailed  for  some  time,  and  upon  their  addition 
the  territory  of  Achaia  was  divided  amongst 
twelve  cities.  The  Achaeans  kept  aloof  from 
the  other  "(irecian  state*,  and  formeil  a  league, 
which  met  first  at  Helice,  and  after  this  city 
had  been  swallowed  up  by  the  sea.  B.C.  373,  at 
.•Kgium.  They  fought  with  the  Athenians  ami 
,ainst  I'liili]>  11.  at  the  battle  of 
ChaToiiea  q.v.  ,  Aug.  7.  ..v;8  1!-''--  ;lll(1  were  allied 
witli  tli  Inn.  B.C.  330. 

Four  dti  '  '•"!.•.  'I'ritn-a.    and 

renewed    the    ancient      league    B.C.   280.     (Ste 
A.  II.KA-.  I'lic   whole  of    (Jrecce  re- 

c<-ivc<l  the  name  of   Achaia  when  it  w 
a  Roman  jirovinee,  B.< 

AfllAlA   (Principality),  founded  in  1205  by 
William  of  Champlitte,  who,  with  his  band  «,f 

followers,    subdued    one    half  of    the     I'elopoii- 
nesus  before   1208.     He   left    it    in   ch 

\  illchanlnin,  his  bailly,  who  BUI 
to   the   thr.'ii.;    in    taio.      He  WM   followed  by 
(Jeffrey    II.    in    1218,    and    William     in    1246. 

rh.'ii    b.'cainc    a    ticf    of    the    crown    of 
Naples,  and  after  undergoing  a  variety  of  vicis- 

irrininatcd  under Centurione,  in  1430, 

i  .11  was, 

ral    tinir-     broken     before    that 
date.      Finlay  (  Medi;«  ud  Trehi/ond, 

p.  502)  gives'ihe  f,.llc,wing  clironological  list  of 
\chaia  and  Moix-a  : — 

A.I>. 

1205.  William  of  rhaiiiplitte. 
'(rev  I.   Villebardoin. 

:iiam. 

i  .  lla.  married  thrice. 
'      i.   Thilip.  son  ,,f  Charles  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples 

died 

i.  n/  of  Hamaull,  1291-1297- 
3.    I'hil •;  '-«3U- 

I3II.    Maud  of   Ilninaiilt.  inarri.'d  Ihrice. 

I.  <iuy  11..  I>uke  of  Athen-.,  who  ilied  1308. 

lU  of   DnrsruiKly,  1313-1315. 
3.  Hugh  de  la  Palisse,  1316. 

Claimants  of  the  Principality  : — 
ill-— 1324.  John,  Count  of  (iravina,  pretended  husband 
of   Maud  of  llainault. 

IV..    Duke   of    Burgundy,  under    his 
brother's  will. 
1324—1332.  Philip  of   Tarentum.    as    lord-paramount,   in 

>irt. f    the    forfeiture  of    Muud,    and   by 

pureha-e  from  Knd.-  I  \". 

1332—1364.  Ifobert,  titular  Kmperor  nf  Romania. 
Mary  of  Kourbon.  widow  of  Kobert. 
Louis,  l)uke   of  Bourbon,  her  nephew,  died  in 
1410. 

Suzerains  or  Lords-paramount  of  Achaia  : — 

The    Latin  Emperors  of  Romania,  until  Baldwin  II.  ceded 

his  rights  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples,  in  1267. 
Uo- — 1.2X5.  Charles  of  Anjou. 
1285-1294.   Charles  II. ,  Kin- of  Naples. 
Charles  II.  ceded  his  rights  to  his  son,  Philip  of  Tarefltum, 

who  married  Catherine  ..f  Valois,  titular  empress. 
1294—1332.   Philip  of  Tnrentimi. 
I333_!346.  Catherine     of     Valois,    by    grant    from    her 

husband. 
1346—1364.  Kobert.  titular  emperor  and  reigning  prince  of 

Achaia. 

I-/4-I37.V  I'1"1'!'  HI.,  titular  emperor. 
1373—13^3.  James  de  Baux. 


ACHEEN 


[    13    1 


ACROSTICS 


ACHEEX,  or  ATCHEEX.—  This  kingdom, 
In  Sumatra,  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1509,  and  by  the  English  in  1602.  A  factory 
was  established  here  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1659,  and  a  commercial  treaty  was 
concluded  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  in  1819. 

ACHONRY  (Sligo).— The  seat  of  an  Irish 
bishopric,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  that  coun- 
try, formerly  called  Achad-Chaoin  and  Achad- 
Conair.  The  church  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  Finian,  Bishop  of  Clonard  (See 
M  i.  \  i  n,  Bishopric),  about  530,  on  a  site  granted 
by  the  Lord  of  Leney,  or  Luigny,  by  which 
name  the  bishops  are  known  in  the  earlier 
arc-mints.  St.  Finian's  friend  and  disciple, 
Nuthy,  was  the  first  bishop.  In  1607  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cashel  held  this  see  in  commendam, 
and  it  was  held  with  Killala  from  1623.  Ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  3  &  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  Achonry  and  Killala  were 
united  with  Tuam. 

A< '  1 1  Hi  ».M  ATM '  TELESCOPES.  —  Invented 
by  John  Dollond,  of  London,  in  1 758.  Newton 
himself  despaired  of  constructing  these  glasses. 
The  right  of  priority  is  by  some  said  to  belong 
to  a  man  whom  Humboldt  terms  "the  mys- 
terious Chester  Moore,  of  Moore  Hall,  Essex." 
He  is  supposed  to  have  invented  them  in 
1720. 

ACLEA  (Battle),  now  OCKLEY,  or  OAK- 
PI.  A 1  X,  in  Surrey,  where  Ethel wulph,  King  of 
Wessex,  and  his  son,  Etholbald,  defeated  the 
l>:ui'-*.  in  851. 

METJ3,  or  Sleepless,  sometimes  called 
Watchers. — An  order  of  monks  established  at 
Constantinople  in  the  beginning  of  the  sth 
century.  They  performed  divine  service  day 
and  night  without  intermission,  for  which 
purpose  they  were  divided  into  three  classes, 
each  of  which  took  its  share  of  duty.  They 
were  greatly  venerated,  and  founded  many 
monasteries.  A  Roman  noble,  named  Studius, 
joined  this  fraternity,  and  erected  a  famous 
monastery,  called  after  him,  ynnfiuia.,  and  the 
monks  Studitae.  Afterwards  becoming  favourers 
of  \ostorius,  their  credit  declined. 

ACOUSTICS,  or  the  science  of  sound,  was 
known,  though  imperfectly,  at  a  very  early 
period.  Pythagoras,  B.C.  540,  and  Aristotle, 
B.C.  342,  understood  the  mode  in  which  sound 
was  transmitted  through  the  air.  Kircher 
was  the  first  to  show,  says  Beckmann  (vol.  i. 
p.  94),  that  "  Alexander  the  Great  had  a 
prodigious  large  horn,  with  which  he  could 
assemble  his  army  at  the  distance  of  100 
stadia,  or  eight  Italian  miles."  Roger  Bacon, 
in  the  i3th  century,  was  the  first  who  inves- 
tigated this  science  experimentally.  He  was 
followed  by  Galileo,  in  the  i7th  century,  and 
others.  Newton  completed  his  mathematical 
demonstrations  in  1700.  The  velocity  of  sound 
was  ascertained  by  Cassini  and  Maraldi,  whose 
experiments  were  conducted  during  the  winter 
of  1738  and  1739.  Other  experiments  made  by 
Euler,  and  by  Lagrange,  in  1759,  added  greatly 
to  the  knowledge  of  this  science,  which  was 
placed  on  an  independent  basis  by  Chladni, 
who  published  his  discoveries  on  vibrations 
in  1809.  The  investigations  of  Moll  and  Van 
Beek  into  the  velocity  of  sound  were  made  in 
1823. 


ACRE  (Syria)  or  ST.  JEAN  D'ACRE,  anciently 
Accho,  called  by  the  Greeks  Ptolemais,  a  for- 
tified city  and  seaport,  famous  for  the  sieges  it 
has  sustained,  belonged  originally  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians, and,  after  changing  masters  several 
times,  fell  under  the  Roman  yoke  in  the  time  of 
Claudius.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in 
638;  by  Baldwin  I.,  after  a  siege  of  20  days,  in 
1104 ;  and  by  Saladin  in  1187.  Its  capture  by 
Richard  I.  was  the  great  achievement  of  the 
first  crusade.  The  siege  commenced  in  August, 
1189,  and  terminated  with  the  fall  of  the  city, 
Friday,  July  12,  IIQI  ;  soon  after  which  it 
received  the  name  of  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  and  was 
given  to  the  Knights  Hospitallers  (See  CRU- 
SADES). The  Mamelukes  gained  possession 
May  18,  1291,  and  the  Turks  in  1517.  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  defended  it  against  Napoleon  I., 
and  compelled  him  to  retreat,  a_fter  a  siege  of 
6 1  days,  May  20,  1799.  Ibrahim  Pasha  cap- 
tured it  May  27,  1832  ;  it  was  retaken  by  an 
English  and  Austrian  fleet  Nov.  3,  1840  ;  and  it 
has  since  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Turks. 

ACRE  OF  LAND.— This  measure  existed 
from  a  very  early  period,  although  from  a  pas- 
sage in  the  Battle  Abbey  Register,  compiled 
by  order  of  William  I.  soon  after  the  battle 
of  Hastings,  it  appears  to  have  expressed  no 
uniform  quantity.  It  was  defined  by  the 
"Statutum  de  Admensuratione  Terrarum," 
33  Edw.  I.,  stat.  6  (1305);  which  ordered  the 
acre,  when  10  perches  in  length,  to  be  16  in 
breadth,  and  when  80  perches  in  length  to  be 
2  in  breadth,  the  elementary  acre  being  40 
perches  long  by  4  wide.  By  the  act  for  esta- 
blishing uniformity  of  weights  and  measures, 
5  Geo.  IV.  c.  74  (June  17,  1824),  the  acre  was 
fixed  by  law  at  4,840  square  yards,  but  its 
dimensions  still  vary  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom. 

ACROPOLIS.— The  principal  Grecian  cities 
contained  a  kind  of  stronghold  or  citadel,  si- 
tuated, as  the  term  acropolis  indicates,  on  the 
highest  point.— That  of  Athens,  of  which  the 
ruins  still  remain,  was  the  most  celebrated.  It 
consisted  of  several  public  buildings,  and  was 
encircled  by  a  strong  wall,  said  to  have  been 
built  by  the  Pelasgians,  B.C.  1057.  On  the 
taking  of  Athens  by  the  Venetians,  1687,  the 
roof  of  the  Parthenon,  one  portion  of  the 
Acropolis,  was  demolished  by  a  bomb.  In  the 
Greek  war  of  independence,  the  Acropolis,  cap- 
tured from  the  Turks  June  21,  1822,  was  re- 
taken by  them  May  17,  1827. 

ACROSTICS.  —  These  compositions  were 
known  to  the  Greeks,  although  their  invention 
is  usually  attributed  to  Porphyrius  Optatianus, 
who  was  living  in  328.  Eusebius,  Bishop  of 
Csesarea  (315 — 340)  gives,  in  his  Life  of  Constan- 
tine  I.,  an  illustration  of  an  acrostic,  the  initial 
letters  of  which  form  the  words  "Jesus Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour."  Athanasius 
states  that  in  his  time  (326 — 373)  a  mode  of 
psalmody  was  introduced  called  singing  acros- 
tics, but  the  expression  appears  to  imply  only 
that  the  congregation  joined  their  voices  at 
the  end  of  every  verse  uttered  by  the  priest. 
Acrostics  were  in  much  repute  in  France 
about  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries.  Sir  John 
Davies,  who  died  Dec.  7,  1626,  wrote  26  short 


ACT 


[     14    1 


ACTIUM 


poems,  entitled  "Hymns  to  Astraea,"  each  of 
which  is  an  acrostic  on  the  words  "  Elizabotha 
Regina,"  which  are  regarded  as  the  most  ele- 
gant examples  of  this  species  of  composition. 
Addison  commented  with  playful  severity  on 
the  false  taste  displayed  in  acrostical  verses, 
in  the  Spectator  for  May  9,  1711. 

ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT.— The  death  of  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  (July  29,  1700),  son  and  last 
surviving  child  of  the  Princess  Anno,  after- 
wards queen,  rendered  a  new  settlement  of  the 
crown  necessary,  it  being  unprovided  for  after 
tin:  death  of  William  III.  and  of  Anne.  Ac- 
cordingly, a  measure  was  introduced  during 
-ion  of  1701,  to  supply  matters  of  great 
imi.ort.-mcc,  omitted  in  the  Hill  of  Rights. 
This  .statute  (12  &  13  Will.  III.  C.  2) 
June  12,  provided  that  in  case  of  dufaul  t 
of  William  I  IF.,  and  also  of  the  Princess  Anne 
respectively,  the  crown  should  devolve  upon 
the  next  Protestant  in  succession,  Sophia, 
married  to  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  the 
heirs  of  her  l>ody,  being  Pfcotestentai  It  was 
fin-flier  enacted,  that  the  occupant  of  the 
throne  "shall  join  in  communion  with  the 
Church  of  Fngland  as  by  law  established  ;" 
ihat  if  a  foreigner  succeeded,  the  nation  should 
not  be  required  to  defend  any  foreign  do- 
minions without  the  consent  of  Parliament; 
that  tli-  -hould  not  leave  the  coun- 

try without  permission  of  Parliament;  that 
all  711:1':  'Me  in  the  Privy  Council 

should  lie  transacted  then-,  and  all  resolu- 
tions taken  thereupon  ,-unicd  by  such  of  the 
Privy  Council  as  should  consent  to  them  ;  that 
only  those  born  of  English  parents  should  lie 
eligible  to  a  scat  at  the  Privy  Council,  in  either 
house  of  Parliament,  or  to  hold  any  ofiice,  or 
receive  any  grant  under  the  crown;  that  no 

serving  under,  or  receiving  a  : 
from  the  crown,  should  bo  capable  of  serving 
as  a  member  of  the  I|.1U^-  of  Commons;  that 
the  judges  should  hold  upon  good  behaviour, 
and  not  be  removed  except  upon  the  addn-s 
of  both  houses  of  Parliament  :  and  that  no 
pardon  under  the  great  seal  of  Fngland  should 
be  pleaded  to  an  impeachment  by  the  Com- 
mons. The  provision  against  the  • 
quitting  the  kingdom  withoi;1 
Parliament  was  repealed  by  i  Geo.  I.  stat.  2, 
C.  51  (1715).  The  provision  respecting  mat- 
ters to  be  transacted  in  the  Privy  Council 
was  repealed  by  4  Anne,  c.  8,  s.  24  (1705), 
and  the  general  di.-<|ualitication  of  pensioners 
and  placemen,  having  been  found  inco:. 
was  repealed  by  4  Anne,  c.  8,  a.  25,  which  sta- 
tute was  re-enacted  by  6  Anne,  c.  7  ( 1707  .  at  1  he 
union  between  England  and  Scotland.  Section 
25  of  6  Anne,  c.  7,  decreed  that  the  holders  of 
certain  offices,  therein  specified,  and  of  all  new 
offices  or  places  of  profit  under  the  crown, 
created  at  any  time  since  Oct.  25,  1705,  should 
not  be  allowed  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons ; 
and  section  26  provided  that  any  member  ac- 
cepting any  office  of  profit  from  the  crown 
should  vacate  his  seat,  being  eligible  to  stand 
again.  So  numerous  are  the  special  disc  nulli- 
fications that  they  have  to  be  collected  from 
at  least  116  statutes. 

ACT    OF  SUPREMACY.— By  26  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  i  (1534),  the  king  was  declared  "  the  only  su- 


preme head  in  earth  of  the  Church  of  England," 
and  he  formally  assumed  that  title  Jan.  15, 
1535.  All  beneficed  ecclesiastics,  and  all  lay- 
men holding  office  under  the  crown,  were 
obliged  by  this  act  to  take  the  oath  abjuring 
the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  temporal  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Pope.  By  i  &  2  Phil.  A:  Mary,  c.  8, 
s.  12  (1554),  this  law  was  repealed,  but  it  was 
7-estored  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i  (1559).  The  denial  of  the 
king's  sirpremacy  was  declared  treasonable  by 
i  Kdw.  VI.  c.  12,  s.  7  (1547). 

ACT  OF  T< » L 1  •:  1 1 A  T 1  <  i  X  ( i  Will.  &  Mary,  st.  i, 
c.  1 8),  for  the  relief  from  certain  penalties  of 

rs  from  the  Church  of  Fngland. 
Papists  and  persons  denying  the  Trinity,  was 
May  24,  1689, and  confirmed  by  loAnne, 
0.2(1711).  The  clause  excepting  persons  de- 
nying the  Trinity  was  repealed  by  5 ;  Geo.  III. 
c.  160  (Jtily  21,  1813),  and  Roman  Catholics 
were  relieved  by  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7  (April  13, 
1829). 

I'  UNIFORMITY.—  By  2  &  3  Edw.  VI. 
c.  i  Man.  is,  i  =;.}•)).  i*  W;IS  enacted  that  the  order 
of  divine  worship  contained  in  the  book  drawn 
up  bv  the  commissioners,  "by  the  aid  of  the 
Holy' Ghost.''  should  be  the 'only  one  used 
after  the  next  Whitsunt  i  who  re- 

.   or  who  spoke  or  wrote 
it,  were  fined   for  the  first  or  second  < 
and   rendered   subject    to    forfeiture   of    goods 
and  imprisonment   for  life  for  the  third.     This 
statute  was  confirmed  by  5  <b  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  i 
(1552),  repealed  by   i    Mary,  scss.  2,  C.  2- (1553), 
•  .red  by  i   KHz.  C.  2  (1559).      It  formed 
;  •  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  commonly 
1 1.  c.  4),  which  con- 
tained   stringent    regulations   with    re 
the  use   of  the   P.ook  of  Common  Prayer;  re- 
ceived   the    royal    assent    May   19,    came    into 
i    v.a-   made  perpe- 
-hment  of   the  church  by 

s  Anne,  c.  5(1706),  and  by  the  Act  of  I'nion, 
^  Anne,  c.  7.  A  similar  ad  :  by  the 

Irish  parliament  (17  &  18  Charles  II.  c.  6)  in 
1665. 

ACT  A  inntNA.—  *••  HEWSW 

ACTI  AX  GAM  KSwereinstitutedby  Augustus 
in  commemoration  of  his  victoi-y  over  Antony 
off  Actium,  Sep.  2,  B.C.  31,  and  celebrated 
every  fifth  year.  They  were  ]  >r>  >1  <al  >ly  a  revival 
of  an  ancient  festival,  as  theT'c  was  a  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Actium,  mentioned  by  Tlmcy* . 
=ly)  and  by  Strabo  (vii.),  which  was  enlarged 
iotas. 

A<  I  I  ATIC,  or  ACTIAX  T.RA,  so  called  from 
the  battle  of  Actium,  which  secured  Augustus 
-ion  of  the  Roman  empire.  This  . 'era 
dated  amongst  the  Romans  from  Jan.  i,  B.C. 
50  :  in  Egypt,  where  it  prevailed  till  the  reign 
of  Diocletian,  it  dated  from  Aug.  29,  B.C.  30; 
and  amongst  the  Greeks  of  Antioch,  by  whom 
it  was  used  as  late  as  the  gth  century,  from 
Sep.  i,  B.C.  30. 

A(  T!  N<  >M  ETER.— Literally,  a 
sr,lnr  r(n/f>,   an  instrument   employed  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  intensity  of  the 
heat  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  invented  by 
Sir  John  Herschel  about  the  year  1820. 

ACTIUM  (Sea-fight).— This  decisive  engage- 
ment between  the  fleets  of  Augustus  and  An- 
tony took  place  off  Actium,  a  promontory  in 


ACTON 


ADDA 


Acarnania,  Sep.  2,  B.C.  31.  After  the  battle  had 
lasted  some  time,  Cleopatra  fled  ;  Antony  fol- 
lowed, and  Augustus  obtained  a  complete  vic- 
tory, which  rendered  him  master  of  the  Roman 
world. 

ACTON  BURNEL,  or  SHREWSBURY  (Sta- 
tute of),  sometimes  called  the  Statute  of  Mer- 
chants, was  passed  in  a  parliament  held  by 
Edward  I.  at  Shrewsbury,  Sep.  30,  1283.  It  is 
dated  Oct.  12,  1283,  and  enacted  that  a  debtor's 
chattels  and  devisable  burgages  might  be  sold 
ti  i  ji  iv  his  debts.  This  enactment  was  confirmed, 
am  I  its  provisions  were  enlarged,  by  another 
Statute  (»f  Merchants,  passed  at  Westminster, 
March  25,  1285. 

ACTRESSES.— The  appearance  of  females  on 
the  stage  is  altogether  a  modern  custom,  which 
originated  on  the  continent,  and  was  not  gener- 
ally adopted  iu  this  country  until  the  reign  of 
rharles  II.  Anne  of  Denmark,  wife  of  James 
I.,  Henrietta,  wife  of  Charles  I.,  and  ladies  of 
noble  family,  sometimes  filled  parts  in  the 
in, -is.  |  ues  and  other  dramatic  entertainments  of 
the  time  ;  but  they  were  not  professional  ac- 
tresses. Prynne  denounces  the  attempt  made 
in  1629  to  introduce,  according  to  continental 
custom,  Frenchwomen  at  the  Blackfriars 
theatre.  This  was  the  first  appearance  of  pro- 
fessional females  on  the  English  stage.  They 
were,  however,  foreigners  ;  and  much  differ- 
ence of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the  first  English 
actress.  Mrs.  Colman,  wife  of  Mr.  Edward 
('i)hnan,  appeared  as  lanthe  in  the  "Siege  of 
Rhodes,"  in  1656  ;  and  Mrs.  Mary  Saunderson, 
afterwards  married  to  the  celebrated  Betterton, 
performed  the  same  character  at  the  opening  of 
Betterton's  theatre,  in  April,  1662.  The  last- 
mentioned  was  decidedly  the  first  English  ac- 
tress of  celebrity  that  appeared  on  our  stage. 
Pepys  saw  women  on  tne  stage  for  the  first 
time,  Jaii.  13,  1662.  The  Duke  of  Bolton  mar- 
ried I^ivinia  Fenton,  and  the  eccentric  Earl  of 
Peterborough,  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife, 
married  Lavinia  Robinson,  "the  nightingale." 
Amongst  actresses  who  have,  in  later  times, 
been  ennobled,  may  be  mentioned  Miss  Farren, 
who  became  Countess  of  Derby,  May  8,  1797 ; 
Miss  Mellon,  left  a  widow  by  Mr.  Coutts,  who 
became  Duchess  of  St.  Albans  in  June,  1827 ; 
and  Miss  Stephens,  married  to  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  April  19,  1838. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.— The  fifth  and 
last  of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, composed  by. St.  Luke,  and  inscribed  to 
Theophilus,  is  said  by  the  best  critics  to  have 
been  written  A.  D.  63.  The  apostolic  fathers  in  the 
ist  century,  and  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian  in  the 
2nd,  ascribed  this  book  to  St.  Luke.  This  evi- 
dence is  corroborated  by  that  of  Origen,  Jerome, 
Augustine,  Eusebius,  and  other  ecclesiastical 
writers. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.— Sir  Harris  Nicolas 
declares  "that  the  distinction  between  a 
statute,  act,  and  ordinance  of  parliament  is 
still  involved  in  such  obscurity  that  no  positive 
conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  the  various 
statements  which  have  been  published."  At 
the  present  day,  bills  which  have  passed 
through  both  houses,  and  received  the  royal 
assent,  become  acts  of  parliament.  (See  PAR- 
LIAMENT, STATUTES,  &c.) 


ACTS  OF  SEDERUNT.— Ordinances  made  by 
the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Session  (Scotland), 
by  virtue  of  a  Scottish  act  of  parliament  passed 
in  1540,  frequently  dealt  with  curious  local  and 
fiscal  regulations ;  such  as  fixing  the  price  of 
ale  in  Edinburgh  in  1725  ;  the  sale  of  bread  in 
1736  and  1743  ;  of  butchers'  meat  in  1682,  1717, 
and  1736 ;  and  of  fowls  in  1669.  A  tax  for 
cleaning  the  streets  of  Edinburgh  was  imposed 
in  1687  and  in  1691  ;  and  an  act  relative  to  tho 
cleanliness  of  the  premises  within  the  session- 
house  or  parliament  close,  was  passed  in  1663. 

ACTUARIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND 
IRELAND.— The  Institute  was  established  in 
London  in  1848. 

ACTUARIES  IN  SCOTLAND.— The  Faculty 
was  established  in  Edinburgh  in  1856. 

AC Y  RON.— This  place,  near  Nicomedia,  was 
celebrated  as  the  place  at  which  Constantino  I. 
(the  Great)  expired,  May  22,  337. 

ACZ,  or  ACS  (Battle).— At  this  place  the 
Austrians  and  Russians  retrieved  (July  2,  1849) 
their  reverse  of  the  previous  day  between  Raab 
and  Waitzen,  and,  after  a  hard-fought  battle, 
compelled  Qeorgey  and  tho  Hungarians  to 
retire. 

ADAMITES,  or  ADAMIANS,  termed  by  Bayle 
"a  ridiculous  sect,"  are  said  to  have  arisen 
during  the  2nd  century,  one  Prodicus  being 
their  founder.  In  their  religious  assemblies 
they  appeared  naked,  in  imitation  of  our  first 
parents  in  their  state  of  innocence.  They  made 
a  profession  of  continency,  and  condemned 
marriage,  because  it  was  not  known  in  Paradise, 
of  which  they  reckoned  their  church  an 
emblem,  and  themselves  imitators  of  Adam 
and  Eve.  After  carefully  examining  tho  au- 
thorities, Lelaud  declares  that  no  such  sect 
existed  in  the  early  church.  Evagrius  men- 
tions certain  male  and  female  ascetics  living  in 
Palestine  during  the  sth  century,  who  always 
exposed  their  bodies  to  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  wearing  nothing  but  a  small  girdle. 
Attempts  to  revive  some  of  these  reputed 
practices  of  the  Adamites  have  frequently  been 
made  in  modern  times,  although  it  is  an  error 
to  suppose  that  Tandemus  or  Tanchelin,  who 
committed  various  excesses  at  Antwerp  in  1124, 
and  led  many  persons  astray,  was  an  Adamite. 
This  man,  instead  of  going  naked,  was  richly 
apparelled,  and  fared  most  sumptuously. 
Some  fanatics,  seduced  by  Picard,  a  Fleming, 
created  much  commotion  in  Germany  in  1415. 
Picard  declared  himself  to  be  the  son  of  God, 
and  that  he  was  sent  into  the  world  as  a  new 
Adam,  to  restore  tho  law  of  nature.  Having 
penetrated  into  Bohemia,  this  fanatic  and  his 
followers  were  attacked  and  almost  extermi- 
nated by  Ziska  in  1420.  The  author  of  Cosmo's 
Travels  (in  1669)  says  there  were  many  Adamites 
in  England.  (See  ABRAHAMITES.  ) 

AD  ARE.— This  ancient  town  in  Limerick  is 
celebrated  for  the  ruins  of  a  monastery  founded 
in  1279  by  John,  Earl  of  Kildare.  A  lofty 
square  steeple  is  all  that  remains  of  a  grey 
friary,  founded  in  1465  by  Thomas,  Earl  of 
Kildare. 

ADDA  (Combats).— Pressed  by  the  Russian 
and  Austrian  forces,  Moreau  withdrew  the 
French  and  Italian  army  behind  th«  line  of  this 
river  in  the  spring  of  1 799.  His  antagonists,  after 


ADDIXGTON 


ADMINISTRATIONS 


some  sharp  encounters,  succeeded  in  passing 
the  river,  April  27,  1799. 

ADDIXGTON  ADMIXISTRATION(Geo.  III.) 
—The  arrangements  for  this  ministry  com- 
menced Feb.  10,  1801,  and  were  riot  completed 
until  July  30.  It  was  thus  constituted  :  — 


First  Lord   of   the   Trea- 


Lord  Chancellor  

President  of  Council 

Privy  Seal 


Principal    Secretaries    of 
8tatc    


Admiralty  ...................... 

Board  of  Control  ............ 

Secretary  at  War  ............ 

Ordnance  ..................... 


Lord  KHon. 

Duke  of  Portland. 

Karl  of  AV.-stmor.-land. 

l.i.nU  IVlhaiu  and  Ilolmrt,  and 

Mr.  i;.  B.JeBktaMMi,wbowM 

l.'int      llavvki-liiiry 
Nov.  16,  1803,  and  su< 
t.,  tin-   Karl.i<,m  of  Liverpool 
Dec.  17.  1808. 

Karl  St.  'Vmr-i.t. 

Vi-r.    l.cxvishmil. 

Mr.  (  liarl<-s  Vorke. 
Earl  of  Cliathuin. 


Viscount  Castlereagh  went  to  the  Board  of 
Control  July  6,  1802.  Mr.  Charles  Vorke 
became  (Aug.  17,  1803)  one  of  the  principal 

secretaries  of  state,  in  place  of  Lord  Pelham, 
who  took  the  chancellorship  of  the  Duchy 
nf  Lancaster,  on  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Hawkesbury.  It  was  dissolved  -May  10,  1804. 
(See  Pn  i  \I>MINISTI:ATK>N.) 

ADDI8COMBE  IHM'SK,  mar  Croydon,  once 
the  residence  of  the  Karl  of  I,ivei-]io..l,  was  pur- 
chased, in  1809,  by  the  Ka-d  India  Company, 
and  opened  by  them  in  [8af,  as  a  collegiate 
institution  for  the  reception  of  carets  for  the 
whole  of  their  military  service,  except  the 
cavalry. 

ADDITIONAL     \<  bttement  of  a 

new  constitution  for  Prance  during  the  Hundred 
I'ays,  March  21  —  June  17,  1815,  was  entrusted 
l>y  Napoleon  I.  to  a  commis>ion,  of  which 
Benjamin  Constant  was  president.  The  con- 
stitution embodied  in  the  "  Additional  Act," 
the  work  of  Constant  liegnand  and  - 
d'Angely,  was  published  April  25,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  Assembly  .June  i,  1815.  On 
the  restoration  <»f  Louis  XVIII.,  in  t! 
ordinance  changing  the  mode.-,  and  rules  of 
election,  dated  July  12,  1815,  the  Additional 
Act  of  Napoleon  I.  was  made  the  basis  of  the 
election  laws. 

AMMLKD  I'ARLI.  \MKXTmct  Tuesday,  April 
5,  1614.  The  Coi  1  1  n  ions  refused  to  grant  supplies 
until  grievances  we)  ,  .md  sought  to 

abridge  the  power  of  the  Crown.   James  I.  dis- 
missed them  in  anger,  and  imprisoned  several 
members,  June  7.     Xot  a  single  act  w;. 
during  the  short  session,  and  it  was  therefore 
nicknamed  "  the  Addled  Parliament." 

ADDRKSSKRS.—  (Sir  Ai;iioi;i 

A  I  •  I  :  I  ,A  1  1  )K  Smith  Aust  ralia),  the  capital,  was 
founded  by  settlers  who  arrived  in  the  colony 
July  27,  1836;  but  it  was  not  until  March,  1837, 
that  its  site  was  fixed  and  the  town  lands  were 
surveyed.  In  1845  it  was  made  a  free  port  to 
vessels  of  all  nations.  Port  Adelaide,  one  of 
its  harbours,  is  about  seven  miles  distant  from 
the  town.  Gold  was  discovered  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  an  assay  office  established  at 
Adelaide  in  1852.  Its  bishopric  was  founded  in 
1847,  Dr.  A.  Short  being  the  first  bishop. 

ADELAIDE  ISLAXI)  (Antarctic)  was  disco- 
vered by  Capt.  Biscoe,  Feb.  16,  1832. 


ADELPHI  THEATRE,  in  the  Strand,  London, 
was  built  in  1806.  A  new  facade  was  erected 
in  less  than  three  weeks  in  1840.  The  old  edi- 
fice was  pulled  down,  and  another,  called  the 
Xew  Adelphi  theatre,  erected  on  its  site,  in 
1858. 

A  I  >KNT,  the  Gibraltar  of  the  East,  an  Arabian 
town  and  seaport,  to  the  east  of  the  Straits  of 
Habelmandeb.  Marco  Polo  (b.  iii.  ch.  40)  men- 
tions it. as  a  place  of  importance  in  the  1 3th 
century.  The  Portuguese  sei/ed  it  in  the  i6th 
century,  and  the  Turks  obtained  possession  by 
•y  in  1533.  They  soon  after  erected 
extensive  fortifications,  and  an  aqueduct  eight 
miles  in  length.  It  was,  however,  governed  by 
a  native  prince  in  1708.  It  was  bombarded 
and  taken  Jan.  19,  1839,  by  the  troops  of  the 
Kast  India  Company. 

A I )  I  ( i  !•:  ( Hat  t  [OB).— Near  this  river,  in  Italy, 
the  ancient  Athesis.  the  Cimbri  defeated  the 
Roman  army  under  Quintus  Catulus  B.C.  101. 
Terrible  inundations  occurred  in  1721  and  1724. 
Combats  occurred  here  March  26  and  30,  1799, 
between  the  French  and  the  Aust rian 
The  former  gained  some  advantages  on  the  first 
day,  but  BCOnd,  leaving 

2,000  prisoners  in    the   hands  of  the  Austrians. 
m-li    withdrew   from    the    line    of    the 
\l«ril    i.    and   in    an   attempt    to 
their  position.  April  >.  were  onceniored- 

AliMIMSTHATH'NM.KiiUKAT  IMMTAIX. 

—  llallam  (Kng.  iii.  ch.  15)  states:    "According 

to  tin-  original  constitution  of  our  monarchy, 

had  his  I 'rivy  Council,  composed  of  the 

f  slate,  and  of  such  others  as  he 

should    summon    to    it,    bound    by  an   oath   of 

fidelity  .    by    whom    all   affairs   of 

to    domestic    or    • 
policy,  v.'  '.  foi    the  most  part   in  his 

rmined,    subordin 

his  pleasure,  l,y  the  vote  of  the  major 
part.        It    could    not    happen    but    that     some 
councillors,  more  eminent  than  the  rest,  should 
form    juntos    or    cabals,    for    m. 
private  management,   or  !  .is  more 

confidential    advisers  of    thuir  sovereign;  and 

Cabinet    Council. 

tin^uished  from  the  larger  body,  may  be  found 
as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Hut  the 
resolutions  of  the  crown,  whether  as  to  foreign 
alliances  or  the  issuing  of  proclamations  and 
orders  at  home,  or  any  other  overt  act  of  go- 
vernment, were  not  finally  taken  without  the 
deliberation  and  assent  of  that  body  whom  the 
law  recognized  as  its  sworn  and  notorious 
councillors.  This  was  first  broken  in  upon 

after  the  Restoration Thus  by  degrees 

it  became  usual  for  the  ministry  or  cabinet  to 
obtain  the  king's  final  approbation  of  their 
measures  before  they  were  laid,  for  a  merely 

formal  ratification,  before  the  Council 

During  the  reign  of  William  III.,  this  dis- 
tinction of  the  cabinet  from  the  Privy  Council, 
and  the  exclusion  of  the  latter  from  all  business 
became  more  fully  established."  Thus 
it  was  not  until  after  the  Revolution  that  the 
Cabinet  Council,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Privy  Council,  was  formed.  Monarchs  had, 
indeed,  before  that  time,  been  in  the  habit  of 
seeking  advice  from  particular  members  of  the 
Privy  Council,  and  too  frequently  from  favour- 


ADMINISTRATIVE 


[    17    J 


ADMIRALTY 


ites.  In  the  earlier  days  of  cabinets,  ministers 
were  only  accountable  for  their  own  depart- 
ments, and  did  not  necessarily  retire  when 
their  leaders  or  colleagues  were  dismissed. 
Nor  did  the  minister,  who  was  considered  the 
chief,  always  preside  over  the  Treasury.  The 
office  of  Prime  Minister  is  of  more  recent  date. 
The  practice  for  ministers  presiding  over  par- 
ticular departments  of  the  government  to  form 
themselves  into  what  is  now  termed  an  ad- 
ministration, under  the  control  of  a  chief,  can- 
not be  said  to  have  been  established  until  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  administrations  that  have  held  office 
from  the  commencement  of  her  reign,  each 
ministry  being  more  fully  described  under  its 
title,  to  be  found  in  its  place  in  the  alphabe- 
tical arrangement  :— 


Godolphin  1703 

Hurley 1710 

Shrewsbviry    1714 

Halifax   1714 

Carlisle    17  5 

Walpole  (Jlnt) .... 

Stanhope    

Bonderland    

Walpole  (tecond) . 
Wilmington   .. 

1'elham    

Broad-Bottom  Admi- 


Adnii- 


Korth  1770 

Kookinpham  (tecond)  1783 

Shelburne  1783 

Coalition 1783 

Pitt  (Jlnt) 1783 

Addinpton I8oi 

Pitt  (tecond) 1804 

"  All  the  Talents  "...  1806 

Portland 1807 

Perceval 1809 

Liverpool    1813 

Canning 1837 

1744  I  Goderich 1837 

Wellington    1836 


I7IS 
170 
1718 
1731 
1743 
'743 


1746      Grey 1830 

Melbourne  (Jlrtt) 1834 

1746      Pee\(flnt) 1834 

1754      Melbourne  (tecond)...  1835 

175$     Peel  (tecond) 1841 

j   Kumell  (Jlnt) 1846 

]  >erby  (Jlnt) 1853 

Aberdeen    1853 

I'almerston  (flnt)   ...  1855 

Derby  (tecond) 1858 

Palmerston  (tecond) ..  1859 

Ku.--.-ll  (tecond)    1865 


1757 


Long-Live<l 

ni.-tniti.m    

Broad-Bottom  Admi- 

nistrution  restored. 

Newcastle    

Devonshire    

Newcastle,     and    Pitt, 

afterwards       Lord 

Chatham  (Jlrtt)    ...  . 

Bute 176.5 

Grenville 1763 

Jtockiiifrham  (flnt)...  1765 

Chatham  (tecond)    ...  1766 

Grafton   1767 

ADMINISTRATIVE  REFORM  ASSOCIA- 
TION was  called  into  existence  for  the  assumed 
object  of  insuring  a  better  administration  of 
affairs  in  the  different  government  departments, 
attention  having  been  directed  to  the  subject 
by  the  mismanagement  that  caused  so  many 
sacrifices  of  life  and  property  in  the  Crimea 
during  the  winter  of  1854  and  1855.  Meetings 
were  held  in  the  Guildhall  and  at  the  London 
Tavern,  May  6,  1855,  when  the  association  was 
formed.  A  large  gathering  of  the  Adminis- 
trative Reformers  took  place  at  Drury-lane 
theatre,  June  13.  The  association  did  not, 
however,  flourish,  and  an  attempt  at  its  re- 
organization in  1856  proved  a  failure. 

ADMINISTRATOR.— In  ancient  times,  the 
king  was  entitled  to  seize  the  goods  of  all  per- 
sons who  died  intestate.  This  prerogative  was 
even  granted  as  a  franchise  to  lords  of  manors 
and  others,  and  afterwards  the  Crown  conferred 
this  right  on  the  Church,  when  the  Ordinary 
took  possession  of  the  goods.  The  32nd  article 
of  Magna  Charta  (12 15)  provided  against  abuses 
of  this  prerogative  ;  but  this  article  was  not  in- 
cluded in  the  subsequent  charter  of  Henry  III. 
The  great  abuse  of  this  power  led  to  a  change, 
and  the  Statute  of  Westminster  II.  (13  Edw.  I. 
st.  i.  c.  19),  1285,  enacted  that  the  Ordinary  was 
bound  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  intestate,  as  far 
as  his  goods  extended.  Flagrant  abuses  con- 


tinued,  and  by  31  Edw.  III.,  st.  i.  c.  n  (1357), 
it  was  enacted  that  the  "  Ordinaries  shall  de- 
pute the  next  and  most  lawful  friends  of  the 
dead  person  intestate  to  administer  his  goods." 
Another  statute  (21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5),  in  1529, 
enlarged  the  power  of  the  ecclesiastical  judge, 
who  was  authorized  to  grant  administration 
either  to  the  widow  or  the  next  of  kin,  or  to 
both  of  them,  at  his  discretion.  By  20  &  21 
Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  25,  1857),  which  came  into 
operation  Jan.  i,  1858,  the  whole  of  this  juris- 
diction was  transferred  to  the  "  Court  of  Pro- 
bate," before  a  single  judge,  with  an  appeal  to 
the  House  of  Lords. 

ADMIRAL.— This  title,  which  was  originally 
written  ammiral,  or  amiral,  as  it  still  is  in 
French,  was  imported  into  Europe  during  the 
Crusades,  being  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic 
word  amir,  or  emir.  The  Sicilians  and  the 
Genoese  borrowed  it  from  the  Saracens  about 
the  year  1149.  This  title  is  said  to  have  been 
first  used  in  France  in  1270,  and  in  this  country 
later  in  the  same  century.  Nicolas  (Hist,  of 
the  Royal  Navy,  vol.  i.  p.  390),  says,  "It  will 
have  been  seen  that  at  an  early  period  of  Eng- 
lish history  the  commanders  of  fleets  were 
styled  '  leaders  and  governors,  or  justices,'  or 
'  leaders  and  constables '  of  fleets  ;  and  that  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  until  the  latter 
part  of  that  of  Edward  I.,  their  usual  designa- 
tion was  '  keepers  of  the  sea-coast,'  or  '  captains 
and  keepers  ot  the  sea.'"  In  a  covenant  exe- 
cuted at  Bruges,  March  8,  1297,  Sir  William 
Ley  bourne  was  styled  "  Admiral  of  the  sea  of 
the  King  of  England."  In  the  wardrobe  accounts 
of  Edward  I.  for  the  year  1300,  Gervase  Alard 
is  termed  "  Admiral  of  the  fleet  of  the  Cinque 
Ports  ; "  and  the  first  commission  to  an  admiral 
of  which  there  is  any  record  was  granted  by 
Edward  I.  to  Gervase  Alard,  and  is  dated  Feb. 
4, 1303.  The  "Liber  Munerum  Publicorum  Hi- 
berniae "  contains  an  order  for  the  payment  of 
40*.  to  John  de  Athy  for  expenses  he  had 
incurred,  Dec.  7,  1335,  as  admiral  of  the  king's 
fleet  in  Ireland ;  and  from  the  same  authority 
we  learn  that  Wm.  Spalding  was  created 
admiral  in  Ireland  by  patent  dated  May  26, 
1382.  (See  LORD  HIGH  ADMIRAL.) 

ADMIRAL  OF  THE  FLEET.— Until  1851  this 
honorary  title,  which  gives  increase  of  half-pay, 
but  no  command,  was  conferred  only  upon  one 
officer  at  a  time  ;  but  in  that  year  it  was  borne 
simultaneously  by  Sir  Thomas  Byam  Martin 
and  Sir  George  Cockburn. 

ADMIRAL  OF  THE  RED.— Admirals  take 
rank  and  command  in  the  order  of  their  re- 
spective squadrons,  which  are  distinguished  by 
different-coloured  flags  ;  as  the  red,  the  white, 
and  the  blue  squadrons.  For  nearly  a  century 
after  the  union  between  England  and  Scotland, 
hi  1707,  there  was  no  admiral  of  the  red,  the 
Union  Jack  having  superseded  the  red  flag ;  but 
the  latter  was  resumed  at  the  naval  promotion 
which  took  place  in  1805,  after  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar. 

ADMIRALTY.— The  chief  of  the  board  or 
commission  which  has  supplied  the  place  of  the 
extinct  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral  since  the 
year  1709,  is  styled  the  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty. The  holders  of  this  office,  which 
changes  hands  with  each  change  of  ministry, 


ADMIRALTY 


[    18    ] 


ADULTERY 


will  be  found  under  the  successive  administra- 
tions. (See  HIGH  COURT  OF  ADMIRALTY.) 

ADMIRALTY  HOUSE  (London).— Pennant 
says,  "  The  Admiralty  office  stood  originally  in 
Duke-street,  Westminster;  but,  in  the  reign  of 
King  William,  was  removed  to  the  present 
spot,  to  the  house  then  called  Wallingford,  I 
believe,  from  its  having  been  inhabited  by  the 
Knollys,  viscounts  Wallingford."  From  the 
roof  of  this  building  Archbishop  Usher  took 
a  farewell  view  of  Charles  I.  going  t  - 
tion,  and  swooned  at  the  sight.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Ripley  in  1726,  and  the  screen  was  erected 
by  Adams  in  1776. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS  (Pacific)  were  dis- 
covered by  the  Dutch  in  1616.  Carteret  landed 
on  thorn  in  1767,  and  D'Iv.!  ;M  1793. 

ADMONITION'    TO    TIIK    PARLI  AM  KN  I'.— 
This  treatise,  setting  forth  the  e 
of  the  Puritans  in  somewhat  intemperate  lan- 
guage, was  presenled  t<>  the  House  df  Commons 
in  1572.   It  was  the  joint  production  of  the  m<  >re 
active  Puritans,   and   was  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment by  two    of    then-    number,    Field    and 
Wilcox,  preachers.     For  this  offence  they  were 
committed  to  Newgate,   and   afterwa; 
tencedto  a  year's  imprisonment.    Four 
appeared   in   a  very  short  space  of  t" 
second  admonition  was  drawn  up  by 
Cartwright,  and  both  were  answered  by  Whit- 
gift.     Cartwright  replied,  and  the  co'/ 
raged  for  sonic    time-.      These   bitter   attacks 
noon  the  Established  church  were  suppressed 
by  proclamation,  .June  rx, 

ADol'TIANS,  ,,r  A  l)i>PTK>N  ISTS .  —  The 
name  of  a  sect  which,  in  707,  revive.  1  the 
Oriental  her.  mism  in  a  i: 

In  the  West.  Its  authors  v.  •  lab  pre- 

lates, Elipand,  Archbishop  of  Toledo, and  l-'elix, 
Bishop  of  Urgel.  They  lirmly  maintained  the 
co-equality  of  the  Son  as  to  bil  divine  nature, 
but  asserted  that,  as  to  his  humanity,  Christ 
was  only  the  adopted  son  of  the  Father.  These 
doctrines  were  condemned  at  the  Councils  of 
Isarbonne,  June  27,  791;  of  Friuli  in  791;  at 
the  Diet  and  Council  of  Ratisbon  in  \ 
792;  and  at  the  Council  of  Frankfort  on-the- 
Mainc  in  794.  A  conference,  which  Lusted 
seven  days,  tool:  place  lix  and 

Alcuin  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
7.,.),  when  the  former  made  a  full  recantation. 
The  strange  theory  obtained  many  supporters. 

ADOKNO  and  FREGOSI.— Factions,  called 
by  Hallam  (Miildle  Ages,  i.  ch.  iii.)  "equal  and 
eternal  rivals,"  by  which  Genoa  was  distracted 
during  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries.  They 
belonged  to  the  plebeian  and  commercial  aris- 
tocracy, who  obtained  power  when  the  old 
nobility  were  excluded  from  authority.  The 
Ghibellines  sided  with  the  Adorno,  and  the 
Guelphs  with  the  Fregosi.  One  great  struggle 
between  these  factious  commenced  in  the 
elevation  of  Gabriel  Adorno  to  the  ducal 
throne,  in  1363.  The  Fregosi  put  the  French 
in  possession  of  Genoa  in  1513,  and  in  the 
same  year  (Robertson,  Charles  V.  b.  xi.)  the 
Adonio  again  wrested  Genoa  from  the  Fregosi, 
and  placed  it  under  the  power  of  the  emperor. 

ADRIAN'S  WALL.— (&«  HADRIAN'S  WALL.) 

ADRIANISTS.— The  term  is  applied  to  two 
different  sects.  Theodoric  (1.  i.  c.  4,  p.  193)  is 


the  only  author  who  refers  to  the  first  sect 
of  Adrianists,  who  were  followers  of  Simon 
Magus,  and  arose  about  A.D.  34.  The  d' 
«>f  Adrian  llamstead,  an  Anabaptist  of  the  i6th 
century,  also  bore  this  designation.  He  taught 
first  in  Zealand,  and  afterwards  in  England. 

A  1)111  A  Nl  )  I'LK.—  (£•?  IlADKIANOPLE.) 

ADRIATIC.— Herodotus  (i.  163)  states  that 
this  inland  sea,  named  from  the  once  flourish- 
iscan  city  of  Adda  or  Atria,  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Phocseans,  but  there  is  little 
doubt  that  it  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians  at 
a  much  earlier  period.  The  navigation  of  the 
Adriatic  .  -I  as  very  perilous  by  the 

i'id  Unmans,  and  is  frequently  referred 
to  on  this  account  by  Horace,  B.C.  65  to  B.C.  8. 
(See  ILI.VKI-.  SVKDDING  OF  THE 

ADHIATI. 

A  D I  A  T I  c  | .  —This  people  of  Belgic  Ganl  was 
descended  from  alxmt  6,000  Tentones  and 
Cimbri,  who,  being  left  behind  to  guard  the 
national  property  during  the  invasion  of  Italy 
by  those  tribes,  maintained  their  position  after 
the  defeat  of  their  countrymen  by  Marius,  at 
Ai.v,  it.c.  102.  Julius  C;t!sar  seized  their  strong- 
hold B.C.  57,  killing  4,000  of  the  defend. 
selling  the  remainder,  to  the  number  of  53,000, 
into  captivity. 

ADr'l.TKK  \TloN._Many  laws  inflicting 
penalties  for  the  admixture  of  improper  ingre- 
dients in  art  ides  of  consumption  are  found  in 
the  statute-book.  15y  51  Hen.  III.  st.  vi. 
(1267)  bakers  were  condemned  to  stand  in  tho 
pillory  for  oil".  oa  to  the  assize  of 

•id  brewers  to  stand  in  the  tumbrel,  or 
to  undergo  BOme  other  kind  of  correction.  l!y 
-j  ;  L'liz.  c.  8,  s.  4  (1581),  persons  adul1 

ull    my.xture,"  were 

to  foneti  A  similar  penalty 

tached  to  the  adulteration  of  wax.  By  i  James  I. 
C.   18  (1604),  any  person  having  in  his 
sion    adulterated    hops    was    to    forfeit    them, 
and  any  brewer  using   them   in    brewin 

I    to  forfeit  the    value   of   the  hops  so 
.    IT  i.. •  '.   III.  c.  29(1776),  the   penalty 
for  the  adulteration  line  of  .£5,  or 

six  months'  imprisonment,  other  statutes 
dealing  with  adulteration  in  various  forms 
have  been  passed  during  the  present  century. 
The  Act  6  and  7  Wm.  IV.  c.  37  (1836),  repealed 
former  acts  for  regulating  the  sale  of  bread 
sold  beyond  the  city  of  London  and  10  miles 
of  the  Royal  Exchange.  It  inflicted  a  fine  of 
not  less  than  ^5,  or  more  than  £10,  or  im- 
prisonment not  exceeding  six  months,  for 
mixing  materials  other  than  those  specified  in 
.  in  the  preparation  of  bread.  Hard 
labour  was  added  to  imprisonment  by  14  and 
15  Viet.  c.  100,  s.  29  (Aug.  7,  1851). 

ADULTERY.— The  Jewish  law  inflicted  the 
punishment  of  death  for  this  offence  (Lev.  xx. 
10  ;  Deut.  xxii.  22).  The  Roman  punishment 
was  mutilation.  Augustus,  after  imposing 
heavy  fines  and  forfeitures  on  the  guilty 
parties,  condemned  them  to  long  or  even 
perpetual  exile.  Constantino  I.  made  the 
crime  capital,  but  Justinian  mitigated  this 
severity  of  the  punishment.  The  northern 
nat  i«  ins  punished  the  crime  with  great  severity, 
and  the  ancient  Germans  empowered  the  hus- 
band to  inflict  immediate  punishment.  Among 


ADVENT 


J3GINA 


the  Saxons,  a  pecuniary  fine  was  exacted,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  of  the  female.  In  Alfred's 
reign  it  was  punished  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  hxisband.  Canute  (1016)  adjudged  the  man 
to  exile,  the  woman  to  have  her  nose  and  ears 
cut  off.  Prescott  (Peru,  i.  Introd.  c.  ii.)  says 
it  was  treated  as  a  capital  offence  by  the  Peru- 
vians. The  Japanese,  early  in  the  iyth  cen- 
tury, cut  off  the  heads  of  both  the  offending 
parties,  and  hewed  their  bodies  in  pieces. 
Adultery  was  punished  with  death  by  an  act 
of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  in  1563.  In  the 
time  of  the  Commonwealth  (1650)  adultery  was 
made  a  capital  offence ;  but  the  law  was  re- 
pealed at  the  Restoration.  In  later  times,  re- 
dress was  usually  sought  by  action  in  the  civil 
courts,  until  the  passing  of  the  new  act  20  and 
21  Viet.  c.  85  (Aug.  28,  1857),  by  which  the 
"  Court  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes" 
was  established. 

A  I  >  VENT. — The  period  of  four  weeks  before 
Christmas.  It  is  not  known  when  this  season 
was  first  consecrated  by  the  Church.  The 
earliest  notice  of  Advent  is  found  in  a  homily 
by  Maximus  Taurinensis,  in  450.  At  the 
Council  of  Linda,  in  524,  the  celebration  of 
marriages  between  Advent  and  Christinas  was 
interdicted.  The  Council  of  Macon,  in  581,  or- 
dered a  fast  to  be  observed  from  Advent  to 
Christmas.  Advent  Sunday  is  the  Sunday, 
whether  before  or  after,  which  comes  nearest 
to  St.  Andrew's  day  (Nov.  30). 

ADVENTURE  BAY  (Australasia)  was  dis- 
covered by  Capt.  Furneuux,  in  1773,  and  named 
after  his  ship,  the  Adventure,  belonging  to  Capt. 
Conk's  expedition.  It  was  visited  by  Capt. 
Cook,  on  his  third  voyage,  Jan.  26,  1777,  and 
by  Capt.  Bligh  in  1788  and  1792. 

ADVENTURERS.— (&»  MERCHANT  ADVEN- 
TURERS.) 

ADVERTISEMENTS .  —  The  Parliamentary 
newspaper,  the  Mercurius  Politicus,  for  Jan., 
1652,  contains  an  advertisement,  probably 
the  first  published  in  England.  It  announces 
the  publication  of  the  "Irenodia  Gratulatoria, 
an  Ileroick  Poem,"  printed  by  Thos.  Newcourt, 
in  1652.  This  effusion  is  a  panegyric  on  Crom- 
well's Irish  campaign.  Advertisements  were 
first  subjected  to  a  duty  by  10  Anne,  c.  19 
(1712),  and  it  was  charged  according  to  length. 
Some  change  took  place,  and  the  duty,  which 
had  been  reduced  from  33.  6d.  to  is.  6d.  in 
Great  Britain,  and  from  2«.  €>d.  to  is.  in  Ireland, 
by  3  and  4  Wm.  IV.  c.  23  (June  28,  1833),  was 
entirely  repealed  by  16  and  17  Viet.  c.  63,  s.  5 
(Aug.  4,  1853.) 

ADVERTISING  VANS.— This  ingenious  de- 
vice for  obtaining  publicity  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  so  many  showy  vehicles  into  the 
streets  of  the  metropolis  as  to  constitute  a 
nuisance,  and  the  use  of  these  vans  was  ac- 
cordingly prohibited  from  Oct.  i,  1853,  by  16 
and  17  Viet.  c.  33,  s.  16  (June  28,  1853). 

ADVOCATE.— Foss  states  that  the  first  in- 
stance of  an  advocate  being  regularly  employed 
in  the  king's  affairs  occurs  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  During  14  years,  from  38  to  52 
Hen.  III.  (1253—1267),  between  30  and  40  cases 
in  the  court  are  recorded,  in  which  Lawrence 
del  Brok  pleaded  for  the  king,— "  sequitur 
pro  rege."  (See  BARRISTER.)  An  assembly 


of  German  advocates  was  held  at  Mayence 
in  1844,  and  at  Hamburg  in  1846.  (See  LORD 
ADVOCATE.) 

ADVOCATES'  LIBRARY,  founded  in  Edin- 
burgh, by  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  about  the  year 
1682.  In  1700  great  havoc  was  committed  by  a 
fire.  It  obtained  the  privilege,  under  the  Copy- 
right law  of  1709,  of  receiving  a  copy  of  every 
new  book.  (See  FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES.) 

-33DILES. — Roman  magistrates,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  superintend  public  buildings,  high- 
ways, weights  and  measures,  <fec.  Two  chosen 
from  the  plebeians  were  first  created  B.C.  494. 
Two  patrician  sediles  (curules)  were  added  B.C. 
365 ;  and  Julius  Csesar  established  two  more 
plebeian  sediles  (cereales)  B.C.  45,  whoso  busi- 
ness was  to  look  after  the  supply  of  corn. 

j£DUI,  or  HEDUL— This  Celtic  people,  in- 
habiting part  of  the  modem  territory  of  Bur- 
gundy, after  being  reduced  to  subjection  by 
the  Sequani,  were  restored  to  independence 
by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  58.  They  subsequently 
joined  the  other  Gallic  tribes  in  rebellion  against 
their  benefactor,  by  whom  they  were  subdued 
B.C.  52.  A  second  insurrection,  stirred  up  by 
Julius  Sacrovir,  a  Gaul.  A.D.  21,  was  suppressed 
by  C.  Silius. 

LEGATES  (Sea-fight).— C.  Lutatius  Catulus 
defeated  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  under  Hanno, 
off  these  islands,  near  the  western  extremity 
of  Sicily,  B.C.  241.  This  battle,  in  which  the 
Romans  destroyed  50  ships  and  captured  nearly 
10,000  prisoners  and  70  ships,  put  an  end  to  the 
first  Punic  war. 

jEGINA,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  ^Egina,  with 
chief  town  of  the  same  name,  celebrated  for  its 
naval  supremacy.  Homer  says  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Achsei,  and  afterwards  by  Dorians  from 
Argos.  It  became  subject  to  Pheidon,  tyrant 
of  Argos,  B.C.  748.  JEgina,  was  a  general  empo- 
rium of  commerce,  had  a  factory  in  Egypt  B.C. 
563,  and  carried  on  an  active  trade  in  com  with 
the  countries  in  the  Black  Sea.  The  ^Egine- 
tans  were  considered  the  earliest  navigators  of 
the  jEgean  Sea. 


505.  The  Thebans  apply  for  aid  to  the  JEginetans,  who 
declare  war  against  Athena. 

500.  JKjtina.  mistri-ns  of  the  sea. 

487.  War  between  Athens  and  . 

481.  Termination  of  the  struggle. 

480.  The  jEginetans  send  30  ships  to  Salamis  (q.  v.). 

4-' i.  A  Greek  fleet  assembles  at  . i  i  i :i:i . 

460.  Athens  makes  war  upon  JBgina,  and  defeats  her 
fleet 

459.  .flSgina  is  besieged  by  the  Athenians. 

455.  jEgina  is  captured  by  tho  Athenians,  its  fortifi- 
cations are  destroyed,  and  its  ships  of  war  sur- 
rendered. 

431.  The  Athenians  expel  the  inhabitants,  and  send 
colonists  to  the  island. 

404.  Lysander,  having  collected  some  of  the  former  in- 
habitants, restores  them  to  JKgina. 

388.  Incited  by.Suarta,  the  restored  uEginetans  declare 
war  against  Athens. 

387.  The  war  is  brought  to  a  close  by  the  peace  of 
Antalcidas  (q.v.). 

233.  JEgina.  joins  the  Achaean  League. 

310.  Publius  Sulpicius  having  taken  JEgina,  reduces  the 
inhabitants  to  slavery,  and  bestows  their  territory 
upon  the  .Stolians,  who  sell  it  to  Attalus  I.  of 
Pergamus  for  30  talents. 

A.D. 

181 1.  Several  statues  are  discovered,  which  were  eventually 
removed  to  Munich,  casts  being  preserved  at  tha 
British  Museum. 

c  2 


AERATED 


^GIRA  (Greece).— This  city  of  Achaia,  sup- 
posed by  Pausanias  to  be  identical  with  the 
Hyperesia  of  Homer,  the  name  having  been 
changed  during  the  Ionian  supremacy,  joined 
the  Achaean  League  (q.  v.)  soon  after  the  an- 
nexation of  Cerynea,  B.C.  274,  and  successfully 
resisted  an  attack  by  the  yEtolians,  B.C.  220. 

JEGIUM  (Greece).— This  city  of  Achaia,  men- 
tioned by  Homer,  attained  importance  upon 
the  destruction  of  Helice  ('/.  <•.)  by  earthquake, 
B.C.  373.  The  people  rose  in  insurrection,  B.C. 
275,  and,  having  expelled  the  garrison,  united 
their  city  to  the  Achaean  League  (q.  r.),  of 
which  it  speedily  became  an  important  niei i  ibcr. 
The  site  of  the  ancient  .Kgium  is  occupied  by 
the  modern  town  of  Vostitza,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1819. 

^GOSPOTAMI,  or  the  "Goat  River"  (Sea- 
fight). — In  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  off  the 
mouth  of  which  the  Athenian  fleet  was  sign-illy 
defeated  by  the  Spartans  under  Lysander,  B.C. 
405.  This  victory  led  to  the  capture  of  Athens, 
and  Ilic  termination  of  the  I'elopunnesian  war. 

A:\.\.\  (  AIM  l'«  M.INA.  . I. ;nisalem,  when  re- 
built bythe  Emperor  Hadrian,  A.D.  130,  received 
this  name,  the  former  portion  of  which  was 
derived  from  the  prsenomcn  of  the  emperor, 
while  the  latter  was  used  in  honour  of  .Jupiter 
Capitplinus,  to  whom  a  temple  was  erected  on 
the  site  of  the  Jewish  sanctuary. 

.I'A'Iii.MA.  The  earliest  recorded  ;enigma  is 
that  proposed  by  Samson  (.Judges  xiv.  14),  B.C. 
1136.  The  Queen  of  Sheba  announced  her  in- 
tention of  trying  Solomon  with  hard  quest  i<  .ns 
d  Kings  x.  i),  B.C.  990,  or,  as  the  p. 
rendered  in  the  Vulgate,  "  to  try  him  in  :cnig- 
mas."  The  practice  prevailed  amongst  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  famous  legend  of  (Edipus 


and  the  Sphinx  is  supposed  to  have  been  cur 
rent  amongst  the  Greeks  in  the  i3th  century 
before  Christ.  Athenaeus  states  that  riddles 
•were  proposed  at  the  feasts  of  the  ancients, 
who  rewarded  successful  competitors  with 
choice  viands,  and  compelled  those  who  failed 
in  their  answers  to  drink  salt  and  water.  The 
jiMiigma  was  known  amongst  all  ancient  na- 
tions, and  was  deemed  of  such  importance  by 
Eastern  monarchs  that  they  sent  ambassadors 
to  foreign  courts  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
answers.  During  the  i7th  century  this  custom 
was  very  common  in  France. 

^OLIANor  I5(K()TIA.V  MIGRATION.— The 
Acliieans,  a  people  closely  allied  totlic  .Kolians, 
were,  by  the  great  Dorian  invasion,  driven  from 
the  Peloponnesus,  and,  with  some  of  the  ori- 
ginal inhabitants  of  Boeotia,  induced  to  settle 
in  Asia  Minor.  This  happened  B.C.  1104,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  or  B.C.  884  accord- 
ing to  Newton. 

AEOLIAN"  HARP.— This  musical  instrument 
was  probably  known  at  a  very  early  period,  as 
the  Talmud  states  that  David's  harp  sounded 
when  blown  by  the  north  wind.  The  inven- 
tion is  attributed  to  Kircher,  who  describes  it 
in  his  "Musurgia  Universalis,"  published  in 
1650.  In  1785  a  remarkable  /Eolian  harp  was 
constructed  at  Como,  by  Gattoni.  He  stretched 
15  iron  wires  of  different  dimensions  from  his 
house  to  the  top  of  a  tower  90  feet  high,  and 
about  150  paces  distant,  and  he  is  said  to 


have  used  this  gigantic  instrument  to  foretell 
changes  in  the  weather.  An  invention  for 
playing  the  yEolian  harp  by  means  of  heat  was 
described  in  1857. 

.KOI, | PILE.— This  instrument,  for  demon- 
strating the  convertibility  of  water  inb  • 
was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Vitruvius  about  B.C.  20.  An  ancient  bron/.e 
ajolipile,  representing  a  rough  figure  of  a  man 
kneeling,  .was  found  at  Basingstoke  towards 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  is  described 
and  engraved  in  the  "  Archaeologia  "  for  1800. 

.K<  >  I  I ,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  inhabiting 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Anio.  In  league  with 
the  Volsei.  they  waged  war  against  the  Ro- 
mans (H. c.  471 — 302).  They  invaded  the  terri- 
tory of  the  latins  B.C.  494,  encamped  on  Mount 
Algidus  B.C.  463,  and  captured  many  Latin 
towns.  Cincinnatus  defeated  them  ».c.  458, 
A.  Postumius  Tubcrtius  almost  annihilated 
them  B.C.  428,  and  they  were  driven  from 
Mount  Algidus  B.C.  415.  They  were  finally 
subdued,  and  their  territory  was  annexed  to 
Rome  B.C.  302. 

JERA,  or  ERA,  a  fixed  point  of  time  from 
which  any  number  of  years  is  counted,  tin.; 
•ero,  as  it  were,  of  the  chronological  scale. 
The  following  isa  list  of  tho-,  eraa  which  have 
been  most  in  use,  with  tin-  year  of  the  Chris- 
tian .era  to  which  each  of  them  corresponds  : — 

I.  A.M..  itntiii  .Mini  /i.  "in  tin-  year  nf  tlio  world." 
Thi-  JIT.I,  tli'-  date  nf  tin-  \\ oriel's  creation,  ac- 
cording tn  tin-  reckoning  of  CofWtenttaO|ll4L 
which  was  used  in  Kussia  till  tin-  beginning  of 
tin-  njtli  century,  mid  is  Mill  employed  by  the  B.C. 
lit.-.-k  rhim-li.  'c..|iiiiicnces  S.-p.  i  ..." '. 5508 


'1  hr  year    of 


world  an  reckoned  ut 


Antioch  mint  l.y  the  Clitirrh  of  Alexandria 
sin.  ii  it  dUenrdfd  10  years 

from  its  pr--\  ion- reckoning!.  OOmmenOM  Mp.  I     549» 

3.  The  year  of    tin-   «orld    is    commonly 

assumed  by  rhronologists  to  ciMiimence    4004 

4.  The  year  of  the  world,  according  to  the 

3761 

5.  The  Ciiliyuga,  the  last  of  iti,-  f,>ur  yugas  or  great 

I-  ..f   time  reckoned  hv  the  Hindus.  "The 
tir-t     tlin-e  are    purely   mythological ;     the  last 

commences  3102 

f>.  The  I  ilymplads  coniiiience  .Inly  I  776 

-.   A.  I '.i'..   iiiuirt   urliit  rimilitir.    "in  the  year  from 
the    foundation    of     the     eity,"    i.  r.    of    Homo, 
nhieh  i-vent  is  placed  by  Viirro  in  tin-  >i-ar.. 
By  Cuto  the  Kl'ler  in  the  year  754 

8.  The    eera    of    Vieramadilya,     in    V-oininon    urc 

throughout  Mind.xtnn 57 

9.  Tlu>  Spanish  a;ra,  that  of  the  conquest  of   Spain 

liy  Augustus.  It  \viis  employed  in  the  IVnin- 
siila.  the  south  of  Frnnce,  and  Africa,  and  was 
in  use  in  some  provinces  until  tin-  middle  of  the 
15th  century.  It  commences  .Ian.  I 38 

10.  The  JEra.  of  Martyr*,  or  of   Hiodetian.     Much 

ii-e<l  liy  the  early  Christians,  and  still  employed     A.D. 
in  the  churches  of  the  I.a-T.  commences  Aug.  29       384 

11.  A.M.,    anno   Heffirte.     The   Hegira,  or  flight   of 

Mohammed  to  Medina:  the  »ra  used  by  all 
Mohammedans,  commences  July  if)  '. 623 

12.  A.I>.,  anno  Domini,  "in  the  year  of  our  Lord." 

The  Christian  aera  is  the  date  of  the  birth  of 
Christ. 

A  KK.VTED  WATERS.— Venel  pointed  out  the 
existence  of  fixed  air  in  the  waters  of  Seltzer, 
Spa,  and  Pyrmont,  in  1755,  and  Lane  taught 
the  art  of  imitating  chalybeate  sprii 
1769.  Dr.  Priestley's  directions  for  impreg- 
nating water  with  fixed  air  were  published  in 
1772.  Henry  Thompson,  of  Tottenham,  pa- 
tented an  invention  for  impregnating  mineral 
waters  with  one  or  more  aeriform  fluids,  Oct. 


AERIANS 


-ETNA 


30,  1807.  An  improved  apparatus  was  intro- 
duced by  F.  C.  Bakewell  in  1852,  and  C.  Searle 
patented  a  new  description  of  aerated  water 
May  24,  1838.  Baker  introduced  further  im- 
provements Nov.  ii,  1847.  F.  M.  Lanoa,  of 
Paris,  patented  a  process  for  filling  bottles 
with  such  liquids,  Nov.  3,  1851 ;  and  T.  Masters 
introduced  an  invention  for  a  similar  purpose, 
Dec.  ii,  1851. 

AERIANS.— A  branch  of  the  Arians,  fol- 
lowers of  Ae'rius,  a  presbyter  and  monk,  native 
of  Pontus.  This  sect  arose  342,  and  spread  ra- 
pidly through  Cappadocia,  Armenia,  and  Pon- 
tus. Ae'rius,  disappointed  at  not  obtaining 
the  bishopric  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  main- 
tained that  there  was  no  difference  between 
bishops  and  presbyters.  He  disapproved  of 
prayers  for  the  dead,  stated  fasts,  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter,  and  attempted  to  restore  reli- 
gion to  its  primitive  simplicity.  Exposed  to 
persecution,  his  followers  assembled  in  woods 
and  caves.  The  sect  was  still  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  St.  Augustine. 

AEROLITES.— Livy  states  that  a  shower  of 
stones  fell  about  B.C.  654,  on  the  Alban  Mount, 
near  Rome.  Plutarch  mentions  one,  recorded 
in  the  Parian  Chronicle,  that  fell  at  ^Egospo- 
tami,  B.C.  467.  In  modern  times  a  stone, 
weighing  2  cwt.,  fell  at  Ensisheim,  in  Alsace, 
Nov.  17,  1492.  A  shower  of  stones  fell  near 
Benares,  Dec.  19,  1798.  A  similar  occurrence 
took  place  in  Normandy,  some  of  the  stones 
weighing  16  or  17  lb.,  April  26,  1803 ;  and  near 
Bonn  several  fell  July  10,  1816,  one  of  them 
weighing  nearly  100  lb.  The  list  might  be  ex- 
tended almost  indefinitely. 

AERONAUTICS.— Archytas,  of  Tarentum, 
who  flourished  about  B.C.  400,  constructed  the 
figure  of  a  dove  in  wood,  which  was  enabled 
by  internal  machinery  to  soar  into  the  air; 
and  Strabo  (B.C.  60  to  A.D.  21)  states  that  the 
Scythian  tribe  the  Capnobatse  raised  them- 
selves above  the  earth  by  means  of  smoke. 
Friar  Bacon  (1270)  affirmed  the  existence  of  a 
flying  machine ;  and  the  Jesuit  Francis  Lana,  in 
1670,  described  a  machine,  of  his  own  invention, 
to  be  raised  by  metal  balls  exhausted  of  the 
air.  Wilkins,  Bishop  of  Chester,  in  his  "  Dis- 
covery of  a  New  World,"  published  in  1638, 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  it  is  possible  to  con- 
struct a  flying  machine  or  an  aerial  carriage,  to 
be  propelled  by  the  air  acting  on  sails  similar 
to  those  of  a  windmill,  to  make  a  voyage  to 
the  moon.  The  aerial  machine  of  Mr.  Henson, 
patented  in  1842,  and  the  Archedon,  or  flying 
chariot,  introduced  by  Lord  Carhngford  in 
1857, are  among  the  most  noteworthy  of  modern 
attempts  to  solve  the  problem  of  aerial  naviga- 
tion. The  "  Aeronautical  Society"  of  Great  Bri- 
tain was  established  Jan.  12, 1866.  (-See  BALLOON). 

AEROSTATION.  —  (See  AERONAUTICS  and 
BALLOONS.) 

jES  UXORIUM.— A  tax  paid  by  unmarried 
men  at  the  census  or  review  of  the  people  of 
Rome.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  imposed 
B.C.  403. 

AETH.—  (See  AATH.) 

^ETHIOPIA.—  (See  ETHIOPIA.) 

AETIANS.  —  This  heretical  branch  of  the 
Arians  was  founded  by  Aetius,  a  native  of 


Antioch,  surnamed  from  his  doctrines  the 
Atheist.  Left  fatherless  in  early  childhood,  he 
became  successively  a  slave  to  a  vine-dresser,  a 
travelling  tinker,  and  a  student  of  medicine. 
In  331  he  studied  theology  under  Paulinus  II., 
the  Arian  bishop  of  his  native  town.  Being 
compelled  by  public  odium  to  remove  from 
Antioch,  he  found  refuge  in  Cilicia,  but,  after 
various  wanderings,  he  was  permitted  to  return 
in  348,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  350.  In  351 
he  first  manifested  his  dissent  from  the  ordi- 
nary dogmas  of  Anus,  in  a  dispute  with  Basil, 
the  Arian  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and  in  354  he  was 
again  compelled  to  quit  Antioch,  where  he  had 
endangered  his  safety  by  taking  part  in  the 
murder  of  the  Oriental  prsefect  Domitian.  His 
doctrines  were  condemned  at  the  Council  of 
Seleucia,  Sep.  27,  359,  and  he  was  banished  to 
Amblada,  in  Pisidia,  where  he  remained  until 
the  death  of  Constantius,  in  361,  when  he  was 
recalled  by  Julian.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
ordained  bishop  at  Constantinople,  where  he 
remained  for  the  most  part  till  his  death  in 
366.  Aetius  taught  that  the  Saviour  possessed 
a  mere  creaturely  nature,  essentially  inferior  to 
that  of  the  Father.  He  also  maintained  that 
faith  without  works  is  sufficient  to  salvation, 
and  that  no  sin,  however  grievous,  can  be  im- 
puted to  the  faithful.  The  Ae'tians  are  also 
called  Anomaeans  and  Eunomians. 

-ETNA,  MOUNT  {Sicily).— Thucydides  men- 
tions an  eruption  of  this  volcano  B.C.  475,  and 
states  that  there  had  been  one  previously,  of 
which  he  does  not  give  the  date.  He  also  refers 
to  a  third,  which  took  place  B.C.  425,  and  is 
spoken  of  by  ^Eschylus  and  Pindar.  The  next 
of  importance,  which  occurred  B.C.  396,  arrested 
the  march  of  the  Carthaginian  army  from  Mes- 
sina to  Syracuse.  ^Etna  burst  forth  with  extra- 
ordinary activity  B.C.  140,  B.C.  135,  B.C.  126,  and 
B.C.  121,  destroying  on  the  last  occasion  great 
part  of  the  city  of  Catania.  The  volcano  was 
again  active  B.C.  49,  B.C.  44,  B.C.  38,  and  B.C.  32. 
During  the  Roman  empire  only  two  eruptions 
are  recorded,  in  A.D.  70  and  251.  Another  took 
place  in  812,  and  again  Feb.  4,  1169,  when  Cata- 
nia was  again  overwhelmed  and  15,000  lives 
destroyed.  Subsequent  eruptions  occurred  in 
1284;  June  28,  1329;  in  1333;  Nov.  9,  1408; 
in  1445  ;  1446;  in  Sep.,  1447  ;  in  March,  1535  ; 
in  1566;  1578;  in  July,  1603;  1607;  in  Feb., 
1610 ;  July  2,  1614  ;  in  1619 ;  1624  ;  Feb.  22, 
1635  :  in  Nov.,  1645 ;  and  in  1654.  The  city  of  Ca- 
tania (q.  v.)  was  a  third  time  destroyed,  March  8, 
1669,  when  the  lava  formed  a  promontory  in 
the  sea,  which  serves  as  a  natural  breakwater. 
Eruptions  occurred  in  Dec.,  1682  ;  1688  ;  March 
14,  1689;  March  to  Dec.,  1694,  on  which  occa- 
sion only  ashes  were  thrown  up;  March  8, 
1702  ;  in  Nov.,  1723  ;  in  Oct.,  1735 ;  and  in 
Sep.,  1747.  Torrents  of  hot  water  were  poured 
forth  March  2,  1755.  Ordinary  eruptions  re- 
commenced in  1759,  and  continued  Juno  19, 
1763;  April  2,  1766;  May  18,  1780;  April  24, 
1781  ;  July  28,  1787  ;  in  March,  1792  ;  in  June, 
1798;  in  June,  1799;  Feb.  27,  1800;  1802; 
March  27,  1809  ;  Oct.  28,  1811 ;  May  29,  1819  ; 
and  May  20,  1830.  The  volcano  resumed  acti- 
vity Feb.  17,  and  July  13,  1831,  when  a  new 
island  appeared  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
coast.  Another  eruption,  by  which  the  town 


JETOLIA 


AFFINITY 


4<>  sh 
Troja 


of  Bronte  was  destroyed,  commenced  Oct.  31, 
1832,  one  of  less  violence,  in  Dec.,  1842,  and 
another  broke  out  Aug.  20,  1852,  and  continued 
for  several  weeks,  but  without  resulting  in 
any  serious  injuries.  The  Rev.  J.  F.  .Hardy 
ascended  Mount  JEtna,  May  i,  1*858.  A  slight 
shock  of  an  earthquake  occurred  Dec.  31,  1864, 
and  an  eruption  broke  out  during  a  tnunder- 
storm  in  the  night  of  Jan.  31,  1865,  and  con- 
tinued for  several  months. 

^TOLIA  (Greece).—"  Renowned  as  are  the 
names  of  their  earliest  heroes,"  says  Ileeren, 
"jEtolus,  Peneus,  Meleager,  Diomede,  the  na- 
tion has  no  place  in  the  history  of  the  flourish- 
ing times  of  Greece.  Nor  did  they  acquire  any 
celebrity  until  the  Macedo- Roman  period, 
when  the  various  insignificant  tribes  of  which 
they  were  composed  gathered  themselves 
together  and  chose  one  common  leader,  for  the 
purj  lose  of  carrying  on  a  war  with  the 
Ach:eans."  The  .flStolians  are  said  to  have  sent 

i  si  lips,  under  the  command  of  Thoas,  to  the 
jan  war;    but    from  this  period,  until  the 
formation   of    their  league,   they  are  seldom 
noticed.     The  .Ktoliaiis  are  said  to  have  taken 
1104. 

jETOLIAN  LEAGUE,  compos 
stead  of  cities,  was  an  imitation  • 

It      origin  is  involved   in   obscurity, 
though  I  i  hat  it  was  formed  B.C.  914. 

It  is  known  to  have  existed  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  if  not  in  that  of  his 
father,  Philip  Jl.  The  great  council  of  the 
nation,  called  the  I'ani'-tolicon,  met  every 
autumn  at  Thermum  ;  and  there  was  another 
deliberative  body,  called  the  Apocleti,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  l>ceu  a  kind  of  permanent 
committee. 

B.C. 

323.  The   -flStolinn    Tx-apne  joins  the    Greek    confederacy 

•    Maccdou  in  Hi,'  l.amian  \\ar. 

3-U,  Aujr.  7.  Tin'  Creeks  lire  defeated  nt  Cranium,  and 
tin-  Creek  confi  deniev  in  ili— xihi-il.  CrateniH  nnd 
Antipater  invmli'  .l'.t<>iia,  and  afti;r  some'  success  are 
compelled  t<>  withdraw. 

331.  Tin-  A, •arnanians,  who  hud  invaded  ^Elolia,  are  ex- 

]>l'llrd. 

l.lolia. 

In    tlio    sfrnp;rli-    nirainst 
lirciinus    ami    Ih,'    Cauls.   \\ho    arc   expelled  from 

Zip.  The  Social  \\nrliclucciithcjEtoliauandtheAchaEan 

Leagues  commences. 

219.  Philip  V.  supports  the  Adi.'eans  and  invad 

JIS.   I'hilip  V.  surprises   ThcTiiiinn.  sets   fire   to  the   sacred 

building  and  the  spoil  he  could  n»t  carry  n\\  ay. 
317.  The  treaty  of  Naupiictus  terminates  the  Social  war. 
4,1.  i  iftViiMve  and  defensive  alii. nice  between  Home  and 

the  .Ktolian  League. 
305.  I'liilip  V.  invades  .l-'.tolia,  sacks  Thermum  a  second 

time,    and    the  .Kt<  .lian.s,    de.-i.Ttcd   liy    the    Koinaiis. 

make  peace  \\itli  him. 

200.  The  JKtolian  I.eapie  ,lc,-larcs  wnr  npainst  1'hilip  V. 
197.  The  Uoimmsaiid  vK'olinns  defeat  I'hUij)  V.   at   the 

battle  of  Cynoxvphal.-e. 
196.  General  peace. 
194.  The  .Ktolian  Len friu-  joins  Aiitiochns  in  a  war  against 

Borne. 
191.  After  the  defeat  of  Antiochus   at   Thermopylae,  the 

.cKtolians  sue  for  pcaci'  and  obtain  a  truce. 
189.  The  -cV.tolians  make  a  luimiliaiin-  peace  with  Rome. 
167.  Ifce-fitoBn  League  i-  dissolved. 

AFFG1IAX1STAX  (Asia).— An  extensive 
kingdom,  which,  as  part  of  the  old  Persian 
empire,  passed  under  the  yoke  of  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great)  B.C.  330.  Seleucus  Nicator  annexed 


it  (B.C.  305)  to  his  Syrian  empire,  with  which  it 
remained  incorporated  till  it  recovered  its  in- 
dependence, B.C.  255.  It  was  conquered  suc- 
cessively by  the  Scythians,  Persians,  and 
Saracens,  falling  to  a  Tartar  dynasty  A.D.  997. 
Zingis  Khan  and  Tamerlane  subdued  it  ; 
Baboor,  or  Baber,  the  fifth  in  descent  from  the 
last-mentioned,  established  the  great  Mongol 
empire,  of  which  Delhi  was  the  capital,  1525. 
After  his  .death,  portions  of  Affgh;uiistan  fell 
to  Persia  and  Hindostan,  whilst  many  AlTghan 
tribes  remained  independent.  Nadir  Shah 
once  more  brought  the  whole  country  into  sub- 
jection to  Persia,  in  1737,  and  after  his  death, 
in  1747,  Ahmed  Khan  united  all  the  AlTghan 
.Mil  founded  the  present  kingdom  of 
Afghanistan.  Various  revolutions  have  since 
occurred.  The  Shah  Dost  Mohammed  seized 
the  town  of  Iiii.it.  May  26,  1863,  and  died 
May  29,  after  nominating  his  son  Shir-Ali- 

r.      >'"  Am;  HAN   \ 

AI'RJIiAN  VYAU.  — During  the  revolution  in 
Afghanistan,  Kngland  declared  in  favour  of 
Shah  Shooja,  and  on  the  refusal  of  Dost  Mo- 
hammed Khan  to  submit,  Lord  Auckland  de- 
clared war,  Oct.  i,  1838.  The  Anglo  Indian 
army  quitted  Shirkapore  early  in  March,  1839, 
took  possession  of  Kandahar  April  20,  and 
Shah  Shooja  was  crowned  there  May  8.  (ihuz- 
nee  was  captured  July  23,  and  ('abul  A 
Part  of  the  army  remained  to  support  shah 
Shooja.  Dost  Mohammed  Khan  himself  sur- 
rendered Nov.  4,  1840.  A  revolt  against  the 
Kn-lish  broke  out  at  ( 'abul  Nov.  2,  1841,  when 
sir  A.  1  fumes  and  several  officers  and  soldiers 
lied.  Sir  \V.  II.  Mc.Naghi- 

Akbar    Khan,    son    of     Dost     Mohanm, 
Christmas  day  in  the  same  year.     The  remain- 
der of  the  force  stationed  in  this  country  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Affghan  chiefs  tor  its 
immediate    evacuation.     The   order  fo: 
ture  was  given  Jan.  5,  1842;  but  such  was  the 
on  the   occasion,   and  the 

fury  with  which,  in  spite  of  promises  of  safe 
conduct,  they  were  assailed,  that  only  three 
natives  and  one  Kuropcan,  out  of  an  army  of 
5,000  men  and  a  large  number  of  camp  fol- 
lowers, including  women  and  children,  i 
-lellalabad.  Lady  Sale,  a?id  some  Kn-lish 
ladies  who  had  surrendered  to  Akbar  Khan, 
were  afterwards  restored.  Jellalabad,  b. 
by  Akbar  Khan  Jan.  18,  1842,  was  success- 
fully defended  by  General  Sale.  General  Pol- 
lock came  to  his  aid  April  5;  General  Xott 
recovered  Ghuznee  Sep.  9 ;  ( 'abul  was  part  ially 
destroyed  Oct.  9;  and,  having  accomplished 
the  objects  in  view,  the  British  forces  evacu- 
ated the  country  in  October,  1842. 

A I-TIMTY.— In  the  book  of  Leviticus  (chap, 
xviii.)  certain  regulations  are  laid  down  re- 
specting unlawful  marriages ;  and  most  ancient 
nations  legislated  on  this  subject.  An  act 
passed  in  1534  (25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  22)decreeu  that 
none  should  many  within  the  Levitical  de- 
grees, and  Archbishop  Parker  drew  up  a 
"Table  of  kindred  and  affinity,  wherein  who- 
soever are  related  are  forbidden  in  Scripture 
and  our  laws  to  marry  together."  This  he 
ordered  to  be  printed  and  set  up  in  the 
churches.  The  degrees  of  affinity  or  relation- 


AFFIRMATION 


[    23    1 


AFRICA 


ship  by  marriage  within  which  persons  are 
forbidden  to  marry,  were  fixed  by  the  Consti- 
tutions and  Canons  Ecclesiastical,  made  in 
1603,  during  the  reign  of  James  I.  Marriages 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  could  only  be 
annulled  by  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  and  in 
case  a  decree  did  not  issue  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  parents,  the  offspring  was  considered 
legitimate ;  but  by  the  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  54 
(Aug.  31,  1835),  all  such  marriages  celebrated 
after  the  passing  of  that  act  were  declared  to 
be  absolutely  null  and  void.  This  act  did  not 
extend  to  Scotland. 

AFFIRMATION.— The  solemn  affirmation  of 
Quakers  in  a  court  of  justice  was  accepted 
instead  of  an  oath  by  7  <fc  8  Will.  III.  c.  34 
(1696).  This  statute  was  extended  by  8  Geo.  I. 
c.  6  (1722),  and  by  22  Geo.  II.  c.  46,  s.  36  (1749) ; 
but  a  clause  was  inserted,  prohibiting  Quakers 
from  giving  evidence  in  this  manner  in  crimi- 
nal cases.  This  exception  was,  however,  re- 
moved by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  32  (June  27,  1828).  A 
similar  privilege  was  granted  to  Separatists, 
and  by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  10,  1838),  to  any 
person  who  shall  have  been  a  Quaker  or  a 
Moravian. 

AFRICA.— The  ancient  Greeks  applied  the 
term  Libya  (q.  v.)to  the  portion  of  this  quarter 
of  the  globe  known  to  them,  and  the  Romans 
called  their  first  colony  in  this  continent,  con- 
sist ing  of  Carthage  and  the  adjoining  district, 
Africa.  The  name  of  the  Roman  colony  was 
afterwards  applied  to  the  entire  continent.  The 
Ruuiiins  obtained  possession  of  Carthago  B.C. 
146.  Other  portions  were  speedily  added,  until 
the  number  of  provinces  reached  five.  The 
Africans  revolted  A.D.  296,  were  subdued  by 
Diocletian  ;  rebelled  again  in  372,  and  Theodo- 
sius  restored  the  Roman  authority  in  373.  Gen- 
seric,  King  of  the  Vandals,  landed  in  Africa  in 
May,  429,  and  had  overrun  a  considerable  part 
by  the  year  439.  Belisarius  wrested  Africa 
from  the  Vandals  in  534.  It  revolted  again  in 
535,  and,  after  a  series  of  struggles,  was  again 
reduced  to  subjection.  The  Saracens  invaded 
it  in  643,  and  by  the  year  709  had  completed 
its  conquest.  The  Arabs  and  the  Normans  arc 
said  to  have  visited  the  W.  of  Africa  in  early 
times,  and  the  French  claim  for  some  Dieppe 
mariners  in  1364  the  priority  of  discovery  in 
this  direction.  It  has,  however,  been  proved 
that  the  French  had  no  commercial  relations 
with  Africa  before  1664,  and  no  commercial 
treaty  with  any  African  ruler  previous  to  1785. 
The  Portuguese,  in  the  isth  century,  were  the 
first  to  obtain  more  definite  information  respect- 
ing the  form  and  dimensions  of  Africa.  They 
ascertained  the  correctness  of  the  assertion  of 
Herodotus,  that  it  was,  except  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  surrounded  by  water.  They  were 
followed  by  the  English,  the  French,  the 
Dutch,  and  other  nations.  During  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  i$ih  century,  several  efforts 
were  made  to  obtain  further  knowledge  of  this 
vast  continent,  but  nothing  important  was 
accomplished  until  1444,  when  a  number  of 
individuals  at  Lagos  formed  themselves  into  a 
company  for  the  prosecution  of  African  dis- 
covery and  colonization.  (See  ABYSSINIA, 
EGYPT,  ETHIOPIA,  and  various  settlements  in 
Africa.) 


A.D. 

1330-4.  A  French  ship  is  driven  by  tempest  amongst  the 
Canary  Islands. 

1344.  The  Count  of  Clermont  receives  from  Clement  VI., 
at  Avignon,  investiture  of  the  crown  of  the  Canary 
Islands.  He  does  not,  however,  take  possession. 

1403.  Bethencourt's  expedition  sails  to  the  Canary  Isles. 

1405.  Bethencourt  quits  the  colony. 

1415.  King  John  I.  of  Portugal  takes  Ceuta,  and  bestows  it 
upon  Ills  son  Prince  Henry. 

1418.  The  Portuguese  navigators,  Zarco  and  Tristam  Vaz, 

double  Cape  Bojador,  and  discover  Porto  Santo. 

1419.  Madeira  is  discovered  by  Ziirco  and  Tristam  Vaz. 

1439.  Gilianez  doubles  Cape  Bojador,   and  explores   the 

coast  beyond. 

1440.  Gonzalvez  reaches  Cape  Blanco. 

1441.  Martin  V.  grants  to  the  Portuguese  crown  all  lands 

that  it  shall  discover  from  Cape  Bojador  to  the 
Indies. 

1442.  The  trade  in  gold  dust  Is  commenced. 

1443.  Tristam  doubles  Cape  Blanco.    Ten  slaves  brought 

to  Seville  by  Gonzalvez  were  the  first  that  ap- 
peared in  Europe.  The  Portuguese  form  an  Asso- 
ciation for  carrying  on  trade  in  gold  and  In  slaves. 

1444.  Association  for  the  prosecution  of  African  discovery 

la  fonned  at  Lagos. 

1445.  Senegal  is  discovered  by  Dyaz  or  Dinis  Fernandez, 

who  sails  as  far  as  Cape  Verde. 

1447.  Langarote  explores  the  coast   as   far  as  the  river 

Gambia. 

1448.  The  Portuguese  take  possession  of  the  Azores. 

1449.  Noll  discovers  the  Cape  Verde   Islands.    This  dis- 

covery is  said,  according  to  different  accounts,  to 
have  been  made  in  1450,  1460,  and  1462. 

1450.  About   this    tune    Arguim,    the    first    Portuguese 

establishment  on  the  African  coast,  was  founded. 
1454.  A  trade  in  slave*  is  carried  on  at  Arguim. 
1450.  Ca  da  Mosto,  a  Genoese,  lands  on  the  Cape  Verde 

Islands  and  visits  the  river  Gambia. 
1463.  Pedro  de  Cintra  discovers  Hierra  Leone. 
1469.  Fernando  Gomez  obtains  a  monopoly  of   the  gold 

trade  to  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
1471.  The  Gold  Coast  is    discovered  by   Bantarem   and 

Escobar. 
1481.  £1  Mina  fort  is  erected  by  the  Portuguese  on  the 

coast  of  Ashantee. 
1484.  Diego  Cam  discovers  the  river  Congo. 

1486.  Covilham  goes  from  Fez  to  Arabia,  and  thence  to 

India. 

1487.  Bartholomew  Diaz    discovers   the    Cape  of    Good 

Hope,  which  he  names  Cape  Stormy. 
1490.  Portuguese  missionarien  penetrate  to  Congo. 
1497,  Nov.   19.    Vasco  de    (iiiina    dc.ubles  the    Cape    of 

Good  Hope,  and  explores  the  coast  beyond  it.    He 

touches  at  Mozambique,  &c. 

1504.  Vasco  de  Gama,  with  a  fleet  of  30  ships,  sails  for 

Quiloa,  and  compels  its  king  to  pay  tribute  to 
Portugal. 

1505.  Almeda  takes  Quiloa  and  Mombaz.    The  King  of 

Spain,  in  a  letter  dated  Sep.  15,  promises  to  bend 
Ovando  100  negro  slaves. 

1506.  The  Portuguese  explore  Madagascar. 

1508.  The  Spaniards  Import  negroes  into  Uispaniola  from 

Guinea. 
1526.  Some  merchants  of   Bristol  trade   to  the  Canary 

Islands. 

1530.  An  English  ship  sails  to  Guinea. 
1562.  Three  English  ships  are  sent  to  Guinea. 
1569.  A  Portuguese  expedition  reaches  Zimbao,  and  the 

gold-mines  of  Manica. 
1573.  A  treaty  is  made  between  England  and  Portugal  for 

the  better  regulation  of  their  trade  with  the  coast 

of  Guinea. 
1577.  Q«een  Elizabeth  sends  an  ambassador  to  the  Emperor 

of   Morocco,  and  English  merchants  settle  in  the 

country. 
1585.  A  company  is  formed,  by  letters  patent  from  Queen 

Elizabeth,  for  the  management  of  the  trade  with 

Barbary  and  Morocco. 
1588.  Queen  Elizabeth  grants  a  patent  to  a  company.    A 

ship  and  pinnace  make  the  first  voyage  from  London 

to  Benin. 

1591.  An  English  expedition  is  sent  to  the  Gold  Coast 
1597.  Queen  Elizabeth  addresses  a  letter  to  the  King  of  the 

Abyssinians,  the  mighty  Emperor  of  Ethiopia. 
1618.  The  African  Company  is  formed  in  London.    They 

send  Thomson  on    an   expedition  to  explore  the 

Gambia, 


AFRICA 


[    24    1 


AFRICAN 


A.D. 

1619.  Thomson  iskilled  whilst  ascending  the  river  Gambia. 
1641.  14is  suc.ce.ssor  Jobsou  explores  the  Gambia  as  far  as 
Tenda. 

1636.  The  French  settlement  of  St  Louis  is  founded. 
1631.  The  second  African  Company  is  formed  by  Charles  I. 

for  the  purpose  of  trailing  to  the  founts  of  Guinea, 
lienin,  and  Angola.  The  people  of  Moiubaz  expel 
tin-  Kuropeans. 

1637.  El   Minn    is  \vrested   from  the    I'ortupuese    by  the 

Dutch,  who  had  gradually  stripped  them  of  their 
-ions  ill  Africa. 

1638.  Jannei|nin  visits  the  French  possessions  in  Africa. 
1650.  The  Dutch  establish  their  first  colony  at  the  Cape  of 

Good  HOIM-. 
1663.  The  third  African  Company  is  fonned  by  Charles  II., 

with  the  privilege  of  tin-  sol.-  trade  to  liuinca. 
1665.  Veriniiydcn  ascends  the  (ianibia  in  search  of  }rold. 

-    27.   '1  lie  third   Afrii-an   ('oiii)iany   surrenders  its 

charter,  anil  u  fourth,  the  last,  is  established. 
1697.  Brue  starts  from  Senegal  on  an  expedition  into  the 

interior. 
1724.  stub!.*  is  sent  by  the  African  Company  to  the  Upper 

l.ambia, 
1773.  Xorris    travels    through     Dahomey    and    reaches 

rjev. 

1787.  Aii  Kn^lish  sctilemeiit,  composed  partly  of  negroes, 

i-  e-tahli-hi-.l  in  si.  rra  Leone. 

1788.  The  African  Association  is  fonned  in  London,  and 

s.-nd-  I.edvard  to  Africa. 

1789.  Ledyard  die's  at  Cairo. 

l-')l.    lloii!_'hton  fail,  in  an  atteni|.t  to  rearli  TimbuctOO. 
[794.    \\all  an  I  \Vint,  -rbot'oni  v  i-j|  Footn  .liillo. 
1795.   Mun-o  Park  starts  IP.  in  t  li.-  i  .anil.i.i.      Hi 

Mt-'i-rto   Silla.  explores  the   intervening   countries, 

anil  return-  in    |-<r. 

ron  make.-,   -i   tour  through  the  districts  at  the 

Cape  of  (looil   Hope. 

iieinami  sets  out  from  Cairo  on  a  tour,  in  which 

he  perished. 

1801.  Trotter  ami  Somervill,  Tench  the  Orange  River,  and 


penetrate  to  l.attakoo. 
Mnn 


1805.   Mnn  .1    on  his  second  expedition,  from 

u  hieh  he  ne\er  returned. 

jili.-ll  foiiniU  a  (   liri-tiaii  mis-ion  at   Lattakoo. 

1816.  Tuckey  explores   the   river  (  'OIIJTO.  an.  I  1'eddie  pene- 

trates  to  Kakundy. 

1817.  Campbi-11  reaches  'the   I'.-mietta.      .James,   ]{,,u,!ieli. 

an  I  llutehnison  proceed  on  a  mission  to  Coomassie, 
the  eapital  of   Ashantee. 

1819.  Lyon  mid  Ititehie  reach  Monr/.ouk.     Tin-  latter  died 
Nov.  j   .  anil  Lyon  penetrnteil  t.,  l-V/./.aii. 
:;.iiis  p>es  on  a  mission  to  (  .'••maasie. 

'.pel-ton.  Pentium,   ami   t  Mideney  eross  thelir.at 
Desert  anil  \  i-it    Honioii.     Major  Denhani 
Lake  Tsad   in   l*2\.  and    Chipperton    anil    Kii-leney 
penetrate  to  Sai-kaloo.     The  i  hi  ee  travellers  reach 
Tripoli  in  .Ian.,  1835. 

1825.  Dec.  ~.  riappeiton  quits  Radagry  on  his  second  mis- 

into  Central  Afiiea. 

1826.  Lit  in  £  sets  out  from  Tripoli,  crosses  the  'i 

reaches  Tinibnctoo  Aiifr.  1H;  and  having  set  out  on 
another  journey  i-  murdeied. 

1827.  C,.illie    travels  from   Kakundy  to  Timbtictoo,    and, 

after  crossing  the  desert,  reached  Tangier  Aug.  18, 

1828. 
1830.  Richard   nnd  .lolin    Lander   trace   the   Niger  to  its 

mouth,  in  the  Iti^'ht  of  Henin. 
1832.  An   expedition,  provided    with   two   small   steamers. 

leaves   Liverpool  with  the  view  of  ascending  the 

Niger. 

1836.   Alexander  explores  S.  Africa. 
1x45.    Duncan  reaches  Adafoodia,  in  the  interior  of  Africa. 

1849.  Livingstone,     (Isnell.     anil     Murray    set     out    from 

Kolobeiif,'.   travel  through    the  desert  of    Kalaliari, 
and  traee  the  river  Zoiifra  to  the  I.nke  Npimi. 

1850.  Richardson.  Harth.  and  Overwear  start  on  their  expe- 

dition, and   Livingstone  goes  on  a  second  journey 
to  Lake   Npimi. 

1851.  Living-tone  and  (  iswell  proceed  on  another  expe- 

dition and  make  further  di-eov  ,-ries. 
1*55.  Living-tone   diseovers     the    Victoria    Falls    of    the 

Zambesi  River  towards  the  close  of  this  year. 
1856,  Dec.  10.  Livingstone  reaches  Ixmdon  after  having  tra- 

*ened  I  I.  •:•...  mile-  ins.  A  frica.—  Dee.  15.  He  receives 

the  gold  medal  of  the  Koyal  (  ;e..-ra|)hical  Society. 
1856101859.   Paul  li.  I)u  Chaillu,  the  goriUa  hunter,  ex- 

plores Equatorial  Africa. 


1857,  Sep.  18.    Capt  Richard  Francis  Burton  crosses  the 

East  African  (ihauts. 

1858,  March  10.     An  expedition  to  Africa,  under  the  di- 

rection of  Dr.  Living-tone,  sails  from  Liverpool.— 
April  26.  Capt.  Burton  reaehe-  t  \ira,  the  limit  of 
his  African  explorations.—  .July  30.  Capt  J.  H. 
Speke  discovers  the  Victoria  Nyan/.ii,  or  lake. 

1860,  Apri!  27.  Capt.  Speke  embarks  from  England  on 
a  second  expedition  of  discovery,  in  company  with 
Capt.  (;rant.-  Oet.  I.  They  iniit  the  Kast  African 
coast,  and  commence  their  inland  journey  of 
e\4>l»ration. 

I*f'I,   Srp.  .'.    Dr    Li\  infr>tone  enters  Luke  Nya--a. 

1*562,  April  27.  Mrs.  Livingstone  dies  of  fe\  er  at  Shupanpa. 
—July  28.  Capt.  Speke  discovers  u  river  is-uim,' 
from  the  Victoria  Nvan/.a  at  liipon  Falls,  w  Inch  he 
believes  to  be  the  Nile.  (Sec  NILE.) 

l^'l,    .'Hly  2.    The  /.ambe^i  expedition  i-  recalled. 

1864,  July  20.    Dr.  Livingstone   reaches    London.—  Sep.  15. 

Capt.  Speke  is  aeeideiitally  killed  while  shooting 
near  Hath. 

1865,  April.  Dr.  Livingstone  leaves  England.—  Nov.   "The 

.N.irniive  of  an  Kxpedition  to  the  /ambesi  nnd 
its  Tributaries;  and  of  the  Di»ei1Verie-  of  Lakes 
Shirua  and  \yassa.  ts.,s  ,-  j.'  |,v  David  and 
Charles  Liv  in^Mone.  is  published  by  Murray. 

AFRICAN  ASSnC|ATIi»N.f,,riiu'.linI.,,ii,l..n 
June  9,  1788,  was  iiK.'nrjiiir.-itcfl  witli  tip 
.|.hir;il  S.M-i.-ty  .luly  23,  1831. 

ATKICAN  CHURCH,  was  pn.lably  f..uii(k-(l 
in  the  2nd  century,  as  (t)itatus  was  l>i>lm].  .,f 
Cartha^u  almiit  the  year  acx),  and  a  c"Uiu'il  of 


assciiilik-il  hy  .\.Lrni']iinus,  llislmp 
uf  Carthage,  alxmt  215.  In  the  3rd  century  the 
Afriraii  Church  was  rendered  illustrious 
tiilliau,  Cyjirian,  and  Lartantius  ;  in  the  3rd 
and  4»h  centuries  it  resolutely  maintained  its 
independence  against  l.'unie.  In  the  5th  cen- 
tury this  Church  suffered  much  from  tho 
Vandal  invasion  under  (Jenseric.  It  was  also 
severely  tried  )>y  the  Dnnatist,  Arian,  Mani- 
inl  I'cla^ian  heresies,  and  it  furnished 
many  martyrs  t..  the  cause  of  Christianity. 
The  early  African  Church  W;IH  overthrown  by 
the  Saracens,  who,  in  the  yth  and  Sth  centuries, 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  of  the 
north  of  Africa.  In  addition  to  the  ili 
Africa,  divided  in  the  time  of  Constantinc  I. 
into  six  provinces,  with  altout  4''-.  l.ishopric^, 
this  quarter  of  the  p;lo)>e  contained  th' 
archate  of  Alexandria,  or  the  diocese  of 
N  i  in  icrous  missions  have  been  sent  from  Eng- 
land during  the  i8th  and  igth  centuries,  for  the 
purpose  of  disseminating  Christianity  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Africa.  The  Rev.  T.  Thorn  ps.  ,n, 
who  went  from  New  Jersey  to  the  coast  of 
Guinea  in  1751,  was  the  first  missionary.  Philip 
Quaque,  a  native  sent  to  England  to  be  edu- 
cated, was  ordained  in  1765,  and  returned  to 
Africa  in  1766,  where  he  laboured  for  upwards 
of  half  a  century.  Several  councils  held  at 
different  places  in  this  quarter  of  the  glolie  are 
known  as  African  councils.  The  principal  were 
in  217,  256,  257,  380,  414,  553,  and  646.  The 
other  African  councils  will  be  found  under 

\<;r,   HUTU.  ,Vc. 

AFRICAN  COMPANY.—  In  1585  a  patent  was 
granted  by  Elizabeth  to  private  adventurers  to 
trade  to  Barbary  ;  in  1588  to  others  to  trade  to 
Guinea;  and  in  1592  to  the  south  of  Sierra 
Leone,  d  mipanies  were  formed  in  the  reigns 
of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  and  the  Royal 
African  or  Guinea  Company  of  Merchants  was 
incorporated  by  Charles  II.,  Jan.  20,  1663. 
Under  this  charter,  the  company  received  the 


AFRICAN" 


[    25    1 


AGHADOE 


exclusive  right  of  trading  from  Salee  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  surrendered  their 
charter,  and  the  Royal  African  Company  of 
England,  with  extensive  privileges,  was  estab- 
lished by  patent,  Sep.  27,  1672  ;  but  in  1698  an 
act  was  passed  leaving  the  trade,  comparatively 
speaking,  free.  Various  methods  were  devised 
for  supporting  the  trade  and  remodelling  the 
company,  until,  by  i  &  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  28  (May  7, 
1821),  the  company  was  abolished,  the  Crown 
took  possession  of  all  forts  and  settlements  in 
Africa,  and  the  trade  was  thrown  open. 

AFRICAN  INSTITUTION,  was  established 
in  London  in  April,  1807,  to  collect  accurate  in- 
formation respecting  the  African  continent,  and 
introduce  the  arts  of  civilization  among  its 
people. 

AGAP^E,  or  love  feasts,  were  instituted  in 
the  time  of  the  Apostles,  and  continued  in  use 
among  the  primitive  Christians  for  three  cen- 
turies. They  sometimes  preceded,  but  more 
usually  followed,  the  Eucharist,  from  which 
they  were  afterwards  altogether  disconnected. 
Robertson  (Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church  to 
the  Pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great,  p.  320), 
says  the  word  was  afterwards  used  to  designate 
festivals  held  by  churches  at  the  tombs  of  mar- 
tyrs, or  by  families  at'  those  of  their  relatives, 
and  took  the  place  of  the  heathen  Parentalia. 
The  abuses  committed  in  them  became  so 
notorious  that  they  were  solemnly  condemned, 
first  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (366),  and  after- 
wards by  the  second  Council  of  Carthage  (390). 

AGA1VEMONE.—  This  establishment,  a  re- 
treat for  the  followers  of  Brother  Prince,  was 
founded  at  Charlynch,  near  Bridgewater,  in 
1845.  They  are  a  branch  of  the  Lampeters,  and 
affect  to  believe  that  the  day  of  grace  and 
prayer  is  past,  and  the  time  of  judgment 
arrived.  A  meeting,  called  at  Hanover  Square, 
Sep.  26,  1856,  for  the  promulgation  of  their 
views,  proved  a  failure.  These  sectaries  are 
called  Agapajmonians.  A  sect,  with  similar 
aims  and  views,  called  the  "  Family  of  Love," 
was  founded  by  Henry  Nicholas,  a  Westphalian, 
in  1540.  He  came  to  England,  and  towards  the 
latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  made 
several  converts.  Five  members  of  this  sect, 
called  Familists,  stood  at  Paul's  Cross,  and  re- 
nounced their  errors,  June  12,  1575.  Queen 
Elizabeth  issued  a  severe  proclamation  against 
them  Oct.  3,  1580.  Fuller  quaintly  terms  the 
sect  "  The  Family  of  Love,  or  Lust  rather." 
The  Familists  presented  a  petition  to  James  I. 
in  1604,  and,  though  their  numbers  declined, 
they  were  not  extinct  in  1645. 

AGDA  or  AGDE  (France).— A  council  on  dis- 
cipline, convened  by  Alaric,  King  of  the  Visi- 
goths, was  held  here,  Sep.  n,  506,  when  47 
canons  were  drawn  up. 

AGE.— In  the  later  periods  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  25  was  considered  the  full  age  for  both 
3.  In" 


Rome,  43  was  the  legal  age  for  con- 
suls, and  30  for  tribunes.  Augustus  fixed  30 
instead  of  35  for  judges.  That  of  puberty  was 
14  for  males  and  12  for  females.  By  the  feudal 
law,  the  moment  a  youth  was  knighted,  he 
was  considered  of  age,  and  at  16  this  honour 
was  frequently  conferred.  The  kings  of  France 
were  considered  majors  at  15.  Henry  III.,  the 
first  minor,  after  the  Conquest,  who  obtained 


the  English  crown,  was  declared  a  major  at  16, 
though  he  did  not  assume  his  right  until  he 
was  nearly  20,  in  Feb.  1227.  Edward  III.,  the 
next  minor  who  mounted  the  throne,  took  the 
government  in  his  own  hands  before  he  was  18  ; 
Richard  II.  was  considered  a  minor  till  he  was 
22  ;  and  Henry  VI.  till  he  was  between  23  and 
24.  Henry  VIII.  made  a  law  for  his  own  chil- 
dren, that  if  his  son  succeeded,  he  was  to  be 
eligible  for  sovereign  authority  at  17,  and  if  a 
daughter,  at  15  ;  but  he  afterwards  fixed  18  as 
the  age  at  which  Edward  VI.  was  to  assume 
the  government,  and  he  was  actually  consti- 
tuted eligible  for  sovereign  authority  at  that 
age.  By  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  43  (July  2,  1855),  any 
male  infant  of  20,  or  any  female  of  1 7,  may, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
make  a  valid  and  binding  settlement  of  either 
his  or  her  real  or  personal  estate,  in  contempla- 
tion of  marriage.  A  male  at  12  may  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance,  at  14  is  at  years  of  discre- 
tion, and  subject  to  punishment  by  death.  A 
female  at  12  is  considered  to  have  arrived  at 
years  of  maturity,  may,  with  permission  of  her 
guardians,  enter  into  a  binding  marriage,  or 
consent  or  disagree  to  one  previously  con- 
tracted. Formerly,  a  male  of  14  could  make 
a  will  disposing  of  his  personal  estate,  if  his 
discretion  were  satisfactorily  proved ;  but  by 
i  Viet.  c.  26,  s.  7  (July  3, 1837),  no  will  is  valid  if 
made  by  a  person  under  the  age  of  21.  By 
7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  25,  s.  8  (1696),  a  minor  was 
disqualified  to  be  elected  to  Parliament.  Before 
that  act  passed,  several  members  were  under 
age.  Minors,  however,  sometimes  sit  "by 
connivance."  Charles  James  Fox  was  elected 
for  Midhurst  soon  after  he  had  attained  his 
igth  year. 

AGEN  (France). — The  ancient  Agennum,  or 
Aginnum,  of  the  Nitiobriges,  came  into  the 
possession  of  England  with  the  rest  of  Gui- 
enne,  in  1151,  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  II., 
then  Duke  of  Normandy,  with  Eleanor  of 
Guienne,  the  divorced  wife  of  Louis  VII.  of 
France.  These  possessions  led  to  frequent 
wars  between  France  and  England.  Agen  was 
captured  by  the  French  in  1322,  regained  by 
the  English  in  1330;  again  lost,  and  restored  to 
England  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny  (May  8, 
1360).  It  was  finally  incorporated  with  France 
in  1453.  In  I5&1  i*  was  taken  by  the  Hugue- 
nots, who  lost  it  the  following  year,  but  re- 
gained possession  in  1591,  and  in  1592  it  surren- 
dered to  Henry  IV. 

AGENHINE,  or  HOGENHINE.— In  England, 
by  a  law  of  Edward  the  Confessor  (1043 — 1066), 
any  one  who  partook  of  hospitalities  in  a 
house,  and  remained  till  the  third  night,  was 
reckoned  under  the  jurisdiction  and  protection 
of  the  host,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  he  had 
been  regularly  enrolled  as  one  of  the  family  or 
domestics.  Such  a  one,  on  the  first  night  of 
his  sojourn,  could  only  be  termed  uncuth,  that 
is,  a  stranger ;  on  the  second,  gust,  that  is,  a 
guest;  and  on  the  third,  agenhine  or  hogene- 
hune,  that  is,  a  friend  or  domestic  servant. 

AGHADOE  (Bishopric).  —  Dionysius  was 
bishop  of  this  Irish  diocese  in  1 266,  but  the  see 
is  usually  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  that 
of  Ardfert  (q.  v.)  and  has  since  given  title  to 
an  archdeacon.  The  church,  which  was  in  a 


AGINCOURT 


AGBAMONTS 


ruinous  condition  in  1662,  has  since  fallen  into 

e.AGINCOURT,  or  AZINCOUR  Battle  .—At 
this  village,  in  the  Pas-de-Calais,  France,  10,000 
English,  under  Henry  V.,  defeated  from  50,000 
to  60,000  French,  with  great  slaughter,  Friday, 
Oct.  25,  being  St.  Crispin's  day,  1415. 

A  ( .  I STMENT,  a  small  tithe  on  cattle,  or  the 
other  produce  of  grazing  lands,  payable  in 
England  by  the  occupier  to  the  vicar  or  rector. 
In  Ireland,  while  the  lands  were  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Roman  Catholics,  the  clergy  thank- 
fully received  whatever  they  could  get.  It 
was,  however,  formally  demanded  by  the  Pro- 
testant clergy  in  1720,  but  was  vehemently 
resisted  by  the  landlords.  The  Irish  House  of 
Commons  resolved,  March  18,  1735,  "that  any 
lawyer  assisting  in  a  prosecution  for  tithes  of 
ngistment  should  be  considered  as  an  enemy 
to  his  country."  This  tithe  was  abolished  in 
Ireland  by  the  Act  of  Union. 

AGITATORS,  or  A I  >.l  t  TATORS,  a  term  ap- 
plied in  English  history  to  the  two  privates  or 
inferior  officers  elected  in  1647  by  each  troop  or 
company  of  the  army.  These,  with  a  council 
of  the  principal  officers,  after  the  model  of  the 
House  of  Peers,  formed  what  Hume  terms  "a 
terrible  court."  Thus,  at  the  instigation  of 
Cromwell,  Skippon,  Ireton,  and  l-'leetwood,  a 
military  parliament,  in  opposition  to  the  Par- 
liament at  Westminster,  was  called  into  exist- 
ence. The  agitators  seized  the  person  of  lin- 
king (June  4),  and,  after  committing  various 
excesses,  were  suppressed.  In  later  times, 
./ues  who  have  endeavoured  to  excite 
disall'ection  amongst  the  people,  or  to  obtain 
in  the  laws  by  inflammatory  appeals, 
n  si  vied  agitators. 

AGLABITES,  an  African  dynasty,  the  suc- 
cessors of  Ibrahim  Ben  Aglab,  governor  of 
Africa  B.C.  797.  /eyadatala  was  the  last  of 
this  dynasty,  the  duration  of  which  was  112 
years. 

A(;.\ADKI,,or  A<;XAI)KI.Lt)(Rattle),fought 
on  the  banks  of  the  Adda,  .May  \.\.  \ --,<•>,. 
the  French,  commanded   by    I.ouis    XII.,   and 
the  Venetians.     The  latter  were  defeated  with 
great  loss.     It  is   called   by   the    Italians  the 
battle  of  Vaila,  or  of  the  Ghiara  d'Add 
army  consisted  of  ul>out  40,000  comb.-;1 

A.GNOCTJB,  a  sect  of  the  Monophysites,  so 
called  from  the  ignorance  they  attributed  to 
our  Lord  with  reference  to  his  human  nature, 
was  founded  by  Thcodosius,  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria, who  retired  to  Constantinople  between 
538  and  540,  and  founded  the  Agnoctae. 

AGNOITES,  or  AGNOET.T-:.— This  name  was 
applied  to  two  sects,  branches  of  the  Monophy- 
sites, viz.,  the  followers  of  Theophronius  of 
Cappadociu,  about  370,  and  the  followers  of 
Themistius,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Alex- 
andria, in  535.  They  both  held  peculiar  notions 
respecting  the  prescience  of  the  Almighty. 
The  latter  sect  were  also  called  Themistians 
from  their  leader. 

AGNUS  DEI,  wax  medals,  stamped  with  the 
figure  of  a  lamb  bearing  a  cross,  intended  to 
represent  the  Lamb  of  God,  were,  in  the  early 
Church,  distributed  amongst  candidates  for 
baptism.  The  practice  originated  in  the  7th 
or  8th  century.  The  Popes  have,  since  the  i4th 


century,  been  in  the  habit  of  consecrating 
similar  medals,  made  sometimes  of  the  pre- 
cious metals,  for  distribution  the  first  Sunday 
after  Easter.  By  13  Eliz.  c.  2,  s.  7  (1571),  any 
person  bringing  into  the  realm  any  token  or 
thing  called  by  the  name  of  Agnus  Dei,  in- 
curred the  penalty  of  a  prsemunire. 

AtioMSTICi,  disciples  of  Donatus,  Bishop  of 
Carthage,  sent  by  him  in  342  into  different 
parts  of.  Africa,  to  preach  his  peculiar  doc- 
trines at  fairs,  markets,  and  places  of  public 
resort,  whence  they  were  called  Circutores, 
Circumcelliones  or  Circeliones,  and  Catropitee. 
They  styled  themselves  n<i<>ni*tici  (combat- 
ants ,  under  the  pretence  that  they  were  com- 
bating and  triumphing  over  the  devil;  and 
they  were  called  circumcell  tones,  or  vagrants, 
from  the  a  tin  ,  cottages  of  the  peasants,  where, 
having  no  fixed  residence,  they  sought  a  re- 
treat. Having  committed  various  e  . 
they  were  punished  with  great  severity. 

A  'cnXYCLITjE.—  Certain  Christians  in  the 
7th  century,  who,  considering  it  unlawful 
to  bend  the  knee  in  prayer,  remained  in  a 
standing  j  iost  ure. 

AGRA  (Hindostan).—  By  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  85, 
8.  38  (Aug.  28,  1833',  it  was  enacted  that  the 
Bengal  presidency  should  lie  divided.  Tho 
north-western  country  was  to  be  erected  into  a 
fourth  presidency,  that  of  Agra;  but  the  legis- 
lature afterwards  ordered  the  measure  to  be 
ided. 

At;  I!  A  ;Hindostan\  the  capital  of  the  north- 
.1,   was  founded    by 
Akbar    in  1566,  and   continued    the 
the    Mongol   emperors  till   1647,   when  Delhi 
was   made   their   capital.      It   was    taken    by 
Scindia  in  1784,  and  surrendered  to  Lord  Lake 
Oct.  17,  iSoj.     Ani"Tig   the  spoils  on  th 
sion   was  a  cannon,   made  to  throw  c 
balls  of  1,500  lb.     It  was  14  feet  2  inches  long, 

Igned  96,000  lb.     It  is  said  to  ha 
wa 

otlicers 

buildings  in  Agra  were  destroyed  during  the 
mutiny  of  1857;  but  then-  owners  were  pre- 
served in  the  large  and  strongly  defended  fort. 
The  native  troops  were  disarmed  June  i,  1857. 
"•peaiis  attacked  the  Necmuch  force 
and  the  Kotah  contingent,  July  5,  1857,  but 
were  compelled  to  retreat.  (Jreathed  gained  a 
signal  victory  here  over  the  rebel  forces,  Oct. 

IOAGRAMONTS  and  BE  AUMONTS.  —  These 
rival  factions,  which  originated  in  a  j 
quarrel  between  two  of  the  most  powerful 
families  in  Navarre,  adopted  opposite  sides  in 
the  dispute  between  John  II.  of  Aragon  and  his 
si  in  1  >i  in  Carlos,  Prince  of  Viana.  The  king,  who 
inherited  Navarre  in  right  of  his  first  wife, 
Blanche,  continued  to  exercise  sovereignty 
after  her  death,  which  took  place  April  3, 
1441,  disregarding  the  right  of  his  son. 
to  whom  the  throne  should  lineally  have  de- 
scended, but  who  was  satisfied  with  the 
dignity  of  viceroy.  John,  however,  having 
contracted  a  second  marriage,  in  1447,  with 
Joan  Henriquez,  of  Castille,  sent  her,  in  1452, 
into  Navarre  to  divide  with  her  step-son  the 
viceregal  authority.  The  result  was  an  appeal 
to  arms,  in  which  the  queen  was  supported  by 


,  . 

ntonly   blown   to   pieces  by  some  artillery 
cers    in    1833.      Nearly    all    the     Kuropcaii 


AGRARIAN 


[    27    1 


AGRICULTURE 


the  Agramoiits,  and  the  prince  by  the  Beau- 
monts,  and  which  terminated  in  the  defeat  of 
the  latter  party  at  the  battle  of  Aibar  (q.  v.}. 

AGRARIAN  LAWS.— Niebuhr  has  shown 
that  the  agrarian  laws  of  the  Romans  did  not 
interfere  with  or  affect  private  property  in  land, 
but  related  exclusively  to  the  public  domain. 
Portions  of  the  territory  of  conquered  states 
were  divided,  and  these  laws  provided  for 
their  proper  distribution.  The  first  proposal 
of  an  agrarian  law  in  Rome,  made  by  the  con- 
sul Spurius  Cassius  (B.C.  484),  failed.  Cassius 
was  condemned  and  executed  on  a  false  charge 
of  treasonable  designs  (B.C.  483),  and  Livy  ob- 
serves that  no  measure  of  the  kind  was  ever 
proposed  up  to  his  time  (the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus) without  exciting  the  greatest  commotion, 
trian  law,  which  served  as  a  model  for 
all  subsequent  measures  of  the  kind,  was 
carried  by  the  tribune  C.  Licinius  Stole  (B.C. 
365),  and  called  the  Licinian  law.  It  provided 
that  no  person  should  occupy  more  than  500 
jugera  of  public  land,  nor  have  more  than  100 
large  and  500  small  cattle  grazing  on  the 
public  pastures.  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus, 
wh«  attempted  to  amend  this  law  (B.C.  133), 
was  killed.  His  law  for  appointing  three 
commissioners,  to  be  chosen  annually  by 
the  35  tribes,  who  were  to  decide  all  dis- 
putes on  the  subject,  was  virtually  suspended 
B.  c.  129,  until  B.  c.  123,  when  Caius 
Gracchus,  his  brother,  put  it  in  force.  He 
lost  his  life  B.C.  121.  Some  irregularities  after- 
wards ensued,  and  the  tribune  Spurius 
Borius  carried  a  law  to  prevent  further  divi- 
sions of  the  public  land,  provided  that  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  thereof  should  be  formed 
into  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  This  was 
repealed  by  a  law  proposed  by  another  tri- 
bune, Spurius  Thorius  (B.C.  in).  M.  Livius 
Drusus,  who  proposed  the  division  of  all  the 
public  land  in  Italy,  was  killed  B.C.  91,  and 
civil  war  ensued  B.C.  90.  P.  Servilius  Rullus 
failed  in  recommending  some  changes  (B.C.  63), 
and  the  tribune  Flavius  proposed  a  law  for 
providing  Pompey's  soldiers  with  lands  (B.C. 
60),  which  was  reproduced  and  carried,  with 
some  alterations,  by  C.  Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  59). 

AC,  ll [COLA'S  VICTORY.— (See  ARDOCH.) 

AGRICOLA'S  WALL.— The  remains  of  two 
Roman  walls  exist  in  this  country.  One  of 
these  fortifications  extended  from  the  Solway 
Frith  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  being  the 
southern  (See  HADRIAN'S  WALL)  ;  the  other 
from  the  Clyde  to  the  Frith  of  Forth,  being 
the  northern  fortification.  The  latter,  called 
thu  Wall  of  Agricola,  of  Lpllius  Urbicus,  or  of 
Antoninus,  is  an  earthen  intrenchment,  fami- 
liarly known  as  Grime's  or  Graham's  Dyke. 
Tacitus  states  that  Agricola  constructed  a 
chain  of  forts  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth 
A.D.  81,  and  Capitolinus  asserts  that  Lollius 
Urbicus,  during  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
erected  a  rampart  of  turf  A.D.  140.  This  is  the 
fortification  that  is  now  known  under  the 
various  names  of  the  Wall  of  Agricola,  of  Anto- 
ninus, or  of  Lollius  Urbicus.  (See  ROMAN 
WALLS.) 

AGRICULTURAL  DISTRESS. —A  select 
committee,  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  agricultural  interests  and  the  causes  of 


its  depression,  Feb.  8,  1836,  sat  some  time,  but 
made  no  report. 

AGRICULTURAL  HALL.— The  first  stone  of 
this  building,  situated  in  the  north  of  London, 
was  laid  by  Lord  Berners,  president  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Nov.  5,  1861,  and 
the  hall,  in  an  unfinished  state,  was  opened 
for  the  purposes  of  a  dog  show  June  24,  1862. 
The  annual  cattle  show  of  the  Smithfield  Club 
first  took  place  here  Dec.  6,  1862,  and  has  been 
held  in  the  same  place  each  succeeding  year. 
A  ffite  in  honour  of  the  tercentenary  of 
Shakespeare's  birthday  was  celebrated  in  the 
hall,  April  23,  1864.  The  first  horse-show  took 
place  July  i,  1864,  and  an  Industrial  Exhibi- 
tion of  the  productions  of  the  North  London 
Working  Classes  was  opened  Oct.  17,  1864.  A 
Reformatories'  Industrial  Exhibition  was 
opened  here,  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  May 
19,  1865.  An  Exhibition  of  the  Arts  and  Ma- 
nufactures of  East  London  commenced  Aug. 
8,  1865. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.— The  "Board 
of  Agriculture,"  established  in  1793,  received  an 
annual  grant  from  Parliament,  and  was  dis- 
solved in  1816.  The  "Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England"  was  established  in  1838, 
celebrated  its  first  anniversary  in  May,  1839, 
and  was  incorporated  March  26,  1840.  Its 
country  meetings  are  held  in  the  month  of 
July.  The  "  Royal  Agricultural  Improvement 
Society  of  Ireland"  was  established  in  1841.  A 
"  Society  of  Improvers  in  the  Knowledge  of 
Agriculture  in  Scotland"  was  instituted  in 
1723.  This  became  extinct,  and  another  was 
established  in  1755.  The  present  society  arose 
in  1784,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland."  The  univer- 
sity of  Oxford  maintains  a  Sibthorpian  profes- 
sorship of  rural  economy.  Professorships  of 
agriculture  and  agricultural  chemistry  are  at- 
tached to  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  while 
the  university  of  Aberdeen  provides  lectures 
on  agriculture.  There  are  above  600  agricul- 
tural societies  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

AGRICULTURE,  in  a  rude  form,  was  known 
from  the  earliest  period  (Gen.  iii.  17 — IQ). 
Cain  (B.C.  3979)  is  described  as  a  tiller  of  the 
ground  (Gen.  iv.  2].  The  Egyptians  excelled 
in  agriculture.  Abraham,  when  there  was  a 
famine  in  Canaan,  repaired  to  their  country  in 
search  of  food  (Gen.  xii.  10)  B.C.  1920;  and 
Jacob  sent  his  10  sons  to  purchase  corn 
there  (Gen.  xlii.  i — 4)  B.C.  1706.  An  ancient 
Babylonian  work,  called  "  The  Book  on 
Nabathaean  Agriculture,"  still  preserved,  is  a 
cyclopaedia  of  agriculture.  Cecrops  is  said  to 
have  carried  the  knowledge  of  agriculture 
from  Egypt  to  Greece,  when  he  settled  in 
Attica  (B.C.  1556).  Pliny  gives  Bazyges  credit 
for  imparting  a  knowledge  of  tillage  to  the 
Greeks.  Homer,  who  flourished  about  B.C. 
962 — B.C.  927,  describes  agriculture  as  an 
honourable  pursuit  with  kings  and  princes  ; 
and  Hesiod,  about  B.C.  859 — B.C.  824,  speaks 
in  its  praise.  The  Romans  esteemed  it 
highly,  and  the  Georgics  (composed  B.C.  30) 
of  the  poet  Virgil  contain  the  most  elabo- 
rate and  eloquent  instructions  ever  written 
on  this  subject.  The  Persians  cultivated 
the  art  of  agriculture,  and  Xenophon,  who 


AGRIGEXTUM 


t    28    ] 


ATX 


wrote  a  treatise  on  it,  declared  that  Cyrus 
the  Younger  paid  much  attention  to  it.  Gelon 
of  Sicily  B.C.  479',  sought  to  render  it  an 
honourable  occupation.  Amid  the  various  wars 
and  struggles  in  the  earlier  part  of  th< 
Ages,  agriculture  necessarily  declined.  It  was 
revived  by  the  Saracens,  and  has  spread  over 
Europe,  until  at  length  carried,  by  modern 
discoveries  and  the  aid  of  science,  to  its 
present  advanced  state. 

AGRIGENTUM  (Sicily).  —  This  powerful 
Greek  city,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Gela  B.C. 
582),  appears  to  have  fallen  under  the  yoke  of 
the  tyrant  1'halarisaboutB.C.  570.  He  was  killed 
in  an  insurrection,  and  Alcamenes  succeeded 
B.C.  534.  Theron  ruled  from  B.C.  488  to  B.C. 
472.  Aided  by  Gelon  of  Syracuse,  he  routed 
the  Carthaginian  invading  army,  B.C.  480,  and 
subdued  Ilimera.  Soon  after,  a  democrat  ic 
form  of  government  was  adopted.  It  was 
again  invaded  (B.C.  406)  by  the  Carthaginians, 
who  destroyed  the  town.  Agrigentum  scarcely 
recovered  from  this  blow,  and  it  was  captured 
by  the  Humans,  after  :i  si<  months' 

duration,  B.C.  262.  The  Carthaginians  reco- 
vriv.l  po»e>sion  B.C.  255,  when  the  city  was 
burned  and  its  walls  were  razed  to  the  ground. 
It  was  restored  and  betrayed  into  the  hands  of 
Lsevinus  B.C.  210.  Its  modern  name  is 
Girgenti  (q.  v.). 

AGYNIAN8.— Aginani,  or  Agynenses,  a  sect 
that  arose  about  A.D.  664.      'liny  .Icnuunced 
the  use  of  fle.sli  and  of  marriage,  declaring  it 
in  ordinance  of  Satan. 

.\IIMI-:i>.\IJAli...i-  A.MKHAUA1)  Ilindosten). 
— This  city,  unce  tin  Mohammedan  capital, 
built  on  the  site  of  a  more  ancient  town,  in 
1412,  by  Ahmed  Shah,  was  captured  by  the 
Mahrattai  early  in  the  i8th  century.  The 
British  stormed  it  in  1780,  and  it  came  into 
their  possession  by  treaty  Nov.  6,  1817.  It 
suffered  from  an  earthquake  in  1819.  The  city 
walls,  built  in  1485,  were  repaired  in  1834. 

Aii.MKhM  t;<,i:i;,or  AMI-: MM  <;<;I-:K  iiin- 

dostan). — This  fortified  city,  in  t  he  prcsii  lency « >f 
Bombay,  was  founded  by  Ahmed  Ni/.am  Shah, 
in  1493,  and  became  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  of 
name.  It  was  annexed  to  the  Delhi 
empire  in  1634.  The  Muhrattas  seized  it  in 
1707,  and  it  remained  in  their  possession  until 
1797,  when  it  was  captured  by  Scindia.  Wel- 
lington took  it,  after  a  siege  of  four  days,  Aug. 
12,  1803,  and  though  temporarily  restored  to 
the  Mahrattas,  it  was  annexed  to  the  British 
possessions  in  India,  by  treaty,  June  13,  1817. 
The  first  English  factory  was  established  here 
in  1612. 

A  1 1 W  A  '/.  I '«  rate  .—A  favourite  place  of  re- 
sort of  Artabanes  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Parthian 
kings,  whose  empire  was  subverted  by 
Artaxerxes,  or  Adshir,  King  of  Persia,  A.D.  226. 
The  English  took  possession  of  this  town  dur- 
ing the  Persian  war,  April  i,  1857. 

AIBAR,  or  AYBAR  Battle'.— At  this  place, 
in  Spain,  the  Moors,  in  882,  defeated  the  Spa- 
niards, led  by  their  King  Garcia,  who  fell  in 
the  encounter.  Here  Don  Carlos,  Prince  of 
Viana,  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  his 
father,  John  II.,  of  Aragon,  Oct.  23,  1452.  (See 
AORAMONTS  and  BEAUMONTS.) 

AIDS.— Under  the  feudal  system,  aids  were 


claims  of  the  lord  on  the  vassal,  originally 
granted  by  way  of  benevolence,  but  afterwards 
exacted  as  a  matter  of  right.  Our  early 
monarchs  used  them  as  a  means  of  extorting 
money  from  their  subjects.  So  onerous  did 
they  become,  that  a  clause  in  Magna  Charta 
(1215  declared  that  no  aid  should  be  imposed 
without  the  consent  of  the  great  council  of  the, 
nation,  except  on  three  occasioiis  :  i.  The  ran- 
som of  the  king's  person ;  2.  The  making  his 
eldest  son  a  knight ;  and  3.  The  marriage  of 
his  eldest  daughter.  The  clause,  omitted  in 
Henry  III.'s  charter(i224\  was  revived  in  that 
of  Edward  I.,  in  1297.  This  method  of  levying 
money  was  abolished  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  24 
(1660).  (See  BENEVOLENCE,  Ui:v KM  r.  toe. 
AJGUES-MORTES(France).— From  this  place 

Louis  IX.  embarked,  Aug.25,i248,  on  tin 
crusade,  and  again,  July  4,  1270,  on  the  eighth 
and  last  crusade.    It  is  also  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  the  interview  between  Charles 
l-'rancis  I.  in  1538.     The  emperor.  <m  conclud- 
ing the  truce  of  Nice,  having  set  sail  1 
lona,  was  driven  on  the  island  of  St.  .M 
on  the  coast  of  Provence.     Francis   I.  invited 
him  to  a  personal   interview,  and  Charles  V. 
accepted  the  invitation,     Fi-ancis   I.,  without 
ceremony,  visited  the  emperor  in   hi- 
ami   the  latter  visited  Francis  I.  at  Aigues- 

.Mortes. 

A  1. 1  A  I. (i\,     or     AJAI.ON    (Palestine),     now 
called   Valo,  the  valley  in  which  Josln 
manded  the  moon  to  stand  still  during  his  con- 
test with  the  Amoritesat  Beth-horon  (Josh.  x. 
12—14),  B.C.  1451.     (&e  BETH-HORON,  battle.) 

All:.       >••    A  i  Mo-i'iu:i;r..) 

All:  GUN.-  The  first  account  of  an  air-gun 
is  found  in  David  Hivault's  "  Klemcns  d'Artil- 
lerie."  Ho  was  preceptor  to  l.miis  .\lll..,f 
France,  and  he  ascribes  the  invention  to  a  cer- 
tain Marin,  a  burgher  of  Lisieux,  who  pre- 
sented one  to  Henry  IV.,  towards  the  end  of 
the  1 6th  century. 

A I  H  1'UMP.— Otto  von  Guericke,  a  German, 
made  the  first  attempt,  in  1654,  at  this  inven- 
tion, which  was  greatly  improved  by  Robert 
Boyle  a  few  years  later.  Further  improve- 
ments were  effected  by  Robert  Hook  in  1658  or 
1659. 

A  I  Hi:  (France),  a  fortified  town  in  the  Pas  de 
Calais,  founded  by  Lidoric,  Count  of  Flanders, 
in  630  ;  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  in  88 1.  In 
1641  the  French  took  it  from  the  Spaniards, 
who  soon  regained  possession.  Louis  XIV. 
captured  it  in  1641,  and  it  was  ceded  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  It  was  taken 
by  the  allies  Nov.  9,  1710.  Lord  Hill  captured 
the  town  and  its  magazines,  after  a  severe 
combat,  March  2,  1814.  —  Another  town  in 
Landes,  the  ancient  Vicus  Julii,  or  Aturcs, 
once  the  capital  of  the  Visigoths,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Honorius,  became  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric  about  506.  The  see,  supprc 
1803,  was  re-established  by  the  concordat  of 
1817.  This  was  not  executed,  but  the  bishopric 
was  restored  in  1823. 

AIX  (France1',  the  seat  of  the  first  Roman 
colony  in  Gaul,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
C.  Sextius  Calvinus  B.C.  122,  and  called  Aquae 
Sextia.  Cains  Marius  routed  the  Teutones  and 
Cimbri  at  this  place  B.C.  102.  It  was  destroyed 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


ALABAMA 


by  the  Saracens  in  the  8th  century,  and  rebuilt 
in  796.  Charles  V.  captured  it  in  1535,  and 
here  he  was  crowned  King  of  Aries.  It  is  an 
archiepiscopal  see,  and  councils  were  held  here 
in  iii2,  1374,  1409,  1416,  1585,  and  1612.  The 
cathedral  was  built  in  the  nth  century  ;  its 
choir  was  erected  in  1285;  the  university, 
suppressed  at  the  Revolution,  was  founded  by 
Pope  Alexander  V.  in  1409 ;  and  the  court- 
house, commenced  in  1787,  was  finished  in 
1831.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  palace  of  the 
counts  of  Provence,  destroyed  in  1782.  The 
bath-house  was  erected  in  1600. 

A  IX  -I.  A  -CHAl'KLLE,  or  AACHEN.— This 
ancient  Prussian  city,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Romans  A.D.  124,  was  the  birthplace  and 
favourite  residence  of  Charlemagne,  who  made 
it  the  capital  of  all  his  dominions  north  of  the 
A 1 1  is  i  n  795 .  H  ere  he  died  and  was  buried  in  8 1 4 . 
The  vault  was  opened  in  997,  when  the  body  of 
the  emperor  was  found  on  a  throne  of  state. 
It  was  reopened  in  1165  and  in  1215.  The 
city  was  ravaged,  and  Charlemagne's  palace 
destroyed,  by  the  Danes,  in  882.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  made  a  free  and  imperial 
city,  at  which  the  German  emperors  were 
crowned  from  813  to  1531.  It  suffered  severely 
from  a  fire  in  1656.  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  taken 
by  the  French  Dec.  8,  1792,  retaken  by  the 
Austrians  March  8,  1793 ;  but  the  French  re- 
gained possession  Sep.  22,  1794.  By  the  treaty 
of  Luneville  (Feb.  9,  1801)  it  was  ceded  to 
France,  but  it  reverted  to  Prussia  in  1814.  The 
town-hall  was  erected  in  1353.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  799,  803,  809,  813,  816,  817,  825, 
831,  836,  842,  860,  862,  992,  and  1165. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Congress).— The  King 
of  Prussia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia,  assembled  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
Sep.  29,  1818,  and  soon  after  a  congress,  at- 
tended by  these  sovereigns,  their  ministers, 
and  the  English  plenipotentiaries,  met.  They 
addressed  a  note  (Nov.  4,  1818)  to  the  French 
minister,  the  Duke  of  Richelieu,  stating  their 
determination  to  put  an  end  to  the  military 
occupation  of  the  French  territory,  and  calling 
upon  him  to  take  part  "in  their  present  and 
future  deliberations."  France  accepted  the 
offer,  the  Duke  of  Richelieu  repaired  to  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  a  convention  for  tho  withdrawal 
of  the  British  troops  from  France  was  signed 
Oct.  9,  and  the  congress  separated  Nov.  21, 

1  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Treaties).— The  first, 
May  12  (O.S.  2),  1668,  was  the  result  of  the  triple 
league  between  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden, 
for  the  purpose  of  putting  a  stop  to  the  war 
between  France  and  Spain.  After  some  nego- 
tiations, the  plenipotentiaries  of  England,  Swe- 
den, Holland,  France,  and  Spain,  met  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  the  treaty  being  concluded  and 
signed  in  a  fortnight.  France  obtained  all  the 
places  she  had  conquered  in  Flanders,  and  re- 
stored Franche-Comte"  to  Spain.  Though  per- 
mitted to  retain  some  of  his  conquests,  a  check 
was  given  to  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. — 
The  second  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  confirm- 
ing the  treaties  of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  1648  ; 
Nimeguen,  1678,1679;  Ryswick,  Sep.  10,  1697; 
Utrecht,  April  n,  1713 ;  Baden,  Sep.  7,  1714 ;  the 
Triple  Alliance,  1717;  and  theQuadruple  Alliance, 


1718,  was  concluded  Oct.  18  (O.  S.  7),  1748.  The 
contracting  parties  were  Great  Britain,  France, 
Holland,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  some  Italian 
states.  The  basis  of  the  pacification  was  a  ge- 
neral restitution  of  conquests,  prisoners  being 
released  without  ransom.  England  gave  up  all 
she  had  acquired  in  the  East  and  West  Indies. 
The  Assiento  contract,  with  the  article  of  the 
annual  ship,  was  confirmed  to  England  for  four 
years.  Milan  was  annexed  to  Austria,  and 
France  restored  her  conquests  in  Italy. 

AIZNADIN,  or  AJNADIN(Battle).— The  Sa- 
racens gained  a  great  victory  in  this  plain,  in 
Palestine,  over  the  imperial  forces,  in  the  reign 
of  Heraclius,  July  13,  633.  According  to  some 
authorities,  the  battle  was  fought  July  30, 
634.  Gibbon,  speaking  of  the  imperial  forces 
defeated  on  this  occasion,  says  they  might  be 
"  indifferently  styled  either  Syrians,  or  Greeks, 
or  Romans :  Syrians,  from  the  place  of  their 
birth  or  warfare  ;  Greeks,  from  the  religion  and 
language  of  their  sovereign  ;  and  Romans,  from 
the  proud  appellation  which  was  still  profaned 
by  the  successors  of  Constantino." 

AJACCIO  (Corsica).— The  chief  town  of  the 
island,  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon 
I.,  Feb.  5,  1768. 

AJALON.— (See  AIJALON.) 

AJMEER  (Hindostan).— This  city,  theancient 
capital  of  the  province  of  Ajmeor  of  Raj  poo- 
tana,  was  visited  by  Sir  T.  Row  in  1616,  when 
a  factory  was  established  by  the  East  India 
Company.  In  1818  it  was  acquired  by  the  Bri- 
tish. Its  population  had  increased  more  than 
threefold  by  1823. 

AKERMANN  (Bessarabia)  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  in  1770,  restored  in  1774  ;  taken  again 
in  1789,  restored  in  1792  ;  and  ceded  to  Russia 
by  Turkey  in  1812.  A  treaty  was  concluded 
here  Sep.  4,  1826,  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
by  which  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  (May  28, 
1812)  was  confirmed.  Turkey  recognized  the 
independence  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia ;  re- 
stored the  privileges  of  the  Servians ;  agreed 
to  pay  the  Russian  claims  for  losses  inflicted 
by  the  Barbary  corsairs ;  and  granted  to  Russia 
the  free  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  a 
passage  through  the  Dardanelles.  Russia,  on 
her  part,  restored  her  conquests  in  Asia,  and 
made  a  few  trifling  concessions. 

AKHALZIKH  (Armenia).— The  Russians, 
under  Prince  Paskewitch  Erivanski,  defeated 
the  Turks  near  this  place  Aug.  24,  1828,  and 
took  possession  of  the  city  and  fortress  Aug.  27. 
The  Turks  made  an  effort  to  regain  possession 
in  Feb.,  1829,  but  were  compelled  to  retire 
March  16,  and  Akhalzikh  was  ceded  to  Russia 
by  the  treaty  of  Hadrianople,  Sep.  14,  1829. 

AKYAB  (E.  Indies),  a  town  and  seaport  of 
Arracan,  ceded,  with  other  places,  to  the 
British  by  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo,  Feb.  24, 
1826. 

ALABAMA  (N.  America).— This  state  origi- 
nally formed  part  of  Georgia.  In  1798  the  coun- 
try, including  the  present  states  of  Mississippi 
and  Alabama,  was  formed  into  a  territory.  Ala- 
bama was  detached  in  1817  from  Mississippi, 
and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  separate 
state  March  3,  1819.  It  seceded  Jan.  u,  1861. 

ALABAMA  SCREW-STEAMER.— This  cele- 
brated sloop-of-war  was  built  at  Birkenhead,  by 


ALAND 


ALBA 


Messrs.  Laird  and  Son,  in  the  spring  of  1862. 
Capt.  R.  Semmes,  well  known  by  his  exploits, 
from  Feb.  14,  1861,  to  Feb.  24,  1862,  in  the 
cruiser  Sumter  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand by  the  Naval  Government  at  Richmond, 
May  2,  1862.  The  Federal  Consul  at  Liverpool 
having  communicated  to  Mr.  Adams,  the 
United  States  Minister  in  London,  his  sus- 
picions as  to  the  character  of  the  vessel,  that 
gentleman  addressed  a  despatch  to  the  Foreign 
"Office,  praying  for  her  detention,  June  23. 
Other  communications  took  place,  the  result 
being  that  orders  were  sent  to  the  Customs' 
authorities  at  Liverpool  to  detain  the  Ala- 
bama, which  left  the  Mersey  under  pretence 
of  making  a  trial  trip,  July  29,  the  very  day 
on  which  they  were  received.  Capt.  Semmes, 
who  went  on  board  at  Terceira,  Aug.  20, 
hoisted  the  Confederate  flag,  Aug.  24,  and 
declared  that  the  object  of  the  vessel  was  to 
cripple  the  commerce  of  the  Federal 
This  object  she  accomplished  with  perfect 
success,  having  captured  and  burnt  10  trading 
vessels  by  Sep.  16.  Much  indignation  was 
expressed  by  the  United  States  Government 
in  consequence  of  her  construction,  ;uid  alleged 
equipment,  in  an  Knglish  port,  and  an  animated 
debate  upon  the  subject  took  place  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  March  27,  1863.  The 
capture  by  the  Alabama  of  the  1 
June  21,  1863,  led  to  further  difficulties  with 
the  United  States.  (See  TTTSCALOOSA).  During 
two  years  the  Alabama  scoured  the  seas,  and 
captured  no  less  than  M>  vi-.-scls.  of  which  59 
were  burned  ami  one  sunk,  the  remainder 
being  released  on  bond.  She  entered  Cher- 
bourg for  the  purpose  of  taking  in  coal,  and 
undergoing  repairs,  June  n,  1864.  The  United 
•hip-of-war  A"«/ /•.«/</<••,  ('apt.  Winslow, 
appeared  at  the  entrance  to  the  port,  June  i.\. 
(.'apt.  Semmes  steamed  from  the  harbour, 
Sunday,  June  19,  and,  in  sight  of  th> 
of  Cherbourg,  opened  tire  upon  the  enemy. 
The  engagement,  which  was  fought  entirely 
with  the  guns,  the  belligerents  never  coming 
within  boarding  di  1  upwards  of 

an  hour.  Capt.  Semmes,  finding  that  the  Ala- 
bama was  sinking,  was  consequent! 
polled  to  strike  his  colours.  The  captain  and 
several  of  the  crew  were  picked  up  by  the 
English  yacht  Deerhoni«i.  Nineteen,  including 
the  English  surgeon,  Mr.  D.  H.  Llewellyn, 
were  drowned,  making,  with  7  killed  and  21 
wounded,  a  total  loss  of  47  out  of  the  crew  of 
the  Alabama. 

ALAND  ISI.F.S  Gulf  of  Bothnia'.— The 
group,  consisting  of  80  inhabited  and  200  unin- 
habited islands,  formerly  belonged  to  Sweden, 
but  was  seized  by  Russia,  and  ceded  to  her  by 
Sweden  in  1809.  A  naval  engagement  between 
the  Swedes  and  Russians,  in  which  the  latter 
were  victorious,  was  fought  here  in  1714.  A 
congress  assembled  here  May  23  (O.S.  i2\.  1718, 
but  was  abruptly  terminated  by  the  Russians 
Sep.  24,  1719.  The  Russian  fortifications  were 
captured  and  destroyed  by  a  joint  expedition 
of  English  and  French  troops  in  the  autumn 
of  1854.  The  victors  took  2,235  prisoners,  72 
unmounted  guns,  7  field-pieces,  and  3  mortars. 
They  afterwards  abandoned  the  islands,  which 
were  re-occupied  by  the  Russians,  By  a  sepa- 


rate convention  between  England,  France,  and 
Russia,  annexed  to  the  treaty  of  Paris  April 
27,  1856^,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  agreed  "  that 
the  Aland  Isles  should  not  be  fortified,  and  that 
no  military  or  naval  establishment  shall  be 
maintained  or  created  there." 

A  I.  AM,  or  A  LANS,  one  of  the  Tartar  or 
nomadic  races  of  Asia,  which,  at  the  time  they 
first  came  in  contact  with  the  Romans,  during 
Pompcy's  expedition  to  the  Caucasus,  B.C.  65, 
inhabited  some  portion  of  the  mountainous 
regions  to  the  north  of  the  Euxine.  Gibbon 
(chap,  xxvi.)  says,  "  a  naked  scimitar,  fixed  in 
the  ground,  was  the  only  object  of  their  religious 
worship."  Having  been  conquered  by  the 
Huns,  the  Alani  joined  them  in  their  incur- 
sions into  Kumpe.  They  invaded  the  Gothic 
kingdom  of  llermanric  in  375.  Theodosius 
;  them,  as  allies  of  the  Goths,  in  the 
war  in  ^79 — 382.  They  joined  the  Vandals  in 
the  invasion"  of  Gaul  in  406,  and  of  Spain  in 
409;  and  in  428  they  received  Lusitania,  ( 'ar- 
.  and  other  parts  of  Spain,  B 
the  conquest.  Many  of  them 
under  Gcnseric,  in  his  African  war  of  429; 
whilst  the  Alani  of  the  Caucasus  followed  Attila 
in  his  attack  upon  the  Kastcrn  empire  in  441. 
Their  defection  at  the  battle  of  Chalons,  in  451, 
during  Attila's  invasion  of  Gaul,  led  to  their 
conquest  by  Torisinoiid,  King  of  the  Vi 
in  452,  after  which  they  ceased  to  be  an  in- 
dependent people. 

A I .  A  I :  •  .  —  Fought  near  A  larcos,  in 

Spain,  Wednesday,  July  in.,    11^5,  between  thu 

:id  the  Spaniards.      The  former  were 

victorious,    and    the    town    itself    and    20,000 

prisoners  fell   into  their  hands. 

AI.Asr A.M.— The  followers  of  John 
a  Polish  divine,  uncle  to  the  king  of  Poland.    He 
left  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  the  Refor- 
mation,   and    at    the    invitation    of    Cranmer 
came   to   Kn^land    in    1551.      He   held    j 
opinion-  the    Kueharist,    applying 

the  words  "  this  is  my  body"  to  both  the  ele- 
ments. He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus  and 
Melancthon,  and,  after  officiating  at  the  Dutch 
church  in  Austin  Friars,  quitted  Knuland  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Mary,  and  retired  to  his  own 
country,  where  he  died  in  1560. 

AI.Il'A  Italy  .—This  ancient  city  of  central 
Italy,  one  of  the  oldest  strongholds  of  tho 
.Kquians,  was,  upon  the  subjugation  of  that 
people  by  the  Romans,  colonized  by  about  6,000 
of  the  victors.  Its  inhabitants  sent  a  strong 
body  of  men  to  assist  the  Romans  against 
Hannibal,  B.C.  211,  but  incurred  severe  penalties 
from  their  refusal  to  supply  further  reinforce- 
ments, B.C.  209. 

ALBA  I.oXG A  LatiunV,  or  "White  Long- 
town." — Of  the  history  of  this  ancient  city, 
about  15  miles  S.E.  of  Rome,  little  is  known 
previous  to  its  conquest  by  the  Romans  B.C. 
665.  According  to  the  traditional  account,  it 
was  founded  by  Ascanius,  son  of  JEneas,  B.C. 
1152.  It  was  called  "Longa"from  it> 
tion  upon  a  steep  hill,  with  a  narrow  summit ; 
and  "Alba,"  in  allusion  to  the  milk-white  sow 
which  yEneas,  in  obedience  to  the  oracle,  is 
said  to  have  followed  on  his  landing  in  Italy. 
Alba  was  for  some  time  the  centre  of  the 
league,  consisting  of  30  Latin  cities.  It  is 


ALBA 


ALBERT 


difficult,  however,  to  separate  the  authentic 
from  the  fabulous  in  its  history,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  summary : — 

B.C. 
1143.  Ascanius  succeeded  by  Sylvius  Posthumus. 

1114.  .(Eneas  Sylvius  king. 

1043.  Latinus  king. 

103*.  Alba  succeeds. 

1003.  Capetus,  or  Atys,  king. 

976.  Capys  kin?. 

916.  Calpetus  king. 

903.  Tiberinus  king. 

895.  Tiberinus  is  defeated,  nnd  droxvns  himself  in  the 
Albula,  thenceforth  called  the  Tiber  (q.  t>.).  Ho  was 
succeeded  on  the  throne  by  Agrippa. 

864.  Romulus  king. 

845.  Aventinus  king. 

808.  Procas  kin- 
N  imitiir  kin-. 

i!iu<  iiturps  tho  throno  of  his  brother  Xumitor, 
roinlfiimin-  his  nice,'  Ilia  to  a  life  of  celibacy. 

770.  Iliu  having  hri-n  forced  to  break  her  vow,  and  given 
birth  to  twin*,  is  buried  ulivi-.  The  rhildren  having 
been  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  are  rescued  near  Mount 
Avi-iitinc  liv  tin-  »hi-]ilicrd  Kaustulus.  They  are 
suckled  by  his  wife  Acca  Larentia,  suruamed 
Lupa,  aud  are  naim-d  H.niiulus  and  Remus. 

754.  Romulus  put  Atuulius  to  death,  and  restored  his 
grandfather  Numitor  to  tin;  throne. 

753.  Rome  (q.  r.)  is  founded  by  Romulus. 

(.71.  riiuliu-  -i'-ii'U  ambassadors  to  Rome  to  complain  to 
Tullus  Ilostilius  of  a  trespass  by  the  Romans  on  the 
Alban  territory. 

670.  Combat  iH-twren  the  Horatii  (q.  v.)  and  the  Curiatil. 
The  Alban*  .submit  to  Rome. 

664.  The  Albans  rebel,  and   incite  the  Veientes  and  the 

Pidteneans  to  make  war  against  Rome. 

665.  The  Alban  general  Mettius  U  defeated.  Alba  Longa 

(1. -itroyed,  and  its  inhabitants  are  transferred   to 
Home. 

ALBA  DE  TORMES  (Spain).— This  fortified 
town  was  captured  by  Kellermann,  Nov.  25, 
1809,  and  became  the  scene  of  several  struggles 
during  the  Peninsular  war. 

ALBANIA  Asia; .  — This  country,  washed  by 
the  Caspian  Sea,  first  became  known  to  the  an- 
cient world  through  Pompey's  expedition  into 
the  Caucasus  in  pursuit  of  Mithridates,  B.C.  65. 
One  legend  represented  the  inhabitants  as  the 
descendants  of  Jason  and  his  companions  in 
the  Argonautic  expedition.  Its  rulers  did 
homage  to  Trajan  when  he  invaded  Albania, 
A.D.  116.  Little  is  known  concerning  this 
country,  which  forms  part  of  the  modern 
Georgia.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  the 
early  Church. 

ALBANIA  (European  Turkey)  comprises  part 
of  the  ancient  Epirus,  Illyria,  -and  Chaonia. 
Its  early  history  is  obscure.  The  Albanians,  a 
sturdy  and  valiant  race,  termed  by  Gibbon  "a 
vagrant  tribe  of  shepherds  and  robbers,"  long 
maintained  their  independence.  Their  country 
was  invaded  by  Robert  Guiscard  in  1081,  and  a 
portion  of  it  conquered  by  Amurath  I.  in  1388. 
From  these  reverses  the  Albanians  recovered, 
and,  under  their  leader,  George  Castriot,  called 
by  the  Turks  Scanderbeg,  in  1443,  resisted  the 
conqueror  of  Constantinople,  Mohammed  II. 
The  Albanians  overran  the  Morea  in  1460,  but 
were  vanquished  in  1478.  Another  struggle 
with  Turkey  commenced  in  1809,  and  was  car- 
ried on  with  varied  success  until  1822,  when 
the  Albanians  were  subdued.  The  insurrection 
of  1843,  excited  by  the  Tanzimat,  or  law  of 
enlistment,  was  suppressed  by  Omar  Pasha. 

ALBANS,  ST.— This  town  in  Hertfordshire, 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Verulam,  is  sup- 


posed, on  good  authority,  to  be  the  place  which 
Caesar  stormed  B.C.  54.  The  Britons,  under 
Boadicea,  Queen  of  the  Iceni,  took  it  A.D.  61, 
and  slaughtered  many  of  the  inhabitants.  It 
received  its  present  name  from  Alban,  the 
proto-martyr  of  Britain,  who  suffered  in  304. 
The  spot  where  the  relics  of  the  saint  had  been 
interred  was  said  to  have  been  miraculously 
discovered  by  King  Offa,  who,  in  795,  founded 
the  monastery,  exempting  it  from  the  payment 
of  Peter's  pence,  and  from  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion. The  town  itself  was  built  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Ulsig,  the  sixth  Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  in 
950.  Adrian  IV.,  a  native  of  St.  Albans,  granted 
further  privileges  to  the  abbey  in  1154.  Tho 
Abbot  of  St.  Albans  had  a  seat  in  Parliament, 
and  took  precedence  of  all  other  abbots.  Ed- 
ward II.  visited  the  place,  and  investigated  the 
relics  of  the  saint,  in  1313.  The  barons  assem- 
bled here,  and  demanded  the  banishment  of 
the  Despensers,  in  1321.  The  abbey  was  granted 
in  commendam  to  Cardinal  Wolsey  in  1521.  The 
town,  incorporated  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  was 
disfranchised  for  bribery  by  15  Viet.  c.  9  (1852). 

ALBANS,  ST.  (Battles).— The  first  fought 
Thursday,  May  22,  1455,  between  the  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster,  was  the  first  victory  in 
the  wars  of  the  Roses.  The  Duke  of  York 
gained  the  day,  and  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
who  led  the  Lancastrians,  was  slain.  Henry 
VI.  was  wounded  by  an  arrow  and  taken 
prisoner. — The  second  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween Barnet  and  St.  Albans,  on  Shrove  Tues- 
day, Feb.  17,  1461.  The  Lancastrians  were  com- 
manded by  Queen  Margaret,  who  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  the  Yorkists,  led  by  the 
Earl  of  Warwick,  and  rescued  Henry  VI.,  who 
was  a  prisoner  in  their  hands. 

ALBAYDA  (Spain),  taken  from  its  founders, 
the  Moors,  and  peopled  with  Christians,  by 
James  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  in  1258. 

ALBERT  MAUSOLEUM.  — Queen  Victoria 
laid  the  first  stone  of  this  building  at  Frog- 
more,  intended  to  receive  the  remains  of  Prince 
Albert,  March  15,  1862.  The  coffin  containing 
the  body  was  removed  from  St.  George's  Chapel 
to  the  Mausoleum  Dec.  18,  1862. 

ALBERT  MEMORIAL.— Prince  Albert,  Con- 
sort of  Queen  Victoria,  died  at  Windsor  Castle, 
Dec.  14, 1861,  and  was  buried  Dec.  23.  A  meeting 
to  consider  the  propriety  of  erecting  a  suitable 
memorial  was  held  at  the  Mansion  House  under 
the  presidency  of  Lord  Mayor  Cubitt,  Jan.  14, 
1862,  when  .£4,000  were  subscribed,  which  sum 
had  increased,  at  a  meeting  held  Jan.  22,  to 
£11, 680.  The  Queen  having  been  consulted 
with  respect  to  the  proposed  memorial,  a  letter 
was  received  by  the  committee,  Feb.  21,  in 
which  General  Grey  stated  that  an  obelisk 
erected  in  Hyde  Park,  on  the  site  of  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851,  would,  if  of  sufficiently 
grand  proportions,  best  accord  with  the  Royal 
wishes.  The  Earls  of  Derby  and  Clarendon, 
Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  and  the  Lord  Mayor, 
formed  a  committee,  Feb.  26,  for  carrying  this 
suggestion  into  effect,  and  great  efforts  were 
made  to  procure  a  block  of  stone  large  enough 
for  the  purpose.  These  efforts,  however,  prov- 
ing fruitless,  a  committee  of  architects  was 
appointed,  who  recommended  that  a  space  of 
1,200  feet  by  340  should  be  appropriated  ou 


ALBI 


t    32    1 


ALBUERA 


the  north  side  of  the  Kensington  Road  for  en- 
trances to  Hyde  Park,  fountains,  &c.,  and  that 
the  memorial,  consisting  of  bronze  or  marble 
statuary,  should  occupy  the  centre  of  this  area. 
It  was  further  resolved  to  erect  a  spacious  hall 
as  a  place  for  general  art-meetings,  or  other 
assemblies  in  London  connected  with  social 
science  and  its  kindred  pursuits,  and  the  lead- 
ing architects  of  the  kingdom  were  invited  to 
send  in  their  designs  by  Jan.  i,  1863.  The 
design  selected  was  that  of  Mr.  G.  G.  Scott, 
and  comprised  "a  colossal  statue  of  the  prince, 
placed  beneath  a  vast  and  magnificent  shrine 
or  tabernacle,  and  surrounded  by  works  of 
sculpture  illustrating  those  arts  and  sciences 
which  he  fostered,  and  the  great  undertakings 
which  he  originated."  The  works  for  the 
national  memorial  in  Hyde  Park  were  com- 
menced May  13,  1864.  (See  HORTICULTURAL 
GARDENS.  )  Albert  Memorials  have  been  erected 
in  other  places.  (See  ABERDEEN,  COBURG, 
EXETER,  PERTH,  TENBY,  <fec.) 

ALBI  (France  ,  the  ancient  Albiga,  was 
ravaged  by  the  Saracens  in  730.  The  AH 
(q.  v.)  are  said  to  have  derived  their  name  from 
this  place,  where  large  numbersof  them  <hvt.-lt. 
Albi  was  long  governed  by  its  own  count-.  1 1 
was  a  great  stronghold  of  the  Protestants 
during  the  wars  of  religion  in  France.  Albi 
was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  at  an  early  period, 
and  Louis  XIV.  erected  it  into  a  metropolitan 
see  in  1676.  Its  cathedral,  commenced  in  1282, 
was  completed  in  1512.  Councils  were  held  here 
in  1176  and  1255. 

ALBICI.— This  Gallic  tribe,  inhabitants  «.f 
the  mountains  above  Massilia,  the  modern  Mar- 
seilles, fought  with  considerable  bravery  in  a 
sea-fight  between  the  people  of  that  place  and 
the  fleet  of  Julius  Ceesar,  commanded  by  D. 
Brutus,  B.C.  49. 

ALBIGENSES. — Of  these  early  opponents  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  the  Paulieians,  who  arose 
in  the  yth  century,  appear,  as  Kal>er  states,  to 
have  been  "  the  theological  ancestors."  The 
Paulieians,  wearied  by  persecution,  quitted 
Asia,  and  sought  refuge  in  Europe,  some  of 
them  settling  in  the  south  of  France.  In  Italy 
they  were  called  Paterini  and  (,'athari,  and  in 
France  Alhigenses,  from  the  town  Albi,  where 
they  dwelt  in  great  numbers.  The  term  was, 
however,  applied  to  other  sects.  The  first  con- 
gregation of  the  Albigenses  is  said  to  have  been 
discovered  at  Orleans  in  1017  ;  and  they  began 
to  attract  the  notice  of  the  dominant  church 
before  the  end  of  the  nth  century.  They  were 
condemned  by  a  council  held  at  Tours  .May  19, 
1163.  About  the  year  1200,  the  Albigenses, 
and  other  anti-Roman  sects,  which  were  loosely 
included  under  the  same  denomination,  had 
become  so  numerous  that  they  were  in  pos- 
session of  Toulouse  and  18  of  the  principal 
towns  in  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  Dauphinu, 
which  then  constituted  an  independent  sove- 
reignty u  ider  Raymond  VI.  A  crusade  was 
proclaimed  against  him  and  his  subjects  by 
Pope  Innocent  III.  (1207  and  1208),  and  an 
army  of  500,000  men  was  led  against  them 
by  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  in 
1209.  A  merciless  war  was  waged  for  four 
years,  until  Pedro  of  Aragon,  Raymond's 
kinsman  and  ally,  was  killed  in  battle, 


Sep.  12,  1213,  and  De  Montfort  was  supreme. 
He  was  slain  in  an  insurrection  at  Toulouse 
in  1218.  The  war  was  renewed,  but  with 
little  success,  until,  in  1225,  Louis  VIII.  t<>,,k 
the  cross  and  marched  into  Languedoc.  He 
died  in  a  few  months,  but  the  war  was  con- 
tinued in  the  name  of  the  young  king,  Louis 
IX.  In  April,  1229,  Raymond  VIII.  abdicated, 
and  was  brought  to  Paris  and  scourged  by  the 
priest*  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses, the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  v. 
opened,  about  the  year  1210.  The  Albigenses 
were  condemned  by  several  councils.  Much 
controversy  has  been  excited,  even  of  late 
-pecting  the  Albigenses,  their  history, 
and  doctrines.  The  subject  has  been  fully  dis- 
cussed by  Dr.  Gilly,  in  his  "\Yaldensian  Ke- 
seai dies  ;"  in  the  Rev.  George  S.  Faber's 
"  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the 
Aiifient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses  ;"  and  in  Mait- 
laiid's  "Vallenses  and  All  licenses."  The  latter 
writer  contends  that  the  name  was  not  used  as 
the  title  of  a  particular  religious  sect  until  long 
after  the  Council  of  Albi  1255  . 

AI.MI.N'OS,  or  white  negroes,  so  called  by 
the  Portuguese,  are  found  amongst  the  African 
races,  as  well  as  in  Central  Spanish  America. 
Cortes  noticed  them  in  Mexico  in  1560,  and 
Lionel  Wafer  in  Darien,  towards  the  end  of  the 
ijtli  century. 

ALBUM. A  Matties'.— In  809  Pcpin  advanced 
against  the  Venetians,  and,  after  capturing 
several  places,  penetrated  as  far  as  Albiola  with 
his  fleet.  The  shallowness  of  the  water  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  reach  the  central  island 
without  throwing  a  bridge  across  the  narrow 
channel  between  Albiola  and  Hialto.  This  was 
done ;  but  the  rude  structure  broke  down 
under  the  weight  of  the  invaders,  who  were 
precipitated  into  the  lagoon.  The  ti<r 
while  had  ebbed,  and  their  vessels  were 
stranded  ;  so  that  those  Franks  who  escaped  a 
watery  grave  fell  a  prey  to  the  Venetians.  This 
victory  secured  the  deliverance  of  Venice. — 
Near  the  same  place  the  Huns  were  <>• 
in  906.  The  Venetians,  under  the  command  of 
their  chief  magistrate,  completely  de 
their  vessels,  and  but  few  of  the  enemy 
managed  to  escape. 

A  LB I  ON.— Aristotle  (B.C.  384—6.0.  322)  is 
the  first  who  speaks  of  England  by  this  name. 
He  says  (De  Mundo,  c.  3  ,  "In  the  ocean  be- 
yond the  Pillars  of  Hercules  are  two  large 
islands,  called  Bretannic,  Albion  and  lerne." 
The  notion  that  the  name  is  derived  either 
from  its  white  roses,  or  its  white  cliffs,  as  many 
writers  represent,  is  discussed  in  Notes  and 
Queries,  ^rd  Series,  Vol.  IV.,  pages  193  and  274. 
(See  BRITANNIA.) 

ALBION  CLUB  (London)  established  early 
in  the  century,  was  dissolved  in  1841. 

ALBUERA  (Battles).— Alphonso  V.,  of  Por- 
tugal, was  defeated  here  Feb.  24,  1479;  upon 
which  he  made  peace  with  Castile.  —  Lord 
Beresford,  having  been  compelled,  by  the  ap- 
proach of  Soult  with  the  French  army,  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Badajos,  resolved  to  make  a  stand 
at  the  village  of  Albuera,  between  Badajos  and 
Seville.  His  army  amounted  to  30,000  infantry 
and  2,000  cavalry  ;  but  of  these  three-fourths 


ALBUFERA 


[    33    1 


ALCORAZA 


were  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  German  troops. 
They  had  38  guns.  Soult  had  under  his  com- 
mand nearly  20,000  infantry  and  4,000  cavalry, 
veteran  troops,  supported  hy  50  pieces  of 
artillery.  The  battle  commenced  early  in 
the  morning,  May  16,  1811,  and  after  a  terrific 
contest,  in  which  victory  wavered  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  the  French  were  defeated. 
They  lost  8,000,  whilst  the  allied  anny  had  to 
deplore  a  loss  of  nearly  7,000  men.  The  brunt 
of  the  action  was  borne  by  the  English,  who 
had  only  1,500  un wounded  men  left,  "  the  rem- 
nant of  6,000  unconquerable  British  soldiers." 

ALBUFERA  (Battle).— Fought  near  the  lake 
of  this  name,  in  Valencia,  in  Spain,  Jan.  4,  1812, 
between  the  French  and  Spaniards.  The 
former  were  victorious,  and  Marshal  Suchet, 
their  commander,  was  made  Duke  of  Albufera 
in  honour  of  his  triumph. 

ALBUM,  amongst  the  Romans,  meant  a  tab- 
let containing  anything  of  a  public  nature, 
and  was  so  called  either  because  it  was  made 
of  white  material,  or  because  the  inscription 
was  in  white.  The  term  was  applied  to  the 
blank  book  kept  at  monasteries  to  register  the 
names  of  benefactors,  and  Bede  (673-735)  m" 
forms  Bishop  Gadfrith  that  his  name  was 
registered  in  the  album  of  l.indisfame.  The 
modern  album  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
Germany,  in  the  i6th  century.  Stryjic  men- 
tions that  he  had  seen  one  belonging  to  Eninnm:! 
Demetrius,  the  Dutchman,  in  the  Stranger's 
Church  at  St.  Austin  Friars. 

A  I  .<  A I  .A  (Spain),  rebuilt  near  the  site  of  the 
Roman  town  of  Complutum,  in  1083,  was 
wrested  from  the  Moors  towards  the  close 
of  the  1 2th  century,  and  was  surrounded  by 
walls  by  Tenorio,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  in 
1389.  At  the  University,  founded  by  Ximenes 
in  1500,  and  opened  in  1508,  the  celebrated 
Complutensian  Bible  (q.  v.)  was  printed  in  1514 
and  1515.  Cervantes  was  born  here  in  1547. 

AI.CAXTARA.— This  town  in  Spain,  the 
Norba  Csesarea  of  the  Romans,  is  celebrated 
for  its  magnificent  bridge  over  the  Tagus,  built 
by  Trajan  in  104.  It  had  six  arches,  one  of 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1809  ; 
and  during  the  same  year  the  structure  was 
more  seriously  injured  by  the  French  general 
Victor,  and  was  burned  in  1836.  In  1580  a 
Spanish  and  Italian  force,  under  the  command 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  sent  against  the  Portu- 
guese, gained  a  victory  over  Antonio,  who  had 
been  proclaimed  King  of  Portugal  at  Santarem, 
June  24,  1580.  The  Earl  of  Galway  captured 
this  town,  after  a  short  siege,  April  25  (O.S.  14), 
1706. 

ALCANTARA  (9rder).— One  of  the  five  mili- 
tary orders  of  Spain,  founded  in  1156,  and  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in  1177.  It  was 
subject  to  the  order  of  Calatrava  until  1411. 
The  grand  mastership  was  annexed  to  the 
crown  in  1495.  The  knights  obtained  per- 
mission to  marry  in  1540. 

ALCAZAR,  or  ALCAZARQUIVER  (Battle).— 
Fought  between  the  Moors  and  the  Portuguese, 
under  Sebastian,  Aug.  4,  1578.  The  latter  were 
completely  defeated,  and  their  monarch  was 
slain. 

ALCHEMY.— In  a  vain  search  for  the  philo- 
sopher's stone,  supposed  to  possess  the  property 


of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold,  the 
elixir  of  life,  <fcc.,  valuable  facts  were  collected, 
by  which  the  science  of  chemistry  was  greatly 
advanced.  The  origin  of  alchemy  has  formed 
the  subject  of  much  discussion.  Gibbon,  in 
commenting  upon  the  destmction,  by  Dio- 
cletian, in  his  conquest  of  Egypt,  in  296,  of  all 
ancient  books  that  treated  upon  the  art  of 
making  gold  and  silver,  remarks,  "These 
ancient  books,  so  liberally  ascribed  to  Pytha- 
goras, to  Solomon,  or  to  Hermes,  were  tho 
pious  frauds  of  more  recent  adepts.  The 
Greeks  were  inattentive  either  to  the  use  or 
to  the  abuse  of  chemistry.  In  that  immense 
register,  where  Pliny  has  deposited  the  dis- 
coveries, the  arts,  and  the  errors  of  mankind, 
there  is  not  the  least  mention  of  tho  transmu- 
tation of  metals  ;  and  the  persecution  of  Dio- 
cletian is  the  first  authentic  event  in  the 
history  of  alchemy.  The  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  the  Arabs  diffused  that  vain  science  over 
the  globe.  Congenial  to  the  avarice  of  the 
human  heart,  it  was  studied  in  China,  as  in 
Europe,  with  equal  eagerness  and  with  equal 
success.  The  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  in- 
sured a  favourable  reception  to  every  tale  of 
wonder,  and  the  revival  of  learning  gave  new 
vigour  to  hope,  and  suggested  more  specious 
arts  of  deception."  Alchemy  passed  from  the 
Egyptians  to  the  Arabians.  Geber,  who  wrote 
a  celebrated  work  on  the  subject  in  the  oth 
century,  declares  that  he  derived  most  of  his 
knowledge  on  the  transmutation  of  metals 
from  the  ancient  sages.  Sharpe  (Hist,  of  Egypt, 
ii.  119)  says:  "The  later  Arabs  called  che- 
mistry Alchemia,  or  the  Egyptian  art :  and 
hence  our  words  alchemy  and  chemistry." 
Alchemy  became  a  favourite  pursuit  in  many 
European  countries  during  the  Middle  Ages  ; 
and  various  enactments  on  the  subject  are 
found  in  our  statute  book.  Edward  I.  and 
Edward  III.  were  believers  in  alchemy,  and  a 
proclamation  of  the  last-mentioned  monarch 
was  issued  in  1329,  for  the  apprehension  of  two 
famous  men  who  knew  how  to  make  silver  by 
the  art  of  alchemy,  and  who  "may  be  profit- 
able to  us  and  our  kingdom."  The  craft  of 
multiplication  was  declared  felony  by  5  Henry 
IV.  c.  4  (1404),  alchemists  being  at  that  period 
termed  multipliers.  Although  Henry  VI., 
about  1456,  published  a  patent  permitting  the 
search  after  the  philosopher's  stone,  the  statute 
of  Henry  IV.  was  not  repealed  until  1689. 
Amongst  the  most  celebrated  alchemists  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  may  be  mentioned  Albertus 


Magnus,  born  1193;  Roger  Bacon,  1214;  Ar- 
noldus  de  Villa  Nova,  about  1235  ;  Raymond 
Lully,  1234  ;  the  Isaacs  of  Holland,  in  the 


i3th  century  ;  Paracelsus,  1493 ;  and  Van  Hel- 
mont,  called  the  last  of  the  alchemists,  in 
1577.  Some  experiments  were  made  at  Guild- 
ford  in  May,  1782,  by  one  Dr.  Price,  who  was 
afterwards  proved  to  be  an  impostor.  The 
elder  Disraeli  states  that  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
assured  him  that  "making  gold  might  be  no 
impossible  thing,  though,  publicly  divulged,  a 
very  useless  discovery." 

ALCORAZA  (Battle),  fought  Nov.  18,  1006, 
between  the  Moors  and  the  Christians  under 
Pedro  I.,  during  the  siege  of  Huesca,  in  Spain. 
The  struggle  was  long  and  desperate ;  both 

D 


ALDENHOVEN 


[    34    ] 


ALE-HOUSE 


armies  encamped  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  the 
Moors  withdrew  during  the  night.  Huesca 
(q.  v.)  capitulated  Nov.  25.  (See  ARAOON.) 

ALDEMIOYEX  (Battles).— The  French  re- 
publican army  sustained  two  defeats  near  this 
town,  in  the  Netherlands,  Feb.  28  and  March 

'  ALDERMAN,  in  Saxon  ealdorman,  a  term 
applied  to  a  person  appointed  to  exercise 
authority  on  account  of  his  age  and  ex- 
perience, was  a  dignity  of  the  highest  rank, 
both  hereditary  and  official,  nearly  synonymous 
with  that  of  king.  Caruden  says  the  word 
answered  to  the  Latin  word  xi'imin,- ;  and 
Sharon  Turner  styles  the  alderman  "the 
highest  officer  in  the  kingdom."  In  the  Laws 
of  Ina  (693)  an  alderman  ranked  with  the  wise 
men  of  the  witan.  The  title  seems  at  diffe- 
rent periods  to  have  corresponded  to  those  <>f 
earl,  count,  duke,  nobleman,  <fcc.  Thus,  Klfric, 
Duke  of  Mercia,  is  styled  in  Ethelred's  laws 
(978—1016)  ealdorman.  The  same  thing  occurs 
in  the  Saxon  Chronicle.  There  was  the  alder- 
man of  all  England,  the  king's  alderman,  and 
the  aldermen  of  counties,  cities,  boroughs,  hos- 
pitals, <fcc.  According  to  the  "  Liber  Albus," 
it  appears  that  the  three  offices  of  mayor,  alder- 
man, and  sheriff  have  existed  in  the  city  of 
London  since  1066,  and  that  alder  nr 
interred  with  baronial  honours  from  1350, 
although  the  custom  afterwards  ceased.  Graf- 
ton  says  that  aldermen,  as  city  officers,  were 
first  chosen  in  the  city  of  London  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.,  about  the  year  1241.  The  title 
of  alderman  of  the  hundred  was  introduced 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 

ALDERNEY  (English  Channel'.— This  island 
was  united  to  the  English  dominions  by  the 
first  Norman  princes.  On  the  Caskets,  a  dan- 
gerous reef  near  the  island.  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  only  son  of  Henry  I.,  was  wrecked 
on  his  return  from  Normandy,  Nov.  25,  1120. 
About  140  young  noblemen  perished  with  him. 
Throxigh  the  narrow  channel  separating  the 
island  from  France,  and  called  the  Race  of 
Alderney,  the  remnant  of  the  French  licet 
escaped  after  their  defeat  at  La  Hoguc,  by  the 
English  and  Dutch,  May  22,  1692.  Here  also 
the  Victory,  of  no  guns,  commanded  by  Ad- 
miral Balchen,  was  wrecked,  Oct.  5,  1744, 
when  all  on  board  perished.  Extensive  forti- 
fications and  a  breakwater  have  been  in  course 
of  erection  at  Alderney  since  1850. 

ALDERSHOT.— This  camp  is  situated  be- 
tween Farnborough  and  Farnham,  in  Hamp- 
shire, about  36  miles  from  London.  In  1854 
;£ioo,ooowas  granted  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing land  to  form  a  permanent  camp  for  the  pro- 
per training  of  our  troops.  A  portion  of  a  large 
moor,  named  Aldershot,  was  immediately  pur- 
chased. The  camp  thus  formed,  seven  square 
miles  in  extent,  was  divided  into  the  north 
and  south  camps,  the  former  capable  of  accom 
modating  8,000,  and  the  latter  12,000  men. 
Further  purchases  of  land  were  made,  and,  in 
1856,  7,062  acres  having  been  obtained,  at  a 
cost  of  ^135,445,  28,181  men  were  stationed 
there.  The  camp  was  inaugurated  by  Queen 
Victoria,  April  18,  1856. 

ALDINE  PRESS  was  established  at  Venice 
in  1494,  by  Aldo  Manuzio,  or  Aldus  Manutius, 


according  to  the  Latin.  Aldo  left  Venice  in 
1506,  but  returned  and  reopened  his  press  in 
1512,  when  he  published  highly-esteemed  edi- 
tions of  the  classics,  <fcc.  The  printers  of 
Lyons  and  Florence  began  to  issue  counterfeit 
Aldines  about  the  year  1502. 

A  1,1;  and  I5KKK  were  manufactured  at  a 
very  early  period.  Herodotus  states  that  the 
Egyptians  prepared  a  beverage,  which  he 
terms  wine,  from  fermented  barley;  Pliny 
the  Elder  asserts  that  the  Western  nations 
made  intoxicating  drinks  from  steeped  grain  ; 
it  us  describes  a  fermented  liquor  ex- 
tracted from  grain,  the  common  beverage  of 
the  ancient  Germans.  .Mead,  or  metheglin, 
was  in  use  amongst  the  early  inhabitants  of 
northern  Europe;  and  amongst  the  pleasures 
which  the  Scandinavian  heroes  were  promised 
;!h,  was  that  of  drinking  ale  out  of 
carvd  hnrns,  in  their  Valhalla,  or  palace  of 
the  gods.  Some  preparation  of  this  kind  was 
the  favourite  beverage  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
I  of  Welsh  ale  are  mentioned  in  the 
laws  of  King  Ina.  The  price  of  ale  was  re- 
gulated by  the  early  Norman  priiic. 
the  preamble  of  51"  Hen.  III.  st.  i. 
which  established  a  graduated  scale  for  the 
price  of  ale,  alludes  to  earlier  ordinances  on 
the  same  subject.  By  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4,  s.  5 
(1532  ,  brewers  were  allowed  greater  latitude 
pect  to  the  prices  at  which  they  sold 
their  ale.  From  this  period  various  laws  on 
the  subject  are  found  in  the  statute-book. 
Hops  were  not  used  when  ale  or  beer  was  first 
made,  as  they  were  not  known  in  this  country 
until  the  isfh  century,  and  are  first  noticed 
in  the  statute-book  in  1552.  Ale  was  one  of 
the  first  articles  on  which  the  excise  duty 
was  laid.  By  a  parliamentary  ordinance, 
lay  16,  1643,  duties  were  levied  on  ale 
or  beer,  and  by  12  Charles  II.,  cc.  23  &  24 
(1660),  the  excise  was  continued.  These  enact- 
•  ere  confirmed  by  several  sub- 

The  duties  were  repealed  by  i  Will. 
IV.  c.  51  (July  16,  1830  ,  from  Oct.  10  in  that 
year.  Sir  Henry  Ellis,  in  his  edition  of 
"  Brand's  Popular  Antiquities"  (vol.  i.  p.  279), 
says,  that  the  word  ale  means  nothing  more 
than  a  feast  or  merry-making.  Hence  the 
Bride-ale,  Church-ale,  Clerk-ale,  Lamb-ale, 
Leet-ale,  Midsummer-ale,  Whitsun-ale,  <fcc., 
feasts  celebrated  by  our  forefathers. 

AI.K  (  <>.\NKR,Mi-AI.i:  I  '  TNDER,  an  officer 
appointed  in  every  court  leet,  to  taste  ale  or 
beer,  to  see  that  it  was  wholesome,  and  that  it 
was  sold  at  the  regulated  price.  The  "Liber 
Albus"  contains  the  oath  taken  by  the  city 
ale-conners  in  the  time  of  Henry  V. 

AI.K -linrsE,  or  SHOP,  is  mentioned  in  the 
laws  of  King  Ethelred.  Malpractices  arose, 
and  the  then  existing  regulations  not  being 
sufficient,  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  2,  s.  5  1495  ,  an  act 
against  vagabonds  and  beggars,  placed  ale- 
houses under  the  jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  In  consequence  of  abuses  and  disorders 
in  "common  ale-houses  and  tippling-houses," 
a  more  stringent  enactment  was  made  by  4  &  5 
Edw.  VI.  c.  25  (1552  ,  and  this  statute  fur- 
nished the  basis  of  future  legislation  on  the 
subject.  Various  changes  in  the  licensing  laws 
ensued,  and  by  i  Will.  IV.  c.  64  i-July  23, 


ALEMANNI 


[    35    ] 


ALEUTIAN 


1830),  greater  facilities  were  afforded  for  the 
sale  of  ale  and  beer.  This  act  has  been 
amended.  The  sale  of  ale  and  beer,  &c.,  on 
Sunday,  has  frequently  been  a  subject  of  legis- 
lation, and  a  very  stringent  law,  17  &  18  Viet, 
c.  86  (Aug  10,  1854^,  was  repealed  by  18  <fc  19 
Viet.  c.  118  (Aug.  14,  1855),  by  which  statute  it 
is  regulated. 

ALEMANNI,  or  ALLMEN,  a  mixed  body  of 
Suevi,  who,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Cara- 
cal la  211 — 217)  hovered  round  the  Roman  pro- 
vinces in  pursuit  of  plunder.  Their  territories 
were  invaded  and  they  were  defeated  by  the 
emperor  in  214.  They  invaded  Gaul  and  Italy, 
penetrating  to  Ravenna  in  259 ;  but  withdrew 
at  the  approach  of  an  army  levied  by  the 
Roman  senate.  They  were  defeated  by  Au- 
relian  in  270 ;  by  Julian  in  357  ;  and  by  Jo- 
yinus  in  July,  368.  They  obtained  settlements 
in  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine, 
from  its  source  to  its  junction  with  the  Maine 
and  the  Moselle,  and  were  checked  in  their 
pursuit  of  further  conquests,  whilst  their  last 
king  was  slain  at  the  battle  on  the  plain  of 
Tolbiac,  near  Cologne,  gained  by  Clovis  I.  in 
496,  at  which  period  their  history  as  an  inde- 
pendent people  ends. 

ALENCON  (France^.— This  town,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Sartheand  Brianto, 
gave  title  to  a  count  as  early  as  942.  In  1026  a 
castle  was  erected,  round  which  the  present 
town  was  subsequently  formed.  Alencon  was 
seized  by  William  I.  (the  Conquerori  in  1048, 
and  by  Henry  II.  in  1135,  when  its  counts 
became  vassals  of  the  English  crown.  It  was 
restored  to  France  by  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  in 
1 219,  and  was  again  made  the  seat  of  a  count 
by  Louis  IX.,  in  favour  of  his  son  Peter,  in  1268. 
On  the  death  of  Peter,  in  1282,  it  reverted  to 
the  crown,  but  was  separated  in  March,  1284, 
when  Philip  the  Bold  conferred  it,  with  the 
title  of  count,  upon  his  son,  Charles.  Count 
John  II.  procured  its  erection  into  a  dukedom, 
in  1414,  the  year  before  his  death  at  Agincourt, 
after  which,  as  his  son,  John  IV.,  was  prisoner 
to  the  English  from  1424  till  1429,  Aleu?on  re- 
mained under  English  control  till  1450,  when 
they  were  finally  expelled.  Duke  John  IV.  was 
condemned  to  death  in  1458  for  intriguing 
against  the  French  king.  He  was  pardoned  by 
Louis  XL,  but  repeated  the  offence,  1470,  and 
died  in  prison  in  1476.  Duke  Charles  IV.  died  of 
chagrin  in  1525,  in  consequence  of  the  defeat  at 
Pavia,  and,  having  no  issue,  his  estate  was  again 
added  to  the  royal  possession.  In  1559  Cathe- 
rine de  Medicis  received  Alencon  as  part  of  her 
marriage  dowry,  and  in  1566  it  was  conferred 
by  Charles  IX.  upon  his  brother  Francis.  It 
reverted  to  the  crown  in  1584,  was  seized  by 
the  army  of  the  League  in  1589,  but  was  soon 
retaken  by  Henry  IV.,  who  sold  it,  in  1605,  to 
the  Duke  of  Wiirtemburg,  from  whom  it  was 
purchased,  in  1612,  by  Marie  de  Medicis.  Alen- 
con has  undergone  several  subsequent  changes. 
Its  last  duke  was  Louis,  afterwards  Louis 
XVIII.  of  France.  The  lofty  spire  of  the 
cathedral  church  of  Notre  Dame  was  de- 
stroyed by  lightning  in  1744.  The  town-hall 
was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  old  ducal  castle 
in  1783. 

ALEPPO  (Syria).— This  town,  situated  mid- 


way between  Antioch  and  Hierapolis,  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Chaleb,  or  Haleb.  It  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Berosa  from  Seleucus  Nicator, 
about  B.C.  299.  Julian  halted  here,  March  5, 
363,  on  his  expedition  against  the  Persians. 
It  was  taken  by  Chosroes  I.  in  540 ;  by  Chos- 
roes  II.  in  6n  ;  and  by  the  Saracens  under  Abu 
©beidah  in  638,  when  it  resumed  its  ancient 
name  Chaleb,  or  Haleb.  Zimisces  wrested  it 
from  the  dynasty  of  Hamadan  about  972.  It 
was  plundered  by  the  Mongols  in  1260 ;  Timour 
sacked  it  Nov.  u,  1400,  and  on  his  return 
from  Damascus,  early  in  1401,  delivered  it  to 
the  flames.  The  town  was  restored,  and  the 
Mamelukes  were  defeated  near  it  by  Selim  L, 
Aug.  24,  1516,  and  it  has  since  that  time,  with 
the  exception  of  a  short  interval  in  1840,  re- 
mained under  the  rule  of  the  Turks.  The 
Levant  Company  opened  a  house  here  to  trade 
with  Persia  and  India  in  1581.  Aleppo  was 
nearly  reduced  to  ruins  by  an  earthquake, 
Aug.  13 — 16,  1822,  when  9,000  inhabitants  per- 
ished. It  has  suffered  greatly  at  different 
times  from  plagues  and  earthquakes.  The 
Christians  were  massacred  here,  and  their 
churches  and  houses  burned,  Oct.  16  and  17, 
1850 ;  and  further  outrages  of  the  same  kind 
were  repeated  by  the  Druses  in  1860. 

ALERIA,  or  ALALIA  (Corsica).— The  Pho- 
cseans  of  Ionia  founded  a  colony  in  this  part  of 
the  island,  B.C.  564.  Having  been  defeated  in 
a  severe  naval  engagement  with  the  Tyrrhe- 
nians and  Carthaginians,  the  colonists  aban- 
doned the  island  about  B.C.  536.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  a  Roman  fleet  during  the  first  Punic 
war,  B.C.  259.  A  Roman  colony  was  planted 
in  Aleria  during  the  dictatorship  of  Sylla. 
Paschal  I.  sent  missionaries  to  the  island,  and 
established  five  bishoprics,  A.  D.  820.  The  see 
of  Aleria  was  erected  at  the  close  of  the  nth 
century  by  Urban  II. 

ALESIA.— '.See  ALISE.) 

ALESSANDRIA  (Italy),  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Bormida  and  Tanaro,  a  fortress  of  enor- 
mous size,  and  one  of  the  strongest  in  Europe, 
was  built  in  1168,  to  guard  the  passage  of  the 
rivers.  The  town  is  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name.  It  was  at  first  called 
Caesarea,  and  received  the  name  of  Alessandria 
from  Pope  Alexander  III.,  who  made  it  an 
episcopal  see,  and  united  it  to  that  of  Aqui  in 
1175.  The  sees  were  separated  by  Innocent 
III.  in  1405.  Alessandria  was  captured  and 
plundered  by  Duke  Sforza  in  1522 ;  besieged 
ineffectually  by  the  French,  under  the  Prince 
of  Conti,  in  1657  ;  and  taken,  after  an  obstinate 
resistance,  by  Prince  Eugene  in  1707.  Bona- 
parte captured  it  in  1796,  and  Suwarrow 
wrested  it  from  the  French  July  21,  1799.  By 
the  armistice  of  Alessandria,  concluded  after 
bhe  battle  of  Marengo,  June  14,  1800,  this  for- 
tress was  surrendered  to  Bonaparte,  by  whom 
its  fortifications  were  extended.  By  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  May  30,  1814,  it  was  restored  to  Sar- 
dinia. Alessandria  was  captured  by  the  Aus- 
trians  April  19,  1821. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  a  numerous 
chain,  extending  from  Kamtschatka  to  Cape 
Alaska,  in  North  America,  were  partially  dis- 
covered by  Behring  in  1741.  Capt.  Cook 
visited  them  in  1778 ;  and  a  survey  was  made 

D  2 


ALEXANDER 


[     36    1 


ALEXANDRIAN 


by  the  Russians  between  the  years  1781  and 
1798.  The  Russian  American  Company,  in 
1785,  formed  an  establishment  on  the  islands. 
It  has  continued  since  1790  to  receive  aid  and 
protection  from  their  government.  A  volcanic 
island  rose  from  the  sea  in  the  middle  of  the 
chain  in  1795,  and  in  1807  it  was  found  to  be 
enlarged  to  about  20  miles  in  circuit,  and  lava 
was  then  flowing  down  its  sides. 

ALEXANDER  (JEra,\  —  Two  epochs  were 
named  by  the  Greeks  after  Alexander  1  [ I.  the 
Great).  The  first  dates  from  his  death,  N«>v.  12. 
B.C.  324,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
generally  used;  the  second  commenced  B.C.  311, 
and  is  better  known  as  the  sera  of  the  Seleu- 
cid.-i1,  or  of  the  Greeks. 

ALEXANDER  NEWSKY,  ST.  (Order).— In- 
stituted in  Russia  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1722, 
and  confirmed  by  the  Empress  Catherine  I. 
April  8,  1725. 

"ALEXANDRA"  CASE.— The  three-masted 
wooden  vessel  Alexandra,  built  at  Liverpool, 
was  seized  for  an  alleged  breach  <>f  the  seventh 
section  of  the  Foreign  Knlistmeiit  Act,  59  Geo. 
III.  c.  69  (July  3,  1819  ,  by  the  comini 
of  customs,  April  6,  1863,  while  in  dock  piv- 
paring  for  the  first  voyage.  A  debate  took 
place  in  Hi''  1 1  "Me  of  Commons  relati 
grounds  for  this  proceeding  April  ->.  and  a 
trial  in  the  Court  of  Kxchei|uer,  which  com- 
:  1  June  22,  terminated  .him-  24  in  favour 

of  tin:  defendant i,  and  •  gains!   t be  seizure.     A 
motion  for  a  new  trial  was  made  Nov.  5.  and 
the  case  came  on  Nov.  17,  and  occm 
court  for  six  days.     Judgment   wax  groom  Jan. 
n,  1864,  an-1  tin-  rn'  I'rom   this  de- 

cision an  appeal    was    made    to    the   Court  of 
Error,  the  Exchequer  Chamber.    It  w 
Feb.  6,  1864,  and  judgment,  that  the  court  had 

iu>  jurisdiction,  was  delivered  Peb.8.  'I ; 

case  was  carried  to  the  Ib 

appeal  was  dismissed  with  costs,  April  6,  1864. 

Al.KXAXDHA     TIIKATRK,     in    CO! 
with  the  Highbury  Barn  Tavern  and    Pleasure 
Grounds,  London,  was   opened    by   Mr.  I'..  (Jio 
vannclli,  Saturday,  Mav  .>o,  1865. 

ALEXANDRIA  Battles).  The  first,  in 
which  Bonaparte  deflated  the  Arabs  and  cap- 
tured the  town,  was  fought  July  3,  1798;  the 
second  and  third,  in  which  the  English,  with 
an  inferior  force,  defeated  the  French,  took  place. 
51  arch  i  ;  and  21,  iSoi.  In  the  latter  the  British 
general,  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  received  a 
severe  wound,  which  caused  his  death  Sep.  2. 
The  French  lost  3,000  and  the  English  1,400 
men. 

ALEXANDRIA  F.gypt'  was  founded  by 
Alexander  III.  the  (Jivat  ,  in  the  autumn  n.<\ 
332,  and  was  the  residence  of  the  Greek  kings 
of  Egypt.  The  Ptolemies  made  it  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 
and  under  their  rule  it  became  the  seat  of  civi- 
lization and  learning.  It  was  almost  totally 
depopulated  by  a  general  massacre  by  Ptolemy 
Physcon,  about  B.C.  141  ;  suffered  greatly  dur- 
ing its  occupation  by  Julius  tVsar,  after  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Pompey,  B.C.  48  ;  and  was, 
with  the  remainder  of  Egypt,  made  a  Roman 
province  B.C.  30.  Several  thousand  Jews  were 
massacred  here  A.D.  67.  Having  fallen  into 
decay,  it  was  partially  restored  by  Hadrian  in 


122.  Caracalla,  on  a  visit  to  the  city  in  215,  in 
revenge  for  some  foolish  satires,  ordered  a  ge- 
neral massacre  of  the  inhabitants.  Diocletian 
having  cut  off  the  aqueducts  which  conveyed 
the  waters  of  the  Nile  to  the  city,  captured  it 
after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  in  297:  A  terrible 
earthquake  occurred  July  21,  365,  when  50,000 
persons  are  said  to  have  perished.  The  Chris- 
tians overthrew  the  temples  of  the  pagan 
deities,  and  did  much  damage  to  the  temple  of 
Scrapis,  in  389.  Chosroes  II.  took  it  in  616. 
Amrou,  the  geneial  of  Omar  I.,  captured  it 
after  a  siege  of  14  months'  duration,  Friday, 
Dec.  22,  640,  or,  according  to  other  autho- 
rities, in  Dec.,  641.  The  victorious  general  de- 
scribed the  city  to  his  sovereign  in  these  terms: 
"  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  enumerate  the  va- 
riety of  its  riches  and  beauty  ;  and  I  shall  con- 
tent mys.-lf  wish  observing  that  it  contains 
4,000  palaces,  4,000  baths,  400  theatres  or  places 
of  amusement,  12,0  o  shops  forth- 
table  food,  and  40,000  trilmtar;, 

-ion  its  vain  i  library 

•royed,   and    (iibhon    states   that   "six 
months  were  barely  sufficient  for  tin-  consump- 
tion of  this  precious   fuel."     The    • 
vered  it  in  044,  but  Amrou  re-nine.!  possession 
and  it  remained  undcrthesway 
of   the    Arabian    caliphs    until    the    Fatimitc.s 
seized     Fgvpt      958  —  972     and    foumi- 
Cairo.    ( 'hristianity  was  introduced  by  > 
in  the    ist   century,  and   it    formed  one  of  the 
five  great  patriarchates  of  the   ancient  world. 
i  han  nine  di"- 
held  here,  in 

231.  235,  301,  321,  324,  Dec.  27,  330,  340,  362, 
363.  370.  399.  43«»  457.  477,  581,  589,  and  633. 
From  its  ruins  a  modern  town  has  )>cen  con- 
the  former  site,  and  its  impnr- 
;;v.  revived,  on  ac- 
count of  its  convenient  situation  for  communi- 
cation, overland,  with  the  Fast  Indii 
British  took  it  Sep.  -.>,  iSoi,  and  again 
21,  when  they  held  it  tiil  Sep.  23,  1807.  The 
sultan  Alxlul-Aziz  landed  at  Alexandria  April 
7,  1863,  and  v.  by  the  inhabitants 

with  great  demonstrations  of  jo\ 
This  city  was  devastated  by  the  cholera  in  the 
summer  of  1865. 

ALFXANDRIA      United     States'.  —  Imme- 
ifter  the  capture  of  Washington  by  the 
British    forces,    Alexandria    capitulate: 

,  AN'DHIAN  CODEX  or  MS.— A  copy  of 
the  Scriptures  in  Greek,  written  in  capital 
letters,  without  being  divided  into  cl 

•  >r  words,  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  in 
e,  belonged,  as  early  as  1098,  to  the 
library  of  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  It  was 
sent  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.  of  England, 
about  the  year  1628,  by  Cyrillus  I 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  asserted  that 
it  was  written  "  by  the  hand  of  Thecla,  a  noble 
Egyptian  lady,  about  1300  years  previously,  a 
little  after  the  Council  of  Nicsea"  (325  .  The. 
learned  are  much  divided  in  opinion  respecting 
its  date.  After  remaining  in  the  royal  library 
for  many  years,  the  MS.  was,  in  1753,  removed, 
with  the  rest  of  the  royal  collection,  to  the 
British  Museum.  Editions  were  published  in 
1717 — 20  and  in  1816 — 28. 


ALEXANDRIAN 


[    37 


ALGEBRA 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY.— There  were 
two  libraries  in  this  city,  the  larger  one  in  the 
Bruchium,  and  the  smaller  in  the  Serapseum 
The  former  was  destroyed  during  the  occupa 
tion  of  Alexandria  by  Julius  Csesar,  B.C.  48 
and  was  probably  restored  by  Antony,  anc 
again  destroyed  by  Aurelian  A.D.  273.  The 
latter,  founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  about  B.C 
298,  was  not,  as  some  writers  suppose,  in 
volved  in  the  destruction  of  the  temple  o 
Serapis,  A.D.  389,  when,  by  the  edicts  o:" 
Theodosius,  the  pagan  rites  were  abolished 
and  the  pagan  temples  overthrown.  This  va 
luable  collection  was  destroyed  by  cpmmanc 
of  Omar  I,  after  the  capture  of  the  city,  Dec 
22,  640.  Though  Gibbon  throws  doubt  upon 
this  statement,  it  is  now  established  beyonc 
dispute. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.— A  writer  in 
the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  says,  "The 
term  'Alexandrian  School'  is  applied,  in  a 
loose  sense,  to  the  whole  body  of  eminent  men 
who,  in  all  the  departments  of  knowledge,  con 
ferred  lustre  on  the  capital  of  the  Ptolemies 
but,  as  a  characteristic  designation,  it  is  more 
strictly  confined  to  that  particular  section  ol 
its  philosophers  known  as  the  Neo-Platonists.1 
The  celebrity  of  Alexandria  as  a  seat  of  letters 
commenced  under  Ptolemy  Soter,  B.C.  312,  and 
continued,  under  his  successors,  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  sera ;  but  that 
celebrated  philosophy,  known  under  the  name 
of  Neo-Platonism,  originated  towards  the  end 
of  the  3rd  century,  and  nourished,  with  certain 
modifications,  until  the  sth  century,  when  it 
rapidly  declined. 

ALEXANDRINE  WAR.— After  the  defeat 
of  Pompey,  at  Pharsalia  (q.  v.},  Julius  Csesai 
landed  at  Alexandria,  to  assist  Cleopatra 
against  her  brother  Ptolemy  XI.  The  war 
that  ensued,  during  which  Alexandria  and  its 
magnificent  library  were  almost  destroyed  by 
fire,  was  concluded  in  January  B.C.  47,  and 
resulted  in  the  complete  victory  of  the 
Romans. 

ALEXANDRINES.— The  Alexandrine  verse, 
of  12  syllables,  is  supposed  to  derive  its  origin 
from  the  trimeter  iambic,  or  the  pentameter, 
of  the  classic  poets.  It  was  used  at  an  early 
period  by  the  poets  of  Spain,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  popularized  in  the  i2th  century 
by  Alexander  of  Paris,  from  whom  it  may 
have  taken  its  name.  Some  authorities  refer 
its  title  to  a  poem  on  the  life  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  of  which  it  formed  the  metre, 
written  in  France  during  the  i2th  century. 
Pierre  Rousard,  a  French  poet,  who  died  in 
1586,  wrote  in  this  metre,  which  has  been  re- 
tained by  his  countrymen  since  his  tune  as  the 
verse  for  epic  and  dramatic  poetry.  Spenser 
used  the  Alexandrine  measure  for  the  closing 
line  of  his  stanzas  ;  and  Michael  Drayton's 
"  Polyolbion,"  the  first  part  of  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1613,  and  the  second  in  1622,  "a 
poetical  description  of  England,  in  30  songs  or 
books,"  containing  30,000  lines,  is  the  longest 
English  poem  in  this  measure.  Pope,  in  his 
"Essay  on  Criticism,"  alludes  to  this  verse, — 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
Which,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  ita  slow  length 
along." 


ALFORD  (Battle).— The  Duke  of  Montroso 
gained  a  complete  victory  here  over  the  Scot- 
tish Covenanters,  July  2,  1645. 

ALFRED  (surnamed  the  Great)  was  born  at 
Wannating,  or  Wanading,  a  royal  residence  in 
Berkshire,  probably  in  the  month  of  January, 
849.  He  was  the  youngest  son  and  last  child 
of  Ethelwuph  and  Osburgha,  the  daughter  of 
his  cup-bearer,  Oslac,  married  about  830. 
Alfred  visited  Rome  in  853,  and  again  in  855. 
He  married  Elswitha  in  868.  She  was  de- 
scended from  the  royal  family  of  Mercia.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother  Ethelred,  April  23, 
871,  Alfred  became  King  of  Wessex.  In  spite 
of  his  mimerous  battles  with  the  Danes,  he 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  study,  and 
laboured  zealously  to  obtain  proper  means  of 
education  for  his  subjects.  Alfred  died  Oct. 
28,  901,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester.  His 
wife,  Elswitha,  survived  him.  They  had 
several  children,  of  whom  some  died  young. 
Amongst  those  that  survived  were  Ethelfleda, 
his  eldest  daughter,  "the  lady  of  the  Mer- 
cians," who  married  King  Ethelred,  and  died 
July  12,  919  ;  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I., 
born  in  870,  ascended  the  throne  Oct.  28,  901, 
and  died  in  925  ;  Ethelgipa,  Abbess  of  Shaftes- 
bury ;  Elfrida,  who  married  Count  Baldwin  of 
Flanders,  and  died  in  929 ;  and  their  youngest 
son  Ethelward,  who  was  a  zealous  scholar,  and 
died  Oct.  16,  922. 

ALFRED  CLUB  (London).— This  club,  esta- 
blished in  1808,  was  frequented  by  Lord  Byron, 
who  describes  it  as  "pleasant;  a  little  too 
sober  and  literary."  It  was  dissolved  in  1851, 
when  the  premises,  in  Albemarle  Street,  were 
occupied  by  the  Westminster  Club  (q.  v.) 

ALGEBRA.— A  Greek  treatise  by  Diophantus 
of  Alexandria,  written  in  the  sth  century 
of  the  Christian  sera,  is  the  earliest  work 
on  Algebra,  or,  as  Newton  terms  it,  "  Uni- 
versal Arithmetic."  This  treatise  dealt  with 
only  one  branch  of  the  science, — indeter- 
minate analysis.  Europeans  obtained  their 
first  knowledge  of  algebra  from  the  Arabs,  who 
probably  derived  their  information  from  the 
Hindoos.  The  earliest  Arabian  writer  on 
Algebra  is  Mohammed  Ben  Musa,  who  wrote  at 
:he  command  of  the  Caliph  Al  Mamun  (813 — 
533).  A  copy  of  this  work  in  the  original, 
;ranscribed  in  1342,  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library 
at  Oxford.  Dr.  Rosen  published  it,  with  an 
English  translation,  in  1831.  Leonard  Fibon- 
acci, a  merchant  of  Pisa,  nicknamed  by  his 
countrymen  Bigollone,  or  the  Fool,  who  had 
iravelled  much  in  the  East,  put  forth  a  treatise 
on  arithmetic  and  algebra  in  1220,  and  it  was 
re-written,  with  improvements,  in  1228.  Thus, 
;wo  centuries  before  the  invention  of  printing, 
;his  science  was  introduced  into  Italy.  This 
xeatise  had  been  long  forgotten,  until,  about 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  it  was  dis- 
covered in  the  Magliabecchian  Library  at 
Florence.  Luca  Pacioli  di  Borgo,  a  Franciscan, 
ho  taught  mathematics  in  the  university  of 
Milan,  published  the  first  printed  treatise  on 
algebra  at  Venice,  in  1494.  Another  edition 
appeared  in  1523.  Scipio  Ferreo,  of  Bologna, 
discovered  the  solution  of  one  case  of  equa- 
tions in  1505 ;  and  Nicolas  Tartaglia,  of  Brescia, 
:hat  of  two  other  forms  in  1535.  Jerome  Car- 


ALGERIA 


dan  extended  these  discoveries,  and  published 
in  his  "  Ars  Magna,"  in  1545,  his  rule  for  the 
solution  of  cubic  equations,  still  known  as 
"  Cardan's  rule."  His  coadjutor,  Ludovico 
Ferrari,  discovered  a  general  method  of  solving 
biquadratic  equations.  Michael  Stifel,  in  his 
"  Arithmetica  Integra,"  published  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1544,  is  supposed  to  have  first  em- 
ployed the  signs  +  and  -,  and  numeral  expo- 
nents of  powers.  Francis  Viete,  or,  as  he  is 
generally  called,  Vieta,  whose  works  were  pub- 
lished after  1600,  made  such  important  im- 
provements that  he  altogether  changed  the 
character  of  the  science.  Jie  WHS  tlio  first  to 
apply  algebra  to  geometry,  and  in  this  was 
followed  by  Descartes  and  Newton.  Albert 
Girard,  a  Dutchman,  in  his  "  Inv.-ntion  Nou- 
velle  en  Algebre,"  published  in  1629,  "con- 
as  Iliillam  remarks,  "a  better  notion 
of  negative  roots  than  his  predecessors."  John 
Harriott,  in  his  "  Artis  Analytics  I 
published  in  1631,  10  years  after  the  death  of 
the  author,  made,  says  Hallam,  "the-  last  great 
discovery  in  the  pun.;  science  of  algebra.  He 
arrived  at  a  complete  theory  of 
equations,  which  t'ar<!;m  aii'l  Vicla  ha<l  but 
]iartially  eonc.-i  ve.  i. "  II.-  i-  -  kid  fco  '- 
the  first  to  use  small  letters  instead  of  c-a])itals  ; 
to  have  employed  vowels  for  unknown,  an.l 
consonants  for  known  i|iiantitics  according  to 
present  practice,  known  .|uantitics  are  repre- 
sented by  a,  b,  c,  ic.,  ami  unknown  by  x,  y,  z], 
and  joined  them  i  'heir  product. 

••  I  applied  algebra  to  curves,  though  he 
is  siispecte d  of    having  taken  the  theory  from 

Harriott. 

AI.CKKIA    Africa  .—The  French  having,  on 
account  of   in  i'h  their  trade,   de- 

clared war  against    Algiers,  de- i 

fr T..ul,,n,  Mayas,  ' :-;;...<-arryin_ral(,,ve  30,000 

troops,  and  a  landing  was  commenced  in  the 

>irh 1  of    Algiers,   June    14.      A  battle 

DC  to,  in  which  the  French,  with 
difficulty,  <lefeateda  large  Algerinc  f«<, 
mishes  ensued  .June  24  and  25;  the  trendies 
before  Algiers  were  commenced  June  29,  and 
fire  opened  July  4  with  such  effect,  that  on 
the  same  evening  a  treaty  was  o>ndu< led,  by 
•which  Algiers,  its  forts  and  hart iour,  with  some 
of  the  adjoining  districts,  were  surrendered  to 
the  French,  who  have  since  established  a 
colony,  divided  int..  three  provinces,— Algiers, 
Oran,  and  Constantina. 

1830,  Nov.  Medenh  is  conquered. — Dec.  10.  Oran  occupied. 

1832,  May.   Bona  is  occupied. 

1833.  The  French  (It-dare  their  intention  of  colot.izing  the 

country.-  S, .p.  3.   Abd-el-Kader.  having  raised  an 
insiiiTe.-ti..ii.  i-    il.-fi-:il.-.l    .-it     Tamojaiiat 
Bugia  is  taken.— Oct.   10.  Ain-Bccia  is  taken. 
1874.  Jan.  A  treo-tv  is  corn-hided  between  Gen.  Desmichels 

Mini  Abd-el'-Kader. 

1835,  War    breaks    out     again.— Oct.   Tlie    French    take 

Ilarehgoun.  — Dee.  5.  Mascara  ('I-  r.)  nn.l    II.  ni-.-n 
c/.   r.)  are  taken  after  some  severe  fighting. 

1836,  April  .:,.  The  Aigerines  defeated  at   I aaf.ia.—  July  6. 

d-el-Kader  in  a  great  battle 
ie-:ir  Tleinsen. 

1837,  May  30.   Bugeiuid  concludes  the  treaty   of   Taafna 

with  Abd-el-Kader.—  <  >ct.  13.  Achinet  Hey  defeated, 
and  Con>taMtin;t  t:iken. 

1838,  Foundation  of   Hiilippeville. 

1839,  Dee.   14.   Alxl-el-Kader   defeats  the  French  at  Me- 

tidja.   and   advanecs   to   the  walls  of   the   city   of 
Algiers. 


1840.  War  is  resumed  with  Abd-el-Kader. 

I  n-n.-l.  -ain   MveraJ  .-u-tioiis. 

1843.  The  l-'reiidi  surprise  Alxl-el-Kader,  who  escapes. 
1845,  June  12.   1'elissier  and  St.  Arnaud  destroy  700  Arabs, 

men,  women,  and  children,  who  had  taken  refuge 

in  the  cave  of  Khartani,  by  lighting  a  fire  at  the 

entrance. 
1847,  April   13.    Bou-Maza  surrenders   at   Orleansville. — 

May.    Bugeaud's    expedition    to    Great     Kabylia. 
A  bd-el-Kader  surrenders  at  Nemours. 

1849.  The  Saharians  revolt— Nov.   Zaatcha  is  taken  and 

.le-t!-<  .veil. 

1850,  Dec.  2.  1'elissier  defeats  the  Saharians  at  Laghonat, 

\vhii-l,  i-d.-i- 

i.-5~.  An  iiiMirn-etion  is  suppressed  by  the  French. 
ipoleon  Mini-ter  of   Algeria. 

l.,.u  ill.  and   the  Kmpress   Eugenie  visit  the 
i-.'lonv. 
lt/>4,  April  H.  Several  Arab  tribes  revolt   in  the  province 

•i.m,  and  kill  in  battle  Col.  Beaupretre,  the 
l-r.-neh  1,-a.l.r  sent  iiL-aiin-t  them.- Max  21.  Death 
of  the  i  .ox,  rn.,r-(.eii,  -nil.  Marshal  IVlissier,  Duke  of 
Malakoff.  .lime  >-.  The  insurgent  tribes  are  re- 
ilu.-i-d  In  >ubje.-tioii.— Aug.  The  Arabs  again  rise  in 
iii-unvetioii.-  s.  \,.  -.  Mai-sbal  M.-Malion,  Duke  of 
],JM Milled  (iiivernor-General. — <  >et.  '1  he 
I  r,  iirh  (,..\  eminent  eoinmeiicvs  military  o|ierations 
ii^.-iinst  the  in-.ir,ee!i..niM-.-  -D.-e.  14.  . 
\ous..,iiff.  liiixing  subdued  the  r-beN  in  the  south 
of  the  pi-.n  'me.-  ,,(  i  (ran.  n-tiirn-  to  \ 

...n.ial  Deligny  rarri«  »  "ii  militarx  operations 
ajrniiisl  the  disaffected  Arabs.— May  ;.  I  h-  I.m- 
p.-i,,r  \aj."le..ii  III.  \i-it-  Alu'.-ii.-i.  arriving  at 

••i-s.— June  10.  The  Kmp.-ror  returns  to  Toulon. 

AI,(;i:siK.\S  (S],ain).-Thisstronghold,con- 
<n  the  key  of  Spain,    was 

founded  by  Tarik,  on  the  first  invasion  of  the 

peninsula,  in 713.    Alphonso  XI.,  of  Castile, 

Ifoon  March  24,  1344,  after 

,\   »o  months'  duration.    I 

:i    and  fortifications,    which    were   re- 
built  by  Charles   III.  in   1760.     In  the  bay  of 
Saiimari;/.   attacked,   July 
7,  1801,  the  united  l-'n-nch  and   Sjianisi. 
under  Admiral    I.inois.     The    Kn^lish   lost   the 

',  74,  which  had  grounded.  The  ene- 
my, who  fought  under  the  shelter  of  the  Span- 
ish batteries,  having  suffered  severely,  retired 
from  the  action.  Having  been  reinforced,  they 
put  to  sea  .Inly  a  and  were  immediately  chased 
by  Sir  .lames'Saumare/,  whose  squadron  c..n- 
.  I  ps  of  t  he  line,  one  32-gun  frigate, 
a  sloop,  and  a  Portuguese  frigate,  while  the 
enemy  had  nine  line-of-battlo  ships,  three  fri- 
:i«l  a  lugger.  Only  two  of  the  English 
ships  were  engaged  in  this  action,  which  took 
lly  1 2,  when  the  St.Antoine  was  capture.!. 
The  Don  Car  I  ox,  a  Spanish  ship  of  112  guns, 
having  suffered  from  broadsides  of  the  Superb, 
caught  fire,  and  in  this  condition  was  attacked 
by  mistake  about  midnight  by  another  Span- 
ish ii2-gun  ship,  the  Hermenegildo.  They 
ran  foul  of  each  other,  the  Hermenegildo  was 
soon  in  flames,  and  both  ships  blew  up,  with 
all  on  board. 

ALGIERS  (Africa).— This  country,  the  ancient 
Mauretania  and  Numidia,  fell  under  the  power 
of  the  Romans  B.C.  161,  and  remained  in  their 
possession  till  it  was  seized  by  the  Vandals,  A.D. 
439,  from  whom  it  was  recovered  by  Belisarius 
in  534.  In  667  it  was  overrun  and  conquered  by 
the  Saracens  ;  after  which  period  it  was  divided 
into  several  minor  kingdoms.  About  935,  Jus- 
suf  Zcri,  an  Arabian  chief,  founded  the  town  of 
Algiers.  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  having  driven  the 
Moors  from  Europe,  followed  them  into  Africa, 
and  in  1509  captured  Algiers.  The  natives 


ALHAMA 


[     39     1 


ALJUBAROTA 


called  to  their  assistance  the  corsair  Aroudj 
Barbarossa,  who  expelled  the  Spaniards,  and 
established  himself  in  their  stead,  in  1516.  The 
place  then  became  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Barbary  pirates,  their  chief  receiving,  in  1520, 
the  title  of  Dey.  In  1541  Charles  V.  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  destroy  the  power  of 
the  Algcrine  corsairs,  who  were  the  terror 
of  the  neighbouring  states.  They  had  25,000 
Christians  in  bondage  in  the  year  1576.  In  1655 
Blake  compelled  the  Dey  to  give  up  his  slaves 
and  to  desist  from  piracy,  and  in  1665,  1670, 
exacted  similar  engagements.  Louis  XIV.  bom- 
barded Algiers  June,  1682,  and  again  in  1683, 
and  the  Dey  submitted  in  April,  1684.  The 
town  was  bombarded  and  reduced  to  sub- 
mission by  the  English,  under  Lord  Exmouth, 
Aug.  27,  1816.  In  1830  the  French  took  the 
city  and  deposed  the  Dey.  (See  ALGERIA.) 

ALHAMA  (Spain).— This  stronghold  of  the 
Moors,  in  Granada,  was  captured  by  the 
Spaniards  Feb.  28,  1482.  The  Moors  besieged 
it  March  5,  retired  March  29,  and  returned  in 
April.  It  was,  however,  relieved  by  Fer- 
dinand May  14,  in  the  same  year. 

ALHAMBRA  (Spain).— The  fortress  and  pa- 
lace of  the  Moors,  in  Granada,  was  commenced 
1248,  and  completed  about  1313.  It  capitulated 
to  the  Spaniards  Nov.  25,  1491,  and  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  entered  it  in  triumph  Jan.  2, 
1492.  The  French  occupied  Granada  from  Jan., 
1810,  to  Sep.,  1812,  during  which  period  the 
Alhambra  sustained  much  injury. 

ALHAMBRA  (London).— (See  PANOPTICON.) 

ALI  (Sect  of}.— (See  SHIITES.) 

ALID  (Spain).— This  strong  fortress,  taken 
by  the  Christians  from  the  Moors  in  1086,  was 
besieged  by  the  Moors  in  1088,  but  resisted  all 
their  efforts,  and  was  at  length  relieved  by 
Alphonso  VI.  of  Leon,  and  I.  of  Castile,  in  1089. 

ALIEN  ACT.— A  measure  (33  Geo.  III.  c.  4) 
passed  in  1793,  on  account  of  the  great  influx 
of  foreigners  caused  by  the  French  Revolution, 
was  distinguished  by  this  name  from  the 
various  statutes  having  reference  to  aliens.  It 
contained  several  exceptional  regulations  on 
the  subject,  and  was  continued  for  another 
year  by  34  Geo.  III.  c  82  (July  7,  1794). 

ALIEN  PRIORIES.—"  The  Priories  abroad," 
says  Ellis  (Introd.  to  Domesday  Book,  ii.  330), 
"  for  the  better  management  of  their  estates 
and  rents  in  England,  established  cells  subor- 
dinate to  their  respective  houses.  These  were 
called  Alien  Priories."  Domesday  Book  con- 
tains several  entries  of  foreign  monasteries 
holding  possessions  in  England,  both  as  tenants 
in  capite  and  sub-tenants.  These  lands  were 
the  gift  of  William  I.,  or  his  principal  followers. 
Their  revenues  were  frequently  seized  during 
the  wars  between  France  and  England.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  there  were  no  es- 
tablishments of  this  kind  in  England,  in  addi- 
tion to  others  in  Ireland,  Aquitaine,  and 
Normandy.  A  law  was  passed  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  V.  (1414),  by  which  all  alien  priories, 
not  conventual,  were  dissolved,  and  granted 
to  the  Crown.  Though  this  law  does  not  ap- 
pear in  the  statute-book,  it  is  found  amongst 
the  Patent  Rolls. 

ALIENS  were  formerly  placed  under  dis- 
abilities, both  by  the  common  and  statute 


law.  Some  authorities  declare  that  aliens 
first  became  subject  to  such  interference  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  the  Flemings 
and  Picards,  brought  into  the  kingdom  during 
the  wars  of  Stephen,  were  expelled.  Others 
contend  that  it  commenced  at  a  much  more 
ancient  period,  maintaining  that  it  forms  a 
branch  of  the  feudal  law.  The  48th  article  of 
Magna  Charta  (1215)  provides  that  merchants 
shall  have  safe  and  secure  conduct  to  go  out  and 
to  come  into  England,  and  to  stay  there,  and 
to  pass  as  well  by  land  as  by  water ;  to  buy 
and  sell,  by  the  ancient  and  allowed  customs, 
without  any  evil  tolls,  except  in  time  of  war, 
or  when  they  are  of  any  nation  at  war  with  us. 
Alien  merchants  were  first  allowed  to  rent 
houses  and  to  buy  and  sell  their  own  com- 
modities about  the  year  1284.  Before  that 
time  they  hired  lodgings,  and  their  landlords 
acted  as  brokers  for  the  sale  of  their  goods. 
In  1290  the  citizens  of  London  petitioned  Ed- 
ward I.  to  expel  foreign  merchants ;  but  the 
king  refused  to  comply  with  this  request.  Ed- 
ward III.  granted  many  privileges  to  aliens ; 
Richard  II.  and  his  immediate  successors 
dealt  more  severely  with  them.  By  15  Charles 
II.  c.  15  (1663),  aliens,  occupying  themselves 
in  certain  trades  and  manufactures  specified 
in  the  act,  were,  on  taking  the  oaths  or  supre- 
macy and  allegiance,  admitted  to  all  the  pri- 
vileges of  native  subjects.  By  6  Anne,  c.  37 
(1707),  foreign  sailors  who  had  served  two  years 
on  board  an  English  merchant  vessel  or  ship- 
of-war,  were  naturalized.  The  laws  affecting 
aliens  have  of  late  years  undergone  consider- 
able modification,  by  7  .&  8  Viet.  c.  66  (1844), 
and  by  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  83  (1847).  An  alien 
cannot  sit  in  either  house  of  Parliament,  be  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council,  or  even  vote  at 
an  election. 

ALISE  (France).— Vercingetorix,  the  Gallic 
chieftain,  having  been  defeated  by  Julius 
Caesar,  in  a  great  battle  in  the  high  country  of 
the  Upper  Saone,  B.C.  52,  retreated  into  a  for- 
tified camp,  at  this  town,  said  to  be  the  ancient 
Alesia,  in  Burgundy.  Here,  having  defended 
himself  for  seven  months,  he  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner  by  Julius  Ca3sar,  B.C.  52. 
A  colossal  statue  of  Vercingetorix,  who  was 
put  to  death  at  Rome,  was  erected  on  the  site 
of  the  camp,  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III., 
in  1865. 

ALISO,  or  ALISUM  (Germany).— This  forti- 
fied citadel,  erected  by  Drusus  B.C.  u,  was 
seized  by  the  native  tribes  A.D.  9.  The  Romans 
regained  possession  A.D.  15,  and  successfully 
opposed  an  attempt  of  the  Germans  to  effect 
a  second  conquest  A.D.  16,  when  the  garrison 
was  relieved  by  Germanicus. 

ALIWAL  (Battle).— Fought  between  the 
Sikhs  and  the  British  army,  commanded  by 
Sir  Harry  Smith,  Jan.  28,  1846.  The  former, 
posted  at  Aliwal,  near  Loodiana,  under  the 
command  of  Sirdar  Runjoor  Singh,  consisted 
of  19,000  men  and  68  guns,  and  the  latter  of 
12,000  men  and  32  pieces  of  cannon.  The  Sikhs 
were  driven  across  the  Sutlej,  and  left  52  guns 
in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

ALJUBAROTA  (Battle).— The  Castilians 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  at  this 
place,  in  Estremadura,  in  Portugal,  by  the 


ALKALIES 


ALLEGIANCE 


Portuguese,  assisted  by  the  English,  Aug.  14, 
1385. 

A  LKALIES.— The  Egyptians  were  acquainted 
with  the  art  of  making  the  mineral,  vegetable, 
and  volatile  alkalies,  which  they  combined 
with  oil,  and  used  for  scouring  cloth,  and  as 
ointment,  but  they  had  no  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  soap.  From  them  the  art  ap- 
pears to  have  been  handed  by  the  Arabians  to 
the  S]  laniards.  Sertuemer  discovered  the  first 
alkaloid  in  1804,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy  de- 
composed the  alkalies  by  voltaic  electricity 
in  1807.  The  art  of  alkalimetry,  or  the  n > 
ment  of  the  quantity  of  alkali  contained  in 
soda  and  potashes,  was  first  carried  out  in 
England  by  Dr.  Lewis  in  1767,  and  in  France  by 
Decroixilles,  in  1806. 

ALKALI  WORKS  ACT.— Much  incon- 
venience having  resulted  from  the  noisome 
fumes  evolved  in  the  alkali  manufa 
was  ordered  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  124  (July  28, 
1863),  that  all  alkali  works  should  condense  at 
least  95  per  cent,  of  the  muriatic  acid  gas 
which  they  produced,  and  that  such  establish- 
ments should  be  subjected  to  examination  by 
an  inspector  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 
This  act  took  effect  Jan.  i,  1864. 

ALK.MAAK  (Holland).— Notloe  of  tins  town 
occurs  as  early  as  924.  In  1491  it  was  seized  by 
insurgent  s  during  t  lie  "  Bread  and  ( 'h. 
(q.  v.).  The  town-hull  was  built  in  1509.  The 
Spaniards  under  Alva  besieged  it  in  1573,  and 
encountered  such  resistance  that  th- 
the  siege  after  it  had  lasted  nearly  eight  weeks, 
Oct.  7.  A  capitulation  for  the  re-embarkation 
of  tin:  British  expedit'oii,  sent  to  the.  Holder 
to  act  against  the  hutch  and  French  republican 
1'oives,  was  concluded  at  this  place  <  let.  18,  1799. 
The  last  portion  of  the  troops  re-embarked 
Nov.  19.  It  is  sometimes  written  Alemaer. 

ALL     FnoLS'     DAY.— The    ori-in    ..f    this 
curious  custom,  April   i,  lias  been   attributed 
to  the  mockery  of  Our  Saviour  just  before  the 
crucifixion,  to  the  rape  of  the  Sahine  women, 
and  to  the   mistake  made  by  Xoah  in  sending 
the  dove  out  of  the  ark  before  the 
the  flood  had  abated.     It  has  also  1" 
posed  that  th<  :  iginally 

held  on  the  ist  of  .January,  may  have  been 
transferred  to  the  ist  of  April.  It  is  in  all 
probability  derived  from  some  ancient  pagan 
festival.  A  similar  practice  has  been  common 
amongst  the  Hindoos,  at  their  Hull  festival, 
from  a  very  early  period. 

ALL  SAINTS,  or  ALL-HALLOW.— A  festi- 
val  celebrated  Nov.  i.  A  day  for  the  general 
commemoration  of  all  the  martyrs  not  long 
after  Whit-Sunday  was  set  apart  in  the  early 
Church.  Boniface  IV.  established  a  festival 
in  the  Latin  Church  in  611,  and  this  was  con- 
verted into  the  festival  of  All  Saints  by  Gre- 
gory IV.,  in  830.  It  was  introduced  into  Eng 
land  in  870.  The  superfluous  and  superstitious 
ringing  of  bells  at  Allhallow-tide  was  prohibited 
at  the  Reformation. 

ALL  SOULS.— This  festival,  held  Nov.  2,  in 
commemoration  of  all  the  faithful  deceased, 
was,  according  to  some  authorities,  instituted  at 
Clugny  in  993,  and,  according  to  others,  in  Sicily 
in  998.  Palgrave  states  that  this  well-known 
festival  for  the  dead  was  not  formally  adopted 


until  the  nth  century,  and  that  the  earliest 
community  by  which  it  was  commemorated 
was  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall,  in  741. 

ALL  SOULS  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  founded  in 
1437,  by  Henry  Chicheley,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  not  completed  until  1444. 

'  ALL  THE  TALENTS,"  or  the  Fox  and 
Grenville  Coalition  Ministry.—  The  refusal  of 
Lord  Hawkesbury,  afterwards  Earl  of  Liverpool, 
to  .form  an  administration,  on  the  death  of  Mr. 
Pitt  (Jan.  23,  1806),  induced  George  III.  to  send 
for  Lord  Grenville  (Jan.  26),  who,  in  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Fox,  undertook  the  task.  This  min- 
istry acceded  to  office  Feb.  5,  and  received  the 
nickname  of  "  All  the  Talents,"  from  the  boast 
of  its  supporters  that  it  combined,  as  Mr.  Can- 
ning said,  "  all  the  talents,  all  the  abilities, 
and  all  the  experience  and  wisdom  of  the  coun- 
try." It  was  thus  constituted  :  — 

Tr-MMiry  ...........................     I.ortl  Crcnvillc. 

Lord  Chancellor  ...............    I.onl  Krskim-. 

I'rri-i.l.-iit  «f  tin-  Council    ...     K;irl  PftswfltUm. 

l'ii\y  >.-al    ........................      Vi.-r,mnt  Siihnouth. 

O-  .....  tool  theExch^u,, 


Il:.n»  —  i-cri'tnry    ...............  Kurl  Sjn-nri-r. 

Foreign  Secretary  ...............  Mr.  i-'»x. 

<  inln.  in.  •••    .......  '.  ................  Knrl  of  Moira. 

Ailinittilty    ........................  I.<>r«l  llmvii-k. 

s'.-it  War  ...............  Mr.  Wimlliiim. 


After  the  death  of  Mr.  Fox  (Sep.  13,  1806), 
LOP!  Bowick  became  Foreign  Secretary  Sep.  24, 
and  Mr.  Thomas  Grenville  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  Sep.  27.  Karl  Fitzwilliam  retired 
int  of  ill-health,  and  Lord  Sidmouth 
President  of  the  Council  in  his  place, 
Oct.  8,  and  Lord  Holland  Privy  Seal,  Oct.  15, 
1806.  This  ministry  was  never  very  strong  ;  a 
dissolution  towards  the  end  of  1806  did  not 
improve  its  position,  and  George  III.  availed 
himself  of  some  difference  of  opinion  on  the 
Roman  Catholic  question  to  make  a  change, 
.March  25.  18.17  (>"  1  '"i;n.  \  M>  AnMiMS'i  r 

A  LLAMA  BAD  (  Hindostan).  —  Sultan  Mah- 
mood,  of  <;huy.nee,  in  vaded  this  province  in  1020 
and  1023,  but  made  no  permanent  settlement. 
The  emperors  of  Delhi  subdued  it,  but  it  became 
independent  during  the  isth  century.  After 
various  changes,  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
rulers  of  (  >udh,  who  seized  it  in  1758,  and  it  waa 
ceded  by  them  to  Shah  Alum,  the  titular  sove- 
reign of  Delhi,  in  1764.  The  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince, also  called  Allahabad,  seated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  rivers  Ganges  and  Jumna,  was 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Akbar,  in  1583.  The 
English  captured  it  in  Feb.  1765,  and  in  1772 
the  province  of  Allahabad  reverted  to  the  Oudh 
sovereigns.  Part  of  the  province  was  ceded  to 
-t  India  Company  in  1775.  Allahabad, 
with  some  of  the  territory,  was  ceded  Nov.  14, 
1801,  and  the  remainder  was  secured  by  treaty 
Dec.  30,  1803.  The  mutiny,  which  commenced 
at  Mccrut,  May  10,  1857,  extended  to  Allahabad 
June  6,  when  the  English  retired  into  the  fort, 
which  they  held  securely. 

ALLEGIANCE  (Oath).—  Bum  (Ecc.  Law,  iii. 
22)  says,  this  oath  "  is  very  ancient  ;  and  by 
the  common  law,  every  freeman,  at  the  age  of 
12  years,  was  required,  in  the  leet  (if  he  were 
in  any  leet),  or  in  the  tourn  (if  he  were  not 
in  any  leet),  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance." 


ALLEGORISTS 


ALMA 


As  administered,  says  Blackstone,  for  upwards 
of  600  years,  it  contained  a  promise  "to  be 
true  and  faithful  to  the  king  and  his  heirs, 
and  truth  and  faith  to  bear  of  life  and  limb 
and  terrene  honour,  and  not  to  know  or  hear 
of  any  ill  or  damage  intended  him,  without 
defending  him  therefrom."  After  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  an  act  was  passed  (3  James  I.  c.  4, 
1605),  for  the  better  discovering  and  repressing 
of  Popish  recusants,  which,  in  addition  to  other 
provisions,  required  from  those  that  conformed 
an  oath  of  allegiance  renouncing  the  Pope's 
authority  in  the  most  explicit  terms.  This  was 
repealed,  and  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  framed 
at  the  Revolution,  by  i  Will.  &  M.  c.  8  (1689).  A 
single  oath  was  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  48  (July  23, 
1858),  substituted  for  the  former  oaths  of  alle- 
giance, supremacy,  and  abjuration. 

ALLEGORISTS. — Some  early  Christians,  and 
even  the  Jews  themselves,  before  the  Christian 
sera,  interpreted  the  scripture  according  to 
what  is  termed  the  allegorical  mode,  and  were 
called  allegorists.  Origen,  who  nourished  at 
Alexandria  early  in  the  3rd  century,  is  con- 
sidered by  many  as  the  originator  of  this 
method  of  expounding  the  scriptures.  Nepos, 
an  Egyptian  bishop,  about  260,  designated 
Origen  and  the  opposers  of  the  Millennium, 
allegorists. 

ALLEGORY  abounds  in  the  Bible.  Egypt 
is  regarded  as  the  cradle  of  allegory,  as  the 
entire  system  of  writing  in  that  country  pos- 
sessed a  pictorial  or  representative  character. 
(See  HIEROGLYPHICS.)  From  Egypt  it  appears  to 
have  passed  into  Greece,  where  it  gave  a  power- 
ful tinge  to  poetry  and  mythology,  and  has  been 
supposed  by  some  critics  to  underlie  the  entire 
narrative  of  the  Iliad,  (B.C.  927.)  It  also 
characterized  negotiations  between  the  nations 
of  antiquity,  who  frequently  signified  their  in- 
tentions in  a  symbolic  or  allegorical  manner. 
Thus  Darius,  B.C.  491,  demanded  earth  and 
water  from  the  Greeks,  as  tokens  of  their  sub- 
mission. Philo  Judajus,  boni  at  Alexandria, 
B.C.  20,  attempted  to  show  the  harmony  of  the 
religious  systems  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Moses, 
by  explaining  their  doctrines  allegorically ; 
and  the  Neo-Platonists  (q.  r.)  adopted  similar 
opinions.  During  the  Middle  Ages  allegory 
became  the  great  staple  of  imaginative  writers, 
and  on  the  revival  of  literature  in  Western 
Europe  it  was  adopted  by  many  poets  in  the 
treatment  of  metaphysical  subjects.  Thus 
Dante  (1265  to  1321),  Ariosto  (1474  to  1533), 
Tassd  (1544  to  1595),  and  Spenser  (1553  to  1599), 
represented  abstract  qualities  under  personified 
forms.  John  Bunyan  (1628  to  1688)  was  a  suc- 
cessful allegorist;  his  "Pilgrim's  Progress' 
was  published  in  1678.  Emanuel  Swedenborg 
(1689  to  1772)  taught  that  the  inspired  volume 
is  a  divine  allegory  in  which  spiritual  truths 
are  represented  by  material  types,  and  thai 
this  representation  has  its  origin  in  a  corres 
pondence  or  mutual  relationship  existing  be 
tween  all  things  in  the  natural  and  spiritua 
worlds.  (See  SWEDENBORGIANS.) 
ALLELUJAH.—  (See  HALLELUJAH.) 
ALLENITES.— Followers  of  Henry  Allen,  o 
Nova  Scotia,  who  taught,  about  1778,  that  al 
human  souls  are  parts  of  the  one  Great  Spirit 
and  that  they  were  present  in  Paradise  and  par 


cipated  in  the  sin  of  Adam.  He  died  in  1783, 
laving  made  many  proselytes. 

ALLERSHEIM  (Battle).— The  French,  under 
he  great  Conde,  Duke  of  Enghien,  defeated 
he  Bavarians,  led  by  General  Mercy,  at  this 
own  on  the  Ries,  Aug.  3,  1645.  Mercy  was 
dlled  by  a  cannon-ball,  and  Cond^,  who  had 
hree  horses  shot  under  him,  received  several 
wounds. 

ALLIA  (Battles).— Near  the  confluence  of 
:his  small  river  with  the  Tiber,  into  which  it 
alls  about  n  miles  north  of  Rome,  tho 
Romans  were  defeated,  with  great  slaughter, 
>y  the  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  July  16,  B.C.  390. 
The  barbarians  captured  the  city,  destroying 
arge  portions  of  the  same.  The  disastrous  day 
was  afterwards  marked  by  the  Romans,  in  their 
calendar,  as  one  of  the  most  unfortunate  in  the 
whole  year.  The  dictator  Cincinnatus  defeated 
;he  Praenestines  and  their  allies,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Allia,  B.C.  377. 

ALLIANCES.— The  most  important  alliances 
jetween  different  states  are  given  under  their 
respective  titles.  (See  GRAND  ALLIANCE,  HOLY 
ALLIANCE,  QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE,  TRIPLE  ALLI- 
ANCE, HANOVER  ALLIANCE,  TREATIES,  &c.) 

ALLIED  POWERS  (Declaration).— The  Em- 
perors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  several  German  sovereigns,  met  at 
Frankfort  in  Nov.,  1813,  where  they  drew  up 
;hc  celebrated  "Declaration,"  issued  Dec.  i. 
[n  this  document  the  allied  sovereigns  stated 
;hat  they  did  not  make  war  against  France,  but 
against  the  preponderance  claimed  by  Napo- 
leon I.  ;  and  asserted  that  they  desired  France 
to  be  "  great,  powerful,  and  happy,  because  the 
French  power,  in  a  state  of  greatness  and 
strength,  is  one  of  the  foundations  of  the  social 
edifice  of  Europe." 

ALLIF^E.—  This  Samnite  city  was  taken  by 
the  Romans  under  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  B.C.  326, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  second  Samnite 
war.  It  was  soon  after  recovered  by  the  Sam- 
nites,  and  retaken  B.C.  310  by  the  Romans,  who 
gained  another  victory  under  its  walls  B.C.  307. 
Sylvester  I.  is  said  to  have  erected  it  into  a 
bishopric  A.D.  314.  This,  however,  is  doubtful, 
though  it  is  known  to  have  been  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  in  the  sth  century. 

ALLOBROGES.— This  Gallic  tribe  first  ap- 
pears in  history  as  allies  of  Hannibal  in  his  in- 
vasion of  Italy,  B.C.  218.  They  were  defeated 
by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  afterwards  surnamed 
Allobrogicus,  near  the  junction  of  the  Rhone 
and  the  Saone,  B.C.  121,  but  refused  to  con- 
tract a  lasting  friendship  with  their  Roman 
conquerors.  Julius  Caesar  protected  the  Allo- 
broges  against  the  Helvetii  during  his  gover- 
norship of  Gaul,  B.C.  58. 

ALLYGHUR  (Hindostan).— Near  this  for- 
tress, in  the  district  of  Allyghur,  Lake  defeated 
the  Mahrattas  and  the  French,  under  M. 
Perron,  Aug.  29,  1803  ;  and  the  fortress  itself 
was  stormed  by  Lake,  Sep.  24.  The  native 
troops  mtitinied  here,  May  20,  1857.  Tb-e 
Europeans  effected  their  escape,  and  the  place 
was  retaken  by  Col.  Greathed,  Oct.  5, 1857. 

ALMA  (Battle).— Fought  between  the  allied 
English  and  French,  and  the  Russian  armies, 
Sep.  20,  1854.  The  allied  army  consisted  of 
57,000  men,  viz.,  26,000  English,  commanded 


ALMACKS 


ALMERIA 


by  Lord  Raglan  ;  24,000  French,  commanded 
by  the  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  ;  and  7,000  Turks, 
with  124  guns.  Early  on  the  morning  of  Sep. 
20,  the  force  came  in  sight  of  the  Russian 
army,  amounting  to  between  50,000  and 
60,000  men,  strongly  posted  on  some  heights 
beyond  the  river  Alma.  The  position  was 
deemed  impregnable  ;  every  precaution  had 
been  taken  to  obstruct  the  advance  of  an  as- 
sailant. In  spite,  however,  of  formidable  ob- 
stacles, the  Russians  were  driven  from  their 
intrenchments,  after  a  fearful  struggle  of  three 
hours'  duration.  The  English  lost  2,000,  and 
the  French  1,400  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
whilst  7,000  of  the  Russians  fell. 

ALMACKS.— The  famous  assembly  rooms, 
built  by  Robert  Mylne,  were  opened  Feb.  12, 
1765,  and  were  patronized  by  the  highest 
aristocracy.  Almack,  the  original  proprietor 
(whose  name  is  said  to  have  been  M'Call  ,  died 
Jan.  3,  1781.  The  rooms,  situated  in  King- 
street,  St.  James's,  are  now  known  as  Willis's 
Rooms.  Almack's  Club  was  opened  in  1714. 
(See  GOOSETREE'S  CLUB.) 

ALMADKX  Spain  .—This  place,  celebrated 
for  its  quicksilver  mines,  marks  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Sisapore.  The  Iberians,  and  after  them 
the  Romans,  worked  these  mines,  from  which 
large  quantities  of  quicksilver  are  still  procured 
every  year.  The  Fuggers  of  Antwerp  rented 
them  in  the  i6th  century.  They  were  worked 
by  the  Spanish  Government  from  1645  to  1843, 
when  the  firm  of  Rothschild  .obtained  the 
contract. 

ALMAGRO  (Spain),  a  fortified  city,  built  by 
Roderic,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  completed 
in  1214.  Diego  d'  Almagro,  the  associate  of 
Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  being  a  found- 
ling, received  in  baptism  the  name  of  this  town, 
near  which  he  was  found,  1464.  The  Univer- 
sity dates  from  1552. 

ALMANACK.— Porphyry  states  that  alma- 
nacks were  known  to  the  Egyptians  before  the 
Arabs.  Montfaunon  has  engraved  an  Egyptian 
calendar.  They  were  constructed  by  the 
Alexandrine  Greeks,  about  the  time  of 
Ptolemy.  Instruments  of  wood  or  other  ma- 
terial, inscribed  with  various  symbolical 
figures  and  characters,  to  serve  the  purpose  of 
an  almanack,  were  used  in  early  times  by  the 
northern  nations,  especially  the  Danes,  who 
introduced  them  into  England.  The  Anglo- 
Saxons  calculated  by  the  increase  of  the  moon, 
set  down  on  square  pieces  of  wood,  about  a 
foot  long,  and  these  they  called  Almonaught, 
or  almoon-heed.  They  were  also  designated 
clogs,  bacculi-annales,  primstocks,  primsta- 
ries,  primstaffs,  runstocks,  &c.  The  celebrated 
astronomer  Purbach,  or  Puerbach,  published 
a  series  of  almanacks  between  1450  and  1461, 
but  the  first  printed  was  in  1457.  Muller,  or 
Regiomontanus,  published  the  first  that  con- 
tained eclipses,  about  1475.  The  first  alma- 
nack printed  in  England  was  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  James  I. 
granted  the  exclusive  right  of  printing  alma- 
nacks, by  letters  patent,  to  the  two  universi- 
ties and  the  Stationers'  Company.  This  was 
declared  to  be  illegal,  by  a  decision  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  in  1775.  Moore's 
almanack  was  first  printed  in  1698.  The  first 


almanack  printed  in  Scotland  was  in  1677.  A 
duty  was  first  levied  on  almanacks  by  9  Anne, 
c.  23  (1710).  It  was  abolished  by  3  and  4  Will. 
IV.,  c.  57  (Aug.  13,  1834). 

ALMANACK  Nautical,  published  by  the 
Admiralty  for  the  use  of  astronomers  and 
sailors,  was  projected  by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  as- 
tronomer royal,  and  first  appeared  in  1767.  It 
declined  so  much  after  his  death,  that,  in 
1830,  the  Government  consulted  the  Astrono- 
mical Society  on  the  subject.  The  alterations 
proposed  by  them  were  adopted,  and  the  first 
improved  almanack  appeared  in  1834. 

ALMANZA  .Battle  .—Fought  at  this  place, 
in  Spain,  Easter  Monday,  April  25  (O.S.  14), 
1707,  between  an  army  of  English,  Portuguese, 
Dutch,  and  Spanish  troops,  amounting  to 
12,000  infantry  and  5,000  cavalry,  commanded 
by  the  Earl  of  Galway,  and  the  French  and 
Spaniards,  25,000  strong,  with  a  large  cavalry 
force,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick.  The 
English,  having  been  deserted  by  many  of  the 
foreign  troops,  were  defeated,  and  it  is  some- 
what remarkable,  as  Lord  Stanhope  remarks, 
that  the  English  army  was  commanded  by  a 
French,  and  the  French  army  by  an  English 
general.  The  Duke  of  Berwick,  who  com- 
manded the  French,  was  the  natural  son  of 
James  II. 

ALMAREZ  :Spain\— The  celebrated  bridge 
over  the  Tagus,  at  this  place,  was  built  by 
Charles  V.,  in  1552.  The  principal  outworks 
of  Almarez  were  taken  from  the  French  by 
Gen.  (afterwards  Lord  Hill,  May  19,  1812. 

ALMAZAN  (Treatys,  between  Castile  and 
Aragon,  was  signed  April  12,  1375.  The  prin- 
cipal condition  was  a  contract  of  marriage  be- 
tween the  Infanta  Leonora  of  Aragon,  and  the 
Infant,  John  of  Castile. 

A  I. M  KID  A  (Portugal).— This  fortified  town, 
about  1 6  miles  from  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  was 
captured  by  the  Spaniards  during  their  in- 
vasion of  Portugal,  after  a  long  and  bloody 
siege,  Aug.  25,  1762.  During  the  struggle  in 
the  Peninsula,  it  was  surrendered  to  the  Eng- 
lish in  Oct.  1808 ;  and  taken  from  the  Portuguese 
by  the  French,  Aug.  27,  1810.  Wellington,  who 
re-invested  it  April  7,  1811,  took  it  after  a 
brilliant  victory  at  Fuentes  d'Onor  (q.  v.), 
May  n,  1811. 

A  I.M  KNAR  A  (Battle).— Fought  July  28  (O.S. 
17),  1710,  when  the  English  and  Germans, 
under  Gen.  Stanhope  and  the  Archduke,  after- 
wards the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  completely 
routed  the  Spanish  army,  commanded  by 
Philip  V.  of  Spain. 

ALMERIA  (Spain).— This  city,  the  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name,  was,  says  Prescott 
(Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  vol.  i.  pt.  i.  ch.  14), 
''one  of  the  most  precious  jewels  in  the  diadem 


terror  of  the  Catalan  and  Pisan  marine."  The 
Almoravides  captured  it  in  1091,  and  it  was 
retaken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1147.  It  was 
frequently  assailed,  and  at  length  the  Moors 
finally  surrendered  it,  by  treaty,  to  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella,  who  made  their  entry 
into  the  town  Dec.  7,  1489.  Alphonso  II.  of 
Castile  removed  the  ancient  bishopric  of  Abdera 


ALMOGAVAREZ 


[    43 


ALPHABET 


to  this  town  in  1147.  When  the  Moors  seized 
Almeria  the  see  was  suppressed,  but  Ferdinand 
re-established  it  in  1490. 

ALMOGAVAREZ.— A  companyof  Portuguese 
adventurers  who  sailed  from  Lisbon  in  1014, 
for  the  purpose  of  seeking  new  lands  in  the 
Atlantic. — A  tribe  of  military  adventurers,  who 
assisted  the  Christian  sovereigns  of  Spain  in 
their  conflicts  with  the  Moors,  were  also  called 
"  almogavares,"  or  adventurers. 

ALMOHADES,  or  ALMOHEDES,  termed  by 
Gibbon  "the  fanatic  princes  of  Morocco,"  a 
Mohammedan  dynasty,  that  grew  out  of  a  re- 
ligious sect  formed  by  Mohammed  Ben  Ab- 
dallah,  surnamed  El  Mehedi,  the  guide,  or 
teacher.  He  was  the  son  of  a  lamplighter  in  a 
mosque,  and,  having  collected  a  number  of  fol- 
lowers, was  foiled  in  an  attempt  to  found  his 
dynasty  in  Morocco,  in  1 1 2 1 .  His  death  occurred 
in  1 1 30,  and  his  successor,  Abdelmumen,  cap- 
tured Morocco  in  1132,  and  established  the 
dynasty  of  the  Almohades,  in  Africa,  in  1146. 
The  next  year  he  invaded  Spain,  won  several 
battles,  and  established  the  dynasty  in  that 
country  and  in  Portugal.  The  Almohades  ceased 
to  rule  in  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1257,  and  in 
Africa  in  1269.  They  reigned  150  years,  and 
had  14  kings.  The  Arabic  word  signifies 
"  Unitarians." 

ALMONACID  (Battle).— In  a  severe  battle 
fought  at  this  place  in  Spain,  Aug.  n,  1809, 
between  the  French  and  the  Spaniards,  the 
latter  were  defeated. 

ALMONER.— An  officer,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
distribute  alms,  was  attached  in  former  times 
to  the  households  of  sovereigns,  princes,  pre- 
lates, and  men  of  high  station.  The  great 
abbeys  and  monasteries  had  their  almoners. 
The  date  when  this  office  was  first  appointed 
has  not  been  ascertained.  Fosbroke  (Antiq. 
588)  says,  "  When  our  Anglo-Saxon  kings 
dined,  the  poor  sat  in  the  streets,  expecting 
the  broken  meat,  <fcc.,  which  was  collected  by 
the  almoner." 

ALMONER,  GRAND.— (See  HEREDITARY 
GRAND  ALMONER.) 

ALMONER,  HIGH.— (See  LORD  HIGH  AL- 
MONER OF  ENGLAND.) 

ALMORAH  (India).— In  the  Ghoorka  war, 
the  enemy  were  defeated  near  this  place  April 
23,  1815,  and  the  town  itself  was  captured  by 
the  British  April  25. 

ALMORAVIDES.— An  Arab  dynasty, founded 
in  the  N.W.  of  Africa  by  Abdallah  Ben  Yassim, 
who  died  in  1058.  His  immediate  successor, 
Abu  Bekar  Ben  Omar,  seized  Fez,  and  founded 
the  city  of  Morocco,  in  1070.  Yussef  Ben 
Taxfin,  the  third  of  the  dynasty,  conquered  a 
large  portion  of  Spain.  A  long  struggle  fol- 
lowed between  them  and  the  Almohades,  by 
whom  they  were  driven  from  Africa  in  1146, 
and  from  Spain  in  1147. 

ALMS-HOUSES.— These  useful  institutions 
were  not  known  in  this  country  until  the  Re- 
formation. Previous  to  that  date  the  poor 
obtained  relief  at  the  monasteries,  and  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy.  (See  the  latest  editions 
of  "  The  Charities  of  London,"  by  Sampson 
Low,  Jun.,  and  Herbert  Fry's  Shilling  Guide  to 
London  Charities.) 

ALNEY,    or  OLNEY  (Battle).— During  the 


struggle  between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Ca- 
nute for  the  English  crown,  and  after  many 
sanguinary  battles  had  been  fought,  the  rival 
armies  met  at  Olanege,  or  the  Isle  of  Olney, 
near  Deerhurst  in  Gloucestershire,  in  1016. 
There  it  was  proposed,  according  to  Henry  of 
Huntingdon,  to  decide  the  matter  by  single 
combat.  The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  after 
the  two  kings  had  contended  for  some  time, 
the  advantage  being  with  Edmund,  Canute 
offered  to  divide  the  kingdom.  This  offer  was 
accordingly  accepted,  and  the  kiss  of  peace 
was  given.  Wessex  was  allotted  to  Edmund, 
and  Mercia  to  Canute.  The  former  died,  or,  as 
some  chroniclers  say,  was  treasonably  killed,  a 
few  days  afterwards,  and  Canute  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  whole  kingdom.  William  of 
Malmesbury  states  that  the  division  was  agreed 
to  without  a  combat ;  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle  does  not  mention  the  duel. 

ALNWICK.— This  castle,  on  the  river  Aln,  in 
Northumberland,  was  besieged,  in  1093,  by 
Malcolm  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  who,  with  his 
eldest  son,  was  killed  by  the  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland Nov.  13.  David  I.  captured  it  in  1136. 
William  the  Lion  of  Scotland,  with  80,000  men, 
laid  siege  to  it  in  1174,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
after  sustaining  a  most  disastrous  defeat.  It 
was  burned  by  King  John  in  1216. 

ALOGIANS,  or  ALOGI.— A  sect  of  heretics 
who  sprang  up  soon  after  the  death  of  John  the 
Evangelist,  A.D.  100.  They  denied  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  the  Logos,  and  rejected  St.  John's 
Gospel  and  the  Apocalypse.  Augustine  op- 
posed them,  and  they  were  condemned  at  the 
Council  of  Toledo,  Dec.  9,  633.  Robertson 
(Hist,  of  Christian  Church  to  the  Pontificate  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  p.  jzn],  says  they  "were 
styled  Alogi — a  name  of  double  meaning — sig- 
nifying their  rejection  of  the  writings  in  which 
the  Logos  is  mentioned,  and  also  that  they 
were  without  reason." 

ALOST  (Belgium).  — This  town  — the  old 
capital  of  East  Flanders — was  besieged  in  1128. 
The  town-hall  was  built  in  1210.  Thierry  Mar- 
tens, who  introduced  the  art  of  printing  in  1475, 
was  bom  here.  It  was  taken  by  the  French 
under  Turenne  in  1667,  and  retaken  in  1706. 

ALPACA.— The  wool  of  this  animal  has  long 
been  in  use  among  the  Indians  of  the  Andes  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  1829  that  it  became  an 
article  of  commerce  in  this  country.  Alpacas 
have  been  introduced  into  Australia,  and  the 
first  wool  was  obtained  in  1859. 

ALPHABET. —The  origin  of  alphabetical 
characters  is  a  subject  that  has  excited  much 
controversy  among  the  learned.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  believed  that  hieroglyphical  writ- 
ing gave  rise  to  the  invention  of  alphabetical 
writing,  by  contraction  of  the  hieroglyphic 
symbols  into  alphabetical  letters.  Hales  (Chro- 
nology, i.  370)  combats  this  theory,  showing 
that  the  art  of  alphabetical  writing  preceded 
the  establishment  of  hieroglyphic.  "Some 
Jewish  and  Oriental  traditions,"  says  this 
author,  "ascribe  the  invention  of  writing  to 
Seth,  the  son  of  Adam  ;  others  to  Enoch,  the 
seventh  from  Adam  ;  whether  well  founded  or 
riot,  it  proves  the  prevailing  opinion  that  let- 
ters were  of  antediluvian  date."  Western  tra- 
dition supports  this  view,  and  both  Pliny  and 


ALPHOXSIXE 


[    44    1 


ALTARS 


Cicero  asserted  that  letters  were  always  found 
amongst  the  Assyrians.  From  Egypt  they 
were  probably  introduced  into  Canaan  by 
Moses,  and  were  carried  by  the  Phoenicians 
into  Greece.  Herodotus  states  that  they  were 
brought  into  Greece  by  Cadmus.  This  took 
place  B.C.  1493  ;  according  to  Hales,  B.C.  1494  ; 
and  to  Clinton  B.C.  1313.  The  Greek  alphabet 
consisted  at  first  of  only  n,  or  at  most  16 
letters  ;  but  the  number  was  eventually  in- 
creased to  22.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  assert 
that  Simonides,  who  flourished  about  B.C. 
540,  added  the  two  long  vowels  17  and  o>, 
and  the  two  double  consonants  £  and  «// ;  while 
Aristotle  and  Pliny  say  that  Epicharmus, 
who  flourished  about  B.C.  450,  added  the  two 
letters  x  an<l  #  to  the  Greek  alphabet.  Sharon 
Turner  is  of  opinion  that  the  Anglo-Saxons 
were  not  unacquainted  with  alphabetical  cha- 
racters when  they  came  into  England,  though 
they  laid  aside  their  ancient  letters,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  on  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

ALPHONSINE,  or  ALFONSIXE,  TABLES. 
— These  astronomical  tables  are  said  to  have 
been  constructed  by  certain  Jews  of  Toledo,  in 
1252.  Other  authorities  attribute  them  to  the 
king's  preceptors,  under  the  direction  of 
Alphonso  X.  (whence  their  name',  King  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon,  surnamed  the  Wise.  They  were 
first  printed  at  Venice  in  1483. 

ALPINE  CLUB  (London).— This  society, 
for  the  promotion  of  Alpine  discovery,  was 
formed  early  in  the  year  1858,  and  published 
the  first  volume  of  "  Peaks,  Passes,  and  Gla- 
ciers" in  1850.  Lord  Francis  Douglas,  Mr. 
Haddo,  and  Mr.  C.  Hudson,  members  of  this 
club,  perisb,ed  with  their  guide  in  the  descent 
of  Mont  Cervin,  or  Matterhorn,  July  14,  1865. 
They  had  accomplished  the  ascent  in  .safety, 
but  on  the  return  journey  one  of  the  party 
made  a  false  step,  and  fell  over  a  precipice  4,000 
feet  deep,  dragging  his  companions  after  him. 

ALPS. — Bellovesus  is  said  to  have  led  an 
army  of  Gauls  across  the  Alps  into  Northern 
Italy  B.C.  620.  Hannibal  crossed  with  the 
Carthaginian  army  B.C.  218.  The  Roman  army 
effected  the  passage  in  the  expedition  against 
the  Ligurians  B.C.  173.  Pompey  discovered  a 
new  route  in  his  march  into  Spain  B.C.  77. 
Suwarrow,  with  the  Russian  army,  crossed  at 
the  St.  Gothard  pass  in  September,  1799,  and 
Napoleon  I.,  with  the  French  army,  effected 
the  passage  at  the  Great  St.  Bernard  pass,  May 
1 6 — 20,  1800. 

ALPS  (Tunnel). — A  government  commission 
having  reported  favourably  respecting  the  in- 
vention of  Messrs.  Sommeiller,  Grandis,  and 
Grattoni,  for  boring  tunnels  through  the  Alps 
by  machinery,  it  was  forthwith  applied,  in 
1857,  to  the  excavation  of  a  tunnel  under  Mont 
Cenis,  required  to  complete  the  direct  commu- 
nication by  the  Victor  Emmanuel  Railway  be- 
cween  France  and  Italy.  The  distance  is  about 
seven  miles  and  a  half. 

ALRESFORD  (Battle).— Fought  between  the 
Parliamentary  forces  and  the  Royalists,  March 
29,  1644.  The  latter,  though  worsted,  withdrew 
in  good  order  to  Reading. 

ALSACE  (France).— In  German,  "Der  El- 
sass,"  meaning  "Ml  settlement,  or  seat,"  having 


been  abandoned  by  the  Romans  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury, was  overrun  by  the  various  hordes  that 
crossed  the  Rhine,  until  it  was  annexed  to 
Gaul  by  Clovis  I.,  and  was  included  in  Charle- 
magne's empire.  It  was  connected  with  Ger- 
many, having  for  a  time  constituted  a  duchy, 
afterwards  joined  to  Swabia,  from  955  till  1648, 
when,  by  the  treaties  of  Miinster,  Jan.  30,  and 
of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  a  portion  was  ceded  to 
France.  Louis  XIV.  seized  Strasburg  in  1681, 
and  this  city,  with  the  remainder  of  Alsace, 
was  secured  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick, 
Oct.  30,  1697. 

A  I. s  ATI  A. —The  sanctuary  of  Whitefriars 
was  so  called  in  1623  by  Thomas  Powel,  and 
gave  its  name  in  1688  to  Shadwell's  "  Squire  of 
Alsatia."  Owing  to  the  disgraceful  abuses  of 
the  privilege  of  sanctuary,  it  was  abolished  by 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  27  (1697^,  after  the  passing  of 
which  act  Alsatia  was  deserted,  and  is  de- 
scribed as  being  in  ruins  in  the  "Tattler"  for 
Sep.  10,  1709. 

ALSEN  (Denmark).— This  island,  situated 
in  the  Little  Belt,  was,  for  nearly  17  years, 
the  prison  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  who 
was  deposed  in  1523.  The  fortifications  were 
attacked  by  the  Prussians  June  26,  1864,  and 
the  island  surrendered  June  29. 

ALTAKU  (Battle).— Fought  B.C.  700  near  this 
small  town,  which  Rawlinson  believes  to  be  the 
Eltekeh  (Josh.  xix.  44)  of  the  Jews,  between 
Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  and  the  com- 
bined Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  forces.  The 
latter  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter. 

A  I. T A  US.  —  The  first  altar  mentioned  in 
Scripture  was  erected  by  Noah  after  the  flood 
(Gen.  viii.  20),  B.C.  2343,  according  to  Calmet ; 
B.C.  3154,  according  to  Hales  ;  and  B.C.  2481, 
accordingto  Clinton.  Abraham  erected  altars  in 
different  places  (Gen.  xii.  8,  and  xiii.  18) ;  and 
God  commanded  Moses  to  raise  them.  The 
Jews  also  imitated  the  custom  of  pagan  nations, 
who  built  high  places,  and  images,  and  groves, 
on  every  high  hill  and  under  every  green  tree 
(i  Kings  xiv.  23),  B.C.  960.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  built  altars  on  which  they  sacrificed  to 
their  heroes,  and  a  similar  custom  prevailed 
amongst  most  ancient  nations.  The  altars  used 
in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  were  made  of 
wood  and  in  the  form  of  a  table,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  sth  century  that  stone  was  employed. 
Eventually  they  assumed  the  form  of  a  tomb,  as 
of  the  Sepulchre  of  the  Martyrs,  whence  they 
derive  their  name.  The  proceedings  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Agda,  Sep.  n,  506,  contain  the  first  public 
record  in  connection  with  their  consecration. 
The  general  belief  in  purgatory  in  the  gfh  cen- 
tury led  to  the  erection  of  additional  altars  in 
churches.  They  had  been  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, but  they  were  ordered  to  be  removed  and 
replaced  by  communion  tables  at  the  Reforma- 
tion. Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  at  a  visitation, 
held  in  consequence  of  a  letter  in  the  king's 
name,  setting  forth  that  previous  orders  for 
the  removal  of  stone  altars  had  not  been  duly 
complied  with,  directed  the  clergy  of  his  diocese 
to  substitute  wooden  tables  (1550).  Stone  al- 
tars, again  erected  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary, 
were  removed  in  that  of  Elizabeth.  In  the 
stone-altar  case,  decided  in  the  Arches  Court, 
Jan.  31,  1845,  Sir  H.  Jenner  Fust  decreed,  on 


ALTENKIRCHEN 


[    45    1 


AMALRICIANS 


appeal,  reversing  the  decision  of  the  Chancellor 
of  Ely,  that  a  stone  altar  could  not  be  legally 
erected  in  any  church  belonging  to  the  Esta- 
blishment. 

ALTENKIRCHEN  (Battle).— In  a  combat  at 
this  town,  in  Prussia,  June  4,  1796,  the  French 
compelled  the  Austrians  to  retire,  but  in  a  bat- 
tle fought  Sep.  19,  1796,  between  the  French 
republican  army,  under  Gen.  Marceau,  and  the 
Austrians,  led  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  the 
latter  gained  a  complete  victory,  and  Gen. 
Marceau  was  mortally  wounded. 

ALTMARK.—  At  the  village  of  Altmark,  or 
Starygrow,  in  Prussia,  Sep.  25,  1629,  a  truce  for 
six  years  was  concluded  between  Sweden  and 
Poland. 

ALTON  (Battle.)— Fought  between  the  Danes 
and  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  1001.  The  contest 
was  severe,  and  many  were  slain  on  both  sides, 
the  Danes  retaining  possession  of  the  field  of 
battle.  The  authorities  do  not  agree  respecting 
the  place  where  this  encounter  occurred. 

ALTON  A,  or  ALTENA(Holstein),  on  the  Elbe, 
was  a  mere  village  until  it  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Danes  in  1660,  who  erected  the 
city  in  1664.  A  treaty  of  peace  between  Hoi- 
stem  and  Denmark  was  concluded  here  June  20, 
1689.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Swedes  Jan.  10, 
1773,  and  occupied  by  the  Austrians  Feb.,  1851. 
The  army  acting  for  the  German  Federal  Diet 
entered  this  town  Dec.  24,  1863.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Prussians  Feb.  12,  1864. 

ALT-RANSTADT  (Treaties).— Two  treaties 
of  peace  were  concluded  here  during  the  i8th 
century,  the  first  signed  Oct.  5  (O.S.  Sep.  24), 
1706,  and  dictated  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
to  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  formally 
renounced  the  claim  he  had  put  forth  to  Poland, 
acknowledging  Stanislaus  Lescinsky  as  king. 
He  also  renounced  the  treaty  with  Russia,  and 
agreed,  by  secret  articles,  to  provide  winter 
quarters  in  Saxony  for  the  Swedish  troops. 
Traitors  and  deserters  were  to  be  given  up. 
The  second  treaty,  between  Louis  XIV.  and 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  who  had  refused  to 
join  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  was  signed 
March  17  (O.S.  6),  1714.  The  latter  was  preli- 
minary to  the  peace  of  Baden  (q.  v.}. 

ALUM. — It  is  not  known  when  the  process 
of  making  alum  was  discovered.  Beckmann 
(Hist,  of  Invent.  <fcc.  i.  186)  states  that  at  an 
early  period  alum  works  existed  at  Roccha, 
the  ancient  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia,  whence 
the  name  Rock  alum.  Several  works  had  been 
established  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Constan- 
tinople previous  to  its  capture  by  the  Turks 
in  1453.  The  Genoese  and  other  Italians  intro- 
duced the  manufacture  into  Europe,  and 
amongst  the  earliest  Italian  works  of  the  kind 
were  those  erected  at  Volterra  in  1458.  Alum 
was  made  at  Hesse,  in  Germany,  in  1554,  in 
Bohemia  in  1558,  and  at  Glatz  in  1563.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Sir  Thomas  Cha- 
loner,  and  works  were  built  at  Guisborough, 
in  Yorkshire,  according  to  some  authorities, 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and,  according 
to  others,  in  that  of  James  I.,  about  1608. 

ALUM-BAGH,  a  domain  containing  a  palace, 
a  mosque,  and  a  private  temple,  bounded  by  a 
garden,  situated  in  a  beautiful  park,  about  four 
miles  from  Lucknow,  was  converted  into  a 


fortress  by  the  rebels  in  1857.  It  was  captured 
by  the  British,  under  Outram  and  Havelock, 
Sep.  23,  1857,  and  a  small  garrison  placed  in  it, 
which  was  not  relieved  until  Nov.  14,  in  the 
same  year.  Sir  Henry  Havelock  died  here  Nov. 
25.  Sir  James  Outram  held  the  place  with  3,500 
men  until  Lucknow  was  taken,  March  21,  1858, 
having  in  the  meanwhile  repulsed  an  attack  of 
30,000  men,  Jan.  12,  and  one  of  20,000,  Feb.  21. 

ALUMINIUM,  one  of  the  most  abundant 
metals  in  nature,  being  the  metallic  basis  of 
alumina,  or  pure  clay,  was  first  discovered  in 
1828,  by  Wohler,  who  freed  it  from  its  combi- 
nation with  oxygen  by  electric  means,  and 
obtained  it  in  1846  by  decomposing  chloride  of 
alumina  by  means  of  sodium.  Deville  and 
others  made  some  interesting  experiments  in 
1855  and  1856,  and  in  1855  Rose  announced  that 
Aluminium  could  be  prepared  at  a  cheap  rate 
from  a  mineral  named  cryolite  or  "Mineral 
Soda."  Aluminium  works  were  erected  at 
Battersea,  near  London,  in  1860. 

AM  ALEKITES.— This  tribe  of  Edomite  Arabs, 
descendants  of  Amalek,  grandson  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  12),  were  the  first  amongst  the 
Canaanites  to  oppose  the  Israelites  after  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xvii.  8 — 16),  at 
the  battle  at  Rephidim,  B.C.  1491.  Saul  over- 
came them  (i  Sam.  xv.  8)  B.C.  1093 ;  David  (i 
Sam.  xxvii.  8,  9,  and  xxx.),  B.C.  1055 ;  and 
their  descendants  were  exterminated  by  the 
Simeonites,  about  B.C.  725  (i  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

AMALPHI  (Italy),  a  small  republic  in  the 
Gulf  of  Salerno,  that  attained  considerable 
eminence  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  at  an  early  period,  and  in  987  John 
XV.  erected  it  into  an  archbishopric.  Gibbon 
says,  ' '  Its  industrious  citizens,  by  the  inven- 
tion of  the  mariner's  compass,  have  unveiled 
the  face  of  the  globe."  Flavio  Gioja,  said  to 
have  invented  the  mariner's  compass  (q.  v.)  in 
1302,  was  born  here.  It  nourished  entirely  by 
its  commerce,  from  about  750  to  its  conquest  by 
Robert  Guiscard,  in  1077.  It  regained  its  in- 
dependence in  1096,  submitted  to  the  King  of 
Sicily  in  1131,  and  was  sacked  by  the  Pisans  in 
1135.  Masaniello  was  born  here  in  1623. 

AMALPHI  (Pandects).— The  story  of  the 
discovery  at  Amalphi,  in  1137,  of  a  unique  copy 
of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  which  led  to  a 
revival  of  the  study  of  jurisprudence  in  the 
West,  though  at  one  time  generally  believed,  is 
now  rejected  as  fabulous. 

AMALRICIANS.— The  followers  of  Amalri- 
cus,  or  Amaury,  of  Bene,  the  Paris  dialecti- 
cian and  theologian.  He  denounced  several 
Roman  Catholic  doctrines,  and  is  said  to  have 
believed  in  a  speedy  reformation,  and  purifica- 
tion of  the  Church  by  the  sword.  He  has  also 
been  accused  of  Pantheism.  Milman  (Lat. 
Christ,  vi.  b.  xiv.  ch.  3)  says,  "  All  kinds  of  in- 
congruous charges  were  heaped  upon  the  me- 
mory of  Amaury  de  Bene  :  he  was  an  Albigen- 
sian,  believed  in  the  Eternal  Gospel."  Whilst 
commenting  upon  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  he 
advanced  his  peculiar  views.  Innocent  III. 
launched  a  bull  of  condemnation  against  his 
chief  work,  "  The  Physion,"  in  1204.  Amalri- 
cus  retracted,  and  died  soon  after.  His  re- 
mains were  disinterred  and  burned,  and  several 
of  his  followers  were  put  to  death,  by  order  of 


AMAXD 


[  46  ] 


AMBIANI 


the  Council  of  Paris,  in  Oct.,  1210.  David  of 
Dinant  was  one  of  his  followers,  but  the  sect 
speedily  disappeared. 

AMAXD,  St.  (French  Flanders).— Taken  by 
the  Prince  of  Nassau,  June  27,  1709.  Near  this 
place  the  English  first  met  the  French  republi- 
can troops,  May  8,  1703.  The  Duke  of  York 
commanded  the  English  and  their  allies,  who, 
after  a  hotly-contested  battle,  defeated  the 
French. 

AMARANTA  (Order).— This  female  order  of 
knighthood,  instituted  in  Sweden  by  Queen 
Christina,  in  1645,  became  extinct  soon  after 
her  death. 

AMAZON,  MARANON,  or  ORELLANA 
(South  America),  the  largest  river  in  the  world, 
was  discovered  in  1500  by  Vincent  Yanez  Pin- 
zon,  though  little  was  known  of  it  until  the 
Spanish  adventurer  Orellana,  having  embarked 
on  the  Rio  Napo,  one  of  its  remote  tributaries, 
was  carried  down  the  stream  to  its  embouchure, 
reaching  the  sea  in  August,  1541.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  report  that  armed  women  had 
been  seen  on  its  banks,  the  river  obtained  its 
popular  name  of  Amazon.  The  river  was  first 
accurately  described  in  1745  by  M.  de  la  Con- 
damine,  who  had  embarked  upon  it  in  1743, 
near  Jaen,  and  followed  its  current  to  its 
mouth. 

AMAZON,  West  India  mail  steamer,  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  Jan.  4, 
1852.  Out  of  161  persons  on  board  at  the  time, 
only  59  were  saved.  Eliot  B.  G.  Warburton, 
born  in  1810,  author  of  "The  Crescent  and 
the  Cross,"  and  other  works,  perished  on  the 
occasion. 

AMA/ONS.— A  race  of  female  warriors,  of 
Scythian  origin,  dwelling,  according  to  ancient 
tradition,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thermodon,  in 
Cappadocia.  They  are  mentioned  by  Homer 
and  Herodotus.  In  order  to  use  their  weapons 
with  greater  force  and  precision,  their  right 
breasts  were  burned  off  or  destroyed  at  an  early 
age.  The  Abbe"  Guyon  wrote  a  short  history  of 
the  Amazons,  of  which  Dr.  Johnson  published 
a  translation  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine  " 
for  1741.  These  accounts  have  been  rejected  as 
fabulous,  although  repeated  by  many  authors. 
Mill  (Crusades,  vol.  i.  ch.  ix.  p.  377),  speaking 
of  Conrad's  army  of  crusaders  in  1147,  says, 
"  A  considerable  troop  of  women  rode  among 
the  Germans ;  they  were  arrayed  with  the 
spear  and  shield ;  but  some  love  of  usual 
delights  had  mingled  itself  with  the  desire  of 
great  exploits,  for  they  were  remarkable  for 
the  splendour  of  their  dress,  and  the  bold 
leader  was  called  'the  golden-footed  dame.'" 
Alvarez,  who  visited  Abyssinia  in  1520,  speaks 
of  Amazons  in  that  country.  The  figure  of  an 
Amazon  is  found  on  many  ancient  coins.  The 
fact  of  the  existence  of  a  regiment  of  Amazons 
in  the  present  century  is  proved  by  Commander 
Forbes,  who  met  with  one  at  Dahomey  during 
a  visit  in  1849  and  1850.  The  author  says  :  "  It  is 
rarely  that  Europeans  are  called  upon  to 
believe  in  the  existence  of  Amazons — fighting 
women  prepared  to  do  battle  on  all  around,  the 
terror  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  dressed  in 
the  attire  of  male  soldiers,  armed  with  muskets 
and  swords.  These  sable  ladies  perform  pro- 
digies of  valour,  and  not  unfrequently,  by  a 


fortunate  charge,  save  the  honour  of  the  male 
soldiers,  by  bearing  down  all  before  them, 
discovering  themselves  to  the  astonished  and 
abashed  prisoners  to  be  women,  exceeding 
their  male  coadjutors  in  cruelty  and  all  the 
stronger  passions." 

AMBASSADORS,  as  representative  agents  or 
envoys,  were  employed  in  very  ancient  times. 
Moses  sent  messengers  to  the  King  of  Edom 
to  request  a  passage  through  his  territories 
(Numbers  xx.  14 — 21),  B.C.  1452  ;  and  David 
made  war  upon  the  Ammonites  because  their 
king  ill-used  his  messengers  and  treated  them 
as  spies  (2  Sam.  x.),  B.C.  1038.  The  custom  of 
sending  ambassadors  prevailed  amongst  most 
ancient  nations.  Malmesbury,  in  his  Chronicle, 
speaks  of  three  ambassadors  sent  from  England 
to  Constantinople  in  1056.  Wicquefort  (The 
Ambassador  and  his  Functions,  translated  by 
Digby,  1716)  declares,  "  There  is  not  any  king- 
dom or  state  that  does  not  make  use  of  them." 
In  another  place  he  says,  "  The  Marsltalless  of 
(ri'i-iii-iiiiit  was  the  first  lady,  and  the  only  one, 
if  I  mistake  not,  that  has  had  this  quality  an- 
nexed to  her  own  person,  and  she  may  perhaps 
be  the  last."  Resident  ambassadors  are  said 
to  have  been  introduced  by  Ferdinand  V.  of 
Spain,  but  the  practice  did  not  become  com- 
mon till  the  1 6th  century.  In  England,  even 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  they  were  called 
orators.  By  our  laws  of  England,  ambassadors 
enjoy  many  privileges.  They  are  free  from 
arrest  by  7  Anne,  c.  12  (April  21,  1708).  This  law 
was  occasioned  by  the  arrest  of  Andrew  Arte- 
monowitz  Matueof,  ambassador  to  Peter  the 
Great,  July  21,  1708.  He  was  taken  out  of 
his  coach  in  London  for  a  debt  of  ,£50,  at 
the  suit  of  Thomas  Morton,  laceman.  Their 
goods  are  also  free  from  distraint  by  the  same 
statute. 

AMI'.ER,  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  is  also  obtained  by  mining.  This  sub- 
stance has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times 
(Ezekiel  i.  4 — 27,  and  viii.  2),  and  its  electric 
property  was  first  observed  by  Thales,  born 
B.C.  640.  It  was  used  for  ornament  as  well  as 
medicinal  purposes  before  the  Christian  a;ia. 
Sophocles,  who  flourished  B.C.  495 — B.C.  405  ; 
Herodotus,  born  B.C.  484 ;  Pliny  the  Younger, 
A.D.  61 — 105  ;  and  other  ancient  writers,  allude 
to  it.  That  the  ancient  Britons  employed  it  for 
ornament  is  proved  from  the  fact  of  its  frequent 
occurrence  in  barrows.  It  was  also  used  as  an 
amulet  or  charm  against  disease.  In  1576  a 
mass  weighing  1 1  Ib.  was  found  in  Prussia.  It 
occurs  in  Sicily  and  the  Adriatic. 

AMBERG  (Battle).— The  French  republican 
army,  under  Jourdan,  was  defeated  near  this 
town,  in  Bavaria,  by  the  Austrians,  led  by  the 
Archduke  Charles,  Aug.  24,  1796. 

AMBERGRIS,  ambre  gris,  or  grey  amber,  to 
which  it  was  long  supposed  to  bear  some 
affinity,  is  generated  by  the  large-headed 
spermaceti  whale.  It  is  found  floating  at  sea, 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  China,  Japan, 
Ireland,  &£.  The  largest  piece  on  record 
weighed  182  Ib. 

AMBIANI.— This  Belgic  people,  occupying 
the  country  round  Ainiens,  opposed  Julius 
Caesar  with  10,000  armed  men,  B.C.  67,  but 
ultimately  submitted  to  him.  They  united 


AMBLEF 


[    47    3 


AMERICA 


with  the  rest  of  the  Gallic  tribes  in  the  great 
rebellion  against  the  Romans,  B.C.  52. 

AMBLEF  (Battle).— Gained  at  this  place,  near 
the  abbey  of  Stavel,  in  the  Ardennes,  in  716, 
by  Charles  Martel  over  the  Neustrians,  led  by 
Chilperic  II.  and  Ragenfroy,  who  were  return- 
ing to  their  own  territories  after  having 
ravaged  Austrasia. 

AMBLETEUSE  (France).— A  small  seaport 
between  Calais  and  Boulogne,  at  which  Caesar 
embarked  his  cavalry  for  the  invasion  of 
England,  B.C.  54 ;  and  James  II.  landed, 
Dec.  23,  1688,  on  deserting  the  English  throne. 

AMBOISE  (France).— A  pacification,  known 
as  the  Edict  of  Amboise,  between  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Protestants,  was  promulgated 
at  Amboise,  March  19,  1563,  by  which  a  general 
amnesty  was  granted  for  the  past  and  free 
toleration  of  Protestant  worship  in  particular 
places  in  France.  The  term  "Huguenot  "  was 
first  applied  to  the  French  Protestants  at 
this  town.  Charles  VIII.,  born  here,  June  30, 
1470,  died  here,  April  7,  1498.  Abd-el-Kader 
was  kept  prisoner  in  the  castle  from  1848  to 
1852. 

AMBOISE  (League).— Formed  in  1560,  by 
the  leaders  of  the  Christaudins,  as  the  French 
Calvinists  were  then  called,  to  seize  Francis  II. 
and  the  Guises  at  Blois,  to  overthrow  the 
power  of  the  latter,  and  to  compel  the  king  to 
grant  them  protection.  The  plot  was  disclosed, 
and  the  court  removed  from  Blois  to  the  castle 
of  Amboise,  which  was  entrusted  to  Conde". 

AMBOYNA  (Indian  Archipelago),  the  chief 
of  the  Molucca  Islands,  was  discovered  in  1511 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  established  a  factory 
in  1521,  but  did  not  obtain  full  possession  until 
1580.  The  Dutch  expelled  the  Portuguese  in 
1605 ;  the  English  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  form  a  settlement  upon  the  island  in 
1615,  and  subsequently  established  a  factory, 
the  members  of  which  were  all  treacherously 
murdered  by  the  Dutch  governor  in  Feb.,  1623. 
The  Dutch  agreed  to  pay  .£270,000  compen- 
sation, part  of  which  was  to  go  to  the  heirs  of 
the  sufferers,  by  the  treaty  of  peace  of  April  5, 
1654.  Amboyna  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  Feb.  16,  1796 ;  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  March  25, 
1802;  recaptured  Feb.  17,  1810;  and  was  given 
up  again  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  concluded 
May  30,  1814. 

AMBRACIA  (Greece).— This  ancient  city  of 
Epirus,  colonized  by  a  party  of  Corinthians, 
about  B.C.  635,  soon  rose  to  maritime  im- 
portance, and  contributed  seven  ships  to  the 
Greek  armament  against  Xerxes,  B.C.  480, 
and  27  to  the  Corinthians  in  their  contest 
with  Corcyra,  B.C.  432.  During  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  the  Ambraciots  seized  Argos,  which 
was  retaken  by  the  Athenians  B.C.  432,  who 
successfully  resisted  a  second  attack  by  the 
Ambraciots,  B.C.  430.  In  conjunction  with 
the  Lacedemonians  they  sustained  a  severe 
defeat  from  the  Acarnanians  at  Stratus,  B.C. 
429,  and  were  nearly  annihilated  in  a  third 
attack  upon  Argos,  B.C.  426.  Ambracia  was 
subsequently  seized  by  the  Macedonians, 
whose  garrison  was  expelled  by  the  inhabi- 
tants B.C.  336.  It  afterwards  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  who  made 


it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  adorned  it 
with  many  choice  works  of  art,  which  were 
removed  by  the  Romans  on  their  capture  of 
the  city,  B.C.  189.  The  site  of  this  city  is 
occupied  by  the  modern  Arta,  which  rose  to 
importance,  as  the  chief  town  of  Acarnania, 
about  the  i4th  century. 

AMBROSIAN  CHANT.— St.  Ambrose,  Bishop 
of  Milan  (374  —  397),  introduced  the  choral 
music  of  the  Eastern  into  the  Western  Church, 
and  it  afterwards  bore  his  name.  It  was  super- 
seded by  the  Gregorian  chant  about  the  year 
600. 

AMBROSIAN  LIBRARY.— This  library, 
named  after  St.  Ambrose,  the  patron  saint  of 
the  city,  was  founded  at  Milan  by  Cardinal 
Borromeo  in  1602,  and  opened  in  1609,  It 
contains  60,000  books,  and  15,000  MSS. 

AMBROSIAN  RITUAL.— The  name  given  to 
the  office  used  in  the  church  of  Milan.  It 
receives  its  name  from  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop 
of  Milan  (374 — 397),  because  it  was  either 
introduced  into  Milan,  or  at  any  rate  altered, 
by  him. 

AMBULANCE  CORPS.— Some  Chelsea  pen- 
sioners were,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war 
against  Russia,  in  1854,  formed  into  an  am- 
bulance corps,  which  was  superseded  by  the 
Land  Transport  Corps  (g.  v.} 

AMEDIANS,  or  AMEDIEU.— This  order  of 
monks,  so  called  because  they  claimed  to  be 
lovers  of  God,  or  beloved  by  God,  originated  in 
Italy  in  1400,  and  subsequently  possessed 
28  convents,  which  were  annexed  by  Pius  V. 
(1566—1572)  to  those  of  the  Cistercians  and 
Soccolanti. 

AMEN.— The  use  in  Christian  worship  of 
this  Hebrew  word,  signifying  affirmation  or 
assent,  is  as  ancient  as  the  times  of  the 
Apostles,  being  referred  to  by  St.  Paul  A.D.  55 
(i  Cor.  xiv.  16).  It  had  previously  been  fre- 
quently used  in  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  is  the  word  so  often  translated 
"  verily  "  in  the  English  version  of  the  ser- 
mons and  exhortations  of  our  Saviour. 

AMERCEMENT,  or  AMERCIAMENT.— The 
difference  between  amerciaments  and  fines  is 
this  :  fines  are  said  to  be  punishments  certain, 
and  grow  expressly  from  some  statute ;  but 
amerciaments  are  such  as  are  arbitrarily  im- 
posed. Magna  Charta  (c.  14)  provides  that  a 
freeman  is  not  to  be  amerced  for  a  small  fault, 
but  proportionable  to  the  offence,  and  that  by 
his  peers.  The  statute  9  Hen.  III.  c.  14  (1225), 
provides  how  men  of  all  sorts  shall  be  amerced, 
and  by  whom  ;  and  by  Statute  of  Westmin- 
ster I.  (3  Edw.  I.  c.  6),  1275,  it  was  enacted  that 
amercements  should  be  reasonable ;  and  the 
scale  for  various  classes  of  the  community  was 
regulated  by  25  Edw.  I.  c.  14.  (1297). 

AMERGAU  MYSTERY.  —  (See  AMMERGAU 
MYSTERY.) 

AMERICA,  or  the  NEW  WORLD.  —  The 
existence  of  this  continent  was  known  to  the 
Scandinavians,  or  Northmen,  who  discovered 
Iceland  (q.  v.)  and  Greenland  (q.  v.}  in  the  gth 
century,  forming  settlements  in  these  coun- 
tries. One  of  the  sailors,  on  a  voyage  from 
Iceland  to  Greenland,  was  driven  by  a  storm 
on  the  coast  of  America  in  986,  and  the  account 
which  he  gave  of  his  adventure  induced  Leif, 


AMERICA 


AMERICA 


son  of  Eric  the  Red,  to  undertake  a  voyage  of 
discovery  in  1000.  Having  touched  at  places 
supposed  to  be  the  modern  Newfoundland, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  neighbouring  coast,  the 
expedition  came,  in  1001,  to  a  part  of  the 
country  which  received  the  name  of  Vinland, 
from  its  wild  vines.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
comprised  Rhode  Island,  and  parts  of  the 
coast  between  Boston  and  New  York  ;  and  it 
became  the  seat  of  a  settlement;  for  in  1121 
Eric  Upsi,  an  Icelander,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Greenland,  undertook  a  mission  to  the  new 
colony  of  Vinland.  The  intercourse  between 
the  Northmen  and  America  was  carried  on 
until  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century.  It 
was,  however,  reserved  for  the  enterprising 
navigators  of  the  isth  century  to  give  a  know- 
ledge of  the  New  World  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Old,  and  to  establish  that  connec- 
tion between  these  two  distant  portions  of 
the  globe  that  has  produced  such  wonderful 
results.  Christopher  Columbus,  a  Genoese 
navigator,  supplied  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
with  three  small  ships,  sailed  from  Palos,  in 
Andalusia,  Friday,  Aug.  3,  1492,  and  landed  at 
St.  Salvador  (<  Juanahani),  one  of  the  Bahama 
Islands,  Friday,  Oct.  12.  Columbus  then  sa  1<  <1 
on,  and  discovered  Cuba  (q.  v.)  Oct.  28,  and 
Hispaniola,  or  Hayti,  now  St.  Domingo,  whei-e 
he  left  a  settlement,  La  Navidad,  or  Nativity. 
He  set  sail  from  this  place  Jan.  4,  1493,  and 
reached  Palos  March  15.  The  American  con- 
tinent was  not  discovered  until  June  24,  1497, 
when  John  Gaboto,  or  Cabot  (a  Venetian 
settled  in  England,  who,  with  his  son,  Sebas- 
tian, sailed  in  ships  furnished  by  Henry  VJI. 
and  some  Bristol  merchants),  landed  in  North 
America,  and  explored  a  part  of  the  coast. 
Columbus  discovered  Paria,  on  the  continent 
of  South  America,  in  1498 ;  and  thus  both 
divisions  of  the  New  World  were  known  be- 
fore the  1 6th  century.  The  early  navigators, 
imagining  that  these  countries  formed  part  of 
India,  gave  them  the  name  of  the  West  Indies. 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  Florentine  traveller,  who 
sailed  in  several  expeditions,  is  said  to  have 
inserted  the  words  Tin- /-a  </?  Amn-ipo  in  a 
map  published  by  him  early  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. Though  this  account  is  denied,  from 
him  came  the  name  of  America,  by  which  that 
portion  of  the  globe  is  now  known.  Further 
information  respecting  America  is  given  under 
its  various  political  divisions.  The  following 
chronological  table  contains  some  of  the  chief 
points  in  the  early  history  of  its  discovery  and 
colonization  : — 


1493,  Sep.    25.    Columbus,  with   17  ships,    carrying  1,500 

men,  sails  from  Cadiz,  on  his  second  voyage. — 
Nov.  2.  Discovers  Dominica  (q.  r.). 

1494,  April  24.  Columbus  explores  the  West  India  Islands. 

— May  3.  He  discovers  Jamaica  (q.  r.). — Sep.  20.  The 
expedition  returns  to  Isabella,  a  city  founded  in 
Hayti  by  Columbus,  the  fort  La  Navidad  having 
b*6Il  destroyed. 

1495,  Feb.  24.  Columbus  despatches  four  ships  laden  with 

slaves,  &c.,  to  Europe.— (Jet.  A  commissioner  sent 
by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  examine  into  alleged 
grounds  of  complaint  against  Columbus  arrives"  at 
Isabella,  in  Ilayt'. 

1496,  March  5.  John  Cabot  and  his  three  sons  receive  from 

Henry  VII.  letters  patent  authorizing  their  expedi- 
tion to  America,— March  10.  Columbus  embarks 
for  Spain. — June  II.  He  lands  at  Cadiz. 


1497,  June  24.    John  Cabot  discovers  St.  John's  and  the 

coast  of  X.  America.  (See  CANADA.)  St.  Domingo 
is  founded. 

1498,  Feb.  3.  Henry  VII.  grants  a  second  patent  to  John 

Cabot. — May  30.  Columbus  embarks  on  his  third 
voyage  at  St.  Lnear  (If;  Barrameda,  with  six  vessels 
and  200  men. — June  27.  He  reaches  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.— July  31.  He  discovers  Trinidad 
(<?.  r.). — Aug.  I.  He  lands  near  Point  Alcatraz, 
whence,  for  tlie  first  time,  he  perceives  the  main- 
land of  the  American  continent.  Entering  the  gulf 
of  Paria,  he  goes  on  shore. — Aug.  30.  He  returns 
to  Isabella,  in  Hayti. 

1499;  May  21.  Francis  de  Bobadilla  is  appointed  by  the 
sovereigns  of  Spain  governor  of  the  American 
colonies. — (let.  Columbus  despatches  two  vessels 
to  Spain,  in  which  some  of  his  as-ociates  con- 
vex- .slaves.  Tliis  gives  offence  to  Isabella,  who  had 
not  sanctioned  the,  subjection  of  the  natives. 
Oj.-da  lands  at  Surinam,  sails  to  the  gulf  of  Paria, 
find  thence  to  Venezuela. 

1500,  July.     Bolmdzlla   sails    from    Spain.— Aug.   23.     He 

hinds  in  Hayti. — Oct.  Sends  Columbus  to  Europe  in 
chains.  Casper  C.-rterenl,  a  Portuguese,  lands  in 
Labrador.  Pin/on  discovers  Uray.il  (q.  ».),  and 
reaches  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 

1501,  March  jo.   Henry  VII.  grants  u  patent   for  an  expe- 

dition to  America,  to  three  English  and  three 
Poitngnese  navigators.  Itastidas  explores  the  coast 
from  Cape  Vela  to  the  gulf  of  Darien. 

1502,  M:iy  9.    Columbus   embarks    on    his   fourth   voyage 

from  Cadiz,  with  four  \essels  and  150  men.  int'end- 
ing  to  explore  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  in  hopes  of 
di -covering  a  pa-sage  to  the  East  Indies.— May  20. 
He  reaches  the  (, rand  Canary.— June  15.  II- 
at  on.-  of  the  raribl.ee  Islands-July  14.  He  leaves 
1'ort  Brazil.— July  -,.  He  discovert  the  island  of 
Cnanaga  or  P.ouacra,  near  the  buy  of  Honduras. — 
Sep.  j;.  He  reaches  Cariay  or  C.-iriari.— Nov.  2.  Ho 
dteeoven  iwto  B«Do  — Dee.  5.  He  is  compelled  by 
repeated  failures  to  abandon  his  hopes  of  discover- 
ing a  passage  to  India. 

1503,  June  24.  Columbus  anchors  at  Jamaica,— Aug.   13. 

He  arrives  at  Hayti. 

1504,  Sep.  i  2..  Columbus'  re-embarks  for  Europe.—  Nov.  7. 

lie  lands  at  San  Lucaronhis  return  from  his  fourth 

and  last  vo  . 
1508.  Pin  zon  and  Solis  discover  Yutachan,  and  Aubert,  a 

Frenchman,  the  St.  Lawrence. 
1510.  Ojcda  builds  St.   s,  ba-!ian,  the  first  settlement  on 

the  mainland  at  Darien. 
1511  and   1512.  Velasquez  conquers  Cuba,     Vasco  Nunez 

de  Kalb.ia  obtains  information  respecting  Peru. 

1512,  Taster   Day.    Ponce  de    Leon   discovers   the  coast  of 

Florida.   " 

1513.  A'asc  o  Xunez    de   Balboa    crosses   the   isthmus    of 

Darien,  u  here  he  established  a  small  settlement.— 
S.  p.    He  discovers  the  S.  Pacific  Ocean. 
1515.   Solis  discovers  the  La  Plata. 

1517.  Cordova  discovers  Campeachy,  and  penetrates  into 

Mexico. 

1518.  Grijalva  explores  the  shores  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and 

c.hes  his  discoveries  the  name  of  New  Spain. 

1519.  Feb.  18.  Cortes  sails  from  the  Havana  for  the  con- 

quest of  Mexico. 
15:0.  Magellan  passes  through  the  straits  that  bear  his 

name. 
1521,  Aug   13.  Cortes  completes  the  conquest  of  Mexico, 

by  the  capture  of  its  capital. 
1533.  Gil   Cuncalcz   de  A\ila   explores  the  west  coast  of 

Mexico,  from  Cape  Blanco  to  Cape  de  Fonseca. 
1524.  A  French  expedition,  under  Verazzano,  surveys  the 

coast  of  N.  America. 

1526.  Pizarro  discovers  Quito. 

1527.  Pizarro  visits  Tumbez.  in  Peru,  and  sails  along  tha 

coast  to  the  port  of  Santa. 

1531.  Jan.  Pizarro  sails  on  his  third  and  last  expedition 

for  the  conquest  of  Peru, 

1532.  Pizarro  attacks  Peru. 

1533.  Pizarro  enters  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  Peru. 

1534.  Cartier  circumnavigates  Newfoundland,  and  enters 

the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Grijalva  discovers  Cali- 
fornia (q.  v.). 

1535.  Cartier  ascends  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Hochelaga,  now 

Montreal.  The  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  founded  by 
Mendoza. 

1536.  Hore  attempts  to  found  an  English  settlement  at 

Newfoundland. 
1539.  Ulloa  enters  the  gulf  of  California, 


AMERICA 


49 


AMHERST 


1540.  Alarcon  explores  the  Colorado  River.  Cnrtier,  having 

been  despatched  by  Francis  I.  to  prosecute  dis- 
coveries in  Canada,  explores  the  district  of  Hoche- 
laga,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Montreal. 

1541.  Orellana  sails  down  the  Maranon,  or  Amazon, 

reaches  the  sea  in  August.     Chili  is  conquered.. 

1546.  The  Spanish  conquest  of  Peru  is  completed. 

1549.  Martinez  de  Yrala  ascends  the  Paraguay  to  the  I7th 
deg.  of  S.  latitude.  Koberval  embarks  for  tho  St 
Lawrence,  and  is  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

J555-  A"  expedition  despatched  by  Admiral  Colignv,  under 
the  Chevalier  de  Villagagnon,  lands  on  the  river 
Janeiro,  in  S.  America,  and  founds  a  settlement 

1563.  A  French  settlement  is  formed  in  Florida. 

1564.  Carolina  settled  by  the  French,  who  are  expelled  by 

the  Spaniards. 

1567.  Hawkins  sails  to  the  Spanish  main,  and  discovers 
the  Falkland  Islands. 

1573.  Sir  Francis  Drake  reaches  Panama,  and  is  the  first 
Englishman  who  sees  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

1574.  John  Cortereal  attempts  to  discover  the  north-west 

passage  of  America. 

1575.  Oxenham  sails  for  S.  America. 

1576.  Martin  FrobUher  goes  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to 

the  north-wot. 

»577.  Dec.  13.  Drake  sails  and  reaches  La  Plata  April  14, 
1578.  He  doubles  Cape  Horn,  and,  sailing  as  far  as 
Vancouver  Island,  discovers  New  Albion,  and 
reaches  England  Sep.  26,  1580. 

1583.  Sir  Humphrey  (iilbert's  expedition  to  Newfoundland 

proves  a  failure. 

1584.  Raleigh's  expedition  discovers  Virginia. 

1585.  Davis  sails  to  Greenland,  and  discovers  the  straits 

that  bear  his  name.  Sir  Francis'Drake  sails  from 
England  to  the  West  Indies  with  a  fleet  of  35 
ships.  The  first  English  settlement  in  Virginia  is 
formed  at  Roanoke. 

1586.  The  settlement  at  Kounoke  is  destroyed. 
1^87.  Cavendish  sails  to  the  X.  Pacific. 

1604.  The  French  settlement  of  Acaclia  is  formed. 

1607.  The  (irst  peniuim-nt  Kiifilish  settlement  in  America  is 

made  in  Virginia,  and  called  James-town.  Hud- 
son's first  voyage. 

1608.  Quebec  is  founded  by  the  French. 

1610.  A  patent  is  granted  to  Lord  Bacon  and  others  for  a 

plantation   in   Newfoundland.     Hudson   discovers 

the  bay  that  bears  his  name. 
161^  First  Dutch  settlement  on  the  Hudson. 
1616.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  commenced  in  Virginia. 
J6*3.  Plymouth,  in  Xew  England,  is  settled  by  the  Puri- 
tans.   The  first  negroes  ure  imported  into  Virginia 

in  a  Dutch  ship. 
1631.  Sir  William  Aloxander  obtains  a  charter  for  Nova 

Scotia. 
1625.  The  French   form  a  settlement  at  St.  Christopher's. 

The  English  laud  upon  that  island  in  the  same 

year. 

1627.  A  Swedisli  settlement  is  formed  on  the  Delaware. 
1638.  An   English    settlement    is    formed  at  Xaumkeag, 

since  called  Salem,  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 
1633.  Lord  Baltimore's  settlement  is  formed  in  Man-land. 
1635.  Femvick   establishes  a  colony  on   the  Connecticut, 

and  the  French  found  a  settlement  in  (iuiana. 
1663.  A  settlement  is  made  by  the  English  in  Carolina. 

St  John's  (afterwards  Prince  Edward's  Island)  ia 

granted  to  Doublet, 

1669.  An  English  settlement  is  made  in  S.  Carolina, 
1671.  A  settlement  is  formed  at  Rupert's  River. 
1674.  A  settlement  is  formed  at  Moose  River. 
1680.  Albany  settlement  is  formed. 
1683.  Penn  founds  the  settlement  which  is  named  after 

him. 

1685.  The  Nelson  and  Severn  settlements  are  formed. 
1698,  Nov.  z.  The  Scotch  form  a  settlement  at  Darien,  and 

erect  Fort  Andrew.     It  was  abandoned  in  1609.    A 

second  and  third  expedition  followed. 
1700,  March  30.    The  Scottish  settlers  surrender  to    the 

Spaniards,  and  the  enterprise  is  abandoned. 

For  the  different  European  possessions  in 
America,  see  BRITISH,  DANISH,  DUTCH,  FRENCH, 
RUSSIAN,  SPANISH,  and  SWEDISH  AMERICA. 

AMERICA  CENTRAL.— (-See  CENTRAL 
AMERICA.) 

AMERICA  (North).  —  (See  AMERICA,  CALI- 
FORNIA, CANADA,  GREENLAND,  MEXICO,  NOVA 
SCOTIA,  UNITED  STATES,  &c.,  &c.) 


AMERICA  (South).— {See  SOUTH  AMERICA  ) 
AMERICAN  CHURCH.-The  first  recorded 
baptism  of  a  native  American  took  place  at 
Virginia,  Aug.  13,  1587.  In  the  letters  patent 
granted  by  James  I.  for  the  plantation  of  Vir- 
ginia, April  10,  1606,  the  duty  of  a  Christian 
nation  to  communicate  through  her  colonies 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth  which  she  possesses 
is  duly  recognized.  Robert  Hunt,  the  first 
clergyman  appointed  to  the  colony  of  Vir- 
ginia, sailed  with  the  expedition,  Dec.  19, 1606. 
The  first  marriage  celebrated  in  the  colony  is 
said  to  have  been  solemnized  by  Robert  Hunt 
in  1608.  Such  was  the  humble  origin  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  America.  During  the 
Great  Rebellion,  the  colonists  of  Virginia,  in 
1643,  ordered  that  no  clergyman  should  preach 
or  teach,  publicly  or  privately,  except  in  con- 
formity to  the  Church  of  England.  The  Epis- 
copalians suffered  severely  during  the  war  of 
independence,  but  at  its  close,  in  1784,  tho 
clergy  of  Connecticut  elected  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Scabury  bishop,  and  he  was  consecrated  by 
the  bishops  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Scot- 
land, having  met  with  a  refusal  at  Lambeth. 
He  was  the  first  colonial  bishop.  An  address 
was  sent  from  the  General  Convention,  held  at 
Philadelphia,  Oct.  5,  1785,  to  the  English  arch- 
bishops and  bishops,  begging  them  to  confer 
the  episcopal  character  on  such  as  should  be 
recommended  to  them.  A  reply  was  returned 
Feb.  24,  1786,  and  thre_e  colonial  bishops  were 
consecrated  at  Lambeth,  Feb.  4,  1787,  under 
the  authority  of  an  act  of  Parliament  passed 
for  that  purpose.  Dr.  Madison  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  Since  1842 
the  American  clergy  have  been  allowed  to 
officiate  for  a  period  not  exceeding  two  Sun- 
days in  succession,  in  English  churches.  There 
are  24  bishops  belonging  to  this  branch  of  the 
Episcopal  Church. 

AMERICAN  CONGRESS.  —  The  delegates 
from  12  colonies,  amounting  to  55  in  num- 
ber, assembled  at  Philadelphia  Sep.  5,  i774. 
They  passed  a  declaration  of  rights,  and 
other  measures,  and  separated  Oct.  26.  The 
second  Congress  met  May  10,  1775,  and  issued 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  July  4,  1776. 
The  Congress  removed  to  Baltimore  towards 
the  end  of  1776.  The  first  Congress  of  the 
United  States  met  at  New  York  in  1789.  Its 
sittings  were  transferred  to  Philadelphia  in 
1790,  and  were  removed  to  Washington,  where 
they  have  since  been  held,  in  1800. 

AMERICAN  STAMP  ACT.— (See  STAMP  ACT.) 

AMETHYST.— This  stone  was  the  ninth  in 
order  on  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high- 
sriests,  and  was  conseqiiently  known  as  early 
as  B.C  1491.  It  is  found  in  India,  the  Brazils, 
Persia,  and  various  parts  of  Europe.  Near 
Kerry  (Ireland)  there  is  said  to  be  a  fine  vein. 
~3manuel  (Hist,  of  Diamonds,  &c.)  states  that  in 
652  an  amethyst  was  worth  as  much  as  a 
diamond  of  equal  weight.  Its  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  and  means  "not  to 
inebriate,"  in  allusion  to  the  superstition  that 
.t  had  the  power  of  dissipating  drunken- 
less. 

AMHERST  (Hindostan).— This  seaport  town 
)f  Tenasserim  was  founded  on  the  cession  of 
;he  province  by  the  Burmese  in  1826,  and 


AMID 


AMMONITES 


was  named  after  Lord  Amherst,  then  Governor 
General. 

AMID,  AMIDA,  or  AMIDI  (Asia).— This citj 
was  wrested  from  the  Romans  by  the  Persians 
under  Sapor,  after  a  memorable  siege  thai 
lasted  from  July  27  to  Oct.  7,  359  A.D.  Th< 
Persians  captured  it  again,  after  a  long  siege 
in  502 ;  but  the  Romans  soon  regained  pos 
session.  In  the  7th  century  it  received  the 
Arabic  name  of  Diarbekr  (q.  v.),  meaning  "  the 
country  of  Bekhr." 

AMIENS  (France).— This  city  of  Picardy 
anciently  called  Samarobriva,  was  selected  bj 
Julius  Caesar  for  his  winter  quarters,  B.C.  54 
A  bishop's  see  was  established  here  aboir 
A.D.  303,  and  in  444  it  was  seized  by  Clodion 
King  of  the  Salian  Franks,  who  made  it  the 
seat  of  his  government,  and  died  here  in  448 
In  1185  it  was  ceded  by  Philip  of  & 
Philip  II.  (Augustus),  King  of  France,  by  whoir 
it  was  annexed  to  the  territories  of  the  Frencl 
Crown.  The  fine  old  cathedral,  commenced  by 
Robert  de  Luzarches  in  1220,  was  continued  in 
1269  by  Thomas  and  Regnault  do  Cormont,  and 
was  completed  in  1288.  In  this  buildin.t, 
Edward  III.  of  England  did  homage  to  Philip 
VI.  for  Guienne,  in  1329.  Amiens,  pledged  to 
Burgundy  for  400,000  gold  crowns  in  1435  by 
Charles  VII.,  was  redeemed  by  l.<»r 
1463.  In  1529  the  lofty  spire  of  the  cathedral 
was  completed.  Amiens  embraced  the  cause  oi 
the  League  in  1588,  and  was  captured  by 
Henry  IV.  1111592.  The  Spaniards  took  it  by 
surprise,  March  10,  1597,  but  it  was  retaken  by 
'lenry  IV.,  after  an  arduous  siege,  tho  following 
September.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  was  erected  in 
1600,  the  Grand  Seminary  in  1739,  and  the 
town-hall  in  1760.  In  1773  the  cotton  manu- 
facture was  introduced  into  this  city,  which 
soon  became  its  chief  seat.  The  Musec  Napo- 

is  erected  in  1855. 

A  Vt  I  IONS  Treaties  .  —  A  treaty,  sometimes 
called  the  Peace  of  Picquigny,  between  l.'<ui; 
XI.  of  France  and  Edward  IV.  of  England,  was 
concluded  here,  in  four  acts,  Aug.  29,  1475. 
Edward  IV.  agreed  to  retire  with  his  army,  on 
the  payment  by  Louis  XI.  of  75,000  crowns. 
A  truce  of  seven  years  was  agreed  to  by  the 
two  kings.  They  were  to  assist  each  other  in 
case  of  need.  Edward  IV.  agreed  to  give  his 
daughter  Elizabeth  in  marriage  to  Prince 
Charles,  son  of  Louis  XL,  who  also  engaged  to 
pay  50,000  crowns  annually  during  Kdward's 
lifetime.  The  kings  met  at  the  castle  of  Pic- 
quigny,  about  12  miles  from  Amiens.  Philip 
of  Commines  remarks  :  "  And  certainly,  as  I 
have  said  before,  the  English  do  not  man- 
age their  treaties  and  capitulations  with  so 
much  cunning  and  policy  as  the  French  do,  let 
people  say  what  they  will,  but  proceed  more 
ingenuously,  and  with  greater  straightforward- 
ness in  their  affairs ;  yet  a  man  must  be  cau- 
tious, and  have  a  care  not  to  affront  them,  for  it 
is  dangerous  meddling  with  them." — Cardinal 
Wolsey,  on  the  part  of  Henry  VIII.,  concluded 
three  treaties  with  Francis  I.  at  Amiens,  Aug. 
18,  1527.  (See  ABBEVILLE.) — The  preliminaries 
of  the  more  celebrated  treaty  of  Amiens  were 
signed  in  London,  Oct.  i,  1801 ;  the  ratifica- 
tion was  brought  from  Paris  to  London  in 
1 1  days ;  and  the  definitive  treaty,  contain- 


ing 22  articles,  was  concluded  at  Amiens 
March  25,  1802,  a  supplementary  article  being 
added  Mai-ch  27.  It  was  ratified  in  the  fol- 
lowing month,  and  peace  was  proclaimed  in 
the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster  April 
29.  The  contracting  parties  were  France, 
Holland,  and  Spam,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Great  Britain  on  the  other.  England  gave  up 
to  their  former  owners  all  the  conquests  made 
during  the  war,  except  Trinidad,  wrested  from 
Spain,  and  a  portion  of  Ceylon,  taken  from  the 
Dutch.  It  was  stipulated  that  within  threo 
months  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications, 
the  English  troops  should  evacuate  Malta, 
Gozo,  and  Comino,  which  were  to  be  restored 
to  the  Knights  of  St.  John  ;  and  the  independ- 
ence of  these  islands  was  guaranteed  by  France, 
Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain,  Russia,  and 
Prussia.  The  French  agreed  to  evacuate 
Naples,  and  all  the  ports  and  islands  which 
they  occupied  in  the  Mediterranean  or  the 
Adriatic.  Egypt  was  restored  to  Turkey,  and 
Pondicherry  to  France.  This  treaty  terminated 
a  war  of  10  years'  duration ;  but  peace  scarcely 
lasted  13  months.  The  interference  of  Na- 
poleon 1.  in  Holland,  Italy,  and  Switzerland, 
and  his  extraordinary  annexations,  induced  the 
English  Government  to  maintain  their  garrison 
at  .Mali  a,  and  the  war  was  renewed  May  17, 1803. 
AMMF.KCAi  •lY-IKKY.— The  periodical 
representation  of  this  sacred  drama  at  the  little 
village  of  Ober  Ammeivrau,  in  Bavaria, 
nated  in  a  vow  made  by  the  inhabitants  in  1633, 
on  their  deliverance  from  a  plague,  communi- 
few  years  previously  by  the  army  of 
Guslavus  Vasa,  to  celebrate  the  Passion  Tragedy 
every  tenth  year.  The  first  representation  took 
place  in  1634,  and  the  custom  lias  been  observed 
ever  since,  the  only  irregularity  being  that  in 
1680  the  year  was  changed  to  match  the  decen- 
nial periods  of  each  century.  Attempts  wero 
suppress  the  performances  in  1779  and 
1810,  and  they  were  omitted  on  the  last  occa- 
sion by  the  personal  permission  of  King  Maxi- 
milian Joseph  I.  The  mysteries,  which  wore 
represented  in  the  churchyard  previously  to 
1830,  have  since  been  held  in  a  spacious  wooden 
theatre,  without  a  roof,  but  capable  of  accommo- 
otwcen  4,000  and  5,000  spectators,  ;uid 
with  a  large  stage  and  abundance  of  rooms  for 
dressing,  &c.  The  last  performances,  each 
"asting  from  eight  in  the  morning  till  four  in 
the  afternoon,  with  an  hour's  interval  at  mid- 
day, took  place  July  15,  Aug.  26,  Sep.  9,  aiid 
Sep.  16,  1860.  The  circumstances  of  the 
Saviour's  entry  into  Jerusalem,  the  Last 
Supper,  and  the  Trial,  Crucifixion,  and  Resur- 
rection, were  represented  in  17  scenes,  with 
?reat  magnificence  and  an  amount  of  detail 
;hat  appears  profane  when  described,  but 
which  seems  to  have  awakened  none  but  fcel- 
ngs  of  reverence  and  awe  among  the  simple 
people  who  formed  the  actors  and  audience. 

AMMONIA.— This  volatile  alkali  is  said  to 
lave  been  first  manufactured  in  Egypt,  near 
he  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  whence  its 
lame.  The  discovery  of  the  existence  of  mu- 
iate  of  ammonia  in  sea-water  was  made  in  1822. 

AMMONITES.— Descendants  of  Ammon,  the 
ion  of  Lot  (Gen.  xix.  38),  born  about  B.C.  1897. 
They  occupied  territory  at  onetime  in  the  pos- 


AMNESTY 


AMPUTATION 


session  of  the  Zamzummims,  "  a  people  great, 
and  many,  and  tall  as  the  Anakims."  (Deut. 
ii.  19—21^  Although  the  Israelites  were  com- 
manded not  to  molest  them,  several  wars  en- 
sued between  the  two  nations,  with  varying 
success.  They  oppressed  the  Israelites  B.C. 
1206  (Hales,  B.C.  1263  ;  and  Clinton,  B.C.  1256) ; 
and  were  defeated  by  Jephthah  with  great 
slaughter  (Judges  xi.  32,  33),  B.C.  1188  (Hales, 
1245,  and  Clinton,  1238);  and  by  Saul  (i  Sam. 
xi.},  B.C.  1094  (Hales,  B.C.  mo).  David  sub- 
dued them  B.C.  1038.  Judas  Maccabteus  fought 
many  battles  with  them,  and  they  leagued 
against  Judaea  B.  c.  1 64.  They  gradually  merged 
in  the  tribes  of  Arabia. 

AMNESTY,  or  public  act  of  pardon  or  obli- 
vion for  political  and  other  offences.was  com- 
mon amongst  the  Greeks  :md  Romans.  Amnes- 
ties were  granted  in  England  after  the  Great 
Rebellion  and  the  Jacobite  insurrections :  the 
latest  act  of  Parliament  of  the  kind  being  20 
Geo.  II.  s.  52  (1747),  entitled  "An  Act  for  the 
king's  most  gracious  general  and  free  pardon." 
In  France  frequent  revolutions  have  rendered 
such  acts  of  grace  necessary  during  the  present 
century.  The  Queen  granted  a  free  pardon 
May  3,  1856,  to  several  political  offenders  who 
were  concerned  in  the  Chartist  outbreaks  and 
the  insurrection  in  Ireland. 

AMORITES.— These  descendants  of  Canaan 
(Gen.  x.  16)  became  a  powerful  people,  and  by 
this  designation  all  the  Canaanite  tribes  were 
at  one  time  described.  They  took  part  in 
the  struggle  narrated  in  the  i4th  chapter  of 
Genesis,  about  B.C.  1912,  and  were  engaged  in 
several  contests  with  the  Israelites,  who  were 
instructed  to  utterly  destroy  their  cities  (Deut. 
xx.  16,  i7\  B.C.  1451. 

AMOUR  or  AMUR.— This  river  of  Chinese 
Tartary  first  became  known  to  the  Russians 
in  1639.  After  a  struggle  of  50  years,  with 
the  view  of  annexing  the  territory  through 
which  it  flows,  they  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Chinese,  in  1689,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
Russians  remained  wholly  excluded  from  the 
river.  In  1847  its  navigation  was  again  opened 
to  them  by  treaty  ;  and  another,  concluded  in 
1854,  has  made  the  Amour  a  Russian  river. 

AMOY  (China). — Europeans  were  allowed  to 
trade  from  1675  to  1681.  The  fort  of  Amoy 
was  destroyed  by  the  British  July  3,  1840,  and 
the  town  itself  was  taken  Aug.  26,  1841.  It 
was  one  of  the  five  Chinese  ports  opened  to  the 
Biitish  by  the  treaty  of  Aug.  26,  1842.  This 
town  was  taken  by  the  Chinese  insurgents 
May  29,  1853,  and  recaptured  by  the  imperial 
forces  Nov.  n,  18=53. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL  was  one  of  the 
earliest  institutions  in  Greece.  Grote  says  : 
"The  belief  of  vEschines  (perhaps  also  the 
general  belief  in  his  time)  was,  that  it  com- 
menced simultaneously  with  the  first  founda- 
tion of  the  Delphian  temple,  an  event  of  which 
we  have  no  historical  knowledge."  Twelve 
tribes  sent  sacred  deputies,  called  Amphic- 
tyons,  to  this  association,  which  held  two  meet- 
ings every  year,  one  at  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  at 
Delphi,  in  the  spring,  and  the  other  at  the 
Temple  of  Ceres,  at  Thermopylae,  in  the  autumn. 
The  interference  of  the  Amphictyons  led  to  the 
first  sacred  war,  B.C.  595 — B.C.  586.  At  the  insti- 


gation of  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  the  Phocians 
were  expelled  from  the  Council  B.C.  346 ;  but 
they  were  re-admitted,  for  their  valour  in  ex- 
pelling the  Gauls  under  Brennus,  B.C.  279. 
This  Council  underwent  various  changes  and 
vicissitudes,  although  it  survived  the  independ- 
ence of  the  country ;  and  so  late  as  the  battle 
of  Actium,  B.C.  31,  it  retained  enough  of  its 
ancient  dignity  to  induce  Augustus  to  claim  a 
place  in  it  for  his  new  city  of  Nicopolis.  Pausa- 
nias  states  that  it  existed  in  the  and  century 
of  our  sera. 

AMPHION  FRIGATE.— Destroyed  in  Ply- 
mouth Sound  by  an  accidental  explosion, 
Sep.  22,  1796.  Capt.  Pellew,  and  15  others, 
on  shore  at  the  time,  were  the  only  persons 
that  escaped  out  of  a  crew  of  220  men. 

AMPHIPOLIS  (Greece).  —  Aristagoras,  of 
Miletus,  was  defeated  by  the  Edonians,  in  an 
attempt  to  colonize  this  city  of  Macedon,  B.C. 
497.  A  second  effort  was  made  by  the 
Athenians.  They  sent  a  body  of  10,000 
colonists,  who  were  attacked  by  the  Thracians 
at  Drabescus,  and  put  to  the  sword,  B.C.  465. 
A  third  attempt,  made  by  Agnon,  the  son 
of  Nicias,  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Thracians,  and  the  foundation  of  the  Athenian 
colony  of  Amphipolis,  B.C.  437.  The  Lacedae- 
monian general  Brasides  seized  the  city  B.C. 
424,  and  repulsed  an  attempted  recapture  by 
the  Athenians  B.C.  422,  when  both  he  and  the 
hostile  general  Cleon  perished  in  the  conflict. 
Although  surrendered  to  the  Athenians  by 
treaty,  B.C.  421,  the  inhabitants  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge their  former  sovereigns,  and  suc- 
cessfully resisted  an  expedition  sent  against 
them  under  Timotheus,  B.C.  360.  Philip  II., 
of  Macedon,  declared  Amphipolis  a  free  city  on 
his  accession,  B.C.  359,  but  took  it  by  storm 
B.C.  358,  and  added  it  to  his  dominions,  of 
which  it  formed  a  part  till  B.C.  168,  when  its 
freedom  was  restored  by  the  Romans. 

AMPHITHEATRE.— The  Romans  delighted 
in  exhibitions  of  the  hunting  of  wild  animals, 
of  combats  between  gladiators  and  wild  beasts, 
and  other  cruel  spectacles ;  and  these,  which 
at  first  took  place  in  the  forum  and  the  circus 
(q.  v.},  were  afterwards  performed  in  buildings 
devoted  to  such  displays,  and  called  Amphi- 
theatres. The  first  was  constructed  by  C. 
Scribonius  Curio,  consul,  B.C.  76.  The  next, 
and  probably  the  first  called  an  amphitheatre, 
was  constructed  by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  46.  This 
was  of  wood  ;  and  a  more  durable  one  in  stone 
was  erected  in  the  Campus  Martius,  by  Sta- 
tilius  Taurus,  during  the  fourth  consulship  of 
Augustus,  B.C.  30.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
the  time  of  Nero.  Several  amphitheatres  were 
afterwards  built.  The  most  remarkable,  known 
as  the  Coliseum,  of  which  the  ruins  exist,  was 
commenced  by  Vespasian  A.D.  70,  and  com- 
pleted A.D.  80,  by  Titus,  who  opened  it  with 
magnificent  spectacles.  The  ruins  of  several 
buildings  of  the  kind  are  still  found  in  Italy 
and  France.  (See  COLISEUM.) 

AMPHITRITE.— This  ship,  having  on  board 
103  female  convicts,  12  children,  and  a  crew 
of  1 6  men,  was  wrecked  off  Boulogne  Aug.  31, 
1833,  when  all  perished,  excepting  three  of  the 
crew. 

AMPUTATION  was  practised  by  the  sur- 

E  2 


AMSTERDAM 


ANACHORETS 


geons  of  ancient  Greece,  Rome,  and  Arabia, 
and  is  described  in  the  writings  of  Celsus,  who 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
f«ra;  and  of  Archigenes,  who  practised  at 
Home  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  A.D.  98  to  117. 
The  methods  adopted  by  these  old  practi- 
tioners continued  in  use,  with  little  modifica- 
tion, till  the  revival  of  learning,  in  the  isth 
century,  when  anatomical  science  became 
better  understood,  and  surgical  practice  was 
consequently  improved.  In  1560  Botalli  in- 
vented a  sort  of  guillotine,  by  which  a  diseased 
member  was  at  once  removed  from  the  body  ; 
and  in  1582  Ambrose  I 'are  advocated  the  use 
of  the  needle  and  ligature,  instead  of  the 
cauteri/.in'.r  method  of  prevent  ing  hemorrhage. 
The  tourniquet,  invented  by  Morell,  in  1674, 
was  greatly  improved  by  J.  L.  Petit,  in  1718. 
The  llap  operation,  by  which  the  recovery  of 
the  patient  wa>  much  accelerated,  was  in- 
1  bv  Lowdham,  of  Fxeter,  in  1679. 

ERDAM,  or  A.MSTKLDAM  Holland1. 
— This  great  romniercial  emporium,  on  the 
,  founded  in  i^«\,  ycmained  a 
small  fishing  villas:  until  the' "middle  of  the 
1 3th  century,  when  it  was  made  a  town. 
William  HI.,  Count  of  Holland,  took  it  in  1*96; 

and  William  l\".  jf»V«  it  muniripal  institutions 

ill  1340.      It   was   walled  in    148.?;    joined    the 

i-ation  of  the   Netherlands  Fell.  8,  1578, 

additional    privileges  from  the 

Prince  of  Holland  in  i=;8i.     From  that  time  its 

prosperity  increased  rapidly,  and  it  n 

an  additional  im]mlse  from  the  closing  of  the 
Scheldt,  in  in.,8.  It  was  captured  by  the 
lYeneh.  Jan.  20,  17',)-,  and  remained  under 
their  rule  until  1813.  Its  town-hall,  ei 

'    completed    in 

1655,  nan-owl  -(ruction  by  tin-  in 

I  rSon,  and  was  made  a  royal  ]>alace  in 

1808.  The  celebrated  Hank  of  Amsterdam  was 
i  in  1609,  and  ceased  in  179''*.  The 

Hank  of  the  Netherlands,  on  the  model  of  the 

JSank  of  Kngland,  was  established  herein  1841. 

AMSTERDAM   Treaty),  concluded  between 

France,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  Aug.  4,  1717.  The 
C/.arand  the  King  of  Prussia  accepted  the  me- 
diation of  France  between  them  and  Sweden. 
Russia  abandoned  her  invasion  of  Mecklen- 
burg, and  France  agreed  not  to  renew  a  treaty 
of  subsidies  with  Sweden. 

AMSTI-;ii:>.\.M      ISLAM)     Tndian     Ocean\ 

called  by  the  natives   Timiin-tabu,  one  of  the 

group  known  as  the   Friendly  Isles   '/.  r.),  was 

red  by  Tasman,  .Fan.  19,  1643,  and  was 

visited  by  ('apt.  Cook  in  1773.     (See  TI> 

A  M  FJLET. — Amulets,  of  various  kinds,  \vere 
in  use  among  the  Jews  ;Gen.  xxxv.  4,  and 
llosea  ii.  13'.  The  Persians  and  the  Egyptians 
used  them ;  the  Greeks  and  Romans  made 
them  of  gems  of  various  kinds.  Homer  men- 
tions them  as  charms.  Pericles,  who  died 
B.C.  429,  wore  an  amulet.  The  Emperor 
Caracalla,  about  A.D.  216,  prohibited  the  use  of 
them.  Amulets  made  of  the  wood  of  the 
Cross,  or  of  riband  with  texts  of  scripture 
upon  them,  as  preservatives  against  diseases 
and  other  calamities,  were  adopted  by  Chris- 
tians in  the  4th  century.  The  Council  of 
Laodicea,  in  366,  condemned  the  practice. 
Epiphanius,  Bishop  of  Salamis  (367',  Chrysos- 


tom  (400),  and  St.  Basil,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople (970),  and  many  others,  censured  this 
superstition.  The  ancient  Druids  used  them, 
and  both  necklaces  and  beads,  intended  as 
charms,  are  frequently  found  in  their  barrows. 

AMYLENK. — This  inflammable,  colourless, 
and  exceedingly  light  liquid,  distilled  from 
fusel  oil  the  oil  of  potatoes  ,  by  M.  Balard,  of 
Paris,  in  1844,  was  first  employed 

!  ic  substitute  for  chloroform,  by  Dr. 
Snow,  Nov.  10,  1856.  M.  Duvoy  published  a 
full  account  of  this  substance  April  9,  1857. 

ANABAPTISTS.— The  term  was  first  applied 
to  the  followers  of  Thomas  Miinzer  and  Storck, 
who  began  to  preach  in  Saxony  in  1521.  Owing 
to  their  inflammatory  harangues,  a  rebellion 
broke  out  in  Swabia,  Thuringia,  Francoiiia, 
Saxony,  and  other  parts  of  Germany,  in  1525. 
•'  taries  were  routed,  May  15,  1525,  and 
their  leaders  put  to  death.  Their  doctrines, 
however,  had  not  been  extirpated,  and  another 
risingof  the  Anabaptists  occurred  in  Westphalia 
in  1534.  John  Hoekelsohn,  a  tailor  of  I 

rda  called  John  of    Leydeii,  was  made 

king.     They  eaptuivd   Minister,  which  was  to 

I'eb.  27,  1534,  and  the 

city  was  not  retaken  untilJune  24,  1535,  when 
John  of  Lcyden  and  many  of  '< 
were  put  to  death.  About  this  tim> 
laws  were  enacted  against  the  Anabaptists  by 
different  Furopeaii  governments.  Their  doe- 
trines  found  supporters  in  England.  Fourteen 
were  burned  in  London  and  in  other  towns, 
May  25,  1535,  and  four  Dutch  Anabaptists  suf- 
fered the  same  punishment  in  1538.  Three 
rued  at  Southwark,  April  29,  1540;  and 
Fli/.abeth  by  proclamation  ordered  them  to 
quit  the  kingdom  within  one-and-tweiity  days, 
in  1560.  Some  enthusiasts  of  this  kind  at- 
tempted to  effect  a  rising  in  London  April  9, 
1657.  Thomas  Venner,  an  Anabaptist  preacher, 
with  about  80  of  his  followers,  appeared  in 
arms  in  London,  Jan.  6,  1661.  They  fought 
desperately  with  the  troops,  but  w 
last  overcome,  and  Venner  and  16  of  his 
associates  perished  on  the  scaffold,  Jan.  19 
and  21. 

ANACHORETS,  or  ANCHORETS,  arose  in 
F.gypt  and  Syria  in  the  3rd  century.  Paul 
the  Hermit,  who  retired  into  the  deserts  of 
Egypt  to  avoid  the  Decian  persecution,  A.I>. 
250,  and  St  Antony,  born  251,  arc  considered 
the  first  anchorets.  Bingham  (Antiq.  b.  vii. 
c.  ii.  s.  2)  says,  the  first  sort  of  monks  "were 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Ancho- 
rets, from  their  retiring  from  society,  and 
living  in  private  cells  in  the  wilderness.  Such 
were  Paul  and  Antony,  and  Hilarion,  the 
first  founders  of  the  monastic  life  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine  ;  from  whom  other  monks  took 
their  model."  Fosbroke  points  out  the  dis- 
tinction between  anchorets  and  hermits,  the 
former  never  quitting  their  cells,  whilst  the 
latter  roamed  at  large.  The  Church  assumed 
jurisdiction  over  these  voluntary  exiles  from 
the  world  in  the  yth  century,  and  enacted  rules 
and  regulations  for  their  direction.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  gth  century,  the  custom  arose  of 
erecting  their  cells  at  the  porches  of  churches, 
and  even  at  the  gates  of  towns.  The  ceremony 
of  consecration  was  performed  by  the  bishop. 


ANACREONTIC 


[    53 


ANATOLIA 


St.  Dunstan's  cell  at  Glastonbury  (950)  was  so 
small  that  he  could  neither  stand  erect  in  it 
nor  stretch  his  limbs  to  their  full  length.  In 
1325  an  anchoress  resided  upon  a  piece  of 
ground  in  St.  Peter's,  Comhill ;  and  in  the 
"Privy  Purse  expenses  of  Elizabeth  of  York," 
entries  are  made  of  gifts  to  an  anchoress  at 
Gloucester,  Nov.  25,  1502,  and  to  another  near 
St.  Alban's  in  March  1503.  (See  ABBEY.) 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE.— This  "gay,  lux- 
urious, and  festive  style"  of  verse  was  carried 
to  its  highest  degree  of  excellence  by  Anacrcon 
of  Teos,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  who  died  aboxit 
B.C.  478.  Amongst  his  various  imitators  and 
translators,  Thomas  Moore,  called  "  Anacreon 
Moore,"  who  published  his  translation  of  "An- 
acreon" in  1800,  was  the  most  successful.  Re- 
ligious Anacreontics  were  written  by  the 
monks  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

A  N  .ESTHETICS.— Opium  and  other  narcotic 
drugs,  which  were  employed  from  a  very  early 
period  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  pain,  were 


A.D.  23  to  79,  Dioscorides,  who  nourished  in 
the  ist  or  2nd  century,  and  Apuleius,  whose 
period  is  uncertain,  all  mention  the  use  of  man- 
dragora  for  this  purpose,  and  give  rules  for  its 
proper  employment.  The  Chine.se  physician, 
Hod-tho,  rendered  his  patients  insensible  to  the 
surgeon's  knife  by  means  of  the  Indian  hemp 
plant,  about  225,  and  the  Italian  practitioner, 
Theodoric,  who  wrote  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  1 3th  century,  describes  a  compound  infu- 
sion, by  the  fumes  of  which  he  produced 
similar  results.  John  Baptista  Porta,  of  Naples, 
in  his  book  on  Natural  Magic,  published  in 
1597,  described  an  apparatus  for  inhaling  the 
fumes  of  narcotic  drugs,  but  does  not  mention 
its  application  to  medical  purposes.  Nitrous 
oxide  gas,  which  was  successfully  used  by  II. 
Wells,  a  dentist,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  Dec. 
ii,  1844,  was  subsequently  pronounced  too  un- 
certain in  its  effects  to  be  of  practical  value  ; 
but  the  discovery  and  application  of  the  proper- 
ties of  chloroform  and  other  similar  substances 
following  soon  after,  the  use  of  aiifesthetic 
agents  rapidly  became  general  in  all  cases  of 
severe  operations.  (See  AMYLENE,  CHLORO- 
FORM, and  ETHER.) 

ANAGRAM.— Camden  says,  "Good  ana- 
grams yield  a  delightful  comfort  and  pleasant 
motion  in  honest  minds,"  and  refers  their 
origin  to  the  time  of  Moses.  They  were  classed 
by  the  Hebrews  among  the  cabalistic  sciences. 
The  Greeks  took  the  practice,  and  Lycophron, 
about  B.C.  280,  has  left  some  on  record.  They 
were  very  common  on  the  continent  in  the 
1 6th  and  i7th  centuries  ;  and  in  the  latter 
Louis  XIII.  appointed  Thomas  Billen  royal 
anagramist,  with  a  salary  of  12,000  livres. 
Calvin,  in  his  "  Institutions,"  published  at 
Strasburg  in  1539,  styles  himself  Alcuinus, 
which,  in  addition  to  being  the  name  of  an  old 
writer,  is  the  anagram  of  Calvinus.  They 
prevailed  in  England  at  a  somewhat  later 
period.  In  1613,  W.  Cheke  published  a  collec- 
tion of  Anagrams  and  Chronograms. 
,  ANAHUAC.— (See  MEXICO.) 

ANAM,  or  ANNAM  (Asia).— This  extensive 


tract  of  country,  comprising  Cochin-China, 
and  Tonquin,  Camboja,  or  Cambodia,  and  some 
small  islands,  is  said  to  have  been  colonized  by 
the  Chinese  B.C.  234.  The  inhabitants  appear 
to  have  regained  their  independence,  though 
they  continued  nominally  subject  to  China, 
A.D.  263.  In  1406  the  Chinese  once  more  cap- 
tured the  country,  which  they  retained  until 
1428.  (See  COCHIN-CHINA,  TONQUIN,  &c.) 

ANAPA  (Circassia).— Founded  by  the  Turks 
in  1784,  and  captured  by  the  Russians  in  1791. 
It  was  restored  to  Turkey,  recaptured  by 
Russia  in  1807  and  1809,  and  restored  in  1812. 
The  Russians  tpok  possession  Juno  23,  1828, 
but  abandoned  it  to  the  French  and  English 
forces  June  5,  1855.  !t  reverted  to  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1856. 

ANAQUITO  (Battle).— Fought  near  Quito 
between  Gonzalo  Pizarro  and  the  Peruvian 
Viceroy,  Nunez  Vela,  Jan.  18,  1546.  The  Vice- 
roy was  slain  and  his  army  defeated. 

ANASTATIC  PRINTING.— This  process  for 
producing  copies  of  manuscripts,  or  printed 
documents,  or  engravings,  that  can  with  dif- 
ficulty be  detected  from  the  originals,  was  in- 
vented by  M.  Buldermus  at  Erfurt.  The  dis- 
covery was  communicated  to  a  few  persons  in 
London  in  1841.  It  was  soon  after  made  public, 
and  Faraday  explained  the  process  at  the  Royal 
Institution  April  25,  1845.  It  has  since  trans- 
pired that  a  similar  process  had  been  employed 
in  England  some  time  before  M.  Baldermus's 
invention  was  made  known.  The  invention 
was  improved  and  extended  by  Strickland  and 
Delamotte  in  1848. 

ANATHEMA  "is  a  word,"  says  Bingham 
(Antiq.  b.  xvi.  ch.  ii.  s.  16),  "that  occurs  fre- 
quently in  the  ancient  canons,  and  the  con- 
demnation of  all  heretics."  It  is  found  in  i  Cor. 
xvi.  22,  and  in  Gal.  i.  8 ;  and  upon  its  use 
in  the  latter  text  the  authorities  of  the  early 
Church  grounded  their  justification  of  its  em- 
ployment in  ecclesiastical  censures.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Gangra,  A.D.  365  or  375,  closes  every  one 
of  its  canons  thus  :—"  Let  him  be  anathema, 
or  accursed ! "  In  ecclesiastical  language,  it  is 
generally  understood  as  the  sentence  of  major 
excommunication  from  the  Church,  pro- 
nounced with  execration  and  malediction  by  a 
pope,  bishop,  or  council.  During  the  disorders 
occasioned  by  the  violence  of  banditti  in  Franco 
in  the  gth  and  xoth  centuries,  when  the  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  was  appealed  to  in  aid  of 
the  civil,  anathemas  were  decreed  against  rob- 
bers by  councils,  in  presence  of  holy  relics 
brought  in  for, the  occasion.  One  of  these, 
issued  in  988,  affords  a  very  curious  specimen 
of  style  and  diction.  (See  EXCOMMUNICATION.) 

ANATOLIA  (Asia  Minor).— The  Lydians  dis- 
pute with  the  Phrygians  the  honour  of  being 
the  first  settlers.  It  was  the  seat  of  empire  of 
the  wealthy  Croesus,  who  was  defeated  and  his 
capital  taken  by  Cyrus,  B.C.  546  (See  LYDIA)  ; 
and  it  remained  under  the  Persian  yoke  until 
conquered  by  Alexander  III.,  the  Great,  B.C. 
333.  At  his  death  it  was  divided  into  several 
small  states.  They  gradually  fell  before  tho 
Roman  legions,  and  the  whole  country  was 
reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province,  B.C. 
50.  Christianity  flourished,  and  several  coun- 
cils were  held  in  different  parts.  Here  were 


AX ATOMY 


[    54 


AXCONA 


the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  to  which  St.  John 
wrote  his  Revelation  (ch.  i.  4  and  n>,  A.D.  96 
or  97.  The  Persians,  under  Chosrocs  II.,  over- 
ran the  country  in  616,  and  were  defeated  by 
Heraclius  in  627.  The  Turks  obtained  posses- 
sion 1074 — 1084.  The  Mongols  committed  great 
devastations  1242 — 1272.  In  1300  Anatolia  was 
divided  amongst  the  Turkish  emirs.  Another 
Mongol  invasion  spread  ruin  and  destruction 
in  1402,  but  the  Turks  regained  possession,  and 
Anatolia  lias  since  remained  under  their  sway. 
The  Byzantines  applied  the  term  Anatolia  to 
the  country  to  the  east  of  Constantinople,  and 
it  received  the  name  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  4th 
century.  Anatolia,  or  Anadol,  in  a  more  re- 
stricted sense,  is  now  applied  to  only  a  portion 
of  . \si.i  .Minor. 

AX. \TOMY.— Some  authorities  pretend  that 
this  science  was  practised  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  Hint  the  .lews  and  other  ancient 
nations  from  their  sacrifices,  ;md  the  Egyptians 
from  their  process  of  embalming,  obtained  a 
certain  amount  of  knowledge  on  the  subject. 
A  writer  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 
remarks: — "  Amidst  the  general  obscurity  in 
which  the  early  history  of  anatomy  is  inv<  lived, 
only  two  leading  facts  may  be  admitted  with 
certainty.  The  first  is,  that  previous  to  the 
time  of  Aristotle  there  was  no  accurate  know- 
ledge of  anatomy;  and  the  second,  that  all  that 
was  known  was  derived  from  the  dissection  of 
the  lower  animals  only."  Aristotle  u.c.  384 — 
322)  laid  the  basis  of  the  science,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  3rd  century  that  the  human 
body  was  dissected  at  Alexandria  by  Krasis- 
tratus,  who  obtained  the  bodies  of  criminals. 
Pliny  states  that  the  study  was  encouraged  by 
the  Ptolemies.  Cclsus,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  asra,  gave  some  account  of  the 
progress  of  anatomy ;  and  Galen,  in  the  2nd 
century,  collected  all  that  was  known,  and 
made  great  advances  in  the  science.  It 
nourished  in  Sicily  in  the  i3th  century,  when 
Frederick  II.  enacted  that  no  person  who 
had  not  acquired  a  knowledge  of  anatomy 
should  be  allowed  to  practise  surgery.  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  prohibited  it  in  Bologna  in  1297. 
Mundinus,  l>etween  1315 — 18,  publicly  dissected 
three  human  bodies  at  Bologna,  and  wrote  a 
work  on  the  subject  that  became  a  text-book 
in  the  Italian  universities.  The  greatest  ana- 
tomist of  the  Middle  Ages  was  Vcsalius,  who 
operated  extensively  on  human  subjects.  He 
became  professor  at  Pa  via  in  1540;  and  pub- 
lished his  great  work  on  anatomy,  the  first 
containing  anatomical  plates,  at  Basel,  in  1543. 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  had,  previous  to  that  time,  been  per- 
mitted by  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  to  study  the 
muscles  in  the  human  body,  for  purposes  of 
painting  and  sculpture.  Thomas  Vicary,  in 
1548,  was  the  first  Englishman  who  wrote 
upon  the  subject :  he  has  been  followed  by 
Harvey,  the  two  Hunters,  and  a  number  of 
eminent  men. 

ANATOMY  LAWS.— By  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  43, 
s.  2  (1540),  the  barbers  and  surgeons  of  Lon- 
don were  authorized  to  take,  yearly,  the  bodies 
of  four  malefactors,  executed  for  felony,  for 
purposes  of  dissection.  Several  enactments 
have  appeared  in  the  statute-book  since  that 


tune.  Great  difficulty  having  been  experienced 
in  obtaining  subjects  for  dissection,  and  bad 
practices  having  arisen,  the  "Act  for  Regu- 
lating Schools  of  Anatomy "  (2  <fc  3  Will.  IV. 
c.  75  was  passed  Aug.  i,  1832.  It  authorized  the 
granting  of  licenses  to  practise  anatomy,  and 
gave  facilities  for  procuring  the  IKV 
subjects ;  whilst  the  i6th  section  repealed 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  4  (June  27,  1828^,  by  which 
the  bo*dy  of  a  person  executed  for  murder  was 
ordered  to  be  dissected. 

AXCKXIS  Treaty  .— Concluded  between 
Louis  XI.  and  the  Dukes  of  Britanny  and  Nor- 
mandy. It  was  ratified  by  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  Britanny  Sep.  18,  and  by  the  Duke  of 
Xormandy  June  21,  1470.  Philip  of  Corn- 
mines  says  (book  ii.  ch.  5): — "The  dukes 
renounced  all  their  alliances,  and  particularly 
his  Duke  of  Burgundy) ;  and  that,  in  >  i 
tion  of  all  his  demands,  the  Duke  of  Normandy 
was  to  receive  a  pension  of  60,000  livres  per 
annum,  for  which  he  was  to  relinquish  tho 
interest  which  had  been  lately  conferred  upon 
him  in  Xormandy." 

ANCHORITES,  or  ANCHORETS.— (Sec  AN  A- 

i  •IKiltKTS.) 

ANCHORS,  which  were  unknown  to  tho 
Greeks  till  after  the  Trojan  war,  are  stated  by 
1'liny  to  have  been  invented  by  the  Etruscans. 
They  were  at  first  made  of  stone,  with  only  one 
thike,  the  second  being  added  by  Anacharsis 
the  Scythian,  the  contemporary  of  Solon,  B.C. 
594.  The  earliest  anchors  forged  in  England 
are  said  to  have  been  constructed  A.D.  578,  from 
which  period  little  or  no  change  took  place  in 
their  manufacture  until  Lieut.  Rodger,  R.X., 
patented  his  improvements  in  1828  and  1829. 
Lenox  patented  a  new  anchor  in  1832,  and 
Mcggitts  introduced  further  improvements  in 
1836.  Porter's  swivel  anchor,  patented  in  1838, 
was  tested  by  government  in  1840  with  satis- 
factory results.  Trotman's  improvements  were 
patented  in  the  early  part  of  1852  ;  and  a  trial 
of  anchors  that  took  place  (July)  established 
their  superiority  to  those  of  any  other  maker. 
Firmin's  improvements  were  patented  in  1854, 
Scott's  in  1855,  and  Hunter's  in  1856.  The 
anchors  employed  during  the  launch  of  the 
"Great  Eastern,"  in  the  spring  of  1858,  were 
the  largest  ever  forged.  By  17  &  18  Viet, 
c.  104,  s.  483  (Aug.  10, 1854),  manufacturers  are 
required  to  stamp  their  name  on  each  anchor 
sent  out. 

ANCIENT  LIGHTS.— By  2  <fc  3  Will.  IV.  c.  71, 
s.  3  (Aug.  i,  1832),  when  the  access  and  use 
of  light  to  any  building  have  been  enjoyed  for 
20  years  without  interruption,  the  right  is 
deemed  absolute,  unless  enjoyed  by  consent 
or  agreement  in  writing. 

ANCIENTS  (Council  of).— The  National  Con- 
vention in  1795  divided  the  legislative  power 
in  France  between  two  councils,  that  of  the 
Ancients  and  that  of  the  Five  Hundred.  To 
the  former  was  entrusted  the  power  of  passing 
or  rejecting  the  laws  that  originated  in  the 
latter  branch  of  the  legislature.  Their  sittings 
were  transferred  to  St.  Cloud  Nov.  9,  1799,  and 
a  new  constitution  soon  after  suppressed  the 
council  altogether. 

AXCOXA  (Italy)  is  said  by  Strabo  to  have 
been  founded  by  a  colony  of  Syracusans  in  the 


ANCYRA 


[    55    1 


ANDRUSSOW 


time  of  Dionysius,  about  B.C.  380.  Juvenal  calls 
it  a  Doric  colony.  The  Romans  occupied  it 
B.C.  178,  and  eventually  made  it  one  of  their 
chief  naval  stations  on  the  Adriatic.  Trajan 
improved  the  town  and  constructed  the  mole 
A.D.  107 ;  and  a  triumphal  arch  in  white  marble 
was  erected  in  honour  of  him  A.D.  112.  The 
Lombards  occupied  it  in  592,  and  the  Saracens 
took  it  in  839.  The  town  adhered  to  the  Greek 
emperors,  and  was  besieged  by  Frederick  I. 
in  1167 ;  and  again  by  the  Germans  and  Vene- 
tians in  1174.  Innocent  III.  expelled  the  Ger- 
mans in  1198.  Pius  II.  collected  an  army  here 
for  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  in  1464,  but 
died  before  he  could  embark  in  the  expedition. 
The  March  of  Ancona  remained  for  a  long 
period  under  the  protection  of  the  Popes, 
though  at  intervals  the  connection  was  severed, 
until  the  papal  general  Gonzaga  seized  it,  and 
placed  it  under  the  absolute  dominion  of 
Clement  VII.,  in  1532.  Ancona  was  declared  a 
free  port  in  1732.  The  French  captured  it 
Feb.  9,  1797 ;  surrendered  it  Nov.  13,  1799  ;  re- 
gained it  by  the  armistice  of  Treviso,  Jan.  16, 
1801 ;  and  restored  it  to  the  Pope  in  1802.  A 
French  expedition  landed  at  Ancona  and  took 
possession  of  the  citadel,  Feb.  23,  1832.  They 
held  it  until  Dec.  4,  1838,  when,  upon  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Austrians  from  the  papal  do- 
minions, they  retired.  The  Austrians  captured 
jt  Juno  14,  1849  >  and  the  Sardinians  Sep.  29, 
ITOO,  when  Gen.  Lamoriciere,  who  had  re- 
organized the  papal  army,  was  made  prisoner. 
An  episcopal  see  was  established  at  Ancona  at 
an  early  period. 

ANCYRA  (Asia  Minor). — An  important  town 
in  Galatia,  on  the  route  from  Byzantium  to 
Armenia  and  Syria.  It  originally  belonged  to 
Phrygia.  According  to  Strabo,  it  became  the 
chief  town  of  the  Tectosages,  a  Gallic  tribe, 
about  B.C.  277.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans 
B.C.  189  ;  was  formally  annexed  to  Rome  B.C. 
25  ;  and  soon  after  took  the  name  of  Sebaste, 
and  was  sometimes  called  Metropolis.  A  Chris- 
tian Church  was  established  here  in  the  time  of 
the  apostles ;  and  it  was  made  an  episcopal  see. 
Councils  were  held  at  Ancyra  A.D.  314,  358, and 
375  ;  Chosrocs  II.  captured  the  city  in  616  ;  the 
Saracens  took  it  in  1085 ;  and  it  was  carried  by 
assault,  by  the  Crusaders,  in  1102.  (See  ANOOBA.) 
ANDALUCIA  (Spain),  anciently  VANDA- 
LUCIA,  a  large  province,  that  at  one  time 
formed  part  of  the  Roman  colony  of  Bsetica. 
The  Vandals  conquered  it  early  in  the  sth  cen- 
tury, and  on  their  passing  over  to  Africa,  A.D. 
429,  the  Visigoths  obtained  possession.  They 
were  expelled,  in  711,  by  the  Moors,  who,  in 
spite  of  various  reverses,  did  not  finally  relax 
their  hold  until  1492,  when  their  last  possessions 
in  Andalucia  reverted  to  the  Spaniards.  An 
independent  race  of  caliphs  governed  Andalucia 
from  756  to  1036.  Andalucia  was  divided  into 
two  departments,  containing  eight  provinces, 
by  a  royal  decree,  Nov.  30,  1833.  Its  four 
ancient  provinces  were  Cadiz,  Cordova,  Jaen, 
and  Seville. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS  (Bay  of  Bengal) 
were  explored  by  Peyraud  in  1607,  and  the 
English  attempted  to  form  a  settlement  on  one 
of  the  four  in  1 791 .  It  was  removed  to  Port  Corn- 
wallis  in  1793,  and  abandoned,  on  account  of 


the  climate,  in  1796.  The  British  expedition 
against  the  Burmese  touched  here  in  1824,  and 
another  visit  was  made  in  1825,  on  both  of 
which  occasions  the  inhabitants  evinced  great 
hostility. 

ANDERNACH  (Prussia).— The  ancient  An- 
tunacum,  near  which  Caesar  constructed  a 
bridge  across  the  Rhine,  B.C.  55,  for  the  pas- 
sage of  his  army  into  Germany.  Charles  the 
Bald  was  defeated  here  Oct.  8,  876,  by  his 
nephew,  Louis  II.  of  Saxony.  It  was  made  an 
imperial  city  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  was 
reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  municipal  town  by 
the  Elector  of  Cologne  in  1496. 

ANDES  (Italy).— This  little  village,  situated 
about  two  miles  from  Mantua,  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Virgil,  Oct.  15,  B.C.  70. 

ANDORRA.— This  republic,  in  the  Pyrenees, 
consists  of  neutral  territory  between  France 
and  Spain.  It  was  formed  by  Charlemagne, 
during  his  wars  against  the  Moors,  and  has 
preserved  the  same  frontiers  and  mode  of 
government  which  it  then  received.  By  two 
diplomas,  issued  under  the  authority  of 
Charlemagne,  in  778  and  801,  Andorra  was 
constituted  an  independent  state.  The  Counts 
of  Foix  were  nominated  protectors  ;  but  a  dis- 
pute having  arisen,  in  860,  on  this  point,  a 
contest  ensued,  which  lasted  until  1278,  when 
a  co-protectorate  was  vested  in  the  Bishops  of 
Urgel  and  the  Counts  of  Foix.  The  rights  of 
the  latter  merged  in  the  house  of  the  Bourbon, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  joint  protectorate  is 
now  exercised  by  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
and  the  Spanish  Bishop  of  Urgel.  Andorra  in 
the  oldest  free  republic  in  existence. 

ANDREW,  ST.— The  Russian  order  of  St. 
Andrew  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
1698.  (For  order  of  St.  Andrew,  see  THISTLE.) 

ANDREWS,  ST.  (Scotland).— This  town  was 
made  a  royal  burgh  by  David  I.,  in  1140.  Its 
university  was  founded  in  1411,  by  Bishop 
Wardlaw,  and  confirmed  by  a  papal  bull  in  the 
following  year.  It  consisted  of  three  colleges, 
namely,  those  of  St.  Salvator,  founded  in  1458  ; 
St.  Leonard,  in  1512 ;  and  New,  or  St.  Mary's 
College,  in  1552.  The  two  former  were  united 
in  1747,  and  the  buildings  of  St.  Leonard  pulled 
down.  St.  Mary's  was  remodelled  in  1579. 
The  cathedral  of  St.  Andrews,  founded  in  1159, 
and  completed  in  1318,  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  a  mob,  excited  by  the  preaching  of  John 
Knox,  in  June,  1559.  St.  Andrews,  made  an 
episcopal  see  about  800,  an  archbishopric  in 
1477,  was  suppressed  in  1689.  The  name  of  the 
see  of  Fife  was  changed  to  that  of  St.  Andrews 
Sep.  5,  1844. 

ANDROS  (Archipelago),  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
colonized  by  lonians.  Xerxes  compelled  the 
Andrians  to  join  his  fleet  in  the  invasion  of 
Greece,  B.C.  480.  The  island,  which  became 
subject  to  the  Athenians,  and  afterwards  to  the 
Macedonians,  was  taken  by  the  Romans  B.C. 
200.  It  was  captured  by  the  Venetians  A.D. 
1124. 

ANDRUSSOW  (Treaty).— By  this  treaty,  con- 
cluded at  the  village  of  Andrussow,  on  the 
Gorodnia,  Jan.  30,  1667,  the  Czar  Alexis  ceded 
part  of  Livonia,  the  Ukraine,  and  the  towns  of 
Polocz,  Witepsk,  Dunebourg,  &c.,  to  John  II., 
King  of  Poland.  Conferences  were  held  between 


ANEMOMETER 


ANGOULEME 


plenipotentiaries  of  the  same  states  at  An- 
drussow,  in  1684. 

ANEMOMETER.— The  earliest  instrument 
of  this  kind  was  invented  by  Croune,  in  1667. 
Iffwas  improved  by  Wolfius,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century  ;  and  by  Dr.  Lind,  in  1775. 

ANHROID.— This  form  of  barometer,  in- 
vented by  Vidi,  of  Paris,  in  1847,  was  intro- 
duced to  scientific  men  in  this  country  by 
Professor  Lloyd,  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  at  Swansea,  in  1848.  A  metallic  mo- 
dification of  the  aneroid  was  introduced  in  1850. 

ANGEL.— This  gold  coin  was  introduced 
from  France  into  England,  by  Edward  IV.,  in 
1465.  Stow  speaks  of  angelets  at  6«.  8d. ;  half- 
angels  at  5.-!.,  and  at  33.  4</.  The  value  of  the 
angel  was  raised,  by  proclamation,  to  -jf.  4<I., 
Sep.  6,  1526 ;  to  7.1.  6d.,  Nov.  5,  1526  ;  and  in 
1544  it  was  raised  to  8s.  Mary  fixed  it  at  los. 
Charles  I.  was  the  last  king  in  whose  reign 
angels  were  coined. 

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  GEORGE.— 
This,  which  is  reputed  the  first  order  of  chi- 
valry, is  alleged  to  have  been  founded  by  The 
Emperor  Constantino  I.  (306—337),  wh 
lished  the  grand  mastership  in  the  imperial 
family.  On  the  extinction  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire, the  knights  arc  said  to  have  removed 
iiito  Italy,  where  they  enjoyed  many  apocry- 
phal honours  and  privileges.  Modern  histo- 
rians regard  the  order  as  entirely  fabulous. 

ANGERS  France),  the  ancient  JUU<>MA- 
GUS,  afterwards  called  Andcgavia,  was  fre- 
quently assailed.  Odoaccr  wrested  it  from  the 
Romans,  A.D.  464  ;  Charles  M artel  captured  it 
in  724  ;  and  the  Dan  ing  pillaged  it 

several  times,  fortified  it  in  860.  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  Anjou.  King  John  burned 
it  in  Sep.,  1206;  and  the  Vcndeuns  were  driven 
from  it  in  1793.  In  158=;  the  Huguenots  seized 
the  celebrated  castle  built  by  St.  Louis.  It  was 
made  the  scat  of  a  bishopric  in  the  4th  century, 
and  its  university  was  founded  in  1246.  Coun- 
cils were  held  at  Angers  in  453,  529,  1055  or  1062, 
1157,  1161,  1269,  1279,  1365,  1448,  and  1583. 

ANGERSTE1N  GALLERY.— This  collection, 
which  formed  the  commencement  of  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  consisting  of  38  pictures,  was 
purchased  by  the  English  Government  for 
.£57,000,  March  26,  1824. 

ANGLES.— Tacitus  (A.D.  61—117)  speaks  of 
the  Angli  as  a  branch  of  the  Sucvi.  The  Bri- 
tons having  sought  their  aid  against  the  Picts 
in  443,  a  force  invade' I  the  country,  under  Hen- 
gist  and  Ilorsa,  in  449,  and,  after  subduing  the 
northern  marauders,  turned  their  arms  against 
the  Britons,  by  whom  they  had  been  invited. 
These  Angles,  said  to  be  a  detached  part  of  the 
Angrivarii,  or  people  of  the  Angles,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  the  district  of  An- 
gela, in  Schleswig,  and  to  have  conferred  upon 
Britain  its  modern  name  of  Angle-land,  or 
England. 

ANGLESEY,  or  ANGLESEA,  anciently  MO- 
NA. — This  island  was  in  early  times  the  chief 
Beat  of  the  Druids  in  Wales.  Suetonius  rauli- 
nus,  who  captured  it  after  a  desperate  resist- 
ance, A.D.  61,  cut  down  the  sacred  groves,  and 
butchered  the  priests  and  their  people,  though 
its  subjugation  was  not  completed  until  the 
year  78.  Anglesey  was  captured  by  the  Nor- 


mans in  1090.  The  inhabitants  having  regained 
'."ii,  1094,  were  again  conquered  in  1096. 
Magnus  III.,  King  of  Norway,  assailed  it,  com- 
mitting great  ravages,  in  1098.  After  several 
contests,  it  was  subjugated,  with  the  rest  of 
Wales,  by  Edward  I.,  and  it  was  annexed  to 
England  by  12  Edw.  I.  (March  19,  1284).  The 
Mona  and  Parys  mines  were  discovered  in  1768 ; 
the  Menai  Suspension  Bridge,  connecting  the 
island  with  the  mainland,  was  constructed  be- 
tween 1818  and  1825  ;  and  the  Britannia  Tubular 
Railway  Bridge  was  opened  March  6,  1850. 

ANGLING.  —  This  art  is  of  very  ancient 
origin,  and  is  even  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Scth,  about  B.C.  3800.  It  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  allusions 
to  it  occur  in  Job,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
books  of  the  Bible.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
i  it.  Ixaak  Walton's  delightful  work, 
entitled  "  The  Compleat  Angler;  or,  the  Con- 
templative Man's  Recreation:  being  a  Di 
«.f  Fish  and  Fishing,  not  unworthy  the  perusal 
of  most  Anglers,"  appeared  in  1653.  There  is  a 
text  of  Scripture  (John  xxi.  3)  on  the  title- 
page.  It  was  not,  however,  the  first  English 
Iwok  on  the  subject.  This  honour  belongs  to 
"The  Treatysc  of  Fysshinge  with  an  Angle," 
by  Dame  Juliana  Barnes,  Bcrnes,  or  Berners, 
published  bv  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1496. 

AN(iL<  >-SAX<  )NS.—  A  name  given  to  several 
tribes,  most  of  which  were  of  Scandinavian 
origin.  The  Northmen  having  settled  in  Ger- 
many, from  time  to  time  invadi  d  and  p. 
themselves  of  portions  of  Britain.  The  date 
of  their  first  invasion  is  uncertain,  some  au- 
thorities placing  it  A.D.  368,  and  others  in 
449.  They  established  themselves  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  island,  and  gradually 
extended  their  settlements  in  other  directions. 

ANGOLA  Africa  .—This  territory,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  called  Donga  by  the 
natives,  was  discovered  by  Diego  Cam,  a  Por- 
tuguese, in  1484.  Settlements  were  soon 
formed,  though  it  was  not  until  1578  that 
Loando,  its  capital,  was  commenced.  The 
Dutch  captured  Loando  in  1640,  but  the  Portu- 
guese regained  possession  in  1648. 

ANGOKA  Asia  .Minor  .—In  a  battle  fought 
at  this  place,  the  ancient  Ancyra  </. 
28,  1402,  Timour,  or  Tamerlane,  utterly  routed 
the  Turks,  and  took  Sultan  Baja/et  prisoner. 
The  story  of  Bajazet's  confinement  in  an  iron 
cage  is  denounced  by  many  writers  as  a  fable. 
Gibbon,  who  weighed  the  evidence  of  the 
story  carefully,  believes  it  is  too  well  at- 
tested to  be  without  foundation.  His  conclu- 
sion is,  that  Timour  intended  to  lead  "his 
royal  captive  in  triumph  to  Samarcand.  An 
attempt  to  facilitate  his  escape,  by  digging  a 
mine  under  the  tent,  provoked  the  Mongol 
emperor  to  impose  a  harsher  restraint ;  and  in 
his  perpetual  marches  an  iron  cage  on  a  waggon 
might  be  invented,  not  as  a  wanton  insult,  but 
as  a  rigorous  precaution."  The  Turks  re- 
covered Angora  in  1415,  and  it  has  since 
remained  in  their  possession. 

ANGOULEME  (France),  the  ancient  ICU- 
LISMA,  was  the  chief  town  of  Angoumois. 
It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  A.D.  260, 
conquered  by  the  Visigoths  in  451 ;  regained  by 
Clovis  I.  in  507  ;  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  731 ; 


ANGRA 


57 


ANJOU 


and  plundered  by  the  Danes  in  856.  After- 
wards it  remained  independent  under  a  succes- 
sion of  counts,  until  annexed  to  France  in  1303. 
It  was  made  a  duchy  in  1515,  and  reunited  to 
France  in  1710.  Its  cathedral,  built  in  1120, 
was  destroyed  by  the  Huguenots,  and  rebuilt 
in  1628.  Councils  were  held  here  in  1117,  1118, 
and  1170. 

ANGRA  (Azores).— This  seaport  town,  the 
capital  of  the  Island  of  Terceira,  was  erected 
into  a  bishop's  see  by  Pope  Paul  III.  in  1534, 
and  in  1668  was  the  prison  of  Alphonso  VI.  of 
Portugal,  who  had  been  deposed  by  his  bro- 
ther, Don  Pedro,  in  the  preceding  year.  In 
1766,  Angra  was  made  the  seat  of  government 
for  the  Azores,  and  in  1830  it  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  regency,  until  the 
capture  of  Lisbon  by  Don  Pedro,  in  July,  1833. 

ANGUILLA.— (See  SNAKE  ISLAND.) 

ANHALT. — This  house,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  in  Germany,  ranks  amongst  its  mem- 
bers a  long  succession  of  princes  and  dukes, 
one  of  the  former,  Benihard,  having  rejected 
the  imperial  sceptre  offered  to  him  in  1198. 
The  family  enjoyed  the  greatest  prosperity  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  when  they  ruled  over  a  large 
portion  of  Northern  Germany.  In  1252  Anhalt 
was  divided  into  three  parts  ;  again  reunited  in 
1570 ;  and  once  more  divided  amongst  the  four 
sons  of  Ernest  Joachim  I.,  in  1586, — Dessau, 
Bernburg,  Cothen,  or  Kothen,  and  Zerbst.  The 
latter  branch  died  out  in  1793,  and  their  pos- 
sessions were  divided  amongst  the  other  three. 
The  Cothen  line  became  extinct  in  1847,  and 
that  duchy,  according  to  the  family  compact  of 
June  22,  1665,  is  now  ruled  by  the  Duke  of 
Anhalt-Dessau.  The  Princes  of  Anhalt  took 
the  title  of  dukes  in  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  in  1806.  Many  of  them  greatly  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  defence  of  the 
Protestant  cause. 

ANHOLT  (Baltic  Sea).— This  small  Danish 
island,  in  the  Cattegat,  was  taken  by  the 
British  May  18,  1809.  The  Danes  were  de- 
feated in  an  attempt  to  recapture  it  March 
27,  1811. 

ANILINE.— From  this  substance,  originally 
obtained  from  indigo  by  Unverdorben  in  1826, 
W.  H.  Perkiii  extracted  a  beautiful  dye,  for 
which  he  obtained  a  patent  in  1856,  and  which 
was  largely  adopted  in  1859  to  produce  the 
mauve  tints  then  fashionable.  Its  nature  has 
been  carefully  investigated  by  Dr.  Hofmann, 
who  in  January,  1863,  obtained  from  the  refuse 
left  by  the  distillations  of  aniline  two  new 
substances  called  by  him  paraniline,  and 
xenylamine. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM,  artificial  somnam- 
bulism, and  kindred  sciences,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  practised  from  time  immemorial  in 
India  and  China,  and  to  have  been  known  to 
the  ancient  Assyrians  and  Egyptians,  whose 
sculptures  bear  frequent  representations  of 
figures  apparently  engaged  in  mesmeric  ma- 
nipulation. Robert  Fludd,  surnamed  the 
"Searcher,"  taught  the  magnetism  of  the 
human  body  in  his  "Philosophia  Moysaica," 
published  in  1638,  and  Kircher,  in  1641,  wrote 
of  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  magnetism. 
(See  ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY  and  MESMERISM.) 

ANIMALS.— (-See  CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS.) 


ANJAR  (Hindostan).— This  fortified  town, 
not  far  from  Cutch,  was  captured  by  the 
English  in  1815.  The  town  and  district,  ceded 
to  England  in  1816,  were  restored  to  the  native 
government  in  1822.  It  suffered  from  an 
earthquake  in  1819. 

ANJOU.— This  part  of  France,  afterwards 
included  in  Aquitaine  (q.  v.),  was  occupied  by 
the  Andegavi.  Charles  II.  (the  Bald),  about 
870,  is  said  to  have  bestowed  it  upon  one  of  his 
followers,  from  whom  the  first  line  of  the 
counts  of  Anjou  was  descended.  In  1127 
Geoffrey,  afterwards  Geoffrey  V.,  son  of  Fulke, 
Count  of  Anjou,  married  Maud  or  Matilda, 
widow  of  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  and  daughter 
as  well  as  heiress  of  Henry  I.  of  England. 
Their  son,  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  Plantage- 
nets,  succeeded  to  the  English  throne  in  1154, 
and  in  1156  he  deprived  his  brother,  Geoffrey 
VI.,  of  Anjou.  It  was  soon  after  annexed  to 
England,  and  the  first  line  of  its  counts  ceased. 
Philip  II.  (Augustus)  obtained  possession  of 
Anjou  in  1204,  and  his  successor,  Louis  VIII., 
bestowed  it  upon  his  fourth  son,  Charles,  who 
founded  the  second  line.  By  his  marriage  with 
the  daughter  of  Berenger,  the  last  Count  of 
Provence,  that  important  fief  was  annexed  to 
Anjou.  Charles  mounted  the  throne  of  Sicily 
in  1266,  and  Queen  Joanna  I.  was  dethroned  in 
1382.  (See  NAPLES.)  The  possession  of  Anjou 
became  a  frequent  cause  of  strife  between 
France  and  England;  and  Edward  III.,  who 
had  conquered  it,  by  the  gth  article  of  the  treaty 
of  Bretigny  (May  8th,  1360),  relinquished  his 
claim.  In  that  year  the  French  king,  John 
II.,  raised  it  into  a  duchy,  and  bestowed  it 
upon  his  second  son  Louis,  who  became  the 
founder  of  the  third  line,  and  the  first  duke. 
This  prince  and  his  successors  made  several 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  obtain  the  crown  of 
Naples.  His  grandson  Regnier,  called  the 
"  good  king  Rene","  gave  his  daughter  Margaret 
in  marriage  to  Henry  VI.  of  England,  April  22, 
1445 ;  and  in  1448  he  received  Anjou,  which  had 
been  seized  by  the  English.  Rene"  was  dis- 
possessed by  Louis  XI.  in  1474,  and  Anjou  was 
united  to  France.  The  title  has  been  revived 
since  that  time,  and  the  duchy,  for  a  short 
interval,  passed  under  the  sway  of  its  own 
dukes.  Francis,  Duke  of  Alen?on,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Anjou,  entered  into  a  convention  with 
the  people  of  the  Netherlands,  Aug.  20,  1578,  by 
which  he  was  to  aid  them  against  the  Spaniards, 
the  States  conferring  upon  him  the  title  of 
"  Defender  of  the  Liberty  of  the  Netherlands 
against  the  Spaniards  and  their  adherents." 
He  visited  England  in  1581,  and  made  proposals 
to  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  suit,  in  spite  of  an 
interchange  of  rings  between  the  lovers,  was 
rejected.  He  returned  to  the  Netherlands  early 
in  1582,  and  was  formally  installed  sovereign  of 
the  States  Feb.  17,  in  the  same  year.  He  was 
expelled  in  1583,  and  died  in  1584,  being  the  last 
Duke  of  Anjou  that  played  a  prominent  part  in 
history. 

ANJOU  (Battle),  fought  at  Bauge,  or  Beauge", 
near  Anjou,  between  the  French  and  the 
English,  on  Easter  eve,  Saturday,  March  22, 
1421.  The  former  were  victorious,  and  the 
Duke  of  Clarence  was  slain.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  battle  of  Bauge". 


ANN 


[     53     1 


ANNUITIES 


ANN,  or  ANN  AT.— The  Scotch  Parliament,  in 
1672,  passed  an  act  granting  to  the  family  or 
next  of  kin  of  a  clergyman  deceased  the  pay- 
ment of  the  stipend  (called  Ann,  or  Annat)  for 
the  next  six  months  after  his  death. 

ANNAMABOE  (Africa).— The  inhabitants  of 
this  town,  on  the  Gold  Coast,  having  assisted 
the  Fantees  against  the  Ashantees,  were  attacked 
by  the  latter  in  1808,  and  about  10,000,  or  nearly 
two-thirds  of  their  entire  number,  put  to  the 
sword. 

ANNAN  (Scotland).— Edward  Baliol  was  sur- 
prised at  night,  when  encamped  at  this  place, 
by  the  Earl  of  Moray,  Dec.  25,  1332.  The  attack 
was  so  sudden  that  little  resistance  was  made, 
and  his  brother  Henry  and  others  having  been 
slain,  Baliol  fled,  and  escaped  with  difficulty  to 
England.  Annan  was  created  a  royal  burgh  in 
1538. 

ANNAPOLIS  (N.  America),  formerly  the 
capital  of  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia,  is  the  oldest 
European  settlement  in  North  America,  and 
was  founded  by  the  French  in  1604,  under  the 
name  of  Port  Koyal.  It  was  seized  by  the 
English  in  1710,  and  upon  the  cession  of  Acadia 
to  Great  Britain,  in  1713,  the  name  was  changed 
to  Annapolis  in  honour  of  Queen  Anne,  the 
reigning  sovereign.  In  1750  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  transferred  to  Halifax,  which  had 
been  founded  the  year  before,  and  it  has  since 
declined  in  importance. — The  chief  town  of 
Maryland,  originally  termed  Severn,  received 
its  present  name  from  the  Princess,  afterwards 
Queen  Anne,  in  1694,  when  it  became  a  port 
town.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  the  state  in 
1699,  but  in  size  and  importance  is  much  in- 
ferior to  Baltimore  (q.  v.).  St.  John's  College 
was  founded  in  1784  by  the  Roman  Catholics. 
The  United  States  naval  academy  was  estab- 
lished in  1845. 

ANNATES,  or  FIRST-FRUITS,  were  the  first 
year's  whole  profits,  first  of  a  bishopric,  and 
afterwards  of  any  benefice,  claimed  by  the 
Pope.  The  tax  was  introduced  in  the  see  of 
Norwich  by  Pandulph,  the  Pope's  legate,  in 
the  reigns  of  King  John  and  Hen.  III.  Clement 
V.  and  John  XXII.  endeavoured  to  make  these 
payments  universal  in  their  application,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  i4th  century.  The 
claims  met  with  much  resistance ;  and  in  1404  an 
act  (6  Hen.  IV.  c.  i)  was  passed  for  their  regula- 
tion. The  Council  of  Basel,  June  9,  1435,  con- 
demned these  payments,  which  were  suspended 
by  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20  (1532).  By  25  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  20  (1534),  it  was  forbidden  to  pay  them  to 
Rome  ;  and  by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3  (1534),  they 
were  granted  to  the  king.  They  were  restored 
to  the  Church  by  2  &  3  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  4 
(1555),  and  again  vested  in  the  Crown  by  i 
Eliz.  c.  4  (1559).  By  letters  patent,  Nov.  3, 
1703,  Queen  Anne  restored  first-fruits  and 
tenths  to  the  Church.  "  An  Act  for  the  Conso- 
lidation of  the  Offices  of  First-Fruits,  Tenths, 
and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty"  (i  Viet.  c.  20)  was 
passed  April  n,  1838.  (See  QUEEN  ANNE'S 
BOUNTY.) 

ANNE,  Queen  of  England,  the  second  daugh- 
ter of  James  II.  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde, 
daughter  of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  bom  at 
Twickenham,  Feb.  6,  1665.  She  was  married 
to  Prince  George  of  Denmark  July  28,  1683, 


and  ascended  the  English  throne  March  8, 
1702.  Her  husband,  Prince  George,  died  Oct. 
28,  1708,  and  Anne  herself  Aug.  i,  1714.  They 
had  four  daughters  and  one  son,  who  died  in 
infancy,  and  another  son,  William,  born  July 
24,  1689,  and  created  Duke  of  Gloucester  by 
William  III.  He  died  July  30,  1700  ;  and  on 
his  death  a  new  settlement  of  the  crown  was 
made. 

ANNEAU  (Battle).— Heniy  of  Navarre's  Ger- 
man allies  were  defeated  here  by  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  Nov.  24,  1587. 

ANNO  DOMINI,  or  the  year  of  our  Lord, 
commenced  January  i,  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  year  of  the  ig4th  Olympiad,  the  753rd 
from  the  building  of  Rome,  and  in  the  4714^ 
of  the  Julian  period.  Dionysius,  surnamed 
"Exiguus,"  also  known  as  "Denys  le  Petit," 
a  monk  of  Scythia  and  a  Roman  abbot,  first 
used  it,  about  527.  It  was  introduced  into 
Italy  in  the  6th  century ;  into  France  in  the 
7th,  though  it  was  not  generally  established 
there  until  the  8th  century  ;  into  Spain  in  the 
nth,  and  it  was  uniformly  used  there  in  the 
i4th ;  into  Portugal  in  1415,  and  into  the 
Eastern  empire  and  Greece  in  the  isth  cen- 
tury. The  first  recorded  instance  of  its  em- 
ployment in  England  is  in  the  year  680,  and  it 
was  generally  adopted  in  the  8th  centuiy.  The 
Council  of  Chelsea,  July  27,  816,  decreed  that 
all  bishops  should  date  their  acts  from  the  year 
of  the  incarnation  of  the  Saviour.  The  actual 
date  of  the  birth  of  Christ  is  Friday,  April  5, 
B.C.  4,  or  the  fourth  year  of  the  ig^rd  Olympiad, 
the  4709th  of  the  Julian  period,  or  the  74gth 
from  the  building  of  Rome. 

ANNOBON  (Gulf  of  Guinea),  an  island  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  in  1471,  and  ceded  to 
Spain  by  a  treaty  concluded  March  24,  1 778. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Annabona. 

ANNUAL  REGISTER.— The  first  volume  of 
this  work,  for  the  year  1758,  appeared  in  June, 
1759.  It  was  projected  by  Robert  Dodsley  and 
Edmund  Burke,  and  the  latter  was  for  many 
years  editor  and  principal  contributor.  Several 
works  of  the  kind  have  appeared  for  a  short 
time.  Boyer's  "Political  State  of  Europe" 
was  published  monthly  from  1711  to  1740 ;  the 
"  Historical  Register"  from  1714  to  1738  ;  the 
"  New  Annual  Register"  from  1780  to  1825  ;  and 
the  "Edinburgh  Annual  Register"  from  1808  to 
1827.  The  "Annuaire  Historique"  appeared 
in  Paris  from  1818  to  1849.  An  American 
'Annual  Register"  is  published  at  New  York. 
ANNUALS.— These  elegant,  and  at  one  time 
fashionable,  collections  of  short  poems  or  tales, 
published  every  year,  were  introduced  by 
Mr.  R.  Ackerman,  whose  "Forget  Me  Not" 
for  1823  appeared  in  Nov.,  1822.  This  was  suc- 
ceeded, in  1825,  by  the  "Literary  Souvenir," 
edited  by  Alaric  A.  Watts.  The  "  Keepsake," 
established  in  1827,  appeared  for  the  last  time 
in  1856,  and  was  the  last  of  the  annuals. 

ANNUITIES.— John  de  Witt  published  a 
treatise  oil  "Life  Annuities,"  in  Dutch,  in  1671, 
and  Dr.  Halley  contributed  an  essay  on  the 
same  subject  to  the  "Philosophical  Transac- 
tions" for  1693.  In  1724  M.  de  Moivre  pub- 
lished his  tract,  "Annuities  on  Lives  ;"  and  in 
742  Mr.  Simpson  gave  to  the  world  his  "  Doc- 
trine of  Annuities  and  Reversions,"  containing 


ANNUNCIADA 


C    59    ] 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


valuable  directions  for  the  construction  of  ac- 
curate tables  for  determining  the  probable 
duration  of  human  life.  In  1779  Mr.  Morgan 
and  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  added  materially  to  the 
right  understanding  of  the  subject,  and  in  1808 
the  Government  began  to  grant  life  annuities. 
Annuities  were  regulated  by  53  Geo.  III.,  c. 
141  (July  14,  1813),  the  provisions  of  which 
act  were  superseded  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  90 
(Aug,  10.  1854). 

ANNUNCIADA,  known  originally  as  the 
"  Order  of  the  Necklace  or  Collar,"  was  insti- 
tuted in  1355,  by  Amadeus  VI.,  Duke  of  Savoy. 
It  was  intended  to  commemorate  the  exploits 
of  his  valiant  predecessor,  Amadeus  V.,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  by  his  victory  over 
the  Turks  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes,  in  1310.  It 
received  its  statutes  in  1409,  and  was  renewed 
under  the  name  of  the  Holy  Annunciation  in 
1518.  Victor  Amadeus,  in  1720,  raised  it  to  the 
first  order  of  the  kingdom,  of  Sardinia,  the 
king  being  grand  master. 

ANNUNCIADA.— A  society  founded  at  Rome 
by  Cardinal  Jurrecremata  in  1460,  to  endow 
poor  brides,  annually  bestows,  March  25,  gifts 
on  more  than  400  recipients.  (See  HOLY  SPIRIT 
and  TEN  VIRTUES  OF  OUR  LADY.) 

ANNUNCIATION.  —  This  festival,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  tidings  brought  by  the 
Angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  i., 
26 — 37),  is  of  very  ancient  date.  Basil  of  Sclcucia, 
who  died  A.D.  445,  and  Proclus,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  died  in  447,  left  discourses 
on  the  festival.  It  is  celebrated  March  25, 
which  day,  before  the  alteration  of  the  calendar 
in  1752,  was  the  commencement  of  the  Legal 
year  in  England. 

ANOINTING.— This  ceremony  was  employed 
at  the  coronation  of  kings  and  the  institution 
of  bishops  and  other  dignitaries,  in  very  early 
times.  Moses  anointed  Aaron  and  his  sons 
(Lev.  viii.),  B.C.  1496 ;  Samuel  anointed  Saul 
(i  Sam.  x.  i),  B.C.  1095  ;  and  David  (i  Sam.  xvi. 
i — 13),  B.C.  1063.  Anointing  was  also  practised 
amongst  our  early  kings.  Leo  IV.  anointed 
Alfred  in  871  ;  and  this,  Rapin  says,  was  pro- 
bably the  first  time  the  ceremony  of  crowning 
and  anointing  was  used  by  an  English  king. 
The  custom  was  kept  up,  and  Richard  III.  and 
his  queen  Anne  were  anointed  at  their  corona- 
tion, July  6,  1483.  Taylor  (Glory  of  Regality, 
p.  347)  states  that  one  of  the  principal  changes 
which  our  ceremonial  has  undergone  is  the 
omission  of  the  practice  of  anointing  with 
chrism,  after  the  unction  of  the  consecrated 
oil.  Till  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  or  perhaps  of 
James  I.,  it  was  usual  for  the  king  to  be 
anointed  on  the  palms  of  his  hands,  on  his 
breast  between  his  shoulders,  on  his  elbows, 
and  on  his  head,  with  the  holy  oil,  in  forma 
crucis,  and  afterwards  with  the  chrism,  in  the 
same  form,  upon  his  forehead.  Anointing,  in 
early  theological  writings,  has  reference  to 
baptism  and  confirmation.  It  was  practised  in 
exorcism  and  baptism  by  the  Gnostics  in  the 
and  and  3rd  centuries,  in  the  Alexandrian 
Church.  The  Marcosians,  a  branch  of  the 
Gnostics  and  the  Ophites,  anointed  their  dead. 
The  anointing  in  Extreme  Unction,  practised 
by  the  Church  of  Rome,  is  a  late  invention. 

ANOMCEANS.— Pure    Arians,    followers    of 


Aetius  of  Antioch,  who  denied  the  likeness  of 
the  Word  to  the  Father,  as  well  as  his  con- 
substantiality.  Their  opinions  were  adopted 
by  the  Council  of  Sirmich  in  358,  and  rejected 
by  that  of  Ancyra  in  the  same  year.  They 
were  also  condemned  by  the  Semi-Arians  at 
the  Council  of  Seleucia,  Sep.  27,  359.  (See 
AETIANS  and  ARIANS.  ) 

ANONYMOUS  LETTERS.— By  9  Geo.  I.,  c. 
22  (1722),  called  the  Black  Act  (q.  v.),  the  send- 
ing a  letter  without  a  name,  or  with  a  fic- 
titious name,  demanding  "  money,  venison,  or 
other  valuable  thing,"  was  made  felony,  the 
delinquent  to  suffer  death  without  benefit  of 
clergy.  Later  enactments  refer  to  threatening 
letters  without  being  anonymous. 

ANSAIREEH,  ANSAREYS,  ANSARIANS, 
or  ANSAYRII,  a  Syrian  sect,  founded  by 
Nusair,  about  A.D.  891,  at  the  village  of  Nazaria, 
and  extended  by  11  Khaseebee,  who  taught 
about  900  to  920.  In  1020  they  formed  a  dis- 
tinct sect,  and  in  1099  their  existence  was  no- 
ticed by  the  crusaders.  The  Assassins  (q.  v.) 
seized  several  of  their  strongholds  in  1107,  and 
exercised  tyranny  over  them  until  1280,  when 
both  were  subjected  by  the  Mameluke  sultan 
of  Egypt.  In  1317  the  Ansaireeh  having  re- 
belled and  seized  the  town  of  Djebileh,  20,000 
men  of  the  tribe  were  massacred  by  the  Emir 
II  Umara,  the  residue  being  spared  only  becauso 
they  were  employed  by  the  Mussulmans  in 
tilling  the  land.  At  present  the  sect  numbers 
about  60,000  souls,  possessing  a  religion  com- 
pounded of  Christianity,  Mohammedanism, 
and  Paganism,  and  at  constant  variance  with 
the  surrounding  Moslem  population. 

ANTALCIDAS  (Treaty),  named  after  Antal- 
cidas,  the  Spartan,  by  whom  it  was  negotiated, 
was  forced  upon  the  states  of  Greece  by  Artax- 
erxes,  King  of  Persia,  B.C.  387.  The  terms 
were,  that  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia,  and  the 
islands  of  Clazomenas  and  Cyprus,  should  be 
subject  to  Artaxerxes,  and  that  all  the  other 
Greek  cities  should  be  left  independent,  except 
Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros,  which  were  to 
remain  subject  to  Athens. 

ANTARCTIC  REGIONS.— The  adventurous 
Capt.  Cook,  in  1773,  endeavoured  to  complete 
the  circle  round  the  South  Pole,  in  a  high  lati- 
tude, but  his  progress  was  arrested  by  the  ice. 
He  was  the  pioneer  of  modern  discovery  in 
these  regions.  On  the  evening  of  Dec.  6,  Capt. 
Cook  and  his  comrades  calculated  that  they 
were  at  the  antipodes  of  London,  being  the 
first  Europeans  who  had  gone  so  far.  They 
reached  the  highest  southern  latitude  that  had 
then  been  attained  by  any  discoverer,  Jan.  30, 
1744.  It  was  not  until  Feb.  20,  1822,  that  Capt. 
Weddel  penetrated  farther.  Capt.  Biscoe  dis- 
covered land  in  this  direction  Feb.  27,  1831  ; 
and  went  on  shore  on  Graham's  Land,  Feb.  21, 
1832.  Balleny  and  Freeman  discovered  the 
Balleny  Isles,  Feb.  9,  1839 ;  D'Urville,  Adelie 
Land,  in  1840 ;  and  Sir  James  Ross,  in  1841, 
discovered  a  continent  which  he  named  Victoria 
Land. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.— The  antediluvian  pe- 
riod consisted  of  1656  years,  according  to 
the  general  chronology,  and  of  2256  years  ac- 
cording to  Hales.  All  that  is  known  respecting 
this  period  of  the  world's  history  is  contained 


ANTHEMS 


[    60    ] 


ANTINOMIANS 


in  portions  of  Gen.  iv.,  v.,  and  yi.  Many  au- 
thorities contend  that  the  antediluvians  were 
highly  civilized,  and  it  is  evident  that  they 
built  cities  (Gen.  iv.  17),  were  acquainted  with 
music  (Gen.  iv.  21),  and  some  useful  arts  (Gen. 
iv.  22).  (See  LONGEVITY.) 

ANTHEMS,  known  in  the  ancient  Church  as 
antiphonce,  or  pieces  of  music  sung  alternately 
by  different  members  of  the  choir,  are  stated 
to  have  been  introduced  at  Antioch  by  St.  Ig- 
natius about  101.  St.  Ambrose  adopted  them 
in  the  services  of  the  Latin  Church  about  374, 
and  Gregory  the  Great,  who  was  Pope  from 
590  to  604,  composed  ci  collection  containing 
one  antiphona  for  each  day  in  the  year.  An- 
thems were  introduced  into  the  worship  of 
the  English  Reformed  Church  during  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  several  being  contained  in  John 
Day's  "Certaine  notes  set  forth  in  foure  and 
three  parts,  to  be  song  at  the  morning,  com- 
munion, and  evening  praier,  very  necessarie 
for  the  Church  of  Christe  to  be  frequented  and 
used,"  published  in  1560.  T.  Tallis  and  R. 
Parrant,  who  both  died  in  1585,  W.  Bird  in 
1623,  and  O.  Gibbons  in  1625,  are  among  the 
earliest  and  most  successful  of  English  anthem 
composers. 

ANTHROPOGLOSSUS.— (See  AUTOMATON.) 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  was 
founded  in  London  by  Dr.  J.  Hunt  in  1863. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES. — This  sect  of 
heretics,  who  taught  that  the  Deity  existed  in 
a  human  shape,  was  founded  aboxit  338  by 
Audseus,  a  Syrian.  In  399  their  views  were 
adopted  by  Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria. 
He  persecuted  the  monks  of  his  diocese  who 
refused  to  concur  in  his  opinions,  and  banished 
Chrysostom  for  befriending  them,  in  403. 
Ratherius,  Bishop  of  Verona,  carried  on  a  con- 
troversy with  the  Anthropomorphites  of  Vi- 
ccnza  in  939.  (See  AUDIANS.) 

ANTIBES  or  ANTIPOLIS  (France).— This 
ancient  seaport  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  seated 
on  the  Var,  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  of 
Massalia  about  B.C.  340,  and  subsequently  be- 
came the  chief  town  of  the  Deciates.  It  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury, and  transferred  in  1252  to  Grasse.  The 
Saracens  destroyed  it  in  the  gth  century,  and 
it  was  fortified  in  the  i6th.  The  Imperialists 
besieged  Antibes  Nov.  20,  and  the  English 
fleet  attacked  it  Nov.  26,  1746,  but  it  was  not 
taken. 

ANTI-BURGHERS.— (See  BURGHERS.) 

ANTICHRIST.— This  expression,  used  by 
the  Apostles  and  St.  John  (i  John  ii.  18,  and 
Rev.  xvii.  8)  to  signify  the  great  enemy  of 
mankind,  was  applied  by  the  early  Christians 
to  the  Emperor  Nero  during  his  first  perse- 
cution, A.r>.  64,  and  by  Irenaeus,  Bishop  of 
Lyons,  to  the  whole  Roman  empire  in  177. 
Mohammed  was  regarded  as  antichrist  by 
the  Eastern  Church  during  the  7th  century. 
The  Pope  and  Roman  Catholic  Church  fre- 
quently received  the  same  title  from  the  early 
Reformers,  and  were  formally  denounced  as 
antichrist  by  the  national  synod  held  by  the 
French  Protestants  at  Gap  in  1603.  Some 
commentators  applied  the  prophecies  relative 
to  antichrist  to  Napoleon  I.,  whose  name  they 
deciphered  anagrammatically  from  Apollyou. 


ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE  was  formed  at 
Manchester,  at  a  public  dinner,  Sep.  18,  1838. 
Deputies  assembled  in  London  Feb.  8,  1842, 
and  from  that  time  its  operations  were  carried 
on  with  activity  until  Sir  Robert  Peel  passed  a 
bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  (June  26, 
1846).  The  League  was  dissolved  July  2,  1846. 

ANTIETAM  (Battle).— (See  SHARPSBURG.) 

ANTIGUA  (West  Indies),  the  largest  of  the 
Leeward  Islands,  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1493.  It  was,  with  other  islands,  granted 
to  James,  Earl  of  Carlisle,  July  2,  1627,  to  be 
colonized  under  the  name  of  Carlisle  Province. 
The  first  settlement  appears  to  have  been  made 
in  1632.  The  French  invaded  the  island  in  1666, 
and  committed  much  havoc.  An  earthquake 
destroyed  a  large  number  of  the  churches, 
sugar-mills,  and  principal  buildings  on  the 
island,  to  the  value  of  £100,000,  Feb.  8,  1843 ; 
and  great  destruction  of  property  was  caused 
by  hurricanes  Aug.  12  and  13, 1835,  and  in  1848. 
It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  colonial  bishopric  in 
1842  ;  and  a  cathedral  was  erected  at  its  chief 
town,  St.  John's,  in  1847.  Some  riots  occurred 
at  this  town  among  the  blacks  in  March,  1858, 
but  they  were  speedily  suppressed. 

ANTILLES,  or  CARIBBEE  ISLANDS.— The 
term  Antilles  is  erroneously  applied  to  all  the 
West  India  Islands,  which  some  authorities 
divide  into  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles. 
The  Bahamas  are  not  included  in  this  arrange- 
ment. The  French  gave  the  name  to  the  Carib- 
bee  (q.  v.)  or  Windward  Islands. 

ANTIMONY.— This  term  was  formerly  applied 
to  an  ore  in  which  antimony  was  combined  with 
sulphur.  Tersulphuret  of  antimony  is  found 
in  great  quantities  at  Sarawak,  in  Borneo.  This 
preparation  was  used  by  the  Jewish  women  for 
dyeing  the  eyelashes  black.  Jezebel  used  it 
(2  Kings  ix.  30),  about  B.C.  884.  The  Greek  and 
the  Turkish  ladies  employ  it  in  this  manner. 
Preparations  of  antimony  were  only  introduced 
into  medical  practice  in  the  i$ih  century.  Its 
virtues  in  this  respect  were  first  discovered  by 
Basil  Valentine,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Erfurt, 
in  1490. 

ANTINOMIANS.— This  isnotthe  designation 
of  a  separate  sect,  but  of  members  of  various 
sects  who  hold  that  Christians  are  free  from 
the  restraints  both  of  the  ceremonial  and  the 
moral  law  of  Moses.  They  often,  however, 
differed  greatly  in  their  views  on  this  question. 
The  theory  existed  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul,  for 
he  alludes  to  it  in  Romans  iii. ,  but  the  name 
was  first  applied  to  the  followers  of  John  Agri- 
cola,  of  Eisleben,  who  had  a  controversy  with 
Luther  between  the  years  is38and  1540.  These 
modern  Antinomians  held,  moreover,  that 
the  law  should  be  wholly  excluded  from  the 
Church.  The  Antinomians  became  a  strong 
political  party  in  England,  equally  troublesome 
to  Charles  I.,  the  Parliament,  and  Cromwell. 
In  1643  the  Assembly  of  Divines  condemned 
several  writings  which  appeared  to  them 
Antinomian ;  and  in  1648  the  Parliament 
enacted  that  any  one  convicted  of  maintaining 
that  doctrine  should  be  imprisoned  until  he 
found  sureties  that  he  would  not  offend  again. 
Hallam  (Hist,  of  Lit.  vol.  i.  pt.  i,  ch.  4)  says 
that  Antinomianism  prevails  in  the  early 
writings  of  Luther. 


ANTIOCH 


[    61    ] 


ANTIQUARIES 


ANTIOCH  (Syria),  now  ANTAKIEH,  was 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  B.C.  300,  who 
named  it  after  his  father  ;  and  it  remained  the 
capital  of  the  dynasty  till  Syria  was  conquered 
by  Pompey,  and  was  made  a  Koman  province 
B.C.  64.  Christianity  was  planted  in  Antioch  by 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  here  the  disciples  were 
first  called  Christians,  A.D.  42  (Acts,  xi.  26).  This 
city,  long  known  as  "the  Queen  of  the  East," 
was  captured  by  the  Persian  King  Nushirvan, 
or  ChosroesL,  in  540;  and  Chosroes  II.  wrested 
it  from  the  empire  in  61 1.  Heraclius  expelled 
the  Persians,  but  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
Saracens  in  638  (according  to  Clinton,  Tuesday, 
July  21) ;  and  they  degraded  it  to  the  rank  of 
a  provincial  town.  Nicephorus  Phocas  reco- 
vered it  in  966.  It  was  betrayed  to  the  Turks 
in  1084.  The  crusaders  laid  siege  to  it  in  1097, 
and  captured  it  Thursday,  June  3,  1098.*  The 
citadel  held  out,  but  the  Saracens,  who  made 
an  effort  to  regain  the  prize,  were  defeated  in  a 
great  battle  under  the  walls  of  Antioch,  Monday, 
June  28,  1098;  and  Antioch  became  the  capital 
of  a  Christian"principality.  Bibars,  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  captured  it,  destroyed  its  churches,  and 
completely  ruined  it,  June  12,  1268.  It  was 
annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire  in  1516.  Ibra- 
him Pasha  seized  it  Aug.  i,  1832,  but  it  was 
afterwards  restored  to  the  Porte.  Antioch  has 
frequently  suffered  from  earthquakes  ;  the  most 
disastrous  occurred  in  115,  340,  394,  396,  458,  526, 
and  588.  St.  Jerome  says  that  St.  Peter  was 
its  first  bishop,  and  that  he  was  translated  thence 
to  Rome.  Antioch  was  a  patriarchate,  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  Council  of  Nice,  ranked  third 
after  Rome  and  Alexandria.  The  Council  of 
Constantinople,  in  382,  gives  Constantinople 
the  next  place  after  Rome,  and  makes  Antioch 
the  fourth.  This  was  confirmed  by  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  in  451.  Thirty-one  councils  were 
held  at  Antioch,  the  first  in  252,  and  the  last  in 
1141.  It  was  called  by  Strabo  Tetrapolis. 

ANTIOCH  (.<Eras).— The  Csesarean  sera  of  An- 
tioch was  instituted  at  that  city  in  consequence 
of  Caesar's  victory  at  Pharsalia,  Aug.  9,  B.C.  48. 
The  Syrians  computed  it  from  Oct.  i,  B.C.  48  ; 
and  the  Greeks  from  Sep.  B.C.  49.  By  the  mun- 
dane sera  of  Antioch,  the  creation  of  the  world 
was  assigned  to  B.C.  5492,  or  10  years  later  than 
by  the  mundane  sera  of  Alexandria.  Ten  years 
were,  however,  subtracted  from  the  latter  A.D. 
285,  and  from  that  time  the  two  seras  coincided. 

ANTIOCHIAN  SECT,  or  SCHOOL.— The 
school  founded  by  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  at 
Athens,  which  was  the  scene  of  Cicero's 
studies  during  six  months,  B.C.  79,  consti- 
tuted the  fifth  of  the  classic  academies,  and 
appears  to  have  united  some  characteristics  of 
the  Stoic  and  Eclectic  philosophies.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a  Christian  school,  founded 
at  Antioch  by  the  Presbyter  Dorotheus,  A.D. 
292,  and  celebrated  for  its  strict  adherence  to 
the  literal  and  historical  interpretation  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures. 

ANTIPAROS  (Archipelago).  —  This  small 
island,  the  ancient  Olearos,  or  Oliaros,  was 


*  Ordericus  Vitalis  mentions  Wednesday,  and  the  editor 
of  Bohn's  edition  (iii.  125)  corrects  what  he  terms  a  mistake, 
by  inserting  Tuesday.  Both,  however,  arc  wrong;  for 
June  3,  1098,  fell  upon  a  Thursday. 


originally  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  immense  grotto,  the  extent 
of  which  is  unknown.  The  date  of  the  dis- 
covery of  this  cave  is  uncertain,  but  it  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  bears  a  Greek  in- 
scription upwards  of  2,000  years  old.  It  is  not 
known  by  whom  it  was  re-discovered  in 
modern  times,  but  it  first  became  generally 
celebrated  by  the  visit  paid  at  Christmas,  1673, 
by  M.  de  Nointel,  French  Ambassador  at  the 
Porte.  The  old  Greek  inscription  was  de- 
ciphered by  Col.  Leake,  in  1806,  and  proved 
to  be  merely  a  list  of  visitors. 

ANTIPODES.— Plato,  B.C.  388,  taught  that 
some  inhabitants  of  the  earth  lived  diametri- 
cally opposite  to  each  other,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  name  of  "Antipodes."  St.  Augustine 
(354  to  430)  strongly  ridiculed  this  statement, 
and,  in  the  8th  century,  Boniface,  Arch- 
bishop of  Mentz,  declared  Bishop  Virgilius 
heretical,  solely  because  he  believed  in  the 
existence  of  the  antipodes.  Capt.  Cook  reached 
the  antipodes  of  London  Dec.  6,  1773. 
ANTIPOLIS.— (See  ANTIBES.) 
ANTI-POPES,  or  rival  popes,  were,  at  dif- 
ferent periods  ia  the  history  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  elected  by  contending  parties.  Even 
before  Rome  claimed  supremacy  over  other 
churches,  Novatian  appeared  as  a  rival  Bishop 
of  Rome  to  Cornelius,  in  251.  Authorities  differ 
respecting  some  of  the  Anti-popes,  which  are 
as  follows : — 

974  and  984.  Boniface  VII. 

997.  John  XVI. 
1012.  Gregory. 

1044.  Sylvester  III.,  Gregory 
VI.,  and  Benedict  IX. 
1046.  Clement  II. 
1058.  Benedict  X. 
1061.  Honorius  II. 

080.  Clement  III. 

118.  Gregory  VIII. 

121.  Ccelestine  II. 

130.  Anacletus  II. 

138  and  1159.  Victor  IV. 

164.  Paschal  III. 

168.  Calixtualll. 

178.  Innocent  III. 


Felix  II. 

Ursinus,  or  Ursicinus. 
418.  Eulalius. 
498.  Laurentius,  or  St  Law- 
rence. 

Dioscorus. 

Theodoras  and  Paschal. 

Theophilactus. 

Constantine. 
768.  Philip. 
834.  Zinzinnus. 
855.  Anastasius. 
'  H.  Sergius. 
6.  Boniface  VI. 
13.  Leo  VIII. 
964.  Benedict  V. 


The  great  schism,  of  the  West,  when  rival 
popes  struggled  to  attain  the  supremacy,  com- 
menced in  1378,  and  lasted  above  half  a  cen- 
tury. A  demand  was  made  for  the  election  of 
a  Roman  pontiff,  and,  although  the  French  in- 
terest was  in  the  ascendant  in  the  conclave, 
Urban  VI.,  an  Italian,  was  elected,  April  9, 
1378.  The  French  cardinals  at  Anagni  declared 
the  election  void,  Aug.  9 ;  and  Clement  VII., 
who  soon  after  repaired  to  Avignon,  was 
elected  in  his  place,  Sep.  20.  Then  com- 
menced the  schism,  and  the  following  were 
the  Anti-popes  : — 

1378.  Clement  VII.  |  1424.  Clement  VIIL 

1394.  Benedict  XIII.  1439.  Felix  V. 

1406.  Gregory  XII.  | 

Clement  VIII.  abdicated  July  26,  1429,  which 
some  authorities  regard  as  the  end  of  the 
schism,  though  others  fix  it  at  the  election  of 
Martin  V.,  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (5.  v.), 
Nov.  ii,  1417.  (See  PAPAL  SCHISM.) 

ANTIQUARIES.— A  Society  of  Antiquaries 
was  formed  in  London  in  1572,  under  the 
auspices  of  Archbishop  Parker  and  Sir  Robert 
Cotton,  and  was  dissolved  by  James  L,  about 


ANTI-SABBATARIAN 


AOSTA 


1604.  It  was  revived  in  1707,  was  reconstituted 
in  1717,  and  its  minutes  date  from  Jan.  i, 
1718.  It  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter, 
Nov.  2,  1751,  and  received  the  name  of 
"  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London  ;  "  and  in 
1780  George  III.  granted  to  the  members  the 
use  of  apartments  in  Somerset  House,  where 
it  continues  to  hold  its  meetings. — The  So- 
ciety of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland  was  instituted 
at  Edinburgh  in  1780. 

ANTI  -  SABBATARIAN  CONTROVERSY 
arose  in  the  i6th  century.  Dr.  Bound,  a  Puri- 
tan, explained  the  peculiar  views  of  his 
party  in  a  publication  entitled,  "Treatise  of 
the  Sabbath,"  in  1595.  This_gave  rise  to  the 
controversy,  which  was  carried  on  with  con- 
siderable animosity  between  the  High  Church- 
men and  the  Puritans. 

ANTI-SACERDOTALISTS.— A  sect  which 
originated  in  Flanders  about  1115,  according 
to  Mosheim,  and  in  1122  according  to  Milmau. 
Tanchelin,  or  Tanquolin,  a  layman  of  Antwerp, 
was  their  founder.  Milman  says  (Lat.  Christ, 
iv.  book  ix.  ch.  8),  "He  rejected  pope,  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  the  whole  priesthood.  His 
sect  was  the  one  true  Church.  The  Sacraments 
(he  denied  transubstantiation)  depended  for 
their  validity  on  the  holiness  of  him  that 
administered  them.  He  declared  war  against 
tithes  and  the  possessions  of  the  Church.  He 
was  encircled  by  a  body -guard  of  3,000  armed 
men,  he  was  worshipped  by  the  people  as 
an  angel,  or  something  higher ;  they  drank 
the  water  in  which  he  had  bathed.  He  is 
accused  of  the  grossest  license."  He  went 
from  Utrecht  to  Rome,  Bruges,  and  Antwerp, 
where  he  ruled  with  "the  power  and  state  of 
a  king,"  and  was  killed  by  a  priest  in  1124  or 
1125.  The  schism  was  extinguished  by  St. 
Norbert,  who  founded  the  Prsemonstratensiaiis 
(q.  v.).  Other  Sacerdotalists  appeared  in  France 
at  a  later  date. 

ANTI-TRIBONIANS.— The  name  given  to 
the  opponents  of  the  celebrated  Tribonian,  the 
minister  of  Justinian,  and  the  chief  compiler 
of  the  Justinian  Code,  the  Pandects,  and  Insti- 
tutes. He  flourished  from  A.D.  527  to  546. 
Gibbon  says,  "His  genius,  like  that  of  Bacon, 
embraced,  as  his  own,  all  the  business  and 
knowledge  of  the  age."  He  was  regarded  as 
an  opponent  of  Christianity,  and  to  this  must 
his  unpopularity  be  attributed. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS.— Opposition  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity  commenced  in  the  Apos- 
tolic period,  with  the  rise  of  the  Judaizing 
Christians  (Gal.  i.).  The  Ebionites  A.D.  66,  the 
Nazarenes  about  the  same  time,  Cerinthus  and 
his  followers  A.D.  96,  held  peculiar  notions  re- 
specting the  nature  of  Christ.  Sect  after  sect 
followed  in  quick  succession,  until  Arianisin 
arose  A.D.  319.  The  doctrines  of  Arius  spread 
over  Europe  and  parts  of  Africa,  creating  a 
great  war  of  opinions,  which  began  to  decline 
in  the  7th  century.  By  an  ordinance  passed 
May  2,  1648,  denial  of  the  Trinity  was  made 
felony  in  England.  Erasmus  was  accused  of 
Arianism  in  1536.  Many  of  the  German  neolo- 
gists  of  the  present  day  are  anti-Trinitarians. 

ANTIUM  (Italy).— This  ancient  Latian  city 
was  rendered  subject  to  Rome  by  the  treaty 
with  Carthage,  B.C.  509.  The  Volscians  after- 


wards obtained  possession,  but  were  expelled, 
B.C.  468,  by  the  Romans,  who  planted  a  colony. 
It  revolted  B.C.  459,  and  remained  independent 
for  more  than  a  century.  The  people  of  An- 
tium  were  at  war  with  Rome  B.C.  406 ;  and 
another  contest  followed,  that  lasted  from 
B.C.  386  to  B.C.  374,  when  peace  was  concluded. 
It  joined  in  the  Latin  war  which  commenced 
B.C.  340,  and  was  compelled  to  admit  a  Roman 
colony  B.C.  338.  Coriolanus  retired  to  Antium 
B.C.  488.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  Porto 
d'Anzo. 

ANTOINE,  ST.  (Battle).— This  struggle,  in 
which  Conde",  during  the  war  of  the  Fronde, 
defeated  Tureiine,  July  2,  1652,  took  place  in 
the  faubourg  of  St.  Antoine  at  Paris. 

ANTONINUS,  WALL  OF.— (See  AGRICOLA.) 

ANTONY,  ST.  (Order).— Albert,  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  instituted  this  military  order  in  1382. 

ANTOSIANDRIANS.— This  sect  of  Luthe- 
rans originated  in  1549,  in  a  strenuous  contest 
with  Osiander  respecting  justification,  which 
continued  till  1556,  when  their  leader,  Funk, 
was  compelled  to  retract  his  opinions. 

ANTRIM  (Battle).— A  victory  was  gained  at 
this  town  in  Ireland  by  the  royal  forces  over 
the  United  Irishmen,  June  7,  1798. 

ANTWERP  (Belgium).— Called  by  the  French 
Anvers,  was  in  the  nth  century  a  small  re- 
public, and  became  in  the  i6th  the  richest 
commercial  city  in  Europe.  The  citadel,  com- 
menced by  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  1567,  was 
completed  in  1568,  and  extended  in  1701. 
Antwerp  has  been  frequently  besieged.  It 
was  pillaged  and  burned  by  the  Spaniards 
Nov.  4,  1576.  This  massacre  was  called  the 
Spanish  Fury.  The  Dvike  of  Anjou  attempted 
to  carry  the  city  by  a  surprise,  Jan.  17  (O.S.  7), 
1583.  The  whole  of  his  force  was  either 
killed  or  taken  captive  in  less  than  an  hour. 
This  affair  was  called  the  French  Fury.  The 
Duke  of  Parma  besieged  it  in  1584,  and  it 
capitulated  after  a  siege  of  14  months,  Aug. 
17,  1585.  Its  commerce  suffered  greatly 
from  the  closing  of  the  Scheldt  by  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia  in  1648.  Marlborough  obtained 
possession  of  Antwerp  June  6,  1706 ;  and 
Marshal  Saxc  May  9,  1746.  The  French  re- 
publicans captured  it  Nov.  29,  1792.  They 
retired  in  1793,  but  regained  possession  July 
23,  1794.  It  was  relinquished  by  the  French 
in  1814,  and  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  until  1830.  'The  King  of 
Holland  having  refused  to  give  up  the  citadel, 
the  French  began  to  bombard  it  Dec.  4,  1832 ; 
and  it  surrendered  Dec.  23.  Antwerp  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  1559.  The 
town -hall  was  rebuilt  in  1581  ;  and  the  ex- 
change, founded  in  1531,  was  destroyed  by  fire 
Aug.  2,  1858.  Another  great  fire,  which  de- 
stroyed several  lives  and  an  immense  amount 
of  property,  broke  out  Dec.  2,  1861.  The  new 
fortifications,  commenced  in  1860,  were  com- 
pleted, on  a  scale  of  great  cost  and  magnitude, 
in  1865. 

ANTWERP  (Truce),  for  12  years,  was  con- 
cluded between  Spain  and  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, March,  29,  1609. 

AOSTA  (Italy). — Appius  Claudius,  on  his 
march  into  Gaul,  B.C.  134,  contended  with  its 
ancient  inhabitants,  the  Salassi,  who  were 


APAMEA 


APOSTLES 


subdued  by  Varro,  B.C.  25,  and  Augustus  es- 
tablished a  Roman  colony  at  this  place,  then 
called  Augusta  Pretoria.  Aosta  is  now  the 
chief  town  of  the  province  of  the  same  name. 
The  gospel  is  said  to  have  been  preached  at 
Aosta  by  the  disciples  of  St.  Barnabas,  and  its 
bishopric  was  established  at  an  early  period. 

APAMEA  (Syria),  was  fortified  and  enlarged 
by  Seleucus  Nicator.  He  named  it  after  his 
wife  Apama,  who  died  B.C.  281.  It  was  a  strong- 
hold of  the  rebel  Q.  Csecilius  Bassus,  who  held 
it  for  three  years  until  the  arrival  of  Cassius, 
B.C.  46.  The  Saracen  town  of  Famieh,  which 
was  seized  by  Tancred  during  the  first  crusade, 
occupied  the  site  of  the  ancient  Aparnea,  of 
which  all  traces  are  now  lost. 

APENNINES  were  crossed  by  the  Gallic 
hordes  B.C.  390,  and  by  Moreau  in  May,  1799. 
A  decree  of  Napoleon  I.,  published  June  9, 
1805,  incorporated  part  of  the  Ligurian  republic 
with  the  French  empire  under  the  title  of  the 
department  of  the  Apennines.  This  division 
ceased  in  1814.  A  railway  tunnel  under  these 
mountains,  connecting  Tuscany  with  Bologna, 
was  completed  Sep.  8,  1864. 

APOCALYPSE.—  (See  REVELATION  OF  ST. 
JOHN.) 

APOCRYPHA.—  The  14  Apocryphal  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  which  were  men- 
tioned neither  by  Philo  nor  Josephus,  both  of 
whom  nourished  in  the  ist  century,  and  were 
rejected  by  Athanasius,  in  whose  time  they 
were  not  allowed  to  be  read  in  all  churches, 
were  excluded  from  the  canon  of  scripture  by 
the  Council  of  Laodiceahi366.  The  Latin  Church 
accepted  them  at  the  Council  of  Carthage,  in 
397,  and  they  appear  in  the  Strasburg  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  in  1526,  in  Luther's  German 
bible  in  1534,  and  in  Lord  Cromwell's  great 


folio  bible  in  1539,  where  they  are  styled  the 

books    of    the    Hagio 

Catholic  Church  adopted  them  as  authentic 


grapha.        The    Roman 


at  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1546,  and  in  1563 
they  were  admitted  into  the  services  of  the 
Church  of  England  by  the  sixth  Article,  as 
books  which  "the  Church  doth  read  for  ex- 
ample of  life,  and  instruction  of  manners  ; 
but  yet  it  doth  not  apply  them  to  establish 
any  doctrine."  In  1826  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  determined  not  to  include  them 
in  their  bibles,  and  in  1850  the  question  of 
their  authenticity  was  warmly  discussed  in 
Germany. 

APOLLINARIAN  GAMES,  in  honour  of 
Apollo,  were  instituted  by  the  Romans  four 
years  after  their  defeat  at  Cannse,  B.C.  212,  to 
propitiate  the  god  and  secure  his  assistance 
against  the  Carthaginians.  The  period  of  cele- 
bration was  at  first  movable,  but  it  was  after- 
wards fixed  July  6. 

APOLLINARIANS,  or  APOLLINARISTS.— 
The  followers  of  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of  Lao- 
dicea,  A.D.  366,  who  denied  the  perfect  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  held  other  peculiar  doctrines, 
which  were  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Rome 
in  374,  and  by  that  of  Constantinople  in  381, 
being  the  second  general  council. 

APOLLO,  reputed  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Leto, 
was  from  a  very  remote  period  the  favourite 
deity  of  the  Greeks,  his  temple  at  Delphi 
having  been  founded  B.C.  1263.  (See  DELPHI.) 


He  was  first  worshipped  in  Rome  during  the 
plague  that  occurred  B.C.  433,  when  a  temple 
was  raised  to  propitiate  him.  (See  APOLLI- 
NARIAN GAMES.) 

APOLLO  BELVEDERE.— This  statue  of 
Apollo,  so  called  from  "the  Belvedere  of  the 
Vatican,  at  Rome,  on  which  it  was  placed  by 
Pope  Julius  II.  (1503 — 13),  was  found  in  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Antium  in  1503.  The 
French  carried  it  off  in  1797,  but  it  was  re- 
stored to  the  Vatican  at  the  peace  of  1815. 

APOLLONICON.— This  immense  automatic 
orgt^n,  built  by  Flight  and  Robson,  was  ex- 
hibited at  their  manufactory  in  St.  Martin's 
Lane,  London,  in  1817.  The  instrument,  which 
had  been  five  years  in  preparation,  combined 
the  effects  of  an  entire  orchestra,  and  could 
either  be  played  by  a  performer,  or  by  self- 
acting  mechanism ;  in  the  latter  instance,  the 
selection  of  tunes  being  of  course  limited. 
After  remaining  a  public  exhibition  for  some 
time,  the  elaborate  works  fell  into  disorder. 

APOLOGIES,  or  vindications  of  Christianity 
from  the  calumnies  of  the  pagans,  who  opposed 
its  introduction,  were  written  by  several  emi- 
nent fathers  of  the  Church.  Quadratus  and 
Aristides  presented  two  to  Hadrian  at  Athens, 
A.D.  126,  and  Justin  Martyr,  who  died  in  166, 
addressed  similar  works  to  Antoninus  Pius 
and  Marcus  Aurelius. 

APOSTATES.— Many  of  the  African  bishops 
refused  to  administer  the  communion  to  apos- 
tates in  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century.  The 
Novatians  (q.v.)  about  the  same  time  advocated 
the  most  rigorous  treatment  towards  them,  and 
questioned  the  right  of  the  Church  to  grant 
them  reconciliation.  They  were  denied  the 
privilege  of  Roman  subjects  by  the  Theodosian 
code  (438).  The  Council  of  Aries,  in  452,  estab- 
lished penance  for  them.  The  Nestorians,  in 
the  nth  century,  passed  canons  declaring  that 
the  guilt  of  apostates  could  only  be  washed  out 
by  their  blood. 

APOSTLES.— The  12  disciples  sent  forth  by 
our  Lord  to  preach  the  gospel,  A.D.  27,  were 
Simon  called  Peter,  and  Andrew  his  brother ; 
James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John  his 
brother  ;  Philip  and  Bartholomew ;  Thomas, 
and  Matthew  the  publican  ;  James,  the  son  of 
Alphgeus,  and  Lebbseus,  whose  surname  was 
Thadd<sus ;  Simon  the  Canaanite,  and  Judas  Is- 
cariot  (Matt.  x.  2 — 4).  After  the  suicide  of  the 
last-mentioned,  consequent  upon  his  betrayal 
of  his  Lord  and  Master,  A.D.  30,  Matthias  was 
elected  by  lot  to  supply  his  place  (Acts  i.  15 — 26). 
Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  and  Barnabas, 
were  selected  for  the  work  of  the  ministry 
A.D.  44  (Acts  xiii.  2).  (See  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES, 
AND  APOSTLES'  CREED.) 

APOSTLES'  CREED.— Bingham  (Antiq.  b.  x. 
ch.  3,  s.  5)  says,  "Some  have  thought  that  the 
12  apostles,  in  a  full  meeting,  composed  the 
Creed  in  the  very  same  form  of  words  as  now 
it  is  used  in  the  Church;  and  others  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  pretend  to  tell  what  article 
was  composed  by  every  particular  apostle." 
This  view  the  learned  author  shows  to  be 
erroneous.  Ruffinus  first  mentioned  it  A.D.  390, 
when  it  was  known  as  the  Roman  Creed.  It 
may  be  considered  as  an  exposition  of  the 
apostolical  faith;  and  different  parts  were 


APOSTOLIANS 


APPLES 


preparcrs  of  medicines,  were  first  legally  e.s 
blished  in  Italy,  by  the  well-known  medical 


probably  composed  at  different  times.  Irenseus, 
A.D.  177,  made  use  of  a  form  in  some  respects 
similar. 

APOSTOLIANS,  APOSTOLICI,  or  APO- 
TACTICI.—  They  arose  in  the  3rd  century,  and 
called  themselves  Apostolici,  says  Bingham, 
"from  a  vain  pretence  of  being  the  only  men 
who  lead  their  lives  according  to  the  example  of 
the  Apostles;  and  Apotactici,  from  a  show  of 
renouncing  the  world  more  than  other  men." 
Another  sect  arose  in  the  i2th  century,  and  a 
third,  sometimes  called  the  Apostolic  Brethren, 
was  founded  by  Gerhard  Segarelli,  who  was 
burned  alive  at  Parma  in  1300.  A  crusade  was 
preached  against  them  in  1305.  It  was  con- 
tinued by  Dulcinus,  who  suffered  in  1307. 
Their  followers  in  France  and  Germany  were 
not  finally  extirpated  until  the  time  of  Boniface 
IX.  (1389 — 1404).  They  wandered  about  in 
white  garments,  renounced  all  kinds  of  pro- 
perty, and  denounced  the  corruptions  of  Rome. 

APOTHECARY.— The  keeper  of  any  ware- 
house or  magazine  was  formerly  termed  an  apo- 
thecary; and  during  the  1 3th  and  i4th  centuries 
a  person  who,  at  courts,  or  in  thc^houses  of  the 
nobility,  prepared  preserves  and  confectionary, 
was  also  known  by  this  name.  Apothecaries, 
as 
tab 

edict  issued  for  the  kingdom  of  Naples  by 
Frederick  II.  in  the  i3th  century.  Edward  III., 
in  1345,  conferred  a  pension  of  sixpence  a  day 
upon  Coursus  de  Gangcland,  an  apothecary  of 
London,  in  recognition  of  his  care  in  attending 
upon  him  during  his  illness  in  Scotland  ;  and 
this  is  the  first  notice  of  an  apothecary  in  our 
annals.  A  patent  was  granted  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  apothecary's  shop  in  Stuttgard 
in  1457.  Apothecaries  arc  first  mentioned  in 
France  as  receiving  their  statutes  from  Charles 
VIII.  in  Aug.  1484.  It  was  not  until  1511  (3 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  2)  that  any  attempt  was  made  in 
this  coxmtry  to  distinguish  between  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  profession  of  physic,  and 
to  define  their  position  by  law.  By  32  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  40  (1540),  four  physicians  were  ordered 
to  be  chosen  yearly  to  search  and  examine  all 
"wares,  drugs,  and  stuffs,"  sold  by  the  apothe- 
caries, and  to  destroy  any  they  found  corrupted 
or  defective.  The  apothecaries  of  London 
were  incorporated  by  James  I.,  April  9,  1606, 
being  united  with  the  grocers,  from  whom  they 
were  separated  by  a  new  charter  from  James 
I.,  Dec.  16,  1617.  The  character  of  the  society 
has  been  considerably  changed  by  many  sub- 
sequent statutes.  Their  authority  was  confined 
to  London  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood 
until,  by  the  third  section  of  55  Geo.  III.  c.  194 
(July  12,  1815),  it  was  extended  to  England  and 
Wales. 

APPEAL.— (See  TRIAL  BY  BATTEL.) 

APPEALS. — During  the  occxipation  of  Great 
Britain  by  the  Romans,  the  final  appeal  was 
made  to  the  emperor.  In  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
the  county  court,  and,  lastly,  the  witenagemot, 
or  the  king  in  council,  were  courts  of  appeal. 
After  the  Norman  conquest,  in  1066,  there  were 
two  supreme  courts, — the  Exchequer  Court,  a 
Norman  institution,  and  the  supreme  court  of 
justice  for  greater  causes.  The  Court  of  Ex- 
chequer was  first  constituted  a  court  of  appeal 


by  31  Edw.  III.  c.  12  (1357).  A  second  Court 
of  Exchequer,  in  which  appeals  from  the 
King's  Bench  were  tried,  was  instituted  by  27 
Eliz.  c.  8  (1585).  These  are  superseded  by  i 
Will.  IV.  c.  70  (July  23,  1830).  Criminal  appeals 
arc  ruled  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  78  (Aug.  31,  1848). 
Appeals  from  the  colonial  courts  are  regulated 
by  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council, 
constituted  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41  (Aug. 
.14.  1833) ;  and  were  reorganized  by  14  &  15 
Viet.  c.  83  (Aug.  7,  1851). 

APPEALS  TO  ROME.— Ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters were  at  first  regulated  by  the  bishop,  in 
his  court,  from  which  an  appeal  was  made  to 
the  metropolitan,  who  might  refer  to  the  pro- 
vincial synod.  The  appeal  was  then  carried  to 
the  patriarch,  and  thence  to  a  general  council. 
There  were  no  appeals  to  Rome  during  the  first 
three  centuries.  The  African  Church  resisted 
this  pretension,  and  the  Council  of  Milevis,  in 
Mauritania  (416),  decreed  that  if  any  presumed 
to  "  appeal  beyond  seas  (meaning  Rome),  he 
should  be  excluded  from  all  communion  in  the 
African  churches."  The  earliest  case  of  such  an 
appeal  on  record  is  that  of  Apiarius,  a  rebellious 
priest  of  Sicca,  whom  Pope  Zosimus  restored 
to  communion  after  he  had  been  deposed  by 
an  African  council.  The  French  synods  did 
not  allow  any  appeals  from  their  decrees  to 
Home  for  800  years.  In  England  the  first  at- 
tempt to  introduce  the  system  was  made  by 
Wilfrid,  about  694  ;  but  the  claim  was  zealously 
resisted.  The  practice  was,  however,  introduced 
into  this  country,  together  with  the  civil 
and  canon  law,  by  the  papal  legate,  Henry  of 
Blois,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1151.  The  in- 
convenience of  the  practice  soon  became  ap- 
parent, and  the  eighth  article  of  the  Consti- 
tutions of  Clarendon,  passed  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.,  Jan.  25,  1164,  decreed  that  all 
appeals  in  ecclesiastical  causes  should  be  from 
the  archdeacon  to  the  diocesan ;  from  the  dio- 
cesan to  the  archbishop,  and  from  the  arch- 
bishop to  the  king ;  and  that  they  were  to  go  no 
further  without  the  king's  consent.  Appeals 
to  Rome  were,  however,  made,  and  were  finally 
abolished  by  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (1533),  and  25 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  (1534).  The  penalty  incurred 
for  infraction  of  the  law  was  a  prsemunire. 
These  acts,  repealed  by  i  &  2  Phu.  <fc  Mary, 
c.  8  (1554),  were  revived  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i  (1559). 
APPK LL ANTS.— (See  ACCEPTANTS.) 
APPENZEL  became  a  Swiss  canton  in  1513, 
and  was  the  last  of  the  original  confederation 
consisting  of  13.  The  abbey  of  St.  Gall  (q.  v.) 
acquired  jurisdiction  over  the  adjoining  dis- 
tricts in  the  8th  century,  and  this  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Emperor  Adolphus  of  Nassau  in 
1292.  The  people  rebelled  against  their  spiri- 
tual rulers  in  1411,  and  after  a  long  struggle 
achieved  their  independence.  It  separated 
into  two  divisions,  the  one  occupied  by  Pro- 
testants and  the  other  by  Roman  Catholics,  in 

I5APPIAN  WAY.— (See  ROADS.) 

APPLES  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
Solomon  (B.C.  1015-^975)  stating  (Prov.  xxv.  n) 
that  "  a  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold 
in  pictures  of  silver;"  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  fruit  referred  to  is  that  with  which 
we  are  acquainted.  Herodotus  and  Theophras- 


APPOMATOX 


APULIA 


tus  speak  of  the  apple-ti-ee,  which  was  much 
cultivated  at  Rome,  and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  was  brought  thence  into  this 
country.  Other  writers  are  of  opinion  that 
inferior  varieties  are  indigenous  to  England, 
and  that  the  Romans  merely  introduced  an 
improved  method  of  culture.  William  of 
Malmesbury  mentions  the  wild  apple-tree  as 
growing  in  England  in  973,  and  Fuller  states 
that  pippins  were  brought  from  beyond  seas 
by  Leonard  Maschal,  about  1525.  Parkinson 
enumerated  57  native  varieties,  in  1629, 
and  the  catalogue  of  fruits  published  by 
the  Horticultural  Society  in  1831  mentions 
1,400  different  sorts.  The  custard  apple  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1736,  the  Chinese 
apple  in  1780,  and  the  Osage  apple  in  1818. 

APPOMATOX  COURT-HOUSE.— The  Con- 
federate Gen.  Lee  surrendered,  with  his  entire 
army,  consisting  of  about  26,000  men,  to 
Gen.  Grant,  at  this  place,  in  Virginia,  April  9, 
1865.  The  terms  of  surrender  required  all 
officers  to  give  their  individual  parole  not  to 
bear  arms  against  the  Federal  Government  till 
exchanged;  all  commanders  of  companies  to 
sign  a  like  parole  for  the  men.  Munitions  of 
war,  except  the  officers'  side  arms,  private 
horses  and  luggage,  were  claimed  by  the 
Federals,  and  all  officers  and  men  were  permit- 
ted to  return  home,  and  to  remain  unmolested 
during  their  observance  of  these  conditions. 

APPRAISERS.— By  the  Statute  of  Mer- 
chants, or  of  Acton  Burnel  (n  Edw.  I.  a.  13), 
Oct.  12,  1283,  appraisers  valuing  goods  at  too 
high  a  rate  were  compelled  to  take  them  at 
their  own  valuation.  The  cost  of  the  annual 
license  for  appraisers,  fixed  by  55  Geo.  III. 
c.  184  (July  ii,  1815),  at  io.«.,  was  by  8 
and  9  Viet.  c.  76,  s.  i  (Aug.  4,  1845),  raised  to 
£2. 

APPRENTICES  (Tumults).— (See  EVIL  MAY 
DAY.) 

APPRENTICESHIP.— Adam  Smith  says 
that  "  apprenticeships  were  altogether  un- 
known to  the  ancients.  The  reciprocal  duties 
of  master  and  apprentice  make  a  considerable 
article  in  every  modern  code."  The  system 
originated  with  the  guilds  and  companies  of 
tradesmen  formed  in  the  i2th  century.  In  an 
account  given  in  the  "Liber  Albus,"  of  the 
ancient  usages,  proclaimed  throughout  London 
every  year,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the 
following  article  occurs  :  "  That  no  appren- 
tices shall  be  received  for  a  less  term  than 
seven  years,  according  to  the  ancient  and 
established  usage."  Apprenticeship  is  first 
incidentally  noticed  in  our  statute-book  in 
12  Rich.  II.  c.  5  (1388).  It  was  enacted  by 
7  Hen.  IV.  c.  17  (1406),  that  no  person  should 
bind  his  son  or  daughter  apprentice  unless 
he  had  either  in  land  or  rent  20$.  per 
annum.  This  was  repealed  by  8  Hen.  VI. 
c.  ii  (1426),  in  which  act  the  custom  of 
putting  and  taking  apprentices  is  said  to  have 
•existed  in  London  "time  out  of  mind."  By 
5  Eliz.  c.  4,  s.  27  (1563),  the  parent  of  an  ap- 
prentice was  required  to  possess  a  40*.  freehold. 
Our  statute-book  contains  many  laws  upon  the 
subject.  Apprentices  wore  blue  cloaks  in  the 
summer,  and  blue  gowns  in  the  winter,  in  the 
time  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth ;  but  during  the 


latter  reign  they  indulged  in  such  extrava- 
gance of  dress  that  a  proclamation  was  issued 
May  21,  1582,  laying  down  stringent  regula- 
tions with  respect  to  their  apparel,  and 
prohibiting  the  use  of  jewellery  and  weapons. 
The  term  of  apprenticeship  required  by  5  Eliz. 
c.  4,  s.  26  (1563),  was  seven  years  at  the  least, 
and  this  clause  was  repealed  by  54  Geo.  III.  c. 
96  (July  18,  1814).  For  apprentices  in  the  hemp 
and  flax  manufactures  in  Ireland  the  term  re- 
quired was  five  years  by  8  Anne  c.  12  (1709). 
It  was  reduced  to  four  by  10  Geo.  I.  c.  2,  as.  7 
and  8  (1723)  ;  and  for  Scotland  the  ordinary 
term  is  three  years.  A  duty  was  first  laid 
upon  the  indentures  of  apprentices  by  8  Anne 
c.  9  (1709),  and  it  was  made  perpetual  by  9 
Anne  c.  21,  s.  7  (1710).  An  act  (14  Viet.  c.  ii) 
was  passed  May  20,  1851,  for  the  better  pro- 
tection of  apprentices,  &c. 

APPROPRIATION  CLAUSE.— This  clause 
in  the  Irish  Tithe  Bill  occasioned  several  re- 
markable political  contests.  The  House  of 
Commons  having,  April  3,  1835,  resolved  itself 
into  a  committee  on  the  Church  Establishment 
of  Ireland,  Lord  John  Russell  proposed  that 
any  surplus  revenue,  not  required  for  the 
spiritual  care  of  its  members,  should  be 
applied  to  the  education  of  all  classes  of  the 
people.  The  resolution  was  carried  April  6, 
by  262  to  237  votes.  On  the  bringing  up  of  the 
report,  April  7,  Lord  John  Russell  moved 
another  resolution  affirming  the  principle. 
This  was  also  carried,  by  285  to  258  votes,  and 
the  Peel  and  Wellington  cabinet  resigned 
office  April  8.  Lord  John  Russell  and  his 
party  acceded  to  power,  and,  having  failed 
in  their  efforts  to  induce  Parliament  to 
sanction  the  principle  for  which  they  con- 
tended, abandoned  it  altogether,  in  the  Irish 
Tithe  Composition  Act,  i  and  2  Viet.  c.  109 
(Aug.  15,  1838). 

APPROPRIATIONS.  —  The  period  of  the 
introduction  of  this  system  into  the  Church 
cannot  be  fixed  with  precision,  though  it 
was  doubtless  about  the  time  of  the  Norman 
conquest.  The  early  Norman  kings,  for  the 
purpose  of  enriching  the  monasteries,  conferred 
upon  them  not  only  manors,  but  advowsons, 
glebes,  and  titles  of  parishes ;  so  that  in  the 
space  of  300  years  above  a  third,  and  those  for 
the  most  part  the  richest  of  the  benefices  in 
England,  were  appropriated.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  alien  priories,  in  1414,  and  of  the 
monasteries  and  religious  houses,  in  1536  and 
1539,  appropriations  and  revenues  were  vested 
in  the  crown.  Many  of  the  former  passed  by 
degrees  to  subjects,  who  thus  became  appro- 
priators,  or,  as  they  were  more  frequently 
termed,  lay-appropriators.  Previous  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  no  right  or  precedent 
existed  for  a  layman  to  be  an  impropriator. 

APRICOT.— A  Persian  or  Armenian  fruit, 
introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Romans.  Autho- 
rities differ  respecting  the  date  of  its  introduc- 
tion into  England,  some  attributing  it  to  the 
time  of  the  Roman  occupation ;  others  to 
1524  ;  others  to  1562 ;  and  others  to  1578. 

APULIA  (Italy).— This  province  of  south- 
eastern Italy  appears  to  have  been  peopled  at 
a  very  early  period  by  the  Apuli,  the  Daunians, 
and  the  Peucetians.  Its  inhabitants  concluded 


AQUARIANS 


[    66    ] 


AQUITAINE 


an  alliance  with  Rome  B.C.  326,  but  war 
shortly  commenced,  which  ended  in  the  sub- 
jection of  the  country,  B.C.  317.  The  Apulians 
assisted  the  Samnites,  B.C.  297,  and  several  of 
their  cities  were  captured  by  Pyrrhus,  King 
of  Epirus,  B.C.  279.  Apulia  was  the  scene  of 
most  of  the  contests  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
Many  of  the  cities  assisted  Hannibal,  who 
occupied  the  province  until  B.C.  207,  when  it 
was  abandoned  to  the  Romans,  who  exacted 
severe  retribution  for  the  favour  shown  to 
their  adversary.  The  country  was  subdued  by 
C.  Cosconius,  B.C.  89,  and  never  regained  an  in- 
dependent place  in  history.  On  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Western  empire,  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  the  Goths,  the  Lombards,  and  the 
Saracens,  waged  repeated  contests  for  the  pos- 
session of  Apulia,  which  was  seized  by  the 
Normans  during  the  nth  century. 

AQUARIANS,  Christians  in  the  early 
Church  who  used  water  instead  of  wine  in  the 
Eucharist.  They  appeared  in  various  places, 
and  under  different  designations.  Bingham 
speaks  of  some  Aquarians  who  would  not 
take  wine  in  their  morning  assemblies,  lest  the 
smell  should  discover  them  to  the  heathen. 
They  are  first  mentioned  in  the  2nd  century. 
(See  ENCRATITES.) 

AQUAT1XTA  KXGRAVING  w£is  invented  by 
a  German  artist,  named  Le  Prince,  born  at 
Metz,  in  1723. 

AQUA  TOFANA.— (See  WATER  TOFANA.) 
AQUAVIVARIUM,  or  AQUARIUM.— The 
invention  of  the  aquavivarimn  f or  collections  of 
plants  and  animals  in  water  is  of  recent  date. 
In  1842,  Dr.  Johnston  kept  sea-weeds  and 
marine  animals  alive  for  some  weeks  in  a  glass 
jar  without  changing  the  water;  and  in  1849, 
Mr.  Ward  announced  that  he  had  grown  sea- 
weeds in  sea-water  both  natural  and  artificially 
made.  Mr.  R.  Warington  read  a  paper  before 
the  Chemical  Society,  in  March,  1850,  giving  an 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  he  had  grown 
plants  and  kept  living  animals  in  jars.  Several 
persons  pursued  experiments  of  the  kind  about 
the  same  period.  A  small  collection  of  zoo- 
phytes and  annelides,  brought  to  London  in  the 
autumn  of  1852  by  Mr.  Gosse,  was  soon  after- 
wards transferred  to  one  of  the  tanks  in  the 
fish-house  at  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's 
Park.  It  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1853, 
and  was  the  first  public  aquavivarium  in 
London.  It  is  also  called  aquarium.  \Vatcr- 
aviary,  and  water-show,  have  been  suggested 
as  names  more  adapted  to  the  analogy  of  our 
language. 

AQUEDUCTS.— These  structures,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  water  to  large  cities,  were 
erected  at  a  very  early  date.  Pocock  mentions 
an  aqueduct  from  the  pools  of  Bethlehem  to 
Jerusalem,  built  by  Solomon,  about  B.C.  1000; 
and  Herodotus  speaks  of  another  erected  at 
Samos.  The  Romans  constructed  them  on  an 
extended  scale.  The  first  at  Rome  is  said  to 
have  been  erected  by  Appius  Claudius,  B.C.  312. 
Others  were  built  by  Dentatus,  B.C.  273  ;  by  the 
praetor  Q.  Marcius  Rex,  B.C.  145;  by  Agrippa, 
B.C.  34 ;  by  Caligula,  and  completed  by  Claudius, 
A.D.  51 ;  besides  several  of  less  note,  and  many 
in  the  provinces.  Sixtus  V.  immortalized  his 
name  by  the  colossal  aqueducts  which  he 


caused  to  be  erected.  Prescott  and  Humboldt 
notice  the  Peruvian  aqueducts.  The  Popes 
erected  aqueducts  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
Maintenon  aqueduct,  near  Versailles,  con- 
structed by  Louis  XIV.  in  1684,  is  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  in  Europe.  The  aqueducts 
erected  in  India  by  the  British ;  the 
aqueduct  at  New  York,  completed  in  1842  ;  and 
the  works  at  Edinburgh,  are  the  most  remark- 
able works  of  the  kind  constructed  of  late 
years. 

AQUILA.— This  town  of  Italy  was  founded 
in  1240,  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  who  re- 
moved hither  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient 
Sabine  city  of  Amiternum.  In  1257,  Pope 
Alexander  IV.  transferred  the  see  of  Forconio 
to  Aquila,  which  rapidly  increased  in  import- 
ance in  consequence.  The  facade  of  the  church 
of  St.  Bernardino  da  Siena,  begun  in  1525  and 
completed  in  1542,  and  the  citadel,  erected  in 
1534,  are  among  the  chief  architectural  glories 
of  Aquila,  and  have  escaped  injury  from  the 
terrible  earthquakes  of  1703  and  1706,  which 
devastated  great  part  of  the  city.  The  royal 
college,  established  at  Sulmona  in  1807,  was 
removed  hither  in  1816.  The  theatre  was 
erected  in  1832. 

AQUILA  "Battle.  —The  united  Neapolitan, 
Milanese,  and  Papal  forces,  under  the  command 
of  Jacopo  Caldora,  defeated  a  very  much 
smaller  army  of  Aragonese,  under  the  renowned 
condottiere  Braccio  Fortebraccio  da  Montone, 
between  the  city  of  Aquila,  in  Naples,  and  the 
hill  of  San  Lorenzo,  June  2,  1424.  Braccio, 
who  failed  in  securing  the  victory  from  the 
miscomprehension  of  his  signals  by  his  reserve, 
was  only  slightly  wounded  in  the  fight,  but, 
being  resolved  not  to  survive  his  defeat,  he 
persistently  refused  food  and  comfort,  and 
expired  June  5. 

AQl'ILEIA  (Italy).— This  city,  called  Roma 
Secunda,  also  Aglar,  the  ancient  Velia,  was 
founded  by  the  Romans  B.C.  181.  At  a  very 
early  period  it  was  made  a  bishopric  ;  became 
a  metropolitan  see  in  the  4th,  and  a  patriarchate 
in  the  6th  century.  Maximin  besieged  Aquileia 
A.D.  238,  during  his  contest  with  the  senate, 
and  under  its  walls  he  was,  with  his  son, 
assassinated  by  his  own  soldiers.  The  younger 
Constantino  was  defeated  and  slain  near  this 
city  in  340,  and  in  452  it  was  stormed  and 
destroyed  by  the  Huns  under  Attila.  Its  ruins 
could  scarcely  be  discovered  ;  yet  it  remained 
the  residence  of  a  bishop  until  the  invasion  of 
the  Lombards^under  Alboin  (568 — 570),  when  the 
patriarch  removed  to  Grado  (q.  v.),  denominated 
from  this  circumstance  New  Aquileia.  Richard  I. 
was  shipwrecked  near  Aquileia,  in  1192.  The 
authority  of  the  patriarchs  lasted  until  1758, 
when  the  patriarchate  was  abolished  by  the 
Pope,  and  the  diocese  divided  into  two  sees, — 
those  of  Udine  and  Gorizia.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  381,  556,  698,  1307,  and  1409. 

AQUITAINE  (France  >,  the  ancient  Aquitania, 
one  of  the  four  provinces  into  which  Augustus 
divided  Gaul,  B.C.  27.  It  was  not  completely 
subjected  to  the  Romans  until  B.C.  28.  The 
Visigoths,  under  Wallia,  conquered  it  A.D.  419. 
It  submitted  to  Clovis  I.,  and  was  united  to  his 
kingdom  in  508.  It  comprised  Guienne,  Poitou, 
Gascony,  and  Anjou. 


ARABIA 


ARAGON 


637.  Aquitaine  is  made  an  hereditary  duchy. 

718.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Saracens,  who  subdue  a  large 

portion. 

733.  Chnrles  Martel  repels  the  Saracens. 
768.  Walfar,  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  is  defea'ed  and  slain  by 

Pepin,  who  re-unites  Aq.  itaine  to  France. 
781.  Louis,    son   of   Charlemagne,  is  crowned   King  of 

Aquitnirie,  by  Pope  Adrian  I. 

817.   Louis  I.  bestows  Aqtiitaine  upon  his  son  Pepin. 
838.  Pepin  dies,  and  the  Empress  Judith  claims  Aquitaine 

for  her  son  Charles. 
843.  Treaty  of  Verdun  (q.  r.),  by  which   the    rights  of 

Pepin's  sons  are  sacrificed. 
816 — 849.  Danish  invasions. 
867.  Aquitaine   is  reunited  to  France  by  Louis  II.,  the 

Stammerer. 
880.  Rainulfe  II.  attempts  to  re-erect  Aquitaine  into  a 

kingdom. 

955.  It  is  given  by  T.othaire  to  Hugh,  Count  of  Paris. 
1137.  Death  of  •William  X.,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  when  his 

duchy  passes  to  his  daughter  Eleanor,  afterwards 

queen  of  Louis  VII.  of  France. 
1151.  Henry  of  Anjoit,   afterwards  Henry  II.  of  England, 

obtains  Aquitaine  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor, 

the  divorced  wife  of  Louis  VII. 
1169.  Aquitaine   devolves    upon    Richard,   eldest    son   of 

He.iry  II.  of  England. 
1304.  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  reunites  Aquitaine  to  France, 

which  causes  a  long  war  with  England. 
1359.  Aquitaine  is  restored  to  the  English  under  Henry  III., 

since  which  period  it  has  been  called  "Guienne." 

(See  GUIENNE.) 

ARABIA  (Asia).— The  south-western  penin- 
sula of  Asia  has,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  been  known  under  this  designation, 
though  the  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  all 
the  countries  frequented  by  the  tribes  of  wan- 
dering Arabs.  The  term  Arabia  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Hebrews  until  after  the  time  of  Solomon. 
Ptolemy  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  insti- 
tute the  three  divisions  of  Arabia  Petnea, 
Felix,  and  Deserta,  i.e.,  the  Rocky,  the  Happy 
or  Fruitful,  and  the  Desert  or  Sandy.  The 
Arabs  believed  themselves  to  be  descended 
from  Joktan,  the  son  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  26—30), 
and  from  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Abraham,  by  his 
bondwoman,  Hagar,  born  B.C.  igio  (Gen.  xvi. 
15,  1 6) ;  the  posterity  of  the  former,  by  way  of 
distinction,  calling  themselves  pure  Arabs. 
The  direct,  as  well  as  the  indirect,  testimony  of 
Scripture  proves  the  Arabs  to  be  descended 
from  Ishmael.  In  the  time  of  Moses,  about 
B.C.  1530,  the  Arabians  had  grown  up  into 
"twelve  princes  according  to  their  nations,'' 
and  "they  dwelt  from  Havilah  unto  Shur, 
that  is  before  Egypt,  as  thou  goest  toward 
Assyria"  (Gen.  xxv.  16,  18,  &c.}.  Though  as- 
sailed by  the  Egyptians,  the  Assyrians,  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  and  other  ancient  nations, 
the  Arabians  were  never  subdued.  Herodotus, 
the  first,  after  the  inspired  writers,  who  notices 
Arabia,  states  (iii.  88)  that  it  was  never  sub- 
jected to  the  Persian  empire.  Little  is  known 
of  the  general  history  of  Arabia  previous  to 
the  time  of  Mohammed,  the  accounts  given  by 
the  Arabian  writers  being  altogether  unworthy 
of  credit. 


24.  Augustus  sends  an  expedition  into  Arabia  Felix.    It 

is  unsuccessful. 
A.D. 
105.  A  portion    of   Arabia    is    formed    into    a    Roman 

province. 
195.  Septimius    Severus   obtains  additional  territory    in 

Arabia. 
570.  Birth  of  Mohammed.    (See  MOHAMMEDANISM.) 


The  Hegira  (?.  r.). 

Abu  Beker  succeeds  Mohammed,  taking  the  title  of 
"  Caliph." 

Battles  of  Aiznadin  and  Yermuk  (7.  ».). 

Abdalmelik  commences  the  Arabian  coinage. 

Al  Mansur  introduces  learning  into  Arabia. 

Haroun  Al  Rashid's  caliphate  commences. 
The  King  of  Portugal  assumes  the  title,  but  does 
not  gain  the  power,  of   "  Lord  of  the  Navigation, 
Conquest,  and  Commerce  of  Arabia." 

Arabia  is  conquered  by  the  Ottoman,  Selim  I. 

So:ini:in  II.  completes  the  conquest 

An  edict  is  issued  which  unites  all  the  Arabian  tribes 
under  one  head,  as  Getanos  orEgipeios  (Egyptians), 
and  prohibits  the  use  of  their  native  languages. 

Niebuhr  travels  in  Arabia. 


632- 

& 
V 

1504. 

I5i8. 

1539- 
ion. 

1763. 

ARABIANS,  or  ARABICI.— This  sect  arose 
in  Arabia  A.D.  207.  They  held  that  the  soul 
dies  with  the  body,  with  which  it  will  rise 
again  at  the  resurrection.  Eusebius  states, 
that  at  a  council,  called  the  "Council  of 
Arabia,"  held  in  247  or  248,  to  discuss  the 
question,  Origen  argued  so  eloquently  that 
he  induced  these  heretics  to  renounce  their 
errors. 

ARABIC  NUMERALS.— According  to  some 
authorities,  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester 
II.,  learned  the  decimal  system  of  notation 
from  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  introduced  it 
into  France  about  the  end  of  the  ioth  century. 
Another  account  is,  that  Leonard  Fibonnacci 
of  Pisa  introduced  it  in  1220,  in  a  work  en- 
titled "  Liber  Abbaci,"  etc. ;  and  some  have 
supposed  that  the  Alphonsine  Tables,  con- 
structed chiefly  by  Moors  at  the  court  of 
Alphonso  X.,  must  have  been  the  first  docu- 
ment in  which  the  system  appeared.  It  is 
certain  that  before  the  i2th  century,  and  most 
probably  as  early  as  the  9th,  this  system  had 
been  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  and  Arabs, 
who  ascribe  it  to  the  Hindoos,  and  call  it  by  a 
name  which  signifies  "  Hindoo  science."  The 
Hindoos  themselves  have  long  used  it,  and  it 
is  easy  to  trace  the  manner  in  which  our  nu- 
merical symbols  have  been  derived  from  those 
of  the  Sanscrit.  The  steps  by  which  the  new 
notation  made  its  way  through  Europe  cannot 
be  very  clearly  defined.  Montfaucon  found  it 
in  an  Italian  manuscript  which  was  finished  in 
1317  ;  audit  has  been  traced  in  many  manu- 
scripts of  the  works  of  authors  a  century  older ; 
it  was,  however,  usual  to  substitute  the  new 
figures  for  the  old  in  recopying.  The  library 
of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  possesses 
a  catalogue  of  eclipses  from  1300  to  1348,  to 
which  Arabic  numerals  are  subjoined.  In- 
scriptions with  graven  dates  in  these  numerals 
have  been  given  by  Wallis  and  others  as  old  as 
1330 ;  but,  upon  examination,  reason  has  been 
found  to  suspect  that  5  has  been  mistaken  for 
3.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  evidence  of  any 
general  use  of  the  Arabic  numerals  before  the 
invention  of  printing ;  and  even  the  works  of 
Caxton  do  not  contain  them,  except  in  a 
woodcut.  Merchants  continued  down  to  the 
1 6th  century  to  keep  their  accounts  in  Roman 
figures. 

ARAGON  (Spain)  passed  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.  under  the  rule  of  the  •  Carthaginians, 
who  rebuilt  Gades,  now  Cadiz,  about  B.C. 
350.  The  Romans  expelled  the  Carthagi- 
nians between  the  years  B.C.  210 — 200  and 
in  the  redistribution  of  the  peninsula  into 


ARAGUA 


[    68    ] 


ARBITRATION 


three  provinces,  made  by  Augustus,  B.C.  27, 
Aragon  formed  part  of  Tarraconensis.  It  was 
overrun  by  the  Visigoths  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sth  century.  They  established 
their  power,  and  were  in  turn  overwhelmed  by 
the  Saracens,  who  landed  in  the  peninsula  A.D. 
711,  and  had  subdued  the  greater  portion  by 
713.  Fierce  struggles  followed  between  the 
infidel  invaders  and  the  Christian  inhabitants. 
The  latter  succeeded  in  maintaining  small  but 
independent  states,  and  at  the  death  of  Sancho 
III.,  the  sovereign  of  Christian  Spain,  in  1035, 
his  dominions  were  divided  amongst  his  four 
sons,  and  Aragon  was  formed  into  a  kingdom, 
Ramiro  I.,  Sancho' s  youngest  son,  being  its 
first  king. 

A.D. 

1096,  Nov.  1 8.  Battle  of  Alcoraza  (q.  ».),  which  destroys  the 

Mohammedan  power  between  the  Euro,  the  Ciuca, 

and  the  Pyrenees.  • 

Ill8.  Saragossa  is  wrested  from  the  Moors  by  Alphonso  I. 
1 1 34.  Battle  of  Fraga  (q.  v.). 
1137.  llamiro  II.  abdicates  the  throne   in  favour  of    his 

daughter  Petronilla,   and    reiires  to  a  monastery. 

Catalonia  is  united  to  Aragon  by  Petronilla's  mar- 
riage with  Don  Uaymond. 
1303.  Pedro  II.  engages  that  Aragou  shall  for  ever  remain 

a  fief  of  the  Holy  See. 
1313.  Accession  of  James  I. 
1340.  The  Fueroi,  or  old  laws  of  Aragon,  are  digested  into 

a  co  le  by  Vital,  Bishop  of  Iluesca,  and  confirmed 

by  James  I. 
1383.  Pope   Martin  IV.   excommunicates    the   Aragonese, 

and  endeavours  to  transfer  the  kingdom  from  Pedro 

III.  to  Charles  of  Viiloi*. 
1291.  Withdrawal  of  the  papal  ban,  and  renunciation  by 

Charles  of  Valois  of  all  claim  to  Aragon. 
1347.  Confederation     against     Pedro    IV.    to    insure    the 

adoption   of    the  Salic  law  and    confirmation  of 

privileges. 
1359.  Pope  Innocent  VI.  seeks  to  restore  peace  between 

Castile  and  Aragon. 

1413,  June.  Ferdinand  I.  is  elected  King  of  Arngon. 
1458.  Death  of  Alphonso  V..  surnamed  the  Wise. 
1403.  The    Aragonese    nobles    invite     Pedro,    Infante   of 

Portugal,  to  take  the  throne  from  John  II. 
1479.  It  is  united  to  Castile  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
1591.  The  ancient  Aragonese  constitution  is  suppressed. 
SOVEREIGNS   OF  ARAGON. 


A.D. 

1075.  Ramiro  I. 
1063.  Sancho  I. 
1094.  Pedro  I.  (Peter). 
1104.  Alphonso  I. 
1134.  Ramiro  II. 
1137.  Petronilla    and    Ray- 
mond. 

1162.  Alphonso  II. 
1196.  Pedro  II.  (Peter). 
1213.  Jayme  I.  (James). 
1276.   Pedro  III.  (Peter). 
1285.  Alphonso  III. 


A.D. 

1391.  Jayme  II.  (James). 
l-^Z".   Alphonso  IV. 
1336.  Pedro  IV.  (Peter). 
1387.  Juan  I.  (John). 
1395.  Martin  I. 

Interregnum,  I  vear. 
1412-  Fernando     I.     (Ferdi- 
nand). 

1416.  Alphonso  V. 
1458.  Juan  1 1.  (John). 
1479.  Fernando  II. 

United  to  Castile. 


ARAGUA  (Battle).— During  the  revolu- 
tionary war  in  South  America,  a  sanguinary 
battle  was  fought  in  the  valley  of  Aragua, 
June  18,  1814,  when  the  royalists  obtained  a 
complete  victory,  and  entered  the  city  of 
Caracas,  July  7.  This  is  erroneously  styled  the 
Battle  of  Arazua. 

ARANIE,  or  ARNEE  (Battle),  between  the 
French  and  Indians,  and  the  English,  led  by 
Clive,  was  fought  Dec.  3,  1751.  The  latter 
were  victorious. 

ARANJUEZ  (Spain).— The  ancient  Ara  Jovis 
is  celebrated  for  its  palace,  commenced  by 
Philip  II.  A  treaty  of  alliance  was  concluded 
here,  May  i,  1745,  between  Genoa,  France. 
Spain,  and  Naples,  for  the  prosecution  oi 
the  war  against  Sardinia  and  the  Germans 


\nother  treaty,  between  Maria  Theresa  and  the 
tings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  peace  of  Italy,  was  concluded, 
June  14,  1752,  the  preliminaries  having  been 
signed  at  Madrid,  April  14.  By  a  treaty  signed 
acre,  April  12,  1772,  France  and  Spain  agreed 
to  unite  in  opposing  the  English  in  America. 
A  convention  between  Great  Britain  and  Spain 
was  signed  at  Aranjuez  May  25,  1793,  by  which 
the  former  agreed  not  to  make  peace  with 
France  till  the  Spaniards  had  obtained  full 
restitution  for  all  places  and  territories  cap- 
tured by  the  French  from  the  commencement 
of  the  revolutionary  war.  An  insurrection 
occurred  here  March  18,  1808,  which  led  to 
the  abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favour  of  his 
son,  Ferdinand  VII.,  March  19. 

ARAUCANIA  S.  America).— This  territory, 
which,  though  nominally  subject  to  Chili,  is 
virtually  an  independent  state,  has  waged 
almost  uninterrupted  war  against  the  Span- 
iards since  their  first  appearance  in  1537.  In 
1568  the  inhabitants  employed  cavalry  against 
their  invaders,  and  in  1602  they  destroyed  the 
new  settlements  of  Imperial,  Villarica,  Val- 
divia,  and  Angol.  Peace  was  restored  in  1641, 
but  war  recommenced  in  1655.  The  Jesuits 
established  a  mission,  which  was  destroyed 
during  a  general  revolt  of  the  inhabitants  in 
1720.  War  continued  till  1773,  when  Spain 
acknowledged  Araucanian  independence,  and 
permitted  the  establishment  of  a  residency  at 
Santiago.  The  inhabitants  have  held  much 
more  intercourse  with  surrounding  nations 
since  the  declaration  of  Chilian  independence 
in  1818,  and  of  late  years  Christianity  has 
made  some  progress. 

ARAZUA.— ;&«>  ARAGUA.) 

A  1!  HALIST.— (See  CROSS-BOW.) 

ARBELA  (Battle).— Near  this  town,  now 
called  Arbil,  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  Darius,  Oct.  i,  B.C. 
331.  The  latter  was  slain,  and  the  Persian 
empire  subverted.  The  actual  contest  occurred 
near  the  village  of  Gaugamela,  about  30 
miles  from  Arbela,  where  the  pursuit  ter- 
minated. 

ARBITRATION.— Courts  of  arbitration,  or 
conciliation,  established  in  Denmark  in  1795, 
rapidly  increased  in  numbers,  and  were  soon 
after  introduced  into  Norway.  Napoleon  I.,  in 
1806,  issued  a  decree,  by  which  numerous 
Conseils  de  Prud'hommes  (q.  v.)  were  estab- 
lished in  the  various  departments  of  France, 
though  they  were  not  adopted  in  Paris  until 
1844.  Arbitration  was  recognized  by  the  law 
of  England,  by  9  &.  10  Will.  III.  c.  15  (1698), 
which  introduced  some  important  regulations 
on  this  subject,  making  corrupt  awards  null 
and  void.  The  power  of  arbitrators  was  greatly 
extended  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  42,  ss.  39,  40,  41 
(Aug.  14,  1833),  the  award  being  made  a  rule  of 
court.  By  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act, 
17  and  18  Viet.  c.  125,  s.  3  (Aug.  12,  1854),  the 
judges  of  the  superior  courts  have  power,  in 
certain  cases,  to  order  compulsory  arbitration. 
The  House  of  Commons  appointed  a  select 
committee  (Feb.  19,  1856)  to  inquire  into  the 
expediency  of  establishing  Arbitration  Courts 
on  a  more  extended  basis,  and  a  report  in 
favour  of  the  principle  was  issued. 


ARBOGA 


ARCHDEACON 


ARBOGA  (Sweden).  —  Church  assemblies 
were  held  at  this  ancient  city  in  1396,  1412, 
1417,  1423,  1474,  and  diets  in  1435,  1440,  1471, 
1529,  and  1561.  The  Arboga  articles  were 
passed  at  the  last  mentioned.  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  in  1625,  issued  an  edict  here 
respecting  the  copper  coinage. 

ARBUTUS.  —  This  evergreen  shrub  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  whom 
its  fruit  was  used  as  an  article  of  diet.  The 
bearberry,  a  variety  of  this  plant,  which  be- 
came a  fashionable  medicinal  remedy  in  1673 
and  1674,  has  not  maintained  its  repute,  and  is 
at  present  regarded  only  as  an  ordinary 
astringent. 

ARCADES  were  employed  by  the  Roman 
architects  in  the  construction  of  triumphal 
arches,  aqueducts,  temples,  and  theatres : 
they  were  also  frequently  used  by  the  Gothic 
builders  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Burlington 
Arcade  (q.v.),  opened  in  1819;  the  Lowther 
Arcade,  hi  1831 ;  and  the  arcade  in  New  Oxford- 
street,  in  1851,  are  the  principal  arcades  in 
London. 

ARCADIA  (Peloponnesus),  designated,  from 
its  mountainous  character,  "the  Switzerland 
of  Greece."  The  Arcadians  claimed  to  be  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece,  calling  them- 
selves Proseleni,  i.  e.,  "before  the  moon."  Pan 
was  their  tutelary  deity,  and  they  delighted 
in  music.  "  They  were  scarcely,"  says  a 
writer  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana," 
"  an  Hellenic  race  ;  hence  we  are  not  sur- 
prised that  they  retained  their  pastoral  habits 
and  rugged  manners."  Herodotus  (viii.  73) 
admits  that  they  were  indigenous,  and  Pau- 
sanias  gives  a  long  list  of  their  early  kings, 
descendants  of  Areas,  from  whom,  according 
to  some  accounts,  the  country  received  its 
name.  Clinton  says  the  Arcadians  were  an 
aboriginal  tribe  of  the  Pelasgic  race.  The  first 
well-established  fact  with  respect  to  the 
Arcadians  is  that  they  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence when  the  Dorians  invaded  the 
Peloponnesus,  B.C.  1104.  The  following  is  a 
summary  of  the  events,  legendary  and 
authentic,  given  by  historians  : — 


B.C. 

1710. 
1531- 
I5H. 
H93- 
II74- 
1103. 

848. 

7'5- 


A  colony  of  Arcadians  enter  Italy  (q.  v.~). 

Pe1asgus>  king  of  Arcadia. 

Areas  king,  from  whom  the  country  takes  its  name. 

Ag.-ipcnor  leads  the  Arcadians  to  the  Trojan  war. 

Ephitus  is  king. 

The  Arcadian  women   defeat  the  Lacedaemonians, 

who  had  invaded  their  country. 
War  with  Sparta, 
Aristoc-rates  I.,  of  Arcadia,  is  put  to  death  for  having 

offered  violence  to  the  priestess  of  Diana. 
681.  Aristocrates  II.  is  stoned  to  death  for  treason,  and 

Arcadia  becomes  a  republic. 
3*0.  Agesilaus  invades  Arcadia. 
367.  The  Arcadians  and   their    allies   are    defeated   by 

Sparta. 

365.  War  with  Elis  (q.  ».).     (See  OLYMPIA.) 
364.  Arcadia  is  invaded  l»y  Archidamus.      The  Arcadians 
seize  the  Olympian  treasury. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  III.,  several  of 
the  Arcadian  cities  joined  the  Achasan  League, 
and  the  country  ultimately  fell  under  the  Ro 
man  yoke. 

ARCADIOPOLIS  (Battle).— The  Bulgarians 
defeated  the  Emperor  Isaac  II.  near  this  city 
in  1194. 


ARCH. — Layard  discovered  at  Nimroud  a 
vaulted  chamber,  a  proof  that  the  ancient 
Assyrians  were  acquainted  with  the  principle 
of  the  arch.  Many  authorities  have  asserted, 
with  great  confidence,  that  neither  the  ancient 
Assyrians  nor  the  ancient  Egyptians  employed 
;he  arch.  Wilkinson  shows  that  the  arch  in 
orick  and  stone  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  remains  of  the  former,  bearing  date 
B.C.  1540,  and  of  the  latter  B.C.  600,  having 
been  discovered  at  Memphis  and  Thebes.  The 
Chinese  are  said  to  have  constructed  arches  on 
a  very  extensive  scale,  at  an  early  period.  The 
Greeks  did  not  use  them.  The  Cloaca  Maxima, 
the  most  ancient  Roman  arch,  was  built  in  the 
reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  about  B.C.  600. 
The  semicircular  arch  was  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  architecture  of  the  early 
Britons.  The  pointed  arch  formed  part  of  a 
mosque  at  Jerusalem,  rebuilt  A.D.  780  ;  of  the 
Nilometer  at  Cairo,  erected  in  848  ;  and  existed 
in  other  Saracenic  buildings  of  the  ioth  cen- 
tury. In  Christian  edifices  it  appears  in  the 
1 2th  century. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  INSTITUTE.  —  The 
Archaeological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  established  in  London  in  Dec.,  1843, 
held  its  22nd  annual  congress  at  Dorchester, 
Aug.  i  to  8, 1865.  (See  BRITISH  ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
ASSOCIATION.) 

ARCHANGEL  (Russia).— Founded  in  1584, 
and  named  after  the  convent  of  St.  Michael  the 
Archangel.  The  passage  by  sea  was  discovered 
by  Richard  Chancellor,  in  1553.  An  English 
factory  was  established  here  during  the  reign 
of  Mary  (1553 — 1558).  Archangel  was  for  many 
years  the  only  port  in  Russia.  An  extensive 
fire  occurred  here  Oct.  17,  1762,  and  another 
June  26,  1793,  which  destroyed  the  cathedral 
and  about  3,000  buildings.  Archangel  was 
blockaded  by  the  English  fleet  in  1854. 

ARCHBISHOP.— Burn  (Ecclesiastical  Law, 
vol.  i.  194)  says,  the  "  title  of  archbishop  was 
one  of  honour,  but  brought  with  it  no  authority, 
and  was  at  first  very  rarely  bestowed,  and  only 
on  the  most  distinguished  bishops."  The  name 
is  not  to  be  met  with  during  the  first  three 
centuries.  It  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the 
4th  century,  and  St.  Athanasius  appears  to 
have  been  among  the  earliest  who  were  dis- 
tinguished by  this  title  (326 — 373).  In  the  sth 
century  it  was  conferred  on  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Constantinople, 
Jerusalem,  Ephesus,  and  Thessalonica.  lit 
gradually  grew  more  common,  and  was  be- 
stowed upon  all  metropolitans.  The  ancient 
Britons  had  at  least  one  archiepiscopal  see, 
that  of  Caerleon,  before  Augustine  arrived.  He 
was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (q.  v.)  by 
Ethelbert,  in  598,  and  he  fixed  his  seat  there  in 
602.  Paulinus,  appointed  by  King  Edwin  in  627, 
was  the  first  Archbishop  of  York  (q.  v.).  The 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  Primate  of  Ire- 
land, as  well  as  of  England,  until  1152,  and  York 
had  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  all  bishops 
of  Scotland  until  1466. 

ARCHDEACON.  —  Towards  the  end  of  the 
3rd  century,  one  of  the  deacons,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  attend  on  the  bishop  in  church  affairs, 
was  selected  from  the  rest  and  made  an  arch- 
deacon. Frankish  dioceses  are  said  to  have 


ARCHERY 


ARCHITECTURE 


been  divided  into  archdeaconries  in  the  8th  cen 
tury.  Wulfred  is  the  first  English  archdeacon 
whose  name  is  found  in  any  document,  and 
he  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  803. 
In  the  early  times  archdeacons  had  no  juris- 
diction in  this  country.  It  was  not  until  after 
the  Norman  conquest  that  the  English  dioceses 
were  divided  into  archdeaconries.  From  the 
"Valor  Ecclesiasticus "  of  Henry  VIII.  it  ap- 
pears the  number  of  English  archdeacons 
amounted  to  54,  but  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77 
(Aug.  13,  1836),  and  subsequent  acts,  the  number 
has  been  increased. 

ARCIfKRY. — Bows  and  arrows  were  used  by 
the  Israelites  (Gen.  xxi.  20,  i  Sam.  xxxi.  3,  and 
2  Sam.  i.  18),  and  from  the  representations 
of  battles  on  the  walls  of  Medinet-Abnu,  at 
Thebes,  it  is  evident  that  the  ancient  Egyptians 
employed  these  weapons.  Procopius  states  that 
they  were  in  high  repute  amongst  the  ancient 
Persians  ;  and  Homer  not  only  speaks  of  skilful 
archers,  but  describes  the  attempts  made  by 
the  suitors  of  Penelope  to  bend  the  bow  of  the 
absent  Ulysses.  Archers  composed  a  portion 
of  the  light-armed  troops  amongst  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Pyrrhus  employed  2,000  archers 
at  the  battle  of  Pandosia,  near  Heraclea,  B.C. 
280.  The  Romans  frequently  retained  the 
Cretan  bowmen  as  mercenaries.  Bows  and 
arrows  were  used  by  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Britain,  and  Asser  relates  that  Alfred  was 
preparing  such  instruments  when  he  offended 
the  cowherd's  wife,  by  allowing  her  cakes  to 
burn,  A.D.  878.  The  cross-bow  is  said  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Normans  at  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  was  common  in  the  armies  of  Henry 
III.,  and  the  long-bow  was  in  u'eneral  use  in 
England  in  the  time  (if  Kdward  II.  The  skill 
of  the  English  archers  is  a  favourite  theme 
with  the  old  chroniclers,  and  English  bows  ;uid 
arrows  were  in  great  request.  In  1363,  Ivlward 
III.  enjoined  the  practice  of  archery  on  Sundays 
and  festivals,  and  the  same  was  done  by 
Richard  II.  In  1405,  a  statute  was  passed 
against  persons  using  bad  materials  in  the 
manufacture  of  bows  and  arrows.  At  Crecy 
(1346),  the  English  archers  proved  more  expert 
than  the  Genoese  crossbow-men.  Poitiers  (1356) 
and  Agincourt  (1415)  were  won  by  this  weapon. 
Edward  IV.,  by  statutes  passed  in  1478  and 
1483,  encouraged  archery  in  Ireland.  The 
archers  of  the  king's  guard,  raised  by  Kdward 
III.  in  1356,  consisted  of  120  men  selected  from 
the  mounted  corps  of  archers.  Henry  VII.,  in 
1485,  instituted  the  yeomen  of  the  guard  (q.  v.), 
who  were  then  all  archers.  James  I.,  in  1610, 
appointed  a  commission  to  stop  the  enclosure  of 
the  ground  used  for  archery  practice.  Charles 
II.  reviewed  the  Finsbury  archers  in  1682;  and 
so  late  as  1753  targets  for  archery  practice 
were  set  up  in  Finsbury  Fields. 

ARCHES  (Court). — The  court  of  appeal  for 
all  the  inferior  ecclesiastical  courts  within  the 

Erovince  of  Canterbury  received  this  name 
•om  having  been  held  formerly  in  the  church 
of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  (Sancta  Maria  de  Arcubus). 
It  was  removed  thence  (1567)  to  the  Common 
Hall  of  Doctors'  Commons,  where  it  is  still  held. 
The  appeal  from  this  court  to  the  Court  of 
Delegates,  or  the  king  in  Chancery,  as  con- 
stituted by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  (1534),  was 


transferred  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  9  (1832),  to  the 
king  in  council. 

ARCHITECTURAL  SOCIETIES.— The  Ar- 
chitects' Club  met  in  London  Oct.  20,  1791, 
and  in  1792  appointed  a  committee  of  inquiry 
into  the  causes  and  prevention  of  the  frequent 
fires  that  had  taken  place  about  that  time.  The 
London  Architectural  Society  was  established 
in  1806,  and  the  Architectural  Society  in  1831. 
The  Institute  of  British  Architects,  founded  in 
1834,  was  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  Jan. 
ii,  1837,  when  the  term  Royal  was  prefixed  to 
the  title,  and  it  was  united  in  1842  with  the 
Architectural  Society.  An  Association  of  Archi- 
tectural Draughtsmen,  founded  about  1846,  was 
the  origin  of  the  present  Architectural  Asso- 
ciation. The  Architectural  Publication  Society 
was  established  in  1848. 

A  R(  'HITECTURE.— The  earliest  monuments 
of  architectural  skill  are  found  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  where  the  art  appears  to  have  originated 
in  the  use  of  caves  as  dwelling-places,  and  con- 
sequently retained  a  massive  and  heavy  cha- 
racter. The  Egyptians  were  expert  architects 
B.C.  1740,  and  used  brick  vaults  and  arches  as 
early  as  B.C.  1540.  Next  in  point  of  antiquity 
probably  ranks  the  Cyclopean  or  Pelasgian 
architecture  of  Greece  and  Italy,  which  dates 
from  a  period  long  antecedent  to  the  classic 
history  of  those  countries,  and  which  is  still 
rich  in  remains,  remarkable  for  the  wonderful 
massivenexs  and  strength  of  the  masonry.  The 
art  was  also  cultivated  at  a  very  early  period 
in  China  and  India,  where  it  appears  to  have 
remained  stationary  in  style  and  perfection  to 
the  present  day ;  and  it  attained  great  and  cha- 
racteristic excellence  in  the  chief  kingdoms  of 
Western  Asia,  as  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Persia. 
Greek  architecture,  which,  from  its  neglect  of 
the  arch  and  frequent  employment  of  pillars 
and  horizontal  beams,  is  believed  to  be  founded 
upon  the  use  of  timber  dwellings,  is  thought  by 
some  authorities  to  have  been  a  development 
of  national  skill,  while  others  regard  it  as  an 
importation  from  Egypt.  It  is,  however,  cer- 
tain that  it  originated  at  a  period  subsequent 
to  the  Pelasgian  age,  and  that  it  was  distin- 
guished by  the  three  great  orders,  the  Doric, 
the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian,  to  whicli  were 
afterwards  added  the  Tuscan  and  Composite. 
From  Greece  the  art  extended  itself  to  Rome, 
where  it  was  modified  by  Pelasgian  traditions 
and  Phoenician  influences,  and  became  espe- 
cially characterized  by  the  frequent  use  of  the 
round  arch.  Roman  architecture  reached  its 
culminating  point  about  A.D.  80,  when  Titus 
completed  the  Coliseum  (//.  r.).  The  rise  of 
,'hristianity  led  to  further  departures  from  the 
ancient  classic  model,  and  the  foundation  of 
onstantinople,  and  the  removal  of  the  seat  of 
government  to  that  city,  where  the  existing 
heathen  temples  were  altered  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  Christian  worship,  gave  rise 
to  the  Basilican  and  Byzantine  schools.  The 
destruction  of  the  Western  empire  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  Teutonic  element,  intro- 
duced still  further  changes,  leading  in  the 
1 2th  century  to  the  rise  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture '/.  ;-.),  and  the  mediaeval  cathedrals  which 
ire  its  exemplars.  The  most  eminent  architects 
lave  been  Vitruvius,  who  flourished  B.C.  40, 


ARCHONS 


[    71    3 


ARDAGH 


Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  (1474—1564),  Inigo 
Jones  (1572— July  21,  1652),  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  (Oct.  20,  1632— Feb.  25,  1723),  Sir  William 
Chambers  (1726— March  8,  1796),  and  Sir 
Charles  Barry  (1795 — May  12,  1860).  (See  ARCH, 
ARCHITECTURAL  SOCIETIES,  COLISEUM,  CORIN- 
THIAN ORDER,  DORIC  ORDER,  GOTHIC  ARCHI- 
TECTURE, NEW  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT,  PAUL'S 
(ST.)  CATHEDRAL,  PYRAMIDS,  TUSCAN  ORDER, 
WESTMINSTER  ABBEY,  &c.,  &c.,  &c.). 

ARCHONS.— On  the  abolition  of  kingly  go- 
vernment in  Athens,  at  the  death  of  Codrus, 
B.C.  1069  or  B.C.  1045,  the  chief  authority  was 
vested  in  officers  styled  archons,  appointed 
for  life.  Twelve,  called  the  Medontidw,  of  the 
family  of  Codrus,  succeeded,  when  (B.C.  752) 
the  tenure  of  office  was  limited  to  10  years. 
Seven  archons  were  appointed  for  this  term, 
and  (B.C.  684)  the  office  was  made  elective  and 
to  be  held  for  one  year  only. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE  (Battle).— Fought  near 
this  small  town  in  France,  March  21,  1814,  be- 
tween the  Allies  and  the  French  army  com- 
manded by  Napoleon  I.  The  latter,  after  a 
severe  struggle,  retreated  to  Vitry. 

ARCOLA  (Battle).— At  this  village,  15  miles 
from  Verona,  on  the  Alpone,  an  affluent  of 
the  Adige,  Bonaparte,  in  his  fourth  Italian 
campaign,  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Al- 
vinzi,  in  a  battle  extending  over  three  days, 
Nov.  14,  1 6,  and  17,  1796. 

ARCOT  (Hindostan),  the  capital  of  the 
northern  district  of  Arcot,  in  the  presidency 
of  Madras,  was  founded  in  1716.  Clive  cap- 
tured it  Aug.  31,  1751.  He  was  assailed  by  a 
strong  native  and  French  force  Sep.  23,  1751  ; 
from  which  day  till  Nov.  14,  when  the  final 
assault  was  delivered  and  repulsed,  he  defended 
the  place  with  extraordinary  heroism.  Having 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  Oct.  4, 
1758,  it  was  retaken  by  Coote,  Feb.  10,  1760. 
Hyder  Ali  stormed  it  Oct.  31,  1780,  but  did  not 
hold  it  long.  Arcot  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  East  India  Company  in  1801. 

ARCTIC  CIRCLE.  —  Numerous  attempts, 
with  widely  different  objects,  have  been  made 
by  the  mariners  of  various  countries  to  pene- 
trate the  regions  of  frost  and  snow  around  the 
North  Pole.  The  Scandinavians,  in  the  9th, 
loth,  and  nth  centuries,  and  the  Venetian, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  navigators,  at  a  later 
period,  prosecuted  their  researches  in  this 
direction.  (See  AMERICA,  GREENLAND,  and  ICE- 
LAND.) 

A.D. 

1498.  Sebastian  Cabot  reaches  the  Arctic  regions. 

1517.  His  second  voyage  in  the  same  direction. 

1537.  Robert  Thorne,  a  merchant  of  Bristol,  writes  to  in- 
duce Henry  VIII.  to  sanction  a  polar  expedition ; 
and  two  ships,  the  Sampson  and  the  Mary  of 
Guildford,  are  sent  out. 

I5S3-  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  discovers  Xova  Zernbla  (q.  v.). 
He  returns,  and  sails  to  Lapland,  where  he  and  his 
crew  perish  from  hunger,  in  Jan.,  1554. 

1576,  June  7.  Frobisher  starts  on  his  first  voyage. 

1580.  Pet  and  Jackman  sail  in  search  of  a  north-eastern 
passage,  but  are  compelled  by  the  ice  to  return. 

1585.  June  7.  John  Davis  leaves   Dartmouth  on   his  first 

voyage,  and  after  making  several  discoveries  on 
the  X.E.  coast  of  America,  returns  to  England  Sep. 
30,  1586. 

1586.  Davis' s  second  voyage. 

1587.  Djivis's  third  voyage. 

1594.  The  Dutch  send  an  expedition  to  seek  a  northern 
passage,  under  William  Barentsz. 


Hudson's  third  voyage. 

Hudson  starts  on  his  fourth  voyage,  and  dis 
' 


A.D. 

1595.  Barentsz's  second  voyage. 
1595-  Barentsz's  third  voyage. 

160?.  George  Waymouth  sails  in  a  fruitless  search  of  the 
north-west  passage. 

1607.  May  I.  Hudson  starts  on  his  first  voyage. 

1608.  Hudson's  second  voyage. 

1609.  Hudson's  third  voya 

1610.  Hudson  starts  on  h 

Hudson's  Bay  (q.  v.)  ;  his  crew  mutiny,  and  leave 
him  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger. 

1615.  Bylot's  voyage,  in  which  Baffin  acted  as  mate. 

1616.  Bylot  and  Baffin  discover  Baffin's  Bay  (q.  •».). 
1631.  James's  disastrous  voyage. 

1676.  Capt.  Wood  sails  in  search  of  a  north-east  passage. 
17^8.  Behring    leaves    Kamtsclmtka    (q.  v.)   on   his    first 

voyage,  during  which  he  explores  Behring's  Straits 

(q.  v.). 

1739.  Behring's  second  voyage. 
1741.  Behring's  third  voyage,  and  death. 
1743.  The  English  Government  offer  a  reward  of  £20,000 

to  any  person  discovering  a  north-west  passage  by 

Hudson's  Strait. 
1773.  Phipps   and    Lutwidge  sail.      Horatio   (afterwards 

Lord)  Nelson  accompanies  the  expedition. 
1776.  Cook  and  Clerke's  voyage. 

The  following  list  of  the  Arctic  expeditions 
sent  out  during  the  present  century  is  ex- 
tracted from  Simmonds's  "Arctic  Regions  :"  — 
A.D. 

1818.  John  Ross,  Isabella  and  Alexander. 
1818.  Buchan  and  Franklin,  Dorothea  and  Trent. 
1819-21.  Franklin,  first  land  expedition. 
1819-30.  Parry,  Hecla  and  Griper. 
1831-23.  Parry,  Fury  and  Hecla. 
1834.  Lyon,  Griper. 
1834-25.  Parry,  Hecla  and  Fury. 
1835-37.  Franklin,  second  land  expedition. 
1826-28.  Buchan,  Blossom. 
1829-33.  John  Ross,  Victory. 
i833-35-  Back,  land  expedition. 
1836-37.  Back,  Terror. 

1836-39.  Dean  and  Simpson,  boat  expedition. 
1846-47.  Rae,  boat  expedition. 
1845-46.  Franklin,  Erebus  and  Terror. 
1848-49.  James  Ross,  Enterprise  and  Investigator. 
1848-49.  Richardson,  boat  expedition. 
1848-52.  Moore,  Plover. 
1849-51.  Pullen,  boat  expedition. 
1849-50.  Hooper,  boat  expedition. 
849-50.  Saunders,  North  Star. 


1850.  Forsyth,  Prince  Albert. 
1850-55.  Collinson,  Enterprise. 


850-55. 

850-54.  M'Clure,  Investigator. 

1850-51.  Austin,     Resolute,      Assistance,      Intrepid,      and 

Pioneer. 

1850-51.  John  Ross,  Felix. 

1850-51.  Penny,  Lady  Franklin  and  Sophia. 

1850-51.  De  Haven  and  Kane,  Advance  and  Rescue. 

1851-53.  Kennedy  (Bellot),  Prince  Albert. 

1851-54.  Rae,  land  expedition. 

1853-54.  Maguire,  Plover. 

1853-54.  Belcher,  Assistance  and  Pioneer. 

1853-54.  Kellett,  Resolute  and  Intrepid. 

1853-54.  Pullen,  North  Star. 

1853-55.  Kane,  Advance. 

1857-59.  M'Clintock,  Fox. 

See  FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITIONS,  and  NORTH-WEST 
PASSAGE.) 

ARDAGH  (Bishopric).—  This  see,  one  of  the 
earliest  established  in  Ireland,  is  said  to  have 
Deen  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who  appointed 
ais  nephew,  St.  Mell  or  Mael,  first  bishop  in 
454.  St.  Mell,  described  as  abbot  and  bishop, 
died  in  488.  Ardagh  was  united  to  Kilmore 
Feb.  24,  1660,  but  was  separated  from  it  for  a 
short  time  Sep.  8,  1692.  In  1742  it  was  severed 
from  Kilmore  and  united  to  Tuam.  By  the 
Church  Temporalities  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37 
Aug.  14,  1833),  other  arrangements  were  made, 
ay  which  the  bishopric  of  Ardagh  was,  in  1839, 
separated  from  Tuam  and  joined  to  Kilmore. 


ARDEE 


[    72    1 


ARGOS 


In  1841  Kilmore,  Elphin,  and  Ardagh  formed 
one  bishopric. 

ARDEE  (Ireland).— This  town  was  sacked  by 
Edward  Bruce  in  1315.  It  surrendered  to  the 
rebels  during  the  insurrection  of  Oct.,  1641, 
when  it  was  delivei-ed  up  to  pillage. 

ARDEN.— This  forest  in  Warwickshire,  situ- 
ated between  and  around  the  towns  of  Hen- 
ley-in-Arden  and  Hampton-in-Arden,  formed, 
during  the  Roman  period,  the  country  of  the 
Comavii,  and  afterwards  constituted  part  of 
the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Mercia.  In  1016,  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  the  county,  it  was 
ravaged  by  the  Danish  army  of  Canute,  and, 
after  the  conquest,  its  inhabitants  were  much 
harassed  by  the  oppressive  forest  laws  of  their 
Norman  rulers.  Some  critics  believe  it  to  be 
the  scene  of  Shakespeare's  comedy  of  "As  You 
Like  It." 

ARDFERT.— This  Irish  bishopric,  called  in 
ancient  records  the  bishopric  of  Kerry,  was 
founded  in  the  sth  century,  Cerpaiii  being 
mentioned  as  bishop  in  500.  Edward  Synge, 
Bishop  of  Limerick  in  1660,  held  the  sees  of 
Ardfert  and  Aghadoe  in  conn,,-  ndam  ;  and  they 
were  both  united  to  Limerick  in  1663. 

ARDOCH  (Battle).— Fought  between  the 
Romans,  led  by  Agricola,  and  the  Caledonians 
under  Galgacus,  on  a  moor  at  the  foot  of  the 
Grampians,  A.D.  84  or  85.  The  latter  were 
routed  with  great  slaughter.  This  is  called 
Agricola's  Victory,  and  the  battle  of  the 
Grampians. 

ARDRES  (France).— The  interview  in  the 
"  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  "  (q.  v.),  took  place 
near  this  town,  June  7,  1520.  The  treaty  for 
the  meeting  had  been  concluded  Oct.  14,  1518. 
Ardres  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1596. 

ARENENBERG  (Switzerland^.—  This  cha- 
teau, situated  in  the  canton  of  Thurgau,  was 
purchased  in  1817  by  Queen  Hortense,  mother 
of  the  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon  III.,  who  there 
passed  several  years  of  his  youth.  In  1843  it 
was  sold  to  a  gentleman  of  Neuchatel,  but  it 
was  afterwards  repurchased  by  the  emperor, 
who  visited  the  spot  in  the  summer  of  1865. 

AREOPAGUS  (Court).— This  institution  is 
attributed  to  Cecrops,  the  founder  of  Athens, 
B.C.  1556.  It  is  known  to  have  existed  before 
the  time  of  Solon.  B.C.  594.  He  extended  its 
jurisdiction.  The  guardianship  of  the  laws  and 
the  power  of  enforcing  them  were  entrusted  by 
Solon  to  this  court.  Religion  and  the  educa- 
tion of  youth  were  placed  under  its  control. 
Its  constitution  was  preserved  inviolate  until 
Pericles,  B.C.  461,  caused  himself  to  be  elected 
without  having  previously  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  archon.  St.  Paul  was  brought 
before  this  court  A.D.  51  (Acts  xvii.,  19,  &c.). 

ARGAUM  (Battle).— Wellington  defeated  the 
Mahratta  chiefs  at  this  village,  in  Hyderabad, 
Nov.  29,  1803. 

ARGENTARIA  (Battle).— Argentaria,  now 
Colmar,  in  Alsace,  was  the  scene  of  Gratian's 
signal  victory  over  the  Alemanni,  in  May,  A.D. 
378.  Gibbon  says,  "It  secured  the  peace  of 
Gaul  and  asserted  the  honour  of  the  Roman 
arms." 

ARGENTEUS  CODEX.— (See  SILVER  BOOK.) 

ARGENTINE   CONFEDERATION,  or    RE- 


PUBLIC (S.  America). — These  provinces  threw 
off  the  yoke  of  Spain  in  1810,  remaining  in  a 
very  unsettled  state  until  1816,  when  a  republic 
was  first  established.  The  basis  of  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation  was,  however,  laid  in  1834, 
Buenos  Ayres  and  three  other  states  forming  a 
confederacy,  which  was  afterwards  joined  by 
other  state's  to  the  number  of  13  : — 


Buenos  Ayres. 

Catamarca. 

Cordova. 

Corrifntfs. 

Entrc  Kois. 

La  Rioja. 

Mendoza. 


Salta. 
San  Juan. 
Sail  Luis. 

Saut  i  Fe. 
Santiago. 
Tucanian. 


Buenos  Ayres  separated  from  the  confederacy 
in  1853,  and  other  secessions  occurred.  War 
was  declared  against  Buenos  Ayres  in  August, 
1 86 1,  which  lasted  till  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year,  and  resulted  in  the  solemn 
installation  of  Gen.  Mitre  and  Col.  Paz,  as 
president  and  vice-president  of  the  republic, 
Oct.  12,  1862.  The  fleet  of  Paraguay  seized  two 
Argentine  war-steamers  at  Corrientes,  and 
occupied  the  city,  April  13  and  14,  1865,  and 
war  was  declared  against  Paraguay  (q.  v.).  A 
treaty  of  alliance  against  Paraguay  was  con- 
cluded at  Buenos  Ayres,  with  Brazil  and 
Uruguay,  May  4.  (See  BUENOS  AYRES  and 
PLATA,  LA.) 

ARGINUSyE  (Sea-fight).— The  Athenian  fleet 
defeated  the  Spartan  armament  under  Calli- 
cratidas,  among  the  islands  of  Arginusse,  near 
Lesbos,  B.C.  406. 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION.— This  voy- 
age, the  first  naval  expedition  on  record,  was, 
according  to  the  traditional  account,  con- 
ducted by  Jason,  son  of  ^Eson,  King  of  Thes- 
saly,  "to  bring  back  the  golden  fleece  of  the 
ram  which  had  carried  away  Phryxus  and 
Helle."  The  celebrated  Argo  was  built,  which, 
after  various  adventures,  reached  JEa,  the 
capital  of  Colchis,  B.C.  1263,  or,  according  to 
Newton,  B.C.  937.  ,<Etes,  King  of  Colchis, 
promised  Jason  the  fleece  on  certain  conditions 
difficult  of  accomplishment.  These,  by  the 
magical  aid  of  Medea,  were  performed,  and  the 
enterprise  was  ultimately  achieved.  Grote 
(vol.  i.,  333)  remarks  on  this  fable:  —  "Not 
only  are  we  unable  to  assign  the  date,  or  iden- 
tify the  crew,  or  decipher  the  log-book  of  the 
A  rgo,  -but  we  have  no  means  of  settling  even 
the  preliminary  question,  whether  the  voyage 
be  matter  of  fact  badly  reported,  or  legend 
from  the  beginning." 

ARGONAUTS  OF  ST.  NICHOLAS,  a  mili- 
tary order  of  knights  established  by  Charles 
III.  of  Naples,  in  1382.  From  their  collar  of 
shells,  inclosed  in  a  silver  crescent,  with  the 
motto  "  Non  credo  tempori,"  they  were  called 
knights  of  the  shell. 

ARGOS  (Peloponnesus). — The  origin  of  this, 
the  earliest  Grecian  state,  is  involved  in 
obscurity.  Various  writers  represent  it  as 
having  been  founded  by  Inachus,  by  his  son 
Phoroneus,  and  by  his  grandson  Argus.  The 
Achseans,  having  expelled  the  original  inhabi- 
tants, gave  place  in  turn  to  the  Dorians.  It 
was  a  powerful  state,  and  became  the  head  of 
a  league  of  Doric  cities,  until  Sparta  obtained 
the  ascendancy,  B.C.  495.  The  following  are 


ARGOVIA 


[     73 


ARK 


the  chief  points,  legendary  and  authentic,  in 
its  history : — 

B.C. 

1856.  Argos  is  founded  by  Inaehus. 

1753.  Plion.neus  founds  it,  according  to  other  authorities. 

1711.  Called  Argos,  after  a  king  of  that  name,  the  fourth 

of  the  Inachidiv. 

1500.  Danaus,  an  Egyptian*  enters  Argos. 
1475.  Danaus    deposes    and    succeeds   Gelanor,   King    of 

Argos. 

1457.  Pirseus  of  Argos  founds  Mycene  (q.  f.). 
1193.  Agamemnon  King  of  Argos  during  the  Trojan  war. 
1 104.   The  Heraclidne  overrun  Argos. 
783.  Pheidou  of  Argos  endeavours  to  take  Corinth. 
748.  I'hei.lou  establishes  the  supremacy  of  Argos,  and 

celebrates  the  8th  Olympic  games. 
747.  Conflict  with  Sparta. 
669.  Battle  of  Hysia?  (q.  ».). 
547.  The  Argives  endeavour  to  regain  Thyrea  from  the 

Spartans,  but  are  defeated. 

514.  Argos  line-  Sicyon  and  ^Egina  500  talents  each  for 
having   furnished   Sparta  with    ships  to   operate 
against  her  territory. 
496.  War  with  Sparta,  which  is  victorious  the  following 

year. 

471.  Tlu-mistocles,  banished  from  Athens,  retires  to  Argos. 
468.  The  Argives  destroy  Mycene  (q.  v.). 
431.  Argos  forms  a  league  against  Sparta. 
420.  Argos  enters  into  a  treaty  with  Athens. 
418.  Battle  of  Muntinea  (7.  r.). 
4:7.   Arj,'os  concludes  peace  with  Sparta. 
395.  Argos    joins  Athens,  Corinth,   and  Thebes   against 

Sparta.     (See  CORINTHIAN  WAK.) 
338.  Argos  joins  the  Achwan  League. 

ARGOVIA.— (See  AARGAU.) 

ARGUIM  (Africa).— This  little  island  is 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Cerne,  dis- 
covered by  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  during 
his  voyage  of  exploration,  which  took  place 
between  the  years  B.C.  521  and  B.C.  264.  In 
1444  it  was  rediscovered  by  Nunez  Tristan, 
and  it  became  the  seat  of  the  first  Portuguese 
settlement  in  Africa,  about  the  year  1450,  and 
in  1454  was  a  depot  for  the  slave  trade,  to  pro- 
tect which,  and  the  other  commercial  interests 
of  the  colony,  a  fort  was  erected  in  1461.  In 
1638  the  Portuguese  were  expelled  by  the 
Dutch,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the 
English  in  1665.  In  1666  it  was  recaptured, 
and  became  the  source  of  frequent  disputes 
with  the  French,  who  finally  drove  out  the 
Dutch  in  1725,  but,  owing  to  the  decline  of 
trade,  the  settlement  was  abandoned,  and  the 
fortifications  were  destroyed,  soon  after  1763. 
The  French  frigate  La  Meduse  was  wrecked  off 
Arguim  July  2,  1816. 

ARGYLE  (Scotland).—  This  bishopric  was 
founded  by  Innocent  III.,  who  separated  it  from 
the  see  of  Dunk  eld  about  the  year  1200,  when 
Evaldus  became  first  bishop.  Lismore  was  made 
the  residence  of  the  bishops  ;  hence  they  were 
sometimes  called  bishops  of  Lismore.  Alexan- 
der II.  made  several  grants  to  the  new  see,  the 
last  of  them  bearing  date  July  8,  1249.  It  was 
suppr-essed  in  1688,  but  in  1847  it  was  restored 
under  the  title  of  Argyle  and  the  Isles. 

ARIANISM.— The  denial  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  the  distinctive  feature  of  Arianism,  first 
appeared  in  the  heresies  of  the  Ebionites,  of 
Ar  temon,  and  of  Theodotus.  Robertson  considers 
that  although  Alexandria  was  the  birthplace  of 
Arianism,  its  origin  may  be  traced  to  the  other 
great  Churches  of  the  East.  Arius,  a  presbyter 
of  Alexandria,  from  whom  the  heresy  is  named, 
appears  to  have  first  boldly  maintained  the 
opinion  about  319.  His  views  were  condemned 


by  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  he 
was,  with  his  followers,  excommunicated  in 
321.  Constantino  I.  took  up  the  matter,  and 
summoned  a  general  council  at  Nicaea,  to 
settle  the  controversy.  The  emperor  pre- 
sided, and  the  council  sat  from  June  19  to 
Aug.  25,  325,  when  Arius  was  excommunicated 
and  banished  into  Illyria,  and  his  heresy  was 
condemned.  Arius,  however,  managed  to  obtain 
the  favour  of  Constantino  I.,  who  gave  him  a 
rescript  commanding  his  readmission  into  the 
Church.  On  the  eve  of  the  day  on  which  it  was 
to  take  place,  Arius,  who  was  parading  the  streets 
with  his  adherents,  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
for  a  few  moments,  and  he  was  afterwards  found 
dead  (336).  Arianism  did  not  long  remain  a 
single  sect.  There  were  the  Anomseans  (q.  v.) 
or  pure  Arians,  the  SemvArians  (q.  v.),  and  the 
Acacians  (q.  v.),  during  the  lifetime  of  Constan- 
tine  I.,  and  these  soon  separated  into  other  par- 
ties. Theodosius  I.  issued  edicts  against  the 
Arians  (38 1 — 395).  When  extirpated  at  Constan- 
tinople and  the  civilized  portions  of  the  empire, 
the  heresy  spread  amongst  the  Goths  and  other 
barbarian  nations. 

ARIKERA,  or  ARKARY  (Battle).  —  Lord 
Cornwallis  completely  routed  Tippoo's  army  at 
this  place,  about  nine  miles  from  Seringapa- 
tam,  May  14,  1791. 

AR1MINUM  (Italy).— Conquered  and  made 
a  Roman  colony,  B.C.  268,  it  became  im- 
portant as  a  military  post.  The  Via  Flaminia, 
from  this  city  to  Rome,  was  opened  B.C.  221 ; 
and  the  Via  /Emilia,  to  Placenta,  B.C.  187. 
Caesar  took  Ariminum  B.C.  49.  (See  RIMINI.) 

ARITHMETIC. —Computation  by  means  of 
counters,  the  earliest  form  of  this  science, 
was  practised  by  the  Egyptians.  The  Chinese 
made  use  of  the  swan-pan,  or  abacus  (q.  v.),  at 
a  very  early  period.  Certain  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  divided  and  arranged  according  to 
a  particular  method,  preceded  the  use  of 
numerals.  (See  ARABIC  NUMERALS.)  Decimal 
notation  arose  from  the  facility  of  counting  on 
the  fingers,  and  was  introduced  into  Europe  in 
the  1 3th  century. 

ARIZONA  (N.  America),  the  name  of  which 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Aztec  word 
Arizuma,  or  "  silver-bearing,"  was  first  explored 
in  1687,  by  the  Jesuits,  who  established  a 
mission  that  increased  in  the  course  of  a  cen- 
tury to  40  towns  and  villages,  but  was  at 
length  expelled  by  the  Indian  population.  In 
1741  Philip  V.  of  Spain  published  a  decree 
declaring  this  district  royal  property.  Mr. 
Mowry,  a  Federal  officer  at  Fort  Yuma,  has 
carefully  explored  this  territory  since  1855, 
and  found  it  rich  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
iron.  A  plumbago  mine  was  discovered  in 
1859.  Arizona  was  separated  from  New  Mexico, 
and  organized  as  a  distinct  territory  of  the 
United  States,  in  March,  1863.  (See  SONORA.) 

ARK. — Noah's  Ark,  built,  according  to  divine 

instructions,  of  gopher,  or  cypress  wocd,  having 

rooms  in  it,  and  "pitched  within  and  without 

with  pitch,"  was  300  cubits  in  length,  50  in 

breadth,   and  30    in  height,  with  a  door  and 

window,  and  3  stories  (Gen.    vi.    14 — 16).     In 

the  6ooth  year  of  Noah's  life,  the  2nd  month, 

j  and  the  i7th  day  of  the  month,   he  and  his 

j  family    entered  the    ark  (Gen.    vii.    n— 16), 


ARKANSAS 


[     74 


ARMAGNACS 


which  rested  upon  the  mountains  of  Ararat  in 
the  jth  month,  on  the  lyth  day  of  the  month 
(Gen.  viii.  4).  In  the  6oist  year  of  his  life, 
and  the  ist  day  of  the  month,  he  removed 
the  covering  of  the  ark  (Gen.  viii.  13),  and  in  the 
2nd  month,  on  the  2jth  day  of  the  month  (Gen. 
viii.  14—20),  the  earth  was  dry,  and  he  and 
his  family  quitted  the  vessel,  and  performed  a 
sacrifice  in  gratitude  for  their  deliverance.  (For 
the  dates  assigned  by  different  chronologists  to 
these  events,  see  DELUGE.) — Jochebed  preserved 
her  son  Moses  from  the  cruel  edict  of  Pharaoh, 
decreeing  the  destruction  of  all  Israelitish  male 
children,  by  concealing  him  in  an  ark  of  bul- 
rushes amidst  the  flags  on  the  brink  of  the 
Nile,  B.C.  1571  (Exod.  ii.  i — 10). — The  ark  of  the 
covenant  constructed  by  Moses  in  the  wilder- 
ness in  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  as  a 
depository  for  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  B.C. 
1491,  which  was  formed  of  shittim,  or  acacia 
wood,  and  measured  two  cubits  and  a  half  in 
length,  a  cubit  and  a  half  in  breadth,  and  a 
cubit  and  a  half  in  height  (Exod.  xxv.  10), 
having  accompanied  the  Israelites  in  all  their 
wanderings,  was  plac-ed  by  David  in  a  taber- 
nacle specially  erected  for  the  purpose,  ut 
Jerusalem,  B.C.  1045  (2  Sam.  vi.  1—17),  whence 
it  was  ultimately  removed,  B.C.  1004  (i  Kings 
viii.  i — 9),  to  Solomon's  Temple. 

ARKANSAS  (U.  States),  colonized  by  the 
French  in  1685,  was  ceded  to  Spain  by  France 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763,  and 
restored  to  France  by  Spain  in  1800.  The 
United  States  Government  purchased  it  from 
France  in  1803.  It  was  erected  into  a  separate 
territory  in  1819,  having  previously  formed 
part  of  Louisiana,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  in  1836.  It  seceded  May  6,  1861. 

A  UK  LOW  (Battle).— A  small  body  of  the 
royal  troops  defeated  the  Irish  rebels,  27,0x30  in 
number,  led  by  a  priest  named  Michael  Murphy, 
near  Arklow  Bridge,  June  10,  1798. 

ARLES,  ARKLATK,  <>r  AUKI.AS.—  This  town 
in  France  fell  under  the  Roman  yoke  B.C.  123, 
and  became  a  Roman  colony  in  the  time  of 
Augustus.  It  was  pillaged  A.D.  270,  and  re- 
stored and  enlarged  by  Constantino  I.  ;  hence 
it  was  sometimes  called  Constantia.  His  son, 
afterwards  Constantine  II.,  was  born  here. 
Constantine  I.  presided  at  the  celebrated  coun- 
cil held  at  Aries  against  the  Donatists  in  314. 
(See  ACCUSERS,  FALSE.)  Three  English  bishops 
took  part  in  the  proceedings  ;  which  fact  proves 
the  important  position  occupied  by  the  English 
Church  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century. 
In  418  Aries  was  appointed  as  the  place  for  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  assembly  of  the  seven 
provinces  of  Gaul.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
Visigoths  in  425,  429,  452,  and  457 ;  and  cap- 
tured by  Euric  in  466.  The  Saracens  defeated 
Eudes,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  near  Aries,  in  731  ; 
but  he  joined  his  forces  with  those  of  Charles 
Martel  and  expelled  the  Saracens  in  732.  Aries 
was  plundered  by  the  Saracens  in  850,  and  was 
frequently  invaded.  In  addition  to  the  cele- 
brated council  in  314,  others  were  held  here  in 
353»  442,  4S2»  455»  463>  475,  524,  554,  813,  1059, 
1205,  1211,  1234,  1260  or  1261,  and  1275.  The 
republican  form  of  government  was  adopted  in 
Aries  in  1240.  After  various  changes,  it  was 
annexed  to  France  in  1486.  Aries  was  an  archi- 


episcopal  see,  suppressed  by  the  concordat  of 
1801,  but  re-established  and  united  to  Aix  in 
1817.  The  bridge  of  boats  and  much  property 
was  destroyed  by  a  sudden  rising  of  the  Rhone 
Oct.  31,  1864. 

ARLES,  or  ARELATE  (Kingdom). —Count 
Boso,  expelled  from  Lombardy,  was  elected 
King  of  Provence,  by  the  Synod  of  Mantaille,  in 
Oct.,  879  A.D.  He  died  about  887  ;  and  his  son 
L,ouis  was  acknowledged  king  by  the  Council  of 
Valence  in  890.  Louis,  who  claimed  the  crown 
of  Italy,  was  blinded,  and  died  about  928.  In 
888  Rodolph  or  Raoul,  the  Guelph,  erected  the 
kingdom  of  Trans jurane  Burgundy,  consisting 
of  territory  that  nearly  corresponds  to  Switzer- 
land, with  some  neighbouring  districts.  Ro- 
dolph I.  died  in  911,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Rodolph  II. ;  who,  on  the  death  of  Louis, 
in  928,  united  Provence  to  Trunsjurane  Bur- 
gundy, making  Aries  his  capital ;  and,  by  a 
treaty  with  Hugh,  King  of  Italy,  he  was,  in  933, 
confirmed  in  the  possession.  This  constituted 
what  is  known  in  history  as  the  kingdom  of 
Aries.  Rodolph  III.,  who  died  in  1032,  be- 
queathed it  to  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.  ;  and 
subsequent  attempts  made  to  revive  the  king- 
dom of  Aries  did  not  prove  successful.  Ray- 
mond, Count  of  Barcelona,  seized  Provence  in 
1146,  and  Alphonso  II.,  of  Aragon,  in  1167. 
Aries  became  a  republic  in  1240  ;  afterwards 
fell  under  the  rule  of  the  Angevin  family  ;  and 
was  permanently  annexed  to  France  by  letters 
patent  of  Charles  VIII.  in  1486. 

A.D.  KINGS  OF  ARLES. 

933.  Kodolph  II.,  of  Transjurane  Burgundy. 
937.  Coin-in  1  I.,  tin-  Pacific. 
993.  Itodolph  Hi. 

1033.  Conrad  II..  the  Emperor,  received  it  on  the  death  of 
Koilolph  III. 

ARMADA.— (See  SPANISH  ARMADA.) 
A  I!  M  AGII  (Ireland  ,  formerly  the  metropolis, 
enjoyed  considerable  reputation  as  a  seat  of 
learning  from  the  sth  to  the  gth  centuries. 
The  bishopric  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
St.  Patrick,  A.D.  445.  Gelasius,  bishop  in 
1 1 36,  became  its  first  archbishop,  and  took  the 
title  of  "Primate  of  all  Ireland,"  in  1152. 
Armagh  was  frequently  ravaged  by  the  Danes, 
who  were  ultimately  expelled  in  1004.  Its 
cathedral,  founded  by  St.  Patrick  in  450,  was 
destroyed  in  1564,  rebuilt  in  1616,  again  de- 
stroyed in  1642,  and  rebuilt  in  1675.  The  town 
itself  was  burned  by  Shane  O'Neal  in  1564. 

ARMAGNACS.— Soon  after  the  murder  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  1407,  France  became  a 
prey  to  two  rival  factions,  the  Bourguignons, 
or  Burgundians,  and  the  Armagnacs.  The 
latter  received  this  name  from  their  leader, 
Bernard,  Count  of  Armagnac,  father-in-law  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Poitiers  was  the  head 
quarters  of  the  Armagnacs,  and  Paris  of  the 
Burgundians.  The  Armagnacs,  in  May,  1412, 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Henry  IV.  of 
England.  Their  leader  and  4,000  of  his  ad- 
herents were  massacred  by  the  Burgundians 
and  the  citizens  of  Paris,  June  12,  1418. 
Louis  XI.,  before  he  came  to  the  French 
throne,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
ruffians,  called  Armagnacs,  the  disbanded 
mercenaries  of  the  English  war,  and  invaded 


ARMED 


[     75     1 


ARMENIA 


Switzerland,  where  he  was  defeated  in  1444. 
The  Armagnacs  were  almost  exterminated  by 
Louis  XI.  in  1473. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY.— Russia,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  instigated  by  France,  and  believ- 
ing England  to  be  hard  pressed  by  the  fleets  of 
France  and  Spain,  at  the  close  of  the  American 
war,  leagued  together  to  establish  a  new  code 
of  maritime  laws.  This  confederacy,  known 
as  the  Armed  Neutrality,  was  formed  in  1780, 
and  Catherine  II.  issued  a  declaration,  Feb. 
26,  announcing  that  free  ships  make  free 
goods,  that  the  flag  covers  the  merchandise, 
and  that  a  port  is  understood  to  be  blockaded 
only  when  such  a  force  is  stationed  at  its 
entrance  as  to  render  it  dangerous  to  approach. 
These  principles  she  professed  her  intention  of 
maintaining  by  force  of  arms.  Denmark 
signed  the  convention,  July  30  ;  Sweden,  Aug. 
i,  in  the  same  year  ;  and  Holland,  Jan.  16, 
1781.  Prussia  followed,  May  8,  and  the 
Emperor  of  Germany,  Oct.  9,  1781.  England 
declared  war  against  the  Dutch ;  but  the 
cessation  of  hostilities  soon  after  caused  the 
dissolution  of  the  confederacy.  It  was,  how- 
ever, revived  in  1800,  and  Russia,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden  signed  another  treaty,  Dec.  16,  to 
which  Prussia  acceded,  Dec.  19.  England, 
after  remonstrating,  replied  by  a  proclamation 
laying  an  embargo  on  all  Russian,  Swedish, 
and  Danish  vessels  (Jan.  14,  1801).  Nelson  was 
speedily  sent  to  Copenhagen,  which  he  cap- 
tured, together  with  the  Danish  fleet,  April  2, 
1801.  He  then  set  sail  for  Cronstadt.  Peace 
was  concluded  with  Russia  June  17,  1801. 
Sweden  and  Denmark  abandoned  their  pre- 
tensions, Prussia  followed  their  example,  and 
the  Armed  Neutrality  was  dissolved. 

ARMENIA  (Asia),  according  to  Armenian 
tradition,  was  settled  by  Haik,  son  of  Togar- 
mah,  and  grandson  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  3)  ;  and 
it  is  noticed  in  Scripture  under  the  names 
Togarmah  and  Ararat.  The  country,  after- 
wards divided  into  Lesser  and  Greater 
Armenia,  was  frequently  invaded  by  the 
Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Medes  and 
Persians,  and  for  many  years  remained  in 
subjection  to  one  or  other  of  these  empires. 
The  accounts  given  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  are  in  many  points  at  variance  with 
those  of  the  Armenian  historians.  M.  St. 
Martin  has  investigated  the  subject  with  great 
diligence,  and  upon  his  valuable  work  the 
following  chronological  table  " 


B.C. 

3107.  Haik,  fleeing  from  the  tyranny  of  Belus,  King1  of 
Assyria,  settles  in  Armenia,  and  becomes  its  first 
ruler. 
1837.  Accession   of  Aram,   who    enters   Asia  Minor,  and 

founds  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia  (q.  v.). 
1725.  Armenia  becomes  subject  to  Assyria. 
743.  Baroir  renders  Armenia  independent  of  Assyria. 
565.  Accession  of  Tigranes,  who  restores  Armenia  to  its 

ancient  position. 
333.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  Armenia  falls  under 

the  sway  of  Greek  governors. 
3:7.  The   Armenians,    under   Ardoates,    throw    off   the 

Grecian  yoke. 
149.  Valarsaces,  or  Wagharshag  I.,  founds  the  dynasty  of 

the  Arsacidae  (q.  v.). 
34.  Antony  leads  the    Armenian   sovereign  captive  to 

Alexandria. 

30.  On  the  death   of  Antony,   Artaxes   II.   expels   the 
Romans,  and  is  crowned  king. 


16.  Vonones,  King  of  the  Parthians,  seeks  shelter  with 

the  Armenians,  and  is  made  king. 
115.  Invaded  by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  who  annexes  both 

the  Armenias  to  Rome. 

117.  Hadrian  relinquishes  the  sovereignty  of  Armenia, 
160.  M.   Aurelius    having    rescued  Armenia    from    the 

aggressions  of  the  Parthians,  assumes  the  title  of 

Armeniacus. 

332.  Armenia  is  subjected  by  Ardashir,  King  of  Persia, 
3*76.  Tiridates    II.    is    converted    by   St.    Gregory,     and 

Armenia  thus  becomes  the  first  country  in  which 

Christianity  is  adopted  as  the  national  religion. 
369.  The  Persians  conquer  Armenia, 
387.  Armenia  is  divided  between  the  Romans  and  the 

Persians. 
443.  Armenia  is  invaded  by  the   Persians,  who  seek  to 

abolish   Christianity,    and  substitute   the    rites  of 

Zoroaster. 
515.  Pourzan  rules  Armenia,  which  is    ravaged  by  the 

Huns  during  his  administration. 
637.  Invaded  by  the  Arab  Abd-errahim,  who  seeks  to 

establish  Mohammedanism. 

830.  Invaded  by  Theopliilus,  Emperor  of  the  East. 
856.  Sempad   the  Confessor,  King  of   Armenia,    suffers 

martyrdom  at  Bagdad  for  his  adherence  to  Chris- 
tianity. 
859.  Aschod  I.,  son  of  Sempnd,  receives  the  title  of  Prince 

of  Princes  from  the  caliph. 
914.  Armenia  is  ravaged  by  the  Arabs. 
1045.  Coustautine  XII.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  gains  im- 
portant possessions  in  Armenia, 
1079.  Extinction  of  the    dynasty  of   the  Pagratides,   and 

entire   submission  of   Armenia   to   the    Seljukian 

sultans. 
1 134-  David  II.  recovers  great  part  of  Armenia  from  the 

Turks. 
1334.  The  Mongols   encamp  on  the  confines  of  Armenia, 

which  they  overrun  for  several  years. 
1375.  Leon  VI.,  King  of  Armenia,  is  made  prisoner  by  the 

infidels,  and  carried  to  Egypt. 
1393.  Leon  VI.  dies  at  Paris,  and  the  kingdom  of  Armenia 

becomes  extinct. 

1583.  Armenia  is  overrun  by  the  Turks. 
1604.  The  Persians,  under  Shah  Abbas,  invade  Armenia, 

and  reduce  it  to  complete  subjection. 

1838.  The  Russians,  in  their  operations  against  Turkey, 

overrun  Armenia. 

1839,  July  9.  Erzeroum  surrenders  to  the  Russians. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  ARMENIA. 

According  to  St.  Martin. 

Elder  Branch  of  the  Arsacidae  in  Greater 

Armenia. 
B.C. 

149.  Valarsaces,  or  Wagharshag  I.,  brother  of  Mithridates 

I.,  King  of  Parthia. 
137.  Arsaces,  or  Arshag  I. 
114.  Artaxes,  or  Ardashes  I. 

89.  Tigranes,  or  Dikran  I. 

55.  His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns  with  him. 

36.  Artavasdes,  or  Artawatz  I. 

30.  Artaxes  II. 

30.  Tigranes  II. 

—  Tigranes  III.,  dethroned  by  the  Romans. 
6.  Artavasdes  I  \. 

5.  Tigranes  III.  re-established. 

3.  Queen  Erato,  widow  of  Tigranes  III.     She  is  forced 
to  abdicate. 

A.D. 

3.  Ariobarzanes,  a  Parthian,  placed  on  the  throne  by 

the  Romans. 

4.  Artavasdes  III. 

5.  Queen  Erato  re-established. — Interregnum. 

16.  Vonones. 

17.  Interregnum. 

1 8.  Zeno  of  Pon'.us,  called  Artaxias. 

—  Tigranes  IV. 
35.  Arsaces  II. 

—  Mithridates  of  Iberia, 

51.  Rhadamistus. 

52.  Tiridates  I. 
60.  Tigranes  V. 

63.  Tiridates  I.  re-established  on  the  throne. 


ARMENIAN 


76    ] 


ARMORICA 


Younger  Branch  of  the  Arsacidaj  rules  at 
first  at  Edessa. 

B.C. 

38.  Arsham  or  Ardsh.im. 

10.  Mann. 

5.  Abgarus,  said  to  have  written  a  letter  to  our  Saviour. 
A.u. 

33.  Anane,  or  Ananus. 

36.  Suiiadrug,  or  Saiiatruces. 

58.  Erowant,  an  Arsacid  by  the  female  line,  usurps  the 
throne,  and  conquers  the  whole  of  Armenia. 

•78.  Ardashes,  or  Artaxes  III.,  reigns  over  the  whole  of 

Armenia. 

120.  Artawutz,  or  Artavasdes  IV. 
J2I.   Iiiran.  or  Tirauus  I. 
143.   I'ikruu,  or  '1  'i^rane.s  VI. 
178.  Waf-rharsh.  or  Vol 

n/i.  Chosroes,  or  Kh  ,>rr\v  I.,  surnamed  Medz.  or  the  Great. 
232.  Ai-dashir,  or  Anaxerxes,  tlir  first  s:,s>aniil  of  I'ersia. 
259.  Dertud,  orTirid.Hes  JJ.,  established  by  the  Romans. 
314.  Interregnum. — Sanadrug  takes  northern,  and  1'agur 

southern,  Armenia. 
316.  Chosroes,  or  Khosrew  II. 
325.  Diraii,  or  'j'iranus  II. 
341.  Arsao.es,  or  Arsiiag  III. 
370.  Hub,  or  1'ara. 
3-7.   Warn x.l •!([. 
382    Arsuces  IV.  an  1  Valarsaces,  or  Wagharshag  II. 

.  ees  IV.  alone. 

3.17.  Arini-ni.i  divided  b  -tween  the  Romans  and  Persians. 
389.  Ar^aces  IV.  dies.     Ca/.avon  rules,  followed  by  Chos- 

locs,  or  KhuMVw  111. 
392-  Bahrain  Shapur  (Sapor). 

414.  Chosro(js  III.  re-established. 

415.  Bhapur,  or  Sapor. 

419.   Interregnum. 

422.  Ardashes,  or  Artaxes  IV. 

428.  End  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Arsacida?. 

ARMENIAN  ;ERA  coininenced  Tuesday, 
July  9,  552,  when  the  Council  of  Tiben,  or  of 
tlie  Armenians,  confirmed  the  condemnation 
passed  on  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  536.  The 
Armenians  were  reconciled  to  the  Latin  Church 
about  1330,  and  they  then  adopted  the  form  of 
the  Julian  year. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Bartholomew  or  Thaddzeus, 
one  of  the  Seventy.  The  Gospel  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  flourished,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury that  it  was  embraced  by  king,  nobles, 
and  people.  Armenia  thus  became  the  first 
country  in  which  Christianity  was  adopted  as 
the  national  religion.  The  Persians,  who  had 
subdued  Armenia  by  369,  having  failed  in 
their  endeavours  to  force  the  Magian  religion 
upon  the  people,  permitted  them  to  follow 
the  faith  of  their  fathers.  They  adopted  the 
Monophysite  doctrine  in  the  6th  century.  At 
a  council  held  at  Tiben,  in  Armenia,  July  9, 
552,  the  Armenian  bishops  condemned  the 
General  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  which  had 
proscribed  the  Eutychian  heresy,  and  they 
separated  from  the  Orthodox  Church. 

ARMENIAN  VERSION.— This  translation 
of  the  Scriptures,  of  which  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  based  upon  the  Septuagint,  was 
commenced,  A.D.  410,  by  Miesrob,  who  in- 
vented for  the  purpose  the  Armenian  alphabet, 
consisting  of  36  letters.  This  alphabet,  with 
two  additional  letters,  is  the  one  still  in 
use.  Some  authorities  are  of  opinion  that 
this  version,  completed  about  431,  was  inter- 
polated in  the  6th  century  from  the  Syriac 
Peschito,  and  in  the  i3th  from  the  Vulgate. 
It  was  first  printed  at  Amsterdam,  in  1666. 

ARMINIANS,  the  followers  of  James  Armi- 
nius,  or  Harmensen,  a  Dutch  divine,  born  at 


Oudewater,  in  1560.  He  was  made  pastor  at 
Amsterdam  in  1588,  and  soon  after  opposed 
what  is  termed  the  Supralapsarian  doctrine 
of  Calvin.  In  1604  he  obtained  the  divinity 
chair  at  Leyden,  and  died  Oct.  19,  1609.  His 
followers  were  also  called  Remonstrants,  from 
the  petition  or  remonstrance,  containing  their 
doctrines,  set  forth  in  five  articles  presented 
to  the  States  of  Holland,  in  1610.  Their 
opposition  to  the  Calvinists,  or  Gomarists  (q.r.), 
as  they  were  then  called,  referred  principally 
to  their  views  respecting  original  sin,  free 
will,  and  predestination.  The  Synod  of  Dort, 
assembled  Nov.  13,  1618,  and  closed  May  9, 
1619,  condemned  the  "five  articles,"  and  200 
of  the  Arminian  preachers  were  afterwards 
deprived.  Many  pastors  and  their  followers 
went  into  exile,  until  the  proclamation  of 
religious  liberty  in  Holland,  in  625.  Hallam 
(Lit.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  pt.  3,  ch.  ii.)  remarks, 
"The  Arminian  doctrine  spread,  as  is  well 
known,  in  despite  of  obloquy  and  persecution, 
over  much  of  the  Protestant  region  of  Europe." 
The  Arminiaiis  still  exist  in  Holland,  and 
their  tenets  in  a  modified  form  are  held  by 
several  Christian  sects. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS.  — "There  is  no 
doubt  that  emblems  somewhat  similar  have," 
says  Hallam  (Middle  Ages,  vol.  i.  ch.  ii.  pt.  2), 
"been  immemorially  used  both  in  war  and 
peace.  The  shields  of  ancient  warriors,  and 
devices  upon  coins  or  seals,  bear  110  distant 
resemblance  to  modem  blazonry.  But  the 
general  introduction  of  such  bearings,  as  he- 
reditary distinctions,  has  been  sometimes 
attributed  tu  tournaments,  wherein  the  cham- 
pions were  distinguished  by  fanciful  devices  ; 
sometimes  to  the  Crusades,  where  a  multitude 
of  all  nations  and  languages  stood  in  need  of 
some  visible  token  to  denote  the  banners  of 
their  respective  chiefs.  In  fact,  the  peculiar 
symbols  of  heraldry  point  to  both  these  sources, 
and  have  been  borrowed  in  part  from  each. 
Hereditary  arms  were  perhaps  scarcely  used 
by  private  families  before  the  beginning  of  the 
1 3th  century.  From  that  time,  however,  they 
became  very  general,  and  have  contributed  to 
elucidate  that  branch  of  history  which  regards 
the  descent  of  illustrious  families."  At  the 
end  of  the  i2th  century,  warriors  bore  escut- 
cheons, suspended  from  the  belt,  decorated 
with  their  arms.  William  I.  introduced  into 
England  the  arms  of  Normandy,  having  two 
lions  on  his  shield,  to  which  another  lion 
was  added,  as  is  generally  supposed,  for 
Aquitaine,  by  Henry  II.  The  earliest  display 
of  arms  on  a  seal  is  of  the  date  1187. 

ARMORICA  (Gaul).— This  seat  of  the  Veneti, 
a  Celtic  tribe,  conquered  by  Caesar  B.C.  56, 
threw  off  the  Roman  yoke  A.D.  409,  and  their 
independence  was  recognized  by  Honorius. 
Clovis  I.  annexed  it  to  his  empire  A.D.  497. 
Many  of  the  early  Britons,  assailed  on  every 
side,  took  refuge  in  the  western  part  of 
Armorica,  called  after  them  Cornwall  and  the 
Lesser  Britain.  The  first  immigration  is  be- 
lieved to  have  occurred  in  the  4th  century. 
The  term  Armorica,  from  the  Celtic  words  ar, 
near,  and  mor,  the  sea,  was  at  one  time  applied 
to  nearly  all  the  maritime  districts  between  the 
Seme  and  the  Loire,  occupied  by  Celtic  tribes. 


ARMOUR 


C     77     1 


ARMY 


It  was  af terwards  limited  to  Britanny,  which 
designation,  even  in  its  restricted  application, 
had  quite  superseded  that  of  Armorica  by  the 
time  of  Charlemagne.  (See  BRITANNY.) 

ARMOUR. — The  use  of  helmets,  shields, 
breastplates,  and  greaves  for  the  legs,  is  men- 
tioned in  the  wars  recorded  in  the  Bible.  The 
giant  Goliath  (i  Sam.  xvii.  5  and  6),  about  B.C. 
1063,  was  armed  at  all  points.  Armour  was 
used  by  most  ancient  nations,  the  earliest 
representations  extant  being  found  in  the 
monuments  of  ancient  Egypt.  Helmets  (q.  v.) 
were  not  common  amongst  the  Teutonic  tribes, 
though  they  were  occasionally  worn  by  the 
Franks  in  the  7th,  and  had  become  general 
amongst  them  in  the  8th  century.  Shields 
(q.  v.}  were  borne  by  the  Northmen  about  this 
time.  Breastplates  were  much  worn  in  the 
1 2th  century.  In  the  i3th  century  armour  of 
chain  mail  was  worn  by  knights.  Metal 
greaves  appeared  at  the  end  of  the  same 
century.  Chain  mail  was  replaced  by  armour 
of  plate  early  in  the  isth  century,  and  black 
armour  was  often  used  for  mourning. 

ARMOUR-PLATED  SHI  PS.— Chain-netting 
of  iron  was  suspended  to  the  sides  of  men-of- 
war,  which  were  also  strengthened  by  plates  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth.  The 
following  list  of  iron-plated  vessels  built  for 
the  English  navy,  with  the  date  when  they  were 
launched,  is  compiled  from  a  Parliamentary 
return  ordered  to  be  printed  June  14,  1865  : — 


1860,  Dec.  39—  Warrior. 
1861,  Feb.  37  —  Black  Prince. 
April  1  1  -Resistance. 
April  34—  Defence. 
1862,  June  36—  Prince    Con- 
sort. 
Sep.   10—  Royal  Oak. 
Sep.   26  —  Hector. 
Oct.   34—  Caledonia. 
1863,  Mar.  19—  Ocean. 
J  uly    4—  Scorpion. 
Aug.  15-Research. 
Aug.  39—  Wivern. 
Oct.   14—  Valiant 

1863,  Dec.    12—  Minotaur. 
Dec.  34—  Achilles. 
1864,  Feb.     9—  Enterprise. 
Mar.     7  —  Zealous. 
Mar.     8—  Royal    Sove- 
reign. 
May  23—  PrinceAlbert. 
July    5—  Favorite. 
Oct.   13—  Lord  Clyde. 
Oct.   15—  Roval  Alfred. 
1865,  Mar.  H-Pallas. 
Mar.  31  —  Agincourt. 
April  36—  Bi-llerophon. 
May  37-LordWarden. 

ARMS.— The  club,  the  sling  (q.  v.},  bow  and 
arrow  (see  ARCHERY)  were  the  most  ancient 
weapons.  Esau,  at  the  command  of  Isaac, 
took  his  quiver  and  bow,  and  went  to  procure 
venison,  about  B.C.  1760  (Gen.  xxvii.  3).  Spears 
of  various  kinds,  javelins,  swords  (q.  v.}, 
daggers  (q.  v.),  the  battle-axe  (q.  v.)  and  mace 
(q.  v.),  followed.  The  cross-bow  (q.  v.},  and  the 
long-bow  were  the  chief  offensive  weapons 
previous  to  the  invention  of  gunpowder  in  the 
1 3th  century. 

ARMS  BILL.— Regulations  "  to  prevent  im- 
proper persons  from  having  arms  in  Ireland  " 
were  imposed  by  47  Geo.  III.  sess.  2  c.  54 
(Aug.  13.  1807),  which  was  amended  and  con- 
tinued by  50  Geo.  III.  c.  109  (June  20,  i8io\ 
4  Geo.  IV.  c.  14  (March  24,  1823^,  10  Geo.  IV. 


23\    IO 

Will. 


c.  47  (June  19,  1829^,  and  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  47 
(Oct.  15,  1831).  The  new  Arms  Bill,  6  &  7 
Viet.  c.  74  (Aug.  22,  1843),  required  all  owners 
of  fire-arms  in  Ireland  to  procure  licenses  under 
a  penalty  of  ^10  for  a  first  offence,  to  be 
increased,  in  case  of  repetition,  to  .£20,  with 
forfeiture  of  the  arms  illegally  held. 

ARMSTRONG  GUN.— Mr.,  afterwards  Sir, 
W.  G.  Armstrong,  was  induced  to  turn  his 
attention  to  the  construction  of  cannon  by  the 


effect  of  two  i8-pounder  guns  against  the 
Russians  at  the  battle  of  Inkermann,  Nov.  5, 
1854.  These  guns,  owing  to  their  weight  of 
nearly  two  tons  each,  not  being  available  for 
service  till  a  late  period  of  the  battle,  Mr. 
Armstrong  directed  his  efforts  towards  the 
invention  of  a  lighter  cannon  with  longer 
range,  and  at  once  submitted  a  design  to  the 
Duke  of  Newcastle,  then  Minister  of  War. 
His  first  gun,  completed  in  accordance  with  an 
order  from  the  Government,  in  April,  1855, 
was  not  made  public  by  the  inventor  until 
perfected  by  a  course  of  experiments  ranging 
over  three  years.  It  was  patented  Feb.  n,' 
1857.  The  Government  committee  on  rifled 
cannon  having  recommended  the  immediate 
introduction  of  the  Armstrong  gun  for  special 
service  in  the  field,  Nov.  16,  1858,  extensive 
supplies  were  ordered,  and  Mr.  Armstrong,  in 
recognition  of  his  generosity  in  having  de- 
clined all  special  remuneration  for  his  inven- 
tion, Jan.  15,  1859,  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  with  the  title  of  C.B.,  and  the 
appointment  of  engineer  of  rifled  ordnance 
at  the  Royal  Gun  Factory,  which  he  resigned 
in  Feb.,  1863.  The  great  3oo-pounder  Arm- 
strong gun  burst  during  an  experimental 
firing  at  the  Minotaur  target  at  Shoeburyness, 
July  7,  1862.  A  competitive  trial  of  the  Arm- 
strong and  Whitworth  guns  commenced  at 
Shoeburyness  April  4,  1864. 

ARMY. — The  numerical  force  of  armies  in 
ancient  times,  as  may  be  seen  from  Josh.  xi. 
4,  B.C.  1445;  i  Sam.  xiii.  5,  about  B.C.  1093; 
and  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9,  B.C.  1017,  was  very  great. 
Diodorus  Siculus  describes  the  army  of  Ninus 
as  amounting  to  1,700,000  foot  and  200,000 
horse.  Xerxes,  B.C.  480,  assembled  1,700,000 
foot  and  80,  ooo  horse  for  the  invasion  of  Greece. 
Gibbon  calculates  that  the  peace  establish- 
ment of  Hadrian  and  his  successors  amounted 
to  375,000  men,  and  this  number  was  doubled 
under  the  successors  of  Constantino  I.  With 
reference  to  more  modern  times,  Hallam 
(Middle  Ages,  i.  ch.  ii.  pt.  2)  says,  "  In  public 
national  history,  I  am  aware  of  no  instance  of 
what  may  be  called  a  regular  army  more 
ancient  than  the  body-guards,  or  huscarles, 
of  Canute  the  Great.  These  select  troops 
amounted  to  6,000  men,  on  whom  he  probably 
relied  to  ensure  the  subjection  of  England." 
Charles  VII.  of  France,  advised  by  the  estates 
at  Orleans  in  1439,  established  the  first  stand- 
ing army  in  Europe,  levying  a  poll-tax,  in  1444, 
to  defray  the  expenditure.  During  the  Great 
Rebellion  large  armies  were  raised;  and  an 
army  was  maintained  whilst  the  Common- 
wealth lasted.  In  1662,  a  force  of  5,000  men 
excited  alarm  ;  and  the  levy  by  Charles  II.,  in 
1678,  of  25,000  or  30,000  troops,  created  dis- 
satisfaction. By  the  fourth  clause  of  the  De- 
claration of  Rights  (1689),  James  II.  was 
accused  of  having  raised  and  maintained  a 
standing  army  in  time  of  peace  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament.  William  III.  showed 
great  reluctance  in  obeying  the  orders  of  Par- 
liament with  reference  to  disbanding  the 
troops,  and  from  his  reign  a  standing  army 
has  been  regularly  maintained  in  this  country. 

ARMY  AND  NAVY  CLUB  (London).— The 
idea  of  establishing  a  military  club  originated  in 


ARNHEIM 


ARRAY 


1837  with  Sir  Edward  Barnes  and  a  few  Indian 
officers,  who  had  then  recently  returned  from 
India.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  became  patron 
on  condition  that  the  club  should  be  opened  to 
the  navy  and  marines,  and  it  was  established 
in  a  house  at  the  corner  of  King-street,  St. 
James's-square,  at  the  commencement  of  1838. 
The  first  stone  of  the  club-house  in  Pall  Mall 
was  laid  May  13,  1848,  and  the  building  was 
thrown  open  to  members  Feb.  25,  1851. 

ARNHEIM  (Holland),  the  capital  of  Guelder- 
land,  is  noticed  in  a  charter  of  Otho,  in  996. 
The  counts  and  dukes  of  Guelderland  resided 
here.  The  Spaniards  took  it  in  1585 ;  the 
French  in  1672.  It  was  fortified  in  1702,  and, 
having  again  fallen  into  the  power  of  the 
French,  was  retaken  in  1813. 

ARNOLDISTS.  —  This  sect  comprised  the 
followers  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  an  ecclesiastic 
who  commenced  in  1134  to  condemn  the  wealth 
and  ostentation  of  the  Papal  system,  teaching 
that  the  clergy  should  subsist  entirely  xipon 
voluntary  contributions,  and  that  their  exten- 
sive revenues  should  be  abandoned  to  the  civil 


rulers.  His  opinions  were  condemned  by  the 
Lateran  Council  of  1139,  which  compelled  him 
to  retire  to  Zurich.  In  1145  he  returned  to 


Rome,  where  his  followers  raised  several 
tumults,  and,  being  again  compelled  to  take 
flight,  he  was  surrendered  to  the  Pope  by  the 
Emperor  Frederick  I.,  in  1155,  and  was  hanged 
and  his  body  burned. 

AROER  (Battle).— Sargon,  King  of  Assyria, 
defeated  and  slew  h  is  rebellious  vassal  Yahu-bid, 
or  Ilu-bid,  King  of  Hamath,  at  Karkar,  or  Gar- 
gar,  in  Syria,  supposed  to  be  identical  with  one 
of  the  many  Aroers  of  Scripture,  about  B.C.  720. 

A  KOMATICS.—  (See  SPICES.) 

ARPAD  DYNASTY  was  founded  in  Hungary 
A.D.  889,  by  Arpadthe  Magyar.  He  died  in  907, 
and  the  line  ended  with  Andrew  III.  in  1301. 

ARPINUM  (Italy).  -  This  ancient  city  of 
Naples,  after  forming  part  of  the  possessions 
of  the  Volscians  and  Samnites,  was  seized  by 
the  Romans  B.C.  305,  and  elevated  into  a  Roman 
mancipium  B.C.  302,  though  its  inhabitants  did 
not  receive  the  suffrage  until  B.C.  188.  Arpi- 
num  was  the  birthplace  of  Caius  Marius,  B.C. 
157,  and  of  Cicero,  Jan.  3,  B.C.  106.  Its  modern 
name  is  Arpino. 

ARQUEBUS,  or  HARQUEBUSS.— The  hand 
gun,  with  the  addition  of  a  trigger,  received 
this  appellation.  The  invention  is  assigned 
to  about  1470,  a  corps  of  arquebusiers  having 
existed  as  early  as  1476.  Philip  of  Corn- 
mines  speaks  of  it  as  a  weapon  used  at  the 
battle  of  Morat  (q.  v.)  in  1476  ;  and  half  of  the 
English  yeomen  of  the  guard  were  armed 
with  it  in  1485.  Mounted  arquebusiers  are 
mentioned  in  1495.  The  arquebus,  con- 
siderably improved  in  construction,  became 
the  ordinary  weapon  in  the  i6th  century.  In 
1580  John  the  Almain  recommended  to  the 
favourable  notice  of  Walsingham  one  of  his 
countrymen,  who  had  invented  "anharquebuse, 
that  shall  contain  10  balls  or  pelletes  of  lead, 
all  the  which  shall  goe  off  one  after  another, 
haveing  once  given  fire,  so  that  with  one 
harquebuse  one  may  kill  10  theeves,  or  other 
enemies,  without  recharging."  Thus  was  the 
modern  revolver  anticipated. 


ARQUES  (Battle).— Henry  IV.  of  France 
defeated  the  army  of  the  League,  under  the 
Duke  of  Mayenne,  at  this  place,  near  Dieppe, 
Sep.  21,  1589. 

ARRACAN  (India).  —According  to  native 
traditions,  this  country  was  ruled  by  inde- 
pendent princes  from  about  A.D.  700.  It  was 
frequently  overrun  by  the  inhabitants  of 
neighbouring  states.  The  Portuguese  formed 
an  establishment  in  Arracan  in  the  i7th 
century.  The  province  was  conquered  in  1783 
by  the  Burmese,  who  ceded  it  to  the  English 
in  1826  by  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo  (q.  v.). 

ARRAIGNMENT.— This  is  the  form  of  cri- 
minal law  of  calling  a  prisoner  to  the  bar  of 
the  court,  to  plead  to  an  indictment.  By 
ancient  law  and  usage  he  was  entitled  to 
appear  without  irons  or  other  bonds.  For- 
merly, if  the  prisoner  remained  mute,  instead 
of  pleading,  in  cases  of  treason,  his  silence 
was  held  equivalent  to  conviction.  In  other 
cases  of  felony  he  was  subjected  to  the  bar- 
barous punishment  of  pelne  forte  t-1  dure  (>/.  ».). 
By  12  Geo.  III.  c.  20  (1772),  standing  mute 
in  cases  of  felony  was  held  equivalent  to 
conviction  ;  but  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28,  s.  3 
(June  21,  1827),  the  court  was  empowered,  if 
it  thought  fit,  to  order  the  proper  officer  to 
enter  a  plea  of  "not  guilty"  on  behalf  of 
the  accused. 

ARRAS  (France).— Supposed  to  be  the  an- 
cient Nemetacum  or  Nemetocenna,  where 
Ca-sar  wintered,  B.C.  50.  It  afterwards  took 
the  name  of  Atrebates,  from  the  people  of 
the  province  of  which  it  was  the  chief  town. 
The  Vandals  captured  it  A.D.  407,  and  the 
Northmen  in  880.  Arras  was  made  a  bishop- 
ric about  500.  Louis  XI.  took  the  town 
May  4,  1477,  and  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  .Maximilian  in  1493.  Louis  XIII.  captured 
it  in  1640.  Arras  was  finally  secured  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659. 
Lebon  committed  great  atrocities  here  in 
1794. 

A  Ixl!  AS  (Treaties). — A  congress  was  opened 
at  this  town  Aug.  20,  1435,  at  which  envoys 
from  England,  France,  and  Burgundy  attended. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  two 
latter  powers  Sep.  21,  1435 ;  the  English 
commissioners,  disgusted  with  the  terms  pro- 
posed, having  retired  Sep.  6.  This  treaty 
was,  with  others,  confirmed  at  Crotoy,  Oct.  3, 
1472.  —  Another  treaty,  between  Maximilian, 
then  Duke  of  Austria,  and  Louis  XL,  was 
concluded  at  Arras  Dec.  23,  1482.  Margaret, 
infant  daughter  of  Maximilian,  was  affianced 
to  the  daiiphin,  and  was  to  receive  as  her 
dowry  Burgundy,  Artois,  and  other  territories, 
whilst  Louis  XL  engaged  to  restore  some 
places  he  had  captured  in  Luxemburg,  &c. 

ARRAY  (Commissions  of). — Hallam  (Eng. 
ii.  ch.  ix.)  says,  "  In  seasons  of  public  danger, 
threatening  invasion  from  the  side  of  Scot- 
land or  France,  it  became  customary  to  issue 
commissions  of  array,  empowering  those  to 
whom  they  were  addressed  to  muster  and 
train  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  in  the 
counties  to  which  their  commission  extended, 
and  hold  them  in  readiness  to  defend  the 
kingdom.  The  earliest  of  these  commissions 
that  I  find  in  Rymer  is  of  1324,  and  the 


ARREST 


79 


latest  of  1557."  Charles  I.  attempted  to  re- 
vive this  practice  in  1642 ;  but  the  exercise 
of  this  ancient  prerogative,  from  long  disuse, 
was  received  as  an  innovation.  A  very  early 
precedent  is  that  of  the  i6th  Edward  II. (1323), 
in  which  year  a  commission  issued  out  of  the 
exchequer  to  Geoffrey  de  St.  Quyntyn  and 
John  de  Hasthorp,  to  the  effect  that  they 
were  to  raise,  in  the  Wapentake  of  Dykryng, 
all  the  defensible  men  between  the  ages  of 
1 6  and  60,  and  to  lead  them  properly  armed 
to  the  king  at  York  to  act  against  the  Scots. 

ARREST. — Malicious  arrest  on  mesne  pro- 
cess, in  the  name  of  a  person  not  assenting, 
was  declared  an  indictable  offence  by  8  Eliz. 
c.  2,  s.  4  (1566).  Ambassadors  were  released 
from  liability  to  arrest  by  7  Anne,  c.  12  (1708), 
and  members  of  Parliament  by  10  Geo.  III. 
c.  50,  s.  2  (1770).  Persons  found  in  the  act  of 
larceny  may  be  arrested  without  warrant  by 
any  peace  officer,  or  owner  of  property  con- 
cerned, by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  s.  63  (June  21, 
1827),  which  was  re-enacted  by  24  <fc  25  Viet. 
c.  96  (Aug.  6,  1861).  Persons  loitering  at  night 
with  the  supposed  object  of  committing  in- 
juries by  explosive  substances  may  be  arrested 
.by  any  constable  without  a  warrant  by  9  &  10 
Viet.  c.  25,  s.  13  (June  26,  1846),  the  provisions 
of  which  were  embodied  in  the  Larceny  Con- 
solidation Act,  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  96,  s.  104  (Aug. 
6,  1861),  the  Malicious  Injuries  to  Property 
Act,  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  97,  s.  57  (Aug.  6,  1861), 
and  the  Offences  against  the  Person  Act,  24  & 
25  Viet.  c.  100,  s.  66  (Aug.  6,  1861).  The  Pre- 
vention of  Offences  Act,  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  19 
(July  3,  1851),  authorizes  the  apprehension  of 
any  one  violating  its  provisions  or  committing 
any  indictable  offence  during  the  night.  (See 
IMPRISONMENT  FOB  DEBT,  MESNE  PROCESS,  &c.) 

ARRETIUM  (Italy),  also  called  ARET1NUS. 
— This  very  ancient  city  is  said,  with  four 
other  Etruscan  cities,  to  have  joined  the  Latins 
and  Sabines  against  Rome,  B.C.  616.  It  con- 
cluded a  peace  of  30  years  with  Rome,  B.C. 
308.  Arretium  ultimately  became  subject  to 
Rome,  and  a  Roman  army  under  Metellus,  that 
advanced  to  defend  it  against  the  Senones,  was 
defeated  B.C.  283.  Julius  Caesar  occupied  the 
city  B.C.  49.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  modern 
Arezzo  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city : 
this,  however,  is  a  mistake,  as  Arretium  was 
about  three  miles  to  the  S.E.  It  was  one  of 
the  earliest  Italian  cities  to  receive  the 
Christian  faith,  and  for  many  years  its  bishops 
were  feudal  counts.  In  the  nth  century 
Arezzo  became  a  republic.  It  was  taken  in 
1384  by  De  Coucy,  who  sold  it  to  Florence. 
Having  revolted,  it  was  retaken  in  1502,  and 
made  part  of  Tuscany  in  1531.  The  French 
took  it  Oct.  19,  1800. 

ARSACID^E.— A  dynasty  of  this  name  ruled 
in  Armenia  (q.  v.)  from  B.C.  149  to  A.D.  428. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  family  of  Ar- 
saces,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy, 
which  occupied  the  throne  of  that  kingdom 
from  B.C.  250  to  A.D.  226,  when  Artaxerxes 
established  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides.  (See 
PAKTHIA  and  SASSANIDES.) 

ARSENIAN  SCHISM.— Arsenius  was  made 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  by  Theodore  Lae- 
caris  II.,  in  1255.  The  Emperor  Lascaris 


ART 

died  in  1259,  having  first  committed  his  son 
to  the  care  of  the  patriarch.  His  successor, 
Michael  Palseologus,  deposed  Arsenius,  but  re- 
called him  in  1260,  and  was  himself  crowned 
joint  emperor  with  the  young  John  Lascaris. 
Michael  put  out  the  young  prince's  eyes  in  1261 ; 
whereupon  Arsenius  excommunicated  the 
emperor,  and  resolutely  refused  to  grant  him 
penance  or  absolution.  A  synod  was  sum- 
moned at  Constantinople  in  May,  1264,  and 
Arsenius,  having  been  thrice  cited  and  refusing 
to  appear,  was  deposed.  A  powerful  party 
supported  the  cause  of  Arsenius ;  they  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Arsenites,  and  Gibbon 
declares  that  they  persevered  above  48  years 
in  what  was  termed  the  Arsenian  Schism. 

ARSENIC.— This  mineral  poison  was  known 
at  an  early  period,  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
understood  by  Paracelsus,  who  was  born  about 
the  year  1493.  During  the  i6th  century  it  was 
employed  in  the  construction  of  amulets 
against  pestilence.  Schroeder  describes  a 
method  for  producing  it  in  his  Pharmacopoeia, 
published  in  1649,  and  it  entered  into  the  com- 
position of  the  celebrated  Water  Tofana  (q.  v.). 
It  was  first  examined  minutely  by  Brandt  in 
1733.  Owing  to  its  deadly  properties  it  was 
enacted  by  14  Viet.  c.  13  (June  5,  1851),  that 
no  sale  of  arsenic  should  take  place  unless  full 
particulars  of  the  quantity  sold  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  required  were  entered  in 
a  book  kept  for  the  purpose  by  the  seller,  and 
also  unless  the  poison  had  been  previously 
coloured.  The  danger  arising  from  the  use  of 
arsenic  in  paper-hangings  formed  a  subject  of 
inquiry  before  the  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Lords  on  the  Sale  of  Poisons  Bill  in 
1857.  (See  BRADFORD.) 

ARSON.— The  punishment  of  death  was 
awarded  for  this  offence  by  the  ancient  Saxon 
laws,  and  the  same  penalty  was  attached  to 
it  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  By  8  Hen.  VI. 
c.  6  (1430),  the  burning  of  houses  under  par- 
ticular circumstances  was  made  high  treason. 
The  perpetrators  of  the  crime  were  denied 
benefit  of  clergy  by  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i  (1532), 
which  was  repealed  by  i  Edw.  VI  c.  12  (1547). 
The  crime  was  made  felony  by  the  general  acts 
of  Edw.  VI.  and  Mary.  The  punishment,  after 
having  undergone  various  modifications,  is 
penal  servitude  for  not  more  than  seven  years ; 
or,  in  some  cases,  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing two  years  in  duration.  The  principal  acts 
bearing  on  the  subject  are  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28 
(June  21,  1827) ;  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  20, 
1853)  ;  and  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  3  (June  26,  1857). 

ARSOOF,  ARSOUF,  ARSUF,  or  ARSUR 
(Battle).— The  Saracens  under  Saladin  were  de- 
feated, Sep.  6,  1191,  by  the  crusaders  under 
Richard  I.  at  this  town  in  Palestine,  which  it 
is  believed  was  anciently  named  Apollonia. 
The  sultan  lost  8,000  men  and  32  emirs; 
and  the  crusaders  1,000  men,  with  the  re- 
nowned leader  James  of  Avennes,  who  was 
buried  "  in  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  the  Queen 
of  Heaven,"  at  Arsoof,  Sep.  7.  Richard  I. 
himself  was  slightly  wounded. 

ART  EXHIBITIONS.— In  1673  the  French 
Academy  commenced  a  course  of  exhibitions  of 
works  of  art,  which,  made  biennial  in  1745,  be- 
came annual  in  1796.  The  earliest  art  exhi- 


AETAXATA 


ARTILLERY 


bition  in  England  took  place  in  1760,  tlie  move- 
ment receiving  much  vigour  in  1769  by  the 
institution  of  the  annual  display  of  the  Royal 
Academy  (q.  v.}.  The  exhibition  of  the  Scot- 
tish Academy  commenced  in  1826.  The  South 
Kensington  Museum  (q.  v.),  the  Art-Treasures 
Exhibition,  opened  in  1857  at  Manchester  (q.  v.), 
and  the  International  Exhibition  (q.  v.)  of  1862 
are  the  most  celebrated  art  exhibitions. 

ARTAXATA  (Armenia).— This  ancient  city, 
built  under  the  superintendence  of  Hannibal 
during  his  exile  at  the  court  of  Armenia, 
B.C.  1 86,  became  the  capital  of  the  country. 
Lucullus  defeated  Mithridates  and  Tigranes 
near  this  city  B.C.  68,  and  it  was  destroyed  by 
Corbulo  A.D.  58.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Tiridates 
under  the  name  of  Neronia. 

ARTEMISIUM  (Sea-fight).— Fought  between 
the  Persians  and  the  Greeks  off  this  promon- 
tory of  Eubcea,  B.C.  480,  without  any  decisive 
result.  It  was  renewed  two  days  later,  on 
which  occasion  the  Greeks  suffered  so  much 
that  they  were  compelled  to  retreat. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS.— The  Chinese  are  said 
to  have  been  long  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciple on  which  they  are  made,  and  they  are 
found  in  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  in  Italy, 
Germany,  and  France.  The  monastery  of  St. 
Andre,  near  Aire,  possessed  one  in  1749.  An- 
other, in  the  ancient  convent  of  Chartreux,  at 
Lillier,  is  said  to  be  700  years  old.  The  name 
is  derived  from  Artois,  in  France,  the  ancient 
Artesium.  An  artesian  well  was  sunk  at  Sheer- 
ness  in  1781  ;  another  in  London  in  1794  ;  two  at 
Portsmouth  in  1828  and  1829.  In  1852  an  arte- 
sian well  was  opened  at  Kissengen,  in  Bavaria, 
the  borings  of  which  are  2,000  feet  below  the 
surface.  A  bill  for  establishing  a  company  to 
supply  London  with  water  by  means  of  artesian 
wells  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
June  2,  1835. 

ARTHUR'S  CLUB  (London),  mentioned  by 
Lady  Hervey  as  "the resort  of  old  and  young " 
in  1756,  took  its  name  from  its  proprietor,  Mr. 
Arthur,  master  of  White's  chocolate  house,  who 
died  in  June,  1761.  The  club-house  in  St. 
James's-street,  erected  in  1811,  was  rebuilt  in 
1827. 

ARTICHOKE.— This  vegetable  was  brought 
from  the  Levant  into  Italy  in  the  isth  century, 
from  Naples  to  Florence  in  1466,  and  was  first 
seen  at  Venice  in  1473.  Artichokes  were  intro- 
duced into  France  in  the  1 6th  century,  and  into 
England  from  Holland  in  1602. 

ARTICLES  OF  PERTH.— Adopted  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  Scotland  held  at  Perth, 
Aug.  25,  1618.  They  were  five  in  number. 
Firstly,  it  was  ordered  that  the  Lord's  supper 
should  be  received  kneeling ;  secondly,  the 
communion  of  the  sick  was  allowed  ;  thirdly, 
private  baptism  in  cases  of  apparent  necessity  : 
fourthly,  confirmation  ;  and  fifthly,  the  obser- 
vance of  Christmas  and  other  holy  seasons. 
They  were  ratified  by  the  Parliament  in  Edin- 
burgh, July  25,  1621. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION.— (See  THIRTY- 
NINE  ARTICLES.) 

ARTIFICERS.— Any  artificer  taking  more 
than  the  usual  rate  of  wage  was  subject  to  im- 
prisonment by  the  Statute  of  Labourers,  23 
Edw.  III.  c.  5  (1349),  and  the  wages  of  several 


sorts  of  artificers  were  fixed  by  another  statute 
of  labourers,  25  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  3  (1350).  By 
13  Rich.  II.  st.  i,  c.  8  (1389),  the  rates  were  to 
be  assessed  and  proclaimed  by  the  justices  of 
peace.  By  34  Edw.  III.  c.  10  (1360),  artificers 
were  liable  to  punishment  for  departing  into 
other  lands.  Conspiring  to  raise  wages  was,  by 
2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  15  (i549\  punished  by  a 
fine  of  £10,  or  20  days'  imprisonment  for  the 
first  offence.  The  above  acts  were  repealed  by 
5  Eliz.  c.  4  (1562^,  when  the  assessment  of  their 
•ages  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  sheriffs,  mayors,  &c.  By  one 
clause  of  this  statute  they  were  compelled,  on 
pain  of  imprisonment  in  case  of  refusal,  to 
assist  in  agricultural  operations  during  hay- 
time  and  harvest.  Several  changes  in  the  law 
ensued.  Persons  convicted  of  enticing  artifi- 
cers in  certain  branches  of  industry  to  go 
abroad  were,  by  5  Geo.  I.  c.  27  (1718),  subject 
to  a  fine  of  ^100  and  imprisonment  for  three 
months,  with  additional  penalties  for  a  second 
offence ;  and  artificers  thus  offending  were 
treated  as  aliens,  and  forfeited  all  property  if 
they  did  not  return  within  six  months.  The 
fine  was  increased  to  .£500,  and  the  imprison- 
ment to  12  months,  both  being  doubled  for 
a  second  offence,  by  23  Geo.  II.  c.  13  (1750). 
So  much  of  Elizabeth's  act  as  related  to  the 
fixing  of  wages  by  justices  of  the  peace  was  re- 
pealed by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  40  (April  15,  1813),  and 
portions  of  the  latter  were  repealed  by  5  Geo.  IV. 
c.  97  (June  21,  1824^. 

ARTILLERY.— This  term  was  originally 
applied  to  all  heavy  missile  weapons,  and  is 
used  by  Vegetius,  author  of  the  "Epitome  Rei 
Militaris,"  which  is  dedicated  to  the  Emperor 
Valentinian  (A.D.  364 — 375),  to  signify  the 
balistee,  scorpiones,  arcubalistse,  and  other 
engines  of  war  employed  by  the  Roman  armies. 
B.C. 

810.  Uzzinh  uses  military  engines  at  Jerusalem,  "  in- 
vented by  cunning  men,  to  be  on  the  towers,  and 
upon  the  bulwarks,  to  shoot  arrows  and  great 
stones  withal."  (z  Chron.  xxvi.  15.) 

618.  The  Chinese  profess  to  have  used  a  cannon  this  year, 
bearing   the    inscription,     "I    hurl   death   to    the 
traitor,  and  extermination  to  the  rebel." 
300.  Engines    for    throwing    heavy   stones    against    ail 

enemy  are  used  in  Sicily  about  this  period. 
A.D. 

85.   Gunpowder  artillery  is  used  in  China. 
300.  Koui:g-ming  employs  "terrestrial  thunder,"  or  gun- 
powder, for  the  destruction  of  his  enemies. 
757.  Li-Kouang-pi  constructs  cannon  to  throw  stones  of 

i  %  Ib.  weight  to  the  distance  of  300  paces. 
1118.  The  Moors  use  artillery  in  an  attack  upon  Saragossa. 
113?.  A  culverin  of  4  Ib.    calibre  is  made   in   Spain,   and 
called  Salamonica. 

1156.  Abdelmmnen,  the  Moorish  King  of  Cordova,  takes 

Mahadia  from  the  Sicilians  by  means  of  artillery. 

1157.  The  Moors  defend  Xiebla  against  the  Spaniards  by 

engines  which  throw  stones  and  darts  by  means  of 

fire. 
1333.  The  Chinese  use  cannon  to  throw  round  stone  shot 

against  the  Mongol  besiegers  of  Cai-fong-fou. 
1380.  Cordova  is  attacked  by  artillery. 
1291.  A  mortar  for  destroying  houses,  &c.,  is  described  by 

the  Arab  historian,  Al  Mailla. 
1308.  Guzman  el  Bueno  takes  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors 

by  means  of  artillery. 
1312.  Cannon  are  used  by  the  Arabians. 
1337.  Edward  III.  uses  "  crakeys  of  war"  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  Scotland. 

1333.  A  cannon  exists  in  the  arsenal  of  Bamberg. 
1331.  Ibn  Nason  Ben  Bia    mentions  thnt  balls  of   iron, 

thrown  by  means  of  fire,  were  military  weapons  of 

the  Moors. 


ARTILLERY 


t     81     ] 


ART-UNIONS 


A.D. 

1338.  The    French    use    artillery    at    the   siege   of    Puy 

Guillaume. 

1339.  The   Chevalier  Cardaillac  prepares  10  cannon    for 

the  siege  of  Cambray. 

1340.  Quesnoy  is  successfully  defended  against  the  Duke 

of  Normandy  by  means  of  artillery. 

1343.  The  Moorish  defenders  of  Algt  siras  oppose  Alphonso 
XI.  of  Castile  by  mortar  guns. 

1346.  An  iron  gun  with  a  square  bore,  for  discharging  a 

cubical  shot  of  I  lib.  weight,  is  constructed  at  Bruges. 
The  alleged  use  of  artillery  by  Edw.  rd  III.  at  the 
battle  of  Crecy  this  year,  is  of  very  doubtful 
authenticity. 

1347.  Edward  III.  uses  espringals  and  bombards  at  the 

siege  of  Calais. 

1356.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  employs  cannon  and  bom- 
bards to  reduce  the  castle  of  Romozantin. 

1364.  Small  hand-cannon  axe  constructed  in  large  num- 
bers at  Perouse. 

1366.  The  Venetians  first  use  artillery  at  the  siege  of 
Chioggia. 

1368.  Mohammed  Shah  Bahmiani  captures  300  gun-car- 
riages in  India. 

1378.  John  of  Gaunt  uses  400  cannon  night  and  day  in  a 
fruitless  attack  upon  St.  Malo. 

1381.  Eleven  pieces  of  ordnance  are  mentioned  as  existing 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  Bologna. 

1383.  Portable  bombards,  sul  sequently  called  culverines, 
are  introduced  in  France.  Field-guns  are  em- 
ployed by  the  people  of  Ghent  against  Bruges. 

1386.  The  English  capture  two  French  vessels  armed  with 
heavy  artillery. 

1394.  The  Turks  use  artillery  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople. 

1418.  The  English,  under  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  fire  red- 
hot  balls  at  the  siege  of  Cherbourg. 

1430.  Artillery  is  employed  at  the  sieges  of  Bourges, 
Melun,  and  Etampes.  • 

1423.  It  is  used  at  the  siege  of  Meaux. 

1438.  Orleans  is  attacked  by  artillery. 

1444.  Artillery  is  emp'oyed  against  Zurich. 

1453.  An  immense  bombard  of  izoolb.  calibre  is  employed 
at  the  siege  of  Constantinople. 

1460.  James  II.  is  killed  by  the  accidental  bursting  of  a 
cannon  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh  Castle. 

1477.  Louis  XI.  causes  \z  portable  cannon  to  be  cast, 
to  throw  metal  shot,  and  to  be  used  as  a  siege  train. 

148?.  The  Shah  of  Guzerat  despatches  artillery  against  the 
pirates  of  Bulsor. 

1489.  Gun-carriages  of  greatly  improved  construction  are 
made  in  France. 

1491.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  attacks  Renncs  with  an 
artillery  force  drawn  by  3,000  horses. 

1498.  The  Portuguese  find  artillery  much  in  use  in  India. 

1500.  Louis  XII.  transports  a  force  of  artillery  from  Pisa 
to  Rome,  a  distance  of  240  miles,  in  five  days. 

1515.  Owing  to  the  superiority  of  his  artillery,  Francis  I. 
defeats  the  Swiss  at  Marignano. 

1521.  Brass  cannon  are  first  cast  in  England.  Pigafctta, 
the  secretary  of  Magellan,  states  that  the  walls  of 
the  town  of  Borneo  are  defended  by  6  iron  and 
56  brass  cannon. 

1543.  Large  mortars,  to  fire  shells,  are  made  in  England 
by  Peter  Bawd. 

1545.  The  Mary  Base  man-of-war  sinks  off  the  coast  of 
France,  with  600  men  on  board,  owing  to  the 
weight  of  her  artillery.  Breech-loading  cannon 
have  been  recovered  from  the  wreck. 

1547.  Iron  cannon  are  first  cast  in  England  about  this  year. 

1554.  At  the  battle  of  Remi  Charles  V.  employs  light  guns 
with  limbers,  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  called  the 
emperor's  pistols. 

1556.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  in  his  march  against  the 
Turks,  separates  the  light  from  the  heavy  artillery. 

1580.  Petards  are  first  used  by  the  Huguenots  at  the  siege 
of  Cahors. 

1631.  Light  cannon  of  copper,  covered  with  cords  and 
boiled  leather,  are  used  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  at 
the  battle  of  Leipsic. 

J686.  The  colossal  brass  gun  "Malick  6  Meidan,"  or  "lord 
of  the  plain,"  cast  at  Bejapore,  in  commemoration 
of  the  C'iptnre  of  the  city,  this  year,  by  the  Emperor 
Aurungzebe,  is  the  largest  cast  cannon  in  existence, 
measuring  14  feet  I  inch  in  length,  with  a  bore  of 
2  feet  4  inches,  and  requiring  an  iron  shot  weighing 
l,6oolb. 

1697.  Howitzers  are  first  used,  at  the  siege  of  Aath. 

1749.  Maritz,  a  founder  of  Geneva,  invents  a  method  of 
boring  guns  and  mortars  that  had  been  cast  solid. 


1779.  Carronades  are  invented  by  Gen.  Robert  Melville 
about  this  year. 

1824.  Mr.  Perkins  introduces  the  steam-gun  (q.  v.). 

1847.  Rifled  breech-loading  cannon  are  introduced  by 
Major  Cavalli,  of  the  Sardinian  army,  and  Baron 
Wahrendorff,of  the  Swedish  service,  about  this  time. 

1854.  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Armstrong,  proposes 

his  Improvements  in  the  construction  of  cannon  to 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  Minister  of  War.  (See 
ARMSTRONG  GUN). — Dec.  Mr.  Whitworth  patents 
an  improved  cannon. 

1855.  Feb.  27.    Capt.    Bl  ikely  patents   his   rifled   hooped 

cannon.  Mr.  Whitworth  commences  his  experi- 
ments in  gun-making.  A  monster  286-pounder 
cannon  is  made  by  the  Mersey  Steel  and  Iron  Com- 
pany. 

1856.  The  Horsfall  gun  is  constructed. 

1858,  Aug.  30.  A  committee  is  appointed  by  Government 
to  examine  and  report  upon  the  different  sorts  of 
rifled  ordnance.— Nov.  16.  The  committee  reports 
in  favour  of  the  Armstrong  gun. 

1860,  Feb.  15—23.  Mr.  Whitworth's  rifled  artillery  is 
tested  with  much  success  at  South  >  ort.— Aug.  28. 
The  great  American  Floyd  gun,  throwing  a  360 -lb. 
shell,  is  fired  for  the  first  time  at  Old  Point  Comfort. 

1862,  June  20.    A  select  committee  on  ordnance   is   ap- 


pointed by  the  House  of  Commons. 

1863,  July  23.  The  select  committee  is  dissolved. 

1864.  The  Mackay  gun  is  tested  at  Liverpool. 

(See  BREECH-LOADING  GUNS.) 
ARTILLERY   COMPANY  OP   LONDON  is 

said  to  have  sprung  from  a  voluntary  associa- 
tion formed  for  the  encouragement  of  archery, 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  granted 
a  charter  to  the  fraternity  of  artillery  in  great 
and  small  ordnance  in  1537.  The  Artillery 
Company  was  established  in  1585,  during  the 
dread  of  an  invasion  by  the  Spaniards,  by 
citizens  who  voluntarily  exercised  themselves 
and  trained  up  others  to  the  use  of  war.  They 
assembled  every  Thursday.  The  exercises  were 
discontinued  after  the  excitement  respecting 
the  Spanish  Armada  had  subsided.  A  new 
company  was,  however,  formed  in  1610.  In 
1636  Charles  II.,  then  Prince  of  Wales,  and  his 
brother  the  Duke  of  York,  belonged  to  the 
company.  The  exercising  ground  was  removed 
from  Bishopsgate  to  the  Artillery  -  ground, 
Finsbury,  in  1622.  A  set  of  new  colours  was 
formally  presented  to  this  company  by  the 
Princess  of  Wales  June  29,  1864. 

ARTOIS  (France).— This  province,  anciently 
peopled  by  the  Atrebates,  was  conquered  in 
the  sth  century  by  the  Franks.  In  863  it  was 
bestowed  by  Charles  II.  (the  Bald),  as  the  dowry 
of  his  daughter  Judith,  upon  Baldwin,  Count  of 
Flanders,  by  whose  successors  it  was  held  till 
IT 80,  when  it  reverted  to  the  French  crown. 
Louis  IX.  erected  it  into  a  county  in  favour  of 
his  brother  Robert  in  1237,  and  on  the  marriage 
of  Mary  of  Burgundy  with  Maximilian  in 
1477  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  Restored  to  France  in  1482  by  the 
treaty  of  Arras  (q.  v.},  it  was  again  abandoned 
to  Maximilian  by  the  peace  of  Senlis,  May  23, 
1493,  and  formed  part  of  the  empire  till  its 
conquest  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1640.  It  was  sub- 
sequently confirmed  to  France  by  the  treaties 
of  the  Pyrenees  (q.  v.),  Nov.  7,  1659;  and  of 
Nimesruen  (q.  v.},  Aug.  10,  1678. 

ARTS  (Degrees  in).— (See  UNIVERSITY  DE- 
GREES. ) 

ARTS  (Society  of].— (See  ROVAL  SOCIETY.) 

ART-UNIONS.— Associations  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  fine  arts  originated  in  France  early 
in  the  igth  century,  and  were  soon  afterwards 

G 


ARUNDEL 


ASCOLI 


introduced  into  Germany.  The  first  society  of 
the  kind  known  in  England  was  the  London 
Art-Union,  established  Feb.  14, 1837,  and  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter  Dec.  i,  1846.  Doubts 
having  been  expressed  respecting  the  legality 
of  art-unions,  temporary  acts  were  passed  in 
1844  and  1845  to  relieve  their  promoters  from 
the  penalties  to  which  they  were  supposed  to 
be  liable,  and  they  were  legalized  under  certain 
conditions  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  48  (Aug.  13,  1846). 
The  Art-Union  of  Ireland  was  established  in 
1858.  The  following  list  is  given  in  the  almanack 
issued  by  the  Art-Union  of  London  : — 

1610,  July  I  a.  Bodleian  Library  founded. 
1679,  May  10.  Ashmolean  Museum  founded. 
1753,  April  5.  British  Museum  founded. 

1759,  Jan.  15.  British  Museum  opened. 

1760,  April  21.  Artists'  First  Exhibition  open  free. 
1765,  Jan.  26.  Artists'  First  Society  instituted. 
1769,  Jan.  2-  Royal  Academy  opened. 

1773,  March  20.  Hamilton's,  Sir  W.,  Collection  bought. 

1804,  Nov.  30.  Society  of  Water  Colours  instituted. 

1806,  Jan.  18.  British  Institution  opened. 

1810,  March  22-  Artists'  Annuity  Fund  established. 

1810,  Dec.  20.  Dulwich  Gallery  founded. 

1816,  June  9.  Elgin  marbles  bought. 

1834,  March  33.  National  Gallery  founded. 

1824,  April  14.  Society  of  British  Artists  instituted. 

1827,  Aug.  2-  Artists'  Benevolent  Fund  established. 

1833,  March  9.   Graphic  Society  founded. 

1834,  July  29.  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours. 
1837,  Feb.  14.  Art-Union  of  London  instituted. 
1837,  June  i.  School  of  Design  opened. 

1841.  Nov.  22.  Commission  on  Fine  Arts  issued. 
1846,  Dec.  I.  Art-Union  of  London  Charter  granted. 

ARUNDEL  (Sussex).— Camden  says  he  has 
not  met  with  the  name  before  the  time  of 
Alfred,  and  adds,  "All  its  renown  is  derived 
from  the  castle,  which  nourished  in  the  Saxon 
times,  and  was  rebuilt  .immediately  after  the 
arrival  of  the  Normans,  by  Roger  de  Mont- 
gomery, thence  called  Earl  of  Arundel."  In 
his  introduction  to  "  Domesday  Book,"  Ellis 
speaks  of  it  as  existing  in  the  days  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  In  1433  it  was  decided  that 
the  tenure  of  Arundel  Castle,  without  any 
creation,  patent,  or  investiture,  constituted  its 
possessor  Earl  of  Arundel.  It  was  garrisoned 
by  the  Parliament  during  the  Civil  War ;  was 
captured  by  Lord  Hopton  in  1643,  and  retaken 

ARUNDEL  CLUB  (London),  was  established, 
for  literary  and  scientific  purposes,  in  1860. 

ARUNDEL  CONSTITUTION.  —Archbishop 
Arundel,  at  his  visitation  in  London,  in  1397, 
revived  an  old  constitution,  originated  by  Simon 
Niger,  Bishop  of  London  (1229—1241),  by  which 
the  inhabitants  of  the  respective  parishes  were 
compelled  to  pay  their  rector  one  halfpenny  in 
the  pound  out  of  the  rent  of  their  houses. 
Hence  its  name. 

ARUNDEL  SOCIETY  (London).  — This  so- 
ciety, named  from  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of 
Arundel,  who  flourished  at  the  commencement 
of  the  1 7th  century,  and  was  called  "the  father 
of  vertu  in  England,"  and  "  the  Maecenas  of  all 
politer  arts,"  was  instituted  in  1849,  witn  tne 
secondary  title  of  the  "Society  for  Promoting 
the  Knowledge  of  Art." 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES.  —  (See  OXFORD 
MARBLES.) 

ARUSPICES.— (See  HARTJSPICES.) 

ARVERNI.— This  powerful  nation  of  Celtic 


Gaul  first  came  into  collision  with  the  Romans 
B.C.  121,  when  they  sustained  a  defeat  from 
Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  on  the  banks  of  the  Isere. 
They  participated  in  the  general  revolt  of  the 
Gauls  against  Rome,  B.C.  52,  at  which  time  they 
held  the  neighbouring  states  in  subjection. 

ARZILLA  (Africa),  taken  from  the  Moors  by 
Alphonso  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  in  1471.  The 
King  of  Fez  wrested  it  from  the  Christians  in 

ASAPH,  ST.  (Wales).— Tradition  states  that 
Kentigern,  being  expelled  from  the  see  of 
Glasgow,  came  into  Wales  about  550,  and  es- 
tablished a  bishopric  at  this  ancient  city  of 
Flintshire.  The  original  wooden  cathedral  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1282.  It  was  rebuilt  in 
1284,  but  was  again  burned  by  Owen  Glen- 
dower  in  1402.  Bishop  Redman,  who  held  the 
see  from  1471  to  1495,  erected  the  present 
building,  which  received  important  repairs 
and  additions  in  1833  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 
the  historian  of  the  mythical  and  early  periods 
of  Britain,  was  bishop  of  this  diocese  from 
1152  to  1154. 

ASCALON  (Syria)  is  mentioned  as  a  city  of 
the  Philistines,  Josh.  xiii.  3,  and  i  Sam.  vi.  17. 
The  tribe  of  Judah  captured  it  B.C.  1425 
(Judges  i.  1 8),  but  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Philistines,  and  is  frequently  denounced  by  the 
prophets.  It  fell  successively  into  the  hands 
of  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans. 
It  became  a  bishop's  see  in  the  4th  century. 
Owing  to  the  attacks  and  occupation,  in  the 
7th  century,  of  the  Saracens,  who  held  it  for 
many  years,  the  succession  of  its  bishops  was 
interrupted.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Crusaders 
in  i  loo,  and  again  in  1148,  without  success. 
Baldwin  III.  captured  it  in  1157.  Saladin 
re-took  it  in  1187,  and  burned  it  in  1191. 
Richard  I.  of  England  obtained  possession 
the  same  year,  and  restored  the  fortifications 
in  1192.  Sultan  Bibars  destroyed  its  fortifica- 
tions and  filled  up  its  harbour  in  1270. 

ASCALON  (Battle).— Fought  during  the 
second  crusade,  between  the  Fatimite  army,  led 
by  the  Caliph  of  Egypt,  and  the  Crusaders, 
under  the  command  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
Friday,  Aug.  12,  1099.  The  former  were  de- 
feated, leaving  30,000  killed  upon  the  field  of 
battle,  with  immense  booty. 

ASCENSION  JERA,  supposed,  says  Nicolas, 
to  have  been  used  only  by  the  author  of  the 
"Chronicle  of  Alexandria,"  who  dates  the 
year  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Menas  of  Cotys. 
It  corresponds  with  Nov.  12,  295. 

ASCENSION  DAY,  formerly  called  Holy 
Thursday,  a  movable  feast,  to  commemorate 
the  Ascension  of  our  Saviour,  appointed,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  in  the  apostolical 
times.  It  was  not,  however,  generally  cele- 
brated until  the  4th  century.  King  John  dated 
a  charter  on  the  Monday  next  before  the  Ascen- 
sion, May  20,  1191. 

ASCENSION  ISLAND  (Atlantic),  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  mariner  Galego,  on  Ascen- 
sion-day, Thursday,  May  20, 1501.  It  remained 
uninhabited  till  the  English  took  possession 
Oct.  15,  1815,  and  formed  a  military  station. 

ASCOLI  (Battle).— Fought  at  this  place,  the 
ancient  Asculum  Picenum,  during  the  struggle 
for  the  crown  of  Sicily,  between  the  Emperor 


ASCOT 


[    83    ] 


ASIA 


Henry  VI.  and  Tancred,  in  1190.  The  emperor's 
army  was  defeated.  Ascoli  was  annexed  to  the 
Papal  states  in  1426.  It  was  made  a  bishopric 
in  the  4th  century. 

ASCOT  RACES. — The  race-course  at  Ascot 
Heath,  in  Berkshire,  was  established  by  Wil- 
liam, Duke  of  Cumberland,  uncle  to  George  III. 
In  1722  the  manor  of  Ascot  was  purchased  by 
Mr.  R.  Foster,  and  in  1787  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  Mr.  D.  Agace.  William  IV.  gave 
a  handsome  piece  of  plate,  containing  the  hoof 
of  the  celebrated  horse  "Eclipse,"  to  be  run 
for  at  these  races  in  May,  1832.  The  new  grand 
stand  was  opened  in  1839. 

ASCULUM  (Battle).— Fought  at  this  place 
in  Apulia,  between  Pyrrhus  and  the  Romans, 
B.C.  279.  It  was  hotly  contested,  and  termi- 
nated in  favour  of  P3^rrhu8.  It  is  often  mis- 
taken for  a  place  of  the  same  name  in  Picenum. 
The  modern  name  of  both  places  is  Ascoli. 

ASCULUM  PICENUM  (Italy).— Captured  by 
Sempronius  Sophus,  B.C.  268,  when  the  whole 
nation  of  the  Piceni  submitted  to  Rome.  The 
conspiracy  and  revolt  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
the  massacre  of  the  Romans  dwelling  in  the 
city,  B.C.  91,  led  to  the  Social  or  Marsian  war, 
and  the  siege  and  capture  of  Asculum  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  90. 

ASHANTEE,  or  ASIENTE  (Africa).— Infor- 
mation of  this  country  was  first  obtained  at 
the  commencement  of  the  i8th  century.  It 
is  inhabited  by  a  warlike  people,  who,  by 
making  continual  aggressions  on  their  neigh- 
bours, have  largely  increased  their  territory. 
The  Ashantees  gained  a  victory  over  the  Eng- 
lish in  1807,  the  latter  having  assisted  the 
Fantees ;  and  in  another  struggle,  in  1816,  the 
Ashantees  had  the  advantage.  War  was  re- 
newed in  1823,  and  Sir  C.  M'Carthy,  Governor 
of  Cape  Coast,  was  killed,  and  his  army  de- 
feated by  the  Ashantees  Jan.  21,  1824.  The 
English  drove  them  from  Cape  Coast  Castle, 
July  22  in  the  same  year.  The  Ashantees 
suffered  a  terrible  defeat,  when  their  king  was 
glad  to  purchase  peace,  and  sent  his  son  as  a 
hostage  to  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Aug.  7,  1826. 
In  consequence  of  an  attack  made  by  the  King 
of  Ashantee  upon  the  Fantees,  Governor  Pine, 
the  British  resident  at  Cape  Coast,  ordered  a 
force  to  proceed  against  him,  Feb.  12,  1864. 
The  expedition  was,  however,  smitten  by  fever, 
and  returned,  after  suffering  terrible  losses  from 
disease,  without  exchanging  a  blow  with  the 
enemv. 

-ASH BURTON  (Treaty).  —Concluded  at 
Washington,  Aug.  9,  1842,  between  England 
and  the  United  States;  Lord  Ashburton  and 
Mr.  Webster  being  the  respective  plenipoten- 
tiaries. It  settled  the  boundary -line  between 
the  British  possessions  in  North  America  and 
the  United  States. 

ASHDOD  (Palestine),  now  ESDUD,  a  city 
assigned  to  Judah  in  the  division  of  the 
Promised  Land  (Josh.  xv.  46,  47),  about 
B.C.  1444.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
of  the  idol  Dagon,  which  fell  on  its  face  before 
the  ark  of  the  Lord,  captured  by  the  Philis- 
tines about  B.C.  1116  (i  Sam.  v.).  Uzziah  took 
Ashdod,  B.C.  810  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6)  ;  and  the 
Assyrians,  B.C.  711  (Isaiah  xx.  i).  Herodotus 
(ii.  157)  speaks  of  it  as  having  been  captured 


by  the  Egyptians,  after  sustaining  a  siege  of 
29  years,  the  longest  on  record  (B.C.  630). 
Nehemiah,  about  B.C.  428,  denounced  the 
marriages  contracted  by  the  Jews  with  the 
women  of  Ashdod  (Neh.  xiii.  23).  It  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  Azotus,  and 
under  that  name  was  known  during  the 
Crusades. 

ASHDUNE  (Battle),  was  fought  A.D.  871, 
between  the  Danes  and  the  English.  The 
latter,  commanded  by  Ethelred  and"  his  brother 
Alfred,  were  victorious.  In  the  ancient  chron- 
icles the  place  is  called  JSscesdune,  or  Es- 
chendun,  and  signifies  "hill  of  the  ash." 
Some  writers  believe  Aston,  in  Berkshire,  and 
others  Ashendon,  in  Bucks,  to  have  been  the 
scene  of  this  victory. 

ASHMOLEAN  MUSEUM  (Oxford).  —  This 
repository  of  manuscripts,  books,  coins,  cu- 
riosities, and  antiquities,  was  founded  Thurs- 
day, May  15  (O.S.),  1679,  and  opened  May  24 
(O.S.),  1682.  The  collection  was  formed  and 
given  to  the  university  by  Eliaa  Ashmole,  an 
eminent  antiquary,  who  died  May  18,  1692. — 
The  Ashmolean  Society  was  established  at 
Oxford  in  1828. 

ASH  WEDNESDAY.  —  Among  the  early 
Christians,  Lent  commenced  on  the  Sunday 
now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Ash  Wednesday 
and  the  three  following  days,  making  the  fast 
to  continue  40  days,  were  afterwards  added. 
"  Some  say  it  was  the  work,"  Bingham 
(Antiq.  b.  xxi.  ch.  i.  a.  5)  remarks,  "of 
Gregory  the  Great  (590 — 604) ;  but  others 
ascribe  it  to  Gregory  II.,  who  lived  above  an 
hundred  years  after,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
8th  century."  Other  authorities  attribute  it 
to  Felix  III.,  in  487.  It  received  its  name 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  practice  of  sprin- 
kling ashes  on  the  heads  of  penitents,  in 
remembrance  of  Gen.  iii.  19. 

ASIA,  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  and 
the  earliest  seat  of  empire,  civilization,  and 
commerce,  is  said  by  some  Greek  writers  to 
have  been  named  from  the  nymph  Asia,  one 
of  the  Oceanides.  The  term  was,  however, 
applied  by  the  Greeks  to  a  portion  only  of 
this  extensive  continent.  The  overthrow  of 
the  Lydian  empire  by  Cyrus,  B.C.  546,  first 
brought  it  under  their  notice ;  and  the  vic- 
tories of  Alexander  III.,  the  Great,  B.C.  334 — 
B.  c.  323,  led  to  a  further  acquaintance. 
Ptolemy,  A.D.  139 — 161,  asserts  that  not  more 
than  one-fourth  part  of  Asia  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  The  progress  of  discovery  in  this 
quarter  of  the  globe  was  accelerated  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Europe  by  the  Saracens,  and  the 
Crusades.  Marco  Polo,  the  account  of  whose 
travels  was  circulated  in  1208,  is  the  pioneer 
of  modern  discovery  in  this  direction.  He 
obtained  information  respecting  China,  Japan, 
and  parts  of  India.  Little  was,  however, 
effected  until  the  invention  of  the  mariner's 
compass,  and  the  discovery  of  the  passage 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  enabled  the 
navigators  of  Europe  in  the  isth  and  i6th  cen- 
turies to  prosecute  their  researches  by  sea  : — 


1497.  Vasco  de  Gama  doubles   the  Cape  of   Good  Hope 
(q.  v.),  and  arrives  at  Calicut  (q.  v.)  in  the 
of  the  following  year. 

G  2 


ASIA 


[    84    ] 


ASSASSINATION 


1498.  The  Portuguese  explore  Malabar  (q.  v.). 
1503.  The    Portuguese  obtain  a  footing  in  Cochin    (llin- 
dostan). 

1506.  Almeida    discovers  Ceylon  (q.  r.),    and  Soarez   the 

Maldives. 

1507.  Martin  Baumgart >n  travels  in  Palestine. 

1509.  Several  Portuguese  settlements  are  planted  in  Asia. 
1511.  The    Portuguese    establish   themselves  at    Malacca 

(q.  ».),  \isit  Siam  (q.  t).),  and  reach  the  Moluccas  or 

Spice  Islands. 

1517.  The  Portuguese  reach  China  (q.  ».),  UTld  form  a  settle- 

ment at  Macao  (q.  v.).    They  erect  the  fortress  of 
Colombo  (q.  v.). 

1518.  The    Portuguese  visit  Bengal,  Borneo   (?.•».).    and 

Chittagong  (q.  v.). 
1543.  Discovery  of  Japan  (q.  t).). 

1558.  Jenkinson  explores  the  Caspian,  and  reaches  Bok- 
hara (</.  r.). 

1579.  Siberia  (q.  v.)  is  entered  and  seized  by  the  Russians. 
1607.  The  Jesuit,  Father  Goez,  travels  from  India  to  the 

Great  Wall  of  China. 
1639.  The  river  Amour  is  discovered  by  the  Russians,  who 

also  reach  K::mtschatka  (q.  v). 
1656.  Grueber  travels  in  China. 
1714.  Desidcri  crosses  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  and  visits 

Cashmen:  and  Thibet. 
1762.  Xiiibuhr  explores  Arabia. 
1790.  The  north -eastern  coasts  of  Siberia  are  examined  by 

the  Bui 

1796.  Thibet  is  explored  by  Ca.pt.  HarJwicke. 
1804.  Krusenstern  explores  the  gulf  of  Tartary,  the  Kurile 

Archipelago,  an  1  th;.'eu:ists  of  Japan  and  Yesso. 
1808.  The  Himalaya  is  ascemled  by  Lieut.  Webb,  in  order 

to  determine  the  source  of  the  Ganges. 

ASIA  MINOR.— This  name  was  first  applied 
in  the  4th  century  to  the  north-western 
peninsula  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  It  is  also 
called  Anatolia,  although  the  latter  term  is 


of  the  earliest  remarkable  events  recorded  in 
profane  history ;  as  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
the  Trojan  war,  in  which  the  gods  are  said  t<> 
have  descended  from  Olympus  and  joined 
battle  with  mortals ;  the  conquests  of  the 
Persians,  the  overthrow  of  their  empire  by 
Alexander,  and  the  settlement  in  this  part  of 
Asia  of  his  successors.  It  subsequently  fell 
under  the  Roman  sway,  and  suffered  severely 
in  after-ages  in  the  wars  of  the  Saracens, 
Turks,  Tartars,  &c.  It  is  also  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  early  history  of  Christianity, 
and  the  first  Christian  churches  were  planted 
here."  Its  chief  political  divisions  in  ancient 
times  were  Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  Caria,  Cilicia, 
Galatia,  Isauria,  Lycaonia,  Lycia,  Lydia,  Mysia, 
Pamphylia,  Paphlagonia,  Phrygia,  Pisidia,  and 
1'ontus. 

ASIATIC  SOCIETIES.— The  first  society  of 
the  kind  was  established  by  the  Dutch  at 
Batavia,  in  1780 ;  the  next  was  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  founded  at  Calcutta 
by  Sir  W.  Jones,  in  1784 ;  and  this  was 
followed  by  the  Societe"  Asiatique,  at  Paris,  in 
1822.  The  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  for  the  investigation  and 
encouragement  of  arts,  sciences,  and  literature 
in  relation  to  Asia,  was  founded  in  London  in 
March,  1823,  and  received  its  charter  in  1824. 
The  Oriental  Translation  Committee,  estab- 
lished in  1828,  is  in  connection  with  this 
society.  The  Literary  Society  of  Bombay, 
founded  in  1804,  joined  it  as  a  branch  in  1829. 
The  Literary  Society  of  Madr  vs,  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Ceylon,  instituted  in  7845  ;  that  of 


China,  founded  at  Hong  Kong  in  1847  ;  and 
that  of  Shanghai,  established  in  1858,  are  also 
branches. 

ASPERN  and  ESSLING  (Battle).— Napoleon 
I.,  after  a  series  of  encounters  in  the  plain  of 
the  Marchfield  (q.  v.),  near  Vienna,  between  the 
villages  of  Aspern  and  Essling,  on  the  Danube, 
extending  over  two  days,  May  21  and  22,  1809, 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  island  of 
Lo"bau  (</.?'.).  He  lost  30,000  men  in  these  actions. 
The  Austrians,  who  were  commanded  by  the 
Archduke  Charles,  were  greatly  inferior  in 
point  of  numbers  to  the  French.  Marshal 
Launes,  wounded  in  the  battle  of  May  22, 
lingered  till  May  31,  when  he  expired.  These 
encounters  are  sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
the  Marchfield. 

ASPHALT,  used  for  embalming  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  was  first  employed  for 
pavements,  &c.,  by  Claridge,  about  1837. 

ASPROMONTE  (Battle).  —  Garibaldi  was 
defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Sardinian  troops  at  the  plateau  of  Aspromonte, 
in  Calabria,  Aug.  29,  1862. 

ASSAM  (Asia).— The  early  history  of  this 
country  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Its  inha- 
bitants waged  many  contests  with  the  Moham- 
medan conquerors  of  India,  and  long  main- 
tained their  independence.  In  1638  they  invaded 
Bengal,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter. 
The  country  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Bur- 
mese, who  were  expelled  by  the  English  in 
1825,  and  by  the  second  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Yandaboo  (q.  v.),  concluded  Feb.  24,  1826,  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  Assam  and  its  depen- 
dencies. A  part  of  the  country  remained 
independent  until  1838,  when  the  whole  was 
annexed  to  British  India.  Mr.  Bruce  dis- 
covered the  tea-plant  in  Assam  in  1823. 
Further  researches  were  made,  cultivation  was 
encouraged,  and  the  first  12  chests  of  tea 
reached  England  in  1838.  In  1839  an  associa- 
tion was  formed  for  the  cultivation  of  the  tea- 

P  ASSANDUN  (Battle).— (See  ARSINODON.) 

-six  ATI  ON.  —The  Council  of  Constance 
(q.  r.),  which  sat  from  1414  to  1418,  having  by 
its  fifteenth  decree  anathematized  only  such 
assassins  as  had  not  previously  procured  an 
ecclesiastical  mandate  for  the  deed,  the  order 
of  Jesuits  (g.  v.),  founded  in  1534,  deduced 
therefrom  the  doctrine  that  assassination  is 
laudable  when  perpetrated  by  direction  of 
an  ecclesiastical  tribunal.  The  Parliament  of 
Paris  condemned  a  book  of  the  Jesuit  Suarez 
to  be  burned  in  1614,  on  the  ground  of  its  advo- 
cating the  assassination  of  sovereigns. 


979   March  18.  Assassination  of  Edward  the  Martyr.    (See 
EXGLAXD.) 

1588,  Dec.  23.  The  Duke  of  Guise  is  assassinated  at  Blois. 

1589,  Aug.  i.  Henry  III.  of  France  is  stabbed  by  Jacques 

Clement. 
1610,  May  14.    Henry  IV.  of  France    is    assassinated   by 

Kavaillac. 
1638,  Aug.  23.  Assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham 

by  John  Felton 
1757,  Jan.  5.    Damiens  attempts  the    life  of    Louis  XIV. 

1786,  Aug.  2.    Margaret    Nicholson    attempts    the  life  of 

179?  July  13-  Marat  is  assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday. 
1800,  May  15.  James  Hadfleld  attempts  the  life  of  George  III. 


ASSASSINATION 


ASSEMBLY 


1801,  March  23.  Assassination  of  Paul  I.    (See  RUSSIA.) 

1813,  May  ii.  Assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval.  (See  PER- 
CEVAL ADMINISTRATION.) 

1840,  June  10.  Queen  Victoria's  life  is  attempted  by  Ed- 
ward Oxford. 

1843,  May  30.  John  Francis  fires  at  Queen  Victoria.— 
July  3.  John  William  Beau  presents  a  pistol  at 
Queen  Victoria. 

1849,  May  19.  William  Hamilton  fires  at  Queen  Victoria. 

1850,  May  22.  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia  is  wounded 

by  Sofelage.— May  27.  llobert  Pate  assaults  Queen 
Victoria  with  a  stick. 

1852,  Feb.  2-  Martin  Merino  attempts  the  life  of  the  Queen 

of  Spain. 

1853,  Feb.  i«.  Francis  Joseph  I.  of  Austria  is  stabbed  by 

Libeny. 

1854,  March  30.  Assassination  of  Ferdinand-Charles  III., 

Duke    of   Parma,    by  an   unknown  person,    who 
effected  his  escape. 

1855,  April  2rf.  Pianori  hres  at  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III. 
1850,  May  28.     Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  is    attacked   by 

Raymond    Fuentes.  —  Dec.    8.      Agesiras    Milaiio 
strikes  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples  with  a  bayonet. 

1857,  Jan.  3.  Assassination  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris. 

1858,  Jan.  14.  The  Orsiui  conspiracy  (q.  v.).    An  attempt  is 

made  this  year  upon  the  life  of  Victor  Emanuel  II. 

of  Sardinia. 
1861,  July  14.  William  I.  of  Prussia  is  shot  at  by  Oscar 

Becker. 
1863,  Sep.  18.   Aristide  Dousios  fires  upon  the  Queen  of 

Greece. 
1865,  April  14.  Assassination  of  President   Lincoln.     (See 

UNITED  STATES.) 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT.— Several  persons 
leagued  together  for  the  purpose  of  assassin- 
ating William  III.,  Feb.  15  (N.S.  25),  1696, 
between  Brentford  and  Turnham  Green, 
through  which  places  he  passed  on  Saturdays 
to  hunt  in  Richmond  Park.  The  plot  was 
revealed  by  one  of  the  conspirators,  and 
William  III.  remained  at  home.  The  execution 
of  the  plan  was  consequently  deferred  till  the 
following  Saturday,  Feb.  22  (N.S.  March  3),  and 
was  again  frustrated.  Some  of  the  conspirators 
were  captured  and  executed.  Their  chief 
object  was  to  restore  James  II.  to  the  throne. 

ASSASSINS,  or  ISMAELIANS,  a  military 
and  religious  order  sprung  from  the  Carma- 
tians,  a  Mohammedan  sect  that  settled  in 
Persia  in  the  nth  century.  Hassan-ben- Sahib, 
having  obtained  possession  of  the  hill-fort  of 
Alamoot,  or  "Vulture's  Nest,"  in  Casvin, 
Persia,  established  the  order  there,  about  1090. 
The  leader,  called  Sheikh-cl-Jebelz,  was  known 
in  Europe  as  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain. 
The  assassins  gained  other  strongholds  and 
spread  into  Syria.  (See  ANSAIREEH.)  Hassan 
died  in  1124.  The  Persian  branch  of  the  Assas- 
sins was  exterminated  by  Holagou  Khan  in 
1258  ;  and  the  Syrian  by  the  Mameluke  sultans 
of  Egypt  in  1270,  or,  according  to  Gibbon,  in 
1280.  Gibbon  says  of  them  :— "  With  the  fana- 
ticism of  the  Koran  the  Ismaelians  had  blended 
the  Indian  transmigration  and  the  visions  of 
their  own  prophets ;  and  it  was  their  first  duty 
to  devote  their  souls  and  bodies  in  blind  obe- 
dience to  the  vicar  of  God.  The  daggers  of  his 
missionaries  were  felt  both  in  the  East  and 
West :  the  Christians  and  the  Moslems  enu- 
merate, and  perhaps  multiply,  the  illustrious 
victims  that  were  sacrificed  to  the  zeal,  avarice, 
or  resentment  of  the  Old  Man  (as  he  was  cor- 
ruptly styled)  of  the  Mountain.  But  these 
daggers,  his  only  arms,  were  broken  by  the 
sword  of  Holagou,  and  not  a  vestige  is  left  of 
the  enemies  of  mankind,  except  the  word 


assassin,  which,  in  the  most  odious  sense,  has 
been  adopted  in  the  languages  of  Europe." 

ASSAY  of  gold  and  silver  originated  with 
the  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  treasurer  to  Henry  I. 
Richard  de  Luci,  sheriff  of  Essex,  is  men- 
tioned as  receiving  certain  sums  for  making 
the  assay  or  combustion,  as  it  was  termed,  of 
silver  money,  in  1157.  Assay  of  gold  is  not 
mentioned  earlier  than  1199,  when  Nigell 
Ruffus  and  Odo  le  Petit  received  payment  for 
assaying  the  gold  employed  for  the  crown  and 
other  regal  ornaments  used  at  the  coronation 
of  King  John.  The  first  statute  for  its  regula- 
tion was  passed  in  1238.  The  first  public  assay 
of  metals  employed  in  coinage,  called  the  trial 
of  the  pix,  took  place  Feb.  24,  1248,  when  tho 
mayor  and  citizens  of  London  were  commanded 
to  elect  12  citizens  to  act  conjointly  with 
12  skilful  goldsmiths  in  the  examination. 
Henry  III.  ordered  a  general  proof  and  assay 
of  the  coins  throughout  the  kingdom  in  1270, 
the  assayer  having  authority  to  confiscate  to 
the  royal  use  all  money  proved  to  be  corrupt. 
In  1300  the  privilege  of  assay  was  granted  to 
the  Goldsmiths'  Company.  The  first  regular 
public  trial  of  the  pix  took  place  in  1281,  and 
in  1344  rules  were  laid  down  for  its  perform- 
ance, which  directed  trial  to  be  made  every 
three  months  in  presence  of  the  privy  council 
and  the  authorities  of  the  mint.  The  earliest 
instance  of  the  trial  of  the  pix  in  other  coun- 
tries appears  to  have  taken  place  in  France 
during  the  reign  of  Philip  V.  (1316—1322). 
James  I.  presided  in  person  at  an  assay  made 
May  9,  1611,  and  in  1643  a  committee  of  lords 
and  commons  was  appointed  by  Parliament  to 
superintend  the  trial.  The  assay,  touching, 
and  marking  with  the  leopard's  head  of  gold 
and  silver  plate  by  the  Goldsmiths'  Company, 
was  first  ordered  by  28  Edw.  I.  c.  20  (1300),  but 
is  believed  to  have  been  vested  in  their  hands 
for  many  years  previously.  Assay  of  plate  at 
York,  Exeter,  Bristol,  Chester,  and  Norwich, 
was  provided  by  12  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  4  (1700) ; 
at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  by  i  Anne,  st.  i,  c.  9, 
s.  3  (1701)  ;  at  Sheffield  and  Birmingham  by  13 
Geo.  III.  c.  52  (1773),  which  was  amended  by 
24  Geo.  III.  sess.  2,  c.  20  (1784),  and  5  Geo.  IV. 
c.  52,  local  and  personal  (1824).  Provisions  for 
the  assay  of  foreign  imported  plate  were  made 
by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47,  ss.  59  and  60  (July  9, 
1842),  which  was  amended  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  56, 
s.  6  (July  30,  1842).  The  assaying  laws  were 
also  amended  by  17  <fc  18  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  10, 
1854),  and  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  60  (July  23,  1855). 

ASSAYE  (India).— This  battle  was  fought 
Sep.  23,  i8o3,when  Wellington,  with 4, 500 troops, 
of  whom  only  2,000  were  British,  defeated 
the  combined  forces  of  the  Mahratta  chief, 
Scindiah,  and  the  Rajah  of  Berar,  amounting 
to  50,000  men. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES.— This  body,  con- 
sisting of  130  divines,  with  30  lay  assessors, 
was  constituted  by  an  ordinance  dated  June 
12,  1643,  and  appointed  to  meet  July  i,  1643, 
in  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at  Westminster, 
for  the  purpose  of  consulting  and  advising 
both  houses  of  Parliament  relative  to  the 
liturgy,  discipline,  and  government  of  the 
Church  of  England.  They  were  divided  into 
three  parties,  the  Independents,  the  Erastians, 


ASSENS 


[    86    ] 


ASSIZE 


and  the  Presbyterians,  the  latter  being  in  a 
majority.  Charles  I.  issued  a  proclamation, 
June  22,  declaring  the  assembly  illegal,  and 
prohibiting  the  meeting.  In  spite  of  this,  they 
assembled  on  the  appointed  day.  They  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  both  houses  of  Parliament 
for  a  fast,  sent  letters  to  the  Protestant  com- 
munities on  the  continent,  drew  up  a  confes- 
sion of  faith,  and  a  larger  and  shorter  catechism. 
This  assembly  sat  at  intervals  until  Feb.  22, 
1649  ;  and.  somewhat  modified  in  character,  it 
held  meetings  every  Thursday  until  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1653.  It  was 
also  called  the  Westminster  Assembly. 

ASSENS  (Battle).— Christian  III.,  King  of 
Denmark  and  Norway,  defeated  the  rebellious 
Danes  at  this  place  in  1535.  This  victory,  with 
other  naval  successes,  restored  the  island  to  its 
allegiance. 

ASSESSED  TAXES.— So  called  bocaxisethey 
are  assessed  and  charged  upon  persons  in  re- 
spect of  articles  in  their  use  or  keeping,  as 
land,  houses,  servants,  carriages,  fee.,  origi- 
nated, according  to  some  authorities,  in  991, 
with  the  imposition  of  the  Daiiegeld  (q.  v.}. 
(See  DOGS,  HOUSE  DUTY,  LAND  TAX,  WINDOWS, 
&c.,  &c.,  &c.).  The  numerous  statutes  relative 
to  the  assessed  taxes  were  amended  by  45  Geo. 
III.  c.  71  (June  27,  1805),  48  Geo.  III.  c.  141 
(July  2,  1808),  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  88  (July  29,  1822), 
16  &  17  Viet.  c.  90  (Aug.  20, 1853),  17  Viet.  c.  i 
(Feb.  7,  1854),  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  85  (Aug.  10, 
1854),  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  80  (July  29,  1856). 

ASS1ENTO  or  ASIENTO.— Charles  V.  entered 
into  a  contract  with  the  Flemings,  who  agreed 
to  supply  a  certain  number  of  negroes  yearly 
to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America.  In 
1532  the  Spaniards  withdrew  the  contract,  and 
in  1580  Philip  II.  granted  it  to  the  Genoese. 
Philip  V.,  on  his  accession,  transferred  it  to 
France ;  and,  by  a  treaty  concluded  between 
France  and  Spain,  at  Madrid,  Aug.  27,  1701,  the 
former  agreed  to  furnish  annually,  for  10 
years,  4,800  negroes,  or  3,000  in  time  of  war. 
By  a  treaty  between  England  and  Spain,  signed 
at  Madrid  March  26,  1713,  England  agreed  to 
take  it  for  30  years,  from  M«y  i,  1713,  on  the 
same  terms  as  France  had  done ;  and  this 
agreement  was  confirmed  by  the  i2th  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  July  13,  1713.  The  war 
of  1740  caused  its  suspension  ;  but,  by  the  i6th 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct.  7, 
1748,  England  was  to  resume  it  for  four  years. 
A  treaty  was,  however,  signed  at  Madrid,  be- 
tween England  and  Spain,  Oct.  5,  1750,  by 
which  Great  Britain  gave  up  the  Assiento  con- 
tract and  the  annual  vessel  during  the  re- 
mainder of  four  years,  Spain  agreeing  to  pay 
,£100,000  in  liquidation  of  all  claims. 

ASSIGNATS.— State  notes  or  paper  money 
issued  on  the  security  of  the  Church  lands 
.seized  during  the  French  Revolution.  The  first 
issue,  made  in  1 790,  was  to  the  amount  of 
400,000,000  of  francs,  bearing  interest,  and  in 
Sep.  800,000,000  in  addition  were  issued,  but 
without  the  liability  to  pay  interest.  Further 
sums  were  raised  in  this  manner  on  the  lands 
of  the  emigrants  and  other  confiscated  property. 
To  these  assignats  a  forced  currency  was 
given  ;  but  they  soon  became  almost  valueless. 
Various  experiments  to  prop  up  this  paper 


currency  were  tried  without  success,  and  the 
system  was  virtually  abandoned  in  1796. 

ASSINGDON  (Battle),  or  ASSANDUN.— A 
desperate  conflict  between  Canute  and  Edmund 
Ironside  took  place  here  in  1016.  Edmund  lost 
several  of  his  most  valiant  leaders,  and  with- 
drew during  the  night.  A  writer  in  "Notes 
and  Queries,"  3rd  Series,  I.,  407,  conjectures 
that  the  scene  of  this  conflict  was  the  modern 
parish  of  Esseudine  in  Rutland,  where  traces  of 
some  early  contest  are  still  extant.  Others  fix 
the  site  at  Ashdown,  near  Saffron  Walden. 

ASSIZE  COURTS.— Itinerant  justices  were 
appointed  for  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  by 
the  Parliament  held  at  Northampton  in  1176. 
The  judges  were  invested  with  a  delegated  au- 
thority from  the  aula  regia,  or  the  king's  court, 
and  they  made  their  circuit  round  the  kingdom 
for  trying  causes  once  in  seven  years.  The 
1 2th  article  of  Magna  Charta  (1215)  provided 
that  they  should  be  sent  into  each  county  once 
a  year,  and  this  was  repeated  in  the  charter  of 
Henry  III.  (9  Hen.  III.  c.  12,  1225).  It  was  not 
until  the  year  1285  that  these  courts  were  pre- 
sided over  by  judges  of  the  superior  courts. 
By  13  Edw.  I.  st.  i,  c.  30  (1285),  they  were  ap- 
pointed to  go  into  every  shire  at  the  most  three 
times  a  year.  Assizes  were  first  allowed  to  be 
held  during  Advent  and  Lent,  by  the  consent 
of  the  bishops,  at  the  king's  special  request, 
as  set  forth  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I. 
(3  Edw.  I.  c.  51),  in  1275. 

ASSIZE  OF  B  ATT  EL.—  (See  TRIAL  BY 
COMBAT.) 

ASSIZE  OF  BREAD.— Littleton  designates 
the  word  assize  nomen  cequivocum,  on  account 
of  its  application,  especially  in  English  law,  to 
a  great  variety  of  subjects.  In  some  cases,  as  in 
the  present,  it  is  equivalent  to  an  assessment. 
The  first  notice  of  an  assize  of  bread  is  to  be 
found  in  a  proclamation  made  in  1203,  during 
the  reign  of  King  John,  enforcing  the  legal 
assize.  By  51  Hen.  III.  st.  i  (1266),  called  the 
'•  As.sisa  et  Panis  et  Cervisise,"  or  the  assize  of 
bread  and  ale,  the  prices  of  these  articles  were 
regulated  by  those  of  corn,  and  by  51  Hen.  III. 
st.  6  (1266),  a  baker  was  fined  for  transgressing 
the  law,  and  in  case  of  a  grievous  offence  was 
to  suffer  punishment  of  body  in  the  pillory,  or 
some  other  correction.  The  latter  statute  was 
repealed  by  9  Anne,  c.  18  (1710),  which  fixed 
a  new  assize.  Other  alterations  were  made 
in  the  law,  and  the  statute  Assisa,  &c.,  was 
repealed  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  74,  s.  23  (June  17, 
1824).  Bread  has  since  been  sold  by  weight  in 
the  metropolis,  and  the  system  was  extended 
to  the  country  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (1836), 
which  came  into  operation  Oct.  i,  1836.  The 
law  requires  bakers,  when  delivering  bread,  to 
be  provided  with  weights  and  scales.  By 
i  Viet.  c.  38  (July  4, 1838),  allformeracts  relating 
to  the  sale  of  bread  in  Ireland  were  repealed, 
and  a  new  assize  was  established  for  that 
country. 

ASSIZE  OF  JERUSALEM.— This  code  was 
compiled  in  1 100,  under  the  auspices  of  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  Lathi 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  founded  July  23,  1099. 
Godfrey  sought  the  advice  of  the  Latin  pilgrims 
best  skilled  in  the  statutes  and  customs  of 
Europe.  With  their  aid  the  code,  which 


ASSIZE 


[    87     ] 


ASSYRIA 


Gibbon  terms  "a  precious  monument  of  feudal 
jurisprudence,  was  drawn  up.  The  new  code, 
attested  by  the  seals  of  the  King,  the  Patriarch, 
and  the  Viscount  of  Jerusalem,  was  deposited 
in  the  holy  sepulchre,  enriched  with  the  im- 
provements of  succeeding  times,  and  respect- 
fully consulted  as  often  as  any  doubtful  ques- 
tion arose  in  the  tribunals  of  Palestine."  It 
was  restored  for  the  use  of  the  Latin  kingdom 
of  Cyprus  in  1369.  An  Italian  version  appeared 
i11  I535>  at  Venice,  and  a  French  one  at  Paris 
in  1690. 

ASSIZE  OF  WOOD  AND  COAL.— On  ac- 
count of  the  frauds  practised,  a  law  was  passed 
in  1543  (34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3),  regulating  the 
measure  for  coal  and  wood.  In  consequence  of 
the  scarcity  of  wood  and  the  impossibility  of 
enforcing  the  regulations  of  this  statute,  it 
was  amended  by  7  Edw.  VI.  c.  7  (1553).  The 
latter  act  was  altered  by  43  Eliz.  c.  14  (1601). 
The  law  was  enforced  by  9  Anne  c.  15  (1710), 
and  an  exemption  granted  in  favour  of  billets 
made  of  beech  wood  only,  by  10  Anne  c.  6 
(1711).  These  acts  were  repealed  by  5  Geo.  IV. 
c.  74,  s.  23  (June  17,  1824).  The  sale  of  coal  in 
the  metropolis  is  regulated  by  i  &  2  Will.  IV. 
c.  76  (Oct.  5,  1831). 

ASSUMPTION.— This  Roman  Catholic  fes- 
tival, celebrated  Aug.  15,  in  honour  of  the 
alleged  assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary  into 
heaven,  was  instituted,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  the  4th,  and  according  to  others 
in  the  7th  century.  The  early  Church  com- 
memorated her  death,  but  the  festival  of  the 
Assumption  is  a  Romish  innovation.  It  was 
originally  observed  Jan.  18,  which  was  after- 
wards changed  to  Aug.  15.  The  Greek  and 
Russian  Churches  011  the  latter  day  observe  the 
festival  of  "the  Day  of  Rest  of  the  Most  Holy 
Mother  of  God,"  but  do  not  hold  the  doctrine 
of  the  Assumption. 

ASSUNDUN  (Battle.)—  (See  ASHDUNE  and 
ASSINGDON,  both  of  which  battles  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Assandun  or  Assundun. ) 
ASSURANCE.— (See  INSURANCE.) 
ASSYRIA  (Asia).— The  narrow  tract  of 
country  enclosed  between  Mesopotamia,  Baby- 
lonia, Armenia,  Susiana,  and  Media,  called  by 
the  ancients  Assyria,  or  Asturia,  was  the 
original  seat  of  that  extended  dominion  known 
as  the  Assyrian  empire.  According  to  the  loth 
chapter  of  Genesis,  Nimrod,  leaving  Babylon, 
which  he  had  founded,  went  forth  into  Assyria, 
where  he  built  Nineveh,  Rhehoboth,  Calah, 
and  Resen,  about  B.C.  2218.  Such  is  the  inter- 
pretation given  in  the  margin  of  the  Bible, 
though  some  authors  prefer  the  reading  that 
Asshxir  went  forth  and  built  these  cities.  The 
next  notice  of  this  empire  that  occurs  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  the  invasion  of  Palestine  in 
the  reign  of  Uzziah  by  Pul  (2  Kings,  xv.  19), 
King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  769.  The  sacred  historian 
relates  that  Menahem,  King  of  Israel,  induced 
him  to  retire  by  a  bribe  of  1,000  talents.  Tig- 
lath- Pileser  II.,  the  successor  of  Pul,  at  the 
solicitation  of  Ahaz,  King  of  Judah,  invaded 
Syria,  and  took  many  of  its  people  away  captive 
(2  Kings,  xvi.  5 — 9),  B.C.  738.  Shalmaneser, 
having  besieged  Samaria  three  years,  captured 
it,  and  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  B.C. 
722  (2  Kings-,  xvii.  5,  6),  and  carried  away  its 


people  into  captivity.  Another  king,  Senna- 
cherib, came  up  against  all  the  fenced  cities  of 
Judah,  and  took  them  (2  Kings,  xviii.  13,  and 
2  Chron.  xxxii.),  B.C.  714,  but  failed  in  an 
attack  upon  Jerusalem,  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
having  slain  185,000  men  in  one  night,  B.C.  712 
(2  Kings,  xviii.  i3,jxix.  35,  36,  and  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  21).  On  his  return  to  Nineveh,  Sen- 
nacherib was  slain  by  two  of  his  own  sons,  and 
another  king,  named  Esarhaddon,  assumed  the 
Assyrian  sceptre,  B.C.  711  (2  Kings,  xix.  37). 
The  last  King  of  Assyria  mentioned  in  Scripture 
is  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
ascended  the  throne  B.C.  650.  The  ancient 
authors  who  treat  of  the  history  of  Assyria 
are  Herodotus,  who  died  B.C.  408,  Ctesias,  who 
was  living  B.C.  398,  and  Berosus,  a  native  of 
Babylonia,  who  flourished  B.C.  250.  The 
theory  of  an  Assyrian  empire  that  terminated 
at  the  revolt  of  the  Medes,  about  B.C.  711,  fol- 
lowed by  an  Assyrian  monarchy  that  continued 
till  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  B.C.  606,  though 
supported  by  high  authorities,  is  now  generally 
rejected.  Clinton  (Fasti  HeUenici,  i.  268)  re- 
marks, with  reference  to  the  duration  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy  :  "  The  period  delivered  by 
Ctesias  seems  to  have  been  1,306  years.  He 
placed  its  commencement  1,000  years  before  the 
Trojan  war,  and  its  termination  at  B.C.  876.  But 
in  assigning  the  termination  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  Ctesias,  and  those  that  followed 
him,  confounded  two  events,— the  revolt  of 
the  Medes  and  the  destruction  of  Nineveh ; 
which  they  made  to  happen  together.  These 
two  events,  however,  were  divided  by  a  con- 
siderable interval  of  time,  and  the  conclusion 
of  the  term  of  1,306  years  assigned  to  that 
monarchy  did  not  occur  at  the  Median  revolt, 
but  at  the  final  capture  of  Nineveh.  The  date 
of  this  event  we  are  enabled  to  fix  with 
precision,  on  the  concurrent  authority  of 
Scripture  and  Herodotus"  (B.C.  606).  Clinton 
gives  the  following  summary  : — 

Yrs.    B.C. 
Ninus,  B.C.  318?. 

Assyrian  monarchy,   1306  years  before")  ,-„ 
the  empire  j  °'5    *9  * 

During  the  empire,  34  kings 536    1337 

Sardanapalus,  B.C.  8j6. 

After  the  empire,  6  kings 105      711 

1306 
Capture  of  Nineveh 606 

Vaux  (Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  p.  508)  gives, 
on  the  authority  of  Col.  Rawlinson,  the  follow- 
ing list  of  Assyrian  monarchs  : — 


B.C. 

1373.  Belukh. 

255.  Pudil. 

340.  Phulukh  I. 
1230.  Silima-Rish  I. 

300.  Sanda-pal-irnat. 
1185.  Asshur-dapal-il. 
1165.  Mutaggil-Nebo. 
40.  Asshur-Rish-ipan 
20.  Tiglath- Pileser  I. 
1 100.  Asshur-bani-pal  I. 


FIRST  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 
B.C. 

950.  Asshur-adan-akhi 
925.  Asshur-danin-il. 
900.  Phulukh  II. 
880.  Tigulti-Sanda. 


815.  Silima-Rish  II.  (As- 
shur-  damn-pal) . 

780.  Shamasphul. 

760.  Phulukh  III.  (Pul) 
and  Semiramis 


747.'  Tiglath-Pileser  II. 
730.  Shalmaneser. 
721.  Sargon. 
;o2.  Sennacherib. 
iSo.  Esarhaddon. 


SECOND  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 
B.C. 

660.  Asshur-bani-pal  II. 
640.  Asshur-Emit-Ilut. 
625.  Final    overthrow     of 
Nineveh. 


ASSYRIA 


ASSYRIA 


The  subject  has  been  investigated  with  great 
care  and  ability  by  the  Rev.  G.  Rawlinson 
(The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient 
World),  who  is  of  opinion  that  this,  the  second 
great  monarchy  of  the  ancient  eastern  world, 
was  situated  in  the  "upper  portion  of  the 
Mesopotamian  valley.  The  cities  which  suc- 
cessively formed  its  capitals  lay,  all  of  them, 
upon  the  Middle  Tigris,  and  the  heart  of  the 
country  was  a  district  on  either  side  that 
river,  enclosed  within  the  35th  and  s/th 
parallels.  By  degrees  these  limits  were 
enlarged;  and  the  term  Assyria  came  to  be 
used  °  in  a  loose  and  vague  way,  of  a  vast 
and  ill-defined  tract  extending  on  all  sides 
from  this  central  region."  Its  earliest  known 
inhabitants  migrated  from  Shinar,  whence 
"went  forth  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh" 
(Gen.  x.  n).  His  descendants,  after  submitting 
to  the  empire  of  Chaldsea  (q.  r.),  removed 
farther  to  the  north,  where  they  made  a  per- 
manent settlement  before  B.C.  1600.  The  fol- 
lowing summary  •  f  its  history  is  taken  from 
Rawlinson's  elaborate  and  exhaustive  work  :— 

B  C 

1831.  Shamas-Vul,  son  of  Ismi-dagon,  King  of  ChaldtU 
(,/.  7-.),  builds  a  temple  at  Klleh-Sherg**,  the  capital 
(luring  the  Clialdivan  supremacy. 

1600.  The  migration  of  the  Assyrians  fiom  a  more  south- 
ern dUtrict  is  ..ffccied  before  this  year. 
1290.  Accession  of  Shalmaneser  I.,  who  founds  Ximrud, 

or  Cahih  (</.  r.). 

1130— I  I2v  Tiglath-rilescr  I.,  during  the  first  five  years 
of  his  reign,  suppresses  a  rebellloD  of  the  Mos- 
chians,  who  ha  I  s  -i/,ed  the  Assyrian  dependency  of 
Quiiitniikh,— wages  \var  against  the  llittites,— 
subdues  tlie  Na'iri.  after  an  obstinate  resistance.— 
attacks  Syria,  where  he  captures  and  burns  six 
dties.— and  rava-es  tlie  mountainous  district  of 
Musr,  in  KurdMan,  \\iilitlu-  neighbouring  territory 
of  the  Couiani ;  the  whole  bring  narrated  on  two 
duplicate  e\  linders  of  Moue,  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum,  in  which  tlie  monarch  Mutes  that, 
fell  into  my  hands  altogether,  between 
the  commencement  of  my  reign  and  my  fifth 
year,  42  countries  with  their  kings,  from  the 
banks  of  the  river /ib  to  the  banks  of  the  river 
Euphrates,  the  country  of  the  Khatti,  and  the 
upper  ocean  of  the  setting  sun.  I  brought  them 
under  one  government,  I  took  hostages  from  them 
and  I  imposed  on  them  tribute  and  offerings." 
1112.  Tiglath-l'ileser  is  defeat.  .1  by  Merodach-iddin-akhi, 
King  of  Babylon,  who  carries  away  several  As- 
syrian idols. 
oqo.  As'svriaii  names  appear  for  the  first  time  in  the 

Egyptian  dynastic  lists. 

884— 878."Asshur-idamii-pal.  during  the  first  six  years  o: 
his  rei-n,  imades  Kurdistan.— subdues  the  regions 
west  and  north- west  of  Assyria,— suppresses  rebel- 
lions at  Assnra  ami  Tela.— forces  the  kings  of  tin 
Xairi  to  pay  him  heavy  tribute,— extend*  his  arms 
far  to  tin;  south-east,  where  he  founds  the  city  of 
Dur-Asshur,— attain  passe*  northward,  receiving 
tribute  of  the  Qummukh,  and  overthrowing  250 
fenced  cities  of  the  Xai.i.— invades  the  country  01 
the  Shuhites  and  Chaldtca,—  defeats  the  alliec 
ShuMti'S  and  Laki  in  a  great  b  ittle  fought  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  where  6,500  of  his  enemies 
fell,— besieges  and  burns  Kabrabi,  the  capital  cit\ 
of  Beth-Adiua.  removing  2.500  of  the  Inhabitant! 
as  colonists  to  Calnh,—  invades  Syria,  ravaging  tin 
country  about  Antioch  and  Aleppo,  and  after 
crossing  Lebanon  and  arriving  at  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean, receives  tribute  from  Tyre  and  Sidon,  —ant 
invades  the  Upper  Tigris,  seizing  the  town  o: 
Amida  or  Diaruekir  (q.  ».). 

851,  850.  Shalmaneser  II.  invades  Babylon  and  ChaldaM 
850 — 840.  Jndrea  submits  to  Assyria  about  this  time. 
848.  Shalmaneser  II.  fails  in  an"  attack  upon  Ben-hadad 

King  of  Syria  and  the  llittites. 

845.  He  defeats  Ben-hadad,  and  a  large  force  of  Kama- 
tiiiles  and  llittites. 


844.  He   defeats   Hazael,   the   success  r  of    Ben-hadad, 
killin  i- 10,000  of  his  army,  and  seizing  1,121  chariots. 
841.  lie  enters  and  ravages  all  the  chief  cities  of  Syria. 
82>>  Asshur-danin-pul  rebels  about  this  time  against  his 
father  Shalmaneser,  and  is  subdued,  and,  probably, 
put  to  death. 

820.  Shamas-Iva  invades  Babylon,  attacking  in  his  road 
to  the  capital  a  fortified  place,  where  he  slays 
i8,oco  men,  and  captures  3,000.  He  subsequently 
attacks  Merodach-belatzu-ikbi,  King  of  Babylon, 
on  the  Daban  river,  wh;.-re  he  kills  5,000  of  the 
enemy,  and  captures  2,000  prisoners,  100  chariots, 
and  200  tents. 

8:0—781.  Keign  of  Iva-lush  IV.,  whose  queen,  Sammu- 
ramit,  is  believed  by  llawlir.son  (ii.  383)  to  be  the 
mythical  Semiramis  of  the  Greeks  and  Komans. 

760—750  According  to  Hawlinson  (ii.  3yo,  note),  Jonah's 
visits  to  Nineveh  took  place  between  these  years. 

751 — 745.  1'ul,  "King  of  Assyria,"  invades  Israel,  and 
exacts  from  King  Menahem  1,000  tahnts  of 
silver  (2  Kings,  xv.  19).  Kawlinson  (Ancient 
Monarchies,  ii.  388)  regards  this  prince,  whoso 
name  is  not  mentioned  in  any  Assyrian  records,  as 
"a  pretender  to  the  Assyrian  crown,  never  acknow- 
ledge I  lit  Nineveh,  b, it  established  in  the  western 
(and  southern)  provinces  so  firmly,  that  he  could 
venture  to  conduct  an  expedition  into  Lower  Syria, 
and  to  claim  there  the  fealty  of  Assyria's  vassals." 
Different  dates  are  assigned  for  this  invasion  by 
different  ehronologists.  (See  ISUAKL.) 

744.   Tiglath-l'ileser  II.  invades  Babylon. 

741.  He  attacks  Syria,  subduing  Damascus,  Samaria,  and 
Tyre. 

"T?    He  invades  the  northern  portions  of  Palestine. 

730  (about).  Ahaz  submits  Judiea  to  Tiglath-l'ileser  II., 
who,  in  return,  as.-ists  him  against  the  kings  of 
Damascus  and  Samaria. 

723—721  Shalmaneser  IV.  besieges  and  takes  Samaria. 
(See.  ISHAEL.) 

-21.  Sargon  usurps  the  throne.     (See  AltOER.) 

720.  Battle  of  Hapikh  or  Kaphia  (7.1?.). 

715.  Sargon  subdues  Arabia,  and  exacts  tribute  from  the 
native  wandering  tribes. 

709.  He  invades  Babylon,  which  he  conquers  and  places 
under  ail  Assyrian  viceroy. 

708  or  7.  The  Kings  of  Cyprus  and  of  Asmun,  an  island 
in  the  iYrsiaii  Ciulf,  send  embassies  off ering  homage 
to  Sargon. 

702.  Sennacherib  invades  Babylon,  and  plunders  76  largo 
towns  and  420  villages. 

701.   He  annexe-*  many  citie,  in  Zagros  to  Assyria. 

700.  He  attacks  Luliya,  King  of  Sidon,  marches  into 
Egypt  (see  ALTAKl',  battle),  and  invades  the  terri- 
tories of  Hezekiah,  King  of  .ludah,  whom  he  com- 
pels to  pay  him  heavy  tribute,  amassed  by  the 
spoliation  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

699.  He  again  invades  Babylon,  where  he  establishes  a 

608.  He  in-  ades  Palestine  for  the  second  time,  and  his 
army  is  miraculously  destroyed  (2  Kings,  xix.  35). 

695.  Soon  after  this  year  Sennacherib  wages  war  against 
the  (ineks  in  Cilicia,  and  founds  Tarsus. 

680.  Sennacherib  is  murdered  while  worshipping  in  a 
temple,  bv  his  sons  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
who  are  compelled  to  flee  into  Armenia,  while  their 
brother  Esar-haddon  succeeds  to  the  throne. 

634.  The  Medes  fail  in  an  attack  upon  Nineveh. 

632.  Cvaxares,  King  of  Media,  enters  Assyria,  and  defeats 
the  army  of  Asshur-emid-ilin,  or  Saracus.  Shortly 
after  this  year  Assyria  and  the.  other  nations  of 
Western  Asia  are  devastated  by  the  Scythians. 

627.  Assyria  is  simultaneously  attacked,  on  the  east  by 
fyaxares  the  Mede,  and  on  the  south  by  the 

625  Saracus  (Sardanapalus),  betrayed  by  his  general 
Nabopolassar,  and  hard  pressed  by  the  forces  of 
Cyaxnres,  burns  himself  in  his  palace  at  Nineveh. 
With  him  ends  the  line  of  monarchs,  and  the  ex- 
istence of  Assyria  as  an  independent  nation. 

Rawlinson  (Ancient  Monarchies,  ii,  291),  gives 
the  following  table  of  the 

KINGS  OF  ASSYRIA. 
B.C.         B.C. 

(Asshur-bel-nisis. 

Circ.  1650  to  1550....  ^Buzur- Asshur. 
lAsshnr-vatUa. 


ASTA 


ASTRONOMY 


B.C.          B.C. 

Circ  I450JP) „. 

—  1350  to  1330... 

—  133010  1310... 

—  13  o  to  1290... 

—  1290  to  12,0... 

—  12,0  to  1250... 

—  1250  to  1230... 


Bel-sumili-kapi.  # 

Bel-lush. 
Pud-il  (his  son). 
Iva-lush  I.  (his  son). 
.Shalmanesur  I.  (his  son). 
•lin-lathi-Nm  i his  son). 
Iva-lush  1 1.  (his  son). 


—  13:0  to  1190... 

—  IK,0  to  1170.... 

—  1170  to  1150... 

—  1150  to  1130... 

—  1.3010  mo... 

—  mo  to  1090... 


Nin-pala-ziru. 

Asshur-dah-il  (his  son). 
Mutaggil-Xebo  (Iiis  son). 
Asshur-ris-iliin  (his  son). 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (his  son). 
Asshur-bil-kalu  (his  son). 


A*shi 


950  to  930.... 

930 to  910.... 

910  to  890.... 

89010  884.... 

88410  859.... 

859  to  824.... 

82410  810.... 

810  to  781.... 

781  to  770.... 

770  to  752.... 

753  to  744.... 

744  to  726.... 

720  to  721.... 

721  to  704.... 
70410  680.... 
680  to  667.... 
66- to  647  (?) 
647  (?)  to  635- 


Asshur-iddin-akhi. 
Asshur-danin-il  I. 
Iva-lush  111.  (his  son) 
Tig  athi-Xin  II.  (his  son). 
Asjhur-idanni-pal  (his  son). 
Shalmaneser  II.  (his  son). 
Shamas-Iva  (Ins  sou). 
Iva-lush  IV.  (his  son). 
Shaluiaueser  III. 
Asshur-dauin-il  IL 
Assliur-lush. 
Tiglath-Pileser  II. 
(Shalrnanecer  IV.  ?) 
Sargon. 

Sennacherib  (his  son). 
Esar-haddon  (his  son). 
Assliur  bani-pal  (his  son). 


ASTA,  now  ASTI,  in  Piedmont,  was  captured 
by  the  Gauls  about  B.C.  400.  Alaric  besieged 
it  A.D.  403.  It  was  taken  and  retaken  several 
times  during  the  struggles  with  the  barbarians. 
It  was  made  a  bishop  s  see  at  an  early  period. 
Evasius,  supposed  to  be  the  first  bishop,  suffered 
martyrdom  Dec.  i,  265.  The  Emperor  Frede- 
rick I.  captured  it  A.D.  1154.  The  French  ob- 
tained possession  in  1387,  and,  after  holding  it 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  relinquished  it  to 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  by  the  treaty  of  Cam- 
bray,  1529.  Charles  bestowed  it  upon  Beatrice 
of  Portugal,  and  by  her  marriage  with  Charles 
III.  of  Savoy  it  passed  into  the  possession  of 
that  house. 

ASTEROIDS.— (-See  PLANETS.) 

ASTLEY  S  AMPHITHEATRE  (London),  a 
temporary  building  in  1774,  was,  in  1780,  con- 
verted into  a  roofed  amphitheatre,  which, 
opened  as  the  Amphitheatre  Riding  House, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  Aug.  17,  1794.  Having 
been  rebuilt  and  reopened  in  1795,  it  was  burned 
Sep.  2,  1803  ;  and  again  June  8,  1841.  The  circus 
was  removed  and  the  building  was  converted 
into  an  ordinary  theatre  by  D.  Boucicault,  and 
opened  by  him  as  the  "New  Westminster 
Theatre  "  in  1862.  The  old  name  was  restored 
in  1864. 

ASTON.— (See  ASHDUNE.) 

ASTORGA  (Spain),  "the  city  of  priests," 
built  on  the  site  of  the  Asturica  Augusta  of 
the  Romans,  was  taken  by  Almansor  in  990, 
and  recovered  by  Alphonso  V.  in  1010.  The 
King  of  Navarre  took  it  in  1033  ;  and  the 
French,  after  a  desperate  encounter,  obtained 
possession  April  12, 1810,  when  they  dismantled 
the  fortifications  and  committed  great  havoc. 
It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  the  3rd 
century.  A  council  on  discipline  was  held  here 
Sep.  i,  946. 


ASTRACAN  (Russia),  formerly  the  capital  of 
a  Tartar  state,  was  taken  by  Ivan  IV.  in  1554. 
The  Turks  besieged  it  in  1569;  and  a  rebellion 
broke  out  here  in  1670.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric. 

ASTROLABE.— This  instrument  for  the  ob- 
servation of  the  stars  is  believed  to  have  been 
first  used  by  Hipparchus,  who  fl.  B.C.  160 — 
145,  and  it  was  also  employed  by  his  disciple 
Ptolemy,  fl.  A.D.  139—161.  The  modern  astro- 
labe, called  also  a  "  Jacob's  staff"  (q.v.),  from 
its  similarity  in  form  to  the  heads  of  the  staves 
bome  by  pilgrims,  was  invented  at  Lisbon  by 
two  Jewish  physicians,  named  Rotheric  and 
Joseph,  during  the  reign  of  John  II.  of  Portu- 
gal (1481—1495',  by  whom  it  was  first  applied 
to  maritime  purposes.  The  term  occurs  in  the 
"  Margarita  Philosophica,"  printed  in  1496, 
and  the  first  elaborate  work  on  the  subject  is 
"  Elucidatio  Fabricise  Ususque  Astrolabii," 
published  in  1513.  During  the  i6th  and  i7th 
centuries  the  term  astrolabe  was  used  to  ex- 
press the  projection  of  a  sphere  upon  a  plane. 

ASTROLOGY.  —  The  Chaldaeans,  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Hindoos,  and  the  Persians  cultivated 
this  "illusory  science;"  and  with  the  former 
it  is  supposed  to  have  originated.  By  an  edict 
issued  at  Rome,  B.C.  139,  the  Chaldseans,  or 
mathematicians,  as  the  astrologers  were  then 
called,  were  banished  from  the  city.  The 
senate,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  expelled 
them  from  Italy  A.D.  16.  Sharpe  (Hist,  of 
Egypt,  ii.  179),  writing  of  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius  (138— 161),  when  Egypt  was  a 
Roman  province,  remarks  on  astrology : — 
"The  poor  Jews  took  to  it  as  a  trade.  In 
Alexandria  the  Jewess,  half  beggar  half  fortune- 
teller, would  stop  people  in  the  streets  and 
interpret  dreams  by  the  help  of  the  Bible, 
or  sit  under  a  sacred  tree  like  a  sibyl,  and 
promise  wealth  to  those  who  consulted  her, 
duly  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  coin  by 
which  she  was  paid."  Constantius  (July  13, 
358)  made  a  law  declaring  astrologers  to  be 
the  enemies  of  mankind.  The  Arabians  were 
great  astrologers.  Prescott  says,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Aztecs,  "  In  no  country,  not  even 
in  ancient  Egypt,  were  the  dreams  of  the  astro- 
loger more  implicitly  deferred  to.  On  the 
birth  of  a  child  he  was  instantly  summoned. 
The  time  of  the  event  was  accurately  ascer- 
tained ;  and  the  family  hung  in  trembling 
suspense,  as  the  minister  of  heaven  cast  the 
horoscope  of  the  infant,  and  unrolled  the  dark 
volume  of  destiny."  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  practice  became  general.  In  the  i3th 
and  1 4th  centuries,  astrology  was  taught  in 
the  Italian  universities,  whilst  at  Padua  and 
Bologna  professors  of  astrology  were  appointed. 
Many  of  our  own  early  philosophers  and  men 
of  science  were  captivated  by  this  study. 
(See  JUDICIAL  ASTROLOGY). 

ASTRONOMICAL  SOCIETY.— (See  ROYAL 
ASTRONOMICAL  SOCIETY  or  LONDON.) 

ASTRONOMY. — This  science  was  cultivated, 
before  the  Christian  aera,  by  the  Chaldaeans, 
the  Egyptians,  the  Hindoos,  the  Chinese,  the 
Phoenicians,  and  the  Greeks ;  and  to  each  of 
the  four  first  mentioned  has  its  invention 
been  attributed,  whilst  Josephus  claims  it  for 
the  Jews.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was 


ASTRONOMY 


[    9°    ] 


ASYLUM 


practised  amongst  the  Chaldseans  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  King  Umkh  (B.C.  2093—8.0.  2070), 
as  the  position  and  construction  of  the 
numerous  buildings  he  erected  manifest  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  astronomical  calculation. 
It  was  also  cultivated  by  the  Egyptians ;  and 
the  great  antiquity  of  the  Hindoo  observations 
is  acknowledged  by  all  astronomers.  The 
claims  of  the  Chinese  on  this  point  are  not 
supported  by  satisfactory  evidence.  In  Greece, 
Thales,  born  B.C.  636,  who  predicted  an  eclipse, 
was  the  earliest  astronomer.  He  was  followed 
by  Anaximander,  born  B.C.  610;  Anaximenes, 
fl.  B.C.  556 ;  and  Anaxagoras,  born  B.C.  500. 
Pythagoras,  born  B.C.  580,  greatly  advanced 
the  science.  Meton  and  Euctemon  introduced 
the  Metonic  cycle,  B.C.  433.  Aristotle,  bom 
B.C.  384,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  subject;  and 
Autolycus  two  books,  the  most  ancient  as- 
tronomical works  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
Hipparchus  I.B.C.  160 — 145)  reduced  it  to  a 
systematic  form,  and  is  the  father  of  true 
astronomy.  Ptolemy,  called  the  "prince  of 
astronomers,"^.  A.D.  139—161,  was  the  last  as- 
tronomer of  the  Greek  school.  The  science 
was  revived  by  the  Arabians,  "  who,"  says 
Hallam  (Lit.  Hist.  vol.  i.  pt.  i.  ch.  2),  "under- 
stood astronomy  well,  and  their  science  was 
transfused  more  or  less  into  Europe."  The 
Caliph  Al  Mansur  is  said  to  have  encouraged 
the  study  of  this  science  ;  and  Albategnius 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Arabian  astrono- 
mers. Alphonso  X.,  of  Castile,  produced  the 
Alphonsine  tables  in  1252.  Little  was  accom- 
plished until  the  appearance  of  Copernicus, 
who  is  justly  termed  the  founder  of  modern 
astronomy.  He  was  born  at  Thorn,  in  1473, 
and  published  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the 
"Revolutions  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies,"  just 
before  his  death,  in  1543.  It  was  issued  at 
Nuremberg,  and  the  treatise,  consisting  of 
six  books,  is  said  to  have  been  completed  by 
the  astronomer  about  1530.  Tycho  Brahe 
(1546—1601),  Hallam  admits,  "  did  far  more 
in  this  essential  department  of  the  astronomer 
than  any  of  his  predecessors."  He  was  the 
first  to  make  a  catalogue  of  the  stars,  and 
his  new  mundane  system  paved  the  way  for 
the  important  discoveries  of  the  i7th  century. 
In  1582  Gregory  XIII.,  by  the  aid  of  Lilius 
and  Clavius,  reformed  the  calendar.  It  is 
impossible  in  a  small  compass  to  explain  even 
the  chief  results  of  the  wonderful  progress 
made  in  astronomical  science  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  1 7th  century  ;  but  some  of 
the  more  important  are  given  in  the  following 
summary : — 


A.D. 

158  r. 
1603. 

1609. 


1610. 


1611. 
1616. 


1618. 
1631. 


Galileo  remarks  the  isochronism  of  the  pendulum. 

Bayer's  maps,  in  which  the  stars  are  distinguished 
by  letters. 

Galileo  makes  his  telescope.  Kepler  publishes  his 
work  on  Mars,  containing  what  are  culled  his  First 
and  Second  Laws. 

Galileo  announces  discoveries  of  Jupiter's  satellites ; 
of  spots  on  the  moon ;  of  nebulae ;  of  new  pheno- 
mena in  Saturn,  which  prove  to  proceed  from  the 
ring ;  and  phases  of  Venus. 

Galileo  observes  spots  on  the  sun. 

The  Copernicau  theory  is  prohibited  by  the  court  of 
Home. 

Kepler's  Third  Law. 

Gassendi  observes  the  transit  and  measures  the 
diumuter  of  Mercury. 


A.D. 

1639.  Transit  of  Venus  is  first  observed  by  Horrox  and 

Crabtree,  and  her  diameter  measured. 
1654.  Discovery  of  Saturn's  ring  by  Huyghens. 

1665.  Cassini  determines  the  time  of  rotation  of  Jupiter. 

1666.  Newton  first  turns  his  attention  to  gravitation. 
1671.  Richer  observes  the  shortening  of  the  seconds'  pen  - 

dulum  on  nearing  the  equator. 
1675.  Roemer  announces  his  discovery  of  the  velocity  of 

light  by  means  of  Jupiter's  satellites. 
1687.  Newton  publishes  the  "  Principia," 
1705.  Halley  first  predicted   the  return  of  a  comet;  viz., 
•  that  of  1758. 

1727.  Bradley  discovers  aberration.— March  30.    Death  of 

Newton. 

1731.  Hadley's  quadrant  is  invented. 

1732.  Maupertuis  introduces  the  Newtonian  theory  into 

France. 
1765.  Harrison  gains   the  Parliamentary  reward   for  his 

chronometer. 

1767.  The  first  nautical  almanack  is  published. 
1781.  Herschel  discovers  Uranus.    (See  GEOKOIUM  SlDUS.) 
1784.  Laplace's  researches  on  the   stability   of  the  Solar 

.System,  &c. 

1795.  Separation  of  the  Milky  Way  into  stars  by  Herschel. 
1806.  Herschel  suspects  the    motion   of  the  whole  Solar 

System  towards  the  constellation  Hercules. 
1814.  IMazzi's  catalogue  of  7,646  stars. 
1830.  Astroiinniic.il  Socirty  of  London  is  founded. 
1830-32.  Sir  J.  Herschel's  investigations  of  double  stars. 

1845.  Lord  Hosse  completes  his  telescope. 

1846.  The  planet  Neptune  (q.  v.)  is  discovered  by  Adams  and 

Le  Venier,  who  conducted  their  researches  quite 
independently  of  each  other. 

1847.  Herschel   publishes  the   "  Results   of  Astronomical 

Observations  made  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope." 
1850.  Nebula;  are  observed  by  Lord  Ki»se. 
1853.  Airymakes  investigations  respectingancienteclipses. 

1857.  Photography  is  successfully  applied  to  astronomical 

purposes. 

1858.  Annular  eclipse   of   the  sun  is  visible  in  England. 

Donati's  comet  appears  with  great  splendour  for 
several  weeks. 

(See  PLANETS,  &c.) 

ASTURIAS  (Spain).— An  ancient  province, 
to  which,  in  1833,  the  name  of  Oviedo,  its 
chief  town,  was  given.  In  its  mountains  the 
Gothic  fugitives  sought  refuge  on  the  invasion 
of  Spain  by  the  Saracens  in  the  8th  century. 
The  independence  of  the  country  was  main- 
tained by  a  race  of  native  rulers,  commencing 
with  Pelayo,  A.D.  716.  Henry,  eldest  son  of 
John  I.,  assumed  the  title  of  Prince  of  Asturias 
in  1388  ;  and  from  that  period  the  heir  apparent 
to  the  Spanish  throne  has  been  thus  styled. 
The  insurrection  against  the  French  (1808) 
commenced  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Asturian 
mountains,  which  became  the  scene  of  many 
severe  struggles.  Its  junta  was  the  first 
organized  in  Spain,  and  thus,  as  Alison  re- 
marks, its  inhabitants  had  "a  second  time  the 
honour  of  having  taken  the  lead  in  the  deli- 
verance of  the  peninsula." 

ASUNDEN  LAKE  (Battle).— Sten  Sture  the 
younger,  Protector  of  Sweden,  was  defeated 
and  wounded  by  the  Danes  under  Otho  Krumpe, 
on  the  ice  of  this  lake,  near  Bogcsund,  early  in 
1520.  He  died  in  his  sledge  on  lake  Malar 
while  hastening  to  the  defence  of  Stockholm, 
Feb.  3,  1520. 

ASYLUM.— The  earliest  notice  of  a  place  of 
refuge  for  criminals  is  found  in  the  command 
to  Moses  for  the  Jews  to  build  six  cities  of 
refuge,  for  the  manslayer,  B.C.  1451  (Numbers 
xxxv.  6).  A  similar  order  was  given  to  Joshua, 
B.C.  1444  (ch.  xx.),  on  the  entrance  of  the 
Jews  into  Canaan.  Cadmus  is  said  to  have 
erected  one  at  Thebes,  B.C.  1493,  and  Rome  at 


ATELIERS 


[    91     1 


ATHENS 


its  foundation  was  a  general  place  of  refuge. 
Some  place  of  sanctuary  existed  amongst  all 
ancient  nations  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
On  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  the  custom 
was  retained.  Milman  (Latin  Christianity, 
vol.  i.  b.  iii.  ch.  5)  states  : — "  The  privilege  of 
asylum  within  the  Church  is  recognized  in 
most  barbaric  codes.  It  is  asserted  in  the 
strongest  terms,  and  in  terms  impregnated 
with  true  Christian  humanity,  that  there  is  no 
crime  which  may  not  be  pardoned  from  the 
fear  of  God  and  reverence  for  the  saints."  It 
became  a  privilege  of  churches  from  the  time 
of  Constantino  I.  The  altar  was  at  first  the 
sanctuary,  until  the  privilege  was  extended  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  church.  Theodosius 
regulated  asylum  by  law,  A.D.  392.  When 
Alaric  captured  Rome,  in  410,  he  ordered  that 
all  who  took  refuge  in  the  churches  should  be 
spared.  During  the  Middle  Ages  even  con- 
vents, the  dwellings  of  the  bishops,  the  pre- 
cincts of  these  places,  the  graves  of  the  dead, 
hospitals,  &LC.,  were  privileged  in  this  respect. 
The  canon  law  of  Gratian  and  the  Pope's 
Decretals  granted  protection  to  all  except  night 
and  highway  robbers,  and  offenders  against 
the  Church.  The  practice  gave  rise  to  various 
abuses,  and  many  attempts  were  made  to  find 
a  remedy.  At  the  Reformation  the  system,  as 
far  as  criminals  were  concerned,  was  abolished, 
though  it  continued  to  exist  in  a  modified 
form,  for  the  benefit  of  debtors,  until  abolished 
by  8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  27  (1697).  (See  SANC- 
TUARY. ) 

ATELIERS  NATIONAUX.— (See  NATIONAL 
WORKSHOPS.) 

ATELLA  (Italy)  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
which  was  transferred  to  Aversa  about  1050. 
The  French  army,  under  Montpensier,  capitu- 
lated to  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  at  this  town, 
July  21,  1496.  Philip  of  Commines  denounces 
this  surrender  as  ignominious,  and  compares  it 
to  the  capitulation  of  the  Romans  at  the  Cau- 
dine  Forks. 

ATH.— (See  AATH.) 

ATHANASIAN  CREED.— A  confession  of 
faith,  so  called  because  it  was  supposed  to 
have  been  composed  by  Athanasius,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  A.D.  326.  The  latest  critics  have, 
however,  shown  that  it  was  not  the  work  of 
Athanasius.  By  some  it  is  ascribed  to  Vigilius 
Tapsensis,  "an  African  bishop,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  sth  century,  in  the  time 
of  the  Vandalic  Arian  persecution ;  "  and  by 
Dr.  Waterland  (Hist,  of  Athanasian  Creed)  it  is 
attributed  to  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries,  in  the 
5th  century.  It  was  written  chiefly  against 
the>  Arians ;  and  to  the  fact  that  Athanasius 
was  their  vigorous  opponent  may  its  peculiar 
designation  be  attributed. 

ATHEISM.— Disbelief  in  the  existence  of 
a  God  has,  apparently,  existed  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  since  the  antediluvian  period, 
and  is  referred  to  by  David,  who  states  that, 
"the  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart  there  is  no 
God."  (Psalm  xiv.)  Atheism  was  professed  by 
many  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  especially 
by  Epicurus  (B.C.  342 — B.C.  270),  who  taught 
that  happiness  is  the  sole  end  of  life,  and  re- 
jected all  religious  doctrines  as  antagonistic  to 
the  sensual  pleasure  in  which  he  supposed  it  to 


consist.  From  Greece  atheistic  principles 
spread  to  Rome,  where  the  poet  Lucretius 
became  their  best  known  exponent  and 
champion  (B.C.  95  —  B.C.  52).  The  early 
Christians  were  condemned  as  atheists  by  the 
Roman  tribunals,  because  they  denied  the 
prevalent  polytheism,  and  the  term  has  been 
frequently  applied  in  reproach  to  those  whose 
opinions  on  theological  subjects  were  unintelli- 
gible to  the  mass  of  mankind.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  atheistic  principles  became  very 
general  among  speculative  philosophers,  and 
were  attributed  to  Popes  John  XXII.  or  XXIII. 
(1410 — 1416),  Alexander  VI.  (1492 — 1503),  and 
Leo  X.  (1513 — 1522).  Machiavelli  (1469—1527), 
Lucilius  Vanini,  who  suffered  death  for  heresy 
at  Toulouse  in  1619,  Thomas  Hobbes  (1588— 
1679),  and  Benedict  Spinoza  (1632 — 1677),  are 
also  charged  with  having  professed  atheistical 
opinions,  which  became  so  prevalent  that  it 
was  alleged  that  no  fewer  than  50,000  atheists 
were  living  in  Paris  in  the  year  1623.  In 
1774  Dr.  Priestley  declared  that  all  the  phi- 
losophers and  men  of  letters  whom  he  met 
during  a  visit  to  France  were  absolute  infidels, 
and  in  1781  a  Mr.  William  Hammon,  of  Liver- 
pool, publicly  declared  himself  an  atheist. 
Atheism  was  established  by  the  republican 
government  in  France  from  1794,  when 
Robespierre  celebrated  the  festival  of  the  God 
of  Nature,  to  1801,  when  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  was  restored.  (See  DEISTS.) 

ATHEN.EA.—  The  sacred  games  celebrated 
annually  at  Athens,  in  honour  of  Athetia  or 
Minerva,  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  city, 
when  instituted  by  Erichthonius,  B.C.  1495,  or 
by  Orpheus  B.C.  1397,  were  called  Athensea, 
but  after  the  union  of  the  peoples  of  Attica  by 
Theseus,  B.C.  1234,  they  received  the  title  of 
Panathensea.  (See  PAN  ATHENIAN  GAMES.) 

ATHEN.ZEUM  CLUB  (London)  was  founded 
in  1823.  The  club-house  in  Pall  Mall  was  built 
in  1829  and  opened  in  Nov.,  1830. 

ATHENREE  (Battle).— The  Irish  were  de- 
feated here  with  great  slaughter,  Aug.  10, 
1316. 

ATHENS,  the  capital  of  Attica  and  the  most 
celebrated  city  of  ancient  Greece,  is  said  to 
have  been  first  called  Cecropia,  from  Cecrops, 
an  Egyptian  who  built  the  original  city  on  the 
Acropolis  (q.v.),  according  to  Hales,  B.C.  1558; 
Usher,  B.C.  1556  ;  and  Clinton,  B.C.  1433.  It 
received  the  name  of  Athens  from  the  worship 
of  Athenae  or  Minerva,  said  to  have  been  esta- 
blished by  Erichthonius  B.C.  1495.  The  legen- 
dary accounts  give  a  succession  of  kings  from 
Cecrops  to  Theseus,  and  with  the  latter  the 
history  of  Athens  as  a  state  is  declared  by 
some  writers  to  commence.  Theseus  ascended 
the  throne,  according  to  Hales,  B.C.  1236 ; 
Usher,  B.C.  1235 ;  and  Clinton,  B.C.  1234.  He 
united  into  one  political  body  the  12  states 
into  which  Cecrops  had  divided  Attica,  and 
made  Athens  the  capital.  Codrus,  the  last 
king  of  the  dynasty,  sacrificed  himself  for  the 
safety  of  Athens,  B.C.  1070  according  to  Hales, 
or  B.C.  1044  according  to  Clinton.  Seventeen 
kings  reigned  during  the  monarchical  period, 
and  they  were  followed  first  by  perpetual,  then 
by  decennial,  and  finally  by  annual  archons 
(q.  v.}.  Homer  speaks  of  Athens  as  a  place 


ATHENS 


ATHENS 


of   importance  during  the    Trojan  war  (B.C. 
1183). 

B.C. 

1069.  Medon  is  made  perpetual  archon. 
754.  Alcmreon  the  last  of  the  perpetual  archons. 
753.  Charops  the  first  decennial  archon. 
684.  Erixias,   the   seventh  and    last    of    the    decennial 

archons,  dies. 
683.  Nine   annual  archons  are    appointed,   the  title    of 

archon  being  given  only  to  the  first.     Creou  first 

annual  archon. 

631.  Compilat.on  of  Draco's  Code  (q.  v.). 
613.  Cylon  attempts  to  make  himself  master  of  Athens. 
594.  Solon  remodels  the   constitution,  and  gives  a  new 

code  to  Athens. 

563.  Introduction  of  Comedy  (q.  v.). 

560.  Pisistratus  usurps  the  government.     Death  of  Solon. 
554.  Pisistratus  is  expelled. 
535.  Thespis  first  exhibits  tragedy  at  Athens. 
537.  Death  of  Pisisiratus. 
514.  Assassination   of    Hipparchus   by    Harmodius   and 

Aristogiton. 

510.  Establishment  of  Ostracism  (q.  ».). 
505.  War  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 
490.  Battle  of  Marathon  (q.  v.). 
487.  War  between  Athens  and  ^gina  (q.  v.). 
483.  Banishment  of  Aristides. 
481.  A  fleet  of  300  ships  is  built  at  Athens.     Ascendancy 

of  Themi-tocles. 
480.  Athens  is  taken  by  Xerxes. 
479.  Mardonius  burns  Athens. 
478.  Themistocles  rebuilds  the  city. 
477.  Commencement  of  the  Athenian  supremacy. 
471.  Banishment  of  Themistocles. 
461.  Ostracism  of  Cymon. 
459.  Athens  asserts  her  supremacy  over  the  other  states 

of  Greece. 

457.  The  "  Long  Walls  "  of  Athens  are  commenced. 
456.  Battle  of  (Enophyta  (q.  v.). 
453.  Truce  between  the  Athenians  and  Peloponnesians 

for  five  years. 

449.  The  Athenians  defeat  the  Persians. 
448.  The  Athenians   assist   the   1'hocians  in  the  second 

Sacred  War  (q.  v.). 
447.  Battle  of  Coronea  (7.  v.). 

445.  Thirty  years'  truce  between  Sparta  and  Athens. 
444.  Pericles  is  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
440.  Comedy  (q.  v.)  is  prohibited  at  Athens.    The  Samian 

war  (q.  v.). 
439.  Athens  is  at  the  height  of  its  glory. 

437.  The  law  against  comedy  is  repealed. 

433.  Alliance  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Corcyrreans. 
431.  Commencement    of  the   Peloponnesian  war  (q.  v.), 

and  invasion  of  Attica. 

430.  Plague  at  Athens.     Second  invasion  of  Attica. 
439.  Pericles  dies  of  the  plague. 

438.  Third  invasion  of  Attica. 

415.  First  Athenian  campaign  in  Sicily. 

414.  The  Athenians  are  defeated  in  the  second  campaign 
in  Sicily. 

413.  The  Athenian  fleet  and  army  are  destroyed. 

41 1.  Government  of  the  "  Four  Hundred." 

407.  Second  and  last  banishment  of  Alcibiades.  War 
with  Sparta  (q.  v.). 

406.  Sea-fight  of  Arginuste  (q.  v.). 

405.  Battle  of  JEgotpotairri  (7.  i:). 

404.  Athens  is  taken  by  Lysander.  End  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war.  The  rule  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  (q.  v.), 
who  are  replaced  by  "  the  Ten." 

403.  Thrasybulus  overthrows  the  government  of  "the 
Ten." 

399.  Death  of  Socrates. 

394.  Xenophon  is  banished  from  Athens. 

393.  Conon  rebuilds  the  walls  of  Athens. 

388.  Plato  founds  the  Academia  (q.  v.). 

378.  TheThel  ans  and  Athenians  are  allied  against  Sparta. 

376.  Athenian  victory  off  Naxos. 

374.  Peace  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 

371.  General  peace. 

360.  War  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Olynthians 
respecting  Amphipolis. 

359.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  makes  peace  with  Athens. 

357.  Commencement  of  the  Social  War  (q.  v.). 

355.  The  Social  W:ir  terminates. 

353.  Philip  II.,  in  prosecuting  the  third  Sacred  or  Phocian 
War  (q.  v.),  t  ikes  Methone  (q.  ».),  and  enters  Thes- 
saly.  He  is  stopped  at  Thermopylte  by  the  Athenians. 
Demosthenes  delivers  his  first  Philippic  (q.  v.). 


B.C. 

346.  Peace  between  Athens  and  Macedon. 

339.  War  breaks  out  between  Philip  II.  and  the  Athenians. 

338,  Aug.  7.  Battle  of  Charonea  (q.  v.). 

333.  Commencement  of  the  Lamian  war  (q.  v.). 

323.  Submission    of   Athens    to    Macedou.      Death    of 

Demosthenes. 
317.  Cassander  conquers  Athens.     Execution  of  Phocion 

011  a  charge  of  treason. 

307.  Demetrius  restores  the  ancient  constitution  of  Athens. 
297.  Demetrius  tails  in  an  attack  upon  Athens. 

290.  Demetrius  besieges  Athens. 
•  295-  Demetrius  takes  Athens. 
2»7-  Athens  revolts  from  Demetrius. 
277.  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Egypt  are  allied. 

308.  After    a    series    of    sieges,    Athens    surrenders    to 

Antigonus  Gonatus,  King  of  Sparta. 

229.  Athens  joins  the  Achwan  League. 

215.  The  Athenians  and  ^Etolians  unite  against  Macedon. 

211.  A  Roman  fleet  arrives  at  Athens. 

300.  Athens  and  other  Greek  states  join  Rome  against 
Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 

196.  The  Romans  proclaim  Athens  free  from  the  Macedo- 
nian power. 

146.  The  Romans  subdue  Greece. 
86.  Athens  is  stormed  by  Sylla. 

ATHENS  (Modem).— This  city  sank  into 
comparative  insignificance  early  in  the  Chris- 
tian sera.  St.  Paul  visited  it  (Acts  xvii.  5—34) 
in  51.  At  first  a  bishop's  see,  it  became  an  arch- 
bishopric, and  ultimately  received  the  metro- 
politan dignity. 

A.D. 

267.  Athens  is  besieged  by  the  Goths. 
395.  It  is  taken  by  Alaric. 
533.  The  walls  are  restored  by  Justinian. 
1146.  The  city  is  plundered  by  Roger,  King  of  Sicily. 
1305.  It  is  taken  by  Otho  de  la  Roche,  whom  the  Marquis  of 

Montferrut  makes  Lord  of  Athens  and  Thebes,  by 

the  title  of  Grand  Sire. 
1311.  It  is  conquered  by  the  Catalans. 
1394.  It  is  bequeathed  by  Xeiio  Acciaiuoli  to  the  church  of 

St.  Mary. 
1456.  The  city  is  taken  by  Mohammed  II.,  who  thus  puts 

an  end  to  the  domination  of  the  Latins. 
1466.  It  is  taken  by  the  Venetians. 
1497.  It  is  restored  to  the  Turks. 
1087.  It  is  retaken  by  the  Venetians. 
1837.  Insurrection  of  Greeks.— May  17.  Siege  and  capture 

by  the  Turks. 

1834.  Athens  is  declared  the  capital  of  the  modern  king- 
dom of  Greece. 
1850,  Jan.  18.     It  is  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet.      (See 

GREECE.) 

1854.  It  is  occupied  by  French  and  English  forces. 
1856.  'Ihe  French  and  English  forces  are  withdrawn. 

1862,  Oct.  22.  A  revolu  ion  against  King  Otho  takes  place 

during  the  night,  which  results  in  his  abdication. 
(See  GREECE.) 

1863,  Oct.  30.  King  George  I.  enters  Athens. 

DUKES   OF  ATHENS. 
HOUSE  OF  DE  LA  ROCHE. 

A.D.  A.D. 

Otho    1305    William 1375 

Guy  1 1225     Guy  II 1290 

John   1264 


IOUSE   OF  BRIENNE. 


Walter  de  Bricnne 


Roger  Deslau . 


CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY. 


HOUSE  OF  ARAGON. 
(Dukes  of  Athens  and  Neopatras.) 


Manfred  .....................   1326 

' 


Wil'lia 
John 


133° 

1338 

HOUSE  OF  ACCIAIUOLI. 


Frederick  ..................  1348 


Frederick  .................. 

Maria  ........................ 


Nerio  1 1386 

Antonio 1394 

Xerio  II 1435 


Infant  son  of  Xerio  II. 
with  his  mother  as 
regent 1453 

Franco  1455 


ATHERTON 


T    93 


ATLANTIC 


ATHERTOX  MOOR  (Battle).— The  parlia- 
mentary army,  led  by  the  Earl  of  Essex,  was 
completely  defeated  here,  June  30,  1643,  by 
the  royalist  forces  under  the  Marquis  of  New- 
castle. 

ATHLETIC  SPORTS  were  highly  prized  by 
the  classic  nations  of  antiquity,  and  constituted 
an  important  feature  of  the  Olympic  and  other 
games  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Professional 
athletae  first  appeared  at  Rome  B.C.  186.  An 
annual  contest  in  running,  leaping,  and  other 
athletic  exercises  between  members  of  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  was 
instituted  in  1864,  and  the  first  competition 
took  place  March  5,  1864.  (See  GLADIATORS, 
GYMNASIUM,  GYMNASTICS,  ISTHMIAN  and 
OLYMPIC  GAMES,  <fec.)  The  foundation-stone 
of  a  new  hall  for  the  use  of  the  Turnverein — 
a  society  for  the  cultivation  of  athletic  sports 
on  the  German  system — was  laid  by  torchlight 
in  the  St.  Pancras  Road,  London,  May  14,  1864. 
ATHLONE  (Ireland),  called  "the  key  of 
Connaught,"  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
situated  partly  in  Westmeath  and  partly  in 
Roscommon,  was  besieged  by  William  the 
Third's  army  in  1690.  The  siege  was  raised 
July  25.  The  attempt  was  renewed  by  Gen. 
Ginkell,  afterwards  Earl  of  Athlone,  and  the 
town  was  taken  July  i,  1691. 

ATLANTA  (Battles).  —  The  Federals,  under 
Sherman,  defeated  the  Confederates,  under 
Hood,  at  this  town  in  Tennessee  in  three  en- 
gagements, fought  July  20,  22,  and  28,  1864. 
Sherman  withdrew  his  forces,  Aug.  30,  intend- 
ing to  march  southward ;  but,  having  defeated 
an  opposing  body  of  Confederates  at  Jones- 
borough,  Sep.  i,  and  thereby  compelled  Gen. 
Hood  to  evacuate  Atlanta,  he  caused  that  city 
to  be  occupied  by  Gen.  Slocum,  Sep.  2,  and 
subsequently  made  it  his  own  head-quarters. 
On  commencing  his  march  to  Savannah,  Nov. 
12,  he  abandoned  Atlanta,  which  was  entered 
and  burned  by  Gen.  Corse  Nov.  15. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH.— In  1854  White- 
house  commenced  his  researches  on  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  establishment  of  telegraphic  com- 
munication between  Europe  and  America,  and 
March  7 — 10  in  the  same  year  Mr.  C.  Field  sum- 
moned meetings  at  New  York  to  consider  the 
question.  In  1856  soundings  were  made  by  the 
British  and  United  States  navies  of  the  portion 
of  the  Atlantic  across  which  it  was  proposed  to 
carry  the  wires,  and  the  Atlantic  Tel,  graph  Com- 
pany was  soon  afterwards  formed.  Accordingly, 
2,500  miles  of  cable  were  prepared,  and  stowed 
in  equal  quantities  on  board  the  English  screw- 
steamer  Agamemnon,  and  the  American  man- 
of-war  Niagara.  The  latter  commenced  paying 
out  her  cable  from  Valentia,  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  Aug.  7,  1857,  but  the  cable  snapped, 
Aug.  ii,  when  about  380  miles  had  been  sub- 
merged, and  operations  were  necessarily  sus- 
pended. The  two  vessels  again  sailed  from 
Queenstown,  May  29,  1858,  on  an  experimental 
trip,  after  which  they  returned  to  Plymouth, 
whence  they  set  sail  on  Thursday,  June  10,  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  the  cable.  They  reached 
the  middle  of  the  Atlantic  June  26,  and  having 
joined  their  cables,  commenced  paying  them 
out ;  but,  after  a  series  of  breakages,  they  were 
compelled  to  return  to  Queenstown.  They 


once  more  set  sail  from  this  port  July  17,  and, 
reaching  the  point  of  junction  July  28,  parted 
on  the  following  day,  the  Agamemnon  steering 
for  Valentia,  and  the  Niagara  for  Trinity  Bay, 
Newfoundland.  Both  vessels  arrived  in  safety 
at  their  respective  ports  Aug.  5,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  enterprise  was  announced  Aug. 
7.  The  first  public  despatch,  a  message  from 
the  Queen  to  President  Buchanan,  was  received 
Aug.  17,  from  which  day  several  communica- 
tions passed  between  Europe  and  America, 
until  Sep.  3,  when  the  signals  became  unin- 
telligible, and  eventually  ceased  entirely. 
Scientific  men  having  decided  that  the  failure 
was  due  to  causes  which  might  have  been 
guarded  against,  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Com- 
pany resolved  upon  another  ventxire,  issued 
a  prospectus,  Dec.  20,  1862,  and  entered  upon 
a  contract  with  the  Telegraph  Construction 
and  Maintenance  Company  in  May,  1864,  for 
the  manufacture  and  submersion  of  a  new 
cable.  The  Great  Eastern  steamship  was  char- 
tered to  lay  this  new  line,  and  arrived  in  the 
Medway  July  n,  in  order  to  undergo  the 
alterations  necessary  for  enabling  her  to  cany 
her  freight.  The  construction  of  the  cable  was 
commenced  at  Greenwich  in  September,  the 
completed  portions  being  conveyed  to  the 
Great  Eastern  by  two  government  hulks  in 
nine  voyages.  The  operation  of  coiling  the 
cable  in  the  tanks  on  board  the  vessel  began 
Jan.  20,  1865,  and  the  cable  itself  was  com- 
pleted on  Monday,  May  29.  The  Great  Eastern 
left  the  Thames  with  her  cargo  July  15, 
arriving  Jiily  19  at  Valentia,  where  she  was 
joined  by  the  Caroline,  carrying  27  miles  of 
the  shore  end,  which  were  successfully  laid 
July  22.  The  splice  with  the  main  cable  on 
board  the  Great  Eastern  was  effected  on  Sun- 
day, July  23,  when  the  voyage  and  operation 
of  paying  out  the  cable  were  commenced.  Sig- 
nals having  become  unintelligible,  July  24,  it 
became  necessary  to  pick  up  the  portion  of 
cable  already  submerged,  which  led  to  the  dis- 
covery, July  25,  of  a  fault  caused  by  a  piece  of 
ire  having  pierced  the  coating  of  the  cable, 
and  thus  opened  a  communication  between  the 
telegraphic  wires  and  the  sea.  This  defect 
having  been  remedied,  the  Great  Eastern  re- 
sumed her  voyage,  which  proceeded  without 
interruption  till  about  midday  on  Saturday, 
July  29,  when  communications  with  the  shore 
entirely  ceased.  The  picking-up  apparatus 
was  again  set  to  work,  and  a  second  fault  was 
discovered,  similar  in  character  to  the  first, 
and  apparently  the  result  of  malignant  inten- 
tion on  the  part  of  some  ill-wisher  to  the 
enterprise.  Operations  were  resumed  July  30, 
and  on  the  3ist  the  whole  of  the  cable  con- 
tained in  the  after  tank  was  submerged.  On 
Wednesday,  Aug.  2,  when  the  Great  Eastern 
had  steamed  1,062  miles  from  Valentia,  and 
was  only  606  miles  distant  from  her  journey's 
end,  a  third  fault  was  discovered,  and  the 
operation  of  picking  up  was  again  in  progress 
when  the  cable  parted.  Grapnels  were  imme- 
diately lowered,  and  on  the  following  day  a 
great  resistance  was  encountered,  which  was 
regarded  as  an  indication  that  they  had  taken 
hold  ;  but  in  hauling  them  in  the  line  broke, 
and  the  hooks,  with  whatever  was  attached  to 


ATMOSPHERE 


[     94     1 


ATTORNEY 


them,  sank  in  deep  water.  A  buoy  was  secured 
near  the  spot  where  this  partial  success  was 
attained,  Aug.  4,  and  preparations  were  made 
for  shaking  another  grapnel,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  have  caught  the  cable,  Aug.  7,  but 
broke  like  the  former  during  the  process  of 
hauling  in,  Aug.  8.  Another  buoy  was  placed, 
and  on  Thursday,  Aug.  10,  a  third  grapnel  was 
lowered,  but  again  without  success.  A  fourth 
attempt  was  made,  Aug.  n,  when  the  grapnel 
again  held  and  again  broke  before  the  weight 
was  brought  on  deck.  All  the  line  having 
been  exhausted  in  these  successive  failures, 
the  Great  Eastern  turned  her  head  towards 
England,  where  she  arrived  with  the  tidings  of 
her  unsuccessful  voyage  Aug.  17,  1865. 

ATMOSPHERE.— Atmospheric  air  was  sup- 
posed by  the  ancients  to  be  a  simple  ele- 
mentary body,  and  the  experiments  of  their 
philosophers  did  not  lead  to  the  discovery  of 
its  real  properties.  The  investigations  of 
Anaxiinenes  (B.C.  556),  of  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 
322),  and  of  others,  produced  no  great  results. 
The  weight  of  air  and  its  pressure  upon  all 
bodies  were  first  perceived  by  Galileo  in  1564. 
Descartes  probably  went  further  in  the  same 
direction,  but  it  was  not  demonstrated  until 
Torricelli's  successful  experiment  by  the 
agency  of  quicksilver  in  1643.  Pascal  fully 
confirmed  the  theory  of  atmospheric  pressure 
in  1648.  In  spite,  however,  of  these  and  other 
important  discoveries,  the  ancient  doctrine, 
that  air  was  one  of  the  four  elements,  con- 
tinued prevalent  till  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1774, 
discovered  oxygen  gas,  showing  it  to  be  a 
constituent  of  air.  Azotic  gas,  the  other  con- 
stituent, was  discovered  soon  after.  Scheele 
and  Lavoisier  endeavoured  to  determine  the 
volumes  of  each  contained  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  Mr.  Cavendish  published,  in  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions"  for  1783,  the  results  of 
experiments  made  the  year  before,  by  which 
the  matter  was  settled  with  greater  precision. 
Messrs.  Glaisher  and  Coxwell  ascended  in  a 
balloon  for  the  purpose  of  making  scientific 
observations  of  the  atmosphere  at  great  eleva- 
tions, Sep.  5,  1862.  They  attained  a  height  of 
six  miles,  when  both  were  rendered  nearly 
insensible  from  its  intense  coldness  and  rarity. 
Mr.  Glaisher  made  ascents  for  a  similar  purpose 
in  1864  and  1865. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY.— The  applica- 
tion of  atmospheric  pressure  as  a  motive  power 
on  rail  ways  was  first  suggested  aboxit  1812,  and 
a  plan  was  made  public  in  1825.  A  line,  con- 
structed to  test  the  principle,  between  King- 
ston and  Dalkey,  near  Dublin,  was  opened  in 
1843  ;  and  another,  between  Croydon  and 
London,  in  184^.  (See  PNEUMATIC  RAILWAY.) 

ATOMIC  THEORY,  in  chemistry,  sometimes 
called  the  doctrine  of  definite  proportions,  was 
first  explained  by  Dr.  Dalton,  in  1803,  in  his 
"Manchester  Memoirs."  His  "New  System 
of  Chemical  Philosophy"  appeared  in  three 
parts,  in  1808,  1810,  and  1829.  The  basis  of  the 
theory  is  found  in  a  work  "  On  the  Affinities 
of  Bodies,"  published  by  Wenzel,  a  German 
chemist,  in  1777. 

ATRA,  or  ATRM  (Arabia).— This  fortified 
town,  dedicated  by  its  inhabitants  to  the  sun, 
was  attacked  by  the  Emperor  Trajan  A.D.  117. 


He  was  wounded  in  the  assault,  and  his  army, 
assailed  by  the  Parthian  archers,  and  confused 
by  a  violent  storm  of  rain  and  hail,  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  El  Hadir,  the  site  of  Atra, 
was  visited  and  explored  by  Layard  in  1840 
and  1846. 

ATREBATES.— This  Belgic  nation  contri- 
buted 15,000  to  the  army  that  opposed  Caesar, 
B.C.  57,  and  participated  in  the  rebellion  of  the 
.Gallic  tribes  B.C.  52.  They  were  subsequently 
subdued,  and  under  the  empire  formed  part  of 
Belgic  Gaul,  and  carried  on  a  manufacture  of 
woollen  cloths.  The  modern  Arras  (q.  v.) 
occupies  the  site  of  their  chief  city. 

ATTAINDER.— The  Norman  laws  provided 
that  by  attainder  of  treason  or  felony  a  person 
not  only  forfeited  his  land,  but  that  his  blood 
became  attainted  :  by  which  his  descendants, 
as  well  as  himself,  were  for  ever  (i.e.,  unless 
the  attainder  had  been  reversed)  disqualified 
from  inheriting  property.  The  theory  of  con- 
structive treason  proved  a  source  of  great  in- 
justice in  the  days  of  arbitrary  rule.  Its 
severity  was  mitigated  by  7  Wm.  III.  c.  3 
(1695),  an  act  which  modified  25  Edw.  III.  stat. 
5,  c.  2  (1350) ;  and  54  Geo.  III.  c.  145  (July  27, 
1814),  restricted  disinheritance,  except  in  cases 
of  high  treason,  to  the  actual  culprit.  By  3 
&  4  Wm.  IV.  c.  1 06  (Aug.  29,  1833),  it  was 
enacted  that  after  the  death  of  a  person  at- 
tainted, those  tracing  descent  through  him 
may  inherit,  unless  the  land  should  have 
escheated  before  Jan.  i,  1834. 

ATTICA  (Greece).— The  early  history  of  this 
political  division  of  ancient  Greece  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  Its  capital,  Athens,  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  traditional  account,  founded  by 
Cecrops,  a  native  of  Lais,  in  Egypt,  about  B.C. 
1558.  (See  ATHENS.) 

ATTISBERG  (Battle),  fought  near  Zurich 
June  5,  1799,  between  the  Austrians,  led  by 
the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the  French,  under 
Massena.  The  latter  were  victorious. 

ATTORNEY,  one  who  is  appointed  to  act  in 
place,  or  in  turn  of,  another  in  the  conduct  of  a 
suit.  In  early  times,  every  suitor  was  obliged 
to  appear  in  person,  in  obedience  to  the  king's 
writ.  After  appearance,  the  courts  of  record 
had  the  power  of  allowing  them  to  appear  by 
attorney.  Suitors  could  also  have  attorneys 
appointed  by  letters  patent,  under  the  great 
seal ;  but  if  these  could  not  be  obtained,  the 
suitors  were  obliged  to  appear  each  day  in 
court  in  their  proper  person.  The  Statute  of 
Westminster  II.  c.  10  (13  Edw.  I.,  1285),  gives 
to  all  persons  the  power  of  appointing  an 
attorney  without  letters  patent.  In  the  poll- 
tax  of  2  Rich.  II.  (1379),  the  legal  profession 
were  divided  into  four  classes  ;  from  which  it 
appears  that  the  attorneys  had  by  this  time 
become  a  separate  body.  Attorneys  are  also 
mentioned  as  a  distinct  body  of  men  in  4  Hen. 
IV.  c.  18  (1402),  whereby  it  is  ordained  that 
all  attorneys  should  be  examined  by  the 
justices,  and  by  their  discretions  should  be  put 
in  the  roll.  They  were  to  be  good,  virtuous, 
and  of  good  fame.  Their  discipline,  mode  of 
admission,  and  qualifications,  have  been  regu- 
lated by  a  long  series  of  statutes,  down  to  the 
6  &  7  Viet.  c.  73  (Aug.  22,  1843),  by  which 
previous  enactments  were  repealed,  and  the 


ATTORNEY 


[    95 


ATTORNEYS 


present  regulations  established.     Acting  with- 
out proper  qualification  is  punished  as  a  mis- 
demeanour. 

A.D.                              HENRY  IV. 
1399.  Sep.    30.    William  de  Lodington. 
1401.                    Thomas  Cowley,  or  Coveley. 
1407.  July   13.    Thomas  Dereham. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  —  The  records    of 

Aug.  17.    Roger  Hunt 

1278  furnish  two  instances  of  the  appearance 

1410.                     Thomas  Tickhill. 

of  an  officer  designated   "attornatus  regis." 

HENRY  V. 

Another   mode  adopted  at  the  time    of    de- 
scribing this  official  was,   "qui  sequitur  pro 
rege,"  or  "Narratores  pro  rege."    It  is,  there- 
fore, certain  that  such  an  officer,  appointed, 

1414.  Jan.   16.    William  Babington. 
1420.                     William  Babthorp. 
HENRY  VI. 
1422-  Nov.   II.    William  Babthorp. 
1429.  Oct.    28.    John  Vampage. 

probably,   at  first  for  special  occasions  only, 

1452.  June  30.    William  Nottingham. 

was  created    some   time   before   1278.      Foss 

EDWARD  IV. 

(Judges  of  England,  iii.  45)  says,  —  "Inmost 
years    two    were     regularly    employed,    who 
may  be  supposed  to  answer  to  our  modern 

1461.  Aug.  12.    John  Herbert. 
Henry  Heshill. 
1471.  June  16.    William  Huse. 
1481.  May     7.    William  Huddersfield. 

officers  —  the  attorney   and   solicitor   general. 

EDWARD  V. 

The  latter  title,   however,   had  certainly  not 

1483.                     William  Huddersfield. 

been  then  adopted  ;  and,  as  far  as  I  can  find, 

May    28.    Morgan  Kydwelly. 

was  not  used  till  the  reign  of  Edward  IV."  The 
queen  also  had  an  attorney  to  attend  to  her 

RICHARD  III. 
1483.                     Morgan  Kydwelly. 

separate  interests.      Holinshed  mentions  one 
killed  in  a  fray  in  Fleet  Street,  April  13,  1458. 
Foss   states  that  Lord  Bacon  was    the    first 

HENRY  VII. 
1485.  Sep.    20.    William  Hody. 
1486.  Nov.     3.    James  Hubbard,  or  Hobart 
HENRY  VIII 

attorney-general     elected    a    member    of    the 

1509.  April.         John  Ernie. 

House  of  Commons.     This  was  in  1614. 

1519.  June  26.    John  Fitz-James. 

ATTORNEYS-GENERAL   OF    ENGLAND. 

1522-  Feb.           John  Roper. 
1534.  April    I.    Ralph  Swillington. 

A.D.                            EDWARD  I. 

1277-8.  William  Bonneville. 

1525.  Aug.          Richard  Lyster. 
1529.  June    3.    Christopher  Hales. 

278-9.  William  de  Giselham. 

279-80.  Gilbert  de  Thornton. 
280-1.  Alan  de  Walkingham. 
281-2.  John  le  Falconer. 
284-5.  William  de  Seleby. 

1540.  Nov.    8.    William  Whorwood. 
?                        William  Staundford. 
1545.  June  18.    Henry  Bradshaw. 

286-7.  William  Inge. 

EDWARD  VI. 

289-90.  John  de  Bosco. 
Nicholas  de  Warwick. 

1547.  Jan.           Henry  Bradshaw. 
1552.  May  21.    Edward  Griffin. 

John  de  Haydell. 

MARY. 

I29I-2.  Richard  de  Breteville. 

1553.  July.          Edward  Griffin. 

Hugh  de  Louther. 

ELIZABETH. 

1292-3.  Roger  de  Hegham. 

1558.  Nov.  17.    Edward  Griffin. 

1293-4.  John  de  Mutford. 

1559.  Jan.   22.    Gilbert  Gerrard. 

1300-1.  John  de  Chester. 
1304-5.?  John  de  Drokenesf  ord. 

1581.  June    I.    John  Popham. 
1592.  June    2.    Thomas  Egerton. 

EDWARD  II 

1594.  April  10.    Edward  Coke. 

1307-8.  John  de  Chester  again. 

JAMES  L 

1309-10.  Mathew  de  Scaccario. 

1603.  March.      Edward  Coke. 

1312-3.  John  de  Norton. 
1315-6.  William  de  Langley.    "V 

1606.  July     4.    Henry  Hobart 
1613.  Oct    27.    Francis  Bacon,  afterwards  Lord  Verulam, 

Gilbert  de  Toutheby.     \  tio                                  n 
William  de  Herlp           /     "eqUuntUT  pro  rege. 
Geoffrey  le  Scrope.       ) 
1318-9.  Adam  de  Fyncham. 

Viscount  St.  Albans. 
1617.  Mar.  12.    Henry  Yelverton. 
1621.  Jan.   ii.    Thomas  Coventry. 

1320-1.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope  again. 
1322-3.  Geoffrey  de  Fyngale. 

CHARLES  I. 
1625.  March.      Thomas  Coventry. 
Oct    31.    Robert  Heath. 

EDWARD  III. 
1327.  Adam  de  Fyncham  again,  in  K.B. 
Alexander  de  Hadenham,  in  C.P. 

1631.  Oct.    27.    William  Noy. 
1634.  Sep.    27.    John  Banks.                                                      , 

William  de  Mershton,  in  C.P. 
1329.  Richard  de  Aldeburgh. 

1645.  Nov.     3.    Thomas  Gardner. 
TRIAL  OF  KINO. 

1334.  Simon  de  Trewythosa. 
William  de  Hepton,  or  Hopton,  in  K.B. 
1338.  John  de  Lincoln,  in  K.B.,  and  in  1343. 
John  de  Clone,  or  Clove,  in  C.P.,  and  in  1339  and  1343. 

1649.  Jan.    10.    William  Steele. 
INTER  REGNTTM. 
1649.  Feb.           William  Steele. 
April   9.    Edmond  Prideaux. 

William  de  Merington. 
1342.  William  de  Thorpe. 

1659.                    Robert  Reynolds. 
CHARLES  II. 

1349.  Simon  de  Kegworth,  in  K.B. 
1353.?  Henry  de  Greystoke. 
1356.  John  Gaunt,  in  C.P. 

1660.  May  30.    Geoffrey  Palmer. 
1670.  May  10.    Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  Earl  of  Not- 

1360.  Richard  de  Friseby. 
1362.  William  de  Pleste,  in  K.B. 

1673.  Nov.  12.    Francis  North,  afterwards  Lord  Guildford 
1675.  Jan.  25.    William  Jones. 

1363.  William  de  Nessefield. 

1679.  Oct    27-    Creswell  Levinz,  or  Levinge. 

1366.  Thomas  de  Shardelowe.     ) 
1367.  John  de  Ashwell.                V  Also  in  1370. 

1681.  Feb.   24-    Robert  Sawyer. 
JAMES  II. 

Michael  Skylling,  in  C.P.  j 

1685.  Feb.           Robert  Sawyer  again. 

RICHARD  II. 

1687.  Dec.    13.    Thomas  Powis. 

1378.  Thomas  de  Shardelowe  again. 

WILLIAM  III. 

1381.  William  Ellis. 

1689.  Feb.           Henry  Pollexfen. 

Lawrence  Dru. 

May     4.    George  Treby. 

1384.  William  de  Horneby. 

1692.  May    3.   John  Somers,  afterwards  Lord  Somers. 

1386.  Edmund  Brudnell. 

1695.  June    8.   Thomas  Trevor,  afterwards  Lord  Trevor. 

1398.  Thomas  Coveley. 

1701.  June  28.   Edward  Northey. 

ATTORNEYS 


AUDIANS 


A.D. 

1702.  March. 

1707.  April. 

1708.  Oct. 
1710.  Sep. 

Oct. 

1714.  Aug. 
1718.  Mar.  1 8. 

1730.  May  7. 
1734.  Feb.  I. 

1727.  June. 
1734.  Jan. 
1737.  Jan. 
1754.  May. 

1756.  Nov. 

1757.  June. 

1760.  Oct. 
1763.  Jan.  25. 
1763.  Dec.  1 6. 
1765-  Sep.  17. 
1766.  Aug.  6. 

1771.  Jan.  26. 
1778.  June  ii. 

1780.  July  21. 

1782.  April  i«. 

1783.  May     2. 
Nov.  22. 
Doc.   26. 

1784.  Mar.  31. 

1788.  June  28. 
1793.  Feb.  14. 
1799.  July  18. 
l8of.  Feb.  14. 

1803.  April  15. 

1806.  Feb.    12. 

1807.  April    i. 
J8i2.  June  26. 
1813.  May     4. 
1817.  May     7. 

1819.  July  24. 

1820.  Jan. 
1824.  Jan.     9. 

1826.  Sop.    20. 

1827.  April  27. 

1828.  Feb.    19. 

1829.  June  29. 

1830.  June. 
1830.  Nov.  26. 

1832.  Nov.  26. 

1834.  Feb. 
Dec.    17. 

1835.  April  30. 

1837.  June. 
1841.  July. 

Sep.     6. 

1844.  April  15. 

1845.  June  29. 


1846.  July     2. 
July    7. 

1850.  July   ii. 

1851.  Mnr.  28. 
1853.  Feb.    27. 

Dec.   28. 
1856.  Nov. 

1858.  Feb.    26. 

1859.  June  18. 
1861.  June  27. 
1863.  Oct.      2. 


Amn. 

Edward  Xorthey  again. 

Simon  IIarcourt,afterwardsLord  Harcourt. 

James  Montague. 

Simon  Harcourt  again. 

Edward  Northey  again. 
GEORGE  I. 

Edward  Northey  again. 

Nicholas  Lechmere,  afterwards  Lord  Lech- 
mere. 

Robert  llaymond,  afterwards  Lord  Ray- 
mond. 

riiilip  Yorke,  afterwards  Lord  Hardwicke. 
GEORGE  II. 

Philip  Yorke  again. 

John  Willes. 

Dudley  Ryder. 

William  Murray,  afterwards  Lord  Mans- 
fi.-l  1. 

Robert  Henley,  iif forwards  Viscount  Hen- 
ley and  Earl  of  Northington. 

Charles  Pratt,  afterwards  Lord  Camden. 
GEORGE  III. 

Charles  Pratt  again. 

Charle*  Yorke. 

Fletcher  Norton,  afterwards  LordGrantley. 

Charle.4  Yorke  again. 

William  de   Grey,  afterwards  Lord  Wal- 
singham. 

Edwur.l  Thurlow,  afterwards  Lord  Thttr- 
low. 

Alexander  We-lderburn,  afterwards  Lord 
Lough  boroogh. 

James  Wallace. 

Lloyd  Kenyon. 

James  Wallace  again. 

John  Lee. 

Lloyd  Kenyon  again. 

Richard   Popper  Arden,   afterwards  Lord 
Alvanley. 

Archibald  Macdonnld. 

John  Scott,  afterwards  Lord  Eldon. 

.Tolm  Mitfonl,  afterwards  Baron  Redosdalo. 

Edward     Law,    afterwards    Lord    Ellen- 
1>  iroiisrh. 

Spencer  1'ercivaL 

Arthur  1'igott. 

Vicary  Gibbs. 

Thomas  PI  inner. 

William  Gnrrow. 

Sinnuel  Shepherd. 

Robert  Gifford,  afterwards  Lord  Gifford. 
GI:OIJGK  IV. 

Robert  Gifford  again. 

John   Singh-ton   Copley,  afterwards  Lord 
Lyndhurst. 

Charles  Wetherell. 

James  Scarlett,  afterwards  Lord  Abinger. 

Charles  Wetheivll  again. 

James  Scarlett  again. 
WILLIAM  IV. 

James  Scarlett  again. 

Thomas  Denman,   afterwards  Lord  Den- 
man. 

William  Home. 

John  Campbell,  afterwards  Lord  Campbell. 

Frederick  Pollock. 

John  Campbell  again. 
VICTORIA. 

John  Campbell  again. 

Thomas  Wilde,  afterwards  Lord  Truro. 

Frederick  Pollock  again. 

William  Webb  Follett. 

Frederick      Thesiger,     afterwards      Lord 
Chelmsford. 

Thomas  Wilde  again. 

John  Jervis. 

John  Romilly. 

Alexander  James  Edmund  Cockburn. 

Frederick  Thesig  r  again. 

Alexander  James  Edmund  Cockburn  again. 

Richard  Bethell,afterwards  Lord  Westbury. 

Fitzroy  Kelly. 

Richard  Bethell  again. 

William  Atherton 

Roundell  Palmer. 


ATTRACTION.— Tbales  discovered  the  at- 
tractive power  of  amber,  when  excited  by  rub- 
bing, B.C.  600.  Pythagoras,  born  B.C.  580,  and 
Anaxagoras,  born  B.C.  499,  had  some  know- 
ledge of  this  principle  as  the  source  of  the 
stability  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  but  it  was 
first  scientifically  understood  by  Copernicus, 
whose  system  of  astronomy  was  completed  in 
1530.  Dr.  Gilbert,  of  Colchester,  taught,  in 
1590,  that  the  earth  exerts  in  all  its  parts 
•great  attractive  power;  and  Kepler,  in  1609, 
applied  the  same  principle  to  the  explanation 
of  the  motions  of  the  planet  Mars  by  the 
phenomena  of  the  tides.  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
researches  into  the  subject  of  attraction  com- 
menced in  1666,  and  the  result  was  published  in 
the  "  Principia  "  in  1687,  in  which  he  developed 
his  theory  of  gravitation.  (See  ELECTRICITY, 
GRAVITATION,  MAGNETISM,  &c.) 

AUBAINE.  -This  right,  by  which  the  sove- 
reigns of  France  claimed  the  property  of  a 
stranger  who  had  died  in  their  dominions  with- 
out having  been  naturalized,  was  abolished  by 
laws  dated  Aug.  6,  1790,  and  April  13,  1791  ; 
confirmed  by  a  constitutional  act  Sep.  3,  1791. 
It  was  re-established  in  1804;  and  finally 
abolished  July  14,  1819. 

AUBEROCHE  (Battle).— Fought  between  the 
English  and  French  before  this  place,  in  France, 
Aug.  19,  1344,  in  which  the  former,  although 
greatly  inferior  in  point  of  numbers,  were  vic- 
torious ;  the  loss  of  the  French  amounting  to 
7,000  slain  and  1,200  prisoners. 

AUBIN  DU  CORMIER,  ST.  (Battle).— 
Fought  at  this  place,  in  Britanny,  between  the 
Bretons  and  the  French,  July  28,  1488.  The 
latter  gained  the  victory,  and  St.  Aubin  fell 
into  their  hands.  The  Prince  of  Orange  and 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  were  made  prisoners.  A 
body  of  English  archers,  400  in  number,  com- 
manded by  Lord  Woodville,  were  cruelly  put  to 
death  after  the  battle. 

AUCKLAND  (New  Zealand),  the  capital,  was 
founded  Sep.  19,  1840.  Capt.  Hobson,  the 
first  governor  of  the  colony,  arrived  in  January, 
1841.  It  was  resolved  to  transfer  the  seat  of 
government  to  Wellington  (q.v.],  Dec.  24,  1864. 

AUCTION. — This  mode  of  sale  was  common 
amongst  the  Romans.  Petronius  gives  the 
following  caricature  of  the  handbill  of  a  Roman 
auction  :  — "  Julius  Procuius  will  make  an 
auction  of  his  superfluous  goods  to  pay  his 
debts."  In  the  i3th  century  the  crier,  called 
cursor,  stood  under  a  spear,  as  amongst  the 
Romans.  By  19  Geo.  III.  c.  56,  s.  3  (1779),  an 
auction  is  defined,  — "a  sale  of  any  estate, 
goods,  or  effects,  whatsoever,  by  outcry,  knock- 
ing down  of  hammer,  by  candle,  by  lot,  by 
parcel,  or  by  any  other  mode  of  sale  at  auction, 
or  whereby  the  highest  bidder  is  deemed  to  be 
the  purchaser."  Duties  were  first  levied  on 
auctions  by  17  Geo.  III.  c.  50  (1777).  Increased 
and  extended  to  Ireland  in  1797  ;  and  again 
increased  by  45  Geo.  III.  c  30  (April  5,  1805^; 
they  were  repealed  by  8.  Viet.  c.  15  (May  8, 
1845),  which  imposed  upon  auctioneers  the 
necessity  of  taking  out  a  license. 

AUDIANS,  or  AUD^EANS,  a  Christian  sect,  so 
called  from  Audius,  Audseus,  or  Udo,  a  native  of 
Mesopotamia,  who  was  prosecuted  by  the  Syrian 
clergy,  because  he  censured  their  irregular  lives. 


AUDIENCIA 


t    97    1 


AUGSBURG 


In  revenge,  he  was  ejected  from  the  Syrian 
Church,  and  banished  to  Scythia,  where  he 
died  A.D.  370.  His  followers  celebrated  Easter 
on  the  same  day  as  the  Jewish  passover,  con- 
trary to  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea  in 
325 ;  and  they  maintained  that  God  had  a 
human  form,  and  that  man  was  created  after 
his  image.  From  the  former  doctrine  they 
have  been  called  Quart odecimarians,  and  from 
the  latter  Anthropomorphites.  Theodosius  I., 
in  385,  decreed  death  against  those  who  dared 
to  perpetrate  the  atrocious  crime  of  celebrating 
Easter  on  an  improper  day.  Only  a  small 
number  of  Audians  remained  after  the  year 
377,  and  they  dwelt  in  cabins  and  monasteries 
near  Antioch.  By  the  sth  century  they  had 
become  extinct.  They  .are  also  called  Ardseans, 
and  their  founder  Ardseus. 

AUDIENCIA  REAL.  —  A  great  council  ap- 
pointed to  assist  the  viceroys  in  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  the  administration  of  civil  affairs. 
Venezuela  threw  off  the  authority  of  this  tri- 
bunal July  8,  1 8 10,  establishing  in  its  stead  a 
popular  junta,  and  her  example  was  speedily 
followed  by  the  other  colonies  of  South 
America. 

AUDIT  OFFICE.  —  This  department  was 
established  at  Somerset  House  by  25  Geo.  III. 
c.  52  (1785),  to  provide  for  the  proper  audit  and 
examination  of  the  public  accounts.  Com- 
missioners were  appointed  to  audit  the  colonial 
revenues  by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  26  (April  9,  1832), 
and  the  accounts  of  Ireland  were  brought 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Commissioners 
of  Audit  for  Great  Britain  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV. 
c.  99  (Aug.  9,  1832). 

AUDLEYfS  REBELLION.— (See  FLAMMOCK'S 
REBELLION.) 

AUERSTADT  (Battle).  —  Marshal  Davoust, 
at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  defeated 
the  Prussians,  under  Marshal  Blucher,  at 
this  plateau  in  Prussia,  Oct.  14,  1806.  The 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  led  the  infantry, 
was  mortally  wounded.  The  Prussians  lost 
10,000,  and  Davoust  7,500  men.  This  battle, 
with  that  of  Jena  (q.  ».),  fought  the  same 
day,  placed  Prussia  completely  at  the  mercy  of 
the  French. 

AUFIDENA  (Italy).— This  ancient  city  of 
the  Samnites  was  carried  by  assault  by  the 
consul  Cn.  Fulvius,  B.C.  298.  A  Roman  colony 
was  established  here  by  Julius  Csesar  B.C.  45. 

AUGHRIM,  or  AGHRIM  (Battle).— Fought 
near  this  place,  in  Ireland,  Sunday,  July  12, 
1691.  The  troops  of  William  III.,  commanded 
by  Gen.  Ginkell,  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  army  of  James  II.  The  chief  result 
was  the  submission  of  Ireland  to  William  III. 

AUGMENTATION  OF  POOR  LIVINGS.— 
(See  QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY.) 

AUGMENTATIONS,  called  "The  Court  of 
the  Augmentations  of  the  King's  Revenues," 
was  established  by  27  Henry  VIII.  c.  27  (1535), 
to  take  cognizance  of  suits  and  controversies 
arising  out  of  the  suppression  of  monasteries. 
It  consisted  of  a  chancellor,  treasurer,  attorney, 
solicitor,  10  auditors,  17  receivers,  a  clerk, 
an  usher,  and  a  messenger.  It  was  sup- 
pressed by  letters  patent,  re-established,  and 
was  annexed  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  by 
i  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  10  (1553),  and  revived  by 


i  Eliz.  c.  4  (1558).  The  records  of  the  court  may 
be  searched  on  payment  of  a  fee,  by  i  &  2  Viet, 
c.  94  (Aug.  10,  1838). 

AUGSBURG  (Bavaria).— Founded  by  Augus- 
tus about  B.C.  14,  after  the  conquest  of  Rhsetia 
by  Drusus,  and  called  Augusta  Vindelicorum, 
was  pillaged  by  the  Huns  about  the  middle  of 
the  sth  century.  Charlemagne  destroyed  it 
in  788.  It  was  restored,  and  enjoyed  the 
rights  of  a  free  and  imperial  city  from  1276 — 
1806.  Marshal  Villars  captured  it  Sep.  18, 1703 ; 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria  in  December  of  the 
same  year ;  and  Marlborough  retook  it  in  1704. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  Oct.  10,  1805,  and 
delivered  by  them  to  the  Bavarian  authorities 
in  March,  1806.  The  bishopric  is  very  ancient. 
Councils  were  held  at  Augsburg  Aug.  7,  952, 
and  Feb.,  1051.  The  academy  of  painting  was 
founded  in  1712. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION.  —  This  cele- 
brated confession  of  faith,  compiled  by  Melanc- 
thon,  and  revised  by  Luther  and  other 
reformers,  was  read  before  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg, June  25,  1530.  It  consisted  of  28  articles, 
seven  of  which  contained  refutations  of  Roman 
Catholic  errors,  and  the  remaining  21  set  forth 
the  leading  tenets  of  the  Lutheran  creed. 
Soon  after  its  promulgation,  the  last  hope  of 
inducing  the  pontiff  to  reform  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  was  abandoned,  and  the  com- 
plete severance  of  the  connection  followed. 
An  answer  by  the  Roman  Catholics  was  read 
Aug.  3,  1530  ;  and  the  Augsburg  diet  declared 
that  it  had  been  refuted.  Melancthon  drew  up 
another  confession  somewhat  different.  The 
first  is  called  the  unaltered,  and  the  second  the 
altered  confession. 

AUGSBURG  DIET.— The  most  celebrated 
of  the  numerous  diets  held  at  this  place  was 
that  of  1530.  As  Pope  Clement  VII.  refused  to 
call  a  general  council  for  the  settlement  of  all 
religious  disputes,  to  be  held  in  some  German 
town,  in  accordance  with  the  recess  of  the 
diet  of  Spires  in  1529,  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
summoned  another  diet  at  Augsburg,  which 
met  June  20,  1530.  The  confession  (q.  v.)  was 
read  June  25,  and  an  answer  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  Aug.  3,  whereupon  it  was  proclaimed 
that  the  Protestants  must  conform  in  all 
points  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  Philip  of 
Hesse  withdrew  Aug.  6,  and  John,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  asked  leave  to  depart  Sep.  20.  Charles 
V.  soon  after  delivered  his  decision,  in  which 
he  gave  the  Protestants  till  April  15  to  re-mrte 
themselves  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
during  which  period  they  were  to  attempt  no 
further  innovations,  to  publish  no  new  re- 
ligious works,  and  to  allow  their  Roman 
Catholic  subjects  free  use  of  their  worship,  and 
to  repress  Anabaptists  and  Sacramentaries. 
The  Emperor  engaged  to  induce  the  Pope  to 
summon  a  national  or  general  council.  This 
decision  met  with  resistance,  and  a  recess 
was  issued  Nov.  22,  in  which  the  emperor 
announced  his  intention  to  execute  the 
edict  of  Worms,  made  some  severe  enactments 
against  the  Protestants,  and  re-constituted 
the  Imperial  Chamber.  The  Protestant  depu- 
ties put  in  a  counter  declaration,  and  the 
diet  separated. 

AUGSBURG    INTERIM.  —  This    document 


AUGSBURG 


AULIC 


was  drawn  up  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  with  a  view  to  the  settlement  of  the  re- 
ligious differences  in  Germany.  It  was  the 
joint  production  of  John  Agricola,  Julius 
Pflug,  and  Michael  Heldingus,  commonly 
called  Sidonius,  from  his  bishopric.  The  code, 
consisting  of  26  articles,  most  of  them  in 
favour  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  was  read  before 
a  diet  at  Augsburg  May  15,  1548,  and  having 
failed  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  was  at 
length  withdrawn. 

AUGSBURG  LEAGUE.— Concluded  at  Augs- 
burg July  9,  1686,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
treaties  of  Munster  and  Nimeguen,  and  the 
truce  of  Ratisbon.  It  was  negotiated  by  Wil- 
liam Prince  of  Orange,  June  21,  1686,  for  the 
purpose  of  resisting  the  encroachments  of 
France.  The  contracting  parties  were  the 
Emperor  Leopold  I.,  the  Kings  of  Spain  and 
Sweden,  the  Electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria, 
the  Circles  of  Swabia,  Franconia,  Upper  Saxony, 
and  Bavaria.  The  League  was  to  be  in  force 
three  years,  and  might  be  renewed.  England 
acceded  to  it  in  1689. 

AUGURY,  supposed  to  be  of  Asiatic  origin, 
was  received  by  the  Romans  from  the  Etrus- 
cans. The  story  of  the  rival  pretensions  of 
Romulus  and  Remus,  to  be  decided  by  the 
flight  of  birds,  B.C.  753,  is  well  known.  Romu- 
lus instituted  f  our  augurs,  and  Numa  Pompilius 
increased  the  number  to  six,  and  established 
them  as  an  order  B.C.  716.  The  Romans  never 
embarked  in  any  important  enterprise  without 
consulting  the  augurs,  and  one  of  them  always 
attended  upon  the  consul  when  commanding 
an  army.  In  B.C.  307  the  number  of  augurs 
was  increased  to  nine,  five  plebeians  being 
associated  with  four  patricians.  Sylla  increased 
the  number  to  15,  B.C.  81.  Augustus,  B.C.  29, 
obtained  the  right  of  electing  augurs  at  his 
pleasure.  Theodosius  I.  (the  Great)  abolished 
the  office  of  augur  A.D.  390.  Gibbon  (iii.  ch.  28) 
remarks  : — "  Fifteen  grave  and  learned  augurs 
observed  the  face  of  the  heavens,  and  pre- 
scribed the  action  of  heroes  according  to  the 
flight  of  birds." 

AUGUST.— By  a  decree  of  the  senate,  B.C.  30, 
the  name  of  this  month  was  changed  from 
Sextilis  to  August,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  who  extended  the  number  of  its 
days  from  30  to  31. 

AUGUSTA  PRETORIA.—  (See  AOSTA.) 

AUGUSTALIA,  or  AUGUSTALES.  —  This 
festival,  in  honour  of  the  birthday  (Sep.  23, 
B.C.  63)  of  Augustus,  was  established  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  Roman  senate,  B.C.  n.  The  term 
is  applied  to  games  celebrated  in  honour  of 
Augustus  at  Rome,  Neapolis,  Alexandria,  and 
other  cities. 

AUGUSTAN  2ERA,  named  after  Augustus, 
began  Feb.  14,  A.U.C.  727,  or  B.C.  27. 

AUGUSTENBURG  (Denmark).— The  castle 
at  this  town,  on  the  isle  of  Alsen,  erected  in 
1651,  is  the  seat  of  the  ducal  family  of  Augus- 
tenburg,  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Holstein. 
Prince  Christian  Charles  Augustus  of  Augus- 
tenburg,  born  in  1786,  and  nominated  in  1809 
Crown-Prince  of  Sweden,  died  immediately  on 
his  arrival  in  that  country,  in  1810,  it  is  be- 
lieved by  poison.  In  consideration  of  the  sum 
of  $3,500,000,  Prince  Christian  signed  an  act, 


Dec.  30,  1852,  renouncing  for  himself  and 
family  all  right  to  the  succession  of  any  part 
of  the  Danish  kingdom.  After  the  death  of 
Frederick  VII.,  Prince  Frederick  of  Augusten- 
burg  published  a  claim  to  the  succession  in 
Sleswig-Holstein,  Nov.  16, 1863.  (See  DENMARK.) 
— The  contract  for  the  marriage  of  the  Princess 
Helena  with  Prince  Christian  of  Augusten- 
burg,  younger  brother  of  the  claimant  to  the 
duchies,  was  sanctioned  by  Queen  Victoria  in 
"council,  Dec.  5.  1865. 

AUGUSTINE  FRIARS,  also  called  AUS- 
TINS, or  EREMITES.— Their  origin  is  uncer- 
tain. Pope  Alexander  IV.  is  said  to  have  col- 
lected several  bodies  of  hermits  and  placed 
them  under  the  common  rule  of  St.  Augustine 
in  1256.  Lanfranc  of  Milan  was  their  general. 
Much  controversy  has  been  excited  respecting 
the  date  of  their  introduction  into  England.  A 
small  body  is  said  to  have  settled  at  Wood- 
house,  in  Wales,  in  1252.  Humphrey  Bohun, 
afterwards  Earl  of  Hereford  and  Essex,  gave 
them  a  house  and  a  church  in  London  in 
1254.  They  had  about  32  houses  in  England 
and  Wales  when  the  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed at  the  Reformation. 

AUGUSTINES,  or  the  Canons  of  the  order 
of  St.  Augustine,  sometimes  called  Austin 
Canons,  because  they  pretended  to  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  or  Austin,  Bishop  of 
Hippo,  in  Africa,  A.D.  395.  They  were  little 
known  until  the  nth  century,  and  did  not 
assume  the  name  until  a  later  period.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  they  came  into  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  about  1105. 
Stevens  states  that  they  did  not  take  any  vows 
until  the  i2th  century,  and  that  they  assumed 
the  name  of  Regular  Canons  of  St.  Augustine, 
when  Innocent  II.,  at  the  tenth  general  coun- 
cil, that  of  Lateran,  in  1139,  placed  all  regular 
canons  under  his  rule.  There  were  canonesses 
of  this  order,  which  had  about  175  houses  in 
England  and  Wales  at  the  time  of  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  monasteries. 

AUGUST! )  I ) I  N  I' .M.—  (See  BIBRACTE.) 

AULDEARN  (Battle).  —  The  Covenanters 
were  defeated  at  Auldeam,  or  Alderne,  near 
Inverness,  by  the  Earl  of  Montrose,  May  9, 
1645. 

AULIC  COUNCIL.— Soon  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Imperial  Chamber  by  the  diet  of 
Worms,  in  1495,  Maximilian  I.  instituted  an 
Aulic  Council  at  Vienna.  The  judges  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor.  "The  Aulic  Coun- 
cil," says  Hallarn,  "had,  in  all  cases,  a  concur- 
rent jurisdiction  with  the  Imperial  Chamber  ; 
an  exclusive  one  in  feudal  and  some  other 
causes.  But  it  was  equally  confined  to  caser* 
of  appeal ;  and  these,  by  multiplied  privileges 
appellando,  granted  to  the  electoral 
and  superior  princely  houses,  were  gradually 
reduced  into  moderate  compass."  This  court 
underwent  various  modifications.  An  edict 
for  its  regulation  was  issued  by  Ferdinand  III. 
in  1654.  During  the  wars  between  Austria 
and  Napoleon  I.  the  Aulic  Council  directed 
the  military  affairs  of  the  empire.  Its  inter- 
ference with  the  plans  of  the  generals  fre- 
quently proved  disastrous.  The  Aulic  Coun- 
cil was  abolished  on  the  formation  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  but  was 


AURAY 


[    99 


AUSTRALIA 


revived  on  the  renewal  of  the  struggle  against 
Napoleon  I. 

AURAY  (Battle),  was  fought  near  this  town 
in  France,  Sep.  29,  1364,  between  a  French 
army,  4,000  strong,  led  by  Charles  de  Blois  and 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  and  some  English  and 
Breton  forces,  amounting  to  2,500,  under  the 
command  of  the  Count  de  Montfort  and  Sir 
John  Chandos.  Bertrand  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner,  Charles  de  Blois  was  killed, 
and  the  results  of  the  victory  were  the  cap- 
ture of  Auray,  Dinan,  and  other  towns,  and 
the  conclusion  of  a  peace  at  Guerrande,  April 
X3)  JB^S.  The  French  lost  1,000  men  in  the 
battle,  and  their  army  was  dispersed,  whilst 
only  20  fell  on  the  other  side. 

AUREOLA.— (See  NIMBUS.) 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.— The  practice 
of  private  confession  of  sins  to  the  priest  arose 
at  an  early  period  of  Christianity,  and  was 
frequently  condemned  by  the  primitive  Church. 
The  penitent  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  was  re- 
quired to  say  to  the  priest  (Thorpe,  Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,  p.  404),  "  I 
confess  to  thee  all  the  sins  of  my  body,  of  skin, 
of  flesh,  and  of  bones,  and  of  sinews,  and  of 
veins,  and  of  gristles,  and  of  tongue,  and  of 
lips,  and  of  gums,  and  of  teeth,  and  of  hair, 
and  of  marrow,  and  of  everything,  soft  or 
hard,  wet  or  dry."  It  was  established  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  by  the  decision  of  the 
twelfth  general  council  (fourth  Lateran),  in 
1215,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  1545 — 
1563.  The  former  decreed  it  to  be  heresy  for 
any  one  to  assert  that  it  was  sufficient  to  con- 
fess sins  to  God,  without  making  confession  to 
a  priest.  It  was  abolished  in  England  at  the 
Reformation.  Attempts  have  been  made  by 
members  of  the  Tractarian  party  to  revive  the 
practice  in  the  Anglican  Church  ;  and  in  1858 
a  clergyman  was  suspended  from  his  office  on 
this  account. 

AURIFLAMMA.— (&e  ORIFLAMME.) 

AURORA  BO  RE ALIS.— Pliny  the  Elder 
(A.D.  23  —  79)  declares  this  phenomenon  of 
nature  was  greatly  dreaded,  and  speaks  of  one 
appearance  as  exhibiting  daylight  in  the  night. 
Extraordinary  displays  were  seen  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Holland,  France,  and  Great  Britain, 
Aug.  31,  1769,  and  Feb.  29,  1780.  The  aurora 
borealis  seen  Oct.  24,  1847,  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  ever  witnessed  in  this  country,  was 
preceded  by  great  magnetic  disturbance. 

AUSTERLITZ  (Battle).— Fought  near  a  small 
town  of  this  name,  in  Moravia,  Dec.  2,  1805, 
and  called  "  the  battle  of  the  three  emperors," 
because  the  French  were  commanded  by  Na- 
poleon I.,  and  the  Austrians  and  Russians  by 
the  Emperors  Francis  II.  and  Alexander  I. 
The  French  army  numbered  90,000,  and  that 
of  their  opponents  80,000  men.  The  former 
proved  victorious,  and  the  armistice  of  Auster- 
litz  was  signed  Dec.  6.  It  led  to  the  breaking 
up  of  the  third  coalition,  and  the  conclusion 
of  the  treaty  of  Presburg  (q.  v.}. 

AUSTINS.— (-See  AUGUSTINE  FRIARS.) 

AUSTRALASIA,  the  fifth  great  division  of 
the  world,  comprises  several  of  the  islands 
lying  hi  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  The 
most  important  are  Australia,  or  New  Holland ; 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  or  Tasmania ;  Papua,  or 


New  Guinea  ;  New  Zealand,  New  Britain,  New 
Caledonia,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  Solomon's 
Archipelago.  The  first  discovery  made  by 
Europeans  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe  was 
that  of  Papua  (q.  v.),  by  the  Portuguese,  in 
1512. 

A.D. 

1538.  Saavedra,  a  Spaniard,  lands  in  Papua. 

1529.  Saavedra  visits  Papua  a  second  time. 

1537.  An  expedition,  sent  by  the  Viceroy  of  Pern,  lands  in 
Papua. 

1543.  Gaetano  discovers  one  of  Ihe  Sandwich  Isles  (q.  v.). 

1507.  Mendana  discovers  New  Georgia,  or  Solomon's  Island. 

1603.  The  New  Hebrides  (q.  v.)  are  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards. 

1606,  March.  The  Dutch  sight  Australia  (q.  v.).—  June, 
Torres,  a  Spaniard,  passes  through  the  strait 
named  after  him  in  1763,  separating1  Australia 
from  New  Guinea.  He  also  discovers  islands  in 
the  Louisade  Archipelago. 

1643.  Tasman  discovers  Van  Diemen's    Land    (see  TAS- 

MANIA) and  New  Zealand  (q.  r.). 

1644.  Tasman 's  second  voyage  to  Australia. 

1700,  Feb.  37.     Dampier    discovers    the    island    of    New 

Britain  (q.  v.). 

1767.  Carteret  discovers  New  Ireland  (q.  v.). 
1773.  Kerguelen,  or  Desolation  Island  (q.  v.)  is  discovered. 

1773.  Furneaux  discovers  Adventure  Bay  (q.  v.). 

1774.  Cook  visits  the  New  Hebrides. — Sep.  4.  He  discovers 

New  Caledonia. 

1789.  Banks's  Island,  to  the  north  of  the  New  Hebrides,  is 
discovered  by  Bligh. 

1798.  Bass,  in  the  Norfolk,  explores  the  strait  bearing  his 

name. 

1799.  Flinders  circumnavigates  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

AUSTRALIA,    or    NEW    HOLLAND.— The 

discovery  of  this,  the  largest  island  in  the  world, 
called  by  the  Dutch  Terra  Australis,  by  the 
Spaniards  Terra  Australis  del  Espiritu  Sancto, 
and  in  the  earliest  maps  Jave  la  Grande,  or 
Great  Java,  has  been  claimed  by  the  French 
for  Capt.  Binot  Paulmier  de  Gonneville,  in  1504. 
Recent  researches  have  proved  that  it  was  the 
coast  of  Madagascar,  and  not  that  of  Australia, 
upon  which  this  French  navigator  was  driven. 
Magellan  is  said  to  have  discovered  it  during  the 
voyage  made  in  the  Vittoria  in  1520,  but  the 
claims  of  these  early  discoverers  are  not  sup- 
ported by  satisfactory  evidence.  There  is,  how- 
ever, little  doubt  that  Australia  was  discovered 
previous  to  the  year  1540,  and  the  Portuguese 
are  supposed  to  be  entitled  to  the  honour  of 
this  discovery,  of  which  no  record  remains. 
The  Dutch,  Nov.  18, 1605,  despatched  the  yacht 
Duyphen,  from  Bantam,  to  explore  the  islands 
of  New  Guinea,  and  during  the  voyage,  about 
March,  1606,  they  sighted  the  coast  of  Australia. 
In  June  of  the  same  year  it  was  seen  by  Torres, 
a  Spanish  navigator,  when  passing  through 
the  straits  that  bear  his  name  ;  yet  neither  of 
these  enterprising  men  was  aware  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  discoveiy.  Between  the  years 
1616  and  1705  several  expeditions  were  sent  by 
the  Dutch  in  this  direction,  and  various  portions 
'f  the  Australian  coast  were  explored.  Much  in- 
formation will  be  found  in  "  A  History  of  the 
Discovery  and  Exploration  of  Australia,"  by 
;he  Rev.  J.  E.  Tenison  Woods,  1865.  In  1770 
Capt.  Cook  gave  the  name  of  New  South  Wales 
to  a  part  of  the  island,  and  in  1829  Western 
Australia,  or  Swan  River,  was  founded.  Other 
provinces  have  since  been  erected  into  separate 
colonies,  and  Australia  contains  the  following 
divisions  :— 1.  New  South  Wales  ;  2.  Western 
Australia,  or  Swan  River ;  3.  South  Australia ; 


AUSTRALIA 


[     ioo    ] 


AUSTRALIA 


4.  Victoria,  or  Port  Phillip ;  5.  Queen's  Land,  or 
Moretuu  Bay. 

A.D. 

1616.  Hartog  makes  discoveries  in  what  id  now  called 
West  Australia. 

1618.  Zeacheu  makes  discoveries  in  what  is  now  called 

North  Australia. 

1619.  Von  Edels  makes  discoveries  in  what  is  now  called 

West  Australia. 

1637.  Nuyt's  Land  is  discovered  by  the  Dutch. 

1638.  I)e  Witt  makes  discoveries,  to  which  his  name  is 

given,  in  what  is  now  called  Northern  Australia. 

1643,  Aug.    14.     Tii.sman    sails    from    Batuvia   with  two 

vessels,  on  his  iirst  voyage  of  discovery,  to  Aus- 
tralia.— Nov.  23.  Discovers  Tasmania  (?.».). — 
Dec.  I.  Lands,  and  names  it  Van  Diemcn,  after 
the  Governor  of  liatavia. 

1644.  Tasman's  second  voyage  to  Australia. 

1686,  Jan.  4.  William  Dumpier,  tin;  first  Englishman  to 
visit  Australia,  lands  on  the  eastern  coast. — Feb.  13. 
Dumpier  sails  from  Australia. 

1696,  Dec.  25.     William  Vlamingh,    a   Dutch    navigator, 

sights  the  southern  coast  of  Australia. 

1697,  Jan-  5-     Vlamingh  lands  011  the  Australian  continent. 
1699,  Jan.    14.     W.  Dampicr   sails    for   Australia   a   set 'I 

time.— Aug.  i.  He  sights  the  coast  of  Australia.-- 
Aug.  3r.  Lands  on  one  of  the  group  called  Dam- 
pier's  Islands. 

1705,  April— July  13.  The  Dutch  'explore  the  north-west 
coast  of  Australia. 

1737,  June.  A  Dutch  vessel,  the  Xri-icyk,  is  wrecked  on 
what  is  now  called  Gun  Island. 

I77O,  April,  (.'apt.  Cook  sails  along  th"  south-east  coast  of 
Australia;  lands  at  a  spot  which  he  calls  Botany 
Hay  (<•/.  r.);  and  takes  formal  possession  of  the 
country  by  the  name-  of  New  South  Wales  (q.  ».). 

1772,  Marion,  a  French  navigntor,  visits  Tasmania. 

1773,  March  9.     Furneaux.  readies  Tasmania. — March  25. 

Cap!    rook    sights  New  Zealand  on  his  second 

1774,  Nov.    TO.      After    making  various    discoveries,    and 

visiting  different   parts  of  Australia,   ('apt.  Cook 

from  N'ew  Zealand. 

1777.  Capt.  Cook  ii rives  in  Adventure  Bay  (q.  v.)  On  his 
third  \ . 

1787,  May  13.  The  Rngllah  Government  having  determined 

to  scad  convicts  to  Australia,  a  licet  of  II  ships, 
oarr\ing  558  male  and  318  femali:  convicts,  and 
about  300  soldiers,  v\  ith  their  wives  and  children, 
sails  from  Plymouth. 

1788,  Jan.  3.     The  licet   arrives  off  the  coast  of  Australia, 

and  all  the  convicts  are  soon  after  safely  landed  at 
Port  Jackson,  near  Botany  Bay.  La  1'erouse,  the 
French  navigator,  arrives  with  two  .ships,  the 
li<i.i.i,i/i'  and  the  .•l*ti»l.tbe.—Jun.  26.  C'apt.  A. 
Phillip,  the  firs!  governor,  founds  Sydney  (7.  >:). — 
Mar.  10.  La  IVrouse  quits  the  coast  of  Australia. 
Governor  1'hillip  goes  on  several  exploring  tours. 

1790.  The    colonists    arc  "in    danger    of     perishing    from 

starvation,  caused  by  the  loss  of  the  storeship 
Guardian. 

1791.  Vancouver  makes  some  important  discoveries. 
1793,  April    31.      Two    French    vessels,     under    Admiral 

D'Entreeas'.eaux,  despatched  in  quest  of  the  lost 
expedition  of  La  Perouse,  anchor  off  Storm  Bay, 
Tasmania. 

1793.  The  first  church  is  erected. 

1795.  The  first  printing-press  is  established.— Sep.  Bass 
and  Flinders  arrive  at  Port  Jackson,  and  ascend 
the  George's  Kiver  in  a  small  boat  named  Tom 
Thumb. 

1797,  Dec.  3.  Bass  commences  a  short  voyage  of  discovery. 

1798,  Oct.  7.  Bass  and  Flinders  sail  in  the  Norfolk.— Oct.  II. 

They  anchor  in  Twofold  Bay.— Oct.  17.  They  reach 
Kent's  Islands.— Nov.  4.  They  sight  the  north  coast 
of  Tasmania,  and  discover  Port  Dalrymple. — 
Dec.  4.  They  discover  Bass's  Straits  (q.  ».),  thus 
establishing  the  fact  that  Australia  and  Tasmania 
are  distinct  islands. 

1799,  Jan.  13.    They  return  to  Sydney.— July  8.   Flinders 

starts  on  another  expedition.— July  15.  He  dis- 
covers Moreton  Bay  (q.  r.),  which  he  explores. 

1800,  Jan.  The  brig  Lady  Kelson,  under  Lieut.  Grant,  is 

sent  from  England  as  a  surveying  ship.— Dec.  3. 
He  discovers  Cape  Northumberland. 

1801,  July  18.  Flinders  sails  from  Spithead  in  the  Inves- 

tigator.—Dec.  6.  He  reaches  Cape  Leeuwin. 


1803,  Feb.  16.  Flinders  passes  Point  Sir  Isaac,  and  discovers 
Port  Lincoln,  whence  he  sails  Mar.  6.— Mar.  31. 
He  discovers  Kangaroo  Island  (q.  ».). — April  36. 
He  reaches  Cape  Schanck. — May  9.  He  returns  to 
Port  Jackson,  having  explored  the  south  coast.  — 
July  23.  He  sets  sail  on  an  expedition  to  the  north- 
west coast. — Nov.  4.  He  reaches  the  gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, which  he  explores. — Nov.  17.  He  dis- 
covers Swecr's  Islands.  — Dec.  I.  Discovery  of 
Wellesley's  Islands.— Dec.  31.  He  sights  Capo 
Maria  Island. 

1803,  June  9.    Flinders    returns    to    Port    Jackson.    The 

Syitney  Gaxette  is  published  by  authority.  A 
settlement  is  formed  at  Port  Phillip  (q.  ».). 

1804.  The  Irish  rebellion  is  suppi- 

1808.  Governor  Bligh  is  deposed  by  the  colonists  for  his 
tyranny,  and  sent  home. 

1813.  Lieut.  Lawson,  ami  Messrs.  Went  worth  and  Black- 
land,  cross  the  Blue  Mountains. 

1817,  May  i— Aug.  39.    Lieut.  Oxley  partially  explores  the 

rivers  Laehlan  and  Macquanie, — Dec.  33.  The 
Mi'nmiiil,  ('apt.  King,  is  despatched  by  Govern- 
ment to  survey  the  north-west  coast. — llume  dis- 
covers lake  Bathurst. 

1818,  Mayj8.  Oxley  leaves  Bathurst  to  explore  the  Mac- 

qnarrio  Kiver.— July  38.  King  arrives  at  Port 
Jackson,  having  explored  Van  Dicmen's  Gulf, 
and  discovered  several  rivers  and  inlets  on  the 
northern  coast. — Nov.  5.  Oxley's  expedition  ter- 
minates at  Newcastle,  on  the  Hunter  Kiver,  having 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  Liverpool  plains. 

1819,  May.   King  starts  on  a  second  voyage. 

1830,  Jan.   13.    He  reaches   Sydney,  having   explored  540 

miles  of  the  northern  coast. — June  14.  King  com- 
mences his  third  voyage. — Sep.  6.  He  is  forced  by 
the  leaky  state  of  his  vessel  to  return  to  Sydney 
without  having  made  any  important  discovery. 

1831,  May  36.  King  commences  his  fourth  voyage,  in  the 

lltithurnt. —  Departure  of  Governor  Mncquaire, 
under  whose  rule  the  convicts  were  well  treated, 
and  assisted  to  retrieve  their  character  and  obtain 
a  position. 

1833,  Mar.  35.  King  returns  to  Sydney,  having  explored  a 
large  extent  of  the  north-west  coast 

1833,  June  i.    Capt.  Cim-ie  and  Gen.  Owens  discover  the 

Murrumbidgee  Kiver.— Oxley  discovers  the  Bris- 
bane Kiver. 

1834,  Oct.  3.  A  settlement  is  formed  on  Melville   Island, 

on  the  north  coast.— Oct.  JIovcll  and  Hume  com- 
mence their  overland  exploration. — Nov.  They 
discover  the  Australian  Alps. — Nov.  15.  They  dis- 
cover the  Hume  or  Murray  Kiver,  and,  a  few  days 
afterwards,  tin'  <  ivens  Kiver. — Dec.  3.  They  cross 
the  Goulburn  Kiver. — Dec.  9.  They  ascend  "Mount 
Disappointment— Deo.  18.  They  reach  the  limit  of 
their  exploration,  and  commence  their  return. — The 
Legislative  Council  is  established  this  year. 

1835,  Jan.  18.  Hovell  and  Hume  return  to  lake  George. 

1836,  The  north  coast  settlement  is  removed  from  Melville 

Island  to  Kafflcs'  Bay. 

1837,  June  5.  Cunningham  discovers  Darling  Downs. 

1838,  Capt.  Stirling  surveys  the  coast  from  King  George's 

Sound  to  Suan  Kiver  (q.  v.).~ Nov.  lo.  Capt  Start 
commences  his  first  expedition. 

1829,  Jan.    Sturt  discovers  the  Darling  Kiver.— April  21. 

He  returns  to  Wellington  Valley.— Sep.  25.  Sturt's 
second  expedition  reaches  the  Murrumbi.l-.ree. 

1830,  Jan.  14.   He  discovers  the  junction  of  the  Murrum- 

bldgee  with  a  larger  river,  which  he  calls  the 
Murray,  but  which  had  been  previously  named 
the  Hume.— Jan.  33.  He  discovers  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  Murray  and  Darling.— Feb.  13.  Having 
traced  the  Murray  to  lake  Alexandrine,  and  thence 
ascertained  its  Innavigable  outlet  into  the  ocean  at 
Encounter  Bay,  he  commences  his  return  journey. 

1831,  Mitchell  explores  South  Australia  and  Eastern  Aus- 

tralia, 

1835,  March  9.    Mitchell  commences  his  second  expedition. 

—May  25-  He  reaches  the  Darling.— July.  He  is 
compelled  by  the  natives  to  return  to  Sydney. 

1836,  March  17.    Mitchell's  third  expedition  starts.      Ho 

returned  in  October,  having  traversed  2,400  miles, 


and  explored  Australia  Felix.— July  37.    Settle- 
ment of  Adelaide  (q.  v.). 
[837,  Oct.   Capt.  Guy  leaves  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on 


an  expedition  to  North-western  Australia, — Dec,  3. 
He  reaches  Port  George  the  Fourth. 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRASIA 


1838,  April  16.     Grey's   expedition  terminates  at  Hanover 

Bay.  Eyre  discovers  lake  Hindmarsh,  into  which 
the  waters  of  the  Wimmera  discharge  themselves. 

1839,  Feb.  35.     Grey  commences  his  second  expedition  at 

Bernier  Island. — March.  Bouncy  journeys  overland 
from  Portland  Bay  to  Ai  '.elaidc.  Grey  discovers  the 
Gascoyne  River.—  April  31.  He  reaches  Perth,  Swan 
Kivcr.  AVickham  explores  the  Victoria  IJiver. 

1840,  Feb.  15.     Count  Strzelecki  ascends  the  Australian 

Alps. — June  18.  Eyre  commences  his  overland  ex- 
ploration of  AVestem  Australia. — July  30.  Stokes 
enters  the  Albert  River. 

1841,  Feb.  23.     Eyre,  having  sent  back  all  his  party  except 

Mr.  Scott  and  three  native  boys,  resumes  his 
journey. — April  29.  Scott  is  murdered  by  two  of 
the  native  guides.  Eyre,  attended  only  by  the 
third  guide,  and  600  miles  distant  from  any  settle- 
ment, continues  his  journey. — June  2.  Signals 
the  French  whaler  Mississippi,  and  obtains  relief 
from  the  captain. — July  7.  After  enduring  extreme 
hardships,  Eyre  reaches  Albany. 

1843,  Landor  and  Lefray  explore-  Western  Australia. 

1844,  Aug.     Dr.    Lcichhardt'l   expedition  leaves  Moreton 

Bay.  —  Sep.  24.  Sturt  leaves  the  Darling  on 
another  expedition. 

1845,  Sep.  6.  Sturt,  having  travelled  within  nearly  150  miles 

of  the  centre  of  the  continent,  is  compelled  by 
drought  to  return. — Nov.  17.  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell's 
expedition  leaves  Paramatta. — Dec.  17.  Leich- 
hardt reaches  Port  Essington,  having  journeyed 
overland  upwards  of  3,000  miles. 

1846,  Aug.  7.     The  brothers  Gregory  set  out  from  Bolgart 

.Spring.— Sep.  9.  They  discover  coal  deposits  on 
the  Arrowsinith  Kiver.  —  Sep.  22-  They  return, 
having  penetrated  953  miles  into  Western  Austra- 
lia.—Sep.  28.  Mitchell  reaches  the  limit  of  his 
exploration  of  the  Upper  Barcoo. 

1847,  March.    Kennedy  starts  from   Sydney  on  his  first 

expedition. — Aug.  13.  He  reaches  the  limit  of 
Mitchell's  exploration  of  the  Barcoo.— Sep.  19.  He 
is  compelled  by  want  of  water  to  return. 

1848,  Leichhardt  starts  early  in  the  year,  intending  to 

traverse  the  continent  from  east  to  west. — April  3. 
He  dates  a  letter  from  McPherson's  station, 
Cogoon,  and  is  never  heard  of  afterwards. — April 
29.  Kennedy's  second  expedition  sails  from  Syd- 
ney.— May  30.  He  lands  at  Rockingham  Bay,  on 
the  north-east  coast,  and  commences  his  journey 
overland.— Sep.  o.  A.  C.  Gregory  sets  out  from 
Western  Australia  to  search  for  pasture-land,  &c. 
— Sep.  14.  Roe's  expedition  starts  from  York,  in 
Western  Australia, — Oct.  18.  He  commences  the 
ascent  of  the  Pallinup  Kiver.  —  Nov.  13.  After 
much  hardship  and  disappointment,  Kennedy, 
vi  ith  three  white  men  and  Jackey  Jackey,  a 
native,  leave  the  main  bo  !y  and  endeavour  to 
push  their  way  to  Port  Albany.  Kennedy  is 
killed  by  the  natives;  the  whites  die  from  accident 
or  privation ;  and  Jackey  Jackey,  the  sole  sur- 
vivor, reaches  Port  Albany  Dec.  23.— Nov.  17. 
Gregory  returns  to  Perth,  having  travelled  more 
than  15,000  miles,  and  discovered  valuable  lead 
veins  on  the  Murchison  Uiver. 

1849,  Feb.  2-    Roe's  expedition  returns  to  Perth ,  having 

traversed  nearly  18,000  miles,  and  discovered 
several  coal  seams. 

1851.  Hargreaves  discovers  gold  in  the  Bath urst  Mountains. 
(See  GOLD  DISCOVERIES.) 

1853.  Holy  leaves  Sydney  early  in  the  year  in   quest  of 

Leichhardt— July  22.  Having  failed  in  his  object, 
he  returns  to  the  Balonne  River. 

1854,  July  10.   Austin's  expedition  leaves  Momekine. — Oct. 

29.     He  reaches  the  extreme  point  of  his  journey. 

1855.  A.  0.   Gregory  commences  his  exploration  of    the 

A'ictoria  River. 

1856,  Nov.  :6.    Gregory's  expedition  returns  to  Brisbane, 

having  made  one  of  the  most  extensive  explora- 
tions ever  made  in  the  continent. 

1858,  April  1 6.  F.  Gregory  sets  out  from  the  Geraldine 
Mine.— May  12.  He  discovers  the  Lyons  River. 
— June  22.  He  returns  to  the  Geraldine  Mine. — 
May  to  Sep.  John  M'Douall  Stuart's  first  expedi- 
tion on  the  west  coast  of  Port  Lincoln  district. — 
Sep.  A  public  meeting  in  Melbourne  for  organ- 
izing an  exploration  of  the  interior  of  Australia, 
collects  upwards  of  =£3,000,  which  sum  is  raised  to 
£10,000  by  the  colonial  legislature. 


A.D.  j    ±   ->j       j        ;    jj    •>      ' 

1859,  April  2  to  Julys,  ahd-IJuv-^to  Jai^;# 

second  and  third  expeditions. 

1860,  March  2-     Stuart  starts  from  Chambers  Creek.— 

April  23.  He  reaches  the  centre  of  Australia.— 
Aug.  20.  The  expedition  of  Robert  O'Hara  Burke 
and  W.  J.  AVills  leaves  Melbourne.— Oct.  19.  They 
quit  Menindee. — Nov.  20.  They  reach  Cooper's 
Creek.  —  Dec.  16.  The  party  divides  into  two 
portions ;  the  first,  under  Brahe,  staying  as  a  re- 
serve at  Cooper's  Creek,  while  the  other,  consist- 
ing of  Burke,  Wills,  Gray,  and  King,  commence 
the  exploration  of  the  great  Sahara  of  Australia. 

1861,  Jan.  I.     Stuart  starts  on  his  fifth  expedition. — Feb. 

ar.  Burke  and  Wills,  having  crossed  the  Austra- 
lian continent,  commence  their  return  homewards. 
—April  17.  Death  of  Gray  from  starvation.— 
April  21.  The  three  survivors  reach  Cooper's 
Creek,  which  had  been  abandoned  the  same  day 
by  Brahe  and  his  party.— June.  Death  of  Burke 
and  Wills  from  exhaustion.  King  is  hospitably 
entertained  by  the  natives  until  .Sep.  15,  when  he 
is  rescued  by  a  relieving  party  under  A.  W. 
Howitt.— Sep.  15.  Stuart,  having  reached  lat  17 
deg.  long.  133  deg.,  and  on  one  occasion  been  for 
106  hours  without  water,  reaches  the  settlements. 
—Oct.  9.  Howitt's  relief  expedition  returns  to 
Poria  Creek. — Nov.  9.  F.  Gregory  completes  a 
successful  exploration  of  the  north-west  coast. 

1863.  Jan.  2.   Stuart  commences  another  expedition.— Jan. 

22.  McKinlay  completes  his  journey  across  the 
continent. — June.  Landsborough  completes  some 
important  discoveries.— July  25  Stuart  reaches 
the  opposite  shore  at  Chambers  Bay. — Dec.  He 
returns  to  the  settlements. 

1864.  In  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the  Australian 

colonies,  the  English  Government  abolishes  the 
practice  of  transportation.  Explorations  are  con- 
tinued in  North  and  South  Australia  and  Queens- 
land. 

1865.  Foundation  of  Somerset  as  the  nucleus  of  a  settle- 

ment near  Cape  York,  on  the  shores  of  Torres 
Straits. 

AUSTRASIA,  or  EAST  FRANCE,  was  allot- 
ted to  Thierry  I.  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Clovis  I.,  A.D.  511.  It  was  united  to  Neustria 
by  Clotaire  II.  in  613,  and  separated  from  it  by 
Dagobert  I.  in  622.  Charles  Martel  annexed  it 
to  his  dominions  in  737.  Carloman  received 
Austrasia  on  the  death  of  Charles  Martel,  in 
741,  and  Charlemagne  annexed  it  to  his  empire 
in  772.  Sigebert  I.  transferred  the  capital  from 
Rheims  to  Metz  in  561.  Many  of  the  sovereigns 
of  Austrasia  were  mere  puppets  in  the  hands 
of  the  mayors  of  the  palace. 

KINGS  OF  AUSTRASIA. 
A.D. 

511.  Thierry  I. 
534.  Theodebert  I. 
547.  Theodebald. 
553.  Clotaire  I.,  King  of  Soissons,  seizes  Austrasia,  and  Is 

sole  King  of  the  Franks  in  558. 
561.  Sigebert  I. 
575.  Childebert  II. 
596.  Theodebert  II. 

613.  Clotaire  II.  annexes  it  to  Neustria. 
622.  Dagobert  I.,  sole  King  of  the  Franks  628. 
638.  Sigebert  II.  receives  Austrasia. 
656.  Clovis  II.  unites  it  to  Neustria  and  Burgundy,  and 

dies  the  same  year,  when  an  interregnum  ensues. 
660.  Childeric  II.  is  sole  King  of  the  Franks  in  673. 

673.  Thierry  III.,  who  is  deposed. 

674.  Dagobert  II 

After  the  death  of  Dagobert  II.,  in  679, 
Pepin  of  Heristal  seized  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, and  was  acknowledged  duke. 

DUKES  OF  AUSTKASIA. 
A.D. 

679.  Pepin  of  Heristal. 
715.  Charles  Martel,  who  becomes  solo  ruler  of  France  In 


AUSTRIA.     ^  [     102    ] 


AUSTRIA 


.-.a. 
747.  Pepin  the  Short  takes  Austrasia,  and  Carloman  retires 

to  the  monastery  on  Monte  Casino. 
752.  Pepin,  sole  King  of  the  Franks. 
768.  Charlemagne  and  Carloman. 
771.  Charlemagne  sole  king,  becomes  emperor  in  880. 

AUSTRIA.— Noricum,  bordering  on  Pan- 
nonia,  made  a  Roman  province  B.C.  15,  %vas  the 
original  seat  of  the  Austrian  empire.  The  two 
provinces  of  Noricum  and  Pannonia  consisted 
of  the  extensive  territories  between  the  Imi, 
the  Save,  and  the  Danube.  During  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  empire,  Noricum  was  overrun 
by  various  barbarian  tribes,  and  one  of  these, 
the  Avari,  having  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  was 
defeated  and  driven  across  the  Raab  by  Charle- 
magne, in  791  and  796.  A  colony  was  placed 
in  the  territory  from  which  they  had  been 
driven,  and  it  was  called  the  Eastern  Mark,  or 
Ostreich,  whence  its  present  name.  On  the 
division  of  the  empire  in  84  ?,  it  was  annexed 
to  Bavaria.  The  Hungarians  took  it  in  900, 
but  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  o : 
955.  Leopold  I.,  grandson  of  Adalbert  of 
Bamberg,  was  made  margrave  of  Austria  in 
984;  and  one  of  his  successors,  Leopold  III., 
obtaining  Bavaria  in  1139,  the  two  provinces 
were  again  united.  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa) 
adding  to  it  the  province  west  of  the  En.s, 
erected  it  into  a  separate  duchy  in  1156, 
and  bestowed  it  upon  Henry  IX.,  who  had 
previously  resigned  his  former  duchy  of  Ba- 
varia. 

A.D. 

1346.  Extinction  of  the  male  branch  of  the  ducal  line,  and 

commencement  of  an  interregnum. 

1362.  Premislaus  ottocar   II..   King  of    Bohemia,  obtains 

the  investiture  of  Austria  and  Stvria. 
1268,  Dec.  Ottocar  II.  obtains  Carinthia  by  li 
1276,  Nov.  2>  Ottocar  II.  formally  resigns  Austria,  Styria, 

&c.,  toKod,,lph  of   ila 
1377.  Ottocar  II.  rebel-. 
1278,  Aug.  26.  Battle  of  March  field  d/.  r.1. 
1308,  Jan.  The  Swiss  re.-olt  from  Albert'!. 
1337.  Carinthia  is  annexed  to  Austria. 

1363.  Acquisition  of  the  Tyrol  (,,.  r.}. 

1364.  Treaty  of  union  between   Austria  and  Bohemia  is 

concluded. 

1438.  Albert  V.,  Duke  of  Austria,  King  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  is  made  Emperor  of  Germany  under  the 
title  of  Albert  II. 

1453,  Jan.  6.  Austria  is  created  an  archduchy  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  HI.  Duke  Kodolph  III.  (1358— 
1365)  had  assumed  the  title  of  archduke,  but  it 
had  not  been  confirmed  bv  the  emperor. 

1477,  Aug.  18.  Acquisition  by  Austria  of  the  .Netherlands, 
airl  some  pro\  ine.es  in  France,  by  the  marriage  of 
Maximilian,  afterwards  emperor,  with  Mary  of 

1496.  Marriage  of  Philip,  Archduke  of  Austria,  to  Joanna 
of  Castile,  which  begins  the  connection  with 

T522.  Charles  V.  cedes  Austria  to  his  brother  Ferdinand. 

1526.  Bohemia  (q.  v.)  and  Silesia  (q.  ».)  are  united  to 
Austria. 

1539.  Hungary  is  invaded  by  Soliman  the  Magnificent. 
(Sir  OTTOMAN  E.Mi'iiin.) 

1570.  Hungary  (q.  v.)  is  annexed  to  Austria, 

I6l8.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  begins. 

1635.  Ferdinand  II.  abolishes  the  Protestant  worship,  and 
i oses  seven!  restrictions  on  all  Lutherans. 

1648.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  ends.  Alsace  (q.  v.)  is  ceded 
to  (''ranee. 

1687,  Oct.  Hungary  is,  by  th.:  diet  of  Presburg,  converted 
from  an  electoral  into  an  hereditarv  monarchy, 
and  settled  ou  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria.— Dec.  9.  The  Archduke  Joseph  is  crowned 
King  of  Himirarv. 

1701.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  begins. 

1708.  Mantua  is  added  to  the  Austrian  dominions. 


A.D. 

1713,  April  ii.  Peace  of  Utrecht,  by  which  Austria  obtains 

part  of  Milan. 

1714,  End  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

1715,  Nov.  15.  Barrier  treaty,  which  confirms  Austria   in 

possession  of  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sardinia. 

1718,  July  21.  Peace  of  Passarowitz  (q.  t>.). 

1732.  Charles  VI.  obtains  the  assent  of  the  Germanic 
empire  to  the  Pragmatic  sanction  (q.  v.),  thereby 
securing  the  succession  for  his  daughter  Maria 
Theresa. 

1725-  Naples  and  Sicily  are  relinquished. 

1740,  Oct.  20.  Death  of  Charles  VI.,  with  whom  the  male 
branch  of  the  Hahsburg  dynasty  becomes  extinct. 
Maria  Theresa  succeeds. 

1740-2.  First  Silesian  War. 

1744-5.  Second  Silesi  in  War. 

1745,  Sep.  13.  Francis,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  hus- 
band of  Maria  Theresa,  is  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

1748.  Parma,  Milan,  and  other  Italian  possessions,  are 
lost. 

1756.  The  third  Silesian  AVar,  known  as  the  Seven  Years' 

1763,  Feb.  >'  Treaty  of  HnberNburg.  by  which  Austria 
redes  Silc.sia  and  (ilaU  to  Prussia,  terminates  the. 
third  Silesian,  or  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

1772,  Aug.  5.  On  the  dismemberment  of  Poland,  Austria 
acquires  Galicia  an  1  other  parts  of  Poland. 

1797,  Oct.  17.  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (q.r.). 

i8or,  Feb.  9.  Treaty  of  Ltmcville  (q.  v.). 

1805.  Joins  F.ngland  and  Russia  in  on ler  to  oppose  France. — 

Nov.  14.  Napoleon  I.  enters  Vienna.— Dec.  3.  Battle 
of  Ansterlitz  (</.  r.).-  Dee.  -6.    Treaty  of  Presburg, 
ion  of   Venice  and  the  Tyrol  to  Trance. 

1806,  Aug.  (>.   Francis  II.  of  Germany  abolishes  the  title  of 

Emperor ol  Germany,  and  takes  that  of  Francis  I., 
Emperor  of  Austria. 

1809,  April   20.     Battle  of    Abensberg    (q.  v.).—  May   13. 

Vienna  is  again  taken  by  the  French. 

1810,  Mar.   II.      Marriage   by  proxy  of    Napoleon   I.  and 

Maria  Louisa,  ('laughter  of  'the  Emperor. 

1814,  Oct.  2.  Congress  at  Vienna. 

1815,  Mar.  25.    Treaty  of   Vienna.     Austria  regains  her 

Italian  possessions. 

1835,  Mar.  2.  Death  of  Francis  I.,  and  accession  of  Fer- 
dinand I. 

1838,  July  3.  Treaty  of  commerce  between  Austria  and 
Great  Britain. 

1848,  Mar.  13.  Insurrection  at  Vienna,  and  flight  of  Prince 

Mettcnuch.— May  17.  Flight  of  the  Emperor.— 
July  2,1.  A  constituent  assembly  meets  at  Vienna. 
:>.ii.  The  Hungarian  revolution  breaks  out, 
and  war  ensues.  (Sir  Hr.M.AltY.)— Dec.  2.  Abdica- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  in  favour  of  his 
nephew,  Francis  Joseph. 

1849,  July  2.  Battle  of  Acz  (q.  v.).—  Aug.  13.  Surrender  of 

Georgey. 

1850,  Nov.  £i).  Convention  of  Olmtltz  (<?.  r.). 

1853,  Feb.  is.  Libeny  attempts  to  assassinate  the  Emperor 

Francis  Joseph. 

1854,  April  24-  Marriage  of  the  emperor  with  the  Princess 

EH/abcth  of  Bavaria.— Aug.  23.  The  Austrians 
enter  the  Dannbian  principalities. — Dec.  3.  Alliance 
with  Great  Britain  and  France. 

1855,  Aug.    18.    Conclusion   of    a   concordat   with   Rome, 

whereby  the  Pope  receives  almost  absolute  power 
in  Austria. 

1857,  March.  The  Austrians  commence  the  evacuation  of 
the  Danubian  principalities.  Diplomatic  relations 
between  Austria  and  Sardinia  are  broken  off. 

1859,  Jan.  i.  Napoleon  III.  throws  Europe  into  excitement 
by  a  few  words  addressed  to  the  Austrian  ambas- 
sador.— Feb.  13.  Lord  Cowley  receives  instructions 
to  proceed  to  Vienna  on  a  "mission  of  peace." — 
April  36.  The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino.— May  3. 
Napoleon  III.  declares  war  against  Austria. 
Battles  of  Montebello  (May  30),  Palestro  (May  30, 
31),  Magenta  (June  4),  and  Malegnano  (June  7), 
in  which  the  Austrians  are  defeated. — June  II. 
Death  of  Prince  Metlernk-h.—  June  24.  Battle  of 
Solfcrino  lost  by  the  Austrians.— July  II.  Treaty 
of  Villafranca.  Austria  relinquishes  Lombardy 
to  Sardinia.— Nov.  10.  Treaty  of  Zurich,  which 
confirms  all  the  articles  of  that  of  Villafranca.— 
Dec.  30.  Publication  of  an  imperial  patent  ap- 
pointing an  industrial  legislation  for  the  whole 
empire  excepting  Venetia. 


AUSTRIA 


[    103    ] 


AUTOMATON 


1860,  Mar.  5.  Publication  of  an  imperial  patent  enlarging 

the  Reichsrath,  and  extending:  its  privileges.— 
Mar.  25.  The  government  protests  against  the 
annexation  of  Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany,  &c.,  to 
the  New  Kingdom  of  Italy.— April  23.  Death  of 
Baron  de  Bruck,  Minister  of  Finance. — May  30. 
Opening  of  the  Reichsrath.— July  17.  The  Emperor 
publishes  a  resolution  empowering  the  Reichsrath 
to  co-operate  in  the  making  of  new  loans. — 
July  45-^7.  The  Emperor  meets  the  Prince  Regent 
of  Prussia  at  Tuplitz. — Sep.  27.  Closing  of  the 
session  of  the  Reichsrath.— Oct.  2p.  Publication  of 
a  new  imperial  diploma  for  the  regulation  of  the 
affairs  of  the  empire.— Oct.  22-26.  The  Emperor 
meets  the  Emperor  of  Russia  ami  Prince  Kegent 
of  Prussia  at  Warsaw. — Nov.  17.  Departure  of  the 
Empress  for  Madeira.— Dec.  13.  M.  Schmerling 
succeeds  Count  Goluchowski  as  Minister. 

1861,  Jan.  7.  An  amnesty  for  political  offenders.— Feb.  5. 

The  Archduke  Regnier  president  of  the  council. — 
Feb.  26.  Publication  of  decrees  for  the  new  consti- 
tution of  the  empire. — May  I.  Formal  opening  of 
the  new  Reichsrath  by  the  Emperor. — May  1 8. 
Return  of  the  Empress  from  Madeira. — July  5. 
The  Hungarian  Diet  votes  an  address  praying  the 
Emperor  to  restore  the  old  constitution. 

1862,  Jan.   2,6.      A  ministry  of  marine  is   established  in 

Austria,  under  the  direction  of  Count  Wicken- 
bourg.-Feb.  12.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  the  Em- 
peror at  Vienna.— May  I.  The  Emperor  sanctions 
the  responsibility  of  ministers.  -  Nov.  7.  The  Em- 
peror submits  a  financial  statement  of  the  national 
expenses  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Vienna. 
— Nov.  1 8.  The  Emperor  grants  an  amnesty  to 
political  offenders  in  Hungary. 

1863,  April  7.  Austria  joins  Kn^luml  mid  France  in  remon- 

strating against  Russian  cruelties  in  Poland. — 
Aug.  2.  The  Emperor  visits  the  King  of  Prussia 
at  Gastein,  and  invites  him  and  the  other  German 
sovereigns  to  assemble  in  congress  at  Frunkfort- 
on-the-Maine. — Aug.  17.  The  congress  is  opened, 
and  the  Emperor  presents  a  project  of  federal  re- 
form.— Sep.  Celebration  of  the  jubilee  of  the 
union  of  the  Tyrol  with  Austria  (1363). 

1864,  Jan.  31.     Marshal  Wrangel,  at  the  head  of  an  army 

of  70,000  Austrians  and  Prussians,  summonses 
the  Danish  commander  to  evacuate  Sleswip;.  (Nee 
DENMARK.)—  April  14.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand 
Maximilian  embarks  atMiramarto  assume  the  im- 
perial crown  of  Mexico  (q.  v.). — June  22-  The  Em- 
peror visits  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Carlsbad. — July 
2,6.  Plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Denmark  assemble  at  Vienna  to  consider  the 
terms  of  a  peace.  (See  DENMARK.)— Aug.  20— 
25.  The  King  of  Prussia  and  Count  Bismarck 
visit  Vienna.— Oct.  27.  Count  Mensdorff  Pouilly 
succeeds  Count  Rechberg  as  Minister. — Oct.  30. 
Peace  is  concluded  at  Vienna. — Nov.  n.  In  conse- 
quence of  revolutionary  movements  certain  districts 
are  put  in  a  state  of  siege. — Nov.  30.  The  Austrian 
troops  engaged  in  the  Danish  war  enter  Vienna 
in  triumph. 

1865,  Feb.  20.  Liberation  of  Joseph  Ixingiewicz.  (See  PO- 

LAND.)— May  18.  The  government  is  defeated  on 
the  budget  in  the  Lower  House  of  the  Reichsrath. 
— June  6.  The  Emperor  visits  Hungary  (q.  v.). — 
June  27.  Resignation  of  the  ministry. — July  25. 
Closing  of  the  Reichsrath.— July  27.  Reconstitution 
of  the  ministerial  council. — July  29.  Dissolution  of 
the  ministry  of  marine,  the  duties  of  which  office 
are  divided  between  the  ministers .  of  war  and 
commerce.— Aug.  14.  Convention  of  Gastein  (q.  v.). 
—Aug.  20.  The  Emperor  meets  the  King  of  Prussia 
at  Salzburg.— Sep.  20.  Publication  of  an  imperial 
rescript  announcing  conciliatory  intentions  re- 
specting Croatia  and  Hungary.— Dec.  13.  The 
Emperor  again  visits  Hungary  (q.  v.). — Dec.  16.  A 
preliminary  treaty  of  commerce  is  signed  with 
England  at  Vienna. 

DUKES  OF  AUSTRIA. 
1276.  Ro'lolph  I. 
1282.  Rodolph  II.  and  Albert  I. 
1290.  Albert  I.  alone. 
1308.  Frederick  I.  and  Leopold  I. 
1326.  Frederick  I.  alone. 
1330.  Albert  II.  and  Otho.     ' 
1339,  Feb.i7-  Otho  dies,  and  Albert  II.,  ortheWise,  sole  duke. 


1358,  Aug.  16.  Rodolph  IV. 

1365,  July  27.  Albert  III.  and  Leopold  II. 

1386,  July  9.  Albert  III.  alone. 

I39S,  Aug.  29-  Albert  IV.,  William  I.,  and  Leopold  III. 

1404.  William  I.  and  Albert  V. 

1406.  Albert  V.,  elected  King  of   Hungary  in  1437,   and 

Emperor  of  Germany,  by  the  title  of  Albert  II., 

in  1438. 

1439.  Ladislaus  Posthumus. 
1458.  Frederick  III.,  Albert  VI.,  and  Sigismund. 

ARCHDUKES  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1493.  Maximilian  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  From  this 
period  the  imperial  dignity  remained  hereditary 
in  the  house  of  Austria  (see  EMPERORS  OF  GER- 
MANY) until  1806. 

EMPERORS   OF   AUSTRIA. 

1804,  Aug.  II.  Francis  II.  resigned  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  assumed  that  of  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria.—Aug.  6,  1806.  He  formally  abdicated  the 
imperial  crown  of  Germany. 

1835.  Ferdinand  I. 

1848,  Dec.  2.  Francis  Joseph  I. 

AUSTRIA  (Screw  Steam-ship).— Built  on  the 
Clyde  in  1857,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  Sep.  13, 
1858.  She  left  Hamburg  Sep.  4,  with  425 
passengers  and  a  crew  of  103,  including  officers 
and  men.  They  were  principally  Germans  ; 
and  of  the  528  persons,  only  67  were  saved. 
Some  of  these  were  picked  up  by  the  Maurice, 
a  French  barque,  and  the  remainder  by  a 
Norwegian  barque. 

AUTO-DA-FE,  or  "Act  of  Faith,"  a  term 
applied  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  to  the 
ceremony  with  which  the  punishment  of  death 
was  inflicted  upon  heretics  under  the  Inquisi- 
tion. "  The  last  scene  in  this  dismal  tragedy," 
says  Prescott,  "was  the  act  of  faith  (auto-da-fd), 
the  most  imposing  spectacle,  probably,  which 
has  been  witnessed  since  the  ancient  Roman 
triumph,  and  which,  as  intimated  by  a  Spanish 
writer,  was  intended,  somewhat  profanely,  to 
represent  the  terrors  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 
The  proudest  grandees  of  the  land,  on  this  oc- 
casion, putting  on  the  sable  livery  of  familiars 
of  the  Holy  Office,  and  bearing  aloft  its  banners, 
condescended  to  act  as  the  escort  of  its  minis- 
ters ;  while  the  ceremony  was  not  unfre- 
quently  countenanced  by  the  royal  presence. 
.  .  .  The  effect  was  further  heightened  by 
the  concourse  of  ecclesiastics  in  their  sacerdotal 
robes,  and  the  pompous  ceremonial  which  the 
Church  of  Rome  knows  so  well  how  to  display 
on  fitting  occasions,  and  which  was  intended 
to  consecrate,  as  it  were,  this  bloody  sacrifice 
by  the  authority  of  a  religion  which  has  ex- 
pressly declared  that  it  desires  mercy  and  not 
sacrifice."  Thousands  of  victims  perished  in 
this  manner  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  their 
colonies.  It  was  instituted  in  Spain  in  1556,  and 
the  first  took  place  at  Valladolid  in  1560,  and 
was  celebrated  annually  in  many  parts  of  Spain. 
An  auto-da-fe  was  held  at  Lisbon  so  late  as 
Sep.  20,  1761,  at  which  Gabriel  Malagrida,  an 
old  man  of  70,  was  burned  for  having  in- 
dulged certain  heretical  notions.  Fifty-four 
persons  suffered  at  the  same  time.  A  nun  was 
burned,  at  Seville  Nov.  7,  1781,  and  an  auto-da- 
fe  is  said  to  have  taken  place  at  Mexico  during 
the  present  century. 

AUTOMATON  FIGURES,  or  AUTOMATA. 
— The  Chinese  long  since  contrived  to  give  mo- 
tion to  puppets  by  means  of  quicksilver ;  and 


AUTOGRAPHS 


[     104    ] 


AVEXTURINE 


several  specimens  of  automata  constructed  by 
the  Greeks  are  mentioned  by  different  authors. 
The  wooden  pigeon  made  by  Archytas  of  Taren- 
tum,  about  B.C.  400,  though  it  could  fly,  was 
not  able  to  resume  its  flight  when  it  had  once 
settled.  In  the  isth  century,  Albertus  Magnus 
is  said,  after  30  years'  labour,  to  have  con- 
structed a  speaking  head,  which  so  frightened 
Thomas  Aquinas  that  he  shattered  it  to  pieces  ; 
and  Roger  Bacon  produced  a  similar  invention. 
These  accounts,  however,  like  that  of  John 
Miiller's,  or  Molitor's  (Regiomontanus),  arti- 
ficial eagle,  which  it  is  alleged  flew  to  meet 
Maximilian  on  his  arrival  at  Nuremberg,  June 
7,  1470,  more  than  20  years  before  he 
ascended  the  throne,  are  not  supported  by 
satisfactory  evidence.  Beckmann  has  no  doubt 
that  in  the  i4th  and  following  centuries  several 
automata  were  made.  The  Emperor  Charles  V. 
during  his  cloister  life  amused  himself  with 
contrivances  of  this  kind.  Vaucanson  exhibited 
at  Paris,  in  1738,  a  flute-player  sitting,  who 
performed  12  tunes  ;  another  that  played  upon 
a  shepherd's  pipe  and  a  drum  at  the  same 
time ;  and  a  duck  that  imitated  all  the  motions 
of  the  living  animal.  Du  Moulin,  in  1752,  pro- 
duced similar  automata.  Baron  de  Kempelen's 
automaton  chess-player,  exhibited  in  London 
in  1816,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  deception. 
Faber's  euphonia  was  exhibited  at  the  Egyp- 
tian Hall  in  1846.  The  anthropoglossus,  an 
automaton  speaking  and  singing  machine,  in 
the  shape  of  a  human  head,  was  exhibited  at 
the  St.  James's  Hall,  London,  during  the  winter 
of  1864-5,  an(i  another,  called  the  Sphinx,  at 
the  Egyptian  Hall,  London,  1865-6. 

AUTOGRAPHS.— An  Exhibition  of  Auto- 
graphs, illustrating  the  literature  of  Great 
Britain  to  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria,  was 
opened  at  the  rooms  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, April  3,  1862. 

AUTUN  (France).— The  ancient  Augustodu- 
num,  or  Bibracte  (<[.  T.\  is  <>:iu  of  the  earliest 
bishoprics  established  in  France  after  Lyons 
and  Vienne.  At  a  council  held  at  this  town, 
sentence  of  excommunication  was  pronounced 
against  Philip  I.  of  France,  Oct.  16,  1094.  In 
the  previous  year  he  had  put  away  his  wife 
Bertna,  mother  of  Louis  VI.,  and  married  Ber- 
trade,  wife  of  the  Count  of  Anjou,  and  for  this 
he  was  at  first  privately  admonished  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  authorities,  and  then  excom- 
municated. 

AUXIMUM  (Italy),  now  OSIMO,  first  men- 
tioned B.C.  174,  when  the  order  for  erecting 
walls  around  it  was  given  by  the  Roman  cen- 
sors. It  was  made  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  157  ; 
and  having  boon  taken  by  the  Goths,  was 
wrested  from  them  by  Belisarius  A.D.  538.  ' 

AUXUME.— (See  AXUM.) 

AVA  (Asia),  for  some  time  subject  to  Pegu, 
became  an  independent  state  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tui-y.  Its  chief  city,  Ava,  was  taken  by  the 
Pcguans  in  1752,  and  rescued  from  their  hands 
in  1753.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Burmah  in 
1364,  in  1761,  and  for  the  third  time  in  1822. 
It  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake  in 
March,  1839.  (See  BURMAH.) 

AVAINE,  or  AVEIN  (Battle).— The  Marshals 
Chatillon  and  Breze,  commanding  the  French 
and  Dutch  troops,  defeated  the  Spanish  forces 


under  the  command  of  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy, 
in  this  plain,  near  Luxemburg,  May  20,  1635. 
The  Spaniards  lost  4,000  men  and  50  stand- 
ards. 

AVARS,  sometimes  called  the  Huns  of  Pan- 
nonia,  a  barbarian  tribe  first  mentioned  in  his- 
tory towards  the  close  of  the  sth  century. 
Retiring  before  the  Turks,  they  reached  the 
shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  sent  an  embassy  to 
Constantinople  A.D.  558.  In  their  audience 
with  Justinian,  at  that  time  declining  in  years, 
the  chief  ambassador  addressed  him  thus  :— 
"  You  see  before  you,  O  mighty  prince,  the 
representatives  of  the  strongest  and  most 
populous  of  nations,  the  invincible,  the  irresis- 
tible Avars.  "We  are  willing  to  devote  our- 
selves to  your  service  ;  we  are  able  to  vanquish 
and  destroy  all  the  enemies  who  now  disturb 
your  repose.  But  we  expect,  as  the  price  of 
our  alliance,  as  the  reward  of  our  valour, 
precious  gifts,  annual  subsidies,  and  fruitful 
possessions."  They  afterwards  advanced  into 
Poland  and  Germany  ;  and  in  626  joined  the 
Persians  in  an  attack  on  Constantinople,  but 
were  repulsed.  Having  committed  various  ag- 
gressions, and  provoked  numerous  wars,  they 
were,  after  a  conflict  of  eight  years'  duration, 
subdued  by  Charlemagne  in  799. 

AVE  MARIA.— This  form  of  prayer,  used  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  a  repetition  of 
the  salutation  of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  (Luke  i.  28).  Bingham  shows 
that  the  use  of  this  invocation  to  the  Virgin 
cannot  be  traced  higher  than  the  beginning  of 
the  i sth  century.  "Ferrarius,"  he  adds, 
"  ingeniously  confesses  that  Vincentius 
Ferrerius  was  the  first  ecclesiastical  writer 
that  ever  used  it  before  his  sermons.  Baronius 
has  not  a  syllable  of  its  antiquity  in  all  his 
12  centuries ;  there  being  a  perfect  silence 
both  among  the  ancients  and  all  the  Ritualists 
about  it,  till  that  Dominican  preacher,  in  his 
.•ibundant  zeal  for  the  worship  of  the  Holy 
Virgin,  began  to  use  it  before  his  sermons." 
Christians  were  ordered  to  annex  it  to  their 
prayers  in  1420.  This  invocation  is  now 
generally  used  in  the  services  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  early  summons  to  wor- 
ship was  called  the  Ave-bell ;  and  indulgences 
granted  by  various  pontiffs  for  frequent  re- 
petition of  the  invocation  were  termed  Avo 
Marias. 

AVEBURY,  or  AVBURY.— This  village  in 
Wilts  occupies  the  site  of  a  Celtic  structure, 
composed  of  blocks  of  stone,  and  generally 
believed  to  be  a  Druiclical  work.  Aubrey 
visited  it  in  1648  ;  Dr.  Stukeley  commenced 
his  examination  of  these  antiquities  in  1720; 
and  Sir  Richard  Hoare  in  1812.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  the  remains  of  a  national  temple,  or  place 
of  assembly  for  the  performance  of  sacred 
rites,  erected  by  the  Druids  before  the 
Christian  sera. 

AVENTURINE.— A  successful  imitation  of 
this  mineral,  which  is  a  kind  of  quartz  inter- 
spersed with  brilliant  metallic  points,  was 
accidentally  discovered  at  Venice  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  by  a  workman  who  let  some 
copper  filings  fall  into  coloured  glass  in  a  state 
of  fusion.  This  process,  improved  by  Fremy 
and  Clemandot,  was  superseded  in  1865  by 


AVERSA 


[    105    ] 


AYLESFORD 


Pelouze,  who  obtained  beautiful  specimens 
of  aveiiturine  by  fusing  sand,  carbonate  of 
soda,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  bichromate  of 
potash. 

AVERSA  (Italy).— Built  A.D.  1020,  by  Rain- 
ulph,  a  Norman  chief,  near  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Atclla,  from  which  place  the  bishopric 
was  transferred  to  Aversa,  about  1050.  Al- 
phonso  V.,  of  Aragon,  took  it  in  1440  ;  and 
it  was  frequently  besieged.  It  suffered  from 
an  earthquake  in  1805. 

AVIGNON  (France).— This  ancient  city  is 
seated  in  a  beautiful  valley  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhone.  The  adjacent  territory,  the 
Venaissin  county,  "a  populous  and  fertile 
spot,"  was  ceded  to  the  papacy  by  Philip  III. 
in  1273  ;  and  the  sovereignty  of  Avignon  was 
sold  to  Clement  VI.  for  80,000  gold  florins  of 
Florence  by  Joanna,  Queen  of  Naples  and 
Countess  of  Provence,  in  1348.  Clement  V., 
elected  through  the  influence  of  Philip  IV.  of 
France,  removed  the  papal  chair  to  Avignon, 
in  1309.  The  folio  whig  popes  remained  here 
under  French  influence  : — 

A.D. 

1309.  Clement  V. 

1314.  Seo  vacant  two  years. 

1316.  John  XXI.  or  XXII. 

1334.  Benedict  XI.  or  XII. 

13.1.3.  Clement  VI. 

1353.  Innocent  VL 

1363.  Urban  V. 

1370.  Gregory  XI. 

1378.  Commencement  of  the  rnpnl  Schism  (q.  v.),when  two 

popes  were  elected.     Clement  VII.  at  Avignon. 
1394.  Benedict  XIII. 

Urban  V.  went  to  Rome  for  a  short  time,  but 
returned  to  Avignon ;  and  Gregory  XI.  is  said  to 
have  meditated  flight,  when  surprised  by  death. 
In  the  Papal  Schism,  called  "  the  great  schism 
of  the  West,"  occasioned  on  the  election  of  his 
successor  in  1378,  the  antipope  Clement  VII. 
took  up  his  residence  here,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Benedict  XIII.  The  popes  at  Rome,  how- 
ever, triumphed,  and  Avignon  was  deprived 
of  its  rival  pontiffs  in  1409.  The  French  kings 
seized  this  city  on  various  occasions.  The 
annexation  of  the  Venaissin  and  Avignon  to 
France  by  the  revolutionary  govermneiit,  Sep. 
14,  1791,  was  their  first  act  of  aggression.  By 
the  treaty  of  Tolentino,  Feb.  19,  1797,  Pius  VI. 
formally  ceded  these  possessions  to  France. 
Avignon  was  made  a  bishopric  in  the  ist 
century,  and  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric 
in  1475.  By  the  concordat  of  1801  it  ceased  to 
be  a  metropolis,  but  the  privilege  was  restored 
in  1821.  Councils  were  held  at  Avignon  in 
1080,  1209,  1270,  1279,  1282,  1326,  1327,  1337, 
and  1457.  Its  university,  founded  in  1303,  was 
abolished  in  1794. 

AVIS  (Order).—  Instituted  in  1147 by  Alphonso 
I.,  the  founder  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy, 
and  raised  by  him  in  1162  to  the  rank  of  an 
ecclesiastical  order  of  chivalry.  The  knights 
were  then  called  "  Knights  of  Evora,"  but  took 
their  present  title  in  1187,  from  their  gallant 
defence  of  the  fortress  of  Avis  against  the 
Moors.  The  order  was  changed  from  an 
ecclesiastical  to  a  civil  institution  in  1789. 

AVOIRDUPOIS.— This  system  of  weight, 
used  for  all  goods  except  the  precious  metals 
and  medicines,  is  first  mentioned  in  some 


orders  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1532.  A  pound 
avoirdupois  was  placed  in  the  Exchequer  by 
Elizabeth,  in  1588,  to  serve  as  a  standard. 

AVRANCHES  (Normandy),  anciently  Ingena, 
also  called  Abrincatse,  came  into  the  possession 
of  England  at  the  Norman  conquest.  In  its 
cathedral  Henry  II.  received  absolution  from 
the  Pope's  legate,  in  1172,  for  the  murder  of 
Becket ;  a  flat  stone  marks  the  spot  where  he 
did  penance.  The  Bretons  captured  the  town 
in  1203,  and  committed  great  havoc.  It  was 
restored  by  Louis  IX.,  and  it  again  fell  under 
the  power  of  the  English  in  1415,  but  was 
recovered  by  France  in  1450.  The  bishopric, 
established  in  the  sth  century,  was  suppressed 
and  united  to  Coutances  in  1801. 

AXARQUIA  (Battle).— In  the  winding  de- 
files of  the  Axarquia,  the  Moors  inflicted  a 
severe  loss  on  the  Spaniards,  in  actions  ex- 
tending over  two  days,  March  20  and  21,  1483. 

AXE. — The  Franks  in  their  expedition  into 
Italy  in  the  6th  century  made  use  of  an  axe 
with  a  large  blade.  Hence  it  was  termed  fran- 
cisca.  The  principal  weapons  of  this  kind' were 
the  taper  axe,  the  broad  axe,  and  the  double 
axe.  The  pole  axe  and  the  adze  axe  were 
varieties  of  these.  The  Lochaber  axe  was  used 
in  the  i6th  century. 

AXUM,  anciently  AUXUME  (Abyssinia).— 
This  ancient  city,  founded  about  B.C.  650,  be- 
came in  later  times  the  seat  of  a  powerful 
kingdom,  nearly  co-extensive  with  modern 
Abyssinia,  and  embracing  portions  of  Arabia. 
Though  its  origin  has  not  been  ascertained,  it 
is  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  2nd  century 
of  our  aera.  Justinian  formed  an  aUiance  with 
the  Auximites  A.D.  533.  Gibbon  is  of  opinion 
that  the  Auximites,  or  Abyssinians,  as  he  calls 
them,  were  a  colony  of  Arabs,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  Arab  element  is  blended 
with  the  Ethiopian  in  their  composition.  They 
were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury ;  and  in  its  defence  came  into  collision 
with  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  who  deprived 
them  of  their  possessions  in  Arabia,  and  de- 
stroyed their  commerce.  The  Chronicles  of 
Axum,  a  kind  of  history  of  Abyssinia,  a  copy 
of  which  the  traveller  Bruce  brought  to  Eng- 
land in  1774,  are  deposited  hi  a  Christian  church 
in  Axum,  built  about  1657.  Axum  was  made 
a  bishopric  about  330,  and  Frumentius  was  the 
first  bishop. 

AYACUCHO  (Battle).— On  this  plain,  in 
Peru,  the  Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the  re- 
publican forces  Dec.  9,  1824,  and  a  capitulation 
was  soon  afterwards  made,  by  which  Spain 
surrendered  the  whole  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

AYLESBURY  (Buckinghamshire).— This  an- 
cient town  formed  one  of  the  principal  strong- 
holds of  the  Britons  in  their  resistance  to  the 
Romans.  In  571  Cuthulf,  a  West-Saxon  chief, 
took  Aylesbury,  which  was  ravaged  by  the 
Danes  in  921.  The  town  was  incorporated 
and  made  a  borough  by  Queen  Mary  in  1554. 
During  the  disputes  between  Charles  I.  and 
the  Parliament,  it  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
latter,  and  in  1643  it  formed  the  head-quarters 
of  Lord  Essex.  John  Wilkes  represented  it 
in  Parliament  in  1761. 

AYLESFORD  (Battle).  —  A  victory  was 
gained  by  the  Britons  over  the  Saxons,  A.D. 


AZINCOURT 


[     106    ] 


BABINE 


455,  near  a  village  of  this  name,  in  Kent. 
The  Saxon  chief  Horsa  was  slain  in  the  con- 
flict. 

AZINCOURT.— (See  AGINCOURT.) 

AZOF.— This  sea,  called  by  the  ancients 
the  Palus  Maeotis,  communicates  with  the 
Euxine  by  the  strait  of  Yenikale,  or  the 
Cimmerian  Bosphorus.  It  was  the  scene  of 
some  important  operations  during  the  Cri- 
mean war.  An  allied  expedition,  15,000  strong, 
composed  of  English,  French,  and  Turkish 
troops  of  all  arms,  with  five  batteries  of 
artillery,  left  the  anchorage  at  Sebastopol 
May  22,  1855,  and  arrived  off  KertchMay  24.  The 
Russians  blew  up  their  fortifications  on  both 
sides  of  the  straits,  destroyed  three  steamers 
and  several  heavy-armed  vessels,  and  large 
quantities  of  provisions,  ammunition,  and 
stores.  Operations  were  carried  on  against 
the  chief  Russian  positions.  A  small  garrison 
was  left  at  Kertch  and  Yenikale,  and  the 
expedition  returned  June  12. 

AZORES,  or  WESTERN  ISLANDS  (Atlantic), 
nine  in  number,  arc  said  to  have  been  known 
before  1380,  and  by  some  their  discovery  is 
attributed  to  Vanderberg  of  Bruges,  about  1430. 
The  Portuguese  no  sooner  heard  of  the  dis- 
covery than  they  sent  out  Cabral,  who  sighted 
one  of  the  group  in  1432  ;  and  in  1448  Prince 
Henry  of  Portugal  took  formal  possession  of 
the  islands.  Alphonso  V.  gave  them  in  1466 
to  his  sister,  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  and 
they  were  colonized  by  the  Dutch.  When 
Philip  I.  seized  the  vacant  throne  of  Portugal 
in  1580,  they  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Spain. 
The  Earl  of  Essex  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  capture  them  in  1597. 
They  reverted  to  Portugal  in  1640,  and  still 
remain  in  her  possession.  Angra  (g.  r.),  the 
capital  of  Terceira,  one  of  the  group,  was  made  a 
bishop's  see  by  Paul  III.  in  1534.  Owing  to 
volcanic  disturbance,  rocks  and  islands  have 
frequently  been  thrown  up  from  the  sea.  The 
most  remarkable  phenomena  of  this  kind 
occurred  in  1538,  1720,  and  1811. 

AZOTUS.— (See  ASHDOD.) 

AZTECS.— The  earliest  known  seat  of  this 
tribe  was  Aztlan,  a  country  to  the  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  where  they  were  dwelling 
in  1160.  They  soon  after  commenced  their 
migrations,  arriving  at  Tula  in  1196.  They 
removed  to  Zumpanco  about  1216,  and  even- 
tually settled  on  a  group  of  islands  to  the 
south  of  lake  Tezcuco.  They  were  reduced 
to  slavery  by  the  Colhuans  in  1314 ;  and, 
moving  to  the  westward  of  the  lake,  founded 
Tenochtitlan,  their  capital,  on  the  site  of 
which  Mexico  now  stands,  in  1325.  They  were 
assailed  by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortes  in 
1519- 


BAAL    and    ASHTORETH,    or   ASTARTE, 

the  former  supposed  to  represent  the  sun,  and 
the  latter  the  moon,  were  idols  worshipped  by 
the  Phoenicians,  Chaldseans,  and  other  ancient 
nations.  This  idolatry  was  established  amongst 
the  Moabites  and  the  Midianites  B.C.  1451 
(Numb,  xxv.),  and  the  Israelites  were  punished 


for  falling  into  it  B.C.  1161 — 1143  (Judges  x.  6 
— 8),  and  on  several  occasions.  Ahab,  at  the 
instance  of  his  queen  Jezebel,  established  the 
worship  of  Baal  and  set  up  an  altar  in  Samaria 
B.C.  918  (i  Kings  xvi.  28 — 33),  for  which  he  was 
reproved  by  Elijah,  who  slew  the  prophets  of 
Baal  at  the  river  Kishon  B.C.  906  (i  Kings  xviii. 
36 — 40).  Jehoiada  destroyed  the  temple  of 
Baal,  slew  its  priest,  and  Athaliah,  the  last  of 
the  house  of  Ahab,  B.C.  878  (2  Kings  xi.). 

BAALBEC,  or  HELIOPOLIS  (Syria),  the 
name  given  to  the  place  by  the  Seleucidae, 
both  words  signifying  "the  city  of  the  sun," 
is  by  some  supposed  to  correspond  with  the 
Baal  Gad  of  Scripture.  Little  is  known  of  its 
early  history.  Julius  Csesar  made  it  a  Roman 
colony.  Trajan  consulted  its  famous  oracle 
previous  to  his  departure  on  his  expedition  to 
the  East,  A.D.  114.  Antoninus  either  enlarged 
its  temple  to  Jupiter  or  built  a  new  one,  that 
became  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Baalbec  capitulated  to  the  Saracens,  paying 
an  enormous  ransom,  in  635  ;  it  was  sacked 
and  dismantled  by  the  Caliph  of  Damascus  in 
748 ;  seized  by  Tamerlane  in  1401 ;  and  has 
since  gradually  declined.  Thevet,  in  1550 ; 
Pococke,  in  1740;  Maundrell,  in  1745  ;  Wood 
and  Dawkins,  in  1751  ;  and  Volney,  in  1785,  are 
amongst  the  most  celebrated  travellers  who 
have  visited  and  described  its  ruins.  This 
Syrian  city  must  not  be  confounded  with  an- 
other Baalbec,  or  Heliopolis,  in  Lower  Egypt, 
one  of  the  earliest  cities  of  which  any  record 
remains.  Smith  (Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Geog.)  remarks  concerning  the  last-mentioned 
city :  "  Its  obelisks  were  probably  seen  by 
Abraham  when  he  first  migrated  from  Syria 
to  the  Delta  1600  years  B.C.  ;  and  here  the 
father-in-law  of  Joseph  filled  the  office  of  high 
priest." 

BAB-AT-THE-BOWSTER.— This  old  dance, 
somewhat  resembling  the  cushion-dance  (q.  ?•.), 
save  that  a  bolster,  as  the  name  indicates, 
supplies  the  place  of  the  pillow,  is  still  danced 
in  Scotland,  and  is  always  the  winding  up  at 
"  kirns  "  and  other  merry-makings. 

BABEL  (Tower).— Described  Gen.  xi.  1—9, 
and  built  120  years  after  the  Deluge,  by  the 
descendants  of  Noah,  about  B.C.  2247.  Much 
controversy  has  been  excited  respecting  its 
exact  position.  It  is  now  generally  believed 
that  Babylon  was  built  upon  the  site,  if  not 
upon  the  actual  ruins,  of  this  temple. 

BABINE  REPUBLIC,  or  RESPUBLICA 
BINEPSIS.— The  following  account  of  this 
society,  established  in  the  i4th  century,  is 
given  in  the  Annual  Register  for  the  year  1764  : 
"  There  was  at  the  court  of  Sigismund  Au- 
gustus, a  gentleman  of  the  family  of  Psomka, 
who,  in  concert  with  Peter  Cassovius,  bailiff  of 
Lublin,  formed  a  society,  which  the  Polish 
writers  call  '  The  Republic  of  Babine,'  and 
which  the  Germans  denominate  '  The  Society 
of  Fools'  (q.  v.).  This  society  was  instituted 
upon  the  model  of  the  Republic  of  Poland ; 
it  has  its  king,  its  chancellor,  its  counsellors, 
its  archbishops,  bishops,  judges,  and  other 
officers  :  in  this  republic  Psomka  had  the 
title  of  captain,  and  Cassovius  that  of  chan- 
cellor. When  any  of  the  members  did  or 
said  anything  at  their  meetings  which  was 


BABCEUF'S 


[    107    ] 


BABYLONIA 


unbecoming  or  ill-timed,  they  immediately 
gave  him  a  place  of  which  he  was  required  to 
perform  the  duties  till  another  was  appointed 
in  his  stead ;  for  example,  if  any  one  spoke 
too  much,  so  as  to  engross  the  conversation, 
he  was  appointed  orator  of  the  republic  ;  if  he 
spoke  improperly,  occasion  was  taken  from  his 
subject  to  appoint  him  a  suitable  employment ; 
if,  for  instance,  he  talked  about  dogs,  he  was 
made  master  of  the  buck-hounds ;  if  he  boasted 
of  his  courage,  he  was  made  a  knight,  or,  per- 
haps, a  field-marshal ;  and  if  he  expressed  a 
bigoted  zeal  for  any  speculative  opinion  in 
religion,  he  was  made  an  inquisitor.  The 
offenders  being  thus  distinguished  for  their 
follies,  and  not  their  wisdom,  gave  occasion 
to  the  Germans  to  call  the  republic  '  The 
Society  of  Fools,'  which,  though  a  satire  on 
the  individual,  was  by  no  means  so  on  the 
institution.  *  *  *  *  The  regiment  of  the 
Calot,  or  Calotte  (q.  v,},  which  was  some  years 
since  established  in  the  court  of  France,  is 
very  similar  to  the  republic  of  Babine."  (See 
FOOLS,  Order.) 

BABCEUF'S  CONSPIRACY.— Baboeuf,  a  Ja- 
cobin, surnamed  Gracchus,  formed  a  conspi- 
racy against  the  French  Directory  in  1796.  His 
chief  aim  was  to  obtain  a  division  of  property. 
The  deliberations  of  this  society  were  carried 
on  in  a  large  vault  under  the  Pantheon,  where, 
as  Alison  (iv.  ch.  24)  remarks,  "  by  the  light  of 
flambeaux,  and  seated  on  the  humid  ground, 
they  ruminated  on  the  most  likely  method  of 
regenerating  France."  They  had  agents  in  the 
provinces,  and  they  also  elected  a  secret  direc- 
tory of  public  safety  in  Paris.  Their  design 
was  at  length  acknowledged  to  be  to  establish 
what  they  termed  "  the  Public  Good,"  by 
means  of  a  division  of  property,  and  the  for- 
mation of  a  government  consisting  of  "true, 
pure,  and  absolute  democrats."  They  had 
framed  a  solemn  instrument,  called  an  "In- 
surrection Act,"  the  publication  of  which  was 
to  be  the  signal  for  revolt.  This  was  fixed  to 
take  place  May  21,  1796 ;  but  one  of  the  party 
having  given  information,  the  chief  conspira- 
tors were  arrested  the  day  before.  Baboeuf 
and  one  of  his  associates  suffered  on  the  scaf- 
fold May  25,  1797. 

BABYLON,  the  chief  city  of  Babylonia  (q.  v.). 
Sir  John  Stoddart  states  that  Babylon,  accord- 
ing to  the  scriptural  account,  "was  the  first 
great  city  built  after  the  Deluge,  and  that  it 
was  founded  by  Nimrod,  a  great-grandson  of 
Noah,  or  at  all  events  by  a  tribe  of  his  descen- 
dants, bearing  his  name."  The  city  of  Babylon 
is  supposed  to  have  been  built  on  the  site  of 
Babel  (Gen.  x.  10),  the  scene  of  the  confusion 
of  tongues,  about  B.C.  2247  (Gen.  xi.  9).  It  was 
taken  by  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  of  Assyria,  about 
B.C.  mo,  and  by  Cyrus  B.C.  538.  During 
the  present  century  many  enterprising  tra- 
vellers, amongst  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Eich,  Ker,  Porter,  Layard,  Frazer,  Chesney, 
Botta,  Loftus,  and  Rawlinson,  have,  by  their 
explorations  amongst  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city,  thrown  considerable  light  upon  the  his- 
tory of  Babylon. 

BABYLONIA.—"  The  Babylonian  and  Assy- 
rian empires,"  says  Sir  John  Stoddart,  "in  all 
historical  records,  are  much  blended  together. 


These  empires,  whether  distinct  or  united, 
possessed  in  very  early  times  two  vast  cities ; 
Babylon  on  the  Euphrates,  and  Nineveh  on  the 
Tigris.  The  country  on  the  Tigris  was  called 
Assyria  ;  that  on  the  Euphrates  Babylonia ; 
and  the  large  intervening  space  was  commonly 
termed  Mesopotamia,  or  '  between  the  rivers  ; ' 
and  this,  together  with  Babylonia,  seems  to  be 
meant  in  Scripture  by  the  land  of  Shinar."  The 
Rev.  G.  Rawlinson  classes  it  fourth  of  "The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Eastern  World" 
(Murray,  1862 — 5),  and  from  his  valuable  work 
the  following  table  has  been  compiled  :— 

B.C. 

1723.  Babylon  is  conquered  by  the  Assyrians. 

1370 — 1250.  Tiglathi-Nin,  King  of  Assyria,  assumes  the 
title  of  "Conqueror  of  Babylonia,"  where  he 
establishes  an  Assyrian  dynasty. 

1150—1130.  Nebuchadnezzar  I.,  "King  of  Babylon,  leads 
two  expeditions  into  Assyria  during  the  reign  of 
Asshur-ris-ilim. 

1130—1110.  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  King  of  Assyria,  towards 
the  end  of  his  reispi,  invades  Babylonia,  where  he 
remains  for  two  years,  taking  the  cities  of  Kurri- 
Galazu  (now  Akkerkuf),  Sippara  of  the  Sun, 
Sippara  of  Anunit  (see  SKPIIAUVAIM),  and  Hupa 
or  Opis,  and  ultimately  seizing  the  city  of  Baby- 
lon. On  hig  return,  however,  he  is  much 
harassed  by  Merodach-iddin-akhi,  who  captures 
several  of  the  Assyrian  idols  and  deposits  them 
in  Babylon  as  trophies  of  victory. 

880.  The  Assyrian  monarch  Asshur-idanni-pal  invades 
Babylonia,  and  recovers  and  rebuilds  the  city  of 
Diyaleh,  which  hnd  been  destroyed  at  a  remote 
period  by  a  Babylonian  king  named  Tsibir. 

850.  During  a  civil  war  between  King  Merodach-sum- 
adin  and  his  younger  brother  Merodach-bel  *  * 
the  country  is  invaded  by  Shalmaneser  II.  of 
Assyria,  who  slays  the  pretender,  takes  many 
cities,  and  enters  the  capital,  thus  establishing  his 
sovereignty  over  the  native  king. 

830.  Babylonia  is  invaded  by  Shamas-Iva,  who  defeats 
King  Merodak-belatzu-ikbi  in  two  pitched  battles, 
and  renders  his  kingdom  tributary  to  Assyria. 
(See  DABAN.) 

750.  About  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  B.C.  Babylon 
regained  its  independence,  but  was  split  up  into 
numerous  petty  states. 

747-  Nabonassar  establishes  his  authority  in  Babylon. 

744.  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  invades  Babylonia  and  subdues 
Merodach-Baladan,  prince  of  one  of  its  minor 
divisions. 

7«I.  Merodach-Baladan  is  acknowledged  King  of  Baby- 
lon. 

713.  Merodach-Baladan,  King  of  Babylonia,  sends  an 
embassy  to  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  which  is 
favourably  received  by  that  monarch.  (3  Kings 
xx,  12,  13 ) 

709.  Sargon,  King  of  Assyria,  invades  Babylonia,  besieges 
Merodach-Baladan  in  Beth-Yakin,  which,  with 
its  defenders,  he  captures,  establishes  his  court  at 
Babylon,  and  places  an  Assyrian  viceroy  on  the 
throne. 

704.  Babylon  revolts. 

703.  Sennacherib  invades  Babylonia,  and  defeats  the 
ex-king  Merodach-Baladan  near  the  city  of  Kis. 

688.  Disturbances  commence  hi  Babylon,  which  revolts 
from  Assyria. 

680.  It  is  recovered  by  Esarhaddon. 

667.  A  revolt  is  suppressed  by  Asshur-bani-pal. 

625.  Nabopolassar,  Viceroy  of  Babylonia,  revolts  from 
Assyria,  and  establishes  an  independent  empire. 

608.  Babylonia  is  invaded  and  in  great  part  conquered  by 
Pharaoh  Xecho,  King  of  Egypt 

605.  Nebuchadnezzar,  son  of  Nabopolassar,  defeats  the 
Egyptians  at  Carchemish,  and  succeeds  his  father 
on  the  Babylonian  throne. 

598.  Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Palestine,  besieges  Tyre 
(q.  D.),  and  conquers  .Tehoiachim,  King  of  Judah, 
whom  he  carries  away  captive  (2  Kings  xxiv. 
i—7). 

588.  Nebuchadnezzar  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  (q.  v.), 
which  surrenders  the  following  year. 

581.  He  invades  Egypt 


BABYLONISH 


[    108    ] 


BACHELORS 


570.  Ho  again  invades  Kgypt  (<?.  v.). 

561.  Death  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

559.  Kvil-Merodach  is  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  his 
brother-in-law,  .Viiglissar. 

555.  The  young  king  Laborosotirchod  is  deposed  and  put 
to  death  by  his  nobles,  who  raise  to  the  throne 
Is'abonadius,  a  man  not  related  to  the  royal 
fainilv. 

539.  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  invades  Babylon  and  defeats 
Nabonadius,  who  seeks  refuge  in  Bonippa, 
leaving  Babylon  under  the  government  of  his  son, 
Belshay./.itr." 

538.  Cyrus,  having  turned  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
from  then-  course,  enters  Babylon  during  a  re- 
ligious festival,  and  massacres  Belshazzar  anil  a 
large  number  of  the  inhabitants  (Dan.  v.  I — 31). 
Nabonadius  tenders  his  submission,  and  the  king- 
dom is  annexed  to  the  1'er.sian  empire. 

Rawlinsou  (Ancient  Monarchies,  iii.  481)  gives 
the  following  list  of  the  rulers  of  Babylonia  : — 
B.C. 

1518-1373.  Dynasty  of  Arabs. 
Circ.  1723.  Dynasty  of  Assyrians. 
,,     1150.  Nebucliudncy./ar  J. 
„    1130.  ICerodaoh-iddin-akhL 
„     mo.  Merodach-shapik-ziri. 

Tsibir  (l)eboras). 

*  *  *  * 
850.  Mcrodach-sum-.idin. 

„       830.  Merodach-belalzu-ikbi. 

*  *  *  * 
747.  Nabonnssar. 

733.  Na.lius. 

73 1.  Chin/.inus  and  Porus. 

736.   Khiln  us. 

731.  Merodach-Baladan. 

709.  Arccanus  (viceroy). 

704.  Interregnum. 

7°3-   (Merodach-Baladan. 

lielibus  (viceroy).' 

(viceroy). 


O99-  Assarana  lius  ( 

6o/)(V)Susub. 

693.   i;e;;'ilielus  (viceroy). 

693.  Mesesimordaehua  (viceroy) 

i  iitciTegnum. 
680.  Ksarhaddon. 
Mr.  Saos-ditchinus  (viceroy). 
647.  Cinneladanus. 
625.  Nubopol.tssar. 
605.  Nebuchadnezzar. 
561.  Kvil-Mei-.idach. 
559.  .Neriglissar. 

556.  Laborosoarchod  or  Labossoracus. 
555.  Nabonadius,  or  A'ubannidochus. 
539.  BeUha/./.ar. 

BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY  of  the  Jews, 
foretold  by  Isaiah  (xxxix.  6)  and  Jeremiah 
(xxv.  9 — n),  lasted  from  B.C.  604  to  B.C.  536. 
It  commenced  under  Jehoiakim  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  5—7),  and  terminated  with  the  decree 
issued  for  their  restoration  by  Cyrus  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  22  and  23). 

BABYNGTON'S  CONSPIRACY.  —  In  1586, 
Anthony  Babyngton,  an  English  gentleman, 
instigated  by  John  Ballard,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  assassinate 
Queen  Elizabeth,  with  the  view  of  placing 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  on  the  throne,  and  of 
restoring  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  John 
Savage  (a  soldier  serving  under  the  King  of 
Spain,  who  had  first  made  the  proposal  ^o 
assassinate  the  qiieen1!,  and  13  others,  in- 
cluding Babyngton,  embarked  in  this  despe- 
rate project,  and  Mary  herself  did  everything 
in  her  power  to  further  its  success.  Intima- 
tion of  the  plot  having  been  given  to  Walslng- 
ham  by  a  spy,  the  conspirators  were  seized, 
brought  to  trial  Sep.  13 — 15,  and  executed 
Sep.  20  and  21,  1586.  Mary's  share  in  this 


conspiracy  alarmed  Elizabeth,  and  was  the 
principal  cause  of  her  subsequent  trial  and 
execution. 

BACCHANALIA,  or  festivals  of  various 
kinds  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  are  said  by 
Herodotus  to  have  been  of  Egyptian  origin 
(see  DIONYSIA),  and  led  to  such  abuses,  as 
practised  at  Rome  and  in  other  parts  of  Italy, 
that  they  were  suppressed  by  a  decree  of  the 
.senate  B.C.  186.  This  decree,  engraved  upon  a 
brazen  table,  was  discovered  at  Bari  in  1640, 
and  is  preserved  in  the  imperial  collection  at 
Vienna. 

BACHELORS  were  branded  with  infamy  by 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  and  at  festivals  were 
exposed  to  public  derision.  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus  notices  a  law  requiring  all  per- 
sons of  a  certain  age  to  marry.  The  Romans 
imposed  a  fine  on  bachelors  by  the  Lex  Julia, 
B.C.  1 8.  It  was,  however,  abolished  by  Con- 
Ktantine.  Bachelors  of  25  years  of  age,  and 
widowers  without  children,  were,  by  6  &  7 
Will.  III.  c.  6  (1694),  required  to  pay  yearly,  so 
long  as  they  remained  single,  a  tax  of  one  shil- 
ling. It  was  levied  for  five  years,  commencing 
May  i,  1695.  By  8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  20,  s.  14, 
the  tax  was  continued  till  Aug.  i,  1706,  when 
it  was  suffered  to  expire.  In  addition  to  the 
tax  of  one  shilling  per  annum,  every  person  of 
the  undermentioned  rank  paid  yearly  as  fol- 
lows : — 

£    t.  d. 

Duke    13  10    o 

Duke's  eldest  son  7  IO     o 

Younger  sons,  each  650 

Marquis    IO     O     O 

Marquis's  eldest  son 650 

Founger  sons,  each 5    °    ° 

Karl   7  10    o 

Karl's  eldest  son 5     o     O 

His,  each  3  15     O 

Vise., unt's  eldest  son 476 

Younger  sons,  each  368 

liaron    5     °     ° 

Mill-oil's  eldest  son 3  X5     ° 

Younger  sons,  each 300 

r.arc.net    3  15     ° 

Knight  of  the  liath      3  !5     ° 

Knight  bachelor    3  IO     O 

King's  sergeant S     °     ° 

Other  Serjeants  at  law,  each 3  15     o 

Ksquire 5    o 

(iclltlelliail   5      ° 

Archbishop 

I'.isho 

Dean 

Archdeacon 13     O 

Canon  or  prebendary 13     6 

Doctor  of  divinity,  law,  or  physic I    5    o 

Sons     of     archbishops,    bishops,    deans,     arch-1 

deacons,  canons  or  prebendaries,  and  of  doctors  V  050 

of  div  inity,  law,  or  physic ) 

I'ersons  \\  it'll  4.' 50  per  annum  real  estate,  or  per- 1 
sonal   property  of    £600,  not  charged  in  the>  o    5    o 

Their  sons,  each 036 

A  registry  was  ordered  to  be  kept  by  persons 
in  holy  orders,  for  the  better  collecting  of  the 
duty,  by  6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  6,  s.  20  (1694). 
By  43  Gco.  III.  s.  43  (1785),  bachelors  above 
the  age  of  21  years  were  required  t  >  pay 
annually,  in  addition  to  the  usual  tax,  £i  5*. 
for  every  male  servant  in  their  employ ;  and 
those  that  had  three  or  more  female  servants 
paid  IDS.  per  annum  for  each,  in  addition  to 
the  ordinary  tax. 


BACKGAMMON 


[    109    ] 


BADEN 


BACKGAMMON.  —  This,  or  some  similar 
game  played  with  dice,  was  known  to  the 
Greeks,  and  was  a  favourite  amusement 
amongst  the  Saxons,  by  whom  it  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  about  the  loth  century. 
Dr.  Henry  attributes  the  invention  to  the 
Welsh.  It  is  recorded  of  Canute  that  he 
frequently  played  at  backgammon,  which  was 
called  the  English  game  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1 4th  century. 

BACK-STAFF,  or  DAVIS'S  QUADRANT, 
for  taking  the  sun's  altitude  at  sea,  was  in- 
vented by  Capt.  J.  Davis,  about  1590.  It  has 
been  superseded  by  later  inventions. 

BACTRA,  called  by  Strabo  and  Pliny  Zari- 
aspa,  though  Heeren  contends  that  they  were 
different  places,  the  capital  of  Bactriana,  was 
one  of  the  oldest  centres  of  commerce  and 
civilization  in  the  world.  Heeren  says  it  was 
the  first  place  of  exchange  for  the  productions 
of  India ;  and  that  the  great  highways  of  com- 
merce from  east  to  west  followed  this  direc- 
tion. (See  BALKH.) 

BACTRIANA,  or  BACTRIA  (Asia).  — This 
ancient  state,  situated  between  Persia  and 
India,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Oxus, 
varied  at  different  periods  in  extent.  Ninus, 
King  of  Assyria,  is  said  to  have  failed  in  an 
attack  upon  its  capital,  until  Semiramis 
suggested  a  plan  for  its  capture,  thereby  gain- 
ing the  favour  of  the  king  and  a  share  of  his 
throne.  For  a  considerable  period  Bactriana 
formed  part  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  in 
eastern  traditions  is  represented  as  having 
been  the  seat  of  powerful  and  independent 
princes  long  before  it  became  a  Persian  satrapy. 
Alexander  III.  conquered  it  in  his  sixth 
campaign,  B.C.  329.  It  is  now  a  dependency  of 
the  Khanat  of  Bokhara,  under  the  name  of 
Balkh. 

B.C. 

355.  The  Governor  Theodotus,  called  by  .Strabo  Diodotus, 
revolts  from  Antiochus  II.  of  Syria,  and  founds 
the  kingdom  of  Bactriana. 

331.  Euthydemus  deposes  and  succeeds  Theodotus  or  Dio- 
dotus II. 

307.  Antiochus  of  Syria  defeats  Euthydemus. 

181.  Commencement  of  the  reign  of  Eucratides  I.,  the 
period  of  Bactrlaoa'l  prosperity. 

168.  Part  of  India  is  added  to  Bactriana. 

143.  Eucratides  II.  assassinates  his  father,  and  succeeds  to 
his  throne. 

135.  Bactriana  is  overrun  by  tribes  of  wandering  Scythians, 
by  whom  the  kingdom  is  destroyed. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF  BACTRIANA.- 


B.C. 

250.  Theodotus  or  Diodotus  I. 
345.  Theodotus  or  Diodotus  II. 
331.  Euthydemus. 
300.  Demetrius. 


B.C. 

196.  Menander. 
181.  Eucratides  I. 
143.  Eucratides  II. 


BADACA,  or  VADAKAT  (Susiana).— This, 
the  second  city  of  Susiana,  was  stormed  and 
taken  by  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  about 
B.C.  695.  Antigonus  retired  thither  after  his 
defeat  by  Eumenes,  B.C.  316. 

BADAJOS  (Spain).— This  barrier  fortress,  the 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  only 
five  miles  from  the  Portuguese  frontier,  has 
sustained  numerous  sieges,  and  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  during  the  occupation 
of  the  peninsula  by  the  Moors.  It  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Portuguese  in  1660,  and  was 
assailed,  but  without  success,  by  a  combined 


English,  Portuguese,  and  Dutch  force,  Oct., 
1705.  Gal  way  was  beaten  in  a  battle  hereby 
the  Spanish  army,  May  7,  1709.  Soult  captured 
it  March  n,  1811  (see  ALBUERA,  battle);  and 
Wellington  having  been  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege  June  10,  in  the  same  year,  obtained 
possession  April  6,  1812.  Badajos  was  made 
an  episcopal  see  at  an  early  period.  The 
cathedral  was  commenced  in  1248 ;  and  its 
granite  bridge  was  built  in  1460,  restored  in 
1597,  and  rebuilt  in  1833. 

BADAJOS  (Treaty),  between  Spain  and 
Portugal,  was  signed  at  Badajos  June  6,  rati- 
fications were  exchanged  at  Badajos  June  16, 
and  it  was  published  at  Madrid  Aug.  8,  1801.  It 
brought  to  a  close  the  short  contest  between 
Portugal  and  Spain,  which  Napoleon  I.  had 
stirred  up  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out 
his  ambitious  designs.  Spain  restored  all  her 
conquests,  excepting  Olivenza  and  its  territory, 
which  were  ceded  to  her ;  and  she  guaranteed 
the  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal  the  entire 
possession  of  all  his  states  and  possessions. 
Portugal  agreed  to  close  her  ports  against 
England,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
(See  ABRANTES,  Treaty.) 

BADDESDOWN  HILL,  or  BADON  MOUNT 
(Battle). — This  spot,  near  Bath,  was  the  scene 
of  a  celebrated  victory  gained  by  the  Britons 
under  King  Arthur  over  the  Saxon  leader, 
Cerdic,  in  493,  according  to  Bede.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  an  error,  as  it  is  generally  believed 
to  have  taken  place  in  520. 

BADEN  (Germany)  was  made  a  margraviate 
about  the  year  1130,  by  Herman  II.,  grand- 
son of  Berthold,  Landgrave  of  Brisgau,  his 
father,  Herman  I.,  having  previously  acquired 
Baden  by  marriage.  The  title  of  Grand  Duke 
was  given  to  the  Margrave  Charles  Frederick, 
by  Napoleon  I.,  in  1806.  The  rank  held  by 
Baden  is  that  of  seventh  in  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation, and  in  time  of  war  it  is  required  to 
furnish  10,000  men  to  the  federal  army. 
A.D. 

1130.  Herman  II.  takes  the  title  of  Margrave  of  Baden. 
1190.  Herman  IV.  accompanies  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa) 

to  the  Holy  Land. 
I3«6.  Herman  V.  (the  Pious)  cedes  the  county  of  Dagsburg 

to  the  Bishop  of  Strasburg. 
1350.  Death  of  Herman  VI.,  who  is  succeeded  by  his  infant 

son  Frederick,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother, 

Gertrude  of  Austria. 

1367,  Oct.  39.  Frederick  is  beheaded  at  Naples. 
1383.  Rodolph  I.  acquires  part  of  Eberstein  by  purchase. 
1388.  Baden  is  divided  among  the  four  sons  of  Rodolph  I. 
1353.  Kodolph  VII.  reunites  Baden  into  a  single  state. 
1405.  League  of  Marbaeh  formed  between  Bernard,  Mar- 
quis of  Baden,  the  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  the 

Count  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  some  minor  powers, 

against  the  Emperor. 
1463,  June  19.  Frederick  II.,  King  of  the  Romans,  gains  a 

great  victory  over  Charles  I.  of  Baden,  and  takes 

him  prisoner. 
1488.  Christopher  of    Baden  sends  4,000  men  to  deliver 

Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  from 

the  inhabitants  of  Bruges. 
1503.  Christopher  claims  the  marquisate  of  Hochberg :  the 

claim  is  referred  to  the  imperial  tribunal. 
1515,  Aug.  i.  Christopher  abandons  the  government  to  his 

sons,  Bernard,  Philip,  and  Ernest,  who  rule  as  his 

vicars. 
1537.  Baden  is  divided  into  Baden-Baden   and   Baden- 

Durlach. 

T533-  Bernard  establishes  Protestantism  in  Baden-Baden. 
1569,  Oct.  3.  Philibert  of  Baden-Baden  assists  the  Roman 

Catholics,  and  is  slain  at  Moncoutour. 
1581.  The  lawsuit  in  reference  to  the  possession  of  Hoch- 
berg terminates  in  favour  of  Baden. 


BADEN 


BAHAR 


1594.  The  creditors  of  Edward  of  Baden  obtain  permission 
from  the  Emperor  to  indemnify  themselves  by 
seizing  his  territories. 

1637.  Arrangements  as  to  territory  are  made  between  the 
rulers  of  Baden-Baden  and  Baden-Durlach. 

1683.  Louis  William,  Marquis  of  Baden-Baden,  assists  in 
the  deliverance  of  Vienna  from  the  Turks. 

1707.  Death  of  Louis  William,  the  most  warlike  marquis 
of  Baden-Baden. 

1733-  The  French  ravage  Baden,  and  compel  Louis  George 
to  seek  refuge  in  Bohemia. 

1771.  Baden-Durlach  is  united  to  Baden-Baden. 

1796.  A  treaty  of  peace  is  concluded  with  the  French  re- 
public. 

1801,  Feb.  9.  Baden  receives  an  accession  of  territory  by 
the  treaty  of  Luneville. 

1803.  Charles  Frederick  of  Baden  is  raised  to  the  rank  of 

1805,  Dec.  36.  Brisgau  is  added  to  Baden  by  the  treaty  of 

Presburg. 

1806,  July  13.  The  elector,  Charles  Frederick,  is  raised  to 

the  rank  of  grand  duke. 

1815,  March  25-  Baden  joins  the  allies  against  Napoleon  I. 
1818,  Aug.  22-  A  representative  constitution  is  granted. 

1849,  May  14.  Insurrections  take  place  in  Baden.  The  Grand 

Duke  Charles  Leopold  Frederick  quits  Carlsruhe. 

1850,  Sep.  6.    Treaty  of   peace  with  Denmark  and  other 

powers. 

1857,  July  9.  General  amnesty  for  the  political  offenders 
of  1848  and  1849. 

1859,  Dec.  i.  The  concordat  signed  by  the  Tope  June  28  ts 

published. 

1860,  June  1 6.   Interview  at  Baden-Baden  between  Napo- 

leon III.,  the  Trince  Regent  of  Prussia,  and  other 
German  prinees. 

1861,  June.  A  new  constitution  for  the  Protestant  Church 

is  settled  at  a  synod  that  meets  at  Carlsruhe. 

GRAND  DUKES  OF  BADEN. 
1806.  Charles  Frederick. 
I8tl.  Charles  Louis  Frederick. 
1818.  Louis  William  Augustus. 
1830.  Charles  Leopold  Frederick. 
1852,  April   24.     Frederick    William    Louis    assumes    the 

regency. 
1856,  Sep.  5.  Frederick  William  Louis  assumes  the  title  of 

grand  duke  by  patent. 

BADEN  (Treaty  .  — Signed  at  Baden,  in 
Switzerland,  Sep.  18  (O.  S.  7),  1714,  between 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  and  Louis  XIV.  It 
confirmed  the  treaty  of  Alt-Ranstadt  a,  r.  . 
By  one  of  its  provisions  Landau  was  ceded  to 
France.  (See  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  Treaties.) 

BADON,  MOUNT.— (See  BADDESDOWN  HILL.) 

BAEZA  (Spain). — Near  this  town,  which  is 
of  great  antiquity,  and  contains  many  Roman 
relics  and  Inscriptions,  the  younger  Scipio 
vanquished  Hasdrubal  B.C.  208.  Having  fallen 
under  the  Saracen  yoke,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Spaniards  A.D.  1239.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
n,ooo  virgins  who,  with  St.  Ursula,  were, 
according  to  the  legend,  slaughtered  by  the 
Huns  at  Cologne. 

BAFFIN'S  BAY.— This  inland  sea,  between 
Greenland  and  the  N.E.  coast  of  America,  was 
discovered  July  6,  1616,  by  the  English  navi- 
gator, William  Baffin,  from  whom  it  takes  its 
name. 

BAGAUD2E.— An  appellation  given  to  the 
peasants  of  Gaul  who  rebelled  against  the 
Romans  A.D.  286.  Their  work  was  executed 
with  fire  and  sword.  "They  asserted,"  says 
Gibbon,  "  the  natural  rights  of  men,  but  they 
asserted  those  rights  with  the  most  savage 
cruelty."  For  some  time  they  obtained  the 
ascendancy,  but  were  subdued  by  Maximian. 
The  term  was  siibsequently  applied  to  other 
rebels.  (See  PEASANT  WAR.) 

BAGDAD  (Asia),  on  the  Tigris,  was  founded 


by  Al  Mansur,  the  second  caliph  of  the  Abbas- 
sides,  in  762,  and  remained  the  seat  of  the 
caliphate  until  Feb.  20,  1258,  when  it  was  cap- 
tured, after  a  siege  of  two  months,  by  the  Mon- 
gols, and  Mostasem,  the  last  of  the  Abbassides 
(q.  v.),  was  put  to  death.  Tamerlane  sacked 
the  city  July  23,  1401,  erecting  on  its  rums  a 
pyramid  of  90,000  heads.  Its  Tartar  rulers 
returned,  but  were  expelled  in  1417,  by  Kara 
Yusef .  His  descendants  were,  in  1477,  replaced 
by  Usum  Cassim,  who  was  followed  by  the 
Suffide  dynasty,  of  Persian  origin,  in  1516. 
The  possession  of  the  city  was  long  contested 
by  the  Persians  and  the  Turks,  and  amongst 
the  numerous  sieges  it  sustained  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  1534,  when  it  was  captured  by 
Soliman  I.  (the  Magnificent) ;  of  1590,  when 
taken  by  Abbas  I.  (the  Great) ;  of  1638,  when  it 
was  captured  by  Amurath  IV., — 30,000  Persians 
having  been  ruthlessly  massacred  ;  and  of  1740, 
when  Nadir  Shah  was  repulsed  by  Achmet,  who 
rendered  the  pashalic  independent  of  the  Porte. 
Its  celebrated  college  was  founded  in  1233.  A 
Nestorian  patriarch  resided  at  Bagdad,  and 
the  Greek  metropolitan  was  expelled  in  913. 

BAGNALO  (Treaty).  —  Concluded  Aug.  7, 
1484,  between  the  Venetians  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  King  of  Naples,  the  Duke  of  Milan, 
and  the  Florentines,  on  the  other.  The  news 
is  said  to  have  so  affected  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  that 
it  brought  on  a  fit  of  the  gout,  which  caused 
his  death,  Aug.  13,  1484. 

BAG-PIPE.— The  earliest  representation  of 
this  instrument  occurs  in  a  terra-cotta  dis- 
covered at  Tarsus,  and  supposed  to  date  from 
about  B.C.  200.  It  was  known  to  the  Romans, 
and  probably  to  the  Greeks,  and  appears  in  a 
bas-relief  of  a  Persian  concert  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury A.D.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
into  the  British  islands  by  the  Danes.  In  Ger- 
many it  was  a  favourite  instrument  during  the 
1 5th  century,  and  it  has  always  been  prized 
by  the  Scotch  Highlanders. 

BAHAMA  ISLANDS  (Atlantic),  called  also 
the  LUCAYOS,  consist  of  about  20  inhabited 
islands,  with  innumerable  rocks  and  islets. 
St.  Salvador,  the  chief  of  the  group,  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  Oct.  n,  1492,  being  the 
first  portion  of  America  discovered  by  him. 
The  Spaniards  conveyed  the  natives  to  Mexico, 
and  the  islands  remained  unpeopled  till  colo- 
nized by  the  English,  under  a  patent  granted 
Dec.  4,  1630.  In  1641  the  Spaniards  destroyed 
the  colony,  but  it  was  re-established  by  the 
English  in  1666,  and  remained  in  their  hands 
till  1703,  when  it  was  ravaged  by  a  combined 
French  and  Spanish  fleet.  It  afterwards  be- 
came notorious  as  a  rendezvous  for  pirates, 
who  were  extirpated  in  1718,  when  a  regular 
colonial  administration  was  established.  In 
1776  New  Providence  was  stripped  by  the 
Americans  of  its  artillery  and  stores,  and  the 
governor  and  some  other  officers  were  made 
prisoners.  The  islands  surrendered  to  the 
Spaniards  May  8,  1782,  but  were  restored  to 
England  by  the  7th  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783. 

BAHAR,  or  BEHAR  (Hindostan).  —  This 
territory,  after  changing  rulers  several  times, 
was  formally  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty 
of  Allahabad,  Aug.  12,  1765. 


BAHARITES 


BAKERTAN 


BAHARITES,  the  first  Mameluke  dynasty  I 
that  reigned  in  Egypt,  were  descended  from 
Turks  sold  to  slavery  by  the  Tartars.  They 
began  to  reign  in  1244,  and  the  last  sultan  of 
the  race  was  expelled  by  the  Borgites,  or 
Circassians,  the  second  Mameluke  dynasty 
of  Egypt,  in  1381,  after  having  reigned  137 
years.  (See  BORGITES.) 

BAHAWULPORE,  or  BUHAWULPORE 
(Hiudostan). — This  state,  formerly  ruled  by- 
deputy  governors  from  Cabul,  solicited  an  alli- 
ance with  the  English  in  1808  ;  and  it  came 
under  the  direct  protection  of  Great  Britain 
by  treaty  Oct.  5,  1838.  The  khan  having  proved 
faithful,  received  as  a  reward,  in  Feb.,  1843,  a 
part  of  Scinde. 

BAHREIN  ISLANDS  (Persian  Gulf).— This 
small  group  of  islands,  celebrated  for  its  pearl- 
fishery,  is  called  by  the  natives  Awal,  or  Aval. 
The  Portuguese,  who  had  seized  them,  were 
expelled  by  the  Persians  in  1622  ;  and  the 
islands  have  since  fallen  under  the  sway  of 
different  Arab  chiefs.  During  the  expedition 
of  1809  against  the  pirates  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, they  were  occupied  by  British  troops. 

BAHTZ.— This  fort,  situated  at  the  point 
dividing  tho  East  and  West  Scheldt,  and  form- 
ing the  key  to  both  channels,  was  captured 
by  the  land  forces  of  the  Walcheren  expedition 
(q.  v.),  Aug.  3,  1809. 

BALE  (Italy).— This  town  of  Campania, 
which  was  celebrated  for  its  harbour  at  a  very 
remote  period,  and  remarkable  for  its  warm 
springs,  which  were  mentioned  by  Levy  under 
the  name  of  the  "Aquae  Cumanse,"  B.C.  176, 
became,  towards  the  close  of  the  Roman 
Republic,  a  fashionable  resort  of  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  the  capital.  Horace  (B.C.  65 — B.C. 
8)  refers  to  the  beauty  of  its  bay,  and  it  sub- 
sequently became  a  favourite  residence  of  the 
Emperors  Caligula  (A.D.  37 — 41),  who  erected  a 
bridge  of  boats  upwards  of  two  Roman  miles 
in  length  across  the  bay,  Nero  (54-  -68),  Hadrian, 
who  died  here  July  10,  138,  and  of  Alexander 
Severus  (222 — 235),  who  had  several  magnifi- 
cent villas  at  Baise.  The  springs  to  which 
the  town  owed  its  repute  continued  in  use  as 
late  as  the  6th  century. 

BAIBOUT  (Battle).— The  Russians,  under 
Paske witch,  defeated  the  Turks  at  this  town 
in  Asiatic  Turkey,  Sep.  28,  1829.  The  total 
loss  of  the  victors  did  not  exceed  100  men. 
The  Turks  lost  700  killed,  1,200  prisoners, 
6  guns,  and  12  standards. 

BAIL. — "The  system  of  giving  sureties,  or 
bail,"  says  Sharon  Turner  (Anglo-Saxons,  iii. 
Ap.  i.  ch.  6),  "  to  answer  an  accusation,  seems 
to  have  been  coeval  with  the  Saxon  nation." 
The  Statute  of  Westminster  I.  (3  Edw.  I.  c.  15), 
in  1275,  defined  what  persons  were  bailable, 
and  what  were  not ;  and  this  act  was  enforced 
by  27  Edw.  I.  stat.  i,  c.  3  (1299).  By  i  Rich. 
III.  c.  3  (1484),  justices  of  the  peace  were 
allowed  to  bail  offenders,  and  the  facility  thus 
accorded  having  led  to  some  abuses,  not  less 
than  two  justices  were,  by  3  Hen.  VII.  c.  3 
(1487),  required.  Bail  was  regulated  by  subse- 
quent statutes,  more  particularly  by  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act  (31  Charles  II.  c.  2,  1679),  which,  as 
Hallam  remarks  (Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.  iii.  ch. 
12),  "introduced  no  new  principle,  nor  con- 


ferred any  right  upon  the  subject."  Provisions 
against  excessive  bail  are  embodied  in  various 
statutes.  Bail  in  cases  of  felony  is  regulated 
by  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64  (May  26,  1826).  This  act, 
entitled  "  An  Act  for  Improving  the  Adminis- 
tration of  Criminal  Justice  in  England,"  re- 
pealed several  previous  statutes.  Bail  in  error 
is  regulated  by  s.  151  of  15  &  1 6  Viet.  c.  76  (June 
30,  1852),  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act. 

BAILIFF.— Two  bailiffs  were  appointed  for 
the  city  of  London  in  the  first  year  of  the 
roign  of  Richard  I.  (1189) ;  though  such  officers 
under  another  name  existed  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times.  We  learn  from  the  "  Liber  Albus  "  that 
the  sheriffs  of  the  city  of  London  were  formerly 
styled  bailiffs  ;  and  we  know,  from  the  same 
authority,  that  such  officers  were  in  existence 
at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  In  1207 
the  office  of  sheriff  superseded  that  of  bailiff. 

BAIOLENSIANS,  or  BAGNOLENSIANS.— 
Manichseans,  so  called  from  Bagnols,  in  Laii- 
guedoc,  where  they  arose  in  the  8th  century. 
Another  sect,  with  the  same  name,  a  branch  of 
the  Cathari,  arose  in  Provence  during  the  i2th 
century. 

BAIREUTH.— (See  BAYRETTTH.) 

BAIZE. — The  art  of  making  baize  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  a  body  of  Dutch  arti- 
sans, who  settled  at  Colchester  in  1568  ;  and 
their  privileges  were  confirmed  by  letters 
patent  under  the  great  seal  in  1612.  An  act  of 
Parliament  was  passed  in  1660  (12  Charles  II. 
c.  22)  for  the  regulation  and  protection  of  their 
trade.  It  took  effect  from  Sep.  20,  1660. 

BAKEHOUSES  REGULATION  ACT.  —  By 
26  &  27  Viet.  c.  40  (July  13,  1863),  it  was  enacted 
that  no  person  under  the  age  of  18  years  should 
be  employed  in  any  bakehouse  between  the 
hours  of  nine  at  night  and  five  in  the  morning. 
In  towns  of  more  than  5,000  inhabitants  bake- 
houses, if  painted,  were  to  have  three  coats  of 
paint,  to  be  renewed  every  seven  years,  and 
well  washed  every  six  months  ;  and  if  lime- 
washed  they  were  to  be  re-washed  every  six 
months.  Other  regulations  were  enacted  for  en- 
suring cleanliness,  efficient  ventilation,  &c.,  the 
whole  being  enforced  by  fines  or  imprisonment. 

BAKER.  —  In  early  ages  every  household 
prepared  its  own  bread.  Public  bakers  are 
first  mentioned  as  existing  at  Rome  B.C.  173. 
Athenseus  speaks  of  the  Cappadocians,  the 
Lydians,  and  the  Phoenicians  as  the  best 
bakers.  It  is  probable  the  trade  arose  in  the 
East.  The  punishments  for  bakers  who  trans- 
gressed the  law  were,  at  an  early  period  of  our 
history,  extremely  severe.  Fabyan  notices 
that  in  1258  the  tumbrel  was  temporarily  sub- 
stituted for  the  pillory  ;  and  that  "  sharpe  cor- 
rection upon  bakers  for  making  of  light  bread  " 
was  administered  upon  several  of  the  fraternity 
in  1485.  The  bakers  formed  a  brotherhood  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  about  1155.  The  white 
bakers  existed  as  a  company  in  1308,  and  ob- 
tained in  1485  a  new  charter,  which  was  con- 
firmed by  Henry  the  Seventh's  successors. 
The  brown  bakers,  who  are  said  to  have  existed 
as  a  company  in  1380,  were  incorporated  June 

9'  BAKERIAN  LECTURES.  —  Henry  Baker, 

the  microscopist,  born  May  8,  1698,  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  March  12,  1740, 


BAKU 


BALEARIC 


and  died  Nov.  25,  1774.  By  his  will  he  left 
;£ioo,  the  interest  to  be  devoted  to  the  main- 
tenance of  an  annual  lecture  in  connection 
with  the  Royal  Society. 

BAKU  (Asia).— This  port,  in  the  Caspian, 
mentioned  as  early  as  943,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing territory,  were  surrendered  by  Persia  to 
Russia  in  1723,  and  restored  to  Persia  in  1735. 
The  Russians  seized  Baku  in  1801,  and  it  was 
ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  between  Russia 
and  Persia,  Oct.  19  (O.S.  7),  1813. 

BALACLAVA.— A  small  port  in  the  Crimea, 
about  10  miles  to  the  east  of  Scbastopol.  The 
harbour  is  commodious,  though  the  entrance  is 
very  narrow  ;  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty 
that  accommodation  was  obtained  for  the 
British  ships  during  its  occupation  in  the 
Crimean  war.  The  troops  took  possession  Sep. 
26,  1854,  a  portion  of  the  fleet  having  already 
arrived.  They  improved  the  harbour,  con- 
structed quays,  built  a  new  town,  with  store- 
houses, hospitals,  &c.,  and  laid  down  a  line  of 
rail  to  the  camp,  about  seven  miles  distant. 
Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
the  army  of  occupation  was  gradually  with- 
drawn, and  the  last  soldier  quitted  the  place 
during  the  summer  of  1856.  (See  RUSSIAN 
WAR.) 

BALACLAVA  (Battle).— Fought  Oct.  25, 1854, 
between  the  Russians  and  the  British  and 
Turkish  troops.  Early  in  the  morning  a 
powerful  Russian  force,  led  by  Liprandi,  drove 
the  Turks  from  some  earthen  redoubts  facing 
the  Tchcrnaya,  a  weak  point  in  the  English 
position.  The  further  advance  of  the  Russians 
was  checked  by  the  93rd  Highlanders,  under 
Sir  C.  Campbell  (Lord  Clyde),  and  the  enemy 
was  quickly  repulsed  by  a  charge  of  the  heavy 
cavalry.  From  this  day  the  British  lines  were, 
on  account  of  the  insufficiency  of  our  force, 
contracted,  and  the  communication  by  the 
Woroiizoff  road  was  effectually  closed. 

BALACLAVA  (Charge),  called  "  The  Ride  of 
the  Six  Hundred."  Owing  to  some  miscon- 
ception of  orders,  the  light  cavalry  brigade, 
only  670  strong,  followed  up  the  battle  of  Bala- 
clava (Oct.  25,  1854),  by  charging  the  Russian 
infantry  and  cavalry  in  position,  protected  by 
a  powerful  artillery.  The  exploit  has  scarcely 
a  parallel  in  the  annals  of  war.  In  spite  of 
the  fearful  and  almost  hopeless  nature  of  their 
task,  that  handful  of  British  horsemen  rode 
fearlessly  onward.  When  at  a  distance,  their 
ranks  were  shattered  by  a  murderous  dis- 
charge, and  many  a  gallant  fellow  was  struck 
down  before  he  could  reach  the  foe.  The 
Russians  quailed  before  this  band  of  heroes. 
Their  artillery  fired  upon  the  struggling  mass 
of  friend  and  foe.  The  heavy  cavalry  and  the 
French  Chasseurs  d'Afrique  covered  their  re- 
treat. The  glorious  but  fatal  charge  lasted 
25  minutes.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  men 
were  killed  or  wounded,  and  400  horses  de- 
stroyed. The  moral  effect  it  produced  was 
cxtraordinaiy. 

BALAGIIAUT  DISTRICTS  (Hindostan).— 
These  provinces  once  formed  part  of  the  Hin- 
doo kingdom  of  Bijyangur,  and  on  its  fall  were 
divided  into  several  independent  states,  until 
conquered  in  rapid  succession  by  Hyder  Ali, 
between  1766  and  1780.  On  the  dismember- 


ment of  Tipppo  Saib's  empire  in  1799,  a  con- 
siderable portion  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  East  India  Company,  and  the  remainder 
was  taken  in  1841. 

BALAMBANGAN  (Indian  Archipelago).— 
This  island  was  ceded  by  the  King  of  Sooloo, 
in  1762,  to  the  East  India  Company,  and  a 
settlement  was  formed  in  the  following  year. 
In  Aug.,  1774,  intelligence  was  received  that 
^he  Spanish  governor  of  the  Manillas  had 
threatened  to  destroy  the  works  and  fortifi- 
cations in  case  the  English  settlers  did  not 
retire ;  and  this  threat  was  put  into  execution 
Feb  24,  1775.  Another  settlement,  founded  in 
1803,  was  abandoned,  and  the  island  is  now 
uninhabited. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER.  — The  first  com- 
bined attempt  to  preserve  the  balance  of 
power  in  European  affairs  was  made  during 
the  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,  1494 — 1496.  Incited  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  the  Italian  states  and  some 
other  European  powers  held  secret  conferences 
by  night  at  Venice,  and  the  celebrated  league 
was  signed  at  that  city,  March  31,  1495,  be- 
tween Austria,  Milan,  Rome,  Spam,  and  tho 
Venetian  republic.  Its  object  was  to  defeat 
the  ambitious  projects  of  the  French  king. 
Robertson  remarks  that  princes  and  statesmen 
"  had  extended  on  this  occasion  to  the  affairs 
of  Europe  the  maxims  of  that  political  science 
which  had  hitherto  been  applied  only  to  regu- 
late the  operations  of  the  petty  states  in  their 
own  country.  They  had  discovered  the  method 
of  preventing  any  monarch  from  rising  to  such 
a  degree  of  power  as  was  inconsistent  with  tho 
general  liberty ;  and  had  manifested  the  im- 
portance of  attending  to  that  great  secret  in 
modern  policy,  the  preservation  of  a  proper 
distribution  of  power  among  all  the  members 
of  the  system  into  which  the  states  of  Europe 
are  formed."  After  showing  that  the  attention 
of  Italian  statesmen  was  from  that  period 
directed  to  the  maintenance  of  the  principle, 
he  adds  :  "  Nor  was  the  idea  confined  to  them. 
Self-preservation  taught  other  powers  to  adopt 
it.  It  grew  to  be  fashionable  and  universal. 
From  this  sera  we  can  trace  the  progress  of 
that  intercourse  between  nations  which  has 
linked  the  powers  of  Europe  so  closely  to- 
gether ;  and  can  discern  the  operation  of  that 
provident  policy  which,  during  peace,  guards 
against  remote  and  contingent  dangers  ;  and, 
in  war,  has  prevented  rapid  and  destructive 
conquests."  The  principle  was  first  publicly 
acknowledged  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  Oct. 
24,  1648. 

BALASORE  '(Hindostan).— Different  Euro- 
pean nations  established  factories  here  at  the 
commencement  of  the  intercourse  with  India. 
The  English  factory  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
Nov.  1688.  The  town  itself  was  ceded  to  Eng- 
land by  the  Danes  in  1846. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS  (Mediterranean).— 
This  group,  consisting  of  five  islands,  Cabrera, 
Formentera,  Iviza,  Majorca,  and  Minorca,  off 
the  coast  of  Spain,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
colonized  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Cartha- 
ginians reduced  the  inhabitants  to  subjec- 
tion. After  the  fall  of  Carthage  they  regained 
their  independence.  The  Romans,  under  the 


BALIOL 


113     ] 


BALLOON 


pretence  that  the  people  were  pirates,  took 
possession  of  the  Balearic  Islands,  B.C.  123. 
The  Vandals  seized  them  A.D.  423,  and  the 
Moors  A.D.  790;  but  they  were  wrested  from 
the  latter  by  the  troops  of  Charlemagne  in 
799,  and  placed  under  his  protection.  The 
Moors,  however,  regained  their  footing,  and 
were  not  expelled  until  1286.  (See  MAJORCA 
and  MINORCA.) 

BALIOL  COLLEGE  (Oxford).— Founded  by 
John  Baliol,  of  Barnardcastle,  Durham  (father 
of  Baliol,  King  of  Scotland),  between  the  years 
1263  and  1268.  He  died  in  1269,  during  the 
progress  of  the  work,  which  was  completed  by 
his  widow.  Her  statutes,  dated  the  loth  year 
of  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1282),  are  still  pre- 
served in  the  college. 

BALISTA.  —  Described  by  Gibbon  as  "a 
powerful  cross-bow,  which  darted  short  but 
massy  arrows."  Belisarius  made  use  of  the 
balista  in  his  defence  of  Rome  against  the 
Goths,  A. P.  537.  The  more  modern  weapon  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  species  of  "gyn," 
rather  than  a  hand  instrument.  Its  introduc- 
tion into  England  is  usually  assigned  to  the 
1 2th  centiiry.  Richard  I.  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  to  adopt  the  manubalista,  after  its  use 
had  been  prohibited  by  Innocent  II.  in  1139. 

BALKH  (Asia),  the  ancient  Bactriana,  is  now 
a  dependency  of  the  khanat  of  Bokhara.  Its 
chief  city,  also  called  Balkh,  the  ancient 
Bactra,  is  styled  by  Orientals  the  "  Mother  of 
Cities,"  on  account  of  its  great  antiquity.  It 
was  taken  from  the  Uzbeg  Tartars  by  the  Khan 
of  Bokhara  in  1820. 

BALL.  —  Games  with  the  ball  have  been 
common  amongst  ancient  and  modern  nations. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  played  at  ball.  An  amuse- 
ment of  this  kind  was  in  vogue  in  this  country 
amongst  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the  i4th 
century,  and  it  became  fashionable  at  courts  in 
the  1 6th.  Fitzstephen,  who  wrote  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.,  in  alluding  to  sports  at  Shrove- 
tide, says, — "  After  dinner,  all  the  youth  of  the 
city  goeth  to  play  at  the  ball  in  the  fields ;  the 
scholars  of  every  study  have  their  balls.  The 
practisers  also  of  all  the  trades  have  every  one 
their  ball  in  their  hands."  Some  writers  sup- 
pose football  is  here  meant.  A  complaint  of 
the  citizens  of  London  was  brought  before  the 
Privy  Council  in  July,  1446,  respecting  the 
erection  of  several  places  where  the  people 
played  "  at  the  ball,  cleche,  and  dice."  It  has 
been  highly  recommended  as  a  gymnastic 
exercise. 

BALLARAT  (Victoria).— This  goldfield,  about 
TOO  miles  from  Melbourne,  was  first  worked  in 
Sep.,  1851. 

BALLENY  ISLES.— {-See  ANTARCTIC  REGIONS.) 

BALLET. — Dancing  applied  to  theatrical  re- 
presentation is  an  ancient  amusement,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  revived  in  Italy  during  the 
1 6th  century.  Baltageriiii,  director  of  music 
to  Catherine  de  Medici,  was  the  first  to  Intro- 
duce the  ballet  into  France,  where  it  became 
very  popular  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIII.  Since 
that  period  it  has  undergone  various  improve- 
ments. The  first  dramatic  piece  performed  in 
England,  in  which  the  story  was  entirely 
carried  on  by  dancing  and  action,  was  a  pro- 
duction by  Mr.  John  Weaver,  called  "  The 


Tavern  Bilkers,"  performed  at  Drury  Lane  in 
1702.  A  work  of  higher  pretensions  was  pro- 
duced by  the  same  author  at  Drury  Lane  in 
1716.  It  was  entitled  "  The  Loves  of  Mars  and 
Venus,"  and  its  success  led  to  the  establish- 
ment, in  this  country,  of  the  ballet  as  a  branch 
of  theatrical  amusements. 

BALLINAMUCK  (Battle).  —  A  French  force 
landed  at  Killala  Aug.  22,  1798,  and  having 
been  joined  by  some  Irish  rebels,  were  defeated 
and  taken  prisoners  at  Ballinamuck,  Sep.  8, 1798. 

BALLOON.— Albert  of  Saxony,  a  Dominican 
monk,  who  flourished  at  the  commencement 
of 'the  i4th  century,  was  the  first  to  form  a 
correct  notion  of  the  principle  on  which 
balloons  might  be  constructed.  The  idea  was 
taken  up  by  several  learned  men ;  and  Bishop 
Wilkins,  in  1680,  speaks  of  a  carriage  with 
sails,  like  a  windmill,  to  be  propelled  through 
the  air.  The  brothers  Moiitgolfier,  paper- 
makers,  at  Annonay,  near  Lyons,  were  the 
first  to  secure  a  practical  result,  and,  June  5, 
1783,  launched  the  first  balloon,  which,  after 
them,  was  then  called  a  Moiitgolfier.  The 
experiment  was  repeated  at  Paris,  Aug.  27, 
1783 ;  and,  Nov.  21  in  the  same  year,  M.  Pilatre 
de  Rozier  and  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes  made 
the  first  ascent  from  Paris,  which  was  accom- 
plished with  success,  and  the  adventurers 
alighted  in  safety  about  six  miles  from  the 
point  at  which  they  had  started.  "  The  Mont- 
golfiers,"  says  a  writer  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  "had  the  annual  prize  of  600 
livres  adjudged  to  them  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  the  elder  brother  was  invited  to 
court,  decorated  with  the  badge  of  St.  Michael, 
and  received  a  patent  of  nobility ;  and  on 
Joseph  a  pension  was  bestowed,  with  the 
further  sum  of  40,000  livres,  to  enable  him  to 
prosecute  his  experiments  with  balloons." 
The  first  ascent  in  a  hydrogen  balloon  was 
made  Dec.  i,  1783,  at  Paris,  by  Messieurs 
Charles  and  the  brothers  Robert,  who,  after  a 
pleasant  voyage,  alighted  in  safety  about  27 
miles  from  the  spot  where  they  started.  Since 
that  time  great  improvements  have  been  made 
in  the  construction  of  balloons.  The  first 
ascent  made  in  England  was  by  Lunardi, 
Sep.  21,  1784.  Blanchard  and  Jefferies  crossed 
the  Channel,  from  Dover  to  Calais,  Jan.  7,  1785. 
Count  Zamfleccari,  Admiral  Vernon,  and  a 
Miss  Grice,  of  Holborn,  took  their  seats  in  the 
car  of  one  of  these  machines  March  23,  1785. 
The  balloon  was,  however,  over-weighted,  and 
the  lady  was  compelled  to  retire,  which  she 
did  with  great  reluctance,  and  burst  into  tears 
at  her  disappointment.  A  successful  ascent 
was  made  at  Ranelagh  Gardens,  Dublin, 
Jan.  20,  1785.  Balloon  ascents  have  since  been 
of  frequent  occurrence  ;  and  we  read  of  one  at 
Constantinople,  by  a  Persian  physician,  in 
1786.  Rozier  and  Remain  were  killed  through 
the  ignition  of  their  balloon,  in  an  attempt  to 
cross  the  Channel,  June  15,  1785  ;  and  William 
Sadler,  son  of  the  celebrated  aeronaut  of  that 
name,  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  balloon  in 
1825.  The  French  are  said  to  have  employed 
balloons  on  various  occasions  for  the  purpose 
of  reconnoitring  the  position  of  an  enemy. 
The  most  remarkable  instances  occurred  at 
Liege,  in  September,  1794,  and  during  the 

I 


BALLOT 


BAMFLEET 


Italian  campaign  of  1859.  Mr.  Glaisher  and 
Mr.  Coxwell  have  made  several  ascents  for 
scientific  purposes,  the  first  at  Wolverhampton, 
July  17,  1862.  M.  Nadar's  monster  balloon, 
the  Ge'ant,  was  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
in  1863.  Mr.  Chambers,  an  amateur  aeronaut, 
was  killed  during  an  ascent  at  Basford,  Notts, 
Aug.  24,  1863.  Mr.  Coxwell's  balloon  was 
destroyed  by  a  mob  at  Leicester,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  Foresters'  fe"te  there,  July  n, 
1864. 

BALLOT  was  used  in  several  states  of 
ancient  Greece,  as  well  as  amongst  the  Romans. 
It  was  first  introduced  at  Rome  for  the  elec- 
tion of  magistrates,  by  the  Gabiana  lex,  B.C. 
139  ;  for  state  trials,  treason  excepted,  by  the 
Cassia  lex,  B.C  137;  and  for  the  legislative 
assembly,  by  the  Papinia  lex,  B.C.  131.  The 
ballot  was  used  in  the  republic  of  Venice.  It 
was  employed  at  a  political  debating  society, 
called  the  Rota,  held  nightly,  in  1659,  at  Miles's 
coffee-house,  New  Palace  Yard,  Westminster. 
Addison,  in  a  letter  dated  Feb.  20,  1708,  speaks 
of  the  House  of  Commons  being  engaged  upon 
a  project  for  deciding  all  elections  by  balloting. 
Its  adoption  in  the  election  of  members  for 
the  House  of  Commons  has  been  frequently 
urged. 

BALL'S  BLUFF  (Battle).  —  (See  LEESBURG 
HEIGHTS.) 

BALLYHOE  (Battle).— O'Neill  was  checked 
in  his  career  of  plunder  and  devastation  within 
the  British  pale,  at  a  battle  fought  at  Ballyhoe, 
in  Aug.,  1539. 

ISA  LLYNAHINCH  (Battle).— Fought  during 
the  Irish  rebellion,  June  13,  1798.  The  rebels, 
led  by  Munroe,  a  draper  of  Li.sburn,  were  de- 
feated, and  this  terminated  the  rising  in  the 
north  of  Ireland. 

BALMORAL  CASTLE.  —  Queen  Victoria 
selected  this  mansion  and  domain,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Dee,  about  45  miles 
from  Aberdeen,  as  a  royal  residence,  in  Sep., 
1848.  The  property,  which  had  been  previi  »usly 
rented,  was  purchased  in  1852,  and  a  new  castle 
has  been  erected  on  the  estate. 

BALTA-LIMAN  (Treaty).  —  Concluded  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  at  Balta-Liman, 
May  i,  1849.  It  arose  out  of  the  transactions 
relating  to  the  insurrection  in  the  Danubian 
provinces  and  the  Russian  occupation.  Rus- 
sia was  secured  in  the  same  rights  as  she 
then  exercised  in  the  principalities  for  seven 
years. 

BALTIC  EXPEDITIONS.— During  the  war 
with  Russia,  two  expeditions  were  sent  into 
the  Baltic  Sea  by  the  English  Government. 
The  first,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Charles 
Napier,  sailed  from  Spithead  March  n,  1854, 
and  was  afterwards  joined  by  a  French 
squadron,  and  reinforcements  from  England. 
The  fleets  entered  the  Baltic  Sea  March  20. 
Several  merchantmen  were  captured,  and  the 
Russian  ports  blockaded,  until  more  decisive 
operations  were  undertaken  on  the  arrival  of 
a  French  expeditionary  force.  (See  ALAND 
ISLES.)  The  fleet  returned  home  during  the 
autumn. — The  second,  accompanied  by  gun 
and  mortar  boats,  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Sir  R.  S.  Dundas,  sailed  April  4,  1855, 
an  advance  squadron  having  left  March  20.  It 


was  joined  by  a  French  squadron  June  i. 
Several  infernal  machines  were  taken  up,  and 
the  ships  sailed  within  sight  of  Cronstadt 
Its  operations,  chiefly  directed  against 
(q.  v.)  and  Sweaborg,  are  described 
under  these  titles.  The  fleets  returned  during 
the  autumn. 

BALTIC  SEA.  —  By  a  treaty  concluded 
between  Russia  and  Sweden,  at  St.  Petersburg, 
March  9,  1759,  to  which  Denmark  acceded 
March  17,  1760,  these  nations  agreed  to  main- 
tain a  fleet  to  preserve  the  neutrality  of  the 
Baltic  for  purposes  of  commerce. 

BALTIMORE  (United  States).  —  This  city, 
founded  in  1729,  in  accordance  with  an  act 
passed  by  the  proprietary  government  of  Mary- 
land, received  the  name  of  Baltimore  in  1745, 
and  became  the  shire  town  of  the  county  of 
the  same  name  in  1768.  In  1780  it  was  made 
a  port  of  entry,  and  in  1791  was  selected  as 
the  site  of  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of 
St.  Mary.  The  charter  of  incorporation  was 
granted  Dec.  31,  1796,  and  the  University  of 
Maryland  was  founded  in  1812.  Baltimore 
was  attacked  by  British  forces  under  Gen. 
Ross  Sep.  12,  1814.  The  Washington  Medical 
College  was  incorporated  in  1833.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  great  American  civil  war  a  party 
of  Federal  volunteers  on  their  way  to  Washing- 
ton were  attacked  by  the  citizens  of  Baltimore, 
April  19,  1861.  A  conflict  resulted,  which 
occasioned  the  destruction  of  several  lives,  and 
the  route  through  the  city  was  closed  to  the 
northern  troops  for  more  than  two  weeks. 
Eventually,  however,  Baltimore,  with  the 
other  cities  of  Maryland,  adopted  the  Federal 
cause. 

I5AMBERG  (Bavaria)  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Saxons  in  804.  Other 
authorities  state  that  it  was  founded  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  II.  in  1004,  finished  in  1012, 
and  rebuilt,  after  a  conflagration,  in  mo.  It 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  1007  ;  and  in  1020,  on 
the  visit  of  Pope  Benedict  VIII.  to  Germany, 
the  emperor  presented  the  city  and  bishopric  to 
the  Roman  see,  on  condition  of  receiving  every 
year  a  white  horse  and  100  silver  marks. 
The  bishopric  afterwards  became  independent, 
was  secularized  in  1801,  and  assigned  to 
Bavaria  in  1803.  Councils  were  held  here  in 
1020,  1052,  and  1148.  Bamberg  surrendered  to 
the  Prussians  May  16,  1759,  and  during  two 
days  was  given  up  for  piflage.  It  was  again 
captured  in  1763. 

BAMBOROUGH,  or  BAMBURG  (Northum- 
berland).—This  ancient  town  was  built  by  Ida, 
who  reigned  12  years,  from  547.  Bede  says  it 
was  called  Bebba,  after  its  queen.  It  was 
frequently  pillaged  by  the  Danes.  The  castle, 
built  in  1070,  was  wrested  by  stratagem  from 
his  rebellious  barons  by  William  II.,  in  1096, 
and  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Edward  IV., 
Dec.  24,  1463. 

BAMEEAN  (Battle).— Fought  between  Dost 
Mohammed  Khan's  army  and  his  Oosberg 
allies,  under  the  Walee  of  Khooloom,  and  a 
small  English  and  Sepoy  force,  commanded  by 
Brigadier  Dennie,  Sep.  18,  1840.  The  former 
were  completely  routed,  and  their  leader  fled 
into  Kohistan. 

BAMFLEET    (Essex).  —  This   fortress   was 


BAMPTON 


[     "S     3 


BANK 


stormed  and  captured  by  King  Alfred,  and 
several  Danish  ships  in  the  neighbourhood 
were  destroyed  in  894. 

BAMPTON  LECTURES.— Founded  by  Rev. 
J.  Bampton,  Canon  of  Salisbury,  who  be- 
queathed to  the  university  of  Oxford  estates, 
the  proceeds  of  which  were  to  be  devoted  to 
the  endowment  of  eight  divinity  lecture-ser- 
mons, to  be  preached  every  year  at  Great  St. 
Mary's.  The  cost  of  the  publication  of  the 
lectures,  within  two  months  of  delivery,  was 
to  be  defrayed  out  of  the  endowment.  The 
first  course  was  delivered  in  1780,  by  the  Rev. 
J.  Bandinel.  Only  those  who  have  taken  the 
master's  degree  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge  are 
eligible  ;  and  a  second  course  by  the  same  per- 
son is  not  allowed. 

B ANBURY  (Oxfordshire).  — In  1125  Blois, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  erected  a  castle  here,  which 
was  frequently  assailed.  The  royalists  captured 
it  in  1642,  defended  it  with  great  gallantry 
during  a  siege  of  13  weeks  in  1644,  and  again  in 
1646.  The  parliamentary  party  demolished  it 
when  it  came  into  their  possession.  A  battle 
was  fought  at  Danesmore,  near  this  town, 
Wednesday,  July  26,  1469,  in  which  the  Lan- 
castrians were  defeated  by  the  troops  of  King 
Edward  IV. 

BANCA,  or  BANJA  (Indian  Ocean).— This 
island,  possessing  tin  mines,  discovered  in  1710, 
was  ceded  to  the  East-India  Company  by 
Sultan  Najemudin,  of  Palembang,  in  1812.  By 
the  second  article  of  the  convention  of  Aug.  13, 
1814,  the  English  ceded  the  island  to  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands,  in  exchange  for  Cochin 
and  its  dependencies,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar. 

B  ANCHOR.— (See  BANGOK-ISCOED.) 

BANCROFT'S  HOSPITAL.  —  Almshouses, 
near  Mile  End,  London,  erected  in  1735,  pur- 
suant to  the  will  of  Francis,  grandson  of  Arch- 
bishop Bancroft.  Accommodation  is  afforded 
for  24  poor  men  of  the  Drapers'  Company,  and 
a  school  for  100  boys. 

BAND  A  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  10  in  number, 
were  discovered,  in  1511,  by  the  Portuguese, 
who  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  in  1603.  The 
English  established  a  factory  in  1608.  After 
various  struggles  between  them  and  the  Dutch 
the  latter  obtained  possession  in  1664.  They 
retained  their  hold  until  March  8,  1796,  when 
the  islands  surrendered  to  an  English  squadron. 
Having  been  restored  to  the  Dutch,  by  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802,  they  were  again 
captured  by  the  English,  Aug.  9,  1810,  and  once 
more  restored  to  the  Dutch  at  the  peace  of  1814. 

BANDA  ORIENTAL.— {See  URUGUAY.) 

BANGALORE  (Hindostan)  was  captured  by 
Lord  Comwallis  March  22,  1791.  The  fortress 
was,  however,  restored  to  Tippoo  Saib,  by  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  March  19,  1792.  He  de- 
stroyed it,  but  it  was  repaired  in  1802. 

BANGKOK  (Siam).— This  city  was  chosen 
by  Pia-tac  as  the  capital  of  Siam  (q.  v.)  about 
the  year  1760.  In  1849  the  cholera  carried  off 
20,000  of  the  inhabitants  in  about  12  days.  It 
was  visited  by  Sir  J.  Bowring  in  1855. 

BANGOR  (Caernarvonshire)  was  made  a 
bishopric  early  in  the  6th  century,  Daniel, 
Abbot  of  Bangor,  in  Flintshire,  its  first  bishop, 
having  been  appointed  in  516.  The  cathedral 
was  destroyed  in  1071 ;  and  having  been  re- 


built, suffered  severely  in  subsequent  wars. 
An  order  for  union  of  the  see  with  St.  Asaph, 
issued  in  1838,  was  rescinded  by  10  &  n  Viet, 
c.  108  (July  23,  1847). 

BANGOR  (United  States)  was  captured  by 
a  party  of  English  sailors  and  marines  Sep.  3, 
1814. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY.  —During 
the  reign  of  William  III.,  the  Lower  House 
of  Convocation  had  requested  "that  some 
synodical  notice  might  be  taken  of  the  dis- 
honour done  to  the  Church  by  a  sermon 
Sjached  by  Mr.  Benjamin  Hoadley,  at  St. 
wrence  Jewry,  Sep.  29,  1705,  containing 
positions  contrary  to  the  doctrine  of  tho 
Church,  expressed  in  the  first  and  second 
parts  of  the  homily  against  disobedience  and 
wilful  rebellion."  The  enmity  of  this  writer's 
opponents  was  further  excited  by  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  before  George  I.,  March  31, 
1717,  and  afterwards  printed  under  the  title, 
"  The  Nature  of  the  Kingdom  or  Church  of 
Christ."  He  had  been  made  Bishop  of  Bangor 
in  1715  ;  was  translated  to  Hereford  in  1721  ; 
to  Salisbury  in  1723 ;  and  to  Winchester  in 
1734.  The  so-called  dangerous  tenets  of  this 
discourse,  and  of  a  work  entitled,  "A  Pre- 
servative against  the  Principles  and  Practices 
of  the  Non- Jurors,"  were  denounced  in  the 
report  of  a  committee  of  the  Lower  House  of 
Convocation  in  1717.  This  gave  rise  to  a 
general  paper  war  between  the  supporters  and 
opponents  of  Bishop  Hoadley 's  views  on 
various  points,  known  as  the  Bangorian  Con- 
troversy. 

BANGOR-ISCOED,  or  BANCHOR  (Flint- 
shire), which  must  not  be  confounded  with 
Bangor,  in  Caernarvonshire ;  or  Benchor,  in 
Ireland ;  was  the  seat  of  the  largest  ancient 
monastic  establishment  in  Great  Britain.  It 
contained  above  2,000  monks,  and  was  founded 
by  Dunod  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
Ethelfrith,  King  of  Northumberland,  insti- 
gated, it  is  supposed,  by  Augustine,  who  was 
resolved  to  reduce  the  primitive  Christian 
Church  in  these  islands  to  subjection  to  Rome, 
destroyed  the  monastery  and  massacred  all 
the  monks  and  students.  This  event  probably 
took  place  in  603,  but  as  some  confusion  has 
arisen  in  the  chronology  of  the  time,  the 
date  cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty. 
Augustine  is  said  to  have  died  in  604,  though 
there  is  some  doubt  on  the  subject.  Bede  says, 
Augustine  foretold  of  these  monks  that  if  they 
would  not  join  in  unity  with  their  brethren, 
they  should  be  assailed  by  their  enemies, 
and  that  if  they  would  not  preach  the  way  of 
life  to  the  English  people,  they  should  perish 
at  their  hands. 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND.  —  Incorporated  by 
royal  charter,  July  27,  1694,  was  projected  by 
"William  Paterson,  who,  with  other  merchants 
in  London,  subscribed  ,£1,200,000  as  a  loan  to 
the  government,  to  bear  interest  at  8  per  cent, 
per  annum.  The  first  charter  provided  that 
at  any  time  after  Aug.  i,  1705,  on  a  year's 
notice  and  the  repayment  of  the  ,£1,200,000, 
the  said  charter  should  cease  and  determine. 
It  received  the  sanction  of  Parliament,  and 
thus  were  the  governor  and  company  of  the 
Bank  of  England  established.  Further  loans 


BANK 


BANKS 


have  since  been  advanced  to  the  government, 
the  rate  of  interest  has  been  reduced,  and  the 
charter  has  been  repeatedly  renewed  and  ex- 
tended. The  last,  known  as  Sir  R.  Peel's  act 
(7  &  8  Viet.  c.  32),  received  the  royal  assent 
July  19,  1844.  The  bank  suspended  cash  pay- 
ments in  1696,  but  having  recovered  from  a 
temporary  pressure  nourished  greatly,  until 
again  compelled  by  the  drain  upon  its  resources, 
caused  by  the  French  war  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  to  suspend  cash  payments,  for 
which  an  order  in  council  appeared  Feb.  27, 
1797,  and  they  were  not  resvimed  until  May  i, 
1821.  By  the  6th  section  of  the  Bank  Charter 
Act  of  1844,  the  directors  are  required  to 
render  a  weekly  account  in  a  prescribed  form 
to  the  Commissioners  of  Stamps  and  Taxes,  to 
be  published  in  the  next  succeeding  Gazette. 
Since  1828  branch  establishments  of  the  Bank 
of  England  have  been  formed  in  several  pro- 
vincial towns.  The  first  stone  of  the  Bank  of 
England  was  laid  Aug.  3,  1732,  the  business 
having  been  transacted  in  the  Grocers'  Hall 
until  June  5,  1734,  when  it  was  removed  to 
the  new  building.  Sir  John  Soane  commenced 
alterations  in  1788,  and  completed  the  present 
structure  in  1821. 

BANK  OF  IRELAND  was  established  by 
act  of  Parliament,  with  privileges  similar  to 
those  enjoyed  by  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
opened  in  June  1783.  In  1802  the  governors 
purchased  the  buildings  in  College  Green  used 
as  the  Houses  of  Parliament  previous  to  the 
Union  in  1801.  These  were  adapted  for  the 
purposes  of  the  bank,  which  was  transferred 
here  in  1808.  The  Bank  of  Ireland  is  now 
regulated  by  8  <fe  9  Viet.  c.  37  (July  21,  1845). 

BANK  OF  SCOTLAND,  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  kind  in  that  part  of  the  kingdom, 
•was  founded  at  Edinburgh  in  1695.  receiving  a 
charter  from  William  III.  and  the  Scottish 
Parliament.  The  second,  the  Royal  Bank  of 
Scotland,  was  incorporated  in  1727. 

BANK  NOTES,  which  were  unknown  to  the 
money-lenders  of  Greece  and  Rome,  became 
general  in  England  in  the  1 8th  century,  especi- 
ally after  1 750.  Bramah's  machine  for  numbering 
and  dating  them,  invented  in  1807,  was  adopted 
by  the  Bank  of  England  in  1809.  Steel  plate 
engraving,  used  in  consequence  of  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1818,  was 
supplanted  in  1837  by  the  siderographic  process 
of  Perkins  and  Heath,  which  gave  place  in 
1855  to  Smee's  electrotype  surface  printing. 

BANKRUPTCY.— The  word  bankruptcy  is 
derived  through  the  French  from  bancus,  the 
counter,  ruptus,  broken.  Ancient  legislation 
on  this  subject  was  extremely  severe.  Accord 
ing  to  the  generally  received  interpretation 
the  Roman  Law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  gave 
to  creditors  the  power  of  cutting  a  debtor's 
body  in  pieces,  each  of  them  receiving  a  pro- 
portionate share.  Debtors  were  imprisoned 
in  chains,  subjected  to  stripes  and  hard  labour 
at  the  mercy  of  the  creditor,  and  liable  with 
their  wives  and  children  to  be  sold  to  foreign 
servitude.  The  severity  of  these  laws  was 
relaxed  by  the  "Lex  Poetelia  Papiria, "  B.C. 
326,  and  the  Christian  emperors  subsequently 
introduced  the  law  of  cession,  by  which  a 
creditor  making  cessio  bonorum  (i.e.,  giving 


up  all  his  goods),  was  exempted  from  per- 
lonal  penalties.  The  first  English  statute  on 
;his  subject,  34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1543), 
was  principally  directed  against  the  frauds  of 
traders  who  were  in  the  habit  of  acquiring 
goods  from  other  persons  and  then  escaping 
30  foreign  countries.  This  was  made  felony, 
md  punished  capitally.  By  13  Eliz.  c.  7  (1571), 
aankruptcy  was  confined  to  those  who  used 
;he  trade  of  merchandise,  or  sought  their 
iving  by  buying  and  selling.  By  21  James 
[.  c.  19  (1624),  which  extended  bankruptcy 
:o  scriveners,  a  bankrupt  might,  unless  his 
inability  to  pay  his  debts  arose  from  some 
casual  cause,  be  set  upon  the  pillory  for  two 
hours,  and  have  one  of  his  ears  nailed  to 
he  same  and  cut  off.  It  was  repealed  in  1816. 
Bankruptcy  was  extended  to  bankers  by 

5  Geo.  II.  c.  30  (1732).     By  many  subsequent 
statutes    aliens,    denizens,    brokers,     factors, 
farmers,   graziers,   <fec.,    were  made  liable  to 
bankruptcy.      All    these  statutes    were    con- 
solidated by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  16  (May  2,   1825), 
which   appointed  commissioners  for  carrying 
the  law  into  effect.     These  laws  were  again 
amended  and  consolidated  by   12   <fc  13  Viet. 
c.   106  (Aug.  i,  1849) ;    and  this  act  was  fur- 
ther amended  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  77  (June  30, 
1852),  and  by   the   Bankruptcy   Act  of   1854. 
The  Court  of  Bankruptcy  was  established  by 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  56  (Oct.  20,  1831).  This  act 
was  amended  by  5  &  6  Will.   IV.  c.  29  (Aug. 
21,  1835)  ;  and  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  122  (Aug.  12, 
1842),    which  came    into    operation    Nov.    n, 
1842,  and  established  bankruptcy  courts  in  the 
country.     A  Royal  Commission  for  inquiring 
into  the  amendment  of  the  bankruptcy  laws 
was  appointed  Aug.  23,    1853,   and  published 
a  report  April  10,  1854,  which  led  to  a  further 
alteration  in  the  law  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  119 
(Avig.  ii,  1854).     The  law  was  again  amended 
by  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  134  (Aug.   6,   1861).     The 
Irish  bankruptcy  laws  were  consolidated  by 

6  Will.  IV.  c.  14  (May  20,  1836);  and  they  were 
further  amended  and  assimilated  to  the  English 
law  by  several  subsequent  statutes,    the  last 
being  20  <fe  21  Viet.  c.  60  (Aug.  25,  1857).     The 
Scotch  bankruptcy  laws  were  consolidated  by 
19  &  20  Viet.  c.   79  (July  29,  1856),  which  came 
into    operation  Nov.  i,  1856,  and  was  further 
amended  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  19  (Aug.  10,  1857). 

BANKS.  —  These  establishments  existed 
amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  modern 
times  the  Jews  were  the  first  bankers.  Banks 
were  established  in  Italy  in  the  i2th  century. 
The  first  public  bank  was  founded  at  Venice 
in  1157,  and  the  first  bank  of  exchange  and 
deposit  was  established  at  Barcelona  in  1401. 
Money  matters  were  for  some  time  regulated 
by  the  Royal  Exchangers,  but  their  calling  fell 
into  disuse  until  revived  by  Charles  I.  in  1627. 
The  Royal  Mint,  in  the  Tower  of  London,  was 
used  as  a  bank  of  deposit  until  Charles  I.,  by 
a  forced  loan,  in  1638,  destroyed  its  credit. 
The  Goldsmiths'  Company  undertook  private 
banking  in  1645,  but  on  the  closing  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1672  their  transactions  termi- 
nated. Child,  of  Fleet  Street,  was  the  first 
regular  banker,  and  he  commenced  business 
soon  after  the  Restoration.  (See  BANK  OF 
ENGLAND  AND  JOINT-STOCK  BANKS.) 


BANNATYNE 


117 


BAPTISM 


BANNATYNE  CLUB  (Edinburgh)  was  estab- 
lished by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1823,  for  printing 
works  illustrating  the  history,  antiquities,  and 
literature  of  Scotland.  The  club,  which  held 
annual  meetings  in  December,  was  dissolved 
in  1860. 

BANNER. — Is  of  very  early  origin,  being 
referred  to  in  Num.  ii.  2,  B.C.  1490.  Banners 
of  some  kind  or  other  were  used  amongst  all 
ancient  nations,  and  the  practice  has  been 
followed  in  modern  times.  Bede  represents 
Augustine  and  his  companions  going  in  pro- 
cession to  meet  Ethelred  in  597,  bearing 
banners,  with  a  silver  cross,  and  the  image 
of  our  Saviour.  Alfred  captured  the  cele- 
brated Danish  banner,  called  the  Raven,  in  878. 
In  the  monasteries  various  banners  were  kept 
for  festivals  and  great  commemorations. 

BANNERET.— (-See  KNIGHT  BANNERET.) 

BANNOCKBURN  (Battles). —Two  bearing 
this  name  were  fought;  the  first  at  Bannock- 
burn,  Scotland,  between  the  English,  under 
King  Edward  II.,  and  the  Scotch,  under 
Robert  Bruce,  in  which  the  latter  gained  the 
victory,  Monday,  June  24,  1314;  and  the 
second  at  Sauchie-burn,  near  Bannockburn, 
June  n,  1488,  on  which  occasion  James  III., 
of  Scotland,  was  slain  by  an  army  raised  by 
the  partisans  of  the  Duke  of  Albany. 

BANNS.  —  Tertullian,  who  died  A.D.  240, 
states  that  the  Primitive  Church  was  fore- 
warned of  marriages.  The  practice  was  pro- 
bably introduced  into  France  in  the  gth  cen- 
tury. The  Bishop  of  Paris  enjoined  it  in  1176; 
and  it  was  regularly  established  in  the  Latin 
Church  by  the  fourth  Lateran  Council,  in  1215. 
The  earliest  enactment  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  Church  is  the  i  ith  canon  of  the  Synod 
of  Westminster,  in  1200,  which  decrees  that  no 
marriage  shall  be  contracted  without  banns 
thrice  published  in  the  church.  The  62nd 
canon  of  the  Synod  of  London  (1603 — 4)  for- 
bids the  celebration  of  marriage  unless  the 
banns  have  been  first  published  three  several 
Sundays,  or  holy  days,  during  divine  service, 
in  the  parish  churches  or  chapels  where  the 
parties  dwell.  The  publication  was  required 
to  be  made  on  Sundays,  and  not  on  holy  days, 
by  26  Geo.  II.  c.  33  (1752).  This  act  has  been 
superseded  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  76  (1823),  and 
various  laws  have  since  then  been  passed,  but 
this  regulation  remains  in  force.  By  the  latter 
act  it  is  provided  that  if  the  marriage  does  not 
take  place  within  three  months  after  the  pub- 
lication, of  the  banns,  they  must  be  repub- 
lished. 

BANQUETING  HOUSE  (London).— In- 
tended for  the  reception  of  ambassadors  and 
state  ceremonials,  and  soon  after  converted  into 
a  chapel,  was  built  by  Inigo  Jones  1619 — 1622. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  building  that  had 
been  devoted  to  similar  uses.  The  ceiling, 
representing  the  apotheosis  of  James  I.,  in 
nine  compartments,  was  painted  by  Rubens. 
Charles  I.  slept  in  one  of  the  rooms  the  night 
before  his  execution,  and  passed  through  one 
of  its  windows  to  the  scaffold. 

BANTAM  (Java).— The  Dutch  commenced 
trading  at  this  place  in  1602  and  the  English 
in  1612,  and,  after  various  disputes,  the  latter 
established  a  factory  in  1619;  but  were  ex- 


pelled in  1683  by  the  Dutch,  who  abandoned 
the  place  in  1817. 

BANTRY  BAY  (Sea-fights).— Admiral  Her- 
bert, afterwards  Lord  Torrington,  with  19  sail 
of  the  line,  attacked,  in  this  bay,  May  i,  1689, 
a  French  fleet  of  28  ships-of-war,  carrying 
from  60  to  70  guns  each,  and  5  fire-ships.  A 
short  action  ensued,  when  Admiral  Herbert 
tacked  in  order  to  obtain  the  weather-gauge, 
and  the  engagement  was  not  renewed. — A 
French  fleet  carrying  16,000  troops,  intending 
to  co-operate  with  the  Irish  rebels,  anchored 
in  this  bay,  Dec.  22,  1796.  They  were  com- 
pelled by  a  severe  gale  to  cut  their  cables  and 
stand  out  to  sea,  Dec.  25,  and  it  was  not  until 
Dec.  29  that  they  were  able,  in  a  sadly  da- 
maged state,  again  to  cast  anchor  in  the  bay. 
A  landing  was  not  even  attempted,  and  the 
remnant  of  the  expedition  returned  to  France. 
— The  men  in  Admiral  Michell's  squadron  mu- 
tinied here,  Dec.  i— n,  1801.  The  trial  of  14 
of  the  mutineers  commenced  on  board  the 
Gladiator,  at  Portsmouth,  Jan.  8,  1802,  and  ter- 
minated on  the  1 2th,  when  13  out  of  the  14 
culprits  were  sentenced  to  death,  and  suffered 
on  the  isth  — the  day  on  which  the  trial  of 
some  of  their  associates  commenced. 

BAPHJiON  (Battle).— Othman,  founder  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  passed  the  heights  of 
Mount  Olympus,  descended  into  the  level 
country  of  Bithynia,  and  defeated  the  Em- 
peror Andronicus  III.,  at  Baphseon,  in  the 
commencement  of  the  i4th  century. 

BAPTISM. —The  first  use  of  baptism  is 
ascribed  by  Lightfoot  to  Jacob,  on  the  ad- 
mission of  the  proselytes  of  Sechem  into  his 
family  and  the  Church  of  God,  about  B.C.  1732 
(Gen.  xxxv.).  The  Jews  administered  bap- 
tism to  all  Gentiles  before  admitting  them 
into  their  Church ;  but  baptism  was  not  made 
a  permanent  institution  until  the  time  of  John 
the  Baptist,  who  performed  the  rite  in  the 
waters  of  Jordan  on  those  that  flocked  to  hear 
his  preaching  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  26 
(Matt.  iii.  6) ;  and  Christ  himself  was  baptised 
by  him  in  January  of  the  year  27  (Matt.  iii. 
13 — 15).  It  was  practised  in  various  forms  by 
the  Primitive  Church,  and  was  received  as  the 
initiatory  rite  by  Christians,  though  certain 
heretics  rejected  it  altogether.  The  ceremony 
was  at  first,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Justin  Martyr,  who  wrote  in  the  2nd  century, 
and  of  Tertullian,  who  wrote  in  the  3rd,  per- 
formed by  trine  immersion  in  rivers.  This  is 
said  to  have  been  discontinued  on  account  of 
persecution.  Baptisteries  containing  pools 
for  the  performance  of  the  rite  were  erected 
outside  the  churches  about  the  3rd  century. 
Baptism  was  usually  solemnized  by  the  primi- 
tive Christians  in  the  season  from  Easter  to 
Whitsuntide.  Siricius,  in  his  decretal  epistle 
to  Himerius  in  385,  censures  the  new  custom  of 
some  Spanish  bishops  in  baptizing  at  Christ- 
mas, Epiphany,  and  on  Saints'  days.  Sacred 
fonts  were  constructed  in  the  porches  about 
the  4th  century,  and  in  the  6th  century  within 
the  churches.  The  early  English  Church  re- 
tained the  practice  of  immersion  till  a  late 
period,  as  the  Council  of  Chelsea,  July  27,  816, 
condemned  the  innovation  of  sprinkling.  The 
Quakers  reject  baptism  altogether. 


BAPTISTS 


BARCELONA 


BAPTISTS.— The  name  applied  to  several 
sects  who  deny  the  validity  of  infant  baptism, 
and  require  immersion,  after  the  example  of 
John  the  Baptist.  They  are  in  many  respects 
followers  of  the  Anabaptists,  who  arose  in 
Germany  in  1521.  They  are  divided  into 
several  sects:  the  chief  in  England  are  the 
General,  or  Arminiau  Baptists,  who  believe 
that  God  has  excluded  no  man  from  salvation 
by  any  sovereign  decree ;  and  the  Particular, 
or  Calvinistic  Baptists,  who  published  a  con- 
fession of  faith  in  1643,  which  was  reprinted 
in  1644  and  1646,  and  revised  in  1689.  The 
first  congregation  of  English  Baptists,  the 
followers  of  John  Smith,  who  died  at  Leyden 
in  1610,  was  organized  in  London  in  that  year. 
These  were  General  Baptists,  and  the  Par- 
ticular Baptists  trace  their  origin  to  a  • 
gatioii  established  in  London  in  1616.  Their 
first  institution  in  America  was  at  Providence, 
in  1639.  (See  ANABAPTISTS.) 

BA"R  (Confederation).— The  Roman  Catholics 
of  Poland,  during  their  fierce  religious  strug- 
gles with  the  Dissidents,  the  latter  being  sup- 
ported by  the  Russians,  seized  the  fortress  of 
Bar,  in  Podolia,  and  formed  the  Confederation 
of  Bar  in  March,  1768.  Similar  confederations 
were  formed  in  other  towns,  and  they  were 
merged  in  a  general  confederation,  which  met 
first  at  Eperies,  in  Hungary,  then  at  Teschen, 
in  Silesia,  and  afterwards  at  Bielitz,  close  to 
the  frontiers  of  Poland.  Anarchy  ensued,  and 
the  confederates  were  defeated  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia, 
those  powers  having  coalesced  for  the  purpose 
of  interfering  in  Poland. 

BAR-SUR-AUBE  (Battle).— The  allies  ob- 
tained a  signal  victory  over  the  French  near 
this  town,  in  France,  Feb.  27,  1814. 

BARBADOES  (Atlantic),  one  of  the  < 
Islands  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  at  the 
close  of  the  isth  century.  The  English  first 
landed  here  in  1605  ;  and  their  first  settlement 
was  formed  in  1624.  Various  disputes  having 
occurred  between  different  claimants,  the  Karl 
of  Carlisle  obtained  the  right  of  possession 
by  patent,  dated  July  2,  1627.  Sir  William 
Courteen,  an  English  merchant,  had  fitted  out 
ships  to  effect  a  settlement,  one  of  which 
landed  colonists  Feb.  17,  1625,  who  founded 
Jamestown.  He  was  displeased  at  this  arrange- 
ment, and  obtained  a  grant  of  the  island  in 
1628 ;  but  by  another  patent,  dated  April  7, 
1629,  Carlisle  was  confirmed  in  the  possession. 
It  afforded  a  refuge  to  the  royalists,  and  was 
captured  by  the  republicans  in  1652.  After 
the  Restoration,  litigation  ensued  between 
rival  proprietors,  and  these  led  to  the  imposi- 
tion of  a  tax  on  the  inhabitants,  which  was 
not  repealed  until  1838.  Barbadoes  was  de- 
vastated by  tremendous  hurricanes  in  August, 
1675,  1780,  and  1831.  It  was  created  a  bishop's 
see  in  1824. 

BARBARY  (Africa).— This  term  has  been 
applied  to  describe  the  northern  portion  of 
Africa,  divided,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  into  several  states.  The  name  is  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  the  Berbers,  who 
occupied  the  country  on  its  invasion  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  7th  century. 

BARBASTRO,   or  BALBASTRO   (Spain).— 


This  city  was  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1065  and 
again  in  1097,  by  Pedro  I.,  King  of  Aragon. 
The  church  was  erected  into  a  cathedral  in 
1090,  which  was  confirmed  by  a  papal  bull  in 
noi,  from  which  date  there  is  a  regular  suc- 
cession of  bishops.  A  sanguinary  struggle 
occurred  in  its  suburbs  between  the  Carlists 
and  the  Queen's  troops,  June  2,  1837.  Both 
parties  claimed  the  victory.  The  Carlists, 
however,  crossed  the  Cinca  and  entered  Cata- 
lonia without  opposition,  June  5. 

15ARBER.— The  art  of  the  barber  was  prac- 
tised in  Greece  about  B.C.  420.  Their  shops 
were  then,  as  in  more  modern  times,  cele- 
brated as  places  of  gossip.  Barbers  are  said 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Rome  from 
Sicily,  B.C.  299.  Formerly  barbers  practised 
surgery  in  England.  Chicheley  published  a 
decree  in  1415  forbidding  them  to  keep  their 
shops  open  on  Sundays.  The  barbers,  long 
an  ancient  company,  were  incorporated  by 
letters  patent  Feb.  24,  1462.  It  was  confirmed 
by  Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.  By  city  law, 
in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  (Liber  Albus), 
barbers  who  were  so  bold  and  daring  as  to 
expose  blood  in  their  windows,  instead  of 
having  it  privily  conveyed  into  the  Thames, 
were  subject  to  a  fine  of  28. 

HA  RBER-SURGEONS.— Though  the  barbers 
at  first  practised  surgery,  yet  a  company  of 
surgeons  had  been  formed,  but  not  incorpo- 
rated, consisting,  as  Stow  states,  of  not  more 
than  12  persons  at  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  By  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  42 
(1540),  the  barbers  and  surgeons  were  united  in 
one  body  corporate,  called  "  Masters  or  Go- 
vernors of  the  Mystery  and  Commonalty  of 
Harbors  and  Surgeons  of  London."  It  pro- 
vided that  none  of  the  company  that  used 
barbery  and  shaving  should  occupy  any 
surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  any  other  thing 
belonging  to  surgery,  except  only  draw 
teeth ;  nor  he  that  used  the  mystery  of 
surgery  should  exercise  the  feat  or  craft  of 
barbery  or  shaving.  They  were  made  distinct 
corporations  by  18  Geo.  II.  c.  15  (1745). 

BARCA(N.  Africa).— This  maritime  district, 
the  ancient  Cyrenaica,  was  colonized  from 
Cyreiie  B.C.  560,  and  formed  a  part  of  the 
""Libya  about  Cyrcne,"  mentioned  in  the  Acts 
(ii.  10} .  The  Persians  besieged  and  captured 
its  chief  town,  Barca;  and  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Saracens  in  641.  It  was  a  bishopric  of 
the  early  Church. 

BARCELONA  (Spain).— The  foundation  of 
this  ancient  city  is  assigned  by  tradition  to  as 
early  a  period  as  400  years  before  the  building 
of  Rome.  Hamilcar  Barcas,  the  Carthaginian, 
is  said  to  have  restored  it  B.C.  235;  and  from 
him  it  received  the  name  of  Barcius.  The 
Carthaginians  were  expelled  B.C.  206;  and  it 
belonged  to  Rome  from  B.C.  146  until  A.D.  411, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Goths.  The  Moors 
captured  it  in  718,  and  Charlemagne  in  801. 
It  became  the  capital  of  a  Spanish  march,  held 
by  the  Counts  of  Barcelona,  by  one  of  whom, 
Raymundo  Berenguer  I.,  the  general  code  of 
the  usages  of  Barcelona,  by  which  foreign 
vessels  were  encouraged  to  visit  the  port,  was 
published  in  1068.  In  1137  it  was  annexed  to 
Aragon.  Its  inhabitants  having  revolted,  the 


BARCELONA 


[    119    1 


BARGAIN 


city  was  besieged  by  John  II.  of  Aragon,  and 
captured  Oct.  17,  1471.  It  became  a  great 
centre  of  commerce  in  the  isth  century  ;  and 
the  first  bank  of  exchange  and  deposit  in 
Europe  was  established  here  in  1401.  Barce- 
lona has  since  that  period  sustained  several 
sieges.  The  French  took  it  Aug.  7,  1697 ;  it 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  and 
taken  again  Oct.  9,  1705;  by  the  eccentric 
Lord  Peterborough,  Sep.  13,  1706;  and  by  the 
Duke  of  Berwick,  after  a  long  siege,  Sep.  12, 
1714.  The  French  captured  it  on  their  invasion 
of  Spain,  Feb.  28,  1808.  It  was  made  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  at  an  early  period.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  540;  Nov.  i,  599;  906;  Nov.  20, 
1054 ;  and  in  1068.  Its  university,  established 
in  1430,  was  suppressed  in  1714,  and  restored 
in  1841.  Disturbances  occurred  here  Nov.  13, 
1842,  and  a  junta  was  established  Nov.  17. 
The  town  surrendered,  after  a  bombardment, 
Dec.  3,  1842. 

BARCELONA  (Treaties).— A  treaty  between 
Charles  VIII.,  of  France,  and  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  of  Spain,  was  signed  by  the  former 
at  Tours,  and  by  the  latter  at  Barcelona, 
Jan.  19,  1493.  It  was  an  alliance  offensive 
and  defensive  between  France  and  Spain. 
Charles  VIII.  ceded  the  counties  of  Roussillon 
and  Cerdagne  to  Spain. — Another  was  con- 
cluded at  this  place  between  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.,  June  29, 
1529.  Robertson  says  that  Charles,  among 
other  articles,  agreed  to  restore  all  the  terri- 
tories belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical  state  ;  to 
re-establish  the  Medici  at  Florence,  and  give 
his  daughter  to  Alexander,  the  head  of  that 
family  ;  and  to  put  it  in  the  Pope's  power  to 
decide  respecting  the  fate  of  Sforza,  and  the 
possession  of  the  Milanese.  Clement  VII. 
gave  the  emperor  the  investiture  of  Naples 
without  the  reserve  of  any  tribute,  but  the 
present  of  a  white  steed  in  acknowledgment 
of  his  sovereignty ;  absolved  all  who  had  been 
concerned  in  assaulting  and  plundering  Rome, 
and  permitted  Charles  and  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand to  levy  the  fourth  of  the  ecclesiastical 
revenues  throughout  his  dominions.  Numerous 
treaties  have  been  concluded  at  Barcelona. 

BARCELONA,  NEW. —(See  NEW  BARCE- 
LONA.) 

BARCLAYANS.— (See  BEREANS.) 

BARDENEY,  or  BARDNEY  (Lincolnshire). 
— This  ancient  monastery,  in  the  province  of 
Lindsey,  is  said  by  Bishop  Tanner  to  have  been 
founded  before  A.D.  697,  because  Osthryda, 
Queen  of  Mercia,  who  caused  King  Oswald's 
remains  to  be  removed  to  this  place,  was 
murdered  in  that  year.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Danes  in  869,  and  all  the  inmates  were  put 
to  the  sword. 

BARDESANISTS.— A  Christian  sect  which 
flourished  in  Mesopotamia  from  A.D.  161  to 
i  So.  They  were  the  followers  of  Bardesanes 
of  Edessa,  who  at  one  time  advocated  the 
tenets  of  Valentinus  the  Egyptian,  though  he 
afterwards  abjured  them.  Mosheim  contends 
against  this  view,  declaring  that  Bardesanes 
admitted  two  principles,  like  the  Maiiichseans. 
His  followers  denied  the  incarnation  and  the 
resurrection,  and  continued  to  exist  as  late  as 
the  5th  century. 


BARDOLINO.— (See  RIVOLI.) 

BARDS,  or  PROFESSIONAL  POETS,  were 
in  high  repute  amongst  ancient  nations.  They 
were  the  recorders  of  important  events,  cele- 
brating in  poetry  and  music  the  virtues  and 
heroic  deeds  of  their  gods  and  great  men. 
Amongst  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Britons  they 
were  regarded  with  peculiar  veneration,  and 
wielded  considerable  authority.  The  Druids 
had  their  order  of  bards.  They  continued  to 
nourish  in  Wales,  where  Eisteddfods  (q.  v.),  or 
sessions  of  the  bards,  were  held ;  and  the 
supreme  dignity,  and  the  privileges  of  the 
bards,  are  dwelt  upon  at  great  length  in  their 
early  laws.  The  court  bard  is  mentioned  as  a 
domestic  officer  in  Welsh  records  of  the  year 
940.  Edward  I.  has  been  accused,  though 
unjustly,  of  having  massacred  the  Welsh  bards 
in  1283.  The  ancient  Irish  bards  were  also 
celebrated. 

BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT.— This  "mot- 
ley convention  of  120  persons,"  as  Hallam 
terms  it,  was  assembled  at  Cromwell's 
command  July  4,  and  dissolved  Dec.  12, 
1653.  It  was  sometimes  called  the  Little, 
or  Little  Horned  Parliament.  Amongst  the 
seven  representatives  for  London  was  one 
Barebone,  a  leather-seller,  of  Fleet  Street,  a 
fanatic  notorious  for  his  long  prayers  and 
sermons,  with  the  Christian  name  of  "  Praise 
God."  Hence  arose  the  term  "  Praise-God  Bare- 
bone's  Parliament,"  by  which  this  assembly 
was  afterwards  known.  It  consisted  of  122 
members  for  England,  six  for  Wales,  six  for 
Ireland,  and  five  for  Scotland,  chosen  by  Crom- 
well and  his  officers. 

BAREILLY  (Hindustan).— This  district,  in 
the  province  of  Delhi,  was  ceded  by  the  rulers 
of  Oude  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1801. 
A  formidable  mutiny  broke  out  at  its  chief 
town,  also  named  Bareilly,  April  16,  1816.  It 
was  caused  by  a  form  of  taxation  obnoxious  to 
the  people.  Conflicts  ensued,  April  18  and  21, 
and  order  was  soon  restored.  The  sepoys  rose 
against  the  English,  murdered  some,  and  ex- 
pelled others,  Sunday,  May  31,  1857.  The 
mutineers  marched  into  Delhi  July  2.  Bareilly 
was  recaptured  by  the  British  forces  May  7, 
1858. 

BARENWALD.— (See  BARWALDE.) 

BARFLEUR  (Normandy).  —  A  portion  of 
William  the  First's  fleet  was  equipped  at  this 
port  for  the  invasion  of  England  A.D.  1066. 
Near  Barfleur,  Prince  William,  only  son  of 
Henry  I.,  perished  by  shipwreck  during  the 
night  of  Nov.  25  and  26,  1120.  Two  of  the 
king's  illegitimate  children  and  several  nobles 
perished  on  this  occasion,  the  total  number  of 
persons  being  almost  300.  Only  one  escaped, 
a  butcher,  of  Rouen.  William  had  married 
Matilda,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Anjou,  in 
June,  1119.  The  vessel  was  called  the  Blanche 
Nef.  The  shipping  at  Barfleur  was  destroyed 
and  the  harbour  filled  up  by  Edward  III., 
during  his  invasion  of  Normandy,  in  1346. 

BARGAIN  CUP.— Dyke,  in  his  "  Mysteries" 
(London,  1634),  states  that  the  Jews  were 
forbidden  to  make  covenants  with  the  Gentiles, 
on  account  of  the  customary  ceremony  of 
drinking  together  on  the  conclusion  of  a 
bargain.  The  practice  is  supposed  to  have  been 


BARI 


[       120      ] 


BARON 


introduced  into  England  since  the    Norman 
conquest. 

BARI  (Italy).— This  town,  occupying  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Barium,  having  been  cap- 
tured by  the  Saracens  A.D.  840,  was  wrested 
from  them  in  871,  by  Louis  II.,  Charlemagne's 
great-grandson,  after  a  siege  of  four  years' 
duration.  The  Greek  emperors  made  it  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Apulia  in  982.  After- 
wards it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Nor- 
maiis,  and  Robert  Guiscard  became  Duke  of 
Apulia  in  1060.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop  as 
early  as  347,  and  became  an  archbishopric  in 
931.  A  celebrated  council  assembled  here  Oct. 
i,  1098,  at  the  command  of  Urban  II. ;  no  less 
than  183  bishops,  and  among  them  Anselm  of 
Canterbury,  attended;  the  principal  subjects 
discussed  being  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches,  andwhat  is  termed  the  it/ im/tn-, 
or  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Father  as  well  as  the  Son. 
BARINAS.— (See  VARINAS.) 
BARIUM.— Protoxide  of  barium  was  dis- 
covered in  1774,  by  Scheeler  ;  and  barium,  the 
metallic  base  of  baryta,  by  Davy,  in  1808. 
liAlilv. — (Sf.e  PERUVIAN  OR  JESUITS'  BARK.) 
BARLAA  MITES.—  Followers  of  Barlaam.  a 
native  of  Calabria,  and  a  monk  of  the  order  of 
St.  Basil,  who,  in  the  controversy  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  after  supporting 
the  cause  of  the  latter,  became  an  advocate  of 
the  former.  He  brought  a  complaint  before 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  against  the 
tenets  of  the  Hesychistae,  or  Quictists,  the 
name  given  to  the  monks  of  Mount  Athos. 
The  cause  was  tried,  and  the  monks  acquitted, 
in  1337.  In  1339  Barlaam  was  the  Kmperur's 
ambamador  to  the  Pope  at  A  vision  for  a  union 
of  the  two  Churches.  The  old  controversy  was 
afterwards  renewed,  and  to  such  a  pitch  did  it 
proceed  that  a  council  was  held  at  Constan- 
tinople, June  ii,  1341,  in  which  the  monks, 
with  Palamas  at  their  head,  were  victorious. 
The  Barlaamites  were  condemned  by  subse- 
quent councils,  and  Barlaam  himself  is  said  to 
have  once  more  joined  the  Latins.  He  died 
about  1348. 

BARLETTA  (Italy)  _  was  besieged  by  the 
French  in  1502.  During  the  siege,  the  cele- 
brated military  encounter  between  n  Spanish 
and  as  many  French  knights  took  place.  The 
lists  were  formed  on  neutral  territory,  under 
the  walls  of  Trani,  and  the  combat  caiue  off 
Sep.  20,  1502.  Though  five  of  the  French 
knights  were  slain,  Bayard  and  a  companion 
are  said  to  have  defended  themselves  with 
such  skill  against  the  seven  Spaniards,  that  it 
terminated  in  a  drawn  battle.  There  are 
various  accounts  of  this  trial  of  arms.  Bayard 
fought  in  single  combat  with  the  Spanish 
cavalier  Sotomayor  (Feb.  2,  1503),  when  the 
latter  was  slain.  The  French,  having  been  de- 
feated in  two  battles,  Friday,  April  21,  and 
Friday,  April  28,  1503,  in  the  last  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Nemours  was  slain,  abandoned  the 
siege  of  Barletta. 

BARNABITES.— This  religious  order  was 
formed  at  Milan,  in  1530,  by  three  persons, 
named  Antony  Maria  Zacharias,  Bartholomew 
Ferrarius,  and  Jacopo  Antony  Morigia.  It 
was  approved  by  Clement  VII.  in  1533,  and 


called  regular  clerks  of  St.  Paul,  from  their 
assiduous  study  of  his  epistles,  recommended 
to  them  by  their  first  master ;  and  are  said  to 
have  received  the  name  of  Barnabites  from 
the  church  of  St.  Barnabas  at  Milan,  given 
them  in  1535.  They  spread  through  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  were  invited  into  France  by 
Henry  IV.,  in  1608,  to  be  employed  in  the 
/nission  of  Beam.  On  their  first  establish- 
ment they  lived  on  the  gratuities  of  the  pious, 
but  afterwards  held  property. 

BARNARD'S  INN  (London),  was  named 
after  Lyonel  Barnard,  who  resided  here  in  the 
year  1434  (13  Hen.  VI.),  at  which  time  it  was 
the  property  of  Dr.  John  Mack  worth,  Dean  of 
Lincoln,  by  whose  name  it  had  been  before 
known.  In  1601,  one  Mr.  Warren  was  fined 
£i.  6s.  8(7.  for  wearing  his  hat  in  hall,  and  for 
his  long  hair,  and  otherwise  misdemeaning 
himself.  The  first  attempt  to  introduce 
attorneys  into  the  inn  was  made  in  1608. 

BARNET  (Battle).— Fought  during  the  wars 
of  the  Roses,  on  Gladsmore  Heath,  near  Chip- 
ping-Barnet,  on  Easter  Sunday,  April  14, 1471. 
The  Yorkists,  commanded  by  Edward  IV., 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Lancas- 
trians, led  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  king- 
maker, who  fell  in  the  battle.  A  monument 
was  erected  in  1740  on  the  spot  where  the 
encounter  took  place. 

BAROACH  (Ilmdostan).— This  district  was 
conquered  by  the  British  in  1781,  and  was 
afterwards  restored  to  the  Mahrattas.  The 
city  of  Baroach  and  its  fortress  were  captured 
Aug.  29,  1803,  and  the  whole  territory  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company,  by  treaty,  Dec.  30, 
1803.  It  was  a  place  of  great  trade  in  the  i6th 
century,  and  was  taken  by  Akbar  in  1572. 

BARODA  (India),  the  capital  of  the  Guico- 
war's  territory,  was  a  large  and  wealthy  city 
in  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe,  who  died  P'eb.  21, 
1707.  A  treaty  of  amity  was  concluded  between 
its  ruler  and  the  East  India  Company  in  1780. 
In  1802  the  king  applied  to  the  East  India 
Company  for  assistance  to  put  down  a  re- 
bellion. This  was  accomplished,  and  the  rela- 
tions between  the  two  governments  were 
regulated  by  arrangements  made  in  1802, 1805, 
1817,  and  1820. 

BAROMETER  was  invented  by  Evangelista 
Torricelli,  a  Florentine,  pupil  of  Galileo,  in 
1643.  Pascal  improved  it  in  1648,  and  from 
that  period  great  improvements  have  been 
effected  in  its  construction  by  various  scien- 
tific men.  (See  ANEROID.) 

BARON.— This  term,  now  applied  to  the 
lowest  title  in  the  peerage,  was  formerly  ex- 
tended to  all  the  nobility  of  England.  Its 
origin  and  real  signification  in  the  early  period 
of  our  history  have  excited  much  controversy. 
The  ancient  baron  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  same  as  our  present  lord  of  the 
manor.  He  was  at  first  called  vavassour,  this 
being  changed  by  the  Saxons  into  thane,  and 
by  the  Normans  into  baron.  Originally,  all 
barons  had  seats  in  the  king's  council.  In  the 
reign  of  King  John,  the  barons  had  become  so 
numerous  that  they  were  divided,  the  greater 
barons,  who  held  in  capite  of  the  crown,  being 
summoned  by  writ  to  attend  the  king's  coun- 


BARONET 


[    121    ] 


BARRICADES 


cil ;  whilst  the  lesser  barons,  who  held  under 
the  greater  barons  by  military  tenure,  were 
summoned  by  the  sheriff  to  sit  by  representa 
tion ;  hence  arose  the  lower  House  of  Parlia 
ment.  The  first  precept  to  be  found  is  of  the 
4gth  of  Henry  III.,  Dec.  24,  1265,  from  which 
period  no  other  seems  to  have  been  issued 
until  22  Edw.  I.  (1294),  or,  as  Sir  H.  N.  Nicolas 
is  of  opinion,  until  23  Edw.  I.,  June  24,  1295. 
Richard  II.  converted  it  into  a  mere  title  of 
honour,  by  conferring  it  on  persons  by  letters 
patent ;  the  first  barony  of  this  kind  being 
that  of  Beauchamp  and  Kidderminster,  dated 
Oct.  10,  1387,  and  conferred  upon  John  Beau- 
champ,  of  Holt.  This  baron  never  sat  in 
Parliament,  as  he  was  attainted  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  At  the  Restoration,  Charles  II. 
granted  a  coronet  to  barons.  The  first  instance 
of  their  being  styled  peers  is  in  the  award  of 
exile  against  Hugh  le  Despencer  and  his  son, 
in  1321.  The  citizens  of  London,  York,  Ches- 
ter, and  other  towns,  were  at  an  early  period 
honoured  with  the  title  of  baron. 

BARONET.— This  order  was  instituted,  or, 
as  some  assert,  adopted,  because  the  title 
existed  previously  in  Ireland,  by  James  I.,  in 
1611  ;  and  the  first  patent,  to  Nicholas  Bacon, 
is  dated  May  22,  in  that  year.  Each  knight  or 
esquire  was,  under  the  pretence  of  providing  a 
fund  for  the  defence  of  the  Ulster  Settlement 
(q.  v.\  to  pay  a  sum  of  ;£i,ooo,  to  support  30 
foot-soldiers  for  three  years  at  Bd.  per  day, 
together  with  the  official  fees.  The  number 
fixed  was  200,  but  only  93  patents  were  sold  in 
six  years.  Baronets  of  Ireland  were  estab- 
lished in  1619,  the  first  patent  being  dated 
Sep.  30 ;  and  of  Scotland,  called  baronets  of 
Nova  Scotia,  by  Charles  I.  in  1625  ;  the  first 
patent  being  dated  May  22.  Females  have 
assumed  the  dignity.  The  Gentleman's  Maga- 
zine for  1754  gives  the  following  instance  of 
one  created  by  James  II.  : — "  Sep.  9,  1686. — 
Cornelius  Speelman,  of  the  United  Provinces, 
a  general  of  the  states  of  Holland  ;  with  a 
special  clause  to  the  general's  mother,  of  the 
rank  and  title  of  a  baronetess  of  England." 

BARONS  OP  GERMANY.  —  During  the 
Middle  Ages  many  of  the  German  barons  were 
little  better  than  reckless  freebooters.  Hallam 
(Middle  Ages,  iii.  ch.  9,  pt.  i)  says: — "Ger- 
many appears  to  have  been,  upon  the  whole, 
the  country  where  downright  robbery  was 
most  unscrupulously  practised  by  the  great. 
Their  castles,  erected  on  almost  inaccessible 
heights  among  the  woods,  became  the  secure 
receptacles  of  predatory  bands,  who  spread 
terror  over  the  country.  From  these  barbarian 
lords  of  the  dark  ages,  as  from  a  living  model, 
the  romances  are  said  to  have  drawn  their 
giants  and  other  disloyal  enemies  of  true 
chivalry."  Their  depredations  compelled  the 
inhabitants  of  towns  to  form  leagues  for  pur- 
poses of  protection  and  self-defence.  Sixty 
cities  were  associated  in  the  League  of  the 
Rhine  in  1255.  The  Hanseatic  union  owes  its 
origin  to  the  same  cause  ;  and  in  1370  the 
cities  of  Swabia  and  of  the  Rhine  entered  into 
a  similar  confederacy. 

BARONS'  WAR  originated  in  the  refusal 
of  Henry  III.  to  ratify  the  statutes  enacted  at 
Oxford,  in  the  "Mad  Parliament,"  June  n, 


1258.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  who  decided, 
at  a  council  held  at  Amiens,  that  the  statutes 
should  be  annulled,  Jan.  23,  1264.  The  barons, 
with  Simon  de  Montfort  at  their  head,  took 
up  arms,  and  totally  defeated  the  king  at 
Lewes,  May  14.  A  parliament  assembled  at 
London,  Jan.  20,  1265.  Disputes  arose  amongst 
the  barons,  and  a  second  great  battle  was 
fought  at  Evesham,  Aug.  4,  1265,  in  which  the 
king  was  victorious,  and  De  Montfort  was 
slain.  The  barons,  who  continued  to  oppose 
the  king,  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  Kenil- 
worth,  and  they  were  compelled  by  famine  to 
surrender,  in  November,  1266.  The  war  was 
still  carried  on,  and  Prince  Edward,  afterwards 
Edward  I.,  reduced  the  island  of  Ely,  their 
last  stronghold,  July  25,  1267. 

BAROSSA  (Battle).  —  An  allied  British, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  force,  of  12,000  men, 
with  24  pieces  of  artillery,  were  attacked  at 
this  place,  in  Spain,  by  16,000  French  under 
Victor,  March  5,  1811.  The  former  were  vic- 
torious, though  the  British  contingent  under 
Gen.  Graham,  which  amounted  to  only  4,000 
men,  received  no  support  whatever  from  the 
Spaniards.  An  eagle,  six  pieces  of  artillery, 
and  500  prisoners  feU  into  the  hands  of  the 
British. 

BARRACKPORE  (Hindostan).  —  A  revolt 
occurred  here  in  1824,  and  the  mutiny  of  the 
sepoys  commenced  at  Dum-Dum  and  at  this 
town,  near  Calcutta,  in  1857.  On  the  first  oc- 
casion the  47th  regiment  of  native  infantry, 
then  about  to  depart  to  assist  in  the  Burmese 
war,  displayed  a  mutinous  spirit,  Sep.  15,  and 
they  refused  to  parade  Oct.  30,  1824.  They 
declared  that  they  would  not  go  to  Rangoon, 
or  anywhere  else,  by  sea,  or  even  march  by 
land,  unless  they  received  double  batta.  A 
further  manifestation  took  place  Nov.  i,  when 
a  battery  opened  on  their  rear,  killing  a  few, 
and  putting  the  remainder  to  flight.  Many 
arrests  were  made,  the  offenders  were  found 
guilty  by  a  court-martial,  and  the  ringleaders 
were  executed.  The  47th  native  regiment  was 
erased  from  the  army  list.  It  was  here  that  the 
sepoys,  in  Feb.,  1857,  objected  to  bite  off  the 
ends  of  the  new  cartridges,  on  the  pretence 
;hat  they  contained  fat,  which,  if  permitted 
:o  come  in  contact  with  their  lips  or  tongues, 
entailed  a  loss  of  caste.  An  inquiry  took  place 
Feb.  6,  but  it  did  not  produce  any  satisfactory 
•esult ;  and  the  34th  native  regiment  rebelled 
Vfarch  29.  The  igth  regiment  of  native  in- 
'antry  was  disbanded  and  dismissed  here, 
March  31 ;  and  the  34th,  May  5.  Three  native 
regiments  were  disarmed  at  Barrackpore, 
June  14. 

BARRICADES,  constructed  of  the  first 
materials  that  came  to  hand,  were  used  in 
Dopular  insurrections  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
3aris  has  obtained  notoriety  as  the  city  in 
which  they  have  been  most  frequently  em- 
ployed. In  1358,  its  streets  were  barricaded 
igainst  the  Dauphin.  The  first  Battle  of  the 
Barricades  took  place  on  the  entry  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise  into  Paris,  May  12,  1588. 
Henry  III.,  at  his  instigation,  consented  to 
';ake  severe  measures  against  the  Huguenots, 
>n  the  promise  that  the  duke  would  assist 


BARRIER 


[       122      ] 


BARROWS 


him  in  purging  Paris  of  strangers  and  ob- 
noxious persons.  No  sooner,  however,  was  an 
attempt  made  to  execute  this  plan,  than  the 
people  rose,  erected  barricades,  and  attacked 
the  king's  troops  with  irresistible  fury. 
Henry  III.,  having  requested  the  Duke  of 
Guise  to  put  a  stop  to  the  conflict,  fled  from 
Paris,  and  the  moment  the  duke  showed  him- 
self to  the  people  they  pulled  down  the  barri- 
cades. It  was  followed,  during  the  war  of  the 
Fronde,  by  another  contest  of  a  somewhat 
similar  character,  Aug.  26,  1648,  when  Anne 
of  Austria  ordered  the  arrest  of  Charton, 
Blancmeuil,  and  Broussel,  three  popular  mem- 
bers of  the  Parliament.  The  first-mentioned 
managed  to  escape,  but  the  other  two  were 
captured ;  whereupon  the  people  rebelled, 
formed  barricades,  and  attacked  the  troops 
with  cries  of  "Broussel  and  liberty!"  The 
Queen  was  intimidated,  and,  by  the  advice  of 
Mazarin,  ordered  the  release  of  the  prisoners. 
In  July,  1830,  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  in  Feb.,  1848,  the  Orleans  branch  of  the 
same  family,  were  driven  from  the  French 
throne  after  a  struggle  at  the  barricades.  Gen. 
Cavaignac,  in  defence  of  the  Provisional  Go- 
vernment, waged  a  fearful  contest  with  the 
insurgents,  who  had  erected  barricades,  June 
23,  24,  25,  and  26,  1848,  in  which  he  was  at 
length  victorious.  The  killed  and  wounded 
amounted  to  15,000,  and  about  8,000  of  the 
rebels  were  taken  prisoners.  Napoleon  III. 
lias  widened  the  streets,  and  taken  other  pre- 
cautions to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such 
scenes.  Barricades  have  been  erected  during 
popular  outbreaks  at  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  other 
continental  cities.  An  attempt  at  something 
of  the  kind,  made  in  London,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  funeral  procession  of  Queen  Caroline, 
Aug.  19,  1821,  was  speedily  suppressed. 

BARRIER  ACT.— A  name  given  to  an  act 
passed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  Jan.  8,  1697,  as  a  barrier  against 
innovations.  Similar  acts  have  been  passed 
by  other  churches. 

JJAIWIKK  TI{ KATIES.— The  first  between 
England  and  the  Netherlands  was  negotiated 
by  Lord  Townshend,  and  signed  at  the  Hague 
Oct.  29,  1709.  England  engaged  to  assist  the 
Dutch  in  preserving  their  barrier  towns,  whilst 
the  Dutch  pledged  themselves  to  maintain  the 
Queen  of  England's  title  to  her  dominions, 
and  the  Protestant  succession.  It  was  very 
unpopular  in  this  country,  and  was  called  Lord 
Townshend's  treaty.  It  was  annulled  in  1712, 
and  the  second  barrier  treaty  was  concluded 
at  Utrecht,  Jan.  29,  1713.  The  third  treaty 
known  by  this  name  was  signed  at  Antwerp, 
between  England,  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.,  Nov.  15,  1715.  It  de- 
termined the  boundaries  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  Emperor  recognized  the  Hanoverian 
succession,  as  the  states  general  had  done  in 
the  former  treaties. 

BARRIERS  (Battle),  was  fought  under  the 
walls  of  Paris,  March  30,  1814,  when  the  allied 
army,  after  an  obstinate  contest,  gained  a 
victory,  which  led  to  the  capitulation  of  Paris 
and  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  I. 

BARRISTERS,  or  BARRASTERS,  at  first 
styled  apprenticii  ad  legem  (apprentices),  were 


first  appointed,  according  to  Dugdale,  by  an 
ordinance  of  20  Edw.  I.  (1292).  The  clergy, 
who  for  some  time  supplied  the  only  persons 
learned  in  the  law,  were  at  the  commencement 
of  Henry  III.'s  reign  prohibited  from  prac- 
tising in  the  secular  courts.  Reeves  (Hist,  of 
Eng.  Law,  v.  247)  remarks, — "We  have  seen 
that  heretofore  there  were  only  two  descrip- 
tions of  advocates ;  these  were  Serjeants  and 
•apprentices.  But  we  find  in  this  reign  (Eliza- 
beth), and  no  doubt  it  had  been  so  for  some 
time,  that  the  orders  of  the  profession  were 
these, — the  lowest  was  a  student,  called  also  an 
in  in  r  ha  i-fix/i  r,  and  so  distinguished  from  the 
next  rank,  which  was  that  of  an  outer  or  utter 
Imrr'iKter;  then  came  an  apprentice,  and  next  a 
'."  The  first  order  relative  to  the  quali- 
fications of  barristers  was  made  June  21,  1571, 
being  the  isth  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  The 
following  entry  occurs  in  the  churchwardens' 
accounts  of  St.  Margaret,  Westminster,  for 
1476: — "Also  paid  to  Roger  Fylpott,  learned  in 
the  law,  for  his  counsel-giving,  3.5.  8d.,  with 
4d.  for  his  dinner."  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
the  client  consulted  the  barrister  in  person, 
and  handed  him  the  honorarium  without  the 
intervention  of  an  attorney  or  clerk.  The 
qualifications  required  varied  until  1852,  when 
the  four  societies  agreed  upon  one  set  of 
rules. 

BARROSA.— (See  BAROSSA.) 

BARROW  IS L AMD  (Arctic  Sea).— Dis- 
covered by  Capt.  Beechy,  Jan.  26,  1826.  Like 
Harrow's  Straits,  it  is  named  after  Sir  John 
Barrow,  Bart.,  secretary  to  the  Admiralty, 
and  author  of  "  A  Chronological  History  of 
Voyages  into  the  Arctic  Regions,"  London, 
1818,  and  other  works. 

HA  R  K<  )\V'S  STRAITS.— This  channel,  lead- 
ing from  Baffin's  Bay  into  the  Polar  Sea,  was 
discovered  by  Baffin  in  1616  ;  and  explored  in 
1819  by  Lieut.  Parry,  who  named  it  after  Sir 
John  Barrow. 

BARROWS. — These  tumuli,  or  mounds  of 
earth,  are  the  most  ancient  monuments  in  the 
world.  Gough  says  they  were  both  tombs  and 
altars.  They  were  used  by  the  Assyrians,  the 
Egyptians,  and  other  ancient  people.  Homer 
(B.C.  962 — B.C.  927)  makes  mention  of  one 
raised  by  Achilles  in  memory  of  Patroclus, 
and  of  another  to  Hector.  In  some  cases  they 
were  erected  in  honour  of  a  deceased  hero, 
whose  remains  were  not  deposited  beneath 
them,  and  frequently  to  signalize  some  im- 
portant event.  After  the  battle  of  Plataea 
(q.  v.],  B.C.  479,  Pausanias  ordered  the  dead  to 
be  interred  in  tumuli  or  barrows.  ' '  A  single 
burying-place,"  says  a  writer  in  the  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Metropolitana,"  "was  appointed  to 
the  use  of  the  Athenians,  Tegseans,  Mega- 
raeans,  and  Philiasians;  but  the  slain  of  the 
Lacedaemonians  formed  three  separate  mounds  ; 
one  consisting  of  those  who  had  borne  the 
priestly  office,  another  of  the  Lacedaemonians 
in  general,  and  the  third  of  their  Helots." 
Barrows  were  very  common  in  Britain  at  an 
early  period.  Those  at  Avebury  and  Stonehenge 
are  the  most  ancient.  They  are  of  numerous 
shapes,  and  devoted  to  various  purposes. 
Many  have  been  opened,  and  in  addition  to  . 
bones  (calcined),  ashes,  stone1  coffins,  &c. 


BARTENSTEIN 


[    123    ] 


BASILICA 


amber  ornaments  and  other  relics  have  been 
discovered. 

BARTENSTEIN  (Treaty).— Between  Prussia 
and  Russia,  was  concluded  at  Bartenstein 
April  25,  1807.  It  provided  for  a  vigorous  pro- 
secution of  the  war  against  France,  and  the 
contracting  parties  engaged  not  to  make  a 
separate  peace. 

BARTHOLOMEW  FAIR.— To  the  priory  of 
Bartholomew,  founded  by  Rahere  in  1102, 
King  Henry  I.,  in  1133,  granted  the  privilege 
of  holding  a  fair  in  Smithfield  on  St.  Bartho- 
lomew's Day,  O.S.  Aug.  24,  N.S.  Sep.  3.  The 
original  grant  was  for  three  days,  but  this  was 
gradually  extended  to  15.  In  1593,  1603,  1625, 
1630,  1665,  and  1666,  the  fair  was  suspended 
011  account  of  the  plague.  An  order  of  the 
Common  Council,  in  1708,  limited  its  duration 
to  three  days.  At  one  time  it  was  a  great 
place  of  resort  for  traders,  but  it  declined  in 
importance  until  it  was  only  attended  by 
itinerant  showmen  and  the  owners  of  a  few 
stalls.  Proclamation  of  the  fair  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  was  made  for  the  last  time  in  1850,  and 
the  fair  has  not  been  held  since  1855.  Morley's 
work,  entitled  "Memoirs  of  Bartholomew's 
Fair,"  contains  full  and  interesting  details  on 
this  subject. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.  (W.  Indies).— This 
island  was  colonized  by  the  French  in  1648  ; 
taken  by  the  English  in  1689  ;  and  restored  to 
France  in  1697.  The  English  took  it  again  in 
1746,  restored  it  in  1748,  and  captured  it  again 
March  17,  1781.  It  was  ceded  in  perpetuity  by 
France  to  Sweden  in  1 784,  in  return  for  certain 
concessions.  The  English  again  captured  it 
March  22,  1801,  but  restored  it  to  Sweden  the 
same  year. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY  (Massacre).  —  On 
the  evening  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  Aug.  24, 
1572,  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  at  Paris 
commenced.  The  Roman  Catholic  leaders,  the 
Dukes  of  Guise,  Aumale,  and  Anjou,  with  the 
connivance  of  Charles  IX,,  and  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Catherine  de  Medici,  resolved  by  a 
general  assassination  to  exterminate  the  French 
Protestants.  Their  leader,  Admiral  Coligny, 
the  first  victim,  was  shot  Aug.  22,  and  the 
inhuman  slaughter  of  man,  woman,  and  child, 
which  commenced  Aug.  24,  was  carried  on  till 
it  was  believed  that  all  the  Protestants  in  Paris 
had  been  destroyed.  The  plot  had  been 
secretly  organized,  and  similar  scenes  were 
enacted  in  many  towns  in  the  provinces.  Ac- 
cording to  the  lowest  estimate,  30,000  persons 
perished.  The  reigning  pope,  Gregory  XIII., 
celebrated  this  deed  of  blood  by  a  procession 
and  a  Te  Deum  at  Rome,  and  proclaimed  a  year 
of  jubilee.  He  also  ordered  a  medal  to  be  struck 
in  its  commemoration.  (See  NONCONFORMISTS.) 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  HOSPITAL  (London) 
was  founded  in  1102,  by  Rahere,  who  had  been 
king's  minstrel.  It  was  originally  in  connec- 
tion with  the  priory,  which  Rahere  established 
about  the  same  time.  Edward  II.,  by  letters 
patent,  conferred  upon  it  the  privilege  of  sanc- 
tuary ;  consequently  no  person  could  be  ar- 
rested within  its  precincts.  Both  priory  and 
hospital  were  dissolved  by  Henry  VIII.,  who 
founded  the  hospital  anew,  giving  500  marks 
per  annum  towards  its  maintenance,  on  the 


condition  that  the  city  should  give  a  like  sum. 
It  escaped  the  great  fire  in  1666,  and  has  been 
several  times  enlarged. 

BARTHOLOMITES.— This  religious  order  of 
St.  Basil,  driven  from  Armenia  in  1296,  owing 
to  the  cruelties  committed  upon  them  by  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  formed  an  establishment  at 
Genoa  in  1307.  They  obtained  a  second  house 
at  Parma  in  1318,  and  afterwards  spread  to 
other  towns  in  Italy.  They  assumed  the  habit 
of  St.  Dominic,  and  eventually  followed  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  which  was  confirmed  to 
them  by  Innocent  VI.,  in  1356.  The  Bartholo- 
mites  gradually  decreased  in  numbers,  and 
were  suppressed  by  Innocent  X.  in  1650. 

BARWALDE  (Treaty).— Between  France 
and  Sweden,  concluded  by  Gustavus,  in  his 
camp  at  Barwalde  or  Barenwald,  Jan.  13,  1631. 
It  provided  for  a  defensive  alliance,  and  its 
duration  was  fixed  at  six  years.  It  was  aimed 
against  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  and  Spain. 

BASEL,  or  BASLE  (Switzerland).  —  This 
ancient  city  was  ruled  during  the  Middle  Ages 
by  a  bishop,  who  was  a  prince  of  the  German 
empire.  It  was  taken  by  Rodolph  of  Habs- 
burg  in  1267  ;  in  1392  became  a  free  imperial 
city,  which  was,  with  the  adjoining  territory, 
admitted  into  the  Confederation  in  1501,  when 
the  bishops  were  expelled.  A  council  was 
held  here  in  Oct.,  1061.  The  i8th  general 
council,  transferred  from  Pavia  to  Sienna  and 
from  Sienna  to  Basel,  assembled  July  23,  1431, 
and  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  May  16,  1543. 
Its  chief  objects  were  the  reunion  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  and  a  general  refor- 
mation of  the  Church.  The  university  of  Basel 
was  founded  by  a  papal  bull  from  Pius  II.  in 
1459.  Treaties  of  peace  were  concluded  at 
Basel  between  France  and  Prussia,  April  5  and 
May  17  ;  between  France  and  Spain,  July  22  ; 
and  between  France  and  Hesse-Cassel,  Aug.  28, 
1795.  The  French  seized  the  city  in  1798. 

BASHEE,  or  BASHI  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  five 
in  number,  were  discovered  by  Dampier,  in 
1687,  and  colonized  by  the  Spaniards  in  1783. 
They  form  a  dependency  of  the  Philippines. 

BASHI  BAZOUKS.— Irregular  troops  in  the 
Turkish  service,  principally  Asiatics.  They 
formed  a  contingent  of  the  Turkish  army 
during  the  Russian  war,  1853 — 56.  As  light 
cavalry  they  are  considered  excellent,  sur- 
passing the  Cossacks  in  courage  and  powers 
of  endurance. 

BASIENTELLO  (Battle).— Otho  III.,  Empe- 
ror of  Germany,  was  defeated  near  this  place, 
in  Italy,  by  the  Greeks  and  Saracens,  July  13, 
982.  This  victory  restored  Apulia  and  Cala- 
bria to  the  Eastern  empire. 

BASILIANS.— Monks  of  the  order  of  Basil, 
surnamed  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  A.D. 
370.  He  had  retired  in  358  into  a  desert  in 
Pontus  and  founded  a  monastery.  He  after- 
wards founded  several  similar  establishments, 
placing  them  under  rules  of  his  own  institu- 
tion. The  order  was  introduced  into  the 
Western  Church  in  1057,  and  was  reformed 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1569. 

BASILICA.— Halls  bearing  this  name  were 
erected  by  the  Romans  for  public  business,  or 
the  administration  of  justice,  about  B.C.  180. 
Their  form,  in  most  cases  that  of  a  paral- 


BASILICAN 


[    124    3 


BASSET 


lelogram,  twice  as  long  as  its  width,  with  a 
circular  recess  at  one  end,  having  fitted  them 
for  the  public  worship  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian Church,  they  were  in  many  instances 
converted  into  temples  in  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine  I.  (A.D.  306 — 337),  and  furnished  mo- 
dels for  all  early  ecclesiastical  architects. 

.BASILICAN  CODE  of  Byzantine  law  was 
published  A.D.  884  by  Basilius  I.,  from  whom  its 
name  is  derived.  It  was  revised  and  extended, 
by  Leo  VI.  and  Constantino  VII.  (Porphy- 
rogenitus),  and  appeared  in  its  amended  form 
between  905  and  91 1 .  This  remained  the  law 
of  the  Byzantine  empire  till  its  conquest  by 
the  Turks,  and  has  been  adopted  in  the  modern 
kingdom  of  Greece. 

BASILIDIANS.— The  followers  of  Basilides 
of  Alexandria,  who  is  supposed  to  have  quitted 
the  Church  during  the  reign  of  Trajan  or 
that  of  Hadrian,  were  thus  named.  Cave  says 
that  he  nourished  in  112,  Basnage  in  121,  and 
Mill  in  123.  Basilides,  who  died  in  130,  per- 
verted the  doctrinu  of  the  Logos.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  asserts  that  Basilides  boasted  that 
he  had  been  taught  by  Glaucias,  a  disciple  of 
St.  Peter. 

BASILIKON  DORON,  or  ROYAL  GIFT,  a 
treatise  composed  by  James  I.,  and  published 
at  Edinburgh  in  1599,  and  in  London  in  1604. 
It  is  divided  into  three  books,  and  contains 
precepts  on  the  art  of  government,  addressed 
by  the  king  to  his  son,  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  died  suddenly,  Nov.  6,  1612,  aged  17. 

BASING  (Hants).— The  scene  of  the  Danish 
victory  over  Ethelred  and  Alfred  in  871.  Near 
this  place  is  Basing  House,  celebrated  for  its 
heroic  defence  by  the  Marquis  of  Winchester, 
against  the  parliamentary  forces  in  1644.  It 
was  relieved  by  Col.  Gage,  after  having  sus- 
tained a  siege  of  three  months;  but  on  his 
retirement  the  enemy  again  returned.  When 
Col.  Gage  once  more  approached  to  relieve  it 
in  November  of  the  same  year  they  took  to 
flight.  The  besiegers  returned  :  Cromwell 
stormed  the  place  in  1646,  and  put  the  garri- 
son to  the  sword. 

BASKET-MAKING,  or  WICKER-WORK.— 
The  ancient  Britons,  from  whom  the  Romans 
are  said  to  have  learned  it,  excelled  in  this 
kind  of  manufacture.  Their  boats,  shields, 
and  various  implements  were  fashioned  of 
wicker-work.  Herodotus  (i.  194)  mentions 
boats  of  this  kind  on  the  Euphrates.  A  com- 
pany of  basket-makers  once  existed  in  London. 
BASLARD.— Sir  W.  Walworth  wounded  Wat 
Tyler  in  the  neck  with  a  baslard  or  basiliarde, 
a  species  of  dagger,  worn  at  that  time  sus- 
pended from  the  girdle.  By  12  Rich.  II.,  c.  6 
(1388),  no  servant  or  labourer  was  allowed  to 
carry  one  of  these  weapons.  This  statute  was 
repealed  by  21  James  I.  c.  28  (1623).  Wright 
states  that  in  1403  it  was  decreed  that  no  per- 
son not  in  receipt  of  an  income  of  £20  per 
annum  should  use  a  baslard  ornamented  with 
silver. 

BASQUE  PROVINCES  (Spain).— The  origin 
of  this  term,  applied  to  three  provinces,  viz., 
Biscay,  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava,  is  unknown. 
The  inhabitants  preserved  their  independence 
against  successive  invasions  of  Romans  and 
Goths,  but  were  at  length  subdued  by  the 


latter  about  A.D.  585.  Guipuzcoa  and  Alava 
were  united  to  Castile  in  the  i3th  century, 
and  Biscay  was  annexed  to  Castile  by  Peter 
the  Cruel  in  the  i4th. 

BASQUE  ROADS  (Sea-fight).— Capt.  Lord 
Cochrane,  afterwards  Earl  of  Dundonald,  in  the 
Impdrieuse,  with  explosion-vessels,  tire-ships, 
gunboats,  &c.,  sailed  from  Basque  Roads  to 
attack  the  French  fleet  at  anchor  under  the 
shelter  of  the  batteries  in  Aix  Roads,  April  1 1, 
1809.  A  boom,  half  a  mile  in  length  and  com- 
posed of  the  thickest  cables,  floated  by  buoys, 
had  been  moored  a  few  yards  in  front  of  the 
line  of  French  frigates.  An  explosion-vessel, 
fired  by  Lord  Cochrane,  broke  through  the 
boom,  and  such  was  the  terror  caused  amongst 
the  French  fleet  that  the  cables  were  cut  and 
the  ships  drifted  on  shore.  Lord  Cochrane,  in 
the  morning  of  April  12,  signalled  to  Admiral 
Lord  Gambier  to  send  half  the  fleet  to  de- 
stroy the  French  ships,  several  of  which  were 
aground.  This,  however,  Lord  Gambier  re- 
fused to  do,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  French 
fleet,  by  dint  of  great  exertions,  managed  to 
escape.  At  St.  Helena  Napoleon  I.  admitted 
that  if  Lord  Cochrane  had  been  properly  sup- 
ported all  the  French  ships  must  have  been 
captured  or  destroyed. 

BASS  AN  O  (Battles).— During  the  French 
revolutionary  war,  the  Austrian  general 
Wurmser  was  defeated  at  this  town  in  Lom- 
bardy,  Sep.  8,  1796,  by  the  French  republican 
army  under  Massena  and  Augereau.  After 
this  defeat  the  Austriaus  retired  to  Mantua. 
Bassano  was  restored  to  Austria,  by  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797  ;  but  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1813  Eugene  Beauhamais 
wrested  it  from  the  Austrians. 

15ASSEIN  (Burinah).— An  English  expedi- 
tion that  sailed  from  Rangoon,  April  17,  1852, 
anchored  off  this  town  April  19,  and  took  it  by 
storm. 

BASSEIN  (Hindostan).— This  town,  in  the 
presidency  of  Bombay,  was  ceded,  in  1531,  to 
the  Portuguese,  by  whom  it  was  promised, 
but  never  bestowed,  as  part  of  the  dowiy  of 
Catherine  of  Braganca,  queen  of  Charles  II. 
It  was  taken  in  1750  by  the  Mahrattas.  In 
1774  and  1 780  it  was  captured  by  the  British, 
who  relinquished  it  in  1782,  but  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Peishwa  in  1802  (see  BASSEIN, 
Treaty),  and  finally  annexed  it  to  their  Indian 
possessions  in  1818.  Bishop  Heber,  who  visited 
Bassein  in  1825,  described  it  as  a  city  in  ruins, 
uninhabited,  and  desolate. 

BASSEIN  (Treaty),  between  the  Peishwa 
and  East  India  Company,  was  concluded  at 
this  place,  in  Hindostan,  Dec.  31,  1802.  The 
ratifications  were  exchanged  March  18,  1803. 
It  was  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  be- 
tween the  contracting  parties,  and  in  return 
for  certain  concessions  the  English  engaged  to 
support  the  rights  of  the  Mahratta  chieftain. 

BASSET.— This  game  at  cards,  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  a  noble  Venetian  in  the  isth 
century,  was  introduced  into  France  in  1674. 
The  courtiers  of  James  II.  are,  in  an  account 
dated  Feb.  6,  1685,  represented  as  playing  at 
basset  on  the  day  of  his  proclamation.  It  was 
played  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  until  that 
monarch  lost  a  large  sum  by  means  of  false 


BASSET 


[    125 


BATH 


cards;  whereupon  lie  ordered  that  persons 
found  playing  basset  should  be  fined  1,000 
livres. 

BASSET  HORN  was  invented  in  Passau  in 
1770,  and  improved  by  Lotz  of  Presburgin  1782. 

BASSETERRE  (Sea-fight).— Count  de  Grasse 
made  three  attacks  upon  the  British  fleet, 
anchored  in  Basseterre  Roads,  St.  Christopher's, 
Jan.  26,  1782,  and  was,  on  each  occasion,  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss. 

BASSORAH,  or  BUSRA  (Asiatic  Turkey).— 
This  city  was  founded  by  Omar  A.D.  636,  and 
captured  during  the  revolt  against  Ali,  by 
Telha  and  Zobeir,  accompanied  by  Ayesha,  the 
widow  of  the  prophet,  in  658.  The  rebels  were, 
however,  defeated  under  its  walls  in  the  same 
year.  (See  CAMEL.)  The  Saracen  rule  terminated 
by  its  conquest  by  the  Turks  in  701.  Though  it 
became  a  flourishing  place  it  was  abandoned, 
some  writers  allege,  because  the  canal  on  which 
it  was  built  had  fallen  into  neglect ;  and  the 
modern  Bassorah,  eight  miles  to  the  north- 
east of  the  ancient  site,  was  established.  The 
Turks  made  themselves  masters  of  Bassorah 
in  1668  ;  but  it  was  wrested  from  them  by 
the  Persians  April  16,  1776,  after  a  siege  of  12 
months.  It  was  recovered  by  the  Turks  in 
1778,  and  is  known  under  the  names  of  Bus- 
sorah  and  Basra. 

BASS  ROCK  (Frith  of  Forth).— This  small 
island  is  first  mentioned  in  history  as  affording 
a  retreat  for  St.  Baldred,  a  Scottish  enthusiast, 
who  died  here  March  6,  606  A.D.  It  was  granted 
to  the  Lauder  family  by  charter,  dated  June 
4,  1316.  A  castle  existed  on  this  island  in  the 
1 5th  century,  if  not  before.  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  visited  the  Bass  Rock  in  1581,  and 
the  English  Government  purchased  it  for  a 
state  prison  in  Oct.,  1671.  Having  surrendered 
to  the  new  government  in  1690,  some  adherents 
of  James  II.  regained  possession  the  same  year, 
and  they  held  it,  plundering  all  vessels  that 
came  near,  until  April,  1694.  It  was  the  last 
place  in  Scotland  that  held  out  for  James  II. 
The  fortifications  were  finally  destroyed  in 
1701,  by  order  of  William  III.  To  the  Dal- 
rymple  family,  in  whose  possession  it  has  since 
remained,  it  was  ceded  by  charter,  July  31, 
1706,  ratified  by  Parliament  in  March,  1707. 
Several  of  the  Covenanters  were  imprisoned  in 
this  island. 

BASS'S  STRAIT  (Pacific).— This  channel, 
separating  Van  Diemen's  Land  from  Australia, 
is  named  after  Mr.  Bass,  surgeon  of  the  ship 
Reliance,  who,  accompanied  by  Flinders,  then 
a  midshipman  in  the  same  ship,  crossed  it  in 
an  open  boat  called  the  Tom  Thumb,  March  25 
— 27,  1796.  Flinders  and  Bass,  in  a  small  vessel, 
the  Norfolk,  circumnavigated  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  long  believed  to  form  part  of  Australia, 
Oct.  7,  1798 — Jan.  12,  1799. 

BASTARN^.— This  powerful  tribe  of  Sar- 
matia  first  appeared  in  history  during  the 
reign  of  Perseus  of  Macedon  (B.C.  178 — 168),  to 
whose  army  they  contributed  20,000  mercen- 
aries. Having  encroached  upon  Roman  terri- 
tory, they  were  driven  across  the  Danube  by 
M.  Crassus,  B.C.  30,  and  ultimately  settled 
between  the  rivers  Dneister  and  Dnieper. 

BASTIA,  the  ancient  Mantinum,  founded  in 
1380,  was  the  capital  of  Corsica  until  that 


island  was  annexed  to  France  in  1768.  The 
town  and  its  citadel  were  captured  by  the 
English  in  1745,  and  again  May  22,  1794.  The 
Austrians  assailed  it  without  success  in  1 748. 

BASTILLE.— There  were  three  bastilles  or 
state-prisons,  namely,  those  of  the  Temple,  St. 
Denis,  and  the  Rue  St.  Antoine,  at  Paris.  On 
the  ground  occupied  by  the  last-mentioned  a 
kind  of  fortress,  which  was  strengthened  in 
1356,  had  long  before  existed.  The  place 
generally  known  as  the  Bastille  was  com- 
menced by  order  of  Charles  V.,  and  the  first 
stone  was  laid  April  22,  1369.  It  was  not  com- 
pleted until  1383,  and  was  afterwards  improved 
and  strengthened  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
became  one  of  the  strongest  f orti  esses  of  the 
kind  in  Europe.  It  was  taken  in  1418,  in  1594, 
and  Jan.  13,  1649,  ^Y  the  Fronde  army.  The 
mob  attacked  it  July  14,  1789,  released  the 
prisoners,  put  the  governor  to  death,  com- 
mitted great  havoc,  and  soon  after  the  order 
was  given  for  its  demolition.  Croker  (Essays 
on  the  French  Revolution,  p.  246)  remarks 
that  only  six  or  seven  prisoners  were  found  in 
the  Bastille  when  captured,  and  not  a  single 
state-prisoner.  In  July,  1794,  the  prisons  of 
Paris  contained  8,913  prisoners,  and  in  1793, 
2,637  had  passed  from  the  prison  to  the  scaffold. 
(See  IRON  MASK.) 

BATALHA  (Portugal).— John  I.  (1383—1433), 
of  Portugal,  built  a  convent  at  this  place  in 
commemoration  of  his  victory  over  John  I.  of 
Castile,  at  Aljubarota  (q.  v.),  Aug.  14,  1385 

BATAVIA,  an  island  between  the  Rhine  and 
the  Waal,  occupied  in  the  time  of  Caesar, 
B.C.  55,  by  a  German  tribe,  called  the  Batavi. 
Claudius  Civilis,  a  Batavian  chieftain,  rose  in 
arms  against  the  Romans  A.D.  69,  and  after  a 
fierce  struggle,  in  which  he  gained  many  vic- 
tories, was  at  last  defeated.  Zosirnus,  who 
was  the  first  to  call  the  island  Batavia,  states 
that  in  the  time  of  Constantius  II.  (350 — 360) 
it  belonged  to  the  Franks.  (See  HOLLAND.) 

BATAVIA  (Java).— A  factory  was  established 
by  the  Dutch  at  the  village  of  Jacatra  in  1612, 
and  upon  its  site  the  town  of  Batavia  was 
founded  in  1619.  The  new  settlement  became 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indian  colonies.  The  French  obtained  posses- 
sion in  1811,  and  were  expelled  by  the  English 
Aug.  8  in  the  same  year.  It  was  restored  to 
the  Dutch  by  a  convention  signed  in  London, 
Aug.  13,  1814. 

BATAVIAN  REPUBLIC.  —  In  1795  the 
French  republicans  invaded  the  Netherlands, 
and  subverted  the  government.  The  seven 
united  provinces  formed  with  France  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  against  England, 
May  15,  1795,  and  assumed  the  title  of  "the 
one  and  indivisible  Batavian  Republic,"  May 
i,  1798.  The  new  commonwealth,  guaranteed 
by  the  ti-eaty  of  Luneville  (q.  v.),  Feb.  9,  1801, 
received  a  constitution  promulgated  Sep.  14, 
1 80 1.  Other  changes  were  made,  and  at  last 
the  Batavian  republic  was  annexed  to  France, 
and  named  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  June  5, 
1806. 

BATH  (Somersetshire). — This  city  occupies 
the  site  of  a  Roman  station,  called  by  them 
Aquae  Soils,  and  formed  as  early  as  B.C.  44. 
The  Romans  adorned  it  with  many  noble 


BATH 


[    126    ] 


BATTERSEA 


buildings.  Its  hot  springs  are  mentioned  by 
their  writers.  Bath  suffered  during  the 
struggles  between  the  Saxons  and  the  Britons, 
and  was  seized  and  plundered  by  the  Danes. 
Richard  I.  granted  it  a  charter,  which  was 
confirmed  by  Henry  III.  Edgar  was  crowned 
at  Bath  by  l3unstan,  A.D.  973.  The  hospital  of 
St.  John  was  founded  in  1180.  The  Black  Alms 
Hospital  and  Grammar  School  were  estab- 
lished by  Edward  VI.,  July  12,  1552.  The 
abbey  church  was  completed  in  1609,  and  the 
old  town-hall,  erected  by  Inigo  Jones  in  1625, 
was  removed  in  1777,  and  the  present  building 
opened  in  1780.  The  city,  which  had  pre- 
viously afforded  but  scanty  accommodation  to 
its  numerous  visitors,  was  much  benefited  by 
the  architectural  improvements  commenced 
by  Wood  in  1728.  The  old  pump-room,  erected 
in  1704,  and  improved  in  1751,  1786,  and  1791, 
was  taken  down  in  1796,  when  the  present  struc- 
ture was  built.  The  Assembly  Rooms,  built 
in  1708  and  1728,  were  superseded  by  more 
spacious  apartments  in  1771.  The  first  stone 
of  the  general  hospital  was  laid  by  the  Hon. 
W.  Pulteney,  afterwards  Earl  of  Bath,  July  6, 
1738.  Beavi  Nash,  the  celebrated  "king  of 
Bath,"  died  here  Feb.  3,  1761.  Sydney  Gardens 
were  opened  in  1795,  and  Victoria  Park  in  1830. 
The  theatre,  built  in  1805,  was  destroyed  by 
tire  April  18,  1862.  The  34th  annual  meeting  of 
the  British  Association  took  place  here  in  1864. 

BATH  (Order).— Knights  of  the  Bath  were 
thus  named  from  the  ceremony  of  bathing, 
performed  the  night  before  their  creation,  and 
Sir  Harris  Nicolas  mentions  two  cases  of 
knights  created  in  this  manner  during  the 
reign  of  King  John,  the  first  in  1204  and  the 
second  in  1205.  The  order  is  supposed  to  have 
existed  at  a  much  earlier  period.  It  is  first 
noticed  under  the  name  of  the  Bath,  Oct.  n, 
1399,  when  Henry  IV.,  at  his  coronation, 
created  46  knights.  The  practice  was  con- 
tinued at  the  coronation  of  our  sovereigns,  but 
after  that  of  Charles  II.,  in  1661,  fell  into  neg- 
lect, until  it  was  revived  by  George  I.,  May  18, 
1725.  The  order  was  re-organized  and  ex- 
tended Jan.  2,  1815  ;  and  April  14,  1847,  the 
number  of  knights  in  the  existing  classes  w.-is 
increased,  whilst  civil  knights,  commanders, 
and  companions  were  added.  (See  TKIA  JUNCTA 
IN  UNO.) 

BATH  AND  WELLS  (Bishopric).— The  see  of 
Wells  was  founded  A.D.  909,  and  that  of  Bath 
in  1078.  William  II.  removed  the  see  of  Wells 
to  Bath,  by  charter,  Jan.  25,  1092.  This  gave 
rise  to  a  dispute  between  the  canons  of  Wells 
and  the  monks  of  Bath,  and  it  was  not  ter- 
minated until  about  1139,  when,  with  the 
Pope's  consent,  it  was  determined  that  the 
bishops  should  be  called  bishops  of  Bath  and 
Wells  ;  that  the  election  should  be  made  by 
the  canons  of  Wells  and  the  monks  of  Bath 
conjointly ;  that  the  event  of  the  election 
should  be  pronounced  by  the  Dean  of  Wells  ; 
and  that  the  bishop  should  be  enthroned  in 
both  cathedrals.  The  episcopal  residence  is  at 
Wells. 

BATH  ADMINISTRATION.  —  (See  LONG- 
LIVED  ADMINISTRATION.) 

BATHS  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927)  speaks  of  the 


baths  in  the  houses  of  the  Greeks.  Hot  baths 
were  also  used  in  ancient  times,  and  Homer 
commends  the  warm  fountains  of  the  Sca- 
mander,  though  he  attributes  to  them  the 
effeminacy  of  the  Phseacians.  They  were  not 
common  at  Rome  until  the  ist  century  of  the 
Christian  sera.  Augustus  constructed  public 
baths  in  every  part  of  the  capital.  The  baths 
of  Antoninus  Caracalla,  in  the  2nd  century, 
contained  above  1,600  marble  seats,  and  those 
of  Diocletian,  in  the  4th  century,  about  3,000. 
Gibbon  says  (ch.  xxxi),  "  The  meanest  Roman 
could  purchase,  with  a  small  copper  coin,  the 
daily  enjoyment  of  a  scene  of  pomp  and  luxury 
which  might  excite  the  envy  of  the  kings  of 
Asia."  (-bee  TURKISH  BATHS.) 

BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES.— (See  PUBLIC 
BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES.) 

BATHURST  (N.  S.  Wales).— Established  in 
April,  1815,  being  the  first  settlement  made 
beyond  the  Blue  Mountains.  Gold  was  dis- 
covered at  Ophir,  near  Bathurst,  Feb.  12,  1851. 
The  governor  issued  a  proclamation,  May  22, 
claiming  the  gold,  but  allowing  persons  to 
search  or  dig,  on  taking  a  license  at  303.  per 
month.  By  the  month  of  June  20,000  persons 
had  arrived  at  the  new  diggings. 

BATHURST  (W.  Africa).— This  settlement, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Gambia,  was  estab- 
lished in  1816. 

BATNEAR  (Hindostan).—  The  former  capital 
of  the  Batnears  or  Batties  of  Hindostan  was 
taken  by  Tamerlane  in  1398,  and  by  the  Rajah 
of  Beykaneer  in  1805. 

BATON  ROUGE  (Louisiana).  —  This  town 
•  •<!  a  college  in  1838,  and  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  state  in  1849.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Federals  May  7,  1862,  and  was  attacked 
by  the  Confederate  general  Breckenridge 
Aug.  5,  the  assailants  being  repulsed  after 
a  sharp  contest,  in  which  the  Federal  general 
Williams  was  killed.  It  was  evacuated  by  the 
Federals  Aug.  23. 

BATSIilAN,  one  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  waa 
wrested  from  the  Portuguese  by  the  Dutch 
in  1610. 

BATTEL.— (See  TRIAL  BY  BATTEL  AND 
WAGER  OF  BATTEL.) 

HATTERING-RAM.  —  This  machine,  the 
Aries  of  the  Romans,  whence  the  name,  em- 
ployed for  making  a  breach  in  the  walls  of 
besieged  cities,  is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, appears  in  sieges  on  the  monuments  of 
Rameses  II.,  and  was  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  When  placed  upon  wheels  and 
roofed  over  it  was  called  a  testudo.  Batter- 
ing-rams were  often  of  great  length,  the 
beam  of  wood  having  at  the  end  the  head 
of  a  ram,  made  of  brass  or  iron.  They  were 
used  extensively  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  were 
sometimes  called  testudines.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  found  them  of  great  service  in  throwing 
down  old  walls  and  disjointing  stones. 

BATTERSEA  PARK  (London).— By  9  &  10 
Viet.  c.  38  (Aug.  3,  1846),  the  Commissioners  of 
Woods,  <fec.,  were  empowered  to  form  a  royal 
park  in  Battersea  Fields.  Additional  powers 
were  granted  to  them  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  102 
(Sep.  4,  1848);  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  7, 
1851) ;  and  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  47  (Aug.  4,  1853;. 
The  park  was  opened  in  1858,  and  the  suspen- 


BATTIN 


[     127    ] 


BAVARIA 


sion  bridge  across  the  Thames,  leading  to  it, 
March  28,  1858. 

BATTIN  (Battle).  —  The  Russians  defeated 
the  Turks  in  a  sanguinary  attack  upon  their 
camp,  near  this  place,  on  the  Danube,  Sep.  7, 
1810. 

BATTLE  ABBEY  (Sussex)  was  founded  by 
William  I.,  in  1067,  on  the  spot  near  which  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066,  was  fought. 
Its  ancient  name,  Hetheland  or  Epiton,  has 
since  been  changed  to  Battle.  The  abbey 
was  dedicated  to  St.  Martin,  "in  order  that 
glory  might  be  offered  up  to  God  for  his 
victory,  and  that  offices  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead  might  be  there  perpetually  performed." 
It  was  endowed  with  peculiar  privileges  and 
exempted  from  episcopal  rule  and  jurisdiction. 
The  abbot  was  mitred  and  sat  in  Parliament. 
BATTLE-AXE.— Herodotus  (B.C.  484— B.C.  408) 
speaks  of  the  battle-axes  of  the  Scythians  in 
Xerxes'  army.  The  Teutonic  tribes  introduced 
the  modern  battle-axe  into  Europe,  and  it  was 
afterwards  so  common  amongst  the  Franks, 
that  it  was  called  francisca.  They  gained  great 
celebrity  for  dexterity  in  using  it,  on  their 
invasion  of  Italy  in  the  6th  century.  The 
battle-axe  was  known  in  England  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  the  assertion  that  it  was 
introduced  by  the  Danes  is  erroneous.  Frag- 
ments of  this  weapon  have  been  found  in 
Druidical  remains  of  a  period  antecedent  to 
their  arrival.  Hoveden  celebrates  the  might 
displayed  by  King  Stephen  at  the  battle  of 
Lincoln,  in  1141 : — "Equal  to  a  thunderbolt, 
slaying  some  with  his  immense  battle-axe,  and 
striking  down  others."  It  was  borne,  as  a 
royal  weapon,  at  the  funeral  of  Henry  VII.  in 
1509,  and  offered  up  at  the  altar  with  the 
helmet,  gauntlet,  and  crest. 

BATTLE-DOOR.— This  game  was  known  in 
England  in  the  i4th  century,  and  was  a  fashion- 
able pastime,  even  among  adults,  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.  In  a  comedy  called  "The  History 
of  Two  Maids  of  Moreclacke,"  printed  in  1609, 
the  expression  occurs,—"  To  play  at  shuttle- 
cock methinks  is  the  game  now." 

BATTLE-FIELD  (Battle).  —  (See  HATELEY 
FIELD.) 

BATTLE  ROLL.— On  the  day  following  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066,  William  I. 
called  over,  from  the  roll  drawn  up  at  St. 
Valery,  the  names  of  those  chieftains  who  had 
accompanied  him.  The  number  amounted  to 
629,  and  amongst  them  a  large  portion  of  the 
English  territory  was  divided. 

BATTLES.— The  most  important  battles  re- 
corded in  history,  whether  by  sea  or  land,  are 
described  under  their  best  known  names,  and 
a  list  is  given  in  the  Index.  Professor  Creasy 
(Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  from 
Marathon  to  Waterloo)  enumerates  the  follow- 
ing as  the  most  important : — 

B.C. 

I. — 490.  Marathon. 
2.— 413.  Syracuse. 
3-— 331,  Oct.  i.    Arbela. 
4. — 307.  Metaurus. 

A.D. 

5—9.  Teutoberg. 
6. — 451.  Chalons. 
7.— 733,  Oct.  10.    Tours. 
8.— 1066,  Oct.  14.  Hastings 

BATTS  (Parliament)  assembled  at  Leicester, 


A.D. 

9.— 1439,  April  29.  Orleans. 

lo. — 1588.  Spanish  Armada. 

n. — 1704,  Aug.  13.  Blen- 
heim. 

13. — 1709,  July  8.  Pultowa. 

J&— J777i  Oct.  17.  Saratoga. 

14. — 1793,  Sep.  20.   Valmy. 

15.— 1815,  June  18.  Water- 
loo. 


Monday,  Feb.  18,  1426,  and  was  called  the  Par- 
liament of  Batts,  because,  arms  having  been 
forbidden,  servants  and  adherents  followed 
the  members  with  bats  or  clubs  on  their 
shoulders. 

BAUGE"  (Battle).— (See  ANJOU.) 

BAUTZEN  (Battle).— Napoleon  I.,  at  the  head 
of  148,000  men,  supported  by  a  numerous  artil- 
lery, attacked  an  allied  Prussian  and  Russian 
army,  amounting  to  96,000  men,  near  Bautzen, 
Saxony,  May  20  and  21,  1813.  The  French  loss 
was  very  great ;  but  they  compelled  their  op- 
ponents to  retire,  which  they  did  in  good  order, 
presenting  a  bold  front  to  their  assailants. 
(See  WtiRTZCHEN.)  Napoleon  I.  renewed  his 
attempts  at  negotiation,  which  led  to  the 
armistice  of  Poischwitz  (q.  v.}. 

BAVARIA.— This  country,  occupied  by  the 
Boii  (q.  v.},  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire 
as  part  of  Noricum  and  Vindelicia,  B.C.  15.  It 
subsequently  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Ostro- 
goths and  the  Franks,  and  was  conquered  by 
Charlemagne,  who  annexed  it  to  his  empire 
A.D.  788.  After  his  death  it  was  governed  by 
one  of  his  grandsons,  under  the  title  of  mar- 
grave, or  lord  of  the  marches.  The  early  chro- 
nology is  involved  in  much  confusion. 


530.  Agilulph  shakes  off  the  yoke  of  the  Ostrogoths 
about  this  time,  and  founds  the  first  Bavarian 
dukedom. 

649.  Christianity  is  introduced  by  Theodon  I. 
788.  Charlemagne  expels  the  Avars  from  Bavaria,  which 
he  annexes  to  his  empire. 

1070.  It  passes  by  imperial  grant  into  the  possession  of  the 
Guelphs. 

1180.  The  Emperor  Frederick  I.  bestows  Bavaria  on  Otho 
of  Wittelsbach. 

1331-  Otho  II.  becomes  Duke  of  Bavaria,  uniting  with  it 
the  Palatinate  of  the  Khine. 

1394.  Separation  of  the  Palatinate  from  Bavaria. 

1533,  March  5.  William  I.  issues  a  mandate,  ordering  his 
subjects,  under  heavy  penalties,  to  maintain  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith. 

1648,  Oct.  24.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia  restores  the  Palati- 
nate, and  constitutes  Bavaria  the  eighth  electorate. 

1702.  Bavaria  forms  an  alliance  with  France  to  oppose 
Austria. 

1704,  Aug.  13.  Battle  of  Blenheim  (q.v.). 

1714,  Sep.  18.  The  treaty  of  Baden  (q.  v.)  reinstates  the 
Elector  in  his  dominions. 

1740.  The  Elector,  Charles  Albert,'  aspires  to  the  imperial 
crown,  and  invades  Austria. 

1744.  Maria  Theresa  defeats  the  Bavarians,  and  seizes  the 
electorate,  which  is  soon  after  restored. 

1777,  Dec.  30.  Death  of  the  Elector  Maximilian  Joseph  L, 
with  whom  the  younger  line  of  the  house  of 
Wittelsbach  becomes  extinct. 

1779,  May  13.  Treaty  of  Teschen  (q.  v.),  which  recognizes 
Charles  Theodore  as  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  cedes 
the  district  of  the  Inn  to  Austria. 

1796.  A  French  army,  under  Moreau,  occupies  Munich, 
and  forces  Bavaria  to  conclude  a  treaty  with 
France. 

1801,  Feb.  9.  Treaty  of  Luneville,  by  which  Bavaria 
cedes  all  her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  receives,  as  an  indemnification,  terri- 
tory of  greater  extent. 

1805,  Dec.  26.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  Napoleon  I. 
confers  the  title  of  "King"  on  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria,  together  with  extensive  additions  of 
territory. 

1813.  Bavaria  joins  the  allies  against  Napoleon  I.,  and  in 
the  two  following  years  has  additional  territories 
confirmed  by  definitive  treaties. 

1818,  May  36.   The  King  grants  a  constitutional  charter. 

1841,  March  2.  A  convention  for  the  settlement  of  matters 
relating  to  commerce  and  navigation  is  concluded 
at  London  between  Great  Britain  and  Bavaria. 

1848,  March  21.  Louis  Charles,  King  of  Bavaria,  abdi- 
cates in  favour  of  Maximilian  Joseph  II. 


BAT 


[    128    ] 


BAYONNE 


A.D. 

1850,  Feb.  27.  A  convention  is  si<med  at  Munich,  between 
Havana,  Saxony,  and  'SVurti-mberjr,  relative  to  the 
revision  of  the  Ccnnim  constitution. 

1864,  Mar.  10.  Maximilian  .!,».  ph  II.  expires,  nftera  short 
illness,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  II. 


SOVEREIGNS   OF   BAVARIA. 
AGILULP1IIXGIAX  Kl'KKS. 


948. 
955- 


1004. 


"39- 
1156. 


1180. 
"83. 


Garibnld  I. 

Tassilon  I. 
(Jai-it.aM  II. 


Theodon  II. 

The,.,loald,   Grimoald, 
and  Theodebert. 


715-  Grimoald  andTheode- 

•724.  Grimoald  (aloue). 

-js.  llujiihert. 

737.  o.lilon. 

748.  Tassilon  IL 


FRANK  KINGS. 

880.  Loui*  III. 

•rles  the  Fat. 
888.  Arnulph   I.  of  Carin- 

thia. 

900.  Louis  IV.,  the  Child. 


Charlemaprne. 

I.ouU  I.,  le  Debonnaire, 

and  Lothaire. 
Louis  II.,  the  German. 
Carloman. 

BAVARIAN  in  KI>. 

Amulph  II.,  the  Bad.     I    938.  Berthold. 
Eberhanl. 

in  M-.S  OF  SAXOXY  AND  FRAM-OMA. 
Henry  I.  1020.  Henry  VI. 

Henry  II.,  the  Quarrel-    1039.  Henry  VII. 

some.  :>™<l  I- 

Otho  I.  of  Swabia,  1053,  Henry  VIII. 

Henry  III.  1056.  Conrad  II. 

Henry  IV.  1057.  A 

Henry  V.  1061.   Otho  II. 

GUELrillC  Dl  Kl>. 

Guelph  T.  II2C.   Henn-  IX. 

Guelph  II.  1126.   Henn   X. 

lu  KI.S  OF  mi:  Hor>r.  OF  li.\r.Kxr.ERG. 
LoojMltl.  |  1141.   Henn-  XI. 

GCELPHIC  Dt'KE. 
Henn-  XII. 

1)1  1,1  s   UK   THE   HorSF.  OF  WlTTELSBACH. 
Otho  I.  1438.  Albert  I. 

Louis  I.  1460.  John    II.    and   Sigte- 

Otho  II..  the  Illnstriou-.  mund. 


Henry  Xlll.  and  Louis 


146-.  Albert  II. 


William  II.  and  Louis 
IV. 

.t  III. 
1579.  William  IIL 


II 

•lis  III. 

•hen. 
[374  .lohn  I.  of  Munich. 

:  nest  and  William  I. 

ELECTORS  OF  TIIK  HOTSE  OF  WITTELSBACH. 
1598.  Maximilian  I.  (Duke).  I  ifi-o..  Maximilian  FmanueL 
1623.  do.          (Elector).     I-y..  Charles  Albert. 

1651.  Ferdinand  Maria.  |  1745.   Maxiiuiliau  Joseph  I. 

1-A1..VTIXE  HOUSE. 
17"".  Charles  Theodore. 

KIXGS. 
1709.  Maximilian  Joseph  II.     1825.  Louis  I. 

(Elector).  1848.  Maximilian  Joseph  II, 

1805.  Maximilian  Joseph  I.     1864. 

(King). 

BAY    ISLANDS  (Bay  of  Honduras^.— This 

cluster  was  made  an  English  colony  by  royal 
warrant,  dated  March  20, 1852,  and  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  at  Belize  July  17.  Great  Bri- 
tain ceded  the  Bay  Islands,  consisting  of 
Knatan.  Guanaea,  Elena.  Utile,  Barbarete.  and 
Morat,  to  the  republic  of  Honduras,  by  treaty, 
signed  at  Comayagua  Nov.  28,  1859. 

BAY  OF  ISLANDS  "Pacific  ,  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  New  Ulster,  one  of  the  New  Zea- 
land isles,  became  the  seat  of  a  whaling  station 
in  the  iSth  century. 

BAYAZID  (Battle). —The  Russians,  8,000 
strong,  defeated  a  Turkish  army  of  5,000  men 
at  this  place,  in  Armenia,  July  29,  1854. 

BAYEUX  (Normandy),  the  ancient  Augus- 


todurus,  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  Henry  I. 
n  Aug.,  1105,  on  which  occasion  its  magni- 
ficent cathedral  was  much  injured.  Bayexix 
suffered  greatly  in  the  wars  1  ictweeii  England 
and  France.  It  capitulated  to  Charles  VII.  in 
1449.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  the  4th 
century. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY.— This  celebrated  roll 
of  linen  cloth  or  canvas,  214  feet  in  length  and 
20  inches  wide,  contains,  in  72  distinct  com- 
partments, a  representation,  in  embroidery, 
.)f  the  events  of  the  Norman  invasion,  from 
Harold's  leave-taking  of  Ed  ward  the  Confessor, 
on  his  departure  for  Normandy,  to  the  battle 
if  Hastings.  The  Bayeux  tapestry  is  supposed 
to  have  been  worked  by  Matilda,  wife  of  Wil- 
liam I.,  and  was  by  her  presented  to  the 
cathedral  of  Bayeux.  Montfauoon  caused  re- 
searches to  be  made  that  ended  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  tapestry  in  Bayeux  cathedral  in 
1728  ;  and  Napoleon  I.  had  it  conveyed  to  Paris 
in  1803,  where  it  was  kept  some  time  and  exhi- 
bited. It  has  been  engraved,  and  several  works 
upon  the  subject  have  been  published.  Bruce 
Bayeux  Tapestry  Elucidated)  says  it  contains 
figures  of  "  623  men,  202  horses,  55  dogs,  505 
animals  of  various  kinds  not  hitherto  enume- 
rated, 37  buildings,  41  ships  and  boats,  and  49 
m  all  1,512  figures." 

BAYLEX  Buttle  .—In  1808  Dupont's  army 
was  shut  up  in  this  town,  in  Spain,  where  a 
battle  was  fought  with  the  Spaniards,  July  20. 
It  terminated  in  the  complete  discomfiture  of 
the  French,  20,000  strong,  who  surrendered  at 
discretion. 

HA  Yi  »NET. — Military  instructions  issued  to 
tlie  1'iviich  army  in  1646  and  1647  contain  the 
earliest  notice  of  this  weapon.  In  1671  they 
were  introduced  generally  into  the  French 
army.  From  official  documents  it  appears 
that  in  1682  the  bayonet  was  inserted  into 
the  barrel  of  the  musket.  The  plug- bayonet 
was  used  in  England  until  1690,  after  which 
date  tin  <  net  was  introduced.  It 

superseded  the  pike,  and  was  doubtless  taken 
from  the  sweynes-feathcr,  or  swine's  feather, 
called  also  swan's  feather,  invented  during  the 
reign  of  James  I.  This  was  a  long,  thin  rapier 
blade,  which  the  musketeer,  after  discharging 
his  piece,  fixed  into  the  muzzle.  The  bayonet 
is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  Bayonne, 
where  it  was  invented.  The  first  victory  secured 
by  a  charge  of  the  bayonet  was  that  of  Landeu 
(-/.  '•.  ,  in  1693. 

BAYONNE  France). —This  ancient  town 
was  made  a  bishopric  towards  the  end  of  the 
4th  century.  Its  cathedral  was  erected  in  the 
i3th  century.  It  was  taken  by  the  English, 
Jan.  i,  1295,  during  the  invasion  of  France  by 
Edward  I.  The  bayonet  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  at  this  place,  from  which  its  name  is 
derived.  Napoleon  I.  met  Ferdinand  VII.  of 
Spain  at  the  castle  of  Manic,  near  Bayonne,  in 
April.  i3o8,  and  endeavoured  to  induce  him  to 
resign  the  crown,  which  he  had  just  received 
from  Charles  IV.  (>w  ARANJTEZ.)  Ferdinand 
VII.  abdicated  May  6.  Several  encounters  be- 
tween the  French  "and  English  took  pi:. 
Bayonne,  Dec.  9,  10,  n,  and  13,  1813,  in  which 
the  English  were  victorious,  and  the  place  was 
invested  by  them  Feb.  24,  1814.  The  French 


BAYONNE 


[    129    ] 


BEAR 


were  repulsed  in  a  desperate  sally,  April  14. 
This  action  was  fought  after  peace  had  been 
concluded.  The  castle  of  Marac  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1825.  An  exhibition  was  opened 
here  July  19,  1864. 

BAYONNE  (Treaty).— Agreed  to  May  4, 1808, 
and  signed  May  5,  between  Napoleon  I.  and 
Charles  IV.,  King  of  Spain.  The  latter  re- 
signed his  kingdom,  and  Napoleon  I.  engaged 
to  maintain  its  integrity,  and  to  preserve  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  His  son  Ferdinand 
VII.  confirmed  the  cession,  May  10. 

BAYONNE  CONFERENCE  was  held  in 
June,  1565,  between  Charles  IX.,  the  queen 
mother,  Catherine  de  Medici,  Elizabeth,  Queen 
of  Spain,  and  the  Duke  of  Alva,  envoy  of 
Philip  II.,  to  arrange  plans  for  the  repression 
of  the  Huguenots.  It  is  generally  believed 
that  the  massacre  of  Bartholomew's  Day  (g.  v.) 
was  determined  upon  at  this  meeting. 

BAYREUTH  (Germany).— This  principality, 
formed  about  1248,  was  united  with  the  mar- 
graviate  of  An.spaoh,  in  1769,  and  sold  by  the 
last  Margrave  of  Anspaeh-Bayreuth  to  Prussia 
in  1791.  Its  annexation  was  agreed  to  by  a 
treaty  between  France  and  Prussia,  Dec.  15, 
1805.  France  acquired  it  by  the  treaty  of 
Tilsit  (q.  v.),  July  9,  1807 ;  but  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Bavaria  in  1810.  Its  capital,  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  place  of  some  importance. 
The  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  was  built 
in  1446,  and  the  gymnasium  in  1664. 

BAZA  (Spain).— This  stronghold  of  Granada 
was  wrested  from  the  Moors,  after  a  siege  of  six 
months'  duration,  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
in  Nov.,  1489.  The  Spanish  sovereigns  made 
their  triumphal  entrance  into  the  city  Dec.  4. 

BAZAAR.— This  term  is  applied  in  Eastern 
countries  to  a  large  square  or  street  appro- 
priated to  purposes  of  trade.  The  bazaar  of 
Tauris  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  world,  and 
that  of  Khan  Khaliel,  at  Cairo,  which  occupies 
the  site  of  the  tombs  of  the  caliphs,  contains 
some  valuable  records.  It  was  built  in  1292. 
The  bazaar  at  Ispahan  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
magnificent  of  any.  Adrianople  and  Constan- 
tinople have  large  bazaars.  The  last-mentioned 
was  built  in  1462.  The  Soho  Bazaar,  London, 
was  opened  in  1815,  the  St.  James's  Bazaar  in 
1832,  the  Pantheon  (q.  v.)  in  1834,  and  the 
London  Crystal  Palace  Bazaar  in  1858.  The 
Queen's  Bazaar,  Oxford  Street,  was  burned 
down  May  27,  1829.  (See  ARCADES.) 

BAZAS  (France).— This  ancient  city,  the 
Roman  Cossio,  taken  from  the  Vasates  by 
Crassus  in  the  ist  century  B.C.,  was  ravaged 
by  the  Vandals  A.D.  408,  by  the  Goths  in  414, 
and  by  the  Normans  in  853.  The  Crusades 
were  preached  here  by  Urban  II.  in  1096,  and 
by  St.  Bernard  in  1153.  Bazas  was  made  a 
bishopric  in  the  6th  century,  and  its  cathedral 
was  built  in  the  i2th  century. 

BEACHEY  HEAD  (Sea  -  fight).— A  French 
fleet,  commanded  by  Tourville,  consisting  of 
78  ships-of-war  and  22  fire-ships,  defeated  the 
combined  Dutch  and  English  squadrons,  under 
the  Earl  of  Torrington,  amounting  to  56  sail, 
off  Beachey  Head,  June  30,  1690.  The  French 
obtained  the  command  of  the  Channel,  and 
great  consternation  was  created  throughout 
England,  particularly  in  the  metropolis. 


William  III.  was  incensed  against  the  Earl 
of  Torrington,  who  was  tried  by  court-mar- 
tial, and  honourably  acquitted. 

BEACONS,  or  SIGNAL-FIRES,  are  referred 
to  by  Jeremiah  (vi.  i),  and  were  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  intelligence  of  the 
capture  of  Troy  is  represented  by  vEschylus 
as  having  been  conveyed  to  the  Peloponnesus 
by  signals  of  this  kind.  Coke  says  : — "  Before 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  they  were  but  stacks 
of  wood  set  up  on  high  places,  which  were 
fired  when  the  coming  of  enemies  was  de- 
scried ;  but  in  his  reign  pitch-boxes,  as  now 
they  be,  were,  instead  of  these  stacks,  set  up  ; 
and  this  properly  is  a  beacon."  An  act  of  the 
Scotch  Parliament,  in  1455,  prescribed  the 
mode  in  which  any  approach  of  the  English 
was  to  be  signalled  by  beacons.  The  erection 
of  beacons  once  formed  a  branch  of  the  royal 
prerogative,  but  by  8  Eliz.  c.  13  (1566),  the  cor- 
poration of  the  Trinity  House  were  empowered 
to  set  up  beacons,  or  sea-marks,  in  all  places 
where  ithey  deemed  them  necessary,  and  the 
penalty  for  destroying  them  was  the  fine  of 
;£ioo,  and,  in  case  of  inability  to  pay,  outlawry. 
They  were  sometimes  erected  on  the  towers  of 
churches.  The  eastern  beacon  nearest  London 
was  on  Shooters'  Hill ;  and  that  in  Middlesex 
on  Hampstead  Hill,  as  was  represented  in 
Hollar's  View  of  London  in  1666. 

BEADEN-HEAD  (Battle).— The  Kings  of 
Wessex  and  Mercia  fought  an  indecisive  battle 
at  this  place,  supposed  to  be  Great  Bedwyn, 
in  Wiltshire,  A.D.  675. 

BEADS,  made  of  various  materials,  were 
used  as  ornaments  amongst  ancient  nations, 
and  have  been  frequently  found  in  barrows, 
more  particularly  in  those  of  the  Druids,  in 
different  parts  of  England.  They  were  used 
for  devotional  purposes  by  the  Chinese,  Hin- 
doos, and  Egyptians  ;  and  Augustine,  in  the 
4th  century,  is  said  to  have  introduced  the 
practice  among  the  Christians.  According  to 
the  ioth  of  the  canons  of  Chelsea,  July  27, 
8 1 6,  seven  belts  of  paternosters  were  to  be  said 
for  the  repose  of  a  bishop.  About  the  year 
1200  St.  Dominic  introduced  the  rosary  (q.  v.). 

BEANDUNE  (Battle).— Cynegils,  King  of 
Wessex,  defeated  the  Britons  at  this  place, 
supposed  to  be  Bampton,  in  Oxfordshire, 
though  some  authorities  are  in  favour  of 
Bampton,  in  Devonshire,  in  614.  More  than 
2,000  of  the  Britons  fell  in  the  action. 

BEAR.— This  military  order  was  instituted 
at  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  by  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.,  in  1213,  St.  Ursus  being  the 
patron.  It  was  abolished  when  Switzerland 
threw  off  the  Austrian  yoke. 

BEAR-BAITING.— This  cruel  pastime  was 
very  popular  in  England  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  frequently  took  place  on  a  Sun- 
day, after  service.  In  Fitzstephen's  descrip- 
tion of  London — and  he  wrote  in  the  time  of 
Henry  II. — bear-baiting  is  enumerated  amongst 
the  sports  of  the  citizens  ;  and  Stow  speaks  of 
the  bear-gardens  as  being  much  frequented  in 
his  day.  The  act  against  cruelty  to  animals, 
5  <fe  6  Will.  IV.  c.  59  (Sep.  9,  1835),  inflicts  upon 
persons  keeping  bear-pits  a  fine  not  exceeding 
£6,  nor  less  than  ios.  per  day ;  and  the  4jth 
clause  of  the  act  for  improving  the  police  in 

K 


BEARD 


[     130    1 


BED 


and  near  the  metropolis,  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  47 
(Aug.  17,  1859),  giresthem  the  power  of  enter- 

I'.KARD  is  first  noticed  in   Lev.  xix.  27: 

"  Neither  .shiilt  tliou  mar  the  corners  of  thy 
beard/'  It  wits  held  in  veneration  amongst 
ancient  nations,  who  regarded  it,  as  ;in  einl)lein 
of  wisdom,  HIM!  :i  symbol  of  authority.  Sonic 
classes  of  the  Israelites  wore  long  beards 

(:•  Sam.  x.4&  5).  The  ancienfEgyptians  of  rank 

shaved  liolli  lii-ad  and  chin,  hut  used  wigs  and 
arlilicial  heards.  In  their  paintings,  <v.e.,  a 
.short,  s(|uan:  heard  denotes  a  man  of  rank,  one 
in  form  a  king,  while  a  god  is  distin 


guished  hy  a  heard  pointed  and  curled  up- 
wards at  the  end.  The  Assyrians  paid  great 
atlcnl  io:i  to  tin:  lirai-d,  which  was  adorned  by 

.iithy  with  gold  thread*  interwoven  with 

the    hair.    ''The    |{omans   shaved   the   heard    on 
attaining  their   majority,   dedicating   the    hair 
to  some  divinity.     The  Mowing  heards  and  ma- 
jestic mein    of  the    Human   senators   awed   the 
(ioths  on  their  invasion  of   Italy,  B.O.  390.    The 
fashion    of    the    heard    has    varied    greatly    at. 
dilfcrent  periods.     Tin;  ancient   Mritons  shaved 
the  chin,  hut  cultivated  t  hick  nmustachios  ;  t  he 
Saxons  wore  forked   heards.     Owen,  Hishop  of 
Kvreiix,   allowed    his  lieard   to  grow,  B 
of    mourning.         Francis    I.    (1515     ' 
Irndneed  the  fashion,  imit  at  "d   in    Kn;_dand,  of 
llie    hair    short,    with    a   thick   husliy 
heard.      In  the    Kli/abot  hall    period   the  custom 
of  dying  the   hcanl  was  general.      Sha;. 
(A    Midsummer-Night's  Dream,    i.   -.-)  :-\ 
"Your     straw-coloured     heard,    your    orange- 
tawny    heard,   your    purple  i:i  grain    b 
your    r'reneh  Crown  coloured    heard,   yoin-   per 
How."     Taylor,  the  watei-    poet,  dwells 
on  the  ''Teat  variety  of  hoards  in  his  day.      The 
heard  diminished    in   si/e,  and  gradually  went 
out.  of  fashion    in     !  r   the  reign  of 

Cliarles    1.     Tin;  fashion   has,   however,  of  late 
.  ived. 

BKARN  (France).—  This  province,  the  n.'unc 
of  which  is  derived  from  its  ancient 
IJcneharmim  C'/.  i\),  after  successively  forming 
a,  portion  of  the  territories  of  the  Unmans,  the 
(iolhs,  the  I1'  ranks,  and  the  (iascons,  was 
in  8-jo  into  an  independent  state,  under 
Ceiitiile  I.  In  1134  it  ]  Kissed  to  the  family 
of  Cabaret,  and  in  1170  to  the  lords  of  Mon- 
Oade,  from  whom  it,  was  transferred,  in  1290, 
to  the  house  of  Foix,  and  nit  imately,  in  1550, 
to  the  family  of  Bourbon.  Henry  IV.  annexed 
it  to  the  French  crown  in  1594,  and  Louis 
\  I  1  1.,  having  defeated  the  Huguenot  populace, 
contirmed  the  annexation  in  1620.  In  1813  it 
was  occupied  hy  the  British. 

BKAIIUKIJ  AIJBKY  (Hants)  was  founded 
hy  King  John  for  Cistercian  monks  in  1204. 
TMai-garet  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Henry  VI., 
took  sanctuary  here  after  the  hat  tie  of  Barnet, 
April  14,  1471,  and  Richard,  Duke  of  York,* 
after  his  failure  upon  Kxeter,  also  sought 
sanctuary  in  this  monastery,  Sep.  21,  1497. 

BKACNK  (I'rance).—  The  church  of  Notre 
Dame  was  founded  by  Henry  I.,  Duke  of 


+  The  slMlcincnt  Unit  In'  xvns  ;m  iniposlnr.  IIMIIIC.!  IVrkin 
Wnrhr.-k,  son  of  ;,  .Irw  of  Toiirn:i>  .  though  generally  re- 
ceived, clues  not  rest  upon  good  authority. 


ly,  in  976,  and  the  church  of  St. 
Pierre,  huilt  of  materials  taken  from  the 
ruins  of  an  old  Roman  temple,  was  completed 
in  1098.  Beaune  was  erected  into  a  commune 
in  1203.  A  fine  hospital  was  founded  hy 
Chancellor  Rollin  in  1443.  Beauno,  seized 
hy  the  Leaguers  in  1585,  was  sin-rendered  hy 
the  inhabitants  to  Henry  IV.  in  1595.  During 
the  i7th  century  it  was  a  flourishing  seat,  of 
mrumfactures,  carried  on  for  the  most  part 
hy  Protestants,  who  were  expelled  hy  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  Oct.  22, 
1685.  La  Madeleine,  the  last  ancient  gate  of 
this  city,  was  pulled  down  in  1837. 

BEAUVAIS  (France). —The  Ca'saromagus, 
or  I'.rat  1 1  span  tin  m  of  the  Romans,  was  taken  hy 
( ':esar  u.c.  57.  It  received  the  name  of  liellova- 
cujii  in  the  time  of  Cmistant hie  i.  The  hishojirie 
of  IJcauviiis  was  erected  in  the  3rd  century. 
It  was  assailed  hy  the  Northmen  in  850,  and 
after  undergoing  various  vicissitudes,  it  re- 
sisted an  attack  hy  the  Kuglish,  June  7,  1433. 
It  was  the  scene  of  the  Jacquerie  or  !'• 
war  in  i  ^H.  Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
laid  siege  to  it,  Saturday,  June  27,  1472, 
assaulted  it  in  vain  July  9,  and  after  making 
the  most  extraordinary  clt'orts,  was  compelled 
to  retire,  Wednesday,  July  72,  in  tl 
year.  The  women,  called  the  heroines  of 
•ie<l  themselves  during  the 

siege.      Jeanne     Laisne,    battle-axe    in     hand, 
Ofl  a  Piurgundian   standard,  for  which 
Bhfl     was    called     Jeanne     Hachette  ;     and     in 
honour  of  this  deed    of  daring,    a   pro. 
headed     by   girls    carrying  her    banner,    takes 
i    her    native  town    every  October.     A 
reoted  to  her  memory  in  1851. 

HKAYKK  DAM  N.  America).—  At  this  place, 
near  Queenstosvn,  ('apt.  Kerr,  with  a  force 
not  amounting  to  200  men,  captured  a  detach- 
ment ,,f  500  men  belonging  to  the  army  of 
the  I'nited  States,  June  24,  1813. 

P,i;cANCKU>K,  or  BACC  ANCELDB.  —  A 
council  summoned  by  Wihtred,  King  of  Kent, 
was  held  at  this  place  in  694,  to  consult  rc- 
I  he  bettering  of  Cod's  <  'hurch  in  thai, 
part  of  Kn-land.  Abbesses  took  part  in  its  de- 
liberations, and  fivesubscri.  '.  tut  ions 
in  the  form  of  a  charter,  drawn  up  on  the 
occasion.  Mapc.hild,  ill  Kent,  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  place  at  which  this  early 
synod  was  hold,  thon:.;li  some  authorities  are 
in  favour  of  ISeckenham,  in  t  he  same  county. 

P,i:CKASCO<;  Treaty,  renewing  the  con- 
vention of  llelsinborg,  dated  Aug.  31,  1805, 
was  concluded  between  (ireat  Britain  and 
Sweden,  at  Heckascog,  Oct.  3,  1805.  Sweden 
agreed  to  send  12,000  troops  into  I'OHM  rania 
to  co  operate  with  the  Russians  against  France, 
for  which  Kngland  was  to  furnish  an  annual 
subsidy,  at  the  rate  of  £12.  10*.  each  man  ; 
and  to  pay  for  preliminary  expenses  the  sub- 
sidy calculated  at  that  rate  for  five  months, 
on  the  ratification  of  the  treaty.  It  consisted 
ofj  10  articles,  and  by  the  ninth  England 
agreed  to  furnish  an  additional  ,£50,000  ster- 
ling for  the  purpose  of  improving  tne  defences 
of  Stralsund. 

BF.D  OF  JUSTICE,  the  seat  or  throne  on 
which  the  sovereign  sat  in  (he  Parliament  of 
France.  As  the  authority  of  the  rarliumeut 


BEDCHAMBER 


BEES 


ceased  when  the  king  was  present,  a  bed  o 
justice  came  to  signify  a  session  of  the  khi£ 
in  Parliament.  The  last  bed  of  justice  wa 
assembled  at  Versailles,  Nov.  19,  1787,  by  orde 
of  Louis  XVI. 
BEDCHAMBER.— ftta  LORDS  AND  LADIE 

OF    Till:     I '.Kuril  AMBER.) 

BEDKK  (Battle).— This  battle,  won  by  Mo 
h; u  ni  nod  over  the  Koreish  of  Mecca,  wa 
fought  between  that  town  and  Medina,  A.D 
623.  It  was  the  first  struggle  after  the  nigh 
from  Mecca,  and  was  represented,  from  thi 
great  disparity  in  numbers,  as  having  beei 
gained  by  miraculous  agency. 

BEDFORD.— The  Saxon  "Bedcanford,""th< 
lodging  at  the  ford,  "  so  called  from  its  situa 
tion  at  an  ancient  ford  of  the  Ouse.  Th< 
\\Vst  Saxons  and  the  I Jritons  fought  a  battle 
here  in  571.  The  town,  nearly  destroyed  b\ 
the  I  fanes  in  1010,  was  restored  by  Kdwan 
the  Klder.  Stephen  took  the  castle  in  1137 
during  bis  war  against  Matilda.  King  Join: 
ea]itureil  it  in  1216.  It  was  frequently!" 
Tim  Qrammar  School  was  founded  by  Kdwan 
VI.  in  1552.  John  Bunyan  preached  in  a 
chapel  here  from  1671 — 1688;  and  in  its  gaol 
on  the  site  of  which  a  new  one  has  beer 
erected,  wrote  "  The  Pilgrim's  Pi-ogress. ' 
The  bridge  was  rebuilt  in  1811. 

HKDKOU  I)  A  DM  I  N  I  STRATION.— (See 
GKKNVIU.K  ADMINISTRATION.) 

I : I : ! » I •< ) I ! I )  I . K V  EL,.— (See  DRAINAGE.) 

HKDK  AM.     <X>'c  BKTIII.KHKM  HOSPITAL.) 

I;I;D.\OI;K  (Hindoatan).— This  place,  made 
in  1645  the  seat  of  the  rajahs  of  Ikeri,  was 
captured,  with  a  large  amount  of  plunder,  by 
llyder  Ali  in  1763.  Though  he  ordered  the 
name  to  be  changed  to  Hydernagur,  it  still 
retains  its  former  appellation.  It  was  taken 
by  (leu.  Matthews  in  Jan.,  1783,  and  was 
retaken  by  Tippoo  Haib,  April  18,  in  the  same 
year.  In  1833  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Ivist  India  Company. 

1!KI>OIM.\S,  wandering  Arab  tribes,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  descendants  of  Ishmaol,  the 
"wild  man,"  whose  "hand  was  against  every 
man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him" 
((Jen.  xvi.  12),  B.C.  1910.  Their  mode  of  life 
lias  undergone  little  change  since  the  time  of 
Moses  (B.C.  1571 — 1451)  and  Mohammed  (A.D. 
570 — 632),  but  since  the  conquest  of  Northern 
Africa  in  the  7th  century  they  have  enjoyed  a 
wider  field  for  their  predatory  excursions, 
which  extend  from  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  (,SYf  ARABIA.) 

BKDKIACUM,  or  BEBRIACUM  (Battles).— 

The  first,  between  the  generals  of  Marcus 
Otho  and  Aulus  Vitellius,  rivals  for  the  im- 
perial sceptre,  was  fought  in  April,  A.D.  69, 
when  the  former  sull'ercd  a  defeat,  and  .Marcus 
Otho  committed  suicide  at  I  Sri  x  ell  nm,  April  17. 
The  second  was  fought  the  same  year,  between 
the  generals  of  Vitellius  and  Vespasian,  the 
latter  being  victorious.  Bedriacum  lay 
between  Verona  and  Cremona,  but  its  exact 
position  has  not  been  ascertained. 

BKDS.  —  The  earliest  practice  amongst 
ancient  nations  was  to  sleep  upon  the  skins  of 
beasts.  Among  the  Israelites  an  ordinary 
couch,  with  light  coverings,  served  the  pur- 
pose of  a  bed.  At  a  later  period  ivoiy  bed- 


steads were  used  by  the  wealthy  (Amos  vi.  4), 
B.C.  805.  They  were  sometimes  decked  with 
rich  hangings,  and  sprinkled  with  perfumes 
(Prov.  vii.  16  &  17).  The  Greeks  did  not  make 
use  of  pillows  until  about  B.C.  850.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  Roman  republic,  and  under  the 
empire,  when  simplicity  of  living  had  given 
place  to  Asiatic  luxury,  the  beds  of  the  opulent 
classes  were  most  costly  and  magnificent. 
Straw  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  the  royal 
chambers  iii  England  in  the  i3th  century. 
The  great  bed  of  Ware,  to  which  Shakespeare 
alludes  in  "Twelfth  Night  "— " Although  the 
sheet  were  big  enough  for  the  bed  of  Ware  in 
1 1.].-  land"  (act  iii.  sc.  2) — is  still  in  existence 
at  Ware,  and  will  hold  12  persons.  Air-beds 
were  invented  in  the  i8th  century,  and  the 
hydrostatic  or  water-bed,  by  Dr.  Arnott,  in 
1832. 

BEE  (Order  of  the)  was  instituted  at 
Sccaux,  by  Louise  of  Bourbon,  wife  of  Louis 
Augustus  of  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Maine,  June  4, 
1703.  It  was  intended  for  women  as  well  as 
men. 

BEEF-STEAK  CLUB  (London).— The  first 
of  this  name  was  established  in  the  reign  of 
c^iicen  A  nne,  and  is  described  in  Ward's  "Secret 
History  of  Clubs"  (1709).  Dick  Estcourt,  the 
actor,  who  died  in  1712,  was  its  first  providore. 
The  club  was  frequently  noticed  in  contem- 
porary literature,  and  appears  to  have  been, 
famous  for  the  jovial  character  of  its  meetings. 
The  Sublime  Society  of  the  Steaks  was  founded 
by  Henry  Rich  in  1735,  and  consisted  of  24 
members,  who  met  every  Saturday  in  a  room  at 
t  he  t  op  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  The  number 
was,  in  1785,  increased  to  25,  in  order  to  admit 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  who  joined  May  14.  Its 
archives  were  destroyed  when  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  was  burned,  Sep.  20,  1808.  After  the 
fire  they  met  at  the  Bedford  Hotel  till  apart- 
ments were  fitted  up  for  them  in  the  English 
>pera  House.  After  its  destruction  by  fire, 
Feb.  1 6,  1830,  they  returned  to  the  Bedford, 
until  the  Lyceum  Theatre  was  rebuilt  in  1834. 
A  beef-steak  club  became  a  kind  of  institution 
i  almost  every  theatre.  The  club  formed  by 
)r.  Johnson  in  Ivy  Lane,  in  1749,  was  at  first  a 
beef-steak  club.  (See  RUMP-STEAK  or  LIBERTY- 
LUB.) 

BKKR.— (See  ALE  and  BEER.) 

BEES  were  kept  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
who  used  hives  made  of  cork,  wood,  wicker, 
"n-on/e,  and  pottery.  By  9  Hen.  III.  c.  13  (1225), 
ivery  freeman  was  entitled  to  the  honey  found 
n  his  own  woods.    Huber,  the  blind  naturalist, 
y  whom  the  nature  of  bees  was  most  care- 
illy  studied,  discovered  the  existence  of  the 
wax  cells    in    1793.      The  Western   Apiarian 
Society  was  established  at  Exeter  in  1799. 

BEES,  ST.  (Cumberland).— This  ancient  town 
erives  its  name  from  Bega,  an  Irish  saint, 
vho  is  said  to  have  formed  a  small  monastery 
icre  A.D.  650.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes, 
id  restored  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  about 
120,  being  intended  for  Benedictine  monks. 
rdibishop  (Irindall,  who  died  A.D.  1583, 
ounded  the  grammar-school.  The  founder  s 
tatutes  were  afterwards  confirmed,  and  the 
•overnors  incorporated  in  1585.  The  college 
ras  established  in  1817. 

K  2 


BEET 


[    132 


BEGUINE3 


BEET-ROOT,  introduced  into  this  country 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century  as  a 
pickle,  salad,  and  for  feeding  cattle,  has  been 
extensively  used  on  the  continent  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar  (</.  •<•.). 

BEFFROI,  or  BELFRY.  —  This  movable 
tower,  with  different  stories,  used  in  besieging 
towns,  is  mentioned  by  Caesar.  Some  of  them 
were  of  extraordinary  height,  the  upper  story 
rising  above  the  walls  of  towns.  Gibbon 
speaks  of  one  employed  at  the  siege  of  Nicfea 
hi  1097,  and  Froissart  describes  another  used 
against  the  castle  of  Breteuil  in  1356.  They 
were  commonly  employed  during  the  Crusades. 
(See  BATTERING-RAM.) 

BlvFORT,  or  BELFORT  (France).  —  This 
town  of  Alsace,  which  belonged  in  the  i4th 
century  to  the  Counts  of  Fcrette,  was  taken 
by  the  Swedes  in  1632  and  1634.  In  1636  it 
was  seized  by  the  French,  to  whom  it  was 
ceded  by  Austria  in  1648,  and  having  been 
strongly  fortified  by  Vauban  in  1686,  was 
unsuccessfully  invested  by  the  allies  in  Jan., 
1814.  Lieut. -Col.  Caron  failed  in  a  conspiracy 
against  the  French  Government  at  this  place 
in  1821,  for  which  he  was  condemned  to  death 
Oct.  i,  1822. 

BEGGARS  have  in  all  ages,  and  amongst 
most  nations  of  which  any  record  remains, 
practised  various  arts  in  order  to  enlist  the 
sympathies  of  the  benevolent.  Severe  enact- 
ments have  from  time  to  time  been  passed 
it'.iinst  them.  By  12  Rich.  II.  c.  7  (1388), 
b  'ggars  able  to  work  were  ordered  to  be 
punished,  and  a  provision  was  made  for  the 
impotent.  Various  enactments  followed.  By 
22  lien.  VIII.  c.  12  (1530),  justices  of  the  peace 
might  issue  licenses  to  poor  and  impotent 
persons  to  beg  within  a  certain  precinct ;  they 
were  punished  if  they  went  beyond  the  limits, 
while  vagabonds  found  begging  were  to  be 
whipped  and  compelled  to  labour  ;  and  by  27 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  25  (1535),  persons  giving  alms  to 
beggars  were  to  forfeit  10  times  the  value. 
All  former  acts  were  repealed  by  i  Edw.  VI.  c.  3 
(1547),  arid  new  regulations  made.  These, 
however,  were  abandimed,  and  the  act "22 
Hen.  Vfll.  c.  12,  revived  by  3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c. 
16(1549—50).  By  14  Eliz.  c.  5  (1572),  vagabonds 
above  the  age  of  14  were  to  be  grievously 
whipped  and  burned  through  the  gristle  of  the 
right  ear  with  a  hot  iron.  A  second  offence 
was  punished  more  severely,  and  for  the  third 
they  were  to  suffer  death.  This  statute  was  re- 
pealed by  35  Eliz.  c.  7,  s.  24  (1593),  and  fresh  re- 
gulations were  made  by  39  Eliz.  c.  4  (1597).  All 
the  statutes  relating  to  rogues,  vagabonds, 
sturdy  beggars,  <fcc.,  were  reduced  into  one  law 
by  12  Anne,  st.  2,  c.  23  (1713),  which  was 
explained  and  amended  by  10  Geo.  II.  c.  28 
(1737);  and  enforced  by  13  Geo.  II.  c.  24  (1740). 
It  was  repealed  by  17  Geo.  II.  c.  5  (1744),  which 
made  fresh  provisions.  The  Vagrant  Act  5 
Geo.  IV.  c.  83  (June  21,  1824),  which  repeals 
all  former  acts,  and  lays  down  other  regula- 
tions, is  amended  in  some  particulars  by  i 
Viet.  c.  38  (July  27,  1838). 

BEGGARS  OF  THE  SEA.— (See  GUEUX.) 

BEGGAR'S  OPERA  was  written  by  John 
Gay,  and  produced  Jan.  29,  1728,  at  the  theatre 
in  Portugal  Row,  afterwards  street,  Lincohi's- 


Inn- Fields,  by  Henry  Rich,  having  been  refused 
by  Colley  Cibber  for  Drury  Lane.  It  ran  for 
62  nights,  32  being  in  succession.  Gay  received 
^693.  13.9.  6d.,  and  afterwards  sold  the  copy- 
light  of  the  opera,  with  some  fables  in  verse, 
for  .£94.  IDS.  Miss  Fenton,  the  original  "  Polly 
Peachum,"  retired  from  the  stage,  and  became 
Duchess  of  Bolton,  during  the  run  of  the  piece. 
Stanhope  (Hist,  of  Eng.  ii.  ch.  18)  attributes  it 
to"  the  resentment  of  Gay  against  the  queen, 
who  had  offered  to  him  the  appointment  of 
gentleman  usher  to  one  of  the  princesses,  a 
child  of  about  two  years  of  age.  The  post 
was  an  easy  one,  and  the  salary  ^200  per 
annum.  Gay  was  induced  not  only  to  refuse 
this  offer  of  "an  honourable  sinecure,"  but 
to  resent  it  as  an  insult.  "  Soon  afterwards," 
says  Lord  Stanhope,  "he  joined  the  opposi- 
tion, and  declared  his  quarrel  by  the  pro- 
duction of  the  '  Beggar's  Opera,'  teeming 
witli  s.-itirical  strokes  against  the  court  and 
government.  The  name  of  '  Bob  Booty,'  for 
example,  always  raised  a  laugh,  being  under- 
stood as  levelled  at  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  The 
first  idea  of  the  opera  seems  to  have  sprung 
from  a  suggestion  of  Swift  (Spence's  Anecdotes, 
p.  159),  but  the  praise  of  its  execution  belongs 
entirely  to  Gay."  It  was  said  to  have  "made 
Gay  rich,  and  Rich  gay,"  in  allusion  to  the 
author  and  manager. 

BEGHARDS,  BKGUARDS,  or  BEGUINES, 
is  a  term  applied  to  several  religious  orders,  as 
well  as  heretics,  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  probably  first  used  to  describe  those  half 
monks  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  who 
arose  in  the  nth  century.  They  must  not  be 
confounded  with  later  sectaries,  a  branch  of 
the  Fraticelli,  condemned  by  the  Fifteenth  Ge- 
neral Council,  that  of  Vienne,  in  1311  and  1312. 
This  mislako  was  so  often  made  at  the  time 
that  Pope  John  XXI.  or  XXII.,  by  a  decretal  of 
1322,  declared  the  last-mentioned  to  be  exe- 
crable impostors,  and  in  no  way  connected  with 
the  Beghards  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis. 
Mosheim  shows  that  the  name  is  derived  from 
the  old  German  word  l»<jri<  n  or  l>t<t<j<-rm,  to  beg, 
with  the  word  hard  subjoined  ;  and  that  it 
signified  to  beg  earnestly  and  heartily;  and 
he  accounts  by  this  derivation  for  the  indiscri- 
minate manner  in  which  it  was  applied  to  so 
many  orders  and  sects.  The  subject  is  involved 
in  almost  inextricable  confusion,  as  the  student 
or  inquirer  will  discover  if  he  attempts  to 
reconcile  the  conflicting  accounts  of  different 
authorities. 

BEGUINES,  or  BEGUTT7R,  praying  ladies, 
as  Mosheim  calls  them,  arose  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  spread  through  France  and  Germany 
during  the  i2th  and  isth  centuries.  They 
were  pious  women,  virgins  or  widows,  who 
formed  themselves  into  societies,  under  the 
direction  of  a  superior  of  their  own  sex.  The 
first  establishment  of  which  any  record  re- 
mains was  at  Nivelles,  in  Brabant,  founded, 
according  to  some  authorities,  in  1207,  and 
according  to  others  in  1226.  They  soon  became 
so  numerous  that  Matthew  Paris  speaks  of 
2,000  Beguines  in  Cologne  and  its  neighbour- 
hood about  the  year  1243.  The  example  set  by 
the  ladies  was  soon  followed  by  the  men,  and 
a  society  of  Beghards  (q.  r.),  consisting  of  both 


BEHAR 


BELFAST 


bachelors  and  widowers,  was  formed  at  Ant- 
werp in  1228.  They  were  known  under  various 
appellations  in  different  parts  of  the  Continent, 
where,  although  they  spread  rapidly,  they 
never  became  so  numerous  as  the  Beguines. 
As  a  natural  consequence,  the  Beghards  and 
Beguiiies  became  infected  with  heretical  opi- 
nions, and  declined  from  the  simple  rule  of  life 
observed  in  the  earlier  days  of  their  organiza- 
tion. The  Popes  tolerated  and  sometimes 
interfered  to  protect  them  from  their  numerous 
enemies  ;  but  they  suffered  persecution  and 
gradually  diminished  in  numbers,  although  a 
few  remain  to  this  day  in  parts  of  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  Germany. 

BEHAR.— (See  BAHAR.) 

BEHISTUN  (Media).— Semiramis,  during 
her  supposed  march  from  Babylon  to  Ecbatana, 
about  B.C.  2017,  is  said  to  have  halted  at  this 
city,  the  name  of  which  signifies  "the  place 
of  God,"  and  to  have  engraved  upon  a  neigh- 
bouring mountain,  called  by  the  Romans 
Bagistanus  Mons,  several  rock  tablets  of  which 
no  traces  remain.  Rawlinson,  who  ascribes  a 
much  later  date  to  Semiramis  (see  ASSYRIA), 
supposes  that  these  inscriptions  "were  pro- 
bably either  Assyrian  or  Babylonian,  and  (it  is 
most  likely)  resembled  the  ordinary  monu- 
ments which  the  kings  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh 
delighted  to  erect  in  countries  newly  con- 
quered." (Ancient  Monarchies,  iii.  32).  Darius, 
King  of  Persia,  commenced  a  fine  series  of 
cuneiform  sculptures,  B.C.  516,  which  Sir  H. 
Rawlinson  deciphered  as  a  statement  of  the 
monarch's  ancestral  right  to  the  Persian 
throne.  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  visited 
this  spot  on  his  march  from  Susa  to  Ecbatana, 
about  B.C.  330.  The  rock  also  bears  an  inscrip- 
tion commemorating  a  victory  gained  in  the 
neighbourhood  by  Gotarzes,  a  Parthian  prince 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidse,  over  his  rival 
Meherdates,  A.D.  50. 

BEHMENITES,  disciples  of  Jacob  Behmen, 
or  Bohine,  the  mystic,  who  was  born  at  Alt- 
Seidenberg,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in  1575,  settled 
at  GOrlitz  as  a  shoemaker  in  1595.  In  1610  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  a  series  of  works 
in  which  he  professed  to  enjoy  a  revelation  of 
inward  light  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  enabled 
him  to  perceive  the  secrets  of  nature  and 
religion.  He  was  opposed  by  Gregorius 
Richter,  primate  of  Gorlitz,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  to  Dresden,  but  returned  to 
his  home,  where  he  died,  Sunday,  Nov.  18, 
1624.  His  works  were  first  published  in  a 
collected  form  in  1675.  The  Rev.  W.  Law, 
an  ardent  advocate  of  Behmen's  theological 
doctrines,  stated  in  1756,  in  the  second  edition 
of  his  "  Appeal  to  all  that  doubt  or  disbelieve 
the  Truths  of  the  Gospel,"  that  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  was  a  student  of  Behmen,  and  had 
derived  some  portions  of  his  philosophy  from 
his  works. 

BEHMUS  HEIGHTS  (Battle).— During  the 
American  revolutionary  war,  Gen.  Burgoyne 
defeated  the  Americans  at  Behmus  Heights, 
011  the  Hudson,  Sep.  19,  1777. 

BEHRING'S  STRAIT,  connecting  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  the  Arctic  Sea,  was  discovered  by 
Vitus  Behriiig,  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  Rus- 
sian service,  in  1728.  Capt.  Cook  surveyed 


it  in  1788.  On  an  island  in  the  N.  Pacific, 
named  after  him,  Behring  was  wrecked  Nov. 
3,  1741,  and  died  of  exhaustion  Dec  8. 

BEILAN' (Battle).— Ibrahim  Pasha  defeated 
36,000  Turks  under  Hussein  Pasha  at  this  place 
in  Syria,  July  29,  1832.  All  their  cannon  and 
baggage  were  seized,  and  they  were  afterwards 
unable  to  muster  10,000  men. 

BEITlR.— (See  BETHAR.) 

BEJA  (Portugal),  the  ancient  Pax  Julia, 
was  captured  by  the  Moors  in  1145,  and  re- 
taken by  Sancho  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  in  1189. 
The  see,  which  is  known  to  have  been  in  ex- 
istence in  the  6th  century,  as  Aprigius  was 
bishop  in  540,  was  suppressed  in  1647,  and 
restored  in  1770. 

BEJAPORE  (Hindostan).— This  town  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  an  independent  Mus- 
sulman state  of  the  same  name.  Its  founder, 
Yusuf,  built  the  citadel  in  1489.  In  1566  the 
walls  were  completed  by  Ali  Adil  Shah,  who 
died  in  1579.  Auruiigzebe  took  Bejapore  in 
686,  and  annexed  it  to  Delhi,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  the  Nizam  in  1724,  and  ceded 
to  the  Mahrattas  in  1760.  In  1818  Bejapore 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  who 
assigned  it  to  the  Rajah  of  Satara,  but  resumed 
possession  on  the  'extinction  of  that  royal 
house  in  1848. 

BELCHITE  (Battle).— The  Spanish  army, 
under  Gen.  Blake,  was  assailed  at  this  town 
in  Spain  by  the  French,  commanded  by  Suchet, 
June  1 6,  17,  and  18,  1809,  and  on  the  last- 
mentioiied  day  the  Spanish  army  took  to  flight 
without  firing  a  shot. 

BELEM  (Portugal). — This  town,  on  the 
Tagus,  forming  a  fashionable  suburb  of  Lisbon, 
was  the  port  whence  Vasco  de  Gama  sailed  on 
his  expedition  of  discovery,  July  8,  1497. 
King  Emanuel  of  Portugal  established  a  church 
and  monastery  here  in  1499.  It  was  taken  by 
the  French  under  Junot,  Nov.  30,  1807,  and 
was  occupied  by  Don  Pedro's  forces  in  1833. 
(See  PARA.) 

BELFAST  (Ireland).— The  earliest  mention 
of  Belfast  occurs  in  1315,  when  Edward  Bruce, 
on  the  invitation  of  the  native  Irish,  landed 
at  Carrickfergus,  and  wasted  Belfast  and 
other  towns.  In  1476  the  castle  was  destroyed 
by  O'Neill ;  and  again  in  1503  by  Gerald,  Earl 
of  Kildare,  who  returned  in  1512  and  com- 
mitted still  further  ravages.  In  1552  the 
castle  was  repaired  and  garrisoned,  and  given 
by  Edward  VI.  to  Hugh  McNeill.  In  1613 
Belfast  was  incorporated  by  James  I.,  and 
sent  two  members  to  the  Parliament  of  that 
year.  The  "Great  Bridge  of  Belfast,"  which 
consisted  of  21  arches,  was  founded  in  1682,  and 
seven  of  the  arches  fell  in  10  years  afterwards, 
1692.  The  first  edition  of  the  Bible  printed  in 
Ireland  is  that  of  Belfast,  1704.  The  castle 
was  burned  April  4,  1708.  The  first  Belfast 
newspaper  was  published  in  1737.  The  old 
Exchange  was  built  by  the  Earl  of  Donegal  in 
1769.  Cotton  manufacture  was  introduced  in 
1777.  The  savings  bank,  established  in  1811, 
was  one  of  the  first  in  Ireland.  The  museum 
was  built  in  1830.  Queen's  College  was  opened 
for  the  reception  of  students  in  November, 
1849.  Religious  riots  occurred  July  14,  1852  ; 
and  in  July,  August,  and  September,  1857,  the 


BELFORT 


BELIZE 


town  was  the  scene  of  a  series  of  riots,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  opposition  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  to  the  attempts  of  some  Protestant 
ministers  to  introduce  open-air  preaching. 
Fire  destroyed  the  Victoria  Chambers,  Belfast, 
causing  a  loss  of  ^100,000,  July  i,  1859.  It 
was  one  of  the  centres  of  the  so-called  religious 
revivals,  in  Sep.,  1859.  On  the  installation  at 
Dublin  of  the  .statue  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  Aug. 
8,  1864,  the  Orangemen  of  Belfast  burned  his 
effigy,  whereupon  the  Roman  Catholics  at- 
tacked the  procession  and  the  Protestant 
churches.  Riots  ensued,  which  were  not  sup- 
pressed till  Aug,  19.  Nine  lives  were  lost,  and 
176  persons  were  wounded. 

BELFORT.— (See  EFFORT.) 

BELFRY.— (See  BEFFROI.) 

BELG-iE. — This  ancient  Celtic  people,  origin- 
ally settled  in  Germany,  passed  at  an  early 
period  into  Gaul,  whither  they  were  attracted 
by  the  superior  fertility  of  the  soil.  Csesar, 
who  quartered  his  legions  in  their  country 
during  the  winter  B.C.  54—55,  describes  them 
as  one  of  the  three  great  tribes  among  whom 
Gallia  was  distributed.  He  also  refers  to  a 
nation  of  Bclg;u  as  inhabiting  the  southern 
portions  of  Britain,  but  the  history  of  this 
people,  and  its  identity  or  otherwise  with  the 
Gallic  tribe  of  the  same  name,  is  involved  in 
obscurity. 

BELGIUM.— -Thia  country,  the  Galba  Bel- 
gicvi  of  the  Romans,  occupied  by  Celtic  and 
German  tribes,  after  undergoing  various 
changes  (see  FLAXI>I-:;:S,  UOU.AVP,  the  NKTHHI- 
r.ANiis,  ami  the  UNITED  PKOVIXC  i:s  ,  was,  by 
treaty  of  July  21,  1814,  united  with  Holland. 
The  Dutch  and  Belgian  elements  would  not 
combine,  and  the  outbreak  of  tho  French 
Revolution  proved  the  signal  for  a  separation. 

1830,  Aug.  2v    An  insurrection  breaks  out  nt  Brussels. — 

Sep.  99.  The  separation  from  Holland  is  resolved 
upon. — Oct.  Hi.  Arrangements  are  made  for  a  nn- 
tioual  congress. — <  >H.  -!".  The  insurgents  take  Ant- 
werp.— Nov.  10.  Tin-  national  emigres*  at  Brussels 
proclaims  the  independence  ol  tin-  Belgian  penpie. 

— Dec.  20.  The  conference  of  the  great  powers  as- 
sembled at  London  interferes  to  prevent  war  be- 
Iweeii  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  recognizes  the 
independence  of  Belgium. 

1831,  Feb.  •?.    The    Belgian   Congress  choose   the   Duke  of 

Nemours  for  king.— Feb.  25.  M.  Surlet  de  Chokler 
is  installed  Regent  of  Belgium. — June  4.  Louis 
Philippe  havinir  refused  to  sanction  the  election 
of  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  L'rince.  LeopoM  of  Saxe 
Coburg  is  chosen  kin;;. — July  31.  1'rince  Leopold 
of  Coburg  is  installed  at  Brussels.— Aug;  4.  Re- 
newal of  hostilities  with  the  King  of  Holland.— 
Aug.  23.  A  French  army  of  50,000  men  assists  the 
Belgians,  and  a  truce  is  resolved  upon. — Nov.  15. 
The  great  powers  conclude  a  treaty  at  London 
with  Belgium,  defining  the  limits  of  the  new 
kingdom. 
18-53.  Nov.  -50.  The  siege  of  Antwerp. 

1833.  Great  distress  prevails  among  the  Belgian  manufac- 

turers in  consequence  of  the  cessation  of  trade 
with  Holland. 

1834,  April  6.  Riots  take  place  in  Brussels. 

1838.  Commercial  panic,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  bank 

of  Belgium. 

1839,  April  19.  Holland  concludes  a  treaty  with  Belgium. 
1846,   "ee.  Terrible  famine  in  Belgium. 

1850,  Aug.  Calamitous  floods  in  Belgium. 

1851,  Oct.  27-  A  treaty  of  commerce  is  concluded  at  Lon- 

£on  between  Great  Britain  and  Belgium. 
1853,  Aug.  10.  Queen  Victoria  visits  Belgium. 
1853,  Aug.  22-    Marriage  of   the   Duke  of   Brabant,   heir 

apparent  of  Belgium,  with  the  Archduchess  Maria 

of  Austria. 


1857,  May  19.  The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  introduce  a  bill 
placing  the  administration  of  public  charities  in 
their  power. — June  13.  It  is  abandoned  in  conse- 
quence of  its  unpopularity. 

1860,  June  17.    Deputies  from  all   the  Belgian   provinces, 

assembled  at  Brussels,  decide  upon  forming  a 
league  for  the  preservation  of  national  inde- 
pendence. 

1861,  Oct.   19.    The  King  of  Belgium  meets  the  King  of 

Holland  at  Liege. 

1 86s,  July  23.  A  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain  is 
signed  at  London. 

1863,  June  18.  Leopold  1.  having  been  appointed  to  arbi- 
trate between  Great  Britain  and  Bra/.il.  awards  in 
favour  of  the  latter  country.  (.s>p  BRAZIL.) — 
Aug.  II— Sep.  10.  Queen  Victoria  visits  Belgium. 

1865,  Dec.  lo.  Death  of  Leopold  I.,  who  is  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  Duke  of  Brabant,  under  the  title  of 
Leopold  II.— Dec.  16.  Funeral  of  Leopold  I.,  at 
Laekeii.— Dec.  17.  Leopold  II.  takes  the  constitu- 
tional oath  as  King  of  the  Belgians. 

KINGS  OF  BELGIUM. 
1831.  Leopold  I. 
1865.   Leopold  II. 

BELGRADE,  or  THE  WHITE  CITY  (Servia), 
built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Singidunum, 
destroyed  by  the  Avars  in  the  6th  century,  was 
founded  in  1372.  John  Huiiiades  defended  it 
against  Mohammed  II.  from  July  22  to  Sep.  4, 
1456.  The  latter  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of 
40,000  men,  and  Gibbon  remarks,  "the  joyful 
nations  celebrated  Huniades  and  Belgrade  as 
the  bulwarks  of  Christendom."  The  Turks 
captured  it  Aug.  20,  1521;  the  Austrian s  ob- 
tained possession  in  1688;  but  the  Turks 
recovered  it  in  1690.  Prince  Eugene  invested 
Kelgrade,  June  19,  1717,  defeated  the  Turkish 
army  sent  for  its  relief,  Aug.  16,  and  entered 
the  town  the  following  day.  By  a  humiliating 
treaty  it  was  restored  to  the  Turks  in  Sep.,  1739. 
The  Austrians  retook  it  Oct.  8,  1789,  and  re- 
stored it  to  the  Turks  in  1791.  The  Servians 
seized  it  in  1806 ;  but  in  1813  it  reverted  once 
more  to  the  Turks.  A  dispute  between  the 
Turks  and  Servians  broke  out  here  June  15, 
1862,  in  consequence  of  the  assassination  of  a 
Servian  youth  by  a  Turkish  soldier.  The  Turks 
were  driven  into  the  citadel,  whence  they 
commenced  bombarding  the  town,  and  an 
armistice  was  concluded  June  18. 

BELGRADE  (Treaty).  —  This  humiliating 
peace,  dictated  at  the  point  of  the  sword,  was 
concluded  between  Austria,  Russia,  and  Tur- 
key in  Sep.,  1739,  the  definitive  treaty  having 
been  signed  Sep.  18.  Austria  ceded  Servia, 
Wallachia,  with  Belgrade  and  other  fortresses, 
and  Russia  restored  her  conquests  to  the  Porto 
and  renounced  her  pretensions  with  respect  to 
the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  was  the 
most  glorious  treaty  the  Turks  had  ever  made 
with  any  European  power. 

BELIZE,  or  BALIZB  (Central  America).— 
This  settlement,  otherwise  called  British  Hon- 
duras, was  founded  by  the  logwood  cutters  of 
Yucatan,  Honduras,  and  Nicaragua,  shortly 
before  1674,  when  it  was  visited  by  Dampier. 
In  1754  an  invading  expedition  of  1,500  Span- 
iards was  defeated  by  a  body  of  250  English 
settlers.  A  second  attack  was  made  Sep.  15, 
1779,  when  the  inhabitants  were  overcome,  and 
removed  in  large  numbers  to  Merida  and  Ha- 
vana, where  many  died  in  captivity.  In  1783 
the  settlement  was  again  thriving,  and  after 


BELL 


[     135     1 


BELLS 


repeated  altercations  with  its  Spanish  Ameri- 
can neighbours,  repulsed  another  formidable 
attack,  made  by  a  fleet  of  13  vessels  and  a  land 
force  of  2,000  men,  July  10,  1798.  After  this 
victory,  Belize  was  suffered  to  remain  in 
comparative  tranquillity,  and  it  was  specially 
excepted  from  the  treaty  concluded  at  Wash- 
ington, June  29,  1850,  by  which  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  mutually  agreed  "  not 
to  occupy,  fortify,  or  colonize  any  part  of 
Central  America." 

BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE.— (See  ANA- 
THEMA AND  EXCOMMUNICATION.) 

BELL  ROCK  LIGHTHOUSE.— (See  INCH- 
CAPE  ROCK.) 

BELLAIR  (Battle).— Capt.  Sir  Peter  Parker, 
at  the  head  of  120  men,  landed  from  the 
Menelaus,  at  anchor  in  the  Chesapeake,  and 
attacked  the  Americans  posted  at  Bellair,  near 
Baltimore,  Aug.  30,  1814.  The  enemy,  who 
appeared  in  greater  force  than  had  been  antici- 
pated, were  put  to  flight.  Capt.  Parker  was 
killed,  and  the  expedition  returned,  carrying 
away  their  wounded. 

BELLEGARDE  (France).— This  barrier  for- 
tress, near  the  Pyrenees,  was  taken  by  Peter 
III.  of  Aragon,  in  1285.  The  Spaniards  regained 
possession  in  1674,  but  were  expelled  by 
Marshal  Schomberg  in  1675.  Louis  XIV.  con- 
structed the  present  fortress  in  1679.  The 
Spaniards  captured  it  June  25,  1793,  and  Du- 
gommier,  at  the  head  of  the  French  republicans, 
regained  possession  Sep.  17,  1794. 

BELLE  ISLE  (Atlantic).— This  island,  off  the 
coast  of  France,  belonged,  in  the  gib.  century, 
to  the  Count  of  Cornouailles,  who  bestowed  it 
on  the  abbey  of  Quimperle.  The  monks  ceded 
it  to  Marshal  Retz  in  the  i6th  century,  and  it 
was  sold  to  Fouquet  in  1638.  The  Dutch  cap- 
tured it  in  1674.  Fouquet's  grandson,  Marshal 
Belleisle,  ceded  it  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  in 
1718.  A  French  fleet  was  defeated  off  Belleisle 
by  an  English  squadron  under  Sir  E.  Hawke, 
Nov.  20,  1759.  The  English  having  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  land,  April  8,  1761,  succeeded  April 
22,  and  the  whole  island  surrendered  June  7. 
It  was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 

BELLMEN.  —  Stow  says  that  Alderman 
Draper  set  up  the  first  bellman  in  Cordwainer 
Street  Ward,  in  January,  1556.  The  number 
was  speedily  increased,  and  the  bellman  was 
often  attended  by  a  dog.  He  was  added  to  the 
London  watch,  and  went  through  the  streets 
and  lanes  ringing  his  bell,  and  crying,  "  Take 
care  of  firq  and  candle  ;  be  kind  to  the  poor, 
and  pray  for  the  dead."  It  was  also  a  part  of 
the  bellman's  office  to  bless  the  sleepers  as  he 
passed  their  doors.  Milton  refers  to  this  in 
"  II  Penseroso : "— 

"The  bellman's  drowsy  charm, 
To  bless  the  doors  from  nightly  harm." 

BELLOT  STRAIT  (Antarctic),  connecting 
Prince  Regent's  Inlet  with  Peel  Sound  or 


Franklin  Channel,   was  discovered  by  Capt. 
"by  him  after 
Joseph  Rene  Bellot,  a  French  naval  officer,  who 


Kennedy  in   1851,  and  named  by  him  after 


joined  the  expedition  which  sailed  from  Eng- 
land in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  in  May 
1851.  Lieut.  Bellot  sailed  in  Capt.  Inglefield'i 


expedition  in  1852,  and  perished  in  a  deep 
crack  in  the  ice,  Aug.  18,  1853.  A  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  front  of  Green- 
wich Hospital  in  1855. 

BELLOVACI.— This  Gallic  tribe,  referred  to 
by  Csesar  as  the  chief  of  the  Belgic  peoples, 
aad  their  capital  at  Bratuspantium.  Their 
territory  was  invaded,  and  their  chief  city  cap- 
tured, by  Julius  Csesar  B.C.  57.  They  revolted 
B.C.  51,  but  were  again  reduced  to  subjection. 

BELLOWS  are  represented  in  the  paintings 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  were  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  ascribed  their 
invention  to  Anacharsis  the  Scythian,  the 
contemporary  of  Solon,  B.C.  594.  During  the 
1 3th  century  bellows-blowers  were  regular 
officers  of  the  royal  kitchens  of  England. 
Wooden  bellows,  which,  from  the  greater 
strength  of  their  material,  are  better  adapted 
than  those  made  of  leather  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  were  introduced  in  Germany  in  the 
1 6th  or  1 7th  century,  their  invention  being 
variously  ascribed  to  Hans  Lobsinger,  of  Nu- 
remberg, about  1550  ;  to  a  Bishop  of  Bamberg 
before  1620 ;  and  to  the  brothers  Martin  and 
Nicholas  Schelhorn,  about  1630.  The  Trompe, 
or  Water-bellows,  was  invented  in  Italy  about 
the  year  1640.  Smeaton  constructed  large 
bellows  or  blowing  machines,  worked  by  steam 
or  water  power,  for  the  Carron  iron -foundry,  in 
1760.  The  hot-blast,  discovered  by  Neilson  in 
1827,  was  patented  by  him  in  1829. 

BELLS  were  in  use  amongst  ancient  nations 
both  for  religious  and  other  purposes.  They 
are  first  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Exodus. 
The  Egyptian  monuments  do  not,  however, 
itain  any  appearance  of  them,  but  small 
bells  have  been  discovered  both  in  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  tombs,  and  it  appears  from  their 
bas-reliefs  that  the  Assyrians  also  used  them 
to  decorate  their  horses.  The  Chinese  claim 
to  have  used  bells  as  early  as  B.C.  2000.  Bing- 
ham  rejects  as  a  vulgar  error  the  story  that 
they  were  first  introduced  into  the  Christian 
Church  by  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  about 
A.D.  400,  and  believes  that  they  were  not 
known  long  before  the  7th  century.  Benedict, 
Abbot  of  Wearmouth,  brought  one  from  Italy 
to  England  in  680.  Ingulphus  relates  of  Tur- 
ketul,  Abbot  of  Croyland,  who  died  in  975, 
that  he  had  a  very  large  bell  made,  called 
Guthlac,  and  that  this,  with  six  others,  soon 
afterwards  added,  produced  such  an  exquisite 
harmony  that  England  had  no  such  peal  of 
bells  in  those  days.  William  of  Malmesbury 
speaks  of  the  bells  given  to  the  churches  by 
Dunstan.  The  custom  of  consecrating,  anoint- 
ing, and  baptizing  bells,  giving  them  the  name 
of  some  saint,  Bingham  shows  to  be  a  modern 
invention.  Baronius  himself  does  not  assign 
the  date  earlier  than  the  year  968,  when  John 
XIII.  consecrated  the  great  bell  of  the  Lateran 
church,  naming  it  John.  The  Turks  have  a 
saying  that  "bells  drive  away  good  spirits 
from  the  abodes  of  men,"  and  do  not  allow 
them  to  be  used.  The  Greek  Church,  under 
their  dominion,  employ  various  modes  of  sum- 
moning people  to  service.  In  the  isth  century 
bells  of  enormous  size  were  cast.  In  olden 
times  many  superstitions  were  connected  with 
the  ringing  of  bells.  It  was  believed  to  be 


BELMONT 


[    136    1 


BENEDICTINES 


>ug  in  dispelling  tempests.  By  7  &  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  75  (June  14,  1827),  the  court  of  the 
Company  of  Watermen  were  required  to  erect 
and  maintain  a  bell  at  Billingsgate,  and  an- 
other at  Gravesend  ;  the  former  to  be  rung  at 
high  water,  and  the  latter  at  first  flood.  The 
following  are  the  most  celebrated :  — 

A.D. 

1507.  Breslau. 
l6So.  linifivs. 

1448.    Colo.'me.. 

1453.  Duntzic. 
1497.  Erfurth. 
1675.  Exeter. 
1457.  HallHTstadt. 
1610. 


A.D. 

1636.  Lucerne. 

1847.  Montreal. 

1653  and  '734-  Moscow  (great 

1680.  Oxford. 

1680.  Paris  (Xotre  Dame). 

1711.  Vienna. 

1856.  Westmmster(BigBen). 

1845.  York. 


Lincoln  (Torn). 
1834.  Lincoln  (new  bell). 
1716.   London  (St.  Paul's). 

(See  RINGING  OF  BELLS.) 

BELMONT  (Battle).—  Gen.  Grant  defeated 
the  Confederates  at  this  place,  in  Missouri. 
Sep.  7,  1861.  The  Federals  lost  84  killed,  288 
wounded,  and  235  missing  ;  and  the  Confede- 
rates 632  men. 

BELOOCHISTAN  (Asia\—  This  country,  the 
ancient  Gedrosia,  called,  according  to  Rawlin- 
son,  Kusaii,  through  the  Sassaniaii  period,  is 
now  known  as  Beloochistan,  the  country  of  the 
Beloochees  or  Belus.  Its  early  history  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity,  llajee  Mohammed  Khan, 
a  kind  of  lieutenant  of  Nadir  Shall,  was  assas- 
sinated in  1739,  by  his  brother  Nusseer  Khan, 
who  obtained  the  chief  authority.  In  1758  he 
declared  Beloochistan  independent,  and,  after 
a  struggle,  succeeded  in  concluding  a  treaty 
with  the  Affghan  monarch.  Under  his  suc- 
ISeloochistaii  lost  several  of  its  pro- 
vinces. Owing  to  the  hostile  and  treacherous 
attitude  assumed  by  the  government  and 
people  towards  the  English  in  their  advance 
through  the  iiolan  Pass,  Kelat.  the  chief  town 
of  Beloochistan,  was  captured  Nov.  13,  1839, 
and  temporarily  occupied.  The  Beloochees 
regained  possession  July  27,  1840;  but  it  was 
recovered  by  the  English  Nov.  3,  1840,  and 
held  by  them  until  the  conclusion  of  the  Ali- 
ghan  war. 

BELPBB  (Derbyshire),  anciently  named 
Beaupoire,  or  Bollc-repaire,  was  the  seat  of  a 
residence  of  Edmund  Crouchback,  Earl  of 
Lancaster,  who  died  in  1296,  and  was  a  fa- 
vourite resort  of  the  celebrated  John  of  Gaunt, 
who  died  Feb.  3,  1399.  The  plague  carried  off 
51  persons  between  May  i  and  Sep.  30,  1609. 
Belper  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  ;  and  the  mills  of  the 
Messrs.  Strutt  were  erected  in  1776.  In  1795 
a  flood  carried  away  the  bridge  over  the  Der- 
went,  which  has  since  been  replaced  ;  and  a 
fire  occasioned  much  injury  Jan.  12,  1803.  The 
poor-house  was  erected  in  1803  ;  the  church, 
founded  Oct.  31,  1822,  was  opened  Sep.  6,  1824; 
and  the  national  school  and  gaol  were  built  in 


B9EN 


NARES  (Hindostan).—  The  holy  city  of 
the  Hindoos,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  ancient  seat  of  Brahmiii- 
ical  learning,  is  studded  with  mosques  and 
temples,  whilst  thousands  of  pilgrims  flock  to 
it  annually  to  wash  away  their  sins  in  the 
waters  of  the  Ganges.  It  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  East  India  Company  May  21, 


1775.  The  Sanscrit  College  was  founded  in 
1792,  and  an  English  department  was 
in  1832.  The  37th  Regiment  of  Native  Infantry, 
and  the  i3th  Irregular  Cavalry,  and  Loodiaiiah 
Sikhs,  mutinied  here  June  4,  1857.  Owing  to 
the  energy  displayed  by  Gen.  Neill,  the  su- 
premacy of  the  English  was  maintained. 

BKNCOOLEN  (Sumatra).— The  East  India 
Company,  on  being  expelled  from  Bantam, 
formed  a  settlement,  afterwards  called  Fort 
Marlborough,  at  this  place  in  1683.  It  was 
much  enlarged  in  1695.  The  natives  massacred 
a  large  portion  of  the  settlers  in  1719.  Ben- 
coolen  and  other  English  settlements  in  the 
island  were  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1760. 
They  were,  however,  again  restored.  By  the 
gth  article  of  the  treaty  between  England  and 
the  Netherlands,  concluded  at  London  March 
17,  1824,  they  were  ceded  to  the  Dutch  in  ex- 
change for  their  settlements  on  the  continent 
of  India.  The  respective  settlements  were  to 
i  u])  .March  i,  1825. 

BKXDKIi  (Bessarabia^.—  Varnitza,  the  re- 
treat of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  after  his  defeat 
of  Pultowa  (July  8,  1709),  is  situated  near  this 
place.  Having  refused  compliance  with  the 
sultan's  order  to  quit  the  town,  he  was  attacked 
in  Feb.,  1713,  by  an  army  of  6,000  Turks  and 
20,000  Tartars,  who  subdued  his  guard  of  600 
Swedes,  and  carried  him  captive  to  Demotika, 
whence  he  returned  the  following  year  to 
Sweden.  Bender  was  taken  by  the  Russians 
Sep.  28,  1770,  and  was  restored  to  the  Turks  in 
1774.  A  .sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at  Tobak, 
near  Bender,  between  the  Turks  and  K 
in  1789,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 
Bender  itself  surrendered  in  the  middle  of  No- 
vember. It  was  again  captured  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  1809,  and  was  finally  ceded  to  them  by 
the  tTv.ttv  of  Bucharest.  May  28,  1812. 

BENEDICTINES.— This  order  of  monks  was 
founded  by  St.  Benedict  or  Bennet,  born  at 
Nursia  in  480,  who  introduced  monachism  into 
Western  Europe,  and  erected  his  first  monastery 
on  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Apollo  on  Monte 
Casino,  about  50  miles  from  Subiaco,  in  Italy, 
A.D.  529.  The  order  spread  rapidly  in  Europe  ; 
St.  Benedict  himself  founded  sevei-al  monas- 
teries, and  his  example  was  followed  by  others. 
The  monks  took  the  vows  of  chastity,  obe- 
dience, and  poverty.  By  some  authorities  the 
Benedictines  are  said  to  have  been  introduced 
into  England  by  Augustine  in  596,  and  by 
others  the  event  is  assigned  to  a  later  period, 
Duiistan  (925 — 988)  being  considered  the  first 
English  abbot  of  that  order.  Edgar  (958—975) 
is  said  to  have  founded  above  40  Benedictine 
convents.  Milman,  referring  to  the  beautiful 
spots  chosen  for  their  monasteries,  says  :— "  In 
general,  if  a  district  in  England  be  surveyed, 
the  most  convenient,  most  fertile,  most  peace- 
ful spot  will  be  found  to  have  been  the  site  of 
a  Benedictine  abbey."  Towards  the  end  of  the 
8th  century  they  had  become  so  numerous 
that  Charlemagne  caused  inquiry  to  be  made 
whether  any  other  kind  of  monks  existed  than 
those  of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict.  The  aus- 
terity of  their  rule  soon  became  relaxed,  and 
Matthew  Paris  mentions  a  reformation  that 
was  attempted  in  1238.  Their  merits  in  col- 
lecting, preserving,  and  multiplying  copies  of 


BENEFICE 


[    137    1 


BENEHARNUM 


classical  manuscripts  must  not  be  forgotten ; 
and  the  order  is  every  way  distinguished  for 
the  numerous  services  rendered  to  literature. 
There  were  several  branches  of  the  Benedictines 
living  under  the  same  rule,  but  observing  a 
different  discipline  ;  the  chief  being  the  Clu- 
niacs,  established  in  912,  and  brought  into 
England  in  1077 ;  the  Carthusians,  founded  in 
1080,  and  introduced  into  England  in  1180;  and 
the  Cistercians  or  Bernardines,  founded  in 
1098,  and  brought  into  England  in  1128.  The 
habit  of  the  Benedictines  was  black,  and  from 
this  circumstance  they  have  been  called  Black 
Monks,  or  the  Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict.  Ac- 
cording to  an  inquiry  instituted  by  Pope  John 
XXI.  or  XXII.  (1316—1334),  this  order  had  at 
that  time  produced  20  emperors,  10  empresses, 
47  kings,  50  queens,  24  popes,  68  princes,  100 
princesses,  200  cardinals,  7,000  archbishops, 
15,000  bishops,  15,000  abbots,  and  4,000  saints, 
besides  a  host  of  other  dignitaries,  both  in 
church  and  state.  There  were  nuns  as  well  as 
monks  of  this  order. 

BENEFICE.— An  estate  held  by  feudal 
tenure  was  originally  termed  a  benefice,  which 
at  length  came  to  signify  the  ecclesiastical 
estate  granted  to  a  clergyman  for  term  of  life, 
to  be  enjoyed  by  him  on  account  of  his  ministry 
in  the  Church.  Lord  Coke  says  benefice  is  a 
large  word,  and  is  taken  for  any  ecclesiastical 
promotion  whatever.  The  custom  of  endowing 
churches  arose  in  the  time  of  Justinian,  about 
A.D.  500.  Towards  the  end  of  the  i2th  century 
the  bishops  of  Rome  issued  mandates,  re- 
questing that  particular  benefices  might  be 
conferred  upon  their  nominees.  This  was 
speedily  assumed  as  a  right,  and  Clement  V. 

^[305 — 1314)  claimed  the  disposal  of  all  bene- 
ces.  This  claim  was  resisted,  more  particu- 
larly in  England,  and  the  statute  of  provisors 
of  benefices  (25  Edw.  III.  st.  6),  passed  in  1351, 
was  aimed  against  this  system.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  enactments  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter. The  temporary  submission  of  former 
sovereigns  to  the  claim  had  inundated  the 
country  with  Italians  and  other  foreign  clergy. 
The  statute  of  provisors  was  confirmed  by 
3  Rich.  II.  c.  3  (1380) ;  and  by  7  Rich.  II.  c.  12 
(1383),  it  was  enacted  that  no  alien  should  be 
eligible  to  purchase  or  to  be  presented  to  any 
ecclesiastical  preferment  within  the  realm. 
The  most  terrible  abuses  arose  on  account  of 
the  pretensions  of  the  Pope  respecting  the  pre- 
sentation to  benefices.  Milman  (Lat.  Christ, 
vol.  vi.  b.  xiii.  c.  3), -treating  on  Boniface  IX. 
(1389 — 1404),  says,  "  The  smaller  benefices  were 
sold  from  the  day  of  his  appointment  with 
shameless  and  scandalous  notoriety.  Men 
wandered  about  Lombardy  and  other  parts  of 
Italy,  searching  out  the  age  of  hoary  incum- 
bents, and  watching  their  diseases  and  infirmi- 
ties. For  this  service  they  were  well  paid  by 
the  greedy  aspirants  at  Rome.  On  their  report 
the  tariff  rose  or  fell.  Benefices  were  sold  over 
and  over  again."  A  distinction  between  bene- 
fices and  cathedral  preferments  is  drawn  in 
i  &  2  Viet.  c.  106,  s.  124  (Aug.  14,  1838),  and  in 
a  later  act,  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  98,  s.  3  (Aug.  14, 
1850),  the  word  "a  benefice"  is  explained  to 
signify  a  benefice  with  cure  of  souls  and  no 
other. 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.— The  exemption  of 
the  clergy  from  secular  jurisdiction  was  one  of 
the  privileges  claimed  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Milman  remarks  (Lat.  Christ,  vol.  iii. 

b.  viii.  c.  8),   "Crimes  of   great  atrocity,  it  is 
said  of  great  frequency,  crimes  such  as   rob- 
bery and  homicide,  crimes  for  which  secular 
persons  were  hanged  by  scores  and  without 
mercy,  were  committed  almost  with  impunity, 
or  with  punishment  altogether  inadequate  to 
the  offence,  by  the  clergy;  and  the  sacred  name 
of   clerk  exempted  not  only  bishops,  abbots, 
and  priests,  but  those  of  the  lowest  ecclesias- 
tical rank  from  the  civil  power."    The  system, 
gradually  introduced  into  this  country  after 
the  Norman  conquest,  gave  rise  to  many  abuses. 
Not  only  the  clergy,  but  clerks  and  all  members 
of  the  laity  who  could  read,  in  cases  in  which 
capital  punishment  was  awarded,  were  at  length 
entitled  to  claim  benefit  of  clergy,  so  that  when 
the  penalty  of  death  was  to  be  rigidly  enforced, 
the  statute  expressly  intimated  that  it  was 
without  benefit  of  clergy.    On  the  introduction 
of  the  custom  the  claim  was  not  allowed  unless 
the  prisoner  appeared  in  his  clerical  habit  and 
tonsure.   When  ability  to  read  became  the  test, 
this  ceremony  ceased,  and  he  was  merely  re- 
quired to  read  from  a  psalter  or  some  other 
book  before  the  judge.     By  4  Henry  VII.  c.  13 
(1489),  it  could  only  be  pleaded  once  by  persons 
not  in  orders,  and  by  4  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2  (1512),  it 
was  denied  to  murderers  and  felons.     Abjurers 
in  cases  of  treason  were  not  allowed  benefit  of 
clergy,  by  28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i  (1536),  and  the 
same  statute  placed  persons  in  holy  orders,  in 
respect  to  many  offences,  exactly  on  the  same 
footing  as  the  laity.     Women  were  allowed  to 
plead  benefit  of  der^y  by  3  &  4  Will.  &  Mary, 

c.  9,  s.   6  (1691),  and  by  4  &  5  Will.  &  Mary, 
c.  24,  s.  12  (1692),  women  were  only  allowed  to 
plead  benefit  of  clergy  once.     Both  these  sta- 
tutes were  made  perpetual  by  6  <fc  7  Will.  III. 
c.  14,  s.  i  (1695).     The  practice  of  requiring  the 
prisoner  to  read  from  a  book  was  abolished  by 
5  Anne,  c.  6,  s.  4  (1706).     Benefit  of  clergy  was 
abolished  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27,  s.  6  (June  21, 
1827),  and  4  Viet.  c.  22  (June  21,  1841),  removed 
all  doubts  as  to  the  liability  of  peers  to  punish- 
ment for  felony.     It  was  abolished  in  Ireland 
by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  54,  s.  12  (July  15,  1828). 

BENEFIT  SOCIETIES.— Provident  associa- 
tions among  the  working  classes,  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  assistance  in  sickness 
and  distress,  existed  in  Scotland  as  early  as 
1634  and  1659,  when  two  societies  were  esta- 
blished at  Boroughstoness.  In  England  they 
originated  among  foreign  workmen  who  had 
settled  in  the  country,  and  had  no  claim  upon 
the  poor-rates,  several  associations  having  been 
formed  by  the  French  Protestants  who  took 
refuge  in  England  after  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.  They  were  first 
brought  under  government  control  by  Rose's 
Act,  33  Geo.  III.  c.  54  (June  21, 1793).  Numerous 
associations  partaking  of  the  character  of 
benefit  societies  are  described  under  their 
respective  titles.  (See  BUILDING  SOCIETIES, 
FORESTERS,  Ancient  Order  of,  FREEMASONRY, 
FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES,  GUILDS,  ODD  FELLOWS, 
&c.,  &c.) 

BENEHARNUM  (France),  an  ancient  town, 


BENEVENTO 


[    138    ] 


BENGAL 


first  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  be- 
tween B.C.  44  and  B.C.  19,  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  in  the  6th  century,  and  gave  to  the 
country  of  which  it  formed  the  capital  its 
modern  name  of  B6arn  (q.  v.). 

BENEVENTO  (Italy).— The  ancient  Benc- 
vcntum  was  made  the  capital  of  a  duchy  by 
Alboin,  King  of  Lombardy,  A.D.  571.  In  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  the  duchy  embraced  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  Arrechis,  its 
reigning  duke,  saved  it  from  the  French  yoke  ; 
and  though  defeated  at  Amalphi  in  786,  pre- 
served his  dominions  by  doing  homage.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  Saracens  in  874,  and  being 
severely  pressed,  a  fearless  citizen  dropped 
from  its  walls,  passed  through  the  enemy,  be- 
sought aid  of  the  Greek  emperor,  and  was  re- 
turning with  a  favourable  answer  when  he  was 
made  prisoner.  His  captors  offered  him  a  rich 
reward  to  betray  his  countrymen,  but  as  soon 
as  he  was  led  within  hearing  he  cried  in  a  loud 
voice, — "Friends  and  brethren,  be  bold  and 
patient ;  maintain  the  city  ;  your  sovereign  is 
informed  of  your  distress,  and  your  deliverers 
are  at  hand.  I  know  my  doom,  and  commit 
my  wife  and  children  to  your  gratitude."  lie 
had  scarcely  uttered  the  words  when  he  fell 
transfixed  by  the  spears  of  the  Saracens.  It 
was  a  bishopric  until  969,  when  it  was  made 
the  seat  of  an  archbishopric.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Normans,  and  declared  in  favour  of  Pope 
Leo  IX.  in  1050.  Robert  Guiscard  besieged  it 
in  1078,  and  Pascal  II.,  expelled  from  Rome  in 
1117,  sought  refuge  at  Benevento.  It  was  ceded 
to  Rome  in  1139,  and  taken  by  Frederick  II.  in 
1240.  Charles  of  Anjou,  supported  by  France, 
defeated  Manfred,  King  of  Sicily,  who  was 
slain  in  a  great  battle  near  it,  Feb.  26,  1266. 
The  city  itself  was  sacked,  and  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  both  sexes  took  place.  The  French 
seized  it  in  1798,  but  it  was  restored  to  the 
Pope  in  1815.  In  1806  the  principality  was 
conferred  by  Napoleon  I.  on  Talleyrand,  with 
the  title  of  Prince  of  Benevento.  Councils 
were  held  here  Aug.  i,  1059;  in  Aug.,  1087; 
March  28,  1091  ;  Aug.  12,  1108;  in  April,  1117; 
and  March  10,  IIIQ. 

BENEVENTUM  (Italy) .  — This  important 
city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  during 
the  third  Samnite  war,  B.C.  298 — B.C.  272. 
Pyrrhus  was  defeated  near  it  B.C.  275,  and  it 
was  made  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  268.  The  Car- 
thaginians were  defeated  in  the  neighbourhood 
B.C.  214,  and  B.C.  212.  It  suffered  frequently 
from  the  ravages  of  war.  The  arch  of  Trajan 
was  erected  A.D.  114.  The  city  was  sacked  in  545, 
during  the  Gothic  invasion.  (See  BENEVENTO.) 

BENEVOLENCE,  though  nominally  a  free 
gift,  was,  in  fact,  a  forced  loan.  The  old 
Chronicler  of  Croy land  records,  amongst  other 
events  of  1473,  the  introduction  of  a  new  and 
unheard  of  impost,  by  which  every  one  was  to 
give  "  just  what  he  pleased,  or  rather,  just 
what  he  did  not  please,  by  way  of  benevolence." 
Hallam  (Middle  Ages,  iii.  ch.  8,  pt.  3)  gives 
Edward  IV.  the  credit  of  having  introduced 
this  new  method  of  obtaining  the  subjects' 
money,  under  the  plausible  name  of  benevo- 
lences, and  says  "  that  they  came  in  place  of 
the  etUl  more  plausible  loans  of  former  mon- 


archs,  and  were  principally  levied  on  the 
wealthy  traders."  This  form  of  exaction  soon 
became  intolerable,  and  was  annulled  for  ever 
by  i  Rich.  III.  c.  2  (1484),  though  this  monarch 
had  recourse  to  it  in  order  to  raise  money  to 
carry  on  the  war  against  the  Earl  of  Rich- 
mond in  1485.  Henry  VII.  was  the  first 
English  king  who  obtained  the  sanction  of 
Parliament  to  a  benevolence,  and  this  he 
effected  in  1492.  By  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  10  (1495), 
proclamation  was  to  be  made  against  de- 
faulters, requiring  them  to  pay  the  sum  due 
within  three  months,  and  in  default  they  were 
to  be  imprisoned,  without  bail,  until  payment 
was  made  or  sufficient  sureties  obtained.  In 
case  of  death  the  goods  and  chattels  of  a 
defaulter  became  chargeable.  Wolsey  exacted 
several  benevolences  between  1522  and  1525. 
In  the  latter  year  an  extraordinary  demand 
caused  much  discontent,  and  the  citizens  of 
London,  who  appealed  to  the  statute  against 
benevolences,  passed  in  Richard  the  Third's 
reign,  were  told  that  he  was  a  usurper,  and 
coiiseqriently  that  his  laws  were  not  binding 
011  the  king.  In  1545  Henry  VIII.  exacted 
another  benevolence,  which  was  very  un- 
willingly paid.  Elizabeth  wisely  abstained 
from  the  practice,  but  James  I.  raised  one  in 
1614.  This  method  of  obtaining  supplies  was 
declared  illegal  by  the  Petition  of  Right  in 
1689  ;  and  i  Will.  &  Mary  st.  2,  c.  2.  (1689), 
declared  the  levying  of  money  without  the 
authority  of  Parliament  illegal. 

BENGAL  (Hiiidostan).— This  province  was 
conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  1203,  and 
became  independent  in  1340. 

A.D. 

1517.  Some  Portuguese  are  cast  upon  the  coast  of  Bengal ; 

their  >hi|»  eiiler  the  Ganges. 
1536.  Nine  Portuguese  ships  are  sent  to  assist  Mahmoud 

Shah. 

1580.  Bengal  is  made  a  dependency  of  Delhi. 
1620.  An  attempt  made  to  establish  a  factory  at  Patna 

fails. 
1634.  The  English  obtain  permission  to  trade  to  Piplee,  in 

(Irissa.  where  a  factory  is  built. 

1640.  An  English  factory  is  established  on  the  llooghley. 
1652.  The  English  obtain  great  influence  in  Bengal. 

•igal  is  placed  under  Madras. 
1664.  The    French    and    Danes  form    establishments    in 

Bengal 
1681.  Bengal  is  made  an    agency  distinct  from  Fort  St 

George,  Madras. 
1686,  Dec.  20.  The  council  remove  from  the  llooghley  to 

Calcutta  (q.  v.). 
1(187,  Sep.  The  Ilooghley  factory  is  resumed. 

1  ><•<•.  The  factories  in  Bengal  are  abandoned. 
1690.  The  Company's  agents  return  to  C'huttaiinuttee,  and 

are  allowed  to  erect  a  factory. 
1700.  Chuttannuttce,  Govindpore,  and  Calcutta  are  granted 

to  the  Company. 

1707.  The  garrison  is  increased  to  300  men. 
1726.  A  mayor's  court  is  established  in  Bengal. 
1765,  Aug.  12.    By  the  treaty  of  Allahabad,  the  Company 

nre  empowered  to  receive  the  revenues  of  Bengal, 

Bahar,  and  Orissa. 

1772,  The  Company  assume  direct  authority. 

1773,  July  I.  Bengal  is  made  the  chief  presidency  in  India. 

1774,  Aug.  I.  The  new-  arrangements  commence  in  Bengal. 
1793.  The  permanent  settlement  is    introduced   by  Lord 

Cornwallis. 

GOVERNORS   OF  BENGAL. 
1749.  Alexander  Dawson. 
1752.  William  Eytclie.    He  died  Aug.  8,  and  was  succeeded 

by  Koger  Drake. 
1757.  Watts,   Manimigham,  Becker,  and  Holwell  govern 

alternately,  each  for  four  months. 


BENIN 


BERG 


1758.  Robert,  afterwards  Lord  Clive. 

1760.  John  Zephaniah  Holwell,  retired  July  37,  when  Mr. 
Henry  Vansiltart  succeeded. 

1764.  John  Spencer. 

1765.  Lord  Clive  again. 
1767.  Harry  Verelst 
1769.  John  Cartier. 

1773,  April  13.    Wan-en  Hastings  is  appointed  to  succeed 
him.    (See  INDIA.) 

BENIN  (W.  Africa).  —  This  country,  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  the  year 
1485,  was  first  visited  by  English  traders  in 
1553.  In  1588  a  company  was  established  by 
Elizabeth  for  opening  trade  with  this  country, 
and  a  ship  and  pinnace  accomplished  a  voyage 
for  the  purpose.  The  French  settlements, 
formed  in  1786,  were  destroyed  by  the  British 
in  1792.  The  traveller  Belzoni  died  in  Benin 
Dec.  8,  1823.  In  1840  the  Benin  River  was 
explored  by  Capt.  Becroft,  who  ascended  both 
its  branches  in  a  steamer,  and  an  agreement 
for  the  navigation  of  the  river  was  concluded 
April  4,  1851.  Owing  to  the  prevalence  of 
slave  piracy  the  coast  of  this  region  was 
blockaded  by  an  English  squadron  from  Dec.  6, 
1851,  till  Feb.  ii,  1852. 

BENNINGTON  (Battle).—  A  party  of  Hessians 
were  defeated  at  this  place  in  Vermont,  by  the 
Americans,  July  16,  1777. 

BEXSINGTON  (Battle).  — Offa,  Ethelbald's 
successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Mercia,  having 
subdued  Kent,  reduced  the  more  powerful 
kingdom  of  Wessex  by  the  defeat  of  Cyne- 
wulph,  at  Bensington,  in  Oxfordshire,  A.D.  777. 
This  victory  rendered  him  master  of  all  the 
territory  north  of  the  Thames. 

BENTONVILLE  (Battle).  —  Gen.  Sherman 
defeated  the  Confederates  in  a  series  of  battles 
fought  near  this  town  in  North  Carolina, 
March  18 — 21,  1865.  The  Confederates  lost 
1,892,  and  the  Federals  1,646  men. 

BENZINE,  originally  obtained  from  coal 
gas  by  Professor  Faraday  in  1825,  has  since 
been  employed  by  M.  Beschamps,  Dr.  Hof- 
mann,  and  others,  in  the  production  of  ani- 
line (c/.  v.). 

BERAN-BIRIG  (Battle). —Fought  between 
the  Britons  and  Saxons  at  this  place,  supposed 
to  be  Barbary  Hill,  near  Marlborough,  Wilts, 
though  some  authorities  are  in  favour  of 
Banbury,  Oxfordshire,  in  556.  Henry  of 
Huntingdon  says  that  the  Britons  formed  their 
battle  array  in  nine  battalions,  three  being 
posted  in  the  van,  three  in  the  centre,  and 
three  in  the  rear,  the  archers,  slingers,  and 
cavalry  being  arranged  in  the  Roman  order. 
The  Saxons  came  on  in  a  compact  body,  and 
charged  with  such  fury  that  the  standards 
were  dashed  together,  and  a  hand-to-hand  fight 
ensued.  The  battle  lasted  till  nightfall,  with- 
out any  decisive  result. 

BERBICE  (S.  America)  was  discovered  by 
the  Spanish  navigator  Pinzon  in  1499,  and 
the  Dutch  formed  a  settlement  in  1580.  The 
English  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  in  1634, 
but  withdrew  in  1667.  The  French  attacked 
the  colony  in  1690  and  in  1712,  on  each  occa- 
sion levying  a  contribution.  An  insurrection 
of  the  negroes  occurred  in  Feb.,  1762,  when 
they  destroyed  a  large  amount  of  property. 
Berbice  surrendered  to  an  English  expedition 


May  2,  1796  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch 
by  the  third  article  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens, 
March  25,  1802.  It  was  again  taken  Sep.  23, 
1803  ;  and  retained  by  an  agreement  con- 
cluded at  London,  between  England  and  the 
Netherlands,  Aug.  13,  1814.  With  Demei-ara 
and  Essequibo  it  was  formed  into  one  colony 
in  1831,  under  the  name  of  British  Guiana 
(q.  v.). 

BEREANS.— A  sect  of  dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  founded  in  1773  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Barclay,  who  died  in  1798.  They 
believe  that  the  Bible  is  the  sole  source  of 
information  respecting  the  existence  and 
attributes  of  the  Deity,  that  the  Psalms  relate 
exclusively  to  Christ,  and  that  unbelief  is  the 
unpardonable  sin.  Their  title  was  adopted  in 
imitation  of  the  ancient  Bereans,  who  "  re- 
ceived the  word  with  all  readiness  of  mind, 
and  searched  the  Scriptures  daily  "  (Acts  xvii. 
n).  They  are  also  known  as  Barclayans. 

BERENGARIANS.— The  followers  of  Beren- 
garius,  Archdeacon  of  Angers,  who,  about 
1047,  denied  the  real  presence  in  the  Eucha- 
rist. He  was  excommunicated  by  a  council 
at  Rome,  May  2,  1050.  The  cause  was  tried 
again  in  a  council  held  at  Tours  in  1055,  when 
Berengarius  is  said  to  have  recanted,  and 
to  have  been  reconciled  to  the  Church.  At  a 
later  period  he  persisted  in  maintaining  the 
views  he  had  previously  advocated,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  again  summoned  before  a  council 
at  Rome  in  1059,  an<^  to  have  once  more 
recanted.  He  again  wrote  in  defence  of 
his  former  opinions,  and  was  condemned  at 
councils  held  at  Angers,  April  4,  1062  ;  at 
Rome,  in  1063  ;  at  Poitiers,  in  1073  ;  at  Rome, 
in  Nov.,  1078,  and  Feb.,  1079,  when  he  is  said 
to  have  made  a  confession  of  faith ;  and  at 
Bordeaux,  in  1080,  when  he  made  another 
exposition  of  his  faith.  It  is  probable  that 
some  of  the  above-mentioned,  councils  did  not 
deal  with  Berengarius,  who  died  in  communion 
with  the  Church,  Jan.  6,  1088. 

BERESINA  (Battle).— The  French,  during 
their  retreat  from  Russia,  were  defeated  at 
this  river  with  great  slaughter,  Nov.  26,  27, 
and  28,  1812.  Such  scenes  of  carnage  and  de- 
struction as  those  of  the  night  of  the  28th  and 
the  following  days  have  seldom  been  witnessed. 
The  camp-followers, — men,  women,  and  child- 
ren,— terrified  by  the  Russian  artillery,  pressed 
forward  to  the  bridges,  one  of  which  broke 
down,  and  thousands  were  precipitated  into 
the  stream.  On  the  return  of  spring  above 
12,000  bodies  were  taken  out  of  the  bed  of 
the  river,  near  the  place  where  the  struggle 
occurred. 

BERG  (Germany)  was  ruled  by  counts  for 
many  years,  and  on  the  failure  of  the  first 
line  in  1348,  devolved  on  the  princes  of  Juliers. 
It  was  raised  to  a  duehy  in  1380.  Juliers  was 
incorporated  with  it  in  1423,  and  they  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  dukes  of  Cleves  on 
the  failure  of  the  Juliers  line  in  1511.  The 
Cleves  line  became  extinct  in  1609,  and  after  a 
long  contention,  the  elector  palatine  and  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  in  1666,  agreed  to 
divide  the  possessions,  the  former  taking  Berg. 
It  was  merged  in  Bavaria,  the  elector  of  which 
ceded  it  to  France  in  1806 ;  and  Napoleon  I. 


BERGAMO 


[     140    ] 


BERLIN 


raised  it  into  a  grand-duchy,  and  conferred  it 
with  other  territory  upon  Murat,  March  15 
in  that  year.  Murat  went  to  Naples  in  1808. 
This  grand-duchy  was  extinguished  in  1815, 
and  the  territories  were  transferred  to  Prussia. 

BERGAMO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Bergomum, 
was  ravaged  by  Attila  A.D.  452.  A  council  was 
held  here  July  5,  1311.  Under  the  Lombard 
rnonarchs  it  was  made  the  capital  of  a  duchy. 
It  was  annexed  to  Venice  in  1428,  and  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1509.  The  Venetians 
having  succeeded  in  re-occupying  it,  the 
French  again  obtained  possession  in  1512  ;  but 
it  once  more  fqll  into  the  power  of  the  Vene- 
tians in  1515.  Bergamo  revolted  March  12, 
1797 ;  was  incorporated  with  the  (Jis-alpine 
republic  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  Oct. 
18,  1797  ;  was  given  to  Austria  in  1814 — 15,  and 
ceded  by  that  power  to  Sardinia  in  1859.  It 
was  a  bishop's  see  in  the  early  Church.  It  had 
two  cathedrals,  the  oldest  destroyed  by  the 
Venetians  in  1561.  The  other  was  founded  in 
896. 

BERGEN  (Battles).— The  first  battle  of  the 
name  was  fought  at  Bergen,  near  Frankfort-on- 
the-Maine,  in  Germany,  between  the  allied 
English  and  Germans  under  Prince  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick,  and  the  French  under  the  Duke 
of  iJruglio  and  Conlades,  April  13,  1759.  The 
former  retired  from  the  contest,  but  were  not 
pursued  by  11  it.:  French.  The  a  cmul  was  fought 
between  Bergen  and  Alkmaar  </.  V.  ,  in  the 
north  of  Holland,  Sep.  19,  1799.  The  Duke  of 
York,  commanding  the  Russian  and  British 
troops,  attacked  the  French  and  Dutch  under 
Gen.  Bruno.  The  Russians  tied  in  disorder, 
but  the  English  obtained  some  advantages. 
15oth  armies,  however,  at  night  resinned  the 
po:>it  ions  they  had  occupied  before  the  battle. 

In    the    third    battle,    fought    at    tin 
place  Oct.  2,  1799,  the   Duke  of  York,  with 
30,000    English    and    Russians,    engaged  and 
defeated  Gen.    Bruno,   at   the  head  of  25,000 
French  and  Dutch  troops. 

I.KKGKN  (Norway)  was  founded  in  1070,  and 
during  the  i2th  and  13!!!  centuries  was  the 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Norway.  The  mer- 
chants of  the  Hanse  towns  obtained  great 
privileges  in  the  way  of  trade  in  1278,  and 
these  were  confirmed  and  extended  in  1343. 
From  this  time  they  obtained  an  ascendancy, 
which  was  destroyed  by  a  law  passed  by 
Frederick  II.  of  Denmark,  July  25,  1560.  It 
lias  several  times  suffered  from  the  ravages  of 
pestilence  and  fire.  The  former  committed 
great  ravages  in  1348,  1353,  1618,  1629,  and 
1637 ;  and  a  fire  that  broke  out  May  19,  1702, 
destroyed  the  larger  portion  of  the  town. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM  (Holland  .—This  strong 
fortress  was  unsuccessfully  assailed  by  the 
Duke  of  Parma  in  1581  and  in  1588,  and  by 
Spinola  in  1622.  The  French  captured  it  Sep. 
17,  1747  ;  and  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapclle  Oct.  18,  1748.  It 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1795. 
Sir  T.  Graham  carried  it  by  storm  March  8, 
1814,  but  some  of  the  troops,  having  broken 
into  the  wine-shops,  were  overcome  by  wine, 
and  the  garrison,  taking  fresh  courage,  expelled 
the  assailants.  It  was  surrendered  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 


BERGERAC  (France).— The  Earl  of  Derby 
(John  of  Gaunt)  defeated  the  French  at  this 
place  in  Guienne  in  1344.  So  great  was  tho 
booty  on  the  occasion  that  the  Earl  of  Derby  is 
said  to  have  obtained  a  pipe  of  gold.  The 
French  recovered  Bergerac  in  1371  ;  but  the 
English  recaptured  it,  and  were  not  finally 
expelled  until  1450.  It  became  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  the  Huguenots.  Louis  XIII. 
captured  it  in  1621,  and  demolished  its  forti- 
fications. 

BERGERAC  (Treaty).— Concluded  at  Berge- 
rac between  the  Huguenots  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  Sep.  17,  1577.  Protestants  were 
allowed  to  practise  their  religion  in  those 
places  in  which  it  was  tolerated,  on  the  day 
the  treaty  was  signed,  though  its  exerciso 
was  entirely  prohibited  in  Paris,  or  within 
TO  leagues  of  the  city.  The  nobility  were  free 
to  follow  the  Protestant  worship  in  their  own 
1  louses.  These  and  other  points  were  settled 
by  the  treaty,  which  in  the  end  satisfied 
neither  party.  It  is  also  called  the  treaty  of 
Poitiers. 

BERKIIAMPSTEAD  (Herts).— A  council  was 
held  here  A.D.  697,  convened  by  Wihtred,  King 
of  Kent.  Several  constitutions  were  passed, 
and  amongst  them  one  ordering  the  suspension 
of  any  priest  who  deferred  the  baptizing  of 
children  beyond  the  proper  time. 

BLKLIN  (Prussia  .—This  city  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Albert  tho  Bear,  Mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg.  The  Elector  Frederick 
William  improved  and  embellished  it,  1640 — 
1688;  and  Frederick  III.,  who  erected  Piu/sia 
into  a  kingdom  in  1701,  and  became  its  first 
king  under  the  title  of  Frederick  I.,  greatly 
extended  its  area.  The  French  and  AustrLais 
1  Berlin  Oct.  17,  1757.  The  Austrians 
and  Russians  captured  it  Oct.  9,  1760,  and 
having  committed  various  depredations,  retired 
Oct.  13.  Napoleon  I.  entered  Berlin  Oct.  21, 
1806.  An  insurrection  broke  out  during  the 
revolutionary  troubles  on  the  Continent,  June 
15,  1848.  A  state  of  siege,  proclaimed  Nov.  ::>, 
lared  illegal  by  tho  Legislative  Cham- 
ber April  25,  1849.  The  equestrian  statue  of 
Frederick  the  Great  was  inaugurated  May 
31,  1851.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  was  founded 
in  1702  ;  the  bank  in  1765  ;  and  the  university 
in  1 8 10. 

BERLIN  (Treaties).— Several  treaties  have 
been  concluded  at  this  city,  the  principal 
being  the  peace  between  Prussia,  Poland,  and 
Hungary,  by  which  the  former  obtained  Sile- 
sia, July  28,  1742  ;  the  treaty  of  union  and 
confederation  for  maintaining  the  indivisibi- 
lity of  the  German  empire,  caused  by  the 
attempt  of  Austria  to  exchange  her  possessions 
in  the  Netherlands  for  the  duchy  of  Bavaria, 
which  was  signed  at  Berlin  July  23,  1785,  by 
the  King  of  Prussia,  the  King  of  England,  as 
Elector  of  Brunswick-Lunenburg,  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  other  German  princes;  and  the 
treaty  between  Prussia  and  France,  guarantee- 
ing the  neutrality  of  the  north  of  Germany, 
Aug.  5,  1796. 

BERLIN  DECREE.— Prussia  find  a  great 
part  of  the  Continent  being  under  his  domi- 
nation, Napoleon  I.  issued  this  celebrated  in- 
terdict against  English  commerce  at  Berlin, 


BERMUDAS 


BE3ANCON 


Nov.  ig,  1806.  It  prohibited  all  commerce, 
and  even  correspondence  between  countries 
under  his  sway  and  Great  Britain.  England 
was  declared  to  be  blockaded  ;  English  pro- 
perty was  liable  to  seizure  ;  all  subjects  of 
England  found  in  countries  occupied  by  French 
troops  were  declared  prisoners  of  war;  all 
letters  addressed  to  Englishmen  or  written 
in  the  English  language  were  to  be  stopped ; 
and  ships  touching  at  any  port  in  England 
or  her  colonies  were  excluded  from  the  ports 
under  French  control.  (See  ORDERS  IN  COUN- 
CIL.) 

BERMUDAS,  OR  SUMMERS'  ISLANDS  (At- 
lantic), were  discovered  by  Juan  Bermudez,  a 
Spaniard,  wrecked  upon  them  in  1522,  during 
a  voyage  from  Spain  to  Cuba  with  a  cargo  of 
hogs.  Hemy  May  was  wrecked  upon  them 
in  1593  ;  and  Sir  George  Summers  in  1609, 
who  claimed  them  for  the  Virginia  Company. 
They  sold  them  to  another  company,  to  which 
a  charter  was  granted  by  James  I.,  June  29, 
1615.  A  settlement  was  immediately  formed, 
and  George-town  founded.  Their  first  general 
assembly  was  held  Aug.  i,  1620.  The  group 
consists  of  between  300  and  400  islands, 
but  of  these  only  six  or  seven  are  inhabited. 
The  charter  expired  in  1684.  These  islands, 
with  Newfoundland,  were  separated  from  the 
diocese  of  Nova  Scotia  and  erected  into  a 
distinct  bishopric  in  1839. 

BERNARD,  GREAT  ST.— (See  ALPS.) 

BERNAR  DINES.— The  Cistercians,  a  branch 
of  the  Benedictines,  instituted  at  Citeaux  in 
1098,  were  reformed  by  Bernard,  Abbot  of 
Clairvaux,  in  Champagne,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  1 2th  century  ;  from  which  circum- 
stance they  received  the  name  of  Bernardines. 
The  second  crusade,  in  1146,  was  preached  by 
Bernard,  who  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
men  of  his  time.  He  resolutely  refused  all 
ecclesiastical  dignities,  and  is  said  to  have 
founded  160  religious  houses.  The  Bernar- 
dines came  into  England  in  1128.  Their  first 
house,  at  Waverley,  in  Surrey,  was  founded  in 
that  year,  and  completed  in  1129.  At  one 
time  the  number  of  their  establishments  was 
about  90.  From  the  colour  of  their  habit, 
they  were  called  White  Monks.  There  were 
nuns  of  this  order.  (See  CISTERCIANS.) 

BERNE  (Switzerland)  joined  the  Swiss  con- 
federation, being  the  eighth  canton,  in  1352. 
Its  chief  town,  of  the  same  name,  was  founded 
by  Berthold  V.,  Duke  of  Zsoringen,  in  1191  ; 
and  was  made  a  free  and  imperial  city  by  a 
charter  from  Frederick  II.,  dated  May,  1218. 
It  was  besieged,  though  unsuccessfully,  by 
Rodolph  of  Habsburg  in  1288.  It  long  exer- 
cised considerable  authority,  and  obtained 
several  accessions  of  territory.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1405.  Berne  received  a  new 
constitution  in  1846,  and  was  made  the 
capital  of  Switzerland  by  the  National  As- 
sembly of  1848.  Its  university  was  founded 
in  1834. 

BERNWALD.— (See  BARWALDE.) 

BERCEA.— (See  ALEPPO.) 

BERSAGLIERL— These  riflemen,  or  sharp- 
shooters, introduced  into  the  Sardinian  army 
by  Gen.  Delia  Marmora  about  the  year  1849, 
took  part  in  the  Russian  war  (q.  v.),  and  as- 


sisted at  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya  (q.  v.), 
Aug.  1 6,  1855.  They  were  also  employed  in 
the  Italian  war  of  1859. 

BERSINIKIA  (Battle).— Crumn,  King  of 
Bulgaria,  defeated  the  Emperor  Michael  I.  at 
this  place,  in  Thrace,  A.D.  813. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED.— This  ancient  town, 
between  England  and  Scotland,  suffered  greatly 
in  the  wars  between  those  countries.  When 
first  mentioned  in  history,  it  belonged  to 
Scotland,  and  its  castle  was  ceded  to  England 
in  1174,  and  restored  to  Scotland  in  1189. 
Baliol  did  homage  for  himself  and  his  heirs 
for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland  at  Berwick, 
Nov.  30,  1292.  Edward  I.  captured  Berwick, 
March  30,  1296,  united  it  to  England,  and 
granted  it  a  charter,  afterwards  extended  and 
confirmed  by  Edward  III.  Bruce  took  it  in 
1315,  and  again  April  2,  1319  ;  and  Edward  III. 
recovered  it  July  20,  1333.  The  Scots  surprised 
it  Nov.  6,  1355,  but  Edward  III.  retook  it  in 
1356.  Henry  VI.  surrendered  Berwick  to  tho 
Scotch,  April  25,  1461  ;  it  was,  however,  re- 
taken by  Edward  IV.  in  1482,  who  conferred 
many  privileges  upon  it  by  22  Edw.  IV.  c.  8 
(1482).  It  was  made  independent  of  both 
countries  in  1556.  Cromwell  captured  it  in 
1648,  and  Monk  in  1659  ;  and  it  has  since  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  England.  The 
statute  20  Geo.  II.  c.  42,  s.  3  (1746),  provided 
that  where  England  only  is  mentioned  in  any 
act  of  Parliament,  the  same,  notwithstanding, 
shall  be  deemed  to  comprehend  the  dominion 
of  Wales  and  the  town  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1560 ;  and 
another,  between  Elizabeth  and  James  VI.,  of 
Scotland,  July  i,  1586,  providing  for  mutual 
assistance  incase  of  invasion  by  Roman  Catholic 
powers. 

BERYL.— This  precious  stone,  called  also 
aquamarine,  was  the  first  in  the  fourth  row  on 
the  breast  of  the  Jewish  high  priests  (Ex. 
xxviii.  20,  xxxix.  13),  B.C.  1491.  Beads  of 
this  gem  have  been  f  ound  in  Egyptian  mummy- 
pits,  and  it  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  for 
intaglios  more  than  2,000  years  ago.  It  was 
also  known  to  the  Romans,  and  was  supposed 
by  Pliny  to  be  a  species  of  emerald,  a  suppo- 
sition proved  by  modern  discovery  to  be  cor- 
rect. An  opaque  specimen  of  this  gem  from 
North  America,  of  the  enormous  weight  of 
781b.,was  exhibited  in  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851. 

BERYTUS  (Syria).— This  city,  supposed  to 
be  the  Berothai  whence  "  King  David  took 
exceeding  much  brass"  (2  Sam.  viii.  8),  B.C. 
1040,  was  destroyed  by  Tryphon  B.C.  140. 
Agrippa  founded  a  colony  here,  B.C.  15,  which 
was  afterwards  called  Julia  Augusta  Felix 
Berytus,  and  received  the  rights  of  an  Italian 
city.  (See  BEYROUT.) 

BESANCON  (France).- -This  ancient  city, 
called  Vesontio  by  the  Romans,  was  occupied 
by  Julius  Csesar  B.C.  56.  The  Burgundians 
sacked  it  A.D.  456,  and  the  Hxmgarians  in  937. 
The  Emperor  Frederick  I.  held  a  diet  of  more 
than  usual  magnificence  at  Besangon,  Oct.  24, 
1157.  It  was  an  imperial  city  from  1184  till 
about  1648,  when  it  was  joined  to  Spain.  It 
was  captured  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1668,  and  was 
annexed  to  France  in  1674.  The  allied  army 


BESIKA 


[     142    ] 


BEYROUT 


failed  in  an  attack  upon  it  in  1814.  It  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  the  3rd  century. 

BESIKA  BAY  (Archipelago).  —  The  Czar 
Nicholas  having,  May  31,  1853,  issued  an  order 
for  the  passage  of  the  Truth  by  his  troops,  the 
French  and  English  fleets  sailed  for  this  bay, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Dardanelles,  June  2, 
1853,  and  anchored  here  June  13. 

BESSARABIA.—  This  province,  taken  by 
the  Turks  under  Mohammed  II.  in  1474,  was 
seized  by  the  Russians  in  the  autumn  of  1770, 
and  finally  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of 
Bucharest,  May  28,  1812. 

BESSEMER'S  PROCESS.— (See  IRON.) 

BETHAR  (Palestine).— This  city  was  the 
last  retreat  of  the  Jews  011  their  expulsion 
from  Jerusalem  by  Hadrian,  A.D.  130.  After 
holding  out  for  nearly  three  years,  it  was 
carried  by  storm  in  133,  when  the  Jewish 
leader  Barcochebas  died  in  the  field,  and  the 
rabbi  Akiba,  who  had  been  active  in  the 
defence,  was  torn  to  death  with  hot  pinchers. 
The  site  of  Bethar,  now  called  Beitir,  was 
identified  in  1843. 

BETH-HOIK  )X  (Battle).— At  this  village,  in 
Palestine,  Joshua  gained  a  memorable  victory 
over  the  five  kings  of  the  Amorites,  B.C.  1450. 
These  kings,  viz.,  Adoni-zedec,  of  Jerusalem; 
Holiani,  of  Hebron;  Piram,  of  Jarmuth ; 
Japhia,  of  Lachish  ;  and  Debir,  of  Eglon, 
having  coalesced  against  the  Gibeonites 
(Josh.  x.  3—5),  that  people  sent  to  entreat 
aid  of  the  Jewish  leader,  then  in  camp  at 
Gilgal  (v.  6).  Joshua,  being  divinely  com- 
manded to  accede  to  this  request,  fell  upon 
the  foe  suddenly  at  Gibeon,  and  chased  them 
to  Hcth-horon,  to  A/ekah,  and  to  Makkcdah, 
the  retreating  Amorites  being  farther  harassed 
by  stones  hurled  upon  them  fn>m  heaven 
(Josh.  x.  8 — n).  It  was  on  this  occasion  that 
the  sun  stood  still  upon  Gibeon  and  the  moon 
in  the  valley  of  Ajalon,  according  to  the 
command  of  Joshua  .losh.  x.  12,  13). 

BETHLEHEM.— This  town  of  Syria,  called 
also  Bcit-laham,  i.  e.  House  of  Bread,  about 
six  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  is  celebrated 
as  the  birthplace  of  the  Saviour  of  mankind 
(Matt.  ii.  8,  and  Luke  ii.  4).  It  was  called 
Ephrath,  and  is  mentioned  a.s  the  place  at 
which  Rachel  died  and  was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv. 
17 — 19>  and  xlviii.  7),  B.C.  1729.  Rehoboam 
fortified  or  rebuilt  it  (2  Chroii.  xi.  5,  6),  B.C. 
Q73.  David  was  born  here  (circ.  B.C.  1085),  and 
hence  it  was  called  the  city  of  David.  Helena, 
the  mother  of  Constantino  I.,  erected  a  church, 
A.D.  325,  011  the  place  of  the  Nativity.  The 
church,  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  1236,  was 
restored  by  the  Crusaders.  It  was  ceded,  with 
other  towns,  to  Frederick  II.  by  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  in  1229.  It  was  called  Bethlehem- 
Judah,  to  distinguish  it  from  Bethlehem  in 
Zebulon  (Josh.  xix.  15,  16).  Bethlehem  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  mo. 

BETHLEHEM  (Order).— (See  OUR  LADY  OF 
BETHLEHEM.) 

BETHLEHEM  (United  States),  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, was  settled  by  the  Moravians  under 
Count  Zinzendorf  in  1741. 

BETHLEHEM  HOSPITAL  (London),  com- 
monly called  Bedlam,  a  priory  for  canons,  both 
brothers  and  sisters,  founded  by  a  deed  of  gift 


dated  Wednesday,  Oct.  23,  1247,  from  Simon 
FitzMary,  sheriff  of  London,  was  with  all  its 
revenues  granted  by  Henry  VIII.,  in  1547,  to 
the  city  of  London,  for  an  hospital  for  lunatics. 
It  was  transferred  from  Bishopsgate  Without 
to  Moorfields  in  1675.  The  foundation  of  the 
new  building  was  laid  in  April,  1676,  and  it  was 
finished  in  July,  1676.  The  hospital  was  trans- 
ferred to  its  present  site  in  St.  George's  Fields 
in  1814.  The  foundation-stone  was  laid  April 
18,  1812  ;  and  the  erection  of  a  new  wing  was 
commenced  July  26,  1838.  Patients  partially 
cured,  and  suffered  to  go  at  large,  were  called 
Bedlam  beggars.  Alterations  were  made  in 
the  building  in  1856. 

BETIILEHEMITES.  —  These  monks  were 
also  styled  Star-bearers,  because  they  wore  a 
red  star  of  five  rays,  with  a  blue  circle  in  the 
middle,  on  their  breast,  in  memory  of  the  star 
which  appeared  to  the  wise  men.  Matthew 
Paris  states  that  they  obtained  an  establish- 
ment at  Cambridge  in  1257,  and  adds, — "So 
many  orders  of  brethren  now  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  England  that  there  was  a  most 
extraordinary  confusion  among  them."  A 
religious  order  bearing  this  name  was  founded 
at  Guatemala,  in  New  Spain,  by  Pierre  de 
Bcthcncourt,  about  1660.  They  attended  the 
sick  in  hospitals.  Innocent  XI.  confirmed  the 
order  in  1687,  and  ordered  the  brethren  to 
follow  the  nile  of  St.  Augustine. 

BETI1UNE  (France).— This  town,  which  was 
governed  by  independent  potentates  in  the 
nth  century,  and  has  usually  shared  the 
changes  of  Artois,  was  the  scene  in  1487  of  a 
victory  of  the  French  over  the  Archduke 
Maximilian.  Taken  from  the  Spaniards  by 
Gaston  of  Orleans  in  1645,  it  was  recaptured 
by  Prince  Eugene  in  1710,  and  was  finally 
annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
7.  v.  ,  April  1 1,  1713. 

BETTING  -  HOUSES.— A  considerable 
number  of  these  places,  the  owners  of  which 
offered  to  bet  upon  the  principal  races  with  all 
comers,  sprang  up  in  London  between  the 
years  1850  and  1853.  Servants,  apprentices,  and 
workmen  frequently  robbed  their  employers 
to  invest  money  in  this  new  form  of  gambling, 
and  these  places  were  suppressed  by  16  &  17 
Viet.  c.  119  (Aug.  20,  1853). 

BEVERW  YK  (Battle).— In  this  position,  near 
Alkmaar,  in  the  Netherlands,  Gen.  Bruno's 
outposts  were  attacked  by  the  English  and 
Russian  forces  Oct.  6,  1799.  The  French  and 
Dutch  were  at  length  compelled  to  give  way, 
though  their  antagonists  did  not  succeed  in 
capturing  the  position. 

BKVLAU  (Battle).— Ibrahim  Pasha,  at  the 
head  of  the  Egyptian  army,  defeated  the  Turks 
at  this  place,  in  Asia  Minor,  July  29,  1832.  The 
battle  was  fought  near  the  spot  where  Alex- 
ander III.  (the  Great)  defeated  Darius  in  the 
battle  on  the  Issus. 

BEYROUT  (Syria),  the  ancient  Berytus 
(q.v.),  was  the  seat  of  a  famous  school  of  juris- 
prudence from  the  3rd  to  the  middle  of  the 
6th  century.  The  city  having  been  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  July  9,  551  A.D.,  the  school 
was  removed  to  Sidon.  Beyrout  suffered 
severely  during  the  Crusades,  and  having  been 
taken  by  the  Saracens,  was  wrested  from  them 


BEZABDE 


BIANCHI 


by  Baldwin  I.  in  mo.  Beyrout  was  made  a 
bishopric  by  Theodosius  the  Younger,  and  after 
its  capture  by  Baldwin  I.  it  became  the  seat 
of  a  Latin  bishop  about  1136.  The  Saracens, 
however,  regained  possession  in  1187.  Ibrahim 
Pasha  seized  it  in  1832  ;  and  it  was  bom- 
barded by  the  combined  fleets  of  England 
and  Turkey,  Sep.  n— 16,  1840,  and  being  cap- 
tured was  restored  to  the  Porte.  Beyrout 
and  its  neighbourhood  was  the  theatre  of  the 
massacre  of  the  Maronites  (q.  v.)  by  the  Druses 
(q.  v.),  in  1860. 

BEZABDE  (Mesopotamia)  was  captured  by 
Sapor  II.  A.D.  360,  when  all  the  inhabitants, 
even  women  and  children,  were  massacred. 
Constantius  II.  made  a  vain  effort  to  wrest  it 
from  the  Persians  during  the  same  year.  It 
was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  before  the  Persians 
seized  it. 

BE Z IE RS  (France).  —  This  ancient  city, 
made  a  Roman  colony  A.D.  52,  was  besieged 
during  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and 
captured  July  22,  1209.  "A  general  massacre," 
says  Milmau  (Lat.  Christ,  vol.  iv.  b.  ix.  ch.  8), 
"followed  ;  neither  age  nor  sex  were  spared  ; 
even  priests  fell  in  the  remorseless  carnage. 
Then  was  uttered  the  frightful  command, 
become  almost  a  proverb,  '  Slay  them  all,  God 
will  know  his  own.'  In  the  church  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalene  were  killed  7,000  by  the  defenders 
of  the  sanctity  of  the  Church.  The  amount 
of  the  slain  is  variously  estimated  from  20,000 
even  up  to  50,000.  The  city  was  set  on  fire, 
even  the  cathedral  perished  in  the  flames."  It 
was  rebuilt  in  1289,  and  suffered  severely  in 
the  religious  wars  in  France.  Tradition  assigns 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  to  St.  Paul. 
Its  bishopric,  founded  at  an  early  period,  was 
suppressed  in  1801. 

BHOTAN  (Hindostan).— The  inhabitants  of 
this  hill  country  invaded  Cooch  Behar,  a  de- 
pendency of  Bengal,  in  1722,  and  were  expelled 
by  the  British,  with  whom  they  concluded  a 
treaty  of  peace,  Aprils,  1774.  Lower  Assam  hav- 
ing been  acquired  in  1828,  constant  difficulties 
commenced  with  the  Bhotanese  in  reference  to 
the  tribute  to  be  paid  by  them  for  the  Dooars, 
or  plains  afthe  foot  of  the  hills  that  divided 
the  two  provinces,  and  in  1837  Capt.  Pember- 
ton  was  despatched  as  an  envoy,  to  arrange 
matters.  The  mission  proving  unsuccessful, 
the  government  determined,  in  1841,  to  annex 
the  Dooars,  paying  to  Bhotan  an  annual  com- 
pensation, and  in  1842,  at  the  request  of  the 
Bhotanese,  the  estate  of  Ambaree  Fallacottah 
was  also  taken  under  British  control.  In  con- 
sequence of  continued  outrages  upon  the 
Bhotan  frontier,  it  was  resolved  in  1860  to 
withhold  the  rental  of  Ambaree  Fallacottah 
until  the  Bhotan  Government  should  surrender 
the  guilty  parties.  Other  disputes  having 
arisen  in  reference  to  Sikim  (q.  v. )  and  Cooch 
Behar,  Mr.  Eden  was  despatched  on  a  pacific 
mission,  which  left  Darjeeling  Jan.  4,  1864, 
arriving,  after  much  delay,  at  Paro,  Feb.  22. 
Resuming  his  journey  March  10,  he  reached 
Poonakha  March  15,  and  was  insulted  by  the 
Tongso  Penlow  and  council,  who  compelled 
him,  March  29,  to  sign  a  treaty  assigning  to 
Bhotan  the  Assam  Dooars.  The  governor- 
general  accordingly  proclaimed  his  intention 


to  annex  permanently  the  Bengal  Dooars,  and 
part  of  the  hill  territory,  Nov.  12,  1864,  and 
despatched  an  army,  which  occupied  Gopal- 
gunge,  Nov.  28  ;  seized  Buxa,  Dec.  7 ;  captured 
Dewangiri,  Dec.  10 ;  and  took  possession  of 
Chamoorchee,  Dec.  31.  The  British  garrison  in 
Dewangiri  was  attacked  by  the  natives  Jan.  30, 
1865,  and  though  at  first  victorious,  was  com- 
pelled by  want  of  water  to  evacuate  the  place 
Feb.  5.  Other  disasters  following,  additional 
forces  were  sent,  and  Balla  was  captured 
March  15.  Buxa  was  again  occupied  March 
23,  and  Chamoorchee  March  24 ;  Dewangiri 
was  taken  by  storm  April  2,  and  the  defences 
haying  been  destroyed,  was  abandoned  April  6. 
This  success  terminated  the  war,  which  was 
formally  ended  by  a  peace  concluded  Nov.  n, 
1865. 

BHURTPORE  (Hindostan).— The  capital  of 
a  native  state  of  the  same  name.  Gen.,  after- 
wards Lord  Lake,  concluded  a  treaty  of  per- 
petual friendship  with  the  rajah  Sep.  29,  1803. 
The  rajah,  however,  espoused  the  cause  of 
Holkar  in  1804,  and  his  chief  town,  Bhurtpore, 
was  besieged  Jan.  3,  1805,  by  Gen.  Lake.  The 
English  general  failed  in  several  attempts  to 
carry  the  place  by  storm;  but  the  rajah 
surrendered  April  10,  and  a  second  treaty  was 
concluded  April  1 7,  by  which,  on  the  payment 
of  a  heavy  fine,  the  rajah  was  allowed  to  re- 
tain his  authority.  A  rebellion  broke  out 
Feb.  25,  1825.  Lord  Combermere  captured 
Bhurtpore  Jan.  18,  1826,  and  the  rightful  heir 
was  restored  Feb.  4. 

BIAGROSSA  (Treaty).— Concluded  between 
Louis  XII.  and  the  Cardinal  of  Pavia,  on 
behalf  of  Pope  Julius  II,  in  July,  1509. 

BIALYSTOCK  (Poland).— This  province  was 
incorporated  with  Russia  by  the  third  treaty 
of  partition  in  1795.  A  portion  of  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  by  the  treaty 
of  Tilsit,  July  7,  1807,  whilst  the  remainder 
was  erected  into  a  separate  province. 

BIANCHI.— Men  and  women,  called  White 
Penitents  or  Brethren,  from  a  white  linen  vest- 
ment that  they  wore,  appeared  all  over  Italy 
in  August,  1399.  In  their  progress  from  pro- 
vince to  province,  and  city  to  city,  they  kept 
their  faces  covered  and  bent  downward,  carry- 
ing before  them  a  large  crucifix,  and  shouting 
' '  Misericordia. "  They  sang  continually ' '  Stabat 
mater  dolorosa."  They  were  not  confined  to 
Italy,  where,  according  to  some  authors,  they 
effected  a  remarkable  reformation  of  manners. 
In  1400  Boniface  IX.  had  their  leader  seized  at 
Viterbo.  He  was  sent  to  Rome,  and  burned 
there  by  his  orders  ;  and  he  prohibited  these 
processions. 

BIANCHI  AND  NERI,  or  WHITES  AND 
BLACKS,  appeared  amongst  the  numerous 
factions  into  which  the  inhabitants  of  various 
Italian  towns  were  divided  early  in  the  i4th 
century.  They  are  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  following  manner.  Two  branches  of  a  rich 
and  powerful  family  in  Pistoja,  called  the  Can- 
cellieri,  were  descended  from  the  two  wives  of 
their  common  ancestor.  The  descendants  of 
one  of  them,  named  Bianca,  called  themselves 
Manchi,  whilst  the  descendants  of  the  other 
wife  were  termed  Neri.  A  quarrel  having 
ensued  at  a  convivial  meeting,  one  of  the 


BIARRITZ 


BIBLE 


Bianchi  wounded  a  member  of  the  Neri 
branch.  The  latter,  in  revenge,  waylaid  and 
maltreated  another  of  the  Bianchi.  The  father 
of  the  last-mentioned  aggressor  compelled  him 
to  wait  upon,  and  ask  pardon  of,  Guglielmo 
Caiicelliere,  the  father  of  the  wounded  man. 
Guglielmo  could  not,  however,  be  appeased  ; 
he  chopped  off  the  hand  of  the  penitent,  bid- 
ding him  return  to  his  parent  and  tell  him 
that  wounds  were  to  be  healed  by  wounds, 
not  words.  The  feud  between  the  families 
gathered  strength  from  this  savage  act  ;  the 
citizens  joined  in  the  struggle,  and  factions, 
bearing  these  names,  spread  to  other  towns  in 
Tuscany.  At  Florence  two  noble  families,  the 
Cerchi  and  the  Donati,  took  up  the  quarrel  in 
1300,  the  former  siding  with  the  whites  mid 
the  latter  with  the  blacks.  In  1302  Dante 
Aligheri,  with  several  of  the  Bianchi,  were 
expelled  from  Florence,  and  in  his  exile  the 
poet  wrote  the  great  work  that  has  immor- 
talixed  his  name.  1  [allam  (Middle  Ages,  vol.  i. 
ch.  3,  pt.  i)  remarks,  "  An  outrage  committed 
at  Pistoja  in  1300  split  the  inhabitants  into 
the  parties  of  Bianchi  and  Neri  ;  and  these, 
spreading  to  Florence,  created  one  of  the 
most  virulent  divisions  which  annoyed  that 
republic." 

BIARRITZ  (France).— This  watering  place 
was  a  favourite  resort  of  Eugenie  de  Montijo 
before  her  marriage  with  Napoleon  III., 
Jan.  29,  1853.  The  English  church  was  erected 
in  1860. 

Bir.KRACH  (Battle).— During  the  French 
revolutionary  war,  the  re-publicans,  led  by 
Moreau,  defeated  the  imperialists  at  Biberach, 
in  Wiirtembt'.i'g,  with  considerable  loss,  Oct.  2, 
1796.  This  is  often  mistaken  for  another  com- 
bat at  Biberach,  in  which  Moreau  defeated 
Marshal  Kray,  the  Austrian  general,  1\\ ay  9, 
1800. 

BIBLE,  or  THE  BOOK.— A  term  derived 


God."  Many  of  the  fathers  bear  similar  tes- 
timony. Origen  published  a  Bible,  called 
Hexapla,  in  six  columns,  with  different  ver- 
sions, and,  on  adding  two,  called  it  the  Octapla. 
The  division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters  has 
been  erroneously  attributed  to  Stephen  Lang- 
ton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1206.  The 
Psalms  were  always  divided  as  at  present,  and 
Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  a  Dominican  friar,  and 
afterwards  a  cardinal,  who  compiled  the  first 
concordance  to  the  Bible,  divided  the  matter 
into  sections,  and  the  sections  into  under- 
divisions,  and  these  sections  are  the  chapters. 
He  flourished  about  1240,  and  died  in  1262. 
Rabbi  Isaac  Nathan  in  1445  introduced  regular 
verses.  These  alterations  have  since  been 
much  improved.  In  the  Latin  translation  of 
the  Bible,  by  Pagimis  of  Lucca,  published  at 
Lyons  in  1528,  Arabic  numerals  are  placed  in 
the  margin,  opposite  the  verses. 

EARLY  TRANSLATIONS. 
B.C. 

377  (circ.).     The    Septunpint       The    Old    Testament    is 

translated  into  Greek, 
loo.  Old  Syriac  version. 

A.I). 

12*.  Aquila.  n  Jewish  proselyte,  translates  the  Old  Testa- 
ni.-nt  into  Creek. 

176.  Thcodotion  translates  the  Old  Testament. 

205.  Symmaclms,  by  order  of  Septimins  Scverus,  traus- 
"  lates  the  (  Hd'Tcstainent  into  Greek. 

200-300.  Coptic  translation. 

300-400.  Kthiopie  version. 

360.   Gothic  version,  by  fphilas. 

405.  Jerome  completes   the   Latin    vulgate,   commenced 
about  3*5. 

410-413.  Armenian  version.   " 

on  tran>l-itioii  of  the  Psalms. 

7^1.  Saxon  translation  of  the  Gospels. 

7^5.  liede's  Saxon  translation  of  the.  whole  Bible  is  com- 
pleted. 

H/4.  Slavonian  translation. 

i  id...  I  rtiuli  translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  by  Peter  de 
Van.x. 

1290.  F.njdisii  tnadation. 

1380.  WyckliflVs  Enjdish  version. 


from  the  Greek,  applied  to  the  sacred  writings 
by  St.  Chrysostom  in  the  sth   century.     The 

PRI 

NTED 

BIBLE 

s. 

name  Old  Testament  first  occurs  in  St.  Paul's 

second  epistle    to    the   Corinthians  (iii.    14), 

Translation. 

N.T. 

Bib. 

Place  of  Printing 

written   in   A.D.   55.     The   canon  is   generally 

believed  to  have  been  closed  by   Simon  the 

Just,   about   B.C.   292.     The  Apocrypha    '/.  <•.) 

Ma/.arin  (Latin)    .... 

lill 

Paris. 
Mentz. 

was  added  B.C.  150.     The  Old  Testament  canon 

i  lei-man  (Vulgate)    .. 

.. 

1467 

consists  of  39  books,  divided  into  929  chapters, 
containing  592,439  words.     Of  this  portion  of 
the  Bible,  the  oldest  edition  is  the  Septuagint, 

Italian            „           .. 
I»ut-h             „ 
Spanish           „ 
French            .  ,            .  . 

:: 

1471 

!$ 

1487 

Venice. 
Cologne. 
Valencia. 

Paris. 

translated  into  the   Greek,  according  to  the 
tradition   of    Aristeas,    B.C.    277,  by  72   Jews. 
The  work   was  undertaken  at  the  desire  of 

lloliemiim 
Hebrew  (Old  Testa-j 
ni<-nt)  ) 

TCT£ 

488 
i488 

Prague. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphia.     The  books  of  the  New 

Greek    
German    

1510 
1532 

1534 

Basel. 
Wittenberg. 

Testament,  written  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  were 

Helvetian    

1525 

1529 

Zurich. 

Kn;rlish 

I52§ 

Antwerp. 

century.      Peter  (2nd  epistle,   iii.    16),   in  65, 

1535 

Uncertain. 

speakb   of  St.  Paul's  epistles  as  though  they 

French  

Swedish 

1534 

J535 
1541 

Geneva, 
Upsall. 

had  been  collected  in  his  time.     Doubtless  the 

]>jM>i-ih        

1524 

1550 

Copenhagen. 

separation  of  the   genuine  from  the   spurious 

1560 

Ital'an 

1562 

Geneva 

had  already  commenced  when  St.  Peter  wrote. 
The  New  Testament  is  divided  into  27  books, 

Spanish     

IS56 
leio 

1569 

Frankfort  or  Basel. 
<  )slro*r. 

containing  260  chapters.     The  sacred  writings 

Finnish  Dialect.!...'. 

1548 

1642 

Stockholm. 

were  translated  bv  the  early  Christians  into 

•\Velsh                 

1567 

Is88 

London. 

1574 

iV*9 

Vienna. 

various    languages.       Eusebius  says,    "They 

leel-mdio     

1584 

Holum,  Iceland. 

were  translated  into  all    languages,   both  of 

Polish   

I58S 

1596 

Greeks  and  barbarians,  throughout  the  world, 
and  studied  by  all  nations  as  the  oracles  of 

Virginian  Indians  

1661 

1593 
1663 

Cralitz,  Moravia. 
Cambridge,  U.S. 

[    145    I 


BICOCCA 


PRINTED  BIBLES — continued. 


Translation. 

N.T. 

Bib. 

Place  of  Printing. 

Vulgate       (English! 
edition)     / 
Modern  Greek    

1638 
1666 

J635 

Kouen. 
Geneva. 
Oxford. 
London. 

Irish  

l6o« 

1685 

Lapponic  

!f 
28 

J799 

J803 
1783 

Edinburgh. 
EJsbon. 

Copenhagen. 
Calcutta. 

("  illl'SU 

EDITIONS  OF  ENGLISH  BIBLES. 
A.D. 

1546.  Tyndale's  New  Testament.    Antwerp. 
1530.  Tyndale's  Pentateuch.     Malborow,  Land  of  Hesse. 
I53I-  Joye's  Lsaye  (Isaiah).     Strasburg, 
1535.  Bartholetus,  first  Latin    Bible  printed  in  England. 

Quarto.     London.    Tyudole  and  Coverdale's-  folio 

Bible.     Printed  abroad. 
1537.  Matthew's  Bible.     Folio.    Abroad. 
1537.  An  edition  of  Coverdale's  Bible.  Quarto.  South wark. 
1539.  The   Great   (or  Cromwell's)    Bible.     London.     (The 

first  Bible  printed  by  authority  in  England.) 

1539.  Taverner's  Bible.     Folio.     London. 

1540.  Cranmer's  edition  of  the  Great  Bible.  Folio.  London, 
I  sbo.  Genevan  Bible.     Quarto.     Geneva. 

IS68.  Parker's,  or  the  Bishops'  Bible.     Folio.     London. 
1571.  The  Gospels,  in   Saxon  and  English.      The   Saxon 

from  the    Vulgate,   and    the    English    from    the 

Bishops'  Bible.     London. 
1576.  Genevan  Bible.    Folio.    Edinburgh.    (The  first  Bible 

printed  in  Scotland.) 

ifxjg.  First  Romanist  Bible  in  England.    Quarto.    Douai. 
16 a.  The   Koyal  Bible,   or  King  James's  Bible.      Folio. 

London. 

1633.  The  "  Wicked  Bible."    Octavo.    London. 
1633.  First  Scotch  edition  of  Authorized  Bible.     Octavo. 

Edinburgh. 

1657.  Walton's  Polyglot  Bible.     Folio.    London. 
1717.  Vinegar  Bible.     Folio.     Oxford. 
1850.  Wycliffe's  Bible.    Quarto.    Oxford. 

(For  list  of  books  in  the  Bible  see  CANON  OF 

SCRIPTURE.) 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.— The  following  are  the 
principal  associations  formed  for  the  disse- 
mination of  the  Scriptures,  with  the  date  of 
institution : — 

A.D. 

1649.  New  England,  re-incorporated  in  1661. 

1663.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Wales. 

1698.  Society  fen-  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  (7.  •».). 

1701.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts. 

1709.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  in 
Scotland. 

1712.  Society  at  Halle. 

1750.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  among 
the  Poor. 

1780.  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society. 

1785.  Society  for  the  Support  and  Encouragement  of  Sun- 
day Schools. 

1793.  French  Bible  Society. 

1803.  Society  for  Promoting  a  more  Extensive  Circulation 

of  the  Scriptures,  both  at  Home  and  Abroad. 

1804.  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  being  the  society 

of  1 803  remodelled.     Gorman  Bible  Society.    New 
York  Society. 

1805.  Berlin  Society,  changed  to  Prussian  Bible  Society  in 

1814. 

1808.  Philadelphia  Bible  Society. 
1813.  Russian  Bible  Society.     Suspended  in  1836. 
1817.  American  Bible  Society. 
1831.  Trinitarian  Bible  Society. 

Some  of  these  societies  have  a  large  number 
of  branch   establishments.     Pius   VII.   issued 


a  bull  at  Rome,  June  29,  1816,  against  bible 
societies,  denouncing  the  movement  as  a  crafty 
device,  by  which  the  very  foundations  of  reli- 
gion are  undermined. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  —  Conrad  Gesner  pub- 
lished at  Zurich,  in  1545,  his  "  Bibliotheca  Uni- 
versalis,"  a  catalogue  of  all  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin  books  of  which  he  could  obtain 
information,  arranged  according  to  the  names 
of  their  authors.  This  appears  to  have  been 
the  earliest  book  on'  bibliography,  though  the 
term,  which  originally  signified  an  acquaint- 
ance with  ancient  writings,  was  first  intro- 
duced in  its  modern  sense  by  De  Bure,  whose 
"  Bibliographic  Instructive  "  appeared  in  1763. 
Brunet's  "  Manuel  du  Libraire,"  of  which  many 
editions  have  been  issued,  was  originally  pub- 
lished in  1810,  and  Watt's  "Bibliotheca  Bri- 
tannica  "  in  1824.  The  first  edition  of  Lowiides's 
"  Bibliographer's  Manual "  was  published  in 

1  BIBLIOMANCY,  or  divination  by  the  Bible, 
sometimes  called  "Sortes  Biblicse,"  was  a 
common  practice  among  the  early  Christians, 
who  were  accustomed  to  regulate  their  conduct 
by  opening  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  accept- 
ing the  passage  which  first  presented  itself  as 
a  guide.  Although  condemned  by  the  councils 
of  Vannes  in  465,  Agda  in  506,  and  Orleans  in 
511,  this  mode  of  divination  was  practised  for 
many  years.  The  Mohammedans  exercise  a 
similar  divination  by  means  of  the  Koran. 
The  ancients  used  the  works  of  Homer  and 
Virgil  in  the  same  manner,  the  Sortes  Home- 
ricse  and  Sortes  Virgilianse  being  popular 
modes  for  prognosticating  future  events. 
Divination  was  also  practised  by  consulting 
the  poems  of  Musseas. 

BIBRACTE,  the  modern  Autun  (q  v.},  called 
also  Augustodunum,  was  the  capital  of  the 
^Edui  (q.  v.),  and  was  delivered  by  Julius  Caesar 
from  a  besieging  army  of  Belgse  and  Suessiones 
B.C.  58.  It  was  seized  by  the  ^duan  chieftain 
Sacrovir,  A.D.  21,  and  in  the  reign  of  Gallienus 
(260 — 268)  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Tetricus. 
It  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Huns  under 
Attila  about  451. 

BICENTENARY.— (See  NONCONFORMISTS.) 

BICETRE  (France).— This  place,  near  Paris, 
is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  John,  Bishop 
of  Winchester,  who  erected  a  castle  here  in 
1290.  A  hospital,  established  here  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  V.  (1364—1380),  and  destroyed 
in  the  time  of  Charles  VI.  (1380—1422),  was 
restored  and  converted  into  an  asylum  for  old 
soldiers  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  (1610 — 
1643).  Bicetre  is  celebrated  for  a  remarkable 
well,  constructed  in  1733.  The  prison,  the 
scene  of  barbarous  massacres,  on  account  of 
an  alleged  conspiracy,  June  16  and  26,  1794, 
was  abolished  in  1835.  A  fort  was  erected 
here  in  1842. 

BICOCCA  (Battle).— Prospero  Colonna,  at 
the  head  of  the  Imperialists,  repulsed  the 
French  and  Swiss,  under  Lautrec,  at  this  villa 
and  park  in  Lombardy,  between  Milan  and 
Monza,  April  29,  1522.  The  latter  were  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  Italy,  where  Francis  I. 
had  nothing  left  but  the  castles  of  Milan  and 
Cremona^  both  of  which  were  closely  besieged. 

L 


BIDASOA 


[    146    ] 


BIXGEN 


BIDASOA,  or  VIDASO  A  (Spain).— Wellington 
effected  a  passage  of  this  river  in  Spain,  defeat- 
ing the  French  army  under  Soult,  Oct.  7,  1813. 
BIDDEXDEN  MAIDS.— On  the  afternoon  of 
Easter  Sunday,  600  rolls  are  distributed  to 
strangers,  and  270  loaves,  weighing  3^  Ib.  each, 
with  cheese  in  proportion,  to  the  poor  of  the 
parish  of  Biddenden,  in  Kent,  the  expense 
being  defrayed  from  the  rental  of  20  acres  of 
land,  called  Bread-and-Cheese  Land,  said  to 
have  been  left  for  this  purpose  by  the  Biddende 
Maids.  The  donors  are  represented  as  two 
sisters,  named  Elizabeth  and  Mary  Chulkhurst 
who  were  bom  joined  together  by  the  hips  anc 
shoulders,  at  Biddenden,  in  noo.  They  lived1 
together  in  this  state  for  34  years,  when  one  01 
them  died,  and  the  other,  refusing  to  be  scpa 
rated  from  the  body  of  her  sister,  succumbet 
a  few  hours  after.  An  impression  of  the  Bid 
dedden  Maids  is  stamped  upon  the  rolls.  Hal 
stead,  in  his  "History  of  Kent,"  rejects  this 
story,  saying  that  the  lands  were  left  by  twc 
maiden  ladies  of  the  name  of  Preston,  uin 
that  the  impression  on  the  cakes  is  intend 
to  represent  two  widows,  as  general  objects  of 
charity.  W.  Homer,  rector  of  the  parish, 
brought  an  action  to  obtain  the  land  as  p.trt  oi 
his  glebe,  but  he  was  nonsuited. 

BIG  HARRISON  (  RKKK  Battled— At  this 
place,  in  north-western  Missouri,  Col.  .M'-i 
defeated  a  Confederate  force,  killing  14,  anc 
making  8  prisoners,  Oct.  19,  1861. 

BILBAO  (Spain).— This  city,  founded  in  1300, 
quickly  rose  into  importance.  It  w.-i 
by  the  French  in  July,  1795,  but  restored  by 
the  treaty  of  Basel.  July  22  in  that  year.  The 
Spaniards  expelled  the  French,  who  had  a;.;Min 
seized  it,  in  September,  1808,  but  Napoleon  I. 
recovered  it  in  the  same  year.  It  surrendered 
to  Wellington  after  his  victory  at  Vittoria, 
June  21,  1813.  The  Carlists  besieged  it  during 
the  civil  war.  It  was  relieved  by  Espartero 
and  the  British  Legion,  Dec.  24,  1836. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS.— The  petition  of  right, 
drawn  up  by  Parliament  in  1628,  and  accepted 
by  Charles  I.,  June  7,  1628,  was  converted  into 
a  statute  (3  Charles  I.  c.  i),  and  called  the  Bill 
of  Rights.  The  term  is,  however,  generally 
used  to  describe  the  statute  passed,  after  much 
discussion  (i  Will.  <feMary,  scss.  2,  c.  2  ,  in  Nov., 
1689.  It  embodied  the  declaration  of  rights 
presented  to  William  and  Mary  when  the  ten- 
der of  the  throne  was  made  to  them,  Feb.  13, 
1689,  which  defined  and  vindicated  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  the  subject,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  settled  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

BILLIARDS.— This  game  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  the  French,  though  by  some 
authorities  the  invention  is  ascribed  to  the 
Italians.  It  was  introduced  into  England,  and 
became  a  favourite  diversion  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. Evelyn  speaks  of  a  new  sort  of  billiards, 
with  more  hazards  than  o\irs  usually  have. 

BILLINGSGATE  ( London ).  — Geoff  rey  of 
Monmouth  (b.  iii.  c.  10)  relates  that  amongst 
other  works  erected  by  Belin  was  a  wonderful 
gate  in  Trinovantum,  upon  the  bank  of  the 
Thames,  which  is  to  this  day  called  after  him, 
Billingsgate ;  and  that  above  it  he  erected  an 
immense  tower,  and  beneath  a  haven  for  ships. 
This  somewhat  strange  and  legendary  story  is 


the  only  account  given  of  its  origin.  Toll  was 
paid  here  in  1016,  as  appears  from  Ethclred's 
laws;  and  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.  the 
charge  on  every  large  vessel  was  zd.,  for  a 
smaller  one  id.,  and  for  a  boat  %d.  for  standage. 
Billingsgate  was  made  a  free  market  to  all 
persons  from  May  10,  1699,  by  10  &  n  Will.  III. 
c.  14.  Abuses  having  arisen,  an  order  was 
issued  in  1707,  enforcing  certain  payments. 
The  hours  of  the  market  were  fixed,  and  a  bell 
ordered  to  be  rung  by  a  proper  officer  by 
9  Anne  c.  26,  s.  5  (1710).  Billingsgate  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Jan.  13,  1715,  when  50  lives 
were  lost;  it  was,  however,  rebuilt.  An  en- 
tirely new  market  was  constructed,  with  supe- 
rior accommodation,  in  1852. 

BILLS  OK  EXCHANGE.— The  origin  of 
'bills  of  exchange  has  not  been  clearly  traced, 
though  it  is  certain  that  they  were  known  in 
Europe  in  the  i3th  century.  Henry  III.  of 
England  and  Pope  Alexander  IV.,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  out  their  plans  in  Italy,  in 
1254,  borrowed  large  sums  of  the  Italian 
bankers,  authorizing  them  to  draw  bills  for 
the  amount  on  the  English  bishops,  the  latter 
being  compelled,  under  threats  of  excommu- 
nication, to  furnish  the  necessary  funds.  Beck- 
mann  quotes  an  ordinance  issued  at  Barcelona, 
in  1394,  requiring  bills  of  exchange  to  be  ac- 
cepted within  24  hours  of  presentation,  and 
the  acceptance  to  be  on  the  back  of  the  bill. 
In  1404  the  magistrates  of  Bruges  applied  to 
the  magistrates  of  Barcelona  for  information 
as  td  how  they  were  to  act  when  bills  of  ex- 
change were  in  certain  cases  dishonoured. 
BaMus,  the  jurist,  quotes  one  dated  March  9, 
1328.  They  are  mentioned  in  3  Rich.  II.  c.  3, 
s.  2  (1379^,  and  various  enactments  have  been 
made  for  their  regulation.  The  duties  on  bills 
of  exchange,  which  have  formed  the  subject  of 
many  statutes,  are  regulated  by  17  <fe  18  Viet, 
c.  83  'Aug.  9,  1854).  Remedies  on  bills  of  ex- 
change, by  the  prevention  of  frivolous  defences 
to  actions  thereupon,  were  provided  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  67  (July  23,  1855). 

BILLS  OF  MORTALITY.— Strype  and  Mait- 
land  state  that  one,  dated  1562,  is  in  the  Sloane 
Collection ;  but  Stow,  on  the  authority  of  a 
learned  author,  says  they  commenced  in  1592, 
a  year  of  great  mortality ;  and  having  fallen 
into  disuse,  were  revived  in  1603,  the  first  of 
the  weekly  bills  being  dated  Oct.  29  in  that 
year.  Diseases  were  first  noticed  in  them  in 
629.  They  were  published  every  Thursday, 
and  delivered  at  the  houses  of  the  citizens  for 
4*.  a  year.  They  were  superseded  by  the  new 
machinery  introduced  by  the  Registration  Act 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86),  that  became  law  Aug.  17, 
:836.  Its  operations  commenced  March  i,  1837. 
BIXARY  ARITHMETIC.  — This  kind  of 
notation,  said  to  have  been  used  amongst  the 
Chinese  4,000  years  ago,  was  invented  by  Leib- 
nitz at  the  end  of  the  i7th  century. 

BIXGEN  (Hesse-Darmstadt).— This  ancient 
city,  the  Bingiun  <  f  the  Romans,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Drusus  about  B.C.  10,  was 
Fortified  by  the  Emperor  Julian  (A.D.  360 — 363). 
The  Mausethurm,  or  mouse-tower,  was  erected 
on  an  island  near  Bingen  in  the  1 3th  century. 
The  castle  of  Klopp  was  destroyed  by  the 
French  in  1689,  and  the  navigation  of  the 


BIRDS 


C     i47    1 


BISHOP 


Rhine  was  rendered  practicable  by  works  com- 
pleted in  1833. 

BIRDS  OP  PASSAGE.  — (See  MIGRATORY 
BIRDS.) 

BIRKENHEAD  (Cheshire).— A  Benedictine 
priory  was  founded  here  A.D.  1150,  of  which 
the  niiiis  still  exist.  Birkenhead  was  an 
obscure  village  at  the  commencement  of  the 
century.  Its  population  of  200  in  1821  had  in 
1851  increased  to  nearly  25,000.  Its  extensive 
docks  were  commenced  Oct.  23,  1844.  By 
24  &  25  Viet.  c.  112  (Aug.  6,  1861)  Birkenhead 
was  made  a  borough,  with  power  to  elect  a 
member  after  Dec.  i,  1861 ;  and  the  first  election 
took  place  Dec.  10.  The  foundation  stone  of  a 
Workmen's  Hall  was  laid  by  Mr.  Laird, 
May  16,  1864. 

BIRKENHEAD,  steam  transport,  conveying 
troops  to  the  seat  of  the  Caffre  war,  was  wrecked 
near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Feb.  26,  1852, 
when  only  194  persons  out  of  630  on  board  at 
the  time  were  saved. 

BIRMINGHAM  (Warwickshire).  —  This 
manufacturing  town,  of  which  the  name  is 
said  to  be  spelt  in  150  ways,  one  being  Brom- 
wycham,  was  founded  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
period,  and  was  a  market  town  before  the 
Norman  Conquest.  It  sided  with  Cromwell 
during  the  civil  war,  and  a  battle  was  fought 
near  it  in  1643,  when  Prince  Rupert  obtained 
possession  of  the  town. 
A.D. 

1552.  King  Edward  VI.  founds  the  Grammar  School. 
1643.  Birmingham  is  besieged,  taken,  and  partially  burned 

by  Prince  Rupert 
1665.  It  is  visited  by  the  plague. 

1764.  Matthew  Bolton  founds  the  Soho  manufactory. 
1767.  The  Birmingham  Canal  is  commenced. 
1774.  Watt  and  Boulton  enter  into  partnership. 
1779.  The  General  Hospital  is  opened. 
1791,  July  14.  Kiots  occur. 
1793,  Aug.  24.  The  theatre  is  burned. 
1813.  A  Government  proof-house  is  erected. 
1817,  May  15.  Walter  Street  Mills  are  entirely  consumed 

by  fire.     The  damage  is  estimated  at  =£300,000. 
1820,  Jan.  7.  The  theatre  is  again  destroyed  by  fire. 

1831.  The  Birmingham  Political  Union  is  formed  to  insure 

the  success  of  the  Reform  Bill. 

1832.  It  is  made  a  borough  by  the  Reform  Bill,  to  return 

two  members  to  Parliament. 

1833.  The  town-hall  is  built. 

1834.  May  10.  Dissolution  of  the  Political  Union.    Erection 

of  the  present  Grammar  School. 

1837,  July.  The  Grand  Junction  Railway  is  opened  between 

Birmingham  and  Liverpool. 

1838,  Sep.  17.    The  London  and  Birmingham  Railway  is 

opened. — Oct.  31.  A  municipal  charter  is  granted. 

1839,  July  15.  Chartist  riots.— (See  CHARTISTS.) 
1843.  Queen's  College  is  incorporated. 

1846.  Queen's  College  is  authorized  by  royal  -warrant  to 

issue  certificates  to  candidates  for  degrees  in  Lon- 
don University. 

1847,  Oct.  The  Corn  Exchange  is  opened.    The  People's 

Park  is  opened,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Adderley.  The  new 
music-hall  is  opened.  Lord  Calthorpe's  Park  is 
opened. 

1858,  June  15.   The   Queen  opens  Aston  Hall  and  Park, 

which  become  the  property  of  the  people  of  Bir- 

1859,  Sep.  27.  Twenty  persons  are  killed  by  an  explosion 

of  gunpowder  in  a  percussion-cap  manufactory. 
1862,  June  21.  Nine  persons  are  killed  by  an  explosion  in 
a  percussion-cap  factory. 

1864,  Feb.  2.  The  town  council  vote  £19,000  to  complete 

the  purchase  of  Aston  Park. — Sep.  12.  Aston  Hall 
and  Park  are  acquired. 

1865,  Jan.  2.    A  new  Exchange    is    opened. — March    n. 

Spooner  and  Atwood's  bank  stops  payment. — 
Aug.  28,  Monday.  An  Industrial  Exhibition  is 
opened  in  Bingley  Hall. — Sep.  6-13.  Meeting  of 
the  British  Association. 


Eldest  son. 

For  each 
son  and 

£    i.  d. 

daughter. 
£    s.  d. 

lis    

mt  . 

....     l%00.. 

..      12      0      O 

loo 


BIRTHS  were  first  taxed  in  this  country  by 
6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  6  (1694).  The  tax  was  granted 
for  five  years,  from  May  i,  1695,  and  was  by 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  20,  s.  14  (1697),  continued 
till  Aug.  i,  1706,  and  every  person  not  receiv- 
ing alms  was  required  to  pay  28.  for  each  child. 
The  nobility,  &c.,  paid,  in  addition  to  the  25., 
as  follows : — 


Duke 

Marquis 

Earl 

Visco 

Baron 

ifnight-bacheloV  .""         ".'.".)    5    o 
Sergeant-at-law,     esquire,     or\    T 

gentleman j    L 

Archbishop,  bishop,  dean,  arch-\ 

deacon,    canon,    prebendary,  ( 

doctor    of    divinity,    law,   or  f   L 

physic J 

Every  person  not  included  in  the} 

above  list,  having  a  real  estate  I 

of  £50  per  annum,  or  personal  f  °  Io    °    °  Io    ° 

estate  of  ,£600  or  upwards   ...  J 

BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  AND  MARRIAGES.— 

A  stamp  duty  on  the  registry  of  births,  chris- 
tenings, marriages,  and  burials,  was  granted 
from  Oct.  i,  1783,  by  23  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (1783). 
The  amount  was  threepence  on  each  entry. 
The  tax  was  extended  to  Dissenters  from 
Oct.  i,  1785,  by  25  Geo.  HI.  c.  75  (1785),  and 
both  acts  were  repealed  by  34  Geo.  III.  c.  11 
(March  i,  1794),  the  duties  ceasing  Oct.  i,  1794. 
(See  REGISTRATION  OF  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  AND 
MARRIAGES. 

BISHOP,  or  OVERSEER,  the  title  given  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  certain  civil  officers, 
was  adopted  in  the  Christian  Church  for  one 
of  its  chief  authorities  during  the  apostolical 
period.  Bishons  were  at  first  styled  apostles. 
By  canons  pass'ed  at  the  councils  of  Chalcedon 
(the  fourth  General  Council),  A.D.  451 ;  of  Agda, 
Sep.  ii,  506  ;  of  Lerida,  Aug.  6,  546,  and  at 
many  others,  ascetics,  hermits,  and  monks 
were  made  ubject  to  them.  Bishops  were 
appointed  in  England  soon  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  during  the  ist  century, 
the  monkish  account  of  the  foundation  of  the 
see  of  London  by  Lucius,  between  170  and  185, 
being  rejected  as  an  invention  intended  to 
convey  the  idea  of  the  subjection  of  the  ancient 
British  Church  to  Rome.  The  hierarchy  be- 
came very  powerful  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
William  I.  changed  the  frank-almoign,  or  free 
alms,  the  spiritual  tenure  under  which  the 
bishops  before  held  their  lands,  into  the  feudal 
or  Norman  tenure  by  barony  in  1070  ;  and  in 
right  of  succession  to  these  baronies  the 
bishops  and  abbots  were  afterwards  allowed 
seats  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  lords  spiritual. 
They  were  at  first  elected  to  their  office. 
Charlemagne  claimed  the  right  of  confirming 
each  appointment,  and  of  granting  investiture 
of  the  temporalities  ;  and  this  was  recognized 
by  Hadrian  I.  in  773,  and  the  Council  of 
Lateran.  This  custom  prevailed  in  England 
until  the  year  1106,  when  Anselm  induced 
Henry  I.  to  be  satisfied  with  homage  from  the 
bishop  for  his  temporalities.  King  John  con- 
ceded by  charter  to  the  cathedrals  and  monas- 


BISHOPRICS 


BLACK 


teries  the  right  of  electing  their  bishops  and 
abbots.  (See  CONG^  D'ELIRE.)  This  right  was 
recognized  and  confirmed  in  Magna  Charta, 
and  by  25  Edw.  III.  st.  6,  s.  3  (1361)-  The 
ancient  right  of  nomination  was  restored  to 
the  crown  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20  (1534)-  Tne 
precedency  of  bishops  was  settled  by  31  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  10,  s.  3  (1539),  which  assigned  the 
highest  place  to  the  primate,  the  Archbishop 
of  York  ranking  second,  and  the  bishops  of 
London,  Durham,  and  Winchester,  following  in 
succession,  the  other  bishops  sitting  "on  the 
same  side  after  their  ancienties,  as  it  hath  been 
accustomed."  Twelve  bishops  were  impeached 
and  committed  to  the  Tower,  Dec.  30,  1641,  for 

E-otesting  (Dec.  28)  against  the  legality  of  all 
ws,  orders,  votes,  resolutions,  and  determi- 
nations passed  during  their  enforced  absence, 
from  the  violence  of  the  mob,  by  whom  they 
were  daily  assaulted  on  their  way  to  Parlia- 
ment. Bishops  were  excluded  from  Parliament 
by  16  Charles  I.  c.  27  (Feb.,  1641),  but  the  act 
was  repealed  by  13  Charles  II.  st.  i,  c.  2  (1662), 
and  they  have  since  sat  in  the  upper  house. 
The  act  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  115  (July  29,  1856) 
provided  for  the  retirement  of  Dr.  Blomfield, 
Bishop  of  London,  and  Dr.  Maltby,  Bishop  of 
Durham,  and  fixed  the  amount  of  their  pen- 
sions. (See  NONJUROHS,  and  SEVEN  BISHOPS, 
Trial  of.) 

BISHOPRICS.— (See  COLONIAL,  ENGLISH  AND 
WELSH,  IRISH,  ROMAN  CATHOLIC,  AND  SCOTCH 
BISHOPRICS.) 

H1S.MUTH.—  This  metal,  first  described  by 
Agricola  in  1529,  was  shown  by  him  to  be 
"  somewhat  different  from  lead"  in  1546.  Its 
nature  was  studied  by  Pott  and  Gcoffroy,  about 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 

BISUTUN.— (See  BEHISTUN.) 

BITIIYX1A  (Asia  Minor).  —  The  original 
inhabitants  of  this  ancient  province  were, 
according  to  the  traditional  account,  expelled 
by  some  Thracian  tribes,  of  which  the  Bithyni 
were  the '  most  numerous.  The  Mcgariaiis 
formed  a  colony  at  Astacus  B.C.  712,  which 
became  a  flourishing  city.  Bithynia  was  iucor 
jtnrated  with  the  Lydian  empire  by  Croasus 
about  B.C.  560,  audit  is  included  in  the  modem 
Anatolia. 

B.C. 

543.  Bithynia  succumbs  with  Lydia  to  the  Persian  yoke. 
431,  or  436.  Dydalsus,  or  Dacdalsus,  chief  of  the  Bithyn 

seizes     Astacus.    and     founds     the    kingdom    of 

Bithynia. 
409.  The  Bithynians  deliver  to  Alcibiados  the  property  of 

the  Chalcedonians  intrusted  to  iheir  keeping. 
401.  The  liithynians  vigorously  oppose  the  Hetreat  of  the 

Ten  Thousand  (q.  ».). 
333.  The  Bithynians  defeat  Galas,  one  of  the  generals  o 

Alexander  III.  (the  Great). 

315.  Zipoetes  makes  war  upon  Astacus  and  Chalcedon. 
23l.  Lysimachus,  the  Thracian,  sends  an  army  to  subdui 

Bithynia;    but  his  troops  are  defeated  and  hi 

generals  slain. 
278.  Nicomedes  I.,  King  of  Bithynia,  invites  the   Gaul 

into  Asia,  and  assigns  Galatia  (q.  v.)  as  their  ter- 
ritory. 

264.  Nicomedes  I.  founds  Nicomedia  (q.  v.). 
243    (eirc.)    Zielas    having     treacherously    planned    th< 

massacre  of  the  chiefs  of  Galatia,  is  detected  am 

slain  by  them. 

216.  Prusias  I.  defeats  the  Gauls  in  a  great  battle. 
183.  Hannibal,  who  had  sought  refuge  with  Prusias  I. 

and  assisted  him  in  his" wars  against  the  King  o 

Pergamus,  poisons  himself  to  avoid  bi!tray;;l  iiil< 

the  hands  of  the  Humans. 


167.  Pmsias  II.  visits  Home,  and  is  magnificently  received. 
156.  War  between  the  kings  of  Bitliynia  and  Pergamus, 

in  which  the  former  is  victorious. 
83.  War  between  Nicomedes   III.  and  Mithridates  VI., 

King  of  Pontus,  in  which  the  latter  is  victorious. 
74.  Death  of  Nicomedes  III.,  who  bequeath,  liithyiiia  to 

the  Human  people. 
44.  After  the  death  of   Ccesar,  Bithynia  is  assigned  to 

Cimber. 
A.D. 

63.  The  provinces  of   Bithynia  and  Pontus  are  united 
about  this  time. 

103.  Pliny  the  Younger  becomes  governor  of  Bithynia. 

104.  Pliny  the  Younger  complains  of   the  Christians  in 

his  province. 

260    (circ.)  Bithynia  is  ravaged  by  the  Goths. 

074.  It  is  scixed  by  the  Seljukian  Turks. 

231.  The  first  settlement  of  the  Tartars  in  Bithynia. 

327.  The  Emir  Orchaii  conquers   Xicomedia,   and  esta- 
blishes the  Ottoman  power  in  Bithynia. 

KINGS   OF   BITIIYNIA. 


.C. 

—  Dydalsus,  or  Dadalsus. 

—  Boteiras. 
376.  Bas. 

326.  Zipa-tos. 
278.  Nicomedes  I. 
250.  Zielas. 


u.C. 

228.  Prusias  I. 

1 80.  Prusias  II. 

149.  Nicomedes     II.     (Epi- 

phanes). 
91.  Nicomedes    III.    (Phi- 

lopator). 


BITONTO  (Battle).— The  Imperialists  were 
defeated  at  this  place,  the  ancient  Butuntum, 
in  Apulia,  by  the  Spanish  troops,  led  by  the 
Duke  of  Montemar,  general  to  Don  Carlos, 
May  27,  1734.  Don  Carlos  was  crowned  King 
of  Naples,  the  German  viceroy  expelled,  and 
Montemar  created  Duke  of  Bitonto.  The 
whole  of  Sicily  was  soon  after  subjugated. 

BITUMEN  was  obtained  at  a  very  early 
period  from  mineral  springs  at  Hit,  in  Cnaldsea, 
whence  Thothmes  III.  brought  it  into  Egypt 
about  B.C.  1400.  The  ancient  Chaldaeans  and 
Susianians  used  it  for  cement. 

BLACK  ACT,  passed  in  1722  (9  Geo.  I.  c.  22), 
was  thus  named  because  it  was  intended  to 
put  an  end  to  the  wanton  destruction  of  deer, 
game,  plantations,  the  obtaining  of  the  same 
by  threats,  and  other  outrages  committed  by 
persons  called  Blacks,  having  their  faces  black- 
ened, and  being  otherwise  disguised.  These 
offences  were  punished  as  felony,  the  delin- 
quents to  suffer  death  without  benefit  of 
clergy.  Offenders  under  this  act  were  ex- 
cepted  from  the  general  pardon  granted  by 
20  Geo.  II.  c.  52  (1746).  The  act  was  to  last  for 
three  years,  from  June  i,  1723,  and  it  was  con- 
tinued for  five  years  by  12  Geo.  I.  c.  30  (1725), 
and  after  other  renewals  was  made  perpetual 
by  31  Geo.  II.  c.  42  (1757).  It  was  repealed  by 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27,  s.  i  (June  21,  1827).  The 
acts  of  the  Scottish  parliament  from  the  reign 
of  James  I.  of  Scotland  to  1586 — 1587  are  also 
denominated  black  acts,  because  they  are 
printed  in  Saxon  characters. 

BLACK  ART.— (See  MAGIC.) 

BLACK  ASSIZE.— A  fatal  pestilence  that 
broke  out  at  Oxford,  at  the  close  of  the  assizes, 
July  6,  1577.  It  lasted  until  Aug.  12,  and  510 
persons  in  Oxford  and  its  neighbourhood  are 
said  to  have  fallen  victims  to  this  malady. 
Antony  Wood  attributes  it  to  the  noisome 
smell  of  the  prisoners,  or  the  damp  ground. 
Something  of  the  same  kind  occurred  at  the 
Lent  assizes  in  Cambridge  in  1521,  when  all 
"there  present  were  sore  sick,  and  narrowly 
escaped  with  their  lives." 


BLACK 


BLAOK 


BLACK    BRUNSWICKERS.— (-See  DEATH'S 
HEAD  CORPS.) 

BLACKBURN  (Lancashire),  formerly  the 
capital  of  a  sterile  district  called  Blackburn 
shire,  possesses  a  grammar  school,  founded  ir 
1567,  and  a  school  established  by  W.  Leylanc 
in  1764  for  the  maintenance  and  instruction  oi 
90  girls.  As  early  as  1650  it  was  celebrated 
for  its  manufacture  of  Blackburn  checks, 
which  subsequently  gave  place  to  the  Black- 
burn greys.  James  Hargreave,  a  carpenter 
residing  at  this  town,  invented  the  spinning 
jenny  in  1767,  thus  giving  an  impetus  to  the 
cotton  trade  (q.  v.),  which  forms  the  staple 
industry  of  the  inhabitants.  A  theatre  was 
erected  in  1818.  The  old  church,  dating  from 
the  Norman  Conquest,  and  rebuilt  in  1819,  was 
much  injured  by  fire  in  1831.  Blackburn  suf- 
fered severely  during  the  Cotton  Famine  (q.  v.} 
of  1863—4. 

BLACK  CAP,  called  the  "Judgment  Cap," 
is  worn  on  extraordinary  occasions,  and  forms 
a  portion  of  the  full  dress  of  the  judge.  For 
this  reason  it  is  used  when  sentence  of  death 
is  passed  upon  a  prisoner.  When  the  Lord 
Mayor  is  presented  in  the  Court  of  Exchequer, 
Nov.  9,  the  judges  wear  "the  black  cap  "  during 
the  ceremony.  Covering  the  head  was  a  sign 
of  mourning  amongst  the  Israelites,  as  may  be 
seen  from  2  Sam.  xv.  30,  and  other  passages 
in  the  Old  Testament ;  also  amongst  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  other  ancient  nations, 
and  even  amongst  the  Anglo-Saxons.  It  is 
not  known  when  the  custom  for  a  judge  to 
put  on  the  black  cap  in  passing  sentence  of 
death  upon  a  prisoner  was  introduced  into  this 
country. 

BLACK  DEATH. — This  pestilence,  so  called 
from  the  black  spots  which  at  one  of  its  stages 
appeared  upon  the  bodies  of  the  sufferers, 
desolated  the  world  in  the  i4th  century.  It 
is  said  to  have  broken  out  in  China.  After 
having  traversed  Asia,  it  appeared  in  Europe 
in  1348,  where  it  prevailed  with  more  or  less 
severity  until  1351.  The  loss  of  human  life 
was  great,  no  less  than  25,000,000  persons 
having  perished  in  Europe  alone.  The  terrors 
it  excited  gave  rise  to  several  sects,  who  wan- 
dered about,  lashing  themselves,  singing  peni- 
tential psalms,  and  declaring  that  the  day  of 
judgment  was  at  hand.  (See  FLAGELLANTS.) 
In  some  places  the  calamity  was  attributed  to 
the  Jews,  who  were,  in  consequence,  perse- 
cuted with  great  severity.  Our  historians 
dwell  upon  the  great  ravages  it  committed  in 
London  in  1348—9.  It  returned  at  a  later 
period,  but  its  visitations  were  less  fatal  in 
their  character. 

BLACK  FOREST  (Battles).— This  forest, 
lying  between  France  and  Austria,  has  been 
the  scene  of  conflicts  in  all  the  wars  between 
those  countries.  The  Kniebiss  Pass  was  tiken 
by  the  French  in  1796  and  in  1797,  and  the 
Valley  of  Holle,  or  Hell,  was  traversed  by 
Moreau  during  his  retreat  in  1796.  In  1805  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Austrians  under  Mack. 

BLACK  FRIARS.— This  name  was  given  to 

the  Dominicans,  who  came    into  England  in 

1221,   on   account  of  their  black  habit.     (See 

DOMINICANS.) 

BLACKFRIARS    BRIDGE    (London).— The 


first  pile  of  this  edifice  was  driven  Jan.  7,  and 
the  foundation  stone  was  laid  Oct.  31,  1760. 
The  temporary  bridge  was  opened  for  foot 
passengers  Nov.  19,  1766  ;  for  horses  in  1768  ; 
and  for  carriages  Nov.  19,  1769;  the  edifice 
having  been  completed  in  1770.  Toll,  to  the 
amount  of  one  halfpenny  per  foot  passenger 
on  week-days  and  one  penny  on  Sundays,  was 
at  first  levied ;  but  this  was  abolished  June 
22,  1785.  The  bridge  had  nine  arches,  the 
width  of  the  central  one  being  100  feet,  and 
the  length  of  the  whole  structure  995,  and  the 
width  42  feet.  It  was  repaired  in  1840,  when 
the  carriage-way  was  closed  until  October  in 
the  following  year.  It  was  at  first  called  Pitt's 
Bridge,  in  honour  of  the  great  Earl  of  Chatham. 
It  was  pulled  down  in  1864—5.  (£««  NEW 
BLACKFRIARS  BRIDGE.) 

BLACKFRIARS  THEATRE  (London)  was 
erected  in  1576,  and  rebuilt  in  1596.  The  edifice 
was  pulled  down,  and  tenements  erected  on 
its  site,  Aug.  6,  1655.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
the  Blackfriars  theatre  was  the  first  in  Lon- 
don. 

BLACKHEATH  (Kent).  —  This  common, 
about  five  miles  S.E.  from  London,  has  been 
the  scene  of  many  important  events.  The 
Danes  were  defeated  here  in  ion.  Wat  Tyler 
and  his  followers  assembled  here  June  12, 
1381.  (See  WAT  TYLER'S  INSURRECTION.)  Here, 
Nov.  23,  1416,  the  citizens  of  London  welcomed 
Henry  V.,  after  the  victory  at  Agincourt.  Jack 
Cade  encamped  on  the  heath  June  i,  1450 
(see  CADE'S  INSURRECTION),  and  the  leaders  of 
Flammock's  Rebellion  (q.  v. )  were  defeated 
here  by  the  royal  army,  June  22,  1497. 
Charles  II.,  at  the  Restoration,  was  met  here 
by  the  army,  May  29,  1660,  and  made  his 
triumphal  entry  into  the  metropolis.  It  was 
a  resort  of  highwaymen  during  the  iSth 
century.  A  cavern,  excavated  in  the  solid 
chalk,  and  discovered  on  the  Deptford  borders 
of  the  heath  in  1780,  is  believed  to  have  been 
ised  as  a  retreat  by  the  Saxons  during  the 
'nvasions  of  the  Danes.  (See  MORDEN  COLLEGE.) 

BLACK-HOLE.— Dowlah,  Viceroy  of  Bengal, 
captured  Calcutta  June  20,  1756,  when  he 
ordered  Mr.  John  Zephaniah  Holwell,  its 
valiant  defender,  and  145  of  his  fellow-country- 
men, to  be  imprisoned  in  the  common  dungeon 
)f  Fort  William,  usually  called  the  Black- 
icle.  The  dungeon  was  only  18  feet  square; 
)ut  little  air  was  admitted  ;  and  the  conse- 
[uence  was  that  when  the  door  was  opened 
>n  the  following  morning,  June  21,  only  23  of 
he  146  incarcerated  the  night  before  were 
ound  alive.  Clive  exacted  signal  vengeance 
or  this  act  of  barbailty.  He  took  Calcutta 
an.  2,  1757  ;  won  th  5  battle  of  Plassey  (q.  v.) 
une  23  in  the  same  year  ;  and  the  perfidious 
)owlah  was  slain  by  one  of  his  own  officers 
'une  25  in  the  same  year. 

BLACK  LETTER.— (-See  PRINTING.) 

BLACK-MAIL.— This  tax,  in  kind  or  money, 
was  levied  by  the  borderers  of  England  and 
Scotland,  under  the  pretence  of  affording  pro- 
jection from  robbers,  with  whom  those  de- 
manding the  tribute  were  generally  allied. 
3y  43  Eliz.  c.  13  (1601),  all  persons  in  the 
Bounties  of  Northumberland,  Westmoreland, 
Cumberland,  and  the  bishopric  of  Durham, 


BLACK 


[     150    ] 


BLANKET 


receiving  or  carrying  black-mail,  or  giving  it 
for  protection,  were  to  suffer  death  as  felons, 
without  benefit  of  clergy,  and  to  forfeit  all 
their  goods.  These  illegal  exactions  were 
carried  to  such  an  extent  that  they  became 
the  subject  of  legislation  just  before  the 
Union  in  1707.  The  practice  was,  in  spite  of 
every  effort  for  its  suppression,  continued  in 
Scotland  until  the  rebellion  of  1745. 

BLACK  MONDAY.— Easter  Monday,  April 
6, 1360,  was  thus  named  from  the  severity  of  the 
weather  on  that  day.  Stow,  under  the  year 
1360,  says,  "  And  here  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  1 4th  day  of  April,  and  the  morrow  after 
Easter-day,  King  Edward,  with  his  host,  lay 
before  the  city  of  Paris,  which  day  was  full 
dark  of  mist  and  hail,  and  so  bitter  cold  that 
many  men  died  on  their  horsebacks  with  the 
cold  ;  wherefore  unto  this  day  it  hath  been 
called  the  Black  Monday."  Easter  Monday  in 
that  year  fell  April  6  (N.  S.).  Launcelot,  in 
the  "Merchant  of  Venice,"  remarks,  "Then  it 
was  not  for  nothing  that  my  nose  fell  a  bleed- 
ing on  Black  Monday  last." — By  school-boys, 
the  first  Monday  after  the  holidays — the  day 
on  which  work  usually  commences — is  also 
called  Black  Monday. 

BLACK  MONEY.— Base  coin,  brought  into 
England  from  foreign  countries,  was  thus  de- 
nominated. The  importation  of  black  money 
was  prohibited  by  9  Edw.  III.  c.  2  (1335)  ;  and 
9  Edw.  III.  c.  4  (1335),  declared  that  it  should 
not  bo  current  in  this  realm.  The  term  was 
also  applied  to  jettons  and  counters. 

BLACK  MONKS.—  The  Benedictines  (q.  v.), 
from  the  colour  of  their  outward  garments, 
were  usually  called  black  monks. 

15LACK  RIVER  Battle).— Gen. Lawlcr drove 
the  Confederates  from  then-  entrenched  po- 
sition on  the  banks  of  this  stream  in  Missis- 
sippi, capturing  many  prisoners  and  17  cannon, 
May  17,  1863. 

BLACK-ROCK  (Battle).— At  this  place,  near 
Buffalo,  the  American  army,  amounting  to 
nearly  2,500  men,  was  defeated  by  a  British 
force  consisting  of  1,400  regulars  and  militia, 
Dec.  30,  1813.  The  Americans  attempted  to 
make  a  stand  at  Buffalo,  but  speedily  gave 
way  ;  whereupon  the  village  of  Blackrock  and 
the  town  of  Buffalo,  with  all  stores,  <fcc. ,  were 
destroyed.  This  was  done  in  retaliation  for 
the  acts  of  plunder  and  devastation  committed 
by  the  Americans  during  their  invasion  of 
Upper  Canada. 

BLACK  ROD. — The  gentleman-usher  of  the 
black  rod  was  appointed  by  letters  patent  from 
the  crown,  at  the  institution  of  the  order  of 
the  Garter,  of  which  he  is  an  officer,  in  1350. 
He,  or  his  deputy,  the  yeoman-usher,  is  sent 
to  desire  the  attendance  of  the  Commons  in 
the  House  of  Lords  when  the  royal  assent  is 
given  to  bills,  and  on  other  occasions. 

BLACK  ROOD  OF  SCOTLAND.— This  cross 
of  gold,  containing,  as  was  alleged,  a  relic  of 
the  true  cross,  was  brought  into  Scotland  by 
Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  on  her 
marriage  with  Malcolm  III.  in  1067.  By  the 
middle  of  the  i2th  century  it  was  regarded 
with  reverence  by  the  entire  Scotch  nation, 
and  having  been  removed  to  England  by  Ed- 
ward I.  in  1291,  it  was  used  to  add  solemnity 


to  the  oaths  of  allegiance  tendered  to  him  by 
the  northern  nobles.  On  the  ratification  of 
peace  at  Northampton,  May  4,  1328,  it  was 
restored  to  Scotland.  David  II.  having  brought 
it  with  him  on  his  invasion  of  England  in 
1346,  it  was  captured  by  the  English  at 
Neville's  Cross  (q.v.}  Oct.  12,  and  was  deposited 
by  the  conquerors  in  Durham  Cathedral,  where 
it  remained  till  the  Reformation.  Of  its  sub- 
sequent history  nothing  is  known. 

BLACK  SEA,  or  THE  EUXINE  (Expe- 
dition). —  The  Turks  excluded  all  foreign 
vessels,  until  the  Russians  obtained  admission 
by  the  treaty  of  Kutschouc-Kainardji  (q.  v.), 
July  10,  1774.  Austrian  ships  were  admitted 
soon  after,  and  British  and  French  by  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  March  25,  1802.— The  allied 
English  and  French  squadrons  entered  the 
Black  Sea  Jan.  4,  1854.  Odessa  was  bom- 
barded April  22,  and  the  British  war  steamer 
'/'/>/•  was  lost  off  that  port  May  12.  The 
landing  of  the  allied  armament  was  effected  at 
Old  Fort,  Sep.  14  —  18,  Balaclava  entered 
Sep.  26,  and  Sebastopol  bombarded  Oct.  17. 
A  terrible  gale  occurred  Nov.  n,  and  the  hur- 
ricane in  which  so  many  British  and  French 
ships  were  lost,  Nov.  14.  The  expedition  to 
Kertch  sailed  May  23,  1855,  and  after  having 
captured  several  places  and  destroyed  warlike 
stores,  returned  to  Balaclava  June  14.  The 
expedition  to  the  Bug  and  the  Dnieper  an- 
chored off  Odessa  Oct.  8,  was  detained  by  fogs 
and  contrary  winds  till  Oct.  14,  captured  Kin- 
burn  Oct.  1 6,  and  returned  to  Balaclava  in 
November.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  in 
1856,  the  English  and  French  squadrons  were 
gradually  withdrawn,  and  the  Black  Sea  was 
thrown  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations. 

BLACK-WALL  (Middlesex).— Thla  impor- 
tant suburb  of  London  was  connected  with  the 
metropolis  by  railway  July  4,  1840.  Bruns- 
wick Wharf  was  opened  July  6,  1840. 

BLACK  W  A  T  C  II.— A  militia  armed  by 
Government  in  1725,  to  guard  the  Scotch  High- 
lands, and  regularly  organized  in  1729  or  1730, 
was  so  termed  from  the  dark  tartan  uniform. 
This  force  was  formed,  in  1739,  into  'the  42iid 
Regiment. 

BLACK-WATER  (Battle)  took  place,  near 
this  river  in  Ulster,  during  Tyrone's  rebellion, 
between  the  English  forces,  led  by  Sir  Henry 
Bagnal,  and  the  rebels,  Aug.  14,  1598.  The 
former  were  defeated,  and  the  result  of  the 
disaster  was  a  general  rising  of  the  Irish  in 
Ulster. 

BLACKS.— (See  BIANCHI  and  NERI.) 

BLADENSBURG  (Battle).— An  English 
army  defeated  the  Americans  on  the  heights 
of  Bladensburg,  in  Maryland,  Aug.  24,  1814. 
The  American  force  consisted  of  between  7,000 
and  8,000  infantry,  with  3,000  cavalry,  in  a 
strong  position,  supported  by  a  powerful  ar- 
tillery ;  whilst  the  British  scarcely  mustered 
5,000  men,  and  only  1,500  were  actually  en- 
gaged. The  defeated  army  retreated  through 
Washington,  of  which  the  victors  took  posses- 
sion. 

BLANCO  (Cape).— This  headland  of  Western 
Africa,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1440, 
was  first  doubled  by  Tristam  in  1443. 

BLANKET. — Coarse  woollen  cloth,  manufac- 


BLANKETEERS 


BLENHEIM 


tured  at  Bristol  by  the  brothers  Edward,  Ed- 
mund, and  Thomas  Blanket,  the  last  of  whom 
was  bailiff  of  that  town  in  1340,  though  origin- 
ally used  for  the  dress  of  monks  and  nuns, 
was  speedily  adopted  as  a  material  for  bed- 
coverings,  and  is  frequently  alluded  to  as  such 
in  the  "  Expenses  of  the  Great  Wardrobe  of 
Edward  III.,  from  Sep.  29,  1347,  to  Jan.  31, 
1349-" 

BLANKETEERS.—  Rioters  who  assembled 
from  all  parts  of  Lancashire  at  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Manchester,  Monday,  March  10,  1817, 
for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  carrying  a  petition 
for  reform  to  London,  in  order  to  present  it  to 
the  Prince  Regent.  Each  man  brought  with 
him  a  blanket,  amongst  other  necessaries  for 
the  journey,  and  on  this  account  they  received 
the  name  of  Blanketeers.  The  authorities,  by 
adopting  proper  precautions,  and  suspending 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  were  enabled  to  sup- 
press the  movement  before  mischief  had  been 
done. 

BLANK  VERSE  was,  according  to  Hallam, 
first  used  in  English  poetry  by  Henry  Howard, 
Earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  executed  Jan.  19, 
1547.  His  chief  production  in  this  measure  is 
a  translation  of  a  portion  of  the  ^Eneid, 
published  in  1557.  Blank  verse  was  much  im- 
proved by  Marlowe.  Some  authors  state  that 
Chaucer  first  employed  it. 

BLARNEY-STONE.— The  tradition  that 
whoever  kisses  this  stone,  in  the  castle  of 
Blarney,  county  Cork,  is  endowed  with  per- 
suasive eloquence,  is  traced  to  the  circumstance 
that  Cormac  M'Dermot  Carthy,  an  Irish  rebel, 
having  concluded,  in  1602,  an  armistice  with 
the  English  on  condition  of  surrending  Blai- 
ney  Castle,  succeeded  by  his  promises  and 
entreaties  in  holding  that  stronghold  until 
the  assailants  became  the  laughing-stock  of 
the  English  court.  Two  stones  of  the  castle 
are  said  to  possess  the  power  referred  to, — 
one  dated  1446,  being  situated  about  20  feet 
from  the  top  of  the  lofty  tower,  while  the 
other,  inscribed  1703,  is  at  the  summit  and 
easily  accessible. 

BLASPHEMY  was  severely  punished,  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  penalty 
by  the  law  of  Moses  was  death,  and  the  same 
was  awarded  by  the  civil  code  of  Justinian. 
The  ecclesiastical  codes  were  very  severe 

rn  persons  guilty  of  any  form  of  the 
nee.  The  Long  Parliament  passed  a  law 
(May  2,  1648)  visiting  it  in  some  cases  with 
capital  punishment  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
By  3  James  I.  c.  21  (1605),  any  person  or  per- 
sons in  any  stage  play,  interlude,  show,  May- 
game,  or  pageant,  jestingly  or  profanely 
speaking  or  using  the  name  of  either  person 
of  the  Trinity,  incurred  a  fine  of  £10  for  every 
offence.  The  act  for  more  effectually  suppress- 
ing blasphemy  or  profaneness,  9  &  10  Will.  III. 
c.  32  (1698),  punished  these  offences  with 
general  disqualification  and  imprisonment  for 
three  years.  By  53  Geo.  III.  c.  160,  s.  2  (July 
21,  1813),  Unitarians  are  relieved  from  its 
operation.  The  law  respecting  blasphemy  is 
regulated  by  60  Geo.  III.  c.  8  (Dec.  30,  1819). 
The  Scotch  acts,  punishing  the  offence  by 
death,  passed  in  1661  and  1695,  were  repealed 
.  III.  c.  160  (July  21,  1813). 


BLEACHING,  which  seemsto  have  originated 
in  Egypt,  was  practised  by  the  ancients,  who 
did  not,  however,  discriminate  clearly  between 
it  and  the  kindred  operations  of  fulling  and 
washing.  Early  in  the  i8th  century  Holland 
was  celebrated  for  its  bleach-works,  to  which 
goods  were  sent  from  this  country ;  but  similar 
establishments  having  been  introduced  into 
Scotland  with  much  success  in  1749,  the  pro- 
cess was  speedily  extended  over  Great  Britain. 
Berthollet  having,  in  1785,  discovered  the 
bleaching  properties  of  chlorine  (q.  v. ),  several 
attempts  were  made  to  utilize  that  substance 
by  depriving  it  of  its  tendency  to  rot  cloth 
brought  within  its  influence.  This  was  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  by  Tennant's  invention 
of  chloride  of  lime  bleaching  powder  in  1798. 
Bentley's  continuous  process  was  patented  in 
1828.  The  employment  of  women  and  children 
in  bleaching  works  was  placed  under  the  Fac- 
tories Acts  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  78  (Aug.  6,  1860), 
which  act  was  amended  by  23  Viet.  c.  8  (April 
n,  1862),  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  38  (June  29,  1863), 
and  by  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  98  (July  29,  1864). 

BLENEAU  (Battle).— The  Spanish,  led  by 
Condi?  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  defeated  the 
army  of  Louis  XIV.,  under  Hocquincourt,  near 
this  place,  in  France,  April  7,  1659. 

BLENHEIM,  orBLINDHEIM  (Battles).— The 
allied  army,  under  Maryborough  and  Eugene, 
defeated  the  French  and  Bavarians  at  this  place 
in  Bavaria,  about  20  miles  from  Augsburg, 
Aug.  13  (O.  S.  2),  1704.  The  forces  of  the 
former  consisted  of  52,000  men  and  52  pieces 
of  cannon ;  those  of  the  latter  of  57,000  men, 
advantageously  posted  and  defended  by  a 
powerful  artillery.  The  battle  commenced  at 
eight  in  the  morning,  and  by  nine  in  the 
evening  the  triumph  of  the  allies  was  com- 
plete. Their  loss  was  4,500  killed  and  7,500 
wounded  ;  that  of  the  French  and  Bavarians, 
12,000  killed  and  13,000  prisoners  ;  whilst 
several  thousands  perished  in  the  Danube. 
The  victors  took  100  pieces  of  cannon,  24 
mortars,  129  colours,  and  171  standards.  This 
was  Marlborough's  greatest  achievement,  and 
on  the  evening  of  the  battle  he  wrote  in  pencil, 
on  a  slip  of  paper  torn  from  his  memorandum- 
book,  the  following  letter,  still  preserved  in 
the  family  archives,  to  the  duchess  : — 


'  I  have  not  time  to 


ore,  but  to  beg  you  will  give 


my  duty  to  the  Queen,  and  let  her  know  her  army  has  had 
a  glorious  victory.  Monsieur  Tallard  and  two  othtr 
generals  are  in  my  coach,  and  I  am  following  the  rest. 
The  bearer,  my  aide-de-camp,  Colonel  Parkc,  will  give 
er  an  account  of  what  has  passed  :  I  shall  do  it  in  a  day 


r  two,  by  another  more  at  large. 


'MARLBOROUGH.' 


This  distinguished  general  received,  as  a  na- 
ional  gift,  the  manor  and  honour  of  Wood- 
stock (q.  v.),  and  the  hundred  of  Wootton, 
where  the  palace  of  Blenheim  was  erected  for 
him.  The  trophies  of  the  victory  were  re- 
moved from  the  Tower  to  Westminster  Hall, 
Jan  3,  1705,  amid  the  thunders  of  artillery 
and  popular  demonstrations.  It  is  also  called 
the  battle  of  Hochstadt,  from  a  village  in  the 
vicinity. — The  French,  under  Moreau,  effected 
the.  passage  of  the  Danube  at  this  place,  in 
face  of  a  strong  body  of  Austrians,  who  were 
defeated  with  much  slaughter  and  the  loss 


BLIND 


[    152    ] 


BLOOD 


of  throe  battalions  made  prisoners,  June  19, 
1800. 

BLIND.— Louis  IX.  founded  the  hospital  of 
the  Quiuze  Vingis  at  Paris,  in  1260,  for  the 
reception  of  soldiers  who  had  lost  their  sight 
in  the  Crusades.  Simpson's  hospital  for  the 
blind  at  Dublin  was  founded  in  1781.  The  first 
school  for  the  blind  was  opened  by  Valentine 
Hatty  at  Paris,  in  1784.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  principal  institutions  for  the  blind, 
with  the  date  of  foundation  : — 


A.D. 

1791. 

1793- 

*793- 


1804. 

1804. 


1806. 
1809. 


1809. 

1809. 


Liverpool. 
Edinburgh. 
Bristol. 
London. 

Vienna. 
Prague, 
Amsterdam. 
Norwich. 

St.  IVtiTsbur^. 

Berlin. 

Dublin  (Kiehi.rr.i 

but) 

Zurich. 

Drcsilen. 

Copcnba 


1815.  Dublin  (Molineux.) 

•Uiolm. 

1820.  Barcelona. 
1822.  Naples. 

1824.  Lintz. 

1825.  Perth. 
1828.  Gl:: 
IS-o.  I|;n, 

JS-I.     IJostMU,    U.S. 

1831.  Iv'. 

1833.  Philii.1,.1]':  • 

1835.  Limerick. 

1836.  ColUlIlll!.- 

:nrk. 
1838.  Mam 


The  number  of  these  excellent  institutions 
increases  rapidly.  Printing  for  the  blind  was 
introduced  in  1827,  and  the  methods  of  con- 
veying instruction  have  been  greatly  improved. 

BLINDING.— Duncange,  under  the  term 
Abacinaire,  enumerates  the  various  methods 
by  which  this  barbarous  punishment  of 
depriving  persons  of  sight  was  inflicted. 
Burning  with  hot  irons  was  the  me 
mon.  Shakespeare,  in  the  case  of  G: 
(King  Lear,  act  iii.  so.  7),  and  in  the  scene 
between  Arthur  and  Hubert  in  King  ,J  =  >!i;i 
(act.  iv.  sc.  i),  gives  a  vivid  description  of  its 
horrors.  Michael  PakaologiU  blinded  the 
young  Emperor  John  Lascaris,  in  order  to 
render  his  own  usurpation  secure  (Dec.  25, 
1261).  Gibbon  (ch.  Ixii.)  remarks:  "The 
loss  of  sight  incapacitated  the  young  prince 
for  the  active  business  of  the  world :  instead 
of  the  brutal  violence  of  tearing  out  his  eyes, 
the  visual  nerve  was  destroyed  by  the  intense 
glare  of  a  red-hot  basin,  and  John  Lascaris 
was  removed  to  a  distant  castle,  where  lie  spent 
many  years  in  privacy  and  oblivion."  This 
mode  of  torture  was  a  fearful  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  oppressors  and  tyrants  in  ancient 
times,  as  well  as  during  the  Middle  Ages.  (See 
ZKTUNIUM,  Battle.) 

BLOIH  (France),  the  Blesum  of  the  Romans, 
who  erected  a  fine  aqueduct  which  still  exists, 
passed  in  the  .early  part  of  the  gth  century 
under  the  government  of  counts,  one  of  whom, 
Guy  II.,  sold  it,  in  1391,  to  Louis  of  France,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  by  whose  successors  it  was  annexed 
to  the  French  crown.  Louis  XII.  rebuilt  the 
eastern  portions  in  1498,  and  in  1577  it  was 
the  scene  of  a  meeting  of  the  states  general. 
The  Duke  of  Guise  was  assassinated  here  by 
order  of  Hemy  III.,  Dec.  23,  1588,  and  Mary  de 
Medici,  imprisoned  in  the  castle  May  3,  1617, 
escaped  thence  in  1619.  Blois  was  erected 
into  a  bishopric  in  1697.  A  fine  bridge  over 
the  Loire  was  erected  in  1717.  Maria  Louisa, 
consort  of  Napoleon  I.,  held  her  court  here  for 
a  short  time  during  the  occupation  of  Paris  by 
the  allies  in  1814. 


BLOIS  (Treaties).  — A  secret  treaty  was 
concluded  here  between  Louis  XII.  and  the 
Archduke  Philip,  Sep.  22,  1504,  by  which  the 
former  ceded  to  Prince  Charles  (afterwards  the 
Emporor  Charles  V.)  Britanny,  part  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  certain  places  in  Italy,  as  the 
dowry  of  his  daughter,  the  Princess  Claude :  tho 
marriage  never  took  place. — A  second  treaty, 
by  which  the  Princess  Germainc  de  Foix,  niece 
-of  Louis  XII.,  was  betrothed  to  Ferdinand  V. 
of  Castillo,  who  agreed  to  pay  the  French  king 
a  million  gold  ducats  within  10  years,  was 
concluded  here  Oct.  12,  1505.  —  By  a  third 
treaty,  signed  Nov.  17,  1510,  in  consideration 
of  a  sum  of  100,000  ducats  and  an  auxiliary  of 
i, 200  lances  and  8,000  infantry,  covenanted  to 
him  by  Louis  XII.,  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
engaged  to  invade  Italy  the  ensuing  spring. — 
Another  alliance,  between  Louis  XII.  and  the 
Venetians,  was  concluded  here  March  14,  1513  ; 
and  a  league  between  England  and  France, 
negotiated  at  Paris,  was  signed'  at  Blois, 
April  ii,  1572.  The  latter  was  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance,  intended  to  lull  the  sus- 
picions of  the  French  Protestants. 

BLOOD.— During  the  early  and  Middle  Ages, 
human  blood  was  regarded  as  a  medicine  of 
great  efficacy,  and  blood-baths,  in  which  the 
patients  sat,  were  used  in  cases  of  leprosy. 
Louis  XI.  (1461 — 1483)  of  France,  after  having 
tried  a  number  of  remedies,  is  said  by  the 
historian  Gaguin  to  have  hoped  to  recover 
by  the  blood  of  certain  children,  which  he 
swallowed.  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  (1484 — 1492) 
is  said  to  have  endeavoured  to  prolong  his  days 
by  the  transfusion  of  blood.  The  Harveiau 
theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  was  con- 
firmed by  the  experiment  of  transfusing  blood, 
tried  xipon  dogs,  in  1657.  Vario us  attempts  were 
made  in  France  in  the  i8th  century  to  renovate 
old  and  broken  constitutions  by  means  of  some 
system  of  transfusion  of  blood. 

BLOOD  (Circulation  of  the  .—The  discovery 
of  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood  has  been 
attributed  to  several  individuals.  Hallaii!, 
who  substantiates  the  claim  of  William  llar- 
vey,  after  reviewing  the  controversy,  remarks  : 
"It  is  thus  manifest  that  several  anatomists 
of  the  1 6th  century  were  on  the  verge  of  com- 
pletely detecting  the  law  by  which  the  motion 
of  the  blood  is  governed  ;  and  the  language  of 
one  (Caesalpin)  is  so  strong,  that  we  must  have 
recourse,  in  order  to  exclude  his  claim,  to  the 
irresistible  fact  that  he  did  not  confirm  by 
proof  his  own  theory,  nor  proclaim  it  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
world."  Servetus  (1543 — 1553)  was  acquainted 
with  the  pulmonary  circulation;  Columbus 
(1559)  possessed  the  same  knowledge ;  and 
Csesalpin,  about  1583,  had  a  more  just  notion 
than  any  of  his  predecessors  of  the  general 
circulation  of  the  blood,  discovered  in  1619  by 
William  Harvey,  who  fully  demonstrated  its 
truth  in  1628.  Asellius,  in  1622,  discovered  the 
lacteal  vessels.  The  common  origin  of  the 
lacteal  and  lymphatic  vessels  was  discovered 
by  Pecquet  in  1647,  and  made  public  in  1651. 

BLOOD  (Council  of).— This  name  was  popu- 
larly given  to  the  "  Council  of  Tumults,"  or- 
ganized by  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  1567,  to  try- 
criminals  against  the  Spanish  throne  and  reli- 


BLOOD 


r  153  i 


BLUE 


gion  in  the  Netherlands.  By  their  orders  500 
citizens  were  arrested  on  Ash  Wednesday,  1568, 
and  condemned  to  death.  They  also  had 
Cotmts  Egmont  and  'Horn  executed,  June  2, 
1568. 

BLOOD  ORDER.— John  George  I.,  Elector 
of  Saxony,  who  owed  his  power  to  Swedish 
assistance,  having  bound  himself,  by  the  peace 
of  Prague,  May  30,  1635,  to  drive  his  bene- 
factors from  Germany,  subsequently  directed 
his  troops,  under  Baudis,  to  attack  the  Swedish 
forces  of  General  Bauer.  In  consequence  of 
the  ingratitude  of  this  command,  it  is  usually 
known  in  history  as  the  Saxon  Blood  Order. 

BLOOD  OF  OUR  SAVIOUR.— This  order  of 
knighthood  was  instituted  at  Mantua  by  the 
Duke  Vincentio  di  Gonzaga,  on  the  marriage  of 
his  son  with  Margaret  of  Savoy,  in  1608. 

BLOOD  OF  ST.  JANUARIUS.— (See  JANUA- 
BIUS,  ST.) 

BLOODY  ASSIZES.— After  the  suppression 
of  Monmoiith's  rebellion,  a  special  commission, 
dated  Aug.  24,  1685,  for  the  trial  of  offenders, 
was  directed  to  Jeffreys*  and  four  other  judges. 
They  set  out  for  the  west  of  England  under  a 
military  escort,  commanded  by  Jeffreys,  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  at  Dor- 
chester, Exeter,  Taunton,  and  Wells,  con- 
demned above  300  persons  to  death,  almost 
without  trial.  Nearly  1,000  were  sold  as  slaves 
to  the  West  Indian  plantations,  and  others 
were  whipped,  fined,  and  imprisoned.  James  II. 
termed  the  expedition  Jeffreys'  Campaign, 
rewarding  him  with  the  lord-chancellorship, 
Sep.  28.  This  is  generally  known  as  the  Bloody 
Assizes. 

BLOOMER  COSTUME.— Holinshed,  in  his 
description  of  England  in  the  i6th  century, 
says,  "  I  have  met  with  some  of  these  trullcs 
in  London,  so  disguised  that  it  hath  passed  my 
skille  to  discerne  whether  they  were  men  or 
women."  These  were  doubtless  the  first 
wearers  of  what  is  called  the  Bloomer  cos- 
tume, being  a  dress  for  females,  adopted  in 
America  in  1848,  and  introduced  into  England 
in  1851,  where,  though  recommended  by  lec- 
turers, it  fell  into  contempt,  and  speedily  dis- 
appeared. 

BLOOMSBURY  GANG,  a  clique  of  politi- 
cians who,  towards  the  close  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, exercised  an  undue  influence  over  the 
councils  of  George  III.,  so-called  from  the  fact 
that  their  meetings  often  took  place  at  Blooms- 
bury  House,  the  residence  of  their  leader, 
John,  fourth  Duke  of  Bedford.  To  such  an 
extent  was  their  tyranny  carried,  that  the 
sovereign  was  frequently  compelled,  though 
reluctantly,  to  submit  to  their  demands.  The 
Marquis  of  Bath,  and  Lords  Sandwich  and 
Weymouth,  were  members  of  this  political 
knot.  The  Marquis  of  Stafford,  who  died 
Oct.  26,  1803,  was  the  last  survivor  of  the 
Bloomsbury  Gang. 

BLORE-HEATH    (Battle).— Fought   at  this 

*  Lord  Cnmpbcll  (Lives  of  the  Chancellors,  iii.  495),  re- 
marks:— "  The  name  is  spelt  no  fewer  than  eight  different 
ways — 'Jeffries,'  '  Jeff  erics,'  'Jefferys,'  '  Jeffjereys,'  'Jef- 
fereyes,'  'Jeffrys,'  *Jeffrves,'  and  v  Jeffreys,'  and  he  him- 
self spelt  it  differently  at  different  times  "of  his  life ;  but 
the  last  spelling  is  that  which  is  found  in  his  patent  of 
peerage,  and  which  he  always  used  afterwords." 


place,  iii  Staffordshire,  during  the  wars  oi  tLo 
Ruses,  Sunday,  Sep.  23,  1459,  when  the 
Yorkists,  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Salisbury, 
defeated  a  superior  force  of  the  Lancastrians, 
led  by  Lord  Audley.  Henry  VI.  and  Queen 
Margaret  were  in  the  neighbourhood  at  the 
time  of  the  encounter. 

BLOTTING-PAPER.— Though  no  account  of 
its  first  use  is  known  to  exist,  it  was  probably 
introduced  soon  after  the  invention  of  paper. 
Fuller  (circ.  1655)  says,  "  Paper  participates  in 
some  sort  of  the  characters  of  the  countrymen 
which  make  it :  the  Venetian  being  neat,  sub- 
tile, and  courtlike;  the  French  light,  slight, 
and  slender ;  the  Dutch  thick,  corpulent,  and 
gross,  not  to  say  sometimes  also  charta  bibula, 
sucking  up  the  ink  with  the  sponginess 
thereof."  Blotting-paper  is  included  amongst 
the  items  in  an  account  of  stationery  supplied 
to  the  Exchequer  and  Treasury  1666 — 1668. 

BLOWING  MACHINES.— (See  BELLOWS.) 

BLOWPIPE.— The  date  of  its  invention  has 
not  been  ascertained.  It  was  first  employed 
in  the  analysis  of  metals  by  Swab,  in  1738, 
and  its  use  in  the  science  of  mineralogy  was 
demonstrated  by  Cronstcdt  in  1758.  It  has 
been  improved  by  various  men  of  science  since 
his  time. 

BLUE  COAT.— Blue  was  the  colour  in  which 
the  Gauls  and  ancient  nations  clothed  their 
slaves  ;  and  a  blue  coat  with  a  badge  was,  in 
the  time  of  Shakespeare,  the  livery  worn  by 
servants  of  the  nobility.  A  serving-man  in 
one  of  Ben  Jonson's  dramas  remarks,  "Ever 
since  I  was  of  the  blue  order."  Blue  was  also  the 
colour  worn  by  beadles;  hence  "blue-bottle" 
became  a  term  of  reproach  for  both.  Doll 
Tear-sheet  (Henry  IV.,  pt.  ii.  act  v.  sc.  4)  says 
to  the  beadle  who  is  dragging  her  to  prison, 
"  I  will  have  you  as  soundly  swinged  for  this, 
you  blue-bottle  rogue  !  "  Blue  was  also  worn 
by  apprentices,  and  even  younger  brothers ; 
and  a  blue  gown  was  the  dress  of  ignominy 
for  a  harlot  in  the  house  of  correction. 

BLUECOAT  SCHOOL.— (See  CHRIST'S  HOS- 
PITAL.) 

BLUE'S  GAP  (Battle).— Col.  Dunning  drove 
an  inferior  force  of  Confederates  from  their 
position  at  this  place  in  Virginia,  Jan.  6,  1862. 

BLUE  SPRINGS  (Battle),— The  Confederates 
were  defeated  by  the  Federals  at  this  place  in 
East  Tennessee,  with  a  severe  loss  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  150  prisoners,  Oct.  10  and  n,  1863. 

BLUE-STOCKING  CLUBS.— The  term,  ap- 
plied to  a  literary  body,  is  referred  by  Mills 
(History  of  Chivalry)  to  a  society  formed  in 
Venice  in  1400.  Boswell,  in  his  "  Life  of 
Johnson,"  thus  describes  their  origin : — 
"About  this  time  (1781)  it  was  much  the 
fashion  for  several  ladies  to  have  evening 
assemblies,  where  the  fair  sex  might  partici- 
pate in  conversation  with  literary  and  in- 
genious men,,  animated  by  a  desire  to  please. 
These  societies  were  denominated  '  Blue- 
Stocking  Clubs ; '  the  origin  of  which  title 
being  little  known,  it  may  be  worth  while  to 
relate  it.  One  of  the  most  eminent  members 
of  those  societies,  when  they  first  commenced, 
was  Mr.  Stillingfleet,  whose  dress  was  remark- 
ably grave,  and  in  particular  it  was  observed 
that  he  wore  blue  stockings.  Such  was  the 


BOARD 


[     154    1 


BCEOTIA 


excellence  of  his  conversation,  that  his  absence 
was  felt  as  so  great  a  loss  that  it  used  to  be 
said  '  We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue 
stockings  ; '  and  thus  by  degrees  the  title  was 
established." 

BOARD  OF  ADMIRALTY.  —  (See  ADMI- 
RALTY.) 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL,  established  by 
Pitt's  East  India  Bill,  24  Geo.  III.,  sess.  2,  c. 
25  (May  1 8,  1784).  Six  privy  councillors  were 
appointed  as  commissioners  to  have  control 
and  superintendence  of  all  the  affairs  of  the 
British  possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  The 
statute  was  amended  by  33  Geo.  III.  c.  52 
(June  n,  1793),  and  subsequent  acts.  The 
first  president  was  Lord  Sydney,  appointed 
Sep.  3,  1784.  The  Board  of  Control  was 
abolished  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  2, 
1858),  when  a  council  of  India,  consisting  of 
1 5  members  and  a  secretary  of  state  for  India, 
was  appointed. 

BOARD  OF  GREEN  CLOTH.— (See  MAR- 

SHALSEA   COURT.) 

BOARD  OF  HEALTH.— The  General  Board 
of  Health  was  established  by  11  &  12  Viet.  c. 
63  (Aug.  31,  1845),  for  sanitary  purposes,  with 
the  power  of  creating  local  boards  in  provincial 
towns.  It  was  reconstructed  by  17  &  18  Viet, 
c.  95  (Aug.  10,  1854),  entitled  "  An  Act  to  make 
better  provision  for  the  administration  of  the 
laws  relating  to  public  health."  Sir  B.  Hall, 
created  Lord  Llanover  June  27,  1859,  was  made 
president,  with  a  salary  of  ,£2,000  per  annum. 
By  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  97  (Aug.  2,  1858),  all  the 
powers  of  the  General  Board  of  Health  were 
transferred  to  the  Privy  Council.  Further  pro- 
vision for  the  local  government  of  towns  and 
populous  districts  in  this  matter  was  made  by 

21   &  22  VlCt.   C.  98  (Aug.   2,   1858). 

BOARD  OFOHDXAXCK.— (.W  OIIDNAXCK. 

BOARD  OF  TRADE  AX1)  PLANTATIONS. 
— Cromwell,  in  1655,  appointed  his  son  Richard, 
with  several  lords  of  the  council,  merchants, 
&c.,  to  consider  by  what  means  trade  and 
navigation  might  be  best  promoted  and  regu- 
lated. Charles  II.  established  a  council  to 
superintend  and  control  the  whole  commerce 
of  the  nation,  Nov.  7,  1660,  and  a  Council  of 
Foreign  Plantations,  Dec.  i  in  the  same  year. 
The  boards  were  united  in  1672,  but  ceased 
altogether  soon  afterwards,  their  functions 
being  transferred  to  the  Privy  Council.  The 
board  was  re-established  in  1695,  undergoing 
many  changes  until  1782,  when,  by  22  Geo.  III. 
c.  82,  it  was  abolished.  A  committee  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Privy  Council  was  ordered  to  be 
appointed  for  the  consideration  of  all  matters 
relating  to  trade  and  foreign  plantations.  The 
order  of  council  issued  March  5,  1784,  was 
revoked,  and  a  new  committee,  appointing  the 
board  as  at  present  constituted,  was  nomi- 
nated Sep.  5,  1786,  Mr.  R.  B.  Jenkinson, 
afterwards  Lord  Hawkesbury,  being  the  first 
president. 

BOAT  RACE.— (See  UNIVERSITY  BOAT  RACE.) 

BOBER  (Battle).  —  The  Prussian  General 
Blucher  was  driven  from  his  position  on  this 
river,  in  Silesia,  by  the  French  army,  com- 
manded by  Napoleon  I.,  Aug.  21,  1813. 

BOCCA  TIGRIS,  or  BOGUE  FORTS,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Canton  river,  having  been 


attacked,  two  were  taken  by  the  English, 
Jan.  7,  1841.  The  Chinese  having  failed  to 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  a  treaty  by  which 
a  cessation  of  hostilities  had  been  secured,  the 
rest  of  the  forts  were  captured  Feb.  26  in  the 
same  year.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here 
April  4, 1846 ;  and  the  forts  were  again  captured 
by  the  English  in  Nov.,  1856. 

BOCHETTA  (Battle).— Prosper  Adorno,  Go- 
vernor of  Genoa,  under  Bona  of  Savoy,  sister 
of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  and  Regent  of  Milan, 
during  the  infancy  of  Duke  John  Galea/^o, 
having,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV., 
thrown  off  his  allegiance  to  that  princess, 
defeated  her  army  at  the  pass  of  the  Bochetta, 
Aug.  7,  1478. 

BODLEIAN,  or  BODLEYAN,  LIBRARY 
(Oxford).  —  Humphrey,  the  good  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  founded  a  library  at  Oxford  ;  but 
it  was  destroyed,  and  in  1556  the  desks  and 
benches  were  ordered  to  be  sold.  The  room 
remained  empty  until  repaired  and  again  de- 
voted to  the  purposes  of  a  library  by  Thomas 
Bodley,  an  eminent  diplomatist,  who  had  been 
sent  on  several  embassies  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
On  retiring  from  his  employments  in  1597,  he 
undertook  to  restore  this  library.  He  endowed 
it  richly,  and  presented  it  with  a  collection  of 
books  worth  ;£io,ooo.  It  was  opened  Nov.  8, 
1602,  and  alterations  in  the  building  were 
completed  in  1606.  The  foundation-stone  of 
a  new  library  was,  however,  laid  by  Sir  Thomas 
Bodley  himself,  July  19,  1610.  It  was  not 
completed  until  1613;  after  his  death,  which 
occurred  Jan.  28,  1612.  It  was  enlarged  in 
1634,  has  since  received  many  additions,  and 
contains  upwards  of  260,000  volumes  of  printed 
books  and  22,000  volumes  of  manuscripts. 
Several  catalogues  have  been  published,  the 
first  by  Dr.  James,  in  1605.  Casaubon  calls 
the  Bodleian  library  a  work  rather  for  a 
king  than  a  private  man.  A  reading  room 
was  opened  for  the  convenience  of  students  in 
1856. 

BOEHMISCHBROD  (Battle).— (See  LIPPAU.) 

BCEOTIA.— The  early  history  of  this  politi- 
cal division  of  ancient  Greece,  included  in  the 
modern  kingdom,  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
Thucydides  represents  it  as  having  been  in- 
habited by  various  barbarous  tribes  until  about 
60  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  when  the  Boao- 
tians,  an  yEolian  people,  expelled  from  their 
native  seat  by  the  Thessalians,  settled  in  the 
country,  at  that  time  called  Cadmeis,  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  of  Bceotia,  B.C.  1124. 
According  to  traditional  accounts,  Ogyges  was 
King  of  Boeotia  B.C.  1749,  and  Cadmus  is  said 
to  have  founded  Thebes,  B.C.  1550,  or,  ac- 
cording to  other  authorities,  B.C.  1493.  There 
is,  however,  little,  if  any,  authentic  informa- 
tion respecting  the  early  period.  The  cities  of 
Bosotia,  with  Thebes  (q.  v.)  at  their  head, 
entered  into  a  league,  though  the  date  of  its 
formation  is  not  known.  The  number  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  have  been  10,  or  at  the  out- 
side 14. 

B.C. 

608.  War  in  Bceotia   between   the  Mitylenreans   and  (ho 

Athenians. 

519.  Plafjca  withdraws  from  the  Boeotian  LCMLTIIC. 
507.  The  League  joins  the   IVlopounesians  ami  the  Chal- 

cidiaus  against  Atheii.-. 


BOGESUND 


[     155 


BOII 


B.C. 

480.  The  Boeotians  join  the  Persians. 

456.  Battle  of  (Enophyta  (q.v.). 

447.  Battle  of  Coronea  (q.  v.). 

395.  The  Boeotians  take  part  against  Sparta  in  the  Corin- 
thian war  (q.  v.). 

394.  The  Spartans  defeat  the  Boeotians,  &c.,  at  Coronea 
(q.  c.). 

387.  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (q.  v.). 

386.  Boeotia  regains  Platiwi. 

378.  Agesilaus  and  Cleombrotus  invade  Boeotia, 

377-  Agesilaus  invades  Boeotia  a  second  time. 

371.  Battle  of  Leuctra  (q.  v.). 

From  this  time  the  history  of  Boeotia  is 
merged  in  that  of  Thebes.  The  Boeotian  con- 
federacy, that  had  long  had  only  a  nominal 
existence,  was  entirely  dissolved  by  the 
Romans  B.C.  170. 

BOGESUND  (Battle).— (See  ASUNDEN,  Lake.) 
BOGOMILES,  or  BOGARMIT^.— A  sect  of 
heretics  that  sprang  up  in  Bulgaria  early  in 
the  1 2th  century.  The  name  is  compounded 
of  two  Slavonic  words, — bog,  "  God,"  and 
miloui,  "have  mercy  on  us,"  given  to  them 
from  their  custom  of  muttering  prayers  to 
themselves.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
Manichseans.  They  rejected  images,  dis- 
carded all  mysteries  in  the  sacraments  and 
the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Their  leader,  one  Basil,  a  monk,  having  been 
condemned  by  a  council  held  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1 1 10,  was  burned  alive  by  order  of 
the  Greek  Emperor  Alexius  Commenus  in  1118. 
The  sect  is  said  to  have  been  in  existence  early 
in  the  1 3th  century. 
BOGOTA.— (See  SANTA  FE"  DE  BOGOTA.) 
BOHEMIA  (Germany)  derives  its  name  from 
the  Boii  (q.  v.),  its  ancient  inhabitants,  who 
were  expelled  by  the  Slavonians.  Borzivoi 
became  its  first  duke  in  891.  The  dukes  were 
frequently  nominated  by  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  two  of  them,  Wratislaus  II.,  in 
1086,  and  Ladislaus  III.,  in  1158,  received  the 
title  of  king  as  a  mark  of  personal  honour, 
before  Bohemia  was  definitively  erected  into 
a  kingdom.  (See  PRAGUE.) 

A.D. 

480.    (circ).     The     Czeches     establish     themselves      in 

Bohemia. 

630.  Samo  raises  Bohemia  into  an  independent  state. 
680.  About  this  time  the  first  advance  in  civilized  arts  is 

made  by  the  Bohemians. 
733.  Libussa,  granddaughter  of  Samo,  weds  Premislaus, 

who  founds  the  dynasty  which  bears  his  name. 
805.  Bohemia  is  conquered  by  Charlemagne. 
864.  Borzivoi,  a  Bohemian  chief,  receives  the  sacrament 

of  baptism. 
1005.  Boleslans  I.,  King  of  Poland,  takes  Cracow,  and  lays 

siege  to  Prague,  which  is  delivered  by  Jaromir. 
1039.  War  between  Breti? laus  I.  and  the  Emperor  Conrad, 

in  which  the  former  is  defeated. 
1061.  On  the  death  of  Spitigneus  II.,  Wratislaus  II.  unites 

Bohemia,  Poland,  Silesia,   Lusatia,   and  Moravia 

into  one  kingdom. 
1174.  Ladislaus  II.,  banished   by  his  subjects,  takes  refuge 

in  Lusatia,  where  he  dies. 
1176.  A  large  number  of    the    Vaudois  immigrate  into 

Bohemia, 
1191.  Conrad  II.  dies  of  the  plague  at  the  siege  of  Naples, 

and  leaves  the  succession  to  his  dukedom  disputed. 
1198.  Premislaus  Ottocar  I.  is  made  the  first  hereditary 

king. 

13-1.1-3.  The  Tartars  overrun  Moravia. 
1363.  Premislaus   Ottocar   II.   is  King   of    Bohemia  and 

Austria,  and  soon  obtains  possession  of   Styria, 

Carinthia,  and  Istria,  when  his  dominions  extend 

from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic. 

1373.  Premislaus  Ottocar  II.  refuses  the  imperial  crown. 
1378.  Battle  of  Marchfield  (q.  v.). 


1389.  Marriage  of  Wenceslaus  IV.  to  Judith,  daughter  of 
Rodolph  of  Habsburg.  Part  of  Misnia  and  of 
Eger  added  to  Bohemia. 

1300.  Wenceslaus  IV.  is  elected  King  of  Poland. 

1306.  Death  of  Wenceslaus  V.,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
house  of  Premislaus. 

1337.  Silesia  is  annexed  to  Bohemia. 

1408.  John  Huss  declares  himself  a  disciple   of  Wycliffe. 

1416.  Rebellion  of  the  Hussites  (q.  v.). 

1430.  Suppression  of  the  Adamites  (q.  v.). 

1438.  Death  of  Sigismnnd,  and  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Luxemburg.  Tin-  1 1  ussit.-s  invite  Cas.simir,  Prince 
of  Poland,  to  succeed  him,  but  the  Crown  falls  to 
Albert  of  Austria. 

1466.  Pope  Paul  II.  excommunicates  George  Podiebrad, 
the  Hussite  King  of  Bohemia,  and  sends  an  army 
against  him,  which  is  defeated  at  Tina. 

1536.  On  the  death  of  Louis  I.  the  Bohemians  confer  the 
crown  on  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria,  in  whose 
family  it  has  since  remained. 

1567.  Maximilian  II.  abolishes  the  religious  compacts 
which  had  restrained  the  spread  of  Protestantism. 

1609.  Rodolph  II.  establishes  freedom  of  conscience  in 
Bohemia. 

1618.  The  commencement  of  the  Thirty  Years  War. 

1630.  The  battle  of  Prague  (q.  p.). 

1648.  The  treaty  of  Minister  puts  an  end  to  the  Thirty 
Years  War,  and  to  the  political  existence  of 
Bohemia,  which  is  incorporated  with  the  Austrian 
empire. 

1744.  Frederick  II.  (the  Great)  of  Prussia,  invades  Bo- 
hemia. 

1757,  May  6.  The  battle  of  Prague  (q.  v.). 

1763.  The  Prussians  ravage  Bohemia. 

1773.  A  terrible  famine  devastates  Bohemia. 

1775.  Insurrection  of  the  peasantry. 

1781.  Joseph  II.  abolishes  slavery. 

1813.  The  Austrian  army,  under  Schwartzenberg,  assem- 
bles in  Bohemia,  preparatory  to  the  campaign 
against  Napoleon  I. 

1848,  June  13-  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Prague. 


SOVEREIGNS   OF   BOHEMIA. 

DUKES. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

891.  Borzivoi  I. 

093.  Bretblans  II. 

903.  Spitigneus  I. 

100.  Borzivoi  11. 

907.  Wratislaus  I. 
916.  Wenceslaus  I. 

107.  Suatopluc. 
109.  Ladislaus  I. 

936.  Boleslaus  I. 

I3&  Sobielaus  I. 

967.  Boleslaus  II. 

140.  Ladislaus  TI. 

999.  Boleslaus  III. 

174.  Sobielaus  11. 

1003.  Jaromir. 

178.  Frederick 

1013.  Udalric. 

190.  Conrad  II. 

1037.  Bretislaus  I. 

191.  Wenceslaus  II. 

1055.  Spitigneus  II. 
1061.  Wratislaus  11. 

193.  Henry  Bretislaus. 
196.  Ladislaus  III. 

1093.  Conrad  I. 

1096.  Premislaus  Ottocar  I. 

KINGS. 

1198.  Premislaus  Ottocar  I. 
1330.  Wenceslaus  III. 

1438.  Albert  of  Austria,  Em- 
peror. 

1353.  Premislaus  II. 

1440.  Ladislaus  V. 

1378.  Wenceslaus  IV. 
1305.  Wenceslaus  V. 

1458.  George  Podiebrad. 
1471.  Ladislaus  VI. 

1306.  Rodolph      of      Habs- 

1516. Louis  I. 

burg. 
1307.  Henry  of  Carinthin. 
1310.  John  of  Luxemburg. 

1536.  Ferdinand  I,,  Emperor 
of  Germany. 
1564.  Maximilian  II. 

1346.  Charles  I.,  Emperor  in 

'347- 

1575.  Ilodolph  II. 
1611.  Matthias. 

1378.  Wenceslaus  VI.,   Em- 

1619. Ferdinand  II. 

peror. 
1419.  Sigismund,  Emperor. 

1637.  Ferdinand   III.  (incor- 
porated with  Austria 

in  1648). 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN.— (See  MORAVIAN 
BRETHREN.  ) 

BOII. — A  Celtic  people  who  migrated  at  an 
early  period  from  Transalpine  Gaul  into  Italy, 
where  they  assisted  at  the  destruction  of 
Melpum,  B.C.  396.  The  Dictator  Sulpicius 
defeated  them  in  Latium  B.C.  358,  and  they 
were,  with  the  Etruscans,  defeated  at  the 
Vadunoman  Lake  (q.  v.},  B.C.  283.  They  were 


BOILING 


[    156    ] 


BOLOGNA 


again  opposed  to  Home  B.C.  225,  and  attacked 
the  Roman  colony  of  Placentia,  B.C.  218.  They 
destroyed  the  army  of  the  Consul  Postumius, 
numbering  25,000  men,  B.C.  216,  and  assisted 
in  the  destruction  of  Placentia,  B.C.  200. 
They  were  at  length  subdued  by  Scipio  Nasica 
B.C.  191,  who  slew  numbers  of  their  people,  and 
confiscated  nearly  half  their  lands,  which 
became  the  seat  of  the  colonies  of  Boiionia, 
Mutina,  and  Parma,  B.C.  183. 

BOILING  TO  DEATH.— By  22  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  9  (1531),  this  punishment  was  awarded  to 
poisoners.  The  act  related  that  one  Richard 
Roosc,  otherwise  called  Coke,  a  cook  in  the 
Bishop  of  Rochester's  diocese,  had,  by  mixing 
poison  in  their  food,  caused  the  death  of  two 
and  the  illness  of  several  persons.  He  was 
declared  guilty  of  treason,  and  ordered  to  be 
boiled  to  death,  without  receiving  benefit  of 
clergy  ;  and  the  like  punishment  was  decreed 
for  all,  from  that  time,  found  guilty  of  any 
manner  of  poisoning.  He  suffered  at  Smith- 
field,  April  5,  1532 ;  and  Margaret  Dany,  a 
maid-servant,  was  boiled  to  death  at  the  same 
place,  March  17,  1542,  for  "poisoning  of  three 
households,  that  she  had  dwelt  in."  This  act 
was  repealed  by  i  Edw.  VI.  c.  12,  s.  n  (1547). 
The  punishment  itself  was  common  both  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent,  previous  to  the 
enactment  of  the  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  The 
Chronicle  of  the  Grey  Friars  of  London  (ftarn- 
den  Society)  records  a  case  at  Smithfield  of  a 
man  who  was  fastened  in  a  chain  and  pulled 
up  and  down  divers  times,  till  he  was  dead. 
It  appears  to  have  been  a  common  punishment 
for  coining. 

BOIS-LE-DUC  (Holland)  was  founded  in 
1184  by  Godfrey  III.,  Duke  of  Brabant,  in  the 
midst  of  a  forest.  Having  separated  from  the 
United  Provinces  during  the  i6th  century,  it 
was  ineffectually  besieged  by  Prince  Maurice 
of  Nassau  in  1601  and  1603,  but  was  at  length 
taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1629.  Besieged  and 
captured  by  the  French  republican  army  Oct. 
10,  1794,  it  was  retaken  by  the  Prussians  under 
Bulow  Jan.  25,  1814.  The  bishopric,  founded 
in  1560  or  1561,  and  suppressed  in  1629,  was 
restored  in  1853. 

BOJACA,  or  BOYACA  (Battle).— During 
the  war  of  independence  in  South  America,  the 
Spaniards  were  defeated  at  this  place,  in  New 
Granada,  by  Bolivar's  army,  Aug.  7,  1819. 

150,1  ANO  (Naples).— This  town,  which  occu- 
pies the  site  of  the  ancient  Boviaiium  (</.  <•.), 
has  often  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes, 
and  was  nearly  destroyed  by  one  in  1805. 

BOKHARA,  or  UZBEKISTAN  (Asia),  the 
ancient  Sogdiana,  also  called  Transoxiana — 
though  not,  as  has  been  asserted,  by  ancient 
writers — was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  about 
710  A.D.  It  was  overrun  by  Zingis  Khan  in 
1222;  by  Timour  in  1361  :  and  by  the  Uzbeg 
Tartars  in  1505.  Bokhara  has  remained  under 
the  sway  of  various  khans  of  this  race  ever 
since.  Col.  Stoddart  and  Capt.  Conolly,  sent 
by  the  British  Government  on  a  mission  to  the 
khan  in  1843,  were  murdered  by  him  at  Bok- 
hara, the  chief  town  of  the  khanat.  Intelli- 
gence was  received  Aug.  i,  1844,  from  the 
enterprising  traveller  Dr.  Wolff,  who,  in  1843, 
went  to  ascertain  their  fate,  that  they  had 


been  put  to  death  in  June  or  July  of  1043. 
After  undergoing  a  short  imprisonment,  Dr. 
Wolff  was  allowed  to  leave  Bokhara,  and  he 
reached  England  in  April,  1845.  War  having 
broken  out  between  the  khan  and  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  a  Russian  army  entered  the  country, 
and  having  captured  the  fort  Nias-Bek, 
garrisoned  by  the  Kokaniana,  a  people  hostile 
.to  Bokhara,  May  8,  1865,  subsequently  defeated 
the  main  body  of  the  Kokaiiians,  and  slew 
their  general,  May  21.  Taschkent,  whither 
the  defeated  Kokanians  had  retired,  was 
taken  by  assault  June  27,  1865. 

BOLIVIA  (South  America).— The  provinces 
of  Upper  Peru,  which  had  separated  from  the 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  having  by  the 
victory  of  Ayacucho  (q.  v.),  Dec.  g,  1824,  se- 
cured their  independence,  were  formed  into  a 
republic  Aug.  n,  1825.  The  deputies  decided 
in  favour  of  separation,  and  upon  calling  the 
new  state  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  its  liberator, 
Bolivar.  This  assembly  separated  Oct.  6, 1825, 
and  a  new  congress  met  May  25,  1826.  In  1836 
slavery  was  abolished  in  Bolivia.  Changes  in 
the  constitution  took  place  in  1839,  1843,  and 
the  new  system  was  not  settled  until  1848.  A 
commercial  treaty  was  concluded  with  KULT- 
land,  Sep.  29,  1840.  An  attempt  was  m 
assassinate  the  President  Aug.  10,  1858. 

BOLLAND1STS.— Herbert  of  Rosweyd,  a 
Flemish  Jesuit,  having  projected  a  series  of 
lives  of  the  Christian  saints,  his  collection 
passed  upon  his  death  in  1629  to  John  Bolland, 
a  native  of  the  Netherlands,  who  established 
himself  at  Antwerp,  and  opened  a  correspond- 
ence with  all  parts  of  Europe  towards  the 
furtherance  of  the  same  object.  With  the  as- 
sistance of  other  Jesuits  he  published  in  1643 
the  first  two  volumes  of  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum, 
to  which  he  added  three  other  volumes  in  1658, 
and  died  in  1665.  Among  the  most  eminent 
of  those  by  whom  his  labours  were  continued 
may  be  mentioned  Gottfried  Henschen,  who 
died  in  1681  ;  Daniel  Papebroch,  1714  ;  Conrad 
Janning,  1723;  Peter  Bosch,  1736;  Suyskens, 
1771;  Hubons,  1782;  Dom  Anselmo  Berthod, 
1788  ;  and  Joseph  Ghesquiere,  1802.  On  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits  in  1773  the  Bollandists 
removed  to  the  monastery  of  Candenbeg,  in 
Brussels,  whence  they  removed  in  1789  to  the 
abbey  of  Tongerloo,  in  Brabant,  where  the 
53rd  volume  was  published  in  May,  1794, 
when  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the  French 
occupation.  In  1837  the  Jesuits  formed  a 
new  Bollandist  society,  by  whom  the  54th 
volume  was  brought  out  in  1845.  M.  Guizot 
states  the  number  of  lives  contained  in  the  53 
volumes  published  prior  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion is  above  25,000. 

BOLOGNA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Bononia,  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Tuscans,  and 
was  called  by  them  Felsina,  a  name  used  by 
Livy.  It  became  a  Roman  colony,  B.C.  189. 
A  bishop's  see  was  founded  here  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  it  was  raised  to  an  arch- 
bishopric by  Gregory  XIII.  Dec.  10,  1582.  Its 
university,  the  oldest  in  Italy,  was  established 
in  1116  ;  the  story  of  its  foundation  about  430, 
and  its  restoration  by  Charlemagne,  being  re- 
jected by  the  best  authorities.  The  Emperor 
Henry  V.  granted  Bologna  a  charter  in  1112, 


BOLSOVER 


BOMBAY 


and  it  was  long  governed  by  a  podesta  and 
consuls,  being  at  the  same  time  a  zealous  par- 
tisan of  the  Pope.  A  council  held  at  Bologna 
in  1264  excommunicated  the  English  barons 
who  had  rebelled  against  Henry  III.  John  XXI. 
or  XXII.  sent  Bertrand  de  Poiet,  his  legate, 
here  in  1327,  and  though  the  city  received  him 
as  its  lord,  he  was,  in  1333,  violently  expelled. 
Giovanni  Visconti,  temporal  and  spiiitual  lord 
of  Milan,  purchased  Bologna  in  1351,  but  it 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Milan  in  1356;  and, 
having  surrendered  to  the  Pope,  Milan  for- 
mally resigned  its  claim  by  treaty  in  1359. 
Anarchy  prevailed  for  some  time,  during 
which  period  Bologna  frequently  changed 
masters.  It  was  taken  by  the  papal  army, 
and  Julius  II.  made  his  triumphal  entry  Nov. 
u,  1506;  but  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
French  in  1511,  was  besieged  by  the  papal 
forces  early  in  1512,  and  Gaston  de  Foix  com- 
pelled them  to  retire  Feb.  7  in  the  same  year. 
Julius  II.  had  seized  Bologna  and  its  territory 
in  1506,  and  it  was  annexed  to  the  papal  do- 
minions by  the  treaty  of  peace  between 
Louis  XII.  and  Pope  Leo  X.  in  1514.  The 
French  king  dying  that  year,  his  successor, 
Francis  I.,  met  the  Pope  at  Bologna  in  1515, 
and  confirmed  the  acts  of  Louis  XII.  Its 
academy  of  pain  ting  "was  founded  in  1712. 
Napoleon  I.  entered  the  city  June  19,  1776; 
and  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Cispadane 
republic  in  1797.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Axistrians  in  1814,  and  was  formally  restored 
to  the  papal  government  in  1815.  An  insur- 
rection occurred  Feb.  4,  1831,  when  a  pro- 
visional government  was  proclaimed.  The 
sovereignty  of  the  Pope  was,  however,  re- 
stored by  Austrian  interference.  It  rebelled 
again  in  1848,  and  surrendered  to  an  Austrian 
army,  after  a  sanguinary  struggle  of  eight  days' 
duration,  May  16,  1849.  The  Austriaus  quitted 
Bologna  June  12,  1859;  an(i  a  national  assem- 
bly, soon  after  convened,  threw  off  the  papal 
yoke  Sep.  7.  A  deputation  sent  to  offer  the 
legations  to  Sardinia  was  received  by  the  king, 
and  then:  request  acceded  to,  Sep.  24  in  the 
same  year. 

BOLSOVPm  (Derbyshire).— This  village,  at 
the  compilation  of  the  Domesday  Book  (q.  v. ) 
was  the  property  of  William  Peveril,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  founded  the  castle  which 
was  taken  from  the  barons  on  behalf  of  King 
John  by  William  de  Ferrers,  Earl  of  Derby,  in 
1215.  In  1514  it  was  granted  to  Thomas 
Howard,  Duke  of  Norfolk,  on  the  attainder  of 
whose  son  in  1547  it  reverted  to  the  crown. 
Edward  VI.  granted  it  to  Lord  Talbot,  after- 
wards sixth  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  whose  de- 
scendants occupied  it  till  the  reign  of  James  I., 
when  it  was  sold  to  Sir  Charles  Cavendish, 
who  completed  the  restoration  of  such  portions 
as  had  fallen  into  decay  in  1616.  In  1644  it 
was  taken  by  the  parliamentary  forces  under 
Maj.-Gen.  Crawford,  and  subsequently  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  dukes  of  Portland, 
by  whom  it  is  still  held. 

BOMARSUND  (Gulf  of  Bothnia).  —  This, 
the  capital  and  principal  of  the  Aland  Isles, 
was  captured  by  the  French  and  English  Aug.  14 
and  15,  1854.  Russia,  by  a  convention  an- 
nexed to  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1856,  engaged 


not  to  restore  the  fortifications.  (See  ALAND 
ISLES.) 

BOMB.— This  invention  is,  by  Strada,  attri- 
buted to  an  inhabitant  of  Venlo,  in  1588,  in 
which  year  bombs  were  employed  at  the  siege 
of  Wachtendonk,  in  the  Netherlands :  whilst 
others,  on  the  authority  of  Valturinus,  con- 
tend that  bombs  were  invented  in  the  middle 
of  the  isth  century.  The  Moors  are  said  to 
have  used  them  at  the  siege  of  Baza  in  1325. 
Conde  (Arabs  in  Spain,  iii.  p.  231)  speaks  of 
"  machines  that  cast  globes  of  fire,  with  re- 
sounding thunders  and  lightnings,  resembling 
those  of  the  resistless  tempest."  At  any  rate, 
they  did  not  come  into  general  use  till  much 
later.  The  Turks  employed  them  at  the  siege 
of  Rhodes  in  1522,  the  French  at  that  of  La 
Mothe  in  1634. 

BOMBAY  (City)  signifying  "good  harbour," 
was  founded  by  the  Portuguese  soon  after  they 
obtained  possession  of  the  island  of  Bombay, 
in  1530. 

A.D. 

1676.  A  mint  is  established  at  Bombay. 

1686.  The  seat  of  government  is  transferred  from  Surat  to 

Bombay  by  the  East  India  Company. 

1688.  Bombay  is  besieged  by  Aurungzebe,  who  is  prevailed 
upon  to  withdraw. 

1691.  Bombay  is  visited  by  the  plague. 

1703.  The  plague  commits  great  ravages. 

1718,  Dec.  35.  The  first  church,  of  which  the  foundation- 
stone  had  been  laid  as  early  as  1685,  is  opened  for 
the  celebration  of  divine  service. 

1803.  A  fire  commits  murh  destruction. 

1810.  The  Minden,  -jo-gun  ship,  is  launched  at  Bombay. 

1818.  The  cholera  breaks  out. 

1827.  A  supreme  Court  of  Justice  established. 

1833,  Aug.  28.  Power  is  given  to  the  crown  to  establish  a 
bishopric  at  Bombay. 

1837.  Elphinstone  College  is  founded,  and  Bombay  is  made 
a  bishopric.  Steam  communication  with  Suez  is 
established. 

1845,  Oct.  Nearly  200  houses  are  destroyed  by  fire. 

1853,  Feb.  The  first  Indian  railway,  from  Bombay  to 
Tannah,  is  opened. 

1865,  July  I.  A  great  commercial  crisis,  caused  by  specu- 
lations in  cotton  to  supply  the  English  market 
during  the  cotton  famine  (q.  v.),  reaches  its  height. 
BOMBAY  (Island).— The  Portuguese  first 

arrived  off  the  coast  of  this  part  of  India  in 

1508,  and  visited  the  island  of  Bombay  in  1509, 

at  which  period  it  formed  a  dependency  of  the 

Mohammedan  rulers  of  Guzerat. 

A.D. 

1530.  The  island  of  Bombay,  &c.,  ceded  by  the  Mongols 
to  the  Portuguese. 

1534.  Bombay  is  fortified  by  the  Portuguese. 

1613,  Dec.  The  English  obtain  a  footing  at  Surat. 

1663,  May  20.  Bombay  becomes  an  English  possession  by 

the  marriage  of  Charles  II.  with  Catherine  of 
Braganza.  The  fleet  arrives  Sep.  18,  to  take 
possession,  but  the  Portuguese  governor  refuses 
to  give  it  up. 

1664.  Bombay  is  delivered  to  the  English  by  the  Portu- 

guese. 
1668.  The  island  of  Bombay  is  granted  to  the  East  India 

Company,  on  payment  of  the  rent  of  £10  in  gold, 

Sep.  30  in  each  year. 

1674.  A  mutiny  commences  amongst  the  English  troops. 
1683.  The  mutiny  again  breaks  out.    Capt.  Keigwin  issues 

a  proclamation  declaring  that  the  island  belo.igs 

to  the  king,  Dec.  37. 

1687.  Bombay  is  made  a  regency,  with  unlimited  power 

over  the  Company's  settlements. 

1688.  Aurungzebe  invades  the  island. 

(See  INDIA.) 

BOMBAY  (Presidency).— The  seat  of  the 
East  India  Company's  government  was  re- 
moved from  Surat  to  Bombay  in  1686  ;  and  in 
1687  Bombay  was  made  a  regency,  with  un- 


BONA 


[     158    ] 


BOOK 


A.D. 

1835.  Sir  R.  Grant. 

1838.  J.  Parish. 

1839.  Sir  J.  11.  Carnac,  Bart. 
184!.  Sir  W.  H.  Macnaghtcn, 

Bart. 
1841,  April  zl-    Hon.  G.  W. 

Andanon. 

1843.  Sir  G.  Arthur,  Bart 
1*46.  II, ,n.  L.  K.  Reid. 

1847.  G-  K.  Clerk. 

1848.  Viscount  Falkland. 
1*5?,.   Lord  Klphinstom*. 
186  .  Mr  a.  II.  Clerk,  Bart. 
1863.  Sir  Baltic  Frere. 


limited  power  over  the  rest  of  the  Company's 
settlements.  In  1773  a  measure  was  passed  by 
which  Bombay  became  subordinate  to  Bengal 
from  Aug.  i,  1774.  By  24  Geo.  III.  c.  25 
(Aug.  13,  1784),  a  governor  and  a  council  were 
appointed  for  this  presidency.  (See  INDIA.) 

GOVERNORS   OF   BOMBAY. 
A.D. 

1784.  R.  II.  Boddam. 
I7«8.  A.  Uarnsay. 
1788,  Sep.  6.   Major-Gen.  W. 

Medows. 

1790.  Col.  R.  Abercrombie. 
1793.  G.  Dick. 
1795.  J.  Griffith. 
1795,  Dec.  37.   J.  Duncan. 

1811.  G.  Brown. 

1812.  Sir  K.  Xepoan,  Bart. 
1819.  Hon.  51.  Klphinstone. 
1837.  Sir  .}.  Maloolm. 

1830.  Sir  T.  S.  Beckwith. 

1831.  J.  Ronier. 

1831,  March  3   Earl  of  Clare. 

BONA  (Algeria).— This  town,  erected  in  the 
7th  century  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Hippo  Regius  (7.  v.},  was  protected  by  a  fort 
established  by  Charles  V.  in  1535.  The  French 
African  Company  had  a  depot  at  this  town 
from  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  to  1789,  and  in 
18015  the  English  received  a  permission,  of 
which  they  did  not  avail  themselves,  to  form 
a  commercial  establishment.  Bona  suffered 
severely  from  the  plague  in  1817.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  French  May  6,  1832. 

BON-IK) M  M  KS,  or  COOl')  M  EX,  an  order  of 
friars,  brought  into  England,  and  established 
at  Ashering,  in  Bucks,  by  Edmund,  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  in  1283.  Another  house  of  the  order 
was  founded  at  Edington,  in  Wiltshire,  in 
1350.  The  Bon-hommes  followed  the  rule  of 
St.  Augustine,  and  wore  a  blue  habit. — The 
Paulicians  called  themselves  Good  Men,  or 
Los  Bos  Homos. 

BOXIN,  or  ARCHBISHOP  ISLANDS 
(Pacific). — This  group  was  discovered  by  Capt. 
Beechey  in  1827.  (See  PEEL  ISLAND.) 

I'.OXX  (Prussia),  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Bonna,  a  Roman  station,  the  scene  of 
the  victory  of  the  Batavi  and  Canninefates  over 
the  Romans,  A.D.  70.  Drusus  threw  a  bridge 
over  the  Rhine  at  this  place  B.C.  n.  It  was 
frequently  assailed,  and  even  captured  by  the 
German  tribes ;  and  was  ravaged  by  them  in 
355.  Julianus  recovered  it  and  repaired  its 
walls  about  359.  In  1320  it  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne.  The 
Emperor  Charles  IV.  was  crowned  here  in 
1346.  The  French,  who  had  captured  Bonn, 
were  besieged  and  expelled  Nov.  12,  1673  ;  and 
regained  possession  in  1688.  Frederick  III., 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  took  Bonn  in  1689  ; 
and  Maryborough,  who  laid  siege  to  it  May  3, 
1703,  gained  possession  May  16.  The  French 
republican  army  entered  Bonn  in  1794,  its  for- 
tifications having  been  destroyed  in  1717.  Its 
academy,  founded  in  1777,  was  made  a  univer- 
sity in  1784.  Prince  Albert  studied  at  this 
university  in  1837.  Napoleon  I.  suppressed  it, 
but  it  was  re-established  on  an  extended  scale 
Oct.  18,  1818.  Bonn,  seized  by  the  French  in 
1802,  was  assigned  to  Prussia  in  1814.  Bonn 
is  an  ancient  bishopric. 

BONONIA  (Battle).— At  this  place,  on  the 


Danube,  near  Widdin,  Constantino  I.  defeated 
the  Goths  and  Sarmatians  A.D.  322. 

BOODLES  CLUB  (London)  was  established 
as  the  Savoir  Vicre  Club,  about  1764.  Gibbon, 
the  historian,  was  a  member  in  1772. 

BOOK.— This  word,  derived  from  the  Danish 
bog,  the  beech-tree,  the  inner  bark  of  which 
was  used  in  former  times  for  writing  material, 
has  been  applied  to  literary  productions  in 
general,  whether  in  manuscript  or  in  print. 
The  ancients  wrote  upon  wooden  blocks, 
waxen  and  other  tablets,  until  more  flexible 
materials  were  made  available  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  and  these  they  formed  into  rolls,  or 
volumes,  as  they  termed  them  when  com- 
pleted; and  the  parchment,  or  whatever 
material  it  happened  to  be,  was  rolled  up,  and 
placed  upon  the  library  shelf .  This  form  was, 
however,  gradually  abandoned  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  books  consisted  of  several 
leaves,  joined  together,  and  enclosed  in  boards 
or  covers.  The  binding  was  often  very  mag- 
nificent. The  boards,  covered  with  leather  or 
even  velvet,  were  occasionally  decorated  with 
precious  stones.  Gold  and  silver  clasps  were 
also  used.  Shakespeare  writes — 

"  That  book  in  many's  eyes  doth  share  the  glory, 
That  in  gold  clasps  locks  in  the  golden  story. 

In  early  times  almost  fabulous  prices  were 
paid  for  books.  At  the  Reformation  the  Bible 
and  other  works  were  chained  to  desks  in 
churches,  that  the  people  might  have  access 
to  them.  The  custom  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated from  an  act  of  Convocation  in  1562, 
ordering  that  Nowell's  Catechism,  the  Arti- 
cles, and  Bishop  Jewell's  Apology,  should  lie 
joined  in  one  book  and  taught  at  the  univer- 
sities and  educational  establishments,  and  in 
the  cathedral  churches  and  private  houses  of 
the  kingdom.  The  custom  has,  however,  been 
traced  as  far  back  as  to  Sir  Thomas  Lyttleton, 
who,  by  his  will,  dated  1481,  ordered  some  of 
his  works  to  be  chained  in  different  churches. 
St.  Bernard,  who  died  in  1153,  alludes,  in  one 
of  his  sermons,  to  some  such  custom.  Dic- 
tionaries were  also  chained  to  desks  in  educa- 
tional establishments.  Walton's  Polyglott, 
fol.  1657,  was  the  first  book  published  in  Eng- 
land by  subscription  ;  Tonson's  folio  edition  of 
"Paradise  Lost,"  in  1688,  was  the  next;  and 
Dryden's  Virgil,  fol.  1697,  the  third.  By 
8  Anne  c.  19,  s.  4  (1709),  any  bookseller  or 
printer  setting  what  was  conceived  to  be  too 
high  a  price  upon  a  book,  might,  after  March 
25,  1710,  on  complaint  being  made  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  some  other  high  functionaries  mentioned 
in  the  act,  be  compelled  to  charge  a  price  fixed 
by  any  of  them,  upon  pain  of  forfeiting  ^5  for 
every  book  sold  at  a  higher  rate.  This  act  was 
repealed  by  12  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  s.  3  (1739). 

BOOK  CENSORS.— Many  centuries  before 
the  introduction  of  printing,  authors  sub- 
mitted their  works  to  their  superiors,  before 
venturing  to  put  them  into  circulation,  and  a 
regular  system  of  censorship  was  established 
by  the  Inquisition.  Two  books  printed  at 
Cologne  in  1478,  were  issued  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  university  censor  ;  and  the  "  Nosce 
Teipsum,"  printed  at  Heidelberg  in  1480,  bore 


BOOK 


[     159    1 


BORAX 


the  a 


the  approving  testimonies  or  lour  persons.  A 
mandate  of  Borthold,  Archbishop  of  Mayence, 
dated  1486,  appointing  a  book  censor,  is  still 
in  existence.  Alexander  VI.  in  1501  issued  a 
bull  prohibiting  the  publication  of  books  that 
had  not  been  submitted  to  the  censor ;  and  the 
council  of  the  Lateran  in  1515  ordered  that  no 
books  should  be  printed  excepting  those 
which  had  been  inspected  by  ecclesiastical 
censors.  By  the  5ist  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  in- 
junctions, in  1559,  no  person  was  allowed  to 
print  any  book  or  paper  without  a  licence 
from  the  council  or  ordinary.  The  Star  Cham- 
ber, June  23,  1586,  published  ordinances  for 
the  regulation  of  the  press.  The  Long  Parlia- 
ment, which  abolished  the  Star  Chamber, 
made  an  ordinance,  June  14,  1643,  prohibiting 
the  printing  of  any  order  or  declaration  of 
either  house,  without  order  of  one  or  both 
houses  ;  or  the  printing  or  sale  of  any  book, 
pamphlet,  or  paper,  unless  the  same  were  ap- 
proved and  licensed  by  such  persons  as  the 
House  should  appoint.  A  more  severe  enact- 
ment followed,  Sep.  28,  1647 ;  and  from  that 
time  various  regulations  were  made  on  the 
subject  till  1695,  when  the  censorship  in  this 
country  ceased,  much  to  the  displeasure  of 
William  III.  and  his  ministers. 

BOOK-KEEPING.— The  system  of  double 
entry,  called  Italian  book-keeping,  had  its 
rise  amongst  the  mercantile  cities  of  Italy  in 
the  i  sth  century.  Lucas  de  Burgo's  algebraic 
work,  published  at  Venice  in  1494,  and  Luke's 
work  on  the  subject,  published  in  1495,  are 
the  earliest  known  to  exist.  The  first  Eng- 
lish book  on  this  subject  is  Hugh  Oldcastle's 
treatise,  published  in  1543.  James  Peele  pub- 
lished a  work  on  book-keeping  in  1553  ;  and  a 
new  and  augmented  edition  of  Oldcastle's 
treatise,  by  John  Mellis,  appeared  in  1588. 
Gotlieb  published  a  work  on  book-keeping  at 
Nuremberg  in  1531. 

BOOK  OF  SPORTS.— This  title  was  given 
to  a  proclamation  issued  at  Greenwich  by 
James  I.,  May  24,  1618,  sanctioning  different 
recreations  after  divine  service  on  the  Sunday. 
It  was  intended  only  for  Lancashire.  As  it 
proved  very  offensive  to  the  Puritans,  no  cler- 
gyman was  compelled  to  read  it.  Amongst  the 
recreations  mentioned  are  dancing,  archery, 
leaping,  vaulting,  May  games,  Whitsun-ales, 
morris-dancers,  and  setting  up  of  Maypoles. 
The  Sabbatarian  controversy  having  been  re- 
vived, Charles  I.  (Oct.  18,  1633)  ratified  and 
published  his  father's  declaration.  Some  of 
the  clergy  refused  to  read  it,  for  which  one  of 
them  was  deprived  and  excommunicated  by 
the  High  Commission  Court  in  1637.  In  1643 
it  was  ordered  by  Lords  and  Commons  that 
the  Book  of  Sports  should  be  burned  by  the 
common  hangman  in  Cheapside,  and  other 
public  places. 

BOOKS  (Privilege  for  Printing).— The  oldest 

Erivilege  known  is  that  of  Henry  Bishop,  of 
amberg,  for  a  missal,  set  forth  April  23,  1490. 
The  first  Venetian  privilege  is  dated  1491,  and 
another  of  1492  is  in  existence.  The  first  Mila- 
nese is  dated  1495  ;  Papal,  1505  ;  French,  1507  ; 
and  English,  1510,  for  "The  History  of  King 
Boccus."  By  i  Rich.  III.  c.  9  (1484),  aliens 
were  allowed  to  import  books  and  manuscripts. 


This  act  was,  however,  repealed  by  25  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  15  (1534).  In  1538  an  order  was  issued 
respecting  the  printing  of  Bibles,  and  in  1542 
the  privilege  was  granted  to  one  person  for 
four  years.  The  last  patent  of  the  kind,  com- 
mencing Jan  21,  1830,  for  printing  the  Eng- 
lish Bible  and  Prayer-Book,  was  conferred  by 
Geo.  IV.  upon  Strahan,  Eyre,  &  Spottiswoode 
for  a  term  of  30  years,  expired  Jan.  21,  1860. 

BOOKS  BURNED.— This  mode  of  dealing 
with  objectionable  doctrines  was  practised 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  Jehoiakim 
burned  the  roll  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23) 
B.C.  605 ;  and  persons  at  Ephesus,  who  used 
curious  arts,  brought  their  books  together  and 
burned  them  before  all  men  (Acts  xix.  19)  A.D. 
57.  The  writings  of  Arius  were  condemned  to 
be  burned  during  the  reign  of  Constantine  I. 
The  Church  of  Rome  has,  both  by  the  decrees 
of  councils  and  of  popes,  caused  innumerable 
works,  and  in  some  cases  their  authors,  to  be 
committed  to  the  flame?.  Wycliffe's  bones  as 
well  as  his  writings  were  condemned  to  be 
burned  by  the  Council  of  Constance  (being  the 
1 7th  General  Council),  in  1415  ;  and  a  convo- 
cation at  Oxford  in  1410  condemned  and  burned 
his  works.  Cardinal  Wolsey  went  in  procession 
to  St.  Paul's,  May  12,  1521,  for  the  purpose  of 
having  the  works  of  Luther  consumed.  Several 
works  were  burned  by  order  of  the  Parliament 
in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth. 

BOONEVILLE  (Battle).— Gen.  Lyon  defeated 
the  Confederates  at  this  town  in  Missouri, 
June  1 8,  1861. 

BOOT  (Torture).— This  mode  of  torture,  in 
which  the  legs  were  confined  in  a  wooden 
frame,  the  sides  being  driven  together  with 
wedges  and  mallets  until  the  limb  was 
crushed,  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  the 
1 6th  century,  and  was  employed  in  1666  and 
the  following  years  to  extort  confessions  from 
the  Covenanters.  It  was  sometimes  inflicted 
by  encasing  the  leg  in  a  tight  wet  stocking  of 
parchment,  which  was  then  shrunk  by  the 
application  of  heat. 

BOOTAN.— (See  BHOTAN.) 

BOOTHIA  FELIX  (North  America)  was 
discovered  by  Sir  J.  Ross  in  1830,  and  named 
after  Sir  Felix  Booth,  who  furnished  a  large 
sum  of  money  for  the  purposes  of  the  expe- 
dition. 

BOOTS.  —The  Normans  wore  short  boots, 
and  in  the  time  of  William  II.  peak -pointed 
boots  were  in  fashion.  In  the  wardrobe  ac- 
counts of  Edward  II.,  the  following  passage 
occurs  : — "  For  six  pairs  of  boots,  with  tassels 
of  silk  and  drops  of  silver  gilt,  price  each  pair 
5*.,  bought  for  the  king's  use."  Planche"  says 
that  boots  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh, 
and  turned  over  with  straps,  like  modern  top- 
boots,  were  worn  in  the  time  of  Richard  III. 
Short  boots  were  worn  by  ladies  in  the  i2th 
century.  The  Hessian,  Blucher,  and  Wel- 
lington boots  for  gentlemen,  and  the  Balmoral 
for  both  sexes,  are  the  principal  novelties 
of  the  kind  introduced  during  the  present 
century. 

BORAX.— This  alkaline  salt,  known  to  the 
Arabs  for  many  centuries,  and  named  by  Agri- 
cola  (1494 — 1555)  chrysocolla,  has  from  time 
immemorial  been  imported  into  Europe  from 


BORDEAUX 


t     160    ] 


BOROUGH 


Persia,  Tartary,  India,  and  Ceylon.  In  1702 
Homberg  discovered  boracic  acid  in  borax,  the 
n.iture  of  which  was  further  revealed  by  Stahl 
in  1723,  by  Lemery  in  1728,  and  by  Geoff roy 
in  1732.  In  1777  boracic  acid  was  discovered 
in  several  lakes  of  Tuscany.  It  was  decom- 
posed by  Sir  H.  Davy  in  1807,  and  by  Gay- 
Lussac  in  1808.  John  Rose  used  borax  in  the 
composition  of  varnish  for  porcelain  in  1822. 
(See  BORON.) 

BORDEAUX  (France),  the  ancient  Burdi- 
gala,  the  metropolis  of  Aquitania  Secunda, 
rebuilt  by  the  Romans  after  a  fire,  A.D.  261, 
was  taken  by  Adolphus,  King  of  the  Goths, 
in  412  ;  recovered  by  Clovis  I.  in  508 ;  devas- 
tated by  the  Saracens  in  529  ;  and  suffered  re- 
peatedly from  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  It 
was  made  an  episcopal  see  in  314,  and  be- 
came an  archbishopric.  The  modern  town  was 
rebuilt  by  the  dukes  of  Guieiine  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  loth  century.  Henry  II. 
obtained  Aquitaiiie  by  marriage  in  1151,  with 
f]leanor,  daughter  of  William  V.  of  Aquitaine, 
the  divorced  wife  of  Loiiis  VII.  of  France  ; 
and  on  his  accession  to  the  English  crown, 
in  1154,  Bordeaux  and  the  remainder  of  the 
duchy  became  English  possessions.  Councils 
were  held  at  Bordeaux  in  384,  in  670,  in  1080, 
in  1214  or  1215,  and  April  18,  1255.  In  1451 
Bordeaux  submitted  to  diaries  VII.,  and  though 
Earl  Talbot  restored  the  authority,  of  the 
English,  Oct.  23,  1452,  it  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  the  French  Oct.  17,  1453,  and  has 
since  formed  part  of  France.  Richard  II.,  son 
of  the  I  Hack  Prince,  was  born  here  in  Feb., 
1366.  The  Parliament  of  Bordeaux  w.-i 
lished  by  Louis  XI.  (1461 — 1483.)  Its  univer- 
sity, founded  by  Engenius  IV.  in  1441,  re- 
ceived great  privileges  from  Louis  XI.  in  1473. 
Bordeaxix  suffered  greatly  during  the  civil 
and  religious  wars  in  France.  An 
was  founded  here  in  1781.  The  Societe  Philo- 
mathique,  numbering  about  600  members, 
and  founded  here  in  1808  for  the  advance  of 
science,  art,  industry,  and  public  instruc- 
tion, is  said  to  be  the  Society  of  Arts  of 
Franco.  Under  its  auspices  n  general  art 
exhibitions  have  taken  place,  the  last  of  which 
was  held  at  Bordeaux  in  1865,  in  a  wooden 
building  constructed  for  the  purpose-. 

BORDEAUX  (Treaty).  — Concluded  March 
25.  i-357i  establishing  a  truce  of  two  years 
between  England  and  France.  It  was  pro- 
longed till  iMidsumnier,  1359. 

BOBGITES,  or  CIRCASSIANS.— The  second 
dynasty  of  the  Mamelukes  in  Egypt  descended 
from  a  Circassian  captive  named  Barcok,  who, 
in  1381,  on  the  deposition  of  the  last  sultan 
of  the  Baharites,  obtained  the  sovereignty. 
Twenty-three  sultans  of  this  dynasty,  which 
lasted  135  years,  reigned.  The  last  was  hanged 
at  the  gate  of  his  capital,  April  23,  1517,  by 
order  of  Selim  I.  ;  and  the  Mamelukes  were 
expelled  and  the  authority  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks  established. 

BORNEO  (Indian  Archipelago),  called  by 
natives  Brune",  is,  excepting  Australia,  the 
largest  island  in  the  world.  It  was  first 
visited  by  Lorenzo  de  Gomez  in  1518  ;  and 
by  Pi^'ifctta,  with  Magalhaen's  expedition,  in 
1521.  J:i  .'.ddition  to  the  Portugese,  the 


Spaniards,  English,  French,  and  Dutch  en- 
deavoured to  form  establishments  in  different 
parts  of  this  island. 

A.D. 

1598.  Oliver  Van   Xoort,  the  first  Dutchman  who  visited 

the  country,  readies  Borneo. 
1604.  The  Dutch  begin  to  trade  at  Succadana. 
1608.  The  Dutch   at  Hatavia   endeavour  to   enter  into  a 

commercial  treat v  with  the  ruler  of  Sambas. 
Ifo>  A  treaty  is  concluded  by  the  Dutch  with  the  ruler  of 

Sambas,  and  thev  rstablish  a  factory. 
1623.  The  Dutch  abandon  their  settlement  at  Succadana. 
1707.  The  English  factory  is  dest  roved. 
1763.  The  English  take  possession  of  Balambangan. 
1773.  The   English  endeavour  to    establish  a  factory   at 

Passir,  and  fail. 

1775,  Feb.    24.   The  garrison   at  Balambangan  are  killed 

by  pirates. 

1776.  The  Dutch  establish  a  factory  at  Pontianak. 
17.-0.   Part  of  the  W.  coast  is  ceded  to  the  Dutch. 

1786.  The  Dutch,  in  alliance  with  the  Sultan  of  i'ontianak, 

d'.'stmv  Succaduiia. 

1787.  'I'ln-  sovereignty  of  the  S.  coast  is  granted  to  the 

Dutch. 

iSrj.  An  Knglish  expedition  against  Sambas  fails. 
1813,   .July  3.  Sambas  is  captured  by  the  English. 
1818.  The  Dutch,  wiio  had  been  expelled  by  the  English 

during  the  war,  return. 

1839,  Aug.  Sir  .lames  Brooke  arrives  at  Borneo. 
I.--4I.   Sir  .lames   lirooke  is  made   Rajah  of  .Sarawak,  by 

treaty  witii  the  native  ruler.     (»<•  S.vitA  -,v  AK.) 
1846.  The  Dutch  colonies    in    Borneo  are  formed  into  a 

special   government,   by   a   decree   of   the   Dutch 

governor. 
1848.   I.abnan    is  formed   into   an   English   colony.      (See 

LABOADT.) 

1855,   Oct.   IS.  Consecration  of  Francis  J.  McDougall,  the 
first  Bishop  of  Labuaii. 

BORNOU  (Central  Africa),  called  by  Heercn 
"a  great  empire,"  was  first  explored  by  Den- 
ham  and  ( 'lapperton,  sent  out  by  the  English 
Government,  who  reached  Kouka,  the  capital, 
Feb.  17,  1822.  It  has  been  more  recently 
explored  by  Richardson,  Barth,  and  Overweg. 

BORO  1)1X0  (Battle).— During  the  invasion 
of  Russia,  Napoleon  I.  attacked  the  whole 
Russian  army  intrenched  at  this  village, 
Sep.  7,  1812.  After  a  sanguinary  engagement, 
both  armies  encamped  011  the  field  of  battle, 
but  the  Russians  withdrew  during  the  night. 
The  killed  and  wounded  amounted  to  80,000 
men.  In  1839  the  Russians  erected  a  mauso- 
leum on  this  battle-field. 

BORON.  —  This  olive-coloured  substance, 
discovered  by  Sir  H.  Davy  in  1807,  was  exa- 
mined by  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  in  1808. 

BOROUGH,  or  BURGH,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  first  applied  to  a  tithing  or  collection  of 
12  families,  bound  together  as  sureties  for 
one  another.  The  term  was  afterwards  applied 
to  a  castle,  then  to  the  group  of  houses  built 
beneath  the  shelter  of  its  defences,  next  to  a 
walled  town,  .and  is  now  used  to  designate 
cities  or  towns  that  possess  the  privilege  of 
sending  representatives  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Guizot  asserts  that  it  was  not  until 
the  i  ith  century  that  boroughs  assumed  any 
important  position  in  history. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE  (Battle).— Edward  II. 
defeated  the  f^arl  of  Lancaster  and  the  con- 
federated barons,  with  their  Scottish  allies, 
at  this  place,  in  Yorkshire,  Tuesday,  March 
16,  1322.  The  Earl  of  Lancaster,  who  fled, 
was  afterwards  taken  prisoner.  He  was  tried 
by  a  military  council,  and  executed  at  Pon- 
tefract,  Tuesday,  March  23. 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH.— A  custom,  m 


BORRISOW 


[    161    ] 


BOSTON 


as  some  assert,  because  it  originated  in  Eng- 
land, existing  in  certain  boroughs,  by  which 
the  youngest  son  inherited,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  elder  brothers,  the  father's  tenements  in 
the  borough,  in  case  the  latter  died  intestate. 
It  is  a  species  of  burgage  tenure,  which  at 
one  time  prevailed  to  a  great  extent  in  this 
country,  and  still  exists  in  some  places.  The 
best  authorities  regard  it  as  a  remnant  of  the 
pastoral  state  of  the  tribes  from  which  we 
claim  descent.  Amongst  them  the  elder  sons 
invariably  took  their  portion,  quitted  the 
paternal  roof,  and  sought  new  habitations, 
whilst  the  younger  son,  who  remained  at 
home,  naturally  became  the  heir. 

BORRISOW  (Battle).— During  the  retreat 
of  the  French  from  Moscow,  Portonneaux's 
division,  consisting  of  8,000  men,  surrendered 
to  the  Russians  at  this  place,  Nov.  27,  1812, 
and  on  the  following  day  a  drawn  battle  was 
fought  between  the  French  and  the  Russians. 

BORSIPPA  (Chaldsea).— The  remains  of 
Birs-Nimroud  at  this  place,  dating,  it  is  believed, 
from  circ.  B.C.  2234,  consist  of  a  pyramidal 
structure  about  153  feet  high,  and  divided  into 
seven  stories.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (B.C.  605 — B.C.  561). 

BOSCOBEL  (Shropshire).— Charles  II.,  after 
his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Worcester  (q.  v.), 
Wednesday,  Sep.  3,  1651,  obtained  shelter  in 
this  farm-house,  the  residence  of  William  Pen- 
derell.  In  order  to  escape  the  parliamentary 
troopers,  he  quitted  it  Friday,  Sep.  5,  hiding 
all  that  day  in  a  large  oak,  whence  he  could 
see  and  hear  his  pursuers.  He  finally  left 
Boscobel  Sunday,  Sep.  7,  and  after  a  series  of 
romantic  escapes,  embarked  at  Brighthelm- 
stone,  the  modern  Brighton,  Oct.  15,  arriving 
at  Fecamp  the  following  day.  The  Boscobel 
Tracts,  containing  contemporary  records  of 
this  period  in  the  "Merry  Monarch's"  life, 
were  first  published  in  1662.  The  tree  in  which 
he  found  shelter  was  afterwards  called  the 
"  Royal  Oak." 

BOSCOI,  or  Grazers,  an  order  of  monks  ori- 
ginating in  Mesopotamia,  and  afterwards  nu- 
merous in  Palestine,  who  dwelt  in  mountains 
or  deserts,  feeding  on  herbs  and  grass,  and  dis- 
pensing almost  entirely  with  the  use  of  clothes. 
They  were  noticed  by  Sozomen  in  the  sth 
century. 

BOSNIA  (European  Turkey).— Part  of  the 
ancient  Pannonia,  long  tributary  to  Hungary 
and  Servia,  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  in  1376. 
Its  monarch  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in 
1389.  Bosnia  became  tributary  to  Turkey  in 
1463,  and  was  annexed  in  1522.  Austria  ob- 
tained a  portion  of  Bosnia  by  the  treaty  of 
Passarowitz,  July  21,  1718.  This  was,  however, 
recovered  by  the  Turks  in  1738.  Bosnia  has 
been  the  scene  of  numerous  insurrections ; 
and  frequent  quarrels  have  occurred  between 
the  Christian  and  the  Moslem  population.  A 
revolt  which  occurred  in  1851  was  suppressed 
by  Omar  Pasha. 

BOSPORUS  (Asia).— This  ancient  kingdom 
on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus  was  a  great  coin- 
growing  country,  and  for  many  years  served 
as  a  granary  to  Greece.  Gibbon  calls  it  "  the 
little  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  composed  of  dege- 
nerate Greeks  and  half -civilized  barbarians." 


It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Milesian  colony, 
and  arose  out  of  the  old  Greek  settlements. 
The  history  of  the  kingdom  cannot,  however, 
be  traced  with  accuracy,  and  much  uncertainty 
prevails  respecting  the  dynasties  compiled 
from  the  works  of  the  ancient  writers. 


3°9- 


The  kingdom  of  Bosporus  is  founded. 

On  the  -death  of  Parysades  the  succession  is  con- 
tested by  his  sons  Satyrus  and  Eumelus ;  Satyrus 
defeats  his  brother,  but  dies  in  the  battle ;  so  the 
younger  brother,  Prytanis,  reigns  in  his  stead. 

Eumelus  murders  Prytanis  and  all  his  adherents,  and 
succeeds  to  the  crown. 

Bosporus  is  ceded  to  Mithridates  VI.  of  Pontus. 

Bosporus  revolts  from  Mithridates  VI. 

Pompey  reduces  Bosporus  to  a  Roman  province,  and 
makes  Pharnaccs,  son  of  Mithridates  VI.,  its  king. 

Julius  C«sar  defeats  Pharnaces,  and  gives  Bosporus 
to  Mithridates  of  Pergamus,  who  soon  afterwards 
dies,  and  his  territory  is  seized  by  Asander. 

Agrippa  gives  Bosporus  to  Polemon,  King  of  Poutus. 

Mithridates  Achemenides,  King  of  Bosporus,  revolts 

against  the  Komans,  who  depose  him. 
Bosporus  is  captured  by  the  Goths. 
The  Turks  take  the  city  of  Bosporus. 


RULERS  OF 
B.C. 

480.  Archreanactidae. 
438.  Spartocus  1. 
43r.  Seleucus. 

407.  Satyrus  I. 
393.   Leucon. 
353.  Spartocus  II. 
348.  Parysades. 
310.  Satyrus  II. 

Prytanis. 
309.  Eumelus. 
304.  Spartocus  III. 
Leucanor. 
Eubiotus. 
Satyrus  III. 
Gorgippus. 
Spartocus  IV. 
Parysades  II. 
108.  Mithridates  VI.  of 

Pontus. 
79.  Machares. 
03.  Pharnaces  II. 
47.  Asander. 
14.  Scribonius. 
13.  Polemon  I. 


BOSPORUS. 
B.C. 

Pythodoris. 

Sauromates  I. 

A.D. 

30.  Rhescuporis  I. 

38.  Polemon   II. 

42.  Mithridates  II. 

49.  Cotys  I. 

83.  Rhescuporis  II. 
108.  Sauromates  II. 
115.  Cotys  II. 
13?.  Rhuemetalces. 
155.  Eupator. 
180.  Sauromates  III. 
215.  Rhescuporis   III. 
232.  Cotys  III. 
235.  Inintheremus. 
235.  Rhescuporis  I V. 

276.  Sauromates  IV. 

277.  Teiranes. 
297.  Thothorses. 
303.  Sauromates  V. 
306.  Sauromates  VI. 
321.  Rhescuporis  V. 

Sauromates  VII. 


BOSTON  (Lincolnshire)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  built  upon  the  site  of  the  monastery  of 
Icanhoe,  founded  by  St.  Bodolph  in  654,  and 
destroyed  by  the  Danes  in  870.  Boston  became 
impoi-tant  as  a  commercial  town  in  the  i3th 
century,  was  made  a  staple  for  wool,  <fec.,  by 
Edward  III.  in  1357,  and  was  incorporated  on  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  of  which  there 
were  several  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood, 
by  Henry  VIII.  The  church  of  St.  Bodolph 
was  founded  in  1309,  and  its  tower,  290  feet  in 
height,  forms  a  well-known  landmark.  The 
grammar  school  was  founded  in  1554,  the 
Bluecoat  school  in  1713,  the  national  school 
in  1815,  and  the  market-house  was  erected  in 
1819.  The  bridge  was  commenced  in  1802,  and 
completed  in  1807. 

BOSTON  (United  States).— Founded  in  1630 
by  colonists  from  Charlestown.  King's  chapel 
was  opened  for  the  service  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  June,  1689,  and  Trinity  church  in 
1735.  The  American  rebellion  commenced  at 
this  place,  where  the  cargoes  of  tea  were  thrown 
into  the  sea,  Dec.  16,  1773.  The  English 


BOSWORTH 


[     162    ] 


BOUILLON 


forces  held  possession  of  Boston  in  1775.  They 
evacuated,  it  by  the  terms  of  a  capitulation, 
signed  March  17,  1776.  Slave  riots  occurred 
June*24,  18=54  '  and  a  religious  revival  in  1858. 

BOSWORTH  FIELD  (Battle).  —  The  last 
battle  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster was  fought  near  Market  Bosworth,  in 
Leicestershire,  Monday,  Aug.  22, 1485.  Richard 
III.,  who  displayed  great  gallantry,  having 
been  betrayed  by  Sir  W.  Stanley  and  the  EarV 
of  Northumberland,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
and  the  Earl  of  Richmond  proclaimed  king, 
under  the  title  of  Henry  VII.  The  crown  worn 
by  Richard  in  the  battle  was  placed  upon  his 
head.  The  line  of  the  Plantageiiets  terminated 
with  Richard  III.,  and  that  of  the  Tudors 
commenced  with  Henry  VII.,  who  sought  to 
strengthen  his  title  by  a  marriage  with  Eliza- 
beth of  York,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  which 
took  place  Jan.  18,  1486. 

BOTANICAL  GA  R  D  ENS.— Sylvaticus 
formed  a  botanical  garden  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses at  Salerno  in  1309 ;  a  medical  garden  was 
established  at  Venice  in  1333;  Lorenzo  de  Medici 
established  one  at  Marburg  in  1530,  and  one  at 
Padua  in  1533.  The  first  public  botanical 
gardens  were  established,  one  at  Pisa,  by  the 
university,  and  another  at  Padua,  in  1545.  A 
professorship  of  botany  was  founded  at  Padua 
in  1533.  The  first  botanical  garden  in  France 
was  established  at  Montpellier  in  1558  ;  and  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes,  at  Paris,  was  founded  in 
1610.  The  first  botanical  garden  in  England 
was  formed  at  Oxford  in  1632.  Botanical 
gardens  were  established  at  Leyden  in  1577, 
at  Leipsic  in  1580,  at  Jena  in  1629,  at  Upsal  in 
1657,  at  Edinburgh  in  1680,  at  Carlsruhe  in 
1715,  at  Kew  in  1730,  at  SchOnbrunn  in  1753,  at 
Madrid  in  1755,  at  Cambridge  in  1761,  at  Cal- 
cutta in  1768,  at  Coimbra  in  1773,  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1785,  at  Dublin  in  1790,  at  Ghent  in 
1797,  at  Moscow  in  1802,  at  Liverpool  in  1803, 
at  Ceylon  in  1811,  at  Pesth  in  1812,  atChiswick 
in  1822,  at  Birmingham  in  1831,  and  at  Mon- 
treal in  1832.  The  garden  at  Chelsea  was 
commenced  in  1673,  and  enclosed  in  1686  ;  and 
the  gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park  were  opened 
in  1839. 

BOTANY.— Theophrastus,  one  of  Aristotle's 
pupils,  left  the  earliest  existing  treatise  on 
botany,  B.C.  322.  The  elder  Pliny  and  Dios- 
corides,  in  the  ist  century  of  our  asra,  wrote 
more  fully  on  the  subject.  The  Arabians  began 
to  cultivate  the  study  of  botany  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  gth  century,  and  Avicenna, 
who  died  in  1037,  was  long  considered  a  great 
authority.  The  science  was  revived  in  the 
1 6th  century,  and  Otto  Brunfels,  of  Strasburg, 

Eublished  his  "Herbarum  Vivse  Eicones " 
i  three  volumes  folio,  with  238  woodcuts 
of  plants,  in  1530.  Ruel  of  Soissons  published 
his  treatise  "  De  Natura  Stirpium,"  at  Paris, 
in  1536  ;  and  Leonard,  amongst  other  works, 
his  "  Commentaries  on  the  History  of  Plants," 
at  Basel,  in  1542.  Dr.  Turner  published  "The 
New  Herbal,"  in  thi-ee  parts,  in  1551,  1562,  and 
1568  successively.  Columiia,  in  his  "  Ecphra- 
sis,"  a  history  of  rare  plants,  published  at 
Rome,  in  two  parts,  in  1606  and  1616,  laid 
down  the  true  basis  of  the  science,  by  es- 
tablishing the  distinction  of  genera,  which 


Gesner,  Csesalpin,  and  Joachim  Camerarius 
had  before  conceived.  Robert  Moiison,  of 
Aberdeen,  published  works  on  botany,  in  1669, 
1672,  and  1678  ;  and  although  allowed  to  have 
benefited  greatly  from  the  labours  of  his 
predecessors,  he  is  generally  considered  the 
"founder  of  classification."  Grew,  in  1671, 
and  Malpighi,  first  directed  attention  to  the 
anatomy  of  plants.  Rivinus,  in  1690,  is  said 
to  have  anticipated  some  portions  of  the 
system  of  Linnams,  who  produced  quite  a  re- 
volution in  botany  by  the  publication,  in  1735, 
of  his  "Systema  Natura}."  Since  that  period 
the  science  of  botany  has  advanced  rapidly. 

BOTANY  BAY  (Pacific),  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Australia,  was  discovered  by  Capt.  Cook  in 
1770,  and  thus  named  by  a  naturalist  in  the 
expedition,  from  the  number  of  plants  growing 
on  its  shores.  A  monument  to  the  memory  of 
La  Perouse  was  erected  in  1825. 

BOTHWELL  BRIDGE  (Battle).— The  Scot- 
tish Covenanters  were  defeated  at  this  place, 
in  Lanarkshire,  June  22,  1679,  by  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth. 

BOTTLE  CONJUROR.— An  immense  crowd 
was  attracted  to  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
Monday,  Jan.  16,  1749  (O.  S.),  an  announcement 
having  been  made  that  a  person  would  play  on 
a  common  walking-cane  the  music  of  every 
instrument  then  in  use,  get  into  a  quart  bottle, 
and  whilst  there  sing  several  songs,  at  the 
same  time  permitting  any  spectator  to  handle 
the  bottle,  and  perform  other  remarkable  feats. 
The  performer  did  not  appear,  and  some  person 
behind  the  curtain  cried  out  that  if  the 
audience  would  remain  there  till  the  next 
evening,  instead  of  going  into  a  quart  he  would 
get  into  a  pint  bottle.  Only  a  small  portion  of 
those  who  had  assembled  could  obtain  ad- 
mission ;  a  riot  ensued,  and  the  interior  of  the 
theatre  was  destroyed.  The  real  history  of 
the  imposture  was  never  discovered,  but  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  result  of  a  wager. 

BOTTLES.— Vessels  for  containing  liquids 
were  made  of  leather,  pottery,  or  metal,  and, 
according  to  some  authorities,  of  glass,  by 
ancient  nations.  Glass  bottles,  with  handles, 
were  found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  which 
was  overwhelmed  Aug.  23,  A.D.  79.  Beckmann 
says  the  use  of  bottles  amongst  modern  nations 
commenced  in  the  isth  century.  Stone  and 
earthen  bottles  were  first  subjected  to  duty  by 
6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  18  (1695) ;  and  half  the  duties 
on  glass  wares,  and  the  whole  duty  on  stone 
and  earthen  bottles,  were  repealed  by  9  &  10 
Will.  III.  c.  45  (1698). 

BOUCHAIN  (France).— This  fortress  was 
taken  from  Marshal  Villars  by  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  after  a  siege  of  35  days,  Sep.  14, 
1711.  The  French  recovered  possession  Oct.  10, 

I7BOUILLON  (Belgium).— This  town,  with  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  of  which  it  forms 
the  capital,  was  sold  to  the  Bishop  of  Liege  in 
1095,  by  its  ruler  Godfrey,  previous  to  his  de- 
parture for  the  Crusades  (q.  v.).  Seized  in  1482 
by  William  de  la  Marck,  it  was  restored  to  the 
bishopric  by  Charles  V.  in  1521,  but  was  re- 
taken in  1548  by  Robert  de  la  Marck,  whose 
descendants  assumed  the  title  of  dukes  of 
Bouillon.  The  town  was  occupied  by  the 


BOULOGNE 


[    163 


BOURGES 


French  from  1552  till  1559,  and  from  1676  till 
1814,  when  it  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Holland.  By  the  revolution  of  1830  it  was 
separated  from  the  Netherlands,  and  in  1837 
was  annexed  to  Belgium. 

BOULOGNE  (France),  the  ancient  Geso- 
riacum,  also  called  Bolonia  and  Bononia,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  port  at  which 
Claudius  embarked  for  Britain,  A.D.  42.  The 
Roman  fleet  was  stationed  here  in  287.  It  was 
sacked  by  the  Danes  in  882,  and  was  frequently 
assailed  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  seat 
of  this  ancient  bishopric  was  removed  from 
Terouane  to  Boulogne  in  1553.  The  see  was  sup- 
pressed in  1 801 .  Boulogne  was  annexed  to  Bur- 
gundy in  1435,  and  to  France  in  1447.  Henry 
VII.  besieged  it  in  1492.  Henry  VIII.  took  it, 
after  a  siege  of  six  weeks,  Sep.  14,  1544.  The 
French  made  several  attempts  to  regain  pos- 
session, and  having  failed,  purchased  it  from 
Edward  VI.  for  400,000  crowns,  March  24,  1550. 
Napoleon  I.  assembled  his  forces  here  for  the 
invasion  of  England  in  1801.  Nelson  attacked 
the  flotilla  Aug.  15,  1801,  but  without  obtaining 
any  decisive  results.  On  the  renewal  of  a 
threat  of  invasion  in  1804,  and  in  subsequent 
years,  much  damage  was  done  by  our  cruisers. 
Louis  Napoleon,  with  40  or  50  followers, 
landed  here  early  in  the  morning,  Aug.  6, 
1840,  in  his  second  attempt  to  raise  an  insur- 
rection against  the  Orleans  dynasty,  and 
having  failed,  was  taken  prisoner  whilst  re- 
treating to  the  steam-vessel  which  had  brought 
him  and  his  colleagues  from  England.  Napo- 
leo"n  III.  visited  this  town,  accompanied  by 
the  King  of  the  Belgians  and  his  son,  Sep.  3, 
1854.  The  King  of  Portugal  arrived  Sep.  4, 
and  Prince  Albert  Sep.  5.  A  grand  mimic 
battle  was  fought  on  a  plain  between  Boulogne 
and  Calais,  Sep.  8,  after  which  Prince  Albert 
i-eturned  to  England.  The  statue  of  Dr.  Jenuer, 
the  discoverer  of  vaccination  (q.  v.),  was  in- 
3.  ii,  1865. 


)ULOGNE  (Treaty).— Concluded  between 
Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.,  Oct.  28,  1532.  The 
contracting  parties  agreed  to  provide  an  army 
of  80,000  men  to  resist  the  Turks,  who  were 
then  ravaging  Hungary,  but  stipulated  "that 
they  should  take  the  road  which  seemed  best 
to  them." 

BOUNTY.— (See  MUTINY  OF  THE  BOUNTY.) 
BOURBON  (France).— Formerly  the  capital 
of  the  Bourbonnois,  frequently  called  Bourbon 
1'Archambault,  received  the  name  of  Bourges- 
les-Bains  in  1789.  Pepin  took  it  in  759,  and 
bestowed  the  town  and  the  surrounding  terri- 
tory upon  one  of  his  followers,  from  whom, 
through  the  heiress  Beatrice  of  Burgundy, 
married  to  Robert,  Count  of  Clermont,  son  of 
Louis  IX.,  in  1272,  the  Bourbon  family  is  de- 
scended. 

BOURBON  (Indian  Ocean).— This  island, 
called  He  de  Bourbon,  was  discovered  in  1542 
by  a  Portuguese  mariner,  after  whom  it  was 
called  Mascarenhas.  It  was  then  uninhabited  ; 
but  the  French  formed  a  settlement  in  1642, 
and  in  1649  changed  its  name  to  Bourbon.  It 
has  since  borne  the  following  names  :  Reunion, 
He  Buonaparte,  and  Napoleon.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  July  8,  1810,  and  restored  to 
France  at  the  general  peace  in  1815. 


numbered  73  persons,  50  of  whom,  including 
yal  family  of  Naples,  were  in  exile. 
BO 


BOURBONS.—  Henry  IV.,  of  Navarre,  who 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  extinction  of 
;he  house  of  Valois,  July  31,  1589,  was  the  first 
Bourbon  sovereign  of  France.  His  father, 
Antony  of  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Vend6me,  by  his 
marriage  with  Jeanne  d'Albret  in  1548,  became 
King  of  Navarre  in  1555.  He  was  descended 
through  the  younger  branch  —  the  elder  having 
become  extinct  on  the  death  of  the  Constable 
of  Bourbon,  May  6,  1527—  from  Robert  of  Cler- 
mont, youngest  son  of  Louis  IX.  By  his 
marriage  in  1272  with  Beatrice  of  Burgundy, 
Robert  of  Clermont  obtained  the  Bourbonnois, 
the  Charlerois,  and  the  lordship  of  St.  Just. 
His  son,  Louis  I.,  was  created  Duke  of  Bourbon 
by  Charles  IV.  of  France  in  1327.  The  Bourbons 
reigned  in  France  from  the  accession  of 
Henry  IV.,  July  31,  1589,  till  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.,  Jan.  21,  1793.  They  were  restored 
in  the  person  of  Louis  XVIII.,  April  10,  1814; 
expelled  March  19,  1815,  during  the  Hundred 
Days  ;  and  again  restored,  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  I.,  July  8,  1815.  The  rule  of  the 
elder  branch  ceased  on  the  abdication  of 
Charles  X.,  Aug.  2,  1830.  Louis  Philippe,  of 
the  Orleans,  or  younger  branch  of  the  Bour- 
bons, then  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  their 
line  ceased  to  reign  in  France  on  his  abdi- 
cation, Feb.  24,  1848.  In  1865  the  family 

the  ex-io 

BOURBONS  (Collateral  Branches).  —  The 
Conde  branch  took  its  title  from  Conde",  in 
Hainault,  which  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Bourbon  family  by  the  marriage,  in  1487, 
of  Francis  of  Bourbon,  Count  of  Vendome, 
with  Mary  of  Luxemburg,  heiress  of  St.  Paul, 
Enghien,  Soissons,  and  Conde".  Their  son 
Charles  had  several  children,  and  one  of  these, 
named  Louis,  assumed  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Conde".  This  line  became  extinct  in  1830.  — 
The  later  Orleans  branch  sprang  from  Philip, 
second  son  of  Louis  XIII.,  made  Duke  of 
Orleans  in  1660.  A  decree  was  issued  during 
the  French  Revolution  (Sep.  15,  1792),  autho- 
rizing the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  change  his  name 
for  that  of  Egalite".  —  The  Spanish  Bourbons  are 
descended  from  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.,  who  was  made  King  of 
Spain  under  the  title  of  Philip  V.  in  1700. 
The  Neapolitan  branch  is  descended  from 
Charles,  third  son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  made 
Duke  of  Parma  in  1731,  and  King  of  Naples  in 
1735.  —  The  Conti,  a  branch  of  the  Conde",  is 
descended  from  Louis,  the  first  Prince  of  Conde, 
who  married  Ele"onore  de  Roye,  Dame  de  Conty 
or  Conti,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Henry  of 
Bourbon,  Prince  of  Conde",  and  Francois,  who 
took  the  title  of  Prince  of  Conti. 

BOURGES  (France),  the  ancient  Avaricum, 
afterwards  called  Bituriges  and  Biorgas, 
whence  the  present  name  is  derived.  Caesar 
captured  it  B.C.  52,  when  it  is  said  that  only 
800  out  of  40,000  inhabitants  escaped.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Goths  A.D.  475,  and  by  Clovis  I. 
in  507.  It  suffered  greatly  from  the  ravages  of 
war.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  the  3rd 
century.  It  was  made  an  archbishopric.  The 
occupant  of  the  see  was  termed  Patriarch  and 
Primate  of  Aquitauie.  Councils  were  held  at 
this  town  in  473  ;  Nov.  i,  1031  ;  Dec.  25,  1145  ; 
M  a 


BOURIGNONISTS. 


[    164    ] 


BR ABAS CONS 


in  1225;  Sep.  13,  1276;  in  April,  1280;  Sep.  19, 
1286;  in  1336;  Aug.  26 — Sep.  n,  1440;  and 
March  21,  1528.  Louis  XI.,  who  was  born 
here,  founded  its  university,  which  was  sup- 
pressed at  the  Revolution.  The  Huguenots 
seized  the  place  in  1562,  but  were  driven  out 
Sep.  i  by  the  royal  troops. 

BOURIGNONISTS.— The  followers  of  An- 
toinette Bourignon  de  la  Porte,  a  fanatic  born 
at  Lille,  in  Flanders,  Jan.  13,  1616.  Bayfe 
says  she  was  so  ugly  that  it  was  debated  for 
some  days  after  her  birth,  by  her  family, 
whether  she  should  be  stifled  as  a  monster. 
She  took  the  habit  and  order  of  Augustine  in 
1658  ;  and  travelling  in  Holland,  France,  and 
Scotland,  taught  that  religion  consists  in  in- 
ternal emotions.  She  published  a  great  many 
works.  Driven  from  place  to  place,  she  died 
at  Fran eker,  in  Friesland,  Oct.  30,  1680  ;  and 
her  tenets  obtained  a  temporary  popularity 
amongst  the  Scotch.  A  minister  was  deposed 
at  Aberdeen  in  1 701  for  holding  these  tenets. 

BOURNEMOUTH  (Hampshire  .—The 
National  Sanatorium  for  Consumption  and 
Diseases  of  the  Chest  was  founded  at  this 
watering-place  in  1855  >  and  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  Herbert  memorial  was  laid  Sep.  18, 
1865. 

BOUTS  RIMES.—" Rhymed  ends"  were 
supplied,  which  were  amplified  into  complete 
lines  by  the  person  undertaking  the  task,  a 
pastime  invented  by  the  French  poet  Dulot, 
in  1648.  It  became  very  fashionable,  and  was 
much  used  by  ladies  to  test  the  tact  and  de- 
votion of  their  lovers.  It  is  stated  that 
Campbell  wrote  his  poem  of  "  Lochiel,"  which 
was  first  published  in  1802,  after  this  strange 
fashion. 

B<  >VIANUM  (Italy).— This  Samnite  city,  be- 
sieged by  the  Romans  without  success  B.C.  314, 
was  taken  by  them  B.C.  311,  again  B.C.  305, 
and  again  B.C.  298.  It  was  an  important  mili- 
tary position,  and  suffered  in  many  succeeding 
wars.  Bovianum  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  the  gth  century,  and  the  modern 
J  Jo  juno  occupies  its  site. 

BOVINES  or  BOUVINES  (Battle1).— Fought, 
Sunday,  July  27,  1214,  at  the  bridge  of  Bou- 
vines,  where  Philip  II.  (Augustus),  with  in- 
ferior numbers,  defeated  the  army  of  Otho, 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  his  allies.  The 
Counts  of  Flanders  and  Boulogne,  and  William, 
Earl  of  Salisbury,  were  made  prisoners. 

BOWIDES.— A  dynasty  established  in  Persia 
A.D.  932.  There  were  17  kings  of  this  line, 
which  lasted  for  127  years,  and  became  extinct 

BOW  ISLAND  (Pacific).— One  of  the  coral 
islands  discovered  by  Bougainville  in  1768. 
He  called  it  La  Harpe,  and  it  received  its 
present  name  from  Capt.  Cook,  who  landed 
upon  it  in  1769. 

BOWLS. — This  game,  which  was  unknown 
to  the  classical  ancients,  is  believed  to  have 
originated  in  England  at  an  early  period. 
Half-bowl,  played  with  a  hemispherical  ball, 
was  prohibited  by  Edward  IV.  (1461—1483) ; 
and  bowls  were  forbidden  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9 
(1541),  which  was  repealed  by  8  &  9  Viet, 
c.  109,  s.  i  (Aug.  8.  1845). 

BOWYER    FORT    (United    States),  near 


Mobile,  was  captured  by  the  English  troups, 
Feb.  n,  1815.  This  was  the  last  encounter 
during  the  American  war,  as  the  news  of  the 
conclusion  of  peace  reached  the  belligerents 
the  next  day. 

BOXING.— (See  PUGILISM.) 

BOXTEL  (Battle).— The  republican  army 
under  Pichegru  having  wrested  Boxtel  from 
the  Dutch,  Sep.  14,  1794,  the  Duke  of  York 
ordered  Gen.  Abercrombie  to  advance  during 
the  night  with  the  army  of  reserve.  In  the 
morning  of  Sep.  14,  he  was  engaged  with  the 
French,  and  was  compelled  to  retire.  On  this 
occasion,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then  com- 
manding the  33rd  Regiment,  first  came  under 
fire.  By  a  well  directed  movement  he  checked 
the  advance  of  the  republican  troops,  and  in- 
flicted such  chastisement  upon  them  that  the 
further  retreat  was  effected  without  molesta- 
tion. 

B< » VAC  A.— (Sff  BO.TACA.) 

HOYA1U1-KEUY  (Treaty),  between  Aus- 
tria and  the  Porte,  was  signed  at  Boyadji-Keuy 
June  14,  1854.  It  consisted  of  seven  articles, 
providing  for  the  occupation  of  the  Daiiubian 
principalities  by  the  Austrians,  who  entered 
the  principalities  Aug.  20,  1854,  an(i  retired  at 
the  close  of  the  war  in  1856. 

BOY-BISHOP,  called  also  Barn,  Barne,  or 
Beam  Bishop,  was  elected  in  cathedrals  and 
parish  churches  on  St.  Nicholas'  day  (Dec.  6), 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  This  child,  usually 
chosen  from  one  of  the  choir,  was  invested 
with  all  the  insignia  of  the  episcopal  office, 
and  his  authority  lasted  until  Innocents'  day 
(Dec.  28).  He  performed  all  the  ceremonies 
and  offices  of  the  Church  except  mass.  At 
Salisbury  the  boy-bishop  is  said  to  have  had 
the  disposal  of  all  stalls  that  came  vacant  dur- 
ing his  rule.  This  custom  was  suppressed  by 
proclamation  July  22,  1542,  and  according  to 
some  authorities  a  previous  proclamation  had 
been  issued  July  22,  1540.  This,  with  other 
Roman  Catholic  pageants,  was  revived  by 
Queen  Mary  in  1554,  and  it  was  again  sup- 
pressed by  Elizabeth,  though  it  continued  to 
exist  in  rural  districts  for  some  time  after  the 
prohibition.  A  similar  custom  prevailed  in 
many  parts  of  the  Continent. 

BOYLE  LECTURES.— Instituted  according 
to  instructions  in  the  will  of  the  Hon.  Robert 
Boyle  (seventh  son  of  the  Earl  of  Cork),  who 
died  Dec.  30,  1691.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  man  of  extraor- 
dinary attainments.  The  lectures,  eight  in 
number,  intended  as  a  defence  of  natural  and 
revealed  religion,  are  preached  at  St.  Mary-le- 
Bow  church,  on  the  first  Monday  in  January, 
February,  March,  April,  May,  September, 
October,  and  November.  The  first  course  was 
preached  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bentley  in  1692, 
and  he  preached  a  second  in  1604. 

BOYNE  (Battle).— At  this  battle,  fought  on 
the  banks  of  the  Boyne,  near  Oldridge,  in 
Ireland,  William  III.  defeated  his  father-in-law, 
James  II.,  July  i,  1690.  The  latter  fled  to 
Dublin,  thence  to  Waterford,  from  which  port 
he  set  sail  for  France. 

BRABANCONS,  or  BRABANCIONES,  mer- 
cenary soldiers,  called  also  Routiers,  because 
they  were  always  en  route,  and  Cotereaux, 


BRABANT 


[    165    ] 


BRAGANCA 


•were  frequently  employed  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  in  this  country  in  particular,  by 
William  II.,  Stephen,  andHeiiry  II.  They  were 
little  better  than  freebooters.  The  greater 
number  came  from  Brabant :  hence  their 
name. 

BRABANT  (Belgium  and  Holland).— This 
ancient  province  formed  part  of  Charlemagne's 
empire,  and  in  the  division  of  his  territories, 
made  A.D.  806,  was  assigned  by  him  to  his  son 
Charles.  Lothaire  I.  obtained  it  in  843,  and 
his  son,  Lothaire  II.,  in  855,  by  whom  it  was 
joined  to  Lorraine.  Bruno,  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  made  it  a  separate  duchy,  called 
Lower  Lorraine,  and  afterwards  Brabant ;  and 
bestowed  it  upon  Geotfrey,  its  first  duke.  It 
passed  under  the  rule  of  the  dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy in  1429,  and  was  with  their  dominions 
transferred  to  Austria  in  1477.  When  Charles 
V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  became  King  of 
Spain,  in  1516,  the  Netherlands  were  united  to 
Spain.  The  religious  persecutions  of  Philip  II. 
having  caused  a  revolt,  North  Brabant  joined 
the  United  Provinces  in  1581  ;  and  South  Bra- 
bant remained  under  the  dominion  of  Spain 
until  1706,  when  it  became  part  of  the  Austrian 
Netherlands.  Brabant,  with  the  whole  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  was  united  to  France  by 
decrees  of  the  National  Convention,  dated 
March,  1793,  and  1795,  and  armies  were  sent 
for  the  purpose  of  subjugating  the  country.  It 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland  in 
1815,  and  at  the  revolution  of  1830  South  Bra- 
bant became  a  province  of  Belgium.  The  heir 
to  the  throne  bears  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bra- 
bant. 

BRACELETS,  or  ARMLETS,  were  worn  at 
a  very  early  period.  Abraham's  servant  gave 
Rebecca  two  bracelets  of  gold  B.C.  1857  (Gen. 
xxiv.  22) ;  and  the  Amalekite  who  killed  Saul 
brought  the  bracelet  that  was  upon  his  arm  to 
David,  B.C.  1055  (2  Sam.  i.  10).  They  were 
worn  both  by  men  and  women  amongst  most 
ancient  nations.  William  of  Malmesbury  re- 
lates that  Alfred  ordered  golden  bracelets  to  be 
hung  up  in  the  highways  (circ.  890),  and  such 
was  the  good  order  that  prevailed  that  no- 
body took  them  away.  The  same  author 
mentions,  as  part  of  the  peace-offering  sent  by 
Earl  Godwin  to  Hardi Canute  in  1041,  80  soldiers, 
who  had  two  bracelets  on  their  arms  weighing 
1 6  ounces  of  gold.  In  the  Saxon  Chronicle, 
under  the  year  975,  Edgar  is  called  the  "brace- 
let-giver to  heroes."  Amongst  the  Danes,  the 
most  sacred  form  of  oath  was  that  sworn  on 
the  holy  bracelet,  originally  kept  at  an  altar, 
but  afterwards  worn  on  the  arm  of  a  priest. 
This  ceremony  is  alluded  to  by  the  Saxon 
Chronicle  under  the  year  876.  Various  ancient 
ornaments  of  this  kind  have  been  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  island. 

BRADFIELD  RESERVOIR.— The  embank- 
ment of  this  large  reservoir,  situated  within  a 
few  miles  of  Sheffield,  suddenly  burst  at  mid- 
night, March  n,  1864,  when  the  water  rushed 
in  torrents  through  the  neighbouring  villages, 
drowning  250  persons,  and  causing  an  immense 
destruction  of  property. 

BRADFORD  (Yorkshire). —  This  town  is 
mentioned  in  Domesday  Book  (q.  v.)  as  waste, 
the  whole  surrounding  country  having  been 


desolated  by  William  I.  in  suppressing  an  in- 
surrection in  1070.  Notice  of  the  church  occurs 
in  1281,  and  the  town  was,  at  an  early  period, 
an  important  centre  of  the  woollen  manu- 
facture. The  royalists,  foiled  in  an  attack 
upon  Bradford,  Sunday,  Dec.  18,  1642,  effected 
its  capture  in  July,  1643.  Riots  occurred  here 
in  1812,  and  a  strike,  lasting  from  June  14  to 
Nov.  7,  1825,  threw  20,000  persons  out  of  em- 
ployment. Riots  against  the  use  of  machinery 
took  place  here  in  May,  1826 ;  the  franchise  was 
conferred  by  the  Reform  Act  in  1832  ;  and 
serious  disturbances  occurred  in  consequence 
of  the  New  Poor  Laws,  Nov.  20,  1837.  Eighteen 
persons  were  accidentally  poisoned  here  in 
consequence  of  a  confectioner  having  adulte- 
rated lozenges  with  arsenic  instead  of  a  prepa- 
ration of  gypsum,  known  as  "  daff,"  Oct.  30, 
1858.  The  grammar  school,  founded  by  Ed- 
ward VI.,  and  incorporated  by  charter  of 
Charles  II.  in  1663,  was  rebuilt  in  1830.  Aire- 
dale College,  a  seminary  for  Independent 
ministers,  was  established  in  1665.  The  Piece- 
hall  was  erected  in  1773,  the  Bradford  canal 
was  finished  in  1774,  and  the  new  market-place 
was  opened  in  Sep.,  1824.  The  dispensary  was 
established  in  1826,  the  mechanics'  institute  in 
1832,  the  court-house  in  1834,  the  temperance- 
hall  in  1837,  and  the  new  infirmary  in  1844. 
All  Saints'  church,  built  by  Mr.  F.  S.  Powell, 
M.P.,  was  consecrated  March  31,  1864.  The 
foundation-stone  of  the  Exchange  was  laid  by 
Lord  Palmerston,  Aug.  9,  1864. 

BRADOCK  DOWN  (Battle).— Sir  R.  Hopton, 
with  inferior  numbers,  defeated  the  parlia- 
mentary army  at  this  place,  near  Liskeard, 
in  Cornwall,  about  the  middle  of  Jan.,  1643. 
With  trifling  loss  on  his  part,  he  took  1,250 
prisoners,  all  their  cannon,  colours,  arms,  &c. 

BRAGA  (Portugal).— This  city,  the  Bracara 
Augusta  of  the  Romans,  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric, which  dates  from  about  A.D.  37.  In 
445  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Suevi,  who 
were  expelled  by  the  Visigoths  in  585.  It  fell 
under  Moorish  domination,  and  was  taken  by 
the  forces  of  Old  Castile  in  1040.  Councils 
were  held  here  May  i,  563  ;  June  i,  572  ;  and 
in  675. 

BRAGANCA.— According  to  tradition,  this 
ity  in  Portugal  was  founded  by  King  Brigo, 
B.C.  1906.  Its  real  founder  was  Sancho  I.,  who 
built  the  present  city  and  castle  in  1187.  Bra- 
ca was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  Alphonso  V., 
n  1442.  In  1782  the  see  of  Miranda  was 
transferred  to  Braganca,  the  bishop  retaining 
both  titles. 

BRAGANCA  (House  of).— Portugal  threw  off 
the  Spanish  yoke  in  1640,  and  John  II.,  eighth 
Duke  of  Braganca,  was  raised  to  the  throne  Dec. 
i,  under  the  title  of  John  IV.  The  family  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  i$ih  century,  when 
Alphonso,  a  natural  son  of  John  I.,  was  cre- 
ated Duke  of  Braganca  and  Lord  of  Guima- 
raens.  He  married  Beatrice,  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Barcellos  and  Ourem,  and  from  them 
the  Braganca  line  sprang.  In  1801  Napoleon  I. 
declared  that  the  reign  of  the  Braganca  sove- 
reigns had  ceased.  John,  regent  of  the  king- 
dom, withdrew  to  Brazil  in  1807,  but  he 
returned  in  1821.  At  his  death,  in  1826,  his 
son,  Don  Pedro,  resigned  the  throne  in  favour 


BRAHMINS 


[    166    ] 


BRAZIL 


of  his  daughter  Maria  II.,  preferring  to  remain 
Emperor  of  Brazil,  which  he  had  been  elected 
Nov.  18,  1825. 

BRAHMINS.— The  order  of  Hindoo  priests, 
constituting  the  highest  of  the  four  castes 
into  which  the  Hindoo  nation  is  divided,  is  of 
great  antiquity.  It  is  said  that  their  Vedas, 
or  sacred  books,  date  from  B.C.  1400,  and  that 
some  of  their  codes  of  criminal  and  civil  law 
go  back  nearly  3,000  years  from  the  present* 
time.  The  Hindoo  tradition  respecting  the 
origin  of  this  caste  is,  that  in  the  first  crea- 
tion the  Brahmins  proceeded  with  the  Veda 
from  the  mouth  of  Brahma,  their  chief  god. 
The  system  of  castes  prevailed  both  in  Egypt 
and  in  India,  and  much  controversy  has  been 
excited  as  to  whether  India  borrowed  it  from 

or  Egypt  from  India. 
lAILOW  (Battle).— Fought  near  Brailow, 
or  Ibrail,  in  Wallachia,  between  the  Russians 
and  the  Turks,  June  19,  1773,  the  latter  having 
been  defeated.  The  town,  taken  by  the  Rus- 
sians June  18,  1828 — the  siege  having  com- 
menced May  1 1 — was  restored  to  the  Turks  by 
the  treaty  of  Hadrianople  (q.  v.},  Sep.  14,  1829. 

BRAMHAM  MOOR  (Battle!.— Sir  Thomas 
Rokeby,  High  Sheriff  of  Yorkshire,  defeated 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  rebelled 
a  second  time  against  Henry  IV.,  at  this  place 
in  Yorkshire,  Feb.  19,  1408.  The  Karl  of 
Northumberland  was  killed  in  this  battle. 

BRANDENBURG  (Prussia).—  This  province, 
.subjugated  by  Charlemagne  A.D.  789,  some 
time  after  regained  its  independence,  which  it 
enjoyed  until  928,  when  it  was  conquered  and 
annexed  to  Saxony.  It  became  a  margraviate 
under  Albert,  surnamed  the  Bear,  in  1142.  On 
the  extinction  of  that  race  in  1320,  it  was  given 
by  the  Emperor  Louis  V.  to  his  son  Louis, 
and  was  sold  by  one  of  his  descendants  to 
Charles  IV.  It  continued  in  this  family  until 
the  Emperor  Sigismund  obtained  possession 
in  1411,  and  by  him  it  was,  in  1415,  sold  to 
Frederick  of  Hohciizollern,  one  of  whose  suc- 
cessors founded  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  in 
1701.  The  town  of  Brandenburg,  founded 
about  the  7th  century,  was  made  a  bishop's 
see  in  946.  It  was  suppressed  in  1565. 

BRANDY,  formerly  called  Brandwine,  was 
first  mentioned  about  1671.  The  aqua  vitse 
invented  by  Raymond  Lully,  who  died  in  1515, 
is  often  mistaken  for  brandy.  Potato  brandy 
was  distilled  by  C.  Skytes  about  1747. 

BRANDY  STATION  (Battle).— The  Con- 
federate cavalry,  under  Gen.  Stuart,  defeated 
the  Federals  in  a  skirmish  at  this  place  in 
Virginia,  Aug.  20,  1862. 

BRANDY-WINE  (Battle).— At  Brandy-wine 
Creek,  near  Newcastle,  in  Pennsylvania,  Lore 
Comwallis,  with  inferior  numbers,  defeated, 
Sep.  ii,  1777,  an  American  army  of  15,000 
men,  advantageously  posted. 

BRANKIRKA  (Battle).  —  Christian  II.  o 
Denmark  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes,  under 
Sten  Sture  the  younger,  at  this  place  in 
Sweden,  in  1518. 

BRASENOSE  C  OLLE  GE  (Oxford).— 
Brasenose  Hall  existed  in  the  time  of 
Henry  III.,  in  the  middle  of  the  i^th  century, 
and  was  known  by  that  name  in  1278,  a  nose 
of  brass  being  fixed  to  the  gate.  The  name 


s  said  to  be  derived  from  a  conniption  of  bra- 
inium  or  brasinhuse,  because  it  was  originally 
ituated  in  part  of  Alfred's  palace  used  as  a  brew- 
.ouse.  William  Smyth,  Bishop  of  Lichfield, 
fterwards  of  Lincoln,  and  chancellor  of  the 
niversity  of  Oxford,  and  Sir  R.  Sutton,  founded 
his  institution  about  1508.  A  charter  was 
granted  by  Henry  VIII.,  Jan.  35,  1512,  for  one 
principal  and  60  scholars  of  the  King's  Hall 
and  College  of  Brasenose.  The  new  library 
was  finished  in  1663,  and  the  foundation 
itone  of  the  new  chapel  was  laid  in  1656. 
t  has  received  numerous  benefactions. 

BRASS.  —  The  art  of  making  this  alloy  of 
jopper  and  zinc  was  known  in  ancient  times, 
^nd  the  early  Britons  are  said  to  have  possessed 
jrass  foundries.  The  celebrated  colossus  of 
Rhodes,  erected  about  B.C.  288,  was  formed  of 
brass.  This  fact  has,  however,  been  disputed, 
xnd  it  is  certain  that  the  present  process  of 
making  brass  is  altogether  of  modern  in- 
vention. The  first  works  in  England  are  said 
;o  have  been  established  at  Esher  in  1649.  In 
1781  Emerson  obtained  a  patent  for  making 
jrass  in  a  more  direct  way,  by  melting  to- 
gether its  constituent  metals.  (See  MONU- 
MENTAL BRASSES.) 

BRATUSPANTIUM.  —  This  town  of  the 
Bellovaci  (q.v.)  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
Julius  Caesar  B.C.  57.  According  to  smno 
.uthorities  Beavais,  and  according  to  others 
Breteuil,  occupies  its  site. 

BRAY  (Berks).— Fuller's  story  of  the  Vicar 
uf  Bray,  who  held  his  living  under  Henry  VIII., 
Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  being  first  a 
Uomau  Catholic,  then  a  Protestant,  again  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  once  more  a  Protest- 
ant, on  the  principle  that  he  intended  to  live 
and  die  Vicar  of  Bray,  is  not  borne  out  by  the 
Church  records.  The  living  was  not  held  by 
the  same  person  for  so  long  a  period  as  tli.-it 
required  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  anecdote. 

BRAZIL  (South  America).  —  This  country, 
discovered  by  Vincent  Pinzon,  was  afterwards 
surveyed  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  published 
an  account  of  it,  with  a  map.  The  Spaniards 
and  French  occupied  several  portions  of  the 
country. 

A.D. 

1500,  Feb.  Vincent  Pinzon,  having  sailed  from  Pnlos,  in 
Dec.  the  preceding  year,  arrives  at  Cape  Augustine, 
and  discovers  and  names  the  river  Amazon. 
—April  23.  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral  is  driven  on  to 
the  coast,  and  takes  possession  of  the  country  on 
behalf  of  the  King  of  Portugal. 

1530.  Capt.  Hawkins,  of  Plymouth,  the  first  English- 
man who  visits  Brazil,  prevails  on  one  of  the 
native  chiefs  to  accompany  him  to  England. 

1549.  The  Portuguese  found  St.  Salvador,  and  the  Jesuits 
first  enter  Brazil. 

1553.  Settlements  formed  by  Europeans  extend  as  far 
as  the  river  La  Plata,  and  the  country  is  made  a 
Jesuit  province. 

ISS5-  Coligny  establishes  a  settlement  of  French  Protest- 
ants in  Brazil. 

1558.  The  Portuguese  massacre  most  of  the  French 
settlers.  - 

1560.  The  French  Huguenots  are  ctfpclled  by  the  Portu- 
guese. 

1572.  The  English  mnke  nn  unsuccessful  attempt  to  obtain 
a  footing  in  Brazil. 

1580.  It  passes  into  the  power  of  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain, 
who  becomes  Sovereign  of  Portugal. 

1624.  First  invasion  of  Brazil  by  the  Hutch,  who  take 
Bahia,  but  are  unable  to  make  a  permanent 
settlement. 


BREAD 


[    167    ] 


BREDA 


1630.  Second  invasion  by  the  Dutch,  who  take  Olinda  and 
the  province  of  Pcrnambuco. 

1654.  Vieyra  restores  Brazil  to  the  Portuguese  rule.  Free 
trade  is  opened  between  Brazil  and  England. 

1661.  The  Dutch  resign  all  claim  to  Brazil. 

1723.  The  French  found  Monte  Video,  wluch  is  seized  by 
the  Spaniards. 

1760.  The  Jesuits  are  expelled  from  Brazil. 

1763.  The  seat  of  government  is  transferred  from  Bahia 
to  Rio. 

1772.  Revolt  of  the  oppressed  natives  and  negro  slaves. 

1789.  Insurrection  of  the  province  of  Minas. 

1808,  Jan.  2,1.  The  royal  family  of  Portugal,  driven 
from  Lisbon  by  the  Fn  nch,  reach  Brazil. 

1815,  Aug.  i.  The  culture  of  the  tea-plant  is  introduced 
into  Brazil.— Dec.  16.  John,  Prince  Kegent  of 
Portugal,  erects  Brazil  into  a  kingdom. 

1831.  Revolutions  in  Para,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and  Rio 
Janeiro.  The  king  returns  to  Lisbon,  leaving 
Don  Pedro  Regent  of  Brazil. 

1833,  Sep.  21.  Don  Pedro  refuses  to  recognize  the  authority 
of  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  is  proclaimed  "con- 
stitutional Emperor  of  Brazil." 

1825,  May  13.  The  King  of  Portugal  recognizes  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Brazilian  empire. 

1838.  Brazil  recognizes  Monte  Video  as  an  independent 

state. 

1839.  Insurrection  in  Pernambuco. 

1831,  April  6.  The  Emperor  abdicates  in  favour  of  his 
infant  son  Don  Pedro— April  7.  He  embarks  for 
Europe. 

1840.  July  23.  The  Emperor  is  declared  of  age  by  a  coup 

d'etat,  and  assumes  the  head  of  affairs. 

1850,  Sep.  4.  The  Emperor  issues  a  decree,  making  the  im- 
portation of  slaves  piratical. 

1858,  Nov.  8.  Inauguration  of  the  first  Brazilian  railroad 
from  Rio  to  Belem  (38  miles). 

1862,  Oct.  A  conflict  occurs  at  Belem  about  the  end  of  this 

month,  between  the  Brazilian  authorities  and  two 
Peruvian  ships-of-war,  respecting  the  customs 
rights  of  Brazil  relative  to  the  entry  of  the 
Amazon. 

1863,  Jan.  2.  By  order  of  the  English  envoy  at  Rio  Janeiro, 

several  Brazilian  merchant  vessels  are  seized  by 
British  ships-of-war  in  reprisal  of  alleged  insults 
offered  to  three  officers  of  H.M.S.  Forte,  and  of 
the  pillage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  trading  vessel, 
shipwrecked  on  the  Brazilian  coast. — Feb.  26. 
The  Brazilian  Government  pays,  under  protest, 
the  indemnity  demanded  by  the  English  envoy. 
— May  28.  The  Brazilian  envoy  quits  London. 
—June  6.  The  English  envoy  is  recalled  from  Rio 
de  Janeiro.— June  18.  The  King  of  Belgium  having 
been  chosen  to  arbitrate  between  England  and 
Brazil,  decides  in  favour  of  the  latter. 

1864,  A ag.   4.   In  consequence  of  repeated  outrages  Brazil 

addresses  an  ultimatum  to  Uruguay. — Aug.  9.  It 
is  rejected,  and  war  commences  (See  URUGUAY). 
— Oct.  12.  The  seizure  of  the  Brazilian  postal 
steamer  Marquis  of  Olinda  leads  to  a  war  with 
Paraguay  (q.v.). 

1865,  May  4.  An  alliance  is  concluded  at  Buenos  Ayres 

between  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the  Argentine 
Confederacy. — Sep.  23.  Friendly  relations  having 
been  restored  with  Great  Britain,  an  English 
minister  is  received  by  the  emperor. 


EMPEROES. 


A. I). 

1822,  Dec.  i.  Pedro  I. 


1831,  July  18.  Pedro  II. 


BREAD. — Various  materials  were  converted 
into  bread  in  ancient  times,  when  wheaten 
flour  was  not  in  such  general  use  as  at  present. 
From  the  description  of  England  prefixed  to 
Holinshed's  Chronicle,  it  appears  that  even  in 
this  country  bread  was  made  "of  such  grain  as 
the  soil  yieldeth,  nevertheless  the  gentility 
commonly  provide  themselves  sufficiently  of 
wheat  for  their  own  tables,  while  their  house- 
hold and  poor  neighbours  in  some  shires  are 
enforced  to  content  themselves  with  rye  or 
barley,  yea,  and  in  time  of  dearth,  many  with 
bread  made  either  of  beans,  peas,  or  oats,  or 


of  all  together,  or  some  acorns  among." 
Amongst  other  substitutes  for  wheat,  potatoes 
and  various  kinds  of  earth  have  been  used. 
Stow  says  Bread  Street  was  so  called  on 
account  of  its  being  the  place  where  bread  was 
formerly  sold,  and  adds  :  "  For  it  appearethby 
records  that  in  the  year  1302,  which  was  tho 
3oth  of  Edward  I.,  the  bakers  of  London 
were  bounden  to  sell  no  bread  in  their  shops 
or  houses,  but  in  the  market."  Butter  was 
substituted  for  dripping,  to  be  eaten  with 
bread  at  breakfast,  between  the  reigns  of 
Edward  IV.  and  Elizabeth.  By  a  royal  man- 
date issued  by  Henry  III.  in  the  36th  year 
of  his  reign  (1252),  bakers  were  ordered  not 
to  impress  bread  intended  for  sale  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  Agnus  Dei,  or  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ.  (See  ASSIZE  OF  BREAD,  BAKER, 
&c.) 

BREAD-AND-CHEESE  WAR,  —  In  conse- 
quence of  oppressive  taxation,  the  people  of 
Holland  rose  in  rebellion  in  1491,  and  seized 
Alkmaar,  using  for  their  standard  a  banner 
bearing  the  device  of  a  loaf  and  cheese :  hence 
the  name. 

BREAD-FRUIT  TREE.  —  This  esculent, 
found  in  the  South-Sea  Islands,  was  intro- 
duced into  the  West  Indies  by  order  of  the 
British  Government.  The  first  attempt  in  1789 
under  Bligh  failed,  on  account  of  the  mutiny 
of  part  of  his  crew  on  board  the  Bounty.  Bligh 
was  sent  out  again  in  1791,  reached  Otaheite  in 
1792,  and  landed  the  plants  in  1793.  Capt. 
Bligh  received  the  gold  medal  offered  in  1777 
by  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures  to  any  one  who  should  bring 
the  bread-fruit  plant  in  a  state  of  vegetation 
from  the  South-Sea  Islands  to  the  West  Indies. 
The  experiment  succeeded,  but  the  negroes 
prefer  their  own  preparation  of  food  from  the 
plantain. 

BREAKWATER.— The  mole  at  Tangier,  com- 
menced in  1663,  and  abandoned,  though  not 
completed,  in  1676 ;  the  works  commenced  at 
Plymouth  Aug.  12,  1812,  and  completed  in 
1841 ;  those  at  Cherbourg,  commenced  June  6, 
1784,  continued  at  intervals,  and  completed  in 
1858;  those  at  Portland,  commenced  in  1849; 
and  the  Admiralty  pier  at  Dover,  commenced 
about  1844,  are  amongst  the  most  celebrated 
breakwaters  in  the  world.  (See  HOLYHEAD). 

BREASTPLATE.— A  portion  of  the  vest- 
ment worn  by  the  high-priest  amongst  the 
Jews,  was  called  the  breastplate  of  judgment, 
and  to  it  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were  at- 
tached. The  defensive  armour  called  the 
breastplate,  worn  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  is  made  of  various  materials. 

BRECHIN  (Scotland).— This  ancient  town, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  capital  of  the  kings 
ofthePicts,  was  burned  by  the  Danes  A.D.  1012. 
It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1150,  and  the  see, 
suppressed  in  1689,  was  revived  in  1731. 
Brechin  was  taken  by  Edward  I.,  Aug.  9, 1303, 
and  was  burned  by  Montrose  in  1645.  (See 
HUNTLY  HILL,  Battle.) 

BREDA  (Holland),  founded  about  1190,  was 
annexed  to  Spain  in  1567.  It  was  recovered 
in  March,  1590,  by  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
to  whose  family  it  belonged  during  the  i4th 
and  isth  centuries.  During  the  struggle  with 


BREECH 


[    168    ] 


BRESCIA 


Spain  conferences  were  opened  here  March  3, 
1575,  and  closed  July  8,  1575.  The  Spaniards 
besieged  Breda  in  1624,  and  captured  it  in 
June,  1625.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  Provinces  Oct.  6,  1637,  and  was  con- 
firmed to  them  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in 
1648.  Charles  II.  resided  here  during  part  of 
his  exile,  and  his  celebrated  declaration  was 
written  at  Breda,  and  dated  April  14  (O.  S.  4), 
1660.  Peace  between  England,  France,  and 
Holland  was  concluded  here  July  20  (O.  S.  10), 
1667.  During  the  revolution  the  assembly  of 
the  United  Belgic  States  met  here  Sep.  14, 
1789.  Breda  capitulated  to  the  French  Feb.  25, 
1793.  The  French  were  expelled  in  1813,  and 
Breda  was  restored  to  Holland  at  the  peace  in 
1815. 

BREECH-LOADING  GUNS.— Breech-load- 
ing hand-cannon  were  used,  it  is  believed,  early 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 1461).  "Carts 
of  war,"  a  species  of  artillery  peculiar  to  Scot- 
land, which  the  barons  of  that  country  were 
commanded  to  employ  against  the  English  in 
1471,  were  also  breech-loading  weapons.  The 
Muri/  Rose  ship-of-war,  which  sank  off  the 
French  coast  in  1545,  contained  breech-loading 
ordnance  that  has  been  recovered  from  the 
wreck  ;  and  numerous  weapons  of  the  i^ih  and 
i6th  centuries,  constructed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple, and  exhibiting  other  modern  improve- 
ments, are  deposited  at  the  arsenal  at  Venice. 
Breech-loading  cannon  were  invented  by  Dr. 
Lind  and  Capt.  Blair  in  1774,  and  were  improved 
byLieut.-Gen.  Sir  W.  Congreve,  who  exhibited 
a  breech-loading  field-piece  of  his  own  inven- 
tion shortly  before  his  death  in  1814.  Rifled 
breech-loading  ordnance  was  introduced  by 
Major  Cavalli,  of  the  Sardinian  army,  and 
Baron  Wahrendorff,  of  the  Swedish  service, 
about  1847. 

BREHON  LAW  prevailed  in  Ireland  previous 
to  its  conquest  by  Henry  II.  in  1169,  and  was 
so  called  because  the  Irish  name  for  a  judge 
is  Brehon.  The  Irish  nation  received  and  swore 
to  observe  the  English  laws  at  the  Great  Coun- 
cil assembled  at  Lismore.  Spencer,  in  1596, 
describes  Brehon  Law  as  "  a  rule  of  right  un- 
written, but  delivered  by  tradition  from  one  to 
another,  in  which  oftentimes  there  appeared 
great  show  of  equity  in  determining  the  right 
between  party  and  party,  but  in  many  things 
repugnant  quite  both  to  God's  laws  and  man's." 
This  account  is  not  altogether  correct,  as  the 
code  existed  in  manuscript  as  early  as  the  i4th 
century.  King  John,  who  visited  Ireland  in 
1210,  ordained  and  established  by  letters  patent 
that  it  should  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land. The  Irish,  however,  clung  to  the  Brehon 
Law.  Henry  III.  and  his  successors  made 
several  efforts  to  induce  them  to  abandon  it ; 
and  Edward  III.,  by  the  statute  of  Kilkenny, 
in  1366,  formally  abolished  the  Brehon  Law, 
the  practice  of  which  was,  by  the  last-mentioned 
statute,  made  treason.  The  Brehon  Law  was 
not,  however,  in  spite  of  this  and  other  enact- 
ments, entirely  abolished  until  the  reign  of 
James  I. — The  Earl  of  Eglinton,  in  1852,  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  secure  the  transcrip- 
tion and  translation  of  the  ancient  Irish 

^BREITENFELD  (Battles.)— (See  LEIPSIC.) 


BREMEN  (Germany).— The  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Bremen,  and  one  of  the  free  IlaiiHe 
towns,  is  first  mentioned  as  a  bishop's  see"  A.D. 
787.  The  Archbishop  of  Hamburg  removed 
his  seat  here  in  845,  and  Bremen  itself  became 
an  archbishopric  in  1203.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Hungarians  in  900.  In  1283  it  joined  the 
Hanseatic  League  ;  and  in  1648  its  archbishop- 
ric was  suppressed.  Bremen  was  made  an 
imperial  city  in  1640.  A  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants having  declared  in  favour  of  Pro- 
testantism, the  city  was  separated  from  the 
remainder  of  the  diocese.  The  latter,  called 
the  duchy  of  Bremen,  was  ceded  to  Sweden 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  1648. 
Denmark  conquered  it  in  1712,  and  sold  it  to 
Hanover  in  1715,  with  which  it  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1732.  The  French  captured  it  Aug.  29, 
I757»  again  in  1758,  but  were  speedily  expelled, 
and  took  it  again  in  1759.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1806,  and  annexed  to  the  French 
empire  in  1810,  but  regained  its  independence 
in  1813,  and  was  made  a  member  of  the  Ger- 
man Confederation  in  1815. 

BRENNEVILLE  (Battle).— Louis  VI.  of 
France,  who  supported  the  claim  of  William 
Clito  to  the  estates  in  Normandy  seized  by 
Henry  I.,  was  defeated  by  the  latter  in  the 
plain  of  Brenneville,  in  Normandy,  Aug.  20, 
1119.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
Bremulle,  and  also  of  Noyon. 

BRENTFORD  (Battles).— Edmund  Ironside 
defeated  the  Danes  at  Brentford,  with  great 
slaughter,  in  May,  1016.  Charles  I.  defeated 
the  parliamentary  army  near  this  place,  Nov. 
12,  1642. 

BRESCIA  (Italyi,  the  ancient  Brixia,  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans.  The  Goths  burned 
it  A.D.  412,  and  Attila  plundered  it  in  452.  It 
became  an  important  city  under  Lombard  rule, 
and  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  taken  by  Charlemagne.  It  joined  the 
league  against  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  in 
1175,  and  successfully  resisted  the  arms  of 
Frederick  II.  in  1238.  It  was  long  a  prey  to 
the  various  factions  by  which  Italy  was  con- 
vulsed ;  was  taken  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VII. 
in  1311,  by  the  Venetians  in  1426,  and  by  the 
French  in  1509.  The  Venetians  having  regained 
possession  in  1512,  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by 
the  French,  under  Gaston  de  Foix,  Feb.  16,  but 
was  again  captured,  after  a  long  siege,  by  the 
Venetians,  May  26,  1516.  It  was  annexed  to 
Venice  in  1576,  and  continued  under  the  sway 
of  that  republic  until  1797.  The  French 
having  captured  it  in  1796,  they  were  expelled 
in  1799;  but  Brescia  again  passed  under  their 
yoke  until  1815,  when,  with  the  remainder  of 
Lombardy,  it  was  ceded  to  Austria.  During 
the  revolution  of  1848,  the  Austrians  were  ex- 
pelled, but  it  was  retaken  March  30,  1849,  and 
passed  to  Sardinia,  by  the  treaty  of  Zurich,  in 
1859.  Its  cathedral  was  commenced  in  1604, 
and  completed  in  1825.  (See  ARNOLDISTS.) 

BRESCIA  (Treaty,.— The  Venetians,  jealous 
of  the  growing  influence  of  their  ally,  Francis 
Sforza,  concluded  this  treaty  with  the  repub- 
licans of  Milan,  during  his  siege  of  that  city, 
Sep.  27,  1449.  The  reduction  of  Milan  (q.  v.), 
which  followed  soon  after,  rendered  its  pro- 
visions of  no  effect. 


BRESLAU 


[     169    ] 


BREWERS 


BRESLAU  (Silesia).  — The  bishopric  of 
Smogre,  founded  in  960,  was  transferred  to 
Breslau  in  1062.  Councils  were  held  at  Breslau 
in  1248,  and  Feb.  2,  1268.  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia  took  possession  of  Breslau  Jan.  i, 
1741.  After  the  battle  of  Czaslau  (q.  v.),  May 
17,  1742,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Frede- 
rick II.  and  Maria  Theresa  was  drawn  up  at 
Breslau  under  the  mediation  of  the  British 
ambassador,  June  n,  1742,  and  definitively  con- 
cluded July  28.  Silesia  and  Glatz,  in  Bohemia, 
were  ceded  to  Prussia.  A  great  battle  was 
fought  here  between  the  Austrians  and  the  Prus- 
sians, Nov.  22,  1757,  and  the  latter  having  been 
defeated,  the  Austrians  took  possession  of 
Breslau  Nov.  25  ;  but  it  was  retaken  by  Frede- 
rick II.  Dec.  19,  in  the  same  year.  Loudon, 
who  had  appeared  before  it  July  30,  1760,  was 
compelled  to  raise  the  siege  Aug.  5,  and  the 
Russians  bombarded  it  in  1761.  The  French 
took  it  in  1806,  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
molished in  1814.  Its  university  was  founded 
in  1702,  and  that  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  was 
incorporated  with  it  in  1811. 

BREST  (France),  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
Brivates  Portus,  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Britanny  in  1240.  It  was  fre- 
quently captured  and  held  by  the  English  in 
the  continental  wars  during  the  i4th  and  isth 
centuries  ;  and  it  passed  to  the  French  crown, 
with  the  remainder  of  Britanny,  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Louis  XII.  with  Anne  of  Britanny, 
widow  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  1498.  Sir  Thomas 
Howard  burned  Brest  May  23,  1512 ;  and  an  in- 
decisive action  between  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish fleets  occurred  off  the  port  Aug.  10,  in  the 
same  year.  Sir  Edward  Howard,  lord  high 
admiral,  sailed  into  Brest,  landed  some  men, 
and  ravaged  the  country  in  1513,  and  was  killed 
outside  the  port  in  an  attempt  to  destroy  some 
French  galleys.  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  assisted 
the  French  to  recover  Brest  from  the  Spaniards 
in  1594.  The  harbour  was  improved  in  1631  by 
order  of  Richelieu,  who  made  Brest  a  naval 
station.  The  English  failed  in  an  attack  upon 
Brest  in  June,  1694.  Capt.  Gordon  was  beheaded 
at  Brest  in  1769,  on  a  charge  of  being  concerned 
in  a  conspiracy  for  setting  fire  to  the  shipping 
in  that  port.  The  hospital  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  50  slaves  lost  their  lives,  in  Nov., 
1776.  Lord  Howe  defeated  the  French  fleet  off 
Brest,  June  i,  1794 ;  and  the  port  was 
blockaded  by  an  English  squadron  during  the 
French  revolutionary  war. 

BRETEUIL  (France).  —  This  town  of  Nor- 
mandy possesses  a  church,  erected  in  the  nth 
century,  and  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  built  by 
William  the  Conqueror  in  the  same  period.  In 
1356  it  was  taken  by  John  II.  of  France,  after 
a  long  siege.  Joanna,  daughter  of  Charles  II. 
of  Navarre,  was  here  made  prisoner  by  the 
French  and  taken  to  Paris  in  1377. 

BRETHREN.  —  (See  BIANCHI,  MORAVIAN, 
PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN,  <fec.) 

BRETHREN  OF  SOCIAL  LIFE.— This  asso- 
ciation, which  professed  to  imitate  the  social 
condition  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was 
founded  about  1376  by  Geert  Groote  and  Floren- 
tius  Radewin.  They  had  their  goods  in 
common,  and  were  protected  against  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  religious  orders  by  several  popes 


and  councils.  The  last  fraternity  was  founded 
at  Cambray  in  1505.  At  the  Reformation, 
many  members  of  these  societies  joined  the 
reformed  congregations,  while  others  were 
united  with  the  Jesuits.  They  were  also  called 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Lot,  Brethren  of 
Good  Will,  Hieronymites,  and  Gregorians. 

BRETIGNY  (Treaty).  —  At  the  village  of 
Bretigny,  near  Chartres,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  between  England  and  France,  May 
8,  1360.  It  consisted  of  40  articles.  France 
ceded  several  provinces  that  England  had 
conquered,  and  Edward  III.  renounced  his 
claim  to  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  &c.,  and 
agreed  to  release  the  French  King  John,  who 
had  been  prisoner  in  England  since  1356,  his 
ransom  being  fixed  at  3,000,000  gold  crowns. 
King  John  was  conducted  to  Calais  July  3 ; 
the  two  kings  signed  the  treaty  there  Oct.  24  ; 
and  John  was  released  Oct.  26.  He  returned 
to  England  Jan.  4,  1364,  and  the  kings  of 
Scotland  and  Cyprus  being  then  in  London,  he 
was  received  with  great  pomp  ;  but  falling 
suddenly  ill,  he  died  at  the  palace  of  the  Savoy, 
April  8,  1364.  Some  historians  assert  that  he 
came  to  England  because  he  was  unable  to 
fulfil  the  terms  of  his  release  ;  but  a  desire  to 
see  Edward  III.,  for  whom  he  entertained 
great  affection,  appears  to  have  been  his  princi- 
pal, if  not  his  sole  object. 

BRETWALDA,  or  "Ruler  of  Britain,"  a 
title  assigned  by  the  Saxon  chronicle  to  those 
kings  of  the  Heptarchy  who  extended  their 
government  over  the  entire  nation.  The  fol- 
lowing are  mentioned  by  Bede,  but  Hallam 
and  other  historians  doubt  whether  any 
sovereign  in  those  early  times  possessed  such 
authority  : — 

A.D. 

493.  Ella,  King  of  Sussex. 

571.  Cewtvlin,  King  of  Wessex. 

594.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent. 

615.  Redwald,  King  of  East  Angles. 

623.  Edwin,  King  of  Deira. 

634.  Oswald,  King  of  Bernicia. 

643.  Oswy,  King  of  Bemicia. 

BREVIARY,  originally  called  the  Cursus,  is 
composed  of  psalms,  lessons  taken  from  Scrip- 
ture, homilies,  histories  of  saints,  hymns, 
anthems,  prayers,  &c.,  suited  to  the  particular 
season,  festival,  or  canonical  hour,  collected 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics.  After  under- 
going several  alterations,  it  was  settled  by 
Pius  V.  in  1568.  Reformation  of  the  breviaries 
was  enjoined  upon  bishops  by  the  synod  held 
at  Cologne  in  1536,  and  both  popes  and  councils 
have  introduced  various  alterations. 

BREWERS.— The  art  of  brewing  is  of  great 
antiquity.  By  a  statute  of  the  Pillory  and 
Tumbrel,  51  Hen.  III.  st.  6(1267),  brewers  were 
fined  for  the  first,  second,  and  third  offences 
not  over  grievous  against  the  law  of  assize ;  but 
if  the  offence  was  often,  or  over  grievous,  the 
brewer  was  condemned  to  the  tumbrel,  or  some 
other  correction.  The  trade  of  brewing,  within 
the  city  of  London,  was  at  one  time  confined 
almost  wholly  to  females.  The  company  of 
brewers  was  incorporated  by  Henry-VI.,  Feb. 
22,  1428;  confirmed  by  Edward  IV.  in  1480; 
and  again  by  Elizabeth,  July  13,  1560. 
There  were  26  brewers  in  London  and  West- 


BRIAR 


[    170 


BRIDGES 


minster  in  1585,  and  they  brewed  648,960 
barrels  yearly.  Barrels  were  first  ordered  to  be 
gauged  by  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1532).  The  trade 
itself  has  since  been  regulated  by  several 
statutes. 

BRIAR  CREEK  (Battle).  —  Gen.  Prevost, 
with  about  1,200  English  troops,  defeated  the 
American  army,  2,000  strong,  at  this  place,  in 
America,  March  3,  1779.  Several  colours,  seven 
pieces  of  cannon,  all  the  baggage,  and  200  pri* 
soners,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

BRIBERY.  —  This  form  of  corruption  is 
mentioned  several  times  in  the  Bible,  and  is 
forbidden  Deut.  xvi.  19.  It  prevailed  exten- 
sively amongst  most  ancient  nations.  When 
Ergocles  was  convicted  of  having  embezzled 
30  talents,  and  payment  was  demanded  of 
his  friend  Philocrates,  his  party  openly  boasted 
of  having  bribed  2,100  jurymen  at  Athens.  A 
modern  author  remarks  that  "  in  all  periods  of 
their  history,  the  Greeks  seldom  had  sufficient 
principle  to  resist  a  bribe. "  Bribery  prevailed 
to  a  fearful  extent  in  Rome,  and  existed  in 
various  forms  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
first  case  of  punishment  for  bribery  at  an 
English  election  is  recorded  by  Parry  (Parl. 
and  Councils  of  Eng.  p.  221).  Thomas  Long,  a 
very  simple  man,  and  unfit  to  serve,  confessed, 
May  10,  1571,  that  he  gave  the  mayor  of  West- 
bury  and  another  £4  for  his  place  in  Parlia- 
ment. They  were  ordered  to  refund  the 
money,  to  appear  to  answer  such  things  as 
should  be  objected  against  them,  and  the  cor- 
poration and  inhabitants  of  Westbury  were 
fined  £20  for  their  scandalous  attempt. 

BRICIAN,  or  ST.  BRIDGKT.— This  Swedish 
order  of  knighthood  was  founded  by  the 
Swedish  princess,  afterwards  St.  Bridget,  in 
1366.  (See  BRIGETTINES.) 

BRICK-MAKING  was  known  immediately 
after  the  flood  (Gen.  xi.  3),  B.C.  4234,  burned 
bricks  having  been  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  tower  of  Babel.  The  lives 
of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  were  embittered 
by  their  cruel  task  of  brick-making  about 
B.C.  1571  (Exod.  i.  14,  and  ch.  v.).  It  is  pro- 
bable that  these  were  sun-dried  bricks.  There 
.ire  several  brick  pyramids  in  Egypt.  The 
Jews  inscribed  magical  and  other  characters 
upon  bricks.  The  art  was  much  improved 
by  the  Greeks,  and  carried  to  a  still  higher 
state  of  perfection  by  the  Romans.  The  An- 
glo-Saxons and  the  Normans  employed  brick- 
work in  their  architecture.  Hampton  Court, 
built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  is  a  good  specimen 
of  English  brickwork.  Bricks  were  first  taxed 
by  24  Geo.  III.  c.  24  (1784),  at  the  rate  of  28.  6d. 
per  1,000.  This  duty  was  several  times  in- 
creased until,  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  24  (July  19, 
1839),  it  was  fixed  at  5*.  iod.  per  1,000  for 
ordinary  sized  bricks,  and  10*.  for  the  larger 
size.  It  was  repealed  by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  9 
(1850). 

BRIDE- ALE,  or  BRIDE-STAKE,  an  old  cus- 
tom, so  called  because  the  bride  sold  ale  on 
her  wedding  day,  and  her  friends  contributed 
what  they  pleased  in  payment.  It  was  also 
called  bride-bush,  from  a  bush  at  the  end  of 
a  pole,  the  ancient  badge  of  a  country  ale- 
house ;  bride-wain,  because  poor  persons  sent 
a  cart  round  to  their  relations  and  friends, 


to  obtain  contributions  ;  and  bidding,  because 
guests  were  invited.  The  custom  is  supposed 
to  have  been  confined  to  these  islands.  Put- 
tenham,  in  the  "  Arte  of  Poesie,"  published 
in  1589,  mentions  a  bryde-ale,  and  one  was 
celebrated  before  Queen  Elizabeth,  at  Kenil- 
worth  Castle,  in  that  year.  In  the  court-rolls 
of  Halesowen,  Salop,  amongst  other  regula- 
tions is  one  made  in  1573,  to  the  effect  that 
the  wedding  couple  should  not  have  above 
"  eight  messe  of  persons  at  his  dinner  within 
the  burro  we." 

BRIDEWELL  (London).— A  tower  or  castle 
built  in  St.  Bride's  parish,  was  for  many  years 
a  residence  of  the  English  kings.  Here,  in 
1210,  King  John  summoned  a  council,  at 
which  he  exacted  above  ,£1,000  sterling  from 
the  clergy ;  and  after  depriving  the  White 
Monks  of  their  privileges,  compelled  them  to 
contribute  ^40,000  in  silver.  Henry  VIII. 
built  a  stately  and  beautiful  house  xipon  the 
ruins  of  this  old  tower,  giving  it  the  n.-nm:  of 
Bridewell,  from  a  well  in  the  neighbourhood 
dedicated  to  St.  Bride,  or  St.  Bridget.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  built  specially  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who 
visited  London  in  May,  1522.  Henry  VIII. 
called  a  meeting  here  of  peers,  councillors  of 
state,  and  aldermen,  to  consider  his  divorce 
case,  Nov.  8,  1528.  Ridley,  in  May,  1552, 
wrote  a  letter  to  Cecil  requesting  him  to 
obtain  it  for  charitable  uses ;  and  in  June, 
1553,  Edward  VI.  granted  it  to  the  city  of 
London  for  the  maintenance  of  poor  and  im- 
potent people.  A  mill  to  grind  corn  was 
placed  in  it  in  1570.  It  was  made  a  house  of 
correction  in  the  i-jih  century,  and  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1666.  Several  houses  of 
correction  bearing  the  same  name  have  been 
erected  in  London  and  other  parts  of  tho 
kingdom. 

BRIDGENORTH  (Shropshire).— This  ancient 
town  was  incorporated  by  John  in  1214.  Henry 
I.  captured  the  castle  in  1102;  and  Henry  II. 
in  1157. 

13  R I  I)GE  -  BUILDING  BROTHERHOODS, 
called  in  French  Frcres  pontifes,  and  in  Latin 
Fratres  pontifices,  were  founded  according  to 
tradition  by  Benezet,  a  herdsman,  who  is  said 
to  have  completed  a  bridge  over  the  Rhone  at 
Avignon  in  1180.  They  were  sanctioned  by 
Pope  Clement  III.  in  1189,  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  maintenance  of  hospices  near 
the  principal  fords  of  large  rivers,  the  preser- 
vation of  ferries,  and  the  construction  of 
bridges. 

BRIDGES,  of  rude  materials  and  form, 
were  constructed  by  ancient  nations  at  the 
earliest  periods.  The  first  stone  bridge  of 
large  dimensions  was  built  at  Rome  by  Caius 
Flavins  Scipio,  B.C.  127.  Old  London  Bridge 
was  commenced  A.D.  1176,  and  was  not  com- 
pleted until  83  years  later.  Bow  Bridge,  built 
in  1 1 1 8,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  stone 
bridge  in  England.  By  9  Hen.  III.  c.  15 
(1225),  no  town  or  freeman  could  be  distrained 
to  make  bridges ;  and  by  22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5 
(1530),  it  was  provided  that  if  a  bridge  was 
within  a  city  or  town  corporate,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  such  city  or  town  corporate  were 
bound  to  repair  it ;  if  without  a  city  or  town 


BRIDGEWATER 


BRIENNE 


corporate,  the  inhabitants  of  the  county  had 
to  effect  the  repairs ;  and  if  part  of  a  bridge 
was  in  one  county  and  part  within  another, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  respective  counties 
were  charged  with  the  repairs  of  the  portion 
within  their  own  limits.  Pritchard,  in.  1775, 
introduced  cast-iron  in  the  construction  of 
bridges ;  and  the  first  of  this  material  was 
built  over  the  Severn,  at  Coalbrook  Dale,  in 
1779.  The  punishment  for  pulling  down  or 
destroying  a  public  bridge  was  made  transporta- 
tion for  not  less  than  seven  years,  or  imprison- 
ment for  not  more  than  four  years  with  flogging, 
by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30,  s.  13  (June  21,  1827). 
By  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  64  (Aug.  14,  1850),  the  re- 
pairing, maintaining,  and  building  of  bridges 
was  placed  under  the  sole  management  and 
control  of  the  town  councils.  The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  principal  bridges  : — 


B.C. 

l2Tj.  Pons  Senatorius,  or  Ponte 

de  Rotte at 

100.  Ponte  Molle  „ 

A.D. 

1309.  Old  London ,, 

1305.  St.  Esprit  „ 

1354.  Vielle-Brioude    , 

1454.  Castelvecchio  „ 

1474.  gist 


Home Stone. 

Rome , 


..     Glamorgan 

near  London Timber. 

at    Orleans  Stone. 

„    Mantes    „ 

at    London    ,, 

,    in    Switzerland...  Timber. 


London „ 

Languedoc  ...  ,, 

Brioude „ 

Verona  „ 

t ,,.  ^ivw  „  Rome „ 

569.  Holy  Trinity  „  Florence „ 

1591.  Rialto „    Venice    

1611.  Claix  „    Grenoble 

1750.  Old  Westminster    ,     London  

1755.  Pont-y-prydd 

1759.  Old  Kew  Bridge 

1760.  Orleans 

1765.  Mantes 

1769.  Blackfriars 

1770.  Schaffhausen  

1771.  Old  Battersea near  London   „ 

1774.  Neuilly near  Paris Stone. 

1775.  Lavaur at    Lavaur „ 

1777.  Richmond near  London    „ 

1778.  Hampton  Court „    Timber. 

1783.  New  Kew „    Stone. 

1791.  Sarah at    Dublin „ 

1791.  Pont  de  la  Concorde „     Paris „ 

1794.  Piscataqua  „    N.  America  ...Timber. 

1796.  Sunderland „     Sunderland Iron. 

1803.  Pont  de  la  Cite  „     Paris   Timber. 

1804.  Trenton  „    Pennsylvania          „ 

1806.  Ulm „     Ulm  Stone. 

1806.  Tongueland   „     Kirkcudbright...    „ 

1806.  Austerlitz   „    Paris Iron. 

1808.  Freysingen near  Augsburg, 

Bavaria  Timber. 

1809.  Bamberg in    Germany „ 

1809.  Pont  Louis at    Freysingen ,, 

1813.  Colossus „     Philadelphia  ...      „< 

1814.  Munich    „     Munich Stone. 

1815.  Jena     „     Paris „ 

1816.  Vauxhall „    London Iron. 

1817.  Waterloo „     London Stone. 

1819.  Southwark ,,    London    Iron. 

1831.  New  London  Bridge  ...      „     London Stone. 

1863.  New  Westminster    „     London    Iron. 

1863.  Lambeth  Bridge   „     London „ 

(See  BRITANNIA    TUBULAR    BRIDGE,    RAILWAY 
AND  SUSPENSION  BRIDGES,  &c.) 

BRIDGEWATER  (Somersetshire).— This  an 
cient  town,  called  in  Domesday  Book  Brugie, 
received  its  first  charter,  dated  June  26,  1200, 
from  John.  It  was  taken  by  the  parliameii 
tary  forces,  July  23,  1645.  In  1685  the  corpora 
tion  of  Bridgewater  proclaimed  the  Duke  ol 
Monmouth  king. 

BRIDGEWATER  CANAL,  from  Worsley  to 
Manchester,  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  was 
undertaken  by  James  Brindley  at  the  instance 
of  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  whose  extensive 


;oal-fields  at  the  former  place  were  rendered 
useless  by  the  expense  of  land  carriage.  Acts 
or  the  undertaking  were  obtained  in  1754  and 
758,  and  the  canal,  which  formed  the  com- 
mencement of  British  inland  navigation,  was 
jpened  July  17,  1761. 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.— The  sum  of 
£8,000  was,  by  the  will  of  Francis  Henry 
Sgerton,  last  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  who  died 
n  Feb.,  1829,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  tho 
^resident  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  be  paid  by 
lim  to  the  writer,  or  writers,  of  a  treatise 
'  on  the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of 
God,  as  manifested  in  the  creation,"  of  which 
:,ooo  copies  were  to  be  published.  The  sub- 
ect,  divided  into  eight  parts,  was  allotted 
,o  eight  individuals,  each  of  whom  received  an 
jqual  share  of  the  money.  The  works,  pub- 
ished  between  1833  and  1840,  and  known  by 
;he  name  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises,  are  as 
ollows : — 

The  Hand:  its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments,  as 
evincing  Design.  By  Sir  Charles  Bell.  1833. 

On  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  mani- 
fested in  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to 
the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man. 
By  Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers.  1833. 

On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical 
Condition  of  Man.  ByJohnKidd.  1833. 

Astronomy  and  General  Physics,  considered  with  re- 
ference to  Natural  Theology.  By  the  Rev.  Wm, 
Whewell.  1833. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  considered  with  re- 
ference to  Natural  Theology.  By  Peter  Mark 
Roget,  M.D.  1834. 

On  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and   Goodness  of    God,  as  mani-  \ 

fested  in  the  Creation  of  Animals,  and  in  their 
History,  Habits,  and  Instincts.  By  the  Rev. 
William  Kirby.  1835. 

Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Functions  of  Digestion, 
considered  with  reference  to  Natural  Theology. 
By  William  Prout,  M.  D.  1835. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy,  considered  with  reference  to 
Natural  Theology.  By  the  Rev.  William  Buck- 
land.  1836. 

The  dates  given  are  of  the  first  publication. 
Later  editions  have  been  issued. 

BRIEF.— (See  BULL.) 

BRIEF,  or  QUEEN'S  LETTER.— This  kind 
of  document,  bearing  the  royal  signature, 
addressed  to  the  archbishops,  bishops,  cler- 
gymen, magistrates,  churchwardens,  and 
overseers  of  the  poor  in  England,  authorizing 
the  collection  of  money  for  some  charitable 
purpose  therein  mentioned,  was  first  issued 
in  this  country  soon  after  the  Reformation. 
Certain  abuses  crept  in,  and  a  measure  was 
passed  (4  Anne  c.  14)  in  1706,  entitled,  "An 
Act  for  the  better  collecting  charitable  money 
on  briefs  by  letters  patent,  and  preventing 
abuses  in  relation  to  such  charities."  This  act 
was  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  42  (July  15,  1828); 
and  though  the  power  of  issuing  briefs  is  still 
retained  by  the  Crown,  it  has  not  been  exer- 
cised of  late  years. 

BRIEL,  or  BRILL  (Holland).— This  fortified 
seaport  surrendered  to  the  confederates  in 
1572,  and  was  the  first  place  in  Holland  to 
obtain  its  independence.  It  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  English  in  1585,  Queen  Elizabeth 
having  agreed  to  protect  the  Netherlands,  and 
was,  with  other  cautionary  towns  (q.  v.),  given 
back  to  the  Dutch,  May  27,  1616. 

BRIENNE.— This  town  in  France  was 
governed  by  counts  from  the  ioth  century.  A 


BRIENNE 


[    172    1 


BRITANNIA 


college  founded  here  by  the  Order  of  Minims 
in  1730,  and  erected  by  government  in  1776 
into  a  military  school  preparatory  to  that  at 
Paris,  was  the  scene  of  the  earliest  studies  of 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  from  April  23,  1779,  till 
Oct.  17,  1784,  and  was  suppressed  in  1790. 

BRIENNE  (Battle).— Napoleon  I.  attacked 
Blucher  at  this  place,  Jan.  29,  1814,  forcing 
him  from  the  town,  which  was  reduced  to 
ashes,  and  compelling  him  on  the  following 
day  to  retreat  to  Trannes.  (See  LA  ROTHIERE, 
Battle.) 

BRIGANDS. — A  company  of  soldiers,  armed 
by  the  city  of  Paris,  in  1356,  during  the  capti- 
vity of  John  II.  in  England,  were  termed 
"brigands,"  because  they  were  defended  by 
brigandines,  a  kind  of  armour  then  much 

WBRiGETTINES,  or  NUNS  OF  OUR  HOLY 
SAVIOUR,  instituted  by  St.  Bridget,  Duchess 
or  Princess  of  Nericia,  in  Sweden,  about  the 
middle  of  the  i4th  century.  She  died  in  1373, 
and  was  canonized  in  1391.  They  adopted, 
with  certain  modifications,  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  It  was  not  lawful  for  them  to 
havo  anything  they  could  call  their  own,  not 
even  so  much  as  a  halfpenny.  The  new  order 
arose  in  Spain,  spread  through  parts  of  the 
Continent,  and  had  only  one  house  in  England, 
at  Syon,  in  Middlesex,  founded  by  Henry  V.  in 
1413.  Men  were  admitted  into  their  convents. 

BRIGHTON  (Sussex),  formerly  Brighthelm- 
stone,  was  a  place  of  some  importance  in  early 
times  ;  arid,  having  been  plundered  and  burned 
by  the  French  in  1514,  was  afterwards  fortified 
by  Henry  VIII.  It  declined,  and  was  merely 
a  fishing  village  at  the  commencement  of  the 
last  century.  George  IV.,  then  Prince  of 
Wales,  visited  it  in  1782,  and  the  foundation 
of  the  Pavilion  was  laid  in  1784.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1787,  and  additions  were  made  in 
1802  and  1817.  The  chain  pierwas  commenced 
Oct.,  1822,  and  opened  in  Nov.,  1823.  A  bat- 
tery was  built  in  1793,  and  rebuilt  in  1830. 
The  town-hall  was  commenced  in  1830.  It  ob- 
tained the  right  of  returning  two  members  to 
Parliament  in  1832.  The  railroad  to  London  was 
opened  Sep.  21,  1841.  The  Pavilion  was  pur- 
chased by  the  corporation  in  1850.  A  collision 
occurred  on  the  railroad  in  the  Clayton  tunnel, 
by  which  16  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  many 
were  seriously  injured,  Aug.  25,  1861.  Volun- 
teer reviews  were  held  here  on  Easter  Monday 
in  1861,  and  in  other  years.  (See  VOLUNTEERS.) 
The  new  pier  was  commenced  in  1865. 

BRIHUEGA  (Spain).  —  Gen.  Stanhope  and 
6,000  British  troops  were  surrounded  and  taken 
prisoners,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  at  this 
small  town,  by  the  Duke  of  Vendome,  Dec.  9 
(O.  S.  Nov.  28),  1710.  The  French  were  im- 
mensely superior  in  numbers. 

BRIGNAIS  (Battle).  —  The  French,  under 
James  de  Bourbon,  were  defeated  by  the  Free 
Companies  fighting  in  the  service  of  Eng- 
land, at  this  place,  on  the  Rhone,  near  Lyons, 
on  the  Friday  after  Easter  (April  2),  1361. 
James  de  Bourbon  and  his  son  Pierre  were 
mortally  wounded. 

BRILL.— (See  BRIEL.) 

BRINDISI  (Calabria),  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Brundisium,  or  Brundusium  (q.  v.). 


It  was  frequently  besieged,  arid  suffered  se- 
verely during  the  various  invasions  of  Italy. 
It  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  A.D.  172,  and 
was  united  with  Oria,  and  made  an  arch- 
bishopric, about  1060 ;  but  the  sees  were  dis- 
united in  1591.  Brindisi  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  A.D.  1456. 

BRlSBx\NE  ( Australia),  the  capital  of  Queens- 
land (q.  v.),  was  founded  soon  after  the  disco- 
very of  the  Brisbane  River  by  Oxley,  in  1823. 
It  ceased  to  be  a  penal  settlement  in  1842,  and 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  1859. 

BRISSOTINS.— (See  GIRONDISTS.) 

BRISTOL.— Part  is  in  Somersetshire,  and 
part  in  Gloucestershire.  It  was  a  walled  town 
and  royal  burgh  at  the  time  of  the  Norman 
Conquest.  Henry  of  Huntingdon  describes  it 
as  the  most  opulent  city  in  that  part  of  the 
country,  and  much  frequented  by  shipping. 
The  Empress  Maud  repaired  to  this  city  in 
1140,  and  Stephen  was  imprisoned  in  its  castle 
in  1141.  Bristol  has  returned  two  members  to 
Parliament  since  1283  ;  and  it  was  made  a 
staple  for  wool,  leather,  <fcc.,'by  27  Edw.  III. 
st.  2,  c.  i  (1353).  A  charter  for  making  Bristol 
a  town  and  county  of  itself  was  confirmed 
under  the  great  seal  (47  Edw.  III.)  Aug.  8,  1373. 
Henry  VII.  granted  it  another  charter  in  1550. 
Prince  Rupert  captured  Bristol  July  27,  1643, 
and  it  was  retaken  by  the  parliamentary  forces 
Sep.  10,  1645.  The  castle  was  demolished  by 
order  of  Cromwell  in  1656.  Riots  occurred 
here  in  1749,  1793,  and  in  1831.  The  see  was 
founded  June  4,  1542,  and  united  to  Gloucester 
in  Oct.,  1836.  The  docks  were  commenced 
in  1804,  and  completed  in  1809.  The  council 
house  was  built  in  1827.  The  suspension  bridge 
over  the  Avon  at  Clifton,  designed  by  Brunei, 
but  not  completed  during  his  lifetime  from 
want  of  funds,  was  opened  Dec.  8,  1864,  part  of 
the  materials  of  the  Hungerf ord  bridge  (q.  v. ) 
having  been  employed  in  its  construction.  An 
industrial  exhibition  was  opened  in  Bristol 
Sep.  19,  1865. 

I'.IMT.VIN.— (See  NEW  BRITAIN.) 

BRITANNIA,  or  BRITAIN.— Aristotle  (B.C. 
384 — 322),  the  first  ancient  writer  who  makes 
direct  mention  of  Britain,  speaks  of  two  large 
islands,  Albion  (q.v.}  and  lerne  (i.e.  England 
and  Ireland),  called  Bretannic,  in  the  ocean 
beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  origin  of 
the  word  Britain  has  excited  much  contro- 
versy. In  early  native  poems  it  is  called  the 
isle  of  the  Prydhain,  of  which  Carte  conjectures 
Britannia  to  be  the  Latinized  form.  Some 
portions  of  the  coast  of  Britain  were  known  to 
the  Phoenicians,  who  resorted  to  them  for  tin, 
before  the  time  of  Aristotle.  (See  CASSITERIDES. ) 
Herodotus  uses  the  term,  though  he  declares 
that  he  can  give  no  information  on  the  subject, 
admitting  that  he  never  met  a  man  who  had 
seen  the  sea  on  that  side  of  Europe.  The  ori- 
ginal inhabitants  of  Britain  were  a  Celtic  race, 
divided  into  two  principal  branches,  the  Gaelic 
and  the  Cimbric ;  but  of  their  history  previous 
to  the  Roman  invasion  little  authentic  is 
known.  The  islands  are  supposed  to  have 
been  peopled  from  the  neighbouring  continent 
of  Gaul.  Their  priests,  called  Druids  (q.  v.}, 
wielded  the  chief  authority.  When  Csesar 
(Aug.  26,  B.C.  55)  landed  on  the  coast  of  Kent, 


BRITANNIA 


[     173     1 


BRITANNIA 


57. 
58. 


Divitiacus  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  native 
leaders. 


57.  Divitiacus,  King  of  the  Belgic  tribe,  the  Suessones, 

rules  Britain. 
55,  Aug.  26.  Julius  Csesar  arrives  in  Britain,  but  makes 

no  important  conquests.  —  Sep.  2°.     He  returns  to 

Gaul. 
54,  May.   Caesar  returns  to  Britain,   and  is   opposed  by 

Cassivellaunus.      He  crosses    the    Thames,   and 

takes  Verulamium  (St.   Alban's).—  Sep.     He  im- 

poses a  tribute  on  the  Britons,  and    returns  to 

Gaul. 
51.  Commhifl  takes  refuge  in  Britain  from  the  pursuit  of 

Cresar. 
jfi.  Augustus  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  invading  Britain, 

but  an  embassy  of  the  inhaijitants  meets  him  in 

Gaul,  and  offers  submission  to  him. 

40  Caligula  is  persuaded  to  invade  Britain  by  Adminius, 
son  of  Cinobellinus,  King  of  the  Britons.  He  re- 
turns without  making  any  attempt  at  conquest. 

43.  Claudius   sends  Aulus  Plautius    into    Britain,   and 

soon  afterwards  goes  in  person,  and  reduces  the 
greater  part  of  the  island  to  subjection. 

44.  Claudius  has  a  triumph  at  Rome  in  celebration  of  the 

conquest  of    Britain,   and  assumes  the  surname 

liritannicus. 
47.   Flavins   Vespasian   annexes   Britain   to   the   Roman 

empire.     Christianity  is   said   to  have   been    first 

preached  in  the  island  about  this  time,  by  Simon 

Zelotes. 
50.  Ostorius  Scapula,  Roman  Governor  of  Britain,  reduces 

the  Cangii,  the  Brigantes,   and  the  Silures  ;  takes 

Caractacus,    King  of   the  Silures,   prisoner,    and 

sends  him  to  Rome. 
5r.  Aulius  Diilius.  governor,  is  opposed  by  Venusius,  the 

British  chieftain. 

57.  Veranius,  governor,  dies  soon  after  his  appointment.- 
Suetonius  I'auliims  governor.     Agricola   commences 

his  militiiry  career  under  his  tutelage. 

61.  The  Britons  revolt,  and  capture  several  Roman  posts. 

Suetonius  defeats  their  army,  led  by  Boadiaea, 
Queen  of  the  Iceni,  who  dies  shortly  after. 

62.  Petronius  Tiirpili:nius  governor. 

65.  St.  Paul  is  suid  to  have  visited  Britain. 

69.  The     Roman  legions  in   Britain     revolt     from     the 

Emperor  Vitellius  in  favour  of  Vespasian. 

70.  Petilius      Cerealis    governor.      The    Brigantes    are 

reduced  to  order. 
75.  Julius  Frontinus  governor. 

78.  Agricola  governor.      He  reduces  the  isle  of  Anglesey, 

and  reforms  the  abuses  of  his  predecessors. 

79.  Agricola's  second  campaign  in  Britain.     The  Roman 

language  begins  to  be  studied. 

80.  Agricola's  third   campaign.     He  penetrates  as  far  as 

the  Frith  of  Tay. 
8r.  Agricola's  fourth  campaign.     He  erects  forts  between 

the  Friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth. 
83.  Agricola's  fifth  campaign. 

83.  Agricola's    sixth  campaign.     He  defeats  the    Cale- 

donians. 

84.  Agricola,  in  his  seventh  campaign,  defeats  the  Cale- 

donians under  Galgacus.  He  sails  round  Britain, 
and  discovers  its  insular  form  ;  resigns  his 
governorship,  and  returns  to  Rome. 

85.  Sallustius  Lucullus  governor.     He  is  put  to  death  by- 

order  of  Domitian. 

86.  The  Britons  rebel  under  Arviragus. 
106.  Neratius  Marcellus  governor. 

117.  The  Britons  strive  to  obtain  their  freedom. 

130.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  visits  Britain.    (See  HADRIAN'S 

WALL.) 
124.   Platorius  Xepos  governor. 

138.  The  Emperor  Titus  Antoninus  deprives  the  Brigantes 

of  part  of  their  territories. 

139.  The   Britons    are  subdued  by  Lollius  Urbicus.     (See 

AOKICOLA'S  WALL.) 

140.  C.  Valerius  Pansa  is  proconsul  in  Britain. 

]ii2.  Marcus  Aurclius  sends  Calphurnius  Agricola  against 
the  turbulent  Britons. 

181.  Lucius,  King  of  the  Britons,  sends  an  embassy  to  the 
Pope.  Various  dates,  ranging  between  137  and 
199,  are  assigned  for  this  event.  Some  barbarous 
British  tribes  revolt,  and  are  reduced  to  order  by 
Marcellus. 

183.  Marcullus  puts  an  end  to  the  war  in  Britain. 


187.  The  Britons  again   revolt,   and   are"  subdued  by    r. 

Helvius  Pertinax. 
106.  Virius  Lupus  governor. 
304.  South   Britain  is  divided  in'o  two  provinces  by  order 

of  Severus. 

307.  Britain  again  revolts. 

308.  The     Emperor    Severus    heads    an    expedition  into 

Britain.    (See  HADRIAN'S  WALL.) 

211,  Feb.  4.  Death  of  Severus,  at  York.  Papianus  ap- 
pointed governor. 

321.  Marius  Valerianus  governor. 

339.  Macilius  Fuscus  governor. 

340.  Gn.  •Lucilianus  governor. 
243.  Nonnius  Philippus  governor. 

355.  Desticius  Juba  governor.  « 

373.  Constantius    Chlorus  (afterwards   emperor)  marries 

Helena,  said    by  monkish  chroniclers  to    be    a 

British  princess. 
275.  Constantino,  their  son,  is  said  to  have  been  born  in 

Britain. 
376.  Proculus  and  Bonosus  claim  Britain  for  themselves, 

and  are  defeated  by  Probus. 

283.  Britain  is  assigned  to  Carinus.  son  of  the  emperor. 
387.  Carausius  assumes  imperial  dignity  in  Britain. 
394.  Carausius  is  slain  by  Allectus,  who  succeeds  him  in 

the  empire. 
396.  Constantius  reunites  Britain  to  the  Roman  empire, 

and  slays  Allectus. 
304.  Alban  and  other  British  Christians  suffer  martyrdom. 

(See  ALBAN'S,  ST.). 
306,  July  25.  The   Emperor  Constantius  Chlorus  dies  at 

York,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Constantine  I. 

313.  Constantine  I.  subdues  the  Britons. 

314.  British  bishops  are  present  at  the  Council  of  Aries. 
34(.  The  Emperor  Constans  restores  tranquillity  in  Britain. 
357.  Julian  sends  800  vessels  to  Brilain  to  obtain  corn. 
360.  Britain  is  invaded  by  the  Picts  and  Scots. 

364.  The  Saxons  assail  the  British  coasts,  and  the  Picts 

and  Scots  penetrate  inland. 
367.  Revolt  in  Brit.;in.     Continued  incursions  of  the  Picts 

and  Scots. 

374.  The  Saxons  effect  a  landing  in  Britain. 

383.  The  Roman  army  in  Britain  revolts,  and  proclaims 
Maximus  emperor. 

394.  Ninias,  a  Briton,  is  ordained  Bishop  of  the  Southern 
Picts. 

396.  The  Britons  seek  and  obtain  aid  from  Rome  against 
the  Picts  and  Scots. 

407.  The  army  in  Britain  revolts,  and  chooses  Gratian,  a 
native  of  the  country,  emperor.  He  is  killed  four 
months  afterwards,  and  Constantine  assumes 
authority. 

409.  The  Britons  revolt  from  the  Romans,  who  are  too 
much  weakened  by  the  Goths  to  attempt  to  re- 
duce them  to  subjection. 

425.  Vortigern  reigns  in  Britain. 

438.  Vortigern   seeks    aid   from  the    Saxons  against  tho 

northern  barbarians. 

439.  The  Saxons  form   an  alliance  with  the  Picts,   and 

turn  their  arms  against  Vortigern. 

435.  The  Britons  obtain  assistance  from  Rome,  and  repel 

their  invaders. 

436.  The  Romans  finally  quit  Britain.    " 

445.  The  Britons  are  driven  to  the  mountains  by  the  Picts 
and  Scots. 

449.  The  first  Saxon  invasion.  Hengist  and  Korea  re- 
turn for  the  purpose  of  conquest 

455.  Battle  of  Aylesford  (q. ».). 

477.  The  second  Saxon  invasion.  Ella  arrives  in  Britain, 
and  defeats  the  natives  at  Andredslea. 

491.  Ella  founds  the  kingdom  of  Sussex,  or  of  the  South 
Saxons. 

493.  Ella  is  made  first  Bretwalda. 

495.  The  third  Saxon  invasion.     Arrival  of  Cerdic. 

519.  Cerdic  founds  the  kingdom  of  Wessex. 

530.  The  renowned  King  Arthur  defeats  Cerdic  at  Baddes- 
down  Hill  (q.  v.). 

537.  The  fourth  Saxon  invasion.     Essex  is  founded. 

530.  Cerdic  invades  and  takes  the  isle  of  Wight  The 
fifth  Saxon  invasion. 

547.  The  sixth  Saxon  invasion.  Landing  of  Ida  at  Flam- 
borough  Head,  and  commencement  of  the  kingdom 
of  North  umbria. 

559.  Northumbvia  is  divided  into  Bernicia  and  Deira.  Ella 
takes  Deira. 

568.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  attacks  Ceawlin,  King  of 
Wessex,  and  is  driven  back  into  hia  owa 
territories. 


BRITANNIA 


BRITANNY 


A.D. 

KINGS  OF  ESSEX. 

577.  Battle  of  Deorham  (q.  v.). 

A.D.                                                                          A.TI. 

586.  Crida  founds  the  kingdom  of  Mercia. 
591.  Ceawlin  is  defeated   bv  Ids  nephew  Ceolric,  and  ex- 
pelled; soon  after  which  he  dies. 

537.  Erchenwin. 
587.  Sledda. 
198.  Sebert. 

683.  Sebbi  alone. 
694.  Senfrid  and  Sigeherd. 
700.  Offa. 

597.  Arrival  of  St.  Augustine.     (Sue  CANTERBURY.) 
603.  The  Scots  invade    Bernicia,   but  are  repulsed,   with 
much  slaughter,  by  Ethel  frith. 
610.  Tewdrick,   King  of  the   Welsh,  defeats  Ceolwulph, 

616.  Saxred,    Scward,     and 
Sigibert. 
633.  Sigibert  the  "  Little." 
653.  Sigibert  11. 

709.  Suealred,  or  Suebricht. 
746.  Swithred. 
7V  i.  Sigeric. 

King  of  Wessex. 
617.  Ethelfiith,  King  of  Bernicia,  is  defeated  and  slain  bv 
Kedwald,  King  of  East  Anglia,  and  Edwin  be-. 

660.  Swithelm. 
665.  Sebbi  and  Higher. 

t^23.  Egbert,Kingof  Wessex. 
(United  to  Wessex.) 

comes  King  of  Deira  and  Bernicia. 

KINGS  OF  EAST  ANGLES. 

636.  Quicelm,    King  of    Sussex,    makes   an   unsuccessful 
attempt  to  assassinate  Edwin,  who  is  preserved  by 

A.D. 

537-  T-'ffa. 

A.D. 

683.  Selred. 

his  thane  Lilla. 

578.  Titel. 

747.  Alphuald. 

643.  renda,   Kingof  Mercia,  defeats  and  slays  Oswald, 

599.  Kedwald. 

749.  Humbean  and  Albert. 

King  of  Bernicia. 
655.  Oswy,  Kingof  Bernicia,  slays  Penda. 
661.  Edilwalch,  Kingof  .Sussex,  obtains  possession  of  the 
isle  of  Wight  and  part  of  Hampshire. 

134.   Eorpwald. 
636.  Sigibert. 
644.  Ecgric  Anna. 
655.  Adclhcre  Edcwald. 

758.  Beorna    and   Ethelred. 
(Obscure  period.) 
870.  Edmund,  the  king  and 
martyr,      slain      this 

664.  A  great  plague  rages  in  Britain. 
687.  Sussex  is  united  to  \\ 

664.  Aldulph. 

year. 

688,  April  20.  Death   at  Home  of   Cadwallader,  the  last 

KINGS  OF  MERCIA. 

Kingof  the  Britons. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

694.  Kent  is  devastated  by  the  West  Saxons. 

506.  Crida. 

788.  Offa  and  Ecgfrid. 

704.  Ethelred,    King   of    Mcrcia,  voluntarily    resigns    his 
crown,  and  retires  into  a  monastery. 

?^  S':l> 

7o/..  Ccnulpb. 
819.    Ceolwulph. 

737.  Ina,  King  of  Wesscx,  quits  the  throne,  and  retires  to 

.•ndn. 

831.  Jicornwulph. 

Koine. 

659.  Wnlfhcre. 

836.  Ludican. 

755.  Insurrection  in  Mercia,  and  death  of  King  Ethclbald. 
777-  Offa,  Kingof  Mercia,  commences  an  intercourse  with 

675.    r.thelred. 
704.  GYnrcd. 

«.>6.   Wiglaf. 
835.  Bertulph. 

Charlemagne. 

709.   Ccolred. 

853.  Burrhcd. 

787.  The  Danes  (7.  r.)  first  land  in  England. 

716.  Ethclbald. 

875.  Ceolwulph. 

800.  Egbert  is  recalled  from  exile  to  ascend  the  throne  of 

755.  Offa. 

K<)3.   Kthelred, 

Wessex. 

813.  Egbert  lays  waste  West  Wales. 

KINGS  OF  DEIRA. 

•  is  united  to  Wesscx. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

834.  Kent  is  united  to  Wessex. 

559.  Ella,  or  Alia. 

644.   Oswin. 

835.  Nortlmmbria  is  united  to  Wessex. 

'5*9.   Ethelric,  Kingof  Berni- 

653. Oswy,   King    of    Ber- 

The date  usually  assigned  for  the  dissolution 

cia. 
593.  Ethclfrith,  ditto. 

nicia. 
663.  Alfred. 

of  the  Heptarchy  (q.  -o.    is  827  ;  but  the  title 

I,,-,    r,  I  win. 

670.  Ecgfrid,  King  of  Ber- 

"  King  of  the  English"  was  first  assumed,  ac- 
cording to  Hume,  by  Edward  the  Kl-.ler,  son  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  in  901.  Sharon  Turner  makes 

633.  Osric. 
(.34.  Oswald,  King  of  Berui- 
cia. 

nieia.       (United       to 
Bernicia,  taking   the 
name  Xorthumbria.) 

Athclstan  the  first   king  of  all   England,  and 

KINGS  OF  NORTHUMBRIA,  OR  BERNICIA. 

fixes  934  as  the  year  when  he  assumed  the  title. 

547.  Ida. 

A.D. 
730.  Ceolwulph. 

THE     HEPTARCHY. 

559.    Adda. 

737.  Eadbert. 

KINGS  OF   KK.NT. 

566.  Clappa. 

758.  Osulph. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

571.  Theodulf. 

"9.   l-thelwald,     surnamed 

455-   IlengisU 

725.   Kthelbert  and  Edbert. 

S7*    1  reothnlf. 

Mono. 

748.  Ethelbert  alone. 

5-9.  Thcodric. 

765.  Aired. 

513.   <  >cta. 

7<,o.  Alric. 

586.  Ethelric. 

774.  Ethelred. 

534.  Eniric. 

774.  Sigirned,  Eadbert,   and 

593.  Ethclfrith. 

779.  A  If  wold. 

5oK.     Etlleib;,t. 

Eardalph. 

di-.   !•:.!  win,  Kingof  Deira. 

789.  (  isred  II. 

6l6.    E.'idbaM. 

786.  Egebert. 

633.  Ennfrid. 

790.  Ethelred  (restored). 

640.  Ercombcrt. 

79*.  Cudrcd. 

634.  Oswald. 

796.  Osbald,  Eardulf  . 

604.  Egbert. 

605.    I'.nMred. 

643.  Oswv. 

808.  Alfwold. 

673.   Lothaiiv. 
r,H5.    Edrie. 
686.  Wihtred. 

834.  Submitted    to    Egbert, 
Kingof  Wessex.  (Uni- 
ted to  Wcssex.) 

670.  Ecgfrid.       (United     to 
Deira,   the  two  king- 
doms     being     called 

810.  Enured     (submits     to 
Egbert,       King       of 
Wcssex,  835). 

KINGS  OF   SI-SSKX. 

Nortliumbria.) 

867.  Ella   and    Osbort,  rival 

A.D. 

A.D. 

685.  Alfred. 

sovereigns  of  Nortli- 

491. Ella. 

636.  Cynegils,    King    of 

705.  Eadwulph  (3  mouths). 

umbria,  are  slain  by 

5.4.  Cissa. 
588.  Ceawlin,    King    of 

Wcssex. 

Wesscx  (again). 
643.  Cenwalch,  ditto. 
f>4S.    Kdilwalch. 

705.  Osred  I. 
716.  Cenred. 
718.  Osric. 

the  Danes. 
871.  Egbert,    succeeded    by 
Kicscg  (who  died  876). 

593.  Ceolric,  ditto. 
598.  Ceolwulph,  ditto. 

687.  Cadwallader,   or  Cead- 
walla,    King   of 

BRITANNIA    THEATRE     (London).—  This 

611.  Cynegils,  ditto. 

AVcssex.  (IVnnanently 

establishment,  erected  on  the  site  of  the  Bri- 

613. Quicehu. 

united  to  Wessex.) 

tannia  Saloon,  with  seats  for  2,500  spectators, 

KINGS  OF  WESSEX. 

was  opened  Monday,  Nov.  8,  1858. 

A.D. 
519.  Cerdic. 

A.1J, 

737.   l-'.tliclheard. 

BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE,  over  the 

534.  Kenric. 

740.   Cuthrcd. 

Mcnai  Strait,   was  commenced  in   1846,   and 

560.  Ceawlin. 

754.  Sigcbvrth    and     Cyne- 

opened  March  5,  1850.     It  was  designed  and 

593.  Ceolric. 
598.  Ceolwulph. 

wulf. 
784.  Brithtric. 
800    Egbert 

executed  by  Robert  Stephenson,  and  is  the 
first  structure  of  the  kind. 

643.  Cenwalch. 

KV;.   Ktiielwulph. 

BRITANNY     (France),    or    BRETAGNE.— 

673.  Sexburga. 
674.  JBscwin  and  Kentwin. 
686.  Cadwallader.  or  Cead- 
walla, 
688.  Ina. 

858.  Ethelbald. 
86  1.  Ethelbert. 
867.  Ethelred. 
870.  Alfred  the  Great. 

This  name  was  given  to  a  portion  of  Armorica 
(q.  v.},  in  which  some  Britons  from  Cornwall 
formed  a  colony,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th 
century.      The    country    was    subjugated  by 

BRITANNY 


175 


BRITISH 


Charlemagne.  In  841  the  Bretons  regained 
their  independence  and  were  ruled  by  their 
own  sovereigns, '  tributary  at  times  to  the 
Prankish  kings.  Charles  II.  (the  Bald),  after 
several  severe  struggles,  induced  its  sovereigns 
to  do  homage  to  him,  and  this  was  afterwards 
rendered  to  the  dukes  of  Normandy. 


818.  Louis  I.  (the  Pious)  of  France  intrusts  Nominee"  with 

delegated  authority. 
841.  Nominee  revolts,  becomes  the  first  duke,  and  captures 

the  march -land  of  Kennes. 
843.  First  expedition  of  Charles  II.  into  Britanny.     He 

is  compelled  to  retreat  on  account  of  the  severity 

of  the  weather. 
845.  Charles  II.  undertakes  a  second  expedition,  and  is 

defeated  at  Baldon,  the  battle  lasting  two  days. 
848.  Nominee  assumes  the  title  of  king,  and  obtains  the 

golden  crown  from  the  Pope. 

850.  Charles   II.   enters  Britanny    for    the  third    time. 

Nominee,  again  victorious,  dies  suddenly. 

851.  His  son,    Herispoii,   succeeds,   and  does  homage  to 

Charles  II.  Dissensions  arise  between  France 
and  Britanny,  and  Charles  II.  invades  it  for  the 
fourth  time. 

853.  Charles  the  Second's  fifth  expedition  leads  to  a  peace. 

858.  The  Bretons,  incensed    at    the    alliance  with  the 

Franks,   are   induced    by    Solomon,     Herispoe's 

nephew,  to  revolt,  and   Herispoe  is  killed   in  a 

church.     Solomon  succeeds. 

861.  A  portion  of  Britanny  is  assigned  to  Robert-le-Fort, 

by  the  groat  council  held  at  Compiegne. 
874.  Solomon,  deposed  by  a  cousin  and  a  nephew,  is  cast 
into   prison,  and   these   relatives,  Pasquitaiu  and 
Gurvard,  divide  Britanny  between  them. 
877.  Alain  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  obtains   the  supre- 
macy. 

907.  The  Northmen  ravage  Britanny,  which,  divided  into 
four  great  counties,  Rennes,  Nantes,  Yannes,  and 
Cornouailles,  remains  for  some  time  in  a  very 
distracted  state. 

931.  Britanny  is  ceded  to  the  Northmen  by  Count  Robert. 
933.  Rollo's  supremacy  is  acknowledged  in  Britanny. 
931,  Sep.  39.  The  Bretons  revolt  against  the  Northmen. 
933.  Guillaume  Longue-epee,  having  vainly  sought  to  in- 
duce the  Bretons   to  return  to  their   allegiance, 
invades  and  subdues  them.     The  Channel  Islands 
and  other  parts  of  Britanny  are  annexed  to  Nor- 
mandy. 

937.  Athelstane,  King  of  England,  interferes  in  behalf  of 
Alain  II.,  who  recovers   part   of    Britanny.    Cor- 
nouailles is  permanently  annexed  to  Normandy. 
938-43.  Alain   II.    defeats   the    Northmen    at    D61,   St. 

Brieux,  and  Nantes,  and  obtains  part  of  Anjou. 
944.  The  Northmen  invade  Britanny.    Confusion  prevails 

for  several  years. 
993.  Geoffrey  I.  rules  all  Bntanny,  and  takes  the  title  of 

Duke. 

1076.  William  I.  of  England  invades  Britanny,  but  retires, 
the  duke  being  supported  by  Philip  I.  of  France. 
1148.  Three  dukes  rule  in  Britannv. 
1183.  Marriage  of  Geoffrey  of  An'jou,   Duke  of  Britanny, 

with  Constance,  daughter  of  Duke  Conan. 
1186.  Geoffrey  II.  is  killed  at  a  tournament  at  Paris. 
1196.  Arthur,  posthumous  son  of  Geoffrey  II.  and  Con- 
stance, is  acknowledged  Duke  of  Britanny. 
1303,  April  3.  Mysterious  death  of  Arthur,  at  Rouen. 
1334.  Alliance    of    France     and    Britanny    against    the 

English. 
1337.  Abdication  of  Peter  I.  (Mauclerc),  who  is  succeeded 

by  John  I. 
1309.  A  project  to  render  Britanny  subject  to  England  is 

prevented  by  the  people. 

1341.  The  duchy  of  Britanny  is  disputed  by   Charles  de 

Blois   and   John  de  Montfort,   the   former  being 

supported  by  Philip  VI.  of  France,  and  the  latter 

by  Edward  III.  of  England. 

1378.  Unsuccessful  incursions  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 

Lancaster. 

1395,  Oct.  2,0.  Peace  in  Britanny,  after  long  wars. 
1399.  Deatli  of  John  IV.,  "  the  Valiant,"  who  is  succeeded 
by  his  infant  son  John,  under  the  tutelage  of  his 
mother. 

1433.  A  treaty  between  Britanny  and  Henry  VI.  of  Eng- 
land is  made  against  France. 
1436.  War  ia  declared  between  England  and  Britanny. 


.. 

1449.  Alliance  between  the  Duke  of    Britanny   and  the 

King  of  France,  who  fight  in  conceit  against  the 
English. 

1450.  Francis  I.  poisons  his  brother  Giles,  and  dies,  soon 

afterwards,  from  fear  and  remorse. 
1489.  Marriage,  by  proxy,  of  Anne  of  Britanny  to  Maxi- 

milian, King  of  the  Romans. 
1491.  Charles    VIII.   of    France     annuls    the    marriage 

between  Anne  of  Britanny  and  Maximilian,  and 

weds  her  himself. 
1501.  Treaty  of    Trente,     whereby    Claude,   the    infant 

Princess  of     Britanny,    is  betrothed  to    Prince 

Charles  of    Austria,   on   the  condition  that  her 

duchy  shall  constitute  her  dowry. 

1514.  Death   of  Anne,  and  marriage  of  Claude  with  the 

Duke  of  Angouieme. 

1515.  The  Duke  of    Angoule'me  becomes    Francis  I.   of 

France,  and  receives  the  duchy  of  Britamiy  from 

his  wife  Claude. 
1534.  Death  of  Claude,  who  bequeaths  Britanny  to  the 

dauphin. 
1533.  Britanny  is  finally  annexed  to  France. 

DUKES   OF  BBITANNY. 
A.D.  A.D. 

993.  Geoffrey  I.  1305.  Arthur  II. 

1008.  Alain  III.  1313.  John  III. 

1040.  Conan  II.  1341.  Charles  de  Blois   and 

1066.  Hoelll.  John  de  Montfort. 

1084.  Alain  Fergent.  1345.  Charles  alone. 

1113.  Conan  III.  1364.  John  IV. 

1148.  Eudes,    HoelllL,   and    1399.  John  V. 

Geoffrey.  1443.  Francis  I. 

1156.  Conan  IV.  1450.  Peter  II. 

1171.  Geoffrey  II.  1457.  Arthur  III. 

1186.  (Interregnum.)  1458.  Francis  II. 

1196.  Arthur    I.     and    Con-    1488.  Anne. 

stance.  1514.  Claude. 

1303.  Guy  de  Tours,  regent.       1515.  Francis    I.,     King  of 
1313.  Peter  I.  Mauclerc.  France  and  Duke  of 

1337.  John  I.  Britanny. 

1386.  John  II. 

BRITISH  AMERICA.  —  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
formed  a  settlement  in  North  America,  in  1585, 
which,  in  honour  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was 
called  Virginia.  It  did  not,  however,  succeed, 
and  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  touched  there  in 
1586,  brought  the  colonists  to  England.  An- 
other attempt  was  made  in  1607,  when  the  first 
permanent  settlement  of  the  English  in  Ame- 
rica was  formed  at  Jamestown,  in  Virginia. 
Other  colonies  were  speedily  established.  The 
inhabitants  of  Virginia  and  of  other  parts  of 
the  American  continent  under  English  rule,  in 
1776,  declared  their  independence,  which  was 
recognized  by  England  in  1782.  A  conference 
of  delegates  from  the  dependencies  of  Great 
Britain  in  North  America  assembled  at  Quebec 
Oct.  10,  1864,  to  consider  the  propriety  of  a 
federal  union  of  those  provinces  under  the 
British  crown,  and  passed  resolutions  affirming 
the  desirability  of  such  a  union,  provided  it 
could  be  effected  on  principles  just  to  the 
several  colonies.  (The  British  colonies  in  Ame- 
rica are  noticed  under  their  names.) 

BRITISH  ARCHAEOLOGICAL  ASSOCIA- 
TION (London).—  This  society  was  established 
in  1843,  f°r  the  promotion  of  research  into  the 
arts  and  monuments  of  the  Middle  Ages  exist- 
ing in  England.  The  Archaeological  Institute 
(q.v.),  founded  the  same  year,  was  also  originally 
termed  the  British  Archaeological  Association, 
its  name  having  been  changed  at  the  annual 
meeting  held  at  Winchester,  Sep.  9-15,  1845. 
The  22iid  annual  meeting  of  the  British  Archae- 
ological Association  took  place  at  Durham,  Aug. 


(See  ARCHITEC- 


ARCHITECTS. 

TURAL  SOCIETIES.) 


BRITISH 


[    176    ] 


BRITISH 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  AD- 
VANCEMENT OF  SCIENCE,  instituted  by 
Sir  David  Brewster,  to  promote  scientific  in- 
vestigation and  discovery,  held  its  inaugural 
meeting  at  York  in  Sep.,  1831.  The  annual 
meetings  have  been  held  at  the  following 
places  : — 


A.T>. 

1849.  Birmingham,  2nd. 

1850.  Edinburgh,  2nd. 

1851.  Ipswich. 
1853.  Belfast. 

1853.  Hull. 

1854.  Liverpool,  2nd. 

1855.  Glasgow,  2nd. 

1856.  Cheltenham. 

1857.  Dublin,  2nd. 

1858.  Leeds. 

1859.  Aberdeen. 

1860.  Oxford,  3rd. 

1 86 1.  Manchester,  and. 

1862.  Cambridge,  3rd. 

1863.  Newcastle,  2nd. 

1864.  Hath. 

1865.  Birmingham,  3rd. 


A.D. 

1831.  York,  ist. 

1832.  Oxford,  ist. 

1833.  Cambridge,  1st 

1834.  Edinburgh,  ist. 

1835.  Dublin,  ist. 

1836.  Bristol. 

1837.  Liverpool,  ist. 

1838.  Newca-tlo,  ist. 

1839.  Birmingham,  1st. 

1840.  Glasgow,  ist. 

1841.  Plymouth. 
1843.  Manchester,  1st. 

1843.  Cork. 

1844.  York,  2nd. 

1845.  Cambridge,  2nd. 

1846.  Southampton. 

1847.  Oxford,  2nd. 

1848.  Swansea. 

BRITISH  AUXILIARY  LEGION.— In  June, 
1835,  the  Foreign  Enlistment  Act  was  sus- 
pended, and  a  legion  formed  in  this  country 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Evans  to  assist 
the  Queen  of  Spain  in  suppressing  the  Carlist 
Revolution.  The  war  was  waged  with  great 
fury,  and  in  June,  1836,  Gen.  Evans  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  that  every  Englishman 
found  fighting  on  the  side  of  Don  Carlos  would 
be  put  to  death  as  a  traitor. 

BRITISH  BANK  (London)  was  established 
in  1849,  under  the  act  to  regulate  joint-stock 
banks  (7  <fc  8  Viet.  c.  113),  Sep.  5,  1844.  It 
stopped  payment  Sep.  3,  1856,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  mismanagement  and  the  mal- 
versation of  the  capital  by  its  directors,  the 
government  ordered  a  criminal  prosecution. 
The  trial  of  eight  directors  commenced  in  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench  Feb.  13,  and  terminated 
with  a  sentence  of  guilty  Feb.  27,  1858,  when 
Humphrey  Brown,  Edward  Esdaile,  and  Hugh 
Innes  Cameron  were  sentenced  to  one  year's, 
Alderman  R.  H.  Kennedy  to  nine  months', 
W.  D.  Owen  to  six  months',  and  H.  D.  Mac- 
leod  to  three  months'  imprisonment.  James 
Stapleton  was  discharged  on  the  payment  of  a 
fine  of  one  shilling,  and  the  eighth  defendant, 
Loran  de  Wolfe  Cochran,  did  not  surrender. 
An  act  (20  <fe  21  Viet.  c.  54)  to  make  better  pro- 
vision for  the  punishment  of  fravids  committed 
by  trustees,  bankers,  and  other  persons  en- 
trusted with  property,  received  the  royal 
assent  Aug.  17,  1857. 

BRITISH  CHURCH.— The  Gospel  was  in- 
troduced into  Britain  at  a  very  early  period,  but 
whether  preached,  as  some  authorities  assert, 
by  St.  Paul  between  A.D.  63  and  66,  it  is  im- 
possible to  decide.  To  Lucius,  to  Joseph  of 
Arimathea,  and  to  others,  the  honour  of  its 
introduction  has  been,  on  different  grounds, 
attributed.  Milman  says  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  during  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries 
33ritain  gradually  received  the  faith  of  Christ. 
The  British  Church  is  often  mentioned  by 
writers  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries  ;  and 
British  martyrs  suffered  under  the  edicts 
against  the  Christians  issued  by  Diocletian  in 
303.  Bede  describes  the  death  of  Alban,  the 


protomartyr  of  England,  in  304.  Julius,  Aaron 
(the  names  adopted  by  these  early  converts  at 
their  baptism),  and  several  members  of  the 
British  Church,  suffered  martyrdom  about  the 
same  time.  Sees  were  founded  in  the  island, 
and  colleges  established.  British  bishops  were 
present  at  the  councils  of  Aries,  in  314,  and  of 
Nicsea,  the  first  general  council,  in  325.  It  was 
not  until  the  7th  century  that  Rome  attempted 
to  interfere.  Gregory  I.,  about  the  year  597, 
sent  Augustine  and  a  band  of  monks  to  bring 
the  British  Church  into  subjection  to  Rome. 
Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was  converted,  and  a 
struggle  between  the  early  British  Church  and 
Gregory's  emissaries  at  once  commenced.  Dif- 
ferences existed  respecting  the  time  for  the 
celebration  of  Easter  and  other  points.  Au- 
gustine peremptorily  required  the  British 
Christians  to  conform  in  every  respect  to  the 
Latin  Church,  littering  the  remarkable  threat 
that  if  they  refused  to  comply  they  should 
perish  at  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  By  some 
authorities  Augustine  is  said  to  have  died  in 
605,  but  it  seems  probable  that  this  event  did 
not  take  place  till  later.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  massacre  of  the  British  monks  in  Wales, 
by  Ethelfrid,  King  of  Northumbria,  in  607,  if 
not  perpetrated  under  his  immediate  direction, 
was  undertaken  at  his  instigation.  Though 
the  emissaries  from  Rome  at  length  triumphed, 
yet  the  more  intolerant  claims  of  the  papal 
rulers  were  rejected  by  the  British  people.  At 
the  Reformation  the  entire  system  was  over- 
thrown, and  the  British  Church  restored  to 
that  state  of  independence  and  purity  in  which 
it  had  originally  existed  in  these  islands. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA  (North  America), 
called  at  first  New  Caledonia,  comprises  "all 
such  territories  within  the  dominions  of  her 
.Majesty  as  are  bounded  to  the  south  by  the 
frontier  of  the  United  States  of  America,  to  the 
east  by  the  main  chain  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, to  the  north  by  Simpson's  River  and  the 
Finlay  Branch  of  the  Peace  River,  and  to  the 
west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean."  Queen  Charlotte's 
Islands  and  all  other  islands  adjacent,  with  the 
exception  of  Vancouver'  Island,  are  included 
in  this  colony,  erected  by  21  <fe  22  Viet.  c.  99 
(Aug.  2,  1858).  This  portion  of  America  was 
first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  i6th 
century,  and  was  visited  by  Sir  Francis  Drake 
in  1579,  and  called  by  him  New  Albion.  The 
first  settlement  was  formed  in  1806^.  Small 
quantities  of  gold  were  discovered  in  Queen 
Charlotte's  Island  in  1850,  and  on  the  mainland 
1853.  The  intelligence  was  not,  however, 
made  public  until  June,  1856,  when  numerous 
diggers  nocked  to  the  country.  Gold-fields 
were  discovered  on  the  Frazer  and  Thompson 
rivers  in  1858,  and  large  numbers  of  the  gold- 
diggers  from  San  Francisco  went  in  that  direc- 
tion during  the  summer  of  that  year.  Silver 
was  discovered  in  1860,  and  other  metals  are 
said  to  exist  in  abundance.  British  Columbia 
was  made  a  bishop's  see  in  1858. 

BRITISH  GUIANA  (South  America),  con- 
sisting of  Berbice,  Demerara,  and  Essequibo, 
which  were  formed  into  one  colony  in  1831. 
Stabrock,  now  called  George-Town,  on  the 
Demerara,  is  the  capital.  Slavery  was  abo- 
lished in  1834,  and  U1  J838  the  system  of 


BRITISH 


BRONZE 


apprenticeship  was  abandoned.  In  1827  this 
territory  was  included  in  the  bishopric  of  Bar- 
badoes  and  the  Leeward  Isles.  It  became  an 
archdeaconry  in  1838,  and  was  erected  into  a 
separate  bishopric  in  1842. 

BRITISH  INSTITUTION  (London),  for  the 
encouragement  of  British  artists,  received  its 
charter  June  4,  1805,  and  was  opened  Jan.  18, 

1806.  The  summer  exhibition  of  the  works  of 
deceased  artists  was  established  in  1813.     The 
building  was  erected  by  Alderman  Boydell,  for 
his  gallery  of  Shakesperian  pictures. 

BRITISH  METEOROLOGICAL  SOCIETY 
(London),  established  in  1850  for  the  encourage- 
ment and  promotion  of  meteorological  science. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM  (London),  was  formed 
of  three  collections, — the  Cottonian  (q.  v.},  the 
Harleian  (q.  v.),  and  the  Sloane  (q.  v.).  For 
these,  and  a  bequest  made  by  Arthur  Edwards, 
Esq.,  in  his  will,  dated  June  1 1,  1738,  one  general 
repository,  within  the  precincts  of  London  and 
Westminster,  was  ordered  to  be  provided  by 
26  Geo.  II.  c.  22  (1753).  Trustees  were  appointed, 
and  the  powers  to  raise  ,£300,000  by  lottery 
were  also  granted.  Montague  House,  Blooms- 
bury,  was  purchased  for  £10,250  of  Lord 
Halifax  in  1754,  the  Duke  of  Montague  having 
died  in  1749  without  male  heir.  Arrangements 
were  immediately  made  for  adapting  it  to  the 
purposes  of  the  new  institution 
A.r>. 

1756.  The  books  are  transferred  to  Montague  House. 

1757.  George  II.  presents  the  library  collected  by  his  pre- 

decessors. 
1759,  Monday,   Jan.   15.     The  reading-room,  entrance  in 

Montague  Place,  is  opened  to  the  public. 
176?.  A  collection  of  30,000  tracts  and  MSB.,  bound  in 

volumes  for  the  use  of   Charles  I.,  is  purchased 

by  George  III.,  who  presents  it  to  the  Museum. 
1772,  March  2,0.  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  collection  is  purchased 

for  £8,410. 

1801.  New  rooms  are  added  for  Egyptian  antiquities. 
1805.  The  Townley  marbles  are  purchased  for  £30,000. 

1807.  The  Lansdowne  M.SS.  are  purchased  for  £4,925. 
1810.  A  larger  room  is  allotted  to   readers.    The  Greville 

collection  of  n  inerals  is  purchased  for  ,£13,727. 

1815   The  Phigalian  marbles  are  purchased  for  £19,000. 

1816.  The  Elgin  marbles  are  purchased  for  £35,000. 

1818.  Dr.  Burney's  MSS.,  &c.,  are  purchased  for  £13,500. 

1820.  The  new  building  is  commenced. 

1823.  George  the  Third's  Library,  consisting  of  63,000 
volumes,  said  to  have  cost  £130,000,  is  presented 
by  George  IV.  to  the  British  Museum. 

1831.  The  Arandel  Library  is  added. 

1845.  The  old  house  is  removed.— Oct.  28.  By  a  codicil  of 
this  date  the  Hon.  Thomas  Grenville  bequeaths 
his  library,  consisting  of  20,240  volumes,  said  to 
have  cost  above  £54,000. 

1847,  April  19.  The  portico  is  finished. 

1854.  The  first  grant  for  a  new  reading-room  is  obtained. 

1855,  Jan.  The  first  standard  for  the  new  room  is  fixed. 
1857,  May  8.  The  new  reading-room  is  opened. 

1864,  July.  A  refreshment  room  is  opened  for  readers  and 

officials. 

1865,  July  10.  The    bookbinders'    workshops,    containing 

several  valuable  MSS.,  are  destroyed  by  fire. 

BRITISH  ORPHAN  ASYLUM  (London).— 
This  institution,  founded  at  Clapham  Rise  in 
1827,  was  removed  to  a  new  building  at  Slough, 
in  Buckinghamshire,  opened  by  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Wales,  June  24,  1863. 

BROAD  BOTTOM  ADMINISTRATION.— 
Lord  Granville  having  been  compelled  to  retire 
from  the  Pelham  ministry,  Nov.  24,  1744,  fresh 
arrangements  were  made  which  resulted  in  the 
formation,  during  the  following  month,  of  a 
coalition  between  the  chiefs  of  different  parties. 


From  this  circumstance  it  was  ludicrously  called 
the  Broad  Bottom  Administration. 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury) 

and  Chancellor    of    theV   The  Hon.  Henry  Pelham. 

Exchequer   ..................  ) 

Lord  Chancellor  ..................  Lord  Hardwicke. 

President  of  the  Council  ...  Duke  of  Dorset. 
Privy  Seal    ........................  Earl  Gower. 

/Duke    of     Newcastle,     Lo;d 


Secretary  of  State 


I    1746. 
Admiralty     ........................  Duke  of  Bedford. 

Master  of  the  Ordnance  ......  Duke  of  Montague. 

Master  of  the  Horse  ............  Duke  of  Kichmond. 

Lord  Chamberlain  ...............  Duke  of  Grafton. 

Lord  Keepir,  Scotland  .........  Duke  of  Argyle. 

This  administration,  with  the  exception  of  an 
interval  of  two  days,  Feb.  n  and  12,  1746  (see 
LONG-LIVED  ADMINISTRATION),  remained  in 
power  until  the  death  of  the  Hon.  H.  Pelham, 
March  6,  1754.  The  following  are  the  principal 
changes  that  ensued  during  the  period  :  —  live 
Earl  of  Chesterfield  replaced  Lord  Harrington, 
who  resigned  the  secretaryship  of  state  Oct.  29, 
1746.  Lord  Chesterfield,  who  resigned  Feb.  c>, 
1748,  was  replaced  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
Feb.  13,  the  Earl  of  Sandwich  having  taken  the 
Admiralty  Feb.  10.  The  Earl  of  Holdernesse 
superseded  the  Duke  of  Bedford  June  21,  1751. 
Earl  Granville  became  president  of  the  council 
June  17,  1751.  The  Duke  of  Richmond  was  re- 
placed as  master  of  the  horse  by  the  Marquis  of 
Hartington  in  1751.  Lord  Anson  took  the 
Admiralty,  vacated  by  the  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
June  22,  1751.  (See  NEWCASTLE  ADMINISTRA- 
TION.) 

BROCCOLI.  —  Brought  to  Italy  from  the 
island  of  Cyprus  in  the  i6th  century. 

BROKER.—  Regulations  for  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, passed  in  1285,  ordered  that  brokers  should 
be  admitted  and  sworn  before  the  warden  or 
mayor,  and  aldermen.  Persons  acting  in  de- 
fiance of  this  law  were  to  be  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned, and  were  for  ever  inadmissible  to  the 
franchise.  A  parliament  held  by  Edward  III. 
in  1376,  ordained  that  "no  stranger  merchant, 
nor  other  stranger,  should  use  or  exercise  the 
occupation  of  'brocage,'  between  merchant  and 
merchant,  or  other  persons,  nor  be  a  '  brocour  ' 
within  the  city  of  London  or  its  suburbs  ;"  and 
a  petition  was,  in  1442,  presented  to  Parliament 
demanding  the  enforcement  of  that  law.  They 
were  called  "broggers"  in  a  statute  of  10 
Rich.  II.  (1386)  ;  and  in  1574  Stow  says  there 
were  but  10  of  them  in  London. 

BROMINE.—  This  elementary  fluid  body  was 
discovered  by  Balard,  a  French  chemist,  in 
1826. 

BROMSEBRO,  orBROEMSBROE  (Treaty).— 
This  peace,  between  Sweden  and  Denmark,  was 
concluded  Aug.  14,  1645.  Christian  IV.  of  Den- 
mark ceded  Gothland  and  other  territories, 
and  his  son  Frederick  renounced  Bremen  and 
Verden. 

BRONI  (Battle).—  Prince  Eugene  defeated 
the  French  at  this  place  in  Savoy  in  1703. 

BRONZE.  —  Works  in  bronze  were  known  in 
very  ancient  times;  and  the  Israelites,  at  the 
time  of  their  escape  from  Egypt,  B.C.  1491,  had 
made  some  progress  in  the  art,  as  appears  from 
Exod.  xxx.  18  and  xxxi.  4.  It  was  improved 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  revived  in 

N 


BROOKES'S 


[     178    ] 


BRUNANBURG 


Italy  about  the  i4th  century.  Bronze  casting 
had  almost  reached  perfection  amongst  the 
Greeks  about  B.C.  330. 

BROOKES'S  CLUB  (London).— This  Whig 
Club,  established  in  the  first  instance  as 
Almack's  Club,  then  Goosetree's  (q.  v.),  named 
after  Brookes,  a  wine  merchant  and  money 
lender,  who  took  it  and  built  a  house  for  it  in 
St.  James's  Street,  which  was  opened  in  Oct., 
1778.  Brookes  retired  from  the  club  soon  after, 
and  is  said  to  have  died  in  poverty  in  1782. 

BROOM-FLOWER  IN  THE  HUSK.  — This 
order  of  knighthood  was  instituted  at  Sens  by 
Louis  IX.,  on  his  marriage  with  Margaret,  eldest 
daughter  of  Raymond  Berengarius,  Count  of 
Provence,  in  1234.  It  became  extinct  during 
the  1 5th  century. 

BROTFELD  (Battle).— Pa\il  Kinis,  Count  of 
Temeswar,  and  Stephen  Bathori,  Waiwode 
of  Transylvania,  defeated  the  Turks  at  this 
place  in  Hungary,  Oct.  13,  1479. 

BROTHERS'  CLUB  (London).— The  rules  of 
this  political  club  were  framed  in  1713  by  Dean 
Swift,  who  stated  that  its  object  was  "  to  ad- 
vance conversation  and  friendship,  and  to 
reward  learning  without  interest  or  recom- 
mendation." It  was  dissolved  in  1714,  many 
of  the  members  removing  to  the  Scriblerus 
Club  (7.  r.). 

BROTHERS  AND  SISTERS  OF  THE 
FREE  SPIRIT.— This  sect  arose  in  Germany 
during  the  i3th  century,  and  afterwards  ex- 
tended into  France  and  Italy.  Perverting  the 
Scripture  doctrine  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a 
spirit  of  freedom,  they  disallowed  the  claims 
alike  of  ecclesiastical  and  moral  law,  and  hav- 
ing cultivated  pantheism,  and  the  grossest 
licentiousness,  they  were  denounced  by  the 
councils  of  Cologne  in  1307,  and  of  Treves  in 
1310,  and  shortly  disappeared  from  the  page 
of  historv. 

BKi  iTHERS  OF  CHARITY.— (See  CHARITY.) 

BROTHERS  OFTHE  SWORD.— (See SWORD.) 

BROWNISTS,  or  HARROWISTS.—  The  fol- 
lowers of  Robert  Browne,  an  ultra  Puritan, 
born  about  1550,  who  denounced  the  discipline 
and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
having  been  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  on 
account  of  his  extreme  views,  quitted  En-Ltnd, 
and  formed  a  Church  at  Middleburg,  in  /ca- 
land.  In  1589  he  returned  to  England,  sought 
re-admission  to  the  Church,  and  in  1590  re- 
ceived the  rectory  of  Achurch,  in  Northamp- 
tonshire. He  is  said  to  have  died  in  1630, ::  in 
the  prison  of  Northampton,  in  which  he  had 
been  confined  for  striking  a  constable.  On  his 
deathbed  he  boasted  of  having  been  an  inmate 
of  32  prisons.  Landon  says  the  Brownists 
"  held  all  church  officers  and  ministers  to  be 
unchristian  and  unlawful ;  that  the  evil  of  the 
minister  does  away  with  the  efficacy  of  the 
Sacrament ;  that  marriage  is  but  a  civil  con- 
tract ;  that  all  forms  of  prayer  are  unlawful, 
and  that  even  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  to  be  used 
only  as  a  model  for  extempore  prayer  ;  that  by 
communicating  with  the  wicked  at  the  Eucha- 
rist, the  good  become  partakers  in  their  wicked- 


*  This  date  is  not  correct,  as  the  parish  registers  of 
Achurch  contain  an  entiy  in  his  handwriting  dated 
May  2i,  T63!.— \.  ,y-  Q. 


ness;  and  that  salvation  was  to  be  obtained 
only  in  their  sect !  "  They  were  severely  dealt 
with  by  the  law.  Elias  Thacker  was  hanged 
June  4,  1583,  and  John  Coping  June  6,  for  dis- 
tributing Browne's  libels  against  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  Henry  Barrow,  John  Green- 
wood, and  Henry  Penny  were  executed,  the 
two  former  April  6,  and  the  latter  Mayv2g,  1593. 
From  Henry  Barrow  these  sectarians  received 
the  name  of  Barrowists.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
in  1592,  stated  that  there  were  20,000  Brown- 
ists. They  formed  a  settlement  at  New  Ply- 
mouth, in  Massachusetts,  in  1620.  They  were 
condemned  by  the  synod  of  London  in  1640, 
and  afterwards  took  the  name  of  Independents. 

BRUCTERI.— This  German  tribe,  subdued 
by  Tiberius,  A.D.  4,  and  by  Ctecina  in  15,  re- 
tained a  distinct  nationality  as  late  as  the  sth 
century. 

BRUGES  (Belgium)  ranked  as  a  city  in  the 
7th  century,  and  was  celebrated  in  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  for  its  industrial  productions. 
Bruges  was  fortified  A.D.  837,  walls  were  erect- 
ed in  1052,  and  extended  in  1270.  The  counts 
of  Flanders,  who  resided  at  Bruges,  obtained 
the  rule  in  the  gth  century.  It  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hanseatic  League  in  1300,  and  passed 
under  the  sway  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  in 
the  i4th  century.  It  suffered  from  the  ravages 
of  fire  in  1184,  1215,  and  1230.  Wy cliff e,  as 
second  in  a  commission,  was  sent  in  1375,  by 
Edward  III.,  to  treat  with  the  papal  legate  at 
Bruges,  respecting  the  questions  at  issue  be- 
tween the  king  and  Gregory  XI.  Wycliffe  re- 
mained at  this  place  from  July  27  to  Sep.  14. 
During  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries  it  attained 
the  highest  prosperity  as  an  emporium  of  trade, 
and  in  1429  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, instituted  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece  (q.  v.},  in  commemoration  of  its  cele- 
brated woollen  manufactures.  Bruges  passed 
to  the  Habsburg  family  in  1477,  and  the  citizens 
rebelled  against  the  Archduke  Maximilian, 
and  imprisoned  him  in  1488.  During  the  re- 
ligious struggles  it  surrendered  to  Spain,  May 
20,  1584.  The  Dutch  bombarded  Bruges  with- 
out success  in  1704;  and  it  surrendered  to  the 
allied  army  in  1706,  after  the  victory  at  Ra- 
milles.  The  French  took  it  by  surprise  July  5, 
1708,  and  retired  in  1709.  The  English  took  it 
in  1712,  and  the  French  again  in  1745,  and  again 
in  1792.  They  were,  however,  expelled,  but 
regained  possession  in  1794,  and  the  inhabitants 
formally  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the 
French  republic  June  24.  It  was  restored  to 
the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  has  formed  part 
of  Belgium  since  1830.  Bruges  was  made  a 
bishopric  in  1561,  which  was  united  to  Ghent  in 
1801.  The  town-hall  at  Bruges  dates  from  1377. 

BRUGES  (Treaty).— This  alliance  of  England 
and  Germany  against  Francis  I.  of  France, 
called  also  the  treaty  of  Windsor,  was  con- 
cluded at  Bruges  by  Wolsey,  Nov.  24,  1521,  and 
ratified  at  Windsor  by  Henry  VIII.  and  Charles 
V.,  in  June,  1522.  Henry  agreed  to  invade 
France  with  40,000  men,  and  promised  to  the 
emperor  the  hand  of  his  eldest  daughter  Mary, 
who  was  affianced  to  the  dauphin. 

BRUNANBURG  (Battle).— According  to  the 
best  received  account,  Anlaf,  the  pagan  King 
of  the  Irish,  incited  by  Constantine  III.,  King 


BEUNDISIUM 


BRUNSWICK 


of  Scotland,  sailed  up  the  river  Humber,  with 
a  fleet  of  615  vessels;  and  having  landed, 
was  with  his  army  encountered  by  Athelstan, 
who  defeated  him  with  much  loss.  The  con- 
test is  said  to  have  lasted  from  daybreak  to 
dusk,  and  in  no  previous  battle  in  England 
had  so  much  blood  been  shed.  It  has  been 
called  the  Waterloo  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The 
chronicles  differ  respecting  the  locality  and 
the  date  of  this  battle.  It  probably  took  place 
somewhere  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  Humber,  and  about  937. 

BRUNDISIUM,  or  BRUNDUSIUM  (Italy).— 
This  city  of  Calabria,  situated  on  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic,  was  an  important  stronghold 
of  the  Sallentines,  long  before  the  surrounding 
Greek  colonies  of  Tarentum,  <fcc.,  were  estab- 
lished. It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  B.C.  267, 
and  became  a  colony  of  the  republic  B.C.  244. 
During  the  Illyrian  war,  B.C.  229,  it  was  the 
naval  and  military  station  for  the  Roman  fleet 
and  army,  and  its  fine  harbour  rendered  it  on 
many  subsequent  occasions  the  centre  of  war- 
like operations.  Sylla  landed  here  on  his 
return  from  the  Mithridatic  war,  B.C.  83,  and 
Cicero  selected  its  port  as  the  scene  of  his  re- 
turn from  exile,  B.C.  57.  Mark  Antony  laid 
siege  to  Brundisium  B.C.  40,  when  peace  was 
concluded  before  the  attack  was  brought  to  an 
issue.  Virgil  died  here  B.C.  19.  Brundisium, 
after  declining  in  importance  on  the  fall  of  the 
Western  empire,  was  finally  wrested  from  the 
Byzantine  emperors  by  the  Normans  in  the  nth 
century.  (See  BRINDISI.) 

BRUNKEBERG  (Battle).— Christian  I.  of 
Denmark  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes  under 
Sten  Sture  on  this  height,  which  forms  part  of 
the  site  of  the  modern  city  of  Stockholm,  in 
Oct.,  1471. 

BRUNN  (Moravia).— This  town,  made  the 
capital  of  Moravia  in  1641,  and  besieged  by 
Torstenson  in  1645,  was  entered  by  Napoleon  1. 
Nov.  20,  1805,  and  became  his  head-quarters. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  . 

BRUNSWICK  formed  part  of  Saxony  during 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  was  made  a 
separate  lordship  in  955.  It  was  inherited 
by  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1126. 
One  of  his  successors,  Henry  the  Lion,  was,  in 
1 1 80,  for  his  refusal  to  aid  the  Emperor  in  the 
war  against  the  Pope,  deprived  of  all  his  pos- 
sessions, except  Brunswick.  In  1235,  Otho, 
surnamed  the  Child,  was  made  first  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Ltuieburg,  by  the  Emperor  Frede- 
rick II.  Various  changes  ensued,  and  in 
1542  the  duchy  was  divided  into  Brunswick- 
Ltineburg  and  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.  (See 
HANOVER.) 

BRUNSWICK,  the  capital  of  the  duchy, 
formerly  called  Bruno  Vicus,  was  founded  by 
Bruno,  Duke  of  Ostfalen,  in  868.  It  was 
beautified  and  extended  by  Henry  the  Lion  in 
the  1 2th  century,  and  became  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  i^th. 
Its  annual  fair,  that  afterwards  became  cele- 
brated, was  established  in  1498.  It  suffered 
in  various  German  wars,  and  was  taken  by 
the  French  July  28,  1757.  They  evacuated  it 
early  in  1758,  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed in  1794. 

BRUNSWICK  (Battle).— Otho  of  Brunswick, 


and  Philip,  Duke  of  Swabia,  were  competitors 
for  the  imperial  crown  of  Germany,  and  the 
former,  besieged  in  Brunswick  by  Philip, 
made  a  sortie  in  July,  1200.  This  brought  on 
an  engagement,  in  which  Philip's  army  was 
defeated. 

BRUNSWICK  (House  of).— The  various 
branches  of  this  family  are  derived  from  Albert 
Azzo  I.,  Margrave  of  Este,  in  the  ioth  century. 
His  great  grandson,  Albert  Azzo  II.,  married 
Cunegonda,  and  their  son,  Guelph  IV.,  in- 
herited the  dukedom  of  Bavaria  in  1071,  and 
founded  the  junior  branch  of  the  Guelph 
family,  from  which  the  Brunswick  House 
trace  their  descent.  Otho  was  recognized  as 
first  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  1235. 

BRUNSWICK  CLUBS,  Orange  societies 
formed  in  Ireland,  in  support  of  the  principles 
of  the  revolution  of  1689,  and  against  Roman 
Catholic  emancipation.  The  proposal  for  the 
establishment  of  these  associations  was  made 
Aug.  28,  1828,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Dublin 
members  of  the  Grand  Orange  Club  that  had 
then  been  recently  suppressed;  and  the  first 
general  meeting  was  held  in  the  Dublin  Ro- 
tunda Nov.  4.  Similar  clubs  were  formed  in 
other  parts  of  Ireland.  A  meeting  of  Yeo- 
manry was  held  on  Pennenden  Heath,  Kent, 
Oct.  24,  1828,  for  the  purpose  of  petitioning 
the  House  of  Commons  to  preserve  the  Protes- 
tant constitution  inviolate.  Brunswick  Clubs 
were  also  formed  in  Leeds,  Leicester,  and  other 
parts  of  England. 

BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG.  —  The  modern 
duchy  of  Brunswick-Liineburg  was  founded 
by  William,  the  second  son  of  Ernest  I.,  who, 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1546,  took  this 
portion  of  his  dominions,  with  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Hanover.  Ernest  Augustus,  one  of 
his  descendants,  was  made  ninth  Elector  of 
the  empire  in  1692.  His  son,  George  Lewis, 
descended  from  James  I.  of  England,  on  the 
female  side,  became  King  of  England  under 
the  title  of  George  I.,  Aug.  i,  1714.  (See 
HANOVER.  ) 

BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL.— The  mo- 
dern duchy  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel  was 
founded  by  Henry  II.,  eldest  son  of  Ernest  I., 
in  1546.  Several  of  its  dukes  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  continental  wars  of  the  last 
century,  and  Charles  William  Ferdinand,  who 
succeeded  in  1780,  led  the  Prussian  army 
against  the  French  at  Auerstadt,  Oct.  14,  1806, 
and  having  been  wounded  in  that  battle,  died 
Nov.  10,  1807.  All  the  Brunswick  possessions 
were  seized  by  the  French  after  the  victory  at 
Jena,  and  by  the  eighth  article  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  France  and  Prussia,  signed  at 
Tilsit  July  9,  1807,  incorporated  with  the  new 
kingdom  of  Westphalia,  conferred  upon  Jerome 
Buonaparte.  They  were,  however,  recovered  by 
Frederick  William,  son  of  Charles  William 
Ferdinand,  in  Dec.,  1813.  Representative  in- 
stitutions were  introduced  in  1820.  The  then 
reigning  duke  was  expelled  and  took  refuge  in 
England  Sep.  6,  1830,  and  his  brother,  Au- 
gustus Lewis  William,  assumed  the  sove- 
reignty April  23,  1831. 

BRUNSWICK  THEATRE  (London)  was 
built  in  1827,  on  the  site  of  the  old  Royalty 
Theatre  in  Wellclose  Square,  burned  down 
N  2 


BEUNSWICKERS 


BUCANEERS 


April  ii,  1826.  The  Brunswick  Theatre,  opened 
Feb.  2=5,  fell  during  a  rehearsal  of  "  G\vy  Man- 
nering"  Feb.  29,  1828,  when  12  persons  were 
killed,  and  several  houses  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  street  destroyed.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  Xew  Royal  Brunswick  Theatre. 

BRUNSWICKERS.  —  (See  DEATH'S  HEAD 
CORPS.) 

BRUSA,  BROUSSA,  or  BOURSA  (Asia 
Minor),  the  ancient  Prusa,  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  Turkish  dominions  in  the  i4th 
century ;  and  although  the  sultans  transferred 
their  residence  to  Hadrianople  about  1430, 
Prusa  continued  to  be  the  Turkish  capital  until 
the  capture  of  Constantinople,  May  29,  1453. 
Abd-el-Kadir  took  up  his  residence  here  in 
1852 ;  but  on  its  destruction  by  an  earthquake, 
Feb.  28,  1855,  he  obtained  permission  from 
the  French  government  to  remove  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

BRUSSELS,  or  BRUXELLES  (Belgium).— 
St.  Ge"ry,  Bishop  of  Cambray,  built  a  chapel  on 
one  of  the  islands  in  the  river  Senne,  in  the 
7th  century.  A  large  congregation  was  at- 
tracted by  his  eloquence,  houses  were  built 
near  his  place  of  worship,  and  the  town  of 
Brussels  was  gradually  formed.  The  Emperor 
Otho  dates  a  decree  "apud&nuolam,"  in  976. 
Walls  with  seven  gates  were  formed  round  the 
town  in  1044. 


1010.  The   Cathedral   of    St.    Gndtile   is   founded.     (Some 

authorities  gave  a  different  date.) 
1313.  Brussels  is  taken  by  the  English. 
1373.  St.  (Judiii.Ms  completed. 
1300.  The  Old  Palace  i>  founded. 
1311.  Brussels  is  visited  liy  the  plague. 
1346.  The  Museum  is  commenced. 

1369.  The  walls  are  removed  and  the  city  is  enhiryvd. 

1370.  The.le\\s  an-  banished. 
1380.   A  second  wall  is  built. 

1401.  The  town-hall  is  commenced. 

1405.  A  large  portion  of  tlie  city  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1443.  The  town-hall  is  completed. 

1488.  Tlie  city  is  taken  by  Philip  of  Cloves. 

1489.  The  plague  commit 

1507.  Brussels  becomes    the  seat  of   government  for  the 

Low  Countries. 
1518.  The  towers  are  added  to  the  cathedral. 

1567.  Alva  attempts    to   esta'  lisli   the    Inquisition.     10,000 

artisans  <(iiit   lirnssels. 

1568,  June  5.    Execution   of     Egmont  and    Horn.      (See 

HOLLAND.) 

1578.  The  plague  rages  with  great  fury. 
1695.  Villeroi  bombards  the  city,  destroying  a  considerable 

portion. 

1701.  Brussels  is  captured  by  the  French. 
1706,  Oct.  12.  Martborough  enters  Brussels. 
1708,  Xov.  22.  It  is  assailed  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.— 

Nov.  20-   It  is  relieved  by  MarlbOTOUgb. 
1746.  The  Old  Palace  is  rebuilt:— Feb.  16.     Marshal   Saxe 

takes  Brussels. 

1748.  It  is  restored  to  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Aix-Ia- 

Chapelle. 

1749.  Tlie  Museum  is  extended. 
1770.  The  academy  is  founded. 

1700.  Nov.  The  Austrians  regain  possession  of  Brussels, 
which  had  revolted. 

1792,  Nov.  14.  Dumouriez  takes  the  city. 

1794.  Dumouriez,  having  been  driven  out,  regains  pos- 
session. 

1803,  July  21.     Napoleon  I.  makes  a  triumphal  entry. 

1814,  Feb  I.  The  Prussians  enter  Brussels.  It  becomes 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  Netherlands. 

1830,  Sep.  23-  Revolution.     Brussels  is  made  the  capital  of 

the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium. 

1831,  June  4.   The   National  Congress  at   Brussels   elects 

Leopold  king. 

1834,  April  6.  Riots  occur  in  the  city.  The  university  is 
founded. 


1848.  A  Peace  Congress  assembles  at  Brussels. 

1853.  A  Statistical  Congress  assembles  at  Brussels. 

1859,  Aug.  31.  The  Assembly  of  Deputies,  by  a  majority  of 
20,  pronounce  in  favour  of  the  fortification  of 
Antwerp. — Sep.  6.  The  proposal  is  adopted  by 
the  Senate.— Sep.  8.  It  receives  the  royal  assent.  ' 

1864,  April  6.  The  foundation-stone  of    a   new 

church  is  laid  bvthe  Bishop  of  Oxford. 

1865,  Dec.  10.   Death  of"  Leopold  I.  (See  LAEKEN.) 
BRUSSELS  (The  Union  of ).— This  confede- 
racy, formed  by  the  states  of  Holland  in  Jan. , 
1577,  had  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  execution  of  the  pacification  of 
Ghent  (q.  v.),  and  the  maintenance  of  royalty 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.     It  was  dis- 
solved in  1578.     (See  UTRECHT,  UNION  OF.) 

BRUSTEX  (Battle  .—Charles  the  Bold,  of 
Burgundy,  defeated  the  burghers  of  Liege  at 
this  village  in  the  Netherlands,  Oct.  28,  1467. 

BRZESC  LJTEW8KI,  or  BREST  LlTKV^Ki 
(Russia). — Suwarrow  defeated  the  Poles  at  this 
place  in  1794.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Russians 
in  1795,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  military 
school  in  1841. 

BUBBLE  ACT,  passed  in  1719  (6  Geo.  I.  c. 
18),  in  order  to  punish  unprincipled  adventurers 
who  proposed  schemes  merely  as  baits  to 
extract  money  from  the  thoughtless.  "  The 
whole  nation,"  says  Tindal,  "was  become 
stock-jobbers.  The  South  Sea  scheme  was 
like  an  infectious  distemper,  which  spread 
itself  in  an  astonishing  manner.  Eveiy  even- 
ing produced  new  projects,  which  were  justly 
called  Bubbles,  and  new  companies  appeared 
every  day."  The  king  issued  a  proclamation 
against  them  June  n,  1720.  The  act  was  re- 
pealed by  6  Ceo.  IV.  c  91  (July  5,  1825). 

BUCANEERS.— The  term  boucan  was  ap- 
plied by  the  Caribbees  to  the  flesh  of  cattle  or 
fish  dried  in  the  sun.  They  taught  this  mode 
of  curing  to  the  early  French  settlers  in  I  layti 
or  St.  Domingo,  and  they  were  called  bouca- 
niers,  or  bucaneers,  because  they  hunted  wild 
Im.-ii-saiid  buffaloes,  and  preserved  their  flesh 
after  this  peculiar  method.  The  term  was 
af;  ei-wards  applied  to  those  bold  and  hardy 
adventurers,  whether  English,  French,  or 
Dutch,  who  assailed  the  Spanish  settlements 
in  America.  On  the  failure  of  Dudley's  con- 
spiracy 'q.  v.)  against  Queen  Mary,  several  <>( 
the  confederates  sought  refuge  at  the  court  of 
Henry  II.  of  France,  who  furnished  them,  in 
Aug.,  1556,  with  three  or  four  ships,  in  which 
they  sailed  with  the  avowed  object  of  waging 
war  against  all  Spaniards.  Other  expeditions 
were  fitted  out.  The  island  of  St.  Christopher's 
was  taken  in  1623,  and  the  little  island  of 
Tortuga,  to  the  north  of  Hispaniola,  in  1629. 
Here  they  carried  on  their  piratical  warfare, 
under  various  celebrated  commanders.  The 
Spaniards  captured  Tortuga  in  1638,  and  the 
bucaneers  regained  possession  in  the  following 
year.  In  1603  the  Dutch  pirate,  Van  Horn, 
sailed  at  the  head  of  1,200  bucaneers,  and  took 
Vera  Cruz.  Morgan  captured  Panama  in  1670 ; 
Grammont  took  Campeachy  in  1685  ;  and  in 
1697  Pointis  seized  Cartagena,  and  gained 
booty  to  the  amount  of  ,£1,750,000.  A  treaty, 
called  the  treaty  of  America,  for  the  entire 
suppression  of  this  warfare,  was  concluded  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Spain  in  1670  ;  but  it 
was  not  until  a  few  years  after  the  peace  of 


BUCEPHALA 


[     181     ] 


BUENOS 


Ryswick,  Sep.  10,  1697,  that  the  bucaneer  con- 
federacy was  broken  up. 

BUCEPHALA  (India).— This  town,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Hydaspes,  was  founded 
by  Alexander  III.,  at  the  spot  where  he  had 
crossed  the  river  to  attack  Porus,  an  Indian 
king,  whom  he  defeated,  B.C.  327.  It  was  built 
in  memory  of  his  famous  charger,  "  Buce- 
phalus," which  expired  in  the  hour  of  victory. 
Jelum,  in  the  Punjaub,  is  supposed  to  occupy 
its  site. 

BUCHANITES.— This  Scotch  sect,  followers 
of  one  Mrs.  Elspeth  Buchan,  whose  maiden 
name  was  Simpson,  a  woman  of  indifferent 
character,  sprang  up  in  Irvine  in  1783.  In 
conjunction  with  Hugh  White,  minister  of  the 
Relief  congregation  of  Irvine,  she  attempted 
to  gain  converts ;  but  an  outbreak  occurred, 
and  they  were  both  driven  from  the  town  in 
May,  1784.  She  was  addressed  "Friend  Mother 
in  the  Lord,"  personified  the  woman  mentioned 
in  Rev.  xii.  i,  and  pretended  that  Hugh  White 
was  her  son  (Rev.  xii.  5).  She  promised  her 
followers  bodily  translation  to  heaven  ;  and  on 
one  occasion,  after  a  long  fast,  led  them  to  the 
top  of  a  hill  for  that  purpose.  They  retired  to 
a  place  near  Dumfries,  where  Mrs.  Buchan 
died  in  May,  1791.  On  her  deathbed  she  de- 
clared she  had  a  secret  to  communicate,  which 
was  to  the  effect  that  she  was  the  Virgin 
Mary.  The  last  member  of  this  fanatical  sect 
is  said  to  have  died  in  1846. 

BUCHAREST  (Wallachia)  was  captured  by 
the  Russians  in  1769,  and  by  the  Austrians  in 
1789.  By  the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  concluded 
between  Turkey  and  Russia  at  this  place  May 
28,  1812,  the  former  ceded  Bessarabia  to  Russia, 
and  thus  the  frontier  of  the  last-mentioned 
power  was  extended  to  the  Pruth.  The  Czar 
agreed  to  restore  Anapa  and  other  places  in 
Asia  to  the  Sultan  ;  but  this  part  of  the  treaty 
was  not  fulfilled ;  and  soon  after  Russia  had 
recovered  from  the  disastrous  effects  of  the 
French  invasion,  she  again  made  war  upon 
Turkey.  The  Russians  occupied  Bucharest  in 
July,  1853,  but  quitted  it  on  July  28.  The 
Turks  regained  possession  Aug.  8,  and  were 
followed  by  the  Austrians  Sep.  6  in  the  same 
year.  The  Austrian  occupation  terminated  in 
1856. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE  (London).— Old 
Buckingham  House  occupied  a  portion  of  the 
mulberry  garden,  at  which  Evelyn  relates  that 
Lady  Gerrard  treated  him  and  some  others, 
May  10,  1654.  The  new  palace  is  erected  on 
the  site  of  Buckingham  House,  so  called  from 
John  Sheffield,  Marquis  of  Normanby,  made 
Duke  of  Normanby  March  9,  and  Duke  of 
Buckingham  March  23,  1703.  Old  Buckingham 
House  was  erected  by  him  in  1703.  The  govern- 
ment purchased  it  in  1761  for  Queen  Charlotte, 
upon  whom  it  was  settled  by  George  III.,  in 
case  she  should  survive  him.  Hence  it  was 
called  the  Queen's  House,  and  here  nearly 
all  her  children  were  born.  The  new  palace 
was  commenced  in  1825,  and  Queen  Victoria 
took  possession  July  13,  1837.  It  cost  nearly 
^1,000,000  sterling.  Improvements  were  ef- 
fected in  1853. 

BUDA,  or  OFEN  (Hungary),  the  ancient 
Acincuin,  held  by  the  Romans  till  about  the 


4th  century.  Arpad  made  it  the  residence 
of  the  Magyar  chieftains  about  900.  The 
modern  city  was  founded  in  1240,  and  became 
the  capital  of  Hungary  in  the  i4th  century. 
A  council  held  here  Sep.  14,  1279,  ordered 
69  canons  for  the  regulation  of  the  Church  of 
Hungary  to  be  promulgated.  Another  council 
was  held  at  Buda,  May  7,  1309.  Soliman  II. 
captured  it  Sep.  10,  1526,  and  Sep.  8,  1529.  The 
Turks  sacked  it  in  1541,  and  it  was  considered 
the  key  of  the  Ottoman  empire  until  it  was 
wrested  from  the  Turks  by  the  Austrians, 
under  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Sep.  2,  1686.  Its 
university  was  founded  by  Martin  Corvinus 
between  the  years  1470 — 1490,  and  its  library 
was  destroyed  by  the  Turks  in  1527.  Buda, 
seated  on  the  Danube,  is  connected  with  Pesth 
by  a  bridge  of  boats.  The  Austrian  army  took 
Buda  from  the  Hungarians  Jan.  5,  1849. 

BUDDHISM,  long  the  prevailing  religion  in 
India,  was,  according  to  Sir  William  Jones, 
introduced  into  that  country  about  B.C.  1,000, 
though  later  authorities  are  inclined  to  accept 
the  traditional  account  of  its  introduction  by 
Gautama,  or  Godama,  about  B.C.  500.  A  feud 
arose  between  the  Buddhists  and  the  Brahmins, 
and  the  former  were  expelled  from  the  greater 
part  of  Hindostan,  though  Buddhism  is  still 
the  prevailing  religion  in  China,  Japan,  Ceylon, 
and  other  parts  of  Asia. 

BUDE  LIGHT,  so  named  from  the  residence 
of  its  inventor,  Goldsworthy  Gurney,  of  Bude, 
Cornwall,  by  whom  it  was  patented  June  8, 
1839,  and  March  25,  1841,  is  produced  by  the 
introduction  of  oxygen  instead  of  common  air 
into  the  centre  of  the  flame.  It  has  been 
adopted  in  the  illumination  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

BUEXOS  AYRES  (South  America).  —  This 
province  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1810, 
and  with  other  South-American  states  issued  a 
declaration  of  independence,  July,  1816,  and 
formed  themselves  into  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation (q.  v.).  A  treaty  of  commerce 
between  England  and  Buenos  Ayres  was 
signed  Feb.  2,  1825.  It  separated  from  the 
Argentine  Confederation,  and  became  an  in- 
dependent state,  in  1853. 

BUENOS  AYRES.— This  city,  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  the  same  name,  founded  by  Don 
Pedro  de  Mendoza  in  1534,  and  abandoned, 
owing  to  the  attacks  of  the  Indians,  in  1539, 
was  not  permanently  colonized  by  the  Spa- 
niards until  1580. 

A.D. 

1630.  Buenos  Ayres  is  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  by 

Paul  V. 
1763,  Jan.  i.  An  English  and  Portuguese  expedition  fails 

in  an  attack  upon  the  city. 
1775.  It  is  made  the  seat  of  a  viceroyalty. 


1778.  The  river  is  thrown  open  by  Spain. 
i«o6,  June  37.  It  is  taken  by  the  English,  and   a    large 
amount    of     treasure    secured.— Aug.     13.      The 


Spaniards  regain  possession. — Oct.    if).    It  is  re- 
taken by  the  English. 
1807,  July  5.  The  English  fail  in  an  attempt  to  capture 

Buenos  Ayres. 
1825,   Feb.   2.  A  treaty  of  amily  and  commerce  is  signed 

with  Great  Britain  at  Buenos  Ayres. 
1827-8.  It  is  blockaded  by  the  Brazilian  fleet. 
1859,  Oct.  23.  Indecisive  battle  between  the  forces  of  the 

Argentine  Republic  and  of  Buenos  Ayres.— Nov.  10. 

A  treaty  is  signed,  by  which  Buenos  Ayres  again 

joins  the  Argentine  Confederation. 


BUFFALO 


[     182    ] 


BULL 


A.D. 

1860,  June  6.    The  act  of    union  between  the  Argentine 

Confederation  and  Buenos  Avres  is  signed   and 

ratified. 


I86l,   Aug.   29.    War  is   announced  with  the  Argentine 
Confederation.— Sep.   17.    Gen.    Mitre   ,! 
Argentine   forces  of    Gen.     Urquiza,    at   Pavon. 


—Nov.  22.  Gen.  Mores  defeats  the  Argentine 
(ieii.  Virasoro,  and  thereby  causes  a  nuijoriiy 
of  the  states  t<>  declare  for  Buenos  A 

1863,  Jan.  31.  Order  is  deelared  re-established  in  most  of 
the  provinces.  —  Oct.  13.  Gen.  Mitre  and  Col. 
Paz  an;  .solemnly  installed  president  and  vice- 
president  of  the  Argentine  Confederacy. 

1865,  April  16.  The  Argentine  U.-publie  declares  war 
against  Paraguay.  —  May  4.  Brazil,  tli"  Argentine 
Republic,  and  Uruguay  conclude  an  alliance 
against  Paraguay  and  Buenos  Ayre?. 

BUFFALO  TOWN  (United  States).  —  This 
town,  and  part  of  the  enemy's  squadron,  with 
stores,  were  destroyed  by  the  English  army, 
after  the  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Black- 
rock  (q.  v.),  Dec.  30,  1813. 

BUHAWULPoilE.— (See  BAHAWULPORE.) 

BUHL. — This  mode  of  decorating  furniture, 
by  inlaying  it  with  tortoise-shell,  metal,  or 
enamel,  was  invented  by  Andre  Charles  Buhl, 
T<t/ii.«.iier  en  titre  du  Roi,  an  Italian  cabinet- 
maker settled  in  France  (Louis  XIV.),  who 
died  at  the  age  of  go,  in  1732. 

BUILDING  s< ><  '1  KTI  KS.—  The  earliest  asso- 
ciation for  enabling  tenants  to  acquire  absolute 
proprietorship  in  houses,  after  payment  of  a 
given  amount  of  rent,  was  established  at  Kirk- 
cudbright, in  Scotland,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  in  1815.  Similar  institu- 
tions, termed  "  Menages,"  soon  became  com- 
mon in  North  Britain,  whence  they  extended 
to  Kngland,  where  they  became  so  numerous 
that  Parliament  passed  "  An  Act  for  the  Regu- 
lation of  Benefit  Building  Societies,"  6^7 
Will.  iv.  c.  32  (July  14,  1836). 

BULGARIA  (East  Turkey),  the  ancient 
Miesia  Inferior,  was  invaded  by  the  Bulgarians 
in  the  yth  century,  and  named  after  them  Bul- 
garia. The  first  kingdom  lasted  frum  640  to 
1018,  when  it  was  subjected  to  the  Eastern 
empire  by  Basil  II.  The  second,  established 
about  1186,  was  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire in  1396. 


559.  The  Bulgarians,  under  Zabergan,  invade  Macedonia 

and  Thrace,  and  are  repubcd  by  Belisarius. 
678.  The   Bulgarians,   led    by    Aspariich,     conquer    the 

country  between  the  Hicmns  and  the  Danube. 
788.  The  Bulgarians  defeat  the  Thraciuns. 
793.  Cardain,   King  of    the    Bulgarians,   defeats     Con- 

st:mtine  IV. 
8n,  July  25.  Crumn,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  defeats  and 

slays  the  Emperor  Nicephorus. 

813.  Battle  of  Bersinikia,  in  which  the  Emperor  Michael 

I.  is  defeated  by  Crumn. 

814.  The  Emperor  Leo  defeats  and  annihilates  an  army 

of  30,000  Bulgarians. 
861.  Michael  and    Bardas    invade  the   territory  of  the 

Bulgarians,  whose  king  becomes  a  Christian. 
885.  Bogoris,  cir  Michael,  first  Christian  King  of  Bulgaria, 

abdicates  and  reiires  to  a  monastery. 
893.  The  Bulgarians     defeat    the    Byzantine   Gen.   Leo 

Ilatakalon. 
917,  Aug.  20.  Battle  of  Achelous,  in  which  the  Bulgarians 

defeat  the  Byzantine  army. 
931.  Simeon,  King  of    Bulgaria,  defeats    the  Byzantine 

forces,  and  plunders  Constantinople. 
923-  The  Emperor  Bomanus  purchases  peace  from  Simeon 

on  the  most  humiliating  terms. 
981.  The  Emperor  Basil   II.,   who  invades   Bulgaria,   is 

driven  back,  with  great  loss,  by  King  Samuel. 


SOVEREIGNS   OF  BULGARIA. 

FIUST  KINGDOM. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

Moerus. 

826.  BaldimSr,  or  Vladimir. 

700.  (circ.)  Terbelis. 

844.  Bogoris,  or  Michael. 

727.  Cormes. 

Presiam. 

763.  Tele-is  (a  few  months). 

Michael  Vorize. 

763.  Sabin. 

889.  (circ.)  Simeon. 

764.  Pagan. 
771.  (circ.)  Teleric. 

914.  (circ.)  Samuel. 
927.   Peter. 

776.  Cardam. 

971.  Borise. 

806.  (circ.)  Crumn. 

1014.  Gabriel. 

814.  Doucom. 

1015.  John  Ladislaus. 

15.    Ditzeng. 

iois.   P.ulgaria    is    made    a 

821.  Mortagon. 

province  of  the  empire. 

SECOND  KINGDOM. 

A.D. 

1186.  Peter  11. 

Mytzes,  A.D.   1258  or  1259, 

1196.  John  I. 

after   whom   the   throne 

1207.  Vorylas. 

is   a  continual    object  of 

1215.  John  Asan  11. 

contention,  till  the  con- 

1241. Caloman  I. 

quest    of     Bulgaria     by 

124.;.    Michael. 

Bajazet,  in  1396. 

1258.  Caloman  11. 

996.  Samuel  invades  Greece.     His  army  is  totally  routed, 

and  he  himself  escapes  with  difficulty. 
1014,  July  29.  Battle  of  Zetunium  (q.  v.). 
1018.  Death  of  Ladislaus,  last  King  of   Bulgaria,  whose 

territory  becomes  a  province  of    the   Byzantine 

empire. 
1040.  The   Bulgarians  revolt,    and    seize    upon   Western 

Greece. 
1186.  The  Bulgarians  revolt  from  the  Byzantine  yoke,  and 

establish  a  second  monarchy. 
1285.  Bulgaria  is  overrun  by  the  Tartars. 
1330.  It  is  made  subject  to  Servia. 
1363.  It  is  invaded  by  Amurath  I. 
1396.  The  Sultan  Bajazet  conquers  Bulgaria,  and  unites  it 

to  the  Ottoman  empire. 


BULGNEVILLE  (Battle)  fought  at  this 
place  in  France,  July  2,  1431,  between  Rene"  of 
Anjou  and  Antony,  Count  of  Vaudemont,  for 
the  succession  of  Lorraine.  Rene,  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner,  was  confined  for  many  years  in 
the  "Tower  of  Bar,"  at  Dijon. 

BULJANAK  (Battle1.— A  skirmish  took  place 
near  this  river  in  the  Crimea,  between  15,000 
Cossacks  and  500  British  horse,  Sep.  19,  1854. 
The  former,  having  lost  a  few  men,  with- 
drew. 

BULL.— This  term,  derived  from  the  word 
ftulln,  a  seal,  was  first  applied  to  deeds,  eccle- 
siastical as  well  as  regal.  Subsequently  it  was 
used  to  denote  a  papal  edict,  or  rescript, 
written  upon  parchment,  bearing  a  leaden  seal, 
and  issued  by  order  of  the  Pope  from  the 
Roman  chancery.  The  seals  varied  in  form 
until  1088,  when  one  side  was  impressed  with 
the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul,  the  reverse 
bearing  the  name  of  the  Pope  and  the  year  of 
his  pontificate.  Vigilius,  in  the  6th  century, 
introduced  the  date  of  the  regnal  years  of  the 
emperors  into  bulls,  and  this  custom  was  con- 
tinued till  the  middle  of  the  nth  century.  In 
bulls  of  grace  or  favour  the  lead  is  attached 
by  silken  (red  or  yellow),  and  in  those  of 
punishment  by  hempen,  cords.  The  prepara- 
tion of  bulls  was  entrusted  to  a  college  of 
72  persons.  (See  ABBREVIATORS.)  Pius  V. 
published  a  bull  against  Elizabeth,  April  25, 
1570.  Fenton,  who  posted  a  copy  of  it  on  the 
gate  of  the  Bishop  of  London's  palace,  May  24, 
was  taken  and  executed  Aug.  8.  By  13  Eliz. 
c.  2  (1570),  bringing  in  bulls,  or  putting  them 
nto  execution,  was  made  high  treason,  for 


BULL 


[    183 


BUNKER'S 


which  the  penalty  was  death  and  forfeiture  of 
property.  The  bull  in  Cund  Domini,  excom- 
municating heretics  and  opponents  of  the 
papacy,  was  read  in  the  Pope's  presence  every 
Maundy  Thursday,  until  the  time  of  Clement 
XIV.  According  to  the  ancient  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing the  sentence  of  excommunication, 
the  Pope,  after  the  reading  of  the  bull,  threw 
a  lighted  torch  into  the  public  place.  It  was 
declared  void  by  the  Council  of  Tours,  Sep., 
1510.  Brief  is  the  term  applied  to  papal  acts 
sealed  with  wax.  Pius  IX.  published  a  bull  or 
encyclical  letter,  accompanied  by  an  appen- 
dix of  80  propositions,  condemning  certain 
"modern  errors,"  amongst  which  he  included 
Bible  societies,  and  the  belief  that  salvation 
can  extend  to  any  except  members  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  Dec.  8,  1864. 

BULL-BAITING  was  a  favourite  amusement 
amongst  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans,  and  other  ancient  nations,  and  was 
frequently  practised  in  this  country  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  to  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  Fitzstephen,  the  monk  of 
Canterbury,  in  his  description  of  London  in 
the  1 2th  century,  speaks  of  bull-baiting  as  then 
common  ;  and  Henzel,  who  visited  England  in 
1598,  gives  a  description  of  the  sport.  Evelyn 
mentions  a  visit  he  paid  to  the  bear-garden 
June  16,  1670,  when  one  of  the  bulls  tossed  a 
dog  into  the  lap  of  a  lady  sitting  in  the  boxes  : 
he  calls  it  "  a  rude  and  dirty  pastime."  The 
following  occurs  in  an  advertisement  dated 
1719  : — "This  is  to  give  notice  to  all  gentlemen, 
gamesters,  and  others,  that  on  this  present 
Monday  is  a  match  to  be  fought  by  two  dogs  at 
a  bull,  for  a  guinea,  to  be  spent ;  which  goes 
fairest  and  farthest  in  wins  all.  Likewise  a 
green  bull  to  be  baited  which  was  never  baited 
before  ;  and  a  bull  to  be  turned  loose  with  fire- 
works all  over  him."  A  bill  for  the  suppression 
of  this  sport  was  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Commons  April  3,  1800.  Mr.  Windham  opposed 
the  measure,  declaring  that  it  had  existed 
more  than  one  thousand  years,  and  that  it  was 
a  manly  amusement.  Mr.  Canning  contended 
that  the  amusement  was  a  most  excellent  one  ; 
it  inspired  courage  and  produced  a  nobleness 
of  sentiment  and  an  elevation  of  mind.  The 
bill  was  rejected  by  a  small  majority,  and 
though  a  similar  attempt  in  1802  failed,  bull- 
baiting  has  since  been  declared  illegal,  and  by 
the  act  against  cruelty  to  animals  (5  &  6  Will. 
IV.  c.  59,  Sep.  9,  1835),  persons  keeping  places 
for  bull-baiting  incur  a  penalty.  The  Stamford 
Bull-running,  which  took  place  annually  Nov. 
13,  was  in  1825  postponed  till  the  next  day, 
because  the  i^th  fell  on  a  Sunday.  Bull-fights, 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Spain  by  the 
Moors,  still  form  a  favourite  sport  with  the 
vulgar  in  that  country.  Isabella  I.,  in  the 
1 5th  century,  vainly  endeavoured  to  abolish 
them. 

BULLETS,  originally  spherical,  have,  since 
the  extensive  adoption  of  rifled  musketry,  been 
introduced  of  conical  and  other  elongated  forms. 
Greener,  in  1836,  invented  a  plan  for  causing 
bullets  to  expand  while  leaving  the  gun,  and 
thus  to  fill  up  the  grooves  in  the  rifled  barrel, 
for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  Government 
with  a  grant  of  ,£1,000  in  1857. 


BULLION  REPORT.— The  Bank  of  England 
having  been  restricted  in  1797  from  paying  its 
notes  in  gold,  the  country  possessed  two  inde- 
pendent and  separate  currencies,  one  metallic 
and  the  other  of  paper.  These  soon  came  to 
differ  so  widely  in  value  that  a  select  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons  was  ap- 
pointed, which  published  a  report  in  1810, 
asserting  the  fact  that  paper-money  is  always 
in  danger  of  being  over-issued,  and  conse- 
quently depreciated,  unless  its  immediate  con- 
version into  gold  is  at  all  times  possible. 

BULL  RUN,  or  BULL'S  RUN  (Battle).— (See 
MANASSAS,  Battle.) 

BULWER- CLAYTON  TREATY,  between 
England  and  the  United  States,  relative  to  the 
establishment  of  a  communication  by  ship  canal 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans, 
was  signed  at  Washington  April  19,  and  ratifi- 
cations were  exchanged  there  July  4,  1850.  It 
consisted  of  nine  articles.  The  contracting 
parties  declared  that  they  would  not  erect  for- 
tifications* on  the  banks  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
proposed  canal,  and  that  they  would  not  assume 
dominion  over  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  the  Mos- 
quito Coast,  or  any  part  of  Central  America. 
Opposite  and  contradictory  constructions 
having  been  placed  upon  this  treaty  by  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  another,  called  the 
Clarendon-Dallas  Treaty  (q.  v.},  was,  after 
various  negotiations,  signed  at  London,  Oct.  17, 
1856 ;  but  objections  having  been  raised  to  it  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  it  was  ultimately 
rejected,  and  the  President,  in  his  message  for 
the  year  1857,  recommended  the  abrogation  of 
the  Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty  as  the  best  method 
of  solving  the  difficulty. 

BUNDELCUND  (Hindostan).  — This  exten- 
sive province,  consisting  of  33  states,  five  of 
which  are  tributary,  attained  great  power, 
under  a  native  dynasty,  in  the  nth  century. 
Their  rule  was,  however,  subverted  by  the 
Delhi  princes  in  1183,  and  for  a  long  period  the 
country  remained  in  a  very  unsettled  state. 
By  the  treaty  of  Bassein  (q.  v.},  Dec.  31,  1802,  a 
portion  of  the  province  was  ceded  to  the  East 
India  Company.  Owing  to  the  refractory  con- 
duct of  certain  chiefs,  military  expeditions  were 
sent  into  portions  of  Bundelcund,  and  in  ihe 
treaty  of  Poouah  (q.  v.},  June  13,  1817,  the 
articles  of  the  treaty  of  Bassein  were  explained 
and  amended  ;  certain  provisions  being  added 
calculated  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such 
disastrous  outbreaks. 

BUNDSCHUH.— (See  PEASANTS'  WAR.) 

BUNKER'S  HILL  (Battle).— The  revolted 
Americans  having  thrown  up  batteries  and 
erected  a  formidable  redoubt  on  Bunker's  or 
Breed's  Hill,  an  eminence  that  commanded  the 
harbour  of  Charleston,  were  attacked  in  this 
position  by  the  English,  June  17,  1775.  The 
latter  amounted  to  2,000,  whilst  the  batteries 
and  redoubt  were  defended  by  5,000  men.  In 
their  advance  the  assailants  suffered  severely 
from  sharpshooters,  posted  in  the  houses  of 
Charleston.  In  spite  of  every  obstacle  the  Eng- 
lish had  almost  reached  the  works,  when  a 
terrific  fire  was  opened  upon  them.  Gen.  Howe 
was  for  a  few  seconds  left  almost  alone,  several 
of  the  officers  near  having  been  either  killed  or 
wounded.  The  troops,  however,  rallied  from 


BURA 


[     184    ] 


BURGUNDY 


the  confusion  into  which  they  had  been  thrown, 
and  carried  the  works  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet.  In  this  brilliant  action  226  officers 
and  men  were  killed,  and  828  wounded.  The 
American  loss,  according  to  their  own  repre- 
sentation, amounted  to  450  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing,  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been 
much  greater. 

BURA  (Greece).— This  town,  which,  with 
Helice  (q.  v.),  was  swallowed  up  by  an  earth- 
quake, B.C.  373,  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  its 
inhabitants,  having  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  an 
oppressive  tyrant,  joined  the  Achaean  League 
(q.  v.)  B.C.  275. 

BURFORD  (Battles).— Near  this  town,  in 
Oxfordshire,  Cuthred,  King  of  Wessex,  de- 
feated Ethelbald,  King  of  Mercia,  in  752. 
Fairfax  defeated  the  Royalist  army  here  in 
1649. 

BURFORD  CLUB.— This  association  was 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  documents  con- 
nected with  Layer's  Conspiracy  q.  <•.).  Hav- 
ing been  called  upon  to  explain  the  mean- 
ing, Layer  declared  it  to  be  an  appellation 
made  use  of  by  the  Pretender  and  his  agents 
to  denote  a  club  of  Tory  lords  and  others,  of 
which  association  Lord  Orrery  was  declared  to 
be  chairman.  Earl  Cowper,  one  of  the  lords 
mentioned  as  being  a  member,  made  a  decla- 
ration, March  20,  1722,  to  the  effect  that  he 
had  never  heard  of  such  a  club,  and  that  he 
did  not  know,  even  by  sight,  three  out  of  the 
six  commoners  named  as  being  members.  A 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  appointed 
to  examine  Layer,  declared  in  their  report  that 
"  the  matters  asserted  of  Burford's  Club  in 
Phmket's  Letters,  seem  utterly  inconsistent 
with  the  known  characters  of  some  of  those 
persons." 

BURGESS.— Previous  to  the  Norman  Con- 
quest freemen  not  holding  landed  property, 
but  permitted  to  occxipy  houses  in  towns  .-is 
tenants  of  the  Crown  or  some  inferior  lord, 
were  called  burgesses.  The  first  writ  summon- 
ing them  to  Parliament  was  issued  by  Ili-nry 
III.  in  1265,  and  they  are  mentioned  as  a  dis- 
tinct class  from  citizens  by  5  Rich.  II.  stat.  2, 
c.  4  (1382).  Several  modifications  in  the  defini- 
tion and  privileges  of  a  burgess  were  introduced 
by  the  Municipal  Reform  Act,  5  &  6  Will.  IV. 
c.  76  (Sep.  9,  18351. 

BURGH.— (See  BOROUGH.) 

BURGHERS,  ANTI-BURGHERS,  and 
BURGHER  SECEDERS.— These  terms  are 
applied  in  ecclesiastical  history  to  the  parties 
that  grew  out  of  the  schism  in  the  Scottish 
Church,  caused  by  the  induction  of  a  pastor 
to  the  parish  of  Kinross,  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  the  wishes  of  the  congregation.  After 
much  discussion,  eight  ministers  protested 
against  this  procedure,  for  which  they  were 
deprived,  and  their  parishes  declared  vacant 
in  1740.  Their  congregations  adhered  to  them, 
and  so  powerful  did  they  become  that,  in  1745, 
they  formed  themselves  into  a  synod,  consist- 
ing of  three  presbyteries.  An  inquiry  which 
they  instituted  into  the  lawfulness  of  certain 
oaths  led  to  a  further  division  amongst  them, 
the  subject  being  the  particular  oath  admi- 
nistered in  royal  burghs  when  persons  were 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  a  burgess.  The 


Burghers  maintained  that  it  was  lawful  to  take 
the  oath  in  question,  while  their  opponents, 
the  Anti-burghers,  took  a  different  view,  and 
in  1746  carried  a  vote  condemning  the  oath. 
In  1747  the  Burghers  mustered  in  great 
strength,  whereupon  the  Anti-burghers  with- 
drew, and  formed  a  synod  of  their  own.  The 
rival  persuasions  were,  after  a  long  period  of 
hostility  and  opposition,  reunited  in  1820  under 
the  name  of  the  United  Associate  Synod  of  the 
Secession  Church. 

BURGLARY.— This  offence,  defined  as  the 
breaking  into  and  entry  of  a  dwelling-house 
by  night  with  felonious  intent,  was  punished 
by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29  (June  21,  1827',  and 
by  all  previous  legislation,  with  death.  By  7 
Will.  IV.  and  i  Viet.  c.  86  (July  17,  1837)  the 
capital  sentence  was  limited  to  cases  where 
there  had  been  violence  to  any  person  ;  and  by 
14  <fc  15  Viet.  c.  19  (July  3,  1851  ,  the  being 
found  by  night  with  intent  to  commit  a  bur- 
glary was  declared  a  misdemeanour,  subject- 
ing the  offender  to  three  years'  imprisonment. 
All  statutes  on  the  subject  were  repealed  by 

24  &  25  Viet.  c.  95  (Aug.  6,  1861),  and  by  24  & 

25  Viet.  c.  96,  s.  52  (Aug.   6,   1861),  the  punish- 
ment for  burglary  was  limited  to  penal  servi- 
tude for  life  or  not  less  than  three  years,  or 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  two  years. 

BURGOS  Sp;i;n  ,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Burgos,  was  founded  by  Diego  Por- 
celos,  A.D.  884.  The  Cid  was  buried  in  this  city 
in  1099.  The  bishopric  of  Oca  or  Auca  was 
transferred  to  Burgos  in  1077.  It  was  made  an 
archbishopric  by  (Jiv^-ory  XIII.,  Oct.  22,  1574. 
The  cathedral  was  founded  in  1221,  and  com- 
pleted in  1567.  Councils  were  held  at  Burgos 
in  1080,  and  in  Oct.,  1136.  In  the  i^th  cen- 
tury Burgos  was  made  a  royal  residence. 
Charles  V.  transferred  the  court  to  Madrid  in 
the  1 6th  century,  and  from  that  time  Burgos 
gradually  declined.  The  French  committed 
ravages  in  1808  Wellington  besieged  it,  and 
carried  some  of  the  works  Sep.  19,  1812,  but 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  take  it  by  storm  Oct.  18 
in  the  same  year.  The  French  blew  up  the 
castle  and  retired,  June  12,  1813. 

BURGUNDIAN  CROSS.  —  This  order  of 
knighthood  was  instituted  at  Tunis,  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  on  the  feast  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalen,  July  22,  1535. 

BURGUNDIANS,  or  BOURGUIGNONS.— 
(See  ARMAGNACS.) 

BURGUNDY.— The  Burgundiones,  a  Vandal 
tribe,  established  themselves  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  Gaul  about  B.C.  406  ;  and  from  them  the 
country  received  its  name.  They  succeeded 
in  forming  a  kingdom,  which,  says  Gibbon 
'ch.  xxxviii.\  "  was  defined  by  the  course  of 
two  Gallic  rivers,  the  Saone  and  the  Rhone, 
extended  from  the  forest  of  Vosges  to  the  Alps 
and  the  seel  of  Marseilles. "  A  second  kingdom 
of  Burgundy,  also  called  Aries  (q.  v.),  was  estab- 
lished by  Rodolph  I.  in  888. 


FIRST   KINGDOM   OF   BURGUNDY. 


V..D. 


413.  Gimdicar,  King  of  the  Bargundiaiu,  receives  a  grant 
of  land  from  Joviuus,  and  permanently  settles  in 
Gaol. 

435.  The  Burpumlinns  are  defeated  by  Aetius,  and  tho 
country  is  invaded  by  the  Huns. 


BURGUNDY 


[     185 


BURKING 


A.  L>. 

DUKES   OF  BURGUNDY. 

491.  Gondebaud  murders  his 

brother  Chilperic,  and  seizes 

A.D.                                                          A  ™ 

Irs  kingdom. 
500.  Gondebaud  is  defeated 

by  Clovis   I.,    King  of    the 

877.  Richard  le  Justicier. 
931.  Rodolph. 

1143.  Eudes  II. 
1163.  Hugh  III. 

Franks. 
533.  Sigismund,  King  of  Bur 
put  to  death  by  the  I 
533.  Clotaire  and  Childebert 
534.  Clotaire  and  Childebert  c 
it  subject  to  the  Frai 

gundv,  is  made  prisoner,  and 
•rank's, 
iiake  war  upon  Burgundy, 
onquer  Burgundy,  and  render 
iks. 

923.  Giselbert. 
938.  Hugh    the   Black   and 
Hugh  the  Great. 
956.  Otho. 
965.  Henry  I. 
1003.  (Interregnum  and  dis- 

1193. Eudes  III. 
1318.  Hugh  IV. 
1373.  Robert  IL 
1305.  HughV. 
1315.  Eudes  IV. 
1350.  Philip  I. 

puted  succession.) 

1364.  Philip  II.,  the  Bold. 

SOVEREIGNS   C 

F   BURGUNDY. 

015.  Henry  11. 

1404.  John  the  Fearless. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

033.  Robert  I. 

1419.  Philip  III.,  the  Good. 

413.  Gundicar. 

491.  Gondi  baud. 

075.  Hugh  I. 

1467.  Charles  the  Bold. 

436.  Gimderic. 

516.  Sigismund. 

078.  Eudes  I. 

1477.  Mary  of  Burgundy. 

466.  Chilperic  I. 

533.  Goiidemar. 

103.  Hugh  II. 

BURGUNDY,    or    BURGUNDY    PROPER, 

was  erected  into  a  duchy  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  (the  Bald\  and  assigned  to  his  son- 
in-law,  Richard  le  Justicier,  at  the  Council  of 
Quiercy,  or  Kiersy,  June  14-16,  877.  It  under- 
went several  changes,  and  was  ultimately  in- 
corporated with  France. 

A.D. 
933.  Rodolph,   Duke  of    Burgundy,  is   elected   King  of 

France,  and  resigns  his  duchy  to  Giselbert. 
938.  Hugh  the   Great,   Count  of    Paris,    and   Hugh  the 

Black,  rule  Burgundy  between  them. 
943.  Hugh  the  Great  is  sole  Duke  of  Burgundy. 
956.  Death  of  Hugh  the  Great,  who  is  succeeded  by  his 

son  ( ttho. 
987.  Henry  I.,  the  Great,  is  confirmed  in  his  title  of  Duke 

of   Burgundy,    with   sovereign  rights,  by   Hugh 

Capet. 
1003.  Death  of  Henry  I.,  whose  duchy  is  claimed  by  Robert 

of  France  and  two  other  competitors. 
1015.  Henry   II.,  son   of  King  Robert,  becomes  Duke   of 

Burgundy. 

1033.  Henry  II.  having  become  King  of  France  the  pre- 
ceding year,  makes  his  brother  Robert  Duke  of 

Burgundy.    With  him  begins  a  long   succession 

of  dukes. 
1361.  Death  of  Philip  I.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  with  whom 

terminates  the  first  succession  of  dukes.  John  II., 

King  of   France,   unites  Burgundy    to   his  own 

dominions. 
1364.  John  II.,  King  of  France,   erects  Burgundy  into  a 

duchy,  and  bestows  it  upon  his   son  Philip  the 

Bold. 
1369.  Marriage  between  Philip  of  Burgundy  and  Margaret 

of  Flanders. 
1384.  Philip  inherits  Flanders,  Artois,  Nevers,  and  other 

territories. 
1407.  John  the  Fearless  causes  the   assassination  of  the 

Duke  of  Orleans,  and  is  compelled  to  seek  safety 

in  flight. 
1416.  Secret  treaty  between  John  the  Fearless  and  Henry  V. 

of  England. 
1419.  John  the  Fearless  is  assassinated  at  Montereau    by 

the  Orleanists. 

1430.  Philip  the  Good  enters  into  an  alliance  with  Henry 

V.,  and  sanctions  the  treaty  of  Troyes. 

1431.  Philip  the  Good  acquires  Namur  by  purchase. 
14  }o.  Acquisition  of  Brabant  and  Limburg. 

1435.  Philip  of  Burgundy  withdraws  from  his  alliance 
with  the  English,  and  enters  into  a  league  with 
France. 

14,36.  He  acquires  Hainault,  Holland,  and  Zealand. 

1443.  Acquisition  of  Luxemburg. 

1468,  July  2.  Marriage  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  Margaret, 
sister  to  Edward  IV.  of  England. 

1473.  Charles  the  Bold  invades  France,  ravages  Xonnandy, 
and  adds  Gueldurland  to  his  dominions. 

14-6.  Charles  the  Bold  invades  Switzerland,  where  he  is 
defeated. 

1477,  Jan.  4.  Dea;h  of  Charles  the  Bold  at  the  battle  of 
Nauci  (q.  v.).  Louis  XI.  seizes  part  of  the  duchy. — 
Aug.  19.  Mary,  daughter  and  successor  of  Charles, 
marries  Maximilian  of  Austria. 

1479.  Louis  XI.  of  France  seizes  Burgundy,  and  annexes 
it  to  France. 

1483,  Mar.  37.  Death  of  Mary  of  Burgundy,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  fall  from  her  horse. 

1483.  Dec.  33.  Treaty  of  Arras  (?.  v.). 


BURIAL  is  the  most  ancient  mode  of  dis- 
posing of  the  dead.  Abraham  buried  his  wife 
Sarah  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  B.C.  1859  (Gen. 
xxiii.  19).  It  was  practised  amongst  ancient 
nations,  although  burning  of  the  dead  was  at 
one  period  common  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Burial  in  woollen  material  only  was 
ordered  by  18  Charles  II.  c.  4  (1666).  This  sta- 
tute was  repealed  by  30  Charles  II.  st.  i,  c.  3 
(1677),  which  enforced  new  regulations,  and 
inflicted  a  penalty  of  ^5  in  every  case  where 
a  person  was  not  buried  in  stuff  made  from 
sheep's  wool  only.  Registers  of  burials  were 
ordered  to  be  kept  in  every  parish.  Further 
regulations  were  made  by  32  Charles  II.  c.  i 
(1680).  These  acts  were  repealed  by  54  Geo. 
III.  c.  108  (July  23,  1814).  A  tax  of  45.  on  each 
person  on  burials,  to  last  five  years  from  May  i, 
1695,  was  imposed  by  7  and  8  Will.  III.  c.  6 
(1694).  It  was  continued  till  Aug.  i,  1706,  by 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  20,  s.  14  (1697).  In  addition 
to  the  4-s.,  a  regular  scale  was  imposed  on  the 
different  ranks  between  a  duke  and  a  person 
possessing  real  property  of  ^50  per  annum,  or 
personal  property  of  ^600.  The  burial  of  a 
duke  was  taxed  at  ^50 — that  of  the  lowest  in 
the  scale  ios.  (See  CEMETERY.) 

BURIAL  CLUBS,  or  SOCIETIES,  on  the 
principle  of  friendly  societies,  were  introduced 
into  this  country  during  the  first  half  of  the 
igth  century.  It  would  appear  that  this  is 
merely  the  revival  of  an  ancient  institution. 
Miller  states  (Anglo-Saxons,  p.  363): — "The 
Saxons  had  also  guilds  or  clubs,  in  which  the 
artizans,  or  such  as  seem  to  have  consisted  of 
the  middle  classes,  subscribed  for  the  burial  of 
a  member,  and  a  fine  was  inflicted  upon  every 
brother  who  did  not  attend  the  funeral. 
Thus,  above  1,000  years  ago,  were  burial 
societies  established  in  England."  As  some 
irregularities  arose  from  the  insurance  of 
children,  the  legislature  interfered  for  their 
regulation. 

BURKERSDORF  (Battle).— Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  drove  the  Austrians  from  the  heights 
of  this  town  in  Silesia,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
autumn  of  1762. 

BURKING. — The  high  price  paid  by  medical 
practitioners  for  subjects  for  dissection,  in- 
duced a  man  named  Burke  to  endeavour  to 
supply  bodies,  by  decoying  persons  into  his 
house,  and  then  murdering  them  by  suffoca- 
tion. He  carried  on  this  inhuman  trade  at 
Edinburgh,  and  secured  many  victims,  until  he 
was  at  length  detected,  and  suffered  the  ex- 
treme penalty  of  the  law,  Jan.  28,  1829.  Burke, 
from  whom  it  was  called  burking,  admitted 


BURLINGTON 


[     186    ] 


BURNING 


having  perpetrated  15  murders  of  the  kind.  A 
woman  named  M'Dougal,  who  was  charged 
with  being  his  accomplice,  was  acquitted.  This 
crime  was  revived  in  London  by  Bishop  and 
Williams,  who  were  convicted  of  burking  an 
Italian  boy,  and  were  executed  Dec.  5,  1831. 
They  admitted  having  murdered  several  per- 
sons in  this  manner. 

BURLINGTON  ARCADE  (London)  was 
opened  to  the  public  March  20,  1819. 

BURLINGTON  HEIGHTS  (Battle).  —  In  a 
night  attack  upon  the  American  camp  near 
this  place,  in  New  Jersey,  June  6,  1813,  an  Kng- 
lish  force,  consisting,  of  704  men,  completely 
routed  the  Americans,  3,500  strong,  including 
cavalry.  The  action  was  continued  during  the 
night  ;  but  the  Americans  were  repulsed  in 
every  attempt  to  retrieve  their  disaster,  and 
eventually  took  to  flight,  leaving  100  prisoners 
and  four  guns  in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

J3URMAH  Asia  .  —  This  extensive  kingdom, 
sometimes  called  Ava,  from  its  capital,  when 
first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, was  divided  into  four  states,  —  Arrao'in, 
Ava,  Pegu,  and  Siam.  Very  little  is  known  of 
its  history  previous  to  the  establishment  of  in- 
tercourse with  Europe.  Buddhism  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  amongst  the  inhabitants 
about  A.D.  301.  The  seat  of  the  government 
was  removed  from  Panya  to  Ava  in  1364.  With 
rtugue 
.  Ra 

travelled  in  India  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, is  the  fh'st  English  writer  who  notices 
Bunnah. 


the  assistance  of  the  Portuguese,  the  Burme.se 
su'ndued    the     Peguans.       Ralph    Fitch,    who 


1687.  The  English  take  possession  of  the  island  of  Negrais, 

lit  t!ic  iniiuth  of  tin-  Irawaddy. 
1705.  Capt.  Hamilton  visits  Buniiah. 
1740.  The  Peguans  revolt. 

1752.  Ava  is  captured  by  the  Peguans,  and  the  Burmese 

are  completely  subdued. 

1753.  Alompra  recovers  AVM,  iind  builds  Rangoon. 

1754.  The  1'eguans  are  defeated  in  another  attempt  npon 

Ava.      The  French  as,-ist  ihe   IVguans,  and   the 
English  the  Burmese,  iu  this  struggle. 

1755.  Alompra  is  again  victorious. 

1757.  Alompra  captures  I'egu.     The  East  India  Company 

obtain  a  site  for  a  factory. 
1760.  Alompni,  who  is  taken  ill  whilst  besieging  the  capital 

of  Slain,  withdraw*  his  army,  and  dies  on  his  way 

home. 

1766.  Shenibuan  captures  Ayuthia,  or  Yuthia,  the  Siamese 

capital. 

1767.  Bunnah  is  invaded  by  a  Chinese  army  of  50,000  men. 

They  are  defeated,  with  great  slaughter. 
1771.  The  Siamese  revolt,  and  regain  their  independence. 
1781.  Amarapora  is  made  the  capital  of  Burundi. 
1783.  Arraean  is  annexed  to  Bunnah. 

1785.  The  Burmese  fail  in  an  attack  upon  the  island  of 

Junkseylon  or  Salang. 

1786.  The  Burmese  invade  .Siam,  and  are  again  repulsed. 
J793-  1't'uce  is  concluded  between  Burma!]  and  Siam.     The 

provinces  of  Tenasserim,   Mergui,  and  Tavoy  are 
ceded  to  Bunnah. 

1794.  The  Burmese  make  inroads  upon  the  territories  of 

the  Kast  India  Company  in  pursuit  of  robbers. 

1795.  A  satisfactory  explanation    is  given,   and    war    is 

averted. 

1810.  Salang  is  conquered. 

1811.  Arraean  is  invaded  by  a  Mugh  force. 

isig.  The  Burmese  make  further  inroads  upon  the  terri- 
tories of  the  East  India  Company. 

1823,  Sep.  23.  The  Burmese  attack  and  overpower  a 
British  guard  011  the  island  of  Shapaive. 

l-->24,  March  5.  The  Governor-General  of  India  declares 
war. — May  11.  Rangoon  is  captured.  Cheduba, 
Xegrais,  Tavoy,  Mergui,  Martalmn,  the  whole  of 
'ie:iar,serim,  and  Yeah,  surrender. 


1835,  Feb.  i.  Assam  is  conquered.— March  8.  Gen.  Cotton 
is  defeated  at  Donahue. — April  2.  It  is  captured; 
and  Arraean,  after  a  series  of  actions,  March  26, 
27,  28,  and  29.—  April  25.  Prome  is  entered.— 
Sep.  17.  An  armistice  for  one  month  is  signed,  and 
afterwards  extended  to  Nov.  2.— L)ec.  I,  2,  and  5. 
The  armistice  is  broken,  and  the  Burn, 
defeated  at  Prome  (q.  r.).—  Dec.  26.  The  Burmese 
send  a  flag  of  truce. 

1826,  Jan.  J.  The  first  conference  is  held.— Jan. 3.  A  treaty 
is  signed,  but  is  not  ratified. — Jan.  18.  Hostilities 
are  resumed. — Jan.  19.  Melown  is  captured. — 
Feb.  9.  The  Burmese  are  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Pagahm  Jlew. — Feb.  24.  Treaty  of  Yandaboo  (q.  ».). 

1850,  Dec.  28.  Rangoon  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1851.  Complaints  by  English  seamen  of  ill-treatment  are 

received  from  the  governor  of  Rangoon.  Repara- 
tion is  demanded  and  refused. 

1852,  Jan.  4.  The  British  force  the  passage  of  the  Irawaddy. 

— Jan.  10.  The  batteries  at  Rangoon  fire  upon  the 
Fox  man-of-war. — April  5.  Martaban  is  taken.— 
April  14.  Rangoon.—  A  pi  il  19.  Bassein. — Oct.  10. 
Prome. — Nov.  21.  Pegu. — Dec.  30.  1'egu  is  annexed 
to  India  by  proclamation. 

1853.  Several   marauding  chiefs  are  punished. — June  30. 

The  termination  of  the  Burmese  v,ar  is  officially 
proclaimed  by  the  Governor-General  of  India. 

BURNEL.— (See  ACTON  BURNEL.) 

BUKXETT  PRIZES. -Mr.  Burnett,  of  Dens, 
Aberdeenshire,  born  in  1729,  on  his  death  in 
1784  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  fortune  to 
found  prizes  to  be  awarded  to  the  authors  of 
the  two  best  treatises  on  "The  evidence  that 
there  is  a  Being  all-powerful,  wise,  and  good, 
by  whom  everything  exists  ;  and  particularly 
to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  of  the  Deity;  and  this  independent 
of  written  revelation,  and  of  the  revelation  of 
the  Lord  Jesus ;  and  from  the  whole  to  point 
out  the  inferences  most  necessary  and  useful 
to  mankind."  The  competition,  which  is  open 
to  all,  takes  place  every  40  yeans,  the  first 
having  occurred  in  1815,  when  the  highest 
prize  of  ,£1,200  was  a  warded  to  Dr.  W.  L.  Brown, 
Principal  of  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  and 
the  second  prize  of  .£400  to  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Sunnier,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
On  the  second  competition,  in  1855,  the  first 
prize  of  .£1,800  was  received  by  the  Rev.  R.  A. 
Thompson,  and  the  second  prize  of  /6oo  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  J.  Tulloch,  Principal  of  St.  Mary's 
College,  St.  Andrew's.  In  accordance  with 
the  founder's  directions,  these  essays  have  all 
been  published. 

BURNING  ALIVE  was  a  common  punish- 
ment, amongst  ancient  nations,  for  various 
kinds  of  offences.  The  Anglo-Saxons  used  it 
in  certain  crimes,  and  it  was  the  ordinary 
punishment  for  witchcraft  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Blackstone  says  : — "  In  treasons  of  every 
kind,  the  punishment  of  women  is  the  same, 
and  different  from  that  of  men.  For  as  the 
decency  due  to  the  sex  forbids  the  exposing 
and  public  mangling  their  bodies,  the  sentence 
is,  to  be  drawn  to  the  gallows,  and  there  to  be 
burned  alive."  The  "  Scandalous  Chronicle" 
contains  an  account  of  a  woman,  named  Per- 
rette  Mauger,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Paris  in 
1460  for  having  committed  several  robberies, 
and  having  harboured  thieves  and  house- 
breakers. Criminals  were  generally  strangled 
and  their  bodies  afterwards  burned.  Katherine 
Hayes,  who  suffered  for  the  murder  of  her 
husband,  was,  through  the  carelessness  of  the 
executioner,  really  burned  alive  at  Tyburn, 


BURNING 


187 


BURYING 


Nov.  3,  1726.  The  last  woman  executed  in  this 
manner  was  Christian  Murphy,  alias  Bowman, 
March  18,  1789,  for  coining.  The  law  was 
altered  by  30  George  III.  c.  48  (1790),  which 
provided  that  after  June  5,  1790,  women  under 
this  sentence  were  to  be  hanged.  Death  at  the 
stake  was  long  considered  the  only  method  of 
extirpating  heresy,  and  as  early  as  304,  Alban, 
the  protomartyr  of  England,  siiffered  in  this 
manner.  Lord  Hale  says  :  — "  Before  the  time 
of  Richard  II.,  that  is,  before  any  acts  of  Par- 
liament were  made  about  heretics,  it  is  with- 
out question,  that  in  a  convocation  of  the  clergy 
or  provincial  synod,  they  might  and  frequently 
did  here  in  England  proceed  to  the  sentencing 
of  heretics."  By  29  Charles  II.  c.  9,  s.  i  (1676), 
the  writ  commonly  called  breve  de  h&retico 
comburendo,  with  all  process  and  proceedings 
thereupon  in  order  to  the  executing  such  writ, 
or  following  or  depending  thereupon,  and  all 
punishment  by  death,  in  pursuance  of  any 
ecclesiastical  censures,  was  utterly  taken  away 
and  abolished. 

BURNING  THE  DEAD.—  (See  CREMATION.) 
BURNING-GLASSES.— Gibbon  fch.  xl.)  re- 
marks : — "  A  tradition  has  prevailed  that  the 
Roman  fleet  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  the  port 
of  Syracuse  by  the  burning-glasses  of  Archi- 
medes ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  a  similar  ex- 
pedient was  employed  by  Proclus  to  destroy 
the  Gothic  vessels  in  the  harbour  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  to  protect  his  benefactor  Anasta- 
sius  against  the  bold  enterprise  of  Vitalian.  A 
machine  was  fixed  on  the  walls  of  the  city, 
consisting  of  an  hexagon  mirror  of  polished 
brass,  with  many  smaller  and  moveable  poly- 
gons to  receive  and  reflect  the  rays  of  the 
meridian  sun ;  and  a  consuming  flame  was 
darted  to  the  distance,  perhaps,  of  200  feet. 
The  truth  of  these  two  extraordinary  facts  is 
invalidated  by  the  silence  of  the  most  authentic 
historians  ;  and  the  use  of  burning-glasses  was 
never  adopted  in  the  attack  or  defence  of 
places.  Yet  the  admirable  experiments  of  a 
French  philosopher  (Buffon^  have  demonstrated 
the  possibility  of  such  a  mirror ;  and,  since  it 
is  possible,  I  am  more  disposed  to  attribute  the 
art  to  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  antiquity, 
than  to  give  the  merit  of  the  fiction  to  the  idle 
fancy  of  a  monk  or  a  sophist."  Leonhard 
Digges,  in  his  "  Pantometria,"  published  in 
1571,  speaks  of  a  burning-glass  which  he  had 
constructed  on  the  plan  of  Archimedes  ;  John 
Napier,  the  inventor  of  logarithms  (1550 — 
April  3,  1617),  mentions  them  as  a  means  of 
defence.  Dr.  Gregory  sent  one  that  he  had 
constructed  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1673.  That 
eminent  man's  attention  having  been  thus 
directed  to  the  subject,  he  is  said  to  have  con- 
structed one  himself.  Kircher  investigated  it 
with  much  perseverance.  Vilette  constructed 
several  burning  mirrors  of  great  magnitude, 
and  experiments  were  tried  in  this  country 
with  one  of  them  in  June,  1718.  Buff  on  made 
several  successful  experiments  in  1747.  Parker, 
in  1800,  and  other  men  of  science  at  later 
periods,  have  improved  the  construction  of 
burning-mirrors. 

BURNLEY  (Lancashire)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  early  Roman  settlement,  and  to  have 
been  visited  by  the  Christian  missionary  Pauli- 


nus  in  597.  The  town,  which  contained  53 
families  in  1311,  continued  unimportant  till 
the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufacture, 
about  1780.  The  grammar  school  was  estab- 
lished in  1578,  and  the  barracks  in  1819.  Mr. 
Howard  gave  16  acres  of  land  for  the  site  of  an 
infirmary  to  be  called  the  Howard  Institution, 
March  4,  1864. 

BURSE.— This  title  for  a  place  of  resort  for 
financiers  and  commercial  men,  now  generally 
termed  an  exchange,  was  first  applied  to  the 
burse  at  Bruges,  formed  early  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. Lewis  Roberts,  in ' '  The  Merchants'  Mappe 
of  Commerce,"  published  in  1638,  says  : — "This 
city  (Bruges)  hath  an  eminent  market-place, 
with  a  publick-house  for  the  meeting  of  all 
merchants  at  noon  and  evening ;  which  house 
was  called  the  Burse,  of  the  houses  of  the  ex- 
tinct family  Bursa,  bearing  three  purses  for 
their  arms  engraven  upon  their  houses,  from 
whence  these  meeting-places  to  this  day  are 
called  burses  in  many  countries,  which  in  Lon- 
don we  know  by  the  name  of  the  Royal  Ex- 
change, and  of  Britain's  Burse."  The  burse  at 
Antwerp  was  established  in  1531  :  that  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1608;  at  Paris  1784.  The  first  stone 
of  Britain's  Burse,  or  the  first  Royal  Exchange 
in  England,  was  laid  by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham, 
June  7,  1566,  and  the  building  was  opened  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  Jan.  23,  1571. 

BURSLEM  (Staffordshire),  the  principal  town 
for  the  manufacture  of  English  pottery  during 
the  1 7th  century,  was  the  birth-place  in  1730 
of  Josiah  Wedgwood,  by  whom  this  important 
branch  of  native  industry  was  carried  to  its 
highest  perfection.  The  town-hall  was  erected 
in  1761,  and  the  market  established  in  1825. 
The  county  constabulary  force  was  introduced 
here  in  1842.  The  first  stone  of  the  Wedgwood 
Institute  was  laid  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  Oct.  26, 
1863. 

BURY  ST.  EDMUNDS,  or  ST.  EDMUNDS- 
BURY  (Suffolk). — This  town  received  its  name 
from  Edmund,  King  of  East  Anglia,  who  was 
crowned  at  Bury  on  Christmas  Day,  856.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Danes,  and  refusing 
to  renounce  the 'Christian  faith,  suffered,  mar- 
tyrdom, Monday,  Nov.  20,  870.  According  to 
the  chroniclers,  his  persecutors  bound  him  to 
a  tree,  scourged  him,  shot  him  with  arrows, 
and  beheaded  him.  On  account  of  his  heroic 
constancy,  he  was  afterwards  canonized,  and 
a  monastery  dedicated  to  him  was  founded  at 
Bury.  Stephen  Langton  and  the  barons  met 
here  Nov.  20,  1214,  and  agreed  upon  the  de- 
mands which  form  the  basis  of  Magna  Charta. 
Henry  III.  held  a  parliament  at  Bury  in  1267  ; 
Edward  I.  held  another  Nov.  3,  1296  ;  and 
Henry  VI.  another  Feb.  10,  1447;  and  his 
example  in  this  respect  was  on  one  or  two  oc- 
casions followed  by  some  of  his  successors. 
A  large  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1608.  The  grammar  school  was  founded 

111  BURYING  ALIVE.— This  mode  of  punish- 
ment was  occasionally  resorted  to  by  the  Jews 
and  other  nations  of  antiquity.  Herodotus 
mentions  burying  alive  as  a  Persian  custom, 
and  states  that  Xerxes  buried  alive  nine  sons 
and  nine  daughters  of  the  Edonians  ;  and  that 
Amestris,  the  wife  of  Xerxes,  in  her  old 


BURYING 


BUTCHERS 


age  ordered  14  children,  selected  from  the 
best  Persian  families,  to  be  buried  alive,  in 
order  to  show  her  gratitude  to  the  god  under 
the  earth.  In  ancient  Rome  it  was  the  punish- 
ment awarded  to  the  vestal  virgin  who  vio- 
lated her  vow  (see  VESTALS)  ;  and,  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  nuns  were  for  a  similar  offence 
subjected  to  the  same  penalty.  !Sir  Walter 
Scott,  in  "  Marmion,"  describes  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  carried  out.  The  culprit  wai-j 
placed  in  a  small  niche,  made  in  the  massive 
wall  of  the  convent,  a  slender  meal  of  water 
and  bread  was  deposited  in  it,  and  at  the  words 
Vo.de  in  pace  the  opening  was  closed.  Skele- 
tons have  been  discovered  in  an  upright  po- 
sition in  the  ruins  of  abbeys  in  this  country, 
and  it  is  probable  that  they  are  the  remains  of 
persons  who  had  been  for  some  offence  or  other 
immured.  It  was  at  one  time  the  punishment 
for  a  female  thief. 

BURYING-PLACE.— The  Jews  and  other 
ancient  nations  buried  their  dead  in  fields, 
near  the  highways,  and  other  places,  without 
the  walls  of  their  cities  and  towns.  Plutarch 
relates  of  Lycurgus,  that,  in  order  to  do  away 
with  superstition  and  to  accustom  the  youth 
of  Sparta  to  such  sights,  he  ordered  the  dead 
to  be  buried  within  the  city,  and  permitted 
their  monuments  to  be  erected  near  the  tem- 
ples (B.C.  830 — 820).  In  ancient  Rome,  the 
bodies  of  her  more  illustrious  men  were  al- 
lowed, as  a  favour,  to  be  buried  within  the 
city.  The  Twelve  Tables  prohibited  burial  in 
the  city.  Hadrian  and  several  emperors  pub- 
lished edicts  against  the  practice.  Bingham 
shows  that  no  burying-placcs  existed  either  in 
cities  or  in  churches  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  our  a;ra.  Graves  in  the  public  roads, 
or  vaults  and  catacombs  in  the  fields,  were 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  Christian  emperors 
prohibited  the  practice  several  centuries  later. 
The  origin  of  the  change  in  the  custom  appears 
to  have  arisen  from  the  erection  of  churches 
over  the  graves  of  martyrs,  or  the  removal  of 
their  relics  into  the  churches,  and  this  com- 
menced in  the  4th  century.  The  next  step  was 
the  burial  of  emperors  and  kings  in  the  church 
porch,  or  some  outer  building  of  the  church, 
which  originated  in  the  sth  century ;  and  to 
this  privilege  the  people  were  admitted  in  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  century.  The  Council  of 
Braga,  May  i,  563,  allowed  burial  in  the  church- 
yard, but  prohibited  it  within  the  walls.  He- 
reditary burying -places  were  forbidden  in  the 
gth  century  (Council  of  Meaux,  June  17,  845) ; 
but  this  was  afterwards  allowed  by  a  decree  of 
Leo  V.,  inserted  in  the  decretals  of  Gregory 
IX.  about  1230.  From  this  later  period  it  be- 
came customary  for  bodies  to  be  buried  in 
churches  and  in  family  sepulchres.  (See  CEME- 
TERY, CHURCHYARD,  &c.) 

BUSACO  (Battle).— Massena  and  Ney  were 
defeated  at  the  convent  of  Busaco,  near  Coim- 
bra,  in  Portugal,  by  Wellington,  Sep.  27,  1810. 
The  French  attacked  the  British  and  Portu- 
guese with  a  superior  force.  Their  loss  was 
4,500  men  killed  and  wounded,  whilst  that  of 
the  allies  was  only  1,300.  Wellington  soon 
after  retired  to  the  famous  lines  of  Torres 
Vo  Ira-*. 

BUSHEL,  supposed  to  take  its  name  from 


an  old  English  word,  buss,  signifying  a  "  box," 
was  regulated  by  several  enactments.  By  14 
Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  12  (1340),  a  standard  bushel 
was  ordered  to  be  sent  throughout  the  realm, 
according  to  a  provision  in  9  Hen.  III.,  st.  i,  c. 
25  (1225  ,  which  ordained  that  only  one  mea- 
sure should  be  used  throughout  the  kingdom. 
The  bushel  of  wheat  was  to  contain  8  gal- 
lons by  12  Hen.  VII.  c.  5  (1496).  By  22  Charles 

II.  c.    8,  s.   i   (1670),   the  Winchester  bushel, 
containing  8  gallons,  was  ordered  to  be  used: 
in  gauging  corn  or  salt;   and  in   8  &  9  Will. 

III.  c.  22,  s.  9  (1697),  it  was  declared  to  be  a 
round  bushel,  with  a  plain  and  even  bottom, 
being  185  inches  wide  throughout,  and  8  inches 
deep.    The  heaped  bushel  was  done  away  with 
by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  49  (Aug.  13,  1834),  the  pro- 
hibition taking  effect  from  Jan.  i,  1835.     All 
former  statutes  were  repealed,  the  Winchester 
bushel  abolished,  and  a  general  measure  estab- 
lished, from  May  i,   1825,  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  74 

•June  17,  1824). 

BUSH1RE  (Persia)  was  made  the  seat  of  a 
factory  by  the  East  India  Company  in  the  i7th 
century.  During  the  Persian  war  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  forces,  Dec.  10,  1856,  and 
was  occupied  by  them  until  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  May  2,  1857. 

BUSIRIS  (Egypt).— Four  places  in  ancient 
Egypt  bore  this  name.  One  Busiris,  in  the 
.  was  utterly  destroyed  by  order  of 
Diocletian  A.D.  296  ;  and  at  another  Busiris,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  Merwan  II.,  the 
last  Caliph  of  the  Ommiades,  was  slain,  Feb. 

BUSSORAH.—  (See  BASSORAH.) 

BUTCHERS.— There  were  three  classes  of 
butchers  among  the  Romans  ;  viz.,  the  Suarii, 
who  provided  hogs ;  the  Pecuarii,  or  Boarii, 
who  provided  oxen,  sheep,  &c.  ;  and  the  /.»,<  it, 
or  Carniflcei,  who  killed  the  animals.  During 
the  Middle  Ages,  a  common  slaughter-house, 
in  which  the  inhabitants  had  their  beasts 
killed,  was  established  in  many  towns.  The 
butchers  of  Dunstable  are  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  erect  sheds,  in  1279.  A  clause  in  the 
ordinary  of  the  butchers'  company  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne,  dated  1621,  ordered  that  any 
member  who  killed  flesh  in  that  town  during 
the  Lent  season  without  the  general  consent  of 
the  fellowship,  should  incur  a  penalty  of  ,£5 
for  each  offence.  Edward  III.,  in  a  letter  to 
the  mayor  and  sheriffs,  dated  Feb.  25,  1361, 
ordered  that  no  large  beasts  should  be 
slaughtered  nearer  to  London  than  Stratford 
on  the  one  side  and  Knightsbridge  on  the 
other ;  and  a  similar  injunction  was  made  by 
Richard  II.  in  1380.  A  statute  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  trade  was  passed  in  1531.  The 
butchers  were  incorporated  under  letters 
patent  of  James  I.,  bearing  date  Sep.  16,  1605. 
They  were  at  that  time  an  ancient  fraternity. 
The  blue  dress  is  the  uniform  of  a  guild.  By 
24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3  (1532),  butchers  were  re- 
quired to  sell  by  weight  "called  Haver-du- 
Pois."  A  penalty  was  fixed  for  infraction  of 
this  law  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i  (1533).  By  27 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  9  (1535),  butchers  were  allowed 
from  April,  1536,  to  April  12,  1540,  to  sell  meat 
as  they  had  done  previous  to  the  statute  of 
1532  ;  and  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  n  (1541),  former 


BUTE 


[     189    ] 


BYZANTIUM 


regulations  were  repealed,  and  the  privilege 
was  continued. 

BUTE  ADMINISTRATION.—  Its  advent  to 
power  was  caused  by  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  Oct.  5,  1761,  from  the  Newcastle  and  Pitt 
(Chatham)  Ministry,  though  the  new  ministry 
was  not  formed  till  the  following  year.  Mr. 
Pitt's  office  was  filled  first  by  the  Earl  of  Egre- 
mont,  and  afterwards  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford. 
The  Earl  of  Bute,  who  had  been  tutor  to  George 
III.,  was  made  prime  minister  May  26,  1762. 


Treasury 
Lord  Chancellor 
President  of  the  Council 
Privy  Seal 

Chancellor   of  Exchequer 

Principal    Secretaries    of 
State  ........................... 

Admiralty 

Ordnance  ........................ 

Board  of  Trade 


Earl  of  Bute. 

Lord  Henley. 

Earl  Oranville. 

Duke  of  Bedford. 
(  Sir        Francis        Dashwood, 
-<     afterwards    Lord    Le    De- 
(     spencer. 

/Earl  of  Egremont  and  Hon. 
\     Geo.  Grenville. 

Lord  Anson. 

{^Ligonfer  afterward8     Ear1' 
Lord  Sandys. 


On  the  death  of  Lord  Anson,  June  6,  1762,  the 
Hon.  George  Grenville,  who  took  the  Admi- 
ralty, was  replaced  as  Secretary  of  State  by 
the  Earl  of  Halifax.  In  Oct.,  1762,  Henry 
Fox,  afterwards  Lord  Holland,  paymaster  of 
the  forces,  was  made  leader  in  the  Commons, 
with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  This  administra- 
tion was  assailed  by  Junius  and  Wilkes,  and 
the  Earl  of  Bute  resigned  April  8,  1763.  His 
opponents  called  him  "  the  favourite,"  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  kingdom  he  was  burned 
under  the  effigy  of  a  jack-boot.  (See  GREN- 
VILLE ADMINISTRATION.) 

BUTTER.  —  The  word  rendered  butter  in  our 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  xviii. 
8  ;  Job  xx.  17  ;  and  other  passages)  is  supposed 
by  the  best  biblical  critics  to  signify  cream  or 
sour  thick  milk.  Herodotus  (B.C.  484  —  B.C. 
408),  in  his  notice  of  the  Scythians,  describes  a 
rude  process  of  churning  practised  amongst 
them  ;  and  as  his  account  is  confirmed  by  Hip- 
pocrates (B.C.  460  —  B.C.  357),  Beckmann  believes 
this  to  be  the  earliest  mention  of  butter.  It 
was  probably  introduced  at  a  later  period, 
though  not  generally,  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  who  derived  their  knowledge  of  it 
from  the  Scythians.  The  Romans  anointed 
the  bodies  of  their  children  with  butter  ;  the 
Burgundians  besmeared  their  hair  with  it  ; 
and  Clemens  of  Alexandria  (192)  speaks  of  it 
as  having  been  used  by  the  early  Christians  in 
lamps,  instead  of  oil.  The  trade  is  regulated 
by  act  of  Parliament. 

BUTTINGTON  (Battle).—  Ethelred  collected 
an  army  and  surrounded  the  Danes  in  their 
fortifications  at  Buttington,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Severn,  in  894.  The  Danes  were  so  reduced 
by  famine,  having  eaten  their  horses,  that  their 
leader,  Hastings,  was  compelled  to  risk  a  sally 
towards  the  east.  This  led  to  a  battle,  in 
which  the  Danes  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter. 

BUTUNTUM.—  (See  BITONTO.) 

BUXAR  (Battle).  —  Major,  afterwards  Sir 
Hector,  Munro,  with  7,072  men  and  20  field- 
pieces,  defeated  the  army  of  the  confederated 
native  princes  of  Hindostan,  consisting  of 
40,000  men  and  a  powerful  artillery,  at  this 


fortified  town  in  Bahar,  Oct.  23,  1764.  The  loss 
of  the  latter  was  severe,  6,000  men  having 
been  left  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  victors 
captured  133  pieces  of  artilleiy. 

BYE,  SURPRISE,  or  SURPRISING  PLOT. 
—  George  Brooke,  brother  of  Lord  Cobham, 
who  was  engaged  in  the  plot  to  place  Arabella 
Stuart  on  the  throne — this  being  termed  the 
Main  Plot,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  lesser 
scheme,  the  Bye  Plot — had  also  conspired  with 
Sir  Griffin  Markham,  Lord  Grey  of  Wilton,  and 
two  Roman  Catholic  priests,  named  Walton 
and  Clarke,  to  seize  James  I.,  imprison  him, 
compel  him  to  change  his  ministers,  and  to 
grant  liberty  of  conscience  and  the  free  exercise 
of  religion.  The  existence  of  the  plot  was 
made  known  to  the  Government  about  mid- 
summer, 1603,  and  in  July  the  conspirators 
were  apprehended.  (See  MAIN  PLOT.) 

BYZANT,  or  BE Z ANTINE.  —  William  of 
Malmesbury  (book  iv.  ch.  2)  states  that  By- 
zantium, the  original  name  of  Constantinople, 
is  still  preserved  in  the  imperial  coin  called  a 
byzant.  This  coin  was  current  in  England 
from  the  gth  to  the  i4th  centuries,  and  Cam- 
den,  writing  in  the  i6th,  says  "that  a  great 
piece  of  gold,  valued  at  £15,  which  the  king 
offered  on  high  festivals,  is  yet  called  a  Bezan- 
tine,  which  was  anciently  a  piece  of  gold  coined 
by  the  emperors  of  Constantinople ;  but  after- 
wards there  were  two  purposely  made  for  the 
king  and  queen,  with  the  resemblance  of  the 
Trinity,  inscribed, — In  honorem  Sanctce  Trini- 
tatis  ;  and  on  the  other  side  the  picture  of  the 
Virgin  Mary, — In  honorem  Sanctce  Marice  Vir- 

?inis."  The  last  were  cast  by  order  of  James 
.,  in  1603.  The  Turks,  at  the  siege  of  Csesarea, 
in  1102,  are  said  to  have  hidden  byzants  in 
their  mouths.  The  Crusaders  struck  the  cap- 
tives in  the  neck,  whereupon  the  coin  was  dis- 
gorged. One  writer  declares  that  the  bodies  of 
the  slain  were  also  piled  up  and  burned,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  byzants  which 
they  had  swallowed.  A  similar  coin  was 
struck  in  other  countries ;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen,  a  white  or  silver  byzant,  of  the  value 
of  two  shillings,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
current  in  England. 

BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.— (See  EASTERN  EM- 
PIRE.) 

BYZANTINE  HISTORIANS. —The  Greek 
historians  and  writers  in  whose  works  are  re- 
corded the  principal  transactions  of  the  Byzan- 
tine or  Eastern  empire,  from  A.D.  325  to  1453, 
are  known  by  this  name.  A  collected  edition  of 
their  works  was  published  at  Paris  1645 — 1711; 
another,  in  23  volumes  folio,  was  published  at 
Venice  1722 — 1733  ;  and  a  new  edition  at  Bonn 
was  commenced  in  1828. 

BYZANTIUM  was  founded  B.C.  667,  by  the 
navigator  Byzas,  with  followers  from  Argos  and 
Megara,  and  received  a  considerable  accession 
of  numbers  from  Megara  under  Zeuxippus, 
B.C.  628.  It  was  captured  by  the  Persians 
B.C.  505,  and  retaken  by  the  Greeks  under 
Pausanias,  B.C.  477,  from  which  circumstance 
he  has  been  called  its  founder.  Byzantium 
became  subject  to  Athens  B.C.  470,  threw  off 
the  yoke  B.  c.  440,  but  again  submitted.  Alci- 
biades  took  it  B.C.  408,  Lysander  B.C.  405,  and 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  made  an  attempt  B.C.  340, 


CAABA 


[     190    1 


CABLES 


but  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  B.C.  339. 
It  was  then  allied  with  Home,  and  eventually 
became  a  Roman  colony.  In  the  civil  wars 
that  ensued  on  the  accession  of  Severus,  By- 
zantium remained  faithful  to  Niger,  and  after 
having  sustained  a  siege  of  three  years'  dura- 
tion, was  reduced  by  famine  A.D.  196.  Severus 
ordered  its  walls  to  be  demolished,  and  sup- 
pressed many  of  its  privileges.  Maximin  took 
it  after  a  siege  of  n  days  in  313,  and  in  the* 
civil  war  between  Constantino  and  Licinius, 
the  former  captured  it  in  323.  Struck  with 
what  Gibbon  terms  "  the  incomparable  position 
of  Byzantium,"  Constantino  determined  to 
make  it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  an 
imperial  edict  for  the  building  of  the  new  city 
was  issued  in  324.  The  Emperor,  at  the  head 
of  a  procession,  marked  out  its  boundaries, 
the  capital  was  forthwith  constructed,  and  in- 
augurated in  May,  330.  The  rites  of  inaugura- 
tion lasted  40  days,  and  the  city  received  the 
title  of  Second  or  New  Rome,  which  soon  gave 
placu  to  that  of  Constantinople,  derived  from 
its  founder.  The  Byzantine  Church  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  in  the  ist  century.  (See 
CONSTANTINOPLE.) 


c. 

CAABA,  or  the  SACRED  STONE  OF 
A1  ;•!•'( 'A,  was  guarded  by  the  Korcish  tribe; 
and  the  term  was  applied  to  the  temple  in 
which  it  was  kept.  Gibbon  (ch.  1.)  says  that 
its  genuine  antiquity  ' '  ascends  beyond  the 
Christian  aera ; "  and  he  describes  the  rites 
which  the  idolaters,  and  after  them  the  Mus- 
sulmans, practised.  "At  an  awful  distance 
they  cast  away  their  garments  :  seven  times 
with  hasty  steps  they  encircled  the  Caaba,  and 
kissed  the  black  stone :  seven  times  they 
visited  and  adored  the  adjacent  mountains  : 
seven  times  they  threw  stones  into  the  valley 
of  Mina  :  and  the  pilgrimage  was  achieved,  as 
at  the  present  hour,  by  a  sacrifice  of  sheep  and 
camels,  and  the  burial  of  their  hair  and  nails 
in  the  consecrated  ground."  Mohammed  de- 
stroyed the  360  idols  of  the  Caaba  in  630.  The 
Carmathians  despoiled  the  temple  in  929,  and 
bore  away  the  black  stone,  which  was,  how- 
ever, afterwards  restored. 

CAB. —This  term,  an  abbreviation  of  cab- 
riolet, is  applied  to  the  conveyances  intro- 
duced into  London  in  1820.  The  Cab  and 
Omnibus  Men's  Sunday  Rest  Society  was 
established  in  London  in  1858,  and  the  Cab- 
men's Club  Aid  Society  in  1861.  (See  HACKNEY 
COACH.) 

CAB  STRIKE.— Displeased  with  the  pro- 
visions of  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  33  (June  28,  1853^, 
reducing  the  fare  from  8d.  to  6d.  per  mile, 
London  cabmen  withdrew  their  vehicles  after 
midnight  on  Tuesday,  July  26,  1853.  The  strike 
lasted  three  days,  during  which  time  locomo- 
tion was  entirely  paralyzed.  Arrangements 
having,  however,  been  made  for  bringing  up 
vehicles  from  various  provincial  towns,  the  cab 
proprietors  and  drivei-s  returned  to  their  work 
Saturday,  July  30. 

CABAL.— Soon  after  the  dismissal  of   the 


Earl  of  Clarendon,  Aug.  30,  1667,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  secret  council,  called  the  Cabal, 
commenced.  It  has  been  incorrectly  stated 
that  the  name  "Cabal"  originated  from  the 
initial  letters  of  the  names  of  the  five  mem- 
bers of  this  ministry.  This  is  not  the  case, 
as  the  word  "  cabal"  had  been  employed  at  an 
earlier  time  to  denote  a  secret  council,  or 
what  is  now  termed  the  cabinet.  Its  influence 
was  directed  principally  to  foreign  affairs, 
and  it  was,  when  fully  formed,  in  1670,  com- 
posed of  the  following  members  :  Sir  Thomas, 
afterwards  Lord  Clifford,  Lord,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Arlington,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  Lord 
Ashley,  afterwards  Earl  of  Shaftcsbury,  and 
the  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  Sir  William  Coventry 
was  associated  with  them.  The  passing  of  the 
Test  Act  (25  Charles  II.  c.  2),  early  in  1673, 
spread  disunion  in  its  ranks ;  and  by  the 
spring  of  1 674  it  was  entirely  dissolved.  Hallam 
Lng.  ii.  ch.  xi.),  whilst  admitting  that  their 
counsels  soon  became  "extremely  pernicious 
and  dishonourable,"  declares,  "the  first  mea- 
sures after  the  banishment  of  Clarendon,  both 
in  domestic  and  foreign  policy,  were  highly 
praiseworthy." 

OABATDAN.— The  chief  city  of  Panay,  one 
of  the  Philippines,  was  founded  in  1732. 

CABBAGE  was  introduced  into  England  at 
an  early  period,  and  is  noticed  in  documents 
of  the  1 3th  century.  Henry  says  the  better 
kind  was  known  in  the  time  of  Edward  IV. 
It  is  supposed  that  Evelyn,  in  assigning  the 
introduction  of  the  cabbage  from  Holland  to 
the  1 6th  century,  alludes  to  some  particular 
sort.  The  soldiers  of  Cromwell's  army  are  said 
to  have  introduced  the  plant  into  Scotland. 

CAHIJA  LISTS.—  Jewish  doctors,  who  study 
the  Cabbala,  described  by  Dr.  Moore  as  a  tra- 
ditional doctrine  or  exposition  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, which  Moses  received  from  God  on 
Mount  Sinai.  Prideaux  considers  Cabbalist  to 
be  the  general  name  of  those  who  profess  the 
study  and  knowledge  of  all  manner  of  tra- 
ditions, which  are  of  the  interpretative  part 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Hallam  declares 
(Lit.  pt.  i,  ch.  3)  that  the  Cabbala  is  the  off- 
spring of  the  Alexandrian  Jews  and  not  far 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Pera.  It 
was  revived  during  the  nth  and  iath  centuries. 

CA  IUNET  COUNCIL.— (See  ADMINISTRATIONS 
OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.) 

CABIRA  (Battle).— Mithridates  VI.  (the 
Great;  was  defeated  near  this  city,  in  Pontus, 
by  Lucullus,  B.C.  71.  The  Roman  general 
captured  the  town  itself  and  secured  a  large 
quantity  of  treasure. 

CABLES  were  made  of  hemp,  rush,  papy- 
rus, barks  of  trees,  &c.,  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Iron  cables  were  first  suggested  in  the 
narrative  of  M.  Bougainville's  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, which  was  published  in  1771,  but  no 
attempt  was  made  to  adopt  them  till  Slater 
obtained  a  patent  for  their  manufacture  in 
1808.  The  first  vessel  fitted  with  iron  rigging 
was  the  Penelope.  She  made  her  trial  trip  in 
i  Sir,  and  satisfactorily  proved  the  efficacy  of 
the  system,  which  was  generally  adopted  in 
the  royal  navy  in  r8r2.  Capt.  Brown  invented 
the  proving  machine,  for  testing  chain-cables, 
in  1813. 


CABOCHIENS 


CADETS' 


CABOCHIENS.— In  1412,  John  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  armed  a  chosen  body  of 
about  500  journeymen  butchers  or  skinners, 
who  took  the  name  of  Cabochiens,  from  John 
Caboche  their  leader.  They  maintained  the  cause 
of  Burgundy  against  the  Armagnac  faction, 
and,  ruling  Paris  in  the  most  despotic  manner, 
kept  the  inhabitants  in  a  state  of  constant 
terror.  The  citizens  rose  against  them  in  1418. 

CABRERA  (Mediterranean).— One  of  the 
Balearic  Islands  (q.  v.),  was  used  by  the  Spa- 
niards as  a  depot  for  French  prisoners  from 
1808  to  1813. 

CABRIOLET.— (-See  CAB.) 

CABRITA  POINT  (Sea-fight).— Sir  Thomas 
Dilkes  engaged  with  a  French  squadron  off 
Cabrita  Point,  March  10,  1705,  when  two  out 
of  the  five  ships  of  which  the  French  squadron 
consisted  were  driven  on  shore  and  destroyed, 
and  three  were  captured. 

CABUL,  or  CABOOL  (Afghanistan),  the 
capital  of  a  territory  of  the  same  name,  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Pusheng.  Baber 
acquired  possession  of  it  in  1504,  and  in  1547 
his  son  Huma"yun  expelled  his  brother  Camran 
from  the  city.  On  the  accession  of  Akbar,  at 
the  age  of  13  years,  in  1556,  Cabul  was  seized 
by  Mirza  Soliman  ;  but  it  was  again  added  to 
the  empire  of  the  Mogul  in  1581.  An  insurrec- 
tion was  quelled  in  1611.  Nadir  Shah  took 
Cabul  in  1737,  and  in  1774  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  Afghanistan  by  Timour  Shah,  who 
died  there  May  20,  1793.  In  1801  a  revolt  of 
the  Ghiljies  took  place  at  Cabul;  but  after 
severe  stniggles  it  was  suppressed,  May  n, 
1802.  In  1809,  Shah  Shooja  was  deposed  and 
driven  from  the  city  by  Futteh  Khan,  who  was 
murdered  in  1818,  after  which  Cabul  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Dost  Mohammed.  Shah  Shooja  was 
restored  by  the  English  May  8,  1839.  An  in- 
surrection broke  out  at  Cabul  Nov.  2,  1841,  and 
many  English  officers  were  massacred ;  and  the 
British  commenced  their  disastrous  retreat 
from  Cabul,  leaving  Lady  Sale  and  others  pri- 
soners in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  Jan.  6,  1842. 
Cabul  was  retaken  by  Gen.  Pollock  Sep.  15, 
1842.  Gen.  Nott  arrived  with  another  force  the 
following  day.  Operations  for  the  destruction 
of  the  great  bazaar  at  Cabul,  the  most  celebra- 
ted building  of  Central  Asia,  in  which  Sir  W. 
McNaghten's  body  had  been  exposed,  were 
commenced  Oct.  9,  and  the  objects  of  the  ex- 
pedition having  been  fully  accomplished,  a  por- 
tion of  the  English  army  evacuated  Cabul  Oct. 
ii,  and  the  whole  force  gradually  withdrew 
from  Afghanistan.  (See  AFFGHAN  WAR.) 

CACHAO  (Anam),  the  capital  of  Tonquin, 
was  nearly  demolished  by  an  incendiary  fire 
during  the  ijih  century.  Since  1820  the  sove- 
reign has  resided  in  Cochin  China,  and  Cachao 
has  suffered  in  consequence. 

CACHAR,  or  HAIRHUMBO  (Hindostan).— 
This  province  was  invaded  by  the  Burmese  in 
1774,  but  no  conquests  were  effected.  The 
Brahminical  religion  was  introduced  in  1780. 
In  1813  Rajah  Govind  Chunder  became  sovereign 
of  Cachar.  He  was  soon  expelled,  and  in  1818 
Choorjeet  gained  the  ascendancy  and  main- 
tained it  for  five  years,  when  Govind  Chunder 
was  restored.  This  prince,  finding  himself  un- 
able to  protect  his  kingdom  against  Burmese 


invasion,  sought  the  assistance  of  the  British, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  them 
March  6,  1824.  He  w.as  assassinated  in  1830, 
and  his  territory  was  annexed  to  the  posses- 
sions of  the  East  India  Company  by  a  treaty 
signed  at  Seenaputtee,  Nov.  3,  1834. 

CACHET.— (See  SKALED  LETTERS.) 

CAD  AN  (Treaty),  concluded  at  this  town  in 
Bohemia,  June  29,  1534,  between  Ferdinand, 
King  of  the  Romans,  and  Ulric  VI.,  Duke  of 
Wurtemberg.  Ulric  was  recognized  as  legiti- 
mate governor  of  his  duchy,  on  condition  that 
it  should  become  a  fief  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
to  be  absorbed,  on  the  extinction  of  the  ducal 
line,  into  the  imperial  dominions.  The  con- 
federates of  Smalcald,  who  were  parties  to  the 
treaty,  recognized  Ferdinand  as  King  of  the 
Romans. 

CADDEE  LEAGUE  originated  in  Switzer- 
land, and  was  occasioned  by  an  alliance  formed 
between  the  subjects  of  Hartmann,  Bishop  of 
Coire,  and  the  Counts  of  "Werdenberg,  in  1396. 
The  peasantry  of  Upper  Rhsetia  assembled  by 
night  at  Trons  in  1400,  and  exacted  from  their 
feudal  lords  a  recognition  of  their  right  to  inde- 
pendence, justice,  and  security.  A  second  league, 
formed  at  the  same  place  in  May,  1424,  was  at- 
tended by  the  nobles  as  well  as  by  the  peasantry, 
and  all  present  pledged  themselves  to  unite  for 
the  maintenance  of  justice  and  public  safety. 
Owing  to  the  predominant  colour  of  the  cos- 
tumes at  this  meeting,  it  is  known  as  the  Grey 
League,  or  League  of  the  Orisons  (q.  v.).  A  similar 
alliance,  the  third  league,  known  as  the  League 
of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions,  was  established  in  1436, 
and  in  1471  the  three  confederacies  met  at  the 
village  of  Vazerol,  and  united  for  mutual  de- 
fence and  assistance. 

CADESIA  (Battle).— The  Saracens  defeated 
the  Persians  on  this  plain,  near  Cufa,  in  636. 
Some  authorities  are,  however,  of  opinion  that 
this  battle  was  fought  early  in  635.  The  battle 
lasted  four  days,  and  the  different  periods  were 
distinguished  by  peculiar  appellations.  The 
first  was  called  the  day  of  succour,  because  a 
Syrian  reinforcement  reached  the  army ;  the 
second  the  day  of  concussion,  the  third  the  day 
of  embittered  war,  and  the  fourth  of  cormorants, 
or  howling,  or  barking.  The  Saracens  sacked 
Ctesiphon,  and  obtained  the  province  of  Irak, 
or  Assyria. 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.— Several  risings 
took  place  indifferent  parts  of  England  in  1450, 
caused  by  general  dislike  of  the  Duke  of  Suf- 
folk. The  most  formidable  was  excited  in 
Kent  during  the  month  of  May,  by  John  Cade, 
an  Irish  soldier  of  fortune,  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Mortimer,  called  himself  John  Amend- 
all,  and  claimed  relationship  with  the  Duke  of 
York.  He  encamped  on  Blackheath  June  i, 
defeated  the  royal  army  at  Sevenoaks  June  27, 
and  slew  its  commander,  Sir  Humphrey  Staf- 
ford. Their  demands  were  set  forth  in  15 
articles.  Cade  entered  London  July  i,  beheaded 
Lords  Say  and  Sele,  and  others,  July  3,  and  was 
expelled  by  the  citizens  July  5.  He  was  killed 
by  Alexander  Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  July  n, 
and  his  head  was  exhibited  on  London  Bridge. 
Several  of  his  followers  were  executed. 

CADETS'  COLLEGE  (Sandhurst).  —  The 
junior  department  of  the  Royal  Military  Col- 


CADIZ 


[     192     1 


CAFFRARIA 


lege  was  remodelled  and  received  this  name 
in  1858. 

CADIZ  (Spain\  the  ancient  Gadir,  Latin 
form  Gades,  was  the  seat  of  a  Phoenician 
colony  B.C.  uoo.  The  inhabitants  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Rome  B.C.  212,  and  this  was 
confirmed' B.C.  78.  Julius  Caesar  conferred  the 
civitas  on  all  its  citizens  B.C.  49,  and  it  was 
made  a  municipium  by  Augustus.  The  Goths, 
destroyed  it  on  their  invasion  of  Spain,  415 — 
418,  and  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  in  the 
gth  century.  The  Moors  held  it  for  many 
years,  until  it  was  wrested  from  them  by 
Alonzo  the  Wise  in  1262.  It  was  made  a  bishop- 
ric in  1264.  Sir  Francis  Drake  burned  several 
ships  in  its  harbour  April  19,  1587  ;  and  Lord 
Howard  of  Effingham  and  the  Earl  of  Essex 
captured  Cadiz  June  21,  1596.  Two  galleons, 
13  ships  of  war,  and  24  merchantmen,  were 
taken  or  burned.  The  town  was  plundered  and 
the  fortifications  were  destroyed.  An  English 
expedition  failed  in  an  attack  in  1625,  and 
another  Aug.  15,  1702.  Nelson  bombarded  it 
July  3  and  5,  1797.  Victor  invested  it  in  1810, 
and  raised  the  siege  Aug.  12,  1812.  Insurrec- 
tions broke  out  July  7,  1819,  and  Jan.  i,  1820, 
and  massacres  ensued  March  9  and  10  in  the 
latter  year.  It  was  taken  from  the  revolutii.n- 
ary  Cortes  by  the  French,  under  the  Duke 
d'Angouleme,  Oct.  3,  1823,  and  held  by  them 
until  1828.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  one  built  in 
1597,  and  the  other  commenced  in  1720,  and 
completed  in  1840.  Its  academy  of  arts  was 
founded  in  1789. 

CADMIUM. —This  metal  was  discovered  by 
M.  Stromeyer  in  1817. 

CADSANl)  Zealand).— This  island  wa*  cap- 
tured, its  Fleming  garrison  defeated,  and  the 
town  sacked  and  burned,  by  the  Karl  of  Derby, 
Nov.  10,  1337.  It  was  overrun  by  the  repub- 
lican army  in  1797;  and  part  of  the  Walcheren 
expedition  landed  in  Cads.-md  July  29,  1809. 
It  was  ceded  to  France  by  tivaly,  .Murch,  1810, 
and  was  restored  to  Holland  at  the  close  of  the 
war. 

CECILIA  DIDIA  LEX,  enacted  B.C.  98, 
limited  the  legislative  power  of  the  Human 
tribes  by  prohibiting  the  promulgation  of 
any  law  containing  provisions  on  different  sub- 
jects, and  insisting  on  an  interval  of  seven 
days  between  the  proposing  and  passing  of  a 
bill. 

CAEN  (France),  originally  called  Cathern  or 
Cathorn,  was  an  important  city  in  the  ioth 
century.  Henry  I.  captured  it  in  1105,  Edward 
III.  in  1346,  and  Henry  V.  Sep.  4,  1417.  The 
French  recovered  it  in  1449,  and  it  lias  since 
remained  in  their  possession.  The  church  of 
the  abbey  of  St.  Etieniie,  now  the  cathedral, 
was  fovmded  by  William  I.  between  1061  and 
1070.  The  town  was  a  favourite  residence  of 
William  I.  and  his  wife  Matilda,  both  of  whom 
were  buried  here.  Louis  XI.  concluded  a  treaty 
at  Caen  with  the  Duke  of  Britanny,  Dec.  22, 
1465,  and  it  was  ratified  on  the  following  day. 
The  Girondists  raised  a  revolt  here  in  1793. 

CAERLEON,  or  CASTLE  OF  THE  LEGION 
(Monmouthshire),  the  Isca  Silurum  of  the 
Romans,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  chief 
city  of  Wales  when  it  formed  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, and  was  the  permanent  station  of  the 


second  legion  until  its  removal  in  the  sth 
century.  St.  Alban,  Aaron,  and  Julius,  the 
protomartyrs  of  England,  suffered  here  A.D. 
304.  The  seat  of  the  archbishopric  was  re- 
moved from  Caerleon  to  St.  David's  in  521 

CAERMARTHEN  v Wales  ,  the  ancient  Ma- 
ridunurn,  was  made  a  Roman  station  A.D.  70. 
Merlin,  the  Welsh  prophet,  is  said  to  have  been 
born  here  in  the  sth  century. 

CAERNARVON  Wales  .—Edward  I.  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  castle  in  1282,  which  was 
not  completed  for  10  years.  Edward  II.  was 
born  here  April  25,  1284.  Edward  I.  granted 
the  town  a  charter  in  1 284,  being  the  first  ac- 
corded to  any  town  in  Wales.  The  Welsh  cap- 
tured the  castle,  and  put  its  garrison  to  the 
sword  in  1294.  It  was  taken  and  retaken 
during  the  civil  wars. 

C.KSAHKA  (Cappadoda),  originally  called 
Mazaca,  afterwards  Eusebea,  which  was 
changed  to  Cresarea  by  Tiberius  (A.D.  14—37', 
and  founded  by  Aram,  King  of  Armenia,  B.C. 
1827,  was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  (Japji.i- 
docia.  It  was  taken  by  Tigranes,  and  by  the 
Persians  under  Sapor,  about  A.D.  260,  and 
again  under  Chosroes  II.  in  612.  The  gospel 
was  preached  here  by  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  ; 
and  it  became  the  metropolitan  see  of  Pontus. 
A  council  was  held  at  Cajsarea  in  365. 

C/ESAREA  (Palestine),  founded  by  Herod 
the  Great  B.C.  10,  and  named  in  honour  of 
Caesar  Augustus,  was  the  Roman  capital  of 
Judea.  St.  Paul  appeared  before  Felix,  and 
was  imprisoned  at  Cassarea  A.D.  58  (Acts  xxiii. 
33—35;-  An  insurrection  occurred  here  about 
65,  when  20,000  Jews  were  massacred  in  one 
hour.  It  was  made  a  metropolitan  see  at  an 
early  period.  Councils  were  held  here  in  334 
and  358.  It  must  not,  however,  be  confounded 
with  Cfesarca  Philippi,  another  town  in  Pales- 
linc  .MaM.  xvi.  13  . 

C.KSAIiKA  PHILIPPI  (Palestine).  —  This 
city  was  founded  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch  (who 
died  A.D.  33),  near  a  cave  which  the  Syrian 
Greeks  had  dedicated  to  Pan,  whence  it  was 
sometimes  called  Paneas.  It  was  the  northern 
limit  of  our  Saviour's  wanderings  (Matt.  xvi. 
13,  and  Mark  viii.  27). 

C.ESAREWITCH.— (See  HORSE  RACING  ) 

C^SARS,  ;Era  of.— (See  SPAIN,  JEra.  of.) 

c.KSIUM.— This  metal,  closely  resembling 
potassium,  discovered  by  Bunsen  by  means  of 
the  spectrum  (q.  v.),  was  made  known  by  him 
in  1861. 

CAFFA  (Crimea),  built  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Theodosia,  or  Feodosia,  was  captured 
by  the  Genoese  in  1261.  It  was  wrested  from 
them  by  the  Venetians  in  1296,  but  they  re- 
covered it  in  1299.  The  Turks  took  it  in  1475, 
the  Russians  in  1783,  and  it  was  ceded  to  them 
by  the  treaty  of  Jassy,  Jan.  9,  1792.  Caffa 
was  made  a  free  port  in  1806. 

CAFFRARIA  (South  Africa)  appears  to  have 
been  quite  unknown  in  1718,  as  it  is  not  men- 
tioned in  Peter  Kolbe  or  Kolben's  "  The  Pre- 
sent State  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  pub 
lished  in  that  year.  In  1797  Barrow  explored 
part  of  Caffraria,  and  obtained  the  first 
authentic  information  as  to  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  Caffres.  The  interior  was  ex- 
plored by  Duncan  in  1844,  and  by  Iluxton  in 


CAFFRE 


CAIRO 


1845.  A  part  of  Caffraria  was  made  an  English 
colony  in  1848.  (See  CAFFKE  WAR.) 

CAFFEE  WAR.— The  settlers  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  came  into  frequent  collision  with 
the  Caffres  between  the  years  1798  and  1811. 
In  1819  the  Caffres,  led  by  Makanna,  a  pre- 
tended prophet,  attacked  Graham's  Town,  but 
were  repelled  and  forced  to  purchase  peace  by 
a  cession  of  territory.  In  1828  they  were  de- 
feated, and  in  1834  they  again  invaded  the 
English  settlements  under  their  chief  Charlie, 
who  carried  slaughter  and  devastation  wherever 
he  appeared.  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  expelled 
them  from  the  Tyumie  district  in  1846.  In  1850 
Sir  Harry  Smith  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
Cape  ;  and  the  Caffres  rose,  Dec.  24,  in  a  general 
insurrection,  and  treacherously  attacked  a 
British  force  of  600  men  in  the  Kriskamma 
defile.  They  blockaded  Sir  Harry  Smith  in 
Fort  Cox,  Dec.  29,  and  repelled  Col.  Somerset, 
who  came  to  his  assistance.  Fort  Hare  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Caffres,  who 
lost  more  than  100  men,  Jan.  21,  1851.  The 
Hottentots  rose  in  rebellion  May  31,  and  joined 
the  Caffre  chiefs,  who  continued  to  harass  the 
colonists.  Col.  Fordyce  and  several  other  offi- 
cers and  men  were  killed  in  a  battle  fought 
on  the  Waterkloof  Hills  in  Nov.  The  war 
continued  with  great  violence.  Sir  George 
Cathcart  succeeded  Sir  Harry  Smith  as  go- 
vernor April  9,  1852,  and  the  Caffres,  defeated 
Dec.  20,  near  the  Berea  mountain,  sued  for 
peace  Feb.  13,  1853.  A  meeting  between  the 
governor  and  the  chiefs  was  arranged,  and 
peace  was  restored  March  9. 

CAGLIARI  (Sardinia),  the  capital  of  the 
island,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Caralis, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians. It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 
The  Genoese  were  defeated  at  Cagliari  by  the 
united  Venetian  and  Catalan  forces  in  1352. 
The  university,  founded  in  1626,  was  re-estab- 
lished in  1764.  During  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  Cagliari  was  bombarded  and  taken 
in  1708,  and  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to 
declare  in  favour  of  Charles  III.  It  was  seized 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1717.  The  French  bom- 
barded the  town  in  1793,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
reducing  it  to  subjection.  The  King  of  Sar- 
dinia resided  at  Cagliari  from  1798  to  1814. 

CAGLIARI  AFFAIR.— The  Sardinian  steamer 
Cagliari,  trading  between  Genoa  and  Tunis, 
was  seized  by  some  armed  Sicilians  who  were 
on  board,  Jxine  27,  1857,  and  steered  by  them  to 
the  island  of  Ponza,  which  they  attacked,  re- 
leasing several  prisoners  and  capturing  arms  and 
ammunition.  They  then  landed  on  Neapolitan 
territory,  for  the  purpose  of  inciting  the  in- 
habitants against  the  government.  The  vessel, 
thus  left  to  continue  her  voyage,  was  sur- 
rendered by  the  captain  to  a  Neapolitan  frigate, 
on  the  high  seas,  and  her  crew,  with  two  Eng- 
lish engineers,  Watt  and  Park,  were  imprisoned 
at  Naples  on  a  charge  of  having  aided  in  an 
attempted  insurrection  on  Neapolitan  territory. 
Although  1 1  of  the  crew  deposed  that  the  Eng- 
lish prisoners  were  ignorant  of  the  objects  of  the 
expedition,  and  had  been  compelled  by  force  to 
work  the  engines,  they  were  kept  in  close  con- 
finement for  eight  months,  till  one  had  lost  his 
reason  and  both  sustained  serious  injury  to 


health.  They  were  liberated  in  consequence  of 
the  general  indignation  of  the  English  people, 
and  the  strong  representations  made  to  the 
Neapolitan  Government  by  the  English  Foreign 
Secretary,  the  Earl  of  Malmesbury.  Compen- 
sation having  been  demanded  on  behalf  of  the 
victims,  the  sum  of  ^3,000  was  conceded  by 
the  authorities  at  Naples,  June  8,  1858. 

CAGOTS.— This  proscribed  race,  existing  in 
the  Pyrenees,  are  said  by  some  to  have  de- 
scended from  the  fugitive  Goths  who  survived 
the  defeat  of  Alaric  II.,  near  Poitiers,  in  507. 
Others  refer  their  origin  to  the  Arabs  who  fled 
to  Gascony  on  the  defeat  of  Abd-el-Rahman, 
by  Charles  Martel,  in  732.  They  are  first  men- 
tioned about  1000,  when  they  were  under  the 
absolute  power  of  the  nobility.  In  1288  they 
were  forbidden  to  sell  articles  of  food,  and 
compelled  to  wear  a  peculiar  costume,  on  the 
alleged  ground  of  leprosy.  From  dopuments 
dated  1365  and  1385,  it  appears  that  the  Cagots 
then  dwelt  in  the  province  of  Beam  ;  but  they 
afterwards  appeared  in  Navarre,  Aragon,  and 
other  districts  in  the  north  of  Spain.  It  was 
not  till  May  13,  1515,  that  the  papal  bull  was 
published  which  established  them  in  the  com- 
monest rights  of  humanity ;  and  even  then  the 
privileges  obtained  were  limited  to  the  Cagots 
of  Navarre.  They  subsequently  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  Inquisition,  which  continued 
to  persecute  them  as  late  as  1755. 

CAHORS  (France).— This  town,  called  Divona 
by  the  Romans,  of  whose  architecture  many 
splendid  remains  still  exist  in  the  city  and 
neighbourhood,  was  made  a  bishopric  about 
257,  and  was  ravaged  by  the  Northmen  in  864. 
The  Pont  Valendre  was  built  in  the  i^ih  cen- 
tury. The  university,  founded  by  Pope 
John  XXI.  or  XXII.  in  1322,  was  united  in 
1751  to  that  of  Toulouse.  Cahors,  surrendered 
to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  May  8, 
1360,  revolted  and  returned  to  France  in  1428, 
and  was  seized  by  Henry  of  Navarre  in  1580. 
An  obelisk  in  honour  of  Fenelpn,  who  studied 
at  the  university,  was  erected  in  1820. 

CAIETA  (Italy).— This  port  of  Latium,  fre- 
quented by  traders  at  a  very  early  period,  was 
sacked  by  the  Cilician  pirates  before  their  con- 
quest by  Pompey,  B.C.  66.  The  town  and  har- 
bour, much  improved  by  Antoninus  Pius 
(A.D.  138 — 161),  formed  a  favourite  resort  of  the 
wealthier  Romans.  (See  GAETA.) 

CAI-FONG-FOU,  or  KAIFONG  (China),  the 
ancient  capital,  was  invested  by  the  Mongols 
about  1227,  and  yielded  in  1232.  It  was  be- 
sieged by  rebels  in  1642,  when  the  embank- 
ments were  destroyed,  and  300,000  persons 
perished  in  the  inundation. 

CAINITES,  or  CAINIANS.— A  Gnostic  sect 
that  arose  in  the  and  century.  They  pretended 
that  Cain  was  produced  by  a  superior  virtue  to 
that  which  produced  Abel,  who  was  thus  easily 
overcome.  They  honoured  all  the  worst  cha- 
racters mentioned  in  Scripture,  Judas  among 
the  number.  Origen  did  not  regard  them  as 
Christians. 

CAIRO,     GRAND    CAIRO,     or    CAHERA 
t),  the  "  Victorious,"  called  by  the  natives 


j,  the  capital  of  modern  Egypt,  w<*a 
founded  by  the  first  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs 
in  969,  and  became  the  chief  city  of  Egypt  iu 


CAIRVAN 


CALATRAVA 


973.  One  mosque,  built  in  879,  before  the 
foundation  of  the  city,  and  another,  finished 
in  1362,  are  among  its  most  remarkable  build- 
ings. On  the  approach  of  the  Crusaders  in 
1171  it  was  partially  burned  by  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  succeeded  in  saving  it  from  foreign 
occupation ;  and  a  second  attempt  to  surprise 
it,  made  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  was  defeated 
in  1249.  In  1382  it  passed  under  the  rule  of  the 
Mameluke  Kings  of  the  Circassian  or  Borgite 
dynasty,  during  whose  government  a  Tartar 
invasion,  under  Tamerlane,  was  successfully 
resisted  in  1393  and  1394.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
Jacobite  bishop,  who  possessed  the  rights  of  a 
metropolitan.  Councils  were  held  at  Cairo  in 
1086  and  1239.  In  1517  the  Turks  under 
Selim  I.  took  Cairo,  and  subverted  the  dynasty 
of  the  Egyptian  sultans.  In  1754  it  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake ;  and  in  July, 
1781,  the  plague  carried  off  many  inhabitants. 
Cairo  was  taken  July  21,  1798,  by  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  who  held  it  till  March  29,  1801, 
when  the  inhabitants  threw  off  the  French 

Joke.     It  was  taken  by  the  English  and  Turks 
une  27.     Cairo  was  the  scene  of  the  massa-ru 
of  the  Mamelukes,  by  order  of  Mehemet  AH, 
in  1811.     The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  Cairo  in 
March,  1862. 

CAIRVAN,  or  KAIRWAN  Africa),  was 
founded,  in  670,  by  Akbah,  the  Saracenic 
conqueror  of  Africa.  A  city  of  the  same  name 
had  been  built  by  his  predecessor,  but  Akbah, 
not  liking  the  site,  determined  upon  erecting 
another.  It  was  about  33  leagues  from  Car- 
thage. 

CAITHNESS  (Scotland).  — This,  the  most 
northern  part  of  the  mainland  of  Great  Britain, 
was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  established  about 
1066,  and  suppressed  at  the  Revolution.  New 
harbour  works  in  course  of  construction  were 
severely  injured  by  a  storm,  Oct.  20,  1864. 

CAIUS  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— Edmund 
Gonville  in  1348  obtained  letters  patent  from 
Edward  III.  to  found  a  college  called  after  him 
Gonville  Hall.  At  his  death  in  1350  William 
Bateman,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  undertook  the 
care  of  the  Hall,  calling  it  "the  College  or 
House  of  the  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin  Mary." 
He  enlarged  the  statutes  in  1353.  Dr.  John 
Cains  obtained  a  charter  of  foundation  in  1557, 
and  dedicated  it  March  25,  1558,  and  it  has 
since  been  named  Cains  College.  A  new  body 
of  statutes  was  drawn  up  and  approved  by  the 
Queen  in  council  in  1860. 

"  CALABRIA  -Italy)  was  anciently  peopled  by 
the  Messapians,  who  possessed  some  of  the 
arts  of  civilization,  as  early  as  B.C.  708.  They 
suffered  much  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Taren- 
tines,  whom  they  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
ter B.C.  473.  Another  battle  was  fought  B.C. 
338.  The  Romans  took  possession  of  Calabria 
B.C.  266,  and  suppressed  a  rebellion  in  favour 
of  Hannibal  B.C.  213.  The  province  subse- 
quently formed  part  of  the  empire,  until  con- 
quered by  Odoacer,  A.D.  476.  On  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Odoacer,  in  493,  it  formed  part  of 
the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  of  Theodoric,  until 
sold  to  Justinian  by  Theodatus,  in  536.  Alboin, 
King  of  the  Lombards,  took  it  in  570,  and 
made  it  part  of  the  duchy  of  Benevento ; 
and  in  828  its  richest  towns  were  pillaged  by 


the  Saracens,  who  made  a  permanent  settle- 
ment at  Bari  in  842.  In  the  nth  century  it 
was  conquered  by  Robert  Guiscard,  the  Nor- 
man, who,  in  1051,  was  installed  Duke  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  together  with  all  the 
lands  he  could  rescue  from  the  infidels.  The 
Emperor  Manuel  I.,  in  1155,  despatched  Michael 
Palaeologus  to  conquer  Calabria ;  but  the  suc- 
cess gained  was  merely  temporary,  as  William 
I.  of  Sicily  expelled  the  invaders  the  following 
year.  Calabria  has  since  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  It  was  erected 
into  a  dukedom  in  1597.  Garibaldi  landed  here 
on  his  invasion  of  Italy,  Aug.  23,  1862,  and  was 
defeated  at  Aspromonte  (q.  v.)  Aug.  29. 

CALAH  (Assyria).— This,  the  second  city  of 
the  Assyrian  empire,  founded  by  Shalmaneser 
I.  about  B.C.  1290,  was  improved  by  Asshur- 
idanni-pal  (B.C.  884—6.0.  859),  who  made  it 
the  residence  of  his  court.  Shalmaneser  II. 
(B.C.  859 — B.C.  824)  and  Esar-haddon  (B.C.  680 — 
B.C.  667)  erected  spacious  palaces  here,  and 
Saracus  or  Asshur-emid-ilin,  the  last  King  of 
Assyria  (B.C.  647  —  B.C.  625),  commenced  a 
much  smaller  edifice,  which  he  was  unable  to 
complete.  Its  ruins  still  exist,  and  the  edifice, 
according  to  Rawlinson  (Ancient  Monarchies 
ii.  517),  "contrasts  most  painfully  with  the 
palatial  erections  of  former  kings."  Nimroud 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Calah. 

CALAIS  (France I  was  only  a  fishing  vil- 
lage until  997,  when  Baldwin  IV.,  Count  of 
Flanders,  improved  the  harbour,  and  erected 
fortifications.  Philippe,  Count  of  Boulogne, 
extended  its  defences  in  1224,  and  built  a  castle 
in  1227.  It  suffered  greatly  during  the  wars 
between  England  and  France.  Edward  III. 
invested  it  in  Sep.,  1346,  and  it  surrendered 
Aug.  4,  1347.  The  French  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  regain  possession  in  1349.  Wolsey  \s 
to  mediate  between  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
and  Francis  I.  of  France;  but  the  conferences, 
held  in  Aug.,  1521,  proved  ineffectual.  Henry 
VJII.  landed  here  on  his  invasion  of  France, 
July  14,  1544.  The  castle  surrendered  to  the 
Duke  of  Guise  Jan.  6,  and  the  town  itself  Jan. 
7,  1558.  By  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis 
(April  2,  1559)  Calais  was  to  be  restored  to  the 
English,  if  no  act  of  hostility  were  committed 
in  eight  years.  This  engagement  was  not,  how- 
ever, fulfilled,  and  Calais  passed  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  English,  who  had  held  it  210 
years.  Henry  VIII.  granted  to  Calais  the 
privilege  of  representation  in  the  English  Par- 
liament, and  this  it  continued  to  exercise 
during  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  Mary. 
The  Spaniards  took  Calais  April  24,  1596,  and 
retained  possession  until  1598.  Several  acts 
relating  to  Calais  will  be  found  in  the  statute- 
book,  under  the  reigns  of  many  of  our  kings 
to  the  time  of  Edward  VI.  Charles  II.  resided 
here  in  1659. 

CALATAYUD  (Spain).— This  town,  near  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Bilbilis,  in  Aragon,  was 
wrested  from  the  Moors  by  Alphonso  VII.  in 

"CALATRAVA.  —  This  order  of  knighthood 
was  instituted  by  Sancho  III.  of  Castile,  in 
1158.  His  father  having  taken  the  town  of 
Calatrava  from  the  Moors  in  1147,  intrusted  its 
defence  to  the  Templars.  They  resigned  it  to 


CALATRAVA 


CALENDAR 


Sancho  III.  in  1158,  when  Raymond,  abbot  of 
a  Cistercian  monastery,  undertook  to  defend 
it,  and  the  order  was  instituted.  It  was  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in  1164.  Having 
been  defeated  by  the  Moors,  they  took  refuge 
in  the  castle  of  Salvatierra,  by  which  name 
they  were  some  time  known,  and  in  1212  they 
returned  to  Calatrava.  The  grandmastership 
was  united  to  the  crown  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  in  1487. 

CALATRAVA  LA  VIEJA,  or  OLD  CALA- 
TRAVA (Spain).— This  town,  of  which  only 
the  ruins  remain,  was  taken  from  the  Moors  in 
1147.  (&ee  CALATRAVA.) 

CALCIUM,  the  metallic  basis  of  lime,  was 
discovered  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1808. 

CALCULATING  MACHINE,  or  DIFFER- 
ENCE ENGINE.— The  swanpanof  the  Chinese, 
and  the  Roman  abacus  (q.  v.},  were  employed 
in  early  times  for  performing  arithmetical 
operations.  Pascal,  born  in  1623,  and  Leibnitz, 
in  1646,  invented  machines  of  this  kind.  Sir 
Samuel  Morland  also  constructed  machines  for 
performing  some  of  the  simpler  operations  of 
arithmetic  about  1670.  Mr.  Babbage's  differ- 
ence-engine was  commenced  in  July,  1823, 
government  having  granted  .£1,500  to  be  em- 
ployed in  perfecting  the  invention.  Owing  to 
misunderstandings  with  the  draughtsman,  the 
undertaking  was  suspended  in  1833,  at  which 
time  it  had  cost  £17,000.  This  machine  was 
removed  to  King's  College,  London,  in  1843. 
The  Messrs.  Scheutz,  of  Stockholm,  who  took 
the  idea  from  Dr.  Lardner's  article  on  Mr.  Bab- 
bage's machine  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  July,  1834,  succeeded,  in  Oct.,  1853,  after 
many  years  of  labour,  in  completing  a  similar 
machine.  They  exhibited  it  in  England  in 
1854,  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  in  1855,  and  it 
was  purchased  for  the  Dudley  Observatory, 
Albany,  in  the  United  States. 

CALCUTTA  (Hindostan).— When  the  East 
India  Company  removed  their  factory  from  the 
Hooghley  in  1686,  the  site  on  which  Calcutta 
now  stands  was  occupied  by  one  of  the  villages 
afterwards  granted  to  them  by  Aurungzebe. 
Fort  William  was  erected  in  1700,  and  Calcutta, 
now  the  chief  city  of  Bengal,  and  the  metro- 
polis of  the  English  dominions  in  India,  was 
soon  after  commenced. 

A.D. 

1707.  Calcutta  is  made  a  separate  presidency. 
1743.  A  ditch  is  dug  round  a  portion  of  Calcutta. 
l753.  Defences  are  commenced. 

1756,  June  2,0.  Calcutta  is  taken  by  Surajah  Dowlah.     (See 

BLACK-HOLE.) 

1757,  Jan.   i.  Watson  and  dive  anchor  in  the  Hooghley. 

—Jan.  2.  They  plant  the  British  standard  on  the 
walls  of  Calcutta. 

1758,  Meer  Jaffier  grants  the  free  tenure  of  Calcutta  to 

the  East  India  Company. 

J|773,  July  >  •  Calcutta  is  made  the  residence  of  the  Governor- 
General,  and  a  supreme  Court  of  Judicature  is 
established. 

1793.  The  High  Court  of  Criminal  Appeal  is  established. 

1801.  The  university  is  founded. 

1804.  The  Government  House  is  erected. 

1813.  A  bishopric  is  established  at  Calcutta, 

1830.  Bishop's  College  is  founded. 

1839.  General  Assembly's  Institution  for  extending  a 
knowledge  of  Christianity  among  the  Native 
Youth,  is  founded  by  the  Scotch  Church.  The  In- 
solvent Court  is  established. 

1833.  The  Bishop  of  Calcutta  is  made  metropolitan.  A  high 
tide  in  the  Hooghley  commits  great  destruction. 


1836.  The  Martiniere,  an  institution  founded  by  Gen. 
Claude  Martin,  for  the  education  and  maintenance 
of  indigent  native  Chiistian  children,  is  opened. 

1855,  Jan.  35.  Au  industrial  exhibition  is  opened. 

1864,  Oct.  5.  A  violent  hurricane  or  cyclone  lays  waste  a 
gieat  part  of  Calcutta,  destroying  nearly  300 
vessels,  and  thousands  of  houses,  and  causing  a 
loss  of  70,000  lives,  according  to  the  lowest  offlcia 
estimate. 

CALDIERO  (Battles).— Napoleon  Buonaparte 
was  defeated  in  a  sanguinary  engagement  at 
this  strong  position,  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Caldarium,  celebrated  for  its  thermal  springs, 
between  Verona  and  Vicenza,  Nov.  n,  1796,  by 
Alvinzi,  at  the  head  of  an  Austrian  army 
superior  in  point  of  numbers. — Massena,  at 
the  head  of  a  French  and  Italian  army, 
attacked  the  Austrians  in  this  position  Oct.  29 
and  30,  1806,  and  after  a  gallant  struggle  was 
repulsed,  and  retreated  to  Verona. 

CALEDONIA.— (See  BRITISH  COLUMBIA  and 
SCOTLAND). 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL  (Scotland),  connect- 
ing the  North  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  is 
navigable  for  ships  of  500  or  600  tons  burden. 
In  1773  James  Watt  showed  the  practicability 
of  executing  this  work,  which  was  commenced 
by  Telford  in  Sep.,  1803,  and  was  opened  Oct. 
23, 1822.  In  1837  and  1838  the  works  sustained 
considerable  injury,  and  as  the  expenditure 
far  exceeded  the  revenue,  the  idea  of  abandon- 
ing the  undertaking  was  seriously  entertained. 
An  act  was  obtained  in  1840  to  permit  the 
transfer  of  the  canal  to  a  joint-stock  company  ; 
but  the  project  was  not  carried  out. 

CALENDAR.— The  Jews  and  some  ancient 
nations  divided  the  year  into  12  lunar  months, 
a  1 3th  being  added  from  time  to  time  to  ac- 
commodate it  to  the  seasons.  The  year  amongst 
the  ancient  Egyptians  consisted  of  12  months, 
each  of  which  contained  30  days.  At  the  end 
of  the  year  five  supplementary  days  were 
added.  The  Greeks  for  a  considerable  period 
made  the  year  consist  of  12  lunar  months. 
Solon,  B.C.  594,  introduced  a  change  respect- 
ing the  length  of  the  months,  making  them 
of  29  and  30  days  alternately.  An  intercalary 
month  was  occasionally  introduced  to  restore 
the  balance.  Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided 
the  year  into  10  months,  of  which  March  was 
the  first.  This  year  consisted  of  304  days, 
and  was  the  original  Roman  calendar.  Numa 
added  two  months,  January  at  the  com- 
mencement, and  February  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  and  caused  an  additional  month,  con- 
sisting of  22  and  23  days  alternately,  to  bo 
inserted  every  second  year.  The  Decem- 
virs altered  this  arrangement  B.C.  452,  by 
placing  February  after  January.  Confusion 
having  arisen  in  these  calculations,  Julius 
Caesar  abolished  the  use  of  the  intercalations 
B.C.  46.  He  adjusted  the  year  according  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  the  months 
the  number  of  days  which  they  now  contain. 
He  added  an  intercalary  day  to  February  every 
four  years.  The  new  system,  arranged  by 
Sosigenes,  an  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  whom 
Ca?sar  invited  to  Rome  for  the  purpose,  com- 
menced Jan.  i,  B.C.  46,  and  was  called  the 
Julian  or  solar  year.  This  arrangement  was 
disturbed  by  the  Emperor  Augustus.  The 
o  a 


CALENDS 


[     196    ] 


CALIXTINES 


consequence  was,  that  the  equinox,  which,  on 
the  introduction  of  the  Julian  calendar,  fell 
March  29,  retrograded  so  much  that  in  the  year 
1582  it  fell  March  n.  Gregory  XIII.,  by  a 
bull  dated  Feb.  24,  1582,  effected  another 
reformation,  which  is  now  generally  adopted 
and  is  called  the  Gregorian  calendar.  He 
ordered  10  days  to  be  deducted,  making  Oct. 
5,  1582,  to  reckon  as  the  isth.  In  order  to 
render  the  civil  and  the  natural  year  of  the 
same  length,  he  ordered  that  every  jooth 
year,  excepting  the  fourth,  commencing  with 
2000,  should  not  be  a  leap-year.  Thus,  whilst 
1700,  1800,  and  1900  are  not  leap-years,  1600 
was  ;  and  2000  will  be,  but  2100,  2200,  and  2300 
will  be  common  years.  (See  NEW  STYLE  and 
REVOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR.) 

CALENDS,  in  the  Roman  calendar,  the  firsl 
day  of  the  month.  Nicolas  says,  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  term  was  sometimes  used  for  the 
first  day  of  the  preceding  month,  on  which  the 
calends  of  the  ensuing  month  began  to  be 
reckoned. 

CALETES,  or  CALETL— This  Belgic  tribe, 
which  numbered  10,000  fighting  men  B.C.  57, 
attempted  to  relieve  Vercingetorix  during  the 
siege  of  Alise  (q.  v.)  by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  52, 
and  assisted  the  Bellovaci  against  the  Romans 
B.C.  51. 

CALICO,  so  called  from  Calicut,  a  city  of 
India,  has  been  manufactured  in  Hindostan 
from  time  immemorial.  The  first  importation 
was  made  by  the  East  India  Company  in  1631, 
and  the  printing  was  commenced  in  London  in 
1676.  In  1768  this  branch  of  industry  was  in- 
troduced into  Lancashire.  In  consequence  of  the 
hostility  of  the  Spitalfields  silk-weavers,  the 
importation  of  Indian  calicoes  was  prohibited 
in  1700,  and  by  7  Geo.  I.  c.  7  (1721)  it  was  made 
illegal  to  wear  any  printed  calico  whatever. 
By  a  Geo.  II.  c.  4  (1736)  the  use  of  calico 
partly  made  of  linen  was  permitted ;  and  by 
14  Geo.  III.  c.  72  (1774)  cloth  entirely  of  cotton 
was  sanctioned.  By  i  Will.  IV.  c.  17  (March  15, 
1831^,  all  laws  restricting  calico-printing  were 
finally  repealed,  and  the  manufacture  has  since 
rapidly  increased. 

CALICUT  (Hindostan)  was  the  first  port  in 
India  reached  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  1497.  The 
Portuguese  attacked  and  burned  Calicut  in  1510. 
They  were  repulsed,  but  obtained  permission 
to  erect  a  factory  in  1513.  The  English  East 
India  Company  established  their  factory  in 
1616.  Hyder  Ali  seized  the  town  in  1766,  and 
compelled  the  inhabitants  to  remove  to  Nellaru, 
afterwards  called  Furruckabad.  The  English 
took  Calicut  Feb.  12,  1782  ;  Tippoo  Saib  ob- 
tained possession  in  1789,  and  completely  de- 
stroyed the  town.  The  country  was  finally 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1792,  and  the  people 
returned  and  rebuilt  the  town. 

CALIFORNIA  (N.  America)  was  discovered 
by  Grijalva  in  1534,  and  visited  in  1537  by 
Cortes.  Its  coasts  were  explored  by  Cabrillo 
in  1542 ;  but  no  European  settlement  was 
formed  till  a  subsequent  period.  It  is  now 
divided  into  Lower  and  Upper  California  ;  the 
former  had  been  previously  called  Old  and  the 
latter  New  California.  Sir  Francis  Drake  landed 
near  the  site  of  the  present  San  Francisco  in 
June,  1579.  In  the  account  of  the  proceedings 


of  the  expedition  in  this  part  of  America,  it  is 
stated,  "  There  is  no  part  of  earth  here  to  be 
taken  up,  wherein  there  is  not  special  likelihood 
of  gold  or  silver."  Capt.  George  Shelvocke, 
who  visited  California  in  Aug.,  1719,  declared 
that  gold-dust  was  promiscuously  and  univer- 
sally mingled  with  the  common  earth,  and  he 
brought  away  some  of  the  soil  for  the  purpose 
of  making  further  investigations.  This  was, 
however,  lost  in  China,  and  the  actual  discovery 
of  the  gold  was  reserved  for  the  igth  century. 

A.D. 

1578.  Sir  Francis  Drake  takes  possession,  on  behalf  of 
Queen  Kli/.ab,  th,  of  the  northern  part  of  Cali- 
fornia, calling  it  Xew  Albion. 

1698.  The  Spanish  Jesuits  establish  the  first  European 
settlements  in  California. 

1768.  The  Spanish  Jesuits  are  succeeded  by  the  Francis- 

1823.  Revolution,  by  which  California  is  separated  from 
Spain. 

1829.  Revolt  among  the  Californians  and  Indians  at 
Monterey. 

1831.  Don  Manuel  Victoria  becomes  governor,  and  occa- 
sions an  insurrection  by  his  tyranny. 

1833.  The  .Mexican  Government  seizes  all  the  missionary 
stations  of  the  Spanish  priests,  and  declares 
tin-in  public  property. 

1836,  Nov.  Overthrow  of  the  Mexican  dominion  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

1840.  All  foreigners  are  expelled  from  California. 

1846,  California  is   occupied  by   the  army  of  the   United 

Stales.— Sep.    24.    Monterey  is    captured    by    the 
United  States  army. 

1847,  Sep.    Cold  is  discovered  on  the  Sacramento  River. 

1848,  Feb.  2.    Upper  California   is  ceded    to   the    United 

States. 
1850.  California  is  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign 

slate. 
1860.  Towards  the  end  of  this  year  the  assembly  resolves 

in  favour  of  maintaining  its  connection  with  the 

United  States  Government. 


CALIGRAPIIY.—  Varro,  who  died  B.C.  28,  is 
commended  by  Cicero  for  the  elegance  with 
which  he  adorned  his  manuscripts;  and  Se- 
neca, A.D.  65,  speaks  of  books  ornamented 
with  figures.  Charlemagne  (800 — 814)  was  a 
munificent  patron  of  professors  of  caligraphy, 
as  was  also  the  Emperor  Basilius  I.  (867 — 886). 
About  1150  great  progress  began  to  be  made 
in  the  art,  and  Charles  V.  of  France  (1364 — 1380) 
granted  special  protection  to  caligraphic  paint- 
ing in  France  and  Flanders. 

CALIPH.— This  title  was  first  borne  by  Abu 
Beker,  who  succeeded  Mohammed  in  632. 

CALIPPIC  PERIOD.— Calippus  of  Cyzicus, 
said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Plato,  lived  about 
B.C.  330.  He  discovered  and  corrected  the  error 
of  the  Metonic  cycle,  which  was  composed  of  235 
lunations,  or  periods  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon,  containing  a  few  hours  more  than  19 
years.  Calippus  observed  that  a  more  correct 
period  might  be  formed  by  taking  four  times 
the  period  of  Meton,  all  but  one  day,  or  27,759 
days,  very  nearly  76  years.  The  Calippic  cycle 
is  therefore  four  Metonic  cycles  all  but  one 
day.  The  first  dated  from  July,  B.C.  330,  and 
corresponded  with  the  third  year  of  the  ii2th 
Olympiad,  and  to  A.U.C.  423. 

CALIXTINES.— In  1420  a  schism  broke  out 
amongst  the  Hussites,  and  they  separated  into 
two  factions,  the  Calixtines  and  the  Taborites. 
The  former  derived  their  name  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  they  insisted  on  the  use  of  the 
cup  (calyx,  the  Greek  word)  in  the  Eucharist. 


CALIYUGA 


CALPEE 


The  difference  between  the  Calixtines  and  the 
Roman  Catholics  was  very  slight,  and  they 
were  reconciled  to  the  Pope  in  1433.  They  de- 
feated the  Taborites  in  a  great  battle  at 
Lippau  (q.  v.},  May  28,  1434.  In  1458  they  per- 
secuted the  original  Hussites,  whom  they  ex- 
pelled from  Bohemia  in  1497. Also  a  Lu- 
theran sect,  the  followers  of  George  Calixtus 
of  Helmstadt,  who  flourished  1586 — 1656,  and 
endeavoured  to  unite  the  various  branches  of 
the  Romish,  Lutheran,  and  Reformed  Churches. 
He  was  assailed  by  Buscher  in  1639,  and  other 
Lutheran  divines. 

CALIYUGA.— The  Hindoo  sera  of  the 
Deluge.  Hales  remarks  "  Though  the  date  of 
the  astronomical  sera  Call  yuga  be  invariably 
fixed  to  B.C.  3102,  the  historical  sera "  of  that 
name  fluctuates  considerably. 

B.C. 

"  The  Bhagavat  reckons  it      1913 

The  Vishnu  Purana        1905 

Other  Puranas 1370 

The  followers  of  Jina    1078." 

CALLAO  (Peru),  the  port  of  Lima,  from 
which  it  is  seven  miles  distant,  was  founded 
during  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  (1621—1665). 
In  1746,  the  original  city  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  and  covered  by  the  sea.  It  surren- 
dered Sep.  22,  1821,  during  the  Peruvian  war 
of  independence.  In  the  struggle  between 
Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres,  Callao  capitulated 
after  a  siege  of  two  years'  duration,  Jan.  23, 
1826.  Severe  shocks  of  an  earthquake  were 
felt  here  in  the  middle  of  April,  1860. 

CALLIAS  (Treaties).— A  compact  between 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  King  of  Persia,  and 
the  Greeks,  concluded  at  Susa  by  the  Athenian 
envoy  Callias,  B.C.  449,  fixed  a  boundary  be- 
tween the  territories  of  the  contracting  parties, 
who  agreed  to  abstain  from  aggressions  either 
upon  the  Greek  colonies  of  Western  Asia,  or 
the  Persian  dependencies  of  Egypt  and  Cyprus. 
The  jealousy  of  the  Greek  states  soon  led  them 
to  invoke  the  aid  of  Persia  against  each  other, 
and  thus  neutralized  the  intended  benefit  of 

this  treaty. A  second  peace,  concluded  at 

Sparta  by  the  Lacedsemonians  and  Athenians, 
and  their  allies,  B.C.  371,  assured  the  indepen- 
dence of  each  Greek  city,  subject  to  certain 
rights  due  to  Sparta  as  the  supreme  state  on 
land,  and  to  Athens  as  queen  of  the  sea.  This 
treaty  was  also  named  from  one  of  the  Athe- 
nian envoys. 

CALLINGHUR  (Hindostan).  —Mohammed 
of  Ghuznee  failed  in  an  attempt  to  capture  this 
stronghold  in  1024 ;  and  Sher  Shah,  the  Affghan 
leader,  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  in  1543. 
The  English  failed  in  an  attempt  to  carry  it  by 
storm  Feb.  2,  1812  ;  but  the  fort  surrendered 
Feb.  7. 

CALLINICUM  (Battle).— The  Persians  de- 
feated Belisarixis  near  this  small  town  on  the 
Persian  frontier,  Easter  Sunday,  April  20, 
A.r>.  531. 

CALMAR  (Sweden).— The  celebrated  treaty 
known  as  the  "  Union  of  Calmar,"  by  which 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  were  united 
into  one  kingdom,  under  Queen  Margaret,  was 
concluded  at  this  town  in  Sweden  July  12,  1397. 
The  Union  was  finally  dissolved  by  Gustavus 
Vasa,  in  1523.  A  large  portion  of  the  town 


was  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which  broke  out  Oct. 
18,  1765,  and  raged  till  Oct.  21. 

CALMUCKS.— This  name  was  given  to  one 
of  the  three  principal  Tartar  divisions  by  the 
Mohammedan  Mongols.  Expelled  from  China 
in  1672,  they  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga. 
Repeatedly  invited  to  return,  the  great  trans- 
migration of  these  hordes  commenced  in  Jan., 
1771,  when  above  300,000  set  out  for  their 
original  seat  in  China.  By  the  end  of  May 
they  crossed  the  Torgan,  after  a  march  in 
which  they  endured  such  terrible  hardships 
that  250,000  of  their  number  perished  in  its 
progress.  In  June  they  were  compelled  to 
resume  their  journey  by  an  army  of  Bashkirs  ; 
and  they  arrived  in  China  Sep.  8,  and  were 
permitted  to  enjoy  rest  and  prosperity  after 
their  adversities. 

CALNEH  (Assyria).— This  city,  founded  by 
Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  10)  about  B.C.  2218,  was  after- 
•ards  called  Niffer. 

CALOMEL,  or  SUBCHLORIDE  OF  MER- 
CURY, is  said  to  have  been  prepared  by  the 
alchemists  ;  but  the  original  discoverer  is  un- 
known. Croillus,  writing  at  the  beginning  of 
the  1 7th  century,  speaks  of  its  preparation  as 
a  great  mystery.  Begum  made  the  process 
public  in  1608. 

CALORIC  ENGINE.— (See  ERICSSON'S  PA- 
TENT.) 

CALOTTISTES,  or  LE  REGIMENT  DE  LA 
CALOTTE.— This  association  of  wits,  formed 
in  France  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
(1643 — 1715),  received  its  name  from  its  custom 
of  sending  to  any  public  character  who  had 
exposed  himself  to  ridicule  a  "patent"  au- 
thorizing him  to  wear  the  calotte,  a  small  cap 
worn  by  the  monks  over  the  tonsure,  as  a 
protection  to  the  weak  part  of  his  head. 
Having  become  too  bold  in  its  satire  it  was 
dissolved  during  the  ministry  of  Cardinal 
Fleury  (1726 — 1743);  Memoires  pour  servir  a 
I'Histoire  de  la  Calotte  were  published  at  Basel 
in  1725.  (See  BABINE  REPUBLIC.) 

CALOTYPE  PROCESS  of  photography,  for 
producing  negative  pictures  on  paper,  was  first 
exhibited  by  H.  F.  Talbot  in  1840. 

CALPE.— (See  GIBRALTAR.) 

CALPEE,  or  KALPEE  (Battle).  —At  this 
town,  in  the  province  of  Agra,  Hindostan, 
the  first  engagement  took  place  between  the 
British,  under  Gen.  Carnac,  and  the  Mahrattas, 
May  20,  1765.  The  latter  were  completely 
routed,  and  driven  across  the  Jumna.  Sir 
Hugh  Rose  defeated  the  mutineers,  who  came 
out  from  Calpee  in  great  force,  and  attacked 
his  besieging  army  at  Gulowlie,  May  22,  1858. 

CALPEE,  or  KALPEE  (Hindostan),  said  to 
have  been  founded  before  A.D.  400,  was  seized 
by  the  Mohammedans  in  1 196,  and  surrendered 
by  the  Patan  sovereigns  of  Delhi  to  Baber  in 
1527.  In  1778  it  was  taken  from  the  Mah- 
rattas by  the  British,  and  it  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  by  the  treaty  of  Bassein, 
Dec.  31,  1802.  The  native  chief  in  possession, 
having,  however,  refused  to  deliver  up  the  tow 
it  was  besieged  and  taken  Dec.  4,  1803.  Its 
possession  was  confirmed  to  the  Company  in 
1806.  Sir  Hiigh  Rose,  who  arrived  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood May  15,  took  possession  of  Calpee 
May  23,  1858. 


CALVARY 


[     198     ] 


CAMBRAY 


CALVARY.— (&«  MOUNT  CAT,VAIIY.) 
c.MA'Ks'  iiKAD  CLUB  (London).— In  a  tract 

entitled  "The  Secret  History  of  tho  Calves'- 
Iload  Club;  or,  Tin:  Republican  I  ,'nmasked," 
published  in  170),  :ui(l  reprinted  in  tin:  sixth 
vol.  of  I.IK:  llarleian  Miscellany,  Millon  ;iiid 

nt  her  members  of  tin:  Commonwealth  a 

to  have  instituted  this  c.lub.      This  account  of 
its  origin  is  not,  however,  considered  authentic, 
Home  members  ol   such   an  association    I 
to    have    met.   at    a    French    tavern    in    Suffolk 
Street,    Jan.    30,    ij  ibited    calves' 

heads,  on    which    they    \vei  at    the 

window.  They  drank  lo  the  memory  of  the 
army  which  dethroned  the  king,  and  of  the 
men  who  cut  off  his  head  on  t  he  scaffold.  This 
led  to  a  riot,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  in 
tcrferenee  of  the  military.  The  \\holealfairis 
by  some  writers  believed  to  bo  a  hoax. 

CM  A' I  (Corsica  .-•  -This  seaport  was  taken  by 
the  Knglish  under  Lord  Mood,. Aug.  10,  1794, 
after  a  siege  of  51  days.  Nelson  was  > 
in  this  struggle,  and  'received  a  wound  which 
destroyed  the  sight  of  his  right  eyo.  The 
Lmdish  retired  in  1796. 

CALVlMS.MandCALVINISTS.  The  former 
name  is  given  to  the  peculiar  doctrines 
tan;.-; ht  by  John  Calvin,  the  reformer,  born  at 
Noyon,  July  Ip,  [509,  llec|uitted  the  Roman 
(Catholic  Church,  in  whicli  he  held  a  cure,  in 
d  having  leli 

i.  where  he  puUishi-d  his  "  Christian 
Institutes"  in  [555,  lie  went  to  Ceneva  in 
1536,  but  ha.viic.'  advocated  some  unpopular 
views  was  expelled  in  April,  1538.  The  edict 

of  banishment  was  cancelled  in  May,  is4i,and 

in  Sep.  he  returned    to   (i.  IP  \a,   Rrhett    I 

liority.       Ry    his    influence 

Michael  Scrvetus  was  arrested  and  burned  at 
a  <  >ct.  17,  i  {«  <.  The  peculiar  doctrines 
of  tin-  Calvinists,  called  the  five  points,  aie 
i,  particular  election;  2,  particular  redemp- 
tion  ;  i,  moral  inability  in  a  fallen  state  ; 
4,  irresistible,  ^raec  ;  and  -,,  final  perse \  erance. 
Calvinism  spread  throu-h  France,  Holland, 
Kngland,  Scot.la.nd,  and  other  parts  of  Kuropc. 
Calvin  himself  died  at  Geneva,  May  27,  1564. 
Various  divisions  have  broken  out  anp 
followers.  On  the  subject  of  predestination 
t  hey  a, re  divided  int  o  t  he  I  nfra  or  Sub  lapsarians 
and  I  he  Supra  lapsarians  ;  the  former  contend 
:  God  permitted,  and  the  latter  that  lie 
i  the  fall  of  man.  The  jooth  anniver 
wary  of  the  death  of  Calvin  was  celebrated  by 
the  reformed  churches  of  France,  May  27,  1864. 

(,SV(-   (ioMAICISTS.  ; 

CA.MALIHiLFNSIANS.orCAMALDOLITKS. 
An    order    of    re!  i  Qfl    founde.i)    at 

Camaldoli,  or  Campus  Malduli,  a  desert,  spot  on 
the  lofty  heights  of  1  he  A  penn  incs,  about  jo 
miles  fi-oiii  Florence,  by  Romuald,  an  Italian, 
in  1023.  They  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
and  are  divided  into  Cenobites  and  Krcmites. 
One  of  their  houses  was  established  at  Gros- 
bois,  near  I'aris,  but  they  do  not  appear  ever  to 
have  had  an  establishment  in  Kngland. 

CAMARINA  (Sicily  .  Founded  by  a  colony 
from  Syracuse,  B.C.  >;<*<)-  It  revolted  and  was 
destroyed  by  the  Syracusans  B.C.  55-.!.  Hip 
p  icrat.es,  tyrant  of  Gela,  restored  it  about 
B.C.  495  ;  but  it  was  again  destroyed  by  Gelon 


B.C.  485.  The  town  was  re-established  for 
the  third  time  B.C.  461,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Carthaginians  B.C.  4os,  and  joined  the 
Romans  in  the  first  I'unie  war.  Tho  Roman 
fleet  was  destroyed  off  the  const,,  near  Cama- 
rina,  B.C.  -^ss-  Camariiia  afterwards  declined, 
and  no  trace  of  it  remains. 

<  'A  M  15  A  VII  indostan  ,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  capital  of  the  Hindoo  empire  in  V 
India  in  the  sth  century,  is  mentioned  by 
Marco  I'olo  i;>.z,6 — 1323).  In  1780  the  Knglish 
took  Cambay  from  the  Mahrattas,  to  whom  it 
'•red  in  170  ;.  Cambay  lias  formed  part 
of  i  he  F.ri!  i.-h  empire  in  India  since  1803. 

CAMBEBWELL   (Surrey ,.  —  The    grammar 

school  of  this  village,  which  now  fi-. 
southern  suburb  of  the  metropolis,  was  founded 
by  the  Rev.  K.  Wilson  under  letters  patent 
granted  by  James  I.  Sep.  29,1615.  The  old 
p  irish  church  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1841. 

CA.MHODIA  (Asia). -Nothing  was  known  of 
this  country  beyond  the,  Ganges  till  about 
1590,  when  the  King  of  Cambodia  implored  the 
assistance  of  the  Governor  of  the  Philippines 
against  the  King  of  Siam.  Christianity  was 
introduce. 1  by  the  Portuguese  Jesuits  in  [624. 
The  Siamese  invaded  the  country  and  took  the 
capital  in  iHoi>;  and  in  iHn,  all  direct  inter- 
OOUTSe  of  foreigners  with  the  Cochin  Chinese 
portion  of  Cambodia  was  prohibited  by  the 
Kmpcror  of  Anam.  The  final  partition  of  the 
country  between  the  Lmperor  of  Anam  and 
the  King  of  Siam  took  place  in  iHvo.  A  treaty 
vvilli  France  was  concluded  at  Udong  Aug.  n, 

('AMUR  AY,  or  CAM  UK  A  I  (France  ,  the  an- 
cient ( 'amaracum,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the 
Nervii,  was  fortified  by  Cliarli-ma-ne,  and  was 
long  governed  by  bishop?,  under  1  he  rule  of  the 
empire.  b  best  ged  the  town  in 

nd  in  1477  it  fell  into  the  possession  of 
Louis  X  I.,  who  restored  it  to  Unrgundyin  (478. 
It  was  captured  by  Charles  V.  in  1544.  The 
Prince  of  Parma  besieged  Cambray  in  1580, but 
without  success.  In  i-i'j.sit  was  sei/ed  by  Hie 
Spaniards.  Louis  XIV.  reunited  it  to  Prance 

the     revi  ilutionary    i 

the  cathedral  was  utterly  destroyed. 
Cambray  was  twice  besieged  by  the  A'. 

in  1793,  being  taken  by  them  Sep.  10.  The 
I'Yench  were  defeated  here  by  the,  Duke  of 
York,  April  24,  1794;  and  tin  Mn.'dish  under 
Sir  <  lharles  Colville  captured  the  town  June  24, 
1815.  Cambray  was  made  a  bishopric  in  390, 
an  archbishopric,  in  1 1556,  reduced  to  a  In 
in  1801,  and  reconstituted  an  archbishopric  in 
1841.  It  was  in  union  with  Arras  until  1092, 
when  a  separation  took  place.  Fenelon  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Cambray  in  1695.  Coun- 
cils were  held  here  in  1064 ;  Dec.  27,  1303 ; 
Oct.  i,  i  [8  ;  ;  and  in  Aug.,  1565. 

CAMBRAY  (League  is  supposed  to  have 
been  determined  upon  at  the  meeting  between 
Louis  XI  I.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  and  [ga 
bella  of  Spain,  at  Savona,  June  28 — July  3, 
1507.  The  celebrated  convention  was  signed 
LJec.  10,  1508,  be!  ween  Louis  XII.  and  the  Km- 
peror  Maximilian,  Pope  Julius  II.,  Ferdinand, 
and  other  princes  being  invited  to  join.  Fer- 
dinand and  Julius  II.  soon  after  ratified  the 


CAMBKAY 


[     199 


OAMBRIDCK 


Us   ohjeet.i    were    llu-    humiliation    i>( 
Venice,    and    (lie    partition    of   her   territories. 

The  contracting  parties  advanoad  into  it.-i.iy  in 

order  In  carry  out.  tin-  project,  ami  this  proved 
tin-  signal  for  a  st  ru<_';;dc,  in  wliicli  one  member 
of  the  league  was  often  arrayed  aj.;ainst  ;in 
ot  licr,  nut  il  peace  \vas  re  est  al  >\  isln  -c  I  in  1,11. 
.Sisinoiidi  says  tliis  league  laid  I  lie  foiindal  i<>n  of 
public  law  in  Kuropc.  &<  C.vn  \r  C  \MI:I.I  si  ,. 

<'AMI;I:A v    Peace),  known  aa  the  "  I'aix  des 

"Of"   Ladies'  I  "ea.ee,"  I  >. -cause  tllCHOgO- 

tiations  were  commenced  I'.v  .Margaret,  Duchess 
bhe  emperors  aunt,  and 

Louise,  mother  to  l-Vancis  I.  of  France.  The 
.;  Madrid  81  rved  as  I  h<-  basis  for  that  of 
(  'anil  tray.  signed  Aug1.  5,  1520.  Robert 
i  he  (  hie!'  art  ieles  WCM-,  that  the  emperor 
"should  not,  for  the  present,  demand  tin-  res 
lilutioii  of  I  JuriMindy,  reservim;-.  ho\vi:vi-r,  in 
full  force,  his  rights  and  pretensions  to  that, 
duchy;  that  Francis  should  pay  -.•,000,000 
crowns  as  the  ransom  of  his  MOMS,  and,  before 
they  were  set  at  liberty,  should  rrst.s. 
towns  as  he  st  ill  held  in  t  he  Mil-.nese;  that  he 
should  res !••, 1 1  his  pretensions  to  i  lies,  ,\, 
of  Flanders  ami  of  Artois;  thai  he  should 
renounce  all  his  pretensions  to  Naples, 
Milan,  (iciioa,  and  e\ery  other  place  beyond 
the  Alps;  (hat  he  should  inini<-<  1  is  I '  I  ,  OOQfiUm 
male  the  marria  -..-  concluded  between  him  and 
t  he  emperor'8  .sister  Fleaiiora." 

c  \MI;I;IA.      Set  WALES.) 

( '  A  M  lt|{  I  A  N   A  IIC  I 1  .K<  il .( )( I  K  '  A  F  ASSOCIA- 

Tl<  >N,  for  promo)  in-    the   study  and    ffl 

lion  ,,f  (I,,:  aid  ii|iiitiesof  Wales,  was  established 

in  that  country  in  1846. 

<  'AM  I'd,'  I  (  ,  originally  manufactured  a,t.  Cam- 
1. ray,  whence-  its  name,  was  introduced  into 
Filmland  by  t  he  1  )u|i-h  eini--,i-.i  nt ,-.  in  15163.  In 
r/).,  the  impofl  al  ion  of  foreign  cambiic  was 
prohibited.  In  1701  the  manul'aeli, 

i.cd  at  Winchelsea.  and  broii;dd.  tosueh 
perfection  lhat,  in  1711;,  the  home  made  article 
was  considered  C(|iia!  to  the  French.  Cambric 
o  manufactured  at  Dundalk,  in  Ireland. 
By  7  (u-o.  I  II.  C.  43  (1767),  the;  rcstl-iclmn.--.  OD 
the  importation  ,,f  eambrie  were  reimposed  ; 
but,  they  were  repealed  by  the  col ereial 

treaty  between  England  and  Efranoe,  signed  at 

Versailles,  Sej).  26,  1786.  They  \\ere  again  CU- 
forcei  I  June  OJ 

CAMBIUM;!-;  (Kn:dai,d  ,  supposed  to  be  the 

Camborienni   or   Ca  mborit  um   of   the    Uomans, 

and  the  Qrantabiicsir  of  the  Baxous,  is  said  to 

base  been  fouiidi  d    by  a,    Spa.niard  named  (  'an 
•nil  red    and    burned 

l>y  the  Danes  in  87]  and  in  tOIO.  William  I. 
founded  the  castle  in  1070,  and  fortified  (he 
lo\\  ;,  a-ainsl  the  attacks  of  t  he  Saxons.  In 
1088  it  Was  sei/.ed  and  plundered  bv  the  re 
belli,, us  barons  of  William  II.  KI'P 
granted  it  a,  charter  in  iaOO,  ami  cont'u  med  it 
in  ]icrpc-tuily  in  laoj,  Its  castle,  captured  by 
the  Karons  in  i  .M  <;,  was  soon  recovered  by  Kin-- 
John. Cambridge  suiien-d  in  the  "Baron? 

War,"  in  the  n-i;-,n  of    Henry   111.,  havii 
plundered  by  tin:  insurgents,  who,  in   i 
ried  away  such  of  t  he  iuhabitanls  as  were  able 
to  pay  heavy  ransoiu.     In  1381  the  town  lost  its 
charters  in  consequence  of  un  attack  made  by 
the  populace  on  the  university,  and   it.   mm 


by  (  'I'omwcll  and  made  "  the  prime  gar- 
rison and  rcnde/.vousof  the  associated  count  ies" 
in  1642.  The  Fily.william  M  useuni  was  founded 
in  1816  ;  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society 
was  established  Nov.  15,  1819,  and  received  its 
charter  Aug.  3,  1832.  The  railway  from  London 
was  opened  in  July,  1845.  The  Prince  and 
•  i  Wales  visited  Cambridge  June  3—4, 
1864. 

CA  M  r.it  I  DC  F  (United  States).—  This  town  in 
Massachusetts  was  tirst  settled  in  1631,  under 
the  name  of  NYwtown.  I  larvard  College  (q.  V.), 
the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  Cnit.  d 
muled  here  by  the  Rev.  John 
Harvard.  M)  Fn;;lish  clergyman,  {111638.  The 
Synod  of  Cam  bridge  met  in  1646,  and  was  dis- 
solved in  1648.  after  adopting  the  system  of 
church  discipline  known  as  the  "Cambridge 

I'la!  form,"  which  formed  the  religious  consti- 
tution ,,l 

CAMI:I;IIM;F  l  M\  FtisiTY.—  Some  authors 

believe  CamhridKC  t.,  be  the  place  at  Which 
Sigibert.  King  OI  the  Fa,  t  An  des,  founded  a. 
school  for  youth  in  635,  as  related  by  Bode 
(b.  ii.  c.  1 8).  It  was  restored  by  Edward  I. 
(the  I'll.l.-r)  in  915.  Peter  of  IHois,  in  his  con- 
tinuation of  Inj.'.ulphiis,  relates  that  Joffrid. 
Abbot  of  Croylaml,  in  nog,  Mn\  ( iisleber).  an.l 
three  other  monks  to  Cambridge  every  day, 
where,  ha\im;  hin-ii  a  barn,  they  1: night  the 
s.cji -nei-s,  and  colluded  a  great  concourse  of 
scholars.  The  number  had  increased  so  much 
in  I  he  second  year  after  their  arri\al,  t  hat  mi 
house  oi-  church  was  lar;/;e  enough  to  hold  them. 
For  this  reason  1  hey  sepalal  ed  into  ela 

met  in  dilleivnt  places.  The  first,  menlioii  of 
the  university  under  the  title  of  the  cham-i  llor 
and  masters  occurs  in  1231,  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  111.,  who  -ranted  several  charters,  and 
contributed  grtfttu  '"  t il('  well  arc  of  the  insti- 
tution, in  ,,;;,,  during  Wai  Tyler1*  riots,  the 
town  of  Cambridge  rose  in  arms  against  the 
university  and  burned  its  charters,  all  which 
wen-  afterwards  restored  by  Hichard  II.  Pope 
Mariin  V.  gave  it  full  ecclesiastical  and  spiii- 
tual  jurisdiction  over  its  students  in  1430 ;  and 
ThomaaSoott,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  founded  the 

l.ibr. ,  ry  in  1. 17',.  It  was  incorporated  b\  i  .  l-.li-. 
c.  29  (1571).  In  1687,  Feb.  9,  the  university  re- 
fused to  admit  I-' ram-is,  a  Benedict  ine  monk,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  vice  chancellor  and 

•mate      rendered      theinsehcs      obnoxious     to 

James  II.  The  classical  Tripos  was  estab- 
lished in  1824.  Tim  Philoflophioa]  or  M..I-.-I! 

S.'i.-ne.-s  Tiipos  ami    I  he    Natural    Scieuc.-s  Tri- 

|i'  ..  in  ,;.  ,i.      'I  he  present   uni 

,    ci  ,n  ii  lined    by  <.,)uoen  Vio- 

toi-ia,  by  BO  Ord0r  in  Council,  July  31,1858. 
The  Fni  i.inal  ions  ('/.  v.)  com 

m.  i, ,-,-,i    |n     ;  ',  ,,,.       A    new     K.A.    scheme    was 
adopted  June  ;,  iKo'j.    T I  a-  following  are  the  17 
wit  h  the  date  of  foundation  : — 


dan             „ 

1-^47.    IViiiliniUi- 
I.  ;.):•;.    Ciinvillc        Hull        uirl 

1350.  Ti-h.ily  Hull. 
135*   Cor|insCliri,li  1  ,  i|.     . 

„ 

1448.  Queen's                „ 

A.  Ii. 

'  I'liHi  -duo's  Co 

!.)'(''.    .Irsll^ 

i-,i  i.   SI.  .hilm'B 
1510.  MiiBdnloue 

1598.  Sidney  Hu»»ox 
1800.  Downing 

1,,-u 

CAMBUSKENNETH 


[     200    ] 


CAMEO 


Founded. 
A.D. 


EXHIBITIONS. 


1657.  Lwmley.     Five. 

1856.  - 


Sheepshanks,  the  Astronomical. 
PRIZES. 

749.  Seatonian.  Value  £40.  English  Poem  on  a  Sacred 
subject. 

1751.  Chancellor's   (two)  gold   medals,  £15  15*.  each,  for 

Classical  Learning. 

1752.  Members'.   Four  £15  15*.  each,  for  Latin  Prose  Com- 

position. 

1768.  Smith.  Two.  £25  each.  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy. 

1774.  Browne.  Three  gold  medals,  £5  5*.  each.  Greek 
and  Latin  Verse  and  Epigrams. 

1780.  Norrisian.  Value  £60.  English  Essay  on  Theo- 
logical subject. 

1789.  Hulsean  (q.  r.).    Value  £80. 

1812-  Chancellor's  gold  medal.  An  English  Ode  or  Poem 
in  Heroic  Verse. 

1816.  Person  (7.  v.).     Greek  books,  £20. 

1840.  Camden.     Gold  medal.     Latin  Hexameter  Verse. 

1844.  Maitland.      Value    £120.      English   Essay  on  Mis- 

sionary subject. 

1845.  Burney.     English  Essay.     Value  £100. 

1848.  Adams.    Value   £130.     Essay    on  some  subject  of 

Pure  Mathematics,  Astronomy,   or  other  branch 

of  Natural  Philosophy. 
1848.  Le  Has.     Value  £57.     English  Essay  on  a  subject  of 

General  Literature. 
1853.  Cams  (two)  Greek  Testament  Prizes.     Proceed    of 

£1,000  Fund. 

1856.  Chancellor's  gold  medal  for  Legal  Studies. 
1856.  Scholefield.      Value   £15.      Greek     Testament    and 

Septuagint. 
1861.  Kaye.     Value   £60.    English  Dissertation  on   some 

subject  of  Ecclesiastical  History. 
1861.  Hare.     Value    £60.     English  Dissertation   on  some 

subject  from  Ancient  Greek  or  Roman  History. 
1865.  Hebrew.  Interest  of  £300  Scinde  Railway  Stork. 
1865.  Sedgwick.  Three  years'  interest  of  £500  Scinde 

Railway   Stock.       Geology  or   Kindred    Sciences. 

The  first  prize  to  be  awarded  in  Lent,  1868. 
PROFESSORSHIPS. 


A.D. 

1503.  Margaret,  Divinity. 
1540.  Regius,  Divinity." 

A.D. 

1727.  Wood  wardian,  Geology 
1749.  Lowndean,Astronomy 

1540.  Five  Regius  Professor- 
ships   for    Divinity, 

1768.  Norrisian,  Divinity. 
1783.  Jacksonian,     Natural 

Civi!     Law,    Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  Physic. 
1632.    Arabic. 

and      Experimental 

Philosophy. 
1800.  Downing,     Laws     of 

1663.  Lucasian,  Mathematics 

England. 

1683.  Moral  Philosophy. 
1684.  Music. 

1801.  Downing,  Medicine. 
1808.  Mineralogy. 

1702.  Chemistry. 

1828.  Political  Economy. 

1704.  Plumian,  Astronomy. 

1851.  Disnev,  Archaeology. 

1707.  Anatomy. 

1860.  Hulsean,  Divinity. 

1724.  Lord  Almoner's,  Ara- 

1860. Hindustani. 

bic. 

1863.  Sadlerian,   Mathema- 

1724. Modern  History. 
1724-  Botany. 

tics. 
1863.  Sanscrit. 

PREACHERS  AND   LECTURERS. 

1503.  Lady  Margaret's  Preacher. 

1524.  Sir  Robert  Rede's  Lecturer. 

1724.  Whitehall  Preacher. 

1818.  Hulsean  Lecturer. 

UNIVERSITY  SCHOLARSHIPS. 

1647.  Craven,  six  Classical. 

1813.  Pitt,  one  Classical. 

1746.  Battle,  one         „ 

1818.  Tyrwhitt,  six  Hebrew. 

1774.  Browne,  one      „ 

1832.  Crosse,   three  Theolo- 

1804. Davies.  one        „ 

gical. 

1  8  10.  Bell,  eight         „ 

1855.  Porson,  one  Classical. 

The  "University  Calendar"  and  the  "Cam- 
bridge Year  Book  "  (Rivingtons),  edited  by  W. 
White,  Sub-librarian  of  Trinity  College,  contain 
full  particulars  on  all  points  relating  to  the 
University. 

CAMBUSKENNETH  (Battle).— Wallace  de- 
feated John  de  Warrenne,  Earl  of  Surrey, 
guardian  of  Scotland,  at  this  place,  near  Stir- 
ling, Sep.  10,  1297. 

CAMDEN  (Battles).— The  first  was  fought  at 
the  village  of  Camden,  in  South  Carolina, 


Aug.  16,  1780,  between  the  Americans  under 
Gen.  Gates,  and  the  British  under  Lord  Corn- 
wallis.  The  former  were  completely  routed, 
with  a  loss  of  about  1,000  killed  and  wounded, 
and  as  many  prisoners,  the  English  having  only 

20  killed  and  about  200  wounded.  The 

second  battle,  at  the  same  place,  was  fought 
April  25,  1781.  The  Americans,  commanded 
by  Gen.  Greene,  were  defeated.  Lord  Rawdon, 
the  English  commander,  evacuated  Camden 
May  13.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  battle 
of  Hobkirk's  Hill. 

CAMDEN  SOCIETY  (London),  for  the  pub- 
lication of  documents  illustrative  of  English 
history,  was  established  in  1838.  It  takes  its 
name  from  William  Camden,  author  of  the 
"  Britannia,"  and  historian  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

('. \MKL.—  This  machine  for  raising  ships, 
in  order  to  enable  them  to  pass  over  shallows, 
was  invented  about  the  year  1688,  by  a  Dutch- 
man named  Meuvis  Meindertzoon  Bakker,  of 
Amsterdam. 

CAMKL  (Battle).— Fought  under  the  walls 
of  Bassorah,  in  658,  by  the  Caliph  Ali,  against 
the  Arab  chieftains  Telha  and  Zobeir,  who  were 
accompanied  by  Ayesha,  the  widow  of  the 
Prophet.  '  She  rode  upon  a  camel :  hence  the 
name  given  to  the  battle.  The  rebels  were  de- 
feated, and  Telha  and  Zobeir  were  slain. 

< '  A  M  ELFORD  (Cornwall),  said  to  have  been 
the  scene  of  the  battle  between  King  Arthur 
and  his  rebellious  nephew  Mordred,  in  which 
both  leaders  were  mortally  wounded,  fought  in 
542.  A  second  battle  was  fought  here  in  823, 
between  the  Britons,  and  the  Saxons  under 
Egbert.  Camelford  was  incorporated  by  one 
of  the  Cornish  earls,  and  sent  two  members  to 
the  first  parliament  of  Edward  VI.,  in  1547. 
At  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  in  1832,  the 
borough  was  disfranchised. 

CAMELODUNUM,  or  CAMULODUNUM 
(Britain). — This  town,  the  modern  Colchester 
(</.?•.),  was  founded,  it  is  believed,  by  the  Celtic 
inhabitants  of  Britain  some  time  subsequent  to 
B.C.  350,  and  called  by  them  Cam-a-lalin-uidun, 
or  "the  town  on  the  hill,  at  the  winding  of  a 
river."  At  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion,  B.C. 
54,  it  was  the  capital  of  Cassivellaunus,  and 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  who  latinized 
the  name  and  established  here  their  first  mu- 
nicipality in  Britain.  It  was  taken  by  Claudius 
A.D.  44,  and  erected  into  a  Roman  colony;  and 
though  seized  and  destroyed  by  the  British 
rebels  under  Boadiceain  61,  was  soon  recovered 
by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  and  rebuilt  on  a  scale 
of  considerable  magnificence.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  the  birthplace  of  Constantino  I.  in 
265,  and  to  have  sent  a  bishop  to  the  Council  of 
Aries  in  314;  but  both  stories  are  considered 
very  doubtful. 

CAMEO. — The  art  of  cameo  engraving  upon 
the  onyx,  sardonyx,  and  other  stones  possess- 
ing layers  of  variegated  colours,  is  believed  to 
have  passed  at  a  very  early  period  from  Egypt 
to  the  Etruscans,  by  whom  it  was  imparted  to 
the  Greeks,  who  carried  it  to  a  state  of  high 
perfection.  Theodorus  of  Samos,  who  flourished 
about  B.C.  522,  Pyrgoteles,  the  engraver  of  seal 
rings  for  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  during  the 
latter  portion  of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  and  Try- 
phon,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Alexander's  sue- 


CAMERA 


[       201       ] 


CAMPE 


cessors,  and  engraved  the  celebrated  cameo  in  the 
collection  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  repre- 
senting the  reconciliation  of  Cupid  and  Pysche, 
are  regarded  as  the  most  eminent  ancient  pro- 
fessors of  the  art.  Cameos  of  high  merit  were 
engraved  at  Rome  under  the  empire,  the  best 
being  produced  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  On 
the  decline  of  the  ancient  civilization,  this,  with 
every  fine  art,  fell  into  neglect ;  but  it  was  re- 
stored in  Italy  during  the  isth  century,  when 
it  was  much  encouraged  by  the  Medici  family. 
It  subsequently  declined,  but  again  attained 
considerable  excellence  in  the  i8th  century. 
The  art  of  engraving  shell  cameos,  in  which 
the  varying  colours  of  the  different  layers  of 
the  shells  of  certain  species  of  mollusca  are 
used  as  substitutes  for  the  hard  stones  of  the  an- 
cients, commenced  at  Rome  about  1805,  and  was 
afterwards  introduced  at  Paris.  (See  INTAGLIO.) 

CAMERA  LUCIDA.— Dr.  Hooke  (1635—1703) 
invented  a  camera  lucida,  for  making  the  image 
of  any  object  appear  on  the  wall  in  a  light 
room.  The  modern  camera  lucida  was  invented 
by  Dr.  Wollaston  in  1807. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA  was  described  by  Bap- 
tista  Porta  in  the  Magia  Naturalis,  of  which 
the  first  edition  was  published  at  Naples  in 
1558,  and  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Friar  Bacon. 

CAMERINO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Camerinum, 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  252,  by  Pope  Lucius  I. 
In  1545  Paul  III.  received  Camerino  in  ex- 
change for  Parma  and  Piacenza.  The  statue 
of  Sixtus  V.  was  erected  in  1587.  The  see  was 
made  archiepiscopal  by  Pius  VI.  in  1787,  and 
Pius  VII.  added  the  see  of  Treja  to  this  arch- 
bishopric in  1817.  Napoleon  I.  united  Came- 
rino to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1807,  but  it 
was  afterwards  restored  to  the  Pope. 

CAMERONIANS.— The  followers  of  Richard 
Cameron,  who  entered  Sanquhar,  in  Dumfries- 
shire, June  22,  1680,  and  made  a  public  decla- 
ration that  Charles  II.  had,  by  usurpation  over 
civil  and  religious  liberties,  forfeited  all  right 
to  the  crown.  They  separated  from  the  Pres- 
byterians, refused  the  terms  of  accommodation 
proposed  by  Charles  II.,  and  demanded  the 
rigorous  observance  of  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant  received  by  the  Parliament  Sep.  25, 
1643.  They  are,  on  this  account,  frequently 
called  Covenanters  (q.v. ).  Cameron  was  killed  in 
a  skirmish  with  the  royal  troops  at  Aird's  Moss, 
July  20,  1680,  and  his  followers  were  dispersed. 
They  published  declarations  against  the  test  of 
1681,  Jan.  12,  1682  ;  against  the  royal  authority 
Oct.  28,  1684,  and  May  28,  1685.  The  Came- 
ronians  renewed  the  covenants  in  1712,  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  presbytery  called  the 
Reformed  Presbytery  Aug.  i,  1743.  A  writer 
in  "Notes  and  Queries"  (2nd  series,  vol.  v.  p. 
262)  asserts  that  "the  Cameronians  still  exist 
as  a  distinct  sect,  a  small  but  tenacious  body." 

CAMERONITES.— Some  French  Calvinists, 
the  followers  of  John  Cameron,  are  thus  desig- 
nated. He  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1580,  and 
in  1600  went  to  France,  where  he  held  profes- 
sorships at  Sedan  and  Saumur.  Mosheim  says 
that  this  divine  and  his  followers  "devised  a 
method  of  uniting  the  doctrines  of  the  Gene- 
vans respecting  the  divine  decrees,  as  ex- 
pounded at  Dort,  with  the  views  of  those  who 


hold  that  the  love  of  God  embraces  the  whole 
human  race."  They  were  also  called  Hypothe- 
tical Universalists.  Cameron,  who  was  stabbed 
in  the  streets  of  Montauban,  died  in  1625. 

CAMISARDS,  so  called  from  the  camise  or 
smock  which  they  often  wore  over  their  other 
clothes,  were  French  Protestants,  who  appeared 
in  the  Cevennes  early  in  the  i8th  century. 
Their  object  was  the  maintenance  of  religious 
liberty,  which  had  been  sacrificed  by  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (q.  v.).  In  1703 
their  numbers  had  increased  to  10,000.  They 
maintained  their  ground  for  some  time,  gaining 
several  victories,  but  being  unable  to  resist  the 
strong  forces  sent  against  them,  were  ulti- 
mately suppressed  in  1705. 

CAMLET.— Marco  Polo,  the  account  of  whose 
travels  was  circulated  in  1298,  speaks  of  camlet 
among  the  manufactured  articles  produced  in 
Thibet.  This  stuff  is  a  much  coarser  material 
than  the  modern  camlet,  which  was  made  of  the 
hair  of  the  Angora  goat — not,  as  has  been  erro- 
neously supposed,  of  that  of  the  camel.  A 
mixed  stuff  of  wool  and  silk  was  used  for  gowns 
in  this  country  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  the  term  camlet  appears 
to  have  been  applied  to  haircloth  in  general. 

CAMPAGNA  (Italy).— Clement  VII.  erected 
this  town  of  Naples  into  an  episcopal  see  July 
19,  1525,  united  it  to  Satriano,  and  made  it 
subject  to  Salerno. 

CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA.— This  name  is  said 
to  have  been  first  applied  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  to  the  unhealthy  plain  in  which 
Rome  is  situated.  Pius  VI.  (1775 — 1799)  drained 
a  considerable  portion  of  this  plain. 

CAMPANIA  (Italy).  —  The  luxuriance  and 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  salubrity  of  the 
climate,  of  this  province,  the  richest  plain  in 
the  world,  have  been  frequently  celebrated  in 
prose  and  verse.  The  first  well-ascertained 
fact  in  its  history  is  the  settlement  of  the 
Greek  colony  of  Cumae,  B.C.  1050.  It  after- 
wards fell  under  Etruscan  rule.  The  Samnites 
captured  Capua  B.C.  423,  and  Campania  was 
afterwards  the  theatre  on  which  the  Romans 
and  the  Samnites,  and  other  nations,  waged 
hostilities.  A  large  portion  of  the  province  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans  B.C.  340.  Pyrrhus 
passed  through  Campania  B.C.  280 ;  and 
some  of  the  smaller  towns  declared  in  favour 
of  Hannibal  B.C.  216.  The  Carthaginians  were 
driven  out  of  Campania  B.C.  212.  This  province 
became  the  favourite  retreat  of  the  wealthy 
Romans.  The  towns  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii  were  overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of 
Vesuvius  A.D.  79 ;  but  the  province  speedily 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  calamity. 
Campania  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  under  the  name  of  Terra  di  Lavoro, 
and  is  now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

CAMPBELL'S  ACT.  —  (See  DEATH  BY  ACCI- 
DENTS COMPENSATION  ACT.) 

CAMPBELL'S  STATION  (Battle).  —  Gen. 
Burnside  repelled  an  attack  of  the  Confederate 
Gen.  Longstreet  at  this  place  in  Tennessee, 
Nov.  14,  1863.  He  was,  however,  compelled  to 
withdraw  to  Knoxville  (q.  v.),  where  he  was 
besieged  by  Longstreet  Nov.  17  and  18. 

CAMPE  (Treaty),  between  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  was  con- 


CAMPEACHY 


202       ] 


CANADA 


eluded  at  this  small  place,  between  Ardres  and 
Guines,  June  7,  1546.  Henry  VIII.  was  to  re- 
tain Boulogne  until  the  debt  of  2,000,000  livres 
clue  to  him  should  be  paid,  and  a  further  claim 
of  500,000  livres  was  adjusted.  The  emperor 
was  included  by  both  parties  in  the  treaty,  and 
Henry  VIII.  agreed  to  include  Scotland,  on 
condition  that  the  Scotch  gave  him  no  further 
cause  to  make  war  upon  them. 

CAMPEACHY  BAY  (Mexico)  was  discovered 
in  1517  by  Cordova.  The  Spaniards  founded 
Campeachy  in  1540.  It  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1659,  who  formed  a  settlement  of 
•.  l-cutters  about  the  year  1667.  It  was 
again  taken  in  1678  by  the  pirate  Louis  Scott, 
and  by  the  bucaneers  in  1685. 

CAMPEN  (Battle).  — The  hereditary  Prince 
of  Brunswick  was  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon 
the  French  at  the  convent  of  Campen,  on  the 
Lower  Rhine,  Oct.  15,  1760. 

CAMPERDO \VN  (Su.i-light).  -Fought  off  the 
Dutch  coast,  near  the  village  of  Camperdown, 
Oct.  u,  1797,  between  the  Dutch  and  English 
fleets,  commanded  by  Admirals  De  Winter  and 
Duncan,  in  which  the  latter  gained  a  complete 
victory,  taking  or  destroying  eleven  of  the 
enemy's  ships.  For  his  valour  and  address  in 
this  engagement,  Admiral  Duncan  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Lord  Duncan  of 
Camperdown,  Get  21,  1797. 

CAMPHOR  has  been  long  known  in  the  East, 
although  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  un- 
acquainted with  it.  The  date  of  its  introduc- 
tion into  Em-ope  by  the  Arabians  is  not  known. 
Aetius,  who  flourished  about  500,  is  the  first 
author  who  names  it,  and  it  is  also  mentioned 
by  Paracelsus  (1493 — 1541).  The  results  of  the 
first  correct  experiments  on  the  properties  of 
camphor  were  published  by  Neumann  in  1725. 

CAMPILLO  (Battle). —The  French,  under 
Gen.  Molitor,  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  I'c 
Ballesteros,  at  Campillo  de  Arenas,  in  Seville, 
July  28,  1823. 

(  AMPO-FORMIO  (Treaty).  —  The  prelimi- 
naries of  this  treaty  between  Austria  and  the 
French  republic  were  signed  at  the  castle  of 
Eckenwald,  near  Leoben,  in  Styria,  April  18, 
1797,  and  the  treaty  itself  was  concluded  at 
Campo-Formio,  a  village  in  Friuli,  N.  Italy, 
Oct.  17,  1797.  The  emperor  surrendered  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and 
extensive  territories  in  Italy,  receiving  Venice 
and  some  other  places  in  return.  He  acknow- 
ledged the  independence  of  the  Cisalpine  re- 
public, and  acquiesced  in  the  incorporation 
with  it  of  the  duchies  of  Modena  and  Mantua, 
Massa,  Carrara,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  Romagna.  This  treaty,  most 
humiliating  for  Germany,  consisted  of  25 
articles,  to  which  14  secret  articles  were  added, 
involving  further  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the 
emperor.  The  2oth  article  provided  that  a 
congress  should  assemble  at  Radstadt  (q.  v.} 
within  one  month  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty,  or  sooner  if  possible.  It  was  to  be 
composed  solely  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the 
German  empire  and  of  the  French  republic, 
and  its  object  was  to  conclude  a  pacification 
between  these  powers. 

CAMPO  MALO  (Battle).— Fought,  in  1036, 
between  the  Bishop  of  Milan  and  his  rebellious 


vassals,  who  were  aided  by  numerous  auxi- 
liaries. It  terminated  in  favour  of  the  latter. 

CAMPONA  Battle).— Constantine  I.  defeated 
the  Goths  and  the  Sarmatians,  their  allies,  at 
this  place,  in  Italy,  A.D.  322. 

CAMPS.  —  (See  ALDEKSHOT  and  CHOBHAM 
CAMP.) 

CAMPUS  RAUDIUS  (Battled— On  this  plain, 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  Marius  and  Catulus  defeated 
the  Cirnbri  with  immense  slaughter  B.C.  101. 

CAMPVERE.— (See  VERB,  or  VEERE.) 

CAMULODUNUM.— (See  CAMELODUNUM.) 

CANAAN  (Asia).— This  portion  of  Palestine 
was  named  after  Canaan,  one  of  the  sons  of 
ien.  x.  6,  15 — 19).  Canaan  is  said  to 
signify  "lowland,"  as  opposed  to  "Aram," 
"high  land,"  the  Hebrew  name  of  Syria. 
Abram,  at  the  command  of  God  (Gen.  xii.), 
went  forth  into  the  land  of  Canaan  B.C.  1921. 
(See  PA 

CANADA  (North  America).— This  portion  of 
the  New  World  was  visited  by  the  Scandina- 
vians in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries.  John 
and  Sebastian  Cabot  discovered  Canada  in  June, 
1497  ;  but  no  permanent  settlement  was  formed 
until  the  r'rench  arrived  in  the  i6th  century. 
According  to  a  Castilian  tradition,  the  Spaniards 
visited  this  country  before  the  French,  and 
finding  neither  gold  nor  riches  of  any  descrip- 
tion, exclaimed  "Aca  Ncuta  !  "—  "  Here  is  no- 
thing," in  the  presence  of  the  natives.  Hence 
the  name  Canada.  Another  account  is,  that 
the  Spaniards  named  the  country  "El  (:<:/><>  </i 
Xniltt,"  or  "  Cape  Nothing."  Charlevoix's  deri- 
vation of  the  term  is,  however,  generally  re- 
ceived. He  says  that  Can/nii/d,  signifying  in 
the  Iroqxiois  language  a  number  of  huts,  or  a 
village,  was  applied  by  the  inhabitants  to  the 
first  settlements  made  by  the  French,  and  the 
entire  province  afterwards  received  this  desig- 
nation. The  French  called  it  New  France. 

A.D. 

1497,  Jane.    24-     John     and    Sebastian     Cabot    discover 

'.•da. 
1500.  The  Portuguese    mariner  Cortereal   visit* 

iinil    is   said   to   him;  discovered   the  gulf  of   St. 

Ln\vrence. 
1517,  June   u.  Sir  Thomns    IVrt's   expedition,   which   is 

accompanied  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  enters  Hudson's 

Bay,  but  does  not  explore  it,  owing  to  the  timidity 

of  the  commander. 

1534.  Settlement  of  New  France  (q.  v.~). 

1535.  Jacques  dirtier  ascends  the  .St.  Lawrence  as  far  as 

the  present  site  of  Montreal,  and  carries   several 

of  the  natives,  with  their  chief,  to  France. 
1540.  The  French  erect  the  fort  of  Churlesbourg.     Carrier 

and  Roberval  explore  the  country  round  Mont- 
real. 

1549.  Roberval  sails  for  Canada,  and  is  lost 
1581.  The  French  again  trade  to  Canada. 
1591.  A  French  fleet  sails  to  Canada. 
1598.  Henry  IV.  of  France  commissions  the  Marquis  de  la 

Roche  to  conquer  Canada ;  but  the  undertaking 

proves  a  failure. 
1608,  July  3  (N.  S.  13).  Quebec  (q.  c.)  is  founded  by  Cham- 

palain. 
1627.  Richelieu  intrusts  the  government  of  the  colony  to 

the  "  Company  of  a  Hundred  Associates." 
1639,  Jul>'-  Hir  ])-  Kirke  takes  the  French  possessions  in 

Canada. 
1632.  They  are   restored   to   France  by  the  treaty  of   St. 

(it-miam. 
1648-49.  The  colony   suffers  from   the  incursions   of    the 

Iroquois  Indians. 
1663.  Louis  XIV.  erects  Canada  into  a  royal  government, 

with  the  laws  and  usages  of  Fnmri-. 

1665.  Canada  is  granted  to  the  French  West  Imiia  Company 
1667.  1'eace  is  made  with  the  Indians. 


CANADA 


[    203    ] 


CANARY 


A.D. 

1690.  Sir  William  Phipps  is  despatched  from  New  England 

to  conquer  Canada.— Oct.  16.  He  reaches  Quebec. 

— Oct.  22.     He  re-embarks,  without  effecting  any 

conquests. 
1711.  The  British  American  colonies  send  another  fleet  to 

conquer  Canada. — Aug.  22.  It  is  wrecked  at  the 

mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
1713,  April  ii.     The  peace  of  Utrecht  restores  tranquillity 

to  Canada. 
1746.  Shirley,  Governor  of     Massachusetts,    projects  the 

conquest  of  Canada,  but  only  carries  his   arms 

into  Nova  Scotia. 
1755.  The  English  again  attack  Canada. 

1759,  Sep.    13.    Battle    of    Quebec   (q.  t>.),   and    death    of 

Gen.  Wolfe. — Sep.  18.  The  town  surrenders  to 
the  British. 

1760.  Entire  reduction  of  Canada  by  the  British. 

1763,  Feb.   10.     Canada  is  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the 

treaty  of  Paris. 
1765.  Canada  submits  to  the  Stamp  Act. 

1774,  A    legislative     council     of     33    members     is    ap- 

pointed. 

1775,  Sep.   10.  The  American  forces  invade   Canada,  and 

land  at  St.  John's. — Nov.  3.  Gen.  Montgomery 
takes  St.  John's ;  Nov.  12,  Montreal. — Dec.  31.  In 
company  with  Arnold,  he  assaults  Quebec.  He  is 
killed  in  the  action,  and  the  Americans  surrender 
to  Gen.  Carleton. 

1776,  June  1 8.  The  Americans  evacuate  Canada, 

1791,  March  4.  Pitt  proposes  the  Quebec  Bill  (31  Geo.  III. 
c.  31),  by  which  Canada  is  divided  into  the  Upper 
and  Lower  provinces,  and  receives  a  represen- 
tative constitution. 

179?.  The  first  House  of  Assembly  is  opened  by  Lieut.  - 
Governor  Clarke. 

1793.  Canada  is  erected  into  a  bishopric. 

1813,  Aug.  15.  The  Americans,  under  Gen.  Hull,  having 
invaded  Canada,  are  compelled  to  surrender. — 
Oct.  14.  A  second  army,  under  Gen.  Wadsworth, 
capitulates. — Nov.  27.  A  third,  under  Van  Rensse- 
laer,  surrenders. 

1813,  April  37.    The  Americans  take   York    (Toronto).— 

May  27.  They  capture  Fort  George. — May  29.  They 
repel  the  British  at  Sacket's  Harbour. — June  6. 
They  are  defeated  tit  Stony  Creek. — Nov.  n.  In- 
decisive battle  of  Williamsburg. 

1814,  March  4.  The  Americans  gain  the  battle  of  Longwood. 

— July  3.  They  take  Fort  Erie.  —July  5.  They  gain 
the  battle  of  Chippawa.— July  25.  Second  battle 
at  Chippawa,  also  called  Bridgewater. — Dec.  24. 
Peace  is  signed  at  Ghent. 

1828.  87,000  Canadians  petition  the  king  against  the 
manner  in  which  the  governors  had  applied  the 
revenues. 

1836,  Sep.  22.   The  Houses  of  Assembly   refuse  to  vote 

supplies. 

1837,  The     "Sons    of    Liberty,"    under     Papineau,     rise 

in  rebellion  at  Montreal. — Dec.  4.  They  are  de- 
feated in  an  attempt  to  seize  Toronto. — Dec.  14. 
They  are  defeated  at  St.  Eustace. 

1838,  Jan.  15.     Resignation  of  Sir  Francis  Head.— May  29. 

Lord  Durham,  his  successor,   arrives  at  Quebec. 

—Oct.     Lord  Durham  leaves  for  England. 
1841,  Feb.  10.  Upper  and   Lower  Canada  are  united  into 

one  province. 
1844.  The  seat  of  government  is  transferred  from  Kingston 

to  Toronto. 
1849,  April  25.    Disturbances    in    Canada,  owing  to   the 

Rebellion  Losses  Indemnity  Bill.    The  insurgents 

burn  the  parliament  house  at  Montreal. 
1853,  May  9.  By  16  Viet  c.  31,  the  legislature  is  empowered 

to  make  provision  concerning  the  lands  known 

as  Clergy  Reserves,  and  their  proceeds. 

1855,  Sep.  Extensive  immigration  from  the  north  of  Scot- 

1856,  March  12.  Seventy  people  are  killed  by  an  accident 

on  the  Hamilton   Railway. — April  17.     Quebec  is 
made  the  seat  of  government. 
1858.  Ottawa  is  made  the  capital. 

1860,  July.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  Canada.— Sep.  20. 

He  leaves  for  the  United  States. 

1861,  Dec.   23.  Detachments  of  troops  are  despatched  to 

Canada  by  the  British  Government  as  a  precau- 
tion against  aggression  by  the  Federal  States  of 
America. 

1862,  May    20.    Resignation    of    the    Ministry.      A    new 

cabinet  is  formed  under  Mr.  J.  L.  M'Donald.— 
June  7.  A  disastrous  fire  occurs  at  Quebec  (q.  r.). 


A.D. 

1864,  Oct.  3.  A  meeting  of  French  Canadians,  held  at  Mont- 

real, protests  against  the  project  of  Federal  union. 
—  Oct.  10.  A  conference  of  delegates  assembles  at 
Quebec  to  consider  the  advisability  of  forming  a 
federal  union  of  the  provinces  of  British  America 
(g.  ».).— Oct.  19.  Confederate  refugees  in  Canada 
cross  the  frontier  into  Vermont,  and  attack  the 
town  of  St.  Albans.— Dec.  6.  President  Lincoln 
proposes  in  his  message,  after  giving  six  months' 
notice  to  England,  to  form  a  naval  force  on  the 
Lake,  to  prevent  Confederate  raids  from  Canada. 
—Dec.  14.  Gen.  Dix  publishes  a  proclamation, 
annulled  by  President  Lincoln,  announcing  that 
persons  invading  United  States  territory"  across  the 
Canadian  frontier,  w  ill  be  pursued  beyond  that 
boundary  and  captured  on  British  soil.— Dec.  15. 
The  raiders  having  been  discharged,  great  excite- 
ment prevails  in  the  United  States. 

1865,  Jan.    19.    Opening  of  the    Canadian  Parliament.— 

March  23.  The  English  House  of  Commons,  after 
an  animated  debate,  votes  £50,000  for  the  defence 
of  Canada.— April  it.  The  Canadian  Parliament 
adopts,  by  a  large  majority,  the  project  of  federal 
union. 

1866,  March.     The  Canadians  take  measures  to  repel    a 

threatened  invasion  of  Fenians  from  the  United 
States. 

CANADIAN.— This  screw  steamer,  carrying 
mail-bags  and  passengers  from  Quebec,  struck 
xipon  a  field  of  ice  about  five  miles  from  the 
straits  of  Belleisle,  between  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  and  foundered  in  about  an  hour, 
June  4,  1861.  The  majority  of  the  passengers 
and.  crew  escaped  in  the  boats,  but  35  persons 
perished. 

CANALS  were  constructed  in  China  at  a  very 
earlyperiod,  and  in  Egypt  as  early  as  B.C.  1350. 
(See  SUEZ  CANAL.)  The  Bahr-Yoosuf,  or  river 
of  Joseph,  was  made  under  the  Pharaohs. 
They  were  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  sera.  The 
CaerDyke  and  the  Foss  Dyke,  in  Lincolnshire, 
the  earliest  in  England,  were  constructed  by  the 
Romans.  Locks,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
used  in  the  time  of  the  ancient  canals  of  Upper 
Egypt,  and  in  the  Milanese  canals  in  1497,  were 
introduced  into  England  from  Flanders  in  1652. 
Canals  are  regulated  by  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  42  (July 
21,  1845),  and  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  31  (July  10,  1854). 
(See  INLAND  NAVIGATION.) 

CANANORE  (Hindostan).— The  Portuguese 
had  a  fort  at  this  town  in  Malabar,  as  early  as 
1505.  They  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch,  who 
in  1664  sold  their  privileges  to  the  native 
princes.  It  afterwards  formed  part  of  the  em- 
pire of  Hyder  Ali.  The  English,  who  were 
repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  Cananore  in  1768, 
garrisoned  it  in  1784.  Having  been  restored, 
it  was  taken  from  Tippoo  Saib  by  Gen. 
Abercrombie  in  1791. 

CANARA  (Hindostan). — This  province  was 
wrested  from  the  Hindoos  by  Hyder  Ali,  in 
1763.  On  the  death  of  his  son  Tippoo  Saib,  in 
1799,  it  came  under  the  rule  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  has  since  formed  part  of  the 
presidency  of  Bombay.  It  is  divided  into 
North  and  South  Canara. 

CANARY-BIRD,  found  in  Madeira,  the 
Canary  and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  was  brought  to 
Europe  early  in  the  i6th  century. 

CANARY  ISLANDS,  or  CANARIES  (N.  At- 
lantic Ocean),  are  supposed  to  be  the  Hespe- 
rides  or  Fortunate  Islands  of  the  ancients. 
Their  discovery  in  modern  times  is  attributed 
to  the  crew  of  a  French  vessel,  who  were  driven 


CANCER 


[    204    ] 


CANNING 


to  their  shores  by  stress  of  weather  about 
1330 — 4.  (See  AFRICA.)  Some  Spanish  adven- 
turers visited  them  about  1395,  and  plun- 
dered all  the  populous  districts,  carrying  off 
as  captives  the  king  and  queen  and  about 
70  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1400,  the  King  of 
Castile  granted  the  Canaries  to  John  de 
Bethencourt.  An  episcopal  see  was  established 
in  the  Canaries  in  1404.  In  1483  the  Spaniards 
commenced  the  conquest  of  the  Canaries, 
which  have  remained  in  their  possession  ever 
since.  In  1494  most  of  the  Guanches,  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  who  had  escaped  slavery, 
war,  and  famine,  were  carried  off  by  a  terrible 
pestilence.  Ximenes  extended  the  Inquisition 
to  the  Canaries  in  1516.  In  1822  the  Canary 
Islands  were  formed  into  a  Spanish  province, 
with  the  right  of  representation  in  the  Cortes. 

CANCER  HOSPITAL  (London),  situated  at 
West  Brompton,  was  opened  Nov.  20,  1852. 

CANDAHAR.-(£?e  KANDAHAR.) 

CANDI A  (Mediterranean),  the  ancient  Crete, 
became  a  Roman  province  8.0.67.  The  capital 
of  the  island,  also  called  Candia,  was  taken  by 
a  band  of  Spanish  Arabs  A.D.  823,  and  recovered 
by  the  Greeks  under  Nicephorus  Phocas  in  961. 
The  Venetians  purchased  the  island  Aug.  12, 
1204,  and  took  possession  in  1205.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  frequent  insurrections  of  the  Can- 
diotes,  the  Venetians,  in  1243,  divided  the 
island  into  three  parts ;  the  first  for  the  re- 
public, the  second  for  the  Church,  and  the 
third  for  the  colonists.  Notwithstanding  this, 
the  inhabitants  remained  so  turbulent,  that  it 
was  necessary  to  despatch  a  fleet  to  reduce 
them  to  subjection,  which  was  done  in  1364. 
In  1571  the  Turks  settled  in  Candia,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  to  prosecute  their  conquests  in 
other  directions.  They  returned  June  24,  1645, 
and  after  a  siege  of  24  years,  gained  possession 
of  it  in  1669.  In  1830  it  was  ceded  to  the  Pasha 
of  Egypt,  and  again  restored  to  Turkey  in  1840. 
An  insurrection  among  the  Christians  of 
Candia,  that  broke  out  in  1841,  was  suppressed 
by  the  Turkish  Government  before  the  end  of 
the  year.  It  suffered  from  an  earthquake  in 
1846. 

CANDLE.— (See  INCH  OF  CANDLE.) 

CANDLEMAS  DAY.— A  festival  held  Feb.  2, 
to  commemorate  the  purification  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Bingham  (b.  xx.  c.  8,  s.  5)  says,  "  This 
at  first  among  the  Greeks  went  by  the  name  of 
Hypapante — "Yirairav-ni,  which  denotes  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Lord  by  Simeon  in  the  temple, 
in"  commemoration  of  which  occurrence  it  was 
first  made  a  festival  in  the  Church  ;  some  say  in 
the  time  of  Justin,  the  emperor ;  others  in  the 
time  of  his  successor  Justinian,  anno  542." 
A  proclamation  against  carrying  candles  on 
Candlemas  Day  was  issued  by  Edward  VI.  in 

I5CANDLES.— Pliny  the  elder  (A.D.  23—79), 
speaks  of  the  invention  of  rush-lights,  and 
Apuleius  (130—173)  mentions  candles  of  wax 
and  tallow.  They  were  also  used  in  the  Church 
during  the  3rd  century.  Alfred  the  Great  used 
them  to  measure  time  (871 — 901).  Tallow 
candles  did  not  come  into  general  use  till  about 
1300,  before  which  time  torches  and  oil  lamps 
were  most  frequently  employed.  An  attempt 
to  obviate  the  inconvenience  of  snuffing  was 


made  in  1799.  The  composite  candle,  which 
does  not  require  snuffing,  was  introduced  in 
1840.  The  patents  of  Gwynne,  in  1840,  of 
Wilson  in  1842,  and  of  Tighlman  in  1854,  have 
led  to  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture. 
A  duty  on  candles,  first  imposed  by  8  Anne  c.  9, 
s.  i  (1709),  was  repealed  from  Jan.  i,  1832,  by 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  19  (Sep.  6,  1831). 

CANDLESTICK.— Some  of  the  ancient  uten- 
sils called  by  this  name  were  lamps  for  burning 
oil.  Moses  was  commanded  to  make  a  candela- 
brum with  six  branches,  of  hammered  gold, 
for  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv.  31  &  32),  B.C. 
1491.  The  golden  candlestick,  which  had  been 
replaced  in  Solomon's  temple  by  10  golden 
candelabra,  was  restored  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  It  was  seized  by  the  Romans  on  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  A.D.  70,  carried  into 
Africa  by  the  Vandals  under  Genseric  in  435, 
and  taken  from  them  in  533  by  Belisarius, 
who  removed  it  to  Constantinople.  It  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Jerusalem.  Another 
account  states  that  it  fell  into  the  Tiber  from 
the  Milvian  bridge  during  the  flight  of  Maxen- 
tius  from  Constantine,  Oct.  28,  312 

CANEA,  or  CANNA  (Candia),  the  capital 
of  the  island,  was  founded  by  the  Venetians  in 

CANE  HILL  (Battle).— At  this  place,  in  Ar- 
kansas, the  Federals  under  Gen.  Blunt  defeated 
the  Confederate  forces  of  Gen.  Mannaduke, 
Nov.  28,  1862.  The  latter  retired  to  Van  Buren. 

CANGI.— Hie  territory  of  this  British  tribe, 
which  some  authorities  place  in  Somersetshire 
and  others  in  North  Wales,  was  invaded  and 
laid  waste  by  Ostorius  Scapula,  A.D.  50. 

CANICULAR  YEAR.— The  Egyptians  and 
Ethiopians  began  their  year  from  the  rising  of 
the  Canicula,  or  Sirius,  the  Dog-star ;  whence 
the  term.  It  consisted  ordinarily  of  365  days, 
to  which  another  was  added  every  fourth  year. 
It  commenced  July  20,  2785  B.C.,  and  is  some- 
times called  the  HELIACAL  YEAR. 

CANINEFATES.— This  German  tribe,  which 
submitted  to  Tiberius  A.D.  4,  assisted  Civilis  in 
his  rebellion  against  the  Romans  in  69. 

CANNAE  (Battle),  fought  between  the  Ro- 
mans under  L.  ^Emilius  Paulusand  C.  Terentius 
Varro,  and  the  Carthaginians  under  Hannibal, 
at  this  place,  called  by  Florus  "an  obscure 
Apulian  town,"  Aug.  2,  B.C.  216.  As  the  Ro- 
man calendar  was  in  confusion,  it  is  believed 
to  have  taken  place  in  June.  The  Romans 
were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  70,000  men,  whilst 
Hannibal's  loss  was  only  6,000. 

CANNES  (France).— Napoleon  I.  landed  near 
this  seaport,  March  i,  1815,  on  his  escape  from 
Elba. 

CANNING  ADMINISTRATION.— The  Earl 
of  Liverpool  having  been  incapacitated  from 
continuing  at  the  head  of  affairs  by  a  paral yt  ic 
stroke,  with  which  he  was  seized  Feb.  17,  1827, 
George  IV.  applied  to  Mr.  Canning,  then  secre- 
tary of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  after  pro- 
tracted negotiations,  he  received  formal  in- 
structions from  the  king  to  form  a  ministry, 
April  10.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  Lord  West- 
moreland, Lord  Eldon,  Lord  Bexley,  Earl  Ba- 
thurst,  and.  Mr.  Peel  resigned,  April  n.  The 
king,  however,  persevered,  and  Mr.  Canning 
kissed  hands  April  12.  Other  resignations  fol- 


CANNON 


[     205    ] 


CANON 


lowed.    The  new  ministry  was  composed  as 
follows  :  — 

First  Lord  of    the  Treasury') 

and   Chancellor    of     the}-  Rt.  Hon.  G.  Canning. 

Exchequer.  ) 

Lord  Chancellor  ..................  Lord  Lyndhurst. 

President  of  the  Council  ......  Earl  of  Harrowby. 

Privy  Seal  ...........................  Duke  of  Portland. 

Home  Secretary  ..................  Rt.  Hon.  W.  S.  Bourne. 

Foreign  Secretary   ...............  Viscount  Dudley  and  Ward. 

Colonial  Secretary  ...............  Viscount  Goderich. 

Board  of  Control  ..................  Rt.  Hon.  C.  W.  W.  Wynn. 

Board  of  Trade  ..................  Rt.  Hon.  W.  Huskisson. 


Secretary  at  War   ...............  Lord  Palmerston. 

Woods  and  Forests  ...............  Earl  of  Carlisle. 

Master  of  the  Mint  ...............  Rt.  Hon.  G.  Tierney. 

Without  office   .....................  Marquis  of  Lansdovrae. 

The  Earl  of  Carlisle  was  gazetted  Privy  Seal, 
July6i,  1827,  in  place  of  the  Duke  of  Portland, 
who  retained  a  seat  in  the  cabinet;  and  the 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne  Home  Secretary  in  place 
of  Rt.  Hon.  W.  S.  Bourne,  who  became  first 
Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests,  retaining 
his  seat  in  the  cabinet.  A  reconstruction  of 
this  ministry  occurred  after  the  death  of  the 
Rt.  Hon.  G.  Canning,  which  took  place  Aug.  8, 
1827.  (See  GODERICH  ADMINISTRATION.) 

CANNON  have  been  long  known  to  the 
Chinese,  whose  books  mention  them  as  early 
as  618  B.C.  A  small  brass  cannon,  bearing  the 
date  1258,  has  been  taken  from  a  well  at  the 
Castle  de  Cluey  in  France.  The  earliest  docu- 
ment yet  discovered  relative  to  the  employ- 
ment of  cannon  for  siege  and  defence,  is  among 
the  ordinances  of  Florence  for  1326,  where 
metal  cannon  are  appointed  to  be  made  for  the 
defence  of  the  forts  and  lands  of  Florence,  and 
for  the  injury  of  her  enemies.  The  first  French 
mention  of  cannon  is  dated  July  2,  1338,  and 
provides  ammunition  for  the  attack  on  South- 
ampton. Froissart  speaks  of  cannon  used  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Quesnoy  against  the  Duke  of 
Normandy  in  1340.  Mohammed  II.  established 
a  foundry  at  Hadrianople  in  1452,  where  a 
piece  of  brass  ordnance  of  incredible  magni- 
tude was  cast  expressly  for  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantinople. Gibbon  says  its  bore  measured  12 
palms,  and  that  the  stone  bullet  weighed 
600  Ib.  ;  according  to  another  authority,  the 
bullet  was  double  that  weight.  This  gun  burst 
during  the  siege.  Von  Hammer  declared  that 
he  had  seen  the  great  cannon  of  the  Darda- 
nelles, and  that  it  furnished  a  hiding-place  for 
a  tailor  who  had  run  away  from  his  creditors. 
The  invention  of  brass  cannon  is  attributed  to 
John  Owen.  Iron  cannon  were  first  cast  in 
England  in  1547.  (See  ARMSTRONG  GUN,  AR- 
TILLERY, &c.) 

CANNONGATE  MARRIAGES.—  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  1  8th  century,  couples  were  married 
at  public-houses  in  the  Cannongate,  Edinburgh, 
by  unauthorized  persons.  Hence  the  term  by 
which  such  marriages  were  known. 

CANON  LAW  is  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical 
constitutions,  decisions,  and  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 
consists  principally  of  ordinances  of  provincial 
and  general  councils,  the  decretals,  bulls,  and 
epistles  of  the  papacy.  The  earliest  of  these 
rules  (canones)  are  the  Canons  Apostolical  (q.  v.}. 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  a  Roman  monk,  compiled 


a  "Codex  Canonum"  in  520;  and  the  canons  of 
the  four  councils  of  Nicaea,  Constantinople, 
Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon,  received  the  sanction 
of  Justinian  in  545.  The  Codex  Canonum, 
with  the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  and  the 
decrees  of  the  popes  from  Siricius  to  Anasta- 
tius  IV.  (385—1154),  formed  the  chief  part  of 
the  canon  law  down  to  the  i2th  century.  In 
1114  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  collected  the 
decrees  made  by  the  popes  and  cardinals,  and 
this  work  was  completed  by  Gratian,  a  Benedic- 
tine monk,  and  published  in  1140.  Raimundus 
Barcinus,  chaplain  to  Gregory  IX.,  published  in 
1234  the  decretals,  which  were  rescripts  or 
letters  of  the  popes,  in  answer  to  questions  on 
ecclesiastical  matters  submitted  to  them.  The 
work  consisted  of  five  books,  to  which  Boniface 
VIII.  added  a  sixth  in  1298.  Clement  V.  added 
what  were  called  the  Clementines  in  1308. 
John  Andreas  added  a  commentary  called  the 
Novelise  in  the  i4th  century,  and  John  XXI.  or 
XXII.  the  Extravagants  in  1317.  To  thdse  have 
since  been  added  some  decrees  by  later  popes, 
and  the  whole  form  what  is  now  known  as  the 
"  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,"  or  the  great  body  of 
the  canon  law  received  by  the  Church  of  Rome. 
The  primary  object  of  this  system  was  to 
establish  the  supremacy  of  ecclesiastical 
authority.  It  was  not  received  in  England, 
though  attempts  at  its  introduction  were  made 
at  various  times.  The  Legatine  and  Provincial 
Constitutions  (q.  v. )  formed,  however,  a  kind  of 
national  canon  law,  adapted  to  the  English 
Church.  By  25  Hen.  VIII.  c  19  (1553),  it  was 
enacted  that  these  canons  should  be  reviewed 
by  the  king  and  certain  commissioners  to  be 
appointed  under  the  act,  and  that  until  such 
review  was  made,  all  canons,  constitutions,  or- 
dinances, and  synods  provincial,  being  then 
already  made,  and  not  repugnant  to  the  law  of 
the  land  or  the  king's  prerogative,  should 
remain  in  force.  This  act,  repealed  by  i  Phil. 
&  Mary  c.  8  (1553),  was  revived  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i, 
s.  10  (1559)-  By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15  (1535), 
power  was  given  to  the  king  to  appoint  32 
commissioners  under  the  act  of  1533.  Divers 
urgent  matters  interfered  to  prevent  the 
exercise  of  the  power,  and  by  35  Hen.  VIII.  c. 
1 6  (1544),  power  was  given  to  the  king  to 
nominate  them  during  his  life.  A  commission 
was  duly  appointed,  but  the  death  of  the  king 
prevented  the  completion  of  the  work.  During 
the  reign  of  his  successor,  Cranmer  renewed  his 
efforts  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  settlement  of 
the  question.  By  3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  n  (1549), 
another  ^mmission  was  ordered,  and  eight 
persons  were  appointed  to  prepare  the  ma- 
terials for  the  larger  commission.  They  were 
engaged  on  the  work  in  1552,  and  concluded 
their  labours  during  the  year.  Various  matters 
interfered  to  delay  the  ratification  and  estab- 
lishment of  the  new  code  of  ecclesiastical  laws, 
and  after  the  death  of  Edward  VI.  it  was 
almost  entirely  neglected.  The  manuscript 
containing  this  code  of  laws,  with  nujnerous 
notes  and  corrections  in  the  handwriting  of 
Cranmer,  is  preserved  amongst  the  Harleian 
MSS.  in  the  British  Museum.  From  this 
draught  Archbishop  Parker  probably  prepared 
the  code  published  in  1571,  under  the  title  of 
"Reformatio  Legum  Ecclesiasticarum."  It 


CANON 


[    206    ] 


CANONIZATION 


was  republished  in  1640.  The  Rev.  E.  Cardwell 
has  published  several  editions  of  this  remark- 
able work. 

CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE  consists  of  those 
books  which  are  in  "the  rule,  or  canon,  or 
catalogue  of  books  authorized  to  be  read  in  the 
church,"  and  recognized  as  inspired,  and  there- 
fore authentic.  The  Church  of  Rome  admits 
into  the  canon  several  books  which  neither  the 
Primitive  Church  nor  the  Church  of  England* 
accepts  as  canonical.  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  4th  century,  in  speaking  of  the 
canonical  books,  mentions  all  those  in  the 
English  Bible,  except  the  book  of  Revelation. 
The  Council  of  Laodicea,  in  366,  forbids  any 
but  the  canonical  books  to  be  read  in  the 
Church,  and  gives  the  folio  wing  list  of  them  : — 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deutero- 
nomy, Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Esther,  four 
books  of  Kings,  two  of  Paralipomena  or  Chroni- 
cles, two  of  Esdras,  the  book  of  150  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Job,  12  Pro- 
phets, Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  and 
epistles  of  Baruch,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  the  four 
Gospels,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  seven 
catholic  epistles ;  14  epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
"  Where  none  of  the  apocryphal  books,"  says 
Bingham,  "  nor  the  Revelation,  are  mentioned  ; 
which  is  a  plain  evidence  that  none  of  them 
were  read  in  the  churches  of  that  district." 
Ezra  collected  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
about  B.C.  444  ;  and  Simon  the  Just,  who  died 
about  B.C.  291,  added  the  two  books  of  the 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  and 
Malachi ;  and  this  closed  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament.  With  respect  to  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  Townsend  (The  Holy  Bible  in 
Historical  and  Chronological  Order,  vol.  ii.  p. 
439)  remarks  : — "  As  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  cqinpleted  by  Simon  the  Just, 
the  last  of  the  great  Sanhedrin,  so  it  is  proba- 
ble the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was 
completed  either  by  St.  John,  or  that  disciple 
who  might  be  the  survivor  of  the  120,  the 
number  of  the  Sanhedrin,  who  met  at  the  day 
of  Pentecost.  It  is  not  probable  that  any  of 
these  outlived  St.  John,  who  died  nearly  70 
years  after  the  ascension  of  his  Divine  Master.  " 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  the 
supposed  date  of  their  composition.  This  is, 
however,  in  some  cases  uncertain  : — 

OLD   TESTAMENT. 


When 
composed. 

Book. 

Author. 

Chap- 
ters. 

B.C. 
Before     1451 

(iciicsis    

Moses  

5° 

Leviticus  

27 

3* 

145: 

Deuteronomy    

34 

1         $g 

.In-hllll      

/o^iua  

24 

»         1060 

Kutli 

4 

„         1060 
Not  known. 
Before      444 

i  Samuel    
2  Samuel    
i  Kings  
2  Kings  

Not  known. 
Ezra    

3i 
24 

22 
25 

Not  known. 

I   Chronicles  

Not  known. 

| 

Not  known. 
312 

Nrhei.iiah  
Esther     ... 

Nehemiah  ... 

Not  known. 

13 
10 

OLD  TESTAMENT — continued. 


When 
composed. 

Book. 

Author. 

Chap- 
ters. 

Not  known. 
Various  \ 
times.    / 
Before       976 
976 
950-946 
758 
627 
Circ.          637 
595 
604 
784-740 
877-847 
79° 
580 
825 
75° 
713-TH 
650-637 
627 
52° 
520 

job  

Job  . 

4« 

150 
31 

8 
66 

3 

14 

3 
9 

I 

3 

3 

2 

14 

4 

Psalms    [ 

David  until 
others  ...) 
Solomon     . 

Proverbs 

Ecclesiastes   

Isaiah 

Isaiah 

(•'/ridel 

Ezekiel 

Daniel     
Hosea  
Joel 

Daniel  
Hosea  
foci 

(  Hiadiali 

<  ibmliah 

Jonah  
Mifah  
Xahum    .    . 

Jonah  
Micah  
Nahum 

Habakkuk 

Habakkuk... 
Zephaniah... 
Haggai  

y.echariah  ... 
Malachi  

/e|ihaniuh  
Haggai   

/(,!,.  ii-lah  
Malachi  

NEW  TESTAMENT. 


When 
composed. 

Book. 

Author. 

Chap- 
ters. 

A.D. 

37  or  38 
60-63 

M'ltlhew  
Mark        

Matthew    ... 
Mark 

28 
16 

Luke 

Luke 

97  or  98 
63  or  64 

John    

John    
Luke    

21 

28 

I  Corinthians   

1'aul     

16 
16 

53  °r  53 

Galatians   

„      

1 

61 
63  or  63 

1  |ihr-iaus  

PhOlppiaiM  

6 

4 

4 
5 

I 

i  Timothy  

„      

1 

64 

4 

63  or  64 

Philemon   

i 

63 
42  to  65 

Hebrews  
James  
I  Peter       

.lames  
I'eter 

13 
5 

& 

3  Peter  

3 

68  or  69 

r  John    
3  John    

Jolin    

5 

-?     John 

11 

_ 

Fade    

r..vie  :::::: 

95-97 

IJ.'velation  

Inhll      

2,2 

(See  APOCRYPHA,  BIBLE,  PENTATEUCH,  &c.) 

CANONIZATION.  —  Milman  (Lat.  Chris- 
tianity, book  xiv.  ch.  zn)  remarks,  "  Canoni- 
zation has  been  distributed  into  three  periods. 
Down  to  the  zoth  century  the  saint  was  exalted 
by  the  popular  voice,  the  suffrage  of  the 
people  with  the  bishop.  In  the  intermediate 
period  the  sanction  of  the  Pope  was  required, 
but  the  bishops  retained  their  right  of  initiation. 
Alexander  III.  seized  into  the  hands  of  the 
Pope  alone  this  great  and  abused  prerogative." 
The  first  recorded  canonization  by  the  Pope  is 
that  of  Ulric,  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  who  received 
the  title  of  saint  from  John  XV.  or  XVI.,  in 
995.  In  1176,  during  the  supremacy  of  Alex- 
ander III.,  the  privilege  of  adding  to  the 
calendar  of  saints  was  vested  in  the  Pope  alone. 


CANONS 


[     207     ] 


CANTERBURY 


Beatification,  an  inferior  degree  of  canoni- 
zation, was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  the  i2th  century.  Twenty-three 
monks  who  visited  Japan  as  missionaries  in 
the  1 6th  century,  and  suffered  death  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  were  canonized  at  Rome 
with  great  pomp,  June  8,  1862. 

CANONS  of  the  Church  of  England,  141  in 
number,  were  "drawn  up  by  Bancroft,  Bishop  of 
London,  accepted  by  Convocation  in  1604,  and 
assented  to  by  the  king.  They  were  chiefly 
compiled  out  of  the  synodical  acts  passed  in 
I57I — 1597,  a  few  new  ones  being  introduced. 
They  never  received  the  sanction  of  Parliament, 
and  are  considered  by  the  courts  of  common 
law  to  be  binding  on  the  clergy  only.  Though 
these  are  generally  called  the  canons  of  1603, 
they  were  not  ratified  until  1604.  In  1640 
Convocation  formed  a  new  body  of  canons. 
The  House  of  Commons  voted  them  unlawful 
Dec.  16,  and  Archbishop  Laud,  their  author, 
was  committed  to  the  custody  of  the  Usher  of 
the  Black  Rod,  Dec.  18.  Thirteen  bishops  were 
impeached  for  their  share  in  drawing  up  these 
canons,  Aug.  13,  1641. 

CANONS  (Apostolical).  —  These  ancient 
canons,  76  or  85  in  number,  according  to  differ- 
ent modes  of  division,  are  attributed  by  Ba- 
ronius,  Bellarmin,  and  other  Roman  Catholic 
writers,  to  the  apostles.  Other  authorities  as- 
cribe them  to  St.  Clement,  whilst  some  declare 
that  they  are  the  forgeries  of  some  heretic  in 
the  6th  century. 

CANONS  (Regular  and  Secular).  —  Mosheim 
states  that  this  new  species  of  priests,  at  first 
called  the  Lord's  Brethren,  and  afterwards 
canons,  was  instituted  by  Chrodegang,  Bishop 
of  Metz,  in  the  8th  century.  They  formed  an 
intermediate  class  between  monks  and  regulars, 
and  although  they  followed  the  discipline  and 
mode  of  life  of  monks,  took  no  vows  upon  them. 
Canonesses  were  added  in  the  gth  century.  By 
the  nth  century  they  had,  like  the  other  orders, 
become  corrupted,  and  several  efforts  were  made 
to  effect  reforms.  Nicholas  II.  was,  at  the 
Council  of  Rome,  April  13,  1059,  to  a  certain 
extent  successful  in  this  object  ;  but  some 
communities  would  not  proceed  so  far  in  this 
direction  as  others.  Hence  arose  the  dis- 
tinction between  regular  and  secular  canons, 
the  former  having  all  things  in  common,  whilst 
the  latter  had  nothing  in  common  but  their 
dwelling  and  table.  The  term  canon  is  now 
applied  to  a  prebendary  of  a  cathedral. 

CANONS  (Scottish).— The  book  of  canons 
for  the  Church  of  Scotland,  drawn  up  by  the 
Scottish  bishops,  was  confirmed  by  letters 
patent  under  the  great  seal,  May  23,  1635.  It 
was  very  unpopular  in  Scotland,  and  was  with- 
drawn by  Charles  I.  Sep.  9,  1638. 

CANOPUS,  or  CANOBUS  (Battle).— The 
battle  of  Alexandria  (q.  v.),  March  21,  1801,  is 
sometimes  called  Canopus,  from  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  town  of  that  name  about  15  miles  from 
Alexandria,  and  three  from  Aboukir.  It  is 
also  called  the  battle  of  Rhamanieh. 

CANOSA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Canusium,  in 
Apulia,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
the  Pelasgi,  submitted  to  the  Romans  B.C.  318, 
whereupon  the  Canusians  renounced  their 
alliance  with  the  Samnites,  and  remained 


faithful  to  Rome-  for  many  years.  Having 
revolted,  their  city  was  besieged  and  their 
territory  ravaged  B.C.  89.  During  the  civil 
war,  Sylla  gained  a  battle  here  B.C.  83.  The 
modern  city  occupies  the  site  of  the  citadel  of 
Canusium.  At  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Christian  sera,  it  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
which  was  united  to  that  of  Bari  in  845.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  French  July  2,  1502.  After 
repulsing  two  assaults,  the  Spanish  garrison 
capitulated  on  honourable  terms. 

CANOSSA  (Italy).— This  fortress,  near 
Reggio,  in  Modena,  was  the  scene  of  Henry  the 
Fourth's  humiliation  to  Pope  Gregoiy  VII.  (Hil- 
debrand),  in  Jan.,  1077.  The  Pope  had  sum- 
moned the  emperor  to  appear  before  him  at 
Rome  to  answer  some  charges  brought  against 
him  by  his  subjects.  Henry  I V. ,  in  an  assembly 
held  at  Worms,  Jan.  23,  1076,  declared  that 
Gregory  VII.  was  no  longer  pope.  Gregory  VII. 
immediately  called  a  council  in  the  Lateran, 
excommunicated  Henry  IV.,  deprived  him  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and  re- 
leased his  subjects  from  their  allegiance.  The 
emperor,  at  first  bent  upon  resistance,  was 
frightened  by  some  disaffection  that  revealed 
itself  at  home,  and  he  crossed  the  Alps  to 
submit  and  seek  absolution.  Gregory  VII.  was 
at  the  time  in  the  castle  of  Canossa,  with  the 
Countess  Matilda.  Henry  IV.  arrived  at  its 
gates  in  the  depth  of  a  winter  of  unusual 
severity,  Jan.  25,  1077.  Three  successive  days 
he  remained  in  an  outer  court,  without  food, 
in  a  woollen  shirt  and  with  bare  head  and  naked 
feet,  and  only  on  the  fourth  would  Gregory  VII. 
admit  him  to  his  presence.  Absolution  was 
then  granted.  The  emperor's  friends,  disgusted 
at  this  base  humiliation,  deserted  him  Jan.  28, 
and,  goaded  by  the  insolence  of  Gregory,  he 
renounced  his  treaty.  At  a  diet  held  at 
Forcheim  by  the  rebel  princes,  Henry  IV.  was 
deposed,  and  Rodolph  of  Swabia  elected  in 
his  stead,  March  15,  1077.  Gregory  VII.,  who 
endeavoured  in  vain  to  act  the  part  of  arbi- 
trator, excommunicated  Henry  IV.  at  a  council 
at  Rome,  March  7,  1080,  and  acknowledged 
Rodolph.  The  emperor  summoned  a  council 
at  Brixen,  June  2.5,  1080,  deposed  Gregory  VII., 
and  elected  Guibert  in  his  stead,  under  the 
title  of  Clement  III.,  June  25.  Success  crowned 
Henry's  efforts  in  the  field  ;  he  entered  Rome, 
June  9,  1083,  after  a  siege  of  three  years' 
duration,  and  was  crowned  by  the  new  Pope. 
Gregory  VII.  took  refuge,  first  at  Monte  Casino, 
and  then  with  Roger  Guiscard,  at  Salerno, 
where  he  died,  May  25,  10815. 

CANOUJ  (Hindostan).— (See  KANOGE.) 

CANTABRI.— This  tribe,  inhabiting  part  of 
northern  Spain,  was  the  last  in  the  peninsula 
that  submitted  to  the  Roman  yoke  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  by  whom  they  were  subdued, 
B.C.  25.  Agrippa  suppressed  an  insurrection 
among  them  B.C.  19,  when  the  greater  part  of 
the  nation  perished  by  the  sword,  the  survivors 
being  driven  from  their  mountain  fastnesses, 
and  compelled  to  reside  in  the  valleys,  where 
they  were  kept  in  awe  by  strong  garrisons 
erected  by  Tiberius.  The  Basques  are  regarded 
as  the  descendants  of  this  fearless  and  war- 
like people. 

CANTERBURY.— This    city   in  Kent,    the 


CANTERBURY 


[    208    ] 


CANTON 


Roman  Durovernum,  is  said  by  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  to  have  been  founded  by  Hudi- 
bras,  who  reigned  about  B.C.  900.  It  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest  of  Britain, 
as  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Anto- 
ninus, written  about  A.D.  320.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Heptarchy,  in  455,  it 
ranked  as  the  chief  city  of  Kent,  and  continued 
the  residence  of  the  king  till  Ethelbert  gave 
up  his  palace  to  St.  Augustine  and  withdraw 
to  Reculver  in  597.  Christ's  Church,  which  be- 
came the  cathedral,  was  consecrated  in  597.  In 
the  time  of  Theodore,  who  occupied  the  see 
from  668  to  693,  the  city  was  the  seat  of  an 
important  public  school,  which  declined  in 
consequence  of  the  ravages  of  the  Danes. 
Augustine  became  first  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  597.  In  754  the  town  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  and  in  851  it  was  taken  by  the 
Danes.  Archbishop  Odo  (942—960)  restored 
the  walls  and  roof  of  the  cathedral,  which 
was,  however,  much  damaged  by  the  Danes, 
who  again  sacked  the  town  in  ion,  putting 
Elphege,  the  archbishop,  to  death,  on  Easter 
Eve,  March  24.  The  cathedral  suffered  from  a 
fire  in  1066,  and  on  St.  Nicholas  Day  (Dec.  6), 
1067,  and  the  work  of  restoration  was  carried 
on  by  Archbishop  Lanfranc  (1070 — 15593)  and 
his  successors,  by  whom  the  new  edifice  was 
finished  in  1130.  Becket  was  killed  in  the 
cathedral  Tuesday,  Dec.  29,  1170,  and  the'city 
became  a  resort  for  pilgrims.  The  choir  was 
burned  hi  1 174.  Canterbury  was  represented  in 
Parliament  in  1265.  The  city  remained  unpaved 
till  1477.  In  1542,  Henry  VIII.  remodelled  the 
cathedral  and  school,  giving  to  the  latter  the 
title  of  King's  School,  which  it  has  since  re- 
tained; and  in  1561  Queen  Elizabeth  permitted 
the  Protestant  refugees  from  the  Low  Countries 
to  worship  in  the  undercroft  of  the  cathedral. 
Cromwell  passed  through  the  town  in  1651, 
when  the  cathedral  was  used  as  a  stable  by  his 
troops.  The  hospital  was  founded  June  9, 
1791.  Thorn's  riots  at  Bough  ton,  near  Canter- 
bury, May  28 — 31,  1838,  led  to  a  sacrifice  of 
several  lives.  (See  THOMITES.) 

CANTERBURY  (Archbishopric)  was 
founded  by  Ethelbert  in  597,  when  Augustine 
became  the  first  archbishop,  formally  establish- 
ing his  see  in  602.  After  a  long  contest  with 
York,  the  primacy  of  the  archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury was  established  at  a  council  held  in 
England  from  Easter  to  Pentecost,  in  1072. 
Lanfranc,  at  that  time  archbishop,  laboured 
diligently  in  order  to  secure  this  result.  The 
archbishop  is  primate  of  all  England  and 
metropolitan.  Augustine  quitted  Rome  in 
596,  landed  in  England  in  597,  went  to  France, 
and  was  consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of  Aries, 
Sunday,  Nov.  17,  597  ;  returned  to  England  in 
598,  received  the  pallium  from  Rome  in  601, 
and  fixed  the  see  at  Canterbury  in  602.  In  the 
following  list,  the  date  of  the  appointment  of 
each  archbishop  is  given  : — 

ARCHBISHOPS   OF  CANTERBURY. 

A.D.  I  A.D. 

597.  Augustine.  655.  Deusdedit,  or  Adeoda- 

604.  Laurentiug.  tus. 

619.  Mellitus.  668.  Theodore. 

634.  Justus.  693.   Brihtwald. 

627.  Houorius.  I  731.  Tatwiiie. 


ARCHBISHOPS   OF   CANTERBURY — Continued. 


735.  Nothelm. 
741.  Cuthbert. 


793.  Ethelhard. 

805.  Wulfred. 

833.  Feologild.  . 

833.  Ceolnoth. 

870.  Ethelred. 

890.  Plegmund. 

914.  Athulm. 

933.  Wulfhelm. 

942.  Odo. 

960.  Dunstan. 

988.  Ethelgar. 

990.  Siric. 

995-  Elfric. 

006.  Elphege. 

013.  Living. 

030.  Ethuluoth. 

038.  Eadsige. 

051.  Robert. 

053.  Stigand. 

070.  Lanfranc. 

093.  Anselm. 

114.  Kalph  of  Escures. 

123.  William  of  CorbeuiL 

139.  Theobald. 

163.  Thomas  a  Becket. 

174.  Richard. 

185.  Baldwin. 

191.  Reginald  Fitz-Jocelin. 

193.  Hubert  Walter. 

-   -.  Sti'phi'ii  I.angton. 

339.  Richard  Grant. 

334.   Edmund  Rich. 

345.  Boniface. 

373.  Robert  Kilwardby. 

279.  John  lVckh:im. 

394.  Robert  Winchelsev. 

313.  Waller  Reynolds." 

3.!*.  Simon  Mepeham. 

333-  John  Stratford. 

349.  Thomas  Bradwardine. 


A.D. 

1349.  Simon  Islip. 
1366.  Simon  Langham. 
1368.  William  Whittlesey. 
1375.  Simon  Sudbuiy. 
1381.  William  Conrtenay. 

1397.  Thomas  ArundeL 

1398.  Roger  Walden. 

1399.  Thomas         Arundel 

(again). 

1414.  Henry  Chicheley. 
1443.  John  Stafford. 

1453.  John  Kemp. 

1454.  Thomas  Bourchier. 
I4S6.  John  Morton. 

1501.  Henry     Deane,     or 

Denny. 

1504.  William  Wareham. 
1533.  Thomas  Cranmer. 
1556.  Reginald  Pole. 
1559.  Matthew  Parker. 
1576.  Edmund  Grindal. 
1583.  John  Whitgift. 
1604.  Richard  Bancroft. 
i6ir.  George  Abbot 
1633.  William  Laud. 
1660.  William  Juxon. 
1663.  Gilbert  Sheldon. 
1678.  William  Sancroft. 
1691.  John  Tillotson. 
1695.  Thomas  Tcnisun. 
1716.  William  Wake. 
1737.  John  Pntti-r. 
1747.  Thomas  Herring. 

1757.  Matthew  Hutton. 

1758.  Thomas  Seeker. 

1768.  Hon.  Frederick   Corn- 

wallis. 

1783.  John  Moore. 
1805.  Charles  Manners  Sut- 

1838.  William  Howley. 

1848.  John  Bird  Simmer. 

1863.  Charles       Thomas 

Longley. 


CANTKRIUrKY  New  Zealand  .—This  settle- 
ment was  founded  in  1850,  by  a  society  of 
gentlemen  connected  with  the  Church  of 
England,  and  incorporated  under  the  style 
of  the  Canterbury  Association.  The  local 
government  was  constituted  in  1853. 

(AM'IRE,  or  KINTYRE  (Scotland).— This 
peninsula  of  Argyleshire  was  subdued  in  210 
by  Scots  from  Ireland,  who  having  been  ex- 
pelled in  446,  returned  in  503,  and  established 
a  government  !it  Campbelton.  From  the  8th 
to  the  1 3th  century  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Northmen ;  it  then  fell  into  the  possession  of 
the  Macdonalds  of  the  Isles,  and  lastly  of  the 
Campbells. 

CANTON  (China)  is  said  by  native  historians 
to  have  been  founded  about  B.C.  200.  Its  im- 
portance as  a  seat  of  foreign  trade  dates  from 
about  A.D.  700,  when  it  was  appointed  the  resi- 
dence of  an  imperial  commissioner  of  customs. 
In  1517  the  Portuguese  obtained  permission  to 
trade  here,  and  in  1634  the  English  made  an 
ineffectual  attempt  to  secure  the  same  privi- 
lege. The  original  city  was  destroyed  in  1650, 
after  a  siege  of  n  months.  The  East  India 
Company  established  a  factory  in  1680.  In 
1755  European  intercourse  with  China  was 
restricted  to  Canton,  which  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Nov.  i,  1822,  and  greatly  injured 
by  a  flood  in  Sep.,  1833.  The  forts  fired  on  two 
English  ships-of-war,  Sep.  7,  1834 ;  but  they 
were  speedily  silenced,  and  amicable  relations 
re-established.  Canton,  the  centre  of  operations 


CAOUTCHOUC 


[    209    ] 


CAPE 


during  the  Chinese  war  of  1839 — 1841,  was 
made,  by  the  treaty  of  Nankin  (Aug.  29, 
1842),  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to 
British  commerce.  The  factories,  however, 
were  burned  down  soon  afterwards,  and  the 
English  suffered  greatly  until  April  6,  1847, 
when,  having  threatened  to  bombard  the  town, 
they  obtained  the  execution  of  four  murderers 
of  their  countrymen.  The  Arrow,  a  lorcha 
manned  by  Chinese,  but  commanded  by  an 
Englishman,  was  boarded  by  order  of  Commis- 
sioner Yeh,  Oct.  8,  1856,  and  as  compensation 
was  refused,  Sir  M.  Seymour  seized  the  forts 
Oct.  24,  and  bombarded  the  town  Oct.  28 
and  29.  The  foreign  factories  were  burned  by 
the  natives  Dec.  14.  An  allied  English  and 
French  force  captured  it  Dec.  29,  1857,  and  the 
governor  and  Yeh  were  taken  prisoners  Jan.  5, 
1858.  Yeh  was  sent  to  Calcutta  Jan.  8.  A 
French  cathedral  was  founded  in  1863.  (See 
CHINA.) 

CAOUTCHOUC.— (See  INDIA  RUBBEB.) 

CAP. — The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
usually  left  the  head  uncovered,  and  regarded 
the  Phrygian  cap  as  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The 
Romans  gave  their  slaves  a  cap  when  they 
made  them  free.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  cap 
as  a  symbol  of  liberty.  According  to  Diodorus 
Siculus  (B.C.  44),  the  ancient  Britons  used  a 
conical  cap,  which  was  discontinued  during 
the  Roman  supremacy,  and  resumed  under 
the  Saxons,  who  wore  head-coverings  of  felt, 
wool,  and  skin.  After  the  Norman  conquest, 
skull-caps  were  introduced,  and  during  the 
i4th  centuiy  both  sexes  adopted  head-dresses 
of  most  extraordinary  forms.  It  is  usual  to 
refer  the  general  use  of  caps  to  the  year  1449, 
when  Charles  VII.  of  France  entered  Rouen ; 
but  the  change  was  probably  very  gradual. 
The  cap  was  sometimes  used  as  a  mark  of 
infamy  ;  and  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries 
bankrupts  in  France  were  compelled  to  wear  a 
green  cap.  (See  MAINTENANCE.) 

CAPE  ANNE  (N.  America).— This  promon- 
tory of  New  England,  forming  the  north-east 
point  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  was  discovered  in 
1614  by  John  Smith,  who  named  it  Tragabig- 
sanda,  after  a  Turkish  lady  whose  slave  he  had 
formerly  been.  The  title  was  changed  by  de- 
sire of  Prince  Charles,  afterwards  Charles  I., 
in  honour  of  his  mother  Anne  of  Denmark. 

CAPE  BLANCO.— (-See  BLANCO.) 

CAPE  BRETON  (N.  America).— This  island 
is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by  Cabot 
in  1497.  In  1632  it  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  St.  Germain ;  but  the  French  did 
not  form  a  settlement  until  1712,  when  they 
called  it  He  Royale.  They  fortified  Louis- 
bourg  in  1720,  which  was  taken  by  the  English 
June  15,  1745,  but  restored  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct.  18,  1748.  The 
English  recaptured  Louisbourg  July  26,  1758, 
and  the  island  was  finally  ceded  to  them  by 
the  fourth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Feb.  TO,  1763.  Sydney,  the  capital,  was 
founded  in  1823.  It  forms  part  of  the  colony 
of  Nova  Scotia. 

CAPE-COAST  CASTLE  (Africa).— This  set- 
tlement in  Guinea  was  established  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1610;  taken  in  1643  by  the 
Dutch,  who  established  a  colony  in  1650,  and 


by  the  English  in  1661.  In  1665  it  was  be- 
sieged, though  unsuccessfully,  by  the  Dutch 
under  De  Ruyter.  It  was  finally  ceded  to  the 
English  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  July  10 
(O.  S.),  1667. 

CAPE  COD  (Massachusetts)  was  discovered, 
according  to  some  authorities,  in  1004,  by 
Thorwald,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  who  named 
it  Kial-Arnes  or  Keel  Cape,  and  according 
to  others  by  Thorhall,  the  companion  of  the 
Danish  voyager  Thorferin,  in  1007.  It  was 
re-discovered  in  1602,  by  Capt.  Gosnold,  who 
gave  it  its  present  name,  and  in  1614  was  ex- 
plored by  John  Smith,  who  named  it  Cape 
James  in  honour  of  King  James  I.  It  was 
the  first  land  sighted  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
in  the  Mayflower  in  1620. 

CAPE  COMORIN  (Hindostan)  is  first  men- 
tioned in  the  "Travels  of  Marco  Polo,"  cir- 
culated in  1298,  and  called  by  him  Komari. 

CAPE  F1NISTERRE  (Sea-fight).  —  Lord 
Anson  and  Admiral  Warren  defeated  and 
captured  a  French  fleet  and  convoy,  consisting 
of  32  sail,  under  Admiral  de  la  Jonquiere, 
off  this  cape,  May  3,  1747  (O.  S.). 

CAPE  GIRARDEAU  (Battle).— The  Confede- 
rates, under  Gen.  Marmaduke,  having  vainly 
demanded  the  surrender  of  the  Federal  depot 
at  this  place  in  Missouri,  April  25,  1863,  were 
defeated  by  Gen.  McNeil,  April  26,  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat  into  Arkansas,  which  they 
reached  May  2. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  (S.  Africa)  was 
discovered  by  Bartholomew  Diaz  in  1487,  and 
first  doubled  by  Vasco  de  Gama  Nov.  19,  1497. 
The  English  took  possession  in  1620,  but 
neglected  to  plant  a  settlement,  and  it  re- 
mained abandoned  by  Europeans  till  colonized 
by  the  Dutch  in  1650.  Diaz  named  it  the 
Stormy  Cape,  which  the  King  of  Portugal 
changed  to  its  present  appellation.  It  was 
explored  by  Barrow  in  1797.  (See  CAPE  TOWN.) 

CAPE  HAYTIEN  (Hayti).— Capt.  Wake,  of 
the  Bulldog,  having  run  his  ship  aground  during 
an  attack  on  the  forts  of  this  sea-port,  formerly 
called  Cape  Fran?ais  and  Cape  Henri,  burned 
her  to  prevent  her  falling  into  the  power  of 
the  enemy,  Oct.  23,  1865.  The  forts  were 
subsequently  destroyed  by  H.  M.  S.  Galatea 
and  Lily,  Nov.  9. 

CAPE  HORN,  or  HOORN  (S.  America),  is 
supposed  to  have  been  sighted  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake  in  1578.  Some  authorities  contend  that 
it  was  first  doubled  by  Le  Maire  and  Schouten 
in  1616,  and  named  after  the  birthplace  of  the 
last  mentioned. 

CAPE  LA  HOGUE  (France).— The  north- 
west part  of  a  promontory  which  runs  into  the 
English  Channel  about  16  miles  N.W.  of 
Cherbourg.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the 
same  promontory  is  called  Cape  La  Hague. 
(See  LA  HOGUE.) 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT  (Sea-fights).  —  Sir 
George  Rooke,  with  23  men-of-war  and  the 
Turkish  fleet  under  convoy,  was  attacked 
near  this  promontory,  in  Spain,  by  a  force 
of  1 60  vessels,  under  Admiral  De  Tourville, 
June  1 6,  1693.  The  French  captured  or 
destroyed  12  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war, 

and  above  80  of  the  merchantmen. 

Admiral  Rodney  gave  chase  to  a  Spanish 

p 


CAPE 


t     210    ] 


CAPITULARIES 


fleet  in  these  waters,  Jan.  16,  1780,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  one  80  and  five  74-gun 

ships,   Jan.    17. Sir  John    Jervis,  with   15 

ships  of  the  line  and  a  few  frigates,  defeated  a 
Spanish  fleet  of  27  men-of-war,  four  of  which  he 
captured,  besides  sinking  others,  Feb.  14, 1797. 

CAPE  TOWN  (S.  Africa)  was  founded  by 
the  Dutch  in  1650,  and  remained  in  their  pos- 
session till  captured  by  the  English  under  Ad-, 
miral  Elphinstone  and  Gen.  Clarke,  Sep.  16, 
1795.  A  Dutch  squadron,  sent  to  recapture  it, 
was  taken  by  Elphinstone,  Aug.  1 7,  1 796.  At 
the  peace  of  Amiens  (March  25,  1802",  England 
restored  it  to  the  Dutch.  It  was  again  taken 
by  Sir  Home  Popham  and  Sir  David  Baird, 
Jan.  10,  1806,  and  was  finally  ceded  to  England 
by  the  treaty  signed  at  London,  Aug.  13,  1814. 
The  bishopric  of  Cape  Town  was  founded  in 
1847.  An  attempt  made  by  government  in 
1849  to  convert  the  colony  into  a  penal  settle- 
ment was  abandoned,  owing  to  the  opposition 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  constitution  granted 
to  the  colony  of  Cape  Town  was  officially  pro- 
claimed July  i,  1853.  The  judicial  committee 
of  the  Privy  Council  decided  that  the  Bishop  of 
Cape  Town  had  no  jurisdiction  over  the  Bishop 
of  Niital,  March  20,  1865.  (See  CAFFBE  WAR.) 

CAPE  VERDE  (Africa)  was  discovered  by 
Dinis  Fernandez,  a  Portuguese,  in  1445.  It  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  Arsinarium  Pr.  of 
the  ancients. 

CAPE  VERDE,  or  DE  VERDE  ISLANDS 
(North  Atlantic  Ocean),  were  known  to  the 
ancients  as  the  Gorgades.  Though  the  re-dis- 
covery is  usually  attributed  to  the  Genoese 
navigator  Antonio  de  Noli,  sailing  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Portugal,  in  1449,  Nuno  Tristan  is  sup- 
posed to  have  discovered  some  of  them  two  or 
three  years  earlier.  Different  authorities  refer 
the  discovery  to  1450,  1460,  and  1462.  Pope 
Clement  VII.  erected  them  into  a  bishopric 


in  1532. 

CAPET  (House  of).— Hugh  L 
Paris,  seized  the  crown  of  France  on  the  death 


(House  of). — Hugh  Capet,  Count  oi 


of  Louis  V.  in  987,  and  founded  the  third 
dynasty  of  French  monarchs.  He  was  crowned 
at  Noyoii  by  the  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  July  i, 
987.  Fourteen  kings  of  this  line  reigned  before 
1328,  when  Philip  VI.  vested  the  power  in  the 
house  of  Valois. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.  —  Among  the 
ancient  Jews,  stoning,  burning,  and  cruci- 
fixion were  the  chief  capital  penalties.  Draco. 
B.C.  621,  endeavoured  to  repress  crime  among 
the  Greeks,  by  visiting  every  offence  with 
death  ;  but  Solon,  B.C.  594,  limited  the  extrem 
sentence  of  the  law  to  murder  (q.  v.},  and  a 
few  other  heinous  offences.  The  Romans  in 
flicted  it  on  murderers,  traitors,  violators  o: 
public  morals,  and  vestals  who  broke  their 
vows  of  chastity.  By  the  codes  of  Theodosius 
and  Justinian,  promulgated  in  438  and  528 
capital  punishment  was  chiefly  confined  tc 
murder,  treason,  adultery,  forgery  (q.  v.),  i 
committed  by  a  slave,  and  man-stealing 
Under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  it  was  almost  limitec 
to  theft ;  other  offences,  including  murder 
being  dealt  with  by  fines.  William  the  Con 
queror  (1066—1087)  abolished  it  altogether  as  j 
system,  and  substituted  mutilation.  Never 
theless,  the  first  instance  of  decapitation  for 


reason,  in  this  country,  occurred  in  his  reign, 
Waltheof,  Earl  of  Northumbria,  having  been 
>eheadedat  Winchester,  May  31, 1076.  Henry  I. 
•evived  the  capital  penalty  in  certain  kinds  of 
;heft  in  1108,  and  in  1241  kanging,  drawing, 
and  quartering  were  first  inflicted  on  a  pirate 
named  William  Marsh  or  Maurice.  The  punish- 
ment of  death  subsequently  became  much 
more  common,  and  in  the  time  of  Edward  II. 
1307 — 1327)  was  awarded  to  traitors,  who  were 
drawn  and  hanged ;  to  murderers,  robbers, 
and  incendiaries,  who  were  hanged  ;  to  heretics, 
who  were  burned  ;  and  to  offenders  against 
nature,  who  were  buried  alive.  A  ' '  Society 
for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  upon  the  punish- 
ment of  death,"  was  established  in  London 
about  1808.  By  4  &  5  Viet.  c.  56  (June  2,  1841), 
it  is  limited  to  the  crimes  of  treason,  murder, 
unnatural  offences,  setting  fire  to  the  queen's 
ships  or  stores,  injuring  life  with  intent  to 
murder,  burglary  accompanied  with  attempts 
to  murder,  robbery  accompanied  with  stabbing 
or  wounding,  setting  fire  to  a  dwelling-house 
having  any  person  therein,  setting  fire  to, 
casting  away,  or  otherwise  destroying  ships 
with  intent  to  murder,  exhibiting  false  lights 
with  intent  to  bring  ships  into  danger,  and 
piracy,  accompanied  with  stabbing,  &c.  A 
commission,  which  was  appointed  in  1864, 

S  resented  its  report  in  1865.     (See  BOILING  TO 
EATH,  BURNING  ALIVE,  BURYING  ALIVE,  CRU- 
CIFIXION,   DROWNING,   EXECUTIONS,    GAROTTE, 
HAM; INC,  60. 

CAPITATION  TAX.— (See  POLL  TAX.) 

CAPITOL  (Rome).— According  to  the  legend, 
as  the  workmen  were  digging  on  the  Saturnian, 
afterwards  called  the  Capitoline  Hill,  the 
foundations  for  the  temple,  which  Tarquin, 
in  the  Sabine  campaign,  vowed  to  erect  to 
Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  they  came  upon  a 
human  head.  The  augurs  declared  it  to  be  an 
ornen  that  the  spot  was  destined  to  become  the 
head  of  the  whole  world.  It  was  founded  by 
Tarquinius  Priscus  B.C.  615,  completed  by  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus  B.C.  533,  and  dedicated  to  • 
Jupiter  by  the  consul  Horatius  B.C.  507.  It  was 
destroyed  by  lightning  July  6,  B.C.  183,  by  fire 
B.C.  83,  rebuilt  by  Sylla,  again  destroyed  by  fire 
Dec.  19,  A.D.  69,  and  rebuilt  by  Domitiaii  the 
same  year ;  again  burned  80,  and  restored  82. 
During  the  sack  of  Rome  by  Genseric,  in  June, 
455,  the  Capitol  was  stripped  of  its  gold  orna- 
ments and  roof,  and  abandoned  to  decay. 
Petrarch  was  crowned  here  April  8,  1341. 

CAPITOLINE  GAMES,  instituted  B.C.  387,  to 
commemorate  the  preservation  of  the  > 
from  the  Gauls,  were  revived  by  the  Emperor 
Domitian,  A.D.  86. 

CAPITULARIES,  a  term  derived  from  capi- 
tula,  "  little  chapters,"  is  applied  to  all  laws 
passed  by  the  Prankish  kings.  Guizot  enume- 
rates 60  of  the  first  race,  and  152  of  the  second. 
Of  these,  no  less  than  65  were  passed  during 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (768 — 814).  The  Capi- 
tularies of  Charlemagne  and  of  Louis  I.  were 
collected  by  Angesius  in  827,  and  another  col- 
lection was  made  by  royal  authority  in  847. 
Hallam  considers  the  last  Capitularies  to  be 
those  of  Carloman  in  882,  though  two  have  been 
attributed  to  Charles  III.  (the  Simple),  who 
died  Oct.  7,  929.  They  have  been  published  at 


CAPPADOCIA 


CAPUCHINS 


Paris,  the  best  editions  being  byBaluze,  in  167 
and  1780. 

CAPPADOCIA  (Asia  Minor).— The  early  his 
tory  of  this  ancient  state  is  involved  in  ob 
scurity.  Pharnaces,  who  held  it  as  a  fief  of  th 
Persian  empire,  is  said  to  have  founded  th 
kingdom  B.C.  744. 

B.C. 
531.  Assassination  of  the  Magi  Smerdis  by  seven  nobles 

one  of  whom,  Anaptuis,  is  descended  from  Pliar 

naces. 
323.  Perdiccas,  Regent  of  Macedon,  subdues  Cappadocia 

Cto    death   King  Ariarathes  I.,  and  invest, 
lenes  with  the  government. 
390.  Mithridates  III.,  King  of  Pontus,  seizes  Cappadocia 

and  Paphlagonia. 

388.  Cappadocia  becomes  subordinate  to  the  Seleucidae. 
380.  Seleucus  Nicator  is  slain,  and   Cappadocia  regain 

its  independence. 
193.  Ariarathes  IV.  marries  Autiochis,  daughter  of  Anti- 

ochus  the  Great 

158.  Ariarathes   V.,  dethroned    by    Holophernes,   is  re- 
stored by  the  Romans. 
130.  Ariarathes  V.  is  slain  with  Crassus,  in  battle  against 
Aristonicus  of    Mysia.      Five    of     his    sons    are 
poisoned    by     their     mother     Laodice,    but    the 
youngest  escapes,  and  succeeds  to  the  crown. 
96.  Ariarathes  VI.  is  put  to  death  by  his  brother-in-law 
Mithridates  VI.,  King  of    Pontus.     He  is  the  last 
king  of  the  original  dynasty. 

93.  The  Romans  appoint  Ariobarzanes  I.,  King  of  Cap- 
padocia, but  he  is  immediately  expelled  by 
Mithridates  VI. 

92.  Sylla  restores  Ariobarzanes  I. 
88.  Ariobarzanes  I.  is  again  expelled. 
84.  Ariobarzanes  I.  is  again  restored. 
66.  Mithridates  VI.  again  seizes  Cappadocia,  which  he  is 

compelled  to  evacuate  by  Pompey. 
43.  Ariubarzanes  II.  assists  Pompey  against  Caesar,  and 

is  slain  by  Cassius. 

36.  Mark  Antony  deposes  and  puts  to  death  Ariara- 
thes VII.,  and  appoints  Archelaus  king  in  his 
stead. 

30.  Augustus  confers  new  territories  on  Archelaus. 
A.D. 

15.  Tiberius  invites  Archelaus  to  Rome,  and  detains  him 

prisoner. 
17.  Death  of  Archehius  at  Rome.     Cappadocia  is  made 

a  Roman  province. 

370.  A  famine  prevails  in  Cappadocia. 
515.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Huns. 
717.  It  is  conquered  by  the  Saracens. 
876.  It  is  reunited  to  the  empire  by  Basil  I. 
1074,  It  is    conquered   by    the    Seljukian    Turks,    under 

Soliman. 
1360.  It  is  adiied  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

KINGS  OF  CAPPADOCIA. 
B.C.  I  B.C. 

163.  Ariarathes     V.     Philo- 


Ariamnes  I. 

Ariarathes  I.  (died  B.C. 

332.) 
315.  Ariarathes  II. 

Ariamnes  II. 

Ariarathes  III. 
330.  Ariarathes  IV. 


pator. 

130.  Ariarathes  VI. 
93.  Ariobarzanes  I. 
63.  Ariobarzanes  II. 
43.  Ariarathes  VII. 
36.  Archelaus. 


CAPPEL,  or  KAPPEL  (Battle),  between  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  Switzerland,  and  the  Zu- 
richers,  was  fought  at  this  village  in  Zurich, 
Oct.  12,  1531.  The  latter  were  defeated,  and 
their  leader,  Ulric  Zwingli,  was  slain. 

CAPPIANO  (Battle).— Castruccio  of  Lucca 
defeated  and  captured  Raymond  of  Cordova, 
the  Florentine  general,  at  this  place,  Monday, 
Sep.  23,  1325. 

CAPRI  (Mediterranean),  the  ancient  Capreser 
the  "island  of  the  wild  goats,"  between  the 
bays  of  Naples  and  Paestum,  is  celebrated  in 
ancient  history  as  the  retreat  chosen,  A.D.  27, 
by  Tiberius,  who  spent  the  last  10  years  of  his 
life  here,  dying  March  15,  37.  He  built  12 


villas  in  different  parts  of  the  island.  It  has 
two  towns,  one  called  Anacapri,  i, 600  or  1,700 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  inhabi- 
tants communicate  with  those  of  the  other 
town,  called  Capri,  by  a  flight  of  538  steps; 
Christianity  was  planted  in  Capri  in  the 
earliest  times,  and  it  was  made  a  bishopric  in 
987.  The  island  was  wrested  from  Napoleon  by 
Sir  Sydney  Smith,  May  12,  1806.  Sir  Hudson 
Lowe  and  the  garrison  capitulated  to  Murat 
Oct.  16,  1808. 

CAPRERA  (Mediterranean).  —  This  island, 
situated  to  the  north-east  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  was  the  haunt  of  a  bandit  from  Porto 
Vecchio,  who  erected  the  first  house  here  about 
1750.  Garibaldi  settled  at  this  place  in  1854. 

CAPS  AND  HATS.— On  the  assembling  of 
the  Swedish  diet,  May  30,  1738,  the  house 
divided  into  two  hostile  parties,  the  Hats,  who 
opposed,  and  the  Caps  or  Nightcaps,  who 
favoured  the  alliance  with  Russia.  Owing  to 
the  ascendancy  of  the  former  faction,  war  was 
declared  in  Aug.,  1741,  and  continued  till  the 


peace  of  Abo,  Aug.  17,  1743.     Both  parties  were 
CAPSTERN,  or  CAPSTAN^This  apparatus 


suppressed  by  Gustavus  III.  in  1772. 


For  working  the  anchors  of  ships  was  invented 
by  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  who  died  Dec.  30,  1695. 

CAPUA  (Naples).— The  ancient  Volturnum, 
was  taken  from  the  Etruscans  by  the  Samnites, 
3.c.  423.  Hannibal  made  it  his  winter  quar- 
ters after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  The  Romans, 
who  regained  the  city  after  a  siege  of  two 
years'  duration,  B.C.  211,  wreaked  their  ven- 
geance on  the  inhabitants,  all  the  senators  and 
nobles  being  put  to  death,  and  the  other 
citizens  banished  beyond  the  Tiber.  By  the 
Lex  Julia  Agraria,  passed  B.C.  59,  Capua  was 
made  a  Roman  colony,  and  regained  a  portion 
)f  its  ancient  splendour.  Genseric,  King  of 
;he  Vandals,  took  it  A.D.  456,  and  reduced  it  to 
a  very  low  condition  ;  but  it  was  not  destroyed 
ill  840,  when  it  was  captured. and  burned  by 
he  Saracens.  The  modern  town  was  built  in 
;he  gth  century,  at  about  two  miles  distance 
rom  the  original  site,  and  was  fortified  in 
231.  Capua  was  made  a  bishopric  about  46, 
Bud  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric  in  968. 
Councils  were  held  here  in  Dec.,  391,  March  21, 
087,  and  in  1118.  It  was  for  many  years  a 

public,  under  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  and  afterwards  formed  part 
if  the  kingdom  of  Sicily.  Caesar  Borgia  cap- 
ured  it,  and  put  5,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  the 

vord,  July  24,  1501.     Capua  was  occupied  by 

French  force  Jan.  23,  1799,  and  July  28  it 
urrendered  to  the  British.  The  French  took 
)ossession  of  it  in  1806.  It  capitulated  to  the 
Sardinian  forces  Nov.  2,  1860. 

CAPUCHINS.— These  friars,  of  a  reformed 
rder  of  St.  Francis,  were  established  by 
Matthew  de  Baschi  in  1525.  In  1528  they 
btaiiied  a  bull  from  Clement  VII.,  and  the 
rder  was  fully  established  in  1529.  This 
ranch  of  the  Franciscans  derived  their  name 
rom  the  cowl  (caputium],  but  were  at  first 
ailed  Friars  Hermits  Minor.  Paul  III.  con- 
rmed  the  order  in  1536,  and  gave  them  the 
ame  of  Capuchins  of  the  order  of  Friars 
Hinor.  The  right  of  preaching,  taken  from 
hem  in  1543,  was  restored  in  1545.  They 
p  2 


CARABINE 


[       212      ] 


CARCANET 


were  introduced  into  France  in  1573,  and  into 
Spain  in  1606,  but  had  no  houses  in  England. 
On  the  establishment  of  peace  between  England 
and  France,  April  14,  1629,  Louis  XIII.  ar- 
ranged that  10  Capuchins  of  Paris  should  go 
and  serve  Henrietta  Maria,  Queen  of  Great 
Britain,,  in  the  capacity  of  confessors.  Accord- 
ingly 12  friars,  of  whom  Father  Leonard,  of 
Paris,  was  the  chief,  left  Calais  Feb.  24,  1630. 
The  queen  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  chapel,  to  be  presided  over  by 
the  Capuchins,  Sep.  24,  1636,  and  mass  was 
publicly  celebrated  in  presence  of  the  queen 
and  court  Dec.  10.  On  the  departure  of  the 
queen  to  Holland,  in  1642,  the  Parliament  im- 
prisoned the  Capuchins  and  closed  the  chapel. 

CARABINE,  or  CARBINE.— This  fire-arm, 
a  small  musket,  was  used  by  light  cavalry  as 
early  as  the  i6th  century.  A  corps  of  cara- 
binicrs  was  raised  in  France  in  1560. 

CARABOBO  (Battle).— This  strong  position 
in  Venezuela,  held  by  4,000  Spaniards,  was 
assailed  by  Bolivar's  army,  containing  a  force 
of  English  auxiliaries,  June  24,  1821.  '  The 
armies  were  nearly  equal  in  numbers,  and  the 
latter  gained  a  complete  victory. 

CARABUSO  (Mediterranean).— This  piiMte 
stronghold  was  attacked  and  destroyed  by  the 
English  fleet  Jan.  31,  1828. 

CARACAS  (South  America).— This  part  of 
the  country  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
during  his  third  voyage,  in  1498.  The  colony 
was  afterwards  sold  by  Charles  V.  to  the 
Welsers,  a  company  of  German  merchants,  who 
ruled  so  tyrannically  that  they  were  dispos- 
sessed in  1550,  when  a  governor  was  appointed. 
In  1810  the  colony  declared  its  independence, 
and  took  the  name  of  Venezuela  (q.  v.),  which 
was  formally  acknowledged  by  the  Spanish 
Cortes,  July  5,  1811.  Santiago  de  Leon  de 
Caracas,  the  chief  city,  built  by  Diego  Loseda 
in  1567,  possesses  a  university,  founded  in 
1778,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric, 
established  in  1803.  A  disastrous  earthquake, 
which  occurred  March  26,  1812,  laid  the  city  in 
ruins,  and  destroyed  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, which  so  excited  the  superstition  of  the 
survivors,  that  they  soon  afterwards  surren- 
dered to  the  royalists.  Independence  was  re- 
established by  Bolivar,  Aug.  26, 1813  ;  and  New 
Grenada  and  Venezuela  were  united  into  a 
single  state,  under  the  name  of  Columbia  (q.v.}, 
Dec.  17,  1819.  They  separated  again  in  1831, 
and  Caracas  is  now  the  capital  of  Venezuela. 
(See  AKA<;I;A.) 

CARAITES,  KARAITES,  or  READERS,  a 
Jewish  sect  that  adhere  closely  to  the  text  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  are  distinguished  from  the 
Rabbins  by  their  rejection  of  traditions.  They 
pretend  to  be  descendants  of  the  10  tribes  led 
captive  by  Shalmaneser,  B.C.  721  ;  while  others 
trace  their  descent  from  Ezra,  B.C.  458,  though 
it  is  generally  believed  that  they  did  not  make 
their  appearance  till  the  8th  century.  The 
Cara'ites  exist  in  Turkey,  Poland,  Syria,  and 
some  parts  of  the  East. 

CARALIS.— -(See  CAGLIARI.) 

CARAVAGGIO  (Lombardy)  was  taken  by 
the  Venetians  in  1431.  In  1448  Francis  Sforza 
laid  siege  to  it,  and,  after  a  hotly-contested 
battle,  effected  its  capture  Sep.  15.  The 


Venetians  regained  possession  in  1499.  After 
the  battle  of  Agnadel,  May  14, 1509,  Caravaggio 
and  other  places  surrendered  to  the  French. 
Michael  Angelo  Amerighi,  or  Merighi  da,  an 
Italian  painter,  who  was  born  here  in  1569, 
bears  the  name  Caravaggio. 

CARAVAN. — In  countries  in  which  neither 
facility  nor  security  is  afforded  to  the  traveller, 
A  number  of  merchants  or  pilgrims  form  them- 
selves into  a  company  for  mutual  protection. 
This  is  more  particularly  the  case  in  the  East. 
Joseph  was  sold  by  his  brethren,  about  B.C. 
1728,  to  some  merchants  belonging  to  a  cara- 
van. It  consisted  of  a  company  of  Ishmaelites, 
coming  from  Gilead,  "  with  their  camels 
bearing  spicery  and  balm  and  myrrh,  going  to 
carry  it  down  to  Egypt."  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.) 

CARBERRY  HILL  (Battle).  —  Lord  Hume 
encountered  Bothwell's  army  at  this  place, 
about  six  miles  from  Edinburgh,  June  15,  1567. 
Bothwcll  took  to  flight  without  striking  a  blow, 
and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  taken  prisoner. 

CARBONARI,  or  "CHARCOAL-BURN- 
ERS."— The  name  given  to  a  secret  political 
association,  formed  in  Italy  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century,  its  professed 
aim  being  the  reorganization  and  reform  of  the 
government  of  Italy.  Members  of  all  classes 
are  found  in  its  ranks.  In  1814  they  formed  a 
plan,  subsequently  abandoned,  of  creating  a 
revolution  in  Naples.  The  scheme  TA 
relinquished,  but  deferred,  and  June  2,  1820,  a 
constitution  was  proclaimed  at  Nola.  The 
same  thing  occurred  at  Naples  and  other 
places.  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
made  concessions  ;  the  forces  of  the  Carbonari, 
under  Gen.  Pope,  entered  Naples  July  9, 
and  the  king  swore  to  observe  the  new  consti- 
tution July  13.  The  emperors  of  Austria  and 
Russia,  and  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  met  at 
Troppau,  in  Oct.,  and  by  letters  dated  Nov. 
20,  invited  Ferdinand  I.  to  meet  them  at 
Laybach,  to  which  town  the  congress  was 
transferred  in  Jan.,  1821,  where  measures  were 
determined  for  an  armed  interference  for  the 
suppression  of  the  revolution.  The  Austrians 
entered  early  in  1821.  Naples  capitulated 
March  20,  and  the  revolutionary  parliament 
was  closed  March  24.  By  an  ordinance  dated 
April  10,  any  person  attending  the  meetings  of 
the  Carbonari  was  to  be  punished  capitally. 
The  society  continued  to  exist,  and,  spread- 
ing through  France,  caused  insurrections 
at  Rochelle,  Colmar,  Toulon,  and  Marseilles, 
in  1821 ;  and  its  influences  are  supposed  to 
have  contributed  to  the  revolution  of  1848  in 
France  and  Germany.  The  numerous  out- 
breaks that  have  occurred  in  the  Italian  penin- 
sula since  1821  may  all  be  traced,  directly  or 
indirectly,  to  the  machinations  of  the  Car- 
bonari. The  Calderaii,  tinkers  or  braziers 
who  use  the  coals,  is  the  name  given  to  a  loyal 
society  that  opposed  the  Carbonari. 

CARBUNCLE.  —  This  gem,  a  variety  of  the 
garnet,  was,  according  to  Eastern  legends,  em- 
ployed by  Noah  to  illuminate  the  ark  during 
the  deluge.  It  ranked  third  on  the  breast- 
plate of  the  Jewish  high-priest,  and  was  there- 
fore known  as  early  as  B.C.  1491. 

CARCANET,  a  kind  of  chain  or  necklace 
manufactured  at  Venice  in  the  ijth  century. 


CARCANO 


[    213    ] 


CARICATURE 


CARCANO  (Battle).— The  Emperor  Frede- 
rick I.  of  Germany  was  defeated  at  this  place 
by  the  republican  forces  of  Milan  and  Brescia, 
Aug.  9,  1 1 60. 

CARCASS.— This  missive  of  war  is  said  to 
have  been  first  employed  by  the  Bishop  of 
Minister  against  Groll,  in  1672. 

CARCASSONNE  (France),  the  ancient  Car- 
caso,  made  a  bishopric  in  the  6th  century,  was 
captured  and  pillaged  Aug.  15,  1209,  during  the 
Albigensian  crusade,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
expelled.  The  Inquisition  was  established 
here  in  1230. 

CARCHEMISH  (Battle).— Nebuchadnezzar, 
son,  and  afterwards  successor,  of  Nabopolassar, 
King  of  Babylonia,  defeated  the  army  of 
Pharaoh  Necho  at  this  city  on  the  Euphrates, 
B.C.  605. 

CARDIFF  (Wales).— The  castle  is  supposed 
to  have  been  commenced  in  1080  and  com- 
pleted in  1 1 10.  Robert,  eldest  son  of  William 
I.,  taken  prisoner  Sep.  28,  1106,  is  said  to  have 
remained  in  the  castle  until  his  death,  Feb.  10, 
1135,  though  the  story  is  discredited  by  some 
writers.  Its  first  charter  was  granted  by 
Edward  III.,  in  1338.  Cromwell  obtained 
possession  of  the  castle  by  treachery  in  May, 
1648.  The  Glamorganshire  Canal  was  finished 
in  1798,  and  the  Taff  Railway  in  1840. 

CARDIGAN  (Wales).— The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  "  Caredigion,"  signifying  the 
territory  of  Caredig,  the  first  king.  Its  king  is 
said  to  have  become  King  of  all  Wales  hi  834, 
but  little  is  known  of  its  early  history.  It 
was  assailed  by  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans, 
and  was,  with  the  whole  of  Wales,  annexed  to 
England  in  1283.  Cardiganshire  has  returned 
one  member  to  Parliament  since  1536.  The 
castle  of  Cardigan,  the  chief  town,  was 
founded  in  1160,  and  strengthened  in  1240.  A 
French  expedition,  1,200  strong,  landed  in 
Cardigan  Bay  Feb.  22,  1797.  They  surrendered 
without  offering  any  resistance,  Feb.  24,  while 
two  frigates  that  had  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition were  captured  on  the  way  back  to 
France.  (See  FISHGUARD.) 

CARDINAL.— This  title,  in  early  times,  was 
applied  to  any  bishop,  priest,  or  deacon  in 
office.  It  probably  commenced  with  the  car- 
dinal priest  or  presbyter,  and,  though  modest 
in  its  origin,  has,  as  Gibbon  remarks,  "aspired 
to  emulate  the  purple  of  kings."  There  were 
several  cardinal  presbyters  in  the  same  church, 
and  they  are  not  noticed  before  the  time  of 
Gregory  I.  (the  Great),  (590 — 604).  The  word 
cardinal  was  long  of  dubious  import.  Stephen 
IV.  (768 — 772)  is  said  to  have  elected  seven 
bishops,  to  whom  he  gave  the  title  of  cardinal. 
Nicolas  II.,  at  a  council  at  Rome,  April  13, 
1059,  ordered  that  cardinals  should  elect  the 
Pope,  though  he  did  not  exclude  the  clergy,  &c., 
from  a  share  in  the  election.  The  cardinals, 
however,  struggled  to  obtain  the  sole  power, 
and,  after  various  altercations,  Alexander  III.,  at 
the  third  council  of  Lateran  (the  nth  general 
council),  March  5-19,  1179,  transferred  the  elec- 
tion of  a  pope  to  the  college  of  cardinals.  (See 
CONCLAVE.  )  From  this  time  the  cardinals  have 
gradually  attained  the  supremacy  they  now 
exercise  as  princes  of  the  Church.  The  number 
of  cardinals  having  before  varied  considerably 


at  different  periods,  was  fixed  by  the  bull  of 
Sixtus  V.,  in  Dec.,  1586,  at  70  ;  6  being  bishops, 
50  priests,  and  14  deacons.  Louis  XIII.  gave 
them  precedence  in  France  over  bishops  and 
abbots  in  1614.  The  red  hat  was  first  assumed 
at  the  1 3th  general  council,  held  at  Lyons, 
May  7  —  July  17,  1245,  by  permission  of  In- 
nocent IV.  Boniface  VIII.  (1294 — 1303)  allowed 
them  to  wear  the  purple  cloak,  and  Paul  III. 
(1534 — 1549)  allowed  them  to  wear  the  red  cap. 
Their  style  was  altered  from  "Most  Illus- 
trious" to  "Eminence"  by  Urban  VIII., 
Jan.  10,  1631.  The  body  of  cardinals  is  called 
the  Sacred  College.  Moreri's  Dictionary  con- 
tains a  list  of  cardinals  from  1119  to  1724. 

CARDINALISTS  AND  ROYALISTS.— These 
parties  arose  in  France  in  1642.  The  former 
sided  with  Richelieu,  who  advocated  the  pro- 
secution of  the  war  against  Spain,  and  the 
latter  with  King  Louis  XIII.,  who  desired  to 
bring  it  to  a  termination. 

CARDIS,  or  KARDIS  (Treaty),  by  which 
peace  was  concluded  between  Russia  and 
Sweden  July  i,  1661.  A  truce  for  three  years 
had  been  signed  in  1658,  and  the  treaty  of 
Cardis  was  a  renewal  of  the  treaty  of  Stolbova, 
Jan.  26,  1617. 

CARDS.— (See  PLAYING  CARDS.) 

CARELIA  (Russia).— This  province,  con- 
quered by  the  Swedes  in  1580,  and  restored  to 
Russia  in  1595  by  the  treaty  of  Teusin  (q.  v.), 
was  ceded  to  Sweden  in  1609  by  the  treaty  of 
Wibourg  (q.  v. ),  which  was  confirmed  Jan.  26, 
1617,  by  the  treaty  of  Stolbova  (q.  v.).  It  was 
finally  restored  to  Russia  Aug.  30,  1721,  by  the 
peace  of  Nystadt  (q.  v.}. 

CARIA  (Asia  Minor).— The  Carians  claimed 
to  be  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
This  view  is,  however,  disputed.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  been  subject  to  Minos,  King 
of  Crete.  The  Dorians  and  the  lonians  formed 
colonies  on  their  territory.  The  Carians  con- 
tributed 70  ships  to  the  great  armada  of 
Xerxes,  B.C.  480.  The  country  was  ruled  over  by 
the  Lydians,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans,  who  divided  it,  giving  part  to  the 
King  of  Pergamus  and  the  remainder  to  the 
Rhodians,  B.C.  190.  The  Romans  added  Caria 
to  their  province  of  Asia,  B.C.  129.  Caria  was 
the  sixth  ecclesiastical  province  of  Asia  Minor. 
St.  John  the  Evangelist  is  said  to  have  con- 
verted its  inhabitants  to  Christianity.  It  now 
forms  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

CARIBBEE  ISLANDS  (Atlantic). —The 
Windward  and  Leeward  Islands,  called  also  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  are  known  by  this  name.  It 
is  derived  from  the  Caribs,  Caribbees,  or 
Dharaibes,  an  aboriginal  tribe  of  America,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  tribes  by  their 
athletic  stature  and  superior  courage.  (See 
WEST  INDIES.) 

CARICAL  (Hindostan).  —  This  strong  for- 
tress, held  by  the  French,  was  invested  April  2, 
1760,  and  surrendered  April  5.  By  the  i4th 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles  (Sep.  3,  1783), 
Carical  was  delivered  up  and  guaranteed  to 
France,  in  the  possession  of  which  country  it 
still  remains. 

CARICATURE  was  practised  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, whose  sculptured  monuments  present 
many  examples  of  this  grotesque  species  of 


CARIGNAN 


[    214    ] 


CARLISLE 


art.  It  was  also  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  who  frequently  adorned  their  pottery 
and  the  walls  of  their  houses  with  caricatures 
and  parodies  of  mythological  and  heroic  inci- 
dents, and  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  em- 
pire it  was  revived  by  the  builders  and  sculp- 
tors in  their  designs  for  the  details  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Caricature  is  also  exemplified  in 
many  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  MSS.  and  in  the 
monkish  illuminations  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  and 
it  generally  entered  largely  into  the  represen- 
tations of  the  popular  subject  of  the  Dance  of 
Death  (q.  v.),  which  was  first  painted  in  1312. 
The  "  .Ship  of  Fools"  of  Sebastian  Brandt,  pub- 
lished in  1494,  contained  vigorous  caricatures 
of  contemporary  follies.  Political  caricature 
dates  from  about  1499,  when  an  engraving 
entitled  "the  Political  Game  at  Cards" 
was  published  in  France.  In  1506  Thomas 
Murner  produced  the  "Conspiracy  of  Fools," 
a  satire  levelled  against  the  proposed  refor- 
ruations  of  Martin  Luther,  which  showed  con- 
siderable advance  in  artistic  ability  upon  the 
work  of  Brandt,  of  which  it  was  an  imitation. 
In  retaliation  for  this  and  similar  productions, 
the  Protestants  strengthened  their  attacks 
upon  the  papal  system  by  a  free  use  of  carica- 
tures, a  curious  collection  of  which,  dated 
i54S»  i>s  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
Jacques  Callot,  a  French  artist,  who  died 
March  28,  1635,  did  much  to  raise  the  art 
of  caricature,  which  became  fashionable  in 
England  about  the  year  1640,  when  it  was 
employed  by  the  Puritans  to  ridicule  their 
opponents.  After  the  Restoration  in  1660, 
it  was  chiefly  used  by  the  Cavaliers,  who  em- 
bellished their  playing  cards  with  satirical 
portraits  of  the  parliamentary  leaders.  Ro- 
maiu  deHooghe,  a  Dutch  artist  who  published 
a  series  of  engravings  in  1672,  proved  a  formi- 
dable opponent  to  Louis  XIV.  by  the  vigour  of 
his  pictorial  satire,  which  made  Holland  for 
many  years  celebrated  for  caricature.  In 
1710  the  art  returned  to  England  during  the 
agitation  in  reference  to  Dr.  Sacheverell,  when 
it  was  extensively  used  by  both  parties,  and  in 
1720  it  was  employed  to  ridicule  the  notorious 
Mississippi  scheme.  William  Hogarth,  who 
commenced  his  career  as  a  caricaturist  in  1728 
by  the  publication  of  some  burlesque  illustra- 
tions of  the  Beggar's  Opera,  became  in  1754  a 
frequent  subject  of  the  satirical  pencil  of  Paul 
Sandby  and  other  artists,  by  the  announce- 
ment of  his  much  ridiculed  theory  of  the  line 
of  beauty.  Bunbury  (1750 — 1811),  Rowlandson 
(1756 — 1827),  Gillray  (1757— June  i,  1815),  and 
Leech  (1817 — Oct.  29,  1864),  are  the  most  cele- 
brated of  recent  English  caricaturists. 

CARIGNAN,  or  CARIGNANO  (Italy).— This 
town  was  besieged  by  the  French  early  in  the 
spring  of  1544,  and  surrendered  after  the  vic- 
tory over  the  Imperialists,  gained  near  Ceri- 
soles,  April  14. 

CARINTHIA  (Austria).  —  This  province, 
having  belonged  successively  to  the  Romans, 
the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  and  to  Charle- 
magne, was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  Arnulph  I. 
in  880,  and  annexed  by  him  in  888  to  Bavaria, 
from  which  it  was  again  separated  in  977.  It 
sxibsequently  passed  in  1058  to  the  house  of 
Zaermgen,  in  1073  to  the  house  of  Murzthal, 


1127  to  that  of  Ortenbiirg,  and  in  1268  to 
Premislaus  Ottocar  II.,  King  of  Bohemia. 
The  family  of  Gcerz  obtained  possession  in 
1282,  and  the  counts  of  the  Tyi-ol  in  1286 ;  and 
in  1337  it  was  finally  annexed  to  Austria. 

CARISBROOlv  CASTLE  (Isle  of  Wight).— A 
castle  was  built  at  Carisbrook,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  island,  according  to  Dr.  Stukeley, 
by  Carausius,  about  B.C.  290.  This  was  rebuilt 
by  Richard  de  Rivers,  Earl  of  Devon,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  and  Elizabeth  repaired  it  in 

18.  The  French,  who  had  taken  possession 
the  island,  besieged  it  in  vain  in  1377. 
Charles  I.,  was  imprisoned  here  Nov.  14,  1647. 
He  endeavoui-ed  to  escape,  Dec.  28,  but  was 
prevented,  and  remained  in  the  castle  till  Nov. 
30,  1648,  when  he  was  removed  to  Hurst 
Castle  (q.v.\  Elizabeth,  his  daughter,  died 
here  of  a  broken  heart,  Sep.  8,  1650,  in  her 
isth  year.  A  tablet  to  her  memory  has 
been  erected  in  Newport  church  by  Queen 
Victoria. 

CARISMLYNS,  or  KHARIZMIANS.  —This 
tribe,  dwelling  from  time  immemorial  on  the 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  was  noticed  by 
Herodotus  (B.C.  484 — 408),  and  under  Sultan 
Gelaleddin  gained  great  renown  early  in  the 
1 3th  century.  Expelled  from  their  native 
haunts  by  the  Mongols  in  1229,  they  crossed 
the  Euphrates  to  the  number  of  10,000  horse- 
men in  1244,  and  at  the  call  of  the  Sultan  of 
Cairo  pillaged  Syria,  massacred  7,000  Christian 
men  and  women  at  the  pass  of  Ramah  in 
Palestine,  and  seized  and  profaned  Jerusalem. 
Having  defeated  the  Christians  at  Carita  (q.  v.}, 
Oct.  18  and  19,  they  vainly  laid  siege  to  Jaffa 
in  Nov.,  seized  Damascus  after  a  six  months' 
blockade,  and  having  deserted  the  Sultan  of 
Cairo  and  formed  an  alliance  with  his  Syrian 
enemies,  were  defeated  in  two  great  battles  in 
1247,  and  expelled  from  the  Holy  Land. 

CAKITA,  or  KARITA  (Battle).—  The  Chris- 
tians, under  Walter  de  Brienne  and  the  Emir 
Bibars.  attacked  the  Carisrnians  [q.  r.)  at  this 
place  near  Gaza,  Oct.  18,  1244.  The  result  of 
the  first  day's  battle  was  in  favour  of  the 
Christians.  The  conflict  was  renewed  on  the 
following  day,  Oct.  19,  when  the  Carismians, 
having  received  reinforcements,  gained  a  com- 
plete victory.  Upwards  of  30,000  Christians 
were  slain,  and  Walter  de  Brienne  and  the 
chiefs  of  the  Hospitallers  and  Templars,  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Tyre,  were  made  prisoners. 
The  Mohammedan  historian,  Ibn-ghiouzi,  says 
of  this  fight  :— "  Never  was  there  so  glorious  a 
day  for  Islam,  not  even  under  Noureddin  and 
Saladin." 

CARLAVEROCK,  or  CAERLAVEROCK 
(Scotland). — This  castle,  on  the  Nith,  was  cap- 
tured by  Edward  I.,  between  July  6-12,  1300. 
The  siege  forms  the  subject  of  a  contemporary 
poem,  of  which  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas  published  a 
translation  in  1828. 

CARLEON.—  (See  CAERLEON.) 

CARLISLE  (Bishopric)  was  established  April 
ii,  1132,  and  the  first  bishop  was  consecrated 
in  Aug.,  1133.  The  church,  restored  about  1092, 
and  dedicated  by  Henry  I.  in  noi,  was  much 
damaged  by  fire  in  1292.  Cromwell  destroyed 
the  nave  of  the  cathedral  in  1648.  The  wooden 
tower  was  removed  in  1661,  and  the  restoration 


CARLISLE 


[    215     ] 


CARMATHIANS 


of  the  cathedral  commenced  in  1853.     It  was 
reopened  in  1856. 

CARLISLE  (Cumberland)  was  destroyed  by 
the  Danes  about  900  A.D.  William  II.  restored 
it  in  1093,  and  founded  its  castle.  Carlisle  suf- 
fered greatly  during  the  border  wars,  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1292,  and  resisted  a  siege 
by  Robert  Bruce  in  1315.  A  parliament  was 
held  here  July  i,  1300.  Richard  III.  extended 
the  castle,  and  Henry  VIII.  ordered  the  citadel 
to  be  built.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  im- 
prisoned here  after  the  battle  of  Langside 
(q.  v.).  Carlisle  remained  faithful  to  the  cause 
of  Charles  I.,  was  repeatedly  assailed  by  the 
republican  forces,  and  captured,  after  a  long 
siege,  July  2,  1645.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
Royalists,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  Crom- 
well in  1648.  The  Pretender's  forces  obtained 
possession  Nov.  15,  1745,  the  garrison  having 
capitulated  the  day  before.  It  was  retaken  by 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland  Dec.  30,  1745.  The 
foundation  stone  of  a  new  church  was  laid  by 
Miss  Burdett  Coutts,  March  2,  1864. 

CARLISLE  ADMINISTRATION.— The  Earl 
of  Carlisle  was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,  May  23,  1715,  to  supply  the  vacancy 
caused  by  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Halifax. 
The  other  members  of  the  Halifax  administra- 
tion continued  in  office.  The  Duke  of  Mont- 
rose  gave  up  the  seals  of  office  Aug.  5  ;  the 
Earl  of  Sunderland  was  made  Lord  Privy  Seal 
Aug.  20 ;  and  the  Dukes  of  Argyle  and  Rox- 
burgh were  appointed  members  of  the  cabinet 
council  Aug.  31,  1715.  It  was  dissolved  in 
Oct.,  1715.  (See  WALPOLE  ADMINISTRATIONS.) 

CARLISLE  PROVINCE.— (See  ANTIGUA.) 

CARLISTS.— The  supporters  of  Charles  X. 
of  France,  after  the  Revolution  of  1830,  were 
called  Carlists.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  of  Spain,  Sep.  29,  1833,  two  parties  con- 
tended for  the  succession,  his  brother  Don 
Carlos,  and  his  daughter  Isabella  II.  (born  Oct. 
10,  1830),  in  anticipation  of  whose  birth  the 
Salic  Law,  which  prohibited  the  succession  of 
females,  had  been  abolished,  by  a  Pragmatic 
Sanction  published  March  29,  1830.  The  sup- 
porters of  the  former  were  termed  Carlists, 
and  of  the  latter  Christinos.  The  Carlist  war 
lasted  from  1833  to  1840. 

CARLO VINGIANS.— (See  CAROLINGIANS.) 

CARLOW  (Ireland).— The  castle  was  founded 
by  the  English  in  1180.  Carlow'was  made  a 
borough  in  1208,  and  fortified  in  1362.  It  was 
captured  by  Gen.  Ireton  in  1650.  The  rebels 
were  defeated  near  this  town  with  great 
slaughter,  May  24,  1798.  The  railroad  from 
Dublin  was  opened  Aug.  10,  1846. 

CARLO WITZ  (Treaty),  concluded  at  this 
town  in  Austria,  Jan.  26,  1699,  between  Turkey 
and  Germany,  Poland,  Russia,  and  Venice. 
The  Turks,  for  the  first  time,  sought  to  enter 
into  diplomatic  relations  with  the  European 
powers,  and  ambassadors  from  Austria,  Po- 
land, and  Russia  assembled  at  Constantinople 
to  ratify  this  treaty. 

CARLSBAD  (Bohemia).— This  town  has  been 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs  from  a  very 
early  period.  The  first  spring,  the  Sprundel, 
was,  according  to  tradition,  discovered  by 
Charles  IV.  in  1370,  during  a  hunting  excur- 
sion. A  congress  of  German  powers  was  held 


at  Carlsbad,  Aug.  i,  1819,  for  the  purpose  of 
considering  what  measures  were  necessary  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  revolutionary  principles 
in  Germany.  It  endeavoured  to  suppress  secret 
societies  and  to  establish  the  censorship  of  the 
press.  This  town  is  also  called  Kaiser  Carlsbad. 
CARLSCRONA  (Sweden),  built  by  Charles 
XI.  in  1680,  suffered  severely  from  a  fire  in  1790. 
CARLSRUHE  (Germany),  the  capital  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Baden  (q.  v.),  was  founded  by 
the  Margrave  Charles  William,  who  made  it 
his  hunting-seat  in  1715.  A  new  palace  was 
commenced  in  1751.  A  revolution  occurred 
at  Carlsruhe  May  14,  1849.  The  town  was 
occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  confederacy, 
June  23,  when  the  insurrection  was  suppressed. 
CARLSTADT  (Croatia).  —  A  fortress  was 
erected  at  this  spot  in  1579  to  resist  the  inroads 
of  the  ^urks,  and  the  town  was  founded  by 
the  Archduke  Charles,  from  whom  it  receives 
its  name.  In  1809  it  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  French,  who  retained  possession  till  1814. 

CARLSTAD  (Sweden).— This  town,  founded 
in  1584  by  Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermania,  after- 
wards Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  suffered  se- 


Duke  of  Wellington,  held  its  first  meeting  in 
Charles  Street,  St.  James's,  in  1831.  In  1832  it 
removed  to  larger  premises  in  Carlton  Gardens, 
and  in  1836  a  club-house  was  erected  in  Pall 
Mall,  which  was  enlarged  in  1846,  and  taken 
down  in  1854.  The  present  house  was  opened 
early  in  1855. 

CARMAGNOLA,  or  CARMAGNOLE  (Italy). 
— This  town  of  Piedmont  was  taken  by  Catinat 
in  1691.  It  was  also  captured  in  1796. 

CARMAGNOLE.— This  song  and  dance,  said 
t>y  some  authorities  to  have  been  introduced 
into  France  by  Savoyards  from  Carmagnola  or 
Carmagnole,  and  by  others  to  have  commemo- 
rated a  victory  of  Francis  Carmagnole  (1390— 
1432),  were  popular  among  the  people  of  Paris 
during  the  first  French  Revolution.  The  name 
was  also  given  to  the  costume  adopted  by  the 
Jacobins  in  1793,  "  consisting,"  says  Dyer 
(Modern  Europe,  iv.  132),  "  of  enormous  black 
pantaloons,  a  short  jacket,  a  three-coloured 
waistcoat,  and  a  Jacobite  wig  of  short  black 
r,  a  terrible  moustache,  the  bonnet  rouge, 
and  an  enormous  sabre." 

CARMARTHEN.— (See  CAERMARTHEN.) 

CARMATHIANS.— A  branch  of  the  Shiites, 
minded  by  an  Arabian  preacher,  who  assumed 
;he  name  of  Carmath.  He  first  appeared  in 
2ufa  about  890.  Gibbon  says  (ch.  lii.)  that  he 
"assumed  the  lofty  and  incomprehensible  style 
of  the  Guide,  the  Director,  the  Demonstration, 
the  Word,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Camel,  the 
Herald  of  the  Messiah,  who  had  conversed 
with  him  in  a  human  shape,  and  the  repre- 
sentative of  Mohammed  the  son  of  Ali,  of 
3t.  John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  angel  Gabriel." 
The  Carmathians,  after  a  sanguinary  struggle, 
obtained  the  supremacy  in  the  province  of 
Bahrein,  in  900.  They  conquered  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia  in  902,  pillaged  Mecca  in  929,  and 
carried  away  the  Caaba.  The  Carmathians 
soon  after  separated  into  factions,  and  their 
wwer  declined,  (See  ASSASSINS.) 


CARMEL 


[    216    ] 


CARPET 


CARMEL.— 'See  MOUNT  CARMEL.) 

CARMELITES.— This  religious  order  of  St. 
Mary  of  Mount  Carmel  was  founded  in  the  i2th 
century.  The  Carmelites  themselves  claim  an 
unbroken  succession  from  Elijah,  and  speak  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  as  a  Carmelite  mm.  About 
1205,  Albert,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  pre- 
scribed a  rule  for  them,  which  was  confirmed 
by  Honorius  III.  in  1226.  They  were  driven 
from  Syria  by  the  Saracens  in  the  i3th  century, 
and  became  mendicant  friars  in  1247.  They 
came  to  England  in  1240,  and  had  40  houses  in 
this  country.  Gregory  XIII.  divided  them 
into  two  branches  in  1580,  according  to  a  reform 
projected  by  St.  Theresa  in  1540,  the  more 
rigid  being  called  Barefooted  Carmelites,  be- 
cause they  went  barefooted.  During  the  latter 
half  of  the  i7th  century  the  antiquity  of  the 
order  was  disputed  by  the  Jesuits ;  and  the 
quarrel  became  so  violent  that  Innocent  XII. 
put  an  end  to  it,  Nov.  20,  1698.  The  Carmelite 
nuns,  or  Carmelitesses,  were  instituted  in  1452. 
The  first  stone  of  a  Carmelite  church  was  laid 
ut  Kensington  by  Dr.  Manning,  July  17,  1865. 

CARMINE,  discovered  by  a  Franciscan  monk 
at  Pisa,  was  first  made  in  1656. 

CARNARVON.— (See  CAERNARVON.) 

CARNATIC  (Hindostan).— This  province  was 
conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  1310. 
Nizam  ul  'Mulk  wrested  it  from  the  Mongol 
empire  in  1717.  Anwar  ud  Deen  was  made 
Nabob  of  the  Carnatic  by  Nizam  ul  Mulk,  and 
his  son,  Mohammed  Ali,  was  put  in  possession 
of  part  of  his  father's  territories  by  the  British 
in  1754,  after  a  hard  struggle  with  opposing 
claimants,  who  were  aided  by  the  French. 
After  various  reverses,  it  was  again  surrendered 
to  Mohammed  Ali  in  1763,  and  in  1783  it  was 
wrested  from  Hyder  and  Tippoo  Saib  by  the 
British,  who  obtained  the  whole  province  by 
treaty  July  31,  1801.  The  last  nabob  died  with- 
out  issue  in  1855,  and  with  him  was  extinguished 
one  of  the  Hindoo  Mohammedan  dynasties. 

CARNI. — This  ancient  Alpine  tribe,  inha- 
biting part  of  the  modern  province  of  Car- 
niola  (q.  v.),  was  subdued  by  M.  .ZEmilius 
Scaurus,  B.C.  115. 

CARNIOLA,  or  KRAIN  (Austria).— This 
province,  which  takes  its  name  from  its 
ancient  inhabitants,  the  Garni  (q.  v.),  was 
wrested  from  the  Slavonic  Wends  by  Charle- 
magne (800 — 814),  who  bestowed  it  upon  the 
dukes  of  Friuli.  In  972  it  was  erected  into  a 
margraviate,  and  on  the  extinction  of  the 
male  line  of  margraves  in  the  i3th  century, 
part  of  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
dukes  of  Austria,  who  acquired  the  whole  in 
1336.  Ceded  to  France  in  1809,  it  was  restored 
to  Austria  in  1814. 

CARNIVAL,  or  "FAREWELL  TO  FLESH," 
a  festive  season  observed  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries.  It  formerly  commenced  on  the  day 
of  the  Epiphany  (Twelfth-day),  and  termi- 
nated on  Ash- Wednesday,  but  is  now  confined 
to  a  few  days  before  Ash- Wednesday.  It  is  an 
imitation  of  some  portion  of  the  pagan  festival 
of  the  Saturnalia,  and  has  existed  from  a 
remote  period. 

CARNUTES.— This  Celtic  people  of  Gaul 
having  rebelled  against  Csesar,  B.C.  54,  and  put 
to  death  Tasgetius,  whom  he  had  appointed 


their  governor,  were  speedily  reduced  to  sub- 
jection. Another  insurrection,  begun  B.C.  52, 
by  Gutruatus,  whom  Caesar  subsequently 
flogged  to  death,  extended  to  all  the  Gallic 
tribes,  and  cost"  the  Romans  much  trouble 
before  it  was  suppressed. 

CAROLINA  (United  States)  is  supposed  to 
have  been  discovered  by  John  Ponce  de  Leon 
in  1512,  though  some  writers  say  that  its  coasts 
were  explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1498. 
In  1564  the  French  built  a  fort  here  ;  but  they 
were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards.  The  colony  of 
Roanoake  was  planted  in  this  part  of  America 
under  Raleigh's  patent  in  1584.  The  experiment 
having  failed,  another  attempt  was  made  in 
1587,  with  no  better  results.  In  1630  Sir 
Robert  Heath,  attorney-general  of  Charles  I., 
obtained  from  that  monarch  a  grant  of  the 
district  of  Carolana,  which,  though  distinct 
from  Carolina,  included  most  of  that  province 
in  its  limits.  The  first  settlements  were  made 
in  1660,  by  emigrants  who  fled  from  Virginia 
to  escape  religious  persecution  :  and  from  them 
the  colony  received  the  name  of  Albemarle. 
By  a  charter  of  March  24,  1663,  Charles  II. 
conferred  it  upon  Lord  Clarendon  and  others, 
from  whom  it  received  the  name  "Carolina," 
about  1675.  Charleston  (q.  v.)  was  founded  in 
1672.  The  original  constitution  of  the  colony, 
which  had  been  prepared  by  John  Locke,  was 
abandoned  in  1693.  The  culture  of  rice  was 
introduced  in  1695.  The  Church  of  England 
was  established  by  law  in  1704.  In  1719  the 
colonists  threw  off  the  proprietary  govern- 
ment, and  in  May,  1 729,  the  English  Parliament 
purchased  the  province  of  the  lords  proprietors 
for  the  sum  of  .£17,500.  In  virtue  of  this  ar- 
rangement, George  II.  immediately  divided  it 
into  the  two  governments  of  North  and  South 
Carolina  (q.  v.). 

CAROLINE  BOOKS.— These  four  books  were 
written  by  order  of  Charlemagne  against 
images,  to  refute  the  decree  on  this  subject  of 
the  Council  of  Nicsea,  in  787.  They  were  read 
before  the  council  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine 
in  794,  by  order  of  Charlemagne.  Roger 
Hoveden  attributes  the  authorship  to  Alcuin 
(725— April  1 8,  804).  They  were  first  published 
at  Paris  in  1549. 

CAROLINGIANS,  erroneously  styled  Carlo- 
vingiaus,  ruled  over  France  (q.  v.)  from  715 
to  987. 

CAROOR  (Hindostan).— This  fortress  was 
taken  by  Col.  Lang  April  2,  1783 ;  and  by 
Gen.  Meadows  in  June,  1790. 

CARP  is  mentioned  as  a  scarce  fish  in  this 
country  by  Dame  Juliana  Barnes,  Bernes,  or 
Berners,  in  her  "Treatise  on  Hawking,  Hunt- 
ing, and  Fishing  with  an  Angle  ;"  published  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1496. 

CARPENTARIA  (Australasia).— This  gulf, 
discovered  about  1627,  was  named  by  Tasman 
in  1642,  in  honour  of  Carpenter,  a  governor  of 
the  Dutch  Indies,  who  had  returned  to  the 
Netherlands  in  1628.  The  story  of  its  having 
been  discovered  by  Pierre  Carpenter  in  1627  or 
1662  is  incorrect. 

CARPET  was  in  use  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
Plato  (B.C.  428 — 347)  draws  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  coverings  placed  round  the  couch 


CARPI 


[    217      ] 


CART 


and  under  it,  whilst  Plautus  (B.C.  254 — 184) 
speaks  of  "purple-cushioned  couches."  Athe- 
nseus  (fl.  A.D.  200)  states  that  the  art  of  weav- 
ing embroidered  cloths  was  in  great  perfection 
about  this  time.  Carpets  were  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Pompeii.  Carpets  were  introduced 
into  Spain  from  the  East,  and  from  Spain  they 
passed  into  France  and  England.  When 
Eleanor  of  Castile,  wife  of  Prince  Edward, 
afterwards  king,  arrived  in  London,  1255,  the 
rooms  of  her  abode  were  covered  with  carpet. 
They  were  used  generally  in  the  palace  during 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  This  is  spoken  of 
as  a  Spanish  custom,  and  one  that  excited 
much  ridicule  among  the  English  people. 
Bedroom  carpets  occur  in  1301.  Turkey  car- 
pets were  advertised  for  sale  in  London  in  1660. 
The  manufacture  of  carpets  was  introduced 
into  France  by  Colbert  in  1664.  A  manufactory 
was  opened  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. ;  but  this  branch  of  industry  was 
not  permanently  established  until  1685,  by 
artisans  driven  from  France  by  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (q.v.).  Brussels  carpets 
were  introduced  into  Kidderminster  from 
Tournay  in  1745. 

CARPI  (Battle).— Prince  Eugene,  at  the  head 
of  the  imperialists,  defeated  Marshal  Catinat 
and  the  French  army  at  this  place,  in  Italy,  in 
Aug.,  1701. 

CARPOCRATIANS.— The  followers  of  Carpo- 
crates,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  who  in  the  and 
century  revived  several  Gnostic  errors.  He 
rejected  the  Old  Testament  and  the  gospels  of 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke ;  denied  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead ;  and  advocated  the  most 
licentious  mode  of  life.  Mosheim  calls  him 
"  the  worst  of  all  the  Gnostics." 

CARRARA  (Italy).— This  city  owes  its  cele- 
brity to  the  adjacent  quarries  of  white  marble 
which  supplied  material  for  Roman  builders 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  (B.C.  27 — A.D.  14). 
The  finer  quality,  discovered  in  the  time  of 
Pliny  the  Elder  (A.D.  23 — 79),  was  adopted  by 
sculptors  in  preference  to  that  procured  from 
Paros.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire the  quarries  fell  into  neglect  until  the  i2th 
century,  when  they  were  again  worked  by  the 
citizens  of  Pisa.  The  collegiate  church  of 
Carrara,  founded  in  the  i^ih  century,  was 
completed  in  the  isth. 

CARRH^E  (Mesopotamia).— The  modem  Har- 
ran,  is  supposed  to  be  the  Haran  whence  Abra- 
ham departed,  B.C.  1921  (Gen.  xii.  4).  Crassus 
was  defeated  here  by  the  Parthians,  B.C.  53, 
with  the  loss  of  the  larger  part  of  the  Roman 
army.  Caracalla  was  assassinated  on  a  pilgrim- 
age he  had  undertaken  from  Edessa  to  the 
celebrated  temple  of  the  Moon  at  Carrhse, 
March  8,  217  A.D. 

CARRIAGES  of  various  kinds  were  used  by 
ancient  nations.  The  horse  litter  preceded 
the  introduction  of  carriages  into  this  country. 
The  earliest  carriages  used  by  the  ladies  of 
England  were  called  whirlicotes.  Long  wag- 
gons, for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and 
goods,  went  between  London  and  some  large 
towns  in  1605.  They  were,  however,  even  at 
this  time  but  little  used,  the  principal  traffic 
of  the  country  being  carried  on  by  means  of 
pack-horses.  The  long  waggons,  or  machines, 


were  followed  by  the  waggon-coach,  which 
was  superseded  by  stage-coaches  (q.  v.).  The 
principal  modern  vehicles  are  noticed  under 
their  ordinary  names.  (See  CHARIOT  and 
ROYAL  CARRIAGE  DEPARTMENT.) 

CARRICKFERGUS  (Ireland).  —  John  de 
Courcy  planted  a  colony  here  in  1182,  and  built 
a  castle;  and  the  church  is .. said  to  have  been 
founded  in  1164.  The  town  was  taken  and 
burned  by  Niall  O'Neill  in  1384.  In  1 
monastery  of  Franciscans  was  founded. 
English  suffered  a  defeat  here  in  1503.  The 
wall  round  the  town,  commenced  in  1575,  was 
completed  in  1608.  In  1597  the  governor,  with 
many  others,  was  slain  by  some  Scottish  troops 
under  Sir  James  MacDonnell.  William  III. 
landed  here  June  14,  1690.  Commodore  Thurot 
took  the  town  Feb.  28,  1760;  but  was  very  soon 
compelled  to  evacuate  it ;  and  Paul  Jones  cap- 
tured a  British  sloop  of  war  in  the  bay  April 
24,  1778. 

CARRICK'S  FORD  (Battle).— Capt.  Bonham 
and  Gen.  Morris  overtook  and  defeated  the  re- 
treating Confederate  forces  of  Gen.  Garnett  at 
this  place  on  the  Cheat  River,  Virginia,  July  13, 
1 86 1.  Gen.  Garnett  was  killed,  and  many  of  his 
men  were  made  prisoners. 

CARROCIUM.— The  invention  of  this  vehicle 
is  usually  ascribed  to  Eribert,  Archbishop  of 
Milan,  about  1040  A.D.  It  was  drawn  by  oxen, 
had  a  lofty  pole,  surmounted  with  a  golden 
banner,  and  decorated  with  a  white  banner. 
A  crucifix  was  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  pole. 
The  carrocium,  used  at  first  in  the  civil  wars 
of  Milan,  was  adopted  throughout  Italy,  and 
appeared  in  every  army,  guarded  by  a  chosen 
band,  to  inspire  courage  in  the  combatants. 
The  Milanese  lost  their  carrocium  at  the  battle 
of  Cortenuova  (q.  v.}. 

CARRON  (Stirlingshire).— The  first  furnace 
was  blown  at  the  iron  works  in  this  village 
Jan.  i,  1760. 

CARRONADE,  or  SMASHER.— This  piece  of 
carriage  ordnance,  invented  by  Gen.  R.  Mel- 
ville, takes  its  name  from  the  Carron  iron- 
works, where  it  was  first  cast  in  1779.  A  trial 
of  a  loo-pounder  carronade  was  made  at  the 
Leith  battery,  Oct.  6,  1781.  The  result  was 
satisfactory.  The  carronade  was  first  used  in 
action  by  Lord  Rodney,  in  his  contest  with  De 
Grasse,  April  12,  1782.  Allen  (Battles  of  the 
British  Navy)  remarks,  under  1800,  that  "  at 
the  commencement  of  this  century,  carronades 
were  in  general  use  in  all  classes  of  ships." 

CARROT  was  introduced  into  England  from 
Flanders  at  the  commencement  of  the  i6th 
century. 

CARROUSEL,  or  knightly  exercise  in  imita- 
tion of  the  old  tournaments,  originated  in  Italy, 
and  was  introduced  into  France  in  1605,  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  A  carrousel  was  held 
at  Paris  in  honour  of  Madlle.  de  la  Vallifere  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1662,  and  another  at  Versailles  in 
1664.  The  Place  du  Carrousel  at  Paris  received 
its  name  from  the  first  of  these.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  revive  the  carrousel  at  Berlin  in 
1750,  and  one  was  held  at  Saumur  in  honour  of 
the  Duchess  de  Berry  in  1828.  (See  EGLINTON 
TOURNAMENT.) 

CART. — A  carriage  on  two  wheels  was  used 
for  agricultural  purposes  in  very  early  times, 


CARTAGENA 


[  218  ] 


CARTHAGENA 


and  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  this 
island  by  the  Romans.  Carts  of  war,  a  peculiar 
kind  of  artillery,  are  described  in  an  act  of  the 
parliament  of  Scotland  in  1456 ;  and  by  another 
act,  in  1471,  the  chieftains  are  ordered  to  pro- 
vide them  for  use  against  the  English. 

CARTAGENA,  or  CARTHAGENA  (South 
America',  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  in  New  Granada,  was  founded  by  Pedro 
de  Heredia,  in  1532.  An  episcopal  see,  under 
the  metropolitan  of  Santa  Fe,  was  established 
here  in  1537.  The  town  was  taken  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  in  1586.  Thebucaneers  seized  it 
in  1697.  Admiral  Vernon  attacked  it  March  9, 
1741.  After  some  temporary  success,  the  siege 
was  raised  April  14.  The  town  was  again  can- 
nonaded without  any  decisive  result  April  16. 
A  large  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake,  Nov.  9,  1761.  During  the  revo- 
lutionary war  in  South  America,  Carthagena 
was  captured  by  the  royalists,  after  a  siege  of 
four  months'  duration,  Dec.  6,  1815.  It  was  re- 
taken by  the  republicans  Sep.  25,  1821. 

CARTHAGE  (Africa).  -  According  to  the 
legend  followed  by  the  poet  Virgil  in  the 
Mneid,  Carthage  was  founded  by  Dido,  or  HI  issa, 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Tyre.  Her  brother  Pyg- 
malion, at  that  time  king,  murdered  her  hus- 
band for  the  sake  of  his  treasures,  with  which 
Dido,  accompanied  by  several  noble  Tyrians, 
managed  to  escape.  Having  touched  at  Cyprus, 
from  which  island  her  followers  carried  off  80 
maidens  to  be  their  wives  in  their  new  home, 
they  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  Utica, 
a  Phoenician  city.  From  the  natives  they  ob- 
tained for  an  annual  tribute  as  much  land  OB  a 
bull's  hide  would  encompass.  Dido  cut  the 
bull's  hide  into  small  shreds,  and  thus  obtained 
a  large  tract  of  territory.  The  new  city,  called 
Byrsa,  was  afterwards  the  citadel  of  Carthage. 
This  event  has  been  assigned  to  different 
periods,  ranging  from  140  to  65  years  before  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  Carthage  \v,-is  ;i  colony  of  Tyre.  It  may, 
as  some  authorities  suppose,  have  been  at  first 
an  emporium  established  by  the  merchants  of 
Utica  and  of  Tyre. 

878.'  Dido  founds  Carthage. 

503.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  the  Romans. 

480.  t'lelon  defeats  tin;  CarthagiaiaBI  at  Himera  (q.  v.). 

410.  The  Carthaginians  again  invade  Sicily. 

406.  They  take  Agrigentum  (q.  r.). 

398.  The  Carthaginians  are  defeated  in  Sicily,  and  return 

to  Carthage. 
396.  The  Carthaginians,    under    the  younger  Hamilcar, 

n  t  irn  to    Sicily,   and,    after  many  victories,  lay 

siege  to  Svr.-icuse  (q.  r.). 
393.  Dionysius  defeats  the    Carthaginian!  in   Sicily,  and 

compel*  them  to  sue  for  peace. 
3-3.  Sicily  is  again   invaded  by  the  Carthaginians,   who 

effect  a  landing  in  Italy. 
348.  A  second  commercial  treaty  is  copcluded  with  the 

Romans. 
340.  Discovery  and  suppression  of  Hanrio's  conspiracy  to 

massacre  the  senate  and  establish  a  despotism. 
339.  Timoleon  defeats  the  Carthaginians  on  the  banks  of 

the  Crimisus  (q. ».). 
310.  Agathocles,   Tyrant  of  Sicily,   defeated    at  Himera, 

invades  Cartilage. 

308.  Revolutionary  conspiracy  of  Bomilcnr. 
306.  A  third  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  Rome. 
264.  The  first  Punic  war. 
260.  The  sea-fight  off  Tyndaris  (q.  v.). 
255.  Regains  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner  in  Africa,  by 

the  Carthaginian  leader  Xantippus,  the  Spartan. 


B.C. 

351.  Metellus  defeats  Hasdrubal,  and  the  Carthaginians 
send  Regulus  to  Rometo  sue  for  peace. 

250.  Regulus  urges  his  countrymen  to  prosecute  their  con- 
quest of  Carthage  and  returns  to  bis  captors,  by 
whom  lie  is  cruelly  executed.  Defeat  of  the 
Romans  at  Lilybannn  (q.  v.). 

247.  Hamilcar  Barcas  becomes  the  Carthaginian  leader 
liirth  of  Hannibal. 

241.  Lutatius   defeats   the    Carthaginians,  who  are  com- 
pelled to  sue  for  peace,  which  ends  the  first  Punic 
.     war.  The  mercenary  troops  rebel,  and  are  defeated 
by  Hamilcar. 

238.  Hamilcar  Barcas  invades  Spain,  and  subjects  many  of 
the  native  tribes  to  Carthage. 

229.  Hamilcar  falls  in  battle  against  the  Vetrones.  His 
son-in-law  Hasdrubal  succeeds  him. 

221.  Assassination  of  Hasdrubal,  who  is  succeeded  by 
Hannibal 

219.  Hannibal  is  victorious  in  Spain. 

2i8.  Hannibal  invades  Italy,  and  begins  the  second  Punic 
war.  lie  defeats  the  Konians  in  two  battles 
near  the  rivers  Ticinus  and  Trebia  (q.  v.). 

21".  Battle  of  Thrasymciic  (7.  r. ) 

2i6,  Aug.  2.  Battle  of  Cannre  (</.t'.). 

210.   I'ublins  Scipio  takes  Carthagena,  or  Xew  Carthage. 

207.  Battle  of  the  Metaurus  (//.  r. ). 

j  6.  Scipio  expels  the  Carthaginians  from  Spain. 

204.   Scipio  b' 'sieges  I'tica. 

to  Carthage. 

202.  Battle  of  /aina  (q.  P.)  and  end  of  the  second  Punic 
war. 

174.  Roman  embassy  at  Carthage,  to  inquire  into  the 
conduct  of  .Wa-hiissa,  King  of  Xuniitlia. 

149.  The  third  Punic  war. 

146,  July.  Seipio  Afrieanus  destroys  Carthage  by  order  of 
the  Roman  senate. 

123.  Carthage  is   rebuilt,   and  established   as    a   Roman 

colony. 

46.  Julius  Ca-sar  plans  the  restoration  of  Carthage. 
19.  Augustus  send.>  thither  3,000  colonists. 

A.D. 

12^.   It  is  visited  by   Hadrian. 

2.    .    It  is  , -reeled  into  a  bishopric. 

439,  Oct.  9.   It  is  taken  by  the  Vandal  Oenseric. 

533.  It  is  recaptured  by  Belisariu.s,  by  whom  it  is  named 
.Justiniana. 

047.  It  is  destroyed  by  the  Arabs. 

on*.  It   is   taken   and    destroyed    by  the   Saracens   under 

1270,  July.  Louis  IX.  of  France  lands  at  Carthage.     (See 

CKI  v  \|,KS.) 

1841.  A  chapel  in  memory  of  Louis  IX.  is  erected  by  Louis 

1'hilippc. 

Councils  were  held  at  Carthage  in  the  following  years: — 
200,  217,  35',  253,  253,  254,  255,  256,  3'2.  33°,  34»  or  349, 
3s",  39°,  397,  3<A  401,  4°3,  4°4,  4°5,  4°7,  4°«,  4°9,  4'°,  4:1, 
412,  416,  417,  418,  419,  425,  4«4,  535.  and  535. 

CARTHAGE  (Battle).— Col.  Sigel  attacked 
the  Confederates  at  this  place  in  Missouri, 
July  5,  1861.  The  Federals  lost  13  killed  and  31 
wounded. 

CARTHAGENA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Car- 
thago Nova,  or  New  Carthage,  was  founded  by 
Hasdrubal,  the  son-in-law  of  Hamilcar  Barcas, 
B.C.  242.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  rich  silver- 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  Hannibal  made 
it  his  winter  quarters  B.C.  218.  P.  Scipio  Afri- 
eanus) took  it  B.C.  210,  and  celebrated  games  in 
honour  of  his  father  and  uncle  B.C.  206.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  this  city  during  the 
ist  century.  Among  the  signatures  at  the  first 
Council  of  Tarragona,  A.D.  516,  is  that  of  Hector, 
Bishop  of  Carthagena.  The  Vandals  devas- 
tated the  place  in  428,  and  the  Goths  destroyed 
it  in  the  6th  century  ;  after  which  the  see  was 
removed  to  Bigastro.  It  was,  however,  re- 
stored, and  in  1291  the  bishop  obtained  per- 
mission to  transfer  it  to  Murcia.  The  modern 
Carthagena  was  taken  by  Sir  John  Leake, 
June  13,  1706  (O.S.),  but  was  retaken  by  the 
Duke  of  Berwick,  Nov.  18  (N.S.),  in  the  same 


CARTHUSIANS 


[    219    ] 


CASSANO 


year.  The  port  was  blockaded  by  an  English 
fleet  in  1758,  and  again  in  1805.  The  French 
took  possession  of  Carthagena  in  1823. 

CARTHUSIANS.— This  order  of  monks,  a 
branch  of  the  Benedictines,  was  instituted  by 
Bruno  of  Cologne,  Canon  of  Rheims,  in  1084. 
Their  first  monastery  was  at  Chartreux,  or  La 
Chartreuse,  near  Grenoble,  in  France,  and  from 
this  their  establishments  in  England  were  called 
Chartreuse  or  Charter-houses.  The  customs 
and  usages  of  the  order  were  committed  to 
writing  by  Guigo  in  mo,  and  were  confirmed 
by  Alexander  III.,  about  1174.  They  were 
frequently  altered,  and  a  complete  code  was 
compiled  in  1581,  and  this  was  approved  by 
Innocent  XI.  in  1688.  All  houses  of  the  order 
were  placed  under  the  control  of  the  prior  of 
the  Grand  Chartreuse  in  1508.  The  Carthusians 
came  into  England  in  1180  or  1181,  and  their 
first  house  was  at  Witham,  in  Somersetshire. 
They  had  only  nine  houses  in  this  country. 
The  Charter-house  in  London  was  one  of  their 
monasteries.  It  is  the  only  order  which  has 
never  required  reform.  In  1775  they  had,  how- 
ever, but  five  houses  in  the  world,  viz.,  at 
Premol,  near  Grenoble,  founded  in  1234 ;  at 
Melan,  in  Savoy,  in.  1288  ;  at  Salette,  on  the 
Rhone,  in  1299,;  at  Gosne",  in  the  diocese  of 
Arras,  in  1308;  and  at  Bruges,  in  1344.  The 
nuns  of  this  order  arose  at  Salette  in  1229. 

CARTOONS  are  large  drawings  made  in 
chalk,  &c.,  preparatory  to  the  completion  of 
any  important  work  in  oil  or  fresco.  The  most 
celebrated  are  those  of  Raphael,  executed  as 
designs  for  tapestry  by  order  of  Leo  X.,  during 
the  last  two  years  of  the  painter's  life  (1519- 
20).  They  were  originally  25  in  number,  but 
only  seven  remain  ;  of  which  the  subjects  are, 
"Christ's  Charge  to  St.  Peter,"  "The  Miracu- 
lous Draught  of  Fishes,"  "Elymas  struck 
Blind,"  "The  Healing  of  the  Cripple  at  the 
Beautiful  Gate,"  "The  Death  of  Ananias,"  "  The 
Sacrifice  at  Lystra,"  and  "Paul  preaching  at 
Athens."  On  the  recommendation  of  Rubens, 
Charles  I.  purchased  them  in  Flanders  in  1629. 
William  III.  built  a  gallery  for  them  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  and  they  were  removed  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  in  1865.  The  cartoons  for 
the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  were  exhibited 
in  Westminster  Hall,  July  3,  1843. 
CARVING.— (See  IVORY  and  WOODCUTS.  1 
CARWAR  (Hindostan).— The  English  esta- 
blished a  factory  here  in  1663.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, prove  prosperous.  The  fort  of  Carwar 
was  taken  by  Carpenter  in  1783. 

CASA  LANZI  (Convention),  concluded  by 
the  Austrian  generals  and  the  English  minister 
at  Naples,  with  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Neapolitan  army,  May  20,  1815,  for  the  sur- 
render of  that  city,  which  was  to  be  restored  to 
Ferdinand  IV.,  who  returned  June  17. 

CASEIN,  or  CASWEEN  (Persia),  was  founded 
by  Shapoor  Zoolactaf,  A.D.  154.  Until  the 
accession  of  Shah  Abbas,  in  1582,  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  Suffide  dynasty,  and  it  is  still  a 
town  of  considerable  size  and  commerce. 

CASHEL  (Bishopric)  was  founded  at  a  very 
early  period,  but  no  certain  record  of  the  epis- 
copal succession  remains  earlier  than  901.  The 
cathedral  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  the  nth 
century.  In  1152  the  see  was  made  archiepis- 


copal  by  Pope  Eugenius  III.  ;  and  in  1172  the 
great  synod  of  Cashel  acknowledged  the  civil 
authority  of  the  King  of  England  and  the  eccle- 
siastical superiority  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
In  1498  the  Earl  of  Kildare  set  fire  to  the 
cathedral,  in  consequence  of  a  disagreement 
with  the  archbishop.  The  cathedral  was  un- 
roofed in  1752,  and  is  now  a  ruin.  By  s.  32 
of  the  Church  Temporalities  Act,  3  &  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  the  see  was  reduced 
to  a  bishopric  in  connection  with  Waterford, 
Lismore,  and  Emly,  and  on  the  death  of  Arch- 
bishop Lawrence,  in  1838,  the  proposed  change 
was  carried  into  effect. 

CASHEL  (Ireland),  destroyed  in  1179,  was 
soon  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  erected  into  a 
borough  in  1223.  Charles  I.  erected  the 
borough  into  a  city  in  1640,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants espoused  his  cause  until  1647,  when 
the  Royalist  garrison  was  expelled  with  great 
slaughter. 

CASHMERE  (Asia).— This  country,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Himalaya,  called  the  "  paradise 
of  the  Indies,"  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
Caspiria,  in  which  the  city  of  Caspatyrus, 
mentioned  by  Herodotus,  was  situated,  accord- 
ing to  Hindoo  chronicles  constituted  a  regular 
monarchy  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  world, 
and  was  ruled  by  Hindoo  and  Tartar  dynasties 
from  B.C.  2666  to  A.D.  1024.  Its  first  Moham- 
medan king,  "  Sikunder,"  ascended  the  throne 
in  1341,  and  the  province  was  annexed  by 
Akbar  in  1586.  The  Mongol  emperors  paid 
occasional  visits  to  Cashmere,  which  was 
desolated  by  a  famine  in  1752.  It  was  annexed 
to  the  Affghan  empire  in  1752.  Runjeet  Singh, 
who  invaded  it  without  success  in  1813,  con- 
quered it  in  1819,  and  the  Sikhs  ceded  it  to  the 
East  India  Company  by  the  fourth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Lahore,  concluded  March  9,  1846. 
It  was  transferred  to  the  Maharajah  Gholab 
Singh,  who  was  made  an  independent 
prince  as  a  reward  for  his  fidelity,  by  a 
treaty  concluded  at  Neuritzur,  March  16,  1846. 
Cashmere  is  celebrated  for  its  shawls,  which 
are  of  beautiful  texture,  and  have  been  sold  in 
London  at  prices  as  high  as  from  400  to  500 
guineas  each.  They  are  made  from  the  hair  of 
the  Thibet  goat.  The  capital  of  the  country, 
also  called  Cashmere,  or  Sirinugger,  i.e.,  the 
"  city  of  the  sun,"  the  ancient  Caspatyrus,  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Pravaraseva, 
who  reigned  from  A.D.  128  to  176.  It  stands 
on  the  river  Jhelum.  Its  temples,  of  which 
many  remains  exist,  are  said  to  have  been 
destroyed  by  Sikunder  about  1396.  Abul  Fazl 
says  that  some  were  in  perfect  preservation 
in  1580,  and  Ferishta  speaks  of  many  as  having 
been  in  existence  about  1600. 

CASILINUM  (Italy).— This  town,  situated  on 
the  river  Vulturnus,  was  occupied  by  Fabius 
B.C.  217,  and  held  by  the  Romans  after  their 
defeat  at  Cannae,  until  the  garrison  was  reduced 
by  famine,  B.C.  215.  The  Romans  regained 
possession  B.C.  214.  Narses  defeated  the 
Franks  and  Alemanni  at  Casilinum  A.D.  554. 
The  modern  town  of  Capua  is  built  upon  its  site. 

CASINO.— (See  MONTE  CASINO.) 

CASPIAN  SEA  was  explored  by  Antony 
Jenkinson  in  1558  and  1561. 

CASSANO    (Battles).— Prince  Eugene,  at  the 


CASSATION 


[    220    ] 


CASTILE 


head  of  the  Imperialists,  encountered  the 
French,  led  by  the  Duke  Vendome,  at  this 
town,  on  the  Adda,  Aug.  15,  1705.  Both  sides 
claimed  the  victory. — — Suwarrow,  with  an 
army  composed  of  Russian  and  Austrian  troops, 
assailed  the  French  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Cassano,  April  24,  28,  and  29,  1799.  The  latter 
lost  2,000  killed  and  3,000 prisoners,  with  3oguns, 
and  Moreau  at  once  withdrew  from  Lombardy, 

CASSATION  (Court).— The  highest  court  of 
judicature  in  the  kingdom,  appointed  to  revise 
the  sentences  of  inferior  courts,  was  established 
at  Paris  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly, 
Nov.  27,  1790.  The  chamber  in  which  it  is 
held  was  redecorated  by  Peyre  in  1810.  The 
order  of  advocates  at  the  council  of  state,  and 
of  the  College  of  Advocates  at  the  Court  of 
Cassation,  were  unitedby  ordinance  Sep.  10, 1817. 

CASSEL  (Germany).— The  capital  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  existed  under  the  name  of  Chassala  in 
the  icth  century.  It  was  fortified  in  1526, 
though  a  place  of  little  importance  until  it 
became  a  refuge  for  the  French  Protestants, 
who  commenced  the  Ober  Neustadt,  or  New 
Town,  in  1688.  In  1760  it  was  taken  by  the 
French  ;  was  besieged  by  Count  Lippe  in  1761  ; 
and  Prince  Ferdinand,  by  whom  it  was  taken 
Nov.  i,  1762.  The  fortifications  were  destroyed 
in  1767.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1806, 
and  formed  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia,  under  Jerome  Bonaparte,  from  1807 
to  1813.  Its  academy  was  founded  in  1775, 
and  its  palace,  commenced  in  1820,  is  in  an  un- 
finished state. 

CASSITKRIDES.— These  islands,  famous  for 
their  tm-mines,  are  first  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
tus (B.C.  484 — 408),  though  he  admits  that  he 
could  furnish  no  information  respecting  them. 
Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322),  and  Polybius  (B.C.  204 — 
122),  also  allude  to  these  islands.  Strabo  (B.C. 
60 — A.D.  21)  describes  them  as  being  inhabited 
by  men  in  black  cloaks,  with  tunics  reaching 
to  their  feet,  carrying  staves  in  their  hands, 
and  bearded  like  goats.  This  group  is  now 
generally  believed  to  be  the  Scilly  Isles. 

CASTEL-BOLOGNESE  (Italy),  so  called 
from  a  castle  built  by  the  Bolognese  in  the  i4th 
century,  was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  of  the  Floren- 
tines by  the  Milanese  in  1434. 

CASTELFIDARDO.— Cialdini,  the  Sardinian 
general,  defeated  the  papal  army,  led  by  La- 
moriciere,  at  this  place,  near  Loretto,  Sep.  18, 
1860.  Lamoriciere  took  refuge  in  Ancona. 

CASTELLA  (Battle).— Suchet  attacked  the 
English  and  Spanish  in  this  strong  position,  in 
in  the  south  of  Spain,  April  13,  1813.  The 
allied  army  consisted  of  17,000  men,  while  the 
French,  who  were  completely  defeated,  only 
mustered  about  15,000. 

CASTELLAMMARE,  or  CASTEL-A-MARE 
(Italy). — This  town  of  Naples,  occupying  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Stabise  (q.  v.),  derives  its 
name  from  the  castle  erected  on  the  shore  by 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  (1215—1246).  It  was 
sacked  by  the  forces  of  Pius  II.  in  1461,  and 
by  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  1654.  The  Duke  de 
Richelieu  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  here  in 
1648,  and  in  1799  Macdonald  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Anglo-Neapolitan  army. 

CASTELLAMMARE  (Sicily)  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  a  waterspout  in  Dec.,  1851. 


CASTELNAUDARY  (France).— A  battle  was 
fought  here  between  Simon  de  Montfort  and 
Count  Raymond  in  1212,  and  the  town  was  de- 
prived of  its  walls  in  1229  by  the  Count  ot 
Toulouse,  and  was  taken  and  burned  by  the 
Black  Prince  in  1355.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1366. 
The  battle  of  Castelnaudary,  in  which  Manual 
Schomberg  defeated  the  Duke  of  Montmorency, 
who  was  taken  prisoner  and  afterwards  exe- 
cuted at  Toulouse,  was  fought  in  1632. 

CASTELNUOVO  (Battles.)— After  the  vic- 
tory of  Arcola,  Napoleon  Buonaparte  defeated 
the  rear-guard  of  the  Austrian  army,  under 
Gen.  Davidovich,  at  Castelnuovo,  and  made 
1,200  prisoners,  Nov.  21,  1796.  The  French, 
under  Gen.  Marmont,  defeated  the  Russians  at 
the  same  place,  Sep.  29,  1806. 

CASTIGLIONE  (Battle).— The  French  army, 
28,000  strong,  commanded  by  Gen.  Augereau, 
defeated  the  Austrian  general  Wurmser,  whose 
force  consisted  of  18,000  men,  at  this  town, 
near  Mantua,  Aug.  5-9,  1796.  A  pageant, 
representing  the  battle  of  which  Castiglione 
had  been  the  theatre,  took  place  here  in  1805. 
Napoleon  I.  and  the  empress,  seated  on  a  lofty 
throne,  witnessed  the  display. 

CASTILE  (Spain).— The  Christian  inhabi- 
tants of  Spain,  compelled  to  retire  before  the 
Saracen  invaders  in  the  8th  century,  took 
refuge  in  the  mountains,  where  they  main- 
tained their  independence.  Their  descendants 
gathering  strength,  advanced  into  the  open 
country,  and  for  the  protection  of  the  territory 
which  they  wrested  from  the  Moors,  con- 
structed forts,  called  in  Spanish  castillos.  From 
this  circumstance,  the  name  Castile  was  ap- 
plied to  a  portion  of  the  country  rescued  from 
the  grasp  of  the  invaders.  Castile,  governed 
at  first  by  counts  dependent  on  Leon,  was 
erected  into  a  kingdom  by  Ferdinand,  son  of 
Sancho  III.  (the  Great),  King  of  Navarre. 

A.D. 

860.  Kodrigo,  first  authentic  Count  of  Castile. 

762  (about).  Castile  declared  independent  under    Count 

Kodrigo  Fruelaz. 
791.  Alphonso  II.,  surnamed  the  Chaste,  becomes  King  of 

the  Asturias,  Leon,  and  Castile. 
950.  Kainiro  II.  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son. 
970.  Death  of  Gonsalez,  Count  of  Castile. 
995.  Don  Sancho  Garces  rebels  against  his  father,  Bon 
Garcia  Fernandez,  Count  of  Castile,  who  is  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  b3'  the  Cordovans. 
1026.  Sancho  III.  (the  Great)  conquers  Castile,  and  becomes 

its  king. 

1037.  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  Castile,  becomes  King  of  Leon. 
1065.  Death  of  Ferdinand  I.,    King  of  Castile,  and  con- 
sequent separation  between  Castile  and  Leon. 
1072.  Sancho  II.  of  Castile  is  assassinated  atXamora,  and 

Alphonso  VI.,  of  Leon,  reunites  the  kingdoms. 
1135.  Alphonso  VIII.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  assumes 

the  imperial  title. 

1157.  On  the  death  of  Alphonso  VIII.,  the  two  kingdoms 
are  again  separated,  Sancho  III.  becoming  King  of 
( 'a  -tile. 

1169.  The  Cortes  assemble  at  flurgos. 

1170.  Marriage  of  Alphonso  III.  of  Castile  with  Eleanor, 

daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England. 

1230.  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  seizes  Leon,  and  reunites 
the  two  kingdoms. 

1252-  Death  of  Ferdinand  III.,  who  is  canonized  by 
Clement  X.  in  1671. 

1256.  Alphonso  X.,  of  Leon  and  Castile,  is  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany,  the  honour  being  contested  by 
Richard  Earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  of  Henry  III. 
of  England. 

1375.  Death  of  Fernando  de  la  Cerda,  heir  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  which  occasions  disputes  respecting  the  suc- 
cession. 


CASTILLEJOS 


[      221       ] 


CATALONIA 


A.L>. 

1291-  Restoration  of  peace. 

3308.  The  Pope  orders  the  suppression  of    the  Castilian 

Templars. 
1327.  Alphonso  XI.  confiscates  the  estates  of  John,  Lord 

of  Biscay. 

1366.  Peterl.is  opposed  by  his  brother  Henry,  who  invades 

Castile,    of    which    he   is    solemnly     proclaimed 
king. 

1367.  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  who  goes  to  the  assistance 

of  Peter  I.,  penetrates  into  Castile.— April  3.     He 

utterly  defeats  Henry  and  his  army  at  Xajara. 
1369.  Henry  again  invades  the  kingdom. — March  23-     He 

defeats  Peter  I.,  and  puts  him  to  death  at  Montiel 

(q.  v.). 
1381.  John  I.  repels  the  Portuguese  fleet  which  was  sent 

to  invade  Castile. 

1386,  July.  John  of    Gaunt,   Duke  of   Lancaster,  invades 

Castile,  and  is  proclaimed  king  at  Santiago. 

1387.  John  of  Gaunt  foregoes  his  claim   to  the  crown  of 

Castile,  on  condition   that  Henry,  son  of  John  I., 

marries  his  daughter  Catherine. 
1390,  Oct.  9.  Death  of  John  I.,  in  consequence  of  a  fall 

from    his    horse.      His    infant    son,    Henry   III., 

succeeds  him. 
1407.  Accession   of  John  II.,  under  the  regency  of    his 

uncle  Ferdinand. 
1439.  Revolt  of  the  Castilians,  who  demand  the  permanent 

expulsion  of  Don  Alvaro  de  Luna  from  the  court. 
14(19,  Oct.  19.  Marriage  of   Isabella  of  Castile  and  Ferdi- 
nand II.  of  Aragon. 
1474.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  are  proclaimed  sovereigns  of 

Castile. 
1479.  Ferdinand  becomes  King  of  Aragon,  which  is  thus 

united  to  Castile. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF   CASTILE. 
AD.  I  A.D. 

1035.  Ferdinand  I.  1252-  Alphonso  X. 

1065.  Sancho  II.  1284.  Sancho  IV. 

1072.  Alphonso  Vl.'of  Leon.     1295.  Ferdinand  IV. 
1109.  Urraca  and  Alphonso      1312-  Alphonso  XI. 

1126.  Alphonso  VIII.  of  Ara- 
gon. 

1157.  Sancho  III.  and  Ferdi- 

nand II. 

1158.  Alphonso  IX. 
1214.  Henry  I. 
I2I7-  Ferdinand  III. 

CASTILLEJOS  (Africa).— Gen.  Prim,  at  the 
head  of  the  Spanish  army,  defeated  the  Moors 
at  this  place,  Jan.  i,  1860. 

CASTILLON  (France).  —  Charles  VII.  of 
France  defeated  John  Talbot,  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury, near  this  town,  in  Guienne,  July  7,  1453. 
Talbot  was  slain  in  the  battle,  in  which  the 
French  were  greatly  superior  in  point  of  num- 
bers. Castillon  surrendered  to  the  French 
July  1 6.  The  result  was  that  Guienne  passed 
out  of  the  possession  of  the  English.  Admiral 
Penrose  destroyed  a  flotilla  at  Castillon,  April 
6,  1814. 

CASTLE.— The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
erected  castles,  and  Gildas,  who  flourished  in 
the  6th  century,  relates  that  the  aboriginal 
British  built  very  strong  tall  houses  on  the  tops 
of  hills,  which  were  fortified  for  purposes  of 
defence.  Perhaps  the  oldest  castle,  the  date  of 
which  is  determined,  is  the  Roman  fortress  at 
Richborough,  in  Kent,  which  was  commenced  in 
43,  and  completed  by  Severus  about  205.  Anglo- 
Saxon  castles  consisted  of  a  round  or  square 
tower-keep,  ascended  by  a  direct  flight  of  steps 
in  front.  One  was  erected  at  Bamborough,  by 
Ida,  King  of  Northumberland,  about  548, 
though  they  appear  not  to  have  become  com- 
mon till  the  reign  of  Alfred.  The  chief  altera- 
tion introduced  by  the  Normans,  was  an  en- 
largement and  elaboration  of  the  keep,  which 
was  built  of  prodigious  strength  and  security. 


50.  Peter  I.  the  Cruel. 
1369.  Henry  II. 
1379.  John  I. 
1390.  Henry  III. 
1406.  John  II. 
1454.  Henry  IV. 
1474.  Ferdinand    and     Isa- 
bella I. 


One  of  the  most  famous  is  that  at  Rochester, 
built  by  Bishop  Gundulph,  about  1088. 

CASTLEBAR  (Battle).— Gen.  Humbert,  at  the 
head  of  a  French  force  of  1,150  men,  defeated 
Gen.  Lake  near  this  town,  in  Ireland,  Aug  27, 
1798.  The  former,  who  had  landed  at  Killala 
Aug.  22,  were  afterwards  surrounded,  and  laid 
down  their  arms  at  Ballinamuck,  Sep.  8. 

CATACOMBS,  called  cryptce  and  arenaria, 
says  Bingham,  from  their  being  digged  pri- 
vately in  the  sand  under  ground,  were  the 
places  used  for  Christian  burial  during  the  first 
three  centuries  of  our  sera.  The  catacombs  in 
the  Via  Appia,  near  Rome,  extend  for  six  miles 
under  ground,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been 
quarries.  The  bodies  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  are  said  to  have  been  interred  in  these 
catacombs.  They  were,  it  is  believed,  used  as 
places  of  interment  by  the  pagans  before  they 
were  thus  employed  by  the  Christians,  who 
often  assembled  in  them  for  the  celebration  of 
divine  worship.  Catacombs  are  found  in  vari- 
ous countries.  The  catacombs  of  Egypt,  ex- 
plored by  Belzoni  in  1815-17,  were  found  to 
contain  vessels  of  various  kinds,  works  of  art, 
deeds,  and  other  documents.  Romanelli  dis- 
covered in  a  catacomb  at  Naples  inscriptions 
recording  the  ravages  committed  by  the  plague 
in  that  city  in  1020.  The  catacombs  at 
Paris  are  the  quarries  out  of  which  materials 
were  excavated  for  the  building  of  the  city. 
The  victims  of  the  massacres  of  Sep.,  1792,.. 
were  interred  in  these  crypts,  to  which  the 
remains  of  human  beings  taken  from  the  Paris 
cemeteries,  suppressed  in  1784,  had  been  re- 
moved. Several  persons  were  lost  in  these 
labyrinthine  chambers,  which,  on  account  of 
their  dangerous  nature,  are  closed  to  the  public. 

CATALAUNIAN  PLAIN  (France),  near  Cha- 
lons-sur-Marne,  where  Aetius  defeated  Attila 
and  the  Huns  in  451. 

CATALOGUES  OF  BOOKS.— George  Wilier, 
a  bookseller  at  Augsburg,  who  frequented  the 
fairs  at  Frankfort,  first  published  a  catalogue 
of  new  books,  with  titles  and  size.  There  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  respecting  the  date  of  his 
first  catalogue,  some  authorities  placing  it  in 
1554,  and  others  in  1564.  Hallam  is  in  favour 
of  the  latter.  The  earliest  known  catalogue 
of  English  books  for  sale  was  published  by 
Andrew  Maunsell,  in  1595. 

CATALONIA  (Spain).— This  province,  form- 
ing part  of  the  Roman  Tarraconensis  Provincia, 
the  new  name  given  to  Hispania  Citerior  by 
Augustus,  was,  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
power,  invaded  by  the  Goths  and  the  Alani,  about 
409,  and  a  settlement  formed  by  them  was  called 
Goth-Alania.  The  Saracens  conquered  it  in 
712,  and  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  Charle- 
magne in  788,  and  included  in  his  Spanish 
march.  Catalonia  was  annexed  to  Aragon  by 
the  marriage  of  Queen  Petronilla  with  Raymond 
Berenger,  Count  of  Barcelona,  in  1137.  Philip 
III.  of  France  invaded  it  in  1273.  A  general 
insurrection  against  the  Aragon  dynasty  broke 
put  in  Catalonia  in  1461,  and  the  inhabitants, 
in  1466,  elected  Rene  the  Good,  of  Anjou,  king. 
He  was,  however,  unable  to  accept  the  prof- 
fered crown,  and  an  accommodation  was  made 
with  the  King  of  Aragon,  who  swore  to  re- 
spect the  laws  and  constitution  of  Catalonia, 


CATAMARAN 


[       222      ] 


CATHARISTS 


Dec.  22,  1472.  Both  Aragon  and  Catalonia 
were  united  with  Castile  by  the  marriage  of 
Ferdinand  II.  and  Isabella,  Oct.  19, 1469.  Ferdi- 
nand emancipated  the  serfs  of  Catalonia  hi  1486^ 
and  transferred  his  court  to  this  province  ui 
Oct.,  1492.  The  inhabitants  of  Catalonia  re 
volted  in  1640,  and  entered  into  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Louis  XIII.,  Dec.  16,  converted 
into  a  treaty  of  union  Jan.  23,  1641.  Thp 
Spaniards  recovered  Barcelona  Oct.  12,  1652, 
and  Catalonia  was  soon  afterwards  re-united 
to  Spain.  The  people  rose  against  the  French 
in  1808  ;  but  after  a  desperate  struggle,  it  was 
subjugated  and  again  annexed  to  France  hi 
1812.  The  war  was  renewed,  and,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  English,  the  French  were 
expelled  in  1814. 

CATAMARAN.— During  the  invasion  panic 
of  1804,  some  projector  induced  Lord  Melville 
o  countenance  a  plan  for  the  destruction  of 
the  flotilla  at  Boulogne  by  means  of  catamarans, 
being  copper  vessels  of  an  oblong  form,  con- 
taining a  quantity  of  combustibles,  and  so 
constructed  as  to  explode  in  a  given  time  by 
means  of  clockwork.  They  were  to  be  towed 
and  fastened  under  the  bottoms  of  the  enemy's 
gunboats,  by  a  small  raft  rowed  by  one  man, 
who,  being  seated  up  to  his  chin  in  the  water, 
would,  it  was  hoped,  escape  detection  in  .1  dirk 
night.  Fire-ships  were  also  to  be  employed. 
Lord  Keith  anchored  at  about  a  league  and  a 
•half  from  Boulogne  Oct.  2,  for  the  purpose  of 
trying  the  experiment.  Operations  commenced 
at  a  quarter  after  nine  the  same  evening,  and 
terminated  at  a  quarter  after  four  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Oct.  3.  No  damage  was,  however,  done 
to  the  enemy's  fleet,  and  their  loss  was  only 
25  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  catamaran 
project  proved  a  failure. 

( 'A  I  AXI A  (Sicily,  the  ancient  Catana, 
founded  about  B.C.  730,  by  a  Greek  colony. 
The  original  inhabitants  were  expelled  by 
Hieron  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  476,  and  a  colony  of 
Syracusans  and  Peloponnesiana  introduced, 
the  name  of  the  city  being  changed  to  JEtna. 
The  original  inhabitants  were  restored  B.C.  461. 
Dionysius  of  Syracuse  captured  it,  and  sold  the 
people  to  slavery,  B.C.  403.  It  submitted  to 
the  Romans  B.C.  263,  was  injured  by  an  earth- 
quake B.C.  121,  and  having  been  restored  was 
captured  by  the  Goths,  and  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Belisarius,  A.D.  536.  Richard  I.  held  a 
conference  with  Tancred  here  in  1 190.  This  city, 
situated  close  to  Mount  xEtna,  has  frequently 
been  partially  destroyed  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times.  The  earthquakes  of  Feb.  4, 
1169,  March  8,  1669,  and  1694  committed  the 
greatest  havoc.  Catania,  however,  rose  from 
the  ruins,  and  is  considered  the  finest  city  in 
Sicily.  It  was  made  a  bishop's  see  at  an  early 
period,  but  remained  vacant  for  nearly  200 
years,  from  the  close  of  the  gth  century,  about 
which  time  Catania  was  captured  by  the  Sara- 
ceiis,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  Nor- 
mans. The  nave  of  the  celebrated  cathedral, 
constructed  from  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  pagan 
temple,  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  earth- 
quake of  1693.  The  university  was  founded 
in  1445.  During  the  Sicilian  rebellion,  it  was 
captured  by  the  royal  troops,  April  2,  1849. 
Garibaldi  seized  the  town  Aug.  20,  1862.  Se- 


veral  villages  near  Catania  were  destroyed  and 
many  persons  killed  by  an  earthquake,  July  18 
and  19,  1865. 

CATAPHRYGIANS.— The  followers  of  Mon- 
tanus,  who  founded  his  new  Church  at  Pepuza, 
a  small  town  of  Phrygia,  in  171  or  172,  were 
also  called  Pepuziaiis  and  Montanists  (</.  p.). 

CATAWBA.—  This  light,  sparkling  wine  is 
produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Catawba  River, 
near  Cincinnati,  U.S. 

CATEAU-CAMBRESIS,  or  LE  CATEAU 
(Treaties).  —The  conferences  for  peace  between 
England,  France,  and  Spam,  opened  at  the 
abbey  of  Cercamp,  near  Cambray,  in  Oct., 
1558,  were  brought  to  a  sudden  close  by  the 
death  of  Queen  Mary,  Nov.  17,  1558.  The 
commissioners,  however,  met  again,  first  at 
Cercamp,  and  afterwards  at  Cateau-Cam- 
bresis,  in  Feb.,  1559,  and  the  peace  known  by 
this  name  was  concluded  between  England, 
France,  and  Spain,  April  2,  1559.  The  French 
called  it  the  Unfortunate  Peace.  Two  treaties 
were  signed  ;  the  one  between  England  and 
France,  April  2,  and  the  other  between  France 
and  Spain,  April  3.  By  the  latter,  the  con- 
tracting parties  engaged  to  maintain  the 
Roman  Catholic  worship  inviolate,  and  restore 
the  conquests  made  by  each  country  during 
the  previous  eight  years.  Henry  II.,  of  France, 
renounced  all  claims  to  Genoa,  Corsica,  and 
Naples.  His  sister  Margaret  was  given  in 
marriage  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  with  a  dowry 
of  300,000  crowns  ;  and  his  daughter  Elizabeth, 
betrothed  to  the  Infant  Don  Carlos,  was  given 
to  Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  with  a  dowry  of  400,000 
crowns.  By  the  treaty  with  England,  Henry 
II.  engaged  to  restore  Calais  within  eight 
years,  and  to  give  security  for  the  payment  of 
500,000  crowns  in  case  of  failure  ;  the  queen's 
title  to  Calais  to  remain  unaffected  by  this  pay- 
ment. This  was  a  general  peace,  to  which  all 
the  principal  powers  of  Europe  acceded. 

CATECHISM.— Bingham  (book  x.  ch.  i,  s.  6) 
hows  that  the  subjects  of  the  ancient  cate- 
chisms were  as  follows  : — The  doctrine  of  re- 
pentance and  remission  of  sins ;  the  necessity 
)f  good  works ;  the  nature  and  use  of  baptism ; 
;he  explanation  of  the  several  articles  of  the 
Ureed  ;  the  nature  and  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
and  an  account  of  the  canonical  books  of  Scrip- 
ure.  The  first  were  compiled  in  the  8th  or 
gth  centuries.  Luther  published  a  short  cate- 
chism in  1520,  and  his  Larger  and  Smaller 
Catechisms  in  1529.  The  Geneva  Catechism 
ippeared  in  1536.  The  Catechism  of  the  Church 
)f  England  was  published  in  1551 ;  the  Heidel- 
>erg  or  Palatinate  Catechism  in  1563 ;  the 
rridentine  Catechism  in  1566;  and  Noel's  Cate- 
chism hi  1570.  James  I.,  at  the  Hampton 
Court  conferences,  recommended  additions 
hat  were  adopted  in  1604.  The  Catechism  of 
he  orthodox  Greek  Church  was  published  hi 
642  ;  the  Shorter  Catechism,  prepared  by  the 
Assembly  of  Divines,  in  1647 ;  and  the  Longer 

CATHARISTS,  or  CATHARL— This  word, 
ignifying  pure,  was  applied  to  several  sects  in 
-he  early  Church.  The  Apostolians  7.  r.)  and 
-he  Montanists,  and  especially  the  followers  of 
sovatus,  who  separated  from  the  Church  in 
251,  were  called  Cathari.  The  appellation 


CATHAY 


[     223    ] 


CATTARO 


was  subsequently  assumed  by  the  descendants 
of  the  Paulicians,  who  appeared  during  the 
nth  century.  Mosheim  represents  these 
Catharists  as  proceeding  from  Bulgaria,  and 
spreading  over  Europe.  He  says  they  were 
divided  into  two  principal  parties,  the  one 
holding  two  first  causes,  and  the  other  but 
one  ;  and  of  the  last-mentioned  he  makes  the 
Albigensians  a  branch.  There  is  much  con- 
fusion in  the  accounts  of  these  sects. 

CATHAY.— (-See  CHINA.) 

CATHEDRAL.  —  This  name,  given  to  the 
episcopal  church  of  every  diocese,  because  it 
contains  the  cathedra,  or  bishop's  seat,  was  not 
used,  in  its  present  sense,  before  the  loth  cen- 
tury, and  is  confined  to  the  Western  Church. 

CATHERINE  (Knights  of  St.  Catherine  of 
Mount  Sinai).— This  order  of  knights  was  insti- 
tuted in  1063,  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  to 
the  shrine  of  Catherine,  saint,  virgin,  and 
martyr,  who  suffered  at  Alexandria,  under 
Maximin,  in  307,  and  whose  relics  are  said  to 
have  been  miraculously  conveyed  to  Mount 
Sinai,  where  they  are  preserved  in  a  monas- 
tery. Landon  (Eccles.  Diet.)  remarks:  "She 
is  said  to  have  been  put  upon  an  engine  made 
of  four  wheels  joined  together  and  armed  with 
spikes,  which,  when  the  wheels  were  moved, 
were  intended  to  lacerate  her  body ;  but  at 
the  instant  at  which  the  machine  was  put  into 
motion,  her  bonds  were  miraculously  broken, 
and  she  was  released,  only,  however,  to  be 
instantly  beheaded.  Hence  the  name  of 
Catherine-wheel." 

CATHERINE,  ST.— The  earliest  record  of 
this  religious  order,  which  was  originally  for 
monks  only,  occurs  in  1188,  when  it  is  men- 
tioned as  connected  with  the  hospital  of  St. 
Opportune.  The  title  was  changed  to  St. 
Catherine  in  1222,  and  nuns  were  admitted 
about  the  year  1328.  In  1558  the  order  became 
exclusively  one  of  nuns,  who  received  a  new 
constitution  and  regulations  from  Eustace  du 
Bellay,  Bishop  of  Paris,  about  1564. 

CATHERINE,  ST.  (Order),  for  females  only, 
was  instituted  by  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  of  Russia, 
or,  as  some  say,  by  his  wife  Catherine,  in  1714,  in 
memory  of  his  escape  from  the  Turks  in  1711. 

CATHERINE  (ST.)  DOCKS.— (See  KATHA- 
RINE (ST.)  DOCKS  and  HOSPITAL.) 

CATHERINE'S  (ST.)  COLLEGE  or  HALL 
(Cambridge)  was  founded  by  Dr.  Woodlarke, 
Chancellor  of  the  University,  in  1473. 

CATHOLIC  LEAGUE.— (See  ROMAN  CATHO- 
LIC LEAGUE.) 

CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY  was  formed  by 
Lucius  Sergius  Catilina,  a  Roman  patrician, 
born  B.C.  108.  He  was  elected  prator  B.C.  68, 
governor  of  Africa  B.C.  67,  and  in  tended  to  offer 
himself  for  the  consulship  B.C.  65  ;  but  the 
senate  declared  him  ineligible,  because  he  was 
under  an  accusation  for  misconduct  in  his 
African  administration.  Annoyed  at  this,  he 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  P.  Autronius 
Postus  and  Cn.  Calpurnius  Piso  to  murder  the 
new  consuls  on  the  day  of  their  inauguration, 
Jan.  i.  Piso  was  to  be  sent  with  an  army  to 
secure  Spain,  and  the  other  two  conspirators 
intended  to  seize  the  consulship.  Suspicion 
having  been  excited,  the  execution  of  the  plan 
was  postponed  until  Feb.  5,  and  several  sena- 


tors were  included  in  the  list  of  proposed 
victims.  Catiline  gave  the  signal  too  soon,  and 
the  scheme  miscarried,  though  its  authors 
were  not  molested.  Soon  after,  Catiline  was 
brought  to  trial  for  alleged  misconduct  in 
Africa,  and  acquitted.  In  B.C.  64  he  formed 
plans  for  a  second  revolution  on  an  extended 
scale.  Cicero,  who  was  consul,  obtained  some 
intimation  of  his  proceedings,  and  informed 
the  senate  of  what  he  had  learned,  Oct.  21. 
They  made  the  usual  provision  to  avert  the 
peril,  and  Catiline,  who  was  again  a  candidate 
for  the  consulship,  was  rejected.  His  agents 
took  up  arms  in  Etruria,  and  attempted  to 
assassinate  Cicero,  who  called  a  meeting  of  the 
senate  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  on  the 
Palatine  Hill,  Nov.  8,  B.C.  63,  and  denounced 
Catiline,  who  in  vain  attempted  to  reply,  and 
was  compelled  to  quit  Rome.  Catiline  left 
some  of  his  associates  behind,  who,  on  a 
certain  day,  were  to  set  fire  to  the  city  in 
several  places,  murder  the  magistrates  and 
leading  men,  whilst  Catiline  was  to  be  ready 
in  the  neighbourhood  with  an  army  to  com- 
plete the  massacre  and  put  the  finishing  stroke 
to  the  revolution.  By  the  vigilance  of  the 
authorities,  the  principal  conspirators  were 
arrested,  Dec.  3,  B.C.  63,  and  executed  Dec.  5. 
Catiline's  followers  rapidly  deserted  him,  and 
he  was  slain  in  a  conflict  with  the  army  of  the 
republic  in  Jan.  B.C.  62.  Some  critics  question 
the  accuracy  of  the  account  of  this  conspiracy 
given  by  Sallust  and  Cicero.  Smith  (Hist,  of 
the  World  ;  Ancient  Hist.,  vol.  iii.  ch.  34,  p. 
189)  gives  the  following  as  the  dates,  with  the 
corrections  required  by  the  disordered  state  of 
the  Roman  Calendar,  of  the  four  Catilinarian 
orations  : — 

1.  Ad  Senatum,  Nov.  8,  B.C.  63,  for  Jan.  13,  B.C.  63. 

2.  Ad  Populum,  Nov.  9,  B.C.  63,  for  Jan.  13,  B.C.  63. 

3.  Ad  Populum,  Dec.  3,  B.C.  63,  for  Feb.  5,  B.C.  63. 

4.  Ad  Senatum,  Dec.  5,  B.C.  63.  for  Feb.  7,  B.C.  63. 

CAT  ISLAND  (Atlantic).— (See  SALVADOR,ST.) 
CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY,  so  called 
from  the  place,  near  the  Edgeware-road, 
London,  where  the  conspirators  assembled  to 
arrange  their  plans,  was  formed  by  one  Arthur 
Thistlewood,  who  had  imbibed  revolutionary 
projects  during  a  residence  in  France  just  after 
the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He  had  collected  a 
few  associates,  and  Saturday,  Feb.  19,  1820, 
they  finally  resolved  to  murder  the  ministers 
separately  in  their  own  houses,  to  seize  the 
Bank,  and  set  fire  to  London  in  several  places, 
on  the  following  Wednesday.  Finding  that  a 
cabinet  dinner  was  to  be  given  at  Lord  Har- 
rowby's,  in  Grosvenor-square,  on  the  day  they 
had  fixed  for  carrying  out  the  plot,  they  deter- 
mined to  obtain  entrance  by  stratagem,  and  to 
murder  the  whole  party.  Information  was 
given  to  Government  by  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors, and  several  of  them  were  arrested  in  Cato- 
street,  at  eight  on  the  Wednesday  evening. 
Thistlewood,  the  leader,  escaped ;  but  he  was 
taken  on  the  following  day  in  bed,  in  a  house 
near  Finsbury-square.  They  were  found  guilty. 
Thistlewood  and  four  of  his  fellow-conspirators 
were  executed,  May  i,  1820 ;  five  were  trans- 
ported for  life,  and  one  was  pardoned. 

CATTARO  (Dalmatia).— The  ancient  Catta- 
rus,  was  a  Roman  colony.    The  modern  town 


CATTI 


[    224    ] 


CAUTIONARY 


was  probably  founded  in  the  6th  century.  It 
suffered  from  earthquakes  in  1563  and  1667. 
Formerly  the  capital  of  a  small  state,  it  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg, 
Dec.  26,  1805,  to  be  given  up  in  three  weeks 
from  that  date.  The  Austrian  garrison,  how- 
ever, surrendered  it  to  the  Russians,  March  4, 
1806,  who  held  it  till  the  next  year,  when  they 
relinquished  it  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
July  7,  1807.  An  English  squadron  captured 
Cattaro  Jan.  5,  1814,  and  it  was  ceded  to 
Austria  at  the  general  peace  of  1814-15. 

CATTI,  or  CHATTL— This  German  tribe,  in- 
habiting the  modern  Saxony,  Hesse,  and  Nas- 
sau, was  attacked  by  Germauicus,  who  de- 
stroyed their  capital,  Mattium,  A.D.  15.  Their 
territory  was  invaded  by  Domitian  in  84,  and  in 
the  4th  century  they  disappeared  from  history. 

CATTLE  PLAGUE.— A  "  very  grievous  mur- 
rain" constituted  one  of  the  10  plagues  in- 
flicted by  Jehovah  on  the  obstinate  Egyptians, 
B.C.  1491  (Exod.  ix.  i — 7),  and  Plutarch  men- 
tions a  severe  cattle  pestilence  B.C.  753.  Violent 
epidemics  raged  among  the  herds  of  Europe 
in  376  and  592,  and  in  1316  protracted  rains 
occasioned  a  destructive  malady  in  England. 
In  1711  epizootic  typhus  spread  from  Hungary 
to  Venice,  whence  it  extended  into  Piedmont, 
destroying  70,000  cattle,  and  into  France  and 
Holland,  which  lost  in  each  instance  200,000. 
It  subsequently  reached  England  and  diffused 
itself  over  Western  Europe,  carrying  off,  before 
its  termination  in  1714,  1,500,000  horned  cattle. 
A  still  more  fatal  epidemic  broke  out  about 
1745,  and  raged  for  10  years,  destroying  in 
Central  and  Western  Europe  alone  3,000,000 
cattle.  This  visitation  was  studied  by  the 
English  physicians,  Malcolm  Flcmrning  and 
Peter  Layard,  who,  in  1757,  introduced  the 
practice,  since  carried  out  with  good  results  in 
Russia,  of  preventing  the  malady  or  mitigating 
its  effects  by  inoculation.  Typhoid  contagion 
broke  out  in  Holland  in  1768,  1769,  and  1770,  in 
French  Flanders  in  1771,  in  Hainault  in  1773, 
and  in  the  south  of  France,  and  again  in  Hol- 
land, where  the  government  vainly  offered  a 
reward  of  80,000  norms  for  a  remedy,  in  1774. 
The  destruction  effected  by  this  epidemic  since 
its  great  outbreak  in  1711  was  estimated  by 
Dr.  Faust  in  1796  at  no  fewer  than  200,000,000 
of  bovine  cattle.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
igth  century,  though  constantly  carried  from 
its  home  in  the  steppes  of  Russia  and  Hun- 
gary, in  the  train  of  the  armies  that  made  Eu- 
rope the  theatre  of  war,  it  never  effected  any 
great  destruction.  In  1832,  under  the  name  of 
the  Delombodera,  it  ravaged  the  South  Ameri- 
can Republics,  and  between  1841  and  1844  it 
destroyed  400,000  oxen  in  Egypt,  having,  it  is 
alleged,  been  occasioned  in  both  cases  by  the 
importation  of  infected  cattle  from  Europe. 
In  1853  the  Russian  government  commenced 
experiments  to  test  the  efficacy  of  inocula- 
tion, which  was  found  in  most  cases  to  prevent 
contagion,  and  in  1857  the  English  and  Irish 
Agricultural  Societies  sent  out  Professor 
Simonds  to  investigate  an  epidemic  said  to  be 
raging  in  Mecklenburg.  The  outbreak  in  Eng- 
land of  the  steppe  murrain,  or  Rinderpest, 
originated,  it  is  alleged,  in  the  sale  at  the 
Metropolitan  Cattle  Market,  June  19,  1865,  of 


two  infected  cows  that  had  just  been  imported. 
One  of  them  being  found  ill,  June  24,  both  were 
sold,  and  the  disease  was  at  once  propagated. 
A  meeting  of  the  London  cow-keepers,  held 
July  31,  established  the  National  Association 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cattle  Diseases  ;  and  the 
Privy  Council  issued  several  recommendations, 
which  were  ultimately  consolidated  into  an 
Order,  Sep.  22.  A  Royal  Commission,  ap- 
pointed Oct.  4,  published  its  first  report  on  the 
plague  Nov.  13,  and  an  Order  in  Council,  con- 
solidating all  previous  Orders  upon  the  subject, 
was  issued  Nov.  24.  By  an  Order  issued  Dec. 
22,  local  authorities  received  power  to  regulate 
the  removal  of  cattle.  Measures  for  the  pre- 
vention of  contagious  disorders  among  sheep 
and  cattle  were  imposed  by  n  and  12  Viet, 
c.  107  (Sep.  4,  1848),  which  was  continued  by 
several  acts,  the  last  being  28  &  29  Viet.  c.  119 
(July  5,  1865).  The  plague,  which  spread  with 
fearful  rapidity  at  the  commencement  of  1866, 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  Legislature,  and 
a  very  stringent  act  was  passed  hi  March. 

CATTLE-SHOW.— (See  AGRICULTURAL  HALT. 
and  SMITHFIELD.) 

CAUDEBEC-LES-ELBCEUF  (France).  —This 
town,  captured  by  the  English  under  Talbot, 
after  a  six  months'  siege,  in  1419,  suffered 
severely  during  the  religious  wars  of  the  i6th 
and  1 7th  centuries. 

CAUD1XE  FORKS.— In  the  valley  of  Cau- 
dium,  in  the  Apennines,  supposed  to  be  the 
modern  Arpaia,  the  Romans  were  completely 
surrounded  by  the  Samiiites  in  the  spring, 
B.C.  321.  Half  their  number  were  cut  to  pieces 
on  the  spot,  and  the  remainder  capitulated  to 
the  Samnite  general,  C.  Pontius.  The  treaty 
was,  however,  rejected  at  Rome  B.C.  320.  The 
name  of  the  pass  into  which  the  Roman  army 
had  been  allured  was  Furcutce  Caudince.  Ac- 
cording to  Livy  (b.  ix.  2),  it  consisted  of  two 
narrow  defiles,  which  opened  into  a  plain,  sur- 
rounded, excepting  at  these  outlets,  by  moun- 
tains. The  Romans  advanced  through  the  first 
defile,  and  found  the  second  blocked  up  to  op- 
pose farther  progress,  and  their  vigilant  enemy 
at  once  closed  the  one  through  which  they  had 
entered.  Hence  retreat  was  impossible. 

CAULIFLOWER  was  brought  from  the  Le- 
vant to  Italy  about  the  end  of  the  i6th  century, 
and  was  introduced  into  Germany  and  into  Eng- 
land at  the  end  of  the  i7th.  Alpinus  mentions 
that  it  was  very  plentiful  in  Egypt  in  1588. 

CAURSINES,  or  the  POPE'S  MERCHANTS, 
Italian  usurers  who  came  to  England  early  in 
the  1 3th  century.  They  practised  the  most 
flagrant  extortion,  and  are  denounced  by 
Matthew  Paris  as  "  ahorrible  nuisance."  Roger, 
Bishop  of  London,  expelled  them  from  the  city 
of  London  in  1235.  They  obtained  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Pope,  and  became  numerous.  To 
such  a  height  did  they  carry  their  extortion, 
that,  in  1251,  many  of  them  were  prosecuted  in 
the  civil  courts  and  punished.  They  managed, 
by  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  to  ob- 
tain permission  to  pursue  their  nefarious  traffic, 
but  were  at  length  expelled. 

CAUTIONARY  TOWNS.— In  July,  1585, 
Queen  Elizabeth  accepted  the  protection  of  the 
Netherlands,  repeatedly  urged  upon  her  by 
their  inhabitants.  She  engaged  to  supply  them 


CAVALIERS 


225    ] 


CEDAR 


with  5,000  infantry  and  1,000  cavalry,  for  which 
they  were  to  pay  at  the  close  of  the  struggle 
with  Spain.  As  security  for  this  repayment, 
Briel,  Flushing,  Rammekins,  and  Walcheren 
were  placed  in  her  possession  ;  and  these  were 
called  the  Cautionary  Towns.  The  Dutch  re- 
funded only  a  third  of  the  sum  due  to  England, 
but  the  Cautionary  Towns  were,  notwithstand- 
ing, delivered  to  them  May  27,  1616,  the  treaty 
for  the  purpose  having  been  signed  May  22. 

CAVALIERS. — The  apprentices  of  London 
published  and  circulated  a  petition  against 
popery  and  prelates  in  1641.  Seditious  cries 
having  been  raised,  and  the  bishops  assaulted 
on  their  way  to  Parliament,  skirmishes  be- 
tween the  malcontent  apprentices  and  their 
followers,  and  many  gentlemen  who  volun- 
tarily offered  their  services  to  form  the  king's 
body-guard,  were  of  almost  daily  occurrence. 
"  And,  from  these  contestations,"  says  Claren- 
don, "the  two  terms  of  roundhead  and  cavalier 
grew  to  be  received  in  discourse,  and  were 
afterwards  continued  for  the  most  succinct  dis- 
tinction of  affections  throughout  the  quarrel : 
they  who  were  looked  upon  as  servants  to  the 
king  being  then  called  cavaliers  :  and  the  other 
of  the  rabble  contemned  and  despised,  under 
the  names  of  roundheads." 

CAVALRY.— The  ancients  appear  to  have 
used  horses  in  warfare.  The  Canaanites,  whom 
Joshua  defeated  at  the  waters  of  Merom,  are 
said  to  have  assembled  "with  horses  and 
chariots  very  many,"  B.C.  1445  (Josh.  xi.  4). 
The  Jews,  however,  possessed  no  cavalry  till 
the  time  of  David,  who  took  from  Hadadezer, 
King  of  Zobah,  1,000  chariots.  David  houghed 
all  the  chariot  horses  except  sufficient  for  100 
chariots  B.C.  1040(2  Sam.  viii.  4).  Alexander  III. 
iised  cavalry  to  great  advantage  in  his  various 
conquests,  and  Scipio's  victory  at  Zama,  B.C.  202, 
is  attributed  to  his  superiority  in  this  force. 
Edward  III.  divided  the  English  cavalry  into 
small  bodies  commanded  by  constables,  in  1324. 
The  word  troop,  as  applied  to  a  body  of  horse- 
soldiers,  first  appears  in  an  army  list  for  1557. 

CAVAN  (Ireland).— Part  of  Cavan  was  formed 
into  a  county  of  Ulster  in  1584,  and  the  re- 
mainder was  escheated  to  the  crown  in  1610,  in 
consequence  of  the  rebellion  of  the  O'Reillys. 
The  chief  town,  Cavan,  was  burned  in  1690. 

CAVENDISH  CLUB  (London)  was  estab- 
lished Jan.  i,  1855. 

CAVENDISH  SOCIETY  (London)  was  estab- 
lished in  1846,  for  the  promotion  of  chemical 
science  by  the  translation  and  publication  of 
valuable  works  and  papers. 

CAVINIANO  (Battle).— The  Florentine  forces, 
under  Francesco  Ferrucci  and  Malatesta  Bag- 
lioni,  were  defeated  at  this  place  in  Italy  by  the 
Imperial  army  under  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
Aug.  2,  1530.  Ferrucci  and  the  prince  were 
both  slain.  Florence  capitulated  Aug.  12. 

CAWNPORE  (Hindustan),  the  chief  town  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  in 
the  1 8th  century.  The  district  belonged  to 
Oude  in  1777,  and  was  ceded  to  the  East  India 
Company  in  1801.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Sepoy  revolt  in  1857,  the  English  residents  of 
Cawiipore  were  placed  in  the  greatest  peril. 
Their  efforts  to  obtain  reinforcements  failed, 
and  the  2nd  regiment  of  native  cavalry  revolted 


June  5.  Their  example  was  speedily  followed 
by  the  native  infantry.  The  English,  their 
wives  and  children,  with  native  servants, 
amounting  to  nearly  900  persons,  were  besieged 
within  a  narrow  entrenchment,  by  the  rebel 
soldiers  commanded  by  Nana  Sahib.  They 
defended  themselves  heroically  against  over- 
whelming numbers.  Death,  however,  rapidly 
thinned  their  ranks,  and,  June  24,  Nana  Sahib 
sent  a  message  to  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler,  offering 
to  allow  the  English  to  proceed  unmolested  to 
Allahabad,  provided  they  gave  up  the  public 
treasure,  the  guns,  and  ammunition.  A  con- 
tract to  this  effect  was  signed  on  the  following 
day,  and  the  remnant  of  the  900  besieged  at 
Cawnpore  embarked  in  boats  prepared  to  con- 
vey them  to  Allahabad,  June  27.  No  sooner, 
however,  had  they  quitted  the  shore,  than  the 
treacherous  sepoys  opened  fire  upon  them,  fol- 
lowing them  along  the  banks  in  order  to  insure 
their  destruction.  The  boats  were  sunk,  many 
of  the  men  killed,  and  the  survivors,  with  the 
women  and  children,  carried  back  to  Cawn- 
pore. Other  prisoners,  male  and  female,  were 
brought  in,  and  all  who  survived  were  bar- 
barously slaughtered  July  15.  Gen.  Havelock 
defeated  Nana  Sahib  near  Cawnpore,  July  16, 
and  entered  the  town  on  the  following  day, 
when  the  horrors  that  had  been  enacted  there 
became  known.  The  Gwalior  rebels  defeated 
Gen.  Windham  near  Cawnpore,  Nov.  27  and  28, 
1857.  Sir  Colin  Campbell  soon  after  reached 
the  scene  of  action,  and  completely  routed  the 
rebels,  25,000  strong,  at  Cawnpore,  Dec.  6. 

CAXTON  SOCIETY  (London),  established 
about  1844,  for  the  publication  of  chronicles, 
<fec.,  illustrative  of  the  literature  and  history  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

CAYENNE  (South  America),  in  Guiana,  was 
settled  by  the  French  in  1604,  and  again  in 
1635.  In  1654  the  English  supplanted  them, 
and  retained  the  colony  till  1664.  The  Dutch 
seized  it  in  1676,  but  were  compelled  to  restore 
it  to  the  French  in  1677.  The  British  took 
Cayenne  Jan.  12,  1809,  and  relinquished  it  to 
France  at  the  peace  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 
During  the  revolution  of  1789,  many  persons 
were  transported  to  Cayenne.  Many  of  the  in- 
surgents who  fought  at  the  barricades  in  Paris, 
June  22-26,  1848,  were  also  sent  there.  Nu- 
merous political  prisoners  have  been  trans- 
ported to  this  colony  by  the  French  govern- 
ment. 

CAZAN,  or  KAZAN  (Russia).— Batou,  a  cele- 
brated khan  of  the  Golden  Horde,  founded  this 
town  in  1265.  It  was  taken  and  completely 
destroyed,  its  inhabitants  having  been  cruelly 
massacred,  by  the  Russians,  about  1405.  The 
town  was  rebuilt  by  another  khan  of  the  Golden 
Horde  in  1445.  The  Russians  sent  several 
expeditions  against  it,  and  committed  great 
ravages.  Ivan  IV.  captured  ifc  Oct.  2,  1552, 
when  the  town  was  burned  and  the  dominion 
of  the  khans  overthrown. 

CECROPIA.— (See  ATHENS.) 

CECRYPHALEA  (Battle).— The  Athenians 
defeated  the  Corinthian  and  Epidauriaii  forces 
in  a  sea-fight  off  this  island  B.C.  457. 

CEDAR.— The  wood  of  this  tree,  much 
esteemed  by  all  ancient  nations,  was  used  by 
Solomon  in  the  construction  of  his  temple 

Q 


CEDAR 


[    226    ] 


CEMETERY 


(B.C.  ion — 1004),  by  the  classic  nations  for 
shipbuilding,  in  the  erection  of  sacred  edifices, 
and  for  other  purposes  requiring  durability. 
The  red  cedar,  the  wood  of  which  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  pencils,  &c.,  was  intro- 
duced into  this  country  from  North  America 
before  1664 :  and  the  cedar  of  Goa,  the  Ber- 
mudas cedar,  and  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  before 
1683,  when  a  number  of  cedars  were  planted* 
in  the  royal  garden  at  Chelsea.  The  duty  on 
cedar  wood  was  repealed  by  8  Viet.  c.  12 
(May  8,  1845). 

CEDAR  CREEK,  or  RUN  (Battle).— The 
Federals,  attacked  by  the  Confederates  at  this 
place  in  Virginia  before  daybreak  Oct.  19,  1864, 
and  driven  back  four  miles  with  the  loss  of  24 
cannon,  were  rallied  at  midday  by  Gen.  Sheri- 
dan, who  converted  the  defeat  into  a  complete 
victory,  seizing  54  guns,  including  those  taken 
from  him  in  the  morning,  and  making  from 
1.500  to  2,000  prisoners. 

CEDAR  MOUNTAIN  (Battle).  —  At  this 
place  in  Virginia  Gen.  Lee's  artillery  opened 
fire  on  the  Federals  Saturday,  Aug.  9,  1862. 
Later  in  the  day  Gens.  Ewell  and  Jackson  ad- 
vanced upon  Gen.  Banks,  who  was  forced  from 
his  position  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  The  Con- 
federates fell  back  two  miles  Aug.  10,  and 
retired  across  the  Robertson  River  Aug.  n. 
The  Federal  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing  was  1,500  men,  with  several  guns  and 
a  large  quantity  of  ammunition.  The  Con- 
federate casualties  were  also  severe,  including 
Gens.  Winder  and  Trimble. 

CELEBES  (Indian  Archipelago).— The  Por- 
tuguese occupied  this  island  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury,  and  were  followed  by  the  English  and 
the  Dutch.  The  latter  entered  into  treaties 
with  the  native  rulers,  and  formed  permanent 
settlements.  The  English  wrested  Celebes 
from  the  Dutch  in  1811,  but  restored  it  at  the 
general  peace,  and  the  Dutch  returned  in  1816. 
The  harbour  of  Macassar,  on  the  west  coast, 
was,  by  a  decree  dated  Oct.  7, 1846,  made  a  free 
port  from  Jan.  i,  1847. 

CELESTINES.— 

CELIBACY.  —  Under  the  law  of  Moses, 
priests  were  allowed  to  marry,  and  the  office 
was  confirmed  to  the  descendants  of  one 
particular  family.  The  vow  of  perpetual 
celibacy,  or  abstinence  from  conjugal  society, 
was  not  required  of  the  clergy  during  the  first 
three  centuries.  "For  the  contrary  is  very  evi- 
dent," says  Bingham  (Antiq.  b.  iv.  c.  5,  s.  5), 
"  from  innumerable  examples  of  bishops  and 
presbyters,  who  lived  in  a  state  of  matrimony 
without  any  prejudice  to  their  ordination  or 
function.  It  is  generally  agreed  by  ancient 
writers  that  most  of  the  apostles  were  married. 
Some  say  all  of  them,  except  St.  Paul  and 
St.  John.  Others  say,  St.  Paul  was  married 
also,  because  he  addresses  his  yoke-fellow, 
whom  they  interpret  his  wife."  (Phil.  iv.  3.) 
A  life  of  celibacy  began  to  be  extolled  in  the 
and  century,  and  the  withdrawal  of  ascetics 
and  hermits  to  desert  places,  and  the  subse- 
quent introduction  of  monasteries,  tended  to 
bring  it  into  repute.  A  proposal  for  compelling 
the  clergy  to  abstain  from  all  conjugal  society 
with  their  wives,  was  rejected  by  the  Council 
of  Nicsea  in  325.  The  Council  of  Gangra,  be- 


tween 325  and  380,  anathematized  Eustathius, 
the  heretic,  because  he  taught  men  to  separate 
from  those  presbyters  that  retained  the  wives 
to  whom  they  had  been  married  while  they 
were  laymen.  Pope  Siricius,  in  a  decretal 
epistle  addressed  to  Himerius,  Bishop  of  Tar- 
ragona, in  385,  ordered  the  clergy  under  certain 
circumstances  to  separate  from  their  wives. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  time  of  Gregory 
VII.,  1073—1085,  that  the  system  of  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy  was  fully  established.  He 
issued  a  decretal  in  1074  which  met  with  much 
resistance,  and  the  question  was  re-opened  at 
the  Council  of  Trent,  which,  by  the  ninth  canon 
of  the  24th  session,  decreed  that  persons  in  holy 
orders,  and  regulars  who  had  made  a  vow  of 
chastity,  were  incapable  of  contracting  mar- 
riage, and  that  such  marriages  are  null  and 
void  (1545—1563).  Anselm,  in  1102,  introduced 
the  practice  into  the  English  Church.  Convoca- 
tion, in  1547,  passed  a  law  allowing  the  English 
clergy  to  marry. 

CELT/E,  CELTS,  or  KELTS.  —  Turner 
(Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  i.  b.  i.  c.  2)  says  :  "  The 
tendency  of  the  notices  of  the  Kelts,  by  Hero- 
dotus, Aristotle,  and  Ephorus,  is  to  show,  that 
in  their  times,  this  people  lived  in  the  western 
parts  of  Europe,  about  Gaul  and  Spain.  They 
are  spoken  of  as  being  in  the  same  places  by 
later  writers."  About  B.C.  600  they  invaded 
Italy,  and  at  a  subsequent  period  attacked 
Rome  itself,  which  they  sacked  B.C.  390.  They 
invaded  Greece  about  B.C.  280.  The  earliest 
inhabitants  or  settlers  in  Britain  were  Celts. 
The  origin  and  history  of  the  Celts  have  given 
rise  to  much  controversy  amongst  learned 
men.  The  general  opinion  is  that  they  formed 
a  branch  of  the  great  Aryan  or  Indo-Germanic 
race,  which  migrated  from  the  East  at  an  early 
period. 

CELTIBERIANS.— The  inhabitants  of  Celti- 
beria,  an  extensive  inland  division  of  ancient 
Spain,  were  known  by  this  name.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  arisen  from  a  union  of  the 
aborigines,  the  Iberians,  and  their  Celtic  in- 
vaders. Various  limits  have  been  assigned  to 
their  country  by  ancient  writers.  Hannibal 
subdued  the  Celtiberians,  and  they  afterwards 
passed  under  the  Roman  yoke.  They  revolted 
B.C.  181,  and  were  subdued  by  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus, B.C.  179.  Another  struggle,  called  the 
first  Celtiberian  War,  commenced  B.C.  153. 
About  B.C.  143  it  took  the  name  of  the  Nu- 
mantine  War,  and  was  not  brought  to  a  close 
till  B.C.  133.  Quintus  Sertorius  raised  his 
standard  against  Sylla  B.C.  80.  In  this,  the 
second  Celtiberian,  sometimes  called  the  Ser- 
torian  War,  the  Celtiberians  at  first  gained 
several  advantages,  but  the  assassination  of 
Sertorius,  B.C.  72,  proved  fatal  to  their  cause. 
The  Roman  authority  was  completely  re-estab- 
lished, and  the  Celtiberians,  as  an  independent 
people,  do  not  again  appear  in  history. 

CELTIC  SOCIETY  (Dublin).— Founded  in 
1847,  publishes  documents  relating  to  the  his- 
tory, language,  and  antiquities  of  Ireland. 

C  E  M  E  T  E  R  Y.— Ornamental  burial-grounds 
existed  in  Turkey  previous  to  their  introduc- 
tion into  Western  Europe.  The  National  As- 
sembly, in  1 790,  prohibited  burial  in  churches, 
and  ordered  that  public  cemeteries  should  be 


CENIS 


[    227    ] 


CERDAGNE 


formed.  The  ground  for  the  Pere  la  Chaise 
cemetery,  at  that  time  consisting  of  42  acres, 
was  purchased  by  the  municipality  of  Paris, 
in  1800,  to  form  the.  first  national  cemetery. 
It  was  consecrated  in  1804,  and  the  first  grave 
was  opened  May  21.  It  has  been  since  increased 
in  size,  and  at  present  consists  of  112  acres,  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall.  Regulations  for  Metropo- 


litan Interments  were  introduced  by  13  &  14 
Viet.  c.  52  (Aug.  5,  1850).  It  was  amended  by 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  89  (Aug.  7,  1851).  Both  acts 
were  repealed  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  85  (July  i, 
1852).  Burials  in  the  provinces  are  regulated 
by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  134  (Aug.  20,  1853),  amended 
by  17  &  1  8  Viet.  c.  87  (Aug.  10,  1854)  ;  by  18  & 
19  Viet.  c.  128  (Aug.  14,  1855).  All  the  Burial 
Acts  relating  to  London  and  the  provinces 
were  amended  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  81  (Au 
1857),  which  was  amended  by  22  Viet.  c.  i  ( 
25,  1859).  Burials  in  Scotland  are  regulated  by 
1  8  &  19  Viet.  c.  68  (July  23,  1855),  and  in  Ireland 
by  19  <fc  20  Viet.  c.  68  (July  29,  1856),  both 
amended  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  81  (Aug.  25,  1857). 
In  consequence  of  these  regulations  the  practice 
of  intramural  interments  has  been  discon- 
tinued. Bunhill  Fields,  opened  as  a  suburban 
burial-place  in  1665,  was  closed  in  1850. 
CENIS  MONT.—  (See  ALPS,  TUNNEL.) 
CENOBITES.—  (See  CAMALDULENSIANS.) 
CENSORS.—  Two  Roman  officers  of  state, 
first  appointed  B.C.  443.  The  office  was  the 
highest  in  the  commonwealth  after  the  dic- 
tatorship, and  had  been  exercised  from  an 
early  period,  first  by  the  kings  and  afterwards 
by  the  consuls,  until  two  patricians  received 
the  appointment,  B.C.  443.  The  censors  attended 
to  numbering  the  people.  Public  morals  and 
the  finances  of  the  state  were  also  placed  under 
their  control.  The  office  was  filled  by  patricians 
until  B.C.  351,  when  C.  Martius  Rutilus,  a 
plebeian,  was  elected.  It  was  provided,  B.C. 
339,  that  one  censor  must  be  selected  from  the 
plebeians,  and  two  plebeians  were  appointed 
B.C.  131.  The  duration  of  office,  fixed  at  five 
years,  was  reduced  to  a  year  and  a  half  by  the 
lex  JDmilia,  B.C.  433.  The  office  having  ceased 
under  the  emperors,  B.C.  22,  was  revived  by 
Decius  A.D.  251,  Valerian,  afterwards  emperor, 
being  unanimously  appointed  censor  Oct.  27. 
Gibbon  (c.  x.)  remarks,  "  A  censor  may  main- 
tain, he  can  never  restore,  the  morals  of  a 
state." 

CENSORSHIP  OF  THE  PRESS.—  (See  BOOK 
CENSORS.) 

CENSUS.  —  God  commanded  Moses  to  number 
the  Israelites  (Numbers  i.  and  ii.),  B.C.  1490. 
David  was  punished  for  having  numbered 
Isi-ael  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  i),  B.C.  1017.  A  census  was 
taken  at  Athens  B.C.  317,  when  the  population 
was  found  to  consist  of  127,660  citizens  and 
400,000  slaves.  The  term  census  originated  at 
Rome,  where  the  first  took  place  B.C.  566,  when 
the  city  was  found  to  contain  84,700  citizens. 
After  B.C.  432,  it  was  held  in  the  Campus 
Martius,  and  was  generally  taken  every  five 
years  at  Rome.  The  first  census  of  Great 
Britain  was  made  in  1801  ;  the  act  of  Parlia- 
ment ordering  a  census  to  be  taken  every  10 
years,  41  Geo.  III.  c.  15,  having  passed  Dec.  31, 
1800.  Ireland  was  not  included  in  this  return, 
and  the  census  for  that  portion  of  the  United 


Kingdom  was  first  taken  in  1813.     (See  POPU- 
LATION.) 

CENTENARIANS.— (See  LONGEVITY.) 

CENTRAL  AMERICA.— This  country,  lying 
between  N.  and  S.  America,  occupied  by 
various  states,  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1502.  In  1821  the  Spanish  American  states 
asserted  their  independence  and  established 
a  confederacy  entitled  the  "  Republic  of  Cen- 
tral America,"  which  was,  however,  dissolved 
by  reason  of  internal  dissensions  in  1839.  In~ 
effectual  attempts  were  made  to  restore  union 
in  1842  and  in  1847.  In  1849  commissioners 
from  the  different  states  assembled  at  Leon,  in 
Nicaragua,  and  agreed  upon  a  basis  of  union, 
to  be  called  the  "National  Representation  of 
Central  America."  This  assembly  met  at 
Tegucigalpa,  in  Honduras,  in  1852,  but  was 
dissolved  owing  to  the  refusal  of  some  of  the 
states  to  send  delegates.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
June  29,  1850,  both  parties  agreed  "not  to 
occupy,  fortify,  or  colonize  any  part  of  Central 
America,"  an  exception  being  made,  however, 
in  the  case  of  Belize,  which  still  remained  a 
British  dependency.  (See  BELIZE,  COSTA  RICA, 
GUATEMALA,  HONDURAS,  NICARAGUA,  SALVADOR, 
SAN,  &o.) 

CENTRAL  CRIMINAL  COURT.— This 
criminal  tribunal,  with  authority  to  hear  and 
determine  all  treasons,  murders,  felonies,  and 
misdemeanors  committed  in  London  or  Middle- 
sex, and  some  parts  of  the  adjacent  counties, 
arid  all  offences  committed  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Admiralty  of  England,  was 
established  by  4  Will.  IV.  c.  36  (July  25,  1834). 
It  meets  at  least  12  times  in  the  course  of  the 
year. 

CEPHALONIA  (Mediterranean).— The  an- 
cient Cephallenia,  the  largest  of  the  Ionian 
Islands,  became  subject  to  Rome  B.C.  187.  On 
the  division  of  the  empire,  it  passed  under 
the  rule  of  the  emperors  of  the  East,  and  was 
taken  by  the  Franks  in  the  i2th  century.  The 
princes  of  Achaia  held  it  until  1224,  when  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Venetians. 
The  Turks  took  Cephalonia  in  1479,  but  it  was 
retaken  in  1500  by  the  Venetians,  who  held  it 
until  the  overthrow  of  their  republic  in  1797. 
By  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio  (Oct.  17,  1797) 
it  was  ceded  to  France.  (See  IONIAN  ISLANDS.) 
Cephalonia  was  a  bishopric  of  the  early  Church, 
and  was  united  to  the  see  of  Zante  in  1621.  It 
was  ravaged  by  an  earthquake  in  1767,  and  was 
captured  by  an  English  squadron  in  Oct.,  1809. 
It  is  called  by  Homer  Same  or  Samos  (q.  v.). 

CEPHISUS  (Greece).— On  the  banks  of  this 
river,  in  Attica,  Walter  of  Brienne,  Duke  of 
Athens,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Cata- 
lans, in  March,  1311.  The  Greeks  defeated  the 
Turks  with  great  slaughter  whilst  passing  this 
river,  July  5,  1823. 

CERCAMP  (France).— At  this  abbey,  near 
Cambray,  the  envoys  from  Spam,  France,  and 
England  assembled  in  the  middle  of  Oct., 
1558,  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  peace. 
The  proceedings  were  suspended  by  the  death 
of  Queen  Mary  of  England,  Nov.  17,  and  the 
congress  afterwards  re-assembled  at  Cateau- 
Cambre"sis  (q.  v.). 

CERDAGNE  (France).— This  province  of  the 
Q  a 


CERDICSFORD 


[    228    ] 


CEYLON 


Pyrenees  was  governed  by  independent  counts 
from  the  gth  to  the  i2th  century.  Having  been 
pledged  to  Louis  XI.  in  May,  1462,  in  return 
for  assistance  rendered  by  him  to  Juan  II.  oJ 
Aragon,  the  populace  revolted  in  Feb.,  1473,  and 
massacred  the  French  garrisons.  Juan  II. 
having  failed  to  pay  the  stipulated  amount, 
the  province  passed  in  1475  into  the  possessior 
of  Louis  XL,  whose  son,  Charles  VIII.,  ceded  it 
to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  I.  by  the  treaty  ol 
Barcelona,  Jan.  19,  1493.  It  was  finally  annexed 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov 

'  CERDICSFORD  (Battle).— At  this  place,  sup 
posed  to  be  Charford,  in  Hants,  Cerdic  anc 
Cynric  defeated  the  Britons  in  519. 

CERDICSORE  (Battles).— The  Saxons  fre 
quently  landed  at  this  port,  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  be  Yarmouth,  in  the  sth  and  suc- 
ceeding centuries.  They  defeated  the  Britons 
in  great  battles  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  495 

anCKRDONIANS,  the  followers  of  Cerdo  or 
Cerdou,  a  Gnostic  of  Syria,  who  advocated 
the  Persian  doctrine  of  the  two  principles 
of  good  and  evil.  He  abjured  his  errors  at 
Rome,  in  140,  but  afterwards  relapsed,  and 
was  expelled  from  the  Church.  Tertulliaii  says 
that  Marcion  borrowed  many  of  his  errors  from 
him. 

CEREMONIES.— (See  MASTER  OF  THE  CERE- 
MONIES.) 

CERET  (France).— The  plenipotentiaries  of 
France  and  Spain  assembled  at  this  town,  in 
the  Pyrenees,  to  settle  the  boundaries  of  their 
respective  kingdoms,  in  1660.  During  the 
revolutionary  war,  the  Spaniards  seized  the 
town,  and  resisted  several  attempts  of  the 
French  to  recover  it  (1793).  Having  been 
defeated  in  a  battle  fought  here  April  30,  1794, 
the  Spaniards  withdrew. 

CERIGNOLA  (Battle).— Gonsalvo  de  Cor- 
dova, at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  troops, 
defeated  the  French  under  the  Duke  of 
Nemours,  at  this  town,  in  Italy,  Friday,  April 
28,  1503.  Each  army  consisted  of  about  6,000 
men,  and  while  the  Spanish  loss  was  small, 
3,000  of  the  French  were  killed. 

CERINTHIANS.— This  sect  was  founded  by 
Cerinthus,  a  Jew,  who  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  apostolic  age.  He  studied  at  Alexandria, 
and  afterwards  taught  in  Palestine.  Ireiiaeus 
says  that  he  appeared  in  88,  and  that  St.  John 
wrote  his  gospel  to  refute  his  errors,  which 
were  a  strange  mixture  of  Judaism  and 
Gnosticism.  He  inculcated  the  greatest  laxity 
in  morals.  The  sect  was  not  of  long  duration, 
though  the  doctrines  were  reproduced  in  an 
altered  form. 

CERISOLES  (Battle).  — The  imperialists, 
commanded  by  the  Marquis  of  Guasto,  were 
defeated  by  the  French,  under  the  Count 
d'Enghien,  at  this  place,  in  Piedmont,  April 
14,  1544.  The  French  captured  tents,  bag- 
ga^e,  and  artillery,  and  10,000  of  the  imperial- 
ists were  killed.  It  is  also  called  the  battle  of 
Ceremola.  (See  CARIGNAN.) 

CERIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  by 
Hisinger  and  Berzelius,  in  a  Swedish  mineral 
called  carite,  in  1803.  It  is  named  after  the 
planet  Ceres. 


CERNE.— (See  ARGUIM.) 

CERRO  GORDA  (Battle).— The  Americans 
defeated  the  Mexicans  on  this  plateau,  in 
Mexico,  April  18,  1847. 

CEUTA  (Africa),  the  ancient  Septem  or 
Septa,  was  taken  during  the  campaign  of 
Belisarius  in  Africa,  in  534,  and  was  after- 
wards fortified  and  adorned  by  Justinian. 
The  Goths  captured  it  in  618,  and  the  Moors 
in  the  following  century.  John  I.  of  Portugal 
wrested  Ceuta  from  the  Moors  in  1415,  and  it 
passed  under  the  Spanish  rule  in  1580.  The 
Africans  have  frequently  attempted  to  regain 
possession  of  this  fortress. 

CEUTLA  (Battle).— During  his  expedition 
for  the  discovery  of  Mexico,  Cortes  defeated 
the  Indians  in  the  plain  of  Ceutla,  near 
Tabasco,  Lady-day,  March  25,  1519.  The  town 
of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Vitoria  was  founded  on 
the  spot  where  the  battle  took  place. 

CEVENNES  (France).— In  this  mountain- 
range,  the  ancient  Cebenna,  and  the  adjoining 
districts,  the  Reformed  doctrines  first  took 
root  in  France.  They  afterwards  became  the 
arena  of  religious  warfare.  The  Huguenots 
took  refuge  in  those  retreats  in  times  of  perse- 
cution, and  heroically  resisted  many  attempts 
at  their  extermination.  (See  CAMISARDS.) 

CEYLON  (Indian  Ocean).— This  island,  the 
ancient  Taprobane,  was  made  known  to  the 
Greeks  by  the  conquests  of  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great)  B.C.  325.  Pliny  relates  that  am- 
bassadors from  Ceylon  visited  Rome  and  did 
homage  to  the  emperor,  in  the  reign  of  Clau- 
dius (A.D.  41 — 54).  Christianity  was  preached 
in  India,  and  a  church  founded  at  Ceylon. 
Marco  Polo,  in  1298,  referring  to  it  under 
its  name  of  Zeilan,  says  it  produces  many 
precious  and  costly  stones,  and  speaks  of  a 
ruby  a  span  in  length,  and  the  thickness  of 
a  man's  arm,  brilliant  beyond  description, 
and  without  a  single  flaw.  It  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  king,  who  being  offered  the  value 
of  a  city  for  it  by  the  great  khan,  replied  that 
he  would  not  sell  it  for  all  the  treasure  in  the 
universe,  nor  allow  it  to  go  out  of  his  do- 
minions, because  it  was  a  jewel  that  had  been 
handed  down  to  him  by  his  predecessors. 
Ceylon  is  said  to  have  been  described  by 
the  Portuguese  Thome  Lopez  in  1502.  Its 
re-discovery  by  Europeans  is  usually  ascribed 
to  Lorenzo  de  Almeida,  who  was  driven  to 
the  port  of  Galle  by  stress  of  weather  in 
1506.  [The  student  is  referred  to  Sir  J.  E. 
Tennent's  "Ceylon  Past  and  Present"  (1859), 
and  "The  Natural  History  of  Ceylon"  (1862).] 


543.  Ceyl 


^,  having  been  thrice  visited  by  Godama,  the 
Hinder  of  Buddhism,  is  invaded  in  the  year  of  his 

death  by  Wijayo,  son  of  a  petty  sovereign  in  the 

valley  of  the  Ganges,  who  lands  upon  the  western 

coast  and  establishes  a  dynasty. 
307.  The  inhabitants  are  converted  to  Buddhism. 
389.  They  commence  the  erection  of  the  dagobas  or  brick 

monuments  enclosing  relica  of  Godama. 
337.  King  Suratissa  is  deposed  and  slain  by  Sena    and 

Guttika,    who,   after  reigning  for  more  than  20 

years,  are    put    to    death  and  succeeded  by  the 

lawful  heir. 
305.  Ceylon  is  invaded  by  Elala,    a   native  of  Malabar, 

who  slays  King  Asela  and  seizes  his  throne. 
l6l.  Elala  falls  in  battle  against  Dutugaimunu,  a  prince 

of  the  Wijayo  dynasty. 


CEYLON 


[    229    ] 


CHAIN 


104-  King  Walagam  Bahu  is  expelled  by  another  Malaba 
usurper,  but  regains  the  crown  after  living  soin 
years  of  exile. 
63.  Accession  of  his  grandson  Naga,  surnamed.  from  his 

opposition  to  Buddhism,  "the  Marauder. 
50.  Naga  is  poisoned  by  his  queen  Anula. 
47-  After  murdering  her  son  Kuda  Tissa,  she  succeeds  tc 

the  throne. 
A.D. 
no.  The  Malabars  invade   the  island  in    great  force, 

returning  to  Mysore  with  13,000  slaves. 
113.  The  territory  of  the  Malabars  is  ravaged  by  Gaj 
Bahu,  who  recovers  the  captives  and  takes  many 
prisoners. 

309.  A  violent  religious  controversy  commences. 
301.  Extinction  of  the  pure  lineage  of  Wijayo,  and  com- 
mencement of  the  "  lower  dynasty ;  "  composed 
according  to  native  chronicles,  of  the  children  oi 
parents  only  one  of  whom  "was  descended  from 
the  sun." 
400.  The  Singhalese  commence  political  relations   with 

China. 

433.  The   Malabars   seize  the  capital,  whence  they  are 
expelled  after  several  years  by  the  King  Dhatu 
Sena. 
459.  Dhatu  Sena  is  built  up  alive  in  a  wall  by  his  son 

Kasyapu  I. 
515.  The  Malabars  returning  in  great  force,  many  of  the 

people  migrate  to  Bahar  and  Orissa. 
633.  Sanghatissa  is  deposed  and  murdered  by  Seneriwat, 
who  soon  meets  with  a  similar  fate,  after  which 
civil  war  commences,  in  which  the  Malabar  mer- 
cenaries are  defeated  and  employed  as  slaves  in 
the  temples. 

840.  The  King  of  Pandya  devastates  the  northern  shores, 
and  compels  the  government  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  him. 

954.  The   Pandyan  sovereign,  deposed  by  the   King  of 
Chola,  and  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  Ceylon,  is 
expelled  for  conspiring  against  the  government. 
990.  A  Malabar  invasion  is  repulsed  by  the  mountaineers 

of  llohuna. 

1033.  The  Cholians  invade  Ceylon,  carry  the  king  prisoner 
to  India,  and  establish  a  Malabar  viceroy,  who 
governs  for  nearly  30  years. 
1071.  Accession  of  Wijayo  Bahu,  who  expels  the  Malabars, 

and  extends  his  empire  over  the  whole  island. 
1136.  The  death  of  Wijayo  Bahu  is  the  signal  for  a  long 

civil  war. 

1153.  Coronation  of  the  victor,  his  nephew  Pakrama 
Bahu,  a  prince  learned  in  every  science  and  ac- 
complishment of  his  age. 

1197.  Five  successors  having  been  forced  by  assassination 
or  disease  to  relinquish  the  sceptre,  he  is  suc- 
ceeded by  his  widow  Lili-Wati,  who  is  deposed 
after  a  reign  of  three  years. 

I2H.  The  Malabars  return  with  an  army  of  24,000  men. 
1214.  Having  reconquered  the  island,  the  Malabars  raise 

their  leader,  Magha,  to  the  throne. 

1335-  Many  of  the  Malabars  are  expelled  by  Wijayo 
Bahu  III.,  who  establishes  a  government  near 
Colombo. 

1266.  Pandita  Pakrama  Bahu  III.  expels  the  Malabars 

from  the  northern  shores. 

1267.  The  island,  seized  by  the  Malays,  is  never  af terwards 

free  from  foreign  domination. 
1506.  Lorenzo  de  Almeida,  a  Portuguese,  is  driven  into 

Galle. 
1517.  The  Portuguese  obtain  permission  to  erect  a  fort  or 

factory,  and  found  Colombo  (q.  v.). 
1527-  The  encroachments  of  the  Portuguese  are  resisted  bv 

the  mountaineers  of  Kandy,  who,  with  the  help 

of  the  native  princes,  subdue  them. 

1541.  Franciscan  missionaries  are  allowed  to    establish 

themselves  in  the  island. 

1542.  The  King  of  Cotta,  with  many  of  his  court,  embraces 

Christianity. 
1550.  The  King  of  Kandy  professes  a  desire  for  spiritual 

instruction,  but  treacherously  attacks  and  routs 

the  missionaries. 

1586,  Aug.  Kajah  Singha  besieges  Colombo  (q.  v.). 
1589,  March  5.  Kalph  Fitch,  the  first  Englishman  to  visit 

Ceylon,  lands  at  Colombo. 
J592.  The  entire  island  is  seized  by  Wimala  Dharma,  who 

wages  war  for  many  years  against  the  Portuguese. 
1597,  May.  Death  of  the  lawful  Emperor  of  Ceylon,  who 

bequeaths  his  territories  to  the  King  of  Portugal. 


1602,  May  30.  The  Dutch  land  iu  Ceylon. 

1609.  The  Dutch  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  native  rulers 

1612.  The  Dutch  erect  a  fort  at  Cotta.  thereby  provoking 
a  war  with  the  Portuguese,  in  which  the  former 
are  aided  by  the  native  rulers. 

1630,  Aug.  The  Portuguese  are  defeated  with  great 
slaughter. 

1638.  The  Portuguese  are  again  defeated  by  the  Kandyans 
who  erect  a  pyramid  of  the  skulls  of  the  van- 
quished. 

1656.  Hostilities  commence  between  the  natives  and  the 
Dutch,  who  contrive  to  maintain  their  footing. 

1664.  Trade  is  restored  and  carried  on  with  great  spirit. 

1763.  Friendly  relations  are  established  between  the 
British  and  the  Kandyans.  intercourse  is  broken 
off  on  account  of  the  indifference  of  the  English 
Government. 

1795,  Aug.  26.  The  British  take  Trincomalee  (q.  ».).— Oct  J. 

The  whole  island  is  reduced  to  subjection. 

1796,  Feb.  15.  The  Dutch,  by  the  treaty  of  Colombo,  cede 

all  their  fortified  stations  in  Ceylon  to  the  British. 
1803.  War    commences   between    the    British    and     the 

natives. 
1803,  June  24.   A  massacre  of  the  English  takes  place  at 

1815,  Jan.  jo.  The  British  proclaim  war  at  Colombo.— 
March  2.  The  king  is  deposed  and  his  territories 
are  ceded  to  the  English  crown  by  a  treaty  signed 

1817.  A  rebellion  breaks  out. 

1818.  Order  is  restored.   The  first  English  church  is  erected. 
1820.  Sir  Edward  Barnes  becomes  governor.     Under  his 

jurisdiction    a   military   road    is  made    into   the 
interior  of  the  island. 
1845.  The  bishopric  of  Colombo  is  founded. 

1850,  Aug.  I.  News  of  the  resignation  of  Lord  Torrington, 

the  governor,  is  received  in  England. 

1851,  May  39.  The  House  of  Commons  rejects  a  series  of 

resolutions  condemnatory  of    Lord   Torrington'a 
government. 

1865,  March  31.  Sir  Hercules  Robinson  is  sworn  in  as 
governor. 

CEZIMBRA  (Battle).— Alphonso  Henriques 
defeated  the  Moors  at  this  town  of  Portugal 
in  1165. 

CHJSRONEA  (Greece).— This  town  was  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Cephisus,  in  Boeotia.  There 
was  another  town  at  no  great  distance  from  it 
named  Coronea,  and  battles  fought  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  these  places  are  sometimes 
mentioned  under  one  and  sometimes  under  the 
other  name.  Philip  II.  defeated  the  united 
Athenian  and  Boeotian  forces  near  Chaeronea, 
Aug.  7,  B.C.  338  ;  and  here  Sylla  defeated  the 
generals  of  Mithridates  VI.  B.C.  86.  Plutarch 
was  born  at  this  place  A.D.  46. 

CHAIN  BRIDGE.— Suspension-bridges  of 
ive  parallel  chains,  on  which  a  light  bamboo 
looring  is  laid,  have  been  long  used  in  China, 
;hough  they  were  not  introduced  into  Europe 
ill  1741,  when  one  of  very  primitive  con- 
struction was  built  across  the  Tees,  in  England. 
?inlay  commenced  the  erection  of  a  bridge  of 
;his  kind  in  America  in  1796,  and  took  out  a 
latent  for  their  construction  in  1801.  Little 
jrogress  was  made,  however,  till  1814,  when 
Telford  commenced  his  experiments  on  the 
,enacity  of  iron.  Capt.  Brown  patented  his 
invention  of  bar-chain  bridges  in  1817,  and 
;ompleted  the  first  structure  of  the  kind, 
icross  the  Tweed,  in  July,  1820.  The  act  for 
recting  the  Menai  Bridge  was  passed  in  July, 
819;  and  the  bridge  was  opened  Jan.  30,  1826. 
See  SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.) 

CHAIN  CABLE.— Caesar  (Bell.  Gal.  iii.  13) 
•elates  that  when  he  was  in  Gaul,  B.C.  57,  the 
feneti,  who  inhabited  the  coast  of  Britanny, 
used  iron  chains  instead  of  ropes  for  their 


CHAIN 


[    230    ] 


CHALUS 


anchors.  In  1771,  M.  Bougainville  suggested  the    and 
idea  of  substituting  iron  for  hemp  ;  and  in  1808  ' 
Mr.  Slater,  a  surgeon  in  the  navy,  took  out  a 
patent  for  a  chain  cable.     The  chain  cable  was 
introduced  into  the  royal  navy  in  1812. 

CHAIN-SHOT.— This  invention,  of  two  iron 
balls  linked  together  by  a  chain  eight  or  ten 
inches  long,  was  made  by  John  de  Witt,  in 
1666. 

CHAINS.— (See  HANGING  IN  CHAINS.) 

CHALCEDON  (Bithynia)  was  founded  di- 
rectly opposite  Byzantium,  by  a  colony  from 
Mcgara,  B.C.  684.  Darius  captured  it  B.C.  505, 
and  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans 
B.C.  74.  It  was  plundered  by  the  Goths  A.D. 
259.  Chosroes  II.  captured  it  after  a  long 
siege  in  616.  Chalcedon  was  repeatedly  ravaged 
by  the  barbarians,  and  the  Turks  employed  the 
materials  of  the  ancient  city  for  their  mosques 
and  other  edifices  in  Constantinople.  It  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  the  4th  century.  The 
fourth  general  council  assembled  at  Chalcedon 
Oct.  8,  451,  and  above  600 bishops  were  present. 
It  held  its  last  session  Nov.  i. 

CHALC1B  <  Greece),  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Eubiea,  was,  according  to  tradition,  founded 
before  the  Trojan  war,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Homer.  It  became  the  seat  of  an  Ionic  colony, 
and  nourished  greatly.  The  Athenians  landed 
here  and  defeated  the  Chalcidiaus  B.C.  506  ; 
when  Chalcis  fell  under  their  yoke.  The  people 
rebelled  several  times  and  became  independent 
B.C.  411,  but  they  were  again  subdued  by 
the  Athenians.  After  various  vicissitudes,  it 
passed  under  the  rule  of  Macedon,  and  was 
unsuccessfully  assailed  by  the  Romans  B.C.  207. 
Maximus  destroyed  the  ancient  city  B.C.  146. 
(See  NEGROPONT.) 

CHALCOGRAPHY.  —  (See  ENGRAVING  ON 
COPPER.) 

< '  1 1  A  LDvEA  (Asia).— The  boundaries  of  this, 
in  point  of  time  the  first  monarchy  of  the 
ancient  eastern  world,  were,  according  to 
Rawlinson  (Ancient  Monarchies,  i.  4',  "the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  the  Tigris  on  the 
east,  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  west,  and 
the  limit  between  Upper  and  Lower  Mesopo- 
tamia on  the  north."  "  These,"  he  adds,  "  were 
never  greatly  exceeded,  and  never  much  in- 
fringed upon,  .  .  .  though  the  northern  only 
is  invariable."  The  same  author  (i.  31)  enu- 
merates the  following  as  the  chief  cities  during 
the  Chaldaean  period  : — "Babylon,  Ur  or  Hur, 
Larrak  or  Larsa,  Erech  or  Huruk,  Calneh  or 
Nopher,  Sippara,  Duraba,  Chilmad,  and  the 
places  now  called  Abu  Shahrein,  and  Tel 
Sifr."  "  The  capital  of  the  whole  region  was  at 
first  Ur  or  Hur,  but  afterwards  became  Nipur, 
and  finally  Babel  or  Babylon."  "  Ur,  the  first 
capital,"  he  believes  to  have  been  "  a  great 
maritime  emporium  ;  and  if  so  it  can  scarcely 
be  dovibted  that  to  commerce  and  trade,  at  the 
least  in  part,  the  early  development  of  Chal- 
dsean  greatness  was  owing."  The  original  in- 
habitants, who  were  subdued  at  an  early  period 
by  Median  and  Turanian  invaders,  subsequently 
gave  place  to  the  Cushite  or  Ethiopian  de- 
scendants of  "  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter 
before  the  Lord,"  the  beginning  of  whose  king- 
dom was  "Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and 
Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar"  (Gen.  x.  9,  10), 


who  is  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Chaldaea,  and  the  first  of  its  historic  characters. 
Smith  (Hist,  of  the  World,  vol.  i.  ch.  ix.)  terms 
it  the  Old  Babylonian  or  Chaldaean  monarchy. 
Chaldfea,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  was  a  pro- 
vince of  Babylon. 
B.C. 

2458.  Chaldaea  is  conquered  by  the  Burburs,  a  Turanian 
people  of  Armenia,  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
the  Xoroastrian  Mcdes  mentioned  by  Uerosus  as 
early  occupants  of  the  country. 

3234.  Commencement  of  the  series  of  Chaldaean  astro- 
nomical observations,  recorded  upon  tablets  of 
baked  clay,  and  supposed  by  Kawlinson  to  have 
originated  in  some  great  national  event  occurring 
this  vear.  probably  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom 
by  Nimrod. 

2093—20-0.  Reign  of  Urukh  or  Urkhnm,  the  great 
Chaldiean  architect,  many  of  whose  building* 
still  exist,  bearing  his  name.  He  is  regarded  as 
Identical  with  orchamus,  mentioned  in  Ovid's 
"•Metamorphoses"  as  the  seventh  king  in  suc- 

m  from  IJi-lus. 

1976.  Supposed  accession  of  Kudur-Lagamer,  a  Susi.-uiiaii 
conqueror  of  Chaldira,  regarded  by  Kawlinson 
(1.319)  as  the  Chedorlaomcr  of  Scriptures  ((Jen. 
xiv.  i— 7),  and  "the  forerunner  and  prototype  of 
all  those  great  Oriental  conquerors  who  from 
time  to  time  have  built  up  vast  empires  in  Asia, 
out  of  heterogeneous  materials,  which  have  in  a 
longer  or  shorter  space  successively  crumbled  to 
decay." 

1850.  Reign  of  Ismi-dagon,  who  extends  his  empire  into 
the;  upper  part  of  the  Mesopotamia!!  valley, 
especially  into  Assyria  (q.  f.),  which  he  governs 
by  viceroys. 

1500.  The  Chaldwans  are  subdued  by  the  Arabians,  who 
establish  a  dynasty,  change  the  languages,  and 
entirely  destroy  the  ancient  characteristics  of  the 
nation. 

CHALEB,  or  CHALYBON  (Syria).— Of  this 
ancient  town  little  is  known.  Aleppo  (q.  v.), 
which  occupies  the  site,  was  named  Beroea 
about  B.C.  299,  and  resumed  its  ancient  name 
of  Chaleb  or  Chalybon  when  captured  by  the 
Arabs  A.D.  638. 

CHALGBOVE  (Battle).— On  this  plain,  in 
Oxfordshire,  an  encounter  occurred  between 
the  Royalists,  commanded  by  Prince  Rupert, 
and  the  Parliamentary  forces,  June  18,  1643. 
The  latter  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  200 
prisoners.  In  this  action  John  Hampden 
received  a  wound  which  caused  his  death,  June 
24.  The  Hampden  Memorial,  erected  on  the 
field  of  battle,  was  inaugurated  J\me  19,  1843. 
CHALONS-SUR-MARNE  (France),  the  an- 
cient Catelauni,  where  Aurelian  defeated 
Tetricus,  A.D.  272  or  273  ;  Jovimis  overcame 
the  Alemanni  in  368  ;  and  Aetius  and  his  allies 
defeated  Attila  and  the  Huns  in  451.  Chalons 
was  made  a  bishopric  at  an  early  period,  arid  a 
council  was  held  here  in  813.  Its  cathedral 
was  founded  in  450,  and  having  suffered  greatly 
from  fire,  was  rebuilt  in  1672.  This  place  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Chalons-sur-Saone. 

CHALONS-SUR-SAONE  (France)  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Cabillonum,  or  Cabal- 
linum.  A  council  was  held  here  in  649.  In 
968  it  was  the  capital  of  a  county,  united  to 
Burgundy  in  1267. 

CHALUS  (France).  —  Richard  I.  (Coeur  de 
Lion)  was  wounded  by  an  arrow,  March  26, 
1199,  whilst  reconnoitring  this  castle,  which 
belonged  to  the  Viscount  of  Limoges,  who 
had  refused  to  surrender  some  treasure 
which  he  had  found.  Richard  I.  lingered  12 
days,  expiring  April  6. 


CHAMBERLAIN 


[    231     1 


CHAMPION 


CHAMBERLAIN.  —  (See  LORD  CHAMBER- 
LAIN OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD,  and  LORD  GREAT 
CHAMBERLAIN.) 

CHAMBERS  OF  AGRICULTURE,  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture,  formed  in  many  parts 
of  France,  were  placed  on  nearly  the  same  foot- 
ing as  Chambers  of  Commerce  by  a  law  passed 
March  20, 1 85 1 .  Their  privileges  were  abridged 
by  another  law  passed  March  25,  1852. 

CHAMBERSBURG  (Pennsylvania)  was 
occupied  by  Gen.  Stuart,  with  2,500  Con- 
federate cavalry,  who  burned  the  government 
storehouses,  &c.,  Friday,  Oct.  10,  1862.  It  was 
occupied  by  Gen.  Ewell  Jan.  23,  1863,  and  was 
burned  by  southern  soldiers  July  30,  1864. 

CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE. —The  first 
institution  of  this  kind  was  formed  at  Mar- 
seilles early  in  the  isth  century,  and  after 
various  changes  it  was  established  on  a  per- 
manent footing  in  1650.  A  chamber  of 
commerce  was  opened  at  Dunkirk  in  1700,  and 
during  the  iSth  century  similar  institutions 
were  established  in  the  principal  commercial 
towns  of  France.  They  were  suppressed  in 
1791,  restored  in  1802,  and  have  since  been 
extended  and  organized.  A  chamber  of  com- 
merce was  established  at  Glasgow  in  1783,  at 
Edinburgh  in  1785,  at  Manchester  in  1820,  and 
at  Hull  in  1837.  They  have  been  introduced 
into  several  of  our  important  commercial 
centres. 

CHAMBERY  (Savoy),  the  chief  town  of  the 
ancient  duchy,  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  French  in  1690,  but  was  restored  to  the 
Duke  of  Savoy  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
1713.  The  French  republicans  took  the  town 
in  Sep.,  1792,  and  a  Jacobin  club,  consisting 
of  1,200  members,  was  immediately  formed. 
Chambery,  with  the  whole  of  Savoy,  was 
annexed  to  France  Nov.  27, 1792.  The  Austrians 
took  possession  of  Chambery  in  1814,  but  were 
soon  after  expelled  by  the  French.  Chambery 
was  restored  to  the  house  of  Savoy  in  1815. 
Sardinia  ceded  it  to  France  by  a  treaty  signed 
March  24,  1860,  and  a  detachment  of  French 
troops  entered  the  town  March  28.  The 
theatre  and  town-hall  were  destroyed  by  fire 
Feb.  13,  1864. 

CHAMBORD  (France).— This  Gothic  castle, 
which  gives  the  title  of  count  to  the  last  de- 
scendant of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons, 
was  founded  by  Francis  I.  in  1526,  and  com- 
pleted by  Louis  XIV.  It  is  in  the  department 
of  Loire-and-Cher,  and  about  12  miles  from 
Blois.  The  treaty  between  Henry  II.  of  France, 
and  Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was  ratified  at 
Chambord  Jan.  15,  1552. 

CHAMBRE  ARDENTE.  —  (See  FIERY 
CHAMBER.) 

CHAMPAGNE  (France).— This  old  province, 
wrested  from  the  Romans  about  A.D.  486,  was 
long  ruled  by  its  own  counts,  and  was  annexed 
to  Navarre  in  1234.  Philip  IV.,  by  his 
marriage,  Aug.  16,  1284,  with  Jeanne,  heiress 
of  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie,  united  it  to 
France,  with  which  kingdom  it  was  formally 
incorporated  in  1316. 

CHAMPAGNE  WINE.  —  Until  the  com- 
mencement of  the  1 8th  century,  the  effer- 
vescent tendency  of  this  wine  was  regarded  as 
a  defect,  and  as  late  as  1780  an  Epeniay  wine- 


merchant  excited  astonishment  by  his  enter- 
prise in  producing  from  5,000  to  6,000  bottles 
of  sparkling  champagne.  In  1787  the  firm  of 
Moet  prepared  50,000  bottles.  As  a  proof  of 
the  immense  development  that  has  ensued  in 
the  production  of  this  class  of  wine,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  cellars  of  the  celebrated 
champagne  house,  Piper  and  Co.  of  Rheims, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  ^60,000,  contained,  as  the 
produce  of  the  single  year  1865,  7,300  casks, 
or  1,752,000  bottles.  For  the  preparation  of 
these  wines,  when  ready  for  bottling,  were  75 
casks,  each  holding  4,000  bottles,  12  large  vats, 
called  Apostles,  each  holding  9,000  bottles,  and 
two  enormous  casks,  each  holding  25,000  bot- 
tles ;  so  that  this  firm  can  prepare  and  bottle 
a  cuve"e  of  1,000,000  bottles  at  one  time.  The 
annual  returns  of  the  champagne  trade,  which 
exhibited  a  total  of  9,213,390  bottles  as  the 
produce  of  the  year  ending  April,  1845,  had 
increased  to  a  total  of  18,471,618  bottles  for 
the  year  ending  April,  1864. 

CHAMPARTY,  or  CHAMPERTY.  —  This 
was  a  bargain  between  the  plaintiff  or  defen- 
dant in  a  suit  with  a  third  party,  generally  a 
lawyer,  whereby  the  latter  was  to  divide  the 
land  or  matter  sued  for  in  case  of  success,  and 
was  to  carry  on  the  action  at  his  own  expense. 
Though  prohibited  in  1275,  by  3  Edw.  I.  c.  25, 
it  was  still  practised,  as  the  acts  13  Edw.  I. 
c.  49  (1285),  28  Edw.  I.  c.  ii  (1300),  7  Rich.  II. 
c.  15  (1383),  and  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9  (1540),  are  all 
directed  towards  its  suppression. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS  (Paris).— In  this  cele- 
brated area,  used  by  the  garrison  of  Paris  for 
military  exercises,  the  Fete  de  la  Federation 
was  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  of 
the  Bastille,  July  14,  1790.  Deputies  from  the 
provinces  and  the  Parisians  assembled  in  great 
numbers.  Talleyrand,  Bishop  of  Autun,  per- 
formed a  solemn  mass.  Louis  XVI.  and  all 
the  principal  authorities  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  new  constitution  framed  by 
the  republicans.  The  leaders  of  the  Jacobin, 
Cordelier,  and  other  clubs,  brought  a  petition 
to  the  Champ  de  Mars,  calling  upon  the  king 
to  abdicate,  July  14,  1791;  and  an  effort  on 
their  part  to  create  an  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed July  17.  Louis  XVI.  again  went  in 
procession  to  the  Champ  de  Mars  to  celebrate 
the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  July  14,  1792.  At 
a  fete  held  in  honour  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
June  7,  1794,  the  people  marched  in  procession 
to  this  spot.  Napoleon  I.  distributed  eagles  to 
his  army  on  the  Champ  de  Mars  the  day  after 
his  coronation,  Dec.  3,  1804.  It  has  since  been 
the  scene  of  many  grand  commemorations  and 
festivals,  and  here  Napoleon  III.  distributed 
eagles  to  the  army,  May  10,  1852. 

CHAMPION  OF  THE  KING.  —  Taylor,  in 
"The  Glory  of  Regality,"  terms  this  "the 
most  perfect,  perhaps,  and  most  striking  relic 
of  feudalism  that  has  come  down  to  us  from 
the  ages  of  chivalry."  The  office  of  champion 
existed  under  the  Norman  kings,  and  was 
originally  held  by  the  family  of  Marmioii.  It 
is  supposed  that  they  held  the  barony  of  Font- 
ney,  in  Normandy,  by  the  service  of  being 
hereditary  champions  to  the  dukes  of  that 
province,  and  that  William  I.  granted  the 
castle  of  Tamworth  and  the  manor  of  Scri- 


CHAMPION'S 


[    =32    1 


CIIANDERNAGORE 


velsby,  in  Lincolnshire,  to  William  of  Mar- 
mion,  one  of  his  followers,  on  the  same 
tenure.  Philip,  the  last  lord  of  Marmion, 
died  without  male  issue  in  1292,  when  the 
castle  of  Tamworth  passed  by  his  elder 
daughter  and  co-heir  to  the  family  of  Frevile, 
and  the  manor  of  Scrivelsby,  with  a  younger 
daughter,  to  Sir  Thomas  Ludlow,  from  whom 
they  descended  to  the  family  of  Dymoke. 
This  led  to  a  contest;  the  championship,  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  II.,  July  16,  1377, 
having  been  claimed  by  Sir  John  Dymoke,  as 
possessor  of  Scrivelsby,  and  by  Sir  Baldwin  de 
Frevile,  as  lord  of  Tamworth.  It  was  then 
decided  that  the  office  was  attached  to  the 
manor  of  Scrivelsby,  and  it  continued  in  the 
family  of  Dymoke.  The  last  appearance  of 
the  champion  was  at  the  coronation  banquet  of 
George  IV.,  July  19,  1821.  Taylor  says  :  "  The 
duty  of  the  champion  is  to  ride  into  the 
hall  where  the  feast  of  coronation  is  held, 
during  dinner,  (before  the  second  course  is 
brought  in,)  mounted  on  one  of  the  king's 
coursers,  and  clad  in  one  of  the  king's  best 
suits  of  armour ;  he  is  attended  by  the  lord 
high  constable  and  the  earl  marshal,  and  by 
the  mouth  of  a  herald  is  to  proclaim  a  chal- 
lenge to  any  who  shall  deny  that  the  king  is 
lawful  sovereign ;  which  being  done,  the  king 
drinks  to  him  from  a  gold  cup,  which,  with  its 
cover,  he  receives  as  his  fee,  and  also  the  horse, 
saddle,  suit  of  armour,  and  furniture  thereto 
belonging."  This  officer  has  been  sometimes 
erroneously  styled  Champion  of  England. 

CHAMPION'S  HILL,  or  BAKER'S  CREEK 
(Battle). — After  a  contest  of  several  hours,  the 
Confederates  were  driven  from  their  position 
at  this  place  in  Mississippi  by  Gen.  Hovey's 
division  of  Grant's  army,  May  16,  1863. 

CIIAMPLAIN  LAKE  (United  States).— The 
English  defeated  an  American  squadron  on 
this  lake  Oct.  11-13,  X776-  The  Americans 
escaped  during  the  night  Oct.  n.  The  English 
went  in  pursuit,  and  captured  and  destroyed 
most  of  the  flotilla.  The  Americans,  in  much 
superior  force,  overpowered  an  English 
squadron  in  these  waters,  Sep.  n,  1814.  The 
want  of  support  from  the  land  forces  con- 
tributed to  this  result. 

CHANCEL.— -This  part  of  the  church  was 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  rails 
of  wood,  curiously  and  artificially  wrought  in 
the  form  of  net-work,  called  cancelli.  Hence 
the  origin  of  the  term  chancel.  The  thrones 
of  the  bishop  and  of  his  presbyters  were  in 
early  times  fixed  in  the  apse  in  the  upper 
chancel.  In  1641  the  Long  Parliament  re- 
solved that  the  chancels  should  be  levelled. 

CHANCELLOR.— (-See  LORD  HIGH  CHAN- 
CELLOR.) 

CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER. 
—(See  EXCHEQUER.) 

CHANCELLORSVILLE  (Battle).— Gen. 
Hooker  having  crossed  with  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  from  the  north  to  the  south  bank  of 
the  Rappahaiinock,  April  29,  1863,  took  up  his 
position  at  Chancellorsville,  a  large  house  near 
Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  Thursday,  April  30. 
Here  he  received  a  furious  flank  attack  from 
Gen.  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  May  2,  which  put 
Gen.  Schurz's  division  to  flight,  and  spread 


consternation  through  the  Federal  ranks.  Gen. 
Lee  renewed  the  battle  Sunday,  May  3,  and 
compelled  Gen.  Hooker  to  retreat.  Gen.  Sedg- 
wick,  having  meanwhile  occupied  the  heights 
above  Fredericksburg  with  30,000  men,  was 
dislodged  by  Lee,  May  4,  and,  with  Hooker, 
compelled  to  recross  the  river,  the  passage  of 
which  was  completed  Wednesday,  May  6.  Gen. 
Hooker's  official  statement  admitted  a  loss 
of  11,030  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  pri- 
soners were  estimated  by  the  victors  at  8,000. 
The  Confederate  casualties  were  much  less 
severe,  but  the  victory  was  dearly  purchased, 
with  the  loss  of  Gen.  Jackson,  who  was  mis- 
taken for  a  Federal,  and  wounded  by  his  own 
men,  while  returning  from  the  battle  of  May  2. 
After  undergoing  amputation  of  the  left  arm 
he  died  May  10.  (See  STONEWALL  BRIGADE.) 
This  battle  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the 
second  battle  of  Fredericksburg  (q.  v  ) 

CHANCERY  (Court  of).— The  rise  of  the 
power  of  this,  the  highest  court  of  judicature 
in  the  kingdom,  is  thus  described  by  Hallam 
(Kng.  i.  ch.  vi.  p.  344):  "The  equitable  juris- 
diction, as  it  is  called,  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
appears  to  have  been  derived  from  that  exten- 
sive judicial  power  which,  in  early  times,  the 
king's  ordinary  council  had  exercised.  The 
chancellor,  as  one  of  the  highest  officers  of 
state,  took  a  great  share  in  the  council's  busi- 
ness ;  and,  when  it  was  not  sitting,  he  had  a 
court  of  his  own,  with  jurisdiction  in  many 
important  matters,  out  of  which  process  to 
compel  appearance  of  parties  might  at  any  time 
emanate.  It  is  not  unlikely,  therefore,  that 
redress,  in  matters  beyond  the  legal  province 
of  the  chancellor,  was  occasionally  given 
through  the  paramount  authority  of  this  court. 
We  find  the  council  and  the  chancery  named 
together  in  many  remonstrances  of  the  Com- 
mons against  this  interference  with  private 
rights,  from  the  time  of  Richard  II.  to  that  of 
Henry  VI.  It  was  probably  in  the  former  reign 
that  the  chancellor  began  to  establish  syste- 
matically his  peculiar  restraining  jurisdiction." 
The  famous  Berkeley  suit,  which  lasted  190 
years,  commenced  soon  after  the  death  of  the 
fourth  Baron  Berkeley,  in  1416,  and  terminated 
in  1609.  It  arose  out  of  the  marriage  of  the 
fourth  Baron  Berkeley's  only  daughter  and 
heiress,  Elizabeth,  with  Richard  Beauchamp, 
Earl  of  Warwick.  The  castle  and  heirship  of 
Berkeley  was  the  object  of  the  suit.  The  abo- 
lition of  the  Court  of  Chancery  was  voted  by 
Barebone's  Parliament,  in  1653.  The  Court  of 
Chancery  was  entirely  remodelled  and  its  prac- 
tice amended  by  15  &  16  Viet.  cc.  86  &  87  (July 
i,  1852) ;  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  98  (Aug.  20,  1853) ; 
and  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  27  (July  23,  1858). 

CIIANDERNAGORE  (Hindostan).— The 
French  established  a  factory  at  this  place  on 
the  Hooghley,  above  Calcutta,  in  1676.  They 
fortified  it  soon  after,  and  it  was  for  some  years 
a  formidable  rival  to  Calcutta.  Clive  took  it 
March  23,  1757,  and  it  was  restored  to  France, 
by  the  nth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb. 
10,  1763.  The  English  captured  it  again  in 
July,  1778,  and  restored  it  to  France  at  the  end 
of  the  war,  by  the  i3th  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783.  It  was  taken  again  at 
the  outbreak  of  war  between  France  and  Eng- 


CHANDORE 


[    233 


CHARING 


land  in  1793  ;  relinqxiished  by  the  third  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  March  25,  1802  ;  re- 
captured in  1803,  and  restored  by  the  eighth 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 

CHANDORE  (Hindostan).  —  This  fortified 
town  surrendered  to  the  English  in  1804,  was 
restored  to  Holkar,  and  finally  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  by  the  treaty  of  Mundi- 
sore,  in  1818. 

CUAXDOS  CLAUSE.  — This  name  was 
given  to  the  2oth  clause  of  the  Reform  Bill 
(2  Will.  IV.  c.  45,  June  7,  1832),  which  gave  the 
right  of  voting  to  the  occupiers  of  lands  or 
tenements  of  a  rent  of  not  less  than  .£50  per 
annum.  It  had  been  moved  as  an  amendment 
in  committee  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1831,  by  the 
Marquis  of  Chandos,  afterwards  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, and  was  carried  against  the  govern- 
ment by  a  majority  of  84,  Aug.  18,  1831. 
Ministers  incorporated  it  in  their  measure, 
and  although  that  Reform  Bill  was  rejected  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  the  clause  was  introduced 
in  the  bill  of  1832,  and  was  carried,  on  a 
division,  by  a  majority  of  240. 

CHANNEL  ISLANDS  (English  Channel).— 
These  islands,  situated  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  coast  of  France,  came  into  the  possession  of 
England  as  a  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Nor- 
mandy, during  the  reign  of  Heniy  I.  Queen 
Victoria  and  Prince  Albert  visited  these  islands 
in  Aug.,  1859.  (See  ALDERNEY,  GUERNSEY,  JER- 
SEY, and  SARK.) 

CHANTING  is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to 
the  want  of  power  in  the  voice  for  making 
itself  heard  in  the  large  open  buildings  and 
amphitheatres  of  the  ancients.  It  was  first 
introduced  into  Christian  worship  between  347 
and  356.  St.  Ambrose  brought  it  from  the 
Greeks  to  Milan,  whence  it  passed  to  Rome, 
France,  <fec.  (See  AMBROSIAN  CHANT.) 

CHANTRY.— HaUam  (Eng.  i.  ch.  ii.  p.  94) 
remarks  : — "  There  was  a  sort  of  endowed 
colleges  or  fratemities,  called  chantries,  con- 
sisting of  secular  priests,  whose  duty  was  to 
say  daily  masses  for  the  founders."  The  Eng- 
lish chantries,  amounting  to  2,374  in  number, 
were  suppressed  at  the  Reformation  by  37 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (Dec.  15, 1545),  and  by  i  Edw.  VI. 
c.  14  (1547).  They  generally  consisted  only  of 
a  little  chapel  or  altar  placed  in  a  church. 
Here  the  priests  offered  daily  prayers  for  the 
soul  of  the  founder,  and  for  the  souls  of  the 
deceased  members  of  the  family. 

CHAOS,  or  BIRD  ISLANDS  (Algoa  Bay), 
were  discovered  in  the  isth  century.  Bartho- 
lomew Diaz  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  group 
May  29,  1500. 

CHAP  BOOKS.— Tracts,  or  little  books 
printed  for  chapmen,  or  pedlars,  and  sold  by 
them  about  the  country  in  the  i6th  and  i7th 
centuries,  formed  the  popular  literature  of 
those  times.  The  typography  and  paper  were 
of  an  inferior  kind.  Ballads,  songs,  legends, 
biographies,  tales  of  wonder,  and  theological 
tracts,  were  circulated  in  this  manner.  Penny 
chap  books  appeared  at  a  later  period. 

CHAPEL.— In  olden  times  the  French  kings 
always  took  with  them  St.  Martin's  hood  when 
they  went  forth  to  war,  and  the  place  where  it 
was  watched  over  by  an  attendant  priest  was 
called  capella.  The  word  is  a  diminutive  from 


capsa,  which  signifies  a  chest  or  coffer,  where 
the  relics  of  saints  were  kept.  Hence  the 
origin  of  the  application  of  the  word  chapel  to 
private  oratories.  Several  kinds  of  chapels 
exist  now  ;  such  as  parochial  chapels,  chapels 
of  ease,  chapels  of  colleges,  and  private  chapels. 
The  places  of  worship  used  by  dissenters  gener- 
ally bear  this  designation.  Chapels  were  for- 
merly built  upon  bridges,  which  the  priests 
were  bound  to  keep  in  repair  from  the  benefac- 
tions received.  Such  a  chapel  existed  on  old 
London  Bridge. 

CHAPEL  (Knights  of].— {See  POOR  KNIGHTS 
OF  WINDSOR.) 

CHAPLAIN.— By  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  §§  14, 
15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  and  24  (1529),  the  number  of 
chaplains  allotted  to  various  dignitaries  was  as 
follows  : — Archbishop,  8  ;  baron,  3  ;  baroness, 
2  ;  bishop,  6  ;  chancellor,  3  ;  chief  justice,  i  ; 
comptroller  of  the  household,  2  ;  countess,  2  ; 
dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  2 ;  duchess,  2  ;  duke, 
6  ;  earl,  5  ;  king's  almoner,  2  ;  king's  secretary, 
2  ;  knight  of  the  garter,  3 ;  marchioness,  2 ; 
marquis,  5  ;  master  of  the  rolls,  2  ;  treasurer,  2  ; 
viscount,  4  ;  warden  of  the  cinque  ports,  i. 
Army  chaplains  were  appointed  in  early  times, 
and  the  system  was  remodelled  in  1796.  Naval 
chaplains  were  first  appointed  in  1626. 

CHAPTER.— The  canons  in  the  cathedral  or 
conventual  churches  began  to  form  what  was 
called  a  chapter  in  the  8th  century.  This  was 
a  kind  of  council  for  the  bishop.  Chapter-houses 
built  for  these  meetings  were  generally  con- 
tiguous to  the  cathedral. 

CHAPTER    COFFEE-HOUSE   CLUB.—  (See 

WlTENAGEMOT.) 

CHARADE.— Disraeli  (Curiosities  of  Lite- 
rature) says  :— "  The  charade  is  of  recent  birth, 
and  I  cannot  discover  the  origin  of  this  species 
of  logogriphes.  It  was  not  known  in  France  so 
late  as  1771 ;  in  the  great  Dictionnaire  de  Tr£- 
voux,  the  term  appears  only  as  the  name  of  an 
Indian  sect  of  a  military  character."  A  new 
species  of  charade,  of  a  dramatic  character, 
called  the  Acting  Charade,  has  of  late  years 
become  popular.  The  word  charade  is  said  to 
be  taken  from  the  name  of  the  inventor. 

CHARING  CROSS  (London).— Edward  I. 
erected  a  marble  cross,  adorned  with  divers 
figures,  in  memory  of  Queen  Eleanor,  at  every 
station  where  her  body  rested  on  its  way  from 
Herdeley,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  she  died, 
Nov.  28,  1290,  to  Westminster.  According  to 
some  authorities  the  crosses  were  erected  by 
her  executors.  The  last  resting-place  was  the 
village  of  Charing,  where  a  cross  was  erected 
in  1291,  and  from  this  the  name  is  derived. 
This  cross  was  destroyed  by  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment in  1641.  The  equestrian  statue  of 
Charles  I.  was  cast  in  bronze  by  Le  Seur,  in 
X633,  by  order  of  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of 
Arundel.  The  Long  Parliament  ordered  it  to 
be  broken  up  after  the  execution  of  the  king. 
John  River,  a  brazier,  purchased  it,  concealed 
it  in  his  garden,  in  Holborn,  and,  at  the  Resto- 
ration, presented  it  to  Charles  II.,  who  ordered 
it  to  be  erected  upon  a  pedestal  at  Charing 
Cross.  The  hospital  was  instituted  in  1 8 1 8 .  Th  e 
Charing  Cross  station  of  the  South  Eastern  Rail- 
way was  opened  for  traffic  Jan.  n,  1864.  The 
old  cross  was  restored  by  the  Company  in  1865. 


CHARIOT 


234     ] 


CHARLES 


C  i  1  AillOT.— This  kind  of  vehicleis  frequently 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  as  well  as  in  the  works 
of  the  ancient  poets  and  historians.  The  Greeks 
attributed  the  invention  to  Minerva  ;  Virgil  to 
Erichthonius,  a  mythical  king  of  Athens  ;  and 
Pliny  states  that  four-wheeled  carriages  were 
invented  by  the  Phrygians.  (See  WAR  CHARIOT.  ) 

CHARIOT  RACES.— Said  to  have  originated 
in  Persia,  where  they  formed  part  of  the 
Mithraic  festivals  held  in  honour  of  the  sun, 
appear  to  have  been  afterwards  introduced 
among  the  Jews,  as  it  is  written  (2  Kings,  xxiii. 
n)  that  Josiah  "took  away  the  horses  that 
the  Kings  of  Judah  had  given  to  the  sun,"  and 
that  he  "  burned  the  chariots  of  the  sun  with 
fire,"  B.C.  624.  They  were  also  common  among 
the  Greeks,  who  practised  them  at  the  Olympic 
games  (q.  v.)  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Pompey,  who 
died  Sep.  29,  B.C.  48,  they  were  introduced  at 
Rome,  where  they  speedily  became  a  favourite 
amusement.  Nero  (A.D.  54 — 68)  is  stated  to 
have  driven  as  many  as  10  horses  abreast  at 
the  Olympic  games. 

CHARITABLE  BEQUESTS  were  placed 
under  the  care  of  commissioners  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  miseniployment  of  property 
bequeathed  or  otherwise  devoted  to  charitable 
purposes  by  the  Statute  of  Charitable  Uses,  43 
Eliz.  c.  4,  s.  i  (1601).  The  Irish  act,  4  Gc-<>.  III. 
c.  18  (1764),  orders  that  a  return  of  all  such 
rty  bequeathed  in  Ireland  be  handed  in 
e  bishop  of  the  diocese  or  the  Archbishop 
of  Armagh.  This  having  been  found  ineffectual 
to  secure  the  proper  application  of  such  be- 
quests, the  Roman  Catholic  Bequests  Act,  7  & 
8  Viet.  c.  97  (Aug.  9,  1844),  laid  down  more 
stringent  regulations.  The  Charitable  Trusts 
Act,  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  137  (Aug.  20,  1853),  m- 
stituted  a  board  empowered  to  inquire  into  the 
condition  and  management  of  charities,  to 
examine  accounts,  to  hear  witnesses,  and  to 
report  their  proceedings  annually  to  Parlia- 
ment. This  act  was  amended  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  124  (Aug.  14,  1855),  and  certain 
charities  were  temporarily  exempted  from 
its  operations  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  76  (Aug.  25, 
1857).  Further  regulations  for  the  conveyance 
of  land  for  charitable  uses  were  made  by  24 
Viet.  c.  9  (May  17,  1861). 

CHARITABLE  INSTITUTIONS.— According 
to  the  report  of  the  commissioners  appointed 
to  investigate  this  subject,  the  following  are 
the  oldest  charitable  institutions  in  England  : 
St.  Bartholomew,  Guildford,  founded  in  1078  ; 
Cirencester,  in  noo  ;  Ripon,  in  1109;  St.  Bartho- 
lomew, London,  in  1122  ;  in  Northampton,  in 
1138;  and  St.  Katherine,  London,  in  1148. 
(See  ALMS-HOUSES.) 

CHARITY  (Brothers  of).— This  religious 
order,  established  at  Seville  by  John  di  Dio 
in  1540,  received  the  papal  sanction  in  1572, 
and  was  invested  with  all  the  privileges  of  the 
mendicant  orders  in  1624.  They  attend  the 
sick,  and  were  introduced  into  France  in  1601. 
(See  SISTERS  OF  CHARITY.) 

CHARITY  SCHOOLS.— The  sixth  general 
council,  held  at  Constantinople  680-81,  by 
one  of  its  canons  ordered  charity  schools 
to  be  established  in  connection  with  country 
churches  ;  and  further  regulations  were,  from 
time  to  time,  issued  on  the  same  subject. 


William  Blake,  a  woollen  draper  of  Covent 
Garden,  about  the  year  1685  is  said  to  have 
projected  the  first  charity  school  in  England, 
and  to  have  purchased  Dorchester  House, 
Highgate,  for  that  purpose.  Franck,  a  Ger- 
man divine,  laboured  for  the  same  object  at 
Glaucha,  in  1698.  Another,  which  claims  to 
be  the  first,  was  established  in  London  in 
1693,  and  the  movement  was  prosecuted  with 
zeal  in  1698.  The  trustees  of  the  then  existing 
schools  formed  themselves  into  a  voluntary 
association  in  1 700. 

CHARLEROI  (Belgium).— A  fortress  was 
erected  in  1666,  by  Rodrigo,  Spanish  governor 
of  the  Low  Countries,  who  named  it  in  honour 
of  Charles  II.  of  Spain.  By  the  peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapclle  (May  12,  1668),  it  was  ceded  to  the 
French.  The  Prince  of  Orange  besieged  it  in 
1672,  but  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege. 
Louis  XIV.  of  France  added  the  lower  and 
middle  town  in  1676.  In  1677  the  Prince  of 
Orange  again  made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to 
take  the  town,  which  was  restored  to  Spain  by 
the  treaty  of  Nimegucn,  Sep.  17,  1678.  In  1690 
it  was  again  taken  by  the  French,  and  again 
restored  to  Spain  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick, 
Sep.  20,  1697.  The  French  captured  it  Aug.  2, 
1746,  Nov.  12,  1792,  and  June  26,  1794.  In 
1795  the  walls  were  destroyed,  but  they  were 
rebuilt  in  1816,  by  order  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  The  railroad  from  Charleroi  to 
Paris  was  completed  in  1856. 

CHARLES  CITY  (Battle).— The  Confederates, 
under  Gens.  Longstreet,  Hill,  and  Huger, 
foiled  in  an  attack  upon  the  Federal  batteries 
at  this  place  in  Virginia,  were  afterwards  rallied 
by  Gen.  Hill,  and  gained  a  complete  victory, 
June  30,  1862. 

(  IIAIJLES  THE  FIRST,  the  second  son  of 
James  I.  of  England  and  Anne  of  Denmark, 
was  born  at  Dunfermline,  Nov.  19,  1600.  He 
ascended  the  English  throne  March  27,  1625, 
and  married  Henrietta  Maria  of  France,  June 
13  in  the  same  year.  They  had  three  sons 
and  four  daughters ;  the  eldest  ascended  the 
throne  as  Charles  II.  (q.  v),  and  the  third  child 
and  second  son  succeeded  his  brother  as  James 
II.  (7.  r.).  Their  eldest  daughter,  Mary,  was 
born  Nov.  4,  1631.  She  married  Prince  William 
of  Nassau,  and  died  Dec.  24,  1660.  Their  fourth 
child,  Elizabeth,  was  born  Dec.  28,  1635,  .and 
died  Sep.  8,  1650.  Their  fifth  child,  Anne,  born 
in  1637,  died  young.  Their  sixth  child,  Henry, 
born  July  8,  1640,  died  Sep.  13,  1660 ;  and  their 
seventh  child,  Henrietta  Maria,  bom  June  16, 
1644,  married  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  died 
June  30,  1670.  Charles  the  First  was  seized  at 
Holmby  House  June  4,  1647,  and  taken  to 
Childersley,  near  Cambridge,  whence  he  was 
removed  to  Hampton  Court.  He  made  his 
escape  Nov.  12,  and  was  confined  in  Carisbrook 
Castle,  Isle  of  Wight,  Nov.  14.  After  the  New- 

Srt  conferences  Charles  I.  was  imprisoned  in 
arst  Castle  Nov.   30,    1648,   removed  to  St. 
James's  Dec.    18,   to  Windsor    Dec.   22,    and 
brought  back  to  Whitehall  Jan.  19,  1649.     His 
trial  lasted  three  days,  Jan.  20,  22,  and  23 ;  he 
was  sentenced  to  death  Jan.  27,  and  beheaded 
at  Whitehall  Jan.    30,    1649,     and   buried   at 
Windsor  Feb.  8. 
CHARLES  THE  SECOND,  the  eldest  son  of 


CHARLESTON 


[    235    ] 


CHARTER 


Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria,  was  bom  at 
St.  James's,  May  29,  1630.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  de  jure,  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Jan.  30,  1649,  but  did  not  become  king  de  facto 
until  May  29,  1660.  He  married  Catherine  of 
Portugal,  May  20,  1662.  Charles  II.,  who  left 
no  legitimate  issue,  died  Feb.  6,  1685,  and  was 
buried  at  Westminster  Feb.  14. 

CHARLESTON  (United  States).— The  in- 
habitants of  old  Charlestown  (q.  v.),  preferring 
the  situation  of  Oyster  Point,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper,  removed  thither  in 

1680,  and  founded  a  town  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  their  former  settlement.     It  was 
immediately  attacked  by  the  Westoe  Indians, 
with  whom  peace  was  concluded  the  following 
year.     The  first  English  church  was  erected  in 

1681.  In  1690  it  received  a  colony  of  French 
Protestant  refugees,  and  in  1700  it  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  a  hurricane  and  fire,  which  were 
succeeded  by  a  frightful  pestilence.     In  1706  it 
was  attacked  by  the  Spanish  and  French,  who 
were  repulsed  and  defeated.     A  furious  hurri- 
cane, in  Aug.,  1728,  occasioned  an  inundation, 
which  did  considerable  injury  to  the  town,  and 
a  visitation  of  the  yellow  fever  in  the  same 
year  carried  off  multitudes  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  1740  and  1778  great  damage  was  caused  by 
fires.     The  garrison  at  Sullivan's  Island  under 
Col.  Moultrie  repulsed  a  British  squadron,  June 
28,  1776,  but  after  a  siege  of  some  months  the 
town  was  surrendered  by  Gen.  Lincoln  to  Sir 
H.  Clinton  May  12,  1780.     It  was  hfeld  by  them 
till  Dec.  14,  1782,  when  it  was  evacuated.     In 
1783  it  was  incorporated  by  the  name  of  the 
city  of    Charleston  by  the  legislature   of    S. 
Carolina,  and  in  1787  the  seat  of  state  govern- 
ment was  removed  to  Columbia  (q.  v.).   In  1796 
about  a  third  of  the  city  was  burned,   and 
another  fire  effected  destruction  to  the  value  of 
$5,000,000,  April  27,  1838.     A  negro  conspiracy 
was  discovered  and  suppressed  here  in  June, 
1822.   The  college  was  founded  in  1785,  the  Med- 
ical College  instituted  and  the  Charleston  and 
Hamburg  Railway  completed  in  1835,  and  the 
high  school  established  in  1839,     The  civil  war 
commenced  here  at  half-past  four  o'clock  on 
the  morning  of  Friday,  April  12,  1861,  with  the 
bombardment  by  the  Confederate  Gen.  Beau- 
regard  of  Fort  Sumter,  which  was  surrendered 
by  Major  Anderson,  Sunday,  April  14.     Later 
in  the  year  Charleston  was  strictly  blockaded 
by  the  Federals,  who    sank  17  vessels    laden 
with  stone  at  the    entrance  of    the  harbour 
Dec.  21.    An  engagement  between  the  Federal 
and  Confederate  fleets  resulted  in  the  retire- 
ment of  the  former  Jan.  31,  1863.   Gen.  Beaure- 
gard  declared  the  blockade  raised,  a  statement 
denied  by  Admiral  Dupont  Feb.  10.     A  naval 
attack  on  Fort  Sumter  and  the  other  defences, 
begun  April  7,  was  abandoned  April  12,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  tremendous  fire  of  the  Con- 
federates.    Operations  by  sea  and  land  were, 
however,  commenced  by  Gen.  Gillmore,  who 
occupied  Folly  Island  July  3,  and  seized  the 
southern  part  of  Morris  Island  July  10.     Re- 
pulsed in  an  assault  upon  Fort  Wagner  July  n, 
he  renewed  the  attack,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  fleet,   July   18,   and  sustained    a    second 
defeat,  with  a  loss  of  1,530  killed  and  wounded. 
Having  advanced  his  works  to  within  420  yards 


of  Fort  Wagner,  Aug.  13,  he  opened  fire  on 
Fort  Sumter  Aug.  15,  and  after  completing  his 
batteries  commenced  a  regular  bombardment 
Aug.  17.  A  demand  for  the  surrender  of  this 
stronghold  being  refused  Aug.  21,  he  com- 
menced shelling  the  city  Aug.  22.  Morris  Island, 
on  which  were  Fort  Wagner  and  Battery  Gregg, 
was  evacuated  Sep.  7,  but  an  attempt  made 
the  same  day  to  carry  Fort  Sumter  by  storm 
was  defeated  with  a  loss  of  80  men.  The  siege 
continued  till  Feb.  17,  1865,  when  Charleston 
was  evacuated  by  the  Confederate  Gen.  Hardee, 
who  was  succeeded,  Feb.  18,  by  the  Federals 
under  Gen.  Gillmore. 

CHARLESTOWN  (Massachusetts),  founded 
at  Mishawum  in  June,  1629,  was  burned  by  the 
British  in  the  early  part  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill  (q.  v. ),  June  1 7,  1 775 .  A  monument 
in  commemoration  of  the  battle,  of  which  the 
first  stone  was  laid  by  the  Marquis  La  Fayette 
June  17,  1825,  was  inaugurated  June  17,  1843. 
The  navy  yard  was  established  about  1798,  and 
the  dry-dock  completed  in  1833.  Charlestown 
was  incorporated  a  city  in  1847. 

CHARLESTOWN  (S.  Carolina),  called  Old 
Charlestown,  was  founded  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ashley  by  Governor  Sayle  in  1670,  and  named 
Charles  Town  in  honour  of  King  Charles  II. 
In  1680  its  inhabitants  removed  to  Oyster 
Point,  where  they  erected  a  new  town.  (See 
CHARLESTON.)  The  original  site  formed  in 
1802  part  of  a  plantation  known  as  Old  Town, 
though  no  traces  of  the  first  settlement  then 
existed. 

CHARLOIS  (Holland).— At  this  village,  in 
1512,  a  religious  procession  having  attempted, 
in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the  authorities, 
to  cross  the  Maas  on  the  ice,  8,000  persons  were 
thrown  into  the  water. 

CHARMOUTH  (Battles).— Egbert  is  defeated 
by  the  Danes  at  Carrum,  supposed  to  be  this 
place,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  833.  The  invaders 
had  disembarked  from  35  ships.  His  successor, 
Ethelwulph,  was  defeated  by  the  Danes  at  this 
place  in  840. 

CHARTER.— "  Nearly  all  the  nations,"  says 
Sir  Harris  Nicolas,  "which  established  them- 
selves upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire, 
gave  to  their  charters  the  form  of  epistles,  in 
imitation  of  the  Romans."  The  most  ancient 
Anglo-Saxon  charters  extant  are  of  the  7th 
century.  It  is  believed  that  the  earliest  known 
is  of  the  time  of  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  and 
was  granted  in  full  council  April  29,  619.  The 
charters  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs  were 
generally  in  Latin.  Public  liberties  were 
secured  by  the  early  charters.  They  were 
renewed  and  confirmed  so  frequently,  that 
between  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  and  Henry  IV. 
Sir  Edward  Coke  reckons  32.  These  were 
termed  royal  charters.  A  calendar  of  the 
Charter  Rolls  in  the  Tower,  extending  from 
1199  to  1483,  which  contain  grants  of  privileges 
to  cities,  corporations,  guilds,  religious  houses, 
and  individuals,  has  been  published  by  the 
government.  Charters  were  frequently  forged. 

CHARTER-HOUSE  (London).— This  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Chartreuse,  the  name  given  to  a 
house  of  Carthusian  monks,  established  by 
Sir  Walter  Manny  in  1371.  Before  that  time 
the  site  had  been  used  as  a  burying  place  for 


CHARTER 


[    236    ] 


CHATHAM 


the  poor.  Its  last  prior  was  hanged  and  quar- 
tered for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  May  3 
I535-  After  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries 
by  Henry  VIII.,  it  was  purchased  by  Thomas 
Button,  whom  Stow  calls  "  the  right  Phoenix  o] 
charity  in  our  times,"  from  the  Earl  of  Suffolk 
in  1 6 1 1,  to  be  converted  into  an  hospital,  "  con 
sisting  of  a  master,  governor,  a  preacher,  a  free 
school,  with  a  master  and  usher,  eighty  poor 
people,  and  forty  scholars."  The  benevolent 
founder  died  Dec.  12,  1611,  before  his  work 
was  completed  ;  but  he  had  provided  amply  for 
the  endowment,  and  the  hospital  was  opened 
Oct.  3,  1614.  An  attempt  having  been  made 
by  one  of  Mr.  Button's  relatives  to  obtain 
possession  of  the  property,  the  foundation  was 
confirmed  by  3  Charles  I.  c.  i  (1627).  Button's 
tomb,  which  is  in  the  chapel,  was  opened  in  1842. 

CHARTER-PARTY.  —  Agreements  between 
merchants  and  seamen  respecting  their  ships 
and  cargoes,  were  regulated  by  the  law  of 
Rhodes  as  early  as  B.C.  916.  The  Scottish 
parliament  passed  several  acts  for  their  regu- 
lation in  1467,  which  were  ratified  in  1487. 

CHARTISTS. — The  first  demonstration,  on 
a  large  scale,  made  by  the  political  agitators 
called  Chartists,  because  they  clamoured  for 
what  they  termed  the  six  points  of  the  People's 
Charter,  was  held  in  the  open  air  at  Birming- 
ham, Aug.  6,  1838.  The  six  points  were,  i.  Uni- 
versal stiff  rage ;  2.  Vote  by  ballot ;  3.  Paid  repre- 
sentatives in  Parliament;  4.  Equal  electoral  dis- 
tricts ;  5.  Abolition  of  the  property  qualification 
for  members  of  Parliament  ;  and  6.  Annual 
parliaments.  Large  bodies  of  the  Chartists, 
armed,  assembled  at  night  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued 
declaring  all  suchmeetings  illegal  Dec.  12, 1838. 
The  National  Convention  elected  by  Chartists 
in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom  commenced 
its  sittings  at  Birmingham  in  May,  1839.  The 
agitation  continued,  and  an  enormous  peti- 
tion, signed,  it  was  said,  by  1,200,000  Char- 
tists, was  presented  to  Parliament  by  Mr. 
Attwood,  June  14,  1839.  The  Chartists  attacked 
Newport  Nov.  4,  1839,  and  were,  after  some 
resistance,  dispersed  by  the  troops,  the  leaders 
being  taken  and  afterwards  tried.  Chartist 
riots  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom 
in  1842.  Another  petition,  presented  in  1843, 
was  said  to  contain  3,500,000  signatures.  In 
1848  Chartist  disturbances  occurred  in  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  a  meeting  was 
summoned  by  the  Chartist  leaders  to  take 
place  on  Kennington  Common  April  10.  They 
avowed  their  intention  of  going  in  procession 
to  the  House  of  Commons  with  a  petition, 
which,  they  boasted,  contained  above  5,000,000 
signatures.  Every  preparation  was  made  by 
the  authorities  to  preserve  the  public  peace, 
170,000  special  constables  were  organized,  and 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  as  commander-in- 
chief,  was  at  his  post.  When  the  Chartists 
assembled,  their  leaders  were  informed  by  the 
police  that  any  attempt  to  pass  the  bridges  in 
procession  would  be  resisted.  The  Chartists 
gave  way,  and  consigned  the  petition  to  three 
cabs  for  conveyance  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
On  examination,  it  appeared  that,  instead  of 
5,706,000,  only  1,975,490  names  were  appended 
to  the  monster  petition,  and  of  these  a  large 


number  had  been  fabricated.  Prince  Albert 
and  the  Queen  figured  amongst  the  names  in 
the  document.  The  name  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  was  signed  30,  and  that  of  Colonel 
Sibthorp  12  times.  This  exposure,  coupled 
with  the  determination  evinced  by  the  public 
to  repress  agitation,  proved  fatal  to  the  cause, 
and  from  that  day  Chartism  rapidly  declined. 

CHARTRES  (France),  the  ancient  Autricum, 
was  the  capital  of  the  Carnutes,  from  whom  it 
received  its  modern  name.  The  Northmen 
ravaged  it  in  852  and  872.  Rollo  received  a 
check  here  in  912.  Henry  I.  of  England  enter- 
tained Innocent  II.  at  Chartres  Jan.  13,  1131. 
It  afterwards  fell  into  the  power  of  the  English, 
and  was  recovered  by  surprise  in  1432.  The 
Huguenots  failed  in  an  attack  upon  it  in  1568. 
Henry  IV.  seized  it  in  1591.  Having  been  long 
ruled  by  its  own  counts,  it  was  sold  to  Philip 
IV.  in  1286,  was  united  to  France  in  1349,  and 
having  been  again  separated,  was  purchased  in 
1623  by  Louis  XIII.  Louis  XIV.  made  it  a 
duchy  and  bestowed  it  upon  the  Duke  of 
Orleans.  The  cathedral  was  founded  in  1020, 
and  dedicated  in  1260.  The  roof  having  been 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1836,  a  metal  one  was 
erected  in  1841. 

CHARTREUSE  (France).— This  monastery, 
called  La  Grande  Chartreuse,  was  founded  near 
Grenoble,  by  St.  Bruno  of  Cologne,  in  1084. 
It  was  several  times  injured  by  fire,  and  the 
present  building  dates  from  about  1676.  St. 
Bruno  followed  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  with 
certain  modifications.  It  was  called  the  order 
of  the  Chartreux,  or  the  Carthusians.  The 
monks  were  expelled  during  the  Revolution, 
but  they  returned  in  1826,  and  Chartreuse  is 
still  the  chief  monastery  of  the  Carthusians. 

CHARTS.— (See  MAPS.) 

CHASIDIM.— On  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  B.C.  536,  a  code 
of  civil  and  religious  laws  was  introduced 
among  them  by  the  Persian  government, 
which  embodied  several  innovations  on  the 
Mosaic  law.  Those  who  adopted  these  novel- 
ties were  styled  Chasidim  or  Pietists,  while 
those  who  refused  them  called  themselves  Za- 
dikim,  or  "  upright."  The  modern  sect  of  the 
Chasidim  was  founded  in  Poland  in  1740,  by 
Israel  Baalsham,  and  numbered  at  his  death, 
in  1760,  40,000  converts.  Their  ceremonies, 
remarkable  for  their  wild  and  noisy  character, 

semble  those  of  the  Jumpers  (q.  v). 

CHASSEURS  D'AFRIQUE.  —  Three  regi- 
ments of  the  French  army,  formed  since  the 
conquest  of  Algeria  in  1830,  have  received  this 
name, 

( 'i  I  ASSEURS  DE  VINCENNES.— A  corps  of 
riflemen  enrolled  about  1835,  and  stationed  at 
Vincennes,  proved  so  efficient  that  a  whole 
Battalion  was  organized  in  1838.  They  are  also 
called  tirailleurs,  or  sharpshooters. 

CHATHAM  (Kent).— Queen  Elizabeth  estab- 
ished  a  dockyard  at  Chatham  in  the  i6th 
century,  a  little  before  the  time  of  the  invasion 
arojected  by  Spain.  It  was  removed  to  its 
^resent  site  in  1622.  The  Dutch  fleet  entered 
he  Medway  and  destroyed  several  ships  June  12, 
667.  The  "Chest"  for  the  relief  of  wounded 
ind  superannuated  seamen,  established  at 
Chatham  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  removed  to 


CHATHAM 


[    237    ] 


CHEDUBA 


Greenwich  by  43  Geo.  III.  c.  119  (July  29,  1803). 
The  school  for  engineers  was  established  in 
1812.  Additional  fortifications  were  ordered  to 
be  erected  by  Parliament  in  1860.  An  explo- 
sion occurred  in  one  of  the  workshops  Jan.  21., 
1861.  A  revolt  of  the  convicts  was  suppressed 
Feb.  9-11,  1861. 

CHATHAM  (FIRST)  ADMINISTRATION.— 
(See  NEWCASTLE  and  PITT  ADMINISTRATION.) 

CHATHAM  (SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION. 
—William  Pitt,  the  elder,  created  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham July  30,  1766,  presided  over  two  adminis- 
trations, the  first  formed  hi  1757,  and  called 
the  Newcastle  and  Pitt  (q.v.}  administration; 
and  the  second,  designated  after  his  title,  the 
Chatham  administration,  formed  July  30,  1766, 
on  the  dissolution  of  Lord  Rockingham's  first 
cabinet.  Lord  Chatham's  ministry  was  thus 
constituted  : — 

Treasury    Duke  of  Graf  ton. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Camden. 

President  of  the  Council.... Earl  of  Northington. 

Privy  Seal faster.  ChatUam'      *"' 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer. . . .  Hon.  Charles  Townshend. 

l  Earl  of  Shelburne  and   Gen. 

Principal    Secretaries    of    J      Conway.    The  latter  lender 
State   1      of    the    House    of     Cwn- 

(.     nions. 

Admiralty Sir  Charles  Saunders. 

Board  of  Trade Lor.l  Iliilsborough. 

Secretary  at  War   Viscount  Barrinprton. 

Ordnance Marquis  of  Granby. 

Paymaster  General Lord  North. 

Sir  Edward  (afterwards  Lord)  Hawke  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Charles  Saunders  at  the  Admiralty 
Dec.  13,  and  the  Hon.  Robert  (afterwards 
Lord)  Nugent  replaced  Lord  Hillsborough  at 
the  Board  of  Trade  Dec.  16,  1766.  The  Hon. 
Charles  Townshend,  who  died  Sep.  4,  1767, 
was  succeeded  by  Lord  Mansfield  Sep.  12.  The 
Earl  of  Chatham's  health  rendered  him  inca- 
pable of  taking  part  in  public  affairs  ;  and 
towards  the  end  of  1767,  the  whole  power  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  Graf  ton.  Lord 
North  accepted  the  Chancellorship  of  the 
Exchequer  Dec.  i.  Mr.  Thomas  Townshend 
succeeded  Lord  North  as  Paymaster  General. 
Lord  Chatham  finally  resigned  the  privy  seal 
Oct.  14,  1768.  (See  GRAFTON  ADMINISTRATION.) 

CHATHAM  ISLANDS  (South  Pacific).— 
Lieut.  Broughton  discovered  these  islands  Nov. 
29,  1791,  and  named  them  after  H.  M.  S. 
Chatham,  in  which  he  sailed.  The  group 
consists  of  three  large  and  several  small 
islands.  A  whaling  station  was  established 
at  O'inga  by  Capt.  Richard  in  1840. 

CH  \  TILLON-SUR-SEINE  (Congress).— Pro- 
posals of  peace  were  made  whilst  the  allied 
armies  were  advancing  upon  Paris  in  1814,  and 
Chatillon  was  fixed  upon  as  the  place  for 
the  congress,  which  opened  Feb.  4.  England 
sent  three  plenipotentiaries,  Austria,  Prussia, 
Russia,  and  France  each  one  to  the  conferences. 
The  allies  demanded  that  France  should  be 
restricted  to  the  limits  she  had  attained  before 
the  Revolution.  Some  temporary  successes 
gained  in  the  field  induced  Napoleon  I.,  Feb. 
17,  to  send  instructions  to  Caulaincourt,  the 
French  plenipotentiary,  to  sign  nothing  with- 
out his  orders.  Early  in  March,  Caulaincourt 
announced  to  Napoleon  I.  that  the  allies  had 
determined  to  break  up  the  conference  if 


the  fundamental  principle  of  reducing  France 
to  its  ancient  limits  was  not  accepted.  Cau- 
laincourt delivered  a  counter-project  March  15, 
from  which  it  became  evident  that  Napoleon 
was  not  sincere  hi  his  desire  for  peace,  and  the 
congress  broke  up  March  18. 

CHAT  MOSS  (Lancashire),  supposed  to  have 
formed  in  669  part  of  the  estate  of  St.  Chad, 
Bishop  of  Mercia,  was  partially  reclaimed  by  Mr. 
Roscoe  of  Liverpool,  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  and 
beginning  of  the  rgth  century.  Operations  for 
bringing  it  under  cultivation  were  undertaken 
in  1828.  George  Stevenson  commenced  his 
process  for  constructing  the  permanent  way  of 
the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway  across 
this  bog  hi  June,  1826.  After  difficulties  which 
had  worn  out  the  patience  of  nearly  every 
person  connected  with  the  work  except  him- 
self, a  road  formed  of  hurdles,  &c.,  covered 
with  gravel,  was  floated  on  the  Moss,  and  the 
first  experimental  train  passed  over  it  hi  safety 
Jan.  i,  1830. 

CHATSWORTH  (Derbyshire),  conferred  by 
William  the  Conqueror  upon  his  natural  son 
William  Peveril,  was  purchased  by  Sir  William 
Cavendish,  who  commenced  the  erection  of 
the  mansion-house  in  1570.  It  became  the 
same  year  the  prison  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
who  was  also  detained  here  in  1573,  J577>  I57%> 
and  1581.  In  Dec.,  1643,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Earl  of  Newcastle  from  the  Parliamentary 
leader  Sir  John  Gell.  The  present  building, 
commenced  by  the  first  Duke  of  Devonshire, 
April  12,  1687,  was  surveyed  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  in  May,  1692.  The  east  front  and  north- 
east corner  were  completed  in  1700,  and  the 
entire  palace  in  1706.  The  great  stables  were 
erected  hi  1706,  and  a  northern  wing  has  been 
added  since  1820. 

CHATTANOOGA  (Battle).— The  Confederate 
Gen.  Bragg  was  defeated  with  great  loss  in  pri- 
soners and  amimmition  at  this  place  in  Tennes- 
see by  Gens.  Sherman  and  Thomas,  Nov.  25, 1863. 

CHAUMONT  (Treaty).— The  insincerity  dis- 
played by  Napoleen  I.  during  the  negotiations 
at  Chatillon-Sur-Seine,  induced  the  great 
powers  whose  plenipotentiaries  were  engaged 
at  that  congress,  to  enter  into  more  solemn 
obligations  for  the  energetic  prosecution  of  the 
war,  in  case  France  should  reject  their  pro- 
posals. With  this  view,  treaties  were  signed 
by  each  of  the  four  powers,  England,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  separately  with  the  three 
others  at  Chaumont,  March  14,  1814.  The  four 
treaties  were,  of  course,  substantially  the 
same.  Each  treaty  consisted  of  17  articles,  and 
provided  the  number  of  men  to  be  maintained 
in  the  field  by  each  power,  and  the  amount  of 
subsidies  to  be  paid  by  England.  By  the 
second  article,  each  contracting  power  engaged 
not  to  enter  into  separate  negotiations,  nor  to 
conclude  a  separate  peace  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  others.  The  treaty  was  to  remain 
in  force  for  20  years,  and  not  to  be  renewed 
before  the  expiration  of  that  period. 

CHEBRFJSSE  (Battle).— At  this  place  in 
it  Napoleon  I.  defeated  the  Mamelukes 


July  13,  1798. 

CHEDUBA  (Bay  of  Bengal).— This  island 
was  taken  by  the  Burmese  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. The  English  captured  it  in  May,  1824 ; 


CHEESE 


[    238    ] 


CHEPSTOW 


and  it  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company 
by  the  third  article  of  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo, 
Feb.  24,  1826. 

CHEESE  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  much  earlier  than  butter,  according 
to  Beckmann,  who  could  find  no  notice  of  the 
latter  substance  in  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322), 
though  he  frequently  mentions  cheese.  Athe- 
nseus  (circ.  A.L>.  200)  speaks  of  a  celebrate*! 
Achaian  cheese.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Cynthus  excelled  in  the  preparation 
of  this  article  of  food,  which  was  stamped 
upon  their  coins.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
made  from  deer's  milk.  The  Artotyritse  (from 
opro?,  bread,  and  rupo?,  cheese)  offered  cheese 
with  their  bread  in  the  Eucharist,  in  the  2nd 
century.  They  pretended  that  the  first  inha- 
bitants of  the  world  offered,  as  oblations,  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  and  of  sheep. 

CHELM8FORD  (Essex).— In  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  this  town  formed  part 
of  the  possessions  of  the  bishops  of  London, 
but  it  attained  no  importance  till  the  time  of 
Henry  I.,  when  a  stone  bridge  was  erected 
over  the  Cann.  The  ancient  parish  church 
was  rebuilt  in  1424,  and  the  grammar-school 
was  founded  by  Edward  VI.  in  1552.  The 
old  prison,  erected  on  the  system  of  John 
Howard,  was  built  in  1777,  and  the  present 
bridge  over  the  Cann  in  1787.  Part  of 
the  church,  which  fell  in,  in  June,  1800, 
has  since  been  restored.  In  1805,  a  line  of 
fortified  embankments  was  erected  to  defend 
the  approach  to  London  from  the  threatened 
French  invasion.  The  new  prison  was  built  in 
1828,  and  the  large  fountain  in  the  market- 
place was  restored  in  1841. 

cmiLSKA  [Middlesex).— Some  authorities 
are  of  opinion  that  this  is  the  place  called 
Calcuith,  at  which  a  council  was  held  July  27, 
816,  when  it  was  ordained  that  all  bishops 
should  date  their  acts  from  the  year  of  the 
Incarnation.  It  was  designated  Chelc-hethe 
in  1291.  Sir  Thomas  More,  who  lived  there, 
wrote  Chelcith ;  and  as  late  as  1692  it  was 
called Chelchey.  Stow  describes  it  as  "a  town 
not  large,  but  graced  with  good  well-built 
houses."  During  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries 
it  was  a  favourite  place  of  residence  for  noble- 
men and  wealthy  persons.  Chelsea  College, 
for  the  study  of  polemical  divinity,  was  pro- 
jected, in  1609,  by  Dr.  Matthew  Sutcliffe,  Dean 
of  Exeter,  who  endowed  it,  though  not  suffi- 
ciently. James  I.  granted  it  a  charter  in  1610, 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  the  College  of  King 
.lames  in  Chelsea.  In  1616,  James  I.  issued  a 
declaration,  setting  forth  the  reasons  which 
induced  him  to  erect  the  college.  The  scheme 
did  not,  however,  succeed,  and  it  was  con- 
verted into  an  hospital  for  invalid  and  decayed 
soldiers  by  Charles  II. ,  who  laid  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  new  building,  designed  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  in  1682.  The  good  work, 
carried  on  by  James  II.,  was  completed  by 
William  III.  and  Mary,  in  1690,  at  a  cost  of 
.£150,000.  The  Royal  Military  Asylum  in  con- 
nection with  the  hospital  was  founded  in  1801. 
The  china  works,  founded  by  Mr.  Dwight, 
Dowoit,  or  De  Witt,  of  Fulham,  about  1640,  and 
much  encouraged  by  George  II.,  were  taken 
down  in  1784.  The  body  of  the  Duke  of 


Wellington  was  removed  from  Walmer  Castle, 
Nov.  10,  to  this  hospital,  where  it  lay  in  state 
Nov.  13-15,  1852.  The  suspension  Abridge  was 
opened  March  28,  1858. 

CHELTENHAM  (Gloucestershire).  —Doctor 
Short  discovered  the  medicinal  properties  of 
the  water  at  this  place  in  1740  ;  the  first 
spring  having  been  found  in  1716.  George  III. 
visited  Cheltenham  in  1788,  and  a  spring  found 
on  the  estate  where  he  resided  is  called  the 
King's  Well.  A  salt  spring  was  discovered  in 
1803.  Cheltenham  was  enfranchised  in  1832, 
and  returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  The 
Proprietary  College  was  opened  in  June,  1843, 
and  the  chapel  in  1758.  The  Cheltenham 
Normal  College,  for  the  training  of  school- 
masters, the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  in 
1849,  was  opened  in  1851.  The  Grand  Stand 
fell  during  a  race  Friday,  April  13,  1866,  when 
many  of  the  spectators  received  serious  injuries. 

CIIKMICAL  SOCIETY  (London),  was  insti- 
tuted Feb.  23,  1841. 

CHEMISTRY.— Ample  evidence  may  be 
found  in  the  Old  Testament  to  show  that  the 
ancient  Epyptians  possessed  a  knowledge  of 
chemistry ;  and  from  them  the  Saracens,  to 
whose  industry  the  origin  and  improvement 
of  the  science  are  attributed  by  Gibbon,  de- 
rived much  information.  Geber,  who  flourished 
in  the  gth  century,  admits  that  he  derived 
most  of  his  knowledge  on  the  subject  from 
the  early  ages.  (See  ALCHEMY.)  Little  real 
progress  was  made  for  several  centuries. 
"Chemistry,"  says  Hallam,  "as  a  science  of 
principles,  hypothetical,  no  doubt,  and,  in  a 
great  measure,  unfounded,  but  cohering  in  a 
plausible  system,  and  better  than  the  reveries 
of  the  ParacelcistsandBchmenists,  was  founded 
by  Becher  in  Germany,  by  Boyle  and  his  con- 
temporaries of  the  Royal  Society  in  England." 
Becher  published  his  "Physica  Subterranea  " 
in  1669,  and  he  died  in  London  in  1685.  Boyle's 
"  Sceptical  Chemist"  appeared  in  1661.  George 
Ernest  Stahl,  who  died  in  1734,  originated  the 
phlogistic  theory  of  combustion,  and  I>r.  S. 
Hales,  who  died  Jan.  4,  1761,  stands  first  as  a 

Encumatic  chemist.  Dr.  Priestley,  1733 — 1804. 
rst  obtained  oxygen  gas,  Aug.  i,  1774,  and 
Mr.  Cavendish  discovered  the  composition  of 
water  in  1784.  Lavoisier,  who  died  May  8, 
1794,  threw  considerable  light  on  the  theory  of 
combustion,  and  proved  the  chemical  identity 
of  the  diamond  and  common  charcoal.  Dalton 
explained  the  Atomic  Theory  (q.  v.)  in  1803. 

CHEMISTRY  (College).— The  Royal  College 
of  Chemistry  was  founded  in  London  in  July, 

CHEMITYPE,  the  art  of  producing  by  a 
chemical  process  engraving  in  relief,  on  a  metal 
plate,  invented  by  C.Pul,  a  Dane,  was  practised 
by  him  from  1843  to  1846  at  Copenhagen,  then 
at  Leipsic,  and  since  1850  at  Vienna. 

CHEPSTOW  CASTLE  (Monmouthshire)  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  nth  and 
rebuilt  in  the  i3th  century.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces  Oct.  10,  1645,  and 
surprised  by  the  Royalists  early  in  Oct.,  1648. 
Cromwell,  who  failed  in  an  attempt  to  retake 
it  by  storm,  ordered  it  to  be  besieged,  and  the 
small  garrison,  having  exhausted  all  their  pro- 
visions, surrendered  May  25.  The  iron  bridge 


CHEQUE 


[    239    ] 


CHERSON 


over   the  Wye,  wliich  joins  the  Severn   two 
miles  below  Chepstow,  was  constructed  in  1816. 

CHEQUE.— The  first  cheque  by  an  English 
king  was  the  following,  given  by  Edward  I.  to 
Bourunoiiio  de  Luk,  or  Luke,  a  Florentine 
merchant  : — "  Whereas,  our  beloved  Robert 
de  Brus,  Earl  of  Carrick,  is  in  present  need  of 
money,  we  request  that  you  will  cause  to  be 
advanced  or  lent  to  the  said  earl  or  his  attorney, 
for  his  occasion,  forty  pounds,  and  we  will 
cause  them  to  be  repaid  to  you.  And  when 
you  have  lent  to  him  the  aforesaid  money,  you 
shall  take  from  him  his  letters  patent  testi- 
fying his  receipt  of  the  same.  Witness  our  hand, 
Windsor,  Sep.  10,  1281."  A  stamp  duty  of  one 
penny  was  placed  upon  all  drafts  or  cheques  by 
21  Viet.  c.  20  (May  21,  1858).  An  ancient  book, 
preserved  in  the  Chapel  Royal  St.  James's, 
containing  entries  respecting  the  establish- 
ment, is  called  the  Cheque  Book,  and  the 
gentleman  appointed  to  keep  it  was  called 
"  Clerk  of  the  Cheque." 

CHERASCO,  or  CHIERASCO  (Treaty),  by 
which  the  Duke  of  Nemours  obtained  posses- 
sion of  his  territories  in  Mantua,  was  concluded 
at  Chierasco,  in  Piedmont,  between  Louis 
XIII.  of  France,  and  Victor  Amadeus  I.  of  Sa- 
voy, April  6,  1631.  Napoleon  I.,  by  an  armis- 
tice concluded  here  with  the  Sardinian  com- 
missioners, obtained  free  passage  for  his  troops 
through  Sardinian  territory.  This  truce  was 
preparatory  to  the  treaty  of  Paris  (q.  v.),  May 
15,  1796. 

CHERBOURG  (France),  the  ancient  Chere- 
burgum,  Caroburyum,  or  Ccesaroburgus,  re- 
ceived a  visit  from  Harold  of  Denmark,  about 
945.  The  castle  is  mentioned  in  an  act  of  1026, 
and  its  chapel  and  the  town  hospital  were 
founded  by  William  the  Conqueror  between 
1060  and  1064.  On  the  conquest  of  Normandy 
by  Philip  Augustus  in  1203,  Cherbourg  fell  under 
French  domination,  and  in  1295  it  was  pillaged 
by  the  English.  Charles  the  Bad,  of  Navarre, 
obtained  possession  in  1355,  and  in  1489  it  was 
taken  by  the  English  under  Henry  V.,  after  a 
three  months'  siege.  Charles  VII.  retook  it 
Aug.  12,  1450.  Louis  XIV.  conceived  the  idea 
of  erecting  Cherbourg  into  a  naval  fort  and 
arsenal  about  1687,  and  Vauban  was  appointed 
to  superintend  the  improvements  ;  but  the 
project  was  abandoned,  and  the  defences  were 
demolished  in  1689.  Some  of  these  were 
restored  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century, 
and  the  town  was  of  sufficient  importance  to 
receive  an  attack  from  the  English,  who  effected 
an  entry  Aug.  6,  1758,  and  after  destroying  the 
works  and  seizing  all  the  stores,  re-embarked 
Aug.  15.  In  1781  Louis  XVI.  resumed  the 
attempts  to  establish  a  naval  station  here,  and 
in  1784  M.  Cessart  commenced  the  breakwater, 
which  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  world.  The  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
of  course  suspended  its  progress,  but  it  was 
resumed  by  Napoleon  Lin  1803, and  inaugurated 
in  1813.  Since  then  additions  have  been  con- 
tinually made.  In  1828  the  foundations  were 
found  to  have  shifted  very  considerably  from 
their  original  position.  Louis  Philippe  restored 
them  on  a  new  principle  in  1832  ;  but  even  now 
the  dyke  is  liable  to  serious  injury  from  every 
violent  tempest.  The  military  strength  of  the 


place  has  been  prodigiously  increased  by 
Napoleon  III.,  who  opened  the  railway  and 
;he  Grand  Basin  of  the  Napoleon  Docks  Aug.  4 
and  5,  1858,  in  presence  of  Queen  Victoria,  the 
English  court,  and  many  distinguished  visitors. 
The  sea-fight  between  the  Alabama  (q.  v.)  and 
.he  Kearsage  took  place  off  this  port  June  19, 
"4.  The  English  fleet  reached  Cherbourg 
Aug.  14,  1865. 

CHERRY.— "Lucullus,  after  the  war  with 
Mithridates,"  says  Isaac  Disraeli,  "  introduced 
cherries  from  Pontus  into  Italy  (circ.  B.C.  74) ; 
and  the  newly  imported  fruit  was  found  so 
pleasing,  that  it  was  rapidly  propagated." 
Pliny  states  that  the  cherry-tree  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain  about  120  years  afterwards, 
that  is,  A.D.  45.  This  stock  of  cherry-trees,  so 
ailed  from  Cerasus,  now  Keresoun,  was  lost  in 
the  Saxon  period,  and  some  more  were  brought 
from  Flanders  by  the  gardener  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  planted  in  Kent  in  1540.  Native  cherries 
were,  it  is  said,  known  in  Norfolk  in  the  i3th 
century.  The  Cornelian  cherry  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Austria  in  1596 ;  and  the 
American  Bird  cherry  from  America  in  1629. 

CHERRY    ISLAND    (Arctic    Sea)  was  dis- 

overed  by  the  Dutch  pilot  Barentz,  June  9, 

596.      It   was    at    first   called    Bear    Island, 

because  the  Dutch  sailors  killed  a  bear,  the 

skin  of  which  measured  12  feet  in  length.  The 

Muscovy  Company  took  formal  possession  of 

the  island  in  1609. 

CHERSON  (Crimea),  an  ancient  city,  near  the 
site  of  which  Sebastopol  now  stands,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  built  about  the  5th  century. 
It  formed  for  many  years  a  republic,  and  joined 
the  alliance  against  Pharnaces  I.  about  B.C.  184. 
The  inhabitants  assisted  Constantino  I.  against 
the  Goths,  who  were  defeated  A.D.  334. 
Justinian  II.  was  banished  to  this  city  in  695. 
He  made  his  escape  in  705,  and  having  been 
restored  to  the  imperial  throne,  sent  an  expe- 
dition against  Cherson  in  709.  The  youth  of 
both  sexes  were  reduced  to  servitude,  'seven 
of  the  principal  citizens  were  roasted  alive, 
20  drowned  in  the  sea,  and  42  taken  in 
chains  to  receive  sentence  from  the  emperor. 
On  the  return  voyage,  the  fleet  was  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Anatolia,  when  conquerors  and 
captives  perished.  Justinian  II.  sent  another 
expedition  in  711.  The  people  of  Cherson  pre- 
pared for  resistance.  The  army  sent  against 
them  revolted,  elected  Bardanes  emperor,  un- 
der the  title  of  Philippicus,  returned  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  put  Justinian  II.  to  death  in  Dec., 
711.  Theophilus  reduced  Cherson  to  subjec- 
tion in  831.  Vladimir  of  Russia  was  converted 
to  Christianity  and  baptized  at  this  city  in  988, 
and  at  the  same  time  married  to  Anna,  a  Chris- 
tian princess.  The  baptism  of  Vladimir  and  his 
marriage  were  celebrated  at  the  same  time, 
and  to  the  desire  of  obtaining  a  Roman  princess 
for  his  bride  his  conversion  is  attributed  by 
Gibbon.  Alexis  I.  of  Trebizond  annexed  Cher- 
son  to  his  empire  about  1210. 

CHERSON,  or  KHERSON  (Russia),  the 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  was 
founded  in  1778,  and  fortified  in  1780.  Johu 
Howard,  the  philanthropist,  died  in  this  city 
Jan.  20,  1790,  and  the  Emperor  Alexander  I. 
erected  a  monument  over  his  grave.  Catherine 


CHESAPEAKE 


[    240    ] 


CHICAGO 


II.  of  Russia  made  a  triumphant  entry  into 
Cherson  in  1 787,  passing  under  an  arch  bearing 
the  inscription,  "The  Way  to  Byzantium." 
Joseph  II.  of  Germany  met  her  here,  and 
entered  into  an  alliance  against  Turkey. 
During  the  war  with  Russia,  an  allied  fleet 
appeared  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cherson  in 
Oct.,  1855  ;  but  no  attack  was  made  upon  that 
city,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
ancient  city  of  the  same  name  in  the  Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE.— This  frigate,  belonging  to 
the  United  States,  was  captured_by  Capt.  Broke 
in  the  British  frigate  Shannon,  June  i,  1813. 
The  action,  which  only  lasted  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  was  fought  near  Boston,  in  the  presence 
of  a  large  number  of  Americans  who  lined 
the  shore.  The  strength  of  the  rival  frigates 
was  as  follows  : — 

Tons.       Guns.      Crew. 

Chesapeake   1135  50  376 

Shannon 1060  49  330 

The  former  had  46  men  killed  and  106  wounded, 
and  the  latter  24  killed  and  59  wounded. 

CHESAPEAKE  BAY  ( North  America)  was 
first  explored  by  Capt.  John  Smith,  who 
arrived  with  colonists  in  April,  1607.  The 
squadron  of  three  vessels  was  commanded  by 
Capt.  Newport,  and  carried  no  settlers. 

CHE8MEH.— The  Russian  fleet,  under  Ad- 
miral Spiridoff,  having  defeated  the  Turks  off 
Chios,  completed  the  victory  by  burning  their 
enemies'  vessels  in  the  bay  of  Chesmeh,  near 
Smyrna,  July  5,  1770. 

CHESS.— The  Chinese  are  said  to  have  in- 
vented chess ;  but  Sir  William  Jones  is  of 
opinion  that  the  game  was  invented  by  the 
Hindoos.  He  says  :  "  We  may  be  satisfied 
with  the  testimony  of  the  Persians,  who, 
though  as  much  inclined  as  other  nations  to  ap- 
propriate the  ingenious  inventions  of  a  foreign 
people,  unanimously  agree  that  the  game  was 
imported  from  the  west  of  India  in  the  6th 
century  of  our  sera.  It  seems  to  have  been 
hmnemorially  known  in  Hindostaii  by  the 
name  of  chaturanga,  i.e.  the  four  angas,  or 
members  of  an  army  :  which  are  these, 
elephants,  horses,  chariots,  and  foot-soldiers  ; 
and  in  this  sense  the  word  is  frequently  used 
by  epic  poets  in  their  descriptions  of  real 
armies."  Gibbon  states  that  it  was  introduced 
into  Persia  in  the  reign  of  Chosroes  I.,  or 
Nushivran  (531 — 579).  Tamerlane,  or  Timour, 
who  died  Feb.  18,  1405,  was  fond  of  the  game, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  improved.  The 
Saracens  introduced  it  into  Spain  in  the  8th 
century,  and  it  gradually  spread  over  Europe. 
The  date  of  its  introduction  into  England  has 
not  been  clearly  ascertained.  It  was  known 
here  in  the  nth  century,  as  Canute  is  repre- 
sented as  having  played  it  in  1028.  Caxton 
published  "  The  Game  and  Playe  of  the 
Chesse"  in  1474.  The  British  Chess  Association 
held  its  first  meeting  at  Leeds,  Jan.  18,  1841, 
when  it  was  called  the  "  Yorkshire  Chess 
Association."  The  title  was  changed  to  the 
"  Northern  and  Midland  Counties  Chess 
Association,"  Oct.  21, 1852,  and  to  the  "British 
Chess  Association,"  Aug.  5,  1857. 

CHESS  CONGRESS  commenced  in  London 
under  the  auspices  of  the  British  Chess  Asso- 
ciation, with  a  preliminary  meeting  held  at  St. 


James's  Minor  Hall,  June  13, 1862.  Play  began 
at  the  various  clubs  and  divans  June  16,  and  a 
public  contest,  lasting  a  week,  commenced  in 
St.  James's  Hall  June  30.  A  banquet  was 
held  at  Willis's  Rooms  July  10,  a  meeting  to 
revise  the  laws  of  the  game  took  place  July  1 7, 
and  the  last  game  was  played  Oct.  2.  The 
committee  met  at  the  London  Club  to  award 
the  prizes  Nov.  25. 

CHESTER  was  called  Deva  by  the  Romans, 
who  formed  a  colony  here,  and  were  not  ex- 
pelled until  A.D.  476.  The  Britons  called  it 
Caerleon.  St.  John's  Church  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  698.  Chester  was  taken  by 
the  Saxons  in  828  ;  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  894,  and  rebuilt  by  Edelfleda  in  904.  The 
Welsh  ravaged  it  in  1255.  Richard  II.  made 
Chester  a  principality  in  1389.  Henry  VII. 
separated  it  from  Cheshire  by  letters  patent, 
dated  April  6,  1506,  and  made  it  a  county  of 
itself.  The  county  hospital  was  founded  in 
1756,  and  opened  in  1761.  Some  portion  of  the 
cathedral  was  finished  in  1485,  and  the  west 
end  was  commenced  in  1508.  It  has  been 
represented  in  Parliament  since  1549.  The 
city  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentary  forces, 
after  a  long  siege,  in  1645.  The  race  for  the 
cup  was  established  in  1824.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  county  palatine  of  Chester  was  abolished 
by  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  s.  14  (July  23,  1830).  The 
town-hall  and  exchange  were  destroyed  by 
fire  Dec.  30,  1862. 

CIIKSTER  (Bishopric).— At  a  council  held 
in  London  in  1078,  it  was  determined  to  estab- 
lish this  bishopric.  The  recommendation  was 
not  carried  into  effect  until  1534. 

('11  K.STKKFIEU)  (Battle).— King  Henry  the 
Third's  troops  defeated  the  forces  of  the  re- 
bellious barons  at  this  place  Whitsun-eve,  May 

I5CHESTER-LE-STREET  (Bishopric).  —The 
see,  founded  at  Holy  Island  (q.  v.)  in  635,  and 
removed  in  875  to  this  place  in  Durham,  was 
permanently  transferred  in  995  to  Durham 

^CHEVY  CHASE  (Battle).— (See  OTTERBURN.) 

CHIARI  (Battle).— At  this  town  in  Brescia, 

Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  defeated  the  French 

under  Marshal  Villeroi,  who  lost  4,000  men, 

CHICAGO  (United  States).— The  name  of 
this  city  of  Illinois,  situated  on  the  south- 
western shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  is  of  Indian 
origin,  and  was  first  mentioned  by  Perrot,  who 
visited  the  site  in  1671.  In  1803  the  United 
States  government  erected  a  stockade  named 
Fort  Dearborn.  Having  been  abandoned  in 
1812,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Indians  and  was 
rebuilt  in  1816.  Chicago  was  first  settled  in 

1831,  and  contained  about  a  dozen  families  in 

1832.  It  was  first  organized  by  the  election  of 
a  board  of  trustees,  Aug.  10,  1833,  and  large  ad- 
ditional territory  was  acquired  by  a  treaty  con- 
cluded with  the  Pottowautomy  Indians  Sep.  26. 
Incorporated  in  1836,  the  first  charter  of  the 
city  was  passed  March  4,   1837.     The  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal,  by  which  Chicago  com- 
municates with  the  coal-fields  of  Illinois  and 
with  the  Mississippi,  was  finished  in  1848.  The 
Michigan  Central  and  Michigan  Southern  Rail- 
way were  completed  to  this  place  in  1832. 


CHTCHESTER 


r  241  i 


CHILLIANWALLAH 


CHICHESTER    (Bishopric).— The    see    was 
removed  from  Selsey  about  1078. 

CHICHESTER  (Sussex)  was  taken  by  Ell; 
the  Saxon  in  480,  and,  having  been  destroyec 
by  the  South  Saxons  in  491,  was  rebuilt  h 
538  by  Cissa,  from  whom  the  name  is  derived 
A  wooden  cathedral,  completed  in  1108,  was 
burned  May  5,  1114,  and  rebuilt  in  1125.  I 
was  again  destroyed  by  fire  in  1187,  and  the 
rebuilding  commenced  in  1199.  The  presen' 
edifice  was  completed  in  the  i3th  century 
The  Parliamentary  forces  captured  the  city  in 
1643,  arid  the  fortifications  were  destroyed  by 
order  of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1648.  The 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1497.  The 
spire  of  the  cathedral  was  blown  down  Feb 
21,  1861. 

CHICKAHOMINY  (Battles).— The  advanced 
guard  of  the  Federal  army,  under  Gen.  Casey, 
was  attacked  by  the  Confederates  under  Gen 
Lee  at  Fair  Oaks,  on  the  Chickahominy,  about 
seven  miles  from  Richmond,  May  31,  1862. 
The  Federals,  who  were  totally  defeated,  lost 
all  their  baggage  and  camp-equipage,  with 
19  guns.  They  pushed  forward  fresh  bodies  of 
men,  and  compelled  the  Confederates  to  seek 
shelter  in  their  entrenchments  before  Rich- 
mond, June  i.  A  second  series  of  battles, 
sometimes  styled  the  "Seven  Days  of  Rich- 
mond," and  fought  near  the  same  river  later 
in  the  year,  are  also  called  the  battles  of  the 
Chickahominy.  They  commenced  Wednesday, 
June  25,  1862,  when  the  Federal  left  wing, 
under  Gen.  Hooker,  attacked  the  Confederates 
at  White  Oak  swamp,  and  encountez-ed  a  vigo- 
rous resistance.  Gen.  "Stonewall"  Jackson 
attacked  the  right  wing  of  the  Federals  at 
Mechanicsville,  June  26,  driving  them  across 
the  river  to  Po white  swamp.  Gens.  Hill  and 
Longstreet  crossed  the  river  June  27,  and 
being  joined  by  Lee  and  Jackson,  took  up 
their  position  at  Gaines's  Mill,  where  a  despe- 
rate encounter  took  place,  which  resulted  in 
the  defeat  and  further  retreat  of  McClellan. 
Gen.  Lee  occupied  the  Federal  head-quarters 
at  White  House,  June  28,  and  McClellan  com- 
menced a  retreat  towards  the  James  River. 
He  was  again  attacked,  June  29,  by  the  Con- 
federate Gen.  Hill,  at  Savage's  Station,  and 
another  severe  encounter  took  place  on  the 
James  River  June  30.  The  next  battle,  fought 
July  i,  and  known  as  the  battle  of  Mal- 
vern  Hill,  terminated  the  series  of  contests, 
McClellan  having  taken  up  a  position  at 
Harrison's  Bar,  or  Turkey  Bend,  where  he  was 
protected  by  the  Federal  gunboats.  The  total 
loss  of  the  Federals  in  these  engagements  was 
20,000  men. 

CHICKAMAUGA  (Battle).— Gen.  Bragg  de- 
feated the  Federals,  under  Gen.  Rosencrantz, 
on  the  banks  of  Chickamauga  Creek,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Tennessee  River,  on  Saturday  and 
Sunday,  Sep.  19  and  20,  1863.  The  Federals 
lost  8,000  prisoners,  15,000  stands  of  arms, 
and  51  cannon,  besides  killed  and  wounded. 
Gen.  Bragg  estimated  his  losses  at  two-fifths 
of  his  army,  several  Confederate  generals 
being  among  the  slain. 
CHIEF  BARON.— (See  EXCHEQUER.) 
CHIEF  JUSTICE.— (See  KING'S  or  QUEEN'S 
BENCH.) 


CHIEF    JUSTICIARY.  —  (See  JUSTICIARY, 
CHIEF.) 

CHIERASCO.— (See  CHERASCO.) 
CHIERI,  or  QUIERS  (Italy).— This  ancient 
town  of    Piedmont,   called  Carea  during  the 
later  years  of  the  Roman  empire,  became,  in 
the  6th  century,  a  small  independent  republic 
governed  by  one  Balbus,  whose  descendants 
maintained  their  supremacy  till  1347,  when  the 
inhabitants    transferred    their    allegiance    to 
Amadeus   V.    or  VI.,  Count  of    Savoy.      The 
church  of  St.  Dominico  was  built  in  1260,  and 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Scala  in  1405. 
Its  manufacture  of  fustians,   &c.,  dates  from 
1422.    The  fortress,  called  La  Rochetta,  was 
destroyed  in  the  i6th  century. 
CHIETL— (See  THEATINES.) 
CHILDERMAS.— (See  INNOCENTS'  DAY.) 
CHILDREN'S    CRUSADE.  — (See   PILGRIM- 
AGES.) 

CHILI  (South  America).— This  country,  the 
name  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
the  Peruvian  word  Tchili,  signifying  "snow," 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Incas  when  the 
Spaniards  commenced  the  conquest  of  Peru. 
Pizarro  sent  Almagro  to  subdue  Chili  in  1536, 
but  the  marshal,  as  he  was  called,  returned 
without  having  effected  his  object.  Pedro  de 
Valdivia  went  by  Pizarro's  order  in  1540.  He 
overran  the  country,  founded  the  city  of  San- 
tiago in  1541,  and  remained  there  12  years. 
The  people  maintained  a  struggle  against  the 
Spaniards  for  nearly  two  centuries,  and  the 
war  was  terminated  by  a  treaty  in  1722. 

L.D. 

.773.  The  Chilians  or  Chilenos  expel  the  Spaniards  from  a 
large  part  of  the  country. 

810,  Sep.  18.  They  declare  tlieir  independence. 

814.  The  Spaniards  regain  the  ascendancy. 

817,  Feb.  12.  The  Chilians  are  victorious  at  Chacabuco. 
1818,  Feb.  12.    National    independence    is  proclaimed    at 
Santiago.— April  5.  The  Spaniards  are  defeated  at 
Maipu  (q.  v.). 

833.  Mr.  Canning  recognizes  the  independence  of  Chili. 

833,  May  23-  The  constitution  is  promulgated. 
1844,  April  25.  A  treaty    is   signed  at  Madrid  by  which 

Chilian  independence  is  recognized  by  Spain. 
:848.  Attempts  are  ineffectually  made  to  abolish  restric- 
tions on  the  franchise. 

861,  Sep.  7.  Jose1  Joaquin  Perez  is  elected  president. 

863,  Dec.  8.  Several  lives  are  lost  in  the  burning  of  a 

church  at  Santiago  (q.  •».). 

864,  March    I.    Cessation  of    diplomatic  relations  with 

Bolivia  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  respecting 
the  Mejillones  or  Guano  Islands. 

865,  May  13.  Sencr  Tavira,  Spanish  minister  at  Santiago, 

complains  of  Chilian  sympathy  with  Peril.  (See 
CIUNCHA  ISLANDS  and  PERU.)— May  16.  The 
Chilian  foreign  minister  presents  his  explanation. 
— May  20.  It  is  declared  satisfactory  by  S.  Tavira. 
—July  25.  The  Madrid  Cabinet  repudiates  this 
settlement,  and  recalls  S.  Tavira.  —  Sep.  18. 
Admiral  Pareja,  on  the  anniversary  of  Chilian 
independence,  presents  an  insulting  ultimatum  to 
the  Government. — Sep.  23.  It  is  finally  rejected. — 
Sep.  24.  Pareja  declares  Valparaiso  and  the  other 
ports  of  the  republic  in  a  state  of  blockade. — 
Sep.  29.  Chili  declares  war.— Dec.  5.  A  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Peru  is  signed  at  Lima.— Dec.  30.  It 
is  ratified  at  Santiago. 

866,  Jan.  2.  The  Chilians  capture  the  crew  of  the  store- 

ship  Salvador  Vidal.    (See  PERU.) 

CHILIASTS.— (See  MILLENARIANS.) 
CHILLIANWALLAH  (Battle).— Lord  Gough, 
,t  the  head  of  22,000  men,  with  125  guns,  en- 
ountered  the  Sikh  army,  60,000  strong,  at 
his  village,  near  the  river  Chenab,  Jan.  13, 
849.  The  English  remained  masters  of  the 


CHILLON 


r  242 


CHINA 


field,  though  their  loss  was  severe,  amounting 
to  2,269  m  killed  and  wounded.  The  Sikhs 
lost  3,000  killed  and  4,000  wounded. 

CHILLON  (Switzerland).  —  This  fortress, 
erected  in  1238  by  Amadeus  III.,  Count  of 
Savoy,  on  a  rock  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
lake  of  Geneva,  was  the  scene  in  1273  of  a 
Savoyard  victory  over  the  Imperialists.  Bon- 
nivard,  Prior  of  St.  Victor,  having  incurred- 
the  displeasure  of  Charles  III.,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
by  his  exertions  to  free  the  Genevese  from  the 
Savoyard  yoke,  was  seized  by  the  ducal  emis- 
saries in  1530,  and  secretly  confined  in  the 
deepest  dungeon  of  the  castle,  whence  he  was 
released  in  1536,  when  Chillon  was  besieged 
and  taken  by  the  Swiss.  The  castle  became  a 
state  prison  in  1733.  Lord  Byron's  poem  of 
"  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon"  was  written  at  the 
village  of  Ouchy,  near  Lausanne,  in  June,  1816, 
he  being  detained  there  for  two  days  by  stress 
of  weather.  It  does  not  relate  to  the  history 
of  Bonnivard,  with  which,  at  the  time  of 
writing,  the  poet  was  only  slightly  acquainted. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.— The  forests  on 
the  Chiltern  Hills,  in  Buckinghamshire,  were 
in  olden  times  infested  with  banditti,  and  an 
officer  called  the  steward  of  the  Chiltern 
Hundreds  was  appointed  to  prevent  their 
depredations,  and  protect  the  people  in  the 
neighbourhood.  This  office,  which  no  longer 
exists,  now  serves  to  enable  a  member  of  Par- 
liament, in  certain  cases,  to  vacate  his  seat. 
May  (Parliamentary  Practice^  thus  explains 
the  practice  : — "  It  is  a  settled  principle  of 
parliamentary  law,  that  a  member,  after  he  is 
duly  chosen,  cannot  relinquish  his  seat ;  and 
in  order  to  evade  this  restriction,  a  member 
who  wishes  to  retire  accepts  office  under  the 
crown,  which  legally  vacates  his  seat,  and 
obliges  the  house  to  order  a  new  writ.  The 
offices  usually  selected  for  this  purpose  arc 
those  of  steward  or  bailiff  of  her  Majesty's  three 
Chiltern  Hundreds  of  Stoke,  Desborough,  and 
Bonenham,  or  of  the  manors  of  East  Hendred, 
Northstead,  or  Hempholme,  which,  though 
sometimes  refused,  are  given  by  the  Treasury 
in  ordinary  cases  to  any  member  who  applies 
for  them ;  and  are  resigned  again  as  soon  as 
their  purpose  is  effected."  The  legality  of  the 
practice,  which  sprang  up  in  1750,  is  doubted, 
as  the  office  is  not  one  of  those  for  which  the 
occupant  is  required  to  vacate  his  seat. 

CHIMNEY.—  Beckmann  contends  that  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  were  not  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  chimneys.  None  are  found  at 
Herculaneurn.  They  appear  to  have  warmed 
their  rooms  by  means  of  a  large  fire-pan,  or 
portable  stove,  and  this,  filled  with  wood  well 
ignited,  or  burning  coals,  was  brought  into 
the  apartment.  Hot  air,  conveyed  by  means 
of  pipes,  seems  also  to  have  been  employed. 
There  were  no  chimneys  in  the  ioth  and  nth 
centuries.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a  fire  was  made 
in  a  hole  or  pit  in  the  centre  of  the  floor,  and 
the  smoke  escaped  through  an  opening  in  the 
roof.  A  fireplace  occurs  in  Rochester  Castle, 
built  about  1130,  but  some  believe  the  first 
authentic  account  of  chimneys  is  to  be  found 
in  an  inscription  at  Venice,  relating  that  in 
the  year  1347  many  chimneys  were  thrown 
down  by  an  earthquake.  The  first  chimneys 


at  Rome  were  erected  by  order  of  Francesco 
de  Carrara  in  1368.  In  a  manuscript  giving 
an  account  of  manners  and  customs  in  Eng- 
land, written  about  the  year  1678,  it  is  stated 
that,  before  the  Reformation,  "ordinary  men's 
houses,  as  copyholders  and  the  like,  had  no 
chimneys,  but  flues  like  louver  holes ;  some 
of  them  were  in  being  when  I  was  a  boy." 
Chimneys  did  not  come  into  general  use  in 
Prance  until  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century. 

CHIMNEY  TAX,  or  HEARTH-MONEY  (q.  v.}, 
was  levied  by  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  10  (1662). 
It  proved  so  obnoxious,  that  it  was  abolished 
by  i  Will.  &  Mary,  sess.  i,  c.  10  (1689). 

CHIMNEY-  SWEEPERS.— Chimneys  were 
at  first  swept  with  a  little  brushwood  fastened 
to  a  rope.  As  the  flues  were  made  narrower, 
boys  began  to  be  employed.  The  first  chim- 
ney-sweepers were  lads  from  Savoy  and  Pied- 
mont. In  consequence  of  the  numerous  acci- 
dents that  happened  to  boys,  a  machine  for 
sweeping  chimneys  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land towards  the  close  of  the  i8th  century, 
and  a  society  formed  for  encouraging  the 
sweeping  of  chimneys  without  the  use  of 
boys.  By  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  85  (Aug.  7,  1840),  any 
person  compelling  or  allowing  a  child  or  young 
person  under  the  age  of  21  years  to  ascend 
or  descend  a  chimney  after  July  i,  1842,  was 
made  liable  to  a  penalty  of  not  more  than  £10 
or  less  than  £5.  It  was  amended  by  27  &  28 
Viet.  c.  37  (June  30,  1864),  which  took  effect 
from  Nov.  i,  1864. 

CHINA  (Asia).  —  The  annalists  of  this 
country,  called  the  "  Celestial  empire,"  trace 
its  history  to  the  remotest  antiquity.  Rjmusat, 
accepting  their  statements,  expresses  his  be- 
lief that  it  goes  back  with  certainty  to  the 
22iicl  century  before  our  sera,  and  that  the  date 
of  its  commencement,  according  to  traditions 
worthy  of  credit,  may  be  fixed  even  earlier, 
namely,  at  B.C.  2637.  Gibbon  (ch.  xxvi.),  who 
says  the  sera  of  the  Chinese  monarchy  has 
been  variously  fixed  from  B.C.  2952  to  B.C.  2132, 
adds  that  the  historical  period  does  not  ascend 
above  the  Greek  Olympiads.  This,  however, 
is  considered  much  too  early,  and  the  best  au- 
thorities fix  the  commencement  of  the  histo- 
rical period  at  the  beginning  of  the  Han. 
dynasty,  B.C.  203.  The  northern  and  southern 
empires,  the  former  ruled  by  the  Great 
Khan,  and  the  latter  by  the  Chinese,  from 
1234  to  1279,  were  called  Cathay  and  Magni. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  Cathay  was 
sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  country. 
China  is  the  most  extensive  empire  in  the 
world.  Mr.  S.  Wells  Williams  (The  Middle 
Kingdom)  gives  the  following  estimates  of 
the  amount  of  population,  at  different  periods, 
according  to  undermentioned  authorities  : — 

Inhabitants. 

1711.  Chinese  Repository   38,605,716 

1736.  Grosier,  De  Guignes 125,046,345 

1743.      Ditto 157,343,975 

1753.  Chinese  Repository  103,050,060 

1760.  Yih-tung-chi 143,135,225 

1760.  De  Guignes 303,916,477 

1761.  Ditto 205,293,053 

1763.  Allerstain,  Grosier,  De  Guignes    198,314,553 

1790.  Chinese  Repository  l55,349,8'/7 

1793.  Dr.  Morrison    307,467,300 

1793.  Macartney   333,000,000 

1813.  Chinese  Repository  363,467,183 


CHINA 


CHINA 


B.C. 

2700.  The  first  Chinese  cycle. 

2357.  Accession  of  the  Emperor  Yao,  who  is  said  to  have 

reigned  100  years. 
3317.  Commencement  of   the  Hia  dynasty,  according  to 

l)u  Halde. 
3198.  Commencement  of  the  Ilia  dynasty,   according  to 

"L'Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates." 

—651.  Earliest  date  in  Se-ma-tsein's  History  of  China. 
550.  Birth  of  Confucius. 

246.  All  Chinese  books  are  ordered  to  be  burned. 
21 1.  Completion  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China, 
20%.  Printing  is  known  in  China. 
2co.  A  Jewish  settlement  is  made  in  China. 
170.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Tartars. 
24.  Supposed  Chinese  embassy  at  Rome. 
15.  The  Taou-tse  sect  of  philosophers  attain  great  in- 
fluence. 
A.D. 
65.  The  religious  belief  in  Boodh,  or  Fo,  is  introduced 

into  China. 

94.  The  Emperor  Hoty  sends  an  envoy  to  Arabia. 
166.  Chinese  historians  report  the  arrival  at  the  Chinese 
court  of  an  embassy  from  Anthon,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Emperor  Antoninus. 
184.  China  is  divided  into  three  separate  states. 
265.  China  is  reunited  into  one  kingdom,  under  the  Tsin 

dynasty. 

420.  The  seat  of  government  is  established  at  Nankin. 
635.  Christianity  is  preached  by  the  Nestorian  bishops. 
845.  Expulsion  of  the  Nestorian  Christians. 
851-877.  China  is  visited  by  Arab  travellers. 
1334.   The  Mongols  obtain  possession  of  the  northern  half 

of  China. 

1345.  The  first  European  mention  of    China  is  made  by 
friar  John  de  Piano  Carpini,  missionary  to    the 
Mongols. 
1253.  Rubuquis    is    sent    by    Louis     IX.    of    France    as 

missionary  to  the  court  of  the  Great  Khan. 
1360.  Kublat  Khan  rebuilds  Pekin  (q.  v.),  and  makes  it  his 

capital. 

1378.  The  grand  canal  is  commenced. 
1380.  Kublui  Khan  obtains  possession  of  the  whole  empire, 

and  founds  the  Mongol  or  Yuen  dynasty. 
1388.  Giovanni   di   Monte   Corvino,  papal  legate    at   the 

court  of  the  Grand  Khan,  dies  at  I'ekin. 
1395.  Marco  Polo  arrives  in  Venice,  after  having  resided 

17  years  in  China. 

1317.  Oderico  de  Pordenone  travels  in  China. 
1324.  The  Arab  Ibn  Batatu  arrives  in  China,  of  which  he 

publishes  a  correct  description. 
1368.  Restoration  of   a   Chinese    dynasty  by   Choo,   who 

commences  the  Ming  family  of  emperors. 
1405,  Feb.  1 8.  Timour  the  Tartar,  who  set  out  to  invade 

China,  dies  on  the  march. 
1420.  A  -Persian  embassy  arrives  in  China. 
1517,  Aug.  15.  The  Portuguese,  under  Andrade,  arrive  at 
the  island  of  Tamaiig,  three  miles  from  the  main- 
land. 

1521,  Jan.  Thomas  Pires,  Portuguese  ambassador  at  the 
Court  of  China,  falls  into  disgrace,  and  is  im- 
prisoned at  Canton.  His  countrymen  are  for- 
bidden to  enter  the  empire. 

'537-  The  Portuguese  obtain  a  footing  at  Macao. 
1543.  A  Spanish   colony  is  established   at  Manilla,    and 

intercourse  commenced  with  Chinese  merchants. 
1556.  Friar  Diego  Bernardo  conducts  a   religious  mission 

into  China. 
1565.  A  Spanish  fleet  arrives  at  the  island  of  Zebu. 

1575,  July  5-  The  Jesuit  missionaries,  Martin  de  Herrada 

and  Geronimo  Marin,  land  at  Gan-hai. 

1576,  June  21.  Alvaro  and  other  Augustine  monks  arrive 

at  Canton. 

1581.  Martin  Ignatius  conducts  a  Franciscan  mission  to 
China. 

1556.  Queen  Elizabeth  despatches  a  fleet  to  China.  The 
vessels  are  wrecked  on  the  voyage  out. 

1600.  The  Jesuit  Matteo  Ricci  obtains  the  emperor's  per- 
mission to  settle  in  Pekin. 

1624.  The  Dutch  open  a  trade  with  China.  (See  FORMOSA.) 

1637,  May  28.  The  British  attempt  to  trade  at  Macao,  but 
are  prevented  by  the  Portuguese. 

1649.  Li  Kong  deposes  the  last  Ming  sovereign,  and 
establishes  the  Mantchoo  Tartar  dynasty. 

1664.  The  British  again  attempt  to  trade  with  China,  but 

1680.  The  East  India  Company  open  a  factory  at  Canton. 
1689.  Trade  is  opened  with  Russia. 


A.D. 

1693.  In  consequence  of  the  exertions  of  the  Jesuits,  the 

Emperor    Kanghy    issues    a    decree     permitting 

Christianity. 

1693.  A  Russian  embassy  arrives  in  China. 
1700.  Limpo,  Amoy,  and  Canton  are  opened  to   British 

commerce. 
1708,  July  4.  The  Jesuits  commence  a  survey  of  China. 

1718.  They  complete  a  general  map  of  the  empire,  which 

they  present  to  the  emperor. 

1719.  Peter  the  Great  despatches  Ismaloff  on  an  embassy 

to  China. 

1723.  Christianity  is  prohibited  by  the  Emperor  Yoong-t- 
ching,  who  expels  the  Jesuits. 

1727.  Catherine  I.  of  Russia  concludes  a  treaty  with  the 
emperor,  and  forms  an  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment and  regular  embassy  at  Pekin. 

1755.  European  intercourse  is  restricted  to  Canton. 

1784,  Nov.  24.  A  Chinese  is  killed  by  a  loaded  gun  acci- 

dentally fired  as  a  salute. 

1785,  Jan.  8.  The  gunner  is  seized,  and  strangled. 

1792,  Sep.  26.  Lord  Macartney  sets  sail  from  Portsmouth. 

1793,  July.  Lord  Macartney  arrives  at  Chusan. — Sep.  14. 

He  has  an  interview  with  the  ernpeior  at  Zhehol. 

1794,  March   17.  Lord  Macartney  sets  sail  for  England.— 

Sep.  6.     He  lands. 

1800.  An  affray  takes  place  between  the  crew  of  H.  M.  S. 
Providence  and  some  Chinese,  in  which  one  of 
the  latter  is  wounded. 

1802.  The  first  American  consul  in  China  is  allowed  to 
reside  at  Canton. 

1807.  Trade  with  England  is  stopped  for  a  time,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  death  of  a  native  in  a  skirmish 
with  the  crew  of  the  ship  Neptune. 

1814,  Oct.  20.  Sir  George  Staunton  compels  the  imperia  I 
viceroy  to  allow  the  English  to  correspond  under 
seal  and  in  Chinese  with  the  government,  and 
also  to  promise  that  British  factories  shall  not  be 
entered  by  Chinese  officers  without  previous  per- 
mission. 

1816,  Feb.  10.  Lord  Amherst's  embassy  leaves  England.— 
Aug.  12.  It  reaches  Tien-tsin,  where  his  lordship 
refuses  to  perform  the  humiliating  ko-tow,  or 
prostration,  before  the  emperor,  and  consequently 
returns  without  accomplishing  the  results  of  the 
mission. 

1821,  Dec.  15.  The  crew  of  H.M.S.  Topaze  are  attacked  by 

the  Chinese,  who  lose  two  men  in  the  struggle, 
and  attempt  to  put  a  stop  to  trade  in  consequence. 

1822,  Feb.  23.  Trade  is  recommenced  on  its  old  footing. 

1834,  April  22.  Termination  of  the  East  India  Company's 

monopoly  of  the  trade  with  China. — July  25. 
Arrival  at  Canton  of  Lord  Napier,  chief  com- 
missioner, to  superintend  British  trade  with 
China. — Sep.  5.  Lord  Napier  sends  for  a  guard  of 
marines,  in  consequence  of  the  injuries  inflicted 
on  his  residence,  &c.,  by  the  natives. — Sep.  7.  .The 
forts  at  Canton,  which  fire  on  two  English  men- 
of-war,  are  soon  silenced.— Oct.  II.  Death  of  Lord 
Napier  at  Macao.  He  is  succeeded  by  Mr.  (after- 
wards Sir)  J.  F.  Davis.— Nov.  3.  An  imperial  edict, 
prohibiting  the  opium  trade,  is  issued. 

1835,  Jan.   31.  The   Chinese  seize  a  boat  and  its  crew 

belonging  to  the  British  merchant-ship  Argyle. 

1837,  Mareh  18.  The  emperor  allows  the  residence  of  a 

British  commissioner  at  Canton. — Nov.  29.  Capt. 
Elliot  strikes  the  British  flag  at  Canton,  and 
retires  to  Macao. 

1838,  Jan.    The  insurrection  of  the  Meaou-tsze  is  sup- 

pressed by  the  imperial  troops. — July  12.  Admiral 
Sir  F.  Maitland  arrives  at  Tunkoo.— Dec.  4.  Dis- 
turbance and  stoppage  of  trade  in  consequence  of 
persistence  in  the  opium  traffic. 

1839,  March  10.  Arrival  of  Commissioner  Lin   at  Canton. 

— March  18.  He  issues  an  edict  for  the  seizure  of 
opium. — March  19.  The  British  are  forbidden  to 
leave  Canton.— March  27.  Capt.  Elliot  requires  the 
surrender  of  all  opium  in  the  possession  of  British 
subjects,  and  promises  that  they  shall  receive  its 
full  value  from  Government. — April  8.  Half  the 
opium  is  given  over  to  the  Chinese. — May  5. — 
Passage  from  Canton  is  open  to  all  English 
merchants,  except  16,  who  are  detained  as  hos- 
tages.—May  21.  The  remaining  20,283  chests  of 
opium  are  delivered  up.— May  24.  Capt.  Elliot  and 
the  British  merchants  leave  Canton. — June.  The 
Chinese  destroy  the  opium.— July  7.  A  Chinaman 
is  killed  in  a  fray  with  British  and  American 
seamen.  —  Aug.  17.  The  Chinese  attack  and 
B  2 


CHINA 


[     244 


CHINA 


A.D. 

murder  the  crew  of  the  British  schooner  Black 
Joke. — Aug.  2,6.  British  residents  at  Macao  are 
ordered  to  quit  in  13  hours. — Sep.  4.  Sea-fight 
between  the  British  and  Chinese  in  the  bay  of 
Coalloon.  No  decisive  result.— Nov.  3.  War  is 
commenced  by  the  naval  action  at  Chumphee. 
The  Volage  and  Hyacinth  disable  29  war-junks, 
sinking  three  and  blowing  up  one. — Dec.  6.  Edict 
of  the  emperor,  prohibiting  all  intercourse  with 
England. 

1840,  Jan.  5.    Imperial  edict,  declaring  the  English  out- 

lawed.— Jan.  14.  Projected  massacre  of  the 
English.— Feb.  38.  Attempt  to  burn  the  British 
fleet  in  Tongkoo  Bay  by  means  of  fire-junks. — 
May  33.  The  Hellas  is  attacked  by  pirates. — June  9. 
Another  unsuccessful  attempt  to  bum  the  British 
fleet  at  Capsingmoon.  —  June  38.  Canton  is 
blockaded  by  Sir  Gordon  Bremer. — July  3.  The 
Blonde,  with  a  flag  of  truce  hoisted,  is  fired  on 
by  the  Chinese  at  Amoy.  —  July  5.  Capture  of 
Chusan  (?.«.). — Aug.  6.  Mr.  Stanton  is  seized  by 
the  Chinese,  and  carried  prisoner  to  Canton.— 
Sep.  16.  Seizure  of  Capt.  Anstruther,  and  wreck 
of  the  Kite,  the  crew  of  which,  with  the  captain's 
wife,  are  made  prisoners,  and  treated  with  great 
cruelty.— Oct.  17.  Lin  receives  orders  to  hand  over 
his  seals  of  office  to  Commissioner  Keshen. — Nov.  6. 
A  truce  is  proclaimed.— Nov.  10.  Release  of  Mr. 
Stanton.  —  Nov.  39.  Admiral  Elliot  resigns  the 
command  of  the  fleet. 

1841,  Jan.   6.  The  negotiations  are  broken   off,  owing  to 

the  procrastination  of  the  Chinese. — Jan.  7.  Two 
of  the  Bogue  forts  are  taken  by  the  British. — 
Jan.  30.  Kesheu  cedes  Hong-Kong  (q.  v.)  to  the 
British,  and  agrees  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 
6,000,000  dollars.— Jan.  37.  The  emperor  disavows 
the  treaty. — Feb.  33.  Recommencement  of  hosti- 
lities.— Feb.  36.  Destruction  of  the  Bogue  forts  by 
Sir  Gordon  Bremer.  Keshen  is  degraded  by  an 
imperial  edict,  and  ordered  to  be  conveyed  to 
Pekin  for  trial.— March  I.  The  English  fleet 
ascends  the  Pekiang  to  Canton. — March  3.  Sir 
Hugh  Gough  assumes  command  of  the  forces.— 
March  3.  Another  truce. — March  13.  The  de- 
fences of  Canton  are  sei/.ed  by  the  British. — 
March  18.  The  forts  and  factories  at  Canton  are 
seized  by  the  British,  and  a  Chinese  flotilla  is 
destroyed.— March  30.  A  truce  is  agreed  upon  be- 
tween Capt.  Elliot  and  the  imperial  commissioner 
Yang. — April  14.  Arrival  of  Yihshan,  the  non- 
imperial  commissioner. — May  31.  The  Chinese 
attempt  to  burn  the  fleet  at  Canton  with  fire- 
rafts.— May  34.  The  British,  under  SirLe  Fleming 
Senhouse,  attack  Canton,  and  gain  the  heights 
behind  the  city  the  next  day.— May  27-  Capt. 
Elliot  abandons  the  attack,  and  a  ransom  of 
6,000,000  dollars  is  paid  to  the  British  Government. 
—June  14.  Death  of  Sir  Le  Fleming  Senhouse.— 
July  16.  An  imperial  proclamation  re-opening 
British  trade,  is  issued.— Aug.  10.  Sir  H.  Pottinger, 
the  new  British  plenipotentiary,  lands  at  Macao, 
and  soon  after  captures  Amoy  (q  .v.),  Chusan 
(q.  v.),  Chin-hae  (q.  v.),  and  Ningpo  (q.  v.). — Dec.  38. 
Capture  of  the  district  cities  of  Yuyao,  Tsikee,  and 
Funghwa. 

1843,  March  10.  The  Chinese  make  a  futile  attempt  to  re- 
cover Ningpo  and  Chin-hae. — March  15.  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  defeats  a  Chinese  force  of  about  8,000 
men  at  Tse-kee. — May  7.  Evacuation  of  Ningpo 
by  the  British. — May  18.  Capture  of  Chapoo.— 
June  16.  Capture  of  Woosung,  on  the  Yang-tze- 
kiang. — June  19.  Capture  of  Shang-hai. — July  31. 
Storming  and  capture  of  Chin-keang-foo. — 
Aug.  6.  The  English  fleet  takes  its  station  before 
Nankin  (q.  v.). — Aug.  15.  Arrival  of  Ke-ying,  the 
imperial  commissioner,  with  powers  to  treat  for 
peace. — Aug.  39.  The  treaty  of  Nankin  (q.  v.)  puts 
an  end  to  the  first  Chinese  war. — Sep.  16.  H.M.S. 
Auckland  leaves  Nankin  with  the  emperor's  rati- 
fication of  the  treaty.— Oct.  17.  Dedication  at 
Hong-Kong  of  the  first  Protestant  place  of 
worship  in  China. — Dec.  7.  Riots  at  Canton,  and 
destruction  of  the  European  factories. 

1843,  June  36.  Hong-Kong  is  placed  under  the  governorship 
of  Sir  H.  Pottinger.— July  37.  Canton  is  opened  to 
the  British,  under  the  regulations  of  the  treaty  of 
Nankin.— Oct.  8.  Supplementary  treaty  of  Hoinum- 


A.D. 

1844,  May  7.  Arrival  at  Hong-Kong  of  Mr.  Davis,  Sir  H. 
Pottinger's  successor  as  British  governor-general 
in  China. 

1846,  April  4.  Treaty  of  Bocca  Tigris. — July  8.  Fracas  at 

Canton  between  the  natives  and  English  residents. 

1847,  April  3.  The   English  residents  at  Canton  present  a 

list  of  their  grievances  to  Sir  John  Davis.— Aprils. 
A  British  force,  under  Gen.  d'Aguilar,  destroys 
the  Bogue  forts,  threatens  Canton,  and  compels 
the  Chinese  commissioner,  Ke-ying,  to  accede 
to  the  demands  of  the  governor. — Dec.  5.  The 
natives  seize  and  murder  six  English  residents. 
Sir  John  Davis  afterwards  obtains  the  execution 
of  the  criminals. 

1850,  Oct.  3.  The  first  battle  of  the  Tae-ping  rebellion  is 

fought. — Oct.  20.  The  great  piratical  fleet  of 
Shapng-tsai  is  destroyed  in  the  bay  of  Tonquin, 
by  H.M.S.  Columbine  and  Fury,  and  the  E.I.C. 
steam  -sloop  PMegeUion.  —  Nov.  5.  Commissioner 
Lin,  who  is  despatched  against  the  Tae-pings,  dies 
on  the  journey. 

1851,  April  ii.  Defeat  of  the  rebels  at  the  Kew-heen-heu 

ferry. — Nov.  30.  Organization  of  the  Tae-ping 
army. 

1852,  May   19.  The  rebels  raise  the  siege   of  Kweilin.— 

Dec.  30.  They  extend  their  conquests  to  the 
Yang-tze-kiang. 

1853,  Jan.    12.  They  take  Woo-chang.— March  18.  Amoy 

submits  to  the  Tae-pings. — March  19.  Capture  of 
Nankin  by  the  rebels. — May  23.  Kae-fung  suc- 
cessfully resists  a  siege  by  the  rebels. — Sep.  7. 
They  enter  Shang-hai. — Nov.  I.  The  Tae-ping 
army  is  besieged  in  Tsing-hae. 

1854,  June  36.  The  rebels  retake  Woo-chang. 

1856,  Oct.   8.  The  Chinese  board  the  Arrow  lorcha.     (See 

CANTOX.) — Nov.  13  and  13.  Sir  M.  Seymour 
captures  all  the  Bogue  and  the  Annunghoy  forts. 
— Dec.  14.  The  foreign  factories  at  Canton  are 
burned  by  the  natives. 

1857,  Jan.  15.  An  attempt  is  made  to  poison  the  British 

residents  at  Hong-Kong,  by  mixing  arsenic 
with  bread.  —  May.  Commodore  Elliot  and 
Sir  M.  Seymour  destroy  the  Chinese  fleet  of 
war-junks  in  the  Canton  waters. — June  13.  A 
British  squadron  sets  fire  to  the  suburbs  of  Canton, 
and  retires  to  the  lower  part  of  the  river. — July. 
Lord  Elgin,  the  British  plenipotentiary,  arrives  at 
Hong-Kong.— Oct.  Baron  Gros,  the  French  pleni- 
potentiary, arrives  at  Canton. — Dec.  38.  Bom- 
bardment of  Canton  (q.  v.). 

1858,  Jan.  5.  The  victors  enter  Canton,  and  Capture  Yeh, 

Peh-kwei,  the  governor,  and  Tscang-keun,  the 
Tartar  general. — May  19.  The  allied  squadrons 
force  an  entrance  into  the  Peiho  River,  in  spite  of 
the  fire  of  the  Chinese  forts.— June  36.  The  treaty 
of  Tien-tsin  (q.  v.). — Aug.  II.  Capture  and  de- 
struction of  Fort  Namtow. 

1859,  May.  The  Hon.  Mr.  Bruce  arrives  at  Hong-Kong,  as 

her  Majesty's  minister  at  the  court  of  Pekin.— 
June  13.  A  commercial  treaty  is  made  with 
Russia.— June  24.  (SeePEiuo.) 

1860,  Expeditions  fitted  out  by  England  and   France  sail 

for  China. — March  8.  An  ultimatum  is  sent  by 
Mr.  Bruce  to  the  Chinese  government. — June  31. 
Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Gros  reach  Hong-Kong. — 
Aug.  31.  Capture  of  the  Taku  forts  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Peiho.— Aug.  33.  Tien-tsin  is  occupied.— 
Sep.  9.  The  expedition  leaves  Tien-tsin,  and  ad- 
vances on  Pekin. — Sep.  18.  Mr.  Parkes,  Mr.  De 
Norman,  and  party,  consisting  of  26,  including 
Sikhs  and  Europeans,  who  had  started  for  Tang- 
chow  under  a  flag  of  truce,  are  treacherously 
made  prisoners. — Oct.  6.  The  emperor's  summer 
palace  is  captured  and  sacked  by  the  French. — 
Oct.  8.  Mr.  Parkes  and  some  other  prisoners  are 
restored. — Oct.  13.  The  allies  prepare  to  open  fire 
on  Pekin,  when  the  Chinese  government  grant  all 
their  demands. — Oct.  24.  A  convention  is  signed  at 
Pekin.— Nov.  5.  The  allied  forces  evacuate  Pekin. 
—Nov.  14.  A  treaty  is  made  between  Russia  and 
China.— Dec.  27.  The  conclusion  of  peace  is  pro- 
claimed in  the  city  of  London. 

1861,  Aug.  22-  Death  of  the  Emperor  Hien-fung  at  Ye-hol. 

He  is  succeeded  by  his  only  son  Tsai-sun,  aged 
six  years,  who  assumes  the  name  of  Ki-tsiang.— 
Sep.  3.  A  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce,  and 
navigation  is  concluded  at  Tien-tsin  with  Prussia, 
the  Zollverein,  and  the  Hanse  towns. 


CHINA 


[    245    ] 


CHIPPAWA 


A.D. 

l«6i,  Oct.  15.  The  allies  quit  Tien-tsin.— Oct.  31.  They  leave 
Canton. — Nov.  3.  Prince  Kung  suppresses  the 
council  of  regency,  and  places  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  cabinet. — Dec.  o.  Niugpo  is  seized  by 
the  rebels. 

1863,  March   I.    The  imperialist  forces,    assisted   by  the 

English  and  French,  defeat  the  Tae-ping  rebels, 
near  Shang-hai.— May  3.  The  Tae-pings  are  de- 
feated with  great  loss.  — May  17.  The  city  of 
Kekio  is  taken  by  the  allies,  the  French  Admiral 
Protet  being  killed  in  the  assault.— May  gi. 
Naiigpo  and  Trangpon  are  recovered  from  the 
Tae-pings  by  the  imperialists. — Aug.  13.  Macao  is 
ceded  to  the  Portuguese.— Oct.  33.  The  imperialists 
expel  the  Tae-piugs  from  Kah-sing. 

1864,  March  31.  TheTue-pmgs  evacuate  Hang-tcheou-fou, 

which  is  occupied  by  the  imperialists. — July  19. 
Capture  of  Nankin  by  the  imperialists,  and  death 
of  the  Tae-ping  leader  Tieng- Wang.— Oct.  lo.  A 
commercial  treaty  is  concluded  at  Tien-tsin  with 
Spain,  which  is  permitted  to  send  a  diplomatic 
agent  to  the  court  of  Pekin,  and  to  trade  with 
the  Philippine  islands. 

1865,  Jan.    15   and   16.    The    Dounganes,    Mohammedan 

insurgents  of  north-westem  China,  seize  Tarba- 
gatai  or  Tschougoutschak.— Alarch  31.  Prince 
Kung  is  relieved  of  his  functions  as  minister 
president  of  the  council  of  state. — May.  He  is 
restored  to  office.— June.  The  imperialists  take 
Tchang-tcheon,  and  subdue  the  Tae-pings  in  the 
province  of  Fukieou.  The  Nien-fei,  or  northern 
rebels,  aiming  at  the  subversion  of  the  reigning 
dynasty,  advance  upon  Pekin. — Dec.  Resignation 
of  the  empress  dowager. 


LIST  OF  DYNASTIES. 


B.C. 

I.—  3198.  Hia. 

3.— 1766.  Chang. 

3—  mo.  Tcheou. 

4. —  346.  Tsin. 

5.—  303.  Han. 
A.D. 

6. —  23i.  Heou-Han. 

7.—  365.  Tsin. 

8. —  430.  Song. 

9-—  479-  Tsi. 
io.—  503.  Lcang. 
ll.—  557.  Tchin. 


A.D. 

13.—  590.  Souy. 
13.—  619.  Tang. 
14. —  907.  Heou-Leang. 
I5-~  923-  Heou-Tang. 
JO-—  937-  Heou-Tsin. 
17. —  947.  Heou-Han. 
18. —  951.  Heou-Cheou. 
19.—  960.  Song. 
30.— 1380.  Yuen. 
31.— 1368.  Ming. 
33.— 1644.  Tsin. 


EMPERORS   OF  THE   REIGNING   DYNASTY. 


A.D. 

1649.  Shun-che. 

1663.  Kang-hy. 

1733.  Yoong-t-ching. 

1735-  Kien-long. 


A.D. 

1795.  Kea-king. 
1830.  Taou-kwang. 
1850.  Hien-fung. 
1861.  Ki-tsiang. 


CHINA  or  CHINESE  APPLE  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1780. 

CHINA  ROBE  was  first  grown  in  England 
in  the  year  1789. 

CHINA-WARE.— The  art  of  making  porce- 
lain was  known  in  China  nearly  two  centuries 
before  the  Christian  sera.  For  a  long  time  the 
Chinese  supplied  Europe  with  this  ware, 
whence  its  name.  The  ships  of  the  East  India 
Company  first  imported  it  in  1631. 

CHINCHA  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean),  situ- 
ated off  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  valuable  for 
their  immense  deposits  of  guano,  were  seized 
by  the  Spaniards,  April  14,  1864.  The  Spanish 
admiral's  ship  was  burned  and  foundered  here, 
Nov.  26,  1864.  Peace  having  been  concluded  at 
Callao,  Jan.  28,  1865,  between  Spain  and  Peru, 
the  islands  were  restored  Feb.  3.  The  Chinese 
labourers  rebelled  in  Feb.,  1866. 

CHINESE  YAM.— This  esculent  root,  the 
Dioscorea  batatas  of  naturalists,  was  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Acclimatisation  Society  in 
May,  1 86 1. 


CHINGLEPUT  (Jrliiidostan;.— This  town,  near 
Madras,  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1751. 
Clive  retook  it  after  a  short  siege,  Oct.  31,  1752. 
Hyder  Ali  besieged  it  in  1780,  and  was  driven 
away  by  Sir  E.  Coote  Jan.  18,  1781. 

CHIN-HAE  (China).— This  town  was  taken 
by  the  English  army  Oct.  9,  1841,  when  157  guns 
were  captured.  An  attack  made  by  the  Chinese 
on  the  gates  of  the  city,  March  io,  1842,  was 
repulsed. 

CHIN-KEANG-FOO  (China).— This  city  was 
taken  by  the  English,  after  a  gallant  defence, 
July  21,  1842.  The  rebels  took  the  city  April 
i,  1853,  and  evacuated  it  early  in  1857. 

CHINON  (France).— Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  im- 
prisoned in  the  castle  of  Chinon  by  his  brother 
Fulk,  in  1068,  remained  there  until  1096.  Henry 
II.  of  England  died  at  Chinon  July  6,  1189. 
His  son,  King  John,  concluded  a  truce  for  five 
years  with  Philip  II.  of  France  at  this  place, 
Sep.  18,  1214.  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans, 
arrived  at  this  town,  where  Charles  VII.  was 
holding  his  court,  Feb.  24,  1429.  She  appeared 
before  Charles  VII.  Feb.  26,  and  announced  her 
mission  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans  and  crown 
him  king  at  Rheims. 

CHINSURA  (Hindostan).— The  Dutch,  who 
formed  a  factory  at  this  place  on  the  Hooghley 
near  Calcutta  in  1656,  were  soon  after  expelled 
by  the  native  authorities.  They  returned  in 
1686.  The  English  took  it  in  1795,  and  restored 
it  to  the  Dutch  in  1814.  By  the  8th  and  gth 
articles  of  a  treaty  concluded  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  Netherlands,  March  17,  1824, 
it  was,  with  other  places,  ceded  to  England  in 
exchange  for  some  possessions  in  Sumatra. 
The  Hooghley  College  was  established  in  1836. 

CHIOGGIA,  or  CHIOZZA  (N.  Italy).— This 
town  was  besieged  in  1366.  An  engagement 
took  place  between  the  Genoese  and  Venetian 
fleets  off  the  coast  in  May,  1379.  The  latter 
were  defeated  with  great  loss.  The  island  and 
city  of  Chioggia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ge- 
noese. Their  fleet  was  blockaded  by  the  Vene- 
tians in  the  port,  and  the  Genoese  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender  in  1380,  when  the  island 
was  restored  to  Venice. 

CHIOS  (Mge&n  Sea).— This  island  was, 
according  to  tradition,  peopled  by  the  Pelas- 
gians.  Its  inhabitants  joined  the  Ionic  con- 
federation. The  Persians  invaded  Chios  and 
committed  great  devastation  B.C.  493.  The 
Chians  revolted  from  the  Athenians  B.C.  412, 
and  the  latter  ravaged  the  island.  They  again 
threw  off  the  Athenian  yoke  B.C.  357.  Philip 
V.  captured  Chios  B.C.  201.  The  Chians  re- 
mained in  friendly  alliance  with  the  Romans 
for  many  years.  Their  island  is  supposed,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  included  in  the  Insularum 
Provincia,  established  by  Vespasian.  The  chief 
city,  also  called  Chios,  claims  the  honour  of 
being  the  birthplace  of  Homer.  Its  modern 
name  is  Scio  (q.  v.). 

CHIPPAWA  (Battles).— Gen.  Riall,  at  the 
head  of  1,500  regular  troops,  besides  militia  and 
300  Indians,  sustained  a  defeat  at  this  place 
from  an  American  army  6,000  strong,  with  a 

numerous  train,  of  artillery,  July  5,  1814. 

Gen.  Riall  having  been  reinforced  and  sup- 
ported by  Gen.  Drummond,  advanced  against 
the  Americans,  who  had  established  themselves 


CHIPPENHAM 


[    246    ] 


CHOBHAM 


at  Chippawa.  A  severe  action  took  place  July 
25,  in  which  Gen.  Riall  was  wounded.  The 
Americans  were,  however,  defeated,  and  aban- 
doned their  camp,  throwing  the  baggage  and 
E revisions  into  the  Rapids.  The  Americans 
ad  5,000  men  engaged,  and  the  English  2,800 
of  all  descriptions.  Several  hundred  prisoners 
were  taken. 

CHIPPENHAM  (Wilts)  was  a  place  of  inv 
portance  in  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings, 
some  of  whom  resided  here.  Ethelwulph 
celebrated  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Athel- 
switha  with  Burrhed,  King  of  Mercia,  in  this 
town,  in  853.  In  878  it  was  seized  by  the  Danes, 
who,  after  having  committed  great  ravages, 
were  expelled  by  Alfred.  In  Domesday  Book 
(1086),  it  is  mentioned  as  forming  part  of  the 
royal  possessions  both  before  and  after  the 
Conquest,  but  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  it 
belonged  to  the  Hungcrford  family.  Chippen- 
ham  sent  two  members  to  Parliament  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  Its  charter,  dated  May  2, 
1554,  was  abolished  by  Charles  II.  in  1684. 
James  II.  restored  the  old  privileges  of  the 
borough  by  another  charter,  granted  March  13, 
1685.  Chipponham  cloth  won  the  first  prize  in 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 

CHISWICK  (Middlesex).— The  church  of  this 
suburban  village  is  supposed  to  date  from  the 
i2th  or  1 3th  century,  though  the  greater  part 
of  the  existing  structure  was  not  erected  till 
the  isth.  The  charity  schools  were  established 
in  1707.  Chiswick  House,  the  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  was  built  on  the  site  of  an 
Elizabethan  mansion  pulled  down  in  1788. 
The  Botanical  Gardens  were  established  in 
1822  (see  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIKTIKS),  and  the 
British  Schools  in  1836.  The  poet  Pope  and  his 
father  resided  here  from  1716  till  1719,  when 
they  removed  to  Twickenham.  Chiswick  was 
also  the  residence  of  William  Hogarth,  who 
died  Oct.  26,  1764,  and  whose  tombstone  in 
the  churchyard  bears  an  epitaph  by  David 
Garrick. 

CH1TORE  (Hindostan V— This  fortified  town, 
seated  on  the  summit  of  a  precipice,  was  at 
one  time  the  capital  of  Odeypoor.  The  Mo- 
hammedan emperor  of  Delhi  seized  it  in  1303, 
and  the  Rajpoots  recovered  it  in  1312.  The 
King  of  Guzerat  took  it  in  1533,  and  the  Em- 
peror Akbar  in  1567.  After  having  undergone 
varioiis  vicissitudes,  it  was,  in  1790,  restored 
to  the  ruler  of  Odeypoor. 

CHITTAGONG  (Hindostan).— The  revenues 
of  the  district  of  Chittagong,  and  of  other  dis- 
tricts, were  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company 
by  a  treaty  concluded  with  Mir  Casim,  Sep.  27, 
1760,  and  confirmed  by  Shah  Allum  in  1765. 
Its  capital,  of  the  same  name,  was  conquered  by 
Aurungzebe,  who  called  it  Islamabad. 

CHITTLEDROOG  (Hindostan).— Hyder  Ali 
failed  in  an  attack  upon  this  strong  fortress 
in  1776,  but  obtained  possession  in  1779.  In 
this  fortress  Tippoo  Saib  imprisoned  Gen. 
Matthews,  made  prisoner  at  the  capitulation  of 
Bednore,  April  30,  1783.  The  troops  stationed 
here  seized  the  military  treasure  Aug.  6,  1809. 

CHITTOOR  (Hindostan).— Hyder  Ali  took 
this  place,  in  Arcot,  in  Oct.,  1780.  Sir 
E.  Coote  laid  siege  to  it  Nov.  8,  1781,  and  it 
capitulated  Nov.  10.  It  came  under  British 


rule  in  1802,  and  the  native  chiefs  were  expelled 
in  1804. 

CHIVALRY. — "It  appears  probable,"  says 
Hallam,  "that  the  custom  of  receiving  arms 
at  the  age  of  manhood  with  some  solemnity 
was  of  immemorial  antiquity  among  the  nations 
that  overthrew  the  Roman  empire."  And  to 
this  he  traces  the  origin  of  chivalry,  adding 
that "  proofs,  though  rare  and  incidental,  might 
be  adduced  to  show  that  in  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne, and  even  eaiiier,  the  sons  of  monarchs 
at  least  did  not  assume  manly  arms  without  a 
regular  investiture.  And  in.  the  nth  century 
it  is  evident  that  this  was  a  general  practice." 
The  custom  for  feudal  tenants  to  serve  on  horse- 
back, equipped  with  the  coat  of  mail,  in  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  in  his  opinion  gave  birth 
to  the  institution.  The  connection  of  chivalry 
with  the  Crusades  gave  it  a  strong  religious 
tinge,  and  to  this,  devotion  to  the  female  sex 
was  udded,  so  that  the  love  of  God  and  of  the 
ladies  constituted  a  single  duty.  Its  chief 
virtues  were  loyalty,  courtesy,  and  munificence. 
"The  young  man,  the  squire,"  says  Guizot, 
"who  aspired  to  the  title  of  knight,  was  first 
divested  of  his  clothes,  and  put  into  the  bath, 
a  symbol  of  purification.  Upon  coming  out  of 
the  bath,  they  clothed  him  in  a  white  tunic,  a 
symbol  of  purity  ;  in  a  red  robe,  a  symbol  of 
the  blood  which  he  was  bound  to  shed  in  the 
service  of  the  faith ;  in  a  saga,  or  close  black 
coat,  a  symbol  of  the  death  which  awaited  him 
as  well  as  all  men."  Hallam  is  of  opinion  that 
the  invention  of  gunpowder  eventually  over- 
threw chivalry. 

CHIVALRY  (Court  of)  existed  at  a  very 
early  period,  though  no  records  of  its  history 
remain.  Its  jurisdiction  extended  over  matters 
of  honour  and  courtesy,  and  its  severest  penalty 
was  degradation  from  knighthood,  which  it 
only  decreed  in  three  cases  ;  that  of  Sir  Andrew 
Harclay  in  1322  being  the  first.  In  consequence 
of  abuses,  its  authority  was  defined  by  13  Rich. 
II.  stat.  i,  c.  2  (1389). 

CHIZE,  or  CHIZEY  (Battle).  —  Sir  John 
Devereaux,  who  came  to  the  relief  of  the  Eng- 
lish garrison  of  this  town  and  castle  in  France, 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Bertrand 
du  Guesclin  in  a  battle  fought  March  21,  1373. 
The  French  had  a  great  superiority  in  points, 
and  the  town  and  castle  of  Chizey  surrendered 
after  the  battle. 

CHLORINE.— This  elementary  gaseous  body 
was  in  1774  discovered  by  Scheele,  who  called 
it  "  dephlogisticated  muriatic  acid."  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  corrected  some  errors  that 
prevailed  respecting  its  nature  in  1809,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  chlorine  on  account  of  its 
greenish  hue.  Mr.  F.  Smith  introduced  an 
apparatus  for  making  chlorine  in  1847. 

CHLOROFORM.— This  fluid,  regarded  as  a 
compound  of  chlorine  and  f  ormyle,  whence  the 
name,  was  discovered  by  Soubeiran  in  1832. 
Its  true  composition  was  ascertained  by  Dumas 
and  Peligot  in  1835.  The  vapour  of  chloroform 
was  first  applied  as  an  anaesthetic  agent  by 
Dr.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  Nov.  20,  1847.  It  is 
considered  the  safest  of  all  anaesthetics. 

CHOBHAM  CAMP  (Surrey).— An  encamp- 
ment on  a  small  scale  was  formed  at  Chobham, 
June  14,  1853,  for  exercising  the  troops  in 


CHOCOLATE 


C    247    ] 


CHRISM 


military  evolutions.  Queen  Victoria  reviewed 
the  troops  June  14,  and  the  camp  broke  up 
Aug.  20. 

CHOCOLATE.— Prescott  (Mexico,  vol.  i.  b. 
i,  c.  5)  speaking  of  the  products  of  Mexico, 
remarks  : — "  Another  celebrated  plant  was  the 
cacao,  the  fruit  of  which  furnished  the  choco- 
late,— from  the  Mexican  chocolatl, — now  so 
common  a  beverage  throughout  Europe." 
When  Cortes  was  at  the  capital,  in  1519,  the 
Emperor  Montezuma  took  no  other  beverage, 
50  jars  or  pitchers  being  prepared  for  his  daily 
consumption.  Two  thousand  pitchers  were 
allowed  for  his  household.  It  was  brought 
from  Mexico  into  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1520,  and  was  in  use  in  France  in  1661.  Choco- 
late-houses were  introduced  into  London  early 
in  the  i8th  century. 

CHOCZIM,  CHOTYN,  KHOTIN,  or  KOT- 
ZIM  (Battles). — The  Ottoman  Emperor  Osman 
II.  was  defeated  by  Ladislaus  VII.  of  Poland 
at  this  town  of  Bessarabia  in  1621. — The  Poles, 
under  John  Sobieski,  gained  a  great  victory 
over  an  immense  army  of  Turkish  invaders,  of 
whom  more  than  30,000 perished,  Nov.  n,  1673. 
• — The  Turks  sustained  a  calamitous  defeat 
from  the  Russians  at  the  same  place,  April  30, 
1769. — The  Russians  gained  another  victory- 
over  the  Turks,  near  Choczim,  July  13,  1769. 

CHOCZIM,  CHOTYN,  KHOTIN,  or  KOT- 
ZIM  (Russia).— This  town,  in  Bessarabia,  was 
taken  from  the  Turks  by  the  Russians  in  1739; 
but  the  former  soon  after  regained  possession. 
After  the  battle  of  Choczim  the  Russians  laid 
siege  to  the  town,  but  were  compelled  to  retire. 
They  returned,  and  it  fell  into  their  hands  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  but  was  restored 
to  Turkey  in  1774.  The  Austrians  and  Russians  the 
captured  it,  after  a  gallant  defence,  Sep.  29, 
1788.  Though  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Jassy, 
Jan.  9,  1792,  it  was  finally  ceded  to  Russia  in 
1812. 

CHOLERA.— This  disease  was  prevalent  in 
1669,  but  the  most  malignant  form,  known  as 
Asiatic  cholera,  first  made  its  appearance 
amongst  some  troops  stationed  at  Ganjain,  in 
Hindostan,  in  1781,  on  which  occasion  several 
men  were  carried  off  in  a  few  days.  Occasional 
outbreaks  afterwards  occurred  in  other  parts 
of  India,  and  in  1817  the  cholera  appeared,  in 
an  epidemic  form,  spreading  over  different 
parts  of  Asia.  It  reached  the  Mauritius  in 
1819,  visited  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago, broke  out  at  Canton  in  1820,  at  Pekin 
in  1821,  at  several  places  in  the  Persian  Gulf 
in  the  same  year,  and  at  Aleppo  in  1822, 
where  it  spread  along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  parts  of  Russia.  For  a  time  its 
ravages  ceased,  but  in  1829  it  again  broke  out 
near  the  Caspian.  It  appeared  in  Moscow,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  other  Russian  towns,  in  1830, 
at  Vienna,  and  in  parts  of  Germany,  Hungary, 
Poland,  Turkey,  &c.,  in  1831,  and  travelling  to 
England,  burst  forth  at  Sunderland  Oct.  26, 
1831.  It  visited  Edinburgh  in  Jan.,  1832, 
London  Feb.  14,  Dublin  March  22,  and  gradu- 
ally extended  over  the  United  Kingdom. 
France  and  America  were  devastated  by  this 
terrible  scourge  in  the  same  year  ;  Spain  and 
Portugal  in  1834  ;  and  different  parts  of  Italy 
in  1835,  1836,  and  1837.  In  the  last-mentioned 


year  it  passed  over  to  Algiers,  and,  after  an 
outbreak  at  Malta,  disappeared.  The  second 
visitation  broke  out  in  Asia  in  1845,  and  after 
visiting  many  places  in  Asia,  and  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  reached  England  in  Oct., 
1848.  This  attack  seems  to  have  died  out 
somewhere  in  America  in  1849.  The  third 
visitation  appeared  in  England  for  a  short  time 
in  1853,  again  burst  forth  in  Sep.,  1854,  and  after 
spreading  over  other  parts  of  Europe,  ceased 
in  1856.  It  broke  out  again  in  Egypt  in  the 
summer  of  1865,  and  spread  over  Europe,  ap- 
pearing at  Paris  in  Sep.  Two  cases  occurred 
at  Southampton  Oct.  24.  The  Cholera  Con- 
ference at  Constantinople  was  formally  opened 
Feb.  13,  1866. 

CHOLET,  orCHOLLET  (Battle).— The  royal- 
ists of  La  Vendee  were  defeated  by  the  repub- 
licans at  this  place  in  France,  Oct.  17,  1793. 

CHONDA  (Battle).— Sir  Hugh,  afterwards 
Lord  Gough,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Mahrattas  at  this  town  in  Gualior,  Dec.  29, 
1843. 

CHOTUSITZ.— (See  CZASLAU.) 

CHOUANS. — This  name,  given  to  bands  who 
fought  against  the  republicans  in  Britanny  and 
La  Vende'e,  during  the  French  Revolution,  is 
said  to  have  been  derived  from  their  leader, 
Jean  Cottereau,  who  went  by  the  name  of 
Chouan,  or  from  the  watchword  "  chou,  chou," 
which  was  their  battle-cry.  Lord  Stanhope 
says,  "The  insurgents  of  Britanny  were  known 
by  that  name,  a  word  of  doubtful  origin,  and 
said  to  be  corrupted  from  chat-huant,  the 
night-owl,  to  denote  their  secret  signal  in  their 
nightly  expeditions."  The  rebellion  com- 
menced in  1792,  and  in  Oct.,  1793,  they  defeated 
the  republican  forces  at  Laval,  in  Britanny. 
Their  leader  Cottereau  fell  in  an  engagement 
at  Misdon,  July  28,  1794,  and  they  sustained  a 
serious  defeat  at  Quiberon,  July  20,  1795,  but 
their  cause  was  not  finally  lost  till  Nov.  9,  1799, 
when  Napoleon  Buonaparte  substituted  his 
despotism  for  the  government  of  the  Directory. 
At  the  time  of  their  greatest  power  the 
Chouans  numbered  100,000  armed  men.  It 
broke  out  again  in  1803  and  in  1814,  but  was 
speedily  suppressed. 

CHRISM.— The  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop, 
and  used  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches  in  baptism,  confirmation,  ordination, 


and  extreme  unction.   It  was  prepared  on  Holy 
Regality,  p.  347) 
remarks,  "The  distinction  between  the  oil  and 


Thursday.     Taylor  (Glory  of  Regs 


the  chrism  of  our  rituals  may  be  explained 
by  showing  their  respective  uses  in  the  cere- 
monies of  the  Christian  Church.  In  the  earlier 
ages  three  kinds  of  unction  were  employed  in 
the  offices  of  religion :  ist,  that  for  sick  persons ; 
2iid,  that  for  the  catechumeni,  or  persons  not 
yet  baptized  or  confirmed  ;  and  3rd,  that  used 
in  baptism,  confirmation,  or  consecration.  The 
former  of  these  were  with  oil  consecrated  for 
the  two  several  purposes  by  the  priest,  but  the 
latter  with  an  unguent  of  oil  mingled  with 
balm,  which  was  prepared  at  a  particular 
season,  and  always  consecrated  by  a  bishop,  by 
whom  only  it  could  be  used,  except  in  cases  of 
necessity  in  the  rite  of  baptism."  Our  sove- 
reigns down  to  Elizabeth  were  anointed  with 
this  last-mentioned  chrism  at  the  coronation. 


CHRIST 


[    248    ] 


CHRISTOPHER'S 


Bingham  (Autiq.  xi.  cli.  i.  s.  3)  says,  "And 
because  the  divine  operations  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  sanctifying  grace  are  sometimes  in 
Scripture  called  the  unction  or  anointing  <>r'  !//e 
S/tirif,  therefore  baptism  had  also  the  name  of 
chrism  or  unction,  from  this  noble  effect  attend- 
ing it." 

CHRIST  (Order  of).— On  the  abolition  of  the 
Templars  by  Clement  V.  in  1312,  King  Diony- 
sius  of  Portugal  preserved  the  order  in  his 
dominions,  but  changed  its  title  in  1317  to  that 
of  "The  Knights  of  Christ,"  or  "The  Order 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  This  arrangement 
was  sanctioned  by  Pope  John  XXI.  or  XXII. 
in  1319.  The  seat  of  the  order  was  transferred 
from  Castro-Marino  to  Tomar  in  1366.  The  new 
order  afterwards  attained  such  power  that 
King  John  III.  was  obliged  to  obtain  an  edict 
from  Pope  Hadrian  VI.  by  which  the  grand 
mastership  of  the  order  became  vested  in  the 
kings  of  Portugal  in  1522. 

CHRISTAUIMNS,  or  CHRISTODINS.— This 
name  was  in  the  i6th  century  applied  to  the 
Protestants  in  France,  to  render  them  con- 
temptible, because,  as  their  enemies  pretended, 
they  could  only  talk  about  Christ. 

CHRIST  CHURCH  (Oxford).— This  college, 
called  Cardinal  College,  was  founded  by  W<  >1  sey , 
who  in  1524  obtained  permission  to  convert 
the  priory  of  St.  Frideswiue  into  a  seminary. 
On  Wolsey's  death  it  reverted  to  H'.niry  VIII., 
who  re-established  it  as  King  Henry's  College 
Sep.  27,  1532.  It  received  further  endowments. 
was  changed  into  a  cathedral  church,  and 
called  Christ  Church,  in  1546,  the  dean  and 
canons  being  required  to  maintain  the  school. 
The  library  was  annexed  in  1716,  and  completed 
in  1761.  A  fire  broke  out  in  the  hall  March  3, 
1809.  It  was  fortunately  extinguished,  though 
the  damage  amounted  to  ,£12,000. 

CHRISTIAN  ;ERA.— I  See  Ax.vo  DOMINI.) 

C II R I S  T  I A  Nr  C  1 1 A .11  [  T  Y  (( )rder).— This 
order  of  knighthood  was  founded  by  Henry 
III.  (1574 — 1589)  of  France,  for  the  support  of 
maimed  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  done 
good  service  in  the  wars.  It  was  completed  by 
Henry  IV.  iisSg — 1610),  and  was  superseded  by 
the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  founded  by  Louis  IV. 

CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION.  —  This  sect, 
whose  members  deny  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
arose  in  the  United  States  early  in  the  igth 
century. 

CHIUSTIANIA  (Norway),  the  capital,  was 
founded  by  Christian  IV.  in  1624,  011  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city  of  Opslo,  destroyed  by  fire 
May  24  in  that  year.  Charles  XII.  advanced 
to  Christiania  in  1716,  and  laid  siege  to  the 
castle,  supposed  to  have  been  built  about  1302 ; 
but  he  was  compelled  to  retire.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop.  The  university  was  founded 
in  1811,  and  the  observatory  in  1833.  A  fire 
occuiTed  at  Christiania  April  13,  1858,  when 
the  Exchange,  the  Bank,  other  public  buildings, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  city  were  destroyed. 

CHRISTIANITY.— The  religion  professed  by 
all  believers  in  Jesus  Christ,  being  the  fulfil- 
ment and  completion  of  the  Mosaic  dispen- 
sation. The  disciples  of  our  Saviour  were  first 
called  Christians  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  26), 
in  42  ;  and  the  word  occurs  but  twice  more 


in  the  New  Testament,  namely,  in  the  address 
of  King  Agrippa  to  Paul  (Acts  xxvi.  28), 
in  60,  and  in  Peter's  (i  Epist.  iv.  16)  exhor- 
tation, "If  any  man  suffer  as  a  Christian, 
let  him  not  be  ashamed."  This  epistle  was 
written  about  59.  Though  Christian  was  the 
name  to  which  the  primitive  Church  adhered, 
its  followers  were  known  under  various  desig- 
nations ;  amongst  which  may  be  mentioned, 
Believers,  Brethren,  Chrestians,  Elect,  Gnos- 
tics, Jesseans,  Nazarenes,  and  Theophori. 

ClilMSTlANS.VNl)  (Sweden),  founded  by 
Christian  IV.  in  1641. 

CHRISTIAN SFELD  (Schleswig).— The  Mo- 
ravian brethren  formed  a  settlement  here  in 

'  'c  i'l  R ISTIXOS.— (See  CARLISTS.) 

( .'  1 1 R 1STM  AS  B(  )X.— The  practice  of  giving 
presents  on  Christmas  Day  arose  out  of  the 
Pagan  custom  of  the  Paganalia.  instituted  by 
Scrvius  Tullius  B.C.  550.  On  these  festivals, 
celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the  year, 
an  altar  was  erected  in  every  village,  when 
each  person  (man,  woman,  and  child)  was 
expected  to  contribute  a  coin.  From  this 
primitive  mode  of  counting  the  population, 
new  year's  gifts,  of  which  the  English  Christ- 
mas boxes  are  a  modification,  arose.  Aubrey 
speaks  of  a  pot,  in  which  Roman  coins  were 
found,  resembling  the  earthen  boxes  formerly 
used  by  our  apprentices.  A  circular  against  the 
practice  of  giving  Christmas  boxes  to  the 
:crs  of  the  Foreign  Office  and  other 
"•o  verm  HOD  t  servants  was  issued  in  1836. 

CHRISTMAS  CAROLS  were  first  sung  in 
celebration  of  the  Nativity  in  the  2iid  century. 
The  first  collection  of  English  Christmas 
Carols  was  published  in  1521. 

CHRISTMAS  DAY.— The  Nativity  was  not 
celebrated  on  the  same  day  by  all  the  primitive 
Churches.  For  two  or  three  centuries  the 
Eastern  Church  kept  the  feast  Jan.  6,  whilst 
the  Latin  Church  observed  it  Dec.  25.  The 
festival  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  the 
2nd  century.  Dionysius  Exiguus,  a  Scythian 
monk,  about  527,  first  fixed  as  an  jera  the  birth 
of  Christ,  Dec.  25,  in  the  year  of  Rome  753, 
when  Lentulus  and  Piso  were  consuls.  This 
computation  has  been  followed  up  to  the  present 
time,  though  the  best  authorities  are  agreed 
that  this  is  neither  the  month  nor  the  year  in 
which  the  Saviour  of  mankind  became  incar- 
nate. The  date  generally  received  is  Friday, 
April  5,  B.C.  4. 

CHRISTMAS  ISLAND  (Pacific  Ocean)  was 
discovered  by  Capt.  Cook  in  his  last  voyage, 
Dec.  23,  1777.  He  landed  Dec.  25,  and  named 
the  island  after  the  day. 

CHRISTOPHER'S,  ST.  (Atlantic).  —  This 
island,  vulgarly  called  St.  Kitts,  and  named  by 
the  natives  "  Liamuiga,  or  The  Fertile  Isle," 
was  discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1493.  Warner,  an  Englishman,  formed  a  settle- 
mcntinJaii.,  1623, the  bucaneers  landed  in  1625, 
and  the  French  and  English,  having  quarrelled, 
occupied  different  portions.  An  English  ex- 
pedition landed  June  21,  1690,  and  the  island 
capitulated  July  14.  It  was  again  taken  from 
the  French  July  15,  1702,  and  was  ceded  to 
England  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  The 
French  landed  8,000  men  here  Jan.  n,  1782, 


CHRIST'S 


[249 


CHUQUISACA 


during  the  American  war,  and  the  small 
garrison,  only  600  strong,  retired  to  a  strong 
position,  called  Brimstone  Hill.  An  English 
squadron  sent  for  its  relief,  under  Admiral  Hood, 
engaged  with  the  Count  de  Grasse's  tieet  Jan. 
26,  1783.  Brimstone  Hill,  closely  besieged, 
capitulated  Feb.  13.  The  island  was  restored 
the  next  year. 

CHRIST'S  COLLEGE  (Cambridge). —A  col- 
lege called  God's  House,  founded  by  Binghamin 
1439,  was  removed  in  1446  by  Henry  VI.  and 
named  Henry  the  Sixth's  College.  Margaret, 
Countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby,  in  1505 
obtained  a  license  from  her  son  Henry  VII.  to 
re-establish  it  under  the  name  of  Christ's 
College.  The  Tancred  Studentships  were 
founded  in  1721. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL,  or  the  BLUECOAT 
SCHOOL  (London),  the  site  of  the  monastery 
of  the  Grey  Friars,  was  granted  by  Henry  VIII. 
to  the  city  of  London,  for  relieving  and  suc- 
couring the  poor,  in  1547.  In  1552  the  city 
of  London  fitted  up  a  part  of  the  monastery 
for  the  reception  of  children,  and  340  were 
received  in  Nov.  Their  dress,  at  first  russet 
cotton,  was  at  Easter,  1553,  changed  to  blue ; 
whence  the  present  name  of  the  school.  The 
patent  of  foundation  by  Edward  VI.  bears  date 
June  26,  1553.  The  school  was  almost  destroyed 
in  the  fire  of  1666.  Charles  II.  added  the  ma- 
thematical school  in  1673.  The  branch  estab- 
lishment at  Hertford  was  founded  in  1683,  and 
the  writing-school  was  endowed  by  Sir  John 
Moore  in  1694.  Owing  to  the  decay  of  great 
part  of  the  original  erection,  it  has  been  rebuilt. 
The  new  infirmary  was  completed  in  1822,  and 
the  first  stone  of  the  hall  was  laid  by  the  Duke 
of  York  in  April,  1825. 

CHRIST'S  THORN.— The  Zizyphus  paliurus, 
supposed  to  be  the  same  from  which  the  crown 
of  thorns  was  made,  was  brought  to  this 
country  from  Africa  in  1596. 

CHROMIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  in 
1797  by  N.  L.  Vauquelin,  a  distinguished  ana- 
tomical chemist,  born,  in  Normandy. 

CHRONICLES  (First  and  Second  Books).— 
(See  CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE.) 

CHRONOGRAMS,  or  CHRONOGRAPHS, 
numerical  anagrams,  were  much  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages  for  inscriptions,  especially  by  the 
Germans.  An  early  example  occurs  on  a  bell 
in  the  Tour  de  1'Horloge  at  the  Tuileries,  which 
bears  three  Frenchliiies  purporting chronogram- 
matically  that  it  was  cast  in  1371.  Michael 
Stifelius,  a  Lutheran  minister  at  Wiirtemberg, 
foretold  from  the  Latin  text  of  John  xix.  37, 
that  the  world  would  come  to  an  end  at  10 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  3,  1533  !  *nc 
words  in  question  being  "  VIDebVnt  In  qVeM 
transflXerVnt,"  the  capital  letters  of  which 
make,  when  transposed,  MDXVVVVIII.,  or  1533. 
It  is  related  that  the  pastor  was  severely 
beaten  by  his  congregation  for  having  misled 
them  by  this  prediction.  The  following  chro- 
nogram on  Queen  Elizabeth  indicates  MDCIII.,  or 
1603,  the  year  of  her  death : — My  Day  Is  Closed 
In  Immortality. 

CHRONOLOGY.— Sir  Isaac  Newton  main- 
tained that  Europeans  had  no  fixed  chronology 
before  the  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  B.C. 
538,  and  that  all  dates  assigned  to  previous 


events  have  been  since  deduced  by  calculation 
and  reasoning.  Eratosthenes  (B.C.  274—194) 
is  styled  the  father  of  chronology.  Julius 
Africanus,  who  flourished  early  in  the  3rd  cen- 
tury, was  the  first  Christian  systematic  chron- 
ologist.  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  "  Chronology  of 
Ancient  Kingdoms  Amended  "was  published 
in  1728.  "L'Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates,"  by  the 
Benedictines  Maur  d'Antine,  Durand,  and  Clem- 
ence,  originally  appeared  in  one  volume  in  1750, 
but  has  been  extended  in  subsequent  editions 
until  the  last,  published  at  Paris,  1818 — 1831, 
contained  38  volumes.  Blair's  Chronology  first 
appeared  in  1754,  Playf air's  "  System  of  Chro- 
nology" in  1784,  Dr.  Hales's  "New  Analysis  of 
Chronology"  1800 — 1812,  and  Clinton's  "Fasti 
Hellenic! "  and  "  Fasti  Romani"  1824 — 1850. 
The  "  Chronology  of  History"  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Harris  Nicolas  first  appeared  in  1832.  The 
Chronological  Institute  of  London  was  estab- 
lished in  1852.  (See  MRA,  CALENDAR,  OLYM- 
PIAD, &c.  <fec.  &c.) 

CHRONOMETER.  —  Gemma  Frisius,  about 
1530,  proposed  a  horological  machine  for  ascer- 
taining the  relative  longitude  of  ships  at  sea, 
which  was  described  in  Carpenter's  Geography 
in  1635.  Dr.  Hooke  constructed  a  marine 
pendulum  clock  for  a  similar  purpose  about 
1662,  and  Huyghens  contrived  an  instrument 
combining  the  principles  of  the  spring  and  the 
pendulum,  which  was  tested  with  favourable 
results  in  1664.  The  English  Government 
having  in  1714  offered  liberal  sums  for  methods 
of  determining  the  longitude  at  sea,  James 
Harrison  constructed  chronometers  in  1726, 
1739,  1749  or  1758,  and  1761,  receiving  various 
rewards,  which  amounted  in  1774  to  ,£20,000. 
(See  CLOCK,  WATCHES,  &c.) 

CHRONOSCOPE.  —  This  instrument,  in 
which  galvanism  is  employed  for  the  measure- 
ment of  very  small  intervals  of  time,  was  in- 
vented by  Wheatstone  in  1840. 

CHRYSOPOLIS.— (See  SCUTARI.) 

CHUMPANEER  (Hindostan)  was  taken  by 
Mahmoud,  King  of  Guzerat,  in  1483,  after  a 
siege  of  12  years.  The  Emperor  Humayun 
seized  it  in  1534,  and  it  subsequently  formed 
part  of  the  Mahratta  territory.  The  British 
took  it  Sep.  17,  1802,  and  in  1803  it  was  an- 
nexed to  Scinde. 

CHUNAR,  or  CHUNARGHUR  (Hindostan), 
was  held  by  the  Emperor  Baber  in  1529,  and 
taken  by  the  Affghan  Shir  Khan  in  1530. 
Humayun,  the  successor  of  Baber,  regained 
possession  in  1538,  after  a  siege  of  six  months. 
In  1763  the  town  was  taken  by  the  British,  to 
whom  it  was  formally  ceded  in  1768.  A  treaty 
was  concluded  here  between  Warren  Hastings 
and  the  Nabob  of  Oude  in  1781. 

CHUPAS  (Battle).— During  the  civil  wars 
amongst  the  Spanish  conquerors  of  Peru, 
Vaca  de  Castro  defeated  Almagro's  army  after 
a  hotly-contested  battle  in  the  plains  of  Chupas, 
Sep.  16,  1542.  Almagro  escaped  to  Cuzco, 
where  he  was  immediately  made  prisoner  and 
executed. 

CHUQUISACA  (South  America),  the  capital 
of  Bolivar,  was  founded  by  one  of  Pizarro's 
officers  in  1539.  It  was  at  first  called  the 
"  Villa  de  la  Plata,"  or  "  City  of  Silver," 
in  allusion  to  the  mines  in  the  vicinity. 


CHUKCH 


[    250    ] 


CILICIA 


Chuquisaca  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1551,  and 
erected  into  an  archbishopric  in  1608.  The  city 
is  sometimes  called  Sucre",  from  the  general 
who  secured  the  deliverance  of  the  country  by 
his  victory  at  Ayacucho,  Dec.  9,  1824. 

CHURCH.— Bingham  supports  Mr.  Mede's 
view  that  churches,  or  buildings  for  the  per- 
formance of  divine  services,  existed  in  the  ist 
century.  St.  Paul  (i  Cor.  xi.  22)  speaks  of 
the  church  as  a  place  set  apart  for  sacred 
duties.  Towards  the  end  of  the  2nd  century 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  used  the  word  ecclesia 
for  the  place  of  assembly ;  and  Eusebius, 
referring  to  the  peace  enjoyed  by  the  Chris- 
tians from  the  persecution  of  Valerian  to  that 
of  Diocletian  (253 — 303),  declares  that  the 
Christians  had  increased  so  greatly  in  that 
half -century,  that  "their  ancient  churches 
were  not  large  enough  to  receive  them, 
and  therefore  they  erected  from  the  foun- 
dations more  ample  and  spacious  ones  in 
every  city."  St.  Austin,  moreover,  founds  the 
use  and  building  of  churches  on  i  Tim.  ii.  i, 
and  declares  that  as  soon  as  the  Christian 
religion  was  planted  in  the  world,  then 
churches  were  built.  Churches  existed  in 
this  island  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Christian  sera.  Gildas  speaks  of  the  restora- 
tion of  those  destroyed  during  the  Diocletian 
persecution.  The  Emperor  Constantino  I. 
built  several  new  churches,  and  repaired  and 
beautified  others  in  the  East.  In  326  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  temple  called  Sancta 
Sophia,  which  was  completed  by  his  son 
Constantius  in  360.  The  first  English  churches 
were  made  of  wood.  During  the  4th  century 
Bishop  Ninias  built  a  stone  church  in  Gal- 
loway,  and  on  account  of  its  extreme  rarity 
the  place  was  called  Whitchurch. 

CHURCH  CONUUKSS.— A  church  congress 
was  held  at  Manchester  Oct.  13-15,  1863,  at 
Bristol  Oct.  11-14,  l864>  and  at  Norwich 
Oct.  3-7,  1865. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.— The  early  his- 
tory of  the  Church  in  this  island  is  given 
under  BRITISH  CHURCH  (q.  v.).  Many  laws  for 
the  regulation  of  the  Church  were  made  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  kings.  Its  right  of  sanctuary 
was  rigidly  enforced.  Attempts  at  encroach- 
ment by  Rome  were  frequently  opposed,  and 
the  first  article  of  Magna  Charta  (1215)  pro- 
vided that  the  Church  of  England  should  be 
free,  and  enjoy  her  whole  rights  and  liberties 
inviolable.  This  was  confirmed  by  subsequent 
acts.  The  connection  with  the  Church  of 
Rome  was  entirely  severed  at  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  1530,  the  clergy  in  convocation 
acknowledged  Henry  VIII.  as  supreme  head 
of  the  English  Church  ;  and  by  25  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  21  (1534),  the  papal  power  in  England  was 
abrogated.  The  king  was  appointed  supreme 
head  of  the  Church  by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i  (1534). 
The  Articles  were  drawn  up  in  1551,  and 
published  in  1553.  They  were  42  in  number. 
They  were  revised  and  reduced  to  39  in  1562. 
At  the  Union  in  1800,  the  Church  of  Ireland 
was  united  with  that  of  England,  under  the 
title  of  the  United  Church  of  England  and 
Ireland.  (See  EPISCOPACY,  HIGH  and  Low 
CHURCH,  and  PRESBYTERIANISM.) 

CHURCH-RATES.— This  charge  for  main- 


taining the  fabric  of  the  Church,  &c.,  existed 
in  England  in  very  early  times.  One  of 
Alfric's  canons,  issued  in  970,  and  an  act  of  a 
witenagemot,  held  by  Ethelred  II.  in  1014,  are 
supposed  to  refer  to  Church-rates.  Several 
bills  have  been  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Commons  for  the  abolition  of  Church-rates. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— The  General 
Assembly  which  met  at  Glasgow  abolished 
episcopacy,  and  deposed  the  bishops,  Dec.  20, 
1638 ;  from  which  time  Presbyterianism  has 
been  adopted  as  the  religion  of  that  part  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  Presbyterians  quar- 
relled in  1843,  when  the  Free  Church  (q.  v.) 
was  established. 

CHURCHWARDENS.  — These  officers  are 
said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  an 
African  council  about  425.  In  England,  where 
they  were  anciently  called  church  reeves, 
they  were  sometimes  appointed  by  the 
clergyman  of  the  parish,  ;uxl  sometimes  by 
the  clergyman  and  the  parish,  according  to 
custom.  The  8gth  canon  of  1603  directs  that 
"  churchwardens  shall  be  chosen  yearly  in 
Easter  week  by  the  joint  consent  of  the  min- 
ister and  parishioners,  if  it  may  be  ;  and  if  they 
cannot  agree,  the  minister  shall  choose  one,  and 
the  i arishioners  another."  From  a  communi- 
cation in  Notes  and  Queries,  it  appears  that 
three  churchwardens  have  been  chosen  an- 
nually at  Attleborough,  in  Norfolk,  since  1617. 

CII URi ' !  1  V  A  I !  1 ).— The  practice  of  interring 
the  dead  in  churchyards  arose  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. The  Council  of  Braga,  in  563,  allowed 
men  to  be  buried  in  the  churchyard,  under 
the  walls  of  the  church,  but  prohibited 
burial  within  the  church.  The  French,  how- 
ever, retained  the  ancient  practice  until  per- 
mission was  accorded  for  interment  in  church- 
yards by  the  Council  of  N  antes  in  660.  In 
former  times  churchyards  were  privileged 
places,  and  property  was  often  carried  to  them 
for  safety.  (See  BURIAL  and  CEMETERY.) 

C1J  USAN  China  Sea).— The  principal  island 
of  this  group,  called  Chusan,  was  captured  by 
the  English  July  5,  1840  ;  and  evacuated  Feb. 
25,  1841.  Its  chief  city  was  again  captured, 
and  the  island  re-occupied,  Oct.  i,  1841.  By 
the  treaty  of  Nankin,  Aug.  29,  1842,  the 
English  were  to  hold  this  island  until  the 
indemnities  had  been  paid,  and  certain  ports 
opened.  It  was  restored  to  the  Chinese  in 
1846,  again  occupied  in  1860,  and  again  re- 
stored in  1861. 

CIBALIS  (Battle).— During  the  civil  war 
between  Constantino  and  Licinius,  the  latter 
was  defeated  near  this  city,  in  Pannonia,  Oct. 
8,  314  A.D.  Licinius  abandoned  his  camp  and 
magazines,  and  retreated  with  great  expedition. 

CIGAR-SHIP. — An  iron  screw  steam  yacht, 
constructed  at  Millwall  in  the  form  of  a  cigar, 
was  launched  Monday,  Feb.  19,  1866,  and  named 
the  ftoss  Winans. 

CILICIA  (Asia  Minor).— This  country  was 
originally  inhabited  by  a  Phoenician  tribe. 
Sennacherib  subdued  Cilicia  about  B.C.  680. 
Syennesis,  King  of  Cilicia,  is  said  to  have 
assisted  in  a  mediation  for  peace  between  Croe- 
sus, King  of  Lydia,  and  the  Medes,  B.C.  610. 
Cilicia  was  afterwards  subject  to  Persia,  and 
supplied  TOO  ships  for  the  invasion  of  Greece, 


CIMBRI 


[    251     1 


CINQUE 


B.C.  480.  The  inhabitants  indulged  in  piracy, 
and  the  Romans  sent  several  expeditions  against 
them.  M.  Antonius  overran  the  country  B.C. 
102,  and  it  was  finally  conquered  by  Pompey 
B.C.  66,  and  was  made  a  Roman  province  B.C.  64. 
It  was  overrun  by  the  Saracens  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury. They  were  expelled  by  Zimisces  in  964. 
It  underwent  various  changes,  and  was  finally 
conquered  by  Amurath  I.  in  1387. 

CIMBRI.— This  Celtic  tribe,  inhabiting  Jut- 
land, having  joined  with  the  Teutones,  entered 
lilyria,  where  they  defeated  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo, 
at  the  head  of  a  consular  army,  B.C.  113.  After 
this  triumph  they  advanced  into  Gaul,  B.C.  112, 
passed  into  Spain,  and,  reappearing  on  the 
frontiers  of  Transalpine  Gaul,  defeated  two 
Roman  armies  B.C.  109  and  107.  They  inflicted 
a  terrible  defeat  at  Arausio  on  another  Roman 
army,  led  by  two  consuls,  Oct.  6,  B.C.  105,  after 
which  they  withdrew  into  Spain.  The  Celti- 
berians  drove  them  out  B.C.  103  ;  whereupon 
the  Cimbri  returned  into  Gaul.  Marius  col- 
lected a  large  army  and  went  to  oppose  them. 
The  Cimbri  and  Teutones  separated  into  two 
bodies,  the  former  taking  the  road  through 
Helvetia,  and  the  latter  pressing  forward  to 
assail  the  Roman  army.  Their  intention  was 
to  reunite  their  forces  on  the  Lombard  plains. 
The  Teutones  were  attacked  and  overwhelmed 
by  the  Romans,  and  100,000  men  are  said  to 
have  perished  on  that  occasion,  B.C.  102.  The 
Cimbri  in  the  meantime  had  reached  the  valley 
of  the  Adige  (q.  v.),  where  they  defeated  the 
Roman  army  under  Quintus  Catulus.  He 
formed  a  junction  with  Marius  and  allured 
them  into  an  unfavourable  position,  in  which 
they  were  defeated  and  exterminated,  B.C.  101. 
(See  CAMPUS  RAUDIUS.)  The  women,  having 
put  their  children  to  death,  committed  suicide. 
A  distinct  tribe  was  discovered,  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century,  inhabiting  the  villages  in 
the  mountains  near  Verona  and  Vicenza,  and 
speaking  the  Danish  language.  Some  writers 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  these  people  were  a 
remnant  of  the  Cimbri  defeated  by  Marius. 

CIMMERII,  or  CIMMERIANS.— This  noma- 
dic race,  inhabiting  the  Crimea,  and  parts  of  the 
neighbouring  country,  having  been  expelled  by 
the  Scythians,  passed  along  the  shores  of  the 
Euxine,  invaded  Asia  Minor,  and  pillaged  Sardis, 
the  capital  of  Lydia,  B.C.  635.  In  this  country 
they  are  said  to  have  remained  until  about  B.C. 
617,  when  they  were  defeated  and  driven  out 
of  Asia  Minor.  Little  authentic  is  known  of 
this  people.  Homer  refers  to  another  people  of 
the  same  name,  fabled  to  have  dwelt  in  a  land 
of  perpetual  darkness.  Hence  the  term  "  Cim- 
merian gloom." 

CINCINNATI,  or  CINCINNATUSES.  —  A 
society  or  order  established  by  the  Americans 
during  the  revolutionary  war,  about  1783,  was 
for  a  time  very  popular. 

CINCINNATI  (United  States),  the  metropolis 
of  Ohio,  first  settled  by  the  name  of  Losante- 
ville,  Dec.  28,  1788,  was  attacked  in  1790  by 
the  Indians,  who  killed  about  20  of  the  in- 
habitants and  proved  formidable  enemies  for 
several  years.  It  was  incorporated  a  city  in 
1819.  The  Medical  College  of  Ohio  was  chartered 
in  1819,  Lane  seminary  was  founded  in  1829,  a 
law  school  was  established  in  1833,  and  the  first 


stone  of  the  observatory  was  laid  by  J.  Quincy 
Adams,  Nov.  9,  1843.  The  Melodeon,  a  public 
hall  for  musical  performance  and  other  pur- 
poses, was  erected  in  1846,  and  the  first  stone 
of  the  Ohio  Female  College  was  laid  Sep.  21, 
1848. 

CINNAMON.— The  Hebrews  used  this  spice 
in  their  religious  ceremonies  B.C.  1496  (Exod. 
xxx.  23).  It  is  also  mentioned  in  the  Song  of 
Solomon  (iv.  14),  and  in  Prov.  vii.  17.  The  tree 
flourishes  best  at  Ceylon,  from  which  island 
Europe  has  derived  its  principal  supplies  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  Society  for  the  En- 
couragement of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Com- 
merce in  1773  awarded  a  gold  medal  to  Dr. 
Young  for  introducing  the  culture  of  the  cin- 
namon-tree into  St.  Vincent.  A  few  plants 
found  in  a  French  ship  bound  from  the  Isle  of 
France  to  Hispaniola,  and  captured  by  Rodney, 
were  presented  by  him  to  the  Jamaica  planters 
in  1783,  and  thus  the  cultivation  of  the  tree 
was  introduced  into  that  island.  No  sooner 
had  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
been  discovered  than  the  Portuguese  endea- 
voured to  get  the  cinnamon  trade,  which  had 
before  that  period  been  monopolized  by  Arab 
merchants,  into  their  hands.  They  established 
a  factory  at  Ceylon,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  King  of  Kandy,  who  engaged  to  fur- 
nish them  with  124,000  Ib.  annually,  in  return 
for  their  assistance  against  his  enemies.  The 
Dutch  became  the  rivals  of  the  Portuguese, 
and  in  1612  the  King  of  Kandy  engaged  to 
deliver  to  them  all  the  cinnamon  he  could 
collect.  This  led  to  a  struggle,  which  was 
terminated  in  1644  or  1645,  by  an  agreement 
between  the  Dutch  and  the  Portuguese  to  share 
the  produce  between  them.  War  broke  out 
again  in  1652  ;  the  Dutch  captured  Colombo  in 
1656,  and  in  1663  the  Portuguese  were  finally 
excluded  from  all  participation  in  the  trade. 
Ceylon  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1795, 
when  the  trade  passed  from  the  control  of  the 
Dutch. 

CINQUE  CENTO,  an  abbreviation  for  five 
hundred,  applied  to  a  style  of  art  that  arose 
in  Italy  early  in  the  i6th  century. 

CINQUE  PORTS.— The  commencement  of 
this  system  of  defence  against  invasion  may  be 
traced  to  the  period  of  the  Roman  occupation 
of  England.  Jeake  states  that  the  five  ports, 
Hastings,  Hythe,  Sandwich,  Dover,  and  Rom- 
ney,  were  enfranchised  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  although  only  three,  Sandwich, 
Dover,  and  Romney,  are  mentioned  in  Domes- 
day Book.  William  I.  erected  the  district  of 
the  Cinque  Ports  into  a  kind  of  palatine  juris- 
diction under  a  warden,  in  whom  the  military, 
naval,  and  civil  authority  was  combined.  Ri- 
chard I.  admitted  Rye  and  Winchelsea  to  the 
privileges  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  by  a  charter 
dated  March  27,  1191.  The  number  was  thus 
increased  to  seven  principal  ports,  whilst 
smaller  places  were  attached  to  them  as  sub- 
ordinate ports.  They  were  required  to  furnish 
a  fleet  for  the  defence  of  the  sea,  and,  according 
to  an  ordinance  of  Henry  III.  in  1229,  in  the 
following  proportions  : — Dover  and  Hastings, 
each  21  ships,  carrying  21  men  and  one  boy  ; 
Winchelsea,  10  ships;  and  Hythe,  Sandwich, 
and  Rye,  5  each.  These  vessels  were  to  serve 


CINTRA 


[     252     ] 


CIRCULATING 


15  days  at  the  expense  of  the  towns,  but  were 
paid  for  any  service  beyond  that  time.  The 
Cinque  Ports  received  their  charter  of  confir- 
mation from  Edward  I.  in  1278,  and  all  their 
liberties  and  free  customs  were  secured  to  them 
by  25  Edw.  I.  c.  9  (1297).  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  constable  of  Dover  Castle  was  defined  by  28 
Edw.  I.  c.  7  (1300).  By  an  act  passed  in  1689, 
the  right  of  nominating  the  members  for  the 
Cinque  was  taken  from  the  lord  warden,  in 
whom  it  had  been  vested.  The  number  of 
members  returned  by  the  Cinque  Ports  was 
reduced  from  1 6  to  8  by  the  Reform  Bill  in 
1832.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  lord  warden  in 
civil  suits,  <fec.,  was  abolished  by  18  and  19 
Viet.  c.  48  (July  2,  1855),  amended  by  20  and  21 
Viet.  c.  i  (June  26,  1857). 

CINTRA  (Convention).— The  day  after  the 
battle  of  Vimeira,  Gen.  Kellermann  proposed 
an  armistice,  which  was  signed  at  Cintra,  in 
Portugal,  Aug.  22,  1808.  The  convention,  erro- 
neously called  the  convention  of  Ciutra,  was 
finally  concluded  at  Lisbon,  Aug.  30,  and 
consisted  of  20  articles,  to  which  three  ad- 
ditional articles  were  appended.  The  French 
by  this  convention  agreed  to  evacuate  Portugal. 
Their  soldiers  were  allowed  to  disembark  with 
arms  and  baggage,  and  were  not  to  be  con- 
sidered prisoners  of  war,  the  English  Govern- 
ment furnishing  the  necessary  transports  to 
convey  them  to  their  own  country.  They 
were,  however,  compelled  to  relinquish  all 
their  spoils.  This  agreement  excited  so  much 
discontent  in  England,  that  a  board  of  inquiry 
was  summoned  by  a  warrant  dated  Nov.  i, 
1808.  In  the  report,  issued  Dec.  22,  the  Board 
declared  that  no  further  military  proceeding 
was  necessary  on  the  subject,  and,  Dec.  25, 
a  majority  of  the  Board  voted  approval  of  the 
armistice  of  Aug.  22,  and  of  the  convention  of 
Aug.  30. 

CIPHER.— The  Spartan  Scytale  was  in  use 
at  least  as  early  as  B.C.  400,  and  is  supposed 
by  some  authors  to  be  the  earliest  attempt  at 
writing  in  cipher.  ^Encas  Tacticus,  who  was 
contemporary  with  Aristotle,  and  flourished 
about  B.C.  350,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
ancient  masters  of  the  art  of  writing  in 
secret  characters,  having  collected  about  20 
different  modes,  all  which  were  uiiintelligble, 
except  to  those  who  knew  the  key.  The 
first  modern  author  who  described  this  art 
was  the  Abbe  Trithemius,  whose  "Polygra- 
phia "  appeared  in  1499  >  smce  which  period 
many  writers  have  directed  attention  to  the 
subject. 

CIRCASSIA  (Asia)  was  conquered  by  the 
Huns  in  the  $th  century,  by  the  Chazars  in 
the  nth  century,  and  at  the  commencement  of 
the  1 3th  century  fell  under  the  Mongol  Emperor 
of  Kaptchak.  Tirnour,  or  Tamerlane,  invaded  it 
in  the  i4th  century,  but  was  unable  to  effect  a 
permanent  conquest.  Its  first  intercourse  with 
Russia  took  place  in  1555.  It  afterwards  sub- 
mitted to  the  khans  of  the  Crimea,  but,  owing 
to  their  tyranny,  the  Circassians  revolted  in 
1708,  and  applied  for  protection  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  At  the  peace  of  Belgrade,  Sep.  18,  1739, 
Circassia  was  declared  independent,  but  it  soon 
returned  to  its  dependence  on  Turkey,  which 
did  not  renounce  all  right  to  exercise  authority 


over  it  till  the  peace  of  Kutsehouc-Kainardji, 
July  10,  1774.  In  1783  Circassia  was  claimed  as 
part  of  the  Russian  empire,  but  it  was  not 
finally  incorporated  therewith  till  the  treaty  of 
Hadrianople,  Sep.  14,  1830.  The  Circassians 
strenuously  resisted  Russian  domination  under 
their  leader  Schamyl,  who  was  captured  Sep.  7, 
1859.  Vaidar,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Cir- 
cassians, capitulated  to  the  Russians  April  28, 
1864  ;  three  of  the  tribes  accordingly  left  their 
country  for  Turkey.  Starting  to  the  number 
of  about  300,000,  many  died  from  hardships  on 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  many  more 
perished  at  Trebizoud,  from  fever  occasioned  by 
over-crowding. 

CIRCASSIANS.— (See  BORGITES.) 

CIRCELIONES,  or  CIRCELLIONES.—  (See 
AGONISTICI.) 

CIRCLES  OF  GERMANY.— Maximilian  I.  in 
1501  carried  into  execution  the  design  of  Wen- 
ceslaus,  attempted  by  Albert  II.,  of  dividing 
Germany  into  circles.  The  empire,  the  elec- 
torates and  the  dominions  of  Austria  excepted, 
was  divided  into  six  circles;  viz.,  Bavaria, 
Franconia,  the  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Saxony, 
Swabia,  and  Westphalia.  In  1512  four  more 
were  added — Austria,  Burgundy,  the  Lower 
Rhine,  including  the  three  ecclesiastical  elec- 
tors and  the  elector  Palatine,  and  Upper 
Saxony,  including  the  electorates  of  Saxony 
and  Brandenburg.  "  It  was,"  says  Hallam, 
' '  the  business  of  the  police  of  the  circles 
to  enforce  the  execution  of  sentence  pro- 
nounced by  the  Imperial  Chamber  against 
refractory  states  of  the  empire."  The  circles 
were  abolished  by  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  concluded  at  Paris,  July  12,  1806,  and 
each  German  prince  resumed  such  of  his  titles 
as  referred  to  his  connection  with  the  German 
empire,  Aug.  i. 

CIRCUITS.— In  a  great  council  held  at 
Northampton  Jan.  26,  1176,  Henry  II.  divided 
England  into  six  districts,  to  each  of  which  he 
appointed  three  itinerant  judges,  who  were  to 
make  their  circuit  round  the  kingdom  once  in 
seven  years,  for  the  purpose  of  trying  causes. 
Various  changes  in  the  number  of  the  circuits, 
&c.,  were  afterwards  made.  England  and  Wales 
are  now  divided  into  eight  circuits,  to  which 
the  judges  go  twice  a  year. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.— Jerome  relates 
that  Pamphilius,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  (put  to 
death  Feb.  16,  309)  collected  30,000  religious 
books,  for  the  purpose  of  lending  them  ;  and 
this  is  the  first  notice  of  a  circulating  library. 
In  1342  the  stationers  of  Paris  were  compelled 
to  keep  books  to  be  lent  on  hire.  This  was 
intended  for  the  benefit  of  poor  students, 
before  printing  had  been  invented.  Merry- 
weather  (Bibliomania  in  the  Middle  Ages) 
remarks  :  "  The  reader  will  be  surprised  at  the 
idea  of  a  circulating  library  in  the  Middle 
Ages ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact 
that  they  were  established  at  Paris,  Toulouse, 
Vienna,  and  other  places."  Catalogues,  with 
the  charge  for  reading,  were  exhibited  in  their 
shops.  A  circulating  library  was  established 
at  Edinburgh  in  1725.  A  prospectus  for  estab- 
lishing one  in  some  convenient  place  near  the 
Royal  Exchange,  London,  appeared  June  12, 
1740.  There  were,  however,  only  four  in  the 


CIRCULATION 


[    253    ] 


CIRRHA 


metropolis  in  1770;  but  since  that  period  the 
number  has  rapidly  increased. 
CIRCULATION.— (See  BLOOD.) 
CIRCUMCELLIONES.— (See  AGOTSISTICI.} 
CIRCUMCISION.— The  practice  of  this  rite 
amongst  the  Hebrews  was  instituted  by  Abra- 
ham in  accordance  with  the  divine  command, 
B.C.  1897  (Gen.  xvii.  10 — 14).   It  existed  amongst 
other  nations  previous  to  that  time.     Rawlin- 
son  considers  that  it  was  practised  by  the 
Egyptians  long  before  the  birth  of  Abraham, 
or  B.C.   1996.     The  custom,  followed  by  the 
Mohammedans,  prevailed  amongst  many  na- 
tions,  and  has  been  found  to  exist  in    the 
islands  of  the  Pacific. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  THE  GLOBE.— 
The  first  ship  by  which  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  world  was  accomplished  was  the  Vit- 
toria,  forming  one  of  the  expedition  that 
sailed  from  San  Lucar  under  Ferdinand  Magal 
haens,  or  Magellan,  a  Portuguese  commander, 
Sep.  20,  1519.  With  three  out  of  the  five  ships 
that  formed  the  expedition,  he  passed  through 
the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  connecting 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  Nov.  28,  1520. 
Magellan  was  killed  in  an  encounter  on  the 
Philippine  Islands  in  1521.  Sebastian  del  Cano, 
in  the  Vittoria,  the  only  ship  which  returned  to 
Europe,  sailed  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  arrived  at  San  Lucar  Sep.  6,  1522,  having 
achieved  for  the  first  time  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe.  The  following  are  the  most  cele- 
brated expeditions : — 


Date  of  Departure. 

Date  of  Return. 

Navigator. 

1519,  Sep.  20  or  21 
1577,  Dec.  13 

1522,  Sep.  6 
1580,  Sep.  26 

Magellan. 
Sir  Francis  Drake. 

1580,  July  21 

1588,  Sep.  9 

Cavendish. 

1598,  Sep.  13 

1601,  Aug.  26 

Van  Noort. 

1614,  Aug.  8 

1617,  July  I 

Spilbergen. 

1615,  June  14 

1617,  July  I 

Schouten  and   Le 

Maire. 

1623,  April  29 
1703,  Sep.  II* 

1636,  July  9 
1706,  July 

L'Hermite 
Dampier. 

1708,  Sep.  I 

1711,  Oct.  14 

Rogers. 

1719,  Feb.  13 

1722,  July  30 

Shclvocke. 

1721,  Aug.  21 

1723,  July  28 

Rog'jrewein. 

1710,  Sep.  18 
1763,  Sep.  15 
1764,  July  3 
1766,  Aug.  2,2, 

1744,  June  ic 
1769,  Mar.  16 
1766,  May  7 
1768,  May  20 

Anson. 
Bougainville. 
Byron. 
Wallis. 

1766,  Aug.  22 

1769,  Mar.  20 

Carteret. 

1768,  Aug.  26 

1771,  June  12 

}" 

1772,  July  13 

1775,  July  30 

Cook. 

1776,  July  I2f 

1780,  Oct.  4 

1790,  Aug. 

1792,  June  19 

Edwards. 

1822,  Aug.  II 

1835,  Mar.  24 

Duperry. 

1838,  Aug.  18 
1857,  April  30 

1842,  June  10 
1859,  Aug.  26 

Wilkes. 
Wullerstorf-Urbair. 

CIRCUS,  called  by  the  Greeks  Hi_ 
was  devoted  by  the  Romans  to  horse  and 
chariot  races.  The  most  celebrated  and  the 
earliest  was  the  Circus  Maximus,  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  B.C.  605. 
There  were  several  of  these  buildings  in  Rome. 


*  Only  part  of  Dampier's  expedition  returned  in  1706, 
the  remainder,  with  the  commander,  having  been  de- 
tained in  the  East  Indies,  as  prisoners,  by  the  Dutch. 

t  Capt.  Cook  was  killed  by  the  Sandwich  Islanders, 
Feb.  14,  1779.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  Capt. 
King. 


The  Circus  Flaminius  was  erected  B.C.  220. 
The  founder  is  supposed  to  have  been  Caius 
Flaminius,  who  was  defeated  by  Hannibal  at 
Thrasymene,  B.C.  217.  Gladiatorial  shows  were 
first  exhibited  B.C.  264.  The  Goths  abolished 
the  games  A.D.  410.  (See  AMPHITHEATRE.) 

CIRCUS  FACTIONS.— The  race,  at  its  first 
institution,  was  a  contest  between  two  chariots, 
distinguished  by  white  and  red  colours.  To 
these  green  and  blue  were  afterwards  added  ; 
the  four  colours,  according  to  some  authorities, 
being  intended  to  represent  the  four  seasons. 
So  excited  did  the  people  become  in  these 
contests,  that  the  supporters  of  the  different 
candidates  degenerated  into  factions,  and  fre- 
quently provoked  tumults  that  ended  in  san- 
guinary conflicts.  Even  princes  shared  in  this 
folly,  and  Gibbon  (ch.  xl.)  relates  that  Caligula, 
Nero,  Vitellius,  Verus,  Commodus,  Caracalla, 
and  Elagabalus  were  enrolled  in  the  blue  or 
green  factions  of  the  circus.  The  system,  with 
its  abuses,  was  transferred  to  Constantinople, 
in  which  two  factions,  the  green  and  the  blue, 
contended  for  supremacy.  Justinian  I.  favoured 
the  former,  and  during  the  celebration  of  the 
festival  of  the  Ides  of  January,  in  the  fifth  year 
of  his  reign,  A.D.  532,  a  quarrel  arose  between 
them.  For  five  days  the  city  was  in  their 
power,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  the 
baths  of  Zeuxippus,  part  of  the  palace,  and 
many  edifices,  were  destroyed  by  fire.  Their 
watchword  was  Nika,  "Vanquish,"  by  which 
name  the  contest  is  sometimes  designated. 
The  outbreak  was  suppressed  by  Belisarius, 
when  much  slaughter  ensued;  and  though  the 
circus  was  closed  for  several  years,  the  fury  of 
the  factions  again  burst  forth  at  its  restoration. 

CIRCUTORES.— (See  AGONISTICI.) 

CIRENCESTER  (Gloucestershire).— This  an- 
cient city  was  a  station  of  the  Romans,  which 
they  called  Coiinium.  The  Danes  captured  it 
in  878,  and  Guthrum  wintered  here  in  879. 
Canute  held  a  council  at  Cirencester  in  1020. 
Henry  I.  founded  its  abbey  in  1117.  The 
inhabitants  assailed  and  expelled  the  earls  of 
Huntingdon,  Kent,  and  Salisbury,  who  had 
formed  a  plot  to  restore  Richard  II.,  Jan.  6, 
1400,  and  were  rewarded  for  this  service  by 
Henry  IV.  Prince  Rupert  captured  the  town 
in  Feb.,  1643.  It  surrendered  to  the  Parlia- 
mentary army  during  the  same  year.  A  fine 
mosaic  pavement  was  found  in  1723,  and  many 
antiquities  have  been  from  time  to  time  dis- 
covered. The  grammar-school  was  founded  in 
1750,  and  the  Agricultural  College  in  1846. 

CIRRHA  (Greece).— This  town  of  Phocis,  the 
sea-port  of  Delphi  and  Crissa,  with  the  latter 
of  which  it  is  often  confounded,  was  of  ancient 
origin.  Its  inhabitants  levied  exorbitant  tolls 
on  pilgrims  passing  through  on  their  way  to 
the  temple  of  Delphi,  and  committed  other 
outrages,  on  which  account  the  Amphictyonic 
council  declared  war  against  them  B.C.  595. 
This,  the  Cirrhsean  or  first  Sacred  War,  was 
carried  on  by  a  joint  force  of  Athenians,  Sicy- 
onians,  and  Thessalians,  and  after  a  long  siege 
Cirrha  was  taken  and  razed  to  the  ground, 
B.C.  586.  The  assailants  are  said  to  have 
poisoned  the  spring  which  supplied  the  town 
with  water.  All  the  males  were  put  to  the 
sword,  the  women  and  children  sold  to  slavery, 


CISALPINE 


[    254    ] 


CIVIL 


and  the  Pythian  Games  were  founded,  with  the 
spoils. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC  was  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Cispadane  and  Transpadane  re- 
publics, by  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  in  1797.  By 
the  eighth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Campo-For- 
mio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
recognized  this  new  state,  which  was  therein 
stated  to  comprehend  "Austrian  Lombardy, 
the  Bergamasque,  the  Bressau,  the  Cremasque, 
the  city  and  fortress  of  Mantua,  Peschiera,  part 
of  the  Venetian  states,  the  Modenois,  the  prin- 
cipality of  Massa  and  (Jarrara,  and  the  three 
legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Romagna." 
By  a  decree  dated  Oct.  10,  1797,  Napoleon 
annexed  the  Valteline  to  this  republic.  Con- 
stitutions were  made  and  abrogated  in  rapid 
succession,  and  the  interference  of  Napoleon 
became  intolerable.  Treaties  of  alliance  and 
commerce  were  concluded  between  France  and 
this  republic  in  1 798,  by  which  the  last  vestige 
of  independence  was  destroyed.  Austria  re- 
fused to  recognize  its  envoy,  sent  to  Vienna  in 
1798,  and  its  fortunes  declined,  owing  to  the 
reverses  sustained  by  the  French.  It  was, 
however,  once  more  recognized  by  the  Emperor 
of  Austria,  by  the  treaty  of  Limeville,  Feb.  9, 
1801  ;  its  independence  was  guaranteed,  and 
some  alterations  were  made  in  its  limits,  and 
it  received  an  addition  in  the  duchy  of  Mo- 
dena.  Other  changes  were  made,  and  Napoleon 
nominated  himself  president,  and  changed  its 
name  to  that  of  the  Italian  Republic,  Jan.  26, 
1802.  It  was  merged  in  Napoleon's  Italian  king- 
dom in  180.1;. 

CISPADANE  REPUBLIC.  — In  1796 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  conceived  the  design  of 
forming  two  republics  from  the  Italian  ter- 
ritories wrested  from  Austria  and  other  states. 
They  were  called  the  Cispadane  and  Transpa- 
dane republics,  and  were  both  merged  in  1797 
in  the  Cisalpine  Republic  >/.  o.  . 

CISTERCIANS.— This  religious  order  was 
founded  in  1098,  by  Robert,  a  Benedictine 
abbot  of  Molcsme,  in  Burgundy,  and  received 
its  name  from  Citeaux,  in  which  forest,  near 
Dijon,  the  first  convent  was  situated.  Its 
members  increased  rapidly,  although  their 
rules  were  extremely  severe.  They  had  a 
dispute  with  the  Cluniacs  or  Cluniacensians, 
who  accused  them  of  too  great  austerity,  whilst 
the  Cistercians  taxed  the  Cluniacs  with  having 
abandoned  their  regular  discipline.  The  Cis- 
tercians followed  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and 
having  been  reformed  early  in  the  i2th  century 
by  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  were  after- 
wards called  Bernardines.  They  were  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1128,  and  their  first 
house,  at  Waverley,  in  Surrey,  was  completed 
in  1129.  There  were  nuns  of  this  order.  (See 
BERNARDINES.) 

CITATE  (Battle). — The  Russian  troops  oc- 
cupied a  strong  position  at  this  village  on  the 
Danube  in  the  winter  of  1853-4.  Several 
skirmishes  between  the  Cossacks  and  the 
Turkish  cavalry  took  place  near  Citate  towards 
the  end  of  Dec.,  1853,  an(*  the  beginning  of  Jan.. 
1854.  The  Turks  assailed  the  lines  at  Citate 
Jan.  6,  and,  after  a  desperate  combat,  expelled 
the  Russians. 

CITEAUX  (France).— The  seat  of  the  abbey 


House,  was  built  in  1833. 

CITY  OF  LONDON  LIBRARY, 
was  founded   in   1824,   and  is  rich  in  works 
relating  to  the  city  of  London,  the  boroug 
Southwark,  and  the  county  of  Middlesex. 


founded  by  Robert  of  Molesme  in  1098,  in 
which  originated  the  order  of  the  Cistercians. 
Part  of  the  buildings  of  this  abbey  were  con- 
verted in  1849  into  a  reformatory  for  juvenile 
delinquents.  (See  CISTERCIANS.  ) 

CITY.—  In  Kerr's  "  Blackstone  "  a  city  is 
described  as  "  a  town  incorporated,  which  is 
or  hath  been  the  see  of  a  bishop  :  and  though 
the  bishopric  be  dissolved,  as  at  Westminster, 
yet  still  it  remains  a  city."  The  term  is,  how- 
ever, applied  to  many  large  towns  that  have 
not  enjoyed  this  distinction.  Alphonso  V. 
granted  a  charter  to  Leon  in  1020,  and  Berenger, 
Count  of  Barcelona,  in  1025,  confirmed  to  the 
inhabitants  of  that  city  all  the  franchises  they 
already  possessed.  Charters  as  old  as  mo, 
though  the  precise  date  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, granted  to  French  cities,  are  in  exist- 
ence. Lord  Lyttleton  states  that  in  England 
many  cities  and  towns  were  bodies  corporate 
and  communities  long  before  the  alteration 
introduced  into  France  by  Louis  le  Gros. 

CITY  CLUB  (London).  —  In  Old  Broad 
Street,  occupying  the  site  of  the  Old  South  Sea 


in  Guildhall, 


CITY  OF  LONDON  THEATRE  (London), 
situated  in  Norton  Folgate,  was  opened  early 
in  1837. 

CITY    OF     REFUGE.— (See    ASYLUM     and 

SAN<T['ARY.) 

CIUDAD  RODRIGO,  or  RODERIC'S  TOWN 
Spain  . — A  strongly-fortified  town  which  has 
sustained  several  memorable  sieges.  Henry  II. 
of  Castile  failed  in  an  attempt  to  wrest  it  from 
the  Portuguese  in  1370.  Lord  Galway  captured 
it  May  26  (O.S.),  1706.  The  French  invested  it 
June  i,  1810,  and  their  breaching  batteries 
commenced  fire  June  25.  The  Spanish  garrison, 
after  a  gallant  defence,  surrendered  July  n. 
Wellington  invested  it  Jan.  8,  1812,  and  carried 
it  by  storm  Jan  19.  Its  cathedral  was  built  in 
the  1 2th  century. 

CIVIL  CLUB  (London)  was  established  in 
1669.  Two  carved  chairs  of  that  date  are  used 
by  the  stewards.  This  club  has  a  chaplain. 

CIVIL  LAW.— (See  ROMAN  LAW.) 

CIVIL  LIST.— All  the  expenses  of  the  Eng- 
lish Government,  including  military  charges, 
were  formerly  comprehended  in  one  list,  and 
defrayed  out  of  the  royal  revenue.  At  the 
Restoration,  in  1660,  a  division  took  place 
between  the  military  expenses  and  those  in- 
curred for  ordinary  purposes.  The  revenues 
employed  for  the  last-mentioned  were  termed 
the  hereditary  or  civil-list  revenues.  The 
civil-list  revenues  averaged,  during  the  reigns 
of  William  III.  and  of  Queen  Anne,  .£680,000 
per  annum.  They  were  raised  to  £700,000  un- 
der George  I.  ;  to  ',£800,000  under  George  II.  ; 
and  in  1812  had  reached  £1,080,000.  By  the 
settlement  of  the  civil-list,  made  by  i  Will.  IV. 
c.  25  (April  22,  1831),  a  net  yearly  revenue  of 
.£510,000  was  allotted  to  the  king.  Queen 
Victoria  surrendered  the  hereditary  revenues 
of  the  crown  by  i  Viet.  c.  2  (Dec.  23,  1837), 
receiving  a  clear  yearly  sum  of  £385,000  for 
the  support  of  the  royal  household,  and  of  the 


CIVIL 


[    255    1 


CLANS 


honour  and  dignity  of  the  crown.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  distribution  of  the  money,  according 
to  the  act  :— 

I.  For  her  Majesty's  privy  purse  £60,000 

8.  Salaries  of   her  Majesty's  household,   and  re- 
tired allowances    131,260 

3.  Expenses  of  her  Majesty's  household 172,5°° 

4.  Koyal  bounty,  alms,  and  special  services 13,200 

5.  Pensions  to  the  extent  of  .£1,300  per  annum. 

o.  Unappropriated  moneys 8,040 


Total  £385,000 


CIVIL  SERVICE.— This  term  is  applied  to 
the  large  body  of  men  by  whose  labours  the 
executive  business  of  the  country  is  carried 
on.  In  its  widest  sense  the  civil  service  has 
been  said  to  consist  of  above  50,000  persons. 
There  are  about  17,000  civil  servants,  exclusive 
of  17,000  inferior  revenue  officers,  postmen, 
&c.,  15,000  artificers  and  labourers  in  the  go- 
vernment dockyards,  and  4,000  office-keepers 
and  messengers.  By  an  order  in  council, 
May  21,  1855,  a  civil  service  commission  was 
appointed  to  examine  candidates  for  this 
service. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  CLUB  (London),  for  gentle- 
men holding,  or  having  held,  civil  appointments 
under  the  crown,  at  home  or  abroad,  was  estab- 
lished April  5,  1865. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  ESTIMATES.— The  general 
expenditure  of  the  state,  exclusive  of  the 
sums  required  for  the  army  and  navy.  For  the 
financial  year  1866-7,  these  estimates  were  : — 

Public  works  and  buildings £993,906 

Salaries  and  expense  of  public  department!  1,580,056 

Law  and  justice   2,875,344 

Education,  science,  and  art  1,387,515 

Colonial  and  consular  services 508,408 

Superannuation  and  reared  allowances  and  gra- 
tuities      

Miscellaneous  and  special 


Total. 


..£7,856,836 


CIVITA  CASTELLANA (Battle).— Macdonald 
defeated  the  Neapolitans,  at  this  town,  in 
Central  Italy,  occupying  the  site  of  the  Etrus- 
can city  Falerium  Vetus,  Dec.  4,  1798. 

CIVITA  VECCHIA,  or  OLD  TOWN  (Italy), 
is  built  on  the  site  of  the  Centum  Cellae  of  the 
Romans.  Trajan  constructed  the  port  A.D. 
103.  It  was  captured  by  Belisarius  in  539; 
by  Totila  in  544,  and  by  Narses  in  552.  The 
Saracens  destroyed  Centum  Cellse  in  812,  and 
the  remnant  of  the  inhabitants  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  the  interior ;  from  which  circumstance 
the  town  was  called  Civita  Vecchia,  or  Old 
Town.  Clement  XII.  made  it  a  free  port.  An 
English  fleet  appeared  off  Civita  Vecchia  in 
1780,  and  threatened  to  destroy  it  on  account  of 
the  assistance  rendered  to  the  cause  of  the 
Pretender  by  Clement  XL,  and  another  threat 
of  the  same  kind  was  made  in  1 743.  It  capitu- 
lated to  an  English  squadron  Sep.  30,  1799. 
Capt.  Louis,  of  the  Minotaur,  rowed  up  the 
Tiber  in  his  barge,  hoisted  the  English  colours 
in  the  Eternal  City,  and  was  made  provisional 
governor  of  Rome.  The  French  expedition  to 
Rome  landed  here  May  25,  1849. 

CIVITELLA  DEL  FRONTO  (Battles).— 
Robert  Guiscard  defeated  the  united  forces  of 


the  Emperor  Henry  III.,  Pope  Leo  IX.,  and 
the  Greeks,  at  this  place  in  Naples,  in  1053. 
The  castle,  held  by  the  forces  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  was  besieged  in  1557  by  the  French 
under  the  Duke  of  Guise,  who,  having  vainly 
expected  reinforcements  from  the  Pope,  and 
being  unwilling  to  risk  an  encounter  with  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  who  was  advancing  against  him 
with  22,000  men,  raised  the  siege  after  three 
weeks  and  retired  towards  Rome. 

CLACKMANNAN  (Scotland).— In  1195,  the 
church  of  this  town,  with  its  chapels,  belonged 
to  the  abbey  of  Cambuskenneth.  The  castle, 
said  to  have  been  built  by  King  Robert  I. 
(Bruce)  1306 — 1329,  and  which  was  theresidence 
in  1330  of  King  David  II.,  was  conferred  by 
him  upon  Sir  Robert  de  Bruce  and  his  descen- 
dants in  1358-9.  Clackmannan  is  mentioned 
as  a  royal  burgh  in  acts  of  the  Scotch  parlia- 
ment in  1540  and  1543. 

CLAIRAC  (France).— This  town  grew  up 
round  a  Benedictine  abbey  founded  about  the 
8th  century.  It  was  one  of  the  first  places  in 
France  to  receive  the  principles  of  the  Refor- 
mation, the  abbot,  Gerard  Rousselle,  having 
embraced  Protestantism  in  1527.  It  was  taken 
by  Louis  XIII.  in  1621. 

CLAIRVAUX  (France).— St.  Bernard,  who 
established  a  monastery  at  this  village,  near 
Bar-sur-Aube,  in  France,  in  1114,  died  here 
Aug.  20,  1153,  and  was  buried  in  the  church. 
The  abbey  was  converted  into  a  prison  about 

1  CLANS.— Chalmers  (Caledonia,  vol.  i.  b.  iv. 
c.  7)  has  the  following  observations  respecting 
the  Scottish  clans  : — "  During  Gaelic  times, 
there  existed,  in  every  part  of  North  Britain, 
clanship,  from  blood.  Throughout  the  whole 
Scoto-Saxon  period,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
existed,  from  conquest  and  birth,  universal 
villeynage,  which  disappeared  diiring  the  isth 
century.  Amidst  the  anarchy  of  subsequent 
times,  there  arose  various  clans,  which  were 
divided,  in  the  policy  of  those  ages,  into  the 
clans  of  the  borders  and  the  clans  of  the  high- 
lands. From  this  state  of  society,  and  the 
want  of  employment,  we  may  account  for  the 
facility  with  which  great  bodies  of  men  could 
then  be  brought  into  action.  In  1587,  the 
chiefs  of  all  those  clans  were  obliged  to  give 
sureties  for  their  quiet  conduct,  and  were 
made  answerable  for  their  wrongs.  The  union 
of  the  two  crowns  dissolved  the  clans,  and 
established  the  quiet  of  the  borders  :  several 
of  the  other  clans  remained  to  our  own  times, 
often  disturbing  domestic  tranquillity,  and 
sometimes  defying  the  mandates  of  law."  The 
following  list  of  the  clans  is  given  at  the  end 
of  the  statutes  of  the  i  ith  parliament  of  James 
VI.  (July  29,  1587)  :— 


Ellottes 
Arme-stranges. 


MIDDLE   MARCHE. 

Nicksonnes. 
Crosers. 


WEST  MARCHE. 

Scottes  of  Eusdaill.  |  Carrutheres. 

Beatisonnes.  Grahames. 

Littles.  Johnstones. 

Thomsonnes.  Jardanes. 

Glendunninges.  Moffettes. 

Irvinges.  Latimers. 


CLARE 


[    256    ] 


OLA20MEN7E 


II  IE-LAN  JDS 
Buchannaniies. 
Mak-farlanes    of  the  Arro- 

quhair. 

Mak-knabbes. 
Grahnmes  of  Monteith. 
Stewartes  of  Jialquhidder. 
Clan-Givgoire. 
Clan-Lauren. 
Campbellea  of  Loclrinel. 
Campbellesof  Innemiw. 
Clan-Dowall  of  Lome. 
Stewartes  of    Lome,    or    of 

Appin. 

Claii-Mackeane  Awrieht. 
Stewartes    of    Athoill     and 

partes  adjacent. 
Clannc-lloiioquhy  in  Athoill 

and  panes  adjacent. 
Meinzies  in  Athoill  and  Ap- 

nadulL 


AND    ILES. 
Clau-Mak-Thomas      ir 

(ilcnsche. 
Fi-r-russonnes. 


.kintoschcs  in  Athoill. 
Clan-Chaniron. 
Clan-liannakl  in  Loch-Aber. 
Clan-Kannald  of  Knoydort, 
Moydcrt,  and  lilen^anvy. 
Clan-Lewld  of  the  L.'wis. 
rlaii-Li>wid  of  the  Harrich. 
Clan-Noill. 
Clan-Kinnon. 
Clan-Jeane. 
Clan-Chattane. 
Grantes. 
Fraseres. 
Clan-Keiuzie. 
Clan-Avercis. 
Munroes. 
|  Murrayes  in  Southerland. 

The  act  (20  Geo.  II.  c.  43)  for  abolishing  heri- 
table jurisdictions  in  Scotland,  passed  in  1747, 
put  an  end  to  the  legal  authority  of  the  chiefs 
of  clans. 

CLARE  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— University 
Hall,  founded  in  1326,  having  been  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1342,  was  rebuilt  and  endo 
J347  by  Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  one  of  the  sisters 
and  coheirs  of  Gilbert,  Earl  of  Clare.  From 
this  benefactress  it  received  its  new  name. 
The  present  hull  was  built  in  1638.  The  old 
chapel,  built  in  1535,  was  never  consecrated. 
The  new  chapel  was  commenced  in  1763  and 
consecrated  in  1769.  Chaucer  calls  it  Solere 
Hall. 

CLARE,  or  CLAIRE,  ST.,  or  CLARISSKS 
(Order). — This  religious  order  was  founded  by 
St.  Clare,  with  the  uid  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
in  1212.  The  order  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of 
Innocent  IV.  At  first  the  nuns  followed  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict;  this  was,  hou-ovur, 
modified  by  St.  Francis  in  1224,  and  by  Urban 
IV.  in  1264.  Those  who  follow  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  rule  by  Urban  are  called  Urban- 
ists,  and  those  who  observe  the  original  rule 
Damianists.  Brought  into  England  in  1293, 
under  a  license  from  Edward  I.,  they  had  only 
four  houses  in  this  country.  They  were  called 
Poor  Clares. 

CLAREMONT  (Surrey)  was  built  by  Van- 
brugh  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  and  named 
after  the  Earl  of  Clare,  who  became  Duke  of 
Newcastle  in  1715.  It  was  sold  in  1769  to  Lord 
Clive,  by  whom  the  house  was  rebuilt  and  the 
grounds  newly  arranged.  On  the  death  of 
Clive,  in  1774,  the  house  and  estate  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Lord  Galway,  and  subsequently 
of  the  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  who  sold  them  to  Mr. 
Ellis  in  1807.  By  26  Geo.  III.  c.  25  (1816),  the 
property  was  purchased  by  Government  as  a 
residence  for  the  Princess  Charlotte,  who  died 
here  Nov.  6,  1817.  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the 
French,  lived  at  Claremont  on  his  retirement 
to  England,  March  4,  1848  ;  and  died  here  Aug. 
26,  1850.  His  widow,  Queen  Marie  Amelie, 
also  died  here,  March  24,  1866. 

CLARENCIEUX  (Kmg-at-Arms).  —  This 
name  was  given  to  a  herald  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence  during  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
(1327 — 1377),  and  was  confirmed  by  Edward 
IV.,  at  whose  funeral  in  1483  Clarencieux  king- 
at-arms  was  present. 


CLARENDON  CONSTITUTIONS.— A  coun- 
cil was  held  at  Clarendon,  near  Salisbury,  .Jan. 
25,  1164,  when  these  laws,  defining  the  limits 
between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion, and  regulating  certain  church  n 
were  passed.  Thomas  Becket,  Archbishop  nf 
Canterbury,  having  refused  to  sign  them, 
withdrew  from  the  kingdom  in  disguise,  and 
•landed  at  Grave-lines  Nov.  3.  He  excommuni- 
cated many  of  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  influen- 
tial laymen,  who  had  subscribed  them,  June 
12,  1166;  whereupon  Henry  II.  banished  400 
of  the  archbishop's  supporters.  The  king  and 
archbishop  met  at  Fretville,  in  Touraine,  July 
22,  1170,  and  were  reconciled.  Soon  after  his 
return  to  Canterbury,  Dec.  3,  he  excommuni- 
cated several  nobles,  and  was  assassinated 
before  the  altar  of  St.  Benedict,  in  the  cathe- 
dral, Dec.  29,  1170.  These  constitution 
of  which  were  annulled  by  the  Pope,  are  given 
in  Roger  of  Wendover's  "  Flowers  of  History," 
Lord  Lyttleton's  "  Life  of  Henry  the  Second," 
and  other  works. 

CLARENDON-DALLAS  TREATY,  intended 
to  settle  difficulties  that  had  arisen  b. 
England  and  the  United  States,  respecting  the 
interpretation  of  the  Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty  of 
April  19,  1850,  was  signed  in  London  Oct.  17, 
1856.  It  was  altered  in  the  United  States,  and 
feigned  in  the  new  form  March  12,  1857.  To 
one  of  the  amendments  the  British  Govern- 
ment objected,  and  the  treaty  was  never 
ratified. 

CLARENDON  PRESS  (Oxford).— The  design 
of  establishing  a  press  for  the  use  of  Oxford 
University  was  formed  in  1672,  at  which  time 
the  business  was  carried  on  at  the  Shcldonian 
Theatre.  From  the  profits  arising  from  the 
sale  of  Lord  Clarendon's  "  History  of  the  Re- 
bellion," the  university  was  enabled,  in  1711, 
to  erect  a  special  building  for  the  purpose, 
after  the  designs  of  Vanbrugh.  In  1721  the 
statue  of  Lord  Clarendon  was  placed  over  the 
south  entrance.  The  present  university  print- 
ing-office was  commenced  by  Robertson  in 
825,  and  completed  by  Blore  in  1830,  \vhen 
the  business  was  transferred  from  the  Claren- 
don, which  was  convei'ted  into  a  museum, 
ecture-hall,  &c.  The  new  building  V.MS 
damaged  by  fire  to  the  amount  of  ,£2,000,  Feb., 

CLARINET,  or  CLARIONET.  —  This  wind 
iistrument  was  invented  by  Christopher 
Denner,  at  Nuremberg,  in  1690. 

CLASTIDIUM  (Battle).— Marcellus  defeated 
;he  Gauls  at  this  place,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  B.C. 
222,  whereupon  they  sued  for  peace.  The 
modern  town  of  Casteggio  occupies  its  site. 

CLAUSENBERG.— (&>e  KLAUSENBERG.) 

CLAVICHORD,  or  CLARICHORD.  —  This 
musical  instrument  is  mentioned  by  Otto- 
marus  Luscinus  in  1536  ;  but  its  invention  may 
)e  referred  to  an  earlier  date.  It  was  much 
ised  by  nuns  in  convents. 

CLAVIJO  (Battle).  —  Ramiro  defeated  the 
Moors  at  Clavijo  in  844.  No  less  than  60,000  of 
them  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  conflict 
and  the  retreat. 

CLAZOMEN^E  (Asia  Minor).— This  city,  ori- 
ginally founded  on  the  mainland  by  Ionian 
and  other  colonists,  but  subsequently  removed, 


CLEARING 


[    257    1 


CLERGY 


for  fear  of  the  Persians,  to  an  island  in  the 
bay  of  Smyrna,  became  a  dependency  o: 
Athens,  and  was  made  tax-free  by  the  Romans 
B.C.  188.  With  other  cities  on  the  borders  oJ 
the  ^Egean  Sea,  it  was  plundered  by  pirates 
B.C.  84. 

CLEARING-HOUSE  (Banking).— This  estab- 
lishment, for  enabling  bankers  easily  to  inter- 
change bills,  cheques,  &c.,  originated  about 
1775,  when  a  building  in  Lombard  Street  was 
set  apart  for  the  purpose,  under  the  direction 
of  a  committee  chosen  by  the  chief  banking 
firms,  and  managed  by  two  inspectors. 

CLEARING-HOUSE  (Railway). —For  rail- 
way companies  in  England  and  Scotland  to 
transact  the  business  of  their  through  traffic  ol 
goods  and  passengers  passing  over  the  lines  of 
different  companies,  was  regulated  some  time 
after  its  establishment,  by  the  Railway  Clear- 
ing Act,  13  &  14  Viet.  (Local  and  Personal) 
c.  33  (June  25,  1850).  The  Railway  Clearing- 
house in  Seymour  Street,  London,  was  much 
enlarged  in  1865. 

CLEMENTINE,  or  HOLY  LEAGUE.— (See 
COGNAC.) 

CLEMENTINES.— These  spurious  writings, 
amongst  which  are  two  epistles  to  the  Corin- 
thians, represented  as  the  works  of  Clement, 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  the  ist  century,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  concocted  by  one  of  the 
sect  of  the  Ebionites.  This  father  of  the 
Church  is  generally  believed  to  be  the  Clemens 
mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (Phil,  iv,  3).  He  died 
in  100  or  102.  Some  apostolic  canons,  consti- 
tutions, recognitions,  &c.,  are  included  in  the 

Clementines. The    constitutions    of    Pope 

Clement  V.  (1305 — 1314)  are  also  called  Cle- 
mentines. 

CLEMENTINES  AND  URBANISTS.— Gre- 
gory XI.  returned  to  Rome,  after  a  long 
residence  at  Avignon,  in  April,  1377,  and  thus 
terminated  what  is  called  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity of  the  popcdom.  He  died  March  27  or 
28,  1378.  An  outcry  was  immediately  raised 
for  the  election  of  an  Italian  pope,  and  Bartho- 
lomew Prignani,  Archbishop  of  Bari,  was 
chosen,  April  9.  He  took  the  title  of  Urban 
VI.  The  French  cardinals  at  Anagni  declared 
the  election  void,  Aug.  9,  and  elected  Robert 
of  Geneva  pope,  who  took  the  title  of  Clement 
VII.,  Sep.  20.  Such  was  the  commencement 
of  the  schism  by  which  the  Latin  Church  was 
agitated  and  divided  for  38  years.  Each  pope 
had  his  followers,  and  these  were  known  by 
the  names  of  Clementines  and  Urbanists. 

CLEMENT'S  INN  (London).— This  inn  of 
Chancery  is  said  by  Dugdale,  on  the  authority 
of  an  ancient  record,  to  have  been  in  existence 
long  before  1479.  The  hall  was  built  in  1715. 

CLEOBURY  (Battle).— -Leofgar,  Bishop  of 
Hereford,  having  led  an  army  against  the 
Welsh  king  Griffith,  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
this  place,  in  Herefordshire,  June  17,  1056. 
Several  of  his  priests  who  had  accompanied 
him  to  the  field  of  battle  fell  at  his  side.  The 
chroniclers  do  not  agree  respecting  the  name 
of  the  place  at  which  the  battle  was  fought. 
Roger  of  Hoveden  says  it  was  Glastonbury. 
CLEOMENIC  WAR.— (See  ACHJEAN  LEAGUE.) 
CLEPSYDRA,  or  WATER-CLOCK.  —  The 
Chaldseans  and  the  Egyptians  are  said  to  have 


made  use  of  some  ingenious  invention  of  this 
kind  in  order  to  measure  time.  Vitruvius  as- 
cribes the  invention  to  Ctesibius  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  flourished  about  B.C.  250.  P.  C. 
Scipio  Nasica  introduced  them  at  Rome  B.C. 
159.  '  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were 
used  by  the  Greeks  at  an  early  period.  They 
were  known  in  India  in  the  i2th  century. 
Modern  water-clocks,  invented  during  the  i7th 
century,  were  introduced  from  Burgundy  into 
Paris  in  1693. 

CLERGY.— Bingham  (Antiq.  b.  i.  ch.  v.<  . 
8)  says  :  "  As  to  the  reason  of  the  name  clerici 
and  clerus,  St.  Jerom  rightly  observes,  that  it 
comes  from  the  Greek  *Aijpo£,  which  signifies 
a  lot;  and  thence,  he  says,  'God's  ministers 
were  called  clerici,  either  because  they  are  the 
lot  and  portion  of  the  Lord,  or  because  the 
Lord  is  their  lot,  that  is,  their  inheritance.' 
Others  think  some  regard  was  had  to  the 
ancient  custom  of  choosing  persons  into  sacred 
offices  by  lot,  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles  ; 
which  is  not  improbable,  though  that  custom 
never  generally  prevailed  among  Christians." 
The  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  the  laity 
commenced  at  the  foundation  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  name  clergy  was  at  first  given  to 
the  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  the  only 
orders  in  the  Church.  In  the  3rd  century  sub- 
deacons,  acolythists,  readers,  and  other  inferior 
orders  were  appointed ;  and  these  were  also 
styled  clerici.  The  clergy  were  afterwards 
divided  into  the  regular  and  secular,  the  for- 
mer living  under  some  religious  rule,  such  as 
abbots  and  monks,  and  the  latter  mingling 
with  the  people  and  having  the  care  of  parishes, 
as  bishops  and  priests.  The  term  clergy  is 
applied  in  England  to  all  persons  in  holy 
orders  belonging  to  the  Established  Church. 
A  clergyman  is  exempted  from  serving  on  a 
jury,  or  as  a  bailiff,  reeve,  constable,  &c.,  is 
incapable  of  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
or  of  being  a  councillor  or  alderman  in  a 
borough,  is  free  from  arrest  in  a  civil  suit 
whilst  engaged  in  divine  service,  or  whilst 
?oing  to  or  coming  from  the  performance  of 
this  duty,  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  23  (June  19, 
1828).  The  mode  of  proceeding  against  the 
clergy  for  ecclesiastical  offences  is  regulated 
by  the  Church  Discipline  Act,  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  86 
Aug.  7,  1840).  At  one  time  the  clergy  en- 
grossed every  branch  of  learning,  and  were 
remarkable  for  their  proficiency  in  the  study 
of  the  common  law.  The  judges  were  selected 
rom  their  ranks,  and  from  the  lower  clergy 
;he  inferior  offices  were  supplied.  Hence  the 
;erm  clerk.  (See  BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.) 

CLERGY  (Sons  of).— The  festival  of  the 
Sons  of  the  Clergy,  celebrated  every  year  at  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  was  instituted  in  1655,  and 
;he  first  sermon  was  preached  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  Nov.  8  in  that  year.  The  society's 
charter  of  incorporation  is  dated  July  i,  1678. 

CLERGY  CLUB  (London).— The  club-house 
f  this  institution  for  "promoting  the  associa- 
ion  of  clerical  and  lay  members  of  the  United 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland,  in  Great 
Britain,  and  in  her  possessions  abroad,  as  also 
»f  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church,"  situated  in 
Charles  Street,  St.  James's,  was  opened  Jan. 
5,  1866. 


CLERK 


[    258    ] 


CLOCK 


CLERK.— (-See  CLERGY.) 

CLERK  OF  THE  CLOSET,  or  CONFESSOR 
TO  THE  SOVEREIGN,  usually  a  bishop, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  attend  the  sovereign  in  the 
royal  closet,  during  Divine  Service,  to  resolve  all 
doubts  concerning  spiritual  matters,  is  rrien- 
tioned  by  Chamberlayne  in  his  "  State  of  Eng- 
land," published  in  1673. 

CLERKENWELL  (London)  is  called  by 
Stow  "  Clarkes-Well,  or  darken-Well."  The 
same  writer  adds,  the  well  "  took  name  of  the 
parish  clarks  in  London,  who  (of  old  time) 
were  accustomed  there  yearly  to  assemble,  and 
to  play  some  large  history  of  Holy  Scripture. 
For  example  of  later  time,  to  wit  in  the  year 
1390,  the  i4th  of  Richard  the  Second,  I  read, 
that  the  parish  clarks  of  London,  on  the  i8th 
of  July,  plaid  interludes  at  Skinners'  Well, 
near  unto  Clarks' -Well,  which  play  continued 
three  days  together,  the  king,  queen,  and 
nobles  being  present."  Dugdale  records  the 
foundation  of  a  nunnery  about  noo,  and  the 
erection  of  the  priory  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
about  mo.  In  Fitz-Stephen's  "Description 
of  the  most  noble  City  of  London"  (1190), 
Clerkenwell  is  named  as  one  of  the  spots 
where  ' '  the  scholars,  and  youth  of  the  city,  do 
take  the  air  abroad  in  the  summer  evenings." 
In  1563  the  locality  was  still  unoccupied, 
except  by  the  monasteries  and  St.  John's  Street 
and  Cow  Cross;  but  the  number  of  houses 
was  much  increased  before  1598.  The  Bride- 
well was  erected  in  1615  ;  Sadler's  Wells  Thea- 
tre was  built  as  a  music-house  in  1683;  the 
Workhouse  was  erected  in  1 790  ;  the  Middle- 
sex House  of  Correction  in  1794  ;  and  the  New 
Prison,  or  House  of  Detention,  was  built  on  the 
site  of  the  Bridewell  in  1818,  and  rebuilt  in 

1  CLERMONT  FERRAND  (France),  the  an- 
cient Augustonemetum,  was  sacked  by  the 
Vandals  in  408,  and  by  an  army  under  Honorius 
in  412.  Thierry  captured  it  in  507,  and  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  Auvergne.  It  was  fre- 
quently besieged.  The  Northmen  took  it  in  853 
and  in  916,  committing  great  ravages  on  each 
occasion.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of 
Auvergne,  founded  about  250.  Since  1160,  the 
occupants  of  the  see  have  taken  the  title  of 
bishops  of  Clermont.  Parts  of  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame  du  Port  were  built  in  863,  and  the 
cathedral  was  founded  in  1248.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  Clermont,  called  Clams  Mons,  or  Clari- 
montium,  was  the  scene  of  two  celebrated 
councils.  The  first,  which  led  to  the  first  cru- 
sade, was  summoned  by  Urban  II.,  and  lasted 
from  Nov.  18  to  28,  1095 ;  and  the  second  was 
held  in  1130. 

CLEVELAND  (UNITED  STATES).— This  city  of 
Ohio  was  founded  in  1796. 

CLEVER  (Germany).— This  district  was  ruled 
by  counts  from  the  gth  century  until  1419, 
when  Thierry  VIII.  was  made  duke  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.  It  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  house  of  Brandenburg  in  1609; 
the  French  seized  it  in  1794,  united  part  of  it 
to  Berg  in  1806  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  Prussia 
in  1815.  (See  BERG.)  The  town  of  Cleves  is 
pleasantly  situated  about  two  miles  from  the 
Rhine.  The  cathedral  was  built  in  1346,  and 
the  castle  in  1439.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 


Anne  of  Cleves,  married  to  Henry  VIII.  Jan.  6, 
1540.  The  marriage  was  abrogated  by  act  of 
Parliament  July  24,  1540. 

CLIFF.— (See  CLOVESHOO.) 

CLIFFORD  STREET  CLUB  (London).— A 
debating  society,  which  met  once  a  month,  in 
the  last  century,  at  Clifford  Street  Coffee-house. 
George  Canning  was  a  member. 

CLIFFORD'S  INN  (London)  received  its 
name  from  the  De  Clifford  family,  who  granted 
it  to  students-at-law  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
about  the  year  1344,  when  it  was  made  an  inn 
of  Chancery. 

CLIFTON.— (See  BRISTOL.) 

CLIFTON  MOOR  (Battle).— During  the  re- 
treat of  the  Pretender,  Charles  Edward,  from 
England,  the  English  were  repulsed  in  an 
attack  upon  the  Scottish  rear-guard,  at  Clifton 
Moor,  Dec.  18,  1745.  The  former  lost  100  men 
in  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  latter  only  12. 

C1.1SSAU  (Battle).— Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
having  invaded  Poland,  gained  a  complete  vic- 
tory over  Augustus  Frederick  HI.,  King  of 
Poland,  on  this  plain,  between  Warsaw  and 
Cracow,  July  20,  1702.  Charles  XII.,  in  pursuit 
of  the  King  of  Poland,  fell  from  his  horse  and 
broke  his  collar-bone. 

CLOACA  MAXIMA.— (&*  BiEWBsa.) 

CLOCK. — Sun-dials  and  clepsydrte  (q.  •?'.),  or 
water-clocks,  preceded  clocks  moved  by  wheels 
and  weights.  Beckmann  assigns  the  invention 
of  the  last-mentioned  to  the  nth  century.  The 
first  public  clock  was  erected  at  Padua.  Others 
were  put  up  at  Westminster  in  1288 ;  at  Canter- 
bury in  1292  ;  at  Dover  in  1348  (the  oldest  ex- 
tant) ;  at  Bologna  in  1356  ;  and  at  Paris  in 
1364.  Their  general  introduction  into  England 
may  be  ref erred  to  1 368,  in  which  year  Ed- 
ward III.  invited  three  Dutch  clockmakers 
from  Delft  to  settle  in  the  country.  A  clock 
was  erected  at  Strasburg  about  1370.  The 
Duke  of  Burgundy  removed  the  clock  from 
Courtrai  to  Dijon  in  1382.  A  public  clock  was 
set  up  at  Spires  in  1395  ;  and  another  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1462.  Balance  clocks  were  used  by 
Walther  for  astronomical  observations  as  early 
as  1484.  A  clock  was  erected  at  Venice  in 
1497.  Portable  clocks  arc  supposed  to  have 
been  invented  about  1525,  in  order  to  be  used  at 
sea  in  computing  the  longitude.  The  first  Eng- 
lish clock  that  measured  time  with  accuracy  is 
said  to  have  been  that  at  Hampton  Court, 
which  bears  date  1540.  Charles  I.  incorporated 
the  company  of  Clockmakers  Aug.  22,  1632. 
The  invention  of  pendulum  clocks  is  claimed 
for  three  persons — Richard  Harris  in  1641  ; 
Vincenzio  Galilei,  who  is  said  to  have  rendered 
his  father's  discovery  of  practical  utility  in 
1649  ;  and  Huygens  in  1657.  Repeating  clocks 
were  first  constructed  by  Barlow  in  1676  ;  the 
anchor  escapement  was  introduced  by  Clement 
in  1680 ;  and  equation  clocks,  whose  inventor 
is  unknown,  some  time  previous  to  1699. 
Jewelled  pallets  and  pivot-holes  were  intro- 
duced by  De  Baufre  about  1704,  and  the  com- 
pensation pendulum  by  Graham  and  Harrison 
in  1715.  The  electric  clock  was  first  exhibited 
to  the  Royal  Society  by  Professor  Wheatstone 
in  1840,  and  was  much  improved  by  Messrs. 
Bain,  Appold,  and  Shepherd,  the  last  of  whom 
supplied  the  clock  at  the  Exhibition  of  1851. 


CLOGHER 


[    259    ] 


CLOVESHOO 


By  37  Geo.  III.  c.  108  (July  19,  1797),  an  annual 
duty  of  58.  for  each  clock,  or  zs.  6d.  for  each 
silver  or  metal  watch,  was  levied.  These  were 
repealed  by  38  Geo.  III.  c.  40  (May  10,  1798). 
Clocks  formerly  paid  a  duty  of  25  per  cent. , 
which  was  reduced  to  10  per  cent."  by  5  &  6 
Viet.  c.  47  (July  9,  1842),  and  still  further 
diminished  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  54  (Aug.  4,  1853). 

CLOGHER  (Ireland)  was  erected  into  a 
bishopric  in  493  by  St.  Macartin,  who 
founded  a  monastery,  and  died  in  506.  The 
cathedral  was  rebuilt  in  1041,  and  again  in 
1295.  The  first  Protestant  bishop  of  Clogher 
was  Miller  Magrath,  whom  Queen  Elizabeth 
appointed  Sep.  10,  1570.  Charles  I.  erected 
this  town  into  a  borough,  and  it  returned  two 
members  to  the  Irish  parliament  till  its  dis- 
franchisement  at  the  Union.  On  the  death 
of  the  Right  Hon.  Lord  R.  P.  Tottenham, 
Bishop  of  Clogher,  April  28,  1850,  the  see  was 
united  to  Armagh  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Church  Temporalities  Act,  3  &  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833). 

CLOGS.— ( See  ALMANACK.) 

CLONARD  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  diocese, 
founded  by  St.  Finian  about  520,  was,  with 
several  other  minor  sees,  merged  in  1174  in  the 
diocese  of  Meath  (q.  v.). 

CLONFERT (Ireland).— St.  Brendan  founded 
a  monastery  here  in  558,  and  became  the  first 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  In  1602  the  see  was 
united  to  Kilmacduagh,  and  to  the  sees  of 
Killaloe  and  Kilfenora,  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c. 
37  (Aug.  14,  1833). 

CLONMEL,  the  Vale  of  Honey  (Ireland),  was 
incorporated  at  a  very  early  period,  but  did 
not  receive  its  charter  till  1608.  The  manu- 
facture of  woollen  goods,  introduced  in  1667, 
declined  at  the  Revolution.  The  trial  of  Smith 
O'Brien  for  high  treason  commenced  here  Sep. 
28,  and  terminated  Oct.  9,  1848. 

CLONTARF  (Battle).— Brian  Boru,  King  of 
Ireland,  with  a  force  of  20,000  men,  defeated 
21,000  Danes,  under  King  Sitric,  on  the 
plains  of  Clontarf,  near  Dublin,  Good  Friday, 
April  23,  1014.  Seven  thousand  Irish,  in- 
cluding Brian  and  his  son  Murrogh,  fell  in  the 
action.  The  Danish  loss  amounted  to  13,000. 

CLOSET.— (See  CLERK  OF  THE  CLOSET.) 

CLOSETINGS.— The  name  given  to  the  pri- 
vate conferences  to  which  James  II.  in  1687 
and  1688  summoned  members  of  Parliament 
and  various  public  functionaries,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  winning  them  over  to  his  plan  for  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion and  other  arbitrary  measures. 

CLOSH,  or  CLOSSYNGE.— An  old  game  of 
ninepins,  prohibited  by  17  Edw.  IV.  c.  3  (1478). 
The  penalty  for  a  person  allowing  this  and 
several  other  games  to  be  played  in  his  house, 
was  three  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of 
,£20,  the  players  to  be  imprisoned  two  years 
and  to  forfeit  £10.  By  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9 
( 1542),  any  person  keeping  a  house  or  place  for 
the  practice  of  this  and  other  games  mentioned 
in  the  statute,  was  to  forfeit  £2  per  diem,  and 
those  using  or  haunting  the  place  6s.  Bd.  for 
every  offence. 

CLOSTER-SEVEN  (Convention).— The  Duke 
of  Cumberland,  at  the  head  of  38,000  Hano- 
verians, Hessians,  and  other  Germans,  being 


hardly  pressed  by  the  French  army,  at  the 
intervention  of  the  Count  de  Lynar,  the  Danish 
ambassador  at  Hamburg,  signed  a  convention 
at  this  village  of  Hanover,  which  must  not  be 
confounded  with  Kloster  Seyvern  (q.  v.)t  near 
Munich,  Sep.  8,  1757.  It  consisted  of  five 
articles,  to  which  three  separate  articles  were 
annexed.  The  troops  laid  down  their  arms 
and  were  dispersed.  George  II.,  as  Elector  of 
Hanover,  disavowed  the  authority  of  his  son, 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  to  sign  it,  and  the 
latter  resigned  all  his  commands.  It  led  to 
innumerable  difficulties  and  disputes. 

CLOTH.— The  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth 
was  practised  in  Tyre  B.C.  588,  and  its  invention 
may  no  doubt  be  referred  to  a  still  earlier 
period.  Plaids  were  made  in  England  about 
500.  In  960  the  business  became  considerable 
in  Flanders  ;  whence  it  was  introduced  into 
England  in  mi.  The  first  exportation  of 
British  cloth  occurred  in  1189,  in  which  year 
the  manufacture  appears  to  have  spread  widely 
in  England.  Broadcloth  was  made  in  1197. 
In  1261  all  Englishmen  were  commanded  to 
wear  British  cloth ;  but,  after  the  arrival  of  the 
Flemish  weavers,  in  1331,  an  exception  was 
made  in  favour  of  their  goods.  The  manufac- 
ture had  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Yorkshire 
before  1461,  and  on  the  passing  of  the  act  to 
confine  the  manufacture  to  towns,  and  limit 
the  number  of  looms  allowed  to  each  weaver 
(2  &  3  Phil.  &  Mary  c.  n,  ss.  9  &  10),  in  1555, 
this  county  was  exempted  from  all  restrictions. 
Medley  cloths  were  invented  in  1614.  In  1643 
cloths  were  fully  finished  in  England,  although 
some  kinds  were  still  sent  to  Holland  to  be 
dyed.  The  art  was,  however,  introduced  in 
1667.  In  1698  both  houses  of  Parliament 
petitioned  William  III.  to  diminish  the  Irish 
manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  and  substitute 
that  of  linen  in  its  stead  ;  and  measures  were 
afterwards  taken  with  this  view.  The  Cloth- 
workers'  Company  was  incorporated  April  28, 
1482,  and  confirmed  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1528. 
It  was  re-incorporated  and  named  Clothwork- 
ers  by  Elizabeth,  whose  charter  was  confirmed 
by  Charles  I.  in  1634. 

CLOTH,  GREEN—  (See  MARSHALSEA  COURT.) 

CLOUD,  ST.  (France).— The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  St.  Clodoald,  a  son  of  Clodo- 
mir,  who  became  a  monk  and  founded  a 
monastery  at  this  place,  about  five  miles  from 
Paris,  in  551.  The  palace  was  built  in  1572 
by  Jerome  de  Gondy,  a  rich  financier.  Henry 
III.  was  assassinated  here  Aug.  2,  1589.  Louis 
XIV.  purchased  it  in  1658,  and  presented  it  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  it  remained  the  seat 
of  that  family  until  1782,  when  Louis  XVI. 
purchased  it  for  Marie  Antoinette.  The  sittings 
of  the  Councils  of  the  Ancients  and  of  the 
Five  Hundred  were  transferred  to  St.  Cloud, 
Nov.  9,  1799.  The  capitulation  of  Paris  in 
1815,  and  the  ordinances  of  Charles  X.,  July 
25,  1830,  were  signed  at  this  palace.  The 
palace  and  the  park  have  been  embellished 
and  improved  by  successive  sovereigns  of 
France. 

CLOVESHOO  (Kent).— A  celebrated  council 
was  held  at  this  place,  supposed  to  be  Cliff, 
near  Rochester,  though  some  authorities  are  in 
favour  of  Abingdon,  Berks,  and  others  Clifton 


CLOYNE 


[    260    ] 


CLU8IUM 


lloo,  Beds,  in  Sep.,  742  or  747.  Twelve  English 
prelates  assembled,  with  the  nobility  and 
clergy,  under  the  sanction  of  Ethelbald,  King 
of  the  Mercians.  Thirty  canons  were  passed, 
relating  to  the  government  and  discipline  of  the 
Church.  Councils  were  held  here  in  800 ; 
Oct.  12,  803  ;  in  822;  and  in  Aug.,  824. 

CLOYNE  (Ireland)  was  erected  into  a  bishop- 
ric by  St.  Colman,  who  died  Nov.  24,  604.  In 
1490  the  see  was  united  to  Cork,  but  was  sepa- 
rated in  1638.  The  celebrated  Dr.  Berkeley  was 
Bishop  of  Cloyne  from  1733  to  1753.  On  the 
death  of  Bishop  Brinkley,  in  1835,  this  see  was 
permanently  united  to  Cork  and  Ross,  by  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833). 

CLUB,  THE  (London).— Dr.  Johnson  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  formed  a  small  circle  of 
friends,  which  was  called  "The  Club."  It  was 
founded  in  1764,  and  the  original  members  were 
nine  in  number,  Edmund  Burke  and  Oliver 
Goldsmith  being  included  in  the  list.  The 
number  was  increased  to  12  soon  after  its  estab- 
lishment ;  to  20  in  1773  ;  to  26  March  n,  1777  ; 
to  30  Nov.  27,  1778;  to  35  May  9,  1780;  and 
finally  to  40.  They  first  met  at  supper,  but  in 
1772  they  resolved  to  dine  together  once  every 
fortnight  during  the  session  of  Parliament. 
The  first  meeting  recorded  in  their  books  took 
place  at  the  "  Turk's  Head,"  Gerard  Street, 
April  7,  1775,  from  which  they  removed  in 
1783,  and  after  various  changes  settled  at  the 
Thatched  House,  St.  James's  Street,  Feb.  26, 
1799.  At  Garrick's  funeral,  Feb.  i,  1779,  it  took 
the  title  of  the  Literary  Club.  On  the  removal 
of  the  Thatched  House,  the  Club  was  held  at 
the  Clarendon  Hotel,  where  its  centenary  was 
tolel  >ratcd  J  une  6,  1 864.  Its  title  has  been  again 
changed  to  that  of  the  Johnson  Club. 
CLUB  OF  KINGS.— (See  KING  CLUB.) 
CLUB  OF  1789.— Sieyes,  Talleyrand,  Lafay- 
ette, and  others,  not  approving  of  the  violent 
course  adopted  by  the  Jacobin  Club,  founded 
a  new  club  under  the  above  title  in  the  spring 
of  1790. 

CLUBMEN.— During  the  Great  Rebellion, 
bands  of  armed  men,  bearing  this  title,  opposed 
the  military  oppression  to  which  they  were 
subjected  by  both  armies.  In  1645  they  peti- 
tioned Prince  Rupert  against  their  grievances, 
but,  not  receiving  the  satisfaction  they  re- 
quired, they  harassed  the  Royalist  forces,  and, 
in  the  words  of  Clarendon,  "did  him  (Gen. 
Goring)  more  mischief  than  all  the  power  of  the 
rebels. " 

CLUBS.— Dr.  Johnson  defined  a  club  to  be 
"an  assembly  of  good  fellows,  meeting  under 
certain  conditions."  A  club  of  this  kind,  under 
the  name  of  "La  Court  de  bone  Compagnie,' 
was  established  during  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
Occleve  was  one  of  its  members  ;  and  Chaucer 
is  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  it.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  established  the  cclebrated-club  at  the 
Mermaid,  in  Bread  Street,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  1 7th  century.  This  was  the  scene  of  the 
wit-combats  between  Shakespeare  and  Ben 
Jonson,  described  by  Beaumont : — 

"  What  tilings  have  we  seen 

Done  at  the  Mermaid !  heard  words  that  have  been 
So  iiimbU:  and  so  full  of  subtile  llame, 
As  if  that  every  one  from  whom  they  camo 
Had  mount  to  put  his  wholu  wit  iu  a  jest." 


Jonson  founded  another  club  in  Fleet 
Street.  These,  however,  were  social  clubs,  and 
;he  political  club  did  not  come  into  existence 
.mtil  a  later  period.  Lord  Stanhope,  in  com- 
menting upon  the  formation  of  the  Rocking- 
aam  administration  in  1765,  says,  "It  was  at 
this  period,  and  under  such  a  condition  of  par- 
ties that  rival  clubs  for  politics  were  formed, 
and  rose  into  great  vogue  and  importance. 
Under  Lord  Bute  the  Ministerial  Club,  as  it 
was  at  first  termed,  used  to  meet  at  the  Cocoa 
Tree  Tavern,  from  which  it  soon  derived  its 
name."  Gibbon  describes  it  in  his  journal  for 
Nov.,  1762.  Mr.  Gladstone's  proposal,  April  1 6, 
1863,  to  make  clubs  pay  a  license  duty,  was  soon 
after  withdrawn.  A  list  of  the  principal  clubs 
is  given  in  the  Index.  (See  BENEFIT  SOCIETIES, 
WORKING  MEN'S  CLUBS,  &c.) 

CLUBS  (Foreign).— The  Societe*  d'Entresol, 
in  imitation  of  an  English  Club,  which  began 
to  meet  every  Saturday  at  the  lodgings  in  Paris 
of  the  Abbe  Alari  in  1724,  was  suppressed  by 
Cardinal  Fleury  in  1731.  Political  societies, 
established  in  Paris  in  1782,  were  suppressed 
by  the  police  in  1787.  The  Breton  Club,  formed 
at  Versailles  in  1789,  changed  its  name  to  that 
of  the  Jacobin  Club.  The  "Club  des  Feuil- 
lants,"  of  which  Lafayette  was  a  member, 
was  founded  in  1791  ;  that  of  the  Reunion  was 
commenced  by  the  Girondins,  but  suppressed 
Aug.  10,  1792.  All  these  French  clubs  were 
abolished  Sep.  4,  1797.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  revive  them  during  the  revolution  of  Feb., 

1848,  but    they  were  totally   prohibited    in 

1849.  During    the    first    revolution    several 
female  clubs  were  formed  in  Paris,   and  the 
number  of  members  at  one  time  amounted  to 
6,000.     They  led  to  such  grave  disorders  that 
they  were  closed  by  the  Convention.     Clubs 
were  prohibited  in  Germany  in  1793,  and  by 
an  act  of  the  Confederation  iu  1832. 

CLUGNI,  or  CLUGNY  (France),  celebrated 
for  its  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  by  Wil- 
liam I.,  Count  of  Auvergne,  in  910.  Louis  IX. 
of  France  and  Pope  Innocent  IV.  held  a  con- 
ference here  in  1245.  The  monastery  was 
frequently  assailed  by  the  Huguenots,  and 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed  during  the  re- 
volution in  1789.  (See  CLUNIACS.) 

CLUNIACS,  or  CLUNIACENSIANS.— Monks 
of  the  abbey  of  Clugny  received  this  name. 
They  were  a  branch  of  the  Benedictines.  Odo, 
Abbot  of  Clugny,  in  927,  reformed  their  rule, 
and  the  Cluniacs  became  renowned  throughout 
Europe.  William  of  Warrenne,  made  Earl  of 
Surrey  by  William  II.,  introduced  the  Clu- 
niacs into  England,  and  gave  them  their  first 
house,  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  1077.  They 
had  42  priories  and  cells  in  this  country, 
the  last  having  been  established  at  Slevesholm, 
Norfolk,,  in  1222.  Wolsey  dissolved  four  of 
their  establishments  in  1525,  and  the  rest  were 
suppressed  at  the  Reformation.  There  were 
also  nuns  of  this  order. 

CLUSIUM  (Italy).— One  of  the  12  cities  of 
which  the  Etruscan  confederation  was  com- 
posed. Its  original  name  was  Camars.  Por- 
senna,  who  is  represented,  by  tradition,  as 
having  besieged  Rome  B.C.  508,  was  ruler  of 
Clusium.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Gauls  B.C. 
390,  B.C.  295,  and  B.C.  225.  It  became  the  seat 


CLYDE 


[    261     1 


COALITION 


of  a  bishopric  at  an  early  period,  and  is  known 
under  the  modern  name  of  Chiusi. 

CLYDE  CANAL.— The  act  for  making  this 
important  communication  between  the  rivers 
Forth  and  Clyde  was  obtained  early  in  1768, 
and  the  works  were  commenced  by  Sir  Lau- 
rence Dundas,  June  10.  Mr.  Smeaton  was  the 
chief  engineer,  and  under  his  direction  the 
works  were  completed  July  28,  1790. 

CLYST,  ST.  MARY'S  (Battle),  was  fought 
between  the  Protestant  forces  under  Lord 
Grey  and  the  Roman  Catholic  peasantry  of 
Devonshire,  on  the  evening  of  Saturday,  Aug. 
3,  1549,  when  the  latter  were  defeated.  Miles 
Coverdale,  who  afterwards  translated  the  Bible 
into  English,  preached  a  thanksgiving  sermon 
for  the  victory  on  the  battle-field. 

CNIDUS,  or  GNIDOS  (Asia  Minor).— This 
city,  in  Caria,  was  the  metropolis  of  the 
Dorian  confederacy.  It  is  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  by  Conon  over  the  Lacedae- 
monian fleet,  commanded  by  Pisander,  B.C. 
394.  The  inhabitants  carried  on  a  flourishing 
trade  with  Egypt  at  an  early  period.  Aphro- 
dite was  the  great  object  of  worship  amongst 
the  Cnidians. 

CNOSUS  (Crete),  also  written  Cnossus  and 
Gnosus,  was  founded,  according  to  tradition, 
by  Minos,  the  mythical  king  of  Crete.  It  was 
colonized  by  the  Dorians,  and,  in  alliance  with 
the  cities  of  Gortyna  and  Cydoiiia,  ruled  over 
the  whole  of  the  island.  The  Romans  cap- 
tured it  and  planted  a  colony  in  it,  B.C.  67. 
The  celebrated  Labyrinth  of  Crete,  in  which 
the  Minotaur  was  confined,  is  always  repre- 
sented as  having  been  situated  in  this  city. 

COACH. —  The  precise  period  at  which 
coaches  were  introduced  is  not  known;  but 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Germany  all  claim 
the  honour  of  the  invention.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  isth  century,  the  queen  of  Charles 
of  Anjou  entered  Naples  in  a  caretta,  which 
appears  to  have  borne  some  resemblance  to 
our  carriages,  and  to  have  been  regarded  with 
favour  by  the  French  ladies,  as  Philip  IV. 
(the  Fair)  prohibited  the  use  of  similar  vehi- 
cles to  citizens'  wives  in  1294.  The  Emperor 
Frederick  III.  visited  Frankfort  in  a  covered 
carriage  in  1474,  and  in  1509  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  possessed  a  coach  gilt  all  over. 
The  first  carriage  seen  in  England  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Earl  of  Arundeliii  1580,  but  they 
were  not  generally  used  till  about  1605.  The 
first  who  drove  six  horses  in  his  coach  was  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  in  1619 ;  and  his  ex- 
ample was  immediately  emulated  by  the  Earl 
of  Northumberland,  who  set  up  a  team  of 
eight.  A  glass  coach  was  used  in  Spain  in 
1631.  Hackney  coaches  were  first  let  for  hire 
in  London  in  1625,  in  Paris  in  1650,  and  at 
Edinburgh  in  1673.  Stage-coaches  were  intro- 
duced into  England  during  the  ijth  century, 
but  the  earliest  public  notification  of  their 
establishment  is  dated  April  26,  1658.  One 
was  started  between  London  and  Edinburgh 
before  1754  ;  and  in  1784  mail-coaches  were 
instituted.  Mr.  Josiah  Child  brought  the  first 
cabriolet  from  Paris  in  1755,  and  Horace 
Walpole  states  that  every  man  of  fashion  soon 
set  up  a  similar  conveyance.  Cabs  were  in- 
troduced into  London  in  1820,  and  cabriolets 


were  first  let  for  hire  in  1823.  The  Coachmakers' 
Company  was  incorporated  by  Charles  II.  in 
1671,  as  the  Coach  and  Harness  Makers'. 

COAL  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Britons  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans, 
and  to  have  been  used  in  England  in  852. 
The  earliest  document  in  which  it  is  mentioned 
is  Bishop  Pudsey's  Boldon  Book,  dated  1180, 
in  which  we  read  of  colliers  established  at 
Escomb  and  Bishopwearmouth.  Newcastle 
coal  is  first  mentioned  in  1234,  when  Henry 
III.  granted  the  inhabitants  a  charter  to  dig 
it ;  and  sea-borne  coal  was  sold  in  London 
before  1245,  though  at  first  only  employed 
in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  The  Chinese 
used  it  in  1295.  In  consequence  of  a  petition 
presented  by  Parliament  to  Edward  I.  in  1306, 
the  use  of  coal  in  London  and  the  suburbs  was 
prohibited  by  proclamation  as  a  nuisance.  In 
1321  the  palace  was  warmed  by  coal.  The 
exportation  of  coal  from  Newcastle  commenced 
in  1325,  in  which  year  several  cargoes  were 
conveyed  to  France.  A  tax  of  twopence  per 
chaldron  on  all  coals  sold  to  persons  not  fran- 
chised  in  the  port  of  Newcastle  was  imposed 
in  1421,  and  made  payable  to  the  king;  but 
the  payment  being  very  irregular,  such  large 
arrears  were  claimed  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  in 
1599,  that  the  town  voluntarily  agreed  to  pay 
a  duty  of  is.  per  chaldron.  Coal  was  fbst 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  iron 
in  1624 ;  and  in  1638  its  sale  was  made  a 
monopoly  by  Charles  I.  The  duty  of  is.  per 
chaldron  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the 
Duke  of  Richmond,  in  1677  ;  whence  it  became 
known  as  the  Richmond  shilling.  Its  existence 
in  Newfoundland  was  discovered  in  1 763,  and 
mines  were  opened  in  Cape  Breton  in  1767. 
The  production  of  tar  from  coal  was  discovered 
in  1779.  The  impost  of  the  Richmond  shilling 
was  finally  relinquished  March  i,  1831  ;  at  which 
time  the  arrears,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
was  first  claimed,  were  redeemed,  with  an 
overplus  of  .£341,900,  and  the  export  duty, 
reduced  by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  16  (Aug.  23,  1831), 
was  entirely  repealed  by  8  Viet.  c.  7  (April  24, 
1845). 

COAL  EXCHANGE  (London).  —  In  1807 
the  corporation  possessed  a  coal  exchange, 
which  was  converted  into  a  market  in  1831. 
The  first  stone  of  a  new  building  was  laid 
Dec.  14,  1847.  It  was  opened  by  Prince  Albert 
Oct.  30,  1849. 

COAL  HARBOUR,  or  GAINES'S  MILL 
(Battles). — The  Confederates,  under  Gens.  Jack- 
son and  Stuart,  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
the  Federals,  led  by  Gen.  McClellan,  at  this 
place  in  Virginia,  June  27,  1862.  The  Federals 
had  60,000,  and  the  Confederates  40,000  men. — 
Gen.  Grant  attacked  the-  Confederate  position 
here  June  3,  1864.  After  having  lost  nearly 
7,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  he  was 
compelled  to  retire. 

COALITION  (NORTH  AND  FOX)  ADMI- 
NISTRATION.—The  vote  of  censure  on  the 
preliminaries  of  the  peace  of  Versailles,  passed 
Feb.  21,  1783,  induced  the  Earl  of  Shelburne 
and  his  colleagues  to  resign  office.  Mr.  Pitt, 
then  only  23  years  of  age,  was  requested  by 
George  III.  to  form  a  ministry ;  but  he  declined, 
and  a  long  interregnum  ensued,  which  was 


COALITION 


[    262    ] 


COCHIN 


brought  to  a  close  by  a  coalition  between  Mr. 
Charles  James  Fox  and  Lord  North,  under  the 
premiership  of  the  Duke  of  Portland.  The 
new  ministry  kissed  hands  April  2,  1783.  The 
cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :— 

Treasury  Duke  of  Portland. 

FMadent  of  the  Council Viscount  Stormont. 

Privy  Seal    Earl  of  Carlisle. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Lord  John  Cavendish. 

Home  Secretary- Lord  North. 

Foreign  Secretary Mr.  C.  J.  Fox. 

Admiralty    Viscount  Keppel. 

The  cabinet  consisted  of  only  seven  persons. 
The  great  seal  was  placed  in  commission. 
Viscount  Townshend  was  Master-general  of 
the  Ordnance ;  Edmund  Burke,  Paymaster- 
general  ;  Mr.  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan, 
Secretary  to  the  Treasury;  and  Mr.  Charles 
Townshend,  Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  Mr.  Fox's 
India  Bill  was  rejected  on  its  second  reading, 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  Dec.  17,  1783;  and 
Dec.  18  George  III.  sent  a  messenger  to  Lord 
North  and  Mr.  Fox,  requesting  them  to  deliver 
up  the  seals  of  their  offices,  which  they  did 
Dec.  19.  (See  PITT  (FIRST)  ADMINISTRATION.) 

COALITION  MINISTRY.— (See  ABERDEEN 
ADMINISTRATION  and  ALL  THE  TALE-. 

COAST-GUARD.— This  force,  at  first  formed 
for  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  afterwards 
organized  for  defensive  purposes,  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Customs  department  to  the 
Admiralty  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  83  (July  29, 
1856). 

COAST  VOLUNTEERS.— (See  ROYAL  NAVAL 
COAST  VoLtiNT! 

COASTING  TRADE  of  Great  Britain  was 
thrown  open  to  all  nations  by  17  Viet.  c.  5 
(March  23,  1854). 

COBALT.—"  The  name  Cobalt,"  says  Beck- 
mann,  "is  given  at  present  to  that  metal,  and 
its  ores,  the  oxides  of  which  are  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  manufactures  of  glass,  porce- 
lain, and  pottery,  for  the  production  of  a  blue 
colour."  It  was  not  known  to  the  ancients. 
In  1 754  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  offered  a  premium  for  the 
discovery  of  a  cobalt-mine  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land. One  was  found  at  Gweimap,  in  Cornwall, 
to  the  proprietor  of  which  the  premium  was 
awarded  in  Dec.,  1754.  The  word  cobalt  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  the  kobold,  goblin, 
a  term  applied  to  it  by  the  German  miners, 
because,  as  they  assert,  more  valuable  metals 
are  never  found  where  it  occurs. 

COBALT  BLUE.— This  pigment  was  dis- 
covered by  the  French  chemist  Thenard,  in 
1802. 

COBLENTZ  (Prussia),  the  Confluentes  of 
the  Romans,  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity. 
The  church  of  St.  Castor,  consecrated  in  836, 
is  the  spot  where  the  grandsons  of  Charle- 
magne met  when  they  divided  his  empire  into 
Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  in  843.  At  a 
council  held  here  June  5,  860,  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  Lothaire,  King  of  Lorraine, 
and  the  sons  of  Charles  II.  (the  Bald).  Ano- 
ther council  took  place  in  922,  and  a  third  in 
1012.  Edward  III.  of  England  had  an  inter- 
view here  with  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria 
in  1338.  The  palace,  built  by  the  Elector  of 
Treves  in  1779,  was  used  by  the  French  as 


barracks  during  their  occupation  of  the  town 
in  1792.  The  Russians  occupied  Cobleiitz  in 
1814.  A  wooden  bridge  was  built  over  the 
Rhine  in  1819.  In  the  spring  of  1830,  the 
waters  of  the  Moselle  thawed  before  those  of 
the  Rhine,  and,  being  stopped  by  the  ice,  oc- 
casioned a  destructive  inundation.  The  millen- 
nial jubilee  of  the  church  of  St.  Castor,  built 
in  836,  was  celebrated  with  great  solemnity  in 
1836.  The  railway  bridge  over  the  Rhine  was 
opened  by  the  King  and  Queen  of  Prussia, 
May  9,  1864. 

COBURG  (Germany).—  The  palace  at  this 
town,  the  capital  of  Saxe-Coburg  Gotha,  was 
built  in  1549.  Wallenstein  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful effort  to  besiege  the  castle  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  (1632).  The  gymnasium 
was  founded  in  1604.  The  memorial  to  Prince 
Albert  was  unveiled  in  the  presence  of  Queen 
Victoria  and  the  royal  family  of  England,  Aug. 
26,  1865. 

COCCEIANS.—  The  followers  of  John 
Cocceius  or  Coeken,  born  at  Bremen,  >  Aug.  9, 
1603.  He  was  appointed  Hebrew  professor  at 
Bremen  in  1630,  and  at  Franeker  in  1636.  In 
1650  he  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Leyden, 
where  he  died  Nov.  4,  1669.  He  taught  that 
the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  "was  a  kind 
of  emblematic  history  of  Christ,  and  of  the 
Christian  Church  ;  that  the  prophecies  of  the 
ancient  prophets,  in  their  literal  import, 
treated  of  Jesus  Ckri?l;  and  that  whatever 
was  to  occur  in  the  Christian  Church,  down  to 
the  end  of  time,  was  all  prefigured  in  the 
Old  Testament,  in  some  places  more  clearly, 
and  in  others  less  so."  He  believed  in  a 
visible  reign  of  Christ  upon  earth,  after  the 
conversion  of  the  Jews. 

COCKEREL  (Battle).—  Bertrand  du  Gues- 
clin  defeated  John,  King  of  Navarre,  at  this 
hamlet,  near  Evreux,  Thursday,  May  16,  1364. 
Although  the  forces  of  the  latter  were  much 
inferior  to  those  of  the  former  in  number,  the 
struggle  was  maintained  with  great  resolution. 
Hy  this  victory  nearly  the  whole  of  Nomiandy 
was  Itrought  under  subjection  to  Charles  V.  of 


COCHIN  (Hindostan).—  This  native  state 
was  made  tributary  by  Hyder  AH  in  1776. 
Treaties  were  concluded  by  the  East  India 
Company  with  the  Rajah  of  Cochin  in  1791  and 
May  6,  1809,  by  which,  on  the  payment  of  an 
annual  tribute,  it  was  placed  under  British 
protection.  The  sea-port  town  of  Cochin  was 
founded  by  Albuquerque  in  1503,  being  the 
first  Portuguese  establishment.  The  Dutch 
captured  it  in  1663.  It  was  wrested  from  them 
by  the  English  in  1796,  and  was,  with  its  de- 
pendencies, ceded  to  England,  in  exchange  for 
the  island  of  Banca,  by  the  second  and  third 
articles  of  the  convention  between  England 
and  the  United  Netherlands,  signed  at  London 
Aug.  13,  1814. 

COCHIN  CinXA  Asia)  formed  part  of  the 
Chinese  empire  till  a  few  centuries  after  our 
asra,  but  little  is  known  of  its  early  history. 

A.D. 

1636.  Cochin  China  is  visited  by  some  Italian  Jesuits,  who 

introduce  Christianity. 

1666.  A  French  priest  arrives  on  a  missionary  visit. 
1774.  The  rcifrniiij?  family  is  expelled,   and  the   country 

divided  between  three  brothers. 


COCHINEAL 


[    263    ] 


COCK 


A.D. 

1776.  The  number  of  native  Christians  is  estimated  at 
300,000. 

1778.  Warren  Hastings  fails  in  an  endeavour  to  establish 
commercial  intercourse  with  Cochin  China. 

1-787.  The  French  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  native  Govern- 
ment, but  it  is  not  carried  into  effect. 

1790.  The  rightful  heir  recovers  his  possessions  from  the 

1797.  WitlTthe 'assistance  of  a  French  missionary  he  com- 

mences the  introduction  of  many  European  arts. 

1798.  The  Christians  are  subjected  to  a  severe  persecution. 
isoi.  Gin-long,  aided  by  the  French,  recovers  his  kingdom 

from  a  Tonquin  usurper. 

1803.  Gia-long  conquers  Tonquin,  and  assumes  the  title  of 

Emperor  of  Anam. 

1804.  The  East  India  Company  fail  in  an  attempt  to  open 

trade. 

1833.  Mr.  Crawfurd  visits  Cochin  China  with  a  letter  from 
the  Governor-General  of  India,  but  is  refused  an 
audience  with  the  king. 

l82v  The  Christians  are  subjected  to  persecution. 

1835,  Nov.  30.  M.  Murchand,  a  French  Christian,  is  put  to 
deuth  with  .shocking  barbarity. 

1841.  During  the  war  of  the  English  in  China,  the  perse- 
cution relaxes  in  rigour. 

1847.  Sir  John  Davis,  Governor  of  Hong-Kong,  accredited 

British  Plenipotentiary  at  the  Cochin  Chinese  Court, 

visits  the  country  with  a  letter  from  Queen  Victoria, 

•         but  is  refused  an  audience.     Commodore  La  Pierre 

(h  strays  the  batteries  and  native  fleet  at  Tourann. 

1856,  Tu-Duk,  Emperor  of  Anam,  contemptuously  refuses 

permission  to  land  in  his  territories  to  an  envoy 
from  Napoleon  III. 

1857,  Bishop  Diaz,  the  Spanish  vicar-apostolic,  is  beheaded 

after  being  cruelly  tortured. 

1858,  Aug.  Admiral  Kiguult  de  Genonilly,  at  the  head  of  a 

French  squadron,  enters  Tourann  IViy.— Hep.  r.  He 
attacks  the  forts,  and,  meeting  with  a  vigorous 
resistance!,  takes  up  an  entrenched  position,  in 
which  his  troops  suffer  severely  from  the  climate. 

1859,  July  30.  The  French  having  gained  a  victory  at  Sai- 

gon, an  armistice  is  concluded,  and  negotiations 
for  peace  commence.— Sep.  15.  De  Genouilly  having 
discovered  that  the  ue^otiati'ins  were  merely  a  ruse 
to  enable  the  Cochin  Chinese  Government  to  em- 
ploy their  army  in  suppressing  an  internal  rebellion, 
attacks  the  enemy,  and  seizes  their  position. — Oct. 
De  Genouilly,  relieved  by  Admiral  1'age,  sails  for 
France. 

1860,  Jan.  i.  The  French  having  transferred  their  opera- 

tions to  Saigon,  that  port  and  river  are  thrown  open 
for  trade. 

1861,  April  13.  The  French  capture  the  fort  of  Mytho. 
1863,  June  3.  Peace  is  concluded.— Aug.  15.  The  French 

establish  a  lighthouse  on  Cape  St.  James,  Saigon 
river. — Dec.  17.  The  Emperor  of  Anam  repudiates 
the  peace,  and  the  people  of  Saigon  rise  against 
the  French,  but  are  repulsed  by  the  European 
troops. 

1863,  Jan.  J-  Saigon  is  proclaimed  French  territory. — Feb. 

26.  Admiral  Bernard  captures  Gokond  and  Fort 
Traica. 

1864,  July  15.  Capt.  Aubaret,  French  agent  in  Cochin  China, 

concludes  a  treaty  with  the  Imperial  Government 
at  Hue,  the  capital. 

1865,  March.  The  French  Government  refuses   to  ratify 

this  treaty.  (See  ANAM,  CAMBODIA,  and  TON- 
QUIN.) 

COCHINEAL  was  discovered  by  tlie  Spa- 
niards in  Mexico,  in  1518.  The  insect  from 
which  the  dye  is  obtained  was  introduced  into 
St.  Domingo  by  Thierry,  a  French  naturalist, 
in  1777,  and  into  India  in  1795.  Only  an 
inferior  quality  of  dye  is  produced  there. 
Prescott  says  that  the  rich  crimson  of  the  best 
kinds  is  the  modern  rival  of  the  famed  Tyrian 
purple.  The  excise  duty  on  cochineal,  reduced 
to  a  shilling  the  hundredweight  in  1842,  was 
finally  repealed  by  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  90  (1845). 

COCKADE. — The  ancient  custom  of  wearing 
badges  in  the  bonnet  is  generally  considered 
to  have  given  rise  to  the  modern  cockade.  As 
worn  by  officer's  servants,  it  is  supposed 


to  have  originated  during  the  wars  of  the 
Roses.  In  later  times  the  black  cockade  was 
the  Hanoverian  badge,  the  white  that  of  the 
Stuarts. 

COCK-CROWER  (the  King's).— This  officer 
during  Lent  crowed  the  hour  every  night 
within  the  precincts  of  the  palace.  George  II., 
then  Prince  of  Wales,  was  sitting  down  to 
supper  on  Ash-Wednesday,  March  2,  1715  (the 
first  Lent  after  the  Hanoverian  accession), 
when  the  occupant  of  the  office  entered  the 
apartment,  and  performed  his  peculiar  duty. 
The  prince,  mistaking  it  for  an  intended  insult, 
was  greatly  incensed,  and  the  custom  was  from 
that  time  discontinued. 

COCK-FIGHTING  was  established  at  Athens 
as  a  public  or  solemn  pastime  by  Themistocles, 
previous  to  B.C.  465.  The  Romans  received  the 
custom  from  the  Greeks,  although  they  appear 
to  have  preferred  quail-fighting.  The  date  of 
its  introduction  into  England  is  uncertain,  but 
may  probably  be  referred  to  the  period  of 
Roman  supremacy.  The  earliest  record  on  the 
subject  occurs  in  a  work  of  Fitz-Stephen's, 
who  died  in  1191.  He  mentions  that  it  was 
the  practice  of  schoolboys  to  bring  their  cocks 
to  the  master  on  Shrove-Tuesday,  and  devote 
the  morning  to  an  exhibition  of  their  prowess. 
The  sport  was  prohibited  in  France  in  1260, 
and  in  England  by  Edward  III.  in  1365;  again 
by  Henry  VIII.;  by  Elizabeth  in  1569;  and 
by  Cromwell,  March  31,  1654.  The  cock-pit  in 
St.  James's  Park  was  removed  in  1816,  and  the 
sport  was  prohibited  in  England  by  the  Cruelty 
to  Animals  Act,  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  59  (Sep.  9, 
1835).  This  Act  was  extended  to  Ireland  by 
i  Viet.  c.  66  (July  15,  1837).  These  acts  were 
repealed  and  the  law  was  made  more  stringent 
by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  92  (Aug.  i,  1849).  Cock- 
fighting  is  common  in  Asia,  is  a  fashionable 
pastime  with  the  ladies  of  Peru,  and  is  carried 
to  a  great  height  in  Ceylon. 

COCK-LANE  GHOST.— This  famous  decep- 
tion, practised  in  a  house  in  Cock  Lane,  West 
Smithfield,  in  the  years  1760,  1761,  and  1762, 
created  considerable  sensation.  The  second 
and  most  notorious  visitation  commenced  in 
Jan.,  1762.  A  child  about  n  years  of  age 
was  thrown  into  violent  fits  by  scratchings 
and  knockings  heard  in  different  parts  of  the 
room,  and  communications  were  held  with  the 
supposed  ghost  who  produced  these  noises. 
The  case  was  taken  up  by  several  influential 
persons.  The  child  was  removed  to  the  house 
of  the  Rev.  S.  Aldrich,  rector  of  St.  John's, 
Clerkenwell,  and  an  investigation  took  place 
in  the  presence  of  several  influential  persons, 
on  the  night  of  Jan.  31.  Measures  had 
been  taken  to  prevent  any  collusion,  and  the 
result  was  that  the  people  assembled  were 
unanimously  of  opinion,  that  "the  child  has 
some  art  of  making,  or  counterfeiting,  parti- 
cular noises ;  and  that  there  is  no  agency  of 
any  higher  cause."  The  girl  was  moved  from 
house  to  house,  and  was  ultimately  detected 
in  an  attempt  to  play  off  a  trick  upon  her 
auditors.  William  Parsons,  the  officiating 
clerk  of  St.  Sepulchre's,  the  father ;  Elizabeth, 
his  wife ;  Mary  Frazer,  a  girl  who  assisted  in 
the  deception  ;  a  clergyman,  and  a  tradesman, 
were  tried  at  Guildhall,  July  10,  by  a  special 


COCKERMOUTH 


[    264     ] 


COFFEE 


jury,  before  Lord  Mansfield,  and  convicted  o 
a  conspiracy  against  the  life  and  character  o 

Mr.  K .     Sentence  having  been  deferred  fo 

seven  or  eight  months,  the  clergyman  and  thi 

tradesman  paid  Mr.  K between  five  and  six 

hundred  pounds,  and  were  dismissed  with 
severe  reprimand.  The  father  was  sentencer 
to  stand  in  the  pillory  three  times  in  on< 
month,  once  at  the  end  of  Cock  Lane,  am 
after  that  to  be  imprisoned  two  years ;  hi; 
wife  to  one  year's  imprisonment,  and  Marj 
Frazer  to  six  months  in  Bridewell,  with  hare 
labour. 

COCKERMOUTH  (Cumberland).— The  castl( 
of  this  town,  erected  in  the  nth  century,  sus 
tained  a  month's  siege  from  the  Royalists  in 
1648.  The  church,  founded  in  the  reign  o: 
Edward  III.,  rebuilt  in  1711,  and  enlarged  in 
1825,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1850.  The  free 
school  was  founded  in  1676,  the  dispensary 
established  in  1793,  and  the  bridge  over  the 
Derwent  was  erected  in  1822.  The  court-house 
was  built  about  1830.  The  Cockermouth  and 
Worldngton  Railway  was  opened  throughoul 
April  28,  1847.  The  poet  Wordsworth  was 
born  here  April  7,  1770. 

COCKLE  (Order). — This  military  order  was 
founded  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  in  1269,  to 
induce  his  nobles  to  join  in  the  disastrous  in 
vasion  of  Africa,  which  cost  him  his  life.  (See 
CRUSADES.)  It  was  also  called  the  order  of  the 
Double  Crescents  and  of  the  Ship,  all  three 
titles  being  taken  from  its  decorations,  which 
comprised  a  collar  composed  of  escallop  shells 
alternated  with  double  crescents,  and  a  badge 
adorned  with  the  picture  of  a  ship. 

COCKNP]Y.— The  origin  of  this  term,  as 
well  as  the  reason  for  its  application  to  a 
native  of  London,  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
In  1517,  Henry  VIII.  made  an  order  with  re- 
ference to  the  feast  of  the  King  of  the 
Cockneys,  held  on  Childermas-day.  The  term 
Cockney  School  was'in  1817  applied  to  a  lite- 
rary coterie  consisting  of  Ilazlitt,  Keats,  Leigh 
Hunt,  Shelley,  <fec. 

COCOA. — The  properties  of  the  kernel  or 
seed  of  the  cocoa-tree  were  known  to  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  before  other  Euro- 
peans. In  1649  only  one  cocoa-tree  existed  in 
all  the  Windward  Isles,  and  that  was  grown  as 
a  curiosity  in  the  garden  of  an  Englishman. 
The  tree  was  discovered  in  Martinico  in  1655, 
and  the  cxiltivation  was  commenced  in  1660. 
The  use  of  the  beverage  called  cocoa  did  not 
become  general  till  the  end  of  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. 

COCOA-TREE  CLUB  (London),  the  Tory 
chocolate-house  of  Queen  Anne's  reign,  is 
mentioned  by  Addison  in  the  first  number  of 
the  Spectator,  Thursday,  March  i,  1711.  A 
club  called  the  "  Cocoa-tree  Club,"  from  the 
place  of  meeting,  was  formed  here  about  1747. 
CODE  NAPOLEON.— The  commission  for 
the  formation  of  a  new  civil  code  was  ap- 
pointed by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  in  1800.  The 
code  was  promulgated  in  1804  as  the  "Code 
Civil  des  Francais."  It  was  afterwards  greatly 
extended.  Napoleon  I.  introduced  it  into  Italy 
in  1805,  into  Portugal  in  1808,  into  the  Papal 
States  in  1809.  It  was  afterwards  adopted 
in  other  countries. 


CODES. — A  collection  or  system  of  law 
made  by  order  of  Theodosius  II.,  was  pro- 
mulgated in  the  Eastern  empire  in  438,  and 
in  the  Western  empire  by  Valentiniau  III.  in 
the  same  year.  This  was  called  the  Theodosian 
code.  Justinian  appointed  a  commission  in 
Feb.,  528,  to  compile  one  code  from  those  of 
Gregorianus,  Hermogenianus,  and  Theodosius. 
It  was  promulgated  April  7,  529.  The  insti- 
tutes were  completed  Nov.  21,  533,  and  the 
Pandects,  or  Digest,  Dec.  16,  533.  A  second 
edition  of  the  code  appeared  Nov.  16,  534. 
This  formed  the  celebrated  Justinian  code. 
Other  systems  of  laws,  framed  in  different 
countries,  are  also  called  codes.  (See  CODE 
NAPOLEON,  &c.) 

CODEX  ARGENTEUS.— (See  SILVER  BOOK.) 
COD  LIVER  OIL.— Percival  in  1771  advo- 
cated the  use  of  this  remedy  in  cases  of 
chronic  rheumatism.  In  1815  its  properties 
were  highly  spoken  of  in  Westphalia,  the 
Rhine  country,  and  Scotland,  and  in  1822  its 
composition  was  first  chemically  analyzed  by 
Wurtzer.  In  1830  it  was  admitted  into  t^e 
pharmacopoeia,  and  in  1833  llankel  discovered 
its  virtues  in  cases  of  tubercular  consumption. 
Dr.  do  Jongh's  treatise  was  first  published  in 
Latin  in  1844. 

COEL  (Hindostan). — This  town  was  captured 
by  the  Mohammedan  leader,  Kutb-u-din,  in 
1193.  It  possesses  a  mosque  built  about  1254, 
and  was  a  place  of  some  importance  in  1582. 
The  English  took  possession  in  1803. 

('(KLKSTIXKS,  CCBLE8TINIANS.  or  CE- 
LKSTI  XKS.— This  religious  order  was  founded 
near  Sulmona,  in  the  Abruzzi,  by  Peter  Morone, 
afterwards  (.'mlestino  V.,  in  1254  ;  was  ap- 
proved by  Urban  IV.  in  1264,  and  called  the 
order  of  the  hermits  of  St.  Darnicn,  or  Moro- 
onites.  Raised  to  the  pontificate  in  1294,  Peter 
of  Morone  favoured  the  new  order,  and  they 
took  the  name  of  Ccelestines.  They  spread 
through  Italy  and  France,  and  were  suppressed 
'n  the  latter  country  in  1778. 

C(ELICOL,E,  or  HEAVEN-WORSHIPPERS. 
— This  sect,  complained  of  by  St.  Augustine 
354 — 430),  as  having  instituted  a  new  bap- 
tism, and  mentioned  in  the  Theodosian  Code 
[q.  y.)  in  438,  professed  doctrines  charac- 
;erized  both  by  Jewish  and  Christian  pecu- 
.iarities. 

COFFEE  was  introduced  into  Arabia  from 
Persia  in  the  isth  century,  and  brought  to  Con- 
stantinople in  1554.     The  Venetians  were  the 
irst  Europeans  acquainted  with  its  use.    It  was 
wrought  to  Marseilles  in  1644,  to  London  about 
650,  and  to  Paris  in  1657 ;  but  until  1660  its  use 
was  restricted  to  those  who  had  travelled  in 
he  East.    In  1690  the  plant  was  reared  at  Am- 
terdam  ;  it  was  planted  at  Surinam  in  1718, 
at  Cayenne  in  1722,  at  Martinico  in  1727,  and 
before  1732  formed  one  of  the  staple  produc- 
ions  of   Jamaica.     Various  acts  encouraging 
he  growth  of  British  plantation  coffee  were 
passed  in  1781,  1783,  1788,  and  1796.     Prosper 
Ipinus,  the  botanist,  who  spent  several  years 
n  Egypt,  and  who  died  in  1617,  is  said  to  have 
)een  the  first  European  author  who  mentioned 
offee.     By  12  Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660),  a  duty 
f   fourpence  on  every  gallon  of    coffee  made 
nd  sold  was  granted  to  the  king. 


COFFEE 


[     265     ] 


COIN 


COFFEE  CLUB.— (See  ROTA.) 
COFFEE-HOUSES  were  established  at  Con 
stantinople  in  1554.  One  was  opened  a 
Oxford  by  Jacobs,  a  Jew,  in  16150,  at  London  in 
1652,  at  Paris  in  1662,  and  at  Marseilles  in  1671 
By  a*  proclamation  of  King  Charles  II.,  issuec 
in  Dec.,  1675,  they  were  suppressed;  but  were 
soon  re-opened  by  request  of  the  tea  and  coffee 
merchants.  For  many  years  the  use  of  coffee 
and  the  coffee-houses  were  assailed  by  various 
writers. 

COFFINS  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
the  Egyptians,  who  made  them  of  stone  anc 
of  sycamore-wood.  Joseph  was  embalmed  anc 
placed  in  a  coffin  (Gen.  1.  26)  in  that  country 
B.C.  1635.  Coffins  were  made  of  lead,  of  iron,  and 
of  wood,  at  a  very  early  period.  Bede  states 
that  the  Saxons  buried  their  dead  in  wood. 

^COGERS'  SOCIETY  (London).— This  poli- 
tical debating  club,  founded  in  1755,  derived 
its  title  from  the  Latin  cogito,  the  members 
professing  to  be  great  thinkers.  They  held  thei 
meetings  at  Cogers'  Hall,  a  public-house  in 
Bride  Lane,  Bridge  Street,  Blackfriars. 

COGGLESHALL,  or  COGGESHALL  (Essex). 
— King  Stephen  founded  a  Cistercian  abbey  in 
this  place  in  1142,  and  some  remains  exist 
at  this  day.  It  was  once  celebrated  for  the 
manufacture  of  white  baize,  called  "Coggles 
hall  whites." 

COGNAC  (League),  called  the  Clementine  or 
Holy  League,  because  the  Pope  was  at  the  head 
of  it,  was  concluded  between  Clement  VII.,  the 
Venetians,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  Francis  I. 
of  France,  at  this  place  in  France,  May  22, 
1526.  The  objects  were  to  compel  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  to  release  the  French  king's  sons, 
on  the  payment  of  a  reasonable  ransom,  and 
to  re-establish  Sforza  in  the  possession  of  the 
Milanese.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  was  made 
protector  of  the  league ;  a  principality  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  with  an  annual  revenue  of 
30,000  ducats,  was  to  be  settled  upon  him,  and 
lands  to  the  value  of  10,000  ducats  given  to 
Wolsey.  Cognac  was  one  of  the  cautionary 
towns  granted  to  the  Huguenots  by  the  peace 
signed  Aug.  n,  1570. 

COIF.— Serjeants-at-law  first  adopted  the 
coif  as  their  badge  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  (1216 — 1272).  They  used  it  to  conceal 
their  baldness,  as  there  were  then  few  lawyers 
who  were  not  also  priests,  and,  consequently, 
obliged  to  shave  their  heads.  When  it  became 
incumbent  on  judges  to  have  passed  through 
the  degree  of  serjeant-at-law,  they  retained 
the  coif  in  their  higher  dignity,  as  appears 
from  Sir  John  Fortescue's  discourse  De  Lau- 
dibus  Leguin  Anglice,  written  between  1461  and 
1470.  On  the  appointment  of  official  legal 
costume  by  the  decree  of  the  Westminster 
judges,  subscribed  June  4,  1635,  the  coif 
became  an  established  portion  of  judicial  uni- 
form. As  a  portion  of  female  attire,  coifs 
were  introduced  early  in  the  i7th  century. 
The  use  of  the  coif  in  the  coronation  has  been 
discontinued  since  the  reigri  of  George  II. 

COIMBATORE  (Hindostan).— This  state,  an- 
nexed to  Mysore  in  1746,  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1783,  and  was  formally  incorporated 
with  the  British  possessions  in  India  in  1799. 
The  town  of  Coimbatore,  captured  by  the 


English  Nov.  26,  1783,  was  restored  at  the  peace 
concluded  in  1784.  It  was  retaken  July  21, 
1790.  Tippoo  Saib  invested  it  June  13,  1791, 
and,  having  summoned  it  in  vain,  made  a 
general  assault,  which  was  repulsed  Aug.  n. 
Having  received  reinforcements,  Tippoo  Saib 
compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender  Nov.  3, 
1791. 

COIMBRA  (Portugal),  the  Conembrica  of  the 
Romans,  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  during 
the  6th  century.  It  was  taken  from  the  Moors 
in  872,  recovered  by  them  in  982,  and  finally 
reconquered  by  Ferdinand  (the  Great)  and 
the  celebrated  Cid  in  1064.  The  monastery 
of  Santa  Cruz  was  founded  June  28,  1131. 
When  Portugal  was  made  a  kingdom  in  1139, 
Coimbra  became  the  capital,  and  in  1308  the 
university  was  temporarily  removed  here  from 
Lisbon  by  King  Dionysius.  The  murder  of 
Inez  de  Castro  by  Alphonso  IV.  took  place 
Jan.  7,  1355.  The  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  Lisbon  by  John  I.,  in  1433. 
The  plague  carried  off  many  of  the  inhabitants 
in  1423.  The  university  was  finally  trans- 
ferred to  Coimbra  in  1537.  The  aqueduct  was 
built  in  1568.  Coimbra  suffered  much  from  an 
earthquake  in  1755.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Portuguese  militia  under  Gen.  Trant,  who  de- 
feated the  French  and  seized  the  city,  taking 
5,000  prisoners,  Oct.  7,  1810. 

C  O  I  N.— Herodotus  (i.  94)  states  that  the 
Lydians  were  the  first  who  coined  gold  and 
silver  money,  but  the  Parian  chronicle  attri- 
butes the  invention  to  Pheidoii  of  Argos,  B.C. 
895.  (See  COPPER,  GOLD,  and  SILVER  COINAGE.) 
The  Romans  substituted  a  silver  for  a  copper 
coinage,  B.C.  269.  A  metallic  currency  existed 
in  Britain  previous  to  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion, after  which  the  coin  resembled  that  of 
Rome.  The  Saxons  introduced  money  of  a 
totally  different  character.  (See  SCEATIVE  and 
STYCAS.)  The  gold  byzant  (q.  v.)  constituted 
the  chief  medium  of  circulation  during  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman  periods,  no  English 
coinage  of  repute  having  been  used  until 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  since  which  the  his- 
tory of  the  national  coinage  is  much  better 
defined. 


(V'y-728.  The  penny  is  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina 

878.  The  gold  mark  (q.  v.)  is  introduced. 

2io.  Round  farthings  (q.  v.)  are  first  coined. 

247.  Henry  III.  calls  in  the  debased  money  and  orders  a 
new  coinage. 

279.  Circular  coin  are  struck  in  largo  numbers  by  Edward 
I.,  who  introduces  many  improvements. 

344.  Coinage  of  florins  (q.  r.)  and  nobles  (q.  v.). 

465.  Introduction  of  angels  (q.  v.)  and  ryals  (q.  v,). 

489.  Henry  VII.  orders  the  issue  of   double  ryals  or  sove- 
reigns (q.  v.). 
1504.  Coinage  of  testoons  or  shillings  (q.  «.). 

:S43.  Introduction  of  the  tester  (q.  v.). 

551.  Edward  VI.  corns  crowns  (q.  v.),  half-crowns,  and 
sixpences. 

560.  Elizabeth  withdraws  the  base  coinage   of   former 
sovereigns. 

563.  Milled  money  is  first  coined  by  Elizabeth. 

663.  Charles  II.  introduces  guineas  (q.  v.). 

673,  Aug.  16.  Copper  coinage  (q.  v.)  is  permanently  cstr.b- 

797.  George  III.  issues  dollars  (q.  v.)  and  coins,  copper  two- 
penny pieces. 

817,  July  i.  The  new  sovereign  of  30  shillings  is  issued 
819.  Silver  florins  (q.  v.)  are  coined. 
860.  A  bronze  coinage  is  issued. 


COIN 


[    266    ] 


COLCHIS 


COIN-CLIPPING.— This  crime  was  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  early  times.  The  custom 
of  cutting  the  silver  penny  into  halves  and 
quarters  served  to  encourage  it.  Henry  III. 
prohibited  the  circulation  of  clipped  coin,  by 
letters  dated  Merton,  Nov.  17,  1248,  and  in 
1278,  280  Jews  were  hanged  in  London  for 
coin-clipping.  By  7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  i  (1696), 
;£  i,  200,  ooo  was  raised  by  a  house-duty  to  defray 
the  expense  of  withdrawing  the  clipped  coin. 
Scarcely  any  of  the  coin  in  circulation  was 
worth  half  the  nominal  value. 

COINING.  —  The  coining  of  money  is  the 
exclusive  prerogative  of  the  Crown.  The 
privilege  was  in  early  times  occasionally 
granted  to  bishops  and  abbots.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  right  of  coining  was  con- 
sidered the  best  guarantee  of  independence. 
The  citizens  of  Lucca,  in  the  i3th  century,  by 
way  of  asserting  their  independence  of  Pisa, 
went  and  coined  money  at  the  gates  of  that 
city.  By  the  common  law  of  England,  and  in 
many  statutes,  the  crime  of  counterfeiting 
the  money  of  the  realm  was  declared  high 
treason.  By  27  Edw.  I.,  de  Fahd  Monetd  (1299), 
the  importation  of  false  money  was  made  a 
capital  crime.  The  counterfeiting  of  foreign 
coin  current  in  England  was  declared  high 
treason  by  i  Mary,  st.  2,  c.  6(1553),  and  as  such 
rendered  the  offender  subject  to  all  the 
penalties  used  and  ordained  in  that  case.  IJy 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  26,  ss.  i  <fe  4  (1697),  the  mere 
possession  of  coiner's  tools,  as  well  as  the 
colouring,  gilding,  <fec.,  any  coin  resembling 
the  current  money,  was  made  high  treason. 
Tliis  was  continued  in  1702  by  i  Anne,  c.  3. 
All  former  acts  were,  however,  repealed  by  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  34  (May  23,  1832),  which  made  the 
manufacture,  purchase,  or  importation  of  false 
money,  and  the  wilful  injury  of  good  money, 
punishable  by  transportation,  since  altered  to 
penal  servitude  ;  while  those  guilty  of  utter- 
ing such  coin  were  liable  to  imprisonment. 
The  provisions  of  this  act  were  extended  to 
the  colonies  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  48  (Aug.  4,  1853). 
Attempts  having  been  made  to  use  coin  for 
advertising  purposes,  by  stamping  names 
upon  it,  this  was  declared  to  be  a  misde- 
meanour by  1 6  &  17  Viet.  c.  102  (Aug.  20, 1853). 
The  process  of  coining  was,  in  early  times, 
accomplished  by  hammering  bullets  of  metal 
flat,  and  placing  them  between  two  dies ;  these 
were  struck  with  heavy  mallets  until  the  im- 
pression was  obtained.  The  French  made  an 
improvement  upon  this  process  about  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century,  by  the  application 
of  the  screw.  Antoine  Brucher  invented  the 
coining-press  in  1553,  and  milled  money  was 
coined  by  Elizabeth  in  1562,  though  it  was  not 
general  in  England  until  1662.  '  Boulton  in- 
vented his  coining-machine  in  1788,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  coinage  of  the  realm  was 
carried  on  at  his  works  at  Soho,  Birmingham, 
till  the  Mint  was  established  in  1810. 

COLAPOOR  (Hindostan).  —  This  Mahratta 
state  was  founded  by  Sunibajee,  the  grandson 
of  Sevajee,  who  overran  the  country  in  1670. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  century,  pirates 
from  several  of  its  ports  infested  the  seas,  and 
by  treaty  concluded  Oct.  i,  and  ratified  Nov. 
13,  1812,  the  seaboard  was  ceded  to  the  East 


India  Company.  The  rajah  was  assassinated 
in  1821,  and  such  confusion  prevailed,  that  the 
state  was  for  some  time  occupied  by  English 
troops. 

COLBERG,  or  KOLBERG  (Pomerania).— 
This  town  was  besieged  by  the  Poles  in  1 102. 
The  Russians  having  besieged  this  place  for  29 
days,  retired  Oct.  31,  1758.  They  returned  in 
1760,  with  a  fleet  of  27  ships  and  an  army  of 
15,000  men.  Gen.  Werner  came  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  garrison,  who  held  out  bravely, 
Sep.  1 8,  and  in  a  few  days  dispersed  both  fleet 
and  army.  The  Russians  returned  in  1761, 
and  Prince  Eugene  of  Wiirtemberg,  at  the 
head  of  the  army  sent  for  its  relief,  cut  his 
way  through  the  Russians  Nov.  14,  and  the 
place,  long  defended  with  wonderful  heroism, 
surrendered  Dec.  16.  The  French,  under 
Marshal  Mortiei-,  laid  siege  to  Colberg  in  Dec., 
1806,  but  its  defender,  Gen.  Gncisenau,  main- 
tained his  position  till  peace  was  restored  by 
the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (q.  v.}. 

COLBERG  (Sea-fight).  —  Christian  IV.  of 
Denmark,  commanding  his  fleet  in  person, 
defeated  the  Swedish  admiral  Claes  Flemming, 
after  an  obstinate  combat  of  10  hours,  off  this 
town  of  Pomerania,  July  i,  1644. 

COLCHESTER  (Essex),  the  Camelodunum 
of  the  Romans,  and  the  Caer  Colun  of  the 
Britons,  is  said  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of 
the  Emperor  Constantino  in  272,  and  to  have 
sent  a  bishop  to  the  Council  of  Aries,  314. 
Neither  of  these  stories  is  supported  by  trust- 
worthy evidence.  It  was  seized  by  the  Danes 
in  838,  and  was  not  finally  retaken  till  921, 
when  Edward  the  Elder  expelled  the  foreigners 
and  rebuilt  the  fortifications.  Richard  I. 
granted  the  first  charter  Dec.  6,  1189.  The 
castle  was  besieged  and  the  town  plundered  by 
the  barons  in  1215.  The  plague  prevailed  here 
in  1348  and  1360.  Henry  VI.  visited  the  town 
Aug.  5,  1445,  and  Catherine  of  Aragon  in  1516. 
The  Dutch  and  Flemish  exiles  settled  here  in 
1571,  and  established  the  manufacture  of 
various  woollen  goods.  Colchester  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians 
during  the  civil  war,  the  defence  lasting  from 
June  13  to  Aug.  27,  1648.  Between  Aug.,  1665, 
and  Dec.,  1666,  the  plague  carried  off  4,731  of 
the  inhabitants.  Colchester  was  deprived  of 
its  charter  in  June,  1684,  but  recovered  it  in 
1693.  The  theatre  was  built  in  1812  ;  and  the 
Essex  and  Colchester  Hospital  in  1820. 

COLCHIS  (Asia).— This  country,  celebrated 
in  mythical  history,  is  .said  by  Herodotus  to 
have  been  peopled  by  the  remnant  of  the 
army  led  by  Sesostris  into  Scythia.  Xenophon 
attacked  and  defeated  the  Colchians  during 
his  celebrated  retreat,  B.C.  401.  Colchis,  long 
subject  to  Persia,  became  independent  before 
the  time  of  Alexander  III.  (B.C.  336 — 323).  It 
was  subjected  by  Mithridates  VI.  of  Pontus, 
from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  Pompey,  B.C. 
65  ;  but  the  Romans  did  not  reduce  the  country 
into  the  form  of  a  province.  Gibbon  remarks 
(ch.  xlii.)  that  "the  riches  of  Colchis  shine 
only  through  the  darkness  of  conjecture  or 
tradition  ;  and  its  genuine  history  presents  an 
uniform  scene  of  rudeness  and  poverty."  In 
early  times  the  Colchiaus  were  noted  for  their 
manufacture  of  linen  and  knowledge  of  navi- 


COLDINGHAM 


[     267    ] 


COLLEGIANTS 


gation.  Colchis  is  the  scene  of  the  exploits  of 
the  fabled  Argonautic  expedition,  the  first 
attempt  of  the  Greeks  at  distant  navigation, 
said  to  have  been  undertaken  B.C.  1263.  Its 
original  name  was  ^Ea,  and  it  comprised  the 
modern  Mingrelia,  and  part  of  the  neighbour- 
ing country. 

COLDINGHAM  (Berwickshire).— This  place 
is  celebrated  for  a  nunnery,  founded  as  early 
as  the  7th  century.  In  679  it  was  destroyed 
by  lightning,  and  in  870  seized  by  the  Danes. 
The  nuns  cut  off  their  noses  and  lips,  in  order 
to  disfigure  themselves,  which  so  infuriated 
their  brutal  captors,  that  the  whole  sister- 
hood perished  in  the  nunnery.  King  Edgar 
founded  a  Benedictine  priory  on  the  same  site 
in  1098. 

COLDSTREAM  GUAEDS.  —  This  regiment 
was  enrolled  in  the  town  of  Coldstream,  Ber- 
wickshire, by  Gen.  Monk,  Jan.  i,  1660,  and 
on  the  disbanding  of  the  army  in  Jan.,  1661, 
was  retained  by  Charles  II.  in  his  special 
service.  ' 

COLENSO  CASE.— John  William  Colenso, 
D.D.,  appointed  Bishop  of  Natal  in  1853, 
having  in  1862  commenced  the  publication  of 
a  critical  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  and 
Book  of  Joshua,  in  which  he  expressed  many 
opinions  deemed  hostile  to  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture,  legal  proceedings  on  a  charge  of 
heresy  were  commenced  against  him  in  the 
court  of  the  Bishop  of  Cape  Town,  in  Nov., 
1863.  These  resulting  in  the  deposition  of 
Dr.  Colenso  from  his  bishopric,  he  appealed  to 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council, 
which  decided,  March  20,  1865,  that  the  Bishop 
of  Cape  Town  had  no  jurisdiction  over  the 
Bishop  of  Natal,  and  that  the  previous  pro- 
ceedings were  consequently  void  in  law. 
Sentence  of  excommunication  was,  however, 
passed  upon  him  by  Dr.  Robert  Gray,  Bishop 
of  Cape  Town,  Dec.  16,  1865,  and  formally 
proclaimed  in  the  cathedral  at  Maritzburg 
Sunday,  Jan.  7,  1866. 

COLERAINE  (Ireland)  was  originally  the 
seat  of  a  bishop's  see,  founded  by  St.  Cabreus 
about  540.  In  1171  it  was  plundered  by  the 
King  of  Down,  and  again  in  1213  by  Thomas 
MacUchtry,  who  used  the  stones  of  the  abbey 
as  materials  for  a  castle  which  he  erected  here. 
A  monastery  for  Dominican  friars  was  founded 
about  1244.  James  I.  granted  Coleraine  and 
the  surrounding  districts  to  a  company  of 
London  merchants,  known  as  the  "Governor 
and  Assistants  of  the  New  Plantation  in 
Ulster,"  in  1613,  and  in  1614  the  town  was  in- 
corporated by  the  same  monarch. 

COLIN  (Battle).— (See  KOLIN,  Battle.) 

COLISEUM.— This  celebrated  amphitheatre 
at  Rome  was  commenced  by  the  Emperor 
Vespasian  in  75,  and  completed  by  Titus  in 
80.  It  received  the  name  of  Coliseum  on 
account  of  its  magnitude.  Gibbon  (ch.  xii.) 
thus  describes  the  magnificent  edifice  : — "  It 
was  a  building  of  an  elliptic  figure,  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty-four  feet  in  length,  and  four 
hundred  and  sixty-seven  in  breadth,  founded 
on  fourscore  arches,  and  rising,  with  four  suc- 
cessive orders  of  architecture,  to  the  height  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet.  The  outside  of 
the  edifice  was  encrusted  with  marble  and 


decorated  with  statues.  The  slopes  of  the  vast 
concave,  which  formed  the  inside,  were  filled 
and  surrounded  with  sixty  or  eighty  rows  of 
seats,  of  marble  likewise,  covered  with 
cushions,  and  capable  of  receiving  with  ease 
above  fourscore  thousand  spectators."  A  bull- 
fight was  celebrated  in  the  Coliseum,  Sep.  3, 
1332.  Eugenius  IV.  (1431 — 47)  surrounded  it 
with  a  wall,  and  it  was  consecrated  by  Benedict 
XIV.  (1740—58). 

COLLAR.— The  use  of  collars  of  gold  and 
jewellery  is  of  the  greatest  antiquity.  They 
were  worn  by  the  ancient  Babylonians,  Egyp- 
tians, Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Manlius 
Torquatus,  who  was  consul  at  Rome  B.C.  287, 
received  his  surname  from  a  collar  he  took 
from  a  Gaul  whom  he  slew  in  fight.  Collars 
were  afterwards  used  as  part  of  the  insignia 
of  the  various  orders  of  knighthood.  The- 
collar  of  SS.  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  in 
honour  of  the  two  martyrs  Simplicius  and 
Faustinus,  who  were  thrown  into  the  Tiber 
with  stones  and  chains  round  their  necks,  by 
order  of  Diocletian;  but  this  and  other  ex- 
planations of  its  origin  do  not  rest  upon  good 
aiithority.  This  subject  has  been  discussed  in 
"Notes  and  Queries  "(vol  ii.).  Boutell  gives 
the  following  explanation  :  —  "  Next  to  the 
Garter  itself,  the  most  celebrated  knightly 
decoration  of  this  class  is  the  Collar  of  SS.  in- 
troduced by  King  Henry  IV.,  apparently  as  a 
memorial  of  the  success  with  which  his 
aspiring  ambition  had  been  crowned  :  this 
letter  S,  repeated  either  in  links  of  gold,  or  in 
gold  embroidery,  worked  upon  a  fillet  of  blue, 
is  the  initial  of  the  word  '  Souveraine,'  Henry's 
motto,  which  he  bore  while  Earl  of  Derby." 
It  was  originally  the  livery  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
adopted  by  Henry  IV.  as  part  of  the  royal 
livery  in  1399.  Previous  to  the  battle  of  Agin- 
court,  Oct.  25,  1415,  Henry  V.  permitted  all 
the  untitled  members  of  his  retinue  to  wear 
this  collar ;  thereby  conferring  upon  them 
the  privileges  of  nobility.  The  collar  of  the 
order  of  the  Garter  was  granted  by  Henry  VII. 
some  time  between  the  years  1496  and  1502. 

COLLAR  (Order).— See  ANNUNCIADA.) 

COLLECTS  were  introduced  by  Pope  Gela- 
sius  I.  between  492  and  496.  The  collects  for 
the  day  of  the  Church  service  appeared  in 
the  first  prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.,  in  1548. 
Many  are  very  ancient,  some  being  the  com- 
position of  St.  Jerome,  and  even  of  Gelasius 
himself. 

COLLEGE  OF  ARMS.— (See  HERALDS'  COL- 
LEGE.) . 

COLLEGES,  or  associations  of  men  em- 
ployed in  the  same  works,  were  established  at 
Rome  by  Numa  Pompilius  (B.C.  715 — B.C.  673). 
Educational  colleges  existed  among  the  Jews 
and  the  Egyptians,  and  after  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  were  generally  attached  to 
monasteries.  —  (See  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY, 
LION  COLLEGE,  MORDEN  COLLEGE,  OXFORD 
UNIVERSITY,  PHYSICIANS,  SURGEONS,  VETERI- 
NARY SCIENCE,  <fec.  &c.  &c.) 

COLLEGIANTS,  or  COLLEGIANS. —This 
sect  was  formed  in  Holland  in  1619.  Its  mem- 
bers were  thus  named  because  they  called  their 
assemblies,  or  sacred  conventions,  held  twice 
a  year  at  Rhemsburg,  near  Ley  den,  colleges. 


COLLIERY 


[    268    ] 


COLOGNE 


Three  brothers,  John-James,  Hadrian,  and 
Gisbert  Koddeus,  were  its  authors.  Mosheim 
describes  them  as  "a  very  large  society  of 
persons  of  every  sect  and  rank,  who  assume 
the  name  of  Christians,  but  entertain  differ- 
ent views  of  Christ ;  and  which  is  kept 
together  neither  by  rulers  and  teachers,  nor 
by  ecclesiastical  laws,  nor  by  a  formula  of 
faith,  nor,  lastly,  by  any  set  of  rites,  but 
solely  by  the  desire  of  improvement  in  scrip- 
tural knowledge  and  piety."  In  1686  the 
Collegians  split  into  two  opposing  sects,  but 
the  breach  was  healed  early  in  the  i8th  century. 

COLLIERY.— The  earliest  mention  of  col- 
lieries occurs  in  1239,  in  a  charter  of  Henry  III., 
granting  to  the  burgesses  of  Newcastle  per- 
mission to  dig  for  coal.  In  1330  they  were 
regarded  as  valuable  property.  The  employ- 
ment of  females  in  collieries  is  regulated  by  5 
&  6  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  10,  1842),  which  ordered 
that  no  new  female  workers  should  be  engaged 
at  all ;  that  in  three  mouths  after  it  was 
passed  no  female  under  18  should  be  so 
employed ;  and  that  after  March  i,  1843, 
female  service  in  mines  should  be  totally 
abolished. 

COLLODION. — The  iodized  collodion  now  so 
largely  employed  for  photographic  purposes, 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  S.  Archer,  who  published 
an  account  of  its  preparation  and  properties 
in  the  "  Chemist  "  for  March,  1851. 

COLLOQUY  OF  POISSY.— This  term  was 
applied  to  a  conference  between  the  Huguenots 
and  the  Roman  Catholics  held  in  the  refectory 
of  the  Benedictines  at  Poissy  in  Sep.,  1561. 
Instead  of  settling  their  differences,  both 
parties  became  more  incensed  and  took  up 
arms. 

COLLYRIDIANS.— Arabian  heretics,  who 
"  invested  the  Virgin  Mary  with  the  name  and 
honours  of  a  goddess."  Epiphanius,  Bishop 
of  Constantia,  who  died  May  12,  403,  says  they 
were  all  females,  and  that  they  sacrificed"  to 
the  Virgin  Mary.  They  arose  towards  the 
close  of  the  4th  century,  and  received  their 
name  from  the  collyrides,  or  little  cakes, 
which  they  offered  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  They 
came  from  Thrace  and  parts  of  Scythia.  Sonic 
sectaries  that  arose  about  the  same  time 
took  the  name  of  Aiitidicomarianites,  or  Adver- 
saries of  Mary,  because  they  refused  to  honour 
Mary. 

COLMAR  (France),  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Argentaria,  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  town  in  1220.  It  was  made  a  free  impe- 
rial city  in  the  isth  century,  and  was  fortified 
in  1552.  The  Swedes  captured  it  in  1632,  and 
Louis  XIV.  took  it  and  destroyed  its  fortifi- 
cations in  1673.  It  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick,  Sep.  10,  1697.  The  plague 
committed  great  ravages  in  1541.  Its  cathedral 
was  founded  in  1363. 

COLOGNE  (Prussia),  the  Colonia  Agrippina 
of  the  Romans,  received  its  name  from  the 
Empress  Agrippina,  who  was  born  here.  The 
town  was  founded  B.C.  37.  Claudius  estab- 
lished a  Roman  colony  A.I>.  51.  It  was  erected 
into  an  archbishopric  before  314. 

A.D. 

508.  Clovis  I.  is  declared  King  of  the  Franks  at  Cologne. 
511.  Cologne  forms  part  of  Austrasia. 


A.D. 

700.  The  church  and  nunnery  of  Santa  Maria  in  Capitulio 
arc  founded. 

715.  Charles  Muriel  sustains  a  defeat  near  Cologne. 

783.  Charlemagne  holds  a  council. 

814.  The  old  cathedral  is  founded. 

870,  Sep.  26.  A  council  is  held  on  discipline. 

873,  Sep.  26.  A  council  is  summoned. 

887,  April  I.  A  council  is  held  against  robbers  of  churches. 

957.  Cologne  is  declared  an  imperial  town. 

980.  Archbishop  Bruno  founds  the  church  of  St.  Panta- 
loon. 

1057.  A  council  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  is  held. 
1066.  The  church  of  St.  Gereon  is  founded. 
1 1 10.  A  council  is  held. 
1115.  The   Emperor  Ilemy  V.   is  excommunicated  at   a 

council. 
1119.  The  excommunication  of  Henry  V.  is  published  at  a 

council. 
1164.  The  relics  of  the  three  kings  are  removed  to  Cologne. 

1185.  The  outer  walls  are  built. 

1186.  A  council  is  held. 

1187.  A  council  is  held. 

1248.  Destruction  of  the  old  cathedral  by  fire. 

1259.  An  stops  trading  to  the  neighbourhood  are  compelled 

to  unload  here. 

1261,  March  12.  A  council  is  held. 
1266.  A  council  is  held.  y 

1270.  The  cathedral  is  commenced. 
1281,  March  9.  A  council  on  discipline  is  held. 
1307,  Feb.  23.  A  council  against  the  Ucghards  is  held. 
1310.  The  year  is  ordered  by  a  council  to  commence  :it 

Cologne  at  Christinas,  instead  of  at  Easier,  i;c- 

cording  to  their  custom. 
1322,  Oct.  31.  A  council  is  held. 
1388.  The  university  is  founded. 
1390,  Sep.  16.  The  ancient  statutes  of  the  province  aro 

renewed  at  a  council. 

1424,  April  22.  A  council  is  held  on  discipline. 

1425.  Persecution  and  expulsion  of  the  Je\vs. 
1452,  March  3.  A  council  on  discipline. 

1536.  A  council  on  the  duties  of  ecclesiastics,  &c. 

1571.  The  town-hall  is  built. 

1577.  Birth  of  Rubens  at  Cologne. 

1579.  A  congress  of  European  powers  isheld  at  Cologne. 

1618.   Expulsion  of  the  Protestants. 

1636.  The  church  of  the  Jesuits  is  founded. 

1642.   Mary  d.'  Medieis  dies  at  Cologne. 

1655,  Sep.  Prince  Charles,  afterwards  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land, arrives  at  Cologne. 

1787.  The  Protestants  are  allowed  to  erect  a  place  of  wor- 
ship and  a  school. 

1795.  Cologne  is  seized  by  the  French. 

1801.  It  is  made  the  capital  of  the  French  department  of 
La  Uoer,  and  the  archbishopric  is  secularized. 

1814.  It  is  restored  to  Prussia, 

1815.  The  fortifications  are  rebuilt. 

1837.  The  navigation  of  the  Uhinc  is  opened,  which  en- 
ables Cologne  to  cany  on  a  direct  foreign  trade. 

1841,  Sep.  I.  The  railroad  to  Aix-la-Chapelle  is  opened. 

1843,  Sep.  4.  The  King  of  Prussia  lays  the  foundation- 
stone  of  the  new  transept. 

1848,  Sep.  The  newly- finished  p:irts  of  the  cathedral  are- 
thrown  open  to  the  public. 

1855.  A  permanent  bridge  over  the  Rhine,  for  railway  and 
common  traffic,  is  commenced. 

1859.  The  south  portal  of  the  cathedral  is  completed. 

1860.  The  central  spire  is  added  to  the  cathedral. 

1865,  June  2.  An  exhibition  is  opened  by  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Prussia, 

COLOGNE-SUR-SPREE  (Treaties).— Frede- 
rick William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  by  a 
treaty  concluded  at  this  place,  which  forms 
part  of  Berlin,  April  26,  1672,  agreed  to  assist 
the  Dutch  against  Louis  XIV.  with  20,000  men. 
He  also  signed  an  alliance  here  with  the  Em- 
peror Leopold  I.,  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  and  the 
States-General,  July  i,  1674.  A  third  treaty, 
concluded  Feb.  10,  1682,  established  union  and 
engagements  to  supply  mutual  aid  between 
the  said  Elector  and  Christian  V.  of  Denmark. 
Louis  XIV.  here  signed  an  agreement  with 
Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg  relative  to 
the  fulfilment  of  the  truce  of  Ratisbon  (q.  v.), 


COLOMBIA 


[    269    ] 


COLONY 


Nov.  4,  1684.  A  convention  of  boundaries  was 
signed  here  by  the  Duke  of  Pomerania  (Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden)  and  Frederick,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, March  31,  1699. 

COLOMBIA  (South  America).— The  ancient 
vice-royalty  of  New  Granada  and  Quito,  and 
the  state  of  Venezuela,  having  thrown  off  the 
Spanish  yoke,  formed  themselves  into  a  re- 
public under  the  name  of  Colombia,  in  1819. 

A.D. 

1830,  July  13.  The  Congress  express  willingness  to  enter 

into  negotiations  with  Spain,  if  their  republic  is 
acknowledged  independent. 

1831,  June  24.  The  republican  troops,  under  Gen.  Bolivar, 

clef  eat  the  royalists  at  Carabobo  (<?.  t>.).— Dec.  Spain 
loses  all  power  in  the  new  republic. 

1833,  Nov.  13.  Battle  of  Maracaibo,  in  which  the  republi- 

cans are  defeated  by  the  royalists,  under  Gen. 
Morales. 

1823,  March  8.  Treaty  of  alliance  between  Colombia  and 
Buenos  Ayres.  —  Nov.  6.  The  Colombians  take 
Puerto  Cabello. 

1834,  Feb.  10.  Bolivar  is  elected  dictator  by  the  Congress  of 

Peru. — June  30.  An  alliance  is  formed  between 
Colombia  and  Mexico. 

1825,  Jan.  i.  Great  Britain  recognizes  the  independence  of 

Colombia.— March  15.  A  treaty  of  alliance  is  con- 
cluded with  Guatemala. — May  28.  A  treaty  of 
friendship  and  commerce  is  made  with  the  United 
States. — Nov.  7.  A  treaty  of  friendship  and  com- 
merce is  made  with  Great  Britain. 

1826,  Aug.  19.  The  Congress  at  Lima  declares  Bolivar  pre- 

sident for  lift'.— Sep.  i.  B  jlivar  appoints  Santa-Cruz 
his  deputy  during  his  absence  in  Peru. — Nov.  14. 
Bolivar  returns  to  Santa  F<§  de  Bogota.— Nov.  23. 
He  accepts  the  dictatorship. 

1828,  April  18.  Insurrection  of  Colombian  troops. — April  23. 

The  Congress  of  Ocana  declares  Ignacio  Marques 
president. — Sep.  25.  Santander  excites  a  revolt 
against  Bolivar,  who  escapes  assassination,  and 
quells  the  insurrection. 

1829,  Venezuela  constitutes  itself  a  separate  republic. 

1830,  Jan.  20.  Bolivar  tenders  his  resignation  of  the  presi- 

dentship, and  retires  to  Cartagena  shortly  after- 
wards. Venezuela  again  joins  New  Granada. — 
Dec.  17.  Death  of  Bolivar. 

1831,  Nov.    17.  Venezuela,  New   Granada,  and  Colombia 

again  become  separate  states.    (See  VENEZUELA.) 

COLOMBO  (Ceylon),  called  by  the  Moors 
Kalambu,  and  mentioned  by  them  in  1340, 
was  fortified  by  the  Portuguese  in  1517. 
Cotta  (q.  v.)  having  been  dismantled  in  1564, 
Colombo  was  made  the  capital  of  Ceylon. 
Rajah  Singha  laid  siege  to  it  in  Aug.,  1586,  but 
was  forced  to  withdraw  the  following  year. 
The  Dutch  wrested  it  from  the  Portuguese  in 
1656,  and  retained  possession  till,  by  a  treaty 
signed  here  Feb.  15,  1796,  they  ceded  all  their 
fortified  towns  and  stations  in  Ceylon  to  the 
English.  Colombo  was  made  a  bishopric  in 
1845. 

COLONIA.— (See  CAMELODUNTJM.) 
COLONIAL  BISHOPRICS.  —  The  bishops 
of  the  Scotch  Episcopal  Church  consecrated 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Seabury,  of  Connecticut,  first 
bishop  in  America,  at  Aberdeen,  Nov.  24.,  1784. 
Bishops  for  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were 
consecrated  at  Lambeth,  Feb.  4,  1787,  and 
bishops  were  afterwards  appointed  for  other 
parts  of  the  United  States.  Nova  Scotia,  the 
first  colonial  see,  was  erected  Aug.  n,  1787. 
By  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  52  (June  30, 1852),  extended 
by  16  &  17  Viet.,  c.  49  (Aug.  4,  1853),  colonial 
bishops  are  empowered  to  exercise  all  episcopal 
functions  in  the  United  Kingdom  except  that 
of  jurisdiction.  The  following  are  the  colonial 
sees,  with  the  date  of  erection  : — 


A.D. 

1787.  Nova  Scotia. 

1793.  Quebec. 

1813.  Calcutta. 

1824.  Barbadoes. 

1824.  Jamaica. 

1833.  Bombay. 

1833.  Madras. 

1836.  Australia,   afterwards 

Sydney. 

1839.  Newfoundland. 
1839.  Toronto,  Canada  West. 

1841.  New  Zealand. 
1843.  Antigua. 

1842.  British  Guiana. 
1842.  Gibraltar. 
1842.  Tasmania. 

1845.  Colombo,  Ceylon. 

1845.  Fredericton,        New 
Brunswick. 

1847.  Adelaide,  South  Aus- 
tralia. 

1847.  Cape  Town,  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

1847.  Melbourne,  Victoria. 

1847.  Newcastle,  N.  S.  Wales. 


1850.  Sierra  Leone. 
1853.  Graham's  Town,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

1853.  Natal,   Cape  of  Good 

Hope. 

1854.  Mauritius. 

1855.  Labuan,  Borneo. 

1856.  Christchurch,    New- 

Zealand. 
1856.  Kingston,  Jamaica. 

1856.  Perth,  Western    Aus- 

tralia. 

1857.  Huron,  Canada  West 

1858.  Nelson,  New  Zealand. 
1858.  Wellington,  New  Zea- 
land. 

1858.  British  Columbia. 

1859.  Brisbane,MoretonBay. 
1859.  St.  Helena. 

1859.  Waiapu,  New  Zealand. 
1861.  Nassau,      Bahama 

Islands. 

1861.  Ontario,  Canada. 
1863.  Goulbourn,N.S. Wales. 
1865.  Dunedin,NewZealand. 
1865.  Graf  ton  and  Armidale. 
1865.  New         Westminster, 

British  Columbia. 


847.  Sydney. 

1849.  Victoria,  Hong-Kong. 

1850.  Montreal,  Canada. 
1850.  Prince  Rupert's  Land. 

—(See  MISSIONARY  BISHOPS.) 

COLONY.— The  Phoenicians  and  the  Carians 
planted  several  colonies  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Greeks  followed  their  example.  The 
Romans  began  to  establish  colonies  during  the 
monarchical  period.  In  modern  times,  the 
Venetians,  the  Portuguese,  the  Spanish,  the 
French,  the  English,  and  the  Dutch,  have  been 
distinguished  by  their  attempts  to  form 
colonies.  England  has  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing the  most  extensive  colonial  empire  of 
ancient  or  modern  times.  The  following  list 
of  colonies,  which  are  more  fully  described 
under  their  titles,  contains  the  date  of  the 
first  connection  of  England  with  each,  whether 
by  conquest,  settlement,  or  treaty  :— 


A.D. 

1536.  Newfoundland. 

1579.  Moluccas. 

1609.  Bermudas. 

1618.  African  Forts. 

1618.  Gambia. 

1618.  Gold  Coast. 

1620.  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

1621.  Nova  Scotia. 
1623.  st-  Christopher's. 
1634.  Barbadoes. 
1628.  Nevis. 

1630.  Bahama  Islands. 
1633.  Antigua. 

1633.  Montserrat. 

1632.  Anguilla,    or   Snake 
Island. 

1634.  Bengal. 
1634.  Berbice. 
1639.  Madras. 
1651.  St.  Helena, 
1655.  Jamaica. 

1661.  Cape  Coast  Castle. 

1663.  Bombay. 

1666.  Toitola,  Virgin  Isles. 

1668.  Dominica. 

1674.  Belize,  or  British  Hon- 
duras. 

1704.  Gibraltar. 

1713.  New  Brunswick. 

1745.  Prince        Edward's 
Island. 

1745.  Cape  Breton. 

1759.  Lower  Canada. 

1760.  Upper  Canada. 
1762.  Grenada. 
176?.  St.  Lucia. 


A.D. 

1763.  Tobago. 

1763.  St.  Vincent. 

1763.  Ceylon. 

1766.  Falkland  Islands. 

1770.  New  South  Wales. 

1785.  Penang,  or  Prince  of 

Wales  Island. 
1787.  Sierra  Leone. 
1792.  Vancouver  Island. 
1796.  Demerara. 

1796.  Esscquibo. 

1797.  Trinidad. 

1798.  Gozo. 
1800.  Malta. 
1803.  Port  Philip. 

1803.  Tasmania,  or  Van  Die- 

man's  Laud. 
1807.  Heligoland. 

1809.  The  Ionian  Islands. 

1810.  Mauritius. 

1814.  New  Zealand. 

1815.  Ascension  Island. 
1824.  Natal. 

1827.  Fernando  Po. 

1829.  Western  Australia,  or 

Swan  River. 
1831.  British  Guiana. 
1834.  South  Australia. 
1837.  Victoria,  Australia. 
1841.  Hong-Koug. 
1848.  Labuan. 
1851.  Lagos. 

1858.  British  Columbia. 

1859.  Queensland,  or  More- 

ton  Bay. 


COLOPHON 


[    270    ] 


COMEDY 


COLOPHON  (Asia  Minor).— An  Ionian  city, 
founded,  according  to  tradition,  by  Andrsemon. 
It  was  a  flourishing  city  as  late  as  B.C.  66. 
Strabo  says  that  the  Colophonians  were  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  their  cavalry.  It 
was,  in  fact,  considered  invincible,  and  gave 
rise  to  the  proverb,  "  He  has  put  the  Colophon 
to  it,"  or  given  the  finishing  stroke,  used  to 
show  that  a  matter  had  been  brought  to  a 
certain  termination.  Old  works,  before  the 
introduction  of  a  title-page,  had  title,  date, 
&c.,  printed  at  the  end ;  and  this,  as  the  last 
thing  printed,  was  termed  a  colophon. 

COLORADO,  orCOLERADO  (United  States). 
— This  district  was  separated  from  Utah  and 
Kansas,  and  organized  as  a  distinct  territory 
by  act  of  Congress,  Feb.  28,  1861.  It  main- 
tained the  Federal  interests  during  the  civil 
war.  A  proposal  to  erect  it  into  a  state  of  the 
Union  was  rejected  in  March,  1866.  Important 
gold  fields  have  been  discovered. 

COLOSSI  Asia  Minor). —This  city  of 
Phrygia,  first  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (B.C. 
484 — 408),  was  visited  by  Xerxes  with  his 
army  B.C.  481,  and  by  Cyrus  the  Younger  B.C. 
401.  In  the  time  of  Strabo  VB.C.  60 — A.D.  21) 
it  had  lost  most  of  its  ancient  importance,  and 
now  scarce  a  ruin  marks  its  former  site. 

COLOSSEUM.— (&e  COLISEUM.) 

COLOSSI. A  NS  Kpisllu  was  addressed  by 
St.  Paul  to  the  Christians  of  Colossae,  in 
I'hryxia,  in  62. 

COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES,  a  brazen  statue  of 
Apollo,  commenced  by  Chares  de  Lindos  B.C. 
290,  and  completed  B.C.  280.  The  statement 
that  one  foot  rested  on  each  side  of  the  har- 
bour of  Rhodes,  and  that  ships  passed  under 
it  in  full  sail,  does  not  rest  on  good  authority. 
It  was  105  feet  in  height,  and  was  ascended  by 
a  winding  staircase.  It  was  overthrown  by 
an  earthquake  B.C.  224  or  B.C.  222,  and  was 
never  re-erected.  The  remains  were  sold  to  a 
Jewish  merchant  of  Eclcssa  in  672,  and  900 
camels  were  laden  with  the  brass.  It  was  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

COLU.M  HI  A  8.  ( 'arolina),  the  capital  of  the 
state,  was  founded  in  1787,  when  the  seat  of 
government  was  removed  hither  from  Charles- 
t.  >u.  The  S.  Carolina  college  was  founded  in 
1804,  and  the  Presbyterian  theological  semi- 
nary in  1831.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Federals 
under  Gen.  Sherman  Feb.  17,  1865. 

COLUMBIA  DISTRICT  (United  States), 
originally  containing  about  100  square  miles, 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  Government 
by  the  states  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  in  1 790. 
Washington  (q.  v.},  the  capital,  was  surveyed 
in  1791.  The  annexation  of  the  county  of 
Alexandria  to  Virginia  in  1846  reduced  the 
area  of  the  district  to  60  square  miles.  The 
senate  of  the  United  States  abolished  slavery 
in  this  district  April  3,  1862. 

COLUMBIA  RIVER.— (See  OREGON.) 

COLUMBLUM,  or  TANTALUM.— This  metal 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  Hatchcll  in  a  ferru- 
ginous mineral  from  North  America  in  1801. 
Eckeberg,  who  afterwards  found  it  in  a  Swe- 
dish mineral,  gave  it  the  name  of  Tantalum. 

COLUMBUS  (United  States).  —  This,  the 
chief  town  of  Ohio,  was  founded  in  1812  and 
incorporated  in  1816.  The  state-house,  erected 


in  1814,  was  burned  Feb.  i,  1852.  The  insti- 
tution for  the  blind  and  the  lunatic  asylum 
were  founded  in  1836. 

COMBS  were  made  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages,  of  box- 
wood, ivory,  and  other  materials.  They  often 
occur  in  early  barrows,  British,  Roman,  and 
Saxon ;  and  were  buried  with  both  pagans  and 
Christians.  Some  were  found  at  Pompeii  like 
the  modern  srnall-t  ;oth  combs.  In  the  i3th 
century  combs  were  sometimes  made  of  gold 
and  set  with  jewels.  The  Comb-makers'  Com- 
pany was  incorporated  in  1636. 

COMEDY  was  introduced  at  Athens  by 
Susarion  and  Doloii,  B.C.  578.  Epicharmus, 
born  at  Cos  B.C.  540,  composed  the  first  regular 
comedies.  Thespis,  the  "  father  of  comedy," 
performed  on  a  waggon  B.C.  535.  A  decree 
for  its  prohibition  was  passed  B.C.  440,  but  was 
evaded,  as  performances  are  recorded  to  have 
taken  place  B.C.  439  and  B.C.  437.  Aristo- 
phanes, the  chief  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  exhi- 
bited his  first  production  B.C.  427.  The  middle 
comedy  commenced  B.C.  375,  and  was  sup- 
ported by  35  poets,  none  of  whom  are  of  great 
repute.  The  new  comedy,  which  began  about 
B.C.  335,  owes  its  chief  celebrity  to  the  pro- 
ductions of  Menander,  who  commenced  his 
theatrical  career  B.C.  321.  The  principal  Latin 
comedy  writers  are  Plautus,  who  died  B.C.  184, 
and  Terence,  B.C.  159.  Some  difference  of 
opinion  prevails  respecting  the  origin  of  Eng- 
lish c-omedy.  Hallam  (Lit,  vol.  ii.  pt.  ii.  ch.  6) 
speaks  of  "  Ralph  Roister  Doister,  written  by 
Udal  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI II.,  as  the 
earliest  English  comedy  in  a  proper  sense,  so 
far  as  our  negative  evidence  warrants  such  a 
position."  This  comedy,  probably  written 
before  1540,  was  first  printed  in  1565.  Hallam 
believes  it  to  be  "the  earliest  lively  picture  of 
London  manners  among  the  gallants  and 
citizens,  who  furnished  so  much  for  the  stage 
down  to  the  civil  wars."  For  a  long  time 
"  Gammar  Gvirton's  Needle,"  supposed  to  have 
been  written  by  John  Still,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells,  was  considered  the  first 
Knglish  comedy.  It  was  represented  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  about  1565, 
and  the  earliest  edition  is  that  of  1575. 
"  Misogonus,"  written  by  Thomas  Rychardes, 
another  comedy,  is  known  to  have  been  written 
before  1560.  In  France,  Jodelle's  comedy  of 
"  La  Rencontre"  was  represented  before  Henry 
II.  in  1552;  and  his  comedy  of  "L'Abho 
Eugene"  was  published  about  the  same  time. 
Hallam  terms  the  "  Le  Menteur"  of  Comeille 
"  the  first  French  comedy  written  in  polite 
language,  without  low  wit  or  indecency."  The 
comedies  of  Larivey  were  published  in  1579 ; 
and  Moliere  began  to  write  in  1653.  Ariosto 
wrote  the  first  regular  Italian  comedies  in 
1495,  and  Machiavelli  composed  his  "Mandra- 
gola"  before  1520.  Flamiiiio  Scala  first  pub- 
lished the  outline  of  a  series  of  extemporaneous 
comedies  in  1611,  and  they  afterwards  became 
the  most  popular  branch  of  the  Italian  drama. 
Spanish  comedy  commenced  in  the  latter 
portion  of  the  i6th  century,  and  was  chiefly 
supported  by  Lope  de  Vega,  who  flourished 
in  1600,  and  by  Calderon,  who  published  12 
comedies  in  1635.  The  German  theatre  is  not 


COMETS 


[    271     1 


COMMANDER 


very  rich  in  comic  authors.  Hans  Sachs,  who 
died  Jan.  25,  1578,  probably  supplied  its  ear- 
liest comedies. 

COMETS.— Humboldt  (Cosmos,  vol.  i.  p.  84) 
remarks,  that  "  Kepler,  with  his  usual  anima- 
tion of  expression,  said  that  there  were  more 
comets  in  the  regions  of  space  than  fishes  in 
the  depths  of  ocean.  As  yet,  however,  there 
are  scarcely  150  whose  paths  have  been  calcu- 
lated, if  we  may  assume  at  600  or  700  the 
number  of  comets  whose  appearance  and 
passage  through  known  constellations  have 
been  ascertained  by  more  or  less  precise 
observations."  The  Chinese  observations, 
which  commence  B.C.  500,  are  of  great  value. 
Mr.  John  Russell  Hind  has  published  a  history 
of  comets;  and  in  his  work  much  of  the  in- 
formation given  in  the  following  list  will  be 
found  : — 


370.  A  comet  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle.     It  is  calculated 

by  Pingre. 
136.  A  comet  is  mentioned  by  Justin,  and  observed  in 

China. 

53.  A  comet,  supposed  by  Arago  to  be  Halley's,  is  ob- 
served in  Europe. 
44.  A  comet  is  seen  at  Rome. 

AD. 

i  -;x.  A  comet  is  observed  by  the  Chinese. 
389.  A  comet  is  mentioned  by  contemporary  historians  as 
of  extraordinary  brilliancy  and  size,  and  as  a  cause 
of  much  terror. 

531.  A  comet,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  which  ap- 
peared B.C.  44,  is  visible. 

c83.  A  comet  is  recorded  in  the  Chronicle  of  Idatius. 
615,  July.  A  comet  is  observed  in  China.     First  mention 

of  coruscations  in  the  tail  of  a  comet. 
885.  A  comet,  said  by  Arago  to  be  Halley's  Comet,  is  ob- 
served. 

891,  May.  A  comet  is  observed  in  Europe  and  in  China. 
989.  A  comet  is  observed  in  China,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  Halley'x  Comet. 

1006.  A  comet,  probably  Halley's,  is  observed  by  Hali  Ben 
Kodoan. 

1066.  A  comet  is  observed  in  Europe,  and  considered  omi- 
nous, as  it  occurred  in  the  year  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest. 

ncC.  A  comet,  supposed  to  be  the  same  which  appeared 
B.C.  44  is  visible. 

1230.  A  comet,  probably  Halley's,  is  observed. 

1364.  A  comet,  calculated  by  Pingre,  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  that  of  1556. 

1305.  Acomer,  prohMbly  ll.-illey's,  is  observed. 

1337.  A  fine  comet  is  described  by  Nicephorus  Gregoras 
and  in  the  Chinese  annals. 

1378.  A  comet,  afterwards  found  to  be  HaUey's  Comet,  is 
observed  by  the  Chinese. 

1403.  A  very  splendid  comet  is  visible  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

1456.  Halley's  Comet  is  observed  in  Europe  and  China. 

1473.  A  very  splendid  comet,  with  a  prodigiously  long  tail, 
is  observed  in  Europe  and  China. 

1537.  A  comet  appears. 

1531.  Apian  observes  a  comet  (Halley's)  at  Ingoldstadt. 

1556.  A  comet,  supposed  to  be  that  of  1364,  is  visible. 

1607.  A  comet  (Halley's)  makes  its  appearance. 

1618,  Nov.  A  comet  is  discovered  by  Kepler,  Gassendi,  and 
others,  and  observed  by  Harriott. 

1680,  Nov.  14.  A  comet,  discovered  by  Godfrey  Kirch,  at 
Coburg,  directed  Newton's  attention  to  cometary 
astronomy.  This  comet  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  that  which  appeared  B.C.  44  and  A.D.  531 
and  1 1 06. 

1683.  Halley's  Comet,  discovered  by  him  to  be  identical 
with  that  of  1456  and  succeeding  years,  and  to  be 
periodical  in  its  return.  This  was  the  first  demon- 
stration of  the  periodical  return  of  comets. 

1707,  Nov.  25.  A  comet  is  discovered  by  Manfred!  and  Stan- 
cari,  at  Bologna. 

1744.  The  finest  comet  of  the  i8th  century  appears,  and 
is  observed  by  almost  every  astronomer  of  the 
age. 

1759.  Apian  or  Halley's  Cnmet  returns. 

1773.  Biela  or  Gambart's  Comet  appears 


1786,  Jan.  17.  Encke's  Comet  is  discovered  by  Mechain. 
1811,  March  36.  The  Grand  Comet  is  discovered  by  Flau- 

gergues,  at  Viviers. 
1815,  March  6.  Others'  Comet  is  discovered   by  Olbers,  at 

Bremen. 
1819.  Encke's  Comet  is  discovered  by  Pens.    During  this 

appearance  its  periodicity  was  detected  by  Encke. 
1833,  Dec.  A  comet  with  two  tails,  one  turned  from  the  sun, 

and  the  other  towards  it,  is  seen  in  various  parts 

of  Europe. 

1835,  July  IS-  The  Great  Comet  of  1825,  discovered  by  Pons 

is  calculated  by  Hansen. 

1836,  Feb.  37.  Biela  or  Gambart'g  Comet  is  discovered  by 

Biela,  at  Josephstadt.     During  this  appearance  its 
recurrence  at  short  periods  was  ascertained. 
1835.  Apian  or  Halley's  Comet  reappears. 

1843,  Feb.  28.  The  Great  Comet  of    1843  is  discovered  in 

America,  Italy,  and  at  the  Cape. 

1844,  Nov.  33.  Faye's  Comet  is  discovered  by  Faye,  at  Paris, 

and  ascertained  to  be  periodical. 
1846.  Biela  or  Gambart's  Comet  reappears. 
1851,  June  37.  D'Anest's  Comet  is  discovered  by  D'Anest,  at 

Leipsic,  and  ascertained  to  be  periodical. 
1853.  Biela  or  Gambart's  Comet  is  again  visible. 
1858,  June  3.  Donatfs  Comet  is  discovered  by  Donati,  at 

Florence.     It  was  seen  in  Great  Britain  in  Sep. 

and  Oct. 

1860,  Oct.  M.  Tempel  discovers  a  comet  at  Marseilles. 

1861,  June  30.  A  brilliant  comet  is  first  visible  in  England. 

— Dec.  29.  Mr.  Tuttle  discovers  a  telescopic  comet 
at  Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  U.S. 

1863,  July  2.  Schmidt  discovers  a  comet  at  Athens. — July 
18.  A  comet,  discovered  at  Cambridge,  U.S.,  is 
afterwards  observed  at  Rome  by  Prof.  Rosa. 

1863,  Oct.  9.  Backer,  a  watchmaker  of  Leipsic,  discovers  a 

small  comet.— Nov.  4.  Tempel  discovers  a  comet 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.— Dec.  38.  M.  Respighi,  of 
Bologna  Observatory,  discovers  a  comet. 

1864,  Jan.  I.  A  new  comet  is  observed  by  M.  Backer,  of 

Nauen,  near  Berlin. — July  6.  A  comet  is  observed 
by  Tempel,  at  Marseilles,  and  Respighi,  at  Bologna. 

1865,  A  comet  is  visible  in  Australia. 

COMFITS.— During  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 

of  France  '  (1574 — 1589)  an  excessive  use  of 
comfits  was  one  of  the  flagrant  follies  of 
fashion.  Disraeli  (Curiosities,  i.  221)  says, 
"  All  the  world,  the  grave  and  the  gay,  car- 
ried in  their  pockets  a  comfit-box,  as  we  do 
snuff-boxes.  They  used  them  even  on  the 
most  solemn  occasions  ;  when  the  Duke  of 
Guise  was  shot  at  Blois,  he  was  found  with 
his  comfit-box  in  his  hand." 

COMMAGEN,  or  COMMAGENE  (Syria).— 
This  little  kingdom,  which  during  the  supre- 
macy of  the  Seleucidge  (B.C.  323 — B.C.  65) 
formed  part  of  the  Syrian  territory,  became 
subsequently  an  independent  state.  Its  king, 
Antiochus,  besieged  in  his  capital,  Samosata 
(q.  v.),  by  Ventidius,  B.C.  38,  was  put  to  death 
at  Rome,  B.C.  29.  Augustus  conferred  Comma- 
gen  upon  an  infant  prince  named  Mithridates, 
B.C.  20,  and  on  the  death  of  King  Antiochus 
HI.,  A.D.  17,  it  became  a  Roman  province.  In 
38  it  was  given  to  Antiochus  IV.,  son  of  the 
former  king,  and  in  73  was  again  reduced  to  the 
state  of  a  province.  This  district,  united  with 
Cyrrhestica  (q.  v.)  by  Constantine  I.  (323—337), 
received  from  him  the  name  of  Euphratensis. 
It  was  ravaged  by  the  Persians  under  Chosroes 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.— This  officer  acts 
as  the  immediate  deputy  of  the  sovereign  in 
controlling  the  organization,  &c.,  of  the  land 
forces  of  the  country:  their  employment,  <fec., 
being  regulated  by  the  Secretaries  of  State. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  commanders-in . 
chief :— 


COMMENDATORY 


[     =72     1 


COMMON 


1674,  March  30.  James,  Duke  of  Monmouth. 

1690,  June  3.  John  Churchill,  Earl,  afterwards  Duke  of 

Marl  borough. 

1691,  April  30.  Meinhardt  Schomberg,  Duke  of  Leiuster 

afterwards  Duke  of  Schomberg. 
1711,  Jan.  i.  James  Butler,  Duke  of  Orrnond. 

1744,  May.  John,  Earl  of  Stair. 

1745,  March.  FicM-Marsluil  George  Wade. 

I757,  Oct.  24.  John,  Viscount,  afterwards  Earl  Ligonier. 

1766,  Aug.  13.  John,  Marquis  of  Granby. 

(1770.  At  his  death  the  office  remained  some  time  vacant.) 

1778,  March  19.  Jeff  rey,  Lord  Amherst. 

1783,  March  29.  Hon.  Henry  Seymour  Conway. 

1793,  Jan.  21.  Jeffrey,  Lord  Amherst,  again. 

1795,  Feb.  ii.  H.K.H.  Frederick,  Duke  of  York. 

1809,  March  25.  Sir  David  Dur.das,  Bart. 

1811,  May  29.  H.K.I1.  Frederick,  Duke  of  York. 

1827,  Jan.  22.  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington. 

(1827,  May  6.  The  office  is  vacant.) 

1827,  Aug.  27.  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,  again. 

1828,  Feb.  25.  Rowland,  Viscount  Hill. 
1842,  'Aug.  15.  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington. 
1852,  Sep.  28.  Henry,  Viscount  Hardiiw. 

1856,  July.  H.B.H.  George,  Duke  of  Cambridge. 

COMMENDATORY    ABBOTS.— (Sec    ABBA- 

COMITES.) 

COMMERCE.— The  Phoenicians,  who  were 
the  most  ancient  nation  of  traders  on  the 
earth,  are  called  the  inventors  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  Their  ships  traded  with 
Greece  as  early  as  B.C.  1800,  and  they  founded 
many  colonies  as  centres  of  trade  B.C.  1450. 
The  chief  commercial  nations  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  the  Venetians,  whose  importance 
commenced  about  722  ;  the  Pisans,  who 
reached  the  culminating  point  of  their  pros- 
perity about  1063  ;  and  the  Genoese,  who  rose 
to  great  power  and  affluence  in  1064.  The 
Hanseatic  league,  a  confederacy  of  towns  for 
the  protection  of  trade,  became  influential 
about  the  year  1140.  In  1252  Flanders  attained  a 
high  position  from  the  success  of  its  merchants, 
and  the  Florentine  republic  was  one  of  the 
chief  commercial  powers  in  1298.  The  com- 
mercial importance  of  England  was  consider- 
ably improved  by  Edward  I.,  who  granted  a 
charter  on  behalf  of  foreign  merchants  in  1302. 
From  this  charter  it  appears  that  the  British 
then  had  intercourse  with  Germany,  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Flanders,  Lombardy,  Flo- 
rence, and  other  smaller  states.  France  was 
so  poor  in  1360,  that  a  leather  currency 
was  adopted,  and  long  afterwards  commerce 
was  in  a  very  languishing  state.  Jacques 
Coner,  however,  who  held  some  financial  office 
under  Charles  VII.,  was  said  to  be  the  weal- 
thiest merchant  in  the  world  in  1449.  The  dis- 
covery of  America  by  Columbus  in  1492,  and 
the  other  results  of  the  marine  enterprise  of 
the  1 6th  century,  developed  new  fields  for 
commercial  activity. 

COMMISSARIAT.  —  In  the  Roman  armies 
the  office  of  superintending  the  food,  &c.,  of 
the  troops,  was  performed  by  the  quaestors 
(q.  v.).  During  the  Middle  Ages,  under  the 
feudal  system,  this  important  department  of 
military  economy  was  so  inefficiently  dis- 
charged that  many  common  soldiers  perished 
from  starvation  during  the  Crusades,  and  at 
all  times  the  lower  ranks  of  the  army  were 
mainly  dependent  upon  plunder  for  their  sup- 
port. A  proviant-master  was  appointed  during 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603),  to 
regulate  the  supplies  of  the  English  army, 


and  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  (1625 — 1649)  com- 
missaries were  established  in  the  various 
counties.  In  1793  a  commissary-general  was 
appointed,  to  control  all  contracts  for  food  and 
forage.  In  consequence  of  mismanagement 
during  the  Crimean  war,  this  department  was 
newly  organized  in  1858  and  1859. 

COMMISSION.  — (-See  HIGH  COMMISSION 
COURT.) 

COMMISSIONNAIRES.  —  This  corps  was 
founded  in  London  in  1859  for  the  employment 
as  porters,  messengers,  &c.,  of  wounded  sol- 
diers and  sailors  of  good  character. 

COMMITTEE.—  (See  GENERAL  SAFETY  and 
PUBLIC  WELFARE.) 

COMMON  COUNCIL  (London).— This  arose 
put  of  the  folk-mote,  a  general  mote,  or  meet- 
ing, of  the  people,  an  institution  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin.  It  was  held  at  a  much  earlier 
date  than  1208,  the  year  mentioned  by  many 
authorities  as  the  first  in  which  a  folk-mote 
was  summoned.  There  were  three  principal 
folk-motes  in  the  year  ;  one  at  the  feast  of  St. 
Michael  (Sep.  29),  to  appoint  a  sheriff ;  the 
second  at  Christmas,  to  arrange  the  wards  ; 
and  the  third  at  the  feast  of  St.  John  (June 
24),  to  protect  the  city  from  fire,  by  reason  of 
the  great  drought.  Each  citizen  neglecting  to 
attend  was  fined  40  shillings,  a  large  sum 
in  those  days.  Stow  relates  that  in  the  time 
of  Edward  II.  the  citizens  claimed  the  east 
part  of  St.  Paul's  churchyard  to  be  the  place 
of  assembly  of  their  folk-motes;  and  that  "the 
great  steeple,  there  situate,  was  to  that  use, 
their  common  bell ;  which  being  there  rung, 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  might  hear,  and 
Odiiio  together."  The  same  author  refers  to  a 
solemn  meeting  or  common  council  held  Oct. 
ii,  1190,  in  St.  Paul's  churchyard,  and  adds,  "it 
is  likely  in  that  place  where  the  folk-mote  used 
to  assemble."  The  meetings  in  the  open  air 
were  discontinued,  and  in  1347  each  ward 
was  instructed  to  send  delegates  according 
to  its  extent.  The  common  council  now 
meets  in  the  Guildhall  every  Thursday,  and 
the  annual  elections  occur  on  St.  Thomas's  day 
(Dec.  21). 

COMMON  LAW.— Concerning  the  unwritten 
Law  of  England,  Dugdale  observes  (Origines, 
c.  3),  "  The  common  law  is,  out  of  question,  no 
Less  ancient  than  the  beginning  of  differences 
betwixt  man  and  man,  after  the  first  peopling 
of  this  land."  It  has  been  handed  down  by 
the  Britons,  Romans,  Saxons,  and  Danes,  and 
was  digested  into  a  code  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (1042 — 1066).  This  code  was  confirmed 
by  William  I.  about  1070  ;  and  the  statute  of 
Merton,  enacted  Jan.  23,  1236,  declared  the  in- 
dention of  the  nobles  not  to  change  laws  which 
lad  been  so  long  used  and  approved. 

COMMON  LOT.— (See  BRETHREN  OF  SOCIAL 
LIFE.) 

COMMON  PLEAS  (England).  —  Originally 
;he  trial  of  common  causes  was  referred  to  the 
xula  regia,  or  court  of  exchequer,  which 
'ollowed  the  king  in  all  his  progresses  :  but 
Magna  Charta,  c.  ii,  June  15,  1215,  ordered 
;hat  they  should  be  tried  in  a  court  always  held 
at  one  place.  Westminster  Hall  was  fixed 
ipon,  and  a  chief -justice  of  the  Common  Pleas 
vas  appointed,  with  power  to  hear  and  decide 


COMMON 


[    273 


COMMON 


all  civil  cases  between  subject  and  subject. 

ELIZABETH. 

Formerly  no  barrister  below  the  rank  of  ser- 
jeaiit  could  plead  in  this  court,  although  all 
were  permitted  to  move  or  show  cause  against 
a  rule  for  a  new  trial  ;  but  by  9  &  10  Viet. 

A.D. 
I55*^i  Nov.  17.  Anthony  Browne. 
1559,  Jan.  22.  James  Dyer. 
1582,  May  2.  Edmund  Anderson. 

c.  54  (Aug.  18,  1846),  all  barristers  practising  in 
the  superior  courts  at  Westminster  were  made 
eligible.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief 
justices  of  the  Common  Pleas  given  by  Foss  in 
his  Tabulae  Curiales  :— 

JAMES  I. 
1603,  March.  Edmund  Anderson. 
1605,  Aug.  26.  Francis  Gawdy. 
1606,  June  30.  Edward  Coke. 
1613,  Nov.  36.  Henry  Hobart. 

CHARLES   I. 

EDWARD   I. 

1635,  March  37.  Henry  Hobart. 

A.D. 
1372,  Nov.  Gilbert  de  Preston. 

1626,  Nov.  38.  Thomas  Richardson. 
1631,  Oct.  26.  Robert  Heath. 

1273-4-         Roger  deSeyton. 

1634,  Oct.  14.  John  Finch. 

1277-8.          Thomas  do  \\  .-viand. 
1289,  Sep.  4.  Ralph  .1.-  Sandwich. 
1290,  Feb.  John  de  Metinghum. 
1301,  Sep.  19.  Ralph  de  Hengham. 

1640,  Jan.  37.  Edward  Lyttelton. 
1641,  Jan.  29.  John  Banks. 
1648,  Oct.  13.  Oliver  St.  John. 

EDWARD   II. 

INTERREGNUM. 

I3°7i  July  8.  Ralph  de  Hengham. 

1649,  Feb.  Oliver  St.  John. 

1309,  March  15.  William  dc  Hereford. 

1336,  July  1  8.  Hervey  de  Staunton. 

CHARLES  II. 

1660,  Oct.  22-  Orlando  Bridgeman. 

EDWARD  III. 

1668,  May  23.  John  Vaughan. 

1337,  Jan.  25.  William  de  Herle. 
1339,  Sep.  2  and  3.  John  de  Stonore. 
1331,  March  2.  William  de  Herle  (again). 

1675,  Jan.  23.  Francis  North. 
1683,  Jan.  22.  Francis  Pemberton. 
Sep.  29.  Thomas  Jones. 

1335,  Ju'y  7-  John  de  Stonore  (again). 
1341,  Jan.  8.  Roger  Hillary. 

JAMES  11. 

1343,  May  9-16.  John  dc  Stonore  (again). 

1685,  Feb.  Thomas  Jones. 

1354,  Feb.  20.  Roger  Hillary  (again). 

1686,  April  31.  Henry  Bedingfield. 

1356,  June  37.  Robert  de  Thorpe. 
1371,  April  14.  William  de  Fyncheden. 
1374,  Oct.  10.  Robert  de  Bealknap. 

1687,  April  16.  Robert  Wright. 
April  33.  Edward  Herbert. 

WILLIAM  III.   AND  MARY  —  WILLIAM   III.   ALONE. 

1377,  June.  Robert  de  Bealknap. 
1388,  Jan.  30.  Robert  de  Charleton. 
1396,  Jan.  15.  William  Thiming. 

1689,  May  4.  Henry  Pollexfen. 
1693,  May  3.  George  Treby. 
1701,  June  38.  Thomas  Trevor. 

HENRY   IV. 
1399,  Sep.  30.  William  Thiming. 

ANNE. 
1703,  March  8.  Thomas  Trevor. 
1711,  Dec.  31.  Created  Lord  Trevor. 

HENRY  V. 

GEORGE  I. 

1413,  May  2.  William  Thiming. 
June  36.  Richard  Norton. 

1714,  Aug.  Lord  Trevor. 
Oct.  14.  Peter  King. 

HENRY    VI. 

1735,  June  3.  Robert  Eyre. 

1433,  May  5.  William  Babington. 

GEORGE  II. 

1436,  Feb.  9.  John  Juyn. 
1439,  Jan.  30.  John  Cotesmore. 
Oct.  14.  Richard  Newton. 

1737,  June.  Robert  Eyre. 
1736,  Jan.  Thomas  Reeve. 
jAW  jan.  John  Willes. 

1449,  June  16.  John  Prisot. 

GEORGE  III. 

EDWARD  IV. 
1461.  Robert  Danby. 
1471,  May  39.  Thomas  Bryan. 

1760,  Oct.  John  Willes. 
1763,  Jan.  33.  Charles  Pratt. 
1765,  July.  Created  Lord  Camden. 

RICHARD   III. 
1483,  June  36.  Thomas  Bryan. 

1766,  Aug.  2i.  J.  E.  Wilmot. 
1771,  Jan.  25-  William  de  Grey. 
1780,  June  9.  Alexander  Lord  Loughborough. 

HENRY  VII. 

1793,  Jan.  28.  James  Eyre. 
1799,  July  1  8.  John  Lord  Eldon. 

1485,  Aug.  Thomas  Bryan. 
1500,  Oct.  38.  Thomas  Wood. 

1801,  May  30.  Richard  Pepper,  Lord  Alvanley. 
1804,  May  8.  James  Mansfield. 

1502,  Sep.  30.  Thomas  Frowyk. 
1506.                  Robert  Read. 

1814.  Hil.  Vac.  VicaryGibbs. 
1818,  Nov.  Robert  Dallas. 

HENRY  VIII. 

GEORGE  IV. 

1509,  April.  Robert  Read. 

1830,  Jan.  Robert  Dallas. 

1519,  Jan.  27.  John  Ernie. 

1824,  Jan.  9.  Robert  Lord  Gifford. 

1521,  April  13.  Robert  Brudenell. 

April  15.  W.  D.  Best. 

1531,   Feb.  Robert  Norwich. 

1829,  June  9-  Nicolas  Conyngham  Tinda 

1535,  April.  John  Baldwin. 

1545,  Nov.  6.  Edward  Montagu. 

WILLIAM   IV. 

1830,  June.  N.  C.  Tindal. 

EDWARD  VI. 

1547,  Jan.  Edward  Montagu. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June.  N.  C.  Tindal. 

MARY. 

1846,  July  7.  Thomas  Wilde. 

1^3,  Sep.  5.  Richard  Morgan. 
1554,  Oct.  8.  Robert  Brooke. 

1850,  July  15.  John  Jervis. 
1856,  Nov.  21.  Alexander  J.  E.  Cockburn. 

1558,  Oct.  5.  Anthony  Browne. 

1859,  June  34-  William  Erie. 

COMMON 


[    274    ] 


COMMUNION 


COMMON  PLEAS  (Ireland).— The  constitu- 
tion of  this  court  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
court  of  Common  Pleas  pi  England.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  chief  justices  of  the 
court  of  Common  Pleas  in  Ireland  from  1532: — 

HENRY  VIII. 
A.D. 

1533,  Aug.  22-  Richard  Delahyde. 

1534,  Oct.  17.  Thomas  Luttrell. 

EDWARD  VI. 
1547,  Jan.  Thomas  LuttrelL 
MARY. 

1553,  July.  Thomas  Luttrell. 

1554,  July  7.  John  Bathe. 

ELIZABETH. 

1558,  Nov.  John  Bathe. 

1559,  Sep.  3.  Robert  Dillon. 

Nicholas  Nugent. 
1581,  June  28.  Robert  Dillon. 
J593,  Oct.  10.  William  Weston. 
1594,  March  15.  Robert  Dillon  (again). 
1597,  Nov.  15.  Nicholas  Walshe. 


1603,  March.  Nicholas  Walshe.  " 
1610,  Nov.  28.  Dominick  Sarsfield. 


I62S,  March.  Dominick  Sarsfield. 
1634,  April  24.  Gerard  Lowther. 

INTERREGNUM. 
1649,  Jan.  Gerard  Lowther. 
1600,  Jan.  19.  James  Douelan. 

CHARLES   II. 
1660,  May.  James  Donelan. 
1665,  Jan.  27.  Edward  Smith. 
1669,  March  17.  Robert  Booth. 
1679,  May  3-  J°hn  Keating. 

JAMES   II. 
1685,  Feb.  John  Keating. 

WILLIAM   AND   MARY. 

1689,  Feb.  John  Keating. 

1690,  Jan.  22.  Richard  Pyue. 
1695,  June  7.  John  Hely. 

1701,  May  16.  Richard  Cox. 

ANNE. 

1702,  March.  Richard  Cox. 

1703,  Feb.  I.  Robert  Doyne. 

GEORGE  I. 

1714,  Aug.  Robert  Doyne. 
1714,  Oct.  14.  John  Forster. 
1720,  Dec.  5.  Richard  Levinge. 
1724,  Nov.  9.  Thomas  Wyndham. 

1726,  Feb.  10.  William  Whitshed. 

GEORGE  II. 

1737,  June.  William  Whitshed. 

1727,  Nov.  24.  James  Reynolds. 
1740,  May  30.  Henry  Singleton. 
1753,  Feb.  19.  William  Yorke. 

GEORGE  III. 

1760,  Oct.  William  Yorke. 

1761,  May  21.  Richard  Aston. 
1765,  March  19.  Richard  Clayton. 
1770,  July  4.  Marcus  Patterson. 

1787,  May  10.  Hugh  Carleton  (afterwards  Lord 

Carleton). 
1800,  Dec.  20.    John   Toler    (afterwards    Lord 

Norbury). 


GEORGE 
o,  Jan.  John  Toler. 


v. 


1837,  June  18.  Lord  Plunkett. 


WILLIAM   IV. 
A.D. 

1830,  June.  Lord  Plunkett. 
1830,  Dec.  23.  John  Doherty. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June.  John  Doherty. 
1850,  Oct  22-  James  Henry  Monahan. 

COMMON  PRAYER.— The  first  proposition 
to  revise  and  correct  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  services  was  made  in  1 542,  when  it  was 
ordered  that  the  names  and  titles  of  the  popes 
and  of  Thomas  Becket  should  be  rigorously 
expunged.  The  Litany  was  published  in  its 
present  form  June  n,  1544,  and  commanded 
to  be  used  in  churches  by  Henry  VIII.;  and 
the  Order  of  Communion  was  substituted 
for  the  Mass,  April  i,  1548.  The  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  was  completed  and  presented 
to  the  king  the  same  year,  and  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, 2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  i.  (Jan.  15,  1549), 
ordered  that  all  public  service  should  be  cele- 
brated according  to  the  ritual  there  prescribed. 
(See  THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES.) 

A.D. 

1549,  June  9  (Whitsunday).  The  first  prayer-book  is  used. 

1550,  Feb.  The  Knuli>h  ordinal  is  published. 

1551,  The  Prayer-Hook  is  revised. 

1552,  Nov.  The  second  Prayer-Book  is  published  and  used. 

1558,  Dec.  Two  editions  of  the  Litany  are  published. 

1559,  June  24.  Queen  Elizabeth's   revised  Prayer-Book  is 

published,  and  ordered  to  be  used. 

1560,  Haddon's  Latin  translation  of  the  Prayer-Book. 
1571.  A  correct  Latin  version  of  the  Prayer-Book  is  pub- 
lished. 

1578.  The  Puritan  Prayer-Book  is  published. 

1604.  James  the  First's  I'raver-Book  is  published. 

1637.  Charles  the  First's  Piayer-Book  for  Scotland  is  pub- 
lished. 

1643.  The  use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  prohibited 
by  the  Long  Parliament. 

1661.  The  Prayer- Hook  is  revised. 

1662.  Charles  the  Second's  Prayer-Book  is  published. 
1689.  An  attempt  is  made  to  revise  the  Prayer-Book. 
1859,  Jan.  17.  Warrant  under  the  royal  sign  manual  for 

discontinuing  the  special  services  for  Jan.  30,  May 
29,  and  Nov.  5,  and  for  omitting  them  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  is  signed  at  St.  James's.  Jan. 
18.  The  warrant  is  published  in  the  London  Gazette. 

COMMONS.— (See  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS.) 
COMMONWEALTH.— (See  INTERREGNUM.) 
COMMUNION  SERVICE. —  The  early 
Church  was  exceedingly  strict  in  the  admi- 
nistration of  the  Eucharist,  and  during  the 
3rd  century  denied  the  privilege  of  communi- 
cation to  a  converted  sinner  who  twice  relapsed 
into  error.  Communion  in  two  kinds  was 
enjoined  by  Leo  I.  (the  Great)  in  445,  in  order 
to  discover  Manichgeans,  who  objected  to  take 
wine.  The  Council  of  Agda  in  506  enacted 
that  clergy  not  communicating  at  Easter, 
Whitsuntide,  and  Christmas,  should  no  longer 
be  regarded  as  Catholics;  and  the  Lateran 
(twelfth  general)  council,  held  Nov.  n,  1215, 
ordered  all  the  faithful  of  both  sexes  to  confess 
and  communicate  at  Easter.  Communion  in 
one  kind  only  was  instituted  by  Pope  Urban  II. 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Crusades  in 
1096,  but  it  was  not  rendered  imperative 
till  1414,  when  the  Council  of  Constance  for- 
bade the  clergy  to  administer  wine  to  lay 
communicants,  under  pain  of  excommuni- 
cation. The  Romish  Church  has  ever  since 
administered  the  communion  in  one  kind. 
The  communion  service  of  the  Church  of 
England  was  adopted  in  1552. 


COMMUNISTS 


[    275    ] 


COMPROMISE 


COMMUNISTS.— The  followers  of  Robert 
Owen,  Saint  Simon,  Fourier,  and  Proudhon  are 
distinguished  from  other  Socialists,  of  which 
they  form  a  branch,  by  this  name.  Com- 
munism was  explained  and  advocated  by 
Robert  Owen  in  "A  New  View  of  Society,  or 
Essays  on  the  Principle  of  the  Formation  of 
the  Human  Character,  and  the  Application  of 
the  Principle  to  Practice,"  published  in  1813. 
He  attempted  to  form  a  communist  society  in 
1825  but  this  failed  ;  and  "  Harmony  Hall," 
established  in  Hampshire  in  1843,  did  not 
prove  more  successful.  Similar  attempts  made 
on  the  continent  have  also  failed.  Owen  died 
Nov.  17,  1858. 

COMO  (Italy),  the  Comum  Novum  of  the 
Romans,  who  planted  a  colony  here  B.C.  188.  It 
was  erected  into  a  bishopric  by  St.  Felix,  in 
379.  Inn  27  it  was  besieged  and  burned  by 
the  Milanese,  who  did  not  finally  annex  it  to 
their  territories  till  1335.  The  cathedral  was 
commenced  in  1396. 

COMORN,  or  KOMORN  (Hungary),  a  town 
of  great  antiquity,  was  taken  and  burned  by 
Soliman  I.  in  1543.  It  was  soon  rebuilt ;  but 
the  Turks  returned  and  captured  it  in  1594. 
The  Imperialists  obtained  possession  in  1597, 
and  in  1598  it  again  fell  under  Turkish  power. 
Comorn  was  erected  into  a  royal  town  in  1751. 
The  fortress  was  rebuilt  in  1805.  During  the 
Hungarian  revolution,  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  in  a  battle  near  this  place,  July  n, 
1849.  The  town  was  given  up  to  the  Austrians 
Oct.  i,  1849. 

COMPANIES.— Trade  guilds  are  mentioned 
in  Judica  Civitatis  Londonice,  compiled  by 
King  Athelstan,  and  other  Anglo-Saxon  laws  ; 
and  they  therefore  existed  as  early  as  in  939. 
The  company  of  Steelyard  Merchants  settled 
in  England  before  967,  and  the  original  foun- 
dation of  the  Saddlers'  Company  is  referred 
to  the  same  period.  Henry  I.  (iioo— -1135), 
granted  a  charter  to  'the  weavers,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  established  the  first  Anglo- 
Norman  guild.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
trade  guilds  were  common  institutions,  and 
their  formation  was  encouraged  by  that  king 
and  his  successors  John  and  Henry  III. 

THE  CHIEF  COMPANIES  STYLED  HONOURABLE  : — 


Incorporated 

Incorporated 

A.D. 

A.D. 

1337.  Goldsmiths. 

1447.  Haberdashers. 

1337.  Skinners. 

1403.  Ironmongers. 

1345.  Grocers. 
1305.  Vintners. 

1466.  Merchant  Tailors. 
1483.  Clothworkers. 

1394.  Mercers. 

1509.  Fishmongers  (Stock). 

1430.  Drapers. 
1433.  Fishmongers  (Salt). 

1536.  Fishmongers  united. 
1558.  Salters. 

Incorporated 

Incorporated 

A.D. 

A.D. 

1110-1135.  Reign  of  Henry  I. 

Weavers. 

1463.  Tallow  Chandlers. 
1471.  Dyers. 

1115.  Bakers. 

1473.  Cooks. 

123.3.  Parish  Clerks. 

1473.  Pewterers. 

1273.  Saddlers. 

1477.  Carpenters. 

1383.  Leather  Sellers. 

1484.  Wax  Chandlers. 

1410.  Cordwainers. 

1487.  Fletchers. 

1411.  Masons. 

1501.  Coopers. 

1417.  Cutlers. 

1501.  Plasterers. 

1433.  Armourers      and 
Braziers. 

1504.  Poulterers. 
1508.  Tilers  and  Bricklayers. 

1438.  Brewers. 

1514.  Inn-holders. 

1449.  Girdlers. 

1540.  Barbers  and  Surgeons 

1463.  Barbers. 

united. 

556.  Watermen. 

7.  Stationers. 

13.  Embroiderers. 

19.  Joiners. 
578.  Blacksmiths. 

3.  Paper  Stainers. 

4.  Felt  Makers. 
604.  Musicians. 

604.  Turners. 

605.  Butchers. 
605.  Curriers. 
605.  Fruiterers. 
605.  Shipwrights. 
605.  Woodmongers. 

613.  Plumbers. 

614.  Founders. 
Gardeners. 

616.  Scriveners. 

617.  Apothecaries  separated 

from  Grocers. 
630.  Bowyers. 
633.  Starch  Makers. 
633.  Gold  and  Silver  Wire 

Drawers. 
637.  Upholders. 
639.  Card  Makers. 

629.  Spectacle  Makers. 

630.  Silk  Throwsters. 

631.  Silkmen. 


1633.  Clock  Makers. 
1636.  Comb  Makers. 

1636.  Pin  Makers. 

1637.  Glaziers. 

1638.  Distillers. 
1638.  Gun  Makers. 
1638.  Horners. 

1638.  Soap  Makers. 

1639.  Glovers. 

1656.  Needle  Makers. 
1663.  Framework  Knitters. 

1663.  Tobacco-pipe  Makers. 

1664.  Glass  Sellers. 
1664.  Hatband  Makers. 
1668.  Carmen. 

1687.  Fishermen. 

1670.  Farriers. 

1670.  Patten  Makers. 

1670.  Tin-plate  Workers. 

1670.  Wheelwrights. 

1677.  Coach    and    Harness 

Makers. 

1709.  Fan  Makers. 
1713.  Lorimers. 
1745.  Barbers  and  Surgeons 
separated. 

Basket  Makers. 

Paviors. 

Woolmen. 


See  AFRICAN  COMPANY,  FINANCIAL  COMPANIES, 
FREE  COMPANIES,  GUILDS,  JOINT-STOCK   COM- 
ANIES  ACTS,  &C.  &C.) 

COMPASS.— (-See  MARINER'S  COMPASS.) 

COMPIEGNE  (France).— This  town,  the 
ancient  Compendium,  built  by  the  Gauls,  was 
enlarged  by  Charles  II.  (the  Bald)  in  876,  and 
called  by  him  Carliopolis.  Councils  were  held 
aere  June  22,  756  ;  in  823  ;  Oct.  i,  833  ;  in  861 ; 
.n  871  ;  May  i  and  Dec.  8,  877  ;  in  1085  ;  Nov.  4, 
[198;  Aug.  5,  1235;  May  19,  1270;  April  9, 
1278 ;  Jan.  4,  1303 ;  and  Sep.  8,  1329.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Burgundians  by  Charles  VI. 
in  1415,  and  besieged  by  the  English,  who 
took  Joan  of  Arc  prisoner  here,  May  26,  1430. 
Napoleon  I.  met  the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa 
of  Austria  at  this  town  in  1810.  A  statue  to 
Joan  of  Arc  was  erected  in  1860. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  BIBLE.— This  polyglot 
Bible  was  projected  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  or 
Jimenez  de  Cisneros,  who  spent  52,000  ducats 
in  forwarding  the  work.  It  was  printed  at 
the  Spanish  town  Alcala,  from  the  Latin  name 
of  which,  Complutum,  it  derives  its  name. 
The  idea  first  occurred  to  Cardinal  Ximenes  in 
1502,  when  the  work  was  commenced.  The 
New  Testament  was  completed  Jan.  10,  1514, 
and  the  Old  Testament  in  July,  1517,  when 
Ximenes,  who  died  Nov.  8,  1517,  was  on  his 
death-bed.  It  was  not  published  till  1520. 

COMPLUTUM.— (See  ALCALA.) 
COMPOSTELLA.— (See  JAMES,  ST.  (Order), 
and  SANTIAGO.) 

COMPREHENSION  SCHEME.— This  mea- 
sure for  the  enlargement  of  the  basis  of 
the  Church  of  England,  by  making  certain 
alterations  in  the  liturgy,  in  order  to  admit 
Dissenters,  passed  the  House  of  Lords  in  1689. 
The  Commons  presented  an  address  to  the 
king,  requesting  him  to  summon  a  convoca- 
tion, and  this  having  been  done,  discussions 
arose,  which  ended  in  the  abandonment  of  the 
plan.  An  attempt  to  pass  a  similar  scheme  in 
Scotland  in  1678  also  failed. 

COMPROMISE  (The).— A  document  promul- 
gated by  a  league  of  Flemish  nobles  at  a 

T   2 


CONCEPCION 


[    276    ] 


CONDE 


meeting  held  at  Breda  in  Jan.,  1566,  de- 
nouncing the  tyranny  of  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, received  this  name.  In  the  course  of 
two  months  it  received  2,000  signatures.  It 
was  presented  to  the  regent,  Margaret,  sister 
of  Philip  II.  (See  GUEUX.) 

CONCEPCION  (South  America),  the  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  Chili,  was 
built  in  1763.  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake Feb.  20,  1835. 

CONCEPTION  BAY  (Newfoundland),  was 
first  settled  by  about  40  colonists  in  1640. 

CONCEPTUALISTS.—  (See  NOMINALISTS.) 

CONCERT.— This  entertainment  originated 
in  Italy,  and  the  earliest  on  record  is  that  of 
the  Filarmonici,  which  was  established  at 
Vicenza  as  early  as  1565.  The  Academy  of 
Ancient  Music,  founded  in  1710,  introduced 
concerts  into  England.  The  Concerts  Spiri- 
tuels  were  established  at  Paris  in  1725,  and  the 
Gewandhaus  Concerts  at  Leipsic  in  1742. 

A.D. 

1738.  Royal  Society  of  Musicians. 
1741.  Madrigal  Society. 

1761.  Noblemen  and  Gentlemen's  Catch  Club. 
1763.  Bach's  Concerts. 
1770.  Concert  of  Ancient  Music. 
1785.  Ceciliun  Society. 
1787.  Glee  Club. 

1791.  Choral  Fund — Salomon's  Concerts. 
1793.  Harrison  and  Kiiyvett's  Concert. 
1813.  Philharmonic  Social  v. 
1823.  Koyal  Academy  of  Music— British  and  Foreign  Musi- 
cians' .Society. 
1833.  Britisli  ('., 
1825.  Melodists-  Club. 
1833.  Sucred  Harmonic  Society. 

1833.  Vocal  Soei.-ty. 

1834.  Society  Of  M'ritish  Huitd 
1837.  Purccil  Club. 

1839.  Uoyal  Society  of  Female  Musicians. 

1840.  Western  Hadrlgal  Society. 

1843.  Hound,  Catch,  and  Canon  Club. 

1844.  Promenade  Concerts. 
J«t.>   Musical  I'nion. 

1848.  London  Sacred  Harmonic. 

1849.  Bach  Society. 

1851.  English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Union— Reunion  des  Arts. 
1853.  New  Philharmonic  Society  -Musical  Insiituti — Musi- 
cal Winter  Evenings— 'Tonic  S,>l-fa  Association. 
1856,  May  22.   Henry   Leslie's  Choir— Vocal   Association- 


London  1'olvhvmnia  Choir. 
1858,  April  30.  Musical  Soci 
tral  Association. 


Society  of  London— English  Orel 


1859.  Monday  Popular  Concerts — Amateur  Musical  Society. 

1860.  National  Choral  Society. 

1863.  Pianoforte  Quartet  Association. 
1863.  Polyhymnian  Choir. 

CONC  HO  LOGY.— Pliny  divided  shell- 
covered  animals  into  soft,  crustacean,  and  tes- 
taceous :  but  no  correct  system  for  their 
classification  was  known  till  Dr.  John  Daniel 
Major,  of  Kiel,  published  his  tables  of  Ostra- 
cology  in  1674.  Martin  Lister  announced 
another  arrangement  in  1678,  and  published 
his  great  work  in  1685  ;  and  Philip  Bonanni 
published  his  system  in  1684.  George  "E. 
Ruruphius  in  1701,  and  Nicholas  Languis  in 
1722,  contributed  to  bring  the  science  to  its 
present  state  of  accuracy. 

CONCLAVE.— The  assembly  of  the  cardi- 
nals, by  which,  when  a  vacancy  occurs  in  the 
papal  see,  a  new  pope  is  elected,  was  insti- 
tuted by  Alexander  III.  in  1179,  and  regulated 
by  a  bull  published  by  Gregory  X.  at  the  i4th 
general  council  held  at  Lyons,  May  7 — July  17, 
1274.  It  received  its  name  from  a  gloomy 
apartment  in  the  Vatican,  called  the  Conclave, 


in  which  the  cardinals  were  shut  up  to 
nominate  the  new  pope,  within  nine  days  of 
the  death  of  the  former  occupant  of  the  see. 
If  the  election  was  not  made  in  three  days 
the  cardinals  were  only  allowed  a  single  dish 
at  dinner  and  at  supper,  and  after  the  eighth 
day  received  only  a  small  allowance  of  bread, 
water,  and  wine.  John  XXI.  or  XXII.  sus- 
pended the  operations  of  the  Conclave,  and 
after  the  death  of  Nicholas  IV.  an  interval  of 
two  years  and  three  months  elapsed  before  a 
successor  was  elected  in  the  person  of  Peter 
Morone,  who  took  the  title  of  Ccelestine  V., 
July  5,  1294.  The  Conclave  was,  however,  re- 
established. Gregory  XV.  in  1621,  and  Urban 
VIII.  in  1625,  issued  bulls  for  its  regulation. 

CONCORD  (Battle).— The  first  struggle 
between  the  revolted  Americans  and  the  En- 
glish troops  occurred  near  this  town,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, April  19,  1775.  The  latter,  after 
having  destroyed  three  guns  and  all  the 
military  stores,  withdrew  to  Lexington.  This 
is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Lexington. 

CONCORDANCE.— The  first  concordance  or 
verbal  index  to  the  Bible,  was  drawn  up  by 
Anthony  of  Padua,  who  nourished  from  1195  to 
1231.  It  was  entitled  Con<-'i,'<i<i ,,1'm  Morales, 
and  was  the  basis  of  the  more  important  con- 
cordance of  Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro, 
who  died  in  1262.  Mordecai  Nathan's  Ik-hivw 
Concordance  appeared  at  Venice  in  1523.  Ca- 
lasio  published  an  improved  edition  at  Rome 
in  1620.  Buxtorfs  Concordance  was  pub- 
lished in  1632,  and  the  abridgment  by  Pavius 
in  1677.  Thomas  Gybson's  "Concordance  to 
!ish  New  Testament "  appeared  before 
the  year  1540,  and  Marbeck's,  who  was  organist 
to  the  royal  chapel  at  Windsor,  Concordance  to 
the  whole  Bible  in  1550.  Several  books  of  the 
kind  followed.  The  first  edition  of  Cruden's 
work  appeared  in  1737.  Ayscough  published  a 
concordance  to  Shakespeare  in  1790;  Twiss 
another  in  1805  ;  and  Mrs.  Cowden  Clark  the 
"Complete  Concordance  to  Shakespeare"  in 
1847.  A  concordance  to  Milton  appeared  at 
Madras  in  1856  and  1857. 

CONCORDAT.— This  term  is  generally  ap- 
plied to  a  treaty  or  agreement  between  the 
Pope  and  any  foreign  sovereign  for  the  regula- 
tion, in  the  dominions  of  the  latter,  of  matters 
relating  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
The  following  are  the  most  celebrated  con- 
cordats mentioned  in  history  : — 

.D. 

133,  Sep.  8.  Between  Callixtus  II.  and  the  Emperor  Henry 
V.,  concluded  at  Worms. 

448,  Feb.  17.  Between  Nicholas  V.  and  the  Emperor 
Frederick  III.,  concluded  at  Vienna.  It  was  first 
settled  at  Aschaffenl mrg.  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  Concordat  of  Aschaffenbnrg. 

1516,  Aug.  18.  Between  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  of  France. 
1529.  Between  Clement  VII.  and  the  Emperor  Cliitrie.,  V.. 

concluded  at  Barcelona. 
1753.  Between  Benedict  XIV.  and  Ferdinand  VI.  of  Spain. 

8o.r,  July  Jv  Between  Pins  VII.  and  Napoleon  I. 

813,  Jan.  25.  Between  Pius  VII.  and  Napoleon  I.,  con- 
cluded at  Fontainebleau. 

817,  Nov.  22.  Between  Pius  VII.  and  Louis  XVIII.,  con- 
cluded at  Paris. 

855,  Aug.  15.  Between  Pius  IX.  and  Francis  Joseph  I.  of 
Austria,  concluded  at  Vienna. 

CONDE,  or  CONDE-SUR-ESCAUT  (France). 
— This  city  of  Hainault,  anciently  possessed  by 
the  Counts  of  Flanders,  was  taken  in  1478  by 


CONDOTTIERI 


[     277     1 


CONFEDERATION 


Louis  XI.  of  France,  and  was  seized  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  1580.  In  1649  it  surren- 
dered to  the  French,  and  in  1655  was  taken  by 
Tureiine.  The  Prince  of  Condti  captured  it 
for  the  Spaniards  in  1656,  and  in  1676  it  was  re- 
taken by  Louis  XIV.,  to  whom  it  was  confirmed 
by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  Sep.  17,  1678.  In 
1794  it  was  taken  by  the  Austrians,  who  re- 
tained it  for  some  months.  During  the  French 
Revolution  its  name  was  changed  to  Nord- 
Libre.  (See  BOURBONS,  COLLATERAL  BRANCHES.  ) 

CONDt)TTIERL— Though  the  word  signifies 
chiefs  or  leaders,  it  was  applied  to  the  mer- 
cenaries, or  soldiers  of  fortune,  who,  during 
the  Italian  wars  in  the  i3th  and  i4th  cen- 
turies, took  service  under  any  prince  or 
government  that  chose  to  engage  them. 
They  consisted  exclusively  of  heavy-armed 
cavalry,  and  for  a  long  period  the  wars  of 
Italy  were  left  entirely  to  them.  Prescott 
remarks  (Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  pt.  ii.  ch.  i.), 
"  The  common  interests  of  the  condottieri 
being  paramount  to  every  obligation  towards 
the  state  which  they  served,  they  easily  came 
to  an  understanding  with  one  another  to  spare 
their  troops  as  much  as  possible  ;  until  at 
length  battles  were  fought  with  little  more 
personal  hazard  than  would  be  incurred  in  an 
ordinary  tourney."  Machiavelli  refers  to  two 
battles  at  Anghiari  and  Castracaro,  of  which 
the  shortest  in  duration  lasted  four  hours,  at 
the  former  of  which  not  a  single  soldier  was 
killed,  and  at  the  latter  only  one,  who  was 
crushed-beneath  the  weight  of  his  own  armour. 
(See  FREE  COMPANIES.) 

CONDUITS,  or  cisterns,  of  stone  or  lead, 
were  formerly  used  for  the  conveyance  of 
water.  The  great  conduit  in  West  Cheap  was 
commenced  in  1285,  the  Little  Conduit  in  1442, 
the  conduit  at  Holborn  Cross  in  1498.  This 
was  repaired  in  1577  by  Mr.  William  Lamb,  and 
named  after  him.  Lamb's  conduit  was  taken 
down  in  1746.  The  conduit  at  Bishopsgate 
was  made  aboiit  1513,  at  London  Wall  about 
1528,  at  Aldgate  about  1535,  and  at  Lothbury 
in  1546.  On  festive  occasions  the  conduits 
were  often  made  to  flow  with  wine. 

CONFEDERATE  STATES  (North  America). 
— For  several  years  a  large  section  of  the 
United  States  had  shown  a  desire  to  separate 
from  the  Union,  and  the  election  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  to  the  presidency,  Nov.  6,  1860,  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  Mr.  Buchanan,  the  retiring 
president,  in  his  message  to  Congress  Dec.  4, 
deprecated  the  threatened  secession,  and  re- 
commended changes  in  the  constitution  which 
he  thought  likely  to  prevent  a  rupture.  His 
advice  was  not  followed,  and  civil  war  ensued. 
The  following  states  joined  the  new  con- 
federacy : — 


1860,  Dec.  20.  South  Carolina. 


A.D. 

1861,  Feb.  I.  Texas. 


1861,  Jan.  9.  Mississippi.  April  17.  Virgiti 

Jan.  10.  Florida.  May  6.  Arkansas. 

Jan.  ii.  Alabama.  Mayai.NorthCarolina. 

Jan.  19.  Georgia.  June  8.  Tennessee. 

Jan.  26.  Louisiana. 

1861,  Feb.  4.  A  congress  of  delegates  from  the  seceded 
states  of  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Georgia,  and  Louisiana  meets  at  Montgo- 
mery, Alabama,  to  organize  a  Southern  Confede- 
racy.— Feb.  8.  The  Montgomery  congress  adopts  a 
provisional  constitution. 


1861,  Feb.  9.  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  is  elected 
provisional  President,  and  Alexander  II.  Stephens, 
of  Georgia,  provisional  Vice-President.— Feb.  18. 
Inauguration  of  President  Davis.  —  March  2. 
Deputies  from  Texas  are  admitted  to  the  Mont- 
gomery congress.  —  March  5.  Three  commis- 
sioners from  the  seceded  states  arrive  in  Wash- 
ington to  settle  the  questions  in  dispute  with 
the  Federal  Government.  —  March  7-  Congress 
authorizes  the  raising  of  an  army  of  100,000  men. 
—April  8.  Mr.  Seward,  Assistant  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  United  States,  declines  to  hold  official  inter- 
course with  them.— April  12.  The  civil  war  com- 
mences at  Charleston  (q.v.).  (For  the  Military  His- 
tory of  the  War,  see  UNITED  STATES.)— April  17 
President  Davis  publishes  a  proclamation  autho- 
rizing the  issue  of  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal. — 
April  28.  The  Southern  congress  passes  an  Act  to 
allow  the  President  to  borrow  15,000,000  dols.  on 
the  credit  of  the  Confederate  States. — April  29- 
President  Davis  announces  the  ratification  of  a 
permanent  constitution. — May  21.  Congress  meets 
for  the  last  time  at  Montgomery. — July  20.  Congress 
assembles  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  which  becomes 
the  capital  of  the  Confederacy.— Oct.  18.  The  Con- 
federates issue  their  first  postage-stamp. — Sep.  2. 
Congress  closes  its  third  session. — Nov.-  18.  Com- 
mencement of  the  fourth  session. — Nov.  30.  Mr. 
Davis  is  elected  President  for  six  years. 
1863,  Feb.  17.  Closing  of  the  provisional  congress.— Feb. 
22.  The  permanent  government  of  the  Confede- 
racy is  organized. — April  16.  A  conscript  act  is 
passed,  whereby  all  men  between  the  ages  of 
1 8  and  35  years  are  rendered  liable  to  serve  in 
the  Confederate  armies.  —  April  21.  The  first 
congress  of  the  Confederacy  closes  its  first  ses- 
sion.— Aug.  12 — Oct.  13.  The  second  session  of 
congress. 

1863,  Jan.  12.  Commencement  of  the  third  session  of  con- 

gress.— March  27.  The  Confederates  solemnize  a 
fast. — May.  The  third  session  terminates.— July 
18.  President  Davis  issues  a  conscription  pro- 
clamation requiring  all  men  between  the  ages 
of  18  and  45  years  to  bear  arms. — Aug.  4.  Mr. 
Mason,  the  Confederate  commissioner  to  Great 
Britain,  is  recalled  by  President  Davis.— Dec.  7. 
Commencement  of  the  fourth  session  of  the  first 
congress. 

1864,  Feb.  The  second  conscription  bill  is  passed.— Feb.  18. 

Dissolution  of  the  first  congress.— Feb.  19.  Assem- 
bly of  the  second  congress. — March  ii.  Genera 
orders  are  issued  directing  the  enrolment  of  free 
negroes  to  serve  in  the  army. — June  15.  The  second 
congress  closes  its  first  session. — Nov.  7.  Commence- 
ment of  the  second  session. 

1865,  Feb.  3.  Vice-President  Stephens,  Judge   Campbell, 

and  Mr.  Senator  Hunter,  envoys  from  the  Confede- 
rate States,  have  an  interview  with  President  Lin- 
coln and  Mr.  Seward  on  board  the  U.S.  steamer 
River  Queen,  in  Hampton  Roads,  Virginia,  which 
produces  no  result. — Feb.  23.  A  bill  for  enlisting 
negro  slaves  as  soldiers  passes  the  congress.— 
March  13.  President  Davis  sends  his  last  message 
to  the  congress. — April  3.  Richmond  is  occupied  by 
the  Federal  forces.  President  Davis,  with  his  cabi- 
net, removing  to  Danville,  Virginia. — May  lo.  Pre- 
sident Davis,  with  his  family  and  some  members 
of  his  government,  are  captured  by  Lieut.-Col. 
Pritchard  at  Irwinsville,  Georgia. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE.— On 
the  overthrow  of  the  old  German  empire, 
Napoleon  I.  induced  several  rulers  of  German 
states  to  separate  themselves  from  the  Ger- 
manic body  and  to  enter  into  a  confederation 
of  which  he  was  named  protector.  The  act  of 
this  confederation,  signed  at  Paris  July  12, 
"  6,  was  ratified  at  Munich  July  25.  It  con- 
sisted of  40  articles.  The  contracting  parties 
were  Nat>oleon  I.,  the  Kings  of  Bavaria 
and  Wurtemberg,  the  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon, 
the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Duke  of  Berg,  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Princes  of 
Nassau-Weilburg  and  Nassau-Usingen,  of  Ho- 


CONFESSIONAL 


t     278    1 


CONGREYE 


henzollern-Hechingen  and  Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen,  Salm-Salm,  and  Salm-Kyrburg,  Isen- 
burg-Birchstein  and  Lichtenstein,  the  Duke  of 
Aremburg,  and  the  Count  of  Leyen.  In 
accordance  with  the  y?d  article  of  the  act  of 
the  confederation,  these  princes  declared  their 
entire  separation  from  the  German  empire,  at 
the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  Aug.  i,  1806.  By  the^ 
38th  article  the  contingents  fixed  for  the  several* 
states  were  as  follows  : — 

Mm. 

Franco 300,000 

Bavaria    30,000 

Wttrtemberg I2,ooo 


Berg 5,000 

Darmstadt  4,000 

Nassau,  Hohenzollern,  and  others 4\°°o 

Total 258,000 

The  Grand-duke  of  Wurzburg  joined  the  con- 
federation Sep.  30,  1806;  the  King  of  Saxony 
Dec.  n,  1806;  the  King  of  Westphalia  and 
other  German  princes  joined  in  the  next 
and  following  years.  The  Emperor  of  Russia 
recognized  it  by  the  isth  article  of  the  treaty 
signed  at  Tilsit,  July  7,  1807  ;  and  the  King  of 
Prussia  by  the  4th  article  of  the  treaty  signed 
at  the  same  place  July  9,  1807.  Russia  and 
Prussia  issued  a  proclamation  for  its  dissolu- 
tion Feb.  23,  1813,  and  in  1815  it  was  replaced 
by  the  Germanic  Confederation  (q.  <•.). 

CONFESSIONAL.—  (See  AURICULAR  CONFES- 
SION.) 

CONFESSIO  TETRAPOLITANA,  or  the  Con- 
fession of  the  Four  Towns,  is  the  term  applied 
to  the  confession  presented  to  the  diet  at 
Augsburg  in  1530,  by  Constance,  Liudau, 
Memmingen,  and  Strasburg.  It  only  differed 
from  that  of  Augsburg  (7.  v.)  in  a  word  or  two 
respecting  the  Lord's  Supper. 

CONFESSOR.— (See  CLEKK  OF  THE  CLOSET.) 

CONFIRMATION,  or  imposition  of  hands, 
is  a  ceremony  that  dates  from  the  apostolic 
age  (Acts  viii.  17,  and  xix.  5  &  6).  In  the 
primitive  Church  "this  was  always,"  says 
Bingham  (Ecc.  Antiq.  xii.  ch.  i.  sec.  i.),  "ad- 
ministered together  with  baptism,  if  the 
bishop,  who  was  the  ordinary  minister  of  it, 
were  present  at  the  action.  But  if  he  were 
absent,  as  it  usually  happened  to  be  in  churches 
at  a  distance  from  the  mother  church,  or  when 
persons  were  baptized  in  haste  upon  a  sick 
bed,  then  confirmation  was  deferred  till  the 
bishop  could  have  a  convenient  opportunity  to 
visit  them."  It  is  one  of  the  seven  sacraments 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

CONFLANS  (Treaty)  was  concluded  at  this 
castle,  near  Paris,  between  Louis  XI.  and  the 
Count  of  Chai-olois,  afterwards  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  on  account  of  his  father, 
Philip  the  Good,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  League  of 
the  "Public  Good,"  Oct.  5,  1465.  Normandy 
was  ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Berri.  It  was  con- 
firmed by  the  treaty  of  Peronne,  Oct.  14,  1468. 
Louis  XI.  having  induced  the  estates  assembled 
at  Tours,  in  the  spring  of  1470,  to  release  him 
from  the  engagements  of  these  treaties,  they 
were  again  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Crotoy, 
Oct.  3,  1472. 

CONGE  D'ELIRE,  or  leave  to  elect,  the 
king's  writ  or  license  to  a  dean  and  chapter  to 


elect  a  bishop,  when  a  vacancy  had  occurred 
in  a  see,  was  first  established  by  King  John, 
and  was  confirmed  by  Magna  Charta  in  1215. 
By  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20  (1533),  the  ancient  right 
of  nomination  was  restored  to  the  crown. 

CONGO  (Africa).— The  name  is  applied  to  an 
extensive  tract  of  country  lying  between  the 
rivers  Congo  or  Zaire  and  Dando,  portions  of 
which  were  visited  by  Diego  Cam  in  1484  and 
1489,  by  Ruy  de  Souza  in  1490,  by  Battel  in 
1607,  by  Gattina  and  Piacenza  in  1666,  by  Sor- 
rento in  1682,  by  Daffer  in  1686,  by  Barbot  in 
1688,  and  many  enterprising  missionaries  and 
travellers.  It  is  the  seat  of  several  European 
settlements  described  under  their  designations. 

CONGO,  or  ZAIRE  RIVER  (Africa).— This 
river,  discovered  by  Diego  Cam  in  1484,  was 
supposed  in  1518  to  flow  from  a  lake  in  the 
interior  of  Africa.  In  1816  it  was  partially  ex- 
plored by  Capt.  Tuckey,  but  little  is  known 
respecting  its  source  and  actual  course. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS.—  (See  INDEPEN- 
DENTS.) 

CONGREGATIONAL  LIBRARY  (London) 
was  established  in  Blomfield  Street,  Finsbury, 
for  the  use  of  the  Independents,  in  1831. 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  LORD.— During 
the  regency  of  Mary  Stuart  an  attempt  was 
made  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 
in  Scotland  by  the  aid  of  French  mercenaries. 
The  reformers  took  up  arms  in  1557,  and  de- 
manded aid  from  England,  styling  themselves 
"the  Congregation  of  the  Lord."  Their 
leaders  assumed  the  title  of  Lords  of  the  Con- 
gregation. Their  bond  of  union,  sometimes 
called  the  First  Covenant,  was  signed  at 
I'Minburgh  Dec.  3,  1557. 

CONGRESS. — This  term  is  applied  to  an 
assembly  of  sovereigns  or  their  representa- 
tives convened  for  the  settlement  of  interna- 
tional questions.  The  following  are  the  most 
celebrated  congresses  :— 

B.C.  A.D. 

432.  Congress  of  Lacedaa-     1793.  At  Antwerp, 

mon.  1797-99-  Radstadt. 

A.D.  1813.  Prague. 

897.  Congress  at  Pavia.  1814.  ChatUlon. 

1644.  At  Minister.  1814-15.  Vienna. 

1663.  Aix-la-Chapelle.  1818.  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1676-78.  Nimeguen.  1820.  Carlsbad. 

1697.  Ryswick.  1820.  Troppuu. 

1713.  Utrecht.  1831.  Laybach. 

1722.  Cambray.  1822.  Verona. 

1738.  Soissoiis.  1856,  Feb.  25.  Paris. 

1790,  Jan.  7.  Brufsels.  1863.  Frankfort. 

(See  AMERICAN  CONGRESS.) 

CONGRESS  OF  LADIES,  for  the  considera- 
tion of  plans  to  improve  feminine  education 
and  extend  the  circle  of  employments  open  to 
women,  held  a  preliminary  meeting  at  Leipsic, 
Oct.  15,  1865,  and  commenced  its  formal  sit- 
tings Oct.  1 6. 

CONGREVE  ROCKETS,  so  called  from  Sir 
William  Congreve,  Bart.,  born  May  20,  1772, 
who  invented  these  destructive  engines  of  war- 
fare in  1804.  They  were  first  employed  in  the 
attack  upon  Boulogne,  Oct.  8,  1806,  and, 
having  been  found  effective,  were  used  at  the 
siege  of  Copenhagen,  Sep.  2 — 5,  1807,  and  at 
other  places.  They  proved  so  effective  at  the 
battle  of  Leipsic,  in  Oct.,  1813,  that  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  bestowed  the  order  of 
St.  Anne  of  the  second  class  on  their  inventor. 


CONI 


[    279    ] 


CONSCRIPTION 


They  have,  however,  been,  to  a  certain  extent, 
superseded  by  more  recent  inventions. 

CONI,  or  CUNEO  (Italy).— The  French 
besieged  this  strong  town,  but  without  suc- 
cess, in  1691.  The  French  and  Spaniards,  who 
besieged  it  in  1744,  were  ultimately  compelled 
to  withdraw.  It  was  surrendered  to  Buona- 
parte April  29,  1796.  The  French  surprised  it 
Dec.  5,  1798,  and  they  surrendered  it  to  the 
Austrians  Dec.  4,  1799.  It  was  ceded  to  France 
by  the  convention  of  Alessandria  in  1800. 
The  Austrians  concluded  a  treaty  with  Pied- 
mont, July  26,  1821,  by  which  Coni  and  other 
places  were  to  be  occupied  by  their  troops  until 
Sep.  1822.  Coni  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
in  1817. 

CONIC  SECTIONS  were  first  investigated  by 
Aristseus,  the  mathematician,  by  whom  they 
were  made  known  to  Euclid,  who  flourished 
circ.  B.C.  300.  Apollonius  of  Perga  collected 
all  that  previous  mathematicians  had  written 
on  the  subject,  and  wrote  his  work,  in  eight 
books,  B.C.  250.  He  first  named  the  three  sec- 
tions parabola,  ellipse,  and  hyperbola.  Galileo, 
who  died  Jan.  8,  1642,  discovered  the  parabola 
to  be  the  natural  direction  of  a  projectile  flying 
in  unresisting  space ;  and  Kepler,  in  1609,.  iden- 
tified the  ellipse  as  the  curve  of  the  planetary 
orbits. 

CONJEVERAM  (Hindostan).  —  This  town 
was  taken  from  the  French  by  Clive  in  Dec., 
1751.  The  English  having  retired,  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  from  whom  it  was 
again  wrested  April  18,  1759.  The  French 
surprised  it  Jan.  12,  1760.  Hyder  Ali  defeated 
the  East  India  Company's  army  near  this 
place  Sep.  10,  1780. 

CONNAUGHT,  mail  steamer,  left  Galway 
on  her  second  voyage  to  the  United  States  Sep. 
27,  1860,  with  a  crew  consisting  of  124  officers 
and  men  and  467  passengers,  and  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Oct.  7,  when  about  300  miles 
from  Boston.  The  passengers  and  crew  were 
rescued  by  a  Yankee  brig. 

CONNAUGHT  (Ireland).— The  division  of 
Ireland  into  the  provinces  of  Ulster,  Munster, 
Connaught,  and  Leinster,  was  made  by  Pope 
Eugeiiius  II.  in  1152.  Until  1590  Connaught 
constituted  a  kind  of  independent  kingdom  ; 
but  in  that  year  it  was  divided  into  counties 
and  rendered  directly  subject  to  the  English 
crown.  Clare  county  was  separated  from 
Connaught  in  1602. 

CONNECTICUT  (United  States).— Two  set- 
tlements, formed  in  Connecticut,  in  1635  and 
1638,  were  united  by  a  charter  granted  by 
Charles  II.  in  1665.  This  state  adopted  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  Jan.  9,  1788. 

CONNOR  (Ireland).— This  bishopric  was 
founded  about  500,  by  Aengus  Mac  Nisse,  a 
pupil  of  St.  Patrick,  who  erected  a  church,  of 
which  he  became  bishop,  and  where  he  was 
buried  in  514.  On  the  death  of  James  Saurin, 
last  Bishop  of  Dromore,  April  9,  1842,  his  see 
was  united  to  Down  and  Connor  by  the  Church 
Temporalities  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug. 

I4CONRAD  POOR.— (See  PEASANTS'  WAR.) 

CONSARBRUCK  (Battle).— The  Duke  of 
Lorraine  defeated  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Crequi,  at  this  place,  near  Treves,  in  1675. 


CONSCIENCE.— Courts  of  conscience,  or  of 
requests,  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts,  were 
established  in  London  as  early  as  1517,  by  an 
act  of  the  Common  Council.  It  was  dated 
Feb.  i,  and  ordered  that  two  aldermen  and 
four  discreet  commissioners  should  be  ap- 
pointed to  sit  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays 
to  determine  cases  in  which  the  debt  or 
damage  did  not  exceed  40  shillings.  The 
power  of  the  court  was  confirmed  by  2  James 
I.  c.  14  (1604),  which  ordered  all  inhabitants 
of  the  city  of  London,  who  had  debts  owing 
them  not  exceeding  40  shillings,  to  sue  for 
their  recovery  in  the  Court  of  Requests  at 
Guildhall.  This  statute  was  enforced  by  3 
James  I.  c.  15  (1605),  which  enacted  that  all 
creditors  living  in  London  who  sued  for  the 
recovery  of  such  debts  in  any  other  court, 
should  not  only  lose  the  suit,  but  pay  all  the 
expenses.  These  courts,  which  were  afterwards 
introduced  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
were  superseded  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95  (Aug.  28, 
1846),  which  established  the  county  courts  for 
the  recovery  of  small  debts. 

CONSCIENCE  CLAUSE.— This  clause,  based 
upon  the  Endowed  Schools  Act,  23  Viet.  c.  1 1 
(March  31,  1860),  was  introduced  by  the  Com- 
mittee of  Council  on  Education  in  order  to 
relieve  the  children  of  Dissenters  from  the 
obligation  to  learn  the  Church  catechism,  &c., 
Nov.  29,  1863. 

CONSCRIPTION.— This  mode  of  obtaining 
recruits  was  practised  by  the  Romans,  and 
introduced  into  France  in  the  8th  century. 
Gen.  Jourdan  proposed  in  the  Council  of  the 
Five  Hundred  the  law  of  the  conscription, 
which  was  approved  and  adopted  Sep.  5,  1798. 
Every  Frenchman  from  the  age  of  20  to  45  was 
liable  to  serve.  Alison  gives  the  following 
table  of  the  levies  made  in  France  during  the 
revolutionary  war,  compiled  from  Capefigue 
and  the  Moniteur  : — 

A.D.  Men. 

1793  300,000 

1793  1,200,000 

1798  200,000 

1799  200,000 

1801  30,000 

1805,  Jan.  17  6o,coo 

1805,  Sep.  24  80,000 

1806,  Dec.  4 8o,coo 

1807,  April  7  80,000 

1808,  Jan.  21  80,000 

1808,  Sep.  10    160,000 

1809,  April  18 30,000 

1809,  April  18 10,000 

1809,  Oct.  5 36,000 

1810,  Dec.  13  120,000 

1810,  Dec.  13  

1811,  Dec.  20  

181?,  March  13  

1812,  Sep.  I 

1813,  Jan.  ii  

1813,  April  3  

1813,  Aug.  24 

1813,  Oct.  9 

1813,  Nov.  15  


120,000 
100,000 

137,000 


180,000 
30,000 
280,000 
300,000 


The  standard  of  height  was  gradually  lowered 
and  the  age  reduced,  in  order  to  supply  the 
necessary  number  of  conscripts.  In  1833  boys 
little  above  17  years  of  age  were  compelled  to 
serve,  and  the  height  required  was  not  much 
above  five  feet.  A  new  law  was  promulgated 


CONSECRATION 


[     280    ] 


CONSTABLE 


March  21,  1832.  A  similar  system  prevails  in 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  other  continental  states. 

CONSECRATION.— The  first-born  of  man 
and  beast  were  ordered  to  be  consecrated  to 
God  B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xiii.  2,  12,  15).  The 
family  of  Aaron  and  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Num.  i. 
49,  and  iii.  12  &  13)  were  set  apart  B.C.  1490. 
The  Hebrews  consecrated  both  cattle  and 
fields  to  the  Lord  (Lev.  xxvii.  28  &  29) ;  Solo- 
mon dedicated  the  temple  B.C.  1004  (i  Kings 
viii.) ;  and  Nehemiah  (xii.  27,  &c.)  describes 
the  ceremonies  practised  at  the  dedication  of 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  B.C.  445.  On  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  churches  were  conse- 
crated. Bingharn  (bk.  viii.  ch.  ix.  sec.  i)  says, 
— "  Anciently,  when  churches  were  finished 
and  adorned,  it  was  then  usual  to  proceed  to  a 
dedication  or  consecration  of  them."  This 
ceremony,  which  signified  the  devoting,  or 
setting  them  apart  peculiarly  for  divine 
service,  consisted  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies only  of  particular  prayers  and  thanks- 
giving to  God.  In  the  4th  century  churches 
were  consecrated  with  great  solemnity.  The 
church  built  by  Constantino  I.  over  the 
Saviour's  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  was  conse- 
crated in  a  full  synod  of  all  the  bishops  of  the 
East,  in  335.  The  Council  of  Antioch,  Aug., 
341,  was  summoned  on  purpose  to  dedicate  the 
famous  church  in  that  city  commenced  by 
Constantiiie  I.  A  canon  passed  at  a  British 
council  in  450,  ordered  that  "  a  presbyter, 
though  he  builds  a  church,  shall  not  offer  the 
oblation  in  it,  before  he  brings  his  bishop  to 
consecrate  it,  because  this  was  regular  and 
decent ; "  and  the  first  Council  of  Braga,  in 
Portugal,  May  i,  563,  makes  it  deprivation  for 
any  presbyter  to  consecrate  an  altar  or  a 
church,  declaring  that  the  olden  canons  for- 
bade it  also.  The  distinct  consecration  of 
altars  is  first  mentioned  at  the  Council  of 
Agda,  Sep.  n,  506.  The  water  in  baptism  was 
consecrated  in  the  early  Church.  (See  NAG'S 
HEAD  CONSECRATION.) 

CONSEGUINANA  (Nicaragua).  —  This  vol- 
cano was  in  a  state  of  eruption  in  1835. 

CONSERVATIVE  CLUB  (London).  —  This 
club  was  founded  in  1840.  The  house,  situated 
on  the  west  side  of  St.  James's  Street,  was 
built  between  the  years  1843-45,  an(i  was 
opened  Feb.  19,  1845. 

CONSERVATIVES.  —  This  term  was  first 
applied  to  a  political  party  about  1830.  By 
some  authorities  its  origin  is  attributed  to 
John  Wilson  Croker,  who  in  an  article  on  in- 
ternal policy,  published  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view (vol.  xlii.  No.  83,  p.  276)  for  Jan.,  1830, 
declared, —  "  We  despise  and  abominate  the 
details  of  partisan  warfare  ;  but  we  are  now, 
as  we  always  have  been,  decidedly  and  con- 
scientiously attached  to  what  is  called  the 
Tory,  and  which  might  with  more  propriety 
be  called  the  Conservative,  party." 

CONSERVATOIRE.— This  term  was  applied 
by  the  Italians  to  schools  established  for  the 
cultivation  of  music.  According  to  some  autho- 
rities they  were  instituted  by  St.  Ambrose, 
Bishop  of  Milan  (347 — 397),  and  according  to 
others  by  St.  Leo,  who  nourished  in  the  sth 
century.  A  new  conservatoire  was  established 
at  Milan  in  1808,  and  the  Neapolitan  conserva- 


toires were  united  in  the  Real  Collegio  di 
Musica  in  1818.  The  Ecole  Royale  de  Chant  et 
de  Declamation,  established  in  Paris  in  1784, 
was  changed  into  the  Institut  National  de 
Musique  in  1793,  and  into  the  Conservatoire  do 
Musique  in  1795.  It  has  been  regulated  by 
royal  ordinances  promulgated  in  1817,  1819, 
1828,  1829,  1839,  1840,  and  1848.  The  conser- 
vatoire at  Vienna  was  established  in  1816,  that 
of  Leipsic  in  1842,  and  of  Cologne  in  1849. 

CONSERVATORS,  WARDENS,  or 
KEEPERS  OP  THE  PEACE,  were  appointed 
by  the  common  law  of  England.  The  power 
of  trying  felonies  was  given  them  by  34  Edw. 
III.  c.  i  (1360),  when  they  received  the  title  of 
Justices  of  the  Peace  (<j.  v.). 

CONSISTORY.— The  place  of  meeting  of  the 
cabinet  of  the  Roman  emperors  was  called  a 
consistory,  and  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
council  which  meets  in  the  Vatican  to  advise 
the  Pope  in  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  affairs. 
A  court  under  this  title,  for  the  regulation  of 
discipline  and  worship,  composed  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  jurists,  was  established  by  the 
Lutheran  princes  of  Germany  at  the  time  of 
the  Reformation.  The  earliest  was  that  of 
Wittenberg,  founded  in  1542.  Others  were 
instituted  after  1555. 

(  oXSISTORY  COURT,  which  has  jurisdic- 
tion in  all  ecclesiastical  causes  arising  within 
the  diocese,  was  separated  from  the  hundred 
court  by  William  the  First's  charter  for  the 
•separation  of  the  ecclesiastical  from  the  civil 
courts,  in  1085.  By  24  Henry  VIII.  c.  12  (1533), 
an  appeal  to  the  archbishop  of  the  province 
from  the  Consistory  Court  was  established. 

CONSOLIDATED  FUND.  —Three  capital 
funds,  the  Aggregate  Fund,  the  General  Fund, 
and  the  South-Sea  Fund,  constituting  the 
revenue  of  the  country,  were  united  in  1786, 
under  the  title  of  the  Consolidated  Fund.  By 
56  Geo.  III.  c.  98  (1816),  the  Consolidated  Fund 
or  revenue  of  Great  Britain,  was  combined 
with  that  of  Ireland,  forming  "the  Consoli- 
dated P\md  of  the  United  Kingdom,"  pledged 
for  the  repayment  of  the  interest  of  the  con- 
solidated national  debt  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

CONSOLIDATK  )X  ACTS.— The  chief  of  these 
statutes,  for  shortening  acts  of  Parliament  re- 
lating to  certain  undertakings,  by  grouping 
into  one  act  the  formal  clauses  necessary  to  all 
statutes  referring  to  such  undertakings,  are  the 
Companies  Clauses  Consolidation  Act,  8  Viet, 
c.  1 6  (May  8,  1845)  ;  the  Lands  Clauses  Consoli- 
dation Act,  8  Viet.  c.  1 8  (May  8,  1845),  amended 
as  to  Ireland  by  14  and  15  Viet.  c.  70  (Aug.  7, 
1851);  and  the  Railway  Clauses  Consolidation 
Act,  8  and  9  Viet.  c.  20  (May  8,  1845). 

C<  >\SOLS.— (See  FUNDS.) 

CONSPIRACY.— (See  PLOT.) 

CONSPIRACY  TO  MURDER  BILL.— (See 
ORSINI  CONSPIRACY.) 

CONSTABLE.— The  statute  of  Winchester 
(13  Edw.  I.  st.  2,  c.  6),  passed  Oct.  8,  1285, 
enacted  that  two  constables  shall  be  chosen  in 
every  hundred  or  franchise.  This  is  the  first 
authentic  record  of  the  appointment  in  this 
country  of  high  constables.  Inferior  officers, 
called  petty  constables,  subordinate  to  the 
high  constable  of  the  hundred,  were  first  ap- 
pointed in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Justices 


CONSTABLE 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


of  the  peace  are  empowered,  in  cases  of  neces- 
sity, to  swear  in  householders  as  special  con- 
stables, by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  41,  passed  Oct. 
15,  1831,  and  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  43,  passed 
Aug.  31,  1835.  (See  SPECIAL  CONSTABLES.) 

CONSTABLE  OF  ALL  ENGLAND.  —  (See 
LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE.) 

CONSTANCE  (Council). —The  i7th  general 
council  held  its  first  sitting  Nov.  16,  1414. 
Nicolas  says,  "  In  the  second  session,  2nd  of 
March,  1415,  the  Pope  solemnly  published 
his  act  of  cession  ;  in  the  third  session,  on 
the  26th  of  the  same  month,  the  council 
was  declared  to  be  lawful :  the  fourth  session 
was  held  on  the  soth  of  March  ;  in  the  fifth, 
held  on  the  6th  of  April,  all  persons  were  en- 
joined to  obey  the  decrees  of  the  council.  On 
the  2gth  of  May,  Pope  John  XXIII.  was  de- 
posed. Gregory  XII.  abdicated  4th  of  July. 
The  errors  of  Wycliffe  were  condemned  in  the 
seventh  session,  2nd  of  May,  1415 :  in  the  fif- 
teenth session,  held  6th  of  July,  1415,  John 
Huss  was  condemned  to  be  burned  :  in  the 
forty-first  session,  held  nth  of  November,  1417, 
Otho  Colonna  was  elected  pope,  under  the 
name  of  Martin  V.  The  council  ended  22nd  of 
April,  1418."  It  established  the  authority  of  a 
general  council  above  that  of  a  pope,  and  is  by 
some  authorities  said  to  have  terminated  the 
Papal  Schism. 

CONSTANCE  (Germany).— Peace  was  con- 
cluded at  this  town  in  1183,  between  the 
Emperor  Frederick  and  24  Lombard  cities ; 
by  which  the  freedom  of  the  latter  was  se- 
cured. John  Huss,  condemned  by  the  council, 
suffered  at  the  stake  here  July  7,  1415.  By 
another  treaty,  signed  here  March  30,  1474,  the 
contest  between  Austria  and  the  Swiss  was 
brought  to  a  close.  Charles  V.  issued  the  ban 
of  the  empire  against  Constance,  Oct.  15,  1548  ; 
and  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria  annexed  it  to  his 
dominions  in  the  following  year.  It  was 
transferred  to  Baden  by  the  8th  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  isth  general  council  (g.  v.),  from 
1414 — 18,  councils  were  held  here  in  1005,  in 
1043,  in  1094,  and  in  1153.  Its  bishopric,  trans- 
ferred from  Windich  about  570,  was  suppressed 
in  1802. 

CONSTANTLY.— (See  ARLES.) 

CONSTANTINA,  or  CONSTANTINE  (Africa), 
the  ancient  Cirta,  was  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  the  Massylii,  and  the  chief  city  of 
Numidia.  The  Romans,  in  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar,  sent  out  a  colony  to  this  place,  which 
was  destroyed  in  311.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Con- 
stantine  I.  The  French  captured  it  Oct.  13, 
1837,  and  it  is  now  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Constantino,  in  their  colony  of  Algiers. 

CONSTANTINOPLE  (Mm.)  was  adopted  in 
Constantinople  before  the  middle  of  the  jth 
century,  and  commences  with  the  creation  of 
the  world,  B.C.  5508,  according  to  this  calcula- 
tion. It  is  still  used  by  the  Greek  Church, 
and  the  Russians  followed  it  until  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great.  The  civil  year  commenced 
Sep.  i,  and  the  ecclesiastical  March  21,  and 
sometimes  April  i. 

CONSTANTINOPLE  (Turkey),  the  ancient 
Byzantium,  named  Constantinople  after  its 
founder,  Constantino  I.,  who  determined  to 


make  it  the  seat  of  the  empire  in  324.  The 
new  city,  called  Second  or  New  Rome,  was 
dedicated  May  n,  330.  Gibbon  (ch.  xvii.) 
says,  "  As  often  as  the  birthday  of  the  city 
returned,  the  statue  of  Constantine,  framed 
by  his  order,  of  gilt  wood,  and  bearing  in  its 
right  hand  a  small  image  of  the  genius  of  the 
place,  was  erected  on  a  triumphal  car.  The 
guards,  carrying  white  tapers,  and  clothed  in 
their  richest  apparel,  accompanied  the  solemn 
procession  as  it  moved  through  the  Hippo- 
drome. When  it  was  opposite  to  the  throne  of 
the  reigning  emperor,  he  rose  from  his  seat, 
and  with  grateful  reverence  adored  the  me- 
mory of  his  predecessor."  The  rites  of  inau- 
guration lasted  40  days.  The  Turks  call  the 
city  Istamboul  or  Stamboul. 

A.D. 

365.  Constantinople  is  seized  by  Procopius. 

378.  It  is  threatened  by  the  Goths. 

381.  Nectarius  becomes  the  first  patriarch. 

395.  It  is  again  besieged  by  the  Goths,  under  Alaric. 

413.  Theodosius  II.  (the  Younger)  surrounds  it  with  walls. 

441.  It  is  attacked  by  the  Huns. 

447.  The  walls  are  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

465.  A  fire  consumes  nearly  half  the  city. 

507.  Anastasius  builds  the  long  wall. 

533,  Jan.  The  Nika  sedition.      (See  CIRCUS  FACTIONS.) 

537.  Dedication  of  St.  Sophia 

559.  Belisarius  saves  Constantinople  from  the  Bulga- 
rians. 

616.  It  is  threatened  by  Chosroes  II. 

636.  Heraclius  compels  the  Persians  and  the  Avars  to  raise 
the  siege. 

668.  Arrival  of  the  Saracens,  who  lay  siege  to  the  city. 

675.  The  Saracens  raise  the  siege. 

695.  Revolution  at  Constantinople,  and  dethronement  of 
Justinian  II. 

716.  It  is  again  besieged  by  the  Saracens. 

718.  The  Saracens  raise  the  siege. 

865.  It  is  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  Russians. 

907.  Second  attack  of  the  Russians. 

941.  Third  attempted  capture  by  the  Russians. 

1303,  July  18.  It  is  taken  by  the  Latins.     (See  CKUSADES. 

1304,  April  9.  It  is  again  taken  by  the  Latins,  and  aban- 

doned to  pillage. 

1361,  July  25.  It  is  recovered  by  the  Greeks  under  Michael 
Palaiologus,  who  restores  the  walls. 

1394.  It  is  besieged  by  the  Turks. 

1433,  June  10.  It  is  besieged  by  the  Turks,  under  Amurath 
II. — Aug.  24.  The  siege  is  raised. 

1453,  April  6.  It  is  besieged  by  Mohammed  II. — May  29- 
Mohammed  II.  effects  its  capture. 

1590.  An  English  embassy  arrives  at  Constantinople. 

1705.  A  revolt  of  the  Janissaries  is  suppressed. 

1729-  A  calamitous  fire  does  considerable  injury. 

1756.  A  fire  consumes  8,000  houses  and  200  mosques. 

1778,  Sep.  4.  The  city  is  again  devastated  by  fire. 

1783.  It  is  visited  by  plague  and  fire. 

1808,  Nov.  14  and  15.  Revolt  of  the  Janissaries,  who  mas- 
sacre the  regular  troops. 

1821.  Massacre  of  the  Christians. 

1822,  March  25.  Second  massacre  of  the  Christians. 

1826,  June  14  and  15.  Insurrection  of  the  Janissaries  (<?.».). 
1854,  March  12.  The   tripartite    treaty   between  England, 
France,  and  Turkey  is  signed. 

1857,  Dec.  5.  The  final  act  settling  the  Asiatic  boundaries 

between  Russia  and  Turkey  is  signed. 

1858.  Conference  between  the    representatives  of    Great 

Britain,   France,    Austria,    Prussia,    Russia,   and 
Turkey  relative  to  the  Montenegrin  territory. 

1864,  Dec.  n.  The  palace  of  the  grand  vizier  is  destroyed 

by  fire. 

1865,  Sep.  6.  A  fire  destroys  5,000  houses. 

1866,  Feb.  A  cholera  conference  holds  its  sittings  at  Con- 

stantinople. 

PRINCIPAL  COUNCILS  HELD  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
A.D. 

336.  By  the  Eusebians  in  favour  of  Arius. 

339.  Uy  the  Arians. 

360.  By  the  Arians  against  the  Semi-Arians. 

381.  May— June  30.  The  second  general  council,  by  Theo- 
dosius and  Damasius,  against  heretics. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


f    282     ] 


CONSULS 


A.U. 

382.  To  reconcile  differences  in  the  Churches. 

383.  For  the  reunion  of  schismatics. 

394,  Sep.  29-  To  settle  a  dispute  respecting  the  Arabian 
bishopric  of  Bostra. 

403.  In  favour  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 

404.  To  depose  St.  John  Chrysostom. 
430,  Feb.  28.  To  ordain  Sisiiinius. 

448,  Nov.  8-33.  By  which  Eutvches  was  condemned.  (See 

EUTYCHIAXS.) 

449,  April  13.  To  confirm  the  condemnation  of  Eutyches. 

450,  Aug.  Against  Eutyches  and  Nestor. 
459.  Again.st  the  Simoniacg. 

478.  To  depose  Peter  the  Fuller  and  others. 
493.  To  confirm  the  Council  of  Ch.ilc:  don. 
495  or  496.  To  depose  and  excommunicate  the  Patriarcli 

Euphemius. 
516.  Against  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 

518,  July  30.  In  favour  of  certain  exiles. 

519,  March  28.  Wherein  John  of  Constantinople  was  re- 

conciled to  the  Pope. 

520,  Feb.  35.  To  appoint  Epiphanius  patriarch. 
531.  To  suspend  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Larissa. 
533.  Between  the  Catholics  and  the  Severians. 
536.  To  condemn  certain  heretic  bishops. 

543.  Against  Origen. 

551.  To  depose  Theodore  of  Caesarea. 

553,  May  4— June  2.  The  fifth  general  council  against 
Origen  and  the  three  chapters. 

565.  At  which  the  Patriarch  Kutychius  was  condemned. 

588.  Which  tried  and  acquitted  crcgory  of  Antioch. 

626.  In  favour  of  the  Monothelites. 

638.  To  confirm  the  edict  of  Heraclius  in  favour  of  the 
Monothelites. 

680-1.  Nov.  7. — Sep.  16.  The  sixth  general  council  against 
the  Monothelites. 

691.  To  consider  matters  of  discipline.  Called  "inTrullo,'' 
from  the  palace  in  which  it  was  held,  and  "  (juini- 
sextuni,"  because  supplementary  to  the  fifth  and 
sixth  general  councils  on  discipline. 

713.  By  the  Monothelites,  against  the  sixth  general  council. 

715.  Against  the  Monothelites,  in  favour  of  the  sixth  gene- 
ral council. 

730,  Jan.  7.  To  depose  St.  German. 

754,    Feb.  10— Aug.  8.  Against  image-worship. 

I.  |)i>~olvedin  consequence  of  violent  opposition. 

806.  To  regulate  the  consecration  of  an  archimandrite. 

809,  Jan.  Which  declared  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor 
Constantine  valid. 

812,  Nov.  i.  To  consider  a  proposed  peace  between  the 
Bulgarians  and  the  Emperor  Michael. 

814,  circ.  Christmas.    By  Nicephorus,  against  the  Icono- 

clasts. 

815,  Feb.  By  the  Iconoclasts,  who  depose  Nicephorus. — 

April.  Against  the   Catholics  and  decorations   of 

churches. 
821.  Wherein  the   Catholics  refuse  to  confer  with    the 

Iconoclasts. 

829.  Against  the  use  of  images. 
843,  Feb.  19.  Against  the  Iconoclasts. 
847.  To  depose  the  Bishop  of  Syracuse. 
858.  To  reinstate  Ignatius  in  the  patriarchy. 
861,  May  25.  Which  again  deposed  Ignatius,  and  decreed 

in  favour  of  images. 
867,  Jan.  To  depose  and  excommunicate  Pope  Nicholas  I. 

—Nov.  23.  Which  deposed  Photius. 
869,  Oct.  5 — Feb.  28.  The  eighth  general   council,  which 

anathematized  the  heretics,  and  opposed  the  seven 

general  councils. 
879,  Nov.  —  March  13.    Concerning  Photius,  the  Nicene 

creed,  and  the  general  councils. 

006,  Jan.  Against  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor  Leo  VI. 
006.  The  Patriarch  Nicholas  is  deposed. 
911,  May.  Whereby  Nicholas  is  restored. 

930,  July.  To  heal  schism. 

931,  Sep.  3.  To  receive  .the  abdication  of  the  Patriarch 

Tryphon. 
963.  To  confirm  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor  Nicephorus 

II.  (Phocas). 

1027.  To  consider  donations  to  monasteries. 
1039.  Against  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
1054,  June.  Wherein  the  papal  legates  were  anathematized. 

1066.  Against  incestuous  niarri  : 

1067.  Against  breach  of  promise  of  marriage, 
mo.  Against  the  heresy  of  the  Bogomiles. 

1140   May.  To  condemn  the  books  of  Constantine  Chryso- 

riiale. 
1143,  Aug.  30.  Against  the   ordination  of   two   bishops.— 

Oct.  I.  Against  Mphon.  a  monk. 


A.U. 

1144,  Feb.  23.  Against  Niphon. 

1147,  Feb.  26.  To  depose  the  Patriarch  Comas. 

1157,  Jan.  36.  On  the  celebration  of  divine  service. 

),  April  II.  Concerning  marriage,  discipline,  and  cer- 
tain doctrinal  points. 

1170.  To  reject  a  proposal  to  reunite  the  two  Churches. 

1186.  On  the  irregular  election  of  certain  bishops. 

1342.  On  the  differences  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
bishops  of  Cyprus. 

1275,  May  36.  To  elect  John  Veccus  patriarch. 

1277,  April.  To  make  a  creed  like  that  of  Rome.— July  16. 
To  excommunicate  those  unwilling  to  reunite  the 
two  Churches. 

1280,  May  3.  On  doctrinal  matters. 

1283,  Jan.  To  condemn  Veccus.— Easter  Monday.  To  con- 
demn the  promoters  of  the  proposed  union. 

1285.  On  doctrinal  points. 

1297.  To  consider  Athanasius's  anathema  of  the  emperor. 

1399.  To  consider  the  marriage  of  Alexis,  nephew  of  the 
emperor. 

1341,  June  ii.  On  doctrinal  points. 

1345.  Against  the  Palamites. 

1347.  To  depose  the  Patriarch  John  of  Apri. 

1450.  Against  the  reunion  of  the  Churches. 

CONST  KM,  ATI  ONS,  or  groups  of  stars,  are 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Job,  written,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  authorities,  by  Moses,  B.C. 
1520.  Arctums,  Orion,  and  Pleiades,  are  no- 
ticed Job  ix.  g,  and  again,  with  the  addition 
of  Mazzaroth,  ch.  xxxviii.  31  &  32.  Eudoxus 
of  Cnidus,  who  flourished  B.C.  366,  wrote  an 
account  of  the  constellations. 

CONSTITUENT  ASSEMBLY.  —  (See 
NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY. 

O  >NSTITUTI<  LXISTS.— (See  ACCEPTANTS.) 

CONSUL,  as  the  representative  of  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  England  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, was  first  officially  appointed  by  Richard 
III.  in  1485,  when  Laurentio  Strozzi,  of 
Florence,  was  by  patent  of  the  king  made 
consul  and  president  of  the  English  merchants 
in  Italy.  The  custom  originated  in  Italy  in 
the  1 2th  century. 

('i)NSULATK  was  established  in  France  by 
the  influence  of  Buonaparte,  Nov.  10,  1799. 
The  new  constitution  was  proclaimed  Dec.  24, 
when  three  consuls  were  appointed,  the  chief 
authority  being  vested  in  one  of  them,  called 
the  First  Consul.  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  Cam- 
baceres,  and  Lebrun,  were  the  consuls  named ; 
and,  Aug.  4,  1802,  the  former  was  made  first 
consul  for  life.  The  consulate  was,  however, 
superseded  by  the  empire,  May  18,  1804. 

CONSULS.— On  the  expulsion  of  the  kings, 
B.C.  509,  two  chief  magistrates  of  the  Roman 
republic  were  appointed.  Their  tenure  of 
office  was  for  one  year  only.  Decemvirs  weie 
appointed  B.C.  451,  three  military  tribunes  B.C. 
444,  two  censors  B.C.  443,  a  dictator  obtained 
the  chief  authority  B.C.  391,  and  a  prsetor  was 
appointed  B.C.  366.  Although  the  direction 
of  affairs  was  occasionally  vested  either  in 
decemvirs,  military  tribunes,  or  a  dictator, 
the  consulship  was  the  office  generally  adopted. 
A  plebeian  was  elected  one  of  the  consuls 
B.C.  366,  and  the  office  was  often  held  by  a 
plebeian  until  B.C.  172,  when  both  consuls 
were  plebeians.  After  the  appointment  of 
an  emperor,  B.C.  31,  it  became  a  nominal  dig- 
nity, and  continued  as  such,  with  certain 
interruptions.  Decimus  Theodorus  Paulinus, 
in  536,  was  the  last  consul  at  Rome,  and 
Flavius  Basilius  Junius,  in  541,  the  last  at 
Constantinople.  Milan  proclaimed  itself  a  re- 
public, and  elected  two  consuls  in  1107,  and 


CONTI 


[    283    ] 


COOCH 


other  Italian  cities  immediately  followed  its 
example. 

CONTI.— (See BOURBONS,  Collateral  Branches.) 

CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM.— This  name  has 
been  given  to  the  plan  adopted  by  Napoleon  I. 
for  cutting  off  England  from  connection  with 
the  continent  of  Europe,  and  thus  destroying  her 
maritime  supremacy.  It  was  first  enunciated 
in  the  armistice  of  Foligno  (q.  v.},  Feb.  18, 
1801,  but  it  was  not  prominently  put  forward 
till  the  publication  of  the  Berlin  Decree  (q.  v.), 
Nov.  19,  1806,  which  declared  the  British  Is- 
lands in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  prohibited  all 
trade  in  English  goods.  The  British  Govern- 
ment, in  retaliation,  issued,  Jan.  7,  and  Nov. 
n,  1807,  the  celebrated  Orders  in  Council 
(q.  v.),  which  elicited  the  Milan  Decree  (q.  v.), 
Dec.  17,  1807,  and  another  similarly  prohibitive 
proclamation,  dated  from  the  Tuileries,  Jan.  n, 
1808.  The  tariff  of  Trianon,  introduced  Aug.  3, 
1 8 10,  and  supported  by  a  decree  of  Sep.  12, 
1810,  and  the  Decree  of  Fontainebleau,  Oct.  18, 
1810,  were  also  aimed  at  the  establishment  of 
this  system  by  the  burning  of  English  goods, 
and  the  destruction,  by  all  possible  means,  of 
British  commerce. 

CONTINENTS.— (See  ENCRATITES.) 

CONTRACTORS.— By  22  Geo.  III.  c.  45,  s.  i 
(1782),  government  contractors  are  disqualified 
from  holding  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
A  similar  bill  had  passed  the  Commons  in  1780, 
but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  The  law  was 
extended  to  Ireland  by  41  Geo.  III.  c.  52,  s.  4 
(1801). 

CONVENT.— {See  ABBEY,  &c.) 

CONVENTICLE.— This  term,  derived  from 
the  Latin  conventiculum,  an  assembly,  was,  in 
the  early  period  of  Christianity,  applied  to  the 
building  in  which  the  Christians  worshipped. 
It  was  afterwards  used  to  describe  the  meet- 
ings of  heretics,  and  is,  in  this  country,  applied 
to  the  meeting-places  of  Dissenters  from  the 
Established  Church.  By  35  Eliz.  c.  i  (1593), 
persons  attending  any  assemblies,  conven- 
ticles, or  meetings,  under  colour  or  pretence  of 
any  exercise  of  religion,  were  to  be  imprisoned 
until  they  conformed.  If  they  did  not  con- 
form in  three  months,  they  were  to  abjure  the 
realm,  and  if  they  refused  to  do  so,  or  returned 
after  abjuration,  they  were  to  be  hanged.  It 
was  enacted  by  the  Conventicle  Act  (16  Charles 
II.  c.  4),  passed  in  1664,  that  wherever  five 
persons  above  those  of  the  same  household 
assembled  in  religious  congregation,  every  one 
of  them  was  liable  to  three  months'  imprison- 
ment, or  a  fine  of  five  pounds  for  the  first 
offence  :  the  penalty  was  doubled  for  a  second, 
and  increased  to  transportation  for  seven 
years,  or  a  fine  of  ^100,  for  the  third.  This 
act  was  only  temporary,  and  a  second  Con- 
venticle Act,  in  which  the  penalties  were 
modified  (22  Charles  II.  c.  i),  was  passed  in 
1670.  It  was  repealed  by  the  Toleration  Act 
(i  Will.  &  Mary,  st.  i,  c.  18),  passed  May  24,  1689. 

CONVENTION  PARLIAMENTS.— This  term 
is  applied  to  two  English  parliaments,  called 
in  times  of  great  emergency,  without  the 
usual  authority  of  the  king's  writ.  The  first 
convention  parliament,  summoned  by  order  of 
Gen.  Monk,  met  April  25,  1660,  and  having 
completed  the  work  of  the  Restoration,  was 


dissolved  by  Charles  II.,  Dec.  29.  The  second, 
convened  by  William  III.,  then  Prince  of 
Orange,  met  Tuesday,  Jan.  22,  1689  (O.S.),  and 
established  William  and  Mary  on  the  throne. 
A  bill  to  convert  the  convention  into  a  parlia- 
ment passed  through  both  branches  of  the 
legislature,  and  received  the  royal  assent  Feb. 
23,  1689.  It  was  dissolved  by  William  III. 
Feb.  6,  1690. 

CONVENTIONS.— (See  TREATIES.) 

CONVICTS.— (See  TRANSPORTATION.) 

CONVOCATION,  or  a  general  assembly  of 
the  clergy  of  the  kingdom,  was  summoned  by 
the  king's  authority,  for  the  purpose  of  assess- 
ing themselves  in  levies  of  taxes.  The  clergy 
assembled  for  this  purpose  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times ;  but  the  first  attempt  to  establish  a 
convocation  of  this  character  by  royal 
authority  was  made  by  Edward  I.  in  1294,  in 
which  year  Convocation  met  at  Westminster 
by  his  order,  Sep.  21.  The  Convocation  is 
divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  House. 
Richard  III.,  on  the  petition  of  both  houses  of 
Convocation,  relieved  them  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  secular  courts,  by  charter  dated 
Feb.  23,  1484.  It  was  deprived  of  the  power 
of  performing  any  act  whatever  without  the 
king's  license  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  (1534^. 
This  act  was  repealed  by  i  &  2  Phil.  &  Mary 
c.  8  (1554),  and  re-enacted  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i  (1559). 
By  16  &  17  Charles  II.  c.  i  (1665),  the  clergy, 
as  well  as  the  laity,  were  bound  by  the  act, 
which  was  for  the  raising  of  a  tax,  and  were 
discharged  from  the  payment  of  subsidies 
levied  in  Convocation.  Its  business  was  con- 
fined to  the  granting  of  subsidies,  except  in 
1603  and  1640,  and  it  ceased  to  meet  from  1717, 
until  revived  for  a  formal  sitting  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  session  in  1854. 

CONVOLVULUS.— The  Camry  convolvulus 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1690,  and  the 
many- flowered  convolvulus  in  1779.  They 
were  both  brought  from  the  Canary  Isles. 

CONVULSIONISTS,  or  CONVULSION- 
ARIES.— This  sect  of  the  Jansenists  arose  in 
1730,  and  were  so  called  because  they  threw 
themselves  upon  the  ground  and  went  into 
convulsions.  An  order  for  the  imprisonment 
of  these  fanatics  was  issued  in  1733.  The 
Dancers  of  the  i4th  century,  and  the  Jumpers 
of  the  igth,  indulged  in  similar  extravagances. 

CONWAY,  CONWY,  or  ABERCONWAY 
(Caernarvonshire). — One  of  the  Welsh  princes 
founded  a  Cistercian  monastery  at  Conway  in 
1185.  Edward  I.,  who  built  a  castle  at  this 
ancient  town  in  1283,  was  besieged  here  by  the 
Welsh  in  1290.  Richard  II.  fled  to  this  place 
in  1399.  It  suffered  severely  from  the  plague  in 
1607.  It  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentary  army 
in  1646.  The  suspension  bridge,  commenced 
by  Telford  in  1822,  was  completed  by  him  in 
1826. 

COOCH  BEHAR,  or  KOOCH  BEHAR  (Hin- 
dostan). — The  rajahs  of  this  small  state  trace 
their  descent  from  Viswa  Singh,  who  began  to 
reign,  according  to  the  native  chroniclers,  in 
1509,  though  this  date  is  probably  too  early. 
In  1582  it  possessed  considerable  influence,  and 
in  1661  was  conquered  by  Meer  Jumla,  and 
annexed  to  the  empire  of  Aurungzebe.  With 
the  rest  of  Bengal  it  passed  in  1765  to  the  East 


COOKERY 


COPENHAGEN 


India  Company,  but  it  received  little  notice  till 
1772,  when  its  rajah  applied  to  the  British  for 
aid  against  the  Bhotanese.  by  whom  his  terri- 
tory had  been  invaded.  A  force  was  accord- 
ingly despatched  vmder  Capt.  Jones,  who  ex- 
pelled the  marauders,  and  in  1773  attacked 
them  in  the  hill  country,  where  they  had 
sought  refuge.  The  internal  affairs  of  the 
state  having  fallen  into  great  confusion  in 
1787,  the  government  was  vested,  in  1789,  in 
a  commissioner  who,  after  collecting  the 
revenues  and  paying  the  tribute,  &c.,  retained 
the  surplus  for  the  use  of  the  youthful  rajah. 
That  potentate  attaining  his  majority  in  1801, 
the  office  of  commissioner  ceased,  but  owing  to 
the  renewal  of  the  former  abuses,  which  the 
native  government  refused  to  reform,  in  spite 
of  strong  representations  made  by  the  English 
in  1805,  it  was  re-established  in  1813. 

COOKERY.  —  When  Abraham  entertained 
the  three  angels,  he  took  a  calf,  had  it  dressed, 
and,  with  butter  and  milk,  set  it  before  his 
guests,  B.C.  1897  (Gen.  xviii.  6-j-8).  Disraeli 
(Curiosities  of  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  246)  re- 
marks :  "  The  numerous  descriptions  of  ancient 
cookery  which  Athenneus  has  preserved  indi- 
cate an  unrivalled  dexterity  and  refinement : 
and  the  ancients,  indeed,  appear  to  have 
raised  the  culinary  art  into  a  science,  and  dig- 
nified cooks  into  professors."  Fitzstepheu, 
the  monk  of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  1191,  in 
his  description  of  London  says  :  "  There  is  in 
London  upon  the  river's  bank,  a  public  place 
of  cookery,  among  the  wines  to  be  sold  in  the 
ships,  and  in  the  wine  cellars.  There  every 
day,  ye  may  call  for  any  dish  of  meat,  roast, 
fried,  or  sodden  ;  fish  both  small  and  great ; 
ordinary  flesh  for  the  poorer  sort,  and  more 
dainty  for  the  rich,  as  venison  and  fowl."  And 
after  some  further  remarks,  adds:  "This  is 
the  public  cookery,  and  very  convenient  for 
the  state  of  a  city,  and  belongs  to  it.  Hence 
it  is,  we  read  in  Plato's  Gorgias,  that  next  to 
the  physician's  art  is  the  trade  of  cooks,  the 
image  and  flattery  of  a  fourth  part  of  a  city." 
The  cooks  having  formed  an  ancient  brother- 
hood, were  incorporated  July  u,  1472,  con- 
firmed by  Elizabeth,  and  again  by  James  I., 
May  19,  1615.  "  This  is  the  Boke  of  Cokery  " 
was  printed  in  London  in  1500. 

COOK  ISLANDS,  or  HARVEY  ARCHI- 
PELAGO (Pacific  Ocean.)— This  group,  com- 
prising five  principal  islands,  situated  between 
the  Society  and  Navigator  Islands,  was  visited 
by  Capt.  Cook  in  1769. 

COOLIES.— This  name,  originally  the  title 
of  one  of  the  hill  tribes  of  Hindostan,  has, 
from  the  circumstance  that  these  people  are 
commonly  employed  as  labourers  in  the  cities 
of  India,  been  applied  to  Hindoo  labourers  in 
general,  and  especially  to  the  Indian  and 
Chinese  emigrants,  who  have  in  large  numbers 
superseded  negroes  since  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  British  West  Indian  territories. 
They  appear  to  have  been  employed  in  the 
Mauritius  as  early  as  1834,  and  since  that  year 
liave  been  introduced  into  other  colonies. 

COOPER.— The  art  of  the  cooper  is  of  great 
antiquity.  The  company  of  Coopers  was  in- 
corporated in  1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES.— The  earliest 


institution  of  this  kind  appears  to  have  been 
at  Rochdale,  where  a  few  labouring  men  joined 
together  in  1844,  to  purchase  in  wholesale 
markets  the  goods  necessary  for  themselves 
and  their  families.  The  Leeds  Industrial  Co- 
operative Flour  and  Provision  Society  was 
established  in  1847,  and  the  Bradford  In- 
dustrial Co-operative  Society  in  Dec.,  1860. 
There  are  similar  associations  in  almost  all 
the  manufacturing  towns  of  Lancashire  and 
Yorkshire.  The  "Co-operator,"  a  journal  de- 
voted to  the  interest  of  these  societies,  was 
first  published  in  1860.  Co-operative  societies 
are  registered  pursuant  to  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  115 
(Aug.  15,  1850).  By  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  63  (July 
23,  1855),  a  member  can  own  shares  to  the 
value  of  ^200. 

COORG  (Hindostan),  under  the  government 
of  independent  princes  in  1583,  preserved  its 
freedom  till  1779,  when  Hyder  seized  Beer 
Rajindra,  the  heir,  and  excluded  him  from  the 
succession.  In  1787,  however,  he  escaped 
from  his  prison,  and  recovered  his  hereditary 
possessions.  He  died  in  1808,  and  bequeathed 
his  dominions  to  his  infant  daughter,  from 
whom  they  were  wrested  by  Linga  in  1810. 
In  1832  hostilities  broke  out  between  the 
rajah  and  the  British  Government,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  protection  afforded  by  the  latter 
to  some  political  fugitives,  and  an  army  was 
despatched  under  Col.  Lindsay,  which  en- 
tered Mercarah,  the  capital,  April  6.  The 
rajah  was  deposed  April  10,  1834,  and  his  terri- 
tories were  permanently  annexed  to  the  British 
empire  in  India.  Coorg  is  also  called  Caduga. 

COPENHAGEN  (Denmark).— A bsolon, 
Bishop  of  Roskild,  and  afterwards  Archbishop 
of  Lund,  erected  a  castle  here  in  1168.  In 
1254,  Bishop  Erlandsen  of  Roskild  granted 
certain  rights  to  the  town  that  had  grown 
up  beneath  the  protection  of  the  castle,  and 
these  were  extended  by  King  Eric  in  1284. 
In  1443  Copenhagen  was  made  the  capital 
of  Denmark.  It  has  suffered  greatly  from 
conflagrations,  and  was  almost  completely 
destroyed  in  1795.  Nelson  captured  the  city 
April  2,  1801 ;  and  it  surrendered,  after  three 
days'  bombardment,  Sep.  5,  1807.  The  Danish 
Royal  Society  was  founded  in  1 742,  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  1754,  and  the  Bank  in  1762.  The 
Casino  was  built  in  1846.  A  deputation  con- 
sisting of  above  2,000  inhabitants  of  Schleswig 
and  Hplstein  was  received  here  with  great 
enthusiasm  Sep.  2,  1865. 

COPENHAGEN  (Treaties).  —  A  treaty 
between  Denmark  and  Holland,  for  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Baltic,  was  concluded  here  Aug.  26, 
1656.  An  alliance  between  the  same  powers 
was  signed  here  June  27,  1657.  A  peace 
between  Sweden  and  Denmark  was  concluded 
here  June  5,  1660.  A  second  alliance  between 
Denmark  and  the  States  was  signed  May  20, 
1673 ;  and  an  alliance  between  Denmark  and 
the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  Jan.  26,  1674.  An 
alliance  between  Denmark  and  Frederick 
William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  con- 
cluded Dec.  27,  1676;  and  a  convention  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden  May  8,  1680.  Denmark 
signed  an  alliance  with  Augustus  II.  of  Poland 
at  the  same  place,  March  24,  1698 ;  and  an 
alliance  with  Russia  Oct.  22,  1709.  The  Em- 


COPERNICAN 


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COPYRIGHT 


peror  Charles  VI.  joined  this  Russo-Danish 
alliance  May  26,  1732.  Conventions  between 
France  and  Denmark  were  signed  July  n, 
1757,  and  May  4,  1758  ;  a  convention  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden  March  27,  1794;  and 
others  between  Denmark  and  Great  Britain 
Aug.  29,  1800,  and  April  9,  1801.  An  alliance 
between  Denmark  and  Napoleon  I.  was  signed 
July  10,  1813. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.— Hallam  (Lit. 
Hist.  pt.  i.  ch.  ix.)  says,  "  It  appears  to  have 
been  about  1 507  that,  after  meditating  on  various 
schemes  besides  the  Ptolemaic,  Copernicus 
began  to  adopt  and  confirm  in  writing  that  of 
Pythagoras,  as  alone  capable  of  explaining  the 
planetary  motions  with  that  simplicity  which 
gives  a  presumption  of  truth  in  the  works  of 
nature."  It  was  completed  in  1530,  and  pub- 
lished at  Nuremberg  in  1543,  just  before  the 
death  of  Copernicus,  which  occurred  May  24. 
Pope  Paul  V.  condemned  it  in  1616,  but  Pius 
VII.  in  1818  repealed  the  prohibitory  edicts 
against  Galileo  and  the  Copernican  system. 
Nicolas  Copernicus  was  born  at  Thorn,  Feb. 
19,  1473,  and  died  May  2,  1543. 

COPPER. — This  metal  was  known  in  the 
earliest  times,  and  is  frequently  noticed  in 
the  Bible.  Thus,  the  fetters  with  which  Sam- 
son was  bound  (B.C.  1117)  were  in  reality  of 
this  material  (Judges  xvi.  21).  Ezekiel  (xxvii. 
13),  B.C.  588,  speaks  of  Tyre  as  trading  in 
vessels  of  brass  or  copper ;  and  Ezra  (viii.  27), 
B.C.  458,  speaks  of  "two  vessels  of  fine  copper, 
precious  as  gold,"  which  formed  part  of  the 
treasure  of  the  temple.  The  origin  of  the  art 
of  smelting  and  working  copper  was  attributed 
by  the  Egyptians  to  Osiris.  Cadmus  conveyed 
it  to  Greece  B.C.  1313.  Cyprus  and  Rhodes 
were  celebrated  as  early  manufactories  of  cop- 
per. It  subsequently  became  one  of  the  most 
important  metals  known  to  the  ancients. 
Copper  mines  were  worked  in  England  in 
1189.  They  are  first  mentioned  in  Sweden  in 
1396 ;  and  in  1399  one  was  discovered  in  Shrop- 
shire. A  mine  of  pure  copper  was  discovered 
in  Cumberland  in  1561  ;  but  the  art  of  working 
the  metal  made  little  progress  till  1689,  when 
it  was  carried  on  with  success  in  Cornwall.  It 
afterwards  increased  to  a  prodigious  degree, 
and  in  1721  employed  30,000  people.  Copper 
was  first  used  to  sheathe  ships  in  1758,  and 
the  demand  for  it  increased  so  much  that  its 
exportation  was  prohibited  by  20  Geo.  III.  c. 
59,  s.  i  (1780).  In  1783  all  the  ships  of  the 
royal  navy  were  ordered  to  be  sheathed.  The 
Burra-Burra  mines  of  South  Australia,  dis- 
covered about  1843,  are  perhaps  the  richest 
copper-mines  in  the  world. 

COPPER  COINAGE.— The  Romansused  cop- 
per as  a  circulating  medium  prior  to  the  reign 
of  Numa,  B.C.  715,  but  it  was  not  coined, 
being  measured  by  weight.  The  square  "  as  " 
of  copper  was  struck  some  time  before  Ser- 
vius  Tullius,  B.C.  578,  and  the  circular  "  as  " 
about  B.C.  385.  The  first  Greek  copper  money 
was  that  of  JSropus,  King  of  Macedonia,  struck 
B.C.  397.  Copper  never  became  a  chief  medium 
with  the  Greeks.  Cunobelin,  King  of  Britain, 
is  known  to  have  coined  copper  about  A.D.  40, 
as  pieces  still  remain  bearing  his  mark.  It 
was  made  and  circulated  in  Ireland  in  1339,  in 


France  about  1580,  and  in  Scotland  before  1603. 
Copper  tokens  were  coined  in  England  in  1609 
and  patented  in  1625 ;  but  the  first  real  coinage 
was  by  Charles  II.,  who  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  establish  a  copper  currency  in  1665,  but 
succeeded  in  1672.  In  1722  George  I.  granted 
a  patent  to  Mr.  Wood  to  coin  copper  halfpence 
and  farthings  for  Ireland;  but  the  measure 
was  very  unpopular,  and  was  so  vehemently 
opposed  by  Dean  Swift,  who  published  his 
Drapier  letters  in  consequence,  that  it  had  to 
be  abandoned.  The  English  copper  coinage 
was  so  defective  in  1792,  that  a  large  number 
of  tradesmen's  tokens  were  issued ;  but  these 
were  superseded  in  1797  by  the  coinage  of  500 
tons  of  copper  pence,  struck  by  Mr.  Boulton, 
at  Soho.  A  new  bronze  coinage  was  issued 
in  1860  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  copper 
money. 

COPPERHEADS.— This  name,  derived  from 
the  copperhead,  a  venomous  snake  which  gives 
no  warning  of  its  attack,  was  applied  to  a 
party  in  the  Northern  States  of  America  sup- 
posed to  favour  the  secessionists  during  the 
civil  war  which  divided  the  United  States 
from  1861  to  1865. 

COPPER-PLATE. — (See  ENGRAVING  ON  COP- 
PER.) 

COPTS. — These  people,  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  with  whose  language  their 
speech  was  radically  identical,  translated 
the  Bible  into  their  own  dialect  between 
200 — 300,  and  at  an  early  period  embraced 
Christianity,  which,  under  a  very  imperfect 
form,  they  still  profess.  Their  language, 
superseded  by  that  of  their  Arab  conquerors, 
has  not  been  spoken  in  Lower  Egypt  since  the 
xoth  century,  and  was  entirely  extinguished, 
except  as  a  written  dialect,  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. Their  doctrines  resemble  those  of  the 
Jacobites  (q.  v.),  and  in  their  religious  pecu- 
liarities they  somewhat  approximate  to  the 
Abyssinian  Church  (q.  v.). 

COPYRIGHT  IN  BOOKS  was  established  by 
8  Anne  c.  19  (1709).  From  April  10,  1710, 
the  copyright  of  all  new  works  was  vested  in 
the  author  for  14  years.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  that  term  it  was  renewed  for  another 
14  years,  if  the  author  was  then  living. 
In  the  case  of  works  that  had  been  printed, 
but  of  which  the  copyright  had  not  been 
sold,  authors  were  to  have  the  sole  right  of 
printing  them  for  21  years.  The  act  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom 
by  41  Geo.  III.  c.  107  (July  2,  1801).  By 
54  Geo.  III.  c.  156  (July  29,  1814),  the  copy- 
right was  to  last  for  28  years  certain,  and  for 
the  remainder  of  the  author's  life  if  he  out- 
lived that  term.  By  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  45  ( July  i, 
1842),  called  Talfourd  or  Lord  Mahon's  Act,  the 
copyright  was  extended  for  the  duration  of 
the  author's  life  and  seven  years  from  the 
day  of  his  death.  In  case  the  seven  years 
expired  before  the  book  had  been  published 
42  years,  the  copyright  was  to  last  until 
that  period  had  elapsed.  The  copyright  of 
works  published  after  the  death  of  the  author 
was  also  fixed  at  42  years.  The  privilege  was 
extended  by  this  act  to  all  British  colonies. 
(See  INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT.) 

COPYRIGHT  IN  DESIGNS  for  manufactures 


COEAL 


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CORFE 


was  fixed  at  three  years  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  100 
(Aug.  10,  1842),  which  repealed  all  former  acts 
on  the  subject,  and  came  into  operation  Sep. 
i,  1842.  It  was  extended  to  designs  not  orna- 
mental, but  having  reference  to  some  purpose 
of  utility,  by  6  &  7  Viet.  c.  65  (Aug.  22,  1843). 
The  Board  of  Trade  received  authority  to  ex- 
tend the  copyright  in  ornamental  designs  for 
an  additional  term  not  exceeding  three  years, 
by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  104  (Aug.  14,  1850). 

COEAL  was  much  valued  by  the  ancients, 
who  procured  it  from  the  Eed  Sea,  and  the 
northern  shores  of  Africa.  The  Gauls  used  it 
to  adorn  their  weapons  and  armour. 

COEAL  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean).— Coral- 
reefs,  which  exist  in  great  numbers,  have  been 
known  to  rise  several  feet  in  the  course  of  a 
few  months.  A  group  was  discovered  by 
Bougainville  in  1768,  the  chief  of  which  is  Bow 
Island  fo.  v.}. 

COEBACH  (Battle),  fought  between  the 
French  army  and  the  allied  English  and  Ger- 
mans at  this  place,  in  Westphalia,  July  10, 
1760.  The  former  were  victorious.  The  allied 
army  was  saved  from  a  total  rout  by  a  charge 
of  British  dragoons. 

COEBEY  (Treaty)  was  signed  at  the  abbey 
of  Corbey,  in  Picardy,  Oct.  26,  1513,  between 
Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Pope  Leo  X.  The 
former  agreed  to  abandon  the  Council  of  Pisa 
and  conform  to  the  decrees  of  the  Latcran,  and 
the  Pontiff  recalled  the  censures  that  had  been 
pronounced  upon  France  by  his  predecessor 
Julius  II.,  the  founder  of  the  Holy  League  -/.  ». ). 

COEBJK,  COKliKY,  or  COEVKI  Saxony  .— 
The  Benedictine  abbey  of  this  place,  founded  in 
822  by  monks  from  a  monastery  of  the  same 
name  in  Picardy,  is  the  oldest  and  most  famous 
establishment  of  the  kind  in  Saxony,  and  was 
the  seat  of  the  school  of  Ansgar,  or  Anscarius, 
(the  Apostle  of  the  North,  who  died  Feb.  3,  864), 
which  attained  great  celebrity  during  the  gth 
and  loth  centuries.  In  1794  Corvei  was  made 
a  bishopric  by  Pius  VI.  In  1803  it  was  annexed 
t<>  Nassau,  and  ceded  in  1807  to  Westphalia, 
passing  finally  into  the  possession  of  Prussia 
in  1815.  In  1822  the  lands  of  the  ancient 
abbey  were  transferred  to  Count  von  Helscn- 
Eheinfels-Eotenburg,  and  became  a  mediate 
principality  of  the  Germanic  empire. 

COEBIESDALE,  COEBISDALE,  or  KEE- 
BESTEE  (Battle.)— The  Marquis  of  Montrose 
was  defeated  at  this  place  in  Eoss-shire  by  the 
Covenanters,  Saturday,  April  27,  1650.  The 
Marquis,  captured  a  few  days  after  the  battle, 
was  put  to  death  with  "  every  circumstance 
of  ignominy  and  cruelty,"  May  21. 

COECYEA.— (See  CORFU.) 

COEDELIEES,  or  COED-WEAEEES,  so 
called  from  their  girdle  of  knotted  cord,  a 
minor  order  of  Franciscan  or  Grey  Friars,  was 
founded  by  St.  Francis  d'Assisi  in  1223,  and 
was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Honorius  III.  in  a  bull 
published  Oct.  30,  1223. 

COEDELIEES  CLUB.— This  society  of 
republicans,  formed  at  Paris  in  Dec.,  1790,  re- 
ceived this  name  because  their  meetings  were 
held  in  a  chapel  which  had  been  built  by  the 
Cordeliers.  Danton  was  the  first  president,  and 
amongst  the  more  celebrated  members  were 
Marat,  Camille  Desmoulins,  Fabre  d'Eglantine, 


Eobert,  and  Hubert.  The  Cordeliers  demanded 
the  abolition  of  royalty  in  1791.  A  most  power- 
ful body,  assembled  at  this  club,  took  part 
in  the  insurrection  of  Aug.  10,  1792.  They 
clamoured  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  1793, 
and,  in  conjxmction  with  the  Jacobins,  con- 
spired for  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondists  in 
,the  same  year.  It  was  dissolved  in  1794. 

COEDOVA  (South  America),  the  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name,  a  member  of  the 
Argentine  Confederation,  was  founded  by 
Jerome  Cabrera  in  1573. 

COEDOVA,  or  COEDOBA  (Spain),  the 
Corduba  of  the  Eomans,  was  founded  by  M. 
Claudius  Marcellus,  who  wintered  here  B.C.  132. 
It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  Caesar  B.C.  45,  in 
consequence  of  its  fidelity  to  Pompey,  and 
when  rebuilt  was  peopled  by  the  pauper  gentry 
of  Eome.  It  was  erected  into  a  bishopric 
in  264,  and  fell  under  the  Gothic  sway  in 
572.  The  Moors  seized  it  in  711,  and  made 
it  the  capital  of  their  empire  in  Spain  in  756. 
The  great  mosque  was  begun  by  Abderahman 
in  786.  A  fire  which  raged  for  three  days 
in  917,  laid  waste  much  of  the  city,  but 
it  was  soon  rebuilt  more  magnificently  than 
ever.  Soliman  took  the  town  in  1012,  after 
a  siege  of  about  three  years.  In  1091  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Almoravides,  who 
retained  it  till  its  capture  by  the  Almohades 
in  1148.  St.  Ferdinand,  King  of  Castile,  took 
it  June  30,  1235,  and  it  has  ever  since  been 
under  Christian  domination,  although  the 
Moors  tried  to  retake  it  in  1280,  and  in  1365. 
The  French,  under  Gen.  Dupont,  seized  Cor- 
dova June  7,  1808,  when  the  city  was  aban- 
doned to  pillage  for  three  days,  and  the 
populace  cruelly  massacred.  The  town  was 
again  plundered  in  1836  by  the  Carlists  under 
Gomez,  who  took  possession  Oct.  i,  and  carried 
off  booty  to  the  amount  of  .£200,000. 

COBDWAINBB8.— The  name  was  formerly 
applied  to  shoemakers  in  this  country.  Stow 
says  the  term  cordwainer  or  cobbler  was  not 
then  a  name  of  contempt  for  a  man  of  less 
skill  in  that  mystery,  or  only  a  mender,  but 
for  a  maker  and  seller  of  that  commodity. 
The  Cordwainers  were  incorporated  in  1410, 
confirmed  by  Mary  in  1558,  by  Elizabeth  in 
1562,  and  by  James  I.  They  built  a  new  hall, 
which  was  opened  Tuesday,  July  23,  1577.  (See 
SHOEMAKERS.) 

COEEA  (Asia)  is  said  to  have  been  civilized 
by  the  Chinese  about  B.C.  1120.  In  1692  it 
became  subject  to  Japan  ;  but  the  Coreans 
having  requested  aid  from  China,  the  em- 
peror delivered  them  from  Japanese  tyranny 
in  1698,  and  substituted  his  own  dominion. 
Some  French  missionaries  who  had  pene- 
trated into  the  country  were  expelled  in  1839. 
Corea  has  since  formed  part  of  the  Chinese 
empire. 

COEFE  CASTLE  (Dorsetshire),  in  the  Isle 
of  Purbeck,  was  the  scene  of  the  assassination 
of  Edward  the  Martyr  by  his  stepmother 
Elfrida  in  978  ;  and  in  the  disputes  between 
King  John  and  his  barons  was  the  depository 
of  the  British  regalia.  In  1642  it  was  defended 
for  six  weeks  against  the  troops  of  Charles  I., 
by  Lady  Bankes,  and  in  1645  it  was  destroyed 
by  Fairfax. 


CORFU 


[    287    ] 


CORINTHIANS 


CORFU  (Ionian  Sea).  — This  island,  the 
ancient  Corcyra,  was  colonized  by  the  Corin- 
thians B.C.  734.  The  first  sea-fight  on  record 
is  said  to  have  taken  place  between  the  fleets 
of  Corcyra  and  of  Corinth,  B.C.  664.  The  two 
states  were  continually  at  war.  The  Corcyreans 
defeated  the  Corinthian  fleet  B.C.  435,  and 
again  B.C.  432.  A  massacre  of  the  aristocratic 
party,  which  lasted  seven  days,  occurred  B.C. 
427.  The  Spartans  captured  the  island  B.C.  303, 
and  the  Romans  B.C.  229.  After  passing  through 
various  vicissitudes,  Corfu  was  taken  by  the 
Venetians  in  1386.  The  Turkish  fleet  was 
defeated  by  the  Venetians  near  Corfu  in  July, 

1716.  The  Turks  returned,  and  after  besieging 
the  town  of  Corfu  for  42  days,  retired  Aug.  18, 

1717.  By  the  fifth  article  of   the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio,  Oct.   17,  1797,  the  Emperor  of 
Gel-many  allowed  it  to  pass  to  the  French. 
The  allied  Turkish  and  Russian  forces  wrested 
the  island  from   the  French,  March  3,  1799. 
It   was,    with     other    islands,    formed    into 
the  republic  of    the  Ionian    Islands    (q.   v.). 
Having  again  fallen  into  the  hands  of   the 
French,  they  were  recovered  by  the  English 
in  1809,  and  placed  under  British  protection 
in  1815.     A  conference  respecting  the  affairs 
of   Greece  was  held  by  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  at  Corfu 
in  1828.      Ninety  soldiers  and  47  of   the  in- 
habitants   were    killed,  and    upwards  of   20x3 
persons  wounded,    by    a    powder    explosion, 
which    also  destroyed    many    buildings    and 
much  property,  June  5,  1864. 

CORINGA  (Hindostan).— The  English  took 
possession  of  this  place,  and  established  a 
factory  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  1759.  A  great 
inundation,  in  May,  1787,  swept  away  all  the 
houses,  and  destroyed  nearly  the  entire  popu- 
lation, besides  extending  far  inland.  The 
total  loss  of  life  was  estimated  at  about 
15,000  people,  besides  more  than  100,000  head 
of  cattle.  A  similar  calamity  happened  in 
1832. 

CORINTH  (Battles).— This  town  of  Missis- 
sippi was  the  theatre  of  several  important 
operations  during  the  American  civil  war. 
Defended  by  Gens.  Beauregard  and  Bragg,  it 
was  besieged  by  the  Federals  under  Gen.  Hal- 
leek,  who  advanced  to  within  eight  miles  of 
the  town,  May  3,  1862.  He  arrived  within 
three  miles,  May  21,  and  having  driven  the 
enemy  from  their  position,  May  28,  compelled 
them  to  evacuate  it,  May  29.  Occupied  by 
Gen.  Rosencrans,  Sep.  26,  1862,  Corinth  was 
attacked  by  the  Confederates,  who  killed  Gen. 
Hackelman,  and  drove  the  defenders  into  their 
intreiichments,  Oct.  3.  The  battle  was  renewed 
Oct.  4,  when  the  assailants  were  compelled  to 
retreat. 

CORINTH  (Greece).— Some  authors  are  of 
opinion  that  Corinth  was  originally  the  seat 
of  a  Phoenician  colony.  According  to  the 
traditional  account,  it  was  founded  B.C.  1520, 
under  the  name  of  Ephyre,  which  was  ex- 
changed for  that  of  Corinth  at  a  subsequent 
period.  Sisyphus  seized  the  place  B.C.  1326, 
erected  it  into  a  kingdom,  and  founded  the 
Isthmian  games.  The  first  event  in  its  history 
that  has  been  ascertained  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy  is  its  conquest  by  the  Dorians,  B.C. 


1074.  Aletes  was  the  first  Dorian  king,  and 
the  dynasty,  which  lasted  327  years,  consisted 
of  12  monarchs. 

B.C. 

935.  Reign  of  Bacchis,  a  descendant  of  Aletes.  His  suc- 
cessors take  the  name  of  Bacchidse. 

786.  The  Corinthians  invent  triremes. 

745.  The  Corinthians  depose  their  king  Telestes,  and 
elect  Automenes  prytanis,  or  annual  magistrate. 

734.  The  Corinthians  found  Syracuse  and  Corcyra. 

064.  Corcyra  revolts,  and  defeats  the  Corinthians  in  a 
naval  engagement. 

655-  Cypselus  expels  the  Bacchidae,  abolishes  the  dignity 
of  prytanis,  and  begins  to  reign  at  Corinth. 

625.  Keign  of  Periander,  who  reduces  Corcyra  to  its  old 
obedience,  and  encourages  learning  and  the 
arts. 

585.  Death  of  Periander,  who  is  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
Psammetichus. 

581.  End  of  the  Cypselian  dynasty,  and  establishment  of 
a  republic. 

457.  The  Corinthians  are  defeated  in  a  war  with  the 
Athenians. 

435.  The  Corcyreans  again  defeat  the  Corinthians  in  some 
naval  engagements,  and  capture  Epidamnus. 

305.  The  Corinthian  war  (q.  v.). 

387.  Peace  of  Antalcidas,  which  puts  an  end  to  the  Corin- 
thian war. 

344.  Timophanes,  who  attempts  to  establish  a  despotism 
at  Corinth,  is  defeated,  and  murdered  by  his 
brother  Timoleon. 

338.  Congress  at  Corinth,  which  declares  war  against 
Persia,  and  appoints  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  the  Greek 
generalissimo.  Corinth  falls  into  the  power  of  the 
Macedonians. 

343.  Aratus  delivers  Corinth  from  the  Macedonian  sway, 
and  annexes  it  to  the  Ach«an  League  (q.  v.). 

228.  First  arrival  of  Roman  ambassadors  at  Corinth. 

323.  The  Achseans  surrender  Corinth  to  Antigonus  Doson. 

197.  Battle  of  Cynoscephala?  (q.  v.). 

146.  Sack  of  Corinth  by  L.  Mummius,  who  slaughters  all 
the  male  inhabitants,  sells  the  women  and  chil- 
dren for  slaves,  conveys  the  art  treasures  of  the 
city  to  Rome,  and,  having  abandoned  it  to  pillage 
destroys  it  by  fire. 
44.  Corinth  is  restored  by  Julius  Caesar. 

A.D. 

363.  The  Isthmian  games  are  celebrated  under  the  Em- 
peror Julian. 

396.  Corinth  is  taken  by  Alaric. 

532.  Justinian  rebuilds  the  walls  and  fortifications. 
1146.  Corinth  is  plundered  by  Roger,  King  of  Sicily. 
1205.  The  Crusaders  lay  siege  to  Corinth. 
1209.  It  is  besieged  by  Geoffrey  Villehardoin. 
1310.  It  is  erected  into  an  archbishopric. 
1247-  I*  >s    taken    by  William  Villehardoin,    Prince    of 

Achaia. 

1358.  It  is  granted  to  Niccolo  Acciaiuoli. 
1422.  It  is  ceded  to  the  Venetians. 
1453.  The  Turks  seize  Corinth. 
1687.  It  is  taken  by  the  Venetians. 
1714,  June  20.  It  is  retaken  by  the  Turks. 

1822,  Oct.  2.  The  Greeks  capture  the  fortress. 

1823.  The  city  is  taken  by  the  Greeks,  and  added  to  their 

newly  formed  kingdom. 

1858,  Feb.  21.  Corinth  is  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER  of  architecture  waa 
invented  by  Callimachus  B.C.  540. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.— Corinth,  Athens,  Ar- 
gos,  Thessaly,  and  Thebes,  entered  into  an 
alliance  against  the  Spartans,  B.C.  395,  and 
the  war  was  prosecuted  with  great  vigour, 
until  brought  to  a  conclusion  by  the  peace  of 
Antalcidas,  B.C.  387.  As  hostilities  were,  for 
the  most  part,  waged  on  the  territory,  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  Corinth,  it  was  called  the 
Corinthian  war. 

CORINTHIANS  (Epistle).— Two  letters 
written  by  St.  Paul  to  the  church  which  he 
had  founded  at  Corinth  during  his  stay  there 
in  51  and  52.  The  first  epistle  was  written  by 


CORIOLI 


CORN 


St.  Paul  from  Ephesus  in  57  or  58,  and  the 
second  from  Philippi  in  57  or  58. 

CORIOLI  (Italy)  was  taken  from  the  Latins 
by  the  Volscians,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  the  Romans  B.C.  493.  All  traces  of  the 
town  had  disappeared  by  B.C.  443.  The  story 
of  Coriolanus  in  connection  with  this  city  is 
not  considered  authentic  by  Niebuhr  and  other 
writers. 

CORK  (Bishopric)  was  founded  by  St.  Barr, 
or  Finnbarr,  about  606.  In  1490  it  was  united 
to  Cloyne  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  and  in 
1586,  May  17,  the  see  of  Ross  was  also  added. 
Cloyne  was  separated  from  Cork  and  Ross 
between  1638  and  1660,  and  in  1678  Cork  was 
again  made  distinct.  The  three  sees  were 
ordered  to  be  permanently  united  by  Act  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  37,  s.  32  (Aug.  14,  1833),  which 
came  into  operation  at  the  death  of  Bishop 
Brinkley  in  1835. 

CORK  (Ireland)  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to 
St.  Barr,  who  founded  a  cathedral  and  monas- 
tery here  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century. 
It  was  laid  waste  by  the  Danes  in  832.  A  fire 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  town  in  978, 
and  it  was  again  reduced  to  ashes  during 
another  Danish  invasion  in  1013.  In  1172  it 
surrendered  to  Henry  II.,  who  established  an 
English  garrison  ;  but  the  Irish  besieged  it  in 
1182  and  in  1185,  and  finally  effected  its  capture 
in  1195.  King  John  granted  Cork  its  first 
charter  in  1185.  The  Franciscan  monastery  of 
Grey  Friars  was  founded  in  1214,  and  that  of 
the  Dominicans  in  1229.  This  city  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Irish  Parliament  in  1359.  In 
1493  the  charter  was  forfeited,  in  consequence 
of  the  favourable  reception  given  to  Perkin 
Warbeck ;  but  it  was  restored  by  James  I.  in 
1609.  In  1612  and  1622  fires  destroyed  great 
part  of  the  city,  and  a  flood  swept  away  some 
public  buildings  and  bridges  in  1633.  Cork 
was  besieged  in  1642,  and  in  1643  all  its  Irish 
inhabitants  were  expelled.  The  Parliamentary 
forces  seized  it  in  1649,  and  during  the  Protec- 
torate it  suffered  much  oppression  in  conse- 
quence of  its  adherence  to  the  royalist  cause. 
James  II.  landed  here  in  1689,  and  in  1690  the 
forces  of  William  III.,  under  Marlborough, 
took  the  town  after  a  spirited  resistance.  The 
Northgate  bridge  over  the  Lee  was  erected  in 
1712.  The  cathedral  was  taken  down  in  1725,  in 
consequence  of  the  injuries  it  had  sustained 
during  Marlborough's  siege ;  and  a  new  one 
was  commenced  on  the  original  site  in  1735. 
The  Mansion-House  was  erected  in  1767,  the 
library  was  established  in  1792,  the  house  of 
correction  built  in  1818,  and  the  city  and 
county  court-house  was  completed  in  1835. 
Riots,  caused  by  scarcity  of  food,  broke  out 
June  10,  1842;  and  Daniel  O'Connell  held  a 
monster  meeting  in  the  neighbourhood 
June  8,  1845.  Queen  Victoria  landed  here 
Aug.  3,  1849,  and  desired  that  the  town  should 
henceforward  be  called  Queenstown  in  con- 
sequence. In  1850  Cork  and  Dublin  were 
united  by  railway,  and  an  industrial  exhibition 
was  opened  June  10,  1852.  New  Northgate 
Iron  Bridge  was  opened  by  the  mayor  March  16, 
1864.  The  statue  of  Father  Mathew  was 
inaugurated  Oct.  8,  1864. 

CORK-TREE.— The  bark  of  this  tree,  a  kind 


of  oak,  was  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
for  various  purposes  ;  and  amongst  others,  to 
make  floats  to  their  nets,  anchor-buoys,  swim  - 
ming-jackets,  and  soles  for  their  shoes.  Beck- 
mann  contends  that  the  Romans  also  used  it 
to  stop  vessels  of  every  kind.  Cork  was  first 
employed  for  this  purpose  in  Europe  on  the 
invention  of  glass  bottles,  in  the  isth  century. 
The  cork-tree  was  introduced  into  England 
from  the  south  of  Europe  in  1699. 

CORN. — Jacob  sent  his  ten  sons  into  Egypt 
to  buy  corn  (Gen.  xlii.)  during  the  great 
famine,  about  B.C.  1707.  According  to  the 
Arundelian  marbles,  Ceres  taught  the  art  of 
sowing  com  at  Athens  B.C.  2409.  Some  au- 
thorities declare  that  Triptolemus  first  cul- 
tivated corn.  Corn  was  regularly  distributed 
to  the  citizens  of  Rome,  of  Constantinople, 
and  other  towns,  in  ancient  times.  Greece 
was  supplied  with  corn  from  the  coxmtries 
bordering  on  the  Black  Sea  in  the  time  of 
Xerxes.  Corn  was  imported  to  Rome  from 
Sicily  B.C.  486. 

CORN  EXCHANGE  (London)  was  projected 
and  opened  in  1747.  Alterations  were  com- 
menced in  1827,  and  the  new  building  was 
opened  June  24,  1828. 

CORN  LAWS.— The  exportation  of  corn 
from  England,  except  in  certain  cases,  was 
prohibited  by  34  Edw.  III.  c.  20  (1361).  The 
law  was  modified,  and  in  1436  exportation 
was  permitted  by  15  Hen.  VI.  c.  2,  provided 
the  home  price  did  not  exceed  6s.  Sd.  per  quar- 
ter. Dealers  were  first  allowed  to  engross 
their  corn,  i.e.  to  buy  in  one  market  with 
intent  to  sell  at  a  profit  in  another,  by  15 
Charles  II.  c.  7  (1663).  The  importation  of 
corn,  unless  the  price  of  wheat  exceeded  6s.  8d. 
per  quarter,  that  of  rye  4$. ,  and  of  barley  3*., 
was  prohibited  by  3  Edw.  IV.  c.  2  (1463),  the 
preamble  of  the  statute  stating,  "  Whereas, 
the  labourers  and  occupiers  of  husbandry 
within  this  realm  be  daily  grievously  en- 
darnaged  by  bringing  of  corn  out  of  other 
lands  and  parts  into  this  realm,  when  corn  of 
the  growing  of  this  realm  is  at  low  price." 
Further  regulations  on  the  subject  followed, 
and  the  importation  of  corn  was  heavily  taxed 
by  22  Charles  II.  c.  8  (1670),  and  also  by 
i  Will.  &  Mary  c.  12  (1689),  which  substituted 
a  bounty  for  the  previous  duty  on  exported 
corn.  The  rapid  increase  of  population,  how- 
ever, and  the  extended  commerce  and  manu- 
factures of  the  country,  led  to  alterations  in 
the  regulations  respecting  importation  ;  and 
by  13  Geo.  III.  c.  43  (1773)  foreign  wheat  was 
admitted  on  payment  of  a  duty  of  6d.  per 
quarter,  when  the  home  price  was  not  less 
than  485.  The  same  statute  ordered  the  bounty 
on  exportation  to  cease  when  corn  was  at  or 
above  44*.  These  regulations  were  again 
modified  by  31  Geo.  III.  c.  4  (1791),  which  in- 
creased the  duties  on  imported  corn.  Mr. 
Robinson's  act,  55  Geo.  III.  c.  26  (March  23, 
1815),  removed  all  restrictions  on  foreign  corn 
imported  in  order  to  be  warehoused,  and  per- 
mitted its  importation  for  home  consumption 
when  at  8os.  per  quarter.  This  bill  was  very 
unpopular,  and  occasioned  serious  riots  in  Lon- 
don and  Westminster,  March  6-9.  By  3  Geo. 
IV.  c.  60  (July  15,  1822),  the  importation  price 


CORNET 


[    289    ] 


CORONATION 


was  reduced  to  jos.  per  quarter,  and  for  corn 
from  British  North  America  to  595.  per  quarter. 
Mr.  Canning's  Corn  Bill,  proposed  March  i, 
1827,  passed  the  House  of  Commons,  bxit  was 
rejected  by  the  Lords.  Several  modifications 
were  embodied  in  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  60  (July  15, 
1828),  which  is  known  as  the  Sliding  Scale, 
because  the  duty  varied;  being  25$.  &d.  when 
the  home  price  was  6 is.  and  under  628.  per 
quarter,  i6s.  8d.  when  it  was  68s.  and  under 
69*.,  and  is.  when  it  was  at  or  above  735.  By 
the  second  Sliding  Scale  act  (5  Viet.  c.  14, 
April  29,  1842)  the  duty  ranged  from  £i  when 
corn  was  under  51$.  per  quarter  to  is.  when  it 
reached  73.?.  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Com  Importa- 
tion Bill,  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  22  (June  26,  1846),  re- 
duced the  duty  on  all  corn  imported  at  535. 
per  quarter  to  48.,  until  Feb.  i,  1849,  when  the 
duty  was  permanent! y  rediiced  to  is.  per  quar- 
ter on  all  grain  imported.  (See  ANTI-CORN-LAW 
LEAGUE.) 

CORNET.— This  officer,  occupying  in  cavalry 
regiments  the  same  position  which  the  ensign 
(q.  v.)  holds  in  the  foot  service,  is  mentioned 
in  a  list  of  the  army  in  Ireland  under  the 
Earl  of  Essex,  signed  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
March  24,  1598.  Cornets  received  at  that  time 
two  shillings  a  day. 

CORNETO  (Italy),  built  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Tarquinii,  was  erected  into  a  city  by 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.  in  1432. 

CORNWALL  (Bishopric),  founded  in  909, 
was  united  to  Devonshire  in  1040,  and  fixed  at 
Exeter  (q.  v.)  in  1046. 

CORNWALL  (England)  is  said  to  have  been 
governed  by  a  prince  named  Corineus  (whence 
its  name)  as  early  as  B.C.  1145.  Vespasian  is 
supposed  to  have  been  its  Roman  conqueror, 
about  A.D.  41  ;  but  little  is  known  of  its 
history  till  a  much  later  period.  Vortigern, 
Earl  of  Cornwall,  became  King  of  Britain  in 
425,  and  his  earldom  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  till  about  460,  when  the  Saxons 
murdered  300  of  the  British  nobility  and  com- 
pelled the  rest  to  seek  retirement  in  the 
mountainous  wilds  of  Wales  and  Cornwall, 
where  they  re-established  an  independent 
kingdom.  Arthur,  who  began  to  reign  in  517, 
and  ultimately  extended  his  dominions  much 
beyond  their  original  limits,  is  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Cornish  sovereigns.  Cuthred, 
King  of  Wessex,  annexed  a  portion  of  Corn- 
wall to  his  territories  in  753,  and  in  835  Egbert 
gained  the  whole  kingdom  at  the  battle  of 
Hengstone  Hill.  Alfred  erected  Cornwall  into 
an  earldom  before  901,  and  the  earls  continued 
in  uninterrupted  succession  from  the  old 
British  kings  of  the  country  till  1066,  when 
William  the  Conqueror  substituted  in  then- 
place  his  half-brother  Robert.  The  dignity 
remained  in  the  royal  family  till  the  death  of 
the  last  earl,  Edmund,  in  1300,  when  it  reverted 
to  the  crown.  In  1337  Edward  III.  created 
the  Black  Prince  Duke  of  Cornwall,  and  the 
title  has  since  formed  part  of  the  style  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  In  1497  one  Thomas  Flam- 
mock  incited  the  Cornishmen  to  rebellion,  and 
led  them  in  arms  to  Blackheath,  where  they 
were  defeated  by  Lord  Daubeny,  June  22, 1497. 
In  June,  1549,  the  people  rose  on  account  of 
the  imposition  of  the  prayer-book,  and  the  re 


bellion  was  quelled  at  the  battle  of  Sampford- 
Courtenay  (q.  v.).  In  1595  the  Spaniards  made 
a  descent  on  the  Cornish  coasts,  and  committed 
several  depredations.  The  Prince  and  Princess 
of  Wales  visited  Cornwall  in  1865. 

CORONATION.— Justin  II.,  who  succeeded 
Justinian  I.  Nov.  15,  565,  was  the  first  em- 
peror crowned  with  ceremony  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  Charlemagne  adopted  the 
custom,  and  was  crowned  by  the  Pope,  at 
Rome,  Dec.  25,  800.  Edward  I.  (the  Elder), 
crowned  Whitsunday,  902,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  English  monarch  to  adopt  the 
ceremony.  The  custom  for  the  queen  to  be 
crowned  originated  here  before  the  Conquest. 
The  French  queens  were  for  a  long  time 
crowned  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris. 
Kingston-on-Thames,  London,  Westminster, 
and  Winchester,  were  chosen  by  different  Eng- 
lish kings,  in  early  times,  for  their  coronation. 
Edward  the  Confessor,  who  was  crowned  at 
Winchester,  formally  fixed  the  monastery 
founded  by  him  at  Westminster  as  the  place 
for  the  ceremony  (Dec.  28,  1065). 

CORONATION  BANQUET.  —  The  feast 
usually  held  in  Westminster  Hall  on  the  day 
of  the  coronation,  was  omitted  by  William  IV. 
on  his  coronation,  Sep.  8,  1831,  and  has  not 
been  revived. 

CORONATION  OATH.— The  oath  taken  in 
Sweden  before  the  conversion  of  the  country 
to  Christianity  is  still  extant.  It  contains  the 
name  of  Odin,  and  was  accommodated  to  the 
Christian  faith  by  Eric  in  1156.  The  Greek 
emperors,  in  their  coronation  oath,  which  con- 
sisted of  six  articles,  professed,  amongst  other 
things,  their  acceptance  of  the  Apostles'  Creed 
and  of  the  apostolical  traditions,  confirmed  the 
rights  of  the  Church,  and  acknowledged  the 
constitutions  of  the  seven  oecumenical  councils. 
The  oath  taken  by  Ethelred  II.,  who  was 
crowned  in  979,  is  extant.  The  oath  of  the 
kings  of  France  was  similar  to  that  of  Ethel- 
red  II.,  King  of  England.  The  next  oath  of 
which  a  copy  exists  is  that  taken  by  Henry  I. 
in  i ioo,  and  it  agrees  exactly  with  the  former. 
The  office  used  by  Ethelred  II.  appears  to 
have  been  adopted  by  his  successors  to  the 
reign  of  Edward  II.,  when  some  slight  alter- 
ations were  made.  One  of  the  articles  of 
impeachment  against  Archbishop  Laud  was 
the  charge  of  having  altered  the  coronation 
oath  for  Charles  I.  By  i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  6 
(1689),  a  new  coronation  oath  was  framed,  the 
former  oath  containing,  according  to  this 
statute,  "doubtful  words  and  expressions 
with  relation  to  ancient  laws  and  constitu- 
tions now  unknown."  This  was  altered  at  the 
union  with  Scotland. 

CORONATION  STONE.  —  "  The  legends  of 
the  old  historians,"  says  Taylor  (Glory  of  Re- 
gality, p.  53),  "  inform  us  that  this  is  the  very 
stone  on  which  the  patriarch  Jacob  laid  his 
head  in  the  plain  of  Luz  ;  that  it  was  brought 
from  Egypt  into  Spain  by  Gathelus  the 
supposed  founder  of  the  Scottish  nation ; 
that  it  was  thence  transported  into  Ireland, 
'  amongst  other  princelie  ie  wells  and  regall 
monuments,'  by  Simon  Brech,  who  was 
crowned  upon  it  about  B.C.  700,  and  that  it 
was  thence  carried  to  Scotland  by  King 

u 


CORONEA 


[    290    ] 


CORRUPTIBLES 


Fergus,  B.C.  330."  The  real  history  is  that  it 
was  transferred  from  Ireland  to  Scotland  at  an 
early  period,  and  was  placed  in  the  abbey 
church  of  Scone  in  850.  The  Scottish  kings 
were  crowned  here  until  1296,  when  Edward 
T.  carried  it  to  England.  It  was  agreed  by 
the  treaty  of  Northampton,  in  1328,  that 
the  stone  should  be  returned  to  Scotland,  buj 
this  was  not  done.  It  is  called  the  "  Stone  oi 
Destiny,"  and  is  fixed  under  the  seat  of  the 
coronation  chair,  which  is  made  of  oak. 

CORONEA  (Battles).— The  Boaotians  defeated 
the  Athenians  on  this  plain  in  Boeotia,  B.  c.  447 
Agesilaus,  at  the  head  of  the  Spartans,  during 
the  Corinthian  war,  defeated  the  Thebans  and 
their  allies  here  B.C.  394.  Several  battles  were 
fought  in  the  vicinity.  (See  CH^ERONEA.) 

CORONER.— This  office  is  of  very  ancient 
institution,  and  is  said  by  Ducange  to  be  pecu 
liar  to  the  English.  It  is  mentioned  in  a  char- 
ter of  King  Athelstan  in  905,  and  the  laws  of 
Malcolm  II.,  who  began  to  reign  in  1004,  con- 
tain many  regulations  respecting  the  authority 
of  this  officer  in  Scotland.  The  lord  chief 
justice  of  the  Queen's  Bench  is  the  chief 
coroner  in  the  realm  ;  but  there  are,  besides, 
particular  coroners  for  every  county,  who 
were  first  appointed  in  1275  by  the  statute 
of  Westminster  I.  (3  Edw.  I.'i.  Originally  none 
but  knights  were  permitted  to  hold  t  he- 
office;  but  it  has  gradually  become  sufficient 
that  a  man  pos.sess  landed  property  worth 
£•20  per  annum.  Coroners  are  chosen  for  life  ; 
but  by  25  Geo.  II.  c.  293.  6  (1752  ,  extortion, 
neglect,  or  misbehaviour,  are  made  reasons  for 
removal.  In  case  of  sickness  or  other  sufficient 
'•oroners  are  allowed  to  act  by  deputy 
by  6  <fc  7  Viet.  c.  83  (Aug.  22,  1843).  Tbe  law 
relating  to  election,  duties,  and  payment  was 
amended  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  116  Aug.  28,  1860;. 

CORONET.  —  The  exact  period  at  which 
coronets  were  used  by  the  different  orders  of 
the  nobility  is  not  known.  Henry  III.  granted 
them  to  earls,  James  I.  to  viscounts,  and 
Charles  II.  to  barons.  Dukes  and  marquises 
also  wear  coronets.  The  coronet  was  originally 
a  circlet  or  garland,  worn  as  an  ornament. 
Some  authorities  say  it  was  not  used  by 
knights  before  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  and 
then  indiscriminately  by  princes,  dukes,  earls, 
or  knights. 

CORPORATIONS  are  of  two  kinds,  aggregate 
or  sole  ;  the  first  consisting  of  many  persons 
united  together  into  one  society,  and  kept  up 
by  a  perpetual  succession  of  members  ;  the 
second  of  one  person  only  and  his  successors. 
The  invention  is  attributed  to  the  Romans. 
(See  MUNICIPAL  CORPORATIONS.) 

CORPULENCE.  — In  Sparta,  citizens  who 
grew  too  fat  were  soundly  whipped.  Nau- 
clis,  the  son  of  Polytus,  was  brought  before 
the  Ephori,  and  his  excessive  corpulence  was 
exposed  to  the  public.  He  was,  moreover, 
threatened  with  perpetual  banishment  if  he 
failed  to  reduce  his  body  within  reasonable 
dimensions.  Sennertus  mentions  a  man  and 
a  woman  who  weighed  respectively  600  and 
450  Ib.  Bright,  of  Essex,  who  died  in  1750, 
weighed  588  Ib.  Daniel  Lambert,  who  died 
June  21,  1809,  weighed,  a  few  days  before  his 
death,  52  stone  n  Ib.,  or  739  Ib. 


CORPUS  CHRISTI.— This  festival  of  the 
Romish  Church,  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of 
trail  substantiation  and  the  adoration  of  the 
host,  was  first  celebrated  at  Liege  in  1241,  by 
the  canons  of  St.  Martin.  Urban  IV.  published 
a  bull  in  favour  of  it  between  1262  and  1264; 
but  it  did  not  become  general  until  the  order 
was  repeated  by  Clement  V.  in  1311,  and  it  was 
strictly  enjoined  by  the  isth  general  council, 
held  at  Vienne,  in  1311  and  1312.  It  is  cele- 
brated on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday, 
and  is  called  in  France  the  Fete  D'K-C. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI  or  BENEDICT 
COLLEGE  (Cambridge)  was  founded  in  1352, 
by  the  brethren  of  the  guilds  of  Corpus  Christi 
and  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  old  building  was 
replaced  by  a  new  one  in  1823.  The  chapel 
was  built  by  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  in  1578. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI  COLLEGE  (Oxford  was 
founded  by  Richard  Fox,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
in  1516.  An  additional  building  was  erected 
by  Dr.  Turner  in  1706. 

CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY.— In  1794  two 
political  societies,  one  styled  the  Society  for 
Constitutional  Information,  and  the  other,  the 
most  numerous,  the  Corresponding  Society, 
established  in  1791,  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  England.  The  professed  object  of 
both  was  reform  in  the  parliamentary  repre- 
sentation of  the  people ;  but  they  cherished 
designs  of  a  dangerous  character.  The  latter, 
in  particular,  denounced  the  war  with  France, 
and  corresponded  extensively  with  the  leading 
republicans  in  France.  The  London  Corre- 
sponding Society  and  four  other  societies  for- 
warded a  sympathetic  address  to  the  French 
National  Convention,  'bearing  date  Sep.  27, 
1792.  A  proclamation  against  seditious  meet- 
ings had  been  issued  May  21,  1792,  and  in  1794 
the  secretaries  to  the  two  societies,  Home 
Tooke  and  others,  were  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  treasonable  practices,  and  committed  to  the 
Tower.  The  trials  came  on  before  a  special 
commission  at  the  Old  Bailey,  Oct.  25,  and 
having  in  three  cases  resulted  in  an  acquittal, 
the  prosecution  was  abandoned.  The  London 
Corresponding  Society  held  open-air  meetings 
near  Copenhagen  House,  Oct.  26,  Nov.  13, 
and  in  Marylebone  Fields  Dec.  9,  1795,  and 
again  in  the  fields  near  Copenhagen  House, 
Nov.  12,  1796.  Bills  for  the  safety  and  preser- 
vation of  his  Majesty's  person  and  government, 
and  to  prevent  seditious  assemblies,  were 
passed  late  in  1795.  The  London  Corresponding 
Society  called  a  meeting  in  a  field  near  St. 
Pancras,  July  28,  1797,  when  their  proceedings 
were  interrupted  by  the  authorities,  and 
several  of  their  leaders  kept  in  custody  until 
they  procured  bail.  The  mutiny  at  the  Nore, 
Sep.  i,  1797,  was  stirred  up  by  emissaries  from 
these  societies.  Prompt  measures  were  adopted 
by  the  government,  and  although  the  London 
Corresponding  Society  ceased  to  exist,  its 
members  formed  other  associations,  which 
continued  to  create  discontent  during  this 
critical  period. 

CORRUPTIBLES  and  INCORRUPTIBLES. 
—Two  factions  into  which  the  Monophysite 
Church  at  Alexandria  was  divided.  Mosheim 

fives  the  following  account  of  their  origin, 
ulian  of    Halicarnassus,  in  519,   maintained 


CORRUPT 


[    291    ] 


CORUNNA 


that  "the  divine  nature  had  so  insinuated 
itself  into  the  body  of  Christ,  from  the  very 
moment  of  conception,  as  to  change  its  nature, 
and  render  it  incorruptible."  Hence  the 
schism,  which  lasted  many  years,  and  even 
produced  contentions  that  ended  in  bloodshed. 
CORRUPT  PRACTICES.— Various  statutes 
to  repress  bribery  at  elections  were  consoli- 
dated and  amended  by  the  Corrupt  Practices 
Amendment  Act,  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  102  (Aug.  10, 
1854),  which  was  amended  and  continued  by 
21  &  22  Viet.  c.  87  (Aug.  2,  1858).  The  law  as 
thus  established  has  been  continued  by  subse- 
quent acts.  (See  BRIBERY.) 

CORSICA  (Mediterranean  Sea).— This  island, 
called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos,  became,  B.C.  564, 
the  seat  of  a  colony  of  Phocseans,  who  were 
expelled  by  the  Tyrrhenians.  The  Romans 
attacked  the  inhabitants  B.C.  259,  but  they 
were  not  finally  subdued  until  B.C.  231.  The 
Vandals  overran  Corsica  A.IX  456,  and  it  fell 
into  the  power  of  the  Saracens  in  852.  In  1077 
the  Pope  ceded  it  to  the  Pisans,  and  in  1297  it 
was  given  to  James  II.,  of  Aragon,  by  Boniface 
VIII.  James  II.,  however,  made  no  effort  to 
secure  it,  and  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Pisans  till  they  were  expelled  by  the  Genoese 
in  1312.  The  French  and  Turks  made  an 
attempt  to  conquer  the  island  in  1553.  It  was 
finally  secured  to  the  Genoese  by  the  treaty 
of  Cateau-Cambresis  in  1559.  A  revolt  broke 
out  in  1729;  and  in  1755  Gen.  Paoli  delivered 
a  great  part  of  the  country  from  the  Genoese 
yoke.  Unable  to  reduce  the  inhabitants  to 
subjection,  the  republic  of  Genoa  ceded  Corsica 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Compiegne  (Aug. 
5,  1768).  Napoleon  Buonaparte  was  born  at 
Ajaccio  (q.  v.}  Feb.  5,  1768.  In  1793  Paoli  re- 
newed his  efforts  to  liberate  his  country,  and 
succeeded  in  delivering  it  from  French  domina- 
tion. The  Assembly  unanimously  voted  the 
union  of  Corsica  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain, 
June  19,  1794.  Lord  Minto  ruled  as  viceroy  till 

Eg6,  when  the  island  was  recaptured  by  a 
•ench  force  under  Gentili.  Under  the  re- 
public, Corsica  formed  the  two  departments  of 
Golo  and  Liamone.  In  1811  they  were  united. 
The  British  attempted  its  recapture  in  1814. 
Since  the  peace  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814,  it 
has  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of 
France.  A  statue  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I. 
was  inaugurated  at  Ajaccio,  by  Prince  Napo- 
leon, May  15,  1865.  (See  FRANCE.) 

CORTENUOVA  (Battle).— Fought  between 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  and  the  Lombard 
League,  at  this  place,  near  Milan,  Nov.  27, 
1237.  The  conflict  was  sustained  with  great 
vigour,  but  the  Italians  were  at  length  de- 
feated. 

CORTES.— The  name  given  to  the  national 
assembly  in  Spain  and  in  Portugal.  The  com- 
mons were  admitted  by  representation  in  the 
Cortes  of  Aragon  in  1133,  and  in  the  Cortes  of 
Castile  in  1169,  or,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties, in  1 1 60.  The  convocation  of  the  states  in 
Aragon  was  made  annual,  instead  of  biennial, 
in  1307.  About  90  towns  sent  192  represen- 
tatives to  the  Cortes  of  Burgos  in  1315  ;  and 
50  towns  sent  126  to  the  Cortes  of  Madrid  in 
1391.  Charles  V.  dismissed  them  in  Feb.,  1539. 
The  Spanish  Cortes  assembled  at  Cadiz  in  1810, 


after  a  long  interval,  and  opened  Sep.  24.  They 
drew  up  a  constitution,  which  was  finally 
accepted  March  19,  1812.  Ferdinand  VII. 
suppressed  the  Cortes  in  May,  1814,  but 
restored  them,  and  took  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance to  the  constitution  of  1812,  March  8,  1820. 
They  were  again  suppressed  Oct.  i,  1823,  and  a 
decree  was  issued  for  their  restoration  April 
13,  1834,  and  they  reassembled  July  24.  The 
Portuguese  Corte\s,  remodelled  in  1826,  were 
suppressed  by  Don  Miguel  in  1828,  and  restored 
in  1842. 

CORTICELLA  (Battle).— The  tyrant  Ecce- 
lino  defeated  the  papal  forces  at  this  place,  in 


Italy,  Aug.  30,  1258. 
CORTONA  (It  -   ' 


(Italy),  the  Corythus  of  Virgil 
(Mn.  iii.  167 ;  vii.  206),  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Umbrians,  from  whom 
it  was  wrested  by  the  Pelasgians.  Situated 
on  a  lofty  hill  between  Arretium  and  Clusium, 
in  an  almost  impregnable  position,  it  was 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Etruria, 
and  formed  one  of  the  12  of  the  Etruscan 
confederation.  It  afterwards  fell  under  the 
power  of  the  Romans,  but  the  exact  period 
when  this  happened  has  not  been  ascertained. 
The  modern  Cortona  was  one  of  the  earliest 
bishoprics  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
Bishop  of  Arezzo  claimed  spiritual  jurisdic- 
tion over  it  in  the  i3th  century.  This  led  to 
a  war,  and  Cortona  was  taken  and  its  castle 
destroyed  in  1258.  It  was  sold  to  the  Floren- 
tines in  1411,  and  has  since  remained  in  their 
possession.  The  Academia  Etrusca  was  estab- 
lished in  1726. 

CORUNDUM.— The  identity  of  this  mineral, 
long  known  under  the  name  of  adamantine 
spar,  with  the  sapphire,  pointed  out  by 
Pelletier  and  De  Lametherie  in  1787,  was 
confirmed  in  an  account  read  before  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  by  Mr.  Greville,  June  7, 1798. 

CORUNNA  (Battle).— Gen.  Soult  having  fol- 
lowed the  British  in  their  retreat  from  Spain, 
came  up  with  them  near  this  seaport  town, 
in  the  night,  Jan.  16,  1809.  The  English 
general,  Sir  John  Moore,  made  preparations 
for  the  embarkation  of  the  troops;  but  the 
transports  had  not  arrived,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  give  battle.  The  action  commenced 
at  two  in  the  afternoon,  Jan.  16,  and  though 
the  English  were  at  first  repulsed,  by  dint  of 
»reat  exertion  they  defeated  their  opponents. 
Sir  John  Moore  fell  in  the  hour  of  victory  ;  and 
Sir  John  Hope,  on  whom  the  command  had 
devolved,  succeeded  in  embarking  the  army 
during  the  night.  The  French  army  amounted 
to  20,000  and  the  English  to  about  14,000  men. 
The  loss  of  the  former  was  2,000,  and  that  of 
the  latter  nearly  1,000  in  killed  and  wounded. 
Corunna  is  called  by  English  sailors  "The 
Groyne." 

CORUNNA,  CORUNA,  or  THE  GROYNE 
(Spain).— This  city,  founded  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, was  taken  in  the  ist  century  B.C.  by 
the  Romans,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Ardo- 
brica.  In  1386  John  of  Gaunt  landed  here  as 
claimant  of  the  crown  of  Castile,  and  in  1554 
Philip  II.  embarked  at  this  port  for  England, 
to  marry  Queen  Mary.  The  Spanish  Armada 
(q.  i'.},  driven  by  stress  of  weather  into  the 
harbour  of  Corunna,  set  sail  thence  on  its  fruit- 
u  2 


CORVEE 


[    292 


COTTON 


less  mission,  July  22, 1588.  The  town  was  seized 
by  the  French  Jan.  iq,  1809,  and  again  in  1823. 

CORVEE.— Turgot  issued  a  decree  for  the 
abolition  of  the  system  of  forced  labour  in 
France  in  1775  ;  but  it  was  not  carried  out. 
It  was,  however,  abolished  in  1789.  Baron 
Stern  abolished  it  in  Prussia  in  Oct.,  1807. 

CORVEI.— (See  CORBIE.) 

CORWEN  (Battles).— Henry  II.  was  defeated 
near  this  town,  in  Wales,  by  Owen  Gwynneth, 

in  1165. Henry  IV.  sustained  a  reverse  in  the 

same  locality,  from  Glendower,  in  1402. 

CORYGAUM  (Battle).— A  detachment  con- 
sisting of  500  native  infantry,  26  European 
artillerymen,  and  a  small  number  of  auxiliary 
horse,  was  assailed  at  this  village,  in  Hin- 
dostan,  Jan.  i,  1818,  by  the  Peishwa,  with  an 
overwhelming  force.  The  former  maintained 
its  ground,  and  the  Peishwa  made  a  precipitate 
retreat. 

COS  (Archipelago),  the  capital  of  a  small 
island  of  the  same  name,  the  ancient  Meropis, 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  B.C.  431 — 404.  It  belongs 
to  Turkey,  and  is  called  Staiiko,  or  Stanchio. 

COS  A,  or  COSSA  (Italy).— This  city  of 
Etruria  received  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  273. 

COSENZA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Consentia, 
the  chief  city  of  the  Brutii,  was  taken  by  the 
Carthaginians  and  surrendered  to  Rome,  B.C. 
204.  Alaric  I.  died  in  this  city  in  410.  The 
course  of  the  Busento,  a  small  river  that 
washes  its  walls,  was  diverted,  and  in  its  bed,  the 
body  of  the  hero,  with  the  spoils  and  trophies 
of  Rome,  was  interred,  when  the  waters  were 
restored  to  their  natural  channel.  Consentia, 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  988,  is  an  arch- 
bishopric. 

COSMOPOLITAN  CLUB  (London)  was 
established  in  1852.  A  city  club  with  the 
same  name  was  founded  in  1842. 

COSSACKS.— The  term  Kosack,  or  Cossack, 
is  of  Turkish  origin,  signifying  robber.  The 
generally  received  opinion  is,  that  they  arc  a 
native  Russian  race,  intermixed  with  Calmucks 
and  Tartars.  They  are  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal classes,  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  the 
Cossacks  of  Little  Russia  or  the  Malo-Russian 
Cossacks.  The  latter  are  first  mentioned  in 
the  1 4th  century,  during  the  Polish  invasion 
of  Russia.  They  were  not  known  by  the  name 
of  Cossacks  until  1516.  Stephen  Bathori,  King 
of  Poland,  formed  them  into  regiments,  under 
the  control  of  a  hetman,  or  headman,  in  1592. 
They  placed  themselves  under  the  protection 
of  Russia  in  1654,  and  revolted  in  1708.  The 
Cossacks  of  the  Don  entered  the  service  of 
Russia  in  the  i6th  century.  Tscherkask,  their 
capital,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1744,  was  rebuilt 
in  1805. 

COSSIMBAZAR  (  Hindostan).— The  East 
India  Company  established  a  factory  here  in 
1706.  Surajah  Dowlah  seized  it  in  June,  1756. 

COSSIO,  or  COSSIUM.— The  site  of  this 
town  of  the  Vasates,  an  Aquitanian  people,  is 
occupied  by  Bazas  (q.  v.). 

COSSOVA  (Battles).— The  Sultan  Amurath  I. 
defeated  a  combined  army  of  Albanians,  Dal- 
matians, Hungarians,  and  Wallachians,  on  the 
Amselfeld,  or  plain  of  Cossova,  in  Servia,  in 
Sep.,  1389.  A  Servian  soldier,  lying  wounded 


on  the  field  of  battle,  stabbed  Amurath  in  the 
belly,  and  the  wound  proved  mortal. Amu- 
rath II.,  one  of  his  successors,  defeated  John 
Corvinus  Huniades  at  the  same  place,  Oct.  17, 
1448.  The  Turkish  army  amounted  to  more 
than  100,000,  whilst  Huniades  could  only 
muster  24,000  men. 

COSTA  RICA  (Central  America)  formed  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Guatemala,  until  the 
declaration  of  independence  by  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  South  America,  in  1821,  when  it 
was  united  to  the  Mexican  kingdom  of  Iturbe. 
It  formed  one  of  the  Central  American  Con- 
federacy in  1823,  and  was  constituted  an  in- 
dependent republic  Nov.  22,  1848.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  between  England  and  Costa 
Rica  was  signed  at  San  Jose"  Nov.  27,  1849,  and 
ratifications  were  exchanged  in  London,  Feb. 
20,  1850.  It  consists  of  16  articles.  Costa  Rica 
was  recognized  by  Spain,  and  a  treaty  concluded 
at  Madrid,  May  10,  1850.  The  rich  gold  mines  in 
the  forest  of  Aguacate  were  first  worked  in  1821. 
COSTROMA  (Russia),  the  capital  of  a  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  was  founded  in  1152. 
The  monastery  of  Ipatskoi,  from  which  the 
founder  of  the  Romanoff  dynasty  emerged  in 
1613,  was  established  in  1330.  Costroma  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric. 

COSTUME.— (See  DRESS.) 
COTEREAUX.— (See  BRABANCONS.) 
COTERIE  CLUB  (London).— This  association, 
founded  by  people  of  quality  about  1770,  be- 
came notorious  for  the  debaucheries  practised 
by  its  members. 

CO-THEN. -(&*  ANHALT.) 

COTTA  (Ceylon).— This  city,  the  capital  in 
1527  of  King  Dharma  Prakrama  IX.,  was 
besieged  in  1536  and  in  1540  by  insurgent 
Singhalese  under  Maaya  Dunnai,  who  was 
repulsed  on  each  occasion  by  the  Portuguese. 
In  1542  its  sovereign  with  his  court  embraced 
Christianity.  Rajah  Singha,  "  the  Lion  King," 
son  of  Maaya  Dunnai,  attacked  Cotta  with 
such  vigour  in  1563,  that  the  defenders  were 
compelled  to  salt  the  bodies  of  their  slain 
comrades  as  a  resource  against  famine.  The 
fort  having  been  proved  indefensible,  was  dis- 
mantled in  1564,  when  the  court  removed  to 
Colombo  (q.  v. ),  the  modern  capital. 

COTTAGE.— By  31  Eliz.  c.  7  (1589),  no 
cottage  was  to  be  erected  unless  four  acres  of 
land  were  attached  to  it,  and  only  one  family 
was  allowed  to  inhabit  it.  The  act  did  not  ap- 
ply to  towns  or  to  places  on  the  coast ;  nor 
did  it  interfere  with  the  erection  of  cottages 
for  miners,  or  keepers  in  parks,  forests,  <fec. 
It  was  repealed  by  15  Geo.  III.  c.  32  (1775). 

COTTON.— This  useful  material,  obtained 
from  the  cotton-plant,  which  Linnseus  sub- 
divided into  five  species,  has  been  grown  in 
India  from  time  immemorial,  and  is  mentioned 
in  the  annals  of  Egypt. 
A.D. 

1252-  Cotton  goods  are  made  in  Persia. 

1253-  Flemish  weavers  make  linen  in  England. 

1328.  A  species  of  woollen  poods,  called  "Manchester 
cottons,"  is  made  at  Manchester  by  Flemish  emi- 
grants. 

1368.  Cotton  is  manufactured  in  China. 

1390.  Cotton  (woollen)  first  made  at  Kendal. 

1477.  First  European  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  is  at- 
tempted in  Spain  and  Italy. 

1590.  Cotton  cloth  is  brought  to  London  from  Guinea. 


COTTON 


[    293 


COTTONIAN 


1634.  The  linen  trade  is  commenced  in  Ireland. 
1650.  Very  fine  calicoes  are  made  at  Calicut,  in  India. 
1756.  Cotton  velvets  are  first  made  in  England. 

(See  COTTON  TRADE  AND  MANUFACTURE.) 

COTTON  FAMINE.— The  distress  in 
Lancashire  and  the  other  seats  of  the  cotton 
manufacture  in  England,  consequent  on  the 
dearth  of  the  raw  material,  though  dating 
from  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  April 
12,  1861,  and  the  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports 
instituted  by  the  Federal  Government  April 
19,  owing  to  the  overstocked  condition  of  the 
market,  did  not  commence  till  nearly  a  year 
later.  On  account  of  an  unprecedented  ad- 
vance in  the  price  of  cotton,  many  factories 
worked  short  time  in  Oct.,  and  in  Dec.  it  was 
found  necessary  to  organize  systems  of  relief. 

A.D. 

1863,  Jan.  3.  A  meeting  is  held  in  the  Moot  Hall,  Wigan, 
at  which  a  committee  is  formed.  Similar  measures 
are  adopted  at  Blackburn  and  Preston.  The 
famine  extends  to  Oldham,  Bury,  Rochdale,  and 
over  all  the  manufacturing  districts,  whence 
many  operatives  remove  into  other  parts  of  the 
country.  —  April  29.  The  Central  Helief  Com- 
mittee of  Manchester  is  established.— May.  The 
London  Mansion  House  Committee  is  formed. — 
May  12.  Mr.  H.  B.  Farnall  is  appointed  special 
commissioner  by  government  to  make  inquiries 
as  to  the  operation  of  the  Poor  Laws  in  the  dis- 
tressed districts,  &c.— July  19.  The  Cotton  District 
Relief  Fund  originates  at  a  meeting  held  under  the 
presidency  of  Lord  Derby  at  Bridgewater  House, 
where  £  11,000  are  subscribed.— Aug.  The  opera- 
tives having  objected  to  the  labour  test  prescribed 
by  the  Poor  Laws,  which,  consisting  chiefly  of 
stone-breaking,  injured  the  health  of  men  accus- 
tomed to  work  within  doors  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, the  Manchester  Board  of  Guardians  suggests 
the  establishment  of  schools  for  reading  and  sew- 
ing, which  men,  women,  and  children  should  be 
required  to  attend  as  the  condition  of  receiving 
relief.— Aug.  7.  The  Union  Relief  Aid  Act  (25  &  36 
Viet.,  c.  no)  enables  boards  of  guardians  in  Lan- 
cashire, Cheshire,  and  Derbyshire  to  obtain  by 
loans  the  means  of  meeting  the  extraordinary  de- 
mands upon  them. — Aug.  13.  A  conference  on  the 
cotton-supply  question,  held  in  the  council-room 
of  the  Horticultural  Society,  is  attended  by  a  depu- 
tation from  the  Cotton  Supply  Association  (q.  p.), 
and  by  the  foreign  commissioners  to  the  Interna- 
tional Exhibition.  —Sep.  8.  Twenty-four  Poor-Law 
Unions  in  the  distressed  districts  afford  out-door 
relief  to  140,165  persons,  at  a  weekly  cost  of  =67,923, 
being  nearly  100,000  persons  in  excess  of  the  num- 
ber for  the  corresponding  period  of  1861. — Dec. 
g.  At  a  meeting  held  in  Manchester  Town  Hall, 
attended  by  Lords  Derby,  Sefton,  Egerton  of 
Tatton,  and  some  of  the  principal  landowners  in 
the  county,  £70,000  are  subscribed,  which  sum  is 
afterwards  raised  to  £130,000.— Dec.  37.  The  dis- 
tress reaches  its  climax.  496.816  persons  are 
dependent  on  charitable  or  parochial  funds. 

1863,  Feb.  Three  American  vessels,  the  George  Griswold, 
the  Achilles,  and  the  Hope,  freighted  with  goods 
contributed  by  the  people  of  the  United  States  for 
the  relief  of  the  sufferers,  anchor  at  Liverpool.— 
March.  In  consequence  of  a  reduced  rate  of  relief, 
and  a  resolution  to  pay  the  grants  in  provision 
tickets  instead  of  money,  riots,  unaccompanied  by 
loss  of  life  or  bloodshed,  occur  at  Staleybridge. 
— June  30.  The  distress  is  on  the  wane.  At 
this  date  a  total  of  ,£1,974,203  has  been  contri- 
buted to  the  various  relief  funds,  of  which  tlie 
Central  Relief  Fund  received  £892,379 ;  the  Mansion 
House  Fund,  £503,131 ;  the  Cotton  Districts  and 
Liverpool  Relief  Funds,  £354,380;  and  the  Loca 
Relief  Funds,  £324,413. —July  31.  The  Pubiic 
Works  in  Manufacturing  Districts  Act  (26  &  27 
Viet.,  c.  70)  empowers  local  boards  to  borrow  funds 
for  the  construction  of  public  works  in  the  cotton 
districts,  on  which  able-bodied  operatives  are  to 
be  employed. 


1865,  Dec.  4.  The  final  meeting  of  the  Executive  Central 
Committee  is  held  under  the  presidency  of  Lord 
Derby,  in  Manchester  Town  Hall.  The  committee 
declare  that  they  have  a  balance  in  hand  of 
£37,456  i8s.  The  Cotton  District  Relief  Fund  closes 
operations  with  a  balance  of  £5,967  5*.  3d. 

COTTON  SUPPLY  ASSOCIATION,  formed 
at  Manchester  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
growth  of  cotton  in  India  and  other  countries, 
was  established  in  1857.  In  consequence  of 
its  recommendations,  the  governor-general  in 
council  promulgated  a  resolution,  Aug.  9,  1861, 
whereby  prizes  were  offered  to  successful 
growers  of  cotton,  and  other  encouragements 
afforded  to  its  cultivation  in  India 

COTTON  TRADE  AND  MANUFACTURE.— 
The  first  mention  of  the  cotton  trade  of 
Great  Britain  occurs  in  Lewis  Robert s's  "  Trea- 
sury of  Traffic,"  published  in  1641,  where  Man- 
chester is  named  as  receiving  cotton-wool  from 
Smyrna  and  Cyprus,  and  manufacturing  it  into 
"fustians,  vermillions,  dimities,  and  other 
such  stuffes."  In  1660  all  colonial  cotton  was 
ordered  to  be  sent  to  England  for  manufacture, 
and  in  1 760  the  annual  value  of  the  trade  was 
estimated  at  only  £200,000.  A  machine  for 
spinning  by  rollers  was  patented  by  Messrs. 
Wyatt  and  Paul  as  early  as  1738  ;  but  the 
inventors  were  unable  to  render  it  of  practical 
utility,  and  it  was  subsequently  abandoned. 
The  first  great  improvement  in  the  manufac- 
ture was  Hargreave's  invention  of  the  spin- 
ning-jenny, which  was  perfected  in  1767.  Sir 
Richard  Arkwright's  spinning-frame,  patented 
in  1769,  and  improved  and  again  patented  in 
1775,  completely  superseded  the  laborious 
process  of  spinning  by  hand.  The  mule-jenny 
was  invented  by  Samuel  Crompton  in  1775, 
and  was  immediately  substituted  for  the  pre- 
vious machine  of  Hargreave.  The  expiration  of 
Arkwright's  patent  in  1785  gave  an  impetus  to 
the  ingenuity  of  inventors;  and  the  power-loom 
which  was  patented  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cart- 
wright  in  1787,  wonderfully  increased  the  rate 
of  manufacture.  Importation  of  the  raw  ma- 
terial from  America  commenced  in  1791,  when 
189,316  lb.  were  received.  The  invention  of 
Eh  Whitney  s  machine  for  separating  the  wool 
from  the  seed,  which  was  completed  in  1700 
added  so  much  to  the  facility  of  transpor- 
tation, that  in  1794  the  amount  received  was 
i,6oi,76olb. 

COTTONIAN  LIBRARY.— This  collection, 
formed  by  Sir  Robert  Bmce  Cotton  (born 
Jan.  22,  1570,  died  May  6,  1631),  was  largely 
augmented  by  his  son  and  grandson.  It  was 
for  some  time  kept  at  Cotton  House,  West- 
minster, and  regulations  for  its  better  preser- 
vation were  enacted  by  12  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  7 
(1700).  By  5  Anne  c.  30  (1706)  authority  was 
given  for  purchasing  Cotton  House  and  gar- 
dens for  £4,500,  and  for  building  a  convenient 
room  for  a  library.  In  1730  the  library  was 
removed  to  Ashburnham  House,  Westminster 
and  Oct.  23,  1731,  it  suffered  greatly  from  a 
nre  that  broke  out  in  the  building  The 
number  of  manuscript  volumes  contained  in 
the  library  before  the  fire  was  958.  Of  these 
1 14  were  either  destroyed  or  rendered  useless 
and  98  damaged.  With  other  collections  it  in 


COUNCIL 


[     294    ] 


COURT 


1756,  formed  the  commencement  of  the  British 
Museum  (q.  v.). 

COUNCIL,  or  SYNOD.— The  chief  authori- 
ties of  the  Church  assembled  in  the  2nd  cen- 
tury, in  council  or  synod,  to  regulate  eccle- 
siastical affairs.  The  assembly  at  Jerusalem 
of  the  apostles  and  elders  (Acts  xv.  4),  about 
49,  is  the  first  on  record.  Nicolas  ("  The  Chro- 
nology of  History  ")  gives  a  list  of  these  coun- 
cils, commencing  with  that  of  Pergamus,  in 
Asia,  in  152,  and  ending  with  that  of  Trent 
(q.  v.).  Landon  has  compiled  a  Manual  of  Coun- 
cils from  the  best  authorities.  (See  GENERAL 
.COUNCILS.) 

COUNCILS,  in  which  persons  assembled  to 
deliberate  on  public  affairs,  existed  in  very 
early  times.  The  Roman  concilium  was  an 
assembly  of  the  people  from  which  the  patri- 
cians were  excluded.  (See  AMPHICTYONIC 
COUNCIL  ;  ANCIENTS  (COUNCIL  OF)  ;  BLOOD 
(COUNCIL  OF);  FIVE  HUNDRED  (COUNCIL  OF 
THE);  PRIVY  COUNCIL  ;  SIXTEEN  (COUNCIL  OF); 
TOWN  COUNCIL,  &c.) 

COUNT.— This  title,  under  its  Latin  equiva- 
lent comes,  dates  from  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus.  He  conferred  it  upon  the  senators 
who  surrounded  him  most  nearly.  It  was 


tion  Oct.  i,  1865.  For  particulars  respecting 
the  county  courts  that  existed  in  the  Saxon 
period  of  English  history,  see  SCHYREMOTES. 

COURIERS.— Xenophon  says  they  were  first 
employed  by  Cyrus.  Herodotus  (viii.  98) 
speaks  of  the  Persian  cassids  or  foot-mes- 
sengers, who  travelled  with  great  rapidity. 
They  were  stationed  on  the  road,  one  man  and 
one  horse  to  each  day's  journey  ;  and  by  these 
messengers  Xerxes  sent  the  news  of  his  defeat 
to  Persia,  B.C.  480.  Gibbon  bears  testimony  to 
the  rapidity  with  which  communication  was 
cai-ried  on  in  the  Roman  empire  by  the  re- 
gular institution  of  posts.  "Houses,"  he  says 
(ch.  ii.),  "  were  everywhere  erected  at  the  dis- 
tance only  of  five  or  six  miles  ;  each  of  them 
was  constantly  provided  with  40  horses,  and 
by  the  help  of  these  relays  it  was  easy  to 
travel  anhuiidred  miles  in  a  day  along  the  Roman 
roads."  The  couriers  could,  therefore,  travel 
at  great  speed.  Prescott  speaks  of  the  Mexi- 
can couriers,  who  travelled  with  incredible 
swiftness.  The  Peruvian  chasquis,  or  runners, 
carried  government  despatches  at  the  rate  of 
150  miles  a  day.  Prescott  says  it  is  remarkable 
that  this  important  institution  should  have 
been  known  to  both  the  Mexicans  and  the 


used  in  Spain  about  650,  and  for  a  long  period  I  Peruvians  without  any  correspondence  with 
seems  to  have  been  of  equal  dignity  with  that  ''  one  another,  and   that  it   should  have  been 
g  made 


of  duke,  no  distinction  being  made  till  1297. 
During  the  Norman  period  in  England,  count 
and  earl  were  titles  of  equal  rank. 

COUNTIES,  or  SHIRKS.— Hume  states  that 
Alfred  871-901)  divided  all  England  into  coun- 
ties. The  system  certainly  did  not  originate 
with  him,  as  the  shire-man  is  mentioned  in 
the  laws  of  King  Ina,  who  died  in  727. 
Knights  of  the  shire  were  first  summoned  to 
Parliament  in  1258. 

COUNTY  COURTS.— These  tribunals  for 
the  recovery  of  debts  under  £20  were  estab- 
lished by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95  (Aug.  26,  1846), 
being  "  An  Act  for  the  more  easy  Recovery  of 
Small  Debts  and  Demands  in  England."  This 
act  was  amended  by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  101  (Aug.  i, 
1849),  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  courts 
•was  extended  to  suits  for  sums  not  exceeding 
£50  in  amount  by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  61  (Aug.  14, 
1850).  Amendments  were  made  in  certain 
details  relating  to  these  courts  by  15  &  16  Viet, 
c.  54  (June  30,  1852),  by  17  Viet.  c.  16  (June  2, 
1854),  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  108  (July  29,  1856), 
and  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  25,  1857).  By 
22  &  23  Viet.  c.  57  (Aug.  13,  1859),  the  powjer  of 
committal  vested  in  the  county-court  judges  by 


9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95,  ss. 
was  only  to  be  exerci 


,  ioo  (Aug.  26,  1846), 
in  cases  in  which 

credit  h<ad  been  obtained  by  fraud  or  breach  of 
trust.  England  and  Wales,  exclusive  of  Lon- 
don, were  divided  into  60  districts,  to  be 
enlarged  or  diminished  by  the  sovereign  in 


found  among  two  barbarian  nations  of  the 
New  World  long  before  it  was  introduced 
among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 

CollRLANI.)  Russia  .  -  -This  province  was 
conquered  by  the  Danes  in  1218,  and  by  the 
knights  of  the  Teutonic  order  in  1239.  In 
1561  it  was  rendered  tributary  to  the  King  of 
Poland,  who  erected  it  into  a  duchy,  and  in- 
vested the  grand  master  of  the  order  with  the 
title  of  duke.  Till  1737  Coin-land  was  governed 
by  hereditary  dukes;  but  it  was  then  agreed  that 
UK:  (Utility  should  become  elective.  Numerous 
complications  resulted ;  Russian  troops  occu- 
pied the  duchy  in  1786,  and  the  inhabitants  ul- 
timately petitioned  the  Empress  Catherine  II. 
to  unite  their  country  to  the  Russian  empire, 
which  was  accomplished  March  28,  1795.  Alex- 
ander I.  liberated  the  serfs  of  Courland  Sep. 
24,  1818. 

COURT  BARON.— The  court  of  civil  juris- 
diction within  a  manor  was  anciently  held 
once  every  three  weeks,  its  chief  business 
being  the  settlement  of  questions  relative  to 
the  right  of  lands  within  the  manor.  By  20 
Geo.  II.  c.  43"(i747>)  its  jurisdiction  was  limited 
to  the  right  of  recovery  of  rent,  &c.,  and  of 
deciding  civil  questions  in  which  the  damage 
did  not  exceed  40  shillings.  Its  operation  was 


still  further  restricted  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27, 
s.  36  (July  24,  1833),  and  it  has  now  fallen  into 
disuse  in  consequence  of  the  permission 
granted  to  lords  of  manors  by  9  <fe  10  Viet. 


council;  and  the  courts  are  held  in  the  most  j  c.  95,  s.   14  (Aug.  28,   1846),  to  surrender  their 

ght  of 


important  towns  in  each  district,  once  in  every 
calendar  month.  The  County  Courts  Equitable 
Jurisdiction  Act,  28  &  29  Viet.  c.  99  (July  5, 
1865),  conferred  upon  county  courts  all  the 
powers  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in  suits  by 
creditors,  legatees,  devisees,  heirs-at-law  or 
next  of  kin,  and  also  in  other  cases  of  legal 
procedure,  concerning  estates  not  exceeding 
the  value  of  .£500.  This  act  came  into  opera- 


right  of  holding  these  courts  to  the  crown.  It 
also  had  jurisdiction  in  criminal  matters,  and 
this,  by  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43  (1747),  was  limited  to 
assaults,  batteries,  and  smaller  offences,  for 
which  a  fine  of  not  more  than  20  shillings,  and 
in  default  of  payment  one  month's  imprison- 
ment, might  be  inflicted. 

COURT-LEET    and    VIEW    OF    FRANK- 
PLEDGE.— This  court  of  record,  established  in 


COURT 


[    295    ] 


COVENANTERS 


the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  dealt  with  all  crimes 
punished  by  the  common  law.  Its  original 
intent  was  to  view  the  frank  pledges,  i.  e.  the 
freemen  within  the  liberty,  who,  according  to 
the  institution  of  King  Alfred,  were  all  pledged 
for  each  other's  good  behaviour.  By  52  Hen. 
III.  c.  10  (1267),  prelates,  peers,  and  clergymen 
were  exempted  from  attendance  at  this  court. 
A  portion  of  the  business  of  the  court  was 
transfeired  to  quarter  sessions  by  i  Edw.  IV. 
c.  2  (1461),  and  this  statute  materially  reduced 
its  functions. 

COURT-MARTIAL.— During  the  Tudor 
supremacy,  military  causes  were  decided  by 
courts  of  war,  held  at  stated  periods,  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Earl  Marshal  of  England. 
Courts-martial,  as  now  constituted,  were  dis- 
tinguished into  general  and  regimental  in  1686, 
and  their  power  regulated  by  the  Mutiny  Act, 
2  Will.  III.  c.  6  (1690).  Naval  courts-martial 
are  regulated  by  22  Geo.  II.  c.  33  (1749). 

COURT  OF  REQUESTS.— (See  CONSCIENCE, 
COURTS  OF.) 

COURTRAI  (Belgium)  was  a  municipal  city 
in  the  7th  century.  The  fortifications  were  built 
in  1290,  the  castle  in  1385,  and  the  citadel  in 
1647.  The  battle  of  the  Spurs  (see  GUINEGATE, 
Battle),  in  which  the  French  army,  amount- 
ing to  47,000  men,  was  defeated  by  20,000 
Flemings,  was  fought  near  this  place  July  n, 
1302.  Courtrai  was  captured  by  the  French  in 
1643,  1646,  1667,  1683,  and  May  17,  1744.  They 
obtained  possession  of  it  again  towards  the  end 
of  June,  1792,  but  were  compelled  to  evacuate 
it  June  30.  Gen.  Beaulieu  completely  routed 
the  French  near  this  city  in  1793.  The  church 
of  Notre  Dame  was  founded  in  1238,  and  the 
town  hall  in  1526.  The  first  cloth  manufacture 
in  Flanders  was  commenced  at  Courtrai  in 
1260. 

COURTS  for  the  administration  of  justice 
are  referred  to  in  Exodus  xviii.  25  &  26,  in 
which  the  measures  adopted  by  Moses  about 
B.C.  1491,  for  the  judicial  government  of  the 
Israelites,  are  described.  The  ancient  He- 
brews had  two  kinds  of  courts,— the  Great 
Sanhedrim,  or  Great  Consistory,  and  the 
Council,  or  Lesser  Court.  The  court  of  the 
Areopagus  is  said  to  have  been  established 
at  Athens  B.C.  1556.  The  Cretan  courts  of 
justice,  attributed  to  Minos,  were  celebrated. 
Suits  in  courts  in  this  country  were  first  regu- 
lated by  the  provisions  of  43  Hen.  III.  (1259). 
The  Irish  law-courts  were  confirmed  in  their 
independent  rights  by  23  Geo.  III.  c.  28  (1783). 
(See  CHANCERY  (COURT  OF)  ;  COMMON  PLEAS  ; 
EXCHEQUER  (COURT  OF^  ;  HIGH  COMMISSION 
COURT;  MARSHALSEA  COURT,  &c.) 

COURTS  OF  LOVE.  —  These  assemblies, 
common  in  the  age  of  chivalry,  though  little 
is  known  of  their  origin  or  nature,  are  be- 
lieved to  have  existed  in  the  i2th  century.  In 
the  1 3th  century  numerous  institutions,  called 
Poetical  Societies,  arose  in  Northern  France, 
which,  assembling  once  a  year  to  discuss  the 
merits  of  songs  submitted  for  their  approval, 
were  frequently  called  upon  to  decide  questions 
of  love  casuistry.  These  and  similar  societies 
appear  to  have  been  common  in  the  i4th 
century.  In  1410  Charles  VI.  and  his  consort, 
Isabella  of  Bavaria,  are  said  to  have  established 


a  court  of  love.  Martin  Franc,  of  Arras,  in 
his  "  Champion  des  Dames,"  written  about 
1440,  ridicules  these  assemblies.  The  "  Good 
King  Rene" "  of  Anjou,  who  died  July  10,  1480, 
established  an  annual  procession  of  the  Prince 
of  Love,  which  was  celebrated  on  Corpus- 
Christi  Day  until  1791.  It  had  little  or  nothing 
in  common  with  the  old  courts  of  love. 

COUTRAS  (Battle).—  During  the  war  of  the 
three  Henries  in  France,  the  Roman  Catholic 
army,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Joyeuse,  was  defeated 
and  almost  annihilated  near  Coutras,  in  Peri- 
gord,  Oct.  20,  1587,  by  the  Huguenot  forces,  led 
by  Henry  of  Navarre. 

COVELONG  (Hindostan).— This  fortified 
town  was  taken  by  stratagem  by  the  French 
in  1750.  Clive  besieged  and  captured  it  in 
Sep.,  1752,  when  the  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed. 

COVENANTERS.— The  National  Covenant, 
professing  to  be  based  upon  a  document 
which  James  VI.  of  Scotland  had  signed  in 
1580,  was  drawn  up  and  published  by  the 
Four  Tables  in  Edinburgh,  March  i,  1638.  The 
Four  Tables,  as  they  were  called,  consisted  of — 
i.  Nobility;  2.  Gentry;  3.  Ministers;  and  4. 
Burgesses ;  and  in  their  hands  the  whole 
authority  of  the  kingdom  was  vested.  They 
elected  a  general  assembly,  which  met  at  Glas- 
gow Nov.  21,  1638,  and  abolished  episcopacy ; 
ordering  that  every  person  should  sign  the 
Covenant  on  pain  of  excommunication.  The 
Covenanters  prepared  for  war,  and  though  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  June  18,  1639, 
they  entered  England  Aug.  20,  1640.  An 
agreement  was  signed  at  Ripon,  Oct.  26,  1640, 
by  which  commissioners  were  to  be  appointed, 
to  whom  the  settlement  of  the  points  in 
dispute  was  referred.  This  covenant,  under 
the  name  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
was  received  by  the  parliament  of  the  As- 
sembly of  Divines,  Sep.  25,  1643.  It  differed 
essentially  from  the  Covenant  of  1638,  and 
according  to  Hallam  (Eiig.  ch.  x.  pt.  i), 
"  consisted  in  an  oath  to  be  subscribed  by 
all  sorts  of  persons  in  both  kingdoms,  where- 
by they  bound  themselves  to  preserve  the 
reformed  religion  in  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
in  doctrine,  worship,  discipline,  and  govern- 
ment, according  to  the  word  of  God  and  prac- 
tice of  the  best  reformed  churches  ;  and  to 
endeavour  to  bring  the  churches  of  God  in  the 
three  kingdoms  to  the  nearest  conjunction 
and  uniformity  in  religion,  confession  of 
faith,  form  of  church  government,  directory 
for  worship,  and  catechizing ;  to  endeavour, 
without  respect  of  persons,  the  extirpation 
of  popeiy,  prelacy  (that  is,  church  govern- 
ment by  archbishops,  bishops,  their  chan- 
cellors, and  commissaries,  deans  and  chap- 
ters, archdeacons,  and  all  other  ecclesiastical 
officers  depending  on  that  hierarchy),  and 
whatsoever  should  be  found  contrary  to 
sound  doctrine  and  the  power  of  godliness  ; 
to  preserve  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
parliaments  and  the  liberties  of  the  king- 
doms, and  the  king's  person  and  authority 
in  the  preservation  and  defence  of  the  true 
religion  and  liberties  of  the  kingdoms ;  to 
endeavour  the  discovery  of  incendiaries 'and 
malignants,  who  hinder  the  reformation  of 


CO VENT 


[    296    ] 


CRACOW 


religion,  and  divide  the  king  from  his  people, 
that  they  may  be  brought  to  punishment ; 
finally,  to  assist  and  defend  all  such  as  should 
enter  into  this  covenant  arid  not  suffer 
themselves  to  be  withdrawn  from  it,  whether 
to  revolt  to  the  opposite  party,  or  to  give  in 
to  a  detestable  indifference  or  neutrality." 
This  document  was  signed  by  members  of 
both  houses,  and  by  civil  and  military  officers. 
A  large  number  of  the  beneficed  clergy,  who 
refused  to  subscribe,  were  ejected.  Charles  II. 
signed  it  very  reluctantly  at  Spey,  June  23, 
1650.  A  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons 
ordered  it  to  be  burned  by  the  common  hang- 
man, May  17,  1661.  In  the  same  year  the 
Scottish  parliament  renounced  the  Covenant, 
and  declared  the  king  supreme.  Heavy  fines 
were  imposed  on  many  of  the  Covenanters. 

COVENT  GARDEN  (London),  originally 
called  Convent  Garden,  because  it  occupied 
the  site  of  the  garden  and  fields  of  the  abbey 
at  Westminster,  was,  with  the  lands,  granted 

3  Ed  ward  VI.  to  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  and 
;er  his  attainder  was  granted  to  John,  Earl 
of  Bedford,  by  patent  dated  May,  1552.  The 
square  was  formed  about  1631,  from  designs 
by  Inigo  Jones,  and  the  church  of  St.  Paul's, 
erected  by  the  same  architect,  was  consecrated 
Sep.  27,  1633.  It  was  repaired  in  1727,  and 
having  been  destroyed  by  fire  Sep.  17,  1795, 
was  rebuilt.  Covent  Garden  was  made  a  pa- 
rish by  an  ordinance  of  Lords  and  Commons, 
Jan.  7,  1645  ;  and  the  bounds  of  the  parish 
were  more  clearly  defined  in  1660.  Covent 
Garden  Market,  which  originated  about  1656, 
at  first  consisted  of  a  few  temporary  sheds. 
Charles  II.  made  a  grant  of  it  to  William,  Earl 
of  Bedford,  May  12,  1671,  and  from  that  time 
it  gradually  increased  in  importance.  The 
present  building  was  erected  by  Mr.  Fowler 
in  1830. 

COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE  (London) 
was  opened  by  John  Rich,  the  harlequin,  Dec. 
7,  1732;  rebuilt  by  Henry  Holland,  1792;  and 
destroyed  by  fire  Sep.  20,  1808.  The  first  stone 
of  the  second  theatre  was  laid  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales  Dec.  31,  1808,  and  the  building,  de- 
signed by  Sir  Robert  Smirke,  opened  at  in- 
creased prices  Monday,  Sep.  18,  1809.  A  riot 
ensued,  known  as  the  "  Old  Prices,"  or 
"  O.  P."  riot,  which  lasted  67  nights,  and 
terminated  in  a  compromise.  During  the 
years  1843-45,  this  theatre  was  leased  by  the 
members  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  and 
used  for  public  meetings.  After  having  been 
altered  and  decorated  by  Mr.  Albano,  it  was 
opened  for  Italian  opera,  April  6,  1847.  This 
theatre  was  burned  down  March  5,  1856, 
during  a  bal  masque.  The  present  edifice,  from 
the  designs  of  Mr.  E.  M.  Barry,  was  opened 
May  22,  1858. 

COVENTRY  (Warwickshire).  —  Canute 
founded  a  nunnery  here,  which  was  burned  by 
the  traitor  Edric  in  1016.  Leofric,  Earl  of 
Mercia,  who  died  in  1057,  founded  a  monas- 
tery on  the  rums  of  the  old  nunnery,  and 
granted  the  town  a  charter  of  immunity  from 
taxation,  at  the  intercession  of  his  wife 
Godiva.  Edward  III.  granted  a  charter  of 
incorporation  in  1344,  and  in  1355  the  city 
was  surrounded  by  walls.  In  1404,  Henry  IV. 


held  here  the  Parliamentum  Indoctormn,  or 
Parliament  of  Dunces,  so  called  because 
lawyers  were  excluded  from  it.  Henry  VI. 
erected  it  into  a  separate  county  in  1451  ; 
and  in  1459  a  second  parliament  was  held, 
which  received  the  epithet  of  Parliamentum 
Diabolicum,  because  it  passed  attainders  against 
the  Duke  of  York  and  his  chief  supporters. 
In  1607  an  inundation  destroyed  257  houses  ; 
and  in  1641  Charles  I.  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  take  the  city  by  storm.  The  walls 
were  destroyed  in  1662,  by  order  of  Charles  II. 
The  manufacture  of  silks  and  ribbons  was  intro- 
duced in  1685,  and  soon  became  the  chief  em- 
ployment of  the  inhabitants.  The  procession 
in  honour  of  the  Countess  Godiva,  who  is  said  to 
have  induced  her  husband,  Earl  Leofric,  to 
release  the  inhabitants  from  a  tax  by  riding 
through  the  city  with  no  covering  but  her  own 
hair,  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  (1660 — 1685).  In  consequence  of 
the  commercial  treaty  with  France,  concluded 
at  Paris  Jan.  25,  1860,  the  Coventry  weavers 
were  thrown  out  of  employment,  and  reduced 
to  great  distress.  Efforts  to  relieve  them  were 
made  in  the  early  part  of  1861  ;  and  the  pro- 
ceeds of  several  musical  performances,  held 
in  the  more  important  English  towns,  were 
devoted  to  this  object.  St.  Michael's  church 
(1313 — 1395)  is  said  to  be  the  largest  parish 
church  in  England.  St.  Mary's  Hall  was  built 

YY/VENTRY  ACT.— Sir  John  Coventry,  K.B. 
Hiid  .M.I'.,  was  attacked  and  maltreated  in  the 
.streets  of  London,  Dec.  21.  1670,  by  Sir  Thomas 
Sandys  and  other  members  of  the  royal  guard. 
The  attack  was  provoked  by  some  remarks 
made  by  Sir  John  Coventry  on  the  life  led  by 
Charles  II.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  instigated 
by  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  In  consequence 
of  this  outrage,  malicious  wounding  and 
maiming  was  made  a  capital  offence  by  22  <fc 
23  Charles  II.  c.  i  (March  6,  1671),  and  the 
measure  received  the  name  of  the  Coventry 
Act.  It  was  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  i 
(June  27,  1828). 

COVENTRY  or  AMBASSADORS'  CLUB 
(London).  —  This  exclusive  club,  instituted 
about  1853,  was  closed  in  March,  1854. 

COVERPAUK  (Battle).— Clive  defeated  the 
French  at  this  town,  near  Arcot,  in  the  Carna- 
tic,  March  3,  1752. 

CO  WES  (Isle  of  Wight}.— (See  EAST  COWES 
arid  WEST  Co  WES.) 

CRACOW  (Poland),  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  country,  was  founded  by  Cracus  about  700. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Bohemians  in  1005,  and  by 
the  rebellious  subjects  of  Ladislaus  II.  in  1146. 
In  1189  it  was  the  scene  of  a  council  for  the 
reform  of  the  clergy.  The  Mongols  ravaged 
it  about  1240.  It  was  besieged  in  1279  by  the 
discontented  nobles  of  Lesko  VI.  (the  Black), 
but  opposed  a  gallant  and  successful  resistance. 
It  became  the  capital  of  Poland  in  1320,  and 
remained  so  until  1609,  when  Sigisrnund  III. 
made  Warsaw  the  capital.  The  university 
was  founded  in  1364  by  Casimir  III.,  enlarged 
in  1401  by  Ladislaus  V.  (Jagellon),  and  remo- 
delled in  1817—1833.  In  1655  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  Swedes  under  Charles  X.  (Gustavus ),  and 
again  in  1702  by  Charles  XII.  The  Russians 


CRAMP 


[     207     1 


CREATION 


took  it  in  1768,  and  Kosciusko  delivered  it  from 
them  March  24,  1794.  It  was  seized  by  the 
Prussians  June  15,  and  at  the  final  partition 
of  Poland,  in  1795,  was  allotted  to  Austria. 
In  1809  it  formed  part  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw, 
but  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  subsequently  became  a  republic 
under  the  protection  of  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia,  June  20,  1815.  In  Sep.,  1831,  it  was 
occupied  by  10,000  Russians  ;  and  was  seized 
by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  Nov.  16,  1846,  to 
whom  it  has  since  belonged.  A  fire  which 
broke  out  at  noon,  July  18,  1850,  laid  a  large 
portion  of  the  city  in  ruins.  A  state  of  siege 
was  proclaimed  Feb.  29,  1864. 

CRAMP  RINGS  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  the  middle  of  the  nth  century. 

CRAMPTON'S  GAP  (Battle).— Gen.  Frank- 
lin drove  the  Confederate  forces  of  Gen.  Howell 
Cobb  from  their  position  at  this  pass  in  Vir- 
ginia, Sunday,  Sep.  14,  1862. 

CRANGANORE  (Hindostan).— According  to 
a  Jewish  tradition,  the  descendants  of  those 
Jews  who  escaped,  on  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, obtained  permission  from  the  native 
sovereign  to  settle  at  this  seaport,  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  about  490.  The  Portuguese  cap- 
tured it  in  1505,  and  the  Dutch  wrested  it  from 
them  in  1663,  and  erected  fortifications.  Hyder 
AH  obtained  possession  in  1780 ;  but  the  Dutch 
recovered  the  place,  which  they  sold  to  the 
Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  ally  of  the  British 
Government,  in  1788.  Tippoo  Saib  having 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  capture  it  Dec.  29,  1789, 
was  more  successful  in  1790,  and  the  town  fell 
May  8.  The  East  India  Company's  forces  re- 
covered it  in  1791,  and  it  was  ceded  to  them 
by  the  treaty  of  peace,  of  which  the  prelimi- 
naries were  signed  Feb.  24,  1792,  and  the 
treaty  itself  March  17. 

CRANIOLOGY.— (See  PHRENOLOGY.) 

CRANNOGES. —  These  fortified  islands  in 
lakes,  frequently  of  artificial  construction,  and 
used  as  dwelling-places  in  early  times,  are 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  (B.C.  484—408).  The 
Irish  annals  refer  to  them  in  848  and  933 ;  and 
as  late  as  1641  Sir  Phelim  O'  Neil  used  the 
crannoge  of  Roughan  Lake,  near  Dungannon, 
as  a  retreat.  In  1645  the  crannoge  of  Lough- 
insholin,  Londonderry,  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
Remains  of  ancient  crannoges  of  great  an- 
tiquity were  discovered  in  Ireland  in  1839.  In 
1853-4  similar  structures  were  discovered  in 
several  Swiss  lakes,  and  in  1857  they  were 
found  in  Scotland.  Subsequent  researches 
have  revealed  their  existence  in  Denmark, 
Savoy,  Northern  Italy,  Hanover,  and  Prussia. 

CRANNON  (Battle).  —  The  confederated 
Greeks  were  defeated  by  the  Macedonians  at 
Crannon  during  the  Lamian  war,  Aug.  7,  B.C. 

CRAON  (Battle).— An  army  of  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English  troops,  commanded  by  the 
Duke  of  Montpensier,  was  defeated  near  this 
city,  in  Anjou,  in  1592,  by  the  Duke  of  Mer- 
cceur,  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  troops  and 
those  of  the  League. 

CRAONNE  (Battle).  —  A  great  battle  was 
fought  at  this  place,  near  Laon,  in  France, 
March  7,  1814,  between  the  French  under 
Generals  Ney  and  Victor,  and  the  Prussians 


and  Russians  led  by  Bliicher  and  Woronzow. 
The  former  had  29,000,  and  the  latter  21,000 
nen  engaged  ;  but  the  strength  of  the  position 
counterbalanced  this  numerical  superiority. 
The  French  retained  possession  of  the  field  of 
battle.  There  were,  however,  no  trophies,  and 
the  losses  on  both  sides  were  severe. 

CRAVANT,  or  CREVANT  (Battle).—  The  Earl 
of  Salisbury  defeated  the  allied  French  and 
Scottish  army  at  this  place,  near  Auxerre,  in 
Burgundy,  in  July,  1423. 

CRAWFORD  PRAIRIE  (Battle).—  The  Con- 
federates, under  Gen.  Hindman,  attacked  Gen. 
Herron  at  this  place  in  Arkansas,  Dec.  7,  1862, 
and  were  held  in  check  by  him  till  their  rear 
was  assailed  by  Gen.  Blunt,  when  they  re- 
treated across  the  Boston  mountains. 

CRAWLEY  COURT-MARTIAL.—  Lieut.-Col. 
Thos.  R.  Crawley,  of  the  Inniskillen  Dragoons, 
charged  with  cruelty  and  tyranny  in  having 
placed  under  close  arrest  at  Mhow,  in  Hindos- 
tan, Sergeant-Major  Lilley,  who  died  May  25, 
1862,  after  a  month's  confinement,  was  tried  at 
Aldershot  by  a  court-martial  which  com- 
menced Nov.  1  8,  1863,  and  terminated  in  his 
acquittal  Dec.  23. 

CRAYFORD  (Battle).—  Hengist  defeated  the 
Britons,  led  by  Vortiiner,  near  this  place,  in 
Kent,  at  that  time  called  Creccanford,  in  457. 

CRAYONS  of  various  colours  were  used  in 
France  early  in  the  isth  century.  Conte 
crayons  were  invented  in  France  in  1795,  and 
named  after  their  inventor,  Conte". 

CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD.—  The  learned 
Dr.  Hales,  in  his  work  entitled  "A  New 
Analysis  of  Chronology  and  Geography,  His- 
tory and  Prophecy"  (vol.  i.  p.  210),  remarks  : 
"  In  every  system  of  historical  chronology, 
sacred  and  profane,  the  two  grand  ceras,  of  the 
Creation  of  the  World,  and  of  the  Nativity  of 
Christ,  have  been  usually  adopted  as  standards, 
by  reference  to  which  all  subordinate  epochs, 
seras,  and  periods  have  been  adjusted."  This 
author  gives  a  list  of  120  dates,  commencing 
B.C.  6984,  and  terminating  B.C.  3616,  to  which 
this  event  has  been  assigned  by  different  au- 
thorities, and  he  admits  that  it  might  be 
swelled  to  300.  Dr.  Hales  places  it  at  B.C.  5411. 
The  date  commonly  adopted  is  B.C.  4004  ; 
being  that  of  Usher,  Spanheim,  Calmet,  Blair, 
&c.,  and  the  one  used  in  the  English  Bible. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  varia- 
tions :  — 


AlphonsoX 

Indian  chronology  

Babylonian  chronology 

Chinese  chronology 

Diogenes  Laertius    

Egyptian  chronology 

Septuagint 

Si'iituagint,  Alexandrine   

Persian  chronology 

Chronicle  of  Axum,  Abyssiniai 
Jackson 


Bailly. 

Bailly. 

Playfair. 

Bailly. 

Abulfaragi. 

Scaliger. 

BaiJly. 

Bruce. 


55-^ 

*'•  V  Josephus 
?8j 


/Playfa 
i  Jacks 


5411.  Hales 

5369.  Indian  commutation 
5344.  Talmudists 

5370.  Septuagint,  Vatican 


fair. 
i  Jackson. 

Hales. 
I  Univ.  Hist. 

•  - 

Megasthenes. 

Petrus  Alliacens. 


CRECY 


t    298     ] 


CREMONA 


B.C. 

5199.  Bede Strauchius. 

4437.  Samaritan  computation Sculiger. 

4305.  Samaritan  text Univ.  Hist. 

4161.  Hebrew  text  


I'slr.T,  Knj^Ii  JJihlc,  &c  ..........  - 

Kepler  ....................................  Playfair. 

Petavius  .................................  - 

Melancthon    ...........................  Playfair. 

Luther  ....................................  - 

Lightfoot    ..............................  - 

Cornelius  a  Lapide  ..................  Univ.  Hist. 

Sciili.uvr.  Isaacson    ..................  -  - 

Struurliins  .............................  - 

Vulg-ar  Jewish  computation    ...  Straucliius. 

Kabbi  Lipman  ........................  Univ.  Hist. 

CRECY,  or  CRESSY  (Battle).—  Edward  III. 
landed  at  La  Hogue,  July  10,  1346,  and  ravaged 
the  country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  as 
far  as  Paris.  On  his  return  he  halted  at  Cre"cy, 
a  village  near  Abbeville,  Aug.  25.  Philip  VI. 
of  France,  who  followed  with  an  immense 
army,  came  up  with  the  English  at  this  place, 
and  the  battle  commenced  about  four  in  the 
afternoon  of  Saturday,  Aug.  26.  The  French 
army  amounted  to  130,000,  whilst  Edward  III. 
could  only  muster  36,800  men.  The  king 
divided  this  small  force  into  three  lines.  The 
first  was  commanded  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
(the  Black  Prince),  who  distinguished  himself 
greatly  in  that  well-fought  field,  and  the 
second  by  the  Earl  of  Anindel.  Bdwardhim- 
self  led  the  third.  After  a  severe  struggle,  the 
French  were  completely  routed.  They  lost 
30,000  of  their  infantry,  4,000  men-at-arms, 
1,400  gentlemen,  1,200  knights,  and  several 
nobles  ;  whilst  the  Kings  of  Bohemia  and  Ma- 
jorca were  slain  in  the  fatal  fray.  The  English 
loss  did  not  amount  to  a  hundred  of  all  ranks. 
Ilallam  attributes  the  result  to  "the  yeomen, 
who  drew  the  bow  with  strong  and 
arms,  accustomed  to  use  it  in  their  native 
fields,  and  rendered  fearless  by  personal  com- 
petence and  civil  freedom."  Some  continental 
writers  attribute  this  extraordinary  victory 
to  the  effect  of  cannon,  which  they  pretend 
was  used  by  the  English  for  the  first  time  on 
this  occasion.  The  statement  is  not  supported 
by  satisfactory  evidence.  The  battle  was  fought 
during  a  thunder-storm,  and,  according  to 
some  authorities,  an  eclipse. 

CREDIT  FONCIER.—  This  system  of  bor- 
rowing money  on  the  security  of  landed  pro- 
perty, repayment  to  be  made  by  instalments, 
was  established  in  France  by  edict,  Feb.  28,  1852. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER.—  This  company,  con- 
stituted on  the  limited  liability  principle,  was 
created  by  a  decree  Nov.  18,  1852.  Its  head 


quarters  are  in  Paris,  and  its  operations  con- 
sist in  the  undertaking  or  origination  of 
public  enterprises,  such  as  railroads,  canals, 
and  mines. 

CREDITON,  or  KIRKTON  (Devonshire).— 
A  collegiate  church  was  founded  at  this  town 
in  905.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of 
Devonshire  (q.  v.)  from  909  to  1046.  The 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1547.  Cre- 
diton  has  frequently  suffered  from  extensive 
conflagrations,  and  in  1743  the  greater  part  of 
the  town  was  destroyed.  Another  occurred  in 
1769. 


CREEDS,  or  CONFESSIONS,  anciently 
termed  symbola,  as  the  standard  and  rule  of 
faith,  existed  in  the  primitive  Church.  Bing- 
ham  (Antiq.  b.  xvi.  ch.  i.,  s.  i)  says,  "For  as 
to  fundamental  articles  of  faith,  the  Church 
had  then  always  collected  or  summed  up  out 
of  Scripture  in  her  creeds,  the  profession  of 
which  was  ever  esteemed  both  necessary  on 
•the  one  hand  and  sufficient  on  the  other,  in 
order  to  the  admission  of  members  into  the 
Church  by  baptism;  and  consequently  both 
necessary  and  sufficient  to  keep  men  in  the 
unity  of  the  Church,  so  far  as  concerns  the 
unity  of  faith  generally  required  of  all  Chris- 
tians to  make  them  one  body  and  one 
church  of  believers."  The  Apostles',  the  Nicene, 
and  the  Athanasian,  the  most  ancient  creeds 
extant,  are  described  under  their  respective 
The  Augsburg  Confession  was  drawn 
up  in  1530,  and  modified  in  1579.  Forty- 
two  articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  after- 
wards reduced  to  39,  were  drawn  up  in 
1551.  The  creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV.  was  pro- 
mulgated in  1564.  Mogila,  Metropolitan  of 
Kiow,  drew  up  the  creed  for  the  Russian 
branch  of  the  Greek  Church  in  1642.  The  Con- 
fession of  the  Assembly  of  Divines,  passed  in 
aa  ratified  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1660. 

C  It  EM  A  (Italy  .—This  town  of  Lombardy, 
founded  by  the  Longobards  in  the  6th  century, 
was  captured  in  1160  by  the  Emperor  Frederick 
I.,  who,  having  permitted  the  inhabitants  to 
withdraw,  abandoned  it  to  the  flames.  It  was 
much  injured  from  the  explosion  of  a  powder- 
magazine  and  a  fire  that  followed,  April  13, 
1768.  In  1797  the  inhabitants  were  incited 
by  French  emissaries  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  Venice,  and  declare  in  favour  of  the  Cis- 
paclane  republic  ;  and  it  was  made  part  of 
the  Cisalpine  republic  by  the  treaty  of  Campo- 
Forniio.  (>ct  17,  1797. 

CHKMATION.— The  custom  of  burning  the 
dead  originated  at  an  early  period,  and  is 
frequently  referred  to  by  Homer  (B.C.  962 — 927). 
The  Romans,  who  adopted  this  practice  in 
imitation  of  the  Greeks,  discontinued  it  during 
the  4th  century  A.D.  Henry  Laurens,  the  first 
President  of  the  American  Congress,  whose 
infant  daughter  had  narrowly  escaped  burial 
while  in  a  state  of  suspended  animation,  and 
who  held  peculiar  views  on  the  subject  of  the 
purifying  powers  of  fire,  directed  by  his  will 
that  his  remains  should  be  burned.  He  died 
in  1792,  and  his  body  was  disposed  of  accord- 
ing to  his  desire.  Cremation  is  still  common 
in  parts  of  Hindostan  and  other  Oriental 
countries. 

CREMERA  (Italy).— On  the  banks  of  this 
small  river,  which  flowed  into  the  Tiber  near 
Rome,  the  300  Fabii  established  a  fortified 
post,  and  carried  on  hostilities  against  the 
Veientines.  They  were  surprised  July  16,  B.C. 
477,  and  not  one  of  the  band  escaped. 

CREMONA  (Italy),  the  capital  of  a  Lombard 
province  of  the  same  name,  was  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  colony  B.C.  221.  The  Gauls  were 
defeated  in  a  great  battle  under  its  walls  B.C. 
200,  and  it  received  a  new  colony  B.C.  190. 
Cremona  suffered  during  the  civil  wars.  The 
vanquished  legions  of  Vitellius,  after  his  defeat 
by  the  generals  of  Vespasian,  A.D.  69,  having 


CREMORNE 


r  299  i 


CRICKET 


taken  refuge  here,  carried  the  city  by  assault. 
It  was  given  up  to  pillage,  and  completely 
destroyed.  Though  rebuilt  by  Vespasian,  it 
did  not  recover  its  former  prosperity,  and 
was  again  destroyed  by  the  Lombards  in  605. 
The  inhabitants  erected  their  city  into  a  re- 
public in  1107,  which  joined  the  Lombard 
League  in  1176.  The  Emperor  Henry  VII. 
imprisoned  many  of  the  inhabitants,  abolished 
their  privileges,  and  destroyed  the  ramparts 
of  the  city,  in  1311.  After  this  time  it  often 
changed  masters,  and  was  ceded  to  Venice  in 
1428.  Louis  XII.  took  it  in  1499,  and  bestowed 
it  upon  the  Swiss,  in  return  for  their  alliance. 
He  obtained  possession  of  it  in  1509,  and  the 
inhabitants  threw  off  the  French  yoke  in 
1512.  The  Venetians  recovered  it  for  France 
in  1515.  It  shared  the  varied  fortunes  of  the 
Italian  cities,  submitted  to  Buonaparte  in  1796, 
and  its  incorporation  with  the  Cisalpine 
republic  was  recognized  by'  the  Emperor 
Francis  II.  in  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio, 
Oct.  17,  1797.  It  was  recovered  by  the  allies 
in  1799,  but  the  French  regained  possession 
in  1800.  It  was  ceded  to  Austria  at  the  set- 
tlement of  Europe  in  1814-15,  and  remained 
in  its  possession,  with  the  exception  of  a 
short  interval  in  1848-49,  until  it  was  incor- 
porated with  Sardinia  by  the  treaty  of  Zu- 
rich, Nov.  10,  1859.  Cremona  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric. 

CREMORNE  GARDENS  (London)  were 
opened  in  1 847.  Ashburiiham  House  was  opened 
in  1860,  and  the  first  dog-show  took  place  in 
1 86 1.  Carlo  Valerio  fell  during  a  performance 
on  the  wire  rope  June  23,  1863,  and  died  the 
following  morning. 

CRESCENT.— Gideon  took  from  Zebah  and 
Zalrnunna,  kings  of  Midian,  B.C.  1245,  "orna- 
ments like  the  moon,"  that  hung  on  their 
camels'  necks  (Judges  viii.  21 — 24).  The 
Midianites  were  Ishmaelities,  and  it  is  there- 
fore probable  that  the  Turks  derived  the  use 
of  the  crescent,  as  one  of  their  standards, 
from  their  ancestors,  though  some  authorities 
state  it  was  first  used  by  them  in  1446,  after 
the  taking  of  Constantinople.  Warburton 
(Crescent  and  the  Cross)  says,  "  The  cres- 
cent was  the  symbol  of  the  city  of  Byzantium, 
and  was  adopted  by  the  Turks.  This  device 
is  of  ancient  origin,  as  appears  from  several 
medals,  and  took  its  rise  from  an  event  thus 
related  by  a  native  of  Byzantium.  Philip, 
the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  meeting 
with  great  difficulties  in  carrying  on  the  siege 
of  this  city,  set  the  workmen  one  dark  night 
to  undermine  the  walls.  Luckily  for  the 
besieged,  a  young  moon  suddenly  appearing, 
discovered  the  design,  which  accordingly 
miscarried ;  in  acknowledgment  whereof  the 
Byzantines  erected  a  statue  to  Diana,  and  the 
crescent  became  the  symbol  of  the  state." 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  besieged  Byzantium  B.C. 
34°- 

CRESCENT  (Orders).— Charles  I.,  King  of 
Naples  and  Sicily,  instituted  an  order  of 

knighthood  of  the  Crescent,  in  1268. Rene, 

Duke  of  Anjou,  instituted  an  order  of  the  Cres- 
cent at  Angiersin  1448. Selim  III.  established 

an  order  of  the  Crescent  in  1801,  in  honour  of 
the  battle  of  Aboukir  (q.  v.).  (See  COCKLE.) 


CRESPY  (Treaty),  between  Francis  I.  of 
France  and  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  was 
signed  at  this  small  town,  near  Meaux,  in 
Valois,  Sep.  18,  1544.  They  agreed,  among 
other  things,  to  restore  all  conquests  made 
subsequent  to  the  truce  of  Nice  in  1539,  and 
to  join  in  making  war  against  the  Turks. 
Charles  V.  renounced  his  claim  to  Burgundy, 
and  Francis  I.  renounced  all  pretensions  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  duchy  of  Milan, 
and  the  suzerainty  of  Flanders  and  Artois. 

CREST.— The  custom  of  adopting  the  figure 
f  some  animal  as  a  cognizance  is  of  great 
antiquity.  Herodotus  (i.  171)  attributes  to 
the  Carians  the  invention  of  crests  for  helmets, 
devices  for  shields,  and  handles  for  bucklers. 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  is  said  to  have 
assumed  a  rani's  head  as  his  device,  and  Julius 
Caesar  a  star.  Richard  I.  of  England  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  first  to  revive  the  practice,  as 
his  image  on  a  seal  of  the  period  is  represented 
in  a  helmet  adorned  with  a  sprig  of  the  planta- 
genista,  or  broom,  from  which  the  name  of  his 
family  was  derived.  Edmund  Crouchback, 
Earl  of  Lancaster,  is  represented  with  a  crest 
before  1286  ;  and  Baron  de  Spencer,  in  1296, 
adorned  his  horse  with  the  same  embellish- 
ment. These  earlier  crests  were  mostly 
plumes  of  feathers.  In  1322,  the  Earl  of 
Leicester  assumed  a  dragon  as  his  cognizance. 
Edward  III.  originated  the  custom  of  con- 
ferring crests  as  military  honours  in  1333. 

CRETE,  or  CRETA  (.Egean  Sea).— The 
Egyptians,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Phrygians 
are  said  to  have  founded  cities  in  this  island, 
the  modern  Candia  (q.  v.).  The  Dorians  settled 
in  it  before  the  return  of  the  Heraclidse. 

CREVANT  (Battle).—  (See  CRAVANT,  Battle.) 

CREVELDT  (Battle).— Prince  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  defeated  the  Count  of  Clermont, 
at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  on  this  plain, 
near  Cleves,  June  23,  1758. 

CRIBBAGE.— This  game  is  believed  to  be 
identical  with  the  old  game  of  Noddy,  which 
was  played  at  the  English  court  and  is  referred 
to  by  Sir  John  Harrington  (1561 — 1612).  John 
Hall  of  Durham,  in  his  "Horse  Vacivpe,"  pub- 
lished in  1646,  speaks  of  "cribbidge"  as  a  game 
played  with  cards;  and  an  anonymous  work 
called  "Wit's  Interpreter,"  published  in  1670, 
enumerates  it  among  a  list  of  "  courtly  games." 
It  is  also  mentioned  in  1709. 

CRICKET.— Although  a  game  with  bat  and 
ball,  somewhat  similar  to  the  modern  pastime, 
was  played  in  England  as  early  as  the  i3th 
century,  the  name  of  cricket  first  occurs  in 
the  "  Mysteries  of  Love  and  Eloquence,"  by 
Edward  Phillips,  Milton's  nephew,  published 
in  1685.  Fosbroke  states,  that  club-ball,  a  game 
played  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  was  its 
ancestor.  The  game  was  much  improved  in 
I774>  when  Sir  Horace  Mann,  the  Duke  of 
Dorset,  and  Lord  Tankerville,  formed  a  com- 
mittee, Sir  William  Draper  being  chairman, 
and  drew  up  the  first  collection  of  rules,  which 
fixed  two  as  the  number  of  the  wickets.  In  1775 
a  middle  stump  was  added;  and  in  1799  the 
White  Conduit  Club  was  formed.  Thomas 
Lord  established  his  cricket-ground  in  1780, 
when  the  Marylebone  Club  was  instituted.  A 
match  was  played  at  Moulsey  Hurst,  between 


CRIMEA 


[    300    ] 


CRONSTADT 


six  unmarried  and  six  married  women,  Aug.  3, 
1775.  The  former  proved  victorious.  One  of 
the  fair  cricketers  scored  17  runs.  In  1849  the 
"Eleven  of  All  England"  visited  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  exhibited  the  perfection 
of  the  game  to  American  players.  In  1862 
they  paid  a  similar  visit  to  Australia.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  headed  a  subscription  for 
preserving  Lord's  cricket-ground  from  builders 
with  a  donation  of  ,£100,  April  30,  1864. 

CRIMEA  (Russia),  the  ancient  Tauric 
Chersonese,  was  peopled  originally  by  the  Tauri. 
The  Greeks  formed  settlements  towards  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C.,  and  founded 
the  little  kingdom  of  Bosporus  (q.  v.)  about 
B.C.  480.  The  Goths  descended  on  its  shores 
in  250,  and  during  the  4th  century  it  sub- 
mitted to  the  Huns,  who  were  expelled  by 
Justinian  I.  (527—565).  In  679  it  was  seized  by 
the  Chazars,  and  after  various  reverses  of 
fortune,  submitted  to  the  Tartars  in  1237.  In 
1261  the  Genoese  obtained  considerable  trading 
privileges,  and  ultimately  seized  the  country  ; 
but,  in  1475,  Mohammed  II.  overthrew  their 
power,  and  subjected  the  Crimea  to  the 
Turkish  yoke.  It  afterwards  existed  for  about 
three  centuries  as  a  dependency  of  the  Sultan, 
under  the  nominal  government  of  native 
khans.  In  1696  it  was  invaded  by  the  Russians 
under  Peter  the  Great ;  and  again  in  1 736, 
under  Count  Munnich,  who  defeated  the  Tartar 
forces  sent  against  him,  but  failed  to  accom- 
plish any  signal  success.  A  third  Russian 
army  of  40,000  men,  led  by  Dolgoruki,  entered 
the  Crimea  July  26,  1770,  and  reduced  the 
whole  peninsula  to  subjection  within  a  month; 
and  in  1771  a  new  khan  was  chosen,  who 
owed  his  elevation  to  Russian  influence.  In 
1783  the  khan  abdicated,  and  an  imperial  mani- 
festo was  issued,  stating  the  intended  incor- 
poration of  the  Crimea  with  the  Russian 
empire ;  to  accomplish  which,  more  than  30,000 
Tartars  of  every  age  and  sex  were  massum-d. 
The  f  ormal  cession  of  the  Crimea  by  Turkey  did 
not  take  place  till  the  peace  of  Jassy,  Jan.  9, 
1792.  During  the  Russian  war  of  1853 — 56,  the 
Crimea  was  the  scene  of  many  of  the  principal 
operations.  An  army  of  58,000  men,  of  whom 
25,000  were  English,  25,000  French,  and  8,000 
Turks,  landed  at  Old  Fort,  20  miles  from  Eu- 
patoria,  Sep.  14,  1854.  The  final  evacuation  of 
the  Crimea  by  the  allies  took  place  July  12, 
1856.  The  Russian  Government  subsequently 
strengthened 'some  of  the  Crimean  strongholds, 
and  expended,  before  the  end  of  1865, 15,000,000 
roubles  on  the  fortifications  of  the  straits  of 
Yenikale  alone.  Large  deposits  of  mineral  oil 
were  discovered  in  the  Crimea  in  1865. 

CRIMEAN  MEDALS.— The  public  distribu- 
tion of  these  medals  to  the  brave  men  who 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  Crimean  cam- 
paign against  Russia  was  made  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  St.  James's  Park,  May  18,  1854. 

CRIMISUS  (Battle).— Timoleon  of  Corinth, 
with  an  army  of  11,000  men,  defeated  the  Car- 
thaginians, 70,000  strong,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Crimisus,  or  Crimissus,  a  river  in  Sicily,  B.C. 

3CRINOLINE.— (See  HOOPS.) 
CRIPPLEGATE  (London).— An  ancient  gate 
of  the  city  is  noticed  under  this  name  as  early 


as  1016.  It  was  so  called  from  the  cripples  who 
congregated  there  to  seek  alms.  For  some 
time  a  part  of  the  postern  was  used  as  a  prison 
for  debtors  and  trespassers.  The  gate  was 
rebuilt  by  the  brewers  of  London  in  1244,  and 
was  repaired  in  1663.  The  materials  were  sold 
for  £gi  in  1760,  the  purchaser  agreeing  to  com- 
jnence  the  work  of  demolition  Sep.  i  in  that 
year,  and  to  clear  away  all  the  rubbish  within 
one  month  from  that  date. 

CRISSA  (Greece).— This  town  of  Phocis, 
more  ancient  than  the  neighbouring  city  of 
Cirrha  (q.  v.},  with  which  it  is  sometimes  con- 
founded, was  built,  according  to  tradition,  by 
a  colony  of  Cretans  under  the  personal  direc- 
tion of  Apollo.  In  the  time  of  Homer  (B.C. 
962 — 927),  it  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of 
considerable  importance,  but  it  was  subse- 
quently eclipsed  by  the  rising  greatness  of 
Cirrha  and  Delphi,  and  had  fallen  into  insigni- 
ficance before  the  first  Sacred  War  (q.  v.}. 

CROATIA  (Austria).— This  province  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  forming  part  of  the  ancient 
Pannonia,  was  incorporated  with  Illyria  by 
Augustus.  The  Goths  settled  in  it  in  509,  and 
the  Crotians,  a  tribe  of  the  Wends,  in  640  ; 
and  from  them  the  country  received  its  name. 
They  conquered  several  neighbouring  states, 
and  erected  Croatia  into  a  kingdom  in  the  ioth 
century.  It  was  incorporated  with  Hungary 
in  i  ioo,  and  with  that  kingdom  passed  under 
the  Austrian  rule. 

CROCKARDS.— Base  coin,  imported  into  this 
country,  from  Flanders,  in  large  quantities 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  By  27  Edw.  I. 
(1299;,  the  circulation  of  this  coin  was  prohi- 
bited under  severe  penalties. 

CROCKERY-WARE  is  supposed  to  have 
been  invented  by  the  Egyptians,  who  are  said 
to  have  introduced  it  into  Greece  about  B.C. 
1490.  In  ioo  years  from  that  time  it  was  in 
general  use.  (See  EARTHENWARE.) 

CROCKFORD'S  CLUB  (London).  —  This 
private  club  and  gambling-house,  in  St.  James's 
Street,  was  built  in  1827.  It  took  its  name 
from  one  Crockford,  who  began  life  as  a  fish- 
stall  keeper,  and  after  amassing  a  large  fortune 
in  gaming  transactions,  died  in  May,  1844. 
It  was  sold  after  his  death,  and  having  been 
redecorated  was  in  1849  opened  as  the  Naval, 
Military,  and  County  Service  Club  (q.  v.). 

CROISIERS.— (See  CROSSED,  CROUCHED,  or 
CRUTCHED  FRIARS.) 

CROIX  ST.  —  (See  DANISH  AMERICA  and 
SANTA  CRUZ.) 

CROMLECHS.  —These  ancient  structures, 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  island,  are  be- 
lieved to  be  sepulchral  monuments,  though  an 
opinion  long  prevailed  that  they  were  heathen 
altars  or  temples.  The  most  celebrated  is 
the  cromlech  at  Plas  Newydd,  in  the  island 
of  Anglesey.  A  cromlech  was  discovered  in 
removing  a  large  barrow  in  Phosnix  Park, 
Dublin,  in  1838. 

CROMWELL  GARDENS  (London),  in  Old 
Brompton,  formed  a  favourite  place  of  public 
resort  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 

CRONSTADT  (Russia).— This  strongly  for- 
tified seaport  town  was  founded  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1710.  Menschikoff  wrested  the  island, 
on  which  part  of  the  fortifications  stand,  from 


CRONSTADT 


[    301    ] 


CROSSED 


the  Swedes  in  1703.  It  received  the  name  of 
Cronstadt  in  1721.  Nelson  followed  the  Rus- 
sian fleet  to  Cronstadt  in  May,  1801.  The 
allied  English  and  French  fleets  arrived  off 
Cronstadt  the  last  week  in  June,  1854,  and 
returned  June  i,  1855  ;  but  on  neither  occasion 
were  the  fortifications  assailed. 

CRONSTADT  (Transylvania)  was  founded  in 
the  i  sth  century. 

CROPREDY  BRIDGE  (Battle). —The  royal 
troops  defeated  the  Parliamentary  army,  led 
by  Sir  William  Waller,  at  this  place,  near  Ban- 
bury,  June  29,  1644. 

CROQUET.— This  game,  the  name  of  which 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  'old  word  for  a 
shepherd's  staff,  to  which  the  mallets  used  in 
playing  bear  some  resemblance,  is  alleged  to 
have  been  introduced  into  this  country  from 
Germany  about  1830,  although  it  did  not  be- 
come general  till  many  years  after.  Capt. 
Mayne  Reid's  "  Rules, "  126  in  number,  were 
published  in  1863.  By  some  the  origin  of  cro- 
quet is  traced  to  the  fashionable  game  pall- 
mall. 

CROSBY  HALL  (London),  in  Bishopsgate, 
formerly  called  Crosby  Place,  was  built  about 
1470,  by  John  Crosby,  grocer  and  woolman, 
knighted  by  Edward  IV.  in  1471.  It  was  con- 
structed of  stone  and  timber,  very  large  and 
beautiful,  and,  according  to  Stow,  "  the  highest 
at  that  time  in  London."  Richard  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III.,  lodged 
here. 

CROSIERED  ABBOT.-  (See  ABBOT.) 

CROSS. — The  sign  of  the  cross  was  used  by 
Christians  in  the  sacrament  of  baptism  in  the 
2nd.  century,  and  the  cross  was  adopted  as  the 
standard  of  Christian  warriors  by  Constantino 
I.  (the  Great),  who  solemnly  affirmed  that  he 
saw  one  two  miles  long  shining  in  the  heavens 
at  mid-day,  Oct.  26,  312.  (See  LABARUM.)  The 
cross  on  which  our  Lord  suffered  is  said  to  have 
been  discovered  by  the  Empress  Helena,  mo- 
ther of  Constantine  I.,  in  326.  Three  crosses 
having  been  found  buried  beneath  Mount  Cal- 
vary, the  identity  of  the  true  cross  was  deter- 
mined by  the  miraculous  cures  it  wrought  on 
such  sick  people  as  touched  it.  This  discovery 
is  commemorated  every  3rd  of  May,  by  the 
feast  of  the  "  Invention  of  the  Cross."  After 
this  event  images  of  the  cross  were  erected  on 
altars,  which  first  took  place  about  340.  In 
614,  Chosroes  II.,  King  of  Persia,  plundered 
Jerusalem  and  carried  away  the  true  cross, 
which  was  recovered  by  the  Emperor  Hera- 
clius,  and  restored  to  Mount  Calvary,  Sep.  14, 
629.  The  festival  of  the  "  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross,"  held  Sep.  14,  is  in  memory  of  this 
event.  The  worship  of  crosses  was  estab- 
lished at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  787.  In  the 
gth  century  men  sang  the  praises  of  the  cross, 
as  they  sang  the  great  deeds  of  heroes;  and 
Rhaban  Maur,  Archbishop  of  Mayence  in  847, 
wrote  a  poem  in  its  honour.  The  true  cross  is 
said  to  have  been  captured  by  Saladin  in  1187  at 
the  battle  of  Tiberias  (q.  v.).  During  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  crosses  were  erected  to  mark  the  site 
of  any  particular  event.  Thus  Edward  I. 
marked  the  spots  on  which  the  bier  of  his 
queen,  Eleanor,  rested,  on  its  way  from  Her- 
deby,  in  Lincoln,  to  Westminster,  by  building 


crosses  over  them.  (See  PAUL'S  (ST.)  CROSS,  and 
CHARING  CROSS.)  Eleanor  died  Nov.  28,  1291, 
and  was  buried  Dec.  17.  Berry  (Encyclopaedia 
Heraldica,  I.,  under  "Cross")  states,  on  the 
authority  of  Mackenzie,  that  during  the  Cru- 
sades (q.  v.)  "  the  Scots  carried  the  cross  of  St. 
Andrew  ;  the  French,  a  cross  ar. ;  the  English, 
a  cross  or ;  the  Germans,  sa. ;  the  Italians,  az. ; 
and,  as  Colombiere  asserts,  the  Spaniards,  gu. ; 
but  the  red  cross  of  St.  George,  the  patron 
saint  of  England,  has  long  been  the  standard 
bearing  of  this  country."  (See  UNION  JACK.) 

CROSS  (Maids  of  the).— This  sisterhood  was 
instituted  in  1625,  at  Roye,  in  Picardy,  by  four 
young  women,  who  resolved  to  devote  them- 
selves to  the  education  of  poor  girls.  In  1636 
they  were  compelled  by  persecution  to  remove 
to  Paris,  where  their  society  was  erected  into 
a  regular  order  by  the  archbishop  in  1640,  and 
confirmed  by  royal  letters  patent  in  1642. 

CROSS-BOW,  sometimes  called  ARBALIST, 
said  by  some  writers  to  be  of  Sicilian,  and 
by  others  of  Cretan,  invention.  The  Crusaders 
are  supposed  to  have  introduced  the  cross-bow 
into  France,  where  it  was  used  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  Louis  VI.  (1108— 
1137).  Some  historians  allege  that  the  arbalist 
was  used  in  William  the  Conqueror's  army  at 
the  battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066.  Gibbon 
speaks  of  it  as  employed  at  the  battle  of 
Dorylseum  (q.  v.},  July  4,  1097.  The  French 
had  arbalists  at  Crecy,  Aug.  26,  1346.  Their 
use  was  prohibited  by  the  council  of  Lateran, 
or  the  ioth  general  council,  April,  1139. 
Richard  I.  introduced  them  into  the  Eng- 
lish army,  and  he  was  slain  by  an  arrow 
from  a  weapon  of  this  kind,  March  26,  1199. 
Cross-bows  mounted  on  wheels,  and  called 
spin-gardas,  which  shot  not  only  darts  or 
quarrels,  but  also  stones  and  lighted  combusti- 
bles, were  used  at  the  battle  of  Mons-en-Puella 
in  1304  ;  and  similar  engines  formed  part  of  the 
armoury  of  Dover  Castle  in  1344.  The  use  of 
the  cross-bow  in  the  English  army  ceased  in 
1515,  but  it  was  employed  as  a  weapon  of  the 
chase  much  later. 

CROSS-KEYS  (Battle).— Gen.  Fremont 
encountered  the  Confederates  under  Gen. 
"  Stonewall"  Jackson  at  this  place  in  Virginia, 
Sunday,  June  8,  1862.  An  indecisive  contest 
ensued,  in  which  Jackson,  though  forced  to 
retreat,  sustained  the  smallest  loss. 

CROSS,  or  STARRY  CROSS  (Order).— This 
order  of  ladies  was  founded  by  Eleonora  de 
Gonzaga,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  in 
1668,  to  commemorate  the  miraculous  preserva- 
tion from  fire  of  a  gold  cross  containing  relics 
of  the  true  cross.  It  was  confirmed  by  bull  of 
Clement  IX.,  July  27,  1668,  and  by  the  em- 
peror Sep.  9.  (See  BETHLEHEMITES.) 

CROSSED,  CROUCHED,  or  CRUTCHED 
FRIARS,  also  called  CROSIERS,  or  CRO- 
ZIERS. — Originally  three  orders  of  friars  were 
thus  called  in  England,  Flanders,  and  Bohemia, 
all  of  whom  claimed  St.  Cletus  (Pope  78 — 91)  as 
the  founder ;  and  St.  Cyriacus,  who  was  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem  in  331,  as  the  restorer  of  their 
fraternity.  The  rules  and  constitution  were 
granted  in  1169  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  ;  but 
the  blue  robe  and  silver  cross,  which  distin- 
guished the  order  in  later  times,  were  not 


CROTONA 


[    302    ] 


CRUCIFIX 


adopted  till  1462.  Theodore  of  Celles  is  said 
to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  order  in 
Flanders  in  1211.  The  Bohemian  order  was 
founded  at  Prague  in  1236.  In  1568  Pius  V. 
sought  to  restore  the  friars  to  their  original 
sanctity  of  life  by  confirming  and  enlarging 
their  privileges,  but  apparently  with  little 
success,  as  the  order  was  finally  suppressed  by 
Pope  Alexander  VII.  in  1656. 

CROTONA  (Italy).— This  city  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Achteans  B.C.  710.  War  having 
broken  out  between  the  inhabitants  and  the 
people  of  Sybaris,  the  latter  were  defeated  in 
a  great  battle,  and  their  city  was  destroyed 
B.C.  510.  The  elder  Dionysius  took  C'rotona 
B.C.  389,  and  Agathocles  B.C.  299,  and  it  after- 
wards fell  under  the  power  of  Pyrrhus.  The 
Romans  seized  it  B.C.  277.  A  colony  of  Romans 
was  sent  here  B.C.  194.  It  suffered  greatly 
during  numerous  wars,  and  the  modern  town 
Cotrone,  which  occupies  its  site,  is  a  place  of 
no  importance. 

CROTOY  (Treaty),  confirming  the  treaties 
of  Arras  (q.  v.)  and  Conflans  7.  v,)}  was  signed 
at  Crotoy,  in  France,  Oct.  3,  1472. 

CROUCHED  FRIARS'.  —  (See  CROSSED, 
CROUCHED,  or  CRUTCHED -FRIARS.) 

CROUP.— This  disease  was  first  described 
scientifically  by  Dr.  F.  Home  in  1765. 

CROWN.— The  first  mention  of  a  king's 
crown  is  in  2  Sam.  i.  10,  which  describes  the 
delivery  of  Saul's  crown  and  bracelet  to  I  >avid, 
B.C.  1055.  At  first  crowns  were  plain  fillets, 
bound  round  the  head,  though  that  taken  by 
David  from  the  Ammonites  B.C.  103;; 
xii.  30),  which,  weighed  one  talent,  or  120  lb., 
and  was  adorned  with  precious  stones,  was 
doubtless  of  a  different  description.  Tanjuinius 
Priscus,  B.C.  616,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
Roman  king  who  assumed  a  crown;  but  as  a 
similar  ornament  was  worn  by  1 
magistrates,  it  cannot  be  considered  a  mark 
of  royalty.  The  use  of  the  modern  crown 
commenced,  according  to  Sclden,  wi: 
stantine  I.  (the  Great,  whose  rei;;i: 
in  306.  Crowns  were  adopted  by  the 
sovereigns  about  580 ;  by  the  kings  of  Lom- 
bardy,  who  wore  iron  crowns,  about  590  ;  and 
by  the  French  kings  in  768.  Egebert,  who 
became  King  of  Kent  in  786,  is  represented  on 
his  coins  as  crowned.  The  papal  triple  crown 
was  originally  a  plain  pointed  cap.  Pope  Hor- 
misdas  added  the  first  crown  about  523,  Boni- 
face VIII.  the  second  (1294 — 1303),  and  John 
XXII.  the  third  (1316—1334). 

CROWN  (Treaty  of  the).— By  this  treaty, 
concluded  at  Vienna  Nov.  16,  1700,  the  Em- 
peror Leopold  I.  agreed  to  recognize  the 
Elector  Frederick  III.  as  King  of  Prussia. 
Frederick  on  his  part  engaged  to  assist  his 
ally  with  10,000  men,  to  support  Austria  in 
the  Diet,  and  to  vote,  as  elector,  for  the  de- 
scendants of  the  emperor's  son,  Joseph,  King 
of  the  Romans. 

CROWN  AND  HALF-CROWN.  —  Gold 
crowns  were  coined  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1527. 
The  first  commission  for  coining  silver  crowns 
and  half-crowns  was  signed  by  Edward  VI. 
Oct.  i,  1551. 

CROWN,  IRON  (Order).— (See  IRON  CROWN,  i 

CROWN  POINT  (America).— Gen.  Johnson 


defeated  the  French  near  this  fort,  situated 
on  Lake  Champlain,  Sep.  7,  1755  ;  and  they 
abandoned  it  in  July,  1759.  The  fort  was 
surprised  by  the  revolted  Americans  in  1775. 
They  evacuated  it  Oct.  13,  1776,  after  the 
signal  defeat  of  their  squadron  on  Lake 
Champlain  (q.  v.}. 

CROWS  AND  ROOKS.— In  consequence  of 
'the  depredations  committed  by  these  birds,  an 
act  (24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  io'~  was  passed  in  1532, 
to  compel  every  one,  under  penalty  of  a  fine, 
to  do  his  best  to  destroy  them,  and  to  render 
it  incumbent  on  all  villages  and  country  towns 
to  provide  and  maintain  nets  for  their  capture. 
This  statute  was  partially  repealed  by  8  Eliz. 
c.  15  (1565). 

CROXTON  PARK  RACES.— These  annual 
races,  celebrated  in  the  spring  at  Croxton 
Park,  in  Leicestershire,  a  hunting  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland,  were  instituted  about  1816. 

CROYDON  (Surrey),  called  in  Domesday 
Book  Croinedone,  was  given  to  Lanfranc  soon 
after  the  Conquest.  A  palace  built  of  timber 
was  in  existence  in  1278.  Archbishop  Parker 
entertained  Elizabeth  at  the  new  palace  of 
Croydon  in  1575.  It  was  converted  into  a  fac- 
tory in  1780.  Archbishop  Whitgift  founded  the 
hospital  in  1596.  The  canal  was  commenced 
in  1801,  and  the  railroad  to  London  opened 
June  i,  1839. 

CUOYLAXD,  or  CROWLAND  (Lincoln- 
shire .—Kthelbald,  King  of  Mercia,  founded  a 
monastery  on  this  island  in  716.  The  building 
was  completed  in  726.  The  Danes  killed 
the  abbot  and  plundered  the  monastery  in 
870.  It  was  restored  by  King  Edred  in  948.  The 
abbey  w.  -d  by  fire  in  1091,  and  re- 

built in  1 1 12.  It  was  again  burned  in  1142,  and 
1  about  1170.  Croyland  was  suppressed 
with  the  other  monasteries  at  the  Refor- 

CRO/FER,  the  pastoral  staff  of  an  arch- 
bishop, is  distinguished  by  a  cross,  and  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  staff  of  a  bishop, 
which  terminates  in  a  shepherd's  crook.  The 
origin  of  the  crozier  is  referred  to  the  original 
staff  of  the  Romans.  It  was  adopted  at  a  very 
early  period  in  the  Church's  history,  and  is 
known  to  have  been  in  use  about  500.  In 
the  1 2th  century  the  crozier  was  appointed 
to  be  borne  by  metropolitans  and  patriarchs, 
which  privilege  was  afterwards  extended  to 
all  archbishops  by  Gregory  IX.  (1227 — 1241). 
A  writer  in  Notes  ami  (jn<  ,-i<x  (ii.  313)  states 
that  a  crozier  was  borne  at  the  funerals  of 
Brian  Duppa  of  Winton,  in  1662  ;  of  Juxon  of 
London  in  1663  ;  of  Frewen  of  York  in  1664  ;  of 
Wren  of  Ely  in  1667;  of  Cosinof  Dunelmin  1671 ; 
of  Trelawney  of  Winton  in  1721;  and  of  Lindsay 
of  Armagh  in  1724.  It  is  engraven  on  the 
monuments  of  Goodrich  of  Ely,  1552  ;  of  Ma- 
grath  of  Cashel,  1622;  of  Hacket  of  Lichfield, 
1670;  of  Creggleton  of  Wells;  of  Lamplughof 
York,  1691  ;  of  Sheldon,  1677;  of  Hoadley  of 
Winton  ;  and  of  Porteus  of  London. 

CROZIERS     (Order  .—(-See     CROSSED, 
::n,  or  CRUTCHED  FRIARS.) 

CRUCIFIX.— Although  the  cr. 
held  in  reverence  from  the  earliest  period  of 
Christianity,   the    crucifix,   or   effigy  of    the 
Saviour  fixed  thereto,  was  not  introduced  tiU 


CRUCIFIXION 


[    303    1 


CRYSTAL 


the  close  of  the  7th  or  the  commencement  of 
the  8th  century. 

CRUCIFIXION,  "fastening  to  the  cross," 
was  a  mode  of  execution  common  to  most  na- 
tions of  antiquity.  The  Jews  are  said  to  have 
practised  it  very  early,  and  the  death  of  Saul's 
sons,  whom  the  Gibeonites  hanged  on  a  tree 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  9),  B.  c.  1022,  is  instanced  as  a 
proof;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  satisfac- 
tory. It  has  long  existed  in  China,  was  prac- 
tised by  the  Carthaginians,  and  is  mentioned 
as  in  use  in  the  earliest  period  of  Assyrian 
history.  Amongst  the  Carthaginians  all  ranks 
were  liable  to  crucifixion,  but  the  Roman  law 
restricted  it  to  slaves.  Christ  suffered  this 
death  Friday,  April  5,  30.*  During  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  in  70,  the  Romans 
crucified  about  500  Jews  daily,  insomuch 
that  Josephus  declares  the  soldiers  were  un- 
able to  find  wood  for  the  crosses,  or  crosses  for 
the  bodies.  The  Emperor  Constantino  I.  (the 
Great)  abolished  death  by  crucifixion  in  325. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS.— The  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  was 
established  in  1824.  The  laws  on  this  subject 
were  consolidated  and  amended  by  5  &  6  Will. 
IV.  c.  59  (Sep.  9,  1835),  and  the  provisions  of 
the  act  were  extended  to  Ireland  by  i  Viet, 
c.  66  (July  15,  1837). 

CRUSADES.— These  wars,  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Saracens,  took 
place  in  the  nth,  i2th,  and  i3th  centuries. 
The  first  Crusade  was  undertaken  in  conse- 
quence of  the  appeals  of  Peter  the  Hermit, 
who  was  so  shocked  at  the  barbarous  treat- 
ment experienced  by  Christian  pilgrims  to  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  that  he  resolved  in  1093  to 
preach  in  favour  of  a  war  against  the  Moham- 
medan persecutors. 

A.D. 

1095,  Nov.  18—28.  Pope  Urban  II.  addresses  the  Council 

of  Clermont  on  the  sanctity  of  the  enterprise,  and 
announces  the  first  Crusade. 

1096,  During  this  year  four  abortive  attempts  are  made  to 

commence  the  Crusade  by  about  375,000  fanatics, 
nearly  all  of  whom  perish  on  the  march.  Aug. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  sets  out.  (See  JEWS.) 

1097,  March.    Godfrey  crosses  the   Hellespont.— May  8 — 

June  24.  Slope  and  capture  of  Nicsea,  in  Bithynia. 
—Oct.  21.  Siege  of  Antioch. 

1098,  June  3.  Capture  and  sack  of  Antioch. — June  28.  The 

battle  of  Antioch  (q.  v.). 

1099,  June  7.  The  Christian  army,  in  number 40,000,  invests 

Jerusalem.— July  15.  Je'rusalem  is  taken,  and  the 
inhabitants  are  put  to  the  sword. — July  23.  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon  is  elected  King,  and  the  first  Crusade 
ends.— Aug.  12.  Battle  of  Ascalon  (q.  v.). 
1146,  Easter.  St.  Bernard  preaches  the  second  Crusade, 
which  is  conducted  by  Louis  VII.  of  France  and 
Conrad  III.  of  Germany. 

1148.  Defeat,  of  the  Christians  a't  the  siege  of  Damascus. 

1149.  Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VII.  return  to  Europe.     The 

end  of  the  second  Crusade. 

1187.  Oct.  Jerusalem  is  recaptured  by  the  infidels  under 

Saladin.    Battle  of  Tiberias  (q.  v.). 

1188.  Philip  II.    (Augustus)  of  France  and  Henry  II.  of 

England  resolve  on  a  third  Crusade. 

1189.  The  Emperor  Frederick  I.    (Barbaiwsa)   joins   the 

enterprise.— Aug.  The  siege  of  Acre  is  commenced 

by  Guy  of  Lusignan. 
1191,  March.  Philip  II.  arrives  at  Acre — June  8.  Richard  I. 

arrives  at  Acre.— July  13.  Capture  of  Acre. 
1193,  Oct.  25.  End  of  the  third  Crusade,  and  departure  of 

Richard  I.  for  England. 


*  Clinton  (Fasti  Romani  ii.  243)  makes  it  April  I?  29; 
Hales  gives  the  -year  31 ;  and  Usher,  Blair,  Du  Fres'noy, 


1195.  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  undertakes  the  fourth 
Crusade,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Coelestine  III. 

1197.  The  Crusade  is  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  emperor. 

1199.  Innocent  III.  commissions  Fulk  of  Neuilly  to  preach 
the  fifth  Crusade. 

1202.  Boniface,   Marquis  of  Montferrat,   undertakes  the 

command  of  the  expedition,  which  gets  out  soon 
after  Easter. — Nov.  Capture  of  Zara  (q.  v.). 

1203,  June   25— July  18.  Siege  and  capture  of  Constanti- 

nople, and  end  of  the  fifth  Crusade. 
1216.  The  Germans  and  Hungarians  commence  the  sixth 

Crusade. 

1218,  May.  The  Crusaders  besiege  Damietta  (q,  v.). 
1228,  Aug.  The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  sails  from  Brundi- 

sium,  and  arrives  at  Acre. 
1329,  Feo-  2°-  A  truce  is  agreed  upon  between  Frederick 

II.  and  the  Sultan,  for  10  years  and  40  days,  and 

Jerusalem  is  restored  to  the  Christians. 
1338.  The  Turks  seize  Jerusalem. 
1239.  Thibaud,   Count    of    Champagne,   commences   the 

seventh  Crusade. 
1241-  Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  ransoms  Jerusalem,  and 

obtains  a  nominal  surrender  of  Palestine  for  the 

Christians. 
1344.  Jerusalem  is  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Carismians 

(q.  v.). 
1245.  The  eighth  Crusade  is  determined  on  by  the  Council 

of  Lyons. 
1348,  Aug.  Louis  IX.  of  France  sets  out  as  leader  of  the 

Crusmle. 
1250.  Louis   IX.   is  made  prisoner    at  Mansurah   (q.  v.). 

— June.  He  is  ransomed,  and  a  ten-years  truce  is 

agreed  upon. 

J2S4i  April.  Louis  IX.  returns  to  France. 
1368.  Louis  IX.  and  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  resolve  to 

undertake  a  ninth  Crusade. 

1270,  Departure  of  Louis  IX.    Aug.  25.  Louis  IX.  dies  of 

the  plague  at  Carthage. 

1271,  April.   l'riiif(!  I.  dward  arrives  at  Acre. 

1272,  July.  The  English  quit  Palestine. 

1291,  May  18.  The  Mamelukes  take  Acre,  thereby  de- 
stroying all  Christian  power  in  Syria. 

CRUSTUMERIUM  (Italy),  also  called  Crus- 
tumeria  or  Crustumium,  was  one  of  the  Latin 
cities  that  took  up  arms  against  Romulus,  to 
avenge  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  B.C.  740. 
After  several  conflicts,  it  was  reduced  to  sub- 
jection to  Rome,  B.C.  499 

CRUTCHED  FRIARS.  —  (See  CROSSED 
CROUCHED,  or  CRUTCHED  FRIARS  ) 

CRUZADO.— Alphonso  V.  of 'Portugal  first 
struck  this  gold  coin,  bearing  the  impression 
of  a  cross,  about  1457,  when  Callixtus  III.  or- 
dered a  crusade  against  the  infidels 

CRYOLITE.— (See  ALUMINIUM.) 

CRYOPHORUS.— This  instrument,  the  frost- 
bearer,  or  carrier  of  cold,  for  freezing  water  by 
its  own  evaporation,  was  invented  by  Dr. 
Wollaston.  The  "  Philosophical  Transactions  " 
for  1813  (p.  73)  contain  Dr.  Wollaston's  account 
of  the  invention. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY,  or  the  art  of  secret 
writing,  was  practised  at  a  very  early  period 
(See  CIPHER.) 

CRYSTAL  GLASS  or  STONE,  or  MAGIC 
MIRROR.— An  old  writer,  on  the  authority  of 
Pliny  (A.D.  23—79),  states  that  Pyrrhus,  King 
of  Epirus  (B.C.  295 — 272)  possessed  a  precious 
stone  in  which  "  (without  any  helpe,  invention 
or  arte  of  man)  was  naturally  discerned  the 
figures  of  nine  goddesses,  and  a  young  naked 
child  standing  by  them;  so  that  they  were 
censured,  by  grave  opinion,  to  bee  the  portraits 
of  the  nine  Muses  and  Apollo."  Similar 
crystals,  or  magic  mirrors,  formed  part  of  the 
stock  in  trade  of  the  necromancers  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Thus  a  priest  was  imprisoned  in 


CRYSTAL 


C    304    1 


CUDDALORE 


the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509—1547)  for 
"  consecrating  of  a  christal  stone  wherein  a 
chylde  shall  lokke,  and  se  many  thyngs." 
Rules  for  such  conseci-ation  are  given  in 
Barrett's  "Magus,"  published  in  1801.  Lieut. 
Morrison,  proprietor  of  Zadkicl's  Almanack, 
obtained  a  verdict  and  20$.  damages  against 
Admiral  Sir  Edward  Belcher  for  libel  in 
charging  him  with  the  exhibition  for  money 
of  a  similar  magic  crystal,  June,  1863. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE  (Hyde  Park).— (See 
GREAT  EXHIBITION.) 

CRYSTAL  PALACE  (Sydenham).— At  the 
close  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  a  com- 
pany was  formed,  in  order  to  purchase  the 
materials  of  the  building,  and  to  re-erect  them 
on  another  site.  This  was  registered  as 
the  Crystal  Palace  Company,  May  17,  1852. 
Penge  Park  and  the  adjacent  property, 
amounting  to  200  acres,  were  soon  after  pur- 
chased. 

A.D. 

1852,  Aug.  5.  Mr.  Laing,  M.P.,  erects  the  first  column  of 

the  new  building. 

1853,  Aug.  15.  Twelve  workmen  are  killed  by  the  fall  of  a 

scaffold. — Dec.  31.  Mr.  Waterhouse  Hawkins  gives 
a  dinner  to  24  scientific  men  in  the  body  of  his 
model  igiianndon. 

1854,  Feb.  28.  The  directors  announce  the  Intended  opening 

of  the  Palace  in  May. -June  10.  The  Palace  is 
opened  by  the  Queen. — Oct.  28.  Military  musical 
fete  in  aid  of  the  Patriotic  Fund. 

1855,  April  20.  Visit  of  the  Emperor  and  Kmpress  of  the 

French. — Dec.  13.  Extraordinary  general  meeting 
of  the  shareholders,  who  complain  of  the  manage- 
ment 

1856,  Jnne  18.  First  complete  display  of  the  waterworks. 

— Nov.  I.  liobson  is  sentenced  to  20  years' trans- 
portation for  forgery  and  fraud  on  the  Crystal 
Palace  Company,  to  llie  amount  of  A"28,OOO. 

1857,  June  15,  17,  anil   19.  Preliminary  performances  take 

place  in  preparation  for  the  Handel  festival. — 
Sep.  2.  Tonic  Sol-Fa  concert,  by  3,000  children. 

1858,  July  2-  Second  rehearsal  for  the  Handel  fcsthal. 

1859,  Jan.  2v  The  centenary  of  the  birth  of  Robert  Burns 

is  cV.lebvated,  and  MNs  Isa  Cr:.ig  obtains  the  prize 
for  the  best  poem  upon  the  subject. — .Iune2o,  22, 
and  24-  Handel  commemoration,  or  festival  (q.  v.). 
— Nov.  10.  Celebration  of  the  Schiller  centenary 
festival. 

1860,  May  4.  A  statue  of  Mendelssohn  is  inaugurated  by 

torchlight.  —  June  25,  &c.  Concerts  by  3,000 
Orpheonistes.—  July  9.  Distribution  of  pri/es  to 
volunteers  for  proficiency  in  ritle-shooting. — July 


o.   Competition  of  n.q  English  l.rass  bands. 

and  21.  The  north  wing  of   the   building  is 
blown  down. — May  26.  The  Palace   is  opened  to 


i,  Feb.  20 


shareholders  and  their  friends  on  Sunday. — June  I. 
First  appearance  of  lilondin. 

1864,  April  16.  Gen.  Garibaldi  and  his  son  Mcnotti  visit  the 

Palace,  and  are  presented  with  swords  by  the 
Italian  committee. — Aug.  A  model  pneumatic  rail- 
way is  established  in  the  grounds. 

1865.  An  Anglo-French  Worklng-Clas*  Exhibition  is  held. 

(See  HANDEL  COMMEMORATIONS.) 

CTESIPHON  (Assyria).— The  date  of  the 
foundation  of  this  city,  also  called  Al  Madain 
or  Madyn,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  and 
only  a  short  distance  from  Seleucia,  has  not 
been  ascertained.  It  was  the  favoui-ite  winter 
residence  of  the  Parthian  monarchs,  was  taken 
by  Trajan  in  116,  and  was  sacked  by  the 
Romans  in  161.  The  Emperor  Severus  took 
it  by  assault  in  198,  and  carried  off  100,000 
captives.  The  Persians,  defeated  by  the 
Emperor  Julian,  in  June,  363,  took  refuge  in 
Ctesiphon  ;  but  the  emperor  would  not  under- 
take the  siege.  Omar  sacked  it  in  March, 


637  ;  and  from  this  blow  it  never  recovered 
(See  CUFA.) 

CUBA  (Atlantic).— This,  the  largest  of  the 
Antilles  or  West  Indian  islands,  was  discovered 
by  Christopher  Columbus,  Oct.  28,  1492.  It 
was  named  Juana,  then  Fernandina,  and 
afterwards  Santiago.  The  natives  called  it 
Cuba,  which  name  has  since  come  into  general 
use.  Columbus  returned  to  the  island  April 
29,  1494,  and  again  in  1502.  The  first  Spanish 
settlement  was  formed  in  1511,  and  the  con- 
quest was  completed  by  Velasquez  in  1512. 
The  colonists  carried  on  continual  war  with 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  who  were  almost 
exterminated  by  1560.  The  cultivation  of 
tobacco  and  the  sugar-cane  was  introduced 
about  1580.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  island 
was  captured  by  the  English,  who  landed  June 
7,  1762 ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  Spaniards 
by  the  igth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  con- 
cluded Feb.  10,  1763.  Gen.  Lopez,  having,  in 
spite  of  prohibitions  from  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  invaded  Cuba  at  the  head  of 
an  expedition  of  American  filibusters  May  1 7, 
1850,  and  Aug.  12,  1851,  was  captured  by  the 
Spanish  authorities,  and  executed  at  Havannah 
Sep.  i,  1851.  (See  HAVANXAH,  UNITED  STATES, 
&c.) 

CUBAN,  or  KUBAN  (Russia).— The  territory 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Cuban  was  i-ecognized 
as  independent  by  the  Russians  and  Turks 
in  1774,  but  in  1783  the  Empress  Catherine  II. 
and  Prince  Potemkin  added  it  to  the  Russian 
empire. 

CUBIT,  the  first  measure  of  which  we  have 
any  record.  Noah  was  ordered  to  make  the 
length  of  the  ark  300  cubits,  its  breadth  50,  and 
the  height  30,  B.C.  2469  (Gen.  vi.  15).  Autho- 
rities are  divided  respecting  the  length  of  the 
cubit,  which  was  probably  about  20  inches. 

CUCKING-STOOL,  or  TUMBREL,  an  instru- 
ment invented  for  the  punishment  of  scolds, 
by  ducking  them  in  the  water,  was  in  use  in 
this  country  at  a  very  early  period.  The 
churchwardens'  and  chamberlains'  accounts 
at  Kingston -upon-Thamcs  for  1572  contain  the 
following  : — 

*.  d. 

The  making  of  the  cucking-stool    8    o 

Ironwork  for  the  same 3    o 

Timber  for  the  same '. 7    6 

Three  brasses  for  the  same  and  three  wheels  4  10 

The  punishment  was  administered  in  this 
town  in  April,  1745.  The  newspaper  of  the 
time  thus  chronicles  the  event :  ' '  Last  week 
a  woman  that  keeps  the  Queen's  Head  ale- 
house, at  Kingston,  in  Surrey,  was  ordered 
by  the  court  to  be  ducked  for  scolding,  and 
was  accordingly  placed  in  the  chair,  and 
ducked  in  the  river  Thames,  under  Kingston 
Bridge,  in  the  presence  of  two  or  three 
thousand  people."  Another  woman  was 
punished  in  the  same  manner  at  this  place  as 
late  as  1801. 

CUCUMBER.  —  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
pickled  the  cucumber.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
common  in  England  in  the  time  of  Edward  III. 
(1327 — 1377),  and  having  gone  out  of  culture 
during  the  wars  of  the  Roses,  was  reintroduced 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509 — 1547). 

CUDDALORE     (Hindostan).— This    seaport 


CUFA 


[     305     1 


CUMBERLAND 


town  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel  was  ceded  by 
its  native  prince  to  the  East  India  Company  in 
1 68 1.  They  built  a  factory ,  which  was  extended 
and  fortified  in  1702.  The  French,  who  took  it 
in  1758,  and  abandoned  it  on  the  approach  of 
Coote  in  1760,  assisted  by  Hyder,  captured  it 
April  4,  1782.  The  English  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  retake  it  in  1783,  but  it  was  restored  to  them 
by  treaty,  March  n,  1784. 

CUFA  (Assyria). — "  The  name  of  Cufa,"  says 
Gibbon  (ch.  li.),  "describes  a  habitation  of 
reeds  and  earth."  It  was  founded  by  Omar  I., 
after  the  sack  of  Ctesiphon  (q.  v.)  in  637,  and 
in  its  construction  the  ruins  of  that  city  were 
employed.  It  revolted  against  Othman  in  656, 
and  Ali  died  Jan.  21,  661,  from  a  wound  re- 
ceived two  days  before  in  the  mosque  of  Cufa. 
(See  CADESIA.) 

CUIRASS.— This  defence  for  the  breast 
and  back  was  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Per- 
sians, Greeks,  and  Romans,  though  its  form 
was,  of  course,  subject  to  many  modifica- 
tions. Its  modern  name  is  derived  from  the 
French  cuir  or  Latin  corium,  both  of  which 
signify  leather,  because  that  was  the  mate- 
rial usually  employed.  Subsequently,  rings 
and  scales  were  added,  and  at  length  the 
cuirass  was  formed  of  solid  plates  of  iron  and 
brass,  which  protected  the  body,  from  the 
neck  to  the  girdle.  It  became  general  during 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  (1327 — 1377).  Its  use 
was  revived  in  the  English  army  in  1820. 

CUIRASSIER.— Capt.  Cruso  ("Militarie 
Instructions  for  the  Cavalerie,"  1632)  says  : — 
"  This  sort  of  Cavallrie  is  of  late  invention, 
namely  by  the  Germanes."  Cuirassiers  also 
formed  part  of  the  French  army,  and  were 
retained  when  it  was  reorganized  in  1791. 

CULDEES,  or  KELDEES.— The  name  given 
to  the  members  of  a  religious  order,  established 
in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Church.  The  origin  of  the  Culdees 
is  assigned  to  the  sth  century,  and  St.  Patrick, 
whose  mission  to  Ireland  occurred  in  432,  is 
said  to  have  been  one.  Columba,  the  apos- 
tle of  the  Picts,  who  landed  in  Scotland  in 
562,  is  also  said  to  have  been  a  Culdee ;  and 
the  same  sect  includes  Columbanus,  who 
introduced  Christianity  to  the  Burgundians, 
Franks,  and  Swiss,  in  590.  The  Culdees,  who 
did  not  acknowledge  the  papal  supremacy, 
possessed  several  seats  of  learning  in  Scotland. 
That  of  Melrose,  which  was  one  of  the  chief, 
was  burned  by  the  Danes  in  850.  St.  Andrew's 
was  so  renowned,  that  King  Constantine  III. 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  there,  and  died 
there  in  945.  The  Culdees  existed  at  Bardsey, 
on  the  coast  of  Caernarvon,  as  late  as  1188,  and 
at  lona  until  1203.  They  nourished  at  Dunkeld 
until  1127,  when  King  David  I.  converted  their 
monastery  into  a  cathedral,  and  took  measures 
for  their  suppression. 

CULLODEN  (Battle).— The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land defeated  the  Pretender  Charles  Edward 
at  Culloden  or  Drummossie  Moor,  near  Inver- 
ness (O.S.),  April  1 6,  1746.  This  victory  entirely 
crushed  the  rebellion. 

CULM,  or  KULM  (Battle).— A  battle  was 
fought  between  the  allied  Austrians,  Prussians, 
and  Russians,  and  the  French,  near  Culm,  in 
Prussia,  Aug.  29  and  30,  1813.  The  French, 


who  were  defeated,  lost,  in  the  two  days, 
18,000  men,  whilst  the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not 
exceed  5,000.  Sixty  pieces  of  cannon,  two 
eagles,  and  300  ammunition  waggons,  were 
captured  from  the  French. 

CULROSS  (Scotland).— This  ancient  town  of 
Perthshire,  the  birthplace  (circ.  500)  of  St. 
Kentigern  or  Mungo,  was  the  seat  in  the  6th 
century  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Serf,  who 
afterwards  became  the  patron  saint  of  the 
town.  A  Cistercian  abbey  was  founded  in  1 2 1 7, 
and  Culross  Abbey,  a  seat  of  the  Bruce  family, 
erected  late  in  the  i6th,  was  restored  about 
the  middle  of  the  i7th  century,  and  about  the 
end  of  the  i8th  became  the  residence  of  the 
ninth  Earl  of  Duiidonald.  Coal  mines  were 
worked  here  from  the  reign  of  James  VI. 
(1567 — 1625)  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century. 

CULVERIN.— A  culverin  of  4  Ib.  calibre  was 
made  by  the  Moors  in,  1132,  and  called  Sala- 
monica  ;  and  portable  bombards,  to  which  the 
name  of  culverins  was  afterwards  given,  were 
constructed  in  France  in  1382.  Several  instru- 
ments of  a  similar  kind  were  employed  at  the 
battle  of  Tongres  in  1468.  Hand  culverins  were 
introduced  about  1440. 

CUM^  (Italy).  —  This,  the  earliest  Greek 
colony  in  Italy,  is  said  by  some  authorities 
to  have  been  founded  B.C.  1050.  From  about 
B.C.  700  to  B.C.  450,  it  enjoyed  the  highest 
prosperity.  It  resisted  an  invasion  of  the 
Etruscans  B.C.  522.  Aristodemus  obtained  the 
supremacy  B.C.  505,  and  was  expelled  by  the 
nobles  after  he  had  exercised  it  about  20 
years.  Tarquinius  Superbus,  the  exiled  King 
of  Rome,  sought  refuge  at  Cumse  B.C.  496. 
Hiero  I.,  Tyrant  of  Syracuse,  came  to  the  aid 
of  the  Cumaians,  and  defeated  the  Carthaginian 
and  Tyrrhenian  fleet  B.C.  474.  The  Samnites 
captured  Cumse  B.C.  420,  put  the  male  inhabi- 
tants to  death,  and  established  a  colony.  It 
was  admitted  to  the  Roman  franchise  B.C.  338. 
Sylla  retired  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cumae 
after  his  abdication,  B.C.  79.  Narses  captured 
the  town  after  a  long  siege  in  553.  It  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1538.  Cumae 
was  also  celebrated  as  the  abode  of  the 
fabled  Sibyl,  and  for  a  long  time  her  sup- 
posed cave  was  shown  to  visitors.  Justin 
Martyr  saw  it  in  the  middle  of  the  and  cen- 
tury. Cumse  was  for  some  time  the  seat  of  a 
bishop. 

CUM^E  (Sea-fight).— Menecrates,  Admiral  of 
Sextus  Pompeius,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Octa- 
vius  in  the  bay  of  Cumse,  B.C.  38. 

CUMANA  (Venezuela),  the  capital  of  a  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name  in  Venezuela,  is  the 
oldest  city  founded  by  Europeans  in  South 
America.  Diego  Castellon  commenced  it  in 
1523,  and  called  it  New  Toledo.  It  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1766. 
The  inhabitants  joined  in  the  revolt  against 
Spain,  April  19,  1810.  It  was  almost  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1853. 

CUMBERLAND  (England)  is  said  to  owe  its 
name  to  the  Cimbri  or  Cumbri,  its  aboriginal  in- 
habitants. In  945,  Edmund  I.,  King  of  England, 
gave  it  to  Malcolm  I.,  of  Scotland,  on  condition 
that  the  latter  should  assist  him  in  his  en- 
deavours to  repel  hostile  invasions,  and  in  1032 


CUMBERLAND 


[     306    ] 


CURATE 


this  arrangement  was  confirmed  by  Canute. 
At  the  period  of  the  Conquest,  Malcolm  III. 
aided  the  northern  rebels  in  their  opposition  to 
Norman  tyranny  ;  in  consequence  of  which, 
William  I.  led  an  army  against  him  in  1072,  and 
added  Cumberland  t>  his  own  territories, 
giving  Malcolm  some  English  towns  as  a  com- 
pensation. The  county  remained  an  object  of 
contention  between  the  two  kingdoms  for  some 
time,  and  was  ravaged  by  the  Scotch  in  1091 
and  in  1135;  on  the  latter  occasion  Stephen 
resigned  his  claim.  Henry  II.  recovered  it  in 
1157.  Cumberland  was  finally  annexed  to 
England  in  1237.  The  Border  service  was 
instituted  by  Edward  I.  in  1296,  when  Robert 
de  Clifford  was  made  Lord  Warden  of  the 
Marches,  and  appointed  to  guard  the  country 
against  Scotch  invasion,  and  to  decide  dispxites 
between  the  people  of  both  kingdoms.  Edward 
Bruce  ravaged  Cumberland  in  1315,  and  in  1322 
his  brother  Robert  also  entered  the  county, 
whence  he  returned  with  immense  booty  ;  and 
for  a  long  period  the  whole  border  territory  was 
the  scene  of  continual  marauding  incursions. 

CUMBERLAND  GAP  (N.  America).— This 
pass,  separating  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and 
important  as  commanding  those  states  and  the 
line  of  communication  between  Richmond  and 
northern  Alabama  and  the  towns  on  the 
Mississippi,  was  seized  by  the  Confederates 
early  in  the  American  civil  war.  It  was  eva- 
cuated by  them  about  June  10,  1862,  and 
occupied  by  the  Federals,  who  were  compelled 
to  abandon  it  Sep.  17.  Gen.  Shackelford,  who 
commenced  operations  against  it  Sep.  4,  1863, 
invested  it  Sep.  7,  but  its  surrender  was 
refused  by  Gen.  Frazier,  who  delivered  it,  how- 
ever, to  Gen.  Burnside,  Sep.  9. 

CUMBERLAVD  PRESBYTERIANS.—  This 
sect  originated  at  Cumberland,  in  Kentucky, 
North  America,  in  iSio,  in  a  dispute  between 
the  presbytery  of  that  town  and  the  Kentucky 
synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America, 
relative  to  the  admission  to  the  ministry  of 
persons,  who,  not  having  received  the  usual 
education,  were  nevertheless  deemed  by  the 
presbytery  to  be  required  as  preachers.  They 
hold  the  doctrine  of  universal  redemption,  and 
deny  the  predestination  of  sin. 

CUNAXA  (Battle).— Cyrus  the  Younger  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
II.  (Mnemon),  King  of  Persia,  at  this  place,  in 
Upper  Asia,  B.C.  401. 

CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.-The  cunei- 
form, wedge-shaped,  or  arrow-headed  character, 
used  for  monumental  records,  and  read  from 
right  to  left,  "  arose,"  according  to  Rawlinson 
(Ancient  Monarchies  i.  83),  "when  clay  took 
the  place  of  stone  as  a  material.  A  small  tool, 
with  a  square  or  triangular  point,  impressed, 
by  a  series  of  distinct  touches,  the  outline  of 
the  old  pictured  objects  on  the  soft  clay  of 
tablets  and  bricks."  The  earliest  inscription 
yet  deciphered  is  one  of  Urukh,  King  of 
Chaldfea,  who  reigned  from  B.C.  2093  to  B.C. 
2070.  From  this  date  they  are  found  written 
in  three  alphabets  or  languages,  viz.  the 
Assyrian,  the  Median  or  Scythic,  and  the 
Persian,  till  about  the  time  of  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great)  B.C.  336 — 323.  Garcia  de  Sylva 
Figueroa,  Persian  ambassador  of  Philip  III.  of 


Spain,  was  the  first  modern  who  suggested,  in 
1618,  that  these  inscriptions  were  probably 
records  traced  in  some  ancient  and  lost  lan- 
guage. Sir  John  Chardin,  in  1674,  published 
;hree  groups  of  cuneiforms,  copied  at  Perse- 
r>olis,  which  he  declared  to  be  writing,  adding, 
"  the  rest,  however,  will  always  be  unknown." 
Karsten  Niebuhr,  in  a  narrative  of  his  eastern 
ravels,  published  between  1772  and  1778.  first 
proved  the  existence  of  three  cuneiform  alpha- 
bets ;  and  Dr.  Grotefend  of  Hanover  laid  the 
first  cuneiform  alphabet,  with  its  modern 
European  equivalents,  before  the  Academy  of 
Gottingen,  Sep.  7,  1802.  Sir  H.  Rawlinson, 
writing  in  1851  of  the  Assyrian  records,  pub- 
lished a  list  of  246,  or,  including  variants,  366 
characters,  as  occurring  in  the  inscriptions 
known  to  him.  M.  Oppert,  in  1858,  gave  318 
forms  as  those  "most  in  use"  (Rawlinson  i.  337). 

CUNERSDORF,  or  KUNNERSDORF 
(Battle).— Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  attacked 
the  allied  Austrian  and  Russian  army  at  this 
place,  near  Frankfort,  on  the  Oder,  Aug.  12, 
1759.  The  Prussians  were  at  first  successfxil, 
and  a  messenger  was  sent  to  Berlin,  with  the 
following  message  to  the  queen  : — ' '  Madam, 
we  have  driven  the  Russians  from  their  en- 
trenchments. In  two  hours  expect  to  hear  of 
a  glorious  victory."  Their  opponents,  however, 
renewed  the  contest  with  great  vigour,  and  the 
king  was  compelled  to  order  a  retreat,  having 
lost  30,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
200  pieces  of  artillery. 

CUPOLA  or  TURRET  SHIPS.— Capt.  Coles, 
R.N.,  having  been  struck  by  the  success  of  the 
Luilf/  Xunc/t  raft,  which  carried  a  32-pounder, 
and  was  used  with  great  effect  in  the  sea  of 
Azof  during  the  Crimean  war,  directed  his 
attention  towards  the  invention  of  an  iron 
dome  or  hemispherical  shield  to  protect  the 
men  working  guns  placed  on  similar  rafts. 
His  designs  were  favourably  noticed  by  a 
committee  of  investigation  in  Nov.,  1855, 
and,  having  made  fresh  experiments  and  plans, 
he  introduced  his  views  to  the  public  in  a 
lecture  delivered  before  the  Royal  United  Ser- 
vice Institution,  June  29,  1860.  In  1861  ex- 
periments made  by  government  on  a  cupola 
erected  on  the  Trusty,  resulted  in  establishing 
the  superiority  of  the  new  system,  which  was 
that  iised,  with  some  modifications,  in  the 
Federal  steam  i-aft  Monitor,  which  defeated  the 
Confederate  Mvmmac,  March  9,  1862. 

CURACOA  (Atlantic).— The  Spaniards  formed 
a  settlement  on  this  island,  one  of  the  Antilles, 
in  1527.  It  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1634. 
The  inhabitants  having  claimed  the  protection 
of  England,  the  island  and  its  dependencies 
surrendered  to  an  English  squadron  Sep.  13, 
1800.  The  island,  restored  by  the  3rd  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  March  25,  1802,  was, 
on  the  renewal  of  the  war,  again  captured  by  a 
British  squadron,  Jan.  i,  1807.  By  the  treaty 
concluded  in  London,  Aug.  13,  1814,  it  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch,  in  whose  possession  it 
has  since  remained. 

CURATE.  — Simon  Islip,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1349—1366),  fixed  the  yearly  sa- 
lary of  a  curate  at  six  marks,  or  £4,  which  was 
increased  to  eight  marks  or  ,£5  6s.  8d.  by  Arch- 
bishop Sudbury,  in  1378.  Perpetual  curacies 


CURFEW 


f    3°7 


CURZOLA 


were  originated  by  4  Hen.  IV.  c.  12  (1402), 
which  enacted  that  "  in  every  church  appro- 
priated there  shall  be  a  secular  person  or- 
dained vicar  perpetual."  Curates  were  first 
required  to  be  examined  and  admitted  by 
the  ordinary  by  the  canons  of  1604,  and  by 
12  Anne,  stat.  2  c.  12  (1713),  the  bishop's  licence 
was  declared  necessary  before  they  could 
serve  a  cure  in  the  absence  of  the  rector.  This 
act,  which  provided  for  the  salaries  of  curates, 
was,  with  36  Geo.  III.  c.  83  (May  14,  1796),  and 
53  Geo.  III.  c.  149  (July  20,  1813),  relating  to 
the  same  subject,  repealed  by  57  Geo.  III.  c. 
99  (July  10,  1817).  This  was  amended  by  i  &  2 
Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  14,  1838),  and  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c. 
49  (Aug.  17,  1839).  (-See  QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY.) 

CURFEW  BELL.— The  Couvre-feu,  or 
Curfew,  was  a  signal  for  putting  out  fires  and 
lights.  William  I.  is  said  to  have  introduced 
it  into  England  in  1068,  although  it  is  pro- 
bable that  he  only  enforced  a  regulation 
previously  in  existence,  as  a  similar  custom 
at  that  time  prevailed  in  Italy,  France,  Spain, 
and  other  countries.  The  severity,  however, 
with  which  William  I.  enforced  it,  compelling 
the  people  to  extinguish  both  fires  and  lights 
when  the  curfew-bell  rang  at  eight  in  the 
evening,  caused  the  introduction  of  the 
custom  to  be  attributed  to  him.  In  those 
early  times,  the  fire  was  generally  made  in 
a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  the  smoke 
escaping  through  an  aperture  in  the  roof. 
When  the  bell  tolled  the  wood  and  embers 
were  raked  together  and  the  fire  was  extin- 
guished. The  custom  was  modified  by  Hen- 
ry I.  in  1103.  The  Liber  Albus  contains  regu- 
lations of  the  city  of  London,  passed  during 
the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  III.,  by 
which  persons  were  forbidden  to  wander  about 
the  city  armed,  after  curfew.  The  practice  of 
ringing  the  bell  at  eight  o'clock  is  still  kept 
up  in  many  places  in  England. 

CURIA  MURIA  ISLANDS  (Indian  Ocean), 
on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  were  visited  by 
Portuguese  missionaries  in  1588 ;  at  which 
time  the  population,  only  one  of  them  being 
inhabited,  consisted  of  a  few  savages,  who 
subsisted  on  fish,  which  they  dried  in  the  sun. 
In  1819  they  were  invaded  by  the  Wahabees, 
who  destroyed  their  houses,  killed  their  goats, 
and  sold  some  of  their  children  to  slavery. 
The  islands,  five  in  number,  were  explored 
and  described  by  Dr.  Hulton  in  1836.  They 
are  also  called  the  Kooria  Mooria  Islands. 

CURIA  REGIS.   (See  KING'S  COURT  ) 

CURIATIL— (See  ALBA  LONGA  and  HORATII 

AXD   CURIATII.) 

CURLING.— This  game  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Scotland  by  the  Flemish  emi- 
grants, at  the  commencement  of  the  i6th 
century. 

CURRANTS,  or  "  raisins  de  Corinthe,"  were 
first  introduced  into  this  country  in  the  i6th 
century,  when  they  were  called  "  Corinthes," 
fi-om  the  part  of  Greece  in  which  they  are 
produced  in  the  greatest  abundance.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
to  introduce  the  culture  of  this  particular  vine 
in  England.  The  duty  on  currants,  which  was 
very  high,  was  reduced  in  1834,  and  by  7  Viet. 
c.  6  (June  6,  1844). 


CURRANT-TREE  was  first  planted  in 
England  in  1533.  The  hawthorn  currant-tree 
was  introduced  from  Canada  in  1705. 

CURRIERS.-(See  LEATHER.) 

CURSE  OF  SCOTLAND.— The  reason  why 
the  nine  of  diamonds  is  called  the  curse  of 
Scotland  has  been  discussed  in  Notes  and 
Queries.  Amongst  the  reasons  assigned  are 
the  following: — Because  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, after  the  battle  of  Culloden,  April  16, 
1746,  wrote  upon  the  back  of  this  card  a  very 
cruel  and  inhuman  order  for  the  destruction 
of  the  persons  and  property  of  the  rebels. 
Because  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  Earl  of 
Stair,  who  was  very  unpopular  in  Scotland,  on 
account  of  the  part  he  took  in  promoting 
the  Union  in  1707,  were  so  arranged  as  to 
resemble  the  nine  of  diamonds.  Because 
"curse  of  Scotland  "is  a  corruption  of  "cross 
of  Scotland,"  the  allusion  being  to  St.  An- 
drew's cross,  which  is  supposed  to  resem- 
ble the  nine  of  diamonds.  Because  diamonds 
imply  royalty,  being  ornaments  to  the  im- 
perial crown ;  and  every  ninth  king  of  Scot- 
land has  been  a  tyrant  and  a  curse  to  his 
country.  Because  the  heraldic  bearings  of 
the  Dalrymple  family  are,  on  a  saltire  azure, 
nine  lozenges  of  the  field  ;  the  second  Viscount 
Dalrymple  and  first  Earl  of  Stair  being  called 
the  curse  of  Scotland,  from  the  part  he  took 
in  the  massacre  of  Glencoe  in  1692.  Because 
it  is  the  great  winning  card  at  cornette,  a  game 
introduced  into  Scotland  in  1538,  by  the  French 
attendants  of  Mary  of  Lorraine,  queen  of  James 
V.,  to  the  ruin  of  many  Scotch  families. 
Because  the  nine  of  diamonds  is  the  pope  in 
the  game  of  Pope  Joan,  originally  called  Pope 
Julio,  and  said  to  have  been  played  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  latter 
explanation,  from  the  anti-papal  spirit  dis- 
played by  the  Scottish  people,  is  believed  to 
be  the  true  one. 

CURSITOR  BARON. —  Although  the 
functions  of  this  officer  originated  at  the  same 
time  as  the  Exchequer,  they  did  not  give  rise 
to  a  separate  dignity  till  the  reign  of  James  I. 
The  first  mention  of  baron-cursitor  occurs 
July  8,  1606,  when  Nowell  Sotherton  received 
the  title.  By  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  99  (Aug.  29, 
1833),  many  of  the  duties  of  this  office  were 
abolished,  and  it  was  suppressed  by  19  &  20 
Viet.  c.  86  (July  29,  1856). 

CURSUS.— I  See  BREVIARY.) 

CURTAIN  THEATRE  (London),  mentioned 
in  1577,  was  occupied  in  1622  by  the  servants 
of  Charles,  Prince  of  Wales.  In  1678,  Aubrey 
described  it  as  "a  kind  of  nursery  or  ob- 
scure playhouse,  called  the  Greene  Curtain, 
situate  in  the  suburbs  towards  Shoreditch." 
It  was  afterwards  used  for  exhibitions  of 
pugilism. 

CUR TA TONE  (Battle).— The  Austrians, 
after  a  severely  contested  action,  defeated  the 
Italian  army  at  this  village,  between  Mantua 
and  Vicenza,  May  29,  1848. 

CURZOLA  (Adriatic),  the  ancient  Corcyra 
Nigra,  so  called  from  the  dark  colour  of  the 
pines  that  grow  upon  it,  is  said  to  have  been 
colonized  by  the  Cnidians.  It  was  seized, 
in  997,  by  the  Venetians,  under  the  Doge 
Pietro  Orseolo  II.,  and  in  1298  the  Genoese 


CUSHER 


CUTTACK 


defeated  a  Venetian  fleet  in  its  vicinity.  In 
1420  it  was  retaken  by  the  Venetians,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  province  of  Venetian  Dal- 
matia ;  and  in  1485  it  resisted  the  attempts 
of  Ferdinand  II.  of  Aragon  for  its  capture.  The 
Turkish  corsair  Uluz-Ali  attacked  Curzola 
in  1571,  and  the  governor  and  garrison  having 
fled,  the  women  put  on  armour,  and  saved 
the  place  from  pillage.  The  Russians  twice 
seized  Curzola  in  1806.  It  was  ceded  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  July  7,  1807.  The 
English  obtained  possession  in  1813,  and  re- 
tained it  till  its  cession  to  the  Austrians,  July 
15,  1815. 

CUSHEE  PIECES  were  invented  by  Richard 
Leake,  who  was  born  in  1629,  fought  in  the 
great  sea-fight  against  Van  Tromp  in  1673,  and 
died  in  1696.  Leake  held  the  position  of 
master-gunner  of  England  and  storekeeper  of 
Woolwich. 

CUSHION-DANCE,  also  called  Joan  Sander- 
son, is  a  very  old  round  dance.  According  to 
Fosbroke,  in  most  ancient  dances  a  man  and  a 
woman  danced  together,  holding  each  other  by 
the  hand  or  arm,  and  a  kiss  was  the  established 
fee  of  the  lady's  partner.  One  of  the  charac- 
ters in  Hey  wood's  play  of  "A  Woman  killed 
with  Kindness"  (1600),  remarks,  "  I  have,  ere 
now,  deserved  a  cushion  ;  call  for  the  cushion- 
dance."  Playford's  "  Dancing-Master,"  pub- 
lished in  1698,  contains  a  description  of  this 
dance,  usually  introduced  at  weddings. 

CUSTOM-HOUSE  (London).— The  business 
of  the  Customs  was  transacted  at  Billingsgate 
in  979,  but  no  building  was  especially  devoted 
to  this  purpose  till  1365.  In  1559  a  larger  house 
was  erected,  which  was  destroyed  during  the 
Great  Fire  of  1666  :  and  the  new  edifice,  built 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1668,  was  also 
burned,  in  1718.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Ripley  soon 
after,  and  shared  the  fate  of  its  predecessors, 
Feb.  12,  1814.  The  first  stone  of  a  new 
custom-house  had  been  laid  in  1813,  as  the 
former  .building  was  found  inadequate  to  the 
requirements  of  the  times,  and  this  was 
opened  May  12,  1817.  In  1825,  owing  to  the 
defective  manner  in  which  the  foundations  had 
been  laid,  part  of  the  new  building  fell  in, 
when  the  whole  central  portion  was  taken 

down  and  restored. The  custorn-house  of 

Dublin  was  completed  in  July,  1621,  and  re- 
built before  1661.  In  1707  a  new  building  was 
erected ;  but  as  this  was  found  to  be  unsafe 
in  1773,  another  was  commenced  in  1781,  and 
completed  in  1791.  A  dreadful  fire,  '  which 
broke  out  in  the  sugar  and  spirit  stores,  Aug. 
10,  1833,  destroyed  700  puncheons  of  spirit,  300 
casks  of  tallow,  and  nearly  5,000  hogsheads  of 
sugar. 

CUSTOMS  were  paid  on  vessels  and  goods  at 
Billingsgate,  during  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II. 
(978 — 1016).  They  were  granted  to  the  king  in 
1274,  by  3  Edw.  I.;  and  in  1282,  the  duty  of  col- 
lecting them  was  intrusted  to  foreigners.  Queen 
Elizabeth  farmed  them  to  Sir  Thomas  Smith, 
receiving  at  first  £14,000,  which  sum  was 
raised,  in  1590,  to  £42,000,  and  afterwards  to 
.£50,000.  In  1666,  Charles  II.  farmed  them  for 
.£390,000.  In  1 787  they  were  regulated  by  the 
Customs  Consolidation  Act  (27  Geo.  III.  c.  13), 
which  has  been  since  amended,  by  16  &  17 


Viet.  c.  107  (Aug.  20,  1853),  and  18  and  19  Viet, 
cc.  96  &  97  (Aug.  14,  1855). 

CUSTOS  BREVIUM.  —  This  office,  in  the 
court  of  King's  or  Queen's  Bench  and  in  the 
court  of  Common  Pleas,  was  abolished  by 
i  Will.  IV.  c.  58  (July  23,  1830). 

CUSTOS  ROTULORUM,  or  Keeper  of  the 
Rolls  or  records  of  the  session  of  the  peace, 
was  ordered  to  be  appointed  under  the  sign 
manual,  by  37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i  (1545),  and 
i  Will.  &  Mary  c.  21  (1689). 

CUSTOZA  (Battle).— -Marshal  Radetsky  de- 
feated the  Italians  at  this  place,  near  Mantua, 
July  23,  1848. 

CUSTRIN.— (See  KUSTBIN.) 

CUTCH,  or  KUTCH  (Hindostan),  was  an  in- 
dependent state  in  1582,  and  held  possessions 
in  Scinde  and  other  neighbouring  territories, 
all  of  which  were  lost  by  Rao  Lacka,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  power  in  1751.  Futteh  Mohammed, 
the  general  of  the  army,  expelled  the  reigning 
prince  in  1792,  and  was  himself  overthrown  in 
1802  ;  after  which  Cutch  became  notorious  as 
the  seat  of  hordes  of  robbers,  who  were  a 
source  of  constant  annoyance  to  the  adjoining 
provinces.  Consequently,  the  East  India  Com- 
pany interfered  in  1809,  and  compelled  the 
government  of  Cutch  to  promise  that  the 
offences  complained  of  should  be  discontinued. 
In  1815  it  became  necessary  to  enforce  this 
agreement  by  an  appeal  to  arms ;  and  the 
result  was,  that  another  more  stringent  treaty 
was  entered  into  Jan.  16,  1816.  In  1819  the 
Rao  was  dethroned  for  misgovernment,  and  a 
regency  was  appointed  until  his  infant  heir 
should  be  able  to  rule.  A  commercial  treaty 
was  concluded  with  England  Oct.  13,  1819. 
Cutch.  suffered  from  an  earthquake  in  July,  1819. 
Another  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  May 
21,  1822.  A  secret  but  extensive  trade  in  slave 
children  was  discovered  and  suppressed  by 
treaty  Feb.  6,  1836 ;  and  other  improvements, 
such  as  the  abolition  of  sutteeism  and  infanti- 
cide, have  also  resulted  from  British  inter- 
course. 

CUTLERY.— The  manufacture  of  cutlery  is 
an  art  of  great  antiquity.  The  precise  period 
at  which  it  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain 
is  not  known.  Sheffield  was  famous  for  its 
steel  manufactures  in  the  i3th  century,  as 
Chaucer  speaks  of  the  "Sheffield  thwytel"  as 
a  common  article.  Henry  V.  incorporated  the 
London  cutlers  in  1417.  The  Sheffield  artisans 
did  not  receive  their  charter  till  1624.  By  s.  i 
of  59  Geo.  III.  c.  7  (March  23,  1819),  makers  of 
wrought-steel  cutlery  obtained  the  privilege 
of  marking  them  with  the  figure  of  a  hammer  ; 
and  by  sec.  5,  a  penalty  of  £10  per  dozen 
was  imposed  on  all  vendors  of  cutlery  falsely 
stamped  "  London  made." 

CUTTACK  (Hindostan).— The  Mohammedan 
writers,  about  1212,  mention  this  country 
under  the  name  of  Jagepore.  It  was  conquered 
and  annexed  to  Bengal  in  1592.  The  Mahrattas 
obtained  possession  of  it  in  1751,  and  it  was 
ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the 
second  article  of  the  treaty  of  Deogaum,  Dec. 
17,  1803.  The  capital  of  the  district,  also 
called  Cuttack,  or  Royal  Residence,  sustained 
a  celebrated  siege  in  1592.  It  was  captured 
by  the  East  India  Company's  army  Oct.  14, 1803. 


CUXAR 


[    309    ] 


CYPRUS 


CUXAH  (Spain).  —  This  strongly  fortified 
post,  near  Baza,  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1489. 

CUX  HAVEN  (Germany).— This  seaport  town, 
belonging  to  Hamburg,  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussians  in  1800.  The  French  took  possession 
in  1804,  and  evacuated  it  in  1813,  when  it  was 
occupied  by  a  British  force. 

CUZCO  (Peru),  the  capital  of  the  Incas,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Manco  Capac,  in  the 
loth  or  nth  century,  was  entered  by  Pizarro 
Nov.  15,  1533.  The  siege  of  Cuzco  commenced 
early  in  Feb.,  1536,  when  the  city,  having  caught 
fire  in  several  places,  was  nearly  consumed. 
The  Peruvian  army  waged  the  conflict  for  more 
than  five  months,  and  withdrew  in  Aug. 
Prescott  says:  "It  stood  in  a  beautiful  valley 
on  an  elevated  region  of  the  plateau,  which, 
among  the  Alps,  would  have  been  buried  in 
eternal  snows,  but  which  within  the  tropics 
enjoyed  a  genial  and  salubrious  temperature. 
It  was,  moreover,  the  '  Holy  City  ;'  and  the 
great  temple  of  the  Sun,  to  which  pilgrims 
resorted  from  the  furthest  borders  of  the 
empire,  was  the  most  magnificent  structure  in 
the  New  World,  and  unsurpassed,  probably, 
in  the  costliness  of  its  decorations,  by  any 
building  in  the  Old." 

CYANOGEN  is  a  gaseous  compound,  dis 
covered  by  Gay-Lussac  in  1815. 

CYBELE,  or  RHEA.— The  worship  of  this 
goddess,  "  the  great  Idsean  mother  of  the  gods," 
which  originated  at  a  very  early  period  in 
Crete,  where,  according  to  tradition,  she  had 
given  birth  to  Zeus  or  Jupiter,  extended  thence 
to  Athens  and  over  the  entire  eastern  world, 
of  which  she  became  the  chief  divinity.  Her 
image  was  brought  from  Pessinus  to  Rome, 
about  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  War,  B.C. 
202,  and  her  worship  appears  to  have  been 
naturalized  in  the  empire  about  the  time  of 
Domitian  (81—96).  Julian  the  Apostate  (361— 
363)  delivered  an  oration  in  her  honour. 

CYCLADES  (Mgean  Sea)  .—This  group  of  12 
islands  received  this  name  because  they  lay  in 
a  circle  around  Delos,  the  smallest  of  them. 
Artemidorus  increased  the  number  to  15. 
Originally  inhabited  by  Carians,  who  were 
expelled  by  Minos,  they  were  afterwards 
colonized  by  lonians  and  Dorians.  The  Cy- 
clades  passed  from  Turkish  rule,  and  were 
included  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece,  f  ormed 
in  1829. 

CYCLE.— The  Chinese  cycle  of  60  years,  or 
720  revolutions  of  the  moon,  was  instituted  by 
Hoang-ti,  who  flourished  about  2660  B.C.  ;  and 
that  of  Cleostratus,  who  proposed  a  cycle  of 
eight  years,  began  about  532  B.C.  The  Metonic 
cycle  was  invented  by  Meton  of  Athens  B.C.  432, 
and  was  superseded  by  that  of  Calippus,  which 
commenced  B.C.  330. 

CYCLONE.— Mr.  W.  C.  Redfield  in  1831,  and 
Lieut.-Col.  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Reid  in 
1838,  suggested  that  gales,  like  hurricanes  and 
whirlwinds,  possessed  a  rotatory  action.  (See 
CALCUTTA,  STORMS,  <fec.) 

CYDER  is  said  to  have  been  first  made  in 
Africa,  and  introduced  by  the  Carthaginians 
into  Spain,  whence  it  passed  into  Normandy. 
In  addition  to  the  hereditary  duty  on  cyder 
granted  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  23,  s.  4  (1660),  a 


duty  of  45.  per  hogshead  \vut>  levied  by  13 
Will.  III.  c.  5  s.  5  (1701),  upon  all  cyder  and 
perry  made  in  England.  A  duty  of  ^4  per 
tun  on  all  cyder  and  perry  imported  from 
foreign  countries  was  imposed  by  5  Will.  & 
Mary,  c.  7,  s.  27  (1694),  and  continued  for  95 
years  by  4  Anne  c.  6,  s.  n  (1705).  The  duties, 
having  undergone  various  modifications,  were 
repealed  by  i  Will.  IV.  c.  51  (July  16,  1830) 
from  Oct.  10,  1830. 

CYMBALS,  very  similar  in  form  to  those 
of  the  present  day,  were  used  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Hebrews.  They 
were  also  common  in  Greece,  and  were  intro- 
duced by  the  Etruscans  into  Rome,  where 
they  were  used  in  religious  festivals. 

CYMRI,  CYMRY,  or  KYMRY.— These 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Britain,  possessing  a 
common  origin  with  the  Cimmerii  (q.  v.)  and 
Cimbri  (q.  v.),  are  supposed  to  have  come 
into  Britain  from  Asia,  at  a  very  early  period, 
under  Hu  the  Mighty,  a  descendant  of  Gomer, 
the  son  of  Japheth.  Finding  it  unoccupied 
they  took  possession,  and  after  150  years  a 
second  great  chief  brought  the  whole  island 
under  one  form  of  government.  From  the 
name  of  this  people  Wales  obtained  its  Latin 
title  of  Cambria. 

CYNICS.— These  philosophers  received  this 
name  on  account  of  their  snarling  disposition, 
or  from  the  Cynosarges,  a  gymnasium  in  the 
suburbs  of  Athens,  in  which  their  founder 
Antisthenes,  born  B.C.  420,  used  to  lecture. 
Diogenes  (B.C.  412—6.0.  323)  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  this  sect.  They  were  some- 
times called  the  School  of  Barkers. 

CYNOSCEPHAL^E  (Battles).— Two  battles 
were  fought  on  the  hill  of  Cynoscephalse,  the 
Dog's  Heads,  near  Scotussa,  in  Thessaly  ;  the 
first,  B.C.  364,  between  the  Thebans  and  Alex- 
ander of  Pherae,  when  the  former  were  vic- 
torious, though  Pelopidas,  their  leader,  was 
slain. The  second,  in  which  the  Roman  con- 
sul Flamininus  defeated  Philip  V.  of  Macedon, 
was  fought  B.C.  197. 

CYNOSSEMA  (Sea-fight).  —  The  Athenians 
defeated  Mindarus  and  the  Spartan  fleet,  off 
Cynossema,  or  the  Dog's  Monument,  a  mound 
supposed  to  mark  the  tomb  of  Hecuba,  said 
to  have  been  transformed  into  a  dog,  on  the 
coast  of  Caria,  B.C.  411. 

CYPRESS,  said  to  be  the  Tezzah  of 
Scripture,  is  remarkable  for  its  durability; 
and  on  this  account  was  used  for  statues  of 
the  gods  and  cases  of  mummies.  The  gates  of 
St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  made  of  this  wood,  lasted 
1,100  years.  It  was  used  for  coffins.  The 
common  cypress  is  known  to  have  been  cul- 
tivated in  England  as  early  as  1551,  and  was 
probably  introduced  from  Canada  about  1548. 
The  deciduous  cypress  was  brought  into  this 
country  from  North  America  about  1640,  ar,d 
the  cedar  of  Goa  in  1683.  A  common  age  for 
the  cypress  on  the  American  continent  is  400 
years. 

CYPRUS  (Knights  of).— The  order  of  the 
Sword,  in  Cyprus,  was  instituted  by  Guy  de 
Lusignan  towards  the  end  of  the  i2th  century. 
It  numbered  300  barons,  and  became  extinct 
yhen  the  Turks  took  Cyprus  in  1570. 
CYPRUS  (Mediterranean).  — This  island, 


CYR 


[    310    ] 


CZASLAU 


which  was  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians  at  a 
very  early  period,  passed  successively  under 
the  supremacy  of  the  Syrians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  Persians.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  it  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Egypt.  It  was  made  a  Roman  pro- 
vince B.C.  58.  Cjesar  gave  it  to  Arsinoe  and 
Ptolemy,  the  sister  and  brother  of  Cleopatra 
B.C.  47.  It  was  made  an  imperial  province 
B.C.  27,  but  was  given  up  to  the  senate  B.C. 
22.  Paul  and  Barnabas  visited  the  island 
A.D.  44  (Acts  xiii.  4).  The  island  was  an 
independent  province  of  the  early  Church 
and  was  divided  into  13,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  15  dioceses.  The  Jews  of  Cyprus 
rebelled  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117 — 138  , 
and  massacred  above  200,000  of  the  inhabitants. 
A  council  was  held  in  Cyprus  in  399.  The 
Saracens  took  possession  of  the  island  in  648, 
but  soon  after  retired.  Haroun  al  Rashid 
captured  it  about  803,  and  John  Zimisces  ex- 
pelled the  Saracens  in  964.  Richard  I.  of  Eng- 
land wrested  the  island  from  Isaac  Comnenus 
in  1191,  and  at  first  ceded  it  to  the  Templars  ; 
but  in  1192  bestowed  it  upon  Guy  de  Lusig- 
nan.  Cyprus  was  reduced  to  subjection  by 
the  Genoese  in  1373,  and  fell  under  the  power 
of  the  Venetians  in  the  isth  century.  Selim  II 
took  it  in  Aug,  1571.  It  was  ceded  by  treaty 
March  7,  1573,  and  has  since  remained  in  the 
T><r--s,!ssion  of  the  Turks.  The  Turks  massacred 
several  thousands  of  the  Christians  in  1821. 
These  outrages  commenced  in  May.  Cyprus 
i  included  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece, 
formed  in  1829. 

CYR,  ST.  ;  France).— Louis  XIV.,  at  the 
instigation  of  .Madame  de  Maintenon,  in  1686, 
founded  at  this  village,  near  Versailles,  an 
institution  for  the  education  of  250  ladies  of 
noble  birth.  Madame  Maintenon  died  at  this 

Slace,  April  15,  1719.  In  1793  it  was  converted 
ito  a  military  hospital.  Napoleon  I.  trans- 
ferred the  military  school  of  Fontainebleau  to 
St.  Cyr  in  1806.  It  is  called  the  "Ecole  speciale 
militaire  de  St.  Cyr." 

CYRENAICA  (Africa).  —  This  district, 
which  received  this  name  from  Cyrene,  its 
chief  city,  was  also  called  Pentapolis,  because 
it  contained  five  principal  cities,  Apollonia, 
Arsinoe,  Barca,  Berenice  or  Hesperus,  and 
Cyrene.  It  was  colonized  by  the  people  of 
Thera,  under  Battus,  who  founded  Cyrene 
B.C.  631.  A  republic  was  established  in  the 
middle  of  the  sth  century.  Ptolemy,  son  of 
Lagus,  reduced  it  under  subjection  to  Egypt 
B.C.  321.  It  became  a  Roman  province  B.C.  74, 
and  was  united  with  Crete  B.C.  67.  About 
3,000  Jews  were  put  to  death  in  Cyrenaica  A.D. 
73.  The  Saracens  completed  the  conquest  of 
the  country  in  647,  and  it  is  now  inhabited 
by  different  Arab  tribes.  Cyrenaica  was  ex- 
plored by  Dr.  Delia  Cella  in  1817,  and  by  Capt. 
Beechey,  R.N.,  and  H.  W.  Beechey,  in  1821 
and  1822. 

CYRENAICS.  —  This  ancient  school  of 
philosophers  was  thus  named  from  Cyrene, 
the  birthplace  of  its  founder,  Aristippus.  He 
began  to  teach  B.C.  365.  They  made  pleasure 
the  summum  bonum. 

CYRENE,  or  CYREN.E  (Africa),  the  chief 
city  of  Cyrenaica,  was  founded  by  Battus  and 


his  followers  from  Thera,  B.C.  631.  be\x  . 
kings  of  this  race  succeeded,  and  about  B.C. 
450  a  republic  was  established.  It  was  after- 
wards made  subject  to  Egypt,  and  passed 
under  the  dominion  of  Rome,  B.C.  74.  The 
ruins  of  this  town,  called  Ghrennah  by  the 
Turks,  still  exist. 

CYROPEDIUM,  or  CORUPEDIUM  (Battle). 
— Lysimachus  was  defeated  and  slain  at  this 
place,  in  Phrygia,  by  Seleucus,  in  July,  B.C.  281. 

CYRRHESTICA  (Syria).— This  district,  the 
scene  of  the  campaign  of  Ventidius  against 
the  Parthians  (B.C.  41 — B.C.  38),  was  united, 
under  the  common  name  of  Euphratensis, 
with  the  province  of  Commagen  (q.  v.),  by 
Constantino  I.  (323 — 337). 

C  Y  T  H  K  R  A  M editerraneaii  Sea).  —  This 
island,  celebrated  as  the  place  whence  the 
worship  of  the  Syrian  goddess  Aphrodite  was 
introduced  into  Greece,  is  represented,  in  the 
ancient  mythological  accounts,  as  the  spot 
which  received  the  goddess  when  she  rose 
from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  It  was  long  depen- 
dent upon  Argos,  and  then  passed  under  th6 
rule  of  Sparta.  The  Athenians,  under  Nicias, 
seized  it  B.C.  424.  Having  reverted  to  Sparta, 
the  Athenians,  under  Conon,  captured  it  B.C. 
393.  It  is  now  Cerigo,  one  of  the  Ionian 

CYZICUS  (Asia  Minor)  is  said  to  have  been 
settled  by  some  Pelasgi,  driven  from  Thessaly 
by  the  lonians.  At  an  early  period  it  was 
subject  to  Athens,  and  having  revolted,  was 
reduced  to  submission  B.C.  411.  Mindarus, 
UK;  Sicilian  admiral,  was  defeated  in  the 
neighbourhood^  of  Cyzicus,  B.C.  410.  It  was 
coded  to  Persia  by  the  peace  of  Antalcidas, 
B.C.  387.  Milhridates  VI.  laid  siege  to  it  B.C. 
74;  but  was  compelled  to  retire  B.C.  73,  and 
the  Romans  made  it  a  free  city  ;  of  which 
privilege  it  was  deprived  by  Tiberius  in  37. 
Christianity  was  introduced  at  an  early  period, 
and  it  was  made  a  bishop's  see.  The  Goths 
ravaged  the  city  in  259,  and  Procopius  seized 
it  in  365.  The  Mohammedan  army  besieging 
Constantinople  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
this  place  in  668,  and  it  soon  after  declined  in 
importance.  In  ancient  times  Cyzicus  was 
seated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name ;  but  an 
isthmus  has  gradually  formed,  and  what  was 
formerly  an  island  is  now  a  peninsula. 

CZAR.— Voltaire  considers  this  title  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  tzars  or  tchars  of  the 
kingdom  of  Cazan.  It  is  evidently  of  oriental 
origin,  and  is  equivalent  to  Csesar.  Ivan  II. 
(1533 — 1584)  was  the  first  Russian  monarch 
who  assumed  the  title.  The  eldest  son  Is 
called  czarowitz,  and  the  empress  czarina. 

CZASLAU  (Battle).— The  Austrians,  led  by 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  encountered  the 
Prussians  at  this  village,  near  Chotusitz,  in 
Bohemia,  about  35  miles  from  Prague,  May  17, 
1742  (O.  S.).  After  a  hard-fought  battle  they 
were  compelled  to  retire,  which  they  did  in 
good  order,  carrying  away  14  standards,  two 
lairs  of  colours,  and  1,000  prisoners.  The 
Prussians,  commanded  by  Frederick  II.,  took 
8  pieces  of  cannon,  two  pairs  of  colours,  and 
j,2oo  prisoners.  The  Austrians  had  only 
reached  the  village  of  Czaslau,  by  a  forced 
arch,  the  night  before  the  battle. 


CZBCHE8 


[    3"     1 


DAHLIA 


C2ECHES.— This,  the  most  westerly  of  the 
Slavonic  nations,  which,  according  to  tradition, 
derived  its  title  from  a  leader  named  Czech, 
seized  Bohemia  (q.  v.)  about  480,  and  gained  so 
complete  an  ascendency  that  in  the  pth  cen- 
tury the  name  was  given  to  the  entire  Slavonic 
population. 

CZENSTOCHAU,  or  CZENSTOCEOWA 
(Poland).— The  monastery  of  this  town,  in  the 
government  of  Kalisch,  founded  in  1382,  pos- 
sesses a  famous  dark-coloured  picture  of  the 
Virgin,  alleged  to  have  been  painted  by  St. 
Luke,  but  probably  of  Byzantine  origin,  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  worship  of  the  Black 
Virgin  by  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Poland.  In 
1655  the  town  successfully  withstood  a  siege 
of  nearly  six  weeks  by  Charles  X.  of  Sweden, 
and  in  1771  it  was  defended  by  Casimir  Pulaw- 
ski,  chief  of  the  Confederation  of  Bar  (q.  v.), 
against  the  Russians.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1812,  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians  in  1813. 

CZERNOWITZ  (Austria).— This  circle,  for- 
merly a  part  of  Moldavia,  was  ceded  to  Aus- 
tria by  Turkey  in  1777,  and  annexed  to  Galicia 
in  1786.  By  the  imperial  patent  of  Dec.  31, 
1851,  it  was  constituted  a  crown  land,  under 
the  name  of  Buckowina.  The  chief  city,  of 
the  same  name,  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop. 


D. 

DABAN  (Battle).— Shamas  Iva,  King  of 
Assyria,  defeated  the  Babylonian  monarch 
on  the  shore  of  this  river,  supposed  to  be  the 
modern  Upper  Zabor  Nil,  about  B.C.  821.  The 
Babylonians  lost  5,000  killed,  2,000  prisoners, 
100  chariots,  200  tents,  and  the  standard  and 
pavilion  of  their  sovereign. 

DACCA  (Hindostan)  became  the  capital  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  Bengal  in  1608,  and  was 
confirmed  as  such  by  Meer  Jumla,  the  general 
of  Aurungzebe,  in  1657.  The  town  reached  its 
greatest  prosperity  under  the  viceroyship  of 
Shaista  Khan,  which  terminated  in  1689.  It 
afterwards  declined,  but  was  partially  restored 
by  the  establishment  of  provincial  councils  in 
1774.  It  became  subject  to  the  East  India 
Company  in  1765,  and  was  annexed  in  1845. 
A  bank  was  opened  at  Dacca  in  1846,  and  the 
Serampore  mission  established  a  station  in 
1816. 

DACIA,  including  parts  of  Hungary,  Tran- 
sylvania, Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia, 
was  originally  peopled  by  the  Getse,  whom 
Alexander  III.  defeated  B.C.  335.  Lysimachus 
conducted  an  expedition  into  the  country  B.C. 
292.  Their  retreat  having  been  cut  off  in  the 
plains  of  Bessarabia,  they  were  all  made  priso- 
ners. Valerius  Messala  attacked  the  Dacians 
B.C.  34,  and  Augustus  despatched  Lentulus 
against  them  B.C.  10.  Neither  general  achieved 
any  striking  success.  Domitian  sent  a  large 
force  into  Dacia  under  Cornelius  Fuscus,  in 
86,  but  the  expedition  proved  a  failure,  owing 
to  the  determined  valour  of  the  Dacian  leader 
Decebalus.  A  peace  was  agreed  upon  in  91, 
Domitian  consenting  to  pay  tribute  to  the 
barbarian  monarch,  and  to  acknowledge  his 


regal  rights ;  and  these  humiliating  terms  seem 
to  have  been  fulfilled  till  101,  when  Trajan 
discontinued  the  payment,  and  invaded  Dacia. 
After  gaining  many  victories,  he  granted  peace 
to  Decebalus  in  103,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
Dacicus ;  but  war  was  renewed  in  104.  The 
final  subjugation  of  the  Daci,andthe  reduction 
of  their  territory  to  a  Roman  province,  did  not 
occur  till  the  death  of  Decebalus,  in  106. 
Hadrian,  who  took  measures  to  contract  his 
empire  in  117,  retained  Dacia,  and  it  remained 
a  province  of  Rome  until  Aurelian  abandoned 
it  to  the  Goths  in  270.  In  376  the  Goths  were 
expelled  by  the  Huns,  and  in  379  Dacia  was 
made  part  of  the  Eastern  empire  by  Gratian. 
In  453  Ardaric,  King  of  the  Gepidse,  seized  the 
country,  and  in  566  it  was  conquered  by  a 
colony  of  Scythians.  They  were  subdued  by 
Charlemagne,  and  the  Magyars  overran  Dacia 
in  the  gth  century.  (See  HUNGARY.) 

DADUR  (Battle).— The  Brahoes,  5,000  strong, 
were  defeated,  in  an  attack  upon  the  British 
forces,  near  this  town,  in  Beloochistan,  Nov.  3, 
1840. 

DAG. — This  weapon,  a  kind  of  pistol,  was 
used  in  the  i$th  and  loth  centuries. 

DAGGER.— Gregory  of  Tours,  writing  in 
the  6th  century,  mentions  this  weapon  as  part 
of  the  equipment  of  the  Prankish  soldiery.  It 
afterwards  acqiiired  the  name  Misericorde, 
"because,"  says  Hewitt,  "  in  the  last  struggle 
of  contending  foes,  the  uplifted  dagger  com- 
pelled the  discomfited  fighter  to  cry  for  mercy." 
Under  this  title,  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Charter 
of  Arras,  in  1221,  and  also  by  Guiart  in  1302. 
Du  Guesclin  speaks  of  its  use  as  a  missile  in 
1368. 

DAGHISTAN  (Asia).— Peter  the  Great  over- 
ran this  province  of  the  Caucasus,  situated 
between  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  in 
1722.  It  was  incorporated  with  Russia,  as 
part  of  the  province  of  Georgia,  in  1801 ;  since 
which  period  the  inhabitants  have  waged 
several  contests  to  recover  their  independence. 

DAGON.— (See  ASHDOD.) 

DAGUERREOTYPE.  —  This  process,  by 
which  the  pictures  of  the  camera  lucida  are 
rendered  permanent,  was  known  to  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  in  the  isth  century,  and  was  indicated 
in  "  Giphantie,"  a  book  written  by  Tiphaniede 
[a  Roche,  and  published  at  Paris  in  1760.  Its 
revival  appears  to  have  been  suggested  by  some 
experiments  made  by  M.  Niepce  in  1820,  and  it 
was  brought  out  by  M.  Daguerre  in  1838.  The 
method,  described  by  M.  Arago,  at  the  meeting 
of  the  Academic  des  Sciences,  Jan.  7,  1839,  was 
afterwards  greatly  improved  by  other  scientific 
men.  (See  PHOTOGRAPHY.) 

DAHARA,  or  DAHRA,  MASSACRE.— During 
the  war  in  Algeria,  the  Ouled-Riahs,  a  Kabyle 
tribe,  pursued  by  a  French  army  led  by  Col. 
Pelissier,  afterwards  Duke  of  Malakoff,  took 
refuge  in  the  caverns  of  Dahara,  June  18,  1845. 
The  French  surrounded  the  caverns,  and  as  the 
Ouled-Riahs  would  not  surrender,  they  placed 
lighted  faggots  at  the  entrance.  When  the 
troops  obtained  admission,  June  20,  they  found 
500  dead  bodies  ;  and  of  150  who  remained  alive 
but  few  recovered. 

DAHLIA.  —  This  flower  is  indigenous  to 
Mexico,  whence  it  was  sent  to  Spain  in  1789. 


DAHOMEY 


DAMASCUS 


The  Marchioness  of  Bute  introduced  it  into 
England  the  same  year.  The  stock  having 
become  extinct,  Lady  Holland  caused  new 

S'ants  to  be  imported  in  1804.  The  present 
ritish  stock  is  chiefly  derived  from  a  large 
assortment  of  plants  brought  from  France  in 
1815.  This  flower  received  its  name  from  the 
Swedish  botanist  Dahl.  On  the  continent  it 
is  called  Georginia. 

DAHOMEY  (Africa).— This  negro  kingdom 
was  founded  by  Tacoodonon,  chief  of  the  Foys, 
m  1625.  It  first  came  under  the  notice  of 
Europeans  early  in  the  i8th  century,  when 
King  Trudo,  who  began  to  reign  in  1708, 
destroyed  all  the  white  settlements  on  the 
coast.  In  1727  the  kingdom  of  Why  da  was 
conquered  and  annexed,  and  in  1772  the  court 
of  the  King  of  Dahomey  was  visited  by  Mr. 
Norris,  who  published  a  very  interesting 
narrative 'of  the  cruel  customs  of  the  people. 
The  forces  of  the  King  of  Dahomey  have 
been  thrice  defeated  in  attacks  upon  the  in- 
dependent settlement  of  Abeokuta  (q.  v.),  viz. 
in  1848,  March  3,  1851,  and  March  16,  1864. 

DAINSTADT  (Battle).— The  Russians,  3,600 
strong,  were  defeated  at  this  place,  in  Finland, 
by  a  Swedish  force,  amounting  to  2,200  men, 
June  28,  1789.  GustavusIII.,  King  of  Sweden, 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  this  action. 

DAKOTA  (North  America}.— This  territory 
of  the  United  States,  organized  by  an  Act 
of  Congress  in  1861,  was  found,  in  Aug., 
1862,  to  contain  rich  gold-fields  in  its  south- 
western districts.  In  1863  and  1864  the  set- 
tlers were  much  harassed  by  the  Sioux  In- 
dians, who  had  rebelled  against  the  Federal 
authorities. 

DALLAS  (Battles).— Gen.  Hooker  was  de- 
feated, with  a  loss  of  about  600  killed '  and 
wounded,  near  this  town  of  Georgia,  by  the 
Confederate  Gen.  Johnston,  May  25,  1864. 

Gen.  McPherson,  attacked  here  by  a  heavy 

force  of  Confederates,  repelled  them  and  in- 
flicted a  loss  of  more  than  2,000  men,  May  28, 
1864. 

DALMATIA  (Austria)  revolted  from  Illyria, 
and  became  an  independent  state,  B.C.  180. 
C.  Marcius  Figulus  invaded  the  country  B.C. 
156,  and  took  Dalminium,  the  capital,  com- 
pelling the  Dalmatians  to  purchase  peace  by 
the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute.  Another 
expedition  was  led  against  them  B.C.  155,  and 
the  capital  sustained  such  serious  injury  that 
the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to 
Salona.  L.  Csecilius  Metellus  headed  a  third 
invasion  B.C.  119,  and  was  rewarded  for  his 
success  by  a  triumph  and  the  surname  of 
Dalmaticus.  Gabinius  commenced  the  fourth 
Dalmatian  war  B.C.  48,  but  he  was  defeated. 
Octavianus  defeated  the  Dalmatians  B.C.  35, 
and  obtained  the  submission  of  the  country, 
and  its  reduction  into  a  Roman  province,  B.C. 
34.  Revolts  occurred  B.C.  16  and  B.C.  u,  and 
it  continued  in  a  very  unsettled  state  until  its 
subjection  by  Tiberius,  A.D.  9.  Diocletian,  on 
his  abdication,  May  i,  305,  retired  to  Dalmatia, 
which  remained  undisturbed  till  461,  when  it 
was  threatened  by  the  Suevi,  and  saved  by  the 
valour  of  Marcellinus.  The  Heruli,  under 
Odoacer,  effected  its  conquest  in  481 ;  and  it 
remained  under  Gothic  sway  till  Justinian  I. 


regained  possession  in  535.  In  634  Heraclius 
invited  the  Croats  to  dispossess  the  Avars, 
who  had  attained  considerable  power ;  and  in 
five  years  Dalmatia  was  occupied  by  Croatian 
and  Servian  vassals  of  the  empire.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  in  640,  and  in  806  the 
country  submitted  to  the  Franks.  They  were 
expelled  in  837  by  Terpimir,  who  established 
the  ducal  authority.  In  887  Dalmatia  was 
plundered  by  the  Narentines,  and  in  997  the 
Venetians  gained  some  influence,  which  they 
lost  in  1052.  The  Hungarians  entered  Dalmatia 
in  1091,  and  for  some  time  after  its  history  is 
little  more  than  a  record  of  struggles  between 
these  invaders  and  the  Venetians.  The  latter 
ceded  all  claim  Feb.  18,  1358.  The  Turks 
invaded  Dalmatia  in  1500,  and  for  200  years 
the  country  was  almost  incessantly  the  seat 
of  war.  A  peace  was  conclu'ded  in  1573,  but 
war  was  renewed  in  1596 ;  and  in  1646 
Dalmatia  was  again  invaded  by  an  immense 
Turkish  force.  Peace  was  again  concluded  in 
1669,  but  broken  in  1685  ;  renewed  Jan.  26, 
1698,  again  violated  in  1714,  till  at  length  the 
treaty  of  Passarowitz,  July  21,  1718,  restored 
tranquillity  to  the  country.  By  the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  Dalmatia  was 
ceded  to  Austria,  which  power  surrendered  it 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.  26, 
1805.  Under  French  dominion  it  was  first  in- 
corporated with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
subsequently,  in  1810,  with  that  of  Illyria.  In 
1814  Dalmatia  was  restored  to  Aristria. 

DALTON  (United  States,.— This  town  of 
Georgia  was  surrendered  by  Col.  Johnston  to 
the  Confederate  Gen.  Hood,  Oct.  14,  1864. 

DAMASCUS  (Syria),  according  to  Josephus, 
was  founded  by  Uz,  Noah's  grandson,  and  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  B.C. 
1912  (Gen.  xiv.  15).  It  was  taken  by  David 
B.C.  1040  (2  Sam.  viii.  6),  and  was  the  capital 
of  Syria  during  the  reign  of  Benhadad,  B.C.  930 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  2).  Jeroboam  restored  it  to 
Israel  B.C.  822,  but  Tiglath-Pilescr,  King  of 
Assyria,  took  it  B.C.  740,  and  carried  its  in- 
habitants captive  to  Kir  (2  Kings  xvi.  9).  It 
afterwards  remained  subject  to  the  Assyrians 
and  Persians  till  B.C.  333,  when  it  was  taken 
by  Parmenio,  the  general  of  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great).  The  Romans  under  Pompcy 
effected  its  capture  B.C.  64.  Paul  commenced 
his  ministry  at  Damascus  A.D.  33  (Acts  ix.  19)  ; 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  Ananias, 
by  whom  the  apostle  was  ordained,  was  the 
first  bishop  of  the  see.  The  city  was  taken 
from'the  Romans  in  Jan.,  635,  and  by  the  Sara- 
cens, who  made  it  the  seat  of  their  govern- 
ment, in  66 1,  but  removed  it  to  Bagdad  in 
762.  In  1006  it  was  taken  by  the  Ghiznivites, 
who  yielded  it  in  1075  to  the  Seljukian  Turks. 
Noureddin  (1145 — 1174)  added  the  kingdom  of 
Damascus  to  that  of  Aleppo.  The  Crusaders 
laid  siege  to  it  in  1148,  but  without  success. 
The  Carismians  took  it  in  1245,  and  it  was 
sacked  by  Tamerlane,  Jan.  23,  1401.  In  1516 
it  was  seized  by  Selim  I.  and  annexed  to  the 
Ottoman  empire.  In  1832  Damascus  was 
taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  and,  by  a  firman, 
dated  May  6,  1833,  was  granted  to  Mehemet 
Ali.  In  Feb.,  1840,  it  was  the  scene  of  a  cruel 
persecution  of  the  Jews.  Damascus  was 


DAMASK 


DANES 


restored  to  Turkey  at  the  conclusion  of  peace 
in  1841.  The  Druses  committed  great  atro- 
cities here  in  July,  1860,  when  about  4,000 
Christians  perished. 

DAMASK.— Rich  stuffs  of  silk  and  linen 
were  so  called  because  fhey  were  originally 
manufactured  at  Damascus  ;  whence  the  trade 
was  carried  to  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Lyons.  In 
the  isth  century  most  extravagant  prices  were 
given  for  superior  qualities,  the  fashion  of 
wearing  it  being  adopted  by  Henry  V.  and 
Edward  IV.  Damask  tablecloths  were  first 
imported  from  France  in  1575. 

DAMASK  ROSE,  so  called  from  Damascus, 
was  introduced  into  Europe  in  1573.  It  is  still 
largely  cultivated  in  Syria  for  the  purpose  of 
making  attar  or  otto  of  roses. 

DAMIANISTS,  the  followers  of  Damianus, 
the  'Monophysite  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
arose  in  the  6th  century.  They  made  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  divine  essence  and  the 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead.  Certain  nuns 
of  the  order  of  St.  Clare  (q.  v.)  were  called 
Damianists. 

DAMIEN,  ST.  (Hermits  of).— (See  CCELES- 
TINES.) 

DAMIETTA  (Egypt),  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Tamiathis,  underwent  several  sieges 
by  the  Crusaders,  who  took  it  Nov.  5,  1219 ; 
but  the  infidels  regained  possession  in  1221. 
Louis  IX.  captured  it  in  June,  1249,  and 
having  been  taken  prisoner,  purchased  his 
freedom,  in  1250,  by  the  surrender  of  the  city 
to  the  Saracens,  who  soon  afterwards  or- 
dered it  to  be  destroyed.  The  modern  town, 
erected  four  miles  further  from  the  sea,  was 
fortified  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  in  1798.  The 
French  evacuated  it  in  1801.  An  English  force 
took  possession  of  Damietta  in  1807.  Dimity 
was  first  manufactured  here. 

DAMME  (Flanders).— This  once  important 
city  of  Flanders,  founded,  about  1189,  by  the 
Batavians,  was  taken  and  burned  by  Philip  II. 
(Augustus)  in  1213.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1238, 
and  in  1384  surrendered  to  Charles  VI.,  after 
a  long  and  arduous  siege.  The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough  took  Damme  in  1706. 

DAMME  (Prussia).— This  town  of  Pomerania 
was  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24, 
1648,  to  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden.  In  1659 
it  was  seized  by  the  Austrians  under  Count 
Ratwick  de  Souches,  but  it  was  restored  by 
the  peace  of  Oliva,  May  3,  1660.  It  was  taken 
by  Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
Sep.  30,  1676,  and  confirmed  in  his  possession 
by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  June  29, 


1679. 
DA 


>AMPIER  ISLANDS  (Indian  Ocean).— This 
archipelago,  situated  to  the  north  of  Australia, 
was  discovered  by  William  Dampier,  who 
anchored  off  Rosemary  Island,  the  chief  of 
the  group,  Aug.  31,  1699. 

DAMPIERRE  (France). —In  this  chateau, 
situated  on  the  Loire,  Margaret  of  Anjou,  widow 
of  Henry  VI.  of  England,  ended  her  days 
Aug.  25,  1481. 

DANCE  OF  DEATH.— This  subject,  so  popu- 
lar with  the  artists  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was 
painted  in  1312,  in  the  church  of  the  Domini- 
cans at  Basel.  The  earliest  printed  work  on 
the  subject  which  bears  a  date  is  "LaDause 


Macabre,"  published  at  Paris  in  1485.  Holbein's 
"Dance  of  Death"  was  first  published  at 
Lyons  in  1538.  It  comprises  41  cuts,  each  sur- 
mounted by  a  Latin  text,  and  having  under- 
neath four  French  verses.  A  second  edition  of 
this  work  appeared  in  1542,  and  it  has  since 
been  frequently  reprinted. 

DANCERS.  —  This  sect  arose  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1373,  and  spread  through  various 
parts  of  the  N  etherlands.  Its  members,  of  both 
sexes,  hand  in  hand,  danced  furiously  till  they 
fell  upon  the  ground.  They  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  Convulsionists  (q.  v.}  in  France, 
and  the  Jumpers  (q.  v. )  in  England  and  America. 

DANCING  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Athothus,  the  Egyptian  Mercury.  The  Curetes 
introduced  dancing  to  time  B.C.  1534 ;  and 
Miriam  and  the  Israelitish  women  testified 
their  joy  at  their  deliverance  from  the  Egyp- 
tians by  dancing  to  the  sound  of  their  timbrels, 
B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xv.  20).  David  danced  before 
the  ark  of  God  B.C.  1044  (2  Sam.  vi.  14).  ^Eschy- 
lus  united  dancing  to  the  dramatic  perform- 
ances of  the  Greeks  about  B.C.  499,  and  panto- 
mimic dances  were  introduced  on  the  Roman 
stage  B.C.  22.  Dancing  was  an  ordinary  recrea- 
tion at  the  convivial  meetings  of  the  Greeks. 
Meursius  mentions  184  kinds  of  dancing. 
Da  ncing  was  prohibited  in  366  by  the  Coun 
cil  of  Laodicea.  The  Church  Dance,  which 
may  still  be  seen  on  certain  festivals  in  the 
cathedral  at  Seville,  was  stopped  in  France  in 
the  nth  century.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton, 
afterwards  Lord  Chancellor,  is  said  to  have  in- 
gratiated himself  with  Queen  Elizabeth  by  his 
excellence  in  dancing. 

DANEBROG,  or  DANNEBROG.  —  Some 
authorities  refer  the  institution  of  this  order  of 
knighthood  to  the  earliest  period  of  the  Danish 
kingdom,  while  others  say  it  was  founded  by 
Valdemar  II.,  in  1219,  in  commemoration  of  a 
miraculous  standard  which  descended  from 
heaven,  and  rallied  his  troops  when  they  were 
on  the  point  of  fleeing  before  the  Livonian. 
pagans.  In  the  isth  century  the  order  fell  into 
decay,  but  it  was  revived  by  Christian  V.  Oct. 
12,  1671,  and  received  new  statutes  Dec.  i, 
1693.  The  constitution  of  the  order  was  ex- 
tended by  Frederick  VI.,  who  issued  letters 
patent  to  that  effect  June  28,  1808. 

DANEGELT,  or  DANE  MONEY,  a  tribute 
exacted  by  the  Danes  in  their  invasions  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  first  paid  by  Ethelred  II.,  or  the 
Unready,  in  991,  on  the  advice  of  Siric,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  consisted  of  16,000 
pounds  of  silver.  Another  levy,  of  24,000  pounds 
of  silver,  was  exacted  in  1002,  and  it  afterwards 
became  a  regular  custom  for  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings  to  extort  money  from  their  subjects  to 
bribe  the  Danes.  Edward  the  Confessor  abo- 
lished the  Danegelt  in  1051.  It  was  restored 
by  William  I.  in  1068,  and  again  suppressed  at 
the  council  held  at  Oxford  by  King  Stephen  in 
1136.  The  last  recorded  payment  of  Danegelt 
took  place  in  1175.  The  citizens  of  London 
were  relieved  from  the  payment  of  this  tax  by 
the  sth  article  of  Henry  the  First's  charter. 

DANES.— The  Scandinavian  tribes,  who,  in 
the  Sth,  gth,  and  loth  centuries,  invaded  many 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  of  England,  were 
known  under  this  general  name.  Their  ravages 


DANES 

in  France  and  upon  the  continent  of  Europe  are 
described  under  NORTHMEN. 

A.D. 

787.  First  appearance  of  the  Danes  in  England. 

793.  They  pillage  Liudisfarne,  and  ravage  Northumber- 

794.  The  Danes  are  defeated  at  Wearmouth. 

795.  They  land  in  Ireland. 

833.  They  seize  .Sheppey  Island. 

833.  They  defeat  Kgbert  at  ('harmouth  (q.  ».)• 

835.  Egbert  defeats  them  at  Hengstone  Hill  (q.  v.). 

837.  The  Danes  are  defeated  at  Southampton,  but  gain  a 
victory  on  the  isle  of  Portland. 

845.  They  are  defeated  by  Ethel wulph  at  the  Parret. 

851.  They  winter  in  Sheppey;  sail  up  the  Thames  with 
350  ships ;  plunder  Canterbury  and  London ;  and 
are  defeated  at  Aclea  (q.  ».). 

853.  They  are  victorious  in  Tlianet. 

860.  They  land  at  Southampton,  and  threaten  Winches- 
ter; but  are  driven  back  by  Osric  and  Ethclwulph. 

867.  They  take  York,  which  is  defended  by  Ella  and 
l  tobert,  who  fall  in  the  battle. 

869-70.  They  subdue  East  Anglia,  and  destroy  the  monas- 
tery of  Bardney  and  the  abbeys  of  Croyland,  Cold- 
ingham,  and  Kly. 

871.  They  fight  nine  battles  in  the  country  south  of  the 
Thames,  and  conclude  peace  with  King  Alfred. 

874.  They  conquer  Mercia. 

875.  Hea'lfden    invades    Northumberland,    and    destroys 

Tynemouth  and  Lindisfarne.  Outhrum  and  other 
chiefs  seize  Cambridge,  where  they  winter. 

876.  They   take   Wareham  and  Exeter,  and   conclude  a 

second  treaty  with  Alfred. 

877.  A  Danish  fleet  of  130  vessels  is  wrecked  at  Swansea. 

A  third  treatv  with  Alfred  is  made  at  Exeter. 

878.  They  compel  Alfred  to  hide  in  Atheh.ey.     After  six 

months,  he  collects  bis  forces,  defeats  them  at 
Kthandunu  ('/.  r.),  and  persuades  Guthruni  to  em- 
brace Christianity. 

88r.  The  Danes  land  in  Scotland. 

884.  They  renew  their  attaelo.  and  lay  siege  to  Rochester, 
«'bi< .1,  is  relieved  by  Alfred. 

894.  Alfred  defeats  Hastings  at  Farnham,  Bamfleet,  and 
Chester. 

896.  Hasting  leaves  Kngland. 

897.  Alfred  d, 'feats  the  Danes  near  the  Isle  of  Wi-ht. 

901.  Ethelwitld,  son  of  Kthehvd  I.,  is  defeated  in  a  pro- 
ject to  assume  the  crown,  and  compelled  to  seek 
refuge  with  the  Northumbrian  Danes,  who  elect 
him  king. 

oil.  The  Danes  suffer  a  great  defeat  at  Wodensfield  from 
Edward,  King  o(  W« 

031.  The  Northumbrian  Danes  submit  to  Edward  the 
Elder. 

943.  The  Danes  plunder  Tamworth. 

978.  The  Danes  are  defeated  by  the  Irish  on  Tara  Hill. 

981.  A  Danish  fleet  ravages  Devon  and  Cornwall. 

991.  Another  formidable  invasion.  The  Danes  are  in- 
duced to  retire  on  receiving  ,£10,000  of  tribute 
money.  (See  DANEGELT.) 

993.  They  renew  their  attacks,  and  are  defeated  by  Ethel- 

red  II.  in  a  naval  engagement. 

994.  Sweyn,   defeated   in   an   attempt  to   take    London, 

ravages  Essex,  Kent,  and  the  southern  counties, 

and  receives  £  16,000  on.  condition  of  his  quitting 

the  country. 
099.  Four  thousand  Danes  are  slain  at  the  battle  of  the 

Suck,  in  Ireland. 
1003.  Danish  invasion  bought  off  for  £25,000.    Ethelred  II. 

orders  the  massacre  of  every  Dane  in  England, 

which  is  perpetrated  on  the  eve  of  St.  Bride's  day 

Nov.  13. 
1003.  Sweyn  invades  England  (q.  v.). 

1005.  Sweyn  quits  England,  in  consequence  of  a  famine. 

1006.  Another  Danish  invasion. 

1010.  The  Danes  burn  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  obtain 

posses-ion  of  16  English  counties. 

10 1 1.  They  burn  Canterbury,  and  carry  away  the  arch- 

bishop, whom  they  murder  the  following  year. 
1013.  They   receive  =£48,000    tribute,    and    disband   their 
fleet 

1013.  Sweyn  takes  London,  and  asserts  his  rule  over  the 

whole  country  north  of  Watling  Street. 

1014.  The  battle  of  Clontarf  (q.  v.)  is  lost  by  the  Danes. 
1016.  Canute,  son  and  successor  of  Sweyn,   gains  many 

victories,  and  obtains  from  Edmund  II.  (Ironside) 
the  cession  of  the  northern  half  of  England. 


DANUBE 


A.L>. 

1018.  Canute  exact*  a  tribute  of  ,£80,000. 

1047.  An  invading  fleet  lands  at  Sandwich. 

1054.  The  Dane*  fight  a  gainst  Macbeth,  under  Siward,  Earl 
of  Northumberland. 

1066,  Sep.  25.  They  are  defeated  by  Harold  II.  at  Stam- 
ford Bridge. 

1069.  The  sons  of  Sweyn  arrive,  with   240  ships,  in  the 

Humber.     They  burn  York,   and  slay  more  than 
3,000  of  its  Norman  defenders. 

1070.  Sweyn  arrives  in  the  Humber,  and  a  Danish  fleet 

sails  up  the  Thames. 

1075.  A  Danish  fleet,  under  Swcyn's  son,  Canute,  pillages 
York,  and  then  withdraws. 

DANESMORE  (Battle).— (-See  BANBURY.) 

DANGER  ISLES  (Pacific  Ocean).— This  group 
was  discovered  by  Com.  Byron  in  1765. 

DANISH  AMERICA.  — The  islands  of  St. 
Thomas,  Santa  Cruz  or  St.  Croix,  and  St.  John, 
with  some  small  islands,  constitute  the  Danish 
possessions  in  America. 

DAXXEWERK,  DANNEVIRKE,  or  DANE- 
WIRKE  (Denmark).— This  wall,  erected  in  the 
9th  century  to  protect  Southern  Jutland,  was 
rebuilt  and  greatly  strengthened  in  937  by  the 
queen  consort  Thyra.  Gen.  Wrangel,  at  the 
head  of  30,000  Prussians,  defeated  the  Danes, 
10,000  strong,  after  a  struggle  of  eight  hours' 
duration,  at  this  place,  near  Sleswig,  Easter 
Sunday,  April  23,  1848.  The  Danes  abandoned 
their  position  behind  the  Daimewerk  to  the 
Austrians  and  Prussians,  Friday,  Feb.  5,  1864. 

DANTZIC  (Prussia),  which  existed  as  early 
as  970,  was  taken  by  Mestwin,  Duke  of  Eastern 
Pornerania,  in  1271,  and  by  the  Poles  in  1294. 
In  1310  it  fell  under  the  domination  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  who  retained  it  till  1454,  when 
it  became  a  free  city  under  Polish  protection. 
In  1 5 1 7  it  was  besieged  by  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
and  in  1577  was  taken  by  Stephen  Bathori,  King 
of  Poland,  whose  authority  it  had  disputed. 
Charles  X.  (Gustavus),  of  Sweden,  invested 
John  II.  <  'asiinir  within  its  walls  in  1656,  but 
without  success.  In  1709  the  plague  committed 
great  ravages  amongst  its  population  ;  and,  in 
1734,  it  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Russians 
and  Saxons.  At  the  second  partition  of  Poland, 
in  1793,  Dantzic  was  assigned  to  Prussia.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  May  20,  1807,  and 
restored  to  its  former  independence  by  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit,  July  9,  1807.  But  though 
nominally  independent,  it  was  really  subject  to 
the  French,  who  garrisoned  it,  and  retained  it 
under  then-  authority  until  they  were  expelled, 
after  a  long  siege,  by  a  Russian  and  Prussian 
force  under  Alexander,  Duke  of  \Viirtemberg, 
Jan.  2,  1814,  since  which  date  it  has  been 
restored  to  Prussia.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  commenced  in  1343,  and 
finished  in  1503 ;  Trinity  Church,  founded  in 
1514;  the  Rath-haus  in  1556;  and  the  Hohe 
Thor  in  1588.  The  city  was  much  injured  by 
the  explosion  of  a  powder-magazine  Dec.  10, 
1815.  An  inundation,  which  occurred  April  9, 
1829,  laid  the  whole  city  under  water,  and 
destroyed  many  thousand  houses  and  cattle, 
besides  causing  considerable  loss  of  life.  In 
July  and"  Sept.,  1831,  Dantzic  was  visited  by 
the  cholera,  which  caused  1,028  deaths. 

DANUBE,  the  ancient  Danubius,  or  Ister, 
was  crossed  by  Darius  I.  on  his  expedition  into 
Scythia,  B.C.  515,  and  by  the  Celtic  barbarians 
previous  to  their  invasion  of  Greece,  B.C.  280. 


DANUBIAN 


DARTFORD 


Trajan  built  a  line  stone  bridge  across  it  in 
104,  which  was  destroyed  by  Hadrian  in  120, 
lest  it  should  enable  the  northern  barbarians  to 
invade  the  Thracian  provinces.  Charlemagne 
formed  a  magnificent  project,  which  was  never 
carried  out,  of  connecting  the  Rhine  with  the 
Danube  by  means  of  a  canal.  Steam  naviga- 
tion was  established  on  the  Danube  in  1838, 
when  the  Austrian  Company  was  formed  and 
incorporated  by  the  emperor.  The  Bavarian 
company  was  established  in  1836.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  Danube  was  declared  free  from  all 
impediment  or  toll  by  the  isth  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856. 

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES.— Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  were  united  under  the  name  of 
the  "United  Principalities  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia,"  by  the  convention  of  Paris,  signed 
Aug.  19,  1858.  They  were  placed  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  sultan,  but  with  power  to 
cany  on  their  own  administration  without  his 
interference,  government  being  administered 
by  a  hospodar  and  an  elective  assembly  in  each 
principality,  and  a  central  commission  common 
to  both  principalities.  (See  MOLDAVIA  and 
WALLACHIA  ;  and  ROUMANIA.) 

DARA  (Mesopotamia)  was  founded  by  Anas- 
tasius  I.,  in  505,  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Per- 
sians. It  was  frequently  besieged,  and  was 
taken  by  Chosroes  I.  in  572. 

DARBYITES.— (See  PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.) 

DARDANELLES.— Xerxes  threw  a  bridge  of 
boats  across  this  channel,  anciently  called  the 
Hellespont,  B.C.  481.  The  bridge  was  destroyed 
by  a  storm.  In  consequence  of  this  disaster, 
the  water  received  300  lashes,  and  the  next 
bridge  remained  secure.  Alexander  III.  crossed 
the  straits  B.C.  334  with  an  army  of  about  35,000 
men.  The  Saracens,  under  Soliman,  the  son  of 
Orchan,  crossed  this  channel  in  1360,  and  first 
raised  the  Mohammedan  crescent  in  Europe. 
In  1465  Mohammed  II.  erected  two  forts  to  de- 
fend the  passage ;  and  in  1659  two  more,  named 
Sostos  and  Abydos,  were  added  by  Mohammed 
IV.  The  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  was  effected 
by  Admiral  Sir  Thomas  Duckworth,  Feb.  19, 
1807,  in  spite  of  the  severe  fire  of  the  forts.  He 
returned  through  the  channel  March  i  the  same 

E,  when  the  squadron  sustained  much  in- 
,  owing  to  the  unfavourable  weather  and 
IB  immense  stone  shot  used  by  the  enemy. 
By  a  secret  article  of  the  treaty  of  Unkiar- 
Skelessi,  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  signed 
at  Constantinople  July  8,  1833,  the  latter  power 
agreed  to  close  the  Dardanelles  against  vessels 
of  war  belonging  to  foreign  powers.  The  straits 
were  passed  by  the  allied  fleets  of  England  and 
France  at  the  commencement  of  the  Russian 
war  (g.  y.],  Oct.  14,  1853.  The  ancient  rule  of 
excluding  all  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace, 
confirmed  in  the  convention  signed  at  London 
July  13,  1841,  is  recognized  by  the  ioth  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856 

DARDANELLES  (Sea-fight).— The  Genoese 
defeated  the  Venetians,  the  Catalans,  and  the 
Greeks  in  an  engagement  in  the  Dardanelles  in 

DARIC,  a  Persian  gold  coin,  struck  by  Darius 
the  Mede,  B.C.  538.  The  daric  was  originally 
coined  at  Babylon,  whence  its  circulation  ex- 
tended over  all  the  East,  and  even  into  Greece. 


The  device  was  an  archer  in  the  act  of  drawing 
his  bow.  Dr.  Bernard  estimates  the  weight  of 
the  daric  at  15  grs.  more  than  our  guinea. 
Specimens  in  the  British  Museum  weigh  128 "4 
and  128-6  grs.  Hussey  estimates  its  value  at 
£i  is.  lod.  1-76  farthing.  There  were  also 
darics  of  silver. 

DARIEN  (Central  America).— This  isthmus 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  who  founded 
Porto  Bello  in  1502.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa 
crossed  it,  and  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
Sep.  25,1513.  A  Spanish  colony  was  established 
on  the  isthmus  in  1510.  William  Paterson,  the 
originator  of  the  Bank  of  England,  first  pro- 
posed to  form  what  is  known  as  the  Scottish 
settlement  at  Darien  in  1694.  The  company 
was  incorporated  by  an  act  of  Parliament,  to 
which  the  royal  sanction  was  given  June  26, 
1695.  Three  ships  and  two  tenders,  having  on 
board  1,200  men,  besides  women  and  children, 
left  Leith  July  26,  1698.  They  reached  the 
isthmus  Nov.  i.  The  chiefs  of  the  expedition 
landed  on  the  following  day,  and  took  formal 
possession  of  the  country,  naming  it  New 
Caledonia.  They  built  a  fort,  which  they  called 
New  St.  Andrew,  and  soon  became  involved  in 
a  quarrel  with  the  Spaniards,  who  regarded 
them  as  pirates  and  bucaneers.  Disease  com- 
mitted great  ravages  amongst  them,  and 
those  that  remained  alive  were  compelled  to 
embark  in  three  vessels.  More  than  half  of 
them  perished  during  the  voyage  to  New  York. 
A  second  expedition,  consisting  of  four  ships, 
with  1,300  men,  that  had  left  Edinburgh  in 
Aug.,  1699,  did  not  reach  the  colony  until 
four  months  after  its  abandonment.  They 
built  a  new  fort,  and  having  been  assailed  by  a 
Spanish  fleet  and  army,  concluded  a  treaty 
March  30,  1700,  engaging  to  evacuate  Darien  in 
14  days.  They  embarked  April  n.  Two  of 
the  ships  were  lost,  and  only  a  small  number 
of  the  colonists  returned  to  their  native  land. 
In  Nov.,  1827,  the  isthmus  was  surveyed  by 
Mr.  Lloyd,  acting  under  the  orders  of  Gen. 
Bolivar,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  best  route, 
either  for  a  road  or  a  canal,  by  which  it  might 
be  traversed. 

DARIK  (Battle).— Selim  I.,  Emperor  of  the 
Ottomans,  defeated  and  slew  Ghori,  the  Mame- 
luke Sultan  of  Egypt,  at  this  place,  near  Aleppo, 
Aug.  24,  1516. 

DARJEELING  (Hindostan).  —  This  hill 
station  of  Bengal  was,  with  the  surrounding 
country,  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  Rajah  of 
Sikim,  as  a  sanatarium  for  Europeans,  in  1835. 
In  1850  the  limits  were  extended.  A  mission 
to  Bhotan  (q.  v.}  left  Darjeeling  Jan.  4,  1864. 

DARLING  RIVER  (Australia)  was  discovered 
by  Capt.  Sturt  in  1829,  and  was  named  after  the 
then  governor  of  the  colony. 

DARMSTADT  (Germany)  was  made  a  city  in 
1330,  and  became  the  residence  of  the  land- 
graves of  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1567.  The  grand- 
ducal  palace  was  commenced  in  1568,  and  the 
town  hall  was  built  in  1580.  Darmstadt  has 
been  the  scene  of  two  conventions  :  the  first, 
between  the  Grand-dukes  of  Hesse-Darmstadt 
and  of  Baden,  was  signed  Oct.  5,  1806;  and  the 
second,  between  the  Grand-duke  and  Jerome 
Buonaparte,  June  3,  1810. 

DARTFORD  (Kent)  was  either  founded  by 


DARTM  OOB 


t    316    ] 


DAVY 


the  Romans,  or  built  on  the  site  of  a  former 
Roman  town,  as  numerous  remains  of  Roman 
furniture,  houses,  coffins,  &c.,  are  found  in  its 
vicinity.  In  604  Ethelbert  founded  a  nunnery, 
which  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes  in  790.  The 
marriage  by  proxy  of  Isabella,  sister  of  Henry 
III.,  to  Frederick  II.  of  Germany,  was  solem- 
nized in  Dartford  church  in  1235.  Edward  HI. 
held  a  great  tournament  in  the  town  in  1330, 
and  founded  the  priory  in  1349.  Wat  Tyler's 
insurrection  broke  out  at  Dartford  in  1381.  In 
1538  the  priory  was  abolished,  and  the  house 
converted  into  a  royal  palace  ;  and  in  1576  the 
grammar-school  was  founded.  Sir  John  Spiel- 
man  erected  the  first  paper-mill  in  England  at 
Dartford  in  1580.  In  1780  a  camp  was  formed 
at  Dartford,  and  in  1790,  1795,  and  1805,  the 
powder-mills  were  blown  up,  causing,  on  each 
occasion,  considerable  loss  of  life.  The  infant- 
school  and  mechanics'  institute  were  estab- 
lished in  1843. 

DARTMOOR  (Devonshire).— This  immense 
tract  of  moorland,  granted  by  Henry  III.  in 
1238  to  his  brother  Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall, 
has,  since  1337,  formed  part  of  the  duchy  of 
Cornwall.  The  first  stone  of  the  prison  for 
prisoners  of  war  was  laid  March  20,  1806.  A 
serious  insurrection  of  the  prisoners  took 
place  April  6,  1815,  when  seven  of  the  insur- 
gents were  shot. 

DARTMOUTH  (Devon)  was  an  important 
borough,  market  town,  and  seaport  at  an  early 
period.  The  crusading  fleet  assembled  in  its 
harbour  in  1 190.  The  charter  for  a  market  and 
fair  at  Dartmouth  was  granted  in  1226,  and 
that  by  which  the  town  was  endowed  with  a 
corporation  in  1342.  In  1347  it  was  the  third 
in  the  list  of  seaports  which  furnished  Edward 
III.  with  a  fleet  for  the  siege  of  Calais,  and  in 
1377  it  was  attacked  and  nearly  destroyed  by  a 
powerful  French  army.  In  1404  it  was  again 
assailed  by  a  French  force,  under  M.  du  Chastel, 
whose  army  was  compelled  to  take  flight, 
after  losing  its  commander  and  many  of  the 
principal  officers.  Warwick,  the  king-maker, 
who  had  fled  to  France,  landed  here  Sep.  13, 
1470.  During  the  Great  Rebellion,  Dartmouth 
was  twice  taken :  by  the  Royalists,  under 
Prince  Maurice,  in  1643,  after  a  siege  of  a 
month's  duration ;  and  by  the  Parliamentary 
forces,  under  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  Jan.  18, 
1646.  The  mechanics'  institute  was  estab- 
lished in  1846. 

DAUPHIN,  the  title  of  the  eldest  son  of 
the  King  of  France,  was  first  assumed  by 
Charles  (grandson  of  Philip  VI.),  afterwards 
Charles  V.,  to  whom  the  province  of  Dauphiny 
was  ceded  by  its  sovereign,  Humbert  II.,  July 
16,  1349.  The  title  was  permanently  attached 
to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  French  kings  by  John 
II.  in  1356,  and  was  last  used  by  Louis  Aiitoine, 
who  assumed  it  in  Sep.,  1824,  on  the  accession 
of  his  father  as  Charles  X.  The  Dauphins  quar- 
tered on  their  shields  the  arms  of  France  and 
Dauphiny,  and  only  yielded  precedence  to 
crowned  heads. 

DAUPHINY,  or  DAUPHINE  (France).  - 
This  ancient  province  of  France,  formerly 
peopled  by  the  Allobroges  (q.  v.},  passed,  about 
the  year  438,  into  the  hands  of  the  Burgun- 
dians.  In  568  it  was  seized  by  the  Lombards, 


and  in  733  was  invaded  by  the  Saracens,  from 
whom  it  was  delivered  by  Charles  Martel.  It 
was  subsequently  annexed  to  Burgundy,  and 
split  up  into  a  number  of  small  territories,  the 
most  important  of  which,  named  Albon,  passed 
in  889  into  the  hands  of  Count  Guy  I.,  the 
founder  of  a  long  race  of  rulers.  Guy  IV., 
who  died  in  1142,  assumed  as  his  crest  the 
dolphin,  from  the  French  word  for  which  his 
country  took  its  name  of  Dauphine".  In  1325 
Count  Guy  VIII.  defeated  Edward,  Count  of 
Savoy,  at  Varey ;  and  in  1343  Humbert  II. 
surrendered  his  estates  to  Philip,  son  of  Philip 
of  Valois,  on  condition  that  he  would  as- 
sume the  title  of  Dauphin,  a  transfer  sub- 
sequently confirmed  by  treaty  in  1349.  Dau- 
phiny was  ravaged  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
and  Prince  Eugene  in  1690  ;  and  was  occupied 
by  an  Austro-Sardinian  army  in  1814.  (See 
DAUPHIN.) 

DAVENTRY  (Battle).— Gen.  Lambert,  having 
risen  against  the  government  of  Gen.  Monk, 
April  9,  1660,  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
by  Ingoldsby  at  this  town  in  Northampton- 
shire, April  22. 

DAVIDISTS,  or  DAVID-GREGORIANS.— 
This  sect  was  founded  by  David  George,  or 
Joris,  the  son  of  a  market  crier,  who  was  born 
at  Delft  in  1501.  He  joined  the  Anabaptists 
in  1534,  when  he  began  to  have  visions  and 
revelations.  He  published  his  "Book  of 
Wonders"  in  1542.  In  1544  he  repaired  to 
Basel,  in  Switzerland,  and  lived  in  retire- 
ment there  12  years.  He  called  himself  the 
third  David,  another  spn  of  God,  and  held 
various  heretical  opinions.  His  followers 
existed  in  Holland  till  about  a  century  after 
his  death. 

DAVID'S,  ST.  (Wales).— The  archbishopric  of 
Caerleon  (q.  v.)  was  removed  to  this  place,  the 
ancient  Menevia,  in  521.  It  was  burned  in  610, 
and  in  904  and  906  it  was  taken  and  ravaged  by 
the  Danes.  In  930,  Sampson,  the  archbishop, 
removed  to  Dole,  in  Britanny,  and  the  see 
became  merely  episcopal,  although  the  bishops 
still  exercised  archiepiscopal  authority.  In 
981  the  town  was  again  pillaged  by  Gothrit 
and  Harold,  and  in  998  by  the  Danes,  who 
slew  the  archbishop.  The  Saxons  took  it  in 
ion,  and  committed  great  devastation,  and  in 
1020  it  was  destroyed  by  Eilaf.  About  1115 
Bishop  Bernard  professed  his  subjection  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the  see  lost  all 
archiepiscopal  power.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1180.  John  of  Gaunt  founded  a 
college  here  in  1365,  of  which  only  the  chapel 
is  now  in  existence. 

DAVID'S,  ST.,  DAY.— The  Welsh  custom 
of  wearing  a  leek  in  the  cap  on  the  ist  of 
March,  originated  in  540,  when  the  Britons, 
under  Cadwallader,  defeated  the  Saxons.  St. 
David  ordered  the  British  warriors  to  wear 
a  leek,  that  they  might  be  known  to  each 
other;  whence  the  present  custom  is  de- 
rived. 

DAVIS'S  STRAITS  (North  America)  were 
discovered  by  Capt.  John  Davis,  Aug.  n,  1585, 
during  his  first  voyage  in  quest  of  the  north- 
west passage. 

DAVY  LAMP,  for  lighting  the  miner, 
without  risk  from  the  explosion  of  fire- 


DEACONESSES 


DEATH'S 


damp,  was  invented  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
in  1816. 

DEACONESSES  are  of  very  early  origin  in 
the  Christian  Church,  as  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  i) 
speaks  of  Phebe  as  "a  servant  (Sia/coz/os 
or  deaconess)  of  the  church  which  is  at  Gen 
chrea,"  in  58.  By  a  law  in  the  Theodosian 
Code,  published  in  438,  they  were  to  be  widows 
who  had  had  children  and  were  above  60  years 
old ;  but  instances  were  not  uncommon  in 
which  the  office  was  filled  by  virgins.  Their 
duties  were  to  baptize  and  catechise  women, 
to  attend  the  sick  and  martyrs  in  prison,  and 
to  superintend  the  behaviour  of  female  wor- 
shippers at  church.  It  is  doubtful  when  the 
office  was  discontinued  ;  but  the  Council  of 
Orange,  Nov.  8,  441,  forbade  any  more  deacon- 
esses to  be  ordained;  which  prohibition  was 
repeated  by  the  Council  of  Albon  in  517,  and 
the  Council  of  Orleans  June  23,  533.  The  order 
did  not,  however,  become  extinct  till  the  i  ith 
century,  and  in  the  Greek  Church  deaconesses 
continued  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. 

DEACONS  were  first  appointed  by  the 
apostles  to  superintend  the  daily  ministration 
to  the  poor,  in  31  (Acts  vi.  i— 6).  The  original 
number  was  seven;  viz.  Stephen,  Philip, 
Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Tirnon,  Parmenas,  and 
Nicolas.  Deacons  of  the  Church  of  England 
were  prohibited  from  consecrating  the  Holy 
Communion  by  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  4,  s.  14 
(1662!,  under  penalty  of  ^100. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.— The  earliest  legislation 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb  appears  in  the  code  of 
Justinian  in  529,  which  declares  persons  born 
thus  incapable  of  making  a  will,  manumitting 
a  slave,  and  performing  other  civil  offices.  The 
Venerable  Bede  states  that  John,  Bishop  of 
Hagulstad  (Hexham),  enabled  a  .  deaf  man 
to  talk  in  685,  and  Rodolphus  Agricola  (1443 — 
1485)  states  the  capacity  of  those  born  deaf  to 
receive  instruction,  and  mentions  instances  in 
which  it  had  been  successfully  imparted.  The 
art  was  first  reduced  to  a  system  by  Jerome 
Cardan  (1501 — 1576),  and  was  successfully  prac- 
tised by  the  Spanish  Benedictine,  Pedro  de 
Ponce,  who  died  in  1584.  Jean  Bonifacio 
published  his  work  on  the  language  of  action 
in  1616 ;  and  John  Bulwer's  "  Philocophus, 
or  the  Deafe  and  Dumbe  Man's  Friende," 
published  in  1648,  is  probably  the  earliest 
English  book  on  the  subject.  Dr.  Wallis 
announced  his  ability  to  teach  the  deaf  in  1653, 
and  George  Dalgamo's  manual  alphabet,  the 
first  published  in  England,  appeared  in  1680. 
The  great  French  teachers  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  are  the  Abbe  de  l'Epe"e  (1712 — 1789),  and 
the  Abbe  Sicard  (1742 — 1822),  who  laboured 
arduously  and  successfully  to  establish  an 
effective  system  of  instruction  for  their 
unfortunate  pupils.  The  first  school  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb  was  opened  in  Edinburgh 
about  1760,  by  Thomas  Braidwood,  who  re- 
moved it  to  Hackney,  London,  in  1783.  The 
London  Asylum  for  poor  deaf  and  dumb 
children  was  projected  and  established  in  1792, 
by  the  Rev.  John  Townsend,  who  collected  a 
considerable  sum  of  money  for  the  purpose. 
The  Duke  of  Gloucester  laid  the  first  stone  of 
the  new  asylum  in  the  Old  Kent  Road,  July 


ii,   1807.    Similar  asylums  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  following  places  : — 


A.D. 

1810.  Edinburgh. 

1813.  Birmingham. 

1816.  (Claremont)  Dublin. 

1819.  Aberdeen. 

1819.  Glasgow. 

1823.  Manchester. 

1835.  Liverpool. 

1837.  Exeter. 

1839.  Doncaster. 

1831.  Belfast 


A.D. 

1839.  Newcastle. 
1841.  Brighton. 

184 1.  Bristol. 

1842.  Bath. 
1846.  Dundee. 
1846.  Strabane. 

1846.  Roman        Catholic, 

Dublin. 

1847.  Swansea. 


DEAL  (Kent).— This  port  is  one  of  the  places 
supposed  to  be  the  spot  where  Julius  Csesar 
landed  with  his  legions,  Aug.  26,  B.C.  55.  Soon 
after  the  Norman  Conquest  it  was  annexed 
to  the  Cinque  Ports,  and  by  a  decree  of 
Henry  III.,  in  1229,  it  was  declared  exempt 
from  taxation.  Perkin  Warbeck  was  defeated 
in  an  attempt  to  land  here  July  3,  1.495.  (See 
WARBECK'S  INSURRECTION.)  The  castle  was 
erected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  tne  charter  of 
incorporation  was  granted  by  William  III.  Oct. 
13,  1699,  and  the  court  hall  was  built  in  !8o3. 

DEAN.— This  dignitary  originated  at  an 
early  period,  in  the  division  of  sees,  by  their 
bishops,  into  decennaries  or  tithings,  each  of 
which  comprised  10  churches  or  parishes,  and 
was  placed  under  the  government  of  a  dean. 
Formerly  this  office  was  open  to  laymen,  but 
by  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  4  (1662)  it  can  only  be 
filled  by  a  priest.  Deaneries  of  old  cathedrals, 
except  in  Wales,  were  placed  under  the  direct 
patronage  of  the  crown  by  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  113 
(Aug.  ii,  1840). 

DEAN  FOREST  (Gloucestershire)  contained 
iron  mines  at  a  very  early  period  of  English 
history,  probably  before  the  Roman  invasion. 
Its  boundaries  were  defined  by  20  Charles  II. 
c.  3  (1667).  The  mine  law  courts,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  free  miners,  &c.,  were  abolished 
in  1777,  and  the  free  miners  have  since  lost 
many  of  their  alleged  rights.  Riots  broke 
out  here  June  8,  1831,  in  consequence  of  the 
opposition  of  the  foresters  to  the  inclosure  of 
any  part  of  the  forest,  when  upwards  of  2,000 
men  destroyed  the  fences,  and  indulged  in 
other  riotous  proceedings. 

DEATH.— (See  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  and  MAR- 
RIAGES ;  BLACK  DEATH  ;  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT  ; 
and  REGISTRATION  OF  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  AND 
MARRIAGES.  ) 

DEATH  BY  ACCIDENTS  COMPENSATION 
ACT,  or  LORD  CAMPBELL'S  ACT.  —  This 
act,  9  <fe  10  Viet.  c.  93  (Aug.  26,  1846),  provided 
that  persons  causing  accidental  death  by 
leglect  or  carelessness,  should  be  liable,  at 
the  suit  of  the  executors,  to  an  action  for 
damages,  to  be  paid  to  the  wife,  husband, 
parent,  or  child  of  the  deceased.  It  was 
amended  by  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  95  (July  29,  1864), 
which,  in  cases  where  executors  were  not 
ippointed,  or  from  any  cause  did  not  take 
measures  to  obtain  compensation,  permitted 
any  person  beneficially  interested  to  commence 
"egal  proceedings. 

DEATH'S  HEAD.  —  This  order  of  knight- 
lood  was  founded  by  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg 
n  1652.  It  is  for  females  only. 

DEATH'S  HEAD  CORPS,  or  BLACK 
BRUNSWICKERS.  —  This  regiment,  which 


DEBT 


DEEDS 


derives  its  names  from  the  black  uniform  and 
cap  adorned  with  a  silver  image  of  a  skull 
worn  by  the  troopers,  was  formed  by  Frederick 
William,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  first  led 
them  against  the  French  about  the  middle  of 
May,  1809.  He  entered  Dresden,  June  n, 
and  penetrated  to  Leipsic,  but  being  unable 
to  maintain  his  ground  against  King  Jeroifie 
Buonaparte,  he  cut  his  way  to  the  coast,  and 
with  his  force  of  1,800  men  found  refuge  in 
England,  where  he  received  from  Parliament 
a  pension  of  £j,ooo.  He  was  killed  while 
fighting  with  the  Allies  at  Quatre  Bras,  June 
1 6,  1815. 

DEBT. — (See  ACTON  BUKNEL  ;  BANKRUPTCY  ; 
COUNTY  COURTS;  IMPRISONMENT  FOR  DEBT,  &c.) 

DECCAN  (Hindostan).— The  boundaries  of 
this  territory  have  varied  greatly  at  different 
periods.  The  term  is  now  usually  applied  to 
the  southern  portion  of  India,  situated  between 
the  Nerbudda  and  Kistna  Rivers.  Its  first 
independent  sovereign  was  Allah  ud  Deen, 
in  1337  ;  and  in  1690  it  was  conquered  by 
Aurungzebe,  who  divided  it  into  six  provinces. 
In  1717  Nizam  al  Mulk  wrested  it  from  the 
Mongol  sovereigns  of  Delhi,  and  rendered  it 
subject  to  the  Mahrattas,  who  maintained 
their  ascendancy  till  1818,  when  a  large  portion 
was  ceded  to  the  British.  The  chiefs  of  the 
Deccan  were  received  by  Sir  Bartle  Frere  at 
a  great  durbar  held  at  Poonah,  Sep.  5,  1865. 

DECELEA  (Greece).  — This  place,  originally 
one  of  the  12  cities  of  Attica,  was  taken  and 
fortified  by  the  Lacedaemonians  B.C.  413,  and 
was  retained  by  them  till  the  end  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war. 

DECEMBER,  so  called  from  decem,  ten, 
was  the  loth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus, 
B-c-  753  5  and  became  the  i2th  when  Numa 
Pornpilius  placed  the  months  of  January 
and  February  before  March,  B.C.  713.  During 
the  reign  of  Commodus  (180 — 192)  it  was 
called  Amazonius,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor's 
mistress  Martia,  who  had  been  painted  in 
the  habit  of  an  Amazon. 

DECEMVIRS.— The  supreme  council  of  ten, 
appointed  at  Rome  B.C.  451,  compiled  the 
laws  of  the  ten  tables  the  same  year,  and  at 
first  governed  so  as  to  win  the  respect  of 
their  fellow-citizens.  The  decemvirate  was 
renewed  B.C.  450,  when  two  tables  were  added, 
making  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  The 
decemvirs  were  deposed,  in  consequence  of 
the  tyranny  of  Appius  Claudius  towards  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  consular  government  was  re- 
stored B.C.  449. 

DECENNALIA.— These  festivals  were  insti- 
tuted by  the  Emperor  Augustus,  B.C.  24, 
in  acknowledgment  of  the  prosperity  of  his 
administration  during  the  preceding  10  years. 
They  were  continued  by  the  emperors  every 
ioth  year  of  their  reign,  with  games  sacri- 
fices, and  largesses  to  the  people.  The  last 
was  celebrated  by  Theodosius  II.  in  411. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM  was  applied  by  the 
French  government  to  coinage,  weights,  and 
measures,  in  1792.  Sir  John  Wrottesley  intro- 
duced it  to  the  notice  of  Parliament,  Feb. 
25,  1824,  but  no  measures  were  adopted  for 
testing  its  utility.  A  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  reported  in  favour  of  its  adoption, 


Aug.  i,  1853 ;  and  in  Nov.,  1854,  a  commission 
of  inquiry  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Lord 
Monteagle,  Lord  Overs  tone,  and  Mr.  Hubbard. 
The  Decimal  Association,  formed  in  June,  1854, 
and  the  International  Association,  instituted 
at  Paris  in  1855,  both  labour  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  decimal  system. 

DECIMATION  was  introduced  among  the 
Romans  as  a  military  punishment  by  Appius 
Claudius,  about  B.C.  470,  and  continued  in  use 
till  it  was  abolished  by  Theodosius  I.  in  383. 

DECIMUS  (Battle).— Belisarius  defeated  the 
Vandals  Sep.  14,  533,  on  a  plain  10  miles 
from  Carthage,  and  on  this  account  the  victory 
received  the  name  of  Deciiitc.x. 

DECLARATION.— (See  ALLIED  POWERS.) 

DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS.— This  decla- 
ration for  vindicating  and  asserting  the  ancient 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  subject  was  agreed 
to  by  the  Lords  spiritual  and  temporal  and  the 
Commons,  Feb.  12,  1689  (O.  S.).  It  was  read 
before  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  at  Whitehall, 
and  accepted  by  him  Wednesday,  Feb.  13  (O.S.). 
(See  BILL  OF  RIGHTS. 

DECORATED  STYLE,  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture, is,  by  Button,  estimated  to  have  lasted 
from  1272  to  1461,  and  by  Rickman  from  1307 
to  1392. 

DECRETALS,  letters  written  by  the  popes  to 
decide  questions  in  ecclesiastical  law.  Pope 
Siricius  wrote  the  first,  in  385,  to  Himerius, 
Bishop  of  Tarragona,  in  Spain.  A  series  of 
forged  decretals  were  written  in  France  between 
829  and  845,  the  aim  of  which  was  to  exalt  the 
episcopal  dignity,  and  increase  the  power  of 
the  upper  magnates  of  the  Church.  Gratian 
published  a  collection  of  decretals  in  1140,  and. 
Gregory  IX.  compiled  five  books  of  them, 
which  were  called  the  Pentateuch,  in  1234,  to 
which  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  sixth  in  1298. 
Clement  V.  issued  his  five  books,  known  as  the 
Clementines,  in  1308,  and  John  XXI.  or  XXII. 
used  them  as  the  foundation  of  the  canon  law 
in  1317.  This  was  the  last  authentic  series  of 
decretals.  The  later  ones,  called  Extravagantes, 
have  only  been  occasionally  preserved,  and 
the  latest  of  these  was  written  by  Sixtus  IV. 
in  1483. 

DEDICATION  OF  CHURCHES.  —  Moses 
(Exodus  xl.  33 — 8)  dedicated  the  tabernacle  in 
the  wilderness,  B.C.  1400 ;  and  Solomon  (i  Kings 
viii.  i — 64)  devoted  his  temple  to  the  service  of 
God,  B.C.  1004.  The  second  temple  was  like- 
wise dedicated  (Ezra  vi.  16,  17),  B.C.  515. 
According  to  Bingham,  the  first  authentic 
accounts  of  the  consecration  of  Christian 
churches  occur  in  the  4th  century,  when,  in  the 
words  of  Eusebius,  "  it  was  a  desirable  sight  to 
behold  how  the  consecrations  of  the  new-built 
churches  and  the  feasts  of  the  dedications  were 
solemnized  in  every  city. "  The  church  of  Jeru- 
salem, erected  by  Constantino  I.  on  the  site  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  was  consecrated  by  a  full 
synod  of  bishops  specially  convened  for  the 
purpose  in  335  ;  and  in  341  the  church  of  Antioch 
was  also  dedicated  by  a  great  company  of  bishops 
summoned  for  that  end. 

DEEDS.— Among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  when 
title-deeds  were  lost,  new  ones  were  prepared, 
from  memory,  of  similar  effect ;  an  instance  of 
which  occurred  in  903.  Deeds  were  not  gene- 


DEEG 


DELEGATES 


rally  dated  until  the  reign  of  Edward  II., 
although  the  practice  commenced  in  the  time 
of  Edward  I.  The  indenture  of  deeds  was  ren- 
dered unnecessary  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  76,  s.  n 
(Aug.  6,  1844). 

DEEG,  or  DIEG  (Hindostan),  was  fortified 
by  Sooraj  Mull  in  1760.  In  1776  it  was  taken 
by  Nudjiff  Khan,  after  a  siege  of  12  months. 
Gen.  Fraser  defeated  Holkar  under  its  walls 
Nov.  13,  1804  ;  and  Lord  Lake  took  the  fortress 
by  storm  Dec.  14,  1804. 
DEERHURST.— (See  ALNEY,  or  OLNEY.) 
DEFAMATION.— By  the  laws  of  Lothaire, 
King  of  Kent  (673—685^,  calumny  and  defama- 
tion were  visited  by  severe  fines.  Under  Alfred, 
Edgar,  and  Canute,  those  who  spread  false  re- 
ports forfeited  their  tongues,  unless  they  paid 
the  full  amount  of  their  mulct.  The  law  re- 
specting defamation  of  character  was  amended 
by  6  &  7  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  24,  1843) ;  and  the 
offence  was  removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  41 
(June  26,  1855).  (See  LIBEL.) 

DEFENCE  OF  THE  REALM  ACT,  "to 
make  better  provision  for  acquiring  lands  for 
the  defence  of  the  realm"  (23  &  24  Viet.  c.  112), 
was  passed  Aug.  28,  1860. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH.  — Leo.  X. 
c  mferred  the  title  of  "Fidei  Defensor"  on 
Henry  VIII.,  as  a  mark  of  approval  of  his  work 
against  Luther,  dedicated  to  that  pontiff.  The 
bull  by  which  it  was  granted  bears  date  Oct.  n, 
1,21,  and  the  title  was  confirmed  by  35  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  3  (1543).  The  title  had,  however,  been 
assumed  by  the  kings  of  England  previous 
to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Richard  II.  used 
it  in  his  proclamation  against  the  opinions  of 
Wycliffe,  dated  Westminster,  July  3,  1382. 

DEFENDERS,  and  PEEP-O'-DAY  BOYS,— 
two  Irish  factions,  the  first  being  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  the  last  Presbyterians,  which  origi- 
nated July  4,  1784,  near  Market  Hill,  in  the 
county  of  Armagh.  On  Whit-Monday,  1785, 
700  Protestants,  known  as  the  Nappagh  fleet, 
met  the  Defenders,  who  had  assumed  the  title 
of  the  Bawn  fleet,  and  were  on  the  point  of 
coming  to  an  engagement,  when  they  were  in- 
duced to  separate  by  some  private  gentlemen. 
In  Jan.,  1793,  Ireland  was  much  disturbed 
by  the  Defenders,  who  attacked  the  houses  of 
Protestants.  A  battle  was  fought  between  these 
two  factions  Sep.  21,  1795,  at  the  village  called 
the  Diamond,  in  which  48  Defenders  were 
killed,  and  many  more  wounded.  To  comme- 
morate this  battle,  the  first  Orange  lodge  was 
formed. 

DEFENDERS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  laymen, 
appointed  by  Pope  Honorius  in  407. 

DEFINITIVE  PEACE.- This  name  has  been 
given  to  the  treaty  signed  at  Paris,  Sep.  3,  1783, 
by  which  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  in- 
dependence of  the  United  States. 

DEGRADATION.— In  the  primitive  Church 
this  sentence  was  awarded  to  all  who  were 
guilty  of  very  flagitious  crimes.  In  767  it  was 
executed  upon  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
who  was  compelled  to  leave  the  church  back- 
wards, and  was  stripped  of  his  pallium,  while 
an  anathema  was  pronounced  over  him.  By  23 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  i,  s.  6  (1531),  clerks  convicted  of 
treason,  murder,  &c.,  were  to  suffer  degrada- 


tion. In  chivalry,  knights  are  degraded  only 
for  the  most  heinous  offences.  Instances 
occurred  as  early  as  1322,  and  as  late  as  1621. 
The  mode  of  execution  was  for  the  culprit's 
spurs  to  be  hacked  off  his  heels,  his  sword 
broken  over  his  head,  and  himself  announced 
bo  be  "no  longer  knight,  but  a  scoundrel-knave." 
Peers  can  only  lose  their  nobility  by  death  or 
attainder ;  though  one  instance  occurs  in  which 
Parliament  degraded  a  nobleman  for  poverty, 
viz.  that  of  George  Neville,  Duke  of  Bedford, 
who  was  degraded  in  1477. 

DEGREES.— (-See  LAMBETH  AND  UNIVERSITY 
DEGREES.) 

DEGREES  OF  GEOMETRY  were  first  mea- 
sured by  Eratosthenes,  who  flourished  B.C. 
274 — 194.  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  B.C.  162,  first 
determined  the  relative  positions  of  places  by 
means  of  their  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

DEGSASTAN,  or  DEGSTAN  (Battle).— Ethel- 
frith  defeated  the  Scots  at  this  place,  by  some 
supposed  to  be  Dalston,  in  Cumberland,  in  603. 
DEI.— (See  AGNUS  DEI.) 

DEI  GRATIA,  by  the  favour  of  God.  This 
formula  was  first  used  by  the  bishops  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  and  was  afterwards 
very  generally  adopted  by  temporal  and  eccle- 
siastical authorities. 

DEIRA.— The  territory  acquired  by  Ida,  in 
the  north  of  England,  was  after  his  death 
divided  into  two  states — Deira  and  Bernicia. 
Ella  became  king  of  the  former  in  559.  At 
his  death  in  588,  Deira  was  joined  to  Bernicia. 
Oswin  seized  Deira  in  644,  and  was  slain  by 
Oswy,  King  of  Bernicia,  Aug.  20,  651. 

DEISTS,  or  THEISTS.  —  This  appellation 
was  assumed  in  France  and  Italy  about  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century,  by  persons  who  ac- 
knowledged the  existence  of  a  God,  though 
they  rejected  the  Bible.  They  are  mentioned 
as  a  new  sect  in  the  preface  to  the  second 
volume  of  Viret's  "  Instruction  Chretienne," 
published  in  1563.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury, 
whose  work  "  De  Veritate  "  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1624,  is  one  of  the  earliest  English  writers 
who  advocated  the  system.  (See  FREE- 
THINKERS.) 

DELAWARE  (United  States),  so  called  from 
Lord  De  la  War,  governor  of  Virginia,  who 
was  the  first  to  enter  the  bay,  in  1610.  It  was 
colonized  by  the  Swedes  and  called  by  them 
New  Sweden  in  1638  ;  taken  by  the  Dutch  in 
1655  ;  and  seized  by  the  English  in  1664.  In 
1704  it  was  erected  into  a  separate  colony, 
which  rank  it  maintained  till  the  separation 
from  the  mother  country.  Its  constitution 
was  formed  in  1776,  and  amended  in  1831. 

DELEGATES.— On  the  prohibition  of  appeals 
to  the  Pope  by  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (1532),  the 
Court  of  Delegates  was  created  to  exercise 
the  supreme  appellate  jurisdiction.  It  gene- 
rally included  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
Westminster,  and  the  doctors  of  the  civil  law, 
and  was  established  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19 
•  I533)-  Its  jurisdiction  was  abolished  by  2  <fe  3 
Will.  IV.  c.  92  (Aug.  7,  1832),  which  provided 
that  all  appeals  formerly  made  to  it  should  in 
future  be  laid  before  the  sovereign  in  council ; 
and  this  act  was  amended  by  3  <fc  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  41,  s.  3  (Aug.  14,  1833),  which  ordered  all  such 
appeals  to  be  referred  to  the  judicial  com- 


DELFT 


[     320    ] 


DELPHI 


mittee  of  the  Privy  Council.  Further  regula 
tions  were  made  by  6  &  7  Viet.  c.  38  (July  28. 
1843). 

DELFT  (Holland)  was  founded  by  Godfrey 
le  Bossu,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  in  1074 
In  1359  the  town  was  seized  by  the  Kabbel 
jauwen  (see  HOLLAND),  who  were  besieged  and 
defeated  by  Count  Albert.  The  new  chiH-ch 
was  erected  in  1381  ;  and  the  town  was  much 
injured  by  a  fire  in  1536.  Here  Hugo  Grotius 
was  born,  April  10, 1583 ;  and  William  I.,  Prince 
of  Orange,  assassinated  by  Balthazar  Gerard, 
July  10,  1584.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  was  built 
in  1618.  A  mausoleum  was  erected  in  me- 
mory of  William  I.,  in  the  new  church,  in  1620. 
Delft  suffered  severely  from  the  explosion  of  a 
powder-magazine  in  1654. 

DELHI  (Hindostan),  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Patan  and  Mongol  empires,  was  an  impor- 
tant city,  governed  by  its  own  rajah,  as  early 
as  1008.  In  ion  it  was  taken  and  pillaged 
by  Sultan  Mahmoud,  of  Ghizni ;  and  in  1193, 
Cuttub  ud  Deen  wrested  it  from  the  Hindoo 
princes,  and  founded  the  Patan,  or  Affghan 
empire.  Timour  crossed  the  Indus,  and  cap 
tured  Delhi,  in  1398  ;  and  in  1525,  Sultan  Babei 
took  the  city,  and  abolished  the  Patan  dynasty, 
establishing  in  its  stead  that  of  the  Mongols. 
Akbar,  the  greatest  of  the  Mongol  emperors  of 
Delhi,  who  commenced  his  reign  in  1556,  in- 
vited the  Portuguese  to  establish  a  mission  in 
his  capital  in  1568,  extended  his  power  over 
Bengal  (q.  v.)  in  1580,  and  died  in  1605.  In  1735 
the  city  was  partially  burned  by  ttie  ttahrattas, 
and  it  was  taken  by  Nadir  Shah,  March  9,  1739. 
The  Mahrattas  obtained  possession  of  Delhi  in 
1770,  and  the  Rohillas  in  1788.  Delhi  College 
was  founded  in  1792.  The  battle  of  Delhi  was 
fought  Sep.  u,  1803,  between  the  French  and 
Mahrattas,  under  Bourquin,  and  the  English, 
under  Gen.  Lake,  and  gained  by  the  latter,  who 
entered  the  city  the  following  day.  In  Oct., 
1804,  it  was  besieged  by  Holkar,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  retire,  in  spite  of  his  superior  force. 
From  this  period  no  event  of  importance  occurs 
in  the  history  of  Delhi  until  May  n,  1857,  when 
it  was  entered  by  fugitive  rebel  sepoys  from 
Meerut,  and  made  the  head-quarters  of  the 
rebellion.  The  English  laid  siege  to  it  June  8, 
commenced  the  cannonade  Sep.  n,  and  com- 
pleted the  capture  Sep.  20.  The  king  and  his 
two  sons  were  taken  Sep.  21,  and  the  latter 
were  immediately  shot  by  Lieut.  Hodson.  The 
English  troops  left  Delhi  in  pursuit  of  the  rebels 
Sep.  23. 

DELICATE  INVESTIGATION.— This 
inquiry  into  certain  alleged  improprieties  on 
the  part  of  Caroline  Elizabeth,  then  Princess  of 
Wales,  and  afterwards  Queen  of  England,  as 
wife  of  George  IV.,  was  conducted  by  a  com- 
mission appointed  by  the  king,  May  29,  1806, 
and  composed  of  Lords  Spencer,  Grenville, 
Erskine,  and  Ellenborough.  The  chief  pro- 
moters of  the  investigation  were  Sir  John 
and  Lady  Douglas,  who  laid  charges  against 
the  princess,  of  which  the  committee  declared 
her  innocent,  although  they  condemned  her 
for  culpable  levity  of  conduct.  Sir  John 
and  Lady  Douglas  persisted  in  their  asser- 
tions, and  in  March,  1813,  the  subject  was 
much  discussed  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


The  bill  for  the  degradation  of  the  queen 
was  proposed  by  Lord  Liverpool,  and  read 
for  the  first  time  July  5,  1820.  The  second 
reading  took  place  Aug.  17,  and  the  case  was 
opened  by  the  attorney-general  in  support 
of  the  bill,  Aug.  19.  Mr.,  afterwards  Lord 
Brougham,  commenced  the  defence  Oct.  3, 
and  the  Lords  voted  in  favour  of  the  third  read- 
ing of  the  bill,  Nov.  10.  In  consequence,  how- 
ever, of  the  strong  feeling  of  the  country  in 
favour  of  the  queen,  and  of  the  nearly  equal 
state  of  opinion  among  the  peers — the  majority 
only  amounting  to  9 — the  bill  was  abandoned 
on  the  motion  of  Lord  Liverpool 

DELINQUENTS.  —  All  persons  assuming 
powers  not  authorized  by  statute  were,  by  the 
Long  Parliament,  in  1640,  declared  to  be  delin- 
quents. The  House  of  Commons  ordered  a 
person  to  be  sent  for  as  a  delinquent  for  speak- 
ing scandalous  words  against  a  member,  Feb. 
15,  1641,  and  that  when  any  man  was  sent  for 
as  a  delinquent,  and  afterwards,  by  order  of 
the  House,  was  bailed,  he  should  not  on  that 
account  be  discharged  of  arrest  in  other  suits, 
June  7,  1641.  Hume  remarks  :—"  This  term 
was  newly  come  into  vogue,  and  expressed  a 
degree  or  species  of  guilt  not  exactly  known  or 
ascertained. "  Many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry, 
for  exercising  what  they  believed  to  be  the 
legal  powers  of  magistracy,  were  involved  in 
the  crime  of  delinquency. 

DELIUM  (Battles).— The  Boeotians  defeated 
the  Athenians  near  the  temple  of  Apollo,  at 
Delium,  B.C.  424.  Socrates,  and  his  pupil  Alci- 

biades,  took  part  in  this  battle. The  troops 

of  Antiochus  (the  Great)  of  Syria  defeated  the 
Romans  at  Delium,  B.C.  192. 

DKLLACRUSCAN  SCHOOL.  — This  term, 
taken  from  the  celebrated  academy,  Delia 
Crusca,  at  Florence,  was  applied  to  some 
English  writers  residing  at  Florence  in  1785, 
who  formed  a  new  school.  William  Gifford 
exposed  their  absurdities  in  his  satirical 
poems,  "The  Baviad,"  published  in  1791,  and 
"The  Ma'viad,"  in  1795. 

DELOMBODERA,— (5«M  CATTLE  PLAGUE.) 

DP] LOS  (MgQSLii  Sea).— This  island,  called  also 
Cynthus  and  Ortygia,  the  smallest  of  the 
Cyclades,  is  said  to  have  been  the  birthplace 
of  Apollo,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of 
his  worship.  It  was  made  the  common 
treasury  of  the  states  united  against  Persia, 
B.C.  477.  The  Athenians  purified  it  by  re- 
moving all  its  tombs,  &c.,  B.C.  426 ;  and 
banished  all  its  inhabitants  B.C.  422.  About 
B.C.  146  it  became  important  as  a  seat  of  com- 
merce, but  it  subsequently  lost  all  trade,  and 
is  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins. 

DELPHI  (Greece).— The  celebrated  temple 
and  oracle  of  the  Pythian  Apollo  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  Amphictyons  B.C. 
1263.  The  Pythian  Games  were  first  celebrated 
tiere  B.C.  586.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  B.C. 
548,  and  some  accuse  the  Pisistratidse  of 
laving  burned  it ;  but  Herodotus  (ii.  180) 
acquits  them  of  any  such  intention.  It  was 
rebuilt  by  the  Amphictyons,  and  decorated 
"by  the  Alemseonidse,  who  so  enriched  the 
new  edifice  that  Xerxes  sent  an  expedition  in 
search  of  plunder,  B.C.  480.  The  Persians, 
lowever,  were  compelled  to  retreat  by  the 


DELPHIN 


[    321     ] 


DENMARK 


immense  blocks  of  stone  which  were  hurled 
upon  them,  by  supernatural  means  according 
to  the  report  of  the  priests.  The  Phocians 
seized  the  temple  B.C.  357,  and  enriched 
themselves  with  its  immense  wealth,  which 
amounted  to  20,000  talents  of  gold  and  silver. 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  restored  it  to  the  custody 
of  the  Amphictyons  B.C.  346,  and  it  remained 
undisturbed  until  attacked  by  the  Gauls  under 
Bremius,  B.C.  279,  when  the  enemy  was  a 
second  time  repelled  by  the  overthrow  of  huge 
masses  of  rock.  It  was  again  plundered  by 
Sylla,  B.C.  82  ;  and  by  Nero,  who  took  from  it 
560  brazen  statues,  A. p.  67.  The  temple  was 
suppressed  by  Theodosius  I.,  who  died  in  395, 
and  with  it  the  existence  of  the  town  may  be 
said  to  have  ceased.  Homer  calls  it  Pytho, 
and  it  is  now  known  as  Castri. 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS.— This  edition,  sug- 
gested by  the  Duke  of  Montausier,  was  pre- 
pared by  order  of  Louis  XIV.  for  the  use 
of  the  Dauphin,  whence  the  name  (In  usum 
serenissimi  Delphini).  Hallam  (Lit.  Hist., 
vol.  iv.  pt.  4,  ch.  i)  says, — "The  choice  of 
authors  as  well  as  of  editors  was  referred  to 
Bishop  Huet,  who  fixed  the  number  of  the 
former  at  40."  The  first  edition  consisted  of 
64  volumes.  Floras  and  Sallust  appeared  in 
1674,  and  Ausonius  in  1730.  Mr.  Valpy  com- 
menced the  republication  of  the  Delphiu 
Classics  in  1818.  The  editions  are  unequal  in 
merit. 

DELUGE.— The  first  mention  of  the  Deluge 
occurs  in  Gen.  vi.  7 — 22,  which  describes  the 
directions  received  by  Noah  relative  to  the 
construction  of  the  ark.  The  commencement 
of  the  flood  is  related  Gen.  vii.  10 — 12.  The 
waters  increased  for  40  days  (17),  and  re- 
mained upon  the  earth  150  days  (24),  at  the 
end  of  which  time  the  ark  rested  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Ararat  (Gen.  viii.  4).  The  following  are 
some  of  the  dates  assigned  to  this  event : — 

B.C. 

2353.  Playfair. 

3348.  Usher  and   English 

Bible. 

3344.  Marsham. 
3329.  Petavius. 
3396.  Irish. 
3393.  Strauchius. 
33b8.  Hebrew. 
3104.  Vulgar  Jewish. 


r,.c. 

3346.  Septungint. 
3*70.  Jackson. 
3155.  Hales. 
3146.  Josephus. 
3103.  Persian. 
3103.  Caliyuga. 
3000.  Chinese. 
3998.  Samaritan. 
3698.  Howard. 
2483.  Clinton. 


Besides  the  general  Deluge,  there  are  others 
recorded  by  classical  authors,  of  which  the 
chief  are  those  of  Ogyges,  about  B.C.  1760,  and 
of  Deucalion,  B.C.  1504,  the  first  of  which  was 
confined  to  Attica,  and  the  latter  to  Thessaly. 

!)K.\JBEWIELKIE  (Battle). —The  Poles  de- 
feated the  Russians  with  great  slaughter  at 
this  place,  near  Warsaw,  March  31,  1831. 

DEMERARA  AND  ESSEQUIBO  (South 
America).  —  Colonies  were  planted  on  the 
banks  of  these  rivers  by  the  Dutch,  about  1580. 
They  were  taken  by  the  British  under  Gen. 
Whyte,  April  22,  1796;  and  restored  to  Hol- 
land, by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  March  27,  1802. 
The  English  captured  them  again  Sep.  20, 
1803.  By  an  agreement,  signed  in  London, 
Aug.  13,  1814,  the  Dutch  surrendered  these 
possessions  to  England.  (See  BRITISH  GUIANA.) 

1) K:\lJBTill A.— The  Athenians  instituted  an 


annual  festival  under  this  name  in  honour  of 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  B.C.  307. 

DEMMIN  (Prussia).  —  This,  an  important 
town  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  was  walled 
in  the  i2th  century,  and  has  sustained  several 
sieges.  The  Swedes  took  the  garrison  pri- 
soners in  1757,  and  the  Prussians  regained 
possession  in  1759.  ^ne  French  captured 
Demmiii  April  17,  1807. 

DEMOCRATS.— (-See  REPUBLICANS.) 

DEMOTIKA  (European  Turkey).  — At  this 
town  of  Roumelia,  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop, 
Charles  XII.  was  detained  a  prisoner  in  1713. 
(See  BENDER.) 

DENAIN  (Battle).  —  At  this  village,  in 
France,  Marshal  Villars,  at  the  head  of  a 
French  army,  defeated  the  allied  Dutch  and 
German  troops,  commanded  by  the  Earl  of 
Albemarle,  July  24,  1712.  Prince  Eugene, 
who  by  some  writers  is  represented  as  having 
taken  part  in  the  action,  was,  by  the  admirable 
strategy  of  Marshal  Villars,  compelled  to 
witness  a  defeat  that  he  could  not  avert. 

DENARIUS,  the  standard  silver  coin  among 
the  Romans,  was  first  coined  B.C.  269.  Its 
value  amounted  to  10  bronze  ases,  or  eight- 
pence  halfpenny.  About  B.C.  216  its  value 
was  raised  to  16  ases,  the  as  being  reduced 
considerably  in  weight.  Gold  denarii  were 
struck  at  Rome  B.C.  206. 

DENDERMONDE,  or  TERMONDE  (Bel- 
gium).— This  town,  which  dates  from  the  8th 
century,  possesses  a  citadel  erected  by  the  Duke 
of  Parma  in  1584.  In  1667  it  was  besieged  by 
Louis  XIV.,  who  was  compelled  to  retreat  by 
the  floods  which  the  inhabitants  brought  upon 
his  army  by  opening  their  sluices.  It  was 
invested  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who 
effected  its  capture  Aug.  29,  1706.  The  French 
seized  it  in  1745. 

DENGUE,  DANDY,  BREAK-BONE,  or 
BUCKET  FEVER,  first  appeared  in  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies  in  1827-8. 

DENIS,  ST.  (France).— A  chapel  in  honour 
of  St.  Denis  was  founded  at  this  place,  near 
Paris,  in  250.  Dagobert  was  buried  here  in 
580.  Dagobert  I.  founded  the  abbey  in  636, 
and  it  has  ever  since  been  the  place  of  sepul- 
chre for  the  French  monarchs.  The  first 
church  was  finished  in  775,  and  the  present 
edifice,  commenced  in  1130,  was  completed  in 
1281.  A  battle  between  the  Roman  Catholics 
and  the  Huguenots  was  fought  in  its  vicinity 
Nov.  10,  1567,  when  the  latter  were  victorious, 
De  Montmorency,  the  Roman  Catholic  leader, 
being  mortally  wounded.  The  abbey  was  sup- 
pressed in  1792.  By  a  decree  of  the  Conven- 
tion, Aug.  6, 1793,  the  royal  tombs  were  opened, 
but  they  were  restored  by  Napoleon  I.  in 
1806. 

DENIZLI  (Asia  Minor).— This  town  in 
Asiatic  Turkey  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1715. 

DENMARK.— The  early  history  of  this 
countiy  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Some  native 
writers  give  lists  of  its  sovereigns  from  the 
time  of  Noah,  while  others  are  content  with 
ascribing  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  and 
the  name  of  the  country  to  Dan,  whose  reign, 
they  say,  began  B.C.  1038.  The  first  inhabitants 
were  probably  the  Cimbri,  or  Cimmerians,  who 


DENMARK 


[    322    ] 


DENMARK 


were  supplanted  by  the  Goths  four  or  five  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  iwru. 

B.C. 

1038.  Alleged  accession  of  Dan. 

4*3.  Reign  of  liuric  Slingebaiid,  during  which  the  events 
that  form  the  basis  of  Shakespeare's  "  Hamlet" 
are  said  to  have  occurred. 
70.  Arrival  of  Odin. 
4.0.  Death  of  Skiold,  by  some  authorities  considered   the 

founder  of  the  monarchy. 
A.D. 
794.  Kagnar  Lodbrog  perishes  in  an  attempt  to  invade 

Northumberland. 
838.  Harold  I.,  tin;  t'u-st  Christian  sovereign  of  Denmark, 

retires  to  a  monastery. 
913.  Rollo,  the  Dune,  obtains  N'ormandv. 
944.  Jim-old  II.  assists  (he  Northmen  against  the  French 

king,  whom  he  makes  prisoner. 

991.  Harold  II.,  famous  for  his  prowess  in  war  and  his 
/ealous  adoption  of  Christianity,  is  assassinated  by 
order  of  his  son  Sweyn. 
1013.  England  submits  to  SwByn. 

1038.  Canute    the    Great    conquers    Norway,    which     he 
governs  simultaneously  with  England  and  Den- 
mark. 
1043.  Magnus  I.,  King  of  Norway,  inherits  the  throne  of 

Denmark. 
1047.  Separation   of  Norway   and    Denmark,   Sweyn    II. 

a-c. 'iiding  the  throne,  of  the  latter  country. 
1087-1095.   Kcign   of   Olaf   II.,    sin-named   the    Hungry,   in 
consequence  of  a  terrible  famine  which  visited  his 
kingdom. 
1147.  The   sovereignty  is  divided  between  Canute  V.  and 

Sweyn  III.,  who  waire  a  long  civil  wir. 
11^.    Valdeiuar  I.  fill-  •  to  the  throne. 

1 2 So.  Murder  of  Eric  VI.  by  his  brother  Abel. 

1335.  Christopher   II.  is  expelled  by  his  subjects. 

1336,  Aug.  15.  Count  (lerhard.  of   llolstein  and  Stormarn, 

iveei ,  i-  .  the  duchy  of  South  Jutland  as  an  heredi- 
tarv  ti.-f,  with  royal  rights  over  the  inhabitants  of 

Sic- 

1340.  Valileiiiiir  III.  is  elected  king. 

1397,  July  13.  The  union  of  Calm  ;r  ((,.  r.). 

14|0.  Eric  I  X.  bestows  Sleswigon  Adolf,  Count  of  Ilolstein. 

1448.  Christian  I.  ascends  the  throne,  and  founds  the 
Ollenburg  dynasty.  Sweden  resumes  its  inde- 
pendence under  Charles  Knutson. 

1457.  John  p.engston.  Arehiii-hopof  rjpMiL  defeat*  Cbarlei 

Knut>on,  and  reunites  the  three  kingdoms  un< lei- 
one  monarch. 
1464.  Christian   I.  is  made  Duke  of  Sleswig  and  Count  of 

Ilolstein. 

1477.  Chri.siiau  I.  n •linqiiishes  his  efforts  to  maintain  the 
sovereignty  of  Sweden. 

1481,  May  33.  Death  of  Christian  I.  He  is  succeeded  on 
the  Danish  and  Norwegian  thrones  by  his  son 
John. 

1497,  Nov.  19.  Sweden  submits  to  John. 

1533.  Deposition  ,,f  Christian  II. 

1535.  Gustavus  Vas.-i  becomes  King  of  Sweden,  which  he 
nil  ';  rs  independent  of  Denmark  and  Norway. 

1537-  Frederick  I.  declares  in  favour  of  Lutheranism. 

1533.  On 'the  death  of  Frederick  I.,  the  succession  is  dis- 
puted by  the  deposed  Christian  II.,  Christian  Duke 
of  Holstei,,.  and  Prince  John  of  Ilolstein.  The 
Duke  of  Holstein  succeeds  as  Christian  III. 

1630.  Tranquebar,  in  Ilindostan,  is  ceded  to  Denmark. 

1645,  Aug.  14.  Treaty  of  I!r  .msebro  (7.  v.). 

1653.  Instigated  by  the  Dutch,  Frederick  III.  seizes  and 
sells  33  English  vessels,  at  anchor  in  the  port  of 
Copenhagen.  Cromwell  compels  the  Dutch  to 
make  reparation. 

1658.  Denmark  is  invaded  by  Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden, 
who  threatens  Copenhagen,  and  receives  Scania, 
Blenkingen,  Ilalland,  Bornholm,  Balms,  Janet- 
land,  Droiitbeim,  and  parts  of  Bremen  and  Riigen. 

1660,  Oct.  The  authority  of  the  king  is  made  absolute  and 
hereditary. 

1667.  Acquisition  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst. 

1730,  June  14.  Peace  of  Stockholm,  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden. 

1736.  Rantzau  is  added  to  Denmark. 

1761.  Holstein-Plon  is  added  to  Denmark. 

1773,  Jan.  16.  Caroline  Matilda,  Queen  of  Christian  VII., 
is  arrested  on  a  cruirge  of  incontinence,  and  after- 
wards banished.' — April  38.  Execution  of  Counts 
Struensee  and  Brandt,  for  alleged  implication  in 
the  queen's  offence. 


A.D. 

1773.  Holstein-Gottorp  is  ceded  to  Denmark  by  Russia,  in 
retum  for  Oldenburg  and  Delmenbont 

1784,  March  38.  Christian  VII.  having  become  insane,  his 
son,  Prince  Frederick,  is  appointed  regent. 

1786.  Liberation  of  the  serfs  in  Denmark. 

1795.  Establishment  of  tribunals  of  conciliation,  to  ad- 
just law  disputes  by  mediation  instead  of  litiga- 
tion. 

1801,  April  3.  Bombardment  of  Copenhagen  (7.  r.),  which 
pnls  an  end  to  the  Armed  Neutrality. 

1803.  The  Danish  poor-law  comes  into  operation.  Its  pro- 
visions are,  the  maintenance  of  the  destitute  at  the 
public  cost,  and  the  total  prohibition  of  begging. 
The  Danes  suppress  the  slave  trade. 

1806,  Sep.  9.  Holstein  is  declared  an  integral  part  of  the 

Danish  monarchy,  distinct  from  the  Germanic 
empire. 

1807,  Aug.     16.    Copenhagen   is   invested    by  the  British 

fleet  under  Admiral  Gamhu-r,  and  the  army  under 
Lord  Cathcart.  —  Sep.  3.  Firing  commences. — 
Sep.  5.  The  town  capitulates,  a;id  its  fleet,  con- 
sNting  of  18  ships  of  the  Hue,  15  frigates.  6  brigs, 
and  _35  gun-boats,  falls  into  the  hands  of  the 

1810.  The  conscription  is  introduced. 

1813,  Sep.  5.   War  is  declared  airainst  Sweden.— Dec.   16. 

Ilolstein  is  heid  by  the  allies. 

1814,  Jan.  14.   Peace  of  Kiel  (7.  i\). 

1815.  June  4.  Denmark  cedes    Pomer.inia    and  Riigen  to 

Prussia,  receiving  Laucnburg  and  a  pecuniary 
compensation  as  indemnity. — June  8.  The  king 
joins  the  German  Confederacy. 

1816.  Introduction  of  savings  banks. 

1830.  Introduction  of  system  of  mutual  instruction. 

1834,  June  16.  Commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  is 

signed  at  London. 

1835.  A  violent  storm  breaks  through  the  isthmus  between 

the  North  Sea  and  the  Lym fiord,  thereby  making 
the  north  parr  of  .list land  an  island. 

1831.  Frederick  VI.  institutes  provincial  • 

1846,  JulyS.  Christian  VIII.  issues  a  letter  patent,  declar- 
ing his  undoubted  right   to  the  duchy  of   Sleswig, 
and  his  intention  to  submit  his  claim  to   i! 
for  due  consideration. 

1848,  Jan.  38.  Frederick  VII.  publishes  a  new  constitution, 

by  which  Sleswig.  llolsi.in,  and  Denmark  are  to 
be  governed  by  "common  states,"  el, cted  alter- 
nately in  the  duchies  and  Denmark. — March  34. 
Revolt  of  Sleswig  and  Ilolstein  commences  at  Kiel. 
—April  33  (Easter  Sunday).  The  Prussians  defeat 
the  Danes,  and  take  possession  of  Sleswig. — May 
I.  Jutland  is  occupied  by  the  Prussian  forces. — 
Aug.  3').  Truce  of  Mahno  (7.  v.). 

1849,  July  10.  The  armistice  is  mi  iwea  for  six  months. 

1850,  July  3.  Peace  with  Prussia  is  signed  at  Berlin. — July 

17.  The  Danish  troops  enter  Elcnsbnrg.— July  25. 
The  Danes  conquer  the  troops  of  Sleswig  llol- 
stein,  at  Idstedt.— Aug.  17.  Cession  of  the  Danish 
possessions  on  the  coast  of  Africa  to  Great 
Britain.— Oct.  4.  The  llolsteiners,  under  Gen. 
Willisen,  attack  Friederichstadt,  but  are  driven 
back. 

1851,  Jan.  n.  Submission  of  the  duchies  to  Denmark,  and 

reference  of  the  matters  in  dispute  to  the  arbitra- 
tion of  the  Germanic  Confederation. 

1853,  Feb.  1 8.  The  government  of  Holstein  is  assigned  to 
the  Danish  minister  for  Holstein-Lauenbiirg  by 
the  German  commissioners.  The  Prussian  and 
Austrian  troops  leave  the  duchy. — May  8.  Inter- 
national treaty,  relative  to  the  succession  of  the 
crown  of  Denmark,  is  signed  at  London. — Dec. 
30.  The  Prince  of  Augnstenburg,  in 
tion  of  a  sum  of  3,500,000  dollars,  signs  an  act 
renouncing  for  himself  and  his  family  all  right  to 
the  succession  of  any  part  of  the  Danish  domi- 
nions. 

1855,  Oct.  i.  The  Danish  government  sends  despatches  to 
all  the  states  interested  in  the  question  of  the 
Sound  dues,  inviting  them  to  confer  with  Denmark 
relative  to  a  definite  arrangement— Oct.  3.  The 
king  publishes  a  new  constitution. 

1857,  March  14.  Abolition  of  the  Sound  dues  (7.  r.). 

1858,  Nov.  6.  Great  changes  in  the  constitution  of  Hol- 

stein. 

1859,  July  14.  Denmark  is  connected  with  Great  Britain 

by  submarine  telegraph. 

1860,  May  3.  The  Prussian  diet  resolves  to  assist  the  duchies 

of  Sleswig-Holstein  against  Denmark. 


DENMARK 


323     ] 


DENMARK 


A.D. 

1861,  Jan.  Preparations  are  made  cresis  tthe  anticipated 
attack  of  Germany  and  Prussia.— March.  Hoi  stein 
rejects  the  propositions  of  the  Danish  government. 
—April  8.  The  infantry  is  ordered  to  be  doubled. 
— April  27.  The  government  delivers  its  final 
answer  respecting  Holstein,  and  refuses  to  make 
further  concessions.  —July  37.  About  500  Sleswigers, 
in  favour  of  the  rights  of  Denmark  over  Sleswig, 
visit  Copenhagen,  where  they  meet  with  an  enthu- 
siastic public  reception. 

1863,  May  8.  The  Danish  government  addresses  a  circular 
on  the  Holstein  question  to  the  ambassadors  at 
Paris,  London,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Stockholm. 

1863,  Feb.  26. — The  Princess  Alexandra  leaves  Denmark 

for  England.— March  10.  Marriage  of  the  Princess 
Alexandra  and  the  Prince  of  Wales.  (See  ENG- 
LAND.)— March 30.  The  kingpublishes an  ordinance 
decreeing  that  no  law  shall  be  valid  in  Holstein 
until  it  has  received  the  assent  of  the  states  of  that 
duchy.  Prince  William,  second  son  of  Prince 
Christian,  is  elected  King  of  Greece  (q.  •».). — June  6. 
The  king  receives  a  Greek  deputation  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  signifies  his  consent  to  the  election  of 
Prince  William. — July  30.  The  Sleswig  diet  is  dis- 
solved.—Sep.  3.  Denmark  protests  against  the 
threatened  German  federal  execution  in  Holstein. 
— Nov.  i?.  The  Kigsraad  adopts  a  fundamental  law 
for  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  and  duchy  of  Sles- 
wig.—Xov.  15.  Death  of  King  Frederick  VII.,  who 
is  succeeded  by  Christian  IX.,  father  of  the  Prin- 
cess of  Wales  and  the  King  of  Greece.— Nov.  16. 
Prince  Frederick  of  Augustenburg  publishes  a 
claim  to  the  succession  in  Sleswig-Holstein.— Nov. 
18.  The  king  signs  a  new  constitution  for  Den- 
mark and  Sleswig.— Nov.  19.  A  petition  to  the 
German  diet  in  favour  of  the  Augustenburg  family 
is  signed  at  Kiel  by  several  members  of  the  Hol- 
stein diet— Nov.  91.  The  states  of  Holstein  refuse 
to  swear  allegiance  to  the  new  king. — Dec.  4.  The 
king  declares  his  intention  to  resist  all  revolu- 
tionary movements  in  Holstein.— Dec.  14.  The 
Danish  government  resolves  not  to  oppose  armed 
resistance  to  the  entry  of  the  German  federal  troops 
into  Holstein.— Dec.  23.  The  Holstein  diet  meets  at 
Hamburg,  and  resolves  to  pecognize  Duke  Frede- 
rick of  Augustenburg,  and  to  appeal  in  his  favour 
to  the  federal  diet. — Dec.  33.  The  Saxon  and 
Hanoverian  troops  enter  Holstein. — Dec.  37.  The 
Prince  of  Augustenburg  is  solemnly  proclaimed 
Duke  of  Sleswig-IIolstein  at  Elmshorn,  by  the 
title  of  Frederick  VIII.— Dec.  30.  He  arrives  at 
Kiel,  and  issues  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of 
Holstein. 

1864,  Jan.  6.  The  federal  commission  suppresses  the  admi- 

nistration of  Holstein,  and  institutes  a  ducal 
government  at  Kiel. — Jan.  16.  Austria  and  Prussia 
require  Denmark  to  repeal  the  constitution  of 
Nov.  1 8,  1863,  within  48  hours.  —  Jan.  31.  This 
demand  being  rejected,  an  allied  Austrian  and 
Prussian  army,  under  Marshal  Wrangel,  enters 
Holstein. — Jan.  31.  Gen.  de  Meza,  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Danish  army,  refuses  to  evacuate  Sles- 
wig on  the  demand  of  Marshal  Wrangel.— Feb.  I. 
The  Prussians  enter  Eckenforde. — Feb.  2.  They 
bombard  Missunde. — Feb.  3.  The  Austrians,  under 
Maj.-Gen.  Gondrecourt,  seize  Konigsberg.— Feb. 
6.  Battle  of  Oversee.  The  Prussians  cross  the 
Schlei  atArnis  and  Cappel.  The  Austrians  occupy 
the  town  of  Sleswig,  and  give  chase  to  the  Danes, 
the  bulk  of  whose  army  takes  up  a  position  at 
Duppel.— Feb.  7.  Flensborg  is  occupied  by  the 
allies.  Gen.  de  Luttichau  succeeds  Gen.  de  Meza 
as  commander  of  the  Danish  forces. — Feb.  10.  The 
Austrians  and  Prussians  occupy  northern  Sleswig. 
—Feb.  18.  The  Danes  quit  Sleswig.— Feb.  31.  Den- 
mark declares  Sleswig-Holstein  in  a  state  of 
blockade. — Feb.  33.  Engagements  take  place  near 
Dtippel  at  Wielhoi,  Sandberg,  and  Rackebull.— 
March  I.  Gen.  de  Gerlach  assumes  the  command 
of  the  Danish  forces.— March  8.  The  Danes  are  de. 
feated  at  Sonderbygaard  and  Veile.— March  15. 
The  Prussians  commence  the  bombardment  of 
Dtippel  (7.  r.).— March  20.  Fredericia  (q.  t>.)  is  bom- 
barded by  the  allies.— April  I.  The  Prussians 
bombard  Sonderborg.— April  18.  Fall  of  Dtippel 
(9.t>.).-April3i.  The  King  of  Prussia  visits  the 
theatre  of  war. — April  35.  A  conference  for  the 
restoration  of  peace  meets  at  London. 


. 

1864,  April  39.  The  Danes  retreat  from  Fredericia,  and  estab- 

lish themselves  in  Fiihnen,  thus  leaving  the  whole 
of  Jutland  in  the  hands  of  the  allies.— May  8.  A 
meeting  of  50,000  Sleswig-Holsteiners  at  Kends- 
burg  declares  in  favour  of  separation  from  Den- 
mark, and  the  establishment  of  an  independent 
duchy  under  Frederick  VIII.— May  9.  Naval  vic- 
tory of  the  Danes  off  Heligoland  (q.  v.). — May  13. 
Commencement  of  a  suspension  of  hostilities  re- 
solved upon  by  the  congress  of  London. — June  8. 
The  king  opens  the  railway  from  Copenhagen  to 
Elsinore.— June  u.  The  ministry  of  Count  Moltke 
assumes  office.— June  35.  The  belligerents  reject 
the  bases  of  peace  proposed  by  the  congress  of 
London.  —  June  36.  Hostilities  are  resumed.  — 
June  39.  The  Prussians  seize  the  island  of  Alsen. 
— .July  5.  Gen.  de  Steinmann  is  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Danish  army. — July  lo. 
The  Prussians  occupy  Skagen. — July  13.  The  Aus- 
trians seize  the  islands  of  Mors  and  Sylt. — July  18. 
The  Austrians  occupy  the  island  of  Foehr. — July 
19.  Capt  Hammer  surrenders  a  Danish  flotilla  of 
19  boats  and  353  men.— July  30.  A  truce  is  com- 
menced.—July  31.  The  federal  troops  quit  Rends- 
burg,  which  is  occupied  by  the  Prussians.— July 
36.  A  conference  for  the  restoration  of  peace 
assembles  at  Vienna. — Aug.  I.  Preliminaries  of 
peace  are  signed  at  Vienna,  and  a  truce  is  concluded 
till  Sep.  15.— Sep.  6.  The  Prince  and  Princess  of 
Wales,  with  their  infant  son,  visit  Denmark.— 
Sep.  39.  The  Princess  Dagmar  is  betrothed  to  the 
Czarewitch  Nicholas.— Oct.  30.  Peace  is  concluded 
at  Vienna,  Denmark  agreeing  to  resign  the  duchies, 
to  pay  a  large  sum' of  money,  and  to  acquiesce  in 
a  ratification  of  the  frontier  of  Jutland. — Nov. 
25.  The  Prussians  complete  the  evacuation  of 
Jutland. 

1865,  March  7.  Death  of  Gen.  de  Gerlach.— June  ai.   A 

postal  convention  is  concluded  with  Prussia.— 
Nov.  6.  A  new  ministry  is  formed  under  Count 
Faysenborg. 


SOVEREIGNS 
Died. 
B.C. 

40.  Skiold. 

23.  Fridleif  I. 
A.D. 

35.  Frode  I. 

47.  Fridleif  II. 

59.  Havar. 

87.  Frode  II. 
140.  Wermund  the  Sage. 
190.  Olaf  I.  the  Mild. 
270.  Dan  Mykillate. 
310.  Frode  III. 
334.  Halfdan  I. 
348.  Fridleif  III. 
407.  Frode  IV. 
436.  Ingild,  or  Ingel. 
447.  Halfdan  II. 
460.  Frode  V. 
494.  Helg-e  and  Roe. 
510.  Frode  VI. 
532.  Rolf  Krake. 
548.  Frode  VII. 
580.  Halfdan  III. 
588.  Ruric  Slvngebande. 
647.  Ivar  Vidiadme. 
735.  Harold  Hildetand. 
750.  Sigurd  Ring. 
794.  Ragnar  Lodbrog. 
803.  Sigurd  Snogoje. 
828.  Harold  I. 
850.  Hardi-canute. 
854.  Eric  I. 
883.  Eric  II. 


OF  DENMARK. 
Died. 
A.D. 

641.  Gorm  the  Old. 
991.  Harold  II.  Blaatand. 

1014.  Sweyn. 
Began  to 

reign. 

A.D. 

1015.  Canute  the  Great. 
1035.  Hardi-canute. 
1042.  Magnus  I. 

1047.  Sweyn  II. 

1076.  Harold  III. 

1080.  Canute  IV. 

1087.  Olaf  II. 

1095.  Eric  III, 

1105.  Nicholas. 

1134.  Eric  IV. 

1137.  EricV. 

1147.  Canute  V.  and  Sweyn 

1157.  Valdemar    I.     the 

Great. 

1182.  Canute  VI. 
1203.  Valdemar  II. 
1341.  Eric  VI. 
1350.  Abel. 
1252-  Christopher  I. 
1259.  Eric  VI I. 
1286.  Eric  VIII. 
1320.  Christopher  II. 
1334.  (Interregnum.} 
1340.  Valdemar  III. 
1376.  Olaf  III. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  DENMARK,   NORWAY,   AND 

SWEDEN. 
Began  to  Began  to 

reign.  reign. 

A.D. 

.  Margaret. 


1413.  Eric  IX.  of  Pomerania. 
1439.  Christopher  III. 


1448.  Christian  I. 
1481.  John. 
1513.  Christian  II. 
Y  2 


DBNNEWITZ 


t    324    1 


DERBY 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  DENMARK  AND   NORWAY. 

A.D.  A.I>. 

1523.  Frederick  I.  1699.  Frederick  IV. 

1533.  Christian  III.  1730.  Christian  VI. 

1559.  Frederick  II.  1746.  Frederick  V. 

1588.  Christian  IV.  1766.  Christian  VII. 

1648.  Frederick  III.  1808.  Frederick  VI. 

1670.  Christian  V. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF   DENMARK. 

A.n.  A.D. 

1839.  Christian  VIII.  1863.  Christian  IX. 

1848.  Frederick  VII. 

DENNEWITZ  (Battle).— The  allied  Prus- 
sian, Swedish,  and  Russian  army  defeated  the 
French,  under  Marshal  Ney,  at  the  village  of 
Dennewitz,  in  Prussia,  Hep.  6,  1813.  The 
Prussians,  who  for  some  time  maintained  their 
j(round  against  overwhelming  numbers,  were, 
by  the  arrival  of  Bernadotte  with  the  Swedes 
and  Russians,  strongly  reinforced,  when  the 
French  were  completely  routed.  They  lost 
13,000  men,  43  pieces  of  cannon,  three  stan- 
dards, and  6,000  stand  of  arms,  whilst  the  loss 
of  the  allied  army  was  about  6,000  men. 

I  >K.\!  FIXATIONS.— (See  THREE  DENOMINA- 
TION-. 

DEODAND.— By  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  62  (Aug.  18, 
1846),  the  forfeiture  of  any  chattel  for  having 
been  the  cause  of  the  death  of  a  man,  was 
abolished  from  and  after  Sep.  i,  1846.  Deo- 
dands,  at  first  given  to  the  Church,  afterwards 
became  the  property  of  the  Crown. 

DEOGAUM  (Treaty).— By  a  treaty  concluded 
at  this  place,  in  Hindostan,  Dec.  17,  1803,  the 
Rajah  of  Berar  ceded  Cuttack  (q.  v.)  to  the 
British. 

DE  OXORO.— 'See  FUENTES  DE  ONORO.) 

DEORI1AM  Hattlc).— Ceawlin,  King  of  the 
West  Saxons,  defeated  the  Britons  at  Deor- 
ham,  supposed  to  lie  IMrliam,  in  Gloucester- 
shire, in  577.  Three  British  kings  fell  in  the 
battle,  and  the  vic-iors  t<»>k  possession  of  Bath, 
Cirencester,  and  Gloucester. 

DEPHLOGISTICATED  MURIATIC  ACID.— 
(See  CHLORINE.) 

DEPTFORD  (Kent).— Henry  VIII.  estab- 
lished a  storehouse  here  about  1513,  and 
granted  a  charter  to  the  ship-men  and  mari- 
ners of  England  to  found  a  guild  in  the  parish 
church,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Guild  of  the 
Most  Glorious  and  Undivided  Trinity,"  May  20, 
1514.  Here,  too,  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  the 
Golden  Hind,  in  which  Drake  had  circumnavi- 
gated the  globe,  April  4,  1581.  The  town 
suffered  from  a  fire  in  1652,  and  from  a  flood  in 

1671.  Trinity  House  hospital  was  founded  in 
1685.     In  1698  Deptford  was  the  residence  of 
the  Czar  Peter  the  Great,  during  his  initiation 
into  the  mysteries  of  shipbuilding.  Waterworks 
were  erected  here  in  1699;  and  the  victualling 
office,  built  in  1745,  was  burned  in  1749.     The 
ancient  hall  of  the  Trinity  House  was  taken 
down  in  1 787,  and  the  hospital  was  rebuilt  in  1 788. 

D  K  T  U  T I E  S  (Chamber  of ) .  —  The  French 
legislative  assembly  received  this  title  by  a 
charter  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814,  and  retained 
it  till  the  publication  of  Louis  Napoleon's  con- 
stitution, Jan.  14,  1852,  which  appointed  the 
Corps  Legislatif  in  its  stead. 

DERBEND  (Asia),  the  capital  of  Daghistan, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Albana.  The 
Russians  took  it  in  1722,  restoring  it  to  the 
Persians  in  1735.-  It  again  fell  into  the  power 


of  Russia  in  1796,  and  was  incorporated  with 
that  empire  early  in  the  present  century. 

DERBY  (Derbyshire)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  ancient  Britons.  At  the 
Cono^iest  in  1066,  it  was  granted  to  William 
Peverell,  natural  son  of  William  I.,  and  in  1160 
a  Benedictine  nunnery,  of  which  some  vestiges 
still  remain,  was  founded.  The  grammar- 
school,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
most  ancient  endowments  in  England,  was 
granted  to  the  corporation  in  1554.  In  1592 
the  plague  visited  the  town  and  carried  off 
many  of  its  inhabitants,  and  in  1745  it  was 
the  extreme  point  reached  by  the  Pretender 
in  his  invasion  of  England.  Dr.  Darwin 
founded  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Derby  in 
1783.  The  silk  manufacture  was  introduced  by 
John  Lombe  in  1717,  that  of  porcelain  in  1750, 
and  here  in  1793  Messrs.  Strutt  erected  the 
first  fire-proof  mill  in  England.  The  infirmary 
was  erected  in  1800,  and  the  town  hall  in 
1828.  In  1833-4,  2,400  factory  hands  struck 
work,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  town 
suffered  in  consequence.  The  arboretum, 
which  was  presented  to  the  town  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Strutt,  was  opened  Sep.  16,  1840;  and 
in  Oct.,  1841,  the  town  hall  was  destroyed 
by  fire.  A  new  cattle  market  was  opened  in 
1 86 1.  The  new  market  hall  was  opened  Tues- 
day, May  29,  1866. 

DERBY  ADMINISTRATIONS.— The  first 
vv-as  formed  on  the  resignation  of  the  Russell 
Administration,  officially  announced  Feb.  23, 
1852.  The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :  — 

Treasury Earl  of  Derby. 

Lord  Chancellor  L-.rd  St.  Leonard*, 

President  of  the  Council   Earl  of  Lonsdide. 

Privv  Seal Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer   Mr.  Disraeli. 


II •  Srrivtary 

Foreign  Secretary    

Colonial  Secretary  


..  Mr.  Walpole. 

Earl  of  Malniesbury. 

Sir  John  Pakinprton,  Bart. 


Admiralty Duke  of  Northumberland. 

I 'Control Mr.  llerries. 

Public  Works  Lord  John  Manners. 

Hoard  of  Trade     Mr.  Henley. 

Postmaster-General    Earl  of  Hardwicke. 

They  were  defeated  on  their  budget  Dec.  16, 
1852,  and  on  the  following  day  resigned  the 
seals  of  office.  (See  ABERDEEN  ADMINISTRA- 
TION.)  The  second  was  formed  on  the 

resignation  of  the  first  Palmerston  Adminis- 
tration, Feb.  20,  1858.  The  cabinet  was  thu:; 
constituted  : — 

Treasury E;irl  of  Derby. 

Lord  Chancellor  Lord  Chelmsford. 

President  of  the  Council   Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

Privy  Seal Earl  of  Hardwicke. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Mr.  Disraeli. 

Home  Secretary   Mr.  Walpole. 

Foreign  Secretary   Earl  of  Malmesburv. 

Colonial  Secretary  Lord  Stanley. 

Admiralty Sir  John  1'akin.srton.  nart. 

Board  of  Control Earl  of  Ellenborough. 

at  War Colonel  Peel. 

Publie.  Works    Lord  John  Manners. 

Board  of  Trade Mr.  Henley. 

Lord  Stanley  became  president  of  the  Board  of 
Control  (and,  on  the  passing  of  the  India  bill, 
minister  for  Inclia^  on  the  resignation  of  the 
Earl  of  Ellenborough  in  June,  1858  ;  and  Sir  E. 
Bulwer-Lytton,Bart.,  took  Lord  Stanley's  place 
as  Colonial  Secretary.  Mr.  Walpole  resigned 
the  Home  Secretaryship,  and  Mr.  Henley  the 
presidency  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  Feb.  28, 


DERBY 


[    325    1 


DEVIZES 


1859.  The  former  office  was  filled  by  Mr. 
Sotheron  Estcourt,  and  the  latter  by  the  Earl  of 
Donoughmore.  An  amendment  to  the  address 
was  carried  against  the  ministry  June  10,  1859, 
and  they  resigned  on  the  following  day.  (See 
PALMERSTON  (SECOND)  and  THIKD  DERBY  AD- 
MINISTRATIONS.) 

DERBY  RACE.— This  great  national  race, 
held  at  Epsom,  and  founded  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  was  first  run  May  4,  1780,  when  it  was 
won  by  Sir  0.  Bunbury's  chesnut  horse  Diomed. 
The  race  was  originally  run  on  Thursday,  but 
since  1838  it  has  taken  place  on  the  Wednesday 
after  Trinity  Sunday. 

DERBY  TRIALS.— At  the  assizes  held  at 
Derby,  July  26,  1817,  the  grand  jury  found 
an  indictment  of  high  treason  against  Bran- 
dreth,  Turner,  Ludlam,  and  others.  As  par- 
ticipators in  the  Luddite  insurrections,  they 
were  charged  with  levying  and  making  war 
against  the  king.  Special  commissions  were 
opened  Sep.  25,  and  the  trial  commenced  Oct. 
15,  and  terminated  Saturday,  Oct.  25,  when 
23  of  the  prisoners  received  sentence  of  death. 
Brandreth,  Turner,  and  the  elder  Ludlam  were 
executed  at  Derby,  Nov.  7,  and  the  others  were 
reprieved. 

DERRICKS.— A.  V.  Newton,  of  Chancery 
Lane,  patented  certain  improvements  in  "  der- 
ricks for  raising  heavy  bodies,"  Aug.  9,  1849. 
The  great  floating  derrick  of  the  Thames  Iron 
Ship-building  Company,  built  on  a  plan  in- 
vented by  Bishop,  an  American,  .was  erected 
at  Blackwall  in  1859. 

DERRY  (Bishopric).— The  date  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  this  Irish  bishopric  is  unknown. 
Columbkille  founded  a  monastery  at  Derry 
about  546.  The  first  bishops  of  the  district 
were  called  bishops  of  Tyrone,  and  had  their 
see  at  Ardsrath  or  Ardstraw,  in  Donegal 
county  ;  but  in  597  they  removed  to  Rathlone 
or  Maghera,  in  Londonderry.  In  1158  a  coun- 
cil of  bishops  decreed  that  Derry  should  be 
erected  into  a  see,  and  a  bishop  was  apparently 
appointed,  though  there  is  no  regular  succes- 
sion of  bishops  of  Derry  till  1279.  The  Church 
Temporalities  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  s.  32 
(Aug.  14,  1833),  directed  that  on  the  death  of 
the  Bishop  of  Raphoe,  then  in  office,  that 
diocese  should  be  united  to  Derry.  Under 
this  provision  the  union  of  the  two  sees  took 
place  in  1834. 

DERVISH.— These  Mohammedan  monks, 
professing  i-ules  for  the  most  part  similar  to 
those  of  Christian  monachism,  originated  at  an 
early  period  in  the  history  of  Islam.  They 
are  divided  into  several  orders,  usually  named 
after  their  founders,  and  of  which  the  chief 
are  the  Bestamis,  founded  in  874  ;  the  Kadris 
in  1165  ;  the  Rufaji  in  1182 ;  the  Mevelevis  in 
1273  ;  the  Nakshibendis  in  1319  ;  the  Bektashis 
in  1357  ;  the  Rushenisin  1533  ;  the  Shemsiss  in 
1601 ;  and  the  Jemalis  in  1750. 

DESIGN.— The  Government  School  of  Design, 
established  at  Somerset  House,  was  opened 
June  i,  1837. 

DESOLATION  ISLAND  (Indian  Ocean)  was 
discovered  by  the  French  navigator  Kerguelen 
in  1772,  and  named  after  him.  Capt.  Cook 
landed  Dec.  24,  1776,  and  having  discovered 
that  it  was  not  a  continent,  as  Kerguelen 


supposed,  changed  the  name  from  Kerguelen 
Land  to  the  Island  of  Desolation. 

DESPARD'S  PLOT.— In  the  year  1800  Col. 
Edward  Marcus  Despard  began  to  plot  against 
the  government,  and  having  induced  about  36 
persons  to  join  him,  formed  a  conspiracy  to 
assassinate  George  III.  and  to  subvert  the  go- 
vernment. The  blow  was  fixed  for  Tuesday, 
Nov.  1 6,  1802,  the  day  that  had  been  appointed 
for  the  opening  of  Parliament.  Despard  and 
about  30  of  his  associates  were  arrested  at  their 
place  of  assembly,  the  Oakley  Arms  public- 
house,  in  Lambeth,  on  the  night  of  Nov.  16.  After 
a  long  examination,  Col.  Despard  and  14  others 
were  committed  to  take  their  trial  for  high 
treason  before  a  special  commission.  The  ring- 
leader and  six  of  his  associates  were  executed 
at  Horsemonger  Lane  Gaol,  in  presence  of  an 
immense  crowd,  Feb.  21,  1803. 

DESSAU  (Battle).  —  Wallenstein  defeated 
Mansfeld  and  John  Ernest  of  Weimar,  in  an 
engagement  at  the  bridge  of  Dessau,  in  Anhalt- 
Dessau,  in  Germany,  April  25,  1626.  It  was 
the  scene  of  several  encounters  between  the 
French  and  the  allied  squadrons  in  1813. 

DESVENTURADAS,  or  UNHAPPY  ISLANDS 
(Pacific),  were  discovered  by  Magellan  during 
his  voyage  across  the  Pacific  in  the  spring  of 
1521.  The  name  was  given  to  them  by  this  en- 
terprising navigator  on  account  of  their  lonely 
and  deserted  appearance.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
they  have  been  visited  by  any  European  since 
their  discovery. 

DETROIT.— (See  FORT  DETROIT.) 

DETROIT  (United  States)  was  founded  by 
the  French  in  1670.  The  English  captured  it  in 
1759,  and  it  suffered  greatly  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  It  was  incorporated  in  1802.  The  act 
of  incorporation  having  been  withdrawn  in  1810, 
it  was  again  incorporated  in  1815.  Lansing  took 
its  place  as  the  capital  ofMichigan  in  1847. 

DETTINGEN  (Battle)  was  fought  June  t6 
(O.S.),  or  27  (N.S.),  1743,  near  the  village  of 
Dettingen,  in  Bavaria,  and  is  memorable  as 
being  the  last  battle  in  which  a  King  of  Eng- 
land appeared  in  person  on  the  field.  The 
Hessians  and  Hanoverians,  under  George  II.  of 
England,  defeated  the  French  under  Marshal 
Noailles.  The  former  lost  1,500,  and  the  latter 
3,000  men. 

DEUTERONOMY.— This  book,  the  last  of 
the  Pentateuch  (q.  v.},  is  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Moses  before  B.C.  1451. 

DEVA.— (See  CHESTER.) 

DEVI-COTTA  FORT  (Hindostan)  was  taken 
from  the  Rajah  of  TanjorebyClive  in  1749.  The 
French  took  it  in  1758,  but  it  was  recaptured 
by  the  English  in  1759. 

DEVIZES  (Wiltshire)  is  a  very  ancient  town, 
although  no  authentic  information  remains 
respecting  its  early  history.  The  castle,  atone 
time  one  of  the  strongest  in  the  kingdom,  was 
erected  by  Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  about 
1132.  In  1233  it  was  the  prison  of  Hubert  de 
Burgh  ;  and  in  1299  was,  together  with  the  town 
and  park,  settled  by  way  of  dower  on  Margaret, 
queen  of  Edward  I.  In  July,  1643,  the  army  of 
Charles  I.  was  besieged  here  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces.  The  latter  sustained  a  total 
defeat  near  the  town,  July  13.  The  county 
bridewell  was  erected  in  1810. 


DEVONPORT 


[    326    ] 


DIAMOND 


DEVONPORT  (Devonshire)  received  its  pre- 
sent title  in  1824,  having  previously  been  styled 
Plymouth  Dock.  A  mechanics'  institute  was 
established  in  1825  ;  and  the  column  to  com- 
memorate the  change  in  the  name  of  the  town 
was  erected  in  1827.  (See  PLYMOUTH.) 

DEVONSHIRE  (Bishopric).  —  (See  EXETER, 
Bishopric.) 

DEVONSHIRE  ADMINISTRATION  tookT 
office  in  Nov.,  1756.  The  cabinet  was  thus  con* 
stituted : — 

Treasury The  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

President  of  the  Council    {^fSSSSi 

Privy  Seal Earl  Gower. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ...  Hon.  Henry  Bttson  Legge. 

(  Mr.  Pitt,  afterward*  Eurl  of 
Secretaries  of  State <      Chatham. 

(  Karl  of  Holdernesse. 

Admiralty Earl  Temple. 

Board  of  Trade    Earl  of  Halifax. 

Secretary  at  War Viscount  Harrington. 

Treasurer  of  the  Xavy   IU,  Hon.  George  Grenville. 

The  great  seal  was  placed  in  commission.  The 
king  demanded  the  seals  of  office  from  Lord 
Temple  April  5,  1757.  Pitt  was  dismissed  a 
few  days  later,  and  the  administration  was  dis- 
solved. An  interregnum  of  nearly  three  months' 
duration  followed.  (See  NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT 
ADMINISTRATION.) 

DEVONSHIRE  CLUB  (London),  formed  in 
1859  as  the  "Westbourne  Club,"  was  reorga- 
nized in  1864  under  the  name  of  the  Devonshire 
Club. 

DEWANQIRI  (Hindostan).— The  Bhotanese 
were  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  this  city  Jan. 
30,  1865,  but  they  returned  and  compelled  the 
British  to  evacuate  it,  Feb.  5.  Gen.  Tombs 
recaptured  it  April  2,  and  it  was  destroyed 
and  abandoned  by  the  troops  under  his  com- 
mand April  6. 

DHARWAR  (Hindostan),  taken  from  the 
Mahrattas  by  Hyder  Ali  in  1778,  was  recap- 
tured in  1791.  In  1837,  religious  disputes  be- 
tween the  Brahmins  and  Liiigayets  occurred, 
and  the  British  Government  was  compelled  to 
interfere. 

DIABLINTES.— This  Gallic  tribe  assisted  the 
Veneti  (q.  v.}  against  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  56.  The 
name  occurs  as  late  as  the  7th  century,  and  the 
situation  of  the  nation  is  supposed  to  have  been 
near  the  modern  Mayenne. 

DIADEM.  —  Selden  (Titles  of  Honour) 
states  that  although  the  crown  (q.  v. )  and  the 
diadem  have  been  from  ancient  times  con- 
founded, yet  the  latter  was  a  very  different 
thing  from  what  a  crown  now  is  or  was.  The 
diadem  was  a  fillet  of  silk,  or  linen ;  and  no 
other  crown  was  used,  excepting  in  some 
Asiatic  kingdoms,  before  the  Christian  sera. 
Diocletian  assumed  the  diadem  in  303. 

DIAL.— (See  SUN-DIAL.) 

DIAMOND,— This  gem  is  mentioned  as  the 
sixth  jewel  of  Aaron's  breastplate,  B.C.  1491 
(Exod.  xxviii.  18).  Some  authorities  consider 
that  the  original  would  be  more  correctly 
rendered  by  some  other  word.  Pliny,  in  the 
''Natural  History,"  written  A.D.  77,  speaks  of 
it  as  the  most  costly  of  human  possessions, 
and  states  that  the  ancient  writers  mention 
Ethiopia  as  its  locality,  but  that  it  had  been 
brought  from  India  shortly  before  his  own 


time.  India,  and  especially  the  districts 
around  Golcoiida,  furnished  nearly  all  the 
diamonds  in  Europe,  until  the  discovery  of 
the  Brazilian  mines  in  1728.  In  1730,  the  Rio 
Janeiro  fleet  brought  1,146  ounces  of  diamonds 
into  Europe.  These  mines  were  let,  in  1740, 
to  a'  company  of  Rio  Janeiro  merchants.  The 
diamond  mines  of  the  Ural  mountains  were 
discovered  June  22,  1829.  In  1373  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  had  the  clasp  of  his  cloak  adorned 
with  diamonds,  and  they  were  employed, 
roughly  cut,  in  the  decoration  of  church  or- 
naments at  a  still  earlier  date.  The  art  of 
cutting  diamonds  is,  however,  usually  ascribed 
to  Louis  van  Berghem,  of  Bruges,  who  dis- 
covered a  process  for  cutting  the  gem  into 
regular  facets,  in  1456.  The  diamond  was 
first  used  for  writing  on  glass  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. In  1562,  ornaments  cut  with  a  diamond 
on  Venetian  glasses  were  common.  In  1564 
Clement  Birague,  of  Milan,  succeeded  in  en- 
graving 011  them.  The  inflammability  of  the 
diamond  was  first  asserted  by  Boetius  de  Boot 
in  1607,  and  demonstrated  at  Florence  in  1694  ; 
while  the  products  resulting  from  its  combustion 
were  ascertained  by  Lavoisier  in  1772.  Among 
celebrated  diamonds  may  be  mentioned  the 
Kohinoor,  which  was  found  in  one  of  the 
Golcoiida  mines  before  the  Christian  sera.  In 
1526  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Emperor 
Baber,  by  whose  descendant,  Mohammed 
Shah,  it  was  surrendered  to  Nadir  Shah,  in  1  739. 
Runjeet  Singh,  the  lion  of  the  Punjaub, 
obtained  it  as  a  ransom  from  Shah  Shooja  in 


1813,  and  in  1849  it  wa;s  delivered  to  the  Eng- 
lish by  Dhuleep  Singh.  Queen  Victoria 
received  it  from  the-  chairman  of  the  East 


India  Company  June  3,  1850,  and  it  formed 
one  of  the  attractions  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851.  In  1852  it  was  recut,  and  now  weighs 

102  carats,  being  worth  ,£276,768. The  Pitt 

or  Regent  diamond  was  bought  by  T.  Pitt, 
Esq.  (grandfather  of  Wm.  Pitt),  during  his 
governorship  of  Fort  St.  George,  for  ,£12,500, 
in  Feb.,  1702.  In  1717  it  was  purchased  by  the 
Regent  of  Orleans  for  ;£i 35,000.  It  was  exhi- 
bited in  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855.  It 
weighs  137  carats,  and  is  the  most  perfect 

diamond  in  the  world. The  Orloff,  or  great 

diamond  of  the  Russian  sceptre,  originally 
formed  the  eye  of  an  Indian  idol.  In  1775 
it  was  sold  to  Catherine  II.  for  ,£90,000,  an 
annuity  of  £4,000,  and  a  patent  of  nobility. 

It  is  said  to  weigh  193  carats. The  Pigott 

diamond  was-  brought  to  England  by  Earl 
Pigott,  and  sold  by  lottery  in  1801.  It  weighs 

49  carats,  and  is  worth  £40,000. The  great 

diamond  of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  was  dis- 
covered in  1808  by  a  negro  slave.  It  is  uncut, 
and  weighs  1,680  carats :  its  value  has  been 

estimated  at  .£5,644,800. The  Star  of    the 

South,  discovered  in  Brazil  by  a  negro  in  1853, 
which  originally  weighed  254^  carats,  has  been 
reduced  in  cutting  to  125  carats.  It  was  exhi- 
bited in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862. 
Free  importation  and  exportation  of  diamonds 
were  permitted  by  6  Geo.  II.  c.  7  (1733).  They 
were  allowed  to  be  landed  without  entry, 
report,  or  warrant,  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  52, 
s.  2  (Aug.  28,  1833). 
DIAMOND  NECKLACE.— Boehmer  and  Bas- 


DIAMPEB 


[    327    3 


DIET 


sanges,  the  court  jewellers  of  France,  were 
commissioned  by  Louis  XV.,  in  1774,  to  col- 
lect the  most  beautiful  diamonds,  for  a  neck- 
lace, which  he  intended  to  present  to  Madame 
du  Barry.  Louis  XV.  died  before  the  necklace 
was  completed  ;  but  the  jewellers  persevered 
with  their  work,  hoping  that  Louis  XVI. 
would  purchase  it  for  Marie  Antoinette.  The 
necklace  was  valued  at  1,800,000  francs,  or 
£72,000.  An  intriguing  woman,  Madame 
Lamotte,  who  took  the  title  of  countess, 
pretending  to  have  received  authority  from 
Marie  Antoinette  to  purchase  the  necklace, 
induced  the  jewellers  to  part  with  it  in  re- 
turn for  orders,  to  which  the  forged  signature 
of  the  queen  was  attached,  amounting  to 
1,400,000  francs,  or  .£56,000.  This  negotia- 
tion was  completed  in  Jan.,  1785.  Several 
persons  connected  with  the  court  became  the 
dupes  of  Madame  Lamotte,  and  a  girl  named 
Leguet,  or  D'Oliva,  was  011  one  occasion  made 
to  personate  the  queen.  The  Cardinal  de 
Rohan,  Grand  Almoner,  who  had  been  em- 
ployed as  an  instrument  to  carry  out  her 
schemes  by  Madame  Lamotte,  was  arrested 
Aug.  15,  1785,  and  Madame  Lamotte  herself 
was  taken  at  Bar-sur-Aube  Aug.  19.  They 
were,  with  Madame  Lamotte's  husband,  sent 
to  the  Bastille.  At  the  trial  that  ensued, 
brought  to  a  close  May  31,  1786,  the  cardinal's 
innocence  was  clearly  established,  and  Mon- 
sieur and  Madame  Lamotte  were  sentenced  to 
be  flogged,  branded  on  both  shoulders,  and 
imprisoned  for  life.  She  managed,  however, 
after  an  imprisonment  of  about  10  months' 
duration,  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Having 
been  pursued  for  debt,  she  endeavoured  to 
escape  by  a  window  on  the  second  story  of  her 
house,  and  falling  from  the  window-sill,  was 
killed  on  the  spot.  The  scandal  created  by 
this  affair  proved  most  disastrous.  Talleyrand- 
Perigord  wrote  to  a  friend :  ' '  Attend  narrowly  to 
that  miserable  affair  of  the  necklace  :  I  should 
not  be  surprised  if  it  overturned  the  throne." 

DIAMPER  (Hindostan).— The  Archbishop 
of  Goa  held  a  council  here  in  •  1599,  for  the 
purpose  of  compelling  the  inhabitants  to 
abjure  the  heresies  of  the  Nestorians. 

DIANA  (Temple}.— (See  EPHESUS.) 

DIARBEKIR  (Asia).— This  town,  occupying 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Amid  or  Amida,  was 
sacked  by  Tamerlane  in  1393.  It  was  frequently 
besieged,  and  was  captured  by  Seliml.  in  1515. 
The  Persians  regained  possession  in  1605,  but 
it  reverted  to  the  Turks  at  the  peace  in  1639. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Nestorian  archbishop  and  of 
a  Jacobite  patriarch.  The  Turks  call  it  Kara 
Amid,  or  Black  Amid,  in  allusion  to  the  black 
basalt  used  in  the  construction  of  the  houses,  &c. 

DIBIO.— (See  DIJON.) 

DICE  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Pala- 
medes,  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  about  B.C.  1183, 
though  some  authors  ascribe  their  origin  to  the 
Lydians,  B.C.  600.  They  were  vised  by  the 
Romans,  by  whom  they  were  called  tessene. 
The  talus,  though  frequently  mentioned  as  a 
species  of  dice,  is  hardly  entitled  to  the  distinc- 
tion, as  it  always  signified  a  figure  with  only 
four  sides  on  which  it  could  rest.  The  practice 
of  cogging  dice  was  known  to  the  Romans .  Th  e 
Council  of  Eliberis  about  300  passed  a  general 


canon  forbidding  laymen  to  play  at  dice,  under 
the  penalty  of  suspension  from  communion  for 
a  whole  year.  The  Council  of  Constantinople 
in  691  prohibited  the  use  of  dice  to  both  clergy 
and  laity,  the  penalty  for  the  former  being 
deprivation,  and  for  the  latter  excommunica- 
tion. Dice  were  introduced  into  England  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  about  1066  they  formed 
one  of  the  chief  amusements  of  the  people,  who 
played  with  them  in  a  most  extravagant  man- 
ner. By  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  18,  s.  2  (May  9,  1828),  the 
duty  on  dice  was  fixed  at  20$.  the  pair. 

DICTATOR.— The  Roman  dictators  possessed 
sovereign  power  in  the  state,  and  were  the 
generals-in-chief  of  the  army.  The  first  was 
Titus  Lartius,  who  was  appointed  B.C.  501. 
The  dictators  were  at  first  chosen  from  the 
patrician  order  of  the  people;  but,  B.C.  356, 
Marcius  Rutilus,  a  plebeian,  obtained  the 
honour.  The  office  was  finally  abrogated  by 
the  law  of  Antony,  B.C.  44. 

DICTIONARY.— The  earliest  dictionary  of 
which  any  record  remains  is  one  in  the  Chinese 
language,  compiled  by  Pa-out-she,  about  B.C. 
i  zoo.  Marcus  Terentius  Varro,  who  flourished 
B.C.  116 — B.C.  28,  was  one  of  the  first  classic 
authors  who  turned  his  attention  to  lexico- 
graphy ;  but  the  most  celebrated  dictionary 
of  antiquity  is  the  Onomasticon  of  Julius 
Pollux,  which  was  completed  early  in  the 
3rd  century.  The  earliest  Latin  dictionary 
of  modern  times  was  published  by  John 
Balbi  of  Genoa  in  1460;  but  that  of  Calepio, 
published  in  1502,  is  much  superior.  Sebastian 
Munster's  Chaldee  Dictionary  appeared  in  1527 ; 
Pagninus's  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew  language  in 
1529;  Robert  Stephens's  Thesaurus  in  1535; 
Erpenius's  Arabic  Dictionary  in  1613  ;  Schind- 
ler's  Lexicon  Pentaglottum  in  1612  ;  Edmund 
Castell's Lexicon  Heptaglottoniii  1669;  andPhil- 
lips'sNew  World  of  Words  in  1658.  Moreri pub- 
lished his  Biographical,  Historical,  and  Geogra- 
phical Dictionary  in  1673.  Elisha  Coles's  English 
Dictionary  appeared  in  1677  ;  and  Bayle's  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary  and  the  Diction- 
ary of  the  French  Academy  in  1694.  Dr.  John- 
son's English  Dictionary  was  completed  in  May, 
1 755  j  Walker's  Dictionary  appeared  in  1 791 ;  and 
Francis  Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue 
in  1785. 

DIDYMIUM,  a  rare  metal,  the  discovery  of 
which  was  announced  by  Mosander  in  1841. 

DIEG  (Hindostan).— (See  DEEG.) 

DIEPPE  (France),  as  early  as  the  xoth  cen- 
tury,  was  a  fishing  village  possessing  some 
fortifications,  and  in  the  nth  century  was 
called  Bertheville.  Henry  II.  erected  the  castle 
in  1188,  and  the  church  of  St.  Jacques  was  com- 
menced in  1200.  Dieppe  was  attacked  by  the 
English  in  1442,  andagain  July  12— 13, 1694,  being 
on  the  latter  occasion  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

DIERSHEIM  (Battle).— Moreau  effected  the 
passage  of  the  Rhine  at  this  place,  after  a  series 
of  combats  with  the  Austriaiis,  April  19  and  20, 
1797.  Desaix  and  Davoust  distinguished  them- 
selves in  these  encounters. 

DIEST  (South  Brabant).— This  town,  taken 
from  the  French  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  in 
I7°5>  was  recaptured  by  them  in  the  same  year. 

DIET. — The  name  given  to  the  assembly  of 
the  German  states,  which  was  instituted  in  the 


DIEU 


[     328    1 


DIOCESE 


most  ancient  times,  and  reconstituted  by 
Charles  IV.  in  1356,  on  the  publication  of  the 
"  Golden  Bull."  These  sittings  were  made  per- 
manent at  Ratisbon,  Dec.  23,  1663.  They  were 
removed  to  Frankfort  by  the  "Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,"  July  17,  1806.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  most  celebrated  diets  : — 

A.D. 

1180.  Diet  of  Witrzburg,  which  deposed  Henry  the  Lion, 
Duke  of  Brunswick. 

1467.  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  which  divided  the  states  into  the 
College  of  Klectors.  the  College  of  Princes,  and  the 
College  of  Imperial  Towns. 

1531.  Diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Luther  refused  to  recant. 

1539.  Diet  of  Spires,  which  prohibited  the  spread  of  the 
reformed  religion,  and  occasioned  the  famous 
protest  from  which  the  reformers  are  called  Pro- 
testants. 

1530.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  summoned  by  Charles  V.,  to  re- 
unite the  princes  of  Christeutlo'iii,  and  secure  their 
co-operation  ji gainst,  the  Turks.  (Sec  AUUMH'KG 
CONFESSION  AND  DIET.) 

1541.  Diet  of  Katisbon,  summoned  to  reunite  the  Protest- 
ants \\ith  the  Papists,  who  were  unable  to  agree 
respecting  22  articles  of  faith  submitted  to  their 
consideration  by  the  Pope's  1 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT,  or  God  and  my 
Right,  the  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of  England, 
was  the  parole  of  the  day  given  by  Richard  I . 
at  the  battle  of  Gisors,  Sep.  20,  1198.  It  was 
assumed  by  him  and  his  successors,  but  did 
not  appear  on  the  broad  seal  before  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  Anne  discontinued  "  Dieu  ct  moil 
Droit,"  substituting  "Semper  eadeni"  in  its 
place  ;  but  George  I.  restored  the  old  motto. 

DIFFERENCE  ENGINE.—  (See  CALCULATING 
MACHINE.) 

DIFFUSION.— (See  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE.) 

DIGEST.— The  first  digest  of  the  Roman  laws 
was  made  by  Yarn>,  r,.r.  66.  Gregorianus,  in 
306,  Hermogenianus  in  365,  and  Theodosius  II. 
(the  Younger)  in  438,  also  compiled  and  simpli- 
fied the  laws  ;  but  the  term  "  Digest"  is  usually 
applied  to  the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  which 
formed  the  second  part  of  his  code,  finished  in 
529.  They  were  in  50  books,  and  a  copy  of 
them  was  found  at  Amalphi  in  1137. 

DIGGERS.— These  levellers,  who  pretended 
that  the  earth  ought  to  be  held  in  comnn  m,  and 
commenced  cultivating  some  waste  land  in 
Surrey,  wtrc  dispersed  by  the  military,  April 
1 6,  1649. 

DIGIT.  —  The  term  applied  to  any  whole 
number  under  10.  The  system  of  notation  by 
digits,  commonly  called  the  Arabic  system, 
was  used  by  the  Hindoo  Aryabhatta  in  the  sth 
century,  and  was  first  employed  in  Arabia  by 
Mohammed  Ben  Musa  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  gth  century.  By  the  end  of  the  loth 
century  it  was  established  throughout  Arabia, 
and  was  soon  after  introduced  into  Europe.  Its 
general  adoption  by  European  accountants  was, 
however,  very  gradual ;  and  even  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 6th  century  the  Roman  notation 
was  common. 

DIGNITY  (Cap  of}.— (See  MAINTENANCE.) 

DIJON  (France),  the  ancient  Dibio,  or  Divio, 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Marcus  Aure- 
lius.  Clovis  I.  defeated  the  Burgundians  in  a 
battle  near  this  place  in  500.  It  was  burned  in 
1137,  rebuilt  in  1157,  and  in  1179  became  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  Dijon  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Councils  were  held  here 
in  July,  1077,  in  1116,  and  from  Dec.  i  to  13, 


1199.  On  the  anniversary  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day,  Aug.  24,  1865,  a  marble  slab  was  erected, 
commemorating  the  deliverance  of  that  part  of 
the  country  from  the  massacre  of  Aug.  24, 1572, 
by  Chabat,  Count  of  Charny,  the  governor  of 
the  province.  The  cathedral  dates  from  1291, 
and  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  was  completed 
in  1334.  Rene  of  Anjou,  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Antony  of  Vaudeniont  at  Bulgne- 
ville  (q.v.},  July  2,  1431,  was  confined  for  many 
years  in  the  tower  of  Bar,  at  this  city.  The 
castle  was  completed  in  1513. 

DILETTANTI.— This  society,  for  encouraging 
a  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  was  established  in  1734 
by  some  gentlemen  who  had  travelled  in  Italy. 
They  sent  an  expedition  to  the  East,  which  left 
England  June  9,  1764,  and  returned  Nov.  2, 
1766.  The  result  of  their  investigations  was 
the  "  Ionian  Antiquities,"  of  which  part  i.  v\  as 
published  in  1769,  part  ii.  in  1797,  and  part  iii. 
in  1840;  Chandler's  "Travels  in  Asia  Minor,' 
published  in  1775;  Chandler's  "Travels  in 
Greece,"  in  1776;  and  a  volume  of  Greek  In- 
scriptions, in  1774.  Another  expedition  was 
sent  to  the  Levant  in  1811.  "The  Unedited 
Antiquities  of  Attica"  appeared  in  1817,  and 
"Antique  Sculpture"  in  1835.  The  society 
consists  of  50  members,  who  dine  together  at 
the  Thatched  House  tavcm  the  first  Sunday  in 
every  month  from  Feb.  to  July. 

IHNAN  'France'.— The  cathedral  of  this 
old  town  of  Britanny  dates  from  the  nth  or 
i2th  century.  In  1280,  Dinan,  long  governed 
by  independent  counts,  was  annexed  to  the 
duchy  of  Britanny,  and  in  1300  it  was  fortified 
by  a  castle,  now  used  as  a  prison.  It  was 
taken  by  Du  Guesclin  in  1379,  by  Oliver  de 
Clisson  in  1379,  and  in  1585  it  passed  into  the 
: .'ii  of  the  Duke  of  Mercosur,  who  re- 
tained it  till  1598.  A  plaster  statue  of  Du 
Guesclin,  whose  heart  was  deposited  in  the 
cathedral,  was  erected  in  1823. 

Dl. \A.\T  Belgium).— Notice  of  this  town 
occurs  in  records  of  the  6th  century.  It  was 
taken  Monday,  Aug.  25,  1466,  and  destroyed  in 
March,  1467,  by  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  It  was  speedily  rebuilt,  and  was 
again  seized  by  the  Duke  of  Nevers  in  1554. 
The  French,  under  the  Marshal  de  Crequi,  took 
it  in  1675  ;  under  Marshal  Saxe  in  1746  ;  and 
again  in  1794,  when  it  was  erected  into  the 
chief  town  of  the  department  of  Sambro-et- 
Meuso.  It  was  restored  to  Holland  in  1814. 

D 1 N  A  P  0  R  E  (Hindostaii).  —Three  native 
regiments  revolted  at  this  military  station  in 
Bengal,  about  25  miles  from  Arrah,  July  25, 
1857,  an(l  f°r  a  short  time  carried  on  a  desul- 
tory warfare. 

DIXDIGUL  (Hindostan)  was  conquered  by 
the  Rajah  of  Mysore  in  1755,  taken  from  Tippoo 
Saib  by  the  British  in  1783,  and  restored  in 
1784.  In  1792  it  was  ceded  to  the  British 
Government.  In  1809, 1810,  and  1811,  tL 
and  its  neighbourhood  were  visited  by  a  very 
fatal  epidemic,  which  carried  off  numbers  of 
the  population. 

DIOCESE.— Bingham  (Antiq.  ix.  c.  i,  s.  2), 
speaking  of  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire 
into  dioceses,  says, — "It  is  generally  owned 
that  the  division  of  provinces  is  more  ancient 
than  that  of  dioceses  :  for  the  division  into 


DIOCLETIAN 


[    329    1 


DISCIPLINE 


dioceses  began  only  about  the  time  of  Con- 
stantino" (306 — 337).  A  list  of  the  dioceses 
of  the  empire  is  given  in  the  "Notitia  Im- 
perii,"  said 'to  be  written  about  400,  at  which 
time  they  seem  to  have  numbered  13.  The 
term  was  first  used  in  its  episcopal  sense  about 
the  time  of  the  Council  of  Aries,  in  314,  which 
addressed  a  letter  to  Pope  Sylvester  I.,  wherein 
mention  is  made  of  his  holding  "the  greater 
dioceses."  The  first  division  of  a  large  diocese 
into  several  smaller  ones  took  place  in  569. 
The  establishment  of  dioceses  in  Britain  was 
coeval  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
but  information  on  the  subject  is  very  meagre. 
British  bishops  attended  the  Council  of  Aries 
in  314,  as  well  as  that  of  Sardica  in  347. 

DIOCLETIAN  ;ERA,  or  the  JERA  OF  MAR- 
TYRS, dates  from  the  proclamation  of  Diocle- 
tian as  Emperor,  Axig.  29,  284.  This  aera  was 
generally  used  by  Christians,  till  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Christian  sera  about  527. 

DION YSIA.— These  festivals,  in  honour  of 
Dionysus,  or  Bacchus,  which  originated  in 
Egypt,  were  introduced  into  Greece  by  Me- 
lampus,  B.C.  1415.  They  were  four  in  number, 
— the  rural  or  lesser  Dionysia,  which  was  the 
most  ancient ;  the  Lenrea,  the  Anthesteria,  and 
the  Dionysia  proper,  all  of  which  were  cele- 
brated annually,  with  much  extravagant  mer- 
riment, though  they  were  not  disgraced  by 
the  excesses  of  the  Roman  Bacchanalia  (q.  v.). 

DIORAMA.— This  mode  of  exhibiting  paint- 
ings of  landscapes,  architecture,  &c.,  with  such 
effects  of  light  as  to  produce  most  complete 
optical  illusion,  was  first  established  at  Paris 
by  MM.  Daguerre  and  Bouton  in  1822.  In  1823 
a  building  was  erected  for  its  exhibition  at 
Regent's  Park,  London.  For  some  time  the 
speculation  proved  prosperous.  It  was  closed 
in  1852,  and  the  building  was  sold  in  1855,  and 
converted  into  a  Baptist  chapel. 

DIOSPOLIS  (Palestine).— This  city,  the  Lod 
of  the  Old  and  Lydda  of  the  New  Testament, 
was  founded  about  B.C.  1300,  by  Shamed,  the 
descendant  of  Benjamin  (i  Chron.  viii.  12), 
and  after  the  return  from  the  captivity  was 
possessed  by  the  children  of  the  same  tribe, 
B.C.  445  (Nehem.  xi.  35).  At  the  request  of 
Jonathan  Maccabeeus  (circ.  B.C.  152),  Lydda, 
with  other  towns,  was  released  from  tribute 
by  Demetrius  Soter,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
places  seized  by  Cassius,  who  sold  all  the  in- 
habitants into  slavery  to  pay  the  heavy  taxes 
he  demanded,  B.C.  45.  St.  Peter  visited  Lydda 
in  33,  and  performed  there  his  miraculous  cure 
of  ^Eneas,  who  had  "  kept  his  bed  eight  years, 
and  was  sick  of  the  palsy"  (Acts  ix.  32-35). 
The  town  was  burned  by  Cestius  Gallus  in  66, 
and  was  taken  by  Vespasian  in  68,  suffering 
on  both  occasions  severely.  In  136  it  was 
rebuilt,  and  Paganism  being  in  the  ascendant, 
the  name  was  changed  to  Diospolis.  Aetius 
signed  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea  as 
Bishop  of  Lydda,  in  325.  It  is  believed  that  the 
see  is  of  much  earlier  foundation,  its  origin 
being  traditionally  referred  to  Zenas  the  lawyer, 
who  was  one  of  the  70  disciples.  The  Council 
of  Diospolis,  at  which  Pelagius  was  acquitted 
of  heresy,  was  held  Dec.  20,  415.  Diospolis, 
seized  and  ravaged  by  the  Saracens  early  in 
the  8th  century,  was  restored  and  fortified  by 


the  Crusaders  in  1099.  It  was  again  destroyed 
by  Saladin  in  1191,  and,  according  to  tradition, 
was  rebuilt  by  Richard  I.  (Coaur  de  Lion).  At 
present  it  is  a  mere  village,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  are  much  afflicted  with  blindness  and 
diseases  of  the  eyes. 

DIPHTHERIA,  a  diseased  state  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  throat,  which  causes 
the  development  of  a  false  membrane.  The 
best  authorities  believe  it  to  be  the  "putrid 
sore  throat"  described  by  early  writers.  The 
ancient  Greek  physician  Aretseus  refers  to 
a  similar  disease.  It  prevailed  in  an  epi- 
demic form  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean countries  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  cen- 
turies. In  England,  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  North  America,  it  broke  out  in  the  i8th 
century.  It  appeared  again  at  Tours,  in  France, 
in  1818,  and  in  1856  raged  with  epidemic  vio- 
lence at  Boulogne.  The  first  accurately  de- 
scribed cases  in  this  country  occurred  in  1857. 
M.  Bretonneau,  of  Tours,  gave  it  the  name  of 
"  diphtherite"  in  1821. 

DIPLOMACY. -By  6  Anne  c.  7  (1707)  salaries 
or  pensions  enjoyed  as  the  rewards  of  diplo- 
matic service  disqualified  the  possessor  from 
sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons.  This  pro- 
vision, as  far  as  it  was  affected  by  2  &  3  Will. 
IV.  c.  116  (Aug.  16,  1832),  was  repealed  by  22 
&  23  Viet.  c.  5  (Aug.  8,  1859).  The  Foreign 
Office  List,  forming  a  complete  British  Diplo- 
matic and  Consular  Handbook,  compiled  by 
E.  Hertslet,  contains  full  information  on  the 
subject.  Diplomatic  agents  are  divided  into 
four  classes : — i.  Ambassadors,  legates,  and 
nuncios.  2.  Envoys  extraordinary  and  minis- 
ters plenipotentiary.  3.  Envoys,  ministers, 
and  others  accredited  to  sovereigns.  4.  Charges 
d'affaires.  (See  AMBASSADORS.) 

DIPLOMATICS.— (See  PALEOGRAPHY.) 

DIRECTORY.— The  first  London  Directory, 
"A  Collection  of  the  Names  of  Merchants,  <fec," 
was  published  by  Lee  and  Major  in  1677.  The 
first  bearing  the  name  was  published  in  1734, 
under  the  title  of  "  Kent's  Directory ;  or,  A  List 
of  the  Principal  Traders  in  London."  The 
Post-Office  Directory  appeared  in  1800. 

DIRECTORY  (French).— The  French  Di- 
rectory was  appointed  by  the  constitution 
published  June  23,  1795.  It  exercised 
authority  from  Oct.  27,  1795,  till  Nov.  n,  1799, 
when  the  consular  government  was  established 
in  its  stead.  It  was  composed  of  five  members, 
one  of  whom  was  to  retire  yearly,  and  governed 
the  republic  conjointly  with  the  Council  of 
Ancients  and  the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred. 

DIRECTORY  FOR  PUBLIC  WORSHIP.— 
During  the  civil  war,  the  Puritans  supplied 
the  place  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  by 
a  volume  bearing  the  above  title.  It  was  pre- 
pared by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  West- 
minster Assembly  (q.  v.),  Oct.  17,  1643,  an(i 
was  established  by  Parliament  Jan.  3,  1645. 

DIRHAM.— (See  DEORHAM.) 

DISCIPLINE.— The  first  book  of  discipline 
was  drawn  up  by  the  ministers  of  the  Scottish 
Church  in  1560,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
discipline  and  uniformity  in  the  Church.  It 
abolished  the  government  of  bishops  and  the 
observance  of  fasts  and  saint  days,  and  estab- 
lished kirk  sessions,  besides  settling  other 


DISPENSARIES 


t     330    ] 


DIVAN 


minor  particulars.  The  second  book  of  disci- 
pline, approved  by  the  General  Assembly  in 
April,  1578,  did  not  receive  the  sanction  oi 
Parliament,  and  then  only  in  a  modified  form, 
until  1592. 

DISPENSARIES  were  set  up  in  monasteries 
and  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  They  were  established  in  thoir 
present  form  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury. The  following  list  contains  names  of 
the  principal  dispensaries  in  the  metropolis, 
with  the  date  of  foundation  : — 

A.D.  A.D. 

1770.  Royal  General,  Smith-  1838.  Farringdon  General. 

field.  1830.  Western  City. 

1774.  Westminster  General.  1830.  Western  General. 

1777.  Surrey.  1834.  Blenheim  Street  Free. 

1779.  Metropolitan.  1837.  St.     Pancras     Royal 
780.  Finsbury.  General. 

783.  Public.  1838.  Piiddiugton  Provident. 

-S3.  Eastern.  1840.  Kensington. 

785.  St. .Marylebone  General.  1840.  Holloway   and    North 
789.  City.  Islington. 

Western.  1845.  St.   John's  Wood  and 
Bloomsbury.  Portland  Town  1'ro- 

1810.  Northern.  vident. 

i  HI  6.   Royal.  1848.  Camdeii  Town. 

i»i~.  St.    George's  and    St.  1848.  Paddington  Free. 

James's  General.  1849.  City   of    London    and 
1831.  Islington.  East  London. 

1831.  Royal  South  London. 

DISPENSATIONS.  —  Papal  dispensations 
were  first  granted  by  Innocent  III.  in  1200. 
Subjects  of  the  English  sovereign  were  for- 
bidden to  appeal  for  them  by  25  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  21  (1533),  which,  however,  empowered  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  grant,  by  an  in- 
strument under  his  seal,  unto  the  king  and  his 
successors,  for  causes  not  contrary  to  the  laws 
of  God,  all  such  dispensations  as  were  formerly 
from  the  see  of  Rome. 

DISPENSING  POWER.  —  The  power  of  sus- 
pending or  dispensing  with  the  laws,  or  the 
execution  of  the  laws,  claimed  and  exercised 
by  some  of  the  English  sovereigns,  was  de- 
clared illegal,  and  formally  abolished  by  the 
Bill  of  Rights  (i  Will.  &  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  2) 
passed  in  1689. 

DISPERSION  OF  MANKIND  took  place  at 
the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  (Gen. 
xi.  8),  to  which  various  dates  are  assigned  by 
different  authorities.  It  occurred,  according 
to  the  chronology  adopted  in  the  English 
Bible,  B.C.  2234. 

DISSECTION.— (See  ANATOMY  and  ANATOMY 
LAWS.] 

DISSENTERS.— English  Protestants  holding 
different  views  from  the  Church  of  England 
are  thus  named.  About  the  year  1565  they 
were  called  Puritans.  On  the  passing  of 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  13  &  14  Charles  II. 
c.  4  (1662),  about  2,000  clergymen  seceded, 
and  received  the  name  Nonconformists  or 
Dissenters.  The  Test  Act,  25  Charles  II.  c.  2 
(1673),  excluded  from  government  employ- 
ment all  who  refused  to  take  the  oaths  of 
allegiance  and  supremacy,  and  the  sacrament 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Established 
Church.  The  Toleration  Act,  i  Will.  &  Mary 
c.  18  (1689),  gave  Dissenters  legal  security  in 
the  celebration  of  their  worship ;  and  the 
Corporation  and  Test  Repeal  Act  (9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  17,  May  9,  1828}  enabled  them  to  accept 
public  employment  without  taking  the  sacra- 


ment.  Dissenters  were  first  authorized  to 
solemnize  marriages  in  their  own  places  of 
worship,  or  at  a  registrar's  office,  by  6  &  7  Will. 
IV.  c.  85  (Aug.  17,  1836). 

DISSIDENTS.— The  term  applied  to  dis- 
senters from  the  established  religion  of  Poland, 
viz.  the  Roman  Catholic.  They  were  allowed 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  by  the 
pacta  conventa,  in  1573,  but  were  persecuted  in 
1718.  In  1766  Russia  and  Prussia  supported 
them  in  their  claims  for  unrestricted  worship, 
and  in  1775  their  rights,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
were  completely  restored. 

DISTAFF.— Spinning  by  distaff  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1505.  The  day  after 
the  Epiphany,  or  Twelfth  Day,  was  jocularly 
called  St.  Distaff's  or  Rock  Day,  because  the 
Christmas  holidays  having  then  terminated, 
housewives  resumed  the  distaff,  &c. 

DISTILLATION.— This  art,  said  to  have  ori- 
ginated amongst  the  inhabitants  of  northern 
Europe,  was,  with  many  others  connected 
with  chemical  science,  introduced  into  Spain 
by  the  Moors  about  1150.  Argand's  improve- 
ments in  mechanical  processes  were  perfected 
about  1 780.  The  art  of  distillation  was  much 
improved  by  Adam  in  1801,  and  by  Pistorius 
in  1817. 

DITCH,  or  THE  NATIONS.— The  third  expe- 
dition of  the  Koreish  against  Mohammed,  in 
625.  Gibbon  (ch.  1.)  remarks: — "This  third 
expedition  is  variously  named,  from  the 
nations  which  marched  under  the  banner  of 
Abu  Sophian,  from  the  ditch  which  was  drawn 
before  the  city,  and  a  camp  of  3,000  Mussul- 
mans. The  prudence  of  Mahomet  declined 
a  general  engagement  :  the  valour  of  Ali  was 
signalized  in  single  combat ;  and  the  war  was 
protracted  20  days,  till  the  final  separation  of 
the  confederates.  A  tempest  of  wind,  rain, 
and  hail  overturned  their  tents  :  their  private 
quarrels  were  fomented  by  an  insidious  ad- 
versary ;  and  the  Koreish,  deserted  by  their 
allies,  no  longer  hoped  to  subvert  the  throne, 
or  to  check  the  conquests,  of  their  invincible 
exile." 

DIU  (Hindostan).— This  island  was  taken 
in  1515  by  the  Portuguese,  who  made  it  a 
strong  fortress.  The  Arabs  of  Muscat  as- 
sailed and  pillaged  it  in  1670.  It  was  gar- 
risoned by  British  troops  in  1809. 

DIVAN. —This  term,  which,  during  the 
caliphate  of  Omar  I.  (634—  644),  signified  the  sys- 
tem employed  in  the  distribution  of  military 
booty,  was  subsequently  applied  to  the  Otto- 
man council  of  state.  This  assembly,  consist- 
ing of  the  two  Cadiaskers  or  military  judges 
of  Roumelia  and  Anatolia,  the  Beylerbeys  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  the  two  Defterdars 
or  treasurers  for  Europe  and  Asia,  the  Aga 
of  the  Janissaries,  the  Beylerbey  of  the  sea, 
or  high  admiral,  and  the  Nischandschi  or 
secretary,  was  held,  previous  to  the  reign  of 
Bajazet  II.  (1481 — 1512),  under  the  presidency 
of  the  Sultan,  bvit  afterwards  under  that  of  the 
Grand  Vizier.  Selim  I.  (1512—1520)  added  to 
:he  council  a  third  Cadiasker,  who  exercised 
military  jurisdiction  over  his  African  and 
Asiatic  conquests,  and  a  third  Defterdar. 
When  business  of  extraordinary  importance 
was  under  discussion,  such  as  the  commence- 


DIVINATION 


DOBRO 


ment  of  a  war,  &c.,  the  Sultan  and  his  advisers 
assembled  for  the  Divan,  on  horseback  ;  but 
this  custom,  having  degenerated  into  an  empty 
show,  was  ultimately  abandoned. 

DIVINATION.— The  Israelites  were  prohi- 
bited from  practising  divination  of  any  kind 
by  the  law  of  Moses  (Deut.  xviii.  9 — 12,  B.C. 
1451).  (<Se«BiBLiOMANCY.)  Among  the  ancients, 
divination  was  practised  in  many  different 
forms.  It  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
among  the  Etruscans.  (See  DIVINING  ROD.) 

DIVINE  RIGHT  OF  KINGS.— The  doctrine 
that  kings  are  entitled  to  the  unqualified  sub- 
mission of  their  subjects  was  maintained  by 
the  Convocation  Book  of  1603,  by  Hobbes  in 
1642,  by  Sir  Robert  Filmer  in  his  "  Patriarcha" 
in  1680,  and  by  Sherlock  in  1684.  Dr.  Pusey, 
in  a  sermon  preached  Nov.  5,  1837,  sets  forth 
the  views  of  modern  High  Church  writers  on 
the  subject. 

DIVING-BELL.— In  the  time  of  Aristotle 
(B.C.  384 — 322),  divers  xised  a  kind  of  kettle 
to  enable  them  to  continue  long  under  water. 
The  earliest  positive  mention  of  the  use  of  the 
diving-bell  in  Europe  occurs  in  the  works  of 
John  Taisnier,  who  was  born  in  1509.  In  1665 
it  was  employed  to  raise  some  portions  of  the 
Spanish  Armada,  which  had  been  wrecked  off 
the  Isle  of  Mull,  and  in  1687  William  Phipps 
succeeded  by  its  means  in  recovering  ^200,000, 
which  had  been  lost  in  a  Spanish  vessel  off  the 
coast  of  Hispaniola.  The  instrument  was 
much  improved  by  Witsen  in  1671.  Dr. 
Halley's  plan  for  introducing  a  supply  of 
fresh  air,  which  he  effected  about  1715,  is  the 
most  important  event  in  the  history  of  the 
apparatus.  Further  improvements  were 
effected  by  Mr.  Spalding,  who  was  drowned 
while  prosecuting  some  experiments  with  the 
diving-bell,  June  i,  1783.  Smeaton  first  ap- 

Elied  it  to  engineering  operations  in  1779,  and 
i  1788  he  contrived  a  means  of  supplying  air 
by  means  of  a  forcing  air-pump. 

DIVINING-ROD,  or  VIRGULA  DIVINA.— 
Disraeli  (Amenities  of  Literature  ii.  258)  re- 
marks : — "  The  mystery  of  the  divining-rod  is 
as  ancient  as  the  days  of  Cicero.  The  German 
miners  introduced  its  practice  among  our 
Cornish  miners."  It  is  not  mentioned  earlier 
than  the  nth  century,  but  since  that  time  has 
been  in  frequent  use.  Arthur  Phippen,  in 
1853,  published  an  account  of  two  professional 
diviners,  who  alleged  that  they  were  able  by 
this  means  to  discover  subterranean  springs, 
&c. 

DIVIO.—  (See  DIJON.) 

DIVONA.— 'See  CAHORS.) 

DIVORCE  was  permitted  by  the  Mosaic  law 
B.C.  1451  (Deut.  xxiv.  i — 4).  The  first  instance 
among  the  Romans  occurred  B.C.  331,  and 
the  custom  afterwards  became  very  frequent, 
in  spite  of  the  Lex  de  maritandis  ordinibus, 
passed  B.C.  18,  and  the  Lex  Papjria-Poppcea, 
A.D.  9,  which  attempted  to  restrain  the  faci- 
lities for  obtaining  it.  In  England  divorces 
were  of  two  kinds, — first  a  mensd  et  thoro, 
when  the  parties  lived  separate  but  without  a 
dissolution  of  the  marriage  vow,  and  secondly 
d  vinculo  ruatrimomi,  when  their  union  was 
declared  illegal  from  the  first,  and  was  con- 
sequently totally  dissolved.  The  first  example 


of  a  divorce  effected  by  act  of  Parliament, 
without  the  previous  consent  of  the  spiritual 
court,  was  that  of  the  notorious  Countess  of 
Macclesfield,  who  was  separated  from  her 
husband  April  2,  1698.  In  1798  Lord  Lough- 
borough  obtained  the  passing  of  a  series  of 
resolutions  which  required  every  application 
for  divorce  to  be  supported  by  an  ecclesiastical 
sentence  and  by  a  previous  verdict  at  law. 
Previously  to  1840,  divorce  bills  in  the  House 
of  Commons  were  decided  by  the  whole  house  ; 
but  in  that  year  they  were  referred  to  a 
committee  of  nine  members.  In  Dec.,  1850, 
commissioners  were  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  law  of  divorce.  The  Divorce  and  Matri- 
monial Causes  Act  (20  &  21  Viet.  c.  85,  Aug. 
28,  1857)  abolished  all  authority  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Court  respecting  divorces,  and  vested 
it  in  the  "  Court  for  Divorce  and  Matrimonial 
Causes,"  which  was  to  be  presided  over  by 
three  judges,  the  judge  of  the  Probate  Court 
being  one.  This  act  was  amended  and  ex- 
tended by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  108  (Aug.  2,  1858), 
by  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  61  (Aug.  13,  1859),  an(i  Dv 
23  &  24  Viet.  c.  144  (Aug.  28,  1860). 

DIXMUDE  (Belgium).— This  town,  first 
surrounded  by  walls  in  the  loth  century,  and 
fortified  in  1270  and  1411,  was  ravaged  in  1513 
by  a  fire  which  destroyed  more  than  300 
houses.  It  was  taken  by  the  Count  of  Rantzau 
in  1647,  and  by  Turenne  in  1658.  Seized  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1683,  it  was  restored  by  the 
truce  of  the  Hague,  June  29,  1684.  It  was 
retaken  by  the  French  under  Luxemburg  in 
1690,  and  was  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  April  u,  1713.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French  June  30,  1744. 

DIZIER,  ST.  (France),  was  besieged  by 
Charles  the  Fifth's  army,  commanded  by 
Ferdinand  de  Gonzaga,  in  1544,  and  sur- 
rendered after  a  brave  resistance.  In  1775 
the  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  through 
the  carelessness  of  a  baker.  Here  Napoleon  I. 
repulsed  the  allies  Jan.  27,  and  March  27,  1814. 

DJEVAN-BOULAK  (Battle).— The  Russians 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Persians  at  this 
place,  in  Persia,  July  18,  1827. 

DJIDDA,  JEDDA,  or  JIDDA  (Arabia),  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall  in  1501  by  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt.  In  1803  Sherif  Pasha  attempted  to 
render  the  town  independent  of  the  Sherif  of 
Mecca,  but  failed,  and  died  suddenly  in  1804, 
about  which  time  it  surrendered  to  the  Waha- 
bees,  who  expelled  the  Turks.  In  1811  Mehemet 
AH  took  measures  to  recover  it,  and  in  1812  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  possession.  The  cele- 
brated traveller  Burckhardt  arrived  here  July 
15,  1814.  (See  JEDDA.) 

DOBRAN  (Treaty).— Christian  V.  of  Den- 
mark, and  Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, by  a  secret  treaty  concluded  at  this 
place  in  Mecklenburg,  Oct.  5,  1675,  agreed  to 
carry  on  war  against  Charles  XI.  of  Swe- 
den, till  he  should  be  compelled  either  to  pay 
the  expenses,  or  to  restore  Schonen,  Halland, 
and  Blenkingen  to  Denmark,  to  relinquish  the 
freedom  of  the  Sound,  and  to  abandon  his 
•Pomeranian  territories  to  the  Elector,  who 
agreed,  on  his  part,  to  surrender  Wismar  and 
Rligen  to  Denmark. 

DOBRO    (Battle).—  Prince   Menschikoff,    at 


DOBRYNITCHI 


t    332    ] 


DOG 


the  head  of  a  Russian  army,  defeated  the 
Swedes  at  this  place,  in  the  Ukraine,  Sep.  20, 
1709. 

DOBRYNITCHI  (Battle)  was  fought  in  this 
plain,  in  Russia,  by  the  pretender  Dmitri, 
at  the  head  of  about  20,000  Poles  and  Cos- 
sacks, against  70,000  Russians,  led  by  the 
generals  of  the  Czar,  Jan.  20,  1605.  The  for- 
mer was  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  seven- 
eighths  of  his  army  and  all  his  baggage  and 
artillery. 

DOCETJE,  or  DOCETES. —These  heretics, 
who  contended  that  Christ  was  a  god,  and 
that  he  did  not  really  suffer  death  on  the 
cross,  but  only  in  appearance,  arose  in  the 
ist  century.  Gibbon  says  : — "  While  his  blood 
was  still  recent  on  Mount  Calvary,  the  Dpcetes, 
a  numerous  and  learned  sect  of  Asiatics,  in- 
vented the  phantostic  system,  which  was  after- 
wards propagated  by  the  Marcionites,  the 
Maiiichseans,  and  the  various  names  of  the 
Gnostic  heresy."  They  denied  the  resurrection 
iiud  ascension,  and  separated  into  various 
divisions  under  different  leaders. 

DOCKS.— The  first  docks  constructed  in 
England  were  the  Commercial  Docks  at  Rother- 
hithe,  part  of  which  existed  as  the  Rowland 
Great  Wet  Dock  in  1660.  The  present  title 
was  adopted  in  1807.  Docks  were  commenced 
at  Glasgow  about  1662.  The  first  dock  at 
Liverpool  was  completed  about  1710,  and  the 
first  at  Hull  in  1778.  The  West  India  Docks, 
London,  were  commenced  in  Feb.,  1800,  and 
partially  opened  in  Aug.,  1802.  The  south 
dock  was  added  in  1829.  The  East  India 
Docks  were  opened  in  1806.  Bristol  floating 
harbour,  which  has  all  the  characteristics  of 
a  dock,  was  commenced  in  1804,  and  finished 
in  1809.  The  first  stone  of  the  London  Docks 
was  laid  June  26,  1802,  and  they  were  opened 
in  Feb.,  1805,  and  till  Jan.,  1826,  were  the 
only  docks  at  which  ships  bound  for  the 
Thames,  with  cargoes  of  wine,  brandy,  tobacco, 
and  rice  (except  ships  from  the  Indies),  were 
permitted  to  unload.  These  docks  were  im- 
proved by  a  new  entrance  in  1832,  and  by  an 
enlargement  of  the  basin  in  1858.  St.  Katha- 
rine's Docks  were  partially  opened  Oct.  25, 
1828,  and  the  Victoria  Docks  in  Nov.,  1855. 

DOCKYARDS.— The  formation  of  dockyards 
commenced  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  There  are  seven  in  England,  viz. 
Woolwich,  founded  before  1515  ;  Portsmouth, 
before  1548 ;  Deptford,  about  1513  ;  Chatham, 
established  by  Elizabeth ;  Sheeruess,  by  Charles 
II.  ;  Plymouth,  founded  soon  after  1688,  and 
called  Devonport  Dockyard  since  1824  ;  and 
Pembroke,  originally  established  at  Milford 
Haven  in  1790,  and  removed  to  Pembroke  in  1814. 

DOCTOR. — Doctors  of  law  existed  among  the 
Jews.  Some  authorities  state  that  the  Vener- 
able Bede  and  John  of  Beverley  received  the 
title  of  doctor,  at  Cambridge,  before  721 ;  but 
this  is  doubtful.  The  degree  was  introduced 
at  Bologna  in  the  i2th  century  by  Irnerius  ; 
and  in  1207  it  was  conferred  in  England.  Doc- 
torships  in  medicine  existed  in  1384,  and  in 
music  in  1463. 

DOCTORS'  COMMONS  (London). -Soon  after 
the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1509,  some 
civilians  privileged  to  plead  in  the  court  of 


Arches  formed  a  plan  of  association,  by  which 
they  were  to  occupy  contiguous  houses,  and 
board  in  common.  The  spot  first  selected  by 
them  is  not  recorded;  but  in  Feb.,  1568,  Dr. 
Henry  Hervie  procured  a  lease  of  Montjoy 
House  and  other  tenements,  which  he  devoted 
to  the  accommodation  of  the  advocates,  and 
which  received  the  title  of  Doctors'  Commons. 
The  original  edifice  was  destroyed  in  1666  during 
the  great  fire.  The  courts  were  held  in  Essex 
House,  Strand,  until  the  college  was  rebuilt  in 
1672.  They  were  incorporated  in  June,  1768, 
as  "  The  College  of  Doctors  of  Law,  exerceiit 
in  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  Courts." 
Doctors'  Commons  consisted  of  five  courts, 
viz.  the  Court  of  Arches,  the  Prerogative 
Court,  the  Court  of  Faculties  or  Dispensations, 
the  Consistory  Court,  and  the  High  Court  of 
Admiralty.  The  new  courts  of  Divorce  and 
Matrimonial  Causes  and  of  Probate  were  estab- 
lished in  Jan.,  1858. 

DOCTOR  WILLIAMS'S  LIBRARY  (London) 
was  founded  by  Dr.  Daniel  Williams,  a  Presby- 
terian, who  died  Jan.  26,  1716,  and  left  his 
books  for  public  use,  with  a  sum  of  ;£i,6oo  per 
annum  for  a  building.  Premises  were  erected 
in  Red-cross  Street,  Cripplegate,  which  were 
opened  in  1729.  A  catalogue  was  printed  in 
1841. 

DOCTRINAIRES.  — This  party,  formed  in 
France  soon  after  1815  by  Royer-Collard  and 
others,  having  for  their  object  and  doctrine  the 
establishment  and  preservation  of  constitu- 
tional government,  and  the  reconciliation  of 
authority  and  liberty,  royalty,  and  national 
representation,  obtained  power  in  1830,  and 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  political  sect  on  the 
fall  of  the  French  monarchy  in  1848. 

DODONA  (Greece).— The  site  of  this  ancient 
town  in  Epirus,  celebrated  for  its  oracle  of 
Jupiter,  has  not  been  ascertained.  The  jEtolians 
razed  the  temple  of  the  god  B.C.  219.  It  was  a 
bishopric  in  the  early  Church,  and  one  of  its 
bishops  is  mentioned  as  late  as  516.  Notice  of 
the  town  itself  occurs  in  the  6th  century. 

DOG. — The  act  for  preventing  the  stealing  of 
dogs  (10  Geo.  III.  c.  18)  was  passed  in  1770.  A 
tax  was  imposed  upon  dogs  by  36  Geo.  III.  c. 
124  (May  19,  1796),  which  was  extended  to  Ire- 
land by  48  Geo.  HI.  c.  42  (May  27,  1808).  The 
use  of  dogs  for  purposes  of  draught  was  abo- 
lished in  London  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  47,  s.  56 
(Aug.  17,  1839),  and  the  prohibition  was  ex- 
tended to  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  by 
17  &  18  Viet.  c.  60,  s.  2  (July  31,  1854).  By  25 
&  26  Viet.  c.  59  (July  29,  1862),  owners  of  dogs 
in  Ireland  were  made  liable  for  injuries  to 
sheep,  and  further  regulations  were  introduced 
by  28  and  29  Viet.  c.  50  (June  18,  1865).  By  28 
and  29  Viet.  c.  60  (June  29,  1865),  owners  of 
dogs  in  England  and  Wales  were  made  liable 
for  injuries  to  cattle  and  sheep. 

DOG-DAYS.— The  Venerable  Bede  (672—735) 
gives  as  the  commencement  of  the  dog-days 
July  14.  In  a  calendar  prefixed  to  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  ordered 
to  be  used  in  1559,  they  are  made  to  begin  July 
6,  and  to  end  Sep.  5,  which  arrangement  con- 
tinued till  the  Restoration  in  1660,  when  they 
were  omitted  altogether  from  the  Prayer-book, 
and  made  to  begin  July  19,  and  end  Aug.  20. 


DOG 


[     333     1 


DOMINGO 


On  the  reformation  of  the  British  calendar  in 
1752,  the  commencement  was  fixed  July  30, 
and  the  termination  Sep.  7.  They  now  begin 
July  3,  and  end  Aug.  u. 

DOG-SHOW.— An  exhibition  of  dogs,  similar 
in  plan  to  several  that  had  previously  been  held 
at  Birmingham,  took  place  at  the  Horse  Repo- 
sitory, Holborn,  hi  1861  and  1862.  The  dog- 
show  was  first  held  in  the  Agricultural  Hall 
June  24,  1862. 

DOGE.  —  According  to  some  authorities, 
Venice  was  governed  by  a  doge,  or  duke,  bear- 
ing the  title  of  doge,  as  early  as  440 ;  but  Daru 
assigns  697  as  the  date  of  the  creation  of  the 
honour,  and  mentions  Paul  Luke  Anafesto  as 
the  first  who  bore  it.  The  Genoese  revolted 
against  their  counts  in  1330,  and  elected  a-  doge 

"VxXiGER-BANK  (Sea-fight).  — An  English 
fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Sir  Hyde  Parker, 
engaged  the  Dutch  near  this  sand-bank,  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Holland,  Aug.  5,  1781. 
After  an  obstinate  conflict  the  Dutch  bore  away. 
The  English  fleet,  having  suffered  severely  in 
the  action,  was  not  able  to  follow  in  pursuit. 

DOGGET'S  COAT  AND  BADGE.— A  rowing- 
match,  which  takes  place  on  the  Thames  Aug.  i 
every  year,  between  the  Old  Swan,  near  Lon- 
don Bridge,  and  the  White  Swan  at  Chelsea, 
when  the  tide  is  strongest  against  the  competi- 
tors, was  instituted  by  Thomas  Dogget,  the 
actor,  to  mark  his  attachment  to  the  house  of 
Hanover,  Aug.  i  being  the  date  of  the  acces- 
sion of  George  I.  It  was  first  rowed  for  Aug.  i, 
1715.  Dogget  died  at  Eltham,  in  Kent,  Sep.  22, 
1721,  and  bequeathed  a  sum  of  money,  the  in- 
terest of  which  was  to  provide  annually  a  water- 
man's coat  and  badge,  to  be  rowed  for  in  per- 
petual remembrance  of  the  day. 

DOIT,  or  DOITKIN,  a. base  coin  of  small 
value,  the  circulation  of  which  was  prohibited 
by  3  Hen.  V.  c.  i  (1415). 

DOL  (France).— William  I.  suffered  some 
very  severe  losses  in  a  vain  attempt  to  capture 
this  town,  in  Britanny,  in  1075.  A  dispute 
which  broke  out  between  the  churches  of  Dol 
and  Tours,  respecting  the  metropolitan  rights 
which  the  former  claimed  against  the  latter, 
was  decided  in  favour  of  Tours  in  1199.  In 
1793,  during  the  war  in  La  Vendee,  Rossignol, 
at  the  head  of  the  republican  forces,  was  de- 
feated at  this  town. 

DOLCINITES.— This  sect,  according  to  Mil- 
man  (Lat.  Christ,  vol.  v.,  b.  xii.  ch.  6),  was  of 
' '  kindred  tenets  with  the  Fraticelli,  or  Spiritual 
Franciscans,  with  some  leaven  of  the  old  doc- 
trines of  the  Patarines  (the  Puritans)  of  Lom- 
bardy."  It  was  founded  by  Dolcino,  who  was 
born  at  a  village  near  Novara.  He  denounced 
the  popes.  The  Dolcinites  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance at  Gattinara,  and  the  Val  Sesia,  in 
Piedmont,  in  1304.  The  Inquisition  sent  forces 
against  them  in  1307,  and  after  a  brave  resist- 
ance, during  which  numbers  perished,  Dolcino 
and  a  few  of  his  followers  were  made  prisoners. 
They  were  cruelly  tortured,  and  afterwards 
burned  alive. 

DOLE  (France),  the  Dola  Sequanorum  of  the 
Romans,  is  a  very  ancient  place,  formerly  the 
capital  of  Franehe-Comte.  Its  university  was 
founded  in  1426,  by  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of 


Burgundy,  and  a  parliament  was  established 
in  1442.  The  French  failed  in  attempts  to  cap- 
ture it  in  1435  and  in  1477  ;  but  it  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  Louis  XI.  in  1479.  Charles  V. 
erected  strong  fortifications  here  in  1530,  and 
in  1636  it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
French,  who  obtained  it  with  the  rest  of 
Franche-Comte  in  1668.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  concluded  May  2,  1668,  it  was  re- 
stored to  Spain,  which  finally  lost  all  power 
over  it  in  1674,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  army 
of  Louis  XIV.  Its  parliament  was  transferred 
to  Besancon  in  1676,  and  its  university  in  1691, 
since  which  time  Dole  has  declined  in  import- 
ance. 

DOLLAR.— This  coin,  as  well  as  the  German 
thaler,  derives  its  name  from  the  town  of 
Joachims-Thai  (Joachim's  Valley),  in  Bohemia, 
where  silver  pieces,  of  an  ounce  weight,  were 
first  coined  in  1518.  It  is  the  principal  coin  of 
the  United  States,  where  Spanish  dollars,  worth 
45.  4$d.,  passed  current  until  1772,  when  a  new 
coinage  was  struck.  Spanish  dollars  were 
issued  from  the  Bank  of  England  March  10, 
1797,  the  value  being  45.  yd.  each.  They  were 
recalled  Oct.  3  in  the  same  year.  By  an  act 
passed  in  the  United  States  in  1837,  the  dollar 
must  weigh  412^  grams  of  standard  silver.  Its 
value  is  4$.  ^d.  of  our  money. 

DOLLS.— The  Greek  and  Roman  children 
used  dolls  of  wax,  wool,  plaster,  and  ivory, 
which  were  buried  with  them  when  they  died. 
A  terra-cotta  doll,  with  legs  and  arms  moved 
by  a  string,  has  been  found  in  a  tomb.  The 
Christians  continued  the  practice  of  burying 
the  toys  of  then-  children.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  doll-makers  were  styled  coroplastes,  and 
dolls  dressed  in  imitation  of  infants  were  com- 
mon playthings.  The  Autoperipatctikos,  or 
walking  doll,  was  patented  July  15,  1862. 

DOMESDAY  BOOK,  defined  by  Ellis  as  "the 
register  from  which  judgment  was  to  be  given 
upon  the  value,  tenure,  and  services  of  lands 
therein  described,"  was  undertaken  by  William 
I.,  but  the  precise  year  in  which  he  commenced 
it  is  not  known.  The  frequently  assigned  date, 
1080,  is  founded  on  an  erroneous  quotation  of 
the  Red  Book  of  the  Exchequer,  and  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chro- 
nicle is  correct  in  fi  xing  its  commencement  in 
1085,  and  its  completion  in  1086.  Domesday 
Book  continued  the  authority  as  to  the  amount 
of  taxation  till  1522,  when  Henry  VIII.  caused 
a  more  accurate  survey  to  be  taken,  which  is 
known  as  the  New  Domesday  Book.  In  1767, 
George  III.  ordered  the  publication  of  the 
original  survey,  which  was  commenced  about 
1770,  and  completed  early  in  1783.  Ingulphus 
says  the  book  was  so  called  because  it  was  as 
general  and  conclusive  as  the  last  judgment 
will  be.  Copies  of  this  survey  by  the  process 
of  photozincography  (q.  v.)  were  completed  Jan. 
23,  1864. 

DOMINGO,  SAN  or  ST.  (Hayti).— This  city 
was  founded  in  1497  by  Bartholomew  Colum 
bus,  by  whom  it  was  first  called  Nueva 
Isabella.  In  1502  it  suffered  severely  from  the 
effects  of  a  hurricane,  and  was  rebuilt  by 
Ovando  soon  afterwards,  and  adorned  with  a 
fine  Gothic  cathedral  in  1540.  In  the  latter 
part  of  1585  it  was  taken  by  Sir  Francis  Drake, 


DOMINICA 


C     334     1 


DONKEY 


who  exacted  from  the  inhabitants  a  ransom, 
of  ^6,875.  By  the  treaty  of  Basel,  July  22. 
1795,  it  was  ceded  to  France,  together  with 
the  other  Spanish  possessions  in  the  island, 
and  in  1801  it  was  seized  by  the  negro  chief 
Toussaiiit  1'Ouverture.  (See  HAYTI.) 

DOMINICA  W.  Indies;  was  discovered  by 
Columbus,  Sunday,  Nov.  2,  1493,  whence  Its 
name  Dominica,  i.  e.  the  Lord's  Day.  In  1668 
it  submitted  to  the  English,  by  whom  it  was 
again  captured  June  6,  1761.  By  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763,  it  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  and  it  was  erected  into  a  separate 
government  under  Sir  W.  Young,  July  18,  1770. 
In  1778  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  but  was 
restored  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of 
Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783.  The  French  made  an 
ineffectual  attempt  to  retake  it  in  1795,  and  in 
1802  it  was  disturbed  by  an  insurrection  of  the 
negroes.  The  French  again  assailed  it  Feb. 
22,  1805,  when  they  opposed  4,000  men  to  the 
resident  force  of  200 ;  but,  after  having 
destroyed  Roseau  by  fire,  they  were  compelled 
to  retreat  without  achieving  any  substantial 
success. 

DOMINICAL  LETTEE.  —  The  first  seven 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  in  ecclesias- 
tical and  other  calendars  to  signify  the  days  of 
the  week,  and  the  letter  which  stands  for 
Sunday  is  known  as  the  Dominical  letter. 
Jan.  i  is  always  expressed  by  A  ;  hence  the 
Dominical  letters  change  every  year. 

DOMINICALS.— The  name  anciently  given 
to  the  lessons  of  Scripture  appointed  to  be 
read  on  Sundays.  Alcuin,  tutor  of  Charle- 
magne, is  said  to  have  instituted  them  between 
750  and  760 ;  but  the  custom  of  selecting  the 
Sunday  lessons  in  a  systematic  order  was  not 
generally  adopted  till  the  i2th  century.  An 
oblation  made  on  Sundays  to  the  rector  of  the 
church  in  which  a  person  attended  service  and 
received  the  sacraments,  was  also,  in  the  early 
English  Church,  known  by  this  name. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  (Hayti).  —  The 
eastern  portion  of  Hayti,  which  became  French 
territory  in  1 795,  and  was  ceded  to  Spain  in 
1814,  assumed  independence  in  1822,  and  in 
1843  established  itself  as  a  distinct  state,  under 
the  title  of  the  Dominican  Republic.  It  was 
reunited  to  Spain  in  May,  1861. 

DOMINICANS.  —  This  order  of  preaching 
Friars,  called  in  England  Black  Friars,  and  in 
France  Jacobins,  was  founded  at  Toulouse  by 
St.  Dominick,  and  confirmed  by  Innocent  III. 
in  1215.  Honorius  III.  renewed  the  approval 
in  1216,  and  constituted  the  order  under  the 
rules  of  St.  Augustine,  which  enjoined  per- 
petual silence,  almost  continual  fasts,  poverty, 
and  other  mortifications.  At  the  first  general 
chapter  of  the  order,  in  1220,  the  renuncia- 
tion of  all  possession  and  revenue  was  en- 
joined. The  convent  in  Paris  was  founded  in 
1218.  In  1 22 1  the  order  was  introduced  into 
England,  where  the  monks  were  called  Black 
Friars,  their  first  establishment  being  formed 
at  Oxford.  In  1276  the  corporation  of  London 
granted  the  order  two  lanes  near  the  Thames, 
where  a  monastery  was  erected,  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  still  retains  the  name  Black- 
friars. The  order  of  the  Dominican  nuns 

was  founded  by  St.  Dominick  in  1206. 


DONABEW  (Battles).  —  Gen.  Cotton  was 
defeated  by  the  Burmese  at  this  town  of  Pegu, 

March  8,  1825. Capt.  Granville  Loch  fell,  at 

the  head  of  a  party  of  Sepoys  and  seamen,  in 
an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the  Burmese  at 
the  same  place,  Feb.  4,  1853. 

DONATISTS.— On  the  election  of  Cecilianus 
to  the  see  of  Carthage,  in  311,  the  minority 
chose  another  bishop,  who,  dying  in  313,  was 
succeeded  by  Donatus.  He  fornied  the  mal- 
contents into  a  separate  party,  named  after 
himself.  The  peculiarity  of  the  sect  was  its 
strictness  in  matters  of  church  discipline. 
Severe  laws  were  passed  against  it  in  316,  and 
it  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Carthage 
in  411.  It  was  not  totally  extinguished  till 
the  7th  century. 

DOXAUWERTH,  or  DONAUWORTH  (Bava- 
ria  was  the  scene  of  the  execution  of  Mary 
of  Brabant,  by  her  husband,  Louis  the  Severe, 
on  an  ill-founded  charge  of  infidelity,  Jan. 
1 8,  1256.  In  consequence  of  its  adherence 
to  the  reformed  religion,  it  was  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire  in  1 607,  and  was  seized 
by  an  army  of  17,000  men  under  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  who  abolished  the  Protestant  re- 
ligion, and  transferred  the  city's  municipal 
privileges  to  the  elector.  The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough  gained  an  important  victory  here  over 
the  Bavarian  army  of  the  Count  of  Arco,  July 
2,  1704  (O.S.),  when  the  allied  army  lost  nearly 
5,000  men.  In  1706,  Donauwerth  recovered 
its  rights  as  an  imperial  city,  but  again  lost 
them  by  the  peace  of  Baden,  signed  Sep.  7, 
1714.  Its  subjection  to  Bavaria  was  finally 
determined  by  an  agreement  signed  June  18, 
1782.  Another  battle  was  fought  here  Oct.  6, 
1805,  between  the  French,  under  Soult,  and 
the  Germans,  in  which  the  former  were  vic- 
torious. 

DONCASTER  (Yorkshire^.— This  town,  the 
ancient  Danum,  was  destroyed  in  794  by  the 
Danes,  who  were  defeated  here  by  Egbert  in 
833.  St.  George's  Church  was  founded  about 
1071,  and  in  1204  the  town  was  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  James  I.  visited  Doncaster  in 
1617.  In  1642  the  town  was  garrisoned  by  the 
Parliamentary  army,  and  in  1648  Col.  Rains- 
ford  was  killed  in  the  midst  of  his  troopers, 
by  a  small  party  from  Pontefract.  Doncaster 
races  were  established  about  1703.  The  St. 
Leger  Stakes  were  founded  in  1776,  and 
the  grand  stand  was  erected  in  1777.  The 
betting-room  was  built  by  the  corporation 
in  1826.  The  dispensary  was  established  in 
1792  ;  and  the  North  Midland  Railway  opened 
July  i,  1840. 

DONELSON  FORT  (United  States).  —  This 
Confederate  stronghold,  situated  in  Kentucky, 
was  invested  by  Gen.  Grant  Feb.  12,  1862.  A 
naval  attack  under  Com.  Foote  was  repulsed 
Feb.  14,  but  owing  to  the  superior  numbers  of 
the  Federals,  Gen.  Buckner  was  compelled  to 
surrender,  with  about  10,000  prisoners  and  40 
pieces  of  cannon,  Feb.  16.  The  Confederate 
Col.  Forrest  attacked  the  fort  Feb.  3,  1863,  and 
was  defeated  with  considerable  loss. 

DONGA.— (See  ANGOLA.) 

DONKEY  SHOW.— A  show  of  mules  and 
donkeys,  similar  in  character  to  the  annual 
cattle,  dog,  and  horse  shows,  was  opened  in  the 


DONNELAN 


[     335    1 


DOUGLAS 


Agricultural  Hall,  London,  Tuesday,  A\ig.  9, 
1864. 

DONNELAN     LECTURESHIP,    in    Dublin 
University,  was  established  Feb.  22,  1794,  the 
expense  being  defrayed  from  a  legacy  of  £1,243, 
bequeathed  by  Mrs.  Ann  Donnelan  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Dublin.     It  is  a  divinity  lecture. 
D'ONORE.— (See  FUENTES  DE  ONORO.) 
DORCHESTER  (Bishopric),  founded  at  this 
town  in  Oxfordshire  in  635,  was  removed  to 
Winchester  in  676.     Another  see,  established 
here  in  886,  was  removed  to  Lincoln  (q.  v.)  in 

T°I)6RCHESTER  (Dorsetshire),  the  Roman 
Durnoraria  or  Durinum,  contains  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1579.  Judge  Jefferies 
presided  over  a  special  commission  here  in 
1685,  which  he  rendered  infarnoxis  by  the 
cruelty  and  injustice  of  his  judgments.  In 
1705,  10,000  persons  assembled  in  the  Roman 
amphitheatre  to  witness  the  burning  of  Mary 
Charming.  The  town  hall  was  built  in  1791, 
and  the  hospital  in  1840. 

DORIANS.— A  people  of  ancient  Greece,  who 
asserted  their  descent  from  Dorus,  son  of 
Hellen,  and  the  nymph  Orse'is,  or  of  Apollo 
and  Phthia,  who  is  said  to  have  flourished  B.C. 
1400.  The  Heraclidse,  of  Doric  extraction,  re- 
turned to  the  Peloponnesus  B.C.  1104;  settled 
in  that  part  of  Greece,  and  overran  Attica  B.C. 
1045.  About  B.C.  800  they  wore  attacked  by 
the  Thebans,  who  expelled  them  from  their 
country,  of  which  they  took  possession.  The 
Phocseans  declared  war  against  them  B.C.  458, 
and  seized  most  of  their  important  towns. 

DORIC  ORDER  of  architecture  originated 
among  the  Dorians  about  B.C.  1104.  It  is  more 
airy  and  graceful  in  style  than  the  Tuscan,  and 
ranks  second  of  orders. 

DORMANS  (Battle.)— The  German  allies  of 
the  French  Huguenots,  under  Montmorenci  de 
Thor^,  were  defeated  at  this  place  in  France  by 
Henry  Duke  of  Guise  and  his  brother  the  Duke 
of  Mayenne,  Oct.  10,  1575. 

DORNOCH,  or  DORNICH.— The  manufac- 
ture of  this  figured  linen,  originally  carried  on 
at  Tournay,  or  Dornich,  in  the  Netherlands, 
was  transferred  thence  to  Norfolk,  by  Dutch 
fugitives  from  the  persecutions  of  the  Duke  of 
Alva.  (See  HOLLAND.  )  The  manufacture  was  re- 
stricted to  Norwich  and  Pulham  by  5  &  6  Edw. 
VI.  c.  24  (1552).  By  4  Will.  <fc  Mary  c.  5,  s.  2  (68) 
(1692),  a  duty  of  10  per  cent,  was  imposed  on  all 
imported  Dornochs,  except  those  brought  from 
France. 

DOROGOBUSH  (Battle).— The  Russians  de- 
feated the  French  at  this  town,  in  Russia, 
Oct.  12,  1812. 

DORPAT,  or  DORPT  (Russia).— This  town, 
in  Livonia,  formerly  belonged  to  Sweden.  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  founded  its  university  in  1632. 
Having  been  removed  to  Pernau  in  1656,  it  was 
re-established  at  Dorpatin  1802.  The  town  was 
taken  by  Peter  the  Great,  July  23,  1704  ;  and 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1775. 

DORSET  (England).— The  Danes  landed  at 
Wareham,  in  this  county,  in  876.  They  renewed 
their  ravages  in  982,  998,  1001,  and  1015.  They 
were  defeated  and  put  to  flight  in  1016  by  Ed- 
mund Ironside. 


DORSET  GARDENS  THEATRE  (London), 
situated  on  the  south  side  of  Fleet  Street,  and 
fronting  the  river,  was  opened  by  Betterton 
Nov.  9,  1671.  The  company  united  themselves 
with  the  Drury  Lane  players,  Nov.  16,  1682,  and 
the  theatre  became  a  place  of  exhibition  for 
wrestling,  boxing,  fencing,  &c. 

DORT,  or  DORDRECHT  (Holland).— This 
town,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
was  founded  in  994,  and  is  said  to  be  the  oldest 
town  in  Holland.  Fortifications  were  erected 
in  1231.  In  1421  it  was  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  an  inundation,  which  covered 
upwards  of  70  villages,  and  drowned  100,000 
persons.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame,  founded 
in  1366,  and  a  large  part  of  the  town,  were 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1457.  The  first  meeting 
of  the  States  of  Holland  after  their  successful 
revolt  from  Spanish  dominion  was  held  here 
in  1572,  when  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  was 
made  stadtholder.  The  celebrated  synod  of 
Dort  assembled  Nov.  13,  1618,  and  ended  its 
sittings  May  25,  1619.  It  was  a  meeting  of  the 
Protestant  clergy  for  the  purpose  of  deciding 
whether  Calvinism,  or  Arminianism  is  the  true 
doctrine  of  Scripture,  and  they  declared  in 
favour  of  the  former  system. 

DORTMUND  (Prussia).— This  ancient  town 
possesses  the  Marien  Kirche,  a  fine  gothic 
church  of  the  i3th  century,  and  a  provincial 
academy,  established  in  1543.  In  1802  it 
became  the  property  of  the  Nassau-Diez 
family  ;  in  1806  it  formed  the  capital  of  the 
French  department  of  La  Roer;  and  in  1815 
it  was  ceded  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to 
Prussia. 

DORYL^EUM  (Battle).— The  Crusaders  de- 
feated Soliman  and  the  Turks  at  this  town, 
in  Phrygia,  July  4,  1097.  Three  thousand 
Pagan  knights  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  this 
battle.  The  Turks  lost  above  30,000  men. 
Soliman's  camp  was  pillaged,  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  spoil  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Cru- 
saders. 

DOUAI  (France),  the  Roman  Duacum,  at 
•which  a  synod  was  held  in  871,  was  taken  by 
Philip  IV.  in  1297.  In  1368  it  was  given  to 
Louis,  Count  of  Flanders,  and  in  1562  Philip 
II.  of  Spain  founded  its  university.  The 
college  for  English  Papists  was  established  by 
the  same  monarch  in  1569.  Louis  XIV.  took 
Douai  from  the  Spaniards  in  1667.  It  was 
captured  by  the  allies,  under  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  June  25,  1710 ;  but  Marshal  Vil- 
lars  retook  it  in  1712.  The  peace  of  Utrecht, 
signed  April  n,  1713,  finally  restored  Douai  to 
France. 

DOUAI  BIBLE.— This  Bible,  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  the  students  at  the 
Roman  Catholic  college  of  Douai,  is  the  only 
English  translation  which  is  sanctioned  by  the 
Pope,  and  was  published  at  Douai  in  1609.  It 
only  contains  the  Old  Testament,  as  the 
English  college  at  Rheims  had  printed  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  in  1582. 

DOUBLE  CRESCENTS  (Order).— (See 
COCKLE,  Order.) 

DOUGLAS  (Isle  of  Man).— Near  this  town, 
the  name  of  which  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  rivers  Doo  and  Glass,  on  which  it  is 
situated,  are  the  ruins  of  a  nunnery  erected  by 


DOURO 


[    336    ] 


DOWN 


St.  Bridget  early  in  the  6th  century.  In  1292 
a  synod  was  held  in  the  ancient  church  of 
Braddan,  which  was  partially  rebuilt  in  1773. 
Douglas  has  much  improved  since  the  establish- 
ment, in  1830,  of  steam  communication  with 
Liverpool.  The  tower  of  refuge  was  erected  in 
1833  by  Sir  William  Hillary,  for  the  safety  of 
shipwrecked  mariners.  Since  1851  the  govern- 
ment of  the  town  has  been  vested  in  nine 
commissioners,  who  levy  rates  for  the  purpose 
of  lighting,  sewerage,  &c. 

DOURO.— The  British  army,  under  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley,  succeeded  in  crossing  this 
river  in  spite  of  a  very  resolute  opposition 
by  the  French  under  Marshal  Soult,  May  12, 
1809.  The  English  casualties  amounted  to  23 
killed,  among  whom  was  Lieut. -Gen.  Paget ;  96 
wounded,  and  two  missing.  The  French  lost 
500  killed  and  wounded,  five  guns,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  ammunition.  They  left  700  sick 
and  wounded  in  the  hospital  of  Oporto,  and 
50  guns  in  the  arsenal. 

DOVER  (Kent),  the  Roman  Dubris,  where 
Julius  Csesar  landed,  Aug.  26,  B.C.  55,  is  one  of 
the  Cinque  Ports.  Some  authors  consider  him 
the  founder  of  the  castle,  but  it  was  most  pro- 
bably built  by  Maiidubratius,  King  of  the 
Trinobaiites,  who  died  B.C.  19.  It  was  strength- 
ened by  Arviragus,  in  70.  In  209  the  Emperor 
Severus  built  a  gate,  of  which  the  foundations 
still  remain  ;  and  in  367  a  cohort  of  1,100  men 
was  .stationed  in  the  town.  Withred,  King  of 
Kent,  fortified  the  town,  and  built  St.  Martin's 
Church,  about  700.  In  1051  the  inhabitants 
resisted  the  troops  of  Eustace,  Earl  of  Boulogne. 
In  1052  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  compelled  them 
to  give  him  hostages  and  ships,  and  in  1066  the 
town  was  burnt  by  the  Norman  invaders.  The 
priory  was  founded  })$  Archbishop  Corboil  in 
1132.  In  1216  Hubert  de  Burgh  held  the 
castle  against  Louis,  the  Dauphin  of  France  ; 
and  in  1299  a  mint  was  established  in  the  town 
by  Edward  I.  By  a  statute  passed  in  1330,  the 
charge  for  conveying  passengers  from  Dover  to 
Calais  was  fixed  at  sixpence  for  a  foot-passcn- 
ger,  and  two  shillings  for  a  man  and  a  horse. 
All  travellers  to  the  continent  were  compelled 
to  embark  at  Dover  in  1339.  In  1515  a  fellow- 
ship of  Trinity  pilots  was  established.  A  pier 
was  built  in  1549  ;  and  in  1606  a  charter  was 
granted  by  James  I.,  which  tended  very  con- 
siderably to  increase  the  maritime  importance 
of  the  place.  During  the  civil  war,  the  Par- 
liamentary forces  took  Dover  by  stratagem, 
Aug.  21,  1642.  Charles  II.  landed  here  on  his 
restoration,  May  27,  1660.  In  1780  important 
alterations  were  commenced  in  the  castle, 
which  has  since  been  entirely  remodelled.  The 
theatre  was  built  in  1790,  and  the  custom  house 
in  1806.  In  May,  1808,  the  town  received  con- 
siderable injury  from  a  fire.  An  ancient  well 
svas  discovered  in  the  keep  in  1811.  Louis 
XVIII.  embarked  here  for  France  on  his  re- 
storation to  the  throne,  April  23,  1813  ;  and  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia 
landed  June  6,  1814.  Lighting  by  gas  was 
introduced  into  the  town  in  1822.  Prince 
Albert  landed  here,  previous  to  his  marriage 
with  Queen  Victoria,  Feb.  6,  1840.  The  London 
and  Dover  (South-Eastern)  Railway  was  opened 
Feb.  7,  1844 ;  and  the  London,  Chatham,  and 


Dover  Railway  in  1861.  The  Admiralty  pier 
was  commenced  in  1844.  The  submarine 
telegraph  to  Calais  was  permanently  established 
Oct.  13,  1851. 

DOVER  (Sea-fight).— Blake,  with  a  squadron 
of  15  vessels,  reinforced  during  the  engage- 
ment by  eight  under  Capt.  Bourne,  fought  a 
severe  action  with  the  Dutch  fleet,  consisting 
of  42  ships,  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Van  Tromp,  May  19,  1652.  The  action  was 
maintained  with  great  gallantry  for  five  hours. 
Blake  captured  one  ship  and  destroyed  another, 
and  the  Dutch  withdrew  to  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land during  the  night. 

DOVER  (Treaty).— Charles  II.  and  Louis 
XIV.  concluded  a  secret  treaty,  which  was 
signed  at  Dover  May  22,  1670.  Charles  II. 
agreed  to  reconcile  himself  with  the  Church 
of  Rome  as  soon  as  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
should  be  sufficiently  established  to  permit 
him.  Louis  XIV.  engaged  to  pay  him  two 
millions  of  livres  Tournois,  one  half  three 
months  after  the  ratification  of  the  treaty,  and 
the  remainder  in  six  months  ;  and  to  furnish 
and  maintain,  at  his  own  cost,  6,000  troops  to 
assist  Charles  II.  in  his  design.  Charles  II. 
also  engaged  to  aid  Louis  XIV.  in  subjugating 
Holland,  and  in  upholding  the  Bourbons  in 
Spain.  It  was  ratified  by  Louis  XIV.  June  10. 

DOVER  (United  States),  in  New  Hampshire, 
was  founded  in  1623  by  Edward  and  William 
Hilton.  It  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Massachusetts  in  1642  ;  and  it  was  attacked 
by  Indians,  who  burned  five  or  six  houses  and 
mills,  and  killed  several  of  the  inhabitants, 
June  27,  1689. 

D  O  W  E  R.— Wharton  (Laws  relating  to 
Women,  b.  iv.  c.  i,  s.  6)  defines  dower  as  "the 
right  which  a  widow  has  in  the  third  part 
of  the  lands  and  tenements  of  which  her  hus- 
band died  solely  and  beneficially  possessed." 
By  5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  n  (1551),  the  widows  of 
traitors  lost  all  right  to  dower.  Five  kinds  of 
dower  originally  existed;  viz.  dower  by  the 
common  law,  dower  by  custom,  dower  ad 
<>?lt(i.-:ii  ecclesicK,  dower  ex  assensu  patris,  and 
dower  de  la  plus  belle.  The  last  was  abolished 
by  12  Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660),  and  the  third  and 
fourth  by  the  Dower  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  105 
(Aug.  29,  1833),  which  came  into  operation 
Jan.  i,  1834,  and  virtually  placed  the  right  of 
dower  entirely  at  the  husband's  disposal. 

DOWLATABAD,  or  DOWLETABAD  (Ilin- 
dostan). — This  town,  considered  the  key  of  the 
Deccan,  the  ancient  Deoghir,  was  taken  by  the 
Mohammedans  under  Allah -ud-Deen  in  1293, 
and  in  1306  was  rendered  subject  to  the  Emperor 
of  Delhi,  who  changed  its  name  to  Dowlatabad, 
and  endeavoured  to  make  it  the  capital  of  his 
dominions.  About  1595  it  surrendered  to 
Ahmed  Nizam  Shah,  of  Ahmednuggur,  whose 
dynasty  becoming  extinct  in  1600,  it  was  seized 
by  an  Abyssinian  slave,  named  Mallik  Amber. 
In  1634  it  was  taken  by  the  Mongols,  from 
whom  it  was  wrested  in  1717  by  Nizam-ul- 
Mulk,  whose  descendants  have  ever  since  re- 
tained it.  In  1758  it  was  occupied  for  a  time 
by  a  French  force  under  M.  Bussy. 

DOWN  (Ireland).— This  see  is  supposed  to 
have  been  founded  about  499,  and  to  have  been 
originally  fixed  at  Downpatrick  (q.  v,).  The 


DOWNING 


[     337 


DRAMA 


diocese  was  united  to  Connor,  at  an  early 
period,  but  they  were  separated  in  1136  or  1137 
They  were  permanently  united  by  the  Pope  h 
1441.  In  1609  James  I.  made  the  church  o" 
the  Holy  Trinity  at  Downpatrick  the  cathe 
dral  of  the  diocese  ;  but  this  having  fallen 
into  decay,  Charles  II.  transferred  the  title  tc 
the  parish  church  of  Lisbum,  by  a  paten 
dated  Oct.  27,  1662.  On  the  death  of  James 
Saurin,  Bishop  of  Dromore,  April  9,  1842 
that  see  was  united  to  Down  and  Connor, 
according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Church 
Temporalities  Act  (3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug 
14,  1833). 

DOWNING  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— Sir 
E.  Downing,  Bart.,  by  his  will  dated  Dec.  20. 
1717,  left  estates,  which,  on  the  failure  of  heirs 
in  a  certain  line  of  succession,  were  to  be 
devoted  to  the  foundation  and  maintenance  of 
a  college  at  the  university  of  Cambridge.  The 
college  was  founded  by  charter,  Sep.  28,  1800, 
and  the  statutes  were  framed  in  1805.  Land 
having  been  purchased,  the  first  stone  of  the 
college  buildings  was  laid  May  18,  1807,  and 
undergraduates  were  admitted  to  reside  in 
1821. 

DOWNPATRICK  (Ireland).— One  of  the 
most  ancient  towns  in  Ireland,  existing  in  the 
days  of  St.  Patrick,  who  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  cathedral.  He  died  in  493.  In 
1538  its  church  was  pillaged  by  Lord  Deputy 
Grey,  and  in  1609  it  was  made  the  cathedral  of 
the  diocese  of  Down.  In  consequence  of  the 
decayed  state  of  the  building-,  Charles  II. 
transferred  the  title  of  cathedral  to  Lisburn 
church  Oct.  27,  1662  ;  but  in  1790  Downpatrick 
cathedral  was  restored  for  divine  service. 

DOWNS  (Sea-fights).— Admiral  Blake  de- 
feated the  Dutch  fleet  of  De  Ruyter  and  De 
Witt  in  the  Downs,  Sep.  28,  1652.  He  gained 
a  second  victory,  over  Van  Tromp,  Nov.  29, 
1652. 

DRABESCUS  (Battle).— The  Athenian 
colonists  of  Amphipolis  (q.  v.),  to  the  number 
of  10,000,  were  defeated  by  the  Thracian  Edo- 
nians  on  this  plain,  to  the  north-west  of  Phi- 
lippi,  in  Greece,  B.C.  465. 

DRACO'S  CODE,  which  punished  all  offences 
with  death,  and  was  consequently  said  to  be 
written  in  blood,  was  compiled  about  B.  c.  624, 
and  remained  in  force  until  superseded  by  the 
milder  legislation  of  Solon,  B.C.  594. 
DRAFT.— (See  CHEQUE.) 

DRAGONNADES.— The  persecutions  of  the 
French  Protestants  by  Louis  XIV.,  especially 
the  military  expeditions,  consisting  chiefly  of 
dragoons,  which  were  despatched  into  the 
southern  provinces  by  Louvois  in  1684  and 
1685,  are  known  in  history  as  the  Dragonnades. 
They  were  followed  by  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (q.  v.},  Oct.  22,  1685. 

DRAGOONS.— Knights  called  dracones,  be- 
cause they  fought  under  the  standard  of  a 
dragon,  are  of  very  ancient  date.  Modern 
dragoons  are  of  French  origin,  having  been 
instituted  by  Charles  de  Cosse,  Marshal  of 
Brisac,  about  1600.  In  1632  two  kinds  existed  , 
called  pikemen  and  musketeers.  The  oldest 
English  regiment  of  dragoons  is  the  Scots 
Greys,  first  enrolled  Nov.  19,  1683. 
DRAINAGE  was  practised  by  the  ancient 


Egyptians  and  Assyrians  at  a  very  early  date. 
Attempts  were  made  to  drain  the  Pontine 
marshes  B.C.  160,  but  without  permanent  effect. 
Baldwin  I.,  Count  of  Flanders,  is  believed  to 
have  commenced  the  drainage  of  his  territories 
about  863,  but  they  were  not  effectually  pro- 
tected from  inundations  of  the  sea  till  1180. 
In  1633  the  Spaniards  constructed  works  for 
the  purpose  of  draining  the  city  of  Mexico, 
which,  from  its  situation  in  the  centre  of  a 
lake,  was  subject  to  frequent  inundations. 
The  draining  of  the  Bedford  Level,  under 
the  management  of  the  Earl  of  Bedford  and 
others,  was  completed  March  25,  1653.  In 
consequence  of  the  frequent  recurrence  of 
cholera,  measures  have  recently  been  adopted 
for  securing  a  better  system  of  drainage  in  this 
country.  The  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works, 
appointed  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  120,  s.  43  (Aug. 
!4>  J^ss),  exercises  control  over  all  main  sewers 
of  the  city  of  London,  and,  by  the  terms  of  the 
act,  was  bound  to  complete  sewers,  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  any  sewage  into  the  Thames 
near  London,  before  Dec.  31,  1860  (s.  135).  By 
21  &  22  Viet.  c.  104  (Aug.  2,  1858),  the  board 
was  to  commence,  as  soon  as  possible,  works 
for  the  main  drainage  of  the  metropolis,  and 
for  preventing  the  further  pollution  of  the 
Thames,  the  shores  and  bed  of  which  they 
were  empowered  to  improve  by  embankments, 
&c.  To  enable  them  to  effect  this,  they  were 
permitted  to  borrow  money  to  the  amount  of 
,£3,000,000,  and  to  levy  a  rate  of  threepence  in 
the  pound  on  the  annual  value  of  property  in 
London  and  its  environs,  on  the  basis  of  the 
county  rate.  This  rate  is  called  the  Metropolis 
Main  Drainage  Rate.  The  works  were  opened 
in  presence  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  a  large 
assemblage,  April  4,  1865. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  THE 
GLOBE.— This,  the  first  voyage  round  the 
globe  accomplished  by  an  Englishman,  was 
performed  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  sailed 
From  Plymouth  Dec.  13,  1577.  He  arrived  in 
the  La  Plata  April  14,  1578,  and  entered  Port 
3t.  Julian  June  20.  Here  Drake  executed  Mr. 
Thomas  Doughtie  on  a  charge  of  mutinous 
conduct,  after  which  he  resumed  his  voyage, 
Aug.  17.  He  seized  Callao,  where  he  captured 
7  heavily  laden  ships,  Feb.  15,  1579;  &nd 
e  took  a  Spanish  galleon,  March  i,  which 
yielded  a  booty  of  about  ;£i  50,000.  After  com- 
pleting the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  and 
meeting  many  surprising  adventures,  the 
expedition  returned  to  Plymouth  in  safety, 
Sep.  26,  1580,  where  Queen  Elizabeth  visited 
lim  on  board  his  ship  and  knighted  him. 

DRAMA.  —  The  ancient  drama  originated 
with  the  Greeks,  whose  efforts  were  at  first 
wholly  extempore.  Comedy  was  introduced  at 
Athens,  B.C.  578,  by  Susarionand  Dolon,  whose 
ompany  of  buffoons  performed  on  waggons, 
and  smeared  their  faces  with  lees  of  wine, 
"nstead  of  concealing  them  with  masks.  The 
ihorus,  which  was  of  Doric  origin,  was  added 
i.e.  556.  Thespis  of  Icaria  introduced  a  single 
actor,  who  related  the  mythological  deeds  of 
Dionyshis  or  Bacchus,  and  carried  on  serious 
conversations  with  the  chorus,  B.C.  535.  He  is 
therefore  regarded  as  the  founder  of  tragedy. 
Phrynichus  introduced  other  subjects  besides 


DRAMA 


[    338    ] 


DRAMATIC 


the  deeds  of  Bacchus,  and  also  employed  female 
characters  in  his  productions,  B.C.  511.  Written 
comedy  began  with  Epicharmus  of  Cos,  who 
attired  his  performers  in  costume,  and  adorned 
his  stage  with  purple  curtains.  He  flourished 
about  B.C.  500.  Anaxandrides,  the  comic  poet, 
who  flourished  B.C.  376,  was  the  first  who  wrote, 
plays  with  regular  plots.  The  principal  Greek 
poets  were  : — Tragic :  .ZEschylus  (B.C.  525—456), 
Sophocles  (B.C.  495—405),  and  Euripides  (B.C. 
480—406).  Comic:  Eupolis  (B.C.  429— ?),  Aris- 
tophanes (about  B.C.  427 ;  last  comedy,  B.C. 
388),  and  Menander  (B.C.  342 — 291).  Theatrical 
exhibitions  were  introduced  at  Rome  during 
n  pestilence,  B.C.  364,  in  order  to  propitiate 
the  favour  of  the  gods,  or  to  divert  the  minds 
of  the  populace  from  the  miserable  condition 
to  which  they  were  reduced.  The  actors  were 
Etruscans,  and  their  performances  consisted 
of  dances  without  words  or  dramatic  plot. 
Songs,  however,  were  soon  added,  as  ac- 
compaTiiment,  and  Livius  Andronicus,  who 
flourished  about  B.C.  240,  wrote  Latin  plays 
with  regular  plots  and  fables.  In  consequence 
of  losing  his  voice  from  the  frequency  of  his 
performances,  lie  employed  a  boy  to  sing  the 
ode  whilst  he  himself  danced ;  thus  intro- 
ducing a  most  important  improvement.  Tra- 
gedy never  flourished  at  Rome,  although  several 
distinguished  authors  endeavoured  to  render 
it  popular.  The  chief  of  these  were  Nsevius, 
who  flourished  B.C.  235,  and  Ennius  (B.C.  239 — 
169).  The  principal  Roman  comic  dramatists 


are  Plautus  (B.C.  227 — 184),  Statins  (died  B.C. 
168),  and  Terence  (B.C.  195 — 159).  The  ok" 
drama  maintained  its  footing  till  the  4th  ceil 


tury,  when  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  banished  it 
from  the  theatres  at  Constantinople,  and  intro- 
duced in  its  stead  dramatic  compilations  from 
the  Sacred  Writings.  From  Constantinople 
these  productions  were  conveyed  to  Italy. 
They  wci-c  succeeded  by  the  mysteries,  or 
religious  comedies,  from  which  the  modern 
drama  is  almost  entirely  derived.  Thus  the 
"Feast  of  Fools"  and  the  "Feast  of  the  Ass," 
with  other  religious  celebrations,  were  insti- 
tuted by  Theophylact,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, about  950.  These  mysteries  were  intro- 
duced into  England  about  mo,  when  the 
Story  of  St.  Catherine  was  exhibited  at  Dun- 
stable.  In  1264  a  society  del  Gait/alone  was 
established  at  Rome  to  represent  the  passion 
of  the  Saviour,  and  before  1 300  sacred  dramas 
were  performed  in  Germany.  The  Chester 
mysteries  are  referred  by  Warton  to  1327, 
though  Hallam  considers  that  date  a  cen- 
tury too  early.  The  "  Confrarie  de  la  Pas- 
sion" was  established  in  France  as  a  regular 
theatrical  company  about  1400.  The  earliest 
drama  of  a  secular  kind  was  Bibiena's  comedy 
of  the  Calandra,  which  was  performed  at 
Venice  in  1508.  Udal's  "  Ralph  Roister  Doister," 
written  about  1540,  and  printed  in  1565,  is  the 
first  secular  English  play.  The  office  of 
master  of  the  revels,  whose  duty  was  to  ar- 
range the  theatrical  entertainments  of  the 
court,  was  established  in  1544,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  rise  of  the  British  drama.  In 
1574  the  Earl  of  Leicester's  servants  received  a 
patent  to  act  plays  in  any  part  of  England, 
and  iu  1576  they  built  the  theatre  at  Black- 


friars,  which  was  the  first  building  of  the  kind 
in  England.  Marlowe's  "  Edward  II.,"  which 
appeared  in  1593,  is  regarded  as  the  earliest 
English  historical  play.  "  Celestina,"  written  in 
Spanish  by  Fernando  de  Roias,  translated  into 
English  by  James  Mabbe,  and  published  in 
1631,  in  21  acts,  is  the  longest  play  on  record. 
Burbage,  Shakespeare,  Hemmiiigs,  and  others, 
received  a  license  to  act  plays  in  any  part  of 
the  kingdom,  May  19,  1603.  Actresses,  who 
were  originally  from  France,  first  appeared  in 
England,  at  the  Blackfriars  Theatre,  in  Michael- 
mas, 1629';  but  the  innovation  was  vehemently 
opposed  by  the  stricter  portion  of  the  com- 
munity, and  in  great  part  occasioned  the 
publication  of  Prymie's  "  Histrio-Mastix,  or 
Players'  Scourge,"  which  appeared  in  1633. 
During  the  supremacy  of  the  Puritans  the 
drama  was  discouraged,  all  the  theatres  being 
closed  by  a  parliamentary  order  dated  Sep.  2, 
1642,  and  their  fittings  and  furniture  destroyed 
by  another  dated  Jan.  22,  1648.  Sir  William  Da- 
venant,  however,  opened  a  kind  of  theatre  in  Ru  t- 
land  House,  Charterhouse  Yard,  May  23,  1656, 
on  which  occasion  scenes  were  first  employed 
in  a  public  theatre  ;  and,  in  1662,  both  he  and 
Killigrew  obtained  patents  to  open  playhouses 
by  monopoly,  from  Charles  II.  Davenant's 
theatre  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  was  opened 
early  in  1662,  the  actors  being  styled  "the 
Duke  of  York's  Company  of  Comedians." 
Killigrew's  company,  known  as  the  "King's 
Company,"  opened  Drury  Lane  in  1663.  The 
theatre  in  Dorset  Gardens  was  opened  iu  1671  ; 
and  in  1682  the  King's  and  the  Duke's  Com- 
panies united  patents,  and  removed  to  Drury 
Lane.  The  popularity  of  operas  so  injured 
the  pay  of  the  actors,  that  Bctterton  and  other 
performers  opened  another  theatre  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  in  1695.  By  10  Geo.  II. 
c.  28  (1737),  plays  were  ordered  to  be  revised  and 
l  by  the  lord  cliamberlain  before  they 
could  be  legally  performed.  3  Will.  IV.  c.  15 
(June  10,  1833),  known  as  the  Authors'  Dra- 
matic Copyright  Protection  Act,  prohibited 
the  performance  of  any  play  unless  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  author  had  been  previously  ob- 
tained. The  provisions  of  this  act  were 
extended  to  operatic  performances  by  5  &  6 
Viet.  c.  45,  ss.  20  &  21  (July  i,  1842). 

DRAMATIC  COLLEGE.— Mr.  Henry  Dodd 
having  placed  five  acres  of  land  and  100  guineas 
at  the  disposal  of  a  provisional  committee,  for 
the  founding  of  an  institution  to  bear  this 
name,  a  public  meeting  was  held  at  the  Prin- 
cess's Theatre  Wednesday,  July  21,  1858.  Mr. 
C.  Kean  presided,  and  was,  with  three  others, 
appointed  trustees.  A  dispute  commenced  be- 
tween Mr.  Dodd  and  the  committee,  Sep.  20, 
respecting  the  conditions  of  the  gift,  and 
at  a  meeting  held  at  the  Adelphi  Theatre, 
Jan.  12,  1859,  Mr.  Dodd's  offer  was  rejected, 
and  arrangements  were  made  for  erecting 
the  building  elsewhere.  A  site  was  subse- 
quently selected  at  Maybury,  near  Woking, 
and  the  foundation-stone  of  the  college  was 
laid  by  Prince  Albert,  Friday,  June  i,  1860.  A 
meeting  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  public 
schools  for  both  sexes,  in  connection  with  the 
college,  was  held  in  the  Adelphi  Theatre,  under 
the  presidency  of  Mr.  Charles  Dickens,  May  u, 


DRANESVILLE 


[     339    1 


DRESS 


1864.    The  central  hall  of  the  college  was  opened 
by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  June  5,  1865. 

DRANESVILLE  (Battle.)— The  Confederate 
Gen.  Stuart  was  defeated  by  the  Federals,  with 
a  loss  of  200  men,  at  this  place,  in  Virginia, 
Dec.  22,  1861. 

DRAPERS'  COMPANY  was  incorporated  in 
1430.  The  patent  for  their  arms  bears  date 
1439.  The  company  established  themselves  in 
1541  in  the  house  of  the  attainted  Thomas 
Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex,  situated  in  Throg- 
morton  Street.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  great 
fire  of  1666,  and  the  present  building  was  com- 
menced in  1667. 

DRAPIER  LETTERS. —  These  letters, 
written  by  Dean  Swift  under  the  signature  of 
M.  B.  Drapier,  condemned  the  government  for 
granting  a  patent,  in  1722,  to  supply  a  deficiency 
of  ,£108,000  in  the  copper  coinage  of  Ireland,  to 
a  man  named  Wood.  They  began  to  appear  in 
1723,  and  created  a  sensation  in  Ireland,  per- 
haps unparalleled  in  the  literary  history  of  the 
country.  In  April,  1724,  Harding,  the  printer 
of  the  letters,  was  imprisoned  and  prosecuted 
by  the  crown;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  he  re- 
fused to  betray  their  author.  In  consequence 
of  the  excitement  in  the  country,  the  patent 
was  abandoned,  after  .£40,000  in  halfpence  had 
been  coined ;  and  Wood,  who  received  an  in- 
demnity of  .£3,000  per  annum  for  12  years,  was 
compelled  by  the  popular  indignation  to  leave 
the  country. 

DRAUGHTS.— This  game,  called  in  France 
Les  Dames,  and  in  Scotland  Dambrod,  which 
was  unknown  to  the  ancients,  is  mentioned  as 
early  as  1551. 

DRAWING.— This  art  is  evidently  of  extreme 
antiquity,  being,  at  least,  as  old  as  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  which  were  invented  about  B.C. 
2122.  The  Greeks  attribute  its  origin  to  the 
ingenuity  of  a  young  girl  of  Sicyon,  who  traced, 
with  a  piece  of  charcoal,  the  shadow  of  her 
lover's  profile  on  the  wall,  in  order  that  she 
might  possess  a  likeness  of  him  during  his 
absence. 

DREADNOUGHT  HOSPITAL.— This  vessel, 
which  fought  at  Trafalgar  (q.  v.)  Oct.  21,  1805, 
was  moored  off  Greenwich  as  an  hospital  ship 
for  seamen  of  all  nations,  June  20,  1831. 

DREPANUM  (Sea-fight).— During  the  first 
Punic  war,  the  Roman  consul,  P.  Claudius 
Pulcher,  was  defeated,  B.C.  249,  off  Drepanum, 
in  Sicily,  with  a  loss  of  93  ships,  by  the  Car- 
thaginian fleet.  The  Roman  commander  is 
said  to  have  given  battle  in  defiance  of  the 
augurs,  and,  when  told  that  the  sacred  chickens 
would  not  eat,  exclaimed  "Let  them  drink ! " 
and  ordered  them  to  be  thrown  into  the  sea. 

DRESDEN  (Battle).— An  allied  Austrian, 
Russian,  and  Prussian  army,  about  150,000 
strong,  under  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  attacked 
131,000  French  troops,  led  by  Napoleon  I.,  at 
Dresden,  Aug.  26,  1813.  The  battle,  which 
commenced  at  four  o'clock  P.M.,  was  renewed 
Aug.  27,  when  Napoleon  totally  defeated  his 
opponents.  The  allied  army  lost  above  6,000 
men  in  this  battle,  and  Gen.  Mpreau,  who  was 
engaged  as  a  volunteer,  fell  in  the  conflict. 
The  French  loss  amounted  to  4,000  men. 

DRESDEN  (Saxony)  was  originally  a  miser- 
able fishing  village,  founded  in  the  nth  cen- 


tury. In  1136  it  was  beautified  and  enlarged 
by  Henry  the  Illustrious,  and  in  1485,  on  the 
division  of  Saxony  between  the  sons  of  Frede- 
rick II.,  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Albert,  who  made 
it  his  residence.  In  1491  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  but  was  speedily  rebuilt,  and,  in  1534,  a 
castle  was  erected  by  George  le  Barbu.  In 
1548  it  became  the  capital  of  the  electorate,  and 
in  1610  was  visited  by  war,  plague,  and  famine. 
The  academy  was  founded  in  1697.  The  Prus- 
sians took  it  in  1745  and  in  1756,  when  they 
were  commanded  by  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
again  laid  siege  to  it  July  13,  1760.  He  was, 
however,  compelled  to  retire  July  22,  after 
submitting  the  city  to  a  bombardment,  which 
reduced  some  of  its  noblest  buildings  to  ruins. 
The  institution  for  the  blind  was  founded  in 
1809.  An  Austrian  army  entered  Dresden  June 
ii,  1809,  and,  after  various  reverses,  quitted  it 
July  21.  The  allies,  who  occupied  the  city 
April  26,  1813,  abandoned  it  soon  after,  and 
it  was  taken  by  the  French  (See  BATTLE  OF 
DRESDEN),  who  in  their  turn  withdrew  Nov.  n. 
Riots  occurred  Sep.  9-13,  1830,  when  the 
town  hall  was  attacked  and  plundered,  and 
many  excesses  were  committed.  Another 
insurrection  broke  out  June  3,  1849,  which 
was  finally  suppressed  June  7.  Mr.  Paget, 
an  English  traveller  resident  in  Dresden,  was 
arrested  on  a  false  charge  of  aiding  the  Hun- 
garian revolution,  Sep.  2,  1852.  His  liberation 
took  place  Sep.  25. 

DRESDEN  (Treaties). — Several  treaties  have 
been  concluded  at  Dresden,  the  most  important 
being  the  Alliance  of  Dresden,  signed  June  28, 
1709,  by  which  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  and 
Augustus  II.  of  Saxony,  united  against  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden ;  and  the  peace  of  Dresden, 
Dec.  25,  1745,  between  Saxony,  Prussia,  and 
Hungary. 

DRESDEN  CHINA.— John  Frederick  Bott- 
cher,  an  apothecary's  assistant  at  Berlin,  having 
fled  to  Dresden  to  avoid  prosecution  for  alchemy, 
was  protected  by  the  Elector  Augustus  II.,  who 
provided  him  with  means  to  discover  the  philo- 
sopher's stone.  Although  unsuccessful  in  this 
enterprise,  he  unexpectedly  produced  some- 
thing so  like  oriental  porcelain,  that  he  aban- 
doned his  former  useless  pursuits,  and  directed 
his  attention  to  the  perfection  of  his  new  dis- 
covery. After  several  years  of  arduous  labour, 
ic,  in  1709,  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  and 
manufactured  the  first  white  porcelain  made  in 
Europe.  A  factory  was  established  at  Meissen 
.n  1710,  of  which  he  was  appointed  director; 
nd  in  1715  he  brought  his  invention  to  perfec- 
tion. 

DRESS.— In  the  "  Book  of  Costume  "  it  is 
stated  that  "  all  ancient  nations  seem  to  have 
aad  the  same  costume,  formed  of  long  gar- 
ments, without  much  shape  or  ornament ;  and 
as  these  were  all  much  alike,  they  descended 
Yom  father  to  son  for  many  generations.  The 
colours  most  valued  among  the  ancients  appear 
;o  have  been  purple,  red,  and  violet,  but  white 
was  the  most  used  by  the  Israelites."  The 
costumes  of  the  early  Greeks  were  remarkable 
rom  their  close  fit,  loose  flowing  garments 
)eing  of  later  introduction.  Amongthe  Romans, 
he  toga,  a  dress  derived  from  the  Etruscans, 
was  the  characteristic  costume ;  and,  although 


DRESS 


[     340     ] 


DROGIIEDA 


discouraged  by  Augustus  (B.C.  27 — A.D.  14)  and 
Domitian  (81 — 96),  it  maintained  its  popularity 
till  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  to 
Constantinople  in  330,  when  it  was  superseded 
by  the  Greek  pallium.  The  earliest  mention 
of  the  Britons  is  by  Herodotus  (B.C.  478),  who 
alludes  to  their  custom  of  staining  their  bodies 
with  woad  as  a  proof  of  high  descent.  Strabo 
(B.C.  71 — A.D.  14)  says  that  their  dress  consisted 
of  a  long  black  robe  bound  round  the  breast ; 
and  Herodian,  writing  in  207,  states  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  fenny  districts  wore  little  or 
no  clothing,  both  that  they  might  be  at  liberty 
to  swim  and  wade  through  the  marshes,  and 
that  their  tattooed  bodies  might  be  seen  and 
appreciated .  The  Druids  wore  long  white  robes 
arid  mantles,  with  oak-leaves  bound  round  the 
forehead,  and  the  chief  priest  was  adorned 
with  a  breastplate  of  a  crescent  form,  which 
was  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  strangling 
the  wearer  if  he  ever  gave  false  judgment. 
When  the  Romans  conquered  England,  they  of 
course  introduced  their  costume,  which  Tacitus 
stales  began  to  be  adopted  in  the  time  of  Agri- 
cola.  The  Saxons  introduced  drawers,  trowsers, 
long  and  short  tunics,  whence  the  modern 
rustic  smock  is  derived  ;  cloaks,  caps  of  wool, 
felt,  or  fur  ;  stockings,  usually  cross-gartered  ; 
hoots,  shoes,  and  gloves.  The  Danes  wore 
dresses  similar  in  style,  but  more  ornamental ; 
and  the  Normans  introduced  no  novelty  on 
their  first  arrival,  except  the  ladies'  surcoat,  a 
short  cloak,  with  long  and  ugly  sleeves.  Parti- 
coloured coats  were  first  worn  in  England  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  chaplets,  or  wreaths  of 
artificial  flowers,  in  the  time  of  Edward  III., 
hoods  and  taberts  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV., 
hats  in  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  shoes  in  1633, 
and  breeches  superseded  trunk  hose  in  1654. 
In  the  i3th  century  the  tabard,  a  sleeveless 
garment,  consisting  of  two  pieces,  hanging 
before  and  behind,  came  into  vise,  and  in  the 
i4th  century  a  great  variety  of  sleeves,  cloaks, 
and  head-gear,  with  pantaloons,  sleeveless 
spencers,  scarfs,  and  long-pointed  shoes,  be- 
came characteristic  features.  The  women  of 
this  century  were  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
whimsical  designs  of  their  head-dresses  ;  they 
also  wore  stay-like  garments  outside  their  other 
dress.  In  the  isth  century  tight  breeches  and 
slashed  sleeves  were  introduced.  Strutt  states  : 
— "At  the  close  of  the  isth,  the  dress  of  the 
English  was  exceedingly  fantastical  and  absurd, 
insomuch  that  it  was  even  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  one  sex  from  the  other.  The  men 
wore  petticoats  over  their  lower  clothing  ;  then- 
doublets  were  laced  in  the  front  like  a  woman's 
stays  across  a  stomacher;  and  their  gowns  were 
open  in  the  front  to  the  girdle,  and  again  from 
the  girdle  to  the  ground."  The  honied  head- 
dress for  ladies  appeared  at  the  beginning  of 
this  century,  and  continued  in  vogue  till  1461, 
when  the  steeple  fashion  became  prevalent. 
Swords,  as  a  part  of  domestic  dress,  were  intro- 
duced in  the  latter  part  of  the  i$th  century. 
The  chief  innovations  of  the  i6th  century  were 
the  enormous  puffed  doublets  and  trunk 
breeches  of  the  men,  and  the  hooped  fardin- 

fales  and  high  wing-like  collars  of  the  ladies, 
n  the  1 7th  century,  judges'  wigs,  coats  with 
short  sleeves,  puffed  breeches,  and  boots  with 


very  large  tops,  were  favourite  fashions,  and 
the  Puritans  embroidered  their  garments  with 
religious  maxims.  Muffs  for  the  hands  are 
mentioned  as  having  been  used  by  gentle- 
men during  the  frost  of  1683-4.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  i8th  century,  the  ladies'  commodes, 
introduced  in  1687,  attained  the  extravagant 
height  which  excited  Addison's  raillery  in  the 
Spectator  ;  and  the  hooped  petticoats  were  so 
altered  in  fashion,  that,  in  the  words  of  a  writer 
in  the  Weekly  Journal  of  1718,  "  when  a  slender 
virgin  stands  upon  a  basis  so  exorbitantly  wide, 
she  resembles  a  funnel,  a  figure  of  no  great 
elegancy."  Gentlemen  wore  square-cut  coats, 
stiffened  by  wire  and  buckram.  Towards  the 
middle  of  the  century,  head-dresses  of  enor- 
mous height  were  worn  by  the  ladies,  who, 
according  to  the  L<>i/il<>,<  Magazine  for  1768,  used 
such  expensive  modes  of  dressing  the  hair, 
that  it  was  sometimes  left  nine  weeks  without 
attention,  which  time,  says  the  author,  is  ' '  as 
long  as  a  head  could  well  go  in  summer."  The 
formation  of  the  Macaroni  Club  in  1772  contri- 
buted greatly  to  extravagance  of  costume, 
which  continued  undisturbed  by  any  important 
novelty  until  the  introduction  of  the  modern 
round  hat  for  gentlemen  in  1789.  Short  waists 
became  fashionable  in  1794,  but  in  1798  they 
resumed  more  graceful  proportions,  and  at 

length  regained  their  proper  shape. Various 

laws  have  been  enacted  at  different  times  for 
the  regulation  of  costume  in  England.  Such 
are  37  Edw.  III.  c.  8,  &c.  (1363) ;  3  Edw.  IV. 
c.  5  (1463)  ;  22  Edw.  IV.  c.  i  (1482);  i  &  2  Phil. 
&  Mary  c.  2  (1554);  and  13  Eliz.  c.  19(1570). 
The  last  act  required  every  person  above  six 
years  old,  except  maidens,  ladies,  and  gentle- 
women, and  lords,  knights,  and  gentlemen  of 
20  marks  a-year,  to  wear  on  Sundays  and  holi- 
days a  woollen  cap  of  English  manufacture, 
under  a  penalty  of  3.9.  41!. 

DREUX  (France).— This  town  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  English  in  1188.  An  obstinate 
battle  was  fought  between  the  Roman  Catholic 
army  and  the  Huguenot  forces,  led  by  Conde", 
at  this  place,  Dec.  19,  1562.  Both  commanders 
were  made  prisoners.  Henry  IV.  of  France 
took  the  town,  after  a  siege  of  18  days,  in 
1593. 

DRINKING-FOUNTAINS.  —  A  meeting  in 
support  of  the  movement  to  erect  drinking- 
fouiitains  was  held  at  Willis's  Rooms,  April  12, 
1859.  The  first  public  fountain  in  London  was 
erected  by  the  Metropolitan  Drinking-Foun- 
tains  Association,  at  the  expense  of  Mr.  S. 
Gumey,  at  the  comer  of  St.  Sepulchre's 
churchyard.  It  was  opened  for  general  use 
April  21,  1859.  Numbers  of  drinking-fountains 
have  since  been  erected  in  London,  and  in  va- 
rious provincial  towns. 

DROGHEDA  (Ireland)  was  fortified  by  Tur- 
gesius  the  Dane,  in  911.  Lucas,  Archbishop 
of  Armagh,  founded  a  Dominican  convent  in 
1224,  and  in  this  building  the  four  Irish  kings, 
O'Neill,  O'Hanlon,  O'Donncll,  and  Macmahon, 
did  homage  to  Richard  II.,  March  10,  1395. 
In  1412,  Henry  VI.  granted  a  corporation,  and 
the  town  afterwards  became  of  considerable 
political  importance,  courts  and  parliaments 
being  held  in  it  by  the  English  viceroys. 
"  Poynings's  Law,"  •cwJnVh  TwiiHoiWi  fii«  TviaVi 


which  rendered  the  Irish 


DROMORE 


DRUSES 


parliament  subservient  to  that  of  England 
was  passed  at  Drogheda  in  1494.  Cromwelj 
stormed  and  took  the  town  Sep.  n,  1649 
putting  3,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword 
and  in  1690  it  resisted  an  assault  by  King 
William  III.'s  army,  to  which  it  surrendered 
after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  The  first  stone 
of  the  Whitworth  Institution  was  laid  by  its 
founder,  Mr.  Benjamin  Whitworth,  May  24, 
1864. 

DROMORE  (Ireland)  was  erected  into  a 
bishop's  see  by  St.  Coleman  about  510,  but 
there  is  no  regular  succession  of  bishops  til] 
the  i ath  century.  Jeremy  Taylor  became 
Bishop  of  Dromore  in  1661.  The  Church 
Temporalities  Act  (3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug. 
14,  1833)  provided  that,  when  next  vacant,  the 
see  of  Dromore  should  be  united  to  those  of 
Down  and  Connor  (q.  v.).  This  occurred  on 
the  death  of  Bishop  Saiirin,  April  9,  1842. 

DRONTHEIM,  or  TRONDHJEM  (Norway).— 
This  town,  founded  by  Olaf  I.  in  997,  was  the 
capital  of  Norway,  until  that  kingdom  was 
united  to  Denmark.  The  cathedral  was 
commenced  in  1033.  Drontheim  was  made  an 
archbishopric  in  1151,  was  ceded  to  Sweden  in 
1658,  and  restored  to  Denmark  in  1660.  The 
Swedes  invested  Drontheim,  but  without  suc- 
cess, in  Oct.,  1718. 

DROOP  MOUNTAIN  (Battle).  —  The  Con- 
federates, under  Gen.  Echols  and  Col.  Jackson, 
were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  300  men,  by  a 
superior  force  of  Federals  under  Gen.  Averill, 
near  this  mountain  in  Virginia,  Nov.  6,  1863. 

DROTNINGHOLM  (Treaty).— The  Empress 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  and  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden,  concluded  an  alliance  at  this  island, 
called  also  Queen's  Island,  in  the  Malar  Lake, 
near  Stockholm,  Oct.  19,  1791.  It  was  purely 
of  a  defensive  character,  and  was  contracted 
in  order  that  Gustavus,  relieved  from  fear  of 
invasion  on  the  part  of  his  more  powerful 
neighbour,  might  be  at  liberty,  should  an 
opportunity  arise,  to  lead  his  forces  against 
the  French  Republic.  It  was  very  unpopular 
in  Sweden. 

DROWNING.  —  This  punishment,  common 
amongst  many  nations  of  antiquity,  was 
treacherously  inflicted  near  Nicomedia  in  370, 
on  80  legates,  who  complained  of  certain 
grievances,  which  the  Emperor  Valens  found 
it  inconvenient  to  redress.  It  was  awarded, 
by  a  charter  of  Richard  I.,  dated  1189,  to  any 
crusader  of  his  army  who  should  kill  a  fellow- 
soldier  on  shipboard.  In  this  country  it  was 
long  a  punishment  inflicted  upon  women.  It 
prevailed  in  Scotland  as  late  as  1685.  The  last 
execution  by  drowning  in  Switzerland  took 
place  in  1652,  in  Austria  in  1776,  and  in  Iceland 
in  1777.  During  the  French  Revolution,  it  was 
revived  by  the  monster  J.  B.  Carrier,  who,  in 
1793,  constructed  vessels  in  which  100  victims 
might  be  drowned  at  once.  (See  NOYADES.) 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  of  the  ancient  Gauls 
and  Britons,  who  revered  the  oak  and  mis- 
tletoe, and  were  the  legislators  and  teachers 
of  the  people.  Their  origin  is  unknown.  Sue- 
tonius Paulinus  put  numbers  of  them  to  the 
sword,  when  he  took  Anglesey,  the  ancient 
Mona,  in  61,  and  from  that  time  their  authority 
declined. 


DRUM. — Representations  of  this  instrument 
occur  on  Egyptian  sculptures  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  where  it  is  always  depicted  as  being 
struck  by  the  hands.  It  was  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracens,  and  was  played,  pro- 
bably for  the  first  time  in  France,  on  the 
entry  of  Edward  III.  into  Calais  in  1347. 

DRUMCLOG  (Battle).— Graham  of  Claver- 
house  was  defeated  here  by  the  Scottish 
Covenanters,  Sunday,  June  i,  1679  (O.  S.). 
Forty  of  the  royalists  and  one  of  the  rebels 
fell  in  the  action,  and  Claverhouse  himself 
was  nearly  made  prisoner. 

DRUNKARDS.— By  a  law  of  Pittacus,  B.C. 
589,  the  ancient  Greeks  inflicted  double  punish- 
ment upon  such  as  committed  crime  in  a  state 
of  intoxication ;  one  penalty  being  awarded 
for  the  actual  offence  and  the  other  for  the 
intemperance  which  occasioned  its  commission. 
The  Apostolical  Canons,  in  250,  declared  all 
drunken  priests  degraded  from  their  sacred 
office,  and  Pope  Eutychian  (275 — 283)  de- 
nounced sentence  of  excommunication  against 
laymen  guilty  of  intoxication.  In  England  a 
law  was  passed  against  drunkenness  in  975, 
and  by  4  James  I.  c.  5  (1606),  and  21  James  I. 
c.  7,  s.  3  (1623),  offenders  are  liable  to  a  fine  of 
five  shillings,  to  be  devoted  to  the  use  of  the 
poor,  or  six  hours  in  the  stocks,  and  for  a 
second  offence  to  be  bound  with  two  sureties 
in  £10  for  good  behaviour. 

DRURY  -  LANE  THEATRE  (London)  was 
opened  by  the  King's  Company  under  Thomas 
Killigrew,  April  8,  1663.  In  Jan.,  1672,  it 
was  burned  down,  and  a  new  one,  erected  from 
the  designs  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  was 
opened  May  26,  1674.  This  theatre  became  the 
only  one  in  London,  when  Davenant's  Com- 
pany united  with  the  King's,  Nov.  16,  1682. 
After  undergoing  considerable  alterations,  it 
was  reopened  Sep.  23,  1775.  The  Theatrical 
Fund  was  established  by  Garrick  in  1776. 
The  last  performance  in  Wren's  theatre  took 
place  June  4,  1791,  after  which  it  was  pulled 
down  and  rebuilt  by  Henry  Holland.  The 
new  building  was  opened  with  a  performance 
of  sacred  music,  March  12,  1794.  It  was 
burned  down  Feb.  24,  1809.  The  first  stone 
of  a  new  theatre,  designed  by  Mr.  B.  Wyatt, 
was  laid  Oct.  29,  1811,  and  the  new  building 
was  opened  with  a  prologue  by  Lord  Byron, 
Oct.  10,  1812. 

DRURY'S  BLUFF  (United.States) .—The 
garrison  of  the  forts  at  this  point  on  the 
James  River,  Virginia,  about  eight  miles  below 
Richmond,  repulsed  an  attack  by  a  powerful 
squadron  of  Federal  iron-clads,  May  8,  1862. 

DRUSES,  a  people  of  Syria,  who  trace  their 
descent  from  Darazi,  a  disciple  of  the  Fati- 
mite  caliph  Hakem  (996—1020).  In  1588  they 
were  subdued  by  Amurath  III.,  but  regained 
a  portion  of  their  independence  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century.  An  insurrection  occurred 
among  the  Drvises  and  Maronites  in  the  spring 
of  1840.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Turks  in 
1841.  In  the  summer  of  1860  they  rose  in 
arms  against  the  Maronite  Christians,  and 
slew  about  12,000  men,  women,  and  children, 
of  whom  200  were  priests  ;  besides  destroying 
163  villages,  220  churches,  and  7  convents. 
The  massacre  was  suspended  July  10,  and  the 


DUBLIN 


[     342    1 


DUBLIN 


Sultan  despatched  Fuad  Pasha  as  commissioner 
to  restore  tranquillity.  The  consequence  was, 
that  167  of  the  most  guilty  Druses  were 
publicly  executed  at  Damascus  Aug.  20,  and 
many  others  sent  to  Constantinople  to  undergo 
imprisonment  and  hard  labour. 

DUBLIN  (Archbishopric).— St.  Patrick  is 
said  to  have  placed  a  bishop  over  the  church 
he  founded  at  Dublin,  in  448  ;  but  no  names 
of  prelates  remain  earlier  than  Livinus,  who 
was  promoted  to  the  see  in  633.  In  1152, 
Bishop  Gregory  was  raised  to  the  archiepis- 
copal  dignity,  and  in  1214  the  diocese  was 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  see  of  Glen- 
daloch.  George  Brown,  who  succeeded  to  the 
archiepiscopal  throne  in  1535,  was  the  first 
Protestant  archbishop  of  the  diocese.  In 
agreement  with  a  provision  of  the  Church 
Temporalities  Act  (3*4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug. 
14,  1833),  the  see  of  Kildare  was  united  to 
Dublin,  Aug.  8,  1846. 

DUBLIN  (Ireland)  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy, 
under  its  Latin  name  "  Eblana,"  A.D.  140.  Its 
early  history  is  involved  in  obscurity. 

A.D. 

448.  St.  Patrick  converts  tho  King  of  Dublin  and  his  sub- 

jects  to  ChrisiianiU. 
798.  First  arrival  of  the  'Danes,  who  surround  the  city 

with  walls. 
964.  Dublin  is  mentioned  bv  Edgar,  King  of  England,  in 

a  charter  called  "Oswald's  Law." 
1005.  The  suburbs   are   burned    bv  Mclaghlln,    King    of 

Heath. 

1014,  April  33.   Battle  of  Clontarf  (q.  v.\ 
1034.  Donat,  Bishop  of  Dublin,  and  Sitric,  Kingof  Dublin, 

found    St.    Michael's    chapel,    afterwards    culled 

ChrUtchurch. 

1105.  St.  Catherine's  church  is  built. 
1170,  Sep.  2,1.  Dublin  is  besieged  and  taken  by  the  English, 

under  Karl  Strongbow. 
1173.  Henry  II.  -ranis  Dublin,  by  charter,  to  the  citizens  of 

Brtatol. 
1190.  A  disastrous  fire  destroys  great  part  of  the  city. 

Christchureh  is  rebuilt,  and  St.  Patrick's  church 

founded. 
1305,  Aug.  31.  A  patent  is  granted  by  King  John,  directing 

Fit/.henry,  the  governor  of  tiie  town,  to  commence 

Ba*tl«. 

1315.  A  bridge  is  built  over  the  Liffey. 
1335.  1'»e  monastery  of  .St.  Francis  is  founded. 
1359.  '''lie  monastery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  founded. 
I2~s.  Whitefrian  monastery  is  founded. 
1383,  Jan.  3.  The  greater  part  of  the  city  is  destroyed  by 

fire. 

1308.  A  provost  and  two  bailiffs  are  appointed. 
1330.  A  university  is  established  in  St.  Patrick's  church  bv 

Alexander  de  I'.irUnor,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.        ' 
1362,  April  d.  St.  Patrick's  church  is  destroyed  by  tire. 
1409.  A  mayor  is  first  appointed. 
1487.  Lambert  Sinmel  is  crowned  king  in  Christchureh,  by 

the.  title  of  F.dward  VI. 

1500.  The  riiy  is  besieged  by  a  son  of  Gerald,  Earl  of  Kil- 
dare, and  lord-deputy. 
1541.  The  priory  and  convent  of  Christchureh  constituted 

a  deanery  and  chapter. 

1548.  The  bailiffs"  of  Dublin  are  first  called  sheriffs. 
1591,  March   13.  Trinity   College  is   founded   by  Thomas 

Smith,  mayor. 

1601.  The  library  of  Trinity  College  is  formed. 
1614.  A  convocation  of  bishops  is  held,  which 

the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 
1635.  John  ( )gilby  erects  the  first  theatre  in  Dublin. 
1647,  June    18.  Dublin   surrenders  to   the   Parliamentary 

forces. 
1649,  June  19— Aug.  a.  It  is  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 

Marquis  of  Orinond.— Aug.   14.  It  is  occupied  by 

Cromwell  previous  to  the  siege  of  Droghcda. 
1653.  The  high  court  of  justice  is  established,  for  the  trial 

Of  Papist  rebels. 

1663.  Phoenix  Park  is  commenced. 
1665.  The  chief  magistrate  is  tirst  called  lord  mayor. 


1670.  The  Blue-coat  Hospital  and  Bloody-bridge  are  built 
1676.  Sir  Humphrey  .l.-rvis  builds  Essex  Bridge. 
i6,S4,  April  7.  Great  part  of  the  castle  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
1686.  The  lloyal  Hospital  at  Kilmuinhum  is  completed 

roh  24-  -lames  II.  enters  Dublin. 

1695.  The  Four  Courts  are  built  in  Christchureh  Lane. 
1701,  July  i.  The  equestrian  statue  of  William  III.  is  in- 
augurated. 

1704.  The  Foundling  Hospital  is  commenced. 
1*107.  The  Old  Custom-house  is  founded  in  Essex  Street. 
1730.  Steven's  Hospital  is  founded. 
1735.  The  market-house  in  Thomas  Street  is  built. 

1738,  Aug.  The  infirmary  is  founded  on  the  Inns'  Quay. 

1739.  Parliament-house  on  College  Green  is  begun. 
1745.  St.  Patrick's  Hospital  is  founded  by  Dean  Swift. 
1749,  April  3.  The   lioyal  Dublin  Society  is   incorporated, 

and  St.  Patrick's  steeple  erected. 

'753i  April.  St.  Nicholas'  Hospital  is  opened.  The  re- 
building of  Essex  Bridge  is  commenced. 

1757-  St.  Patrick's  Hospital  is  opened. 

1758.  The  new  theatre  in  Crow  Street  is  opened. 

1704.  (Queen's  Bridge  is  founded. 

1767,  June  1 1.   Magdalen  House,  Leeson  Street,  is  opened. 

1769,  Aug.  3.  The  Koyal  Exchange  is  founded. 

1770.  Meath  Hospital  is  founded. 

1773.  The  Foundling  Hospital  and  workhouse  are  incorpo- 
rated. 

1773.  The  new  gaol  is  founded.  An  act  for  paving  the 
streets  is  passed,  and  the  penny  post  e.stal.iIMied. 

1775.  Four  Courts  Marshalsca  are  founded. 

17-9.  The  Uoval  Exchange  is  opened. 

1781.  Simpson's  Hospital  for  the  Blind  is  founded.  The 
New  Custom-house  is  founded. 

1783,  June  25.    The    Bank  of    Ireland  is  opened  in   St. 

Mary's  Abbey. 

1784,  July    17.     Assembly-rooms,    Cavendish    Row,    are 

founded. 

1785,  The  observatory  is  established. 

I    h'oitr  Court!  founded,  and  police  established. 
1787.  Soldiers1  Infirmary,  Plnenix   Park,  is  founded,  and 

new  theatre  of  Trinity  College  opened. 
1789,  Jan.  15.  Astley's  Theatre  Koyal,  tor  equestrian  per- 

lonnanees.  is  opened. 
1791.  Apothecaries'   Hah   is  established,  and  Carlisle  and 

Sarah'.-   Bridge*  are  founded.— Nov.   7.  Tlr 

Ciistom-ho.i.sr  is  opened. 
1793,  Feb.  37.  The  House  of  Commons  is  partly  destroyed 

by  tire. 
1796,  July  39.  Commercial    Buildings   are  founded. — Oct. 

First   meeting  of   the  City  Armed  Association. — 

Nov.  3.  New  Four  Courts  opened. 
1798,  May   19.  Rebellion   in  Dublin,    and  arrest  of   Lord 

Edward  Fii /.gerald. 
1801,  Jan.  I.  The   united   standard   is   unfurled  from  the 

castle  towers,  in  consequence  of  the  union  with 

Great  Britain. 

1803,  July  23.  Emmet's  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Thomas 

Street. 

1804,  May  14.  The  Fever  Hospital  is  opened. 
1806,  Nov.  2*.   Bedford  Asylum  is  founded. 

1808.  The  Parliament-house  is  converted  into  the  Bank  of 

Ireland. 

1809.  Richmond  Institution  for  the  Blind  is  founded. 

1814,  Dec.  16,  &e.  Riots  at  the  Crow  Street  Theatre. 

1815.  The  Molincux  Blind  Asylum  is  founded. 
1817.  The  General  Post-office  is  completed. 
1819,  April  16—30.  Riots  at  the  theatre. 

1831,  Aug.  12.  George  IV.  visits  Dublin.  The  Theatre  Koyal, 
Hawkins  Street,  and  George's  Dock,  arc  opened. 

1823.  Dec.  14.  Riot  at  the  theatre,  on  the  occasion  of  the 

lord-lieutenant's  visit.     From  the  cirru, 

a  bottle  being  thrown  at  the  vice-regal  box,  it  is 

called  the  liottle  riot. 

1824.  Now    Anatomy    Buildings,    and    Koyal    Hibernian 

Academy  of  Arts,  are  founded. 

1825.  Gas  is  introduced. 

1827,  Dec.  13.  The  King's  Bridge  is  founded. 
1829.  Northumberland  Buildings  are  erected. 

1833.  First  appearance  of  the  ehoiera. 

1833,  Aug.  ic.  Great  fire  at  the  Cust. .m  K 

1834,  Dec.  17.   The  railroad  to  Kingston  is  opened. 

1836,  July  4.  Dublin  New  Police   Act    (6   &    7  Will.   IV. 

c.  39)  is  passed. 

1837.  The  Mechanics'  Institute  is  founded. 

(839,  Jan.  6.  Much  injury  is  done  by  a  hurricane. 
1843,  Oct.  14.  O'Connell  and  others  are  arrested  on  charges 
of  conspiracy  and  sedition.. 


DUBLIN 


[     343 


DUELLING 


1844,  Sep.  6.  Great  demonstrations  of  popular  joy,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  liberation  of  O'Connell  and  his 
fellow-prisoners. 

1848,  May  15.  Trial  of  Smith  O'Brien.     (See  CLONMEL.)— 

May  16.  Trial  of  Meagher.— May  24—37.  Trial  of 
Mitchell,  who  is  sentenced  to  14  years'  transporta- 

1849,  Aug.  6.  Dublin  is  visited  by  Queen  Victoria  and  the 

royal  family. 

1850,  April  18.  A  hail-storm  destroys  property  to  the  value 

of  £37,000. 

1852,  Sep.  The  Exchange  is  inaugurated  as  the  City -hall. 

1853,  May  13.  The  Dublin  Exhibition  is  opt-ned  by  the  lord- 

lieutenant. 

1854,  Aug.  ic.  An  act  (17  &  18  Viet.  c.  99)  is  passed  for  the 

establishment  of  a  National  Gallery,  Library,  and 
Museum  in  Dublin. 

1858,  March  13.  Serious  fray  between  the  students  of 
Trinity  College  and  the  police,  on  the  entry  of  the 
lord-lieutenant. 

1861,  April  6.  Six  persons  are  killed  in  an  omnibus  which 
falls  into  the  canaL— May  34.  The  Fine  Art  Exhi- 
bition is  opened. — Aug.  33.  Queen  Victoria  and 
Prince  Albert  arrive.— Aug.  36.  The  Queen  and 
Prince  leave  for  Kilkenny. 

1864,  Jan.  5.  The  statue  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  in  Trinity 

College  is  inaugurated  by  Lord  Carlisle. — Jan.  13. 
Lord  Carlisle  opens  an  exhibition  of  works  of  art 
and  industry  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  Uth 
regiment. — Jan.  38.  Opening  of  the  Irish  National 
Gallery,  and  inauguration  of  the  statue  of  William 
Dargau. — Feb.  33.  A  riotous  assembly  takes  place 
in  the  Kotunda,  on  the  occasion  of  a  meeting  to 
testify  "  indignation  and  shame  "  at  the  proposed 
erection  in  Dublin  of  a  national  monument  to  the 
late  Prince  Consort — March  39.  Lord  Carlisle  lays 
the  first  stone  of  the  Cannicbael  School  of  Medi- 
cine.— April  15.  A  national  horse  show  is  opened. 
—Aug.  8.  A  statue  of  Daniel  O'Connell  is  inaugu- 
rated. (See  BELFAST.) 

1865,  Feb.  34.  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  is  reopened  after  its 

restoration  by  Mr.  Guinness.— May  8.  The  Inter- 
national Exhibition  is  opened  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales. — Nov.  9.  The  Exhibition  is  formally  closed. 

1866,  Feb.  The   Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  suspended.     (See 

FENIANISM  and  IRELAND.) 

DUBLIN    INDUSTRIAL    EXHIBITION.— 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society, 
held  June  24,  1852,  Mr.  William  Dargan  offered 
to  place  the  sum  of  £20,000  in  the  hands  of  a 
committee  of  25  gentlemen,  fur  the  construc- 
tion of  a  building  in  which  an  Irish  industrial 
exhibition  might  be  held.  The  offer  was  ac- 
cepted, and  the  committee  held  its  first  meet- 
ing July  5.  The  building,  designed  by  Mr. 
John  Benson,  was  sufficiently  advanced  to 
admit  exhibitors  to  deposit  their  goods,  March 
i,  1853  ;  by  which  time  Mr.  Dargan's  advances 
fell  little  short  of  ,£80,000.  The  ceremony  of 
opening  the  exhibition  was  performed  by  Earl 
St.  Germains,  the  lord-lieutenant,  May  12. 
It  was  visited  by  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince 
Albert,  Aug.  29,  and  after  a  most  successful 
season  was  closed  Nov.  i. 

DUCAT.— This  gold  coin  is  said  to  have 
been  first  struck  in  the  6th  century  by  Longi- 
nus,  Duke  or  duca  of  Ravenna.  Others  attri- 
bute its  introduction  to  Roger  II.,  Duke  of 
Apulia,  who  coined  a  large  number  of  ducats 
in  1140.  Gibbon  attributes  the  origin  of  the 
name  to  the  dukes  of  Milan.  The  Venetians 
adopted  them  in  1280,  and  they  subsequently 
became  the  favourite  medium  of  the  commer- 
cial republics  of  Italy.  A  silver  coin,  known 
as  the  dvicatoon,  was  extensively  used  in  Spain 
and  Holland. 

DUCKING  STOOL.— (See  CUCKINO  STOOL.) 
DUDLEY  (Worcestershire).— Dodo,  a  Saxon 


prince,  erected  a  castle  here  about  760.  It  was 
demolished  during  the  rebellion,  and  was 
ultimately  destroyed  by  fire  in  1750. 

DUDLEY'S  CONSPIRACY.— In  Feb., 
1556,  Sir  Henry  Dudley,  cousin  to  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  entered  into  a  conspiracy, 
with  other  young  men,  to  dethrone  Queen 
Mary  and  establish  the  Princess  Elizabeth  in 
her  stead.  The  French  agreed  to  furnish 
means,  and  it  was  proposed  to  rob  the  Treasury ; 
for  which  purpose  five  of  the  conspirators 
were  selected.  The  plot  was,  however,  be- 
trayed, and  Throgmorton,  and  about  15  more, 
were  arrested  and  committed  to  the  Tower, 
March  18.  Dudley  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape.  Throgmorton  was  executed  April  28  ; 
Captain  Stanton,  May  19 ;  Derrick,  June  2  ; 
and  Sir  Henry  Peckham  and  John  Daniel, 

D  CELLING.— No  doubt  this  mode  of  settling 
disputes  originated  in  the  old  system  of  assize 
of  battle,  the  first  instance  in  England  resem- 
bling the  modern  duel  being  the  encounter 
between  William  Count  .d'Eu  and  Godfrey 
Baynard,  in  1096.  In  1361,  a  projected  duel 
between  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  was  prevented  by  John, 
King  of  France ;  and  in  1398  Richard  II. 
prohibited  one  arranged  between  the  Dukes  of 
Hereford  and  Norfolk.  Hallam  remarks  that 
duelling  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term  was 
unknown  before  the  i6th  century.  In  1528 
Francis  I.  challenged  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
to  a  mortal  encounter ;  but,  though  accepted, 
the  challenge  led  to  no  engagement.  Charles 
IX.  of  France  prohibited  the  practice  in  his 
dominions  in  1566.  The  celebrated  duel  be- 
tween Jarnac  and  La  Chataigneraie  took  place 
in  the  presence  of  Henry  II.  of  France  in  1547. 
Duelling  with  small-swords  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1587.  In  1597  duelling 
was  allowed  in  England  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  in  1602,  published  an 
edict  by  which  all  persons  engaging  in  a  duel, 
or  acting  as  seconds,  were  guilty  of  high 
treason.  The  law  was  found  to  be  too  severe, 
and  a  milder  edict  was  issued  in  1609.  Cromwell 
published  an  ordinance  for  its  suppression  in 
1654,  and  Charles  II.  issued  a  proclamation  de- 
nouncing death  against  any  who  should  kill 
another  in  a  duel  in  1679.  A  severe  edict 
against  duelling  was  published  in  Bavaria, 
Nov.  9,  1773,  which  enacted  that  principals 
and  seconds  in  a  duel,  even  although  110 
wounds  were  given,  should  suffer  death,  and 
be  buried  as  criminals.  A  court  of  honour  was 
established  for  its  suppression  in  Prussia  in 
1786,  by  deciding  questions  which  otherwise 
would  have  occasioned  duels.  An  anti-duel- 
ling association  was  formed  in  England  before 
May,  1843,  and  three  new  articles  of  war  were 
issued  in  1844  to  abate  the  practice  in  the 
English  army.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  duels  : — 

A.D. 

1713,  Nov.  15.  The  Duke  of  Hamilton  and  Lord  Mohun 
both  fall  in  a  duel  fought  with  small  swords. 

1763,  Oct.  5.  Between  John  Wilkes  and  Lord  Talbot, 
neither  being  injured. 

1763,  Nov.  16.  Between  John  Wilkes  and  Samuel  Martin, 
M.P.,  when  the  former  was  wounded  by  a  pistol- 
shot. 


DUELLING 


t     344     1 


DUELLING 


A.D. 

1764,  Feb.  8.  Cornet  Gardiner  kills  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hill  in 

Epping  Kuivst. 

1765,  Jan.  36.  Lord  Byron  kills  Mr.  Ohaworth,  at  the  Star 

and  Garter,  in  Pall-mall. 

1769,  Oct.  Henry  Flood  shoots  James  Agar. 

1770,  March  17.  George  Garrick  and  Mr.  Baddoley  exchange 

shots  in  Hyde  Park,  without  effect. 

1771,  Jan.  39.  Lord  Poulett  wounds  Lord  Milton. 

1773,  Jan.  31.  Two  French  ludiosof  qualityfight  a  duel  with 
knives,  in  order  to  settle  a  question  of  precedency. 
1773,  Feb.  3.  Lord  Townshend  wounds  the  Earl  of  Bella- 
mont. 

1777,  Jan.  13.  Capt.  Stoney  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bate  wound 

each  other  at  the  Adelphi  Tavern,  Strand.— Oct.  A 
Frenchman  of  quality  is  severely  wounded  in  a 
dud  by  his  lover,  wliom  he  had  abandoned.  The 
lady  was  the  challenger. 

1778,  March  31.  The  Count  of  Artois  is  wounded  by  the 

Duke  of  Bourbon,  at  Paris. — Nov.  33.  Count  Rico 
kills  Vix'ount  du  Harry,  at  Bath. 

1779,  Nov.   30.  Charles  James  Fox  is  wounded   by    Mr. 

Adams. 

1780,  March  22.  Col.  Fullerton  wounds  Lord  Shelbnrne,  in 

a  duel  fought  on  account  of  expressions  used  in  a 
'  Parliamentary  debate. 

1783,  Juno  18.  The  Rev.  Bennet  Allen  mortally  wounds 
Lloyd  Dulany. — July  6.  He  is  tried,  found  guilty 
of  manslaughter,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of 
l.v.,  and  to  he  imprisoned  for  six  months. 

1783,  April  31.  Mr.  Kidddl  is  killed  by  Mr.  Cunningham, 
who  is  also  wounded. — Sep.  4.  Vol.  Cosmo  Cordon 
kills  Litiut.-Col.  Thomas. — Oct.  17.  Mr.  Crrriii.s 
killed  by  Mr.  Munro. 

1786,  June  8.   Lord  Macartney  is  wounded  by  Major.-Gen. 

Stuart. 

1787,  Robert  Keon   kills  Mr.  Nugent  while  their  seconds 

are  making  preliminary  arrangements  for  a  duel. 
Mr  was  tried  Jan.  31,  17**,  and  executed  Feb.  16. 

1788,  Dec.  31.  C,,l.  lioper  is   killed  by  Mr.  Purefoy,  who  is 

tried  and  acquitted,  \ug.  14,  1794. 

1789,  May  30.  The  Duke  of   Vork  and  Col.  Lenox  meet  on 

Wimbledon  Common,  but  neither  is  wounded. 

1790,  April   i.   Met  ween    Mr.    Corran    and    Major    Ilobart, 

neither  of  whom  is  wounded. — April  14.  Sir!  ic.  >v.re 
liam-ay  is  killed  by  Capt,  Macrae.— May  4.  Mr. 
Power  is  killed  by  Capt.  ( .rumbleton.— Sep.  30.  Mr. 
Anderson  kills  Mr.  Stephens. 

1791,  July  19.  Mr.  Crabam  is  killed  by  Mr.  Julius. 

1793,  March.  A  duel    takes   place   between    Messrs.  John 

Keinble  and  Aikin,  the  actors,  neither  of  whom  is 
injured.— June.  Mr.  Clark  kills  Mr.  Fri/.ell  in  Hyde 
Park.— June  9.  The  Karl  of  Lonsdale  and  Capt. 
Cuthbert  have  a  meeting  without  dangerous  re- 
sults.—July  3.  Lord  Lauderdale  and  Cen.  Aniold 
exchange  shots  without  effect, 

1794,  June  IK.  Richard  Kngland  shoots  Mr.  Rowlls.     Heis 

tried,  and  found  guilty  of  manslaughter,  Feb.  19, 
1796. 

1796,  Jan.  13.  Major  Swcetman  is  killed  by  Capt.  Watson. 

— June  38.  Mr.  (iawler  wounds  Lord  Yalcntia. — 
Aug.  30.  Mr.  Carpenter  is  killed  by  John  Pride. 

1797,  Aug.  5.   ('apt.  Smith  kills  Lieut.  IJue'kley.  at  Jersey . 

1798,  May  37.  A  duel  is  foiiirht  between  Mr.  Pitt  and  Mr. 

fierney,  neither  of  whom  is  wounded. 

1800.  Mr.    Crattan    wounds    Mr.    Corry.    -March   13.   Mr. 

Coolaii  kills  Mr.  Morean,  at  Dublin.— May  10.  Mr. 
Corn- kills  Mr.  \ewlmr-h. 

1801,  Aug.  36.  Major  Impcy  is  killed  by  Lieut.  Willis,  at 

Quebec. 

1803,  Jan.  10.  Mr.  Hamilton  is  shot,  at  New  York,  by  Mr. 
C.  .1.  Kaker.— June  15.  Lieut.  Rae  kills  Mr.  Bremen, 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  "Hope. 

1803,  March.  Lieut.  W and  Capt.  J exchange  shots, 

with  fata!  effects  to  both. — April  6.  Capt.  Maena- 
mara  kills  Col.  Montgomery.  He  is  tried  April  2-', 
and  is  found  not  guilty,  in  spite  of  his  own  confes- 
sion. 

1804,  March  6.  Capt.  Best  kills  Lord   Camelford.— July. 

Gen.  Hamilton  is  killed  by  Aaron  Burr,  Vice-pre- 
sident of  the  United  States. 

1806,  Jan.  I.  Ensign  Butler  kills  Ensign  Brown.— Jan.  4. 
Major  Brook  is  killed  by  Col.  Holton.—  March  2i. 
Lieut.  Turrens  is  killed  by  Mr.  Fisher.— May  3. 
Messrs.  Rogers  and  Long  kill  each  other  in  a  duel. 
— Sep.  21.  Mr.  Richardson  and  Baron  Hompesch 
have  a  meeting,  and  the-  former  is  shot  through 
the  body.— Oct.  13.  Mr.  Long  is  shot  by  Mr.  Arm- 
strong, 


1807,  Mav  5.  Sir  Francis  Burdett  and   Mr.   Paull  wound 

each  other.— June  8.  Mr.  Alcock  kills  Mr.  Col- 
clough,  and  shortly  afterwards  becomes  deranged. 
—June  33.  Major  Campbell  shoots  Capt.  Boyd.  He 
is  executed  in  Aug.,  1808. 

1808,  May  3.  M.   de   Granpree  and  M.   le   Pique  fight  in 

balloons,  with  blunderbusses.     M.  le  Pique's  bal- 
loon is  pierced  by  his  adversary's  shots,  and  he 
and  his  second  are  dashed  to  pieces  by  its  sudden 
.  descent. 

1809,  May  30.  Lord  Paget  and  Capt.  Cadogan  meet,  but 

without  result. — Sep.  33.  Mr.  Canning  is  wounded 
by  Lord  Ca.-tlereagh. 

1810,  Sep.  6.  Mr.  Payne  is  killed  by  Mr.  Clark. 

1811,  March  4.  Ensign  de  Button  kills  Capt.  Boardman,  at 

Barbadoes. 

1812,  Oct.  7.  A  duel  between  Lients.  Stewart  and  Bagnall 

terminates  fatally  to  the  latter. 

1813,  July  13-  Lieut.  Blun.l.-ll  is  killed  by  Mr.  Maguire. 

1814,  April  33.  Lieut.  Cecil  kills  Capt.  Stackpole,  at  Port 

Royal,  Jamaica. 

1815,  Feb.  i.  Mr.   D'Esterre  is  killed  by  Mr.  O'Connell.— 

Dec.  Major  Hillas  is  shot  by  Mr.  Fenton. 

1816,  Feb.  31.  Mr.  Dillon  is  shot  by  Mr.  Kane.-Dec.2-  Mr. 

Adolphus  wounds  Mr.  Alley. 

1817,  March  8.  Lieut,  Conroy  kills  Lieut.  Hindes.— Dec.  12. 

Mr.  Cochrune  is  killed  by  Major  Loc.kyer. 

1818,  Jan.  13.  Lieut,  Bailey  is  shot  by  Mr.  O'Callaghan.— 

March  I.  Lieut.  Cartwrijrht  is  killed  by  Lieut. 
Maxwell. — April  l.  Lieut.  Gordon  is  shot  by 
a  French  officer  at  Cambrai. — June  31.  Eject 
Williams  wounds  Mr.  Walcot.— Sep.  13.  Mr. 
Marsden  is  wounded  by  Mr.  Hillson.— Nov.  I. 
Sir  J.  C.  Kgertou  wounds  Lord  Belgrave,  at 

Chester. 

1819,  April  i.  Capt.  Johnston  wounds  Mr.  Browne,  at  Gib- 

raltar.— May  34.  Lieut.  Osboni  kills  ('apt,  Hussev, 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. — July  4.  Capt.  KirsoiT 
is  wounded  by  Mr.  Paytoii.— Aug.  I.  Mr.  I'mackc 
kills  Mr.  Bowie,  at  Halifax,  \o\a  Scotia.— Oct.  6. 

Capt.    I'ellew  is  killed  by    Lieut.  Walsh. 

1820,  March  19.  Lieut.   Smith  is  wounded,  at  Gibraltar,  by 

Lieut.  Howling. — June  II.  A  duel  between  Lord 
Clare  and  Mr.  Crattan  terminates  without  injury. 
—Aug.  13.  Mr.  Travers  is  killed  by  Mr.  M-m-cr- 
ford. — Aug.  20.  Messrs.  Stuart  and  Tmvnsend  right 
with  muskets,  and  both  fall.— Si;]).  17.  Mr.  Bur- 
rowes  is  killed  by  Mr.  Fulliot,  whose  skull  is  frac- 
tured.—Dec.  34.  Mr.  Brown* wounds  Mr.  Gre-ham, 
at  Dublin. 

1821,  Feb.  i(,.  Mr.  Scott  is  killed  by  Mr.  Christie.— April  10. 

M.  Manuel  is  killed  near  Paris  by  M.  Beaumont.— 
April  31.  Viscount  Petersham  and  Mr.  Weddei- 
bume  meet  without  injury. — May  32-  Mr.  Cuddie 
is  killed  by  Mr.  lirirtlebank. 

1822,  March  30.    Sir  Alexander  Itoswell,  son  of  the  bio- 

grapher, is  killed  by  Mr.  Stuart.— May  2.  Tho 
Dukes  of  Buckingham  and  Bedford  meet  without 
result, 

1833,  Feb.  28.  Gens.  Pepeand  Carascosa  fight  with  swords, 

and  the  latter  is  wounded. 

1834,  Oct.  30.  Capt.  Gourlay  is  killed  by  Mr.  Westall. 

1836,  July  I.  Messrs.  Lambton  and  Beaumont  meet  with- 
out any  casualties.— Dec.  36.  Mr.  Brie  is  killed  by 
Mr.  Hayes. 

1839,  March  31.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  Earl  of 
Winchelsea  exchange  shots  without  effect.— April 
I.  Capt.  Melsham  kills  Lieut.  Crovvther. 

1830.  Jan.  «.  Mr.  Clayton  is  killed  by  Mr.  Lambrecht.— 
March  17.  Mr.  O'Crady  is  killed  by  Capt.  Smith.— 
Aug.  A  duel  between  Dr.  Smith  and  Dr.  Jeff- 
ries, at  Philadelphia,  terminates  fatally  for  both 
parties. 

183-;    Mav  10.  Sir  J.  .Teffcott  kills  Dr.  Hennis. 

1834,  Jan.  30.  Gen.  Bugeaud  kills  M.  Dulong,  at  Paris. 

I8«  April  3v  Mr.  St.  John  kills  Count  Catrafhana.—  Nov. 
19.  Mr.  Roebuck,  M.P.,  and  Mr.  I'.laek.  editor  of 
the  Morning  Chroiiir/,;  meet  and  exchange  two 
shots,  at  Christchurch.— Nov.  31.  Col.  Bellamy  kills 
Capt.  White,  at  Washington,  and  is  desperately 
wounded  himself. 

1836  April  8.  Gen.  Evans  is  wounded  by  Capt.  Dickson. 
—Aug.  4.  The  Hon.  Grantley  Berkeley  and  Dr. 
Win.  Maginn  exchange  three  shots  without 

1838,  April  27/Mr.  Pigot  is  wounded  by  Mr.  Carroll.— June 
16.  M.  Gerard  de  Me.ley  wounds  Lord  Castlercagh. 
—Aug.  23.  Mr.  Mirfin  is  shot  by  Mr.  Eliot. 


DUISBURG 


[     345 


DUMFRIES 


1839,  Jan.  13.  Lord  Londonderry  and  Mr.  Grattan  exchange 

shots  without  effect. — Feb.  28.  Lord  Povverscourt 
nnd  Mr.  Roebuck  meet  without  serious  results.— 
Dec.  10.  Lords  George  I.oftus  and  Hurley  exchange 
shots  without  effect— Dec.  20.  Lord  William  I'aget 
and  Mr.  Fiske  exchange  shots. 

1840,  May  17.  Messrs.  Wynn  and  Brown  fight  in  a  stage- 

coach, between  Perm  and  Chicago,  and  both  are 
killed. — gep.  13.  Lord  Cardigan  wounds  Capt. 
Tuckett.  He  is  brought  to  trial  before  the  House 
of  Lords,  Feb.  16,  1841,  and  acquitted. 

1843,  July  15.  The  Hon.  Craven  Berkeley  and  Mr.  Boldero 
exchange  shots  without  effect. 

1843,  July  I.  Col.  Fawcett  is  killed  by  Lieut.  Munro. 

1845,  May  20.  Mr.  Seton  is  killed  by  Lieut.  Hawkey. 

1853,  Oct.  19.  M.  Cournet  is  killed  in  a  duel  at  Englefleld 
Green,  near  Windsor. 

DUISBURG  (Prussia).— The  church,  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  in  the  ancient  city  was 
founded  in  1187.  In  the  i^ih  century  Duisburg 
was  an  important  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  St.  Salvador's  church  was  erected  in 
1415,  the  gymnasium  was  established  in  1599, 
and  the  Protestant  university,  foxinded  in  1655, 
was  abolished  in  1802.  Duisburg,  which  had 
previously  been  a  free  city  of  the  empire,  was 
ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

DUKE,  the  highest  title  of  nobility  in 
England,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  dux,  a 
leader.  It  is  applied  to  the  descendants  of 
Edom,  in  Genesis  xxxvi.  15 — 43  (B.  c.  1575 — 
1533),  and  was  used  as  a  title  of  honour  by  the 
Roman  governors  of  provinces  under  the  later 
emperors.  It  was  introduced  into  England 
by  Edward  III.,  who  created  his  son,  the  Black 
Prince,  Duke  of  Cornwall,  in  1337.  The  order 
had  become  extinct  in  1572,  and  was  revived 
by  James  I.  The  first  Irish  duke  was  Robert 
Vere,  created  Duke  of  Dublin  in  1385.  The 
title  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  Robert 
III.,  who  created  his  son  David  Duke  of  Rothe- 
say  in  1399.  The  title  of  archduke  is  said  to 
have  been  created  by  Rodolph  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  in  favour  of  his  son  Albert,  in  1284. 
The  first  grand-duke  was  Cosmo  dc  Medici,  of 
Florence,  who  received  the  title  from  Pope 
Pius  V.  in  1569. 

DUKE  OF  YORK'S  ISLAND  (South  Pacific 
Ocean)  was  discovered  by  Com.  Byron,  June  24, 

I7DUKE  OF  YORK'S  SCHOOL.— (See  ROYAL 
MILITARY  ASYLUM.) 

DULCIMER  appears  to  be  a  modification 
of  the  most  primitive  stringed  instrument 
found  among  savage  nations,  which  usually 
consisted  of  strings  stretched  over  a  hollow 
piece  of  wood  or  a  calabash.  It  existed  in 
Asia  in  very  ancient  times,  and  was  used  by 
the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  and  the  Per- 
sians, who  employed  an  instrument  differing 
but  little  in  form  from  that  used  in  1536,  the 
earliest  kind  known  in  modern  times. 

DULWICH  COLLEGE  (Surrey)  was  founded 
by  Edward  Alleyn,  the  actor,  and  designed 
by  Inigo  Jones.  The  chapel  was  finished  in 
1616,  and  the  foundation  opened  Sep.  13,  1619. 
Its  original  name  was  God's  Gift  College, 
and  its  purpose  the  maintenance  of  a  master, 
4  fellows,  6  poor  brethren,  6  sisters,  12 
scholars,  and  30  out-members.  Alleyn  was 
buried  in  the  chapel  Nov.  27,  1626.  The  east 
wing  was  finished  in  1740.  The  girls'  school 
was  founded  by  James  Allen,  Aug.  31,  1741, 


and  the  pictiire-gallery  was  completed  in  1813. 
The  paintings  were  bequeathed  by  Sir  Francis 
Bourgeois  Dec.  20,  1810,  and  the  gallery,  some- 
times called  from  its  founder  the  Bourgeois 
Gallery,  was  opened  to  the  public  in  1817. 
Owing  to  the  increased  value  of  land,  the 
wealth  of  the  college  accumulated  so  fast,  that 
provisions  were  made  for  extending  its  bene- 
factions by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  84  (Aug.  25,  18=57). 

DUMB.— (See  DEAF  AND  DUMB.) 

DUMBARTON  (Scotland).— The  castle  of 
Dumbarton,  which  is  of  very  ancient  date  and 
supposed  to  be  the  Roman  station  Theodosia, 
resisted  a  siege  by  Agricola,  and  was  taken  by 
Eadbert,  King  of  Northumbria,  in  756.  In 
1221  the  town  was  erected  into  a  burgh  by 
Alexander  II.,  and  in  1456  the  Countess  of 
Lennox  founded  a  collegiate  church,  of  which 
nothing  but  the  rums  remain.  In  1563  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  visited  the  castle,  and  in 
May,  1571,  it  was  taken,  under  circumstances 
of  remarkable  daring,  by  Capt.  Crawford. 
Queen  Victoria  inspected  this  fortress  Aug.  17, 
1847. 

DUMBLANE,  or  DUNBLANE  (Bishopric), 
was  founded  in  1153,  and  having  been  sup- 
pressed was  restored  in  1731.  The  cathedral 
was  commenced  in  1240. 

DUMBLANE,  or  DUNBLANE  (Scotland).— 
A  battle  (see  SHERIFF-MUIR)  was  fought  near 
this  town  between  the  forces  of  the  Pretender, 
under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  and  those  of  George  I., 
under  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  Sunday,  Nov.  13, 
1715  (O.  S.),  in  which  both  parties  claimed  the 
victory. 

DUM  DUM  (Hindostan).— The  mutiny  of 
the  native  troops  in  India  broke  out  at  this 
military  depot  of  Bengal,  situated  about  mid- 
way between  Calcutta  and  Barrackpore  (q.  v.). 
The  Sepoys,  alleging  that  the  cartridges  pro- 
vided for  the  Enfield  rifles  were  greased  with 
the  fat  of  oxen  and  pigs,  which  they  could  not 
use  without  loss  of  caste,  broke  into  open  in- 
subordination in  Feb.,  1857. 

DUMFERMLINE,  or  DUNFERMLINE 
(Scotland). — King  Malcolm  III.  (Canmore)  and 
his  queen  Margaret,  who  resided  at  this  town 
in  Fifeshire,  founded,  between  1070  and  1093, 
a  Benedictine  abbey,  the  nave  of  which  was 
consecrated  in  1150,  and  the  choir  built  about 
1250.  Edward  I.  of  England,  who  wintered 
here  in  1303,  partly  destroyed  the  abbey 
church,  Feb.  10,  1304,  and  it  received  further 
injuries  from  the  Puritans,  March  28,  1560. 
The  Confession  of  Faith  of  1581  was  signed 
here  by  James  VI.,  who  erected  the  town  into 
a  royal  burgh  in  1588.  His  son  Charles  I.  was 
bom  here,  Nov.  19,  1600,  and  Charles  II.  resided 
here  in  1640.  The  Covenants  of  1638,  1643, 
and  1650  were  signed  at  this  town  (see  COVE- 
NANTERS), which  was  plundered  by  Cromwell's 
troopers  in  1651.  The  Guildhall  was  built  in 
1808.  The  skeleton  of  King  Robert  I.  (Bruce) 
was  disinterred  in  1818,  during  the  removal  of 
a  ruined  portion  of  the  old  abbey  preparatory 
to  the  erection  of  the  new  abbey  church,  which 
was  completed  in  1821. 

DUMFRIES  (Scotland).— This  town  was 
erected  into  a  burgh  in  the  reign  of  David  I. 
(1124 — 1153).  A  monastery  was  founded  about 
1-200,  in  the  chapel  of  which  Robert  Bruce 


DUX  A 


[    346    ] 


DUNKIRK 


stabbed  Sir  John  Cornyn,  Feb.,  1306.  Dura- 
fries  was  occupied  and  burned  by  the  High- 
land army  in  1745.  Of  the  two  bridges  over 
the  Nith,  the  oldest,  to  which  a  remote 
antiquity  is  sometimes  erroneously  ascribed, 
was  built  in  the  i/th  century ;  the  other  was 
erected  in  1795. 

DUNA,  or  DWINA  (Battle).— Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  defeated  the  Saxons  and  Poles  under 
Marshal  Steinau,  on  the  banks  of  this  river, 
near  lliga,  July  20,  1701. 

D  UNBAR  (Scotland)  was  conferred  upon  the 
Earl  of  Northumberland  in  1072  by  Malcolm 
III.  (Canrnore).  John  Warren,  Earl  of  Surrey, 
defeated  John  Baliol,  in  a  great  battle  fought 
here,  April  29,  1296,  which  for  the  time  decided 
the  fate  of  Scotland  as  a  conquest  of  Edward  I. 
It  was  destroyed  in  1333,  rebuilt  in  1336,  and 
was  successfully  defended  in  1338.  In  1567 
Queen  Mary  and  Both  well  took  refuge  in  the 
castle,  which  was  demolished  by  order  of  Par- 
liament. Cromwell  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Scottish  army  at  the  Race  of  Dunbar,  near 
this  place,  Sep.  3,  1650,  killing  4,000,  and 
taking  10,000  prisoners. 

DUNDALK.  ,  Ireland',  seized  by  Edward 
Bruce  in  1315,  was  the  scene  of  his  coronation 
as  King  of  Ireland  in  1317,  and  of  his  death  in 
a  battle  fought  with  Lord  Bermiiigham,  Oct. 
5,  1318.  In  1641  it  was  taken  by  Sir  Phelirn 
O'Neill,  who  destroyed  its  castle  and  fortifi- 
rati'.ns,  and  in  1642  it  was  stormed  by  Lord 
Moore  and  Sir  Henry  Tichbourne.  It  surren- 
dered to  Cromwell  in  1649,  and  was  occupied 
by  the  forces  of  William  III.,  June  27,  i6yo. 
(tii-i:  ('A. MBHIC.) 

DUNDEE  (Scotland).  —  Malcolm  III.,  who 
reigned  from  1057  to  1093,  built  a  palace  here, 
in  which  he  sometimes  resided.  It  was  made 
a  myal  burgh  in  1210,  and  placed  under  the 
government  of  a  constable  in  1298.  Edward  I. 
was  at  Dundee  in  1296  and  1303,  and  Edward 
Bruce  took  it  in  1313.  It  was  sacked  by  the 
Duke  of  Lancaster  in  1385.  In  1544  the  plague 
committed  great  ravages  among  its  population, 
and  in  1641  Charles  I.  conferred  upon  it  the 
present  charter.  In  1645  it  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  the  Earl  of  Montrose.  Charles  II. 
resided  here  in  1651,  after  his  coronation  at 
Scone,  and  it  was  sacked  by  Monk,  who 
massacred  about  1,300  of  its  inhabitants. 
Queen  Victoria  landed  at  Dundee  in  Sep.,  1844, 
in  commemoration  of  which  a  magnificent 
triumphal  arch  has  been  erected.  Nineteen 
persons  were  killed  by  a  boiler  explosion  at 
one  of  the  linen-factories,  April  15,  1859.  The 
People's  Park,  the  gift  of  Sir  D.  Baxter,  was 
opened  f-Jep.  9,  1863.  An  accident,  from  over- 
crowding at  the  doors  of  an  evening  entertain- 
ment, which  caused  the  death  of  nine  young 
women  and  ten  youths,  and  serious  injury  to 
many  more,  occurred  here  Jan.  2,  1865. 

DUNEDIN  (New  Zealand),  the  chief  town 
of  Otago  (q.  v.},  founded  in  1848,  was  erected 
into  a  bishopric  in  1865.  An  Industrial  Exhi- 
bition was  held  from  Jan.  12  to  May  6,  1865. 

DUNES  (Battle),  fought  on  the  dunes  or 
sands,  whence  the  name,  near  Dunkirk,  during 
the  siege  of  that  town  by  the  combined  armies 
of  France  and  England,  June  4  (14  N.  S.),  1658. 
The  Spaniards,  who  had  advanced  to  the  relief 


of  Dunkirk,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  allied 
troops,  led  by  Turenne,  and  Dunkirk  capitu- 
lated June  23. 

DUNGAN-HILL  (Battle),  fought  at  this 
place,  in  Ireland,  between  the  Parliamentary 
army,  under  Col.  Michael  Jones,  and  the  Irish, 
under  Gen.  Preston,  Aug.  8,  1647.  The  num- 
bers were  nearly  equal,  and  Jones  gained  a 
•complete  victory. 

DUNGANNON  (Ireland).  —  A  Franciscan 
monastery  was  erected  at  this  town  of  Tyrone, 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  (1485 — 1509). 
The  castle,  which  till  1607  was  the  chief  seat  of 
the  O'Neils,  was  destroyed  by  the  Parliamen- 
tary army  in  1641. 

DUNGENESS  (Kent).— A  French  fleet  of  14 
ships  of  the  line  anchored  off  this  point  Jan. 
22,  1744,  but  sailed  away  on  the  approach  of 
the  English  squadron  commanded  by  Sir  John 
Norris,  and  was  subsequently  scattered  by  a 
storm.  Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century 
a  lighthouse  was  erected  on  this  cape,  after 
the  model  of  the  Eddystoiie,  and  in  1807  a 
series  of  martello  towers  was  commenced,  to 
defend  the  coast  between  Dungeness  and 
Folkestone. 

DUNKELD  (Bishopric),  erected  in  1127,  was, 
with  the  rest  of  the  Scotch  sees,  suppressed 
at  the  Revolution  in  1688.  It  was  restored 
in  1727,  received  Dumblane  in  1776,  and  was 
removed  to  St.  Andrews  in  1844.  The  choir 
of  the  cathedral  was  erected  between  1318 
and  1337,  the  nave  between  1406  and  1464,  and 
the  tower  and  chapter-house  between  1470 
and  1477. 

Dl,  N  K  ELD  (Scotland).  —  The  Culdees  had 
a  monastery  at  this  place,  in  Perthshire,  as 
early  as  729,  which  was  erected  into  a  cathedral 
by  David  I.  in  1127.  Kenneth  II.  removed  the 
remains  of  St.  Columba  to  Duiikeld  in  850. 
James  VI.  founded  the  grammar-school  in 
1567,  and  the  bridge  over  the  Tay  was  built  in 
1809. 

DUNKERS,  or  GERMAN  BAPTISTS.—  Th is 
religious  sect  was  founded  in  Germany  by 
Alexander  Mack  about  1708.  In  1723  they  were 
driven  by  persecution  to  America,  where 
they  established  themselves  at  Germantown, 
and  founded  a  church.  They  are  for  the  most 
part  vegetarians,  and  insist  upon  the  necessity 
for  good  works,  and  the  separation  of  the 
sexes.  The  origin  of  the  name  Duiikers  is  un- 
known. 

DUNKIRK,  or  DUNKERQUE  (France),  was 
founded  by  Baldwin  III.,  Count  of  Flanders, 
about  960.  It  afterwards  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  counts  of  Ilainault,  who 
sold  it  to  its  former  lords  in  1280.  In  1388  it 
was  burned  by  the  English,  and  in  1435  was 
transferred  to  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  whose 
right  passed  by  marriage  to  the  Bourbons  in 
1487.  Early  in  the  i6th  century  it  was  sei/.ul 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  retained  it  till  July, 
I55^>  when  it  was  retaken  by  the  French.  The 
Duke  of  Parma  re-annexed  it  to  the  Spanish 
empire  in  1585.  In  1646  it  was  taken  by  the 
grout  Conde,  and  in  1652  was  again  seized  by 
the  Spaniards.  Marshal  Turenne  retook  it 
June  23,  1658,  after  the  battle  of  Dunes  (q.  r.\ 
fought  June  14,  and  gave  it  to  the  English,  who 
had  assisted  him  in  its  capture.  Charles  II. 


DUNMOW 


[     347 


DURHAM 


sold  it  to  France  for  ,£500,000,  Oct.  17,  1662. 
Louis  XIV.  increased  its  fortifications,  which 
were  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  a  bombard- 
ment by  the  united  fleets  of  Great  Britain  and 
Holland,  July  26,  1694.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  April  n,  1713,  it  was  agreed  that  all 
the  military  defences  should  be  destroyed ; 
but  these  conditions  were  evaded,  and  the 
restriction  was  consequently  renewed  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  The  enforcement 
of  the  order  was,  however,  found  impracticable. 
It  was  repealed  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
Sep.  3,  1783,  and  the  works  have  since  been 
much  increased.  The  Duke  of  York  was 
defeated  in  an  attempt  to  take  Dunkirk,  Sep.  7, 
1793.  The  fortifications  were  enlarged,  and 
Dunkirk  was  made  a  free  port  in  1816. 

DUNMOW  (Essex).— The  priory  was  founded 
in  1104,  by  Juga  Baynard.  The  manor  is  held 
by  a  curious  tenure.  The  prior  and  canons 
were  obliged  to  give  a  flitch  of  bacon  to  any 
couple  who  could  swear,  a  year  and  a  day 
after  their  wedding,  that  they  had  never 
quarrelled;  or  wished  themselves  unmarried 
again.  It  is  unknown  who  originated  this 
tenure,  but  probably  it  was  one  of  the  Fitz- 
Walters,  the  first  of  whom  died  in  1198.  The 
flitch  was  claimed  and  awarded  in  1445,  1467, 
1510,  1701,  1751,  Thursday,  July  19,  1855,  and 
in  1860.  In  1855  the  ceremony  was  performed 
at  Great  Dunmow  Town  Hall,  as  the  lord  of 
the  manor  refused  to  revive  the  custom.  The 
happy  candidates  were  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Barlow, 
and  the  Chevalier  de  Chatelam  and  his  lady. 
A  similar  custom  prevailed  in  the  manor  of 
Wichnor,  Stafford,  where  corn  was  given  in 
addition  to  the  flitch  of  bacon. 

DUNSE  (Pacification).  —  By  this  treaty, 
signed  at  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,  June  18, 
1639,  Charles  I.  granted  all  the  demands  of  his 
Scotch  subjects,  consenting  to  withdraw  his 
fleet  and  army,  and  to  summon  a  general 
assembly  and  parliament  to  discuss  the  bases 
of  reconciliation.  The  Scotch  also  agreed  to 
disband  their  army. 

DUNSINANE  (Battle).— The  army  of  the 
usurper  Macbeth  was  defeated  at  Dunsinane, 
in  Perthshire,  July  27,  1054,  by  Malcolm,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  murdered  Duncan,  assisted 
by  an  English  force  under  Siward,  Earl  of 
Northumberland.  Macbeth  escaped  to  Lan- 
phananan,  where  he  was  slain  in  1056. 

DUNSTABLE  (Bedfordshire)  was  founded 
by  Henry  L,  and  granted  to  a  priory  of  Black 
canons  in  1131.  The  corpse  of  Queen  Eleanor 
rested  here  on  its  way  from  Lincolnshire  to 
London  in  1290.  The  cross  erected  to  com- 
memorate the  event  was  pulled  down  during 
the  Interregnum.  Cranmer  opened  a  court 
here  to  consider  the  validity  of  Henry  VIII.'s 
marriage  with  Catherine,  May  10,  1533,  and 
pronounced  a  divorce  May  23.  The  free'school 
was  founded  in  1727.  A  large  quantity  of 
Roman  copper  coins  of  the  reigns  of  Antoninus 
and  Constantine  was  discovered  here  in  1770. 

DUNWICH.— The  seat  of  the  bishopric  of 
East  Anglia,  founded  in  630,  was  fixed  at 
Domnoc,  or  Dunwich.  It  was  removed  to 
Thetford  in  1078.  (See  NORWICH.) 

DtiPPEL,  DUPPELN,  or  DYBBOL  (Battles). 
—This  village  of  Sleswig,  separated  from  the 


island  of  Alsen  (q.  v.)  by  a  narrow  sound, 
has  been  the  scene  of  several  conflicts  in  the 
struggles  for  the  settlement  of  the  Sleswig- 
Holstem  question.  Here  the  Danes  defeated 
the  Prussians,  May  28,  1848,  and  compelled 
them  to  retreat  to  GraVenstein.  A  second 
engagement  took  place  June  5,  1848,  when 
the  Danes  were  driven  from  their  position, 
which,  however,  they  regained  June  6.  It 
was  carried  by  an  assault  of  the  Saxons  and 
Bavarians,  April  13,  1849.  The  bulk  of  the 
Danish  army  having  taken  up  its  position  at 
Diippel,  Feb.  6,  1864,  the  village  was  besieged 
by  the  Prussians,  who  commenced  a  bombard- 
ment, March  15,  which  terminated  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Danes,  April  18. 

DUPPLIN-MOOR  (Battle).— The  English 
forces  under  Edward  Baliol  defeated  the  Scotch 
under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  on  this  moor,  in  Perth- 
shire, Aug.  ii,  1332.  The  loss  of  the  Scotch 
amounted  to  13,000  men,  while  the  English 
only  lost  two  knights,  33  squires,  with  a  few 
common  soldiers. 

DU  QUESNE  FORT.— (See  PITTSBURG.) 

DURANGO,  GUADIANA,  or  CIUDAD  DE 
VICTORIA  (Mexico).— This  city  was  founded 
by  yelasco  in  1559,  and  erected  into  a  bishop's 
see  in  1620. 

DURAZZO,  DYRRACHIUM,  or  EPIDAM- 
NUS  (Albania).  -This  city,  when  founded  by 
the  Corcyrseans,  B.C.  627,  was  called  Epidam- 
nus.  It  was  seized  by  Glaucus,  King  of 
Illyria,  B.C.  312.  Pompey  compelled  Julius 
Caesar  to  raise  the  siege,  B.C.  48.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Normans,  under  Robert  Guiscard, 
Feb.  8,  1082  ;  and  in  1216  withstood  a  siege  by 
the  Venetians,  who  effected  its  capture  in  1386. 
The  Sultan,  Bajazet  II.,  took  it  in  1500,  and 
annexed  it  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

DURBAR.— This  name,  given  in  India  to 
the  apartment  in  which  great  potentates  admit 
their  vassals  to  audience,  has  been  applied  in 
consequence  to  such  audiences  themselves. 
The  Tongso  Penlow  having  insulted  the  Hon. 
Ashley  Eden  in  open  durbar,  March  29,  1864, 
war  was  declared  against  Bhotan  (q.v.).  Sir 
John  Lawrence,  Viceroy  of  India,  held  a 
durbar  at  Lahore,  Oct.  18,  1864.  The  custom 
of  requiring  Europeans  to  remove  their  shoes 
on  entering  native  durbars,  was  ordered  to  be 
henceforth  discontinued  in  Rajpootana  at  the 
request  of  Gen.  G.  St.  P.  Lawrence,  to  whom 
the  chiefs  desired  to  show  a  token  of  respect, 
Oct.  21,  1864. 

DUREN,  or  MARK-DUREN  (Prussia).  — 
Several  cohorts  of  the  Ubii  were  defeated  at 
this  place,  the  ancient  Marcodurum,  by  the 
Batavian  chief  Civilis,  A.D.  70;  and  Charle- 
magne held  diets  here  in  775  and  779,  previous 
to  his  conflict  with  the  Saxons.  In  1543  it 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Charles  V.,  and  in 
1642  was  restored  to  Prussia  by  Duke  Fred- 
erick William,  who  again  surrendered  it  to  the 
Imperialists  the  same  year.  The  French  seized 
it  in  1794,  and  erected  it  into  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  Roer;  but  it  was  finally  re- 
stored to  Prussia  in  1814. 

DURHAM  was  fotuided  by  the  monks  of 
Lindisfarne,  or  Holy  Island,  in  995.  In  1040, 
Duncan,  King  of  Scotland,  made  an  ineffectual 
attempt  to  capture  it ;  and  in  1069  the  inhabi- 


DURHAM 


[    348    ] 


DUTCH 


tants  were  so  oppressed  by  Robert  Comyn, 
Earl  of  Northumberland  and  governor  of  the 
city,  that  they  rose  in  rebellion  and  slew  him, 
with  700  of  his  followers,  Jan.  28.  It  was  to 
avenge  this  atrocity  that  William  I.  devas- 
tated the  northern  counties  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  same  year.  The  castle  was  founded  in 
1072 ;  and  a  riot,  in  which  Bishop  Walcher  was 
killed,  took  place  May  14,  1080.  In  1323  the 
walls  were  restored  by  Bishop  Beaumont,  and 
in  1424  the  city  was  the  scene  of  the  marriage 
of  James  I.,  of  Scotland,  with  Lady  Jane 
Seymour.  The  plague  raged  with  great  fury 
in  1416,  1589,  and  1597.  In  1633  it  was  the 
residence  of  Charles  I.,  and  in  1640  was  taken 
by  the  Scotch.  It  sent  two  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1675.  The  infirmary 
was  founded  in  1791,  and  the  county  gaol  and 
court-house  erected  in  1809.  The  palatine  ju- 
risdiction of  the  county  was  transferred  from 
the  see  to  the  crown,  by  6  Will.  IV.  c.  19 
(June  21,  1836).  The  church  of  Sherburn 
Hospital,  supposed  to  have  been  erected  about 
1184,  was  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  4. 
1864. 

DURHAM  (Bishopric).— In  634,  Aidan  came 
from  Scotland  to  Northumberland  at  the  so- 
licitation of  King  Oswald,  who  established 
him  as  bishop  in  Lindisfarnc,  or  Holy  Island, 
in  635.  In  664  the  see  was  merged  in  the 
diocese  of  York,  but  in  678  was  again  se- 
parated. In  875  the  see  was  removed  to 
Chester-le-Street,  and  in  995  was  transferred 
to  Durham.  The  cathedral,  commenced  in 
1093,  was  not  finished  till  1500.  The  see  was 
suppressed  by  7  Edw.  VI.  c.  17  (1553),  which 
provided  that  two  sees  were  to  be  established 
at  Durham  and  Newcastle,  and  all  the  tem- 
poralities were  granted  to  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
thumberland. The  deanery  and  12  prebends 
had  been  appointed  by  charter,  dated  May  1-2, 
1541,  which  was  confirmed  by  i  Mary,  s.  3, 
c-  3  (I554 '•'»  re-establishing  the  see. 

DURHAM  LETTER.— The  Pope  having  pub- 
lished a  bull  establishing  a  Roman  Catholic 
hierarchy  in  England  and  Wales,  Sep.  30,  1850, 
Lord  John  Russell,  who  was  then  premier,  ad- 
dressed a  letter  on  the  subject  to  the  Bishop 
of  Durham.  In  this  letter,  which  dated  Nov.  4, 
lie  not  only  expressed  the  strongest  iiidignat  i<  m 
at  the  attempted  aggression,  but  condemned 
as  "  unworthy  sons  of  the  Church  of  England" 
all  clergymen  who  approved  of  "the  honour 
paid  to  saints,  the  claim  of  infallibility  for  the 
Church,  the  superstitious  use  of  the  sign  of 
the  cross,  the  muttering  of  the  Liturgy  so  as 
to  disguise  the  language  in  which  it  is  written, 
the  recommendation  of  auricular  confession, 
and  the  administration  of  penance  and  abso- 
lution." 

DURHAM,  or  NEVILLE'S  CROSS  (Battle). 
— Philippa,  Queen  of  Edward  III.,  totally  de- 
feated the  Scottish  army  under  David  II.,  and 
took  the  king  prisoner,  at  Neville's  Cross,  near 
Durham,  Oct.  12,  1346.  The  loss  of  the  Scotch 
in  this  battle  was  estimated  at  15,000. 

DURHAM  UNIVERSITY.— A  college 
founded  here  in  1290  was  suppressed  by 
Henry  VIII.  Oliver  Cromwell  signed  a  writ 
of  privy  seal  for  establishing  a  university  at 
Durham,  May  15,  1657,  which  was  suppressed 


at  the  Restoration.  The  present  university 
was  founded,  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop, 
by  an  act  of  chapter,  Sep.  28,  1831,  and  Parlia- 
ment sanctioned  the  proposal  by  a  private  act 
(2  <fc  3  Will.  IV.  c.  19),  which  received  the  royal 
assent  July  4,  1832.  The  university  was  opened 
Oct.  28,  1833,  and  its  regulations  were  ap- 
proved by  convocation,  March  4,  1836.  It  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter,  June  i,  1837, 
and  the  first  degrees  were  conferred  June  8. 
Durham  Castle,  founded  in  1072,  was  devoted 
to  the  accommodation  of  the  students  by  an 
order  in  council,  dated  Aug.  8,  1837.  Bishop 
Hatfield's  Hall  was  opened  in  1846,  and  en- 
larged 1111849;  and  Bishop  Cosiri's  Hall  was 
opened  1011857.  Durham  University  held  the 
same  position  as  the  other  universities  in  the 
Medical  Act  (21  &  22  Viet.  c.  90,  Aug.  2,  1858), 
and  like  them  it  elects  a  member  of  the 
General  Council  of  Medical  Education  and 
Registration.  By  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  82  (Aug.  6, 
1861),  entitled  "An  Act  for  the  Good  Govern- 
ment and  Extension  of  the  University  of  Dur- 
ham," a  commission,  the  duration  of  which  was 
limited  to  Dec.  31,  1862,  was  appointed.  The 
commissioners  framed  16  ordinances,  June  13, 
1862,  which  they  presented  in  their  report, 
June  4,  1863.  These  ordinances,  having  been 
rejected  by  the  Privy  Council,  were  subse- 
quently abandoned  by  the  commissioners. 
DUROVERNUM.— (See  CANTERBURY.) 
DUllRENSTEIN  (Battle).— Richard  I.  was 
confined  in  the  castle  at  this  village  in  Lower 
Austria,  by  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  in  1192. 
A  division  of  the  French  army  under  Marshal 
Mortier  was  attacked  by  the  Russians  under 
Doctoroff,  while  marching  through  a  defile 
near  this  place,  Nov.  n,  1805.  The  French, 
though  surrounded  on  all  sides,  fought  with 
determined  valour,  and  were  at  length  rescued 
by  the  division  of  Dupont,  after  losing  3,000 
men  and  three  standards. 

DUSSELDORF  (Prussia).  —  Adolphus  V., 
Duke  of  Berg,  raised  this  place  from  a  village 
into  a  municipal  town,  in  1288.  The  town-hall 
was  built  in  1567,  and  the  bridge  over  the 
Rhine  in  1680.  Carlstadt,  the  handsomest 
part  of  the  city,  was  founded  by  the  elector, 
Charles  Theodore,  in  1786.  In  1794  Dilsseldorf 
was  bombarded  by  the  French,  and  in  1802 
the  fortifications  were  demolished  in  accord- 
ance with  one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  of 
Luneville.  In  1806  the  Grand-duke  of  Berg 
fixed  his  residence  here,  and  made  it  the  seat 
of  government;  and  in  1815  it  was  ceded  to 
Prussia,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  duchy. 
In  1829  it  was  made  a  free  port.  A  famous 

Sicture-gallery,  founded  in  1710,  by  the  elector 
ohn  William,  was  removed  to  Munich  in  1808. 
The  academy  was  founded  in  1767  and  reorga- 
nized in  1822.     The  Art-Union,  established  in 
1828,  still  exists. 

DUSS1NDALE  (Battle).— The  Earl  of  War- 
wick defeated  the  Norfolk  rebels  at  this  place, 
near  Norwich,  Aug.  27,  1549,  when  about  3,500 
of  the  latter  were  cut  down. 

DUTCH  AMERICA.— The  possessions  of  the 
Dutch  in  America  consist  of  Surinam,  or 
Dutch  Guiana,  the  islands  of  Curftfloa,  St.  Eus- 
tatius,  and  St.  Martin. 


DUTLINGEN 


[     349     1 


EAGLE 


DUTLINGEN  (Battle).— The  Austrian  army, 
under  Gens.  Von  Werth,  Mercy,  and  Hatzfeld, 
defeated  the  French  at  this  place  in  1643.  The 
latter  lost  many  men  in  the  action,  and  all 
their  general  officers  were  made  prisoners. 

DUUMVIRI,  two  patricians,  first  appointed 
in  Rome  by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  to  take 
charge  of  the  Sibylline  books  and  consult 
them  in  times  of  public  difficulty,  B.C.  520. 
They  held  their  office  for  life,  and  were  ex- 
empted from  military  service.  The  title  was 
given  to  various  authorities  at  Rome  in  cases 
where  the  functions  of  the  office  were  vested 
in  two  persons. 

DUVAL'S  BLUFF  (United  States).  —  This 
place,  on  the  White  River,  Arkansas,  was 
taken  by  the  Federal  Gen.  Gorman  Jan.  15-19, 
1863. 

DWARFS.— The  custom  of  employing  dwarfs 
to  contribute  to  the  amusement  of  the  great 
is  of  high  antiquity  in  the  East,  where  the  art 
of  retarding  human  growth  was  successfully 
practised.  This  art  passed  into  Greece  B.C. 
324,  and  thence  to  Rome  about  A.D.  50.  Domi- 
tian  exhibited  gladiatorial  contests  between 
dwarfs  and  beautiful  women  in  81,  and  the 
Roman  ladies  employed  them  as  domestic 
servants.  The  passion  for  dwarfs  reached  its 
height  in  Europe  during  the  reigns  of  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  II.  of  France  (1515 — 1559).  The 
last  prince  who  kept  them  for  his  amusement 
was  Stanislaus,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  whose  fa- 
vourite dwarf  died  in  1764.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  most  famous  dwarfs  :— 

B.C. 

330 — 385.  Philetus  of  Cos,  a  poet  and  philosopher,  was  so 
short  or  thin,  that  he  was  jocularly  said  to  carry 
lead  in  the  soles  of  his  shoes,  lest  he  should  be 
blown  away. 

A.D. 

5th  century.  Alypius,  a  philosopher  of  Alexandria. 

1557.  Birth  of  Jean  d'Estrix,  who  was  scarcely  a  yard  high 
at  the  age  of  35. 

1619.  Birth  of  Geoffrey  Hudson,  who  was  18  inches  high  at 
7  years  old,  after  which  he  did  not  grow  till  he 
was  30,  when  he  attained  the  height  of  3  feet  9 
inches.  In  1644  he  attended  Queen  Henrietta  Maria 
to  France,  and  in  1683  was  seized  on  suspicion  of 
being  implicated  in  the  Popish  plot,  and  impri- 
soned in  the  Gatehouse,  Westminster,  where  he 
died,  aged  63. 

1738.  Birth  of  John  Coan,  who,  when  22  years  old,  weighed 

34  lb.,  including  his  clothes,  and  measured  38  inches 
when  in  his  hat,  wig,  and  shoes. 

1736.  Birth  of  Hopkin  Hopkin,  who  was  only  13  lb.  in 
weight,  and  2  feet  7  inches  in  height,  at  the  age  of 
15  years,  when  he  exhibited  all  the  infirmities  of 
advanced  old  age. 

1739.  Birth  of    Borowlawski,   a  Polish  gentleman,   who 

attained  the  height  of  39  inches,  and  died  at 
Durham,  Sep.  7,  1837.  He  was  remarkable  for  the 
aeuteness  of  his  intellectual  faculties,  and  had  a 
sister  so  much  shorter  than  himself,  that  she  could 
stand  under  his  arm. 

1741.  Birth  of  Nicolas  Ferry,  or  Bebe.  He  lived  at  the 
court  of  Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland,  who  was 
much  attached  to  him.  At  the  age  of  15  he  dis- 
played symptoms  of  old  age,  and  he  was  only  22 
when  he  died,  at  which  time  he  measured  33 
inches. 

1746.  Birth  of  Anne  Theresa  Souvray,  who  was  only  33 
inches  high  at  the  age  of  73  years,  when  she  was 
remarkable  for  her  gaiety  and  vigour. 

1846,  March  1 6.  Gen  Tom  Thumb  appeared  at  the  Lyceum 
Theatre,  London. 

DYBBOL.— (See  DUPPEL.) 

DYEING.— This  art,  which  originated  in  Asia 


with  the  Phoenicians,  was  practised  by  the 
Egyptians  at  a  very  early  date,  and  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Canaan  before  B.C. 
1728  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3).  The  Tyrian  purple  was 
known  as  early  as  B.C.  1500,  and  (Exod.  xxxv. 
23)  mention  is  made  of  blue,  purple,  scarlet, 
and  of  red  skins  of  rams,  B.C.  1491.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  conse- 
quent decay  of  the  arts  in  Europe,  dyeing  was 
neglected ;  but  in  the  8th  century  some  ad- 
vance was  made.  In  1353  scarlet  and  a  few 
other  colours  were  dyed  in  England,  and  in 
1429  the  first  book  on  the  subject  appeared  in 
Venice.  The  Dyers'  Company  in  London  was 
incorporated  in  1471.  Before  1643  English 
cloth  was  exported  to  Holland  to  be  dyed,  but 
in  that  year  the  whole  process  was  performed 
in  England.  The  art  of  dyeing  cotton  scarlet 
or  crimson  was  discovered  in  1779.  Turkey 
red  was  introduced  in  1785.  The  principal 
statute  relating  to  the  business  of  the  dyer  is 
23  Geo.  III.  c.  15,  passed  in  1783,  and  entitled 
"The  Act  for  Preventing  Frauds  and  Abuses 
in  the  Dyeing  Trade."  A  great  number  of  new 
colouring  materials  have  been  discovered  and 
rendered  available  for  dyeing  purposes  since 
1850.  (See  BLEACHING.) 
DYME.— (See  ACH.EAN  LEAGUE.) 
DYRRACHIUM.— (See  DCRAZZO.) 


E. 


EAGLE.  —  Xenophon  (B.C.  444-359)  states 
that  the  eagle  was  first  used  as  a  military 
ensign  by  the  Persians.  It  was  adopted  as 
the  sole  standard  of  the  Roman  legions  in  the 
second  year  of  the  consulate  of  Marius,  B.C. 
104.  Gibbon  (ch.  i.)  remarks — "The  golden 
eagle,  which  glittered  in  the  front  of  the 
legion,  was  the  object  of  the  fondest  devotion 
of  the  Roman  troops."  Though  the  double- 
headed  eagle  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  Constantino  I.  (306—337),  its  origin  may 
with  greater  justice  be  attributed  to  Charle- 
magne, who,  in  802,  added  the  second  head 
to  the  eagle,  to  denote  that  the  empires  of 
Rome  and  Germany  were  united  under  him. 
The  Roman  eagle  was  adopted  by  Napoleon  I., 
and  confirmed  by  Napoleon  III.,  as  the  stand- 
ard of  imperial  France.  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia  use  the  double-headed  eagle  as  their 
national  ensign.  Prescott  states,  on  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Spanish  annalists,  that  a  golden 
eagle  with  outspread  wings,  in  the  fashion  of 
a  Roman  signum,  richly  ornamented  with 
emeralds  and  silvcrwork,  was  the  great  stand- 
ard of  the  republic  of  Tlascala. 

EAGLE. — A  base  coin  of  this  denomination 
was  current  in  Ireland  about  1272,  and  was 
declared  illegal  by  27  Edw.  I.  stat.  De  falsd 
Monetd  (1299).  The  American  eagle  of  10 
dollars,  together  with  the  half  and  quarter 
eagles,  were  first  coined  by  order  of  an  act  of 
congress,  April  2,  1792.  The  value  of  the 
American  eagle  is  £2  is.  of  English  money. 


EAGLE 


[     350     ] 


EARTHQUAKE 


EAGLE  (Orders  of  the).— The  order  of  the 
White  Eagle  of  Russia  was  instituted  by  George 
Ossilinsky,  Great  Chancellor  of  Poland,  and 
confirmed  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1634.  It 
was,  however,  soon  suppressed,  and  in  1713 
was  reconstituted  by  Augustus  II.,  King-  of 
Poland.  In  1831  this  order  was  united  with 

those  of  Russia. The  order  of  the  Black 

Eagle  was  founded  by  Frederick  I.,  of  Prussia, 

on  his  coronation  day,  Jan.  17,  1701. The 

Golden  Eagle  was  instituted  at  Wiirtemberg 

in  1702,  and  reconstituted  in  1807. The 

order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  or  of  Sincerity,  was 
founded  in  Prussia  by  George  William,  here- 
ditary prince  of  Anspach  and  Bayreuth,  in 
1705  ;  and  reorganized  by  George  Frederick 
Charles,  July  13,  1734.  In  1791  Frederick 
William  II.  erected  this  into  the  second 
Prussian  order,  arid  it  was  reorganized  in  1810 
and  1830. 

EARL.  —  Selden  believes  that  this  title, 
which  originally  signified  a  man  of  birth,  was 
synonymous  with  the  Saxon  etheling,  and  that 
it  was  applied  to  ealdornien  about  1020.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  the  whole 
kingdom  was  divided  among  five  earls.  The 
first  English  earl  created  after  the  Conquest 
was  William  Fitz-Osbern,  made  Earl  of  Here- 
ford in  1066.  Sir  John  de  Courcy,  made  Earl 
of  Ulster  in  1181,  is  the  first  Irish  earl.  Previous 
to  the  creation  of  dukes  in  1335,  earls  were 
the  highest  nobility  in  England:  they  now 
rank  third,  after  marquisscs.  Originally  earls 
had  the  third  part  of  the  profits  arising 
from  the  pleas  of  the  country.  Their  privi- 
leges, however,  were  much  diminished  by  27 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  24  (1535).  The  title  of  countess 
was  first  borne  by  the  wives  of  earls  in  the 
nth  century. 

MAUL  MARISCHAL  OF  SCOTLAND.— 
This  officer,  whose  duty  was  to  command  Hie 
Scottish  cavalry,  was  always  chosen  from  the 
Keith  family,  the  founder  of  which  obtained 
it  at  the  battle  of  Barry,  fought  in  1010,  against 
the  Danes.  At  first,  the  title  was  great  nia- 
risuhal  ;  James  II.  made  it  earl  marischal  be- 
fore July  4,  1451.  In  1593  the  holder  of  the 
title  founded  the  college  at  Aberdeen,  which 
is  called  after  him  the  Marischal  College.  The 
office  became  extinct  in  1716,  owing  to  George 
Keith's  participation  in  the  rebellion  of  the 
Earl  of  Mar. 

EARL  MARSHAL  OF  ENGLAND.— This, 
the  eighth  officer  of  state,  is  the  only  nobleman 
who  bears  the  title  of  earl  by  virtue  of  his 
office.  The  title  is  of  great  antiquity.  Roger 
de  Montgomery,  marshal  of  the  Norman  army 
at  the  Conquest,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
marshal  of  England.  The  first  on  record  was 
in  1135.  King  Stephen  conferred  the  office 
upon  Gilbert  de  Clare,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  in  1139.  Originally  the  holders  of 
it  were  merely  styled  lord  marshals.  The 
title  of  earl  marshal  was  conferred  upon  Tho- 
mas, Earl  of  Nottingham,  by  special  charter  of 
Richard  II.,  signed  Jan.  12,  1386.  The  duties 
of  the  office  were  allowed  to  be  discharged  by 
deputy  by  a  grant  of  Charles  II.,  signed  Oct. 
19,  1672.  The  earl  marshal,  with  the  lord 
high  constable,  presided  over  the  Court  of 
Chivalry. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  STYLE.— In  architec- 
ture, a  modification  of  the  Gothic  succeeded 
the  Norman  in  the  i2th,  and  was  merged  in  the 
Decorated  (q.  v.)  before  the  i4th,  century.  The 
term  was  first  used  by  Dr.  Millers  in  1805. 

EAR-RINGS  are  first  mentioned  Gen.  xxiv. 
22  (B.C.  1857).  Jacob  is  said  to  have  buried 
the  idols  of  his  household,  with  the  "car- 
rings  which  were  in  their  ears."  They  were 
worn  by  the  ladies  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and 
by  males  in  Lydia.  The  Parisian  ladies  adopted 
them  in  the  isth  century,  but  they  did  not 
come  into  general  use  till  the  isth  and  i6th 
centuries ;  when,  Stubbes  says,  the  ladies 
"are  not  ashamed  to  make  holes  in  their  ears, 
whereat  they  hang  rings,  and  other  jewels  of 
gold  and  precious  stones."  English  gentlemen 
also  wore  them,  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I. 

E A  HTIIEXWARE.— The  art  of  the  potter  is 
probably  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  existence. 
It  was  introduced  into  Greece  from 
B.C.  1490,  and  was  encouraged  at  Rome  by 
Numa  Pompilius,  about  B.C.  700.  The  funereal 
earthenware  of  the  Greeks  was  manufactured 
until  about  350.  After  the  decline  of  the 
Western  empire,  ''none  but  the  coarsest  pot- 
tery was  manufactured.  A  better  kind 
was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors  in 
711,  and  was  thence  taken  to  Italy  by  the 
Pisans  in  1115.  In  the  isth  century  the 
Italians  made  earthenware  overlaid  with  an 
opaque  coloured  glaze,  which  was  considerably 
improved  after  1300.  Earthenware  was  manu- 
factured at  Beauvais,  in  the  i2th  century,  and 
French  Palissy  ware  was  invented  by  Bernard 
Palissy  about  1556.  The  Germans  invented  a 
glaze  for  earthenware  in  1278,  and  exported 
stoneware  in  the  i6th  century.  The  earliest 
specimens  of  native  British  ware  consist  of 
earthenware  tiles  of  the  1 3th  century.  Pitchers 
and  jugs  were  soon  afterwards  introduced. 
Wedgwood's  most  important  discoveries  were 
made  between  1760  and  1762.  A  duty  of  lod. 
IK  T  11>.,  levied  on  all  imported  earthenware, 
by  the  "Additional  Book  of  Rates"  attached 
to  ii  Geo.  I.  c.  7  (1724),  was  repealed  by  15 
Gco.  III.  c.  37  (1775).  A  duty  of  50  per  cent, 
on  the  value  of  imported  earthenware  was 
levied  by  49  Geo.  III.  c.  98  (June  10,  1809).  All 
duties  on  imported  earthenware  were  abolished 
by  the  Customs  Amendment  Act,  23  Viet, 
c.  22,  s.  5  (May  15,  1860). 

EARTH-HOUSES.— (See  PICTS'  HOUSES.) 

EARTHQUAKE.— No  satisfactory  account 
of  the  causes  which  produce  this  phenomenon 
has  yet  been  given  to  the  world.  Humboldt 
remarks:  "  The  phenomena  of  volcanoes,  and 
those  of  earthquakes,  have  been  considered  of 
late  as  the  effects  of  voltaic  electricity,  de- 
veloped by  a  particular  disposition  of  hete- 
rogeneous strata.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that 
often,  when  violent  shocks  succeed  each  other 
within  the  space  of  a  few  hours,  the  electricity 
of  the  air  sensibly  increases  at  the  instant  the 
ground  is  most  agitated ;  but  to  explain  this 
phenomenon,  it  is  unnecessary  to  recur  to  an 
hypothesis,  which  is  in  direct  contradiction  to 
everything  hitherto  observed  respecting  the 
structure  of  our  planet,  and  the  disposition  of 
its  strata." 


EARTHQUAKE 


EARTHQUAKE 


1491.  An  earthquake,  accompanied  by  thunder  and  light- 
ning, occurred  on  Mount  Sinai,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  delivery  of  the  law.  (Exod.  six.  18.) 
1450.  An  earthquake  in  Central  Italy,  which  swallowed 
up  a  city,  and  produced  Lake  Ciminus  in  its 
place. 

595.  An  earthquake  in  China. 

464.  An  earthquake  in  Sparta. 

435.  In  Greece,  especially  in  Euboea,  which  is  converted 
into  an  island  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea. 

313.  In  the  Peloponnesus.     (See  HELICE.) 

364.  A  chasm  opens  in   the   Roman   forum,  into  which 

Quintus  Curtius  voluntarily  leaps.    It  afterwards 

forms  a  lake. 
385.  A  lake,  ",2,1  miles  long  by  13}  wide,  formed  in  one 

night  in  the  Japanese  i  hind  Xiphon. 
383.  (circ.)  The  city  Lysimachia.  is  destroyed. 
334.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes  overthrown.  Eusebius  places 

this  catastrophe  B.C.  105. 
33.  In  Palestine,  in  which  30,000  persons  perish. 

.D. 

17.  Thirteen  cities  of  Asia  Minor  are  overthrown. 

33.  In  Palestine  and  Bitliynia,   on  the  occasion  of  the 

Crucifixion,  the  city  of  Nicsca  was  destroyed. 
79.  In  Misenum  and  its  neighbourhood,  followed  next 
day    by    the    destruction    of     Ilerculaneum    and 
Pompeii. 
115.  Antiorh  is  destroyed,  and  a  violent  earthquake  is  felt 

in  China. 
137.  Severe  shocks  are   felt  in   Nicopolis,    Neocassarea, 

Hierapolis,  Laodicea,  Nicpmedia,  and  Syracuse. 
363.  An  earthquake  in  Rome,  Libya,  and  Asia  Minor  is 
attended  by  an  eclipse  and  inundations  of   the 
sea. 

358,  Aug.  34.  One  in  Asia  Minor,  Bithynia,  and  Macedo- 

nia, the  effects  of  which  are  experienced  by  150 
cities. 

359,  Nov.  or  Dec.  Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia,  is  destroyed. 

365,  July  31.  An  earthquake  is  felt  iii  the  Roman  world. 
446.  One  is  felt  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

494.  Laodicea,  Hierapolis,  and  Tripoli  are  nearly  de- 
stroyed. 

536,  Nov.  39.  Antioch  is  again  reduced  to  ruins. 

543,  Sep.  6.  One  is  felt  throughout  the  then  known  world. 

551,  July  9.  Beyrout  is  destroyed. 

553  or  555,  Aug.  15.  An  earthquake  at  Constantinople  and 
many  other  places,  shocks  being  felt  even  in 
Egypt. 

557,  Oct.  6  and  Dec.  14.  At  Constantinople,  where  thou- 
sands of  the  population  perish. 

684.  More  than  500,000  acres  of  land  in  the  Japanese 
island  Sikokf  arc  swallowed  up  by  the  sea. 

743.  One  of  great  violence  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  Its  con- 
vulsions were  observed  at  600  places. 

7*78.  At  Trevisa,  in  Italy,  where  48  persons  lost  their 
lives. 

794.  One  at  Alexandria,  which  overthrows  the  Pharos. 

801,  April.  In  France,  Gennany,  and  Italy. 

859.  Upwards  of  1,500  houses  are  overturned  at  Antioch. 
Laodicea  and  other  towns  of  Syria  also  suffer  con- 
siderable injury. 

893.  An  earthquake  in  India  destroys  180,000  lives. 

986,  Oct.  One  at  Constantinople.  It  is  also  felt  through- 
out Greece. 

1007.  Deinar,  in  Irak  is  overturned,  and  10,000  persons  are 
buried  in  the  ruins. 

1039.  Half  of  Damascus  is  destroyed. 

1040.  Tabriz,  in  Persia,  is  reduced  to  ruins,  and  50,000  of 

the  inhabitants  are  destroyed. 
1048,  May  i.  One  is  felt  at  Worcester,  Derby,  and  other 

parts  of  England. 

1089,  Aug.  n.  An  earthquake  is  felt  throughout  England. 
1115,  Dec.  Antioch,  Aleppo,  Jerusalem,  and  other  towns 

in  Syria  are  greatly  injured. 
1139.  Gaiisana,  in  Persia,  is  destroyed,  and  100,000  persons 

are  buried  in  its  ruins. 
1143,  Dec.  One  is  felt  at  Lincoln. 
1158.  Antioch,    Tripoli,    Damascus,    Aleppo,    and    other 

Syrian  towns,  are  reduced  to  ruins,   and  30,000 

lives  lost. 
1169,  Feb.  4.  Catania   (q.  v.)   and  other  towns  of   Sicily 

and    Calabria    are    ruined,    and    15,000   persons 

killed. 
1186,  Sep.  Throughout  Europe,  but  especially  in  England, 

Calabria,  and  Sicily. 
1318.  In  Tranche  Comte  a  mountain  opens,  and  engulfs 

5,000  men. 


A.D. 

1337.  In  France,  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  5,000 
persons  perish  from  the  fall  of  rocks  from  the 
mountains. 

1368.  Sixty  thousand  persons  are  killed  by  an  earthquake 
in  Cilicia. 

1374,  Dec  35.  An  earthquake  is  felt  throughout  Eng- 
land. 

1318,  Nov.  14.  One  of  the  most  violent  ever  experienced  in 
England. 

1353,  Jan-  i-  One  occurs  at  Borgo-San-Sepolcro  in  Italy. 
3,ooo  people  perish. 

1456,  Dec.  5.  Throughout  Naples,  where  many  towns  are 
injured,  and  60,000  lives  lost. 

1491,  Oct.  In  the  Archipelago.  5,000  persons  perish  in 
Cos. 

1509,  Sep.  14.  At  Constantinople  1,700  houses  are  over- 
thrown, and  some  thousands  of  lives  lost. 

1531,  Jan.  36.  One  in  Spain,  Portugal,  &c.  In  Lisbon  1,500 
houses  and  all  the  churches  were  thrown  down, 
and  many  persons  buried  in  the  ruins. 

1563.  Cattaro  suffers  from  an  earthquake. 

1580,  April  6.  In  France,  Belgium,  and  especially 
England.  It  was  most  violent  at  London  and 
Dover.  The  bells  at  Westminster  and  other 
places  were  made  to  sound  by  the  violence  of 
the  shock. 

1596,  July  23.  In  Japan,  where  many  cities  were  reduced 
to  ruins. 

1603.  In  Jamaica.     (See  POET  ROYAL.) 

1634  or  1638.  An  island  of  more  than  a  league  and  a  half 
long  is  raised  near  St.  Michael,  in  the  Azores. 

1636,  July  30.  Thirty  towns  and  villages  are  destroyed  in 
the  provinces  of  Capitanata  and  La  Puglia, 
Naples  also  suffers,  and  17,000  persons  are  killed. 

1638,  March  37.  One  hundred  and  eighty  towns  and 
villages  of  Calabria  and  Sicily  are  reduced  to 
ruins. 

1645.  An  earthquake  takes  place  at  Manilla  (q.  v.). 

1667.  Schamaki  is  reduced  to  ruins,  and  80,000  persons  are 
buried. 

1669,  March  8.  Catania  suffers  from  an  earthquake. 

1690,  Oct.  17.  At  Dublin  and  Kilkenny  in  Ireland. 

1693,  June  7.  At  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  three-fourths  of  the 
houses  are  overwhelmed  by  the  sea,  and  3,000  of 
the  inhabitants  lose  then-  lives. 

1693.  In  Sicily   and    Calabria,    where    49    towns,    many 

villages,  and  973  churches  or  monasteries  arc  re- 
duced to  ruins,  and  93,000  lives  lost. 

1694.  Catania  again  suffers  from  an  earthquake. 

1703,  Feb.  3.  Aquilea  is  overthrown,  and  5,000  lives  lost. 

Jeddo,  in  Japan,  is  reduced  to  ruins,  and  300,000 

of  the  inhabitants  are  buried. 

1706,  Nov.  3.  In  Abruzzo,  where  15.000  persons  perish. 
1716,  May  and  June.  An  earthquake  destroys  30,000  lives 

at  Algiers. 

1736,  Sep.  i.  At  Palermo,  4  churches,  10  palaces,  and  1,600 

houses  are  overthrown,  and  from  3,000  to  6,000 
lives  lost. 

1737.  Tabriz,  in  Persia,  is  ruined,  and  77,000  persons  are 

overwhelmed. 
1731,  Nov.  30.  In  China.    The  first  shock  buries  100,000 

persons  in  Pekin. 
1733,  Nov.  39.  Shocks  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,— 1,940 

persons  are  killed,  and  1,455  wounded. 
1746,  Oct.  38.  In  Peru,  where  Callao,  Cavallos,  and  other 

towns  are  overwhelmed  by  the  sea. 
1750,  Feb.  19.  In  London  and  the  country  for  seven  miles 

round.     Several    earthquakes    occur    in    London 

June  7.      Two  thousand   persons    perish  in  the 

island  of  Cerigo. 

1753,  July  39.  At  Hadrianople  and  Constantinople,  where 

mosques  and  houses  are  injured. 

1754,  Cairo  is  nearly  destroyed,  and  40,000  lives  are  lost. 

1755,  April  38.  Quito  is  overthrown. — June  7.  Kaschan,  in 

northern  Persia,  is  reduced  to  rutns,  and  40,000 
persons  killed.— Nov.  i.  The  great  earthquake  of 
Lisbon,  which  was  felt  from  Iceland  on  the  north 
to  Morocco  on  the  south,  and  from  Bohemia  on  the 
east  to  the  West  India  islands  on  the  west.  It  took 
place  at  9.40  A.M.,  and  lasted  several  minutes, 
there  being  three  principal  shocks.  In  Lisbon, 
13,000  houses  were  overturned.  The  loss  of  life  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  30,000  to  50,000  per- 
sons. Faro,  Setubal,  and  Cascaez  also  sustained 
much  injury.  Seville,  St.  Lucar,  Xeres,  Couil, 
Coimbra,  and  Cadiz  suffered  most — Nov.  19. 
Mequinez,  in  Morocco,  is  completely  ruined,  and 
35,000  Arabs  lose  their  lives. 


EARTHQUAKE 


[    352    ] 


EAST 


1759,  Oct.  30.  In  Syria,  where  30,000  persons  perish  in  the 

valley  of  Baalbec  alone. 
1761.  An  earthquake  at  Cartagena. 
1763.  An  earthquake  occurs  at  Manilla, 
1763,  July  29.  At  Comorn,  in  Hungary,  1,500  houses  are 

overturned. 
1767,  Aug.  One  thousand  six  hundred  persons  perish  at 

Martinico. 
1773,  June   7.    The    city  of   Santiago,   in    Guatemala,   is 

buried:    5,000    or   8,000    families    perish    in  the 

1778,  July  3.  An  earthquake  nearly  destroys  Smyrna. 
1780,  Feb.  Tabriz,  in  Persia,  sustains  severe  injuries. 


1783.  Feb.  5.    Great  devastation  in   Calabria 
ittended  with  great  loss  of  life. 


id  Sicily, 


1784,  July  23.  The  city  of  Arsingham,  in  the  pashalic  of 
Erzeroum,  is  overthrown,  and  upwards  of  5,000 
lives  are  lost. 

1788,  Aug.  12.  At  St.  Lucia,  in  the  West  Indies,  where  900 

persons  perish. 

1789,  Sep.  30.  In  Tuscany.     Houses,  men,  and  cattle  are 

engulfed  at  Borgo-San-Sepolcro. 

1793,  April  i.  In  Japan,  near  the  volcano  Illigigama,  which 

throws  forth  ton-cuts  of  water,  destroying  53,000 
persons. 

1794,  June  12.  Throughout  Campania,  but  especially  in  the 

neighbourhood  of  Vesuvius,  which  bursts  forth 
into  active  eruption. — June  17.  It  overwhelms  the 
city  of  Terra  del  Grecco. 

1796,  Feb.  26.  In  Asia  Minor,  where  1,500  persons  perish. 

1797,  Feb.  4.  Quito,  in  Peru,  is  overthrown,  burying  40,000 

persons  in  its  ruins. — Dec.  14.  Cumaua  is  de- 
stroyed. 

1800,  Sep.  26.  One  occurs  at  Constantinople. 

1802,  Oct.  26.  A  very  widely-extended  earthquake  is  felt 
at  Cronstai.lt.  St..  Petersburg,  Bucharest,  Constan- 
tinople, &c.  The  shocks  are  most  violent  in  the 
Danubian  principalities. 

1804,  Jan.    At  Kottcrdam,    Haarlem,    and    other   Dutch 

towns. 

1805,  Friday,   July  26.    A  most    destructive    earthquake 

throughout  Calabria  and  the  Terra-di-Lavoro. 
Six  towns  and  villages  destroyed  and  20,000  per- 
sons killed. 

1808.  April  2-  Very  violent  shocks  in  Piedmont  and  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone. 

1810,  Aug.  ii.  The  village  of  Las  Casas,  in  the  island 
of  St.  Michael,  one  of  the  Azores,  disappears, 
and  is  supplied  by  a  lake  of  boiling  sulphurous 
water. 

1812,  March  26.  Caraccas  is  totally  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

1817,  April.  Chang-Kuh,  in   China,   is    overthrown,    and 

2,8oo  persons  buried  in  its  ruins. 

1818,  March.  Philippolis,  in  Turkey,  a  city  of  30,000  in- 

habitants, is  said  to  be  entirely  engulfed  in  the 
earth. 

1819,  June  16.  Severe  shocks  are  experienced  in  the  north 

of  Hindustan.  Bhooj,  the  capital  of  Cutch,  is  re- 
duced to  ruins,  with  the  loss  of  2,000  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. Vostitza,  the  ancient  ^Egium  (q.  «.),  is  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake. 

1822,  May  7.  The  town  of  Carthago,  in  Costa-Rica,  Central 
America,  is  quite  overthrown. — Aug.  ic,  13,  and 
Sep.  5.  Aleppo  (q.  t>.)  is  destroyed,  and  other  towns 
injured,  with  the  loss  of  20,000  of  their  inhabi- 
tants.— Nov.  19.  The  coast  of  Chili,  for  more  than 
100  miles,  is  permanently  elevated  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

1824.  An  earthquake  occurs  at  Manilla. 

1825,  March  2.  Algiers  and  Blida  (an  adjacent  town)  are 

severely  injured:  7,ooo  persons  perish. 

1827,  Sep.  Fort  Kolitaran,   near  Lahore,   Hindostan,  de- 

stroyed, with  about  1,000  persons.— Nov.  16.  Very 
destructive  shocks  in  Columbia,  S.  America. 

1828,  March  30.  In  Peru.     Scarcely  a  house  in  Lima  and 

Callao  escapes  injury. 

1839,  March  31.  A  very  disastrous  earthquake  occurs 
in  the  province  of  Murcia,  Spain,  and  is  at- 
tended with  fearful  destruction  of  property  and 
life. 

1830,  May  26  and  27.  The  city  of  Canton  sustains  severe 
shocks,  which  destroy  between  6,000  and  7,000  of 
its  population. 

1835,  Feb.  20.  Concepcion,  Santiago,  and  other  towns  of 
Chili  arc  reduced  to  ruins.— Oct.  12.  Castiglione,  in 
Calabria,  is  utterly  destroyed,  and  loo  of  its  inha- 
bitants are  buried. 


A.D. 

1837,  Jan.  I.  An  earthquake  in  Syria  utterly  ruins 
the  town  of  Saphit,  and  destroys  3,500  of 
its  inhabitants,  besides  overwhelming  entire 
villages. 

1839,  Jan.  n.  Violent  shocks  are  felt  in  the  island  of  Mar- 

tiuico. 

1840,  Feb.  14.    A   destructive    earthquake  occurs   in    the 

island  of  Ternate.  —  June  20  — July  28  (O.S.). 
The  district  of  Mount  Ararat,  in  Armenia,  is  de- 
vastated by  violent  earthquakes,  attended  with 
great  destruction  of  houses  and  life. — Oct.  30. 
Violent  shocks  in  Zante,  where  one  village  is  com- 
pletely overturned. 

1843,  May  7.  Hayti  and  Cape  Haytien  are  severely  injured 
by  two  violent  shocks. 

1843,  Feb.  8.  Very  violent  shocks  occur  in  the  West  Indies. 
In  Antigua  alone,  property  to  the  amount  of 
,£100,000  is  destroyed.  The  loss  of  life  is  incon- 
siderable. 

1845,  Feb.  8.  Severe   shocks  in  Java,— April  7.  The  city 

of  Mexico  is  much  injured  by  some  violent 
shocks. 

1846,  March  14.  The  most  violent  earthquake  ever  recorded 

in  Norway. 

1847,  Oct.  _23-  The  city  of  Atlixco,  in  Mexico,  is  completely 

ruined,  with  the  destruction  of  many  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. 

1851,  Feb.  28.  The  islands  of  Rhodes  and  Maori  are  shaken. 
At  the  latter  place,  the  Baba-Dagh  mountain  falls 
from  a  height  of  2,050  feet,  and  the  village  of 
Ghedrack-BuL:a.-i  disappears,  with  all  its  inhabi- 
tants.—April  2-  Valparaiso  and  other  towns  in  Chili 
experience  severe  shocks. — Aug.  14.  The  towns  of 
Melfi  and  Barile,  in  South  Italy,  are  totally  de- 
stroyed, with  1,000  of  their  inhabitants. 

1853,  July  15.  The  city  of  Cumana,  in  Venezuela,   is  de- 

stroyed, with  800  of  its  inhabitants. — Aug.  18. 
Numerous  shocks  occur  in  Greece,  but  more  espe- 
cially at  Thebes,  which  suffers  almost  total  de- 
struction. 

1854,  April  6.  San  Salvador,  in  Central  America,  is  over- 

whelmed, with  a  fourth  of  its  inhabitants. 

1855,  Feb.  28.  Broussa,  the  ancient  capital  of  Asia  Minor, 

is  nearly  destroyed.— July  25  and  26.  Some  shocks 
are  felt  throughout  Central  Europe. — Dec.  23-  Jeddo 
is  injured,  and  some  towns  in  Niphou  are  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake. 

1856,  March  17.  Great  Sanghir,  one  of   the  Moluccas,   is 

visited  by  a  severe  earthquake,  which  destroys 
3,806  of  its  inhabitants.— Oct.  13.  The  Mediterra- 
nean, especially  Candia,  is  severely  visited.  In 
Candia  alone,  4,000  houses  and  1,600  people  are 
destroyed. 

1857,  Dec.  16.  A  very  destructive  earthquake  in  Calabria 

destroys  many  towns,  and  causes  the  death  of 
10,000  persons. 

1858,  Feb.  31.  Corinth  is  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

1859,  March  22-  Quito  is  reduced  to  ruins. 

1861,  March  20.  The  city  of  Mendoza  (q.  »;.),  in  South 
America,  is  destroyed. 

1863,  April  22.  A  very  destructive  earthquake  occurs  in 

Rhodes.  (See  RHODES.)— July  2.  Manilla  is  severely 
injured  by  an  earthquake.  (See  MANILLA.)— Oct. 
6.  A  shock  is  distinctly  felt  between  three  and  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning  through  the  south-western 
portions  of  England. 

1864,  Oct.  3.  A  severe  shock  is  felt  in  Mexico. 

1865,  July  1 8  and  19.  Several  villages  are  overthrown  in 

Catania, 

1866,  March.  An  earthquake  overthrows  300  houses  at 

Avlona,  in  Koumelia. 

EAST  ANGLES. — This  Anglo-Saxon  king- 
dom, which  comprised  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Cambridgeshire,  was  founded  by  Uffa  about 
527,  and  became  extinct  at  the  death  of  Ed- 
mund the  Martyr  in  870. 

EAST  ANGLES  (Bishopric).— In  628  its  king 
Eorpwald  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
in  630  it  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  under 
Felix.  In  673  the  see  was  divided  into  Dun- 
wich  and  Elmham,  which  were  reunited  in 
955,  and  in  1078  the  see  was  removed  to  Thet- 
ford,  whence  it  was  transferred  to  Norwich 
in  1092. 


EAST 


[    353 


EASTERN 


EAST  COWES  (Isle  of  Wight).— This  town, 
separated  from  West  Cowes  (q.v.)  by  the  es- 
tuary of  the  Medina,  owes  its  origin  to  a  fort 
or  block -house  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  (1509- 
1547).  The  chapel-of-ease  to  Whippingham 
church,  founded  here  by  the  Princess  (after- 
wards Queen)  Victoria,  in  1831,  was  consecrated 
in  1833. 

EASTER,  the  festival  in  commemoration  of 
the  Resurrection,  is  so  called  from  Eastre,  or 
Eostre,  a  Saxon  goddess,  whose  feast  was 
anciently  celebrated  in  the  month  of  April. 
Some  ascribe  its  institution  to  the  Apostles, 
but  the  more  general  opinion  is,  that  it  was 
first  observed  by  their  immediate  successors, 
about  68.  The  Council  of  Aries,  in  314,  de- 
creed that  the  day  for  keeping  this  festival 
should  be  the  Sunday  after  the  i4th  day  of  the 
March  moon,  and  the  Covmcil  of  Nicsea,  in 
325,  confirmed  this  decision.  The  Roman 
method  was  not  established  in  France  till 
525,  and  in  Britain  and  Ireland  till  about 
800.  By  the  alteration  of  the  calendar 
by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582,  the  first  Sunday 
after  the  full  moon  immediately  following 
the  2ist  of  March  was  fixed  as  the  day  for 
observing  this  festival.  Offerings,  oblations, 
&c.,  were  collected  at  Christmas,  Easter, 
Whitsuntide,  and  other  particular  occasions, 
before  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  By  2  and  3 
Edw.  VI.  c.  13  (1548),  it  was  enacted  that  such 
offerings  should  thenceforth  be  collected  at 
Easter. 

EASTER  ISLAND,  or  DAVIS'S  LAND 
(Pacific  Ocean),  was  discovered  by  Davis  in 
1686.  It  was  visited  and  named  by  Rogge- 
wein,  who  thought  it  was  a  new  discovery, 
April  6,  1722,  and  visited  by  Capt.  Cook, 
March  n,  1774. 

EASTERN  BATHS.— (See  TURKISH  BATHS.) 

EASTERN  (called  also  the  BYZANTINE 
and  GREEK)  EMPIRE.— Valentinian  I.  first 
divided  the  Roman  empire  in  June,  364, 
when  Valens  became  Emperor  of  the  East. 
The  final  separation  took  place  in  395.  Gibbon 
(ch.  xxxii.)  remarks,  "The  division  of  the 
Roman  world  between  the  sons  of  Theodo- 
sius  marks  the  final  establishment  of  the 
empire  of  the  East,  which,  from  the  reign  of 
Arcadius  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Turks,  subsisted  one  thousand  and  fifty- 
eight  years  in  a  state  of  premature  and  per- 
petual decay." 


364.  The  Eastern  empire  commences,  under  Valens. 

388.  Theodosius  I.  defeats  Maximus,  the  tyrant  of  the 
West,  who  is  beheaded  by  the  army. 

304.  Theodosius  I.  defeats  the  Gauls  and  Germans  under 
Eugenius,  who  is  slain. 

395.  It  is  separated  from  the  West,  under  Arcadius,  who 
governs  under  the  guardianship  of  Kuf  us. 

408.  Persecution  of  the  Pagans. 

423.  The  two  divisions  of  the  empire  are  reunited. 

435.  The  Eastern  and  Western  empires  are  again  sepa- 
rated. Schools  of  law  are  opened  at  Constanti- 
nople. 

438.  The  Theodosian  code  (q.  v.)  is  published. 

474.  Leo  II.,  an  infant,  and  Zeno  are  joint  emperors. 
Loo  II.  dies,  it  is  supposed,  by  poison. 

478.  Theodoric,  son  of  Triarins,  invades  the  empire. 

514.  The  Gothic  general  Vitalian  lays  siege  to  Constanti- 
nople. 

539.  The  Justinian  code  (q.  r.)  is  published. 

541.  Justinian  I.  abolishes  the  consulship. 

545.  The  Turks  enter  Asia. 


551.  The  Slavonians  ravage  Illyria,  and  penetrate  almos 
as  far  as  Constantinople. 

553.  The  seriate  is  abolished  by  Justinian  I. 

61 1.  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia  conquers  Syria. 

617.  lleraclius  abjures  Christianity,  and  embraces  Pagan- 
ism, in  order  to  conciliate  Chosroes  II. 

636.  The  Avars  besiege  Constantinople,  and  the  Persians 

reach  the  Bosphorus. 

637.  Heraclius  defeats  Chosroes  II.,  and  recovers  all  his 

lost  territories. 

633.  The  Saracens  invade  the  empire. 

644.  Rebellion  and  death  of  Valentinian. 

668—675.  The  Saracens  besiege  Constantinople. 

678.  The  Bulgarians  obtain  the  country  now  called  Bul- 
garia. 

693.  Armenia  is  separated  from  the  empire. 

695—705.  Justinian  II.  is  exiled,  and  the  empire  is  ruled 
by  Leontius  and  Tiberius  Apsimar  in  succession. 

711.  The  Bulgarians  ravage  the  empire  as  far  as  Constan- 
tinople. 

716.  Constantinople  is  besieged  by  the  Saracens. 

717.  The  Emperor  Theodosius  III.  abdicates,  and  retires  to 

a  monastery.     He  is  succeeded  by  Leo  III.,  the 
Isaurian. 
739.  The  Greek  provinces  of  the  empire  are  invaded  by  the 

Saracens,  who  are  defeated  by  Acroiiius. 
770.  Constantine  IV.  abolishes  monasteries  in  the  Eastern 

empire. 
793.  Constautine  VI.,  the  last  emperor  of  the  Isaurian 

dynasty,  is  blinded,  by  order  of  his  mother  Irene. 
811,  July  25.  Nicephorus  I.  Is  defeated  and  slain  by  the 

Bulgarians. 
830.  Accession  of  Michael  II.,  the  founder  of  the  Amorian 

dynasty. 

825.  Dalmatia  is  taken  from  the  empire  by  the  Servians. 
837.  Loss  of  Sicily  and  Crete. 
850.  Bogoris,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  becomes  a  vassal  of 

the  empire. 
867.  Accession   of    Basil   I.,  founder  of  the  Basilian  or 

Macedonian  dynasty. 
890.  Southern    Italy    becomes   subject   to   the   Eastern 

empire. 

938.  Five  emperors  reign  simultaneously. 
1014,  July  29.  Battle  of  Zetunium  (q.  v.). 
1018.  Bulgaria  is  made  a  province  of  the  empire. 
1035.  The  empire  is  visited  by  famine,  and  ravaged  by  in- 
vaders. 

1040.  Eestoration  of  Sicily,  and  loss  of  Servia. 
1057,  Aug.  31.  Michael  VI.  abdicates  in  favour  of  Isaac  I. 

End  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty. 
1133.  Revolt  of  the  Servians. 
1144.  Restoration  of  the  senate. 
1186.  Revolt  of  the  Bulgarians. 

1195.  Isaac  II.  is  deposed  and  blinded  by  his  brother,  who 
ascends  the  throne  as  Alexius  III. 

1303,  July  18.  Capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Crusaders, 

who  restore  Isaac  II.,  and  make  his  son,  Alexius 
IV.,  joint  emperor. 

1304,  Jan.  38.  Murder  of  Alexius  IV.,   and  accession  of 

Alexius  V.,  soon  after  which  Isaac  II.  dies.     The 

Crusaders    again    besiege     Constantinople,    put 

Alexius  V.  to  death,  and  found  the  Latin  empire 

of  the  East.— May  9.  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders, 

ascends  the  throne. 
1308.  Ephiis  and  ^Etolia  are  erected  into  an  independent 

state. 

1361,  July  35.  Michael  Palscologus  restores  the  Greek  em- 
pire to  Constantinople.    (See  BLINDING.) 
1377.  An  invasion  of  Sicilians,  Venetians,  and  French  is 

repelled. 

1331.  Civil  war  of  the  Andronici. 
1338,  May  24.  Abdication  of  the  elder  Andronicus,  who  is 

succeeded  by  Androuicus  III. 
1353.  The  Turks  enter  Europe. 
1367.  The  Mamelukes  conquer  Armenia. 
1373.  The  treaty  of  Amurath,  which  limits  the  Eastern 

empire  to  Constantinople,  Thessalonica,  part  of  the 

Morea,  and  a  few  islands. 

1390.  The  empire  loses  all  its  Greek  possessions  in  Asia. 
1396,  Sep.  28.  Battle  of  Nicopolis,  and  massacre  of  10,000 

Christian  prisoners  by  the  Turks. 
1400.  Manuel   II.    surrenders  part  of    Constantinople    to 

Bajazet  I. 
1448.  On  the  death  of  John  Palseologus  II.,  the  empire  is 

claimed  by  his  three  brothers.    Constantine  XII. 

is  elected. 
1453,  May  29.  Capture  of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed 

II.,  and  extinction  of  the  Eastern  empire. 
A  A 


EAST 


[     354     J 


ECBATANA 


EMPERORS    OF   THE    EAST. 


the 


A.D. 

364.  Valens. 

379.  Theodosius    I. 

Great. 

395.  Arcadius. 
408.  Theodosius  II. 
450.  Marcian. 
457.  Leo  I. 

474.  Leo  II.  and  Zeno. 
491.  Anastasius  I. 
518.  Justin  I. 
527.  Justinian  I. 

§'      Justin  II. 
Tiberius  II. 
Maurice. 
Phocas. 
6to/  Heracliua. 
641.  Constantino  III. 
641.  Constans  II. 
668.  Constantine  IV. 
685.  Justinian  II. 
711.  Philippicus. 
713.  Anastusius  II. 

717.  Theodosius  III. 

718.  Leo  III. 

741.  Constantine  V. 

775.  Leo  IV. 

780.  Constantine  VI.    and 

Irene. 
792.  Irene. 
803.  Nicephorus  I. 
811.  Stauraeius. 
811.  Michael  I. 
813.  Leo  V. 
820.  Michael  II. 
839.  TheophiliM. 
842.  Michael  III. 
867.  Basil    I.,    the    Mace- 

donian. 
886.  Leo  VI. 


A.D. 

911.  Alexander  and  Con- 
stantine VII. 

919.  Komanus  I.,   Christo- 
pher, Stephen,   and 
Constantino  VIII. 
945.  Constantino         VII. 

(alone.) 

gw.  Romanus  II. 
963.  Nicephorus  II. 
969.  John   Zimisces,  Basil 
II.,  and  Constantine 
IX. 

976.  Basil  II.  and  Constan- 
tine IX. 

1025.  Constantine  IX. 
1038.   lionianus  III. 
1034.  Michael  IV. 
1041.  Michael  V. 
1043.  Zof  andConstantineX. 
1054.  Theodora, 

1056.  Michael  VI. 

1057.  Isaac  I. 

IOS9-  Constantine  XL 

1067.  Eudocia  and  Komanus 
III. 

1071.  Michael  VII.,  Andro- 
nicus  I.,  and  Con- 
stantine XII. 

1078.  Nicephorus  III. 

1081.    Alexius  I. 

I  I  IS.     .)(,],!,. 

114-,.  M:muell. 
1 1 80.  Alexius  II. 
1183.  Andronicus  I. 

...ell. 
1195.  Alexius  III. 

1203.  Alexius  IV.  and  Isaac 

II.  i  restored.) 

1204.  Alexius  V. 


A.D. 

1204.  Baldwin  I. 

1206.  Henry. 

1216.  Peter  of  Courtenay. 

1219-  Kobert  of  Courtenny. 


LATIN   EMPERORS. 
A.D. 
1228.  Baldwin  II.  and  John 

of  Brieime. 
1237-  Baldwin  II.  (alone.) 


GREEK   EMPERORS   OF   NICE. 
A.D. 

1259.  John  Lascaris. 
1360.  John      Lascaris     and 
Michael  Palsuologus. 


A.D. 

1204.  Theodore  Lascaris  I. 
1223-  John  DUCMS  Va(:ir,-s. 
1255.  Theodore  Lascaris  II. 


GREEK  EMPERORS  RE3TOE.ED  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


A.D. 

1261.  Michael  Palmologus. 
I273-  Andronicus  II. 
1338.  Andronicus  III. 
1341.  John  Palooologus  I. 
1347.  John  Cantacuzene. 


A.D. 

1355.  John    Palajologus    I. 

(restored.) 
1391.  Manuel  II. 
1425.  John  Palocologus  II. 
1448.  Constantino  XII. 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.— This  celebrated 
association  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
trade  with  the  East  Indies  was  formed  in 
London  in  1599,  and  obtained  its  charter  Dec. 
31,  1600.  In  1635  a  rival  company  was  estab- 
lished by  Sir  William  Courten,  and  chartered 
by  Charles  I.  The  two  associations  united  in 
1649.  In  1657,  Cromwell  renewed  their  charter, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Charles  II.  April  3, 
1661,  and  again  Oct.  5,  1677.  In  1694  the  East 
India  trade  was  thrown  open,  but  in  1698  a 
new  company  obtained  a  monopoly,  in  ex- 
change for  a  loan  to  Government  of  .£2,000,000. 
In  1702,  however,  the  old  and  new  companies 
amalgamated,  and  f ormed  the  ' '  United  Com- 
pany of  Merchants  of  England  trading  to  the 
East  Indies."  In  1772  the  company  was  com- 
pelled to  apply  for  a  loan,  and  in  1784  the 
Board  of  Control  was  erected  by  24  Geo.  III. 


c.  25,  to  regulate  the  civil  and  military  govern- 
ment of  the  company's  territories.  By  53 
Geo.  III.  c.  155,  s.  7  (July  21,  1813),  the  impor- 
tation of  any  goods  but  tea  from  any  place 
except  China  was  declared  free  to  all  British 
subjects,  and  the  commercial  character  of  the 
company  was  abolished  by  3  &  4  AVill.  IV.  c.  85 
(Aug.  28,  1833).  The  number  of  directors  was 
reduced  from  24  to  18  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  95 
(Aug.  20,  1853),  and  the  government  of  India 
was  finally  transferred  from  the  company  to  the 
crown,  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  2,  1858). 
The  Dutch  East  India  Company  was  formed  in 
1595.  Charles  VI.  founded  an  East  India  Com- 
pany at  Ostend  in  1719.  It  was  dissolved  in 
1731.  The  Swedish  East  India  Company  was 
formed  in  1731;  the  French  in  1740,  and  dis- 
solved in  1770  ;  and  the  Danish  was  formed  in 
1740.  The  Scotch  East  India  Company  was 
established  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment in  1695.  (See  DARIEN.) 

EAST  INDIA  HOUSE  (London).— The  old 
house  of  the  East  India  Company,  situated  in 
Leadenhall  Street,  was  erected  in  1726,  and  the 
new  house  in  1798.  The  library,  rich  in  Oriental 
MSS.,  was  founded  by  the  Court  of  Directors 
about  1805-6.  In  1861,  when  the  library  and 
museum  were  removed— the  former  to  Cannon- 
row  West,  the  latter  to  Fife-House,  Whitehall- 
yard — 70,000  volumes  of  records  of  the  com- 
pany were  sold  for  waste  paper.  The  building 
was  sold  by  tender  to  a  private  company  for 
.£155,000,  June  20,  1861. 

BAST  INDIAN  UNITED  SERVICE  CLUB 
(London)  was  founded  Jan.  i,  1850. 

MAST  INDIES.— (-See  INDIA.) 

KASTLAM)  COMPANY.— This  association 
was  incorporated  in  1579  to  trade  to  all  places 
within  the  Sound  except  Narva.  When  the 
trade  to  Norway  and  Sweden  was  thrown  open, 
this  company  declined  in  importance. 

E 15  K  RSBERG  (Battle).— The  Austrians  under 
Gen.  Hiller  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the 
French  under  Bessieres  and  Oudinot  at  this 
place  near  Linz,  in  Austria,  May  3,  1809. 

EBIONITES.  —  A  sect  of  Christian  Jews 
founded  at  Pella,  about  66,  which  attained 
importance  in  the  2nd  century.  They  spread 
in  the  villages  around  Damascus,  and  had  a 
church  at  Aleppo.  Gibbon  (ch.  xv.)  says: 
"  The  name  of  Nazarenes  was  deemed  too 
honourable  for  those  Christian  Jews,  and  they 
soon  received,  from  the  supposed  poverty  of 
their  understanding,  as  well  as  of  their  condi- 
tion, the  contemptuous  epithet  of  Ebionites." 
They  believed  Christ  to  be  a  man,  though 
endowed  with  divine  power,  and  they  main- 
tained that  the  ceremonial  law  of  Moses  must 
be  observed.  The  sect  was  in  existence  in  the 
4th  century. 

EBORACUM.— (See  YORK.) 

EBRO.—  (See  TUDELA,  Battle.) 

ECBATANA  (Media).— This  city  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Semirainis,  though  Hero- 
dotus mentions  Dejoces  as  its  founder.  An 
account  of  the  building  of  the  city  by  Ar- 
phaxad  is  given  in  the  book  of  Judith  (i.  2 — 4). 
It  was  the  summer  residence  of  Cyrus  and  the 
succeeding  kings  of  Persia.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Ezra  under  the  name  of  Achmeta,  and  the 
modern  Hamadan  occupies  its  site. 


ECCENTRICS 


[     355     J 


ECLIPSE 


ECCENTRICS.— This  convivial  club,  an  off- 
shoot of  the  Brilliants,  held  its  first  meeting 
about  May,  1800,  at  a  tavern  in  Chaudos  Street, 
Co  vent  Garden,  whence  they  removed  to  May's 
Buildings,  St.  Martin's  Lane,  where  they  held 
their  meetings  till  1840. 

ECCLESIASTES.— This  book,  written  by 
King  Solomon  before  B.C.  976,  derives  its  title 
from  the  name,  signifying  preacher,  by  which 
its  author  always  refers  to  himself.  Some 
commentators  have  supposed  that  it  was  not 
the  work  of  Solomon,  but  of  some  later  writer 
who  assumed  the  name  and  style  of  the  wisest 
of  men  to  add  force  to  his  teaching.  On  this 
supposition,  the  dates  assigned  for  its  produc- 
tion have  extended  over  a  period  of  more  than 
300  years. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COMMISSION.— 
William  IV.  issued  a  commission  of  inquiry 
into  the  state  of  the  Church  of  England, 
Feb.  4,  1835,  which  published  its  first  report 
March  17.  A  new  commission  was  issued 
June  6,  and  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77  (Aug.  13, 
1836)  the  commissioners  became  a  corporation, 
with  perpetual  succession  and  a  common  seal. 
The  constitution  of  this  corporation  was  ma- 
terially amended  by  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  113  (Aug.  u, 
1840),  and  4  &  5  Viet.  c.  39  (June  21,  1841). 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.— Previous  to 
the  Conquest,  all  offences  were  tried  in  civil 
courts  ;  but  in  1085  William  I.  published  a 
charter  of  separation,  which  established  eccle- 
siastical courts.  By  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  s.  2 
(1532),  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  de- 
clared to  be  immediately  from  the  crown. 
This  act,  repealed  by  i  &  2  Mary  c.  8,  s.  6 
(1554),  was  revived  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i,  s.  4  (1558). 
In  July,  1830,  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
inquire  into  their  practice  and  jurisdiction, 
which  recommended  sundry  important  changes 
in  1832.  The  Probate  and  Divorce  Court, 
established  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  77,  s.  3  (Aug. 
25>  1857),  abolished  all  the  authority  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Courts  in  matters  relating  to 
wills,  &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.— The  narra- 
tive of  the  foundation  and  early  history  of  the 
Christian  Church  is  drawn  from  the  inspired 
record  in  the  New  Testament.  Hegesippus,  in 
the  and  century,  and  Eusebius,  Bishop  of 
Csesarea  (265 — 338),  chronicled  the  course  of 
events  to  their  own  times,  and  their  accounts 
were  continued  by  Socrates  Scholasticus,  whose 
history  extends  to  the  year  439 ;  by  Hermias 
Sozomenus,  who  died  after  443  ;  and  by  Theo- 
doret,  Bishop  of  Cyrus  (393 — 457).  Evagrius 
Scholasticus  (536 — 600) ;  the  Venerable  Bede 
(672  or  3 — May  26,  735) ;  and  Simeon  Meta- 
phrastes,  who  died  about  976,  wrote  on  the 
same  subject.  Cardinal  Csesar  Baronius  (1538 — 
June  30,  1607),  author  of  the  "Annales  Eccle- 
siastic!;"  Archbishop  Usher  (1580 — March  21, 
1656)  ;  Rev.  Thomas  Fuller  (1608— Aug.  15, 
1661) ;  Rev.  Joseph  Bingham  (1668— Aug.  17, 
1723) ;  Lewis  Anthony  Muratori  (1672 — Jan.  21, 
1750);  John  Lawrence  Mosheim  (1694 — Sep.  9, 
JJSS);  John  A.  W.  Neander  (1789 — July  14, 
1850) ;  Rev.  George  Townsend,  Canon  of  Dur- 
ham (1788 — Nov.  23,  1857)  J  Rev.  Henry  Hart 
Milman,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  born  Feb.  10, 1791 ; 
John  Henri  Merle  D'Aubigne,  born  in  1794 ;  and 


Rev.  James  C.  Robertson,  born  in  1813,  have 
contributed  valuable  works  to  this  department 
of  history. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  LAW.—  (See  CANON  LAW 
ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS,  LEGANTINE  and  PRO- 
VINCIAL CONSTITUTIONS.) 

ECCLESIASTICAL  TITLES  BILL.— In  con- 
sequence of  the  papal  bull  of  Sep.  30,  1850,  by 
which  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,  Lord 
John  Russell,  then  prime  minister,  introduced 
a  measure  into  Parliament  Feb.  7,  1851,  which 
was  read  a  third  time  and  passed  July  4.  By 
this  act  (14  &  15  Viet.  c.  60,  Aug.  i,  1851), 
the  papal  brief  was  declared  null  and  void, 
and  a  fine  of  ,£100  was  imposed  on  all  such  as 
should  endeavour  to  carry  it  into  effect. 

ECCLESIASTICUS.— This  book  of  the  Apo- 
crypha (q.  v.),  called  in  the  Septuagint  "The 
Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,"  the  date 
of  whose  life  is  not  known,  was  translated  into 
Greek,  according  to  some  authorities,  about 
B.C.  230,  though  others  assign  it  to  B.C.  130. 
Its  name  is  derived,  not  from  the  profession"  of 
the  author,  which  is  unknown,  but  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  the  chief  of  the  ecclesiasti  libri, 
or  uninspired  books,  which,  from  their  edify- 
ing nature,  were  accepted  as  proper  to  be  read 
in  churches.  Numerous  commentaries  were 
published  in  the  i6th  and  ijth  centuries, 
Linde's  German  translation  appeared  in  1785, 
and  his  Greek  text  in  1795.  The  more  complete 
version  of  Bretschneider  was  published  in 
1806. 

ECIJA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Astigi,  celebrated 
for  an  aqueduct  completed  by  Abderahman 
III.,  in  949.  The  Merines  defeated  the  Casti- 
liaiis  near  this  town  in  1275. 

ECKENWALD.—  (See  CAMPO  FORMIO.) 

ECKMUHL  (Battle).— At  this  place,  in  Ba- 
varia, the  Austrian  army,  under  the  Archduke 
Charles,  was  defeated  by  the  French,  under 
Napoleon  I.  and  Davoust,  April  22,  1809. 

ECLECTICS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers, 
founded  by  Potamon  of  Alexandria,  who  is 
said  by  some  authorities  to  have  lived  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  and  by  others  in  the  2nd 
century.  He  persuaded  his  disciples  not  to 
join  any  of  the  existing  schools  of  philosophy, 
but  to  select  from  each  what  seemed  most 
conformable  to  true  reason.  Between  200  and 
235  similar  principles  were  taught  in  reference 
to  Christianity  by  Ammonius  Saccas,  who 
founded  the  school  of  the  New  Platonists. 
Another  sect  of  Eclectics  arose  in  the  i7th 
century. 

ECLIPSE  signifies  "failure,"  namely,  of 
light.  The  Brahmins  appear  to  have  been  the 
first  astronomers  who  attained  the  power  of 
calculating  solar  and  lunar  eclipses.  In  their 
great  astronomical  work,  the  "Surya"  Sidd- 
hanta","  it  is  stated  that  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun  occurred  Feb.  18,  B.C.  3102,  and  modern 
calculations  have  proved  the  assertion  true. 
Next  in  order  the  Chinese  calculated  eclipses, 
and  based  their  entii'e  chronology  on  their  ob- 
servations of  these  phenomena,  which  date 
from  the  year  B.C.  2940.  The  Babylonian 
register  of  eclipses  commenced  in  the  year 
B.C.  2226.  Hales  says,  "In  the  age  of  Thales, 
at  least,  the  elements  of  the  calculation  of 

A  A   2 


ECNOMUS 


356    ] 


EDEN 


eclipses  were  known  in  Greece  ;  for  Herodotus 
say.s  that  he  foretold  to  the  lonians  the  year  of 
the  remarkable  eclipse  that  put  an  end  to  the 
battle  between  the  Medes  and  Lydians." 

B.C. 

625.  A  total  eclipse,  predicted  by  Thalos,    interrupts  the 
battle  of  Halyg  (7.  ».).  Various  dates  between  B.C. 
625  and  B.C.  583  are  given  for  this  event. 
603,  May  17.  A  total  eclipse  is  recorded  by  the  Persian 

historians. 
4-79,  March  14.  The  array  of  Xerxes  is  alarmed  by  a  total 

solar  eclipse. 

434.  An  eclipse  is  observed  at  Athens. 
309,  Aug.  15.  The  total  eclipse  of  Agathocles. 
A.D. 
59.  A  total  eclipse  takes  place  at  the  death  of  Agrip- 

pina. 
346,  June  6.  An  eclipse  occurs  soon  after  the  siege  of 

Nisibis. 

447.  Matins  mentions  an  eclipse. 
593,  March  19.  An  eclipse  occurs  during  the  march  of 

the  Emperor  Maurice  to  Thrace. 
840,  June  20.  A  total  eclipse  occurs  at  the  death  of  Louis1!. 

of  France. 
1030,  July  29.  A  total  eclipse  takes  place  during  the  battle 

o'f  Sticklastad. 

1140.  A  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  England. 
1191,  June  23-   A  very  remarkable  eclipse  is  visible  in 

England. 

1239,  June  3.  An  eclipse  is  visible  in  Enirland. 
1433.  A  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  the  British  islands. 
1598.  Another  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  the  British  islands. 
1053.  A  total  eclipse  occurs,  which  is  visible  hi  the  British 

islands. 

1706.  A  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
1715,  May3-  A  total  eelipse  takes  plaee,  durinjy  which  the 

stars  are  visible  at  London  in  the  daytime. 
1734.  A  total  eelipse  of  the  sun  is  Nibble  in  F.ntfnnd. 
1733,  May  2.  A   total   eclipse   is   visible,   in    the    north    of 
F.urope.     The   red   appearances  round   ihe    nino:i, 
since  known  as  Holly's  beads,  were  first  noticed 
on  this  occasion. 

1806,  June  16.  A  total  eelipse  is  visM-1.'  in  Xorth  America. 
1842,  July  7.  A  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  the  south  of 

Europe. 
1850,  Aug.  8.  A  total  eclipse  is  observed  by  M.  Kutczyeki 

in  the  1'aeilic  ( leean. 

1858,  March  15.  A  great  annular  eclipse  is  visible  in  Eng- 
land.—Sop.  7.  A  total  eclipse  is  visible  in  South 
America,  and  observed  by  order  of  the  Brazilian 
^n\  eminent. 

1860,  July  18.  A  total  eclipse,  visible  in  Spain,  is  observed 
by  a  party  of  English  astronomers. 

ECNOMUS  (Battle).— The  Carthaginians, 
under  Hamilcar,  defeated  Agathod.es,  Tyrant 
of  Syracuse,  in  a  great  battle  fought  near  this 
hill  in  Sicily,  B.C.  311. 

ECNOMUS  (Sea-fight).— The  Roman  fleet, 
consisting  of  330  ships,  commanded  by  the 
consuls  L.  Manlius  and  M.  Atilius  Regains, 
defeated  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  consisting  of 
350  ships,  under  the  command  of  Hanno,  off 
Ecnomus,  near  Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  B.C.  256. 
Some  authorities  contend  that  the  Roman  fleet 
had  sailed  from  Ecnomus,  and  that  the  en- 
counter took  place  at  another  part  of  the 
island,  off  Heraclea  Minoa. 

ECOLE  POLYTECHNIQUE  (Paris). —In 
1794,  a  school  for  the  education  of  young  men 
in  military,  naval,  and  civil  engineering,  called 
the  Ecole  Centrale  des  Travaux  Publics,  was 
established  at  the  Palais  Bourbon.  In  1795, 
the  name  was  changed  to  Ecole  Polytechnique, 
and  the  pupils  were  required  to  wear  a  uniform, 
and  were  instructed  in  artillery ;  and  in  1804 
the  organization  was  made  more  strictly  mili- 
tary by  Napoleon  I.  In  consequence  of  the 
strong  political  demonstrations  of  the  students, 
the  school  was  dissolved  for  a  time  in  1816, 


1830,  and  1832.  It  was  reorganized  Nov.  i, 
1852,  and  is  now  called  L'Ecole  Imperial  e 
Polytechnique. 

ECONOMISTS,  a  sect  of  philosophers,  who 
first  began  to  propagate  their  views  in  France, 
about  1761,  and  endeavoured  to  establish  a 
system  of  government  and  social  life  founded 
on  a  knov^edge  of  human  nature  as  it  actually 
exists.  Francis  Quesnay  (see  PHYSIOCRATS), 
born  in  1694,  and  M.  de  Gournay,  in  1712,  are 
considered  the  founders  of  the  school.  The 
latter  was  made  iiitendant  of  commerce  in 
1751,  in  which  capacity  he  strove  vigorously 
to  release  mercantile  men  from  the  numerous 
restrictions  the  legislature  of  the  day  imposed 
upon  them.  The  first  assemblies  of  the  Eco- 
nomists were  held  in  Madame  de  Pompa- 
dour's dra  wing-n  >om. 

KUOXOMY  (United  States).— This  Socialist 
village,  in  Pennsylvania,  was  founded  by  Ger- 
mans in  1825. 

ECUADOR,  or  EQUATOR  (South  America). 
—This  country  was  discovered  by  Pizarro  in 
1526,  and  it  remained  under  Spanish  rule  until 
the  rebellion  of  1812.  Its  independence  was 
secured  in  1821,  when  it  formed  part  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia.  On  the  disruption  of 
the  Colombian  republic  in  1831,  Quito,  with 
its  associated  provinces,  assumed  the  rank  of 
an  independent  republican  state,  with  the 
name  of  Ecuador  or  Equator.  The  navigation 
of  the  rivers  of  this  republic  was  declared 
free  from  all  dues  for  20  years  in  1853.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  interference  of  Gen.  Mosquera, 
I 'resident  of  New  Granada,  in  the  affairs  of 
Ecuador,  the  government  declared  war  against 
him,  Nov.  20,  1863.  (See  NEW  GRANADA.)  A 
revolution  was  suppressed  in  June,  1865. 

KI>!)AS,  two  ancient  Scandinavian  books, 
one  of  which  is  in  verse  and  the  other  in  prose. 
Some  of  the  songs  in  the  former  probably 
existed  as  early  as  the  6th  century,  but  the 
majority  date  from  the  7th  and  8th.  In  the 
i2th  century  they  were  collected  arid  arranged 
by  Baamund  Sigfuseon,  an  Icelandic  priest, 
who  died  in  1133.  The  MSS.  were  discovered 
by  Bishop  Brynjolf  Svendson,  who  gave  them 
the  name  Edda,  or  "grandmother,"  in  1643. 

The  prose  Edda  was  written  by  Snorro 

Sturleson,  who  died  Sep.  20,  1241.  It  contains 
the  mythological  history  of  Scandinavia,  was 
discovered  in  Iceland  in  1628  :  and  was  first 
printed  in  1665.  Complete  editions  of  the  Eddas 
were  published  at  Stockholm  in  1818. 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE.  —  The  first 
lighthouse  on  the  Eddystone,  a  narrow  rock 
14  miles  from  Plymouth,  erected  by  Winstanley 
in  1696,  was  destroyed  by  a  violent  tempest, 
Nov.  27,  1703.  Its  reconstruction  was  ordered 
by  4  <fe  5  Anne,  c.  20  (1705),  and  completed  by 
Mr.  Rudyard  in  1708.  The  new  building  was 
destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  4,  1755.  In  1757  Smca- 
ton  began  the  present  lighthouse,  which  he 
constructed  on  improved  principles,  and  com- 
pleted Oct.  9,  1759.  In  1770  the  upper  portion, 
which  was  of  wood,  was  burned.  It  was  re- 
constructed of  stone  in  1774,  and  the  light- 
house has  since  remained  uninjured. 

EDEN. — "It  would  be  difficult,"  says  a 
writer  in  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  " 
(i.  482),  "in  the  whole  history  of  opinion,  to 


EDESSA 


[     357 


EDINBURGH 


find  any  subject  which  has  so  invited,  and  a 
the  same  time  so  completely  baffled,  conjee 
ture,  as  the  Garden  of  Eden.  The  three  con 
tinents  of  the  old  world  have  been  subject ec 
to  the  most  rigorous  search ;  from  China  tc 
the  Canary  Isles,  from  the  Mountains  of  the 
Moon  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  no  locality 
which  in  the  slightest  degree  corresponded  to 
the  description  of  the  first  abode  of  the  human 
race  has  been  left  unexamined.  The  grea 
rivers  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  have  in 
turn  done  service  as  the  Pison  and  Gihon  o 
Scripture,  and  there  remains  nothing  but  the 
New  World  wherein  the  next  adventurous 
theorist  may  bewilder  himself  in  the  mazes 
this  most  difficult  question."  Philo  Judaeus 
(flourished  about  20)  first  broached  the  alle 
gorical  theory  of  interpretation,  teaching  thai 
paradise  shadowed  forth  the  governing  faculty 
the  soul,  and  that  the  tree  of  life  represented 
religion,  the  true  means  of  immortality 
Origen  (circ.  186 — 253  or  254),  adopting  a  some 
what  similar  view,  regarded  Eden  as  heaven 
the  trees  as  angels,  and  the  rivers  as  wisdom 
and  Ambrosius  (333  or  340,  April  4,  397),  con- 
sidered the  terrestrial  paradise  and  the  third 
heaven,  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (2  Cor.  xii.  2-4), 
as  identical.  Luther  (Nov.  10,  1483 — Feb.  18, 
1546)  taught  that  Eden  was  guarded  by  angels 
from  discovery  and  consequent  profanation 
until  the  Deluge  (q.  v.),  when  all  traces  were 
destroyed.  Swedciiborg  (Jan.  29,  1689— March 
29,  1772),  who  regarded  the  first  n  chapters 
of  Genesis  as  constituting  a  divine  allegory, 
taught  that  Eden  represented  the  state  of  in- 
nocence in  which  man  was  originally  created, 
and  from  which  he  degenerated  in  consequence 
of  the  Fall.  For  the  dates  assigned  by  different 
chronologists  to  the  planting  of  Eden,  &c., 
see  CREATION. 

EDESSA  (Mesopotamia),  called  Antiochia 
Callirhoe,  or  Antioch  of  the  Fair  Streams,  by 
the  Greeks,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Nimrod,  though  Appian  ascribes  its  foun- 
dation to  Seleucus.  It  became  independent  of 
Syria,  B.C.  137,  and  was  taken  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan  in  102,  and  erected  into  a  Roman  colony 
in  216,  when  Abgarus,  its  last  sovereign,  was 
sent  in  chains  to  Rome.  Christianity  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  by  Thaddaeus,  and  was 
certainly  established  in  the  ist  century.  In 
260  it  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the 
Emperor  Valerian  and  Sapor  I.,  King  of  Persia, 
in  which  the  latter  was  victorious.  Julian 
confiscated  the  whole  property  of  the  church 
here,  in  consequence  of  the  turbulence  of  the 
Arians,  in  362,  and  in  489  its  celebrated  theo- 
logical school  was  pulled  down  by  the  Emperor 
Zeno.  A  destructive  flood  did  considerable 
injury  to  the  city  in  525  ;  in  611  it  was  taken 
by  Chosroes  II.,  King  of  Persia ;  and  in  718 
it  was  reduced  to  ruins  by  an  earthquake. 
Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  erected  Edessa 
into  a  Christian  principality  in  1097.  It  was 
seized  by  the  Mohammedans,  under  Zingis, 
in  1144.  The  Turks  took  it  in  1184,  and  from 
that  time  it  gradually  declined,  but  has  lately 
become  important  for  its  commerce,  under  the 
modem  name  of  Orfah  or  Urfah.  Niebuhr 
believes  it  to  have  been  the  ancient  Rocca  or 
Roccha. 


EDESSA,  or  MGM  (Greece).— This  city  was 
at  an  early  period  the  capital  of  Macedonia 
(q.  v.),  though  the  government  was  afterwards 
removed  to  Pella  (q.  v.).  Philip  II.  was  as- 
sassinated here  by  Pausanias,  B.C.  336.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Emperor  Basil  II.  (976 — 1025), 
and  is  now  called  Vodhena". 

EDGECOTE  (Battle).— The  Earl  of  Warwick 
defeated  Edward  the  Fourth's  army  at  Danes- 
more,  or  Edgecote,  near  Banbury,  July  26,  1469. 
The  queen's  father  and  brother,  and  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  captured  in  this  encounter,  were 
put  to  death. 

EDGEHILL  (Battle).— At  this  hill,  near  the 
village  of  Keinton,  or  Kineton,  in  Warwick- 
shire, Charles  I.  and  the  Royalist  forces  under 
Prince  Rupert  encountered  the  Parliamentary 
troops,  led  by  the  Earl  of  Essex,  Sunday,  Oct. 
23,  1642.  It  was  the  first  great  battle  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  proved  very  disastrous  to  both 
armies,  though  the  losses  were  so  nearly  equal 
that  neither  could  claim  a  decisive  victory. 
Among  the  slain  was  the  Earl  of  Lindsay,  who 
had  led  the  king's  infantry.  Clarendon  esti- 
mates the  total  number  of  killed  at  5,000 
men. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.— This  celebrated  act 
of  toleration,  granted  by  Henry  IV.  of  France 
to  his  Protestant  subjects,  April  13,  1598,  con- 
firmed all  their  former  privileges,  removed 
every  obstacle  to  their  deriving  benefit  from 
the  universities  and  public  schools,  and  al- 
lowed them  to  establish  places  of  worship 
throughout  his  kingdom.  It  was  confirmed 
by  Louis  XIII.  in  1610,  and  revoked  by  Louis 
XIV.  Oct.  22,  1685.  This  arbitrary  act  drove 
from  France  about  half  a  million  Protestants, 
many  of  whom  settled  in  England,  and  intro- 
duced various  arts  and  manufactures  not  pre- 
viously practised  in  this  country. 

EDICTS.— The  principal  Roman  laws  so 
named  are  the  Perpetual  edict,  prepared  by 
Salvianus  Julianus,  and  promulgated  by  the 
Smperor  Hadrian,  in  132,  and  the  edict  of 
fheodoric  in  500. 

EDINBURGH,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  was 
bunded  in  the  7th  century,  and  was  described 
is  a  considerable  village  in  the  8th.  During 
he  earlier  period  of  its  history  it  was  the 
cene  of  numerous  contests. 


626.  A  castle,  founded  by  Edwin,  King  of  Northumber- 
land, is  called  Edwin's  burgh,  whence  some  derive 
the  name  of  the  city. 

685.  It  is  taken  by  the  Picts. 

690.  St.  Cuthbert's  Church  is  founded. 

956.  It  is  restored  to  Indulphus,  King  of  Scotland. 
193.  The  town  is  besieged  by  Donaldbane. 
28.  Holyrood  Abbey  is  founded  by   David  I.    In  the 
charter    for  its    foundation,   Edinburgh    is    first 
spoken  of  as  a  royal  burgh. 

74.  The  castle  is  surrendered  to  the  English  to  purchase 
the  freedom  of  William  I.  (the  Lion.) 

215.  The  first  Parliament  is  held  here  by  Alexander  II. 

330.  Blackfriars  monastery  is  founded. 

396.  The  castle  is  taken  by  the  English,  under  Edward  I. 

313.  The  castle  is  recovered  by  the  Earl  of  Moray. 

329.  Leith  is  granted  to  Edinburgh  by  charter. 

359.  St.  Giles's  cathedral  church  is  built. 

401,  Aug.  Henry  IV.  invades  Scotland,  and  burns  Edin- 
burgh. 

430.  A  monastery  of  Greyfriars  is  established  by  James  I. 

437.  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Athol  and  two  others,  at 
Edinburgh,  for  the  murder  of  James  I. 

447.  Trinity  fair  is  established  by  James  II. 


EDINBURGH 


[     358     ] 


EDINBURGH 


1450.  The  city  is  first  fortified  by  a  wall. 
1477.  A  charter  is  granted  by  James  III. 
1483.  James  III.,  having  been  protected  from  his  rebellious 

nobles  by  the  inhabitants  of   Edinburgh,   erects 

their  city  into  the  metropolis  of  Scotland. 
1508,  Oct.  6.  James  IV.  grants  the  city  a  charter. 
1515.  A  serious  skirmish,  known  as  "  Clear  the  causeway," 

takes  place  between  the  partisans  of  the  various 

nobles,  250  of  whom  are  slain. 
1519.  The  High  School  is  first  mentioned. 
1544.  An  English  army  lands  at  lloyston,  takes  Leith,  and 

plunders  Edinburgh. 
1547.  The  English  burn  Leith. 
1555.  The  streets  are  ordered  to  be  lighted,  owing  to  the 

frequent  robberies.     John  Kuox  begins  to  preach 

at  Edinburgh. 
1560,  July  6.  A  treaty  between  Elizabeth  and  the  Scotch 

is  concluded  at  Edinburgh. 

1567,  Feb.  10.  The  house  in  which  Darnley  is  residing  is 

blown  up  by  gunpowder,  and  he  is  killed. 

1568.  Edinburgh  is  ravaged  by  the  plairue. 
1571.  The  castle  is  besieged  by  the  Engli.-h. 

1574.  The  castle  is  repaired,   and  the  half  moon  batteries 

are  built. 

1578.  The  first  High  School  is  built. 
1581.   Old  rollc-e  is  I  .....  nled  by  James  VI. 

1583,  April  14.  James  VI.  grants  the  College  a  charter  of 

erection. 

1584.  Edinburgh  is  divided  into  four  parishes. 
1591.  Canongate  gaol  is  built. 

1596.  Riots   in   consequence  of   James  the   Sixth's  inter- 

ference with  the  Edinburgh  clergy. 
1603,  March  24.  James  VI.   leaves  Edinburgh,  to  ascend 

the  English  throne  as  James  I. 
1610.  Coaches  a'  re  introduced  into  Kdinb'irgh. 
1618,  April  9.  James  I.  revisits  Edinburgh. 
1634,  Feb.    12.  Death   of   George   Heriot,  who  leaves  his 

large  fortune  to  found  an  hospital. 
1628.  The  foundation-stone  of  Ik-riot's  Hospital  is  laid. 
1633,  June  '5-  Charles  I.  visits  Edinburgh. 

1637.  July  23,  Sunday.  Riot  in  St.  Giles's  Church,  in  con- 

sequence of  the  introduction  of  the  Liturgy. 

1638.  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant   is  signed  in  the 

Greyfriars  ehuie.hvard.     (»<•  COVETAMTEES.) 

1639.  March   21.  The  Covenanters  take  the  castle,  which 

is    recaptured    by    the    Marquis    of     Hamilton. 
June  23. 

1640.  Completion  of  Parliament-house. 

1641.  Charles  I.  revisits  Edinburgh,  which  is  divided  into 

six  parishes. 

1645.  The  plague  rages  with  fearful  violence. 
1650,  May  21.  Execution  of  Montrose.—  Dec.  24.  The  castle 

surrenders  to  Oliver  Cromwell. 
1659,  April  n.  Heriot's  Hospital  is  opened. 
1661,  Jan.  8.  The  Mercurin.i  Cnh-ilnnhis,    the   first    Edin- 

burgh newspaper,  is  published.—  May  27.  Execu- 


1677. 


tion  of  the  Marquis  of  Argyll-. 
consequence  of  fr 


frequent  fires,  the  town  council 
orders  all  houses  to  be  built  of  stone,  and  roofed 
with  slate  or  tile. 

1680.  The  Botanical  Garden  is  established. 

1681,  Jan.  11.    Kiots  among  students  of    the  University, 

in  consequence  of    the   magistrates   having  pro- 

hibited them   from    burning  the    Pope's  etligy.— 

Oct.  The  Merchants'  Company  is  Incorporated  bv 

Charles  I. 

1685,  June  30.  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Argyle. 
1695.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  is  established  at'  F.dinburgh. 
1700,  Feb.  3,  Sunday.  Two  hundred  families  are  rendered 

houseless  by  a  terrible  fire  in  the  Meal-market. 
1718,  May  7.  The  spire  of  the   Greyfriars  Church  is  de- 

stroyed by  lire. 

1727.  The  Koyal  Bank  is  founded. 
1735.  A  theatre  is  erected  by  Allan  Ramsay,  in  Carrubber's 

Close. 


1736,  Sep.  7.  The  Porteous  riots. 
1738.  The  Roya 


yal  Infirmary  is  founded. 

1740.  Food  riots,  which  are  suppressed  by  the  military. 
1745,  Sep.    17,  Tuesday.    Prince    Charles    Edward    takes 
Edinburgh,  and  establishes  a  court  in  Holyrood. 

1753.  The  New  Town  is  projected. 

J753i  Sep.  13.  The  Koyal  Exchange  is  founded. 

1754.  The  Academy  is  established. 
1756,  March  13.  XI 

1763,  Oct.  21.  The  North  Bridi 

Bridge.     The  theatre  Koyal  is  built. 
1774.  Tho  Register-house  is  founded. 


March  13.  The  old  cross  is  removed. 

' 
Aug.  3.  Five  people  are  killed  by  a  fall  of  the  North 


founded. 


1776,  Aug.  25-  The  observatory  on  Calton  Hill  is  founded. 

The  penny  post  is  introduced  by  Peter  Williamson. 

1777,  June    34-    The    High  School,    Infirmary  Street,    is 


founded. 

1779,  Feb.  2.  Anti-popery  riots. 

1780.  The  Royal  Antiquarian  Society  is  founded. 
1783.  The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  is  incorporated. 
1785,  Aug.  i.  South  Bridge  is  founded.     The  chamber  of 

commerce  (q.  v.)  is  established. 
1789,  Nov.  16.  The  new  University   building   is    founded 

by  Lord  Napier. 

1793,  Dec.  II.  First  meeting  of  the  Friends  of  the  People. 
1796.  The  New  and  I'icrshill  barracksare  built.    The  Count 

of  Artois  and  other  French  nobles  are  allowed  to 

find  shelter  in  Holyrood. 
1799,  Aug.  6.  The  French  refugees  leave  Holyrood. 

•;>.  7.  A  shock  of  an  earthquake  is  felt. 
1803,  Oct.  10.  The  first  number  of  the  Edinburgh  Review  is 

published. 

1805,  April  10.  Edinburgh  New  Police  Act. 
1807,  Oct.  31.  The  Nelson  monument,   on   Calton  Hill,  is 

founded. 
1813,  Jan.  i.  Serious  riots.— April  32.  Three  of  the  rioters 

are  executed. 
1815,  Sep.     19.    Uegent    Bridge   and    the    new    gaol    are 

founded. 

1818,  March  3.  The  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Canal  is  com- 
menced.— April.  Gas  is  introduced. 

1831,  April  38.  The  Melvill >lunn.  is  founded. 

1832,  Aug.  14.  George  IV.  arrives  at  Edinburgh. — Aug.  37. 

Tin-  National  monument  is  founded. 

1824,  June  24  and  Nov.  15.  Disastrous  fires. 

1825,  July  3.S.  The  High  School,  Calton  Hill   is  founded. 

Kdinbnrgh  and  Dalkeith  Railway  and  the  Scot- 
tUli  Academy  are  instituted. 

1827,  Auf?-  '5-  George  the  Fourth's  Bridge  and  the  Western 
Bridge  are  founded. 

1829,  Oct.  15.  The  infant  school  is  founded. 

1830,  March  27.  The  museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  is 

founded.— Oct.  20.  Charles  X.  of  France,  expelled 
from  his  kingdom  by  a  revolution,  resides  in  Holy- 
rood  House. 

1831,  The  new  waterworks  are  completed. 
l»33,  Jan.  27.  The  cholera  first  visits  Edinburgh. 

3.  'I  he    Uritish  Association  meets  ,,t  Kdinburgh. 

1836.  The  National  Security  Savings  Bank  is  established. 

1837,  March  15.  The  Edinburgh  and  Leith  Gas  Company 

is  established. 

1840,  Aug.  15.  Kemp's  monument  to  Sir  Walter  Scott  is 
founded. 

1843,  Feb.  1 8.  The  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway  is 
opened.— Sep.  I.  Arrival  of  Queen  Victoria  and 
Prince  Albert  in  Edinburgh.— Sep.  3.  Victoria  Hall 
is  founded  by  her  Majesty.— Sep.  5.  The  Queen 
hold*  a  reception  at  Dalkeith  Palace.— Sep.  15.  The 

Queen  leaves  for  England. 

1843,  May  28,  Sunday.  Owing  to  the  "Act  of  Separation," 
the  Free  Church  ministers  officiate  in  new  places 
of  worship,  which  creates  great  excitement  at 
Edinburgh. 

1845,  Jan.  19.  Total  destruction  by  fire  of  the  Old  Grey- 

friars Church.  The  Southern,  Western,  and  Edin- 
burgh and  Leith  cemeteries  are  formed. 

1846,  June  18.  The  North  British  Railway  from  Edinburgh 

to  Berwick  is  opened.— Aug.  1 5.  The  Scott  monu- 
ment is  inaugurated. 

1847,  April    9.    The     Caledonian     Railway    terminus     is 

founded. 

1848,  March  7.  Alarming  riots  in  the  city.— June  38.  The 

new  Corn-market  is  founded 

1850,  Aug.  39.  Queen  Victoria  revisits  Edinburgh,  and  re- 
sides at  Holyrood  House. — Aug.  30.  The  National 
Gallery  is  founded  by  Prince  Albert. -Nov.  6.  The 
new  or  Free  College  is  opened. 

1853.  The  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington is  erected. 

1853.  The  National  Association  for  the  Vindication  of 
Scottish  Rights  meets  in  the  Music-halL 

1857,  Aug.  5.  Great  fire  in  the  Lawn-market. 

1859,  Aug.  6.  The   Prince  of   Wales  resides  in   Holyrood 

Palace  while  attending  classes  at  the  University. 

1860,  Aug.  7.  Queen  Victoria  reviews  about  20,000  volun- 

teers in  the  Queen's  Park. 

1861,  Oct.  33.  The  first  stones  of  the  New  Post-office  and  of 

the  Industrial  Museum  are  laid  by  Prince  Albert. — 
Nov.  24.  Thirl  v  persons  are  killed  and  many  more 
injured  by  the  fall  of  an  old  house  in  the  High 
Street 


EDINBURGH 


359 


EDUCATION 


1863,  March  31— April  3.   Lord  Palmerston  visits  Edin- 

burgh. 

1864,  June  25.  The  first  stone   of  the  Fettes'  College  a 

Comely  Bunk  is  laid  by  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Primrose. 

1865,  Jan.  13.  The  Queen's  Theatre  is  destroyed   by   fire 

and  several  persons  are  killed  by  the  fall  of  the 
walls. — March  25.  The  statues  of  Allan  Kanisay 
and  John  Wilson  are  uncovered. — Pec.  2,.  The 
new  Queen's  Theatre  is  opened. 

1866,  May  7.  The  New  Post-office  is  opened.— May  19.   The 

Industrial  Museum  is  opened  by  Prince  Alfred,  who 
receives  from  the  University  the  degree  of  LL.1). 

EDINBURGH  (Bishopric)  was  created  in  1633 
by  Charles  I.,  who  extended  the  diocese  from 
the  Forth  to  Berwick,  and  made  St.  Giles's 
church  its  cathedral.  Dr.  William  Forbes  was 
consecrated  the  first  bishop,  Jan.  28,  1634.  On 
the  abolition  of  prelacy  in  Scotland,  July  22, 
1689,  this  see  was  suppressed,  but  it  was 
re-erected  as  a  post-revolution  bishopric  in 
1720. 

EDINBURGH  (Treaties).— Peace  was  con- 
cluded at  this  city  between  England  and 

Scotland  in   1482. A  treaty  was  concluded 

between  Elizabeth  and  the  Scotch  July  6,  1560. 
It  provided  that  all  the  French  troops  should 
leave  Scotland,  and  that  Mary  should  no  longer 
use  the  style  and  arms  of  sovereigns  of  England 
and  Ireland.  In  1561,  Mary  refused  to  ratify 
this  treaty. 

EDINBURGH  REVIEW.— The  first  number 
appeared  Oct.  10,  1802. 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY.  —  In  1558, 
Robert  Reid,  Bishop  of  Orkney,  bequeathed 
8,000  merks  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a 
university  in  the  city  of  Edinburgh ;  but  the 
money  was  detained  by  the  Abbot  of  Kinloss 
for  24  years  before  it  could  be  applied  to  the 
proposed  object.  Efforts  were,  however,  made 
by  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  April  23,  1561,  and  in 
1563  part  of  the  present  site  was  pin-chased. 
In  1581  the  magistrates  applied  for  a  charter, 
which  was  granted  by  James  VI.  April  14, 1582, 
and  in  1583  Robert  Rollock  was  nominated 
first  principal  of  the  new  university.  The 
library  was  founded  in  1580,  the  Speculative 
Society  in  1764,  the  Dialectic  Society  in  1787, 
the  Natural  History  Museum  in  1812,  the  Scots 
Law  Society  in  1815,  the  Diagnostic  Society  in 
1816,  the  Hunterian  Medical  Society  in  1824, 
and  the  Anatomical  Museum  in  1826.  The  first 
theological  chair  was  instituted  in  1642,  and 
the  first  school  of  medicine  in  1685.  The 
government  of  the  institution  was  remodelled 
Sep.  5,  1704,  and  the  new  building  was  founded 
by  Lord  Napier,  Nov.  16,  1789.  Its  constitution 
was  remodelled  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  83  (Aug.  2, 


D'i 


EDiSTO  ISLAND  (North  America),  belonging 
to  South  Carolina,  situated  40  miles  to  the  south 
of  Charleston,  was  occupied  by  the  Federal 
forces  under  Gen.  Sherman,  Feb.  n,  1862 

EDMUNDSBURY  (St.).  —  (See  BURY  ST. 
EDMUNDS.) 

EDMUNDS  SCANDAL.—  It  was  ascertained 
from  an  inquiry  into  the  state  of  the  Patent 
Office,  ordered  in  March,  1864,  that  Mr.  Leonard 
Edmunds,  Clerk  of  the  Patents,  who  had  been 
permitted  to  resign,  and  also  petitioned  to  be 
allowed  to  retire,  with  the  usual  pension,  from 
the  Clerkship  of  the  House  of  Lords,  had  not 
accounted  for  .£9,617  of  the  public  money.  On 


the  motion  of  Lord  Chancellor  Westbury,  this 
petition  had  been  referred  to  a  committee  of  the 
Lords,  at  the  recommendation  of  which  a  pen- 
sion of  ,£800  a-year  had  been  awarded  him,  the 
vacant  office  being  conferred  by  the  Chancellor 
on  his  son,  the  Hon.  Slingsby  Bethell.  These 
circumstances  having  created  much  public 
scandal,  Lord  Westbury  proposed  a  committee 
of  inquiry  of  the  Lords,  March  7,  1865.  The 
report,  laid  before  the  House  May  5,  confirmed 
all  the  charges  brought  against  Mr.  Edmunds, 
and  censured  the  Chancellor  for  having  with- 
held, in  presenting  that  person's  petition,  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  was  made.  Mr. 
Edmunds'  pension  was  accordingly  rescinded, 
May 9.  (See  LEEDS  BANKRUPTCY  COURT  AFFAIR.) 

EDMUND'S  (St.)  HALL  (Oxford),  named 
after  St.  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1234 — 45),  was  devoted  to  educational  purposes 
in  1269. 

EDOM,  or  IDUM^A  (Asia),  is  the  name 
given  to  the  country  inhabited  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Esau,  who  was  living  there  B.C.  1739 
(Gen.  xxxii.  3).  The  inhabitants  refused  to 
allow  the  Israelites  to  pass  through  their  terri- 
tory on  their  retreat  from  Egypt,  B.C.  1452 
(Num.  xx.  14 — 21).  Saul  made  war  upon  them 
B.C.  1093  (i  Sam.  xiv.  47),  and  David  established 
garrisons  in  their  land  B.C.  1040  (2  Sam.  viii. 
14).  Solomon  built  a  navy  at  Ezion-geber  B.C. 
992  (i  Kings  ix.  26),  and  Amaziah,  King  of 
Judah,  gained  a  great  victory,  and  took  Selah, 
B.C.  825.  The  Edomites  subsequently  extended 
their  borders  as  far  north  as  Hebron,  where 
they  were  defeated  by  Judas  Maccabaeus  B.C. 
163,  and  the  country  was  overrun  by  the  Arabs 
in  the  7th  century. 

EDRISITES.  — This  independent  dynasty, 
which  founded  the  kingdom  and  city  of  Fez, 
lasted  from  829  to  907.  The  founder  was  Edris, 
a  posthumous  child  of  a  descendant  of  Ali. 

EDUCATION.— Among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans,  education  was  chiefly  carried  on 
in  the  schools  of  philosophy.  The  Britons  left 
it  to  the  Druids.  The  Saxon  children  were 
taught  to  repeat  the  psalms  and  other  books  by 
heart,  reading  being  still  uncommon  in  the 
time  of  Alfred.  The  English  language  was  not 
spoken  in  the  i2th  century  ;  but  after  the  Nor- 
man period  children  learned  their  lessons  in 
English,  and  afterwards  translated  them  into 
French.  Reading  and  writing  became  the  chief 
oranches  of  education  in  the  i4th  century. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
dates  connected  with  the  subject : — 


880.  Alfred  the  Great  invites  learned  foreigners  to  estab- 
lish schools  in  his  dominions. 

1198.  Sampson,  Abbot  of  St.  Edmunds,  founds  a  school  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  for  40  poor  boys. 

387.  Winchester  School  is  founded  by  William  of  Wyke- 
ham. 

:44i.  Eton  College  (<?.  v.)  is  founded  by  Henry  VI. 

553.  Christ's  Hospital,  or  the  Blue-coat  school,  is  founded. 

:56o.  Westminster  School  is  re-founded  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. 

:S67-  Rugby  School  is  fovinded. 

:585.  Harrow  School  is  founded. 

:69o.  The  first  mutual-improvement  society  is  established 
in  London,  under  the  title  of  the  Society  for  the 
Reformation  of  Manners. 

:698.  The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  ia 
founded. 

783.  Sunday  schools  are  established. 


EDWARD 


[    360    ] 


EDWARD 


A.r>. 

1788.  The  first  reform  school  is  established  by  the  Philan- 
thropic .Society. 

1805.  Joseph    Lancaster  founds   the   British  and  Foreign 

School  Society. 

1806.  The  first  evening  school  is  opened  at  Bristol. 

1807.  Mr.  Whitbrcad's  proposal  to  the  House  of  Commons 

for  the  establishment  of  parochial  schools,  on  the 

monitorial  system,  is  rejected. 
I8II.  Andrew   Bell   founds   the    National  School  Society, 

and  the  Kev.  Mr.  Charles  establishes  the  first  adult 

school  at  Bala.  in  \V 

1815.  An  infant  school  is  established  in  Lanark. 
1818.  A  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  publishes  its 

reports  on  the  state  of  endowed  schools  m  Eng- 
land. 
1830.  Mr.  Samuel  Wilderspin  undertakes  the  management 

of  the  Spitallidd.-  infant  school. 
1823.  Tll°    nrst    mechanics'    institution   is  established  in 

London. 

1835.  The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge 

is  founded. 

1833,  Aug.  17.  On  the  motion  of  Lord  Althorp,  Parliament 
;  annual  grant  of  £20,000  for  the  promo- 
tion of  education  in  Great  Britain. 

1836.  The   Home  and  Colonial  Infant  School   Society  is 

founded. 

1837.  The  first  Kagged  School  is  opened  at  Westminster. 
1839,  April  10.    The   Queen   appoints   a  committee  of  the 

Privy  Council  "to  superintend  the  application  of 
any  sums  voted  by  Parliament  for  the  jmrpose  of 
promoting  public"  education." — June  3.  The  com- 
mittee pro, -ut  tlieir  ii.-st  report. 

1846.  The  reform  of  military  education  is  commenced  by 
Mr.  li.  Baring  (Lord  Ashburton)  and  the  Kev.  G. 
It.  Gleig. 

1856,  July  29.  A  vice-president  of  the  Committee  of  Coun- 

cil on  Education  is  appointed  by  19  &  40  Viet. 
c.  116  (July  29,  1856). 

1857,  Juno  18.  Middle-class  examinations  (q.  v.)  areestab- 

lished. — June  22.  An  educational  congress  is  held 
in  Ixmdon,  under  the  presidency  of  Prince  Al- 
bert. 

1859,  July  6.  The  Queen  appoints  a  Committee  of  Council 

on  Education  to  superintend  the  application  of  any 
sums  of  money  voted  by  Parliament  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promoting  public  education. 

1860,  May  15.  The  committee  present  their  report. 

1861,  July  18.  A  commission  is  appointed  to  inquire  into 

the   nature   and  application  of   the  endowment.-!, 
&c.,  of   colleges  and   public   schools. — July  29.  _A 
important  minute  is  issued  to  come  into  operatio 
after  March  31,  1862. 

1863,  Feb.  i.Timd  March  2<S.  Alterations  in  the revtoedcodl 
cations  arc  announced  in  Parliament. — 
May  9.  Tin'  alterations  are  confirmed  by  a  minute 
of  the  committee  of  Privy  Council. — Sep.  Instruc- 
tions are  issued  to  the  Government  inspectors 
of  schools  upon  the  administration  of  the  revised 
code. 

1863,  March  21.  The  committee  of  Council  adopt  minutes 

modifying  the  operation  of  the  revised  code  will 
regard  to  grants  to  normal  schools,  and  extending 
it  to  Scotland.— May  19.  A  minute  is  issued  in- 
creasing the  remuneration  of  the  inspectors,  &c. — 
Aug.  A  letter  of  instruction  is  issued,  explanatory 
of  the  revised  code. 

1864,  Jan.  A  revised  code  of  regulations  is  issued,  incor- 

porating the  minutes  of  March  21  and  May  19 
1863.— Feb.  if,.  T.'.e  College  and  Public  Schoo] 
Commission  present  their  report. — May  12.  A  Select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  is  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  practice,  of  the  committee  of 
Council  with  respect  to  the  reports  of  the  Govern- 
ment inspectors. — July  II.  Their  rejwrt  is  presented 
and  ordered  to  be  printed. 

1865,  Feb.  38.  The  House  of  Commons  appoints  a  selcc: 

committee  of  inquiry  into  the  working  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Council  on  Education.— Nov.  7.  A  meet- 
ing in  reference  to  middle-class  education  takes 
place  at  the  Mansion  House. 

EDWARD  THE  FIRST,  the  eldest  son  of 
Henry  III.  and  Queen  Eleanor,  was  born  a1 
Westminster  June  1 8,  1239.  He  married  Eleanor 
of  Castile  in  1254,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons 
and  eight  daughters.  Edward  I.  was  pro 


claimed  king,  Sunday,  Nov.  20,  1272.  He  was 
;hen  absent  at  the  Crusades,  and  reached  Eng- 
and  Aug.  2,  1274,  and  was  crowned,  Sunday, 
Aug.  19.  Eleanor  died  near  Grantham,  Nov.  28, 
1291,  and  Sep.  10,  1299,  Edward  married  Mar- 
jaret,  daughter  'of  Philip  III.,  and  sister  of 
Philip  IV.  of  France,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons 
,nd  one  daughter.  Edward  I.  died  at  Burgh- 
on-the-Sauds,  near  Carlisle,  July  7,  1307,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  Oct.  27. 
His  second  wife  survived  him,  dying  in  1317. 
Edward  was  surnamed  Long-shanks,  from  the 
length  of  his  legs.  He  is  sometimes  called 
Edward  IV.,  the  three  Saxon  kings  of  the  name 
of  Edward  being  reckoned. 

EDWARD  THE  SECOND,  the  fourth  son 
of  Edward  I.  and  Queen  Eleanor,  was  born  at 
Caernarvon,  April  25,  1284,  and  ascended  the 
English  throne,  Saturday,  July  8,  1307.  He 
married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of 
France,  Jan.  28, 1308,  and  was  crowned  Feb.  25. 
His  wife  bore  him  two  sons  and  two  daughters, 
namely,  Edward  (see  EDWARD  III.)  ;  John, 
born  Aug.  25,  1315,  and  created  Earl  of  Corn- 
wall in  1328,  died  in  Oct.,  1334 ;  Eleanor,  born  in 
1318,  married  to  Count  Reyald  II.  of  Gueldres, 
in  1332,  died  at  Deventer,  April  22,  1355  ;  and 
Joan,  born  in  the  Tower,  in  1321,  married  to 
David  II.  of  Scotland  in  1329,  and  died  Sep.  7, 
1362.  Edward  II.  was  deposed  Jan.  20  or  21, 
1327,  and  assassinated  at  Berkeley  Castle,  Sep. 
21.  Isabella  died  in  1357.  Edward  was  sur- 
named  Caernarvon. 

EDWARD  THE  THIRD,  the  eldest  son  of 
Edward  II.  and  Isabella  of  France,  was  born 
at  Windsor,  Nov.  13,  1312.  The  formal  depo- 
sition of  his  father  took  place  Jan.  20  or  21, 
1327,  and  Edward  III.  was  proclaimed  king 
Jan.  24,  and  crowned  Sunday,  Feb.  i.  He 
married  Philippa  of  Hainault,  Jan.  24,  1328, 
by  whom  he  had  five  sons  and  five  daughters. 
The  most  celebrated  were,  Edward,  surnamed 
the  Black  Prince,  born  at  Woodstock,  June  15, 
1330 ;  he  died  June  8,  1376,  and  left  by  his  wife, 
Joan  of  Kent,  one  son,  afterwards  Richard  II. 
[q.  v.  ;  Lionel,  born  at  Antwerp,  Nov.  29,  1338, 
created  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  died  in  Italy  in 
1368 ;  and  John  of  Gaunt,  born  at  Ghent  in 
1340.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Derby  and  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  and  died  Feb.  3,  1399.  Edward 
III.  died  at  Shene,  now  Richmond,  June  21, 
1377,  and  was  buried  at  Westminster.  His 
queen,  Philippa,  died  at  Windsor,  Aug.  15, 

I3E9DWARD  THE  FOURTH,  second  son  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  his  wife  Cicely, 
was  born  at  Rouen,  April  29,  1441.  He  acceded 
to  the  throne  March  4,  1461,  was  crowned  at 
Westminster,  June  28  or  29,  and  though  Henry 
VI.  resumed  authority  from  Oct.  9,  1470,  to 
April,  1471,  Edward's  reign  is  usually  reckoned 
as  if  no  interruption  had  occurred  till  his 
death,  which  '  took  place  at  Westminster, 
April  9,  1483.  Edward  IV.  married  Elizabeth 
Woodville,  widow  of  Sir  Thomas  Grey,  May  i, 
1464.  She  died  June  8,  1492.  They  had  three 
sons  and  seven  daughters.  Their  eldest  son 
became  king  (see  EDWARD  V.),  and  their 
daughter  Elizabeth,  born  Feb.  u,  1466,  united 
the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  by  her  mar- 
riage with  Hemy  VII.  (q.  v.). 


EDWARD 


[    361 


EGYPT 


EDWARD  THE  FIFTH,  the  fourth  child 
and  eldest  son  of  Edward  IV.  and  Elizabeth 
Woodville,  was  born  at  Westminster,  Nov.  4, 
1470.  He  was  proclaimed  king  April  9,  1483, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  assassinated  in 
the  Tower  by  order  of  Richard  III.,  who 
usurped  the  royal  authority  June  26,  1483. 
The  last  document  of  his  reign  is  dated  June 
17,  1483. 

EDWARD  THE  SIXTH,  the  son  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Jane  Seymour,  being  the  only  child 
of  that  marriage,  was  born  at  Hampton  Court, 
Oct.  12,  1537.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
Friday,  Jan.  28,  1547,  and  died  at  Greenwich, 
July  6,  1553.  Edward  VI.  was  buried  at  West- 
minster, Aug.  8,  1553. 

EGERTON  CLUB  (London),  in  St.  James's 
Street,  was  established  in  May,  1861. 

EGGS.—  By  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  122  (Aug.  12, 
1854),  a  duty  of  8d.  per  cubic  foot  was  charged 
on  eggs  imported  from  foreign  countries,  and 
of  $d.  per  cubic  foot  on  those  from  British  pos- 
sessions. It  was  repealed  by  23  Viet.  c.  22,  s.  9 
(May  15,  1860). 

EGHAM  (Surrey).—  Runnymede  (q.  v.},  where 
MagnaCharta  (q.  v.  )  was  signed,  is  in  this  parish. 
A  railway  collision,  by  which  four  persons 
were  killed  and  25  injured,  occurred  June  7, 
1863.  A  verdict  of  manslaughter  was  returned 
by  the  coroner's  jury  against  the  engine-driver 
and  stoker,  June  18. 

EGLINTON  TOURNAMENT.—  A  magnifi- 
cent festivity,  in  imitation  of  the  mediaeval 
tournaments,  was  held  by  the  Earl  of  Eglinton, 
afterwards  Earl  of  Eglinton  and  Winton,  at  his 
castle  in  Ayrshire,  Aug.  28,  29,  and  30,  1839. 
The  Marquis  of  Londonderry  officiated  as  "  king 
of  the  tournament,"  and  Lady  Seymour  as 
"queen  of  love  and  beauty."  Many  of  the 
guests  were  in  ancient  costumes,  and  the 
expense  of  the  entertainment  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  ,£40,000.  The  Emperor  Napo- 
leon III.,  then  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  was 
one  of  the  mimic  warriors  on  this  occasion. 

EGYPT  (Africa).—  This  country,  called  in  the 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  Cherni,in.  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  Mizraim,  and  in  the  Arabic  Mesr, 
was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  civilization.  Its 
history  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Hales  (iv. 
400)  remarks  :  —  "  The  mysteries  of  Egyptian 
chronology  are  not  inferior,  perhaps,  to  those 
of  the  Apocalypse;  both  running  into  vast  and 
unknown  periods  of  time,  the  one  before,  the 
other  since,  the  creation  of  the  world."  The 
following  table  has  been  compiled  from  the 
works  of  the  best  authorities  :  — 

B.C. 

3717.  Menes,  the  first  King  of  Egypt,  and  founder  of  the 
Tlrinite  dynasty,  begins  to  reign.  Lepsius  assigns 
B.C.  3893;  Bunsen,  B.C.  3643;  Hales,  B.C.  3412; 
arid  Wilkinson,  B.C.  3330,  as  the  year  of  the  acces- 
sion of  this  mythic  sovereign,  the  founder  of 


Memphis  (q.  v.)  and  Thebes  (q.  v.). 
2126.  Egypt  is  divided  into  Egypt  proper,  Lower  Egypt, 

this,  and  Memphis. 

2122-  Invention  of  hieroglyphics  (q.  «.). 
2120.  Suphis  or  Cheops,  and  his  brother  Scnsuphis,  build 

pyramids  to  the  north  of  Memphis,  which  still  exist. 
2IOO.  Osymandyas  extends  his  conquests  into  Asia.     The 

worship  of  Osiris,  of  Isis,  of  Phtha,  and  of  Aminon 

is  introduced. 
3080.  Memphis  is  taken  by  the  Shepherd  kings  of  Pkos- 

nicia,  who  establish  their  dynasty. 
1938.  Lake  Mceris  is  constructed. 


1920.  Arrival  of  Abraham,  and  expulsion  of  the  Shepherd 

kings. 

1891.  Syphoas  introduces  common  letters. 
1828.  The  Plioenicians  are  expelled  from  Lower  Egypt. 
1822-  Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  alphabet. 
1831.  Amenophis  I.  becomes  king  of  all  Egypt. 
1728.  Joseph  is  sold  into  Egypt. 
1718.  Joseph  interprets  the  dreams  of  Pharaoh's  butler  and 

1715.  Joseph  interprets  Pharaoh's  dreams,  and  prepares  for 

the  seven  years'  famine. 

1706.  Settlement  of  Jacob  and  his  family  in  Goshen. 
1702.  End  of  the  seven  years'  famine. 
1635.  Death  of  Joseph. 
1618.  Accession  of  Sesostris. 
1615.  The  Ethiopians  obtain  a  footing  in  Egypt. 
1597.  Persecution  of  the  Israelites. 
1491.  The  ten  plagues,   followed  by   the  exodus  of    the 

Israelites. 
1485.  Reign  of  Egyptus,  from  whom  the  country  is  named 

Egypt  instead  of  Mizraim. 
1322.  Commencement  of  the  first  Sothic  cycle. 
1308.  Keign  of  Sethos,  who  builds  the  temple  of  Vulcan,  at 

Memphis,  and  other  stupendous  works. 
1214.  Reign  of  Thuoris,  or  Proteus,  a  wise  king,  whose 
politic  conduct  originates  the  Greek  fable  of  his 
ability  to  assume  any  semblance  he  chose. 
1183.  Menelaus  arrives  in  Egypt  after  the  Trojan  war,  and 

receives  Helen  from  Thuoris. 
1082.  Reign  of  Cheops. 
1004.  Alliance   between    Shishak,   King  of    Egypt,    and 

Solomon. 

972.  Shishak  invades  Judea,  and  takes  Jerusalem. 
825.  Accession  of  Peterbastes,  the  founder  of  the  Tanaite 

dynasty. 

786.  Egypt  establishes  her  supremacy  over  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 

781.  Commencement  of  the  Saite  dynasty. 
769.  So,  the  Ethiopian,  deposes  Anysis,  and  mounts  his 

throne. 

722.  Alliance  with  Hosea,  King  of  Israel. 
730.  Battle  of  Rapikh  or  Raphia  (q.  v.). 
719.  So  abdicates,  and  returns  to  Ethiopia. 
711.  Egypt  is  invaded  by  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria. 
685.  Egypt  is  divided  between  12  kings. 
660.  Psammetichus  I.,  one  of  the   12  kings,  obtains  the 

sovereignty  of  the  whole  of  Egypt. 
630.  Siege  of  Azotus,  or  Ashdod  (q.v.),  by  Psammeti- 

chus  I. 

610.  Pharaoh  Neeho  II.  attempts  to  connect  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  Red  Seas  by  a  canal ;  but,  after  losing 
130,000  men,  he  is  compelled  to  relinquish  the  un- 
dertaking. 
605.  Pharaoh  Neclio  II.  is  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar 

King  of  Babylon. 

600.  Psamrnis,  King  of  Egypt,  invades  Ethiopia. 
581.  Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Egypt. 
569.  Nebuchadnezzar  makes  Amasis  king,  during  whose 

reign  Egypt  contains  20,000  cities. 
554.  Solon  visits  Egypt. 
536.  Pythagoras  visits  Egypt. 

535-  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  renders  Egypt  tributary  to  him. 
535.  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  invades  Egypt,  which  he 
ravages,  and  abolishes  the  empire  of  the  Pharaohs. 
484.  Xerxes  suppresses  an  insurrection  of  the  Egyptians. 
460.  Inarus  rebels  against  the  Persians. 
418.  Herodotus  visits  Egypt. 
413.  Amyrtams  restores  Egypt  to  independence. 
350.  Egypt  is  again  subjected  to  Persia  by  Artaxerxes  III. 
(Ochus.) 

332.  Egypt  is  conquered,   and  Alexandria  founded,  by 

Alexander  III.  (the  Great). 

333.  Ptolemy   (I.)    Soter  I.  restores  the  independence   of 

Egypt,  and  transfers  the  seat  of  government  to 

Alexandria. 
330.  Revolt  of  Phoenicia,  and  immigration  of  about  loo  ooo 

Jews. 
314.  Phoenicia  is  wrested  from  Egypt  by  Antigonus  King 

of  Phrygia. 

301.  Battle  of  Ipsus  (q.  v.). 
273.  An  Egyptian  embassy  arrives  at  Rome. 
272.  Memphis  is  made  the  capital. 
246.  Ptolemy  III.  invades  Syria,  whence  he  returns  with 

immense  booty. 
317.  Battle  of  Raphia  (q.  r.). 
303.  A  treaty  of  alliance  is  concluded  with  Rome.    Judea 

is  lost. 
198.  Syria  regains  its  independence. 


EGYPT 


[    362    ] 


EHRENBREITSTEIN 


183.  An  insurrection  is  quelled  by  Polycrates. 

171.  Amioehus    Epiphanes,   of    Syria,    defeats   Eulseus, 

Regent  of  Egypt,  anil  makes  him  prisoner. 
164.  The  kingdom  is  divided  between  Ptolemy  VI.  and 

his  brother  I'hyscon. 
145.  Ptolemy  VI.  falls  in  battle,  and  Ptolomy  (VII.)  Euer- 

getes  ILusurps  the  throne.  He  marries  his  brother's 

widow,  and  murders  her  son,  the  rightful  heir. 
142.  Ptolemy   VII.    puts  away  his  wife   Cleopatra,  and* 

marries    her    daughter   by   his   own  brother. 
129-  Ptolemy   VII.   is   compelled  to  flee  to   Cyprus.     He 

murders  his  two  sons,  and  is  restored  the  same 

year. 
128.  A  pestilence,  caused  by  the  putrefaction  of  swarms 

of  locusts,  carries  off  about  800,000  of  the  popula- 
tion. 
107.  Cleopatra  compels  Ptolemy  VIII.  to  retire  to  Cyprus, 

and  governs  Ei^vpt  with  her  son  Alexander.' 
88.  Civil  war  between  Ptolemy  VIII.  and  Ptolemy  (IX.) 

Alexander  I.,  the  lutter'being  slain. 
82.  Capture  and  destruction  of  Thebes,  which  had  re- 
volted. 

80.  Abdication  of  Ptolemy  (X.)  Alexander  II..  and  elec- 
tion  of  Ptolemy   XI.,  who   renders    his  country 

contributary  to  the  Romans. 

58.  The  Egyptian*  expel  Ptolemy  XI.,  and  establish  Bere- 
nice and  Trypha-na. 
55.  Restoration  of  Ptolemy  XI. 
51.  Death  of  Ptolemy  XL,   who  leaves  his  kingdom  to 

I'loleniy  XII.  and  Cleopatra. 

49.  Ptolemy  expels  Cleopatra,  and  civil  war  ensues. 
48.  Julius  Caesar,  in  assisting   Cleopatra,   besieges  and 

burns  Alexandria  (r/.r.). 
47.  Ptolemy   XII.    is   defeated  by  C:v.«nr.  and  drowned 

while  crossing  the  Nile.     The   Egyptian  throne  is 

shared    by   Cleopatra   and   her  younger  brother, 

Ptolemy  XIII. 

44.  Cleopatra  poisons  her  brothat 
42.  Mark  Antony  summons   Cleopatra  to  trial  for  her 

brother's  murder.     They  meet  on  the  Cydnus  ;  and 

he  is  so  overcome  by  her  beauty,  that  he  follows 

her  into  Egypt. 
36.  Antony  confers  Phoenicia,  Cyrene,    and   Cyprus  on 

Cleopatra. 
35.  Antony  confers  all  Asia,  from  the  Mediterranean  to 

the  Indus,  on  Cleopatra. 
31,  Sep.  2.  The  battle-  of  Actium  (<?.».). 
30.  Invasion  and  subjugation  of  Egypt  by  Octavius,  and 

suicide  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra.    'Egypt  becomes 

a  Roman  province. 
32-  It  is  invaded  by  30,000  Ethiopian  subjects  of  Queen 

Candace,  who  are  repulsed  by  Petronius. 
A.D. 

19.  Germanius  visits  Egypt. 
115.  Insurrection  of  the  Egyptian  Jews. 
122.  Egypt  is  visited  by  Hadrian. 

130.  Rebellion  of  the  .lews,  and  second  visit  of  Hadrian. 
171.  The  Egyptians  revolt  against  the  Roman  (.ovcrn- 

inent, 

203.  The  Emperor  Severus  visits  Egypt. 
315.  Caracalla  visits  Egypt,  and  massacres  all  the  youth 

of  Alexandria  for  living  ridiculed  him. 
265.  Rebellion  of  jEmilianus,  who  is  proclaimed  Emperor 

at  Alexandria. 

269.  Egypt  is  invaded  by  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra. 
272.  Fermus  renders  Upper  Egypt  independent  of  Rome. 
273  Aurelian  regains  posse  -ion. 
278.  Probus  repels  a  dangerous  invasion  of  the  Blem- 

myes. 

388.   Upper  Egypt  rebels  under  Achilleus. 
292.  Diocletian  besieges  and  lakes  Coj.tos  and  Busiris. 
397.  Siege  and  capture  of  Alexandria  by  Diocletian,  who 

suppresses  the  rebellion  of  Achilleus.  The  Egyptian 

coinage  ceases. 
365.  An  inundation  and  an  earthquake  destroy  many  of 

the  inhabitants. 
379.  Theodosius  prohibits  Pagan  worship,  in  consequence 

of  which  the  Serapion  and  other  famous  Egyptian 

temples  are  destroyed 

616.  Egypt  is  conquered  by  Chosroes  II.,  King  of  Persia. 
640,  Dec.  22,  Friday.  Amer,  or  Annon,  reduces  all- Egypt 

under  Saracen  domination. 

750.  The  dynasty  of  the  Abassides  (q.r.)  is  established. 
868.  Egypt,  regains  independence  for  a  short  period  un  Vr 

the  Tooloonides. 
969.  It  is  conquered  by  the  generals  of  El  Moez,  the  Fati- 

mite  caliph  of  Mahadi. 


1168.  It  is  invaded  by  Amalric,  King  of  Jerusalem,  who 
penetrates  to  Cairo,  and  is  then  compelled  to 
retreat. 

1250.  It  is  conquered  by  the  Mamelukes,  who  establish 
their  dynasty. 

1516.  Battle  of' the  Darik  (q.  r.). 

1517.  Overthrow  of  the  Mamelukes  (q.  r.)  by  Sultan  Selim 

I.,  who  adds  Egypt  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 
1770.  Ali  Bey's  rebellion. 

1798.  Egypt  is  invaded  by  the  French,  under  Napoleon 

Buonaparte. 

1799,  July  25.  Battle  of  Aboukir  (q.  •».). 

1801.  Expulsion  of  the   French   by  the   English  and  the 

Turks. 

i8of>.  Mehemet  Ali  is  made  Pasha. 
1807,  March  27.  The  English  are  defeated  in  an  attempt 

to  occupy  Rosetta. — Sep.  23.  They  re-embark. 
1811,  March  I.  Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes  at  Cairo,  by 

Mehemet  Ali. 

1814.  The  Turkish  army  in  Egypt  is  remodelled. 
;8i5— 17.  Belzoni  prosecutes  his  discoveries. 
1820.  Alexandria    is    connected    with    the     Nile    by    the 

Mahmoud  Canal. 

1829.  The  first  Egyptian  newspaper  is  published. 
1831.  Mehemet  Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  revolts  from  Turkey, 

and  invades  S\  ria. 

1834.  The  cholera  visits  Kgypt. 

1835.  The  plague  ravages  Egypt 

1839.  Mohammed  Ali  revolts,  and  claims  hereditary  pos- 

'.i  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

1840.  The    Egyptians    are    defeated    by    the    British    at 

Beyrout. 

1841.  July  II.  The  dispute  with  Turkey  is  adjusted. 

1854,  July  14.  .Said  Pasha  succeeds  his  brother  Abbas  as 
Viceroy  of  Egvpt. 

1856,  Oct.  12.  An  earthquake  is  felt  in  Egypt. 

1858,  May  14.  Aclnncd  Pasha,  eldest  son  of  Ibrahim  Pasha, 

and  heir  to  his  titles,  i.s  killed  at  the  Kaffer-Said 

Railway  station. 

1862,  March  27.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  Cairo.— June  3 

— Aug.  4.  The  Viceroy  visits  Egypt. 

1863,  Jan.  18.  Death  of   the  'Viceroy  Said  Pasha,  who  is 

succeeded  by  his  brother.  Ismail  Pasha. — April  7— 
May  i.  The  Sultan  Abdul-A/.iz  visits  Egypt. 

1864,  May.  The  Viceroy,  on  the  demand  of  the  Porte,  de- 

spatches a  body  of  troops  against  Arabian  insur- 
gents in  Yemen. 

1865,  Aug.  15.  Opening  of  a  portion  of  the   Suez   Canal 

(1-  »•)• 

DYNASTY   OF  THE   LAGID^E,    OR   PTOLEMIES. 
B.C. 
106.  Cleopatra  Cocce  &  Pto- 


3=6.  Ptolemy  (I.)  Soter  I. 
2-4.    Ptolemy  1 1.  Philadclphus 
246.  Ptolemy(IIL)  Euergete, 

221.  PtoiemylV.  Philopator. 
204.   Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes. 
1 80.   Ptolem'yVI.  Philnuieter. 
145.  Ptolemy(VII.)Euergete.s 

116.  Cleopatra    Cocce    and 
Ptolemy  (VIII.)  Soter 


lemy(!X,)A  exaiiderl. 
87.  Ptolemy   (VIII.)    Soter 

81.  Cleopatra  Berenice. 
80.  Ptolemy  (X.)  Alexander 

80.  Ptolemy  XI.  Neus  Dio- 
nysus. 
57.  Cleopatra      Trypha-na 


ipatra 

d  Ben 
51.  Cl;;opatra. 

EGYPTIAN  jERA.— The  year  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  consisting  of  365  days,  brought  back 
the  commencement  of  the  year  to  the  same 
place  in  the  seasons  every  1461  years,  which  is 
termed  the  Sothic  period.  The  first  of  these 
periods  commenced  B.C.  1322.  To  remedy  the 
inconvenience  of  this  calculation,  the  astrono- 
mers of  Alexandria  ;B.C.  30)  caused  five  days  to 
be  added  every  fourth  year ;  and  the  reform 
commenced  five  years  after  that  date. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN  (Prussia).  —  This 
strong  fortress  and  town,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  opposite  Coblentz,  is  mentioned 
under  another  name  as  early  as  1153.  The 
works  having  been  rebuilt  on  a  more  extensive 
scale,  were,  in  1160,  on  account  of  their  breadth, 
named  by  Hermann  Hillin,  Archbishop  of 
Treves,  "  Ehrenbreitstein,"  or  the  "Broad 


EICHSTADT 


[    363 


ELBING 


Stone  of  Honour."  The  French,  under  Marshal 
Boufflers,  failed  in  an  attempt  to-capture  it  in 
1688.  Jourdan  invested  Ehrenbreitstein  for  a 
short  time  in  1795,  and  returned  June  9,  1796  ; 
but  the  French  forces  were  compelled  to  with- 
draw Sep.  17.  In  April,  1797,  the  French  again 
blockaded  the  fortress,  which  surrendered  Jan. 
24,  1799.  The  French,  who  restored  it  by  the 
treaty  of  Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801,  blew  up  the 
fortifications  before  they  withdrew.  Since  the 
peace  of  1814-15,  the  Prussian  Government  have 
devoted  large  sums  to  the  restoration  of  its 
defences. 

EICHSTADT  (Bavaria),  the  capital  of  a 
principality  belonging  to  prince-bishops,  was 
secularized,  and  conferred  upon  Austria  in 
1802.  It  WAS  ceded  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 
by  the  peace  of  Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805,  and 
was  given  to  Prince  Eugene  Beauharnais,  Duke 
of  Leuchtenberg,  in  1817.  The  bishopric  was 
established  in  745,  and  the  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1259. 

EIDER,  or  EYDER.— This  river,  flowing 
between  Sleswig  and  Holstein,  was  connected 
with  the  Baltic  by  the  Kiel  Canal  in  1784.  It 
is  23  miles  long,  and  was  commenced  in  1777. 

EIDOGRAPH.— This  instrument  for  copying 
drawings  was  invented  by  Wallace  in  1821. 

EIKON  BASIL1KE  ;  or,  The  Portraiture  of 
His  Sacred  Majesty  King  Charles  I.  in  his 
Solitude  and  Suffering.— The  first  edition  of 
this  work  appeared  in  1648,  and  such  was  its 
popularity,  that  no  less  than  50  editions  are 
said  to  have  appeared  in  England  and  else- 
where before  the  end  of  1649.  The  question  of 
the  authorship  has  excited  considerable  con- 
troversy, some  ascribing  it  to  Charles  1.,  while 
others  attribute  it  to  Dr.  Gauden,  the  king's 
chaplain. 

E1MBECK,  or  EINBECK  (Hanover).— This 
town  originated  in  the  pilgrimages  to  the 
Chapel  of  the  Holy  Blood,  founded  here  by 
Count  Alexander  von  Darul  in  1094.  It  was  a 
place  of  considerable  importance  in  the  i$th 
century,  and,  having  been  partially  burned  in 
1826,  has  since  been  restored. 

EIMEO  (Society  Islands).— This  island,  dis- 
covered by  Quiros  in  1606,  was,  in  1814,  the 
first  place  in  Polynesia  where  Christianity  was 
popularly  received.  The  South  Sea  College  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  has  been  estab- 
lished here  since. 

EINSIEDELN  (Treaty).— By  this  compact, 
signed  in  1450,  Zurich  renounced  alliance  with 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  rejoined  the  Swiss 
Confederacy. 

EINSIEDELN,  or  NOTRE  -  DAME  -  DES- 
ERMITES  (Switzerland).  —  The  Benedictine 
abbey  of  this  place,  founded  in  946,  the  abbot 
of  which  was  made  a  prince-abbot  in  1274, 
and  in  which  the  Swiss  reformer  Zwinglius 
sought  shelter  about  1516,  was  rebuilt  in 
1719.  The  town  was  seized  by  the  French  in 
1798. 

EISENACH  (Germany)  was  founded  in  1140, 
and  till  1406  was  the  residence  of  the  land- 
graves of  Thuringia.  The  Minnesingers  had  a 
trial  of  skill  here  in  1207.  In  1521  it  afforded 
shelter  to  Luther  on  his  return  from  the  diet 
of  Worms.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  town 
has  been  rebuilt  during  the  present  century, 


and  it  was  the  scene  of  a  meeting  between  the 
members  of  the  new'liberal  party  in  Germany, 
who  recommended  the  adoption  of  a  central 
government  instead  of  the  diet,  and  proposed 
the  formation  of  a  national  assembly,  Aug.  14, 
1859. 

EISENSTADT  (Hungary).— The  palace  of 
this  town,  erected  by  Prince  Paul  Esterhazy, 
Palatine  of  Hungary  in  1683,  was  rebuilt  in  1805. 

EISLEBEN  (Prussian  Saxony).— Celebrated 
as  the  birthplace  of  Martin  Luther,  Nov.  10, 
1483.  He  died  here  Feb.  18,  1546.  The  house 
in  which  he  was  born  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
June,  1689,  and  another  erected  on  its  site  was 
opened  as  a  free  school,  Oct.  31,  1693. 

EISTEDDFOD,  the  name  given  to  the  annual 
assemblies  of  the  British  bards.  They  were  of 
very  ancient  origin,  being  held  at  least  as  early 
as  the  6th  century  of  our  sera,  although  there  is 
no  description  of  one  previous  to  that  of  1176, 
held  by  Rhys  ap  Gryffyd  at  Cardigan  Castle. 
The  last  of  these  gatherings,  convened  by  royal 
authority,  was  summoned  by  a  commission  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  dated  Oct.  20,  1567.  They 
were  revived  towards  the  close  of  the  i8th 
century,  to  encourage  the  study  of  the  Welsh 
tongue,  <fec.  An  eisteddfod  was  held  at  Aber- 
dare  from  Aug.  20  to  23,  1861. 

EKATERINBURG  (Asiatic  Russia)  was 
founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1723. 

EKATERINOGRAD  (Russia).— This  town, 
in  the  Caucasus,  was  founded  by  Prince 
Potemkin  in  1777. 

EKATERINOSLAV  (Russia),  the  capital  of 
a  government  of  the  same  name,  was  founded 
by  Catherine  II.  in  1787.  It  is  also  called 
Jekaterinoslav. 

EL  ARISCH  (Egypt).— At  this  place,  the 
ancient  Rhinocorura,  near  Jaffa,  the  French 
defeated  the  Turks,  Feb.  18,  1799.  The  fort 
capitulated  Feb.  20,  and  was  taken  by  the 
English  Dec.  29,  1799.  By  the  convention  of 
El  Arisch,  signed  Jan.  24,  1800,  between  the 
French  and  the  Turks,  it  was  stipulated  that 
the  French  army  should  be  permitted  to  return 
to  Europe  with  its  own  arms  and  baggage,  and 
that  the  fortresses  of  Egypt,  excepting  Aboukir, 
Alexandria,  and  Rosetta,  should  be  given  up 
within  45  days. 

ELBA  (Mediterranean). — This  island,  on  the 
coast  of  Tuscany,  the  Ilva  of  the  Romans  and 
the  ^Ethalia  of  the  Greeks,  was  ravaged  by  a 
Syracusan  fleet  B.C.  453.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  subject  to  various  Italian  powers, 
and  was  seized  by  the  British  July  10,  1796,  by 
whom  it  was  evacuated  Feb.  18,  1797,  when 
part  of  it  was  ceded  to  France  by  Tuscany. 
The  remainder  was  given  up  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Florence,  March  28,  1801,  and  was 
annexed  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  Aug.  26, 
1802.  By  a  treaty  between  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
allied  powers,  signed  at  Paris  April  n,  1814, 
the  island  of  Elba  was  conferred  upon  him, 
with  an  annual  revenue  of  2,000,000  francs,  he 
being  permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  emperor. 
Napoleon  I.  resided  in  the  island  from  May  3, 
1814,  till  Feb.  26,  1815,  when  he  re-embarked 
for  France,  of  which  he  recovered  possession. 
Elba  was  retaken  by  the  Tuscans,  July  30, 1815. 

ELBING  (Prussia)  was  founded  by  the 
Teutonic  knights  about  1229.  It  was  ceded  to 


ELBCEUF 


364 


ELECTRIC 


Poland  in  1466,  taken  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
1709,  and  united  to  Prussia  in  1772.  Frederick 
William  III.,  King  of  Prussia,  concluded  a 
humiliating  convention  with  Napoleon  I.  at 
Elbing  in  1807. 

ELBCEUF.— (See  CAUDEBEC-LES-ELBCEUF.) 

ELCESEANS,  or  ELCE8AITES.  —  The 
followers  of  Elxai  or  Elcesai,  a  Jew,  who. 
nourished  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  (98 — 116). 
They  engrafted  many  opinions  derived  from 
Oriental  philosophy  on  a  mixture  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity.  Epiphanius  says  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  Elceseans  should  be  classed 
among  the  Christian  or  Jewish  sects. 

ELCHINGEN  (Battle).— Marshal  Ney,  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  defeated  the  Austrians 
at  this  village,  in  Bavaria,  Oct.  14,  1805.  For 
this  victory  Ney  received  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Elchingen  in  1808. 

ELDERS.— A  writer  in  Smith's  "  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible"  (i.  517;,  says:  —  "Wherever  a 
patriarchal  system  is  in  force,  the  office  of  the 
elder  will  be  found  as  the  keystone  of  the  social 
and  political  f abric ;  it  is  so  at  the  present  day 
among  the  Arabs,  where  the  sheikh  (i.e.,  the 
old  man]  is  the  highest  authority  in  the  tribe." 
Among  the  Jews,  elders  constituted  the  na- 
tional senate  from  the  origin  of  the  people. 
They  are  first  mentioned  as  acting  in  con- 
cert at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  B.C.  1491 :  and 
they  retained  their  position  under  all  the  poli- 
tical changes  their  country  experienced.  Lay 
elders,  not  authorized  to  teach  or  administer 
the  sacraments,  but  constituting  a  spiritual 
court  of  jurisdiction,  and  appointed  for  the 
assistance  of  pastors,  were  instituted  by  Calvin 
(July  10,  1509  —  May  27,  1564),  and  continue 
functionaries  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  An 
act  of  the  Scotch  General  Assembly  of  that 
denomination,  adopted  in  1722,  laid  down 
stringent  regulations  for  ensuring  personal 
religion  in  the  holders  of  this  office. 

EL  DORADO,  or  "  the  Golden  Land,"  is  the 
name  given  by  Orellana,  in  1531,  to  a  country 
which  he  pretended  to  have  discovered  in  the 
interior  of  South  America,  between  the  rivers 
Orinoco  and  Amazon,  lie  asserted  that  gold 
and  precious  stones  existed  in  this  region  in 
great  abundance.  In  1595  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
fitted  out  an  expedition  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  possession  of  El  Dorado  for  the  English 
Government.  The  term  has  been  since  ai  >]  >i  io<  1 
t<  >  vane  >us  regions  in  which  gold  has  been  found. 

ELEASA  (Battle).— Judas  Maccabeus  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Syrians  mider  Bac- 
chides  and  Alcimus  at  this  place,  in  Palestine, 
near  Ashdod,  B.C.  160. 

ELEATICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers,  founded 
at  Elea,  in  Sicily,  by  Xenophanes  of  Colophon, 
about  B.C.  538.  Zeno,  who  flourished  B.C.  464, 
K.np.jdocles,  B.C.  435,  and  Melissus,  B.C.  428, 
wore  leading  philosophers  of  this  school.  They 
opposed  the  idea  of  a  plurality  of  gods,  but 
mingled  this  truth  with  many  puerile  and  ab- 
surd conceits,  which  obscured  and  weakened 
its  efficacy. 

ELECTION  PETITIONS.  —  Controverted 
elections  to  Parliament,  originally  tried  as 
party  questions  by  the  whole  House  of  Com- 
mons, were  first  referred  to  the  decision  of 
select  committees  by  the  Grenville  Act,  10 


Geo.  III.  c.  16  (1770),  which  provided  that  the 
committee  should  be  chosen  by  ballot.  Similar 
regulations  in  the  case  of  Irish  elections  were 
introduced  by  42  Geo.  III.  c.  106  (June  26, 
1802),  which  was  amended  by  47  Geo.  III. 
c.  14  (Feb.  19,  1807).  The  English  law  was 
consolidated  and  amended  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  22 
(May  23,  1828)  ;  and  the  appointment  of  the 
committee  by  ballot  was  repealed,  and  other 
changes  effected  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  38  (Aug.  17, 
1839).  Further  amendments  were  introduced 
by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  103  (Aug.  9,  1844),  and  by  the 
Election  Petitions  Act,  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  98 
(Sep.  4,  1848),  which  was  amended  by  28  Viet, 
c.  8  (April  7,  1865).  (See  BRIBERY,  <tc.) 

ELECTOR  PALATINE.— This  title  was  first 
assumed  by  Rodolph  I.,  Count  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine,  in  1294. 

ELECTORS.— By  8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7  (1429),  no 
person  was  allowed  to  vote  at  the  election  of  a 
member  of  Parliament  unless  possessed  of  40$. 
yearly  in  land.  Excise  and  custom-house 
officers  were  prohibited  from  voting  by  22 
Geo.  III.  c.  41  (1782).  The  mode  of  polling  at 
elections  was  regulated  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  59  (July 
15,  1828).  Several  new  regulations  were  intro- 
duced by  the  Reform  Bill,  2  Will.  IV.  c.  45 
:  June  7,  1832) ;  and  the  Crown  received  power 
to  increase  the  number  of  polling-places  in 
counties  and  boroughs,  on  the  petition  of  the 
justices  of  those  counties  and  boroughs,  by  6  &  7 
Will.  IV.  c.  102  (Aug.  20,  1836). 

KLKCTOItS  OF  GERMANY.— The  German 
empire  became  elective  after  the  death  of  Con- 
rad I.,  in  919,  when  the  right  of  choosing  his 
IT  was  exercised  by  the  Dukes  of 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  Franconia,  and  Swabia.  In 
1257,  there  were  seven  electors  ;  viz.,  the  Arch- 
of  Mayencc,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  with 
the  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  rulers 
of  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and  Bohemia.  These 
were  recognized  by  the  States  in  1338,  and  con- 
firmed by  Charles  IV.  in  the  Golden  Bull  of 
1356.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia  added  another 
elector  in  1648  in  the  person  of  the  palatine, 
Frederick  V.,  whose  vote  had  been  conferred 
upon  the  Duke  of  Bavaria ;  and  in  1692  the 
Knipcror  Leopold  I.  granted  the  privilege 
to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  who  be- 
came the  ninth  elector.  In  1777  the  elec- 
torate of  Bavaria  was  reunited  to  the  pala- 
tinate, which  reduced  the  number  to  eight; 
but  in  1803  the  diet  of  Ratisbon  increased  the 
number  to  ten  ;  viz.,  the  Arch-chancellor  of 
Mayence,  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Salzburg,  Saxony, 
Brandenburg,  Brunswick,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden, 
and  Hesse.  In  1804,  Francis  I.  declared  the 
empire  hereditary,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  dignity  of  elector  became  merely  nominal. 
The  title  is  now  only  borne  by  the  princes  of 
Hesse-Cassel. 

E  LECTRIC  CLOCK.— Professor  Whcatstone's 
electro-magnetic  clock  was  exhibited  and  ex- 
plained to  the  Royal  Society  Nov.  25,  1840 ;  and 
Mr.  Bain  patented  an  electric  clock,  Jan.  8, 
1841,  which  he  exhibited  at  the  Polytechnic 
Institution  March  28.  Mr.  Shepherd's  electro- 
magnetic clock  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able objects  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 
An  electric  clock,  which  has  since  been  re- 
moved, was  set  up  in  the  Strand  in  1852. 


ELECTRICITY 


[    365 


ELECTRIC 


ELECTRICITY  is  so  called  from  the  Greek 
word  electron,  amber,  because  the  first  electrical 
phenomenon  of  which  we  have  any  record  is  the 
property  that  substance  possesses  of  attracting 
light  bodies  when  it  is  rubbed.  This  pecu- 
liarity was  observed  by  Thales  of  Miletus  B.C. 
600.  No  progress  was  made,  however,  in  the 
science,  until  about  1600,  when  Dr.  Gilbert,  of 
Colchester,  discovered  that  other  substances 
also  possess  the  same  property.  He  is  there- 
fore regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  sciences 
connected  with  electricity.  The  first  electrical 
machine  was  made  by  Otto  Guericke,  of  Mag- 
deburg, who  flourished  between  1602  and  1686. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
dates  connected  with  the  subject  :— 


600.  Thales  of  Miletus  observes  that  amber,  when  rubbed, 

possesses  the  property  of  attracting  light  bodies. 
A.D. 
415.  Eustatius  mentions  that  a  certain  philosopher  emitted 

sparks  while  dressing  and  undressing. 
1600.  Dr.   Gilbert,   of  Colchester,  commences  a   series  of 

experiments  which  prove  that  other  bodies  besides 

amber    possess  the  property  of   attracting  light 

bodies. 
1675.  Boyle  publishes  his  "  Experiments  on  the  Origin  of 

Electricity." 
1705.  Hawksbee    notices   the  electric  light  produced  by 

passing  air  through  mercury  in  a  vacuum. 
1709.  Hawksbeo  uses  a  glass  electrical  machine. 
1730.  Grey  classifies  all  bodies  a.s  electrics  or  non-electrics. 
1733.   Dufay  discovers  vitreous  and  resinous  electricity. 

1746.  The  Leyden  phial  is  discovered.    Three  persons  claim 

the  merit  of  this  discovery ;  viz.,  a  monk  named 
Kleist,  Professor  Muscheiibroech,  of  Leyden,  and 
a  man  named  Cunens. 

1747,  July  14.   Dr.  Watson  conveys  a  shock  across  the 

Thames. 
1753,  June.  Dr.  Franklin  discovers  the  identity  of  lightning 

and  the  electric  spark. 
1753,  Aug.   6.   Professor  Kichman,   of  St.   Petersburg,  is 

killed  while  prosecuting  some  experiments. 
1767.  Lane  invents  the  discharging  electrometer. 
1773.  Mr.  Walsh   and   Dr.   Ingrenhouz   prove  the  electric 

nature  of  the  shock  of  the  torpedo. 
1776.  Volta  invents  the  electrophorus. 
1785.  Coulomb  invents  the  torsion  balance,  and  discovers 

static  electricity. 
1787.  Cavendish  demonstrates  the  formation  of  nitric  acid, 

and  decomposes  atmospheric    air  by  means    of 

electricity. 

1790.  Galvanism  (q.  v.)  is  discovered  by  Galvani. 
1800.  Volta  discovers  Voltaic  electricity.     (See  VOLTAIC 

PILE.) 
1807.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  decomposes  the  fixed  alkalies  by 

electricity. 
1830.  Oersted  discovers  electro-magnetism,  and  Bohnen- 

berger  invents  the  electroscope. 
1823.  Dr.  Seeberk  discovers  thermo-electricity. 
1834.  Professor  Wheatstone  experiments  on  the  velocity  of 

electricity. 

1837.  Professor  Jacobi,  of  St.  Petersburg,  discovers  electro- 
metallurgy.—The  Electrical  Society  is  established 

in  London. 

1839.  The  wreck  of  the  Royal  George,   after  being  sub- 

merged for  60  years  at  Spithead,  is  blown  up  by 
electricity. 

1840.  Mr.  Armstrong  invents  the  hydro-electric  machine. 
1843,  Jan.  26.  Round  Down  cliff  is  destroyed  by  electro- 
blasting. 

1847.  Professor  William  Thompson  publishes  his  theory  of 
electrical  images  and  reflections. 

1851.  Ruhmkorff  constructs  his  electro-dynamic  coil. 

1863.  Messrs.  Newall  and  Co.  patent  their  electric  bells, 
which  are  fixed  in  Windsor  Castle  and  in  other 
large  buildings. — M.  Serrin's  apparatus  for  illumi- 
nating streets  by  electricity  is  exhibited  in  London. 
— The  magneto-electric  light  is  employed  at  Dunge- 
ness  lighthouse. 

1863.  Engraving  is  accomplished  by  electricity.— Gisborne's 
electric  steering  apparatus  is  adopted  in  several 
large  vessels. 


1865.  An   electrical  torpedo  is  tested  with   great  effect 
in  the  harbour  of  Toulon. 

(See  ATLANTIC,  ELECTRIC,  and  SUBMARINE  TELE- 
GRAPH. ) 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT.— As  early  as  1802  the 
Chevalier  Bunsen  conceived  the  idea  of  obtain- 
ing light  by  fixing  cones  of  charcoal  to  the 
poles  of  the  conductor  of  a  battery,  in  an  ex- 
hausted glass  globe.  In  1846  Messrs.  Greener 
and  Staite  patented  an  electric  lamp,  which 
was  improved  by  the  last-named  gentleman  in 
1847,  and  exhibited  at  Hanover  Square  Rooms, 
and  in  Trafalgar  Square,  London,  in  1848.  A 
new  system  of  electric  illumination  was  em- 
ployed the  same  year  to  light  the  theatre  in 
the  Palais  Royal,  Paris,  and  this  was  also  ex- 
hibited in  London  with  great  success,  Dec.  5 
and  7.  In  1850  Mr.  Allman  performed  experi- 
ments at  the  Polytechnic  Institution  with  an 
instrument  of  his  own  invention,  the  light  of 
which  continued  longer,  and  was  more  equable 
in  quality,  than  that  of  any  former  apparatus. 
Staite' s  light  was  again  exhibited  at  Man- 
chester, May  9,  1851.  In  1853  Dr.  Watson 
explained  a  process  of  his  own  invention,  by 
which  brilliant  light  was  supplied,  and  costly 
pigments  were  simultaneously  prepared  by 
the  same  instrument ;  and  in  1858  the  same 
gentleman  lighted  the  works  of  new  West- 
minster Bridge  by  means  of  electricity.  The 
electric  light  was  employed  in  the  lighthouse 
at  the  South  Foreland  in  1859.  Mr.  Gassiot 
invented  an  instrument  in  1860,  in  which  elec- 
tricity, discharged  from  the  induction-coil 
through  a  spiral  carbonic-acid  vacuum-tube, 
is  made  to  produce  a  brilliant  white  light. 

ELECTRIC  LOOM.— This  instrument  was 
invented  by  Bonelli,  of  Turin,  in  1854.  In  1855 
it  was  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  and 
in  1859  was  much  improved  by  Froment. 
Faraday  lectured  upon  it  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, June  8,  1860. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.— The  success  of 
Dr.  Watson's  experiments  to  prove  the  instan- 
taneous transmission  of  electricity  through 
great  distances,  made  in  1747,  originated  the 
idea  of  employing  this  property  for  purposes  of 
telegraphic  communication.  The  first  attempt 
to  realize  this  scheme  was  made  by  Lesage  in 
1774,  when  a  series  of  24  wires  was  established 
at  Geneva,  which  communicated  with  an  appa- 
ratus for  indicating  particular  letters  when  the 
machine  was  in  operation.  Modifications  of 
this  plan  were  attempted  by  Betancourt  in 
1787,  by  Reiser  in  1794,  and  by  Salva  in  1796. 
Somrnering  of  Munich  applied  the  voltaic  bat- 
tery to  telegraphic  purposes  in  1811,  and  in 
1816  Ronalds,  of  Hammersmith,  invented  an 
instrument  in  which  pith  balls  were  used  to 
point  out  the  letter  intended.  Oersted's  dis- 
covery of  electro-magnetism  was  applied  to 
telegraphic  purposes  by  Ampere  in  1820,  his 
plan  being  to  employ  as  many  conducting 
wires  and  magnetic  needles  as  there  are  letters, 
so  that  each  letter  being  under  a  different 
needle,  signals  might  be  transmitted  to  a  great 
distance.  This  proposition  was  lectured  upon 
in  England  by  Ritchie  in  1830,  and  carried 
into  effect  by  Baron  Schilling  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1832.  In  1833  Gauss  and  Weber  at- 
tempted to  introduce  an  apparatus  in  which  a 


ELECTRO 


[    366    ] 


ELEUSINIAN 


single  bar  gave  all  the  signals,  but  its  mecha- 
nism was  too  delicate,  and  its  results  too  un- 
certain, to  render  it  of  practical  utility.  Cook 
and  Wheatstone's  first  patent  for  an  electric 
telegraph  was  sealed  June  12,  1837,  and  Pro- 
fessor Morse's  American  instrument,  which 
wrote  the  message  it  transmitted,  was  con- 
structed the  same  year.  Cook  and  Wheat- 
stone's  electro-magnetic  telegraph  was  patented 
Jan.  21,  1840,  and  their  signal-needle  telegraph 
May  6,  1845.  The  magneto-electric  telegraph 
was  patented  by  Henley  in  1848.  (See  ATLANTIC 
and  SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH.) 

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.— Animal  electri- 
city was  to  some  extent  known  to  the  ancients, 
as  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322)  and  Pliny  (A.D.  77) 
both  mention  the  benumbing  power  of  the 
torpedo,  the  electrical  organs  of  which  were 
engraved  by  Lorenzini  in  1678,  and  the  shock 
of  which  was  proved  to  be  electric  by  Walsh 
and  Dr.  Ingenhouz  in  1773.  Symmer  per- 
formed several  interesting  experiments  on 
human  electricity  in  1759,  by  means  of  silk 
and  worsted  stockings,  and  in  1786  important 
discoveries  were  made  by  Hemmer  respecting 
the  same  subject.  Galvani's  discoveries  in 
1790  shed  fresh  light  on  the  science,  which 
has  since  been  illustrated  by  the  experiments 
of  Humboldt  and  Gay-Lussac  in  1805,  of  Todd 
in  1812  and  1816,  and  of  Professor  Faraday, 
who  examined  the  electricity  of  the  gym- 
notus  in  1838.  Several  interesting  discoveries 
have  also  been  made  by  Matteucci,  who  per- 
formed some  fine  experiments  at  York  in  1844, 
and  in  -May,  1855,  the  subject  was  brought 
bofore  the  members  of  the  British  Institution 
by  some  lectures  of  Dr.  l)u  Bois-Reymond. 

ELECTRO-TINT.— This  application  of  the 
electrotype  to  the  art  of  engraving  was  in- 
vented by  Edward  Palmer,  who  published  an 
account  of  it  in  the  riiilmtujiltiml  .!/</</< /.-.;„,•  for 
June,  1840,  and  patented  it  June  12, 1841.  The 
process  was  afterwards  improved  by  him,  and 
again  patented,  under  the  name  of  glypho- 
graphy,  Jan.  15,  1842. 

ELECTRO-TYPE.— The  art  of  plating  by 
electricity  was  invented  almost  simultaneously 
by  Spencer,  of  Liverpool,  and  Professor  Jacobi, 
of  St.  Petersburg,  in  1837  ;  made  public  by 
the  latter,  Oct.  5,  1838,  and  by  the  former, 
Sep.  12,  1839.  Murray  applied  blacklead  to 
non-metallic  bodies  as  a  conducting  surface 
in  Jan.  1840.  Messrs.  Elkmgton,  of  Birming- 
ham, took  out  their  patent  for  gilding,  &c., 
March  25,  1840;  and  in  the  following  April 
the  first  specimen  of  printing  from  an  electro- 
type appeared  in  a  London  periodical. 

ELEPHANT  (Order).  —  The  date  of  the 
foundation  of  this  celebrated  Danish  order  of 
knighthood  is  very  uncertain,  some  authorities 
referring  it  to  the  period  of  the  first  crusade 
(1096),  others  to  the  reign  of  Canute  VI.  (1182 — 
1202)^  and  others  to  that  of  Christian  I.  (1448 — 
1481).  The  Danish  official  documents  ascribe 
its  foundation  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  isth 
century,  and  state  that  it  was  merely  renewed 
by  Christian  I.  in  1458.  As  originally  consti- 
tuted, it  was  of  a  religious  character ;  but  it 
became  secular  on  the  alteration  of  its  statutes 
by  Christian  V.,  Dec.  i,  1693.  This  order,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  Danebrog  (q.v.},  is  under 


the  presidency  of  a  chapter  of  the  royal  orders, 
established  at  Copenhagen  June  28,  1808.  The 
annual  special  festival  of  the  order  is  celebrated 
on  the  ist  of  Jan. 

ELEPHANTA  ISLAND  (Hindostan).— This 
island,  near  Bombay,  is  remarkable  for  a  huge 
unwieldy  statue  of  an  elephant,  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  and  for  a  great  temple.  The  date 
of  both  curiosities  is  unknown,  though,  from 
their  rapid  decay  since  they  were  first  examined, 
it  is  thought  they  cannot  be  of  very  high  anti- 
quity. In  1814  the  neck  and  head  of  the 
elephant  dropped  off;  and  in  1824  only  two- 
thirds  of  the  columns  of  the  temple  were  in  a 
sound  condition.  A  visitor  to  the  island  in 
1836  states  that  the  whole  of  the  elephant,  ex- 
cepting three  legs  and  a  fragment  of  the  fourth, 
had  been  at  that  time  destroyed. 

ELEPHANTINE  (K-ypt  .—A  small  island  in 
the  Nile,  opposite  Syene,  bears  this  name.  It 
was  the  last  fortified  place  in  the  dominions  of 
Psammetichus  I.,  and  the  Romans  held  it  for 
some  time.  Diocletian  built  a  temple  of  Con- 
cord here  in  297.  It  was  destroyed  by  Justi- 
nian I.  in  531. 

ELKPHAXTINE  KINGDOM  (Egypt).— This 
small  kingdom,  situated  on  an  island  in  the 
Nile,  flourished  at  a  period  prior  to  the  age  of 
authentic  history,  and  declined  about  B.C. 
1450,  when  its  importance  was  eclipsed  by  the 
rising  grandeur  of  Thebes. 

ELEPH  ANTS.— The  Hindoos  employed  these 
animals  for  military  purposes  from  the  most 
remote  periods,  but  they  were  not  introduced 
into  the  regions  west  of  the  Indus  until  about 
the  year  B.C.  331,  when  they  were  used  by 
Darius  against  Alexander  III.  at  the  battle  of 
Arbela.  At  the  battle  of  Hydaspes,  B.C.  327, 
Porus  brought  about  100  elephants  into  the 
field,  80  of  which  fell  alive  into  the  hands  of 
the  victorious  Alexander.  They  were  intro- 
duced into  Italy  by  Pyrrhus,  who  used  20  at 
the  battle  of  Heraclea,  B.C.  280 ;  and  they  were 
soon  adopted  as  an  important  branch  of  mili- 
tary power  by  the  Carthaginians,  who  surren- 
dered 104  to  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Panormus,  B.C.  250.  In  consequence  of  this 
capture,  the  Romans  also  began  to  use  ele- 
phants, which  they  employed  with  great  effect 
against  the  barbarous  Arverni  and  Allobroges, 
B.C.  121.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Roman 
republic,  the  use  of  elephants  in  war  was 
abandoned  to  the  Orientals. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.— Festivals  held 
annually,  in  Sep.,  at  Eleusis,  a  town  of  At- 
tica, in  honour  of  the  goddess  Demeter,  or 
Ceres.  According  to  some  authorities,  they 
were  instituted  by  Cadmus,  B.C.  1550;  others 
refer  their  origin  to  Erichthonius,  B.C.  1494  ; 
but  the  usual  opinion  is  that  they  were  com- 
menced by  Eumolpus,  the  first  hierophant, 
B.C.  1356.  Great  secresy  was  observed  in  the 
celebration  of  the  festivals,  consisting  of  the 
greater  and  lesser  mysteries  ;  and  it  was  a 
capital  offence  to  reveal  any  of  the  rites.  They 
existed  about  18  centuries,  and  ceased  during 
the  invasion  of  Alaric  I.  in  396.  Hales  says 
they  were  brought  from  Egypt  to  Attica,  abo\it 
B.C.  1399,  by  Erechtheuf,  and  that  they  were 
ultimately  borrowed  from  the  Jewish  feast  of 
Tabernacles. 


ELGIN 


[    367    1 


ELLISON 


ELGIN  (Scotland).— This  city,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Elgin  or  Morayshire,  was  anciently 
called  Helgyn,  in  honour  of  Helgy,  a  Norwegian 
chief,  who  ravaged  the  vicinity  in  the  gth  cen- 
tury. The  castle  was  a  royal  fortress  prior  to 
1 1 88,  the  cathedral  was  founded  in  1224,  and 
the  city  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Alexander 
II.  in  1234.  The  town  and  cathedral  were 
much  injured  by  fire  in  1270;  in  1390,  when 
they  were  burned  by  Alexander  Stewart,  Earl 
of  Buchan,  surnamed  the  "Wolf  of  Badenoch," 
a  natural  son  of  Robert  II.  ;  in  1402,  when 
Elgin  was  attacked  by  Alexander,  son  of  the 
Lord  of  the  Isles  ;  and  in  1452,  when  it  was 
partially  burned  by  the  Earl  of  Huntly.  The 
cathedral  was  rebuilt  in  1414,  but  the  lead 
having  been  stripped  from  the  roof  in  1568, 
the  interior  decayed,  and  the  grand  central 
tower  fell  in  1 7 1 1 .  Gray's  Hospital  was  opened 
in  1819  ;  the  new  parish  church  was  erected  in 
1828;;  Anderson's  Institute,  for  the  education 
of  the  young  and  the  maintenance  of  the  aged, 
was  opened  in  1833;  and  the  pauper  lunatic 
asylum  was  built  in  1834. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.  —  This  collection  of 
antique  statuary  is  chiefly  composed  of  frag- 
ments of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  which  was 
built  by  Pericles  about  B.C.  448.  In  1799,  Lord 
Elgin  conceived  the  idea  of  forming  such  a 
collection,  and  in  1800  he  proceeded  to  Athens, 
accompanied  by  several  artists,  who  were  per- 
mitted by  the  Porte  to  make  drawings  of  the 
Acropolis.  In  1801,  however,  owing  to  the 
success  of  British  arms  in  Egypt,  the  Turkish 
Government  granted  him  permission  to  "  view, 
draw,  and  model  the  ancient  temples  of  the 
idols,  and  the  sculptures  upon  them ;  and 
make  excavations,  and  take  away  any  stones 
that  might  appear  interesting  to  him."  In 
this  manner  he  obtained  the  series  of  marbles 
which  now  bears  his  name.  Mr.  Perceval 
wished  to  buy  them  for  the  nation  in  1811,  but 
the  sum  offered  (,£30,000)  was  deemed  insuffi- 
cient, and  the  proposal  was  rejected.  In  1812 
more  remains  were  obtained,  and  in  1815  Lord 
Elgin  petitioned  the  House  of  Commons  to 
secure  the  collection  for  the  national  benefit. 
A  select  committee  was  appointed,  and  an  act 
was  passed,  56  Geo.  III.  c.  99  (July  i,  1816),  by 
which  the  marbles  were  purchased  for  ^35,000, 
and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

EL  HADIR.— (See  ATRA.) 

ELIBERIS,  ELVIRA,  or  ILLIBERIS  (Spain). 
— This  ancient  city  of  Grenada  is  celebrated  for 
an  important  council  on  discipline,  held  about 
300  or  301. 

ELIS  (Greece),  which  lay  to  the  west  of 
Arcadia,  and  was  called  the  "Holy  Land"  of 
Greece,  appears  to  have  been  originally  peopled 
by  Pelasgians,  and  to  have  been  taken  by  a 
party  of  Jitolians  under  Oxylus,  B.C.  1104.  In 
the  8th  century  B.C.,  its  inhabitants  had  ex- 
tended their  conquests  as  far  as  the  river  Neda, 
and  had  wrested  from  the  Pisatans  the  presi- 
dency of  the  festival  of  Zeus,  at  Olympia.  This 
presidency  was,  however,  restored  to  Pisa  by 
Pheidon,  Tyrant  of  Argos,  B.C.  747  ;  and  Panta- 
leon,  King  of  Pisa,  celebrated  the  games  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Eleans,  B.C.  644.  The  Eleans 
invaded  Pisa  B.C.  588,  and  were  in  their  turn 
invaded  by  the  Pisatans,  B.C.  572  ;  in  conse- 


quence of  which  the  Eleans  razed  their  city  to 
the  ground.  A  quarrel  broke  out  between 
Sparta  and  Elis  B.C.  421,  which  led  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Spartans  from  the  Olympic 
festival,  B.C.  420.  The  Eleans  with  their  allies 
were  defeated  by  the  Spartans  at  the  battle  of 
Mautinea,  B.C.  418,  and  were  invaded  by  Agis 
B.C.  402,  and  compelled  to  purchase  peace  by 
the  surrender  of  several  important  towns,  B.C. 
400.  They  attempted  to  recover  some  portion 
of  the  ceded  territory,  B.C.  371,  but  were  pre- 
vented by  the  Arcadians,  against  whom  they 
declared  war,  B.C.  366,  and  by  whom  they  were 
defeated,  B.C.  365  and  364.  In  consequence, 
however,  of  the  Arcadians  having  pillaged  the 
temple  of  Olympia,  so  strong  a  feeling  was  ex- 
cited against  them,  that  they  were  compelled 
to  restore  several  of  their  conquests  and  con- 
clude peace,  B.C.  362.  Telesphorus,  a  general 
of  Antigonus,  seized  the  town  of  Elis  B.C.  312, 
and  attempted  to  erect  it  into  an  independent 
principality ;  but  it  was  soon  afterwards  re- 
covered by  Ptolemaeus.  After  the  capture  of 
Corinth  by  Mummius,  B.C.  146,  Elis,  with  the 
rest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  passed  under  the 
dominion  of  Rome.  Theodosius  I.  abolished 
the  Olympic  games  in  394,  thereby  destroying 
the  last  remnant  of  the  ancient  glory  of  the 
country,  which  was  soon  afterwards  ravaged 
by  Alaric  I.  in  396. 

ELIZABETGRAD  (Russia)  was  founded  by 
the  Czarina  Elizabeth  in  1754. 

ELIZABETH,  the  only  surviving  child  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  was  born  at 
Greenwich,  Sep.  7,  1533,  ascended  the  English 
throne  Nov.  17,  1558,  and  was  crowned  at 
Westminster,  Jan.  13,  1559.  She  was  never 
married,  and  died  at  Richmond,  March  24, 
1603.  Elizabeth  was  buried  at  Westminster, 
April  28,  1603. 

ELIZABETH,  ST.  (Orders).— One  for  females 

was  instituted  in  Bavaria  in  1766. The  Royal 

order  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Brazil,  for  females, 
was  founded  in  1804. 

ELIZABETHTOWN  (United  States).— This 
town  of  New  Jersey,  erected  on  land  bought 
from  the  natives  in  1664,  and  settled  in  1665, 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  state. 

ELIZABETOPOL,  or  KANDSAG  (Asiatic 
Russia),  was  taken  by  the  Seljukian  Turks 
in  1088,  and  by  the  Mongols  in  1235.  Gen. 
Paskewitch  defeated  a  Persian  force  here,  Aug. 
8,  1826,  and  afterwards  occupied  the  town. 

ELKHORN,  or  PEA  RIDGE  (Battle).— The 
Confederates,  under  Gens.  Van  Demand  Price, 
drove  the  Federal  right  wing,  under  Gen. 
Curtis,  from  their  position  at  this  place,  in 
Arkansas,  March  7,  1862.  At  the  same  time, 
Gen.  Sigel  repulsed,  with  great  slaughter,  an 
attack  upon  the  left  wing.  The  battle  was 
resumed  March  8,  when  Gen.  Sigel,  by  means 
of  his  artillery,  routed  the  enemy. 

ELLANDUNE,  or  ELLENDUNE  (Battle).— 
Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  defeated  Beornwulph, 
King  of  Mercia,  with  great  slaughter,  at  Elian- 
dune,  Ellendune,  or  Ealla's  Hill,  near  Wilton, 
in  823. 

ELLISON  GALLERY  (London).— Mr. 
Richard  Ellison,  of  Sudbrook  Holme,  Lin- 
colnshire, having  desired  that  some  portion  of 
his  collection  of  water-colour  pictures  should 


ELLORA 


[    368 


EMBDEN 


be  given  to  the  nation,  his  widow  presented 
50  works  by  leading  artists  to  Kensington 
Museum,  in  April,  1860,  "until  a  separate  and 
permanent  building  shall  be  erected  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  a  national  collection  of 
water-colour  paintings." 

ELLORA,  or  ELORA  (Hindostan).  —  The 
rock  temples  of  this  place  in  the  Deccan,  hewn 
from  the  solid  mountain,  and  exhibiting  traces 
not  only  of  immense  labour,  but  of  considerable 
architectural  skill,  date,  according  to  the 
Brahmins,  from  about  B.C.  6080,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  excavated  at  least  as  early 
as  B.C.  640.  From  the  sculpture  employed  in 
the  decorations,  they  appear  to  be  of  a  later 
period  than  the  ancient  Hindoo  epic  poems 
Itamayana  or  Mahabharata,  or  than  the  rock 
edifices  in  the  island  of  Elephanta.  Ellora, 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1818,  was  granted  by 
them  to  the  Nizam  in  1822. 

EL  MINA  (Western  Africa).— This  fortress, 
erected  by  the  Portuguese  in  1481,  was  wrested 
from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1637. 

ELOPEMENT.  —  By  the  statute  of  West- 
minster 2,  13  Edw.  I.  c.  34  (1285),  any  wife 
voluntarily  leaving  her  husband  forfeited  for 
ever  all  right  to  dower,  unless  her  husband 
willingly,  and  without  coercion,  restored  her 
to  his  favour. 

ELPHIN  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  see  was 
erected  about  450,  by  St.  Patrick,  who  ap- 
puiiitcd  a  monk  named  Asicus  the  first  bishop  ; 
but  there  is  no  regular  succession  of  prelates 
till  1262.  The  Church  Temporalities  Act  (3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  37,  Aug.  14,  1833)  provided  that  it 
should  be  annexed  to  Kilmore,  and  this  was 
accomplished  in  1841. 

ELSINORE  (Denmark).— This  place  obtained 
the  privileges  of  a  city  in  1425,  and  was  men- 
tioned in  a  treaty  with  England,  as  entitled  to 
levy  the  tax  known  as  the  Sound  dues,  in  1450. 
In  1522  it  was  taken  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Lubeck,  from  whom  it  was  recovered  by  Chris- 
tian II.  in  1535.  In  1576  its  population  was  in- 
creased by  an  immigration  of  Dutch  colonists, 
and  about  1580  the  celebrated  Castle  of  Cronen- 
berg  was  erected.  This  fortress  was  taken  by 
the  Swedes,  under  Wrangel,  in  1658,  but  almost 
immediately  evacuated.  A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded here  between  Sweden  and  the  States- 
general,  Dec.  9,  1659.  In  1801  the  British  fleet, 
under  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and  Nelson,  forced  the 
passage  of  the  Sound  previous  to  the  bombard- 
ment of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1807  Admiral 
Gambler  passed  the  Great  Belt.  Elsinore  is 
celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  tragedy  of 
"Hamlet."  The  railway  to  Copenhagen  was 
opened  by  Christian  IX.,  June  8,  1864.  The 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  visited  Elsinore 
Sep.  6  and  Oct.  6,  1864. 

ELSTER  (Battle).— Henry  IV.  of  Germany 
was  defeated  near  the  Elster,  or  Elbe,  during 
his  struggle  against  Rodolph  of  Swabia,  Oct. 
13,  1080.  Both  Henry  IV.  and  his  rival,  Ro- 
dolph, were  slain  in  the  battle. 

ELTEKEH.— (See  ALTAKU,  Battle.) 

ELVAS  (Portugal).— This  town,  besieged  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1385,  was  raised  into  a  city  by 
King  Emanuel  in  1513,  and  was  again  besieged 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  were  repulsed  by  the  in- 
habitants in  1659.  Taken  by  the  French,  under 


Marshal  Junot,  in  March,  1808,  it  was  restored 
by  the  convention  of  Cintra  (q.  v.),  Aug.  22, 1808. 

ELVIRA.— (See  ELIBER.IS.) 

ELY  (Bishopric). — In  1108  a  charter  was 
obtained  from  Henry  I.  for  its  erection  into  a 
separate  diocese,  which  was  effected  in  1109. 
Herveus  was  consecrated  its  first  bishop,  July 
27,  1109.  In  1837  and  1839  parts  of  the  diocese 
of  Lincoln  were  transferred  to  Ely. 

ELY  (Cambridge). — Etheldreda,  daughter  of 
Ecgrie  Anna,  King  of  the  East  Angles,  founded 
a  monastery  on  this  island  about  673.  The 
Danes  destroyed  it  in  870,  and  it  was  rebuilt 
by  Ethelwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  970. 

EMANCIPATION.— Slavery  was  abolished 
throughout  the  British  colonies  by  3  &  4  Will. 

IV.  c.  73  (Aug.  28, 1833). The  Roman  Catholic 

Emancipation  Bill  (10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7)  received 
the  royal  assent  April  13,  1829. The  Eman- 
cipation Society,  founded  in  London  Nov.  n, 
1862,  was  dissolved  in  1865,  on  the  termination 
of  the  American  civil  war.  (See  SLAVERY.) 

K. MANUEL  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— This 
college  was  founded  in  1584  by  Sir  Walter 
Mildmay,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
privy  councillor  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

EMBALMING.  -  This  custom  originated 
among  the  Ethiopians,  from  whom  the  Egyp- 
tians received  it  at  a  veiy  early  period.  It  is 
usually  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  precise 
age  of  mummies,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that 
many  of  those  in  our  museums  have  been 
preserved  at  least  3,000  years.  Pettigrow 
mentions  one  of  that  age  which  he  opened,  and 
found  uninjured  by  the  lapse  of  time  ;  but 
when  he  soaked  out  the  preservative  drugs, 
the  work  of  putrefaction  immediately  com- 
menced. We  leam  from  Scripture  that  Joseph 
caused  the  body  of  his  father  Jacob  to  be  em- 
balmed Gen.  1.,  2,  3),  B.C.  1635,  and  also  that 
40  days  were  taken  up  in  the  operation.  Hero- 
dotus (B.C.  484)  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (B.C.  44) 
have  left  descriptions  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  process  was  performed  by  the  Egyptians. 
It  was  much  used  by  the  early  Christians.  St. 
Augustine  says  it  was  still  practised  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sth  century. 

EMBANKMENT.  —  (See  THAMES  EMBANK- 
MENT. ) 

EMBARGO  is  the  prohibition  of  ships  from 
sailing,  and  the  right  to  impose  it  may  be  law- 
fully exercised  by  the  crown  in  time  of  war. 
But  an  embargo  laid  upon  corn  in  1766  being 
opposed  to  certain  statutes,  a  special  act  (7  Geo. 
III.  c.  7)  was  passed  to  indemnify  such  as  had 
endeavoured  to  enforce  it.  An  embargo  was 
imposed  on  all  Russian,  Swedish,  and  Danish 
vessels  in  British  ports,  Jan.  14,  1801. 

EMBDEN,  or  EMDEN  (Hanover),  the  chief 
commercial  town  of  Hanover,  was  formed  after 
the  inundation  of  the  Ems  in  1277.  An  African 
trading  company  existed  here  in  1682.  It  was 
made  a  free  port  in  1751.  The  French  took  it 
in  July,  1757,  and  evacuated  it  March  19,  1758, 
at  the  approach  of  an  English  squadron.  The 
French  again  obtained  possession  in  1761,  but 
were  speedily  expelled.  A  bank  was  estab- 
lished Feb.  i,  1769.  Embden  came  into  the 
possession  of  Holland  in  1808,  was  incorporated 
with  Hanover  in  1815,  and  suffered  from  an 
inundation  in  1826. 


EMBER 


[    369    1 


EMIGRATION 


EMBER  WEEKS.— Pope  Callixtus  I.  (219— 
222)  appointed  certain  fast  days  for  imploring 
the  Divine  blessing  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
and  on  the  ordinations  of  priests,  which  were 
celebrated  at  these  times.  From  the  custom 
of  strewing  ashes  or  embers  upon  the  head  on 
these  occasions,  the  days  were  called  ember 
days,  and  the  weeks  in  which  they  fell,  ember 
weeks.  They  occur  four  times  a  year,  being 
the  Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the 
first  Sunday  in  Lent,  after  Whit-sunday,  after 
Sep.  14  (the  Feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy 
Cross),  and  after  Dec.  13  (the  Feast  of  St.  Lucia). 

EMBROIDERY.— This  art  is  of  very  ancient 
origin,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  invented 
by  the  Phrygians.  It  was  practised  with  great 
success  by  the  women  of  Sidon,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Moses  in  the  decoration  of  the  taber- 
nacle, B.C.  1490  (Exod.  xxxv.  35,  and  xxxviii. 
23).  A  machine  was  invented  by  Heilmann, 
and  exhibited  in  Paris  in  1854,  by  the  aid  of 
which  a  lady  could  embroider  any  design  as 
correctly  and  quickly  with  140  needles  as  for- 
merly with  one.  The  company  of  the  Em- 
broiderers was  incorporated  in  1562. 

EMBRUN  (France).— This  ancient  city,  the 
capital,  in  the  4th  century,  of  the  maritime 
Alps,  was,  at  an  early  period,  erected  into  an 
archbishopric.  St.  Marcellinus,  the  first  occu- 
pant of  the  see,  died  in  372.  After  undergoing 
several  sieges  by  the  Vandals  and  Huns,  it  was 
burned  by  the  Moors  in  966,  and  again  destroyed 
during  the  religious  wars  in  1573.  In  1589  it 
was  ceded  to  France  by  Savoy,  and  in  1692  it 
was  attacked  by  Victor  Amadeus  II.  The 
archbishopric  was  suppressed  in  1789. 

EMEND1NGEN  (Battle).  —  Moreau  was 
defeated  at  this  place,  in  Germany,  by  the 
Austrian  forces  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  Oct. 

EMERALD.— This  gem  is  mentioned  as  one 
of  those  forming  the  breast-plate  of  Aaron, 
B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xxviii.  18);  but  it  is  uncertain 
whether  the  Hebrew  word  is  correctly  trans- 
lated. The  earliest  emeralds  known  were 
brought  from  the  mountains  between  Ethiopia 
and  Egypt,  where  extensive  mines  were  worked 
by  the  Ptolemies  (B.C.  306  —  6.0.  30).  This 
gem  became  very  rare  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Only  one  specimen,  which  adorned  the  tiara 
of  Pope  Julius  II.  (1503 — 1513),  was  known  to 
have  existed  previous  to  the  discovery  of  the 
Peruvian  mines  by  Pizarro  in  1545.  The  finest 
emerald  in  the  world,  weighing  8  pz.  18  dwt., 
was  exhibited  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 

EMESA,  or  EMISSA  (Syria),  the  modern 
Hems,  is  remarkable  for  a  magnificent  temple  of 
the  sun.  Its  young  priest,  Bassianus,  was  raised 
to  the  imperial  dignity  in  218  under  the  name 
of  Elagabalus,  corrupted  into  Heliogabalus. 
He  was  assassinated  by  the  Praetorian  guards 
March  10,  222.  His  mutilated  body  was  dragged 
through  the  streets  of  Rome,  and  thrown  into 
the  Tiber.  Aurelian  defeated  Zenobia,  Queen 
of  Palmyra,  near  Emesa,  in  272.  The  Arabs 
took  Emesa  in  635. 

EMIGRANTS.— The  French  refugees  (Emigres) 
began  to  leave  France  in  July,  1789.  Napo- 
leon I.  published  an  amnesty  in  their  favour 
April  26, 1802,  at  which  time  there  were  50,000, 
the  greater  part  of  whom  returned  to  France. 


On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1814, 
others  returned,  and  a  law  was  passed  by  the 
French  Chambers,  April  27,  1825,  to  indemnify 
them  for  the  injury  their  affairs  had  sustained 
during  their  exile. 

EMIGRATION  was  placed  under  the  regula- 
tion of  a  government  commission  in  1831.  It 
was  one  of  the  modes  of  relief  proposed  by 
the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act,  4  &  5  Will.  IV. 
c.  76,  s.  62  (Aug.  14,  1834),  and  in  Jan.,  1840, 
was  placed  under  the  supervision  of  com- 
missioners, appointed  under  the  royal  sign, 
manual,  as  the  Land  and  Emigration  Board. 
The  conveyance  of  emigrants  from  the  United 
Kingdom  was  at  first  regulated  by  5  &  6 
Will.  IV.  c.  53  (Aug.  31,  1835),  which  was 
amended  by  the  Passengers  Act,  5  &  6  Viet. 
c.  107  (Aug.  12,  1842).  The  recent  extensive 
emigration  from  Ireland  commenced  in  1846. 

Emigration  from  the  United  Kingdom 
from  1815  to  1863,  inclusive. 


N.  Ameri- 


863 


Total  1,243,833     3,303,489 


United 
States. 


Australia 
and  New 
Zealand. 


485 
9°3 
715 
1,056 
2,016 
1,242 
1,501 
3,733 
4,°93 
3,8oo 
i,  860 
3,1  24 
5,054 
14,03' 
15,786 
1  5.85° 
32,625 
8,534 
3,478 

2,229 

83° 

3,347 
4,949 
23,904 
32,191 
16,037 
21,532 


83,237 
52,309 


39,295 
31,013 
24,302 


Other 
Places. 


1,873 


826,860  |    1059,627    5,482,809 


Average  annual  emigration  from  the  United  Kingdom:— 

From  1815  to  1863   111,894 

For  the  ten  years  ending  1863 168,938 


EMINENCE 


[     370     ] 


ENCUMBERED 


EMINENCE.  —  Pope  Urban  VIII.  granted 
this  title  to  cardinals,  Jan.  10,  1631.  Pre- 
viously they  were  called  illustrissimi.  This 
title  was  also  granted  to  ecclesiastical  electors 
and  to  the  Grand  Master  of  Malta. 

EMIR,  the  title  borne  by  the  descendants  of 
Mohammed,  who  are  also  allowed  to  wear 
green  turbans,  was  instituted  by  Fatima, 
daughter  of  the  Prophet,  in  650. 

K.MLY  (Bishopric),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
in  Ireland,  was  founded  by  St.  Ailbe,  about 
448.  In  old  annals  it  is  referred  to  as  "  Im- 
leach  lubhair."  Originally  it  was  the  metro- 
politan see  of  Minister ;  but  in  the  year  1152 
Pope  Eugenius  III.  rendered  it  subordinate 
to  Cashel,  with  which  see  it  was  incorporated 
in  1568. 

EMMETSBURG  (North  America).  —  This 
town,  in  Pennsylvania,  was  occupied  by  the 
Confederate  cavalry  of  Gen.  Stuart,  Oct.  n, 
1862. 

BMMBTSVILLB  (Battle).— The  Confederate 
cavalry,  under  Gen.  Stuart,  drove  the  Federals 
from  their  position  at  this  place,  in  Virginia,  but 
were  subsequently  compelled,  by  the  enemy's 
reinforcements,  to  retreat,  Nov.  10, 1862. 

BMPALEMBNT  is  still  used  as  a  capital 
punishment  by  the  Turks.  It  was  formerly 
prac.tised  in  this  country  on  the  bodies  of  those 
who  committed  suicide,  but  was  abolished  by 
4  Geo.  IV.  c.  52,  s.  i  (July  8,  1823). 

EMPEROR.  —  The  Romans  distinguished 
their  successful  generals  by  the  title  Impora- 
tor,  which  was  assumed  by  Julius  C:esar  on 
his  elevation  to  the  perpetual  dictatorship, 
B.C.  46.  The  succession  of  Roman  emperors 
dates  from  Augustus  Ca;sar,  B.C.  27,  and  that 
of  the  Eastern  emperors  from  Valens,  in  364. 
Charlemagne  was  crowned  Emperor  of  the 
West  in  800.  The  Ottoman  empire  began 
under  Ottoman  or  Othman  I.,  in  1299.  The 
C/.ar  Peter  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  all 
the  Russias  in  1721,  and  Napoleon  I.  that  of 
Emperor  of  the  French,  May  18,  1804,  in  which 
year  Francis  II.  of  Germany  adopted  the  style 
of  Emperor  of  Austria.  Brazil  became  an  in- 
dependent empire  under  Don  Pedro  IV.  in 
1825,  and  Soulouque  was  proclaimed  Emperor 
of  Hayti,  by  the  title  of  Faustin  I.,  Aug.  24, 
1849.  The  present  imperial  government  of 
France  began  under  Napoleon  III.,  Dec.  i, 
1852. 

EMPIRICS,  a  sect  of  physicians  who  taught 
that  all  knowledge  of  medical  matters  nmst 
be  derived  from  experiment  and  observation. 
This  doctrine  was  first  promulgated  by  Acron 
of  Agrigentum,  a  Greek  physician,  who  nou- 
rished B.C.  430  ;  but  his  disciples  did  not  form 
themselves  into  a  separate  sect  until  the  time 
of  Philinus  of  Cos,  and  Serapion  of  Alexandria, 
B.C.  250. 

ENAMELLING.— The  inventor  of  this  art  is 
unknown,  but  the  Egyptians,  Etruscans,  and 
other  nations  of  antiquity  practised  it  with 
considerable  success.  Having  fallen  into  dis- 
use, it  was  revived  in  Italy  during  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Julius  II.  (1503 — 1513),  and  was  much 
improved  by  Jean  Toutin,  a  goldsmith  of  Cha- 
teaudun,  who  invented  the  art  of  painting 
with  opaque  enamel  in  1630.  Enamelled  pot- 
tery was  first  made  in  England  in  1642.  A 


process  for  coating  the  interior  of  iron  sauce- 
pans, &c.,  with  enamel,  was  patented  by  Dr. 
Hickling  in  Dec.,  1790,  and  improved  by  Clarke's 
method,  which  was  patented  May  25,  1839. 

ENCAENIA,  or  "  anniversary  feasts  kept  in 
memory  of  the  dedication  of  churches"  (Bing- 
ham,  b.  xx.  c.  viii.  s.  i),  commenced  in  the 
time  of  Constantino  I.  (306 — 337).  They  were  in- 
troduced into  England  by  Gregory  I.  (the  Great) 
(590 — 604  \  who  ordered  Augustine  and  Mellitus, 
the  first  English  bishops,  "  to  allow  the  people 
liberty,  on  their  annual  feasts  of  the  dedication 
of  their  churches,  to  build  themselves  booths 
round  about  the  church,  and  there  feast  and 
entertain  themselves  with  eating  and  drinking, 
in  lieu  of  the  ancient  sacrifices  while  they 
were  heathens."  Hence  arose  our  church- 
wakes. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING.— In  this  art  the 
colours  are  prepared  with  wax.  It  was  an- 
ciently practised  by  Praxiteles,  B.C.  360,  but 
gradually  fell  into  disuse  until  some  experi- 
ments were  made  by  Baehelier  in  1749.  The 
Count  CaylUB  and  M.  Mignot  published  a  de- 
scription of  the  results  in  1765,  but  the  art  was 
not  recovered  until  1785.  This  was  effected  by 
Miss  Greenland,  afterwards  Mrs.  Hooker,  of 
Rottingdean,  Sussex,  and  the  account  of  her 
ings  is  given  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  1792,  vol.  x. 

ENCKE'S  (JOMKT.— M.  Mechain,  of  Paris, 
discovered  a  telescopic  comet,  Jan.  17,  1786; 
Miss  Caroline  Herschcl  observed  one,  just  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  Nov.  7,  1795  ;  and  M.  Pons 
of  Marseilles,  Professor  Huthof  Frankfort,  and 
M.  Houvard  of  Paris,  discovered  a  comet  almost 
simultaneously,  Oct.  20,  1805.  M.  Pons  also 
detected  a  comet  Nov.  26, 1818,  which  remained 
visible  till  Jan.  12,  1819.  Its  orbit  being  found 
to  coincide  with  none  of  the  ordinary  calcula- 
tions, Professor  Enckc,  by  a  series  of  careful 
observations,  proved  that  its  real  path  was  an 
ellipse,  and  that  its  period  was  about  three 
years  and  a  quarter,  thus  establishing  its  iden- 
tity with  the  comets  above  named,  and  de- 
nii iiistrating,  for  the  first  time,  the  existence 
of  comets  of  short  period.  This  comet  has 
Ijeon  frequently  observed  on  its  periodical  re- 
appearances. 

EXCRATITES,  or  ABSTAINERS,  the  fol- 
lowers of  Tatian,  an  Assyrian,  and  a  disciple 
of  Justyn  Martyr.  He  held  matter  to  be  the 
source  of  all  evil,  and  corrupted  Christianity 
by  introducing  various  doctrines  of  the  oriental 
philosophers.  His  followers  discarded  all  ex- 
ternal comforts,  and  held  wine  in  such  abhor- 
rence, that  they  used  water  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Tatian  nourished  about  172.  His  fol- 
lowers were  also  called  Tatianists,  Apostolians, 
and  Hydroparastates.  They  were  also  called 
Aquarians  and  Continents. 

EN'CUMHKRED  ESTATES  ACT.-In  conse- 
quence of  the  number  of  encumbered  estates 
in  Ireland,  and  the  difficulty  of  disposing  of 
them,  three  commissioners  were  appointed  by 
12  <fe  13  Viet.  c.  77  (July  28,  1849),  to  superin- 
tend their  sale  and  transfer.  By  this  act  the 
owner  or  incumbrancer  of  encumbered  land  of 
which  the  lease  had  run  011  for  at  least  60  years, 
was  empowered  to  apply  within  three  years 
to  the  commissioners  for  a  sale  (s.  16).  The 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


[    37i    ] 


ENGLAND 


Commissioners'  Court  in  Dublin  commenced 
its  business  Oct.  25,  1849,  and  ceased  Aug.  31, 

1858,  having  sold  property  to  the  amount  of 
.£23,161,093  6s.  7<Z.     A  new  court,  to  be  called 
the  Landed  Estates  Court,   Ireland,   was  ap- 
pointed by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  72,  s.  2  (Aug.  2, 

1858). An   Encumbered   Estates   Court  for 

the  West  Indies  was  provided  by  17  &  18  Viet, 
c.  117  (Aug.  ii,  1854),  which  was  amended  by 
21  &  22  Viet.  c.  96. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA.  — The  earliest  encyclo- 
paedia in  existence  is  one  in  MS.  by  Alfarabius, 
a  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Bagdad,  who 
flourished  in  the  ioth  century.  The  first 
printed  work  with  this  title  is  the  Encyclopae- 
dia, seu  Orbis  Disciplinarum,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Basel  in  1555.  The  most  celebrated 
encyclopaedias  in  the  order  of  their  publication 
are: 
A.D. 

1620.  Alsted's  Encyclopedia. 

1706—1710.  John  Harris's  Lexicon  Technicum  (the  first 

English  Encyclopaedia). 
1728.  Ephraim  Chanibera's  Cyclopaedia. 
1751 — 1754.  Burrow's  Is'ew  and   Universal  Dictionary  of 

Arts  and  Sciences. 

1751—1780.  Diderot  and  D'Alembert's  Encyclopedic. 
1771.  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 
1782—1832.  Encyclopedic  Methodique. 
1788.  New  Royal  Cyclopaedia  and  Encyclopaedia. 
1788.  Kees's  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia. 
1803—1819.  Rees's  Cyclopaedia. 
1809.  Conversations-Lexicon. 
1810 — 1829.  Wilkes'  Encyclopedia  Londinensis. 
1810—1830.  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia. 
1813.  The  Fantalogia. 
1817—1845.  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana. 
1820.  Burrowes'  Modern  Encyclopaedia. 
1828—1831.  Oxford  Encyclopaedia. 
1839 — 1846.  Lanlner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia. 
1829—1848.  Encyclopedia  Americana. 
1829.  London  Encyclopaedia. 
1831 — 1852.  Dretionnuire  de  la  Conversation. 
1833—1846.  Penny  Cyclopaedia. 
1835—1838.  British  Encyclopedia. 
1841.  Popular  Encyclopedia. 
1847—1851.  National  Cyclopedia. 
1852—1861.  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (eighth  edition). 
1854 — 1861.  English  Cyclopedia. 

1859.  Chambers's  (W.  and  R.)  Encyclopedia  (in  progress). 

ENCYCLOPEDISTS.— The  French  Encyclo- 
pe'die,  projected  in  1750,  and  published  at  Paris 
in  28  volumes,  between  1751  and  1772,  was 
afterwards  enlarged  by  a  supplement  in  five 
volumes,  produced  at  Amsterdam  (1776 — 1777), 
and  an  index  in  two  volumes,  which  appeared 
at  Paris  in  1780.  Its  projectors  and  authors, 
Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Helvetius,  Raynal,  and 
others,  who  professed  the  atheistic  philosophic 
materialism  of  Voltaire,  employed  the  work  as 
a  vehicle  for  advocating  their  opinions,  and  are 
consequently  known  as  the  Encyclopedists. 

ENDEAVOUR  KIVEB  (Australia).— Capt. 
Cook  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  this  river, 
July  17,  1770,  and  remained  until  Aug.  4, 
when  he  named  it  after  the  ship  in  which  he 


ENDERBY'S  LAND  (Antarctic  Ocean),  was 
discovered  by  Biscoe  in  1831. 

ENDOR  (Palestine). —Saul,  who  consulted 
the  sorceress  at  this  village  on  the  eve  of  the 
battle  of  Mount  Gilboa  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  7-25), 
B.C.  1055,  was  defeated,  and  committed  suicide 
(i  Sam.  xxxi.  4-6). 

ENDOSMOSE,  the  power  possessed  by  a 
dense  fluid  of  attracting  to  itself  through  an 


animal  or  vegetable  membrane  any  less  dense 
fluid,  was  discovered  by  M.  Dutrochet,  who 
published  an  account  of  its  properties  in  1826. 
Endosmose  is  the  term  applied  to  this  phe- 
nomenon when  the  attraction  is  from  the  out- 
side to  the  inside.  In  the  contrary  case  it  is 
called  exosmose. 

ENFIELD  (Middlesex).— The  free  school  of 
this  town  was  endowed  in  1413.  Eiifield  Chase 
was  disforested  in  1779,  and  an  old  palace  in 
which  Edward  VI.  held  his  court,  and  his 
sister,  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  used  to  reside, 
was  destroyed  in  1792.  Experiments  to  test 
the  powers  of  small  fire-arms  were  conducted 
here  by  Government  in  1852. 

ENFIELD  MUSKET.— In  consequence  of 
experiments  made  by  Government  in  1852,  to 
test  the  capabilities  of  various  rifle  arms,  the 
Enfield  rifle-musket  was  adopted  in  the  British 
army  in  1853.  (See  NEEDLE  GUN.) 

ENGAGERS.— A  name  given  to  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  and  other  Scottish  noblemen,  who 
shared  the  counsels  of  Chailes  II.  during 
his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1650-51.  All  who 
happened  to  be  obnoxious  to  the  Presby- 
terians were  branded  either  as  Engagers  or 
Malignants. 

EN  GEN  (Battle).— The  Austrians  were 
defeated  at  Engen,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  by  the  French,  May  3,  1800. 

ENGHIEN  (Belgium).  —  This  town  of 
Hainault  passed  into  possession  of  the  Bour- 
bon family  in  1485,  and  was  sold  by  Henry  IV. 
of  France  in  1607  to  Charles  de  Ligne,  Count 
of  Arenberg.  It  gave  title  to  a  branch  of  the 
Cond£  division  of  the  Bourbon  house,  which 
became  extinct  with  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de 
Bourbon,  Duke  of  Enghien,  who  was  shot, 
at  Vincennes,  by  order  of  Napoleon  I.,  early 
in  the  morning  March  21,  1804. 

ENGINEERS.— The  architectural  and  other 
remains  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Greece,  Rome, 
China,  and  Hindostan,  prove  that  in  those 
countries  the  science  of  engineering  attained 
considerable  perfection  at  a  very  early  period. 
Holland,  in  consequence  of  its  marshy  cha- 
racter, became  celebrated  during  the  Middle 
Ages  for  mechanical  and  civil  engineering, 
and  supplied  England  with  its  first  practi- 
tioners in  those  arts.  As  early  as  1300  the 
English  army  comprised  engineers,  who  were 
frequently  monks,  and  received  sixpence  daily. 
The  corps  of  engineers  was  not  formed,  how- 
ever, till  1763 ;  in  1783  it  became  a  royal  corps, 
and  in  1812  was  augmented  by  several  com- 
panies of  sappers  and  miners.  The  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers  was  established  in  1818,  and 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  June  3,  1828. 
The  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  of  Ireland 
was  founded  Aug.  6,  1835,  and  remodelled 
Oct.  16,  1844.  (See  BRIDGES,  CANALS,  DRAIN- 
AGE, RAILWAYS,  STEAM  ENGINE,  THAMES  EM- 
BANKMENT, &c.,  &c.,  &c.) 

ENGLAND.— This  name  is  derived  from 
Angles  and  lond,  signifying  land  of  the  Angles. 
Sharon  Turner  doubts  the  story  that  the  name 
of  England  was  first  given  to  the  country  at 
a  council  summoned  at  Winchester  by  Egbert, 
in  829,  and  considers  that  Athelstan  may  with 
greater  propriety  be  entitled  the  first  King  of 
England.  (See  BRITANNIA.) 


ENGLAND 


372 


ENGLAND 


. 

835.  Battle  of  Hengstone  Hill  (q.  v.). 

851.  Battle  of  Aclea  or  Ockley  (q.  v.). 

871.  Battle  of  Merton  (q.v.). 

878.  Alfred  the  Great  is  compelled  by  the  Danes  to  seek 

refuge  in  the  island  of  Athelney. 
890.  Alfred  publishes  his  code  of   laws,  by  which,   ac- 

cording to   some   authorities,   trial  by   jury  was 

instituted,  and  Finland  divided  into  parishes. 
896.  He  institutes  the  Privv  Council. 
937.  Athelstan    gains   the  battle  of  Brunanburg  (q.v.), 

and  first  assumes  the  title  of  King  of  England. 
946.  Mysterious  assassination  of  Edmund  the  Elder. 
959.  St.  Dunstaii  is  made  Bishop  of  Worcester. 
979,  March  18.  Assassination  of  Edward  the  Martyr,  by 

order  of    Eltrida,   widow   of  Edgar,  whose  son. 

Etlielred  II.,   or  the   Unready,  succeeds  to    the 

throne. 

loot.  Battle  of  Alton  (q.v.). 
1003,  Nov.  13.  Massacre  of  the  Danes. 
1003.  Sweyn,    King  of   Denmark,  lands  at  Exeter,   and 

devotes  several  years  to  the  task  of  avenging  the 

slaughter  of  his"  countrymen,  and  of  establishing 

his  own  power  in  England. 

1013.  Sweyn  returns  for  the  last  time,  comp'-ls  Etlielred  II. 

to  seek  shelter  in  Normandy,  and  assumes  the 
title  of  King  of  England. 

1014.  Death  of  Sweyn,  and  recall  of  Ethelred  II. 
JOI6.  Baltic  of  Alney  or  Olney  (q.v.). 

1017.  Canute   unites  the  crowns  of  England  and  Den- 

mark. 
1043.  On  the  death  of  Ilardicnnute,  the  Saxon  dynasty  is 

restored  in  the  person  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
1051.  Rebellion  of  Codwin,  Earl  of  Kent. 
1066,  Oct.  14.  Battle  of  Hastings  (q.  r.). 
1069.  William  I.  ravages  Northumbria. 
1076.  County  justices,  or  conservators  of  the  peace,  are 

h'rsf  appointed. 

1086.  Completion  nf   Domesday  Book  (q.  ».). 
1096.  St.  Ceorge  liccomes  the  patron  saint  of  England. 
II3O.  Prince  William,   only  son  of  Henry  1.,  is  drowned, 

with    140  young  noblemen,  on  the  voyage  from 

Normandy  to  England. 
1139.  Stephen's  Claim  to  the   English  throne  is  disputed 

by    -Matilda,    danght.-r    of     Henry   I.,    widow    of 

Henry  V.,   Emperor   of    Germany,    and    wife    of 

Geoffrey  1'lantagenet,  Count  of  Anjou.    Shelands 

at  Arundel,  in  Kent,  and  is  joined  by  the  Earl  of 

Gloucester  and  150  knights. 
1141,  Feb  3.  Stephen  is  captured  at  Lincoln.    Matilda  is 

crowned  at  Winchester. 
1146.  Matilda  retires  to  Normandy. 

1153,  Nov.    7.  Stephen   and    Henry   Plantagenet,   son    of 

Matilda,  conclude  a  treaty  at  Winchester,  by 
which  Stephen  is  to  enjoy  the  crown  during  his 
life,  and  Henry  is  to  succeed  him. 

1154,  Dec.  19,  Sunday.     Coronation  of  Henry  II.,  the  first 

of  the  Plantagenets,  and  lineal  descendant  of  the 
old  Saxon  sovereigns. 

1155,  Thomas  Becket  is  made  Lord  Chancellor. 
1164,  Jan.  35.  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (q.v.). 

1170,  Dec.   29,    Tuesday.     Thomas   Becket   is    killed    in 

Canterbury  Cathedral. 

1171.  Submission  of  Ireland  to  Henry  II. 

1174,  July  12.  Henry  II.  does  penance  at  the  shrine  of 

Thomas  Bee'ket. 

1176.  England  is  divided  into  six  districts,  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  itinerant  judges  are 
appointed 


1189,  Sep.   3.     Coronation  of    Kichard  I.—  Dec.  1  1.    The 
king  departs  for  the  Crusades. 

1193,  Dec.  20.     Kichard  I.  is  made  prisoner  by  the  Duke 

of  Austria,  who  sells  him  to  Henry  VI.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  for  a  large  sum. 

1194,  Feb.  4.     He  is  ransomed  for  150,000  marks,  or  about 

£300,000. 

1198,  Sep.  20.  Battle  of  Gisors. 

1199,  April  6,  Tuesday.    Death  of  Richard  I.    He  is  suc- 

ceeded by  his  brother  John. 
1204.  John  loses  Normandy. 
1308,  March  23.     England  is  placed  under  an  interdict. 

(See  EXCOMMUNICATION.) 

1213,  May  15.  John  surrenders  his  crown  to  Pandulph,  the 

Pope's  legate. 

I2IS,  June  15.  Signing  of  Magna  Charta  (q.  v.). 
1236,  Jan.  14.     Henry  III.  marries  Eleanor  of  Provence. 
1254.  County  representation  is  instituted  by  Henry   III. 

(See  PARLIAMENT.) 


A.D. 

1358,  June  1 1.    The  Mad  Parliament  assembles  at  Oxford 
1264.  De  Montfort's  rebellion.     (See  BARONS'  WAR.) 
1365,  Jan.  20.     The  first  regular  representative  Parliament 

is  summoned    by  Simon  de    Montfort,   Earl    of 

Leicester. 

1283.  Edward  I.  completes  the  subjugation  of  Wales. 
1390.  He  is  invited  to  decide  the  Scottish  succession. 
1293,  Nov.  30.  He  decides  in  favour  of  John  Baliol,  who 

renders  him  feudal  homage  at  Newcastle. 
1294-  Guienne  is  seized  by  Philip  IV.  of  Fra 
1305,  Aug.  24.  Sir  William  Wallace  is  execi 

1312,  June  19.  Piers  Gavestone  is  put  to  death  by  order 

of  the  Earl  of  Lancastt  r. 

1314.  Edward  II.  invades  Scotland.  (See  BANNOCKBURN.) 
1321.   Banishment  of  the  Spcnsers. 
1337,  Jan.  30  or  21.     Deposition  of  Edward  II. — Sep.  31. 

He  is  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle. 

1330,  Oct.  19.  Arrest  of  Mortimer  and  the  queen  dowager 

at  Nottingham. — Nov.  29.   Execution  of  Mortimer 
at  Tyburn. 

1331.  The  art  of  weaving  woollen  cloth  is  introduced  by 

70  Flemish  families. 
1333.  Edward  III.  invades  Scotland. 
1339.   Edward  III.  invades  France. 

1346,  Aug.   26.  The  battle  of  Crecy. — Oct.  13.     Battle   of 

.Neville's  Cross  (q.  V.). 

1347,  Aug.  4.     Capitulation  of  Calais. 
1349.  The  Order  of  the  Garter  is  instituted, 
1356,  Sep.  19.    The  battle  of  Poitiers  (q.  v.). 
1360,  May  8.  Treaty  of  Bretigny  (q.  v.). 

1363.  The  English  language  is  substituted  for  the  French 
in  the  courts  of  law. 

1377.  Wyeliffe  opposes  the  Pope's  supremacy. 

1381.  Wat  Tyler's  insurreeiion. 

1397.  Arrest  and  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester. 

13118,  Sep.  16.  Kichard  II.  banishes  the  Dukes  of  Here- 
ford and  Norfolk. 

1399,  Sep.  29,  Monday.     Abdication  of  Richard  II. 

1400,  Richard  II.  is  put  to  death  some  time  in  the  spring. 

1401,  Feb.  13.   William  Sawtre,  a  Lollard  priest,  sutlers  at 

the  stake.     Owen  Glendower's  insurrection. 
1403.  Rebellion  of  the  Percies. 
1403,  July  33.    Battle  of    Shrewsbury.     (See    HATELEY 

FIELD.) 
1405.  The  Archbishop  of  York,  Lord  Mowbray,  and  others, 

are  frustrated  in  an  attempt  to  stir  up  a  rebellion 

in  Northumberland. 
1408.  The  Percies  again  rebel.— Feb.  19.  Battle  of  Braham 

Moor  (q.  r.). 

1414.  Lollard  insurrection,  under  Lord  Cobham. 

1415,  Aug.   14.     Henry  V.  sets  sail  for  France. — Sep.  22. 

lie  captures  Harfleur.— Oct.  25.  Battle  of  Agin- 

court. 
1420,  May  21.  Treaty  of  Troyes  (17.  c.). — June  2-   Marriage 

of    Henry   V.    with  the    Princess    Catherine    of 

France. 
1436,  Oct.     Serious  disputes  commence  between  the  Lord 

Protector    Gloucester  and  the    Bishop  of    Win- 


r. 

1431,  May  30.     Execution  of  Joan  of  Arc. 

1445,  April  23.  Marriage  of  Henry  VI.  and  Margaret  of 
Anjou. 

1447,  Feb.  33.  Mysterious  death  of  the  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester. 

1450.  Cade's  insurrection  (q.  v.). 

1455,  May  2,2.     First  battle  of  St.  Albans  (q.  v.). 

1460,  July   10.     Battle  of  Northampton   (q.v.). — Dec.   30. 

Battle  of  Wakeneld(r/.  r.). 

1461,  March  4.  Henry  VI.    is   deposed  by   Edward    IV 

— March  29.     Battle  of  Tctwton  (17.  ».). 

1464,  May  I.  Private  marriage  of  Edward  IV.  and  Lady 
Elizabeth  Grey.— May  B.  Battle  of  Hcxham  (q.v.). 

1469,  The  Earl  of  Warwick  rebels  against  Fdward. 

1470,  Oct.  3.    Flight  of  Edward  IV.— Oct.  6.  Restoration 

of  Henry  VI. 

1471,  March  14.  Return  of  Edward  IV. — April  14.     Battle 

of  Barnet  (q.v.).— May  4.  Battle  of  Tewkesbury 
(q.  ».).— June.  Mysterious  death  of  Henry  VI.  in 
the  Tower. 

1478,  Feb.  1 8.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence  in  the 
Town. 

1483,  June  26.  The  Duke  of  Gloucester  usurps  the  throne 
of  his  young  nephew  Edward  V..  and  ascends  it 
as  Richard  III.— Aug.  Edward  V.  and  the  Duke 
of  York  are  murdered  in  the  Tower. 

1485,  Aug.  33.  Battle  of  Bosworth  Field  (q.  v.). 


ENGLAND 


'373 


ENGLAND 


A.D. 

1486,  Jan.    18.     Marriage  of    Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth, 

daughter  of  Edward  IV. 

1487,  June  16.  Baitle  of  Stoke  (q.v.). 

1493,  Oct.  3.  Henry  VII.  invades  France,  but  withdraws 
his  forces  on  receiving  a  ransom  of  745,000 
crowns. 

1499,  Nov.  33.  Execution  of  Perkin  Warbeck.  (See  WAR- 
BECK'S  INSURRECTION.) 

1509,  June  7.  Marriage  of  Henry  VIII.  to  Catherine  of 

Aragon,  his  brother  Arthur's  widow. 

1510,  Aug.  18.  Execution  of  Einpson  and  Dudley. 

1514,  Aug.  5.  Rise  of  Wolsey.  He  is  created  Archbishop 
of  i'ork. 

1530,  June  7-24.  The  "Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold." 

1531,  Oct.  ii.  Papal  bull,  conferring  on  Henry  VIII.  the 

title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

1529,  Oct.  17.  Fall  of  Wolsey. 

1530,  Nov.  29.  Death  of  Wolsey  at  Leicester. 

1533,  Jan.  25.  Henry  VIII.  marries  Anne  Boleyn. — May 

23-  His  former  marriage  with  Catherine  is  de- 
clared null  and  void  by  Cranmer. 

1534.  Abolition  of  the  papal  supremacy  in  England. 
I535>  June  22.     Execution    of    Bishop    Fisher.— July    6. 

Execution  of  Sir  Thomas  More. 

1536,  May     19.     Execution    of    Anne    Boleyn.— May    20. 

Henry  VIII.  marries  Lady  Jane  Seymour. 

1537,  Oct.  13.  Birth  of  Edward  VI.— Oct.  34.    Death  of 

Jane  Seymour. 

1538,  Suppression  of  the  monasteries. 

1539,  The  statute  of  the  "Six  Articles"  (31  Hen.  VIII. 

c.  14). 

1540,  Jan.  6.  Henry  VIII.  marries  Anne  of  Cleves,  from 

whom  he  is  divorced  July  9. — July  28.  Execution 
of  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex.— Aug.  8.  The  king 
marries  Lady  Catherine  Howard. 

1542,  Feb.  12.  Execution  of  Catherine  Howard. 

1543,  July  12.  Henry  VIII.  marries  Catherine  Parr. 
I547i  J"11-  19-  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey. — Jan.  28. 

Death  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  is  succeeded  by 
Edward  VI.,  under  the  protectorship  of  the  Duke 
of  Somerset. 

1549,  March  30.  Execution  of  Lord  Seymour,  brother  of 
the  Lord  Protector. — June  9.  An  insurrection  in 
favour  of  papacy  breaks  out  in  the  west — Oct. 
14.  Disgrace  of  the  Duke  of  Somerset. 

1552,  Jan.  22.  Execution  of  the  Duke  of  Somerset. 

1553,  J"ly  6-  Death   of   Edward  VI. -July   10.     Procla- 

mation of  Lady  Jane  Grey  as  queen. — July  19. 
She  relinquishes  the  title,  and  Mary  is  proclaimed 
in  London. 

1554,  Feb.  7.  Suppression  of  Wyatt's  insurrection  (q.  v.). 

—Feb.  12.  Execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Lord 
Guildford  Dudley.— July  25.  Marriage  of  Mary 
with  Philip  II.  of  Spain.— Nov.  30.  Cardinal  Pole 
pronounces  the  country  reconciled  to  the  Church 
of  Rome. 

1555,  Feb.  4.  Mary's  persecution  of  the  Protestants  com- 

mences with  the  burning  of  John  Rogers. — Feb.  9. 
Hooper  suffers. — Oct.  16.  Martyrdom  of  Ridley 
and  Latimer. 

1556,  March  31.  Burning  of  Cranmer. 

1558,  Jan.  7.  Loss  of  Calais,  the  last  English  possession 

in  France. 

1559.  The  reformed  religion    is  restored  by  the  Act  of 

Uniformity  (l  Eliz.  c.  3). 

1568,  May  16.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  seeks  shelter  in 
England,  and  lands  at  Workington,  in  Cumber- 
land. 

1571.  Pope  Pius  V.  endeavours  to  incite  the  English  to 
rebellion. 

1581,  Dec.  i.  Execution  of  Campian,  the  Jesuit,  and 
others,  for  conspiracy. 

1586,  Sep.  30  and  31.    Execution  of  Babyngton  and  his 

accomplices. 

1587,  Feb.  8.    Execution    of   Mary,  Queen  of    Scots,   at 

Fotheringay  Castle. 

1588,  Repulse  of  the  Spanish  Armada  (q.  v.). 
1598.  Tyrone's  rebellion  in  Ireland. 

1601,  Feb.  35.  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Essex. 

1603,  March  24.  Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  accession 

of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  I.,  under  whom 
the  Scotch  and  English  crowns  are  united. 

1604,  Oct.  34.  James  I.  assumes  the  title  of  King  of  Great 

Britain. 

1605,  Nov.  4.  Discovery  of  the  gunpowder  plot  (q.  v.). 

1606,  April  13.  The  present  national  flag  of  England  is 

announced  by  royal  proclamation. 


A.D. 

1611,  May  23-  James  I.  creates  the  title  of  baronet. 

1613,  Nov.  6.  Sudden  death  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales. 

1616,  April  33.  Death  of  Shakspeare. 

1618,  Oct.  39.  Execution  of  Raleigh. 

1631,  May  3.  Impeachment  and  disgrace  of  Lord  Bacon. 

1635,  June   13.     Charles    I.    marries    Princess    Henrietta 

Maria,  of  France. 
1626,  April  9.  Death  of  Lord  Bacon. 

1638,  Aug.  33.  Assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham 

by  John  Felton. 

1634,  Feb.  Punishment  of  Prynne  and  others  for  publish- 
ing "  Histrio  Mastix." 

1637,  June  13.  Trial  of  John  Hampden.  (See  SHIP  MONEY.) 

1639,  June  l8-  Pacification  of  Dunse  (q.  v.). 

1641,  Feb.   26.    Parliament  annuls  the  judgment  against 

Hampden  by  16  Charles  I.  c.  14.— May  13.  Exe- 
cution of  the  Earl  of  Strafford. 

1642,  Jan.  4.  The  king  proceeds  to  the  House  of   Com- 
\          mons,  to  seize  five  members  accused  of  treason. 
\         Commencement  of  the  civil  war.— Oct.  23.   Battle 

of  Edgehill  (q.  v.). 

1643,  June  18.  Battle  of  Chalgrove  (q.  v.).— Sep.  30.  First 

battle  of  Newbury.— Sep.  25.  The  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  is  approved  by  both  houses  of 
Parliament.  (See  COVENANTERS.) 

1644,  July  2-  Battle  of   Marston  Moor.— Oct.  27.  Second 

battle  of  Newbu»y  (q.  v.). 

1645,  Jan.  10.  Execution  of  Archbishop  Laud.— June  14. 

Battle  of  Naseby  (q.  ».). 

1646,  May  5.  Charles  I.  seeks  protection  from  the  Scotch. 

—Sep.  31.  They  sell  him  to  the  Parliament  for 
£400,000. 

1647,  Jan.  30.  The  Scotch  surrender  the  king  to  the  Par- 

liamentary commissioners. 

1648,  Dec.  6.   "Pride's  purge." 

1649,  Jan.  20.  Trial  of  Charles  I.— Jan.  27.  He  is  sentenced 

to  death. — Jan.  30.  Charles  I.  is  executed. 
1651,  Sep.  3.  Battle  of  Worcester  (q.  v.). 
1653,  April  20.  Cromwell  dissolves  the  Long  Parliament. 

—Dec.   16.    He  is  made  Lord  Protector.     (See  IN- 

TEUKEGXUM.) 

1657,  APril  J7-  Ueath  of  Admiral  Blake. 

1658,  Sep.   13.    Death  of   Oliver  Cromwell,  who  is  suc- 

ceeded by  his  son  Richard. 

1659,  May-   !3-     Kichard  Cromwell    resigns  the  title    of 

Lord  Protector. 

1660,  May  29.  The  Restoration. 

1662,  May  19.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  (13  &  14  Charles  II. 
c.  4).— May  30.  Marriage  of  Charles  II.  to  Cathe- 
rine of  Braganca. 

1664-5.  The  Great  Plague. 

1666,  Sep.  3.  The  Great  Fire  of  London. 

1667,  Dec.  18.  Banishment  of  Lord  Clarendon. 
1674,  Nov-  8-  Ueath  of  John  Milton. 

1678,  Aug.   12.  Gates'  "popish  plot."— Oct.   17.  Discovery 

of  the  body  of  Sir  Edmuiidbury  Godfrey. 

1679,  May  27.  "  Habeas  Corpus  "  Act  passed  (31  Charles 

II.  c.  2). 

1680,  Dec.  29.  Execution  of  Lord  Stafford. 

1683,  June  12.  Discovery  of  the  Rye- house  plot— July  2,1. 

Execution  of  Lord  Russell. 
1689,  Dec.  7.  Algernon  Sydney  is  beheaded. 
1685,  June  20.  (See  MONMOUTli'S  REBELLION.)— July  6. 

Battle  of  Sedgemoor. 

1688,  June  30.  Acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops.— Dec.  23. 

Abdication  of  James  II. 

1689,  Feb.  13.  William  III.  and  Mary  are  proclaimed  king 

and  queen. 

1690,  July  i.  Battle  of  the  Boyne. 

1693.  Commencement  of  the  national  debt. 

1694,  July  37.     The   Bank  of  England  is  incorporated.— 

Dec.  38.  Death  of  Queen  Mary. 
1701,  Sep.  16.  Death  of  James  II.,  at  St.  Germain. 

1707,  May  i.  England  and  Scotland  are  united  under  the 

title  of  Great  Britain. 

1708,  Oct.    28.    Death   of   Prince    George   of   Denmark, 

husband  of  the  queen. 
1710.  Sacheverell's  Riots. 

1713,  April  u.  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (q.v.). 

1714,  Aug.   i.  Dt-atli  of    Queen  Anne,  and  accession   of 

the  Hanoverian  family,  in  the  person  of  George  I. 

1715,  Sep.     6.    Mar's   Insurrection   (q.  v.). — Dec.   23-    The 

Chevalier  lands  at  Peterhead. 

1716,  Feb.  24.    Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater 

and  Viscount  Kenmure.     • 
1720,  Sep.  29.  The  South  Sea  bubble  bursts. 
1733,  June  1 6.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 


ENGLAND 


t    374    ] 


ENGLAND 


1737.  George  II.  quarrels  with  his  son  Frederick  Louis, 
Prince  of  Wales.— Nov.2o.  Death  of  Queen  Caroline. 
1743,  June  16.  Battle  of  Dettiugen  (q.v.). 

1745,  July  25.  The  Young  Pretender  lands  at  Moidart,  in 

Inverness-shire. — Sep.  17.  He  establishes  himself  nt 
Holyrood  House,  Edinburgh.— Sep.  21.  Battle  of 
Prestoiipans. — Dee.  4.  His  army  penetrates  into 
England  as  far  as  Derby. 

1746,  Jan  17.  Battle  of  Falkirk.— April  16.  Battle  of  Cul- 

lodtm  (q.  v.). — Aug.  10.  Executions  of  Lords  Kil- 
maruock  and  Halnicrino. 

1747,  April  9.  Execution  of  Lord  Lovat. 

1751.  March   2,0.    Death   of   Frederick   Louis,    Prince    of 

Wales. 
1753,  Sep.   3.   The,   New   Stylo  is  introduced  into   Groat 

Britain,  .Sep.  3  being  accounted  the  I4th. 

1756,  May  i.  Commencement  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

1757,  March  14.  Execution  of  Admiral  Byng.— June  33. 

Battle  of  Plassey  (q.  ».). 

1760.  Conquest  of  Canada. — Oct.  25.    George  II.  dies,  and 

is  succeeded  by  his  .grandson,  George  111. 

1761,  Sep.  8.  George  ill.   marries  the   Princess  Charlotte 

Sophia,  <>f  Ueoklenburg-Strelitz.— Sep.  22.  The 
coronation.— ( )ct.  9.  The  elder  Pitt  resigns  the 

oilier  of   scrivt:iry  of  State. 

1763,  Feb.  TO.  By  the  peace  of  Paris,  England  acquires 
Canada  and  Florida,  mid  an  end  is  put  to  the 
Seven  Years'  War.— April  30.  Arrest  of  Mr. 
Wilkcs. 

1765,  March  22.  The  American  Stamp  Act  is  passed.— 
Dec.  30.  Dentil  of  the  Pretender,  at  Koine. 

1771,  MayS.   Establishment  of  the  right  to  report  Parlia- 

mentary debates. 

1772,  April  i.  The  lioyul  Marriage  Act  (12  Geo.  III.  C.  2) 

is  passed. 

1773,  Commencement  of  the  American  revolt. 

1778,  April  7.  Lord  Chatham  is  seized  with  a  fit  while 
speaking  against  the  American  war  in  the 
I  louse  of  Lords.  May  II.  Dcathof  Lord  Chatham. 

1780,  June  2-7.   Lord  (ienrge  Cordon's  anti-popery  riots. 

I-.SI,    Fell.  5-    Lord  George  Cordon  is  tried  and  annulled. 

1782,  Nov.  30.  A  provisional  treaty,  acknowledging  the 
in  Ivpcmlenee  of  the  Tinted  States,  is  signed  at 
Paris.— Dec.  5.  The  separation  is  announced  by 
the  king  in  his  speech  on  opening  Parliament. 

1786,  Aug.  2.  Margaret -Nicholson,  a  maniac,  attempts  the 
king's  life. 

1788.  Feb.  13.  Burke  opens  the  impeachment  of  Warren 

Hastings  before  th-  House  o!  I, op  Is.— March  3. 
Death  ,-f  Prince  Charles  Edward,  the  Young 
Pretender,  at  Koine.— Nov.  19.  The  public  are 
informed  of  the  mental  indisposition  of  the 
king. 

1789,  Feb.   19.  Recovery  of  the  king,  and   abandonment 

of    the    regency   bill.— April   23.     Public    thanks- 
giving throughout  the  kingdom,  ill  consequence. 
1793,  Feb.  II.  War  is  declared  against  France. 
1704    Mav   23.  Suspension  of    the  "Habeas  Corpus "  Act. 

—Oct.  28-   Dee.  5.  Trial  of  Hardy,   Home  Tooke, 

and  Thehvall,  who  are  acquitted. 
179?   April  8.  The  Prince  of  Wales  marries  Caroline  of 

Brunswick.— April     23-      Acquittal    of    Warren 

Hastings. 
l'7Q6    Jan  7.  Birth  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of 

1       the  Prince  of  Wales. 
1797,  Feb.  20.  Commercial  panic.— Feb.  27-  The  Bank  of 

England   stops    payment.— July    29-      Death     of 

Edmund  Bnrke. 
1798   April  20.  The  "  Habeas  Corpus  "  Act  is  again  sus- 

]H.iidcd. — May.  A  rebellion  breaks  out  in  Ireland. 

—Aug.  I.   Battle  of  the  Nile  (q.  ».). 

1800,  May  15.  James  Iludfield  fires  at  the  king  in  Drury 

Lane  Theatre. 

1801,  Jan.   i.   Legislative  Union   of    Great  Britain   and 

Ireland.— April  2-  Battle  of  Copenhagen  (<j.  r.). 
— April  19.  The  "  Habeas  Corpus  "  Act  is  again 
suspended. 

1802,  March  25.  The  treaty  of  Amiens  is  concluded. 

1803,  May  1 8.   War  against    France  renewed,  in    conse- 

quence  of  Napoleon's  aggressions. 

1805,  Oct.  21.  Death  of  Lord  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  Tra- 

falgar (q.  r.). 

1806,  Jan.    23.  Death   of   Mr.    Pitt. — April    29 — June    12. 

Trial  and  acquittal  of  Lord  Melville.— May  29. 
A  privy  council  appointed  to  examine  the  charges 
against  the  Princess  of  Wales.  (See  DELICATE 
INVESXIOATION.)— Sop.  13.  Death  of  Mr.  Fox. 


A.D. 

1807,  March  23.  Abolition  of  the  slave-trade. 

1809,  Jan.  27 — March  17.  Impeachment  and  acquittal  of 

the  Duke  of  York.— Oct.  25.  Celebration  through- 
out the  kingdom  of  the  jubilee  of  George  III.'s 
reign.— Nov.  Disastrous  result  of  the  Wolcheren 
expedition. 

1810,  April  6.  Arrest  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett.     A  riot  is 

occasioned  by  an  attempt  to  rescue  him. — June  21. 
He  is  set  at  liberty. — Nov.  2.  Death  of  the  Princess 
Amelia,  which  so  affects  the  king,  that  his  reason 
is  again  shaken. 

1811,  Feb.  5.  The  regency  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  com- 

mences.—Nov.  n,  Ac.  Luddite  riots  in  the  Mid- 
land counties. 

1812,  May  ii.  Assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval,  the  premier, 

by  Bellingham.— June  18.  The  United  States  de- 
clare war  against  England. 

1814,  May  30.    Peace  with    France    is   restored    by    the 

treaty  of  Paris.— June  7.  The  Emperor  of  Kussia 
and  the  King  of  Prussia  visit  England.— Dec.  24. 
The  treaty  of  Ghent  is  signed,  by  which  peace  is 
concluded  with  the  United  States. 

1815,  Modification  of  the  duties  on  corn.— June  18.  Battle 

of  Waterloo  (q.  v.). 

1816,  May  2.   Marriage   of   the   Princess  Charlotte   and 

Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg.—  July  7.  Death 
of  Sheridan.— Dec.  2.  Serious  riots  in  London, 
which  originate  at  a  meeting  held  in  Spa  Fields. 

1817,  Jail.    28.    The    Prince    Kegcnt's    life   is    attempted. 

— Feb.  4.  The  "Green  l!ag  "  inquiry  commences. 
(See  GHEKN  BAG.) — Feb.  24-  Suspension  of  the 
"Habeas  Corpus  "  Act.— Sep.  22-  Partial  resump- 
tion of  cash  payments  by  the  Bank  of  England. 
— Nov.  6.  Death  of  the  Princess  Charlotte. 

1818,  July  II.  Marriages  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  after- 

wards William  IV.,  with  the  Princess  Adelaide 
of  Saxc-Meiningen,  and  of  the  Duke  of  Kent 
with  Victoria  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the. 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  of  Saalfeld.— Nov.  17. 
Death  of  Queen  Charlotte. 

1819,  May  24.  Birth  of  Queen  Victoria.— Aug.  16.  Monster 

reform  meeting  in  St.  Peter's  Fields,  Manchester. 
It  is  dispersed  by  the  military.  (See  PKTEBLOO.) 

1820,  Jan.  23.     Death   of  the   Duke    of    Kent.— Jan     29. 

Death  of  George  111. .aged  Hi. — May  I.  Execution 
of  Thistlewood  and  his  associates  for  partici- 
pation in  the  (,'ato  Street  conspiracy. — Aug.  19 — 
Nov.  10.  Trial  of  Queen  Caroline. 

1821,  May  I.  The  Bank  resumes  cash  payments.— July  19. 

Coronation  of  George  IV. —  Aug.  7.  Death  of 
Queen  Caroline. — Aug.  14.  liiots  on  the  occasion 
of  her  funeral  proc.--.sion  to  Harwich. 

1824,  April  19.  Lord  liyron  .lies  at  Missoloughi,  in  Greece. 

1825,  Dec.   Commercial  panic. 

1827,  Jan.  5.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  York.— Aug.  8.  Death 
of  Geoige  Canning,  premier. 

1829,  April  13.  The  Koman    Catholic  Emancipation    Hill 

is  passed  (10  Geo.  IV.  C.  7).— Nov.  5.  Panic  in 
London. 

1830,  June  26.  Death  of  George  IV. — Sep.  15.  Opening  of 

the  Manchester  an.!  Liverpool  Kailway,  at  which 
Mr.  Huskisson.  M.P..  is  killed. 

1831,  Sep.  9.  Coronation  of  William  IV.   and  Adelaide.— 

Oct.  8.  lie  form  riots  in  the  Midland  countio.— 
Oct.  26.  The  cholera  first  appears  in  England  at 
Sunderland. 

1832,  June  7.   Passing  of  the  Ueform  Bill  (2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c. 

45). — June  19.  The  king  is  assaulted  by  Collins, 
at  Ascot  races.— Sep.  21.  Death  of  Sir  Waiter  Scott. 

1833,  Aug.  28.  Abolition  of  slavery. 

1835,  Sep.  9.  The  Municipal  Corporations  Act  is  passed 
(5  I  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76). 

1837,  June  30.  Death  of  William  IV. 

1838,  June    28.    Coronation    of     Queen    Victoria,      The 

People's  Charter  is  drawn  up,  and  published. 

1839,  The  Chinese  war  commences.   (See  CHINA.) 

1840,  Jan.  10.  The  penny  postage  comes  into  operation. 

—Feb.  10.  Marriage  of  the  Queen  and  Prince 
Albert  of  Saxe-Gotha.— June  10.  The  Queen's 
life  is  attempted  by  Edward  Oxford.— Nov.  21. 
Birth  of  the  Princess  Koyal. 

1841,  Nov.  9.     Birth  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

1842,  Jan.    24.  Visit   of   the    King   of  Prussia.— May  30. 

John  Francis  attempts  to  shoot  the  Queen.— June 
22.  The  income-tax  is  levied  (5  &  6  Viet.  c.  35). 
—July  3.  John  William  Beau  presents  a  pistol 
at  the  Queen. 


ENGLAND 


[     375     1 


ENGLAND 


1843,  April  21.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Sussex.— Sep.  2- 

7.  The  Queen  visits  Louis  Philippe  at  th 
Chateau  d'Eu. 

1844,  June   i.     The    Emperor    of    Russia  and   King    ol 

Saxony  visit  England.— Oct.  6.  Visit  of  Lou" 
Philippe,  the  first  occasion  on  which  a  French 
sovereign  landed  in  England  on  a  friendly 
mission. 

1845,  Aug.  9.  The  Queen  visits  Germany. — Nov.  30.    The 

railway  mania  reaches  its  highest  point. 

1846,  March.  Railway  panic.— June  36.     Repeal  of  the 

corn-laws. 

1848,  April  10.  A  monster  Chartist  meeting  is  held  on 

Kfmiiiigtoii  Common,  London,  to  present  to 
Parliament  a  petition  signed  by  nearly  3,000,000 
persons. 

1849,  May   19.  William  Hamilton  fires  at  the  Queen.— 

Aug.  i.  The  Queen  embarks  for  Ireland. — Dec.  2,. 
Death  of  Adelaide,  queen  dowager. 

1850,  May   27.  Robert  1'ate  assaults  the   Queen  with  a 

stick.— July  2.  Death  of  Sir  Robert  Peel.— July  8. 
Death  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge.— Aug.  21.  The 
Queen  visits  liH-iimi. — Sep.  30.  The  Pope  pub- 
lishes a  bull  establishing  a  Roman  Catholic  hier- 
archy in  England.  (See  DUUHAM  LETTER.) 

1851,  March    30.     The  census  of    the    United   Kingdom 

is  taken,  and  the  population  returned  at 
27,637,761  persons. — May  i.  Opening  of  the 
Great  Exhibition  in  Hyde  Park. 

1853,  Sep.  14.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.— Nov.  18. 
His  public  funeral  takes  place,  at  an  expense  of 
.£12,000. 

1853,  June  16.  Visit  of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Hanover 

to  England. 

1854,  March  n.    The   Queen  reviews  the  Baltic  fleet  at 

Spithead.— March  13.  Treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  Turkey  is 
signed  at  Constantinople.— March  38.  War  is  de- 
clared against  Russia.— April  36.  Fast-day  in 
consequence  of  the  war. — June  3.  The  King  of 
Portugal  visits  England. — June  10.  Opening  of 
the  Crystal  Palace  (q.  v.).— Oct.  I.  General  thanks- 
giving in  consequence  of  the  abundant  harvest. 

1855,  J«MI-  29.    Parliament  orders   an   inquiry    into    the 

conduct  of  the  war,  which  occasions  the  resig- 
nation of  the  Aberdeen  ministry. — Feb  30.  Death 
of  Joseph  Hume.— Feb.  23.  Sebastopol  Committee 
appointed.— March  21.  General  fast-day  in  con- 
sequence of  the  war. — April  16 — 31.  Visit  of  the 
Emperor  and  Empress  of  the  French.— May  18. 
Public  Distribution  of  Crimean  medals.— June  34. 
(Sunday).  Riots  in  Hyde  Park,  in  consequence 
of  popular  opposition  to  the  Sunday  Trading  Bill. 
—June  38.  Death  of  Lord  Raglan.— July  I.  Visit 
of  the  King  of  the  Belgians. — Aug  18—27.  The 
Queen  visits  the  Emperor  of  the  French.— Sep.  lo. 
Ne\vs  arrives  of  the  fall  of  Sebastopol. — Sep.  15. 
Visit  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Prussia.— Sep.  30. 
General  thanksgiving  for  the  fall  of  Sebastopol. 
—Nov.  30.  Visit  of  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

1856,  Jan.   17.   An  announcement  is  made   that  Russia 

accepts  the  conditions  of  peace. — March  30.  The 
treaty  of  Paris.— April  28.  Peace  is  officially 
proclaimed. — May  4.  General  thanksgiving,  'in 
consequence  of  the  peace.— May  29.  Public  cele- 
bration of  the  peace. — Oct.  Commencement  of 
war  with  China,  (See  CllINA.)— Nov.  I.  War 
with  Persia  (q.  v.). 

1857,  March  4.  A  treaty  of  peace  with  Persia  is  signed 

at  Paris. — April  n.  First  telegraphic  intelligence 
of  the  Indian  mutiny. — April  30.  Death  of  the 
Duchess  of  Gloucester. — May  5.  Opening  of  the 
Art  Treasu  r<  •>  K  \  i  i  i  I  :\t'n  m  atfManchester. — May  30. 
Visit  of  the  Grand  Duke  Coustantine  of  Russia. 
— June  26.  Distribution  of  Victoria  crosses. — Aug. 
35.  Meeting  at  the  Mansion  House  to  raise  a 
relief  fund  for  the  sufferers  by  the  Indian  mutiny. 
.similar  meetings  are  afterwards  held  throughout 
the  country. — Nov.  13.  Suspension  of  the  Bank 
Charter  Act,  in  consequence  of  the  commercial 
crisis. 

1858,  Jan  25.  Marriage  of  the  Princess  Royal  to  Prince 

Frederick  William  of  Prussia.— Feb.  8.  Lord 
Palmerstoii  introduces  the  Conspiracy  to  Murder 
Bill,  in  consequence  of  the  attempted  assassi- 
nation of  Louis  Napoleon  by  Orsini,  &c.— Feb.  19. 
It  is  rejected  by  the  Commons,  and  the  Palmer- 


1858.  ston  cabinet  resigns. — June  15.  The  Queen  visits 
Birmingham  (q.  v.).— June  28.  Property  qualifica- 
tion of  members  of  Parliament  abolished  by  21 
Viet.  c.  26.— July  23.  Jewish  Disabilities  Bill 
passed  (21  &  33  Viet.  c.  49).— Aug.  3.  Act  for  the 
better  government  of  India  passed  (31  &  22  Viet. 
c.  106).— Aug.  4.  The  Queen  visits  Cherbourg 
(q.  p.).— Sep.  6.  The  Queen  visits  Leeds,  to  open 
the  new  town  hall.— Nov.  i.  Royal  proclamation 
throughout  India,  announcing  the  incorporation  of 
that  country  with  the  British  empire. 

1859,  May   i.    General  thanksgiving,  in  consequence  of 

the  suppression  of  the  Indian  mutiny.  —  June. 
Many  volunteer  rifle  corps  are  formed. — Oct.  17. 
The  Prince  of  Wales  becomes  a  student  at  Oxford. 
—Dec.  38.  Death  of  Lord  Macaulay. 

1860,  Jan.   33.    The  commercial  treaty  with    France  is 

signed  at  Paris.— March  7.  The  Queen  holds  a 
levee  for  officers  of  the  volunteer  rifle  corps. — June 
23.  The  Queen  reviews  18,000  volunteers  in  Hyde 
Park.— July  3.  Important  failures  in  the  leather 
trade.— Nov.  15.  The  Prince  of  Wales  returns 
from  his  visit  to  America.  (See  CANADA  and 
UNITED  STATES.) 

1861,  March  16.  Death  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent.— April  8. 

The  census  is  taken.— Aug.  9.  The  marriage  con- 
tract between  the  Princess  Alice  and  Prince  Louis 
of  Hesse  is  signed  at  Osborne. — Aug.  12.  The 
King  of  Sweden  arrives  at  Portsmouth  on  a  visit 
to  her  Majesty. — Aug.  35.  Fatal  accident  in  Clay- 
ton tunnel,  on  the  Brighton  railroad.— Sep.  3. 
Fatal  collision  on  the  Hampstead  Junction  rail- 
road.— Sep.  16.  Post-office  Savings  Banks  opened. 
— Oct.  31.  A  convention  for  intervention  in  Mexico 
is  signed  at  London  by  representatives  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Spain.  Middle  Temple  library 
inaugurated  by  the  Prince  of  Wales.— Nov.  30. 
Earl  Russell,  in  a  despatch  to  Lord  Lyons,  the 
British  Minister  at  Washington,  instructs  him  to 
leave  America  within  seven  days,  unless  the 
United  States  Government  consent  to  the  uncon- 
ditional liberation  of  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell. 
(See  TRENT  AFFAIR.)— Dec.  14.  Death  of  Prince 
Albert.  (See  ALBERT  MEMORIAL.)— Dec.  23.  His 
funeral  takes  place  in  the  vaults  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor. 

[862,  Jan.  29.  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  Commissioners 
from  the  Confederate  States  of  America,  arrive 
in  England.— Feb.  13.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits 
the  Emperor  of  Austria  at  Vienna. — April  30. 
A  Japanese  Embassy  arrives  in  England. — May  i. 
Opening  of  the  International  Exhibition  (q.  ».).— 
May  4.  The  Middle  Level  Drain  bursts  its  banks 
near  King's  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  and  inundates 
10,000  acres  of  cultivated  land. — June  3.  The 
Viceroy  of  Egypt  visits  England.— June  12.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  visits  the  Emperor  and  Empress 
of  the  French  at  Fontainebleau. — June  4.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  returns  to  England  after  his 
tour  in  the  East — June  16.  Death  of  Lord  Can- 
ning. (See  INDIA.)— July  i.  Marriage  of  the 
Princess  Alice  with  Prince  Louis  of  Hesse.— Sep. 
I — Oct.  25.  The  Queen  and  Royal  family  visit 
Belgium,  Prussia,  and  Saxe  Coburg-Gotha.— Nov. 
I.  The  International  Exhibition  (q.  v.)  is  closed  to 
the  public. — Nov.  4.  The  intended  marriage  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Princess  Alexandra 
of  Denmark,  is  officially  announced  in  the  London 
Gazette. — Nov.  13.  Earl  Russell  declines  the  in- 
vitation of  France  to  intervene  between  the  .bel- 
ligerents in  North  America.— Dec.  37.  The  Cotton 
Famine  (q.  v.)  reaches  its  height. 

:863,  Jan.  3.  Rupture  with  Brazil  (q. «.).— Feb.  3.  Prince 
Alfred  is  elected  King  of  Greece  (q.  ».).— Feb.  5. 
The  Prince  of  Wales  takes  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords. — March  3.  Earl  Russell  remonstrates 
against  Russian  cruelties  in  Poland.— March  6. 
The  Princess  Alexandra  arrives  at  the  Nore. — 
March  7.  She  lands  at  Gravesend,  and  proceeds 
through  London  to  Windsor. — March  10.  Marriage 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  the  Princess  Alex- 
andra in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. — April  13. 
Death  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis.  (See 
PALMERSTON  (SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION.)— 
April  17.  Death  of  Field  Marshal  Lord  Seaton.— 
Jnly7-  Death  of  William  Mulready,  It.  A.— July  13. 
England,  France,  and  Russia,  the  three  protecting 


ENGLAND 


376 


ENGLAND 


1863,  powers,  sign  a  treaty  at  London,  sanctioning  the 
election  of    Prince  William  of  Denmark  to  the 
throne  of  Greece. — July  38.  Death  of  Lord  Nor- 
manby.— Oct.  13.  Death  of  Lord  Lyndhurst— Nov. 
20.    Death  of  Lord  Elgin.  (See  INDIA.)— Nov.  37. 
Earl  Russell  declines  the  invitation  of  the  Em- 
peror of  the  French  to  the  English  Government, 
to  take  part  in  an  international   congress.     (See 
FRANCE.) — Dec.  5.  Lord  Wodehouse  is  despatched 
to  Berlin  and  Copenhagen  to  endeavour  to  pre- 
serve peace. 

1864,  Jan.  8.  Birth  of   the   eldest  son  of  the  Prince   of 

Wales.— Feb.  33.  England  invites  Prussia  and 
Austria  to  submit  the  disputed  (jucstions  relative 
to  Denmark,  to  a  conference  of  the  Powers  which 
participated  in  title  settlement  of  1853.  The  pro- 
posal is  opposed  by  Denmark  (q.  V.). — Feb.  35. 
The  Government  declines  to  afford  Denmark 
material  aid  in  her  contest  with  Austria  and 
Prussia.— March  3— April  19.  The  King  of  the 
Belgians  visits  England. — March  10.  The  infant 
prince  is  christened  Albert  Victor  Christian 
Edward. — March  13.  Maximilian,  Emperor  elect 
of  Mexico  (q.  •».),  visits  England. — April  3.  Garibaldi 
lands  at  Southampton  on  a  visit. — April  6.  Judg- 
ment adverse  to  the  Government  is  finally  given  in 
the  ''Alexandra"  case  (q.  v.). — April  33.  The  ter- 
centenary of  Shakspeare's  birthday  is  celebrated 
throughout  the  kingdom.  (Sec  Sn  \KM-EAKK 
COMMEMORATIONS.)— April  35.  A  conference  on 
the  affairs  of  Denmark,  attended  by  represen- 
tatives of  Great  Britain.  France,  Kussia.  Austria. 
Prussia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  the  Germanic 
confederation,  assembles  in  London. — April  37. 
Garibaldi  re-embarks  for  Caprera. — June  I.  The 
Ionian  Islands  (t/.  r.)  are  delivered  to  the  Greek 
Government:— June  25.  The  London  Conference 
breaks  up  without  arriving  at  any  satisfactory 
conclusion.— Sep.  3— Nov.  7.  The  Prinee  anil 
Princess  of  Wales  visit  Denmark  and  Sweden. 
—Oct.  1 8.  Death  of  the  Di.ke  ,,f  \cw.-astle. 

1865,  Feb.  7.   Parliament  is  opened  by  commission.— Feb. 

J2.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland.— Feb. 
15.  Death  of  Cardinal  Wiseman.— March  4.  A  luck- 
out  commences  in  the  iron  trade.  (See  STRIKE*.) 
— April  2.  Death  of  Mr.  Cobden.-  May  I.  Ad- 
dresses of  condolence  with  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  indignation  at  the  assas-i- 
nation  of  President  Lincoln,  are  voted  by  both 
houses  of  Parliament— June  3.  Birth  of  Prince 
George  of  Wales. — June  19.  Commencement  of 
the  Cattle  Plague  (q.  P.).— July  4.  liesignation  of 
Lord  Chancellor  Westbnry.  (See  PAUIBB3TON 
(SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION.)— July  6.  Parlia- 
ment is  dissolved. — July  10.  The  general  election 
commences.— Aug.  8— Sep.  8.  The  Queen  visits 
Germany. — Aug.  14.  The  Channel  fleet  visits 
Cherbourg. — Aug.  16.  A  treaty  of  navigation  with 
Prussia  is  signed  at  Gastein. — Aug.  17.  The  Great 
Eastern  returns  from  her  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
lay  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  (q.  r.).— Aug.  39 — 
Sep.  3.  The  French  fleet  visits  Portsmouth.— Sep. 
14.  Earl  Kussell  issues  a  circular  despatch,  con- 
demning the  convention  of  Gastein  (q.  r.). — '  let. 
18.  Death  of  Lord  Palmerston.  (See  KUSSELL 
(SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION.)— Oct.  37.  Lord 
Palmerston  is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
—Nov.  9.  The  M,e>in>,iioah  Confederate  cruiser 
surrenders  to  the  British  Governmental  Liverpool. 
—Dec.  5.  The  marriage  of  the  Princess  Helena 
with  Prince  Christian  of  Augustenburg  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Queen  in  Council. — Dec.  16.  A  pre- 
liminary treaty  of  commerce  is  signed  with 
Austria.— Dec.  18.  Sir  Henry  Storks  leaves  Eng- 
land as  special  commissioner,  to  examine  into  the 
circumstances  attendingthe  revolt  in  Jamaica  fa.  i\) 

1866,  Jan.  37.    John  Gibson,  K.  A.,  the  sculptor,  dies  at 

Rome. — Feb.  6.  The  new  Parliament  is  formally 

rued  by  the  Queen  in  person.— March  24.  Death 
Marie  Amelie,  ex-Queen  of  the  French,  at 
Claremont  (q.  v.).— April.  The  betrothal  of  the 
Princess  Mary  of  Cambridge  to  Prince  von  Teck 
is  announced.— April  38.  (3  A.M.)  The  Govern- 
ment franchise  bill  passes  its  second  reading.— 
May  33.  The  opening  of  the  International  Hor- 
ticultural Congress.  —  June  18.  Defeat  in  the 
Commons  of  the  Russell  Ministry.  —  June  26. 


1866.       Resignation  of  the  Rus.sell  Ministry.— July  6.  The 
third  Derby  Ministry  take  office. 


SOVEREIGNS 
837.  Egbert 
837,  Feb.  Ethelwulph. 
857.  Ethelbaldll. 
860.  Ethelbert. 
866.  Ethelredl. 
871.  Alfred  the  Great. 
901,  Oct.    Edward    I.,  the 

Elder. 

935.  Athelstan. 
940.  Edmund  I. 
946.  Ed  red. 
955.  Edwy. 
957.  Edgar. 


OF   ENGLAND. 

975.  Edward  II.,  the  Mar- 
tyr. 
979.  Ethelred  II. 

1013.  Sweyn. 

1014.  Canute  the  Great. 
1014.  Ethelred  II.  (again). 

1016.  Edmund  II.  Ironside. 

1017.  Canute  (again). 
1035.  Harold  I. 
1040.  Hardicanute. 

1043.  Edward  the    Confes- 
sor. 
1066.  Harold  II. 


NORMANS. 

1066,  Dec.  25.  William  I.       I  noo,  Aug.  5.  Henry  I. 
1087,  Sep.  36.  William  II.     |  1135,  Dec.  36.  Stephen. 

PLANTAGENETS. 
iiSJ,  Dec.  19.  Henry  II. 
1189,  Sep.  3.  Richard  I. 
1199,  May  27.  John. 
1316,  Oct  38.  Henry  III. 


1373,  Nov.  30.  Edward  I. 
1307,  July  8.  Edward  IT. 
1337,  Jan.  35.  Edward  III. 
1377,  June  33-  Richard  II. 


HOUSE   OF   LANCASTER. 

1399,  Sep.  30.  Henry  IV.        I   1433,  Sep.  I.  Henry  VI. 
1413,  March  31.  Henry  V.     | 

HOUSE   OF  YORK. 

1461,  March  4.  Edward  IV.  I    1483,    June     36.      Richard 
1483,  April  9.  Edward  V.       |  III. 

HOUSE   OF  TUDOR. 

1485,  Aug.  23.  Henry  VII.     I    1553,  July  6.  Mary. 
1509,  April  23.   Henry  VIII.      1558,  Nov.  17.  Elizabeth. 
1547,  Jan.  38.  Edward  VI.     | 

HOUSE   OF   STUART. 


(603,  March  24.  James  I. 
1635,  March  37.  Charles  I. 

Interregnum. 
1649,  Jan.  30.  Charles  II. 
[660,  May  39.  Restoration. 


ifi«5,  Feb.  6.  James  II. 
1689,  Feb.   13.  William  III. 


1703,  March  8. 


and  Mary. 

Anne. 


HOUSE   OF   HANOVER. 


1714,  Aug.  I.  George  I. 

1727,  June  ii.  Geopj-e  [I. 

1760,  Oct.  35.  George  III. 

1830,  Jan.  39.  George  IV. 


1830,  June  36.  William  IV. 
1837,  June    30.     VICTORIA 
(Vivat  Regina  !) 


THE  ROYAL  FAMILY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  QUEEN.  Alexandria  Victoria,  born  May  34,  1819 
married  Feb.  10,  1840,  to  her  cousin,  Albert  Francis 
Augustus  Charles  Emanuel,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg 
and  Gotha,  bom  Aug.  36,  1819  ;  died  Dec.  14,  1861. 

Victoria  Adelaide  Mary  Louisa,  Princess  Royal,  born 
Nov.  31,  1840;  married,  Jan.  35,  1858,  to  Prince 
Frederick  William,  of  Prussia.  ' 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  born  Nov.  9,  1841 
married,  March  10,  1863,  to  the  Princess  Alexandra 
Caroline  Maria  Charlotte  Louisa  Julia,  eldest  daughter 
of  Prince  Christian,  afterwards  King  Christian  IX 
of  Denmark. 

Alice  Maud  Mary,  born  April  35,  1843;  married,  Julv  I, 
1863,  to  Priiu-e  Frederick  William  Louis,  nephew  of 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse. 

Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  born  Aug.  6,  1844;  created  Earl  of 
Ulster,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  May  34, 
1866. 

Helena  Augusta  Victo  ia,  born  May  35,  1846,  married, 
July  5,  1866,  to  Prince  Christian  Charles  Augustus, 
of  Bleswig-Holatein-Sonderburg-Auifttgtenbnrg. 

Louisa  Caroline  Alberta,  born  March  18,  1848. 

Arthur  William  Patrick  Albert,  born  May  I,  1850. 

Leopold  George  Duncan  Albert,  born  April  7,  1853. 

Beatrice  Mary  Victoria  Feodore,  born  April  14,  1857. 


ENGLAND 


[     377     3 


ENGRAVING 


ROYAL   PRINCES   AND   PRINCESSES. 
George  Frederick,   Duke  of    Cumberland  and    King  of 

Hanover,  born  May  27,  1819 ;  married,  Feb.  18,  1843, 

to  Mary  Alexandrina,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 

Altenburg. 

George  William,  Duke  of  Cambridge,  born  March  36, 1819. 
Augusta  Caroline,  born  July  19,  1094  i  married,  June  28, 

1843,  the   hereditary  Grand-duke  of    Mecklenburg- 
Mary  Adelaide  (Princess  Mary  of  Cambridge),  born  Nov. 

27,   1833;    married,  June  13,   1866,  to  Prince  Francis 

Lewis  Paul  Alexander  von  Teck. 

ENGLAND,  NEW.— (See  NEW  ENGLAND.) 

ENGLEFIELD  (Battle),  or  "The  Field  of 
the  Angles,"  near  Reading,  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  a  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Danes  by 
the  Britons,  led  by  Ethelwulph,  Ealdorman  of 
Berkshire,  in  871. 

ENGLISH  GLEE  AND  MADRIGAL 
UNION.— (See  CONCERT.) 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.— Hallam  (Introd. 
to  Lit.,  pt.  i.  c.  i.  s.  47)  says  :— "  Nothing  can 
be  more  difficult  than  to  determine,  except 
by  an  arbitrary  line,  the  commencement  of 
the  English  language."  The  Saxon  Chronicle 
was  continued  till  the  death  of  Stephen,  in 
1154,  and  considerable  change  may  be  noticed 
in  the  language  of  the  later  years.  Layamon's 
translation  of  the  French  Brut  romance,  com- 
pleted about  1200,  exhibits  further  digressions 
from  the  primitive  Saxon  tongue ;  and  some 
metrical  lives  of  saints  which  were  written 
about  1250,  may  be  called  the  earliest  speci- 
mens of  English.  The  first  dated  document 
in  the  language  is  a  proclamation  by  Henry  III. 
in  1258,  and  the  earliest  English  book  is  Sir 
John  Mandeville's  travels,  written  in  1356. 
By  36  Edw.  III.  c.  15  (1362),  pleadings  in 
courts  of  law  were  ordered  to  be  in  English, 
and  in  1536  the  language  was  introduced  into 
Ireland.  The  use  of  English  in  all  proceedings 
in  English  and  Scotch  law  coxirts  was  rendered 
compulsory  by  4  Geo.  II.  c.  26  (1731).  The 
development  of  the  English  language  has 
been  divided  into  the  following  periods  : — 

A.D. 

449—1066.  Anglo-Saxon. 
10(16 — 1250.  Semi-Saxon  or  Norman. 
1250—1550.  Early  English. 
1550 .  Modern  English. 

ENGLISH  OPERA  HOUSE.— (See  LYCEUM 
THEATRE.) 

ENGLISH  ORCHESTRAL  ASSOCIATION. 
— (See  CONCERT.) 

ENGLISH  AND  WELSH  BISHOPRICS.— 
Many  bishoprics  were  founded  in  this  country 
during  the  early  period  of  the  Church.  All 
particulars,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  the 
names  of  the  sees,  are  lost.  British  bishops 
were  present  at  the  councils  of  Aries  in  314,  of 
Nicrea  in  325,  and  of  Ariminum  in  360 ;  and  their 
signatures  are  affixed  to  the  canons  passed  at 
these  synods.  By  10  <fe  n  Viet.  c.  108  (July  23, 
1847),  which  provided  for  the  erection  of  the  see 
of  Manchester,  it  was  enacted  that  the  number 
of  bishops  having  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords 
should  not  be  increased,  and  that  in  case  of 
a  vacancy,  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester 
being  excepted,  the  junior  bishop  should  re- 
main without  a  seat.  The  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man  never  sat  in  Parliament,  and  con- 
sequently this  arrangement  did  not  affect  that 
see.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  exact 


date  of  the  foundation  of  all  the  English 
bishoprics,  and  in  cases  in  which  this  is  not 
known,  the  earliest  notice  of  them  that  occurs 
is  given  in  the  following  list.  The  sees  printed 
in  Italics  have  either  been  suppressed  or  merged 
into  others. 

ARCHBISHOPRICS. 
180.  York. 
602.  Canterbury. 
787-803.  Lichfield. 
BISHOPRICS. 
1 80  or  516.  Llandaff. 
360  or  447.  Sodor  and  Man. 
516.  Bangor. 


A.D. 

180.  London. 
1 80.  Caerleon. 


909.  Wells. 

909.  Wilton. 

995.  Durham. 
1050.  Exeter. 
1072.  Salisbury. 
1078.  Bath. 
1078.  Lincoln. 
1078.  Thetford. 
1078.  Chichester. 

1092.  Bath  and  Wells. 

1093.  Norwich. 
1109.  Ely. 
1132.  Carlisle. 

1540.  Westminxter. 
1534.  Chester. 

1541.  Gloucester. 
1541.  Oxford. 
1541.  Peterborough. 
1543.  Bristol. 

1836.  Bristol  and  Gloucester. 
1836.  Ripon. 
1847.  Manchester. 


52i.  St.  David's. 

550.  St.  Asaph. 

004.  London. 

604.  Rochester. 

630.  Dunwich,  or  East  A  ngles. 

635.  Lindisfarne. 

635  and  886.  Dorchester. 

650.  Winchester. 

669.  Lichfield. 

673.  Elmham. 

675.  Hexham. 

676.  Hereford. 
680.  Lindsey. 
680.  Leicester. 
680.  Selsey. 
680.  Worcester. 
705.  Sherborne. 

875.  Chester.  le-Street. 

909.  Cornwall. 

909.  Devonshire. 

ENGRAVING  was  practised  at  a  very  early 
date  by  the  Egyptians,  who  used  wooden 
stamps  engraved  with  hieroglyphics  for  the 
purpose  of  marking  their  bricks.  It  is  first 
mentioned,  B.C.  1491,  by  Moses  (Exod.  xxviii. 
g),  who  was  commanded  to  "  take  two  onyx 
stones,  and  grave  on  them  the  names  of  the 
children  of  Israel."  Its  revival  in  Europe 
dates  from  about  the  isth  century.  Engraving 
on  diamonds  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in 
1500,  though  some  refuse  it  an  earlier  origin 
than  1564.  Mezzotint  engraving  was  invented 
by  Col.  von  Siegen,  about  1643  ;  engraving  in 
colours  by  J.  C.  Le  Blond,  about  1725  ;  in  imi- 
tation of  pencil,  by  Gilles  des  Marteaux,  in 
1756 ;  and  aquatinta  engraving  by  Le  Prince, 
about  1762.  The  property  of  engravings  was 
vested  in  the  designer  for  14  years  by  8 
Geo.  II.  c.  13  (1735) ;  which  was  amended 
by  7  Geo.  III.  c.  38  (1767).  These  acts  having 
proved  ineffectual,  persons  infringing  them 
were  made  liable  to  damages  and  double  costs 
by  17  Geo.  III.  c.  57  (1777),  and  the  provisions 
of  all  three  were  extended  to  Ireland  by  6  & 
7  Will.  IV.  c.  59  (Aug.  13,  1836).  Copyright 
was  applied  to  foreign  engravings  by  7  &  8 
Viet.  c.  12  (May  10,  1844) ;  and  the  various 
statutes  on  the  subject  were  explained  by  the 
Copyright  Amendment  Act,  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  12 
(May  28,  1852). 

ENGRAVING  ON  COPPER,  or  CHALCO- 
GRAPHY, is  said  to  have  been  practised  in 
Germany  about  1450.  The  invention  is  also 
claimed  for  the  Italian  goldsmith  Finiguerra, 
in  1460,  though  no  plate  exists  of  earlier  date 
than  1461.  Andrea  Mantegna  (1431 — 1506)  pro- 
duced many  fine  works  in  this  branch  of  art 

ENGRAVING  ON  STEEL.— Some  early 
prints  by  Albert  Durer,  dated  1515  and  1516, 
are  believed  to  be  impressions  from  steel 
plates.  This  metal,  however,  was  very  rarely 


ENGRAVING 


[    378    ] 


EOOA 


employed  by  engravers  :  only  one  specimen, 
executed  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Smith  in  1805,  being 
known  until  1818,  when  Mr.  C.  Warren  exhi- 
bited an  impression  from  a  soft  steel  plate  to 
the  Society  of  Arts.  Bank  notes  are  now 
printed  by  this  means. 

ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD  is  said  to  have 
been  practised  by  the  Chinese  as  early  as  B.C. 
1 1 20.  The  precise  date  of  its  introduction  into 
Europe  is  unknown.  Some  authorities  state 
that  a  series  of  woodcuts,  illustrative  of  the 
career  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  engraved 
by  the  two  Cunio  in  1285.  This  story  is, 
however,  doubtful ;  and,  perhaps,  the  origin 
of  the  art  may  be  traced  to  the  won, leu 
blocks  used  by  notaries  for  stamping  mono- 
grams in  the  i3th  century,  and  to  the  en- 
graved playing  cards  which  appeared  in 
France  about  1340.  The  earliest  woodcut 
in  existence  represents  St.  Christopher  with 
the  infant  Saviour,  and  is  dated  1423.  Many 
block-books  exist  of  about  the  year  1430, 
but  the  art  was  not  brought  to  great  per- 
fection till  the  commencement  of  the  i6th 
century.  Albert  Durer  (1471 — 1528) ;  Lucas 
of  Leyden  (1494  — 1533);  Holbein,  wlm.se 
"Dance  of  Death"  (q.  v.)  appeared  at  Lyons 
in  1538  ;  Gerard  Audran  (1640—1703)  ;  Woollet 
(i735— 1785);  Thomas  Bewick  (1753—1828); 
Nesbit,  born  in  1775;  and  Harvey,  bom  in 
1796,  rank  foremost  among  wood-engravers 

EXKi.MA.—  (,W  J'lNKJMA.) 

EXKLOPIXG  (Battle).— At  this  place  Albert 
I.,  King  of  Sweden,  in  1365,  defeated  Ilaco  of 
Norway,  who  had  been  elected  King  of  Sweden 
in  1363. 

EX  L1STMENT.—  The  enlistment  of  British 
subjects  to  serve  in  foreign  armies  was  pro- 
hibited by  59  Gco.  III.  c.  69  (July  3,  1819).  By 
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  24  (Aug.  21,  18351,  enlistment 
of  sailors  was  limited  to  5  years;  and  by  10  <fc 

11  Viet.  c.  37  (June  21,  1847),  military  service 
was  restricted  to  10  years  in  the  infantry  and 

12  years  in  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  marines. 
EXXISK1LLKX  (Ireland;  was  not  a  place  of 

much  importance  when  taken  by  the  English 
in  1602.  In  1612  it  was  erected  into  a  corpo- 
rate town,  and  subsequently  became  an  impor- 
tant asylum  for  the  Protestants  of  Ulster.  The 
inhabitants  proclaimed  William  III.  and  Mary, 
March  n,  1689,  and,  mustering  to  the  number 
of  2,500  men,  defeated  6,000  Jacobites  under 
Macarthy,  Lord  Moncashel,  at  Newton  Butler, 
July  30.  The  volunteers  who  gained  this  battle, 
and  otherwise  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  are  the  origin  of  the 
Enniskillen  (6th)  Dragoons.  In  1776  the  town 
gave  its  name  to  a  viscount,  who  was  made 
Earl  of  Enuiskillen  in  1789. 

ENOCH.  —  The  original  version  of  this 
apocryphal  work,  written  in  Chaldee  or  He- 
brew, is  lost,  as  well  as  the  Greek  translation. 
In  1821,  Dr.  Lawrence'  translated  the  Ethiopic 
version,  brought  from  Abyssinia  by  the  traveller 
Bruce  in  1773.  Dr.  Davidson  supposed  it  to 
have  been  written  about  B.C.  40. 

EXORORE  (Battle),  fought  in  Hindostan  in 
1760. 

ENSIGN.  —  This  officer,  who  carries  the 
colours  in  infantry  regiments,  is  mentioned  in 
a  list  of  the  English  army  for  1557,  when  his 


pay  was  one  shilling  per  diem.  Ward,  in  his 
"Animadversions  of  Warre,"  published  in 
1639,  says  of  this  rank: — "The  office  of  the 
ensigne  being  a  place  of  repute  and  honour, 
doth  not  sute  every  yeoman,  taylor,  or  fidler." 
(See  CORNET.) 

ENSISHEIM,  or  ENTZHEIM  (Battle).  — 
Marshal  Tureiine  defeated  the  Imperialists  at 
this  place,  in  Alsace,  Oct.  4,  1674,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  retire  from  the  province. 

ENTAIL.— Wharton  defines  an  estate-tail  as 
"  a  freehold  of  inheritance,  limited  to  a  person 
and  the  heirs  of  his  body  general  or  special, 
male  or  female. "  The  custom  of  confining  the 
succession  to  property  in  this  manner  resulted 
from  the  desire  of  the  nobility  to  retain  their 
possessions  in  their  own  families.  It  was  com- 
menced by  the  second  statute  of  Westminster, 
13  Edw.  I.  c.  i  (1285).  Owing  to  the  hiefficaey 
of  attainders  of  treason  when  estates  were  pro- 
tected by  entails,  they  were  evaded  in  1472  by 
a  decision  that  common  recoveries  should  con- 
stitute a  bar  to  an  entail.  By  26  Hen.  VIII.  c. 
13  (1534),  high  treason  confiscated  entailed  pro- 
perty to  the  crown  ;  and  by  21  James  I.  c.  19, 
s.  12  (1623;,  entailed  estates  were  permitted  to 
be  sold  in  cases  of  bankruptcy.  This  latter 
act  was  repealed  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  16,  s.  65 
(May  2,  1825),  which  was  set  aside  by  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  74,  ss.  55-65  (Aug.  28,  1833),  and  12 
&  13  Viet.  c.  106,  S.  208  (Aug.  i,  1849).  Leases 
made  by  tenants  in  tail  are  regulated  by  19  & 
20  Viet.  c.  120  (July  29,  1856). 

ENTOMOLOGY.—  Aldrovandus  published  a 
history  of  insects  in  1604,  and  Moufet's  "  Thea- 
trum  Insectorum"  appeared  in  1634;  but  no 
'-(ood  description  existed  till  the  appearance  of 
Swammerdam's  "  General  History  of  Insects," 
in  1669.  In  1710,  Ray's  "  Methodus  Insectorum  " 
was  published,  and  in  1735  Linnaais  announced 
h  is  classification.  Latreille's  "  Precis  des  Carac- 
teres  des  Inseetes"  appeared  in  1797.  The 
French  Societe*  Entomologique  was  established 
in  1832,  and  the  Entomological  Society  of 
London  in  1833. 

ENVELOPES.— The  practice  of  using  enve- 
lopes for  letters  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  France.  Le  Sage  mentions  them  in  ' '  Gil 
Bias."  An  envelope  attached  to  a  letter,  dated 
May  16,  1696,  was  found  in  the  State  Paper 
Office.  Envelopes  were  not  introduced  for 
letters  sent  through  the  post  till  1840,  as  till 
then  it  was  customary  to  charge  double  postage 
011  paper  enclosed  in  another  paper.  The  penny 
postage  system  commenced  Jan.  10,  1840;  but 
the  use  of  envelopes  did  not  become  general 
until  May  6,  1840,  when  stamped  and  adhesive 
envelopes  were  introduced.  In  1841,  about  half 
the  letters  which  passed  through  the  Post-o  I  lice 
were  in  envelopes,  and  in  1850,  300  out  of  every 
336  were  thus  protected.  Hill  and  De  la  Rue's 
ingenious  machine  for  folding  envelopes  was 
patented  March  17,  1845. 

ENVOY.— This  minister,  in  the  third  class 
of  diplomatic  agents,  is  said  to  have  been  first 
appointed  by  Louis  XI.  (1461 — 83)  of  France. 

EOLODICON.  —  This  musical  instrument 
was  invented  by  Eschenbach,  in  1815,  and  an 
account  of  it  was  published  at  Leipsic  in  1820. 

EOOA,  or  MIDDLEBURG  (South  Pacific), 
the  most  eastern  of  the  Friendly  Isles,  was  dis- 


EPERIES 


[     379 


EPIPHANY 


covered  by  Abel  Jansen  Tasman,  who  gave  it 
the  name  of  Middleburg,  Jan.  19,  1643. 

EPERIES,  or  PRESSOVA  (Hungary).— This 
town,  taken  from  the  Turks  by  the  Austrians, 
under  Gen.  Schulz,  Aug.  n,  1685,  became,  in 
1768,  the  head-quarters  of  the  confederation  of 
Bar  (q.  v.).  It  was  erected  into  a  Greek 
Catholic  bishopric  in  1807. 

EPERNAY  (France).— This  town,  burned  by 
Francis  I.,  in  1544,  to  prevent  its  falling  into 
the  hands  of  his  rival,  Charles  V.,  was  subse- 
quently rebuilt  at  his  own  expense.  In  1569  it 
was  sold  to  defray  the  expense  of  the  ransom 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  in  1592  it  was 
taken  by  Henry  IV.  after  an  obstinate  siege,  in 
which  Marshal  de  Biron  was  killed.  It  1642  it 
was  delivered  to  the  Duke  de  Bouillon,  in  ex- 
change for  the  county  of  Sedan.  It  is  the  chief 
depot  of  the  growers  of  champagne  (q.v.). 

EPHESIANS  (Epistle).— St.  Paul  addressed 
this  letter  to  the  church  at  Ephesus,  during 
his  first  captivity  at  Rome,  about  61.  De 
Wette,  in  his  commentary  on  this  epistle,  pub- 
lished in  1847,  and  in  his  "  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament,"  in  1848,  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  it  is  merely  a  paraphrase  and  expansion 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 

EPHESUS  (Asia  Minor)  was  founded  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  first  inhabited  by  the 
Carians  and  Leleges.  It  was  burned  by  the 
Amazons  B.C.  1141,  and  rebuilt  by  the  lonians, 
who  entered  Asia  Minor  under  the  leadership 
of  Androclus,  son  of  Codrus,  B.C.  1045.  Croesus, 
King  of  Lydia,  seized  Ephesus  B.C.  559,  and 
the  temple  of  Artemis  or  Diana  was  erected 
B.C.  552.  Ephesus  surrendered  to  Cyrus  B.C. 
544,  and  remained  under  the  Persian  yoke 
until  B.C.  501,  when,  with  other  Ionian  cities,  it 
revolted,  and  regained  its  independence.  The 
Athenian  and  Eretrian  fleets  remained  here 
previous  to  their  assault  on-  Sardis,  B.C. 
and  the  Spartan  general  Lysander  establi 
his  head-quarters  in  the  city,  and  defeated  the 
Athenians  in  a  sea-fight  fought  in  its  vicinity, 
B.C.  407.  The  temple  was  burned  by  the  maniac 
Herosti-atus,  B.C.  356,  on  the  same  day  on  which 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  was  born.  Its  re- 
erection  occupied  220  years,  and  the  new  build- 
ing was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Ephesus  was 
destroyed  by  an  inundation  B.C.  322,  but  Lysi- 
machus  rebuilt  it  on  a  more  elevated  site  B.C. 
300.  The  Romans  gave  this  city  to  the  King  of 
Pergamum,  B.C.  190,  and  on  the  formation  of 
their  province  of  Asia,  B.C.  129,  erected  it 
into  the  capital.  It  was  reduced  to  ruins  by 
an  earthquake  in  17.  St.  Paul  preached  here  in 
56,  and  made  so  many  converts  that  a  riot  was 
stirred  up  in  59  by  Demetrius,  the  silversmith, 
in  consequence  of  the  decreased  demand  for 
silver  shrines  for  the  goddess  Diana  (Acts  xix. 
23 — 41).  Paul,  in  65,  ordained  Timothy  first 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  Ephesus  was  one  of  the 
seven  churches  of  Asia.  The  temple  of  Diana 
was  destroyed  by  the  Goths  in  262,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  the  third  general  council,  in  431, 
the  city  was  the  scene  of  disgraceful  ecclesias- 
tical riots.  Councils  were  held  here  in  196 ; 
245  ;  401 ;  431,  June  22 — July  31  (the  third 
general),  449  ;  and  in  476. 

EPHORI,  or  EPHORS,  magistrates,  five  in 


number,  instituted  in  Sparta  by  Theopompus, 
B.C.  757.  Thirlwall  (vol.  i.  c.  ix.  p.  407)  says  of 
them  : — "  The  royal  dignity  was  forced  on  all 
occasions  to  bow  to  them ;  and  as  they  could 
control  the  proceedings  of  the  kings  by  their 
orders,  could  fine  them  for  slight  offences  at 
their  discretion,  and  could  throw  them  into 
prison  to  await  a  trial  on  graver  charges,  so 
they  alone,  among  all  the  Spartans,  kept  their 
seats  while  the  kings  were  passing  ;  whereas  it 
was  not  thought  beneath  the  majesty  of  the 
kings  to  rise  in  honour  of  the  ephors  ;  and  it 
was  their  acknowledged  duty  to  attend,  at 
least  on  the  third  summons,  before  the  ephoral 
tribunal." 

EPHRATH.— (See  BETHLEHEM.) 

EPHYRE.— (See  CORINTH.) 

EPICUREANS.— This  sect  of  philosophers 
was  founded  by  Epicurus  of  Samos  (born  B.C. 
342),  who  established  a  school  at  Athens  B.C. 
306,  and  continued  to  teach  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  B.C.  270.  He  maintained  that 
happiness  is  the  object  of  life,  and  that  it  con- 
sists in  the  recollection  or  anticipation  of  sen- 
sual pleasures  ;  and  as  a  future  state  would 
interfere  with  his  doctrines  on  this  subject,  he 
denied  its  existence  altogether. 

EPIDAMNUS.— (See  DURAZZO.) 

EPIDAURUS  (Greece).— This  town  of  the 
Peloponnesus  was  seized  at  an  early  period  by 
the  Dorians,  who  established  a  considerable 
commerce,  which  declined  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.,  in  consequence  of  the  increasing  impor- 
tance of  Mgina.  The  Argives  were  defeated  in 
an  attack  upon  the  city  B.C.  419.  The  temple 
of  ^Esculapius,  or  Asclepius,  at  this  town,  was 
so  celebrated  that  the  Romans  sent  a  deputa- 
tion to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Epidaurian  deity 
against  a  pestilence  which  ravaged  their  city, 
B.C.  293.  This  temple  was  still  rich  with  the 
gifts  of  the  votaries  of  the  god,  when  it  was 
visited  by  L.  J^milius  Paulus,  B.C.  167.  A  con- 
gress convoked  at  this  town,  Dec.  15,  1821, 
proclaimed  the  independence  of  Greece  in  1822. 

EPIDEMICS.— (-See  BLACK  DEATH,  CATTLE 
PLAGUE,  CHOLERA,  PLAGUE  AND  PESTILENCE, 
SMALL-POX,  SWEATING  SICKNESS,  &c.) 

EPIDEMIC-LOGICAL  SOCIETY  (London) 
was  established  in  1850  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Tucker. 

EPIGRAMS,  originally  inscriptions  upon 
tombstones,  on  offerings  to  the  gods,  &c., 
were  written  by  Archilochus,  who  flourished 
B.C.  688,  and  Simonides,  B.C.  500.  The  Latin 
poet  Martial  (43 — 104)  is  considered  to  have 
excelled  all  other  writers  in  this  species  of 
composition.  The  best  English  epigrams  are 
those  of  Ben  Jonson  (June  n,  1574 — Aug.  16, 
1637);  Dr.  Donne  (1573 — March  31,  1631); 
Robert  Herrick  (born  in  1591);  John  Wilmot, 
Earl  of  Rochester  (April  10,  1647 — July  29, 
1680) ;  Matthew  Prior  (July  21,  1664 — Sep.  18, 
1721);  Alexander  Pope  (May  22,  1688— May  30, 
1744) ;  Jonathan  Swift  (Nov.  30,  1667 — Oct.  29, 
1745) ;  John  Byrom  (1691 — Sep.  28,  1763) ;  David 
Garrick  (1716 — Jan.  20,  1779) ;  Richard  Porson 
(Dec.  25, 1759— Sep.  26, 1808) ;  Richard  Brinsley 
Sheridan. (September,  1751 — July  7,  1816);  Theo- 
dore Edward  Hook  (1788 — Aug.  24,  1841)  ;  and 
Thomas  Moore  (May  28,  1779 — Feb.  25,  1852). 

EPIPHANY.-This  feast,  celebrated  Jan.  6, 
is  said  by  Bingham  (b.  xi.  c.  vi.  s.  7)  to  com- 


EPIRUS 


[    380    ] 


ERASTIANS 


memorate  ' '  the  day  on  which  Christ  was  bap- 
tized and  manifested  to  the  world."  It  was 
first  observed  by  the  Gnostic  followers  of 
Basilidea  of  Alexandria,  who  nourished  about 
125,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  cele- 
brated by  the  Church  at  large  till  long  after- 
wards, as  it  is  excluded  from  the  list  of  feasts 
given  by  Origen  (230).  Its  observance  as  a 
separate  feast  commenced  in  813. 

EPIRUS  (Greece)  was  originally  peopled  by 
Pelasgians,  but  very  little  is  known  of  its 
early  history. 

B.C. 

1170.  Arrival  of  Neoptolemus,  or  Pyrrhus,  son  of  Achilles. 

635.  The  Corinthians  found  the  city  of  Ambracia. 

340.  Accession  of  Alexander  I.,  uncle  to  Alexander  the 
Great 

336.  Alexander  I.  falls  in  battle  in  Italy. 

395.  Pyrrhus,  the  greatest  sovereign  of  Epirus,  estab- 
lishes himself  on  the  tlinmi-. 

891.  He  makes  war  against  Demetrius,  King  of  Mace- 
donia. 

389.  Demetrius  invades  Epirus. 

388.  Pyrrhus  invades  Macedonia,  and  is  expelled  by 
Demetrius. 

387.  Pyrrhus  again  invades  Macedonia,  where  he  reigns, 
conjointly  with  Lysimachus,  for  about  seven 
months. 

380.  Pyrrhus  invades  Italy,  and  gains  a  splendid  victory 
over  the  Romans. 

379.  ISixttle  of  Asculum. 

276.   Pyrrhus  again  invades  Italy. 

374.  Pyrrhus  is  defeated  by  the  Romans,  under  Curius 
Dentatus,  who  expels  him  from  Italy. 

273-   Pyrrhus  wrests  Macedonia  from  Antigonus  Gonatus. 

273.  Pyrrhus  is  killed  at  Argos,  by  a  tile  thrown  from  a 
house-top. 

319.  The  Epirotes  unite  with  Philip  V.  of  Macedon 
against  the  ^Ktolians. 

167.  JEmilius  I'aulus  destroys  70  towns    of  Epirus,  and 

carries  away  150,000  of  the  Inhabitant!  as  uavM. 

30.  Augustus  founds  Xicopolis  (q. «.),  the  Uomau  capital 

of  Epirus. 
A.D. 

1304.  The  Despotat  of  Epirns,  the  rulers  of  which  were 

known  as  the  Despots  of  Albania,  is  founded  by 

Michael  I. 
1350.  Epirus  is  conquered  by  Stephen  Duscian,  King  of 

Servia. 
1390.  Epirus  is  invaded  by  Charles  Tocco,  Count  of  Ce- 

phalouia,  and  Duke  of  Leiu-adi.i. 

1431.  The  Turks  take  Janina,  or  Joanniisa,  and  ^tolia. 
140,').    Kpirus  is  annexed  to  the  ( tttonian  empire. 
I«54,  Jan.  38.  The  Epirotes  rise  in  insurrection.— June  18. 

The  rebellion  is  suppress,-, I. 

EPISCOPACY.  —  Church  government  by 
bishops  was  established  by  the  Apostles.  (See 
BISHOP.) 

EPITAPHS.— Pettigrew  says  of  the  custom 
of  placing  inscriptions  upon  tombs,  that  "the 
Egyptians  may  lay  claim  to  be  the  earliest 
recorders  of  this  description,  by  the  writing  of 
their  names,  their  descent,  their  functions,  die., 
upon  their  sarcophagi  and  coffins."  Numerous 
epitaphs  are  found  on  Greek  and  Roman  tombs, 
but  the  Saxons  and  Danes  have  left  few  memo- 
rials of  this  kind.  Some  interesting  inscrip- 
tions of  the  latter  part  of  the  jth  century  have, 
however,  been  discovered  at  Hartlepool.  Epi- 
taphs did  not  become  general  in  England  till 
the  nth  century,  when  they  were  written  in 
Latin,  and  chiefly  inscribed  upon  the  tombs  of 
kings  and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  In  the 
iath  century  Leonine  verses  were  very  general. 
French  epitaphs  were  not  used  in  France  till 
the  1 3th  century;  they  were  afterwards  intro- 
duced into  England,  where  they  continued  in 
use  till  the  isth,  after  which  time  epitaphs 
became  general. 


EPITHALAMIA,  or  HYMENEAL  HYMNS, 
composed  to  be  chanted  at  weddings.  Sappho, 
who  nourished  B.C.  6n — 592,  and  Stesichorus, 
B.C.  632 — 552,  are  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
their  productions  of  this  kind. 

EPITOMIZERS,  or  COLLECTORS  OF  CA- 
NONS, Byzantine  authors,  who  nourished  for 
ihe  most  part  in  the  i2th  century,  wrote  epi- 
tomes of  the  canons,  &c.  The  principal  were 
Constantino  Harmenopulus,  Alexius  Aris- 
tenus,  and  Simeon  Magister. 

EPITON.— (See  BATTLE  ABBEY.) 

EPSOM  (Surrey).— The  mineral  springs  from 
which  Epsom  salts  are  extracted  were  disco- 
vered in  1618,  when  the  town  became  a  fashion- 
able watering-place.  The  public  rooms  were, 
however,  pulled  down  in  1804.  The  parish 
church  was  rebuilt  in  1824  ;  the  Grand  Stand 
was  erected  in  1829-30  ;  and  the  Royal  Medical 
College  was  established  in  1851.  (See  DERBY 
RACE,  OAKS,  HORSE-RACING,  <fec.) 

EPULONES.— Three  priests,  appointed  by 
the  pontifices  to  superintend  the  feasts  in  the 
sacred  games,  wer-e  instituted  B.C.  196.  In  the 
time  of  Sylla  (B.C.  88—79)  tne7  were  increased 
in  number  to  seven. 

EQUATOR. — (See  ECUADOR.) 

EQUESTRIAN  ORDER.— Romulus  (B.C.  753 
— B.C.  715)  caused  the  curise  to  elect  300  equites 
or  horsemen,  which  number  increased  under 
his  successors  till  it  reached  3,600.  Originally 
each  eques  received  a  horse  from  the  state, 
but  at  the  siege  of  Veil,  B.C.  403,  many  citizens 
volunteered  to  serve  with  their  own  horses, 
and  a  new  class  of  equites,  who  received  pay- 
ment in  money  in  lieu  of  horses,  was  insti- 
tuted. The  Lex  Sempronia  of  Caius  Gracchus 
required  all  juries  to  be  chosen  from  the  eques- 
trian order,  thus  raising  it  to  immense  power 
in  the  state.  This  provision  was,  however, 
repealed  by  Sylla,  B.C.  80-79,  and  the  Lex 
Aurelia,  B.C.  70,  ordained  that  juries  should  be 
elected  from  the  senators,  equites,  and  tribuni 
iurarii.  The  Lex  Roscia  Othonis,  B.C.  63,  ap- 
propriated to  the  equites  the  first  14  scats 
in  the  theatre  behind  the  orchestra.  Augustus 
(B.C.  27 — A.D.  14)  reorganized  the  order,  placing 
at  its  head  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne, 
and  making  it  the  corps  from  which  all  the 
higher  military  officers  and  civil  dignitaries 
were  chosen.  It  gradually  became  extinct 
during  the  empire,  in  consequence  of  the  indis- 
criminate manner  in  which  honours  were  be- 
stowed. 

EQUITY  (Courts).  —  The  Romans,  though 
preserving  a  distinction  between  the  written 
laws  and  the  jus  prcetorium,  or  equity,  vested 
the  administration  of  both  in  one  tribunal.  A 
dispute,  commenced  in  1616,  as  to  the  right  of 
courts  of  equity  to  set  aside  judgments  at  com- 
mon law,  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  former. 
Sir  Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  Lord  Notting- 
ham, so  improved  this  branch  of  law  during  his 
occupation  of  the  Lord  High  Chancellorship  (1673 
— 1682),  that  he  has  been  called  "The  Father  of 
Equity."  (See  CHANCERY  (Court  of) ;  COUNTY 
COURTS  ;  ROLLS  COURT  ;  VICE-CHANCELLOR,  &c.) 

ERA. — (See  ^ERA.) 

ERASTIANS,  the  name  given  to  persons  who 
adopted  the  views  of  Thomas  Lieber,  or  Erastus, 
a  German  physician  and  divine,  who  was  born 


ERECTHEUM 


[     381     3 


ESCHEATS 


Sep.  7,  1524,  and  died  Dec.  31,  1583.  They 
formed  a  separate  party  in  the  Assembly  of 
Divines  in  1643,  and  unsuccessfully  advocated 
their  peculiar  views  respecting  the  exclusively 
persuasive  authority  of  the  pastoral  office,  and 
the  consequent  impropriety  of  ecclesiastical 
excommunications,  &c. 

ERECTHEUM  CLUB  (London),  established 
by  Sir  John  Dean  Paul  in  1836,  was  afterwards 
merged  in  the  Parthenon  (q.  v.). 

EREMITES.— (See  AUGUSTINE    FRIARS  and 

CAM  ALDULENSIANS.) 

ERFURT,  or  ERFURTH  (Prussian  Saxony), 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Erpes  in  the  sth 
century,  and  called  Erpesford,  was,  in  the  time 
of  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  towns  of  Germany.  A  bishopric 
was  established  in  740.  Its  university,  founded 
in  1392,  is  celebrated  as  having  numbered 
Martin  Luther  among  its  students  in  1501.  In 
1664  the  town  was  taken  by  the  French,  who 
ceded  it  to  the  Elector  of  Mayence  in  1667.  In 
1803  it  was  annexed  to  Prussia,  but  was  again 
taken  by  the  French  under  Murat,  Oct.  15, 
1806,  when  14,000  Prussians,  including  Marshal 
Mollendorf  and  the  Prince  of  Orange,  were 
made  prisoners.  Napoleon  I.  and  the  Em- 
peror Alexander  of  Russia  had  an  interview 
here,  Sep.  27,  1808.  It  resulted  in  a  letter 
which  they  addressed  to  George  III.,  Oct.  12, 
desiring  him  to  accede  to  offers  of  peace.  A 
reply  was  sent  Oct.  28,  to  the  effect  that 
England  could  only  treat  in  concert  with 
Sweden  and  Spain.  Erfurt  was  restored  to 
Prussia  Jan.  6,  1814.  Its  university  was  sup- 
pressed in  1816.  A  German  parliament  as- 
sembled here  March  20,  1850. 

ERICSSON'S  PATENT.  —  A  small  vessel 
built  to  test  the  capabilities  of  Ericsson's 
(a  distinguished  engineer,  born  in  Sweden  in 
1803)  screw  propeller,  first  patented  in  1833, 
in  an  experimental  trip  on  the  Thames,  May 
25,  1837,  towed  a  ship  of  above  600  tons,  at 
the  rate  of  4!  knots  per  hour,  against  the  tide. 
In  1851  Ericsson  changed  the  form  of  his 
engine  and  built  another  vessel  of  1,000  tons, 
named  after  the  inventor,  to  be  propelled 
by  hot  air  instead  of  steam.  In  her  trial 
trip,  in  1853,  she  is  said  to  have  equalled 
Ericsson's  expectations ;  but  she  ultimately 
proved  a  failure,  and  never  crossed  the  At- 
lantic, for  which  she  was  specially  designed. 
In  1855  the  caloric  engine  was  taken  out  of 
the  Ericsson,  and  steam-engines  were  substi- 
tuted. 

ERIE  CANAL  (North  America),  commenced 
in  1817,  was  completed  in  1824. 

ERITH  (Kent).— Richard  de  Lucy,  Chief 
Justice  of  England,  founded  an  abbey  of 
canons  regular  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine, 
at  this  place,  in  1178.  Two  powder  magazines 
blew  up  in  Plumstead  Marsh,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Erith,  Oct.  i,  1864,  killing  10  and  wound- 
ing several  persons.  A  boat  of  the  training 
ship  Worcester  capsized  off  this  place  Feb.  28, 
1865,  when  10  cadets  were  drowned. 

ERIVAN,  ERIWAN,  or  IRWAN  (Asiatic 
Russia). — This  town  of  Armenia,  which  rose 
•to  importance  in  the  7th  century,  became  in 
the  1 6th  century  the  residence  of  the  Shahs 
of  Persia.  It  was  seized  by  the  Turks  in  1553 


and  in  1582,  but  was  restored  in  1618,  and  in 
1629  was  the  seat  of  an  Armenian  school,  which 
was  removed  in  1631  to  Ejmiadzin.  In  1635 
the  town  was  removed  a  short  distance  from 
its  former  site,  and  was  captured  by  the  Turks, 
who  also  seized  it  in  1724  and  in  1735.  In  1748  it 
was  recovered  by  Nadir  Shah,  and  in  1 769  was 
annexed  to  the  Persian  sceptre.  The  Russians, 
repulsed  in  1808,  captured  it  in  1827,  when 
their  leader,  Gen.  Paskewitch,  received  the 
surname  of  Erivanski,  and  it  was  permanently 
ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Turkmanshai, 
Feb.  22,  1828.  Erivan  was  much  shaken  by  an 
earthquake  in  1840. 

ERLANGEN  (Bavaria).— The  new  town  was 
founded  in  1686,  and  its  Protestant  university 
in  1743.  The  town  suffered  severely  from  a 
fire  in  1706,  and  came  into  the  possession  of 
Bavaria  in  1809. 

E  R  L  A  U  (Hungary).  —  A  bishopric  was 
founded  here  by  St.  Stephen  in  the  nth 
century,  and  it  was  made  an  archbishopric 
in  1804.  The  hospital  was  founded  in  1730. 

ERMIA. — This  order  of  knights  was  insti- 
tuted by  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Britanny,  in  1450. 
The  order  became  extinct  when  Britanny  was 
annexed  to  France  in  1532. 

ERROAD,  or  EROUAD  (Hindostan).— The 
English  reduced  Erroad  in  1768.  Hyder  Ali 
having  captured  it,  they  regained  possession 
in  1790,  but  it  was  again  wrested  from  them 
the  same  year  by  Tippoo  Saib.  It  was,  how- 
ever, ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  in 

ERYX  (Sicily).— This  city,  near  Drepanum, 
was  celebrated  for  a  temple  of  Venus,  of  which  ' 
2Eneas  was  said  to  be  the  founder.  The  Car- 
thaginians were  defeated  by  the  Syracusans 
in  a  sea-fight  off  Eryx,  B.C.  406.  It  main- 
tamed  several  sieges,  was  taken  by  Pyrrhus 
B.C.  277,  and  was  destroyed  by  H.amilcar,  who 
removed  the  inhabitants  to  Drepanum,  B.C. 
260.  It  was  afterwards  restored,  and  was 
warmly  contested  between  the  Romans  and 
Carthaginians. 

ERZEROUM,  or  ERZERUM  (Asiatic 
Turkey). — Anatolius,  general  of  Theodosius 
II.,  erected,  near  Arsen,  the  fortress  of  Theo- 
dosiopolis,  which  afterwards  formed  the 
centre  of  a  town  called  Arsen-er-Rum.  It 
was  flourishing  in  1049,  an(^  passed  under  the 
authority  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  1201.  In 
1241  it  was  taken  by  the  Mongols,  by  whom 
the  inhabitants  were  either  massacred  or  sold 
into  slavery;  and  in  1517  it  was  seized  by  the 
Turks.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  here 
between  Persia  and  Turkey,  July  28,  1823.  The 
city  was  taken  by  the  Russians  under  Count 
Paskewitch,  July  9,  1829.  It  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  which  lasted  from  June  1 1 
to  July  17,  1859. 

ESCHEATS.— Stephens  (Com.  b.  ii.  pt.  i. 
c.  12)  says  of  the  word  escheat,  that  it  is 
"  originally  French  or  Norman,  in  which 
langxiage  it  signifies  chance  or  accident :  but 
with  us  it  is  applied  to  the  case  where  the 
tenant  of  lands  in  fee  dies  without  having 
aliened  them  in  his  lifetime,  or  disposed  of 
them  by  his  last  will  and  testament,  and 
leaves  no  heir  behind  him  to  take  them  by 
descent,  so  that  they  result  back,  by  a  kind 


ESCHENDUN 


[    382    ] 


ESSEX 


of  reversion,  to  the  original  grantor  or  lord 
of  the  fee."  By  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  60  (Aug.  5, 
1850),  beneficiaries  and  mortgagors  were  pro- 
tected from  the  ordinary  law  of  escheat  in  the 
event  of  a  trustee  or  mortgagee  dying  heirless 
and  intestate. 

ESCHENDUN.— (See  ASHDUNE.) 

ESCOR1AL,  or  ESCURIAL.  — This  ancient 
palace  of  the  kings  of  Spain  was,  according  to 
the  generally  received  account,  erected  by  Philip 
II.,  in  consequence  of  a  vow  made  during  the 
battle  of  St.  Quentin,  Aug.  10,  1557,  that  he 
would,  if  victorious,  found  a  church,  a  monas- 
tery, and  a  palace.  The  three  are  said  to  be 
combined  in  the  Escorial,  dedicated  to  St. 
Lorenzo,  on  whose  day  the  vow  was  made. 
In  honour  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  saint, 
who  was  broiled  to  death  Aug.  10,  261,  the 

ruiid  plan  of  the  new  edifice  was  designed 
form  of  a  gridiron.  The  first  stone  was 
laid  April  23,  1563,  and  the  building  was 
completed  Sep.  13,  1584.  The  library  was 
added  about  1580.  A  subterranean  passage, 
connecting  the  palace  with  an  adjoining  vil- 
lage, was  added  in  1770,  for  use  during  the 
hurricanes  of  winter,  which  are  of  astonishing 
fury.  A  French  force  under  La  Houssaye 
sacked  the  Escorial  in  Dec.,  1808,  and  carried 
away  a  largo  quantity  of  valuables.  The  palace 
was  repaired  in  1842. 

ESDRAS  (Books).— Though  usually  ascribed 
t'  >  Ezra,  the  authorship  and  date  of  the  first  and 
second  books  of  Esdras  are  involved  in  great 
obscurity.  Lawrence  supposes  the  second 
book  to  have  been  written  B.C.  28 — 25.  They 
were  admitted  as  canonical  by  the  Council  of 
Cartilage  in  397  or  419,  but  have  since  been 
included  in  the  Apocrypha. 

BSD (JD.— (See  ASHDOD.) 

ESIIER  Surrey). — Sandon  priory,  founded 
here  by  Robert  de  Watevile  early  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 1189),  was  granted  in  1436 
to  the  hospital  of  St.  Thomas,  Southwark. 
William  Waiiiucet,  Bishop  of  Winchester  from 
1447  to  1486,  erected  a  palace,  which  was  en- 
larged by  Cardinal  Wolscy  in  1528.  Claremont 
(q.  v.)  is  in  this  parish. 

ESPINOSA,  or  ESPINOSA-DE-LOS-MON- 
TEROS  (Battle).— Marshal  Victor  defeated  the 
Spaniards  under  Gen.  Blake  and  the  Marquis 
de  la  Romana  at  this  place  in  Spain,  Nov.  10 
and  ii,  1808. 

ESQUIMAUX,  or  ESKIMO.  —  A  tribe  of 
savages,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  iden- 
tical with  the  modern  Esquimaux,  appeared 
in  West  Greenland  in  1349,  and  destroyed 
several  of  the  Norwegian  settlers.  In  1733  the 
Esquimaux  were  visited  by  some  Moravian 
Brethren,  who  established  a  mission  in  La- 
brador hi  1752  ;  but  the  missionaries  were 
compelled  to  return,  in  consequence  of  the  ill- 
feeling  of  the  natives.  A  second  attempt, 
made  in  1764,  proved  more  successful.  Hearne 
discovered  Esquimaux  near  the  Polar  Sea  in 
1772,  and  MacKenzie  in  1789. 

ESQUIRE.— This  title  is  of  considerable 
antiquity,  and,  like  armiger,  scutifer,  scuta- 
'rius,  and  e"cuyer,  is  derived  from  the  shield, 
and  other  portions  of  the  knight's  arms,  which 
the  esquire  used  to  carry.  Selden  states  that 
it  was  first  used  to  express  the  next  rank 


below  a  knight,  about  850,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  applied  to  other  persons  than  at- 
tendants upon  knights  as  early  as  1245. 

ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS.— This  volume, 
which  created  much  controversy,  was  pub- 
lished in  1860,  and  went  through  several 
editions.  It  contained  the  following  essays  : 
—"The  Education  of  the  World."  By  Fre- 
derick Temple,  D.  D.  —  "  Bunsen's  Biblical 
Researches."  By  Rowland  Williams,  D.D.— 
"  On  the  Study  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity." By  Baden  Powell,  M.A. — "  Seances 
Historiques  de  Geneve."  —  "The  National 
Church."  By  Henry  Bristow  Wilson,  13.  IX— 
"On  the  Mosaic  Cosmogony."  By  C.  W.  Good- 
win, M.A. — "  Tendencies  of  Religious  Thought 
in  England,  1688—1750."  By  Mark  Pattison, 
B.D. — "  On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture.'' 
By  Benjamin  Jowett,  M.A.  The  judgment 
of  the  Court  of  Arches,  delivered  by  Dr.  Lush- 
ington,  Monday,  Dec.  15,  1862,  sentencing 
Messrs.  Williams  and  Wilson  to  one  year's  sus- 
pension and  costs,  for  their  contributions  to 
this  work,  was  reversed  by  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  Privy  Council,  Feb.  8,  1864. 

ESSECK,  or  ESZEK  Austria;,  the  capital  of 
Slavonia,  is  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Mursia  or  Mursa.  The  Turks  defeated  the 
Germans,  in  a  great  battle  at  this  place,  in 
1537.  The  fortress,  commenced  in  1712,  was 
completed  in  1719. 

ESSENDINE  ,' Battle).— (See  ASSINGDOK.) 

ESSEXES,  or  ESSEN1ANS.— A  sect  of  as- 
cetics which  sprang  up  amongst  the  Jews  after 
the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 
They  were  also  called  Therapcuta).  Some 
writers  are  of  opinion  that  John  the  Baptist 
belonged  to  this  sect. 

ESSEQUIBO  (South  America).— Pinzon  dis- 
covered this  river  in  1499,  an(i  m  xs8o  the 
Dutch  formed  a  settlement  on  its  banks.  This 
was  captured  by  the  English  in  1796.  It  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1802.  Having  been 
recaptured  Sep.  20,  1803,  it  was  finally  ceded 
to  England  by  the  convention  signed  with  the 
Netherlands,  Avig.  13,  1814.  (See  BRITISH 
GUIANA,  DKMERAKA,  <fec.) 

ESSEX  (England;.— At  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
man invasion,  this  county  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Trinobantes.  Erchenwin,  in  527, 
established  the  Saxon  kingdom  of  the  name, 
which  comprised  Middlesex  and  parts  of  Bed- 
fordshire and  Hertfordshire,  and  continued  in 
existence  until  its  incorporation  with  Wessex 
in  823.  In  1381  the  inhabitants  rebelled  under 
Wat  Tyler  to  oppose  the  poll-tax;  and,  in  1659, 
Mr.  Thomas  Fanshaw  incited  them  to  rise 
in  behalf  of  Charles  II.  Previous  to  1832 
Essex  returned  two  members  to  Parliament, 
but  the  number  was  then  increased  to  four. 
The  earldom  of  Essex  was  created  in  1572, 
by  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  favour  of  Walter 
Devereux. 

ESSEX  CONSPIRACY.— Robert  Devereux, 
second  Earl  of  Essex,  having  shown  great  want 
of  judgment  in  his  administration  of  Irish 
affairs  during  his  government  in  1599,  suddenly 
returned  to  England  without  orders,  in  Sep., 
and  was  confined  to  his  own  house,  and  denied 
the  privileges  of  his  rank  and  functions  in  con- 
sequence. He  was  restored  to  freedom,  but 


ESSEX 


[    383    ] 


ETHIOPIA 


not  to  royal  favour,  Aug.  26,  1600,  and  was  in- 
duced by  his  secretary  Cuffe  to  conspire  to 
remove  his  enemies  from  the  royal  councils. 
He  detained  several  of  the  council  who  were 
sent  to  question  him,  Sunday,  Feb.  8,  1601, 
and  was  proclaimed  a  traitor,'  and  compelled 
to  surrender,  after  several  lives  had  been  lost 
in  his  defence.  Essex,  who  with  the  Earl  of 
Southampton  was  arraigned  for  high  treason, 
Feb.  19,  and  found  guilty,  was  executed  on 
Tower  Hill,  Feb.  25. 

ESSEX  HEAD  CLUB  (London).— Founded 
by  Dr.  Johnson  in  1783  for  the  purpose  of 
assembling  the  surviving  members  of  the  Ivy 
Lane  Club  (q.  •».),  met  at  the  Essex  Head, 
Essex  Street,  Strand.  In  a  letter  to  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  Dec.  4,  1783,  Johnson  says,  "the 
company  is  numerous  and,  as  you  will  see  by 
the  list,  miscellaneous.  The  terms  are  lax,  and 
the  expenses  light.  *  *  *  *  We  meet  twice 
a  week,  and  he  who  misses  forfeits  twopence." 
This  club  continued  in  existence  for  several 
years  after  Johnson's  death,  Dec.  13,  1784. 

ESSLING  (Battle).— (See  ASPERN,  Battle.) 

ESSLINGEN  (Wiirtemberg),  founded  in  the 
8th  century,  became  a  free  city  of  the  empire 
in  1209.  The  Frauen  Kirche,  or  Church  of  O\ir 
Lady,  was  erected  in  1440.  Essliugen  was  ceded 
to  Wiirtemberg  Feb.  15,  1803. 

ESTAPLES,  or  ETAPLES  (France).— Peace 
between  France  and  England  was  concluded  at 
this  town  Sep.  3,  1492. 

ESTATE  (Cap  of).— (See  MAINTENANCE.) 

ESTE  (House).— In  a  Latin  history  of  this 
house  by  Pignon,  its  origin  is  carried  back  as 
far  as  418.  Its  most  direct  ancestor  is  Albert 
Azzo  II.,  who  was  born  about  996.  In  1071, 
Guelph  IV.  established  his  authority  in  Ba- 
varia, and  thus  founded  the  German  branch  of 
the  family;  and  in  1176  Azzo  V.  acquired^Fer 
rara  by  marriage,,  and  became  chief  of  the 
Guelphs  of  Venetia.  The  town  of  Este  was 
destroyed  by  Ezzelin  in  1247. 

ESTHER.— This  book,  the  author  of  which 
is  not  known,  though  some  have  supposed  it 
to  be  the  production  of  Mordecai,  was  written 
about  B.C.  312. 

ESTHONIA,  or  ESTLAND  (Russia).— This 
province,  conquered  by  the  Danes  in  1220,  was 
sold  by  Denmark  to  the  Teutonic  Knights  in 
1346,  and  was  given  up  to  Sweden  by  the 
peace  of  Oliva,  May  3,  1660.  Peter  the  Great 
captured  it  in  1710,  and  it  was  ceded  to  Russia 
by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt,  Aug.  30,  1721.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  province  of  Revel  (q.  \ 

ESTREMOZ  (Battle).— A  castle  was  erected 
here  in  1360,  and  the  Portuguese  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  this  place  in  1663. 

ETAMPES  (France).— Clotaire  II.  was  de- 
feated, near  this  ancient  town,  in  604.  The 
Northmen  pillaged  it  in  911.  It  was  besieged 
in  1420,  and  it  suffered  greatly  during  the 
religious  wars.  Henry  IV.  took  it  and  de- 
stroyed the  fortifications  in  1590.  A  council 
was  held  here  in  1130. 

ETATS  GENERAUX,  or  STATES  GENERAL 
• — The  first  assembly  of  this  name,  consisting 
of  clergy,  nobles,  and  commons,  was  convokec 
by  Philip  IV.  (the  Fair),  in  1302,  to  settle  th 
questions  in  dispute  between  him  and  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  From  this  date  they  met  a 


short  intervals  till  1614,  when,  in  consequence 
f  contentions  between  the  three  orders,  they 
were  dissolved.  They  were  again  summoned 
>y  Louis  XVI.,  and  met  at  Versailles  May  5, 
789,  when  the  commons,  insisting  that  the 
states  should  constitute  but  one  body,  changed 
;he  title  to  National  Assembly  (q.  v.),  June  17. 

ETCHING.— The  inventor  of  this  art  is  not 
mown.  It  was  practised  by  Albert  Durer, 
vhose  print  of  the  "Canon,"  in  1518,  is  perhaps 
;he  first  example  of  its  employment.  Parme- 
giano,  who  died  in  1540,  is  regarded  by  some  as 
;he  inventor  of  etching.  Henry  Schwanhard 
discovered  the  art  of  etching  on  glass  in  1670. 

ETHANDUNE  (Battle).— Alfred  defeated  the 
Danes  at  Ethandune,  supposed  to  be  Edington, 
near  Westbury,  in  878. 

ETHER  is  thought  to  have  been  known  in 
some  form  to  Paracelsus,  who  flourished  1520 
— 1541.  Basil  Valentine  obtained  it  in  the  i6th 
century  by  distilling  alcohol  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  in  1681  nitric  ether  was  discovered 
by  Kunckel.  In  Middleton's  "  Women  beware 
Women,"  printed  in  1657,  the  following  passage 
occurs  : — 

"  I'll  imitate  the  pities  of  old  surgeons 
To  this  lost  limb ;  who,  ere  they  show  their  art, 
Cast  one  asleep,  then  cut  the  diseased  part." 

Act  iv.  sc.  I. 

Its  preparation  was,  however,  lost,  until  re- 
discovered by  Navier  in  1742.  Nitric  ether 
was  first  analyzed  by  Boulay  and  Dumas  in 
1828.  Hydratic,  or,  as  it  is  incorrectly  termed, 
sulphuric  ether,  was  discovered  by  Gay- 
Lussac,  and  acetic  ether  by  the  Count  de 
Lauragnais.  Muriatic  ether  was  first  obtained 
by  Gehlen  in  1804,  oananthic  ether  by  Liebig 
and  Pelouze  in  1836,  and  real  sulphuric  ether 
by  Wetherill  in  1848. 

ETHICS,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  signifying 
morals.  The  chief  writers  on  the  subject  are 
Plato  (B.C.  428— May,  B.C.  347);  Aristotle 
(B.C.  384 — Aug.,  B.C.  322);  Seneca  (died  in  65) ; 
St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo  (354— Aug  28, 
430);  Thomas  Aquinas  (1224 — March  7,  1274); 
Adam  Smith  (1723  —  July  8,  1790)  ;  Adam 
Ferguson  (1724  —  Feb.  22,  1816)  ;  William 
Paley  (1743— May  25,  1805) ;  Jeremy  Bentham 
(1748 — June  6,  1832)  ;  Dugald  Stewart  (1753 — 
June  ii,  1828) ;  Sir  William  Hamilton  (1788 — 
May  6,  1856) ;  and  William  Whewell  (1794— 
March  6,  1866).  (See  PHILOSOPHY.) 

ETHIOPIA  (Africa),  the  Cush  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  term  was  applied  to  the  extensive 
territories  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Atlantic,  and  in  a  more  restricted  sense  to  the 
kingdom  of  Meroe. 

B.C. 
1615.  The  Ethiopians  establish  themselves  in  the  south  of 

941.  Terah,  King  of  Ethiopia,  is  defeated  by  Asa,  at 
Mareshah. 

719.  Shebek,  or  Sabaco,  leads  an  immense  army  into 
Egypt,  where  he  establishes  an  Ethiopian 
dynasty. 

698.  Tirhakah,  King  of  Ethiopia,  marches  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Hezekiah  against  Sennacherib,  but  re- 
turns, in  consequence  of  the  miraculous  destruc- 
tion of  the  Assyrian  army. 

630.  A  great  migration  of  warriors  from  Egypt  to 
Ethiopia. 

600.  Ethiopia  is  invaded  by  Psammis,  King  of  Egypt 


ETHNOLOGY 


384    1 


EUCHITES 


B.C. 

524.  Cambyses  leads  an  army  of  50,000  men  into 
Ethiopia,  all  of  whom  are  buried  beneath  the 
burning  sands  of  the  desert. 

225.  Ptolemy  (III.)  Euergetes  I.   extends  his  power  in 

Ethiopia. 
•&.  Candace,  Queen  of  Ethiopia,  is  defeated  by  Petroaius. 

ETHNOLOGY.  —  This  science,  which  treats 
of  the  various  races  of  mankind,  owes  its 
origin  to  the  researches  of  Thunmuim,  Schlaef- 
zer,  Buhle,  Klaproth,  De  Sacy,  Hitter,  &c.  An 
ethnological  society  was  established  at  Paris 
in  1839,  and  the  Ethnological  Society  of  Lon- 
don was  founded  by  Dr.  King  in  1843. 

ETIENNE  ST.  (France).— This  town,  founded 
in  the  ioth  century,  possesses  the  remains  of 
a  fine  church  erected  in  the  nth  century,  and 
was  surrounded  with  walls  by  Charles  VII. 
about  1441.  In  the  i6th  century  it  became  a 
centre  of  the  hardware  and  riband  manu- 
facture, the  royal  factory  for  fire-arms  having 
been  established  in  1585.  In  1585,  1628,  and 
1629  it  was  nearly  depopulated  by  the  plague. 
A  large  fire-arm  manufactory  was  founded  in 
1764.  St.  Etieime,  which  has  increased  greatly 
in  importance  since  the  peace  of  1815,  became 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Loire, 
Jan.  i,  1856. 

IOTXA.—  (See  MTN\,  MOUNT.) 

ETOGES  (Battle).— A  fierce  but  indecisive 
contest  took  place  Feb.  14,  1814,  at  this  village 
of  France,  between  the  army  of  Silesia,  under 
Marshal  Blucher,  and  the  French,  under 
Napoleon  I.  and  Marshal  Marmont.  Both 
sides  claimed  the  victory. 

ETON  COLLEGE  (Buckinghamshire)  was 
founded  by  Henry  VI.,  as  the  "  College  of  the 
Blessed  Marie  of  Eton  by  Wyndesore,"  Sep.  12, 
1440.  The  charter  was  confirmed  by  act  of 
Parliament  at  Westminster,  May  4,  1441.  The 
original  foundation  was  a  provost,  10  priests, 
4  clerks,  6  choristers,  25  poor  grammar- 
scholars,  and  a  master  to  teach  them,  and  the 
like  number  of  poor  men.  It  now  consists 
of  a  provost,  7  fellows,  2  conducts,  7  clerks, 
70  king's  scholars,  10  lay  clerks,  10  choris- 
ters, and  a  number  of  inferior  officers  and 
servants.  The  Duke  of  Newcastle  founded 
and  endowed  three  scholarships  of  the  annual 
value  of  ^50  each  in  1829,  and  Prince  Albert 
instituted  the  annual  prize  of  ^50  for  pro- 
moting the  study  of  modern  languages  in  1842. 

ETON  MONTE M.— This  triennial  procession 
of  the  scholars  of  Eton  College  is  thus  described 
by  Lyson  (Magna  Britannia,  i.  557)  : — "  The 
chief  object  of  the  celebrity  is  to  collect  money 
for  salt,  as  the  phrase  is,  from  all  persons 
present,  and  it  is  exacted  even  from  passengers 
travelling  the  road.  The  scholars  who  collect 
the  money  are  called  salt-bearers,  and  are 
dressed  in  rich  silk  habits.  .  .  .  This  ceremony 
has  been  frequently  honoured  with  the  pre- 
sence of  his  majesty  (George  III.)  and  the 
royal  family,  whose  liberal  contributions, 
added  to  those  of  many  of  the  nobility  and 
others  who  have  been  educated  at  Eton  and 
purposely  attend  the  meeting,  have  so  far 
augmented  the  collections,  that  it  has  been 
known  to  amount  to  more  than  .£800.  The 
sum  so  collected  is  given  to  the  senior  scholar 
who  is  going  off  to  Cambridge,  for  his  support 
at  the  university."  The  date  of  its  institution 


is  not  known,  but  it  is  of  very  early  origin. 
At  first  it  was  celebrated  Dec.  6,  but  in 
1758  it  was  transferred  to  Whit-Tuesday.  The 
ceremony  was  abolished  May  25,  1847. 

ETRURIA.— By  the  5th  article  of  the  treaty 
of  Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801,  the  duchy  of  Tus- 
cany was  raised  into  the  kingdom  of  Etniria, 
and  bestowed  upon  Louis,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Parma,  who  began  to  exercise  authority  July 
21.  Napoleon  I.  suppressed  this  kingdom, 
adding  it  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1807. 
(See  TUSCANY.)  - 

ETRURIA  (Staffordshire).  —  This  village, 
manufactory,  and  mansion,  were  founded  by 
Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood,  the  eminent  improver 
of  British  pottery,  in  1771.  He  died  here  Jan. 

3>  ETRURIA,      TYRRHENIA,     or     TUSCIA 

(Italy),  the  modern  Tuscany. 


800.  The  Ktriisruns  settle  in  Campania. 

538.  They  unite  with  the  Carthaginians  in  an  expedition 

against  the  Phocieau  colonists  of  Corsica. 
522.  They  attack  Cumae. 
506.  Defeat    of   Porseuiia  at  Aricia,  by  the  Greeks  and 

Romans. 

474.  Hit-rim  of  Syracuse  defeats  an  Etruscan  fleet. 
453.  The  Syracusaiis  ravage  the  coasts  of  Etruria. 
396.  The  Barnaul  capture  Veii. 
384.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  invades  Ktruria. 
351.  The  Etruscans  conclude  a  40  years'  truce  with  the 

Romans. 

310.  Battle  of  the  Vadimonian  Lake  (q.v.). 
295.  Battle  of  Sentinmn  (</.  j\). 
2*3.  Second  battle  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake. 
265.  Etruria  is  finally  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 
Ny.   The  KtniM'uns  receive  the  Roman  franchise. 
41.  Etruscan  nationality  is  extinguished  by  the  capture 

of  Perugia  (q.  v .). 

ETTRICK  (Scotland).— James  V.  of  Scotland 
in  1530  vigorously  suppressed  the  bands  of 
mosstroopers  who  infested  this  village  of 

Selkirkshire. James  Hogg,  the  poet  (1772 — 

Nov.  21,  1835),  from  his  birth  and  residence  in 
this  place,  is  known  as  the  Ettrick  Shepherd. 

EU  (France). — This  town  was  burned  by 
Louis  XI.  to  save  it  from  the  English  in  1475. 
In  1578  the  Duke  of  Guise  rebuilt  the  castle, 
which  in  1675  was  purchased  by  Mademoiselle 
de  Montpensier.  Louis  Philippe  improved  and 
extended  it  in  1821.  Here  the  monarch  received 
Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert,  Sep.  2,  1843. 
A  series  of  grand  entertainments  was  given, 
and  the  royal  guests  returned  to  England  Sep. 

?>  EU&EA  (JSgean  Sea).— This  island  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Athenians,  who  defeated  the  in- 
habitants of  its  chief  city,  Chalcis  (q.  v. ),  and 
established  a  colony  of  4,000  of  their  own 
countrymen,  B.C.  506.  The  city  of  Eretria  was 
destroyed  by  the  Persians  B.C.  490,  and  the 
island  soon  afterwards  became  subject  to  the 
Athenians.  It  revolted  B.C.  445  and  B.C.  411, 
and  was  in  each  case  speedily  reduced  to  tran- 
quillity ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Chajronea,  B.C. 
338,  it  was  seized  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
whose  descendants  retained  possession  of  it  till 
the  Romans  restored  it  to  independence,  B.C. 
194.  An  insurrection  against  the  Turks  broke 
out  in  Euboea  in  1822.  (See  NEGROPONT.) 

EUCHARIST.  —  (See  CHEESE,  COMMUNION 
SERVICE,  and  SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD.) 

EUCHITES,  or  MESSALIANS.— This  sect, 
says  Bingham  (Antiq.  iv.  b.  xi.  c.  2,  s.  5), 
'were  so  called  from  the  Greek  word  ev^i) 


EUGUBIAN 


[    385    ] 


EVANGELICAL 


prayer,  and  Messalians  from  the  Syriac  word 
metsalach,  which  is  much  of  the  same  signifi- 
cation, because  they  resolved  all  religion,  into 
prayer."  They  arose  in  the  4th  century. 

EUGUBIAN,  or  EUGUBINE  TABLES.— 
These  tablets  of  brass  were  dug  up  between 
Cortona  and  Gubbio,  the  ancient  Eugubium, 
or  Iguvium,  in  1444.  The  number  of  the  tablets 
is  seven,  of  which  five  contain  Umbric  in- 
scriptions mixed  with  Etruscan  and  two  Latin 
inscriptions.  They  are  generally  ascribed  to 
the  4th  century  B.C. 

EUNOMIANS.— The  followers  of  Eunomius, 
Bishop  of  Cyzicus  in  360,  adopted  the  extreme 
tenets  of  Arianism.  Theodosius  I.  published 
edicts  against  them  in  394,  by  which  they 
were  forbidden  to  appoint  bishops,  and  were 
declared  incapable  of  inheriting  property  or 
making  a  will. 

E  U  N  U  C  H  S.  —  Semiramis,  the  mythical 
Queen  of  Assyria,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  employed  eunuchs  as  servants,  B.C.  2017. 
The  custom  seems  to  have  originated  in  Libya, 
whence  it  extended  to  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia, 
and  other  Eastern  nations.  Constantino  I. 
(323—337)  and  the  other  Christian  emperors  of 
Rome  suppressed,  with  severe  penalties,  the 
making  of  eunuchs,  and  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
(June  19 — Aug.  25,  325)  condemned  and  ex- 
cluded from  holy  orders  those  who,  from  ex- 
cess of  zeal,  practised  self -mutilation. 

EUNUCHS,  or  VALESIANS.— This  heretical 
sect,  founded  by  Valesius  in  the  3rd  century, 
mutilated  not  only  their  own  male  children, 
but  all  upon  whom  they  could  lay  hands. 

EUPATORIA,  or  KOSLOV  (Crimea),  the 
ancient  Pompeiopolis.  The  mosque  of  Devlet- 
Ghiri-Khan  was  built  in  1552.  This  town  was 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1726  and  1771.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  allied  forces,  Sep.  14,  1854,  who 
repelled  an  attack  of  the  Cossacks,  Oct.  n. 
Omar  Pasha  defended  it  against  a  Russian  force 
under  Gen.  Chruleff,  Feb.  17,  1855,  and  it  was 
finally  restored  to  the  Russians,  May  31,  1856. 

EUPHON,  or  EUPHONON.— This  musical 
instrument  was  invented  by  Chladni  in  1790, 
and  improved  in  1822. 

EUPHRATENSIS.— (See  COMMAGEN.) 

EUPHUISM.— This  affected  style  of  phraseo- 
logy, common  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was 
introduced  or  made  popular  by  John  Lilly, 
whose  "Evphves,"  or  "  The  Anatomy  of  Wit," 
ancF  "  Euphues  and  his  England,"  were  pub- 
lished in  1581.  These  works,  saysGifford,  "  did 
incalculable  mischief  by  vitiating  the  taste, 
corrupting  the  language,  and  'introducing  a 
spurious  and  unnatural  mode  of  conversation 
and  action." 

EUROPE.— The  Phoenicians  founded  colonies 
in  Europe,  the  smallest  of  the  four  divisions  of 
the  world,  between  the  i2th  and  8th  centuries 
B.C.  The  earliest  notice  of  this  quarter  of  the 
globe  is  found  in  the  writings  of  the  Greeks, 
who  began  to  form  settlements  in  the  south  of 
Europe  in  the  6th  century  B.C. 

EURYMEDON  (Battle).— Near  this  river  of 
Asia  Minor,  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  defeated 
a  Persian  fleet  of  350  vessels,  200  of  which  he 
captured,  6.0.466.  At  the  same  time  he  encoun- 
tered the  land  forces  of  the  Persians  on  the 
banks  of  this  river,  and  completely  routed  them . 


EUSEBEA.—  (See  C^SAREA.) 

EUSEBIANS.  —  This  ecclesiastical  faction, 
followers  of  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Nicomedia, 
opposed  Athanasius  at  the  Council  of  Tyre  in 
335,  and  supported  Arius  at  the  Councils  of 
Jerusalem  in  335,  and  of  Constantinople  in  336. 

EUSTACE,  ST.  (Battle).— The  rebels  were 
defeated  at  this  place,  in  Lower  Canada,  Dec. 
14, 1837.  The  insurgents  laid  down  their  arms, 
and  their  leaders  took  to  flight. 

EUSTATHIANS.  —  The  Arians  called  the 
orthodox  by  this  name,  after  Eustathius,  or 
Eustace,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  about  325.  It 
also  distinguishes  the  followers  of  Eustathius, 
Bishop  of  Sebaste,  who  prohibited  marriage. 
He  was  deposed  for  his  errors  by  the  Councils 
of  Melitena  in  357,  and  of  Neo-caesarea  in  358, 
and  his  disciples  were  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Nicopolis  in  372. 

EUSTATIUS,  ST.  (West  Indies),  one  of  the 
Leeward  Islands,  was  colonized  early  in  the 
1 7th  century  by  the  Dutch,  to  whom  it  now 
belongs.  It  was  taken  and  retaken  several 
times  during  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries. 
Admiral  Rodney  captured  it  Feb.  3,  1781.  The 
French  took  it  Nov.  26,  1781.  The  English  re- 
gained possession,  and  the  island  was  finally 
transferred  to  the  Dutch  by  the  convention  with 
Great  Britain,  signed  at  London  Aug.  13,  1814. 

EUTAW  SPRINGS  (Battle).— The  Americans 
were  defeated  by  the  English  in  a  severely- 
contested  action  at  Eutaw  Springs,  in  South. 
Carolina,  Sep.  8,  1781.  The  American  army 
consisted  of  4,000  men,  and  the  English  force 
was  greatly  superior  in  point  of  numbers. 

EUTYCHIANS,  the  disciples  of  Eutyches, 
an  ecclesiastic  of  Constantinople,  who  began  to 
publish  his  views  respecting  the  nature  of 
Christ  in  446.  He  taught  that,  after  his  incar- 
nation, the  Saviour  only  possessed  one  nature, 
compounded  of  Godhead  and  manhood.  This 
doctrine  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  Nov.  8-22,  448,  and  Eutyches 
was  deprived  of  his  office ;  but  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  in  449  declared  him  orthodox,  and 
reinstated  him  in  his  dignity.  His  doctrines 
were,  however,  again  condemned  by  the  fourth 
general  council,  held  at  Chalcedon  Oct.  8,  451. 
(See  ACEPHALJ  and  MONOPHYSITES.  ) 

EUXINE.— (See  BLACK  SEA.) 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE.— A  conference 
was  held  at  Liverpool  in  Oct.,  1845,  to  con- 
sider the  possibility 'of  uniting  all  branches  of 
the  Christian  Church  into  one  grand  confede- 
racy. Two  meetings  were  held  at  the  same 
town,  Dec.  16,  to  consider  the  proposed  alliance, 
and  a  conference,  composed  of  members  from 
all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  several 
foreign  countries,  met  at  Freemasons'  Hall, 
London,  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  Culling  . 
Eardley  Smith,  Aug.  19 — Sep.  2,  1846,  when 
nine  propositions  were  adopted  as  the  basis  of 
the  union.  Meetings  in  connection  with  this 
society  were  held  at  Paris  in  1855,  at  Berlin  in 
1857,  and  at  Geneva  in  1861. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION  was  orga- 
nized in  the  United  States  by  German  immi- 
grants in  1803. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION,   a  religious  body 
formed  in  Scotland  by  the  Rev.  J.  Morison,  of 
Kilmarnock,  in  1843.     (See  MORISONIANS.) 
c  c 


EVANGELISTS 


386    ] 


EXCHEQUER 


EVANGELISTS.— This  term,  formerly  ap- 
plied to  all  writers  or  preachers  of  the  Gospel, 
is  now  generally  confined  to  the  writers  of 
the  four  gospels,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
John.  Matthew's  is  assigned  by  different  au- 
thorities to  various  dates  between  38  and  64  ; 
Mark's  to  60  or  63  ;  Luke's  to  63  or  64 ;  and 
John's  to  97  or  98. 

EVESHAM  (Battle).— Near  this  town,  in 
Worcestershire,  Prince  Edward,  afterwards 
Edward  I.,  defeated  (Aug.  4,  1265)  the  English 
barons  under  Do  Montfort,  and  released  his 
father,  Henry  III.,  who  had  been  taken  cap- 
tive at  the  battle  of  Lewes.  I)e  Montfort 
and  his  son  Henry  were  both  killed.  (See 
BARONS'  WAR.) 

EVIL  MAY-DAY.— Stow  remarks  :— " The 
apprentices  of  London  are  so  considerable  a 
body  that  they  have  sometimes  made  them- 
selves formidable  by  insurrections  and  muti- 
nies in  the  city,  getting  some  thousands  of 
them  together,  and  pulling  down  houses, 
breaking  open  the  gates  of  Newgate  and  other 
prisons,  and  setting  the  prisoners  free."  Their 
resentment  was  generally  directed  against 
foreign  merchants  and  artisans  for  supposed 
interference  with  their  trade.  A  general  in- 
surrection occurred  May  i,  1517,  and  the  day 
received  the  name  of  "Evil  May-day."  Much 
damage  was  done,  and  many  lives  were  lost, 
when'  Henry  V11I.  sent  some  troops,  who 
quelled  the  riot,  and  took  300  prisoners. 
.Several  were  executed  on  gibbets  set  up  in 
different  parts  of  the  city.  A  similar  out- 
break against  the  French  and  Dutch,  in  Sep., 
1586,  was  put  down  by  the  vigilance  of  the 
authorities.  Another  occurred  June  29,  1595, 
for  participation  in  which  five  apprentices  were 
executed  as  traitors  on  Tower  Hill,  July  24. 
The  apprentices  also  took  part  in  the  disputes 
between  Charles  I.  and  the  Long  Parliament. 
One  of  the  last  tumultuous  assemblages  oc- 
curred April  4,  1668,  when  they  pulled  down 
several  disorderly  houses.  Four  of  the  ring- 
leaders were  afterwards  executed. 

EVORA,  or  EBOIIA  (Portugal).  —  This 
ancient  city  was  taken,  B.C.  80,  by  Quintus 
Sertorius,  who  erected  a  fine  aqueduct,  still  in 
good  preservation,  about  B.C.  70.  Evora  was 
seized  by  the  Moors  in  715,  but  was  recaptured 
in  1166.  The  cathedr.il  was  founded  in  1186, 
and  the  choir  rebuilt  in  1721  ;  the  archbishopric 
was  created  in  1540,  and  the  university  was 
established  in  1578.  The  Spaniards  occupied 
Evora  for  some  weeks  in  1663.  An  insurrec- 
tion in  favour  of  Don  Miguel  was  suppressed 
herein  1828.  (.SVe  Avis.) 

EVORAMONTK  (Treaty).— By  a  convention 
signed  at  this  place  in  Portugal,  May  29,  1834, 
Don  Miguel  renounced  all  claim  to  the  throne 
of  Portugal  ('/. 

E  VRE  UX  (France). — This  town  of  Normandy, 
the  ancient  Mecliolanum,  founded  in  the  sth 
century,  and  taken  and  plundered  by  the 
Northmen  under  Rollo  in  892,  was  seized  by 
Lothaire  in  962,  and  erected  into  a  county  in 
989.  On  the  extinction  in  1118  of  the  first  line 
of  counts,  the  succession  was  disputed  by  the 
Duke  de  Montforfc  and  Henry  I.  of  England, 
who  burned  the  town  in  1119.  In  1194  and 
1199  it  was  taken  and  burned  by  Philip  II. 


(Augustus).  The  English  were  permanently 
expelled  in  1441,  and  the  town  was  seized  by 
the  Duke  of  Longueville  in  1649.  In  1793 
attempts  were  vainly  made  to  raise  an  insur- 
rection here  against  the  National  Convention. 
The  shrine  of  St.  Thaurin,  first  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  erected  in  660,  was  enlarged  into  an 
abbey  church  by  Richard  II.,  Duke  of  Nor- 
niandy,  in  1026.  The  cathedral  was  founded 
in  the  nth  century.  The  chateau  of  Navarre, 
founded  by  Jeanne  of  Navarre,  in  1330,  and 
rebuilt  by  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  in  1686,  was 
the  residence  till  1745  of  the  young  Pretender, 
and  afterwards  of  the  Empress  Josephine.  It 
was  destroyed  in  1836.  The  clock-tower  was 
erected  by  the  English  in  1417.  The  bishop's 
palace  was  built  in  1484,  and  the  little  chateau 
in  1749,  in  honour  of  a  visit  of  Louis  XV.  .SYc 
UOCHKKF.L,  Battle. : 

EXALTATION  OF  THE  CROSS.  —  (See 
CROSS.) 

KXAMINATIOX.S  (MIDDLE  CLASS).— (See 
U.NIVKKSITV  LOCAL,  EXAMINATIONS.', 

EXARCH.— An  officer  first  appointed  in  553 
by  Justinian  I.  as  the  representative  in  peace 
and  war  of  the  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  Narses, 
the  first  exarch,  administered  the  entire  king- 
dom of  Italy,  but  the  jurisdiction  of  his  suc- 
cessors in  the  oincc  was  limited  to  the  province 
of  Ravenna  ((/.  <•.). 

EXCKLLEXCK,  or  EXCELLENCY,  —  This 
title  was  first  applied  to  ambassadors  at  the 
congresses  which  commenced  at  Minister  and 
Osnaburg  in  1643,  and  resulted  in  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia. 

EXCHANGE.— (See  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE; 
BURSE;  COAL  BZOHAKGB  ;  CORN  EXCIIA.V;;;  ; 
ROYAL  EXCHAX<;K;  &c.) 

EXCHEQUER.— This  court,  sometimes 
called  Curia  Regis  ad  Scaccariuia,  formed  a 
part  of  the  Curia  Regis.  Its  origin  is  variously 
attributed  to  William  I.  in  1079,  and  to  Henry 
I.  It  took  cognizance  of  matters  connected  with 
the  revenue,  and  also  exercised  jurisdiction 
over  common-plea  suits  until  a  separate  court 
was  erected  for  their  decision  by  Magna  Charta, 
in  1215.  (See  COMMON  PLEAS.)  The  name  was 
derived  from  the  table  at  which  its  sittings 
were  held,  which  is  described  as  "a  four- 
cornered  board,  about  ten  feet  long  and  five 
feet  broad,  fitted  in  manner  of  a  table  to  .sit 
about;  on  every  side  whereof  is  a  standing 
ledge,  or  border,  four  fingers  broad.  Upon  fhis 
board  is  laid  a  cloth  bought  in  Easter  Term, 
which  is  of  black  colour,  rowed  with  strokes, 
distant  about  &  foot  or  a  span."  On  the  squares 
of  this  Scaccarium,  or  chequered  cloth,  counters 
were  placed,  to  assist  in  making  the  needful 
computations.  Barons  of  the  exchequer  were 
first  appointed  Jiily  6,  1234,  and  chief  barons 
about  1307.  By  9  Edw.  III.  st.  1,0.5  'i335'» 
justices  of  assize,  &c.,  were  ordered  to  send  all 
their  records  to  this  court  annually  at  Michael- 
mas, and  by  31  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  12  (1357),  the 
lord  chancellor  and  lord  treasurer  were  autho- 
rized to  examine  its  erroneous  judgments. 
(See  EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER.)  By  5  Viet.  c.  5, 
s.  i  [Oct.  5,  1841),  the  equity  jurisdiction  of  the 
exchequer  was  transferred  to  the  court  of 
Chancery.  The  office  of  cursitor  baron  of  the 
exchequer  was  abolished  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  86 


EXCHEQUER 


C  387  1 


EXCHEQUER 


(July  29,  1856),  and  the  practice  and  procedure 
on  the  revenue  side  of  the  court  was  amended 
by  22  and  23  Viet.  c.  21,  s.  g,  et  seq.  (Aug.  13, 
1859).  By  6  Anne,  c.  26  (1707),  a  court  of  ex- 
chequer was  established  in  Scotland,  which 
was  abolished  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  54  (June 
23,  1832).  Foss  gives  the  following  list : — 

CHIEF  BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER. 
A.D.        EDWARD  II. 

1307,  Sep.  16?     William  de  Carleton. 

1308,  Oct.   24?     Thomas  de  Caiitebrig. 
1310,  July  17?     Roger  le  Scotre. 
13121,  ~M.au:    3?     Walter  de  Norwich. 

EDWARD  111. 
1337,  Feb.  2-4-     Walter  lie  Norwich. 

1329,  Feb.    21.     .luhn  <li:  Stonore. 

1330,  Dec.    19.     Henry  le  Scorpe. 
1337,  Mar.  34.     Kobert  de  Sadington. 

1344,  July      3.     William  de  Shareshull. 

1345,  Nov.    10.     John  de  Stouford. 

1345,  Dec.      8.  Kobert  de  Sadington  (ngnin). 

1350,  April     7.  Gcrva.se  de  Wilford. 

1363.  William  de  Skipwith. 

1365,  Oct.     3>  Thomas  de  Lodelowe. 

1374,  Feb.      3.  William  Tank. 

1375,  Nov.    13.  Henry  de  Asty. 

RICHARD  II. 

1377,  June.          Henry  de  Asty. 
1300,  Dec.      6.     Robert  de  Plesyngion. 
1386,  Xov.      5.     John  Cary. 

April  24.     Thomas  1'ynchebek. 

13.    John  Gassy. 

IIENKY  IV. 

1399,  Sep.     30.     John  Cnssy. 

1400,  Nov.    15.    John  Cokayn. 

HEXRY  V. 

1413,  April  38.     William  Lasingby. 
1413,  May      3.     William  Lasingby. 
1419,  Nov.      4.     William  Babington. 
HK.VKY  VI. 

William  Babington. 
5.    John  Juyn. 
9.     John  Fray. 

3.  Peter  Ardernc. 
EDWARD  iv. 

Peter  Arderne. 

4.  Kichard  lllingworth. 
471,  May    22.     Thomas  Ursxvyke. 

1479,  April   3.     William  Nottingham. 

EICIIAKD  III. 

1483,  Juno  26.     Humphrey  Starkey. 
HEXRY  VII. 

1485,  Aug.  Humphrey  Starkey. 

1486,  Oct.     29.     William  Hody.       ' 

HENRY  VIII. 

1509,  April.          William  Hody. 
1522,  Feb.      8.     John  Fitz- James. 
1526,  Jan.    34.     Kichard  Broke. 
1529,  May    12.     Kichard  Lyster. 
1545,  Nov.    II.     Kogcr  Cholmley. 

EDWAun  vi. 
1547,  Jan.  Roger  Cholmley. 

1552,  May    31.    Heiirv  Bradsha\v. 

MARY. 

1553,  Sep.      I.     David  Brook. 
1558,  March  3.     Clement  Heigham. 

ELIZABETH. 

1558,  Nov.    17.     Clement  Heigham. 

1559,  Jan.    22.     Edward  .Saundcrs. 
1577,  Jan.    24.     Kobert  Bell. 

John  Jeffery. 
Koger  Mamvood. 
AVilliam  Pcryham. 
JAMES  I. 

William  Peryhnm. 
Thomas  Fleming. 
Laurence  Taiifield. 


1422,  Sep. 

1423,  May 
1436,  Feb. 
1448,  May 

1461. 
1462,  Sep. 


Oct. 
1578,  Nov.    17. 
1593,  Feb. 


1603,  March. 

1604,  Oct.     27 
1607,  June  35. 


CHARLES  I. 
1625,  Mar.  27.     Laurence  Tanfield. 
1625,  May    10.     John  Walter. 
1631,  Jan.    10.     Humphrey  Davenport. 
1644,  Jan.    25.     Richard  Lane. 
1648,  Oct.    13.    John  Wilde. 


INXEKBEGNUM. 

1649,  Feb.  John  Wilde. 

1655,  May   28.    William  Steele. 
l6s»,  June  26.     Thomas  Widdriugton. 
1660,  Jan.    17.     John  Wilde  (again). 
CHARLES  II. 

1660,  June     i.    Orlando  Bridgeman. 
1660,  Nov.     7.     Matthew  Hale. 
1671,  May    23.     Edward  Tumour. 
1676,  April  13.    William  Montagu. 
JAMES  II. 

1685,  Feb.  William  Montagu. 

1686,  April  21.     Edward  Atkyns. 

WILLIAM  III. 

1689,  April]  17.     Edward  Atkyns. 
1695,  June     8.     Edward  Ward. 

ANXE. 
1702,  March  8.    Edward  Ward. 

GEORGE   I. 

1714,  Nov.  23.    Samuel  Dodd. 
1716,  June 

1722,  May 

1723,  Nov. 
1725,  June 
1736,  Oct. 


Thomas  Bury. 
4.     James  Montagu. 
6.     Kobert  Eyre. 
3.    Jeffrey  Gilbert. 
3.    Thomas  Pengelly. 

GEORGE  II. 


1737,  June.          Thomas  Pengelly. 
l73o,April    30.    James  Reynolds. 

1738,  July      7.     John  Comyns. 
1740,  Nov.   2».     Edward  I'robyn. 
1742,  Nov.    39.     Thomas  Parker. 

GEOEGE  ill. 

1760,  Oct.  Thomas  Parker. 

1773,  Oct.    38.     Sidney  Stafford  Smythe. 
1777,  Nov.    37.     John  Skynner. 
1787,  Jan.    36.     James  Eyre. 
1793,  Feb.    13.     Archibald  Macdonald. 

1813,  Nov.  Vicary  Gibbs. 

1814,  Feb.    14.    Alexander  Thomson. 
1817,  April  32.     Kichard  Richards. 

GEORGE  IV. 

1830,  Jan.  Richard  Richards. 

1834,  Jan.      9.     William  Alexander. 
.    WILLIAM  IV. 

1830,  June.  William  Alexander. 

1831,  Jan.    18.     John,  Lord  Lyndhurst. 
1834,  Dec.    34.     James,  Lord  Abinger. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June.          James,  Lord  Abinger. 
1844,  April  15.     Frederick  Pollock. 
1866,  July    17.    Fitzroy  Kelly. 

CHIEF  BARONS  FOR  IRELAND,   SINCE  TTIE 

REVOLUTION. 
1690,  Dec.  5.  John  Hely. 
1695,  May  10.  Kobert  Doyne. 
1703,  Dec.  37.  Nehenmh'Donnellan. 

1706,  June  25.  Richard  Freeman. 

1707,  June  12.  Robert  Rochfort. 

1714,  Oct.  14.  Joseph  l»eane. 

1715,  June  16.  Geffrey  Gilbert. 
1722,  June  9.  Bernard  Hale. 
1725,  Sep.  2.  Thomas  Dalton. 
1730,  Sep.  29.  Thomas  Marlay. 
1741,  Dec.  21.  John  Bowes. 
1757,  March  u.  Edward  Willes. 
1766,  Sep.  5.  Anthony  Foster. 

1777,  July  3.  James  Dennis,  afterwards  Baron  Tracton. 

1782,  July  3.  Walter  Hussey  Burgh. 

1783,  Nov.   29.  Barry    Yelverton,    afterwards    Viscount 

Avonmore. 
1805,  Oct.  5.    Stniidish    O'Grady,    afterwards    Viscount 

Guillamore. 

1831,  Jan.  6.  Henry  Joy. 
1838,  July  30.  Stephen  Woulfe. 
1840,  Feb.  II.  Ma/.iere  Bradv. 
1846,  Sep.  I.  David  Richard'Pigot. 

EXCHEQUER  'Chancellor).—  John  Manscll, 
appointed  to  reside  at  the  receipt  of  the  ex- 
chequer in  1234,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 

CO  2 


EXCHEQUER 


EXCISE 


first  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  Chancellors  of  the  Ex- 
chequer since  the  Restoration  :— 

CHANCELLORS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER. 

CHARLES  II. 
A.T>. 

1660,  Sep.  8.  Sir  Robert  Long. 
1667,  May  24.  Anthony,  Lord  Ashley,  afterwards  Earl  of. 

167.?,  Nov.  13.  Sir  John  Duncombe. 

1679,  March   26.  Lawrence  Hyde,  afterwards   Viscount 

Hyde,  and  Earl  of  Rochester. 
1679,  Nov.  21-  Sir  John  Eruley. 

JAMES  II. 
1685,  Feb.  6.  Sir  John  Ernley. 

WILLIAM  in. 
1689,  Feb.  13.  Sir  John  Ernley. 

1689,  April  a.  Henry  Booth,  Lord  Delamcre. 

1690,  March  18.  Richard  Hampden. 
1694,  Mays-  Sidney,  Lord  Godolphin. 
1696,  May  2.  Chark-s  Montague. 
1699,  Nov.  15.  John  Smith. 

1701,  March  29.  Henry  Boyle,  afterwards  Lord  Carleton. 

ANXE. 

1702,  March  8.  Henry  Boyle. 

1708,  Feb.  ii.  John  Smith  (second  time). 

1710,  Aug.  10.  Robert  Harluy,  afterwards  Earl  of  Oxford. 

1711,  June  14.  Robert  Benson,  afterwards  Lord  Biugley. 

1713,  Nov.  i.  Sir  William  Wyndham. 

GEORGE  I. 

1714,  Aug.  I.  Sir  William  Wyndham. 

1714,  Oct.    13.    Sir   Richard  Onslow,   afterwards    Baron 

1715,  Oct.  10.  Robert  Walpole,  afterwards  Earl  of  Orford. 

1717,  April  15.    James  Stanhope,  afterwards  Earl  Stan- 

hope. 

1718,  March  18.  John  Aislabie. 
1731,  Jan.  Sir  John  1'rntt. 

1721,  April  4.  Robert  Walpole,  afterwards  Earl  of  Orford 
(second  time). 

GEORGE  II. 
1727,  June  II.  Robert  Walpole. 

1742,  Feb.  17.  Samuel  Sandys,  afterwards  Baron  Sandys. 

1743,  Aug.  3S-   Il«'iiry  1'elham. 
1754,  March  9.  Sir  William  Lee. 

1754,  April  6.   Henry  Bilsnn  Leggi>. 

1755,  Nov.   22.    Sir   George   Lyttelton,   afterwards    Lord 

Lyttelton. 

1756,  Nov^  16.  Henry  Bilsnn  I.e^-v  (second  time). 

1757,  April  9.  William  Murray,  afterwards  Lord  Mans- 

field. 

1757,  July  2,,  Henry  Bilson  Legge  (third  time). 
GEORGE   III. 

1760,  Oct.  25.  Henry  Bilson  Legge. 

1761,  March  12.  William,  Viscount  Barrington. 

1762,  May  29.  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  afterwards  Lord  le 

Despenser. 

1763,  April  1 6.  George  Grenville. 

1765,  July  13.  William  Dowdeswell. 

1766,  Aug.  2.  diaries  Towiishnnd. 

1767,  Sep.  12-  William,  Lord  Mansfield  (second  time). 
1767,  Dec.  i.  Frederick,  Lord  North,  afterwards  Earl  of 

Guildford. 
1782,  March  27.  Lord  John  Cavendish. 

1782,  July  13.  William  Pitt. 

1783,  April  5.  Lord  John  Cavendish  (second  time). 
1783,  Dec.  19.  William  Pitt  (second  time). 

1801,  Feb.   17.    Henry  Addington,    afterwards    Viscount 

Sidmouth. 
1804,  May  12.  William  Pitt  (third  time). 

1806,  Feb.  5.  Lord  Henry  Petty,  afterwards  Marquis  of 

Lansdowne. 

1807,  April.  Spencer  Perceval. 

1812,  June    9.     Nicholas     Vansittart,     afterwards    Lord 
Bexley. 

GEORGE  IT. 

1820,  Jan.  29.  Nicholas  Vansittart. 
1823,  Jan.    31.     Frederick    John    Robinson,    afterwards 

Viscount  Goderich  and  Earl  of  Kipon. 
1827,  April  12.  George  Canning. 

1827,  Aug.  17.  John  Charles  Hurries. 

1828,  Jau.  Henry  Goulburu. 


WILLIAM  IV. 

1830,  June  26.  Henry  Goulburn. 

1830,  Nov.  23.    John  Charles,  Viscount  Althorpe,  after  - 
wards  Earl  Spencer. 

1834,  Dec.  9.  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

1835,  April.  Thomas  Spring  Kice,  afterwards  Lord  Mont- 

eagle. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June  20.  Thomas  Spring  Rice. 

1839,  Aug.  26.  Francis  Thornhill  Baring. 

1841,  Sep.  Henry  Goulburn  (second  time). 

1846,  July  16.  Charles  Wood,  afterwards  a  Baronet  and 

in  1866  Lord  Halifax. 
1852,  March.  Benjamin  Disraeli. 
1852,  Dec.  William  Ewart  Gladstone. 
J  K.-.5.    Feb.  23.  Sir  George  Coniewall  Lewis. 

1858,  Feb.  Benjamin  Disraeli  (second  time). 

1859,  June  30.  William  Ewart  Gladstone  (second  time). 
1866,  July  6.  Benjamin  Disraeli  (third  time). 

EXCHEQUER  (Comptroller-General).  —  The 
offices  of  auditor,  tellers  of  the  exchequer,  and 
clerk  of  the  pells,  were  suppressed  by  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  15,  s.  i  (May  22,  1834),  which  act  ordered  the 
appointment  of  a  comptroller-general,  with  a 
regular  staff  of  clerks  and  assistants. 

KX CHEQUER  (Tellers  of  the).— These  offi- 
cers, who  existed  as  early  as  1189,  when  they 
were  ten  in  number,  afterwards  reduced  to 
four,  were  abolished  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  15, 
s.  i  (May  22,  1834). 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS,  which  first  appeared 
in  1696,  have  since  been  issued  annually.  They 
were  first  circulated  by  the  Bank  of  England 
in  1706.  Doubleday  (Financial  History  of 
England,  p.  77)  defines  them  as  "nothing 
more  than  promissory  notes  due  at  certain 
dates,  and  bearing  interest,  issued  by  Govern- 
ment when  in  want  of  money." 

EXCHEQUER  CHAMBER.— This  court  was 
erected  by  31  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  12  (1357),  to 
discuss  questions  which  other  courts  found 
doubtful,  and  to  serve  as  a  tribunal  of  appeal 
from  the  court  of  Exchequer.  By  27  Eliz. 
c.  8  (1585),  its  jurisdiction  was  extended  over 
erroneous  judgments  in  the  court  of  King's 
Bench,  and  it  was  confirmed  and  further  regu- 
lated by  31  Eliz.  c.  i  (1589).  The  constitution 
of  this  court  was  again  altered  by  j  i  Geo.  IV. 
&  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  s.  8  (July  23,  1830).  In 
Scotland  the  court  of  Exchequer  was,  until 
the  Union,  6  Anne,  c.  n  (March  6,  1707),  the 
King's  revenue  court.  A  new  court  was  estab- 
lished by  6  Anne,  c.  26  (1707),  which  was 
amended  by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  54  (June  23,  1832), 
and  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  56  (July  21,  1856),  which 
abolished  the  Scotch  court  of  Exchequer,  and 
transferred  its  jurisdiction  to  the  court  of 
Session.  The  court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  in 
Ireland  was  established  by  the  Irish  Act,  40 
Geo.  III.  c.  39  (Aug.  i,  1800). 

EXCISE,  or  a  duty  levied  upon  articles  of 
consumption,  produced  within  the  state  in 
which  the  tax  is  levied,  was  introduced  at 
Rome  by  Augustus,  after  the  civil  wars,  B.C. 
28.  Gibbon  says  it  seldom  exceeded  one  per 
cent.,  that  it  was  temporarily  reduced  one-half 
by  Tiberius,  after  the  annexation  of  Cappa- 
docia  in  17,  and  that  it  was  altogether  abolished 
by  Caligula  (37 — 41).  An  attempt,  made  in 
1626,  to  introduce  excise  duties  into  England, 
proved  unsuccessful.  The  Long  Parliament 
levied  the  first  excise  duties  in  England, 
May  1 6,  1643.  Wines,  ale,  beer,  cider,  perry, 


EXCLUSION 


[    389    1 


EXECUTIONS 


and  tobacco  were  the  articles  taxed.  By  12 
Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660),  excise  duties  were 
levied  as  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  crown. 
The  malt  duty  was  first  levied  in  1695.  A 
large  number  of  articles  on  which  excise  was 
formerly  levied  are  now  exempted.  The  old 
Excise  Office  was  built  on  the  site  of  Gresham 
College  in  1774.  In  1823,  the  Irish  and  Scotch 
Boards  of  Excise  were  incorporated  with  the 
English  establishment.  The  Board  of  Excise 
was  incorporated  with  that  of  Stamps  and 
Taxes,  under  the  name  of  Board  of  Inland 
Revenue,  by  12  Viet.  c.  i  (Feb.  27,  1849). 

EXCLUSION  BILLS.— The  first  Exclusion 
bill  committed  in  the  House  of  Commons,  May 
21,  1679,  by  207  against  128,  was  lost  by  the 
dissolution  of  that  Parliament,  May  27.  A 
second  measure,  "for  securing  the  Protestant 
religion  by  disabling  James,  Duke  of  York, 
to  inherit  the  imperial  crown  of  this  realm," 
passed  the  House  of  Commons  Nov.  n,  1680  ; 
and  was  rejected  in  the  House  of  Lords,  on  its 
first  reading,  Nov.  15.  Charles  II.  sent  a 
message  to  the  Commons,  refusing  to  pass  a 
bill  of  exclusion,  Jan.  7,  1681.  In  the  Parlia- 
ment summoned  to  meet  at  Oxford,  March  21, 
1 68 1,  the  Commons  ordered,  March  28,  that  the 
bill  for  excluding  James,  Duke  of  York,  was 
to  be  read  a  third  time  the  next  day.  Charles  II. 
at  once  dissolved  the  Parliament,  stating,  "as 
we  are  not  likely  to  have  a  good  end,  when  the 
divisions  at  the  beginning  are  such." 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  as  an  ecclesiastical 
punishment,  is  of  two  kinds,  the  major  or 
greater,  and  the  less.  The  major  excommu- 
nication is  also  called  anathema  (q.  v.).  The 
lesser  excommunication  consisted  in  exclud- 
ing persons  from  the  participation  of  the 
Eucharist,  and  the  prayers  of  the  faithful. 
Excommunication  by  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle, 
formerly  pronounced  every  quarter  in  English 
churches,  was  denounced  in  Westminster  Hall 
against  the  violators  of  Magna  Charta,  in 
1253.  The  following  are  the  most  celebrated 
instances  in  which  excommunication  has  been 
pronounced  by  the  popes.  When  levied  against 
an  entire  state,  it  is  termed  an  interdict. 

535.  Baronius  asserts  that  Agapetus  I.  threatened  to  put 
France  under  an  interdict,  because  of  a  murder 
committed  by  King  Clotaire  I..  This  account  is  re- 
jected as  a  fable. 

098.  Gregory  V.  excommunicates  Robert,  King  of 
France. 

1077.  Gregory  VII.  excommunicates  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.  (See  CANOSSA.) 

1115.  The  Emperor  Henry  V.  is  excommunicated  at  a 
council  at  Cologne. 

1160.  Interdicts  are  said,  by  some  authorities,  to  have 
become  frequent  from  the  time  of  Alexander  III. 

1308  March  23.  Innocent  III.  places  England  under  an 
interdict,  which  is  removed  Dec.  6,  1213. 

1337  Gregory  IX.  excommunicates  the  Emperor  Frede- 
rick II.  The  excommunication  is  repeated  in 
1328,  and  the  ban  is  removed  in  1229. 

mo  Gregory  IX.  again  excommunicates  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II. 

1345    July  17.  The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  is   excommuni- 
'       cated  at  the  I3th  general  council  at  Lyons. 

1510.  Julius  II.  excommunicates  Louis  All.  ot  France. 

1538,  Dec.  17.  Paul  III.  publishes  a  bull,  dated  Aug.  31. 
1535,  excommunicating  and  deposing  Henry  Vlll. 

1559.  Paul  IEV.gdenies  the  right  of  Elizabeth  to  the  English 
crown. 


A.D. 

570,  April  25.  Pius  V.  publishes  a  bull  declaring  Eliza- 
beth of  England  an  usurper. 

1786,  May  4.    Lord   George  Gordon  is  excommunicated 
at  the  parish    church  of   St.    Marylebone.     (See 


GORDON  RIOTS.) 
1860,  March  39.    Pius  IX.   excommunicates  all  persons 


concerned  in  the  rebellion,  invasion,  and  usurpa- 
tion of   the   Romaprna.      This  sentence  includes 


;llion,  inva 
a.      This  f 
Napoleon  HI.  and  Victor  Emanuel. 

EXCURSION  TRAINS  were  first  started  in 
England  Easter  Monday,  April  8,  1844. 

EXECUTIONS.— In  1039  the  executioner  is 
mentioned  as  a  person  of  exalted  rank,  and 
even  now  the  sheriff  is  nominally  the  exe- 
cutioner by  virtue  of  his  office.  Harrison's 
'  Description  of  Great  Britain,"  printed  in 
1577,  states  that  72,000  rogues  and  thieves 
suffered  death  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
— that  is,  about  2,000  a  year.  By  9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  31,  s.  4  (June  27,  1828),  the  time  for  the  exe- 
cution of  a  murderer  was  fixed  for  the  next 
day  but  one  from  that  on  which  he  received 
sentence.  This  was  repealed  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV. 
c.  30  (July  14,  1836). 


Date. 

Name. 

Crime. 

Place  of 
Execution. 

1700,  Aug.23 
1701,  May  23 

Rev.  T.  Hunter... 
Captain  Kidd   ... 

tfurder  ... 
Piracy   ... 

Edinburgh, 
Execution 
Dock. 

1716,  Feb.  24 

Lord      Derwent- 

High 

Tower  Hill. 

water  

reason 

1718,  May  21 

John    Price,    the 

Murder  ... 

BunhillRow 

hangman 

1724,  Nov.i6 

John  Sheppard... 

rlouse- 

Tyburn. 

jreaking 

1739,  Apr.  10 

Richard  Turpin... 

Horse- 

York. 

stealing 

1746,  Aug.iS 

Lords       Kilmar- 

High 

Tower  Hill. 

nock  and  Bal- 

treason 

merino 

1747,  April  9 

Lord  Lovat  

.. 

I7SQ,  Aug.io 

Eugene  Aram   ... 

Murder  ... 

York. 

1766,  May  5 

Lord  Ferrers  

Tyburn. 

1761,  April  4 

Theodore       Gar- 
delle 

» 

Saymarket. 

1761,  Dec.  15 

JohnM'Naughton 

Strabane. 

1767,  Sep.  14 
1774,  NOV-SO 

Mrs.  Brownrigg.. 
John  Rann,  alias 
Sixteen  -  string 

Highway 
robbery 

Tyburn. 

Jack 

1-776,  Jan.  17 

Daniel    and    Ro- 

Forgery... 

M 

bert  Perreau 

1777,  June27 
1779,  Apr.  19 

Rev.  Dr.  Dodd  ... 
Rev.JamesHack- 

Murder  ... 

" 

man 

1781,  April  2 

John  Donellan  ... 

" 

Warwick. 

1795,  Aug.  3 

Lewis    Jeremiah 
Abershaw 

Kennington 
Common. 

1797  Juneso 

Richard  Parker... 

Mutiny  ... 

The     Sand- 

wich,      off 

1797,  Dec.  ii 
179:1,  June  7 

Mrs.  Phipoe  
James  O'Coigley 

Murder  ... 
High 
treason  ... 

Newgate. 
Pennenden 
Heath. 

1800,  April 

Richard     Fergu- 

Highway 

Aylesbury. 

son,   alias  Gal- 

robbery 

1802.  Jan.  38 

loping  Dick 
Joseph  Wall,Esq. 

Murder  ... 

Old  Bailey. 

1803,  Jan.  18 
1803,  Feb.  31 

George  Foster   ... 
Col.  Despard  and 
others  

High 
treason  ... 

Horsemon- 
ger  Lane. 

1803,  Sep.   3 
1803,  Sep.  30 

John  Hatfield    ... 
Robert  Emmett... 

Forgery  .. 
High 
treason  .. 

Carlisle. 
Dublin, 

1806,  April  8 

Richard  Patch  ... 

Murder  .. 

Horsemen-. 

ger  Lane* 

1807,  Feb.  33 

Haggerty       and 
Holloway 

" 

Old  Bailey.* 

*  At  this  execution  more  than.  40  people  lost  their  live« 

from  the  crush. 

EXECUTIONS 


[    390    ] 


EXECUTIONS 


Date. 

Xame. 

Crime. 

Place  of      1 
Execution. 

Date. 

Name. 

Crime. 

Place  of 
ICxecutiuii. 

1808,  Mar.  7 

'homus  Simmons 

Murder  ... 

i 
Hertford, 

184^  June  2 

Joseph  Connor  ... 

Murder  ... 

Old  Bailey. 

1808,  Oct.    2 

ilajor  Campbell 

„  (duel) 

Armagh. 

1846,  Jan.    5 

\IarthaBro\vning 

1811,  June34 

{.  Armitage  and 

Forgery... 

Old  Bailey.     ;     1846,  April  4 

Samuel  Yarhain 

' 

Norwich. 

C.  Thomas 

1847,  April  l 

Jolm  Platts    

Derby. 

1813,  May  18 

John  Bellinglunvi 

Murder  ... 

1847,  Apr.  17 

Catherine  Foster 

Bury  St.  Ed- 

1813, Aug.23 

'hilip  Nicholson 

" 

Pennenden     i 
Heath. 

1848,  Jan.  8 

Patrick  Reid  

munds. 
York. 

1813,  Sep.  18 

Michael  M'llvena 

l.'nhiw- 

1849,  Apr.  2  1 

James  B.  Rush... 

Norwich. 

fullvper- 
tormfng 

l«49,  Aug.  2  1 
1849,  Xov.  1  3 

Mary  A.  Geering 
Manning  and  his 

« 

!.e%\  es. 

Horsemon- 

the  mar- 

wife 

ger  Lane. 

riage   ce- 

1850, Aug.  34 

Patrick  Forbes  ... 

Newcastle. 

remony 

1851,  Mar.25 

Sarah  Chesham  .. 

Chelmsford. 

1815,  Aprils 

Joseph       Black- 
burn, Esq. 

Forgery... 

York. 

1854,  Jan.35 

1854,  April  9 

Wm.  dimming... 
(juiii,  Grant,  and 

" 

Edinburgh. 
Monaghau. 

1816,  Aug.39 

Jeremiali  Grant.. 

Hirjrlary 

Maryboro1. 

Cootney 

1817,  Mar.  12 
1817,  July 

Jolm  ('ashman  ... 
Patrick  Dcvan  ... 

•\-lony   ... 
Murder  ... 

-dinner  St. 
Wild    Goose 

18^,  Jan.  22 
[858;  Mar.3, 

E.  Barthelemv  ... 
Wm.  Bousfield  ... 

•- 

Old  Bailey. 

Lodge,  Ire- 

656, Junei4 

Wm.  rainier  

Stafford. 

land. 

1856,  Aug.  9 

William  Dove    ... 

Xork. 

1817,  Xov.  7 

Jeremiah    Bran- 

ffigh 

Derby. 

Robert  Marlev  ... 

old  Bailey. 

dretli,  &c  

Dedea  Kedanies 

Jlaidstone. 

1818,  Aug.  3 

Charles  1  i 

Murder  ... 

Pennenden 

1*57,  •>"'>'   (> 

Thomns  .Mansell 

Heath. 

1857,  Julv33 

Mil-had   Crawley 

Chelmsford. 

(Thistlewood..') 

1*57,  July  25 

John  Lewis    

' 

Cardiff. 

Ings  

1  iigh  nea- 

i  '57,  Sep.  ii 

('apt.  Bo 

Liverpool. 

1830,  May  I 

Brunt  'f 

son,  (  atO 
St.     con- 

Old Bailey. 

I*S7,  -No\  .  .'(• 

1858,  Jan.  12 

Thos.  K.  Havis... 
Jolm  W.  Beale... 

» 

Old  Bailey. 

Wilton. 

I>a\idson     ... 

spiracy... 

I*S*,  ''an.  14 

John  Thompson 

Paisley. 

1830,  July3i 

James  Xc.sbctt  ... 

Murder  ... 

Pennenden 

Christian  Saltier 

Old  Bailey. 

Heath. 

i8s8,Apr.36 

Giovanni  Lani  ... 

1821,  July  1  8 

David  Hag-art... 

Edinburgh, 

i«s*,  Aug.24 

Thos.  B.  Urn-knell 

Taunton. 

1823,  July  28 

Philip  Stoffel  and 

Horscmon- 

[859,  Jan.   3 

Henry  Reid    

Liverpool. 

1824,  Jan.    9 

Chan.  Keppel 

John  Thurtell    ... 

ger  Lane. 
Hertford.) 

1860,  Sep.    4 

W.  (i.  Voungman 

" 

llorscmon- 
ger  Lane. 

1824.  Nov.  3  o 

llenrvFauntlerov 

Forgery... 

Old  Bailey. 

I  .«oo,  Xov.  19 

James  Mullins  ... 

old  Bailey. 

1835,  Junc2o 

William  1'robert 

llorse- 

„ 

[86l,  April  5 

The           brothei-s 

Taunton. 

«tealing 

Weilnmre 

1826,  Mar.  20 

TolmDiggles  

Murder  ... 

Manchester. 

1861,  Aug.37 

Martin  Doyle    ... 

Attempt 

Chester. 

1827,  Jan.    2 

Charles   T.  White 

Arson  

old  Baih-y. 

to  murder 

1827,  Jan.  26 

John  Peele  

Forgery... 

Pennenden 

1861,  Sep.  19 

I'eter  Master:  on 

Munk-r  ... 

Maidstone. 

Heath. 

1862,  Mar.14 

Jolm  Gould     

Reading. 

1*27,  Sep.     I 

Josliua  Slade  

Murder  ... 

Huntingdon 

[86«,  Mar.  15 

Wm.  Charlton  ... 

Carlisle. 

1838,  Aug.li 

William  Corder... 

Bury  St.  Ed- 

1*62, Apr.  1  1 

Jliehard  Thorley 

n 

Derby. 

munds. 

George  J.  Gilbert 

Winchester. 

1828,  Dec.   8 

Joseph  IfuiltOll... 

Forgery... 

Old  Bailey. 

1862,  Aug.25 

Kiehard  Burke... 

1829,  Jan.  28 
1829,  Apr.  13 

William  Burke... 
Esther  llibner  ... 

Murder  ... 

Edinburgh. 

old  Bailry. 

I86J,  Sep.  13 

William  Taylor) 
John  Ward        J 

„ 

Kirkdale. 

1829,  Apr.  29 

Kdward  Barnett 

Moinnoiith. 

1862,  Oct.  20 

Catherine  Wilson 

Old  Bailuy. 

1830,  Jan.  1  1 

AVillium  Banks... 

Burglary 

Eonemon- 

1863,  Xov.I7 

Hubert  Cooper  ... 

ger  Lane. 

1863,  Juu-   3 

William     Ockold 

Wife' 

Worcester. 

1830,  Aug.  3 

Capt.  Moir  

Murder  ... 

Chelmsford. 

(aged  70)  

murder 

1830,  Dec.  24 

11.   &    W.   Pack- 

Arson  

Pennenden 

1*6-,,  Mar.24 

\oali  Auston  

Murder... 

Oxford. 

in  ail     and     J. 

Heath. 

1863,  April  6 

lleiirv  Carter  

Warwick. 

Dyke 

1863,  A])ril8 

Daniel  Ward  

Belfast. 

1831,  July  29 

Jolm  A.   B.  Bell 

Murder  ... 

1863,  Apr.  ii 

Robert  A.  Burton 

Maidstonc. 

1831,  Dec.   5 

(aged  14) 

Bishop          and 

Old  Bailey. 

1  863,  Apr.  1  1 
1863,  Apr.  13 

Edward  Cooper... 
Dennis  Delane  ... 

» 

Shrewsbury. 
Limerick. 

Williams 

1*6-;,  Apr.  14 

John  Ducker  

lps\\  ich. 

1833,  Jan.   8 

Elizabeth  Ross  ... 

1863,  Apr.  IT 

William  Hope    ... 

Hereford. 

1833,  July  9 

Jonathan       Siui- 

Murder   & 

,  1  863,  Apr.  25 

I>.    Mel-hail   and 

" 

Kirkdale. 

thers     

arson 

G.  Woods 

1833,  Aug.io 

183  1,  Xov.35 

James  Cook   
Mose'evand  Gar- 

Murder  ... 

Leicester. 
Horsemoii- 

i  1863,  Apr.  27 
j  1863,  Aug.io 

Joseph  Brooks  ... 
Joseph  Kelly  

« 

Old  Bailey. 
Wexford. 

1835,  Apr.  15 

1*3-,  Mar.   7 
1837,  May   2 

side  " 
Mary  A.  Burdock 
John  Pegsworlh 
James  Greenaerc 

" 

ger  Lane. 
Bristol. 

Old  Bailey. 

1863,  Sep.  II 

/"Alvarez   \ 
I  Hughes     ( 

S  O'Brien  ( 
VThomas  ) 

•1 

Kirkdale. 

1839,  Dec.  16 

William  Lees  

AI 

1.^3.  Dee.  28 

Alice  Holt  

Chester. 

1840,  July  6 

F.  B.  CourvoUei 

., 

If  C>4,  .lull.    2 

John  (Jreei  

Cambridge. 

1841,  Aprils 

Josiah  Mister  

Atlemptci 

Shrewsbury 

[804,  Jan.   9 

Luke  Charles  

Kirkdale." 

laJ^Feh!1' 

Robert  Blakeslej 
John  Delahmit.. 

murder 
Murder  .. 

Old  Bailev. 

Dublin.     " 

1864,  Jan.  13 

Samuel  Wright... 
IBlaneo     1 
Duranno  j 

" 

Hi/rsemon- 
gcr  Lane. 

1843,  July  4 
1844,  Jan.  13 

Cooper 

" 

Old  Bailev. 
Stafford.  ' 

1864,  Feb.  3? 

Lyons  .... 

Piracy     & 
munler 

Old  Bailey. 

Sarah  Wcstwoo; 

1844,  Aug.  7 

William  Saviile 

Notting- 

Watto    j 

ham  * 

[864,  Mav    g 

John  Devine  

Murder  ... 

1845,  Mar.  34 

James  Tapping.. 

^ 

Old  Bailey. 

[864,  Aug.    i 

Charles  JJrieknell 

" 

1845,  Mar.  38 
1845,  Apr.  38 

.lames  TaweSl    .. 
Thomas  llocker 

" 

AvK-sburv. 
Old  Bailey. 

1*64.  Aug.  5 

Ch.irles  Stevens  .. 
Fran/.  Midler  

Avh-sbuvv. 
Old  Builey. 

1864,'  Dec.  3* 

Francis  Wane   ... 

^ 

Chelmsford. 

*  Twelve  persons  were  killed,  and  upwards  of  30  seriously 
injured,  from  the  excessive  crowding  at  this  execution. 

1865,  Jan.  36 
1865,  Mar.i6 

Ferdinand  Kohl 
Matt.  Atkinson... 

" 

Durham. 

EXECUTORS 


r  391  i 


EXETEE 


Date. 

Name. 

Crinic. 

1'lacc  of 
Execution. 

A.L>. 

1643,  Sep. 

1865,  July  38 

Dr.    Edward    W. 

Murder  ... 

ettatgow. 

1646,  Apri 
I6»8,  Xov 

Pritchard 

1*6;,  Oft  12 

John  C.n-rir   

Maidstonc. 

1696.  Will 

1866,  Jan.  ii 

StephenForwood, 

alias  Southey 

" 

:1 

1725-  The 
1738,  Oct. 
tr 

I'TTO.    A  1H 

EXECUTORS  were  appointed  iu  Greece  and 
Rome.  They  are  often  mentioned  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  wills.  Mention  is  made  in  the  Rotuli 
Parl.  of  the  executors  of  the  will  of  Bishop 
John  of  Kyrkcby  in  1290. 

EXETER  (Bishopric). — On  the  erection  of 
the  see  of  AVinchester,  in  650,  its  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  extended  over  all  the  west  of 
England  ;  but  in  705  Devon  and  Cornwall  were 
formed  into  the  separate  diocese  of  Sherbome. 
In  909  Edward  the  Elder  created  the  sees  of 
Wells,  Cornwall,  and  Devonshire,  the  two 
latter  of  which  were  united  in  1040,  and  in 
1046  the  sec  was  transferred  from  Creditor!  to 
Exeter.  The  Scilly  Islands  were  declared 
within  this  diocese  July  30,  1838. 

EXETER  (Devonshire).— This  city  is  one 
of  the  oldest  in  England,  some  authorities 
ascribing  its  foundation  to  Corinseus,  nephew 
of  the  mythic  Brutus,  B.C.  noo,  while  others 
state  that  it  was  built  by  Vespasian  in 
49.  But  as  it  was  anciently  called  by  British 
names,  such  as  Pancair,  the  chief  city  ;  Caer- 
Isc,  the  city  of  the  Isc  or  Exe ;  and  Caer-Rydh, 
the  city  of  the  red  soil,  it  was  most  pro- 
bably settled  by  the  Britons  previous  to  the 
Roman  invasion. 

B.C. 

54.  Kougcmont  Castle  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 

Julius  Cresar. 
A.t). 

633.  Pcnda,  King  of  Mercia,  besieges  Exeter. 
868.  Ethelred  founds  a  monastery. 
876.  The  Danes  winter  in  Exeter. 
894.  Alfred  compels  the  Danes  to  raise  the  siege  of  the 

city. 

918.  Edward  the  Elder  holds  a  witenagemot  at  Exeter. 
933.  Athelstnn  founds  a  monastery. 
1003.  Exeter   is  totally  destroyed    by   Sweyn,  King  of 

Denmark. 
1050.  Edward  the  Confessor   and  his  queen  Edith  visit 

Exeter,  and  found  a  cathedral. 

1067.  The   inhabitants  rebel   against  William    the  Con- 
queror, who  besieges  and  takes  Exeter. 
III2.  The  cathedral  is  founded  by  Bishop  Warlewast. 
1140.  Exeter  surrenders  to  King  Stephen,  after  a  siege 

of  three  months,  during  which  the  cathedral  is 

demolished. 

I2co.  It  is  incorporated. 

1239.  Tlle  priory  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  is  founded. 
1250.  A  bridge  is  built  over  the  Exe. 
1280.  Bishop  Linvil  rebuilds  the  cathedral. 
1386.  Edward  I.  and  his  queen  hold  their  Christmas  revels 

at  Exeter. 

1354.  The  first  recorder  is  elected. 
1357.  The  inhabitants   entertain   the  Black  Prince   and 

King  John  of  France,  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers. 
1463.  Xine  aldermen  are  appointed  by  Edward  IV. 
1469.  Exeter  is  besieged  by  the  Yorkists,  under  Sir  Hugh 

Courtenay. 

1497.  Perkin  Wai-beck  lays  siege  to  Exeter. 
1536,  Aug.  3.  Exeter  is  erected  into  a  separate  county. 
1549,  July  2.  It  is  besieged  by  the  Cornish  rebels.  Aug.  6. 

They  are  compelled  to  withdraw,  and  the  day  is 

still  observed  as  an  annual  festival, 
1555.  The  first  chamberlain  of  the  city  is  elected. 
1588.  Elizabeth  grants  the   city    "Semper  ftilclix"  as  its 

motto,  for  its  fidelity  during-  the  Spanish  invasion. 
1593.  The  Guildhall  is  erected. 


.  The  Koyalists,  under  Prince  Maurice,  take 

).  The  city  surrenders  to  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax. 
.  William  III.  makes  his  public  entry  into 
ter. 

in  III.  establishes  a  mint. 
<>  Tnpsham  canal  is  completed, 
t.    18.  The   Duke  of   Marlborough  reviews  the 
troops  hero. 

bridge  is  commenced. 
1773.  The  castle  is  partially  demolished,  and   the  asjiza' 

hall  built. 

1775.  The  new  bridge  is  destroyed  by  a  flood. 
1778.  Exe  bridge  is  opened. 
1789,  Aug.  George  III.  visits  Exeter. 
1796.  The  gaol  is  built. 

1801.  .St.  Thomas's  Lunatic  Asylum  is  founded. 
1807.  The  Bridewell  is  founded. 
1813.  The  Devon  and  Exeter  Institution  is  founded. 
1817.  Exeter  is  first  lighted  with  gas. 

1819.  The  city  prison  is  erected. 

1820.  The  Koyal  Subscription-rooms  are  built. 

1821.  The  public  baths  are  opened. 

1825.  The  Mechanics'  Institute  is  established. 
1835.  The  Western  market  is  built,  the  Athena?um  insti- 
tuted, and  the  waterworks  arc  completed. 
1838,  July.  The  Eastern  market  is  opened. 
1844,  May  I.  The  Bristol  and  Exeter  railway  is  opened. 

1847.  The  Polytechnic  Institution  is  founded.— April  27.  A 

destructive  fire. — May  14.  A   serious   food  riot 
takes  place. 

1848.  May  5.  The  South  Devon  railway  is  opened. 

1849.  The  post-office  is  erected. 

1805.  The  Albert  Memorial  Museum  is  erected. 

EXETER  CHANGE  (London)  is  mentioned 
as  a  recent  erection  by  De  Laune  in  "The 
Present  State  of  London,  &c. ; "  published  in 
1 68 1.  It  was  designed  for  the  vise  of  milliners, 
hosiers,  <fec.,  but  did  not  answer;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  it  was  afterwards  vised  as 
a  menagerie  by  Mr.  Cross.  The  elephant 
"  Chunee  "  was  shot  here  in  March,  1826,  and 
the  old  building  was  pulled  down  in  1829. 
New  Exeter  Change,  otherwise  Wellington 
Arcade,  completed  in  1845,  from  the  designs 
of  Mr.  Sydney  Smirke,  was  taken  down  in 
Dec.,  1862. 

EXETER  COLLEGE  (Oxford).— This  college 
was  founded  in  1314,  by  Walter  of  Staple- 
don,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  by  whom  it  was  called 
Staplcdon  Hall.  Two  new  fellowships  for 
the  diocese  of  Salisbury  were  added  in  1404 
by  Edmund  Stafford,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  from 
whom  the  college  received  its  present  name, 
and  in  1565  Sir  William  Petre  added  eight 
fellowships.  Charles  I.  founded  a  fellowship 
for  the  islands  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  in 
1636,  and  in  1770  Mrs.  Shiers  bequeathed 
certain  rents,  which  were  devoted  to  the 
purpose  of  forming  two  additional  fellowships 
for  Hereford  and  Surrey.  These  arrangements 
were  amended  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  81  (Aug.  7, 

1  EXETER  HALL  (London).— This  building 
was  erected  in  the  Strand  by  Gandy  Deering, 
in  1830-1.  It  was  intended  for  public  meetings 
on  religious  and  charitable  matters  ;  but  has 
since  been  vised  as  a  concert-room  for  sacred 
music.  A  series  of  Sunday  evening  services 
commenced  by  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England,  under  the  sanction  of  the  Bishop 
of  London,  May  24,  1857,  was  discontinued  in 
consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the  incum- 
bent of  the  parish,  Nov.  6.  The  Dissenters 
commenced  a  similar  course  Nov.  22.  A  very 
large  meeting  of  the  Sons  of  the  Phoenix,  a 


EXHIBITION 


[    392    1 


EXTRAVAGAXTS 


body  of  teetotallers,  formed  into  societies 
called  lodges,  like  those  of  benefit  societies, 
was  hold  here  Nov.  9,  1859. 

1 1 :  X  1 1  I  H  IT  1  ( )  X.  —  The  idea  of  collecting 
objects  of  industrial  manufacture  first  oc- 
curred to  the  Marquis  d'Avexe,  in  1797  ;  but  he 
was  unable  to  carry  it  out  until  1798,  when  lie 
opened  at  Paris  what  is  termed  in  France  an 
."  exposition"  of  French  goods.  The  undertaking 
proved  so  successful  that  the  idea  was  adopted 
by  the  French  Government,  and  similar  col- 
lections were  exhibited  in  1801,  1802,  1806, 
1819,  1823,  1827,  1834,  and  since  then  every 
five  years.  A  similar  exhibition  was  opened 
at  Ghent  in  1820,  at  Berlin  in  1834,  and  at 
Vienna  in  1835.  This  led  to  the  idea  of  a 
general  exhibition,  in  which  different  nations 
should  be  competitors.  The  first  on  this 
extended  scale  was  the  Great  JJxhibition  (q.  r.}, 
held  in  London  in  1851. 

A.D. 

1*52,  June  10.  Cork. 
1*53,   May  12.   Dublin  (q.  r.). 
July   14.     New   York 

('/.r.}. 
1855    Jan.  2S.  Calcutta. 

May  ,5.    Paris. 
1857,  May     5.     Manchester 
Art    Treasures   Kx- 
hibition  (,/.  r. ). 
I86t,   Sep.  I^.    Florence. 
IW>4,   Jan.  12.   Dublin  (»/.«'.). 
Jan.  20.   Lahore. 
March    i.   South  Lon- 
don. 


1864,  Oct.  IT.  North  London. 
t86s  Wert     London.     (See 
FLORAL  HALL.) 

May  S.  Dublin  (q.  t>.). 

Sep.    Hastings. 

Sep.  Oporto. 

Sep.  i<;.  Bristol. 
Sep.  21.  I'reston. 
Dec.  12.  Glasgow 

(1-  r.). 
1866,   March    2.  Manchester 

March  'o.     Guildhall, 
London. 

(See  ART    Flxmni TIONS  ;    GRT-.VT    EXHIBITION; 
INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS;  INTERNATIONAL  Kx- 

HIHITKIN  ;    A'.' 

K.xiu-is  i',;ittlc\  —  The  Austrian*  and 
Sardinians  defeated  the  French  and  Spaniards 
at  this  place,  near  Mont  Cenis,  July  19,  1747. 
The  French  republican  army  failed  in  an  attack 
upon  the  fort  of  Exiles  in  1794. 

K\<M)US  of  the  Israelites  from  K.-rypt 
occurred,  according  to  the  best  authorities, 
B.C.  1491.  Lepsius  fixes  it  B.C.  1314,  and 
Bunsen  B.C.  1320. 

EXODUS  (Book  of).— The  second  of  the  five 
books  of  Moses,  containing  a  full  account  of 
the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Iv^ypt, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  written  before  B.C. 

f]XORCISTS,  or  persons  who  professed  to 
ymssrss  the  art  of  expelling  evil  spirits,  existed 
in  very  ancient  times,  both  among  heathen  and 
Christian  nations.  They  were  constituted  an 
order  in  the  Church  towards  the  end  of  the 

£1  century,    when  exorcism  was  added    to 
ptism. 

EXPLOSIONS.— The  following  are  some  of 
the  most  calamitous  explosions  of  gunpowder 
on  record  : — 

A.T). 

1649,  Jan.  4.  Twenty-seven  barrels  of  gunpowder  ex- 
plode in  a  sliop  in  Tower  Street,  London. 

1758,  March  II,  Aug.  6,  and  Dec.  29.  Three  serious  ex- 
plosions, unattended  with  loss  of  life,  take  place 
at  the  llounslow  Mills. 

1765,  Dec.  3.  Two  mills  are  blown  up  nt  Waltham. 

1767,  Jan.  t.   The  royal  mills  at  Faversham  are  blown  up. 

1768,  May  10.  An  explosion  at  Ewell  effects  destruction 

to  the  amount  of  £8,000. 

1770,  Sep.  i.  A  man  and  a  horse  are  killed  at  Faversham. 
— Sep.  27.  A  man  is  killed  by  an  explosion  at 
Hounslow. 


Sep. 


.  Three  men  are  killed  by  an  explosion  at 
ills  are    blown 


Moulsey. 
Jan.   6.     Three    powd 


P    at 

llounslow. 

1774,  April  24.  Two  persons  are  killed  at  Hounslow. 
I7"6,  Aug.  20.  Several  persons  are  killed  by  an  explosion 

in  Pieardy. 
1777,  Aug.  1 6.  The  Kpsom  mills  are  blown  up. 

1789,  Oct.  3.  One  man  is  killed  by  an  explosion  at  Fa- 

versham. 

1790,  Oct.  12.  Six  men  are  killed  and  great  destruction  is 

occasioned  by  an  explosion  at   Dartford. 

1794,   Pec-.  31.    Kleven  men  are  killed  at  Dartford. 

1796,  Jan.  14.  Three  men  are  killed  and  much  property 
is  destroyed  by  an  explosion  at  llounslow.— 
Aug.  10.  Four  persons  are  killed  at  Dartford. 

179?,  May  20.  An  explosion  at  liattle  destroys  three 
lives  and  much  propertv. 

1799,  Jan.  14.  Two  men  and  a  hoy  arc  killed  at  Dartford. 
— July  13.  Four  men  are  killed  by  the  explosion 
of  a  mill  011  Twickenham  Common. 

1801,  March  20.  One  man  is  killed  at  Battle.— April  25- 
The  Waltham  mills  explode,  and  destroy  nine 
lives. 

1803,  Sep.  y.  Six  men  and  three  horses  are  killed  by  an 
explosion  at  Favcrsham. 

1805,  June  15.  Tuo  men  are  killed  at  Partford.— Oct.  I. 
A  mill  explodes  at  Koslin,  near  Kdinburgh,  kill- 
ing two  workmen. 

1807,  Sep.  i*.  Six  men  and  three  horses  are  killed  at 
-ham. 

1810,  Jan.  1 6.   Five  men  and  a  boy,  and  two  horses,  arc 

killed  bv  an  explosion  at  Faverslmm.  —  S--p.  24. 
TWO  men  are  killed  at  Dartford. 

1811,  Nov.  27.   The   powder  mills  at  Waltham  are  blown 

up.  with  a  loss  of   seven  men. 

1813,  July  4.  Two  men  arc  wounded  by  ail  explosion  at 
llounslow. — July  14.  The  Koslin  mills  blown  up, 
killing  two  men  and  wounding  a  third. 

1813,  Aug.  -•!.  Two  explosions,  fatal  to  three  workmen, 
take  place  at  llonnslow. 

1*14,  Sep.  Three  men  are  killed  at  Battle. 

[816,  April  if,.  The  Toulouse  powder  mills  explode,  kill- 
ing about  16  persons  and  wounding  several  more. 

[Si-,   Oct.  -.   Three  men  are  killed  at  Faversham. 

1818,  March  i<>.  The  powder  mills  at  Brandy- wine,  United 

States.hlow  up.  killing  ?c  and  wounding  10 pc rso us. 
1843,  April  13.  Seven  men  are  Killed  and  four  buildings 

overthrown  by  an  explosion  at  Walthimi. 
1850,  March  ii.  Three  explosions,   resulting  in  the  death 

of   eight  persons,  occur  at  the  llonnslow  mills. 

1859,  March  30.    The    Hounslow    mills   again   blow   up, 

with  a  loss  i  if  seven  lives.— Aug.  d.  Five  persons 
are  killed  by  an  explosion  at  the  llallincolligmills, 
near  Cork. 

1860,  Sep.  to.  Six  men  are  killed  at  the  Mclford  powder 

works.  Argyll-shire. 

1860,  Dee.    i.   An  explosion  of  gunpowder  in  a  shop  at 

Norwich  kills  two  persons  and  destroys  much 
property. 

iSfii,  Jan.  21.  An  explosion  at  the  Government  manu- 
factory for  hand  grenades.  Ac.,  at  Chatham, 
kills  one  man  and  injures  several. 

1861,  May  27.  The  Waitham  mills  blow  up,  killing  one 

man  and  wounding  others. 

1862,  Sep.   i).    Six  women   are   killed  by  an  explosion  at 

the  Nance  Kuke  powder  mills,  Cornwall. 

1864,  Oct.  I.   Frightful  explosion  at   Frith  (17.  r.).— Dec.  9. 

A  powder  st. in- explodes  at  linenos  Ayrcs,  killing 
160  soldiers. — Dec.  16.  A  powder  vessel  blows  up 
in  the  Mersey  at.  Liverpool  (q.  V.).— Dee,  24.  A 
powder  vo-sel  explodes  without  damage  at  Wil- 
mington, Cnitod  S; 

1865,  March  20.   Two  persons  are  injured   at  Favcrsham. 

— April  II.  Four  or  five  barrels  of  powder  ex- 
plode in  a  shop  at  Southwnrk. — May  24.  About 
300  persons  are  killed  by  an  explosion  at  Mobile, 
I'nited  States.- -Sep.  21.  A  firework  manufactory 
explodes  at  Manchester. — Sep.  25.  Two  men  arc 
killed  by  an  explosion  at  the  Ewell  powder  mills. 
—Sep.  26.  A  firework  manufaetory  blows  up  at 
l!ristol. 

EXTRAVAGANTS.— (See  CANON  LAW.) 
EXTREME   UNCTION.— This  ceremony  of 
anointing  persons  on  the  point  of  death  with 
oil,  originated  in  the  7th  century.     In  the  ioth 


EYLAU 


[    393    1 


FAIRFAX 


century  the  clergy  contended  that  if  it  did  nol 
benefit  the  body  it  was  of  great  service  to  the 
soul,  and  this  doctrine  was  generally  accepted 
in  the  i2th  century.  Eugenius  IV.,  at  the 
Council  of  Florence  (1439—1442),  decreed  it  to 
be  a  sacrament.  This  was  confirmed  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1545 — 1563). 

EYLAU  (Battle).— Napoleon  I.  defeated  the 
Russian  army  under  Benningsen  at  this  Prus 
sian  town,  Feb.  8,  1807.  The  action  was  com- 
menced by  Augereau,  whose  division  was 
defeated  with  immense  slaughter ;  but  Napo- 
leon corning  to  the  rescue,  the  fortunes  of  the 
day  were  retrieved,  and  the  Russians  com- 
pelled to  retire  to  Konigsberg.  The  loss  of  life 
was  unusually  great,  though  from  the  discrep- 
ancy in  the  reports,  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a 
positive  conclusion.  Alison  (ch.  xliv.  s.  74 
says  :  "  On  the  side  of  the  Russians  25,000  had 
fallen,  of  whom  above  7,000  were  already  no 
more  ;  on  that  of  the  French  upwards  of  30,000 
were  killed  or  wounded,  and  nearly  10,000  had 
left  their  colours,  under  pretence  of  attending 
to  the  wounded,  and  did  not  make  their 
appearance  for  several  days  afterwards." 

EZEKIEL.— This    book,     written    by    the 

rphet  Ezekiel  B.C.  595,  has  been  elucidated 
the  commentaries  of  Marck,   published  in 
1731,  and  of  Venenia  in  1790. 

EZRA.— This'  book  was  for  the.  most  part 
written  by  Ezra  the  scribe,  before  B.C.  444, 
though  it  appears,  from  internal  evidence,  that 
Daniel  and  Nehemiah  contributed  some  por- 
tions. 

F. 

FABIL— This,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  ancient  patrician  families  of  Rome,  did  not 
become  prominent  in  history  till  after  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Commonwealth,  B.C.  510. 
Three  brothers  of  the  house  held  seven  succes- 
sive consulships,  from  B.C.  485  to  B.C.  479.  The 
name  occurs  as  late  as  the  2nd  century.  (See 
CREMERA.) 

FABLES.  —  Jotham's  parable  of  the  trees 
(Judges  ix.  7-15),  delivered  about  B.C.  1235, 
is  the  earliest  fable  extant.  Very  ancient 
examples  by  Pilpay,  the  Hindoo  fabulist,  and 
by  the  Arabian,  Lokman,  a  contemporary  of 
King  David  (B.C.  1055 — 1015),  are  preserved ; 
but  the  first  collection  of  any  extent  is  that  of 
jEsop,  who  flourished  B.C.  570.  His  fables 
were  turned  into  Greek  verse  by  Babrius,  who 
is  believed  to  have  lived  before  the  reign  of 
Augustus  (B.C.  27— A.D.  14).  Phsedms,  the 
Roman  fabulist,  lived  in  the  ist  century  ;  and 
Strieker,  the  earliest  known  German  writer  of 
fables,  nourished  in  the  i3th  century.  The 
best  modern  fables  are  those  of  Jean  de  la 
Fontaine  (1621— April  13,  1695),  and  John  Gay 
(i688-Dec.  n,  1732). 

FABRIANO,  ST.  (Battle).— John  of  Anjou, 
during  his  invasion  of  Naples,  defeated  Alex- 
ander Sf.jrza  and  the  Count  of  Urbino,  the 
generals  of  Ferdinand  I.,  in  a  hotly-contested 
battle  at  St.  Fabriano,  in  the  province  of  Ma- 
cerata,  July  27,  1460. 

FACTIONS.— (See  Cmcus  FACTIONS.) 

FACTOR.— The  law  relating  to  a  factor  or 
broker  was  regulated  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  94  (1825), 


called  the  Factors'  Act,  amended  by  7  &  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  s.  51  (June  21,  1827),  and  ex- 
tended by  5  &  6  Viet  c.  39  (June  30,  1842). 

FACTORY.— The  first  fire-proof  cotton  fac- 
tory was  erected  at  Belper  by  the  Messrs. 
Strutt  in  1797.  Some  regulations  were  intro- 
duced by  42  Geo.  III.  c.  73  (1802) ;  and  by  3  &  4 
Will.  .IV.  c.  103  (Aug.  29,  1833),  called  the 
Factory  Act,  amended  by  4  Will.  IV.  c.  i  (Feb. 
20,  1834),  by  which  persons  under  18  years 
of  age,  and  women,  were  prohibited  from 
working  more  than  12  hours  a  day;  and 
the  employment  of  children  under  nine  years 
was  altogether  abolished.  This  act  was 
amended  by  7  Viet.  c.  15  (June  6,  1844),  which 
ordered  that  all  machinery  should  be  guarded 
to  prevent  accidents;  that  eight,  not  nine, 
years,  should  be  the  earliest  age  at  which 
children  could  work  in  factories  ;  that  their 
hours  of  labour  should  not  exceed  six  hours 
and  a  half  a  day  ;  and  that  they  should  attend 
school  daily.  These  acts  were  extended  and 
amended  by  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  29  (June  30,  1845) 
10  Viet.  c.  29  (June  8,  1847),  by  13  &  14  Viet, 
c.  54  (Aug.  5,  1850),  and  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  38 
(June  30,  1856).  (See  BLEACHING.) 

FACULTIES.— The  Court  of  Faculties,  em- 
powering the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York  to  grant  Faculties,  Dispensations,  &c., 
was  established  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21  si 
(1534)4 

FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES.— The  profes- 
sion of  advocate  has  existed  from  time  imme- 
morial in  Scotland ;  but  its  members  did  not 
form  a  faculty  or  society  until  the  establish-  ' 
ment  of  the  College  of  Justice  in  1532.  Their 
number,  at  first  confined  to  10,  is  now  un- 
limited, and  has  for  some  years  exceeded  400. 
This  body  is  presided  over  by  a  dean. 

FAENZA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Faventia,  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Carbo  and  Norbanus 
by  Metellus,  B.C.  82.  It  submitted  to  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  I.  in  1162.  Frederick  II.  cap- 
tured it,  after  an  obstinate  siege,  Sunday,  April 
4,  1241.  Rodolph  I.  confirmed  the  Pope  in  its 
possession  in  1275.  The  Bolognese  seized  it 
.n  1282,  and  its  walls  were  restored  in  1286 
Caesar  Borgia  wrested  it  from  the  Manfredi  in 
1501,  and  it  soon  after  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  Venice  (1504).  The  Papal  authorities 
recovered  it  in  1509,  and  it  submitted  to  the 
French  in  1512.  It  was,  however,  restored  to 
;he  popes,  and  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia  in  1859. 

F^ESUL^E  (Italy),  an  Etruscan  city,  the  mo- 
dern Fiesole,  first  mentioned  during  the  war 
vith  the  Gauls,  B.C.  225,  was  devastated  during 
he  social  war,  B.C.  90  and  B.C.  89.  Belisarius 
aptured  it  after  a  long  siege  in  539,  and  the 
Florentines  are  said  to  have  destroyed  it  in 

FAHRENHEIT.— (See  THERMOMETER.) 
FAINEANTS,    or    DO-NOTHING    KINGS 
he  name  given  to  some  of  the  Merovingian 
overeigns  of  France,  who  were  the  puppets  of 
he  Mayors  of  the  Palace  (a.  v.). 

FAIRFAX  COURT-HOUSE  (Battle)  — 
jieut.  Tompkins,  with  a  small  body  of  Federal 
avalry,  attacked  the  Confederates  at  this 
•village  in  Virginia,  and  captured  five  prisoners 
Tune  i,  1861. 


FAIR 


T     394     I 


FALKIRK 


FAIR  ISLE  (Atlantic  Ocean  .  —  At  Strom- 
ceiler  Creek,  in  this  island,  south  of  Shetland, 
the  Duke  Medina  Sidonia,  Admiral  of  the 
•Spanish  Armada,  was  wrecked  in  Aug.,  1588. 

FAIRLOP  OAK  Essex).— This  celebrated 
oak,  which  formerly  existed  in  Ilainault 
Forest,  was  so  old  that,  according  to  Mr. 
Gilpin,  "the  traditions  of  the  country  traced 
it  half-way  up  the  Christian  sera."  About 
1728,  Mr.  Day,  of  Wapping,  commenced  the 
custom  of  dining  here  every  year  with  a 
party  of  friends.  Other  parties  joined  him  in 
these  annual  picnics,  until  at  length  the  com- 
pany became  so  numerous  that  the  gathering 
assumed  the  character  of  a  regular  fair,  recur- 
ring the  first  Friday  in  July.  Mr.  Day  died  in 
1767,  and  was  buried  in  a  coffin  made  of  wood 
from  his  favourite  oak.  In  1805  the  tree  was 
accidentally  set  on  fire.  The  trunk  and  most 
of  the  principal  branches  were  seriously  in- 
jured, and  in  Feb.,  1820,  it  was  blown  down,  and 
part  of  the  wood  was  used  for  the  pulpit  and 
reading  desk  of  St.  Pan  eras  new  church.  The 
trunk  of  this  celebrated  oak  measured  36  feet 
in  girth,  and  its  branches  covered  an  area  of 
300  feet  in  circumference. 

FAIR  OAKS  (Battle  .— (<SVe  CIIICKAHOMIXV, 
Battles.) 

FAIRS  were  established  in  Italy  about  500, 
and  at  Aix-la-Chapello  and  Tmycs  about  800. 
Alfred  the  Great  introduced  them  into  England 
in  886,  and  in  960  they  were  established  in 
Flanders.  Fairs  for  the  sale  of  slaves  were 
common  throughout  Germany  and  the  north 
of  Kuropo  about  1000  ;  and  in  1071  they  were 
encouraged  in  England  by  William  the  Con- 
queror. By  2  Edw.  III.  c.  15  (1328^,  it  was 
enacted  that  the  duration  of  fairs  should  always 
be  declared  at  their  commencement ;  and  by 
s  Ed\v.  III.  c.  5  (1331",  any  trader  carrying  on 
business  after  the  stipulated  time  was  to  for- 
feit double  the  value  of  the  goods  sold.  Dis- 
putes at  fairs  were  adjusted  at  the  courts  of 
Pie-poudre,  or  Dusty-Foot,  which  were  regu- 
lated by  17  Edw.  IV.  c.  2  (1477).  The  time  for 
holding  fairs  was  specified  by  27  Hen.  VI.  c.  5 
(1448),  which  prohibited  them  011  certain  feast 
days,  and  on  all  Sundays  except  the  four  in 
harvest  time.  This  exception  was  repealed  by 
13  Viet.  c.  23  (June  10, 1850).  (See  BARTHOLOMEW 
FAIR,  <fec.) 

FAISANS.— This  island,  in  the  river  Bidas- 
soa,  that  separates  France  from  Spain,  was  the 
scene  of  conferences  for  peace  between  Philip 
IV.  and  Louis  XIV.  in  1659.  The  result  was 
the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  signed  Nov.  7,  1659. 
From  this  circumstance  the  place  was  also 
called  the  Isle  of  the  Conferences. 

FAITH. — (See  DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH/ 

FAITH  AND  CHARITY  Knights) .  — Es- 
tablished in  France,  to  suppress  public  rob- 
beries, about  1230,  were  approved  by  Gre- 
gory IX. 

FALAISE  (France^  -  William  I.  (the  Con- 
queror) was  born  at  this  town,  the  ancient  seat 
of  the  dukes  of  Normandy,  towards  the  end  of 
1027,  and  a  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory 
Oct.  26,  1851.  Prince  Arthur  was  imprisoned 
at  Falaise,  whence  he  was  removed  to  Rouen 
in  1202.  Falaise  received  its  charter  from 
Philip  II.  (Augustus)  in  1207. 


FALCONET.  —In  the  isth  century  this  name 
was  given  to  small  cannon. 

FALCONRY,  or  HAWKING.— This  sport, 
practised  in  Eastern  countries  before  the 
Christian  rera,  is  mentioned  by  Julius  Fir- 
micus,  who  flourished  in  the  4th  century.  It 
was  established  in  Britain  before  the  Heptarchy 
'/.  v.  ,  and  was  the  favourite  amusement  of 
Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany  (1215 — 
1250^,  who  is  said  to  have  written  a  treatise 
upon  it.  The  sport  declined  in  the  1 7th  cen- 
tury, and  though  partially  revived  in  the  i8th, 
has  fallen  into  neglect  since  about  1725,  owing 
to  the  increased  popularity  of  shooting. 

FALCZI,  or  PRUTH  (Treaty).— Peter  the 
Great  having  invaded  Moldavia  in  1711,  with 
a  force  of  38,000  men,  was  surrounded  by  a 
Turkish  army  of  200,000  men  at  Falczi,  on  the 
I'ruth,  and  was  reduced  to  despair.  The  Em- 
press Catherine,  who  was  with  him,  restored 
his  confidence,  and  negotiations  were  com- 
menced between  the  two  powers,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty  of  peace, 
July  10,  1711.  Its  chief  conditions  were  the 
surrender  by  the  Czar  of  the  fortress  of  Azof, 
the  dismantling  of  his  newly  built  castles  near 
the  Turkish  frontier,  and  an  engagement  on 
his  part  not  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Poland 
or  of  the  Cossacks. 

FALKRII  >  Italy  .-The  inhabitants  of  this 
city  of  the  Falisci  joined  the  Fidcnatcs  and 
Veientines  against  Rome,  B.C.  437.  Caniillus 
took  the  city  B.C.  396.  They  made  war  against 
Rome  P..C.  356  and  B.C.  293.  The  city  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  Romans  B.C.  241. 

PALBBNIAN  WINE,  so  called  from  Faler- 
nus  Agcr,  the  district  in  which  it  was  produced. 
Tliis  district  was  ravaged  by  the  Carthaginians 
B.C.  217.  Some  writers  suppose  that  a  town 
named  Falcria  once  existed  in  this  part, 
though  no  evidence  of  the  fact  has  been 
adduced.  In  later  years  the  best  Falcrnian 
wine  was  that  produced  at  the  village  of 
Faustianum. 

1'AI.KIOPING  (Battle\— Margaret,  Queen  of 
Norway  and  Denmark,  called  the  Semiramis 
of  the  North,  defeated  Albert  of  Sweden  at 
this  place  in  1389. 

FALKIRK  (Battlei.  —  The  Scottish  army 
under  Sir  William  Wallace  was  surprised  by 
the  English,  under  Edward  I.,  in  the  forest 
of  Falkirk,  in  Stirlingshire,  July  22,  1298.  As 
Wallace  was  doubtful  of  the  fidelity  of  some 
of  his  troops,  he  wished  to  avoid  an  action  ; 
but  finding  it  impossible,  he  chose  an  advan- 
tageous position.  Just  as  the  two  armies 
joined,  his  heavy  cavalry  fled  without  striking 
a  blow,  and  he  was  completely  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  at  least  15,000  men. 

FALKIRK  (Scotland;.— In  1057  a  church  was 
erected  at  this  town  of  Selkirkshire,  made  a 
burgh  of  barony  by  James  VI.  in  1600,  and  a 
burgh  of  royalty  by  Charles  I.  in  1646.  In  1715  it 
passed  to  the  crown.  The  old  church,  removed 
in  1810,  has  been  replaced  by  a  modern  edifice. 
Falkirk  was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Act 

°  FA3LklRK  MUIR  (Battle;.— The  Royalist 
forces,  under  Gen.  Hawley,  were  defeated  at 
Falkirk  Muir  by  the  Scotch,  under  Prince 
Charles  Edward,  Jan.  17,  1746.  The  English 


FALKLAND 


[     395 


FARMERS 


loss  amounted  to  less  than  400  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  that  of  the  Scotch  to  about  120. 

FALKLAND  (Scotland). —This  town  of  Fife- 
shire,  anciently  a  manor  of  the  earls  of  Fife, 
from  whom  it  passed  to  the  crown  in  1425,  was 
erected  into  a  royal  burgh  by  James  II.  in 
1458.  The  palace  was  commenced  in  1500,  and 
the  town  was  greatly  improved  by  James  V., 
who  died  here  Dec.  14,  1542.  The  charter  was 
renewed  by  James  VI.  in  1595.  The  notorious 
Bob  Roy  garrisoned  the  palace  and  exacted 
contributions  from  the  inhabitants  in  1715. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS  (South  Atlantic 
Ocean). — It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  these 
islands  were  descried  by  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
in  1502.  They  were  visited  by  Hawkins  in 
1567,  and  by  Davis  in  1592.  In  1594,  Hawkins 
explored  their  northern  shores,  and  in  1690 
they  were  visited  by  Strong,  who  anchored 
in  Falkland  Sound,  to  which  he  gave  its 
name.  M.  de  Bougainville  arrived  Feb.  3, 
1764,  and  planted  a  French  settlement  March 
17 ;  and  Commodore  Byron  discovered  Port 
Egmont  in  1766,  and  took  possession  of  the 
country  by  the  name  of  Falkland's  Islands. 
In  1767  the  French  ceded  their  claim  to  the 
Spaniards,  who  expelled  the  British  in  1770, 
but  were  compelled  to  admit  their  right  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  islands  by  treaty,  Jan.  22, 
1771.  As  no  attempts  were  made  to  establish  an 
English  settlement,  the  Republic  of  Buenos 
Ayres  planted  a  colony  at  Port  Louis  in  1820. 
This  was  destroyed  by  the  Americans  in  1831, 
and  in  1833  was  erected  into  a  British  station. 
In  1840  the  Government  sent  out  a  colony  to 
Port  Louis.  It  was  removed  to  another  situa- 
tion in  1844. 

FALLING  WATER  (Battle).— An  indecisive 
skirmish  took  place  between  the  Federals  and 
Confederates  at  this  place  in  Virginia,  July  i, 
1861. 

FALMOUTH  (Cornwall)  was  originally  called 
Smithick.  In  1613,  Sir  John  Killigrew  formed 
the  project  of  erecting  a  town  here,  which  re- 
ceived its  charter  and  present  name  from 
Charles  II.  in  1661.  In  1670,  Sir  Peter  Killi- 
grew built  a  new  quay,  which  greatly  added  to 
the  commercial  importance  of  the  town  ;  and 
in  1688  its  prosperity  was  increased  by  the 
establishment  of  the  post-office  packet  to 
Lisbon  and  the  West  Indies.  The  hospital 
for  disabled  seamen  was  founded  in  1 750,  and 
the  gaol  in  1831.  Queen  Victoria  visited 
Falmouth  Aug.  28,  1843. 

FALSE  ACCUSERS.—  (See  ACCUSERS, 
FALSE.) 

FALSE  MONEY.— (See  COINING.) 

FALSE  PRETENCES.— By  33  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  i  (1541),  persons  convicted  of  counterf citing 
' '  letters  or  privy  tokens  to  receive  money  or 
goods  in  other  men's  names,"  were  made  liable 
to  imprisonment,  pillory,  or  such  corporal  pain, 
short  of  death,  as  the  court  should  award.  This 
Act  was  amended  by  30  Geo.  II.  c.  24  (1757), 
which  prescribed  more  definite  penalties  of 
whipping,  imprisonment,  pillory,  &c.  ;  and  the 
offence  was  constituted  a  misdemeanour  by 

L&  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  s.  53  (June  21,  1827).     The 
ws  on  the  subject  were  amended  and  consoli- 
dated by  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  6,  1861). 
FAMAGOSTA,  or  FAMAGUSTA.— This 


town,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  was  taken  by  the 
Genoese  in  1373,  and  by  the  Turks,  Aug.  i,  1571. 

FAMARS  (Battle).— The  Allied  army  at- 
tacked the  French  and  drove  them  from  their 
entrenched  camp  at  Famars,  near  Valenciennes, 
May^  23,  1793. 

FAMIEH.— (See  APAMEA.) 

FAMILISTS,  and  FAMILY  OF  LOVE.— (See 
AGAP,EMONE.) 

FAMILY  COMPACT.— The  treaty  signed  at 
the  Escorial  between  Philip  V.  of  Spain  and 
Louis  XV.  of  France,  Nov.  7,  1733,  is  called 
by  Spanish  historians  the  First  Family  Com- 
pact, and  the  secret  treaty  of  perpetual  alliance 
between  France  and  Spain,  signed  at  Fontaine- 
bleau,  Oct.  25,  1743,  is  termed  by  them  the 
Second  Family  Compact.  The  celebrated  treaty 
between  the  Bourbons  of  France  and  Spain 
(Louis  XV.  and  Charles  III.),  known  as  the 
Family  Compact,  was  concluded  at  Paris,  Aug. 
15,  1761.  It  was  a  defensive  and  offensive  alli- 
ance between  France  and  Spain.  Ferdinand 
[V. ,  King  of  Naples,  acceded  to  the  alliance. 

FAMILY  CONVENTION.— (See  FLORENCE, 
Treaties.) 

FAMINES.— (See  INDEX.) 

FAN. — Pharaoh  is  represented  surrounded 
by  his  fan-bearers  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs  of 
Thebes.  •  Fans  of  peacocks'  feathers  were  made 
in  Greece  in  the  sth  century  B.C.,  and  are  men- 
tioned in  one  of  the  tragedies  of  Euripides.  The 
custom  of  using  fans  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  in 
1523  they  were  carried  in  winter  as  well  as  in 
summer.  The  ladies  had  prodigious  fans,  with 
handles  half  a  yard  long,  and  with  these  they 
often  administered  correction  to  their  daugh- 
ters. During  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries  they 
were  used  by  gentlemen.  Sir  Edward  Coke 
rode  the  circuit  with  one  of  these  large  fans. 
Folding  fans  were  introduced  in  the  beginning 
of  the  1 7th  century.  The  Fanmakers'  Company 
was  incorporated  in  1 709. 

FANJEAUX  (France). —The  ramparts  of 
this  place,  the  Fanum  Jovis  of  the  Romans, 
were  removed  in  1229,  and  the  town  itself  was 
destroyed  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  in  1355. 

FANO  (Battle).— The  Alemanni  defeated  the 
Romans  near  this  town,  the  ancient  Fanum 
Fortunes,  in  Umbria,  in  270. 

FARCE.— One  of  the  earliest  extant  is  in 
German,  called  the  "  Apotheosis  of  Pope  Joan," 
and  was  written  about  1480.  The  French  farce 
of  ' '  Maitre  Pierre  Pathelin"  was  first  printed 

"VillblNGALE,  FARTHINGALE,  or  VER- 
D1NGALE.— This  hooped  petticoat,  to  which 
the  modern  crinoline  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance, is  said  to  have  been  first  worn  in 
England  by  Catherine,  Infanta  of  Spain,  on 
her  arrival  in  1501,  to  marry  Prince  Arthur. 
Having  become  fashionable,  it  was  superseded 
about  1640  by  the  hoop,  which  went  out  of 
fashion  about  1820. 

FARMERS-GENERAL,  or  FERM1ERS  GE- 
NERAUX.— This  associated  body,  who  farmed 
certain  branches  of  the  revenue  in  France  under 
the  old  monarchy,  formed  in  1728,  was 
abolished  in  1789.  Dupin  read  a  report  against 
them  May  5,  1794,  and  31  out  of  32  then 
living  were  sent  to  the  revolutionary  tribunal, 


FARMING'S 


[    396 


FATIMITES 


Twenty-eight  were  executed  May  8,  and  the 
remaining  three  May  14. 

FARMING'S  ISLAND  (N.  Pacific  Ocean) 
was  taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of  Queen 
Victoria,  by  the  steamer  A  Ibert,  Feb.  8,  1861. 

FARMVILLE  (Battle).— Gen.  Sheridan  de- 
feated the  Confederates,  under  Gen.  Lee,  near 
this  place,  in  Virginia,  April  6,  1865. 

FARNHAM  (Surrey).— In  860  this  town  was 
bestowed  upon  the  bishops  of  Winchester  by 
Ethelbald,  King  of  Wessex  ;  and  in  894  Alfred 
defeated  the  Danes  in  its  neighbourhood. 
Waverley  Abbey  was  built  by  Gifford,  Bishop 
of  Winchester,  in  1128.  The  castle,  which  was 
founded  by  Henry  de  Blois,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester (1129 — 1171),  was  taken  by  Louis  the 
dauphin  in  1216,  and  demolished  by  Henry 
III.  In  Dec.,  1642,  it  was  seized  by  the  Par- 
liamentary forces  and  again  destroyed;  but 
Bishop  Morley  commenced  its  re-erection  in 
1662.  Farnham  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace 
of  William  Cobbett,  March,  1762.  Until  about 
1790  it  was  a  borough. 

FARNOVIANS.-The  followers  of  Stanislaus 
Farnowski  (Farnovius),  who  separated  from 
the  Unitarians  in  1568,  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Farnowski  in  1615. 

FARNWORTH  (Lancashire).— Birch  House, 
situated  in  this  parish,  near  Bolton,  Was 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  (1625 — 1649). 
The  public  park  was  opened  by  Mr.  Gladstone, 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Oct.  12,  1864. 

FAROE,  or  FEIlf>K  ISLANDS  (North  Sea). 
— This  group,  discovered  by  the  Norwegians 
between  858  and  868,  now  belongs  to  Denmark. 
They  were  held  by  the  English  from  1807  to  1814. 

FARRIERS. —In  1267  farriers  worked  in 
shops  open  to  the  road  as  they  do  at  present. 
Six  farriers  attended  the  army  assembled  to 
repel  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588.  The 
Farriers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1670. 

FARRl.\(ilM)N,  or  FARYNDON  INN.- 
(See  SKI:.H:ANT'S  INN.) 

FARRINGDON  MARKET  (London).  —  The 
corporation  were  empowered  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, in  1824,  to  remove  the.Fleet  Market  (q.r.) 
and  erect  a  new  one  in  its  place.  This  was 
opened  Nov.  20,  1829,  under  the  name  of  Far- 
ringdon  Market. 

FARTHING.— This  coin  existed  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  though  no  specimen  remains. 
Farthings  were  first  coined  round  in  1210, 
when  King  John  ordered  a  large  number  to  be 
struck  for  use  in  England  and  Ireland.  In  1279 
they  were  called  Lundrenses,  and  until  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  were  made  of  silver.  The 
want  of  a  small  coinage  subsequently  led  to 
the  manufacture  and  issue,  by  private  persons, 
of  leaden  farthing  tokens,  which  were  sup- 
pressed by  a  royal  proclamation.  May  19,  1613. 
A  few  copper  farthings  were  struck  in  1665,  but 
they  were  not  issued  till  1672.  Tin  farthings 
were  coined  by  William  III.  and  Mary  in  1690. 
Half -farthings  were  first  struck  in  1843. 

FASHION.— (See  DRESS.) 

FASTI. — Numa  Pompilius  (B.C.  715 — B.C.  673) 
institxited  the  custom  of  marking  monthly 
records  of  the  feasts,  games,  <fcc.,  observed  at 
Rome,  on  tables  of  stone.  These,  preserved  by 
the  priests,  became  the  calendar  by  which  the 
course  of  public  business  and  of  justice  was 


regulated.  C.  Flavius  copied  these  Fasti,  B.C. 
306,  and  exhibited  them  in  the  Forum ;  and 
they  subsequently  became  a  kind  of  abridged 
annals,  recording  the  names  of  public  magis- 
trates and  the  most  important  political  events. 
A  series  of  marble  tables  of  Fasti,  relating 
chiefly  to  the  holders  of  the  consular  dignity, 
was  discovered  buried  in  the  Forum  in  1547. 
Additional  portions  were  dug  up  in  1817  and 
1818. 

FASTS.  —  Moses  fasted  40  days  and  40 
nights  on  Mount  Sinai  (Exodus  xxiv.  18, 
xxxiv.  28,  and  Devit.  ix.  9),  B.C.  1491,  and 
abstinence  was  one  rule  for  observing  the  day 
of  atonement  (Lev.  xxiii.  26 — 32),  B.C.  1490.  In 
consequence  of  the  preaching  of  Jonah,  the 
King  of  Nineveh  proclaimed  a  solemn  fast  for 
both  man  and  beast  (Jonah  iii.  5^-9),  B.C.  787, 
and  Joel  ordered  a  fast,  in  which  even  un- 
weaned  infants  should  participate  (Joel  ii. 
Z5 — J7)j  B-c-  787.  Our  Saviour  fasted  40  days 
and  40  nights  (Matt.  iv.  2),  in  26,  and  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul  were  ordained  to  the  ministry 
with  fasting  (Acts  xiii.  2  &  3),  in  45.  Mosheim, 
writing  of  the  ist  century,  says  :  "Of  any 
solemn  public  fasts,  except  only  on  the  anni- 
versary day  of  Christ's  crucifixion,  there  is  no 
mention  in  the  most  ancient  times.  Gradually, 
however,  stated  days  of  fasting  were  intro- 
duced ;  first  by  custom,  afterwards  by  legal 
sanction.  Whether  anything  of  this  nature 
occurred  in  the  ist  century,  and  what  days 
were  devoted  to  fasting,  we  have  not  the 
means  of  deciding."  The  custom  of  fasting 
every  Wednesday  and  Friday  became  general 
about  in,  and  the  Quadragesimal  fust,  or 
Lent  (q.  v.),  was  appointed  about  136.  The 
custom  of  holding  special  fasts  was  introduced 
before  173,  and  the  fasting  system  in  general 
was  fully  established  in  222. 

FATHERS,  THE.  —  The  principal  ancient 
ecclesiastical  writers,  collectively  styled  the 
Fathers,  were:— Pope  Clement  I.  (91—100); 
Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  martyred  Dec.  20, 
115;  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna  (80—169); 
Irenseus,  Bishop  of  Lyons  (130 — 200)  ;  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  died  in  220  ;  Hippolytus,  died  in 
230;  Tertulliaii  of  Carthage  (160 — 240);  Origen 
(185 — 253  or  4);  Cyprian  (200 — Sep.  14,  258); 
Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  (265  —  338) ; 
Athanasius  (296— May  2,  373) ;  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem '315 — 386);  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Bishop 
of  Constantinople  (329—390)  ;  Macarius  (301— 
390 or  i)  ;  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (340 — April 
4,  397) ;  Epiphanius,  Bishop  of  Constantia  (310 — • 
May  12,  403) ;  John  Chrysostom  (347 — Sep.  14, 
407) ;  Orosius,  flourished  415  ;  Augustine,  Bishop 
Hippo  (354— Aug.  28,  430) ;  Paulinus,  Bishop  of 
Nola  (353 — 431) ;  Socrates  Scholasticus,  died 
after  439  ;  Cyril,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  died 
in  444;  Theodoret,  Bishop  of  Cyrus  (393 — 457) ; 
Procopius,  Bishop  of  Gaza,  flourished  560 ; 
Johannes  Scholasticus,  died  Aug.  31,  578  ;  and 
Evagrius  (536 — 600). 

FATIMITES.  —  Mahadi  ObaidaUah,  an 
alleged  descendant  of  Fatima,  daughter  of 
Mohammed,  and  of  Ismael,  grandson  of  Ali, 
having  overthrown  the  Aglabites  (q.  v.)  in  908, 
established  his  own  dynasty  in  their  stead. 
His  descendant  El  Moez  conquered  Egypt  and 
founded  Cairo  in  969,  and  his  successors,  after 


FAUGHARD 


[     397 


FELT 


diverging  from  orthodox  Mohammedanism  and 
protecting  the  heretical  Shiites  (q.v.),  became 
extinct  on  the  death  of  Adhid,  in  1171. 

FAUGHARD,  or  FOUGHARD  TAGHER 
(Battle).— On  this  hill,  near  Dundalk  (q.  v.), 
Edward  Bruce,  the  self-styled  King  of  Ireland, 
was  defeated  by  Sir  John  Bermingham,  Oct. 
5,  1318.  Early  in  the  battle  Bruce  was  slain 
by  John  Maupas  (who  also  fell  in  the  contest), 
and  his  remains,  divided  into  four  quarters, 
were  exhibited  as  a  public  spectacle  in 
Ireland. 

FAVERSHAM,  or  FEVERSHAM  (Kent).— 
King  Athelstan  held  a  witenagemot  at  this 
ancient  town  in  930,  and  Stephen  (1135 — 1154) 
erected  a  Cluniac  monastery.  Jame/s  II.,  in 
his  endeavour  to  escape  to  France,  was  taken 
here  Dec.  12,  1688.  The  grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1575.  (See  EXPLOSIONS.) 

FAYAL  (Atlantic),  one  of  the  Azores,  was 
captured  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1597. 

FAYETTE  (Battle).— A  sharp  but  indecisive 
skirmish  took  place  between  the  Federals, 
under  Major  Torneru,  and  the  Confederates,  at 
this  town,  in  Missouri,  Jan.  8,  1862. 

FAYETTEVILLE  (Battle).  —The  Confederate 
Gen.  Cabell  was  repulsed  by  Col.  M.  La  Rue 
Harrison  at  this  place  in  Arkansas,  after  six 
hours'  severe  fighting,  April  18,  1863. 

FAYETTEVILLE  (North  America).— The  ar- 
senal at  this  town  of  North  Carolina,  con- 
taining 35,000  stand  of  arms,  besides  cannon 
and  ammunition,  was  surrendered  to  a  force 
of  800  Confederates,  April  22,  1861.  Gen. 
Sherman  expelled  the  Confederates  and  occu- 
pied the  town  March  n,  1865,  and,  having 
destroyed  the  arsenal,  retired  March  15. 

FEASTS  and  FESTIVALS.— The  principal 
feasts  of  the  ancient  Jews  were  the  Passover, 
instituted  B.  c.  1491  (Exod.  xii.  43 — 49) ; 
the  feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost,  B.C.  1491 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  22)  ;  of  Trumpets,  B.C.  1490 
(Lev.  xxiii.  24,  25) ;  of  Tabernacles,  B.C.  1490 
(Lev.  xxiii.  39 — 43) ;  and  the  Jubilee,  B.C.  1490 
(Lev.  xxv.  10 — 13.)  The  love-feasts  of  the  pri- 
mitive Christians  were  instituted  about  35  ; 
and  Easter,  Ascension,  and  Whitsuntide  are 
believed  to  have  been  observed  since  68. 
Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  instituted  the 
solemn  processions  called  Rogations  in  469 ; 
the  feast  of  the  Purification  was  established 
about  526.  Boniface  IV.  instituted  the  festi- 
val of  All  Saints  in  611,  and  the  Greek  Church 
founded  the  festival  of  Orthodoxy  in  842. 
Urban  IV.  instituted  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi,  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  in  1264,  and  Boniface  VIII. 
founded  jubilees  in  1300.  The  festival  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  was  first  observed  in  1320,  that 
of  the  Spear  and  Nails  in  1354,  and  the  feast 
of  the  Visitation  in  1389.  The  Council  of 
Basel  confirmed  the  festival  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception  in  1431,  and  the  feast  of  the 
Transfiguration  was  generally  observed  in  1456, 
though  it  was  founded  much  earlier.  In  1643 
Urban  VIII.  published  a  bull  to  diminish  the 
number  of  festivals,  and  in  1745  Benedict 
XIV.  sanctioned  the  celebration  of  the  feast 
of  the  Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  (See 
AGAP^E,  MUSICAL  FESTIVALS,  &c.) 

FEATHERS.— Sir  H.  N.  Nicolas  is  of  opi- 


nion  that  the  Prince  of  Wales'  feathers,  and 
the  mottoes  "  Ich  Dien"  and  "  Houmont," 
were  derived  from  the  house  of  Hainault, 
possibly  from  the  cornte"  of  Ostrevant,  the 
apanage  of  the  eldest  sons  of  the  counts  of 
that  province. 

FEBRUARY,  the  second  month  of  the  year, 
was,  with  January,  added  to  the  calendar 
about  B.C.  700,  by  Numa,  who  placed  January 
at  the  beginning,  and  February  at  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  decemvirs  placed  February  next 
to  January,  B.C.  452.  Its  name  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  the  ancient  Roman  festival 
Februa. 

FECAMP  (France).— Richard  I.,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  founded  a  Benedictine  abbey- 
church  at  this  town  in  988.  The  church  of 
Notre  Dame  was  built  in  the  i4th  century. 
Fe"camp  was  taken  from  the  leaguers  by 
Marshal  de  Biron  in  1594. 

FECIALES.— The  heralds  of  ancient  Rome, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  declare  war  and  pro- 
claim peace.  On  the  occasion  of  a  dispute 
with  another  power,  they  made  three  appeals, 
with  an  interval  of  10  days  between  each, 
and  if  the  matter  was  not  then  adjusted,  they 
declared  war  by  throwing  a  bloody  javelin 
into  the  enemy's  territory.  They  were  in- 
stituted by  Numa  Pompilius  (B.C.  715 — 673), 
and  received  a  code  and  laws  from  Ancus 
Martius  (B.C.  640—616). 

FEDERALS.— (See  CONFEDERATE  STATES  and 
UNITED  STATES.) 

FEEJEE,  FIJI,  or  VITI  ISLANDS  (S.  Pacific 
Ocean),  discovered  in  1643  by  Tasman,  who 
named  them  Prince  William's  Islands,  were 
visited  about  1804  by  fugitive  convicts  from 
New  South  Wales,  who  were  allowed  to  re- 
main by  the  native  chiefs.  Traders  began  to 
resort  thither  to  buy  sandal  wood,  &c.,  in  1806. 
The  first  missionaries  landed  Oct.  12,  1835, 
and  the  group  was  surveyed  by  the  United 
States  exploring  expedition,  under  Capt. 
Wilkes,  in  1840.  In  consequence  of  the  mur- 
der of  two  white  men  by  the  natives,  Capt. 
Worth,  of  the  Calypso,  destroyed  the  town  of 
Noundavau  in  June,  1848.  Alarmed  by  in- 
cursions of  the  Friendly  or  Tongan  Islanders, 
Thakombau,  King  of  Feejee,  placed  his  domi- 
nions under  British  protection  in  1858. 

FEHRBELLIN  (Battle).— The  Swedes  were 
defeated  by  the  Germans  at  this  place,  in 
Brandenburg,  in  1675. 

FELDKIRCH.— The  French,  under  Massena 
and  Oudinot,  failed  in  several  attempts  to 
wrest  this  town,  in  the  Grisons,  from  the 
Austrians,  in  March,  1799.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  in  iSoo. 

FELSINA.— (See  BOLOGNA.) 

FELT.— This  material,  called  by  the  ancients 
lana  coacta,  was  used  in  the  time  of  Xeno- 
phon  (before  B.C.  444 — after  B.C.  357)  as  sol- 
diers' cloaks  and  corslets,  and  for  horse-furni- 
ture. The  Tartars  employed  it  for  clothes  and 
tent-coverings,  and  even  used  it  in  the  con- 
struction of  their  idols.  The  hatters,  by  whom 
felt  is  principally  employed,  refer  its  inven- 
tion to  St.  Clement,  martyred  about  100,  who, 
having  put  carded  wool  between  his  feet  and 
his  sandals  during  a  pilgrimage,  found  at  its 
termination  that  the  pressure  had  converted 


FEXCIBLE 


[    398     ] 


FERRARA 


the  material  into  cloth.  The  Felt-makers' 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1604. 

FEXCIBLE  CAVALRY.— The  first  corps  of 
this  force  for  service  in  a  particular  district 
was  raised  in  Argylcshire,  July  21,  1759. 
Other  regiments  of  a  similar  character  were 
raised  in  1778  and  1779.  A  similar  force, 
called  Fencible  Light  Dragoons,  to  serve  in 
any  part  of  Great  Britain,  was  raised  in  1794. 

FENCING. — In  consequence  of  the  disorders 
perpetrated  by  proficients  in  this  art  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  all  the  fencing-schools  in 
London  were  ordered  to  be  closed  by  13  Edw.  I. 
st.  5  (1285).  The  old  system  of  cutting  in 
fencing  was  supplanted  by  the  rapier-thrust 
in  Italy  before  1553,  and  the  new  method  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1578. 

FENIANS.— According  to  tradition  the 
Fenians,  Fenii,  or  Finians,  were  a  national 
militia  established  in  Ireland  by  Fin,  Fingal, 
or  Fionn,  the  son  of  Cumhal  and  son-in-law 
of  King  Cormac  (213 — 253).  Each  member  of 
the  band  swore  never  to  receive  a  portion  with 
a  wife,  but  to  choose  her  for  her  good,  manners 
and  virtues ;  never  to  offer  violence  to  any 
woman  ;  never  to  refuse  to  relieve  the  poor  to 
the  utmost  of  his  power ;  and  never  to  flee 
before  nine  champions.  Other  authorities 
regard  the  ancient  Fenians  as  a  distinct  Celtic 
race,  who  migrated  at  an  early  period  from 
Germany  into  northern  Scotland  and  Ireland  ; 
and  others  conjecture  that  the  word  is  a 
corruption  of  "Phoenicians."  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  quoting  a  Celtic  poem,  speaks  of  the 
"bare-armed  Fenians"  (Antiquary,  ch.  xxx.). 
The  name  has  been  adopted  by  an  Irish  faction, 
formed  in  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of 
subverting  the  British  supremacy  in  Ireland. 

A.T). 

186.5.  Secret  meetings  of  Fenians  are  held  near  Clonmel. 

1863,  May.  Thomas  Clarke  Lnhv  visits  Anierieii.   wlicrn 

he  co-operates  with  the  Brotherhood.— Nor.  The 

first  Fenian  convention  assembles  at  Chicago. 
United  Stales. 

1864,  Feb.  23.  The  Fenians  expel  the  National  Tarty  from 

a  meeting  in  the  Kotunda,  Dublin  (q.  v.). 

1865,  Sep.    15.   The    police    seize    the    ollice    of    the   Irish 

I'i'iiji/c  newspaper  at  Dublin,  and  v 
arrests. — Sep.  1 6.  Several  arrests  take  place  a't 
Cork,  and  shortly  afterwards  at  Clonmel.  Kil- 
larney,  Uattkeale,  &c.— Sep.  20.  Some  Fenians 
nre  apprehended  at  Manchester  and  Sheffield. 
—Oct.  lf>.  A  congress  of  the  order  assembles  at 
Philadelphia.— Nov.  n.  James  Stephens,  "head- 
centre  "of  the  Irish  Fenians,  is  arrested. — Nov. 
24.  He  escapes  from  Richmond  Bridewell,  Dublin. 
— Nov.  27.  The  trial  of  the  prisoners  commences 
nt  Dublin.— Dee.  I.  Thomas  Clarke  Luby,  pro- 
prietor of  the  Irish  People,  is  sentenced  to  20 
years'  penal  servitude. — Dec.  6.  O'Lcary,  the 
editor,  receives  a  similar  sentence.  — Dee.  13. 
o'Donovan  is  condemned  to  penal  servitude  for 
life.— Dec.  14.  A  special  commission  for  the  trial 
of  Fenian  prisoners  is  opened  at  Cork. 

1866,  Feb.  17.   The.  Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  suspended  in 

Ireland. — Feb.  19.  A  Fenian  senate  assembles  at 
Nashville,  United  States.— March  4.  A  monster 
demonstration  of  Fenians  against  the  suspension 
of  the  Habeas  Corpus  takes  place  at  New  York. 
—March  17.  An  alarm  that  this  day,  the  feast 
of  St.  Patrick,  will  be  signalized  by  a  Fenian 
raid  upon  Canada,  proves  groundless. — May  10. 
James  Stephen!  arrives  in  New  York. — May  31. 
A  body  of  Fenians,  under  Col.  O'N'eil,  cms; 
the  Niagara  river,  near  Buffalo,  and  occupy  Fort 
Krie,  in  Canada.— June  2.  They  are  defeated, 
nnd  Col.  O'Neil  is  killed  by  the  Canadian 
regular  and  volunteer  forces. — June  7.  President 
Johnson  issues  a  proclamation  against  the  Fenian 
movement. 


FEODOSIA.—  (See  CAFFA.) 

FERE-CHAMPEXOISE  (Battle).— The  Aus- 
trians,  under  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  attacked 
and  defeated  the  French  divisions  of  Marshals 
Marmoiit,  Mortier,  and  Arrighi,  at  this  place, 
in  France,  March  25,  1814.  The  French  loss 
amounted  to  5,000  killed  and  10,000  pi  i 
among  whom  were  the  generals  Pachtod  and 
Arney. 

FERENTIXUM  (Italy).— The  Volscians  took 
refuge  in  this  town  after  their  defeat  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  413.  It  was  afterwards  given  to 
the  Ilernicians.  The  Romans  captured  it 
B.C.  361,  and  Hannibal  ravaged  the  territory 
B.C.  211.  The  modern  town,  called  Ferentino, 
was  the  scene  of  a  meeting  between  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  Pope  Honorius  III.,  and 
other  rulers,  in  March,  1223,  in  favour  of  the 
fifth  crusade. 

FERINE  LATINS.— An  annual  festival  held 
in  commemoration  of  the  union  of  the  peoples 
of  Latium,  was  celebrated  in  March,  May,  or 
June,  and  consisted  of  the  offering  of  sacrifices 
to  Jupiter  by  all  the  tribes  of  the  alliance. 
Some  authors  state  that  Tarquin  the  Proud 
founded  this  festival  (B.C.  534 — 510);  others  con- 
sider it  of  earlier  origin.  At  first  it  lasted  one 
day ;  on  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  B.C.  510, 
a  second  day  was  added  to  commemorate  the 
event ;  and  a  third  was  afterwards  added. 

FEKMO  (Italy).  —  This  city  of  the  Papal 
States,  anciently  called  Firnium  Picenum,  was 
built  by  the  Sabincs,  and  colonized  B.C.  264  by 
the  Romans.  The  popes  obtained  possession 
in  the  8th  century,  and  the  university,  founded 
in  850,  was  restored  in  1824.  The  French, 
under  Gen.  Rusca,  defeated  the  Neapolitans 
here,  Nov.  30,  1798. 

FERNANDINA.H£«  CUBA.) 

FKKXANDO  PO  (Bight  of  Benin)  waa  dis- 
covered in  1471,  by  the  Portuguese,  who  ceded 
it  to  Spain  in  1778.  The  Spaniards  abandoned 
it,  and  the  English  formed  a  settlement  ih 
1827.  They  retired  in  1834,  and  the  Spaniards 
again  took  possession  in  1844,  calling  the  island 
Puerto  de  Isabel. 

FERNS  (Bishopric)  was  founded  about  598 
by  St.  Edaii.  Its  earlier  prelates  were  styled 
archbishops  of  Leinster.  In  1600  the  see  of 
Leighlin  was  annexed  to  Ferns.  By  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  the  sees  of  Ferns 
and  Leighlin  were  to  be  added  to  Ossory  011 
their  next  avoidance,  which  took  place  on  the 
death  of  Bishop  Elrington  in  1835. 

PEROZESHAH  (Battle).— Lord  Gough  de- 
feated the  Sikhs  at  this  village  in  Lahore, 
Dec.  21  and  22,  1845.  The  British  force  con- 
sisted of  16,700  men  and  69  guns,  and  the 
Sikhs  mustered  about  50,000  men,  with  108 
pieces  of  cannon,  which  were  nearly  all  cap- 
tured. The  former  lost  2,415  in  killed  and 
wovinded  during  the  two  days. 

FERRARA  (Italy).— This  town,  founded  in 
the  sth  century,  and  fortified  about  585,  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  66 1,  and  an  archbishopric 
in  1735.  In  1067  it  became  a  free  city,  joined 
the  Lombard  League  against  the  Emperor  Fre- 
derick I.,  in  1175,  and  soon  after  passed  under 
the  sway  of  the  house  of  Este.  Venice  seized 
Fcrrara  in  1308,  and  Clement  V.  claimed  it  as 
a  fief  of  the  Church  in  1309.  The  Este  family 


FERRARS'S 


C    399 


FIEF 


regained  possession,  and  Ferrara  was  made  a 
duchy  by  Paul.  II.,  April  14,  1471,  and  was 
annexed  to  tlie  Papal  dominions  in  1597.  It 
surrendered  to  the  French  Juno  19,  1796,  was 
retaken  by  the  allies  May  24,  1799,  and  was 
once  more  resigned  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801.  Restored  to  the  Pope 
in  1814-15,  its  inhabitants  revolted  in  1860,  and 
Ferrara.  became  part  of  the  new  Italian  king- 
dom. It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  Nov.,  1570.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1135;  the  university  in  1264,  was 
reorganized  in  1402,  closed  in  1794,  and  re- 
opened in  1824;  and  the  library  in  1740. 
Treaties  of  peace  were  concluded  here  in  1428 
and  1433.  A  council  was  held  here  Jan.  10, 
1438.  The  last  sitting  took  place  Jan.  10, 

I4FERRARS'S  ARREST.— Mr.  George  Ferrars, 
M.P.  for  Plymouth,  had  become  security  for 
a  man,  who  failed  to  pay  at  the  appointed 
time.  The  creditor  consequently  brought  an 
.action  against  Ferrars,  who  was  arrested  by 
the  officers  of  the  city  of  London,  and  impri- 
soned in  the  Comptcr.  The  Speaker  laid  the 
matter  before  the  House  of  Commons,  and  they 
despatched  the  sergeant-at-arms  into  the  city 
to  demand  the  release  of  the  prisoner.  A  scuffle 
oiisued,  in  which  the  sheriffs  and  city  consta- 
bles took  part  with  the  municipal  authorities  ; 
and  the  sergeant,  after  having  broken  the  mace 
in  his  efforts  to  defend  himself,  was  compelled 
to  retreat.  The  Commons  next  proceeded  in 
a  body  to  the  House  of  Lords,  where  the  judges 
declared  the  arrest  illegal,  and  pronounced  it 
a  very  great  case  of  contempt.  The  sergeant 
was  again  sent  to  the  prison,  this  time  the 
officials  offering  no  resistance,  and  Mr.  Ferrars 
was  released  from  captivity.  At  eight  o'clock 
the  following  morning,  March  28,  1542,  the 
sheriffs,  and  other  persons  concerned,  appeared 
at  the  bar  of  the  House,  and  the  sheriffs  and 
creditor  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  the 
clerk  of  the  Compter  to  a  place  known  as 
"Little  Ease,"  and  the  constables  who  had 
attacked  the  sergeant  to  Newgate.  They  were, 
however,  released,  at  the  intercession  of  the 
mayor,  March  30,  and  in  April  the  king  ex- 
pressed his  approbation  of  the  steps  the  House 
had  taken. 

FERROL  (Spain).— A  British  fleet  assailed 
this  seaport,  without  success,  Aug.  25,  1800. 
It  was  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet  in  1805  ; 
and  Sir  Robert  Calder,  with  15  sail  of  the  line, 
defeated  the  French  and  Spanish  fleet,  consist- 
ing of  20  sail  of  the  line,  7  frigates,  and  2  brigs, 
off  Ferrol,  July  22,  1805.  Marshal  Soult  cap- 
tured it  in  1809. 

FERTILE  ISLE.— (See  CHRISTOPHER'S,  ST  ) 
FESTIVALS.— (See  FEASTS  and  FESTIVALS.) 
FETE  DIEU.—  (See  CORPUS  CHRISTI  ) 
FETHANLEA,   or  FRETHERN    (Battle).— 
Ccawlin  defeated  the  Britons  at  this  place, 
near  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire,  in  584 

FEUDAL  S  Y  S  T  E  M.—  Alexander  Severus 
(222 — 235)  and  Probus  '276 — 282^  gave  grants  of 
land  to  their  soldiers  on  condition  that  they 
and  their  heirs  should  do  military  service  for 
them.  The  custom  was  afterwards  imitated 
by  the  Lombards  and  other  northern  nations, 
by  whom  it  was  introduced  into  civilized 


Europe.  The  oldest  codes  of  laws  founded  on 
the  feudal  principle  are  the  Salic  law,  which 
was  promulgated  by  the  Salians  or  Franks 
about  481 ;  the  code  of  the  Lombards,  com- 
menced about  646  ;  and  the  Capitularies,  pub- 
lished in  827.  It  is  believed  some  such  system 
was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons, 
but  it  was  not  till  after  the  Norman  Conquest, 
in  1066,  that  it  attained  its  full  operation  in 
this  country.  It  was  introduced  into  Scotland 
by  Malcolm  II.  in  1008.  The  "Liber  Fcudo- 
rum"  was  compiled  by  the  Emperor  Frede- 
rick I.  in  1170,  and  it  is  regarded  as  the  chief 
authority  as  to  the  feudal  law  of  the  continent. 
The  "Coutumicr  de  Normandie"  was  com- 
posed about  1229.  The  system  was  discouraged 
in  France  in  1470,  limited  in  England  in  1495, 
and  finally  abolished  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660). 

FEUILLANT  CLUB  (Paris).— During  the 
Revolution,  a  club,  first  called  the  club  of  1789, 
that  assembled  in  the  old  convent  of  the 
Feuillants  (1791),  was  named  after  them.  A 
ministry  composed  of  their  leaders  assumed 
power  in  June,  1792.  The  Jacobins  conspired 
against  them,  and  the  Feuillant  Club  was 
closed  in  July,  1792. 

FEUILLANTINES.— This  order  of  nuns, 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  Feuillants  (q.  ?•.),  was 
founded  in  1590,  and  possessed  a  house  at 
Paris,  established  in  1622  by  Anne  of  Austria. 

FEUILLANTS.— This  name  was  given  to  a 
religious  order  founded  by  Jean  de  la  Barrierc, 
at  Feuillant,  in  Laiiguedoc,  in  1577,  and  sanc- 
tioned by  Sixtus  V.  in  1588.  In  1587  it  estab- 
lished itself  in  Paris,  and  in  1630  a  separation 
took  place  between  the  Feuillants  of  France 
and  those  of  Italy. 

FEUILLETON  first  appeared  in  the  "Jour- 
nal des  Debats,"  in  Paris,  in  1800. 

FEVER.— Scarlet  fever  is  believed  to  have 
originated  in  Africa,  whence  it  was  brought 
into  Europe  by  the  Moors.  It  is  known  to  have 
existed  in  England  for  the  last  200  years.  Ty- 
phus fever,  which  has  been  known  for  300  years, 
caused  great  mortality  in  the  armies  of  Napo- 
leon I.  and  of  the  allied  forces  in  the  Crimea. 

FEVERSHAM.— (See  FAVERSHAM.) 

FEZ,  or  FAS  (Africa),  the  capital  of  a  king- 
dom of  the  same  name,  was  founded  by  Edris, 
in  829.  His  dynasty  lasted  till  907.  Fez  be- 
came subject  to  Morocco  in  1550. 

FEZZAN,  or  FESSAN  (Africa),  the  ancient 
Phazania,  the  country  of  the  Garamantes,  was 
attacked  by  the  Romans  under  Cornelius  Bal- 
bus,  B.C.  20.  It  was  long  governed  by  indepen- 
dent princes,  who  afterwards  became  subject  to 
Tripoli,  and  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1842. 

FIDDLE.— (-See  VIOL,  VIOLIN.) 

FIDEN^E  (Italy),  captured  B.C.  496  by  the 
Romans,  with  whom  its  inhabitants  were  fre- 
quently engaged  in  war,  was  taken  and  plun- 
dered B.C.  426,  and  its  inhabitants  were  sold  as 
slaves.  The  amphitheatre  fell  during  an  ex- 
hibition, in  27,  when  50,000  persons  were  killed 
or  wounded.  Its  site  is  occupied  by  Castel 
Giubilco. 

FIEF.— Ducange  (iii.  p.  433)  states  that  the 
word  fief,  as  applied  to  a  possession  held  by  a 
tenant  of  a  superior,  was  not  used  until  884,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  the  Fat.  (See  FEUDAL 
SYSTEM.) 


FIELD 


[     400     ] 


FILE 


FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.— 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  Francis  I.  of 
France,  held  interviews  between  Guisnes  and 
Ardres,  near  Calais,  June  7 — 24,  1520.  Such 
was  the  magnificence  displayed,  that  the  place 
of  meeting  was  called  the  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold. 

FIELD  OF  MARCH,  or  FIELD  OF  MAY.— 
This  name  was  given  to  assemblies  of  the 
Frankish  people  which  were  held  in  France 
under  the  Merovingian  kings,  every  year  in  the 
month  of  March.  They  have  been  called  Par- 
liaments of  the  Champ  de  Mars.  The  people 
assembled  in  arms  on  these  occasions.  Pepin 
the  Short,  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  in 
747,  revived  this  national  assembly,  changing 
the  time  of  meeting  from  March  to  May. 
Charlemagne  also  convoked  them.  Sheppard 
(Fall  of  Rome  and  Rise  of  the  New  Nation- 
alities, sect,  ix.)  remarks:  "Of  these  assem- 
blies the  chroniclers  enumerate  thirty-five 
between  the  years  770  and  813.  That  convoked 
in  spring,  and  styled  'the  field  of  May,'  alone 
had  the  privilege  of  passing  laws,  and  in  it  the 
third  estate,  or  the  people,  were  associated 
with  the  clergy  and  nobles." 

FIELD  SPORTS.  —  From  the  time  of 
Nimrod,  the  "  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord"  (Gen.  x.  9),  hunting  has  been  popular 
in  all  countries  and  in  every  age.  The  Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Med 
Persians,  pursued  it  with  avidity,  hunting  the 
lion,  tiger,  leopard,  deer,  hare,  A: c.,  and  em- 
ploying, to  track  the  game,  sporting  dogs,  and 
lions,  and  other  beasts  of  prey  trained  for  the 
task.  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  the  early 
period  of  their  history,  hunted  the  lion,  panther, 
leopard,  &c.,  in  Thrace  and  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
afterwards  the  wild  boar  furnished  their 
favourite  sport.  Stag  and  hare  hunting,  and 
coursing,  were  also  practised,  Xenophon 
(B.C.  444— B.C.  357),  Arrian  (90—170),  and  other 
authors  having  left  accounts  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  conducted.  The  ancient 
Britons  were  enthusiastic  sportsmen,  and  many 
skeletons  of  their  hunting  dogs  are  found  in 
the  barrows  (q.  v.)  which  formed  their  places 
of  sepulture.  The  Saxons  practised  hunting, 
which  was  a  favourite  recreation  of  Alfred  the 
Great  (871 — 901),  and  it  was  a  favourite  pastime 
in  the  time  of  Edward  II.  (1307—1327).  (See 
ANGLING,  FALCONRY,  Fox  -  HUNTING,  GAME 
LAWS,  <fcc.,  &c.) 

FIERY  CHAMBER,  or  CHAMBRE 
ARDENTE.  —  The  name  given  to  a  French 
tribunal  called  the  Grande  Chambre,  convoked 
for  the  punishment  of  heresy.  Francis  I. 
established  a  Fiery  Chamber  in  1535.  In  1679 
it  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  inquire 
into  the  reports  of  poisoning  cases  that  were 
circulated  on  the  trial  of  the  Marchioness 
Brinvilliers,  and  its  operations  soon  after 
ceased. 

FIESCHI  CONSPIRACY.  —  Joseph  Marco 
Fieschi  having  conceived  a  hatred  for  Louis 
Philippe  in  consequence  of  the  suppression,  by 
the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  of  a  situation  which 
he  held,  consti-ucted  an  infernal  machine  of 
about  zoo  gun-barrels  fixed  in  a  frame,  which 
he  discharged  simultaneously,  by  means  of 
a  train  of  gunpowder,  from  a  house  in  the 


Boulevard-du-Temple,  during  a  review  of  the 
National  Guard,  July  28,  1835.  The  king 
escaped  unhurt,  but  Marshal  Mortier  and  17 
people  were  killed,  and  many  more  wounded. 
Fieschi,  with  his  accomplices,  Pepin  and 
Morey,  was  guillotined,  Feb.  16,  1836. 

FIESCO  CONSPIRACY.  —  Giovanni  Luigi 
Fiesco,  Count  of  Lavagiia,  disliking  the  re- 
publican government  established  at  Genoa  by 
the  Admiral,  Andrew  Doria,  formed  a  plot  for 
his  assassination,  and  the  establishment  of  an 
oligarchy.  The  insurrection  took  place  Jan. 
2,  1547,  when  Doria  was  compelled  to  flee,  and 
his  grand-nephew,  Giannetino,  was  put  to 
death ;  but  the  leader,  Fiesco,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  outbreak,  slipped  while 
stepping  from  a  galley,  and,  being  over- 
weighted by  his  armour,  sank  in  the  waves 
and  perished. 

FIESOLE.—  (See  F,ESUL,E.) 

FIFE.  —  This  instrument,  which  is  repre- 
sented on  Greek  sculptures  commemorating 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  was  introduced  at 
an  early  date  into  the  English  army  by  the 
Switzers,  and  is  mentioned  by  h'hakspeare, 
who  (Othello,  act  iii.  so.  2)  speaks  of  the  ''  ear- 
piercing  fife."  It  was  discontinued  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  but  was  reintroduced  into 
the  Guards  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  in 
1745,  and  was  adopted  in  marching  regiments 
in  1747. 

FJFIO  (Bishopric),  founded  June  n,  1727, 
was  annexed  in  1837  to  Dunkeld  and  Duni- 
blane.  (See  ANDREWS,  ST.) 

FIFTH  MoNAHvJI-iY  MEN.  —  A  sect  of 
ultra-republicans  who  appeared  in  England  in 
1645,  and  taught  that  Christ  was  about  to  re- 
appear on  earth,  and  establish  a  new  universal 
monarchy.  In  1653  they  held  weekly  meetings 
in  London,  at  which  they  denounced  Cromwell 
as  "the  man  of  sin,"  "the  old  dragon,"  and 
"the  dissernblingest  perjured  villain  in  the 
world;"  in  consequence  of  which  he  put  a  stop 
to  their  preaching.  They  reappeared,  however, 
at  the  Restoration,  and  stirred  up  a  riot,  in 
which  several  lives  were  lost,  Jan.  6,  1661. 

FIG-TREE.  —  The  common  fig-tree  was 
brought  to  England  before  1548 ;  and  the 
Botany  Bay  fig-tree  from  New  South  Wales 
in  1789.  Cardinal  Pole  is  said  to  have  planted 
fig-trees  at  Lambeth,  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

FIGUERAS  (Spam).— The  citadel,  called  St. 
Ferdinand,  was  built  by  Ferdinand  VI.  (1746 — 
1759).  The  French  captured  it  Nov.  24,  1794. 
It  was  several  times  assailed,  and  having  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1808,  was 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

FIGURED  BASS  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Ludovico  Viadana  in  the  i7th 
century. 

FIJI  ISLANDS.  —  (See  FEEJEE  or  FIJI 
ISLANDS.) 

FILBERT. — This  fruit,  said  to  have  received 
its  name  from  Philibert,  a  king  of  France, 
originally  brought  from  Pontus  into  Italy,  was 
introduced  into  England  about  1612. 

FILE-CUTTING  MACHINES.— Various  in- 
struments for  the  manufacture  of  files  have 
from  time  to  time  been  invented,  of  which 
Duverger's  in  1699,  Fardonet's  in  1725,  Thiout's 


FILES 


[    401    [ 


FIRE 


in  1740,  Brachat  and  Germain's  in  1756  and 
1778,  Raoul's  in  1800,  Ericsson's  in  1836,  and 
Sir  J.  Robinson's,  improved  by  Johnson, 
Cammell,  and  Co.,  in  1843,  are  the  best  known. 
In  Feb.,  1860,  Mr.  Thomas  Greenwood,  of  Leeds, 
read  a  paper  at  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  in  which  he  described  a  machine, 
invented  by  M.  Bernot,  of  Paris,  which  he 
stated  would  perform  its  work  at  an  eighth  of 
the  expense  of  other  machines. 

FILES  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  were  the 
only  means  permitted  to  the  Jews  by  the 
Philistines  for  sharpening  their  agricultural 
implements,  B.  c.  1093  (i  Sam.  xiii.  19 — 21). 
They  are  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey  of  Homer 
(B.C.  907),  and  were  vised  in  the  classic  period. 

FILIBUSTER.— The  correct  spelling  of  this 
word,  a  corruption  of  the  English  term  free- 
booter, is  flibustier.  It  was  applied  to  the 
bucaneers  of  the  i6th  century,  and  to  lawless 
bands  from  the  United  States,  who  assailed 
Cuba  in  1850  and  1851,  and  various  parts  of 
Central  America  in  1857  and  other  years.  The 
filibuster  William  Walker,  who  attacked 
Nicaragua,  was  shot  at  Truxillo,  Sep.  12,  1860. 

FILTER.  —  The  unglazed  earthenware  for 
filtering  was  patented  by  Mrs.  Hempel  of 
Chelsea  in  1791.  Peacock  patented  his  ascend- 
ing filter  in  1791,  and  Witt  conducted  some 
important  experiments  at  the  Chelsea  Water- 
works, which  added  considerably  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  best  materials  for  filtering- 
beds,  <fcc.,  in  1856. 

FINANCIAL  COMPANIES,  in  large  num- 
bers, under  the  Limited  Liability  Act,  were 
formed  in  London  in  1863  and  1864. 

FINE  ARTS.— (See  ARCHITECTURE,  Music, 
PAINTING,  POETRY,  SCULPTURE,  <fcc.,  &c.) 

FINES  AND  RECOVERIES.— The  practice 
of  evading  the  laws  of  entail  by  means  of  fines 
and  recoveries  was  introduced  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  and  sanctioned  and  regulated  by 
4  Hen.  VII.  c.  24  (1487).  They  were  abolished 
by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74  (Aug.  28,  1833),  which 
ordered  no  more  to  be  levied  or  suffered  after 
Dec.  31,  1833.  ($ee  AMERCEMENT.) 

FINISTERRE.— (See  CAPE  FINISTERRE.) 

FINLAND  (Europe).— Eric  IX.,  King  of 
Sweden,  obtained  a  footing  in  Finland  about 
1157,  when  he  compelled  the  Finns  to  embrace 
Christianity.  Peter  the  Great  seized  it  in 
1714.  It  was  restored,  again  taken,  and  finally 
ceded  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of  Frederick- 
shamm,  Sep.  17,  1809. 

FIORENZUOLA  ( Battle).— Berenger  was  de- 
feated at  this  place,  near  Piacenza,  by  Rodolph 
II.,  King  of  Burgundy,  in  923. 

FIRE  ANNIHILATOB  was  patented  by 
Phillips  in  1849. 

FIRE-ARMS,  as  distinguished  from  artillery 
and  cannon  (q.  v.},  originated  about  the  year 
1364,  when  500  hand-cannon  were  made  at 
Perouse,  or  Perugia.  H  and-guns  were  used  at 
the  siege  of  Arras  in  1414,  and  of  Lucca  in 
1430.  Tubes  for  firing  gunpowder,  held  in  the 
hand,  and  termed  Scorpions,  appeared  in  Eng- 
land in  1440,  and  in  1471  300  Flemings,  armed 
with  hand-guns,  each  of  which  required  two 
men  to  manage,  accompanied  Edward  IV. 
when  he  landed  at  Ravenspur.  A  corps  of 
arquebusiers  was  formed  in  1476,  and  in  1510 


the  Swiss  had  a  troop  of  500  cavalry,  armed 
with  fire-arms,  engaged  in  Italy.  The  wheel- 
lock  pistol  was  common  in  Germany  in  1512. 
By  the  use  of  light  fire-arms  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia,  Feb.  24,  1525,  the  Spaniards  defeated 
Francis  I.  of  France.  Muskets  were  first  used 
by  the  Duke  of  Alva  against  the  Flemings  in 
1567,  and  were  introduced  into  the  French 
army  in  1573.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  flint 
arm  is  dated  1588,  and  the  earliest  specimen  of 
this  kind  of  weapon  is  of  the  year  1614.  The 
firelock  came  into  use  about  1669,  and  the 
fusil  was  adopted  in  the  French  army  in  1671. 
A  brass  fire-arm,  called  the  fancy  gun,  in  the 
shape  of  a  walking-cane,  and  which  might  be 
used  either  as  a  gun  or  pistol,  was  invented  in 
1712,  but  was  never  generally  adopted.  The 
harpoon  gun  was  invented  in  1731.  The  Rev. 
A.  J.  Forsyth'took  out  his  patent  for  igniting 
gunpowder  on  the  percussion  principle,  April 
n,  1807.  All  fire-arms  were  ordered  to  be 
proved  before  use  by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  115  (July 
10,  1813),  which  was  amended  by  55  Geo.  III. 
c.  59  (May  12,  1815).  Percussion-cap  guns  were 
adopted  in  the  French  army  in  1830,  and  the 
Enfield  rifle  musket  in  the  English  army  in 

FIRE-BRIGADE.— Each  of  the  fire  insur- 
ance companies  of  London  had  a  separate 
establishment  of  fire-engines  until  1825,  when 
the  Union,  the  Sun,  and  the  Royal  Exchange 
companies  united  their  fire-engine  establish- 
ments. Other  companies  joined  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  1833  a  new  association,  including 
all  the  principal  fire  insurance  companies,  was 
formed.  This,  constituting  the  Fire-brigade, 
was  managed  by  a  committee.  By  28  &  29 
Viet.  c.  90  (July  5,  1865),  called  an  act  for  the 
establishment  of  a  Fire-brigade  within  the 
metropolis,  the  Fire-brigades  were  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Works,  whose  authority  commenced  Monday, 
Jan.  i,  1866.  It  is  called  "  The  Metropolitan 
Fire-brigade." 

FIRE-ENGINE.— Ctesibius,  who  flourished 
B.C.  250,  is  believed  to  have  invented  a  species 
of  fire-engine.  Instruments  for  extinguishing 
fires  are  first  mentioned  in  the  accounts  for  the 
city  of  Augsburg  in  1518,  but  no  distinct  de- 
scription of  a  machine  of  the  kind  exists  till 
Hautsch  of  Nuremberg  constructed  his  engine, 
about  1657.  In  1672,  Jan  Vanderheide  intro- 
duced the  flexible  hose,  and  in  1699  Duperrier 
received  a  patent  for  making  fire-engines  for 
France.  Newsham's  engine  was  patented  about 
1700  ;  and  Leupold  added  the  air-chamber 
in  1720.  In  1792  Simpson  patented  an  im- 
proved form  of  Newsham's  machine ;  and  in 
1793  Joseph  Braniah  took  out  a  patent  for  an 
engine  on  the  vibratory  principle.  A  steam 
fire-engine  was  invented  by  Braithwaite  in 
1830,  and  in  1832  the  insurance  companies 
adopted  an  engine  of  the  kind.  Further  im- 
provements in  steam  fire-engines  were  effected 
in  America  by  Capt.  Ericson,  who  gained  a 
prize  offered  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. In  1858  Messrs.  Shand  and  Mason  con- 
structed a  land  steam  fire-engine  for  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia,  and  a  second  in  July,  1859, 
both  of  which  proved  perfectly  successful. 

FIRE-ESCAPE.— Various  ingenious  contriv- 


FIRE 


[    402    ] 


FITZWILLIAM 


ances  to  enable  people  to  escape  in  cases  of 
conflagration  have  been  from  time  to  time 
invented.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris, 
in  1761,  expressed  their  approbation  of  M. 
Varcourt's  invention  for  this  purpose.  The 
fire-escape  which  served  as  the  basis  for  those 
used  in  London  was  invented  by  Mr.  John 
Davis  in  1809.  After  having  undergone  several 
improvements,  they  were  in  1836  brought  into 
general  use  by  the  Society  for  the  Protection 
of  Life  from  Fire.  There  are  now  above  70  of 
these  useful  machines  stationed  in  different 
parts  of  the  metropolis. 

FIRE  INSURANCE.— (See  INSURANCE.) 

FIRE  -  LOCK  came  into  use,  according  to 
Merrick,  in  1669. 

FIRE  RAISING.— (See  ARSON.) 

FIRES.— (See  INDEX.) 

FIRE  SALVAGE  CORPS.— This  brigade, 
formed  by  the  leading  fire  insurance  com- 
panies in  the  metropolis,  for  the  better  pro- 
tection of  property  from  fires,  was  established 
towards  the  close  of  1865  in  consequence  of 
the  transfer  of  the  control  of  the  Fire-brigade 
(q.  v.}  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works. 

FIRE-SHIPS,  filled  with  combustibles,  were 
used  amongst  ancient  nations,  and  Livy  speaks 
of  some  employed  by  the  Rhodians  B.C.  190. 
Mention  of  them  is  made  in  the  i3th  century. 
Fire-ships  were  launched  against  the  Spanish 
Armada  in  Calais  roads,  Sunday,  July  28,  1588 
(O.S.).  In  the  English  navy-list  for  1710,  five 
of  these  vessels  formed  part  of  the  naval  de- 
fences of  the  kingdom. 

FIREWORKS.— The  art  of  pyrotechny  was 
brought  to  great  perfection  by  the  Chinese  and 
Hindoos  long  before  it  was  known  in  Europe. 
From  a  passage  in  Claudian,  who  wrote  in  the 
4th  century,  it  appears  that  the  Romans  cele- 
brated triumphs,  &c.,  by  exhibitions  of  mov- 
ing fires,  though  their  ignorance  of  gunpowder 
rendered  their  efforts  very  limited.  In  1258 
the  King  of  Delhi  sent  3,000  carriages  of  fire- 
works to  the  ambassadors  of  Halaku.  They 
were  scarcely  known  in  Kim  Laid  till  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  ;  but  in  the  time  of  Charles  I. 
they  became  common.  By  9  &  10  Will.  III. 
c.  7  (1697),  the  throwing  or  firing  off  of  squibs, 
serpents,  or  other  fireworks,  was  declared  a 
common  nuisance,  punishable  by  fine.  The 
chief  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
fireworks  for  ornamental  purposes  were  made 
by  Ruggieri  about  the  year  1743.  The  fol- 
lowing aro  some  of  the  most  remarkable  exhi- 
bitions of  fireworks : — 


1697,  Nov.  16.  On  the  entry  of  William  III.  into  London, 
after  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  £13,000  were  ex- 
pended in  fireworks. 

1748,  Nov.  23.  A  grand  display  takes  place  in  London,  to 
celebrate  the  peace  (if  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1770,  May  31.  One  at  Paris,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette. 
A  panic  arose,  in  consequence  of  some  fire  falling 
amongst  the  crowd,  and  3,000  persons  were  killed 
or  wounded.  713  bodies  were  afterwards  found. 

1814,  Aug.  i.  In  London,  to  celebrate  the  general  peace. 

1831,  Sep.  8.  In  London,  at  the  coronation  of  William  IV. 

1856,  May  29.  In  London,  on  the  conclusion  of  peace 
with  Russia. 

FIRST-BORN.— (See  CONSECRATION.) 
FIRST  CONSUL.— (See  CONSULATE.) 


FIRST  COVENANT.— (See  CONGREGATION  OF 
THE  LORD.) 

FIRST-FRUITS.—  (See  ANNATES.) 

FIRST  PRAYERS.-A  right  exercised  by 
Rodolphof  Habsburg  (1273 — 1291)  and  his  suc- 
cessors, which  empowered  the  emperor,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  to  nominate  a  priest 
to  a  benefice  in  every  immediate  chapter  and 
'abbey  in  Germany. 

FISHERIES  were  established  among  the 
Arabians  about  B.C.  1800,  and  the  practice  of 
salting  fish  was  common  in  Egypt  B.C.  1350. 
The  Scotch  carried  on  thriving  fisheries  about 
1040,  and  an  important  herring-fishery  was 
established  at  Sclionen  in  1204.  By  1482  the 
English  fisheries  formed  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  national  wealth.  By  24  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  4  (1532),  hemp  and  flax  were"  ordered  to  be 
sown  for  the  manufacture  of  fishing-nets  ;  and 
by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1533),  the  fishing  towns 
of  the  east  coast  were  brought  under  statutory 
regulation.  In  1553  Spain  agreed  to  pay  an 
annual  sum  of  £1,000  for  leave  to  fish  on  the 
Irish  coasts,  and  strangers  were  prohibited 
from  fishing  in  our  seas  by  a  proclamation  of 
Charles  I.  in  1636.  In  1635  the  Dutch  paid 
£30,000  for  the  privilege  of  using  the  English 
fisheries;  and  in  1656  Sweden  obtained  liberty 
to  employ  1,000  vessels  in  British  waters. 
The  company  of  the  Royal  fishery  of  England 
was  established  in  1677,  but  proved  a  failure. 
The  Free  British  Fishery  Corporation  was 
established  in  1750.  The  Society  of  Arts 
devised  a  machine  for  conveying  fresh  fish 
to  London  in  1761,  and  Parliament  granted 
£2,500  to  further  the  scheme  in  1764.  The 
British  Society  of  Fisheries  was  established 
in  1786,  the  Northumberland  Fishery  Society 
in  1789,  and  the  Irish  Fishery  Commission  in 
1819.  A  convention  fixing  the  limits  of  oyster 
and  other  fisheries  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain  and  France,  was  signed  at  Paris, 
An:,'.  2,  iS;>  See  SALMON  FISHERY.) 

FISilEirs  HILI,  rhe  retreating 

Confederates  under  Gen.  Ewell  made  a  stand 
at  this  pass  in  Virginia,  and  were  defeated  by 
G.-'ii.  Milroy,  June  2,  1862.  Gen.  Sheridan 
defeated  the  Confederates  at  the  same  place, 
Oct.  9,  1864. 

FISHGUARD  (Wales).— A  French  force  of 
1,200  men  landed  near  this  town  Feb.  22,  1797, 
and  surrendered  Feb.  24. 

FISHMONGERS.  —  Mention  of  the  fish- 
mongers of  London  occurs  as  early  as  1290. 
They  originally  formed  two  companies,  the 
Salt  Fishmongers,  incorporated  in  1433,  and 
the  Stock  Fishmongers  in  1509,  united  in  one 
company  in  1536.  Their  ancient  arms  were 
confirmed  in  1575.  The  company  of  fishermen 
was  incorporated  in  1687.  The  Fishmongers, 
before  the  union  of  their  two  companies,  pos- 
sessed six  halls.  The  new  Fishmongers'  Hall 
was  completed  in  1835.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
received  the  freedom  of  the  Fishmongers' 
Company,  Feb.  12,  1863. 

FITZWILLIAM  MUSEUM  (Cambridge).— 
Richard  Viscount  Fitzwilliam,  who  died  Feb.  5, 
1816,  bequeathed  his  collection  of  books, 
paintings,  &c.,  and  the  interest  of  £100,000,  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  a  museum  at 
Cambridge.  The  building  was  commenced  by 


FIUME 


[    403 


FLANDERS 


George  Basevi,  Nov.  2,  1837,  and  continued  till 
1847,  when  operations  were  suspended  for  a 
time,  to  allow  for  the  accumulation  of  suffi- 
cient funds  to  carry  out  the  design. 

FIUME  •  Illyria).—  This  seaport,  in  the  pos- 
session of  Austria,  was  made  a  free  port  in 
1722,  and  was  taken  from  Hungary  and  incor- 
porated with  Croatia  in  1849. 

FIVE  FORKS  (Battle).— After  a  fierce  con- 
test, Gen.  Sheridan,  with  30,000  men,  drove  the 
Confederates  under  Gen.  Pickett  from  their 
entrenchment  at  this  junction  of  five  roads, 
near  Richmond,  Virginia,  Saturday,  April  i, 
1865.  The  Federals  lost  nearly  3,000  men, 
and  the  Confederates  as  many,  besides  4,000 
prisoners. 

FIVE  HUNDRED  (Council  of  the).— The 
National  Convention  in  1795  vested  the  legis- 
lative power  in  two  councils,  that  of  the 
Ancients  (q.  v.),  and  that  of  the  Five  Hundred. 
To  the  latter  was  entrusted  the  sole  right  of 
originating  laws.  Its  sittings  were  transferred 
to  St.  Cloud  (q.  v.)  Nov.  9,  1799.  This  council 
was  dissolved  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  Nov. 
10,  1799. 

FIVE-MILE  ACT.— This  act  (17  Charles  II. 
c.  2,  1665)  prohibited  Dissenters  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  non-resistance,  from  ap- 
proaching within  five  miles  of  any  corporation 
where  they  had  preached  since  the  Act  of 
Oblivion  (12  Charles  II.  c.  u,  1660),  under  a 
penalty  of  ,£40.  Nonconformists  who  con- 
sented to  sign  the  declaration  attached  to  the 
act  for  disabling  Papists  from  sitting  in  either 
House  of  Parliament  130  Charles  II.  st.  2,  c.  i, 
1677),  were  relieved  from  this  restriction  by 
i  Will.  &  Marj',  c.  18  (1688). 

FIVES.— This  game,  under  the  name  of 
palm-play,  or  hand-tennis,  was  known  both  in 
France  and  England  as  early  as  the  i4th 
century. 

FLADENHEIM  (Battle).— Rodolph  of  Swabia 
defeated  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  near  this 
town  in  Thuringia  in  1080. 

FLAG. — The  earliest  flag  was  suspended 
from  two  corners  like  a  square  sail.  Flags 
were  used  by  the  Greeks  as.  naval  ensigns  from 
the  earliest  period  of  their  history.  The  pre- 
sent style  of  flag  was  introduced  into  Europe 
by  the  Moors  when  they  entered  Spain  in  711. 
The  embroidery  of  flags  afforded  occupation 
to  the  ladies  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  thus  the 
celebrated  raven  standard  of  the  Danes,  which 
was  captured  by  the  English  in  878,  was  said 
to  have  been  worked  by  the  three  sisters  of 
Hubba.  The  renowned  carrocium,  or  car* 
standard,  of  the  Italians,  was  invented  at 
Milan  about  the  year  1040.  Flags  were  first 
attached  to  lances  during  the  nth  and  i2th 
centuries,  and  were  distinguished  by  various 
badges  by  the  Crusaders  in  1188.  For  a  long 
period  the  dragon  was  the  national  badge  of 
the  English.  It  was  used  by  Harold  II.  at 
Hastings,  by  Richard  I.  in  1191,  and  by  Henry 
III.  in  1264.  Edward  III.  blazoned  his  banners 
with  the  arms  of  England  and  France  quar- 
terly in  1340.  The  Dutch  yielded  the  honour 
of  the  flag  to  England  in  1673.  The  flag- 
officers  in  the  English  navy  are  the  admiral, 
vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral,  of  the  white, 
red,  and  blue. 


FLAG  OF  TRUCE. —The  Russians  fired 
upon  a  flag  of  truce  at  Odessa,  April  6,  1854, 
and  at  Hango,  June  5,  1855. 

FLAGELLANTS,  or  WHIPPERS.  —  Many 
persons  in  Italy,  holding  no  peculiar  doctrines, 
formed  themselves  into  processions,  and  in- 
flicted chastisement  upon  themselves  as  they 
marched  along,  about  1260.  Milman  (Latin 
Christianity,  vol.  v.  b.  xi.  ch.  2)  says  they 
"seemed  to  rise  almost  simultaneously  in 
different  parts  of  Italy.  They  began  in  Perugia. 
The  penitential  frenzy  seized  Rome  :  it  spread 
through  every  city,  Guelph  and  Ghibelline 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  invaded  Germany  and 
France."  It  was  a  purely  religious  movement, 
which  had  been  preceded  in  1251  by  that  of 
the  Pastoureaux  (the  Shepherds)  in  Flanders 
and  in  France.  Clement  VII.  anathematized 
the  new  flagellants  who  sprang  up  early  in  the 
1 4th  century.  An  attempt  to  revive  these 
practices  was  made  in  Thuringia  and  other 
parts  of  Germany  in  1414.  Conrad,  the  leader 
of  the  sect  in  Thuringia,  with  many  others, 
suffered  at  the  stake.  Flagellation  was  much 
practised  amongst  the  early  monks.  (See 
BLACK  DEATH.) 

FLAGEOLET,  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Sieur  Juvigny  in  1580. 

FLAMINIAN  ROAD  or  WAY.— The  Flaminia 
Via  at  Rome,  constructed  by  Caius  Flaminius 
B.C.  221,  terminated  at  Ariminum.  It  was 
continued  to  Milan,  under  the  name  of  the 
Via  JEmilia,  B.C.  179. 

FLAMMOCK'S  REBELLION.  —  In  conse- 
quence of  a  tax  levied  to  meet  the  expense  of 
the  Scottish  wars  of  Henry  VII.,  the  Cornish- 
men  rose  in  rebellion  under  Thomas  Flam- 
mock,  a  lawyer,  and  Michael  Joseph,  a  black- 
smith, of  Bodmin.  They  marched  towards 
London,  and  at  Wells  were  headed  by  Lord 
Audley.  On  arriving  at  Winchester,  they 
compelled  their  leaders  to  conduct  them  to 
Kent,  expecting  to  be  joined  by  many  natives 
of  that  county,  and  encamped  on  Blackheath, 
where  Henry  VII.  resolved  to  give  them  battle. 
An  engagement  ensued,  June  22,  1497,  in 
which  the  rebels  were  defeated,  and  2,000  of 
their  number  slain.  Lord  Audley  was  be- 
headed on  Tower-hill,  and  Flammock  and 
Joseph  were  drawn,  hanged,  and  quartered  at 
Tyburn,  June  28. 

FLANDERS  is  believed  to  have  been  covered 
by  the  sea  in  ancient  times.  In  793  it  was 
erected  into  a  county,  and  in  802  was  colonized 
by  a  Saxon  tribe.  It  was  annexed  to  France 
in  843,  passed  under  the  government  of  counts 
in  862,  and  acquired  celebrity  as  a  centre  of 
woollen  manufacture  about  960.  In  uop  a 
terrible  inundation  forced  many  families  into 
exile,  and  thus  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
Flemish  settlement  in  Cumberland,  and  sub- 
sequently, in  1 1 12,  in  Wales.  The  first  com- 
mercial treaty  between  Flanders  and  England 
was  concluded  in  1274  ;  but  in  1309  disagree- 
ments broke  out  between  the  two  countries, 
which,  in  1322,  led  to  open  war.  Peace  was  re- 
stored in  1325,  and  in  1369  it  was  annexed  to 
Burgundy  by  marriage.  The  insurrection  of 
the  "White  Hats"  broke  out  in  1378,  and 
Flanders  remained  in  a  very  unsettled  state 
till  the  accession  of  Philip  II.,  the  Bold,  in 
D  D  a 


FLANDRIANS 


[    404    1 


FLINT 


1364.  In  1477  Flanders  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  house  of  Austria,  in  consequence  of 
the  marriage  of  the  duchess  Mary  with  the 
archduke  Maximilian,  and  in  1556  it  was  an- 
nexed to  Spain.  In  1581  the  Flemings  asserted 
their  independence,  and  the  country  was  en- 
gaged in  wars  with  Spain  till  the  conclusion  of 
the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659.  in 
1668  many  of  the  inhabitants  repaired  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  1680  some  parts  of  the  country 
were  seized  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  By  the 
peace  of  Radstadt,  March  6,  1714,  it  formed 
part  of  Germany,  and  Dutch  Flanders  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  signed  at  the 
Hague,  May  16,  1795.  (See  BELGIUM  AND 
HOLLAND.) 

FLANDRIANS,  or  FLEMINGS,  a  branch  of 
the  Anabaptists,  arose  in  the  i6th  century,  and 
rebaptized  not  only  those  who  had  received 
baptism  in  other  denominations  in  their  child- 
hood or  infancy,  but  also  such  as  had  re- 
ceived it  when  adults. 

FLANNEL.— Various  kinds  were  introduced 
into  this  country  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
(See  WOOLLEN  TRADE,  &c.) 

FLAX. — The  culture  and  manufacture  of 
flax,  carried  011  in  Egypt  about  B.C.  1706,  were 
introduced  thence  into  Tyre  B.C.  588.  The  ma- 
nufacture was  in  operation  in  England  in  1189, 
and  was  practised  in  Scotland  in  1210.  By 
24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1533),  the  culture  of  flax  in 
England  was  made  imperative,  and  in  1703  a 
bounty  was  paid  on  flax  imported  from  the 
American  colonies.  A  duty  of  id.  pcrcwt.  was 
imposed  upon  imported  flax  by  5  &  6  Viet. 
c.  47  (July  9,  1842),  which  was  removed  by 
8  Viet.  c.  12  (May  8,  1845).  (See  LINEN.) 

FLEET  MARKET  (London-,  for  meat  and 
vegetables,  was  established  in  the  centre  of 
the  present  Farringdon  Street,  and  exactly 
over  the  Fleet  ditch,  Sep.  30,  1737.  It  WHS  re- 
moved to  its  present  site,  and  called  Farringdon 
Market,  Nov.  20,  1829. 

FLEET  MARRIAGES.— One  of  the  most 
glaring  abuses  of  the  Fleet  prison  was  the  il- 
legal performance  of  the  marriage  ceremony 
by  clergymen  confined  within  its  precincts  for 
debt.  The  first  notice  of  a  Fleet  marriage  is  in 
1613,  and  the  first  entry  in  a  register  in  1674. 
They  were  suppressed  by  the  Marriage  Act 
(26600.  II.  c.  33,  1753),  which  took  effect  March 
25,  1754.  The  register  books  of  the  Fleet  mar- 
riages were  purchased  by  Government  in  1821 

FLEET  PRISON  (London)  was  built  on  the 
east  side  of  Fleet  ditch,  in  the  first  year  of  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.,  and  became  a  prison  for 
debtors  in  1640.  It  was  burned  down  in  the 
great  fire  of  1666,  and  again  in  Lord  George 
Gordon's  riots  in  1780.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1781-2 
By  the  act  for  consolidating  the  King's  Bench 
Fleet,  and  Marshalsea  prisons  (5  Viet.  c.  22, 
May  31,  1842),  this  prison  was  abolished,  and 
was  pulled  down  in  1844,  In  *%45  the  site  was 
purchased  by  the  Corporation  of  London  for 
^25,000,  and  the  outer  walls  were  removed 
Feb.  20,  1846. 

FLEETWOOD  (Lancashire).— This  port  was 
laid  out  by  Sir  Hesketh  Fleetwood,  Bart.,  in 
1836.  It  takes  its  name  from  its  founder,  who 
died  April  12,  1866. 

FLEIX  (Treaty).— Concluded  at  the  castle  of 


?leix,  in  P<5rigord,  Nov.  26,  1580,  between 
aenry  III.  of  France  and  the  Protestants, 
;erminated  the  seventh  of  the  French  wars  of 
religion,  or  the  "  War  of  the  Lovers." 

FLENSBORG  (Denmark).— Margaret,  Queen 
of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  died  at  this 
place  Oct.  28,  1412.  The  prosperity  of  the 
town  was  greatly  increased  by  the  neutrality 
of  Denmark  in  the  American  war,  from  1770 
o  1783.  The  Iron  Church  was  opened  in  1854. 
The  Danes  defeated  the  German  and  Sleswig 
allies  April  10,  1848,  near  the  town,  which  was 
taken  by  the  Prussians  and  Hanoverians, 
April  25,  1848,  and  was  occupied  by  the  Danes 
July  16,  1850.  The  Germans  entered  it  Feb.  7, 
1864. 

FLETCHERS.— The  Fletchers'  or  Arrow- 
makers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1487, 
and  the  Bowyers'  in  1620. 

FLEUR-DE-LYS.— Tradition  states  that  Clo- 
vis  I.,  on  his  baptism,  in  496,  received  from  an 
angel  a  lily,  which  he  and  his  successors  on 
the  Fi-eiich  throne  consequently  assume!  1  as  a 
icaringas  their  arms  a  blue  shield  sown 
with  an  indefinite  number  of  golden  fleurs-de- 
lys,  which  were,  however,  afterwards  limited 
to  three.  Berry  (Encyclopaedia  Heraldica,  i. 
under  Fleur-de-lis)  says  : — "  Authors  have 
much  differed  as  to  the  origin  and  nature  of 
the  bearing,  some  supposing  that  they  were 
intended  to  represent  the  top  of  a  teepfrt, 
others  the  French  battle-axe,  called /ranctoca, 
or  rather  the  iron  of  the  im<i»,i,  or  javelin,  of 
the  ancient  French,  which  last  seems  the  most 
probable  conjecture."  It  is  said  to  be  an  em- 
blem of  the  Trinity  from  its  three  branchings, 
and  lilies,  it  is  said,  were  the  principal  orna- 
ment in  Solomon's  crown.  It  is  shaped  on 
Koi nan  medals  of  a  very  early  period.  Charles 
V.  is  said  to  have  adopted  the  fleur-de-lys  in 
1365,  and  the  French  arms  were  first  quartered 
by  Edward  III. 

FLEURUS  (Battles).— Several  severe  actions 
have  been  fought  near  this  town,  in  Belgium. 
The  first  was  between  the  Spanish  (Roman) 
Catholic  League  under  Gonzales  de  Cordova, 
and  the  Germans  of  the  Protestant  Union, 

Aug.  30,  1622. Marshal  Luxemburg  defeated 

the  Prince  of  Waldeck  here  July  i,  1690. The 

Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  by  the  army  of  the  French  republic 
under  Marshal  Jourdan,  who  employed  a  balloon 
to  examine  the  position  of  the  enemy,  June  26, 
1794.  The  engagement  commenced  early  in  the 
morning,  and  was  continued  without  definite 
result  till  the  evening,  when  the  French  were 
reinforced  by  a  detachment  of  artillery,  which 
enabled  them  to  secure  the  victory.  The  num- 
ber of  killed  in  this  battle  has  not  been  posi- 
tively ascertained  :  in  the  official  report  to  the 
Convention  it  was  stated  at  upwards  of  10,000. 

Napoleon  I.  defeated  the  allies  under  Blu- 

cherhere,  June  16,  1815.  This  engagement  is 
also  called  the  battle  of  Ligny. 

FLINT  IMPLEMENTS.— Nearly  every  pri- 
mitive or  savage  race,  whether  of  ancient  or 
modern  times,  appears  to  have  used  weapons, 
tools,  &c.,  of  flint.  Implements  of  this  de- 
scription were  found  in  1715,  buried  with  the 
remains  of  an  elephant,  in  Gray's  Inn  Lane, 
London ;  and  at  Hoxne,  in  Suffolk,  similar 


FLOATING 


[    405 


FLORENCE 


deposits  \vore  discovered,  with  the  fossil  skele- 
ton of  some  gigantic  animal,  in  1797.  Nu- 
merous flint  arrow-heads,  <fcc.,  have  been  dug 
up  from  the  drift,  at  Abbeville,  in  Franco, 
respecting  which  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  pub- 
lished a  work  in  1836,  and  introduced  them  to 
the  notice  of  the  French  Academy  in  1840.  His 
discoveries,  however,  failed  to  excite  general 
interest  till  1859,  when  Dr.  Falconer,  vice-pre- 
sident of  the  Geological  Society  of  London, 
visited  the  scene  of  the  excavations,  and  di- 
rected the  attention  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison,  and  other  eminent  geolo- 
gists to  the  subject. 

FLOATING  BATTERIES.— The  Chevalier 
D'Arcon  constructed  10  large  floating  batteries, 
which  were  employed  by  the  French  at  the 
siege  of  Gibraltar,  in  1782.  They  were  of  pro- 
digious strength,  and  were  deemed  impregna- 
ble ;  but  the  red-hot  shot  of  the  English  proved 
too  formidable,  and  all  of  them  were  de- 
stroyed during  the  siege.  The  construction 
of  floating  batteries  as  a  regular  branch  of  the 
English  navy  has  been  much  discussed,  and 
various  experiments  have  been  tried  to  ascer- 
tain their  efficiency.  A  commission  for  exa- 
mining into  the  subject  assembled  Oct.  10, 1859, 
and  published  a  report  containing  many  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  conditions  necessary  for  in- 
suring success.  A  parliamentary  return,  or- 
dered to  be  printed  June  14,  1865,  gives  the 
following  list  of  the  armour-plated  floating  bat- 
teries constructed  for  the  British  navy : — • 

A.D. 

1855,  April  17.  Thunder. 

1856,  April    5.  Etna. 

19.  Erebus. 

FLODDEN  FIELD  (Battle).— James  IV., 
King  of  Scotland,  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
the  English  army,  \mder  the  command  of  the 
Earl  of  Surrey,  at  this  place,  near  Coldstream, 
in  Berwickshire,  Friday,  Sep.  9,  1513.  The 
Scottish  force  amounted  to  50,000  men,  while 
the  Earl  of  Surrey  only  mustered  about  26,000. 

FLOGGING,  or  WHIPPING,  has  in  all  ages 
formed  one  of  the  most  common  punishments. 
In  Greece  and  Rome  it  was  used  for  the  cor- 
rection of  military  offenders  and  of  schoolboys. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  scourged  prisoners  with  a 
whip  of  three  cords,  knotted  at  the  ends. 
During  the  Middle  Ages,  English  soldiers  were 
flogged  with  switches,  superseded,  about  1770, 
by  the  cat-o'-nine-tails.  The  whipping  of  fe- 
males in  public  was  abolished  by  57  Geo.  III. 
c.  75  (July  7,  1817)  ;  in  private  by  i  Geo.  IV. 
c.  57  (July  15,  1820).  Flogging  may  be  inflicted 
on  juvenile  offenders,  by  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  82, 
s.  i  (July  22,  1847),  which  was  repealed  as  far 
as  concerned  offenders  above  14  years  old  by 
13  &  14  Viet.  c.  37,  s.i  (July  29,  1850).  A  regula- 
tion introduced  into  the  army  and  navy  in 
1860,  requires  an  offender  to  have  been  con- 
victed at  least  once  before  of  the  offence  for 
which  he  receives  sentence  of  flogging,  and 
prohibits,  under  any  circumstances,  the  inflic- 
tion of  more  than  50  lashes.  (See  GAROTTE.) 

FLORAL  DIRECTORIES.  —  Dr.  Thomas 
Forster,  a  Roman  Catholic  physician,  pub- 
lished in  1828  the  "  Circle  of  the  Seasons,  and 
Perpetual  Key  to  the  Calendar  and  Almanack, 
&c.,"  which  gave  a  flower  for  each  day  of  the 


A.D. 

1856,  April  23.  Thunderbolt. 
„        26.  Terror. 


year.  Later  authors  have  freely  availed  them- 
selves of  Dr.  Forster's  labours. 

FLORAL  HALL  (London),  adjoining  the 
lew  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  was  opened  with 
a  Volunteer  ball,  March  7,  1860.  It  was  used 
for  the  sale  of  flowers  from  May  22  to  Aug., 
1861.  The  West  London  Industrial  Exhibition 
was  held  in  this  building  from  May  i  to  Aug.  2, 
1865. 

FLORALES  LUDI,  or  FLORALIA.— This 
festival,  in  honour  of  Flora,  was  first  held  at 
Rome  B.C.  258.  It  lasted  from  April  28  to 
May  2.  Having  been  discontinued  on  account 
of  its  immorality,  it  was  restored  B.C.  173. 

FLORENCE  (Italy).— This  city,  the  ancient 
Florentia,  afterwards  capital  of  Tuscany  (q.  v.), 
and  in  1864  of  Italy,  originated  in  a  Roman 
colony  established  by  Sylla  about  B.C.  80. 
According  to  tradition,  St.  Peter  appointed 
Frontinus  Bishop  of  Florence  in  56. 

A.D. 

405.  Florence,  besieged  by  Radagaisus,  is  relieved  by 
Stilicho,  called  the  "Deliverer  of  Italy." 

541.  Florence  is  destroyed  by  Totila. 

800.  (circa.)  Florence  is  restored  by  Charlemagne. 

1055.  A  council  is  held. 

loKo.  (circa.)  The  Ponte  Vecchio  is  erected. 

1105.  A  council  is  held. 

1150.  The  Florentines  seize  Pistoja  (q.  v.). 

1198.  Florence  becomes  an  independent  republic. 

1218.  The  Ponte  Nuovo  is  founded. 

1235.  (circa.)  The  Ponte  alle  Grazie,  or  Bridge  of  Ruba- 
conte,  is  erected. 

1344.  (circa.)  The  Compagni  della  Misericordia  hospital 
is  founded. 

1350.  The  church  of  La  Santa  Trinitk  is  erected. 

1366.  The  Florentines  are  divided  into  12,  guilds,  or 
companies  of  trade,  called  Arti,  or  Arts,  seven 
of  which,  including  the  professional  and  mercan- 
tile classes,  and  styled  the  Arti  Majori,  constitute 
the  aristocracy;  and  five,  consisting  of  retail 
traders,  &c.,  and  called  the  Arti  Minori,  form 
the  plebiscity.  The  number  of  Arti  Minori  was 
afterwards  increased  to  14. 

1378.  The  Dominican  church  of  S.  Maria  Novella  is  com- 
menced. 

1283.  The  Arti  Majori  obtain  the  government 

1283.  A  decree  is  issued  for  building  the  walls. 

1386.  The  Hospital  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova,  the  chief 
medical  school  of  Florence,  is  founded. 

1292.  Institution  of  the  Gonfalonier  (q.  v.). 

1294.  Arnolfo  di  Lapo  founds  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce,  or  the  Florentine  Pantheon. 

1298.  He  lays  the  first  stone  of  the  cathedral  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore,  called  also  the  Duorno,  and 
founds  the  Palazzo  Vecchio. 

1300.  Florence  is  agitated  by  the  factions  of  the  Bianchi 
and  Neri  (Q.  v.). 

1325,  Sep.  23.  Battle  of  Cappiano  (q.v.). 

1329.  The  Florentines  obtain  Pistoja. 

1334.  Giotto  commences  the  Campanile. 

1343.  The  Arti  Minori  obtain  the  ascendancy. 

1348.  The  plague  rages  with  great  violence. 

1350.  The  Academia  delle  Belle  Arti  is  established. 

1361.  The  Florentines  acquire  Volterra. 

1375.  The  Loggia  de'  Lanzi  is  erected. 

1377.  The  Hospital  of  Bonifazio  is  founded  by  Bonifazio 

Lupi  of  Parma,  Marquis  of  Soragno. 

1378.  The  Ciompi,  or  inferior  class  of  artisans,  not  asso- 

ciated with  the  Arti,  rise  in  rebellion  under  Sil- 
vester de  Medici,  and  compel  the  government  to 
erect  them  into  three  new  corporations. 

1384.  Arretium  becomes  subject  to  Florence. 

1406,  Nov.  8.  Pisa  (q.  v.)  surrenders  to  the  Florentines. 

1409,  Feb.  A  council  is  held. 

1411.  Cortona  (q.  v.)  is  acquired  by  purchase. 

1421.  The  Florentines  acquire  Leghorn  (q.  c.).  The 
Spedale  degl'  Innocents,  or  Foundling  Hospital,  is 
established. 

1425,  Dec.  3.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  the  Venetian 
Republic  against  Milan. 

1438,  April  19.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Milan, 

1430.  The  Palazzo  Riccardi  is  founded. 


FLORENCE 


[    406    ] 


FLOWERS 


A.D. 

1434.  Cosmo   de   Medici,   surnamod,    fro-n   his    liberality 

during  a  famine,  the  "Father  of  his  Country," 
triumphs  over  his  rivals,  the  Albi/.zi.  and  thus 
commences  the  ascendancy  of  the  Medi<-i. 

1435.  The  Pitti  Palace  is  commenced  by  Luca  Pitta. 

1438.  He  founds  the  universi  y. 

1439,  Feb.  29.  A  general  council  transfers  its  sittings  from 

Ferrara  to  Florence. 

1443.  The  council  is  transferred  to  Rome. 

1444.  Cosmo  found*  the  library. 

1461,  Aug.  i.   D.'-it'i  of  Cosmo  dc  Medici. 

1473,  April  26.  Julian  de  Medici  is  BMUMllMltefi  by  con- 
spirators in  tin-  e-itliednil:  his  brother,  Lorenzo, 
asea 

1481.  The  Palazzo  Gondi  is  en- 

1489.  The  Paliz/.o  Strozzi  is  commenced  by  Benedetto 
d  i  M  ij  mo. 

1493,  April  7.    Death  of  Lorenzo  d»  Medici,   surnamed, 

from  his  patronage  of  tin-  arts  and  literature,  the 
"  Magnificent." 

1494.  Peter  II.  de   Medici  is  expelled  from  Florence  by 

the     monk     Jerome     Francis     Savonarola,     the 

Pisans,    and  Charles   VII.   of  France.  — Nov.    n. 

Charles  VIII.  enters  Florence,  and  pillages   the 

palace  of  the  Medici. 

1498,  May  23.  Savonarola  is  burned  at  Florence. 
1530,  Aug.    12.  Florence   surrenders  to  Charles  V.— Ort. 

jn.   Alexander  de  Medici  is  made  governor  for 

life. 
1532,  April  27.  Florence  is  erected  into  a  grand  duchy  by 

Charles  V. 

1535.  Pope  Clement  VII.  erects  the  fortress  De  Basso. 
1540.  The  Ac  'ademia  Fiorcntina  is  founded. 
1550.  The  Pala/./.o    I  "iran-i.mi  is  creeled,  and  the  Boboli 

(iardens  are  laid  (int. 
IS6o.   The  I'lll/.i  C.allery  is  founded. 

1566,  March   I.    Cosmo    I.,    aftersvards     C.rand    Duke    of 
.,    founds    the    present   Ponte    di     Santa 

1569.  Florence  is  made  the  capital  of  the  grand  duchy  of 
Tnseanv  (7.1-.)  l,v  COMBO  I.  de  Mediei. 

1583.  The  D.Ola  Crusca  Academy  is  founded. 

1590.  Ferdinand  I.,  Craml  Duke  of  Tuscany,  erects  the 
i!i'!  \  .-dcrc  |0  ; 

1604,  Jan.    Ferdinand  I.  founds  fie  Medic-can  Chapel. 

1650.  The  old  La  IVrgo'a  theatr  •  is  Imilt. 

1737.  A  triii'.n'ihal  arch  is  erected  opposite  the  1'orta  San 

OtUo, 

1738.  The  theatre  of  La  Pergola  is  erected. 
1752.  The  Biblioteca  Marucelliana  is  opened. 

18^7.  The  Society  of  San  (iiovanni  liattista.  or  St.  John 
the  Hapiist,  is  founded  for  the  endowment  of 
poor  maidens. 

1837.  Two  suspension  bridges,  the  Ponte  San  Ferdinnndo 
and  the  Ponte  San  Lcopaldo,  are  erected. 

1859,  April  27.  A  revolution  breaks  out.     (Sec  Trsr  \  \v.) 

1860,  March   II   and  12    The   Florentines  vote  in  favour 

of  annexation  to  Sardinia. 

1861,  Sep.     15.     An     Exhibition    of    Italian    Industry    is 

opened  by  Victor  Kmanuel. 

1864,  Sep.  15.  By" the  convention  of  Paris  (q.  v.),  Florence 

is  d""lared  tin'  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

1865,  Feb.  3—23.  Florence  is  visited  by  Victor  Emannel. 

—April  26.  It  is  formally  declared  the  capital  of 
Italv.— M-iy  ii.  The  court  is  removed  hither  from 
Turin. — May  14.  The  six-hundredth  amm  ers:u-y 
of  the  birth  of  Dante  is  celebrated.— Nov.  t8. 
The  Italian  Parliament  assembles  for  the  first 
time  in  Florence. 

1866,  June  n.  Thj  works  for  demolishing  the  old  walls 

are  commenced. 


FLORENCE  (Treaties).— John  Gaston,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  by  a  treaty  signed  here  July 
25>  I73I>  and  called  the  Family  Convention, 
recognized  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain,  as  his  heir. A  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Napoleon  Buonaparte  and  Ferdinand  IV. 
of  Naples  and  of  Sicily,  was  concluded  here 

March  28,  1801. Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena, 

and  the  Legations  signed  an  alliance  Aug.  20, 
'  1859. 

FLORES    (Atlantic).— One    of   the    Azores 


(q.  v.}. An  island  sometimes  called  Kud-5, 

in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  also  known  by 
this  name. 

FLORIDA  (North  America)  was  discovered 
by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1497.  Juan  Ponce  de 
Leon  re-discovered  it  on  Palm  Sunday  (called 
in  Spanish  Pasjua  Florida),  April  4,  1512; 
whence  its  name.  The  Spaniards  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  colonize  it  in  1521 :  it  was  explored 
in  1539,  and  the  French  Calvinists  sent  an  ex- 
pedition in  1562.  The  new  settlers  were  assailed 
and  defeated  by  a  Spanish  force,  Sep.  4,  1565. 
Florida  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  exchange 
for  Havana,  in  1763.  The  Spaniards  took  it  in 
1781,  and  were  guaranteed  in  the  possession  of 
the  same  by  the  peace  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3, 
1783.  By  a  treaty  concluded  between  Spain 
and  the  United  States,  Oct.  24,  1820,  Florida 
into  the  possession  of  the  latter.  A 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1833,  an(i  ^  was 
made  a  state  March  3,  1845.  It  joined  the  Con- 
federate States,  Jan.  10,  1861.  The  tract  of 
country  formerly  known  by  the  name  of  Flo- 
rida was  of  much  greater  extent  than  the 
present  state. 

FLORIN.— This  coin  is  said  to  have  been 
first  issued  at  Florence,  whence  its  name,  in 
1252,  and  in  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries  was 
current  over  all  Europe.  English  silver  florins, 
valued  at  two  shillings,  coined  in  1849,  were 
declared  by  proclamation,  in  1852,  to  be  cur- 
rent and  lawful  money  of  the  United  King- 

FLORINIANI,  or  FLORINIANS.— The  fol- 
Imveis  of  Florimis,  the  pupil  of  Polycarp,  con- 
stituted an  obscure  Gnostic  sect  in  the  and 
century. 

FLO  WEBS.—"  There  has  been  a  class  of 
men,"  says  Disraeli,  "  whose  patriotic  affec- 
tion, or  whose  general  benevolence,  has  been 
usually  defrauded  of  the  gratitude  their  coun- 
try owes  them  :  these  have  been  the  intro- 
ducers of  new  flowers,  new  plants,  and  new 
roots,  into  Europe." 


Date. 

Flowers,  Plants,  &c. 

Introduced  into 
England  from 

A.D. 

1726 

Allspice    

1596 

i5'/> 
1710 
1792 
1797 
1753 
Before  1597 
1808 
jS96 

Alicia.  .ne  (hortensis)    
Ditto  (poppy)    
Ash  (flowering)  
(Alpine)    
Ditto  (American)    
Ditto  (Siberian)    
Auricula   
Azalea  (Indian)  

Holland. 
Levant. 
Italv. 
S.  Europe. 
N.  America. 
Siberia. 
Switzerland. 
China. 

India 

1696 
Before  1596 

„      1548 
1827 

Hell-flower  (Canary)    
P.roonj  (Butcher's)    
Ditto  (Spanish)  
Calceolaria  

Canary  Islands. 
Hungary. 
S.  Europe. 
Chili. 

1811 

Camellia 

China 

1629 
1814 

Cardinal-flower  
Ditto     (splendid)  

Virginia. 
Mexico. 
Poland 

il?2 

C'eanothns  (blue)    

•  ,  uun. 
Sicily. 

iso6 

Africa. 

$4 

Chrysanthemum  (Chinese) 

India. 

1783 
1813 

Clematis  (Au_-ustifolia)  ... 
Ditto  (awned)  

New  Holland. 

FLOWERS 


[    407    1 


FOIX 


1726 


ag 

I767 

1690 

1779 
1789 
1597 
1803 

178; 
1773 
1793 

1781 
1714 
1698 
1777 
1788 
1833 
1755 
1803 
1803 
1803 

Before  :6«3 
1800 
1791 
1803 
1775 
J775 
1804 
1789 


1806 
1656 

Before  1596 
1788 
159° 
IS96 
1639 

Before  1548 
1629 
1656 

Before  1596 


1794 
1793 


1562 

1752 
1713 
1814 
1774 


1683 
Before  1576 


1792 
1597 


Before  1573 
1793 
J59° 
IS96 
1597 
1726 


Flowers,  Plants,  &c. 


Clema'is  (blue) 

Ditto  (curled)  

Ditto       (cylindrical-    "> 
flowered)    J 

Ditto  (florid) 

Ditto  (mountain) 

Ditto  (Oriental)  

Ditto  (vine  bower) 

Ditto  (Virginian) 

Convolvulus  (Canary) 

Ditto  (man}  -flowered)  ... 

Dalilia  

Double-rocket    

.  andra 

Ecbium  (large-flowered) 

Edwardsia  (ditto) 

Everlasting  (giant)   

Ditto  (great-flowered)  ... 

Fernbnsh  (sweet)  

Foxglove  (Canary)    

Ditto  (Madeira)    

Fuchsia  (scarlet)   

Ditto(tree) 

iazania  (great- flowered) 
iompholobium     (great-1 

flowered) / 

Goodenia  (large-flowered) 
Hakea  (many-flowered) ... 

Hawthorn  (American) 

Heath  (ardent)  

Ditto  (bell-flowered) 

Ditto  (fragrant)  

Ditto  (greut-flowered)  ... 

Ditto  (pearl-flowered)   ... 

Ditto  (perfmed) 

Ditto  (tremulous) 

Hollyhock    

Honey-flower  (great)  

Honeysuckle  (Afiican  fly) 

Ditto  (Chinese) 

Ditto  (Japan)  

Ditto  (trumpet)    

Hyacinth 

Hydrangea 

Iris  (Florentine)    

Ditto  (Spanish) 

Ditto  (Persian) 

Jasmine    

Ditto  (Catalonia) 

Ditto  (yellow  Indian) 

Laburnum  

Lavender 

Lilac 

Lily  (gigantic) 

Lipnria  (globe-flowered)... 

Lupine  (tree)  

Magnolia  (purple) 

Ditto  (swamp)     

Mandrake   

Mignonette 

Milk- wort  (great- flow'red) 

Ditto  (showy)   

Monsonia  (Inrg.vflowered) 
Myrtle  (candleberry)    

Ditto  (woolly-leaved)    ... 

Nasturtium 

Oleander  (sweet  scented) 

Oleaster 

Olive  (sweet-scented) 

Passion-flower  

Ditto  (orange)  

Peviploca 

Petunia 

Pink  (tree)  

Ranunculus 

Rhododendron   

Rose  (China)  

Ditto  (damask)    

Ditto  (Japan)  

Ditto  (moss) 

Ditto  (Provence) 

Ditto  (white) 

Ditto  (without  thorns)  ... 


Introduce;!  into 
England  from 


Jap;n. 

N.  America. 

N.  America. 

Japan. 

India. 

Levant 

Italy. 

N.  America, 

Canary  Islands. 

Ditto. 
Spain. 
Italy. 

New  Holland. 
Cape. 

New  Zealand. 
Cape. 

Ditto. 

N.  America. 
Canary  Islands. 
Madeira. 
Chili. 
Mexico. 
Cape. 
New  S.  Wales. 

Ditto. 

New  Holland. 
N.  America. 
Cape. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Cape. 

Ditto. 
China. 
Japan. 
N.  America. 

China. 

Italy. 

Spain. 

Persia. 

Circassia. 

East  Indies. 

Madeira. 

Austria. 

S.  Europe. 

Persia. 

New  S.  Wales. 

Cape. 

China. 

N.  America. 

S.  Europe. 

Africa, 

Cape. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

N.  America, 
China, 
Italy. 

East  Indies. 
S.  Europe. 
China. 
Brazil. 
N.  Caledonia. 
Greece. 
Brazil. 
Candia, 
Levant. 
Gibraltar. 
China. 
S.  France. 
China.    . 

Italy. 

N.  America. 


Date. 

Flowers,  Plants,  &c. 

Introduced  into 
England  from 

A.D. 

Before  1548 
J73t 
I73i 
1724 
1774 
1597 

Rosemary  
Sage  (blue  African)  
Ditto  (golden,  ditto)   
Ditto  (Mexican)  
Selago  (clustered-flow'red) 

8.  Europe. 
Cape. 
Ditto. 
Mexico. 
Cape. 
Syria, 

1750 

Carolina. 

1730 

8t  Peter's  Wort  

1640 

1534 

Tuberose  

India 

Before  1577 

Tulip  

1827 
1837 

Verbena  (Melindres)    
Victoria  Kegia  

Buenos  Ayres. 
Ciuiana. 

FLUORTYPE  was  invented  by  Robert  Hunt 
in  1844. 

FLUSHING,  or  VLISSINGEN  (Holland).— 
The  inhabitants  of  this  fortified  town,  on  the 
island  of  Waleheren,  threw  off  the  Spanish 
yoke  in  1572.  The  French  took  Flushing  in 
1795.  It  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  King  of 
Holland,  Nov.  n,  1807,  and  formally  annexed 
by  a  decree  published  Jan.  21,  1808.  The  Eng- 
lish having  captured  it  Aug.  16,  1809,  destroyed 
the  works  and  retired  in  Nov.  (See  WAL- 
CHEREN  EXPEDITION.)  It  again  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French,  who  surrendered  it  by 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 

FLUTE.— This  instrument  was  in  use  in  very 
early  times,  and  several  kinds  are  described  in 
the  "  Harmonie  Universelle,"  by  Father  Mer- 
senne,  published  at  Paris  in  1636. 

FLUXIONS.  — This  department  of  mathe- 
matical science  was  invented  in  1665  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  who  explained  it  in  a  letter  of 
Dec.  10,  1672,  and  published  a  description  in 
1704.  The  first  work  on  the  subject  was  pub- 
lished by  John  Harris  in  1702.  Leibnitz  pub- 
lished his  method  of  the  differential  calculus 
in  1684,  and  a  long  controversy  resulted  as  to 
whether  he  had  borrowed  the  idea  from  New- 
ton's former  discovery.  Recent  researches 
have  relieved  him  from  the  imputation  of  pla- 
giarism. 

FLYING  MACHINE.— (See  AERONAUTICS.) 

FOGGIA  (Italy).  —  Manfred    defeated    the   * 
Papal  troops  at  this  place,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  from  the  ruins  of  Arpi,  in  1254.     Its 
Gothic  cathedral  was  destroyed  by  an   earth- 
quake in  1731. 

FOIX  (France),  though  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  its  foundation  by  a  colony  of  Pho- 
cians,  does  not  appear  to  have  existed  before 
the  2nd  century,  when  it  grew  up  around 
the  ancient  abbey  of  St.  Volusien.  The  castle 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  will  of  Roger  I.,  Count 
of  Carcassonne,  in  1002.  In  the  nth  century, 
Foix  became  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  the  princes  of  which  were  often 
celebrated  in  French  history.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  Albigenses  in  1210,  and  by  Philip  III., 
the  Bold,  in  1273.  The  county  of  Foix,  erected 
in  1050,  became  tributary  to  the  kings  of 
France  in  1229,  and  was  united  to  Beam  in 
1290.  In  1398  it  passed  by  marriage  into  the 
family  of  Grailly,  and  in  1494  into  the  house  of 
Albret,  from  whom  it  descended  to  the  line  of 


FOKSHANI 


[    408     ] 


FONTHILL 


Navarre,  and  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.,  in 
1589,  it  was  united  to  the  French  crown. 

FOKSHANI  (European  Turkey).— A  congress 
for  the  settlement  of  peace  between  Turkey 
and  Russia,  assembled  at  this  town  in  1772, 
and  broke  up  in  Hep.,  without  effecting  the 
desired  object.  The  Russians  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Turks  at  Fokshani,  July  31,  1789. 

FOLEMBRAI  (Treaty).  —  Henry  IV.,  of 
France,  by  a  treaty  concluded  with  the  Duke  of 
Mayenne,  at  this  castle  in  France,  in  Jan.,  1596, 
put  an  end  to  the  Roman  Catholic  League  (q.v.). 

FOLIGNO  (Italy).  —  An  armistice  between 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  and  the  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  concluded  at  Foligno,  the  ancient 
Fulginium,  Feb.  18,  1801,  led  to  the  treaty  of 
Florence  (//.  •*'.).  Foligno  suffered  from  the 
effects  of  an  earthquake  in  1832. 

FOLK-MOTE. — (6'ee  COMMON  COUNCIL.) 

FOLKS  TONE  (Kent;.— This  town,  founded 
by  the  Romans,  was  of  some  importance  under 
the  Saxons,  and  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes.  A 
fortress  was  built  about  1150,  of  which  no  trace 
remains.  Dr.  William  Harvey,  discoverer  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  was  born  here 
April  i,  1578.  Sir  Elias  Hervey,  in  1674,  en- 
dowed a  charity  for  educating  20  poor  children, 
and  for  supplying  nets  to  poor  fishermen.  The 
harbour,  constructed  in  1809,  was  much  im- 
proved in  1842. 

FOND  I  (Italy).— This  city  of  Naples,  the 
ancient  Fundi,  obtained  the  privileges  of  a 
Roman  city  B.C.  336.  In  1222  it  was  burned 
by  the  adherents  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II., 
and  in  1534  it  was  besieged  by  the  Turks. 

PONT,  OT  liAI'llSTKHY,  was,  according  to 
Biiigham,  for  many  ages,  a  distinct  place  fr  an 
the  body  of  the  church.  The  same  author 
remarks:  "  The  baptistery,  properly  speaking, 
was  the  whole  house  or  building  in  which  the 
font  stood,  and  where  all  the  ceremonies  of 
baptism  were  performed  ;  but  the  font  was  only 
the  fountain  or  pool  of  water,  wherein  per- 
sons were  immersed  or  baptized."  Fonts  were 
erected  inside  the  churches  in  the  6th  century. 

FONTAINEBLEAU  (France).— A  royal 
palace  existed  here  as  early  as  999,  and  a 
chapel  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  was  founded  by 
Louis  VII.  in  1169.  Louis  IX.  established  the 
convent  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  1230.  In  1518 
it  was  much  improved  by  Francis  I.,  who 
added  the  library  and  great  garden  in  1530. 
The  celebrated  conference  between  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Huguenots  assembled  in 
May,  1600.  Henry  IV.  formed  the  park  in 
1607.  A  treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and 
Sweden  was  signed  here  Sep.  24,  1661,  and 
peace  concluded  with  Denmark,  Sep.  2,  1679. 
A  treaty  of  union  and  alliance  with  Spain  was 
signed  Oct.  25,  1743  ;  the  preliminaries  for  a 
peace  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Spain,  Nov.  3,  1762  ;  and  a  definitive  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
Holland,  Nov.  8,  1785.  Napoleon  I.  concluded 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  here,  Oct.  27, 
1807,  and  issued  the  decree  of  Fontainebleau, 
which  ordered  all  English  merchandise  to  be 
burned,  Oct.  19,  1810.  Pius  VII.  and  Napoleon 
I.  concluded  a  concordat  (q.  v.}  Jan.  25,  1813, 
whereby  it  was  agreed  that  the  Pope  should 
continue  to  exercise  pontifical  government  in 


France  and  Italy.  Napoleon  I.  here  bade  adieu 
to  the  Old  Guard  previous  to  his  retirement  to 
Elba,  April  20,  1814.  The  marriage  of  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  with  the  Princess  Helen  of 
Mecklenburg  was  celebrated  here  May  30, 
1837.  Louis  Philippe  restored  the  castle  1837 
— 1840. 

FONTAINE  FRANCAISE  (Battle).— In  this 
battle  Henry  IV.,  of  France,  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  June  6,  1595. 

FONTAIN  E  -  L'E V  EQUE  (Belgium).  —  This 
town,  long  the  subject  of  contention  between 
the  counts  of  Hainault  and  the  princes  of 
Liege,  fell,  in  1757,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians,  by  whom  it  was  surrendered  to  the 
French  in  1794.  It  was  annexed  to  Holland  in 
1814,  and  011  the  separation  of  Belgium  (q.  v.), 
formed  part  of  the  new  kingdom. 

FOXT ARABIA,  or  FUENTE-RABIA  'Spain). 

A  conference  was  held  at  this  strongly 
fortified  town  between  Henry  IV.  of  Castile 
and  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1463.  The  French 
captured  it  in  1794.  It  was  taken  by  the 
royal  troops  during  the  civil  war  in  Spain, 
May  18,  1837. 

FOXTKNAI,  or  FONTENAY  (Battle).— 
Charles  II.,  the  Bald,  of  France,  and  Louis  II., 
the  German,  Margrave  of  Bavaria,  defeated 
their  brother,  Lothaire  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  their  nephew,  Pepin  II.  of 
Aquitaino,  at  this  village  of  Burgundy,  June 
25,  841.  The  victory  produced  no  definite  or 
permanent  results. 

F(  >.\TK.\A  V  -  I.K  -CO.MTI-;  France).  —  This 
town,  which  received  a  charter  of  commune  in 
1471,  was  taken  by  the  Huguenots  in  1568  and 
1570,  and  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  1574. 
Henry  IV.  seized  it  in  1590,  and  it  was  taken 
by  the  Vendeans  in  1793.  The  church  of 
Notre  Dame  was  erected  in  1600. 

FONTENOY  (Battle).  —  The  French,  under 
Marshal  Saxe,  defeated  the  allied  army,  com- 
manded by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  at  this 
village,  near  Tournay,  in  Belgium,  April  30, 
(O.S.),  May  ii  (N.S),  1745.  The  French  army 
amounted  to  76,000  men,  in  aposition  defended 
by  220  pieces  of  artillery,  whilst  the  allied 
forces  consisted  of  50,000  men,  of  whom  about 
28,000  were  English  and  Hanoverians.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  battle,  the  English 
carried  everything  before  them,  but  the  Dutch 
took  to  flight.  The  victory  was  in  a  great 
measure  due  to  a  charge  made  by  the  Irish 
brigade,  led  by  Lord  Clare. 

FONTEVRAULT.— This  order  of  monks  and 
mms  was  founded  by  Robert  d'Arhrissel,  who 
erected  a  monastery  at  Fontevrault,  in  France, 
in  1099.  In  1106  it  received  the  sanction  of 
Pope  Pascal  II.,  and  in  1113  was  rendered 
independent  of  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Some 
monks  of  the  order  established  themselves  in 
England  by  invitation  of  Henry  II.  in  1177.  It 
was  re-formed  in  1507  by  the  abbess  Rene"e  of 
Bourbon. 

FONTHILL  ABBEY  (Wiltshire).— This 
magnificent  mansion,  built  from  the  designs 
of  Mr.  James  Wyatt,  was  founded  by  William 
Beckford  in  1796.  Warner  says  that  in  it 
"expense  has  reached  its  utmost  limits  in 
furniture  and  ornaments;  every  room  is  a 
gold-mine,  and  every  apartment  a  picture- 


FOO-CHOW-FOO 


[    409    1 


FORESTS 


gallery."  The  cost  of  the  building  was 
^240,000,  and  in  1807  the  proprietor  fixed  his 
residence  here.  In  1822  the  house  was  sold, 
and  in  1823  the  pictures,  statues,  &c.,  were 
disposed  of  by  an  auction  which  continued  for 
41  days.  The  grand  tower  fell  Dec.  21,  1825, 
and  irreparably  injured  the  building,  which 
was  consequently  sold  in  lots,  and  converted 
into  a  private  villa,  a  cloth-factory,  &c. 
William  Beckford,  who  wrote  "  Vathek  "  and 
other  works,  died  May  2,  1844. 

FOO-CHOW-FOO,  FOU-TCHOU-FOO,  or 
FU-CHOO  (China).  —  This  city  stands  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Min,  which  are  here 
connected  by  a  stone  bridge  of  33  arches, 
mentioned  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  ijth  century. 
The  town  was  one  of  the  five  ports'  thrown 
open  to  British  commerce  by  the  treaty  of 
Nankin  (q.  v.),  Aug.  29,  1842,  which  was  rati- 
fied at  Hong  Kong,  June  26,  1843. 

FOOL. — (See  ABBOT  OF  FOOLS  and  JESTER.) 

FOOLS  (Feast  of).— This  festival,  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  Saturnalia  of  the 
Romans,  was  celebrated  in  France  on  the  ist 
of  Jan.,  as  early  as  1230,  and  it  lasted  till 
the  Reformation.  It  reached  England  in  1240, 
and  was  abolished  about  the  end  of  the  i4th 

century. The  Feast  of  Asses  was  celebrated 

at  Beauvais  about  the  same  time.  An  annual 
fair  held  in  the  Broad  Gate,  Lincoln,  Sep.  14,  is 
called  Fools'  Fair.  (See  ALL  FOOLS'  DAY.) 

FOOLS  (Order  of ).— This  association,  founded 
by  Adolphus,  Count  of  Cleves,  Nov.  12,  1381, 
and  composed  of  nobles  and  gentlemen  of  high 
rank  and  honour,  who  united  for  charitable 
purposes,  continued  in  existence  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  1 6th  century,  and  is  last 
mentioned  in  some  verses  prefixed  to  a  Ger- 
man translation  of  Sebastian  Brand's  "  Ship  of 
Fools,"  published  at  Strasburg  in  1520. 

FOOT  BALL.— This  game,  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  Roman  Pila  Paganica,  is 
mentioned  by  Fitz  Stephen  as  an  amusement 
of  the  English  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 
1189),  and  was  a  fashionable  diversion  of  the 
aristocracy  in  the  time  of  James  I.  (1603 — 1625). 

FOOT  MESSENGERS.— (See  COURIERS.) 

FORBES  MACKENZIE'S  ACT,  16  &  17  Viet. 
c.  67  (Aug.  15,  1853),  f°r  the  better  regulation 
of  public-houses  in  Scotland,  amending  9  Geo. 
IV.  c.  58  (1829),  permitted  grocers  to  obtain 
certificates  for  the  sale  of  beer,  spirits,  &c.,  by 
retail,  not  to  be  consumed  on  the  premises.  It 
was  introduced  by  W.  Forbes  Mackenzie,  M.P. 
for  Liverpool,  from  whom  it  received  its  name. 

FORCALQUIER  (  France),  the  Forum  Ne- 
ronis  or  Forum  Calcarium  of  the  Romans, 
became  the  capital  of  a  county  erected  in  1054, 
and  was  united  to  Provence  in  1208. 

FORCED  LABOUR.—  (See  CORVEE.) 

FORCHEIM  (Bavaria).— Councils  were  held 
at  this  town  in  May,  890 ;  in  903  ;  and  March 
13,  1077,  when  Rodolph,  Duke  of  Swabia,  was 
elected  Emperor  of  Germany,  instead  of  Henry 
IV.  (See  CANOSSA.) 

FORCONIO  (Italy).— The  ancient  see  of  this 
town  was  transferred  in  1257  to  Aquila  (q.  v.). 

FOREIGN  CLUBS.— (See  CLUBS,  Foreign.) 

FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT.— The  enlist- 
ment of  British  subjects  to  serve  in  foreign 
armies  was  prohibited  by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  69 


(July  3,  1819).  This  act  was  temporarily  sus- 
pended by  an  order  in  council  of  June  10,  1835, 
which  permitted  the  Spanish  Government  to 
raise  a  body  of  10,000  mercenaries  in  Great 
Britain. 

FOREIGN  LEGION.  — The  name  given  to 
regiments  composed  entirely  of  foreigners, 
who  in  various  wars  have  served  under  the 
English  flag.  About  9,000  Hessians  arrived  at 
Chatham  in  May,  1756,  to  resist  an  expected 
invasion  by  the  French,  and  in  June,  1798, 
soldiers  of  the  same  nation  were  sent  to  Ire- 
land to  subdue  the  rebels.  By  18  Viet.  c.  2 
(Dec.  23,  1854),  permission  was  granted  for  the 
enlistment  of  foreigners  to  serve  in  separate 
corps  during  the  Russian  war,  and  for  one 
year  after  the  conclusion  of  peace.  A  regiment 
was  consequently  formed,  composed  chiefly  of 
Germans  and  Swiss,  who  formed  a  camp  at 
Shorncliffe,  near  Dover,  where  they  were  re- 
viewed by  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert, 
Aug.  9,  1855. 

FOREIGN  OFFICE  (London).— This  depart- 
ment was  created  in  1782.  The  new  building 
near  St.  James's  Park  was  commenced  in  1864. 

FOREIGN  ORDERS.— According  to  regu- 
lations issued  by  the  Foreign  Office,  May  10, 
1855,  and  published  in  the  London  Gazette  May 
ii,  no  British  subject  may  accept  a  foreign 
order,  or  wear  the  insignia  thereof,  without 
having  previously  obtained  the  permission 
from  the  sovereign,  signified  by  a  warrant 
under  sign  manual. 

FORENZA  (Italy).  — This  city,  the  ancient 
Ferentum  or  Forentum,  taken  by  the  Romans 
B.C.  319,  was  colonized  B.C.  118. 

FORESTALLING,  ENGROSSING,  or  RE- 
GRATING,  is  the  name  given  to  the  offence  of 
buying  articles  of  food  on  the  way  to  market, 
or  persuading  persons  not  to  offer  them  for 
sale,  or  to  increase  the  price.  By  25  Edw.  III. 
c-  3  (X35°).  persons  convicted  of  it  were  liable 
to  forfeit  the  things  forestalled,  or  two  years' 
imprisonment.  Many  subsequent  acts  were 
passed  for  its  suppression,  the  most  important 
being  5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  14  (1552),  all  of  which 
were  repealed  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  24  (July  4,  1844). 

FORESTERS  (Ancient  Order  of).— This  asso- 
ciation of  members  of  the  working  classes  for 
rendering  assistance  in  sickness  and  distress, 
was  formed  in  1836. 

FORESTS.—"  The  forests  in  England,"  says 
Coke,  "  sixty-nine  in  number,  except  the  New 
Forest,  in  Hampshire,  erected  by  William  I., 
and  Hampton  Court  Forest  by  Henry  VIII., 
and  by  authority  of  parliament,  are  so  ancient 
as  no  record  or  history  doth  make  any  men- 
tion of  their  history  or  beginning."  The 
larger  number  of  these  forests  has  now  en- 
tirely disappeared.  Courts  for  levying  amerce- 
ments for  offences  against  the  forest  laws  have 
not  been  held  since  1632.  The  surveyor-general 
of  the  land  revenues  of  the  crown,  and  the 
surveyor-general  of  woods  and  forests,  <fec., 
were  united  under  a  board,  called  Commis- 
sioners of  Woods,  Forests,  and  Land  Revenues, 
by  50  Geo.  III.  c.  65  (June  9,  1810).  By  2  Will. 
IV.  c.  i  (Feb.  13,  1832),  the  surveyor-general  of 
works  and  buildings  was  united  with  the 
board,  then  named  Commissioners  of  Woods, 
Forests,  Land  Revenues,  Works,  and  Build- 


FORESTS 


t    410    ] 


FORT 


ings.  A  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  on  Royal  Forests  sat  in  1863,  and 
another  on  Open  Spaces  (Metropolis)  in  1865. 

FORESTS  (Charter).— Magna  Charta,  which 
was  signed  by  King  John,  June  15,  1215,  con- 
tained several  articles  relating  to  forests, 
which  were  afterwards  thrown  into  a  separate 
charter,  known  as  the  Charta  de  Foresta,  by. 
Henry  III.,  in  Sep.  or  Nov.,  1217.  It  was  con- 
firmed by  Henry  III.,  Feb.  10,  1225,  and  by 
statute  25  Edw.  I.  c.  i  (1297). 

FORFARSHIRE  steamer  was  wrecked  on 
one  of  the  Fame  Islands,  Sep.  6,  1838,  on  the 
voyage  from  Hull  to  Dundee.  Grace,  daughter 
of  William  Darling,  keeper  of  the  lighthouse, 
induced  her  father  to  assist  her  in  rowing  a 
small  boat  through  the  heavy  sea  to  the  scene 
of  the  disaster,  and  succeeded  in  saving  nine 
persons.  This  was  accomplished  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Sep.  7.  The  fame  of  this  brave  action 
brought  numerous  visitors  to  Grace  Darling's 
humble  home,  and  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  was  given  to  her.  Consumption  proved 
fatal  to  her  Oct.  20,  1842. 

FORGED  DECRETALS.— (See  DECRETALS.) 

FORGERY.— The  laws  respecting  this  crime 
were  very  indefinite  until  the  passing  of  5 
Eliz.  c.  14  (1562),  which  rendered  forgers  liable 
to  pay  double  costs  and  damages ;  to  be  set  in 
the  pillory,  and  have  their  ears  cut  off,  and 
nostrils  slit  and  seared  ;  to  forfeit  to  the  crown 
all  their  revenues  of  lands  and  tenements,  and 
to  suffer  Imprisonment  for  life.  In  1634  it  was 
made  a  capital  offence,  and  in  1722  to  forge 
letters  of  attorney  for  the  transfer  of  stock  was 
made  felony,  without  benefit  -of  clergy,  by  8 
Geo.  I.  c.  22.  All  capital  forgeries  were  col- 
lected into  one  act  by  n  Geo.  IV.  <fe  i  Will  IV. 
c.  66  (July  23,  1830),  which  was  amended  by 
2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  123  (Aug.  16,  1832),  whereby 
the  sentence  was  commuted  into  transportation 
for  life,  except  in  the  case  of  forgery  of  wills 
and  powers  of  attorney.  Capital  punishment 
was  abolished  in  all  cases,  and  transportation 
substituted,  by  7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet.  c.  84  (July 
17,  1837).  The  greatest  number  of  executions 
for  forgery  in  one  year  occurred  in  1818,  when 
24  convicts  suffered.  The  first  execution  for 
forgery  took  place  June  4,  1732,  arid  the  last 
Dec.  31,  1829.  William  Roupell,  ex-M.P. 
for  Lambeth,  was  convicted  of  forgery  on  his 
own  confession,  and  sentenced  to  penal  ser- 
vitude for  life,  Sep.  24,  1862.  Buncher,  Bur- 
nett, Griffiths,  and  Williams,  who  had  stolen 
paper  manufactured  expressly  for  the  notes  of 
the  Bank  of  England,  and  had  thus  been 
enabled  to  perpetrate  extensive  forgeries, 
were  condemned  to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment at  the  Central  Criminal  Court,  Jan.  9, 
1863.  (See  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.) 

FORK.— The  use  of  the  fork  was,  according 
to  Beckmann,  first  known  in  Italy  towards  the 
end  of  the  isth  century.  In  France,  forks  at 
court  were  entirely  new  towards  the  end  of  the 
i6th  century.  Thomas  Coi-yat,  who  saw  forks 
in  Italy  in  1608,  introduced  them  into  England. 
His  tour,  entitled  "  Crudities,"  <fec.,  was  pub- 
lished in  1611.  Silver  forks  were  introduced 
into  England  about  1814. 

FORLI  (Italy),  the  ancient  Forum  Livii, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Marcus  Livius 


Salinator  after  the  battle  of  the  Metaurus,  B.C. 
207,  suffered  greatly  during  the  wars  amongst 
the  petty  princes  of  Italy.  The  citadel  was 
founded  in  1361.  P'orli  became  the  seat  of  a 
republic,  and  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  the 
Church  in  1503.  The  French  took  it  in  1797  ; 
but  it  was  restored  to  the  Pope  in  1815,  and 
annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 

FORLIMPOPOLI  iltaly).— This  town  of  the 
Papal  States  was  destroyed  by  the  Lombards 
in  700,  and  by  Gregory  XI.  in  1370.  Murat 
defeated  the  allies  here  April  21,  1815. 

FORMA  PAUPERIS.— By  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  12 
1494  ,  any  poor  person  having  due  cause  for 
action  was  provided  with  writs,  according  to 
the  nature  of  his  case,  and  with  counsel  and 
attorney,  gratis.  By  2  Geo.  II.  c.  28,  s.  8  (1729), 
persons  arrested  on  charges  relating  to  the 
customs  were  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  this 
statute,  provided  they  could  swear  that  their 
property,  exclusive  of  their  wearing  apparel, 
did  not  amount  to  ,£5.  Suitors  in  divorce  and 
matrimonial  causes  are  enabled  to  sue  informd 
pauperia,  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  85,  s.  54  (Aug.  28, 
1857:. 

F<  UIMIGXY  (Battle).— The  English  were  de- 
feated at  this  place,  in  France,  with  the  loss  of 
3,000  men,  April  15,  1450. 

FORMOSA.— This  island,  off  the  coast  of 
Ch'na,  was  not  known  to  the  Chinese,  who 
call  it  Tai-irait,  till  early  in  the  isth  century. 
The  Dutch  settlement,  founded  in  1624,  was 
destroyed  by  some  Chinese  rebels,  who  ruled 
the  island  until  they  were  expelled  by  the 
Chinese  Government,  about  1683. 

FORMULA  OF  CONCORD.— This  Lutheran 
confession  of  faith  was  published  in  1580  by 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  compelled 
ministers  and  schoolmasters  to  subscribe  to  it. 

FORM  VLE.— (See  CHLOROFORM.) 

FORXOVO  (Battle).  —  Charles  VIII.,  of 
France,  defeated  the  Italians  at  this  town, 
near  I'arma,  July  6,  1495. 

FORRES  (Scotland).— This  town  of  Elgin- 
shire, the  scene  of  the  assassination  of  King 
Duffus  in  972,  was  a  royal  borough  in  the  reign 
of  David  I.  (1124 — 1153^  though  no  charter 
exists  earlier  than  June  23,  1496.  The  parish 
church  was  erected  in  1775,  the  Nelson  com- 
memoration tower  in  1806,  the  suspension 
bridge  over  the  River  Findhorn  was  opened 
in  1832,  and  the  town-house  was  completed 

"VoSr  AUGUSTUS  (Scotland)  was  built 
near  Inverness  in  1715,  and  was  taken  by  the 
rebels  in  1745. 

FORT  COX.— (See  CAFFRE  WAR.) 
FORT  DEARBORN.— !  See  CHICAGO.) 
FORT     DETROIT    (Upper    Canada).  —  The 
American   Gen.  Hull,  with  2,500  men  and  33 
pieces  of  cannon,  capitulated  at  this  fort  to  a 
British  force  consisting  of  700  men,  including 
militia,   and  600  auxiliary  Indians,  Aug.    16, 
1812.     The  English  withdrew  from  the  fort  in 
1813. 

FORT  DU  QUESNE.— (See  FORT  PITT.) 
FORT  ERIE  (North  America)  was  evacuated 
by  the  English,   July  3,    1814.     An  English 
force,  2,000  strong,  assailed  the  American  gar- 
rison and  army,  consisting  of  3,500  men,  Aug. 


FORT 


[     4"     1 


FORUM 


15,  1814.  Owing  to  some  want  of  punctuality 
in  the  arrival  of  two  of  the  attacking  columns, 
the  success  achieved  by  the  first  could  not  be 
maintained.  The  Americans,  having  made  a 
sortie,  Aug.  20,  in  which  they  were  repulsed 
with  great  slaughter,  blew  up  their  works  and 
retired,  Nov.  5,  1814.  (See  FENIANS.) 

FORT  FISHER  (North  America).— This  cita- 
del of  North  Carolina,  the  principal  defence  of 
the  port  of  Wilmington  (-7.  v.),  was  attacked, 
Dec.  15,  1864,  by  the  Federal  iron-clads  under 
Admiral  Porter,  who  was  compelled  by  the 
weather  to  defer  active  measures  till  Dec.  23. 
The  gun-boat  Louisiana,  laden  with  250  tons  of 
powder,  was  then  towed  close  under  the  walls, 
and  exploded,  1.45  A.M.,  Dec.  24,  without 
weakening  the  defences.  The  bombardment, 
which  commenced  the  same  day,  was  aban- 
doned Dec.  25,  when  a  reconnoitering  party 
under  Gen.  Weitzel  pronounced  the  works  too 
strong  for  an  assault.  Land  reiiiforceinents 
under  Gen.  Terry  having  arrived,  a  second 
bombardment  commenced  Jan.  13,  1865,  and 
the  fort  was  invested  in  the  rear  by  the  land 
forces.  A  combined  attack,  made  Jan.  15,  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  the  fort,  with  1,971 
prisoners.  The  total  Federal  loss  was  691 
killed  and  wounded  ;  that  of  the  Confederates 

F03RT  FRANCE,  or  FORT  ROYAL  (Mar- 
tinico). — This  town,  the  capital  of  the  island, 
founded  in  1672,  was  almost  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1839. 

FORT  GEORGE  (Scotland^.— This  citadel  of 
Inverness-shire  was  erected  in  1747,  at  a  cost 
of  .£160,000,  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the 
Highland  rebellion,  which  had  just  been  sup- 
pressed. It  is  the  most  important  fortress  in 
Scotland. 

FORT  HARE.— (See  CAFFRE  WAR.) 

FORT  MARLBOROUGH.— (See  BENCOOLEN.) 

FORT  PILLOW  (North  America).  —  Two 
forts  of  this  name  were  the  scene  of  operations 
in  the  American  civil  war.  One,  situated  in 
Tennessee,  on  the  Mississippi,  was  attacked 
by  Federal  gun-boats,  which,  anchoring  in  the 
neighbourhood,  April  13, 1862,  opened  fire  April 
17,  and  compelled  the  Confederates  to  evacuate 
it,  June  4. Fort  Pillow,  Kentucky,  garri- 
soned chiefly  by  negroes  under  Major  Booth, 
was  attacked  by  Confederates  under  Gen.  For- 
rest, who  carried  the  works,  April  12,  1864, 
and  killed  a  considerable  number  of  the 
defenders. 

FORT  PITT  (North  America).— The  French 
built  Fort  Du  Quesne  in  1755.  Having  been 
abandoned  by  them,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Brigadier  Forbes,  at  the  head  of  a  British 
force,  Nov.  24,  1758.  The  British  standard 
was  erected  on  the  fort,  the  name  of  which 
was  changed  to  Fort  Pitt,  in  honour  of  the 
minister. 

FORT  ST.  DAVID  (Hindostan).— A  factory 
was  established  at  this  place,  near  Cuddalore, 
by  the  English,  in  1689.  Count  Lally  captured 
the  fort,  then  the  strongest  place  the  English 
possessed  in  India,  June  i,  1758,  when  the 
fortifications  were  destroyed. 

FORT  ST.  GEORGE  (Hindostan).  —  (See 
MADRAS.) 

FORT  SUMTER.— (See  CHARLESTON.) 


FORT  WAGNER.— (See  CHARLESTON.) 

FORT  WILLIAM.  — (&«  CALCUTTA.) 

FORTH.— (See  CLYDE  CANAL.) 

FORTIFICATION.— The  earliest  fortification 
was  probably  the  wall  with  which  Cain  sur- 
rounded the  city  of  Enoch  (Gen.  iv.  17),  B.C. 
3875.  The  art  was  brought  to  great  perfection 
in  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  the  former  of  which 
cities  was  defended  by  a  wall  100  feet  high  and 
32  thick.  Bastions  were  introduced  by  the 
Italians  in  the  i4th  or  isth  century,  the  oldest 
extant  being  at  Verona,  built  in  1523,  and  at 
Antwerp  in  1545.  The  first  writer  on  fortifica- 
tion was  Albert  Durer,  whose  work  appeared 
in  1527.  The  covered  way  was  first  described  by 
Tartaglia  in  1554.  Errard  de  Bois-le-Duc  pub- 
lished a  work  on  flank  fortification  in  1594, 
which  was  much  improved  by  Antoine  de  Ville 
in  1629.  Great  improvements  were  introduced 
in  1645,  by  the  Count  de  Pagan  ;  and  the  Mare- 
schal  de  Vauban,  who  flourished  1633—1707, 
left  numerous  works,  of  which  the  treatise, 
"  De  1'Attaque  et  de  la  Defense  des  Places,"  was 
published  in  1737.  The  best  work  on  subterra- 
nean fortification  was  published  by  M.  Monze" 
in  1804.  During  the  session  of  1860  measures 
were  taken  and  money  was  voted  for  strength- 
ening the  fortifications  at  several  harbours  and 
arsenals  in  Great  Britain. 

FORTROSE,  or  FORTROSS  (Scotland).— 
This  seaport  of  Ross-shire  was  formed  in  1444, 
by  a  charter  uniting  the  towns  of  Chanoury 
and  Rosemarkie,  which  was  confirmed  in  7592 
and  1612.  The  Fortrose  and  Rosemarkie 
Friendly  Society  was  established  in  Jan.,  1831. 

FORTUNATE  ISLANDS.  —  (See  CANARY 
ISLANDS.) 

FORTUNE-TELLERS.— By  17  Geo.  II.  c.  5, 
s.  2  (1743),  every  person  professing  to  tell  for- 
tunes by  palmistry,  or  otherwise,  was  adjudged 
a  rogue  and  vagabond,  and  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83, 
s.  4  (June  21,  1824),  was  rendered  liable  to  im- 
prisonment in  the  house  of  correction  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  three  calendar  months. 

FORTY  SHILLING  FREEHOLDERS.— (See 
FRANCHISE  and  FREEHOLDERS.) 

FORUM.— The  Romans  called  by  this  name 
the  places  where  markets  and  courts  of  justice 
were  held.  The  principal  was  the  Forum  Ro- 
manorum,  at  Rjme,  which,  established  after 
the  union  of  the  Romans  and  Sabines,  B.C.  747, 
was  improved  and  beautified  by  Tarquiniua 
Priscus  (B.C.  616— B.C.  578).  It  ceased  to  be  used 
as  a  market  about  B.C.  472,  when  it  became  the 
place  of  assembly  of  the  Comitia  Tributa. 
After  the  reign  of  Augustus  (B.C.  27— A.D.  14),, 
the  Forum  lost  its  ancient  importance,  and 
gradually  fell  into  ruins.  It  was  called  during 
the  Middle  Ages  Tria  Fata,  from  a  group  of 
statues  of  the  three  Fates,  and  it  remained  a 
favourite  place  for  popular  assemblies  till  the 
sack  of  Rome  by  Robert  Guiscard  in  1081.  In 
1812  and  1813  the  French  Government  cleared 
a  part  of  the  Forum,  and  commenced  measures 
of  preservation,  which  have  been  continued  by 
the  pontifical  authorities. 

FORUM  TREBONII  (Battle).— Near  this 
smalltown,  called  Abrutum,  or  Forum  Trebonii, 
in  Moesia,  the  Roman  emperor  Decius  and  his 
son  were  slain,  and  their  army  defeated  by  the 
Goths  in  Nov.,  251.  Gibbon  says  the  Roman 


FOSSALTA 


[    412    1 


FRANCAVILLA 


army  was  irrevocably  lost  in  a  morass,  and  that 
the  body  of  the  emperor  could  not  be  found. 

FOSSALTA  (Battle).— Prince  Enzio,  natural 
son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  at  the  head 
of  the  Ghibelline  forces,  was  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  at  Fossalta,  near  Bologna,  May  26, 
1249.  He  was  kept  in  captivity  at  Bologna  till 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  1272. 

FOSSANO  (Battle).— The  Austrians,  under 
Gens.  Melas  and  Kray,  defeated  the  French, 
under  Gen.  Charnpionnet,  at  this  town  of  Sar- 
dinia, Nov.  5,  1799. 

FOSS  DYKE.— (See  CANALS.) 

FOSSOMBRONE.— (See  METAURUS,  Battle.) 

FOTHERINGAY  CASTLE  (Northampton- 
shire was  founded  soon  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, by  Simon  St.  Liz,  second  Earl  of  North- 
ampton, and  rebuilt  by  Edmund  of  Langlcy, 
Duke  of  York  (1345 — 1400).  Richard  111.  was 
born  here,  Oct.  21,  1450,  and  the  castle  is  fa- 
mous as  the  scene  of  the  trial  of  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots,  Oct.  ii — 14  (after  which  it  was  con- 
ducted at  Westminster),  1586,  and  of  her  exe- 
cution, Feb.  8,  1587.  It  was  dismantled  by 
James  I.  in  1604. 

FOUGERES  (France).— This  town,  important 
during  the  Middle  Ages  as  the  key  to  Britanny, 
was  seized  by  the  English  in  1173,  in  1202,  and 
in  1448.  It  was  taken  by  the  Venduans  in 

17FOUGHARD  (Battle).— (See  FAUGHARD.) 

FOUNDERS.— This  company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  London  in  1614. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  children  abandoned  by  their  parents, 
existed  under  the  Roman  empire.  A  foundling 
hospital  existed  at  Angers,  in  France,  in  the 
7th,  and  at  Treves,  in  Germany,  in  the  8th  cen- 
tury. A  similar  institution  was  established  at 
Milan  in  787.  The  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  established  at  Montpclier  in  1180.  It  was 
confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  in  1198,  and  settled 
at  Rome  in  1201.  An  hospital  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  existed  at  Einbeck  before  1274,  and  one 
at  Nuremberg,  commenced  in  1333,  was  com- 
pleted in  1341.  A  foundling  hospital  was  estab- 
blished  at  Florence  in  1316,  and  at  Venice  in 
1380.  The  great  foundling  hospital  at  Paris 
was  established  in  1620.  The  first  proposal  for 
a  foundling  hospital  in  England  was  made  in 
1687.  Capt.  Thomas  Coram  obtained  a  charter 
for  the  Foundling  Hospital  of  London  in  1739. 
The  present  building,  commenced  in  1742,  was 
opened  June  2,  1756. 

FOUNTAINS,  for  public  uses,  existed  in 
many  Greek  and  Roman  cities.  Hero  of  Alex- 
andria, who  flourished  B.C.  150,  invented  an 
artificial  fountain,  the  principle  of  which  is  still 
employed  in  some  places  to  drain  mines. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  fountains  may  be 
classed  the  Fontana  Paolina,  constructed  in 
1612,  and  the  Fontana  di  Trevi,  in  1735,  at  Rome ; 
the  Fontana  dell'  Atlante,  in  1532,  the  Fontana 
Scapellata,  in  1541,  and  the  Fontana  delSebeto, 
in  1590,  at  Naples  ;  the  Fontaine  des  Innocents, 
in  1551,  the  Fontaine  des  Capuchins,  in  1713, 
the  Chateau  d'Eau,  in  1811,  the  Fontaine  Lou- 
vois,  about  1840,  and  the  Fontaine  Moliere,  in 
1844,  at  Paris.  The  only  fountains  in  London 
of  any  note  are  those  in  Trafalgar  Square, 
which  were  erected  in  1845.  The  fountains  at 


the  Crystal  Palace  were  first  displayed  in  ope- 
ration June  1 8, 1856.  (See  DRINKING  FOUNTAINS.) 

FOURIERISTS.— This  school  of  Socialists 
accept  the  doctrines  of  Frangois  Marie  Charles 
Fourier,  who,  born  at  Besancon,  April  7,  1772, 
died  at  Paris,  Oct.  8,  1837.  His  system,  analo- 
gous in  some  respects  with  that  of  the  Commu- 
nists q.  v.},  though  in  others  widely  differing, 
is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  earth  and 
mankind  are  in  their  infancy,  and  that  associa- 
tion, not  community  of  property,  is  the  princi- 
"  may  be  realized, 
ivision  of  society 
each  containing 
.00  families,  or  i, 800  persons,  who  should  inha- 
bit one  vast  building  in  the  centre  of  a  highly 
cultivated  plain,  and  which,  being  united  into 
larger  groups  and  series,  should  eventually 
form  one  world-wide  and  harmonious  govern- 
ment. 

FOUR-IN-HAND  CLUB  (London)  attained 
its  highest  prosperity  during  the  reign  of 
George  IV.  (1820—1830). 

FOUR  TABLES.— (See  COVENANTERS.) 

FOUR  TOWNS.— (See    CONFESSIO   TETRAPO- 

LITAXA.) 

FOWEY,  or  FOY  (Cornwall).— This  seaport 
town,  which  attained  great  importance  during 
the  wars  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307)  and  Ed- 
ward III.  (1327 — 1377),  contributed  47  ships 
and  770  men  to  the  fleet  with  which  the  latter 
monarch  besieged  Calais  in  1347.  The  town 
having  been  burned  by  the  French  in  1457, 
Edward  IV.  (1461—1483)  built  some  block- 
houses, and  Henry  VIII.  (1509—1547)  erected 
the  fort  of  St.  Catherine  to  defend  the  entrance 
to  the  river  Fowey,  on  which  it  stands.  In 
1588  the  inhabit  unls  opposed  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada, and  in  1646  the  town  was  taken  by  Fair- 
fax. Fowey,  which  returned  two  members  to 
Parliament,  was  disfranchised  by  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832. 

FOXGLOVE.— The  Canary  foxglove  was  in- 
troduced into  England  from  the  Canary  Isles 
in  1698,  and  the  Madeira  foxglove  from  Ma- 
deira in  1777. 

POX  AND  GRENVILLE  COALITION  MI- 
NISTRY.—(See  ALL  THE  TALENTS.) 

ro\-HUNTlNG.—  The  first  public  mention 
of  this  sport  is  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
(i  377 — 1399),  who  granted  a  charter  to  the  Abbot 
of  Peterborough,  in  which  he  was  permitted 
to  hunt  the  fox.  The  sport  did  not  become 
general  in  England  till  about  1680. 

FOX  AND  NORTH.— (See  COALITION  MINIS- 
TRY.) 

FRAGA  (Spain).— Aphonso  I.,  King  of  Ara- 
gon,  besieged  this  city  in  1133.  A  great  battle 
was  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  between  the 
Christian  and  the  Moorish  hosts,  July  17,  1134. 
The  Christians  were  defeated,  and  the  place  of 
the  battle  was  called  the  Field  of  Mourning. 
Alphonso  I.  is  said  to  have  died  of  grief,  July  25. 

FRAMEWORK-KNITTERS.— This  company 
was  incorporated  in  1663. 

FRANC. — This  coin,  current  in  France,  su- 
perseded the  livre  Tournois  in  1795. 

FRANCAIS,  CAPE.— (See  CAPE  HAYTIEN.) 

FRANCAVILLA  (Sicily).  — The  Spaniards 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  this  town,  near  the 
river  Cautara,  in  Naples,  June  20,  1719.  It 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


suffered  greatly  from  the  effects  of  an  earth- 
quake in  1734. 

FRANCE,  which  formed  part  of  the  ancient 
Gallia  or  Gaul,  received  the  name  of  France 
from  the  Franks,  a  German  tribe  which  first 
invaded  Gaul  about  256. 


418.  The  empire  of  the  Franks  in  Gaul  commences  under 

Pharamond. 

419.  The  Visigoths  obtain  possessions  in  the  country. 
451.  Battle  of  Chalons-sur-Marae  (?.».)• 

481.  Clovis  I.  reigns  in  Belgic  Gaul. 

486.  Battle  of  Soissons  ((/. )'.). 

493.  Clovis  I.  marries  Clotilda,  daughter  of  the  King  of 

Burgundy,  and  a  Christian. 
496.  Clovis  I.  de'feats  the  Alemanni  in  the  battle  of  Tol- 

biac,  and  becomes  a  Christian. 
507.  Battle  of  Vougle  (q.  v.).     Clovis  I.  establishes  the 

seat  of  his  government  at  Paris,  where  he  founds 

the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 
511.  The  Salic  law  is  introduced.     Death  of  Clovis  I., 

who  divides  his  territories  between  his  four  sons. 
534.  Clodomir,  King  of  Orleans,  is  killed  by  the  Bur- 

gundians. 

530.  Thuringia  is  reduced  to  subjection. 
534.  The  Burgunrlians  lose  their  independence. 
5S8.  Clotaire  I.  becomes  sole  monarch. 
561.  The  inheritance  of  Clotaire  I.  is  divided  between 

his  three  sons. 
575.  Sigebert  I.,   King  of  Austrasia,  is  assassinated  by 

Fre'de'gonde,  wife  of  Chilperic  I.,  King  of  Soissons. 
584.  Chilperic  I.  i.s  assassinated  by  Fredegonde. 
587.  The  treaty   of  Andelot  is  signed,  which  lays  the 

foundation  of  the  feudal  system. 
613.  Queen   Brunehaut    is  put    to  death,    by  order  of 

Clotaire  II. 

632.  Clotaire  II.  cedes  Austrasia  to  his  son  Dagobert  I. 
656.  On  the  death  of  Sigebert  II.,  Grimoald,  Mayor  of 

Austrasia,  attempts  to  secure  the  throne  for  his 

son,  but  is  defeated  by  Clovis  II. 
681.  Ebrouin,  the  last  defender  of  the  Merovingians,  is 

assassinated. 

68X  Battle  of  Testry  (q.  v.). 

714.  Charles  Martel  succeeds  Pepin  d'Heristal,  and  re- 
duces the    Alemanni.    the  Bavarians,    and    the 

Thuringians,  to  subjection. 
733.  Battle  of  Poitiers  (q.  v.). 

739.  Charles  Martel  completes  the  conquest  of  Provence. 
747.  Carloman  retires  to  a  monastery,  and  leaves  Pepin 

le  Bref  sole  actual  ruler  of  France,  though  the 

title  of  king  still  belongs  to  Childeric  III. 
752.  Pepin   deposes  Childeric  III.,   and  assumes  royal 

authority. 

774-  Charlemagne  conquers  Lombardy. 
778.  The  battle  of  Roncevalles  (q.  ».). 

799.  Charlemagne  subdues  the  Avars. 

800,  Dec.  35.  He  is  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West. 

82.3.  Louis   I.    (le   Debonnaire)    does  penance    for    the 

murder  of  his  nephew  Bernard. 
830.  He  is  imprisoned  in  a  convent  by  his  sons. 
841.  The   battle   of   Fontenai    is   fought,    between    the 

Germans   on  the  one   side,   and  the  Neustrians, 

Aquitainians,  Burgundians,  and  ProvenQaux,  on 

the  other.  • 

843.  Treaty  of  Verdun  (q.  v.). 
848.  Brittany  becomes  an  independent  kingdom. 
877.  Charles  II.  (the  Bald)  signs  the  charter  of  Kiersy. 
879.  Boson  is  proclaimed  King  of  Provence. 
888.  The  Northmen  attack  Paris,  which  is  defended  by 

Eudes. 

911.  Charles  HI  (the  Simple)  cedes  Normandy  to  Hollo. 
939.  Charles  III.  dies  in  captivity  in  the  castle  of  Peronne. 
938.  Louis   IV.  suppresses  an   insurrection,  headed  by 

Hugh,  Count  of  Paris. 
003.  Robert  II.  inherits  Burgundy. 
119.  Louis  VI.  calls  the  communes  to  arms  under  their 

feudal  lords. 

153.  Louis  VII.  divorces  his  wife  Eleanor. 
185.  The  provinces  of  Amiens,  Vermandois,  and  Valois 

are  obtained. 

191.  Artois  is  annexed  to  France. 
313.  Buttle  of  Muret  (q.  v.). 

1314.  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  defeats  the  Germans  at  Bo- 
vines,  or  Bouvines  (q.  v.). 
1350.  Louis   IX.  (St.    Louis)  is  taken    prisoner  by   the 

Saracens,  at  Mausurah  (q.  v.). 


358.  Guienne  (q.  c.)  is  ceded  to  England. 

366.  Sicily  is  conquered  by  Charles  of  Anjou. 

370.  Louis  IX.  dies  of  the  plague  at  Tunis. 

273.  The  first  French  patent  of  nobility  is  conferred  upon 

Raoul.  the  king's  goldsmith. 
282.  The  Sicilian  vespers  (q.  v.). 

399.  A  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  (the  Fair)  marries  a  son 

of   Edward   I.  of   England,   which  leads  to  the 

subsequent  claim  of  the  English  monarchs  to  the 

French  crown. 

1303.  Philip  IV.  quarrels  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  and 

summons  the  first  states-general. 
-  The  rising  influence  of  the  commonalty  retards  the 

progress  of  chivalry. 

.  The  Templars  are  suppressed  in  France. 
1309.  Clement  V.  takes  up  his  abode  at  Avignon. 
:337_  War  breaks  out  with  Flanders. 
341.  Philip-VI.  wages  war  in  Brittany  (q.  v.). 

346.  Battle  of  Cre'cy  (q.  v.). 

347.  The  English  take  Calais. 

349.  Philip  VI.  acquires  Montpellier  and  Dauphiny  by 

purchase. 
356.  John  II.  is  taken  prisoner  by  the  Black  Prince,  at 

Poitiers  (q.  v.). 

:358.  Insurrection  of  the  Jacquerie  (q.  v.). 
1360.  The  treaty  of  Bretigny  (q.  v.). 
1393.  Charles  VI.  is  seized  with  insanity. 
407.  John,    Duke  of    Burgundy,   assassinates  the  Duke 

of  Orleans,  brother  of  the  king. 
415.  Battle  of  Agincourt  (q.  v.). 
1419.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  is  assassinated  on  the  bridge 

of  Montereau. 
430.  Treaty  of  Troyes  (q.  ».). 

433.  Henry  VI.  is  crowned  King  of  England  and  France 
at  Paris. 

1439,  May  8.    Joan  of   Arc  raises  the  siege  of  Orleans. 

—June  18.  Battle  of  Patay  (q.  v.). 
1431,  May  30.    Joan   of  Arc  is  burned  at  Rouen,   as  a 

sorceress. 

1435.  Treaty  of  Arras  (q.  v.). 
1437.  France  is  ravaged  by  plague  and  famine. 

1440.  The  insurrection  of  La  Praguerie. 

1449-50.  The  English  lose  Cherbourg,  Falaise,  Caen,  Har- 
fleur,  and  Rouen.— April  15.  Battle  of  Fortnigny 
(q.  v.). 

1465.  League  of  the  Public  Good  (7.  v.). 

1475.  Edward  IV.  of  England  invades  France. 

1494.  Charles  VIII.  invades  and  conquers  Naples. 

1495.  The  French  lose  Naples. 
1499.  The  French  seize  Milan. 
1508.  League  of  Cambray  (q.  v.). 
1511.  The  Holy  League  (q.  v.). 

1513,  The  English  invade  Picardy.— Aug.  16.  The  battle 

of  Guinegate. 

1514,  Oct.   o.  Louis  XII.  marries  Mary,  sister  of  Henry 

1515,  Sep.  13  and  14.  Battle  of  Malegnano  (q.  v.). 

1530.  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  (q.  v.). 

1531.  Francis  I.  loses  the  Milanese  and  Genoa, 

1535,  Feb  34.  Battle  of  Pavia  (q. «.).    Persecution  of  the 

Protestants  commences. 

1536,  March  18.  Francis  is  released  from  captivity. 

1539.  The  peace  of  Cambray  (q.  v.). 

1531.  A  royal  printing-press  is  established,  and  private 

presses  are  forbidden. 
1533.  Brittany  is  finally  annexed  to  France. 

1540,  Dec.  Charles  V.  is  entertained  by  Francis  I.  at  Paris. 

1544,  July.  Henry  VIII.  invades  France  with  30,000  men. 

1545,  The  Vaudoi's  are  persecuted,  with  much  barbarity, 

30  towns  and  villages  being  burned,  and  the  in- 
habitants massacred. 

1546,  June  7.  Peace  is  concluded  with  England. 

1548,  Aug.  13.  The  dauphin  is  affianced  to  Mary,  Queen 

of  Scots. 
1553.  The   Duke    of    Guise    defends    Metz    against    the 

Emperor  Charles  V. 

I55S»  May  23.  An  alliance  is  agreed  upon  with  Rome. 
1558.  The  English  lose   Calais,  their  last  possession  in 

France. 
1563.  Civil  wars  commence  between  the  Huguenots  and 

the  Papists. — March  I.  Massacre  at  Vassy. — Dec. 

19.  Battle  of  Dreux  (q.  v.). 
1563,  Feb.  34.  The  Duke  of  Guise  is  killed  at  *he  siege  of 

Orleans.— March  19.  Treaty  of  Amboise. 

1566.  An  alliance  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy  is  con- 

cluded with  Spain. 

1567,  Nov.  10.  The  Roman  Catholics  gain  the  battle  of 

St.  Denis  (q.  v.). 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


1569.  Battles  of  Jamae  and  Moncontour. 

1570,  Aug.  8.  Toleration  is  established  by  the  peace   of 

St.  Germain  (q.  v.). 

1572,   Aug.  24.  (See  BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY.) 
1576.  The  lioman  Catholic  Holy  League  is  founded  by  the 

Duke  of  Guise. 
1580.  The  war  of  the  Lovers. 
1585.  Keligious  civil  war  again  breaks  out 

1587,  Oct.  20.  Battle  of  Coutras  (q.  r.). 

1588,  March  5.  Death  of  Conde.—  May  7.  The  leagufrs  are 

defeated  at  Senlis.— Dec.  23.  The  Duke  of  Guise 
is  assassinated  at  Blois. 

1589,  Aug.    2.     Henry    III.    is    assassinated   by    Jacques 

Clement. — Sep.  21.  Battle  of  Arques. 

1590,  March  4.  Battle  of  Ivry. 

1593,  July  25.  Henry  IV.  becomes  a  Roman  Catholic. 
1595,  Sep   17.  Henry  IV.  receives  the  Papal  absolution. 
1*98,  April  13.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  (7.  ».). 
looi.  By  the  treaty  of  Lyons,  Henry  IV.  acquires  Bresse, 

Bugcy,  and  Val-Romey. 
1602.  The  Dukes  of  Brion  and  Bouillon  conspire  against 

Henry  IV. 
1608.  The  Loire  overflows  its  banks,  and  occasions  much 

destruction. 
1610,  May  14.    Henry  IV.  is  assassinated  by  Ravaillac. 

He  is  succeeded  by  his  young  son,  Louis  XIII. , 

under  the  regency'of   Ma'ry  de  Medieis. 

1614,  Oct.  26.  The  stales  ^ener.il  meet  for  the  last  time. 

1615,  Nov.   22.    Marriage    of    Louis  XIII.   and  Anne    of 

Austria. 
1617,  May  3.  Mary  de  Medieis  is  imprisoned  in  the  castle 

of  Blois. 

1622.   liiclielien  is  made  a  member  of   the  council. 
1624.  Richelieu  is  appointed  minister  of  finance. 
16^5.  The  Huguenots  rise  in  rebellion,  and  are  reduced  to 

submission  by  the  Duke  of  Moiltmoreucy. 

1630.  France   is  ravaged  by  plague. 

1631.  Richelieu  triumphs  over  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and 

his  other  enemies. 

1635.  The  Academic  Fraucaisc  is  established  by  Richelieu. 
1638,  Sep.  5.   Birth  of   Louis  XIV. 

1642,  July  3.  Death  of  Marv  do  Medieis.— Dec.  4.  Death 

of  Richelieu. 

1643,  May   14.    Accession  of    Louis  XIV.,  under   the   re- 

gency   of    the  queen-mother.   Anne.     Cardinal 

Ma/.arin  becomes  foreign  minister. 

1648.  The  war  of  the  Frondeurs  and  Mazarins  com- 
mences. 

1652.  Muzaiiu  is  banished  to   Sedan,    by   a    vote   of  the 

Parliament.     '1  lie  Fronde  sedition  terminates. 

1653,  M«rch  29.  Mnzariii  returns  in  triumph  to  Paris. 
1655.  France  is  divided  into  32  general  int.  m1.: 

1659,  *(>v.  7.   IV-ie-  of  the  Pyrenees  (q.  r.\. 

1661,  March  9.  Death  of  Cardinal  Ma/.arin,  after  which 
the  king  dispenses  with  a  prime  minister,  and 
Colbert  is  appointed  minister  of  finance. 

1667.  Louis  XIV.  declares  war   against   Spain,   and  in- 

vades Belgium. 

1668.  Louis   XIV.    acquires   Lille,    Tournay,    and    other 

towns  in  Flanders. 

1672.  Louis  XIV.  declares  war  against  Holland. 

1678,  Aug.  10.   Peace  of  Nimeguen  (q.  v.), 

1681.  Strasbnrg  (q.  v.)  and  Casale,  in  Lombard}-,  are  an- 
nexed to  France. 

1683,  Sep.  6.  Death  of  Colbert. 

1684,  Louis   XIV.    is    privately  married  to  Madame  de 

Maintenon. 

1685,  Oct.  22.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (q.  v.). 
1689.  War  is  declared  against  England.     The  Grand  Al- 
liance (q.  '-.)  is  formed. 

1695.  The  currency  is  altered,  a  capitation  tax  levied,  and 
patents  of  nobility  are  sold,  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciencies of  the  exchequer. 

1697,  Sep.  20.  Treaty  of  Ryswick. 

1701,  Sep.  7.  The  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  (?.».). 

170.1,  Aug.  13.  Battle  of  Blenheim  (q.  v.). 

1706,  May  12  (It.  S.)  Battle  of  Ramillies  (q.v.). 

1709.  A  severe  famine  occurs  throughout  France. 

1713,  A]  ril  II.  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (q.  r.). 

1714.  Lettres  de  cachet  become  general.     (See  SEALED 

LCXTBBS.) 

1715,  Sep.   :.  Death  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  is  succeeded  by 

his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV.,  under  the  regency 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 

1716.  The  Mississippi  Scheme.  (See  LAW'S  BANK.) 
1722,  Oct.  25-  Coronation  of  Louis  XV. 

1725,  Sep.  4.  Louis  XV.  marries  Maria  Luziuska,  daughter 
of  Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland. 


. 

1748,  Oct.  7  (O.S.)  The  peace  of   Aix-la-Chapelle  (q. 
—  Dec.  10.  The  young  Pretender  is  expelled  fr 


A.D. 

1733.  Louis  XV.  declares  war  against  Austria,  on  behalf 

of  his  father-in-law,  the  King  of  Poland. 
1739.  A  severe  famine  occurs  in  France. 
1743,  June  16  (O.S.).     Battle  of  Dettingen. 
1746.  Madame  Pompadour  attains  great  influence  over 

the  king. 

v.). 
rom 

France. 
I7S&  France  enters  into    alliance  with    Austria  against 

England,  and  the  Seven  Years'  War  commences. 
1757,  .Ian.  5.   Da  miens  attempts  the  king's  life.—  March 

38.  lie  is  executed  with  great  barbarity. 

1762,  The  Jesuits  are  secularized,  and  their  property  con- 

fiscated. 

1763,  Feb.  10.  Peace  of  Paris  (q.  r.). 

1764,  April  14.  Death   of  Madame  Pampadour,  and  sup- 

ii  of   the  order  of  the  Jesuits. 
1766.   Lorraine  (q.  r.)  is  united  to  Fiance. 

•i<-a  (q.  r.)  is  united  to  France. 
i-''  i.    Ma.  lame  du  I'.arri  becomes  the  king's  mistress. 

1770,  May  30.  Marriage  of  the  dauphin  and  Marie  Antoi- 

nette 

1771.  The    Parliament    is   banished,    and    six  "superior 

courts  "  are  established  in  its 

1774,  May  10.  Death  of  Louis  XV.,  who  is  succeeded  by 
his  grandson.  Louis  XVI.  —  Dec.  12.  The  Parlia- 
ment is  re-establish  d. 

1776.  May  12.  Turgot  is  dismissed  from  office. 

1777.  Juh-  2.  Necker  becomes  minister  of  finance. 

1778.  Loiiis  XVI.  declares  war  against  England,  in  aid  of 

the  North  American  colonies. 

1779.  An  army  of  40,000  men  is  assembled  in  Brittany  for 

the  invasion  of  England. 

1780.  Torture  is  abolished. 

[781,  May  33.   Resignation  of  Necker. 

3.    Treat  v  of    Versailles  (q.  t'.). 

1785.  The  diamond'  necklace  affair  (q.  v.).  The  guillotine 
is  invented. 

1787,  Feb.   22.     'I  he  Assembly  of   Notables  meets.     The 

king  and  Parliament  disagree  respecting  the  col- 
lection of  taxes. 

1788,  Necker  is  recalled.—  Nov.  6.    The  second  Assembly 

of   the  Notables  meets. 

1789,  May  5.   The  states-general  assemble  at  Versailles.  — 

June  17.  The  states-general  assume  the  title  of  the, 
National  Assembly  (q.  r.).  —  July  14.  The  llastille 
is  stormed  and  destroyed.  —  Aug.  I  •}.  The  Assembly 
adopts  the  declaration  of  the"l(ight 
—  Oct.  5  and  6.  The  people  attack  the  palace  at 
Versailles,  and  compel  the  king  and  queen  to  go 
to  Paris.  Oct.  9.  The'  Assembly  follows  the  king 
and  queen  to  Paris.  —  Oct.  16.  The  title  "King  of 
France"  is  altered  to  "King  of  the  French."— 
Nov.  2.  The  property  of  the  clergy  is  confis- 
cated. —  Dec.  22.  France  is  divided  into  83  de^art- 
ments. 

1790,  Feb.  4.  The  king  and  queen  visit  the  Assembly,  and 

ngree  to  the  revolution.—  -March  16.  Li-ttres  de 
cachet  are  abolished.  —  June  20.  Hereditary  no- 
bility and  titles  of  honour  are  abolished.—  July 
14.  The  king  swears  fidelitv  to  the  new  consti- 
tution at  the  fete  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  (7.  ».).— 
Sep.  4.  Final  dismissal  and  flight  of  Necker. 
—Nov.  2".  The  Assembly  publishes  decrees  for 
the  humiliation  of  the  clergy. 

1791,  March  18.  Territorial  .primogeniture  is  abolished.  — 

April  2.  Death  of  Mira  beau.—  June  22.  The  royal 
family  escape  from  Paris  by  night.—  June  21. 
They  are  arrested  at  Varciines.—  June  25.  They 
are  imprisoned  in  tin;  Tuileries.—  Sep.  15.  Louis 
XVI.  assents  to  the  National  Constitution.—  Sep. 
29.  Dissolution  of  the  constituent  National  As- 
sembly. —  Oct.  I.  The  Legislative  Assembly  meets. 

1792,  April  20.  War    is  declared  against  Austria.—  June 

20.  The  mob  attack  the  Tuileries.—  June.  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Holland  unite  against  France.  — 
Aug.  10.  The  mob  storm  the  Tuilerie*.  m 
the  Swiss  guards,  and  ini]  rison  the  royal  family 
in  the  Temple.—  Sep.  2  —  5.  The  royalist  pri-oners 
in  Paris,  amounting  to  about  5,000,  are  massacred, 
the  Princess  de  Lamballe  being  of  the  number.— 
Sep.  2;.  The  National  Convention  (q.  r.)  assembles, 
and  abolishes  royalty.-  Sep.  22.  The  French  re- 
public is  founded.—  Nov.  12.  The  debate  on  the 
trial  of  the  king  is  opened  in  the  Convention, 
and  concludes  Dec.  3.—  Dec.  15.  Flanders  is  an- 
nexed to  France. 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


1-703  Jan.  19.  Louis  XVI.  is  sentenced  to  death. — Jan.  21, 
Louis  XVI.  is  executed.-Feb.  I.  War  is  de- 
clared against  England,  Spain,  and  Holland. 
—  March  10.  The  royalists  of  La  Vendee  rise  in 
insurrection.— March  25.  Kobespierre  and  his 
colleagues  are  invested  with  dictatorial  autho- 
rity.—May  31.  The  Reign  of  Terror  commences. 
— July  13.  Charlotte  Conlay  assassinates  Marat. 
— Aug.  23.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  first  distin- 
guishes hinisc-lf  at  the  siege  of  Toulon.— Oct.  14. 
Trial  of  the  queen.— Oct.  16.  She  is  executed.— 
Nov.  6.  Philip  Epalite,  Duke  of  Orleans,  is  he- 
headed.— Nov.  8.  Madame  Roland  is  be  headed.— 
Nov.  24.  The  revolutionary  calendar  is  adopted 
by  the  Convention. — Dec.  12.  The  insurrection  in 
La  Vendee  is  suppressed. 

1794,  March  24.  The  leaders  of  the  Cordeliers  Club  are 
executed.— April  5.  Danton  and  his  colleagues 
are  guillotined.— May  12.  Madame  Elizabeth, 
sister  of  Louis  XVI.,  is  executed. — June  7.  Kobes- 
pierre celebrates  the  festival  of  the  God  of 
Nature,  and  acts  as  high  priest. — July  27.  The 
revolution  of  the  9th  Thennidor,  and  fall  of 
Robespierre.— July  28.  Robespierre,  St.  Just,  and 
70  of  their  partisans,  are  guillotined,  which  ter- 
minates the  Ileign  of  Terror.  —  Sep.  8.  The 
National  Convention  orders  the  closing  of  the 
Jacobin  clubs. 

J79Si  April  5.  peace  is  concluded  with  Prussia  at  Basel. 
—June  8.  Louis  XVII.  dies  in  prison  in  the 
Temple. — Oct.  5.  A  rebellion  of  30,000  royalists 
against  the  convention  is  suppressed  by  Napoleon 
Buonaparte. — Oct.  28.  The  Council  of  the  Ancients 
and  of  the  Five  Hundred  hold  their  first  meetings. 
The  Directory  is  established. 

1796,  April  9.  Napoleon  commences  his  Italian  victories. 

Nov.  14,  16,  and  17.     Battle  of  Arcola  (q.  v.). 

1797,  May  20.  Babceut's  conspiracy. — Sep.  4.  A  revolution 

in  favour  of  the  Directory  takes  place  in  Paris. 
— Dec.  10.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  returns  to  Paris. 
Magnifi-cut  fetes  are  given  in  his  honour  as  "the 
Pacificator." 

1798,  Jan.  4.  All  English  merchandise  in  France  is  con- 

fiscated.— May  20.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  embarks 
for  Egypt. 

1799,  June  22.  England,  Russia,  Germany,  Turkey,  Por- 

tugal, and  Naples,  form  the  second  coalition 
against  France.— Nov.  10.  The  Directory  is  dis- 
solved, and  the  consular  government  established. 
— Dec.  13.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  is  chosen  first 
consul. 

1800,  June  14.  Battle  of  Marengo  (q.  v.). — Dec.  24.  Napo- 

of  an  infernal  machine,  which  exploded  in 
the  Rue  de  St.  Nicaise,  destroying  about  40 
houses. 

1801,  Feb.  9.  Treaty  of   Luneville  (q.  v.).—  July  15.    (See 

CONCORDAT.)— Sep.  n.  The  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion is  re-established. -Oct.  8.  Peace  with 
Russia. — Oct.  9.  Peace  with  Turkey. 

1802,  March  25.  Treaty  of  Amiens  (q.  v.).—  May  19.    The 

Legion  of  Honour  is  instituted. — Aug.  2.  Napoleon 
Buonaparte  is  appointed  first  consul  for  life. 

1803,  March    13.    Napoleon   Buonaparte  publicly   insults 

Lord  Whitworth.  the  English  ambassador.— May 
16.  War  is  declared  against  England. 

1804,  Jan.  15.  A  new  civil  code  is  adopted.— Feb.  16.  The 

Georges  conspiracy  (q.  «.). — March  31.  Execution 
of  the  Duke  d'Enghein.— May  1 8.  Napoleon  is 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  the  French.— Dec.  2.  He 
is  crowned  by  the  Pope  at  Notre  Dame. 

1805,  May  26.    Napoleon    I.  is   crowned  King  of  Italy.— 

June  4.  Genoa  is  annexed  to  France. — Aug.  9. 
England,  Russia,  Naples,  and  Austria,  form  the 
third  coalition  against  France. — Sep.  36.  The 
French  invade  Germany.— Oct.  31.  Battle  of  Tra- 
falgar (q.  ».).— Dec.  2.  Battle  of  Austerlitz.— Dec. 
26.  Treaty  of  Presburg. 

1806,  July  12.  The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.— Oct.  6. 

England,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Saxony,  form 
the  fourth  coalition  against  France. — Oct.  8. 
Prussia  declares  war.— Oct.  14.  Battle  of  Jena 
(q.  v.).— Nov.  19.  Publication  of  the  Berlin  De- 
cree (q.  v.). 

1807,  Feb.  8.  Battle  of  Eylau  (q.  v.).— June  26.  Napoleon  I. 

has  an  interview  with  the  Emperor  of  Russia. — 
July  7  and  9.  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (q.  v.).— Dec.  17. 
Publication  of  the  Milan  Decree  (q.  v.). 


1808,  May  5.  Charles  IV.,  King  of  Spain,  is  compelled  to 

abdicate  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  which  leads  to 
the  Peninsular  war.  (See  Sl'AlX.) 

1809,  April  6.    England  and  Austria  form  the  fifth  coa- 

lition against  France. — June  10.  Napoleon  I.  is 
excommunicated. — Oct.  14.  Treaty  of  Vienna. — 
Dec.  15.  Napoleon  I.  is  divorced  from  his  wife 
Josephine. 

1810,  April     i.     Napoleon     I.     marries     Maria     Louisa, 

daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria.— July  9. 
Holland  is  incorporated  with  the  French  em- 
pire. 

1811,  March  20.  The  empress  gives  birth  to  a  son,  who 

receives  the  title  of  King  of  Rome. 
1813.  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia.     (See  RUSSIA.) 

1813,  Jan.   25.    The   Concordat.— March    16.     Russia  and 

Prussia  form  the  sixth  coalition  against  France.— 
Oct.  7.  Wellington  crosses  the  Bidasoa  (q.  v.)  and 
enters  France.— Dec.  31.  Napoleon  I.  dissolves  the 
Legislative  Council. 

1814,  March  30.  Paris  surrenders  to  the   allies. — April  4. 

Napoleon  I.  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son.— May 

LThe   Bourbons  are  restored  in   the   person  of 
uis  XVIII.— May   4.   Napoleon  I.   arrives   in 
Elba. 

1815,  March   I.  Napoleon  I.  suddenly  returns  from  Elba, 

and  lands  at  Cannes,  with  l.ooo  men. — March  15. 
Great  Bri  ain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  form 
a  new  alliance  against  Napoleon. — March  19. 
Louis  XVIII.  leaves  Paris  and  the  empire  is  re- 
stored.—March  29.  Napoleon  I.  abolishes  the 
slave  trade.— June  r.  Napoleon  I.  promulgates  a 
new  constitution. — June  13.  He  leaves  Paris  to 
take  the  command  of  his  forces. — June  15.  He 
invades  Belgium.— June  18.  Buttle  of  Waterloo 
(q.v.).— June  22-  He  again  abdicates  in  favour  of 
his  son. — July  3.  He  attempts  to  embark  for 
America.— July  6.  Louis  XVIII.  returns  to  Paris. 
—July  15.  Napoleon  I.  seeks  refuge  with  Capt. 
Maitland  of  the  Betleroplion.—Aug.  8.  He  is 
transferred  to  the  Northumberland,  at  Torbay, 
and  sent  to  St.  Helena.— Oct.  16.  He  arrives 
at  St.  Helena.  —  Dec.  7.  Execution  of  Marshal 
Ney. 

1816,  Jan.   13.  The  allied  sovereigns  issue  a  decree,  per- 

manently excluding  the  Buonaparte  family  from 
the  throne  of  France. 

1830,  Feb.  13.  The  Duke  de  Berri  is  assassinated. 

1831,  May    5.    Death    of    Napoleon    Buonaparte    at    St. 

Helena. 

1834,  Sep.  16.  Death  of  Louis  XVIII.,  who  is  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  Charles  X. 

1837,  April  30.  The  National  Guard  is  disbanded.— Nov.  5. 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  dissolved,  and  76 
new  peers  are  created. 

g.  8.  The  Polignac  administration  is  formed. 
y  19.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  dissolved. — 
May  25.  An  expedition  sails  for  Algeria  (q.  p.).— 
July  35.  Royal  ordinances  are  issued  respecting 
the  system  of  electing  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. — 
July  26.  They  are  published  in  the  Moniteur,  and 
create  great  dissatisfaction. — July  37.  The  streets 
are  barricaded,  and  the  revolution  commences. — 
July  38.  Paris  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege. — 
July  30.  The  fighting  ceases.— July  31.  The  royal 
family  flee  from  St.  Cloud,  and  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  accepts  the  lieutenancy-generalship  of 
the  kingdom. — Aug.  3.  Charles  X.  announces  his 
abdication.— Aug.  7.  The  crown  is  offered  to  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  ascends  the  throne  as  Louis 
Philippe  I. — Aug.  17.  Charles  X.  seeks  refuge  in 
England.— Dec.  31.  The  Chamber  of  Peers  pro- 
nounces a  sentence  of  imprisonment  for  life 
against  the  Prince  of  Polignac  and  some  "other 
members  of  his  ministry. 

1831,  Feb.  14  and  15.  Riots  in  Paris.— Feb.  26.  The  criminal 
law  is  reformed. — July 31.  A  law  is  passed  to  pro- 
hibit the  assembling  of  the  National  Guard  unless 
by  authority.— Dec.  28.  The  hereditary  peerage 
decree  is  repealed. 

1833,  March  28.  The  cholera  appears  in  Paris,  and  rages 
in  France  with  great  fury  for  several  months. — 
July  22-  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt,  sot) 
of  Napoleon  Buonaparte  and  Maria  Louisa,  at 
Sehonbrunn.— Nov.  19.  The  kings  life  i»  at- 
tempted. 

1833,  Aug.  14.  The  Court  of  Delegates  is  abolished. 

1834,  May  «o.  Death  of  Lafayette. 


FRAXCE 


t    416    ] 


FRANCE 


A.D. 

1835,  July  28.  The  Fieschi  conspiracy  (q.v.). 

1836,  June  35.  Louis  Alibaud  attempts  the  king's  life.— 

Oct.  29.  Louis  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  afterwards 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  attempts  to  create  an 
insurrection  at  Strasburg. — Nov.  6.  Death  of 
Charles  X.,the  ex-king.— Nov.  23.  Prince  Polignac 
is  released  from  prison. — Dec.  27.  Meunier  attempts 
the  king's  life. 

1837,  May  9.  An  amnesty  for  political  offenders  is  pub« 

lUhed. 

1838,  May  20.  Death  of   Talleyrand.— July  12.   War  with 

Mexico. 

1839,  May  II.  An  insurrection  occurs  in  Paris. 

1840,  March  I.  Thiers  becomes  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

— May  12.  The  Chambers  order  the  removal  of  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  I.  from  St.  Helena  to  France. 
— Aug.  6.  Louis  Napoleon  makes  a  descent  upon 
Boulogne. — Oct.  6.  Louis  Napoleon  is  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life.— Oct.  15.  The  king's  life  is 
attempted  by  Darmes — Oct.  29.  M.  Guizot  accepts 
the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs. — Dec.  15.  There- 
minus  of  Napoleon  I.  are  solemnly  re-interred  in 
the -Hotel  des  Invalides. 

1841,  Sep.    13.    Attempted    assassination    of    the    Duke 

D'Aumale. 

1842,  July  13.    Death  of    the  Duke  of   Orleans,   heir  to 

the  throne,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  his 
carriage. 

1843,  Sep.  2 — 7-  The  Queen  of  England  visits  the  French 

royal  family  at  the  Chateau  d'Eu. 

1844,  Sep.  "6.   Peace  with  Morocco. 

1846,  April  if>.      Lecompte   makes   an   attempt   upon   the 

king's  life. — May  25.  Louis  Nupolrrm  escape's  from 
the  fortress  of"  Hum. — July  yj.  Joseph  Henri 
attempts  the  king's  life. — Oct.  16,  &c.  Inundations 
of  the  Loire  and  Rhone  destroy  an  immense 
amount  of  property. 

1847,  Dec.  1 8.   Death  of  Maria  Louisa,  widow  of  Napoleon 

Uuona;>arie. — Dec.  21.  Abd-el-Kader  is  surren- 
dered to  the  French. 

1848,  Feb.  21.    A  great  refonn  banquet  is  prohibited  by 

proelamation. — Feb.  22.  The  revolution  com- 
mences, Paris  being  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 
— Feb.  24.  Louis  Philippe  abdicates,  and.  with 
his  family,  escapes  from  Paris.  —  Feb.  26.  A 
republic  is  proclaimed. — March  3.  The  ex-king 
and  queen  arrive  at  Xewhnven. — March  4.  The 
victims  of  the  revolution  are  buried  with  great 
public  solemnity.  May  4.  The  National  Assembly 
is  opened. — May  7.  The  government  is  entrusted 
to  an  executive  commission,  elected  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.-  May  15.  The  mob  attack  tin- 
National  Assembly.— May  30.  Louis  Philippe  and 
his  family  are  condemned  to  perpetual  banish- 
ment.--June  13.  Louis  .Napoleon  is  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Assembly.— June  23.  The  I.Vd 
Republicans  rise  in  insurrection  in  Paris. — June  24. 
Paris  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  all  exe- 
cutive power  is  entrusted  to  (leu.  Cavaignac. — 
June  25.  The  left  bank  of  the  Seine  is  cleared  of 
the  insurgents. — June  26.  The  Archbishop  of  Paris 
is  mortally  wounded  while  administering  consola- 
tion to  the  dying,  and  comparative  order  is  at 
length  restored.— June  28.  (Jen.  Cavaignac  is 
made  President  of  the  Council.— July  6.  Solemn 
funeral  of  the  victims  of  the  insurrection. — 
Sep.  26.  Louis  Napoleon  takes  his  seat  for  the 
depaitmentof  1'Yonne  in  the  National  Assembly. 
— <  )ct.  19.  Paris  is  delivered  from  its  state  of  siege. 
— Nov.  12.  The  Constitution  is  solemnly  published 
in  Paris  and  throughout  France. — Dec.  20.  Louis 
Napoleon  is  declared  President  elect  of  the  French 
Kcpublic. 

Tn.  29.  An  insurrection  of  the  Tied  Republicans  is 
prevented. — Aug.  22.  The  Universal  Peace  Con- 
gress assembles  at  Paris. 

1850  May  16.  The  French  ambassador  is  recalled  from 
England.— Aug.  26.  The  ex-king,  Louis  Philippe, 
dies  at  Claremont. 

1851,  Jan.  10.  Gen.  Changarnier  loses  the  command  of  the 
National  Guard.— Sep.  27.  Telegraphic  communi- 
cation is  established  with  England. — Oct.  19.  Death 
of  the  Duchess  d'Angouleme,  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette.— Nov.  4.  The  Pre- 
sident proposes  to  restore  universal  suffrage. — 
Nov.  13.  The  National  Assembly  reject  the  Presi- 
dent's proposition.— Nov.  26.  Death  of  Marshal 
Soult. 


A.D. 

1851,  Dec.     2.  The  coup-tVi'tat.      The  President    dissolves 

the  Legislative  Assembly,  establishes  univer- 
sal suffrage,  proposes  the  election  of  a  presi- 
dent for  10  years,  and  declares  Paris  in  a  state 
of  siege.  Thiers,  Changarnier,  Cavaignac,  La- 
moriciere,  and  about  180  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly, are  arrested.— Dec.  12.  The  President  appoints 
a  consultative  commission. — Dec.  2oand  21.  Voting 
for  the  election  of  a  President  for  10  years  takes 
place  throughout  France. 

1852,  Jan.  i.  The  Moniteur  announces  the  result  of   the 

votes  to  be  that  the  nation  desires  Louis  Napoleon 
to  continue  the  government  on  the  principles  he 
laid  down  Dec.  2,  1851.  He  is  accordingly  installed 
at  Notre  Dame,  and  takes  up  his  oilieial  residence 
in  the  Tuileries.— Jan.  7.  The  motto  "  Liberte, 
Fraternite,  Egalite,"  is  ordered  to  be  erased 
throughout  France. — Jan.  9.  Gens.  Changarnier, 
Lamoricieie,  and  others,  are  set  at  liberty  in  Bel- 
gium, with  instructions  not  to  return  to  France. — 
Jan.  10.  Eighty-three  members  of  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  are  banished,  and  575  persons  are 
transported  to  Cayenne  for  having  opposed  the 
coup-d'etat.—  Jan.  15.  The  President  promulgates 
a  new  constitution. — Jan.  23.  The  property  of  the 
Orleans  family  is  annexed  to  the  state.— Jan.  2v 
Titles  of  nobility  are  restored.— Feb.  3.  The  official 
statement  as  to  the  election  of  deputies  to  the  Le- 
gislative Assembly  is  published  in  the  Muniti-iir. — 
Feb.  17.  The  President  abolishes  nil  national 
holidays  except  the  birthday  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  (Aug.  151. — March  28.  The  departments 
are  released  from  martial  law. — March  29.  The 
legislative  chambers  assemble. — March  30.  A  pre- 
sidential decree  authoriy.es  the  erection  of  a  per- 
manent crystal  palace  in  Paris. — May  10.  The 
President  distributes  eagles  to  the  army. — July  i. 
A  plot  for  tin-  assassination  of  the  President  is 
dis' -overeil  at  Paris.— July  19.  The  President  visits 
Strasburg. — Aug.  n.  Thiers  and  other  exiles  am 
permitted  to  rciurn  to  I'Yalice.— Sep.  13.  The 
senate  petitions  for  the  re-establishment  of  the 
"  hereditary  sovereign  power  in  the  Buonaparte 
family." — Sep.  10.  The  President  visits  Lyons  to 
inaugurate  a  statue  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon. — 
Sep.  23.  The  police  at  Marseilles  seize  an  infernal 
machine  designed  to  destroy  the  President.— 
Sep.  27.  The  President  visits  Toulon,  and  orders 
the  enlargement  of  the  fortifications. — Oct.  7.  He 
visits  Bordeaux.— Oct.  16.  lie  releases  Alid-el- 
Kader. — Nov.  4.  He  announces  his  intention  of 
restoring  the  empire. — Nov.  7.  The  senate  calls 

upon  the  President,  to  a -si the  title  of  emperor. 

— Nov.  12.  A  protest  from  the  Count  de  Chambord 
against  the  empire  appears  in  the  Paris  papers. — 
Nov.  21  and  22.  The  votes  of  the  nation  are  taken 
as  to  the  restoration  of  the  empire. — Dec.  I.  Tin; 
Corps  Legislatif  declares  the  result  of  the  voting  : 
—Ayes,  7,864,189;  noes,  253,145;  null,  63,336.  The 
President  accepts  the  empire,  and  assumes  the 
title  of  Napoleon  III.— Dec.  3.  He  is  proclaimed 
in  Paris. 

1853,  Jan.  29.  Napoleon  III.  marries  Eugenie  de  Monti  jo, 

Duchess  of  Teba. — Feb.  4.  The  Moniteur  an- 
nounces the  pardon  of  4.312  political  offenders. — 
Aug.  21.  Napoleon  III.  and  the  empress  visit 
Dieppe.— Oct.  2.  Death  of  Francois  Arago.— 
Nov.  7.  Thirty-three  persons  are  tried  on  the 
charge  of  plotting  to  assassinate  the  emperor: 
10  of  the  accused  are  transported  for  lite,  and 
the  rest  sentenced  to  various  imprisonments. — 
Nov.  20.  The  two  branches  of  the  Bourbons  are 
reconciled. 

1854,  Feb.  6.    The  Russian    ambassador   leaves   Paris. — 

March  12.  Treaty  of  Constantinople. — March  27. 
France  declares  war  against  Russia. — July  12. 
Napoleon  III.  reviews  the  troops  at  Boulogne. — 
Sep.  3.  Napoleon  III.  visits  Boulogne,  where  he 
entertains  the  Kings  of  Belgium  and  Portugal, 
and  Prince  Albert— Sep.  29.  Death  of  Marshal  St. 
Arnaud. 

1855,  April  17—21.    Napoleon  III.  and  the   empr 

England.— April  28.  Pianori  fires  at  the  emperor. 
— May  i>  Opening  of  the  Paris  exhibition —Aug. 
18 — 37.  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert  visit 
France.— Sep.  8.  Pellenmrre  attempts  the  empe- 
ror's life. — Dec.  29.  The  Imperial  Guard  enter 
Paris. 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


1856,  March  16.  Birth  of  the  Prince  Imperial,  in  conse- 

quence of  which  the  emperor  pardons  more  than 
1,000  political  offenders.— March  30.  Peace  is  con- 
cluded with  Russia. — June  I.  Inundations  occur 
in  the  south  of  France. 

1857,  Jan.  3.   Assassination  of  the  Avchbishop  of  Paris. 

— March  15.  A  conference  assembles  at  Paris  to 
settle  the  Neufchatel  difficulty.  (See  NEUF- 
CHATEL.)— April  20.  The  Grand-duke  Constantino 
of  Kussia  visits  the  emperor. — July  16.  Death  of 
Bcraimvr.— Aug.  7.  The  Italians,  Tibaldi,  Grilli, 
and  Bartolotti,  are  tried  for  plotting  against  the 
life  of  the  emperor. — Aug.  8.  Napoleon  111.  and 
the  empress  visit  England. — Sep.  25.  Napoleon 
III.  meets  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at  Stuttgardt. — 
Oct.  28.  Death  of  Gen.  Cavaiguac. 

1858,  Jan.  14.  Orsini  conspiracy  (q.  v.). — Feb.  I.  Napoleon 

III.  appoints  the  empress  regent  in  the  event  of 
his  death  during  the  minority  of  the  Prince  Im- 
perial.— Feb.  24-  Numerous  arrests  take  place  in 
of  an  apprehended  insurrection. — 


juenee 

April  15.  Marshal  Pelissier,  Duke  of  Malakhoff, 
arrives  in  London  as  French  ambassador. — May 
22— Aug.  19.  A  conference  meets  at  Paris  to 
adjust  the  organization  of  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities.—Aug.  4  and  5.  Queen  Victoria  meets 
the  emperor  at  Cherbourg  (q. ».). — Oct.  9.  A 
treaty  of  friendship  is  concluded  with  Japan. — 
Nov.  2.  Death  of  Count  Esterhazy.— Nov.  24. 
Trial  and  condemnation  of  the  Count  de  Monta- 
lembert. — Dec.  21.  The  count  is  partially  ac- 
quitted by  the  court  of  appeal. 

1859,  Jan.  i.    Napoleon   III.     addresses    some    ominous 

words  to  the  Austrian  ambassador. — Jan.  3°- 
Marriage  of  Prince  Napoleon  and  the  Princess 
Clotilde  of  Savoy. — April  23.  The  French  army 
leaves  Paris  for  Italy.— May  2-  The  French  am- 
bassador quits  Vienna. — May  3.  Napoleon  III.  de- 
clares war  against  Austria. — May  4.  The  Austrian 
ambassador  leaves  Paris. — May  10.  Napoleon  III. 
leaves  Paris  to  assume  the  command  of  the  army 
in  Italy,  the  empress  having  been  appointed 
regent  during  his  absence.  (See  ITALY.)— July 
16.  Napoleon  III.  returns  to  Paris. — Aug.  14.  The 
army  recently  engaged  in  Italy  makes  its  solemn 
entry  into  Paris.— Aug.  16.  Napoleon  III.  pub- 
lishes an  amnesty  to  Frenchmen  in  imprison- 
ment or  exile  for  political  offences. — Nov.  10.  The 
treaty  of  Zurich  (q. ».).— Dec.  31.  In  a  letter  to 
the  Pope,  Napoleon  111.  insists  upon  the  cessi 
of  the  Roniagua. 

1860,  Jan.  5.  Napoleon   III.  announces  his  intention  of 

relieving  commerce  from  many  existing  restric- 
tions.— Jan.  23.  The  treaty  of  commerce  with 
Great  Britain  is  signed  at  Paris.  —  Jan.  29. 
L'Univers,  the  organ  of  the  Ultramontane  party, 
is  suppressed. — Feb.  25.  The  cession  of  Savoy 
and  Nice  to  France  is  demanded.  (.See  SARDINIA.) 
— March  10.  Publication  of  the  commercial 
treaty  with  England.— June  24.  Death  of  Prince 
Jerome  Napoleon  Buonaparte. — Aug.  4.  A  French 
force  is  sent  to  Syria,  to  protect  the  Christians 
against  the  Mohammedans. — Aug.  25-  Napoleon 
III.  writes  to  Count  Persigny,  French  ambassador 
in  London,  to  repudiate  any  hostile  designs 
against  England. — Nov.  14.  The  empress  visits 
England  and  Scotland  privately. 

1861,  Feb.  2.  A  treaty  is  signed  at  Paris  with  the  Prince 
of  Monaco,  for  the  cession  of  Mantone  anc 
Roquebrune  to  France. — Feb.  15.  The  pamphlet 
"  France,  Rome,  and  Italy,"  is  published. — Marcl 
7.  A  treaty  of  boundary  is  concluded  with  Sar- 
dinia.— April  6.  A  treaty  for  the  protection  of 
literary  and  artistic  property  is  concluded  with 
Russia. — April  29.  A  commercial  treaty  is  con- 
cluded with  Turkey.— May  i.  A  treaty  of  com. 
merce,  and  for  the  protection  of  literary  am 
artistic  property,  is  concluded  with  Belgium. — 
June  it.  The  Moniteur  announces  the  intention 
of  France  to  preserve  strict  neutrality  in  th 
American  civil  war. — June  23.  Napoleon  III 
recognizes  Victor  Emanuel  of  Sardinia  as  Kii 
of  Italy.— Aug.  6.  The  King  of  Sweden  visit 
Paris. — Aug.  18.  A  dispute  commences  with 
Switzerland.  (See  SWIT/EKLAND.)— Oct.  6.  Th 
King  of  Prussia  visits  the  emperor  at.  Com 
pieg. 


.. 

»6i,  Oct  12.  The  King  of  Holland  meets  the  em 
peror  at  Compiegne.  —  Oct.  3;.  A  convention 
for  intervention  in  Mexico  is  signed  at  London, 
by  plenipotentiaries  of  France,  Great  Britain, 
and  Spain.  —  Nov.  14.  M.  Achille  Fould  is  ap- 
pointed minister  of  finance. 

863,  June  12-  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  the  emperor  and 

empress  at  Fontainebleau.  —  Oct.  15.  M.  Drouyn 
de  Lhuyg  succeeds  II.  de  Thouvenel  as  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.—  Oct.  30.  France  invites  England 
and  Kussia  to  join  her  in  intervention  in  North 
America.  —  Nov.  8.  Kussia  declines  to  interfere. 
—  Nov.  13.  England  maintains  her  neutrality. 
363,  Jan.  9.  The  minister  of  foreign  affairs  addresses  a 
second  note  to  the  cabinet  at  Washington,  sug- 
gesting propositions  for  re-establish  ing  peace.  — 
Jan.  17.  Death  of  Horace  Vernet,  the  historical 
painter.  —  Feb.  17.  France  remonstrates  with 
Prussia  respecting  her  proposed  interference  in 
Poland.—  Feb.  18.  The  French  Government  invites 
Kussia  to  tranquillize  Poland.  (See  POLAND.)— 
Feb.  27.  Porto  Novo,  Western  Africa,  is  received 
under  French  protection.  —  June  23.  Count 
Walewski  becomes  minister  of  state.  —  Oct  13. 
Death  of  M.  Billault.  minister  of  state.—  Nov.  4. 
Napoleon  III.  invites  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  to 
a  general  congress.  —  Nov.  5.  The  session  of  the 
new  chambers  is  opened  by  the  emperor.  —  Dec.  29. 
Four  Italians,  namedGreco,  Imperatori,  Trabuco, 
and  Scaglioni,  are  arrested  at  Paris  011  a  charge 
of  conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  emperor. 

864,  Jan.  16.  Death  of  Admiral  llamelin,  commander  of 

the  French  naval  forces  during  the  Crimean 
war.  —  Feb.  25.  The  conspirators  are  tried, 
convicted,  and  sentenced  to  various  terms  of 
imprisonment  and  transportation.—  April  8.  A 
revolt  breaks  out  in  the  province  of  Oran.  (See 
ALGEUIA.)  —  May  22.  Death  of  Marshal  Pelissier, 
Duke  of  Malakhoff,  and  Governor-  General  of 
Algeria.  —  June  20.  The  Japanese  ambassadors 
sign  a  treaty  at  Paris,  and  return  to  Japan.  — 
Aug.  16.  The  King  of  Spain  visits  the  imperial 
court  at  St.  Cloud.—  Sep.  15.  A  treaty  is  concluded 
with  Italy,  by  which  France  agrees  to  evacuate 
Koine,  and  Italy  arranges  to  transfer  the  seat  of 
vernment  to  Florence.  —  Oct.  37-28.  Napoleon 
.  visits  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at  Nice.  —  Dec. 

9.  Death  of  M.  Mocquard,  senator  and  chief  of 
the  emperor's  cabinet.  —  Dec.  24.  Prince  Napoleon 
is  appointed  vice-president  of  the  privy  council. 
—  Dec.  37.  A  convention  concerning  telegraphs  is 
signed  with  Prussia. 

865,  Jan.  i.  The  bishops  are  forbidden  to  insert  in  their 
episcopal  instructions  the  first  part  of  the  Tope's 
encyclical  letter.  —  Jan  10.  M.  Fould  publishes  his 
financial  report  for  1865.  —  Jan.  19.  Death  of 
Pierre  Joseph  Proudhon.  —  Feb.  14.  A  treaty 
with  Sweden  and  Norway  is  signed  at  Paris.  — 
Feb.  15.  The  French  Chambers  are  opened  by  the 
emperor.  —  Feb.  31.  The  Commissioners  for  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1867  are  appointed.  —  March 

10.  Death  of  the  Duke  de  Moray.—  March  39.  M. 
d"e  Lavalette  is  appointed  minister  of  the  interior. 
—April  24.  An  attempt  is  made  upon  the  life  of 
the  Secretary  to  the  Russian  Legation  at  Paris.  — 
April  26.    Napoleon   III.   appoints    the  empress 
regent  during  his  intended  visit  to    Algeria.— 
May  3.  The  emperor  arrives  in  Algeria  (q.  v.).  — 
May  15.  Prince  Napoleon  inaugurates  a  statue  of 
Napoleon  I.  at  Ajaccio.  —  May  23.  The  emperor,  in 
a  letter  to  the  prince,  strongly  disapproves  of  his 
speech  on  that  occasion.  —  May  27-  Prince  Napo- 
leon resigns  the  presidency  of  the  Privy  Council 
and  of  the  Exhibition  of  1867.—  May  29.  Death  of 
Marshal  Mapnan.  —  June  10.    Napoleon   III.    re- 
turns to  Paris.—  June  24.  The  budget  is  adopted 
by    the    Corps    Legislatif.—  Aug.    14  —  31.     The 
English  Channel  fleet  visits  Cherbourg  and  Brest. 
—Aug.  29—  Sep.    2.  The  French  fleet  visits  Ports- 
mouth.— Sep.   3.     Count  Walewski  is   appointed 
President  of  the  Corps  Legislatif.—  Sep.   o.    The 
emperor  and  empress  meet  the  Queen  of  Spain 
at  St.  Sebastian.—  Oct.  20  and  23.    The  emperor 
and  empress  visit  the  cholera  hospitals  at  Paris. 
—Nov.  15.  The  emperor  publishes  a  decree  for  the 
reduction  of  the  army.—  Dec.  24.  M.  Fould  pub- 
lishes his  financial  statement  for  1866. 


gov 
111. 


PRANCE 


[    418     ] 


FRANCISCANS 


A.U. 

HOUSE  OF  VAT.OTS. 

1866,  Feb.  25.  The  Prince  Imperial  is  formally  appointed 

A  D 

A.D. 

president  of  the  Commissioners  for  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition  of  1867.—  March  lo.  A  con- 
gress on  the  affairs  of  Roumania  (q.  v.)  holds  its 
first  meeting  at  Paris.—  May  7.  Nupoleon  III.,  in 
a  speech  at  Auxerre,  denounces  the  European 
settlement  of  1815.—  May  25.  Official  invitations 
to  take  part  in  a  conference  for  the  prevention  of 
hostilities  on  the  continent  are  forwarded  to 

1338.  Philip  VI.,  de  Valois. 
1350.  John  II.,  the  Good. 
1364.  Charles  V.,  the  Wise. 
1380.  Charles  VI. 
1433.  Charles  VII. 
1461.  Louis  XI. 
1483.  Charles  VIII. 

1498.  Louis  XII. 
1515.   Francis  I. 
1547.  "enry  II. 
1559.  Francis  II. 
1560.  Charles  IX. 
1574.  Henry  III. 

Berlin,  Vienna,  Frankfort,  and  Florence.—  June 

HOUSE   OF  BOURBON. 

5.  The  French  Government  announces  that  in 

A.D. 

A.D. 

the  project  of  the  conference  must  be  abandoned! 
—  June  1  1.  The  emperor,  in  a  letter  to  M.  Drouyn 
de  Lhuys,  the  Foreign  Secretary,  expresses  his 
desire  to  avoid  participation  in  a  continental  war, 

1589.  Henry  IV. 
1610.  Louis  XIII.,  the  Just. 
1643.  Louis  XIV,,  le  Grand. 
1715.  Louis  XV.,  the  Well- 
beloved. 

1774.  Louis  XVI. 
1793.  Louis   XVII.    (merely 
nominally  a  king). 

and  states  his  opinion  that  Austria,  for  an  equi- 

table compensation,  should  cede  Venetia  to  Italy. 

THE  REPUBLIC. 

(See  PKUSSIA.) 

A.D.                                                      I  A.I). 

SOVEREIGNS   OF   FRANCE. 

1793.  Convention. 
1795.  Directory. 

1799.  Consulate. 

MEROVINGIANS. 
A.D. 

THE  EMPIRE. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

428!  Clodion. 
447.  Merovajus. 

1804.  Napoleon  I. 
1814.  Louis  XVIII.  (king). 

1815.  Napoleon  I.  (again). 

458.  Childeric  I. 
481.  Clovis  I. 

/•Thierry  I.  (Austrasia  or  Metz). 
...    I  Clodomir  (OrleanM. 
5"'  "}  Childebert  I.  (Paris). 

(  Clotaire  I.  (Soissons  or  Neustria). 
534-  Theodebcrtl.  (Met/.). 
548.  Theodebald  (Metz). 
558.  Clotaire  I.  (France). 

/•Caribert  (Paris). 

efir  )  Gontran  (Orleans  and  Burgundy). 
*"•  \  Chilperir  I.  (Soissons). 

Uigebert  I.  (Aiistra.-iii). 
575.  Childebert  II.  (Austrasia). 
593.     Ditto        (Burgundy). 
584.  Clotaire  II.  (Soissons). 
613.     Ditto  (France). 

.--    /Thierry  II.  (Burgundy). 
595-   Vfheodebert  II.  (Austrasia). 
638.  Dagobert  I. 
,  „    /Sigebertll.  (Austrasia). 
°3»-  \ciovis  II.  (S,,iss,,ns  and  Burgundy). 
656.  Clovis  II.  (France). 

f-f-       fClotaire  III.  (Soiss.ms  and  Burgundy). 
W)0-    \Childei-ir  II.  (Austrasia). 
670.  Childeric  II.  (France). 
,„     /Uagobert  II.  (Austrasia). 
"'•*•    (Thierry  III.  (Soissons  and  Burgundy). 
691.  Clovis  III.  (\eustria  and  Burgundy). 
695.  Childebert  I II.     „  „ 

711.  Dagobert  III.      „ 
•715.  Chilperic  II. 
717.  Clotaire  IV.          „ 
730.  Thierry  IV.  „  „ 

737.  Interregnum        „ 
743.  Childeric  III.       „  „ 

CAROLINOIANS. 


A.D. 

7S3-  Pepin  the  Short. 

768.  Charles  I.,  Charle- 
magne or  the  Great. 

814.  LouisI.,leDebonnaire. 

840.  Charles  II.,  the  Bald. 

877.  Louis  II.,  the  Stam- 
merer. 

879.  Louis  III.,  and  Carlo- 
man. 

883.  Carloman  (alone). 


884.  Charles  the  Fat  (em- 
peror). 

887.  Eudes. 

898.  Charles  III.,  the 
Simple. 

933.  Robert  I. 

923.  Rodolph,  or  Raoul. 

936.  Louis  IV.,  d'Outremer. 

954.  Lothaire. 

984.  Louis  V.,  le  Faineant, 
or  Indolent. 


CAPETIANS. 


987.  Hugh  Capet. 

996.  Robert  II. 
1031.  Henry  I. 
1060.  Philip  I. 
1108.  Louis  VI.,  the  Fat. 
1137.  LouU  VII.,  the  Young. 
1180.  Philip  II.,  Augustus. 
1333-  Louis  VIII.,  the  Lion. 


A.D. 

1226.  Louis  IX.,  St.  Louis. 
1370.  Philip  III.,  the  Bold. 
1385.  Philip  IV.,  the  Fair. 
1314.  Louis    X.,  the   Head- 
strong (llutin). 
1316.  John  I. 
1316.  Philip  V.,  the  Long. 
1333-  Charles  IV.,  the  Fair. 


HOUSE  OF  BOURBON  RESTORED. 
A.D.  I  A.D. 

1815.  Louis  XVIII.  I  1834.  diaries  X. 

HOUSE  OF  OHLKANS. 
A.D.  I  A. I). 

1830.  Louis  Philippe  I.  |  1848.  Republic. 

THE  EMPIRE  RESTORED. 
A.D. 
1853.  Napoleon  III.  (Charles  Louis). 

FBANCHE-COMTfi  (France).— This  ancient 
province,  conquered  by  the  Franks  in  534, 
formed  part  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  and 
was  bestowed  on  Philip  II.  of  Spain  on  his 
marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  Henry  II. 
of  France,  in  1559.  Louis  XIV.  conquered  it 
in  1668,  and  restored  it  to  Spain  by  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  May  12,  1668.  He  con- 
quered it  again  in  1674,  and  it  was  ceded  to 
France  by  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen, 
Sep.  17,  1678. 

FRANCHISE.— A  royal  privilege,  or  branch 
of  the  king's  prerogative,  subsisting  in  the 
hands  of  a  subject,  was  of  various  kinds,  and 
existed  from  a  very  early  date.  Charlemagne 
made  capitulars  in  779,  securing  the  franchise 
of  churches.  By  8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7  (1429),  the 
franchise  was  conferred  upon  forty-shilling 
freeholders.  (See  REFORM  BILLS.) 

FRANCISCA.—  (See  BATTLE-AXE.) 

FRANCISCANS,  called  also  Grey  Friars, 
Minor  Friars,  Minorites,  and  Lesser  Brethren, 
were  mendicant  friars,  founded  by  Francis 
D'Assisi,  or  St.  Francis,  in  1208.  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  in  1210,  the  Council  of  theLateran  in 
1215,  and  Honorius  III.  in  1223,  approved  the 
order.  The  first  general  chapter  was  held  at 
Assisi  in  1216.  Francis  died  Oct.  4,  1226, 
and  was  canonized  in  1228.  In  1228,  a  dispute, 
which  lasted  till  1259,  arose  between  the  Domi- 
nicans and  the  Franciscans,  concerning  the 
dignity  and  preference  of  their  respective 
orders.  Gregory  X.  made  it  one  of  the  four 
orders  to  which  he  reduced  the  mendicants 
in  1274.  The  Franciscans  came  to  England  in 
1219.  The  Capuchins  (q.  r.),  the  Fraticelli 
(q.  v.},  the  Observants  (q.  v.),  and  the  Clares, 
or  Clarisses  (q.  v. ),  are  branches  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans. 


FRANCIS'S 


FRANKLIN'S 


FRANCIS'S  ATTACK  ON  THE  QUEEN.— 

At  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  May  30,  1842, 
John  Francis,  a  young  man  in  his  twentieth 
year,  son  of  a  machinist  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  discharged  a  pistol  at  the  Queen, 
who,  accompanied  by  Prince  Albert,  was  rid- 
ing in  a  barouche  and  four  down  Constitution 
Hill,  London.  He  received  sentence  of  death 
June  17,  but  was  respited  and  condemned  to 
transportation  for  life,  July  2. 

FRANCONIA  (Germany).— This  name  was 
originally  applied  to  the  country  on  both  sides 
of  the  Maine  which  was  colonized  by  Frankish 
settlers  under  Thierry  I.,  eldest  son  of  Clovis  I., 
who  succeeded  to  his  father's  German  posses- 
sions in  511.  (See  FRANCE.)  Conrad,  Duke  or 
Count  of  Franconia,  was  elected  King  of  Ger- 
many Nov.  8,  911,  and  princes  of  the  same 
house  occupied  the  throne  from  1024  till  1250. 
The  Emperor  Wenceslaus,  in  1387,  divided  the 
empire  into  four  circles,  of  which  Franconia 
and  Thuringia  constituted  one  ;  and  Maximi- 
lian I.,  in  1512,  erected  Franconia  into  a  dis- 
tinct circle.  In  1806  it  was  divided  between 
Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  Hesse-Cassel,  the  Saxon 
duchies,  and  Bavaria,  but  since  1814  the 
greater  part  has  belonged  to  Bavaria,  where 
the  districts  or  circles  of  Upper,  Middle,  and 
Lower  Franconia  were  established  in  1837. 

FRANEKER  (Holland).— The  university, 
founded  in  this  town  in  1585,  was  abolished 
by  Napoleon  I.  in  1811,  and  the  building  was 
converted  into  an  Athenaeum  in  1816. 

FRANKENHAUSEN  (Battle).— Mtinzer  and 
his  followers,  who  raised  an  insurrection  in 
Thuringia,  were  defeated  at  this  town,  in 
Germany,  May  15,  1525.  The  old  town  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1833. 

FRANKENMARKT  (Battle).— The  French, 
under  Gen.  Richepanse,  defeated  theAustrians 
at  this  place  in  Austria,  Dec.  17,  1800. 

FRANKENTHAL  (Germany),  founded  by 
some  Flemish  Protestants  in  1562,  has  been 
frequently  assailed.  The  French  captured  it 
in  1792,  and  the  Austrians  Nov.  12,  1795. 

FRANKFORT  (N.  America),  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Kentucky,  was  founded  in  1786, 
and  made  the  seat  of  government  in  1792. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE  (Germany) 
was  founded  by  the  Franks  in  the  5th  century. 
Charlemagne,  who  had  a  palace  in  this  city, 
summoned  a  council  in  794,  and  it  was  sur- 
rounded with  walls  by  Louis  I.  in  838.  It  was 
the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Franks  from  843  to 
889,  when  Ratisbon  was  selected.  Frederick  I. 
was  elected  at  Frankfort  in  1152.  From  that 
time  it  became  the  place  of  election  for  the 
emperors,  and  the  Golden  Bull  confirmed  it 
in  the  possession  of  the  privilege  in  1536. 
Frankfort  was  made  a  free  city  in  1257.  The 
bridge  over  the  Maine  was  built  in  1342. 
Frederick  of  Prussia  signed  a  treaty,  known 
as  the  Union  of  Frankfort,  with  the  Empire, 
France,  and  Sweden,  at  this  city,  May  13, 1744. 
The  French  captured  it  Jan.  2,  1759,  and  again 
in  1792  ;  but  the  Prussians  wrested  it  from 
them  Dec.  2,  1792.  It  was  bombarded  by  the 
French  July  12,  and  surrendered  July  16,  1796. 
It  formed  part  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  in  1806.  Napoleon  I.  erected  Frankfort 
and  some  of  the  surrounding  territory  into  a 


duchy  in  1810.  The  Declaration  of  the  Allied 
Powers  was  issued  at  Frankfort  Dec.  i,  1813. 
By  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  it  was 
made  one  of  the  four  free  cities  of  Germany, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  diet.  It  was 
made  a  free  port  in  1831.  The  Constituent 
Assembly,  elected  in  1848,  held  its  sittings  at 
Frankfort.  They  were  transferred  to  Stutt- 
gardt,  May  30,  1849.  Francis  Joseph  II.  of 
Austria  summoned  a  congress  of  German 
princes  to  meet  here,  Aug.  17,  1863.  The  con- 
gress separated  Sep.  i.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussians  July  16,  1866.  Councils  were  held 
here  in  794,  853,  1001,  1007  (Feb.  2),  1234,  and 

^RANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER  (Prussia).  — 
Three  periodical  fairs,  instituted  at  this  town 
in  1253,  are  much  frequented.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  Hussites  in  1430,  by  the  Poles  in  1450, 
and  by  the  Duke  of  Sagan  in  1477.  Its  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1506,  was  removed  to  Breslau 
(q.  v.)  in  1811.  The  Russians  and  Austrians 
took  Frankfort  Aug.  3,  1759;  the  Prussians, 
however,  regained  possession  Aug.  12. 

FRANKINCENSE.  —  This  vegetable  resin, 
used  as  a  scent,  and  especially  for  burning  as 
incense,  was  employed  by  Moses  in  preparing 
the  "perfume,  a  confection  after  the  art  of 
the  apothecary,  tempered  together,  pure  and 
holy  "  (Exod.  xxx.  34,  35),  which  was  reserved, 
under  penalty  of  death,  for  the  exclusive 
service  of  the  tabernacle,  B.C.  1491.  It  was 
used  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  temple  through- 
out the  Jewish  history,  and  as  one  of  the  most 
precious  of  known  substances,  was,  with  gold 
and  myrrh,  offered  to  the  infant  Redeemer  by 
the  wise  men  from  the  east  (Matt.  ii.  n)  B.C.  4. 
It  is  still  employed  in  the  services  of  the 
Romish  and  Greek  Churches. 

FRANKING.— The  privilege  of  receiving  and 
sending  letters  free  of  postage  was  claimed 
by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1660.  A  warrant 
was  soon  after  issued  to  the  postmaster- 
general,  granting  the  privilege  to  the  weight 
of  two  ounces.  This  was  confirmed  by  4  Geo. 
III.  c.  24  (1764).  The  privilege  of  franking 
was  regulated  by  acts  passed  in  1764,  1765,  and 
1795,  and  by  i  Viet.  c.  35  (July  12,  1837).  By 
the  third  clause  of  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  52  (Aug.  17, 
1839),  the  Treasury  had  power  to  suspend  the 
privilege  of  franking,  which  ceased  altogether 
on  the  introduction  of  the  penny  postage, 
Jan.  10,  1840. 

FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITIONS.— John 
Franklin  made  three  expeditions  to  the  Arctic 
regions  previous  to  that  in  the  Erebus  and 
Terror.  As  lieutenant  in  command  of  the 
Trent,  he,  in  company  with  Capt.  Buchan  of 
the  Dorothea,  left  England  for  Spitzbergen 
April  25,  1818.  They  arrived  at  their  destina- 
tion May  26,  and  returned  to  England  the 
following  Oct.  Capt.  Franklin  sailed  from 
Gravesehd  for  America  May  23,  1819,  in  order 
to  conduct  a  land  expedition  in  search  of  the 
north-west  passage.  He  set  out  in  sledges 
from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  station  at 
Cumberland  House,  Jan.  19,  1820,  and  arrived 
at  Winter  Lake  Aug.  20,  where  he  remained 
during  the  severe  weather  ten  months.  The 
party  embarked  on  the  Polar  Sea,  July  21, 
1821,  and  commenced  their  return  journey  to 

E  E   2 


FRANKLIN'S 


[    420    ] 


FRANKLIN'S 


England  Aug.   22. Capt.    Franklin   sailed 

from  Liverpool  to  xmdertake  a  second  land 
expedition,  Feb.  16,  1825,  and  arrived  at  Fort 
Chipewyan  in  July.  The  party  separated  into 
two  divisions,  July  3,  1826,  but  reunited 
Sep.  21,  and  the  expedition  returned  to  Eng- 
land Sep.  26,  1827.  He  received  the  honour 

of    knighthood,   April    20,    1829. Sir    John 

Franklin's  last  expedition,  in  the  Erebus  and 
Terror,  sailed  from  Sheerness  May  26,  1845. 
The  last  despatch  home  was  written  July  12, 
and  the  ships  were  seen  for  the  last  time  by 
the  Prince,  of  Wales  whaler,  July  26.  From 
information  afterwards  collected  by  Capt. 
M'Clintock,  of  the  Fox,  an  account  of  whose 
expedition  is  appended,  it  appears  that  the 
two  ships  were  beset  with  ice  Sep.  12,  1846. 
A  party  of  six  men,  under  Lieut.  Gore,  left  the 
ships  May  24,  1847,  at  which  time  all  was 
going  011  well.  Sir  John  Franklin  died  June 
ii,  1847,  and  the  ships  were  abandoned  April 
22,  1848.  The  officers  and  crew,  in  number 
105  men,  landed  April  25,  and  they  intended  to 
start  for  Back's  Fish  River  April  26.  This  is  the 
latest  intelligence  obtained  respecting  this  ill- 
fated  expedition.  No  anxiety  was  felt  re- 
specting the  vessels  until  the  close  of  1847, 
but  numerous  expeditions  were  subsequently 
despatched,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in 
the  following  table.  The  case  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  and  his  officers  and  'crew,  was 
officially  pronounced  hopeless,  and  their  names 
were  removed  from  the  "Navy  List,"  March 
i3>  l854- 
A.D. 

1848 — 55. — 1^48,  Jan.  I.  The  Plover,  Commander  Moore, 
sails  from  Shecniess.  with  order-,  (•>  proceed  to 
Behring'l  Strait,  mid  meet  the  lli-mlrl.  dipt.  Kellett. 
—  Aug.  23.  She  rcai'lii's  tin-  Sandwich  Islands. — 
1849,  .Inly  15.  Is  joined  by  the  Herald  at  Ch.-i- 
miJMO  Island. — 1850,  July  18.  Tin-  two  ships  are 
joined  I iy  the  Nancy  DawtOn  yaeht.--.lnly  3> 
A  boat  expedition  is  sent  under  Lieut,  Pullen. 
— Aujf.  5.  They  see  the  lltve*tffator.—l&$l.  The 
Herald  returned  to  Kn-land.  — 1*54,  Nov.  '9.  The 
never,  after  long  arctic  service,  traa  sold,  at  San 

Franeiseii.    not    being    seaworthy. — 1855,    April  8. 
The  erew  arrive  in  Filmland. 

1848— 52.— 1848,  March  25.  .Sir  John  Uieliardson  and  Dr. 
Kae  lea\  e  Liverpool  to  eouduet  a  land  expedition.  - 
April  to.  They  arrive  in  Xew  York. — Aug.  3. 
Enter  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie  Hiver.  — 1849, 
May  I.  Dr.  Kae  is  despatched,  with  a  party  of 
eight  men,  to  attempt  to  r«.-ach  \Vollaston  Land, 
but  in  consequence  of  excessive  ice,  he  was 
unable  to  accomplish  this  object.— 1849,  Nov.  6. 
Sir  John  Richardson  arrived  at  Liverpool. — 1851, 
May.  l>r.  Kae  succeeded  in  exploring  the  shores 
of  Wollaston. — Aug.  31.  He  discovered  a  fragment 
of  a  flagstaff,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
missing  party.  — 1853.  He  returned  to  E>iL--la.;d. 

1840— 9.— 1848,  June  12-  Sir  James  Ross  (Kiiteiprixe)  and 
Capt.  Bird  (Imxttifator)  leave  England.  They  fail 
in  an  Mttempt  to  fret  to  the  westward  <>!'  Leopold 
Island,  and  return  to  Mi, -land,  Nov.  3,  1849. 

1849— 50.— 1849,  May  1 6.  The  North  Star,  Mr.  Maunders, 
master,  sails  with  provisions  for  Harrow's  .Strait. — 
Sep.  28,  1850.  He  returns  to  England. 

1850 — 55. — 1850,  Jan.  10.  The  Enterprise  and  Investigator, 
under  Capts.  Collins  in  and  M'Clurc,  sail  from  the 
Thames.— Jan.  30.  They  leave  Plymouth.— April 
19.  The  two  vessels  are  parted  by  stress  of 
weather.— July  29.  The  Investigator  • 
Arctic  circle.— Aug.  5.  The  Inrestigatoi  is  seen 
by  the  Plover. — Aug.  29.  The  Enterprise  is  com- 
pelled by  the  ice  to  steer  southward,  and  winter 
at  Hong  Kong. — Sep.  7.  M'Clure  takes  possession 
of  Baring  Island.— Oct.  36.  He  discovers  the 
north-west  passage. — July  lo.  1851.  Thu  Enter- 
prise leaves  I'ort  Clarence  for  the  North. 


I853— SS-— 1852,  Sep.  36.  She  reaches  Cambridge  Bay,  Wol- 
laston Land,  and  winters  there.  — 1.^53,  April  6. 
Lieut.  Pirn,  of  the  Resolute,  brings  assistance  to  the 
Investigator. — June  3.  She  is  abandoned,  the 
crew  being  received  on  board  the  Resolute  and 
Intrepid.— 1854,  April  14.  The  crew  of  the  f;/(v.v- 
tigator  proceed  on  foot  to  Beechy  Island. — Sep.  6. 
They  reach  Disco,  on  the  coast  of  Greenland.— 
Sep.  28.  They  arrive  in  England.— 1855,  May  6. 
The  Kntvr/irise  returns. 

1850— SI.— 1850,  April  13.  Capt.  Penny,  of  the  Lady 
Franklin,  and  Capt.  Stewart,  of  the  Sophia, 
sail  from  Aberdeen.— 1851,  Sep.  They  return. 

1850— 5:.— 1850,  April  30.  Sir  John  Ross,  in  the  Fclir,  and 
Commander  Phillips,  in  the  Mary,  sail  from 
Loch  Regan,  the  expense  of  the  expedition  being 
defrayed  by  public  subscription.  Sep.  25,  1851. 
Thev  return. 

1850—51.— 1850,  .May  4.  Capt.  Austin's  expedition  sails 
from  Greenhithe.  It  consists  of  the  Hex, 
Austin;  the  Assistance,  Capt.  Ommaney;  the 
Intrepid,  Lieut.  <  (shorn;  and  the  Pioneer,  Lieut. 
Cator.— 1851,  Sep.  The  Resolute  and  Assistance  re- 
turn to  England. 

1850— 51.— 1850,   May  23.  The   American   expedition,    the 
Adntnce  and  the  Rescue,  under  Lieut.   DC  Haven 
and  Dr.  Kane,  sails  from  New  Vork. 
of  this  undertaking  was  sustained  by  Mr.   Grin- 
nell,   a    wealthy   American  merchant — A 
They  fell  in  with  some  relics  ol 
Terror. — 1851,  Sep.  30.   Thev  arrive  at  Ilrookivn. 

1850,  June   5.    The   Prince    Albert,   Capt.    Furs- 

from  Aberdeen.  Lady  l-'ranklin  having  equipped 
the  expedition. — Oct.  i.  It  returns. 

1851— S3.— is.;,  i.  May  4»  The  Prince  Albert  is  again  fitted 
up  by  Lady  Franklin,  and  sails  irom  Aberdeen, 
under  the  command  of  Mr.  Kennedy  and  Lieut. 
I'.ellot,  of  the  French  navy. — 1852,  Oct.  9.  They 
return  after  wintering  in  Prince  Regent's  Inlet. 

1851,  Sep.  37.  Lieut.   Pirn  proposed  to  conduct   . 

dition  through  Siberia  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Kolyma,  and  to  explore  the  north  coasts  of  Asia  ; 
but  the  idea  was  abandoned  in  eons'  ipienee  of 
the  representations  of  th  •  Russian  Government, 

1853— 55-— 1852,  April  15.  Sir  Edward  Belcher's  expedition, 

viz.,  the  Assistance,  Sir  F,.  I!e;cher;  the  Hcsnlnle, 
dipt.  Kclk-tt;  the  \orth  Slur,  Capt.  Pnllen;  the 
Intrepid,l'n[)t.  M'Clintock;  and  the  Pioii-er,  dipt. 
Osborn,  sailed  from  Woolwich,  with  the  double 
object  of  searching  for  the  Franklin  expedition, 
and  for  the  Bnterprite  and  Inrestiffatur,  which 
had  been  absent  since  1850. — Aug.  18.  They  arrive 
at  their  winter  quarters,  in  Northumberland 
Sound.— 1854,  May  14.  The  Resolute  and  In- 
trepid are  abandoned. — Aug.  35.  They  abandon 
the  Assistance  and  Pioneer,  the  whole  of  the 
officers  and  crews  being  transferred  to  the  .\orth 
Star.— Sep.  28.  Sir  E.  Belcher  and  Capt.  Kellett 
returned  to  England  in  the  Phoenix.  —  1855, 
Sep.  10.  The  Resolute  was  discovered  drifting 
in  the  ice.  by  Capt.  Buddington,  of  the 
U.S.  whaler  George  Henry.  The  British  Govern- 
ment having  relinquished  all  claim  to  the 
vessel,  it  was  purchased  by  Congress  for  40,000 
dollars,  and  sent  as  a  present  to  the  '  \ 
She  reached  Spithead,  under  the  care  of  Capt. 
Hartstein,  of  the  U.S.  navy,  by  whom  she 
was  formally  presented  to  her  Majesty,  Dec.  16, 
1856. 

1852,  July    4.    The    Isabel,    Capt.    Inglefield,    sails   from 

Woolwich — Nov.  4.  She  returns,  having  explored 
600  miles  of  new  coast  without  success. 

1853,  APril    8-     'Hie    Isabel    again     sails     for     Bchring's 

Strait,    under     Mr.     Kennedy,     of     the     - 
Albert.       She     reaches    Valparaiso,     where     the 
officer  and  crew  disagree,  and  the  expedition  is 
abandoned. 

1853,  May  19.  The  Phoenix,  Capt.  Inglefield,  with  Lieut. 
Bellot  as  a  volunteer,  and  the  lireadalbune  trans- 
port, sail  from  Sheerness. — Aug.  8.  They  reach 
Beechey  Island.— Aug.  ;8.  Lieut.  Be-Hot  meets  his 
death  by  accident.  (See  BELLOT  STRAIT.) — tiet. 
4.  The  expedition  returns  with  news  of  Sir 
Edward  Belcher's  expedition,  and  of  the  missing 
inrcstigator. 

1853 — 55.  18^3,  May  30.  The  American  ship  Advance,  com- 
manded by  Dr.  Kane,  sails  from  Now  York.— 
1855,  Oct.  "i  r.  She  returns. 


FRANK 


[    421     ] 


FREDERICKSHAMM 


A.D. 

1854,  May  6.    The  Phoenix,  Capt.   Inglefield,  again  sails  to 

Beechey  Island.— Sep.  28.  She  arrives  at  Cork 
with  Sir  Edward  Belcher  and  Capt.  Kellett  cm 
board. 

1855,  June  i.  The  United  States  despatch  the  Release  and 

Arctic,  under  Lieut,  Hartstein,  in  aid  of  Dr. 
Kane's  expedition. 

1857,  July  2.  Lady  Franklin  despatches  the  steam  yacht 
Fox,  Capt,  M'Cliutock,  from  Aberdeen.— 1858, 
Aug.  ii.  She  reaches  Beechey  Island. — 1859, 
April  3.  The  crew  divide  into  two  parties,  one  of 
which  is  commanded  by  Capt.  M'Clintock  and 
the  other  by  Lieut.  Hobson.—  May  6.  Mr.  Hobson 
discovered  the  record  of  the  fate  of  the  Frankli: 


expedition  in  a  cairn  at  Point  Victory.— Aug.  9. 
The  Fox  commences  her    homeward  i 
Sep.  21.  She  arrives  at  Portsmouth. 


voyage.— 


1860,  May  29.  Mr.  Hall,  of  Cincinnati,  sails  from  New 
London,  Connecticut,  U.S.,  with  the  intention  of 
searching  to  the  north  of  Fury  and  Heela  Strait 
for  further  traces  of  the  Franklin  expedition. 

1860,  July  7.  Dr.  Hayes  starts  from  America  for  Smith's 

Sound. 

1861,  April.  Dr.  Hayes,  having  wintered  near  Cape  Alex- 

ander, starts  for  the  north. 

1864,  Dec.     Capt.    Hall    receives   information    from    the 

Esquimaux,  which  induces  him  to  hope  that 
Capt.  Crosier  and  other  companions  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  may  still  survive. 

1865,  Sep.    The    Queen   of  the    Isles,    chartered    by    the 

citizens  of  Hamburg  to  explore  the  polar  regions, 
breaks  down  a  few  miles  below  Cuxhaven,  and 
the  expedition  is  abandoned. 

FRANK-PLEDGE.  — On  the  establishment 
of  decennaries  by  Alfred  the  Great,  about  890, 
each  member  was  required  to  pledge  his  word 
for  the  right  conduct  of  all  his  fellow-mem- 
bers. This  pledge  was  called  frank-pledge. 
The  custom  is  by  some  authorities  said  to  have 
existed  at  an  earlier  period.  Courts  for  the 
view  of  frank-pledge  were  held  annually,  and 
were  regulated  by  the  statute  for  view  of 
frank-pledge,  18  Edw.  II.  (1325).  (See  COURT- 
LEET.) 

FRANKS.— This  confederation  was  formed, 
about  240,  by  the  tribes  dwelling  on  the  banks 
of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  who  united 
under  the  title  of  Franks  or  free  men.  They 
invaded  Gaul  in  256,  and  for  12  years  ravaged 
that  country  and  Spain,  extending  their  incur- 
sions as  far  as  the  opposite  continent  of  Africa. 
Probus  drove  them  back  into  their  native 
marshes  in  277  ;  but  their  influence  gradually 
increased,  and  after  the  death  of  Constantino 
I.,  in  337,  they  constituted  a  powerful  faction 
at  the  imperial  court.  In  355  they  again  in- 
vaded Gaul,  and  were  defeated  by  Julian,  who 
permitted  them  to  establish  a  colony  in 
Brabant,  or  Taxandria.  In  418  they  again 
invaded  Gaul,  where,  under  their  leader 
Pharamond,  they  founded  the  modern  king- 
dom of  France  (q.  v.}. 

FRASCATI  (Italy).— This  town  was  founded 
near  the  ancient  Tusculum,  destroyed  in  1191. 
The  church  of  San  Rocco  was  built  in  1309, 
and  the  new  cathedral  in  1700.  The  first 
bishop  of  the  see  was  consecrated  in  269. 

FRASERBURGH  (Scotland).  —  This  town, 
called  Faithly,  was  made  a  burgh  of  barony 
in  1546.  James  VI.  changed  its  name  to 
Fraserburgh  in  1592,  and  made  it  a  free  port 
in  1601.  Sir  A.  Fraser  in  1592  obtained  a 
crown  charter,  ratified  by  Parliament  in  1597, 
and  renewed  by  the  crown  in  1601,  for  a  college 
and  university  ;  but  the  scheme  has  not  been 
carried  out. 


FRASER,  FRAZER,  or  TACOUTCHE- 
TESSE  RIVER  (British  Columbia).  —  Largo 
deposits  of  gold  were  found  on  its  banks  in 

1  FRATICELLI,  FRATICELLI ANS,  or 
LESSER  BRETHREN,  a  branch  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans (q.  v.)  that  arose  in  Italy  towards  the 
end  of  the  i3th  century.  They  were,  accord- 
ing to  Milman,  bound  to  the  Coelestinians  by 
the  closest  ties.  By  some  authors  they  have 
been  confounded  with  the  Beghards,  to  whom 
the  name  Fraticelli,  or  Fratercali,  was  applied 
as  a  term  of  reproach.  They  disappeared 
towards  the  end  of  the  isth  century. 

FRAUDULENT  TRUSTEES  ACT.— By  20 
&  21  Viet.  c.  54  (Aug.  17,  1857),  trustees  or 
bankers  who  fraudulently  dispose  of  property, 
or  keep  false  accounts,  or  wilfully  destroy 
books  or  other  documents,  or  publish  false 
statements,  are  declared  guilty  of  misdemea- 
nour, and  rendered  liable  to  penal  servitude 
for  three  years.  The  provisions  of  the  act 
were  not  extended  to  Scotland. 

FRAUSTADT  (Battle).  —  The  Swedes  de- 
feated an  allied  German  and  Russian  army  at 
Fraustadt  in  Posen,  Feb.  12,  1705. 

FREDERICIA  (Jutland). —  This  town  was 
founded  by  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark  in 
1650.  The  Danes  defeated  the  Sleswig  in- 
surgents near  this  fortress,  May  3,  1849.  It 
was  bombarded  by  the  Prussians  and  Aus- 
trians  March  20,  1864,  and  was  evacuated 
by  the  Danes  April  29.  The  Austrians  com- 
menced the  demolition  of  the  fortifications 

FR3EDERICKSBORG  (Denmark).— This 
palace  was  built  by  Frederick  II.,  about  five 
Danish  miles  from  Copenhagen,  upon  three 
islets,  which  he  acquired  in  1560.  It  was  re- 
built and  enlarged  by  Christian  IV.  between 
1602  and  1608,  and  was  destroyed  by  fire  Dec. 

I7FREDERICKSBORG  (Treaty).— By  a  treaty 
concluded  at  this  place  in  Denmark,  July  14, 
1720,  the  Kings  of  Sweden  and  Denmark 
agreed  not  to  restore  the  fortifications  of 
Wismar,  and  to  facilitate  postal  arrangements 
between  their  own  states. 

FREDERICKSBURG  (Battled— The  Federals 
under  Gen.  Burnside  commenced  four  pontoon 
bridges  over  the  Rappahannock,  Dec.  n,  1862. 
The  main  body  crossed  the  river  to  Fredericks- 
burg,  Virginia,  Dec.  12.  The  attack  upon  the 
Confederate  position  on  the  heights  took  place 
Dec.  13,  and  after  raging  with  desperate 
violence  through  the  day,  terminated  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Federals.  Little  fighting  took 
place  Dec.  14  and  Dec.  15,  and  Burnside  was 
permitted  to  recross  the  river  without  opposi- 
tion Dec.  16.  The  Federals  lost  1,138  men 
killed,  9,105  wounded,  and  2,078  missing, — 
in  all  12.321  men.  (See  CHANCELLORSVILLE, 
Battle.) 

FREDERICKSHALL,  or  FREDERICK- 
SHALD  (Norway).— Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
was  killed  whilst  besieging  the  castle  of 
Frederickstein,  near  this  town,  Dec.  n,  1718. 
The  death  of  the  king  led  to  the  immediate 
raising  of  the  siege.  ATI  obelisk  was  erected 
on  the  spot  in  1814. 

FREDERICKSHAMM  (Finland).— The  Rus- 


FREDERICKTOWN 


[    422     ] 


FREIBERG 


sians  wrested  this  fortress  from  the  Swedes  in 
1742.  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  who  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  capture  it  in  1788,  stormed  its 
defences,  and  destroyed  the  docks,  timber,  and 
stores  in  1790.  A  treaty  of  peace  between 
Russia  and  Sweden  was  concluded  at  this 
town  Sep.  17,  1809. 

FREDERICKTOWN  (Battle).—  The  Con- 
federate garrison  of  this  town  of  Missouri  was 
defeated  by  the  Federals  Oct.  21,  1861. 

FREDERICTON  (New  Brunswick).  —This 
town,  formerly  called  St.  Anne's,  the  capital  of 
the  colony,  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in 


1  F 


REE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.—  In  con- 
sequence of  the  opposition  of  a  large  portion  of 
the  Scotch  presbyterians  to  the  right  of  patrons 
to  nominate  whom  they  pleased  to  vacant 
livings,  a  large  body  seceded  from  the  Kirk, 
May  18,  1843,  and  founded  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  At  first  the  infant  Church  endured 
much  privation,  in  consequence  of  the  general 
opposition  of  the  landed  proprietors  to  the 
movement  ;  but  a  subscription  of  ,£366,719 
14*.  yl.  was  raised,  and  at  the  meeting  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  May,  1844,  the  society 
was  declared  in  a  veiy  prosperous  condition. 
In  1845,  ,£100,000  were  collected  for  the  erec- 
tion of  manses  for  the  seceding  clergy  ;  and  in 
1846  a  college  was  founded  by  Dr.  Chalmers, 
who  died  May  30,  1847.  In  1853  there  were 
about  850  Free  Church  congregations  in 
Scotland. 

FREE  COMPANIES.—  Bands  of  discharged 
soldiers,  who  ravaged  France  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  peace  of  Bretigny,  May  8,  1360. 
BertrandduGuesclin,born  in  Britanny  in  1314, 
put  himself  at  their  head,  andledthem  agamat 
Peter  the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile,  whom  he 
dethroned  in  1365,  placing  Henry,  Count  of 
Trastamara,  on  the  throne.  Edward  the 
Black  Prince  recalled  the  free  companies, 
defeated  Henry  at  Najara,  April  3,  1367,  and 
restored  Peter  the  Cruel,  who  was,  however, 
defeated  March  14,  1369,  and  killed  by  Henry 
of  Trastamara  .March  23. 

FREEHOLDERS  were  exempted  from  dis- 
trainment on  account  of  their  freeholds  by 
52  Hen.  II.  c.  22  (1267)  ;  and  they  were 
protected  from  the  councils  of  the  lords, 
which  had  usurped  the  functions  of  the  law 
of  the  land,  by  15  Rich.  II.  c.  12  (1391).  By 
8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7  (1429),  electors  for  Parliament 
were  compelled  to  possess  land  to  the  amount 
of  40  shillings  per  annum,  and  19  Geo.  II. 
c.  28  (1746),  rendered  a  similar  qualification 
necessary  in  the  case  of  electors  of  boroughs. 
Electors  in  Ireland  are  obliged  to  possess  a 
freehold  estate  of  £10  a  year,  by  10  Geo.  IV. 
c.  8  (April  13,  1879). 

FREE  LANCES.  —  (See  CONDOTTIERI  and 
FREE  COMPANIES.) 

FREEMANTLE  (Australia).—  This  town,  on 
Swan  River,  was  founded  in  1830. 

FREEMASONRY.  —  Members  of  this  order 
claim  for  it  the  highest  antiquity  ;  some 
asserting  that  it  was  introduced  into  Egypt  by 
Mizraim,  grandson  of  Noah;  others  that  it 
originated  at  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple, 
B.C.  ion  ;  and  others  that  it  arose  from  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries  (q.  v.).  The  Rev.  G. 


Oliver,  in  his  "Antiquities  of  Freemasonry," 
styles  St.  John  the  grand  patron  of  the  order. 
England  was  almost  the  first  country  to  en- 
courage modern  Freemasonry,  it  having  been 
introduced  about  676.  The  grand  lodge 
at  York  was  formed  in  926,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  fraternity  are  believed  to  have 
contributed  materially  to  the  erection  of  the 
beautiful  Gothic  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  1140  the  order  appeared  in  Scotland;  and 
in  1424  it  was  prohibited  in  England  by  3  Hen. 
VI.  c.  i.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  France  during  the  i6th  century. 
The  grand  lodge  of  England  was  founded  in 
1717,  and  in  1734  a  misunderstanding  arose 
between  it  and  the  grand  lodge  of  York,  which 
resulted  in  a  division  of  the  order.  The  first 
French  lodge  was  formed  in  1725.  In  1729  the 
order  was  introduced  into  the  East  Indies,  and 
in  1730  into  America.  The  grand  lodge  of 
Ireland  was  also  established  in  1730.  In  1731 
a  lodge  was  erected  at  the  Hague;  in  1735  the 
first  German  lodge  was  instituted ;  in  1736  the 
grand  lodge  of  Scotland  was  established,  and  a 
lodge  founded  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  in 
1738  one  was  planted  at  Brunswick;  and  in 
1749  the  order  appeared  in  Bohemia.  The  Pope 
published  a  bull  of  excommunication  against 
Freemasons  in  1738.  The  meetings  of  the  order 
were  sanctioned  by  39  Geo.  III.  c.  79,  ss.  5 — 7 
(July  12,  1799),  and  by  57  Geo.  III.  c.  19,  s.  26 
(March  31,  1817).  The  tavem  in  London  was 
erected  in  1786,  and  the  charity  for  female 
children  established  in  1788.  The  new  tavern 
was  commenced  in  1865. 

FREEMASONS'  HALL  (London),  founded 
May  i,  1775,  was  opened  May  23,  1776. 

FREE  SPIRIT.— (See  BROTHERS  AND  SISTERS 
OF  THE  FREE  SPIRIT.) 

FREETHINKERS.— This  deistical  sect,  the 
apostles  of  the  so-called  Natural  Religion, 
based  upon  reason  and  free  inquiry,  arose  in 
England  in  the  i7th  century.  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury  (1581 — Aug.  20,  1648) ;  John  Tol.unl 
(1669 — March  n,  1722);  Lord  Shaftesbury 
(1671 — Feb.  15,  1713);  Anthony  Collins  (1676— 


Dec.  13,  1729);  Thomas  Woolston  (1669 — Jan. 
27,  1733);  Matthew  Tindal(  1657 — Aug.  16,  1733); 
and  Viscount  Bolingbroke(i678 — Dec.  15,  1751), 


advocated  these  doctrines.     (See  DEISTS.) 

FREE  TRADE,  advocated  by  Adam  Smith 
in  his  "Wealth  of  Nations,"  published  in  1776, 
and  to  some  extent  adopted  by  the  French 
Economists,  formed  the  basis  of  the  Anti-Corn- 
Law  League  (q.v.).  Richard  Cobden  died  April 

FREE-WILL  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  three  in 
number,  were  discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767. 

FREGOSI.— (See  ADORNO.) 

FREIBERG  (Saxony).  —  The  discovery  of 
silver  mines  in  the  neighbourhood  during 
the  1 2th  century,  raised  this  city  into  im- 
portance. It  was  long  the  residence  of  the 
Saxon  princes.  The  town-house  was  built  in 
1410,  the  cathedral  1484 — 1512,  and  the  mining 
academy  was  opened  in  1767.  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia  defeated  the  Austrian  and  Saxon 
,rmy  near  this  town  in  1745.  (See  HOHEN- 

FREIBERG.) 

FREIBERG,  or  FREYBERG  (Battle).  — 
Prince  Henry  of  Prussia  defeated  the  Austrians 


FEEIBURG 


[    423    1 


FRIENDLY 


under  the  Prince  of  Stolberg,  near  this  place 
in  Saxony,  Oct.  29,  1762. 

FREIBURG  (Baden).— The  cathedral,  com- 
menced in  1 122,  was  not  completed  till  1513. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1456. 

FREIBURG,  FREYBURG,  or  FRIBURG 
(Switzerland),  the  capital  of  a  canton  of  the 
same  name,  was  built  in  1179.  Freiburg 
became  a  sovereign  canton  in  1481.  The  form 
of  government  was  remodelled  in  1830.  The 
canton  joined  the  Sonderbund  in  May,  1846, 
and  the  town  was  taken  by  the  confederate 
troops  Nov.  13,  1847.  The  suspension-bridge 
was  erected  in  1834.  This  town  must  not  be 
confounded  with  a  place  of  the  same  name 
in  Baden. 

FREISING  (Bavaria),  made  a  bishopric  in 
738,  of  which  the  holders  became  princes  in 
1619.  It  was  secularized  in  1802.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  i2th  century. 

FREJUS  (France),  the  ancient  Forum  Julii, 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  Roman  colony  by  Julius 
Csesar.  A  Roman  navy  was,  under  the 
emperors,  stationed  at  this  port.  An  action 
between  a  French  squadron  and  some  English 
ships  took  place  near  Frejus  Bay,  July  13, 1795, 
when  three  English  vessels  suffered  some 
damage,  and  the  French  74,  the  Alcide,  took 
fire.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  disembarked  at 
this  port,  Oct.  9,  1799,  on  his  return  from 
Egypt.  He  arrived  here  April  27,  1814,  and 
embarked  the  following  day  for  Elba. 

FRENCH  AMERICA.— The  French  possess 
a  portion  of  Guiana,  Guadaloupe,  Martinico, 
and  some  smaller  islands  in  America. 

FRENCH  FURY.— (See  ANTWERP.) 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  — The  French  lan- 
guage is,  according  to  Hallam,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  "many  dialects  deviating  from  each 
other  in  the  gradual  corruption  of  the  Latin, 
once  universally  spoken  by  the  subjects  of 
Rome  in  her  western  provinces."  Latin  seems 
to  have  been  the  vulgar  tongue  as  late  as  about 
670 ;  but  by  the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  a 
rustic  dialect  was  established,  which  was 
ordered  to  be  used  in  the  explanation  of 
homilies,  by  the  Council  of  Tours,  in  813.  The 
earliest  written  record  of  this  language  is  the 
oath  of  Louis  of  Germany  and  Charles  II.  (the 
Bald),  in  842.  The  earliest  poem  extant  in  this 
dialect  is  a  fragment  on  Boetius,  supposed  to 
have  been  written  about  1000.  French  became 
the  language  of  the  English  court  after  the 
Conquest,  in  1066,  but  its  use  in  law  pleadings 
was  discontinued  in  1362. 

FRENCHTOWN  (Canada),  having  been 
seized  by  the  Americans,  Jan.  22,  1813,  was 
recaptured  by  Gen.  Proctor  Jan.  24.  The 
Americans,  who  had  lost  300  men,  surrendered 
prisoners  of  war. 

FRESCO,  or  FRESCO-PAINTING,  was  prac- 
tised by  the  Egyptians  and  the  Greeks  at  a 
very  early  period.  The  art  was  revived  in 
Italy  during  the  i4th  century,  and  carried  to 
great  perfection.  Having  fallen  into  disuse,  it 
was  restored  by  some  Germans  in  1816. 

FRETEVAL  or  FRETTEVAL  (Battle).  — 
Richard  I.  defeated  Philip  II.  of  France  at 
this  place  in  France,  July  15,  1194.  Richard  I. 
captured  the  records  of  the  kingdom. 

FRETHERN  (Battle).  —  Ceawlin's   brother 


Cutha  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Britons 
at  this  place,  near  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire, 
in  584.  Ceawlin  gained  the  victory,  and  com- 
mitted great  ravages. 

FRETVILLE.— A  treaty  was  concluded  be- 
tween Henry  II.  of  England  and  Louis  VII. 
of  France  at  this  town,  between  Chartres  and 
Tours,  July  21,  1170.  Becket,  who  was  in  the 
neighbourhood,  held  a  conference  with  Henry 
II.,  with  whom  he  was  reconciled  July  22, 1170. 
(See  CLARENDON  CONSTITUTIONS.) 

FREUDENSTADT  (Wurtemberg).— This 
town  was  founded  in  1599  by  Protestant  re- 
fugees from  Austria,  under  Duke  Frederick, 
by  whom  it  was  called  Friedrichstadt,  which 
was  changed  for  its  present  title  in  1609.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1799. 

FREYR  (Treaty).— The  earliest  commercial 
treaty  between  France  and  Spain  was  signed 
at  this  castle  in  Belgium,  Oct.  25,  1675. 

FREYSINGEN  (Bavaria).— The  cathedral  of 
this  city  was  erected  in  718  by  St.  Corbinian. 
It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  sovereign 
bishopric,  which  was  annexed  to  Bavaria  in 
1803.  The  timber  bridge  over  the  Isar  was 
erected  in  1808,  and  the  bishopric  was  trans- 
ferred to  Munich  and  made  archiepiscopal  in 

1  FRIARS  HERMITS  MINOR.  —  (See  CAPU- 
CHINS.) 

FRIARS  OBSERVANT.— (See  OBSERVANTS.) 

FRICKTHAL  (Switzerland).— This  district, 
invaded  by  the  Hungarians  in  900,  was  ceded 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  Feb.  9, 
1801.  In  1802  it  was  restored  to  Switzerland, 
and  by  the  Act  of  Mediation,  Feb.  20,  1803,  it 
was  incorporated  with  the  canton  of  Aargau. 

FRIDAY,  the  sixth  day  of  the  week,  is  said 
to  be  named  after  Frea,  or  Friga,  the  wife  of 
Odin,  in  Scandinavian  mythology. 

FRIDAY-STREET  CLUB  (London).  —  (See 
MERMAID  CLUB.) 

FRIEDBERG  (Battle).— Gen.  Moreau,  having 
crossed  the  Danube  Aug.  19,  forced  the  passage 
of  the  Lech  at  Augsburg  Aug.  24,  and  defeated 
Gen.  Latour  at  Friedberg  in  Bavaria  the  same 
day.  (See  JOHANNISBERG.) 

FRIEDLAND  (Battle).— The  French,  com- 
manded by  Napoleon  I.,  defeated  the  Russian 
and  Prussian  army  in  a  great  battle  at  this 
town,  on  the  Alle,  in  Prussia,  June  14,  1807. 

FRIEDLINGEN  (Battle).  —  Marshal  Villars 
defeated  the  cavalry  of  Prince  Louis  of  Baden 
at  this  place  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  Oct.  12, 

I7FRIEDRICHSHAFEN  (Wurtemberg).—  This 
town  was  formed  by  King  Frederick  I.  of 
Wurtemberg  in  1811  and  1812. 

FRIEDWALD  (Treaty)  was  concluded  be- 
tween France  and  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Germany,  Oct.  5,  1551. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  also  called 
Tongaii  Islands,  consisting  of  three  groups, 
containing  nearly  200  islands,  were  discovered 
by  Tasman,  in  Jan.,  1643.  Capt.  Cook  gave 
them  the  name  of  the  Friendly  Islands  in  1773, 
on  account  of  the  kind  reception  which  he  ex- 
perienced from  the  inhabitants.  Missionaries 
were  first  sent  to  these  islands  in  1797.  (See 
AMSTERDAM  ISLAND  and  TONGA.) 

FRIENDLY   SOCIETIES.  —  These  institu- 


FRIENDS 


[    424 


FRUIT 


tions  are  of  very  early  origin,  and  were  general 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  though  the  date  at 
which  they  originated  is  not  known.  One 
was  founded  in  London  in  1715,  which  was, 
perhaps,  the  earliest  modern  friendly  society, 
and  they  made  such  progress  that  16,000 
societies  are  said  to  have  existed  between  June 
19,  1829,  and  Sep.  30,  1852.  They  were  first 
brought  under  legislative  control  by  33  Geo. 
III.  c.  54  (June  21,  1793),  which  is  known  as 
Mr.  Rose's  Act.  Many  statutes  were  subse- 
quently enacted.  They  were  repealed  by 
18  &  19  Viet.  c.  63  (July  23,  1855),  which 
consolidated  all  previous  statutes,  and  was 
amended  by  21  <fc  22  Viet.  c.  101  (Aug.  2,  1858), 
and  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  58  (Aug.  6,  1860),  which 
are  the  laws  now  in  force  respecting  friendly 
societies. 

FRIENDS  (Society  of).— (See  QUAKERS.) 

FRIENDS  OF  GOD  arose  in  the  i4th  cen- 
tury in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Milman 
(Lat.  Christ,  b.  xiv.  ch.  7)  describes  them 
thus : — "  In  all  the  great  cities  rose  a  secret 
unorganized  brotherhood,  bound  together  only 
by  silent  unfelt  sympathies,  the  Friends  of 
God.  This  appellation  was  a  secession,  a  tacit 
revolt,  an  assumption  of  superiority.  God 
was  not  to  be  worshipped  in  the  church  alone, 
with  the  Clergy  alone,  with  the  Monks  alone, 
in  the  Ritual,  even  in  the  Sacraments  ;  he  was 
within,  in  the  heart,  in  the  life.  This  and 
kindred  brotherhoods  embraced  all  orders, — 
Priests,  Monks,  Friars,  Nobles,  Burghers, 
Peasants  ;  they  had  their  Prophets  and 
Prophetesses  ;  above  all,  their  Preachers." 

FRIENDS  OF  THE  PEOPLE.— An  associa- 
tion under  this  name  was  formed  in  London 
in  the  spring  of  1792.  Its  object  was  to  obtain 
a  reform  in  the  representation  of  the  people, 
and  it  included  amongst  its  members,  ac- 
cording to  a  contemporary  authority,  some  of 
"  the  most  conspicuous  characters,  among 
the  merchants  and  literary  men,  throughout 
the  kingdom."  A  debate  on  the  subject 
followed  in  the  House  of  Commons,  April 
30,  1792.  A  similar  society  was  formed  in 
Edinburgh. 

Fill  ESI, AND,  or  EAST  FRIESLAND  (Han- 
over).— This  territory,  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Frisians,  was  divided  into  East  and  West 
Friesland  in  the  i3th  century.  It  became  a 
fief  of  the  empire  in  1657.  Prussia  obtained 
possession  in  1744.  It  was  wrested  from  her 
by  France,  and  transferred  to  Holland  in  1807. 
In  1810  it  was  made  a  province  of  France. 
The  French  were  expelled  by  the  allied  armies 
in  1813,  and  East  Friesland  was  restored  to 
Prussia  in  1814,  and  allotted  to  Hanover  in 

1  F5RIESLAND,  or  VRIESLAND  (Holland), 
called  West  Friesland,  to  distinguish  it  from  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Germany,  forms 
part  of  the  country  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Frisians.  It  was  made  one  of  the  United 
Provinces  in  1581,  and  became  a  province  of 
Holland  in  1609. 

FRISIANS,  or  FRISIL— This  ancient  Teu- 
tonic race,  inhabiting  the  north-west  of  Ger- 
many, were  made  tributary  to  Rome  by  Drusus, 
but  revolted  in  28.  Corbulo,  the  general  of 
Claudius,  reduced  them  to  subjection  in  47, 


and  Nero  (54 — 68)  expelled  them  from  some 
lands  they  had  seized  on  the  south  shoves  of 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  A  band  of  Frisii  accompanied 
the  Saxons  on  their  invasion  of  Britain  in  the 
5th  century,  and  in  689  part  of  the  nation  was 
subdued  and  compelled  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity by  Pepin  d'Heristal.  Charlemagne 
conquered  the  eastern  Frisians  in  785,  and 
•despatched  Christian  missionaries,  who  pre- 
pared the  Lex  Frisionum  for  their  defence  and 
government  in  802.  (See  FRIESLAND.) 

FRITZLAR,  or  FRIZLAR  (Hesse-Cassel).— 
This  town,  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of  Bur- 
berg,  erected  by  St.  Boniface  in  741,  was  taken 
by  Conrad,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  in  1232  ; 
and  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  1761.  In 
1802  it  was  annexed  to  Hesse-Cassel. 

FRIULI  (Austria).— This  province  of  Venetia, 
erected  by  the  Lombards  into  a  duchy,  which 
comprised  part  of  Carniola  (q.  v.),  was  after- 
wards conquered  by  Charlemagne,  and  given 
in  the  gth  century  to  Eberhard.  In  the  ioth 
century  it  belonged  to  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
from  whom  it  was  wrested  in  1420  by  the 
Venetians,  who  abandoned  part  of  it  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.  in  1509.  In  1797  the 
remainder  was  ceded  to  Austria,  who  sur- 
rendered it  to  Napoleon  I.  by  the  treaty  of 
Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805.  It  was  restored  to 
Austria  in  1814.  In  consequence  of  revolu- 
tionary movements,  a  state  of  siege  was  pro- 
claimed here  Nov.  ii,  1864. 

FR<  >BIS  HER  STRAIT  was  discovered  by 
Sir  Martin  Frobisher,  Aug.  n,  1576. 

FRONDEUIiSand  M  A/ A  KINS.—  The  arbi- 
trary acts  of  Mazarin  provoked  opposition  in 
France,  and  those  who  supported  the  minister 
were  called  Mazarins,  and  those  who  supported 
the  Parliaments  who  opposed  him  were  called 
Frondeurs,  or  Slingers.  The  name  by  which 
they  were  compared  to  the  scholars,  who 
fought  with  slings  in  the  ditches  of  Paris,  and 
took  to  flight  on  the  approach  of  the  watch, 
was  given  to  them  in  derision.  The  struggle 
between  these  parties  led  to  civil  strife,  called 
the  war  of  the  Fronde,  which  lasted  from  1648 
to  16=52. 

FRON8A.C  (France).  —  The  castle  of  this 
town,  erected  by  Charlemagne  in  768,  and  re- 
stored in  the  isth  century,  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  Louis  XIII.  in  1623,  The  town,  which 
gave  title  to  a  count  in  1551,  became  a  marqui- 
sate  in  1555,  and  a  dukedom  in  1608. 

FRONTIGNAN  (Sea-fight). —Admiral  Col- 
lingwood  compelled  the  French  Admiral, 
Baiidin,  to  run  his  fleet  aground  and  burn  his 
vessels  at  this  place  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone, 
Oct.  24,  1809. 

FRONT  ROYAL  (Battle).  — The  Federals, 
under  Col.  Kenley,  were  defeated  and  driven 
from  their  position  at  this  place  in  Virginia, 
by  the  Confederates  under  Col.  Ashby,  May  23, 
1862. 

FROZEN  OCEAN.— This  term  is  applied  to 
the  Polar  Seas.  In  1636  the  Russians  ascer- 
tained that  they  washed  the  northern  shores 
of  Asia.  Wrangel  explored  the  limits  of  the 
Frozen  Ocean  in  1821. 

FRUIT. — The  following  table  contains  a  list 
of  the  principal  fruits,  and  the  date  of  their 
introduction  into  this  country  : — 


FRUITERERS 


[    425    1 


FUNDS 


Date. 

Fruits. 

Introduced  into 
England  from 

In      1548 
„      1780 
»      1736 

„       1818 

Almond-tree   
Apple  (Chinese)  
Ditto  (custard)  
Ditto  (osage)  

Barbary. 
China. 
N.  America, 
Ditto. 

Cherry                  

1810 

China. 

Temp. 
Hen.  VIII. 

In      1596 

„      J794 
„      !7°5 

Ditto      (Flemish,     or"! 
Kentish)    j 
Ditto  (Cornelian)  
Ditto  (Tartarian)  
Currant  (hawthorn)  

Flanders. 
Austria. 
Russia. 
Canada. 
Africa. 

Italy. 

In     1789 

Ditto  (15otany  Bay)  

N.  S.  Wales. 

„    1752 

In      1570 
„      1597 
Before  1548 
„      J75' 
1029 

Lime  (American)  
Melon  (Musk)  
Ditto  (water)  
Mulberry  (common)  
Ditto  (paper)  
Ditto  (reJ)  

N.  America, 
Jamaica. 
Italy. 
Ditto. 
Japan. 

Ditto  (white)  

China. 
Persia 

Olive  

Ditto  (Cape) 

,,      1784 

„      177' 
„      i73o 

Ditto  (laurel-leaved)  ... 
Ditto  (sweet-scented)  ... 
Ditto  (wave-leaved)   ... 

Hope. 
Madeira. 
China. 
Cape. 
S.  Europe. 

In      lift 

Peach  

Before  1746 
In      1057 

Pear  (snowy)  

Romans. 
N.  America, 
W  Indies. 

,,       1596 
„       1639 
»       IS4« 

;;  JS 
;;  '8 

In      1737 

:  1$ 

Plum  (date)  
Ditto  (Pishamin)  
Pomegranate  
Quince  (common)  
Ditto  (Japan)  
Kaspberrv  (flowering)  ... 
Ditto  (Virginian)  
Strawberry  (Chili)  
Ditto  (Oriental)  

Barbary. 
N.  America. 
Spain. 
Austria. 
Japan. 
N.  America. 
Ditto. 
France. 
Levant. 

,    ^Ho 

Vine 

Before  1639 
In    1563 

Walnut  (black)  
Ditto  (common)    

N.  America. 
France. 

FRUITERERS.— This  Company  was  incor- 
porated in  1605. 

FU-CHOW.— (See  FOO-CHOW-FOO.) 

FUCHSIA.— The  fuchsia  was  first  noticed 
by  Fuchs  in  1501.  The  scarlet  fuchsia  was 
introduced  from  Chili  in  1788,  the  slender 
fuchsia  from  the  same  place  in  1822,  and  the 
tree  fuchsia  from  Mexico  in  1823.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  this  American  plant. 

FUCINUS.— (See  LAKE  FUCINUS.) 

FUENTE  CANTOS  (Battle).— The  French, 
under  Marshal  Mortier,  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  this  town  in  Spain,  Sep.  15,  1810. 

FUENTES  DE  ONORO  (Battle).— Several 
actions  took  place  between  the  French  and 
English  near  this  town,  in  Spain,  in  1811. 
Here  Wellington,  with  32,000  foot  and  1,200 
horse,  defeated  Massena  at  the  head  of 
40,000  foot  and  5,000  horse,  May  3,  1811. 
Massena  renewed  the  attack  May  5,  and 
after  a  gallant  struggle  was  compelled  to 
retire. 

FUESSEN  (Peace),  between  Maria  Theresa, 
Queen  of  Hungary,  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 


was  concluded  at  the  instigation  of  the  English 
Government,  April  22,  1745.  The  Elector  re- 
nounced his  pretensions  to  the  Austrian  suc- 
cession, and  Maria  Theresa  relinquished  her 
claims  to  Bavaria. 

FUGALIA.— (See  REGIFUGIUM.) 

FUGGERS.— This  family  of  merchants,  re- 
siding at  Augsburg,  amassed  great  wealth  in 
their  trade  with  India  and  many  parts  of 
Europe,  in  the  isthand  1 6th  centuries.  Charles 
V.  made  them  counts  of  the  empire  in  1530. 
Some  members  of  the  family  were  distin- 
guished for  their  encouragement  of  literature. 
They  established  libraries  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  BILL.— By  this  act, 
which  passed  the  American  Congress  Sep.  18, 
1850,  fugitive  slaves  who  had  escaped  into 
another  state  were  to  be  restored  to  their 
owners,  their  testimony  was  not  to  be  admis- 
sible, and  any  assistance  shown  them  in  their 
flight,  or  opposition  offered  to  their  arrest,  was 
declared  penal. 

FUHNEN,  FUNEN,  FIONIE,  or  FYEN 
(Denmark). — This  island,  forming  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  was  occupied  by  the 
Danish  army  which  left  the  whole  of  Jutland 
in  the  occupation  of  the  Prussians  and  Aus- 
trians,  April  29,  1864. 

FULDA  (Hesse-Cassel).— An  abbey  founded 
here  in  744,  by  St.  Boniface,  obtained  great 
privileges,  and  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1752. 
The  church  of  St.  Michael  was  built  in  822. 
Fulda,  with  its  territory,  was  erected  into  a 
principality  by  the  Prince  of  Nassau-Orange 
in  1803.  Napoleon  I.  annexed  it  to  the 
grand-duchy  of  Frankfort  in  1810.  It  was 
divided  in  1814,  and  ceded  to  Hesse-Cassel  in 
1815. 

FULFORD  (Battle).  — Edwin  and  Morcar 
were  defeated  at  this  place,  near  York,  by  the 
Norwegians,  under  Harold  Hardrada,  King  of 
Norway,  and  Tostig,  Sep.  20,  1066. 

FULGURITES  were  first  discovered  in  1711 
at  Massel,  in  Silesia. 

FULHAM  (Middlesex)  belonged  to  the 
bishopric  of  London  as  early  as  691.  The 
bishop's  palace  was  erected  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.,  and  the  gardens  began  to 
acquire  celebrity  in  1 650.  Sir  William  Powell's 
almshouses  were  founded  in  1680,  the  bridge 
to  Putney  was  built  in  1729,  the  Starch -green 
almshouses  were  erected  in  1812,  and  the  new 
almshouses  in  1834. 

FULTON  (Battle).— Col.,  afterwards  Gen. 
McNeil,  defeated  the  Confederate,  Gen.  Harris, 
at  this  place  in  Missouri,  July  17,  1861. 

FUMAGE.— (See  HEARTH  MONEY.) 

FUNCHA,  or  FUNCHAL  (Madeira).— This 
town,  the  capital  of  the  island,  was  erected 
into  a  bishopric,  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Lisbon,  in  1422.  It  was  much  injured  by 
inundations  in  Oct.,  1803  ;  in  Oct.,  1842  ;  and 
in  Dec.,  1855. 

FUNDS.— The  funding  system  appears  to 
have  originated  at  Venice,  where  it  was  estab- 
lished as  early  as  1172.  In  1600  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Holland,  in  1672  into  France  by 
Louvois,  and  in  1689  into  England.  In  this 
country  the  legal  per-centage  was  at  first  six 
per  cent ;  but  by  12  Anne,  st.  2,  c.  16  (1713),  it 


FUNERAL 


[    426 


FURTH 


was  reduced  to  five  per  cent.  The  legal  re- 
striction to  five  per  cent,  for  interest  was 
abolished  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  90  (1854). 

A.TX 

1716.  The  sinking-fund  is  established. 

1726.  Bunk  annuities  are  created. 

1747.  Three  per  cent,  reduced  annuities  are  established. 

1751.  Three  per  cent,  consols  are  created. 

1758.  Three-and-a-half  per  cent,  annuities  are  created.  * 

1761.  Long  annuities  are  created. 

1763.  Four  per  cent,  consols  are  introduced. 

1771.  New    three-and-a-half    per    cent,     annuities     are 

created. 

1796.  Five  per  cent,  annuities  are  created. 
1818.  Three-and-a-half  per  cents,  are  introduced. 
1823.  The  five  per  cents,  are  reduced  to  four  per  cents. 

1823.  The  "  dead  weight "  annuity,  to  expire  in  1867,  is 

created. 

1824.  Reduced  three-and-a-half  per  cents,  are  created. 
1830.  New  five  per  cent,  annuities  are  civatcd. 

1844.  New  annuities  are  formed.    The  three  per  cents,  at 
par  the  first  time  in  the  century. 

1852.  The  three  per  cents,  above  par. 

1853.  New  annuities   at  two-and-a-half   per  cent.,    and 

new  three-and-a-half  per  cent,  annuities. 
1860.  The  long  annuities  expire. 

FUNERAL  GAMES.  —  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  frequently  celebrated  the  funeral 
obsequies  of  persons  of  distinction  by  races, 
processions,  dramatic  representations,  and 
gladiatorial  combats.  The  practice  was  of 
ancient  origin,  as  Homer  commemorates  the 
games  celebrated  by  Achilles  in  honour  of 
Patroclus.  The  "Adelphi"  of  Terence  was 
first  performed  at  the  funeral  of  Lucius 
jEmilius  Paulus,  B.C.  160. 

FUNERALS  and  FUNERAL  RITES.— The 
first  people  who  celebrated  funerals  with 
special  ceremonies  are  supposed  to  have  been 
the  Egyptians,  from  whom  the  custom  was 
imported  into  Greece  by  Cecrops,  about  B.C. 
1556.  The  practice  of  delivering  orations  over 
the  bodies  of  eminent  persons  is  one  of  great 
antiquity,  and  is  probably  alluded  to  in  the 
lamentation  of  David  over  Saul  and  Jonathan, 
(2  Sam.  i.  17 — 27),  B.C.  1055.  The  custom  was 
introduced  into  Greece  by  Solon,  and  Pericles 
delivered  a  famous  harangue  in  honour  of  the 
Athenian  victims  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
B.C.  431.  The  first  Roman  lady  honoured  with 
an  oration  was  Popilia.  Nero  pronounced  one 
over  his  wife,  Popprea,  in  65.  The  ancient 
Christians  always  interred  their  dead,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  heathen,  who  practised  incre- 
mation, though  they  also  adopted  the  custom 
of  sepulture  before  420.  Speaking  of  funerals 
among  the  primitive  Christians,  Bingham  says 
(xxiii.  ii.  s.  6,  c.  3,  i),  "No  act  of  charity 
was  more  magnified  by  the  ancients  than 
this  of  burying  the  dead ;  and  therefore  they 
many  times  ventured  upon  it  even  with  the 
hazard  of  their  lives."  The  Romish  custom 
of  burying  the  Eucharist  with  the  dead  origi- 
nated about  814.  The  custom  of  burying  the 
dead  with  a  monk's  cowl  over  the  head  was 
discontinued  in  1530.  Funeral  feasts  were  so 
common,  that  they  were  forbidden  in  1569, 
to  prevent  the  increase  of  plague.  The  fol- 
lowing eminent  persons  have  been  honoured 
with  public  funerals  : — George  Monk,  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  April  30,  1670  ;  the  Duke  of  Rut- 
land, Nov.  17,  1787  ;  Lord  Nelson,  Jan.  9,  1806; 
Mr.  Pitt,  Feb.  22,  1806  ;  Mr.  Fox,  Oct.  10,  1806  ; 
Mr.  Sheridan,  July  13,  1816;  Mr.  Canning, 


Aug.  1 6,  1827  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
Nov.  18,  1852. 

FUNF-KIRCHEN,  or  FIVE -CHURCHES 
(Hungary).— This  town  existed,  according  to 
tradition,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Its 
university  was  established  in  1364.  It  was 
seized  in  1543  by  the  Turks.  In  1664  it  was 
taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Austrians,  and  in 
1686  was  finally  surrendered  by  the  Ottomans. 

FURNEAUX  ISLANDS  (Bass's  Strait)  were 
discovered  by  Capt.  Furneaux,  Friday,  March 

I9FUR3NES,  or  VEURNE  (Belgium).  —  This 
town,  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Vandals 
and  Northmen,  was  rebuilt  about  870,  by 
Baldwin  I.  (Bras-de-Fer),  Count  of  Flanders. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1297  and  1488  ; 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1583 ;  by  the  French  in 
1646;  by  the  Austrians  in  1648;  and  by  the 
French  in  1658,  1667,  1675,  1693,  1744,  1792, 
1793,  and  1794,  and  formed,  till  1814,  part  of 
the  department  of  the  Lys. 

FURNIVAL'S  INN  (London).— (See  LIN- 
COLN'S INN.) 

FURRUCKABAD  (Hindostan).— This  terri- 
tory was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company 
June  4,  1802.  Holkar's  army  was  defeated 
by  Lord  Lake,  at  the  fortified  town  of  Fur- 
ruckabad,  at  one  time  called  Nellaru,  Nov.  17, 
1804. 

FURS. — Beckmann  says  that  furs  are  not 
often  mentioned  as  articles  of  clothing  in  the 
Scriptures.  They  were  known  to  the  Romans 
in  the  2nd  century.  Honorius  forbade  the  use 
of  furs  in  Rome  in  397.  This  order  was  re- 
newed in  399  and  416.  A  Norwegian  ship 
brought  furs  to  England,  as  merchandise,  in 
878.  Furs  were  dyed  as  early  as  the  i2th 
century  ;  and  about  this  time  the  clergy  were 
forbidden  to  use  them  by  decree  of  a  council. 
In  1336,  Edward  III.  enacted  that  no  person 
who  did  not  possess  a  yearly  income  of  one 
hundred  pounds  should  be  permitted  to  wear 
them.  The  fur  trade  grew  into  importance 
in  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century.  (See 
HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY.) 

FURSTEN  BUND,  or  LEAGUE  OF  THE 
GERMAN  PRINCES. —  This  league  of  the 
princes  of  Germany,  f  ormed  at  the  instigation  of 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Emperor  Joseph,  was  signed  at 
Berlin  July  23,  1785,  by  Prussia,  Saxony,  and 
Hanover ;  and  was  joined  by  the  Electors  of 
Mayence  and  Treves,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick,  Mecklenburg, 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  Saxe-Gotha  ;  and  other 
minor  German  princes.  It  formed  the  basis  of 
the  Germanic  Confederation  (q.  r.). 

FURTH  (Battle).— Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus) 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  storm  Wallenstein's 
camp,  near  this  town  of  Bavaria,  in  1632. 

FURTH  (Bavaria).  —  This  town,  founded 
about  the  ioth  century,  and  the  scene  in  947 
of  a  council  of  the  German  nobles  and  the 
Emperor  Louis  IV.,  was  burned  in  1634  by 
the  Austrian  Croats,  and  was  again  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1680.  It  was  annexed  to  Bavaria  by 
the  treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805,  and  ob- 
tained municipal  rights  in  1818.  The  railway 
to  Nuremberg,  the  first  established  in  Ger- 
many, was  completed  in  1836. 


FURY 


[    427 


GAITO 


FURY  and  HECLA  STRAIT  (N.  America).— 
This  channel,  dividing  Cockburn  Island  from 
the  peninsula  of  Melville,  was  discovered  in 
1821  by  Parry. 

FUSILIERS.  —  These  soldiers  were  origi- 
nally armed  with  fusees,  which  they  threw 
with  slings.  The  2ist  regiment,  or  Royal 
North  British  Fusiliers,  were  raised  Sep.  23, 
1679  >  the  7th  regiment,  or  Royal  English  Fusi- 
liers, June  ii,  1685  ;  and  the  23rd  regiment, 
or  Royal  Welsh  Fusiliers,  March  17,  1688. 

FUSSEN  (Treaty).  —  By  this  treaty,  con- 
cluded at  Fiissen,  in  Bavaria,  April  22,  1745, 
Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  Hungary,  recognized 
Charles  Albert,  the  deceased  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
as  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  his  widow  as 
Empress,  and  restored  to  his  son,  the  Elector 
Maximilian  Joseph  I.,  all  his  Bavarian  posses- 
sions. The  Elector,  on  his  part,  renounced 
his  claim  to  the  Austrian  succession,  and 
guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (q.  v.). 

FUTEHGUNGE  (Battles).— The  Nabob  of 
Oude  having  in  1774  gained  a  victory  in  the 
district  of  Bareilly,  by  which  he  acquired  a 
large  part  of  Rohilcund,  erected  the  town  of 
Futehgunge,  or  Victory  Market,  to  commemo- 
rate the  success.  A  second  battle,  fought  in  1796 
near  the  scene  of  the  first,  is  also  distinguished 
by  the  erection  of  a  town  bearing  the  same 
name. 

FUTTEGHUR,  or  FUTTY-GUHR  (Hindos- 
tan). — The  native  troops  stationed  here  dis- 
played much  insubordination  June  3  and  10, 
1857.  Some  of  the  English  took  to  their  boats, 
and  proceeded  down  the  Ganges,  June  10. 
Those  that  remained  defended  the  fort  with 
great  gallantry  until  July  4,  when  they  also 
sought  refuge  in  their  boats.  Both  parties 
were  inhumanly  massacred  by  Nana  Sahib. 
Sir  Colin  Campbell,  afterwards  Lord  Clyde, 
defeated  the  mutineers  at  this  place,  Jan.  2, 
1858. 

FYZABAD  (Hindostan).—  This  city  became 
the  capital  of  Oude  about  1730.  Luckriow  ob- 
tained this  distinction  in  1775,  and  Fyzabad 
has  declined  in  importance.  The  native  troops 
stationed  at  Fyzabad  rebelled  June  8,  1857. 


o. 

GABALA  (Galilee).— Herod  the  Great  (B.C. 
47—4)  fortified  this  city,  supposed  to  be  the 
same  as  Gamala. 

GABELLE.  —  Though  introduced  in  1286, 
Philip  VI.  is  generally  supposed  to  have  estab- 
lished this  tax,  which  secured  the  monopoly 
in  salt  throughout  France,  by  an  ordinance 
dated  March  20,  1340.  The  people,  both  in 
town  and  country,  opposed  the  gabelle,  and  it 
was  repealed  by  the  states-general  in  1356.  It 
was  restored  by  Charles  V.  (1364 — 1380),  and 
ultimately  abolished  by  the  National  Assembly, 
May  10,  1790. 

GAB  INI  AN  LAW,  introducing  the  ballot  in 
the  election  of  magistrates  at  Rome,  was  pro- 
posed by  Gabinius,  B.C.  139. 


GADARA  (Palestine).  —  This  strong  city, 
captured  by  Antiochus,  was  restored  by 
Pompey.  Vespasian  took  it,  slaughtered  all 
the  adult  population,  and  committed  it  to  the 
flames  in  68. 

GADEBUSCH  (Battle).  —  The  Swedes  de- 
feated a  Danish  and  Saxon  army  near  this 
town,  in  Mecklenburg,  Nov.  20,  1712. 

GADES,  or  GADIR.— (See  CADIZ.) 

GAETA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Caieta  (q.  v.},  was 
a  port  of  some  importance  in  early  times, 
and  after  the  destruction  of  Formise  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  gth  century,  attained  great 
prosperity.  For  a  long  period  its  form  of 
government  was  republican.  It  was  made  a 
duchy  in  572.  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  captured 
it  in  1435,  and  annexed  it  to  the  crown  of 
Naples.  It  has  sustained  many  sieges.  The 
Spaniards  took  it  Jan.  i,  1504  ;  the  Austrians 
in  Sep.,  1707 ;  and  the  Spaniards  Aug.  7,  1734. 
The  French  seized  it  Jan.  4,  1799.  It  was 
wrested  from  them  by  the  English,  Oct.  31  in 
the  same  year.  The  French  recovered  posses- 
sion, after  a  desperate  struggle,  July  18,  1806. 
Pope  Pius  IX.  took  refuge  here  Nov.  24,  1848. 
A  revolution  having  broken  out  at  Naples,  the 
king,  Francis  II.,  tied  to  Gaeta,  Sep.  7,  1860. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  Sardinian  army  Nov.  3, 
and  surrendered  to  Gen.  Cialdini.  Feb.  14 
1861. 

GAGGING  BILL.— This  term  was  applied 
to  the  bills  for  preserving  his  majesty's  person 
and  government  against  treasonable  and  sedi- 
tious practices  and  attempts,  and  for  the  sup- 
pression of  seditious  meetings  and  assemblies, 
36  Geo.  III.  cc.  7  &  8  (Dec.  18,  1795),  and  also 
to  the  act  for  more  effectually  preventing 
seditious  assemblies,  60  Geo.  III.  c.  6  (Dec.  24, 
1819). 

'GAIANITES.— This  branch  of  the  Eutychians 
received  this  appellation  in  537,  from  their 
leader,  Gaian,  Bishop  of  Alexandria. 

G  A I  L  L  O  N  (France) .  —  Cardinal  George 
d'Amboise  erected  a  castle  at  this  town  in 

15,  and  Cardinal  Charles  de  Bourbon,  who 
died  in  1590,  built  a  Chartreuse  or  Carthusian 
monastery,  which  was  burned  in  1764. 

GAINES'S    MILL    (Battles).— (See    CHICKA- 

HOMINY.) 

GAINSBOROUGH  (Battle).— Cromwell  de- 
feated the  Royalist  Gen.  Cavendish,  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  from  this  town  in  Lincolnshire, 
Thursday,  July  27,  1643. 

GAINSBOROUGH,  or  GAINSBURGH  (Lin- 
colnshire). —Founded  during  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy, and  the  scene,  in  868,  of  the  marriage 
of  Alfred  the  Great  and  Elswitha,  was  ravaged 
in  1013  by  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark.  The 
church  was  originally  founded  by  the  Templars 
about  1209.  Gainsborough  was  taken  from  the 
Earl  of  Kingston  by  the  Parliamentary  forces 
of  Lord  WTilloughby  in  June,  1643.  The  bridge 
over  the  Trent  was  completed  in  1790,  and  the 
town  was  made  a  port  in  1840. 

GAIS  (Battle).  —  The  Swiss  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  this  village  of  Switzerland  in 
1405. 

GAITO  (Battle).— Charles  Albert,  King  of 
Sardinia,  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Marshal 
Radetsky  at  this  place  in  Northern  Italy, 
May  30,  1848. 


GALACZ 


[    428    ] 


GALLEYS 


GALACZ,  or  GALATZ  (Moldavia),  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1789,  was  made  a  free  port  in 
1834.  The  Russians  assembled  10,000  men, 
and  collected  a  park  of  artillery,  numbering 
120  guns,  at  this  place,  in  Dec.,  1853.  They 
crossed  to  attack  the  Turks,  Jan.  12,  and 
again  in  March,  1854. 

GALACZ,  or  GALATZ  (Treaty).- Prelim  i-. 
naries  of  peace,  signed  by  Russia  and  Turkey 
at  this  town  in  Moldavia,  Aug.  n,  1791,  were 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Jassy  (9.  v.),  Jan.  9, 

1  GALAPAGOS  (Pacific).  —  This  group  of 
islands  was  discovered  by  a  whaling  ship 
towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  The 
Spaniards  formed  a  settlement  on  the  island 
of  La  Floriana  in  1832.  They  were  ceded  to 
the  United  States  for  three  millions  of  dollars 
by  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  Nov.  20,  1854. 

GAL  AT  A,  or  PER  A.  —  The  Genoese  estab- 
lished themselves  in  this  suburb  (if  Constan- 
tinople in  1261.  They  maintained  several 
contests  with  the  Greeks,  who  were  supported 
by  the  Venetians ;  and  by  a  treaty,  signed 
May  6,  1352,  the  Venetians  and  Catalans  were 
for  ever  banished,  and  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  was  secured  to  the  Genoese. 

GALATIA,  or  GALLO-GR  JUGI  A  (Asia 
Minor). — This  ancient  kingdom  was  founded 
by  the  Gauls  after  their  defeat  at  Delphi,  B.C. 
279.  They  crossed  the  Hellespont  B.C.  278, 
and  received  a  grant  of  land  from  Nicomedes  I., 
King  of  Bithynia,  in  return  for  the  assist- 
ance they  rendered  him  against  his  brother 
Zipuitos.  They  subsequently  waged  war  with 
Antiochus  Soter,  King  of  Syria,  who  is  said 
to  have  fallen  in  a  battle  fought  with  them 
B.C.  261;  and  they  also  assisted  at  the  battle 
of  llaphia,  B.C.  217.  Their  rule  in  Asia  was 
limited  to  Galatia  by  Attains  I.,  King  of  Per- 
gamus,  who  reigned  from  B.C.  241  to  B.C.  197, 
and  opposed  a  successful  resistance  to  their 
growing  power.  Prusias  I.,  King  of  Bithynia, 
defeated  them  in  a  great  battle  fought  B.C.  216. 
Galatia  was  invaded  by  the  Romans  under  Cn. 
Manlius,  B.C.  189,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
treated  with  great  severity,  according  t<>  some 
authorities  as  many  as  40,000  of  their  nation, 
dying  in  battle.  Mithridates  VI.  murdered 
all  the  Galatian  tetrarchs,  with  their  women 
and  children,  B.C.  86,  to  prevent  them  from 
deserting  to  Sylla.  Mark  Antony  conferred 
the  kingdom  on  Amyntas,  King  of  Pisidia, 
B.C.  36,  and  it  was  made  a  Roman  province  by 
Augustus  B.C.  25.  Galatia  was  twice  visited 
by  the  apostle  Paul,  in  51  or  53  (Acts  xvi.  6), 
and  in  56  (Acts  xviii.  23). 

( I A  I.AT1AXS  (Epistle  to  the)  was  written  by 
the  apostle  Paul  about  52.  Various  dates,  be- 
tween 48  and  58,  have  been  assigned  for  its 
production,  and  biblical  critics  are  at  variance 
whether  it  was  written  at  Ephesus,  Corinth,  or 
in  Macedonia. 

GALENA  (United  States).— This  town,  in  Illi- 
nois, was  commenced  in  1819. 

GALENISTS.— In  1664  the  Flemings  of  Am- 
sterdam separated  into  two  parties, — the  Ga- 
leiiists  and  the  Apostoolians,  named  after  two 
preachers,  Galenus  Abrahams  de  Haan,  and 
Samuel  Apostool.  Mosheim  remarks  :  "  The 
Galenists  are  equally  ready,  with  the  Armi- 


nians,  to  admit  all  sorts  of  persons  into  their 
church,  who  call  themselves  Christians;  and 
they  are  the  only  Anabaptists  (in  Holland  who 
refuse  to  be  called  Mennonites.  The  Apostoo- 
lians admit  none  to  membership  who  do  not 
profess  to  believe  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
public  formula  of  their  religion." The  fol- 
lowers of  Galen  (130 — 200),  the  great  authority 
in  medical  science,  are  called  Galenists. 

GALICIA  (Austria  .—This  province  of  Po- 
land, on  the  first  partition  in  1772,  was  divided 
into  two  provinces,  called  East  and  West,  the 
former  being  annexed  to  Austria.  The  Aus- 
triaiis  invaded  West  Galicia  in  Oct.,  1793,  and 
it  was  annexed  to  their  empire  in  1794.  It  was 
made  part  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  in 
1809,  and  recovered  by  Austria  in  1815.  An 
insurrection,  which  was  speedily  suppressed, 
broke  out  in  Galicia  Feb.  19  and  20,  1846. 

GALICIA  Spain  .—The  Vandals  made  them- 
selves masters  of  this  territory  in  411.  It  be- 
came the  subject  of  frequent  contests,  and  was 
taken  by  the  Moors  in  713.  Pelayo  expelled 
the  Moors  in  721,  and  after  undergoing  various 
vicissitudes,  Galicia  was  annexed  to  Leon  in 
913.  Almansor  invaded  it  in  993.  It  was  made 
a  separate  kingdom  in  1065,  but  its  king  was 
expelled  in  1071,  and  his  territories  were  an- 
nexed to  Castile  in  1072.  It  was  ruled  by  its 
own  counts  until  1475.  It  was  subdivided  into 
four  provinces  in  1822. 

<;.\I.1L.KANS.—  This  ancient  Jewish  sect, 
named  after  Judas  the  Gaulonite,  resisted  the 
Roman  tax  established  by  Quirinus,  and  re- 
belled at  various  intervals,  till  Jerusalem  was 
destroyed  by  Titus,  Sep.  8,  70.  Eleazar,  the 
grandson  of  Judas,  after  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem, retired  with  960  followers  to  a  strong  for- 
tress, where  they  were  exterminated. 

GALILEE  (Palestine).— From  this,  the  most 
northern  of  the  three  divisions  of  Palestine, 
Christ  and  his  disciples  were  called  Galileans 
(Matt.  xxvi.  69,  and  Mark  xiv.  70),  in  30. 

CALL,  ST.  Switzerland).— This  canton  was 
formed  in  1798,  by  the  union  of  the  territories 
of  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall  with  the  free  town  of 
St.  Gall,  and  other  districts.  The  town  of  St. 
Gall  grew  up  around  a  cell  formed  by  St.  Gall, 
or  Gallus,  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century. 
An  abbey,  erected  soon  after,  was  celebrated 
in  the  gth  century  for  its  school.  The  abbey 
was  destroyed  by  the  Magyars  in  the  loth 
century.  St.  Gall  became  a  free  town  at  the 
Reformation,  and  the  abbey  was  secularized  in 
1805.  It  was  soon  after  made  a  bishopric,  joined 
to  Chur  in  1823,  and  separated  in  1847. 

GALLE,  or  POINT  DE  GALLE  (Ceylon).— 
This  town  was  obtained  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1517.  A  colony  of  Chinese  was  established  in 
1801. 

GALLEYS.— The  Corinthian  triremes,  or  gal- 
leys, with  three  rows  of  oars,  were  first  con- 
structed B.C.  786,  or  B.C.  703.  The  dromoncs, 
or  light  galleys  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  had 
two  tiers  of  oars.  During  the  Middle  Ages, 
galleys  with  one  bank  of  oars  were  used  by  the 
Venetians  and  Genoese,  by  whom  they  were 
introduced  into  France,  about  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.  (1380—1422).  The  first  document 
referring  to  the  punishment  of  the  galleys, 
called  in  French  Bagnes,  is  an  ordinance  of  the 


GALLIA 


[    429 


GALVANISM 


French  parliament  in  1532  ;  but  criminals  were 
most  probably  condemned  to  row  in  them  at  an 
earlier  period.  In  1564,  the  minimum  duration 
of  punishment  at  the  galleys  was  limited  to 
10  years.  The  office  of  captain  of  the  galleys 
was  abolished  by  an  ordinance  of  Louis  XV., 
Sep.  27,  1748,  when  the  slaves  were  removed  to 
work  in  the  docks  and  arsenals. 

GALLIA.— (See  GAUL.) 

GALLICAN  CHURCH.— The  French  Church 
was  established  at  a  very  early  period,  bishops 
of  many  of  the  existing  dioceses  having  as- 
sisted at  the  Council  of  Aries  in  314.  Articles 
directed  against  the  encroachments  of  Rome 
were,  in  1438,  embodied  in  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  (q.  v.},  which  was  superseded  in  1516 
by  the  concordat  of  Leo  X.  with  Francis  I.  A 
declaration  of  the  French  clei-gy,  promulgated 
March  12,  1682,  and  regarded  as  the  charter  of 
Gallicanism,  declarer  that  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  is  limited  to  spiritual  affairs,  and  that  it 
is  in  all  respects  inferior  to  the  decision  of  a 
general  council.  This  declaration  was  con- 
demned by  Pope  Innocent  XI.  in  April,  1682, 
by  Alexander  VIII.  in  Aug.,  1690,  by  Clement 
XI.  in  1706,  and  by  Pius  VI.  in  1794. 

GALLIPOLI  (Italy). -This  Neapolitan  port, 
called  by  the  Greeks  Callipolis,  and  founded 
by  Leucippus,  a  Lacedemonian,  was  visited  by 
Christian  preachers  in  44.  It  was  ravaged  by 
the  Vandals  in  450,  and  in  1284  was  destroyed 
with  much  barbarity  by  Charles  of  Anjou. 

GALLIPOLI  (Turkey),  the  ancient  Calli- 
polis, was  seized  by  the  Catalans  in  1303,  and, 
fortified  by  them,  resisted  the  troops  of  the 
Greek  emperor.  The  walls  were  shattered  by 
an  earthquaVe.  In  1357  the  town  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who  restored  the  forti- 
fications. Gib jon  calls  it  the  key  of  the  Hel- 
lespont. The  French  landed  March  30,  and  the 
English  April  5,  1854;  and,  by  April  21,  the 
allied  forces  amounted  to  27,000  men.  An  ad- 
vance to  Varna  was  made  in  May.  There  was 
another  Callipolis  in  Sicily,  now  called  Mascali 
(q.  v.). 

GALLO  (Peru).— This  island  was  discovered 
by  Ruiz  in  1526.  Pizarro  took  refuge  here  in 
!527- 

GALLOWAY  (Bishopric)  was  founded  by 
St.  Ninian  about  450.  It  was  suppressed  with 
the  other  Scotch  sees  at  the  Revolution,  but 
was  restored  and  annexed  to  Glasgow  in  1837. 

GALLOWAY  (Scotland.)— This  ancient  pro- 
vince of  southern  Scotland,  comprising  the 
counties  of  Kirkcudbright  and  Wigton,  with 
other  territories,  was  overrun  by  the  Northum- 
brian Anglo-Saxons  in  the  sth  century.  "Jaco- 
bus, rex  Gallwallise, "  was  one  of  the  eight  tri- 
butary princes  who  did  homage  to  Edgar,  King 
of  England,  at  Chester,  in  973,  and  it  con- 
tinued under  the  government  of  independent 
sovereigns,  paying  nominal  submission  to  the 
kings  of  Scotland,  till  1233,  when  its  last  ruler, 
Alan  of  Galloway,  Constable  of  Scotland,  died 
without  male  heirs,  and  his  estates  were  di- 
vided between  his  three  daughtei-s.  During 
the  1 2th  century  this  district  was  called  by  the 
English  the  land  of  the  Picts. 

GALLOWS,  and  GIBBET.— Fosbroke  says 
that  the  Roman  furca  took  the  form  of  our 
gallows  when  Constautine  I.  abolished  cruci- 


fixion in  325.  The  ancient  gallows  in  England 
were  provided  with  hooks.  The  triangular  gal- 
lows occurs  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  the  1 4th  century  an  Italian  lord  erected  a 
gallows  before  the  door  of  his  house,  and  re- 
paired it  every  year.  Gibbets,  on  which  the 
bodies  of  criminals  were  hung  in  chains,  were 
first  erected  in  the  i7th  century.  All  the  gib- 
bets in  the  Edgeware  Road  were  cut  down 
April  3,  1763.  The  last  gibbets  in  England  were 
erected  near  South  Shields  for  an  execution 
which  took  place  Aug.  6,  1832 ;  and  at  Leices- 
ter, for  an  execution,  Saturday,  Aug.  n,  1832. 
The  former  was  removed  in  1832,  and  the  latter 
in  1856.  A  piece  of  an  old  gibbet  might  be  seen, 
in  1856,  at  the  corner  of  Ditchliiig  Common, 
Sussex.  It  was  called  "Jacob's  Post,"  from 
the  name  of  a  Jew  who  was  hung  in  chains 
here  Aug.  31,  1734,  for  a  barbarous  murder. 

GALVANISM.— The  earliest  notice  of  this 
branch  of  electrical  science  was  made  by 
Sulzer,  who  mentioned  the  peculiar  sensation 
arising  from  a  piece  of  silver  and  a  piece  of 
lead  in  contact  with  each  other  and  the  tongue, 
in  1762.  In  1791,  Galvani  published  the  dis- 
covery he  had  made  a  short  time  previous, 
that  the  limbs  of  a  dead  frog  were  convulsed 
when  touched  by  a  dissecting-knife,  and  sub- 
mitted to  an  electric  spark  simultaneously  ;  and 
in  1793  Volta  broached  the  contact  theory  of 
galvanism.  Aldini  produced  powerful  galvanic 
convulsions  on  the  head  of  a  recently  killed  ox, 
in  1796  ;  and  in  1800  Volta  announced  the  dis- 
covery of  the  voltaic  pile,  which  was  success- 
fully applied  to  the  decomposition  of  water  by 
Messrs.  Nicholson  and  Carlisle,  May  2  in  the 
same  year.  Aldini  performed  some  galvanic 
experiments  on  the  body  of  an  executed 
criminal  in  1803,  by  which  he  produced  violent 
muscular  contortions ;  and  in  1805  Behrens 
constructed  a  dry  pile  of  80  pans  of  zinc,  copper, 
and  gilded  paper.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  de- 
composed potash,  and  produced  potassium  by 
galvanism,  Oct.  6,  1807 ;  and  in  1809  Mr. 
Children  constructed  a  battery  of  sufficient 
power  to  fuse  platinum,  diamond,  and  other 
very  hard  substances.  De  Luc's  pile  of  tinned 
iron  and  gilded  paper  was  made  in  1810;  and 
Zamboiri's  pile  of  paper  disks,  covered  on  one 
side  with  tin  and  on  the  other  with  peroxide 
of  manganese,  in  1 8 1 2.  Ritter's  secondary  pile 
was  constructed  the  same  year,  which  was  also 
memorable  for  the  first  application  of  galvanism 
to  blasting  purposes.  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
discovered  the  galvanic  arc  in  1813  ;  Dr.  Wol- 
laston  constructed  his  thimble  battery,  and 
used  it  to  fuse  platinum  wire,  in  1815  ;  and  Dr. 
Ure  performed  some  curious  experiments  on 
the  body  of  a  recently  executed  criminal  in 
1818.  Ampere  exhibited  his  galvanometer  to 
the  Royal  Academy,  Sep.  18,  1820.  Other 
instruments  for  measuring  galvanism  were 
produced  by  Schweigger  in  1820,  by  Professor 
Cumming  in  1821,  by  De  la  Rive  in  1824,  by 
Ritchie  in  1830,  and  by  Joule  in  1843.  Gal- 
vanism was  applied  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  to 
the  protection  of  the  copper  sheathing  of  ships 
from  the  effects  of  water  in  1824.  Ohm's 
formulae,  relating  to  the  quantity  of  the 
galvanic  current,  were  published  in  1827  ;  and, 
in  1829,  Becquerel  constructed  his  double-fluid 


GALVESTON 


[    430    ] 


GAME 


battery.  Sturgeon's  cast-iron  single-fluid  bat- 
tery was  invented  about  1830  ;  Daniell's  "  con- 
stant" battery,  andMullin's  sustaining  battery, 
in  1836  ;  Grove's  battery  in  1839  ;  Jacobi's  and 
Smee's  in  1840  ;  Bunsen's  and  Robe's  batteries, 
and  Grove's  gas  battery,  in  1842.  Faraday 
proved  that  the  producing  power  of  a  battery 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  plates,  in  1834  ;  and 
Wheatstone  invented  his  chronoscope  [g.  v.),' 
1840. 

GALVESTON  (United  States).— This  port  of 
Texas,  first  settled  in  1837,  was  fired  upon  by 
the  Federal  schooner  Dart,  Capt.  Alden,  Aug. 
3,  1861.  The  town,  taken  by  Commander  Ren- 
shaw,  Oct.  8,  1862,  was  held  by  the  Federals  till 
Jan.  i,  1863,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Con- 
federates of  Texas,  under  Gen.  Magruder.  It 
again  surrendered  to  the  Federals,  Junes,  1865. 

GALWAY  (Ireland),  called  the  "  City  of  the 
Tribes,"  was  fortified  in  1124,  and  the  walls 
were  erected  in  1270.  Richard  II.  granted  it 
a  charter  of  incorporation,  and  it  became 
celebrated  for  maritime  enterprise  in  the  iyth 
century.  Galway  surrendered  to  the  Parlia-  \ 
mentary  forces,  July  10,  1651,  and  Gen. 
Ginkel  captured  it  July  21,  1691.  All  traces  of 
the  walls  had  been  removed  by  1779.  The  rail- 
road to  Dublin  was  opened  Aug.  i,  1851.  The 
church  of  St.  Nicholas  was  founded  in  1320,  the 
west  bridge  was  built  in  1442,  and  the  Royal 
College  was  founded  in  1484.  Queen's  College 
was  opened  in  Nov.,  1849.  Riots,  caused  by 
Gavazzi's  attempts  to  preach,  occurred  .March 
29,  1859.  The  Galway  line  of  steamers  to 
America  was  founded  by  Mr.  J.  O.  Lever,  who 
despatched  the  ln</in,,  /:'„/ /,/,•<•  from  this  port 
June  19,  1858.  A  postal  contract  was  made 
with  the  Government,  Oct.  22,  1858,  and  one  of 
the  mail  steamers  performed  the  passage  from 
Cape  Race  in  4  days  23  hours.  Owing  to  an 
alleged  breach  of  the  contract,  the  subsidy  was 
withdrawn  May  15,  1861.  It  was  restored  by  a 
vote  of  the  House  of  Commons,  March  20,  1863, 
and  the  first  ship,  the  Hibernia,  sailed  Aug.  18, 
1863.  It  again  lapsed  in  1864. 

GAM  ALA.  (Palestine). —This  ancient  city, 
situated  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  first  mentioned  as  a  strong  fortress 
captured  by  King  Alexander  Jannams  (B.C.  104 
— B.C.  78),  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
Romans  under  Vespasian  in  67.  It  is  believed 
to  be  identical  with  Gabala  (q.  v.}. 

GAMBIA  (Africa). — This  name  is  given  to  a 
British  colony,  settled  in  1618,  consisting  of 
several  trading  stations  on  the  river  Gambia. 
It  was  guaranteed  to  England  by  the  ioth 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783. 

GAMBIER  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  called  also  the 
Mangareva  group,  discovered  by  the  missionary 
ship  Duff,  in  1797,  and  named  after  Lord 
Gambler,  were  surveyed  in  1826. 

GAMBLING,  or  GAMING.— The  passion  for 
play  has  in  all  ages  been  common  among  the 
wealthy  and  unemployed,  and  frequently 
even  among  the  poorer  classes.  Tacitus 
mentions  the  excess  to  which  it  was  carried  by 
the  ancient  Germans,  who  frequently  staked 
their  freedom  on  the  hazard  of  the  die,  and 
suffered  themselves  to  be  sold  as  slaves,  to 
liquidate  their  gaming  debts.  Justinian's 
Code  (529)  contains  several  enactments  for  its 


suppression.  The  Romans  were  much  addicted 
to  it  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic  and 
the  Empire.  The  practice  was  introduced 
very  early  into  England.  The  first  statute 
directed  against  it  (33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9,  1541) 
prohibited  the  keeping  of  gaming-houses  under 
a  penalty  of  408.  per  day,  and  the  frequenting 
of  such  places  under  forfeiture  of  6s.  8d.  By 
16  Charles  II.  c.  7  (1664),  any  person  winning 
money  by  fraud,  cozenage,  or  deceit,  was  to 
forfeit  treble  the  value  of  his  gains,  and  by 
9  Anne,  c.  14(1710),  any  one  who  had  lost  atone 
sitting,  and  paid,  the  sum  of  £10,  might  sue 
the  winner,  and  recover  the  same  with  treble 
its  value,  and  the  costs  of  the  suit.  The  game 
of  passage,  and  all  other  games  played  with 
dice,  except  backgammon,  were  prohibited  by 
13  Geo.  II.  c.  19  (1740),  and  gaming-house 
keepers  were  subjected  to  imprisonment  with 
hard  labour  by  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  114  (Aug.  5, 
1822).  The  police  are  entitled  to  enter  gaming- 
houses, and  arrest  the  frequenters,  by  2  &  3 
Viet.  c.  47,  s.  48  (Aug.  17,  18391,  and  most  of 
the  former  statutes  on  the  subject  were  con- 
solidated, repealed,  or  amended  by  8  &  9  Viet. 
c.  109  (Aug.  8,  1845',  which  is  now  the  principal 
statute  respecting  gaming.  Betting -offices 
were  suppressed  by  16  <fe  17  Viet.  c.  119  (Aug. 
20,  1853),  an(i  the  opposition  of  constables  in 
their  efforts  to  enter  a  house  was  made  proof 
that  the  said  house  is  a  common  gaming-house, 
by  17  <fc  1 8  Viet.  c.  38  (July  24,  1854).  Before 
1838,  the  French  Government  restricted  the 
right  of  keeping  gaming-houses  in  Paris  to  one 
company,  but  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  discon- 
tinued their  licence  that  year,  and  it  has  not 
been  revived.  (See  BKTTIMJ  HOUSES.) 

G  AM  K- LAWS'.— The  Theodosian  Code,  pub- 
lished in  438,  imposed  severe  restriction  on  the 
hunting  and  slaughter  of  game,  which  term 
was  then  limited  to  ferocious  animals.  The 
game-laws  of  England  originated  in  the  desire 
of  the  Norman  nobility  to  preserve  a  stock  of 
animals  of  the  chase  for  their  exclusive  plea- 
sure. The  first  statute  on  the  subject  is  13 
Rich.  II.  st.  i,  c.  13  (1389),  which  restricted  the 
use  of  hunting  dogs  or  implements  to  laymen 
holding  land  of  40  shillings  per  annum  and 
upwards,  and  to  priests  of  not  less  than  £10  a 
year.  Fish  were  first  protected  from  poachers 
by  31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2  (1539),  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  gamekeepers  was  authorized  by  22  & 
23  Charles  II.  c.  25  (1670).  Certificates  for  the 
killing  of  game  were  first  granted,  under  a 
duty,  by  24  Geo.  III.  c.  43  (1784),  which  act  \VUH 
amended  by  25  Geo.  III.  c.  50  (1785).  The  laws 
respecting  game  in  England  were  amended  and 
consolidated  by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  32  (Oct.  5, 
1831),  and  in  Scotland  the  principal  statute  on 
the  subject  is  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  68  (July  7,  1832). 
The  shooting  of  hares  without  certificate  by 
occupiers  and  owners  of  inclosed  lands  was 
legalized  by  ii  &  12  Viet.  c.  29  (July  22, 1848).  A 
reduction  in  the  duties  on  game  certificates 
and  licences  was  made  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  90 
(Aug.  13,  1860).  By  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  n  •, 
7,  1862),  police  constables  were  empowered  to 
search  any  person  suspected  of  unlawfully 
killing  game,  and  to  seize  his  guns,  nets,  <tc., 
the  offender  being  liable  to  a  penalty  not  ex- 
ceeding £5. 


GAMES 


GARTER 


GAMES.— The  games  of  the  ancients  were 
mostly  of  a  religious  nature,  serving  as  im- 
portant institutions  for  the  promotion  of  har- 
mony and  social  union.  The  education  of  the 
ancient  Britons  chiefly  consisted  in  proficiency 
in  the  following  games  :— The  lifting  of  great 
weights,  running,  leaping,  swimming,  wrest- 
ling, riding,  archery,  sword-play,  two-handed 
sword  exercise,  spear  exercise,  coursing,  fish- 
ing, fowling,  music,  and  heraldry.  (See  ACTIAN, 
ISTHMIAN,  OLYMPIC  GAMES,  &c.  &c.) 

GAMONAL  (Battle).— Marshal  Soult  defeated 
the  Spanish  under  the  Count  de  Belvedere  and 
Gen.  Blake,  at  this  place,  near  Burgos,  in  Spain, 
Nov.  10,  1808. 

GAMUT.— This  musical  scale  was  known 
previous  to  the  nth  century,  as  the  monk 
Guido  d'Arezzo,  who  flourished  in  1022,  men- 
tions it  as  having  been  in  use  before  his  time. 

GANDIA  (Spain).— The  university  of  this 
town,  founded  in  1547,  was  suppressed  in  1772. 

GANGES  (Hindostan).— The  Bengal  Govern- 
ment sent  an  expedition  to  explore  the  Ganges 
in  1808.  A  canal  for  irrigating  the  valley 
between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna  was 
opened  April  8,  1854,  and  considerable  advan- 
tages have  been  already  derived  from  it. 

GANGRA  (Asia  Minor).— This  town  of  Paph- 
lagonia,  the  residence  in  the  ist  century  of  Deio- 
tarus  III.,  the  last  king  of  the  country,  became 
a  bishopric  at  an  early  period.  Hypatius,  the 
first  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  whom  any  record 
remains,  having  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Nicsea,  June  19 — Aug.  25,  325.  A  council  was 
held  here  some  time  in  the  4th  century,  which 
has  been  referred  by  various  authorities  to  the 
period  between  324  and  341,  and  to  the  years 
360,  370,  379,  and  380. 

GAOL  CHAPLAINS  existed  in  some  places 
in  the  i8th  century,  and  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  64, 
s.  28  (July  10,  1823),  the  nomination  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  justices  assembled  in  gene- 
ral or  quarter  sessions,  who  might  appoint  one 
chaplain  to  two  gaols  when  they  were  suffi- 
ciently near  each  other.  They  were  obliged  to 
receive  the  licence  of  the  bishop,  previous  to 
assuming  their  office,  to  perform  divine  service 
on  Sunday,  Christmas  Day,  and  Good  Friday, 
and  to  keep  a  journal  of  all  their  transactions 
with  the  prisoners  for  the  inspection  of  the 
justices. 

GAP  (France). — This  ancient  town,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Tricorii,  and  the  Vapiiicum  of  the 
Romans,  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  the  4th 
century,  was  united  to  Dauphiny  in  the  i2th 
century.  It  was  taken  by  Lesdiguieres  in 
I575.  and  wt*s  held  by  the  Huguenots  till  1582. 
A  national  synod  of  the  Huguenots  assembled 
here  in  1603.  The  town,  which  was  ravaged  by 
the  plague  in  1630,  was  shaken  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1644,  and  was  sacked  by  Victor  Ama- 
dseus  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  1692. 

GARDENING. — The  art  was  common  among 
the  Persians  and  Babylonians,  and  was  in  high 
estimation  with  the  Jews.  The  Greeks  received 
it  from  the  Persians,  and  imparted  it  to  the 
Romans,  who  planted  gardens  of  great  extent 
and  beauty.  Lucullus,  who  nourished  about 
B.C.  no — 57,  was  particularly  famous  for  the 
magnificence  of  his  gardens,  and  Pliny  (23 — 79) 
also  carried  the  art  of  gardening  to  consider- 


able perfection.  Gardening  was  revived  by 
Charlemagne  in  the  gth  century,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  carried  to  some  perfection  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 1189). 
The  earliest  attempt  to  elevate  gardening  into 
a  refined  art  in  this  country  is  believed  to  have 
been  made  in  the  arrangement  of  the  grounds 
at  Nonsuch,  which  were  planned  about  1540. 
The  Gardeners'  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1616.  The  Horticultural  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  1804,  and  the  Botanical  Society  in 
1839. 

GARGAR.— (See  ABOER,  Battle.) 

GARIGLIANO  (Battle).— Gonsalvo  of  Cor- 
dova, at  the  head  of  a  Spanish  army,  defeated 
the  French  near  the  river  Garigliaiio,  the 
ancient  Liris,  in  Italy,  Friday,  Dec.  29,  1503. 
This  has  been  called  the  rout  of  the  Garig- 
liano. 

GARNET.— This  gem,  mentioned  by  Theo- 
phrastus  (B.C.  370—3.0.  287),  and  Pliny  the 
Elder  (23 — Aug.  24,  79),  was  much  esteemed 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  several  magical 
properties  were  ascribed  to  it. 

GAROTTE,  or  GARROTTE.  —  When  this 
punishment  is  inflicted,  the  prisoner  is  placed 
in  a  chair  with  a  high  back,  to  which  his  head 
is  fastened  by  an  iron  clasp.  This  encloses  his 
neck,  and  is  fastened  to  the  back  of  the  chair 
by  a  screw,  which,  being  turned  several  times, 
strangles  the  victim  and  breaks  his  neck.  It 
was  practised  in  a  more  primitive  mode  in 
Spain  and  its  colonies  in  the  i6th  century.  The 
term  garotting  has  of  late  years  been  applied 
in  this  country  to  a  mode  of  strangulation 
adopted  by  thieves  in  robbery  on  the  highway. 
By  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  loo,  s.  21  (Aug.  6,  1861), 
garotters  were  rendered  liable  to  penal  servi- 
tude for  life  or  for  any  term  not  less  than  three 
years  ;  or  to  imprisonment  for  not  more  than 
two  years.  These  measures  proving  insuffi- 
cient, it  was  ordered  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  44 
(July  13,  1863),  that  male  garotters  should,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  judge,  be  once,  twice,  or 
thrice  privately  whipped. 

GARRA WAY'S  COFFEE-HOUSE  (London). 
— Thomas  Garway,  tobacconist  and  coffee-man, 
of  Change  Alley,  Cornhill,  commenced  in  1651 
the  sale  of  "tea  in  leaf  and  drink,  made 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  most  know- 
ing merchants  and  travellers  into  those  eastern 
countries,"  thus  attracting  "very  many  noble- 
men, physicians,  merchants,  and  gentlemen  of 
quality"  to  his  shop  "to  drink  the  drink 
thereof."  In  1673  wines  were  sold  here  by 
Inch  of  Candle  (q.  v.},  and  in  1722  Garway's,  or, 
as  then  spelt,  Garraway's,  is  mentioned  as  the 
chief  resort  of  "People  of  Quality,  who  have 
business  in  the  City,  and  the  most  consider- 
able and  wealthy  citizens."  It  was  closed  in 
August,  1866. 

GARRICK  CLUB  (London)  was  founded  in 
1831  "  for  the  general  patronage  of  the  drama  ; 
the  formation  of  a  theatrical  library,  and 
works,  and  costume  ;  and  for  bringing  together 
the  patrons  of  the  drama."  The  new  house, 
commenced  in  1862,  was  opened  in  1864. 

GARRICK  THEATRE  (London).— This  minor 
theatre,  situated  in  Goodman's  Fields,  was 
opened  in  1830. 

GARTER  (Order  of  the).— King  Edward  III., 


GARTER 


[     432 


GAUGING 


•wishing  to  emulate  the  example  of  the  re- 
nowned Arthur,  and  found  an  order  of  chivalry 
which  should  become  as  famous  as  the  Round 
Table,  issued  letters,  Jan.  i,  1344,  in  which  he 
invited  knights  of  all  nations  to  take  part  in  a 
grand  tournament,  to  be  celebrated  at  Wind- 
sor, Monday,  Jan.  19.  According  to  Selden, 
the  order  of  the  Garter  was  founded  April  23, 
1344  ;  but  Ashmole  considers  it  to  have  origi- 
nated in  1349  or  1350.  The  companions  were 
not  chosen  till  July,  1346,  and  Sir  Harris  Nico- 
las is  of  opinion  that  the  order  was  not  defi- 
nitely established  until  the  latter  part  of  1347. 
The  earliest  delivery  of  mantles  to  the  knights 
was  in  Sep.,  1351,  and  in  May,  1418,  the  office 
of  Garter  King-at-Arms  was  created.  The 
collar  and  George  of  the  order  were  granted  by 
Henry  VII.  about  1497,  and  new  statutes  were 
adopted  in  1522.  The  star  was  granted  by 
Charles  I.  in  1626.  The  order  of  the  Garter 
was  re- constituted  Jan.  17,  1805,  and  made  t<> 
consist  of  the  sovereign  and  25  knight- 
companions,  with  such  lineal  descendants  of 
George  III.  as  may  be  elected,  and  the  Prince 
of  Wales. 

GARTER  KING-AT-ARMS.  —  (See  GARTER, 
Order  of  the.) 

GAS. — A  burning  spring  in  the  collieries  of 
Wigan,  Lancashire,  which  was  noticed  by 
Mr.  Shirley  in  1659,  was  doubtless  nothing 
more  than  ignited  gas,  although  it  was  not  so 
understood  at  the  time.  In  1726  Dr.  Hales 
ascertained  by  experiment  the  quantity  of  in- 
flammable air  evolved  from  coal,  and  in  1733 
Sir  James  Lowther  sent  specimens  of  the  air 
to  the  Royal  Society,  who  used  it  for  experi- 
ments. In  1739  the  Rev.  J.  Clayton  published 
an  account  of  his  experiments  on  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal,  which  had  extended  over  a  long 
period  of  years  ;  and  in  1792  Murdoch,  of  Red- 
ruth,  Cornwall,  conceived  the  project  of  ap- 
plying gas  to  purposes  of  artificial  illumination. 
The  first  gas-works  were  erected  by  him  at 
Boulton  and  Watt's  Sohp  foundry  in  1798,  and 
at  the  peace  rejoicings  in  1802  the  light  was 
publicly  exhibited  at  that  establishment  with 
great  success.  The  first  employment  of  gas 
in  Paris  also  occurred  in  1802.  In  1803  the 
new  light  was  adopted  by  Mr.  "Winsor  in  the 
Lyceum  Theatre,  and  in  1804  Murdoch  erected 
gas-works  on  a  grand  scale  at  Phillips  and 
Lee's  cotton-mill,  Manchester.  Gas  was  used 
to  light  Pall  Mall  Jan.  28,  1807.  The  London 
and  Westminster  Gas-light  Company  was  in- 
corporated in  1810,  and  Westminster  Bridge 
was  lighted  by  gas  Dec.  31,  1813  ;  and  its  use 
became  general  throughout  London  in  1816. 
The  London  Gas-light  Company  was  established 
in  1833.  Gas  was  introduced  at  Sydney,  in 
Australia,  in  1841.  In  Dec.,  1851,  a  stream  of 
natural  gas  was  discovered  at  Chat  Moss, 
on  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway. 
Gas  was  obtained  from  oil  and  resin  by  Taylor 
in  1815,  and  an  improved  method  for  its  pro- 
duction was  patented  by  Laming  and  Evans. 

April  23,  1850. Water-gas  is  also  the. subject 

of  several  patents,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Donovan's,  dated  1830  ;  Lowe's,  1832  ;  Manby's, 
1839;  Val  Marino's,  1 839;  Radley' 8,1845;  Lowe's, 
1846  ;  and  White's,  1847.  The  sale  of  gas  in 
the  metropolis  is  regulated  by  23  &  24  Viet. 


cc.  125  &  146  (Aug.  28,  1860).  Gas  was  applied 
to  the  illumination  of  railway  trains  by  Allen, 
of  the  Scottish  Central  Railway,  in  1862. 
Mongruel's  photogenic  gas  was  invented  in 
1862. 

GASCONY  (France).— An  ancient  province, 
that  nearly  corresponded  to  the  Aquitania  of 
Csesar,  received  this  name  from  the  Vascones, 
or  Gascones,  a  Spanish  people  who  settled 
here  at  an  early  period,  and  were  subdued  by 
the  Franks  in  602.  Gascony  for  a  time  formed 
part  of  Aquitaine,  and  on  the  union  of  the 
latter  with  the  French  monarchy,  in  867,  the 
duchy  of  Gascony  continued  independent.  It 
passed  under  English  rule  in  1152,  and  became 
the  subject  of  frequent  contests  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  until  finally  annexed  to  the 
latter  in  1453.  In  the  chronicles  of  the  time 
the  terms  Gascony  and  Guienne  are  used  as 
though  they  were  synonymous.  They  were, 
however,  distinct  provinces.  Auch  was  the 
chief  town  of  Gascony. 

GAS-METKR  was  invented  by  Clegg  in  1815, 
and  improved  and  patented  in  1816.  The  dry 
gas-meter  was  patented  by  Malam  in  1820. 
Defrios'  dry  meter  was  patented  in  1844. 

CASTKIN  Convention).  — This  convention, 
signed  at  Gastein,  in  the  duchy  of  Salzburg, 
Aug.  14,  1865,  by  Jlerr  von  JJismark  and  Count 
Blome,  and  subsequently  confirmed  at  Salz- 
burg by  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Emperor 
of  Austria,  transferred  the  government  of 
Sleswig  to  Prussia,  and  that  of  Holstein  to 
Austria.  Lauenburg  was  ceded  to  Prussia  for 
2,500,000  Danish  dollars  :  both  powers  engaged 
to  propose  in  the  federal  diet  the  establishment 
of  a  German  fleet  having  its  harbour  at  Kiel, 
and  it  was  agreed  to  unite  Sleswig  and  Holstein 

to  the  Zollvcrein. A  treaty  of  navigation 

between  Great  Britain  and  Prussia  was  signed 
here  Aug.  16,  1865. 

GATESHEAD  (Durham).— A  monastery  was 
established  at  this  place  some  time  before  653. 
In  1068  William  1.  gained  a  great  victory  at 
(iateshead  Fell,  in  the  neighbourhood,  over 
Malcolm  II.  of  Scotland,  who  had  espoused 
the  cause  of  Edgar  Atheliiig.  The  church  was 
destroyed  by  fire  May  14,  1080,  and  in  1164 
Bishop  Pudsey^gave  the  burgesses  the  liberty 
of  his  forests  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town.  St. 
Edmund's  Hospital  was  founded  before  1248, 
and  restored  by  James  I.  in  1610;  and  in 
1695  the  government  of  the  town  was  vested 
in  two  stewards,  who  were  elected  by  the 
borough-holder  and  freemen.  Gateshead,  en- 
franchised by  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832,  returns 
one  member  to  Parliament.  A  fire,  which 
broke  out  in  a  worsted  manufactory  at  mid- 
night, Oct.  5,  1854,  and  afterwards  extended 
to  a  bond  warehouse,  where  large  quantities 
of  gunpowder  and  other  explosive  materials 
were  stored,  caused  the  death  of  about  50 
persons,  and  serious  injury  to  many  more. 
The  flames  extended  over  the  Tyne  to  New- 
castle, and  the  total  value  of  the  property 
destroyed  was  estimated  at  ^1,000,000. 

GAUGAMELA.— (See  ARBKLA,  Battle.) 

GAUGING  was  practised  in  this  country  as 
early  as  1272.  By  27  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  8  .'1353', 
all  wines  imported  into  this  country  were 
ordered  to  be  gauged  by  the  king's  gaugers, 


GAUL 


[    433    1 


GAZA 


under  penalty  of  forfeiture  and  imprisonment 
in  case  of  neglect. 

GAUL,  or  GALLIA.— This  ancient  country 
was  divided  by  the  Eomans  into  Cisalpine  and 
Transalpine  Gaul,  the  former  signifying  the 
countries  of  North  Italy,  on  the  Roman  side 
of  the  Alps,  and  the  latter  the  territory  be- 
yond the  Alps,  now  called  France. 

600.  A  colony  of  Phocnsans  from  Asia  Minor  founds  Mas- 
silia,  or  Massalia,  the  present  .Marseilles. 

506.  The  Gauls  invade  North  Italy,  and  drive  the  Etrus- 
cans before  them. 

391.  The  Gauls  again  invade  Etruria. 

390.  Under  their  leader  Brennus  they  take  Rome.  (See 
ALLIA,  Battle.) 

349.  The  Gauls  attack  the  Venetians. 

299.  They  again  invade  Rome. 

295.  Battle  of  Sentinum  (q.  v.). 
285.  Battle  of  Arretium. 

283.  Second  battle  of  the  Vadimonian  Lake  (q.  t>.). 

279.  The  Gauls  invade  Greece. 

222.  The  Romans  form  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
2i8.  The  Gauls  assist  Hannibal. 

191.  Scipio  Xasica  defeats  the  Boii  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
186.  An  army   of    12,000  men   from  Transalpine   Gaul 
penetrates  into  Venetia,  and  is  compelled  to  return 
by  the  Romans. 
154.  The'Massaliota  invite  the  assistance  of  the  Romans 

against  the  Ligurians. 
122-  The  Romans  found  Aqua;  Sextia;,  or  Aix,  their  first 

settlement  north  of  the  Alps. 

I2r.  The  Romans  invade  the  land  of  the  Allobroges  (q.  v.). 
118.  The  Romans  found  Narbo   Martins,  or  Xarbonne, 
which  secures  them  the  mastery  of  the  province. 
112.  The  Cimbri  from  Transalpine  Caul  invade  Italy. 
101.  Cisalpine  Gaul  is  invaded  by  the  Cimbri,  who  are 

defeated  by  Marius  and  Catulus. 
58.  Julius  Crcsar  invades  Gaul  for  the  first  time,  and 

defeats  the  Germans  and  the  Helvetii. 
52.  The  Gauls  rebel  from  the  Roman  yoke. 
51.  Cicsar  completes  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  the  capture 
of   Uxellodunum   (q.  v.),    and  erects    the    whole 
country  into  a  Roman  province. 
43.  Cisalpine  Gaul   ceases  to  have  separate  governors, 

and  is  incorporated  with  Italy. 
39.  The  Ubii  are  removed  into  Gaul. 
27.  Augustus  organizes  the  government  of  Gaul,  and 

visits  the  province. 
A.D. 
91.  The  Gauls   rebel  under  Julius  Floras  and  Julius 

Sarrovir. 

68.  The  Gauls  rebel  against  Xero. 
120.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  visits  Gaul. 
177.  The  Christians  in  Gaul  are  subjected  to  cruel  perse- 
cutions. 

213.  Caracalla  visits  Gaul. 
334.  Severus  suppresses  a  revolt  of  the  Gauls. 
250.  Seven  Christian  missionaries  are  sent  into  Gaul. 

255.  Gallienus  opposes  the  Franks  in  Gaul. 

256.  Invasion  of  the  Franks. 
358—265.  Postumus  governs  Gaul. 

277.  Probus  commands  in  Gaul,  and  defeats  the  Frankish 
and  Burgundian  marauders. 

280.  The  culture  of  the  vine  is  introduced. 

287,  Jan.  i.  Maximian  I.  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  estab- 
lishes large  colonies  of  Franks  in  their  territory 
the  following  year. 

296.  Constanti'is  defeats  the  Gauls  at  Vindonissa. 
298.  Battle  of  Lingonum  Civitas  (q.  v.). 

306.  Constantino  I.  defeats  the  Franks  in  Gaul. 

330.  Gaul  gives  its  name  to  one  of  the  four  prefectures 

of  the  empire,  and  comprises  Gaul,  Hispania,  and 

Britannia. 
341.  The  Franks  again   contend    against  the  imperial 

forces  in  Gaul. 

355.  The  barbarians  again  ravage  Gaul. 
357.  Julian  marches  to  the  rescue  of  the  province,  de- 
feats    the     Alemanni     (see    STRASBUEG),     and 

winters  in  Paris. 

361.  Julian  is  proclaimed  emperor  at  Paris. 
365.  The  Alemanni  resume  their  inroads. 
371.  The  Franks    and  the  Alemanni  are  expelled  from 

Gaul  and  Rhrctia  by  Theodosius  I. 
377-  The  Alemanni  again  ravage  Gaul,  and  are  expelled 

by  Richomer. 


A.D. 

383.  Gaul  is  ceded  to  Maximus. 

405 — 6.  The  Vandals,  Burgundians,  and  other  barbarian 
tribes  invade  Gaul. 

412.  Jovinus  revolts  in  Gaul. 

419.  The  Goths  obtain  Toulouse  and  the  south-west 
parts  of  Gaul. 

451.  Attila  invades  Gaul  with  500,000  Huns.  (See 
CHALONS-SUR-MARNE.  ) 

455.  The  Britons  plant  a  colony  in  Gaul,  which  after- 
wards becomes  Brittany.  (See  ARMORICA.) 

464.  -35gidius,  last  Roman  governor  of  Gaul,  dies. 

470.  Euric  attempts  to  usurp  the  supreme  authority. 

473.  Julius  Nepos  cedes  Auvergne  to  the  Visigoths. 

476.  The  Roman  empire  in  the  West  is  overthrown,  Gau 
having  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Franks, 
from  whom  it  is  called  France  (q.v .). 

GAULTIERS,  or  GAUTIERS.— These  bands 
of  armed  peasants,  organized  in  Lower  Nor- 
mandy in  1586,  to  oppose  the  ravages  of  the 
regular  soldiery,  were  suppressed  by  the  Duke 
of  Montpensier  in  1589. 

GAUR,  GOUR,  LAKNAOUTY,  or  LUCK- 
NOUTI  (Hindostan).— This  town,  the  chief  of 
which  became  independent  in  648,  was  taken 
in  1202  by  Bakhtiar  Kilji,  and  was  made  the 
capital  of  Bengal  in  1212.  In  1450  it  was  sur- 
rounded with  walls  by  Nasir  Shah,  in  1536  it 
was  taken  by  Sher  Shah,  and  in  1574  it  was 
seized  by  Monaim  Khan,  who  was,  however, 
speedily  compelled  by  the  pestilential  climate 
to  abandon  it. 

GAURUS  (Battle).  —  On  this  mountain  of 
Campania,  Valerius  Corvus  defeated  the  Sam- 
nites,  B.C.  341. 

GAUZE.— This  light  fabric  is  said  to  have 
received  its  name  from  Gaza,  in  Palestine, 
where  it  was  first  made  at  an  early  period. 
The  manufacture  of  silk  gauze  was  introduced 
at  Paisley  in  1760.  A  tax  of  from  zd.  to  $d.  per 
yard  was  placed  upon  it  in  1784. 

GAVELKIND.— This  tenure,  limited  to  the 
county  of  Kent,  was  the  common  tenure  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  Its  chief  distinction  is  the 
division  of  the  property  of  an  intestate  father 
equally  among  his  sons,  or,  in  default  of  male 
issue,  among  his  daxighters.  It  was  abolished  in 
Wales  by  34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  26,  s.  91  (1543). 

GAVOTTE.  —  This  dance,  introduced  upon 
the  stage  in  the  i8th  century,  was  adapted  by 
Gardel  to  private  drawing-rooms,  in  1794.  Its 
popularity  declined  early  in  the  igth  century. 

GAWELGHUR  (Hindostan).  —  This  strong 
fortress  was  taken  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
Dec.  15,  1803. 

GAY  SCIENCE  meant  (N.  &  Q.,  srd  s.  vol.  v. 
299)  in  its  largest  sense  poetry  generally,  more 
freqiiently  the  poetry  of  the  Troubadours,  and 
in  a  more  special  sense  still  their  erotic  poetry. 
(See  ROMANCE.) 

GAZA  (Palestine1!,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Philistines,  is  mentioned  Gen.  x.  19  (B.C.  2218). 
It  was  the  scene  of  Samson's  triumph  and 
death  (Judges  xvi.  30),  B.C.  1117,  and  was 
taken  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  after 
a  long  and  arduous  siege,  B.C.  332.  Ptolemy  I. 
defeated  Demetrius  in  its  neighbourhood 
B.C.  312,  and  Ptolemy  (IV.)  Philopator  used  it 
as  a  depot  for  military  stores  B.C.  217. 
It  was  destroyed  by  Antiochus  B.C.  198,  was 
afterwards  rebuilt,  and  was  selected  by  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  as  the  seat  of  a  fair  for  the 
sale  of  Jewish  captives  in  119.  Gaza  was  a 
bishopric  of  the  primitive  Church,  and,  accord- 
F  F 


GAZETTE 


[     434     1 


GENERAL 


ing  to  some  authorities,  the  first  bishop  was 
Philemon,  to  whom  Paul  addressed  his  epistle 
in  63  or  64.  The  first  of  whom  any  certain  date 
is  known  was  Asclepas,  who  was  deposed  at  the 
Council  of  Antioch  in  331.  A  council  was  held 
here  in  541.  Gaza  was  taken  by  the  Sultan 
Saladin  in  1170,  and  was  the  scene  of  a  victory 
gained  by  the  Carismians  over  the  united 
armies  of  the  Christians  and  Ayoubites,  Oct. 
18-19,  1244.  Napoleon  took  it  during  his 
campaign  in  Egypt  in  March,  1799,  an(i  ^  was 
seized  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1831. 

GAZETTE.— The  publication  of  the  official 
gazette,  which  commenced  at  Oxford  in  1665, 
was  afterwards  removed  to  the  metropolis,  and 
it  was  called  the  London  Gazette. 

GAZETTEER.— The  first  work  with  the  title 
was  "The  Gazetteer's  or  Newsman's  Interpre- 
ter, being  a  Geographical  Index,  &c.,"  by 
Laurence  Echard,  published  in  1703-4. 

GAZNEVIDES.—  (See  GHIZNEVIDES.) 

GEDROSIA.— (See  BELOOCHISTAN.) 

GEEL,  or  GHEEL  (Belgium).  —  Dymphna, 
a  Christian  lady  of  British  origin,  martyred  on 
the  site  of  this  town  in  the  6th  century  by  her 
heathen  father,  for  refusing  to  comply  with  his 
incestuous  proposals,  became  the  tutelary  saint 
of  all  persons  troubled  with  mental  alienation  ; 
and  her  shrine,  at  a  very  early  period,  was 
celebrated  for  the  cures  it  effected  in  such 
cases.  The  town,  which,  in  consequence,  has 
been  ever  since  the  resort  of  lunatics,  became 
in  1803  the  asylum  for  incurably  insane  Dutch 
and  Belgian  patients,  who  reside  with  the 
citizens,  and  are  employed  in  such  labours  as 
seem  best  suited  to  their  capacities. 

GEELONG  (Australia),  the  capital  of  Grant 
county,  Victoria,  was  formally  claimed  as  a 
possession  of  the  English  crown  by  John  Bate- 
man  in  1835,  and  founded  on  the  harbour  of 
Corio  in  1837.  Its  importance  dates  from  the 
gold  discoveries  of  1851.  The  railroad  to  Mel- 
bourne was  completed  in  1855. 

GELA  (Sicily).— This  city,  on  the  river  Gela 
or  Gelas,  was  founded  by  a  joint  colony  of 
Cretans  and  Rhodians,  B.C.  690.  Its  inhabitants 
sent  out  a  colony  which  founded  Agrigentum 
B.C.  582.  Cleander  obtained  despotic  power 
B.C.  505,  and  ruled  till  B.C.  498,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Hippocrates,  who 
died  B.  c.  491 .  His  successor  Gelon  was  followed 
by  his  brother  Hiero,  B.C.  478,  and  from  this 
time  Gela  rapidly  declined.  The  Carthaginians 
captured  Gela  B.C.  405  ;  whereupon  the  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  abandoned  the  city.  They 
returned,  and  Gela  once  more  became  pros- 
perous. Phintias,  Despot  of  Agrigentum, 
removed  the  inhabitants  to  Phintias,  and  de- 
molished Gela,  B.C.  280. 

GELAL^EAN  ^ERA,  instituted  by  Malek 
Shah,  one  of  whose  titles  was  Gelaleddin, 
"  Glory  of  the  Faith,"  commenced  March  14, 

IOGELDERN,  or  GUELDRE  (Prussia).—  This 
town,  founded  in  1097,  was,  till  1343,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  sovereigns  of  Guelderland  (q.  v.). 
It  was  given  to  Prussia  in  1713,  and  surrendered 
to  the  French  in  1757.  Its  fortifications  were 
destroyed  by  Frederick  II.  in  1764. 

GELLHEIM,  or  GOELHEIM  (Battle).— The 
Emperor  Albert  I.  defeated  and  slew  his  rival, 


Adolphus  of  Nassau,  at  this  town  of  Germany, 
July  2,  1298. 

GELNHAUSEN  (Hesse-Cassel).  —  Frederick 
I.  (Barbarossa)  erected  a  castle  at  this  ancient 
free  imperial  city  in  1144.  The  town,  which 
suffered  severely  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
was  given  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel  by  a 
recess  of  the  deputation  of  the  empire  signed 
Feb.  25,  1803.  It  was  much  injured  by  the 
military  operations  of  the  campaign  of  1813. 

GEMAUERS  (Battle).— The  Swedes  defeated 
the  Russians  at  Gemauers,  or  Gemauershof, 
July  28,  1705. 

GEMBLOURS  (Battle).— Don  John  of  Aus- 
tria defeated  the  Netherlanders  with  great 
slaughter  at  this  place,  nine  miles  from  Na- 
mur,  Jan.  31,  1578. 

GEMS  have  been  held  in  high  estimation  from 
the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  Hindoo  poem 
of  Rama j  ana,  which  is  said  to  date  from  a 
period  of  2,000  years  B.C.,  mentions  them  ;  and 
they  were  employed  in  the  construction  of 
Aaron's  breastplate,  B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xxviii. 
15-29).  They  were  also  much  prized  by  the 
Egyptians,  Persians,  and  Phoenicians,  and  the 
historical  records  of  the  Mexicans  and  Peru- 
vians establish  the  antiquity  of  gems  as  orna- 
ments in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  The  Romans 
carried  the  admiration  of  gems  to  such  an 
excess,  that  in  460  it  was  found  necessary  to 
pass  a  law  prohibiting  their  use  in  the  harness 
of  their  horses.  On  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire,  the  demand  for  gems  abated  ;  but  it 
revived  in  the  i2th  century,  and  reached  its 
height  in  this  country  during  the  reigns  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 

GENDARMERIE,  a  name  given  to  a  chosen 
corps  of  cavalry  in  the  old  French  monarchy. 
It  was  formed  by  Charles  VII.  in  1439,  but  was 
not  known  as  the  gcndaimerie  till  the  i6th 
century.  The  gendarmerie  of  the  guard  was 
enrolled  by  Henry  IV.  in  1609,  and  suppressed 
in  1787.  It  was,  however,  restored  in  1791,  and 
regulated  by  ordinances  issued  April  17,  1797, 
and  Oct.  29,  1820. 

GENERAL.— Thifl  title,  which  originated  in 
France,  was  first  conferred  upon  the  com- 
mander of  the  royal  army  about  the  middle  of 
the  isth  century.  The  title  of  captain-general 
occurs  in  a  list  of  the  English  army  which 
served  at  St.  Quentin  in  1557.  In  i62oand  1639 
the  commander  of  our  army  bore  the  title  of 
lord  general. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY,  composed  of  laity 
and  clergy,  is  the  Convocation  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland.  The  first  was  held  in  1561.  James 
I.  suppressed  it,  and  it  was  restored  at  the 
Revolution.  The  Free  Church,  on  their  separa- 
tion in  1843,  established  an  independent  General 
Assembly. 

GENERAL  COUNCILS.  —  The  Anglican 
Church,  in  common  with  the  Universal 
Church,  acknowledges  only  the  first  six,  and 
the  Greek  Church  the  first  eight,  of  the  20 
general  councils  recognized  by  Rome. 

335,'  June  19— Aug.  25.  Council  of  Nicaea,  or  Nice,  in 
Bithynia,  was  summoned  by  Constantino  I. 
against  Arius. 

381,  May— July  30.  Council  of  Constantinople  (q.  r.). 

451,  June  22— July  31.  Council  of  Ephesus,  against 
Nestor  and  1'elugius. 


GENERAL 


[     435     1 


GENOA 


A.D. 

451,  Oct.  8—  Nov.  I.  Council  of  Chalcedon,  which  justified 

Flavian  and  anathematized  Dioscorus. 
553,  May  4—  June  2.  Council  of  Constantinople  (q.  v.). 
680,  Nov.  7  —  68  1,  Sep.  16.  Constantinople   q.v.). 
787,  Sep.  24  —  Oct.  23.  Council  of  Nictea,  or  Nice,  which 

anathematized    the     Iconoclasts,    and    restored 

Image-worship. 
869,  Oct.   5  —  870,   Feb.   28.    Council  of    Constantinople, 

which  deposed  Phocius,  and  restored  Ignatius. 
1123,  March  18—  April  5.  Council  of  l.ateran. 
1139,  April  20.  Council  of  Lateran,  for  the  reunion  of  the 

Church. 

1179,  March  5  —  19.  Council  of  Lateran,  on  discipline. 
12J5,  Nov.    11—30.     Council    of    Lateran,     against     the 

Albigenses,  &c. 
1245,  June  2'6  —  July  17.  Council  of  Lyons,  which  deposed 

Frederick  II.  of  Germany. 
1274,  May  7—  July  17.  Council  of  Lyons,  which  published 

ordinances  respecting  the  election  of  bishops,  &c., 

and  reunited  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
1311,  Oct.  16—1312,  May  6.    Council  of  Vienne,  in  Dau- 

phiny,  where  the  Pope  published  the  suppression 

of  the  Templars. 

1409,  March  25—  Aug.  7.  Council  of  Pisa. 
1414,  Nov.  16—1418,  April  22.  Couneil  of  Constnnce  (q.v.). 
1431,  July  23—1443,  May  16.  Council  of  Basel  {q.v.). 
1439,  Feb.  29  —  1442,  April  23.  Council  of  Florence  (q.  r.). 
1545,  Dec.  13—1563,  Dec.  3.    Council  of  Trent,  against  the 

doctrines  of  Luther,   Xuinglius,  and  Calvin,  and 

for  the  reformation  of  manners.* 


GENERAL  FUND.—  ( 
GENERAL   SAFETY  (Committee  of),  com- 

red  of  25  members,  and  established  at  Paris 
„  the  Revolutionary  party,  Oct.  2,  1792,  was 
superseded  by  the  Committee  of  Public 
Welfare  (q.  v.). 

GENERAL  "WARRANTS,  not  specifying  any 
particular  persons,  were  declared  illegal, 
Friday,  May  6,  1763.  John  Wilkes  had  been 
arrested  on  a  general  warrant,  Saturday,  April 
30,  1763.  Having  obtained  an  acquittal,  he 
brought  the  subject  forward  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  commenced  an  action  against 
Robert  Wood,  under-secretary  of  state,  for 
having  seized  his  papers.  This  was  tried  Dec. 
6,  1  763,  and  resulted  in  a  verdict  in  favour  of 
John  Wilkes,  with  ,£1,000  damages. 

GENERALISSIMO.  —  Cardinal  Richelieu  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  person  to  bear  this 
title,  which  he  did  on  taking  the  command  of 
a  French  army  in  Italy  in  1629. 

GENESIS,  the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch 
(q.v.),  was  written  by  Moses,  who  died  B.C.  1451. 

GENEVA  (Switzerland)  is  mentioned  by 
Csesar  as  a  town  p  f  the  Allobroges,  B.C.  58. 


200  (about).  Geneva  is  made  a  bishopric. 

426.  Geneva  is  taken  by  the  Burgundians,  who  make  it 

their  capital. 

534.  Geneva  is  seized  by  the  Franks. 
1385.  The  citizens  conclude  an  alliance  with  the  Count  of 

Savoy. 

1387.  Bishop  "Fabri  grants  the  town  a  charter. 
1417.  It  is  rendered  subject  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
1499.  Louis  XII.  and  Philibert  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  sign  a 
treaty  at  Geneva. 

1515,  Nov.   7.  Francis  I.  and  eight  of  the  Swiss  cantons 

conclude  a  treaty  at  Geneva. 

1516.  The  other  cantons  accede  to  the  treaty. 

1519.  The  inhabitants  conclude   a  treaty  'with  Freiburg 

and  Berne. 

1524.  The  Genevese  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Savoy. 
1535.  The   Calviuists   expel  the  bishop,    who  'retires    to 

Annecy,  in  Savoy. 


*  Authorities  differ  respecting  the  list,  some  making 
the  Council  of  Pisa  (1511,  Sep.  1—1512,  April  21)  and 
others  that  of  Lateran  (1512,  May  3—1517,  March  16) 
general  councils. 


A.D. 

1536.  Calvin  repairs  to  Geneva,  which  becomes  a  republic 

in  alliance  with  Berne. 
J553,  Oct.  27.  Michael  Servetus  is  burned,  at  Geneva,  for 

heresy. 
1584.  Geneva  forms  an  alliance  with  the  Swiss  cantons. 

1602.  The  Duke  of  Saxony  fails  in  an  attempt  to  effect 

its  capture. 

1603.  Henry    IV.,    of   France,    acknowledges    its  inde- 

pendence. 

1712-  A  general  assembly  is  convened,  but  without  im- 
portant results. 

1738.  The  republic  adopts  a  regular  constitution. 

1770.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed. 

1781,  Delay  in   the  publication  of  a  new  code   of  laws 

creates  great  dissatisfaction. 

1782,  March.  A  rebellion  breaks  out,  and  the  inhabitants 

admit  foreign  troops  into  the  city.— Sep.  One 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  petition  the  Irish 
government  for  permission  to  settle  in  Ireland, 
which  is  granted,  and  £50,000  are  voted  to  enable 
them  to  do  so. 

1783,  July.  A  deputation  arrives  in  Waterford  to  found 

New  Geneva;  but  after  £30,000  have  been  ex- 
pended, the  scheme  is  suddenly  abandoned. 

1789.  The  inhabitants  compel  the  magistrates  to  extend 
their  privileges. 

1794,  July.  A  revolution  takes  place,  some  of  the  gentry 
are  executed,  and  others  are  exiled,  or  imprisoned. 

1798,  April.  Geneva  is  annexed  to  the  French  republic. 

1814.  Geneva  is  restored  to  Switzerland,  of  which  it 
becomes  a  canton. 

1834,  Feb.  5.  Some  Polish  refugees  excite  the  lower  orders 
of  Geneva  to  aid  them  in  a  rebellion  against  the 
Sardinians. 

1846.  It  is  disturbed  by  insurgents,  who  obtain  an  alte- 
ration of  the  constitution,  which  becomes  more 
democratic. 

1849.  The  fortifications  are  destroyed. 

1860,  March  30.  From  50  to  80  persons,  who  had  set  out 
to  plant  the  Swiss  flag  at  Thonon  and  Kviau,  are 
arrested,  and  brought  back. 

1864,  Aug.    22.    Serious  disturbances  take   place  on  the 

election  of  a  member  of  the  council  of  state. — 
Aug.  23.  The  riot  is  suppressed  by  the  Swiss 
federal  troops,  who  occupy  the  city. 

1865,  Feb.  10.  The  military  occupation  ceases. 

GENEVIEVE,  ST.  (Missouri),  was  founded 
in  1755- 

GPJNEVOIS  (Italy).— This  province,  governed 
in  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  counts  of  Geneva, 
passed  to  the  house  of  Savoy  in  1564,  when  it 
was  erected  into  a  duchy.  In  1659  ^  was  m" 
corporated  with  Savoy,  and  in  1792  was  an- 
nexed to  France.  It  was  restored  to  Sardinia 
in  1815. 

GENNET  (Order  of).— This,  the  first  order  of 
chivalry  established  in  France,  was  founded  by 
Charles  Martel,  in  memory  of  his  victory  over 
the  Moors  between  Poitiers  and  Tours  in  732. 
It  was  named  Gennet,  or  Wood  Marten,  be- 
cause numbers  of  these  animals  were  found  in 
the  camp  of  the  invaders. 

GENOA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Genua  said  to 
have  been  founded  about  B.C.  707,  was  the  chief 
maritime  city  of  the  Ligures,  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  218,  was  in 
alliance  with  Rome.  Mago,  the  Carthaginian, 
seized  it  B.C.  205,  and  reduced  it  to  ruins ; 
but  it  was  rebuilt  by  Sp.  Lucretius,  B.C.  203. 

262.'  The  cathedral  is  founded. 

381.  A  bishop  of    Genoa  is  present  at  the  Council  of 

Aquileia. 

641.  Genoa  is  seized  by  the  Lombards. 
936.  It  is  pillaged  by  the  Saracens. 
985.  The  cathedral  is  rebuilt. 
1119.  War  is  declared  against  Pisa. 
1 1 22.  It  is  governed  by  consuls,  who  hold  their  office  for 

a  year  at  a  time. 

1133.  The  see  is  made  archiepiscopal. 
1146.  The  Genoese  take  Minorca  from  the  Moors. 

F   F   2 


GENOLA 


[    436    ] 


GEOLOGY 


1190.  The  administration  is  entrusted  to  a  podesta. 

1257.  '1 '"'  town  is  {roverned  by  a  captain. 

1370.  Doria    and    Spinola    usurp    the    government,   and 

a-Mime  the-  titles  of  Curtains  of  Liberty. 
1284.  Sca-fi-ht  of  .Melora  (<?.».). 

1390.  Tin-  Genoese  destroy  1'orto  Pisano. 
1293.  War  is  declared  against  Venice. 

1299.  An  advantageous  peace  is  concluded  with  Venice. 

1334.  The  citixen.s  appoint  Simon  BoceanegXO  dM0. 

1344.  Tim  nobles  depose  lioccaiiegro,  and  elect  Giovanni 

da  Murtn. 
1346.  The  Genoese  defeat  the  Venetians  near  Constan- 

tinople. 
1350.  The  republic  is  again  at  war  with  Venice. 

•caiK-Ki-o  is  reappointcd  dope. 
1381.  The  Genoese  again  make  peace  with  Venice. 

1391.  The  Genoese  place  themselves  under  the  protection 

of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  who  puts  them  under 

the  rule  of  Marshal  Uoucicaut. 
1399.  They   seek   assistance  from  the  Marquis  of   Mont- 

ferrat. 

1407.  The  Hank  of  St.  George  is  founded. 
1431.  The  Duke  of  Milan  is  invited  to  superintend  their 

government. 
1458.  They    place    themselves  under    the    protection    of 

Charles  VII.  of  France. 
1461,  March  9.   The  Genoese  expel  the  French  governor 

anil  jrarrison. 
1464.  Louis   XI.  re.-olves  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  so 

troublesome    a    dependency,    and    the    republic 

pas>e>  under  the  s\vay  of  the  Duke  of  Milan. 
I47v   Genoa  is  iu\  ailed  by  the  Turks. 
14-;.;.   It  i-,  a-.iin  subjected  to  the  French. 
1507.  An  insurrection  of  the  inhabitants  is  suppressed  by 

Bayard. 
1528.  Andrew  Doria  opposes  Francis  I.  and  obtain*  a  new 

constitution,  the   chief   power  being  in  the  hands 

of  a  do-,.,  elei-ted  biennially. 
1547,  Jan.   -.    l.oui.,    1'ieM-o   fails  in  a   conspiracy  again>t 

Andrew  Doria.     The  lifrhih«u>e  is  erected. 
1684.  Genoa   is    bombarded   by  the    French,  and    the  do-re 

repairs    to     VcrsaiHe,"    to     tender    submission    to 

Loub  \iv. 

1729.    Cornea  revolts. 

174.5,  s"i'-  -''•  (;''"":1  is  bombarded  by  Admiral  Rowley. 

1746,  Nov.  9.  It  surrenders  to  Charles   Kmanm  1,  King  of 

Sardinia,    and  the  Austrians.  —  Dec.   lo.     The  in- 
vaders arc  expelled  by  the  eiti/ens. 

1747,  Man  h  31.  The  Austrians  renew  the  siege. — June  lo. 

The  Austrians  retire. 

1768,  Aug.  5.  Corsica  is  ceded  to  France. 

17-7.   The  palace  of  the  do-.-  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
U] lied  by  the  French. 

1797,  June  14.  The  republic  assumes  the  title  of  the 
Ligurian  Republic. 

1800.  Massena  i.,  besieged  in  Genoa  by  the  EnglNh  and 
Austrians. — June  4.  lie  is  compelled  1<>  retire. 

1805,  June  4.  Genoa  is  incorporated  with  the  French 
empire. 

1812.  The  university  is  founded. 

1814,  April  18.  Genoa  surrenders  to  the  English  under  Sir 
William  Itentinck.— Dec.  14.  It  is  annexed  to  Sar- 
dinia by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

1828.  The  Carlo  Felice  theatre,  the  largest  in  the  city,  is 
opened. 

1846,  Sep.  27.  A  monument  is  commenced  in  honour  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa. 

1849,  April  3.  The  inhabitants  expel  the  Sardinian  forces, 
a:id  proclaim  the  restoration  of  the  Ligurian  He- 
pnblie.  The  city  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siejie 
by  Gen.  Iiella  .Marmora. — April  II.  The  city  sur- 
renders. 

1853.  The  harbour  is  connected  with  Turin  by  a  railway. 

is-.o,  .May  12.  Napoleon  III.  di>enibarks  to  join  the  French 
army  in  the  war  against  Austria. 

1860,  May   5.     Garibaldi   embarks   for   Sicily  with   2,ooo 

men. 

1861,  June.  7  and  8.  The  theatres,  &c.,  are  closed,  in  con- 

sequence of  the  funeral  of  Count  Cavour. 

GEXOLA  (Battle).— The  French,  under  Cham- 
piomiet,  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians,  under 
Gen.  Mclas,  at  this  place,  in  Northern  Italy, 

^  GENTILLY  (FranceW St.  Eligius,  who  died 
in  659,  founded  a  monastery  at  this  town, 


which  was  annexed  to  the  bishopric  of  Paris 
by  Louis  II.  (the  Stammerer)  in  878.  A  council 
concerning  images  was  held  here  in  767. 

GENTLEMAN.—  This  name  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  f/fittilis,  which  signified  such  aswere 
of  the  same  family  or  gens,  and  is  a  corruption 
of  the  French  ytntilhomme.  It  exists  in  some 
form  in  all  the  Romance  languages,  and  is  de- 
fined by  Selden  (Titles  of  Honour,  p.  852)  as 
"  one  that,  either  from  the  blood  of  his  ances- 
tors, or  the  favour  of  his  sovereign,  or  of  them 
that  heave  power  of  sovereignty  in  them,  or 
from  his  own  virtue,  employment,  or  otherwise 
according  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  honour  in 
the  country  we  speak  of,  is  ennobled,  made 
gentile,  or  so  raised  up  to  an  eminency  above 
the  multitude,  perpetually  inherent  in  his  per- 
son, that  by  those  laws  and  customs  he  be  truly 
nt,/,;ilx  or  nnble,  whether  he  have  any  of  the 
precedent  titles  or  not  fixed  besides  on  him." 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS.— This  branch  of 
the  royal  body-guard,  instituted  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  1509,  under  the  title  of  the  "Band  of 
Gentlemen  Pensioners,"  originally  numbered 
50  men,  reduced  to  40  by  Charles  II.  in  1670. 
It  received  its  present  designation  from  William 
IV.  in  1834. 

( ;  i-;<  >( ;  HAPHICAL   SOCIETY.— Maite-Bnm 

founded  one  at  Paris  in  1821.  The  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  London  was  founded  in 

1830.  The    African    Association,    established 
June  9,  1788,  was  incorporated  with  it  July  23, 

1831.  The  Palestine  Association,   founded  in 
1805,  joined  it  March  4,  1834  ;  and  the  Geogra- 
phical Society  of    Bengal,   founded    in   1831, 
joined  it  in  June,  1832. 

( i  l-K  >< ;  KA  PHY.— Egyptian  tradition  ascribes 
the  origin  of  this  science  to  Hermes  or.  .Mer- 
cury, and  the  invention  of  geographical  maps 
-iris,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  1618. 
The  first  Grecian  map  was  prepared  by  Anaxi- 
mander  of  Miletus,  about  B.C.  568,  and  the 
science,  reduced  to  rule  by  Eratosthenes,  B.C. 
240,  was  afterwards  improved  by  Ilipparchus, 
B.C.  135.  Strabo,  who  flourished  B.C.  71  to 
A.D.  14,  is  the  most  eminent  of  the  ancient 
geographers.  Modern  geography  was  revived 
by  the  Moors,  who  introduced  it  into  Spain 
in  1201.  In  1478,  Arnold  Buckinck  published 
at  Rome  an  edition  of  Ptolemy's  Geography, 
illustrated  with  copper-plate  engraved  maps; 
and  in  1532  Simon  Grynaeus  printed  an  ac- 
count of  the  state  of  geography  in  his  time, 
embodying  the  recent  discoveries  of  the  Spa- 
niards and  Portuguese.  Maritime  charts  were 
brought  to  England  by  Bartholomew  Columbus 
in  1488.  Ramusio's  collection  of  Travels  ap- 
peared in  1550,  and  Ferrari's  Lexicon  Geogra- 
phicum  in  1627.  The  first  volume  of  Malte- 
Brun's  Geography  was  published  in  1810. 

GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  was  instituted  in 
London  in  1807,  and  its  charter  of  incorporation 
is  dated  April  23,  1826.  The  Royal  Geological 
Society  of  Cornwall  was  founded  Feb.  n,  1814. 
The  Geological  Society  of  Dublin  was  founded 
in  Feb.,  1832 ;  that  of  Edinburgh  in  1834 ;  of 
Manchester  in  1838  ;  and  of  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire  in  1838.  The  French  Geological 
Society  was  established  in  1830. 

<;!•:•>  LOGY  is  a  science  of  recent  origin, 
although  the  knowledge  of  fossils  attained  by 


GEOMETRY 


[     437     1 


GEORGE 


Frascatorio  in  1517,  and  the  deductions  Agricola 
drew  from  the  information  of  the  Saxon  miners 
in  1546,  might  naturally  have  led  to  its  culti- 
vation. Kircher's  "  Mundus  Subterrancus," 
which  appeared  in  1662,  contains  all  then 
known  on  the  subject.  In  1683,  Dr.  Lister  sug- 
gested the  preparation  of  maps  exhibiting  the 
various  soils  of  England,  and  in  1694  Bumet 
published  his  "  Theory  of  the  Earth."  Wood- 
ward's theory  appeared  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions"  for  1695  ;  and  Whiston  published 
his  work  on  the  same  subject  in  1696.  In  1743, 
Parke  published  his  (Jhorographical  Chart  of 
East  Kent,  and  in  1749  the  "Protog^a"  of 
Leibnitz  announced  his  views  on  the  science. 
The  first  volumes  of  Buffon's  "Natural  His- 
tory, "  which  also  appeared  in  1 749,  are  devoted 
to  his  exposition  of  the  theory  of  the  earth, 
which  he  was  afterwards  compelled  by  the 
Sorbonne  to  recant.  The  regular  order  of  strata 
was  proved  by  the  Swedish  philosopher  Tylas, 
in  1750,  and  enlarged  upon  by  the  German 
Lehmann  in  1756.  Werner's  treatise  on  mine- 
rals appeared  in  1774,  and  was  controverted  by 
Hutton  in  1795.  English  geology  may  be  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  William  Smith,  who 
walked  over  nearly  the  whole  of  England  in 
order  to  prepare  his  "  Tabular  View  of  British 
Strata,"  which  he  published  in  1815. 

GEOMETRY.— Herodotus  and  other  ancient 
writers  state  that  this  science  was  first  culti- 
vated in  Egypt,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  Greece  by  Thales  (B.C.  636—3.0.  546).  Py- 
thagoras, born  about  B.C.  580,  and  Hippocrates, 
B.C.  480,  made  many  important  additions  to  the 
science,  which  was  enriched  by  the  writings  of 
Euclid,  B.C.  285.  Archimedes,  born  B.C.  287, 
and  Ptolemy,  who  floiirished  in  125,  are  also 
eminent  among  the  ancient  geometricians. 
Geometry,  with  the  other  sciences,  suffered  a 
temporary  decline  in  consequence  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  Alexandrian  library  by  Omar  I. 
in  640.  It  was  revived  by  the  Moors  in  the 
dark  ages,  and  gradually  resumed  its  rank  as  an 
important  branch  of  mental  education.  Euclid 
was  first  translated  into  Latin  about  the  year 
1150,  by  a  monk  of  Bath,  named  Adelard,  or 
Athelard;  and  Thomas  Brad wardin,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  1349,  was  eminent 
for  his  skill  in  this  science.  Lamberti's  trans- 
lation of  Euclid  appeared  in  1505,  and  the  trea- 
tise of  Regiomontanus  on  triangles  in  1533.  In 
1552,  books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were 
condemned  to  be  burned  in  England  as  con- 
nected with  necromancy ;  but  the  science 
appears  to  have  speedily  regained  the  public 
good  opinion,  as  the  first  English  translation  of 
Euclid  appeared  in  1570.  The  application  of 
algebra  to  geometry  was  brought  to  perfection 
by  Descartes,  1596 — 1650.  Kepler's  treatise  on 
the  capacity  of  casks,  which  appeared  in  1615, 
originated  the  modern  school  of  geometry, 
which  was  brought  to  fuller  perfection  by  Ca- 
valieri  of  Bologna  in  1626.  Among  modern 
geometers,  Pascal  (1623 — 1662),  Simson,  whose 
Euclid,  first  published  in  1756,  still  maintains 
its  rank  as  one  of  the  best,  and  Legendre 
(1752 — 1833),  are  the  most  distinguished.  (See 
DEGREES  or  GEOMETRY.) 

GEORGE.— George  florins,  coined  at  Orleans, 
were  made  current  in  England  in  Feb.,  1340. 


George  nobles  of  gold  were  first  corned  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  1533.  Their  value  was  six 
shillings  and  eightpence. 

GEORGES  CONSPIRACY.— This  plot 
against  the  life  of  Napoleon  I.  takes  its  name 
from  its  originator,  Georges  Cadoudal,  a  Chouan 
chief.  He  associated  with  him  in  the  scheme 
Gens.  Moreau  and  Pichegru,  and  others  ; 
but  the  affair  becoming  known  Feb.  16,  1804, 
the  leaders  were  arrested,  and  the  plot  was 
abandoned.  Pichegru  was  found  strangled  in 
prison,  April  6  ;  Moreau  was  sentenced  to  two 
years'  exile  June  10 ;  and  Cadoudal  was  exe- 
cuted June  25. 

GEORGE'S  CLUB  (London),  which  met  on 
St.  George's  Day  (April  23),  at  the  sign  of  the 
George,  and  the  members  of  which  were  used 
to  swear  "before  George,"  is  mentioned  as 
"  still  fresh  in  every  one's  memory  "  in  the 
Spectator,  No.  9,  March  10,  1710-11. 

GEORGE,  ST.,  or  George  of  Cappadocia, 
was  born  in  Cilicia,  according  to  some  autho- 
rities, and  in  Cappadocia  according  to  others, 
in  the  4th  century.  The  English  crusaders 
found  St.  George  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a 
warrior  saint,  bearing  the  title  Victorious, 
in  1096.  The  Council  of  Oxford  (June  u, 
1222)  commanded  his  feast  to  be  kept  a  holi- 
day of  the  lesser  rank.  Edward  III.  made 
him  patron  of  the  order  of  the  Garter,  and 
from  that  time  he  has  been  the  tutelary  saint 
of  England.  St.  George  was  the  ancient 
English  war-cry.  His  day  is  April  23. 

GEORGE,  ST.— This  town,  on  the  island 
of  St.  George's,  one  of  the  Bermudas,  was 
founded  in  1613.  The  general  assembly  was 
instituted  to  meet  at  this  town  Aug.  i,  1620. 
The  government  house  was  built  in  1847. 

GEORGE,  ST.  (Knights  of).— There  have 
been  several  orders  of  St.  George.  Frederick 
III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  founded  one  in 

1470,  as  a  defence  against  the  Turks. The 

military  Russian  order  of  St.  George  was 
founded  by  Catherine  II.,  Nov.  26,  1769.  It 
was  afterwards  neglected,  but  was  restored  to 
its  original  dignity  by  Alexander  I.,  Dec.  12, 

1801. The  order  of  St.  George  of  the  Reunion 

was  founded  by  Joseph  Buonaparte  as  the 
order  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  Feb.  24,  1808,  re- 
modelled in  1815  by  Ferdinand  I.,  and 
received  its  present  name  from  King  Ferdi- 

nandll.,  Jan.  i,  1819. TheorderofSt.  George 

of  Lucca  was  established  by  the  Duke  Charles 

Louis,  June  i,  1833. The  Hanoverian  order 

of  St.  George  was  founded  April  23,  1839.  (See 
ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  GEORGE.) 

GEORGE,  ST.  (Religious  Order).— The  order 
of  St.  George  in  Algha,  founded  at  Venice  by 
Antony  Corrario  and  Gabriel  Gondelmaire  in 
1404,  was  suppressed  by  Clement  IX.  in  1668. 

GEORGE'S  (ST.)  HOSPITAL,  near  Hyde 
Park  Corner,  London,  was  founded  in  1733. 
The  present  edifice  was  erected  in  1830. 

GEORGE'S  (ST.)  ISLAND,  one  of  the 
Azores,  was  colonized  by  some  Flemings  and 

Portuguese  in  1450. Another  island  of  the 

same  name,  one  of  the  Bermudas,  was  colo- 
nized by  the  English  in  1612. 

GEORGE  THE  FIRST,  son  of  Ernest,  the 
Elector,  and  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover, 
was  born  at  Osnaburg,  May  28,  1660.  He 


GEORGE 


[    438    1 


GEORGIA 


married  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Zell,  in  1682.  She  died  a  prisoner  at 
Alilen,  Nov.  2,  1726.  They  had  one  son  (see 
GEORGE  II.)  and  a  daughter,  named  Sophia 
Dorothea,  bom  March  16,  1687,  and  married 
to  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia  in  1706. 
George  I.  succeeded  to  the  electorate  of  Han- 
over in  1698,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  Act  of  Settlement,  became  king  on  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne,  Aug.  i,  1714.  He  ar- 
rived at  Greenwich  Sep.  18,  entered  London 
Sep.  20,  and  was  crowned  Oct.  20,  1714.  He 
died  at  Osiiaburg,  on  a  journey  to  Hanover, 
June  n,  1727. 

GEORGE  THE  SECOND,  the  only  son  of 
George  I.  and  Sophia  Dorothea,  was  born  at 
Hanover  Oct.  30,  1683.  He  married  Wilhel- 
mina  Caroline,  daughter  of  John  Frederick, 
Margrave  of  Braiidenburg-Anspuch,  Aug.  22, 
1705.  They  had  three  sons  and  five  daughters : 
Frederick  Louis,  born  Jan.  20,  1707,  made 
Duke  of  Gloucester  Jan.  10,  1718,  died  March 
20,  1751  ;  Anne,  born  in  1709,  died  Jan.  12, 
1759  ;  Amelia,  boni  in  1711  ;  Caroline,  in  1713  ; 
George  William,  born  Nov.  3,  1713,  died  in 
1714;  William  Augustus,  born  in  April,  1721, 
created  Duke  of  Cumberland  in  1726,  and  died 
in  1765  ;  Mary,  born  in  1723,  married  in  1740 
to  Frederick,  Landgrave  of  Ilesse-Cassel ;  and 
Louisa,  born  in  1724,  married  in  1743  to  Fre- 
derick V.  of  Denmark.  George  II.  succeeded 
his  father  June  n,  1727.  He  died  suddenly  at 
Kensington,  Oct.  215,  1760. 

GEORGE  TIIK  THIRD,  the  eldest  son  of 
Frederick  Louis,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  Augusta 
of  Saxe-Gotha.  married  April  25,  1736,  was 
born  in  Norfolk  House,  St.  James's  Square, 
May  24,  1738  (O.S.).  He  succeeded  his  grand- 
father, George  II.,  Oct.  25,  1760.  He  married 
Charlotte  Sophia  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Sep. 
8,  1761.  His  queen  died  at  Kew,  Nov.  17, 
1818.  They  had  nine  sons  and  six  daughters. 
George  Augustus  Frederick,  afterwards  George 
IV.  (q.v.) ;  Frederick,  born  Aug.  16,  1763,  made 
Duke  of  York  Nov.  27,  1789,  and  died  Jan.  3, 
1827  ;  William  Henry,  afterwards  William  IV. 
(q.v.);  Charlotte  Augusta  Matilda,  born  Sep. 

29,  1766  ;    Edward,  born  Nov.   2,  1767,   made 
Duke  of  Kent  in  April,    1799,   died  Jan.   23, 
1820  ;  Augusta  Sophia,  bom  Nov.  8,  1768,  died 
in  1840;  Elizabeth,  born  May  22,  1770;  Ernest 
Augustus,  born  June  5,  1771,  made  Duke  of 
Cumberland  in  April,  1799,  died  Nov.  18,  1851  ; 
Augustus  Frederick,  born  Jan.  27,  1773,  made 
Duke  of  Sussex  in  April,   1779,  died  April  21, 
1843  ;  Adolphus  Frederick,  born  Feb.  24,  1774, 
made  Duke  of  Cambridge  in  April,  1799,  died 
July  8,  1850  ;  Mary,  born  April  25,  1776,  became 
Duchess  of  Gloucester  July  22,  1816,  died  April 

30,  1857;  Sophia,  born  Nov.  5,  1777,  died  May 
27,  1848;  Amelia,  born  Aug.  8,  1783,  died  Nov. 
2,  1 8 10 ;  and  Charlotte  Caroline  Augusta,  born 
Jan.  7,   1796,  and  died  Nov.  6,   1817.     George 
III.  died  at  Windsor,  Saturday,  Jan.  29,  1820, 
in  the  6oth  year  of  his  reign. 

GEORGE  THE  FOURTH,  the  eldest  son  of 
George  III.,  was  born  Aug.  12,  1762.  He 
married  Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth,  second 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  April  8, 
1795.  They  had  one  daughter,  Charlotte 
Augusta,  born  Jan.  7,  1796,  and  married  to 


Prince  Leopold,  afterwards  King  of  the  Bel- 
gians, May  2,  1816.  She  died  Nov.  6,  1817. 
George  IV.  separated  from  his  wife  in  1796. 
She  was  accused  of  having  given  birth  to  a  son 
in  1802,  and  a  commission  of  inquiry  was  in- 
stituted in  1806.  The  evidence  was  published 
in  a  volume,  entitled  "  The  Book,"  in  1813.  He 
ascended  the  throne  Jan.  29,  1820;  and  Queen 
Caroline,  who  had  retired  to  the  continent  in 
1816,  returned  to  London  June  6,  1820.  She 
was  refused  admittance  to  Westminster  Abbey 
at  the  coronation,  July  19,  1821  ;  and,  falling 
ill,  died  at  Hammersmith  Aug.  7,  1821.  George 
IV.  died  at  Windsor,  June  26,  1830. 

GEORGE  THE  FOURTH'S  CORONATION 
GULF  (Arctic  Sea)  was  discovered  and  named 
by  Franklin  in  July,  1821. 

GtiORGE  TOWN  (United  States).— A  Roman 
Catholic  College  was  erected  at  this  town  in 
Maryland  in  1789,  which  received  authority 
from  Congress  to  confer  degrees  in  1815.  There 
is  also  the  Convent  of  Visitation,  which  was 

founded  in  1798. George  Town,  formerly 

called  Stabrock,  in  British  Guiana,  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  29,  1828. 

GEORGE  TOWN,  or  PORT  DALRY.M  1'LU 
(Tasmania). — This  town  was  founded  by  the 
English  in  1809. 

<i  KnR<;  I A  Asia. — This  country,  lying  be- 
tween the  Caspian  and  the  Black  seas,  corre- 
sponds to  the  ancient  Iberia  q.  i\).  The  pre- 
sent name  is  derived  from  Gurj,  Gurj-i-staii, 
or  Gurg-i-stan,  "the  land  of  wolves,"  the  de- 
signation given  it  by  the  Arabs  and  Persians 
in  the  nth  and  i2th  centuries.  Alp  Arsaii 
conquered  the  country  1065-8.  The  Tartars 
invaded  it  in  1235,  and  Timour  conquered  it  in 
1388,  retiring  in  1404.  The  Turks  obtained 
]  ii  issstssion  of  a  largo  portion  of  Georgia  in  1589, 
and  it  fell  under  the  Persian  yoke  in  1618.  The 
Russians  obtained  great  influence  in  the  coun- 
try early  in  the  i8th  century.  Peter  the  Great 
obtained  some  provinces  by  treaty  in  1723  and 
1724,  and  though  they  were  subsequently 
restored,  Georgia  was  declared  a  Russian  pro- 
vince in  1800.  George  XIII.,  its  last  king,  be- 
queathed his  dominions  to  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
by  will,  dated  Oct.  28,  1800,  and  Alexander  I. 
published  a  manifesto  accepting  the  respon- 
sibility, Sep.  12,  1801.  Other  parts  of  the 
country  were  acquired  by  the  Russians  in 
1813,  1828,  and  1829. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF  GEORGIA. 

F1KST  DYNASTY. 
B.C.  I  B.C. 

Karthlix.  Ouplos. 

Mitzkhothos. 

The  country  is  invaded  by  the  Scythians,  who  put  an 
end  to  this  dynasty  in  the  TthTwntury  B.C. 

SECOND   DYNAST  r. 
B.C.  !  B.C. 

247.  Pharnavaz.  I  140.  Mirvan. 

215.  Soumiag.  I  109.  Pharnadj. 

DYNASTY  OF  THE  ARSACIDK^. 
71.  Archag  I.  I    lo.  Archag  II. 

Artag.  A.D. 

44.  Bortom.  |      i.  Aderkhi. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  KINGDOM. 
A.D.  A.I). 

58.  Bartos  and  Khartham.      103.  Amaasp  and  Dnrokh. 
74.  Pharsainan       I.      and  i  113.  Pharsaman      II.     and 

Kliaos.  Mirdat 

87.  Asork  and  Annasel.        I 


GEORGIA 


[     439     1 


GERMANIC 


THE  MONARCHY  RESTORED. 


A.D. 

123.  Adam. 

135.  Pharsaman  III. 

183.  Amsasp  II. 

186.  Itev. 

DYNASTY  Ol 
26>  Mirian. 
343.  Bakhar. 
364.  Mirdat  III. 
379.  Barsabakhar. 
395.  Tirdat. 
405.  Pharsaman  IV. 
408.  Mirdat  IV. 
413.  Artchil. 
434.  Mirdat  V. 
440.  Vakhtang. 
499.  Datehi.| 
538.  Bakour  I. 
53ii.  1'liarsaman  V. 


A.D. 

313.  Vatche". 
331.  Bakour. 
343-  Mirdat  II. 
363.  Asphagour. 

THE  SASSANIDES. 
533.  Pharsaman  VI. 
557.  Bakour  II. 
563.  Stephanos  I. 
574.  Gouram  Pagratides. 
600.  Stephanos  II. 
614.  Adarnassus. 
639.  Stephanos  III. 
635.  Moslem   Invasion  and 

Interregnum. 
730.  Minnan,  or  Mir. 
760.  Artchil  II. 

[.  Joanne1     and    Djouan- 
cher. 


DYNASTY  OF  THE  BAGRATIDES. 
-787.  Achot.  I  845.  David  I. 

841.  Bagrat  I.  |  881.  Aternitch. 

(After  which  the  list  is  confused.) 

GEORGIA  (United  States)  was  founded  and 
named  after  George  II.,  by  an  English  com- 
pany, in  1732.  The  Spaniards  invaded  Georgia 
in  1742.  It  became  crown  property  in  1752, 
and  the  provincial  legislature  was  established 
in  1755.  Georgia  joined  the  Confederacy  in 
1776,  was  occupied  by  the  English  from  1778 
to  1786,  and  was  one  of  the  original  states  of 
the  Union.  Its  constitution,  framed  in  1785, 
was  remodelled  in  1798 ;  and  it  seceded  Jan. 
19,  1861. 

GEORGIAN,  or  TAHITIAN  ISLANDS  (Pa- 
cific), were  discovered  by  Wallis  in  1767.  (See 
OTAHEITE.) 

GEORGIEVSK  (Russia),  founded  in  1771, 
was  from  1793  to  1825  the  capital  of  the  Cau- 
casus. 

GEORGINIA.— (See  DAHLIA.) 

GEORGIUM  SIDUS.— William  Herschel  dis- 
covered this  planet  March  13,  1781,  and  named 
it  in  honour  of  George  III.  It  has  been  called 
Herschel,  and  more  generally  Uranus.  Two 
satellites  were  discovered  in  1787,  two  in  1790, 
and  two  in  1794. 

GEPID^E.— This  Germanic  tribe,  originally 
inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  expelled 
the  Burgundians  from  Northern  Germany  in 
the  middle  of  the  3rd  century,  and  invaded 
the  Roman  territory  in  269.  Having  been  con- 
quered by  the  Huns  late  in  the  4th  century, 
they  regained  their  independence  on  the  death 
of  Attila  in  453,  but  are  not  mentioned  after 
566  or  567. 

GERBEROI  (Battle).— William  I.  was  wound- 
ed in  a  battle  fought  at  this  place  in  1078. 
Having  engaged  in  a  personal  encounter  with 
his  son  Robert,  who  had  joined  Philip  I,,  King 
of  France,  his  horse  was  killed,  and  his  own 
life  placed  in  great  peril. 

GERBEROI  (France).— Henry  II.  of  England 
seized  this  town  in  Oct.,  1160,  and  in  1418  it 
was  taken  by  the  Burgundians  and  English, 
from  whom  it  was  wrested  in  1432  by  the 
Coxuit  of  Clermont,  who  reduced  it  to  ruins. 
The  English,  who  failed  in  an  attempt  in  1435, 
seized  it  in  1449.  and  were  expelled  by  Louis 
de  Soyecourt  de'  Mony.  It  was  pillaged  by 
the  Burgundians  in  1472,  delivered  from  the 


Leaguers  in  June,   1591,    and  was  retaken  by 
them  in  1593  and  1594. 

GERBI,  JERBA,  or  ZERBI  (Mediterranean). 
— This  island,  the  ancient  Meninx,  situated 
near  the  coasts  of  Tunis,  the  refuge  of  Marius 
when  expelled  from  Africa,  B.C.  87,  was  taken 
in  the  i6th  century  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
were  driven  out  by  the  Turks  in  1560. 

GERGOVIA  (France).  — Vercingetorix  de- 
feated Cassar  in  an  attempt  to  capture  this 
city,  belonging  to  the  Averni,  B.C.  52.  The 
modern  Gergoie,  near  Clermont,  occupies  its 
site. 

GERIZIM  (Palestine).— On  this  mountain  of 
Samaria,  Darius  Nothus  (B.C.  424 — 405)  erected 
a  temple  designed  to  supersede  that  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus 
about  B.C.  127,  and  its  site  was  transferred  to 
the  Christians  by  the  Emperor  Zeno  in  474. 

GERMAIN-EN-LAYE,  ST.  (France).— King 
Robert  II.  built  the  monastery  of  St.  Germanus 
in  the  nth  century.  Louis  VI.  resided  here 
in  1124.  The  English  burned  the  town  in  1346, 
in  1419,  and  in  1438.  A  palace  was  built  by 
Charles  V.  in  1370.  Francis  I.  rebuilt  it  in 
1547,  and  it  was  improved  by  various  sove- 
reigns. James  II.  of  England  held  a  mock 
court  here  from  1689  till  his  death,  Sep.  6,  1701. 
Napoleon  I.  established  a  military  school  in 
1809,  and  English  troops  were  quartered  here 
in  1815. 

GERMAIN-EN-LAYE,  ST.,  or  ST. GERMAIN 
(Treaties).— Several  treaties  have  been  con- 
cluded at  this  place.  The  first,  signed  by 
Charles  IX.  and  Admiral  Coligny  Aug.  8,  1570, 
accorded  liberty  of  worship  to  the  French 
Huguenots,  with  amnesty  for  their  past  oppo- 
sition to  government  and  permission  to  reside 

in  any  part  of  the  kingdom. By  another, 

concluded  March  17,  1632,  Canada  and  other 
portions  of  N.  America,  captured  by  the  Eng- 

ish  during  the  war,  were  restored  to  France. 

Another,  signed  Oct.  26,  1635,  established  an 
alliance  between  Louis  XIII.  of  France  and  the 
Duke  of  Weimar,  who  received  the  landgraviate 
of  Alsace  and  a  large  sum  of  money  in  return 
ror  supplying  18,000  men  to  the  French  army. 

Great  Britain,   Sweden,    and  the  States- 

jeneral  signed,  April  25,  1668,  a  preliminary 
treaty,  confirmed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (q.  v.), 

Vlay  12,  1668. Peace  was  restored  between. 

Frederick  William,  Duke  of  Prussia,  and  the 
iings  of  France  and  Sweden,  by  another  treaty 
signed  here  June  29,  1679. 
GERMAN  BAPTISTS.— (See  DUNKERS.) 
GERMAN  KNIGHTS.— The  knights  of  Ger- 
many formed  during  the  Middle  Ages  a  feudal 
order  acknowledging  no  authority.  The  Em- 
jeror  Rodolph  I.  (of  Habsburg)  dismantled 
nany  of  their  castles  in  Thuringia  in  1289. 
jrdtz  von  Berlichingen  and  Hans  Selbig  von 
?rauenstein,  two  of  the  most  notorious  German 
mights,  attacked  a  caravan  between  Forcheim 
and  Neuss  in  May,  1512,  capturing  31 
522  the 


and  a  considerable  booty.  In  1522  the  knights 
under  Hans  Thomas  von  Absberg  infested  all 
;he  roads  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nuremberg, 
and  cut  off  the  right  hands  of  their  prisoners, 
iickingen,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Rhenish 
knights,  also  headed  a  league  of  his  fellow 
nobles  formed  at  Landau  in  the  spring  of  1522 


GERMAN 


[     440     ] 


GERMANY 


and,  under  the  pretence  of  assisting  the  Refor- 
mation, declared  war  against  the  Archbishop 

of  Treves,  Aug.  27.  lie  was  put  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire  Oct.  8,  and  in  April,  1523, 
was  besieged  in  his  castle  of  Landstuhl,  which 
capitulated  to  Philip  of  Hesse,  the  Elector  of 
Treves,  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  May  7,  when 
he  died  of  his  wounds.  (See  BARONS  OF 
(ii;i;\i 

( ;  I :  U  M  A  X  LEGAL  PROTECTION  SOCIETY. 
—This  association  of  German  residents  in 
London  defended  Franz  Miiller,  charged  with 
having  murdered  Mr.  Thomas  Briggs  in  a 
carriage  of  the  North  London  Railway, 
July  9,  1864.  The  prisoner,  who  had  es- 
caped to  New  York,  was  arrested  there  by 
Inspector  Tanner,  of  the  London  detective 
police  force,  Aug.  24,  and  arrived  in  custody 
at  Liverpool  ,Sep.  17.  His  trial,  which  com- 
menced Oct.  27,  terminated  in  a  conviction 
Oct.  29  ;  and  in  spite  of  vigorous  efforts  to 
procure  a  mitigation  of  his  .sentence,  he  was 
executed  at  Newgate,  having  previously  con- 
fessed his  guilt,  Nov.  14. 

G  BEMAN,  SAN  I'orto  Rico),  was  founded  in 
1511. 

GERMANIC    CONFEDERATION.  —  This 

union  of  the  states  of   Germany,  formed  by  an 

act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  June  8,  1815,  to 

de    the    Confederation    of     the     Rhine 

(fj.  c.),  comprised  the  umpire   of  Austria:  the 

kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Hanover,  I'russia.Sax. my, 

and  Wurlemberg  ;  the  grand-duchies  oi  liaden, 

and    Saxe-Weimar  ;     the 

duchies  of  lirunswick  and  8 

the  free  cities  of  Bremen,  I-'rankfort-on-the 
Maine,  Hamburg,  and  Lubeck  ;  and  sonic 
minor  states.  The  soth  anniversary  of  its 
foundation  was  celebrated  June  8,  1865.  In 
consequence  of  the  Prussian  invasion  of  Saxony 
(q.  T.),  Anhalt  and  Waldeck  seceded  from  the 
Confederation  June  25,  1866.  (Si>  l'i;i 

GKKMANo,  SAN  (Italy.— An  agreement 
between  the  Kmperor  Frederick  1 1.  and  1'ope 
Honorius,  deferring  the  crusade  till  Aug., 
1227,  was  concluded  at  this  Neapolitan  town, 
in  July,  1225.  Frederick  II.  concluded  a  hu- 
miliating treaty  of  peace  with  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  -June  14,  1230.  The  town  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards  iu  1730;  and  the  Austrians 
defeated  Murat  here  March  16,  1815. 

G  HUMANS,  ST.  (Cornwall).-- The  scat  of  the 
bishopric  of  Cornwall  i/.  r.  ,  founded  in  909. 

GHKMANTOWN  Battle  .  The  English  de- 
feated the  Americans  at  this  town  (included 
within  the  limits  of  Philadelphia  since  1854), 
in  Pennsylvania,  Oct.  4,  1777. 

GERMANY.— The  Romans  applied  the  term 
Gormania  to  a  much  more  extensive  tract  of 
country  than  that  at  present  known  under  the 
name  of  Germany.  It  was  occupied  by  various 
warlike  tribes,  the  name  itself  meaning  "  man 
of  war." 


113.  The  Cimbri  and  Teutoncs  cross  the  Danube.     (See 
XOKKIA,  Battle.) 

102.  They  :irc  defeated  by  Manns,  nt  Aqua>  Sextirc. 
7.!.  ArioviMus,  King  of 'the  Murcomannie  Suevi,  sci/cs 

Burgundy. 
55.  Julius   Ca>sar   builds    a    wooden    bridge    over    the 

lildne,  and  enters  Germany. 
13-9.  Drusus  makes  four  incursions  into  Germany. 


9.  Battle  of  Teutoburg  (</.  ?-.). 
14.  Gcrmanieus  invadr.s  Germany. 
31.  The   Hermans  eonsi)ire  against  Arminius,  and  put 

him  to  death. 

go.  Colonia  Agrippina  is  founded. 
69.  The  Batavi  revolt  under  Claudius  Civilis. 
86.  The  Germans,  under  Deeerbal,  defeat  Domitian,  and 

compel  him  to  pay  tribute. 
131.  Hadrian  constructs  a  wall  from  the  Khine  to  the 

Danube. 
180.  The  Romans  withdraw  from  their  garrisons  beyond 

the  Danube. 

238.  The  Franks  appear  in  Caul. 
288.  The  Saxon   confederation   is  mentioned  by  Eutro- 

pius. 

375.  Tlie  Huns  invade  Germany. 
409.  The  Aliini,  Suevi,  mid  Vandals  enter  Spain. 
420.  The  Vandals  invade  Africa. 

449.  The.  Saxons,  and  oilier  tribes,  appear  in  England. 

450.  The  Huns  inxadeCaul. 

568.  The  Longohardi  im  adc  Italy. 
7-2.  Charlemagne  dec-lares  war  against  the  Saxons. 
7^5.  The-  Saxons  promi>e  Mibmir-.-ion,  and  receive  Chris- 
tianity. 
800,  Dec.  25.  Charlemamie  is  cr  >wned  Emperor  of  the 

West.    (Sir  iioi.v  HOMAN-  EMPIKE.) 

843,  Aug.  II.  The  treaty  of  Verdun  (7.  r. ). 

i.ermans.  under  Arnold,  take-  Hume  by  storm. 
911.  Louis  the  Child  dies,   which   puts  nn   end  to  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Caroliugians  in  Germany.   Conrad, 
Duke  of  Franconia,  is  elected  king  iu  his  stead, 
Nov.  8. 
934.   Henry  I.  defeats  the  Danes. 

2.  Otho  I.  is  crowned  Emperor  of  Germany  at 
Kome. 
978,  Oct.    i.    (Mho  II.,   the   Ked,   invades    France,   and 

conquers  Lorraine-. 

[O4O,    1'opf  Henedi'-t  VIII.  visits  Germany. 
1044.  Peter  of    Hungary  does   homage   to    Henry  III.  for 

his  kingdom. 
1055.  The  eldest  son  of  the  emperor  receives  the  title  of 

"  King  of  the-  Kom.ins." 
1073.    Hildebraiid  is   elected    pope,  by  the   title  of   • 

VII.,  without  the  sanction  of  the-  emperor, 
Henry  IV..  which  occasions  the  dispute  as  to  the 
right  of  investiture. 

1077,  .Ian.  25.    Henry    IV.    is  compelled    to  submit  to  the 
1'ope.  and   do  penance  at  Cauossa  (q.  r.). — March. 
The  1'ope  elects  1,'odolph  of  Swabia  emperor. 
1080.  Eodolph  is  killed  in  battle.     (»,-  .Mi;i:M-:i:rK<;.) 
1084,  Mureh   31.     Henry    IV.   lakes    Uoii:e,   and   cntlironi-s 
Clc-nient  III.  as  pope.      Gregory  VII. 
Salerno. 


1122.  The  dispute    between   the  emperor  and  the  Pope  is 

concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Worms. 
1140.  The  Ghibellincs  and  Quelphs  an- first  used  as  party 


iiamc-s  at  the  battle  of   Weinsberg. 
1152.  Frederick   Karbarossa.    Duke-    of  S\\abia,  is   elecled 

emperor  at  Frankfort.     <  Hi  the-   father's   side  he 

was  connected  with   the  Ghibelliues,  and  on  the 

jiiother's  with  the  Guelphs. 
1154.  T-rederick  1.  invades  Italy. 
1163.  Frederick  I.  takes  and  de.-troys  Milan. 
1167.  Frederick  I.  besieges  ami  takes  Home, 
tlW.    I'.atlle  of   Kc-gnaiio  (<,.  r.). 
1180.  Frederick    I.    pronounces  sentence  of   outlawry  on 

Henry  the   Linn   of    Bavaria,  who  is  deprived   of 

his  dignities  and  possessions. 
1190,  June'  10.  Frederick  I.  is  drowned  while  crossing  the 

riverCalvcadnus.in  Syria. 
1197.  On   the   death  of  Henry  VI.,  the  Guelphs  elect  as 

emperor   Otho  IV.,  son  of  Henry  the  Lion;  and 

theGhibcllines.  Philip  of  Swabia. 
1308.  Philip    is    assassinated    at    liamberg,    and    Otho   is 

solemn! v  crowned  sole  emperor  at  Koine. 
I2I5-  Otho    IV.  "is   deposed,    and    Frederick    II.,    son    of 

Henry  VI.,  elected  in  his  stead. 
I229-  Frederick  II.  becomes  King  of  .Ic-nisalem. 
1346.  Frederick   II.  is  deposed  by  his  subjects,  who  elect 

Henry  of  Thuringia. 
!24-.   The  Ha'nseatie  League  (?.«.). 
1254-  The  death  of  Conrad  IV.  produces  a  disputed  suc- 

ec-ssion  and  intc-i  reynum. 
1257-  Uichard    of    Cornwall,    brother    of    Henry   III.   of 

England,   is   elected  emperor,  but  merely  enjoys 

nominal  dignity. 
1268,  Oct.  29.  Conradin  of  Swabia,  son  of  Conrad  IV.,  is 

beheaded  ut  Naples. 


GERMANY 


t    44i 


GERMANY 


A.D. 

1273.  Eodolph  I.  of  Habsburgis  elected  emperor. 

1308.  Mav  i.  Albert  I.  is  assassinated  by  his  nephew,  John 
of  Swabia. 

1313.  On  the  death  of  Henry  VII.,  the  empire  is  con- 
tended for  by  Louis  V.  and  Frederick  of  Aus- 
tria. 

1333,  Sep.  28.  Battle  of  Miihldorf  (q.  v.). 

1325.  Frederick  is  associated  in  the  empire. 

1347.  Gunther,  Count  of  Schwartzburg,  who  disputes  the 
throne  with  Charles  IV.,  dies. 

1353.  Germany  is  ravaged  by  the  plague. 

1356.  Charles  IV.  signs  the  Golden  Bull  (q.  •».). 

1363.  The  Tyrol  passim  under  the  house  of  Austria. 

1387.  The  empire  is  divided  into  circles. 

1410.  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary,  and  Jossus,  of  Mo- 

ravia, are  elected  emperors. 

1411.  Jossus  dies,  and  Sigismund  reigns  alone. 

1439.  The  title   of    emperor   is  limited  to  the  house  of 

Austria,  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 
1462.  Frederick  III.  is  besieged  in  Vienna,  by  his  brother 

Albert,  to  whom  he  cedes  Lower  Austria  for  eight 

ye  ui  s. 

1483,  Nov.  10.  Birth  of  Martin  Luther. 
1497,  Feb.  16.  Birth  of  Philip  Melancthon. 
1514.  The  Poor  Conrad  League  originates  in  Wttrtemberg. 
1517,  Oct.  31.  Luther  condemns  indulgences. 
^f     1519,  June  28.  Charles  V.  of  Spain  is  elected  emperor. 

1531,  April  17.  Luther  is  excommunicated  at  the  diet  of 

Worms. 
1539,  March  13.    The  reformers  are   condemned  by  the 

diet  of  Spires.    (See  PROTESTANTS.) 
1530,  June   25.    The  reformers  publish  the  Confession  of 

Augsburg.— Dec.  3.  The  League  of  Smalcald. 
1535,  June  25.  The  Roman  Catholics  take  Minister.     (See 

ANABAPTISTS.) 
1546,  Feb.    18.  Death  of   Martin  Luther.— June  26.     The 

emperor  declares  war  against  the  Smalcald  con- 
federates. 

1553,  July  31.  The  treaty  of  Passnu  (q.  v.). 
1555,  Oct.    25.    Charles   V.   abdicates  in    favour    of    his 

brother  Ferdinand. 

1560,  April  19.  Death  of  Philip  Melancthon. 
1570.  Hungary  is  annexed  to  the  empire. 
1599.  The  League  of  Heidelberg. 
1608.  The  Evangelical  Union  of  the  Protestants  is  formed 

by  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick. 

1618.  Commencement  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (q.  v.). 
1620,  Nov.  8.  The  battle  of  Prague  (q. ».). 

1629,  Mav  33-  Tl'e  treaty  of  Liibeck  (q.  v.). 

1630,  June  24.   Gustavus  II.  (Adolph.ua),  King  of  Sweden, 

invades  Germany  with  15,000  men. 

1632,  Nov.  16.  Battle  of  LuUen. 

1634,  Feb.  25.  Wallensteiu  is  assassinated  by  the  impe- 
rialists. 

1648,001.24    The  peace  of  Westphalia  (q. ».).    *" 

1663.  The  permanent  diet  commences  at  Katisbon. 

1674.  War  is  declared  against  France. 

1679,  Feb.  5.  The  treaty  of  Nimeguen  (q.  •».). 

1683,  Sep.  12.  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  compels  the 
Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna. 

1688.  War  is  renewed  with  France. 

1689.  The  French  invade  Germany,  and  act  with  great 

cruelty. 
1697,  Sep.  20.  The  treaty  of  Kyswick. 

1690.  Jan.  26.  The  treaty  of  Carlowitz  (q.  i>.). 

"  "1703,  Oct.  6.  War  is  again  declared  against  France. 
1704,  Aug.  13.  Battle  of  Blenheim. 
1713,  April  1 1.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  (q.  v.). 
1717.  Germany  and  Holland  suffer  severely  from  inun- 
dations. 
1719.  Bremen  and  Verden  are   ceded   to  the  Elector  of 

Brunswick. 

1733.  The  emperor  and  states  join  in  the  Polish  war. 
1736,  Feb.  13.    Marriage  of  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Duke 

of  Lorraine. 
1740,  Oct.  30.   Death  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  who  is 

succeeded  by  his    daughter    Maria    Theresa,   in 

virtue  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (</.  r.). 
1743,  Jan.    33.     Charles    VII.,     Elector    of    Bavaria,    is 

crowned  emperor  at  Frankfort,  in  opposition  to 

the  right  of  Maria  Theresa. 
1745,  Jan.  20.  Charles  VII.  dies  at  Munich.— Sep.  15.    The 

States  elect  Francis  I.,   Duke  of  Lorraine,   and 

husband  of  Maria  Theresa. 

The  Seven  Years'  War. 
Lorraine  is  ceded  to  France. 
1773.  The  empire  receives  an  accession  of  territory  on  the 

first  partition  of  Poland. 


A.D. 

1783.  Important  civil  reforms  are  introduced,  vassalage 
and  ecclesiastical  censorship  of  the  press  being 
abolished. 

1788.  War  is  declared  against  Turkey. 

1789,  Oct.  22.   The  provinces  of  Brabant  declare  them- 

selves independent  of  the  empire. 
1791,  Aug.  4.  The  treaty  of  Sistova  (q.  v.). 
1793.  The  Rhenish  provinces  revolt 

1795.  The  emperor  joins  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland. 
1801,  Feb.  9.  The  treaty  of  Luneville  (q.  v.). 

1803,  Feb.  25.    The  diet  sanctions  the  sacrifice  of  about 

one-seventh  of  the  German  empire,  ceded  by  the 
congress  at  Ratisbon  to  various  powers. 

1804,  Aug.  ii.  Francis  II.  of  Germany  assumes  the  title 

of  Emperor  of  Austria. 

1805,  Napoleon  I.  erects  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg  into 

independent  kingdoms. 

1806,  July  13.  The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.— Aug.  18. 

Napoleon  I.  forms  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia. — 
Dee.  15.  The  Germanic  empire  is  dissolved. 

1810,  Dec.  13.  The  whole  of  the  north  of  Germany,  from 

the  Wesel  to  Liibeck,  is  annexed  to  France.  The 
Tugendbund,  a  secret  society  against  the  French, 
is  formed. 

1811,  Jan.  i.   Hamburg  is  annexed  to  France. 

1813,  The  war  of  German  independence  commences. 

1814,  Nov.  I.  The  congress  of  Vienna  (q.  v.). 

1815,  June  8.  The  Germanic  Confederation  is  formed. 
1824.  Great  commercial  depression  in  Germany. 

1830.  Revolutions  in  Brunswick,   Belgium,   and  Saxony 

(«•••)• 

1832,  March  2,2,.  Death  of  the  poet  Goethe. 
1841,  Jan.  Insurrections  in  Argovia  and  Soleure. 

1848,  Popular  agitation  in  Hesse-Cassel,  Saxony,  Bavaria, 

and  Hanover. — March  31.  A  congress  assembles 
at  Frankfort. — May  18.  The  German  parliament 
assembles. — July  12.  The  Archduke  John  of 
Austria  is  elected  vicar  of  the  empire. — Aug.  4. 
The  Frankfort  diet  abolishes  capital  punishment. 

1849,  March  28.  The  King  of  Prussia  is  elected  Emperor 

of  Germany. — April  3.  He  declines  to  accept  the 
title. — May  14.  The  Prussian  deputies  are  recalled 
from  the  Frankfort  assembly. — May  30.  Part  of 
the  assembly  removes  from  Frankfort  to  Stutt- 
gardt. — Sep.  30.  Prussia  and  Austria  conclude  a 
treaty  for  the  temporary  establishment  of  a 
central  government. — Nov.  13.  Austria  protests 
against  the  alliance  of  Prussia  with  the  German 
states. 

1850,  Feb.  37.  The  treaty  of  Munich  is  signed,  by  which 

Saxony,  WUrtemberg,  Bavaria,  and  Austria,  agree 
to  a  revision  of  the  German  Confederation. — 
March  30.  The  parliament  assembles  at  Erfurt. — 
May  10.  The  diet  assembles  at  Frankfort. — June 
7.  Hesse-Cassel  refuses  to  send  a  representative 
to  the  college  of  princes  at  Erfurt.— June  30. 
Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws  from  the  Prussian 
league. — July  19.  Austria  proposes  the  convo- 
cation of  the  federal  assembly. — Sep.  2,.  It  assem- 
bles at  Frankfort. — Nov.  i.  Austria  invades  Hesse- 
Cassel  (q.  v.). — Dec.  33.  A  conference  on  German 
affairs  is  opened  at  Dresden. 

1851,  May   15.    The   Dresden  conferences  conclude  their 

sessions   with    a    resolution    to    restore    the  old 

Frankfort  diet. 
1854,  Jdn-  J3  ttu<l  April  9.   Protocols  are  signed  betweeii 

the  Western  Powers  and  the  German  states. 
1857,  Jan.  15.  Conferences  respecting  the  adoption  of  a 

general  commercial  code  by  the  German  states 

are  opened  at  Nuremberg. 

1859,  July  17.    A  meeting  of  the  democratic  and  consti- 

tutional parties  is  held  at  Eisenach,  where  it  is* 
proposed  to  revise  the  constitution  of  the  confede- 
ration, and  appoint  a  central  power  under  the 
direction  of  Prussia.— Aug.  14.  Another  nic-etiiig 
la  held  at  Eisenach. — Sep.  13.  Prussia  dissents 
from  the  proposition.— Sep.  10.  An  association  is 
founded  at  Frankfort  for  the  furtherance  of  the 
Eisenach  plan. — \ov.3.  The  government  of  Badv'ii 
suggests  the  establishment  of  a  federal  tribunal 
for  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  the  Ger- 
manic states. 

1860,  Jan.   39.    Death  of  Ernest  Maurice  Arndt.— March 

34.  The  diet  opposes  Prussia  respecting  the  con- 
stitution of  Hesse  Cassd.— April  29— May  17.  A 
council  of  German  ecclesiastics  is  held  at  Cologne. 
— June  16.  The  German  princes  have  an  interview 
with  Napoleon  III.  at  Baden-Baden. 


GERMANY 


442    ] 


GERONA 


1861,  May  3:.  The  Federal  Assembly  adopts  a  project  for 
a  code  of  commerce  for  Germany. — Aug.  33.  The 
general  assembly  of  the  National  German  Asso- 
ciation (National- herein)  decides  to  open  a  sub- 
scription for  the  establishment  of  a  German  fleet 
under  Prussian  command. 

1864,  Sep.  38  and  39.  Representatives  of  the  German 
states  assemble  at  Weimar  and  found  a  perma- 
nent commission  of  a  diet  of  German  deputies. — 
Oct.  6.  The  third  general  assembly  of  the  \ntiiiinil- 
Verein  is  held  at  Coburg.  It  recognizes  the  con- 
stitution of  the  empire  us  settled  in  1849. — Oct.  29. 
A  "  .Society  of  Ueform  "  is  founded  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Maine  by  the  party  of  Great  Germany. 

1863,  Aug.   17.  A  congress  of  German  sovereigns  assem- 

ble! at  Fraiikfort-on-the-Muine,  which  is  al- 
ien led  by  all  the  chief  princes  of  Germany, 
except  the  King  of  Prussia. — Aug.  31.  A  congress 
of  deputies  from  all  the  German  states,  except 
Au.siria,  assembles  at  Frankfort.— ( let.  I.  The 

Germanic  diet  resolves  upon  a  federal  execution 

against  Denmark,  alleging  that  the  Danish  Go- 
vernment has  violated  its  obligations  relative  to 
the  constitution  of  llol.-,tei,i.  I'm-sia  and  Austria 
are  invited  to  hold  sufficient  troops  in  readiness  to 
carry  this  execution  into  effect. — Oct.  6.  The  diet 
approves  the  renunciation  by  the,  Prince  of  Wales 
of  the  succession  to  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg 
Gotha. — Oct.  18.  The  anniversary  of  the.  battle 
of  Lcipsic,  is  celebrated  with  great  enthusiasm 
throughout  Germany. — Oct.  32.  The  diet  refuses 
compliance  with  the  remonstrances  of  England 
relative  to  the  federal  execution.-— Xov.  16.  Prince 
Frederick  of  Sleswig-llolsteiii-.Sonderbourg-Au- 
gustcnbourg  issues  a  proclamation  declaring  his 
in  to  the  government  of  Sleswig-llolstein. 
Nov.  JO,  I'opuiar  assemblies  are  held  at  Stutt- 
gardt  and  Hanover  in  favour  of  German  inter- 
vention in  the  dueiiies  of  Sleswig  and  HoUtein. 
Similar  me. -lings  become  general  throughout 
G,-rmu;iy.  Dec.  ~.  The  federal  assembly  voles  in 
favour  of  immediate  military  execution  in  llol- 
stein. — Dec.  23.  The  army  of  execution  enters 

llol.-tein.      (.->.('   Ill:  V\I  VKK.) 

1864,  Jan.  19.   Prussian  troops  enter  Oldenburg  and  Ham- 

burg.— April  i!S.  A  meeting  of  representatives  ,if 
tli,- German  newspaper  press  is  held  at  Weimar. 
— .June  1 6 — 21.  The  Kmperor  of  Russia  meets  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  and  other  German  potentates 
ill  lvissii,ge;i.  -Sep.  13 — 15.  A  general  assembly  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  associations  of  Germany 
meets  at  Wur/.burg.  —  Oct.  31— Nov.  i.  The 
Nalwnai-Verfin  assembles  at  Eisenach. — Dec.  5. 
The  diet  resolves  to  terminate  the  federal  exe- 
cution in  Holstcin.— Dec.  17.  The  federal  army  of 
execution  is  declared  to  have  evacuated  ilolstein. 

1865,  March  4.     A   treaty  of  commerce,  &e.,  is  signed  be- 

tween France  and  the  llanse  Towns  at  Ham- 
burg.— -March  7.  A  conference  commences  for  the 
conclusion  of  a  commercial  treaty  between  the 
German  Customs  Union  and  Switzerland. — .March. 
Numerous  strikes  for  increased  wages  and  re- 
duced hours  of  labour  take  place. — June  8.  Cele- 
bration of  the  5oth  anniversary  of  the  Germanic 
( 'oil federation  (q.  v.). 

1866,  Jan.    I.    \  convention  for  the  abolition  of  passports, 

concluded  by  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and 
Wiirtemberg,  comes  into  operation. — April  9. 
Pi-'issU  proposes  to  the  diet  that  a  representative 
assembly,  elected  throughout  Germany  by  uni- 
versal suffrage,  should  discuss  proposals  for  a 
reform  of  the  federal  constitution. — April  26.  A 
committee  on  reform  is  appointed. — May  *.  Nine 
federal  states,  including  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg, 
and  liaden,  hold  a  conference  at  JIfihlacker,  in 
Wurtemherg,  respecting  the  concentration  and 
disposition  of  their  military  contingents. — Mav 
18.  The  diet  publishes  a  despatch  calling  upon 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  all  other  German  states, 
to  reduce  their  establishments  to  a  peace  footing. 
— June  14.  The  diet,  by  a  majority  of  three  votes, 
decides  in  favour  of  the  mobilization  of  the 
federal  army. — June  16.  The  diet  resolves  to 
assist  Saxony  against  Prussian  invasion.— June 
25.  Anhalt  and  Waldeck  secede  from  the  Con- 
federation.—June  37.  Prince  Charles  of  Bavaria 
is  appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  federal 
army.  (See  PitUobiA.) 


EMPERORS   AND   KINGS   OF   GERMANY. 


CAROLINGIANS. 
A.D. 
tioo.  Charlemagne,        or 

Charles  1. ,  the  Great 
814.  Louis    I.,    le    Debon- 

naire. 

840.  I,othaire  I. 
843.  Louis  II.,  the  German, 


king. 
855.  Louis  II.,  emperor. 


Charles  II.,  the  Bald. 
I  Carloms 


876.  <  Louis  III.,  the  .Saxon. 

j  Charles  III.,  the  Fat, 

*>     king. 

883.  Charles  III.,  emperor. 
876.  Arnold  I.,  king. 
896.  Arnold  I.,  emperor. 
809.  Louis  IV.,  the  Child. 


911.  Conrad  I. 


HOUSE  OF  FUAXCONIA. 


HOUSE  OF  SAXONY. 


919.  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler. 
936.  Otbo   I.,    the     Great, 

king. 
963.  Otlio  I.,  emperor. 


973.  Otho  II. 
983.  Otho  III. 
1003.  lleiiry  II.,  the  Holy. 


HOUSE   OF  FRANCONIA. 


1034.  Conrad    II.,    the    Sa- 

lique. 

10^9.  Henry  III.,  the  Black. 
1056.  Henry  IV. 
1077.   llodolph     of     Swabia 

(elected  by  the  Pope). 


1081.  Herman  of  Luxem- 
burg (elected  by  tho 
Pope). 

1087.  Conrad. 

1106.  Henry  V. 


125.  Lothaire  II. 


HOUSE  OF  SAXONY. 


)I<><  M,   OF  SWABIA,   OR  HOHENSTAUFEN. 


1138.   Conrad  III. 

1153.  Frederick    I.,   Barba- 

PMU. 
1190.  Henrv  VI. 

(Philip. 
1197.   <Otho   IV.  of  Bruns- 

(.        wick. 


1208.  Otho  IV.,  alone. 
1215.   Frederick  II. 
1440.    Henry  of  Thuringia. 
1347.  William    of     Holland 
(chosen  by  the  Pope). 
1350.  Conrad  IV. 


1254-  William  of  Holland,  merely  nominal. 
2.»     (Kichard  of  Cornwall,         ditto. 
"3r  XAlnhuiiso  of  Castile,  ditto. 

HOUSE  OF  IIABSIH  ltd. 

1273.  Ho.lolph  of  Habsburg.  I  1398.  Albert  I.,  of  Austria. 
3j,-.  Aiolphus  of  Nassau.     | 


11UU.SC..->     Vff      IjU.V^Jl 

1308.  Henry   VII.,   of  Lux- 

1378. Wcnceslaus,   of   Lux- 

emburg. 

emburg. 

.„..     ri-ouis  V..  of  Bavaria, 

1400.  Robert,    Count    Pala- 

1 •>'•*•    \  Frederick  of  Austria. 

tine. 

{Charles  IV.,  of  Lux- 
emburg. 
Gunther,    Count     of 
Sehwartzburg. 

(Jossus,  of  Moravia. 
1410.  -{.Sigismund,  of    Lux- 
(.    emburg. 

HOUSE   OF  AUSTRIA. 

1438.  Albert  II. 

1619.  Ferdinand  II. 

1439.  Frederick  III. 

1637.  Ferdinand  III. 

1493.  Maximilian  I. 

1658.  Leopold  I. 

ISIQ.   Charles  V. 

1705.  Joseph  I. 

1556.  Ferdinand  I. 

1711.  Charles  VI. 

Is/'.}.   Maximilian  If. 

1743.  Charles   VII.,   of  Ba- 

1576.  Kodolph  II. 

varia. 

1613.  Matthias. 

HOUSE  OK  AUSTRIA— LORRAINE. 
Francis  I.  I  1790.  Leopold  II. 

|  1793.  Francis  II. 


Joseph  II. 


GERONA,  or  GIRONA  (Spain),  is  of  very 
early  origin,  and  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by 
Charlemagne  in  785.  The  bishopric  was  estab- 
ished  in  786,  and  in  795  the  city  was  recovered 
ay  the  Moors.  In  1285  it  was  seized  by  Philip 
III.  of  France,  who  was  compelled  to  surrender 
it  to  Peter  of  Aragon.  The  cathedral  was  re- 
built in  1316.  Gerona  was  taken  by  the  French 
~.n  1694,  but  restored  to  Spain  by  the  peace  of 
Ryswick,  Sep.  20,  1697.  In  the  war  of  the 


GERSAU 


[     443     1 


GIANTS 


Spanish  succession  it  was  taken  by  the  Duke 
de  Noailles  for  King  Philip  V.,  Jan.  25,  1711. 
In  June,  1808,  it  was  besieged  by  6,000  French 
under  Duhesme,  who  was  compelled  to  retire 
by  the  Ulster  regiment  of  300  men,  commanded 
by  O'Daly.  In  May,  1809,  a  French  army  of 
35,000  men,  under  Verdier,  Augereau,  and 
St.  Cyr,  laid  siege  to  the  city,  which  main- 
tained a  brave  resistance  until  famine  com- 
pelled the  defenders  to  capitulate,  Dec.  12, 
1809.  Councils  were  held  at  Gerona  in  517 
and  1068. 

GERSAU,  or  GERSOVIA  (Switzerland).— 
This  town,  which  from  1315  till  1798  consti- 
tuted an  independent  state,  was  united  to  the 
canton  of  Schwyz  hi  1814. 

GERTRUYDENBERG  (Holland).  —  Confe- 
rences for  the  conclusion  of  a  general  peace, 
which  were  opened  at  this  village  March  n, 
1710,  led  to  no  definite  result,  and  were  broken 
off  July  20.  Dumouriez  captured  Gertruyden- 
berg  in  March,  1793,  but  was  soon  after  com- 
pelled to  retire.  The  French  seized  it  in  1795. 

GETTYSBURG  (Battle).— The  Confederates, 
under  Gen.  Lee,  attacked  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  commanded  by  Gen.  Meade,  at  this 
place  hi  Pennsylvania,  Wednesday,  July  i, 
1863,  and  compelled  them  to  take  up  a  strong 
position  on  Cemetery  Hill  to  the  south  of  the 
town,  where,  after  a  succession  of  desperate 
onslaughts,  the  assailants  were  repulsed,  July  2. 
The  battle,  recommenced  July  3,  resulted  in 
the  failure  of  a  gallant  attack  by  Gen.  Pickett 
upon  the  Federal  position,  and  the  consequent 
defeat  of  the  Confederates. 

GEX  (France).— This  town,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Jura,  conquered  by  Savoy  in  1353,  was 
annexed  to  France  in  1601. 

GHAZEEPORE  (Hindostan).  —  This  town 
and  the  adjoining  territory  were  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  hi  1775. 

GHEEL.— (See  GEEL.) 

GHENT  (Belgium)  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Vandals,  who  made  an  irrup- 
tion into  the  Low  Countries  in  the  sth  century. 

A.D. 

630.  St.  Arnaud  introduces  Christianity. 

879   Ghent  is  ravaged  by  the  Northmen. 

944.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Bavon  is  founded. 

968.  The  art  of  weaving  is  introduced. 
1053.  The  city  is  fortified. 
1 1 80.  Ghent  is  made  the  capital  of  Flanders. 
llSi.  The  belfry  tower  is  erected. 
1234.  The  grand  Beguinage  is  founded. 
1344.  Jacques  vail  Artevelde's  insurrection  is  suppressed. 
1379.  Philip  van  Artevelde  commences  his  insurrection. 
1451.  Ghent  rebels  against  the  government  of  Philip  the 

Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy. 
1480.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  is  commenced. 

1539.  Ghent  rebels  against  Charles  V. 

1540,  Feb.  34.  Charles  V.  enters  Ghent. 
1559.  The  bishopric  is  founded. 

1576,  Nov.  8.  The  "  Pacification  of  Ghent "  is  signed  in 

the  town  hall. 

1584,  Sep.  17.  Ghent  surrenders  to  the  Spaniards. 
1678,  March  9.  Ghent  is  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 
1706.  Ghent  is  taken  by  th    " 


rlboroujrh. 

great  prison  is  commenced  by  Maria  Theresa. 
1793.  The  French  seize  Ghent,  and  make  it  the  capital  of 


1774.  The 


Duke  of  Ma 
rison  is  commenced  b 


the  department  of  the  Scheldt. 
180!.  The  bishopric  of  Bruges  is  united  to  that  of  Ghent 
1^14.  Ghent  is  annexed  to  the  Netherlands. 
1816.  The  university  is  founded  by  William  L,   King  of 

Holland. 
1830.  The    city  forms    part     of    the    new    kingdom    of 

Belgium. 
1838,  Sep.  2,.  The  railway  to  Ostend  is  opened. 


GHENT  (Treaty).  —  Peace  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  was  signed  at 
Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814. 

GHERIAH  (Hindostan).  —  The  Mahrattas 
seized  this  fortress  in  the  i7th  century,  and 
the  pirate  Angria  made  it  his  stronghold  in 
1705.  Angria  and  his  fleet  wore  destroyed  by 
Watson  and  Clive,  Feb.  n,  1756.  The  English 
exchanged  it  by  treaty  for  other  places,  and  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  1818. 

GHIARA  D'ADDA.—  (See  AGNADEL,  Battle.) 

GHIBELLINES  and  GUELPHS.— On  the 
death  of  Lothaire  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
Dec.  4,  1137,  Conrad,  Duke  of  Franconia,  son  of 
Frederick  of  Hohciistaufen,  Duke  of  Swabia 
and  Lord  of  Wiblingen,  which  by  conniption 
became  Ghibelline,  was  elected  his  successor. 
His  right  to  the  imperial  throne  was,  however, 
disputed  by  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Saxony 
and  Bavaria,  and  nephew  of  Guelph  II.,  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  who  was  in  consequence  declared 
an  outlaw,  and  shortly  after  died.  His  ad- 
herents transferred  their  allegiance  to  his  son 
Henry  the  Lion,  at  that  time  a  boy  of  10  years 
old,  and  the  whole  empire  was  divided  into 
the  partisans  of  Conrad,  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Ghibellines,  and  those  of  Henry,  or 
the  Guelphs.  These  titles  were  first  used  at 
the  battle  of  Weinsberg  in  1140.  The  strife 
between  the  two  parties  subsided  in  Germany, 
but  continued  in  Italy,  resulting  in  war  in 
1 159.  The  supporters  of  the  popes  were  termed 
Guelphs,  and  those  of  the  emperors  Ghibellines. 
Charles  of  Anjou  expelled  the  Ghibellines 
from  Italy  in  1268  ;  but  the  contest  between 
the  two  factions  continued  until  the  French 
invasion  hi  1495  united  them  against  a  common 
enemy. 

GHIZEH  (Egypt).— The  pyramids  of  this 
place  were  erected  by  the  eight  Memphite 
kings  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  which  reigned 
in  Egypt  from  about  B.C.  2440  to  about  B.C.  ' 

GHIZNEVIDES,    or    GAZNEVIDES.— This 

Tartar  dynasty,  named  from  Ghizni  (g.  v.), 
where  it  was  founded  by  Alp-Tekin  in  961, 
was  defeated  by  the  Turcomans,  or  Seljukiaii 
Turks,  at  the  battle  of  Zendecan  (q.  v.)  in  1038. 
Ala-Eddyu,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Gourides 
(q.  v.),  expelled  them  from  Ghizni  in  1158,  and 
the  last  of  the  race  was  put  to  death  at  Lahore 
in  1189. 

GHIZNI,  or  GHUZNEE  (Afghanistan),  in 
957,  was  the  capital  of  a  powerful  empire.  In 
1171  it  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  Saheb  ud 
Deen  Mohammed  Ghori,  and  it  never  regained 
its  former  prosperity.  Ghizni  surrendered  to 
a  British  force  under  Sir  John  Keane,  July  23, 
1839.  The  English  were  compelled  to  restore 
it  to  the  Afghans,  March  i,  1842,  but  it  was 
retaken  by  Gen.  Nott,  Sep.  9. 

GHOST.—  (See  COCK  LANE  GHOST  and  HOLY 
GHOST.) 

GHRENNAH.— (See  CYRENE.) 

GHURI.— (See  GOCRIDES.) 

GIANTS,  mentioned  (Gen.  vi.  4)  under  the 
term  Nephilim,  as  existing  before  the  flood, 
B.C.  3468.  Chedorlaomer  and  other  kings  de- 
feated the  Rephaim,  another  race  of  giants 
(Gen.  xiv.  5),  B.C.  1913.  Og,  King  of  Bashan, 


GIANTS 


[    444    1 


GIRDLERS 


one  of  the  last  of  the  Rephaim,  was  .slain  by 
the  Israelites  under  Moses  (I)eut.  i.  4,  and 
iii.  1-13),  B.C.  1451.  His  bed  measured  9 
cubits  in  length.  The  Anakim,  descendants  of 
Arba  (Josh.  xv.  13  ',  were  defeated  by  Joshua 
(xi.  21-22),  B.C.  1445.  Goliah,  slain  by  David, 
B.C.  1063  (i  Sain.  xvii.  49),  was  10^  feet  in  height. 
Many  fabulous  stories  are  told  respecting  tlje 
heightof  giants,  but  there  is  no  certain  evidence 
that  above  9  feet  has  been  attained. 

GIANTS  (,Battle  of  the).— (See  MARIGNANO, 
Battle.) 

GIBBON'S  TENNIS  COURT  THEATRE 
(London),  situated  in  Clare  Market,  was 
opened  by  the  king's  company  under  Killi- 
grew,  Nov.  8,  1660.  Pepys  states  that  he  first 
saw  women  011  the  stage  at  this  house,  Jan.  3, 
1661.  The  company  removed  to  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  ((/.  r.),  April  8,  1663,  and  the  building, 
after  undergoing  various  transformations,  was 
destroy ed  by  fire,  Sep.  17,  1809. 

G1BEON. — (See  AIJALON  and  BKTH-HORON.) 

CIHKALTAi;  (Spain).— This  rock  was  known 
to  the  Pho.;nirians  by  t lie  name  Alube,  which 
the  Greeks  altered  toYalpe. 


711,  April  30  (Thursday),  (ii-l)nl  Tank,  tin-  Moor,  lands 
a!  (.ibrallar,  and   commence*  the  subjugation   of 

Spain. 

1309.  Gibraltar  is  taken  from  the  Moors  by  Guzman  el 
liueiio. 

1333.   The  Moors  recapture  it. 

140^.  Gibraltar  is  finally  taken  by  the  Spaniards. 

ic;o^.  Gibraltar  i»  Incorporated  with  Spain. 

1554.   Charles  V.  strengthens  the  tortili-  atious. 

J-O4,  July    21.   The    combined    Knglish    and     Dutcli    llcets 

arrive   at   Gibniltar.  —  July  23.  They  open   lire  on 

tin-  citadel.  —July    24.    It    surrenders.-      Oct.    II. 

'ilie  Spaniards,   under  the  Marquis  <ie  Villadarius, 

lay  sicffe  to  the  tfarriMm. 
1705,  March    lo.     Admiral    Sir   John    l.eake    compels   the 

Spaniards  to   raise   the    Metre.     The   Spanish  loss 

(luring;  this   atlempt  was   about  Jc,c/co  men,  while 

the  -anison  lo>t  only  400. 
1713,  April  11.  If  I-  ceded  I.  .'(.real  Urituin.  (See  UTKECHT, 

Treaty.) 
1730.  The  Spaniards  make  an  abortive  effort  to  recapture 

1737,  Jan.  20.  The  Spaniards  blockade  it  without  success. 

-    l''cb.  z>.  'J'hey  open  lire  on  the  garrisoii.  —  June 

12.  They  retire. 

1773.  The  kin},''.-  bastion  is  erected. 
J77ni  Julv    10.    'J'he   grand   siege  is  commenced  by  the 

Spaniards  blocking  up  the  port, 

1782,  May    14.    The    .Spaniards  commence   their  floating 

batteries.  Sep.  13.  The  grand  attack  is  made  by 
the  combined  l-'rcnch  and  Spanish  fleets  and  lo 
floating  batteries,  which  are  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  completclv  repulsed. 

1783,  Feb.  5.  The  blockade  is  discontinued. 
3.  The  library  is  founded. 

l,  July  7.  The  Hainiilnil.  74  puns,  surrenders  to  the 
French.—  July  i>.  Sir.  I.  Saiimarey.,  vitli  a  fleet  of 
live  men-of-war  and  a  frigate,  attacks  the  l-'reiich 
and  Spanish  fleets  off  Gibraltar,  blowing  up  two 
{Spanish  ships  of  112  guns  each,  and  capturing 
one  of  74  {runs. 

1804,  Sep.  The  to-wii  is  ravap'il  by  jK'stilence. 

IS  I  3,   Sep.  5.  'J'he  pestilence  rea]ipears. 

j.v-\  Sep    i.  Tlie  pestilence  again  rages. 

1843.  Gibraltar  is  made  a  bishopric. 

GIEN  (League).—  The  chiefs  of  the  Armag- 
mcs  (<i.  v.)  concluded  a  league  against  John  the 
Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  at  this  place  in 
France,  in  1410. 

GIESSEN  (Germany).  —  A  university  was 
founded  at  this  town  in  Hesse  in  1607.  An 
^decisive  action  was  fought  near  Gicssen 


, 

1793. 
Itel, 


between  the  allies  and  the  French,  Sep.  13, 1796 
Blucher  fixed  his  head-quarters  here  in  Nov., 

1  GlLBERTINES,  or  ORDER  OF  SEMPRING- 
IIAM. — This  order  of  monks  and  nuns  was 
founded  in  1131,  by  St.  Gilbert,  priest  of  Scm- 
pringham,  in  Lincolnshire,  who  died  in  1189. 
The  order  possessed  22  monasteries  in  Eng- 
land. 

Cli.HOA.— (See  ENDOR  and  MOUNT  GILBOA.) 

GILDING.— The  art  of  covering  wood  or 
stone  with  plates  of  gold  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  was  employed  by  Moses  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  tabernacle  Kxod.  xxv.  n),  B.C.  1491. 
The  art  of  gilding  with  gold-leaf  was  known  to 
otians,  who  employed  it  in  the  decora- 
tion of  their  idols  and  mummy-cases  ;  and  was 
also  practised  in  Greece,  whence  it  was  con- 
veyed to  Rome  about  the  year  B.C.  183.  Gild- 
ing with  gold-leaf  on  Yol-axmoniac  was  invented 
in  Italy  by  Margaritone  in  1273;  and  gold  var- 
nish was  discovered  by  Antonino  Cento,  of 
ralermo,  in  1680.  • ' X, ,  LI,I:<-TK<)TYI>K.' 

GILES'S  (ST.  HOSPITAL  (London).— Ma- 
tilda, Queen  of  Henry  I.,  founded  this  hospital 
for  lepers  in  noi. 

GILTSPUK  STREET  COMPTER  (London). 
— This  debtors'  prison  was  erected  in  1791. 

GIN  ACT.  —  By  9  Geo.  II.  c.  23  (1736  ,  every 
retailer  of  spirituous  liquor  in   less  quantity 
than  two  gallons  was  obliged  to  pay  ^5. 
for  a  licence,  and  a  duty  of  2o«.  on  every  gallon 
sold. 

GINGEK  'Hindustan'.—  This  fortress,  in  the 
Carnatic,  founded  in  1442,  passed,  in  if 
the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans  of  Bejapour, 
who  retailed  it  till  1677,  when  it  was  seixed  by 
tin-  Mahrattas.  In  1698  it  was  captured  by  the 
imperial  general  Zulficar  Khan,  and  in  1715  by 
Saadet  Oolla  Khan.  The  French,  under  Bussy, 
took  it  in  1750;  and  it  surrendered  to  the 
British  April  5,  1761. 

GINGKR  was  formerly  collected  in  Egypt, 
and  sold  by  weight  to  Europeans.  By  12 
Charles  II.  c.  18  (1660),  the  exportation  of 
ginger  from  British  colonies  to  any  foreign 
country  was  prohibited  ;  but,  in  1765,  large 
quantities  were  allowed  to  be  exported  to 
Holland.  By  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47  (July  9, 1842  ,  the 
duty  on  ginger  was  fixed  at  IDS.  per  ewt.  if 
imported  from  a  foreign  country,  and  5*.  per 
cwt.  if  from  a  British  colony. 

GINGERBREAD,  sold  in  Paris  in  the  i4th 
century,  was  introduced  into  England  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  (1399 — 1413). 

GIRAFFE,  or  CAM ELOPARD.— This  ani- 
mal, found  in  Africa,  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  was  first  exhibited  in  Italy  by 
Julius  Csesar.  A  giraffe  was  sent  as  a  present 
to  Frederick  II.  of  Germany  (1215 — 1246  ,  and 
another,  belonging  to  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  was 
a  great  favourite  with  the  inhabitants  of  Flo- 
rence towards  the  end  of  the  isth  century. 
No  living  giraffe  was  seen  in  Europe  for  more 
than  three  centuries.  The  first  brought  to 
England  alive,  in  Aug.,  1827,  died  in  1829. 
Four  were  exhibited  in  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety's Gardens  in  1836. 

GIRDLERS.— The  company  of  girdlers,  or 
girdlemakers,  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VI. 
in  1449,  and  confirmed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in 


GIRGENTI 


[    445 


GLASGOW 


1568,  when  pinners  and  wire-drawers  were  ad- 
mitted. 

GIRGENTI  (Sicily),  the  ancient  Agrigentum 
(q.  v.),  was  seized  in  825  by  the  Saracens,  from 
whom  it  was  wrested  by  Roger  Guiscard  in 
1086.  The  harbour  was  formed  in  1752. 

GIRONDISTS.— A  political  party  during  the 
great  French  Revolution,  so  named  because  its 
leading  members  were  deputies  for  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Gironde,  was  composed  of  the 
more  moderate  republicans,  such  as  Vergniaud, 
Brissot,  Ducot,  Coiidorcet,  Petion,  and  many 
others,  who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  history  of  the  times.  They  were  called 
Brissotins,  from  Brissot.  The  Girondists  at 
first  were  the  dominant  party  in  the  assembly ; 
but,  owing  to  their  disgust  at  the  massacres  of 
Aug.  and  Sep.,  1792,  they  rendered  themselves 
obnoxious  to  the  Montagnards,  who  procured 
the  arrest  of  21  of  their  chief  members,  June  2, 
1793.  These  prisoners  were  confined  in  the 
Conciergerie,  and  executed  Oct.  31. 

GISORS  (Battles  .—An  indecisive  battle  was 
fought  at  this  town,  in  Normandy,  between 

the  French  and  English,  Oct.  28,  1197. 

Richard  I.  defeated  a  French  force  near  Gisors, 
Sep.  20,  or  Oct.  10,  1198.  The  English  watch- 
word 011  the  occasion  was  " Dieu  et  man  <!r<iit," 
which  Richard  I.  assumed  as  his  motto,  in 
honour  of  the  victory,  and  which  remains  the 
motto  of  the  English  sovereigns.  William  II. 
erected  a  fortress  at  Gisors  in  1097. 

GITSCHIN,  or  JICIN  (Battle).  — The  Aus- 
trians  were  defeated  by  the  Prussians  under 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  at  this  place  in  Bo- 
hemia, June  29,  1866. 

GIURGEVO  (Wallachia)  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  in  1771,  and  attacked  by  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1790.  Its  fortifications  were  demo- 
lished in  1829.  The  Russians  were  defeated  by 
the  Turks,  assisted  by  some  English  officers, 
in  a  battle  fought  here,  July  7,  1854.  The 
Turks,  who  occupied  Giurgevo,  July  8,  re- 
pelled an  attack  by  the  Russians,  July  23. 

GLADIATORS.  —  Gladiatorial  combats  are 
believed  to  have  originated  in  the  ancient 
custom  of  sacrificing  prisoners  of  war  at  the 
funerals  of  celebrated  warriors.  Homer  and 
Virgil  both  allude  to  -this  practice.  The  first 
gladiators  exhibited  at  Rome  fought  at  a 
funeral  B.C.  264,  when  only  three  pairs  of  com- 
batants were  engaged.  The  revolt  of  the  gla- 
diators under  Spartacus  broke  out  B.C.  76,  and 
lasted  for  three  years,  when  it  was  suppressed 
byM.Crassus.  The  largest  number  of  gladiators 
ever  sacrificed  at  one  show  is  supposed  to  have 
been  on  the  occasion  of  Trajan's  triumph  over 
the  Dacian  chief  Decebalus,  in  103,  when  no 
less  than  5,000  pairs  of  combatants  were 
matched  against  each  other.  Constantino  I., 
in  325,  passed  a  law  prohibiting  gladiators  in 
the  Eastern  empire ;  but  at  Rome  they  con- 
tinued until  they  were  suppressed  by  Honorius 
in  404. 

GLADSMORE  HEATH.  —  (See  BAENET, 
Battle.) 

GLAMORGAN  (Wales). —This  county  was 
reduced  under  the  Roman  sway  by  Julius 
Frontinus,  who  was  governor  of  Britain  in  75. 
In  440  the  Romans  abandoned  it  to  the  native 
princes ;  and  at  the  Conquest,  in  1066,  it  was 


conferred  by  William  I.  on  his  relation  Fitz- 
hamon.  In  1107  the  district  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  It 
was  erected  into  a  county  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

GLANDELAGH,  GLENDALOCH,  GLEN- 
DALOGH,  or  GLENDALOUGH  (Bishopric). 
—This  Irish  see  was  founded  by  St.  Keivin, 
who  resigned  it  in  612,  after  a  very  long  occu- 
pation. In  1192  King  John  ordered  the  see  to 
be  united  to  Dublin  on  its  next  avoidance,  and 
the  union  consequently  took  place  in  1214. 

GLARIS,  or  GLARUS  (Switzerland).— Chris- 
tianity was  first  preached  here  by  an  Irish 
monk,  named  Fridoliii,  in  490.  Originally  the 
town  and  canton  of  Glaris  belonged  to  the  con- 
vent of  Seckingen,  but  in  1299  they  were  seized 
by  the  house  of  Habsburg.  In  1352  the  inhabi- 
tants joined  the  Helvetic  confederation,  and 
in  1388  they  gained  their  independence  by  de- 
feating the  Austrians  at  Nafels.  Glaris  re- 
ceived its  constitution  in  1836.  A  fire  that 
took  place  in  May,  1861,  destroyed  500  houses. 

GLASGOW  (Bishopric),  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Kentigern,  or  St.  Mungo,  in  560, 
subsequently  fell  into  neglect,  having  been 
destroyed,  as  is  supposed,  by  the  Danes,  and 
was  refounded  by  David,  Prince  of  Cumber- 
land, in  1115.  In  1488  it  was  erected  into  an 
archbishopric,  which  was  suppressed  on  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  July  22, 
1689.  Glasgow  became  a  post  -  revolution 
bishopric  in  1724. 

GLASGOW  (Lanarkshire).  —  The  period  at 
which  this  city  was  founded  is  unknown. 

A.D. 

1181.  The  present  cathedral,    or   high   church,  is  com- 
menced. 

1 190.  Glasgow  is  erected  into  a  royal  burgh. 
1268.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  provost  and  baillies. 
1330.  The  plague  first  appears  at  Glasgow. 
1345.  Bishop  Kae  builds  Sth  kwell  Street  bridge. 
1387.  The  spire  of  the  cathedral  is  destroyed  by  lightning. 
1393.  A  mint  is  established. 
1441.  St.  Enoch's  church  is  founded. 

1450.  James  II.  grants  a  charter. 

1451.  The  university  is  founded. 
1484.  TheTron  church  is  founded. 

1556.  The  town  is  pillaged  by  James  Hamilton,  Earl  of 

1638.  The  first  printing-press   is    established  by  George 

Anderson. 

1677.  A  great  fire  destroys  130  houses  and  shops. 
1715.  The   Glasgow  Courant,  the  first  newspaper  in  the 

west  of  Scotland,  is  published. 

1735,  Jan.  35-  The  Shawfield  riot  breaks  out,  on  account 

of  the  malt  tax.    The  cotton  manufacture  is  in- 
troduced. 

1736.  The  town  hall  and  assembly  rooms  are  founded. 
1743.  Calico-printing  is  introduced. 

1*753-  The  first  circulating  library  in  the  west  of  Scotland 

is  established. 

1756.  St.  Andrew's  church  is  completed. 
1764.  The  theatre  is  opened. 
1783,  April  16.  The  theatre  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
1785,  Jan.  The  Duulop  Street  theatre  is  opened. 

1795,  May  7.  The  Andersonian  University  is  founded. 

1796.  The  trades'  hall  is  erected. 

1805,  April  24.  The  Queen  Street  theatre  is  opened, 

1807.  The  gaol  is  founded. 

1818.  The  town  is  visited  by  severe  typhus  fever. — Sep.  5. 

Gas  is  introduced. 

1819  and  1820.  Great  commercial  depression. 
1823.  The  Mechanics'  Institute  is  founded. 
1834,  Dec.  35.  The  Hridewell  is  opened. 

1838.  The  Institution  for  the  Ulind  is  founded. 

1839,  Jan.  10.  The  Queen  Street  theatre  is  burned.     Tho 

Royal  Exchange  is  built. 
1833,  Feb.  13.  The  cholera  appears  in  Glasgow. 


CLASHES 


[    446     ] 


GLAZIERS 


1833,  Sep.  3.  The  new  Bromielavv  bridge  is  founded  with 
great  ceremonies. 

1840,  Sep.  34.  The  li-ilish  Assoeiafi.ni  meets  at  Glasgow. 

1844.  The  l>uke  of  Wellington's  statue  is  erected. 

1849,  Feb.  17.  A  false  alarm  of  lire  in  the  theatre  occa- 
sions a  panic,  in  winch  65  persons  are  crushed  to 
death. 

l«54,  Sep.  6.  The  statue  of  the  Queen  is  inaugurated. 

1855,  Sep.  12.  The  Uritish  Association  meets  iit  (;iasirow. 

1859,  Oct,  14.  The  Queen  opens  the  new  waterworks «at 

I.oeli  Katrine. 

1860,  Nov.  The  Kinpn-ss  of  the  Freneh  visits  Glasgow. 

1863,  March    29.     I..,rd    1'alniersMn    is    installed    as     Lord 

Hector  of  the  University. 

1864,  Nov.  30.  Nineteen  persons  are  drowned  by  the  up- 

setting of  ft  ferry-boat. 

1865,  Dec.    12.    An   Exhibition    of   Arts   nnd   Industry  is 

opened  in   the   Central  AVi»  king  Men's  Club  and 
Institute. 

1866,  March  31.  The  exhibition  is  closed. 

GLASITES,  GLASSITES,  or  SANDEMA- 
NIANS.  Tin's  sect  was  founded  by  John  Olas, 
minister  of  Tealing,  near  Dundee.  In  1728  he 
was  deposed  for  heterodox y,  by  the  Synod  (,f 
Angus,  and  consequently  founded  a  distinct 
sect  about  1730.  In  1755  his  opinions  were 
embraced  by  Robert  Sandetaan,  who  removed 
t<>  London  in  1760,  and,  after  founding  a  con- 
gregation, sailed  for  America  in  t-jf\\.  Alem- 
bcrs  of  this  sect  receive  the  Holy  Supper 
weekly,  retain  the  ancient  feasts  of  charity,  or 
Agapjo,  abstain  from  things  strangled,  and 
from  blond,  and  wash  each  other's  feet.  In  1851 
il  numbered  six-  congregations  in  England. 

CLASS.  The  probable  inventors  of  glass 
were  the  Phoenicians,  who  are  said  by  Pliny  to 
have  discovered  its  manufacture  from  the  acci- 
dental fusion  of  sand  and  nitre  in  a  fire  lighted 
by  some  sailors  on  the  seashore.  It  was  brought 
to  great  perfection  by  the  Sidonians.  That 
must  esteemed  in  ancient  times  was  made  by 
Ihe  Hindoos.  Considerable  skill  in  it* prepara- 
tion was  shown  by  the  Egyptians,  who  practised 
the  art  of  staining  glass  as  early  as  B.C.  1150. 
Vessels  of  glass  have  been  discovered  in  the 
buried  city  of  Herculancum,  which  was  over- 
whelmed by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
79.  The  celebrated  Portland  vase,  another 
specimen  of  Roman  glass  ware,  was  dis- 
covered in  the  tomb  of  Alexander  Severus, 
who  died  in  235.  There  is  no  certain  evidence 
that  glass  was  employed  in  windows  before 
the  3rd  or  4th  century.  Jerome  refers  to  their 
use  in  422.  They  were  first  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Abbot  Benedict  Biscop,  who 
brought  a  number  of  French  glass  manufac- 
turers to  aid  in  the  decoration  of  Wearmouth 
church  and  monastery,  in  674.  At  first  the  use 
of  the  article  was  entirely  confined  to  religious 
edifices,  and  it  was  not  till  the  i4th  century 
that  it  was  in  sufficient  demand  to  create  a  dis- 
tinct business  for  its  sale.  The  first  notice  of 
a  glazier  occurs  in  a  contract  respecting  York 
cathedral,  of  the  year  1338.  Window  glass  of 
an  inferior  kind  was  made  in  England  before 
1439.  The  finer  sorts  were  not  manufactured 
till  1557,  when  a  glass-house  was  established 
at  Crutched  Friars,  London.  Plate  glass  was 
first  made  in  England  at  Lambeth,  by  some 
Venetian  workmen  in  the  employ  of  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham.  The  first  glass  manufactory 
in  America  was  established  in  New  Hampshire 
in  1790.  British  sheet  glass  was  first  manu- 


factured by  Chances,  of  West  Bromwich,  and 

Hartley,  of  Sunderland,  in  1832. An  excise 

duty  on  glass  was  first  imposed  by  6  &  7  Will. 
&  .Mary,  c.  18  (1695'.  This  was  repealed  by 
9  &  10  Will.  3,  c.  45  ^1698^,  and  10  &  n  Will.  III. 
c.  18  (1699;.  It  was  re-established  by  igGeo.  II. 
c.  12  (1745  ,  and  after  successive  augmentations 
was  finally  abolished  by  8  <fe  9  Viet.  c.  6  (April 
24,  1845).  (See  CRYSTAL  GLASS.) 

GLASS-CHORD,  a  musical  instrument  in- 
vented at  Paris,  by  Beyer,  in  1785. 

GLASS-COACH.— (See  COACH J 

GLASS-PAINTING,  or  CLASS-STAINING. 
— The  art  of  colouring  glass  was  known  to  the 
Egyptians,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Babylo- 
nians, from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  who  carried  it  to  a  high  degree  of 
excellence.  It  is  mentioned  as  existing  in  the 
8th  century,  and  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
into  this  country  during  the  reign  of  King  John 
(1199 — i2i6\  the  earliest  specimens  being  found 
in  Canterbury  cathedral.  The  art  of  paint  ing  <  >n 
glass  with  enamel  was  introduced  in  the  i6th 
century,  and,  together  with  the  mosaic  process 
previously  practised,  declined  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. Attempts  to  revive  it  were  made  with  par- 
tial success  in  the  i8th  century,  and  it  has  since 
been  carried  to  a  high  state  of  excellence. 

GLASTQNBUBY  Somersetshire  .—Accord- 
ing to  monkish  tradition,  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian church  in  Britain  was  founded  here  by 
St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  about  63.  On  the 
death  of  its  founder  it  is  reported  to  have  fallen 
into  decay,  until  Pope  Eleutherius,  in  186,  de- 
i  I'haganus  and  I  >iruviaiius,  who  con- 
verted King  Lucius  to  Christianity,  and  after- 
wards established  themselves  in  the  long- 
neglected  foundation  of  St.  Joseph.  Ina,  King 
of  \Vessex,  erected  a  church  at  Glastonhury 
about  719,  and  Edwy  expelled  the  ambitious 
Dunstan  from  the  abbacy,  which  he  had  en- 
joyed  for  22  years,  in  956.  In  1081  there  was  a 
serious  quarrel  between  the  Abbot  Turstin  and 
the  monks,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of 
several  of  the  latter.  The  chapel  of  St.  Joseph 
of  Arimathea,  of  which  the  ruins  still  exist, 
was  built  by  the  Abbot  Herlewin,  who  governed 
the  abbey  from  noi  to  1120.  In  1184  the  town 
and  abbey  were  consumed  by  fire,  and  in  Sep., 
1275,  the  chapel  of  St.  Michael  was  overthrown 
by  an  earthquake.  Edward  III.  and  his  queen, 
Philippa,  were  magnificently  entertained  by 
the  monks  in  1331.  Richard  Whiting,  the 
last  abbot,  was  hanged  on  the  Tor  Hill,  for  op- 
posing the  Reformation,  Nov.  15,  1539.  The 
monastery  was  suppressed  in  1540,  and  has 
since  fallen  into  decay. 

GLATZ  (Prussia;  was  besieged  and  occupied, 
in  1049,  by  Henry  III.  of  Germany.  In  1114  it 
was  seized  by  the  Poles,  in  1421  by  the  Huss- 
ites, and  in  1462  it  was  erected  into  a  county 
by  Frederick  III.  In  1561  it  was  annexed  to 
Bohemia;  the  Austrians  besieged  it  in  1622; 
and  in  1742  it  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  and 
incorporated  with  their  territories.  Alum 
works  were  erected  in  1563.  The  Austrians 
took  Glatz  in  1759,  and  the  Bavarians  and 
Wurtembergers  in  1807. 

GLAUCHA.— (See  CHARITY  SCHOOLS.) 

GLAZIERS  and  GLASS-SELLERS.— In  1309 
glass-makers  themselves  exposed  their  wares 


GLEE 


[     447 


GLUCKSTADT 


for  sale.  The  Glaziers'  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1637,  and  the  Glass-sellers'  in  1664. 

GLEE  CLUB.— (See  CONCERT.) 

GLENCOE  (Argyleshire)  was  the  scene  of 
the  massacre  of  a  tribe  of  the  Macdonalds  by 
the  regiment  of  Campbell  of  Glenlyon.  The 
Jacobite  Highlanders  having  shown  great  re- 
luctance to  submit  to  the  rule  of  William  III. 
and  Mary,  a  proclamation  was  issued,  promis- 
ing pardon  to  all  who  should  tender  their  sub- 
mission before  Jan.  1,1692.  Many  of  the  chiefs 
acceded  to  the  demands  made  xipon  them. 
Macdonald,  or  Maclan,  of  Glencoe,  repaired 
to  Fort  William,  Dec.  31,  1691,  .and  offered 
submission  ;  but  the  governor  was  not  autho- 
rized to  receive  it.  He  furnished  the  chief 
with  a  letter  to  the  sheriff  of  Inverary,  who 
accepted  his  oath  of  allegiance  Jan.  6,  1692. 
The  Macdonalds  had,  however,  rendered  them- 
selves offensive,  and  William  III.  issued  a 
warrant  for  the  extirpation  of  the  tribe.  A 
troop  of  120  men,  led  by  Capt.  Campbell,  ac- 
cordingly entered  the  valley  Feb.  i,  and  on  the 
pretext  that  they  merely  required  quarters, 
were  hospitably  received  by  the  inhabitants. 
They  lived  together  in  friendly  intercourse  till 
five  o'clock  on  Saturday  morning,  Feb.  13, 
when  the  massacre  was  perpetrated  under  cir- 
cumstances of  shocking  and  infamous  treachery. 
Owing  to  the  boisterous  weather  and  the 
defective  arrangements  of  the  assassins,  about 
three-fourths  of  the  tribe  escaped.  No  judi- 
cial inquiry  into  this  crime  was  made  till 
May  23,  1695,  when  a  commission  was  nomi- 
nated. The  commissioners  made  some  state- 
ment June  10,  when  Bredalbane  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  treason.  The  report  was  de- 
clared to  be  finished  June  20,  and  was  laid 
before  the  House  June  24.  Bredalbane  was  set 
at  liberty  without  trial,  and  William  III.  paid 
no  attention  whatever  to  the  recommendations 
of  the  commission. 

GLENDALOCH.— (See  GLANDELAGH.) 

GLENLIVET  (Battle).— The  Roman  Catholics 
in  Scotland,  assisted  by  France  and  Spain,  de- 
feated the  adherents  of  James  VI.,  afterwards 
James  I.  of  England,  at  this  place,  in  1594. 

GLOBE  THEATRE  (London),  situated  in 
Bankside,  Southwark,  the  property  of  Shak- 
speare  and.  his  fellow  actors,  was  built  in  1594, 
the  exterior  plan  being  hexagonal,  and  the 
interior  circular,  while  the  roof  was  open.  It 
was  destroyed  by  a  fire,  occasioned  by  the 
accidental  ignition  of  the  thatch  by  some 
ordnance,  discharged  during  a  performance  of 
Henry  VIII.,  June  29,  1613.  Having  been  re- 
built, at  the  expense  of  King  James  and  the 
nobility,  it  was  pulled  down  Monday,  April  15, 
1644. 

GLOGAU,  or  GROSS-GLOGAU  (Prussia).— 
The  cathedral  was  erected  in  1160.  The  town, 
formerly  held  by  the  Polish  sovereigns  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  passed  in  1476  to  Bohemia,  and 
was  taken  from  the  Austrians  in  1741  by  the 
Prussians,  who  acquired  it  by  treaty  in  1742. 
The  French  invested  it  in  Oct.,  1806,  and  it 
surrendered  early  in  Dec.  The  allies  blockaded 
it  Aug.  17,  1813,  and  it  capitulated  April  10, 

1  GLORIOUS  VIRGIN,  or  ST.  MARY  THE 
GLORIOUS.—  This  order  of  knighthood,founded 


in  Venice  by  Bartholomew  of  Vincenza,  was 
approved  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1262.  A  similar 
order  existed  in  Rome  in  the  i7th  century 

GLORY.— (See  NIMBUS.) 

GLOUCESTER  (Bishopric  of)  was  separated 
from  the  diocese  of  Worcester  by  a  charter  of 
Henry  VIII.,  dated  Sep.  3,  1541.  The  see  of 
Bristol  was  united  with  it  by  an  order  in 
council,  Oct.  5,  1836,  and  styled  the  diocese  of 
Gloucester  and  Bristol. 

GLOUCESTER  (Gloucestershire).— This  city, 
called  by  the  Romans  Clevum  or  Glevum,  is  of 
great  antiquity,  though  the  precise  period  of 
its  foundation  is  unknown.  It  submitted  to 
the  Romans  about  45,  and  on  their  departure 
became  the  principal  city  of  the  Britons,  who 
surrendered  it  to  the  West  Saxons  in  577.  In 
679  it  was  enlarged  and  beautified  by  a  son  of 
King  Penda.  St.  Peter's  Abbey,  the  present 
cathedral,  was  commenced  by  Wulfhere,  King 
of  Mercia,  about  671,  and  restored  by  Aldred, 
Bishop  of  Worcester,  in  1058.  In  1087,  and 
June  17,  1264,  the  city  suffered  severely  from 
fire,  a  calamity  to  which  its  wooden  houses 
frequently  exposed  it.  Gloucester  was  incor- 
porated by  Henry  III.  The  statutes  of  Glou- 
cester were  passed  Oct.  4,  1278.  The  siege  of 
the  city  by  the  Royalists  under  Charles  I.  and 
the  Earl  of  Brentford  commenced  Aug.  10, 
1643,  and  lasted  till  Sep.  5,  when  the  Earl  of 
Essex  brought  relief.  The  walls  were  demo- 
lished in  1662,  and  in  1673  the  city  received  its 
chief  charter  from  Charles  II.  The  infirmary 
was  founded  in  1755,  the  market-house  in  1786, 
and  the  gaol  in  1791.  The  Gloucester  and 
Berkeley  canal,  commenced  in  1794,  was  not 
completed  till  1826.  The  town  haUwas  erected 
in  1814. 

GLOVES.— In  the  classical  sera  gloves  were 
worn  by  archers,  husbandmen,  and  others,  as 
a  protection  from  accidents,  to  which  their 
pursuits  rendered  them  liable.  They  were 
first  distinguished  by  pairs  about  814,  and 
were  introduced  into  this  country  in  the  ioth 
or  nth  century.  Stevens,  in  his  "Notes  on 
Shakspeare,"  remarks,  it  was  "  the  custom  to 
wear  gloves  in  the  hat  on  three  distinct  occa- 
sions ;  viz.  as  the  favour  of  a  mistress,  the 
memorial  of  a  friend,  and  as  a  mark  to  be 
challenged  by  an  enemy,"  and  instances  of 
their  use  for  these  purposes  are  common  in 
the  writers  of  the  i5th  and  i6th  centuries. 
White  wedding-gloves  are  mentioned  by  Dekker 
in  1599,  an(i  at  a  wedding  in  1604  the  gloves 
given  to  the  guests  cost  nearly  £1,000.  The 
Glovers'  Company  was  incorporated  Sep.  10, 
1639.  The  importation  of  gloves  was  prohi- 
bited by  3  Edw.  IV.  c.  4  (1463),  and  6Geo.  III. 
c.  19  (1766).  The  restriction  was  removed  by 
6Geo.  IV.  c.  105,  8.  119  (July  5,  1825). 

GLUCINA,  or  GLYCINA,  was  discovered  in 
the  emerald  by  Vauquelin  in  1797. 

GLUCINUM,  or  GLYCINUM,  a  metal  first 
obtained  from  glucina  by  Wohler  in  1828. 

GLUCKSTADT,  the  capital  of  Holstein,  was 
founded  in  1619,  and  fortified  in  1620  by 
Christian  IV.  In  1628  it  successfully  resisted 
a  siege  by  Tilly,  and  in  1643  Torstenson  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  take  it.  A  supreme  court  of 
justice  for  Holstein  and  Sleswig  was  estab- 
lished in  1752.  The  fortifications  were  demo- 


GLYCERINE 


[    448    ] 


GOG 


lished  in  1814,  and  it  was  declared  a  free  port 
in  1830. 

GLYCERINE.— This  substance  was  disco- 
vered by  Scheele  in  1779,  and  termed  by  him 
the  "sweet  principle  of  oils."  It  is  obtained 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  palm  candles, 
and  is  employed  as  a  material  for  soap  and  in 
medicine. 

GXESXA  (PosenV— Othp  III.  made  it  thrs 
seat  of  an  archbishopric  in  1000,  and  it  was 
taken  by  the  Prussians  in  1793. 

GXIDOS.—  Sfc  CNIIM-S. 

GNOSTICS.— This  sect  of  heretics  is  said  by 
some  to  have  been  founded  by  Simon  Magus, 
whom  St.  Peter  rebuked  in  Samaria,  in  33 
(Acts  viii.  20 — 24).  Gnostic  doctrines  became 
general  about  81.  In  122,  Basilides  and  Satur- 
ninus  founded  new  sects  in  Syria,  and  in  140 
one  was  founded  at  Rome  by  \  aleiitinus.  The 
heresy  reached  its  height  about  150,  after  which 
it  gradually  declined,  though  some  scattered 
•  ntiiiued  to  exist  as  late  as  390. 

GXosus.      SeeCx 

GOA  Iliiidostan  .—  This  city  of  Bejapore 
was  wrested  from  the  Hindoo  rajah  by  the 
Mohammedan  sovereign  of  the  Deccan  about 
1469.  In  1510  it  was  taken  by  Albuquerque, 
who  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese 
possessions  in  the  Ivist.  Revolutions,  unat- 
tended with  bloodshed,  were  effected  in  1821 
and  1822. 

(JOAT  RIVER.- •!&>?.  /KGOSI-OTAMI. 

G01J.UX,  ST.  France  .- --The  celebrated 
looking  glass  manufactory  of  this  town  was 
established  in  1691. 

GO13KLIX  TAI'KSTRY  is  manufactured  at 
the  establishment  founded  by  Colbert  at  Paris, 
in  1662,  and  named  in  honour  of  the  celebrated 
tapestry-makers,  the  brothers  Gobelin.  The 
manufactory  was  under  tlu  management  of  the 
painter  Lebrun  from  1662  to  1690,  and  of  late 
years  Chevreul  has  introduced  several  improve- 
ments in  design  and  colour. 

Gol)  AND  MY  HIGHT.— ,'&«  DiEU  KT  MON 
DROIT.) 

GOD    SAVE    THE    KIXG,     or    QUKKX. 
(See  NATIONAL  ANTIII:M. 

GODDESS  OF  REASON'.— .'£>«  RKA 

GODERICH  ADMINISTRATION.— On  the 
death  of  Mr.  Canning,  Aug.  8,  1827,  Lord 
Goderich  became  prime  minister,  with  the 
under-mentioned  associates  in  the  cabinet : — 

Treasury  

I/ord  Chancellor 

President  of  the  Council 

Privy  Seal     

Chancellor  of  Exchequer   ... 

Home  Secretary 

Foreign  Secretary 

Colonial  Secretary 

Board  of  Control  

Secretary  at  War  

Hoard  of  Trade 

Chancellor   of    the   Duchy! 

of  Lancaster   "..) 

Master  of  the  Mint   

Woods  and  Forests   


I  ord  G,ideri,-h. 

Lord  Lyndliurst. 

Duke  of  Portland. 

Earl  of  Carlisle. 

Mr.  llerries. 

M:irf|tiis  of  Lanfdowne. 

Lord  Dudley  and  Ward. 

Mr.  Huskiss.m. 

Mr.  C.  W.  Wynn. 

Lord  Palmerston. 

Mr.  C.  Grant. 

Lord  Bexley. 

Mr.  Tierney. 

Mr.  S.  Bourne. 


Mr.  Huskisson  resigned  the  colonial  secretary- 
ship Jan.  7,  1828,  anddissensions  having  broken 
out  in  the  cabinet,  Lord  Goderich  himself  re- 
signed Jan.  8,  1828.  (See  WELLINGTON  AD- 
MINISTRATION.) 
GODFATHERS  AND  GODMOTHERS.  — 


Tradition  refers  the  origin  of  godfathers  and 
godmothers  to  Bishop  Hyginus,  about  154, 
though  some  authors  endeavour  to  derive  the 
office  from  the  Jewish  rites  or  the  Roman  civil 
codes.  Parents  were  prohibited  from  acting  as 
sponsors  for  their  children  by  the  Council  of 
Meiitz  in  813.  The  number  of  sponsors  was 
limited  to  one  or  two,  at  the  most,  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  in  1545,  but  the  Church  of 
England  permits  three. 
G<  )DIVA  PROCESSION.— (See  COVENTRY.) 
GODOLO  (Battle).  — The  Hungarians  de- 
feated the  Austrians  at  this  place,  near  Pesth, 
April  6,  1849*.  The  Austrians  lost  3,200  pri- 
soners, 26  pieces  of  cannon,  seven  standards, 
and  ammunition. 

GO  DOLPHIN  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  soon  after  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne, 
Lord  Godolphin,  afterwards  Earl  Godolphin 
and  Viscount  Rialton,  having  been  made  lord 
high  treasurer,  May  8,  1702. 

Treasury   Lord  Godolphin. 

Lord  Keeper    sir  Nathan  Wri-ht. 

(Karl    of    Pembroke    and 
President  of  the  Council 1     Montgomery     (July    14, 

(     1702). 


Privy  Seal 


(Marquis      of     Normanby 
...    -,      aftcnvards       Duke      ol 
/      P.uckinpham. 

rds 


Ch.nceUor  of  Exchequer   -. 

Principal       Secretaries       of    /Karl  of  Nottingham. 

State  ..............................    \Sir  Charles  lled-es. 


The  Duke  of  Marlborough  received  the  garter 
and  the  command  of  the  army.  A  modification 
of  the  cabinet  took  place  in  1  704,  when  the  P]arl 
of  Nottingham  retired.  Harley,  afterwards 
Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord  Mortimer,  became 
secretary  of  state  May  18,  1704,  and  Henry  St. 
John  created  Viscount  Bolingbroke  in  1712) 
became  secretary  at  war  April  20,  1704.  The 
Duke  of  Newcastle  became  privy  seal  March 
31,  1705.  William,  afterwards  Lord  Cowper, 
was  made  lord  keeper  Oct.  4,  1705,  and  lord 
chancellor  May  4,  1707.  Harley,  in  consequence 
of  the  indiscretion  of  Gregg,  a  clerk  in  his 
office,  was  dismissed  Feb.  n,  1708,  and  St.  John 
immediately  resigned.  Mr.  Boyle,  afterwards 
Lord  Carleton,  replaced  Harley,  and  Mr., 
afterwards  Sir  Robert,  Walpole,  and  Earl  of 
Orford,  succeeded  St.  John.  Mr.  Smith  re- 
placed Mr.  Boyle  at  the  exchequer  Feb.  n, 
1708.  Lord  Somers  was  made  president  of  the 
council  Nov.  25,  1708.  The  Godolphin  Ad- 
ministration was  dissolved  Aug.  8,  1710.  (See 
HARLEY  ADMINISTRATION.! 

GOD'S  GIFT  COLLEGE.  —  (See  DULWICH 
COLLEGE.^ 

GOD'S  HOUSE.—  '.See  CHRIST'S  COLLEGE.) 

GOD'S  TRUCE.—  (See  TRUCE,  or  PEACE  OF 
GOD.) 

GOES,  or  TERGOES  (Holland).—  This  forti- 
fied town,  delivered  by  Spain  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Dutch  confederates  in  1572,  surrendered 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  1577. 

GOG  AND  MAGOG.—  These  names  occur 
frequently  in  the  Bible.  In  a  description  of 
the  procession  made  by  Elizabeth,  Jan.  13, 
1558,  mention  is  made  of  "the  two  ymages  of 
Gotmagog  the  Albione,  and  Corineus  the 
Britain,  two  gyantes  bigge  in  stature,  furnished 


GOHUD 


C    449 


GOLD 


accordingly."  Douce  believes  that  some  figure 
of  the  kind  decorated  the  Guildhall  long  bef  or 
this  date.  Richard  Saunders  carved  the  presen 
figures,  set  up  in  1708,  the  old  ones  having 
been  destroyed  in  the  great  fire. 

GOHUD  (Hindostan).— This  town,  fortifiec 
about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  wa 
taken  by  Scindia  in  1784.  The  East  Indu 
Company  concluded  a  treaty  guaranteeing 
the  Rana  of  Gohud  in  his  possessions,  Jan.  17 
1804.  It  was  not,  however,  carried  out,  anc 
Gohud  was  transferred  to  the  East  India  Com 
pany,  in  exchange  for  Dholpore. 

GOITO  (Battles).— This  town  in  Lombard., 
was  captured  by  the  Imperialists  in  1630.  Ii 
was  frequently  assailed  during  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession.  The  French  seized  it  in 
1796,  and  were  expelled  the  same  year  by  the 
Austrians.  The  Sardinians  took  it  April  8, 
1848  ;  and  Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia 
defeated  the  Austrians  here,  May  30,  1848. 
GOKOND.— (See  COCHIN  CHINA.) 
GOLCONDA  (Hindostan  j .  —  This  town, 
celebrated  in  olden  times  for  its  diamond- 
mines,  was  the  capital  of  a  Hindoo  principality 
incorporated  with  Delhi  by  Aurungzebe,  ii 
1687. 

GOLD.— The  earliest  mention  of  this  pre- 
cious metal  occurs  in  Gen.  ii.  n,  where  gold  is 
said  to  exist  in  the  land  of  Havilah,  compassed 
by  the  Pison,  one  of  the  four  heads  of  the  river 
that  went  out  of  Eden.  In  Gen.  xiii.  2,  Abra- 
ham is  described  as  a  man  rich  in  silver  and 
gold  (B.C.  1897).  Solomon  employed  this  metal 
in  every  part  of  the  temple  and  of  his  own 
palace,  silver  being  "  nothing  accounted  of  "  in 
his  reign,  i  Kings  x.  21  (B.C.  992).  It  was  also 
in  high  estimation  amongst  the  Egyptians, 
Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans,  and  was  manufactured  with  skill 
by  British  goldsmiths  as  early  as  628.  The 
standard  of  gold  is  regulated  by  17  &  1 8  Viet. 
c.  96  (Aug.  10,  1854).  Wedding-rings  are  ex- 
empted from  this  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  60 
(July  23,  1855;. 

GOLD  COAST  (Africa).— A  district  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  discovered  by  Santarem 
and  Escobar  in  1471,  and  named  in  consequence 
of  the  wealth  thence  derived.  It  was  visited 
by  an  English  expedition  in  1591,  and  became 
an  English  colony  in  1618.  (See  GUINEA.) 

GOLD  COINAGE.— The  earliest  gold  coins 
known  are  supposed  to  be  those  of  Miletus,  in 
Asia  Minor,  which  were  probably  struck  about 
B.C.  800.  The  gold  darics  of  the  Persian 
monarchs  originated  about  B.C.  538,  and  the 
Sicilians  established  a  gold  coinage  at  least  as 
early  as  B.C.  400.  The  Romans  first  used  gold 
coins  B.C.  206.  The  modern  gold  coinage  of 
Europe  wis  Commenced  by  the  Florentines  in 
1252,  that  of  Venice  was  established  in  1276, 
and  gold  was  a  general  circulating  medium  in 
1320.  The  principal  facts  connected  with  the, 
English  gold  coinage  will  be  found  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : — 
B.C. 
19.  Cunobelin  begins  to  reign,  and  strikes  the  earliest 

known  British  u-old  coins. 
A.D. 

1347.  Henry  III.  commences  the  English  gold  coinage  by 
making  a  number  of  gold  pennies,  each  worth 
2O  ordinary  pieces. 


1344.  Edward  III.  orders  florins,  nobles,  half-nobles,  and 

quarter  nobles,  to  be  struck. 

136?.  The  Commons  petition  for  smaller  gold  coins. 
1465.  Edward  IV.  coins  gold  ryals  and  angels. 
1489.  Sovereigns,   or  double  ryals,   are   first    coined    by 

Henry  VII. 

1526.  Henry  VIII.  increases  the  value  of  the  gold  coins. 
1537.  Henry  VIII.  coins  gold  crowns. 
1603.  James  I.  coins  gold  unites,  or  broad  pieces. 
1617.  James  I.  orders  a  new  coinage. 
1663.  Guineas  are  first  coined. 

1670.  Gold  coins  of  10,  40,  and  loo  shillings  are  ordered. 
1695.  In  consequence  of    the  large  number  of    clipped 

coins  in  circulation,  the  window-tax  is  levied  to 

defray  the  expense  of  a  recoinage. 
1701.  William  III.  coins  gold  pistoles  and  half  pistoles  for 

Scotland. 
1733.  The    broad  pieces  of    James  I.,   Charles    I.,  and 

Charles  II.,  are  recalled,  and  coined  into  guineas 
1797.  George  III.  coins  gold  seven-shilling  pieces. 
1843,  June.  The  light  gold  coinage  is  called  in. 

GOLD  DISCOVERIES.— The  most  impor- 
tant gold  discoveries  of  modem  times  have 
been  made  in  California,  Australia,  and  British 
Columbia.  The  metal  was  discovered  in  Cali- 
fornia by  Marshal  and  Capt.  Suter  in  Sep., 
1847,  and  attracted  adventurers  from  all 
parts  of  the  world,  insomuch  that  the  immi- 
gration was  estimated  at  50,000  persons  at  the 
end  of  1848.  The  gold  excitement  in  Australia 
did  not  commence  till  1851,  though  the  metal 
was  discovered  in  small  quantities  in  1829.  In 
1841  it  was  detected  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Macquarie  River,  and  in  May,  1845,  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison  announced  the  probability 
of  large  gold  discoveries  in  Australia  to  the 

deographical  Society.  In  1850  Stutchbury  was 
Appointed  geologist  to  the  colony  of  Sydney 
xnd  Hargraves  announced  his  establishment  of 
niners  at  the  Ophir  diggings,  near  Bathurst, 
Hay  8,  1851.  The  local  government  claimed 
;he  right  of  search  for  gold  on  behalf  of  the 
:rown,  May  17,  and  before  May  19  the  diggers 
it  Ophir  had  increased  to  between  500  and  600. 
)r.  Kerr  discovered  a  hundredweight  of  the 
recious  metal  in  one  day  (July  14),  and  at  the 
md  of  1857  the  total  amount  derived  from 
Lustralia  had  amounted  to  ,£66,135,484.  The 
discovery  of  gold  in  British  Columbia  was 
>fficially  reported  to  the  governor  of  the  colony, 
-larch  i,  1856,  and  during  1858  occasioned 
imilar  immigration  and  excitement  to  that 
weviously  experienced  in  respect  to  California 
nd  Australia,  although  in  this  case  it  was 
hiefly  confined  to  the  American  continent, 
mportant  discoveries  of  gold  were  made  at 
"tago,  New  Zealand,  in  1861. 

GOLD  DUST.— The  trade  in  gold  dust  com- 
menced in  Africa  in  1442. 

GOLD  FISH,  introduced  into  England  from 
'hina,  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century 

GOLD-LEAF.— According  to  Pliny  (ist  cen- 
ary),  the  Romans  were  able  to  beat  gold  so 
tin  that  an  ounce,  forming  a  plate  four  fingers 
quare,  was  multiplied  into  600  leaves  of  the 
ame  area.  The  use  of  gold-leaf  in  the  deco- 
ation  of  houses,  furniture,  or  dress,  was 
rohibited  by  a  proclamation  of  James  I.  in 
619.  The  art  of  gold-beating  is  carried  to 
uch  perfection  that  a  single  ounce  of  gold  is 
lade  to  cover  an  area  of  a  hundred  square 
eet,  the  average  thickness  of  common  gold- 
eaf  being  55^  of  an  inch. 


GOLD 


GOLDEN 


GOLD-MINES.— The  precious  metals  were 
first  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Egypt  and 
Asia.  The  Egyptians  obtained  gold  from  the 
copper-mines  of  Nubia,  which  were  discovered 
by  the  kings  of  the  most  ancient  race,  and  the 
metal  was  also  derived  from  some  mines  of 
Southern  Africa,  of  which  the  situation  is  now 
unknown.  Job  (xxii.  24)  speaks  of  the  gold  of 
Ophir,  the  locality  of  which  is  much  disputed, ' 
B.C.  2130.  The  first  gold-mine  in  Europe  was 
opened  by  Cadmus  who  is  said  to  have  nou- 
rished about  B.C.  1550  in  Mount  I'angams,  iu 
Thrace.  The  sources  whence  Solomon  (B.C. 
1015 — 975)  appears  t<>  have  derived  his  gold 
were  chiefly  Ophir  (i  Kings  x.  n)  and  Tarshish, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  an  ancient  name  for 
the  south  of  Spain  2  (Jhron.  ix.  21).  The  gold- 
mines of  Hungary  were  discovered,  about  745, 
those  of  Saxony  in  the  loth  century,  of  Hano- 
ver in  972,  of  Schellgadin  in  1378.  Gold  was 
obtained  from  Chili  in  1539.  In  1543  it  was 
discovered  in  Brazil,  where  the  Indians  used  it 
for  i'lsh-hooks  ;  but  it  was  not  obtained  there 
by  Europeans  till  169:5.  Peter  the  Great,  of 
Russia,  reopened  some  long-neglected  gold- 
mines in  his  kingdom  in  in:/);  and  in  1781 
the  metal  was  discovered  in  France.  Gold  was 
found  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  Ireland,  in 
1796,  and  in  the  Ural  Mountains  in  1820.  (See 
GOLD  Disc  >v::i;ii:s. 

GOLDSMITHS'    COMPANY    was     incorpo- 
rated by    letters    patent    of     Edward    III.,    in 
1327,  and  confirmed  by  Richard  II.  in  1392  or 
1394.     Edward  IV.  incre-ised  its  privil' 
powers  in  1462,  and  the  crest  and  supporters 
were  granted  in   1571.     The  fine  hall  of  the 
company     was     built     from     the     d>- 
Philip    llardwick,   R.A.,  and  opened  July  15, 

1  GOLD  AND  SILVER  WIRE  DRAWERS. 
The  ancients  used  gold  and  silver  wire  in 
weaving  embroidery,  and  it  was  employed  by 
surgeons  in  fastening  teeth.  The  manufac- 
ture, originally  practised  in  France  and  Italy, 
was  introduced  into  Germany  in  1592.  The 
company  of  the  Gold  and  Silver  Wire  Drawers 
was  incorporated  by  James  f.  in  1623. 

GOLDAU  (Switzerland).— This  village  was 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  fall  of  the  Knippo- 
nouhl  rock,  which  formed  the  summit  of 
Mont  Rossberg,  Sep.  2,  1806.  Four  other 
villages  were  destroyed  at  the  same  time,  and 
upwards  of  1,000  persons  fell  victims  to  this 
calamity. 

GOLDEN  BULL.— The  name  given  to  seve- 
ral charters  and  documents  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  were  sealed  with  a  golden  seal.  The 
golden  bull  of  Hungary  was  pi-omul 
1222,  that  of  Bohemia  in  1348,  of  Brabant  in 
1349,  and  of  Milan  in  1549.  The  golden  bull 
par  excellence  is  the  celebrated  bull  of  Charles 
IV.  of  Germany,  which  was  made  the  basis  of 
the  German  constitution  at  the  diets  of  Nu- 
remberg in  1355  and  of  Metz  in  1356,  and  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  dissolution  of  the 
German  empire  in  1806.  It  was  published  in 
Latin,  at  Nuremberg,  in  1474,  and  in  German, 
at  Ulm,  in  1484  ;  and  at  Strasburg  in  1485. 

(IOLDEX  CANDLESTICK.— (See  CANDLE- 
STICK.) 

GOLDEN  EAGLE.— (See  EAGLE.) 


GOLDEN  FLEECE.— (See  ARGONAUTIC  EXPE- 
DITION.) 

GOLDEN  FLEECE  (Order  of ).—  This  order 
was  instituted  at  Bruges  by  Philip  the  C.md, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  Jan.  10,  1429,  and  received 
its  name  and  the  badge  of  a  golden  fleece  in 
consequence  of  the  important  woollen  manu- 
factures of  the  coimtry.  The  grandmastership 
was  inalienably  attached  to  the  house  of  Bur- 
gundy, with  the  proviso  that  in  the  event  of 
that  family  having  no  male  representatives,  it 
should  descend  to  the  husband  of  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  last  sovereign.  It  conse- 
quently passed  into  the  house  of  Austria  in 
1477,  and  continued  in  that  family  until  the 
death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  Nov.  i,  1700, 
when  it  was  contested  by  Charles  III.  and 
Philip  V.,  who  agreed,  at  the  peace  of  Vienna, 
April  30,  1725,  that  each  should  retain  the  title 
during  life,  but  that  their  heirs  should  only 
take  the  title  of  the  country  they  governed. 
The  order  was  consequently  divided  into  the 
Golden  Fleece  of  Austria,  and  of  Spain. 

GOLDKN  HORDE.  This  tribe  of  Mongo- 
lians, under  their  leader  Baton,  grandson  of 
/enghis  Khan,  established  themselves  oil  the 
plains  of  Kipsale  in  1235.  They  rendered  Russia 
tributary  in  1243,  and  made  Alexander  Newski 
grand  duke  in  1252.  Timour  attacked  them  in 
1392,  and  Ivan  III.  discontinued  the  payment; 
of  tribute  to  them  in  1477.  Their  influence 
was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Nogay  Tartars 
and  Ivan  III.  at  the  battle  of  Bielaweseh,  in 
1481. 

GOLDEN  HORN.— Gibbon  (ch.  xvii.)  re- 
marks:—  "The  harbour  of  Constantinople, 
which  may  be  considered  as  an  arm  of  the 
Bosphorus,  obtained,  in  a  very  remote  period, 
the  denomination  of  the  (,'nfilrn  llnm.  The 
curve  which  it  describes  might  lie  compared 
t')  the  horn  of  a  stag,  or,  as  it  should  seernwith 
more  propriety,  to  that  of  an  ox." 

GOLDEN  LAND.      See  Ki,  DORADO.) 

GOI.DKN  I.EOEXD.  This  work,  named  be- 
cause, "  like  as  passeth  gold  in  value  all  other 
metals,  so  this  LIIH-/H/.  cxceedeth  all  other 
books,"  was  written  in  Latin  about  1260,  by 
Jacobi  de  Voraignc,  or,  as  he  is  frequently 
called,  James  de,  Varagine,  Voragine,  or  Vra- 
gine,  who,  born  about  1230,  became  principal  of 
the  Dominicans  in  Lombardy  in  1267,  Arch- 
bishop of  Genoa  in  1292,  and  died  in  June, 
1298.  The  book,  which  relates,  in  177  sections, 
"  the  high  and  great  fates  of  our  Lord,  the  fates 
of  our  blessed  l.ady,  the  lives,  passions,  and 
miracles  of  many  other  Saints,  and  other  his- 
tories and  acts,"  was  first  published  at  Cologne 
in  1470.  Caxton  printed  an  English  transla- 
tion in  1483,  and  it  has  passed  through  nume- 
rous editions,  and  has  been  translated  into 
almost  every  European  language. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER,  or  CYCLE  OF  THE 
MOON.— This  cycle  of  19  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  phases  of  the  moon  corre- 
spond within  an  hour  to  their  appearance  19 
years  before,  was  invented  by  Meton,  the 
Athenian,  and  adopted  July  16,  B.C.  433.  It  is 
called  the  Golden  Number,  because  in  old 
almanacks  it  was  marked  in  letters  of  gold. 

(JOLDEN  ROSE.-  A  mysterious  gift,  repre- 
senting by  its  gold,  its  odour,  and  its  balm, 


GOLDEN 


GORCUM 


the  godhead,  the  body,  and  soul  of  the  Re- 
deemer, was  only  bestowed  by  popes  on  sove- 
reigns who  were  the  most  loyal  servants  of  the 
Church.  The  custom  existed  as  early  as  the 
icth  century.  John  XXII.  or  XXIII.,  during 
the  struggle  for  the  papacy,  presented  one 
to  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  March  9,  1416. 
Julius  II.  sent  a  golden  rose  to  Henry  VIII. 
in  1510. 

GOLDEN  SPURS,  or  GOLDEN  MILITIA 
(Order). — This  knightly  order  claims  supe- 
riority to  all  others  in  point  of  antiquity,  Con- 
stantinel.,  the  Great  (323 — 337),  being  regarded 
as  its  founder,  and  Pope  Sylvester  I.  (314 — 335) 
as  the  confirmer  of  its  constitution.  It  is, 
however,  more  probable  that  it  was  founded 
by  Pius  IV.  in  1559.  ^  was  suppressed  in 
1841  by  Gregory  XVI.,  who  founded  the  order 
of  St.  Sylvester. 

GOLDSBOROUGH  (United  States).— This 
town  of  North  Carolina  was  captured  by  the 
Federals  under  Gen.  Foster,  who  destroyed  the 
railway  works  and  burned  several  bridges,  <fec., 
Dec.  17,  1862.  Gen.  Sherman,  after  a  succes- 
sion of  difficulties  opposed  to  him  by  the  Con- 
federate Gen.  Johnstone  (see  BENTONVILLE), 
effected  a  junction  with  Gen.  Schofield  at  this 
town,  March  22,  1865. 

GOLF,  or  GOFF.— A  game  of  club  and  ball, 
supposed  to  have  been  known  in  Scotland  at  a 
very  early  period.  It  was  prohibited,  lest  it 
should  interfere  with  the  practice  of  archery, 
by  numerous  statutes,  beginning  in  1457. 

GOLOVTCHIV  (Battle).— Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  defeated  the  Russians  in  this  encoun- 
ter, which  took  place  July  4,  1708. 

GOMARISTS,  or  CONTRA-REMON- 
STRANTS.— The  Calvinists  of  Leyden,  who 
supported  the  views  of  Francis  Gomarus,  the 
opponent  of  James  Arminius,  the  Lutheran,  in 
the  great  controversy  which  commenced  early 
in  the  i7th  century,  received  this  name.  A 
council  of  the  whole  Church  met  at  Dort,  Nov. 
13,  1618.  It  separated  May  9,  1619,  having  con- 
demned the  Arminians  (q.  v.). 

GOMBETTE  CODE.— This  system  of  laws 
was  published  by  Gombaud  or  Gondebaud, 
King  of  Burgundy,  in  502.  A  continuation 
was  issued  by  his  son  Sigismund  in  519. 

GOMBROON  BENDER,  or  BUNDER  ABBAS 
(Persia). — An  English  factory  was  established 
at  this  ancient  seaport  in  1613.  The  Dutch 
formed  an  establishment  in  1620.  The  English 
factory  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in 
Oct.,  1760. 

GOMBRA  (Atlantic).  —  Christopher  Colum- 
bus remained  a  short  time  on  this  island,  one 
of  the  Canaries,  in  1492.  Pizarro  visited  it  in 

GOMPHI  (Thessaly).— This  town,  important 
as  commanding  the  pass  to  the  Ambracian 
Gulf,  was  taken  by  the  Roman  consul  Flami- 
ninus  B.C.  198.  Philip  V.,  in  suppressing  the 
revolt  of  Amynander,  B.C.  189,  vainly  endea- 
voured to  force  a  passage  through  the  pass, 
which  was  traversed  by  the  consul  Q.  Marcius 
Philippus  in  his  march  from  Ambracia  into 
Thessaly  B.C.  169.  Gomphi  was  taken  by 
Cfttsar,  after  an  assault  of  a  few  hours,  B.C.  48. 
Its  modern  name  is  Episkope",  the  town  having 
been  converted  into  a  bishop's  see. 


GONFALONIER,  or  THE  STANDARD- 
BEARER  OF  JUSTICE,  was  introduced  at 
Florence  in  1292.  The  Gonfaloniers,  originally 
servants  of  the  republic,  assumed  in  the  isth 
century  almost  absolute  power,  and  the  title 
was  suppressed  April  27,  1532. 

GONVILLE  HALL.— (See  CAIUS  COLLEGE.) 

GOOD  FRIDAY.  —  The  Friday  preceding 
Easter  Sunday  is  observed  under  this  name  as 
the  anniversary  of  the  Lord's  crucifixion,  April 
5,  30.  Though  it  has  always  been  the  custom 
of  the  Christian  Church  to  solemnize  this  event, 
the  name  Good  Friday  is  comparatively  of 
recent  origin.  The  Saxons  called  the  day  Long 
Friday,  from  the  length  of  the  church  services 
then  performed.  The  practice  of  using  cross- 
buns  on  this  day  is  of  great  antiquity. 

GOODMAN'S  FIELDS  THEATRE  (London) 
was  opened  as  a  playhouse  by  Thomas  Odell, 
Oct.  31,  1729.  Owing  to  the  objections  urged 
against  it  by  the  clergyman  of  St.  Botolph, 
Aldgate,  it  was  removed  in  1735  to  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields,  and  was  again  established  in  Good- 
man's Fields  Oct.  19,  1741,  when  David  Garrick 
made  his  first  appearance  on  the  London  stage 
as  Richard  III.  This  theatre  was  pulled  down 
in  1746,  and  another  was  speedily  erected, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  June,  1802. 

GOOD  MEN.— (See  BON-HOMMES.) 

GOOD  WILL.— (See  BRETHREN  OF  SOCIAL 
LIFE.) 

GOODWIN  SANDS.— The  sand-banks  off  the 
coast  of  Kent,  said  to  have  originally  formed 
part  of  that  county,  and  to  have  taken  their 
name  from  Earl  Godwin,  were  submerged  by 
the  sea  in  1097.  The  lighthouse  on  the  North 
Foreland,  erected  in  1683,  is  for  the  purpose  of 
warning  mariners  of  the  dangerous  vicinity  of 
these  quicksands.  Thirteen  men-of-war  were 
wrecked  on  these  shoals  Nov.  26,  1703,  and 
nearly  everybody  on  board  perished.  Since 
1841  a  lighthouse  and  two  beacons,  erected  on 
the  sands,  have  been  destroyed. 

GOODWOOD  RACES,  held  at  Goodwood 
Park,  in  Sussex,  were  instituted  in  April,  1802. 

GOOJERAT,  GUJERAT,  or  GUZERAT 
(Hindostaii). — This  province  was  invaded  and 
seized  by  Sultan  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni  about 
1025.  In  1298  it  is  mentioned  by  Marco  Polo, 
in  1572  became  subject  to  Akbar,  in  1707  it  was 
devastated  by  the  Mahrattas,  and  in  1 724  be- 
came independent  of  the  Mongol  authority. 
Severe  famines  and  pestilences  occurred  in 
1813  and  1814.  The  battle  of  Goojerat  was 
gained  by  a  British  army  of  25,000  men,  under 
Lord  Gough,  over  a  Sikh  force  of  60,000  men, 
Feb.  21,  1849. 

GOOLE  (Yorkshire). — A  mere  village  in  1826, 
was  erected  into  a  port  in  1829. 

GOOSETREE'S  CLUB  (London),  founded 
by  Almack  in  1764,  and  afterwards  known  as 
Goosetree's,  was  frequented  by  Pitt  and  Wil- 
berforce  in  1780. 

GORCUM,  GORKUM,  or  GORINCHEM 
(Holland). — This  town,  founded  in  1230,  wag 
taken  by  the  Protestants  in  1572,  and  by  the 
Prussians  in  1787.  The  French  captured  it 
Jan.  12,  1795,  and  fortified  it  in  1813.  It  was 
retaken  by  the  Prussians  in  1814. 

GORCUM,  GORKUM,  or  GORINCHEM 
(Treaty). — The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  by  a 

G  G  2 


GORDIAN 


[    45= 


GORILLA 


treaty  concluded  at  this  town  in  Holland  in 
1528,  compelled  the  robber  prince,  Charles 
d'Egcaont,  to  appoint  him  heir  to  Guelderland 
and  Zutphen.  This  arrangement  was,  how- 
ever, set  aside  by  D'Egmont,  who  formally  be- 
queathed his  territory  to  Francis  I.  of  France 

"\SltblAN  KNOT.—"  A  story  is  told,"  says 
a  writer  in  the  Enc/irln,:-  «>Ut<.uur, 

"  of  the  Macedonian  hero  during  his  residence 
at  Gordium,  which  the  gravest  historians  have 
not  disdained  to  preserve  in  their  pages.  Plu- 
tarch tells  us  that,  upon  taking  this  town, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  seat  of  the 
ancient  Midas,  he  found  the  famed  chariot 
fastened  with  cords  made  of  the  cornel-tree  ; 
and  was  informed  of  a  tradition,  firmly  be- 
lieved among  the  barbarians,  that  'the  fates 
had  decreed  the  empire  of  the  world  to  him 
who  should  untie  the  knot.'  This,  as  most 
historians  state,  was  twisted  so  many  private 
ways,  and  the  ends  of  it  were  so  artfully  con- 
cealed, that  Alexander,  finding  he  could  not 
untie  it,  cut  it  asunder  with  his  sword,  and 
made  many  ends  instead  of  two.  But  Aristo- 
bulns  atlirms  that  lie  easily  undid  it,  by  taking 
out  the  pin  which  fastened  the  yoke  to  the 
beam,  and  then  drawing  out  the  yoke  itself." 
This  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  the  acro- 
polis of  Gordium,  a  town  of  Bithynia,  B.C.  333. 
To  Gordius  I.  of  Phrygia  the  invention  of  the 
knot  is  ascribed,  B.C.  1449. 

DON,    or   -NO-POPERY    RIOT 
don). — -These   anti-popery   riots    were   named 
•  Cordon,  who 

was  elected  president  of  the  Froiost ant  Asso- 
ciation in  r77<>.  lie  piv.si/nted  a  petition,  Jan. 4, 
1780,  praying  for  the  repeal  of  an  act  \  • 
1778,  in  favour  of  Unman  Catholics,  from  that 
society  to  Lord  North,  and  summoned  a  meet- 
ing at  Coachmakers'  H-ill,  May  29,  at  which  it 
•.lived  that  the  entire  association  shoiuV 
assemble  in  St.  George's  Fields  on  the  follow 
in;  Friday,  June  •-.  I'.'iny  him  with 

the  petition  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Ac 
cordingly,  on  the  day  appointed,  a  crowd  oj 
the  supporters  of  the  movement,  variously 
computed  at  from  50,000  to  100,000  men,  as 
!  and  marched  in  several  divisions 
to  Palace  Yard,  where  they  mobbed  th 
members  of  Parliament  as  they  arrived  i: 
their  carriages.  Lord  George  presented  his 
petition,  which  was  signed  by  nearly  120,000 
persons,  and  moved  for  its  immediate  con 
sideration  ;  but  on  a  division,  only  6  vote? 
appeared  for  his  proposition,  while  192  were 
recorded  against  it.  The  mob  retired  fron 
the  Houses,  uu  1,  Laving  burned  the  Romar 
Catholic  chapels  in  Duke  Street  and  Warwick 
Street,  dispersed  for  the  night.  The  following 
evening  the  disturbances  were  less  violent 
but  on  Sunday  the  rioters  assembled  in  largi 
bodies  in  Moorfields,  and  burned  the  chapeli 
and  houses  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  On 
Monday,  June  5,  they  burned  the  chapels  in 
Virginia  Lane,  Wapping,  and  Nightingale 
Lane,  Smithfield,  and  also  the  house  of  Si: 
George  Sackville,  who  was  peculiarly  unpopu 
lar  as  the  proposer  of  the  obnoxious  act.  On 
Tuesday,  June  6,  the  houses  of  Lord  Mansfield 
Justice  Hyde,  and  Justice  Cox,  were  burned 


y  the  rioters,  who  also  set  fire  to  Iv 
md  the  new  prison  in  Clerkenwell,  releasing 
,he  prisoners.  On  Wednesday,  June  7,  King's 
Bench  and  Fleet  prisons,  and  the  new  Bride- 
ell,  with  many  private  houses,  were  de- 
stroyed, as  many  as  36  conflagrations 
isible  at  once  from  the  same  spot.  The  Bank 
ras  also  threatened,  but  being  strongly  guarded 
by  soldiers,  escaped  pillage.  On  Thursday  the 
disturbances  began  to  subside,  and  on  Friday 
Jord  George  was  arrested  and  committed  to 
;he  Tower.  The  official  return  of  casualties 
during  the  riots  comprised  210  killed  by  the 
soldiers,  and  248  wounded  ;  but  a  great  number 
are  supposed  to  have  perished  from  intoxica- 
tion, and  in  the  flames  of  the  burning  houses. 
The  trial  of  the  rioters  commenced  at  the  Old 
Bailey  Wednesday,  June  28,  and  many  were 
convicted  and  executed.  Lord  George  Gordon 
was  tried  for  high  treason  in  Westminster 
Hall,  Feb.  5,  1781,  and  acquitted.  He  died  in 
Newgate,  where  he  had  been  confined  for  libel, 
Nov.  i,  1793. 

GOREE  (Atlantic).— Tin's  island,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  belonging  to  the  French,  was 
discovered  about  1446.  Commodore  Keppell 
took  it  Dec.  29,  1758.  The  settlement  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  March  14,  1761.  The  island 
was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Feb.  10,  1763.  Fort  Elizabeth  blew  up,  Oct.  15, 
1763.  It  suffered  from  an  earthquake  in  1777. 
The  French  abandoned  Gorcc  early  in  1779,  and 
an  English  squadron  soon  after  took  pos- 

•  stored  to  France  by  the  gth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783.  Sir 
Charles  Hamilton  captured  it  April  4,  1800. 
The  French  took  it  Jan.  18,  1804.  English 
squadron  regained  possession  March  9,  1804. 

CORKY  Battle)  was  fought  between  the 
Irish  rebels  and  a  force  under  Col.  Walpole, 
near  this  town  in  Wexford,  June  4,  1798.  The 
latter  were  completely  defeated,  as  Col.  Wal- 
pole fell  almost  immediately  after  the  action 
commenced. 

GORGADES.— (See  CAPE  VERDE.) 
GORHAM  CONTROVERSY.  —  The  Pov. 
George  Cornelius  Gorham,  having  in  Dec., 
1847,  obtained  from  Lord  Chancellor  Cotten- 
ham  a  presentation  to  the  vicarage  of  Bramp- 
ford  Speke,  Devonshire,  to  which  he  was  re- 
fused admission  by  Dr.  Phillpott,  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  on  the  ground  of  his  denial  of  the 
doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration,  carried 
the  case  to  the  Court  of  Arches,  where  judg- 
ment was  given  against  him  by  Sir  I 
Jenner  Fust,  Aug.  2,  1849.  He  accordingly 
appealed  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  which  reversed  the  decision  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  Court,  March  8,  1850. 

GORILLA.— This  ape,  supposed  by  natu- 
ralists to  be  of  the  same  class  as  the  chimpan- 
zee, is  believed  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  during  his  explora- 
tion of  tropical  western  Africa,  about  B.C.  350. 
(See  LIBYA.)  In  1847,  Dr.  Wilson,  an  American 
missionary  on  the  Gaboon  River,  sent  a  skull 
to  Dr.  Savage,  of  Boston  ;  and  numerous  skins 
and  skeletons  have  been  subsequently  pro- 
cured. Du  Chaillu's  "  Explorations  and  Ad- 
ventures in  Equatorial  Africa,"  published  in 
London  in  1861,  contains  an  account,  the  cor- 


GORKUM 


[    453    1 


GOTHS 


rectness  of  which  is  doubted  by  some  scientific 
men,  of  this  ferocious  creature. 

GORKUM.— (-See  GORCUM.) 

GORLITZ  CASE.— The  body  of  the  Countess 
of  Gorlitz,  in  Silesia,  was  found  in  her  sitting- 
room  nearly  consumed  by  fire,  June  13,  1847, 
under  circumstances  which  appeared  to  indi- 
cate that  death  had  ensued  from  spontaneous 
combustion.  In  Nov.,  however,  suspicion  was 
directed  towards  her  servant,  Johann  Stauff, 
by  the  discovery,  in  his  possession,  of  several 
jewels,  identified  as  the  property  of  his  late 
mistress.  The  body  was  exhumed  Aug.  u, 
1848,  and  after  a  prolonged  controversy,  in 
which  Dr.  Sieboldt  maintained  the  spontaneous 
combustion  theory  in  opposition  to  the  eminent 
chemists  Liebig  and  Bischoff,  Stauff  was 
brought  to  trial,  March  n,  1850.  On  convic- 
tion, he  confessed  that,  having  been  detected 
by  the  countess  in  the  act  of  stealing  the 
articles  which  had  led  to  his  discovery,  he  had 
strangled  her,  and  had  burned  the  corpse  to 
conceal  the  evidence  of  his  crime. 

GORZYCA  (Confederation).— The  army  of 
the  King  of  Poland  formed  a  confederation  at 
this  place,  in  the  autumn  of  1715,  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Saxons  from  the  country. 

GOSHEN  (Egypt).— Jacob  and  his  family 
settled  in  this  part  of  Egypt,  called  also  "the 
land  of  Rameses"  (Gen.  xlvii.  n),  B.C.  1706 
(Gen.  xlvi.  28,  and  xlvii.  4-6).  Their  descend- 
ants possessed  the  land  above  four  centuries. 

(4OSLAR  .  (Hanover),  founded  in  922,  was 
afterwards  the  residence  of  the  emperor,  and 
a  free  imperial  city.  Mines  were  opened  in 
986.  The  cathedral  was  built  in  1150,  and  the 
church  in  1521.  It  was  annexed  to  Hanover 
in  1803,  made  part  of  Westphalia  in  1807,  and 
restored  to  Hanover  in  1813. 

GOSPELLERS.— This  term,  applied  during 
the  Middle  Ages  to  persons  who  were  given  to 
the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  circula- 
tion of  the  Gospels,  was  used  especially  for 
the  Wycliffites  (q.  v.).  It  was  also  given  to  the 
English  reformers  of  the  time  of  HemyVIII., 
whose  widow,  the  queen  dowager,  Catherine 
Purr,  in  a  discourse  written  by  her  shortly 
before  her  death  in  Sep.,  1548,  "  lamented  the 
great  scandal  given  by  many  Gospellers." 

GOSPELS,  or  "good  tidings,"  of  Matthew, 
Mark,  Luke,  and  John  (see  CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE), 
were  admitted  as  authentic  at  a  very  early 
period  of  the  Church.  Justin  Martyr  (103 — 167) 
frequently  refers  to  them,  and  Irenseus  (130— 
200)  states  that  in  his  time  they  were  so  gene- 
rally accepted  that  heretics  were  obliged  to 
attempt  to  confirm  their  dogmas  by  their 
teachings.  Tertullian  mentioned  them  in  208, 
and  Origeii  (185—253  or  254)  described  them  as 
"  the  elements  of  the  Church's  faith,  of  which 
the  whole  world,  reconciled  to  God  in  Christ, 
is  composed."  They  were  included  in  the 
canon  of  Scripture  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea 
in  366,  and  by  the  Council  of  Carthage  in  397. 
GOSPORT  (Hampshire).— This  town,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  named  God's  Port  by 
King-Stephen  (1135 — 1154)  on  landing  after 
tempest,  was,  in  the  time  of  Leland  (1506 — 
April  18,  1552),  a  mere  fishing  village.  Edwarc 
I'achy's  almshouses  were  founded  in  1693,  and 
a  market-house  was  erected  in  1811.  Haslar 


Royal  Hospital,  an  asylum  for  sick  and 
wounded  seamen,  was  commenced  in  1746,  and 
finished  in  1762,  one  of  the  wings  being  appro- 
priated in  1818  to  the  reception  of  seamen  and 
marines  afflicted  with  lunacy.  The  suburb  of 
Angleseaville  has  risen  into  importance  as  a 
'ashionable  watering-place  since  1825. 

GOSSELIES  (Battle).— The  French  defeated 
;he  Austrians  at  this  town  in  Belgium  June  26, 

GOTHA  (Saxony),  formerly  the  capital  of 
;he  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha,  passed,  on  the  ex- 
inction  of  the  direct  line,  in  1825,  to  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  gymnasium  was  founded 
n  1524,  and  the  ducal  palace  in  1643.  The 
Almanach  de  Gotha  was  first  published  here 
n  1764. 

GOTHARD,  ST.— (See  ALPS  and  GOTTHARD,  ST. 

GOTHENBURG  or  GOTTENBORG(Sweden). 
— This  city,  second  in  importance  to  Stockholm, 
was  founded  in  1607  by  Charles  IX.,  but  having 
jeen  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in  1612,  it  was 
•estored  in  1618  by  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus). 
The  academy  was  incorporated  in  1775,  and 
:he  Gota  Canal,  connecting  the  German  Ocean 
with  the  Baltic,  was  completed  in  1832.  It 
suffered  from  a  fire  in  1803. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.— The  first  diver- 
gence from  the  classical  orders  of  architecture 
occurs  about  the  4th  century,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  the  pointed  arch,  the  great  feature 
of  the  Gothic  style,  took  place  about  the  i2th. 
The  branches  of  this  order  are  differently 
classed  by  various  authors.  Dallaway  enume- 
rates five ;  viz.  the  Mixed,  or  Semi-Norman, 
from  1170 — 1220;  Lancet-arched  Gothic,  1220 — 
1300;  Pure  Gothic,  1300 — 1400;  Ornamented 
Gothic,  1400 — 1460  ;  and  Florid  Gothic,  1460  to 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  when  the  order 
was  extinguished.  Rickman  reckons  only  three 
orders:  viz.  Early  English,  1189 — 1307;  Deco- 
rated English,  1307 — 1377  ;  and  Perpendicular 
English,  1377  to  the  extinction  of  the  style. 

GOTHLAND,  or  GOTTLAND  (Baltic  Sea).— 
This  island  was  taken  from  the  Swedes  by 
Valdemar  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  in  1361.  By 
the  treaty  of  Bromsebro,  Aug.  14,  1645,  it  was 
restored  to  Sweden,  and  in  1807  was  surprised 
by  a  Russian  force,  which  was,  however,  soon 
compelled  to  retire. 

GOTHS.— This  barbarian  nation  of  antiquity 
deduced  its  origin  from  the  Scandinavian  pe- 
ninsula, but  it  is  xincertain  whether  this  state- 
ment is  correct.  It  was  divided  into  two  great 
bodies,  —the  Ostrogoths,  who  traced  their 
origin  from  the  eastern  part  of  Scandinavia, 
and  the  Visigoths,  who  claimed  its  western 
portion  as  the  cradle  of  their  tribe.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  sera  they  occupied 
a  territory  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula, 
but  they  did  not  become  conspicuous  in  his- 
tory till  250,  when  the  Emperor  Decius  en- 
countered them  011  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
and  sustained  a  severe  defeat.  In  253  they 
were  defeated  by  jEmilianus,  in  262  they 
ravaged  Greece,  and  in  269  invaded  the  Roman 
empire  with  a  force  of  320,000  men,  which 
was  defeated  by  the  Emperor  Claudius  at 
the  battle  of  Naissus.  In  272  they  obtained 

I1  possession  of  Dacia.     They  invaded  Moesia  in 
332,  but  were  repulsed  by  Constantino  I.,  and, 


GOTTENBOEG 


[     454     ] 


GRADO 


in  366,  assisted  in  the  revolt  and  shared  the 
humiliation  of  Procopius.  In  375  they  came 
into  collision  with  the  Huns,  by  whom  they 
were  defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  ; 
and  in  376  they  implored  the  protection  of 
Valens,  who  assigned  them  a  territory  in 
Thrace,  where  they  soon  introduced  the  horrors 
of  war.  In  378  the  Gothic  youth  in  Asia  wort? 
all  i  nassacrod  by  order  of  the  Roman  governor. 
The  Visigoths  tendered  their  submission  to 
the  Romans,  Oct.  3,  382,  but  the  Ostrogoths 
continued  their  attacks,  and  again  invaded  the 
empire  in  386.  They  subsequently  accepted 
settlements  in  Thrace  and  Phrygia,  and  were 
admitted  as  soldiers  of  the  Roman  army  under 
the  name  of  Foederati.  They  became  converts 
to  Christianity  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century. 
(.s>v-  osTitncoTiis  and  VISIGOTHS. 

GOTTENBORG.— (&«  GOTHENBBBO.) 

GOTTHARD,  ST.  (Battle  .—An  allied  army 
of  French,  Germans,  and  Italians,  under 
Monteeuculi,  defeated  the  Turks,  led  by  the 
Grand  Vizier  Ahmed  Koeprilii,  at  this  Cister- 
cian convent,  on  the  borders  of  Styria  and 
Hungary,  Aug.  i,  1664.  The  watchword  was 
"  Death  or  victory,"  and  the  Christians  fought 
with  such  spirit  that  10,000  Turks  were  slain 
or  drowned  in  the  Raab. 

GOTTIXCKX  Hanover)  is  first  noticed  in  a 
record  of  the  time  of  Otho  I.  (936— 973),  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Hanscatic  league  in 
1360.  The  university,  founded  by  George  II. 
of  England,  in  1734,  and  opened  Sep.  17,  1737, 
was  called  the  "  Georgia  Augusta."  The  bota- 
nical gardens  were  laid  out  ill  1739.  The  French 
sei/oil  (Jottingen  in  1760.  The  allied  army, 
having  blockaded  it  from  Nov.  22  until  Dec.  12, 
1760,  were  compelled  to  retire.  The  French 
blew  up  the  fortifications  and  withdrew,  July 
16,  1762.  The  three  youngest  sons  of  George 
III.  entered  as  members  of  the  university  of 
Gottingen,  July  6, 1786.  An  insurrection  which 
broke  out  Jan.  8,  1831,  was  suppressed  Jan.  16. 
.Seven  professors  were  expelled  from  the  uni- 
versity in  1837. 

GOULBOURN  (N.  South  Wales).— The  river 
was  discovered  in  1823,  and  Goulbourn  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  1863. 

GOURIDKS,  or  (i HURT. —This  Persian  dy- 
nasty was  founded  by  Hussein  Gouri  1111155. 
He  rendered  himself  independent  of  the 
Ghiznevides  (</.  •<•.'.,  who  were  expelled  from 
1'ersia  by  his  successor  Ala-Eddyii  in  1158. 
His  race  was  overthrown  by  the  Carismians 
in  1213. 

GOUT. —  This  disease  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  whose  treatment  of  it  varied  in  few 
respects  from  that  employed  by  modern  prac- 
titioners. Demetrius  Pepagomenos,  in  a  work 
published  in  1558,  ascribes  it  to  gluttonous 
and  other  excesses,  which  charge  the  body 
with  morbid  humour  unable  to  find  a  vent, 
and  hence  the  source  of  acute  suffering.  Sydeii- 
ham  (1624 — Dec.  29,  1689),  Boerhaave  (1668 — 
Sep.  23,  1738),  Mead  (1673 — Feb.  16,  1754), 
Morgagni  (1682 — Dec.  5,  1771),  and  other  old 
physicians,  dissuaded  from  the  use  of  active 
remedies  during  attacks  of  gout,  maintaining 
that  the  disease  wrought  its  own  cure.  Rheu- 
matic gout  was  first  described,  but  not  named, 
by  Dr.  Heberden  (1710 — May  17,  1801). 


GOWRIE  CONSPIRACIES.-The  Raid  of 
Ruth  veil  (q.  r.)  is  sometimes  called  the  first 
Gowrie  conspiracy.  The  second  Gowrie  con- 
spiracy took  place  as  follows: — As  James  VI. 
of  Scotland  was  preparing  to  hunt  the  deer 
with  his  suite  in  Falkland  Park,  Tuesday, 
Aug.  5,  1600,  Alexander,  Master  of  Ruthven, 
and  younger  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
whose  father  had  been  executed  for  treason, 
requested  him  to  proceed  immediately  to 
examine  a  prisoner  apprehended  the  previous 
evening  with  a  large  pot  of  foreign  gold  coins  on 
his  person,  and  suspected  of  some  treacherous 
design.  The  king  accordingly  accompanied 
him  to  Gowrie  House,  Perth,  and  was  con- 
ducted into  a  small  round  chamber,  where, 
instead  of  the  expected  captive,  he  found 
Andrew  Henderson,  the  earl's  chamberlain, 
clad  in  armour.  Here  Ruthven,  drawing  a 
and  pointing  to  a  portrait  of  his  father, 
the  former  Earl  of  Gowrie,  who  had  suffered 
death  as  a  traitor,  declared  that  James  was 
his  prisoner;  but  being  unaided  by  the  man 
in  armour,  who  had  been  inveigled  into  the 
room  without  previously  learning  the  work 
required  of  him,  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the 
king  calling  for  help  to  his  suite,  assembled  in 
the  court  below.  Sir  John  Ramsay,  Sir 
Thomas  Krskine,  and  Sir  Hugh  Henries,  rush- 
ing into  the  chamber,  despatched  Ruths-en 
with  their  swords ;  and  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
the  author  of  the  plot,  hastening  to  his  rescue, 
was  also  put  to  death. 

GOZo,  or  GOZ/O  'Mediterranean).— This 
isLind,  the  ancient  Gaulos,  was  first  colonized 
by  the  Plnrnicians,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  the  Carthaginians.  The  Romans  captured 
it  B.C.  241.  It  was  given  to  the  Knights  Hos- 
pitallers in  1530.  The  French  captured  it 
June  10,  1798,  and  it  was  wrested  from  them 
by  the  English  Oct.  28,  1798. 

( J  1 1  \( '  K. — •' '  Dei  grat  ia1 '  </.  r.  first  appears  on 
English  coins  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
(1327 — 1377).  The  title  "His  Grace"  is  of 
Lancastrian  origin,  and  was  first  assumed  by 
Jlenry  IV.  1399—1413). 

CUACK  AT  MEALS.  —  Fosbroke  (Antiq., 
608  remarks:  "Similar  ceremonies,  both 
before  and  after  dinner,  existed  among  the 
.]  cu-s  and  classical  ancients.  The  latter  used  to 
offer  the  first-fruits  of  the  viands  to  the  gods." 
The  Anglo-Saxons  signed  the  dish  with  the 
cross.  The  form  of  grace  said  by  the  priest  at 
table  is  given  in  the  poems  of  Alcuin  (725— 
April  18,  804).  On  Sundays  and  festivals  during 
the  1 4th  century,  the  psalter  was  sung  over. 
In  this  country,  grace  was  said  in  metre  in  the 
time  of  Shakspeare. 

GRACIOS-A-DIOS  (Honduras).— This  town, 
founded  by  Jean  de  Chaves  in  1536,  was.  till 
1544,  the  seat  of  government  of  Guatemala  and 
Nicaragua. 

GRADISCA,  or  BERBIR  (Bosnia),  fortified 
by  French  engineers  in  1774,  surrendered 
June  20,  1789,  to  the  Austrians.  who  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  capture  it  in  1 788.  The  French 
took  it  in  March,  1797. 

GRADO,  or  NEW  AQfUILEIA  (Illyria).— 
This  town,  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  was  first  inhabited 
by  the  Italian  fugitives  who  were  expelled 


GRAFENBERG 


[     455     1 


GRAND 


from  their  own  cities  by  Attila,  in  452.  It  be- 
came the  seat  of  the  patriarchate  of  Aquileia  in 
583,  and  in  877  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by 
the  Saracens.  The  town  was  taken  and  burned 
by  the  Genoese  in  1379,  and  in  1451  the 
patriarchate  was  transferred  to  Venice.  A 
council  was  held  at  Grado  in  579. 

GRAPENBERG  (Austria).  —  Priestnitz 
formed  an  establishment  for  his  system  of 
water  cure  at  this  town  in  Silesia  in  1825. 

GRAFTON  (Battle).— The  Confederates  sus- 
tained a  slight  check  in  a  contest  with  the 
Federals  at  this  place  in  Virginia,  Aug.  13, 1861. 
GRAFTON  ADMINISTRATION.— Lord  Chat- 
ham having  been  incapacitated  by  illness 
from  taking  any  active  part  in  public  affairs, 
the  direction  devolved  upon  the  Duke  of  Graf- 
ton  in  Dec.,  1767,  Lord  Chatham  himself 
resigning  the  privy  seal  Oct.  14,  1768.  (See 
CHATHAM  (SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION.)  The 
Grafton  administration  was  thus  constituted  : 

Treasury  Duke  of  Grafton. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Camden. 

President  of  the  Council Earl  Gower. 

Privy  Seal    Karl  of  Chatham. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer   ...  Lord  North. 
Principa.     Secretaries    of  ( 

ate (  Viscount  Weymouth. 

Admiralty    Sir  Edward  Hawke. 

Ordnance Marquis  of  Granby. 

The  Earl  of  Bristol  became  Privy  Seal,  in  place 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  Nov.  2,  1768.  Lord 
Camden  resigned  the  chancellorship  Jan.  17, 
1770;  and  Mr.  Charles  Yorke,  his  successor, 
created  Lord  Morden,  died  three  days  after  his 
acceptance  of  office.  The  Marquis  of  Granby 
retired  Jan.  17,  1770  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Grafton 
resigned  his  office  as  Chief  Lord  of  the  Trea- 
sury, Jan.  28,  1770,  when  his  administration 
came  to  an  end.  (See  NORTH  ADMINISTRATION.) 

GRAFTON  AND  ARMIDALE.— (See  COLO- 
NIAL BISHOPRICS.) 

GRAFTON  CLUB  (London)  was  established, 
in  May,  1863.  It  is  also  called  the  Gridiron. 

GRAHAME'S,  or  HOTHAM'S  ISLAND  (Me- 
diterranean).— Thrown  up,  near  Sciacca,  by  a 
submarine  volcano,  in  July,  1831,  but  soon 
disappeared. 

GRAHAM'S  DYKE.— (See  AGRICOLA'S  WALL.) 

GRAHAM'S  LAND  (Antarctic  Ocean),  dis- 
covered by  Biscoe,  who  landed  Feb.  21,  1832, 
was  claimed  by  him  as  British  territory. 

GRAHAM'S  TOWN  (Cape  of  Good  Hope), 
founded  about  1820,  by  Scotch  emigrants,  has 
greatly  increased  since  the  opening,  in  Jan., 
1848,  of  the  Montagu  Pass,  by  which  it  com- 
municates with  Cape  Town.  The  bishopric 
was  founded  in  1853,  and  the  first  parliament 
was  opened  here  April  27,  1864. 

GRAMMAR.— Professor  Max  Miiller  regards 
Plato  (B.C.  428 — B.C.  347),  who  first  marked  the 
distinction  between  substantive  and  verb,  or 
subject  and  predicate,  as  the  founder  of  gram- 
matical science.  The  first  systematic  Greek 
grammar  was  produced  at  Rome  by  Dionysius 
Thrac,  about  B.C.  80.  The  first  grammar 
printed  in  England  was  published  by  John 
Holt,  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1497; 
and  the  first  Greek  grammar  printed  in  Ger- 
many appeared  in  1501.  An  JEthiopic  gram- 
mar was  published  in  1513 ;  in  1525  and  1527, 


Sebastian  Muuster  produced  his  Hebrew  and 
Chaldee  grammars.  Clenardus'  Greek  gram- 
mar, on  which  the  Eton  grammar  is  founded, 
and  Palsgrave's  French  grammar,  in  English, 
appeared  in  1530;  William  Postel's  Arabic 
grammar,  in  1538,  and  Aiigelo  Canini's  Syriac, 
Chaldee,  and  Rabbinical  grammar  in  1554.  The 
first  edition  of  Lindley  Murray's  English  gram- 
mar was  published  at  York  in  1795. 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS.— The  first  grammar 
school  in  London  was  established  in  1447. 
Their  number  was  much  increased  after  the 
Reformation,  21  having  been  founded  by  Ed- 
ward VI.  (1547 — 1553).  The  Act  for  Improving 
the  Condition  and  Extending  the  Benefits  of 
Grammar  Schools  (3*4  Viet.  c.  77)  was  passed 
Aug.  7,  1840. 

GRAMPIANS.— (See  ARDOCH,  Battle.) 

GRAMPOUND,  or  GRANDPONT  (Corn- 
wall).—This  town,  named  from  a  bridge  over 
the  river  Fal,  received  a  charter  in  1290  from 
Edmund  Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  which 
was  confirmed  by  John  of  Eltham,  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  Oct.  26,  1332.  In  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  (1547—1553)  it  had  the  right  of  send- 
ing two  members  to  Parliament,  but  was  dis- 
franchised for  corruption  by  i  &  2  Geo.  IV., 
c.  47  (June  8,  1821),  which  transferred  its  two 
representatives  to  the  county  of  York. 

GRAN  (Battle),  between  the  Austrians  and 
Magyars,  in  which  the  latter  were  successful, 
was  fought  Feb.  27,  1849. 

GRAN  (Hungary).— This  town,  seized  by  the 
Turks  in  1540,  was  recovered  in  1683  by  the 
united  forces  of  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland, 
and  Charles  of  Lorraine.  It  was  partly  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  April  13,  1818 ;  and  in  1821  a 
cathedral  was  commenced. 

GRANADA  (Nicaragua).  —  This  town, 
founded  in  1523,  was  sacked  by  bucaneers  in 
1680 ;  was  besieged  from  May,  1854,  to  Feb., 
1855,  and  burned  by  Gen.  Walker,  the  American 
filibuster,  in  1856. 

GRANADA  (Spain).  —  A  province  which 
formed  a  portion  of  the  Roman  Bcetica,  was 
erected  into  a  separate  state  by  the  Moors  in 
1238,  and  united  to  Castile  in  1492.  The  city 
of  Granada,  founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th 
century,  was  made  the  capital  of  Granada  in 
1238.  The  Spaniards  besieged  it  April  26, 1491, 
and,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  it  capitulated 
Nov.  25,  1491,  and  was  surrendered  to  the  Spa- 
niards Jan.  2,  1492.  The  Moors  were  expelled 
in  1 6 10.  Granada  suffered  from  earthquakes 
May  15  and  Dec.  14,  1826. 

GRANARIES,  erected  by  Joseph  in  Egypt 
B.C.  1715  (Gen.  xli.  48),  were  also  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  In  1419  Sir  Simon  Eyre 
erected  a  public  granary  in  London  as  a  pre- 
servative against  famine.  This,  with  other 
similar  buildings,  was  placed  \inder  the  control 
of  regular  surveyors  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  By  ii  Geo.  II.  c.  22  (1738),  persons  guilty 
of  robbing  or  destroying  granaries  were  ren- 
dered liable  to  seven  years'  transportation. 

GRAND,  or  GREAT  ALLIANCE.  —  This 
treaty,  of  which  the  objects  were  "to  procure 
satisfaction  to  his  Imperial  Majesty  in  regard 
to  the  Spanish  succession,  obtain  security  to 
the  English  and  Dutch  for  their  dominions  and 
commerce,  prevent  the  union  of  the  monarchies 


GRAND 


[    456    ] 


GRATZ 


of  France  and  Spain,  and  hinder  the  French  from 
possessing  the  Spanish  dominions  in  America," 
was  signed  at  Vienna  by  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  the  Emperor  and  the  States-Genera],  May 
12,  1689.  William  III.  acceded  to  it,  as  King  of 
England,  Dec.  30,  1689;  and  the  King  of  Spain 
and  the  Duke  of  Savoy  joined  it  June  6, 
1690.  It  was  renewed  and  accepted  by  other 
powers,  and  was  not  dissolved  till  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  '</.  <•.). 

GRAND,  or  GREAT  PRIVILEGE.— Mary  of 
Burgundy  granted  this  charter  to  the  Holland- 
ers and  Zealanders  in  1477,  at  the  States  assem- 
bled at  Ghent.  It  was  the  Magna  Charta  of 
Holland,  and  transferred  all  the  actual  rights 
of  sovereignty  to  the  States. 

GRAND,  or  GREAT  REMONSTRANCE.— 

•'iXSTRANCE.) 

GRAND  CAIRO.— (-See  CAIRO.) 

<! HAND-DUKE.—  (See  D 

GRAND  GULF  'United  States}.— The  forts 
at  this  place  on  the  Mississippi  were  taken  by 
the  Federals  under  Admiral  Porter,  after  a 
severe  cannonade,  May  3,  1863. 

GRAND  JUNCTION  CANAL.— This  canal, 
from  the  Thames  at  Rotherhithe,  through 
i:\-!>ridge,  Tring,  Fenny  Stratford,  &c.,  to 
Braunston,  in  Northamptonshire,  where  it 
join*  other  canals,  affording  water  commu- 
nication between  London,  Liverpool,  Hull, 
and  Bristol,  was  commenced  May  i,  1793,  and 
opened  Feb.  28,  1805. 

GRAND  JURY,  consisting  of  not  less  than 
12  or  more  than  23  persons,  is  summoned  by 
the  sheriffs  of  a  county  to  decide  whether  suf- 
ficient grounds  of  accusation  exist  to  justify 
the  putting  of  prisoners  'upon  their  trial.  Its 
number  and  constitution  were  denned  in  the 
laws  of  King  Kthelred  I.  (866—871).  In  the 
time  of  Richard  I.  (1189—1199)  it  w.i 
posed  of  four  knights  taken  from  the  county, 
who  chose  two  more  out  of  every  hundred, 
which  two  associated  with  themselves  10  other 
principal  freemen.  This  process,  gradually 
modified,  was  abandoned  by  6  Geo.  IV.,  c.  50 
(June  22,  1825),  which  also  fixed  the  qualifica- 
tion of  grand  jurors  at  sessions  as  the  ! 
that  of  the  petit  jury.  By  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  54 
(July  14,  1856  ,  the  foreman  of  a  grand  jury 
was  empowered  to  administer  the  oath  to  wit- 
nesses, who  need  not  be  sworn  in  open  court. 

GRAND  JUSTICIARY.—  (See  JUSTICIARY, 
CHIEF.) 

GRAND  PENSIONARY.— The  title  of  an 
officer  of  the  Dutch  Government,  whose  func- 
tions were  to  propose  to  the  council  the  subject 
for  deliberation,  to  collect  the  votes,  to  receive 
the  diplomatic  communications  of  foreign 
powers,  and  to  supervise  the  administration  of 
finances.  He  held  office  for  five  years,  at  the 
end  of  which  period  he  was  eligible  for  re-elec- 
tion. Previous  to  the  time  of  Barneveldt, 
who  was  executed  May  13,  1619,  this  function- 
ary bore  the  title  of  advocate -general.  The 
office,  abolished  at  the  revolution  of  1795,  was 
restored  by  Napoleon  I.  in  1805.  (See  HOL- 
LAND.) 

GRANDMONTINES,  or  GRANDIMONTINES 
(Monks). — This  order  was  founded  by  Stephen, 
a  native  of  Auvergne,  at  Grandmontin  Limo- 
sin,  in  France,  about  1076.  The  Grandmontiiies 


passed  into  England  chiring  the  reign  of  Henry 
I.,  and  established  themselves  at  Abberbury, 
in  Shropshire  ;  Cressewell,  in  Herefordshire ; 
and  Grosmont,  or  Eskdale,  in  Yorkshire.  The 
rule  of  the  order  was  a  modification  of  that  of 
St.  Benedict, 

GRANGER  SOCIETY  (London),  instituted 
in  1842,  by  Granger,  for  the  purpose  of  pub- 
lishing ancient  English  portraits  and  family 
pictures,  was  in  existence  about  three  years. 

GRANICUS  (Battles).— Alexander  III.  (the 
Great)  defeated  the  Persian  army  near  this 
river,  in  Asia  Minor,  May  22,  334  B.C.  It  was 
also  the  scene  of  a  victory  gained  by  Lucullua 
over  Mlthridates,  B.C.  74. 

( !  R  ANITE.— The  two  principal  granite  quar- 
ries are  at  Aberdeen  and  Dartmoor,  the 
former  of  which  was  not  worked  till  1730, 
and  the  latter  till  1820.  The  first  large 
building  erected  of  this  material  was  Gordon's 
Hospital,  Aberdeen,  built  in  1739. 

( ;  R  A  N  H  ( )  N  (Battle).  —  Charles  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  having  destroyed  the 
garrison  at  Crauson,  near  Neuchatel,  was 
defeated  by  the  Swiss,  with  great  slaughter, 
March  2  or  3,  1476. 

( i  It  ANTHAM  (Battle).— Oliver  Cromwell  de- 
feated 24  troops  of  Royalist  cavalry  at  this 
town  in  Lincolnshire,  May  13,  1643. 

CRAXTHA.H  (Lincoln).— Tradition  ascribes 
its  foundation  to  Gorbomannus,  King  of  Bri- 
tain, who  nourished  B.C.  303  ;  but  its  origin 
may  more  probably  be  referred  to  the  Saxons. 
The  church  was  endowed  by  Hugh,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  in  noo,  and  a  Franciscan  priory  was 
established  in  1290.  It  was  incorporated  by 
Edward  IV.  in  1463,  and  the  free  grammar 
school  was  founded  in  1528.  Grantham  was 
taken  by  the  Royalists  under  Col.  Charles 
Cavendish,  March  22,  1642.  The  church  steeple, 
blown  down  in  1651,  was  rebuilt  by  subscrip- 
tion; the  guildhall  was  erected  in  1787,  and 
the  canal,  by  which  communication  is  opened 
with  the  river  Trent,  was  commenced  in  1793. 
The  exchange  and  other  valuable  property 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  Nov.  19,  1862. 

GRANVILLE  (France),  the  ancient  Granno- 
num,  was  bombarded  and  set  on  fire  by  the 
English,  July  8,  1695.  Admiral  Dilkes  captured 
or  destroyed  about  24  French  ships  near  Gran- 
ville,  July  16,  1703.  The  Vendeans  committed 
great  havoc,  Oct.  15  and  16,  1793.  Sir  James 
Saumarez  bombarded  Granville,  Sep.  15,  1803. 

GRAPES.—  .SVe  VINK  and  VINE  DISEASE.) 

GRAPHIC  SOCIETY.— (See  ART  UNIONS.) 

GRAPHOTYPE.— This  method  of  producing, 
from  drawings,  blocks  for  surface  printing, 
without  the  aid  of  the  engraver,  was  invented 
in  1860,  by  D.  C.  Hitchcock,  of  New  York. 

GRASSE  (France).— This  town,  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  583,  by  a  colony  of  converted 
Jews  from  Sardinia,  was  referred  to  by  Pope 
Adrian  IV.  in  1155.  The  bishopric  of  Antibes 
was  transferred  hither  in  1252. 

GRATZ  (Austria),  the  capital  of  Styria,  is  of 
ancient  origin.  The  cathedral  was  erected  by 
the  Emperor  Frederick  III.,  in  1456,  and  the 
university  was  founded  in  1586.  Napoleon 
Buonaparte  entered  Gratz  in  April,  1797.  The 
French  took  it  and  destroyed  the  citadel  in 
1809. 


GRAUDENZ 


[    457     1 


GREAT 


GRAUDENZ  (Prussia),  founded  in  the  i3th 
century,  was  fortified  by  a  citadel,  completed 
in  1776.  The  French  besieged  it  without  suc- 
cess in  1807. 

GRAVE  (Holland)  was  captured  by  the  Duke 
of  Parma  in  1586,  by  Prince  Maurice  in  1603, 
and  was  besieged  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1674.  The 
French  took  it,  after  a  siege  of  two  months, 
Dec.  29,  1794. 

GRAVELINES  (France).  —  This  town  was 
founded  by  Henry,  Count  of  Flanders,  in  1160. 
The  Spaniards  defeated  the  French  under  its 
walls  in  1558.  The  Spanish  Armada  sustained  a 
defeat  off  Gravelines,  Aug.  8,  1588.  It  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1 658,  and  finally  ceded  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

GRAVESEND  (Kent)  is  mentioned  in  the 
Domesday  Survey  as  Gravesham.  In  1337  the 
fleet  of  Edward  III.  anchored  here,  previous 
to  sailing  against  the  Flemings  ;  and  in  1380  the 
town  was  attacked  by  a  French  fleet  and 
burned.  The  first  charter  of  incorporation  was 
granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  July  22,  1562  ; 
and  in  1588  the  town  was  fortified,  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  attack  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  In 
July,  1606,  James  I.  received  a  visit  from 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  at  this  town,  which 
was  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  the  Irish 
adherents  of  James  II.  and  the  supporters  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  Dec.  12,  1688.  A  great 
fire  occurred  at  Gravesend,  Aug.  24,  1727, 
which  is  said  to  have  destroyed  120  dwelling- 
houses,  with  other  buildings,  the  whole  da- 
mage being  estimated  at  more  than  ^200,000. 
The  first  steamboat  between  London  and 
Gravesend  was  the  Margery,  which  performed 
her  first  voyage  Monday,  Jan.  23,  1815.  The 
town-hall  was  erected  in  1836. 

GRAVITATION.— Pythagoras,  who  flou- 
rished B.C.  540 — 510,  and  Anaxagoras,  born 
about  B.C.  499,  make  allusions  to  this  principle, 
which  was  referred  to  by  Copernicus  in  1543, 
and  by  Kepler  in  1609.  Hooke  published  a 
theory  on  the  subject  in  1674.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton's attention  is  said  to  have  been  directed  to 
this  subject  in  1666  by  the  fall  of  an  apple 
from  a  tree,  but  the  fact  is  disputed.  In  1687 
he  published  the  Principia,  in  which  he  estab- 
lished the  principle  of  universal  gravitation. 

GRAY  (France).— This  town,  founded  in  the 
7th  century,  and  burned  in  1360  and  1384,  was 
taken  by  Louis  XL  in  1474,  and  was  recaptured 
by  the  Germans  under  Vaudrey,  in  1477. 
Louis  XIV.  seized  it  in  1668,  and  dismantled 
its  fortifications. 

GRAY'S  INN  (London).— This  Inn  of  Court, 
named  from  the  Lords  Gray  of  Wilton,  who 
wcL-e  owners  of  the  manor,  is  stated  by  Stow 
to  have  been  erected  after  the  reign  of  Edward 
HI.  (1327 — 1377).  The  hall  was  erected  in  1560, 
the  gateway  in  1592,  and  the  gardens  were  first 
planted  about  1600. 

GRAZERS.—  (See  Boscoi.) 

GREAT  BEDWYN.— (See  BEADEN-HEAD.) 

GREAT  BETHEL,  or  BIG  BETHEL  (Battle). 
— Two  Federal  divisions,  despatched  by  Gen. 
Butler  to  surprise  the  Confederate  camp  at 
this  place  in  Virginia,  June  9,  1861,  meeting  in 
the  darkness,  commenced  a  fight,  in  which 
several  were  killed  before  the  error  was  dis- 
covered. They  attacked  the  Confederates 


June  10,  and  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of 
16  killed,  34  wounded,  and  5  missing. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.—  The  island  itself  consists 
of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  The  term  was 
first  applied  to  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland, 
at  the  union  of  the  two  crowns,  Oct.  24,  1604, 
when  James  I.  was  proclaimed  King  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Ireland.  A  national  flag 
for  Great  Britain  was  announced  by  royal 
proclamation,  April  12,  1606.  The  legal  appli- 
cation commenced  at  the  legislative  union 
agreed  upon  by  the  commissioners  July  22, 

1706,  when  it  was  provided  that  the  two  states 
should  form  one    "United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain."    An  act  (6  Anne  c.  n)  to  carry  out 
the  union  received  the  royal  assent  March  6, 

1707.  It  took  effect  from  May  i,  1707,  and  a 
proclamation,   July  28,  appointed  the  national 
flag.     It  was  the  same  as  the  one  agreed  upon 
in  1606,  which  had  fallen   into  disuse.     (See 
ENGLAND,  SCOTLAND,  and  WALES,  and  UNION 
OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.) 

GREAT  BRITAIN  STEAM  -  SHIP.  —  (See 
STEAM  NAVIGATION.) 

GREAT  CHAMBERLAIN.—  (See  LORD  GREAT 
CHAMBERLAIN.) 

GREAT  DUNMOW.—  (See  DUNMOW.) 

GREAT  EASTERN  RAILWAY.—  This  line, 
originally  incorporated  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV. 
(Local  and  Personal),  c.  106  (July  4,  1836),  under 
the  title  of  the  Eastern  Counties  Railway,  was 
opened  as  far  as  Colchester  March  29,  1843.  It 
was  united  with  the  East  Anglian,  Eastern 
Union,  East  Suffolk,  and  other  railways,  and 
was  reincorporated  by  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  223 
(Aug.  7,  1862). 

GREAT  EASTERN  STEAM-SHIP.  —  (See 
ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH  and  STEAM  NAVIGATION.) 

GREAT  EXHIBITION.—  Industrial  exhibi- 
tions originated  in  the  French  expositions. 
In  June,  1845,  the  Society  of  Arts  attempted  to 
introduce  them  into  England,  and  the  council 
opened  an  exhibition  on  a  small  scale  in  1847. 
The  experiment  was  renewed,  with  increased 
success,  in  1848  and  in  1849.  Prince  Albert, 
the  president  of  the  society,  at  a  meeting  held 
at  Buckingham  Palace,  June  30,  1849,  stated 
his  opinion  that  the  proposed  exhibition  should 
include  raw  materials,  machinery,  manufac- 
tures, sculpture,  and  plastic  art  in  general. 
A  royal  commission  was  appointed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  1850,  and  the  necessary  arrange- 
ments were  made.  When  completed,  the  build- 
ing measured  1,851  feet  in  length,  by  408  in 
width.  The  transept  was  72  feet  wide  and  108 
high.  The  entire  area  was  772,784  square  feet, 
or  about  19  acres,  and  the  quantity  of  iron  em- 
ployed in  the  building  was  about  4,000  tons. 
The  glass  amounted  to  17  acres  for  roofing,  and 
i,  500  vertical  glazed  sashes  ;  and  the  woodwork 
was  estimated  at  600,000  cubic  feet. 


.. 

1850,  Jan.  3.  A  royal  commission  is  appointed.—  Jan.  34. 
The  commissioners  nominate  a  building  com- 
mittee. —  Jan.  35.  A  meeting  is  held  at  the 
Mansion  House,  and  a  subscription  list  is  opened. 
—  Feb.  21.  The  building  committee  approve  of  the 
site  in  Hyde  Park.—  March  13.  They  invite  de- 
signs for  the  building.—  March  31.  The  Lord 
Mayor  of  London  gives  a  banquet  to  the  provin- 
cial mayors,  to  enlist  their  sympathies  in  behalf 
of  the  undertaking. 


GREAT 


[    458    ] 


GREECE 


1850,  July  6.   Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Joseph)  Paxton  ptib- 

li-hes  his  I)]:IHS  in  the  llli/strnti'il  1  tuition  ACJC.V. — 
July  16.  Mr.  Paxton's  design  is  ace.']. ted.— July  26. 
The  commissioners  accept  Messrs.  Fox  and  Hen- 
derson's tender  for  =£79,800. — July  30.  The  builders 
take  possession  of  the  ground.— Sep.  26.  The  first 
column  is  erected. — Oct.  26.  The  Lord  Mayor  of 
York  gives  a  banquet  in  aid  of  the  exhibition. — 
lift-.  4.  The  fust  pair  of  arched  ribs  for  the  transept 
are  Imi.sted. — Dec.  2L  Queen  Victoria  visits  the 
bonding 

1851,  Jan.  21.  The  catalogue  is  commenced. — Feb.  3.    The 

commissioners  take  possession  of  the  building. 
—April  30.  The  first  copy  of  the  catalo-ue  is 
completed  at  10  o'clock  at  night,  and  lo.Soo 
copies  are  finished  by  morning.  —  Way  I.  The 
exhibition  is  opened  l>v  Queen  Victoria.— May 
26.  First  shilling  day.— Oct.  7.  The  greatest 
number  of  visitors  (109,91:;). — Oct.  II.  The  last 
pi. Hie  day.  (let.  r-,.  The  jury  make  their 
.  and  the  exhibition  is  lonnally  closed. 

(See  CRYSTAL  PALACE  and  INTERNATIONAL  EX- 
HIBITION OF  1862.) 

GREAT  GR1MSBY  (Lincolnshire).— Said,  by 
Camden,  to  have  been  founded  by  one  Gryme, 
a  merchant.  He  brought  up  a  foundling 
named  Havcloc,  who,  after  acting  as  scullion  in 
the  king's  kitchen,  proved  to  be  of  the  Danish 
royal  family,  and  married  the  king's  daughter. 
It  is  mentioned  as  a  frontier  town  in  827.  In 
1346  it  contributed  n  ships  and  170  .seamen 
tc .  I  lie  expedition  of  Edward  III.  again. 
The  grammar-school  was  founded  by  Edward 
VI.  in  1547 ;  and  a  wet  and  dry  dock  was 
opened  in  Dec.,  1800.  New  and  extensive  docks, 
the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  by  Prince 
Albert  April  18,  1849.  were  completed  March  18, 

1852,  and  were  in.si>ected  by  Queen    Victoria 
Oct.  13,  1854. 

GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY.  —  This 
company  was  incorporated  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  71 
(June  26,  1846).  The  London  terminus  at 
King's  Cross  was  opened  in  Oct.,  1852.  The 
station  of  the  Great  Northern  Cemetery  Com 
pany  was  erected  hi  1861.  By  23  &  24  Viet. 
c.  168  (Jxily  23,  1860),  the  Great  Northern  was 
authorized  to  effect  a  communication  with  the 
Metropolitan  Railway,  which  was  opened  in 
.lune,  1863. 

GREAT  ST.  BERNARD.— (See  ALPS.) 

GREAT  SALT  LAKH  United  States).— This 
remarkable  inland  sea,  which  in  the  saltness 
of  its  waters  and  the  barren  character  of  the 
surrounding  scenery  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  Dead  Sea,  was  first  mentioned 
in  1689  by  Baron  La  Hontan,  who  had  re- 
ceived an  account  of  it  from  the  Indians. 
It  was  first  explored  in  1843  hy  Col.  Fre- 
mont, and  was  surveyed  in  1849-50  by  Capt. 
Stansbnry,  of  the  United  States  army,  who 
published  arc  port  in  1850.  (See  SALT  LAKE  CITY  ) 

GREAT  SEAL.— The  earliest  Englishmonarch 
•who  is  known  to  have  made  grants  under  seal 
is  Edgar  (958—975),  but  the  institution  of  the 
great  seal  is  usually  attributed  to  Edward  the 
Confessor  (1042 — 1066).  The  custody  of  the 
great  seal  is  the  prerogative  of  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, but  as  there  is  sometimes  an  interval 
between  the  death  of  that  officer  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  his  successor,  a  keeper  of  the 
great  seal  was  appointed  to  act  in  such  cases. 
His  dignity  was  declared  equal  to  the  lord 
chancellor's  by  5  Eliz.  c.  18,  1562.  Commis- 


sioners of  the  great  seal  were  appointed  in 
1689,  and  authorized  by  i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  21 
1688).  The  great  seal  stolen  by  housebreakers 
from  the  residence  of  Lord  Thurlow,  in  Great 
Ormond  Street,  March  24,  1784,  was  never 
recovered. 

GREAT  WESTERN  RAILWAY.— This  broad- 
gauge  line,  opened  as  far  as  Maidenhead  June  4, 
1838,  was  extended  to  Twyford  July  i,  1839, 
and  completed  as  far  as  Bristol  June  30,  1841. 

GRECIANS.—  See  HELLENISTS.) 

GRECIAN  THEATRE  (London),  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Eagle  Tavern,  City  Road,  was 
opened  as  the  Grecian  Saloon  about  1826.  It 
was  remodelled  and  named  the  Grecian  Theatre 
in  1858. 

GREECE,  originally  called  Hellas,  consisted 
of  a  number  of  states.  (See  ATTICA,  &c.i  The 
name  Grsecia  first  occurs  in  the  works  of 
Aristotle  (B.C.  384—322).  The  modern  king- 
dom of  Greece,  erected  in  1827,  comprehends 
a  portion  only  of  the  territories  of  ancient 
Greece. 


-•ialeus  founds  Sieyon. 
3:43.   Traiius  settles  in  Creeee. 
1*56.    Inachiis  founds  Argo>. 
1796.  Ogygcs  reigns  in  l!u-otia. 
1773.  PhoroiuMis   introduces   sacrificial  worship.     Lenglet 

gives  this  date  for  the  foundation  of  Sieyon. 
1760.  A  tl 1,  known  as  the  deluge  of  *  > 

Attica. 

1710.  (Knotrus  leads  a  colony  of  Arcadians  into  Italy. 
[58*  The  ehronology  of  the  Arundelian  marbles  begin* 
1550.   Ceerops,  the  Kgyptian.  arrives  in  Attica. 

Imus  arrives  from  I'h.enicia.      (See  THEBES.) 
I.S20.  Kph\re.  or  Corinth,  is  founded. 
1506.   The  Areopagus  is  founded. 

•  •alion'.s  deluge. 

1495.  The  Pamithemran  games  are  instituted. 
1459.   Keign    of     llellen.    from     whom    the    country   wns 

called  Hellas,  and  who  is  the  reputed  ancestor  of 

the  (ireek  race. 
i  (".   Foundation  of  ,M\ , 
1453.  The  Idivi  Dactyl!  found  the  Olympic  games. 

141-.    Melampus  inslilutes  the  Dionysia. 

,  j.heus  founds  the  Chalcean' festival. 
1376.  The  Isthmian  games  are  instituted, 
i. ^56.  Enmolpus  introduces  the  Kleiishnan  mysteries. 
1330.  The  Lycian  games  are  instituted. 
l-l'j3-   'I'b"  C.reeks  eoloni/.e  Sicilv. 
1283.  Pelops,  from  I.ydia,  settles  in  the  southern  part  of 

(ireccn,  called  from  him  the  I'eloponnesus. 
1263.  Jason  conducts    the    Argonautic    expedition,    and 

Adrastus  institutes  the  Pvthiaii  games. 
1240.  Theseus  subdues  the  Minotaur. 
1228.  Theseus  carries  off  Helen. 
1345.  The  first  Thcban  war,  known  also  as  the  war  of 

the  Seven  Captains. 

1216.  Helen  is  married  to  Menelaua,  King  of  Sparta. 
1314.   Helen   elopes   with    Paris,  son  of    Priam,  King  of 

Troy. 

120').  Impulsion  of  the  Heraclidse. 
11^4,  Kml  of  the  Trojan  war.     (See  ILIUM.) 
1124.  The  Thessuli  settle  in  Thcssaly,    which  is  named 

after  them,  and  the  l!<eoti  in  i;»<otia. 
1104.  The  return  of  the  Heraclid*.    The  JEoliann  migrate 

into  Asia  Minor. 

1044.  Ncleus  leads  a  colony  of  Ionian*)  into  Asia  Minor. 
914.  The  ^Etolinn  league  originates  about  this  time. 
776.  The  wra  of  the   Olympiads  commences.     Birth  of 

Lycurgus.   (See  SPARTA.) 

761.  Cnranus  founds  the  kingdom  of  Macr-don. 
743.  Commencement  of  the  Mcsseniaii  wars  (q.  v.). 
735.  Hesiod  flourishes. 
681.  Arcadia  becomes  a  republic. 
623—612.  The  Milesian  war. 
621.  Draco  legislates  for  Athens. 
595— 5g6.  The  Cin-luwin,  or  first  Sacred  war. 
586.  The   Seven    Wise     Men    of    (irceee    flourish;    viz. 
Solon,  Periander,  Pittacus,  Chilon,  TJiales,  Cleo- 
bulus,  and  Bias. 


GREECE 


[     459     1 


GREECE 


B.C. 

578.  The  Greek  drama  commences  nt  Athens.  (See  DRAM  A.) 

533.  The  Greeks  colonize  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and 
found  Sestos. 

499 — 494.  The  Ionian  war. 

493.  The  Persians,  under  Mardonius,  invade  Greece. 
Their  fleet  is  wrecked  near  Mount  Athos. 

491.  Darius  demands  earth  and  water  from  the  Greeks 
as  a  token  of  submission,  which  are  refused. 

490.  Datis  and  Artaphernes  conduct  the  second  Per- 
sian expedition  against  Greece.  (See  MARA- 
THON.) 

483.  Aristides  the  Just  is  banished  from  Greece  by 
ostracism. 

483.  The  states  unite  ngainst  Persia. 

480.  Xerxes  invades  Greece.  (See  ARTEMISIUM,  THER- 
MOPYLAE, and  SALA.MIS.) 

479.  Battles  of  Mycale  and  Platan  (<].  ?•.). 

477.  Athens  becomes  the  chief  of  the  Greek  stages.  The 
states  establish  a  common  treasury  at  Delos  for 
supplying  funds  for  the  Persian  war. 

466.  The  battles  at  the  Eurymedon  (7.  v.). 

464 — 455.  The  third  Mcsseiiiau  war. 

460—455.  The  Egyptian  war. 

448.  The  second  Sacred  war. 

443.  Herodotus  nourishes. 
The  Samian  war. 


' — 405.  The  Peloponnesian  war. 
4!  >\  The  battle  of  Man  tinea  (q.  v.). 
415.  Invasion  of  Sicily  (q.  v.). 
413.  The  Peceleaii  war. 
403.  The  Greeks  adopt  a  new  alphabet. 
400.  The  retreat  of  flie  Ten  Thousand. 
399.  The  Athenians  condemn  Socrates  to  die  by  poison. 
395.  The  Corinthian  war. 
387.  The  peace  of  Antalcidas. 
383.  The  Olynthian  war. 

378.  Thebes  and  Athens  unite  against  Sparta. 
371.  Congress  at  Sparta.    Treaty  of  Callias  (q.  v.). 
369.  The  Thebans  invade  Luconia. 

368.  Epaminondas  leads  the  Thebans  into  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. 

363.  Death  of    Epaminondas.    (See  MANTINEA.)     The 

decline  of  Thebes  dates  from  his  death. 
-355-  The  Social  war. 

5.  The  third  Sacred  war. 

353.  Philip  II.  of  Macedoii  commences  his  ambitious  de- 
signs against  Greece. 

339.  The  fourth  Sacred  war. 

338.  Philip  II.  defeats  the  confederate  Greeks  at  Chse- 
«•«»         ronea  (q.  v.). 

336.  Accession  of    Alexander    III.    (the    Great).      (See 

MACEDOX.) 

323—333-    The    Lamian  war   (q.  v.).    (See    .<ETOLIAN 

LEAGUE.) 
380.  The  Acheeaii  league  (q.  r.). 

379.  The  Gauls  invade  Greece. 

228.  The  first  Roman  embassy  arrives  in  Greece. 

330.  The  second  Social  war. 

311.  A  Roman  fleet  arrives  at  Athens,  and  a  treaty  is 

concluded  between  the  vEtoliaiis  and  the  Romans 

against  Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 
300.  Macedon  is  attacked  by  the   Romans,  Athenians, 

jEtolians,  and  minor  states. 
196.  Titus    Quinctius    declares    Greece    free   from  the 

Macedonian  power. 
195.  The  JEtolians  endeavour  to  form  a  coalition  against 

Rome. 

167.  The  Romans  ravage  Epirus  (q.  v.)  and  Achaia. 
14-.  Metellus  invades  Greece  and  subdues  Sparta. 
146.  Greece  becomes  a  Roman  province,  under  the  name 

of  Achaia. 

77.  The  coasts  of  Greece  are  infested  by  pirates. 
2i.  Augustus  founds  the  confederacy  of  the  free  Laco- 

iiian  cities. 
A.n. 
2,2.  The  senate  restricts  the  right  of  asylum  claimed  by 

many  Greek  temples  and  sanctuaries. 
54.  Nero  visits  Greece,  and    exhibits  himself    in    the 

national  games. 
123.  Hadrian  visits  Greece. 
263.  Greece  is  invaded  by  the  Goths  (q.  v.). 
333.  Its  maritime  cities  assist  Liciuius,  the  rival  of  Coii- 

stantine  I.,  with  a  fleet. 

363.  Julian  restores  many  of  the  ancient  cities. 
365.  It  is  shaken  by  an  earthquake. 
39 v  Alaric  I.  invades  Greece. 
443.  AttUa  ravages  Thrace  and  Macedon. 


A.D. 

475.  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,   devastates  Thessaly  and 

Thrace. 

539.  The  Huns  plunder  the  country. 
581.  The  Slavonians  ravage  Thrace. 
589.  The  Avars  establish  themselves  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
678.  Northern  Greece  is  conquered  by  the  Bulgarians. 
746.  The  Slaves  form  settlements  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
807.  The  Slaves  attempt  to  expel  the  Greek  population  of 

the  Peloponnesus. 
933.  The   Bulgarians  form  settlements  to  the  south  of 

Macedonia. 

1 146.  Greece  is  plundered  by  Roger,  King  of  Sicily. 
1304.  It  is  seized  by  the  Latins,  who  divide  it  into  a  num- 
ber of  petty  states. 

1336.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Turks,  under  Orchan. 
1456.  Mohammed  II.  conquers  Athens. 
1460.  He  completes  the  subjection  of  Greece. 
1463.  It  is  invaded    by    the  Venetians,    who    seize    the 

Morea. 

1499.  Bajazet  attacks  the  Venetian  possessions  in  Greece. 
1540.  The  Turks  complete  the  conquest  of  Greece. 
1684.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Venetians. 
1687.  The  Venetians  recover  the  Morea,  and  take  Athens. 
1699,  Jan-  26-  The  Morea  is  ceded  to  Venice  by  the  peace 

of  Carlowitz. 

1713.  Turkey  declares  war  against  Venice  for  the  re- 
covery of  Greece. 
1718,  July  31.  Turkish  supremacy  is  established  by  the 

peace  of  Passarowitz. 
1750.  Russian  emissaries  excite  the  hostility  of  the  Greeks 

to  Turkish  government. 

1768.  The  Porte  declares  war  against  Russia,  in  conse- 
quence of  her  intrigues  with  the  Greeks. 
1770.  The  Russians  arrive  in  Greece  to  assist  the  native 

insurgents,  but  are  defeated  by  the  Turks. 
1779.  The  Albanians  are  expelled  from  the  Morea. 

1788.  TheSuliot  rebellion  commences. 

1789.  Russian  agents  again  incite  the  Greeks  to  revolt. 

1793,  Jan.  9.  The  peace  of  Jassy  establishes  Russian  con- 
suls in  the  Greek  ports,  and  places  the  country 
under  Russian  protection. 

1798.  The  French  endeavour  to  excite  the  Greeks  to  re- 
bellion. 

1803.  The  Suliots  are"  subdued  by  the  Turks. 

1814.  The  Heteria,  a  secret  political  society  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece,  is  founded. 

1831,  March  6.  Alexander  Ipsylanti  and  the  Greeks  assist 
the  revolt  of  the  Danubian  principalities. — June  19. 
It  is  quelled. — April  4.  A  revolt  breaks  out  in  the 
Morea.— June.  The  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 

1833,  Jan.  I.  The  Greeks  formally  proclaim  their  inde- 
pendence.— April  it.  Massacre  at  Scio.— June  32. 
The  Greeks  take  Athens.— July  13.  Corinth  is 
occupied  by  a  Turkish  force. — Aug.  6.  The  Turks 
are  defeated  in  the  passes  of  Barbati,  Derve- 
nekai,  and  Thermopylae — Oct.  3.  Corinth  is  taken 
by  Colocotroni.— Dec.  14.  The  congress  of  sove- 
reigns at  Verona  pronounces  the  Greek  insurrec- 
tion a  rebellion. 

1833,  APril  Ic-  A  Greek  national  congress  assembles  at 

Argos. — Aug.  17.  Marco  Bozzaris,  the  "  Leonidas 
of  Modern  Greece,"  falls  at  Carpenisi. 

1834,  Ai  ril   19.    Death  of  Lord  Byron,  at  Missolonghi. 

— July  3.  The  Turks  destroy  Ipsara,  and  massacre 
the  inhabitants.— Oct  7.  Sea-fight  at  Mitylene.— 
Oct.  13.  The  provisional  government  is  estab- 
lished. 

1835,  Feb.   34.  Ibrahim   Pasha  lands    in    the    Morea. — 

May  33.  He  takes  Navarlno.— June  30.  Tripolitza 
surrenders  to  him. — July  34.  The  provisional  go- 
vernment seeks  aid  from  England. 

1836,  April  33.  Missolonghi  surrenders  to  the  Turks,  after 

a  long  siege. 

1837,  May.    Athens  surrenders    to    the    Turks. — July  6. 

England,  France,  and  Russia  conclude  a  treaty 
at  London  for  the  pacification  of  Greece. — Aug. 
30.  Turkey  refuses  to  sanction  the  interference  of 
the  foreign  powers. — Oct.  30.  The  battle  of  Nava- 
rino  (q.  v.). 

1838,  Jan.   18.    Count  Capo  d'Istrias  is  made  president  of 

Greece.— Feb.  3.  The  Panhelion,  or  grand  council 
of  state,  is  established. — April  16.  The  country  is 
divided  into  departments.— Aug.  6.  A  convention 
is  signed  for  the  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  release  of  Greek  captives. — Oct.  7. 
The  Turks  quit  the  Morea. 


GREECE 


[    460    ] 


GREECE 


18^9,  May  17.  The  Turks  surrender  Missolonglii.— July  23. 
The  Greek  national  assembly  commences  its 
sittings  at  Argos. — Sep.  14.  The  treaty  of  lladriu- 
nople. 

1830,  May  21.  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg   declines 

the  crown  of  < . 

1831.  The  Greeks  ri»e  against  the  government  of  the  Count 

Capo    d'Istrias,    the    president. — Oct.    9.     He    is 
assassinated  at  Napoli-di- Romania. 

1833,  May  7.  A  convention  for  the  establishment  of  Prince 
otho,  of  Bavaria,  is  signed  at  London. — Aug.  8. 
The  election  of  Otho  is  approved  by  the  people. 
The  latter  part  of  the  year  is  disturbed  by  Coloeo- 
troni's  conspiracy. 

1833,  Otho  I.  arrives  in  his  kingdom. 

1834,  May  12— June  7.  Coloeotroni  is  tried  and  condemned 

I'M  death,  lint  receives  a  commutation  of   sentence. 
— Sep.  An  insurrection  is  quelled  in  the  Moiva. 

1835,  June    i.    Otho    1.     attains    his     majority,   and    the 

regency  is  abolished. 

1^43,  Sep.  Id.  A  revolution  at  Athens  establishes  a  new 
ministry.  They  summon  a  national  assembly, 
which  prepares  a  new  constitution. 

1844,  March  16.  Otho  I.  sanctions  the  new  constitution. 

1x4-.  >.umerous  insurrections. 

1*40,  Oct.  28.  Admiral  1'arker,  with  the  British  Mediter- 
ranean fleet,  arrives  in  Uesika  Bay. 

1850,  Jan.  9.  The  Knglish  iieet  sails  from  Moskenissi. 
— Jan.  15.  It  arrives  at  the  I'ineus. — Jan.  16. 
Admiral  Mr  William  1'arker  and  Mr.  \\yse,  the 
British  envoy  at  Athens,  present  to  the  govern- 
ment an  Ultimatum  which  in  six  articles  demands 
compensations  for  injuries  received  by  l.nrlM: 
subjects  from  Greeks. — Jan.  17.  M.  Londos,  the 
foreign  minister,  states,  in  re])1y,  that  the  question 
has  be. >n  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  France  and 
Kussiu.— Jan.  18.  The  Knglish  blockade  the  1'i- 
i:eiis.  -  -.Ian.  19.  King  Otho  protests  against  the 
Ijlockade. — Jan.  26.  The  French  and  l:< 

rs  appeal  to  the  Knglish  to  withdraw  their 
..'••.  \\hich,  by  checking  commerce,  will 
render  it  impossible  for  Greece  to  fulfil  her  pecu- 
niary obligations.- Feb.  .",.  The  Knglish  envoy 
rcji'dsthe  intervention  of  the  Kussian  legation. — 
Feb.  5.  The  French  Government  oilers  its  inter- 
\  ntion.— Feb.  8.  It  is  accepted  by  Lord  Palmer- 
ston.—  Feb.  10.  Mr.  Wyse  apprises  the'  Greek 
Government  of  the  seizure  by  the  Knglish  of  the 
islands  of  Cervi  and  Sapicn/a.— March  I.  The 
blockade  is  suspended. — March  5.  Baron  Gros 
arrives  at  Athens  as  French  minister. — April  18. 
A  convention  for  the  settlement  of  the  question  is 
agreed  to  at  London  between  Lord  I'ahnerston 
;i:id  M.  Droiiyn  de  Lhuys.-  April  23.  Baron  Gros 
announces  the  failure  of  his  mission. — April  25- 
The  English  resume  coercive  mca.-iircs,  and  place 
:•!!  Greek  vessels  under  an  embargo. — April  -'6. 
'i  he  Creek  G'iNcrnnieiit  ..ii-Tees  to  the  Knglish 
demands. — April  29.  The  Knglish  legation  returns 
t:>  Athens.— May  4.  The  British  fleet  quits  Sala- 
mis,  two  ships  only  remaining  in  the  Piraeus. — 
.June  i.  Baron  Gros,  the  French  envoy,  quits 
Athens  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  Anglo- 
Greek,  difficulty.— June  24.  A  commercial  treaty 
is  signed  with'  Russia.— June  29  (4  A.M.).  The 
Knglish  House  of  Commons  decides  in  favour  of 
Lord  Palmerstou's  policy  by  310  votes  against  264. 
— July  20.  A  treaty,  prepared  by  the  cabinets  of 
England  and  France,  is  signed  at  Athens  by  the 
Kiiglish  envoy  and  the  Greek  foreign  minister. 
1^54,  J.m  js.  The  Albanians  revolt  against  the  Turks. — 
March  28.  The  Turkish  ambassador  leaves  Athens. 
— May  18.  The  allied  powers  declare  Greece  in  a 
state  of  blockade. — May  25.  The  French  and 
Knglish  land  at  the  Piraeus.— May  26.  Otho  I 
issues  a  declaration  of  neutrality  in  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war. 
jt-5"-  ''• !;c  French  and  English  evacuate  Greece. 

1*59.  The  Greeks  sympathize  warmly  with  the  Italian 
in  their  war  of  independence,  and  organize  a 
committee  to  aid  them. 

1860,  July   i.   The   princes   of    the   Orleans  family  visit 

Athens. — Xov.    Otho  I.  becomes  Tory  unpopular. 

1861,  Sep.  19.  An  attempt  is  made  on  the  life  of  Queen 

Amelia. 

1862,  Jan.  24.  Retirement  of  flic  Miaulis  administration, 

r.ad  formation  of  a  cabinet  by  Admiral  Canaris. 


A.D. 

1862,  Feb.  i.  The  old  ministry  is  restored.— Feb.  13. 
A  revolt  breaks  out  in  Xapoli-di-Homania,  which 
is  seized  by  the  insurgents. — March  13.  The  royal 
troops  recover  the  city. — May  lo.  The  Miaulis 
cabinet  again  resign. — June  7.  Gen.  Colocotronis 
forms  an  administration. — Oct.  13.  Otho  I.  and 
liis  consort  quit  Athens  to  make  a  tour  through 
the  Peloponnesus. — Oct.  19.  An  insurrection 
against  the  reigning  family  breaks  out  in  the 
\\estern  provinces. — Oct.  22.  The  revolution  ex- 
tends to  Athens. — Oct.  23.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment is  formed  and  a  new  ministry  appointed 
which  issue  a  proclamation  announcing  the  over- 
throw of  the  old  dynasty,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  administration. — Oct.  24.  Otho  I. 
publishes  a  manifesto  at  .^alamis,  declaring  that, 
to  jirevent  bloodshed,  he  will  at  once  quit  Greece, 
lie  emharks  on  board  a  British  man-of-war. — 
Oct.  29.  He  arrives  at  Venice. — Nov.  I.  He 
reaches  Munich. — Nov.  22.  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  exchange  notes  affirming  their  intention 
to  maintain  the  pro\  isions  of  the  treaty  of  1833, 
excluding  the  dynasties  of  the  three  protecting 

iowers  from  the  throne  of  Greece. — Nov.  23. 
Yince  Alfred  is  declared  King  of  Greece  at 
Athens.— Dec.  I.  The  provisional  government 
c- the  election  of  anew  king  by  universal 
suffrage. — Dec.  13.  The  representatives  of  the 
three  protecting  powers,  Kngland,  France,  and 
l:u.-Ma.  address  a  note  to  the  provisional  govern- 
ment stating  their  intention  to  exclude  their 
dynasties  from  the  Greek  tlirfcne.— Dec.  14.  Austria 
protests  against  the  Greek  revolution,  and  de- 
clares in  favour  of  Otho  I.  anil  his  family.— 
Dec.  21.  The  new  national  assembly  m. 
Athens.— Dec.  24.  Mr.  Henry  George  Elliott, 
plenipotentiary  from  Great  Britain,  arrives  in 
Athens,  and  presents  a  memorial  to  the  provi- 
sional government  declaring  the  conditions 
under  which  the  Ionian  Isles  will  be  ceded  to 
Greece. 

1863,  Jan.   24.     The    national    assembly  declares    itself 

legally  constituted.— Jan.  2>).  The  advocate  Balbis 
is  elected  its  president.--  Feb.  2.  The  provisional 
government  resigns  the  executive  power  to  the 
national  assembly. — Feb.  3.  The  national  as- 
sembly declares  the  throne  rightly  vacant,  and 
announces  that  Prince  Alfred  of  Kngland  has 
been  elected  king  by  230.016  votes.  He  is  accord- 
ingly proclaimed,  but  is  not  permitted  by  the 
Knglish  Government  to  accept  the  throne. — Feb. 
21.  A  military  revolt  breaks  out  under  Lieut. 
Canaris. — Feb.  23.  A  new  cabinet  is  formed 
under  Balbis. — March  30.  The  national  assembly 
proclaims  Prince  William  of  Sleswig-IIolslein- 
Bonderburg-Glnoksborg,  second  son  of  Prince 
Christian  of  Denmark,  King  of  Greece,  by  the 
title  of  George  I. — April  8.  The  nationa'l  as- 
sembly appoints  a  new  ministry  under  Diomedes 
Kyriaku.— April  12.  Bavaria  protests  against  any 
settlement  Of  the  Greek  succession  prejudicial  to 
the  claims  of  its  own  dynasty. — May  12.  A  new 
ministry  takes  office  under  the  presidency  of 
Ijoufos.— May  27.  Kngland,  France,  and  Russia 
sign  a  protocol  at  London  declaring  the  throne  of 
Greece  vacant. — June  5.  The  representatives  of 
the  three  protecting  powers  and  the  Danish 
ambassador  sign  a  protocol  at  London  sanctioning 
the  acceptance  of  the  Greek  crown  by  Prince 
William  of  Denmark.— June  6.  A  Greek  depu- 
tation has  an  interview  at  Copenhagen  with  the 
King  of  Denmark,  who  declares  that  Prince 
William  will  accept  the  crown  provided  the  Ionian 
Islands  are  united  to  Greece. — June  27.  The 
national  assembly  declares  King  George  I.  of 
age. — June  30.  A  military  revolt  breaks  out  at 
Athens. — July  2.  Order  is  restored  in  the  capital. — 
July  13.  England,  France,  and  Russia  conclude  a 
treaty  at  London,  approving  of  the  election  of 
Prince  William  of  Denmark,— Oct.  30.  King 
George  I.  arrives  at  Athens  and  is  received  with 
enthusiasm. — >ov.  6.  The  Boulgaris  ministry 
takes  office. 

1864,  March  17.  A  new  cabinet  is  formed  under  Admiral 

Canaris.  The  garrison  at  MiMolongh]  expel  their 
officers  as  partisans  of  the  ex-king  Otho  I. — 
April  z$.  Accession  of  the  Balbis  administration. 


GREEK 


[    461 


GREENOCK 


1864,  June  T.  The  Ionian  Islands  (?.  r.)  are  finally 
ceded  to  Greece .— June  6.  The  king  VIM'S  ( lorfu. 
—Aug.  6.  Admiral  Canaris  fonns  a  new  cabinet. 
—Sep.  19.  The  national  assembly  abolishes  the 
senate.— Sep.  23  and  24-  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia  recognize  King  George  I.— Oct.  31.  The 
national  assembly  authorizes  the  crown  to  create 
a  council  of  state.— Oct.  29.  The  assembly  estab- 
lishes a  new  constitution.— Nov.  28.  The  king 
swears  attendance  to  a  new  constitution. 
1865  March  14.  Resignation  of  the  Canaris  adminis- 
'  tration,  which  is  succeeded  by  the  Comoundouros 
cabinet.— April.  King  George  I.  makes  a  tour 
through  the  provinces.— May  8.  .He  returns  to 
Athens. — Dec.  z.  Count  Sponneck  leaves  Greece. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF  GREECE. 
A.T>.  •*•!>. 

1832.  Otho  I.  1863.  George  I. 

GREEK  CHURCH.— The  bishops  of  Con- 
stantinople claimed  equality  with  the  Pope 
from  the  foundation  of  their  city.  In  1734 
they  condemned  image-worship,  in  opposition 
to  the  Romish  Church,  and  in  767  accused 
their  western  brethren  of  heresy  respecting 
the  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  result  was,  that  the  two  churches 
separated,  and  in  spite  of  the  attempts  of  the 
Council  of  Florence  in  1439  to  procure  a  union, 
and  of  the  Act  of  Union,  concluded  in  1596, 
they  have  never  reunited.  The  principal  con- 
fessions of  faith  of  the  Greek  Church  are  Cyril 
Lucar's,  which  appeared  in  1621  ;  and  the 
Orthodox  Confession  of  1643.  The  Greek 
Clmrch,  called  the  "  Holy  Orthodox  Catholic 
and  Apostolic  Church,"  comprises  three 
branches — i,  the  Church  in  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire, subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  2,  the  Church  in  the  new  kingdom  of 
Greece ;  3,  the  Russian  Greek  Church,  the 
established  religion  in  Russia. 

GREEK  EMPIRE.—  (See  EASTERN  EMPIRE.) 

GREEK  FIRE.— This  combustible  composi- 
tion is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Callinicus 
in  672,  though  it  was  probably  an  earlier  dis 
covery  of  the  Arabian  chemists.  It  was  blown 
through  copper  tubes  upon  the  object  to  be 
ignited,  and  was  much  employed  in  the  cru- 
sades for  burning  ships.  This  fire  burned  freely 
in  water,  and  was,  indeed,  almost  inextinguish- 
able. It  was  supplanted  by  gunpowder. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.— Theodore,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  668,  who  was  sent  by 
Vitalian,  brought  a  collection  of  Greek  docu- 
ments with  him,  and  imparted  a  knowledge 
of  the  language  to  several  of  the  natives. 
Charlemagne  was  able  to  read  it,  and  about 
1000  it  was  employed  by  a  congregation  of 
Greek  refugees  in  Toul,  in  the  celebration  of 
their  religious  worship.  It  continued  a  living 
language  at  Constantinople  until  the  city  was 
captured  by  Mohammed  II.,  in  1453.  It  was 
taught  at  Paris  in  1458,  and  was  printed  at 
Milan  in  1481.  Cornelius  Vitellius  taught  it  at 
Oxford  in  1488,  and  William  Grocyn,  the  first 
eminent  English  professor  of  the  language, 
commenced  his  efforts  to  diffuse  a  knowledge 
of  Greek  at  the  same  place  in  1491.  The  first 
Greek  lecture  was  established  at  Oxford  in 
1517.  The  language  was  first  taught  in  Scot- 
land, at  Montrose,  in  1534.  During  the  i 
century  it  was  much  neglected ;  but  Kuster 
and  Fabricius  restored  the  study  at  the  end  of 


the  century.    The  most  eminent  Greek  scholars 
of    this  country  are  Richard  Bentley,  1662— 
July  14    1742;  Samuel  Parr,   1747— March  6, 
1825;     Charles  Burney,    1757— Dec.   28,    1817; 
and  Richard  Person,  1 759— Sep.  25,  1808 
GREEKS   (J3ra   of  th^. -(Se/' ALEXANDER, 
Sra  of.) 

GREENBACKS.— In  1862  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment of  North  America  issued  a  large  amount 
of  paper  money  in  notes  of  small  value,  which 
almost  superseded  the  circulation  of  coin,  and 
caused  gold  to  rise  to  a  high  premium.  These 
small  notes  were  commonly  known  as  "  green- 
backs," from  their  colour,  or  "  shinplasters  " 

GREEN-BAG  INQUIRY.— The  name  given 
to  an  investigation  into  the  nature  of  the 
contents  of  a  green  bag  full  of  papers,  alleged 
to  be  of  seditious  import,  which  was  laid 
before  Parliament  by  the  Prince. Regent  Feb.  3, 
1817.  Both  houses  appointed  secret  commit- 
tees Feb.  4,  and  they  presented  their  reports 
Feb.  1 8  and  19.  Bills  for  the  suspension  of  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  for  the  prevention  of 
seditious  meetings,  were  moved  Feb.  24,  and 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Suspension  Act  was  passed 
March  3.  The  bill  for  restraining  seditious 
meetings  was  passed  March  2  5 

GREEN  CLOTH.— (See  MARSHALSEA  COURT  ) 

GREEN-COAT  HOSPITAL  (London).— This 
school  for  the  relief  of  the  fatherless  children 
of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  founded  by 
Charles  I.  Nov.  15,  1633,  was  rebuilt  in  1700. 

GREEN  FACTION.- (See  CIRCUS  FACTIONS.) 

GREEN  PARK  (London)  was  first  enclosed 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  by  Le  Notre.  In 
1767  it  was  reduced  in  size  by  George  III., 
who  wished  to  enlarge  the  gardens  of  Old 
Buckingham  House. 

GREEN  RIBBON  CLUB.— (See  KING'S  HEAD 
CLUB.) 

GREENBRIAR  (Battle).— An  indecisive  en- 
gagement between  the  Confederates  and  the 
Federals,  under  Gen.  Reynolds,  took  place  on 
the  banks  of  this  river  in  Virginia  Oct  2  1861 

GREENE  CURTAIN.  —  (See  CURTAIN 
THEATRE.) 

GREENLAND  (N.  America).— This  country 
was  probably  discovered  and  inhabited  by 
settlers  from  Norway  before  830,  as  Gregory  IV. 
published  a  bull  in  835,  in  which  especial 
mention  is  made  of  the  Greenlanders.  Tho 
Iceland  Chronicle,  and  other  authorities,  how- 
ever, fix  its  discovery  in  982.  In  1256  the 
inhabitants  attempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Norwegians.  In  1576  part  of  the  coast 
was  explored  by  Martin  Frobisher,  and  in  1605 
and  succeeding  years  the  Danes  sent  expedi- 
tions to  colonize  the  country.  They  all  failed, 
until  the  Norwegian  missionary  Hans  Egede 
arrived  in  1721,  and  founded  Godthaab.  In 
1733  the  Moravians  established  a  mission,  and 
the  small-pox  carried  off  3,000  of  the  natives. 
The  country  was  explored  by  Capt.  Scoresby 
in  1822,  and  by  Capt.  Graab  between  1829  and 

GREENOCK  (Renfrewshire) .  —  In  1635 
Charles  I.  granted  a  charter  to  John  Shaw, 
erecting  the  lands  of  Wester-Greenock,  and 
the  town  and  village  of  Greenock,  into  a  burgh 
of  barony,  and  in  1670  Sir  John  Shaw,  son  of 
the  above-named,  obtained  another  charter 


GREENWICH 


[    462    ] 


GREGORIAN 


incorporating  the  lands  of  Finnart  with  the 
barony  of  Wester-Greenock,  under  the  title  of 
the  burgh  of  Greenock.  The  first  harbour  at 
Greenock  was  built  between  1707  and  1710. 
James  Watt  was  born  here  Jan.  19,  1736.  By 
a  charter  granted  Sep.  2,  1751,  the  election  of 
the  magistrates  was  intrusted  to  the  inha- 
bitants. The  town-hall  was  erected  in  1766, 
from  Watt's  designs,  and  the  gaol  in  1810.  The 
new  east  harbour  was  commenced  in  1806  and 
finished  in  1811,  and  the  west  quay  was  rebuilt 
and  enlarged  between  1807  and  1811.  The 
Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Manufactures  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1813.  The 
dry,  or  graving  dock,  was  commenced  in 
Aug.,  1813,  and  completed  in  Sep.,  1825.  Sir 
Francis  Chantrey's  statue  of  Watt  was  erected 
in  1832.  Victoria  Harbour  was  commenced  in 
1846,  and  opened  in  Oct.,  1850. 

(JUKKXWICH  (Kent).— The  ancient  manor 
of  Grenawic  was  bestowed  by  Elthruda,  niece 
of  King  Alfred  the  Great  (871 — 901),  upon  the 
abbey  of  St.  Peter  at  Ghent,  to  which  it  was 
confirmed  by  King  Edgar,  at  the  instance  of 
An-libi.shop  bunstan,  in  964.  The  Danes  sub- 
sequently established  a  camp  here,  where  they 
murdered  Archbishop  Klphege  on  the  vigil  of 
Easter,  1012.  A  royal  palace  or  />/«/ 
pears  to  have  been  established  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307),  from  which 
Henry  IV.  dated  his  will,  Jan.  22,  1408  ;  but  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  V.  it  was  still  a  inure 
fishing  village.  The  park,  commenced  by 
Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  in  1433,  was, 
with -the  palace,  bestowed  by  Kdward  I V. 
upon  his  queen,  Elizabeth  Woodville,  1111465. 
Henry  VII.  (1485 — 1509)  enlarged  the  palace 
and  founded  a  convent.  Henry  V 1 1 1.  was  born 
here  June  28,  1491,  and  married  to  Catherine  of 
Aragon  June  n,  1509.  Queen  Mary  was  born 
here  Feb.  18,  1516,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  Sep.  7, 
1533.  It  was  the  scene  of  Henry  the  Eighth's 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  Jan.  6,  1540; 
and  of  the  deatli  of  Kdward  VI.,  July  6,  1553. 
Queen  Elizabeth's  College,  a  number  of  alms- 
houses  for  the  poor,  was  founded  by  William 
Lambard  in  1558;  and  Trinity  Hospital  or 
Norfolk  College  was  established  by  Henry 
Howard,  Earl  of  Northampton,  in  1613.  John 
Roan  founded  the  Grey-coat  School  in  1643. 
In  1654  the  palace  became  the  residence  of  the 
Lord  Protector,  but  it  reverted  to  the  crown 
in  1660,  and  was  enlarged  by  Charles  II. 
(1660 — 1685),  who  did  not,  however,  live  to 
cai-ry  out  his  plans  in  relation  to  the  building. 
Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  Greenwich  Hospital 
(<j.  i\).  The  Green-coat  School  was  founded 
by  Sir  William  Boremaii  in  1672,  the  ancient 
church  of  St.  Elphege  was  rebuilt  in  1710,  the 
Blue-coat  School  was  established  in  1770,  and 
the  Jubilee  Almshouses  were  erected  in  1809. 
The  stone  pier  fell  May  16,  1843. 

GREENWICH  HOSPITAL.— The  patent  for 
the  erection  of  this  hospital,  which  occupies 
the  site  of  the  former  royal  palace  at  Greenwich, 
was  granted  by  William  III.  and  Mary,  Oct.  25, 

1694,  and  commissioners  for    superintending 
the  works  having  been   appointed  March  12, 

1695,  the  foundation-stone  of  the  new  buildings 
was  laid  by  John  Evelyn,   June  30,    1696.     In 
Dec.,  1704,  the  hospital  was  sufficiently  ad- 


vanced to  receive  42  seamen  as  inmates. 
Among  the  sources  whence  the  funds  for  this 
noble  institution  were  derived,  may  be  men- 
tioned a  duty  of  sixpence  per  month  from 
every  seaman,  first  levied  in  1696;  the  for- 
feited property  of  the  pirate  Kidd,  in  1705 ; 
and  the  estates  of  the  last  Earl  of  Derwent- 
^water,  in  1735.  The  infirmary  was  erected  in 
1763.  The  commissioners  became  a  body  cor- 
porate by  a  charter  dated  Dec.  6,  1775.  The 
chapel,  dining-hall,  and  other  portions  of  the 
hospital,  were  destroyed  by  fire  Jan.  2,  1779. 
The  chapel  was  rebuilt,  and  opened  Sep.  20, 
1789.  A  portion  of  the  infirmary  was  also 
burned  down  in  1811.  The  Painted  Hall  was 
established  in  1823.  The  accommodation  at 
the  hospital  is  for  2,710  pensioners ;  but  in 
1859  there  were  only  1,600  inmates.  The 
annual  revenue  then  amounted  to  between 
,£150,000  and  ;£i6o,ooo.  By  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  67 
(July  21,  1863)  the  commissioners  were  em- 
powered to  appropriate  an  annual  sum  not 
exceeding  ^5,000  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
widows  of  seamen  and  marines  killed  or 
drowned  in  the  service  of  the  crown.  By 
28  &  29  Viet.  c.  89  (July  5,  1865)  inmates  of  the 
hospital  willing  to  reside  elsewhere  were  per- 
mitted to  do  so,  suitable  pensions  being  granted 
them,  not,  however,  exceeding  the  allowances 
they  had  received  as  inmates.  The  office  of 
the  commissioners  was  abolished,  and  it  was 
enacted  that  on  the  death  of  the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  the  control  of  the  hospital 
and  school  should  be  vested  in  the  Admiralty, 
who  should  appoint  an  oliicor  of  rank  not 
lower  than  a  vice-admiral  to  act  as  visitor,  and 
a  comptroller  of  the  Greenwich  Hospital  es- 
tates to  exercise  a  general  superintendence 
over  the  lands  and  other  property.  The  act 
took  effect  from  Sep.  30,  1865,  when  many  of 
the  pensioners  removed  from  the  hospital  to 
reside  with  their  friends  or  relations. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.— This  in- 
stitution, on  the  site  of  ;i  tower  built  by  Duke 
Humphrey,  was  founded  Aug.  10,  1675,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  need  for  more  correct  tables 
of  the  moon  and  fixed  stars  than  were  afforded 
by  the  observations  of  Tycho  Brahe.  Flam- 
steed  was  the  first  astronomer  royal,  and  the 
observatory  was  for  some  time  known  as 
Flamsteed  House.  In  1725  a  mural  quadrant 
was  erected  ;  a  zenith  sector  was  added  in  1727  ; 
and  in  1750  the  institution  was  enriched  by 
many  valuable  instruments.  Since  Nov.  30, 
1767,  the  observations  made  here  have  been 
published  annually.  Troughtoii's  mural  circle 
was  erected  in  1812,  and  his  transit  instru- 
ment in  1816.  The  magnetic  observatory  was 
erected  in  1837  and  1838,  and  the  new  south 
dome  for  the  altitude  and  azimuth  instrument 
in  1844.  The  electric  time-ball  in  the  Strand 
was  erected,  and  made  to  act  simultaneously 
with  that  at  Greenwich  observatory,  in  Aug., 
1852.  A  splendid  equatorial,  designed  by  Airy, 
was  completed  in  the  spring  of  1860. 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR.— (See  CALEN- 
DAR, NEW  STYLE  and  OLD  STYLE.) 

GREGORIAN  C 1 1 A  XT.— Gregory  I.  (in  600) 
added  four  additional  tones  to  the  Ambrosian 
chant,  and  the  whole  was  accordingly  named 
after  him  the  Gregorian  chant. 


GREGORIANS 


[    463    1 


GREY 


GREGORIANS  (London).  —  This  club  or 
order,  a  branch  of  the  Freemasons,  existed 
during  the  i8th  century,  and  is  referred  to  by 
Pope  in  the  Dunciad,  published  in  1728.  They 
had  numerous  provincial  lodges  or  chapters, 
and  are  known  to  have  existed  in  1736  and  1745. 
(See  BRETHREN  OF  SOCIAL  LIFE.  ) 

GREIFSWALDE  (Prussia).— This  town 
of  Pomerania,  founded  in  1233,  joined  the 
Hanseatic  League  in  1270.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1456.  By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
Oct.  24,  1648,  it  was  given  to  Sweden ;  in  1678 
it  was  taken  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
and  in  1720  it  was  acquired  by  Prussia. 

GRENADA,  or  GRANADA  (Antilles).— This 
island  was  discovered  by  Christopher  Colum- 
bus in  his  third  voyage  of  discovery,  in  1498. 
The  French  under  Du  Parquet  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  1650,  when  the  Caribs,  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  were  exterminated.  Grenada 
capitulated  to  an  English  force,  April  5,  1762, 
and  was  ceded  to  England  by  the  ninth  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  The 
French  having  assailed  it  with  a  very  superior 
force  in  July,  1779,  succeeded  in  wresting  it 
from  the  English,  to  whom  it  was  restored  by 
the  eighth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
Sep.  3,  1783.  The  French  planters  rebelled 
against  the  English  in  1795,  and  the  revolt  was 
suppressed  June  10,  1796. 

GRENADE,  or  HAND-GRENADE,  a  kind 
of  shell,  first  used  in  1594. 

GRENADIER.— In  1667  a  few  men  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  French  army  to  throw  the 
grenades  during  a  siege.  Cavalry,  called  horse 
grenadiers,  were  appointed  in  France  in  1676. 
Grenadiers  formed  a  portion  of  the  English 
army  in  1684.  They  were  armed  with  firelocks, 
slings,  swords,  daggers,  and  pouches  with  gre- 
nades, in  1686. 

GRENADINES  (Atlantic).  —  A  -cluster  of 
small  islands  between  St.  Vincent  and  Gre- 
nada, two  of  the  Antilles,  are  called  Grena- 
dines. They  were  ceded  to  England  by  the 
ninth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10, 
1763.  The  crown  lands  were  sold  by  auction, 
March  26,  1764.  The  French  and  the  Caribs 
rebelled  in  1795. 

GRENELLE  (France).— This  village,  near 
Paris,  was  much  injured  by  an  explosion  of 
gunpowder  in  1794.  The  celebrated  artesian 
well,  i, 800  feet  deep,  commenced  by  Mulot  in 
1834,  was  completed  in  1841. 

GRENOBLE  (France)  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Cularo,  which  (379)  was  called  Gra- 
tianopolis,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Gratian, 
who  enlarged  it.  Mention  of  a  bishop  occurs 
in  301.  (See  CHARTREUSE.)  Riots  took  place  in 
1 788.  Pius  VII.  was  brought  a  prisoner  to  Gre- 
noble in  July,  1809  ;  thence  he  was  transferred 
to  Savona,  and  afterwards  to  Fontainebleau. 
Grenoble  was  the  first  place  that  received 
Napoleon  I.  on  his  return  from  Elba,  in 
March,  1814,  and  here  he  issued  three  decrees. 
An  attempt  at  insurrection  was  suppressed 
May  4,  1816,  and  disturbances  occurred  Dec.  18, 
1831. 

GRENVILLE  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  soon  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Bute 
administration,  April  8,  1763,  George  Gren- 
ville  becoming  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and 


Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  April  16,  1763. 
The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :  — 

Treasury  and  Chancellorship  7 

of  the  Exchequer  .......  ../  Mr-  Grenville. 

(  Lord  Henley,  created  Earl 
Lord  Chancellor  ..................  <      of  Northington  May  19, 


- 
President  of  the  Council  .........  Earl  Granville. 

Privy  Seal  ..............................  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Principal  Secretaries  of  State  {^Ufal  ^^    an<J 
Admiralty  ..............................  Earl  of  Egmont. 

Secretary  at  War  ..................  Mr.  Ellis. 

Ordnance  ..............................  Marquis  of  Granby. 

Negotiations  were  carried  on  with  Mr.  Pitt, 
who  had  an  interview  with  George  III.,  Aug. 
27,  1763.  They  were  broken  off  Aug.  29.  The 
Duke  of  Bedford  took  Earl  Granville's  place 
as  President  of  the  Council,  Sep.  2,  1763,  and 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  Bedford  administra- 
tion. This  ministry  was  dissolved  in  July, 
1765.  (See  ROCKINGHAM  (First)  ADMINISTRA- 
TION.) 

GRENVILLE  AND  FOX  COALITION 
MINISTRY.—  (See  ALL  THE  TALENTS.) 

GRESHAM  CLUB  (London),  designed  for 
the  use  of  merchants  and  professional  men, 
was  erected  in  1844,  and  named  in  honour  of 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  founder  of  the  Royal 
Exchange. 

GRESHAM  COLLEGE  (London).  -This  in- 
stitution was  founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham, 
who  gave  the  Royal  Exchange  to  the  corpora- 
tion of  London  and  the  Mercers'  Company,  on 
condition  that  they  instituted  a  series  of  lec- 
tures on  divinity,  civil  law,  astronomy,  music, 
geometry,  rhetoric,  and  physic,  May  24,  1575. 
He  died  Nov.  21,  1579,  and  the  lectures  were 
commenced  in  his  house,  which  he  bequeathed 
for  the  purpose,  in  June,  1597.  The  first 
Gresham  College  was  pulled  down  in  1768,  and 
the  site  used  for  the  Excise  Office.  The  lec- 
tures were  delivered  in  a  room  over  the  Royal 
Exchange,  until  the  present  college  was 
opened,  Nov.  2,  1843.  Th-6  Royal  Society  held 
its  meetings  at  this  institution  from  1662  to 

I7G°RETNA  GREEN  (Scotland).—  This  village, 
in  Dumfriesshire,  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
English  frontier,  was  long  notorious  for  irre- 
gular marriages.  The  Fleet  marriages  having 
been  declared  illegal  in  1754,  runaway  lovers 
repaired  to  Scotland,  and  a  celebrated  Fleet 
parson  advertised  his  removal  to  Gretna.  He 
was  succeeded  by  an  old  soldier  named  Gordon, 
who  in  his  turn  was  followed  by  Joseph  Pais- 
ley, called  "the  blacksmith,"  originally  a 
weaver,  and  at  one  time  a  tobacconist.  He 
died  in  1814.  By  19  <fc  20  Viet.  c.  96  (July  29, 
1856),  Gretna  Green  and  Border  marriages  were 
abolished.  It  provided  that,  after  Dec.  31, 
1856,  "no  irregular  marriage  contracted  in 
Scotland,  by  declaration,  acknowledgment,  or 
ceremony,  will  be  valid,  unless  one  of  the  par- 
ties has  his  or  her  residence  in  Scotland,  or 
had  lived  therein  for  21  days  next  preceding 
such  marriage  ;  any  law,  custom,  or  usage  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding." 

GREY  ADMINISTRATION  was  formed  soon 
after  the  resignation  of  the  Wellington  admi- 
nistration, Nov.  16,  1830.  The  cabinet  con- 
sisted of— 


GREY 


[    464    1 


GRODNO 


Treasury 

Lord  ChWellor  

President  of  the  Council   

Privy  Seal 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer 

Home  Secretary  

Foreign  Secretary 

Colonial  Secretary 

Admiralty 

Board  of  Control 

Board  of  Trade   

Postmaster-General 

Chancellor  of  the   Duchy  of  7 

Lancaster J 

Without  office  


Earl  Grey. 
Lord  Broujrhnm. 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
Lord  Durham. 
Viscount  Althorp. 
Viscount  Melbourne. 
Viscount  J'nlmerston. 
Viscount  Godcrich. 
Sir  James  Graham.  Bart. 
Mr.  C.  Grant. 
Lord  Auckland. 
Duke  of  Richmond. 

Lord  Holland. 
Earl  of  Carlisle 


The  Hon.  E.  G.  S.  Stanley,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Derby,  as  Chief  Secretary  of  Ireland,  and  Lord 
John  Russell,  as  Paymaster  of  the  P'orces,  were 
made  members  of  the  cabinet.  Having'  been 
defeated  on  an  amendment  to  their  Reform 
Bill  in  the  House  of  Lords,  this  cabinet  re- 
signed, May  9,  1832.  The  Opposition  refused 
to  form  an  administration,  and  the  Grey  cabi- 
net was  restored.  The  Hon.  E.  G.  S.  Stanley 
became  Colonial  Secretary  March  28,  1833,  Sir 
John  Hobhouse  taking  his  place  as  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland  ;  and  Viscount  Goderich, 
afterwards  Earl  of  Ripon,  succeeded  Lord 
Durham  as  Privy  Seal,  April  3,  1833.  This 
ministry  was  dissolved  July  9,  1834.  (See 
MKU-.ociiVK  First  ADMINISTRATION.) 

GHKY-COAT  HOSPITAL  London]*.— This 
institution  was  founded  in  1698  for  the  main- 
tenance and  education  of  jo  poor  boys  stud  .jo 
poor  girls  of  St.  .Margaret's,  Westminster.  An 
additional  foundation,  including  the  parish  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist,  was  established  in 
1707. 

<;i;KY  FRIARS  (London). -This  precinct, 
near  Newgate,  takes  its  name  from  ;i  monas- 
tery of  Grey  Friars  established  by  Henry  III. 
(1216 — 1272),  which  was  subsequently  converted 
into  Christ's  Hospital  >/.  r.  .  The  last  vestige 
of  the  old  priory  was  removed  in  1826. 

GREY  LEAGUE.— (See  CADDEE  LEAGUI:  and 
GRISONS.) 

GREYTOWN,  or  SAN  JUAN  DE  NICA- 
RAGUA (Central  America  ,  originally  founded 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  declared  a  free  port 
Jan.  i,  1851,  was  bombarded  by  a  United 
States  ship-of-war  in  1854,  in  retaliation  for  an 
alleged  insult  to  the  American  consul. 

TRILLION'S  CLUB  (London),  founded 
about  1813  as  a  neutral  ground  for  the  princi- 
pal parliamentary  men  of  the  day,  derived  its 
name  from  that  of  the  hotel  where  the  dinner 
was  originally  held.  Seventy-nine  portraits 
of  the  members  were  sold  by  auction,  Jan.  30, 
1860.  The  fiftieth  anniversary  was  celebrated 
by  a  banquet  at  the  Clarendon,  held  under  the 
presidency  of  Lord  Derby,  May  6,  1863. 

GRIMSBY.— (See  GREAT  GRIMSBY.) 

GRISONS  (Switzerland).— In  May,  1424,  the 
abbot  and  lords  of  Upper  Rhaetia  met  the 
deputies  of  the  Swiss  valleys,  and  of  the  towns 
of  Itantz  and  Tusis,  near  the  village  of  Trons, 
and  there  formed  a  league,  which  received  the 
name  of  the  .Grey  League,  or  the  League  of 
the  Grisons,  from  the  colour  of  the  smocks 
worn  by  the  deputies.  (See  CADDEE  LEAGUE.) 
Gradually  the  name  extended  to  the  district 
and  its  inhabitants,  who  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Swiss  cantons  in  1497.  In  1499  they 


defeated  the  troops  of  the  Emperor 
milian  I.  at  Malsheraid,  and  in  1512  they  took 
possession  of  the  Valteline,  Chiavenna,  and 
Bormio,  south  of  the  Alps.  The  Grisons  received 
the  Reformation  early.  In  1603  they  formed 
an  alliance  with  Venice  for  the  protection  of  the 
Valteline  against  the  Spaniards ;  but  in  1 620 
the  natives  of  that  province  rebelled  against 
them,  and  the  territory  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Spain.  A  forced  treaty  was  concluded  in 
1622,  by  which  the  Valteline  and  Bormio  were 
surrendered,  and  the  independence  of  the 
Grisons  annihilated ;  but  in  Sep.  the  inhabit- 
ants rose  in  arms,  and  compelled  the  Spaniards 
to  retire.  The  Valteline  was  restored  to  the 
Grisons  in  1639.  In  1797  the  Italian  provinces 
were  again  wrested  from  them  by  Napoleon  ; 
and  in  March,  1799,  their  country  was  overrun 
by  the  French.  The  Grisons  became  the  fif- 
teenth canton  of  Switzerland  by  the  Act  of 
Mediation,  Feb.  19,  1803. 

GEISWOLDVILLB  I -.attic).— The  Federals 
under  Gen.  Walcott  defeated  the  Confederate 
militia,  commanded  by  Gen.  Phillips,  at  this 
place  in  Georgia,  Nov.  23,  1864. 

GROATS  were  ordered  to  be  coined  in  1227 
and  1249.  Their  proper  value  was  fourpence, 
but  the  term  was  occasionally  applied  to  coins 
of  different  worth.  Thus,  Stow  speaks  of  "a 
groat,  the  value  of  which  was  12'?.,"  issued  in 
1504.  Half-groats  were  first  coined  in  1351. 
The  modern  fourpenny-pir.  ,ht  into 

general  circulation  by  an  order  in  council  dated 
Feb.  3,  1836. 

GROCERS'  COMPANY  (London).— The  origi- 
nal title  of  this  company  was  "Pepi> 
mentioned  as  a  separate  fraternity  in  the  time 
of  Henry  II.,  though  the  guild  probably  origi- 
nated at  a  much  earlier  date.  The  present 
company  was  founded  June  12,  1345,  and  the 
name  "grocers,"  which  first  appears  in  a  peti- 
tion of  the  Commons  in  1361,  was  not  adopted 
by  them  till  1376.  The  meaning  of  the  term 
is  somewhat  disputed,  though  it  is  most  pro- 
bably a  contracted  form  of  "  engrossers,"  the 
name  applied  to  dealers  in  any  ware,  who  by 
monopoly  or  other  means  contrived  to  raise 
the  price  of  their  goods.  The  apothecaries 
were  separated  from  the  grocers  in  1617.  The 
hall  was  founded  May  8, 1427,  and  the  company 
received  its  first  patent  of  confirmation  in 
1429.  The  great  fire  of  1666  seriously  damaged 
the  hall,  which  was  restored  in  1668-9  °y  ^r 
John  Cutler.  In  1681  it  was  again  in  ruins, 
and  was  renovated  by  Sir  John  Moore  ;  and  in 
1694  it  was  let  to  the  Bank  of  England.  The 
present  hall  was  built  in  1802,  and  repaired  in 
1827. 

GROCHOW  (Battle).  —  The  Poles  defeated 
the  Russians  at  this  place,  near  Warsaw,  after 
an  obstinate  contest'that  lasted  two  days,  Feb. 
19  and  20,  1831.  The  Russians  lost  7,000  and 
the  Poles  only  2,000  men. 

GRODNO  (Poland).— This  town  is  of  ancient 
and  uncertain  origin.  In  1184  it  suffered  con- 
siderably from  a  fire,  and  in  1283  was  taken  by 
the  Teutonic  knights.  The  Prussians  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  capture  it  in  1306.  Grodno  was 
the  seat  of  the  Polish  diet  from  1673  to  1752.  In 
1708  it  was  taken  by  Charles  XII.,  and  in  1753 
the  greater  part  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The 


GKOG 


[    465    1 


GUARDS 


Russians  seized  it  in  1792,  and  erected  it  into 
the  chief  town  of  Lithuania  in  1795.  It  has 
since  been  made  the  chief  town  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name. 

GROG.— Admiral  Edward  Vernon,  after  the 
reduction  of  Porto  Bello,  Nov.  21,  1739,  intro- 
duced the  use  of  rum -and- water  amongst  his 
crew.  "In  bad  weather,"  according  to  Mr. 
Vaux  (Notes  and  Queries,  i.  p.  52),  "he  was  in 
the  habit  of  walking  the  deck  in  a  rough 
grogram  cloak,  and  thence  had  obtained  the 
nickname  of  Old  Grog  in  the  service.  This  is, 
I  believe,  the  origin  of  the  name  grog,  applied 
originally  to  ru/ii-aud-water." 

GROLL  (Battle).— The  Duke  of  Luxemburg 
encountered  the  forces  of  the  Bishop  of 
Minister  at  this  place  in  1672. 

GRONINGEN  (Holland).  —  This  town  was 
founded  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, and  possessed  some  commercial  influence 
in  the  gth  century,  when  it  was  seized  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Northmen.  In  1 1  ioit  was  rebuilt, 
and  afterwards  formed  part  of  the  Spanish  do- 
minions. In  1576  it  was  incorporated  with  the 
United  Provinces,  but  it  again  fell  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  it  was 
finally  wrested  by  Prince  Maurice  in  1594.  The 
citadel  was  erected  in  1607,  and  the  university 
founded  in  1614.  In  1678  Groningen  repelled  a 
siege  by  the  Elector  of  Cologne  and  the  Bishop 
of  Minister.  The  institution  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  was  founded  in  1790,  and  the  town-hall 
in  1793.  In  1795  it  was  seized  by  the  French, 
under  Gen.  Macdonald.  The  h6tel  de  ville 
was  built  in  1810. 

GROSS  -  BEEREN  (Battle).  —  Bernadotte, 
commanding  an  allied  army,  defeated  Napo- 
leon I.  and  the  Saxons  at  this  place,  near 
Berlin,  Aug.  23,  1813. 

GROSS-GLOGAU.— (See  GLOGAU.) 

GROSS-GORSCHEN,  orGROSZGORSCHEN. 
— (See  LtfTZEN,  Battle.) 

GROSS  -  JAGERNDORF  (Battle).  —  The 
Russians,  under  Marshal  Apraxin,  defeated  the 
Prussians,  under  Lehwald,  at  this  place  in 
Prussia,  Aug.  30,  1757. 

GROSSWARDEIN  (Hungary).— This  town, 
taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Turks  in  1660,  was 
captured  by  the  Austrians  in  1692. 

GROTESQUE.— This  term  was  first  applied 
to  a  style  of  classical  ornament,  in  the  i3th 
century. 

GROUSE.— This  bird,  which  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  held  in  much  estimation  during 
the  i4th  century,  is  first  mentioned  as  game 
by  Capt.  Burt  in  1730. 

GROVETON.— (See  MANASSAS,  Battles.) 

GROYNE.— (See  CORUNXA.) 

GRUB  STREET  (London)  was  inhabited, 
before  the  discovery  of  printing,  by  text- 
writers,  who  prepared  all  sorts  of  books  then 
in  use.  John  Fox  (1517 — April  18,  1587),  the 
martyrologist,  John  Speed(i555 — July  28,1629^, 
the  historian,  and  other  authors,  resided  in 
Grub  Street.  Memoirs  of  the  Society  of  Grub 
Street  appeared  in  1737.  Its  name  was  changed 
to  Milton  Street  in  i8?o. 

GUADALAJARA  (Spain).— A  corruption  of 
Guidalhichara,  or  Guadalaruaca,  the  name 
given  to  this  town  of  Castile  by  the  Moors, 
who  captured  it  in  714. 


GUADALETE  (Battle). —The  Moors  were 
defeated  by  the  Christians  at  this  place  in  Spain 
in  711. 

GUADALOUPE,  or  GUADELOUPE  (West 
Indies).  —  This  island,  one  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493. 
In  1635  it  was  seized  by  the  French,  and  was 
taken,  Jan.  29,  1759,  by  the  English,  who 
restored  it  in  1763.  It  was  again  seized  by 
them  in  1794  and  Feb.  5,  1810,  when  it  was 
proposed  to  cede  it  to  Sweden ;  but  at  the 
peace  of  1814  it  was  restored  to  France.  The 
English  again  captured  it  Aug.  10,  1815,  and 
it  was  finally  restored  to  France  July  23, 
1816.  Guadaloupe  suffered  severely  from  an 
earthquake  in  1843.  Slavery  was  abolished  in 
1848. 

GUAD-EL-RAS,  GUALDRAS,  or  GUAL- 
TERAS  (Battle).— The  Spaniards  defeated  the 
forces  of  the  Emperor  of  Morocco,  at  this 
place,  near  Tetuan,  March  23,  1860. 

GUADINA.— (See  DURANGO.) 

GUADIX  (Spain)  is  said  to  have  been  the 
seat  of  the  first  bishopric  erected  in  Spain. 
Ferdinand  of  Castile  captured  it  in  Dec.,  1489- 

GUALIOR,  or  GWALIOR  (Hindostan),  the 
capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name,  was  under 
the  government  of  rajahs  as  early  as  1008.  In 
1197  it  was  taken  by  the  Mohammedans,  and 
in  1235  submitted  to  Altumsh,  King  of  Delhi. 
In  1519  it  was  taken  by  Ibrahim  Lodi,  the 
last  Patan  Emperor  of  Delhi,  and  in  1543  it 
was  surrendered  to  Shere  Khan,  the  Affghan. 
Gualior  was  taken  by  the  British,  under  Major 
Popham,  Aug.  3,  1780.  In  1784  it  was  seized 
by  Madhajee  Scindia,  and  in  1803  a  treaty  was 
concluded,  by  which  it  was  to  be  surrendered 
to  the  British.  As  this  treaty  was  not  observed, 
the  town  was  again  invested  by  the  British, 
under  Sir  Henry  White,  who  effected  its 
capture  Feb.  5,  1804.  In  1805  it  was  again 
ceded  to  Scindia;  but  it  was  recaptured  by 
the  British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  Dec.  29, 
1843.  Seized  by  the  Indian  mutineers  June  i, 
1858,  it  was  recovered  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose, 
June  19. 

GUAM,  or  GUAHON.— One  of  the  Ladrones, 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  Fernando 
Magellan  in  1521. 

GUANHANL— (See  SALVADOR,  ST.) 

GUANO.— Prescott  maintains  that  the  Peru- 
vians made  great  use  of  this  valuable  manure 
before  Peru  was  visited  by  the  Spaniards. 
Herrera  refers  to  it  in  a  work  published  in 
1601,  and  in  another  published  in  1609.  It 
was  described  by  Ulloa  in  1748,  and  first 
brought  to  Europe  by  Humboldt  in  1804.  It 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  the  Chincha  (q.v.}  and 
Lobos  islands,  situated  off  the  coast  of  Peru. 
In  1839  the  sole  right  to  ship  guano  for  nine 
years  was  sold  to  a  private  firm  by  the  Peru- 
vian and  Bolivian  governments ;  but  the 
contract  was  cancelled  by  the  government  of 
Peru  in  1841.  The  monopoly  was,  however, 
revived.  Guano  was  discovered  on  the  island 
of  Ichaboe,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  1843,  and 
in  one  year  the  whole  stock  was  exhausted. 
Large  deposits  of  this  manure  were  discovered 
in  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  April,  1861. 

GUARDS.— The  celebrated  Scotch  guards  of 
the  kings  of  France  were  enrolled  by  Charles 

H  H 


GUARDS' 


[    466    ] 


GUEUX 


VII.  in  1453.  The  English  yeomen  of  the  guard 
were  instituted  by  Henry  VII.  in  1485.  The 
four  troops  of  horse  guards  were  enrolled  in 
1660,  1661,  1693,  and  1702;  the  foot  guards  in 
1660, — the  second  regiment  is  the  Coldstrcam 
Guards  (q.v.)  ;  the  horse  grenadier  guards  in 
1693  and  in  1702.  The  French  National  Guard 
was  instituted  in  1789,  the  Imperial  Guard  in- 
1804,  and  the  Garde  Mobile  in  1848. 

GUARDS'  CLUB  (London).  —  This  club, 
restricted  to  officers  of  the  household  troops, 
was  founded  in  1810.  The  house  was  designed 
by  Harrison,  and  commenced  in  1848. 

GUASTALLA  (Italy).  —This  Italian  duchy 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  dukes  of  .Mantua 
in  1677,  and  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Austria 
in  1746.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Parma 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct.  18,  1748, 
and  was  incorporated  with  the  Cispadane  Re- 
public by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  in  1796.  It 
formed  a  portion  of  the  appanage  of  the 
Empress  Maria  Louisa  in  1815,  and  was  ceded 
to  the  Duke  of  Modena  in  1796.  The  battle  of 
Guastalla  was  fought  near  the  chief  town  of 
the  duchy,  between  the  French  and  Sardinian 
forces  under  Charles  Emanuel  III.,  and  the 
Austrians,  Sep.  19,  1734,  when  the  latter  were 
defeated. 

GUATEMALA  (Central  America).  —  This 
country  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1502.  The  bishopric  of  Guatemala  was  estab- 
lished in  1533.  The  colony  revolted  from  Spain 
in  1821,  and  became  a  federal  republic  in  1823. 
Its  limits  were  diminished  in  1839  by  ^ne 
secession  of  Honduras,  and  in  1846  each  of  the 
states  forming  the  confederation  adopted  an 
independent  government.  Guatemala  is 
governed  according  to  the  constitution  of  Oct. 
19,  1851,  byapresidentandlegLslativechanilicr. 
War  was  declared  against  the  republic  of  St. 
Salvador,  Jan.  23,  1863.  (See  SALVADOR,  ST.) 
Raphael  Carrera,  the  president,  died  April  14, 
1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vincent  Ccrna, 
elected  May  3.  (See  OLD  GUATEMALA,  and  NEW 
Gr  \  n:\iALA.j 

GUBBIO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Iguvium,  is 
the  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the  same  name. 
The  municipal  palace  was  discovered  in  1332, 
and  the  Eugubine  tables  (q.  v.)  in  1444. 

GUEBRES,  PARSEES,  or  FIRE  -  WOR- 
SHIPPERS.—The  Guebres  of  Persia,  and  the 
Parsces  of  Bombay,  are  descended  from  the 
fire -worshippers  of  antiquity,  a  sect  which 
arose  about  B.C.  2120,  and  was  suppressed  by 
the  Greeks  about  B.C.  330.  It  was  restored  by 
Ardeschir  Badekhan  in  225,  and  again  pro- 
scribed by  the  Mohammedans  in  652,  when 
Yezdijud  III.  was  deposed  and  slain.  A  large 
number  of  his  subjects  emigrated  to  Goojerat, 
where  they  were  known  as  Parsees,  or  Persians. 
The  modern  Guebres  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  city  of  Yezd,  in  Persia. 

GUELDERLAND,  or  GELDERLAND 
(Holland).— This  duchy  was  sold  to  Charles  I., 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1472,  and  reverted  to  the 
empire-as  an  escheated  fief  in  1503.  In  1528  it 
was  held  by  its  duke  as  a  fief  of  Brabant  and 
Holland,  and  in  1538  the  succession  was  settled 
on  the  Duke  of  Cleves.  In  1579  it  took  part  in 
the  Union  of  Utrecht,  and  in  1672  submitted  to 
the  French,  who  withdrew  the  following  year. 


It  was  readmitted  to  the  Union  in  1674,  and 
received  an  amended  constitution  in  1748. 

GUELPH  (House  of).— This  ancient  family, 
which  traces  its  descent  from  the  gth  century, 
migrated  in  the  nth  century  from  Italy  to 
Germany,  where,  in  1070,  its  members  acquired 
possession  of  Bavaria  (q.v.).  Their  descendants 
subsequently  obtained  sovereignty  in  Bruns- 
wick (q.  v.)  and  Hanover,  and  thus  became  the 
ancestors  of  the  present  royal  family  of 
England. 

GUELPHIC  ORDE R.— This  Hanoverian 
order  of  knighthood  was  founded  by  the  Prince 
Regent  ;  afterwards  George  IV.),  Aug.  12,  1815. 
The  statutes  were  amended  May  20,  1841. 

GUELPHS.—  (See  GHIBELLINES.) 

GUENEZ  (Battle).— Marshal  Lefebvre  de- 
feated the  Spanish,  under  Blake  and  La  Ro- 
inana,  at  this  place,  in  Spain,  Nov.  7,  1808. 

GUERANDE,  or  GUERRANDE  (France).— 
This  town,  founded  in  the  6th  century,  was 
surrounded  with  walls  in  1431.  After  the  cele- 
brated battle  of  Auray,  fought  Sep.  29,  1364, 
between  the  forces  of  the  two  claimants  for 
the  duchy  of  Britanny,  John  of  Montfort  and 
Charles  of  Blois,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Guerande,  by  the 
intervention  of  Charles  V.,  April  13,  1365.  It 
left  Montfort  in  possession  of  the  duchy,  which 
was  to  revert  to  the  widow  of  Charles  of  Blois, 
in  case  Montfort  died  without  heirs.  Guerande 
was  captured  in  1342,  and  by  Du  Guesclin  in 
1373.  It  was  besieged  in  1379  and  1489. 

GUERNSEY  (English  Channel).— This  island 
was  called  Holy  Island  in  the  loth  century, 
owing  to  the  numerous  monks  who  inhabited 
it.  In  1035  it  was  shared  between  Nigellius,  or 
Neel,  Viscount  of  St.  Sauveur,  and  Karl  Robert 
of  \ormandy.  Cornet  Castle  was  founded  about 
1204,  and  St.  Peter's  church  consecrated  in 
1312.  '  Queen  Elizabeth  founded  Elizabeth's 
College  in  1563,  and  Fort  George  was  com- 
menced in  1775.  The  French  have  made  nume- 
rous efforts  to  take  Guernsey,  the  last  of  which 
occurred  in  1780. 

GUERRILLAS.— These  armed  bands  of 
peasants  and  shepherds  were  regularly  orga- 
nized in  Spain  against  the  French  from  1808 
to  1814,  during  which  period  they  rendered 
signal  service. 

GUEUX,  or  BEGGARS,  was  the  name  con- 
temptuously applied  by  the  Count  of  Barlai- 
mont  to  the  confederate  nobles  of  the  Low 
Countries,  who  presented  a  remonstrance 
called  the  Compromise  (q.  v.)  against  the  In- 
quisition to  the  Regent  Margaret,  April  5, 
1566,  and  was  adopted  by  them  as  the  name  of 
their  party  the  same  evening.  They  defeated 
the  Spaniards  at  Heiligerlee,  or  Heyligerlee, 
May  23,  1568,  but  later  in  the  year  were  them- 
selves compelled,  by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  to  dis- 
band their  forces.  In  1570  they  petitioned  the 
diet  of  Spires  against  the  cruelties  of  the 
Spaniards,  and,  in  1571,  were  refused  asylum 
in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  England.  In  1572 
they  again  proved  victorious,  and  seized  Briel 
and  Flushing.  Rammekens,  Middleburg,  and 
Arnemuydeii  also  surrendered  to  them  in 
1573-4.  The  celebrated  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  was  a  member  of  this  party.  There 
were  also  the  Wild  Gueux,  or  Gueux  Sauvages, 


GUIANA. 


[    467    I 


GUINES 


a  band  of  Dutch  Protestants  driven  into  out- 
lawry and  plunder  by  Alva,  in  1568 ;  and  the 
Water  Gueux,  or  Beggars  of  the  Sea,  a  party  of 
privateers,  whocommeuced  their  ravages  in  1569. 

GUIANA,  or  GUYANA  (S.  America).— This 
country  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
Aug.,  1498,  and  visited  by  Vincent  Pinzon  in 
1500.  The  first  town,  St.  Thomas,  of  Guiana, 
was  founded  by  Diego  de  Ordas  in  1531,  and 
the  Dutch  established  their  settlement  of  New 
Zealand  in  1580.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  visited 
Guiana  in  1595,  and  commenced  his  explora- 
tion of  the  country  in  the  hope  of  discovering 
rich  gold-mines  in  1617.  Slave  labour  was  in- 
troduced in  1621.  The  three  colonies  of  Deme- 
rara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice  (q.  v.},  are  called 
British  Guiana  (q.  v.}.  The  first  French  settle- 
ments in  Guiana  were  formed  in  1633.  In  1809 
their  colony  was  seized  by  the  English  and 
Portuguese,  who  restored  it  to  France  in  1815. 
(See  SURINAM,  or  DUTCH  GUIANA  ;  and  CAYENNE, 
or  FRENCH  GUIANA.) 

GUIDES,  or  messengers,  introduced  into  the 
French  army  in  1774,  were  formed  into  a 
guard  by  Napoleon  I. 

GUIENNE,  or  GUYENNE  (France).— This 
province,  situated  to  the  north  of  Gascony, 
with  which  it  is  often  confounded,  comprised 
part  of  Aquitania,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties corrupted  into  Guienne.  Bordeaux  was 
its  capital.  What  was  termed  the  duchy  of 
Guienne  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  1152.  The  French  seized  it  in  1294, 
and  it  was  frequently  contested  until  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  France  in  1453. 

GUIGNES.— (See  GUINES.) 

GUILDFORD  (Surrey)  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  will  of  Alfred  the  Great,  who  bequeathed 
it  to  his  neighbour  Athelwald.  In  1036  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  murder  of  the  Norman  friends 
of  the  Saxon  atheling  Alfred,  by  order  of  God- 
win, Earl  of  Kent ;  and,  in  1216,  the  castle  was 
taken  by  the  French  dauphin  Louis.  The  town 
received  its  charter  of  incorporation  from  Ed- 
ward III.,  in  1337.  Its  first  charitable  institu- 
tion was  founded  in  1078,  the  Royal  Grammar 
School  in  1509,  Archbishop  Abbot's  Hospital  in 
1619,  the  market-house  in  1758,  the  prison  was 
finished  in  1822,  and  the  Guildford  Institution 
was  founded  in  1844. 

GUILDHALL  (London)  was  founded  in  1411, 
and  the  kitchen  was  erected  in  1501.  It  suf- 
fered much  from  the  great  fire  of  1666,  and  was 
rebuilt  in  1669,  though  the  King  Street  front 
was  not  restored  till  1789.  The  statues  of  Gog 
and  Magog  were  set  up  in  the  hall  in  1708.  The 
allied  sovereigns  were  entertained  at  a  civic 
banquet,  June  18,  1814 ;  and  the  Emperor  and 
Empress  of  the  French  received  a  similar  com- 
pliment, April  19,  1855.  The  new  roof  was 
commenced  June  22,  1864. 

GUILD  OF  LITERATURE  AND  ART.— 
This  institution,  for  the  relief  of  indigent  men 
of  letters  and  artists,  originated  in  1851,  when 
Sir  Edward  Bulwer  Lytton's  comedy,  "  Not  so 
Bad  as  we  Seem,"  was  performed,  in  London 
and  the  provinces,  by  a  distinguished  party  of 
amateurs,  who  devoted  the  proceeds  to  its 
establishment.  The  first  representation  took 
place  at  Devonshire  House,  in  the  presence  of 
Queen  Victoria,  May  16,  1851,  and  the  receipts 


of  this  and  subsequent  performances  having 
been  allowed  to  accumulate,  three  houses  were 
erected  near  Stevenage,  in  Hertfordshire,  on 
ground  presented  by  Sir  Edward  Bulwer 
Lytton,  which  were  inaugurated  Saturday, 
July  29,  1865. 

GUILDS.— English  guilds  were  originally 
political  in  their  nature,  arising  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  custom  of  frank-pledges  ;  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  trade  guilds  (see  COMPANIES) 
being  the  Gilda  Theutonicorum,  or  Steelyard 
Merchants,  who  were  established  in  England 
before  967.  The  Knigten  guild  existed  in  the 
reign  of  Edgar  (957 — 975),  and  received  a  char- 
ter from  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042 — 1066). 
These  are  the  most  important  of  the  ancient 
guilds,  though  there  were  many  others.  The 
substitution  of  the  term  livery  company  for 
that  of  guild  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward III.  (1327 — 1377). 

GUILLOTINE.— This  instrument  of  decapi- 
tation, at  first  called  the  Louison,  was  invented, 
in  1785,  by  Joseph  Ignace  Guillotin,  a  cele- 
brated French  physician.  It  was  first  employed 
April  25,  1792.  The  inventor  was  himself 
condemned  to  suffer  by  this  machine,  but  was 
delivered  by  the  counter  revolution  of  9  Ther- 
midor  (July  27),  1794,  and  he  died  at  Paris, 
May  26,  1814. 

GUIMARAENS  (Portugal),  founded  B.C.  500, 
was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  in  1 107.  The 
cathedral  was  founded  in  1385. 

GUINEA  (Africa).— This  name  is  applied  to 
the  whole  west  coast  of  Africa,  between  Cape 
Verga  on  the  north  and  Cape  Negro  on  the 
south.  It  was  first  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1446,  but  the  coast  was  not  explored 
till  1484.  The  English  first  traded  with  Guinea 
in  1530.  Some  adventurers,  who  renewed  their 
attempts  in  1553,  died  from  the  unhealthy 
climate,  without  effecting  any  negotiations.  A 
second  expedition  was  equipped  in  1554,  which 
met  with  better  success,  and  in  1588  a  company 
was  chartered  by  Queen  Elizabeth  for  the  sole 
object  of  trading  to  this  country. 

GUINEAS.— So  called  because  they  were 
originally  made  of  gold  brought  f  rom  the  coast 
of  Guinea.  Guineas  and  half-guineas  were  first 
struck  in  1663,  the  device  being  an  elephant,  to 
signify  the  country  whence  the  gold  was 
brought.  Quarter-guineas  were  first  coined  in 
1718.  The  last  coinage  of  guineas  took  place  in 
1813.  The  value  of  this  coin  varied  consider- 
ably at  different  periods.  When  first  struck 
it  was  worth  208.  ;  but  in  1695  it  had  increased 
to  305.  It  was  reduced  to  258.  March  25,  1696, 
and  to  22S.  April  10,  1697.  Its  value  was  fixed 
at  2is.  by  a  proclamation  of  Dec.  22,  1717. 
The  guinea  was  gradually  withdrawn,  after  the 
introduction  of  sovereigns  in  1817. 

GUINEGATE  (Battle).— This  name  is  given 
to  two  battles.  The  first,  in  which  the  Flemings 
defeated  the  French,  was  fought  at  Guinegate, 
near  Courtrai,  July  n,  1302.  In  the  second, 
Henry  VIII.,  at  the  head  of  an  English  army, 
defeated  the  French,  Aug.  16,  1513.  Both  are 
also  called  the  Battle  of  the  Spurs. 

GUINES,  GUIGNES,  or  GUISNES  (France). 
— It  was  near  this  town,  in  Picardy,  that 
Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  met  in  1520,  at  the 
celebrated  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  (q.v.). 


GUISBOROUGH 


[    468    ] 


GUY'S 


GUISBOROUGII,  or  GUILSBOROUGH 
(Yorkshire:. — This  ancient  town,  supposed 
to  be  the  Urbs  Caluvium  of  the  Romans,  was 
the  seat  of  a  priory  of  Austin  canons  founded 
by  Robert  de  Brus  in  1129,  and  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1289.  The  first  alum  works  established 
in  England  were  erected  here  by  Sir  Thomas 
Chaloner.  (See  ALUM.)  The  town-hall  waa> 
built  in  1821,  and  the  mineral  springs  were 
discovered  in  1822. 

GUITAR.— This,  the  national  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  Spaniards,  who  regard  it  as  of 
equal  antiquity  to  the  harp,  was  exceedingly 
popular  in  France  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  (1643 — 1715).  A  guitar  with  12 
strings  was  invented  by  Vanhek,  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  at  Paris,  in  1773. 

GUJERAT.— (See  GOOJERAT.) 

GULISTAN.— This  peace  between  Persia  and 
Russia  was  concluded  Oct.  12,  1813.  Persia 
ceded  to  Russia  a  number  of  governments  in 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  whole  of  Daghistan, 
at  the  same  time  renouncing  all  claims  to 
Georgia,  Mingrelia,  and  other  provinces. 

GULOWLIE.—  (See  CALPEE.) 

GUMBINNEN  (Prussia).  —  Frederick 
William  I.  erected  this  small  village  into  a 
town  in  1732. 

GUN.  —  The  Gunmakers'  Company  was  in- 
corporated in  1638.  The  Armstrong  gun, 
invented  by  Sir  William  Armstrong,  was 
adopted  by  the  British  artillery  service,  Feb. 
26,  1859.  (See  ARTILLERY,  BREECH-LOADING 
GUNS,  CANNON,  &c.) 

GUN-COTTON.  —  In  1846  Schonbein  exhi- 
bited specimens  of  this  material  to  the  British 
Association  at  Southampton  ;  but  the  method 
of  its  preparation  was  not  published  till  the 
enrolment  of  the  patent  in  April,  1847.  It  was 
found  inapplicable  to  military  and  mining 
purposes,  owing  to  its  liability  to  spontaneous 
combustion,  but  has  proved  of  great  service  in 
photography.  (See  COLLODION.) 

GUNDAMUCK  (Battle).  —  The  remnant  of 
the  Cabul  army,  consisting  of  20  officers  and  45 
European  soldiers,  under  Major  Griffiths,  were 
attacked  at  this  village  in  Affghanistan,  by  a 
force  of  Affghans  numbering  about  a  hundred 
to  one,  Jan.  13,  1842,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Dr.  Brydon,  all  massacred. 

GUNMAKERS  were  incorporated  in  1638. 

GUNPOWDER.— This  substance,  known  to 
the  Chinese  at  a  very  early  period,  appears  to 
have  been  employed  against  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great),  by  some  Hindoo  tribes,  B.C.  355, 
and  to  have  been  applied  to  military  purposes 
in  China  in  85.  It  is  described  in  an  Arabic 
M3.  of  the  year  1249,  and  also  in  the  works  of 
Roger  Bacon  (1214 — June  n,  1292),  who  is 
regarded  by  some  as  the  author  of  the  inven- 
tion, though  other  authorities  ascribe  it  to  the 
German  monk  Barthold  Schwartz,  in  1320.  Its 
exportation  from  England  was  prohibited  by 
Henry  V.  in  1414,  and  in  1625  its  mamifacture 
was  monopolized  by  Charles  I.  Restrictions 
as  to  the  quantity  manufactured  at  a  time,  or 
stored  in  one  place,  were  imposed  by  12  Geo.III. 
c.  61  (1772),  which  prohibited  dealers  from 
keeping  a  stock  of  more  than  200 Ib.  By  16  and 
17  Viet.  c.  107,  s.  45  (Aug  20,  1853),  the  expor- 
tation of  gunpowder  may  at  any  time  be  pro- 


bited  by  an  order  in  council.  Experiments, 
with  a  view  to  rendering  gunpowder  non-ex- 
plosive, were  made  by  Piobert,  in  France,  in. 
835,  and  by  Fadeieff,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
at  St.  Petersburgh,  between  1840  and  1844. 
Gale  completed,  at  Westminster,  a  series  of 
public  demonstrations  of  his  process  for 
securing  the  same  result  by  mixing  the  gun- 
powder with  finely  powdered  glass,  from  which 
it  is  sifted  before  use,  Wednesday,  Aug.  2, 
1865.  (See  EXPLOSIONS.) 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.  — This  conspiracy  of 
the  Papists,  to  destroy  the  king,  lords,  and 
commons,  while  assembled  in  Parliament,  by 
means  of  gunpowder,  was  contrived  by  Robert 
Catesby,  in  the  spring  of  1604.  He  was  joined 
by  Thomas  Winter,  who,  April  22,  secured  the 
co-operation  of  Guy  Fawkes,  a  native  of  York- 
shire, and  a  soldier  of  fortune.  In  furtherance 
of  his  scheme,  Catesby  hired  a  house  close  to 
the  old  palace  of  Westminster,  under  which 
he  began  to  mine  Dec.  n.  They  were,  how- 
ever, compelled  to  relinqxiish  their  mining; 
but  hearing  that  a  cellar  under  the  house  was 
to  let,  Catesby  hired  it,  March  25,  1605.  Thirty 
barrels  and  two  hogsheads  of  gunpowder  were 
concealed  here  under  sticks  and  fagots.  Every- 
thing was  prepared  for  the  execution  of  the 
plot,  which  was  arranged  for  Nov.  5,  on  which 
day  Parliament  was  to  be  reopened,  when  an 
anonymous  letter,  sent  to  Lord  Monteagle, 
Oct.  26,  to  warn  him,  led  to  the  disclosure  of 
the  whole  affair.  This  letter  was  laid  before 
James  I.,  Nov.  i,  and  he  at  once  inferred  that 
the  threatened  danger  was  from  gunpowder, 
and  ordered  that  the  cellars  beneath  the  Parlia- 
ment house  should  be  searched.  This  was  done 
on  the  evening  of  Nov.  4,  when  Fawkes  was  dis- 
covered in  charge  of  the  vault,  with  dark 
lantern  and  matches,  ready  to  fire  the  mine. 
The  other  conspirators  fled  to  Holbeach  House, 
in  Worcestershire,  where  they  were  attacked 
Nov.  8.  Catesby,  Percy,  and  the  two  Wrights 
fell  sword  in  hand,  and  the  others  were  made 
prisoners.  Their  trial  commenced  Jan.  27, 
1606,  and  Digby,  Robert  Winter,  Grant,  and 
Bates  were  executed  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard, 
Jan.  30.  Thomas  Winter,  Rookwood,  Keys, 
and  Guy  Fawkes  suffered  in  Old  Palace  Yard, 
Westminster,  Jan  31.  Henry  Garnet,  the 
Jesuit,  was  tried  March  28,  and  executed  at  St. 
Paul's  as  an  accessory,  May  3. 

GUNS  (Hungary).  —  Soliman  I.  (the 
Magnificent),  at  the  head  of  a  large  Turkish 
army,  laid  siege  to  this  town  Aug.  i,  1532.  The 
defenders,  who  only  numbered  about  700  men, 
of  whom  about  30  wore  regular  troops,  kept 
him  in  check  for  more  than  three  weeks, 
repelling  n  assaults,  and  ultimately  forcing 
the  enemy  to  retire. 

GUTTA  PERCHA.— The  properties  of  this 
Malayan  tree  were  known  to  the  natives  of 
Malacca  and  the  neighbouring  countries,  long 
before  they  were  discovered  by  Europeans. 
The  tree  was  first  described  by  Dr.  Montgo- 
merie,  of  Bengal,  in  1842,  and  in  1843  Dr. 
D' Almeida  exhibited  a  specimen  of  its  inspis- 
sated juice  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts. 

GUY'S  HOSPITAL  (London).— This  insti- 
tution, founded  in  1722  by  Thomas  Guy,  book- 
seller, who  devoted  ,£18,793  *6s.  IC^-  t°  the 


GUZERAT 


[    469 


HABSBURG 


erection  of  the  building,  and  ^219,499  os.  4^. 
to  its  endowment,  received  the  first  patient 
Jan.  6,  1725,  its  founder  having  died  Dec.  17, 
1724.  His  statue  was  erected  in  the  court 
Feb.  ii,  1734.  The  front  of  the  building  was 
new-faced  in  1778,  and  in  1829  its  funds  were 
increased  by  a  legacy  of  ^196,115,  bequeathed 
by  Hunt,  of  Petersham. 

GUZERAT.— (See  GOOJERAT.) 

GWALIOR.— (See  GUALIOB.) 

GYMNASIUM.  —  According  to  Plato,  the 
Lacedaemonians  established  the  first  gymna- 
sium, and  during  the  classical  sera  every  im- 
portant town  possessed  a  similar  institution, 
where  the  young  practised  racing,  leaping, 
wrestling,  boxing,  &c.  Solon  compiled  a 
code  of  laws  especially  for  the  regulation  of 
gymnasia,  about  B.C.  594.  The  first  French 
gymnasium,  for  the  instruction  of  the  anny 
in  physical  exercises,  was  founded  at  Paris  in 
1818. 

GYMNASTICS,  practised  in  ancient  times, 
were  revived  in  Prussia  in  1806,  and  by  a 
decree  of  the  French  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion, of  March  13,  1854,  they  form  a  regular 
branch  of  instruction  in  all  the  royal  colleges 
of  the  empire. 

GYMNOSOPHIT^:,  GYMNOSOPHISTS,  or 
NAKED  SAGES.  —  The  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  a  sect  of  Hindoo  philosophers  who 
were  remarkable  for  the  asceticism  of  their 
manners  and  doctrines.  They  wore  no  cloth- 
ing, believed  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul, 
and  exhibited  the  most  surprising  contempt 
of  death.  Calanus  burned  himself  to  death,  in 
the  presence  of  Alexander  the  Great,  about 
B.C.  325. 

GYPSIES,  for  a  long  period  supposed  to  be 
of  Egyptian  origin,  their  very  name  being  a 
corruption  of  the  word  Egyptians,  are  by  some 
supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Hindoo 
Pariahs  who  were  exiled  from  their  country 
by  Tamerlane  at  the  commencement  of  the 
i5th  century.  Other  authorities  say  they  left 
Asia  for  Europe  before  the  i2th  century.  They 
are  noticed  as  Ishmaelites  jn  a  paraphrase  of 
the  book  of  Genesis,  written  by  an  Austrian 
monk  in  1122.  They  first  appeared  in  the 
Danubian  provinces  in  1417,  in  Switzerland  in 
1418,  in  Italy  in  1422,  in  France  in  1427,  in 
Spain  in  1447,  in  England  about  1512,  and  in 
Sweden  in  1514.  By  22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10  (1530), 
they  were  ordered  to  quit  the  country,  and 
severe  ordinances  were  also  issued  against 
them  by  i  &  2  Phil.  &  Mary  c.  4  (1554),  and 
by  5  Eliz.  c.  20  (1562),  which  made  their  con- 
tinuance in  England  for  more  than  a  month 
a  capital  felony.  In  1560  they  were  expelled 
from  France,  and  in  1591  from  Spain ;  but,  in 
spite  of  legislative  enactments,  they  still  exist 
in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  The  oppressive 
statutes  against  them  in  this  country  were 
repealed  by  23  Geo.  III.  c.  51  (1783),  by  i  Geo. 
IV.  c.  116  (July  25,  1820),  and  by  19  &  20  Viet. 
c.  64  (July  21,  1856).  Borrow  commenced  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Rommany 
dialect  (the  language  of  the  gypsies)  in  1836. 

GYROSCOPE.— This  instrument,  for  exhi- 
biting the  peculiarities  of  rotatory  motion,  was 
invented  by  Fessel,  of  Cologne,  and  described 
by  Foucault  to  the  Academy  of  Paris  in  Sep., 


1852.  The  principle  of  its  action  was  dis- 
covered by  Frisi  as  early  as  1750.  It  has  been 
applied  to  the  illustration  of  the  diurnal 
rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  and  has  been 
improved  by  Professors  Plucker  and  Wheat- 
stone. 


H. 

HAARLEM,  or  HAERLEM  (Holland).— This 
town  existed  in  the  time  of  Theodore  I.,  Count 
of  Holland,  who  began  to  reign  in  913.  The 
church  of  St.  Bavon  was  erected  by  Albert  of 
Bavaria  in  1372.  Haarlem  was  besieged  by 
the  Spaniards,  under  the  Duke  of  Alva,  from 
Dec.,  1572,  to  July  12,  1573,  when  it  sur- 
rendered. The  great  organ  was  built  by 
Christian  Miiller,  of  Amsterdam,  in  1738.  An 
industrial  exhibition  was  opened  July  4,  1825. 
The  lake  of  Haarlem  was  drained  between 
1839  and  1851. 

HABAKKUK.— This  prophecy,  stated  by  a 
legend  to  have  been  the  production  of  the  son 
of  the  Shunammite  woman  restored  to  life  by 
Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  34),  B.C.  895,  usually  ascribed 
to  a  period  ranging  from  B.C.  650  to  B.C.  627,  is 
referred  by  Delitzsch  to  B.C.  630  or  629.  Other 
authorities  suppose  that  Habakkuk  attended 
Daniel  during  his  residence  at  Babylon,  carry- 
ing food  to  him  while  a  prisoner  in  the  lions' 
den,  and  that  he  subsequently  returned  to 
Judaea  and  died  at  his  own  farm,  B.C.  538. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.— A  writ  at  common  law, 
issued  for  various  purposes  connected  with  the 
detention  of  prisoners.  By  2  Hen.  V.  s.  i,  c.  2 
(1414),  there  was  no  liberation  under  such  a 
writ  when  the  prisoner  was  confuted  on  judg- 
ment at  another's  suit.  Felons  and  murderers 
were  allowed  to  be  tried  in  the  counties  where 
their  offences  were  committed,  by  6  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  6  (1514).  By  16  Charles  I.  c.  10,  s.  8  (1640), 
it  was  enacted  that  a  person  committed  by  the 
king,  or  by  his  privy  council,  should  be  entitled 
to  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  The  celebrated 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  31  Charles  II.  c.  2  (May  27, 
1679),  specifies  the  modes  of  obtaining  this 
writ,  and  renders  the  detention  of  an  English 
subject  for  any  considerable  time  illegal,  un- 
less the  law  has  pronounced  the  detention 
just.  This  act  cannot  be  suspended,  except  by 
authority  of  Parliament.  (See  ENGLAND  and 
IRELAND.)  The  mode  of  procedure  was  simpli- 
fied and  improved  by  56  Geo.  III.  c.  100  (July, 
1816).  The  issue  of  writs  of  habeas  corpus  out 
of  England  is  regulated  by  25  Viet.  c.  20  (May 
16,  1862). 

HABERDASHERS'  COMPANY  (London) 
was  incorporated  in  1447,  and  received  their 
coat  of  arms  Nov.  8,  1570.  The  original  hall 
and  laws  of  the  association  were  destroyed  by 
the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  in  consequence  of  which 
another  hall  was  erected  in  1667.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Sep.  19,  1864.  New  rules  were 
adopted  in  1675.  They  were  also  called  hosiers 
and  milliners. 

HABSBURG,  or  HAPSBURG  (Switzerland). 
— This  castle  in  Aargau,  the  seat  of  the  ances- 
tors of  the  house  of  Austria,  founded  in  1020, 


HACKNEY 


[    470    3 


HAGUE 


was  destroyed  in  1415.  The  ruins  were  visited 
by  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  in  1815. 

HACKNEY  COACHES.— The  first  vehicle  of 
this  kind  plied  in  London  in  1625.  Capt. 
Baily  placed  four  hackney  coaches,  to  ply  for 
hire,  at  the  Maypole,  in  the  Strand,  in  1634. 
Their  number  was  subsequently  increased, 
and  all  restrictions  on  this  point  were  remove* 
by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22,  s.  9  (Sep.  22,  1831). 
The  regulations  respecting  hackney  coaches 
are  embodied  in  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  33  (June  28, 
1853),  and  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  127  (Aug.  20,  1853). 

The  Lost-and- Found  Office,  for  recovery  of 

goods  left  in  hackney  coaches,  was  established 
by  55  Geo.  III.  c.  159,  s.  9  (July  n,  1815). 

HADDINGTON  (Scotland),  created  a  burgh 
by  David  I.  (1124 — 1153),  was  destroyed  by 
John,  King  of  England,  in  Jan.,  1216,  and, 
having  been  rebuilt,  was  again  burned  in  1244. 
Edward  III.  burned  it  in  1355.  The  English 
took  possession  of  Haddington  in  1544,  and 
again  in  1548,  and  were  compelled  to  retire  in 
Oct.,  1549. 

HADFIELD'S  ATTEMPT.— James  Hadfield, 
a  working  silversmith,  at  one  time  a  private  of 
the  isth  Light  Dragoons,  fired  a  pistol  from 
the  pit  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre  at  George  III., 
who  was  occupying  the  royal  box,  May  15, 
1800.  He  disavowed  any  intention  of  hurting 
the  king,  declaring  that  he  had  committed  the 
crime  as  the  readiest  means  of  escaping  from 
life.  He  was  tried  for  high  treason,  June  26, 
and  acquitted  on  the  ground  of  insanity. 

HADKIAXOPLE  Uattlos  .—The  most  cele- 
brated was  fought  July  3,  323,  between  Con- 
stantine  and  Licinius,  during  the  civil  wars 
that  followed  the  abdication  of  Diocletian,  in 
which  the  latter  was  defeated.  It  was  in  this 
action  that  Constantine  is  said  to  have  thrown 
himself  into  the  river  Hebrus  with  only  12 
horsemen,  and  to  have  vanquished  an  army  of 
150,000  men. Near  this  city  Valens  was  de- 
feated by  the  Goths,  with  immense  slaughter, 
Aug-  9.  378.  Gibbon  says  this  battle,  in  which 
the  Emperor  Valens  perished,  "equalled  in 
actual  loss,  and  far  surpassed  in  the  fatal  con- 
sequences, the  misfortune  which  Rome  had 
formerly  sustained  in  the  fields  of  Cannaj." 

HADRIANOPLE  (European  Turkey).— This 
city  is  referred  to  by  ancient  authors  under  the 
name  of  Uscudama.  It  received  its  present 
title  from  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  by  whom  it 
was  restored  and  raised  to  considerable  splen- 
dour. Hadrianople  was  erected  into  a  bishopric 
by  Constantine  I.  Its  first  bishop  died  in 
340.  It  withstood  a  siege  by  the  Goths  in 
378,  and  surrendered  to  the  Bulgarians  in  813. 
Frederick  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  stormed  it 
in  1190,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  under 
Amurath  I.,  in  1360.  In  1366  it  became  the 
capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  which  rank  it 
retained  until  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Mohammedans  in  1453.  The  Russians 
effected  an  entry  Aug.  20,  1829,  and  retained 
possession  till  Sep.  14.  The  city  suffered 
severely  from  the  plague  in  1836  and  1837. 
The  Turks  call  it  Edreneh,  and  it  is  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  Adrianople. 

HADRIANOPLE  (Treaty),  signed  Sep.  2, 
(O.  S.)  14,  (N.  S.)  1829,  restored  the  Danubian 
Principalities  to  the  Porte  and  confirmed  all 


privileges  granted  by  former  treaties.  Russia 
obtained  the  right  of  commerce  throughout 
the  Turkish  empire,  with  liberty  to  pass  the 
Dardanelles ;  and  Turkey  agreed  to  pay 
1,500,000  Dutch  ducats  as  indemnity  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war,  and  10,000,000  ducats 
as  compensation  for  losses  sustained  by  Rus- 
sian merchants. 

HADRIAN'S  WALL.— This  Roman  fortifi- 
cation, of  which  some  remains  still  exist,  ex- 
tended from  the  Solway  Frith  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyne,  and  consisted  of  a  stone  wall  and 
parallel  earthen  rampart,  about  60  feet  apart. 
Spartianus  declares  that  Hadrian  built  a  wall 
80  miles  long,  dividing  the  Romans  from  the 
barbarians,  and  that  Severus  constructed  a 
wall  across  the  island.  The  generally  received 
opinion,  therefore,  is,  that  Hadrian  built  the 
earthen  rampart  (121),  and  that  Severus,  to 
strengthen  it,  constructed  the  stone  wall  (208- 
210).  Bruce,  in  his  work  on  the  Roman  wall, 
contends  that  both  the  earthen  rampart  and 
the  stone  wall  were  constructed  by  Hadrian, 
and  that  though  Severus  may  have  repaired 
this  fortification,  he  built  no  wall  himself. 
This  is  also  called  the  Picts'  wall. 

HAGERSTOWN  (United  States).— This  town 
of  Maryland  was  occupied  by  the  Confederates 
under  Gen.  Lee,  Sep.  10, 1862,  and  Julys,  1864. 

HAGGAI. — This  prophecy  was  delivered  by 
Haggai,  B.C.  520,  being  the  second  year  of 
Darius  I.  (Hystaspes;.  The  author,  according 
to  tradition,  was  born  in  Babylon,  of  Jewish 
parents. 

HAGIOGRAPHA.— (See  APOCHRYPHA.) 

HAGUE  (Holland).— The  Binnenhof,  or 
Court  of  Holland,  was  founded  in  1249.  The 
town  originated  in  the  erection  of  a  hunting- 
lodge  of  the  counts  of  Holland  in  1250.  In 
1528  it  was  pillaged  by  Maerten  van  Rossum, 
and  in  1580  was  the  scene  of  the  abjuration  of 
Spanish  supremacy  by  the  States-General,  and 
was  made  the  residence  of  the  stadtholder,  and 
the  centre  of  government.  The  cannon-foundry 
was  established  in  1 668.  The  brothers  Cornelius 
and  John  de  Witt  were  literally  torn  to  pieces 
by  the  enraged  populace,  July  24,  1672.  The 
city  was  seized  by  the  French,  arid  the  stadt- 
holder compelled  to  take  refuge  in  England, 
Jan.  19,  1795.  In  1806,  Napoleon  I.  transferred 
the  title  of  capital  to  Amsterdam ;  but  the 
government  was  restored  to  the  Hague  on  its 
evacuation  by  the  French  in  1813. 

HAGUE  (Treaties).— The  first  convention  of 
the  Hague,  between  England,  France,  and 
Holland,  to  enforce  the  peace  of  Roskild,  was 
signed  May  21,  1659  '•>  the  second  convention, 
to  which  France  was  not  a  party,  in  July,  1659; 
and  the  third,  of  which  the  conditions  were 

the  same  as  the  first,  Aug.  14,  1659. The 

alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  the  States, 
signed  at  the  Hague,  Jan.  23,  1668,  received 
the  name  of  the  Triple  Alliance  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Sweden,  April  25,  1668. A  treaty 

between  Portugal  and  Holland  was  signed 

here,  May  7,  1669.- An  alliance  between  the 

emperor,  Holland,  and  Spain,  against  France, 

was  signed  July  25,  1672. A  20  years' truce 

was  signed  here,  June  29,  1684. A  congress 

of  sovereigns  assembled  here  in  1690  and  in 
1691,  to  resist  French  encroachments.  William 


HAGUENAU 


HALIFAX 


III.  left  England,  Jan.  16,  to  attend,  returning 
April  13. The  Grand  Alliance  (q.v.)  was  re- 
newed here  in  1696. The  Second  Triple 

Alliance  (q.  v.)  was  concluded  here,  Jan.  4, 

1717. The  alliance  of  Hanover  (q.  v.)  was 

signed  at  the  Hague,  Aug.  9,  1726. Great 

Britain,  Austria,  the  States-General,  and  Sar- 
dinia concluded  a  convention  here  for  the  pro- 
secution of  the  war  against  France  and  Spain, 

Jan.  26,  1748. The  French  concluded  a  treaty 

with  the  Dutch  here,  May  16,  1795. 

HAGUENAU  (France),  in  Alsace,  was 
founded  by  Frederick  I.  in  1164.  Having 
withstood  many  sieges,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Swedes  in  1632,  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed in  1675.  The  Imperialists  captured  it 
in  1705,  and  the  French  regained  possession  in 
1706.  The  Austrians  were  repulsed  in  severe 
battles  around  Haguenau,  Oct.  17  and  Dec.  22, 
*793- 

HAGULSTAD.— (See  HEXHAM.) 

HAILEYBURY  COLLEGE  (Hertfordshire) 
was  founded  by  the  East  India  Company  for 
the  education  of  cadets.  The  first  stone  was 
laid  May  12,  1806,  and  the  building  was  com- 
pleted in  April,  1809.  The  college  was  closed 

mHAINAULT,  or  HAINAUT  (Belgium),  was 
governed  by  a  regular  succession  of  counts 
from  the  time  of  Regnier  I.,  who  began  to 
reign  about  860.  In  1436  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  by  the  treaties  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7, 
1659,  and  of  Nimeguen,  Sep.  17, 1678,  part  was 
ceded  to  France,  and  forms  the  province  of 
French  Hainault.  In  1793  the  rest  of  the  ter- 
ritory was  surrendered  to  France,  and  formed 
into  the  department  of  Jemmapes.  In  1814  it 
was  allotted  to  the  Low  Countries,  and  in  1830 
was  incorporated  with  Belgium. 

HAINAULT  FOREST  (Essex),  which  owed 
its  chief  celebrity  to  the  Fairlop  oak  (q.v.), 
was  disafforested  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  43  (Aug.  i, 
1851). 

HAIR.— The  Egyptians  shaved  the  head,  but 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  esteemed  the  hair 
of  such  honour  that  they  offered  it  to  the 
gods  in  gratitude  for  escape  from  shipwreck. 
Curling  with  irons  was  practised  by  females 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  by  both 
sexes  among  the  Phrygians.  The  early  Greek 
Christians  offered  the  hair  to  God.  Long  hair 
was  esteemed  by  the  Goths  ;  but  the  English 
of  the  gth  and  icth  centuries  wore  it  short. 
The  Danes  and  Normans  wore  it  long  ;  but  in 
the  1 4th,  i sth,  and  i6th  centuries,  it  was  cut 
short.  Wigs  became  common  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. Strange  fashions  of  dressing  ladies'  hair 
in  the  i8th  century  began  about  1760,  mode- 
rated towards  1790,  and  had  nearly  declined 
before  1800. 

HAIR-POWDER.— Gold-dust  was  occasion- 
ally used  by  the  ancients  for  this  purpose,  but 
the  usual  expedient  was  to  dye  the  hair. 
According  to  Josephus,  King  Solomon  was  pre- 
ceded by  40  pages,  whose  hair  was  powdered 
with  gold-dust.  Powder  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  by  Mary  de  Medicis.  It  is  men- 
tioned by  L'Etoile  in  1593.  The  hair-powder 
tax,  proposed  by  Pitt,  was  imposed  by  35  Geo. 
HI.  c.  49  (April  30,  1795). 


HAIRUMBO.— (See  CACHAR.) 

HAKODADI,  orHOKODATE  (Japan).— This 
town  was  ceded  to  the  Tycoon  by  the  Prince  of 
Matsumai,  in  1854.  By  a  convention  signed  at 
Nagasaki,  Oct.  14,  1854,  and  ratified  Oct.  9, 
1855,  it  was  opened  to  British  vessels  requiring 
water,  repairs,  &c.,  and  in  1858  became  the 
seat  of  a  Russian  consulate.  By  the  treaty  of 
Jeddo  (q.v.),  signed  Aug.  26, 1858,  it  was  opened 
to  foreign  commerce  from  July  i,  1859.  A 
British  consulate  was  established  Oct.  15, 

1  HAKLUYT'S  ISLAND  (Polar  Seas)  was  dis- 
covered by  Baffin  in  1616. 

HAKLUYT  SOCIETY,  named  after  Richard 
Hakluyt  (1553 — 1616),  celebrated  for  his  labours 
in  collecting  the  materials  for  a  history  of 
British  voyages  and  discoveries,  was  instituted 
Dec.  15,  1846. 

HALBERTSTADT  (Saxony)  was  the  seat  of 
a  bishop  in  814.    The  cathedral,  commenced  in 
1235,  was  completed  in  1491.     The    diet   of 
Halbertstadt    elected    Otho    IV.  emperor   in 
1208.    It  was  annexed  to  Brandenburg  by  the 
treaty  of  Miinster,  in  1648.     The  French  cap- 
tured Halbertstadt  in  Jan.,  1758.  It  was  ceded 
to  France  in  1807,  and  was  restored  to  Prussia 
at  the  peace  of  1814-15. 
HALEB.—  (See  ALEPPO  and  CHALEB.) 
HALF-BOWL.— (See  BOWLS.) 
HALF-CROWN.— (See  COIN  and  CROWN.) 
HALIARTUS  (Battle),  fought  between  a  con- 
federacy of  Grecian  states  and  Lacedsemon, 
B.C.  395,  in  which  Lysander  was  slain. 

HALICARNASSUS  (Asia  Minor).— This 
town  of  Caria,  originally  called  Zephyria,  was 
of  Dorian  origin,  and  is  famous  as  the  birth- 
place of  Herodotus,  B.C.  484.  The  celebrated 
tomb  of  Mausolus  was  erected  B.C.  353,  and 
the  city  was  taken  by  Alexander  III.  (the 
Great)  B.C.  334.  It  was  a  bishopric  in  the 
primitive  Church,  and  sent  a  bishop  to  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  The  site  of  the 
ancient  town  was  discovered  in  1839  by  Lieut. 
Brock,  and  many  interesting  sculptures  have 
been  disinterred,  and  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum. 

HAL1DON,  or  HALIDOWN  HILL  (Battle). 
—Edward  III.  defeated  the  Scottish  forces  at 
this  place,  near  Berwick,  July  19,  1333,  and 
the  town  surrendered  July  20.  The  Regent 
Douglas  was  killed. 

HALIFAX  (Nova  Scotia)  was  settled  in  1749 
by  adventurers  from  England,  who  named  it 
after  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  First  Commissioner 
of  Trade  and  Plantations.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  transferred  hither  from  Annapolis 
in  1750.  It  was  declared  a  free  port  in  1817. 
The  college  was  founded  in  1820. 
HALIFAX  (Yorkshire)  is  first  named  in  a 
-ant  of  the  1 2th  century,  and  was  a  seat  of 
;he  woollen  manufacture  as  early  as  1414.  In 
1443  the  town  numbered  only  13  houses,  which 
had  increased  in  1540  to  520.  The  free  gram- 
mar-school was  founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
Ji  1583.  Archbishop  Tillotson  was  born  here 
:n  1630.  Halifax  was  anciently  remarkable 
:or  possessing  the  right  of  executing  any  thief 
who  stole  property  of  the  value  of  thirteen 
pence  halfpenny  within  its  limits.  The  in- 
strument used  in  the  execution  resembled  the 


HALIFAX 


[     472     ] 


HAMBURG 


guillotine,  and  the  town  possessed  and  exer- 
cised this  right  from  about  1280  to  1650;  after 
which  there  is  no  record  of  its  use.  This  was 
called  the  Halifax  Gibbet  Law.  The  Piece 
Hall  was  erected  in  1779,  Trinity  Church  in 
1795,  the  gaol  in  1828,  the  infirmary  in  1836, 
and  the  general  cemetery  was  established 
in  1837.  The  People's  Park  was  presented  to 
the  town  by  F.  Crossley,  and  opened  in  Aug., 
1857.  The  new  town-hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
.£32,000,  was  formally  opened  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  Aug.  4,  1863.  A  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Prince  Albert  was  inaugurated  Sep. 

I7HALIFAX  ADMINISTRATION.— Immedi- 
ately after  the  accession  of  George  I.  the  Trea- 
sury was  placed  in  commission,  with  Lord, 
afterwards  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  at  the  head 
(Oct.  5,  1714).  The  office  of  Lord  High  Trea- 
surer has  not  been  revived.  The  ministry  was 
thus  constituted : — 

Treasury Lord  Halifax. 

Lord  Chancellor    ...  f   Lord'      afterwards      Earl 


Cowper. 
President  of  the  Council  .........  Earl  of  Nottingham. 


Marquis 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ......  Sir  K.  (>nslo\v.  Hart. 

Prin.-ipHl     Secretaries     of    f   Mr.,  afterwards  Knrl  Stnn- 
...........................  (.    hope.nndl.ordTowushcml. 

Admiralty   ...........................  Karl  of  Oxford. 

Secretary  at  War  ..................  Mr.  rnitcucy. 

Ordnance  ..............................  Duke  of  Marlborotigh. 

Paymaster-General  ............  {  "ftafrXT"*     "*    *' 

Hallam  states  that  Lord  Townshend  was  the 
actual  prime  minister.  The  Marquis  of  Wliar- 
ton  died  April  12,  and  the  Karl  of  Halifax 
May  19,  1715.  ISf.e  CARLISLE  ADMINISTRATION.) 

HALIFAX  GIBBET.—  (See  MAIDEN.) 

HALLE  (Saxony).  —  On  the  Saale,  was 
founded  in  the  gth  century,  and  was  erected 
into  a  city  by  Otho  II.  in  981.  St.  Ulrich's 
church  was  built  in  1339,  and  the  cathe- 
dral founded  in  1520.  The  university  was 
established  in  1694,  and  the  orphan-house 
in  1698.  A  battle  was  fought  here  between  the 
French  and  Prussians,  Oct.  17,  1806.  The  latter 
were  defeated,  and  Halle  was  seized  by  the 
French,  who  retained  it  till  1814,  when  it  was 
restored  to  Pmssia.  In  1815  the  university 
was  united  to  that  of  Wittenberg,  and  the 
building  for  the  incorporated  institution  was 
erected  in  the  suburbs  of  Halle  in  1834. 

HALLE  (Treaty).—  Between  the  Protestant 
princes  of  the  German  empire,  was  concluded 
at  Halle  in  1610. 

HALLELUJAH  VICTORY.  —  This  name 
was  given  to  a  victory  gained  by  some  newly- 
baptized  Britons  over  their  enemies  in  429, 
because  they  commenced  the  struggle  with 
loud  cries  of  "Hallelujah  !"  Germanus,  Bishop 
of  Auxerre,  was  their  leader  on  this  occasion. 

HALLEY'S  COMET.—  Halley  observed  the 
comet  in  1682,  and  compared  its  orbit  with 
those  of  the  comets  of  1531  and  1607,  which  he 
found  identical.  He  consequently  inferred 
that  these  were  only  three  appearances  of  the 
same  body,  and  announced  this  opinion  in 
1705.  Having  convinced  himself  of  the  truth 
of  his  theory  bj<  laborious  calculations,  he  pre- 
dicted that  it  would  again  appear  in  1759, 
which  proved  to  be  th 


HALOSCOPE.— This  optical  instrument,  for 
the  exhibition  of  the  phenomena  of  halo.s, 
parhelia,  &c.,  was  invented  by  Auguste  Bra- 
vais  (Aug.  23,  1811 — March  31,  1863),  who  pub- 
lished his  "  Memoires  sur  les  halos  et  les  ph6- 
nomenes  qui  les  accompagnent "  in  1847. 

HALYS  (Battle),-  between  the  Medes  and 
Lydians,  on  the  banks  of  this  river,  in  Asia 
"Minor,  was  interrupted  by  the  eclipse  of  Thales. 
Various  years  between  B.C.  625  and  B.C.  583  are 
assigned  as  the  date  of  this  eclipse.  Airy 
believes  it  to  have  occurred  May  28,  B.C.  584, 
and  Ideler  Sep.  30,  B.C.  610. 

HAM  (France). — Coins  were  'struck  in  this 
place,  on  the  Somme,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
(the Bald)  (840—877).  The  lordship  was  erected 
into  a  duchy  in  1407,  and  the  castle  was  built 
by  the  Count  of  St.  Pol  in  1470.  It  was  the 
prison  of  the  unpopular  ministers  of  Charles 
X.  in  1830,  and  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  1840, 
after  his  attempt  upon  Boulogne.  He  effected 
his  escape,  May  25,  1846. 

HAMADAN  (Persia),  occupying  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Ecbatana  (q.  r.),  was  taken  by 
Timour  in  the  i4_th  century,  and  by  Ahmed 
Pasha  of  Bagdad  in  1724. 

HAMADAXITES.— Arabian  princes  of  the 
tribe  of  Hamadan,  who  ruled  over  Mesopo- 
tamia from  892  to  1001. 

II  AMAH,  or  HAMATH  (Syria).— This  city, 
which  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  B.C.  1491, 
was  the  chief  place  in  Upper  Syria,  waged  war, 
under  its  king  Toi,  with  Hadadezer,  King  of 
Zobah,  B.C.  1040  (2  Sam.  viii.  10).  It  subse- 
quently owed  allegiance  to  Solomon,  who 
erected  "stone  cities"  here  (2  Chron.  viii.  4), 
B.C.  992 ;  but  on  his  death,  B.C.  975,  it  re- 
gained independence,  and  was  a  separate 
power  in  alliance  with  the  Syrians,  Hittites, 
and  Phoenicians,  B.C.  900.  It  was  subsequently 
seized  by  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings  xiv.  28),  about 
B.C.  825,  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians  under 
Sargon  (2  Kings  xviii.  34),  B.C.  721 — 704,  and 
never  recovered  its  former  importance.  Ha- 
rnah,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city,  was  visited  by  Burckhardt  in  1812. 

HAMBATO  (Ecuador)  suffered  severely  from 
an  eruption  of  Cotopaxi  in  1698,  and  from  an 
earthquake  in  1796. 

HAMBURG  (Germany)  was  founded  by 
Charlemagne  in  809,  and  speedily  attained 
great  influence  on  account  of  its  commerce. 
In  1241  it  concluded  a  treaty  with  Llibeck, 
which  subsequently  became  the  basis  of  the 
Hanseatic  League ;  and  in  1269  it  received  the 
right  to  frame  its  own  laws  and  enforce  their 
execution.  A  provincial  council  of  ecclesias- 
tics met  here  in  1406.  The  town  extended  its 
borders  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Alster  in  1500. 
A  conference  between  the  Reformers  and  the 
Roman  Catholics  was  held  here  in  Oct.,  1526, 
and  the  people  adopted  the  Reformation  in 
1535.  In  1618  it  was  released  from  its  former 
subjection  to  the  dukes  of  Holstein.  The  bank 
was  founded  in  1619,  and  the  church  of  St. 
Michael  in  1751.  In  1768  the  city  was  finally 
released  from  all  subjection  to  the  house  of 
Holstein,  and  in  1770  the  emperor  confirmed 
its  right  to  the  rank  of  a  free  city.  In  1799 
the  Irish  rebel  Napper  Tandy  was  surren- 
dered to  the  British  Government  by  the  Ham- 


HAMILTON 


[     473     J 


HANGING 


burghgrs,  and  in  1801  the  city  was  occupied 
by  the  Danes.  In  1802  all  the  Hanoverian 
property  in  Hamburg  was  surrendered  to  the 
city,  which  suffered  severely,  in  consequence 
of  the  blockade  of  the  Elbe,  in  1803.-  French 
troops  occupied  Hamburg  from  1806  to  1809, 
and  in  1811  it  was  annexed  to  France  as  capital 
of  the  department  of  Bouches-d'Elbe.  The 
French  relinquished  Hamburg  in  1813  ;  it  re- 
gained its  old  constitution  May  26,  1814, 
and  joined  the  Germanic  Confederation  June 
8,  1815.  The  gymnasium  was  founded  in 
1840.  A  fire,  which  broke  out  May  5,  1842, 
destroyed  2,000  houses  and  property  to  the 
amount  of  ^7,000,000.  A  new  constitution 
was  adopted  in  1848,  and  in  1851  the  city  was 
occupied  by  an  Austrian  force.  An  inundation 
of  the  Elbe  laid  the  greater  part  of  the  city 
under  water,  Jan.  i,  1855.  A  commercial  panic 
occurred  in  1857.  The  Assembly  adopted  a 
constitution  based  on  the  Parliamentary  sys- 
tem, with  representative  government,  the 
members  of  which  are  elected  by  popular 
suffrage,  Aug.  n,  1859. 

HAMILTON  (Canada  West),  situated  on 
Burlington  Bay,  near  Lake  Ontario,  founded 
in  1813,  was  incorporated  in  1833.  The  Great 
Western  Railway  of  Canada,  connecting  it 
with  Toronto,  was  opened  Dec.  15,  1853. 

HAMILTONIAN  SYSTEM  of  teaching  lan- 
guages, first  employed  by  James  Hamilton, 
at  New  York,  in  1815,  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1823. 

HAMMERSMITH  (Middlesex).— This  village 
is  first  noticed  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  The  church  was  founded  in  1631. 
In  1656,  Hammersmith  was  the  scene  of  Miles 
Syndercomb's  conspiracy  against  Cromwell. 
The  suspension-bridge  was  founded  by  the 
Duke  of  Sussex,  May  7,  1825,  and  opened  to 
the  public  Oct.  6,  1827.  The  parish  of  Ham- 
mersmith was  separated  from  Fulham  in  1834. 

HAMPDEN  CLUBS  were  formed  throughout 
the  country  in  1816,  their  professed  object 
being  Parliamentaiy  reform.  A  report  of  a 
committee  of  both  houses,  presented  Feb.  9, 
1817,  declared  these  clubs  to  be  revolutionary. 

HAMPDEN  MEMORIAL.— (See  CHALGROVE.) 

HAMPTON  COURT  (Middlesex)  was  built 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  presented  by  him  to 
Henry  VIII.  in  1526.  Edward  VI.  was  born 
here,  Oct.  12,  1537 ;  and  his  mother,  Jane 
Seymour,  died  here  Oct.  24.  Charles  I.  was 
detained  a  prisoner  from  Aug.  24  to  Nov.  12, 
1647.  The  grand  front  of  the  palace  was  com- 
menced by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1690,  and 
completed  in  1694.  George  I.  fitted  up  the 
hall  as  a  theatre  in  1718.  The  celebrated  vine 
was  planted  in  1769,  and  the  public  were  per- 
mitted to  visit  the  place  in  Nov.,  1838. 

HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE,  be- 
tween the  Episcopalian  and  the  Presbyterian 
clergy,  assembled  at  Hampton  Court  Jan.  14, 
1604.  James  I.  gave  judgment  Jan.  18,  1604. 

HAMPTON  and  HAMPTON  ROADS  (United 
States). — This  town  of  Virginia,  settled  in  1705, 
is  situated  on  the  estuary  of  the  James  River, 
here  called  Hampton  Roads.  President  Lincoln 
and  Mr.  Seward  had  an  interview  with  Mr. 
Stephens,  Vice-President  of  the  Confederate 
States,  Judge  Campbell,  and  Mr.  Senator 


Hunter,  on  board  the  Federal  steamer  Hirer 
Queen,  in  this  channel,  Feb.  3,  1865. 

HANAPER  OFFICE.— An  obsolete  depart- 
ment of  the  Chancery  Court,  which  derived 
its  name  from  the  practice  of  keeping  writs 
in  a  hamper  or  basket,  "in  Hanaperio."  The 
emoluments  of  this  office  were  granted  by 
Charles  II.  to  Lord  George  Fitzroy  and  his 
male  descendants,  or,  failing  such  issue,  to  the 
Earl  of  Southampton  and  his  male  descendants, 
or  to  the  Earl  of  Euston,  afterwards  the  Duke 
of  Grafton,  these  noblemen  being  the  king's 
sons  by  the  Duchess  of  Cleveland.  The  Hanaper 
Office  was  abolished  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  103 
(Aug.  10,  1842). 

HANAU  (Germany),  in  Hesse-Cassel,  was 
erected  into  a  town  in  1303,  and  the  territory 
of  which  it  is  the  capital  was  made  a  county 
in  1429.  It  was  fortified  in  1528,  and  received 
a  large  addition  to  its  population  in  1593,  in 
consequence  of  the  numerous  Flemish  Pro- 
testant refugees.  The  new  town  was  founded 
about  1600.  Hanau  was  besieged  for  nine 
months  by  the  Imperialists,  under  Gen. 
Lamboi,  who  was  compelled  to  retire  June  13, 
1636.  Numerous  French  Protestants  settled 
in  1685.  In  1736  the  county  was  divided  be- 
tween Hesse-Cassel  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  but 
soon  passed  under  the  exclusive  power  of  the 
former.  It  was  erected  into  a  principality  in 
1803,  seized  by  the  French  in  1806,  united  to 
the  duchy  of  Frankfort  in  1809,  and  ultimately 
restored  to  Hesse  in  1813.  The  battle  of 
Hanau,  between  Napoleon  I.,  with  about 
70,000  men,  and  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian 
army,  under  Gen.  Wrede,  was  gained  by  the 
former,  Oct.  30,  1813.  The  loss  was  very 
severe  on  both  sides. 

HANBALITES,  a  branch  of  the  Sonnites 
(q.  v.),  founded  by  Ahmed  Ibn  Hanbal  in  the 
8th  century. 

HAND-CULVERIN.— (See  CTJLVERIN.) 

HANDEL  COMMEMORATIONS  or  FESTI- 
VALS.— The  first  musical  festival  in  memory 
of  this  composer  commenced  in  Westminster 
Abbey  May  26,  1784.  It  lasted  five  days.  The 
second  day's  performance  was  held  at  the 
Pantheon,  and  the  receipts  amounted  to 
11,842  guineas.  Similar  festivals  were  held 
on  various  occasions  ;  and  another  on  a  large 
scale  took  place  in  Westminster  Abbey,  June 
24,  26,  28,  and  July  i,  1834.  A  commemorative 
festival  (rehearsals  having  been  held  June 
15,  17,  and  19)  took  place  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
June  20,  22,  and  24,  1859.  The  chorus  and  band 
numbered  3,158  performers,  the  audience 
81,260  persons,  and  the  receipts  amounted  to 
about  ^30,000.  The  second  Handel  Festival  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  was  held  June  23,  25,  and  27, 
1862,  and  the  third  at  the  same  place,  June  26,- 
28,  and  30,  1865.  The  rehearsal  took  place 
June  23. 

HANDKERCHIEFS,  not  known  to  the 
Greeks,  were  used  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Laced  handkerchiefs 
came  into  fashion  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth. 

HANEFITES,  a  branch  of  the  Sonnites(?.v.), 
founded  by  Abu  Hanif a  in  the  8th  century. 

HANGING.— This  punishment  is  mentioned 
as  the  sentence  of  thieves,  in  a  charter  of  the 


HANGO 


[     474     ] 


HANSEATIC 


reign  of  Edgar  (959 — 975).  The  pirate  William 
Marsh,  executed  in  1241,  was  the  first  person 
who  was  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered.  The 
term  "  drawn "  meant  that  the  criminal  was 
drawn  on  a  hurdle  to  the  place  of  execution. 
The  old  custom  of  hanging  the  bodies  of  crimi- 
nals in  chains  was  abolished  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV. 
c.  26  (July  25,  1834). 

HAXGO  (Finland).— Peter  the  Great  gained 
his  first  naval  victory  over  the  Swedes  off 
this  village,  in  Finland,  July  27,  1714.  Here 
the  Russians  fired  on  an  English  flag  of  truce, 
killing  six  men,  and  wounding  several  more, 
June  5,  1855. 

1 1. \XG-TCHEOU-FOU,  or  HANG-CHOW- 
FO( )  China).— This  city,  described  as  the  most 
splendid,  literary,  and  religious  in  the  Celestial 
empire,  was,  during  the  visit  of  Marco  Polo 
(about  1278 —  1295),  the  capital  of  the  Mongol 
or  Yuen  dynasty.  It  was  evacuated  by  the 
Tae-pings  after  a  short  occupancy,  March  31, 
1864. 

1 1 A  XOVER  (Alliances).— A  union,  promoted 
by  George  I.,  Elector  of  Hanover  and  King  of 
England,  and  signed  at  llerrenhausen,  in 
Hanover,  Sep.  3,  1725,  by  England,  France, 
and  Prussia,  was  known  as  the  Alliance  of 
Hanover.  Holland  acceded  to  it  by  a  treaty 
signed  at  the  Hague,  Aug.  9,  1726  ;  Sweden, by 
the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  March  26,  1727  ;  and 
Denmark  by  the  treaty  of  Copenhagen,  April 
18,  1727.  Prussia  secretly  seceded  and  united 
herself  with  the  opposite  alliance  of  Vienna, 

in  1727. A  second  treaty,  bearing  the  same 

name,  was  concluded  between  George  II.  and 
Maria  Theresa,  June  24,  1741. 

HAX'nYKR  (Germany)  was  given  to  Her- 
mann Billing  by  Otho  I.  (the  Great),  970,  and 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Henry  the  Black, 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1107. 


A.D. 

1439.  The  town-hall  is  built. 

1533.   Lutheranism  is  adopted. 

1(141.   Tlic  city  of  Hanover  becomes  the  capital. 

l(v)2.    Hanover  is  made  an  electorate- . 

1714.  The    elector    succeeds  to    the    English    throne    as 

Geo, 

1780.  The  walls  of  the  city  nre  levelled. 
1795.  Hanover   is     included   in   the  convention    between 

France   and   Prussia    for  the  neutrality  of    the 

North  of  Germany. 

1801,  April  3.  It  is  occupied  by  the  Prussians. 
1803.  The  bishopric  of  Oenaborg  is  annexed. 
1803.  Napoleon  liuonaparte  sc-i/.es  Hanover. 
1805.  France  cedes  it  to  Prussia. 
1807.  It  is  ognin  seized  by  the  French. 
1810.  Part  of  the  country  is  annexed  to  Westphalia. 

1813.  It  is  restored  to  its"  riprhtful  owner.  George  III. 

1814.  Oct.  12.  Hanover  is  erected  into  a  kingdom. 

1815.  Part  of  Lauenlmrg  is  ceded  to  Prussia,  in  exchange 

for  East  Frieslaml  and  Harlingen. 
Nov.  The  Duke  of   Cambridge   is   appointed  lieu- 
tenant-governor. 

A  new  constitution,  is  formed,  on  the  model  of  the 
English. 

1821,  Oct.  8.  George  IV.  visits  Hanover. 

1826.  Hanover  is  lighted  with  ga>. 

1833.  A  new  constitution  is  adopted,  which  confers  more 
influence  on  the  people. 

1837,  June  20.  In  consequence  of  the  law  of  Hanover 
limiting  the  royal  succession  to  male  descendants, 
Ernest,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  becomes  king  on 
the  death  of  William  IV. 

1846.  The  great  arsenal  is  built. 

1848.  The  king  abolishes  the  censorship  of  the  press,  and 
grants  a  new  constitution. 

1851.  The  new  theatre  at  Hanover  is  erected. 


A.D. 

1855,  May  20.  The  king    abolishes   free  institutiflns    by 
order  of  the  federal  diet. 

1857,  Dec.  31.  Some  of  the  jewels  brought  by  George  II. 

to  England,    are    restored    to    Hanover.    Their 
value  is  estimated  at  £  100,000. 

1858,  Dec.    13.  Submarine  telegraphic    communication  is 

opened  with  England. 

1861,  June  12.  The  Stade  dues  are  abolished. 
4863,  Oct.  6.  A  synod  is  opened  for  the  discussion  of  a  new 
.•nii/.ation  of  the.  Lutheran  Church  ill  Hanover. 

—  Dec.  14.  The  synod  closes  after  the  adoption  of 

a  new  ecclesiastical  law. 

1864,  Oct.  9.  The  king  sanctions  the  new  law. 

1865,  March  30.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Oldenburg. 

1866,  June  10.  Hanover  is  seized  by  the  Prussians. 

ELECTORS   OF  IIAJfOVEK. 

1692.  Ernest  Augustus. 

1693.  George  Louis  (George  I.  of  England). 
1727.  George  Augustus  (George  II.). 

1760.  George  William  Frederick  (George  III.). 


1814.  George  William  Frederick  (George  III.). 
1830.   George  Augustus  Frederick  (George  I\  .). 
1830.   William  Henry  (William   IV.). 
1837.  Ernest  Augustus  (Duke  of  Cumberland). 
1851.  George  V. 

HANOVER   COURT    HOUSE,    or    PEAK'S 

STATION  Battle  .—The  Federals  under  Gen. 
Porter  defeated  the  Confederates  at  this  place 
in  Virginia,  May  27,  1862. 

1  1  A  X  ()  V  K  It  I  A  X  SUCCESSION.—  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  married 
Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  Feb.  14,  1613. 
Her  daughter  Sophia  was  born  in  1630,  and 
married  Ernest  Augustus,  afterwards  Elector  of 
Hanover,  in  1658.  By  the  Act  of  Settlement, 
12  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  2(1701),  she  was  declared  the 
next  heir  to  the  English  throne  after  the  de- 
scendants of  William  III.  and  of  Queen  Anne. 
Sophia  died  May  28  (O.  S.),  1714,  and  on  the 
death  of  Anne  without  issue,  Aug.  i,  1714,  her 
son,  George  Louis,  Elector  of  Hanover,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  English  throne  as  George  I. 

UANSKATIC  LKAGUE,  HANSE  TOWNS, 
or  the  HANS  A.  —This  union  of  German  seaport 
ti  i  wns  was  instituted  about  1  140,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  their  commei'cial  interests,  although 
the  actual  signing  of  the  league  did  not  take 
place  till  1247.  The  first  diet  met  at  Llibeck  in 
1260.  Henry  III.  of  England  conferred  several 
immunities  on  this  association  in  1266,  and  in 
1348  it  possessed  sufficient  power  to  carry  on  a 
successful  war  with  Denmark  respecting  the 
Sound  dues.  The  League  attained  its  greatest 
power  about  1370,  when  it  numbered  64  con- 
federate and  44  allied  cities.  In  1448  they 
were  at  war  with  England,  but  had  their 
privileges  in  that  country  restored  in  1474. 
They  were,  however,  finally  abolished  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1578.  In  1601  the  Dutch 
supplanted  them  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 
1630  their  commerce  was  seriously  injured  by 
the  invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Swedes  under 
Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus).  The  maritime  law  of 
this  league  was  not  published  in  a  complete 
form  till  1614,  when  its  power  had  already  begun 
to  decline.  In  1624  it  originated  maritime  in- 
surance companies,  and  in  1723  opened  its 
ports  to  foreign  commerce.  The  only  towns 
still  retaining  the  title  of  Hanse  towns,  are 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Liibeck.  The  mer- 
chants of  the  Hanse  towns  were  called 
Hansards.  They  had  four  foreign  factories— 


HARAN 


[     475 


HARP 


one  at  London,  established  in  1250 ;  at  Bruges, 
in  1252  ;  at  Novogorod,  in  1272 ;  and  at  Bergen, 
in  1278. 

HARAN,  HARRAN,  or  CHARRAN  (Meso- 
potamia).—Terah,  the  father  of  Abram,  died 
at  this  place  in  Padan-Aram  B.C.  1921  (Gen.  xi. 
31,  32),  and  the  Father  of  the  Faithful,  in  obe- 
dience to  a  divine  command,  migrated  thence 
with  Lot,  B.C.  1920  (Gen.  xii.  i — 5).  Here 
Eliezer  of  Damascus  met  Rebekah,  B.C.  1856 
(Gen.  xxiv.  10 — 28),  at  which  time  it  was 
called  the  city  of  Nahor.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  sera  it  formed  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Edessa,  and  during  the 
reigns  of  Caracalla  (211—217)  and  Julian  (361— 
363)  it  ranked  as  a  Roman  city.  It  is  now 
a  small  village  inhabited  by  Arabs. 

HARBOURS.  — The  improvement  of  har- 
bours, docks,  and  piers,  is  regulated  by  10 
Viet.  c.  27  (May  u,  1847),  and  24  &  25  Viet. 
c.  47  (Aug.  i,  i86i\ 

HARFLEUR,  or  HAREFLEOT  (France).— 
Henry  V.  of  England  laid  siege  to  this  place  in 
Aug.,  1415,  and  captured  it  Sep.  22.  The  steeple 
of  the  church  of  Harfleur  was  built  by  him 
in  1416,  in  memory  of  the  battle  of  Agincourt. 
The  Earl  of  Huntingdon  captured  a  Genoese 
fleet  off  Harfleur  July  25,  1417.  It  was  retaken 
by  the  French  in  1431,  was  stormed  by  the 
English  in  1440,  and  was  recaptured  by  the 
French  in  1450.  Louis  XI.  placed  Harfleur 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick  in  May, 
1470,  and  English  vessels  sailing  thence  as- 
sailed the  merchant  shipping  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  Earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards 
Henry  VII.,  sailed  from  Harfleur  Aug.  i,  1485, 
for  the  purpose  of  wresting  the  English  crown 
from  Richard  III. 

HARLAW  (Battle).— Donald,  Lord  of  the 
Isles,  obtained  some  aid  from  Henry  IV.  of 
England,  and  endeavoured  to  make  himself 
independent  of  the  Scottish  crown.  He  was 
defeated  in  a  severe  battle  at  this  place,  near 
Aberdeen,  July  24,  1411,  and  afterwards  made 
submission. 

HARLEIAN  LIBRARY.— This  collection  of 
MSS.  and  pamphlets  was  formed  by  Mr. 
Harley,  afterwards  Earl  of  Oxford,  who  died 
May  21,  1724.  It  was  purchased  from  his 
trustees  for  ^10,000,  by  the  government,  who 
received  authority  from  26  Geo.  II.  c.  22  (1753), 
and  it  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
"  Harleian  Miscellany,"  a  collection  of  the 
most  interesting  documents  and  tracts  in  the 
Harleian  Library,  first  appeared  in  1744. 
Another  edition  was  issued  in  1808. 

HARLEQUIN. —The  account  given  by 
Menage,  that  this  term  is  derived  from  a  cele- 
brated Italian  actor,  who  appeared  at  Paris  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1574 — 1589),  and  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Harlequino,  or  Little 
Harlay,  from  his  constant  attendance  at  the 
house  of  M.  de  Harlay,  is  incorrect,  as  the 
word  was  in  use  before  that  period.  Dr. 
Clarke,  who  traces  its  origin  to  classical  times, 
says  that  Harlequin  is  Mercury. 

HARLEY  (LORD  OXFORD'S)  ADMINIS- 
TRATION.—Godolphin  was  dismissed  Aug.  8, 
1710,  the  treasury  being  put  in  commission, 
with  Lord  Powlett  at  its  head  ;  and  Harley, 
afterwards  Earl  of  Oxford,  was  made  Chancel- 


lor of  the  Exchequer,  Aug.  10,  1710,  and  Lord 
High  Treasurer  May  29,  1711.  Lord  Cowper 
resigned  the  great  seal  Sep.  25,  1710,  and  it 
was  placed  in  commission  until  Oct.  19,  when 
Sir  Simon,  afterwards  Lord  Harcourt,  was 
made  Lord  Keeper,  becoming  Lord  Chancellor 
April  7,  1713.  Barley's  associates  were  Lord, 
afterwards  Earl  Dartmouth,  and  Mr.  St.  John, 
afterwards  Viscount  St.  John  and  Bolingbroke, 
Secretaries  of  State.  Earl  Dartmouth,  on 
accepting  the  privy  seal  in  1713,  was  replaced 
by  Mr.  Bromley.  The  Hon.  G.  Granville  (after- 
wards Lord  Lansdowne)  became  Secretaiy  at 
War  Sep.  28,  1710;  he  was  succeeded,  June  28, 

1712,  by  Sir  William  Wyndham,   Bart.,   who 
was  followed  by  Mr.   Francis  Gwyn,  Aug.  21, 

1713.  Sir  William  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  Nov.  i,  1713.   Dr.  Robinson,  Bishop 
of  Bristol,  and  afterwards  of  London,  became 
Lord  Privy  Seal  April  23,  1711.     The  chancel- 
lorship of  the  Exchequer  was  given  to  Hon. 
Mr.  Benson,  afterwards  Lord  Bingley,  June  14, 
1711.      Oxford   and    Bplingbroke    quarrelled, 
and  the  former  was  dismissed  July  27,  1714. 
(See  SHREWSBURY  ADMINISTRATION.) 

HARMONICA. —Musical  glasses  are  men- 
tioned in  a  work  published  at  Nuremberg  in 
1651.  The  instrument  was  improved  by 
Franklin  in  1760.  It  first  became  known  at 
Paris  in  1765.  John  Stein  invented  a  stringed 
harmonica  in  1788. 

HARMONISTS.  —  This  religious  sect  was 
formed  by  the  brothers  George  and  Frederick 
Rapp,  who  emigrated  from  Wtirtemberg  to 
the  United  States  in  1803,  when  they  founded 
the  town  of  Harmony,  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1815  they  built  New  Harmony,  in  Indiana, 
which  was  purchased  by  Robert  Owen  in  1824. 
The  Harmonists  removed  to  a  new  settlement, 
which  they  named  Economy,  in  1825.  Com- 
munity of  property  and  the  absence  of  mar- 
riage are  the  distinguishing  features  of  this 
sect. 

HARMONIUM.— The  principle  of  the  free 
reed,  or  the  musical  vibration  of  tongues  of 
metal,  though  known  from  an  early  period  in 
China,  was  invented  in  Paris  by  Greni6  in 
1810,  and  was  described  by  Biot  in  1817.  Three 
free  reed  stops  were  introduced  in  the  organ 
of  Beauvais  cathedral  in  1827,  and  the  same 
construction  was  employed  by  Erard  in  an 
organ  erected  at  the  Tuileries  in  1829. 
Alexandre  of  Paris,  who  commenced  business 
in  1829,  invented  a  harmonium  which  bears 
his  name ;  and  a  similar  instrument  was 
patented  by  Debain  of  Paris  in  Aug.,  1840. 
The  improvements  of  Evans  of  Cheltenham, 
introduced  in  1841,  were  brought  into  promi- 
nent notice  in  1859. 

HARMONY  HALL.— (See  COMMUNISTS.) 

HARNESS.— The  invention  of  harness  has 
been  ascribed  to  Erichthonius,  King  of  Athens, 
B.C.  1487.  In  the  Middle  Ages  white  harness 
was  much  used.  The  Coach  and  Harness 
Makers'  Company  was  established  in  1677. 

HARP.— Jubal  is  said  to  have  been  "the 
father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
organ,"  Gen.  iv.  21  (B.C.  3204).  The  harp  was 
common  in  Egypt  as  early  as  B.C.  1500,  and  the 
instrument  was  introduced  into  Ireland  at  an 
early  date.  The  Saxons  and  other  northern 


r   476   ] 


HARWICH 


barbarians  possessed  it  when  they  first  caine 
into  contact  with  the  civilized  inhabitants  of 
Europe  in  the  sth  century,  and  the  Welsh  are 
said  to  have  used  a  harp  of  26  notes  in  the  6th 
century.  The  pedals  were  invented  about 
1720.  Erard's  pedal  harp  was  patented  in  1794, 
and  his  double-action  harp  in  1808. 

HARPER'S  FERRY  (Virginia).—  This  village, 
the  seat  of  a  large  state  armoury,  established 
in  1798,  was  destroyed  by  the  Federal  com- 
missioners to  prevent  it  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Confederate  States,  April  18, 
1861.  The  town  was  occupied  by  the  Con- 
federates May  20.  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
negro  insurrection  under  Capt.  John  Brown, 
Oct.  17,  18159. 

HARPONULLY  (Hindostan).—  The  Rajah  of 
Harponully  became  tributary  to  Hyder  All  in 
1774,  and  to  Tippoo  in  1786.  On  the  fall  of 
Seringapatam,  May  4,  1799,  Harponully  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Nizam,  by  whom  it  was 
1  1  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1800. 

HARPSICHORD,  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  the  isth  century,  was  introduced 
into  England  in  the  i7th. 

HARRISBURG  (Pennsylvania).—  The  capi- 
tal, founded  in  1733,  was  incorporated  in  1808, 
and  made  the  chief  town  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1812.  During  the  Confederate  invasion  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  inhabitants  abandoned  the 
town,  June  16,  1863.  Gen.  Lee,  who  advanced 
within  four  miles,  June  27,  changed  his  plans 
and  marched  to  <  ic.tt  vslnirg  (>/  r 

1IARRISONBURG  (Battle).  —The  Federals 
under  Gen.  Fremont  were  defeated  by  the 
Confederates  under  Gen.  "Stonewall"  Jackson, 
at  this  place  in  Virginia,  Friday,  June  6,  1862. 
(See  CROSS-KEYS,  Battle.) 

!IARR<HJATE,  or  HARROWGATE  York- 
shire).— The  "Old  Spa,"  a  chalybeate  spring,  in 
High  Harrogate,  discovered  in  1571  by  Capt. 
Slingsby,  was  surrounded  by  a  terrace  in  1656. 
The  waters  from  the  "sulphur  wells  "  of  Low 
Harrogate  were  used  both  internally  and 
externally  before  1700.  The  "Crescent  water" 
was  discovered  in  1783,  and  the  Cheltenham 
water  in  1819.  The  first  inn  was  built  at 
Harrogate  in  1687. 

HARROW  -ON-TH  E-H  I  L  L  (Middlesex). 
—  Wulfred,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  pur- 
chased Harrow,  called  Herges  in  Domesday 
Book,  and  other  lands,  in  822,  for  the  purpose 
of  restoring  them  to  the  church  of  Canterbury. 
The  town,  given  in  1543  by  Archbishop  Cran- 
mer  to  Henry  VIII.,  in  exchange  for  other 

ward, 
con- 

tinued in  his  family  until  1630.  John  Lyon 
procured  a  charter  from  Elizabeth  for  a  gram- 
mar-school, in  1571,  but  the  house  was  not 
built  till  1585.  The  original  statutes  were 
made  in  1591.  The  assistant  masters  first  took 
boys  into  their  houses  in  1771.  The  modem 
building  was  erected  in  1819,  and  the  separate 
chapel  in  1839.  A  great  part  of  the  building 
was  destroyed  by  fire  Oct.  22,  1838.  The 
foundation  stone  of  the  library  was  laid  by 
Lord  Palmerston  July  4,  1861. 

HARTFORD  (Connecticut).  —  This  town, 
originally  established  by  the  Dutch  in  1633, 
received  its  name  from  a  colony  of  English 


., 

lands,   was  granted  by  him  to  Sir  Ed 
afterwards  Lord  North,  in  1546,  and  it 


who  settled  in  1635.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1784. 

HARTFORD  CONVENTION,  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  meeting  of  delegates  from  the  New 
England  States,  assembled  at  Hartford,  in  Con- 
necticut, Dec.  15,  1814.  Their  object  was  to 
protest  against  the  war  waged  against  Great 
Britain.  The  convention  sat  20  days,  with 
closed  doors,  and  proposed  amendments  in  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States. 

HARTLEPOOL  (Durham).— St.  Hieu,  or,  as 
her  name  is  sometimes  spelt,  St.  Bega,  founded 
a  monastery  here  about  640,  which,  with  the 
town,  was  burned  by  the  Danes  in  800.  Egfrid, 
Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  rebuilt  them  between 
830  and  845.  In  1171,  Hugh,  Earl  of  Bar, 
d  in  the  bay  with  an  armed  force  in- 
tended to  aid  William  (the  Lion  ,  King  of 
Scotland,  in  an  invasion  of  England.  The 
town,  annexed  in  1189  to  the  see  of  Durham, 
received  a  charter  from  King  John  in  1201,  and 
another  from  Richard  le  Poer  in  1230.  A 
monastery  of  grey  friars  was  erected  before 
1275.  In  1346  Hartlepool  furnished  five  ships 
and  145  men  for  the  armament  with  which 
Edward  III.  invaded  France,  and  in  1593  it 
obtained  a  new  charter  from  Queen  Elizabeth. 
The  Scotch,  under  the  Earl  of  Calender,  seized 
it  011  behalf  of  the  Parliament  in  1644,  and 
occupied  it  till  1647,  when  it  was  transferred 
to  the  revolutionary  army.  In  1680  the  custom 
house  was  removed  to  Stockton,  and  the  com- 
merce of  the  town  commenced  to  decline.  The 
free  school  was  erected  in  1 742,  and  the  Guild- 
hall in  1750.  (See  WEST  HARTLEPOOL.) 

HARTLEY  COLLIERY.— In  consequence  of 
an  accident  to  the  pumping  machinery  at  the 
New  Hartley  Colliery,  near  Newcastle,  204  men 
and  boys  perished  by  suffocation,  Jan.  16, 1862. 

11 A R'TWELL  (Buckinghamshire;.— The  prin- 
cipal manor  was  bestowed  by  William  I.  on  his 
natural  son,  William  Peverell.  Henry  II.  seized 
the  estate  in  1155.  Louis  XVllI.  of  France  re- 
sided in  the  manor-house  of  Hartwell  from 
1809  until  the  restoration  in  1814. 

HARUSPICES,  or  BIRD-SEERS.— Priests  in 
ancient  Rome,  instituted  by  Romulus  about 
B.C.  750.  They  pretended  to  foretell  future 
events  by  inspecting  the  entrails  of  animals. 
When  abolished  by  Constantino  L,  in  336,  their 
number  amounted  to  70.  They  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  Augurs.  ( See  AUGURY.  ) 

HARVARD  COLLEGE.— The  determination 
to  found  an  institution  of  the  kind,  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  was  first  formed  in 
1636,  and  in  1639  it  was  named  after  the  Rev. 
John  Harvard,  a  clergyman,  from  England, 
who,  at  his  death,  in  1638,  left  half  of  his 
property  and  his  library  to  the  institution. 
Bishop  Berkeley,  in  1747,  recommended  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
Foreign  Parts  to  send  books  to  this  college ; 
and  the  library  having  been  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1764,  further  supplies  of  books  were  sent 
from  England. 

HARVEY  ARCHIPELAGO.  —  (See  COOK 
ISLANDS.) 

HARWICH  (Essex).— The  Danes  were  de- 
feated by  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  a  naval  battle 
off  Harwich,  in  885.  The  town  received  a 
charter  from  Edward  II.  in  1318 ;  this,  after 


HASTENBECK 


C     477     1 


HAVRE 


having  been  confirmed  by  several  sovereigns, 
was  extended  in  1604.  Isabel,  queen  of  Ed- 
ward II.,  landed  here  in  1326,  with  her  son, 
Prince  Edward.  Edward  III.  sailed  from 
Harwich  in  1340,  and  gained  an  important  vic- 
tory over  the  French  fleet  off  Sluys.  The 
Duke  of  York  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  near 
Harwich,  June  3,  1665.  The  Dutch  lost  24 
ships,  and  3,000  men  were  made  prisoners.  A 
battery  was  erected  in  1820. 

HASTENBECK  (Battle).— The  French  de- 
feated an  allied  army  of  British,  Dutch,  and 
Hanoverians,  at  Hastenbeck,  July  25,  1757. 

HASTINGS  (Battle).— William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  sailed  from  St.  Valery  Sep.  26, 1066, 
and  arrived  at  Pevensey  Sep.  28.  His  army, 
amounting  to  60,000  men,  landed  and  formed  a 
camp  at  Hastings.  Harold  II.,  having  marched 
to  the  north  to  encounter  the  Norwegians, 
whom  he  defeated  at  Stamford  Bridge,  Sep. 
25,  hastened  to  the  south',  and  arrived  in  sight 
of  the  invader  Oct.  13.  The  battle  was  fought 
at  a  place  then  called  Senlac,  now  Battle,  near 
Hastings,  Saturday,  Oct.  14,  and,  after  an  ob- 
stinate struggle,  which  lasted  from  sunrise  to 
sunset,  Harold  II.  was  slain,  and  the  Normans 
remained  masters  of  the  field.  In  1067  Wil- 
liam I.  founded  an  abbey  near  the  place  where 
the  victory  was  gained.  It  was  dedicated  to 
St.  Martin,  and  is  known  as  Battle  Abbey. 

HASTINGS  (Sussex),  one  of  the  Cinque 
Ports  (q.  v.),  was  known  by  this  name  at  least 
as  early  as  780.  Athelstan  established  a  mint 
in  925.  It  was  burned  by  the  French  in 
Aug.,  1377,  and  in  1380.  The  town-hall,  built 
in  1700,  was  rebuilt  in  1823.  An  Industrial 
Exhibition  was  opened  in  Sep.,  1865.  The  new 
town  is  called  St.  Leonards-on-Sea. 

HASTINGS,  WARREN  (Impeachment  of).— 
(See  INDIA.) 

HASUNFIORD  (Sea-fight).— Harold  Harfa- 
ger,  of  Norway,  defeated  the  Vikingri,  in  875. 

HAT,  as  an  article  of  man's  attire,  invented 
at  Paris,  by  a  Swiss,  in  1404,  was  fashionable 
in  France  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.,  who  died  Oct.  21,  1422.  Charles 
VII.  is  reported  to  have  worn  a  white  felt 
hat  at  his  entry  into  Rouen  in  1449.  Hats 
and  plumes  were  worn  at  the  court  of  Edward 
III.  at  the  institution  of  the  Garter.  The  Pope 
of  Rome  was  in  the  habit  of  sending  ' '  blessed 
hats"  to  princes  and  commanders  of  armies 
who  deserved  the  gratitude  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  These  hats  were  of  violet 
silk,  lined  with  ermine,  and  embroidered  with 
gold  and  jewels.  They  were  blessed  by  the 
Pope,  in  solemn  conclave,  on  Christmas-eve. 
The  last  hat  of  this  description  was  given  to 
Gen.  Daun,  after  the  capture  of  Hochkirchen, 
in  1758.  The  crowns  of  the  hats  worn  at  the 
commencement  of  the  i8th  century  were  round. 
The  Jews  of  Spain  were  formerly  compelled  to 
wear  yellow  hats.  In  many  towns  of  Germany, 
bankrupts  had  to  wear  green  and  yellow  hats. 
Hats  were  first  manufactured  in  London  by 
Spaniards  in  1510  ;  and  came  into  fashion  and 
were  taxed  in  1785.  The  company  of  the  hat- 
band makers  was  formed  in  1664.  The  tax  was 
repealed  in  1811.  Silk  hats  were  introduced  hi 

1  HATCHER'S  RUN   (Battle).— Gen.  Lee  de- 


feated the  Federals,  under  Gen.  Graiii,  near 
this  creek,  in  Virginia,  Oct.  27,  1864. 

HATELEY  FIELD  (Battle).— Fought  on  a 
plain,  that  has  since  been  called  Battlefield, 
about  two  miles  from  Shrewsbury,  Saturday, 
July  21,  1403.  It  occurred  during  the  Percy 
insurrection  against  Henry  IV.  Henry  Percy 
(Hotspur)  fell,  and  Henry  V.  (then  Prince  of 
Wales)  distinguished  himself.  In  this  action 
Falstaff  is  represented  by  Shakspeare  as 
having  led  his  raganuiffins  where  they  were 
well  peppered,  only  three  out  of  his  150  having 
been  left  alive.  Falstaff  himself  was  found  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  lying  on  the  ground,  and 
he  declared  that  with  a  formidable  adversary 
he  had  "fought  a  long  hour  by  Shrewsbury 
clock."  It  was  also  called  the  battle  of  Shrews- 
bury, and  sometimes  of  Battlefield. 

HATFIELD  (Hertford).— A  council  was  held 
here  Sep.  17,  680,  against  the  Monothelites,  at 
which  Theodore,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
presided.  Hatfield,  in  the  roth  century,  was 
granted  by  Edgar  to  the  abbey  of  Ely,  and 
when  the  latter  was  made  a  bishop's  see,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  the  manor-house  became 
one  of  the  residences  of  the  bishop,  and  was 
on  that  account  called  Bishop's  Hatfield. 
Elizabeth,  who  afterwards  purchased  the 
palace,  was  kept  prisoner  at  Hatfield  from 
1555  till  her  accession  in  1558*.  The  left  wing 
of  the  old  palace  was  burned  to  the  ground 
Nov.  27,  1835,  when  the  Dowager  Marchioness 
of  Salisbury  perished  in  the  flames. 

HATRAS  (Hindostan).— Ceded  to  the  East 
India  Company  by  Dowlet  Rowe  Scindia,  in 
1803,  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  British, 
March  i,  1817. 

HATS.— (See  CAPS  AND  HATS.) 

HATTEMISTS.— The  followers  of  Pontian 
van  Hattem,  an  enthusiast,  who  disseminated 
his  peculiar  doctrines  in  Zealand,  towards  the 
end  of  the  i7th  century. 

HATTER  AS  INLET  (United  States).— The 
Confederate  forts  on  this  creek  of  North  Caro- 
lina, attacked,  Wednesday,  Aug.  28,  1861,  by  a 
Federal  naval  expedition  under  Commodore 
Stringham,  and  the  land  forces  of  Gen.  Butler, 
surrendered  Aug.  29. 

HAUTBOIS,  or  OBOE,  a  musical  instru- 
ment, invented  at  an  early  date,  was  much 
used  in  military  bands  in  the  i7th  century. 

HAVANA  (Cuba).  — This  city,  founded  in 
1511,  by  Diego  Velasquez,  and  taken  by  a 
French  pirate  in  1536,  was  afterwards  repeat- 
edly seized  by  the  Bucaneers.  The  university 
was  founded  in  1728.  The  English  took 
Havana  Aug.  14,  1762,  and  restored  it  to  Spain 
the  following  year.  Havana  was  probably 
erected  into  a  bishopric  soon  after  its  founda- 
tion, as  its  second  bishop  died  in  1528.  In 
1795  the  remains  of  Columbus  were  removed 
from  the  cathedral  of  St.  Domingo,  where  they 
had  been  deposited  in  1536,  to  the  cathedral  at 
Havana.  Three  hundred  and  fifty  houses  were 
destroyed  by  a  fire  Feb.  10,  1828. 

HAVRE  DE  GRACE  (France).— Founded 
on  the  site  of  a  fishing  village  by  Louis  XII.  in 
1509.  Francis  I.  (1515-47)  fortified  it,  com- 
menced the  port,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Franciscopolis.  It  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  by  the  Huguenots  in  1562 ; 


HAWAIIAN 


[    478 


HAWAII 


was  besieged  by  the  Constable  de  Ivlontmo- 
rency,  who  captured  it  July  3,  1563  ;  and  was 
bombarded  by  the  English  in  1678,  in  July, 
1694,  in  1759,  1794,  and  1795.  Capt.  Oliver,  of 
the  Melpomene,  made  fruitless  attempts  to  de- 
stroy the  French  fleet  off  this  town,  July  23 
and  Aug.  i,  1804.  In  1852  statues  of  Bernar- 
din  de  St.  Pierre  and  Casimir  Delavigne, 
natives  of  the  place,  were  erected ;  and  in 
Aug.,  1854,  Havre  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
new  department  of  Seine  Maritime.  The  old 
ramparts  were  removed  in  1856,  and  since  1858 
two  large  forts  have  been  erected  on  the 
heights  above  the  town.  A  Protestant  church 
was  opened  Dec.  25,  1862. 

HAWAIIAN'  ARCHIPELAGO,  or  SAND- 
WICH ISLANDS  Pacific  Ocean).— This  group, 
comprising  the  islands  of  Hawaii,  Kahoolaui, 
Kauai,  Lanai,  Maui,  Molokai,  Niihau,  and 
Oahu,  was  discovered  in  1542  by  Gaetano,  and 
was  represented  under  a  Spanish  name,  in  the 
map  of  the  world  published  with  "Anson's 
Voyages,"  in  1748. , 


.. 

1778,  Jan.  19.    The  group  is  discovered  by  Capt  Cook, 

who  names  it   the  Sandwich  Islands  in  honour  of 
his  patron.  Lord  Sandwich. 

1779,  Fob.  14,  Siinihiy.    Capt.  Cook  is  killed   by  the  inha- 

bitants of  Hawaii  (<].v.). 

1794.  Piscovcrx  of   Honolulu  (</.».). 

1795.  Kamelmmcha    I.    (the    Great),    King    of    ILiwaii, 

unites    all  tin'   islands,  afterwards  railed  llawaii- 

Nei  or  I'nited  Hawaii,  under  one  sceptre. 
I8oi.  The  King  of    Kanai.   previously  ti   mere  tributary, 

becomes  enlirelv  subject  tip  Kanichamehu  I. 
1803.  Horses  arc  introduced  from  America. 
1809.  Kamehamelia     I.   invests    his    son    Liholiho    with 

royal   honours. 
1816.  The  Rurfafc,  Kussian  man-of-war,  anchors  at  Ilono- 

1819,  May  8.'  Death  of  Kamdharm-ha  T.  (the  Great),  who 

is  sun ded  by  liis  son  Liholiho.  under  ihe  name. 

of  Kamelmnietm  II.     Idolatry  is  abolished. 

1830,  Feb.  4.  The  first  missionaries  arrive  in  the  islands 

from  America. 

1831.  Kamehameha   II.  invades   Kaual,    and   takes  the 

king  prisoner. 

1823.   The  first  printing  press  is  eM.ihlished. 
18.53,  Nov.  27.     Kamuhameha  II.  embarks  on  a  visit  to 

England. 
18^4,  May  22.  He  lands  at  Portsmouth. — July  8.  Death  of 

Queen    Kamamaln    in     London. — July     14.     The 

kin-,    aged   28,    dies    at    the    Clarendon     Hotel. 

Adelphi.—  Sep.  28.  The  Klonile  frigate,  Capt.  Lord 
i,  sails  from    Portsmouth  with   the  remains 


ina,  in  the  island 


, 

the  deceased  king,  succeeds  under  the  title  of 
Kame  mmeha  III. 

1837,  March.  Death  of  Kalaimoku,  a  native  statesman, 
called  hv  the  English,  for  his  political  sairaeiu. 
William  1'itt.—  .Inly.  A  French  Koinan  Catholic 
mission  arrives  in  the  islands. 

1831.  The  Roman  Catholic  priests  are  expelled. 

1832.  The  death  of  Queen  Kaahnnianii,  and  the  conse- 

quent  assumption   by  the  king  of  active  govern- 
ment.  cause    considerable    retrogression    in   the 
condition  of  the  people. 
1831.  The  king  adopts  a  wiser  policy. 

1836,  Nov.   16.     Lord  Edward  Russell   obtains    from   the 

government  certain  rights  and  privileges  on 
behalf  of  the  English. 

1837,  July  iJf.  A  treat  v  is  concluded  with  France. 

1839,  June  7.  The  king  signs  a  Bill  of  Rights.—  July  15. 

('apt.  Laplace,  of  the  French  frigate  Artemise, 
compels  the  government  to  sanction  Roman 
Catholicism,  to  grant  commercial  privileges  tip 
the  French,  and  to  pay  a  guarantee  of  20,000 
dollars. 

1840,  Oct.  8.  The  king  grants  a  constitution. 


Byron,  sails  from   Portsmouth  w 
of  the  king  and  queen. 
1825,  May  4.  The  Klonde  arrives  at  Lahaii 

of  Maui,    and    Kauikeaouli,    younger    brother  of 


1843,  Feb.  10.    The  Canjsfort,  Cnpt.  Lord  George  Paulet, 

arrives  at  Honolulu,  to  obtain  redress  for  certain 
alleged  grievances  suffered  by  English  .subjects. 
—  Feb.  [-.  Lord  George  Paulet  presents  an  ulti- 
matum.—Feb.  18.  The  king  complies,  under 
protest — Feb.  25.  Kamehameha  111.  cedes  his 
territories  to  the  English. — July  6.  Commodore 
Kearney,  of  the  U.  S.  ship  Constellation,  arrives  at 
Honolulu,  and  protests  against  the  cession. — 
July  31.  Admiral  Thomas  publicly  restoies  the 
islands  to  King  Kamehameha  III.— Nov.  28- 
England  and  France,  by  a  treaty  signed  at 
London,  recognize  the  independence  of  the  Ha- 
waiian archipelago. 

1844,  JulyC.  The  Tinted  States  recognize  the  indepen- 

dence of  the  Hawaiian  archipelago. 
1846,  Jan.  i.  A  digest  of  the  laws  is  completed. 

1848,  June.    The  king  surrenders  the  greater  part  of  his 

royal  domain  to  his  chiefs  and  people. 

1849,  Dec.    20.    A   treaty   of    friendship,  commerce,    and 

navigation,  is  concluded  at  Washington  with  the 
I'nited  States. 

1850,  Prince  Alexander  Liholiho,  adopted  son  of  the  king, 

and  grandson  of  Kamehameha  I.  (the.  Great), 
visits  Europe. 

1851,  July  10.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Great  Britain. 
1852    June  14.  The  king  sanctions  a  new  constitution. 
1854   DOC.  Death  of  Kamehameha  III.— Dec.  15.    Prince 

Liholiho  is  proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Kame- 
hamelia I  V. 

1856,  Jan.  5.  Opening  of  the  Native  Hawaiian  Agri- 
cultural Society.— June  19.  The  king  marries 
Kmma.  daughter  of  Naen,  a  lineal  descendant  of 
the  ancient  kings  of  Hawaii,  and  granddaughter 
Of  John  Young,  an  Englishman. 

1*57,   Oct.  j').   A  treat  v  is  concluded  wit'i  France. 

1858,  May  40.   Queen  Emma  gives  birth  to  a  son. 

1859,  Oct.  3.   The  king  appoints  his  infant  son,  the  Prince 

of   Hawaii,  his  successor. 

1860,  March.  A  Japanese  embassy  arrives  in  Honolulu. 

1861,  Aug.   26.  The  king  issues  a   proclamation   of    neu- 

trality during  the  American  war.— Dec.  15.  Dr. 
Staley  is  consecrated  Bishop  of  Honolulu  at 
Lanifpeth. 

1862,  Aug.  27.  Heath   of  the  heir  apparent.—  Nov.  28.  The 

king  and  queen  are  publicly  eonlii    i 

1863,  Nov.   ^o.     Death   of  Kameliai'neha   IV.,  who  is  suc- 

ceeded bv  his  brother,  Kamehameha  V. 

1864,  Julv  7.  A  convention  for  the  reform  of  the  consti- 

tution is  opened  by  the  king.— Aug.  13.  The  con- 
vention, h-iving  failed  to  arrive  at  a  decision,  is 
dissolved  by  the  king.— Aug.  30.  The  king  pro- 
mulgates a  new  constitution. 

1865,  May.  The  Queen  Dowager  Emma  sails  from  Hono- 

lulu on  a  visit  to  Europe.— Julv  id.  She  lands  at 
Southampton.— Oct.  19.  Death  of  Robert  Crirhton 
Wyllic,  a  native  of  Ayrshire,  Hawaiian  minister 
of  foreign  affairs. 

1866,  July   28.    The  Queen  Dowager  Emma  embarks  at 

Southampton  on  her  return  to  Honolulu. 

KINGS  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 
A.T). 

795.  Kamehameha  I.  (the  Great). 

819.  Kamehameha  II.  (Liholiho). 

825.   Kamehainehd  III.  (Kauikeaouli). 

854.   Kamehamelia  IV.  (Alexander  Liholiho). 

863.  Kamehameha  V.  (Lot  or  Lota  Kamehameha). 

HAWAII,  or  OWHYHEE  (Hawaiian  Archi- 
pelago . —  This,  the  principal  island  of  the 
group,  was,  according  to  native  traditions, 
first  formed  into  a  monarchy  by  King  Akea. 
Capt.  Cook,  who  arrived  off  its  shores  Dec.  2, 
1778,  and  anchored  at  Kealakeakua  Bay,  on  its 
west  coast,  Jan.  17,  1779,  was  at  first  regarded 
by  the  natives  and  their  king  Kalaniopuu  as  a 
god,  and  was  consequently  treated  with  divine 
honours.  The  death  of  one  of  his  crew,  how- 
ever, dispelled  the  illusion,  and  aggressions 
and  reprisals  produced  a  state  of  ill  feeling. 
Capt.  Cook  was  killed  by  the  natives,  Sunday, 
Feb.  14.  His  colleague,  Capt.  King,  having 


HAWKERS 


[    479    1 


HEAVENLY 


destroyed  the  neighbouring  village,  set  sail 
Feb.  21.  On  the  death  of  King  Kalaniopuu, 
in  1782,  the  island,  after  some  contests,  passed 
into  possession  of  his  nephew  Kamehameha  I. 
(the  Great).  It  was  visited  in  1786  by  Capts. 
Portlock  and  Dixon;  in  1787  by  Capts.  Meares 
and  Douglass  ;  in  1789  by  Capt.  Metcalf,  of  the 
American  ship  Eleanor  ;  and  in  1792,  1793,  and 
1794  by  Capt.  Vancouver.  Kamehameha  I. 
ceded  it  to  England  Feb.  25,  1794;  and  in  1795 
he  invaded  and  conquered  the  neighbouring 
islands  of  Lanai,  Maui,  Molokai,  and  Oahu, 
and  reduced  the  King  of  Kauai  to  nominal 
submission.  In  1801  this  sovereign  became 
entirely  dependent,  thus  commencing  the 
kingdom  of  Hawaii-Nei,  or  United  Hawaii. 
(See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

HAWKERS  AND  PEDLARS.— These  itine- 
rant merchants  first  appeared  in  England 
about  1330.  They  are  classed  with  rogues 
and  vagabonds  by  39  Eliz.  c.  4  (1597),  and  were 
first  compelled  to  obtain  a  licence  by  9  &  10 
Will.  III.  c.  27  (1698).  The  annual  duty,  fixed 
at  £4  by  50  Geo.  III.  c.  41  (June  2,  1810),  was 
made  payable  to  the  commissioners  of  stamps 
by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22,  s.  75  (Sep.  22,  1831). 
By  24  Viet.  c.  21  (June  28,  1861)  the  duties 
were  reduced. 

HAWKING.— (See  FALCONRY:) 

HAWKSNEST  (Battle).  —Gen.  Rosecrans 
defeated  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Floyd 
at  this  place  in  Western  Virginia,  Sep.  10, 
1861. 

HAYMARKET  THEATRE  (London),  first 
erected  in  1702,  on  the  site  of  the  King's  Head 
inn,  was  rebuilt  and  made  a  theatre  royal  in 
1767.  Fifteen  persons  were  killed,  Feb.  3,  1794, 
by  a  crowd  rushing  into  the  pit.  The  tailors 
of  London  created  a  riot  here  in  1805,  on 
account  of  a  farce,  supposed  to  be  insulting  to 
that  trade.  The  existing  edifice,  commenced 
in  1820,  was  opened  July  4,  1821.  (See  BOTTLE 
CONJUROR.) 

HAYTI,  or  HAITI  (West  Indies).— This 
island,  which  forms  one  of  the  Leeward 
group,  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  Dec., 
1492,  and  named  by  him  Hispaniola.  It  was 
afterwards  called  St.  Domingo,  which  was 
changed  to  its  native  title,  Hayti,  in  1803. 

A.D. 

1495.  Hayti  is  conquered  b3r  the  Spaniards. 

1497.  St. 'Domingo  is  founded. 

1585.  The  island  is  attacked  by  Brake. 

1630.  The  western  coast  is  seized  by  the  French. 

1665.  The  French  appoint  a  governor. 

1697,  Sep.  20.  The  island  is  guaranteed  to  the  French  by 

the  treaty  of  Ryswick. 
1723.  The  negroes  rebel. 
1701.  The  negroes  again  revolt. 
1793.  The  French  abolish  slavery. — Sep.  19.  An  English 

force  arrives  to  protect  the  whites. 
1795,  July  22.  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of   Basel,  surrenders 

her  possessions  in  Hayti  to  the  French. 
1798.  The  British  and  French  troops  evacuate  the  island. 

1801,  July   i.    The  negroes     declare     themselves    inde- 

pendent. 

1802,  Jan.    The  French  invade  Hayti,  which  they  reduce 

to  subjection. — May  3.   They   compel   the  negro 
general,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  to  surrender. 

1803.  The  negroes  expel  the   French,   and    declare    the 

island  independent. 

1804.  The    negro    Dessalines  is  proclaimed  emperor  as 

James  I. 

1806,  Oct.  17.  James  I.  is  assassinated  by  his  subjects, 
who  place  his  lieutenant,  Christophe,  at  the  head 
of  affairs. 


1811,  June  2-  Christophe  and  his  wife  are  crowned  king 

and  queen,  Petiou  retaining  the  presidentship  of 

half  the  island. 
1818,  March  29.  Death  of  Petion,   who  is  succeeded  by 

Boyer. 
1820,  Oct.  6.  The  troops  revolt— Oct.  8.  King  Christophe 

commits  suicide. 

1822.  Boyer  becomes  president  of  the  whole  island. 
1825,  April  17.   France  recognizes    the    independence    of 

Hayti. 
1839,  Dec.  23.  The  republic  accedes  to  the  conventions 

of  Nov.  30,  1831,  and  of  March  22,  1833,  between 

Great  Britain  and  France,  for  the  suppression  of 

the  slave  trade. 
1843.  Boyer  is  overthrown,  and  the  Dominican  republic 

(q.  v.)  is  founded. 
1849,  Aug.  24.  President  Soulouque  proclaims  Hayti   an 

empire,  and  assumes  the  title  of  Faustin  I. 
1852,  April  18.  Faustin  I.  is  crowned  at  Port-au-Prince. 
1855,  Dec.    10.   Faustin   I.    is  repulsed  by  the  troops  of 

St.  Domingo,  and  threatened  with  revolution  by 

his  own  subjects. 

1858,  Dec.   22.  Faustin  I.  is  deposed.  —  Dec.   23.    A  re- 

public is  proclaimed  under  the  presidency  of 
Geffrard. 

1859,  Jan.   10.   Faustin    I.   retires    to    Port-au-Prince. — 

Sep.  3.  A  plot  against  Geffrard  results  in  the 
death  of  his  daughter. 

1860,  Oct.  27.  Three  persons  are  shot  for  conspiracy. 

1861,  March  18.  Hayti  is  declared  united  to  Spain. 

1863,  May.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed.  —  June  10. 
Fourteen  persons  are  executed  for  complicity 
therein. 

1863,  June.  Many  persons  are  executed  for  conspiracy. — 

Aug.  18.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  against  the 
Spanish  Government- — Aug.  20.  The  insurgents 
defeat  the  Spanish  governor. — Sep.  I.  They  seize 
the  capital,  St.  Domingo,  put  the  Spanish  go- 
vernor to  flight,  and  proclaim  a  republic  under 
Col.  Palengo. — Oct.  4.  Porto  Plata  surrenders  to 
the  insurgents. 

1864,  May  17.  The  Spaniards,  victorious  in  several  en- 

gagements, occupy  Monte-  Christi. 

1865,  April  i.  A  bill  for  the  abandonment  of  St  Domingo 

passes  the  Spanish  chamber  of  deputies. — May  7. 
A  military  insurrection  breaks  out  against  Presi- 
dent Geffrard.— May  9.  Gen.  Salnave,  the  insur- 
gent chief,  seizes  Cape  Haytien. — Sep.  2.  Gen. 
Geffrard  resigns  the  presidency.— Oct.  33.  H.M.S. 
Bulldog  attacks  Cape  Haytien  (q.  p.). 

HEAD  MONEY,  first  paid  at  Rome,  B.C.  121, 
when  the  consul  L.  Opimius  gave  the  weight 
in  gold  to  those  who  brought  him  the  heads  of 
Caius  and  Fulvius  Gracchius. 

HEALTH.— (See  BOARD  OF  HEALTH.) 

HEARTH-MONEY  (Tax).  —  Furnage,  or 
fuage,  vulgarly  called  smoke-farthings,  were, 
according  to  Domesday  Book,  paid  for  every 
chimney  in  the  house.  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  after  his  French  victories,  imposed  a 
tax  of  one  florin  on  every  hearth  in  his  French 
dominions.  (See  CHIMNEY  TAX.) 

HEAT,  or  CALORIC.— Little  was  known  as 
to  the  phenomena  of  heat,  till  Dr.  Black 
delivered  his  chemical  lectures  at  Glasgow 
in  1757.  He  discovered  the  doctrine  of  latent 
heat,  which  he  publicly  announced  April  23, 
1762.  Dr.  (afterwaris  Sir  William)  Herschel 
announced  the  substantiality  of  heat  May  15 
and  Nov.  6,  1800 ;  and  in  1802  his  experi- 
ments were  repeated  and  confirmed  by  Sir 
Henry  Englefield.  The  next  important  dis- 
coveries were  made  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir 
John)  Leslie,  who  published  his  theory  of  the 
radiation  of  heat  in  1804,  which  was  brought  to 
greater  perfection  in  1813,  by  Delaroche,  of 
Geneva. 

HEAVENLY  ANNUNCIATION.  —  Victoria 
Fornari,  having  obtained  permission  from  the 


HEAVEN 


[    480    ] 


HELDER 


Archbishop  of  Genoa,  in  1602,  to  found  this 
order  of  nuns,  assumed  the  veil,  with  four 
companions,  Sep.  7,  1605.  The  monastery  was 
completed  June  28,  1608.  A  branch  of  this 
order  was  established  in  Paris  in  1622. 

H  E  A  VE  N  -  W  O  R  S  H  I  P  P  E  R  S.  —  (See 

CCELICOL/E.) 

HEBREWS  (Epistle  to  the)  was  writteji 
by  St.  Paul,  according  to  the  best  biblical 
critics,  in  62  or  63.  Some  writers  refer  it  to 
58.  The  letter  was  probably  intended  for  the 
Church  at  Alexandria,  for  in  the  Roman  cata- 
logues, from  the  end  of  the  2iid  century,  it  is 
described  under  the  title  of  "Epistola  ad 
Alexandrines." 

HEBRIDES,  or  WESTERN  ISLES  (Scotland). 
—  These  islands,  the  Ebudse  of  Ptolemy  and 
the  Hebudes  of  Pliny,  long  subject  to  the 
kings  of  Norway,  became  independent  in  1089. 
In  1153,  Somerled,  lord  of  these  isles,  invaded 
the  mainland,  and  attempted  to  dethrone 
Malcolm  IV.  Having  been  defeated,  he  was 
killed  in  a  second  attempt  made  in  1163.  They 
were  ceded  to  Scotland  in  1266.  Magnus,  their 
last  independent  chief,  died  in  1265,  and  they 
were  held  by  chieftains  in  vassalage  to  the 
King  of  Scotland  until  1346,  when  their  ruler, 
John  of  Isle  or  Islay,  assumed  the  title  of 
"Lord  of  the  Isles."  James  V.  brought  them 
under  the  dominion  of  Scotland  in  1540.  In 
1748,  the  abolition  of  all  heritable  jurisdictions 
put  an  end  to  the  power  of  the  chieftains  of 
the  Isles.  Dr.  Johnson  visited  these  islands 
in  1773.  (See  NEW  HKHRII.CS.) 

HEBRON  (Palestine).— This  city  of  Judah, 
built,  according  to  Scripture,  "seven  years 
before  Zoan  in  K.uypt :"  Num.  xiii.  22),  and 
called  originally  Kirjath-arha  (Judges  i.  10), 
was  a  well-known  town  when  Abram  "came 
and  dwelt  in  the  plain  of  Mamre,  which  is  in 
Hebron,"  B.C.  1917  (Gen.  xiii.  18).  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  death  of  Sarah,  B.C.  1859  (Gen. 
xxiii.  2),  and  of  her  sepulchre  in  the 
Machpclah,  purchased  by  Abraham,  of  Ephron, 
the  Hittite,  for  400  shekels  of  silver  (Gen. 
xxiii.  3-20 '.  Hebron  was  taken  by  Joshua, 
who  ' '  destroyed  it  utterly,  and  all  the  souls 
that  were  therein,"  B.C.  1450  (Josh.  x.  36-37), 
and  bestowed  its  fields  and  neighbouring 
villages  upon  Caleb,  "  because  that  he  wholly 
followed  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,"  B.C.  1444 
(Josh.  xiv.  13-15),  but  gave  the  town  to  the 
Levitea  for  a  city  of  refuge,  B.C.  1443  (Josh. 
xxi.  13).  David  established  his  government 
here  B.C.  1047,  and  ruled  here  "  seven  years  and 
six  months"  (2  Sam.  v.  5).  Hebron,  rebuilt 
after  the  captivity,  B.C.  536,  was  seized  by  the 
Edomites,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  Judas 
Maccabseus,  B.C.  163 — 160.  It  was  burned  by  an 
officer  of  Vespasian  soon  after  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  Sep.  8,  70,  and  was  taken,  early  in 
the  i2th  century,  by  the  crusaders,  from  whom 
it  reverted  to  the  Moslems  in  1187. 

HECATOMB,  or  the  Sacrifice  of  One 
Hundred  Oxen,  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  each  of  the  hundred  cities  of  Lycaonia 
sending  a  bullock  for  the  general  sacrifice, 
or  in  each  of  the  hundred  cit:cs  of  Pelopon- 
nesus making  a  similar  contribution  towards  a 
sacrifice  to  avert  the  plague.  Pythagoras  (B.C. 
540—510)  is  said  to  have  offered  a  hecatomb  on 


discovering  the  47th  proposition  of  the  first 
book  of  Euclid. 

HECLA  (Iceland).— Forty -three  eruptions  of 
this  volcano  since  900  are  on  record.  Of  these 
five  were  simultaneous,  or  nearly  so,  with 
eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  four  with  eruptions  of 
yEtna,  and  one  with  an  eruption  both  of  vEtna 
and  Vesuvius.  An  eruption  that  commenced 
in  June,  1784,  lasted  till  May,  1785.  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  visited  Hecla  in  1772,  and  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  in  1810. 

HEDGECOTE  FIELD.  —  (See  EDGECOTE, 
Battle.) 

HEDGLEY  MOOR  (Battle).  —  Lord 
Montacute,  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
at  the  head  of  a  Yorkist  army,  defeated  the 
Lancastrians  at  this  place,  near  Wooler,  April 
25,  1464. 

HEDUL— (See  ^EDUI.) 

HEGIRA.  -This  ;era  dates  from  the  emigra- 
tion called  the  flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca 
to  Medina,  Thursday,  July  15,  622.  The  a3ra 
commences  July  16. 

HEIDELBERG  Baden),  a  village  in  1225, 
was  enlarged  by  Robert,  Count  Palatine,  in 
1362,  and  was  plundered  by  the  Bavarians  in 
1622.  The  Swedes  captured  it  in  1633,  and 
they  retained  possession  till  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  inri648.  It  was  sacked  by  Turenne 
in  1674,  and  ravaged  by  the  French  in  1689 
and  in  1693.  The  electors  removed  their  resi- 
dence to  Manheim  in  1719.  The  castle,  for- 
merly the  residence  of  the  Electors  IV 
was  destroyed  by  lightning  in  1764.  Heidel- 
berg was  ceded  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden 
in  1802.  Its  university,  the  most  ancient  in 
Germany  except  that  of  Prague,  was  founded 
in  1386.  The  famous  Heidelberg  tun  was  con- 
structed in  1751.  It  is  the  largest  wine  <-;>sk 
in  existence,  rneas\iring  36  feet  long  and  24 
feet  high,  with  a  capacity  of  800  hogsheadfl,  or 
283, 200  bottles.  It  has  remained  empty  since 

1 '  |  f'k II) K L I J MRG  LEAGUE,  of  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  was  concluded  in  1599. 

iiKlDKLBERG,    or    PALATINATE 
CM  ISM,  first  published  at  Heidelberg  in  1563, 
was  accepted  by  the  synod  of  Dort  (q.  v.}. 

HEILBRONN  (Wiirtemberg)  was  founded 
by  Charlemagne  in  805,  and  came  under  the 
dominion  of  the  see  of  Wiirzburg  in  1225.  It 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial  city 
in  1360,  and  was  taken  by  storm  in  the  War  of 
the  Peasants,  1528.  The  Protestant  League  of 
Germany  was  formed  here  in  1594,  and  a 
treaty  between  Sweden  and  the  Protestant 
states  of  Germany,  called  the  Union  of  Heil- 
bronri,  was  concluded  April  9,  1633.  It  was 
made  over  to  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1803. 

HEILIGER  or  HEYLIGER  LEE  (Battle:.— 
The  Spaniards  were  defeated  by  Louis  of 
Nassau  and  the  Dutch  patriots,  called  the 
Gueux,  or  Beggars,  near  the  monastery  of 
Heiliger  Lee,  or  the  "  Holy  Lion,"  May  23, 
1568. 

HELDER  (Holland^.- The  Dutch  Admiral 
Van  Tronip  was  killed  off  the  Helder  Point, 
Aug.  9,  1653.  The  English,  having  captured 
the  Dutch  fleet,  Aug.  30,  1799,  took  possession 
of  Helder.  They  retired  in  Oct.  of  the  same 
year. 


HELENA 


[    481     ] 


HELVOETSLUYS 


HELENA,  ST.  (Atlantic). —  Discovered  on 
St.  Helena's  Day,  May  21,  1502,  by  Juan  de 
Nova  Castella,  a  Portuguese,  was  occupied  by 
the  Dutch  some  time  after  1610.  They  removed 
their  colony  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1650.  St.  Helena  fell  into  the  possession  of 
the  English  in  1651.  The  Dutch  captured  it  in 
1665  and  in  1673,  and  on  both  occasions  were 
speedily  expelled.  Charles  II.  granted  it  to 
the  English  East  India  Company  in  1673.  In 
1815  it  was  made  the  residence  of  Napoleon  I., 
who  landed  on  the  island  Oct.  16,  1815,  and 
resided  there  until  his  death,  May  5,  1821.  His 
remains  were  removed  to  France  in  1840.  A 
chaplain  was  appointed  in  1675,  and  it  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  1859. 

HELENSBURG  (Scotland),  near  Greenock, 
was  founded  by  Sir  J.  Colquhoun  in  1777,  and 
named  after  his  wife  Helen.  The  railroad  to 
Glasgow  was  opened  in  1858. 

HELGA  (Battle).— The  Swedes  and  Nor- 
wegians defeated  Canute  near  this  river,  in 
Denmark,  in  1025. 

HELGYN.— (See  ELGIN.) 

HELIACAL  YEAR.— (See  CANICULAR  YEAR.) 

HELICE  (Greece).— Considered  the  most 
ancient  city  of  Achaia  (q.  v.),  was  the  capital 
of  the  Achteaii  League,  when  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  B.C.  373.  A  similar  catastrophe 
occurred  on  the  same  spot  Aug.  23,  1817. 

HELIER'S,  ST.  (Jersey),  was  founded  by  the 
Normans  in  837.  The  parish  church  was  built 
in  1341.  Fort  Regent  was  commenced  in  1550, 
and  completed  in  1806.  Elizabeth  Castle, 
erected  in  1586,  received  great  additions  in 
1636.  The  court-house  was  built  in  1647.  St. 
Helier's  was  surprised  by  the  French,  Jan.  6, 
1781.  The  harbour  pier  was  completed  in 
1819.  Queen  Victoria  visited  St.  Helier's,  Aug. 
28,  1846,  and  again  Aug.  13,  1859. 

HELIGOLAND  (North  Sea).— This  island 
was  a  dependency  of  the  duchy  of  Holstein, 
until  captured  by  the  English,  Sep.  5,  1807. 
It  was  definitively  assigned  to  England  by  the 
treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814,  and  ceased  to  be 
occupied  as  a  military  post  in  1821. 

HELIGOLAND  (Sea-fight)  took  place  off 
this  island  between  a  Danish  squadron  and 
the  allied  Austrian  and  Prussian  fleet,  May  9, 
1864.  A  fire  having  broken  out  on  board  one 
of  the  Austrian  frigates,  the  allies  were  com- 
pelled to  cease  the  combat,  and  to  retire  to 
their  anchorage  near  the  island. 

HELIOMETER  was  described  by  Savary  in 
1743.  Bouguer  constructed  one  in  1748.  It 
was  improved  by  Dollond  in  1753,  and  by 
Ramsden  in  1777. 

HELIOPOLIS.— (See  BAALBEC.) 

HELLENISTS. —  Jewish  colonists  who 
settled  in  Egypt,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  about  B.C.  606.  Their 
number  was  increased  by  the  Jewish  colonies 
planted  by  Alexander  III.,  B.C.  336.  The  term 
was  applied  to  certain  Jews  (Acts  vi.  i.,  and 
ix.  29)  in  the  early  Church,  who  are  also  called 
Grecians. 

HELLESPONT.— (See  DARDANELLES.) 

HELL-FIRE  CLUBS.— Three  secret  associa- 
tions under  this  name,  to  which  about  40 
persons,  of  both  sexes,  belonged,  existed  in 
London  in  1721.  Their  tendencies  and  mum- 


meries were  believed  to  be  similar  to  those  of 
the  Mohocks,  forbidden,  under  high  penalties, 
in  1711.  They  were  suppressed  by  a  royal  pro- 
clamation, April  28,  1721. 

HELMETS  were  worn  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians and  Assyrians,  and  by  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, and  Etruscans.  The  Britons  did  not  use 
them  before  the  Roman  invasion,  and  they 
were  rare  among  the  Franks  and  Germans. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  wore  four-cornered  pyra- 
midal helmets  of  leather,  and  the  Danes 
conical  protections  of  metal,  which  also  formed 
part  of  the  armour  of  the  Saxon  nobles  at 
Hastings.  The  nasal-piece  was  added  in  the 
loth  century,  and  cylindrical  flat-topped  hel- 
mets were  introduced  in  the  i2th,  the  earliest 
specimen  being  one  worn  by  Charles  the  Good  of 
Flanders,  in  1122.  Fan  crests  became  general 
in  the  i^th  century;  the  round-topped  helm 
came  into  fashion  about  1270  ;  and  the  sugar- 
loaf-shaped  helmet  about  1280.  Bell-shaped 
and  broad-brimmed  helmets  were  sometimes 
worn  in  the  i4th  century,  though  they  never 
became  general.  In  the  isth  century  helmets 
of  cuir  bouilli  and  wicker-work  were  worn  by 
archers;  and  in  the  i6th  century  the  close 
helmet,  or  burgonet,  was  introduced,  and 
mask-visors  of  grotesque  design  were  in  vogue. 
An  attempt  was  made  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  to  invent  a  head-covering  answer- 
ing the  double  purpose  of  a  helmet  and  a 
hat. 

HELMSTADT  (Brunswick).— The  university, 
founded  in  1576,  was  suppressed  by  Jerome 
Buonaparte  in  1809. 

HELOTS.— The  inhabitants  of  the  town  of 
Helos,  in  Laconia,  captured  by  the  Spartans 
B.C.  700,  were  employed  either  as  domestic 
slaves,  cultivators  of  the  land,  or  in  the  pub- 
lic works ;  and,  being  cruelly  treated,  often 
rose  in  rebellion.  This  was  the  case  during 
the  great  earthquake,  B.C.  464,  and  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  B.C.  420.  The  term  was 
afterwards  applied  to  all  captives  condemned 
to  servitude. 

HELSINGBORG  (Battle).— The  Swedes  de- 
feated the  Danes  at  this  town,  in  Sweden, 
March  10,  1709.  A  convention  between  Great 
Britain  and  Sweden  was  concluded  here  Aug. 

HELSINGFORS  (Russia).— The  position  of 
this  town,  built  by  Gustavus  I.  in  the  i6th 
century,  was  changed  in  1639.  The  Russians 
burned  it  in  1728  and  in  1741.  It  was  ceded  to 
Russia  in  1809,  and  they  made  it  the  capital  of 
Finland  in  1819. 

HELVETIAN  or  HELVETIC  REPUBLIC. 
— The  title  of  the  government  established  in 
Switzerland  (q.  v.}  by  its  French  conquerors  in 

1  'HE'LVETII.— This  Celtic  tribe  inhabited  the 
country  now  called  Switzerland,  and  under 
their  leader  Divico  defeated  L.  Cassius  Lon- 
ginus,  and  compelled  his  army  to  pass  under 
the  yoke,  B.C.  107.  Orgetorix  led  them  into 
Gaul  B.C.  61,  and  they  were  totally  defeated 
and  cruelly  massacred  by  Julius  Caesar  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sa6ne,  B.C.  58. 

HELVOETSLUYS    (Holland).— William, 
Prince  of  Orange,   sailed  from  this  port  for 
England,  Oct.  19,  1688.    It  was  taken  by  the 
1 1 


HEMP 


[    482    ] 


HENRY 


French  in  Jan.,  1795,  and  was  evacuated  by 
them  Dec.  5,  1813. 

HEMP.— This  plant  has  been  grown  in  Ben- 
gal from  the  earliest  ages,  and  was  woven  into 
cloth  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Thrace.  It 
was  introduced  into  England  about  1139.  Its 
cultivation  was  ordered  by  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4 
(1532).  Its  growth  in  the  North  American 
colonies  was  encouraged  by  3  &  4  Anne,  c.  10 
(I7°3)- 

HEMS.- (See  EMESA.) 

HENERY  ISLE,  about  10  miles  from  Bom- 
bay, was  seized  by  Sevajee  in  1679.  It  was  a 
rendezvous  for  pirates  about  1790. 

HENGSTONE  HILL,  or  HENGESTDOWN 
(Battle).— Egbert  defeated  the  Danes  at  this 
place,  in  Cornwall,  in  835. 

HENNEBON  (France).— The  succession  to 
Britanny  having,  in  1341,  been  disputed  by 
Charles  de  Blois,  nephew  of  Philip  VI.,  King  of 
France,  and  John  de  Montfort,  the  former  be- 
sieged l)e  Montfort's  wife,  Jane,  in  the  town  of 
Hennebon,  in  1342.  This  heroic  woman,  said 
to  have  had  "the  courage  of  a  man  and  the 
heart  of  a  lion,"  was  on  the  point  of  surren- 
dering the  town,  when  the  English  fleet,  con- 
veying reinforcements  under  Sir  Walter  Manny, 
entered  the  harbour. 

HENOTICON,  or  EDICT  OF  UNION,  was 
published  by  the  Greek  Emperor  Zeno,  in  482, 
for  the  purpose  of  reconciling  the  rival 
Churches  of  Alexandria  and  Constantinople. 
Felix  III.  condemned  it  in  483,  and  it  was  re- 
voked by  Justin  I.  in  518.  (See  ACACIANS.) 

'UK  Nit  I.— (See  CArif  HA, 

HENRICAN8.— Th«  followers  of  Henry,  a 
monk  and  hermit,  who  attempted  to  effect  a 
reform  among  the  clergy  in  the  1 2th  century. 
He  quitted  Switzerland,  travelled  through 
Bordeaux  and  Poitou,  and  arrived  at  Toulouse 
n  1147.  Eugenius  III.  condemned  his  views 
at  the  Council  of  Rheims,  March  21,  1148,  and 
committed  Henry  to  prison,  where  he  died. 

HENRY  SPRINGS  (Battle).  —  Maj. -Gen. 
Blunt  defeated  the  Confederates,  under  Gen. 
Cooper,  at  this  place,  in  Arkansas,  July  16, 
1863. 

HENRY  THE  FIRST,  the  youngest  son  of 
William  I.,  bom  at  Selby,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1068, 
was  chosen  king  at  Winchester,  Aug.  3,  and 
was  crowned  at  Westminster,  Sunday,  Aug.  5, 
1 100.  He  married  Maud,  daughter  of  Mal- 
colm III.,  King  of  Scotland,  Nov.  n,  noo. 
She  bore  him  a  son  and  a  daughter — William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  who  perished  by  ship- 
wreck, Nov.  25,  1 120,  and  Maud,  married 
to  Henry  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  Jan.  7, 
mi,  and,  after  his  death  (May  22,  1125),  to 
Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  Aug.  26,  1127.  She  re- 
ceived homage  as  future  queen  of  England, 
Dec.  25,  1126,  and  contested  the  crown  with 
Stephen.  Henry  the  First's  queen,  Maud, 
died  at  Westminster,  May  i,  1118 ;  and,  Feb.  2, 
1 121,  he  married  Adelais  of  Louvain,  who  sur- 
vived him,  leaving  no  issue.  Henry  I.,  who 
died  at  Rouen,  Sunday,  Dec.  i,  1135,  was  sur- 
named  Beauclerc,  or  the  Scholar. 

HENRY  THE  SECOND,  the  eldest  son  of 
Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  and  Maud,  daughter  of 
Henry  I.,  born  at  Mans,  in  Maine,  March,  1133, 
was  crowned  at  Westminster,  Dec.  19,  1154. 


He  married  Eleanor,  the  divorced  wife  of 
Louis  VII.,  Whitsunday,  May  18,  1152.  They 
had  five  sons  and  three  daughters — William, 
born  in  1152,  and  died  in  1156  ;  Henry,  born 
Feb.  28,  1155,  died  June  n,  1183  ;  Matilda, 
born  in  1156,  married  to  Henry  the  Lion,  of 
Saxony,  in  1168,  and  died  June  28,  1189; 
Richard  (see  RICHARD  I.) ;  Geoffrey,  born  Sep. 
23,  1158,  killed  at  a  tournament  Aug.  19,  1186  ; 
Eleanor,  born  in  1162,  married  to  Alphonso 
III.,  of  Castile,  in  1170,  and  died  Oct.  31,  1214; 
Joanna,  born  in  Oct.,  1165,  and  died  in  Sep., 
1199 ;  and  John  (q.  v.},  afterwards  king.  Henry 
II.,  who  died  at  Chinon,  July  6,  1189,  was  sur- 
named Fitz-Empress. 

HENRY  THE  THIRD,  eldest  son  of  King 
John  and  Isabella,  born  at  Winchester,  Oct.  i, 
1207,  was  crowned  at  Gloucester,  Friday,  Oct. 
28,  1216.  He  married  Eleanor  of  Provence, 
Jan.  14,  1236,  by  whom  he  had  six  sons  and 
three  daughters.  Of  these,  five,  namely, 
Robert,  John,  William,  Henry,  and  Catherine, 
died  young.  Edward  (see  EDWARD  I.)  was 
born  June  18, 1239;  Margaret  was  born  in  1241, 
married  to  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  Dec. 
26,  1251,  and  died  in  1275  ;  Beatrice  was  born 
in  1242,  and  died  in  1275  ;  and  Edimmd  was 
born  in  1245,  created  Earl  of  Lancaster,  and 
died  hi  1296.  Henry  III.  died  at  Westminster, 
Wednesday,  Nov.  16,  1272,  and  was  buried  in 
the  abbey,  Nov.  20.  In  1286  his  widow 
Eleanor  became  a  nun  at  Amesbury,  where  she 
died  June  24,  1291.  Henry  III.  was  surnamed 
Windiest er  from  the  place  of  his  birth. 

HENRY  THE  FOURTH,  the  only  son  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  born  at  Bolingbroke  in  1366, 
was  acknowledged  king  Tuesday,  Sep.  30,  1399. 
In  1380  he  married  Mary  de  Bohun,  by  whom 
he  had  four  sons  and  two  daughters  ;  namely, 
Henry  V.  (q.  v.)  ;  Thomas,  born  in  1389,  created 
Duke  of  Clarence  in  1412,  and  was  killed  at 
Bauge",  March  22,  1421  ;  John,  born  in  1390, 
created  Duke  of  Bedford  in  1415,  and  died  Sep. 
14,  1435 ;  Humphrey,  born  in  1391,  created 
Duke  of  Gloucester  in  1414,  and  died  in  Feb., 
1447  ;  Blanche,  born  in  1392,  and  died  May  22, 
1409  ;  and  Philippa,  born  in  1393,  married  to 
Eric  XIII.  of  Denmark,  and  died  Jan.  5,  1430. 
Henry's  first  wife,  Mary,  having  died  in  1394, 
he  married  Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of  John  IV. 
or  V.  of  Britanny,  April  3,  1402.  The  marriage 
was  celebrated  at  Winchester,  Feb.  26,  1403. 
She  had  no  children,  and  survived  the  king, 
dying  in  1437.  Henry  IV.  died  at  Westminster, 
Monday,  March  20,  1413.  He  was  suruamed 
Bolingbroke. 

HENRY  THE  FIFTH,  the  eldest  son  of 
Henry  IV.  and  his  wife  Mary,  was  born  at 
Monmouth,  Aug.  9,  1388  ;  ascended  the  throne 
March  21.  He  was  crowned  at  Westminster, 
April  9, 1413,  and  married  Catherine  of  France, 
June  2,  1420.  She  bore  him  one  child,  Henry 
VI.  (g.  v.),  and  survived  her  husband,  who 
died  at  Bois  Vincennes,  Aug.  31,  1422.  He 
was  surnamed  Monmouth. 

HENRY  THE  SIXTH,  the  only  son  of  Henry 
V.  and  Catherine  of  France,  was  born  at 
Windsor,  Dec.  6,  1421,  proclaimed  king  Sep.  i, 
1422,  and  crowned  at  Paris  Dec.  17,  1431.  He 
married  Margaret  of  Anjou,  April  22,  1445. 
They  had  one  son,  Edward,  bom  Oct.  13,  1453, 


HENRY 


[     483     1 


HERAT 


and  killed  at  Tewkesbury,  Saturday,  May  4 
1471.  Henry  was  deposed  March  4,  1461 
restored  Oct.  9,  1470  ;  and  again  deposed  Apr! 
14,  1471.  From  that  time  he  was  kept  in  the 
Tower,  where  he  was  probably  put  to  death  in 
June  of  the  same  year.  His  queen,  Margaret 
survived  him,  and  died  in  penury  at  Dam- 
pierre,  Aug.  25,  1481.  Henry  was  surnamed 
Windsor. 

HENRY  THE  SEVENTH,  son  of  Edmund 
Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond,  and  Margaret, 
daughter  of  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset, 
was  born  at  Pembroke  Castle,  Jan.  21,  1456. 
He  was  proclaimed  king  after  the  victory  of 
Bosworth  Field,  Aug.  22, 1485,  and  was  crowned 
Oct.  30.  He  married  Elizabeth  of  York,  Jan. 
18,  1486,  thereby  xmiting  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,  that  had  long  contested  the 
right  to  the  crown.  They  had  three  sons  and 
four  daughters,  of  whom  Edmund,  Elizabeth, 
and  Catherine  died  in  infancy.  Their  other 
children  were  Arthur,  born  at  Winchester,  Sep. 
20,  1486,  married  Catherine  of  Aragon  Nov.  14, 
1501,  and  died  April  2,  1502 ;  Margaret,  born 
Nov.  29, 1489,  married  to  James  IV.  of  Scotland, 
and  died  in  1541  ;  Henry,  who  became  king  (see 
HENRY  VIII.) ;  and  Mary,  born  in  1498,  married 
to  Louis  XII.  of  France  Oct.  9,  1514,  and  died 
June  25,  1533.  Elizabeth  died  Feb.  n,  1503. 
Henry  VII.  died  at  Richmond,  April  21,  1509, 
and  was  buried  in  the  chapel  at  Westminster, 
which  bears  his  name,  May  10. 

HENRY  THE  EIGHTH,  the  second  son  of 
Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth  of  York,  was  born 
at  Greenwich,  June  28,  1491 ;  succeeded  to  the 
throne  April  22,  1509;  and  was  crowned  at 
Westminster,  June  24  in  the  same  year.  He 
married  Catherine  of  Aragon,  his  brother 
Arthur's  widow,  June  7,  1509.  The  marriage 
was  pronounced  null  and  void  May  23,  1533. 
Henry  had  married  Anne  Boleyn  in  Jan.,  1533, 
and  this  union  was  declared  lawful  May  28, 
J533-  Anne's  marriage  was  set  aside  May  17, 
and  she  was  executed  May  19,  the  king  marry- 
ing Jane  Seymour  May  20, 1536.  Jane  Seymour 
died  Oct.  24,  1537,  and  Henry  married  Anne  of 
Cleves  Jan.  6,  1540.  This  marriage  was  pro- 
nounced invalid  July  10 ;  abrogated  by  Parlia- 
ment July  24  ;  and  Henry  married  Catherine 
Howard  July  28,  1540.  She  was  executed  Feb. 
12,  1542  ;  and  Henry  married  Catherine  Parr,  a 
widow,  July  10,  1543.  She  survived  him, 
dying  in  Sep.,  1548.  In  addition  to  children 
who  died  in  infancy,  Henry  had,  by  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  Mary  (q.  v.) ;  by  Anne  Boleyn, 
Elizabeth  (q.  v.) ;  and  by  Jane  Seymour, 
Edward  (see  EDWAKD  VI.).  Henry  died  at 
Westminster,  Friday,  Jan.  28,  1547. 

HENRY  THE  SIXTH'S  COLLEGE.  —(See 
CHRIST'S  COLLEGE,  Cambridge.) 

HEPTARCHY.— This  word,  which  signifies 
the  government  of  seven  rulers,  is  applied  to 
the  divisions  of  England  under  the  Saxons. 
The  first  Saxon  monarchy  in  England  was  that 
of  Kent,  founded  in  455.  The  erection  of 
Sussex  into  a  kingdom  in  491  established  the 
Duarchy,  which  became  a  Triarchy  on  the 
foundation  of  Wessex  in  5 19.  The  commence- 
ment of  the  states  of  Essex  and  East  Angles, 
in  527,  made  it  a  Pentarchy,  which  became  a 
Hexarchy  when  Ida  founded  Bernicia  or  North- 


umbria  in  547,  and  a  Heptarchy  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  British  kingdom  of  Deira,  in  559. 
An  eighth  state,  Mercia,  founded  in  586,  con- 
stituted the  Octarchy,  which  continued  till  670, 
when  the  union  of  Deira  and  Bernicia  into  the 
single  kingdom  of  Northumbria  restored  the 
Heptarchy.  The  seven  kingdoms  were  gra- 
dually united  into  one  by  Egbert  and  his  suc- 
cessors. (See  BRITANNIA  and  ENGLAND.) 

HERACLEA  (Magna  Graecia)  was  founded 
B.C.  432.  The  Romans  were  defeated  near  this 
city  by  Pyrrhus,  B.C.  280. 

HERACLEA,  or  MINOA  (Sicily).— Little  is 
known  concerning  the  early  history  of  this 
town,  which  was  repeopled  by  the  Dorians 
B.C.  510.  It  was  an  important  place  during 
the  first  and  second  Punic  wars.  (See  ECKOMUS, 
Sea-fight.) 

HERACLEA  PONTICA  (Asia  Minor)  was 
founded  by  the  Megarians,  B.C.  986.  The  in- 
habitants supplied  the  10,000  Greeks  under 
Xenophon  with  vessels  to  carry  them  back  to 
Cyzicus,  B.C.  401.  The  republican  government 
of  the  city  was  overthrown  by  Clearchus  B.C. 
380.  Heraclea  furnished  succour  to  Ptolemy  I., 
against  Antigonus,  B.C.  307.  The  Roman 
consul  Aurelius  Cotta  sacked  and  plundered 
the  city  B.C.  74. 

HERACLEONITES.  —  A  Gnostic  sect,  the 
followers  of  Heracleon,  a  pupil  of  Valentinus, 
that  arose  in  the  2nd  century. 

HERACLID^,  the  descendants  of  Hercules, 
who,  after  his  death,  B.C.  1209,  were  expelled 
from  the  Peloponnesus,  and  took  refuge  in 
Attica.  The  return  of  the  Heraclidse,  or  the 
Dorian  Migration,  B.C.  1104,  forms  a  celebrated 
epoch  in  ancient  chronology,  as  marking  the 
transition  from  the  heroic  or  fabulous  ages  to 
the  period  of  authentic  history. 

HERALDRY.— Its  origin  has  been  claimed 
for  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  other  ancient 
nations,  but  it  is  of  much  later  date,  and 
probably  arose  from  the  devices  painted  on 
German  banners.  Blazonry  was  introduced 
by  the  French,  whether  in  the  time  of  the 
Merovingians,  who  became  extinct  in  752,  or 
in  the  gth  or  loth  century,  is  uncertain.  Family 
bearings  were  established  among  the  kings  of 
the  Heptarchy.  Heraldry,  as  a  science,  was 
not  introduced  into  England  till  1147  ;  crests 
were  borne  before  1286.  Heralds,  as  now 
established,  were  instituted  by  Richard  III.  in 
1483,  and  were  incorporated  March  2,  1484. 

HERALDS'  COLLEGE,  or  COLLEGE  OF 
ARMS  (London).— This  institution  was  incor- 
porated by  letters  patent  of  Richard  III., 
dated  March  2,  1484.  Queen  Mary  gave  Derby 
House  for  the  purposes  of  the  college,  July  18, 
1554.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of 
1666,  and  the  edifice  in  Doctors'  Commons  was 
erected  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1683.  The 
college  consists  of  the  three  kings-at-arms, 
viz.,  Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy;  of 
six  heralds, — Lancaster,  Somerset,  Richmond, 
Windsor,  York,  and  Chester ;  and  of  four 
pursuivants,— Rouge  Croix,  Blue  Mantle,  Port- 
cullis, and  Rouge  Dragon. 

HERAT  (Afghanistan)  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander III.  was  the  capital  of  an  extensive  pro- 
vince. From  1150  to  1220  it  was  the  residence 
of  the  Gourides,  and  was  taken  from  the  Per- 

112 


HERCULANEUM 


C    484    1 


HERTFORD 


sians  by  the  Affghans  in  1715.  It  was  retaken 
by  Nadir  Shah,  in  1731,  and  recovered  by  the 
Affghans  in  1749.  The  Persians  attacked  it  in 
1833  and  in  1838,  without  success.  It  was  .sur- 
rendered to  the  Persian  general  Sultan  Murad 
Mirza  by  Issa  Khan,  after  a  long  siege,  Oct.  26, 

1856.  The  Persian  troops  evacuated  it  July  27, 

1857.  It  was  seized  by  Dost  Mohammed,  Shall 
of  Affghanistan,  May  26,  1863. 

HERCULANEUM  (Italy).— The  foundation 
of  this  ancient  city  of  Campania  was  ascribed 
to  Hercules.  It  suffered  severely  from  fin 
earthquake,  63,  and  was  entirely  overwhelmed 
by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  Aug.  24,  79. 
A  second  settlement,  formed  near  the  site  of 
the  buried  city,  met  with  a  similar  fate  in  472. 
Even  the  situation  of  Herculaneum  was  for- 
gotten. In  1 709  some  fragments  of  statues,  &c. , 
were  discovered  in  sinking  a  well,  and  in  1738 
the  theatre  was  discovered  and  explored  by 
Col.  Alcubier.  A  description  of  the  city  was 
published  by  the  Academy  of  Naples,  at  the 
expense  of  the  government,  under  the  title  of 
"  Antichitil  di  Ercolano"  (1757 — 92). 

HERDBY,  or  IIKRPKHY  Nottinghamshire). 
— Eleanor,  wife  of  Edward  I.,  died  at  this  place, 
near  Grantham,  Nov.  28,  1290. 

HEREDITARY  G I!  AM)  A  LMONER.—  This 
office,  before  the  time  of  Richard  I!., was  vested 
in  the  Beauchamp  family.  The  Earl  of  Kxel  ex- 
claimed, and,  in  spite  of  other  competitors, 
received  it  at  the  coronation  of  Jann.s  I.,  in 
1603,  in  right  of  descent  from  Lord  Latimer, 
on  whom  the  lands  of  the  Beauchamp  family 
had  devolved. 

II  FRFFORD  (Bishopric)  was  founded  in  676. 

HEREFORD  (Herefordshire).— A  cathedral, 
built  here  in  825,  and  rebuilt  in  1030,  was 
destroyed  by  Griffith,  when  he  assailed  the  city, 
in  1055.  The  present  edifice  was  commenced 
in  1079.  Hei-ofoi-d  was  pillaged  by  the  Welsh, 
under  Griffith,  Oct.  24,  1055,  and  was  taken  by 
King  Stephen  in  1141.  The  Parliamentary 
troops  captured  it  in  1643.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated. Oct.  9,  1189,  and  its  last  charter  is  dated 
June  14,  1697.  The  cathedral,  the  west  tower 
of  which  fell  April  17,  1786,  was  reopened 
after  restoration,  June  30,  1863.  The  statue  of 
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  was  inaugurated 
by  Lord  Palmerston  Sep.  8,  1864. 

HERETICS.— St.  Augustine  defines  heretics 
as  those  "who,  when  they  are  reproved  for 
their  unsound  opinions,  contumaciously  resist, 
and,  instead  of  correcting  their  pernicious  and 
damnable  doctrines,  persist  in  the  defence  of 
them,  and  leave  the  Church  and  become  her 
enemies."  In.  the  primitive  Church  they 
were  not  regarded  as  Christians  :  marriages 
between  them  and  the  orthodox  were  pro- 
hibited in  366  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea;  and 
the  Theodosian  Code  (438)  deprived  them  of 
the  benefit  of  sanctuary.  The  principal  here- 
tical sects  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
titles.  By  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14  (1533),  offences 
against  the  see  of  Rome  do  not  constitute 
heresy.  All  former  statutes  on  the  subject 
were  repealed  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i  (1558),  which 
rendered  it  an  ecclesiastical  offence,  only  to 
be  judged  in  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  burn- 
ing of  heretics  was  abolished  by  29  Charles  II. 
e.  9,  s.  i  (1676).  Persons  relapsing  from.  Chris- 


tianity into  a  belief  in  more  than  one  God, 
or  a  denial  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  were 
rendered  liable  to  sundry  civil  disabilities, 
and,  on  persistence  in  the  offence,  to  impri- 
sonment for  three  years,  by  9  &  10  Will.  111. 
c.  32  (1698).  (See  FIERY  CHAMBER.) 

HERITABLE  JURISDICTIONS.— A  pecu- 
liar class  of  jurisdictions  in  Scotland,  abolished 
at  a  cost  of  .£152,037  i2s.  2(1.,  by  20  Geo.  II. 
c.  43  (1748). 

HERMANDAD.— (See  HOLY  BROTHERHOOD.) 

HERMANNSTADT  [Transylvania),  foimded 
by  the  Saxons  in  1160,  was  the  scene  of  an 
Austrian  defeat  by  the  Hungarians,  Jan.  21, 
1849.  The  Russians  occupied  it  July  21,  1849, 
were  drivenout  Aug.  5,  and  regained  possession, 
having  defeated  the  Hungarians  with  much 
slaughter,  Aug.  6. 

IIERODIANS,  mentioned  by  Matthew  (xxii. 
1 6)  and  Mark  (iii.  6,  xii.  13),  are  believed  to  have 
been  the  adherents  of  Herod  the  Great,  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Galilee  by  Antipater  B.C. 
47.  After  he  had  obtained  the  throne,  B.C.  40, 
he  gained  numerous  partisans  among  the  Jews, 
and  they  were  probably  formed  into  a  sect  at 
his  death,  B.C.  4  (March  13).  Dr.  Martin  Luther 
translated  the  word  'HptaSiavoi  into  "  Diener 
des  Herodes,"  servants  of  Herod.  They 
were  a  political  party  rather  than  a  religious 
sect. 

1 1  K I !  I !  I',  X  H  A  U  s  I  :N  (Treaty).— (See  HANOVER, 
Alliances.) 

1 1  K  HI !  ill!  A  (Battle).— The  Carlists  defeated 
Queen  Isabella's  troops  near  this  place,  in  Ara- 
gon,  Aug.  24,  i8-)7. 

HERRING  FISHERY.— The  Scotch  were 
extensively  engaged  in  this  fishery  in  the  gth 
century,  and  the  Dutch  first  practised  it  in 
1164.  By  the  Statute  of  Herrings,  Kdw.  III. 
st.  2  (1357),  the  sale  of  the  fish  at  sea  was  pro- 
hibited, and  the  trade  was  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  chancellor  and  treasurer.  This 
statute  mentions  Yarmouth  as  the  great  seat 
of  the  herring  fishery.  The  method  of  curing 
the  fish  with  salt  was  invented  by  Beukels,  a 
Dutchman,  who  died  in  1397.  The  Society  of 
the  Free  British  Fishery  was  incorporated  in 
1749  for  the  regulation  of  the  hen-ing  fisheries, 
and  a  similar  company  was  formed  in  1786 ;  but 
neither  met  with  much  success,  in  spite  of  the 
extravagant  bounties  granted  for  their  en- 
couragement. By  48  Geo.  III.  c.  no  (June  25, 
1808),  commissioners  were  appointed,  whose 
business  was  to  superintend  the  cleansing, 
packing,  <fcc.,  of  the  herrings,  and  in  1830  the 
bounties  were  discontinued.  The  laws  relating 
to  the  Scotch  herring  fishery  were  amended  by 
23  &  24  Viet.  c.  92  (Aug.  13,  1860),  and  28  Viet, 
c.  22  (May  9,  1865). 

HERRINGS  (Battle  of),  fought  at  Roveroy, 
near  Orleans,  Feb.  12,  1429,  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  French,  the  latter  being  defeated. 
The  French  endeavoured  to  cut  off  a  convoy  of 
provisions  for  the  army  besieging  Orleans,  and 
for  this  reason  the  action  was  called  the  battle 
of  Herrings. 

HERRNHUT  (Saxony),  founded  by  the 
Moravian  Brethren  (q.  v.),  sometimes  called 
Herrnhutters,  in  1722. 

HERTFORD  (Hertfordshire).— A  castle  was 
built  here  in  the  reign  of  King  Alfred.  A  council 


HERTFORD 


HESYCHASTS 


was  held  at  Hertford,  Sep.  24,  673.  Edward 
the  Elder  erected  another  castle  in  909,  which 
was  granted  by  Edward  III.  to  John  of  Gaunt 
in  1345.  Its  earliest  authenticated  charter  was 
granted  by  Elizabeth,  in  1588 ;  and  that  by 
which  it  is  governed  in  1680.  (See  CHRIST'S 
HOSPITAL.) 

HERTFORD  COLLEGE  (Oxford).— Hertford 
Hall  was  in  existence  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I., 
and  in  1312  was  conveyed  to  Walter  Stapleton, 
Bishop  of  Exeter.  It  became  a  dependency  of 
Exeter  College  ;  was  re-established  in  1710,  and 
was  raised  into  a  perpetual  college  by  royal 
charter,  Aug.  27,  1740.  It  was  dissolved  in 
1818. 

HERULI.—  This  Teutonic  tribe,  from  the 
coast  of  the  Baltic,  descended  the  Danube  to 
the  Black  Sea,  sailed  through  the  Hellespont 
in  262,  when,  with  other  Gothic  tribes,  they 
assailed  the  cities  of  Greece,  burning,  among 
others,  the  famous  temple  of  the  goddess 
Diana  at  Ephesus.  They  were  met  near 
Athens  by  Dexippus,  who  routed  them  in  267. 
They  again  wandered  northward,  invaded 
Italy,  and  overthrew  the  Western  empire  in 
476.  The  Longobardi  almost  destroyed  them  in 
512,  and  their  name  is  mentioned  for  the  last 
ime  in  history  at  the  defeat  and  death  of 


Teias  by  Narses,  in  March,  553. 

HERZEGOVINA,  or  HERTSEK  (European 
Turkey). — This  province,  at  one  time  consti- 
tuting the  dukedom  of  St.  Saba,  and  at 
another  the  county  of  Chulm,  which  originally 
formed  part  of  Croatia,  was  incorporated  with 
Bosnia  in  1326.  It  was  seized  by  the  Turks 
in  1463,  was  formally  ceded  to  the  Porte  by 
Austria  at  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  Jan.  26, 
1699,  and  was  overrun  by  a  band  of  Mon- 
tenegrins in  Oct.,  1855.  Omar  Pasha  was 
despatched  to  this  province  to  suppress  an  in- 
surrection under  Luca  Vukalovitch,  Sep.  i, 
1 86 1.  After  a  year's  conflict  this  chief  surren- 
dered to  the  Ottoman  forces  of  Churchid- 
Pasha,  Sep.  23,  1862,  and  the  rebellion  termi- 
nated. 

HERZOGENBUSCH.— The  German  name  of 
Bois-le-Duc  (q.  v.). 

HESDIN  (France),  taken  by  the  English, 
under  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  after  a  siege  of  six 
weeks,  in  1522,  was  destroyed  by  Emanuel 
Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy,  general  of  the  forces 
of  Charles  V.,  in  1553,  and  rebuilt  by  the 
emperor  in  1554.  The  new  town,  seized  by 
Louis  XIII.  in  1639,  was  annexed  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

HESDIN  (Truce).  —  Louis  XI.  of  France 
having,  by  his  assistance  of  Henry  VI.  of  Eng- 
land, provoked  the  resentment  of  Edward  IV., 
concluded  a  truce  with  the  latter  monarch  at 
this  town  of  France,  Oct.  27,  1463. 

HESPERIDES.— (See  CANARY  ISLANDS.) 

HESSE  (Germany).— This  country  was  origi- 
nally peopled  by  the  Catti  (q.  v.).  In  the  time 
of  Clovis  I.  it  formed  part  of  Thuringia,  but  in 
902  was  under  the  government  of  a  count  of 
Hesse.  It  afterwards  passed  by  marriage  into 
the  possession  of  Louis  I.  of  Thuringia  (1130 — 
1140),  and  on  the  extinction  of  his  male  de- 
scendants in  1247,  was  erected  into  a  distinct 
landgraviate  under  Hemy  the  Infant,  whose 
claims  were  finally  established  in  1264.  In 


1292  it  became  a  principality  of  the  empire, 
and  in  1458  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Hesse,  the  whole  country  again  becoming 
united  under  the  Landgrave  of  Lower  Hesse  in 
1500.  On  the  death  of  Philip  I.,  in  1567,  Hesae 
was  divided  between  his  four  sons,  who  founded 
the  houses  of  Cassel,  Marburg,  Rheinfels,  and 
Darmstadt.  The  first  house  of  Rheinfels  be- 
coming extinct  in  1583,  and  that  of  Marburg 
in  1604,  the  country  fell  to  the  families  of 
Hesse-Cassel  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  (q.  v.}. 

HESSE-CASSEL  (Germany).— This  state  was 
erected  on  the  death  of  Philip  I.  (the  Magnani- 
mous) of  Hesse,  in  1567.  In  1627  the  house  of 
Hesse-Rottenburg  and  the  second  house  of 
Rheinfels  (q.  v.)  were  founded  by  the  brothers  of 
William  V.  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  in  1663  Philip, 
third  son  of  William  VI.,  founded  the  line  of 
Hesse-Philipsthal.  Hesse-Cassel  was  made  an 
electorate  in  1803 ;  it  was  occupied  by  the  French 
in  1806,  and  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  in  1807.  It  was  re-elected  into  an 
electorate  in  1813.  Popular  insurrections  in 
1 830  and  1 848  led  to  concessions  from  the  elec- 
tor, who  joined  the  Prussian  union  in  1849,  and 
seceded  from  it  in  1850.  The  constitution  was 
again  modified  in  1852,  and  again  in  1860,  the 
alterations  taking  effect  from  July  i. 

HESSE-DARMSTADT  (Germany).  —  This 
state  was  separated  from  Hesse  on  the  death  of 
Philip  I.  (the  Magnanimous),  in  1567.  In  1801 
Louis  X.  was  compelled  to  cede  several  districts 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived in  exchange  the  duchy  of  Westphalia, 
&c.  In  1806  Hesse-Darmstadt  became  a  grand- 
duchy.  The  grand-duke  joined  the  alliance 
against  France  in  1813,  and  ceded  Westphalia 
and  other  territories  to  Prussia  in  1815.  Im- 
portant political  reforms  were  introduced  in 
1820  and  1848,  most  of  which  were  withdrawn 
in  1850.  Hesse-Darmstadt  joined  the  Austrian 
league  which  assembled  at  Frankfort  in  1850, 
under  the  name  of  the  Ancient  German  Diet. 

HESSE-HOMBURG  (Germany).— This  state 
was  founded  in  1596  by  Frederick,  son  of 
George  I.  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  In  1806  it  was 
put  in  subjection  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  but 
it  regained  its  independence  in  1815,  and 
received  the  lordship  of  Meissenberg.  It 
joined  the  Zollverein  in  1835.  The  Landgrave 
of  Hesse-Homburg  was  the  only  minor  prince 
of  Germany  who  refused  to  adopt  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  empire  in  1849.  He  died  March  24, 
1866,  and  the  state  was  incorporated  with 
Hesse-Darmstadt. 

HESYCHASTS,  HESYCHIST^,  or  QUIET- 
ISTS  OF  THE  EAST.  —  This  mystic  sect, 
which  revived  the  doctrines  and  practices  of 
the  Euchites  (q.  v,),  originated  among  the 
monks  of  Mount  Athos,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
1 4th  century,  taught  that  all  perfection  con- 
sisted in  contemplation,  and  professed  to  enjoy 
glimpses  of  the  same  divine  light  which  shone 
around  the  Saviour  and  the  three  chosen  dis- 
ciples at  the  transfiguration  (q.  v.).  Opposed  by 
the  Barlaamites  (q.  v.),  they  were  defended  by 
Gregoiy  Palamas,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica, 
who  obtained  a  decision  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople in  their  favour  June  u,  1341. 
Another  council  in  1351  supported  them,  and 
they  were  patronized  by  the  Emperor  John  V.' 


HETHELAND 


[    486    ] 


HILDESHEIM 


(Cantacuzenus),  on  whose  retirement  into   a 
monastery,  in  1355,  they  declined. 
HETHELAND.—  (See  BATTLE  ABBEY.) 
HEVEONE.— This  viscous  vegetable  oil,  ob- 
tained by  M.  Mathieu  from  pure  caoutchouc  by 
the   action  of    high  temperature,   was  made 
known  by  him  in  1861. 

HEXHAM,  or  HAGULSTADT  (Northum, 
berland),  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  675, 
which  was  extinct  in  810.  In  the  gib.  century 
this  town  suffered  much  from  the  Danes,  and 
was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Scotch  in  1296 
and  1346.  A  battle  was  fought  here  between 
the  Yorkists  and  the  Lancastrians,  in  which 
the  latter  were  totally  defeated,  May  8,  1464. 
Elizabeth  founded  a  free  grammar-school  in 

I5HEYLIGERLEE.  —  (See  HEILIGER  LEE, 
Battle.) 

HIBERNIA.—  (See  IRELAND.) 

HIERACIANS,  or  HIERACITES.— The  fol- 
lowers of  Hierax,  an  Egyptian  bishop  of  Leon- 
topolis,  who  taught  towards  the  close  of  the 
3rd  century.  He  was  an  ascetic. 

HIERAPOLIS,  or  HIEROPOLI8,  or  "THE 
SACRED  CITY,"  also  called  Bambyce,  attained 
importance  as  an  emporium  of  Syrian  com- 
merce during  the  supremacy  of  the  Seleucidae 


tensis,  and  Julian  (361—363)  appointed  it  as  the 
rendezvous  of  the  Roman  troops  during  his 
Persian  campaign.  The  city  was  again  injured 
by  an  •earthquake  in  494,  and  having  declined 
on  the  introduction  of  Christianity  in  540, 
was  taken  by  the  Emperor  Romanus  IV.  in 
1068. 

HIEROGLYPHICS,  literally  "sacred  en- 
gravings or  sculpture,"  are  believed  to  be  the 
oldest  mode  of  waiting  known  to  mankind. 
The  invention  is  usually  attributed  to  Athotes, 
B.C.  2122.  The  simplest  form  of  hieroglyphics, 
the  phonetic,  continued  in  general  use  in  Egypt 
till  the  time  of  the  22nd  dynasty,  or  about  B.C. 
1000,  when  the  hieratic  chai'acter  was  intro- 
duced. This  was  employed  till  the  commence- 
ment of  the  28th  dynasty,  about  B.C.  800,  when 
a  new  form,  the  demotic,  came  into  use.  It  was 
employed  till  the  Christian  sera,  when  it  was 
finally  superseded  by  the  modern  Coptic. 
Hieroglyphics  had  passed  into  the  condition  of 
a  dead  language  in  the  2nd  century.  The  last 
notice  of  them  is  by  Horua  Apollo,  of  Phene- 
betis,  in  500.  Subsequently  all  knowledge  of 
hieroglyphics  disappeared,  till  the  discovery  by 
Boussard,  in  1799,  of  theRosetta  stone,  a  tablet 
bearing  a  decree  in  honour  of  Ptolemy  (V.) 
Epiphanes,  issued  B.C.  196,  gave  a  clue  to  their 
interpretation.  The  Rosetta  inscriptions  were 
partly  deciphered  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  in 
1801,  by  Akerblad  in  1802,  by  Champollion  le 
Jeune  in  1814,  and  principally  by  Young  in 
1817-18.  Champollion  published  his  Grammar 
of  Hieroglyphics  in  1836,  and  his  Dictionary  in 
1841. 

HIERONYMITES,  or  GERONYMITES.— 
This  order  of  hermits,  a  branch  of  the  Francis- 
cans, confirmed  by  Pope  Gregory  XI.  in  1374, 
was  founded  in  Italy  by  St.  Thomas  of  Sienna, 
%  Franciscan,  who  died  in  1377.  Monks  of  this 


order  occupied  the  Escorial.  (See  BRETHREN  OF 
SOCIAL  LIFE.) 

HIGH  COMMISSION  COURT.— This  tribu- 
nal was  established  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i,  s.  18  (1559), 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  an  eccle- 
siastical nature.  It  sat  for  the  last  time  at  St. 
Paul's,  Oct.  22,  1640,  and  was  abolished  by  16 
Charles  I.  c.  n,  s.  3  (1641).  James  II.  attempted 
to  revive  it. 

HIGH  CONSTABLE.— (See  LORD  HIGH  CON- 
STABLE.) 

HIGH  COURT  OF  ADMIRALTY  was  erected, 
according  to  Stow,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
though  Lord  Coke  and  Prynne  assert  that  it 
existed  long  before  that  time.  Richard  II. 
limited  its  jurisdiction :  it  was  divided  into  the 
Instance  and  the  Prize  courts,  and  was  at  first 
held  in  Southwark,  but  afterwards  removed  to 
Doctors'  Commons.  In  early  times,  the  judge 
of  this  court  was  merely  the  deputy  of  the 
lord  high  admiral,  to  whom  the  regulation  of 
all  naval  matters  was  entrusted.  The  criminal 
jurisdiction  of  the  Admiralty  Court  was,  by 
7  Viet  c.  2  (March  5,  1844),  transferred  to  the 
Court  of  Assize  and  the  Central  Criminal 
Court.  By  20  and  21  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  25,  1857), 
it  was  provided  that  on  the  next  vacancy  of 
the  office  of  judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Ad- 
miralty, the  queen  might  appoint  the  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Probate  to  that  office,  or,  if  the 
vacancy  should  first  occur  in  the  Court  of  Pro- 
bate, the  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court  might 
l»c  :tii]>>  tinted. 

I  IK;  II  AND  LOW  CHURCH.— The  terms 
were  first  applied  to  parties  who  struggled  for 
supremacy  in  the  Church,  from  the  reign  of 
William  III.  to  the  suspension  of  Convocation 
in  1717. 

HIGHNESS.— This  title,  borne  by  Henry 
VII.  and  Henry  VIII.,  was  relinquished 
towards  the  end  of  the  latter' s  reign  for  the 
style  of  "your  majesty."  It  was  conferred  on 
the  Prince  of  Orange  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1644. 
The  Prince  of  Coiid£  was  the  first  to  assume  the 
title  of  Serene  Highness. 

HIGH  TREASON.  — The  highest  offence 
known  in  this  country,  is  defined  and  regulated 
by  25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  2  (1350).  By  7  <fc  8 
Will.  III.  c.  3  (1695),  persons  accused  thereof 
were  to  be  prosecuted  within  three  years  of 
the  alleged  offence,  unless  it  was  a  plot  to 
assassinate  the  sovereign.  Trials  for  this  crime 
were  conducted  in  the  same  form  as  trials  for 
murder  by  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  93  (July  28, 
1800).  The  punishment  for  high  treason, 
according  to  54  Geo.  III.  c.  146  (July  27,  1814), 
is  drawing  on  a  hurdle,  hanging,  and  quar- 
tering, which  may  be  commuted  to  simple 
decapitation  if  the  sovereign  pleases.  The  term 
h  iffh  is  not  now  used,  the  offence  simply  being 
styled  treason. 

HILDESHEIM  (Hanover).  —  A  bishopric, 
founded  at  Else,  in  812,  was  removed  to 
Hildesheim  in  822.  The  cathedral  was  founded 
in  8 1 8.  It  was  secularized,  and  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1802,  was 
incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia 
in  1807,  and  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover  in  1813,  the  annexation  having  been 
confirmed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
1814-15. 


HIMERA 


[    487 


HOHENLINDEN 


HIMERA  (Sicily)  was  founded  by  a  colony 
from  Zancle,  B.C.  648.  A  great  battle  was 
fought  near  the  city,  between  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  the  Sicilians,  the  latter  being 
victorious,  B.C.  480.  Some  new  colonists,  of 
Doric  extraction,  arrived  here  B.C.  476.  It 
was  razed  to  the  ground  by  the  Carthaginians, 
B.C.  408.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  returned, 
and  founded  a  new  city  near  the  site  of  Hirnera, 
B.C.  405.  Agathocles  was  defeated  at  Himera, 

'HINDOSTAN,  or  HINDUSTAN,  signifying, 

in  the  Persian  language,  the  country  of  the 
Hindoos,  has  been  applied  by  geographers  to 
that  part  of  India  (q.  v. )  called  the  Peninsula 
within  the  Ganges,  extending  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  the  Himalaya  mountains. 

HIPPODROME.— (See  CIRCUS.) 

HIPPO  REGIUS  (Africa).  —  This  maritime 
city  of  Numidia,  founded  by  the  Tyrians, 
afterwards  became  an  important  Roman 
colony,  and  one  of  the  most  nourishing  cities 
of  Northern  Africa.  Councils  were  held  here 
Oct.  8,  393  ;  in  395,  when  St.  Augustine  was 
appointed  bishop  of  the  diocese ;  in  422  ;  and 
Sep.  26,  426.  Augustine  died  Aug.  28,  430, 
during  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Vandals,  by 
whom  it  was  taken  and  destroyed.  Its  site  is 
occupied  by  the  modern  Bona  (q.  v.). 

HIRA  (Chaldea).— This  ancient  city,  now 
known  as  Medschid  Ali,  founded  by  the  Arabs 
in  190,  was  destroyed  by  Saad  Ben  Abi  Vacas 
in  639,  and  has  never  regained  its  former 
importance.  Gibbon  (ch.  li.)  says  that  "  Hira 
was  the  seat  of  a  race  of  kings  who  had 
embraced  the  Christian  religion,  and  reigned 
above  600  years  under  the  shadow  of  the  throne 
of  Persia." 

HISPANIA.— (See  SPAIN.) 

HISPANIOLA.— (See  HAYTI.) 

HISTOLOGY.  — This  science,  which  treats 
of  the  structural  and  morphological  elements 
of  organized  bodies,  was  founded  by  Malpighi 
(1628 — 1694),  who  discovered  the  blood  cor- 
puscules,  and  by  Leuwenhoek  (1632 — 1723), 
whose  microscopic  researches  greatly  aided 
the  science  of  minute  anatomy. 

HISTORIOGRAPHER  ROYAL.— In  1485 
Bernard  Andreas  was  historiographer  to  Henry 
VII.  This  office  was  revived  by  Charles  II.  in 
1660,  in  favour  of  James  Howell. 

HISTORY. — Bacon  divides  human  learning 
into  history,  poetry,  and  philosophy.  Oral 
tradition  was  the  mode  in  which  historical 
facts  were  at  first  transmitted  from  one  gene- 
ration to  another.  The  Old  Testament  is  the 
earliest  historical  work  in  existence.  Herod- 
otus, born  B.C.  484,  and  called  the  "  father  of 
history,"  is  the  earliest  classical  historian. 
With  reference  to  the  period  at  which  Ancient 
history  terminates  and  -Modern  history  com- 
mences, a  writer  in  "  Blackwood"  (vol.  xxxii. 
p.  790,  note)  remarks, — "It  has  repeatedly 
been  made  a  question  at  what  sera  we  are  to 
date  the  transition  from  ancient  to  modern 
history.  This  question  merits  a  separate  dis- 
sertation. Meantime,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  in 
this  place  that  Justinian  in  the  6th  century 
will  unanimously  be  referred  to  the  ancient 
division ;  Charlemagne  in  the  8th  to  the 
modern,  These,  then,  are  two  limits  fixed  in 


each  direction ;  and  somewhere  between  them 
must  lie  the  frontier  line.  Now,  the  gera  of 
Mohammed  in  the  7th  century  is  evidently  the 
exact  and  perfect  line  of  demarcation  ;  not  only 
as  pretty  nearly  bisecting  the  debateable 
ground,  but  also  because  the  rise  of  the 
Mohammedan  power,  as  operating  so  power- 
fully upon  the  Christian  kingdoms  of  the 
south,  and  through  them  upon  the  whole 
of  Christendom,  at  that  time  beginning  to 
mould  themselves  and  to  unite,  marks  in  the 
most  eminent  sense  the  beginning  of  a  new 
eera." 

HIT  (Chaldea).  —  This  city,  which  became 
celebrated  at  a  very  early  period  for  its 
abundant  supplies  of  bitumen  (q.  v.),  carried 
into  Egypt,  B.C.  1400,  is  still  an  important 
mart  for  the  same  commodity. 

HITTITES.  —  This  nation  was  descended 
from  Cheth,  or  Heth,  the  second  son  of  Canaan, 
B.C.  3200.  "  Uriah  the  Hittite  "  was  one  of  the 
30  composing  David's  body-guard,  B.C.  1048. 
The  Egyptian  annals  refer  to  a  very  powerful 
confederacy  of  Hittites  in  the  valley  of  the 
Orontes,  with  whom  Sether  I.  waged  war, 
B.C.  1340,  and  whose  capital,  Ketesh,  near 
Emesa,  he  conquered.  Solomon  compelled 
them  to  pay  tribute  about  B.C.  1000  (i  Kings 
ix.  20). 

HOBART-TOWN  (Australia),  the  capital  of 
Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  founded 
in  1804,  was  thrown  open  to  free  settlers 
in  1819. 

HOBKIRK'S  HILL  (Battle).— (See  CAMDEN.) 

HOCHKIRCHEN  (Battles).— The  Austrians 
defeated  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  atthis^place, 

in  Saxony,  Oct.  14, 1758. Napoleon  I.  gained 

a  victory  here  over  an  allied  Russian  and 
Prussian  force,  May  22,  1813.  (See  BAUTZEN.) 

HOCHST  (Battles).  —  The  Imperialists  de- 
feated Christian  I.  of  Brunswick  at  this  place, 

near  Mayence,  June  20,  1622. The  Austrians 

defeated  the  French  at  the  same  place,  Oct.  n, 

I7HOCHSTADT  (Battles).  —  The  Emperor 
Henry  IV.  was  defeated  in  the  plains  of  Hoch- 

stadt  in   1081. The  French  and   Bavarians 

defeated  the  Imperialists  here  Sep.  18,  1703. 
(See  BLENHEIM.) 

HOEKS,  or  HOOKS.— (See  KABBELJAUWEN.) 
HOGENHINE.— (See  AGENHINE.) 
HOHENBURG    (Battle).— The  Emperor 
Henry  IV.  of  Germany  defeated  the  rebellious 
Saxons  in  this  battle,  fought  June  9,  1075. 

HOHENFREIBURG  (Battle).  —  Frederick 
II.  of  Prussia  defeated  the  Austrians,  under 
Prince  Charles,  at  this  village  of  Silesia, 
June  4,  1745. 

HOHENLINDEN  (Battle).— The  French  and 
Bavarians  defeated  an  Austrian  army  at  this 
village,  in  Bavaria,  Dec.  3,  1800.  The  former 
lost  9,000,  and  the  latter  18,000  men  in  the 
battle.  The  French  and  Bavarians  took  97 
pieces  of  cannon  and  7,000  prisoners. 

HOHENLINDEN  CONVENTION  was  con- 
cluded Sep.  28,  1800,  between  Austria  and 
France.  The  fortresses  of  Philipsburg,  Ulm, 
and  Ingoldstadt  were  given  as  securities  to 
Napoleon  Buonapaiie,  and  a  suspension  of 
arms  for  45  days,  commencing  Sep.  21,  was 
agreed  upon. 


HOHENSTAUPEN 


t    483    ] 


HOLLAND 


HOHENSTAUFEN. —The  founder  of  this 
house  was  Frederick  von  Biiren,  who  lived 
about  1040.  His  son  fought  valiantly  under 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  in  the  battle  of  Merse- 
burg,  in  1080,  and  received  the  hand  of  the 
emperor's  daughter  Agnes,  together  with  the 
dukedom  of  Swabia,  in  1081.  Conrad,  his 
grandson,  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany, 
Feb.  22, 1138.  Conrad  III.  was  succeeded  as  em* 
peror  by  his  nephew,  Frederick  I.,  surnamed 
Barbarossa,  1152-90;  and  the  imperial  throne 
was  occupied  by  his  son  and  grandson  till 
1254.  The  sole  and  last  survivor  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen  race,  Conradin,  tried  to  regain  the 
family  heritage  ;  but  having  been  defeated  in 
the  battles  of  Benevento,  Feb.  26,  1266,  and  of 
Tagliacozzo,  Aug.  23, 126*8,  he  was  made  prisoner 
and  beheaded  at  Naples,  Oct.  29,  1268. 

HOHENZOLLERN.— This,  the  royal  house 
of  Prussia,  was  founded  by  Count  Thassilo, 
who  built  the  castle  of  Zollern,  afterwards 
called  Hoheiizollern  (High -Zollern),  in  800. 
The  castle  was  greatly  enlarged  by  Frederick, 
the  first  Count  of  Zollern,  in  980.  Frederick 
III.  gained  the  title  of  prince  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Nuremberg  in  1273.  In  the  i6th  cen- 
tury the  house  separated  into  two  branches, 
the  younger  of  which  subsequently  became 
kings  of  Prussia,  while  the  elder  remained 
princes  of  Hohenzollern.  Frederick  VI.,  of 
the  younger  line,  received  the  province  of 
Brandenburg  from  the  emperor  in  1411  ;  his 
successor  acquired  the  territory  of  Prussia  in 
1560.  Another  Frederick  made  himself  King 
of  Prussia,  Jan.  18,  1701.  The  principalities 
of  Hdhenzollern-Hechingen  and  Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen,  for  many  centuries  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  elder  line,  were  united  with 
Prussia  by  treaty,  March  20,  1850. 

HOLINESS.-This  title,  introduced  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  Church,  was  applied  by  I'opo 
Hilary  to  a  bishop  in  465,  and  to  a  patriarch  in 
590.  It  has  been  used  almost  exclusively  by 
the  popes  since  the  i4th  century. 

HOLLABRUNN  (Battles^.— Prince  Bagra- 
tion,  attacked  at  this  place  in  Austria  by 
30,000  French,  under  Marshal  Lanno.s,  Nov.  16, 
1805,  succeeded  in  saving  part  of  his  small 
corps  of  -6,000  Russians,  with  whom  he  joined 
the  main  body  under  Prince  Kutusoff,  Nov.  19. 
The  French,  under  Marshal  Massena,  de- 
feated the  rear-guard  of  the  Austrian  army 
of  the  Archduke  Charles  at  the  same  place, 
July  10,  1809. 

HOLLAND,  or  KINGDOM  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS.— This  country  was,  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  inhabited  by  a  warlike 
tribe,  called  the  Batavi. 

A.D. 

692.  Holland  is  invaded  byPepin  Heristal,  former  Mayor 

of  the  Palace  to  Dagobert  II.  of  Austrasia. 
735-  The  country  becomes  tributary  to  France. 
913.  Accession  of  Theodore  I.,  first  Count  of  Holland. 
933.  The  county  is  made  hereditary 
10*10.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Normans. 
1151.  The  Hollanders   establish   large  colonies  south   of 

the  Elbe. 

1291.  Florence  V.,  Count  of  Holland,  claims  the  throne  of 
Scotland 


1299.  The  county  is  transferred  to  the  family  of  Hainault. 
1304.  Guy  of  Flanders  seizes  Zealand  and  North  Holland, 
from  which  he  is  expelled  by  the  young  prince 


William. 
1355-  Else  of  the  Kabbeljauwen  (q.  c.)  and  Hoeks. 


A.D. 

1359.  The   Kabbeljauwen    rebel,   are   besieged   in    Delft 

(q.  r.),  and  defeated  by  Albert,  heir  to  the  county. 
1390,  Aug.  21.    The  Hoeks  murder  Alice  van  Poelgeest, 

Albert's  mistress. 
1418.  Marringe   of   the    Countess   .Tacoba   with   John   of 

Brabant.       Rotterdam    mid    South    Holland   are 

surrendered  to  John  of  Havana. 

1421.  Jacoba   and   John   of    Brabant  obtain    a  divorce. 

Holland  suffers  from  an  inundation. 

1422.  Jacoba  marries  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester. 
1436.  Holland  passes  under  the  power  of  Philip  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

1451.  Ghent  revolts  against  the  government  of  Philip. 
1477.  Marvof  Burgundy  marries  Maximilian  of  Austria. 
1488.  The  Hoeks  invade  Holland. 

1490.  They  are  expelled. 

1491.  Holland  is  the  scene  of  serious  civil  strife,  known 

as  the  "Brend-and-Cheese  war"  (q.  v.). 
1497.   Frirsland  is  conferred  on  Albert  of  Saxony. 
1510.  Holland  is  involved  in  a  war  with  the  llanse  Towns. 
1516.  The  reformation  commences. 
1520.  Charles  V.  introduces  important  innovations  in  the 

constitution. 

1522.  Friesland  is  finally  annexed. 
1549.  Philip,  heir  to  the   county,  fails  in  an  attempt  to 

introduce  the  Inquisition. 

1565.  The  Inquisition  is  established. 

1566.  The  confederacy  of  the  "Gueux,"  or  beggars. 

1567.  The  reformed  worship  is  suppressed. 

1568.  The  Prince  of  Orange  is  outlawed.— June  5.     Exe- 

cution of   Kgniont  and  Horn  at  Brussels,  by  order 

of  the  Duke  of  Alva. 
1570.  Holland  is  visited  by  an  inundation,  which  destroys 

20,000  people  in  Friesland  alone. 
1572.  The    country    revolts    under    William,    Prince    of 

( >range. 
15-3.  Siege  of  Alkmaar  (q.  t).). 

1575.  Th.-  sovereignty  is  ottered  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

1576,  Nov.  H.   The  I'aciticatiou  of  Ghent  (q.  V.). 

1579,  Jan.  23.  The  northern  provinces  sign  the  Union  of 

rtrceht. 

1580.  The  States  abjure  their  allegiance  to  Spain. 

[583,  Miiy  1 8.  John  Jaceguy  fires  at  and  wounds  the 
Prince  of  Orange. 

1584.  July  10.  Balthazar  Gerard,  a  Burgundian, 

nates   the    Prince   of    Orange   at   Delft.      Prince 
.Maiiri''c  is  appointed  stadtliolder. 

1585.  The  States  coiieludo  a  treaty  with  Queen  Elizabeth, 

Who  Appoints  the  Earl  of  Leicester  her  governor- 
general  in  the  Netlierlaii'K 

1586.  The  States  disagree  with  Leicester.— Sep.  22.    Battle 

of  Xaitphen  (17.  ».). 

i5M7.  Leicester  is  recalled  to  England. 

'1594.  The  States  Maud  -pi.nMjrs  to  the  eldest  son  of 
James  VI.  of  Scotland,  and  incur  the  severe  dis- 
pleasure of  Queen  Kli/.abeth  iu  consequence. 

1595.  The  Dutch  begin  to  trade  to  the  East  liidi.-s,  and 
despatch  expeditions  in  quest  of  a  north-west 
passage.  The  Dutch  East  India  Company  is 
founded. 

1598.  Philip  III.  of  Spain  svirrenders  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands to  the  Archduke  Albert  and  the  Infanta 
Isabella. 

1600.  Prince  Maurice  in'wides  Flanders. 

1609,  March  29.  Truce  of  Antwerp. 

1610.  Ki.se  of  the  Arminians  and  Gomarists  (q.v.). 

1614.  The  States  promulgate  the  "Resolution  for  the 
Peace  of  the  Church"  of  Grotius. 

1618.  Maurice   changes   the    government,    of    the   Dutch 

towns.— Nov.  13.  The  Synod  of  Dort  (q.  v.). 

1619,  May  13.  Execution  of  John  Barneveldt, 

1621.  War  is  renewed  with  Spain.    The  Dutch  West  India 

Company  is  founded. 

1623,  FBD-  6.    The  sous  of  Barneveldt  and  others  are  de- 
feated in  a  plot  to*assassinate  Maurice. 
1625.  Death  of  Maurice,  who  is  succeeded  by  his  brother 

Frederick  Henry. 
1628.  The  Admiral   Peter  Peterson   Heyn    captures    the 

Spanish  silver  fleet,    and  acquires   booty   to  the 

amount  of  12,000.030  florins. 
1637.  The  "  Tulipomania"  originates. 
1639,  Oct.  2t.  Van  Tromp  blockades  the  Spanish  fleet  in 

the  Downs. 
1641,  May   i.    The   Prince  of    Orange's  son  marries  the 

Princess  Uoyal  of  England. 
1648,  Jan.  31.  The  "states   conclude  a  peace  with  Spain, 

and  are  recognized  by  the  European  princes  as 

an  independent  republic. 


HOLLAND 


HOLLY] 


A.D. 

1650.  The  dignity  of  the  stadtholder  is  suspended.     (See 

GRAND  PENSIONARY.) 
1653.  War  is  declared  against  England,  hostilities  being 

chiefly  carried  on  at  sea.     Van  Tromp  enters  the 

Engli'sh  Channel. 

1653,  Aug.  9.     The  Dutch  fleet  is  defeated  at  the  mouth 

of  the  Meuse,  by  Gen.  Monk,  and  Van  Tromp  is 
mortally  wounded.  (See  HELDER.) 

1654.  Peace  is  concluded. 

1658.  The  .States  assist  the  Danes  against  the  King  of 
Sweden. 

1665.  The  English  again  declare  war. 

1666.  Sea-fights  off  the  North  Foreland  (q.  v.). 

1667.  The  "  Perpetual  Edict  "  (q.  ».)• 

1668.  Jan.  23.  The  triple  alliance  (q.  v.). 

1670.  Charles  II.  withdraws  from  the  alliance,  and  agrees 
with  Louis  XIV.  to  declare  war  against  Holland. 

1672,  April  7.    England   and  France  declare   war,   and 

Holland  is  invaded  by  130,000  French,  under 
Conde  and  Turenne,  who  seize  most  of  the  im- 
portant towns.— Julys.  The  Perpetual  Edict  is  re- 
voked, and  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  made  stadt- 
holder.—July  24.  Cornelius  and  John  De  Witt 
are  assassinated  by  the  mob.— Aug.  23-  The  Dutch 
arrest  the  progress  of  the  French  by  opening  the 
sluices,  and  inundating  the  country. 

1673,  The  French  evacuate  the  Provinces. 

1674,  Feb.  19.    The  treaty  of  Westminster  restores  peace 

with  England. 

1676,  April  29.  De  Ruyter  is  killed  in  a  naval  engagement 

with  the  French  off  Augusta,  in  Sicily. 

1677,  Nov.  4.  The  Prince  of  Orange  marries  the  Princess 

Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  York. 

1678,  Aug.  10.  The  peace  of  Nimeguen. 

1689,  Feb.  13.  The  Prince  of  Orange  ascends  the  English 
throne  as  William  III.  The  French  declare  war 
against  Holland. 

1697,  SeP-  2°-  The  treaty  of  Ryswick  (q.  v.). 

1701.  The  fortresses  of  the  Netherlands  are  garrisoned  by 

French  troops. 

1702,  March  8.    Death  of  the  stadtholder.     The  office  is 

again  suspended,  and  the  government  adminis- 
tered by  Heinsius. — May  15.  Holland,  England, 
and  Germany  declare  war  against  France. 

1708.  The  Netherlands  are  invaded  by  100,000  French, 
under  the  Dukes  of  Vendome  and  Burgundy. 

1713,  April  II.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht. 

1720,  Aug.  13.  Death  of  Heinsius. 

1743.  The  Dutch  assist  Maria  Theresa. 

1747.  The   French  invade   Dutch  Flanders.      The  stadt- 

holdership  is  revived,  and  conferred  upon  the 
Prince  of  Orange. 

1748,  Oct.  18.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (q.  v.). 
1763.  A  commercial  panic  occurs  in  Holland. 

1780.  England  declares  war  against  Holland. 

1783.  Peace  is  concluded. 

1786.  Disagreements  arise  between  the  stadtholder  and 

the  States. 

'.  Civil  war  devastates  the  country. 
The    French    National    Convention     declares    war 
against  England  and  the  stadtholder,  and  sends 
an  army  into  Holland. 

1794.  The  Duke  of  York  arrives  with  an  English  force, 

for  the  defence  of  the  country  from  the  French, 
but  withdraws  without  accomplishing  any  great 
results.  The  Dutch  constitution  is  remodelled. 

1795.  The  Batavian  republic  is  organized. 

1797,  Oct.  it.  Lord  Duncan  defeats  the  Dutch  at  Camper- 
down  (q.  v.). 

Dutch  fleet  at  the  Texel  surrenders  to 
ral  Mitchel. 
801.  The  constitution  is  remodelled. 

1805,  April.  France  changes  the  form  of  government, 
and  places  Schimmelpenninck,  as  Grand  Pen- 
sionary, at  the  head  of  affairs. 

1806  June  5.  Royalty  is  established  by  Napoleon  I.,  in 
favour  of  his  brother  Louis. 

i8oq.  The  Walcheren  expedition  (<?.  v.). 

1810  July  I.  Louis  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  eldest  son. 
— July  9.  Napoleon  I.  annexes  the  country  to 
France. 

1813  Nov.  15.  A  revolution  breaks  out  in  Holland,  and 
the  French  authorities  are  dismissed.— Nov.  30. 
The  Prince  of  Orange  lauds  in  Holland,  where 
he  is  proclaimed  sovereign  prince. 

1814,  March  28.  A  free  constitution  is  agreed  to  by  the 
prince  and  people.— Aug.  I.  The  10  provinces  of 
Belgium  are  annexed  to  Holland. 


down  (q.  v.) 

1799,  Aug.  30.  The 

Vice-Admit 


A.D. 

1815,  Feb.  23.  Austria  cedes  most  of  her  Belgian  posses- 
sions to  the  prince,  who  assumes  the  regal  title 
March  16. 

1817,  May  8.  The  Roman  Catholic  bishops  protest  against 
the  mode  of  instruction  prescribed  for  the  uni- 
versities. 

1825.  Great  distress  is  occasioned  by  inundations. 

1830.  Independence  of  Belgium  (q.  v.). 

1831,  Aug.  4.  War  commences  with  Belgium. 
ig37,  Oct.  13.  Death  of  the  queen. 

1840,  Oct.  7.  King  William  I.  abdicates. 
1843,  Dec.  12.  Death  of  the  ex-king. 
1845,  July  24.  William  II.  visits  England. 

8.  Extensive  changes  are  made  in  the  administration. 
1853.  The  Pope  endeavours  to  introduce  a  Roman  Catholic 
hierarchy. 

4.  Free  trade  is,  to  a  great  extent,  adopted. 
1856,  Jan.  30.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Japan. 

i,  Jan.  and  Feb.  About  30,000  of  the  Dutch  peasantry 
are  rendered  destitute  by  inundations. 

1862,  Aug.  6.  The  States-General  decrees  the  suppression 

of  slavery  in  Surinam  from  July  I,  1863. 

1863,  April  28.     Holland    remonstrates   against    Russian 

cruelties  in  Poland. — July  I.  Slavery  ceases  in 
the  Dutch  West  Indies.— Nov.  17.  The  jubilee  of 
the  deliverance  of  Holland  from  the  French  is 
celebrated. 

1864,  Aug.  12.     A  treaty  of  commerce  and  amity  is  con- 

cluded at  London  with  the  King  of  Hawaii. 

1865,  May.   A  law  is  adopted,  tending  to  grant  to  the 

colonies  a  free  press  and  liberty  of  union. 

1866,  Feb.  6.  Death  of  the  Chevalier  Huyssen  Van  Kat- 

tendyke,  minister  of  marine. — May  24.  The  min- 
istry tender  their  resignation. 


RULERS  OF  HOLLAND. 

COUNTS. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

913.  Theodore  I. 

1296.  John  I. 

924.  Theodore  II. 

1299.  John  II. 

988.  Arnold. 

1304.  William  III. 

993.  Theodore  III. 

1337.  William  IV. 

.1039.  Theodore  IV. 
1049.  Florence  I. 

1345.  Margaret. 
1356.  William  V. 

1  06  1.  Theodore  V. 

1359.  Albert. 

1091.  Florence  II. 

1404.  William  VI. 

II2I.  Theodore  VI. 

1417.  Jacoba. 

1157.  Florence  III. 

1436.  Philip    the    Good,    of 

1191.  Theodore  VII. 

Burgundy. 

1203.  Ada. 

1467.  Charles  I. 

1203.  William  I. 

1477.  Mary. 

1224.  Florence  IV. 

1482.  Philip  II. 

1235.  William  II. 
1356.  Florence  V. 

1506.  Charles  II. 
1555.  Philip  III. 

STADTHOLDERS. 

1559.  William  I.,  of  Orange, 

1584,  Maurice. 

surnamed  the  Taci- 
turn. 

1625.  Frederick  Henry. 
1647.  William  II. 

REPUBLIC. 
1650.  John  de  Witt,  grand  pensionary. 

STADTHOLDER. 
1673.  William  III. 

REPUBLIC. 

1703 — 1730.  Heinsius. 

STADTHOLDERS. 

1747.  William  IV.  I  1751.  William  V. 

REPUBLIC. 
1805.  Schimmelpenninck,  grand  pensionary. 

KINGDOM  OF  HOLLAND. 


1806.  Louis  Buonaparte. 
1810.  (United  to  France.) 
1815.  William  I. 


1840.  William  II. 
1849.  William  III. 


HOLLY  SPRINGS  (Battle).— The  Federal 
garrison  at  this  place,  in  Mississippi,  under  Col. 
Murphy,  were  defeated  and  made  prisoners  by 
the  Confederate  Gen.  Van  Dorn,  Dec.  20,  1862. 


HOLM 


[    490    1 


HOLY 


HOLM  (Battle).— The  Danes  were  defeated  at 
Holm,  in  Kent,  in  902.  By  some  authorities 
the  date  of  the  action  is  referred  to  904. 

HOLMBY  HOUSE  (Northamptonshire).— 
The  Scottish  army  having  delivered  Charles  I. 
to  the  English  commissioners,  Jan.  30,  1647, 
he  was  conducted  under  a  guard  to  Holmby 
House.  From  this  place  the  king  was  removed, 
June  4,  1647,  and  conveyed  to  Childersley,  neaV 
Cambridge. 

HOLMFIRTH  (Yorkshire).—  During  a  heavy 
flood,  the  Bilberry  reservoir,  at  Holmfirth, 
near  Huddersfield,  burst  at  half -past  12  in  the 
morning,  Feb.  5,  1852.  Between  90  and  100 
persons  perished,  and  the  damage  to  property 
was  estimated  at  .£600,000. 

HO  L  STEIN  (Germany).— Charlemagne 
wrested  this  country  from  its  Saxon  inhabit- 
ants, and  erected  it  into  the  margraviate  of 
Nordalbingia,  about  8ri.  It  was  conferred 
upon  Adolphus,  Count  of  Schauenburg,  by  the 
Emperor  Conrad  II.  in  1030,  and  in  1106  or 
1 1 10  was  permanently  erected  into  a  county 
under  his  descendant  Adolphus  I.,  by  Lothaire, 
Duke  of  Saxony.  It  was  for  many  years 
harassed  by  Danish  invaders,  who  were  finally 
expelled  in  1227,  and  in  1326  it  received  the 
duchy  of  South  Jutland  as  an  hereditary  fief. 
The  house  of  Schauenburg  becoming  extinct, 
Dec.  4,  1459,  the  States  elected  Christian  of 
Oldenburg,  King  of  Denmark,  count,  March.  3, 
1460.  Holstein  was  erected  into  a  duchy  Feb. 
14,  1474,  and  in  1544  it  was  divided  between 
the  King  of  Denmark  and  Adolphus  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp.  His  duchy  was  again  divided, 
on  the  death  of  Christian  Albert,  in  1695,  be- 
tween his  sons  Frederick  IV.,  who  succeeded 
as  Duke  of  Holstein,  and  Christian  Augustus, 
first  Duke  of  Holstein- Eutin.  In  1751  the 
house  of  Holstein-Eutin  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Sweden,  and  in  1762  to  that  of 
.Russia,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Russia  being  also 
Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  In  1773  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Russia  ceded  all  his  possessions  in 
Holstein  to  the  King  of  Denmark,  and  the 
whole  duchy  became  an  appanage  of  the 
Danish  crown.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  in  1806,  Holstein  was  incorporated 
with  Denmark,  Sep.  9,  and  in  1813  it  was  taken 
by  the  Swedes,  who  restored  it  in  1814.  Pro- 
vincial states  for  the  government  of  Sleswig 
and  Holstein  were  appointed  by  a  law  of  May 
28,  1831.  In  1839  ill-feeling  arose  between  the 
duchies  and  Denmark,  in  reference  to  the 
Danish  succession,  and  this  dissatisfaction  was 
increased  in  1844,  by  the  demand  of  the  Ger- 
man inhabitants  of  Sleswig  to  be  united  with 
Holstein,  while  the  Danes  desired  union  with 
Denmark.  The  Provincial  States  appealed  to 
the  Germanic  diet,  Aug.  3,  1846,  and  the  revo- 
lution, of  which  the  object  was  the  separation 
of  the  duchies  from  Denmark,  commenced  at 
Kiel,  March  24,  1848.  The  general  assembly  of 
the  States  met  at  Rendsburg,  April  3,  and 
voted  the  annexation  of  the  duchies  to  the 
German  Confederation  ;  and  a  Prussian  force 
entered  Holstein,  April  6,  to  assist  in  carrying 
this  proposition  into  effect.  This  led  to  the 
Sleswig-Holstein  war,  which  continued  till  the 
end  of  1850,  when  the  duchies  tendered  their 
submission  to  Denmark.  The  provincial  diets 


were  restored  Jan.  28,  1852.  The  refusal  of 
the  states  of  Holstein  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark  led  to  a 
second  war  (see  DENMARK  and  GERMANY), 
which  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Gastein 
Aug.  14,  1865,  vesting  the  government  of  this 
duchy  in  the  Austrians,  who  retired  in  June, 
1866. 

HOLSTEIN-AUGUSTENBURG.— This  line 
was  founded  in  1627  by  Ernest  Gunther,  son  of 
Alexander,  second  Duke  of  Holstein-Sonder- 
burg.  (See  AUGUSTENBURO.) 

HOLSTE1X-BEOK.— Augustus  Philip,  son 
of  Alexander,  Duke  of  Holstein-Sonderburg, 
acquired  in  1627  the  land  of  Beck,  in  West- 
phalia. 

HOLSTEIN-EUTIN.— This  duchy  was 
founded  in  1695  by  Christian  Augustus,  son 
of  Christian  Albert,  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 
His  son  Adolphus  Frederick  succeeded,  in 
1751,  to  the  throne  of  Sweden. 

HOLSTEIN  -  GLUCKSBURG  (Germany).  — 
This  duchy  was  founded  by  Philip,  son  of 
John  the  Young,  Duke  of  Holstoin-Sonder- 
burg,  in  1622.  The  dukedom  of  Hol.stein- 
Gllicksburg  became  extinct  on  the  death  of 
Frederick  Henry,  March  13,  1779. 

HOLSTEIN-GOTTORP.  —  This  duchy  was 
founded  in  1544  by  Adolphus  IX.,  son  of 
Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein,  whose  successor, 
Peter  III.,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Russia 
in  1762.  It  was  governed  by  its  own  dukes 
until  it  was  ceded  to  Denmark  by  Paul  Petro- 
witz,  Nov.  1 6,  1773. 

HOL8TEIN-PLON.— Thia  branch  of  the 
ducal  family  of  llolstein  was  founded  in  1622 
by  Joachim  Ernest,  son  of  John  the  Young, 
Duke  of  Holstein-Sonderburg,  and  b 
extinct  on  the  death  of  Frederick  Charles 
without  male  issue,  Oct.  10,  1761,  when  its 
territories  were  annexed  to  Denmark. 

HOLSTEIN-SONDERBURG.— This  branch 
of  the  Holstein  family,  founded  in  1564  by 
John  the  Young,  third  son  of  Christian  III., 
King  of  Denmark,  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Christian  Adolphus,  April  2,  1708. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE.— This  celebrated  com- 
pact, between  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  was  signed 
at  Paris,  Sep.  26,  1815.  Other  powers  after- 
wards acceded  to  the  alliance,  which  expressed 
the  intention  of  the  contracting  sovereigns  to 
continue  in  the  bonds  of  Christian  union,  and 
recommended  their  subjects  to  "fortify  them- 
selves daily  in  the  principles  and  exercise  of 
the  duties  which  the  divine  Saviour  has  taught 
men,"  as  the  only  means  of  securing  lasting 
and  real  happiness.  The  Duke  of  Wellington 
declined  to  sign  this  compact. 

HOLY    ANNUNCIATION.  —  (See    ANNUN- 

CIADA.) 

HOLY  BROTHERHOOD,  or  the  SANTA 
HERMANDAD,  an  association  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  public  peace  and  the  protection 
of  property,  was  instituted  at  Aragon  about 
the  middle  of  the  i^th  century,  and  fully  or- 
ganized in  1488.  It  was  established  in  Castile 
in  1282.  A  similar  league  was  entered  into 
by  the  cities  of  Castile  and  Leon  in  1295. 
Kindred  associations  were  organized  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Spain  at  subsequent  periods. 


HOLY  [    . 

The  laws  of  the  association,  codified  in  1485, 
were  published  in  1527.  The  Hermandad  in 
Valencia  raised  an  insurrection  in  1520-21. 

HOLY  COAT  OF  TREVES,  said  to  be  the 
coat  mentioned  in  John  xix.  23,  which  Christ 
wore  at  his  crucifixion.  A  holy  coat  is  said  to 
have  existed  in  Galatia  in  580;  another  in 
Jerusalem  in  589;  another  at  Oviedo  in  800; 
another  at  Santiago  de  Compostella  in  899 ; 
another  at  Ghent  in  1014  ;  another  at  London 
in  1066;  another  at  Mayence  in  1115;  another 
at  Bremen  in  1217  ;  and  another  at  Treves  in 
1196.  This  last-named  coat  was  declared  to  be 
the  true  garment  of  Christ  by  an  apostolic 
decree  of  Pope  Leo  X.,  dated  Feb.  i,  1514. 
Another  holy  coat  appeared  at  Argenteuil,  in 
France,  and  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  Aug.  22, 
1843,  declared  this  garment  to  be  the  one  worn 
at  the  crucifixion.  Bishop  Arnoldi  of  Treves 
exhibited  in  1844  the  coat  kept  in  his  cathe- 
dral to  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  and 
this  act  provoked  much  controversy  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

HOLY  GHOST.— The  third  person  in  the 
Trinity,  whom  the  Saviour  promised  to  send  to 
comfort  his  disciples  (John  xiv.  xv.  &  xvi.). 
The  doctrine  of  the  "  Filioque,"  asserting  the 
"Procession"  from  the  Father  and  the  Son 
formed  one  of  the  chief  points  of  dispvite 
which  led  to  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches,  the  former  contending  that 
he  proceeded  from  the  Father  only.  The 
Anglican  Church,  by  the  Fifth  Article,  main- 
tains the  doctrine  held  by  the  Romish  Church. 

HOLY  GHOST,  or  SPIRIT.— Nuns  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Saint  Esprit),  or  Annunciada, 
established  at  Paris  in  1636,  and  suppressed  in 
1782. 

HOLYHEAD  (Anglesey).— A  religious  house 
is  said  to  have  been  erected  here  by  Maelgwyn 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  century.  The 
"  college "  was  probably  built  by  Hwfa  ap 
Cynddelw,  a  contemporary  of  Owen  Gwynedd, 
who  began  his  reign  in  1137.  A  school  was 
founded  in  1745 ;  baths,  and  an  assembly- 
room,  were  introduced  in  1770.  An  act  was 
passed  in  1809  for  erecting  a  pier  and  break- 
water, and  improving  the  harbour ;  and  it  was 
made  the  chief  packet  station  for  Ireland  in 
1830. 

HOLY  INNOCENTS'  DAY.— (See  INNOCENTS' 
DAY.) 

HOLY  ISLAND,  or  LINDISFARNE.— The 
see  of  Lindisfarne,  founded  in  this  small 
island  in  635,  was  removed  to  Chester-le-Street 
in  875.  The  Danes  assailed  the  church  in  787, 
and  destroyed  it  Jan.  8,  794.  The  island  was 
invaded  by  Malcolm  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  in 
1061.  The  castle  was  taken  by  adherents  of 
the  Pretender  in  1715,  and  it  was  dismantled 
in  1819. 

HOLY  LAND.— (See  ELIS  and  PALESTINE.) 

HOLY  LEAGUES.— The  term,  applied  to 
several  alliances,  is  more  particularly  used  to 
describe  the  league  formed  Oct.  4,  1511,  by 
Pope  Julius  II.,  with  King  Ferdinand  and  the 
Venetian  republic,  to  protect  the  territories 
and  to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  Romish 
Church,  and  to  expel  the  French  from  Italy. 
The  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  and  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  afterwards  acceded  to  it.  Ferdinand 


)i    ]  HOLY 

concluded  the  truce  of  Orthes  with  Louis  XII. 
of  France,  April  i,  1513,  and  thus  broke  up  the 
league.— The  Holy  League  of  Castile  was 
formed  at  Avila,  in  July,  1521.— Pins  V.  allied 
himself  with  Philip  II.,  Venice,  and  some 
other  powers,  in  a  holy  league  against  the 
Turks,  May  24,  1571.— The  Roman  Catholic 
states  of  the  circles  of  Swabia  and  Bavaria 
formed  a  holy  league  in  1609,  which  was 
joined  by  Pope  Paul  V.  in  Aug.  of  that  year. 
— Another  holy  league  against  the  Turks  was 
formed  by  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  John  III., 
King  of  Poland,  and  Venice,  March  5,  1684. 

HOLY  PLACES  (Palestine).— The  first  of 
these,  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  built 
upon  Mount  Calvary,  was  founded  by  the 
Empress  Helena,  mother  of  Constantino  I., 
in  326,  and  was  partly  destroyed  by  the 
Persians  in  614.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  various 
"Holy  Places"  were  added  by  Modestus, 
superior  of  the  convent  of  Theodosius,  in  630. 
The  structures,  again  destroyed  by  Hakim  in 
ioio,  were  rebuilt  in  1048.  The  holy  places 
were  occupied  by  the  Crusaders  in  1099 ; 
burned  by  the  Saracens  in  1244,  and  re-erected 
in  1292.  A  fire  broke  out  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Armenians,  and  destroyed  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  sacred  edifices,  Oct.  12,  1808.  After  long 
negotiations  with  the  Porte,  permission  was 
given  to  erect  a  new  church,  which  was  con- 
secrated in  1 8 10.  A  tragedy  occurred  at  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  1834,  when 
nearly  500  people,  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Fire, 
were  crushed  to  death.  The  guardianship  of 
the  Holy  Places  has  long  been  a  matter  of 
dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches ; 
Russia  espousing  the  cause  of  the  former,  and 
France  that  of  the  latter.  In  1690  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  was  allotted  to  the  Latins,  and  a 
treaty  on  the  subject  was  signed  between 
France  and  the  Porte  in  1740.  A  serious  out- 
break occurred  at  Jerusalem  in  1759  between 
the  followers  of  the  rival  Churches,  and  an 
imperial  edict  was  soon  after  issued  placing 
the  holy  sanctuaries  under  the  protection  of 
the  Greek  Church.  France  and  Russia  inter- 
fered in  1819,  and  in  1820  the  French  commis- 
sioner sent  to  inquire  drew  up  a  list  of  the 
Holy  Places.  The  French  Government  made 
certain  demands  May  28,  1850,  and  most  of 
these  were  on  the  point  of  being  conceded  in 
1851,  when  Nicholas,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
required  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  status  quo  ante.  Negotiations 
were  carried  on  for  some  time,  and  the  other 
European  powers  offered  their  mediation  ;  but 
the  Emperor  of  Russia  thought  this  a  favour- 
able opportunity  to  attempt  the  overthrow  of 
the  Turkish  dominion,  and  his  ambassador 
quitted  Constantinople  May  21,  1853. 

HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE.— On  the  decline 
of  the  Western  empire,  and  the  abdication,  in 
476,  of  Romulus  Augustulus,  at  the  instance 
of  Odoacer,  chief  of  the  Heruli,  the  imperial 
title  merged  in  that  of  the  emperors  of  the  East, 
and  was  not  separated  till  Dec.  25,  800,  when 
Charlemagne  was  crowned  emperor,  with  the 
diadem  of  the  Caesars,  at  Rome.  On  his  death 
in  814  his  empire  was  divided,  the  title  of 
emperor  passing  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in 
843  to  his  grandson  Lothaire  I.,  through  whom 


HOLY 


[    492    1 


IIOMOIOUSIANS 


it  was  transmitted  to  Charles  the  Fat,  on 
whose  death  in  888  it  became  extinct.  Otho 
or  Otto  I.  (the  Great),  crowned  emperor  at 
Rome  by  Pope  John  XII.,  Feb.  2,  962,  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Holy  Roman 
empire,  which  claimed  the  secular  govern- 
ment of  Christendom,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  spiritual  superiority  was  arrogated  by  the. 
Popes.  Otho  III.  (983 — 1002)  endeavoured  to 
restore  the  capital  to  Rome ;  and  Henry  III., 
under  whom  the  empire  attained  great  mag 
nificence,  created  in  1055  the  title  of  King  of 
the  Romans  as  the  style  of  the  eldest  son  of  the 
emperor.  The  election  of  Gregory  VII.  to 
the  papacy  in  1073,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  led  to  a  struggle 
between  the  temporal  and  spiritual  rulers  of 
Christendom.  (See  CANOSSA,  GERMANY,  and 
INVESTITURE.)  Under  Frederick  I.,  Barba- 
rossa  (1152 — 1190),  the  empire  regained  power, 
and  indeed  attained  its  highest  magnificence, 
receiving  the  epithet  "  Holy,"  by  which  it 
has  since  been  known.  It  declined  rapidly  in 
1246,  when  Frederick  II.  was  deposed  by  his 
subjects.  The  election  of  Rodolph  of  llab.s- 
burg  in  1273  restored  its  prestige  for  a  time, 
but  it  gradually  lost  importance  until  the 
reign  of  Frederick  III.  (1439 — 1493),  when  it 
sank  to  its  lowest  depth  of  degradation,  and 
subsequently,  under  Charles  V.  (1519 — 1556) 
and  his  successors,  became. the  mere  appendage 
of  the  other  dignities  held  by  the  emperors. 
Its  destruction  was  effected  by  Napoleon  I., 
at  whose  instigation  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg, 
and  Baden,  with  13  minor  states,  renounced 
their  allegiance,  July  12,  1806,  and  the  Kin- 
peror  Francis  II.  formally  abdicated  the 
imperial  dignity  Aug.  6;  thus  terminating 
a  government  which,  under  varying  forms, 
had  existed  from  the  establishment  of  the 
power  of  Augustus  at  the  sea-fight  of  Actium, 
Sep.  2,  B.C.  31. 

HOLY  ROOD.— (See  CROSS.) 

HOLYROOD  (Edinburgh).  —  The  abbey  and 
palace,  founded  in  1128,  by  David  I.,  were  dedi- 
cated in  honour  of  the  Holy  Cross  or  Rood 
brought  to  Scotland  (see  BLACK  ROOD)  in  1067, 
and  the  earliest  charter  was  granted  between 
1143  and  1147.  In  1607  John  Bothwell,  com- 
mendator  of  this  place,  was  advanced  to  the 
peerage  under  the  title  of  Lord  Holyrood-house. 
The  abbey  was  burned  by  the  English  in  1385, 
in  1544,  and  in  1547,  on  which  occasion  nothing 
was  left  standing  but  the  body  of  the  church, 
which,  in  its  turn,  was  plundered  and  despoiled 
by  the  mob  in  1688.  liizzio  was  murdered  in 
one  of  the  apartments  of  the  palace,  March  9, 
1566.  Charles  I.  was  crowned  here  June  18, 
1633.  A  new  roof,  erected  in  1758,  fell  in  1768. 
The  existing  palace  of  Holyrood  was  designed 
by  Sir  William  Bruce  in  1669.  The  French 
royal  family  took  up  their  residence  at  Holy- 
rood  in  1796  ;  and  Queen  Victoria  held  a  court 
here  Aug.  30,  1850. 

HOLY  SEPULCHRE,  or  SACRED  TOMB 
(Order  of  the).  —This  military  order  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  St.  James  in  69,  to  guard 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  against  unbelievers.  Other 
authorities  say  it  was  established  by  Helena, 
mother  of  Constantino  I.,  in  326;  others,  by 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  King  of  Jerusalem,  in 


1097 ;  and  some  consider  Baldwin  I.  (uoo — 1118) 
its  founder.  It  was  incorporated  with  the  Hos- 
pitallers in  1484,  but  re-established  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI.  in  1496.  Louis  XVIII.  of  France 
restored  it  Aug.  19,  1814. 

HOLY  UNION.  —  (See  ROMAN  CATHOLIC 
LEAGUE.) 

HOLY  WATER.— The  custom  of  sprinkling 
churches,  <fec.,  with  consecrated  water  is  traced 
by  some  to  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  Pope 
Alexander  I.  (109 — 119)  refers  to  it  as  an  estab- 
lished custom  in  his  time  ;  and  it  is  mentioned 
byTertullian  (160—240). 

HOLYWKLL  Wales)  was  named  after  the 
well  of  St.  Winifred.  The  parish,  church  was 
founded  in  1769,  and  the  Holywell  Level  or 
great  lead  mine  was  opened  in  1773. 

HOMER.— (See  ILIUM.) 

I10MERIDES,  or  SONS  OF  HOMER,  were 
numerous  in  the  island  of  Chios,  and  in  Asia 
Minor,  B.C.  1000.  Lycurgus,  on  his  journey  to 
Asia,  is  said  to  have  received  from  this  famous 
fraternity  the  first  fragments  of  the  poet's 
works,  which  were  introduced  into  Greece  B.C. 
890.  Pisistratus  and  Hipparchus  collected  the 
remainder  B.C.  580. 

HOMERITES.  —  In  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century,  the  princes  of  the  Axumites  joined  to 
their  titles  that  of  King  of  the  Homerites,  an 
Abyssinian  colony  in  Yemen.  They  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Justinian  I.,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Christians  in  Arabia,  in  531.  The 
kingdom  lasted  67  years. 

3OMILDON  HILL  ;  Battle).—  Henry  Percy 
(Hotspur)  inflicted  a  humiliating  defeat  upon 
the  Scots  (who  had  invaded  England  in  July), 
at  Ilomildon  Hill,  near  Wooler,  Sep.  14,  1402. 
The  Karl  of  Douglas  and  several  Scottish  nobles 
were  taken  prisoners. 

HOMILIES.  —  Discourses  delivered  in  the 
ist  or  2nd  centuries  upon  the  lesson  of  the 
day,  or  some  passage  of  Scripture,  were  called 
Homilies  or  Conversations.  The  practice  of 
compiling  homilies  commenced  in  796,  when 
Charlemagne  ordered  Paulus  Diaconus  and 
Alcuin  to  discourse  upon  the  New  Testament. 
The  famous  "  Homilarium "  of  Charlemagne 
was  made  public  in  809.  The  English  Book  of 
Homilies  was  brought  out  in  two  parts ;  the 
first,  containing  12  homilies,  published  in  1547, 
by  Cranmer,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.; 
and  the  second,  containing  nine  homilies,  by 
order  of  Convocation,  in  1563,  during  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth.  The  «th  article  declares,  "the 
Book  of  Homilies  doth  contain  a  godly  and 
wholesome  doctrine,  and  necessary  for  these 
times." 

HOMCEOPATHY.— This  system  of  medicine, 
first  advocated  in  1796  by  Dr.  Samuel  Hahne- 
mann,  who  published  his  "  Matiere  Me'dicale 
Pure"  in  1820,  and  his  "Theory  of  Chronic 
Diseases  and  their  Remedies "  in  1829.  He 
died  at  Paris,  July  2,  1843.  The  Homoeopathic 
Association  of  London  and  the  Irish  Homoeo- 
pathic Society  were  established  in  1845  ;  the 
London  Homoaopathic  Hospital,  in  1849  ;  the 
Hahnemann  Medical  Society  and  Hospital,  in 
1850;  and  the  Hahnemann  Homoeopathic  Dis- 
pensary, in  1850. 

IIOMOIOUSIANS  and  HOMOOUSIANS.— 
The  former  of  these  terms  was  applied  to  the 


HOMS 


[    493 


HORNBOOKS 


•Arians,  and  the  latter  to  the  orthodox  party, 
at  the  Council  of  Nica?a,  June  19 — Aug.  25, 
325.  The  Arian  war-cry  at  the  Council  of 
Seleucia,  Sep.  27,  359,  was  Homoiousion. 

HOMS  (Battle).— Ibrahim  Pasha  defeated  a 
Turkish  army  of  20,000  men  at  this  place  on 
the  Orontes,  July  8,  1832.  The  Turks  lost 
2,000  killed  and  2,500  prisoners,  with  20  cannon 
and  the  whole  of  their  baggage.  The  Egyptian 
losses  only  amounted  to  102  killed  and  162 
wounded. 

HONDSCHOOTE  (Battle).— The  French  de- 
feated an  Austrian  and  Dutch  force  at  this 
place,  near  Dunkirk,  Sep.  8,  1793. 

HONDURAS  (Central  America),  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1502,  was  conquered  by  one  of 
Cortes's  associates  in  1523.  It  joined  the  re- 
public of  Central  American  States  in  1821,  and 
became  an  independent  state  in  1839.  British 
settlers  first  established  themselves  here  in 
1643.  (See  BELIZE.)  The  present  constitution 
was  voted  in  1853.  11ne  Bay  Islands  were 
ceded  to  Honduras  by  Great  Britain  Nov.  28, 
1859.  Tne  President,  Gen.  Santos-Guardiola, 
was  assassinated  at  Comayagua  by  Pablo 
Agurcia,  commander  of  his  body-guard,  Jan. 
ii,  1862."  Honduras  united  against  Guate- 
mala with  St.  Salvador  (q.  v.),  under  President 
Carrera,  March  3,  1863.  Owing  to  military 
reverses,  the  President  Montes  was  compelled 
to  take  flight  July  26,  when  Jose  Maria 
Medina  was  provisionally  elected  in  his  stead. 
The  election  was  confirmed  in  Feb.,  1864.  A 
treaty  of  peace  and  amity  was  signed  with 
Spain  March  15,  1866. 

HONEYMOON.— Thepracticeof  distinguish- 
ing the  first  month  after  marriage  by  this  title 
probably  arose  from  an  old  custom  of  drinking 
metheglin,  a  beverage  made  of  honey,  for  30 
days  after  a  nuptial  ceremony. 

HONFLEUR  (France).— This  town  of  Nor- 
mandy, taken  from  the  English  by  Charles 
VII.  in  1440,  was  in  1662  seized  by  the  Calvin- 
ists,  who  were  compelled  to  quit  it  the  same 

Sjar  by  the  Duke  of  Aumale.  It  yielded  to 
enry  IV.  in  1594. 

HONG-KONG  (China).— This  island,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River,  about  100 
miles  from  Canton,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
Jan.  20,  1841,  and  formal  possession  was  taken 
Jan.  26.  Hostilities  having  been  renewed,  it 
was  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  Great  Britain  by 
the  treaty  of  Nankin,  signed  Aug.  29,  1842. 
Hong-kong  was  regularly  constituted  a  British 
colony  June  26,  1843.  The  bishopric  was 
founded  in  1849.  (See  VICTORIA.) 

HONI  SOIT  QUI  MAL  Y  PENSE,  "Evil  be 
to  him  that  evil  thinks,"  the  motto  of  the 
order  of  the  Garter,  is  said  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  an  exclamation  made  by  Edward  III. 
on  picking  up  a  garter  belonging  to  the  Coun- 
tess of  Salisbury,  at  a  ball,  in  1349. 

HONITON  (Devonshire).— The  parish  church 
was  founded  in  1482,  by  Courtenay,  Bishop  of 
Exeter.  Assizes  were  held  here  in  1590,  when 
17  criminals  were  executed.  The  lace  manu- 
factory flourished  as  early  as  1630.  Fairfax 
entered  Honiton  with  his  army,  Oct.  14,  1645. 
The  new  parish  church,  commenced  in  1835, 
was  completed  in  April,  1838. 

HONOLULU,    or   HONORURU    (Hawaiian 


Archipelago).  —  This  harbour,  situated  on  the 
island  of  Oahu,  was  discovered  and  surveyed 
by  Capt.  Brown,  of  the  English  ship  JSutter- 
icorth,  in  1794,  and  became  the  seat  of  an 
American  mission  in  1820.  When  visited  by 
Capt.  Beechy,  of  H.M.S.  Blossom,  May  20, 
1826,  it  was  fortified,  and  laid  out  into  streets 
and  squares,  with  many  evidences  of  European 
civilization,  and  was  the  chief  city  of  the 
group.  At  this  place  KameTiame'ha  III.  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  French,  July  24,  1837, 
and  formally  ceded  his  territories  to  Great 
Britain,  Feb.  25,  1843.  A  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  was  also  signed  here  July  10,  1851.  The 
Rev.  Thomas  Nettleship  Staley,  D.D.,  conse- 
crated first  Bishop  of  Honolulu  at  Lambeth, 
Dec.  15,  1861,  landed  in  his  diocese  Oct.  11, 
1862.  (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

•HOOD.—  The  length  of  the  monastic  hood 
was  regulated  by  a  council  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
in  817.  A  dispute  respecting  its  proper  form 
caused  great  dissensions  among  the  Cordeliers, 
and  divided  them  into  two  parties  in  the  i3th 
century.  The  weaker  party  was  expelled  from 
the  convents  by  force  of  arms  in  1314.  It  was 
condemned  by  John  XXI.  or  XXII.,  and  four  of 
its  adherents  were  burned  by  the  Inquisition  at 
Marseilles  in  1318.  Bishops  and  canons  were 
forbidden  by  the  Council  of  Paris,  March  9—14, 


, 
1347,  to  wear  hoods  of  silk  or  velvet. 

ap- 
pear to  have  been  of  smaller  proportions.    The 


47, 
HO 


PS,  at  first  called  fardingales  (q.  v.),  a 


. 

hoop  petticoat  is  mentioned  as  a  novelty  in 
1711.  In  a  scarce  book,  entitled  "  The  London 
Tradesman,"  published  in  1747,  the  following 
occurs  :  "  Some  will  have  it  that  Semiramis 
wore  one  of  them  in  her  famous  expedition, 
and  some  other  antiquaries  will  have  us 
believe  the  Queen  of  Sheba  was  dressed  in  one 
full  five  yards  in  circumference,  at  her  first 
interview  with  Solomon."  Crinoline  made  of 
horsehair,  brought  into  fashion  in  1855,  is  the 
modern  hooped  petticoat. 

HOPE.—  (See  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.) 

HOPS.  —  The  commonly  received  account, 
that  hops  were  first  brought  to  England  in 
1524,  is  incorrect,  as  they  were  cultivated  in 
this  country  during  the  isth  century.  The 
term  hop-grounds  first  occurs  in  the  statute- 
book  in  1552.  In  1603  the  cultivation  of  hops 
had  become  general.  The  duty  was  repealed 
by  25  Viet.  c.  22  (June  3,  1862). 

HORATII  and  CURIATIL—  The  Albans  hav- 
ing invaded  Rome  B.C.  670,  it  was  resolved  to 
decide  the  contest  by  a  battle  between  three 
champions  on  each  side.  Three  twin  brothers 
having  been  found  in  both  armies,  the  Romans 
named  the  Horatii,  and  the  Albans  the  Curiatii, 
the  issue  of  the  struggle  was  entrusted  to  them, 
and  the  Curiatii  having  been  vanqiiished  in  the 
fight  which  followed,  Alba  was  forthwith 
united  to  Rome. 

HORN.  —  Athenseus  (xi.  c.  51)  mentions  the 
use  of  horns  as  drinking  cups  as  a  very  ancient 
custom.  The  exportation  of  horns  from  Great 
Britain  was  prohibited  by  4  Edw.  IV.  c.  8 
(1464).  This  act  was  repealed  by  i  James  I. 
c.  25,  s.  44  (1604). 

HORNBOOKS,  consisting  of  a  single  sheet 
of  paper  mounted  on  wood  and  protected  by  a 
transparent  sheet  of  horn,  were  formerly  ex- 


HORNCASTLE 


[    494    1 


HORSE 


tensively  used  in  the  education  of  children 
They  were  very  common  in  the  Elizabethan 
period ;  but  as  they  had  no  dates  attached  to 
them,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  precise  account 
of  their  use. 

HORNCASTLE  (Battle).— Sir  Thomas  Fair- 
fax and  Oliver  Cromwell  defeated  the  Royalist 
forces  here  in  1643. 

HORNERS  (The)  were  incorporated  by 
Charles  II.,  Jan.  12,  1638. 

HORN,  or  HOORN.— (See  CAPE  HORN.) 

HORNPIPE.— This  dance,  believed  to  be 
identical  with  the  monocheros  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  derives  its  name  from  having  been 
danced  by  the  ancient  Britons  to  the  music 
of  the  Welsh  pib-corn,  or  hornpipe. 

HORNS  were  used  at  a  very  early  period  as 
musical  instruments,  and  were  employed  by 
the  Jews  in  the  proclamation  of  the  jubilee. 
Chromatic  horns  were  first  made  in  Germany 
early  in  the  i8th  century,  and  horns  on  which 
it  was  possible  to  play  in  all  keys  were  intro- 
duced into  England  by  the  Messings  in  1740. 
The  instrument  was  much  improved  in  1772 
by  Spandau. 

HOROLOGY.— (-See  CHRONOMETER,  CLOCK, 
and  WATCH! 

HOROLOGICAL  INSTITUTE  (London).— 
This  society  was  established  at  Clerkenwell 
in  1858,  to  develop  and  improve  everything 
relating  to  the  art  of  clockmaking,  &c.,  by 
means  of  a  library  of  books,  a  reading-room, 
a  museum  of  tools  and  machines  or  models, 
the  reading  of  lectures  and  essays,  and  the 
publication  of  a  journal. 

HORSE-GUARDS.— The  royal  regiment  of 
horse-guards,  raised  by  diaries  II.  in  1660, 
first  mustered  in  Tothill  Fields,  Westminster, 
Feb.  16, 1661,  and  was  first  underfireintho  Mon- 
mouth  insurrection,  July  4 — 8,  1685.  Sent  to 
oppose  William  III.,  the  Guards  were  repulsed 
by  his  army  at  Axminster  Nov.  13,  and  many 
of  the  officers  and  soldiers  went  over  to  the 
enemy.  The  regiment  was  re-organized  by 
William  III.  Dec.  17, 1688.  The  Horse-Guards, 
Westminster,  was  built  in  1758. 

IIOKSE  LITTER,— (See  CARRIAGES.) 

1 1  < » I J S  K  M  A  X S 1 1 1  P.— This  art  probably  ori- 
ginated with  the  Egyptians,  who  are  the 
earliest  known  possessors  of  horses,  B.C.  1706 
(Gen.  xlvii.  17).  It  passed  from  them  to  the 
Phoenicians,  by  whom  it  was  imparted  to  the 
Greeks  before  the  institution  of  the  Olympic 
games,  B.C.  1450,  as  chariot  and  horse  races 
constituted  a  prominent  feature  of  those 
festivals.  Gibbon  mentions  the  Scythians  as 
consummate  masters  of  the  equestrian  art, 
and  adds  that  it  was  commonly  believed  that 
it  was  their  custom  "to  eat,  to  drink,  and 
even  to  sleep,  without  dismounting  from  their 
steeds."  The  rise  of  modern  horsemanship 
depended  greatly  on  the  tournaments  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  which  became  common  soon 
after  the  accession  of  Charles  the  Bald,  in  840. 
The  present  mode  of  shoeing  horses  was  in- 
troduced into  this  country  by  the  Normans  at 
the  time  of  the  Conquest.  Several  statutes 
have  been  passed  for  the  improvement  of  the 
breed  of  horses,  the  first  of  which  was  27 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  6  (1535).  Horse-stealing  was 
made  a  capital  offence,  without  benefit  of 


clergy,  by  37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8,  s.  2  (1545) ;  and 
the  penalty  was  commuted  to  transportation 
by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  62  (July  n,  1832).  The 
first  horse-tax  was  imposed  by  24  Geo.  III. 
c.  31  (1784). 

HORSE-RACING  formed  an  important  part 
of  the  Grecian  games,  the  race  for  full-aged 
horses  having  been  introduced  B.C.  649 ;  that  for 
mares,  called  the  Calpe,  B.C.  493  ;  and  that  for 
under-aged  horses  B.C.  253.  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  practised  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
it  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  King  John 
(1199—1216).  Camden  (1551 — Nov.  9,  1623) 
speaks  of  a  golden  bell  as  the  prize  ;  whence 
the  expression,  "  bears  the  bell."  This  was 
exchanged  for  a  cup,  with  the  exploits  and 
pedigree  of  the  winning  horse  engraved  upon 
it,  1661—1685. 

A.D. 

1154-1189.  Earliest  authentic  records  of  the  introduction 

of  horse-racing  into  England. 
11(14.  Ji:icL-s  are  run  at  Pisa,  for  a  mantle  of  some  rich 

iii.-iteriiil. 

1336.  Edward  III.  purchases  running  horses. 
1509.  Henry  VIII.  takes  measures   to   improve  the  royal 

itoa. 
1513.  Horse-racing  is  first  established  at  Chester,   two 

silver  hells  being  offered  an  prizes. 
1340.  The  Sadlers'  Company   of    Chester    offer  a  silver 

bell,  valued  at  3*.  6<(.,  to  the  winner  of  a  horse- 
race. 

1605.  Horse-racing  is  first  established  at  Newmarket 
1609.  The  Mayor  of  Chester  gives  three  silver  cups  or 

hells  to  be  run  for. 

1613.  Subscription  purses  are  mentioned. 
1617  &  1619.  Nichols,  in  his  "  Progresses  of  James   1st," 

makes  mention  of  horse-racing  in  these  years. 
l63I.  Act  of  Parliament,  p:t.-sed   hv  James   VI.   to  prevent 

his  Se<.ttish  subjects  from  gambling  too  much  on 

horse-nirrs. 

1653.  Oliver  Cromwell  keeps  a  stud  of  race-horses. 

1654.  Cromwell  prohibits  races  for  six  months. 

165*,  April  8.    Cromwell  again  prohibits  races,  for  eight 

months. 

1690.  Races  at  Newmarket  are  mentioned  by  Baskerville. 
1703.  Knees  at  Doncaster  (q.  v.)  arc  first  mentioned. 

1713.  Queen  Anne's  gelding  "Pepper"  runs  for  the  royal 

cup  of  £i<x>  at  York. 

1714.  Queen   Anne's   "Star"  wins  a  sweepstakes  of  lo 

guineas  and  a  plate  of  £40  at  York. 

1735,  Sep.  14,  Tuesday.  A  ladies'  plate  is  contested  by 
female  riders  at  Kippon  Heath,  Yorkshire. 

1737.  John  Cheny  commences  his  Historical  List  of  HoTM 
Matches,  the  first  racing  calendar.  The  first  au- 
thentic notice  of  races  at  Ascot. 

739.  The  excessive  increase  of  race-horses,  &c.,is  checked 
by  13  Goo.  II.  c.   19,  which  prohibits  races  by 
ponies  and  weak  horses. 
753-  The  First  and  Second  Spring  Meetings  are  founded. 

1763.  The  First  and  Second  ( >rt,,bei-  Meetings  commence. 

1765.  The  July  Meeting  is  established. 

770.  The  Third  October  or  Houghton  Meeting  is  founded. 

771.  The  Craven  Meeting  is  instituted. 
1776.  The  St.  Leger  is  founded  at  Doncaster. 

1779,  May  14.    The  Oaks  is  instituted  at  Epsom  by  the 

twelfth  Earl  of  Derby. 
7?o,  May  4.  Institution  of  the  Derby  (?.  r.). 
784.  Prince  George  (afterwards  George  IV.)  becomes  an 

owner  of  race-horses. 

803.  Kaces  are  first  run  on  the  Goodwood  Course. 
824.  The  Chester  Cup  or  Tradesmen's  Plate  is  instituted. 
838.  The  new  rules  of  the  Jockey  Club  are  enacted. 
837,  Oct.  25.    The  royal    atud    is   sold   by   auction   at 

Hampton  Court 

HORSE  SHOW.— An  exhibition  of  horses, 
similar  in  character  to  the  annual  cattle  show 
f  the  Smithfield  Club,  took  place  for  the 
irst  time  at  the  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington, 
July  i,  1864.  A  national  horse  show  was 
opened  in  Dublin  April  15,  1864. 


HORTENSIAN 


[    495     1 


HOSPITALS 


g  legisl 
Rome, 


ative 
was 


HORTENSIAN  LAW,  conferrin 
power   upon    the    plebeians    of 
passed  B.C.  286. 

HORTICULTURAL  GARDENS.—  The  gar- 
dens of  the  London  Horticultural  Society  at 
Chiswick,  commenced  in  1822,  and  finished,  as 
to  the  orchard  and  great  part  of  the  grounds, 
in  1824,  were  completed  by  the  formation  of  the 
arboretum  in  1825.  The  annual  show,  instituted 
in  1831  for  the  exhibition  of  fruit,  was  ex- 
tended in  1833  to  flowers.  The  new  gardens  at 
Kensington  were  inaugurated  by  Prince  Albert 
June  5,  1861.  The  Great  Exhibition  Memorial, 
consisting  of  a  statue  of  Prince  Albert,  &c., 
erected  in  these  gardens,  was  inaugurated  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  June  10,  1863.  By  desire 
of  Queen  Victoria  the  gardens  were  opened  free 
on  the  anniversary  of  Prince  Albert's  birth, 
Aug.  26,  1864,  and  the  day  was  appointed  by 
the  Society  as  an  annual  holiday.  (See  INTER- 
NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL  EXHIBITION  AND 
CONGRESS.) 

HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETIES.—  The  Hor- 
ticultural Society  of  London  was  founded  in 
1804,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in 
1809  ;  the  Edinburgh  society  was  founded  in 
1809,  and  the  Dublin  society  in  1816.  The 
Transactions  of  the  London  Society  were  first 
published  in  1812,  and  their  gardens  at  Chiswick 
were  commenced  in  1822.  The  Royal  Society 
of  Horticulture  of  Paris  was  founded  June  n, 
1827. 

HOSEA.—  This  prophecy  was  written  be- 
tween B.C.  780  and  B.C.  740,  or,  according  to 
other  authorities,  between  B.C.  783  and  B.C.  725, 
by  Hosea  the  son  of  Beeri. 

HOSPICE.—  The  term  applied  to  establish- 
ments formed  as  a  refuge  for  travellers  over 
the  mountains.  The  Great  St.  Bernard  hospice 
was  founded  on  the  Alps  by  Bernard  de  Men- 
thon,  a  Savoyard  nobleman,  in  962,  and  the 
St.  Gothard  hospice  in  the  i3th  century. 

HOSPITALLERS,  or  ORDER  OF  ST.  JOHN 
OF  JERUSALEM.—  This  celebrated  military 
order  originated  in  a  monastery,  chapel,  and 
hospital,  founded  at  Jerusalem  by  some  mer- 
chants of  Amalphi  in  1048.  In  1099  the 
hospital  received  increased  territories  from 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  who  transferred  its  go- 
vernment from  the  monks  to  his  knights. 
In  i  ioo  they  established  a  house  at  Clerken- 
well,  London,  and  in  1113  were  confirmed  as  a 
spiritual  order  by  Pope  Pascal  II.  The  Hos- 
pitallers greatly  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  crusades,  especially  at  Jerusalem  in  1152, 
and  at  Acre  in  1191.  In  1308  their  order  was 
united  with  that  of  St.  Samson  of  Jerusalem. 
They  conquered  Rhodes  Aug.  15,  1309,  and 
from  their  settlement  in  that  island  are 
sometimes  called  the  Knights  of  Rhodes. 
Their  wealth  was  much  increased  in  1311  by 
the  addition  of  the  possessions  of  the  sup- 
pressed Templars,  which  were  granted  them 
by  the  Council  of  Vienna.  In  1321  they  de- 
feated the  Turks  in  a  great  naval  battle,  arid 
in  1341  took  Smyrna.  They  took  Alexandria 
in  1365,  and  in  1480  compelled  Mohammed  II. 
to  retreat  from  Rhodes,  which  he  had  be- 
sieged with  100,000  men  and  160  ships.  In 
1484  the  possessions  of  the  dissolved  orders 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  of  St.  Lazarus  were 


bestowed  upon  the  Hospitallers.  In  1522  they 
were  compelled  to  quit  Rhodes  by  Soliman  II., 
who  besieged  their  garrison  of  600  knights 
and  4,500  soldiers  with  a  force  of  140,000  men 
and  400  vessels,  and  in  1530  they  were  allowed 
to  settle  in  Malta  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
Hence  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  the  Knights 
of  Malta.  The  order  was  suppressed  in  England 
by  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  24  (1540),  and  lost  all  its 
privileges  in  France,  Sep.  19,  1792.  In  1798  it 
was  expelled  from  Malta  by  the  French,  and 
has  never  recovered  its  political  importance 

H  O  S  P  I  T  A  L  S.  —  Institutions  similar  to 
Chelsea  Hospital,  for  the  support  of  decayed 
soldiers,  were  known  at  Rome,  where  they 
were  called  Meritoria.  The  first  hospital  of 
celebrity  was  established  at  Caesarea  by  the 
Emperor  Valens,  between  370  and  380.  St. 
Ephraim,  who  died  in  381,  or  St.  Fabiola,  in 
400,  is  the  reputed  founder  of  infirmaries 
supported  by  voluntary  contributions.  A 
foundling  hospital  was  instituted  at  Milan  in 
787,  and  an  hospital  for  orphans  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1090.  The  most  important  hospitals 
are  mentioned  under  the  places  where  they 
are  situated.  St.  Bartholomew's,  Bethlehem, 
St.  Thomas's,  Christ's  Hospital,  and  Bridewell, 
are  known  as  the  five  Royal  Hospitals,  which 
were  united  for  purposes  of  administration  in 
1557,  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Cor- 
poration, but  with  a  distinct  government,  by 
22  Geo.  III.  c.  77  (1782).  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  London  hospitals,  with  the  dates  of 
foundation : — 

HOSPITALS. 
Founded 

A.D. 

1 102.  St.  Bartholomew's. 

1547.  Bethlehem  (for  lunatics). 

1553.  St.  Thomas's. 

1719.  Westminster.— 1836.  Incorporated. 

1735.  Guy's. 

1733-  St.  George's.— 1824.  Incorporated. 

1740.  London.— 1759.  Incorporated. 

1745.  Middlesex.— 1836.  Incorporated. 

1746.  Small-Pox. 

1747.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews'. 

1749.  British  Lying-in. 

1750.  City  of  London  Lying-in. 

1751.  St  Luke's  (for  lunatics). 
175%-  Queen  Charlotte's  Lying-in. 
1757.  Royal  Maternal. 

1765.  General  Lying-in.— 1830.  Incorporated. 
1778.  Charlotte  St.  General  Lying-in. 
1767.  Newman  Street  General  Lying-in. 
1796.  Royal  Sea-Bathing  Infirmary. 

1803.  Fever. 

1804.  London  Ophthalmic  (Moorflelds). 

1804.  Royal  Infirmary  for  Diseases  of  the  Eye. 
1806.  Royal  Jennerian. 
1809.  National  Vaccine. 
1814.  Royal  Infirmary  for  Asthma,  &c. 
1816.  Royal  Infirmary  for  Children. 
1816.  Westminster  Ophthalmic. 
1818.  Charing  Cross. 

1831.  Seaman's,  Dreadnought  (ship  for  sailors).— 1833.  In- 
corporated. 

1828.  Royal  Free  (Gray's-Inn  Road). 

1829.  Queen  Adelaide  and  British  Ladies'  Institution. 
1833.  University  College. 

1835.  St.  Mark's. 

1838.  Orthopaedic. 

1839.  King's  College.— 1851.  Incorporated. 

1840.  Metropolitan  Convalescent. 

1841.  Consumption  (Brompton). — 1849.  Incorporated. 
1841.  For  diseases  of  the  skin. 

1843.  Central  London  Ophthalmic, 
1843.  St.  Mary's  (Paddington). 
1843.  Women's. 
1845.  German  (Dalston). 


HOST 


[    496    ] 


HUARIXA 


HOSPITALS— continued. 
Founded 

A.D. 

184-.  Siimaritan  Free  (for  women  and  children). 

1848.  City  of  London  (for  diseases  of  the  chest). 

1849.  London  Homoeopathic. 

1850.  Hahnemann. 

1850.  Incurables. 

1851.  Cancer. 

1851.  For  sick  children. 
1856.  Great  Northern. 

HOST.— The  date  at  which  the  custom  of 
elevatingthe  elementsof  the  Eucharist  previous 
to  distribution  was  introduced,  has  given  rise 
to  considerable  controversy.  Some  authorities 
assert  that  it  originated  in  the  4th  century, 
some  that  it  was  unknown  till  the  i2th,  while 
others  fix  its  commencement  in  1201.  The 
custom  of  ringing  a  bell  during  the  elevation 
was  introduced  in  1228,  and  the  miracle  of  the 
bleeding  host  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  1290. 

HOT-BLAST.— (See  BELLOWS. 

HOTTENTOTS.— The  aborigines  of  the 
southern  portions  of  Africa  first  became  known 
to  Europeans  in  1493,  and  were  very  numerous 
when  the  Dutch  began  to  form  their  settle- 
ments at  the  Cape.  Their  number  has,  how- 
ever, been  much  reduced  by  the  small-pox, 
which  committed  fearful  ravages  in  1713,  and 
from  other  causes.  .Missionaries  were  first 
sent  to  them  in  1736.  (See  CAFFRE  WAR.) 

HOUNSLOW,  or  HOUNDSLOW  (Middlesex). 
— At  this  place,  anciently  called  Hundeslawe, 
a  priory  of  the  order  of  Trinitarians,  for  the 
ivilriiiption  of  captives,  was  founded  in  the 
13th  century,  the  chapel  of  which  subsequently 
became  a  chapel-of-case.  In  1650  it  contained 
only  120  houses,  and  in  June,  1688,  James  II. 
established  a  camp  upon  the  heath.  The  bar- 
racks were  erected  in  1793,  and  the  parish 
church,  occupying  the  site  of  the  priory  chapel, 
commenced  in  June,  1828,  was  completed  in 
Dec.,  1829.  (See  EXPLOSIONS.) 

HOUR.— The  division  of  the  day  into  hours 
was  known  to  the  Babylonians  and  Egyptians, 
from  whom  it  was  transmitted  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  system  of  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  introduced  about  B.C.  293,  divided  the 
natural  day  and  night,  or  the  periods  during 
which  the  sun  was  above  and  below  the  horizon, 
into  12  parts  ;  thus  necessitating  a  continual 
alteration  in  the  duration  of  the  hour.  The 
present  system  of  24  equal  hours  was  adopted 
about  the  end  of  the  4th  century. 

HOUR-GLASS.— This  invention  is  of  great 
antiquity,  and  is  mentioned  by  the  Greek  dra- 
matist, Baton,  who  flourished  B.C.  280.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  lost  on  the  decline  of  ancient 
civilization,  and  to  have  been  restored  by  the 
monks  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

HOUSE  OP  COMMONS.  —  The  earliest 
instance  of  the  assembly  of  knights,  citizens, 
and  burgesses  as  members  of  Parliament, 
occurred  Jan.  20,  1265,  the  Parliament  of  1258 
having  been  composed  exclusively  of  barons. 
They  were  not  again  summoned  till  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Nov.  12,  1294,  and  were  established  as 
a  necessary  part  of  the  legislature  by  the 
declaratory  statute  of  York,  in  1322.  Various 
statutes  have  been  passed  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  property  necessary  to  enable  a  man 
to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons,  all  of  which 


were  repealed  by  21  <fc  22  Viet.  c.  26  (June  28, 
1858).  The  House  of  Commons  has  frequently 
changed  its  place  of  assembly.  Our  earliest 
knowledge  on  this  point  is  that  the  Parliament 
of  April  30,  1343,  met  in  the  Painted  Chamber, 
Westminster.  In  1376  the  Chapter-house  is 
mentioned  as  the  usual  meeting-place,  and  in 
1547  Edward  VI.  granted  St.  Stephen's  chapel 
for  the  purpose.  This  building  was  destroyed 
by  fire  Oct.  16,  1834,  and  the  Commons  took 
possession  of  their  new  honse  Nov.  4,  1852. 
The  House  of  Commons  consists  of  658 
members. 

HOUSE  OF  LORDS.  —  The  bishops  and 
archbishops  of  England  have  composed  a 
portion  of  the  great  coimcil  of  the  nation  from 
the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  they,  with  the 
barons,  formed  the  king's  council  from  the 
Conquest  to  the  reign  of  John.  The  personal 
privilege  of  the  peers  was  determined  in  1341. 
The  House  of  Lords,  abolished  by  the  Long 
Parliament,  Feb.  6,  1649,  constituted  part  of 
the  first  Parliament  after  the  Rest  oration, 
April  25,  1660.  The  House  of  Lords  has  hud 
various  places  of  assembly.  The  first  record 
on  the  subject  states  that  in  1343  it  met 
in  the  White  Chamber,  Westminster.  The 
Painted  Chamber  was  also  a  frequent  place 
of  assembly.  Its  place  of  meeting  is  first 
styled  the  "House  of  Lords "  in  1543.  The 
old  Palace  of  Westminster  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Oct.  16,  1834,  the  present 
Houses  of  Parliament  were  erected  in  its  stead. 
The  peers  took  possession  of  their  new  house 
April  15,  1847.  The  number  of  members  in 
the  House  of  Lords  is  always  liable  to  increase, 
owing  to  the  royal  prerogative  of  creating 
new  peerages.  It  is  between  four  and  five 
hundred. 

HOUSELESS  POOR.— (See  METROPOLITAN 
HOUSELESS  POOR.) 

JIOUSKS  OF  PARLIAMENT,  or  NEW 
I'M. ACE  OF  WESTMINSTER.— The  earlier 
Parliaments  met  in  various  places,  chiefly  at 
Westminster,  but  occasionally  in  provincial 
towns.  The  old  buildings  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  Oct.  16,  1834.  The  first  stone  of  the  new 
building  was  laid  April  27,  1840.  The  House 
of  Lords  was  opened  April  15,  1847,  and  the 
House  of  Commons  Nov.  4,  1852.  Big  Ben, 
the  bell  for  the  clock-tower,  was  cast  Aug.  6, 
1856,  and  proved  a  failure.  The  Victoria  Tower 
was  completed  in  1857.  Sir  Charles  Barry,  the 
architect  of  the  New  Palace  of  Westminster, 
died  May  12,  1860. 

HOUSE-TAX  of  two  shillings  was  levied 
upon  all  houses,  except  cottages,  by  7  Will.  III. 
c.  18  (1695).  It  was  raised  to  three  shillings, 
and  frequently  varied,  until  reduced  by  3  <fc  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  39  (Aug.  14,  1833)  ;  and  repealed  by 
4  <fe  5  Will.  IV.  c.  19  (June  16,  1834).  It  was 
reimposed,  in  place  of  the  window-tax,  by 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  36  (July  24,  1851). 

HOWITZERS,  first  used  in  1697.  (See  AR- 
TILLERY.) 

HOWLAND  GREAT  WET  DOCK.—  (See 
DOCKS.) 

HUAMANGA  (Peru).— The  battle  of  Ayacu- 
cho  (q.  v. )  was  fought  near  this  city,  founded 
by  Pizarro,  in  1539. 

HUARINA  (Battle).— Pfzarro,  with  480  men 


HUBERTSBURG 


[    497    1 


HUMILIATI 


and  85  horse,  defeated  Centeno  at  the  head  of 
1,000  foot  And  250  cavalry,  on  the  plains  of 
Huarina,  in  Peru,  Oct.  26,  1547. 

HUBERTSBURG  (Saxony).— The  castle  was 
built  in  1721,  by  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxony, 
afterwards  Elector  Augustus  III.  The  treaty 
of  Hubertsburg^  which  terminated  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  was  signed  Feb.  15,  1763.  A  sepa- 
rate act,  in  accordance  with  the  2oth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  between  the  Em- 
press and  the  King  of  Prussia,  was  signed  at 
Dresden,  March  12,  and  at  Berlin,  March  20, 

17  HUDSON  (New  York). —The  river  was  dis- 
covered by  Henry  Hudson  in  1609,  and  the 
city  was  founded  by  settlers  from  Rhode 
Island  and  Massachusetts  in  1784,  and  received 
its  charter  of  incorporation  in  1785. 

HUDSON'S  BAY  (North  America). -The  sea 
was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1512, 
and  was  rediscovered  by  Hudson,  from  whom 
it  derives  its  name,  in  1610.  The  Hudson's 
Bay  territory  was  first  explored  by  adventurers 
from  Canada.  Prince  Rupert  sent  a  vessel  with 
colonists  to  the  territory  in  1668.  Charles  II. 
incorporated  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  May 
2,  1670.  A  rival  association,  called  the  North- 
West  Company,  was  formed  out  of  several 
smaller  ones  in  1787.  The  two  companies  were 
united  in  1821.  An  extended  licence  for  trad- 
ing over  the  continent  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  given  to  the  Company,  May  13, 
1838.  The  English  Government  granted  Van- 
couver Island  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in 
Aug.  1848. 

HUE  (Cochin-China)  was  fortified  by  French 
officers  in  the  reign  of  King  Gia-long  (1801 — 
1820).  The  French  concluded  a  treaty  here, 
July  15,  1864. 

HUE  AND  CRY.— This  mode  of  creating 
alarm  was  in  use  among  the  Romans.  Caesar 
speaks  of  a  case,  B.C.  50,  in  which  an  alarm  was 
carried  160  miles  in  16  hours.  In  Normandy  it 
was  called  Clameur  de  Haro.  The  hue  and  cry, 
a  legal  mode  of  procuring  the  arrest  of  offend- 
ers, was  introduced  into  England  at  an  early 
period.  It  is  noticed  in  the  statute  of  West- 
minster, 3  Edw.  i.  c.  9  (1275),  and  by  13  Edw.  I. 
st.  22,  cc.  i  &  4  (1285),  the  hundred  in  which 
the  offence  was  committed  was  held  liable 
until  the  felon  was  caught.  By  27  Eliz.  c.  13 
(1585),  the  hue  and  cry  was  ordered  to  be 
effected  by  both  horsemen  and  footmen  ;  and 
by  8  Geo.  II.  c.  16  (1735),  constables,  &c.,  re- 
fusing or  neglecting  to  make  hue  and  cry,  were 
to  pay  a  fine  of  ,£5.  They  were  repealed  by 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27  (June  21,  1827).  The  High- 
land mode  of  raising  the  hue  and  cry,  called 
the  cross  tarric,  or  fiery  cross,  was  carried  32 
miles  in  three  hours  in  1745.  The  "  Hue  and 
Cry,"  issued  three  times  a  week  by  the  Police 
Court,  was  first  published  early  in  the  i8th 
century. 

HUESCA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Osca,  a  town 
of  the  Ilergetes,  is  mentioned  by  Strabo,  under 
the  name  of  Ileosca.  Sertorius  founded  a 
school  here,  B.C.  77.  Pedro  I.  of  Aragon  took 
it,  Nov.  25,  1096,  after  his  victory  over  the 
Moors  at  Alcoraza  (q.  v.).  The  university  was 
founded  in  1354,  and  the  cathedral  was  built 
in  1400. 


HUGUENOTS,  or  HUGONOTS.— This  was 
the  name  given  to  the  French  Protestants  in 
the  1 6th  century.  Its  etymology  is  disputed, 
some  deriving  it  from  Hugues,  a  noted  Calvin- 
ist  of  Geneva,  and  others  from  the  German 
eidgenossen,  confederates.  They  were  first  per- 
secuted in  France  in  1559,  and  in  1561  they  re- 
ceived the  name  Huguenots,  and  resorted  to 
arms  for  protection.  A  large  number  of  them 
were  slaughtered  at  Vassy,  March  i,  1562. 
The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (q.  v.) 
occurred  Aug.  24,  1572.  In  1598  they  were 
protected  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (q.  v.),  and 
received  additional  religious  liberty  by  the 
Pacification  of  Nismes,  July  14,  1629.  The 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Oct.  22, 
1685,  depriving  them  of  their  liberties,  in- 
duced many  to  take  refuge  in  neighbouring 
countries.  The  National  Assembly  granted 
liberty  of  worship  Aug.  24,  1789. 

HULI  FESTIVAL.— (See  ALL  FOOLS'  DAY.) 

HULL,  or  KINGSTON-UPON-HULL  (York- 
shire).— In  a  grant  made  by  Matilda  Camin  to 
the  monks  of  Melza,  in  1160,  Hull  is  described 
as  the  "Wyk  of  My  ton."  Edward  I.  bought 
it  from  the  monks  in  1293,  and  called  the  place 
"  King's  town  upon  Hull."  Edward  I.  visited 
it  May  26,  1300.  It  was  ordered  to  be  made  a 
fortress,  by  a  charter  of  Edward  II.,  in  1322. 
The  walls  were  repaired  and  strengthened  by 
Sir  Michael  de  la  Pole  in  1377.  The  free  gram- 
mar-school was  founded  in  1482,  and  the  first 
hospital  was  erected  in  1517.  The  town  was 
taken  by  Hallam,  "the  pilgrim  of  grace,"  in 
1537.  The  merchants  of  Hull  embarked  in  the 
whale  fishery  in  1598.  Lister's  almshouses 
were  founded  in  1642.  The  first  stoneof  the  dock 
was  laid  Oct.  19,  1775,  and  it  was  opened  Sep. 
22, 1778.  The  Marine  Hospital  was  established 
in  1787 ;  the  new  waterworks  were  erected  by 
the  corporation  in  1831  ;  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce was  established  in  1837 ;  and  the  Hull 
and  Selby  Railway  was  opened  July  i,  1840. 
The  town-hall  was  opened  and  the  first  stone 
of  a  new  middle-class  school  laid  by  Earl  de 
Grey  and  Ripon,  Thursday,  Jan.  25,  1866. 

HULSEAN  LECTURES.— Sermons  upon  the 
evidences  of  Christianity,  or  the  difficulties  of 
Holy  Scripture,  were  instituted  by  the  will  of 
the  Rev.  John  Hulse,  who  died  Dec.  14,  1790. 
His  will,  dated  July  21,  1777,  fills  a  folio 
volume  of  nearly  400  pages  of  closely -written 
MS.,  and  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  in 
existence.  It  contains  nine  codicils,  the  last 
being  dated  Nov.  23,  1789.  The  funds  were 
inadequate  until  1818,  when  the  Rev.  C.  Ben- 
son delivered  the  first  course. 

HULSEAN  PROFESSORSHIP.— The  office 
of  Christian  Advocate,  founded  in  connection 
with  Cambridge  University,  by  the  Rev.  John 
Hulse,  who  died  Dec.  14,  1790,  was,  by  a 
statute  confirmed  by  the  Queen  in  Council, 
Aug.  i,  1860,  changed  into  that  of  Hulsean 
Professor  of  Divinity. 

HUMANE  SOCIETY.— (See  ROYAL  HUMANE 
SOCIETY.) 

HUMILIATI,  a  peculiar  order  of  monks, 
founded  by  a  number  of  Italian  noblemen  in 
1017.  They  subjected  themselves  to  the  rule 
of  St.  Eenedict,  and  their  statutes  were  revised 
in  1151,  and  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  in 

K    K 


HUNDRED 


t    498    ] 


HUNGARY 


1200.  Females  were  admitted  to  this  order 
in  1325.  A  considerable  laxity  of  discipline 
having  arisen,  Pius  V.  suppressed  the  society 

HUNDRED  DAYS,  from  March  20,  1815,  the 
day  on  which  Napoleon  I.  entered  Paris  on  his 
return  from  Elba,  to  June  29,  the  day  on  which 
he  quitted  it  for  the  last  time. 

HUNDREDS.  — The  precise  nature  of  the 
division  of  a  country  into  hundreds  is  not 
known  ;  it  existed  in  Germany  at  a  very  early 
date,  and  was  established  among  the  Franks 
in  the  6th  century.  Alfred  the  Great  (871 — 901 ) 
is  said  to  have  introduced  the  hundred  system 
into  this  country.  All  statutes  relating  to 
men  composing  a  hundred  were  repealed  by 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27  (June  21,  1827) ;  and 
hundreders  are  rendered  liable  for  damages 
committed  by  rioters  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  31 
(June  21,  1827). 

HUNGARY  includes  part  of  the  ancient 
provinces  of  Dacia  and  Pannonia,  and  was, 
according  to  Gibbon  (ch.  xxxiv.),  successively 
occupied  by  three  Scythian  colonies:— i.  The 
Huns  of  Attila;  2.  the  Abares,  in  the  6th 
century ;  and  3.  The  Turks  or  Magyars,  in  889. 

B.C. 

35.  The   Romans,  under  Augustus,   first  invade   Pan- 
nonia. 
A.D. 

8.  The  country  is  reduced  to   a  Iloman  province  by 

Tiberius. 

373.  Thecioths  establish  themselves  in  the  Roman  pro- 
vince. 

337.  It  is  invaded  by  the  Vandals. 
375.  The  Huns  defeat  the  Goths  cm  the  Dniester. 
433.  The  Huns  obtain  the  supremacy. 
453.  On  the  death  of  Attila,  it  is  sei/.ed  by  the  Gepidue. 
500.  It  passes  into  the  power  of  the  Lombards. 
568.  The  Avars  expel  the  Lombards. 
799.  It  is  conquered  by  Charlemagne,  and  united  to  the 

Western  empire. 

889.  The  Magyars,  or   Hungarians  of    Scythian  origin, 
establish  themselves  in  the  country,  under  their 
leader  Arpad. 
934.  The    Hungarians  are   defeated  by  Henry  I.    (the 

Fowler),  Emperor  of  (Surinam-. 

955.  They  are  subdued  by  Otho  I.  (the  Great),  at  Augs- 
burg. 
1000.  Stephen  I.,  called  the  Saint,  embraces  Cliristianity, 

and  receives  the  title  of  king. 
1061.  Hungary  is  ravaged  by  the  Poles, 
lico.  Croatia  is  incorporated  with  Hungary. 
1159.  Bela  II.  is  blinded,  by  order  of  his  uncle  Coloman. 
II&3.  The  king  is  seized  by  the  usurpers  Ladislaus  and 

Stephen. 
1322.  Andrew  II.  publishes  the    charter  known  as  the 

Golden  Bull  of  Hungary. 
1335-1345.  The  Tartars  ravage  the  country. 
1390,  July  19.  Ladislaus  III.  is  assassinated. 
1347.  Louis  I.  (the  Great)  invades  Naples. 
1370.  Louis  I.  is  elected  King  of  Poland. 
1383.  Mary,  daughter  of  Louis  I.,  is  proclaimed  king  of 

Hungary. 

1386.  Mary  marries  Sigismund  of  Brandenburg. 
1390.  Sigismund   subdues  Bajazet  I.,  and  exacts  tribute 

from  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 
1396.  Sep.  38.  Battle  of  Nicopolis  (q.v.). 
1405.  Representative  government  is  established  in  Hun- 
gary. 

1410.  Sigismund  of  Hungary  is  elected  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. 
1437.  Albert,  Duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  to  the  Hungarian 

throne. 

1440.  The  succession  devolves  upon  Ladislaus  VI.  (IV.  of 
Hungary),  King  of  Poland. 

1443.  Battle  of  Nissa  (q.  r.). 

1444,  Nov.  10.  Battle  of  Varna  (q. ».). 
1456,  Sep.  10.  Death  of  John  Huuniades. 

1490.  On  the  death  of  Matthias  I.  (Corvinus),  the  Hun- 
garians elect  Ladislaus  VI.,  King  of  Bohemia, 
for  their  sovereign. 


A.B. 

1515.  The  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  secures  the  succession 

of  Hungary. 
1536,  Aug.    39.    The   Hungarians    are    defeated    by  the 

Turks  at  Mohacs  (q.  v .). 
1539.  Hungary  is  overrun  by  the  Turks. 
1570.  Hungary  is  definitely  annexed  to  the  dominions  of 

the  house  of  Austria. 
1600.  The  Turks  seize  Canissa,  or  Kanisa. 

1606,  June  33.     Treaty  of  Vienna,  securing  freedom  of 

worship  for  the  Hungarian  Protestants. 

1607.  The  Protestant  Union  is  formed  in  Hungary. 

1618.  The   Emperor   Matthias    abdicates  the    throne    of 

Hungary. 
1630.  The  Hungarian  Protestants  revolt. — Nov.   8.  They 

are  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Prague. 
1661.  The  Hungarians  refuse  to  admit  the  imperial  armies 

Into  thebr  country,  and  declare  war  against  Turkey. 

1669.  The   Hungarians   suck  Turkish   assistance  against 

the  Emperor. 

1670.  They  are  reduced  to  subjection. 

1683.  A  Turkish  force  enters  Hungary,  to  assist  the  in- 
habitants against  the  Austrians. 

1683,  Nov.  13.  John  Sobieski  defeats  the  Turks  before 
Vienna, 

1687.  The  revolt  is  quelled.  The  Hungarian  crown  is  de- 
clared hereditary  in  the  male  line  of  the  house  of 
Austria. 

1691,  Aug.  19.  The  Turks  are  defeated  at  Salankeman. 

1695.  The  Turks  again  invade  Hungary. 

1699,  Jan.  36.  Treaty  of  CarlowiU  ('</.  r.). 

1703.  The  Hungarians  revolt  under  Francis  Ragotski. 

170*.    Kicfj'otski  is  defeated. 

1718,  July  31.  Treaty  of  Passarowitz  (q.  r.). 

1737.  War  with  Turkey  is  renewed  in  Hungary. 

1739,  Sep.  18.  Peace  of  Belgrade  (q.  v.). 

1741.  Maria  Theresa  (•  crowned  MOT  of  Hungary. 

1765.   Austria  treats  Hungary  as  a  dependent  province. 

1778.  Temeswar  is  incorporated  with  Hungary. 

1784.  The  Hungarian  regnli  i  removed  to  Vienna. 

1785.  Vassalage  is  abolished. 

1813.  Numerous  Servian  and  Bosnian  immigrants  settle 
in  Hungary. 

1835.  The  diet  assembles,  after  an  interval  of  13  years. 

1830.  The  diet,  attempts  to  substitute  the  Magyar  lan- 
guage for  the  Latin  throughout  Slavonic  Hun- 
gary. 

1848,  Sep.  II.  A  revolution  breaks  out  at  Pesth  (q.  ».).— 

•Sep.  39.  Jellachieh,  Ban  of  Croatia,  is  defeated 
by  the  Hungarians  at  the  battle  of  Pakoza,  or 
Sukoro. — Dec.  26.  The  imperial  troops  capture 
Raab. — Dec.  38.  They  defeat  the  Hungarians  at 
Sziks/.<">.— Dec.  39.  And  at  Mohr. 

1849,  Jan.  5.  The  Austrians,  under  Prince  Windischgriitz, 

take  Pesth. — Jan.  31.  Battle  of  Hermaimstadt 
(q.  v.).— Feb.  37.  Battle  of  Gran  (17.  r.).— March  6. 
The  Magyars  defeat  the  Austrians.—  April  14.  The 
Hungarian  chambers  assert  the  national  inde- 
pendence, and  proclaim  Kossuth  governor.— 
April  37.  Russia  declares  in  favour  of  Austria.— 
June  30.  Battle  of  Pered  (q.  v.). — June  28.  The 
Emperor  takes  Raab  from  Georgey.— July  3. 
Battle  of  Acz.— July  11.  Battle  of  Comoro  (q.v.). 
— July  31.  The  Russians  take  Hermaimstadt. — 
July  31.  Battle  of  Schassburg.— Aug.  4.  The 
Hungarians  are  defeated  at  Szegedin.— Aug.  13. 
Georgey  surrenders  to  the  Russians  at  Vilagosh. 
— Aug.  21.  About  5,000  Hungarian  fugitives  take 
refuge  in  Turkey. — Oct.  I.  Comoni  is  surrendered 
to  the  Austrians.— Oct.  7.  Execution  of  Count 
Bathyany. 

1853,  Sep.  8.  The  Hungarian  crown  and  insignia  are  dis- 

covered and  removed  to  Vienna. 

1854,  Jan.  i.    State  documents,   law  pleadings,   &c.,    in 

Hungary  are  ordered  to  be  transacted  in  the 
German  language. 

1856,  July  13.  A  decree  of  amnesty  for  the  political  offen- 

ders of  1848  and  1849  is  published. 

1857,  May  4,  &c.    Francis  Joseph  I.  and  the  Empress  of 

Austria  visit  their  Hungarian  dominions. 

1859,  Sep.  I.  The  Emperor  publishes  a  patent  regulating 

the  interior  administration  of  Hungary. 

1860,  March  31.  The  chambers  at  Augsburg  reject  the 

patent— May  18.  It  is  withdrawn. 

1861,  Jan.  16.  The  Emperor  publishes  an  imperial  mani- 

festo against  the  election  of  refugees,  &c.— Feb. 
36.  A  new  constitution  for  the  Austrian  empire  is 
published.— April  6.  The  Hungarian  diet  is 
opened,  and  demands  an  Hungarian  ministry. 


HUNGERFORD 


[    499    1 


HUSSARS 


l86i,  June  6.  A  Slavonian  diet  assembles  at  St.  Martin, 
and  decides  to  maintain  their  nationality  sepa- 
rate from  the  Magyars. — June  13.  The  case  of 
the  Emperor  of  Austria  v.  Day  and  Kossuth  is 
decided  in  the  Chancery  court,  in  favour  of  the 
plaintiff,  100,000,000  Hungarian  notes  being 
ordered  to  be  destroyed. — July  5.  The  diet  votes 
an  address  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  praying 
him  to  restore  the  old  constitution. — July  33.  The 
Emperor  refuses. — Aug.  lo.  The  diet  declares  a 
rupture  of  the  negotiations  with  the  Emperor.— 
Aug.  33.  The  Emperor,  under  protest,  dissolves 
the  Hungarian  chambers. — Sep.  30.  The  assembly 
of  theComitat  of  Posth  is  prevented  by  an  armed 
force.— Nov.  5.  Count  Maurice  Palffy  d'Erdoed  is 
appointed  Lieutenant-General  for  Hungary.; 

1863,  July  36.  Garibaldi  addresses,  from  Palermo,  an  in- 
flammatory proclamation  to  the  Hungarians. — 
Aug.  33.  Klapka,  the  leader  of  the  Hungarian 
insurrection  of  1848,  publishes  a  reply  from 
Turin,  in  which  he  declines  further  movement 
until  a  more  propitious  period. — Nov.  18.  The 
Emperor  grants  an  amnesty  to  political  offenders 
condemned  by  military  tribunals  in  Hungary. 

1863,  No_v.  36.    The  existence  of  a  general  committee  of 

independence  is  disclosed  by  a  proclamation  of 
Kossuth. 

1864,  Sep.  19.    Count  Andrassy  resigns  the  office  of  mi- 

nister of  justice,  in  which  he  is  succeeded  by 
Count  Valentine  de  Torok.— Sep.  19  and  30.  The 
Emperor  visits  Comoro* 

1865,  June  6.    The  Emperor  visits  Pesth. — June  8.     The 

military  tribunals  are  abolished.— June  36.  Count 
Zicliy,  Aulic  Chancellor,  is  relieved  of  his  office.— 
July  30.  Count  Palffy  is  removed  from  the  go- 
vernorship.— Dec.  6.  The  union  of  Hungary  and 
Transylvania  is  affirmed  by  the  Transvlvanian 
diet.— Dec.  13.  The  Emperor  visits  Pesth.— Dec. 
14.  He  opens  the  Hungarian  diet  at  Pesth. 

1866,  Jan.  9.  Death  of  Count  Emile  Dessewffy,  president 

of  the  Hungarian  Academy.— Jan.  30.  The  Em- 
peror and  Empress  visit  Pesth.— June  6.  Kossuth 
issues  inflammatory  addresses  to  the  Hungarians. 
— June  37.  In  consequence  of  the  war  the  diet  is 
indefinitely  prorogued. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF  HUNGARY. 
A.D. 


lin). 


A.D. 

1000.  Stephen  I.,  the  Saint. 

1038.  Peter. 

1041.  Abo. 

1044.  Peter 

1047.  Andre 

1061.  Bela  I. 

1064.  Salomon. 

1074.  Geysa  I. 

1077.  Ladislaus  I. 

1095.  Coloman,  the  Learned. 

1114.  Stephen  II. 

1131.  Bela  II. 

1141.  Geysa  II. 

1161.  Stephen  III. 

1163.  Ladislaus  and  Stephen 

(usurpers). 
1173.  Bela  III. 
1196.  Emeric. 

1304.  Ladislaus  II. 

1305.  Andrew  II. 
1335.  Bela  IV. 
1370.  Stephen  IV. 
1373.  Ladislaus  III. 
1390.  Andrew  III. 
1301.  Wenceslaus. 
1305.  Otho. 


1308.  Charobert,  or  Charles 

Robert,  of  Anjou. 
1343.  Louis  I.,  the  Great. 
1383.  Mary. 

1385.  Charles. 

1386.  Sigismund. 

1437.  Albert  of  Austria. 

1439.  Elizabeth. 

1440.  Ladislaus  IV. 
1444.  Ladislaus  V. 

1458.  Matthias  I.  (Corvinus). 

1490.  Ladislaus  VI. 

1516.  Louis  II. 

1536.  John     Zapolski     and 

-    Ferdinand  I. 

1540.  Ferdinand  I.  (alone). 

1563.  Maximilian. 

1573.  Rodolph. 

1608.  Matthias  II. 

1618.  Ferdinand  II. 

1635.  Ferdinand  III. 

1647.  Ferdinand  IV. 

1655.  Leopold. 

1687.  Joseph. 

1713.  Charles. 

1741.  Maria  Theresa. 


(The  succession  is  identical  with  that  of  the  Emperors 
of  Germany  and  of  Austria.) 

HUNGERFORD  (London).— The  first  market 
was  built  on  the  site  of  Hungerford  House  in 
1681.  Another  was  founded  June  18,  1831,  and 
led  July  2,  1833.  Its  demolition,  for  the 
Cross  (q.  v.)  Railway  Station,  com- 
menced April  i6th,  1862.  The  suspension- 
bridge,  designed  by  I.  K.  Brunei,  was  opened 


Friday,  April  18,  1845.  It  was  removed  to 
Clifton  in  1863.  (See  BRISTOL.) 

HUNINGEN.  —  This  fortified  post,  at  the 
bridge  of  Huningen,  near  Basel,  in  Switzer- 
land, was  destroyed,  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Baden,  Sep.  ^ 
(O.S.),  1714.  The  French  restored  the  works 
in  1796.  They  were  besieged  by  the  Im- 
perialists, Jan.  25,  1796,  and  capitulated  Feb.  i. 
The  victors  entered  a  few  days  after,  when 
they  found  the  place  a  mass  of  ruins.  The 
allied  armies  invested  Huningen  in  Jan., 
1814  ;  and  by  the  ^rd  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  concluded  Nov.  20,  1815,  the  fortress 
was  ordered  to  be  demolished.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  strength,  and  was  called  the  gate 
of  Alsace. 

HUNS.  -Historians  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
origin  of  this  famous  barbaric  tribe.  Niebuhr 
considers  them  to  be  Mongolians  ;  Humboldt, 
Ugrians;  and  Zeuss,  Latham,  and  Dr.  W. 
Smith,  Turks.  They  invaded  China  about  B.C. 
200;  and  after  harassing  that  empire  for  a 
succession  of  years,  were  finally  expelled  about 
93.  They  subsequently  migrated  to  the  plains 
of  Tartary ;  and  about  100  defeated  the  Alani 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tanais.  They  defeated  the 
Goths  on  the  Dniester  in  376,  and  attained  their 
highest  glory  during  the  reign  of  Attila,  433— 
453.  They  invaded  the  Eastern  empire  in  441, 
ravaged  Gaul  (where  they  were  defeated  by 
Aetius  at  Chalons)  in  451,  and  crossed  the  Alps 
into  Italy  in  452.  After  the  death  of  Attila 
their  power  declined. 

HUNTING.  —  (See  FIELD  SPORTS  and  FOX- 
HUNTING.) 

HUNTINGDON.— Edward  the  Elder  erected 
a  castle  here  in  917.  A  priory  of  Black  Nuns, 
dedicated  to  St.  Mary,  was  established  in  973. 
St.  Mary's  church  was  rebuilt  in  1620,  and  the 
county  gaol  was  erected  in  1829. 

HUNTLY  HILL  (Battle).  —  The  Earl  of 
Huntly  defeated  the  rebel  Earl  of  Crawford  at 
this  battle,  fought  on  a  moor  near  Brechin, 
May  18,  1452. 

HUR.— (See  UR.) 

HURON  (Canada  West).— The  bishopric  was 
founded  in  1857. 

HURRICANES.— (See  CYCLONE  and  STORMS.) 

HURST  CASTLE.— On  the  rupture  of  the 
negotiations  at  Newport,  the  council  of  the 
army  seized  Charles  I.  at  Carisbrook  Castle, 
Nov.  30,  1648,  and  conveyed  him  to  Hurst 
Castle,  whence  he  was  removed,  Dec.  18,  to 
St.  James's. 

HUSK.— (See  BROOM  FLOWER.) 

HUSSARS,  light  cavalry,  first  in  use  among 
the  Magyars,  in  1610,  and  so  called  because  the 
twentieth  man  of  all  the  vassals  of  the  nobles  in 
each  province  was  compelled  to  be  armed  as  a 
trooper.  Tilly  introduced  hussars  into  the 
Austrian  army;  and  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic, 
in  1631,  had  five  regiments  of  them  in  the 
field.  Luxemburg  formed  a  troop  in  France 
in  1692  ;  and  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia 
organized  two  regiments  in  Prussia,  1730.  The 
first  hussars  forming  part  of  the  English  army 
were  enrolled  by  William  III.  during  the  war 
in  Flanders  in  1694.  The  same  troops  were 
afterwards  called  light  dragoons,  and  only 
employed  temporarily,  and  on  foreign  service. 

K  K   2 


HUSSITES 


[    500    ] 


HYDEAULIC 


The  first  British  regiment  of  light  cavalry 
raised  for  permanent  service  was  the  "  King's 
Regiment  of  Hussars,"  now  called  the  isth 
Hussars,  formed  by  Col.  G.  Eliot  in  1759,  by 
order  of  George  II. 

HUSSITES,  the  followers  of  John  Huss, 
burned  at  Constance  July  7,  1415.  Upon  re- 
ceiving the  news  of  his  death,  several  nobles^ 
and  knights  formed  an  association,  Dec.  2* 
1415.  This  party  obtained  the  majority  at  the 
parliament  of  Prague,  Sep.  5,  1416,  and  being 
opposed  by  the  emperor,  they  took  the  field, 
and  appointed  Ziska  their  leader,  March  10, 
1418.  Active  war  soon  commenced,  and  a 
schism  occurred  in  1420.  (See  CALTXTINES  and 
TABORITES.)  The  battle  of  Prague  was  gained 
by  Ziska,  July  14,  1420 ;  and  in  the  still  more 
brilliant  victory  of  Deutschbrod,  Jan.  8,  1422, 
he  almost  annihilated  the  Emperor's  ;irmy. 
The  Hussites  overran  the  whole  of  Bohemia 
and  Moravia,  and  were  on  the  point  of  marching 
upon  Vienna,  when  the  sudden  death  of  Ziska, 
Oct.  12,  1424,  put  a  stop  to  their  plans.  They 
gained  two  more  battles, — at  Aussig,  June  15, 
1426,  and  at  Mies,  July  21, 1426  ;  but,  weakened 
by  internal  disputes,  they  were  induced  to  sxie 
for  peace.  After  long  negotiation,  the  treaty 
of  Iglau  was  concluded  between  the  Emperor 
Sigismund  and  the  leaders  of  the  Hussites, 
July  5,  1436.  Though  this  treaty  did  not  put 
an  end  to  the  struggles  of  the  Protestants  in 
Bohemia,  yet  from  this  time  the  name  of 
Hussites  was  no  longer  applied  to  them. 

HUSTINGS.— This  term  was  apparently  ap- 
plied by  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  courts  held 
within  a  house  or  building,  to  distinguish  them 
from  such  as  were  held  in  the  open  air. 
Edward  the  Confessor  granted  such  a  court  to 
the  city  of  London  in  1052.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  1856  to  abolish  it.  Lincoln,  Winches- 
ter, York,  and  other  places,  also  possessed 
courts  of  hustings. 

HUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers  of  John 
Hutchinson,  who  was  bora  in  1674,  and  who 
died  Aug.  28,  1737.  The  sect  arose  in  1727. 
"  Thoughts  concerning  Religion,"  published  at 
Edinburgh  in  1743,  contains  an  exposition  of 
the  views  of  this  religious  sect. 

HUY  (Belgium)  was  taken  by  the  English 
and  Dutch,  Sep.  26,  1694.  The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough  captured  it  Aug.  27, 1703.  The  French 
took  it  early  in  1705,  and  Maryborough  recap- 
tured it  July  12.  It  once  more  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French,  Aug.  20,  1746.  The 
church  of  Notre  Dame  was  commenced  in  1311. 
(See  ABBOT  OF  HUY.) 

HYACINTH.  —  This  plant,  which  is  indi- 
genous to  the  Levant,  and  grows  abundantly 
round  Aleppo  and  Bagdad,  received  its  name 
from  Hyacinthus,  whom,  according  to  the 
legend,  Apollo  slew  and  transformed  into  a 
flower.  It  was  first  cultivated  by  the  Dutch, 
probably  at  the  commencement  of  the  i6th 
century,  and  is  mentioned  in  England  by 
Gerard  in  1596.  Parkinson  enumerates  eight 
varieties  in  1629.  Double  hyacinths  were  first 
grown  by  Peter  Voerhelm  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  1 8th  century. 

HYCSOS,  HYKSOS,  or  SHEPHERD 
KINGS,  a  tribe  of  Arabian  or  Scythian 
shepherds,  who  overran  Egypt  more  than  2000 


years  B.C.  Some  authors  deny  the  existence 
of  the  Hycsos ;  others  suppose  them  to  repre- 
sent the  captive  Jews  in  Egypt  (q.  r.  ;  and 
various  theories  have  been  circulated  on  this 
perplexing  subject.  Manetho  states  that  they 
reigned  511,  Africanus  284,  and  Eusebius  103 
years.  Lepsius  says  their  rule  terminated  B.C. 
1842,  and  Bunsen  B.C.  1639. 

HYDASPES  (Battle).  —  Alexander  III.  de- 
feated Porus  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Hydas- 
pes,  the  modern  Jelum,  B.C.  327. 

HYDE  PARK  (London),  formerly  the  "  Mane- 
rium  de  Hyde,"  belonging  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Peter's,  Westminster,  in  1535,  was  enclosed 
about  1545.  Cottages  existed  here  in  1655. 
The  custody  of  Hyde  Park,  "with  all  the 
lodges,  houses,  and  edifices  in  the  same,"  was 
granted  in  1596  to  Sir  Edmund  Cary,  knight. 
The  House  of  Commons  resolved  that  Hyde 
Park  should  be  sold,  Dec.  21,  1652  ;  and  Sir 
Heneage  Finch,  solicitor-general,  obtained  a 
grant  of  part  of  the  park  in  1661.  Queen 
Anne  enclosed  another  portion  in  1705,  and 
Queen  Caroline  another  in  1730.  The  Serpen- 
tine was  formed  1730-33,  by  order  of  Queen 
Caroline.  In  consequence  of  the  Gordon  riots, 
troops  were  encamped  here  in  1780.  The  volun- 
teers formed  a  camp  in  1799.  The  statue  of 
Achilles,  "  inscribed  by  the  women  of  England 
to  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  his  brave 
companions  in  arms,"  was  erected  in  Hyde 
Park  June  18,  1822.  The  triple  archway  and 
gate  at  Hyde  Park  Corner  were  constructed 
from  the  designs  of  Burton  in  1828.  The 
bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  by  Wyatt,  was  erected  in  1846. 
The  Marble  Arch  was  placed  at  Cumberland 
Gate  in  March,  1851.  Riotous  assemblies  met 
in  this  park  to  denounce  Lord  Robert  Grosve- 
nor's  Sunday  Trading  Bill,  June  24  and  July  i 
and  8,  1855.  Turbulent  meetings  were  held, 
in  consequence  of  the  high  price  of  bread, 
Oct.  14,  21,  and  28.  Queen  Victoria  reviewed 
18,000  rifle  volunteers  in  Hyde  Park,  June  23, 
1860.  Collisions  ensued  between  the  followers 
of  Garibaldi  and  the  supporters  of  the  Pope, 
and  several  persons  were  injured,  Sep.  28  and 
Oct.  5,  1862.  The  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales 
reviewed  the  volunteers  in  this  park,  May  28, 
1864.  Another  review  of  the  volunteers  took 
place  June  23,  1866.  A  monster  reform  meeting, 
called  by  the  Reform  League  for  Monday,  July 
23,  was  prohibited  by  the  Government.  The 
park  gates  having  been  closed,  the  mob  de- 
stroyed the  railings,  and  a  collision  with  the 
police  ensued.  The  riots  continued  for  several 
days. 

HYDERABAD  (Hindostan),  the  capital  of 
Hyderadad  and  the  Nizam's  dominions,  was 
founded  by  Kootab  Shah,  about  1585,  being 
then  called  Baunuggur.  It  was  taken  and 
plundered  in  1687  by  the  troops  of  Aurungzebe. 

HYDERNAGUR.—  (See  BEDNORE.) 

HYDRAULIC  CRANE.— This  machine,  in- 
vented by  Sir  William  Armstrong,  who  erected 
the  first  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1846,  was 
greatly  improved  in  1851  by  the  introduction 
of  the  "accumulator."  Sir  W.  Armstrong 
described  its  principle  and  action  before  the 
British  Association  in  1854. 

HYDRAULIC  or  HYDROSTATIC  PRESS.— 


HYDRAULIC 


[    SOT    ] 


IAMBICS 


The  principle  was  suggested  by  Pascal  (June 
19,  1623 — Aug.  19,  1662),  but  the  machine  itself 
was  not  invented  till  1796,  when  Joseph 
Bramah  patented  a  water-tight  collar,  and 
thus  rendered  it  available  for  practical  pur- 
poses. 

HYDRAULIC  RAM.— This  machine  was  in- 
vented and  patented  in  France  by  Montgolfier, 

^Hl'DRO-CARBON  LIGHT,  obtained  by  im- 
pregnating common  gas  with  hydro-carbon, 
was  invented  by  the  Rev.  W.  R.  Bowditch, 
who  tested  it  at  the  Westgate  railway-station, 
Wakefield,  from  Aug.  15,  1863,  to  Jan.  4,  1864, 
and  exhibited  his  process  in  London,  Oct.  12, 
1864. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  GAS,  discovered 
by  Priestley  in  1772,  was  shown  by  Davy  in 
1810  to  consist  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen. 

HYDROGEN.  — The  combustibility  of  this 
gas  was  known  early  in  the  1 8th  century,  when 
it  was  often  exhibited  as  a  curiosity.  Little 
was  ascertained  respecting  its  real  nature 
till  Henry  Cavendish  published  an  account  of 
its  most  important  properties  in  the  Philoso- 
phical Transactions,  May  12,  1766. 

HYDROMETER.— This  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  weight  of  fluids  was  probably 
invented  by  Archimedes,  who  was  killed  B.C. 
212,  though  it  is  not  mentioned  till  the  time  of 
Hypatia,  who  died  about  415.  It  was  after- 
wards forgotten,  and  was  not  revived  or  re- 
invented till  the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  It 
is  also  called  areometer  and  volumometer. 

HYDROPARASTATES.— (See  ENCRATITES.) 

HYDROPATHY,  or  the  Water-Cure,  was  in 
use  among  the  Arabs,  and  recommended  by 
Rhazes,  in  920.  The  system  also  flourished  in 
Italy,  having  been  advocated  by  Avicenna  in 
1030  ;  by  Barzi  in  1450  ;  and  by  Cardan  in  1540. 
From  Italy  it  passed  into  Germany,  where  it 
found  zealous  disciples  in  Hildanus  (1560 — 
1600),  and  Von  der  Heyden  (1630—43) ;  and 
thence  to  England,  where  Floyer  (1649 — 1734), 
George  Cheyne  in  1725,  and  Lucas  in  1750, 
strongly  recommended  the  system.  At  Malta 
Padre  Bernardo,  the  self-styled  "  medicus  per 
aquam,"  made  a  great  sensation  in  1724  ;  and 
at  Paris  the  celebrated  Tissot  in  1760  advocated 
in  eloquent  language  the  use  of  cold  water  as 
a  universal  panacea.  Dr.  Currie  published  a 
work  on  the  subject  in  1797,  and  Vincent 
Priessnitz,  a  peasant's  son,  established  his 
famous  cold-water  cure  establishment  at  Gra- 
fenberg  in  1825.  He  began  with  two  patients, 
and  in  1829  his  system  was  in  full  operation. 

HYDROSTATICS.  —The  phenomena  con- 
nected with  water  were  but  little  studied  by 
ancient  philosophers.  Archimedes  announced 
the  equal  force  with  which  each  particle  of  a 
fluid  mass  is  pressed  when  in  equilibrio,  B.C. 
250,  and  Ctesibius  about  B.C.  250,  and  his 
pupil  Hero  of  Alexandria  (B.C.  150)  invented 
the  siphon  force-pump  and  pneumatic  foun- 
tain. Galileo  (1564—1642),  Castellio  (1577— 
1644),  Torricelli  (1608—1647),  and  Pascal  (1623 
—1662)  contributed  to  advance  the  science. 
Hallam  says  the  science  was  entirely  created 
by  Castellio  and  Torricelli.  The  motion  _  of 
waters  in  rivers  and  canals  was  first  studied 
by  Guglielmini,  who  published  his  work  on 


the  subject  in  1691  ;  and  the  nature  of  the 
oscillation  of  waves  was  taught  by  Newton  in 
1714.  Daniel  Bernouilli's  theory  of  the  motion 
of  fluids  was  published  in  1738,  the  compressi- 
bility of  water  was  first  demonstrated  by 
M 'Canton  in  1762,  and  Coulomb  published  his 
law  of  resistance  in  1800.  Professor  Airy  sug- 

§ested  an  improved  theory  of  fluids  in  1830. 
cptt  Russell's  experiments  on  the  motion  of 
ships  and  waves  were  published  in  1837. 

HYGROMETER.— Various  instruments  for 
testing  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  have 
been  from  time  to  time  invented.  The  most 
general  are  the  hair  hygrometer  of  Saussure, 
who  published  an  account  of  his  instrument  in 
1783,  and  the  whalebone  hygrometer  of  M.  de 
Luc,  which  was  described  in  1786. 

HYMENEAL  HYMNS.— (-See  EPITHALAMIA.) 

HYMNS,  or  songs  of  praise  to  the  Deity, 
were  in  use  among  the  Hebrews  as  well  as  the 
Greeks,  and  are  mentioned  Matt.  xxvi.  30,  and 
Col.  iii.  16.  The  "  Te  Deum"  and  "Benedic- 
tus"  are  in  our  liturgy  both  called  hymns. 
According  to  some  authorities,  St.  Hilary, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers,  who  died  in  367,  was  the 
first  who  composed  hymns  for  the  church.  The 
use  of  hymns  was  authorized  by  the  fourth 
Council  of  Toledo,  Dec. 

HYPERESIA.—  (See 

HYPOTHETICAL  UNIVERSALISTS.— (See 
CAMERONITES.) 

HYRCANIA  (Asia).— This  ancient  province 
was  situated  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  varied  considerably  in  size  and  importance 
at  different  periods.  Little  is  known  respecting 
its  history.  It  appears  that  the  inhabitants 
were  rendered  subject  to  the  Assyrians  at  an 
early  date,  and  that  a  troop  of  6,000  of  them 
formed  part  of  the  army  with  which  Darius 
III.  resisted  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  B.C. 
334.  Hyrcania  was  occupied  by  the  Parthians 
B.C.  244.  Christianity  was  introduced  during 
the  8th  century. 

HYSL^E  (Battle).— The  Argives  defeated  the 
Lacedaemonians  near  this  town  B.C.  669.  The 
Lacedaemonians  destroyed  the  town  B.C.  417. 

HYTHE  (Kent),  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
was,  according  to  Leland,  once  "  a  very  great 
towne  yn  lenght,  and  conteyned  iiii  paroches, 
that  now  be  clene  destroied."  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital  was  founded  by  Hamo,  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  in  1336.  The  town-hall  and  mar- 
ket-place were  rebuilt  in  1794.  The  School  of 
Musketry  was  established  in  1854. 


I. 

IAGO.— (See  SANTIAGO,  SPANISH  TOWN,  &c.) 
IAMBICS.— Iambic  verse,  said  to  have  been 
thus  named  from  lambe,  an  attendant  at  the 
court  of  Metanira,  wife  of  Celeus,  King  of 
Sparta.  She  is  supposed  to  have  amused  the 
goddess  Ceres,  whilst  on  her  sad  pilgrimage  in. 
search  of  her  daughter  Proserpine,  with  her 
witty  stories  and  allusions,  and  her  poetical 
talent.  It  is  generally  used  in  satirical  compo- 
sitions, and  often  figuratively  to  signify  satire. 


IAPYGIAN 


[    502    ] 


1CONIUM 


The  Greek  poet  Archilochus,  of  Pares,  who 
flourished  B.C.  714 — B.C.  676,  was  the  first  who 
wrote  in  iambics.  Hipponax  of  Ephesus  (B.C. 
546 — 520)  invented  the  Choliambus,  or  "  Lame 
Iambic." 

lAI'TGIAN  RACE.— Among  the  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  Italy,  named,  according 
to  Greek  mythologists,  from  lapyx,  who  led  a 
Cretan  colony  into  the  southern  portions  of  the 
peninsula  now  called  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

IBERIA  (Asia),  the  modern  Georgia  (q.  v.}, 
anciently  formed  part  of  the  Persian  empire, 
and  passed  under  the  power  of  Alexander  III., 
B.C.  331.  The  Romans  first  came  into  contact 
with  the  Iberians  B.C.  65,  when  Pompey  led  an 
army  against  them,  and  compelled  them  to  sue 
for  peace.  Instigated  by  Tiberius,  the  inhabit- 
ants invaded  and  subdued  Armenia  in  35,  and 
in  115  they  made  a  show  of  submission  to  the 
Romans.  Christianity  was  introduced  during 
the  reign  of  Constantine  I.  (323 — 337),  and  in 
365  the  Romans  resigned  the  sovereignty  of  the 
country,  which  subsequently  became  a  Persian 
province.  It  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  about 
the  pontificate  of  Gregory  I.  (590 — 604  ,  and 
annexed  to  the  Eastern  empire  by  Ileraclius  in 
623.  The  Greek  name  for  Spain  was  also 
Iberia. 

IBRAHIMIAH.— (See  ABRAHAMITES.) 
IBKAIL.-<&e  BRAII.OW,  Battle.) 
[CANHOE.— (£><  BOSTON,  Lincolnshire.) 
ICE.— The  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Unmans.  The  custom 
of  cooling  beverages  with  saltpetre  was  general 
in  Italy  in  the  i6th  century.  In  the  zyth  "ice 
cups"  were  introduced  into  France  and  Spain. 
A  new  mode  of  producing  ice  by  chemical 
means  was  invented  by  Walker  in  1782.  Leslie 
introduced  the  employment  of  sulphuric  acid 
for  the  same  purpose  in  1810.  Harrison  patented 
an  ice-making  machine,  in  which  ether  and 
salt  are  used,  in  1857.  Tudor  first  established 
the  trade  in  ice  at  Boston  (U.S.)  in  1806,  and 
began  to  export  it  in  1820.  It  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  there  were  soon  16 
companies  for  the  exportation  of  the  article 
in  that  town.  Many  of  the  "ice  farms"  of  the 
states  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts  are  re- 
puted to  be  as  valuable  as  the  rice-fields  of 
Georgia.  The  French  ice  trade  dates  from 
1859,  when  some  Paris  speculators  constructed 
a  range  of  ice-houses  near  Auteuil,  in  the  Bois 
de  Boulogne. 

ICELAND  ,'North  Atlantic  Ocean).— The  dis- 
covery of  this  island  is  attributed  to  a  Norwe- 
gian pirate,  Naddod,  who  was  cast  by  a  tem- 
pest on  its  coast  in  860.  It  was  then  called 
Snce-land,  i.  e.  Snowland.  Gardar  circumnavi- 
gated it  in  864,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Gar- 
darsholm.  In  874  it  was  colonized  by  ar  band 
of  Norwegians  under  Ingolph.  The  Icelanders 
discovered  Greenland  in  982,  and  the  American 
coast  in  986.  Its  inhabitants  were  converted 
to  Christianity  towards  the  end  of  the  ioth 
century.  In  1261  it  was  united  to  Norway, 
and  in  1380  was  ceded  to  Denmark,  to  which 
country  it  still  belongs.  Protestantism,  intro- 
duced in  1540,  was  established  in  1551.  •  The 
commerce  of  Iceland  was  declared  free  to  all 
Danish  subjects  in  1787,  and  to  foreigners  in 
1855.  It  suffered  from  famine  in  1824-5,  and 


from  a  pestilence  in  1827.  The  mountains  of 
Iceland  were  explored  during  the  summer  of 
1861  by  Messrs.  Holland  and  Shepherd,  mem- 
bers of  the  London  Alpine  Clnb. 

ICENL— This  ancient  British  tribe,  inhabit- 
ing Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  the  frontiers  of 
Essex  and  Hertfordshire,  led  by  Queen 
Boadicea,  suffered  a  defeat  from  the  Romans 
under  Suetonius  Paulinus,  in  61. 

ICH  DIEN.— The  motto  of  John  of  Luxem- 
burg, King  of  Bohemia,  inscribed  upon  his 
helmet  found  upon  the  battle-field  of  Cre'cy, 
Aug.  26,  1346,  where  he  fell,  fighting  under  the 
French  banner.  The  motto  was  adopted  by 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  who  took  the 
plumed  helmet  from  the  head  of  the  Bohemian 
monarch.  The  heirs  to  the  English  crown 
have  retained  the  device,  as  well  as  the  plume 
of  three  ostrich  feathers.  Sir  H.  Nicolas  holds 
a  somewhat  different  theory  on  this  subject. 
(See  FEATHERS.) 

ICHNOLOGY,  or  the  science  of  footprints,  a 
section  of  Paleontology,  which  treats  of  the 
fossilized  impressions  made  on  mud  or  sand  by 
the  animals  of  the  various  geological  periods, 
was  founded  in  1828  by  Dr.  Duncan,  who  dis- 
covered the  tracks  of  an  extinct  species  of 
tortoise,  at  Corncockle,  Dumfriesshire. 

ICHTHYOLOGY.— Aristotle  (B.C.  384—322) 
is  the  first,  and  indeed  the  only,  author  of 
antiquity,  who  scientifically  investigated  and 
described  the  structure  of  fishes.  Modern 
ichthyology  dates  from  the  1 6th  century,  when 
Bi-lnn  in  1553),  Rondelet  (in  1554  and  1555), 
and  Salviani  from  1554  to  1558;,  published 
works  upon  it.  Francis  Willoughby  (1635 — 1672) 
and  John  Ray  (1628 — 1705)  distributed  fishes 
into  species  defined  by  their  natural  character- 
istics, without  reference  to  the  name  assigned 
to  them  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and 
Peter  Artedi  (1705 — Sep.  21,  1735)  and  Charles 
Linnaeus  (May  24,  1707—1778)  laboured  wrth 
much  success  in  the  same  work.  Cuvier's 
"  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Poissons,"  containing 
an  exhaustive  history  of  Ichthyology,  was 
published  from  1828  to  1849.  William  Yarrell's 
"History  of  British  Fishes"  appeared  in 
1835-36- 

ICILIAN  LAWS.— A  law  proposed  by  the 
Tribune  Spurius  Icilius,  B.C.  471,  decreed 
sentence  of  death  against  all  persons  who 
should  interrupt  the  Tribunes  while  they  were 
speaking  in  the  Comitia  Tributa.  The  same 
name  is  given  to  the  Lex  de  Aventino 
Publicando,  proposed  by  the  Tribune  Lucius 
Icilius,  B.C.  456,  which  regulated  the  owner- 
ship of  ground  used  for  building,  <fec. 

ICOLMKILL.  —  (See  ABBOT  OF  HUY  and 
IONA.) 

ICONIUM  (Asia  Minor).— Paul  and  Barnabas 
preached  in  this  ancient  city,  now  called 
Koniah  (Acts  xiii.  51),  in  45,  from  which  they 
were  compelled  to  flee,  on  accovmt  of  a  con- 
spiracy against  them  (Acts  xiv.  1-6).  Councils 
were  held  here  in  231  and  in  378.  It  was  made 
the  metropolis  of  Lycaonia.  The  Saracens 
captured  it  in  1074,  and  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Iconium  or  Roum,  which  lasted  till  1299. 
The  Crusaders  took  it  in  1097,  and  again  under 
Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa),  June  10,  nqo.  The 
Mongols  seized  it  in  1244,  and  the  Turks  in 


ICONOCLASTS 


[    503    1 


ILIUM 


1307.     Ibrahim  Pasha  defeated  the  Turks  near 
this  town,  Dec.  20,  1832. 

ICONOCLASTS,  or  IMAGE  BREAKERS.— 
The  custom  of  exhibiting  images  of  the  Saviour 
and  of  saints  in  churches,  introduced  about  the 
3rd  century  of  the  Christian  sera,  met  with 
strong  opposition  in  the  Eastern  empire,  under 
Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian,  who  issued  an  edict 
prohibiting  the  worship  of  all  statues  and 
pictures  which  represented  the  Saviour,  the 
Virgin,  and  the  saints,  in  726.  A  second 
decree,  commanding  the  destruction  of  all 
images,  and  the  whitewashing  of  the  churches, 
appeared  about  728.  The  attempt  of  an  official 
to  destroy  a  statue  of  the  Saviour  caused  an 
insurrection,  which  spread  to  Greece  and  the 
Mgsean  Islands.  Gregory  II.  denounced  this 
crusade  against  images  in  a  letter  to  Leo  III. 
in  729.  Another  letter  followed.  Constantine 
V.  (Copronymus,)  the  successor  of  Leo  III., 
renewed  his  edict,  and  summoned  the  third 
council  at  Constantinople  (Feb.  10— Aug.  8, 
754),  which  issued  a  decree  against  the  worship 
of  images.  The  controversy  raged  with  great 
fury,  and  a  council  summoned  at  Constanti- 
nople, Aug.  i,  786,  was  dissolved  on  account  of 
the  violence  of  different  parties.  It  met  at 
Nicaea  (second  council),  Sep.  24,  and  lasted  till 
Oct.  23,  787.  The  Iconoclasts  were  anathe- 
matized, and  the  worship  of  images  was  re- 
established. A  council  at  Constantinople,  in 
814,  annulled  all  decrees  made  against  the 
Iconoclasts.  After  much  resistance  and  many 
struggles,  the  Greeks  restored  the  worship.  A 
council  was  held  at  Constantinople,  Feb.  19, 
842,  when  the  decrees  of  the  second  Council  of 
Nicsea  were  accepted,  and  the  Iconoclasts 
denounced.  A  solemn  festival  was  appointed, 
and  the  whole  of  the  clergy  of  Constantinople 
went  in  procession  to  the  church  of  St.  Sophia, 
to  commemorate  the  event.  The  eighth 
general  council  held  at  Constantinople,  Oct. 
5,  869,  to  Feb.  28,  870,  anathematized  the 


conoclasts. 

ICONOGRAPHY,  or  THE  SCIENCE  OF 
IMAGES.— Fairholt  (Dictionary  of  Terms  in 
Art,  243),  describes  it  as  "  the  Art  exercised  by 
the  image-makers  of  all  ages  ;  at  one  period, 
expressing  by  sculpture,  carving,  and  paint- 
ing, actual  persons  and  events  ;  at  another 
seeking  to  represent,  by  sensuous  forms, 
abstract  and  spiritual  notions,  as  in  symbols, 

emblems,  and  allegories Hence 

it  is  the  history  of  the  world,  written  not 
only  upon  papyrus  and  parchment,  but 
deeply  graven  upon  stone,  marble,  and 
bronze  ;  or  reproduced  in  vivid  colours." 
Didron's  "  Iconographie  Chretienne  "  was  pub- 
lished in  1843. 

ICULISMA.— (See  ANGOTJLEME.) 

ICY  CAPE  (North  America)  was  discovered 
by  Capt.  Cook  in  1778. 

IDAHO  (North  America)  was  organized  as  a 
separate  territory  of  the  United  States  by  Act 
of  Congress  in  March,  1863. 

IDES,  in  the  ancient  Roman  calendar,  were 
eight  days  in  each  month,  the  first  of  which, 
denominated  the  Idus,  fell  on  the  i$th  of 
March,  May,  July,  and  October,  and  on  the 
i3th  of  the  other  months.  The  ides  came 
between  the  calends  and  the  nones,  and  were 


reckoned  backwards.  Thus,  the  i4th  day  of 
March,  May,  July,  and  October,  and  the  i2th 
of  the  other  months,  was  called  the  day  before 
the  Ides.  This  mode  of  reckoning  is  still 
retained  in  the  chancery  of  Rome,  and  in  the 
calendar  of  the  Breviary.  The  Ides  of  March 
are  celebrated  in  history  as  the  date  upon 
which  Julius  Caesar  was  assassinated,  B.C.  44. 

IDIOTS. — An  asylum  for  idiots  was  estab- 
lished in  1847,  and  the  establishment  at  Earls- 
wood,  Surrey,  was  opened  in  June,  1855. 

IDOLS. — Idolatry,  practised  in  some  form  or 
other  by  all  ancient  nations,  passed  from  Egypt 
to  India  about  the  i7th  century  B.C.,  and 
thence  to  North  Europe  about  the  6th  century 
B.C.  The  earliest  mention  of  idols  occurs 
Gen.  xxxi.  19  and  30,  B.C.  1739.  Constantine 
I.  ordered  the  destruction  of  idolatrous  tem- 
ples in  330,  and  Honorius  abolished  idolatry 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  in  404. 

IDOMENE  (Battle).— The  Acarnaniaus,  under 
Demosthenes,  defeated  the  Ambraciots  with 
great  slaughter,  at  this  pass,  near  Argos,  B.C. 
426. 

IDRIA  (Austria).  —  The  quicksilver  mines 
at  this  town  in  Carniola  were  discovered  in 

I4IDSTEDT  (Battle).  —  The  Danish  forces 
under  Gen.  Von  Kragh  defeated  the  Sleswig- 
Holsteiners  under  Willisen,  at  this  village 
of  Southern  Denmark,  July  24  and  25,  1850. 
The  loss  on  both  sides  amounted  to  about  8,000 
men. 

IDUMyEA.— (See  EDOM.) 
IERNE. — (See  BRITANNIA  and  IRELAND.) 
IGLAU  (Treaty)  was  concluded  at  this  town, 
in  Moravia,  between  the  Emperor  Sigismund 
and  the   Hussites,  July  5,    1436.      The  latter 
obtained    a   general    amnesty    and     the    free 
exercise   of  their   religion.     The  treaty    was 
based  upon  the  Compactata  of  Prague  made 

IGNORANTINES.  —  This  Roman  Catholic 
Association  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of 
poor  children  in  secular  and  religious  know- 
ledge, founded  in  France  by  the  Abbe  de  la 
Salle  in  1724,  has  been  introduced  into  other 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  The  brethren, 
expelled  from  France  at  the  Revolution,  were 
recalled  in  1806  by  Napoleon  I. 

IGUVIUM.— (See  GUBBIO.) 

ILDEFONSO,  ST.  (Treaties).  —  Several 
treaties  have  been  signed  at  this  town  of  Old 
Castile,  in  Spain.  The  first,  between  Spain 
and  Portugal,  was  concluded  Oct.  i,  1777,  and 
confirmed  March  31,  1778.  It  was  aimed  at 
England,  and  diplomatic  negotiations  with 

Spain  were  broken  off. An  offensive  and 

defensive  alliance  between  France  and  Spain 

as  concluded  here  Aug.  19,  1796,  and  a  secret 
treaty  between  the  same  powers,  by  virtue  of 
which  France  obtained  Louisiana,  was  signed 
Oct.  i,  1800.  It  was  confirmed  by  the  treaty 
of  Madrid,  March  21,  1801. 

ILERDA.—  (See  LERIDA.) 

ILE  ROYALE.— (See  CAPE  BRETON.) 

ILIAD.— (-See  ALLEGORY  and  ILIUM.) 

ILITURGIS  (Spain)  .—This  town  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  Publius  Scipio,  B.C.  206. 

ILIUM,  or  ILION  (Asia  Minor),  the  real 
name  of  the  city  of  Troja,  or  Troy,  the  latter, 


ILLIBERIS 


[    504    1 


IMMACULATE 


a  Roman  appellation,  being,  strictly  speaking, 
the  name  of  the  district.  Ilium,  the  capital  of 
Troas,  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  a  height 
between  the  rivers  Scamander  and  Simois,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  plain  of  Troy, 
close  to  the  modern  village  of  Bunarbashi. 
This  ancient,  or  Old  Ilium,  generally  believed 
to  have  been  captured  and  destroyed  after  a 
siege  of  10  years,  B.C.  1184,  or  B.C.  1127,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  epithet  vet  us,  from  Ilium 
Novum,  or  New  Ilium,  a  village  which  Alexan- 
der III.,  after  the  battle  of  Granicus,  B.C.  334, 
ordered  to  be  enlarged  and  called  a  city.  Fiin- 
bria  captured  it  B.C.  85.  After  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  B.C.  48,  it  was  visited  by  Julius 
Cttjsar,  who  conferred  upon  the  inhabitants 
numerous  privileges,  and,  in  remembrance  of 
his  victory,  instituted  the  Ludi  Trojan i,  to 
which  Virgil  refers  in  the  vEneid.  Homer,  who 
nourished  B.C.  962 — 927,  or,  according  to  Hero- 
dotus, B.C.  850,  wrote  the  Iliad,  an  epic  poem, 
containing  an  account  of  the  siege  of  Troy, 
and  the  Odyssey,  describing  the  wanderings 
of  Ulysses  after  the  siege.  These  poems  were 
first  collected  B.C.  531,  by  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of 
Athens.  The  first  Knglish  translation  of  the 
Iliad,  by  Arthur  Hall,  was  published  in  Lon- 
don in  1581.  George  Chapman's  translation  of 
the  first  seven  books  appeared  in  1598,  and  of 
the  whole  Iliad  in  1611.  His  translation  of  the 
Odyssey  was  published  in  1615.  Pope's  trans- 
lation of  the  Iliad  appeared  1715-20,  and  of  the 
Odyssey,  1725-6.  Cowper  published  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  in  1791  ;  and  the 
Earl  of  Derby's  translation  of  the  Iliad  ap- 
peared in  1865. 

ILUIJKKIS.—  ,sv«  ELIBERIS.) 

ILLINOIS  (United  States  .—The  French  set- 
tled in  this  country  in  the  i7th  century.  It  was 
ceded  to  England  in  1763,  separated  in  1775, 
and  formed  part  of  the  territory  of  Indiana 
from  1800  to  1809,  in  which  year  a  division 
took  place.  Illinois  was  admitted  as  the  2oth 
state  of  the  Union  in  1818. 

ILLUMINATI.—  The  name  of  Illuminati,  or 
Enlightened  Men,  was  adopted  by  several 
secret  political  societies  of  a  revolutionary 
tendency,  which  arose  during  the  i6th,  i7th, 
and  i8th  centuries.  They  appeared  in  Spain, 
where  they  were  termed  Alombrados,  in  1575, 
and  having  been  suppressed,  sprang  up  again 
at  Seville  in  1623  or  1627.  In  Belgium  they 
were  called  Mystics,  and  in  France  Guerinets. 
The  order  of  Illuminati,  at  first  called  the 
order  of  the  Perfectibilists,  was  established  at 
Ingoldstadt,  Bavaria,  May  i,  1776,  by  Adam 
Weishaupt.  The  avowed  object  of  this  asso- 
ciation was  the  extirpation  of  the  Jesuits 
and  the  diminution  of  the  papal  influence. 
It  soon  became  very  powerful,  and  was  sup- 
pressed by  decrees  issued  June  22,  1784,  and 
March  2  and  Aug.  16,  1785.  Mirabeau  was 
one  of  its  disciples.  Its  agents  visited  Paris 
for  the  purpose  of  illuminating  France.  For 
many  years  after  its  suppression,  the  Society 
of  Illuminati  lingered  on  under  the  name  of 
the  German  Union.  The  favourite  saying  of 
the  Illuminati  was,—"  The  last  king  ought  to 
be  hanged  with  the  entrails  of  the  last 
priest." 

ILLUMINATION  and  ILLUMINATED  MSS. 


— The  art  of  decorating  manuscripts  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  and  was  practised  by  the 
Romans.  Cicero  commends  Marcus  Varro,  who 
flourished  B.C.  116 — B.C.  28,  for  having  adorned 
his  works  with  the  portraits  of  more  than  70x3 
persons.  The  most  ancient  illuminated  docu- 
ments extant  are  the  Terence  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury and  the  Virgil  of  the  sth,  both  of  which 
are  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  The  art  re- 
ceived great  encouragement  from  the  Eastern 
emperors  in  the  gth,  ioth,  and  nth  centuries, 
and  was  extensively  patronized  by  Charle- 
magne. About  1150  a  better  style  of  drawing 
became  common.  The  finest  specimens  of  illu- 
minated MSS.  are  of  the  isth  and  i6th  cen- 
turies, from  which  time  the  introduction  of 
printed  books  has  superseded  MS.  works,  and 
hence  put  a  stop  to  the  illuminator's  art.  It 
has,  however,  been  revived  as  a  fashionable 
amusement. 

ILLUSTRISSIMI,  or  MOST  ILLUSTRIOUS. 
— (See  CARDINAL  and  EMINENCE.) 

ILLYRIA,  or  ILLYRICUM  (Europe).— This 
name  was  anciently  applied  to  all  the  countries 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  In  the  4th 
century  B.C.  the  northern  portions  of  Illyria 
were  visited  by  the  Gauls,  who  expelled  the 
natives  and  drove  them  to  the  south.  Philip 
II.,  King  of  Macedon,  waged  war  with  the 
lllyrians  B.C.  359 ;  and  the  Romans  sent  an 
army  against  them,  and  compelled  them  to  sue 
for  peace,  B.C.  233.  The  second  Illyrian  war 
commenced  B.C.  229,  and  also  terminated  in 
favour  of  the  Romans.  The  Dalmatae  revolted 
from  the  lllyrians  B.C.  180,  and  formed  the 
independent  state  of  Dalmatia  >/.  v.);  and  the 
remaining  country  was  reduced  into  a  Hum  ui 
province  by  L.  Anicius,  B.C.  168.  It  became  an 
imperial  province  B.C.  n.  Dalmatia,  Carniola, 
and  some  neighbouring  countries,  received  the 
name  of  Illyrian  Provinces  by  a  decree  issued 
by  Napoleon  I.,  Oct.  14,  1809. 

IL  MONTK  D'ASDRUBALE  (Battle).— (See 
.MKTACIIUS,  Battle.) 

ILVA.— (See  ELBA.) 

[MAGES.— From  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions, it  appears  that  image-makers  were  re- 
fused the  sacraments  of  the  Holy  Supper  and 
of  baptism  by  the  primitive  Church.  The 
decoration  of  churches  with  images  and  pic- 
tures was  prohibited  by  the  Council  of  Elvira 
in  277.  It  was  first  rendered  common  by  Pau- 
linus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  who  flourished  about 
400.  The  worship  of  images  and  pictures  was 
introduced  some  time  before  692,  and  was  ap- 
proved by  the  second  Council  of  Nicaea  in  787. 
By  3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  10  (1549),  all  images  in 
churches  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  ;  and 
the  Puritans  committed  great  havoc  in  the 
churches  during  the  Civil  War.  (See  ICONO- 
CLASTS and  ICONOGRAPHY.) 

IMAGE-WORSHIP.— (See  ICONOCLASTS.) 

IMBROS    (vEgpean   Sea).— An  island,   inha- 


bited at  an  early  period  by  the  Pelasgians,  was 
annexed  to  the  Persian  empire  B.C.  505,  and 
afterwards  belonged  to  the  Athenians.  Mo- 
hammed II.  subdued  it  in  1457. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.— The  dis- 
pute in  the  Romish  Church  respecting  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
commenced  about  1140,  the  Franciscans  sup- 


IMMACULATE 


[    505    1 


INCHCOLM 


porting,  and  the  Dominicans  opposing,  the 
dogma.  In  1384  the  discussion  was  revived  at 
Paris  by  the  Dominican  John  de  Montesono, 
and  having  been  continued  with  great  bitter- 
ness, resulted  in  the  exclusion  of  the  Do- 
minicans from  the  university  in  1389.  It 
also  occasioned  great  discussion  during  the 
pontificates  of  Paul  V.  (1605—1621),  of  Gregory 
XV.  (1621—1623),  and  of  Alexander  VII.)  1655— 
1667).  Pius  IX.  wrote  letters  on  the  subject, 

Feb.  2, 1849, and  May  2°>  i8s° ; and  ft  was  made 

an  article  of  faith  of  the  Romish  Church  by  a 
bull  promulgated  Dec.  8,  1854. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION  (Feast), 
traced  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the  sth,  and  in 
the  Latin  to  the  7th  century,  has  been  cele- 
brated annually  since  the  i2th.  It  received  the 
sanction  of  the  Council  of  Basel  in  1431,  and 
was  ordered  to  be  celebrated  by  Sixtus  IV.  in 
1476.  The  Latin  Church  observes  the  feast 
Dec.  8,  and  the  Greek  Dec.  9. 

IMMvE  (Battle),  fought  at  this  village,  near 
Antioch,  June  7,  218,  when  Elagabalus  defeated 
Macrinus. 

IMPEACHMENT  is  the  accusation  of  a 
peer  or  member  of  Parliament  of  treason  or 
other  high  crimes.  The  earliest  example  is 
the  case  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  Pole,  Earl  of 
Suffolk,  in  1386.  By  12  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  2,  s.  3 
(1700),  no  pardon  under  the  Great  Seal  is  plead- 
able  to  an  impeachment  by  the  Commons  in 
Parliament.  Persons  impeached  of  high  trea- 
son are  allowed  counsel  by  20  Geo.  II.  c.  30 

(I74?)- 

IMPERIAL  CHAMBER,  or  COURT  OF 
THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.— A  supreme  tri- 
bunal of  the  empire,  established  by  Maximi- 
lian I.,  at  the  diet  of  Worms,  in  1495.  It  was 
a  paramount  court  of  justice,  and  consisted,  at 
its  first  formation,  of  a  chief  judge,  who  was  to 
be  chosen  amongst  the  princes  or  counts,  and 
of  1 6  assessors,  partly  of  noble  or  equestrian 
rank,  partly  professors  of  law.  They  were 
nominated  by  the  emperor,  subject  to  the 
approbation  of  the  diet.  Hallam  says, — ."The 
functions  of  the  Imperial  Chamber  were  chiefly 
the  two  following.  They  exercised  an  appellant 
jurisdiction  over  causes  that  had  been  decided 
by  the  tribunals  established  in  states  of  the 
empire.  But  their  jurisdiction  in  private 
causes  was  merely  appellant.  The  second  part 
of  the  chamber's  jurisdiction  related  to  dis- 
putes between  two  states  of  the  empire.  But 
these  two  could  only  come  before  it  by  way  of 
appeal."  The  police  of  the  circles  had  to  en- 
force the  sentences  pronounced  by  the  Imperial 
Chamber.  It  lasted  three  centuries. 

IMPERIAL  GUARD.— The  Consular  Guard 
received  this  title  on  the  accession  of  Napoleon 
I.,  in  1804.  It  originally  numbered  9,775  men, 
but  was  gradually  increased,  till  in  1814  it  in- 
cluded 102,708  men.  This  guard  was  disbanded 
on  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1815,  but 
was  again  enrolled  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon 
III.,  May  4,  1854. 

IMPRISONMENT  FOR  DEBT.— Clergymen 
in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  and  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  are  exempt  from  arrest  for 
debt.  (See  CLERGY,  and  FERRARS'S  ARREST.) 
By  12  Geo.  I.  c.  29  (1726),  no  arrest  for  debt 
could  take  place  unless  the  cause  of  action 


amounted  to  ^10  in  superior,  or  408.  in  inferior 
sourts.  The  restriction  was  extended  to  ^10 
n  inferior  courts  by  19  Geo.  III.  c.  70  (1779). 
By  51  Geo.  III.  c.  124  (July  2,  1811),  £15  was 
,he  lowest  sum  recoverable  by  imprisonment, 
and  by  7  <fc  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  71  (July  2,  1827),  it 
was  fixed  at  ^20.  Arrest  (q.  v. )  on  mesne  pro- 
cess was  abolished  except  in  the  case  of  the 
iebtor's  attempting  to  quit  England,  by  i  &  2 
~rict.  c.  no  (Aug.  16, 1838).  By  the  Absconding 
Debtors'  Arrest  Act,  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  52  (Aug.  i, 
851),  absconding  debtors  who  owe  £20  or  up- 
wards are  liable  to  arrest. 

IMPROPRIATIONS.— Impropriation  is  de- 
ined  by  Wharton  as  "the  act  of  employing 
;he  revenues  of  a  church  living  to  a  layman's 
use."  The  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by 
31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1539),  led  to  many  such 
mpropriations.  The  "  feoffees  for  impropria- 
;ions"  were  censured  in  the  Star  Chamber, 
and  their  livings  forfeited  to  the  crown,  Feb. 
13,  1633.  It  was  a  self-constituted  corporation, 
;ormed  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  impro- 
priate  rectories,  and  owes  its  origin  to  John 
Preston,  a  celebrated  preacher. 

IMPROVISATOR!,  or  extempore  versifiers, 
arose  in  Italy  during  the  i2th  century.  Sera- 
fino  Aquilano  (1466—1500)  was  the  first  impro- 
visatore  of  note.  The  two  blind  brothers 
Brandolini  excelled  at  Florence  as  improvisa- 
;ori,  in  the  isth  century. 

INCENDIARIES.— (-See  ARSON.) 

INCENSE.— (See  FRANKINCENSE.) 

INCH  OF  CANDLE.— At  an  auction  by  inch 
of  candle,  persons  continued  to  bid  whilst 
a  small  piece  of  candle  was  burning,  the 
article  being  knocked  down  to  the  person  who 
made  the  last  offer  before  it  was  extinguished. 
In  excommunication  by  inch  of  candle,  the 
sentence  was  not  passed  upon  the  offender  if 
hie  repented  before  the  piece  of  candle  burned 
out.  Shakespeare  (2  Hen.  IV.  ii.  4)  alludes  to 
bhe  old  custom  practised  by  the  amorous  gal- 
lant, who  "  drinks  off  candles'  ends  for  flap- 
dragons."  Nares  remarks  that  "  as  a  feat  of 
gallantry,  to  swallow  a  candle' 's-end  formed 
a  more  formidable  and  disagreeable  flap- 
dragon  than  any  other  substance,  and  there- 
fore afforded  a  stronger  testimony  of  zeal  for 
the  lady  to  whose  health  it  was  drunk." 

INCHCAPE,  or  BELL-ROCK.— Upon  this 
dangerous  rock,  situated  in  the  German  Ocean, 
about  12  miles  from  Arbroath,  or  Aberbrothock, 
an  abbot  of  that  place  is  said  to  have  placed  a 
bell  as  a  warning  to  mariners,  which  was  mali- 
ciously cut  adrift  by  a  Dutch  rover,  whose  ship 
subsequently  struck  on  the  same  reef,  and 
sank,  with  all  hands  on  board.  Southey  has 
founded  a  well-known  ballad  on  this  story.  A 
lighthouse  was  ordered  by  46  Geo.  III.  c.  132 
(July  21,  1806),  and  the  building,  commenced 
in  1807,  was  completed,  at  a  cost  of  ,£60,000, 
in  Oct.,  1810.  The  light  was  exhibited  for  the 
first  time  Feb.  i,  1811. 

INCHCOLM,  or  ST.  COLM'S  INCH  (Firth  of 
Forth).  —  This  island,  referred  to  by  Shake- 
speare (Macbeth,  act  i.,  sc.  2),  situated  within 
sight  of  Edinburgh,  was  the  abode,  in  the  6th 
century,  of  St.  Colm,  or  Columba.  Alexander 
I.  of  Scotland,  who  was  wrecked  here  in  1123, 
when  it  was  inhabited  by  one  solitary  hermit,- 


INCHKEITH 


[    506    ] 


IXDEX 


erected  an  Augustine  monastery  in  gratitude 
for  his  escape.  It  was  repeatedly  sacked  by 
the  English  in  the  i4th,  isth,  and  i6th  cen- 
turies. 

INCHKEITH  (Firth  of  Forth).— This  island, 
in  which  a  monastery  was  founded  in  679  or 
704,  having  been  fortified  by  an  English  force 
in  1547,  was  captured  by  the  French,  who  called 
it  the  "Isle  of  Horses,"  in  1549.  A  revolving 
light  was  placed  on  the  island  in  1805. 
IN  CCENA  DOMINI.— (See  BULL.) 
INCOME  AND  PROPERTY  TAX.— The  first 
income-tax  was  levied  iu  1512  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  war  with  France.  It  was  im 
posed  vipon  the  commons,  who  were  rated  at 
two-fifteenths,  and  the  clergy  at  two-tenths. 
Mr.  Pitt's  income-tax  was  also  levied  to  defray 
the  expense  of  a  French  war,  by  39  Geo.  III. 
c.  13  (Jan.  9,  1799).  It  imposed  a  graduated 
series  of  rates  on  all  incomes  of  ,£60  per  annum 
and  upwards,  and  was  repealed  by  42  Geo.  III. 
May  4,  1802).  It  was,  however,  virtually 
•  I  by  the  Property-tax  Act,  43  Geo.  III. 
c.  122  (Aug.  ii,  1803',  which  imposed  a  rate  on 
all  incomes  above  £60  per  annum,  5  per  cent, 
on  incomes  of  .£150  being  the  standard.  The 
rate  was  increased  to  6i  per  cent,  by  45  Geo. 
III.  c.  15  (March  18,  1805),  and  to  10  per  cent. 
by  46  Geo.  III.  c.  65  (June  13,  1806).  This  tax 
expired  in  1816,  Government  having  been 
defeated  March  19,  on  the  motion  for  its  re- 
newal, by  a  majority  of  37.  Sir  Robert  Peel's 
rate  of  scvenpence  in  the  pound  was  levied  by 

5&  6  Viet.  c.  35  (June  22,  1842),  for  three  years. 
t  was  continued  three  years  longer  by  8  &  9 
Viet.  c.  4  (April  5,  1845 ',  and  again  for  three 
years  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  8  (April  13,  1848).  It 
was  renewed  for  one  year  by  14  <fc  15  Viet.  c.  12 
(June  5,  1851^  and  for  another  year  by  15  <fc  16 
Viet.  c.  20  (May  28,  1852).  By  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  34 
(June  28,  1853),  it  was  arranged  for  the  rate  to 
undergo  a  gradual  diminution,  and  to  expire  in 
seven  years,  and  the  tax  was  also  extended  to 
Ireland ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  Russian 
war  the  plan  was  abandoned,  and  a  double  rate 
was  imposed  byij'A  1 8  Viet.  c.  10  (May  12, 
1854).  An  addition  of  twopence  in  the  pound 
on  incomes  of  more  than  .£150,  and  of  three 
half-pence  on  those  between  ^150  and  ^100, 
was  imposed  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  20  (May  25, 
1855).  These  rates  were  reduced  to  sevenpenee 
and  fivepence  in  the  pound  by  20  Viet.  c.  6 
(March  21,  1857),  and  increased  to  ninepence 
and  sixpence-halfpenny  by  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  18 
(Aug.  13,  1859).  By  23  Viet.  c.  14  (April  3, 
1860),  they  were  further  increased  to  tenpcnce 
and  sevenpenee.  A  select  Parliamentary  com- 
mittee to  inquire  into  the  mode  of  assessing 
and  collecting  this  tax,  with  a  view  to  its 
more  equitable  adjustment,  was  appointed 
Feb.  19,  1861.  By  24  Viet.  c.  20  (June  12,  1861), 
it  was  reduced  to  ninepence  in  the  pound  on 
incomes  above  £150  per  annum,  and  on  incomes 
between  ;£ioo  and  ^150  to  sixpence  in  the 
pound.  It  was  reduced  to  sevenpenee  in  the 
pound,  and  persons  with  incomes  of  less  than 
j£ioo  per  annum  were  exempted,  and  those 
with  less  than  ^200  were  allowed  an  abate- 
ment of  £60  from  their  assessed  income,  by 
26  Viet.  c.  22  (June  8,  1863).  It  was  reduced 
to  sixpence  in  the  pound  by  27  Viet.  c.  18  (,May 


13,   1864),  and  to  fourpence  in  the  pound  by 
28  Viet.  c.  30  (May  26,  1865). 

INCORPORATED  CHURCH  BUILDING 
SOCIETY  (London),  established  in  1818,  and 
incorporated  in  1828,  was  supported  till  1851 
by  a  triennial  Royal  Letter,  producing  about 
.£30,000,  but  has  been  since  dependent  on  sub- 
scriptions, donations,  &c. 

INCORPORATED  LAW  SOCIETY  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  formed  in  1823,  was  insti- 
tuted in  1827.  It  was  incorporated  by  charter 
Dec.  22,  1831,  and  the  institution  was  opened 
July  4,  1832.  It  was  placed  upon  a  new  basis 
and  re-incorporated  Feb.  26,  1845. 

1\(  ORRUPTIBLES.— (See  COKRUPTIBLES.) 

INCURABLES.— (See  HOSPITALS.) 

INDEMNITY.— An  act  of  indemnity,  passed 
May  20,  1690,  exempted  from  penal  conse- 
quences the  instruments  of  popery  and 
arbitrary  power  during  the  reign  of  James  II. 
In  addition  to  the  regicides,  35  persons  were 
by  name  exempted  in  this  act.  Various 
statutes  render  it  incumbent  upon  most 
Government  officers  to  take  certain  oaths  as  a 
necessary  qualification  for  their  office ;  but  as 
this  would  prove  very  troublesome  in 
instances,  an  act  of  indemnity  is  passed  every 
year  to  exempt  persons  from  any  omission  in 
this  respect.  Indemnity  bills  are  also  passed 
to  release  Government  or  its  agents  from  the 
consequences  of  illegal  acts  which  circum- 
stances may  have  rendered  necessary.  Bills 
of  this  kind  were  passed  on  behalf  of  the 
advisers  of  the  embargo  on  the  exportation 
of  corn,  Dec.  16,  1766;  also  to  indemnify 
officers  who  arrested  persons  during  the 
M!-,;  elisions  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act, 
April  10,  1801,  and  March  10,  1818;  and  for 
the  violations  of  the  currency  laws  by  the  sus- 
pension of  the  Bank  Charter  Act  in  1848  and 
in  1857. 

INI)  K  PENDENTS,  or  CONGREG  ATION- 
A  LISTS. — The  term  Independents  was  applied 
to  several  sects  of  Dissenters,  principally 
Brownists,  about  1610.  Jacobs  and  Brown  are 
said  to  have  established  the  first  Congregational 
assembly  at  Leyden  in  1616.  John  Robinson 
founded  the  first  Independent  Church  in 
America  at  Plymouth,  New  England,  in  1620. 
In  1637  much  controversy  took  place  relative 
to  Antinomianism,  which  was  condemned  by  a, 
synod  held  in  New  England.  Harvard  College 
was  founded  in  1638,  and  the  Savoy  Confession 
was  adopted  in  America  in  1658.  The  Inde- 
pendents did  not  make  much  progress  in 
Scotland  before  1729.  The  colleges  for  the 
education  of  Independent  ministers  in  this 
country  are  Western  College,  Plymouth, 
founded  in  1752  ;  Rotherham  College,  York- 
shire, in  1756;  Brecon  College  in  1760; 
Cheshunt  College  in  1 768  ;  Airedale  College, 
Bradford,  in  1784  ;  Hackney  Seminary  in  1796  ; 
Lancashire  College  in  1806  ;  Springhill  College, 
Birmingham,  in  1838;  New  College,  St.  John's 
Wood,  London,  in  1850;  and  Cavendish  Theo- 
logical College,  Manchester,  in  1860. 

INDEPENDENT  TARTARY.  —  (See 
TURKESTAN.) 

INDEX  EXPURGATORIUS,  or  LIBRORUM- 
PROIIIBITORUM.— A  list  of  books  considered 
pernicious  by  the  Romish  Church  was  pre- 


INDIA 


[    507    3 


INDIA 


pared  by  the  Inquisition  in  1559,  by  order  of 
Paul  IV.,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1545 — 1563).  In  1564  Pius 
V.  appointed  a  committee  for  the  express 
purpose  of  continuing  this  catalogue.  (See 
BOOK  CENSORS.) 

INDIA  (Asia).— The  term  India  is  believed 
to  be  derived  from  Sindhu,  the  Sanscrit  name 
of  the  river  Indus.  Hindostan,  the  country 
of  the  Hindoos,  is  the  name  given  to  the  whole 
country  by  the  Persians.  Some  writers  believe 
that  those  early  navigators  the  Phoenicians 
reached  India  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
ancient  Greeks  had  but  a  slight  acquaintance 
with  India.  Hecafceus  of  Milettis  (B.C.  549— 
486)  is  the  first  historian  who  speaks  of  the 
country. 

B.C. 

3000.  The  worship  of  Brahma  is  introduced. 

1500.  The  country  is  ravaged  by  the  Mulmbharata  war. 

1000.  Buddhism,    according  to   Sir  W.    Jones,   is  intro- 

duced. 
508.  The  territory  north  of  the  Indus  is  subjugated  by  the 

Persians. 

327.  Alexander  III.  overruns  the  Punjaub. 
A.n. 

4  The  sera  of  Salivahan  commences. 
The  Mohammedans  invade  India  for  the  first  time. 
711.  The  Mohammedans  conquer  Sciude. 
750.  The  Mohammedans  are  expelled. 

1001.  Sultan  Mahmoud  of   Ghizui  commences  his  con- 

quest of  India. 

1030,  April  30.  Death  of  Mahmoud. 
1176.  Saheb  ud  Been  founds  the  Mohammedan  empire  in 

India. 
I2o6.  India  becomes  independent,  on  the  death  of  Sahcb 

ud  Been. 

1217.  Zinghis  Khan  commences  his  invasion  of  India. 
129^.  The  country  is  invaded  by  the  Mongols,   who  are 

defeated  at  Delhi. 
1319.  Conquest  of  Malabar. 
1340.  Bengal  becomes  independent. 
1398.  The  Tartars,  under  Tamerlane,   ravage  India  and 

sack  Delhi. 
1429.  Amir  Sheikh  AH  ravages  the  Punjaub. 


147*.  Jupur  is  annexed  to  the  Indian  empire. 
ico  de  Gama  doubles  the  Cape  of 
.iscovers  the  passage  to  India. 


1497.  Vasco  de  Gama  doubles  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 


1503.  The  Portuguese  obtain  a  footing  in  Cochin,  the 
commencement  of  their  power  in  the  East. 

1510,  Nov.  35.  Albuquerque  takes  Goa. 

1526.  Baber  founds  the  Mongol  dynasty  in  India. 

1538.  The  British  attempt  to  reach  India  by  the  North- 
east and  North-west  passages. 

1531.  Cabul  is  overrun. 

1540,  May.    Shir  Khan  defeats  and  deposes  Humayun. 

1555.  Humayun  is  restored,  by  the  assistance  of  the 
Persians. 

1579.  Sir  Francis  Drake  lands  in  the  Moluccas. 

I5«6.  Akbar  conquers  Cashmere. 

1589.  An  overland  expedition  to  India  is  undertaken  by 
the  Levant  Company, 

1591.  Akbar  annexes  Scinde. 

1600,  Dec.  31.    The   East  India  Company   (q.  v.)  receive 

their  first  charter. 

1601,  May  2.  The  first  English  fleet  sails  from  Torbay. 
1612,  Jan.   li.    The   English    are  permitted  to  establish 

factories    at    Surat,   Ahmedabad,   Cambay,   and 
Gogra. 

1614.  The  English  defeat  the  Portuguese  in  Bombay. 

1615,  Dec.  23.    An  English   embassy,   under  Sir  Thomas 

Roe,  arrives  in  India. 

1617.  The  Danes  settle  in  Tranquebar. 

1623.  Shah  Jehan  rebels. 

1635.  The  English  are  allowed  to  trade  with  the  Portu- 
guese ports  in  India. 

1641.  Fort  St.  George  is  founded.     (See  MADRAS.) 

1648.  Rebellion  of  Sevajee,  the  founder  of  the  Mahratta 
empire. 

1658.  Aurungzebe  dethrones  his  father,  Shah  Jehan,  and 
reigns  in  his  stead. 

1668.  The  English  obtain  Bombay  island. 

1670.  Sevajee  ravages  the  Mongol  dominions. 


1672.  The  French  acquire  Pondicherry  (q.  ».). 
1680,  April  5.  Death  of  Sevajee. 

1686.  Aurungzebe  annexes  Bejapore. 

1687.  Bombay  is  made  the  chief  establishment  in  India. 

Aurungzebe  acquires  Golconda  (q. ».). 
1710.  Bahadur  Shah  marches  against  the  Sikhs. 
1719.  An  East  India  Company  is  founded  at  Ostend. 
1731.  The  Swedish  Company  is  formed. 
1739.  Nadir  Shah,  of  Persia,   invades    India.— Feb.    He 

defeats   Mohammed    Shah.— March  9.    He  sacks 

Delhi,  and  obtains  all  the  Indian  territories  west 

of  the  Indus. 
1746.  War   commences    between    the    English   and    the 

French    in  India.  —  Sep.   14.    The  French  take 

Madras. 

1749,  Oct.     The  French  are  made  rulers  of    eighty-one 

villages  near  Pondicherry. 

1750.  The  Rohillas  (q.  r.)  defeat  the  imperial  forces. 

1751,  Aug.  31.  Clive  takes  Arcot  (q.  v.). 

1752.  The  Punjaub  is  ceded  to  Ahmed  Shah. 

1754,  Dec.  26.  Peace  is  concluded  between  the  English  and 
French,  at  Pondicherry. 

1756,  Feb.  ii.  The  Mahratta  pirate  Angria  is  made  pri- 

soner, and  his  state  destroyed. — June  20.  The 
tragedy  of  the  Black -hole  (?.*.). — Dec.  20.  Clive 
and  Watson  arrive  in  the  Ganges. 

1757,  Jan,   2.    Clive  retakes  Calcutta.— March     23.    The 

English  take  Chandernagore.— June  23.  Battle  of 
Plassey(?.i?.). 

1758,  June  i.    The  French,   under  Lally,   take   Fort  St. 

David.— Oct.  4.  They  seize  Arcot. 

1759,  Feb.  16.  The  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Pococke, 

compels  Lally  to  retire.— April  6.  The  subahdar 
of  the  Decoan  cedes  a  large  portion  of  his  territory 
to  the  British,  and  agrees  to  allow  no  French 
settlements  in  his  dominions.  — Nov.  29.  The 
French  are  expelled  from  Wandewash  (q. ».). — 
Dec.  10.  The  English  seize  their  fort  at  Caran- 

go'y- 

1760,  Feb.  10.  Arcot  is  taken  by  the  British 

1761,  Jan.  Major  Carnac  defeats  Shah  Alum  II.  at  Patna. 

—Jan.  15.  The  French  surrender  Pondicherry  to 
the  British. 

1763,  Feb.  10.  The  treaty  of  Paris  restores  Pondicherry  to 

the  French. — Nov.  6.  Capture  of  Patna  (7.  ».). 

1764,  Feb.  ii.  The  English  army  in  India  mutinies,  but  is 

reduced  to  subjection  by  Major  Munro. — Oct.  23. 
The  battle  of  Buxar  (q. v.). 

1765,  May  19.  The  nabob  of  Oudh  becomes  tributary  to  the 

British.— Aug.  12.  The  Emperor  constitutes  the 
Company  the  Dewannee  or  receivers  of  revenue 
of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa. 

1766,  Nov.    12.  Treaty  with  the   Nizam   of  the   Deccan 

by  which  the  British  obtain  the  Northern  Circars. 

1767,  Jan.  Lord  Clive  sails  for  England.— Sep.  The  Nizam 

forms  an  alliance  with  Hyder  AH,  and  treacher- 
ously attacks  the  British.— Dec.  The  Nizam  and 
Hyder  AH  are  defeated  at  Vellore. 

1769,  Jan.  Hyder  AH  plunders   the    Carnatic.— April  4. 

He  marches  to  Madras,  and  compels  the  English 
to  conclude  an  alliance  with  him. 

1770,  A  famine  in  Bengal  carries  off  nearly  a  third  of  the 

population. 

1771,  Dec.  22.  The  Mahrattas  enter  Delhi,  and  compel  the 

Emperor  to  make  important  concessions. 

1772,  April  13.  Warren  Hastings  succeeds  to  the  governor- 

ship of  Bengal. 

1773,  The  Mahrattas  commit  great  ravages. 

1774,  April  23.  The  British  defeat  the   Kohilla  army. — 

Dec.  28.  Salsette  and  Bassein  are  seized  by  the 
British. 

1775,  May  21.  The  subahdar  of  Oudh  cedes  Benares  to  the 

Company. — May  30.  Charges  of  corruption  are 
brought  against  Warren  Hastings. 

1776,  March  ii.  Warren   Hastings  is  again    accused   of 

receiving  bribes,   by  the  Brahmin  Nuncomar.— 
Aug.  5.  Execution  of  Nuncomar  for  forgery. 
1778,  Oct  17.  Pondicherry  surrenders  to  the  British. 

1780,  Aug.  25.  A  British  force,  under  Sir  Hector  Munro, 

takes  the  field  against  Hyder  AH.— Sep.  10.  Hyder 
AH  captures  a  detachment  under  Colonel  Ba'illie. 
—Sep.  ii.  The  English  retreat— Oct.  31.  Hyder 
takes  Arcot — Nov.  5.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  arrives  at 
Madras  with  reinforcements. 

1781,  July  i.  Battle   of   Porto   Novo.— Aug.  14.  Warren 

Hastings  attempts  to  arrest  the  Rajah  of  Benares, 
who  escapee.. 


INDIA 


[    508    ] 


INDIA 


1781,  Sep.  19.  The  treaty  of  Chunar  is  signed  by  Warre: 

Hastings  and  the  subahdar  of  Uudh.  Hastings 
receives  from  the  latter  a  present  of  £100,000. — 
Oct.  24.  Sir  Elijah  Impey  is  made  judge  of  the 
court  of  appeal. 

1782,  Jan.    13.  'Ihe  persecution  of  the  Begums  of  Oudh 

commences.  —  Feb.  19.  A  French  expedition 
lands,  and  assists  Tippoo  Sail)  against  the  Eng- 
lish.— May  17.  Bassein  and  Ahmedabad  are 
ceded  to 'the  Mahrattas,  who  agree  to  exclude 
all  foreigners  except  the  English. — Aug.  31.  The 
French  take  Trincomalee. — Sep.  38.  .Sir  Eyre 
Coote  relinquishes  the  chief  command.— Dec.  7. 
Death  of  Hyder  AH,  who  is  succeeded  by  Tippoo 
Hail). 

1783,  March.  A  French  force,  under  Bussy,  lands  on  the 

Coromandel  coast. — April  1 8.  Tippoo  takes  Bed- 
nore  —Sep.  3.  Treaty  of  Versailles  (q.  v.). 

1784,  March  ii.  A  peace  isconcluded  with  Tippoo. 

1785,  Feb.  8.  Warren   Hastings  resigns  the  government, 

and  returns  to  England. 

1786,  April  4.  Burke,  in  the  House  of   Commons,  charges 

Warren  Hastings  with  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanours. 

1787,  May    10.    The    House    of   Commons    resolves    that 

Hastings  shall  be  impeached  at  the  bar  of  the 
Boose  i'f  Lords,  which  is  accordingly  done  by 
Burke.— Dec.  5.  The  committee  of  management  of 
the-  impeachment  ia  appointed  by  the  Com- 
mons. 

1788,  Feb.  13.  The  trial  commences  in  Westminster  Hall. 

—  Feb.  15-19.  Burke  opens  the  accusation. — June 
3-13.  Sheridan  --peaks  on  the  charge  relative  to 
the  Begums  of  Oudh. — Sep.  (tuntoor  is  ceded  to 
the  Knglish  by  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan. 

1789,  Dec.  24.  Tippoo  is  defeated  in  an  attack  upon  Tra- 

vaneorc. 

1790,  May  7.  Tippoo  enters  Travancore,  which  lie  plun- 

ders.—June  I.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  the 
Mahrattas  against  Tippoo. — July  4  The  Ni/ain 
joins  the  league  against  Tippoo.— Dec.  12,  Lord 
Cornwallis  arrives  at  .Madras. 

1791,  March  6  to  22.   Lord  Cornwallis  besieges  and  takes 

Bangalore.-  .May  14.  Battle  of  Arikera.— May  30. 
The  ease  against  Warren  Hayings  is  closed. — 
June  2.  Me  commences  his  defence. 

1792,  March   19.   Peace   is  concluded  with  Tippoo,   who 

surrenders  his  two  eldest  sons  as  hostages. 

1793,  Courts  for  civil  and  criminal  causes,    and  circuits, 

are  appointed,  and  judges'  fees  abolished.-  Aug. 
23.  1'ondieherry  is  again  taken  by  the  Knglish. 

1794,  March  29.  Tippoo  s  sons  are  restored. — June  20.  The 

managers  of  the  prosecution  against  Warren 
Hastings  receive  the  thanks  of  the  House  of 
Common*. 

1795,  April  23.   Warren  Hastings  is  acquitted. 

1799,  May  4.  Death  of  Tippoo,  at   Seringa  patam  (g.  v.). — 

June  22.  The  partition  of  Mysore. — Oct.  25.  The 
Hajah  of  Tanjore  surrenders  all  his  power  to  the 
British. 

1800,  May  13.  Surat  is  surrendered  to  the  English. — Oct. 

12.  The  Nizam  cedes  all  his  possessions  in  Mysore 
to  the  British. 

1801,  Nov.  14.   Hohilcund  and  the  Doab  are  ceded  to  the 

English  by  the  subahdar  of  Oudh. 

1803,  March  25.  1'ondicherry  is  restored  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Amiens. — June  4.  The  nabob  of  Fur- 
ruckabad  cedes  his  territories  to  the  British.— 
Dec.  31.  Treaty  of  Bassein  (q.  v.). 

180-3,  Aug.  3.  The  Mahratta  war  commences  against 
Dowlut  Hao  Scindia  and  the  Kajah  of  Herar.— 
Sep.  11.  Battle  of  Delhi.— Sep.  23.  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  gains  the  battle  of  Assaye  (<?.  ».).— Oct 
17.  Lake  takes  Agra.— Nov.  I.  Battle  of  Laswaree. 
—Dec.  17.  Cuttack  is  ceded  to  the  British  by  the 
treaty  of  Deogaum  —  Dec.  30.  Peace  with  Scindia. 
who  surrenders  Baroach  and  his  forts  in  the 
Doab. 

1804  Feb.  27.  The  treaty  of  Boorhanpore  is  concluded  with 
Scindia.—  April  1 6.  War  is  declared  against  Ilol- 
kar.— Oct.  8.  Holkar  lays  siege  to  Delhi,  but  is 
compelled  to  retire. — Oct.  25.  All  Holkar's  posses- 
sions in  the  Deccan  are  subdued  by  the  British. 

Nov.  13.  Death  of  Gen.  Frazer,  at  the  battle  of 

Deeg,  in  which  be  defeats  Holkar. 

1805,  April  10.  The  Kajah  of  Bhurtpore  cedes  portions  of 
territory  to  the  English.— April  15.  Holkar  joins 
Scindia.— Oct.  5.  Death  of  Lord  Cornwallis. 


1805,  Dec.  24.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Holkar,  who  re- 

nounces his  claims  to  the  districts  north  of  the 
Chumbul,  and  to  Bundelcund. 

1806,  July  10.  A  mutiny   breaks  out  among  the  troopa 

stationed  at  Vellore.    800  Sepoys  are  executed. 

1808.  War  commences    with  Travancore. — Dec.  31.    The 

Travancore  army  is  defeated  by  Col.  Hamilton. 

1809,  Feb.  35.  All  the  lines  of  Travancore  are  stormed  by 

the  British,  and  the  war  is  ended.— Aug.  33.  A 
mutiny  is  quelled  at  Seringapatatn. 

1812,  The  I'iudarries  assert  their  independence. 

1813,  July  i.  The  India  trade  is  thrown  open  by  53  Geo.  ' 

lll.c.  155. 

1814,  Nov.  i.  War  is  declared  against  Xepaul  (q.v.). 

1815,  April  27.  Kemaoon  is  ceded  to  the  British. 

1817,  June  13.  The   Mahratta  confederacy  is    dissolved, 

and  Ahmednuggur  and  other  places  are  ceded  to 
the  British.— Dec.  31.  Battle  of  Mehudpore.  The 
Pindarrie  war  commences. 

1818,  Jan.   6.    Peace  is  concluded    with    Holkar.— May. 

Conclusion  of  the  Piiidarrio  war.— June  3.  The 
Peishwa  surrenders  to  the  English,  abdicates 
his  throne,  and  relinquishes  all  claim  to  the 
DiM-eaii. 

1819,  Tin-  vizier  of  Oudh  throws  off  his  allegiance  to  the 

Mongol  ruler,  and  establishes  an  independent 
government. 

1833,  Dec.  12.  A  treaty  is  concluded  between  the  English 

and  the  Nizam. 

1824.  The   Burmese  war  commences.     (See  BURMAII.) — 
Nov.  I.  A  mutiny  breaks  out  at  Barrackpore. 

1835,  Aug.  16  to  Dec.  9.  The  Enterprise  performs  the  first 

steam  voyage  to  India. 

1836,  Jan.  1 8.  The  British  take   Bhurtpore  (q.  ».).— Feb. 

24.  Treaty  of  Yandaboo. 

1829,  Dec-  '4-  A  decree  for  the  abolition  of  suttceism  ia 
published. 

1834,  March  19.  The  Bombay  papers  first  mention    the 

elevation  of  native  Hindoos  to  the  magistracy. — 
April  to.   Deposition  of  the  Kajah  of  Coofg. 
1838,  Aug.  i.  Slavery  is  abolished   in  the  East  Indies.— 
Oct.    i.     The    Affghan    war    commences.      (See 
AM-iitl  \N   WAR  and  CABUL.) 

1843,  Feb.  17.  Sir  Charles   Napier  defeats  the  Ameers  of 

Srinde  at  the  battle  of  Mceanee.— Dec.  29.  Gualior 
is  invaded  and  subdued  by  the  British. 

1844,  May  24-  Sir  C.   Napier  convenes  a  great  meeting  of 

I'.elooehee  chiefs  at  Hyderabad.  A  revolution 
occurs  at  Lahore. 

1845,  Feb.  22.  The  Danish  possessions  in  India   are  pur- 

chased by  the  British.— Nov.  17.  War  is  declared 
against  the  Sikhs  (q.  v.). 

1846,  March  9.  Treaty  of  Lahore  (7.  c.). 

1*47,  Jan.   The   vizier    Lall  Singh   is    deposed  from  the 
government  of  Lahore. 

1848,  April   18.    Mr.  Vans  Agnew    and   Lieutenant  An- 

derson  are  a-sailed  by  order  of  Moolraj.  (See 
MOOLTAN.)— Nov.  2.  Lord  Gough  expels  the 
enemy  from  Kamnuggur.— Dec.  3.  The  Sikhs  are 
defeated  by  Major  Gen.  Thackwell,  at  Vysee- 
rabad. 

1849,  Jan.   2.   The  town    of    Mooltan    is   taken    by    the 

English. — Jan.  13.  Battle  of  Chillianwallah  (7.  v.). 
—Jan.  22.  The  citadel  of  Mooltan  surrenders,  and 
Moolraj  is  taken  prisoner. — Feb.  21.  Battle  of 
Goojerat  (<j.r,.). —March  7.  Sir  Charles  Napier 
becomes  commander-in-chief  in  India.— March 
14,  The  Sikh  army  surrenders  unconditionally. — 
March  22.  The  governor-general  announces  the 
annexation  of  the  Punjaub.—  July.  Moolraj  ia 
tried  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Agnew  and  Lieut. 
Anderson.  He  is  convicted  and  sentenced  to 
death. — Sep.  The  sentence  is  commuted  to  trans- 
portation for  life. 

1850,  Feb.   27.  The  66th   Bengal  native   infantry  is   dis- 

banded for  mutiny. — May  25.  The  Nepanlesi; 
embassy  arrives  in  England.— July  2.  Sir  Charlea 
Napier  resigns  the  office  of  commander-in-chief. 

1851,  Jan.  38.  Bajee  Kao,  ex-peishwa  of  the   Mahrattas, 

dies  at  Bithoor.     The  continuance  of  his  pension 

is  refused  to  his  nephew  Nana  Sahib.— Oct.  29. 

Rupture  with  Burmah  (q.  v.). 
853,  Dec.  30.  Annexation  of  Pegu  to  the  Anglo-Indian 

empire. 
853,  June  t;o.  End  of  the  Burmese  war. — Aug.  20.  A  new 

India  Bill  is  passed  (16  &  17  Viet.  c.  95).— Dec.  II. 

Annexation  of  Nagpore  (q.  c.). 
856,  Feb.  7.  Annexation  of  Oudh  (q.  v.). 


INDIA 


[    509    1 


INDIANA 


J^57i  Jftn-  24  to  May  6.  Mutiny  of  the  native  regiment 
at  Barrackpore,  Burhampore,  and  Lucknow. — 
May  10.  Mutiny  at  Meerut.— May  II.  The  muti 
neers  establish  their  head-quarters  at  Delh 
(q.  ».).— May  12.  They  proclaim  the  King  of  Delh 
emperor. — May  20.  Gen.  Anson  marches  with  a 
British  force  for  Delhi.  — May  27.  He  dies 
cholera  at  Kurnaul.  —  May  30.  Four  regiment 
mutiny  at  Lucknow. — June  5.  The  2nd  regimen 
of  native  cavalry  mutinies  at  Cawnpore. — June  6 
The  mutiny  reaches  Allahabad. — June  8.  Sir  H 
Barnard  succeeds  Gen.  Anson  at  Delhi. — June  25 
The  British  at  Cawnpore  (q.  v.)  surrender  to  Nam 
Sahib. — July  I.  The  rebels  commence  the  siege  o. 
Lucknow  (q.  ».). — July  4.  Death  of  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence.— July  5.  Death  of  Sir  H.  Barnard.— 
July  17.  Gen.  Havelock  enters  Cawnpore. — July 
19.  He  defeats  Nana  Sahib  at  Bithoor.— Aug.  lo 
Gen.  Nicholson  arrives  before  Delhi.— Aug.  14 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  arrives  at  Calcutta.— Sep.  14 
to  20.  Capture  of  Delhi  (q.  v.). — Sep.  21.  Lieut 
Hodson  kills  the  sons  of  the  King  of  Delhi.— Sep 
25.  Havelock  relieves  Lucknow.  —  Oct.  10. 
Battle  of  Agra.— Nov.  3.  Sir  Colin  Campbell 
arrives  at  Cawnpore. — Nov.  17.  Outram,  Have- 
lock, and  Campbell  meet  at  Lucknow  (q.  v.). — N 
25.  Death  of  Sir  Henry  Havelock  at  Alum  Bagh.— 
Nov.  27.  Gen.  Windham  sustains  a  defeat  fi 
the  Gualior  rebels  near  Cawnpore.— Dec.  6.  Battle 
of  Cawnpore  (q.  v.). 

1858,  Jan.  2.  Battle  of  Futteghur.— Jan.  6.  Jung  Baha- 
door  captures  Goruckpore. — Jan.  23.  Gen.  Ro- 
berts takes  Awah,  in  Rajpootana.— Jan.  28.  Sir 
Hugh  Rose  captures  the  fort  of  Ratghur.— Feb.  II. 
Sir  Colin  leaves  Cawnpore  and  advances  to 
Lucknow. — March  21.  Capture  of  Lucknow. — 
March  30.  Gen.  Roberts  takes  Kotah.— April  2. 
Sir  H.  Rose  takes  Jhansi.— April  19.  Gen.  Whit- 
lock  defeats  the  rebels  at  Bandah.— April  27. 
Death  of  Sir  William  I'eel  at  Cawnpore.— Mav  7. 
Bareilly  is  seized  by  the  British.— May  n.  Sir  H. 
Rose  defeats  the  rebels  at  Koneh.—  May  23.  He 

Grant 

_-,. -  Govern- 
ment of  the  East  India  Company  terminates.— 
Sep.  2.  Outbreak  at  Mooltan.— Sep.  5.  Gen.  Roberts 
defeats  the  Paoree  rebels.— Sep.  15.  Gen.  Mitchell 
defeats  Tantia  Topee  at  Beora.— Oct,  The  rebels 
sustain  numerous  severe  defeats.  —  Nov.  I.  The 
Queen  is  proclaimed  sovereign  of  India,  Lord 
Canning  receiving  the  title  of  viceroy.— Nov.  3. 
Gen.  Wetherall  defeats  the  rebels  at  Rampur- 
Kupia,  in  Oudh.— Nov.  24.  Lord  Clyde  (Sir  Colin 
Campbell)  defeats  the  mutineers  near  Fiittehpur. 
— Dec.  i  Tantia  Topee  is  defeated  at  Tschota- 
Udeypur.— Dec.  5.  Death  of  Gen.  Jacob.— Dec.  17. 
Sir  R.  Napier  defeats  Ferozeshah  near  Ramonde. 
—Dec.  27.  The  British  destroy  Musjidia.— Dec.  30. 
Lord  Clyde  defeats  the  forces  of  the  Nana  at 
Bankee. 

1859,  Jan.  i.  The  Punjaub  is  erected  into  a  presidency. — 

Jan  25.  The  pacification  of  Oudh  is  announced.— 
April  2.  Maun  Singli  surrenders.— April  7.  Tantia 
Topee  is  taken  prisoner.— April  18.  Execution  of 
Tantia  Topee  at  Seepree.— A  public  thanksgiving 
is  held  for  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny. — July  i 
The  soldiers  in  the  army  of  the  Company  are 
allowed  either  to  retire  from  the  service  or  to  re- 
enlist  in  the  Queen's  service,  with  a  fresh  bounty. 
About  10,000  men  quit  the  service. 

1860,  Nov.  13.  Execution  of  William  Johnson,  of  the  5th 

European  regiment,  for  mutiny. 

1861,  Jan.  Large  subscriptions  are  raised  in  England  to 

relieve   a  famine  in  the  north-west  of  India, 

April  8.  The  Scinde  railway  is  opened  as  far 
as  Kotree. 

1862,  March  i.  The  Earl  of  Elgin  arrives  at  Calcutta.— 

March  12.  He  is  installed  as  governor- general.— 
March  18.  Lord  Canning  embarks  for  England.— 
April  23.  A  new  tariff  is  introduced. — June  17. 
Death  of  Lord  Canning. 

1863,  Nov.  20.    Lord   Elgin    expires    at  Dhurumsala,    in 

Cashmere. — Nov.  25.  An  insurrection  is  sup- 
pressed among  the  mountain  tribes  of  the 
Punjaub.— Dec.  9.  Sir  John  Lawrence,  the  new 
governor-general,  sails  from  England. 

1864,  Jan.  12.  Sir  John  Lawrence  arrives  at  Calcutta. — 


captures  Calpee.— June  19.  Gualior  (q.  t>.)  is  re- 
captured by  Sir  H.  Rose.— July  14.  Gen.  Grant 
defeats  the  rebels  atKotara. — Sep.  I.  The  Govern- 


1864, Jan.  18.  He  opens  the    first  agricultural  show  in 

India  at  Alipore.— March  3.  The  Bhore  Ghaut 
railway  is  opened  for  passengers.— March  10. 
The  provincial  government  of  Bengal  prohibits 
the  throwing  of  dead  bodies  into  the  Hooghley, 
and  the  burning  of  the  dead  within  a  certain 
distance  of  Calcutta. — July  6.  The  first  passenger 
train  runs  from  Madras  to  Bangalore. — Oct.  5. 
Calcutta  (q.  v.)  is  much  injured  by  a  cyclone  or 
hurricane.— Oct.  18.  Sir  John  Lawrence  holds  a 
durbar  (q.  v.)  of  unprecedented  grandeur  at 
Lahore. 

1865,  Jan.   7.  Sir  Robert  Montgomery  holds  a  farewell 

durbar  at  Lahore.— March  23.  Sir  William  Mans- 
field succeeds  Sir  Hugh  Rose  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Indian  army.— March  31.  Mr.  Massey, 
the  new  minister  of  finance,  arrives  at  Calcutta. 
—April  I.  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  submits  his 
budget  to  the  viceregal  council. — May  8.  Sir 
Charles  Wood  announces  the  disallowal  of  Sir 
Charles  Trevelyan's  budget.— May  19.  Sir  Charles 
Trevelyan  arrives  in  England.— May  21.  Sir  Hugh 
Rose  arrives  in  England.— May  25.  Sir  J.  Gas- 
pard  le  Merchant  succeeds  Sir  Hope  Grant  as 
commander-in-chief  at  Madras.— July  I.  A  com- 
mercial crisis  reaches  its  height  at  Bombay. — 
Sep.  5.  Sir  Bartle  Frere  receives  the  chiefs  of  the 
Deccan  at  a  great  durbar  at  Poona.— Nov.  u. 
Peace  is  restored  with  Bhotan  (q.  v.). — Dec.  The 
cattle-plague  appears  in  the  Madras  presidency.— 
Dec.  18.  The  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  is 
opened  to  Budmaira. 

866,  March  24.  Mr.   Massey  lays  his  financial  statement 
before  the  supreme  council. 

LIST  OF  HINDOO  DYNASTIES. 


977.  House  of  Ghizni. 

118.  House  of  Ghor. 
A.D. 

206.  Slave  kings. 

1288.  House  of  Khilji. 


1321.  House  of  Toghlak. 
1414.  The  Seiad  supremacy. 
1450.  House  of  Lodi. 
1526.  House  of  Teimur   (or 
Mongol  dynasty). 


MONGOL  EMPERORS  OF  INDIA. 


526. 
53 r- 
54°- 
1545- 
1553- 

IKS 

556. 

('•  .v 

627. 


Baber. 

Humayun. 

Shir  Shah. 

Selim  Shah  Sur. 

Mohammed  Shah  Sur 

Adili. 

Humayun  (again). 
Akbar. 
Jehangir. 
Shah  Jehan. 


1658.  Aurungzebe. 
1707.  Bahadur  Shah. 

1712.  Jehandar  Shah. 

1713.  Ferokhir. 

1719.  Mohammed  Shah 
1748.  Ahmed  Shah. 
1754.  Alamgir. 
1756.  Shah  Jehan. 
1761.  Shah  Allum. 


GOVERNORS-GENERAL  OF  INDIA. 


1772,  April  13.  Warren  Hastings. 

1785,  Feb.  I.  Sir  John  Macpherson. 

:786,  Sep.  12.  Marquis  of  Cormvallis. 

793,  Oct.  28.  Sir  John  Shore. 

1798,  April  6.  Sir  Alured  Clarke. 

798,  May  17.  Marquis  of  Wellesley. 

805,  July  30.  Marquis  Corn  wallis"  (again). 

805,  Oct  10.  Sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow. 

807,  July  31.  Lord  Minto. 

813,  Oct.  4.  Marquis  of  Hastings. 

823,  Jan.  13.  Hon.  John  Adams. 

823,  Aug.  i.  Lord  Amherst 

828,  March  13.  Hon.  William  Butterworth  Bayley. 

828,  July  4.  Lord  Bentinck. 

835,  March  20.  Sir  C.  T.  (afterwards  Lord)  Metcalfe. 

836,  March  4.  Lord  Auckland. 
842,  Feb.  28.  Lord  Ellenborough. 

844,  June  15.  William  Wilberforce  Bird. 

844,  July  23.    Sir   Henry  (afterwards    Viscount)    Har- 

dinge. 

848,  Jan.  12.  Earl  of  Dalhousie. 
855,  Aug.  2.  Viscount  Canning. 

862,  Jan.  Lord  Elgin. 

863,  Dec.  Sir  John  Lawrence. 

INDIA.— (See  STAR  OF  INDIA.) 

INDIANA  (United  States)  separated  in  1800 
rom  Illinois,  with  which,  from  May  7,  1800, 
;  formed  a  territorial  government,  and  was 


INDIANAPOLIS 


INDUSTRIAL 


admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent 
state,  Dec.  n,  1816. 

INDIANAPOLIS,  the  capital  of  Indiana,  was 
founded  in  1821. 

INDIAN  COUNCIL,  for  the  government  of 
India,  established  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  106  (Aug. 
2,  1858),  to  supersede  the  Board  of  Control, 
consists  of  15  members,  eight  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  seven  by  the 
directors  of  the  East  India  Company.  They 
receive  an  annual  salary  of  ^1,200,  retain  their 
office  during  good  behaviour,  and  are  not  per- 
mitted to  sit  in  Parliament.  The  first  meeting 
of  this  council  was  held  in  1858. 

INDIAN  MUSEUM  (London).— In  1798  the 
directors  of  the  East  India  Company  resolved 
to  establish  a  Museum  in  their  house  in  Lead- 
cnhall  Street,  which  was  accordingly  founded 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir 
Charles)  Wilkins,  in  1800.  In  1851  it  was 
enriched  by  many  specimens  of  Indian  manu- 
factures sent  by  the  native  princes  to  the 
Croat  Exhibition.  The  Museum  was  trans- 
ferred to  Fife  House,  Whitehall  Yard,  in  1860. 

INDIA-RUBBER,  or  CAOUTCHOUC,  was 
first  brought  to  Europe  by  M.  de  la  Condumine 
in  1733.  An  account  of  the  substance,  as  used 
by  the  natives  of  S.  America,  was  presented  by 
him  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  in 
1736.  A  further  report  was  given  in  1761,  by 
Messrs.  Horisserit  and  Macquer,  to  the  French 
Government,  and  by  its  order  Grossart  made 
several  successful  experiments,  the  results  of 
which  were  published  in  1768.  The  first 
allusion  to  the  subject  in  English  literature  is 
by  Joseph  Priestley,  in  a  work  printed  in  1770, 
in  which  India-rubber  is  recommended  as 
good  for  "  wiping  from  paper  the  marks  of  a 
black-lead  pencil."  The  substance  came  into 
more  general  notice  some  10  years  after,  when 
it  was  sold  in  the  shape  of  bottles,  at  the  rate 
of  about  a  guinea  the  ounce.  Macintosh 
succeeded  in  dissolving  India-rubber,  and 
applying  it  to  waterproof  clothing.  The  first 
patent  obtained  by  him  for  cloaks,  called 
"Macintoshes,"  was  in  1823.  Barnard  took 
out  a  patent  for  caoutchoucine  in  1833.  The 
sulphuration  of  caoutchouc,  a  valuable  inven- 
tion, is  due  to  Goodyear,  who  took  out  a 
patent  for  it  in  1839. 

INDICTION. — This  term  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  a  tribute  of  corn  exacted  by  the 
Romans  every  15  years ;  but  it  was  after- 
wards used  to  denote  the  period  at  which  the 
payments  were  made.  The  institution  of  iii- 
dictions  dates  from  the  time  of  Constantino  I., 
Sep.  i,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  Sep. 
15,  312 ;  but  the  first  instance  of  their  use  is 
mentioned  in  the  Theodosian  code,  under  the 
reign  of  Constantius  II.,  who  died  Nov.  3,  361. 
The  papal  court  adopted  computation  by  iii- 
dictions  about  806,  the  commencement  of  the 
first  indiction  being  referred  to  Jan.  i,  313. 

INDIGO. — Beckmann  is  strongly  inclined  to 
believe  that  what  Dioscorides  calls  indicon,  and 
Pliny  and  Vitruvius  imlicum,  is  our  indigo. 
Muratori  speaks  of  a  treaty  in  Latin,  in  1 193, 
between  the  people  of  Bologna  and  Ferrara,  in 
which  indicum  is  mentioned  as  an  article  on 
which  duty  must  be  paid.  Marco  Polo  found 
it  in  Asia  in  1285,  and  gave  a  description 


of  the  plant  and  its  uses  after  his  return  to 
Europe  in  1298.  An  act  was  passed  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  authorizing  searchers  to  bum 
indigo  in  all  dye-houses  and  other  places 
where  it  could  be  discovered.  This  act  re- 
mained in  force  till  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
Indigo  was  so  little  known  on  the  continent 
that  some  proprietors  of  mines  in  the  llariz 
mountains  obtained  authority  in  1705  to  dig 
for  the  article  in  the  hills  near  Halbertstadt. 
Its  use  was  prohibited  in  Languedoc  in  1598. 
The  cultivation  of  indigo  commenced  in  Caro- 
lina in  1747.  (See  ANILINE.) 

INDORE  (Hindostan  .— Mulhar  Rao  Holkar 
obtained  a  grant  of  the  territory  of  Indore  in 
1733.  The  town  of  Indore  was  founded  by 
Alia  Baee  in  1767.  A  great  battle  was  fought 
here  Oct.  14,  1801,  when  Holkar  was  defeated 
by  Scindia,  a  powerful  Mahratta  chieftain,  who 
destroyed  Indore.  Murray  captured  the  town, 
which  had  been  restored,  Aug.  24,  1804.  By 
the  treaty  of  Mundisore,  Jan.  18,  1818,  the 
British  extended  their  protection  to  Holkar, 
the  ruler  of  Indore.  The  troops  mutinied 
here  July  i,  1857. 

INDULGENCE.  —  According  to  Bingham, 
anciently  an  indulgence  was  no  more  than  the 
power  which  every  bishop  had  of  moderating 
the  canonical  punishments  which,  in  course  of 
penance,  were  inflicted  upon  sinners,  and  not 
any  pretended  power  of  delivering  souls  from 
the  pains  of  purgatory,  by  virtue  of  a  stock  of 
merits,  or  works  of  supererogation,  of  which 
the  Pope  is  become  the  sole  dispenser.  Valen- 
tiiiian  commenced  the  practice  of  granting,  on 
Easter  Sunday,  a  general  release  to  all  except 
the  worst  criminals,  in  367.  This  act  of  grace, 
continued  by  the  emperors,  was  in  the  nth 
century  first  termed  an  indulgence.  The  papal 
system  of  indulgences  originated  with  Pope 
Gregory  VII.  in  1077,  and  they  were  granted 
by  the  Council  of  Clermont  to  the  Crusaders 
Nov.  18—28,  1095.  They  were  sold  publicly  in 
all  parts  of  Europe  on  the  occasion  of  the  jubi- 
lee in  1300.  The  doctrine  of  indulgences  was 
made  an  article  of  faith  by  Clement  VI.  in 
1343.  Indulgences  were  fanned  out  for  15 
years  to  John  Tetzel  in  1502.  The  Tax-book  of 
Indulgences  was  published  at  Rome  in  1514. 
Luther  denounced  the  traffic  Oct.  31,  1517. 
The  Council  of  Trent  framed  a  new  law  of 
indulgences,  Jan.  13,  1546. 

INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS.— By  28  Viet, 
c.  3  (March  27,  1865),  that  portion  of  the  patent 
laws  which  refuses  protection  to  inventions 
exhibited  before  they  have  been  patented,  was 
modified  with  respect  to  articles  displayed  at 
working-class  industrial  exhibitions  certified 
by  the  Board  of  Trade.  The  most  important 
exhibitions  of  the  kind  are  the  following  : — 


1864,  March  i.  Sonth  London  (Lambeth  Baths). 

Oct.  17 — Nov.  7.  North  London  (Agricultural  Hall). 

1865,  Feb.  I.  South  London  (Lambeth  Baths). 

Feb.  London  Operative  Couchbuilders  (Coach- 
makers'  Hall). 

May  i.— Aug.  3.  West  London  (Floral  Hall). 

Aug.,  Sep.,  and  Oct.  Anglo-French  Working  Man's 
Exhibition  (Crystal  Palace). 

Sep.  North  London  (Agricultural  Hall). 

Sep.  Hastings. 

Sep.  19.  Bristol. 


INDUSTRIAL 


[    5" 


INFORMERS 


A.D. 

1865.  Sep.  31.  Preston. 

Nov.  I.  Clcrkenwell  Juvenile  Industrial  Exhibition. 
Dec.  12,.  Glasgow. 

1866,  March  6.  City  of  London  (Guildhall). 
July  34.  York. 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  PROVIDENT  SOCIE- 
TIES.—By  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  31  (June  30,  1852), 
it  was  declared  lawful  for  any  number  of 
persons  to  establish  a  society  for  raising  by 
voluntary  subscriptions  of  the  members  funds 
for  attaining  any  purpose  authorized  by  the 
laws  relating  to  friendly  societies,  &c.  This 
act  was  amended  by  17  Viet.  c.  25  (June  16, 
1854),  and  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  40  (July  7,  1856)  ; 
and  all  these  statutes  were  repealed  by  25  & 
26  Viet.  c.  87  (Aug.  7,  1862),  by  which  the  laws 
relating  to  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies 
were  consolidated  and  amended.  (See  BENEFIT 
SOCIETIES,  CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES,  FRIENDLY 
SOCIETIES,  <fec.) 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS.— The  first  attempt 
to  introduce  these  institutions  into  this  country 
was  made  at  Norwood  by  Mr.  Aubin,  in  1836. 
The  Industrial  Schools  Act,  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  48, 
for  the  care  and  education  of  poor  children, 
passed  Aug.  17,  1857,  was  amended  by  23  &  24 
Viet.  c.  108  (Aug.  28,  1860),  which  transferred 
the  powers  of  control  from  the  Committee  on 
Education  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  em- 
powered justices  sending  children  to  such 
schools  to  order  the  parents  to  pay  such  weekly 
sums  as  they  deemed  advisable. 

INEXPIABLE  WAR.— The  name  given  to 
the  revolt  of  the  mercenaries  at  Carthage  (q.v.), 
B.C.  241,  suppressed  by  Hamilcar,  B.C.  238. 

INFANTICIDE.— This  practice,  permitted  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  was  checked  by 
the  progress  of  Christianity.  Infanticide,  espe- 
cially of  females,  which  prevailed  in  India  and 
the  Eastern  archipelagos,  is  becoming  extinct, 
owing  to  the  benign  influence  of  Christianity. 
In  315  Constantino  I.  endeavoured  to  suppress 
it,  by  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  chil- 
dren whose  parents  were  too  poor  to  support 
them  ;  but  it  was  not  treated  as  murder  till 
the  reign  of  Valentinian  (364 — 375).  By  21 
James  I.  c.  27  (1623),  the  concealment  of  the 
death  of  an  illegitimate  child  was  made  legal 
proof  that  it  had  been  murdered.  This  law 
was  repealed  by  43  Geo.  III.  c.  58  (June  24, 
1803). 

INFANTRY.— The  Jews,  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  Persians,  amongst  ancient  nations,  devoted 
considerable  attention  to  the  formation  of  their 
infantry.  Cyrus  (B.C.  559 — 529)  clothed  his 
foot-soldiers  in  armour.  The  Greek  phalanx 
and  the  Roman  legion  first  came  into  collision 
at  the  battle  of  Heraclea,  B.C.  280.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  barbarians 
relied  principally  vipon  their  infantry.  The 
Franks  borrowed  from  the  Romans  the  square, 
employed  with  such  success  at  the  battle  of 
Tours,  in  732.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forces  were 
composed  chiefly  of  infantry.  During  the 
Middle  Ages,  infantry  was  but  little  used. 
Louis  VI.  (1108 — 1137)  formed  the  communal 
militia  in  France,  and  his  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  Frederick  I.  (1152 — 1190)  of  Germany, 
and  Henry  II.  (1154—1189)  of  England.  This 
led  to  the  gradual  re-establishment  of  infantry 


as  the  chief  arm  in  war.  The  battle  of  Bovines, 
July  27,  1214,  was  the  first  entirely  decided  by 
modern  infantry,  and  led  to  the  establishment 
of  this  force  in  all  the  states  of  Europe.  In- 
fantry was  for  sometime  composed  of  irregular 
bands  ;  and  Charles  VII.  of  France  was  the 
first  to  organize  a  standing  army,  in  1444. 
Francis  I.  increased  this  army  to  the  number 
of  12,000.  The  battles  of  Biberach,  Oct.  2,  1796, 
and  of  Caldiero,  Oct.  29  and  30,  1806,  were 
fought  solely  by  infantry. 

INFANT-SCHOOLS.— The  first  establish- 
ment of  this  kind  was  opened  by  James 
Buchanan  at  New  Lanark,  in  1815,  Mr.  Robert 
Owen  providing  the  means  for  the  under- 
taking. Mr.  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham  and 
Lord  Lansdowne  introduced  them  into  London 
in  1819,  and  the  success  achieved  by  Mr.  Wil- 
derspin  in  their  management  led  to  their 
general  adoption  throughout  the  kingdom. 
The  Home  and  Colonial  Iiif  ant-School  Society 
was  founded  in  1836. 

INFERNAL  MACHINE,  an  apparatus  filled 
with  gunpowder  or  other  explosive  materials 
for  the  destruction  of  human  life  and  property. 
The  Italian  engineer  Federico  Gianibelli  was 
the  first  to  employ  these  engines  at  the  siege 
of  Antwerp  in  1584-5.  In  modern  times,  in- 
fernal machines  have  been  repeatedly  used, 
especially  in  France,  for  the  purpose  of  assassi- 
nation. The  most  notorious  instances  of  this 
kind  are  the  attempts  made  on  the  lives  of 
Napoleon  Buonaparte,  Dec.  24,  1800;  Louis 
Philippe,  July  28,  1835 ;  and  Napoleon  III.  and 
his  empress,  Jan.  14,  1858.  (See  FIESCHI  and 
ORSINI  CONSPIRACY.)  The  Russians  employed 
infernal  machines  against  the  British  fleet  in 
the  Baltic  in  1854  and  1855. 

INFIRMARIES.— These  institutions  were 
not  known  before  the  Christian  sera.  Julian 
(361-3),  observing  the  charitable  institutions  of 
the  Christians,  founded  similar  establishments 
for  the  sick  poor,  which  were  called  Xenodochia, 
The  clergy  were  the  first  to  establish  houses 
for  the  reception  of  the  sick.  St.  Fabiola,  a 
Roman  lady,  a  friend  of  St.  Jerome,  estab- 
lished one  at  Rome  about  400.  The  first  in 
London  was  established  by  the  Rev.  S.  Wesley, 
in  1715.  (See  HOSPITALS.) 

INFLUENZA,  an  epidemic  catarrh,  which 
first  appeared  in  Europe  in  1510.  Visitations 
occurred  in  1557  and  1580.  It  raged  with  great 
severity  in  England,  and  especially  in  London, 
in  1729,  1803,  1831,  1833,  1836,  and  1847.  It 
broke  out  in  Cape  Town,  Africa,  in  1836. 

INFORMERS.  —  The  custom  of  paying  a 
portion  of  a  fine  imposed  for  an  offence,  to  the 
person  by  whom  the  offender  has  been  ex- 
posed, has  created  the  business  of  common 
informers.  They  were  very  numerous  in 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  much  discouraged  by 
Titus  (79—81)  and  Trajan  (98—117).  By  18 
Eliz.  c.  5  (1576),  and  27  Eliz.  c.  10  (1584),  infor- 
mers were  compelled  to  appear  in  person,  and 
if  they  withdrew  the  action,  were  condemned 
to  pay  the  costs.  For  compounding  without 
permission  of  the  court,  they  were  to  stand  in 
the  pillory  two  hours,  pay  a  fine  of  .£10,  and 
be  incapacitated  from  suing  in  future.  By  31 
Eliz.  c.  5  (1589),  no  prosecution  could  take 
place  on  information,  in  cases  where  the 


INFRALAPSARIANS 


[    512    1 


INLAND 


penalty  is  divided  between  the  informer  and 
the  crown,  when  a  year  has  elapsed  since 
the  commission  of  the  offence.  An  act  to 
prevent  malicious  informations  in  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  was  passed  in  1692  (4  &  5  Will.  & 
Mary,  c.  18). 

INFRALAPSARIANS.  —(See  CALVINISM.) 

INGENA.— (See  AVRANCHES.) 

INGOLDSTADT  (Bavaria).  —  This  strongly 
fortified  town  has  been  frequently  besieged. 
By  the  i^th  secret  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  the  Emperor 
agreed  to  surrender  Ingoldstadt  and  other 
German  fortresses.  The  fortifications  destroyed 
in  1800  were  restored  in  1827.  The  university 
•where  Urb  Rhegius,  better  known  as  Dr. 
Faustus,  studied,  founded  in  1472,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Landshut  in  1800. 

INGOUR  (Battle).  —  Omar  Pasha,  at  the 
head  of  a  Turkish  army,  passed  this  river,  in 
Asia  .Minor,  Nov.  6,  1855,  and  assailed  a  strong 
Russian  force.  The  latter  was  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  1,250  in  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Turks  lost  about  400  men. 

INGRIA  (European  Russia).— This  province 
was  invaded  by  the  Poles  in  1579,  and  by  the 
Swedes  in  1609.  Peter  the  Great  invaded  it  in 
1703,  and  it  was  ceded  by  Sweden  to  Russia  at 
the  peace  of  Nystadt,  Aug.  30,  1721. 

INK. — The  ink  used  by  the  ancients  was  of 
a  viscid  nature,  being  chiefly  composed  of 
ivory -black  and  gum.  A  varnish  of  wax  was 
also  employed,  especially  in  the  gth  century. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  black  inks  of  the  8th,  cjth, 
and  icth  centuries  are  remarkable  for  their 
excellence.  Gold  and  silver  inks  were  some- 
times employed,  and  red  ink  is  very  common 
for  capital  letters,  &c.,  though  no  MS.  is 
entirely  written  with  it.  Indian  ink  was  first 
made  in  China  about  800,  and  was  first  per- 
fumed about  1 100.  Sympathetic  inks  were 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  a  method  of  secret 
correspondence  is  mentioned  by  Ovid  in  the 
Art  of  Love,  B.C.  2.  Inks  of  this  character  were 
invented  by  Peter  Borel  in  1653,  by  Le  Mort 
in  1684,  and  by  Waitz  in  1705.  The  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  appointed  a  commission 
for  the  discovery  of  an  indelible  ink,  which 
published  two  receipts  for  the  purpose,  May 

3°I  N  K  E  R  M  A  N  N  ( Battle).  —  During  the 
Crimean  war,  the  Russians,  nearly  50,000 
strong,  assailed  the  weakest  part  of  the 
English  position  facing  the  harbour  of 
Balaclava  and  the  caverns  of  Inkermann, 
Nov.  5,  1854.  For  six  hours,  8,000  British 
troops  encountered  at  various  points,  and 
resisted,  the  assault  of  this  overwhelming 
force.  The  French  came  to  the  support  of  the 
English,  and  the  Russians  were  driven  back 
•with  great  slaughter.  The  English  loss 
amounted  to  3,000,  and  that  of  the  French  to 
1,726  men.  The  Russians  lost  about  12,000  in 
killed  and  wounded. 

INLAND  NAVIGATION.—  Extensive 
works  for  facilitating  communication  by  water 
were  erected  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the 
Chinese,  &c.  In  this  country  it  was  promoted 
by  the  labom-s  of  James  Brindley  (1716 — Sep 
30,  1772).  The  following  are  the  priiicipa 
British  and  foreign  canals  : — 


CANALS   IN   FOKEIGN   COUNTRIES. 

i.C. 

610.  From  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea.  Herodotus  says  it 
v.  as  commenced  by  Kechos  and  completed  by 
Darius  1.  (Hystaspes),  B.C.  521.  Diudurus  Siculus 
states  that  it  was  completed  by  1'tolemy  1'hila- 
delphus  B.C.  280.  Various  dates  are  assigned  by 
different  writers. 

203.  Hun,    Emperor  of    China,   is   said   to  have  caused 
canals  to  be  constructed  for  the  conveyance   of 
merchandise  in  order  to  economise  the  labour  of 
the  people. 
A.D. 

30.  The  canal  from  Sluys  to  Bruges  (Belgium)  is  con- 
structed. 

1179.  The  canal  of  irrigation,  derived  from  the  Ticino, 
extending  from  Abbiate  as  far  as  Gagiano  (Italy), 
is  commenced  by  the  Milanese. 

1257.  The  Canal  of  Nuviglio  Grande,  extending  from  near 
Ollcgiii  to  Milan,  is  completed. 

1378.  The  Great  Canal  of  China  is  commenced. 

1351.  (eirc.).  Feroze  commenced  and  continued  during 
37  years  various  canals  in  the  I'unjaulp. 

1497.  The  Canal  of  Martesana  (Italy)  is  rendered  navig- 
able round  Milan. 

1531.  A  canal  half  a  league  in  length  is  constructed 
by  Cortex,,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  his 
brigantines  from  Tezcuco  to  the  neighbouring 
lake. 

1529.  The  Imperial  Canal  of  Arugon  (Spain)  is  commenced 
by  Charles  V. 

1581.  The  canal  from  Kupelmond  to  Brussels  (Belgium) 
is  completed. 

1600.  Two  connected  locks  in  Sweden,  near  Wenersborg, 
each  182  feet  in  length,  are  constructed  by  Dutch 
cngiiict  •]•>. 

1605.  The  Canal  de  Briare  (France)  is  commenced  by 
Henry  IV. 

1613.  The  Grand  Canal  of  Albert  and  Isabella,  from  the 
Lieve  at  Venderhout  to  Bruges  (Belgium)  is  com- 
menced. 

1633.  The  llasli  Canal  in  the  Punjaub  (Ilindostan)  is 
commenced. 

1642.  The  Canal  de  Briare  (France)  between  the  Loire  and 
Seine  is  opened. 

1664.  The  canal  between  Narbonne  and  Cette  (France)  is 

commenced. 

1665.  The   canal   from   Bruges  to    Ostend    (Belgium)   is 

enlarged. 

1681.  The  Languedoc,  or  Canal  du  Midi  (France),  betueeii 

the  Mediterranean  and  Bay  of   l!i>e:iy.  is  opened. 

1682.  The  canal  connecting  Orleans  with  Briare  is  com- 

meiieed  by  Louis  XIV. 
1692.  The  Orleans  Canal  is  opened. 
1706.  The   Canal  de  Losne,    branching   from   the  Rhone 

( I-' ranee),  is  completed. 
1724.  The  Canal deL'Oing  (France)  is  finished,  completing 

the  junction  of  the  Canal  de  Briare  and  the  canal 

of  Orleans,  with  the  Seine. 
1738.  The  canal  from  the  Oise  to  the  Somme  (France)  ia 

completed. 

1750.  The  canal  from  Louvain  to  Malines  is  opened. 
1754.  The  Canal  of  Campos  (Spain)  is  commenced. 
1770.  The   Imperial   Canal   (Spain)   is   commenced,    and 

afterwards  abandoned. 
1775.  The  Canal  of  Burgundy,  uniting  theSaone  with  the 

Seine  (France),  is  commenced. 
1784.  The  Canal   of   Kiel,   uniting  the   Baltic  with   the 

Eyder,  is  opened. 
1791.  The  Canal  du   Centre  (France),  uniting  the  Saone 

and  the  Loire,  is  opened. 
1803.  The  Canal  of  Francis,  between  the  lower  plains  of 

the  Danube  and  Theiss,  is  completed. 
1806.  The  Canal  of  Koderteljo  (Sweden)  is  commenced. 

1810.  The  first  section  of  the  Canal  .St.  Qnentin,  joining 

tin1   Somme   and  the  Scheldt  (France),  is   com- 
menced. 

1811.  The  Richmond  (America)  Canal  is  commenced. 
1819.  The  Canal  of  SCdertelge  (Sweden)  is  completed. 

1824.  The  Erie  Canal,  between  Erie   and  New  York  (N. 

America)  is  completed. 

1825.  The   Great  North  Holland  from  Amsterdam  to  the 

Holder. 

1833  Dec.  The  Canal  of  Burgundy,  joining  the  Rhone  and 
the  Seine  (France).— The  Ohio  Canal,  connecting 
Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  (N.  America).  —  The 
Miami  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  Cin- 
cinnati (N.  America). 


INLAND 


[    Si3    I 


INQUISITION 


CANALS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES — Continued. 
A.D. 
183?.  The  Gotha  Canal  (Sweden),  between  the  Cattegat 

and  the  Baltic,  is  completed. 
1854,  April  8.   The  Great  Ganges  (Ilindostan)  Canal  is 

opened. 
1859.  The  Suez  Canal  is  commenced. 

CANALS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1131.  The  Foss  Dyke,    from    Lincoln  to   the    Trent,    is 

deepened  by  Henry  I. 

1613,  Sep.  29.  The  New  River  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1735.  The  Topsham  Canal,  Exeter,  is  completed. 
1737,  April.  Dee  River  Navigation. 

1760.  Sankey  Brook  Navigation  is  opened. 

1761.  Newry  (Ireland).— July.   Barton  Bridge,   over  the 

Irwell,  the  first  aqueduct  over  an  English  canal, 
is  opened. — July  17.  Bridgewater. 
1764.  Hartlepool. 

1768,  June  10.  The  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  ia  commenced. 

1769,  Nov.  Birmingham  and  Wednesbury. 

1770,  The  Monklaud  Canal  (Scotland)  is  commenced. 
1774.  Birmingham.— Bradford. 

1770.  Chesterfield. 

1777,  May.  The  Grand  Trunk  Navigation,  or  the  Trent 

and  Mersey. 

1778,  April.  Aire  and  Calder  Navigation. 
1780.  Chester  and  Naiitwich. 

1788,  The  Grand  Canal    (Ireland)   is   completed  to  the 

1789,  Nov.  ip.  Thames  and  Severn. 

1790,  July.  Coventry  Canal. — July  12.  Birmingham  and 

Fazeley.— July  28.  Forth  and  Clyde  opened. 

1793.  The  Nutbrook.— May  I.  The  Grand  Junction  Canal 

(q.  ».)  is  commenced. 

1794,  Feb.   Cardiff.  — Feb.   Leicester.  —  Basingstoke  and 

Andover. 

1796.  Hereford  and  Gloucester. — Nov.  Leominster. 

1797.  Ulverstone. 

1798.  Oct.  Swansea  or  Glamorganshire. 

1799.  June  8.  Barnsley.  — June.   Birmingham  and  Wal- 

sall. 

1800.  Leicestershire  and  Northamptonshire  Union. — May 

i.  Peak  Forest. 

1802.  Horncastle  Navigation. — Nottingham. 

1803.  Sep.  The  Caledonian  Canal  (q.  v.)  is  commenced. 

1804.  Dearne  and   Dove.— The  Royal  Military  Canal  is 

commenced. 

1805.  June.  The  Aberdeenshire  Canal  is  opened.— Ashby- 

de-la-Zouch. 

1806.  The  Royal  Military  Canal  is  completed. 
1808.  The  Grand  Surrey  Canal  is  opened. 

1810,  Dec.  28.  Kennet  and  Avon. 

1811.  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  Ardrossan,  as  far  as  John- 

stone. 

1816,  Oct.  Leeds  and  Liverpool. 

1817.  Tavistock. 

1820,  Aug.  I.  The  Regent's  Canal  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1822,  Oct.  23.  The  Caledonian  Canal  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1836.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  Canal  is  opened. 

1833,  Sep.  30.  Norwich  and  Lowestoft  Navigation. 

1834,  Sep.  30.  Birmingham  and  Liverpool  Junction. 

INLAND  REVENUE.—  (See  EXCISE.) 
INNISKILLEN.-(See  ENNISKILLEN.) 
INNOCENTS'    DAY,    CHILDERMAS,    or   the 
Feast  of  the  Holy  Innocents  (Matt.  ii.  16),  in- 
stituted at  a  very  early  age,  is  celebrated  by 
the   Western    Church   Dec.    28,    and   by  the 
Eastern,  or  Greek,  Dec.  29. 

INNS  were  established  in  Egypt  B.C.  1707. 
Herodotus  ascribes  the  introduction  of  inns  to 
the  Lydians.  They  existed  among  the  Romans, 
who  frequently  used  the  chequers  as  a  sign. 
The  city  of  Herculaneum  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 900  public-houses.  Tiberius  (14—37) 
prohibited  innkeepers  from  selling  any  baker's 
goods,  and  Nero  (54 — 68)  restricted  them  to  the 
sale  of  boiled  vegetables.  By  27  Edw.  III.  st. 
i,  c.  3  (1353),  commissioners  were  appointed  to 
inquire  into  impositions  by  innkeepers,  and  by 
ii  Hen.  IV.  c.  2  (1409),  innkeepers  were  pro- 
hibited from  being  officers  in  the  customs. 


The  latter  act  was  enforced  by  20  Hen.  VI.  c.  5 
(1442).  Innholders  were  incorporated  in  1514* 
(See  TAVERNS.) 

INNS  OF  COURT  AND  CHANCERY,  called 
hospitia  or  hostels,  are  first  mentioned  in  the 
time  of  Edward  II.  (1307 — 27).  According  to 
Pearse  (Inns  of  Court  and  Chancery,  p.  51), 
"  the  inns  of  court  are  voluntary  societies,  for 
_  :s  submitting  to  government  analogous  to 
that  of  other  seminaries  of  learning."  They 
are  four  in  number,  viz. ,  the  Inner  and  Middle 
Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn  and  Gray's  Inn,  with  the 
nine  inns  of  Chancery ;  viz.,  Clement's  Inn, 
Clifford's  Inn,  Lion  or  Lyon's  Inn,  New  Inn, 
Furnival's  Inn,  Thavies'  or  Taives'  Inn,  Sy- 
nond's  Inn,  Barnard's  Inn,  and  Staple's  Inn. 
New  Inn  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  on 
;he  old  foundation  of  St.  George's  Inn.  There 
were  other  inns,  such  as  Chester  Inn,  Strand  or 
Stronde  Inn,  and  Scrope  Inn.  The  two  Ser- 
"eants"  Inns  are  so  called  because  the  judges  or 
Serjeants  resided  in  them.  One,  also  named 
Faryndon  Inn,  is  in  Chancery  Lane,  and  the 
other  in  Fleet  Street. 

INNSPRUCK,  or  INNSBRUCK  (Austria), 
;he  capital  of  the  Tyrol,  a  very  ancient  city, 
was  taken  by  Maurice  of  Saxony  in  1552,  and  by 
the  Bavarians  in  1703.  They  were  driven  out  in 
a  few  days,  and  the  French  took  it  in  1805,  and 
ceded  it  to  Bavaria.  The  French  and  Bavarians 
were  expelled  April  15,  1809.  They  regained 
possession  May  19,  1809,  and  were  expelled, 
after  a  desperate  battle  around  the  city,  May 
29.  Innspriick  once  more  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French  and  Bavarians  in  July,  1809,  but 
3  rescued  Aug.  12,  1809.  The  Emperor  Leo- 
pold I.  founded  a  university  at  Innspriick  in 
1672,  and  the  palace  was  erected  by  Maria 
Theresa  in  1770. 

INOCULATION  for  small-pox  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Turkey,  about  1721, 
by  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu.  It  was  tried 
as  an  experiment  on  seven  condemned  crimi- 
nals, who  submitted  to  the  operation  on  con- 
dition that  their  lives  should  be  spared  if 
they  survived.  The  royal  family  were  inocu- 
lated in  1726,  and  the  practice  was  afterwards 
generally  adopted.  On  the  discovery  of  vacci- 
nation (q.  v.}  about  1796  it  was  abandoned, 
and  was  finally  prohibited  by  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  29, 
s.  8  (July  23,  1840).  (See  CATTLE  PLAGUE.) 

INQUISITION.— This  ecclesiastical  tribunal, 
also  called  the  Holy  Office,  dates  from  the 
mission  of  Pierre  de  Castelnau  against  the 
Albigenses  in  1210.  In  1215  St.  Dominic  was 
appointed  the  first  inquisitor-general  by  the 
fourth  Lateran  Council,  and  in  1233  the  Inqui- 
sition received  a  definite  constitution  from 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  Sicily  received  the  Inqui- 
sition in  1224,  Aragon  in  1233,  Venice  in  1249, 
France  in  1255,  Castile  and  Leon  in  1290,  and 
Poland  in  1327.  The  modern  Inquisition  was 
formed  in  Castile,  by  a  bull  dated  Nov.  i,  1478. 
The  tribunal  was  erected  in  Sep.,  1480,  and 
commenced  its  operations  at  Seville,  under 
the  Inquisitor-General  Torquemada,  Jan.  2, 
1481.  It  was  firmly  established  in  Spain  by 
two  bulls  of  Sixtus  IV.,  Aug.  2  and  Oct.  17, 
1483.  In  1526  it  was  established  in  Portugal ; 
and  in  1571  it  was  introduced  into  Peru  and 
Mexico  by  Philip  II.,  whose  reign  is  known  as 
L  L 


INQUISITORS 


INTERIM 


the  Spanish  reign  of  terror,  owing  to  the 
numerous  victims  sacrificed  to  the  Inquisition 
during  its  progress.  It  was  suppressed  in 
France  by  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1598,  and  was 
abolished  in  Tuscany  and  Naples  in  1782. 
Napoleon  I.  published  an  edict  for  its  suppres- 
sion in  Spain,  Dec.  4,  1808,  and  the  Cortes  also 
ordered  its  abolition,  Feb.  12,  1813 ;  but  Fer- 
dinand VII.  restored  it  July  21,  1814.  The 
acts  of  the  Inquisition  were  burned  at  Goa,  by 
order  of  John,  Regent  of  Portugal,  May  27, 
1815,  and  the  office  was  finally  abolished  in 
Spain  in  1820.  The  total  number  of  victims 
of  the  Holy  Office  is  quite  unknown.  In  Spain 
alone  it  is  estimated  by  Llorente  that  32,000 
persons  were  burned,  17,000  burned  in  effigy, 
and  291,000  condemned  to  other  penalties.  The 
last  sufferer  condemned  to  the  flames  was  a 
woman,  burned  at  Seville,  Nov.  7,  1781,  for 
having  made  a  contract  with  the  devil.  This 
tribunal  was  abolished  by  the  provisional 
government  of  Tuscany,  Nov.  16,  1859. 

INQUISITORS  OF  THE  PRESS  were  in- 
stituted by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  (1471—1484).  No 
work  was  to  be  printed  without  their  permis- 
sion. (See  BOOK  CKNSOKS.) 

INSOLVENCY.— The  first  act  for  the  relief 
of  insolvent  debtors  was  passed  by  the  Long 
Parliament.  A  court  for  their  relief  was  tem- 
porarily established  by  53  (Jeo.  III.  c.  102  July 
10,  1813),  which  was  continued  by  several  ads 
till  June  25,  1820.  New  measures  for  their 
relief  by  means  of  the  court  were  adopted  by 
i  Geo.  IV.  c.  119  (July  26,  1820),  and  the  nume- 
rous laws  on  the  subject  were  amended  and 
consolidated  by  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  57  (May  26,  1826). 
Insolvent  mayors,  aldermen,  or  councillors  of 
boroughs  are  compelled  to  vacate  their  office 
by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  s.  52  (Sep.  9,  i835\  By 
5  &  6  Viet.  c.  116  (Aug.  12,  1842),  insolvent 
debtors  whose  liabilities  were  less  than  ^300, 
might  obtain  relief  in  the  Bankruptcy  Court. 
This  was  amended  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  96 
1844).  By  the  Bankruptcy  and  Insolvency 
Act,  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  134  (Aug.  6,  1861),  the 
business  of  the  Insolvent  Debtors'  Court  was 
transferred  to  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy. 

INSTITUTE  OF  FRANCE.  —  L'Acaddmie 
Francaise,  founded  by  Richelieu  in  1635,  met 
for  the  first  time  July  10,  1637.  The  Academic 
des  Inscriptions,  founded  in  1663,  became  the 
Academic  Royale  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
lettres,  which  held  its  first  meeting  July  16, 
1701.  The  Academic  Royale  des  Sciences, 
founded  by  Colbert  in  1666,  and  remodelled  by 
Bignon  in  1699,  was  extended  in  1785.  The 
Academic  de  Peinture,  founded  by  Le  Brun  in 
1648,  received  a  charter  in  1655,  and  became 
the  Academic  Royale  de  Peinture  et  Sculp- 
ture in  1664.  These  were  suppressed  by  the 
Convention,  Aug.  8,  1793.  The  Directoiy  es- 
tablished a  new  association,  named  the  Institut 
Kii/ii'ual,  by  decree,  Oct.  25,  1795.  It  held  its 
first  public  session  in  1796.  In  1803  the  consti- 
tution of  the  society  was  remodelled  ;  in  1806 
the  name  was  changed  to  Institute  of  France ; 
and  in  iSn  to  that  of  Imperial  Institute.  The 
AcatUmie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques  was 
established  by  a  decree  of  Louis-Philippe,  of 
Oct.  25,  1832. 

INSURANCE,  or  ASSURANCE.— Some  au- 


thorities are  of  opinion  that  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Jews  in  1182  ;  whilst  others 
state  that  it  arose  in  Lombardy  about  1280, 
and  was  brought  to  London  about  1350.  The 
earliest  ordinance  respecting  insurance  is 
dated  Barcelona,  1435.  The  next  was  pub- 
lished at  Florence  in  1523.  The  Emperor 
Charles  V.  of  Germany  issued  the  "  Caroline 
code"  in  1551  ;  his  son,  Philip  II.,  added  a 
number  of  new  decrees  concerning  insurance 
in  1563  and  1565.  The  preamble  to  the  first 
English  statute  on  this  subject  (43  Eliz.  c.  12), 
passed  in  1601,  states  that  insurance  had  been 
"  time  out  of  mind  an  usage  amongst  mer- 
chants." Louis  XIV.  issued  an  ordinance  on  the 
subject  in  1681.  Dr.  Barton  set  up  the  first  in- 
surance office  against  fire  in  1696,  then  called 
the  Amicable,  afterwards  the  lland-in-Hand. 
The  Amicable  Society  General  Insurance  was 
established  by  charter  in  July,  1706 ;  the 
Union  Fire  Office  in  1714  ;  and  the  Westminster 
Fire  Office  in  1717.  The  first  companies  for 
marine  insurances,  the  Royal  Exchange  Insur- 
ance and  the  London  Insurance,  were  estab- 
lished June  22,  1720. 

INSURRECTION.— (See  List  in  Index.) 
INTAGLIO.— Engraving  in  this  style,  which 
is  distinguished  from  Cameo  '</.  r.)  by  having 
the  figures  sunk  into  the  material  employed, 
instead  of  being  raised  in  relief,  was  practised 
by  the  Egyptians  and  the  ancient  Jews,  and 
was  lirought  to  its  highest  perfection  by  the 
Greeks.  It  is  the  method  employed  in  the 
engraving  of  seals  (q.  v.). 

INTERDICT.— (-See  EXCOMMUNICATION.) 
INTEREST,  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  restricted  to  12  per  cent,  by  a  law 
of  Solon,  B.C.  550,  was  regulated  by  law  in 
India,  B.C.  324,  and  was  reduced  to  4  per  cent. 
at  Rome,  B.C.  29.  It  was  prohibited  by  a  law 
of  Richard  I.  in  1197,  but  was  apparently  legal 
at  the  sign  ing  of  Magna  Charta,  as  it  v* 
declared  not  payable  by  minors.  It  was  again 
prohibited  by  3  Hen.  VII.  c.  5  (1436,)  was  fixed 
at  10  per  cent,  by  37  Henry  VIII.  c.  o  (1545), 
and  was  prohibited  again  by  5  &  6  Edw.  VI. 
c.  20  (1552).  Legal  interest  at  10  per  cent,  was 
restored  by  13  Eliz.  c.  8  (1570),  and  after  under- 
going successive  reductions,  was  ultimately 
settled  at  5  per  cent,  by  12  Anne,  sess.  2,  c.  16 
(1713).  All  -restrictions  were  repealed  by 
17  &  18  Viet.  c.  90  (Aug.  10,  1854).  (See 
FUNDS.) 

INTERIM.— Sevei-al  decrees  have  been  issued 
bearing  this  title.  The  first,  published  by  the 
diet  of  Ratisbon,  July  29,  1541,  referred  the 
religious  disputes  of  the  Germans  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  a  general  council.  The  second, 
known  as  the  Augsburg  Interim,  issued  by 
Charles  V.,  was  read  before  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg, May  15,  1548,  and  failed  in  its  object  of 
reconciling  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Pro- 
testants. The  Interim  of  Leipsic  was  promul- 
gated by  the  Elector  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
Dec.  22, 1548,  and  was  accepted  by  some  Protest- 
ants. Charles  V.  and  Maurice  resorted  to  arms 
to  support  their  respective  decrees,  and  the 
Emperor  was  compelled  to  revoke  his  interim 

INTERIM  TREATY.— This  treaty  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  was  signed  Sep.  30,  1849, 


INTERLUDE 


INVERNESS 


but  was  not  to  take  effect  till  May  i,  1850. 
Its  object  was  the  maintenance  of  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  and  of  the  peace  of  Ger- 
many. 

INTERLUDE. — A  species  of  dramatic  com- 
position between  the  moral  plays  and  the 
modern  drama,  was,  according  to  Disraeli 
(Amenities,  i.  348),  "called  the  interlude,  or  a 
play  between,  to  zest  by  its  pleasantry  the 
intervals  of  a  luxurious  and  sometimes  a 
wearisome  banquet.  The  most  dramatic  inter- 
ludes were  the  invention  of  John  Heywood, 
who  flourished  1521 — 1565,  the  jester  of  Henry 
the  Eighth."  Heywood  was  in  fact  the  inventor 
of  the  interlude. 

INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT.  —  The 
benefit  of  international  copyright  was  secured 
to  authors  in  certain  cases  by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  59 
(July  31,  1838),  which  was  extended  by  15  Viet. 
c.  12  (May  28,  1852).  A  treaty  on  the  subject 
was  concluded  with  France  Nov.  3,  1851,  one 
was  signed  with  the  United  States,  Feb.  i8, 
1853,  an(i  with  Hamburg  in  18153. 

INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION  OF  1862. 
— In  1858  it  was  resolved  by  the  council  of  the 
Society  of  Arts  that  the  holding  of  decennial 
industrial  exhibitions  would  be  of  national 
benefit.  Circulars  were  accordingly  sent  to 
the  foreign  exhibitors  of  1851,  to  ascertain 
their  views  respecting  a  similar  undertaking 
for  1861  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  Italian 
war,  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  June,  1859,  passed 
a  resolution  for  the  postponement  of  the 
scheme.  The  sudden  termination  of  the  war 
induced  them  to  resume  their  efforts,  and  1862 
was  suggested  as  the  year  for  the  exhibition. 
In  Feb.,  1860,  Prince  Albert  signified  his  desire 
to  further  the  undertaking,  and  a  guarantee 
fund  was  opened,  which  soon  amounted  to 
^430,000.  In  June,  the  commissioners  of  1851 
gave  permission  for  the  erection  of  the  new 
building  on  the  ground  purchased  with  the  sur- 
plus fund  of  the  old  exhibition,  and  in  Feb., 

1861,  the  trustees  were  incorporated  by  charter, 
as  the  Royal  Commissioners  of  the  Exhibition 
of    1862.      The   building,   designed  by  Capt. 
Fowke,   was  commenced  March  9,   the  con- 
tractors being  bound  to  complete  it  by  Feb.  12, 

1862.  Its  principal  front  was  of  brick,  1,200 
feet  long  and  50  feet  high.  Brick  wings  receded 
at  each  end,  between  500  and  600  feet,  and  the 
parallelogram  included  between   these    erec- 
tions formed  the  industrial  exhibition,  built  of 
iron,  wood,  and  glass.     The  immense  domes  at 
each  end  of  the  building  measured  160  feet  in 
diameter  and  250  feet  in  height,   being  the 
largest  structures  of  the  kind  in  existence. 
Including  the  large  wooden  galleries  forming 
the  machine  department,  the  Exhibition  build- 
ings covered  an  area  of  more  than  25  acres. 
The  building  was  insured  for  ^400,000,  at  a 
cost  of  .£3,300,  Feb.  20.     It  was  opened  by  the 
Duke  of  Cambridge  and  other  commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  the  Queen,  May  i.  The  commission- 
ers gave  a  conversazione  at  the  South  Kensing- 
ton Museum,  June  6,  and  the  State  ceremonial 
of  declaring  the  prizes  awarded  to  exhibitors 
took  place  July  n.     A  banquet  in  honour  of 
French  workmen  was  held  in  the  refreshment 
rooms,   July  26.      The   Exhibition    closed  to 
the  public  Nov.    i,  was  kept  open  to  exhi- 


bitors for  a  fortnight  longer,  to  enable  them 
to  remove  their  goods.  An  application  by 
Lord  Palmerston's  government  for  a  grant  of 
,£105,000,  towards  the  purchase  of  the  site  and 
buildings  for  the  purposes  of  the  National  Por- 
trait Gallery,  the  Patent  Museum,  the  Natural 
History  collections  of  the  British  Museum, 
&c.,  was  negatived  by  the  House  of  Commons 
by  287  to  121  votes,  July  2,  1863. 

INTERNATIONAL  HORTICULTURAL 
EXHIBITION  AND  CONGRESS,  held  on  the 
site  of  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862, 
was  opened  Tuesday,  May  22,  1866.  A  banquet 
at  the  Guildhall  was  given  the  same  day.  The 
congress  held  its  first  session  at  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  May  23.  The  exhibition  was 
closed  May  31. 

INTERNATIONAL  STATISTICAL  CON- 
GRESS.—The  first  congress  of  this  description, 
in  which  the  European  states  were  officially 
represented,  met  at  Brussels  in  1853,  and 
others  were  held  at  Paris  in  1855,  at  Vienna  in 
1857,  in  London  in  1860,  at  Berlin  in  1863,  and 
at  Florence  in  1866. 

INTERREGNU M.— Sometimes  called  the 
Commonwealth  or  Protectorate,  lasted  from 
the  execution  of  Charles  I.  till  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.,  being  an  interval  of  little  more 
than  ii  years.  After  the  king's  execution, 
Jan.  30,  1649,  a  republic  was  proclaimed, 
which  continued  till  the  expulsion  of  the 
Parliament  by  Cromwell,  April  20,  1653,  after 
which  he  exercised  absolute  power  as  lord- 
general.  He  surrendered  his  power  to  a  con- 
vention appointed  by  himself,  July  4,  but  was 
reinstated  by  them  Dec.  12,  and  proclaimed 
Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth,  Dec.  16. 
A  new  settlement  was  adopted  May  25,  1657, 
by  which  Cromwell  received  full  powers  to 
appoint  his  successor.  He  died  Sep.  13,  1658, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard,  who 
resigned  the  protectorate  May  13,  1659.  The 
regal  authority  was  restored  in  the  person  of 
Charles  II.,  May  29,  1660. 

INUNDATION.—  (See  List  in  Index.) 

INVALIDES  (H&tel  des).— (See  CHRISTIAN 
CHARITY.) 

INVASION.— (See  List  in  Index.) 

INVENTION  OF  THE  CROSS.— (See 
CROSS.) 

INVENTORS'  INSTITUTE  (London),  for 
the  protection  of  inventors'  interests  and  the 
promotion  of  improvements  in  the  patent 
laws,  was  inaugurated  May  i,  1862. 

INVERLOCHY  (Battle).  —  The  Royalist 
troops,  commanded  by  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose,  defeated  Argyle  and  the  Covenanters  at 
this  place,  in  Scotland,  Feb.  2,  1645. 

INVERNESS  (Scotland)  was  one  of  the 
capitals  of  the  Picts  during  the  6th  century. 
Its  first  charter  as  a  burgh  was  granted  by 
William,  the  Lion  (1165—1214).  Alexander  II. 
founded  a  Dominican  monastery  in  1233. 
Robert  Bruce  captured  it  in  1313,  and  Donald, 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  burned  it  in  June,  1411.  The 
bridge  over  the  Ness  was  built  in  1686  ;  and  the 
old  castle,  in  which  James  I.  held  a  Parliament 
in  1427,  was  destroyed  by  the  rebels  in  1746. 
(See  CULLODEN,  Battle.)  The  town-hall  was 
founded  in  1708,  the  Assembly-rooms  in  1789, 
and  the  Royal  Academy  in  1792.  A  disastrous 

L  L    2« 


INVESTIGATION 


r  516  i 


IOWA 


earthquake  occurred  in  1816,  and  an  inundation 
of  the  river  Ness  in  1848,  which  swept  away 
the  old  bridge.  The  new  suspension-bridge 
was  opened  in  1855. 

INVESTIGATION.  —  (See  DELICATE 
INVESTIGATION.) 

INVESTITURE.— The  whole  right  of  investi- 
ture by  the  temporal  sovereign  was  abrogated 
by  a  decree  of  Gregory  VII.  at  a  council  held 
at  Rome,  Feb.  24-28,  1075.  The  decree  deposed 
every  bishop,  abbot,  or  inferior  ecclesiastic 
who  should  receive  investiture  from  any  lay 
person.  The  claim  led  to  many  contests  in 
Europe.  The  Emperor  Henry  V.  gave  up  the 
right  of  investiture  in  a  treaty  signed  at  Rome 
Feb.  12,  mi.  Another  dispute  having  arisen 
on  the  subject,  it  was  once  more  settled  by  the 
concordat  of  Worms,  1122,  which  was  ratified 
by  the  Lateran  Council  in  1123.  The  Norman 
kings  refused  to  concede  the  right,  and  Urban 
II.  threatened  excommunication.  Anselm  in 
vain  attempted  to  persuade  Henry  I.  to  submit 
in  1103.  At  a  council  held  at  London,  Aug.  i, 
1107,  it  was  agreed  that  bishops  should  do 
homage  to  the  king,  but  not  receive  investi- 
ture from  him.  It  led  to  frequent  contests 
uetween  the  temporal  and  secular  powers. 

INVESTITURES  (War  of)  between  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII.,  re- 
specting the  right  of  investiture,  commenced 
in  1074,  and  terminated  with  the  capture  of 
Rome,  March  21,  1084. 

INVOCATION  OF  SAINTS.— The  practice  of 
imploring  the  intercession  of  the  dead  became 
general  in  the  Romish  Church  during  the  sth 
century.  It  is  first  enjoined  in  the  canons  of 
the  English  Churches  in  994. 

IODINE. —This  substance  was  discovered 
in  1811  by  Courtoise,  a  saltpetre  manufacturer 
at  Paris,  who  described  it  to  the  Institute  of 
Dec.  6,  1813.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
Greek  ualh^,  violet-coloured,  and  h, is  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  the  treatment  of  several 
diseases. 

IODIZED  COLLODION.— '.See  COLLODION.) 

I*  ),VA,  HUY,  or  IC<  >I,M  K  1  I.I,  (Argyleshire). 
—This  island,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  cele- 
brated for  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral,  &c., 
founded  by  St.  Columba  in  565.  It  was  sacked 
by  the  Danes  in  795,  in  802,  and  Dec.  24,  986. 
Many  of  the  monks  suffered  martyrdom  in  806 
and  in  825.  In  accordance  with  an  act  passed 
by  the  Scotch  convention  of  estates  in  1561, 
the  ecclesiastical  buildings  on  this  island  were 
destroyed.  Shakespeare  (Macbeth,  ii.  sc.  4^, 
referring  to  it  as  the  ancient  place  of  sepulture 
of  the  Scottish  sovereigns,  says  that  Duncan's 
body  was 

"  Carried  to  Colmes-kill, 
The  sacred  storehouse  of  his  predecessors, 
And  guardian  of  their  bones." 

IONIA  (Asia  Minor).— This  country  is  said  to 
have  been  peopled  by  Greek  colonists  about 
B.C.  1045.  After  founding  Colophon,  Ephesus, 
Miletus,  and  other  important  cities,  the  lonians 
obtained  possession  of  Smyrna  about  B.C.  688, 
and  the  country  soon  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Croestis,  B.C.  560,  it  was  subject  to  the 
Lydians,  and  it  was  conquered  by  Cyrus  B.C. 


557.  The  inhabitants  made  unsuccessful  efforts 
to  regain  their  independence,  B.C.  500  and  496, 
and  they  assisted  the  Greeks  against  the 
Persians  at  the  battle  of  Mycale,  B.C.  479. 
The  Persian  yoke  was  at  length  shaken  off  by 
the  victory  at  the  Eurymedon  (q.  v.},  but  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas  again  imposed  it  upon  the 
lonians,  B.C.  387.  On  the  overthrow  of  the 
Persian  empire  by  Alexander  III.,  Ionia  became 
subject  to  Macedonia,  and  it  afterwards  formed 
part  of  the  Roman  empire,  B.C.  133. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS  (Mediterranean).— 
Cephalonia,  Cerigo,  'Corfu,  Ithaca,  Paxo,  Santa 
Maura,  and  Zante,  with  their  dependencies, 
were  erected  into  the  republic  of  the  Seven 
United  Islands,  March  21,  1800.  It  was  to  pay 
a  moderate  tribute  to  the  Porte,  and  its  in- 
dependence was  guaranteed  by  Turkey  and 
Russia.  By  the  gth  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Amiens,  March  25,  1802,  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
recognized  this  republic.  The  French  captured 
the  islands  in  1807,  and  Russia  ceded  them  to 
France  by  a  secret  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Tilsit,  July  7,  1807.  The  French  garrisons 
surrendered  to  an  English  force  Oct.  3,  1809, 
and  by  a  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
Russia,  signed  at  Paris  Nov.  5,  1815,  they  were 
formed  into  an  independent  state,  called  the 
United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  or  the  Sep- 
tinsular  Republic,  under  the  protection  of  Eng- 
land. The  Prince  Regent,  afterwards  George 
IV.,  ratified  their  constitution  July  n,  1817, 
and  it  was  proclaimed  Dec.  28.  A  university 
for  this  republic  was  founded  at  Corfu  in  1823. 
In  1848  and  1849,  Lord  Seaton,  the  Lord  High 
Commissioner,  introduced  numerous  changes 
in  the  constitution.  In  1851  Greek  became  the 
official  language  of  the  Ionian  Government. 
Mr.  Gladstone  was  despatched  on  a  commission 
of  inquiry,  and  arrived  at  Corfu  Nov.  23,  1858. 
The  legislative  assembly  proposed  the  annex- 
ation of  their  republic  to  Greece,  Jan.  27,  1859, 
and  presented  a  petition  to  that  effect,  Jan.  30, 
which  Mr.  Gladstone  rejected  Feb.  5.  Gen. 
Sir  H.  Storks  succeeded  as  Lord  High  Com- 
missioner, Feb.  17,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  em- 
barked for  England  Feb.  19.  The  legislative 
assembly  at  Corfu  petitioned  the  Lord  High 
Commissioner  in  favour  of  the  union  of  the 
seven  isles  with  Greece,  April  4,  1862,  and 
1863.  A  protocol,  ceding  them  to  Greece, 
signed  May  28,  1864,  was  carried  into  effect 
June  i,  1864,  and  the  governor,  with  the  last 
detachment  of  British  troops,  retired  June  2. 

IONIC  ORDER  of  architecture,  distin- 
guished by  the  use  of  the  volute,  originated  in 
Asia.  Several  examples  have  been  discovered 
at  Persepolis  and  Khorsabad.  It  ranks  next  to 
the  Doric  Order  (q.  v.),  and  corresponds  to  the 
Decorated  Style  (q.  v.)  of  Gothic  architecture. 

IONIC  SECT.— This  school  of  philosophers 
was  founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  born  B.C. 
636.  His  two  cardinal  doctrines  were  that  the 
whole  world  is  a  living  being,  produced  from  a 
seed,  and  that  water  is  the  grand  origin  of  all 
things.  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  and  Hera- 
clitus  adopted  these  views. 

IOWA  (United  States).— The  French  settled 
in  this  part  of  America  in  1686.  It  was  made 
a  separate  territory  in  June,  1838,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  Aug.  4,  1846. 


IPATSKOT 


IRELAND 


IPATSKOI.— (See  COSTROMA.) 

IPSUS  (Battle).— Ptolemy  (I.)  Soter  I.,  Ca 
sander,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus  Nicato 
having  entered  into  a  confederacy  again 
Antigonus,  Alexander  the  Great's  genera 
their  armies  met  at  this  village,  in  Phrygi; 
in  Aug.,  B.C.  301.  Antigonus,  who  was  in  h 
8ist  year,  was  defeated  and  slain. 

IPSWICH  (Suffolk)  was  pillaged  by  th 
Danes  in  991,  and  again  in  1000.  A  hurrican 
destroyed  many  churches  Jan.  i,  1287.  Th 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1527;  th 
gaol  was  erected  in  1790,  and  the  Hall  o 
Commerce  in  1845. 

IRELAND.— Its  most  ancient  name  is  Eri 
or  Erin,  called  by  the  Greeks  lerne,  and  by  th 
Saxons  lerland,  or  Ireland.  From  the  and  t 
the  ioth  century  it  bore  the  name  Scotia 
and  the  inhabitants  were  called  Scoti  or  Scots 
The  term  Hibemia  came  into  use  at  a  late 
date.  No  authentic  records  of  its  early 
history  exist. 

A.D. 

2.  Reign  of  Conary  the  Great 
90.  The  Fir-Bolgs,  or  Belga-,  inhabitants  of  great  par 
of  Ireland,  revolt  under  Cairbre  Cinncait,  when 
they  raise  to  the  throne. 

358.  The  Irish  form  u  settlement  in  Argyleshire. 
396.  The  Irish  invade  Britain,  and  pass  into  Gaul. 

§St.  Patrick  arrives  in  Ireland. 
Death  of  St.  Patrick. 
Foreign  students  flock  to  Ireland. 
684.  Ecgfrid,  King  of  Northumbrin,  invades  Ireland. 
595.  The  Danes  invade  Ireland. 
844.  The  Danish  chief  Turgesius  is  slain,  and  his  country. 

men  are  expelled,  but  soon  return. 
999.  The  Irish  again  defeat  the  Danes. 
1014,  April  23,  Friday.  Battle  of  Clontarf  (q.  •».). 
1103.  Magnus  III.,  King  of  Norway,  invades  Ireland,  and 

is  defeated  and  slain. 
1154.  Henry  II.,  of  England,  obtains  from  Pope  Adrian  IV. 

a  grant  of  Ireland. 

1166.  Dermot  MacMurchad,  King  of  Leinster,  is  expelled 
from  his  kingdom. 

1168.  He  flees  to  England,  and  receives  a  promise  of  as- 

sistance from  Henry  II. 

1169,  May.  The  English,  under  Fitz-Stephen,  invade  Ire- 

land. —  Aug.   24.  Richard    Strongbow,    Earl    of 

Pembroke,  lands  near  Waterford. 
1171.  Death  of  Dermot,  who  is  succeeded  by  Strongbow. 

—Oct.  18.  Henry  II.  lands  at  Croch,  near  Water- 
ford,  and  receives  the .  submission  of  the  native 

princes. 

H72,  April  7.  Henry  II.  returns  to  England. 
1175.  Henry  II.  promulgates  the  bull  of  Pope  Adrian  IV. 
1177,  May.     Henry    II.  makes    his    son    John    Lord    of 

Ireland. 
1185,  April  i.  Prince  John  arrives  in  Ireland,  and  ravages 

Ulster. 
1310.  King  John  invades  Ireland,  and  introduces  English 

laws  and  usages. 
1254.  Henry  III.   makes  a   grant  of  Ireland  to  his  son 

Edward  Prince  of  Wales. 

1270.  The  natives  rebel  and  massacre  many  English. 
1288.  The  "  Statute  for  the  state  of  Ireland"  is  passed. 
1295.  Ireland  is  divided  into  counties. 
1315,  May  25.  Edward  Bruce,  brother  of  Robert  Bruce  of 

Scotland,  invades  Ireland.  (See  DUKDALK.) 
1329.  Insurrections  break  out  in  the  south  of  Ireland. 
1361.  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  arrives  in  Ireland  as  the 

king's  deputy. 

1385.  Richard  II.  invests  Robert  de  Vere  with  the  sove- 
reignty of  Ireland. 

1394,  Oct.  2.  Richard  II.  lands  at  Waterford  with  a  force 

of  4,000  cavalry  and  30,000  archers. 

1395,  March  10.  The  King  of  Tyrone   and  other  northern 

chiefs  do  homage  to  Richard  II.  at  Drogheda. — 
March  25.  Richard  II.  knights  many  of  the  native 
noblemen  at  Dublin,  and  returns  to  England  in 
the  summer,  leaving  Roger  Mortimer  as  viceroy. 

1398,  July  20.  Mortimer  is  defeated  and  slain  by  the 
natives  at  Kealis,  in  Kilkenny. 

I399i  June  i.  Richard  II.  again  lauds  at  Waterford. 


1455-  Richard  Plantagenet,  Duke  of  York,  takes  shelter 
in  Ireland. 

1465.  The  parliament  of  Trim  orders  Irishmen  livingnear 
English  settlements  to  adopt  English  costumes 
and  surnames,  and  passes  an  act  to  permit  any- 
body to  kill  thieves  and  robbers  without  trial 
unless  clad  in  English  apparel. 

1472.  The  Brotherhood  of  St.  George  is  instituted  for  the 
protection  of  the  English  in  Ireland. 

1486,  May.  A  German  force  lands  in  Dublin  (q.  v.)  to  sup- 
port the  claims  of  Lambert  Simnel. 

1404.  Passing  of  Poyning's  Act  (q.  v.). 

1528.  O'Connor  takes  the  lord-deputy  prisoner. 

1534,  June  ii.  Lord  Thomas  FitzGerald,  Earl  of  Kildare 
rebels  against  Henry  VIII. 

1536,  Feb.  3.  Execution  of  Lord  T.  FitzGerald  at  Tyburn. 

1537.  Henry  VIII.  endeavours  to  force  Protestantism  upon 

the  Irish. 

1543.  Henry  VIII.  assumes  the  title  of  King  of  Ireland 
former  English  sovereigns  having  governed  as  its 

1546.  Local     jurisdictions   are     instituted,     and   native 

sheriffs  appointed. 
1550.  The  French  endeavour  to  obtain  aid  from   Ireland 

against  the  English. 
1560.  Shane  O'Neill  quarrels  with  the  Earl  of  Sussex,  the 

lord-lieutenant. 

1567-  O'Neill  is  murdered  by  the  Scotch. 
:573-  Sir  Thomas  Smith   fails  in  an  attempt  to  establish 

English  settlers  in  Ulster. 

579.  The  rebellion  of  FitzMaurice  is  suppressed,  and  its 

leaders  are  slain. 

580.  The    fortress    of    Smerwick,    garrisoned     by    700 

Spaniards  and  Italians,  is  taken  by  Lord  Grey 
and  Admiral  Winter,  who  put  the  defenders  to  the 
sword. 

597.  Revolt  of  Hugh  O'Neill,  Earl  of  Tyrone. 

599,  Sep.  The  Earl  of  Essex  concludes  a  truce  with 
Tyrone,  and  thereby  incurs  the  severe  displeasure 
of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

601.  Tyrone  receives  assistance  from  Spain. 

603,  March  30.  Tyrone  tenders  his  submission,  and  re- 
ceives a  full  pardon. 

605.  Roman  Catholic  priests  are  expelled  from  Ireland. 

607.  Tyrone  goes  to  Rome,  where   he  soon  afterwards 

dies. 

608.  Sir  Cahir  O'Doherty's  insurrection  is  suppressed. 
Oil.  The  Ulster  settlement  (q.  ».). 

641,  Oct.  23.  Commencement  of  the  Ulster  rebellion 
(q.  v.). 

H9,  Aug.  15.  Cromwell  lands  in  Ireland.— Sep.  1 1.  He 
takes  Drogheda  (q.  v.). 

>5o,  May  29.  Cromwell  leaves  Ireland  under  the  go- 
vernment of  Ireton. 

651,  Oct.  29.  Ireton  takes  Limerick  (q.  v.). 

666,  May.  The  garrison  at  Carriekfergus  mutinies. 

589,  March  12.  James  II.  lands  at  Kiusale.— July  28.  He 

attaints  3,000  Protestants. 

590,  March  14.  A  French  army,  under  Lauzun,  lands 


King  William  III.   lands  at 
ly  i.  Battle  of  the  Boyne  (q.  t:). 


Ireland.—  June 

Carrickfergus.—  July 

—July  4.  James  II.  embarks  for  France. 
5gi,  July   12.    Battle   of  Aughrim  (q.  •».).—  Oct.    3.   The 

treaty  of  Limerick  (q.  v.). 
04,  March  4.  The  Popery  Act  against  Roman  Catholics 

is  passed. 
II,  Oct.  The  "  houghers,"  under  "  Ever  Joyce,"  commit 

devastations  among  the  cattle  of  the  gentry. 
23-  Wood  receives  his  patent  for  coining  halfpence.  (See 

DKAPIEK  LETTERS.) 
40.  Consternation  is  caused  by  the  Kellymount  gang  of 

robbers. 

60,  Feb.  21.  Thurot's  Expedition  (q.  v.). 
'i,  Oct.   First  appearance  of  the  Whiteboys  (q.  v.). 
2-  First  appearance  of  the  Levellers  (q.  v.). 
1769.  The  Steelboys'  insurrection  breaks  out. 

1778.  The  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill  is  passed. 

1779.  Free-trade  is  established  in  Ireland. 

1782.  Legislative  independence  is  secured,  and  Poynings' 
Act  (q.  v.)  is  repealed. 

1783.  The  order  of  St.   Patrick  (q.  ».)  is  founded.    The 

Genevese  attempt  to  establish  a  colony  in  Water- 
ford.    (See  GENEVA.) 

1784.  Restrictions  are  imposed  on  the  license  of  the  news- 

paper press.    Rise  of  the  Defenders  and  Peep-o'- 

Day-boys  (q.  v.). 
1786.  Rise  of  the  Riglit-boys. 
1791.  The  Society  of  the  United  Irishmen  is  founded. 


IRELAND 


IRELAND 


1793,  April  18.  Arrest  of  James  Xapper  Tandy. 

1793.  Tandy  escapes  to  America. 

J7y5i  !'el>-  3i.  The  first  Orange  lodge  is  formed  at  Ar- 
magh. 

1796,  Dec.  A  French  expedition,  under  Hoche  and  Wolfe 
Tone,  anchors  in  Bantrv  Bav. 

1798.  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald's  conspiracy.— Mny  II.  Go- 

vernment offers  061,000  for  his  apprehension. — 
May  19.  lie  is  arrested  at  Dublin.- -May  .'-,. 
Insurrection  breaks  out  in  Dublin  and  the.  pro- 
vim-. -s.  -Juiii!  4.  Death  of  Lord  Edward  Fit/.- 
gerald  in  prison. — June  lo.  Battle  of  Arklow 
(</.  t>.).— Sep.  16.  Napper  Tandy  lands  with  a 
French  force  at  Kuthmd,  whence  he  re-embarks 
for  .Norway. — Nov.  jo.  Trial  and  capital  sentence 
of  Wolfe  Tone,  who  commits  suicide. 

1799.  The  rebellion   subsides,  having    cost    the    lives  of 

50,000  Irishmen  and  20,000  English  snldii-rs. 

1800,  Jan.   1 6.  The  Irish  parliament  sanctions  the  minis- 

terial scheme  of  a  legislative  union  with  England. 
—July  3,  The  Act  of  Union  (39  aiid  40  Geo.  III. 
c.  67)  receives  the  royal  assent. 

1801,  Jan.  i.  The  union  is  effected. 

1803,  July  23.  Robert  Emmett's  insurrection  breaks  out— 

AUK-   25.    ICmmctt   is   anvsted. — Sep.     19.    lie   is 

tried. — Sep.  20.  lie  is  executed. 
1806.  A  fran-  of  rioters,  known  as  the  Threshers,  do  great 

injury  to  tithe  corn. 
1810,  Aug.  8.  The  agitation  for  the  licpeal  of  the  Union 

'     (7.  r.)  commend  s. 
IBII,  Dec.  z(\  Daniel  O'Conuell  forms  the  Koman  Catholic 

Hoard. 
1815.  Insurrectionary  movements  occur  in  Tipperary. 

1831,  Aug.  n  to  Sep.  10.  G.orge  IV.  visits  Irehm.l.     In  the 

winter  outrages  occur  in  the  comities  of  Limerick, 
Mayo.  Tipperary,  and  Cavan. 

1832,  Whitcboy  outrages.    The  failure  of  the  potato  crop 

causes  a  famine. 
1835,  June  27.  The  currency  is   assimilated   with  that  of 

Great  Britain  by  6  Geu.  IV.  . 
1829,  April  13.  The   Koman   Catholic   Emancipation   Bill 

(loGeo.   IV.  a  -)  kpMMd 

1833,  Aug.  7.  The  Irish  Reform  Bill  (3  &  3  Will  IV.  c.  88) 

is  passed. 

1838,  July  31.  The  first  Irish  Poor  Law  Bill  (I  &  3  Viet. 

c.  56)  is  parsed. 

1839,  Jan.  I.  Murder  of  Lord  \orbury. 
1843,  March  10.  Monster  meeting  at  Trim. 

1*44,  Jan.  15— Feb.  12.— Trial  of  Daniel  O'Connell  and 
(.tliers  at  Dublin  for  sedition.  He  is  found  guilty 
ami  sentenced  to  a  year's  impri.-onment  and  a 
line  Of  £4,000.— Sep.  5.  Kelea.se  of  O'Connell, 

1845,  Sep.  23.  The  Irish  National  Board  of  Education  is 

estalili-.hed.  The  failure  of  the  potato  crop  occa- 
sions another  famine,  and  Government  expends 
,£850,000  in  the  relief  of  the  sutT.  r. -iv. 

1846,  April.  Food  riots  occur  in  Tipperary.— April  30.  Mr. 

Smith  O'Brien  is  committed  to  the  custody  of  the 
sergcant-at-arms,  for  a  breach  of  parliamentary 
order.— July  29.  Smith  O'Brien  secedes  from  the 
Kepeal  Association. 

1847,  Jan.  and   Feb.  Great  destitution  prevails. — Feb.  36. 

The  Temporary  Kelief  Act  is  passed.— March  34. 
A  general  fast  is  observed,  in  consequence  of  the 
Irish  famine.— Hay  i>  Death  of  Daniel  O'Connell 
at  Genoa.  The  Government  applies  £10,000,000 
for  the  relief  of  the  people. 

1848,  The  French  revolution  creates  intense  excitement. — 

Aprils.  Smith  O'Brien  heads  a  deputation  of  Irish 
malcontents  to  Paris,  where  he  is  coolly  received. 
-  -.May  13.  John  Mitchell  is  arrested.— May  26. 
Ho  is  sentenced  to  14  years'  transportation. — 
July  26.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  suspended. — 
July  39.  Smith  O'Brien's  rebellion  is  suppressed 
by  the  police. — Aug.  5.  He  is  arrested  at  Thurles. 
—Aug.  12.  Arrest  of  Meagher  and  others.— Oct.  9. 
Smith  O'Brien,  Meagher,  and  others,  are  found 
guilty  and  condemned  to  death. 

1849,  July  9-  Smith  O'Brien,    Meagher,    McManus,   and 

others  (sentence  of  death  having  been  commuted) 
are  transported.— July  12.  A  fatal  affray  between 
Koman  Catholics  and  Orangemen  occurs  at  Dolly's 
Brae.— July  38.  The  Encumbered  Estates  Act 
(q.  v.)  is  passed.— Aug.  i.  The  Queen  visits  Ire- 
land. 

1850,  March  13.   Party  processions  are  prohibited  b 

Viet.  c.  2.  Several  landlords  are  murdered  by 
discontented  tenants.— Aug.  33.  Synod  of  Thurles. 


.. 

1851,  March  30.  The  census  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
is  taken.  The  population  of  Ireland  is  returned  at 
6,5I5,794-—  April  22.  TheKoinan  Catholic  Defence 
A.-sociatiou  is  formed  in  Dublin.—  May  5.  Measures 
are  commenced  for  the  establishment  of  a  Koman 
Catholic  university.—  May  25.  It.  L.  Shell  die>  at 
Florence.  —  June  5.  McManus,  having  escaped 
from  transportation,  arrives  at  San  Francisco.  - 
July  14.  A  monster  meeting  of  the  Irish  Tenant 
I.  (-ague  is  held  on  the  battle-field  of  the  I'.oyne. 

1851,  Aug.  i.  The  Dublin  and  Galway  Kail  way  is  opened. 

1852,  Jan.  i.  The   statutes  of  the   synod   of  Thurles.  pro- 

hibiting the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  from  holding 
office  in  the  Queen's  colleges,  are  published.  — 
May  25.  The  escaped  convict  Meagher  arrives  at 
New  York.  —  June  I.  Ireland  is  connected  with 
England  by  submarine  telegraph.  —  June  lo.  The 
Cork  exhibition  is  opened.—  June  24.  Mr.  I' 
originates  the  Dublin  exhibition  (q.  v.).  —  July  3. 
The  magistrates  disperse  a  great  Tenant-right 
meeting  at  Warrhigtou.—  July  14.  Keligious  riots 
occur  at  Belfast.—  July  33.  Kiot  at  the  Six-mile 
Bridge  (q.  v.).—  Sep.  lo.  A  meeting  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  religious  equality  in  Ireland  is  held  at 
Dublin,  by  Irish  members  of  Parliament. 

1853,  Juno  9-  The  convict  Mitchell  escapes  from  Van  Die- 

men's  Land.—  June  38.  The  Income-tax  is  extended 
to  Ireland  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  34.—  Aug.  29.  Queen 
Victoria  visits  Ireland.—  Oct.  4.  The  Tenant-right 
League  holds  a  conference  at  Dublin.—  Nov.  3. 
Extensive  Inundations  occur  in  the  south  of  Ire- 
land. Extensive  emigration  from  Ireland. 

1854,  Feb.  36.  Smith  O'Brien  receives  a  pardon,  but  is  not 

permitted  to  return  to  the  United  Kingdom.     Bap. 
15.  A  railway  train,  with  a  party  of  Orangemen 
travelling    from  Londonderry  to   EnnisUii. 
thrown  off  the  line  by  obstructions  placed  there 
for  the  purpose. 

1855,  May  3.  Smith  O'Brieu  receives  a  full  pardon.—  July 

7.  Mutiny  of  the  Tipperary  militia. 
1857,  Sep.  Keligious  riots  at  Belfast  (q.  r.). 
185^  Aug.  8.  Kiots  in  Kilkenny,  against  the  use  of 

machine  labour  in    agriculture.  —  Sep.    Inunda- 

tions  occur  in   many  parts  of  Ireland.  —  Dec.  13. 

Several  members  of  the  Phoenix  Clubs  (q.  v.)  are 

ai  rested. 
1859,  March  7.  Baron  Poerio  and  other  Neapolitan  refugees 

arrive   in   Ireland.  —  March  39.    Iteligious  riots  in 

Gahv.iy.  —  Sep.  Keligious  revivals  are  common  in 

the  north  of   Ireland. 
1861,  April  8.  The  census  is  taken,  and  the  population  re- 

turned at  5,764,543  persons.—  Aug.  22  to  29.  Queen 

Victoria  and  Prince  Albert  visit  Ireland. 
1863,  April  and  May.  Agrarian  outrages  in  Limerick  and 


Tipperary. 
ct.  6. 


1863,  Oct.  6.  Lord   Leitrim  occupies  an  hotel  at  Maam  in 

'ii-mara  with  his  tenants,  to  prevent  its 
affording  accommodation  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant 
during  a  journey  through  western  Ireland.  For 
this  discourtesy,  his  name  is  removed  from  the 
commission  of  the  peace. 

1864,  June  18.  Death  of  William  Smith  O'Brien  at  Bangor. 

—  Aug.  8.  Serious  Orange  riots  tuke  place  at 
lie!  fast  (7.  ».).—  Oct.  I.  Lord  Carlisle  resigns  the 
lord-lieutenancy.  —  Nov.  8.  Lord  Wodehouse  takes 
the  oaths  as  lord-lieutenant. 

1865,  Aug.  25.  —  In  consequence  of  the  cattle  plague  (q.  •».), 

the  removal  of  cattle  from  England  to  Ireland  is 
prohibited  by  an  order  in  council.  —  Sep.  15.  The 
police  seize  the  office  of  the  "  Irish  People"  news- 
paper at  Dublin.  (See  FENIANS.)—  Dec.  5.  A  con- 
ference of  Irish  members  of  Parliament  is  held  at 
Dublin. 

1866,  Feb.    17.  The   Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  suspended.— 

July  17,  Lord  Wodehouse  (the  Earl  of  Kimberley) 
leaves  Dublin.—  July  30.  The  Marquis  of  Abercorn, 
the  new  lord-lieutenant,  arrives. 
During  the  earlier  periods   of   its  subjection 
to  English,  rule,  Ireland  was  governed  by  officers 
of  various  titles,  and  most  frequently  by  a  lord 
chief  justice. 

A.D. 

1185,  Sep.  John  de  Courcy,  Earl  of  Ulster. 
1253.  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Edward  I. 
1308,  June  16.  1'ierce  de  Gaveston,  Earl  of  Cornwall. 
1329,  March  i.  James  Botiller,  Earl  of  Ormond. 
1331,  June  3.  Sir  Anthony  Lacy. 


IRELAND 


IRISH 


LORDS-LIEUTENANT. 

The  following  list  is  abridged  from  Thorn's 
"Irish  Almanac  and  Official  Directory"  for 
1866,  p.  878  :— 

A.D. 

1360.  Maurice  Fitz-Thomns  Fitzgerald,  Earl  of  Kildare. 

1361.  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence  and  Earl  of  Ulster. 
1379.  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March  and  Ulster. 

1383.  Philip  Courtney,  Lord  Birmingham. 

1384.  Robert  de  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford. 

1394.  King  Richard  II.,  in  person. 

1395.  Roger  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March  and  Ulster. 
1399.  King  Kichard  II.  (2nd  time). 

1401.  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster. 
1410.  John,  Duke  of  Bedford. 

1413.  Edward,  Earl  of  March. 

1414.  Sir  John  Talbot. 

1416.  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster. 

1437.  Sir  John  De  Grey. 

1438.  Sir  John  Sutton,  Lord  Dudley. 
1433.  Sir  Thomas  Stanley. 

1438.  Lionel,  Lord  Wells. 

1440.  James,  Earl  of  Ormond. 

1446.  John,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

1419.  Richard,  Duke  of  York. 

1401.  George,  Duke  of  Clarence. 

1479.  Kichard,  Duke  of  York. 

1483.  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Richard  III. 

1485.  John  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of  Lincoln. 

1490.  Jasper,  Duke  of  Bedford. 

1496.  Gerald,  Karl  of  Kildare. 

1501.  Henry,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  Henry  VIII. 

1501.  Gerald,  Earl  of  Kildare  (2nd  time). 

1520.  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey. 

1530.  Henry,  Duke  of  Richmond. 

1558.  Thomas,  Earl  of  Sussex. 

1598.  Robert  Devereux,  Earl  of  Essex. 

1599.  sir  Charles  Blount,  Lord  Mountjoy. 
1639.  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford. 
1643.  James  Butler,  Marquis  of  Ormond. 
1649.  Oliver  Cromwell. 

1658.  Henry  Cromwell. 

1660.  James  Butler,  Duke  of  Ormond. 

1669.  John,  Lord  Roberts  of  Truro. 

1670.  John,  Lord  Berkeley. 

1673-  Arthur  Capel,  Earl  of  Essex. 
1677.  James  Butler,  Duke  of  Ormond. 

1685.  Henry  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon. 

1686.  Richard  Talbot,  Eurl  of  Tyrconnell. 

1693,  Sep.  4.  Henry  Lord  Sydney,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Romney. 

1695,  May  37.  Henry,  Baron  Capel  of  Tewkesbury. 

1701,  Sep.  18.  Lawrence  Hyde,  Earl  of  Rochester. 

1703,  June  4.  James  Butler,  Duke  of  Ormond. 

1707.  Thomas  Herbert,  Earl  of  Pembroke. 

1709,  April  31.  Thomas,  Earl  Wharton. 

1711,  July  3.  James,  Duke  of  Ormond  (2nd  time). 

1713,  Oct.  37.  Charles  Talbot,  Duke  of  Shrewsbury. 

1717,  Aug.  17.  Charles  Paulet,  Duke  of  Boltou,  and  Mar- 
quis of  Winchester. 

1731,  Aug.  38.  Charles  Fitz-Roy,  Duke  of  Grafton. 

1734,  Aug.  33.  John,  Baron  Carteret,  afterwards  Earl 
Granville. 

1731,  Sep.  II.  Lionel  Cranfield  Sackville,  Duke  of  Dorset. 

1737,  Sep.  7.  William  Cavendish,  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

1745,  Aug.  31.  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Chester- 

1747,  Sep.  13.  William  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Harrington. 

1751,  Sep.  19.  Lionel,  Duke  of  Dorset  (2nd  time). 

1755,  May  5.  William  Cavendish,  Marquis  of  Hartington, 

afterwards  Duke  of  Devonshire. 
1757,  Sep.  25.  John  Russell,  Duke  of  Bedford. 
1761,  Oct.  George  Montagu,  Earl  of  Halifax. 
1763,  Sep.  32.    Hugh  Percy,    Earl,   afterwards  Duke  of 

Northumberland. 
1765,  Oct.  18.  Francis  Seymour  Conway,  Earl,  afterwards 

Marquis  of  Hertford. 

1767,  Oct.  14.  George,  Marquis  Townshend. 
1773,  Nov.  30.  Simon,  Earl  Hartcourt. 
1777,  Jan  35.  John  Hobart,  Earl  of  Buckinghamshire. 
1780,  Dec.  33.  Frederick  Howard,  Earl  of  Carlisle. 
1783,  April  14.  William  Henry  Cavendish  Bentinck,  Duke 

of  Portland. 
1783,  Sep.   15.    George  Grenville   Nugent,  Earl  Temple, 

afterwards  Marquis  of  Buckingham. 

1783,  June  3.  Robert  Henley,  Earl  of  Northington. 

1784,  Feb.  34.  Charles  Manners,  Duke  of  Rutland. 


1787,  Dec.  16.  George  Grenville  Nugent  Temple,  Marquis 

of  Buckingham  (2nd  time). 
1790,  Jan.  5.  John  Fane,  Earl  of  Westmoreland. 
1795,  Jan.  4.  William  Wentworth,  Earl  Fitzwilliam. 
1795,  March  31.   John  Jeffreys  Pratt,  Earl,  afterwards 

Marquis  of  Camden. 

1798,  June  20.  Charles,  Marquis  Cornwallis. 
1801,  May  25.  Philip  Yorke,  Earl  of  Hardwicke. 

1806,  March  18.  John  Russell,  Duke  of  Bedford. 

1807,  April  19.  Charles  Lennox,  Duke  of  Richmond/ 
1813,  Aug.  20.  Charles,  Earl  Whitworth. 

1817,  Oct.  o.  Charles  Chetwynd,  Earl  Talbot 
1821,  Dec.  39.  Richard  Colle'y,  Marquis  Wellesley. 

1838,  March    i.     Henry    William    Paget,     Marquis   of 

Anglesey. 

1839,  March  6.  Hugh  Percy,  Duke  of  Northumberland. 
1830,  Dec.  33.  Henry,  Marquis  of  Anglesey  (2nd  time). 

1833,  Sep.  36.   Richard,  Marquis  Wellesley  (3nd  time). 

1834,  Dec.  39.  Thomas  Hamilton,  Earl  of  Haddington. 

1835,  April  23.  Henry  Constantine  Phipps,  Earl  of   Mul- 

grave,  afterwards  Marquis  of  Normanby. 

1839,  April  3.  Hugh  Fortescue,  Viscount  Ebrington,  after- 
wards Baron,  and  subsequently  Earl,  Fortescue. 

1841,  Sep.  15.  Thomas  Philip,  Earl  De  Grey. 

1844,  July  26.  William  A'Court,  Baron  Heytesbury. 

1846,  July  10.  John  William  Ponsonby,  Earl  of  Bess- 
borough. 

l847,May26.  George  William  Frederick,  Earl  of  Clarendon. 

1853,  Feb.  37.  Archibald  William  Montgomerie,  Earl  of 
Eglinton  and  Winton. 

1853,  Jan.  4.  Edward  Granville  Eliot,  Earl  of  St  Ger- 
mans. 

ig55,  Feb.  38.  George  William  Frederick  Howard,  Earl  of 
Carlisle. 

1858,  March  13.  Archibald,  Earl  of  Eglinton  (3nd  time). 

1859,  June  18.  George,  Earl  of  Carlisle  (2nd  time). 

1864,  Nov.  i.  John,  Baron  Wodehouse,  afterwards  Earl  of 

Kimberley. 
1866,  July.  James  Hamilton,  Marquis  of  Abercorn. 

IRIDIUM. — This  metal  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  S.  Tennantin  1803. 

IRISH  BISHOPRICS.— Two  archbishoprics 
were  reduced  to  bishoprics,  and  several  sees 
merged  into  others  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37 
(Aug.  14,  1833),  and  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  90 
(Aug.  15,  1834).  The  archbishop  and  two 
bishops  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords,  a  change 
being  made  each  session,  that  all  the  bishops 
may  sit  in  turn.  (The  sees  printed  in  italics 
have  either  been  suppressed  or  merged  in 
others.) 

ARCHBISHOPRICS. 


1136.  Armagh. 
1153.  Dublin. 

1153.  Cashel. 
1314.  Dublin   and   Glaiide- 

1153.  Tuam. 

lagh. 

BISHOPRICS. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

403.  Ossory. 

631.  Lismore. 

434.  Killala. 
445.  Armagh  (made  anArch- 

t,  Leighlin, 
Mayo. 

bishopric  in  1136). 
448.  Dublin—  Emly. 

„.  Raphoe. 
901.  Cashel. 

450.  Elphin. 

1019.  Kittaloe, 

454.  Ardagh. 

096.   Waterford. 

493.  Clogher. 

106.  Limerick. 

499.  Down. 

136.  Kilmore. 

500.  Ardfert  and  Aghadoe. 
500.  Connor. 

158.  Derry. 
254.  KUfenora. 

501.  Tuam. 

363.  Waterford    and    Lis- 

510. Dromore. 

more. 

519.  Kildare. 

411.  Down  and  Connor. 

520.  Meath. 

568.  Cashel  and  Emly. 

530.  Achonry. 

586.  Cork  and  Ross. 

534.  Louth. 
548.  Clonmacnois. 

600.  Ferns  and  Leighlin. 
603.  Clonfert  and  KUmac- 

558.  Clonfert. 
570.  Ross. 
598.  Ferns. 

duagh. 
633.  Killala  and  Achonry. 
663.  Limerick,  Ardfert  and 

604.  Cloyne. 

Aghadoe. 

606.  Cork. 

1753.  Killaloe     and   KUfe- 

613.  Glendelagh. 

nora. 

630.  Kilmacduach. 

IRISH 


[    520    ] 


IRON 


IRISH  CHURCH.— In  431,  Pope  Coeles- 
tine  I.  consecrated  Palladius  and  sent  him 
into  Ireland  as  Bishop  of  its  inhabitants, 
then  called  Scots.  Patrick,  son  of  Calpur- 
nius,  a  deacon,  having  been  captured  from  his 
father's  farm  near  Boulogne,  and  sold  as  a 
slave  to  Milchu,  an  Irish  chieftain,  with  whom 
he  remained  for  six  years,  on  obtaining  his" 
liberty  resolved  to  labour  for  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen  islanders  amongst  whom  he  had 
sojourned  in  bondage.  After  receiving  conse- 
cration as  a  bishop,  he  landed  in  Ireland  in 
432,  or,  according  to  Dr.  Todd  (St.  Patrick, 
Apostle  of  Ireland,  p.  392),  between  440  and 
460,  and  preached  with  success,  founding  the 
bishopric  of  Armagh  (q.  v.)  in  445.  Chronolo- 
gists  differ  respecting  the  date  of  his  death, 
some  placing  it  as  early  as  460,  while  Dr.  Todd 
(p.  497)  assigns  it  to  493.  Although  estab- 
lished according  to  the  principles  of  the  Cul- 
dees  (q.  v.),  the  Irish  Church  gradually  sub- 
mitted to  the  see  of  Rome,  the  .supremacy  of 
which  was  acknowledged  by  many  of  the  clergy 
at  a  national  synod  held  at  Kells  March  9, 1152. 
In  1291  the  bishops  and  priests  formed  a  con- 
federacy for  the  maintenance  of  their  power. 
In  1535  George  Brown  became  the  first  Pro- 
testant archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  in  1536 
370  monasteries  were  suppressed.  The  Eng- 
lish Bible  and  liturgy  were  introduced  in 
1551,  and  a  series  of  12  articles  were  adopted 
by  a  synod  held  at  Dublin  in  1566.  Other 
articles  were  prescribed  in  1615,  which  gra- 
dually fell  into  disuse.  The  churches  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  were  united  by  the  Act  of 
Union,  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (July  2,  1800). 
The  Church  Education  Society  was  instituted 

lniRISH  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION.— 
(See  DUBLIN.) 

IRON.— Tubal  Cain  is  spoken  of  as  the 
"  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  or  iron," 
B.C.  3204  (Gen.  iv.  22).  It  was  manufactured 
by  the  Egyptians  about  8.0.1706,  and  the  ore 
was  discovered  on  Mount  Ida,  by  the  Dactyli, 
about  B.C.  1406.  The  Romans  were  acquainted 
with  iron  at  an  early  date,  and  derived  large 
quantities  from  Elba  and  Spain.  Its  manu- 
facture was  encouraged  by  them  in  Britain, 
where  iron-mines  were  in  operation  B.C.  54. 
Bath  became  the  great  centre  of  the  British 
manufacture  about  120.  The  exportation  of 
iron  was  prohibited  by  28  Edw.  III.  c.  5  (1354), 
and  the  importation  of  manufactured  iron 
goods  which  could  be  made  at  home  was 
restricted  by  i  Rich.  III.  c.  12  (1483).  In 
consequence  of  the  destruction  of  forests  to 
obtain  fuel  for  the  manufacture,  the  erection 
of  iron-works  was  restricted  by  23  Eliz.  c.  5 
(1581).  Lord  Dudley  obtained  a  patent  for 
carrying  on  the  manufacture  with  coal  instead 
of  wood  in  1619  ;  but  was  unable  to  bring  his 
invention  to  perfection,  and  at  his  death  it 
was  forgotten.  It  was  revived  and  successfully 
introduced  at  Colebrook  Dale  by  Darby  in  1713. 
Cort's  patent  for  rolling  iron  is  dated  Jan.  17, 
1783,  and  for  puddling,  Feb.  13,  1784.  The 
hot-blast  was  discovered  by  Neilson  in  1827. 
Bessemer's  process  for  converting  crude  iron 
into  manufactured  iron  and  steel  without  fuel, 
which  attracted  much  attention  in  1856,  did 


not  fulfil  the  expectations  of  its  inventor.  In 
consequence  of  a  strike  among  the  operatives 
in  N.  Staffordshire,  the  masters  closed  their 
works  March  4,  1865,  and  maintained  a  lock- 
out till  April  10.  The  N.  Staffordshire  men 
returned  to  their  work  May  22. 

IRON  CAGE.— Louis  XI.  was  betrayed  to 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  at  Peronne, 
Oct.  10,  1468,  by  the  Cardinal  de  la  Balue, 
whom  he  had  raised  from  a  low  condition, 
and  was  compelled  to  sign  an  ignominious 
treaty,  Oct.  14.  On  discovering  De  la  Balue's 
treachery  in  1469,  Louis  XI.  confined  him  for 
ten  years  in  an  iron  cage,  eight  feet  square, 
in  the  Chateau  d'Ouzain,  near  Blois.  This 
punishment  was  at  that  time  common  in  Spain 
and  Italy.  (See 'ANGORA.) 

IRON  CROSS.  —  This  Prussian  order  of 
knighthood  was  instituted  by  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.,  March  10,  1813. 

IRON  CROWN  OF  LOMBARDY,  consisting 
of  a  band  of  gold  set  with  jewels,  and  a  thin 
circle  of  iron,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
made  from  a  nail  of  the  Holy  Cross,  given  by 
Pope  Gregory  I.  ;  was  first  used  in  the  corona- 
tion of  Agilulph,  King  of  the  Lombards,  in  591, 
and  afterwards  in  that  of  Charlemagne  in 
774.  It  was  used  at  the  coronation  of  34 
sovereigns.  Napoleon  I.  was  crowned  with  it 
at  Milan,  May  26,  1805,  when  he  instituted  the 
order  of  the  Iron  Crown.  It  ceased  in  1814, 
but  was  renewed  by  the  Emperor  Francis  I. 
of  Austria,  Feb.  12,  1816. 

IRON  MASK.— The  man  with  the  iron  mask 
was  a  mysterious  state  prisoner  in  France,  who 
always  wore  a  black  velvet  mask,  which  com- 
pletely concealed  his  face.  He  was  at  first 
confined  at  Pignerol  in  1679;  he  was  removed 
to  Exilles  in  1681  ;  to  the  island  of  St.  Mar- 
guerite in  1687 ;  and  finally,  Sep.  18,  1698,  to 
the  Bastille,  where  he  died  Nov.  19,  1703.  He 
was  everywhere  attended  by  M.  de  St.  Mars  ; 
and  although  the  slightest  attempt  on  his  part 
to  reveal  his  real  name  would  have  met  with 
instant  death,  he  was  uniformly  treated  with 
the  greatest  courtesy  and  indulgence.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the 
identity  of  the  man  with  the  iron  mask.  Some 
affirm  that  he  was  the  Duke  of  Vermandois 
(.who  died  in  camp  in  1683),  a  natural  brother  of 
the  dauphin.  Voltaire  published  an  account 
of  him  in  1751.  In  1759  it  was  announced  that 
he  was  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  ;  and  in  1768  St. 
Foix  suggested  that  he  was  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth,  who  had  been  executed  in  England. 
He  was  reported  to  be  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Anne  of  Austria  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  or  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
an  elder  and  also  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  last  theory  on  the  subject  appeared  in 
1837,  and  suggested  that  he  was  the  states- 
man Foucquet,  whose  death  was  believed  to 
have  occurred  just  before  the  mysterious  pri- 
soner arrived  at  Pignerol.  There  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  that  the  mysterious  prisoner  was, 
as  announced  in  a  letter  by  a  Baron  d'Heiss  in 
1770,  Count  Matthioli,  minister  of  the  Duke  of 
Mantua.  Having  broken  faith  with  Louis  X I V. , 
Count  Matthioli  was  lured  to  the  French  fron- 
tier, arrested  May  2,  1679,  and  imprisoned  at 
Pignerol. 


IRONMONGERS' 


[    521     1 


ISLINGTON 


IRONMONGERS'  COMPANY.  —  This,  the 
tenth  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  London, 
was  incorporated  by  Edward  IV.  in  1463.  The 
hall  was  erected  from  the  designs  of  Thomas 
Holden  in  1748. 

IRON  SHIPS.—  (See  SHIP-BUILDING.) 

IRRIGATION.  —  Brande  states,  "  It  is  as 
old  as  human  civilization,  and  some  of  the 
first  machines  which  we  read  of  in  history 
are  those  for  raising  water  from  the  Nile 
for  irrigating  the  lands  on  its  banks."  So 
celebrated  was  Egypt  for  its  fertility,  that 
Abraham,  during  a  famine,  went  there  to 
procure  corn,  B.C.  1920  (Gen.  xii.  10).  The 
Spaniards  were  surprised  at  the  canals  and 
subterraneous  aqueducts  on  a  large  scale  which 
they  found  in  Peru  when  they  conquered  it 
in  the  ijth  century.  (See  CANALS,  INLAND 
NAVIGATION,  <fec.) 

I  RUN  (Battle).  —  The  British  Auxiliary 
Legion  defeated  the  Carlist  forces  and  cap- 
tured this  town,  in  Spain,  May  17,  1837. 

IRVINGITES.— This  sect  was  founded  by 
the  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  who  was  born  Aug. 
15,  1792,  and  joined  the  Scotch  church  in  1819. 
In  1821  he  removed  to  London,  and  created 
a  great  sensation  by  his  preaching  at  Cross 
Street,  Hatton  Garden  ;  and  in  1825  he  pub- 
lished "  Babylon  Foredoomed,"  and  appeared 
as  the  founder  of  a  new  theological  school. 
The  first  utterances  of  the  "unknown  tongue" 
in  London  were  heard  in  1830  ;  and  Irving  was 
expelled  from  the  Scottish  church  for  heresy 
in  1833.  Many  of  his  congregation  adhered  to 
him,  and  he  had  a  meeting-house  in  Newman 
Street.  He  died  at  Glasgow  Dec.  8,  1834.  In 
1835  the  sect  numbered  seven  congregations  in 
London ;  and  in  1838  the  apostles,  as  certain  of 
the  new  hierarchy  were  called,  visited  the  con- 
tinent with  a  view  of  diffusing  their  doctrines. 
The  liturgy  of  the  sect  was  framed  in  1842, 
and  enlarged  in  1847,  which  styled  itself  the 
Apostolic  Catholic  Church,  and  in  1852  lighted 
candles  and  incense  were  prescribed  as  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  ritual.  The  church  in  Gordon 
Square  was  erected  in  1853. 

IRWAN.—  (See  ERIVAN.) 

IRWINSVILLE  (Georgia).— At  this  town, 
named  in  honour  of  Gen.  J.  Irwin,  Governor 
of  Georgia  in  1807,  Jefferson  Davis,  President 
of  the  Confederate  States  of  America,  was, 
with  his  staff,  taken  prisoner  by  the  Federals, 
May  10,  1865. 

ISABELLA  (Hayti).— Christopher  Columbus 
founded  this  city,  named  after  the  Queen  of 
Spain,  in  1493.  It  was  abandoned  when  St. 
Domingo  rose  to  importance. 

ISABELLA  OF  PORTUGAL  (Order).— This 
order  of  knighthood  for  ladies  was  founded  in 
Portugal  by  Queen  Maria  I.  (Francesca)  in  1804. 

ISABELLA,  ST.,  THE  CATHOLIC.— This 
order  of  knighthood  was  founded  by  Ferdi- 
nand VII.  of  Spain,  March  24,  1815,  and  placed 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Isabella  of  Por- 
tugal. 

ISAIAH.— This  book  of  the  Old  Testament, 
called,  from  its  frequent  reference  to  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  the  "evangelical" 
prophecy,  was  written  by  Isaiah  the  son 
of  Amoz,  about  B.C.  758.  According  to  the 
traditions  of  the  Rabbins  the  author  was  sawn 


asunder  in  a  trunk  of  a  tree,  by  order  of 
Manasseh  (B.C.  698—643),  King  of  Judah. 

ISAURIA  (Asia  Minor).— This  country  was 
invaded  by  the  Romans  B.C.  78,  and  reduced  to 
submission.  The  inhabitants  afforded  an  asy- 
lum to  the  Emperor  Zeno  during  his  exile 
from  Constantinople,  in  475,  and  rebelled 
against  Anastasius  I.  in  493.  Isauria  was  con- 
quered by  the  Saracens  in  650,  but  it  was  reco- 
vered by  Leo  III.,  the  Iconoclast,  who  founded 
the  Isaurian  dynasty  of  eastern  emperors, 
which  lasted  from  717  to  797. 

ISCA  SILURUM.— (See  CAERLEON.) 

ISCHIA  (Mediterranean  Sea).— This  island, 
the  ancient  JSnaria,  which  belongs  to  Naples, 
was  colonized  at  a  very  early  period  by  Eret- 
rian  and  Chalcidian  settlers,  and  by  the  Syra- 
cusans  B.C.  474  ;  but  it  was  deserted  in  conse- 
quence of  a  violent  eruption  of  Monte  Epomeo, 
B.C.  470.  Ischia  was  seized  by  the  Saracens  in 
813  and  847.  It  was  sacked  by  the  troops  of 
Pisa  in  1135,  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
before  1179,  and  was  taken  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.  in  1191.  The  last  volcanic  eruption 
took  place  in  1302.  In  1495  Ferdinand  II. 
sought  refuge  here  from  his  rival  Charles 
VIII.  ;  and,  in  1544,  the  island  was  plundered 
by  the  pirate  Barbarossa.  The  Duke  of  Guise 
seized  it  in  1647,  and  it  was  taken  by  the 
English  and  Sicilians  in  1807.  Ischia  suffered 
severely  from  an  earthquake,  Feb.  2,  1828. 

ISCHL  (Austria).  —  The  salt  -baths  were 
established  in  1822. 

ISERNIA  (Battle).— The  Neapolitan  forces 
were  defeated  by  the  Sardinians  under  Cial- 
diui,  at  this  place,  the  ancient  ^Esernia,  in 
South  Italy,  Oct.  17,  1860.  Isernia  suffered 
from  an  earthquake  in  1805. 

ISLAMABAD.— (See  CHITTAGONG.) 

ISLE  OF  THE  CONFERENCES.  —  (See 
FAISANS.  ) 

ISLE  OF  FRANCE.— (See  MAURITIUS.) 

ISLE  OF  MAN  (Irish  Channel),  governed  by 
a  succession  of  Norwegian  kings,  from  1092  to 
1264,  was  invaded  by  Alexander  III.,  King  of 
Scotland,  in  1266,  and  was  conquered  by  the 
Scots  in  1270.  They  ruled  it  until  1290,  when 
the  inhabitants  claimed  the  protection  of 
Edward  I.,  who  immediately  took  possession. 
It  was  recovered  by  the  Scots,  imder  Robert 
Bruce,  in  1312,  and  reconquered  by  the  Earl 
of  Shaftesbury  in  1340.'  Henry  IV.  granted  it 
to  Sir  John  Stanley  in  1403.  James  I.  be- 
stowed it  upon  William,  sixth  Earl  of  Derby, 
in  1610.  It  fell,  in  1763,  by  inheritance,  to 
James,  second  Duke  of  Athol,  who  sold  it  for 
.£70,000  to  the  British  Government,  in  1765. 
A  further  sum  of  ^133,000  was  paid  to  the 
Athol  family  in  discharge  of  revenue,  in  Jan., 
1829.  (See  SODOR  AND  MAN.) 

ISLE  OF  PALMS  (Pacific  Ocean).  — This 
island,  situated  in  Choco  Bay,  was  discovered 
by  Pizarro  in  1527. 

ISLE  OF  PINES  (Pacific  Ocean).  —  The 
French  took  possession  of  this  small  island  in 

!%53- 

ISLES.— (See  SODOR  AND  MAN.) 

ISLINGTON  (London).— This  large  parish, 
mentioned  in  Domesday-book  as  the  village  of 
Isendone,  was  the  scene  of  the  arrest  of 
Henry  VI.  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  1465,  and 


ISLY 


[    522     ] 


ISTER 


was  frequently  visited  by  Henry  VIII.,  who 
published  a  proclamation  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  game,  July  8,  1545.  Queen 
Elizabeth  also  frequently  visited  the  village. 
In  1666  its  fields  afforded  shelter  to  about 
200,000  persons,  who  were  rendered  houseless 
by  the  Great  Fire.  The  first  stone  of  St. 
Mary's  Church  was  laid  Aug.  28,  1751,  and 
that  of  the  New  Independent  College  at  High- 
bury, June  28,  1825.  The  Islington  Literary 
and  Scientific  Society  was  established  in  Feb., 
1833,  and  the  building  founded  April  10,  1837. 
The  cattle-market  was  opened  Jan,  9,  1849. 
The  first  stone  of  the  new  buildings  was 
laid  March,  1854,  an(i  they  were  opened  June 

13,  1855.    The  statue  of  Sir  Hugh  Myddelton, 
the  projector  of  the  New   River  (q.  v.),   was 
inaugurated  July  26,  1862. 

ISLY  (Battle;.  —  The  French  defeated  the 
army  of  the  Emperor  of  Morocco  at  Isly,  Aug. 

14,  1844. 

ISMAIL  (Moldavia).— This  strongly-fortified 
town  was  taken  by  the  Russians  Aug.  6,  1770  ; 
Huwarrow  stormed  it  Dec.  22,  1790,  when  a 
barbarous  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  was 
perpetrated ;  and  it  was  again  taken  by  the 
Russians  Sep.  26,  1809.  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia  at  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812. 
It  was  ceded  to  Moldavia  by  the  2oth  and  2ist 
articles  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856. 
The  Russians  blew  up  the  fortifications  before 
retiring. 

ISPAHAN",  or  ISFAHAN  (Persia),  formerly 
the  capital,  was  taken  by  Timour  in  1387.  The 
Turks  captured  it  in  1547.  Shah  Abbas  I.  made 
it  the  capital  of  Persia  in  1590.  The  Affghans 
seized  it  in  1722  ;  it  was  retaken  by  Nadir  Shah 
in  1727,  and  ceased  to  be  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Persia  in  1794.  Ispahan  was  devas- 
tated by  an  earthquake  July  n,  1853. 

ISRAEL.— On  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes 
(i  Kings  xii.  i — 19),  B.C.  975,  the  Jewish 
territory  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Israel  and  Judah.  The  kingdom  of  Israel 
lasted  from  B.C.  975  until  the  captivity  of 
the  ten  tribes,  B.C.  721.  Some  authorities 
assign  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  to  B.C.  990. 
(&ee  JEWS  and  JUDAH.) 


974.  Jeroboam    I.    sets  up  golden  calves  at  Dan  and 

Bethel  (I  Kings  xii.  2*,  2<). 
957.  Jeroboam  I.  is  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  Abijuh. 

Kin*  of  Judah  (2,  Cliron.  xiii.  3-30). 
956.  Ahijali  the  prophet  denounces  Jeroboam  I.  (i  Kings 

xiv.  7,  &a). 
953.  Niidab  is  slain  by  Baasha  at  Gibbethnn  (i   Kings 

xv.  27). 
940.  Bcnhadtid,  King  of  Syria,  invades  Israel  (3  Chron. 

xvi.  4). 

9:9.  Confusion  prevails  in  Israel  (I  Kings  xvi.  9-20). 
935.  Order  is    restored   and   the  kingdom  reunited    by 

Oinri  (I   Kings  xvi.  32). 
934.  Oinri  acquires  Samaria  (q.  P.). 
916.  Jericho  is  rebuilt  (I  Kings  xvi.  34). 
906.  Elijah  destroys  the  priests  of  Baal  (l  Kings  xviii. 

40). 

001.  Miraculous  defeat  of  the  Syrians  (l  Kings  xx.). 
897.  Defeat  and  deatli  of  Aliab,   at  Kamoth-gilead  (i 

Kings  xxii.  29-38. 

895.  Elijah  is  translated  (3  Kings  ii.  11). 
894.  Klisha  heals  Naaiuau  (2  Kings  v.  14). 
893.  Klisha  performs  various  miracles. 
893.  The  King  of  Syria  besieges  Samaria  (3  Kings  vi.  34). 
891.  Elisha    restores  the  Shuuamitc's  son  (3  Kings  iv. 

32-35). 


885.  Uazael  kills  Benhadad,  King  of  Syria  (3  Kings  viii. 

884.  Jehu,   anointed  at  Kamoth-gilead,   slays  Jehoram 

and  his  mother  Jezebel,  and  succeeds  to  the  throne 

(3  Kings  ix.  1-37). 
863.  Jonah  goes  to  Nineveh  (Jonah  i.  3 ;  iii.  2-4).     Raw- 

linson  (Anct.  Monarchies,  II.  390,  n.)  places  Jonah's 

visit  between  B.C.  760  and  B.C.  750. 
849.  Israel   is  oppressed  by  Hazael,   King  of  Syria  (2 

Kings  xiii.  3)- 
843.  Israel  is  delivered  from  the  Syrian  oppression  (9 

Kings  xiii.  5). 

838.  Death  of  Elisha  (3  Kings  xiii.  30).  Moabite  invasion. 
836.  Jchoash  takes  Ama/.iah,  King  of  Judah,  prisoner  at 

Beth-shemesh,  and  spoils  Jerusalem  (3  Kings  xiv. 

J3i  '4)- 
833.  Jeroboam  II.  restores  the  coasts  of  Israel  (3  Kings 

xiv.  25). 
790.  Amos  denounces  the  wickedness  of  Israel  and  other 

784.  Death  of  Jeroboam  II.  (3  Kings  xiv.  39),  followed  by 
an  interregnum  of  II  years'  duration. 

771  or  769.  Ptil,  King  of  Assyria,  assails  Israel  (3  Kings 
xv.  19).  Hawlinson  (Anct  Monarchies,  II.  389) 
places  this  invasion  between  B.C.  751  and  B.C 


741.  Teka 


745-    (See  ASSYRIA.) 

:uh  vanquishes  . 

20,000  of  his  troops  in  one  day,  carrying  300,000 


Ahaz,  King  of  Judah,  and  slays 


captive  to  Samaria  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  5-8). 
740.  Tiglatli-l'ileser   II.    carries    off    several    Israelitish 

tribes  into  captivity  (2  Kings  xv.  39). 
739.  Pekah  is  murdered  by  lloshea. 
725.  The  captivity  of  the  10  tribes  is  predicted. 
733.  Samaria  ia  besieged  by   Salmaueser  IV.   (3    Kings 

xviii.  9). 
731.  The  10  trihes  are  carried  into  captivity  in  Assyria 

(3  Kings  xvii.  6). 

KINGS   OF   ISRAEL. 


Authorized 
Version  of 
Eng.  Bible. 

Clinton. 

Winer. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

975 
954 

976 
955 

975 

954 

Jeroboam  I. 
Nadab. 

953 

954 

953 

Baasha, 

93° 

93° 

Elah. 

929 

93° 

948 

ZimrL 

929 
918 

930 
919 

928 

Omri. 

Al.al). 

897 

696 

9? 

Aha/.iah. 

896 

896 

Jehoram. 

884 

gg-7 

8^4 

Jehu. 

856 

855 

856 

Jehoahnz. 

841 

839 

840 

.lelioash. 

825 

833 

835 

.lei-oboam  II. 

784 

773 

771 

772 

1st  Interregnum. 
Zachariah. 

772 

77° 

771 

Sliallmn. 

i 

77° 
759 

771 

760 

Menabem. 
Pekahiah. 

759 

757 

758 

Pekah. 

739 

2nd  Interregnum. 

i 

73° 

729 
721 

Hoshea. 
Samaria  taken. 

ISSUS  (Battles).— Alexander  III.  (the  Great) 

defeated  the  Persians,  led  by  Darius  III.,  near 

this  city,  in  Cilicia,  in  Nov.,  B.C.  333.    Arrian 

states  that  110,000  Persians  fell  in  this  battle. 

— The  Emperor  Septirnius  Severns  defeated 

Niger  at  the  same  place  in  194. Heraclius 

pitched  his  camp  on  this  spot  in  622.  (See 
BKYLAU,  Battle.) 

ISTALIF  (Afghanistan).— This  town  wag 
captured  and  destroyed  by  an  English  army 
Sep.  29,  1842. 

ISTA  MBOUL.— (See  CONSTANTINOPLE.) 

ISTER.—  (See  DANUBE.) 


ISTHMIAN 


[    523 


ITALY 


ISTHMIAN  GAMES  are  said  to  have  been 
instituted  by  Sisyphus,  brother  of  Atkamas, 
King  of  Corinth,  B.C.  1326,  and  re-organized  by 
Theseus,  B.C.  1234.  They  were  held  regularly 
every  third  year  from  B.C.  584,  and  in  the 
Isthmian  solemnities,  B.C.  228,  the  Romans 
were  privileged  to  take  a  part.  They  were  dis- 
continued after  the  destruction  of  Coi-inth  by 
Lucius  Mummius,  B.C.  146,  and  were  re-estab- 
lished by  Julius  Caesar  B.C.  60.  They  ceased 
after  the  sack  of  Corinth  by  Alaric  I.,  King  of 
the  Goths,  in  396. 

ISTRIA,  or  HISTRIA.—  The  inhabitants  of 
this  Adriatic  peninsula  are  referred  to  by  Livy 
as  having  been  engaged  in  piracy,  B.C.  301. 
Their  territory  was  invaded  without  success  by 
the  consul  M.  Claudius  Marcellus,  B.C.  183;  but 
it  was  reduced  by  subjection  by  C.  Claudius, 
B.C.  177.  Istria  passed  under  the  domination 
of  the  Heruli  in  476 ;  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  489 ; 
of  the  Greek  empire  in  522  ;  of  the  Lombards 
in  751  ;  and  of  Charlemagne  in  774.  In  997  it 
formed  a  league  with  the  towns  of  Dalm'atia 
against  the  pirates  of  Narenta  ;  was  taken  by 
Premislans  Ottoear  II.  in  1262  ;  and  it  was  an- 
nexed to  the  territories  of  the  Venetian  repub- 
lic in  1420.  It  was  annexed  to  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  Oct.  17, 1797  ;  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1806  ;  was  de- 
clared an  integral  portion  of  the  French  empire 
by  the  treaty  of  Schonbrunn,  Oct.  14,  1809; 
and  was  ultimately  restored  to  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814,  and  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in  1815. 

ITALIAN  ARCHITECTURE.— This  style, 
based  upon  the  architecture  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  was  employed  by  Arnolfo  di  Lapo  in 
the  cathedral  of  Florence,  founded  in  1298. 
Giovanni  Pisano,  in  1350,  used  it  in  the  pulpit 
of  Pisa,  and  in  the  isth,  i6th,  and  i7th  cen- 
turies it  was  generally  practised  by  Italian 
architects. 

ITALIAN  REPUBLIC.— (See  CISALPINE  RE- 
PUBLIC.) 

ITALICA,  or  "THE  ITALIAN  CITY" 
(Spain),  founded  by  Scipio  Africauus,  on  the 
site  of  the  town  of  Sancios,  B.C.  207,  was  taken 
by  the  Goths  and  named  by  them  Talika,  or 
Talca.  In  consequence  of  a  change  in  the  bed 
of  the  river  Guadalquiver,  the  inhabitants 
migrated  to  Seville.  The  ruined  city  of  Italica 
is  called  Old  Seville. 

ITALY.— The  etymology  of  the  name  Italia 
is  very  doubtful,  some  authorities  deriving  it 
from  a  mythical  OZnotrian  or  Pelasgic  chief 
Italus,  and  others  from  an  old  Greek  word 
signifying  an  ox,  applied  to  the  country  to 
indicate  the  numerous  herds  of  cattle  for  which 
it  was  celebrated.  At  first  only  the  southern 
point  of  the  peninsula  was  so  named. 


B.C. 

2450. 
1710. 


1153- 

753, 


The  mythic  reign  of  Saturn  is  said  to  commence. 
A  colony  of  Arcadians,   under  CEnotrus.   settle  in 

Italy,  and  found  (Enotria. 

A  Pelasgian  colony  crosses  from  Greece  into  Italy. 
Evander  conducts  a  band  of  Arcadian  colonists  into 

Italy. 

Eeign  of  Latinus  in  Italy.     (See  LATIUM.) 
tineas  arrives  in  Italy,  and  founds  the  city  of  Lavi- 

nium,  which  he  makes  his  capital. 
Ascanius  builds  Alba  Longa  (q.  f.). 
April  31.  Komulus  founds  Koiiae  (q.  ».). 
The  Celt*  iuvade  Italy. 


476.  Odoacer  abolishes  the  Western  empire'  (q.  v  )  and 
founds  the  Gothic  kingdom  of  Italy.  '  '' 

489.  Invasion  of  the  Ostrogoths  (q.  v.). 

493,  March  5.  Assassination  of  Odoacer. 

535.  Justinian  I.  lays  claim  to  Italy,  and  declares  war 
against  Theodatus,  its  Gothic  sovereign. 

538.  The  Franks  appear  in  Italy. 

539.  Italy  is  subjected  to  the  Eastern  empire  by  Beli- 

sarius. 
541.  The  Ostrogoths  revolt  under  Totila. 

553,  July.    Totila  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Narses  at 

Tagina. 

554.  Narses  completes  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  mo- 

narchy in  Italy. 
568.  Invasion  of  the  Longobardi  (q.  v.).     Establishment 

of  the  exarchate  of  Kavenna  (q. ».). 
570.  Alboin  founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards.     (See 

LOMBAKDY.) 

584.  The  Franks  invade  Italy  and  are  repelled  by  An- 

tharis,  King  of  the  Lombards. 
595.  The  Lombards  besiege  Home,  and  commit  great 

ravages. 

600.  Italy  is  overrun  by  the  Slaves  and  Avari. 
663.  Constans  II.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  invades  Italy, 

and  is  defeated  by  Grimoald,  of  Lombardy. 
697-  The  Venetian  republic  is  founded  under  its  first 

doge. 
738.  A  religious  revolt  in  favour  of  image  worship  and 

against  Leo  III.,  the  Iconoclast,   breaks  out  ia 

Italy. 

753.  The  exarchate  of  Ravenna  terminates. 
756.  Pepin  annexes  Kavenna  to  the  see  of  Rome. 
774.  Charlemagne  invades  Italy,   and    overthrows  the 

kingdom  of  the  Lombards. 
800,  Dec.  25.   Charlemagne  is  crowned  Emperor  of  the 

West,  at  Rome. 
818.  Italy  revolts  from  Louis  I.  (le  Debonnaire),  but  is 

reduced  to  subjection. 
843.  The  treaty  of  Verdun  (q.  v.). 
846.  The  Saracens  invade  Italy  and  sack  Rome. 
875.  On  the  death    of     Louis    II.   the   empire    of    the 

West  reverts  to  Charles  I.  (the  Bald),  King  of 

France. 

899.  Italy  is  assailed  by  Moslem  and  Hungarian  in- 
vaders. 

931.  Rodolph  of  Burgundy  invades  Italy. 
938.  Italy  is  delivered  from  the  Hungarians  by  payment 

of  a  ransom  of  10  bushels  of  silver. 
951.  Otho  I.  invades  Italy. 
963,  Feb.  2.    Otho  I.  is  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West, 

Germany  and  Italy  being  united  under  one  sove- 
reign. 

'     13.    Apulia  and  Calabria  are  restored  to  the 

stern  empire.    (See  BASIENTELLO,  Battle.) 
1016.  Italy  is  invaded  by  the  Northmen. 
1051.  The  Northmen  receive  Calabria  and  Apulia  as  a  fief 

of  the  Holy  See. 

1058.  Robert  Guiscard  expels  the  Moors  from  Italy. 
1073.  Commencement  of  the  dispute  respecting  the  right 

of  investiture. 
1081.  Henry  IV.  of  Germany  invades  Italy,  and  overruns 

Tuscany. 

1090.  Henry  IV.  again  invades  Italy,  and  takes  Mantua. 
1107.  Milan  becomes  a  republic, 
mo.  Henry  V.  of  Germany  invades  Italy  with  an  army 

of  30,000  men,  to  enforce  his  claim  to  the  inves- 
titure of  the  Pope. 

1115.  July  24.  Matilda  of  Tuscany  bequeaths  her  terri- 
tories to  the  Pope. 

1133.  The  dispute  concerning  the  investiture  terminates. 
132.  The  Emperor  Lothaire  II.  invades  Italy. 
137.  Roger,  King  of  Sicily,  is  expelled  from  Italy. 
154,  Oct.  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa)  invades  Italy. 
159.  Strife  of  the  Ghibellines  and  Guelphs  (q.v.). 
167.  The    cities  of    Lombardy  form  a  league   against 

Frederick  I.    (See  LEAGUES.) 
176,  May  39.  Battle  of  Legnano. 
183.  Peace  is  concluded  at  Constance. 
187.  Rise  of  the  Visconti.     (See  MILAN.) 
190.  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  invades  Italy  in  prosecution 

of  his  designs  upon  Sicily. 
1320.  Frederick  II.  of  Germany  becomes  King  of  Italy, 

and  fixes  the  capital  of  his  kingdom  at  Naples. 
1336.  War  is   renewed  between  the  Emperor  and  the 

Lombard  League. 

1350,  Dec.  13.  Death  of  Frederick  II.  at  Fiorenzuola,  in 

Apulia. 

1351.  Rise  of  the  Medici  family. 


983,  July 


ITALY 


[    524    1 


ITALY 


1266,  Feb.  26.  Manfred,  King  of  Sicily,  is  defeated  anc 
slain  by  Charles  of  Anjou  at  the  battle  of  Gran 
della,  near  Benevento. 

1268,  Aug.  23.  Battle  of  Tagliacozzo  (q.  r.). 

1282,  March  30.  The  Sicilian  Vespers  (g.  v.). 

1300.  The  commencement  of  the  feud  between  the  Bi 
anchi  and  the  Neri  (q.v.). 

1309.  The  Pope  removes  from  Rome  to  Avignon. 

1310.  The  Kniperor  Henry  VII.  visits  Italy,  and  establishes 

his  supremacy  in  Lombardy. 
1321,  Sep.  14.  Death  of  the  poet  Dante. 
1328.  The    house  of    Gonzaga    obtains    the  signiory  of 

Mantua  (g.  r.). 
1330.  John    of    Bohemia    conducts    an   expedition    into 

Italy. 

1334.  The  Genoese  elect  their  first  doge. 
1336.  The  Italian  condotfieri  (g.  v.)  are  formed. 
1339.  The  Orsini  and  Colonna  factions  rage  at  Rome. 
1354.  Charles  IV.  visits  Italy. 
1301.  Italy  is  overrun  by  the  free-lances,  who  are  thrown 

out  of  employment  by  the  peace  of  Bretigny. 
1370.  Lucca  becomes  an  independent  republic. 

1374,  July  18.     Death  of    Petrarch.     The   States  of   the 

Church  rebel  against  the  Pope. 

1375,  Dec.  31.  Death  of  Boccaccio. 

1377,  Jan.  17.  The  seat  of  the  papacy  is  restored  to  Rome. 

1378.  The  pupal  schism  commences. 

1425.  The  wars  between  Milan  and  Venice  commence. 
1454.  Nearly  the  whole  of   Italv  is  involved  in  war. 

1464,  Aug.    l.  Death   of   Cosmo    de   Medici.      (»•<•   FLO- 

JfKNCE.) 

1465.  Peace  prevails  in  Italy,  Florence  taking  the  lead  in 

trade  and  coinmerce. 

1471.  The  Italian  states  form  a  league  against  the  Turks. 

1472.  The  Turks  enter  Italv. 

1477.   rlhe  Turks  again  invade  Italy. 

1483.  Italy  is  ravaged  by  a  general  war,  provoked  by  the 

I'ope. 
1492,  Aprils.   Death  of  T.orm/o  de  Medici. 

1494.  Charles  VIII.  of    France  invades  Italy. 

1495.  Charles  VIII.  of  France   is  expelled  by  the  League 

of  Venice. 

1496.  The    Kniperor   Maximilian  I.  leads   an    army   into 

Italy. 
1499.  Louis  XII.   invades  Italy,  and  obtains  temporary 

possession  of  Milan. 

1508.  The  League  of  Cambray.  Maximilian  I.  again  in- 
vades Italy. 

1510.  Venice  submits  to  the  Pope. 
1515.  Francis  I.  of  France  invades  Italy.     (See  MAKIG- 

>.\M(,  Battle). 

1517.  Peace  is  restored  to  Italy. 

1519.  Charles  V.  and  Francis  1.  wage  war  in  Italy. 
1523.   The  Italian  league  is  formed  against  Francis  I. 
1525,  Feb.  24.   Battle  of   l'a\ia  ('/.  r.). 
152%  June  23.   Death  of  Machiavelli. 
1530.  Charles  V.  completes  the  subjection  of  Italy. — Feb. 

22-   He  is  crowned  emperor  at  Bologna. 
1535.  Italy  is  again  the  theatre  of  war  between  France 

and  Spain. 

1544,  Sep.  1 8.  Treaty  of  Crespy  (q.  ».). 
1559,  April  2.  Treaty  of  Calean -Cambresis  (q.  •».). 
159Si  April  25.  Death  of  Torquato  Tasso. 
1616.  The  "  Spanish  Triumvirate  "  rules  in  Italy,  Venice 

being  in   the  power  of    Bedemar,   Lombardy  of 

Toledo,  and  Naples  of  Os.suna. 

1627.  The  war  of  the  Mantuan  succession  commences. 
1631,  April  6.  The  Treaty  of  Cherasco  (g.  v.). 
1642,  Jan.  8.  Death  of  Galileo. 

1701.  The  French  commence  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 

cession in  Italy. 

1702.  Philip  V.  of  Spain  obtains  the  Spanish  possessions  in 

Italy. 
1706,  Sep.  7.  The  French,  being  compelled  to   raise   the 

siege  of  Turin,  evacuate  Lombardy  and  surrender 

Naples. 

1713,  April  ii.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  (q.v.). 
1720.  The  kingdom  of  Sardinia  (q.v.)  is  formed. 
1733.  The  French,  Spaniards,  and  Sardinians   are  at  war 

with  the  Austrians,  in  Italy,  respecting  the  Polish 

succession. 

1737.  Extinction  of  the  Medici. 

1741.  The  Spaniards,  under  Montemar,  invade  Italy. 
1748,  Oct.  1 8.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapellc  (q.  v.). 
1793,  Sep.  3.  Naples  declares  war  against  France. 

1796,  May  i  s-  Napoleon  Buonaparte  invades  Italy. — Dec. 

4.   He  founds  the  Cispadane  republic. 

1797,  Oct.  17.  The  treaty  of  Campo-Formio  (q.v.) 


1798.  The  French  again  invade  Italy. — Feb.  23.  The  Pope 

is  imprisoned. 

1799.  The  Russians,  under  Suwarrow,   gain  many  vic- 

tories over  the  French  in  Italy. 

1800.  May  31.  Napoleon  Buonaparte,   with  36,000  men, 

crosses  the  Alps  into  Italy. — June   14.  Battle  of 

Marengo. 
1803,  Jan.  35.  The  Cisalpine  republic  (g.  r.)  is  remodelled 

as  the  Italian  republic. 
1805,   May   26.  Napoleon   is  crowned   King    of   Italy  at 

Milan.— Dec.  26.  The  treaty  of  1'resburg. 
1810.  Italy  is  ravaged  by  a  pestilence. 
1814,  April  4.  Dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
1831,  Feb.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Central"  Italy. 
1833.  The  "  Young  Italy  "  party  excites  several  iusurrec- 

tions. 

1847,  The  country  is  much  agitated. 

1848,  March  18.  Lombardy  revolts  against  the  Austrians. 

—March  22.  Venice  joins  the  insurrection. — March 
23.  The  King  of  Sardinia  joins  the  coalition 
against  Austria. — April  22.  The  Tope  declares 
war  against  Austria.— June  29.  Lombardy  is  an- 
nexed to  Saidinia  (g.  r.). 

1849,  March  23.  The  Sardinians  are  defeated  by  the  Aus- 

triansat  the  battle  of  Novara,  and  Lombardy  is 
restored  to  Austria. 

1859,  Feb.  5.  The  Sardinian  government  borrows  50,000,000 
francs  to  secure  the  country  against  the  expected 
attacks  of  Austria.— April  23.  An  Austrian  envoy 
demands  the  disarmament  of  Sardinia. — April 
2f>.  Sardinia  refuses,  and  the  Austrians  cross  the 
Tieino.— April  27  Victor  Kmanu.-l  declares  war 
M<t  Au-tria,  and  a  revolution  is  effected  at 
Florence. — April  30.  A  revolution  occurs  in  Parma, 
—May  12.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  arrives  at 
Genoa  to  assume  the  command  of  his  army 
against  Austria.  — May  20.  Battle  of  Montebello 
('/.  '••).— Mav  -50  ,t  31.  Battle  of  Palestro.— June  4. 
Battle  of  Magenta. -.lime  f\  llattle  of  Maleg- 
nano;  Louis  Napoleon  III.  and  Victor  Kmanuel 
enter  Milan,  and  proclaim  the  annexation  of 
Lombardy  to  Sardinia.— June  n.  The  Austrian 
army  QrOMM  the  Adda,  and  enters  the  Quadrila- 
teral.—June  13.  A  revolution  tit  Modena. — June 
20.  The  pontifical  troops  take  Perugia. — June  24. 
The  battle  of  Solferino  (g.  v.).— July  8.  An 
armistice  is  agreed  to.  —  July  II.  A  treaty  is 
signed  at  Villafranca.  — July  13.  Tuscany  pro- 
teMs  against  the  treaty  of  Villafranca. — Aug. 
16.  Tii-cany  declares  in  favour  of  a  united 
kingdom  of  Italy  under  the  sceptre  of  Victor 
Kmamiel.  —  Aug.  20.  A  treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  Lega- 
tions, is  signed  at  Florence,  and  the  national 
assemblies  of  Modena  and  Tuscany  declare  in 
favour  of  annexation  to  Sardinia. — Sep.  3.  A  ma- 
jority of  the  Parmese  vote  in  favour  of  annexing 
that  duchy  to  Sardinia. — Sep.  7.  The  assembly  of 
the  Romagna  vote  for  the  separation  of  that  pro- 
vince fro. n  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  I'ope. 
Oct.  31.  The  new  kingdom  of  Italy  is  divided 
into  seventeen  provinces. — Nov.  lo.  The  treaty  of 
Zurich  is  signed. 

860,  Jan.  16.  Count  favour  undertakes  the  formation  of 
a  new  ministry.— Feb.  25.  The  French  govern- 
ment demands  the  cession  of  Savoy.— March  II 
and  12.  Tuscany  and  the  Romagiia  vote  in  favour 
of  their  annexation  to  Sardinia.— March  24,  Savoy 
and  Nice  arc  ceded  to  France  by  a  treaty  signed  at 
Turin. — April 4.  A  revolution  commences  in  Sicily 
(<].  r.).— May  5.  Garibaldi  embarks  at  Genoa  for 
Sicily. — May  iH.  The  Sardinian  government  pro- 
tests against  the  Sicilian  expedition. — June  8.  The 
French  troops  evacuate  I'pper  Italy. — Aug.  3. 
Victor  Emamiel  is  proclaimed  King  of  Italv  in 
Sicily.— Aug.  II.  The  revolutionary  forces  land  in 
Calabria. — Aug.  17.  An  insurrection  commences 
at  Naples  (g.  v.). — Sep.  9.  Victor  Kmanuel  is  pro- 
claimed King  of  Italy  at  Naples. — Sep.  12.  The 
Sardinians  take  I'esaro.  —  Sep.  14.  They  take 
Perugia.— Oct.  I.  Garibaldi  defeats  the  Neapoli- 
tans at  the  battle  of  the  Volturno. — Oct.  17.  The 
first  engagement  between  the  Sardinian  and 
Neapolitan  troops  takes  place  at  Iseniia  (g.r.). 
Oct.  21.  The  Neapolitans  vote  in  favour  of 
the  annexation  of  their  country  to  the  Sardi- 
nian states.  —  Nov.  7.  Victor  Kmanuel  enters 
Naples.— Nov.  27.  Garibaldi's  army  is  disbanded. 


ITALY 


[    525    3 


ITHACA 


1861.  Feb.  14.  The  Sardinians  under  Cialdini  take  Gaeta 
(q.  v.). — Feb.  18.  The  first  Italian  parliament  is 
opened  at  Turin.— March  17.  The  parliament  enacts 
that  Victor  Emanuel  should  assume  the  title  of 
"King  of  Italy."— March  30.  Lord  Kussell  an- 
nounces the  recognition  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
by  the  British  Government.— June  6.  Death  of 
Count  Cavour. — June  12.  He  is  succeeded  at  the 
head  of  affairs  by  Baron  Kicasoli.— June  24. 
Napoleon  III.  recognizes  Victor  Emanuel  as  King 
of  Italy. — Sep.  15.  Victor  Emanuel  open  an  exhi- 
bition of  Italian  industry  at  Florence.— July. 
The  kingdom  of  Italy  is  recognized  by  Swe- 
den and  Norway  and  Denmark.— Aug.  2.  Holland 
recognizes  Victor  Emanuel.— Sep.  15.  The  Spanish 
General  Jose  Borges  lauds  in  Calabria,  and  calls 
the  people  to  arms  in  support  of  Francis  II. — Nov. 
6.  Victor  Emanuel  is  recognized  by  the  Belgian 
government— Nov.  26.  The  Italian  ambassador 
leaves  Madrid.  (See  SPAIN.)— Dec.  8.  Capture  and 
execution  of  Jose  Borges  at  Tagliacozzo. 

1863,  March  I.  Resignation  of  the  Kicasoli  ministry.— 
March  9.  A  meeting  of  300  delegates  assembles  at 
Genoa  under  the  presidency  of  Garibaldi. — March 
27.  The  government  orders  the  amalgamation  of 
Garibaldi's  volunteers  with  the  regular  army. — 
March  31.  The  Ratazzi  administration  takes 
office. — June  26.  The  passport  system  is  abolished 
between  Italy  and  England. — July  10.  Victor 
Emanuel  is  recognized  by  Russia.  —  July  21. 
He  is  recognized  by  Prussia.— Aug.  3.  Garibaldi 
issues  a  proclamation,  calling  on  the  people  to 
resist  "  arrogant  foreign  oppressors." — Aug.  25. 
He  lands  at  Mclito  in  Calabria.— Aug.  26,  Naples 
is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege ;  Gen.  Delia  Mar- 
mora being  appointed  commissioner  with  extra- 
ordinary powers. — Aug.  29.  Garibaldi  is  wounded 
and  made  prisoner  at  Aspromonte  (q.  v.). — Oct.  6. 
Victor  Emanuel  proclaims  an  amnesty  in  favour 
of  the  associates  of  Garibaldi  in  his  expedition 
against  Rome,  with  the  exception  of  deserters 
from  the  Italian  army.— Dec.  I.  Resignation  of 
the  Ratazzi  cabinet. — Dec.  9.  Farini  forms  a  new 
ministry. 

1863,  March  24.  Marc  Minghetti  succeeds  Farini  as  pre- 

sident of  the  council. — Aug.  6.  A  commercial 
treaty  is  concluded  with  England. — Nov.  II — 17. 
Victor  Emanuel  visits  Naples. 

1864,  Jan.  7.  Garibaldi  resigns   his   seat  in  the  chamber 

of  deputies. — April  3.  He  visits  England. — April 
27.  Disturbances  at  Turin  (q.  v.).— Sep.  II.  The 
Crown  Prince  Humbert  visits  England.— Sep. 
15.  A  treaty  for  the  evacuation  of  Rome  by  the 
French,  and  the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  Turin  to  Florence,  is  concluded  with 
France. — Sep.  21  and  23.  Dangerous  riots  at 
Turin. — Sep.  23.  Dismission  of  the  Minghetti 
ministry,  which  is  succeeded  by  the  cabinet  of  Gen. 
Delia  Marmora. — Oct.  24.  Opening  of  the  parlia- 
ment.—Oct.  31.  The  king  renounces  a  large  por- 
tion of  his  civil  list  in  favour  of  the  treasury  of 
the  state. — Nov.  16.  The  Garibaldians  are  defeated 
by  the  regular  troops  at  Bagoline  in  Lombardy. 
Death  of  Gen.  Delia  Rovere.— Dec.  11.  A  royal 
decree  is  published,  declaring  that  the  capital 
shall  be  transferred  to  Florence  within  six 
months. 

1865,  Jan.  30.  A  popular  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Turin. 
—Feb.  3—23.  The  king  removes  to  Florence.— 
March  14.  Presentation  of  the  budget,  in  which 
permission  is  sought  to  raise  a  loan  of  =£17,000,000. 
—April  5  to  May  4.  Signor  Vegezzi  visits  Rome 
on  a  special  mission. — April  26.  The  government 
officially  informs  foreign  states  of  the  change  of 
capital. — May  1 1.  The  court  is  finally  removed  to 
Florence. — May  16.  Parliament,  sits  for  the  last 
time  at  Turin. — June  5 — 31.  Signor  Vegezzi  pays 
a  second  official  visit  to  Rome. — June  23.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Switzerland  is  signed  at 
Florence.  —  Sep.  7.  Parliament  is  dissolved.  — 
Sep.  18.  A  Spanish  ambassador  is  received  at 
Florence. — Sep.  19.  Religious  processions  in  the 
streets  are  prohibited,  unless  sanctioned  by 
special  permission. — Oct.  22.  The  elections  com- 
mence.—  Nov.  to.  The  king  visits  Naples. — Nov. 
18.  The  king  opens  the  second  Italian  parlia- 
ment at  Florence. — Dec.  21.  The  Delia  Marmora 
ministry^  resigns. 


1865,  Dec.  22.  Gen.  Delia  Marmora  is  instructed  to  form 

a  new  cabinet.— Dec.  31.  A  commercial  treaty  ia 
signed  with  the  Zollverein. 

1866,  Jan.    15.   Death  of  the  Marquis   Massimo  TaparelH 

d'Azeglio. — Jan.  zz.  Death,  at  Genoa,  of  Prince 
Otho,  third  son  of  King  Victor  Emanuel.— March 
19.  Thirteen  Protestants  are  cruelly  massacred  by 
the  mob,  at  the  instigation  of  the  priests,  at  Bar- 
letta.— April  29.  A  proclamation  is  issued,  calling 
under  arms  all  soldiers  on  unlimited  furlough. — 
May  12.  A  conditional  treaty  of  alliance  is  con- 
cluded with  Prussia.  —  May  20.  Railways  are 
opened  to  Vietri  and  Eboli.— May  26.  The  king 
signs  a  decree  for  the  formation  of  20  more  bat- 
talions of  volunteers,  and  two  battalions  of  Ber- 
saglieri. — June  7.  A  royal  decree  is  issued  for 
mobilising  lo  battalions  of  the  national  guard. — 
June  17.  The  king  and  Gen.  Delia  Marmora  leave 
Florence  to  join  the  army. — June  20.  War  is  de- 
clared against  Austria. — June  23.  The  Italian 
army  crosses  the  Mincio. — June  24.  Both  wings 
of  the  Italian  army,  commanded  by  King  Victor 
Emanuel  in  person,  are  defeated  with  great  loss 
by  the  Austrian*  under  the  Archduke  Albert,  at 
Custozza,  Prince  Amadous  and  many  generals 
being  severely  wounded.— July  3.  Battle  of 
Monte  Suello  (q.  ».).— July  8.  Gen.  Cialdini  crosses 
the  Pointo  Venetia.— July  II.  He  occupies  Ro- 
vigo. — July  12.  The  king  arrives  at  Ferrura.  (See 
PRUSSIA.) 


KINGS  OF  ITALY. 
A.D. 
7U-  Ansprand. 


712.  Luitprand. 

744.  Hildebrand. 

744.  Ratchis. 

749.  Astolph. 

756.  Didier. 

840.  Lorhaire  I. 

855.  Louis  II. 

875.  Charles  the  Bald. 

877.  Carloman. 

879.  Charles  the  Fat. 

888.  Berengerl. 

889.  Guy,  with  Beretiger. 
894.  Lambert,  ditto. 

900.  Louis  of  Aries,  ditto. 
931.  Rodolph  of  Burgundy, 

ditto. 
926.  Hugh,    Count  of    Pro- 

947.  Lothaire  II. 

950.  Berenger  II. 

962.  Otho  I.  (Italy  is  an- 
nexed to  the  German 
empire.) 


A.D. 

476.  Odoacer. 
493.  Theodoric. 
536.  Athalaric. 
534.  Theodatus. 
536.  Vitiges. 

540.  Hildibald. 

541.  Eraric. 
541.  Totila. 
552-  Teias.* 
568.  Alboin. 
573.  Clepho. 
575.  Auth'iris. 
591.  Agilulph. 
615.  Adaloald. 
625.  Arioald. 
636.  Rotharis. 

652.  Rodoald. 

653.  Aribert  I. 

661.  Bertharit  and  Godebert. 

662.  Grimoald. 

671.  Bertharit  (again). 
686.  Cunibert. 

700.  Luitpert. 

701.  Ragimbert. 
701.  Aribert  II. 

MODERN  KINGDOM  OF  ITALY. 
1805—1814.  Napoleon  Buonaparte. 

KINGDOM  RESTORED. 

1 86 1,  F«b.  26.  Victor  Emanuel. 

(See  GENOA,  LOMBARDY,  MILAN,  MODENA, 
NAPLES,  PARMA,  ROME,  SARDINIA,  SICILY, 
TUSCANY,  VENETIAN  REPUBLIC,  &c.) 

ITCHINGFORD  (Treaty).  —  Edward  the 
Elder  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Danes  at 
Itchingford,  in  906. 

ITHACA  (Ionian  Isles).— This  small  island 
is  famous  as  having  been  the  kingdom  of 
Ulysses  (B.C.  1215),  whose  feats  at  the  siege  of 
Troy,  and  subsequent  adventures,  are  related 
in  the  Homeric  poems.  It  became  subject  to 
the  Tarentiiies  in  1207,  to  the  Venetians  in 
1215,  to  the  French  in  1797,  and  in  1815  was 
placed  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain, 
with  the  other  Ionian  Islands  (q.  v.). 


*  Teias  was  killed  in  553.  and  Italy  remained  under  the 
government  of  Narses  until  the  establishment  of  the 
Lombard  kingdom  by  Alboin. 


IUKA 


[    526    ] 


JACOBUS 


IUKA  (Battle).— The  Federals  under  Gens. 
Grant  and  Rosecrans  attacked  the  Confe- 
derate forces  of  Gen.  Price  at  this  town  in 
Mississippi,  Sep.  19,.  1862.  The  battle,  inter- 
rupted by  night,  was  renewed  by  Gen.  Rose 
crans  Sep.  20,  when  it  was  discovered  that 
Gen.  Price  had  evacuated  the  town  during  the 
night. 

IVORY.— This  substance  has  been  used  for 
ornamental  purposes  from  the  earliest  periods. 
Ivory  carving  was  known  to  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  Solomon  (i  Kings  x.  22),  B.C.  1000,  and 
is  often  mentioned  by  Homer.  Phidias  (B.C. 
440)  was  famous  for  his  ivory  statues  plated 
with  gold. 

IVRY  (Battle).— Henry  IV.  of  France  de- 
feated the  forces  of  the  League,  led  by  the 
Duke  of  Mayenne,  at  this  village,  near  Evrcux, 
March  14,  1590. 

IVY  LANE  CLUB  (London),  formed  by 
Dr.  Johnson  in  1749,  met  every  Tuesday 
evening  at  the  King's  Head  Tavern,  Ivy 
Lane,  Paternoster  Row.  The  house  in  which 
the  assemblies  were  held  was  destroyed  by 
fire  Sep.  17,  1859.  (See  ESSEX  HEAD  CLUB.) 


J. 

JACA,  or  JACCA  (Spain \  belonged  to  the 
Vasroncs  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  and  was 
taken  from  the  Moors  in  795.  The  ancient 
fortress,  captured  by  the  French  in  1 809,  was 
wrested  from  them  by  the  English  in  1814. 
It  was  unsuccessfully  assailed  by  the  revo- 
lutionary forces  in  Sep.,  1822. 

J  \(  AT  HA.— (See  BATAVIA,  Java.) 

JACK  KETCH.  —  A  writer  in  Notes  and 
Queries  (2nd  series,  i.  72)  refers  for  the  origin 
of  this  cognomen  to  the  following  extract 
from  Lloyd's  MS.  Collections  in  the  British 
Museum  : — "  The  manor  of  Tyburn  was  for- 
merly held  by  Richard  Jaquett,  where  felons 
were  for  a  long  time  executed  ;  from  whence 
we  have  Jack  Ketch." 

JACKSON  (United  States),  the  capital  of 
Mississippi,  having  been  abandoned  by  the  Con- 
federates, was  occupied  by  the  Federals  under 
Gens.  Grant  and  Sherman,  May  14,  1863.  In 
consequence  of  the  approach  of  the  Confede- 
rates under  Gen.  Pemberton,  the  Federals  re- 
tired May  1 6,  and  it  was  occupied  by  Gen. 
Johnston,  who  withdrew  July  16.  The  town, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  N.  America,  was 
destroyed  by  Gen.  Sherman. 

JACOBIN,  or  BRETON  CLUB  (Paris).— One 
of  the  numerous  political  associations  that 
came  into  existence  just  before  the  first  French 
revolution,  the  members  of  which  styled 
themselves  "Society  of  the  Friends  of  the 
Constitution."  When  they  met  at  Versailles, 
they  received  the  name  of  the  Breton  Club, 
because  the  deputies  from  Britanny  took  the 
lead  in  their  proceedings.  In  Oct.,  1789,  the 
sittings  of  the  club  were  transferred  to  the 
monastery  of  the  Jacobin  friars,  whence  the 
name,  at  Paris,  when  the  public  were  first 
admitted  to  its  conferences.  In  1790  this  club 
increased  rapidly  in  numbers  (see  CLUB  OF 


1789  and  FEUILLANT  CLUB)  ;  in  1791  the  funeral 
of  Mirabeau  was  attended  by  1,800  of  its 
members  ;  and  in  1 792  it  wielded  a  pernicious 
influence  over  the  government,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  "The  Society  of  the  Friends  of 
Liberty  and  Equality."  The  Jacobins  had 
affiliated  societies  in  the  provinces,  and  sought 
to  establish  branches,  known  as  the  Propa- 
ganda, iii  foreign  countries.  The  club  was 
closed  Nov.  9,  1794. 

JACOBINS.— This  name,  generally  applied 
to  the  advocates  of  extreme  democratical 
opinions,  took  its  origin  from  the  members  of 
the  Breton,  or  Jacobin  Club,  formed  in  Paris 
in  1789.  (See  CARMAGNOLE.)  The  French 
Dominicans  were  called  Jacobins. 

JACOBITES.— This  term  was  first  applied 
in  England  to  the  party  which  adhered  to 
James  II.,  after  the  revolution  of  1688,  and 
afterwards  to  those  who  continued  to  maintain 
sentiments  of  loyalty  towards  the  house  of 
Stuart,  and  sought  to  secure  the  restoration 
of  that  family  to  the  English  throne.  The 
unsuccessful  rebellions  of  1715  and  1745  in 
Scotland  were  brought  about  by  the  agency  of 
the  Jacobites.  A  Jacobite  plot,  in  which 
Atterbury,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  was  con- 
cerned, was  discovered  in  1723.  (See  LAYER'S 
CONSPIRACY.) 

JAComTKS  (Ecclesiastical  History).  —  A 
Christian  sect  which  arose  during  the  sth 
century,  and  maintained  that  Christ  had  but 
one  nature.  They  were  thus  named  from 
Jacob  Baradseus,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  and  apostle 
of  the  East,  who  restored  the  seet  about 
545.  From  this  man,  Mosheim  remarks,  as 
the  second  father  of  the  sect,  all  the  Moim- 
physites  in  the  East  are  called  Jacobites. 
Baradaeus  died  in  578.  (See  ABYSSINIAX 
Cm  I:<;H,  and  COPTS.)  A  small  section  of  the 
Jacobites  joined  the  Roman  Catholics  in  the 
1 7th  century,  but  the  majority  remained  firm 
in  the  faith  of  their  ancestors.  Riddle  enume- 
rates amongst  the  remains  of  oriental  sects  or 
Christian  communities  existing  in  1837,  the 
Syrian  Jacobites  living  under  their  patriarch 
at  Antioch.  Roger  of  Wendover  mentions  a 
new  sect  of  preachers  called  "Jacobites," 
because  they  imitated  the  life  of  the  apostles, 
who  sprang  up  in  1198,  under  the  auspices  of 
Pope  Innocent  III.  They  were  mendicants, 
and  suffered  great  privations.  Mosheim  be- 
lieves the  sect  ceased  to  exist  soon  after  the 
Council  of  Lyons,  in  1274. 

JACOB'S  POST.— (See  GALLOWS.) 

JACOB,  ST.  (Battle),  was  fought  at  this 
liamlet,  near  Basel,  Aug.  26,  1444,  when  the 
Swiss  were  defeated  by  a  French  force  of 
superior  numbers. 

JACOB'S  STAFF. -De  Morgan  (N.  and  Q., 
3rd  s.  iv.  113)  states  that  the  astrolabe  and 
Jacob's  staff  are  entirely  different  instruments, 
jut  used  for  the  same  purposes,  the  staff 
"being  an  old  instrument  in  the  isth  century, 
and  the  astrolabe  an  introduction  from  the 
East  in  perhaps  the  i4th  century. 

JACOBUS.— This  gold  coin,  of  which  there 
were  two  kinds,  viz.,  the  old  Jacobus,  worth 
25  shillings,  and  the  new  Jacobus,  also  called 
Jarolus,  valued  at  23  shillings,  was  struck  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.  (1603—25). 


JACQUARD 


[    527    1 


JAMAICA 


JACQUARD  LOOM,  for  weaving  figured 
fabrics,  is  named  after  its  inventor,  Joseph 
Marie  Jacquard,  who  was  born  at  Lyons,  July 
7,  1752,  and  died  Aug.  7,  1834.  He  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  the  loom  in  1790,  and  in 
Sep.,  1801,  the  jury  of  the  exhibition  of  pro- 
ducts of  industry  awarded  him  a  bronze 
medal,  and  he  secured  a  10  years'  patent  for 
his  loom.  For  a  net-making  machine  another 
gold  medal  was  awarded  to  him  at  Paris  in 
Feb.,  1804.  English  manufacturers  have 
effected  important  improvements  on  the 
Jacquard  loom. 

JACQUERIE,  so  called  from  the  cant  phrase 
Jacques  Bonhomme,  applied  to  the  peasantry, 
was  an  irisurrection  of  this  class  against  the 
nobles,  that  broke  out  near  Beauvais  (q.  v.}, 
in  France,  May  21,  1358.  Many  thousands  of 
the  unhappy  insurgents  were  slaughtered  in 
a  conflict  June  9,  and  the  insurrection  was 
speedily  suppressed. 

JAEN  (Battle).—  Alphonso  VIII.  of  Leon,  or 
III.  of  Castile,  defeated  the  Moors  near  this 
city  in  Spain,  in  1157. 

JAEN  (Spain),  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
Aurgi,  is  the  capital  of  a  province  which 
nearly  coincides  with  the  Moorish  kingdom  of 
Jaen.  It  was  captured  after  a  long  siege,  by 
Ferdinand  III.,  in  1246.  The  French  general 
Cassagne  captured  and  sacked  Jaen  in  June, 
1808.  Its  cathedral  was  erected  in  1525,  on 
the  site  of  a  Moorish  mosque  demolished  in 
1492.  A  new  road  to  Granada  was  completed 


DE  BRACAINOROS  (Ecuador).— 
Near  this  town,  founded  in  1549,  M.  de  la 
Condamine  commenced  his  survey  of  the 
river  Amazon  (q.  v.}  in  1743. 

JAFFA,  or  YAFFA  (Syria).—  This  fortified 
town,  the  ancient  Joppa,  was  probably  founded 
by  the  Phoenicians,  about  B.C.  1400.  It  was 
made  a  bishopric  by  Constantine  I.,  in  332  ; 
was  captured  by  the  caliph  Omar  I.  in  636,  and 
by  the  Crusaders  in  1099.  It  was  the  scene  of 
a  great  battle  between  the  Saracens  and  King 
Baldwin  I.  of  Jerusalem  in  1102.  Richard  I. 
(Coaur  de  Lion)  encamped  .  here  in  1191. 
Saladin  attacked  Jaffa,  July  26,  1192.  He  was 
compelled  to  retire,  but  gained  possession  of 
the  town  in  1193.  It  was  retaken  and  strongly 
fortified  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  in  1252.  The 
Mameluke  sultan  Bibars  took  it  in  1267. 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  invested  Jaffa  March  4, 
1799,  and  took  it  by  storm  March  7.  Four 
thousand  prisoners  were  put  to  death  March 
10,  1799.  Mehemet  Ali  obtained  possession 
of  the  town  in  1832  ;  but  it  was  restored  to 
the  Turks  in  1840.  It  suffered  greatly  from 
an  earthquake  Jan.  21,  1837,  and  again  July 
17,  1845. 

JAGELLONS.—  This  Polish  dynasty,  founded 
by  Jagellon,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  who 
married  Hedwig,  daughter  of  Louis  of  Hun- 
gary, in  1385,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Poland  as  Ladislaus  V.  ,  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Sigismund  II.,  in  1572. 
JAGEPORE.—  (See  CUTTACK.) 
JAGGERNAUT.—  (See  JUGGERNATH.) 
JAGO  DE  LA  FEGA,  or  VEGA,  ST.  —  (See 
SPANISH  TOWN.) 
JAGO,  ST.—  (-See  JAMAICA  and  SANTIAGO.) 


JAICZA  (Bosnia).— This  important  fortress 
was  wrested  from  the  Turks,  into  whose  hands 
it  had  fallen,  by  Matthias,  after  a  siege  of 
three  months,  in  Dec.,  1463,  and  was  retaken 
by  the  Turks  in  1528. 

J ALULA  (Battle).— The  Saracens  defeated 
the  Persians  in  this  battle,  fought  in  637. 

JAMAICA  (West  Indies),  the  largest  of  the 
British  West  Indian  islands,  was  discovered 
by  Columbus,  May  3,  1494,  and  called  by  him 
St.  Jago,  after  the  patron  saint  of  Spain. 
Jamaica,  the  Indian  name,  signifies  the  Isle  of 
Springs. 


1509.  The  first  Spanish  settlement  is  established  by  John 

de  Esquibal. 
!597,  Ja»-  39-    sir  Anthony  Shirley,  commander   of   an 

English  squadron,  captures  the  island. 
1655,  May  3.     The   English,  under  Admiral  Penn    and 

General    Venables,    wrest    Jamaica    from    the 

Spaniards. 
1661.  Charles  II.  places  the  island  under  a  governor  and  a 

council  of  13,  appointed  by  the  crown. 
1670,  July  18.  Spain  recognizes  the  right  of  the  English 

to  Jamaica,  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid. 
1674.  About  1,300  colonists  from  Surinam  settle  in  the 

island. 
1693,  June   7.    An  earthquake  destroys  Port  Royal,   the 

capital,  and  occasions  great  destruction   of  life 

and  property. 

1733,  Aug.  28.  A  hurricane  devastates  the  island. 
1738.  The  Magna  Charta  of  Jamaica  is  passed. 

1734.  Another  hurricane  does  great  damage. 

1738.  The  Maroons,  a  tribe  formed  of  runaway  slaves, 

obtain  permission  to  form  a  settlement  in  the 

north  of  the  island. 
1745,  Feb.  2-  About  900  negro  slaves  are  detected   in  a 

conspiracy  to  destroy  all  the  white  inhabitants  of 

the  island. 

1795.  The  Maroons  revolt. 

1796,  March  31.  The  Maroons  are  reduced  to  subjection. 
1807.  The  slave  trade  is  abolished. 

1815,  Oct.  A  hurricane  occasions  great  destruction  of 
property  and  life,  about  I,ooo  persons  perishing 
in  consequence. 

1819.  The  island  is  devastated  by  a  hurricane. 

1834.  The  bishopric  of  Jamaica  is  established. 

1831,  Dec.  33.  An  insurrection  of  the  negroes  breaks  out, 
and  the  island  is  placed  under  martial  law. 

1846.  A  hurricane  does  much  damage. 

1850.  The  cholera  carries  off  about  40,000  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

1856.  The  constitution  is  remodelled  and  the  bishopric  of 
Kingston  is  founded. 

i8f>4,  July  15.  Edward  John  Eyre  is  made  governor. 

1865,  Oct.  7.  The  capture  of  a  negro,  for  causing  a  dis- 

turbance in  Morant  Bay  Court  House,  is  pre- 
vented by  Ihe  mob.— Oct.  10.  Paul  Bogle,  a  negro 
charged  with  obstructing  the  course  of  justice  at 
Morant  Bay,  is  rescued  from  the  police  by  the 
mob  at  Stony  Gut— Oct.  n.  The  vestry,  assembled 
at  Morant  Bay,  are  attacked  by  a  body  of  armed 
men,  who  set  fire  to  the  Court  House,  and  murder 
the  Custos,  Baron  Ketelholdt,  the  Rev.  V.  Hers- 
cliell,  and  16  others,  besides  wounding  31  persons. 
— Oct.  13.  Govenior  Eyre  proclaims  martial  law, 
and  the  rebellion  is  promptly  suppressed. — Oct  21. 
George  William  Gordon,  a  mulatto  of  property, 
is  tried  by  court-martial  for  complicity  in  the 
disturbances  and  is  convicted. — Oct.  23.  Gordon 
is  executed. — Oct.  34.  Paul  Bogle  is  captured  and 
executed. — Nov.  7.  The  House  of  Legislature  is 
opened  by  Governor  Eyre.  —  Dec.  II.  Sir  Henry 
Storks  is  appointed  temporary  Governor  of 
Jamaica. 

1866,  Jan.  6.  Sir  Henry  Storks  lands  at  Kingston. — Jan. 

30.  Mr.  Russell  Gurney  and  Mr.  Maule,  com- 
missioners for  inquiring  into  the  disturbances, 
arrive  at  Kingston.— Jan.  24.  A  special  commis- 
sion for  the  trial  of  rebel  prisoners  opens  at 
Kingston. — Jan.  2v  The  commissioners  commence 
their  sittings  at  Spanish  Town.  —  Marcli  21.  The 
inquiry  terminates,  the  commissioners  having 
held  60  sittings,  and  examined  730  witnesses. — 


JAMES 


C    528    ] 


JAXINA 


1866,  June.  The  report  of  the  commission  is  pub- 
IWieil.— July  16.  Sir  J.  P.  Grant  is  appointed 
governor. — Aug.  12.  Ex-governor  Eyre  lands  at 
Southampton. — Aug.  41.  He  is  entertained  at  a 
public  banquet 

JAMES  (Epistle),  generally  believed  to  have 
been  written  by  St.  James  the  Just,  son  of 
Alphaeus  and  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  about  6r, 
was  accepted  as  canonical  by  the  Council  df 
Carthage  in  397. 

JAMES,  CAPE.— (See  CAPE  COD.) 
JAMES  THE  FIRST,  the  only  child  of  Lord 
Darnley  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  born  at 
Edinburgh,  June  19,  1566,  was  proclaimed 
King  of  Scotland,  under  the  title  of  James 
VI.,  July  24,  1567,  and  King  of  England,  March 
24,  1603.  He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Fre- 
derick II.  of  Denmark,  in  1590,  and  they  were 
both  crowned  at  Westminster,  July  25,  1603. 
They  had  three  sons  and  two  daughters ;  viz., 
Henry,  born  Feb.  19,  1593,  and  died  Nov.  6, 
1612  ;  Elizabeth,  born  Aug.  19,  1596,  married 
to  the  Elector-Palatine  Feb.  14,  1613,  and  died 
Feb.  13,  1662;  Charles  (see  CHARLES  I.},  and 
Robert  and  Mary,  who  died  in  infancy.  The 
queen  died  March  i,  1619,  and  James  I.  died  at 
Theobalds,  near  Cheshunt,  Sunday,  March  27, 

1  JAMES  THE  SECOND,  the  second  son  of 
Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria,  born  at  St. 
James's,  Oct.  15,  1633;  ascended  the  English 
throne  on  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  Feb.  6, 1685  ; 
and  was  crowned  April  23.  Whilst  Duke  of 
York  he  married,  first,  Anne  Hyde,  daughter 
of  Lord  Clarendon.  She  died  March  31,  1671  ; 
and  Sep.  30  (N.S.),  1673,  James  married  Mary 
d'Este,  who  outlived  him,  dying  May  7,  1718. 
His  family  by  his  first  wife  consisted  of  four 
sons,  who  died  in  infancy,  and  two  daughters, 
Mary  (see  WILLIAM  III.  AND  MARY)  and  Anne 
(q.  v.).  His  second  wife  bore  him  five  daugh- 
ters, who  died  young,  and  one  son,  James 
Francis  Edward,  or  the  Chevalier  de  St. 
George,  known  as  the  Pretender.  James  II. 
fled  from  Whitehall,  Dec.  n,  1688.  The  throne 
was  declared  vacant  Jan.  28,  1689,  and  William 
III.  and  Mary  became  king  and  queen  Feb.  13. 
The  latest  instrument  of  his  reign  entered  on 
the  patent  rolls  is  dated  Dec.  7,  1688.  James 
II.  died  at  St.  Germain's,  Sep.  6,  1701,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Paris. 

JAMES  RIVER  (N.  America),  called  by  the 
natives  Powhatan,  was  named  James  River 
after  James  I.,  May  13,  1607.  (See  CHICKA- 
HOMINY,  Battles.) 

JAMES,  ST.  (Order).— The  military  order  of 
St.  James  of  Compostella,  called  also  the  order 
of  St.  James  of  the  Sword,  was  founded  in 
1170  by  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  Leon  and  Cas- 
tille,  in  consequence  of  the  obstructions  offered 
by  the  Moors  to  pilgrims  journeying  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  James  at  Compostella.  It  re- 
ceived the  papal  sanction  July  5,  1175,  and 
continued  under  the  government  of  an  inde- 
pendent grand  master  till  1493,  when  the 
administration  was  seized  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  I.,  and  permanently  vested  in  the 
crown  of  Spain  in  1522.  The  order  undertook 
to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception in  1652.  A  branch  of  this  order,  ad- 
mitting all  the  rules  of  the  original  order,  ex- 


cepting that  of  chastity,  was  established  by 
Denys,  King  of  Portugal,  in  1288.  It  was  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  in  1486. A 

similar  order  for  ladies  was  founded  in  Spain 
in  1312,  to  afford  food  and  shelter  to  pilgrims. 
The  ladies  of  this  order  were  originally  at 
liberty  to  marry  and  quit  the  institution  ;  but 
in  1480  they  were  compelled  to  adopt  the  con- 
ventual laws  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obe- 
dience. 

JAMES'S  (ST.)  HALL  (London),  designed 
by  Owen  Jones,  consisting  of  one  large  hall, 
140  feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  60  feet  high, 
with  two  smaller  halls,  each  60  feet  square  and 
25  feet  high,  was  opened  to  the  public  with  a 
concert  in  aid  of  the  Middlesex  Hospital, 
March  25,  1858. 

JAMES'S  (ST.)  PALACE  (London)  stands 
on  the  site  of  an  hospital  for  female  lepers, 
founded  by  Gislebert,  Abbot  of  Westminster, 
in  i ioo.  Henry  VIII.  ordered  the  hospital  to 
be  pulled  down  and  a  mansion  to  be  erected  in 
1530.  It  was  finished  in  1536.  James  I.  pre- 
sented it  to  his  son  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  in 
1612.  Charles  I.  was  kept  a  prisoner  here 
Dec.  18-22,  1648,  and  Jan.  27-30,  1649.  It  was 
made  a  royal  residence  after  the  destruction  of 
Whitehall  Palace  by  fire,  Jan.  4,  1698,  and  was 
partly  destroyed  by  a  conflagration,  Jan.  21, 
1809. 

JAMES'S  (ST.)  PARK  (London)  was  first 
enclosed  and  drained  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1530. 
Rosamond's  Pond  was  filled  up  in  July,  1770. 
A  great  display  of  fireworks  took  place  in  the 
park  Aug.  i,  1814.  Two  pieces  of  cannon  were 
placed  here  as  trophies  in  1816.  Gas-lamps 
were  first  introduced  into  the  park  in  1822 ;  the 
"Chinese  Bridge "  was  demolished  in  1827; 
and  an  iron  suspension-bridge  was  erected  in 
1857- 

JAMES'S  (ST.)  THEATRE  (London)  was 
constructed  by  Beazley,  architect,  for  John 
Braham,  the  celebrated  English  tenor  (born 
1777,  died  Feb.  15,  1856),  and  opened  Dec.  14, 
1835- 

,1  A  M  ES  TOWN,  in  Virginia,  was  founded  on 
the  James  River  in  1607.  (See  BARBADOF.S.) 

JANE  (Queen  of  England). — Lady  Jane  Grey 
was  proclaimed  queen  against  her  will  July 
10,  1553,  Edward  VI.  having  bestowed  the 
crown  upon  her  by  letters  patent,  June  21, 

1553.  Her  reign  commenced  July  6,  the  day 
on  which  Edward  VI.   died,    and  she  relin- 
quished the  title  July  19.  She  was  condemned 
to  death  Nov.  13,  1553,  and  beheaded  Feb.  12, 

1554.  The  earliest  public    document  of  her 
reign  that  has  been  discovered  is  dated  July  9, 
and  the  latest  July  18,  1553. 

JANEIRO.— (See  Rio  JANEIRO.) 

JANESVILLE  (United  States),  founded  in 
1836,  was  made  the  chief  town  of  Rock  county 
in  1839,  and  incorporated  in  1853. 

JAXINA,  or  JOANNINA  (Albania),  sup- 
posed to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Do- 
dona  (q.  v.),  was  taken  by  the  Normans  in 
1082,  and  by  the  Turks  in  1431.  The  Albanians 
rebelled  in  1611.  Ali  Pasha,  the  Lion  of  Janina, 
made  it  his  capital,  and,  on  being  pressed  by 
the  Turks,  ordered  it  to  be  set  on  fire,  when  it 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed.  Ali  himself, 
who  had  retired  to  the  citadel,  surrendered  on 


JANISSARIES 


[    529 


JAPAN 


a  promise  of  pardon,  in  Jan.,  1822.  An  in- 
timation having  been  given  to  him  that  the 
Sultan  intended  to  put  him  to  death,  a  des- 
perate contest  ensued,  in  which  Ali  was  slain, 

JANISSARIES,  or  JANIZARIES,  Turkish 

infantry,  literally  "new  troops,"  organized  by 
Sultan  Orchan  in  1329,  remodelled  by  Amu- 
rath  I.,  1360,  and  increased  to  the  number  of 
100,000  in  the  i7th  century.  The  corps  was  at 
first  composed  of  1,000  Christian  children  taken 
from  their  parents,  compelled  to  embrace  the 
faith  of  Mohammed,  and  trained  as  soldiers. 
After  a  time,  the  Janissaries  became  masters 
of  the  empire;  deposed  Bajazet  II.  in  1512; 
procured  the  death  of  Amurath  III.  in  1595  ; 
dethroned  and  executed  Osman  II.  in  1622 ;  his 
successor,  Mustapha  I.,  in  1623  ;  and  strangled 
Ibrahim  in  1649.  Mustapha  II.  was  deposed  by 
them  in  1703,  Achmet  III.  in  1730,  Selim  III. 
in  1807,  and  Mustapha  IV.  in  1808.  At  last, 
after  long  and  powerful  efforts,  Sultan  Mah- 
moud  II.  succeeded  in  mastering  the  Janis- 
saries, June  15,  1826,  when  15,000  of  them  were 
killed  in  the  streets  of  Constantinople.  By  an 
imperial  firman  of  June  16,  1826,  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Janissaries  was  abolished. 

JAN  MAYEN  (Arctic  Sea).— This  island  was 
discovered  by  the  Dutch  navigator,  whose 
name  it  bears,  in  1611.  Scoresby  gave  the 
name  of  Esk  to  a  volcano  observed  by  him  in 
1817. 

JANOWITZ,  or  JANKOWITZ  (Battle).— A 
Swedish  army,  commanded  by  Torstenson, 
defeated  the  Imperialists  at  this  place,  in  Ba- 
varia, March  16,  1645.  The  latter  lost  8,000 
men. 

JANSENISTS,  the  followers  of  Cornelius 
Jansen,  or  Janseiiius,  born  in  1585  at  the 
village  of  Acquoi,  near  Leerdam,  Holland.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the 
university  of  Louvain  in  1630,  and  made 
Bishop  of  Ypres  in  1636,  where  he  died  May  6, 
1638,  having  scarcely  finished  his  famous  work 
"  Augustinus,"  the  labour  of  22  years.  The 
book  was  published  by  Libertus  Fromont,  at 
Louvaiu,  in  1640,  and  created  an  extraordinary 
sensation.  The  Jesuits  at  once  attacked  the 
"Augustinus,"  which  defended  the  doctrine 
of  free  grace ;  and  the  book  was  interdicted  by 
the  Inquisition  in  1641,  and  by  Urban  VIII.  in 
1642.  The  Jansenist  doctrines  prevailed  in 
many  parts  of  France  and  Holland,  and  the 
inmates  of  Port  Royal  (q.  v.)  became  cele- 
brated for  the  ardour  with  which  they  took  up 
the  cause.  The  Jansenists  grew  very  nume- 
rous, and  Clement  IX.  was  compelled  to  sign 
a  compromise  with  the  party  in  1668,  com- 
monly called  the  "Peace  of  Clement  IX." 
Fresh  disturbances  arose  in  France  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Oct.  22, 
1685,  and  the  Jansenists  were  excommuni- 
cated by  the  bull  (termed  Unigenitus)  of  Cle- 
ment XI.,  Sep.,  1713.  The  bull  met  with  great 
opposition  in  Holland  and  France  ;  led  to  an 
increase  of  Jansenism,  and  the  establishment, 
in  Holland,  of  a  religious  party  called  the 
"  Pupils  of  St.  Augustine,"  presided  over,  from 
1723,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Utrecht  and  the 
Bishops  of  Haarlem  and  Deventer.  Leo 
XII.  revived  the  old  dispute  by  excommuni- 


eating, in  1825,  the  newly-elected  Archbishop 
of  Utrecht  and  the  Bishop  of  Deventer.  ( See 
ACCEPTANTS  and  CONVULSIONISTS.  ) 

JANUARIUS,  ST.— This  order  of  knight- 
hood, founded  in  the  Two  Sicilies  by  Charles, 
King  of  Sicily,  afterwards  Charles  III.  of 
Spain,  July  6,  1738,  and  abolished  in  1806,  was 
restored  in  1814. 

JANUARIUS,  ST.  (Blood  of).— Januarius, 
Bishop  of  Benevento,  was  beheaded  at  Poz- 
zuoli,  in  291  or  305,  the  wild  beasts  to 
which  he  was  at  first  exposed  having  refused, 
according  to  the  chroniclers,  to  injure  so  holy 
a  man.  His  relics  were  removed  to  Naples, 
where  a  small  phial  of  his  blood  is  said  to 
liquify  spontaneously  every  anniversary  of  his 
festival,  Sep.  19. 

JANUARY,  the  first  month  of  the  year,  was 
introduced  into  the  Roman  calendar  by  Numa, 
about  B.C.  700.  By  24  Geo.  II.  c.  23  (1751),  the 
commencement  of  the  legal  year  in  this  coun- 
try was  changed  from  March  25  to  Jan.  i.  It 
was  called  Wolf-monath  by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

JANUS. — This  temple,  in  ancient  Rome,  the 
gates  of  which  were  kept  open  in  time  of  war, 
and  closed  in  time  of  peace,  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Romulus.  The  gates  were 
shut  eight  times  ;  namely,  in  the  reign  of 
Numa,  B.C.  714;  soon  after  the  first  Punic 
war,  B.C.  235 ;  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.C. 
30;  after  the  Cantabrian  war,  B.C.  25;  at  the 
general  peace  under  Augustus,  B.C.  5 ;  under 
Nero  in  58  ;  under  Vespasian  in  71 ;  and  under 
Gordian  in  241. 

JAPAN  (Asia)  is  called  by  the  inhabitants 
Nipon,  or  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun,  and  by 
early  English  travellers  Zipangu.  According 
to  native  annals  the  first  emperor  ascended 
the  throne  B.C.  660.  The  country  was  visited 
by  Marco  Polo,  who  described  it  under  the 
name  of  Zipangu  in  his  travels,  published  in 
1298. 

A.D. 

553.  Buddhism  is  introduced. 

749.  Gold  is  discovered. 

788.  Japan  is  seized  by  foreign  invaders,  Who  maintain 

possession  for  18  years. 
810.  The  Japanese  phonetic:  alphabet  is  invented. 

1143.  Yoritomo,  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  obtains 
the  greater  share  of  government  with  the  title  of 
Siogoon  or  Tycoon,  thus  dividing  with  themikado, 
or  emperor,  the  chief  power. 

1384.  The  Mongol  Tartars,  under  Kublai  Khan,  invade 
Japan,  when  their  fleet  is  dispersed  and  wrecked 
by  a  storm. 

1540.  The  Tycoon  Taiko-Sama  deprives  the  mikado  of 
executive  power,  thus  instituting  the  existing  go- 
vernment of  Japan  by  a  tycoon  or  secuhir  em- 
peror, nominally  subject  to  a  mikado  or  spiritual 
emperor. 

1542.  Japan  is  accidentally  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
De  Mota,  one  of  whose  ships  is  cast  upon  the 
shore  during  a  storm. 

1549,  Aug.  The  Jesuit  Xavier  lands  in  Japan 

1563.  The  Prince  of  Omura  is  converted  to  Christianity. 

1585.  An  embassy  of  Japanese  Christians  appears  before 
the  Pope  at  Rome. 

1587.  The  Emperor  Taiko-Sama  prohibits  Christianity 
under  pain  of  death. 

1590.  The  native  Christians  suffer  persecution. 

1597.  The  Christians  are  again  persecuted. 

1600,  April  12.  A  Dutch  ship,  piloted  by  William  Adams, 
an  Englishman,  anchors  in  the  harbour  of  Hungo. 
They  establish  a  factory  at  Firando. 

1613.  A  cruel  persecution  of  the  Christians  commences. 

1613,  July.  The  English  open  communication  with  Japan. 
(See  JEDDO.) 

MM 


JAPANNING 


t     530     ] 


JAVA 


A.I). 

1616.  Their  commerce  is  restricted  by  the  native  govern- 
ment to  tin1  port  of  Firaudo. 
1623.  The  Christians  are  massacred. 
1623.  The  English  withdraw  from  the  country. 
1635.  The  Portuguese  are  only  permitted  to  trade  to  Decima. 

1637.  A  royal  proclamation  banishes  the  Portuguese,  and 

prohibits  all  intercourse  with  foreigners. 

1638,  April  12.  37,ooo  Christians  suffer  death. 

1640.  A  Portuguese  embassy  is  imprisoned  by  the  natives*, 
and  the  members  are  put  to  death. 

1643.  The  Portuguese  are  finally  expelled. 

1653.  The  English  in  vain  attempt  to  open  commerce  with 
Japan. 

1693—1698.  Corea  (q.  v.)  is  subject  to  Japan. 

1783,  Aug.  i.  An  earthquake  destroys  27  towns  and  vil- 
lages and  thousands  of  lives. 

1804.  The  Russians  fail  in  attempts  to  establish  trade. 

I8n.  The  Russians  are  again  unsuccessful. 

1818.  The  English  fail  in  an  attempt  to  open  trade. 

1853,  July  8.     An  American    squadron,   commanded   by 

Commodore  1'crry,  arrives  at  Japan  with  a  letter 
from  President  Franklin,  proposing  a  treaty  of 
amity  and  commerce. 

1854,  March  8.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  the 

I'liitcd  States. 

1858,  Aug.  26.  The  English  secure  important  privileges  by 

I  lie  treaty  of  Jeddo  (q.  V.). 

1859,  Julv  ii.    The  treaty  of  Jeddo  is  ratified.—  Aug.  9. 

Sir  Rutherford  Alcoek,  Jiritisli  diplomatic  agent 
in  Japan,  protests  against  the  outrages  committed 
on  Europeans  by  the  Japan 

1860,  Jan.  21.  Dankirche,  linguist  to  the  British  legation, 

-inated  by  the  Japanese.— March  24.    The 
Gotairo,  or  regent  of  the  empire,  is  assassinated. 

1861,  Jan.   14.   Mr.    llcuskin,   secretary    to    the    American 

legation,  is  assassinated  at  Jeddo.— July  5.  The 
-••  attack  the  IJritish  embassy  at  Jeddo, 
and  wound  several  persons. — Aug.  14.  Sir  H. 
Alcock  obtains  for  the  first  time  a  private  and 
confidential  conference  with  the  Japanese  foreign 
ministers.- 

1862,  Jan.  23.  A  Japanese  mission  leaves  Jeddo. — April  •p. 

It  reaches  Knghind.— June  35.  The  British  em- 
bassy at  Jeddo  is  attacked  by  the  Japanese,  and 
is  remove, I  in  consequence  to  Yokohama.—  Sep.  14. 
Mr.  Kiehardson  is  murdered  by  the  adherents  of 
Prince  Satsuma. 

1863,  June  24.  The  Japanese  ports  are  declared  closed 

against  foreign  traders.— July  15-19.  Tin:  forts 
at  the  entrance  of  Strait  Simonosaki  having  fired 
upon  several  Kuropeaii  vessels,  are  bombarded 
by  a  united  English,  French,  and  American 
squadron. — Aug.  15  and  16.  Kagosima  is  bom- 
barded by  an  Knglish  squadron  under  Admiral 
Kuper,  In  requital  of  the  murder  of  Mr.  Uiehard 
son. — Oct.  26.  The  government  removes  restric- 
tions on  foreign  commerce,  but  prohibits  trader- 
from  buying  or  selling  ut  Yokohama. — Dec.  II. 
Prince  s'atsuma  pays  the  indemnity  claimed  by 
the  English  for  the  murder  of  Kichardson. 

1864,  April  15.  Three  Japanese  ambassadors,  accredited  to 

the  French  imperial  court,  arrive  at  Marseilles. 
— June  20.  Having  signed  a  treaty  they  leave  i'aiis 
011  their  return  voyage.— Sep.  7.  Thu  batteries  of 
Prince  Nagato  are  destroyed,  and  n  passage  is 
opened  through  the  straits  of  Simonosaki  by  the 
combined  Knglish,  French,  and  Dutch  Heels. — 
Nov.  21.  Major  Haldwin  and  Lieut.  Bird  are 
murdered  at  Kamakura. — Dec.  28.  Execution  of 
the  murderer. 

1865,  April  ii.    Sir  Harry  Smith  Parkes  is  appointed  to 

succeed  Sir  Kutherford  Alcoek  as  envoy  extra- 
ordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  in  Japan. 

JAPANNING,  or  LACQUERING.— This  me- 
thod of  embellishing  articles  by  coating  them 
with  a  particular  kind  of  varnish,  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  from  Japan ;  whence  the 
name. 

JARNAC  (Battle). — The  Huguenots  were  de- 
feated at  this  town,  in  France,  by  Henry  of 
Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III.,  March  13,  1569. 
The  Prince  of  Conde  fell  in  this  battle. 

JASHER  (Book  of).— The  author  and  cha- 
racter of  this  ancient  Jewish  book,  referred  to 


Josh.  x.  13,  and  2  Sam.  i.  18,  are  unknown  ;  but 
the  title  is  believed  to  signify  the  "  book  of  the 
upright,"  and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
collection  of  records  or  poems  concerning  the 
Israelitish  wars.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
two  Rabbinical  works,  the  first  of  which  was 
written  in  1394  by  Shabbatai  Carmuz  Levita, 
and  the  other  was  published  by  the  Rabbi 
Tham,  in  Italy,  in  1544,  and  at  Cracow  in  1586. 
An  anonymous  work,  printed  at  Venice  and 
Prague,  in  1625,  and  translated  into  German  in 
1674,  contained  the  historical  portion  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges, 
and  was  believed  by  some  to  be  the  work 
quoted  in  the  Scriptures.  A  forged  book,  pub- 
lished in  1751,  in  England,  under  the  title  of 
"the  Book  of  Jasher,"  and  accompanied  by  a 
fictitious  attestation  by  John  Wyckliffe,  was 
reprinted  at  Bristol  in  1827,  and  was  again 
published  in  1833. 

JASMINE,  or  JESSAMINE.— The  common 
jasmine  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain 
from  Circassia  before  1548,  the  (Jataloniaii 
jasmine  from  the  East  Indies  in  1629,  the 
yellow  Indian  jasmine  from  Madeira  in  1656, 
and  the  jasmine-flowered  chironia  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1812. 

JASPER.— This  gem,  the  twelfth  in  the 
breast-plate  of  the  Jewish  high-priest  (Exod. 
xxviii.  20),  B.C.  1491,  was  esteemed  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Onomacritus,  B.C.  500,  as  the  "grass-green 
jasper,  which  rejoices  the  eye  of  man,  and  is 
looked  on  with  pleasure  by  the  immortals." 
Galen  (130 — 200)  recommended  the  wearing  of 
a  jasper  hung  round  the  neck,  to  strengthen 
the  stomach. 

JASSY,  or  Y ASSY  (Moldavia),  the  ancient 
Jassiorum  Municipium,  the  capital  of  the 
province,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
about  105,  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1538, 
stormed  by  the  Tartars  in  1659,  and  delivered 
by  John  Sobieski  in  1686.  The  Russians  took 
it  in  1739  and  in  1769,  but  on  each  occasion 
restored  it  to  its  native  princes.  A  great  fire 
in  1783  destroyed  part  of  Jassy  and  the 
castle,  built  by  Trajan.  The  Austrians  occu- 
pied it  in  1788,  and  peace  was  concluded 
here  between  Russia  and  Turkey  Jan.  9, 
1792.  The  Russians  again  occupied  it  from 
1807  to  1812.  It  revolted  in  March,  1821,  and 
was  sacked  by  the  Janissaries  Aug.  10,  1822. 
Two  extensive  conflagrations  caused  much 
destruction  in  July,  1821,  and  Aug.,  1827. 
The  Russians  occupied  it  in  1828,  and  quitted 
it  May  n,  1834. 

JAUCOURT  (Battle).— Louis  III.  of  France 
defeated  the  Northmen  at  this  place,  on  the 
Somme,  in  88 r. 

JAVA  (Indian  Archipelago). — This  island  is 
spoken  of  by  Marco  Polo  in  1298,  although  it 
had  not  been  visited  by  that  adventurous 
traveller.  Buddhism  was  introduced  about 
the  loth  century,  Mohammedanism  in  the 
i4th,  and  the  Hindoo  ascendancy  was  over- 
thrown in  1475.  The  Portuguese  succeeded  in 
forming  several  settlements  in  1511.  The 
Dutch  made  their  first  appearance  in  1595, 
building  a  fort  on  the  site  of  the  present  city 
of  Batavia  in  1612.  They  founded  a  church  in 
1621.  At  Bantam,  in  1619,  the  English  erected 


JEAN 


JERSEY 


a  factory,  which  was  one  of  their  first  pos- 
sessions in  the  East.  A  landing  having  been 
effected  Aug.  "4,  1811,  the  island  was  taken 
from  the  Dutch,  Aug.  26,  by  an  English  force 
under  Sir  S.  Auchmuty  and  Gen.  Wetherall. 
It  was  restored  Aug.  13,  1814.  Slavery  was 
abolished  Sep.  20,  1850. 

JEAN  D'ACRE,  ST.— (See  ACRE.) 

JEAN  DE  LUZ,  ST.  (France).— The  marriage 
of  Louis  XIV.  with  Maria  Theresa,  Infanta  of 
Spain,  was  celebrated  at  this  frontier  town  of 
the  south  of  France  in  1660.  In  Aug.,  1813, 
the  French,  under  Marshal  Soult,  took  up 
their  position  in  front  of  this  town,  and 
erected  strong  fortifications.  Lord  Wellington 
attacked  them  Nov.  10,  Sir  Rowland  Hill 
commanding  the  British  right,  and  Marshal 
Beresford  the  centre.  The  next  morning  the 
French  were  compelled  to  retire  beyond  the 
Nivelle.  During  the  conflict  the  English  made 
1,400  prisoners,  and  took  51  pieces  of  cannon 
and  six  tumbrils  of  ammunition. 

JEDBURGH  (Scotland).— Ecfred,  Bishop  of 
Lindisfarne,  built  two  towns  at  this  place  in 
Roxburghshire  in  829  and  854,  which  are  now 
represented  by  Old  Jedburgh  and  Jedburgh 
proper.  David  I.  founded  an  abbey  of  Austin 
canons  about  1130,  which  was  burned  in  1523 
by  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  and  in  1544  by  the 
Earl  of  Hertford.  The  dispensary  was  erected 
in  1807,  and  the  bath  houses,  &c.,  in  1822. 

JEDDA,  JEDDAH,  or  DJIDDA  (Arabia).— 
This  town,  the  port  of  Mecca,  visited  by  Bruce  in 
1 796,  was  taken  from  the  Wahabees  by  Mehemet 
Ali  in  1812.  The  Mohammedans  attacked  the 
Christian  residents  June  15,  1858,  and  mur- 
dered upwards  of  20,  including  the  Eng- 
lish vice-consul  and  the  wife  of  the  French 
consul.  The  Cyclops,  Capt.  Pullen,  anchored 
July  23,  and  36  hours  were  granted  for  the 
execution  of  justice  on  the  perpetrators 
of  the  outrage.  No  satisfaction  having  been 
afforded,  Capt.  Pullen  bombarded  the  town 
July  25  and  26,  when  he  acceded  to  the  request 
of  the  Turkish  governor  to  suspend  hostilities 
until  instructions  were  received  from  the 
Porte.  The  necessary  firman  arrived  from  the 
Sultan  Aug.  2,  and  n  of  the  criminals  were 
surrendered  and  executed. 

JEDDO,  JEDO,  or  YEDDO  (Japan),  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  was  visited  by  a  com- 
pany of  Jesuit  missionaries  from  Goa,  led  by 
Francis  Xavier,  in  1549.  Capt.  Saris,  of  the 
Clone,  bearing  a  letter  and  presents  from 
James  I.,  was  received  at  the  court  in  July, 
1613.  In  1818  the  captain  of  an  English  ,brig 
was  compelled  to  leave  without  receiving  a 
cargo;  and  an  American  ship  was  fired  upon 
from  the  shore  in  1831.  A  convention  and 
revised  tariff  were  concluded  here  between  the 
governments  of  Japan,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Holland,  and  the  United  States,  June  25,  1866. 
(See  JAPAN.) 

JEDDO  (Treaty)  was  negotiated  by  Lord 
Elgin,  signed  at  Jeddo  Aug.  26,  1858,  and 
ratified  July  n,  1859.  By  this  treaty  the  ports 
of  Hakodadi,  Kanagawa,  and  Nagasaki  were 
to  be  opened  to  British  subjects  on  and  from 
July  i,  1859 ;  Nee-a-gata  on  and  from  Jan.  i, 
1860 ;  and  Hiogo  on  and  from  Jan.  i,  1863. 
For  purposes  of  trade  it  was  also  stipulated 


that  British  subjects  should  be  allowed  to 
reside  at  Jeddo  after  Jan.  i,  1862,  and  at 
Osaca  after  Jan.  i,  1863. 

JEFFERSON  (Battle).  —  The  Federals  de- 
feated the  cavalry  of  Gen.  Stuart  at  this 
village  of  Virginia,  Nov.  7, 1862. 

JEFFREYS'  CAMPAIGN.  —  (See  BLOODY 
ASSIZES.) 

JEKATERINOSLAV.— (£>e  EKATERINOSLAV.) 

JELALABAD  (Affghanistan)  was  taken  by 
the  British  in  1839.  Sir  Robert  Sale,  with  a 
few  hundred  troops,  defended  it  against 
a  numerous  Affghan.  force  from  Nov.,  1841, 
to  April,  1842.  The  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed, by  order  of  Gen.  Pollock,  in  1842. 

JELUM,  or  JHELUM.— (See  BUCEPHALA  and 
HYDASPES.) 

JEMALIS.— (See  DERVISH.) 

JEMAULABAD  (Hindostan),  formerly  called 
Narasingha  Augady,  a  town  containing  a  for- 
tress of  great  natural  strength,  built  by  Tippoo 
Saib,  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1797. 

JEMMAPES  (Battle).— Dumouriez,  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  defeated  the  Austrians 
in  a  warmly  contested  battle  at  this  village, 
near  Mons,  in  Belgium,  Nov.  6,  1792. 

JENA  (Battle).— Napoleon  I.  defeated  the 
Prussian  army  of  Prince  Hohenlohe  and  Gen. 
Ruchelat  this  town  of  Saxe- Weimar,  Oct.  14, 
1806.  The  casualties  were  severe  on  both 
sides,  the  Prussians  having  lost  nearly  10,000 
men,  and  the  French  6,500.  The  fugitives 
from  this  battle,  and  from  the  field  of  Auerstadt 
(q.  v.),  fought  the  same  day,  to  the  number  of 
6,000  men,  threw  themselves  into  Erfurt  (q.v.\ 
where  they  were  captured,  together  with 
8,000  men,  consisting  of  the  wounded  and  the 
garrison  of  the  place,  Oct.  15. 

JENA  (Germany). — This  town,  in  the  duchy 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  is  celebrated  for  its  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1547  by  the  Elector 
John  Frederick  of  Saxony,  and  opened  Feb.  2, 
1558.  Fichte  founded  a  new  school  of  philo- 
sophy here  in  1 794.  Jena  was  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Jena  from  1672  to  1690,  and  of 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Eisenach  from  1690  to  1741. 

JENNERIAN  INSTITUTION  (London), 
founded  in  1803,  was  merged  in  the  National 
Vaccine  Establishment,  founded  in  1808. 

JEREMIAH.— This  prophetical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  written  by  Jeremiah, 
"  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  of  the  priests  that  were 
in  Anathoth,"  about  B.C.  627. 

JERGEAUX  (Battle).— The  French,  led  by 
Joan  of  Arc,  wrested  this  town  from  the  Earl  of 
Suffolk,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  June  12,  1429. 

JERICHO  (Palestine),  the  first  city  which 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Israelites  on  their 
entrance  into  the  Holy  Land,  was  taken  by 
Joshua  (vi.  20)  B.C.  1451.  Jericho  was  rebuilt 
by  Kiel,  the  Bethelite  (i  Kings  xvi.  34),  about 
B.C.  918.  Vespasian  retook  it  in  68.  Henry  VIII. 
is  said  to  have  had  a  retreat  called  Jericho, 
at  Blackmore,  near  Chelnisford.  Hence  the 
origin  of  the  term  "gone  to  Jericho." 

JERSEY  (English  Channel),  originally  called 
Stugia,  taken  by  the  Normans  about  850,  was 
united  to  the  crown  of  England  by  William  I. 
in  1066.  King  John  visited  it  in  1205.  Mont 
Orgueil  Castle,  seized  by  the  French  in  1461, 
was  retaken  by  the  English  in  1467.  Jersey 

M  M    2 


JERUSALEM 


t    S32 


JESSEANS 


was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians  in  Dec.,  1651. 
A  French  force  seized  it  Jan.  4,  1781,  and  were 
made  prisoners  of  war  Jan.  6.  Queen  Victoria 
visited  Jersey  in  1846,  and  the  Victoria  College, 
St.  Helier's,  founded  in  honour  of  the  visit, 
was  opened  Sep.  29,  1852. 

JERUSALEM  (Latin  Kingdom).  —  This 
kingdom  was  founded  by  the  Crusaders  at 
the  close  of  the  first  Crusade.  Godfrey  oT 
Bouillon  was  elected  the  first  king,  July  23, 
1099.  In  1104  Baldwin  I.  effected  the  con- 
quest of  Acre.  He  took  Sidon,  with  the 
assistance  of  Sivard,  Prince  of  Norway,  in 
1115;  and  in  July,  1124,  Tyre  submitted  to 
his  arms.  Saladiu  defeated  the  Latins  at  the 
great  battle  of  Tiberias  (q.  v.},  and  recaptured 
Jerusalem  in  Oct.,  1187.  Conrad  de  Mont- 
serrat,  who  claimed  the  kingdom  011  his 
111  irriago  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  Almeric, 
in  1190,  was  assassinated  in  1192,  during  the 
preparations  for  his  coronation,  and  the  suc- 
cession devolved  upon  Henry  of  Champagne. 
On  the  death  of  Almeric  of  Lusignan,  in  1206, 
M.iry,  daughter  of  Conrad  and  Isabella,  was 
the  nearest  heir,  and  she  was  accordingly 
married  to  John  of  Brienne,  who  assumed  the 
sovereignty  in  1206.  In  1229  he  was  com- 
pelled to  abdicate  by  Frederick  II.  of  Germany. 
.Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Mameluke  sultan 
Bibars  in  1260,  and  the  last  remnant  of  the 
kingdom  was  absorbed  in  1291. 

LATIN   KINGS   OF  JERUSALEM. 

A.D. 

1099.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
1 1  co.  Baldwin  I. 

Il8.  Baldwin  II. 

13;.  Fulk,  Count  of  Anjou. 

I--",.    Baldwin  IV. 
[8|.   Baldwin  V. 

of  Lusignnn. 
194.   Henry,  Count  of  Champagne. 

197.  Almeric  of  Lusignan. 

22.).  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
JERUSALEM,  or  HIEROSOLYMA 
Lne),  probably  identical  with  Salem,  a 
city  of  Sechem,  of  which  Molchixedek  wa 
king  and  priest  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  B.C.  1913.  The 
name  Jerusalem  is  first  mentioned  Josh.  x.  i. 
The  city  was  not  fin.Jly  wrested  from  the 
Caiiaanites  till  B.C.  1049,  when  David  made  it 
the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and  called  it  the 
"  City  of  David."  Councils  were  held  here 
between  49  and  51,  in  335,  349,  399,  Aug.  i, 
415  ;  Aug.  6,  518 ;  Sep.  19,  536;  in  553,  766  or 
767,  879,  1107,  1 1 12,  and  1143.  (See  SOLOMON'S' 
TEMPLE.) 

B.C. 

ion.  Solomon  commences  the  temple  (i  Kings  vi.  I). 
1004.  Completion  and  dedication  of  the  temple  (i  Kings 
vi.  3<,  and  vii.). 

073  or  970.  .Shishak,  King  of  Egypt,  sacks  Jerusalem  (i 
Kings  xiv.  35). 

887.  Jerusalem  is  sacked  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabs 
(.3  Cliron.  xxi.  16,  17). 

836.  The  inhabitants  are  put  to  the  sword  by  the  Israel- 
ites, after  their  victory  at  Beth-shemesh  (3  Kings 
xiv.  13,  14). 

710  or  69^.  The  city  is  miraculously  delivered  from  Sen- 
nacherib, King  of  Assyria  (3  Kings  xviii.  17,  and 
xix.  (>'<•<•  .lc  l  (All.) 

610  or  608.  It  is  taken  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  King  of 
Esrypt,  after  the  battle  of  Megiddo  (3  King 
xxiii.  39,  30). 


B.C. 

((05.  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  takes  Jeru- 
salem (2  Kinsrs  xxiv.  1—7). 

598.  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  takes  Jerusalem, 
and  plunders  the  temple,  carrying  away  the 
sacred  vessels,  together  with  the  king  and 
several  thousands  of  bis  subjects  (2,  Kings  xxiv. 
lo — 16). 

588.  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  besieges  Jeru- 
salem, but  raises  the  siege  on  the  approach  of  the 
army  of  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt. 

586.  The  Chaldean  army  renews  its  attack  on  the  city, 
and  carries  it  by  storm.  Zedokiah,  who  takes  to 
flight,  is  pursued,  and  captured;  his  two  sons  are 
slain,  and  his  own  eyes  put  out.  The  temple, 
after  having  been  pillaged,  is  burned  to  the 
ground;  the  whole  city  is  destroyed,  and  the 
people  are  carried  captive  to  Babylon  (2  Kings 
xxv.  i — 7). 

536.  Cyrus  issues  a  proclamation  for  the  return  of  the 
captive  Jews  (Ezra  i.  and  ii.). 

535.  The  second  toniplo  is  founded  (Ezra  iii.  8—13). 

534.  The  rebuilding  of  the  city  and  temple  is  stopped  by 
Artaxerxes  or  Smerdis,  King  of  Persia  (Ezra  iv. 
••i 24). 

516.  The  second  temple  is  finished  (Ezra  vi.  15). 

515.  The  second  temple  is  dedicated  (Ezra  vi.  16— 23). 
445.  Nehcmiah  rebuilds  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  ii. 

333.  It  is  visited  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great).  (See 
JEWS.) 

330.  Ptolemy  (I.)  Soter  captures  Jerusalem. 

303.  Jerusalem  is  annexed,  by  treaty,  to  Kgypt. 

170.  The  walls  of  the  city  are  razed  by  Ant'ntchus  TCpi- 
phiincs,  who  massacres  40,000  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  sets  up  a  statue  of  Jupiter  in  the  temple. 
I'rom  this  period  the  daily  sacrifice  Is  discontinued. 

168.  Apollonius,  general  of  Antioehu.s,  lakes   Jerusalem, 
fortifies  the   city  of    David,    and    dedicates    the 
temple  to  Jupiter  Olympius. 
63.  It  is  taken  by  Pompey;  and  the  Jews  pass  under 

the  dominion  of  the  Komans. 
54.  Crassus  plunders  the  temple,  to  obtain  treasure  for 

the  Parthian  war. 
44.  The  walls  are  rebuilt  by  Antipater,   father  of  Herod 

the  Groat. 

37.  The  Komans,  under  Herod  and  Socius,  take  Jeru- 
salem, and  massacre  the  inhabitants. 
A.n. 

70,  Sep.  8.  It  is  taken  by  the  Komans,  under  Titus,  the 

temple  and  city  being  ra/ed  to  the -round.   During 

the   siege   1,100,000  Jews  perished,    and    97,000 

were  carried  into  captivity. 

130.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  rebuild*  the  city,  when  it 

-  the  name  of  TElia  Capitolina. 
335.  The  church   of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  founded  by 

Constantino  I. 

451.  It  is  made  a  patriarchate. 

614.  The  Persians,  under  Cliosrocs  II.,  take  the  city. 
637.  It  surrenders  to  the  Saracens,  after  a  long  siege. 
1076.  It  is  taken  by  the  Turks. 

1098.  It  passes  under  the  sway  of  the  Egyptian  caliphs. 

1099,  July  15.    After  a  siege  of  40  days,   the   Christian 

Crusaders,  under  tiodfrey  of  Ijuuillon,  lake  it  by 

storm. — July  33.     Godfrey  of  Bouillon  is  elected 

king. 

1187,  Oct.  3.  The  city  is  taken  by  Saladin. 
1339.  It  is  delivered"  to   the.   Christians   by  treaty.      The 

Kniperor  Frederick  II.  enters  the  city. 
1338.  Jerusalem  is  taken  by  the  Turks. 
1344.  Jerusalem  is  taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Carismians 

1517.  The  Ottomans  gain  possession  of  the  city. 

1833.  It  is  rendered  subject  to  the  Pasha  of  Egypt. 

1841.  It  passes  under  the  protection  of  the  Turkish  Go- 
vernment.— Xov.  7.  The  Rev.  M.  S.  Alexander  is 
consecrated  Bishop  of  England  and  Ireland  in 
Jerusalem,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
The  queen,  by  licence,  assigns  to  his  jurisdiction 
Syria,  Chaldeea,  Egypt,  and  Abyssinia;  and  the 
new  bishopric  is  placed  under  the  protection  of 
En-land  and  Prussia. 

1863,  Sep.  5.  A  convention  is  signed  at  Constantinople  by 
representatives  of  Ku^sia,  Franee.  and  Turkey, 
for  the  preservation  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

JESSAMINE.— (See  JASMINE.) 
JESSEANS.— (See  CHRISTIANITY.) 


JESTER 


[     533     1 


JEWS 


JESTER,  or  FOOL.— The  fool,  according  to 
Nares,  was  the  inmate  of  every  opulent  house  ; 
but  the  rural  jester  or  clown  seems  to  have 
been  peculiar  to  the  country  families.  The 
clown  in  Shakspeare  is  generally  taken  for  a 
licensed  jester  or  domestic  fool.  The  king's 
jester  or  fool  was  a  member  of  the  English 
court  at  a  very  early  period.  Douce  remarks  : 
"  With  respect  to  the  antiquity  of  this  custom 
in  our  own  country,  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  it  existed  even  during  the  period  of  Saxon 
history ;  but  we  are  quite  certain  of  the  fact 
in  the  reign  of  William  the  Conqueror.  An 
almost  contemporary  historian,  Maitre  Wace, 
has  left  us  a  curious  account  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  William's  life,  when  he  was  only  Duke 
of  Normandy,  by  his  fool  Eoles.  Mention  is 
made  in  Domesday  Book  of  '  Berdic  joculator 
regis.'"  The  allowance  of  cloth  and  a  Jist  of 
the  articles  of  clothing  allowed  to  William, 
Henry  the  Fifth's  fool,  is  given  in  Ilymer's 
"  Fcedera."  In  1652  the  king's  fool  is  described 
as  wearing  a  long  coat  and  a  gold  chain. 
Douce  considers  it  probable  that  Muckle  John, 
the  fool  of  Charles  I.  and  the  successor  of 
Archie  Armstrong,  was  the  last  regular  per- 
sonage of  the  kind.  The  Lord  Mayor's  state 
fool  was  compelled  on  Lord  Mayor's  day  to 
leap,  clothes  and  all,  into  a  large  bowl  of 
custard.  The  patent  of  creation  of  the  Order 
of  Fools  (q.  v.),  dated  Cleves,  Nov.  12,  1381,  is 
still  in  existence.  The  custom  also  existed  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  as  the  Peruvian 
and  Mexican  inonarchs  had  their  jesters.  The 
Spanish  conquerors  had  this  ofiicer  in  their 
train.  Prescott  speaks  of  Velasquez's  jester 
as  "a  mad  fellow,  his  jester,  one  of  those 
crack-brained  wits — half  wit,  half  fool — who 
formed  in  those  days  a  common  appendage  to 
every  great  man's  establishment." 
JESUIT'S  BARK.— (See  PERUVIAN  BARK.) 
JESUITS,  or  SOCIETY  OF  JESUS,  founded 
by  Ignatius  Loyola,  at  the  chapel  of  St.  Mary, 
Montmartre,  Paris,  Aug.  16,  1534,  and  con- 
firmed by  a  bull  of  Paul  III.,  Sep.  27,  1540, 
was  made  independent  of  all  civil  and  eccle- 
siastical supervision  by  a  bull  dated  Oct. 
18,  1548.  Jesuit  colleges  were  established 
in  Portugal  in  1540,  at  Antwerp  and  at 
Louvain  in  1552;  and  Ignatius  Loyola  died 
July  31,  1556.  The  Jesuits  received  per- 
mission to  settle  in  France,  Sep.  15,  1561 ;  were 
banished  from  France,  Jan.  8,  1595  ;  and  were 
allowed  to  return,  Jan.  2,  1604.  A  decree 
banishing  the  Jesuits  from.  England  was 
issued  Nov.  15,  1602.  The  secret  instructions 
were  first  printed  at  Cracow  in  1612.  The 
university  of  Tyrnau,  Austria,  the  first  high 
school  of  the  Jesuits,  was  opened  Nov.  13, 
1635.  They  were  expelled  from  Venice  in 
1606,  and  permitted  to  return  in  1656.  A 
French  edict  was  issued  against  the  Jesuits 
Sep.  2,  1716 ;  they  were  banished  from 
Portugal  Sep.  3,  1759;  from  Brazil  in  1760; 
again  from  France  in  1764  ;  and  from  Spain  in 
1767.  The  Jesuit  seminaries  at  Rome  were 
dissolved  Sep.  17,  1772,  and  the  order  was  put 
down  by  a  bull  of  Clement  XIV.,  July  21, 
1773.  They  were  expelled  from  Austria, 
Oct.  i,  1773.  The  Jestiits  were  re-organi/ed 
in  Parma  in  1795,  in  Lithuania  and  White 


Russia  in  1801,  in  Sicily  in  1804,  and  were 
completely  restored  by  a  bull  issued  by 
Pius  VII.,  Aug.  7,  1814  ;  and  a  decree  for  their 
admission  into  Spain  was  issued  May  29,  1815. 
They  were  expelled  from  Russia,  March  25, 
1820,  and  from  Switzerland  Oct.  i,  1847.  (See 
ASSASSINATION.  ) 

JESUS  COLLEGE  (Cambridge)  was  founded 
in  1496,  by  John  Alcock,  Bishop  of  Ely.  The 
building  previous  to  that  time  had  been  used 
for  the  nunnery  of  St.  Radegund,  founded  by 
Malcolm  IV.  (1153—65)  of  Scotland. 

JESUS  COLLEGE  (Oxford).— Queen  Eliza- 
beth, on  the  petition  of  Hugh  ap  Rice,  or 
Price,  granted  a  charter  of  foundation  for  this 
college,  June  27,  1571.  The  inner  quadrangle 
was  completed  in  1676.  James  I.  granted  the 
college  a  new  charter  in  1622. 

JET,  the  gagates  of  Theophrastus  (B.C.  370 — 
287)  and  Pliny  (23— Aug.  24,  79),  was  anciently 
obtained  from  the  Syrian  river  Gagus. 

JEUNESSE  DOREE,  or  GILDED  YOUTH 
— This  party,  chiefly  composed  of  the  middle 
and  richer  classes,  and  distinguished  by  a 
peculiar  dress  called  the  "  costume  a  la 
victimc,"  was  formed  in  France  in  1794,  and 
was  protected  by  Freron.  The  members 
opposed  the  Jacobins,  whom  they  expelled 
from  their  place  of  meeting,  Nov.  8. 

JEWELLERY,  or  the  setting  of  precious 
stones,  is  an  art  of  very  ancient  origin. 

JEWISH  jERA.—  The  Jews  date  from  the 
creation  of  the  world,  which  they  consider  to 
have  occurred  3,760  years  and  three  mouths 
before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  sera. 
According  to  some  authorities,  they  used  the 
sera  of  the  Seleucidje  after  they  became  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Syria,  and  only  abandoned  it  in 
the  i  sth  century. 

JEWISH  DISABILITIES  BILL.  —  Mr. 
Robert  Grant's  bill  for  releasing  the  Jews 
from  civil  disabilities  was  rejected  by  the 
Lords  Aug.  i,  1833;  another,  introduced  by 
Lord  John  Russell,  after  passing  the  Commons 
May  4,  1848,  was  rejected  in  the  Upper  House 
May  25.  A  third,  which  received  the  sanction 
of  the  Lower  House  July  3,  1851,  was  thrown 
out  by  the  Lords,  July  17.  A  similar  bill 
passed  the  Commons  April  15,  1853,  and  was 
again  rejected  April  29  ;  and  after  having  been 
again  approved  by  the  Commons,  was  defeated 
by  the  Lords  July  10,  1857.  By  21  &  22  Viet, 
c.  49  (July  23,  1858),  the  House  of  Commons 
was  empowered  to  modify  the  oaths  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  might  be  taken  by  Jews  ; 
and  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  63  (Aug.  6,  1860),  the 
words  "upon  the  faith  of  a  Christian"  were 
expunged  permanently  in  the  case  of  Jewish 
members. 

JEWS.  —  Strictly  speaking,  this  term  can 
only  be  applied  to  the  subjects  of  the  kings  of 
Judah  after  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes ; 
but  in  its  usual  acceptation  it  refers  to  the 
whoje  race  of  Abraham. 


1996.  Birth  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  26). 

1931.  Abraham,  by  divine  command,  settles  in  Canaan 

(Gen.  xii.  1—5). 

1912.  Godmakes  a  covenant  with  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  18). 
1897.  The  covenant  is  renewed,  and  circumcision  (q.  c.)  is 

instituted  (Gen.  xvii.  1—22). 


JEWS 


[     534 


JEWS 


B.C. 

1896.  Birth  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi.  I — 5). 

1872.  The  sacrifice  of  Isaac  is  prevented  by  divine  inter- 
position (Gen.  xxii.  1—14). 

1856.  Marriage  of  Isaac  and  Kebekah  (Gen.  xxiv.  67). 
1836.  Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xxv.  24—38). 
1831.  Death  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxv.  8). 
1760.  Jacob  is  blessed  instead  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxvii.  I — 45). 
1738.  Joseph  is  sold  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28). 
1718.  Joseph  interprets  the  dreams  of  the  butler  and  tlie 

baker  (Gen.  xl.). 
1706.  Jacob  and  his  family  remove  to  Egypt,  and  settle 

in  Goshen  (Gen.  xlvi.  and  xlvii.). 
1571.  Birth  of  Moses  (Exod.  ii.  I— io). 
1491.  The  exodus  of  the  Jews  from  Egypt  is  effected 

(Exod.  xii.  31—42). 
1451.  The  Jews   enter  Canaan,  under  the  leadership  of 

Joshua  (Josh.  iii.  14—17). 

1405.  They  become'  subject  to  Mesopotamia  (Judges  iii.  8). 
1343.  They  are  subject  to  Eglon,  King  of  Moub  (Judges 

iii.  13—14). 

1330.  Ehud  restores  them  to  freedom  (Judges  iii.  15 — 30). 
1385.  They   are  in  servitude  to  Jubin,  King  of  Canaan 

(Judges  iv.  1—3). 
1265.  Deborah   and  Barak  defeat  the  Canaanitcs,  under 

Sisera,  and  restore  the  Israelites  to  independence 

(Judges  iv.  4 — 34). 
1253.  They  are   again   enslaved  by  the   Midianites,   the 

Amalekites,  and  other  eastern  tribes  (Judges  vi. 

1—6). 

1345.  Gideon  effects  their  deliverance  (Judges  vii.  &  viii.V 
1 187.  The  Ammonites  subdue  the  Jewish  territory  (Judges 

x.  6—9). 

I  \f,i).  Jephtha  expels  them  (Judges  xi.  32,  33). 
1156.  The  Philistines  reduce  the  Jews  to  slavery  (Judges 

xiii.  I). 

1136.  Samson  releases  them  (JndgM  xiv.  and  xv.). 
1143.  Samuel  is  called  by  the  Lord  (l  Sam.  iii.  2—14). 
1116.  The   .Ie\\s    an    -.rain  subdued   by  the    Philistines 

(I  Sam.  iv.  I— II). 

1095.  Saul  is  elected  king  (I  Sam.  x.  1—24). 
1093.  Saul  is  victorious  over  the  Philistines  (i  Sam.  xiv. 

1—23). 

1081.  Birth  of  David. 

1063.  David  prevails  over  Goliath  (l  Sam.  xvii.  1—51)- 
1060.  David  is  compelled,  by  the  jealousy  of  Saul,  to  take 

refuge  in  Gath  (i  Sam.  xxi.  10). 
10=15.  Death  of  Saul,  and  accession  of  David  as  King  of 

Judah  (l  Sam.  xxxi.  1—6.  and  2  Sam.  ii.  4). 
1048.  David  I*  acknowledged  by  all  Israel  („>  Sam.  V.  1—3). 
104.0.  David  wages  war   against  the    Philistines,  and   re- 
covers the   ark,   which   had    been    left  in   their 

hands  (2  Sam.  vi.  1—17). 
1033.  Birth  of  Solomon  (3  Sam.  xii.  34,  35). 
1023.  Rebellion  nud  death  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  9— 

'7>- 

1017.  David  numbers  the  people  (3  Sam.  xxiv.  I — 9). 
1015.  Adonijah  rebels.     Death  of  David,  and  accession  of 

Solomon  (i  Kings  i.  ii.). 
ion.  Solomon  commences  the  erection  of  the  temple  (i 

Kings  vi.  I). 

1004.  The  temple  is  completed  (i  Kings  vi.  38). 
990.  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon  (l  Kings 

x.  1—13). 
975.  Death  of  Solomon,     llevolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  and 

division  of  the  Jewish  territory  into  the  kingdoms 

of  Israel  (q.  v.)  and  Judah  (q.  r.)  (l  Kings  xi.  43, 

and  xii.  l6— 20). 
603.  Daniel   interprets    Nebuchadnezzar's    first    dream, 

and  the  golden  image  is  set  up  (Dan.  ii.  and  iii.). 
561.  Evilmerodach  releases  Jehoiachin  from  captivity  (3 

Kings  xxv.  27— 30). 
539.  Daniel  interprets  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  to 

Uelsha/./ar,  who  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Darius 

the  Mede  the  same  night  (Dan.  v.  i — 31). 
536.  Decree  of   Cyrus  for  the  restoration  of  the  Jews, 

who,  under  Zerubbabel,   return   from  captivity 

(Ezra  i.  and  ii.). 
533.  Artaxerxes   or  Smerdis,  King  of   Persia,  stops  the 

rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  (Exra  iv.  7 — 24). 
515.  The  second  temple  is  dedicated  (Ezra  vi.  16—33). 
458.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Longimanus),  or  Ahasueras,  marries 

the  Jewess  Esther  (Esther  ii.  15—17).    A  writer  in 

Smith's  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (i.  583,  584)  states  that 

Ahasuerus  was  Xerxes  I.,  and  that  his  marriage 

with  Esther,  of  which  history  makes  no  mention, 

took  place  B.C.  479. 
457.  Ezra  is  despatched  to  Judea  (Ezra  vii.  6—9). 


445.  Nehemiah  commences  his  13  years'  governorship  of 
Judea,  during  which  he  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  and 
fortifies  it  with  walls  (Neh.  ii.  I  —  n). 

444.  Ezra  collects  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

333.  Alexander  III.,  while  on  his  march  to  attack  Jeru- 
salem, is  encountered  by  a  procession,  led  by 
Jaddua,  the  high-priest,  and  is  impressed  with  so 
strong  a  sentiment  of  respect,  that  he  enl* 
city,  and  performs  a  solemn  sacrifice  to  the  God 
of  the  Jews. 

330.  Jerusalem  is  stormed,  and  token  by  Ptolemy  (I.) 
Soter. 

313.  Antiuwius  wrests  Judea  from  the  power  of  Pto- 
lemy (I.). 


ures  is  made 


r  Jannanis  is  defeated  by  Ptolemy  I,athy- 
igof  Cyprus,  who  ravages  Palestine. 
compels  Ptolemy  to  withdraw. 


302.  Jerusalem  is  ceded  to  Egypt. 

377.  The  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Scriptur 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadelphia. 

350.  The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  (q.  r.)  is  formed. 

316.  Ptolemy  (IV.)  Philopator  massacres  between  40,000 
and  60,000  Jews  in  Alexandria. 

303.  Antiochus  the  Great,  of  Syria,  besieges  Phoenicia 

and  Judea. 

200.  A  Jewish  settlement  is  formed  in  China. 
199.   Phoenicia  and  Judea  are  recovered  by  the  Egyptian 

general  Scopas. 
198.  Antiochus  defeats  Scopas,  and  takes  the  whole  of 

Palestine  from  Egypt. 
170.  Antioehus  Epiphanes,  King  of   Syria,  takes  Jeru- 

salem (q.  •».). 

168.  Apolloiiius  takes  Jerusalem  (q.  v.). 
165.  Judas  Maccabeus  commences  his  insurrection  against 

the  Syrians. 

163.  Antiochus  Eupator  appoints  Judas  governor. 
160.  Judas  concludes  the  first  treaty  between  the  Jews 

and  the  Konians. 
156.  The  Syrians  withdraw  their  claim  to  the  obedience 

of  the  Jews,  who  are  left  at  peace. 
144.  Jonathan,  prince  of   the   Jews  and  high-priest,  is 

taken    prisoner  by   Tryphon,  at  Ptolcmais,    and 

put  to  death. 
130.  John  Hyrcauus  subdues  the  Idumseaus,  and  compels 

them  to  adopt  the  .  I.  -wish  faith. 
107.  Hyrcaiius's  sou,  Aristobulus,  assumes  the  title  of 

104.  Alexander  Jannams  is  defeated 

rus,  King  of  Cj 

103.  Cleopatra  compels  Ptolemy  to 
96.  Alexander  Jaiimeus  takes  Gaza,  and  puts  the  in- 

habitants to  the  sword. 
94.  The  Pharisees  provoke  an  insurrection  against  Alex- 

ander JamiMMis. 
86.  Alexander  Janna:us  suppresses  a   rebellion  of   tho 

Pharisees,  crucifying  800  rebels,  whose  \\  i\es  and 

children  he  causes  to  be  butchered  before  their 

eyes,    while  ho   and   his    concubines    banquet    in 

sight  of  the  victims.     For  this  atrocity  he  is  sur- 

named  the  "  Thracian." 

70.  Aristobulus  II.  deposes  his  brother  Hyrcanus  (II.). 
63.  The  Komans,  under  Pompey,  take  Jerusalem,  and 

restore  Hyrcanus  (II.)  to  the  throne  as  a  tributary 

prince. 
57.  Alexander,  the  eldest  son  of  Aristobulug  II.,  collects 

an  army,  and  ravages  the  country. 
54.  Crassus  plunders  the  temple,  to  obtain  treasure  for 

the  Parthian  war. 
49.  The   deposed  Aristobulus  (II.)   is  poisoned  by  tho 

friends  of  Pompey. 
42.  Marriage  of   Herod  and  Mariamne,  granddaughter 

of  Hyrcanus,  the  Jewish  high-priest. 
40.  The  Parthians,  under  Pacorus,  invade  Judea,  and 

restore  Antigonus  to  the  kingdom  of  his  lather 

Aristobulus  (II.).     The  Koman  senate  proclaims 

Herod  king  the  same  year. 
37.  Herod  and  Socius  take  Jerusalem  (q.  v.). 
33.  A  dreadful  earthquake  destroys  30,000  persons  in 

Judea. 

39.  Herod  puts  hia  wife  Mariamne  to  death. 
17.  Herod  commences  the  re-erection  of  the  temple. 
4,  Friday,  April  5.     The   Nativity,  four  years  before 

the  common  computation   (Matt.  i.   18  —  35,  and 

Luke  ii.  1-7). 
A.D. 
6.  Augustus  makes  the  whole  kingdom  into  the  Roman 

province  of  Judea. 

t  Pontius  1  Slate  is  appointed  procurator  of  Judea. 
John  the  Baptist  preaches  to  the  Jews  (Mutt.  iii. 
J—  13}. 


JEWS 


[     535     1 


JOACHIMITES 


A.D. 

37-  Baptism  of  Christ  (Matt.  iii.  13—17). 

30.  The  Passion  and  Ascension  of  the  Saviour  (Matt. 

xxvii.  and  xxviii..  Mark  xv.  and  xvi.,  Luke  xxiii. 

and  xxiv.,   and  John  xix.,  xx.,  and  xxi.).     (See 

CRUCIFIXION.  ) 

§  Judea  is  desolated  by  famine. 
The  Jews  revolt  against  the  Romans. 
Vespasian  invades  Judea. 
70,  Sep.  8.    Titus  destroys  Jerusalem  (q.  v.). 
95.  The  Jews  refuse  to  pay  a  tax  for  the  rebuilding  of 

the  temple  of  Jupiter  Cnpitolinus. 
115.  The   Jews  of    Cyrene,    Egypt,    and   Cyprus,  rebel 

against  the  Romans. 
130.  Hadrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,   which  he  calls  .ffilia 

Capitolina.     The  Jews  rebel  in  consequence. 
135.  The  war  is  concluded,  and  the  Jews  are  banished 
from  Judea,    and    cease  to  possess  a    national 
existence. 

202.  They  are  severely  persecuted  by  Septimius  Severus. 
315.  Constantino  I.   forbids  them  to  persecute  Jewish 

converts  to  Christianity. 
439.  Thcodosius  II.  prohibits  them  from  erecting  syna- 


612.  The  Jews  in  Spain  are  cruelly  persecuted. 

623.  Mohammed  expels  them  from  Medina. 

712.  They  assist  the  Moors  in  the  conquest  of  Spain. 

740.  A  Jewish  kingdom  is  said  to  be  established  on  the 

shores  of  the  Caspian. 
750.  Some  Jews  settle  in  England. 
1147.  The  Jews  in  the  East   are   persecuted   by  Sultan 

Motavakel. 

1096.  The  Crusaders,  on  their  march  to  Palestine,  mas- 
sacre  about   17,000   European   Jews,   at  Troves, 
Cologne,  and  other  German  cities. 
1180.  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  banishes  them  from  France. 
1189,  Sep.  3.  Numbers  are  murdered  in  England  at  the 

coronation  of  Richard  I. 

1315.  The  Council  of  Lateran  orders  all  Jews  throughout 
Christendom  to    adopt  the  costume    called    the 
Rouelle. 
1269.  English    Jews     are     prohibited     from    possessing 

freehold  property. 

1290.  Edward  I.  orders  their  expulsion  from  England. 
1391.  The  Spanish  Jews  undergo  severe  persecution,  and 

about  200,000  submit  to  baptism. 
1394.  Charles  VI.  expels  them  from  France. 
1425.  The  Jews  are  expelled  from  Cologne. 
1492.  The  Jews  are  expelled  from  Spain. 
1505.  All  Jewish  children  in  Portugal  under  14  years  of 
age  are  ordered  to  be  given  up  by  their  parents, 
and  educated  as  Christians. 

1753.  A  bill  for  the  naturalization  of  Jews  in  England  is 

passed. 

1754.  The  measure  is  repealed. 

1782.  An   edict  for  their  limited   toleration  is  issued  in 

Austria. 
1791.  Jews   are  admitted   as   citizens   of    France,   with 

equal  rights  as  Christians. 
1796.  The  Jews  are  declared  free  citizens  of  the  Batavian 

Republic. 
1806.  Napoleon  I.  assembles  a  sanhedrim  at  Paris,  and 

confers  certain  civil  privileges  on  the  Jews. 
1809.  The  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the 

Jews  is  founded  at  London. 

1812.  Jews  are  admitted  to  civil  rights  in  Prussia. 
1814.  Jews  are  admitted  as  magistrates  in  Denmark. 
1835,  Oct.  i.  Mr.  Salomons  is  elected  sheriff  of  London. 
1837,  Nov.  9.    Moses  Montefiore  receives  the  honour  of 

knighthood  from  Queen  Victoria,   being  the  first 

Jewish  knight 

1840,  Feb.  i.  The  Jews  are  persecuted  at  Damascus. 
1846,  Aug.   18.  Jews  are  placed  upon  the  same  footing  as 

Protestant  dissenters,  with  respect  to  their  places 

of  worship,  schools,  &c.,  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  59,  s.  3. 
1852,  Sep.  3.  The  Jews  are  persecuted  at  Stockholm. 
1855,  Sep.  29.  Alderman  Salomons  is  elected  Lord  Mayor 

of  London,  being  the  first  Jew  that  filled  the 

office. 

(See  JEWISH  DISABILITIES  BILL.) 

KINGS   OF  THE  JEWS. 
B.C. 

1095.  Saul. 
1055.  David  (Judah). 
1048.  Ditto  (all  Israel). 
1015.  Solomon. 

975.  The  Jewish  territory  is  divided  into  the  two  king- 
doms of  Judah  (q.  v.)  and  Israel  (q.  ».). 


Hales  gives  the  following  list  of  kings  and 
rulers : — 

BABYLONIAN  DYNASTY. 


B.C. 

586.  Nebuchadnezzar. 
561.  Evilmerodach. 


B.C. 

558.  Belshazzar. 


MEDIAN  AND  PERSIAN  DYNASTY. 

483.  Jehoiakim  high  priest 
30  years. 


553.  Darius  the  Mede. 
551.  Cyrus  the  Persian. 


529.  Cambyses. 

531.  Darius  llystaspcs. 

485.  Xerxes. 


464.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Longi- 
manus,  or  Aha&ue- 
rus). 

JEWISH  HIGH-PRIESTS. 

420.  Eliashib.  I    373.  Jonathan,  or  John. 

413.  Joiada,  or  Judas.          |    341.  Jaddua,  or  Jaddus. 

MACEDO-GEECIAN  DYNASTY. 
217.  Simon  II. 
195.  OniasIII. 
175.  Jesus,  or  Jason. 


321.  Onias  I. 
300.  Simon  the  Just. 
391.  Eleazer. 
376.  Manasses. 
350.  Onias  II. 


173.  Onias,  or  Meuelaus. 


ASAMON^AN  PRINCES. 

[c6.  Arjstobulns  I.  and  Ar 

tigonus. 

:o5.  Alexander  Janueeua. 
78.  Alexandra. 
69.  Hyrcanus  II. 
69.  Aristobulus  II. 


fJudas  Maccabeus. 
163.  -(Joachim,  or  Alcinus, 

(     high  priest. 
160.  Jonathan. 
143.  Simon. 
136.  John  Hyrcanus  I. 

ROMAN  DYNASTY. 

63.  Hyrcanus  II.  (again).   |      40.  Antigonus. 
IDUMJEAK  KING. 

37.  Herod  the  Great. 

JEWS'-HARP,  or  JEWS'-TRUMP.  —  This 
musical  instrument,  deriving  its  name  from  a 
corruption  of  the  French  jeu  trompe,  toy- 
trumpet,  is  mentioned  in  a  rare  black-letter 
book,  called  "Newes  from  Scotland,"  in  1591, 
where  it  is  related  that  one  Geilles  Duncan,  a 
servant-girl  celebrated  for  her  performance 
upon  this  instrument,  played  before  King 
James  VI.  of  Scotland.  Pratorius,  in  his 
"Organographia,"  pxiblished  in  1619,  refers  to 
it  under  the  name  of  Crembalum.  M.  Eulen- 
stein  excited  considerable  interest  by  per- 
forming on  1 6  of  these  instruments  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  and  various  public  concerts. 
Fools  used  to  play  upon  the  Jews' -harp,  to 
amuse  the  guests  at  taverns.  It  is  also  called 
Jaws'-harp,  which  Douce  maintains  to  be  its 
proper  name,  because  played  upon  between 
the  jaws. 

J  HAN  SI  (Hindostan).  —  This  province 
became  connected  by  treaty  with  the  East 
India  Company  in  1804,  was  made  a  tributary 
province  in  1817,  and  was  ceded  to  the  British 
Government  in  1854. 

JHELUM.— (See  BUCEPHALA  and  HYDASPES.) 

JICIN.— (See  GITSCHIN.) 

JIONPORE,  or  JOANPORE  (Hindostan), 
the  chief  town  of  a  district  bearing  the  same 
name,  which  came  into  possession  of  the 
British  in  1775.  The  fort  is  of  great  strength, 
and  was  built  in  1370  by  the  Sultan  of  Delhi. 
On  the  capture  of  Delhi  by  Tamerlane  in  1398, 
Jionpore  passed  from  under  the  royal  sway, 
but  was  again  annexed  to  the  empire  in  1478. 
In  1570,  having  become  much  dilapidated,  the 
fort  was  put  into  a  state  of  thorough  repair  by 
the  governor  of  Bengal. 

JOACHIMITES.  —  This  heretical  sect, 
founded  by  Joachim,  Abbot  of  Fiore,  in  Cala- 
bria, was  condemned  by  the  Lateran  Council 


JOACHIM 


[    536    ] 


JOHNSTON 


in  1215,  and  by  the  Council  of  Aries  in  1260, 
or  1261.  The  Joachimites  were  a  branch  of 
the  Fruticelli,  or  Spiritualists. 

JOACHIM,  ST.  (Order  of).— This  equestrian 
order  of  Francoiiia  was  founded  in  1755,  by  an 
association  of  younger  members  of  the  German 
aristocracy.  It  was  originally  named  the 
"  Order  of  Defenders  of  the  Honour  of  Diviiie> 
Providence,"  and  received  its  present  title  in 
1785.  Lord  Nelson  was  made  a  member 
April  3,  1802. 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  or  JEANNE  D'ARC.— (See 
ORLEANS.) 

JOAN  SANDERSON.  —  (See  CUSHION 
DANCE.  ) 

JOANNINA.— (See  JANINA.) 

JOANN1TES,  or  JOHANNITES,  followers 
of  John  Chrysostom  (347 — Sep.  14,  407),  who 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Constanti- 
nople, Feb.  26,  398.  Having,  by  his  vigorous 
repression  of  clerical  luxury  and  immorality, 
provoked  powerful  opposition,  Theophilus,  Pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria,  procured  his  deposition 
by  the  Council  ad  (juomim,  or  Synod  at  the 
Oak,  a  villa  near  Chalcedon,  in  June,  403. 
Having  resumed  his  see  under  the  imperial 
authority,  he  was  again  deposed  by  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  in  404,  and  compelled  to 
.seek  refuge  in  flight,  when  his  adherents  were 
treated  witli  great  severity  by  the  victorious 
faction.  His  followers  continued  a  distinct 
body  till  about  438. 

JOB  (Book  of).  — This,  perhaps  the  most 
ancient  book  in  existence,  was  written 
(Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  i.  1099) 
"many  years  after  the  death  of  Job,  before 
the  promulgation  of  the  Law,  by  one  speak- 
ing the  Hebrew  language,  and  thoroughly 
conversant  with  the  traditions  preserved  in 
tlie  family  of  Abraham." 

JOCKEY  CLUB. —  This  corporate  racing 
body,  instituted  at  Newmarket  during  the 
reign  of  George  II.  (1727 — 1760),  was  first 
officially  noticed  in  "Heber's  Hacin,;  Calen- 
dar," for  1758.  Its  decisions  in  disputed 
cases,  first  published  in  1808,  have  been  con- 
tinued in  the  "Racing  Calendar"  ever  since. 
New  rules  were  enacted  in  1828  and  1858. 

JOEL.— This  prophetical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  written  by  Joel,  the  sun  of 
Pethuel,  about  B.C.  877—847.  Commentaries 
were  published  by  Edward  Pocock  in  1691,  and 
by  Samuel  (.'handler  in  1735. 

JOHANNISBERQ  (Battle).  —  The  French, 
under  the  Prince  de  Soubise,  defeated  the 
hereditary  Prince  of  Brunswick  at  this  place, 
iu  Nassau,  celebrated  for  its  wine,  near  Fried- 
berg,  Bavaria,  Aug.  30,  1762. 

JOHN,  the  youngest  child  and  the  fifth  son 
of  Henry  II.  and  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  born 
at  Oxford  Dec.  24,  1166,  was  crowned  King  of 
England  at  Westminster  May  27  (Ascension- 
day  ,  1199.  He  divorced  his  wife  Isabel,  the 
Earl  of  Gloucester's  daughter,  in  order  to 
many  Isabel  of  Angouleme,  who  was  crowned 
at  Westminster,  Oct.  8,  1200.  By  his  second 
wife  he  had  two  sons  and  three  daughters, 
iiamely,  Henry  (see  HENRY  III.),  and  Richard, 
Duke  of  Cornwall,  who  was  born  in  1209,  and 
died  in  1271.  His  daughters  were  Joan,  mar- 
ried to  Alexander  J  I.  of  Scotland ;  Eleanora, 


to  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  afterwards  to 
Simon  of  Montfort ;  and  Isabel,  to  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  John  died  at  Newark  Oct.  19, 
1216,  and  was  buried  at  Worcester.  He  was 
surnamed  Lackland. 

JOHN  O'GROAT'S  HOUSE,  or 
DUNGANSBY  HEAD,  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  Scotland,  was  founded,  ac< 
to  tradition,  in  the  reign  of  James  IV.  (1488 — 
I5I3)>  by  John  Groat,  who  settled  a  question  of 
precedency  among  the  eight  families  into 
which  his  relations  were  divided,  by  erecting 
an  eight-sided  house,  with  a  door  and  window 
on  each  side,  and  a  table  of  eight  sides  within, 
so  that  the  head  of  each  family  might  enter 
by  his  own  door,  and  occupy  his  own  head  of 
the  table.  In  1741  Malcolm  Groat  sold  the 
house,  of  which  only  a  small  green  mound 
now  remains. 

JOHN,  ST.— The  Royal  Prussian  Order  of 
St.  John  was  founded  in  1812. 

JOHN,  ST.  (Epistles).— The  first  epistle  was 
written  from  Ephesus  in  68  or  69.  The  .second 
and  third,  addressed  respectively  to  "  the 
Elect  Lady"  and  to  "  Gaius,"  were  probably 
written  soon  after. 

JOHN,  ST.  <  J os]  iel),  was  written  at  Ephesus 
by  St.  John  about  97  or  08,  though  a  writer  in 
"Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  (i.  1112) 
places  it  as  early  as  "about  78."  (Set 

Al.iM.lAN3.) 

JOHN,  ST.  (Knights).— (See  HOSPITAI.UOICS.) 

JOHN'S,  ST.  (Antigua),  the  capital,  was  con- 
nected with  a  small  island  on  which  the  lunatic 
asylum  is  situated,  by  a  causeway  completed 
in  1846.  The  cathedral  and  savings-bank  were 
erected  in  1847. 

JOHN'S,  ST.  (Newfoundland),  the  chief 
town  of  the  island,  was  fortified  by  Queen 
Eli/abeth  in  1583,  when  she  formally  claimed 
i-eignty.  The  French  were  repulsed  in 
attacks  upon  St.  John's  in  1705  and  in  1708, 
and  obtained  possession  June  24,  1762.  The 
garrison  capitulated  to  an  English  force  Sep. 
18,  1762.  The  town  suffered  considerably  fr. 'in 
tires  in  1815,  1817,  1818,  and  June  9,  1846.  On 
the  last-mentioned  occasion  it  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed. 

JOHN'S  (ST.)  COLLEGE  (Cambridge)  was 
founded  in  1511,  on  the  site  of  the  Priory, 
styled  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
dissolved  in  1510,  in  pursuance,  of  the  will  of 
Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond,  who  died  in 

I5JOHN'S   (ST.)    COLLEGE    (Oxford).— King 
Henry  VIII.  granted  St.  Bernard's  CoU 
educational  establishment  of  the  Cist.  . 
founded  in  the  time  of  Henry  VI.,  to  I'm-ist 
Church,    Oxford ;    and  Sir  Thomas  White,   a 
Muscovy  merchant,  twice  lord  mayor  of  Lou- 
don,   purchased  it  in  1555,    and  founded  St. 
John's  College,   March   5,    1557.     Arch' 
Laud  added  a  second  quadrangle,  com. 
in  1631  and  completed  in  1635,  from  a  design 
by  Inigo  Jones. 

JOHNSON  CLUB  (London).  —  (See  CLUB, 
THE.) 

JOHNSTON,  or  ST.  JOHN'S  TOWN  (Battle\ 
— Aymer  de  Valence  defeated  Bruce,  who  hud 
Incited  the  Scottish  people  tore!  A  ' 
land,  at  this  place,  in  Scotland,  July  22,  1306. 


JOHORE 


[    537 


JUBILEE 


JOHORE  (Malacca),  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent state  of  the  same  name,  was  founded 
by  some  refugees  from  Malacca,  when  it  was 
captured  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511.  The 
new  principality  was  conquered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1608,  and  it  passed  into  the  power  of 
the  Sultan  of  Acheen  in  1613. 

JOINERS  wore  incorporated  in  1569. 

JOINT-STOCK  BANKS.— By  7  Geo.  IV.  c. 
46  (May  26,  1826),  copartnerships  of  more  than 
six  were  permitted  to  carry  011  business  as 
bankers  in  England,  65  miles  from  London, 
provided  they  had  no  establishment  in  the  me- 
tropolis. By  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  113  (Sep.  5,  1844), 
no  joint-stock  bank  was  allowed  to  transact 
business  except  under  letters  patent.  This 
act,  amended  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  100  (July  29, 
1856),  was  repealed  and  superseded  by  20 
<fo  21  Viet.  c.  49  (Aug.  17,  1857).  Joint-stock 
banking  companies,  on  the  principle  of  limited 
liability,  were  sanctioned  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  91 
(Aug.  2,  1858). 

JOINT-STOCK  COMPANIES  ACTS.— The 
registration,  incorporation,  and  general  man- 
agement of  joint-stock  companies  were  regu- 
lated by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  no  (Sep.  5,  1844),  which 
was  amended  by  10  &  u  Viet.  c.  78  (July  22, 
1847).  The  Companies  Clauses  Consolidation 
Act,  8  <fe  9  Viet.  c.  16  (May  8,  1845),  united  into 
one  act  certain  provisions  usually  inserted  in 
acts  with  respect  to  the  constitution  of  joint- 
stock  companies.  The  dissolution  and  winding 
up  of  the  affairs  of  companies  were  facilitated 
by  n  &  12  Viet,  c,  45  (Aug.  14,  1848),  which 
was  amended  by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  108  (Aug.  i, 
1849).  The  Limited  Liability  Act,  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  133  (Aug.  14,  1855),  enabled  all  joint- 
stock  companies  with  a  capital  divided  into 
shares  of  not  less  than  £10  each,  to  obtain  a 
certificate  of  complete  registration  with  limited 
liability  upon  certain  stated  conditions.  The 
laws  relating  to  all  joint-stock  companies,  ex- 
cept those  formed  for  purposes  of  banking 
and  insurance,  were  consolidated  and  amended 
by  the  Joint-Stock  Companies  Act,  19  &  20 
Viet.  c.  47  (July  14,  1856),  which  was  again 
amended  by  20  and  21  Viet.  c.  14  (July  13, 
1857),  and  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  60  (July  23,  1858). 
The  incorporation,  winding  up,  &c.,  of  trading 
companies,  is  regulated  by  25  &  26  Viet.  e.  89 
(Aug.  7,  1862),  which  came  into  operation  Nov. 
2,  1862.  A  convention,  relative  to  joint-stock 
companies,  between  Queen  Victoria  and  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  was  signed  at  Paris, 
April  30,  and  ratifications  were  exchanged 
May  15,  1862. 

JOHBA.— (See  NIGER.) 

JONAH.— This  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, written  by  Jonah,  son  of  Amittai,  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  about  B.C.  825,  relates 
the  mission  of  the  prophet  to  the  impious  in- 
habitants of  Nineveh,  and  their  consequent  re- 
pentance and  deliverance  from  the  dangers 
with  which  he  had  threatened  them.  Accord- 
ing to  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible" 
(i.  1119),  "the  King  of  Nineveh  at  this  time 
is  supposed  (Usher  and  others)  to  have  been 
Pul,  who  is  placed  by  Layard  (Nin.  and  Bab., 
624),  B.C.  750 ;  but  an  earlier  king,  Adramme- 
lech  II.,  B.C.  840,  is  regarded  as  more  probable 
by  Drake.  Tho  English  Bible  gives  B.C.  862." 


Rawliuson  ("The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of 
the  Ancient  Eastern  World,"  ii.  390,  note) 
assigns  it  to  about  B.C.  760 — 750. 

JONESBO ROUGH.— (See  ATLANTA.) 

JONKOPING  (Treaty)  was  concluded  be- 
tween Sweden  and  Denmark,  at  this  town,  in 
Sweden,  Dec.  10,  1809. 

JOPPA.— (See  JAFFA.) 

JOSHUA.— This  historical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  written  by  Joshua,  originally 
Oshea,  or  Hoshea  (Num.  xiii.  16),  before  B.C. 
1443,  relates  the  conquest  and  occupation  of 
Canaan  by  the  Israelites  under  that  leader.  A 
Samaritan  Book  of  Joshua,  in  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage, was  printed  at  Ley  den  in  1848. 

JOTAPATA  (Galilee).  —  Flavius  Josephus 
(38—100)  the  historian,  at  that  time  Governor 
of  Galilee,  defended  this  city,  the  site  of  which 
is  occupied  by  Arbil,  against  Vespasian,  for 
47  days,  in  67.  The  city  was  captured  and 
razed  to  the  ground. 

JOURNAL  DES  SAVANTS.— This  celebrated 
French  review,  established  by  Denis  de  Sallo, 
Jan.  5,  1665,  was  suspended  in  1792.  It  was 
re-established  in  1797  ;  again  suspended  in 
1802  ;  and  resuscitated,  with  an  annual  sub- 
sidy of  25,000  francs,  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1816. 

JOURNALS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COM- 
MONS. —The  official  record  of  the  proceedings 
of  this  department  of  the  legislative  body 
commenced  Nov.  8,  1547.  They  were  not  kept 
with  any  degree  of  regularity  until  1607. 

JOURNALS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  LORDS. 
— The  record  of  the  business  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  commenced  in  1509,  was  first  ordered 
to  be  printed  in  1767. 

JOUSTS.— (See  TOURNAMENTS.) 

JU ANA.— (See  CUBA.)' 

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  or  MAS-A-TIERRA 
(Pacific). — This  island  was  discovered  by  Juan 
Fernandez,  a  Spanish  navigator,  in  1567. 
Alexander  Selkirk  having  quarrelled  with  his 
captain  in  a  bucaneermg  expedition,  was  set 
on  shore  here  in  Sep.,  1704,  remained  in  soli- 
tude four  years  and  four  months,  and  was 
rescued  by  an  English  vessel  in  Feb.,  1709. 
He  arrived  in  England  in  1711,  and  an  account 
of  his  extraordinary  adventures  is  said  to  have 
given  Daniel  Defoe  the  idea  of  the  story  of 
"  Robinson  Crusoe,"  of  which  the  first  edition 
appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1719.  In  1750  the 
Spaniards  formed  a  colony,  which  was  soon 
afterwards  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

JUBILEE.— The  Jews  celebrated  a  jubilee 
every  50  years  (Lev.  xxv.  8),  B.C.  1490.  A 
jubilee  once  a  century,  for  granting  plenary 
indulgences,  was  first  established  by  Boniface 
VIII.,  in  1300.  Clement  VI.,  in  1350,  reduced 
the  period  of  the  jubilee  to  50  years ;  Urban 
VI.,  in  1389,  appointed  it  to  be  held  every  35 
years;  and  Sixtus  IV.,  in  1475,  reduced  the 
term  to  25  years.  It  has  been  observed  with 
great  regularity  by  the  popes.  The  centenary 
of  the  Reformation  was  celebrated  in  Germany 
by  a  Protestant  jubilee  in  1617.  The  Shaks- 
peare  Jubilee  was  held  at  Stratford-upon- 
Avon,  Sep.  6,  1769.  A  jubilee  was  celebrated 
in  England  at  the  commencement  of  the  soth 
year  of  George  the  Third's  reign,  Oct.  25,  1809. 
The  close  of  the  revolutionary  war  was  cele- 
brated in  England  by  a  jubilee,  Aug.  i,  1814. 


JUDAH 


r  538  i 


JUDE 


JUDAH.— On  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes 
(i  Kings  xii.  i — 19),  B.C.  975,  the  Jewish  terri 
tory  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Israe! 
(q.  v.}  and  Judah.  The  kingdom  of  Judah 
lasted  from  B.C.  975  to  B.C.  606.  (See  JEWS.) 
B.C. 

975.  Rehoboatn,  King  of  Judah. 

972  or  970.  Shishuk,   King  of  Egypt,  invades  Judah  anc 

plunders  Jerusalem  (i  Kingi  xiv.  25). 
957.  Abijah  defeats  Jeroboam  I.,  '  King  of' Israel. 
951.  Asa  aboliftheg  idolatry  (i  Kin^s  xv.  12). 
941.  Asa  defeats  Zerah  the  Ethiopian  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9—12) 
He  induces  the  people  to  enter  into  a  covenani 
with  (lod  (2  Chron.  xv.  12). 
940.  Asa  obtains   the  aid   of  Benhadad,  King  of  Syria, 

againct  Baa«ha  (i  Kings  xv.  16—20). 
912.  Jehoshaphat  sends  princes  and  Levites  through  nl 
the  cities  of  Juduh,  to  teach  his  subjects  tho  Un\ 
of  the  Lord  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7—9). 
897.  Jehosliuphut  joins  A  hub  against  the  Syrians. 
896.  Jelioshaphat    defeats    a    combined    army  of    Am- 
monites, Afoal.ites,  and  Syrians  (2,  Cliron.  xx.  22). 
892.  Jehoram,  or  Joram,  on  succeeding  Ins  father  .(elms- 
liapliat,  slays  "all   his  brethren  with  the  sword, ' 
and  does  that  which   is  "evil  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord"  (2  Chron.  xxi.  4 — 6). 

887.  Judah  is  pillaged  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians, 
\\lio  plunder  the  king's  house  and  slay  all  his 
sons  exeept  .lehoahax,  or  Ahaziah,  thu  youngest 
(4  Chivni.  xxi.  16,  17). 

884.  Ahay.mli,  smitten  at  <  iur  by  Jehu,  King  of  Israel, 
fleet  to  Mc-iddo,  u  here  ho  dies  (A  Kin-six.  ^M. 
His  inotlier,  Atlialiah,  usurps  the  throne,  and  de- 
stroys all  the  seed  royal  exn.pt  Johoash  or  J.j;,.-ii 
son  of  the  late  king,  who  is  (.reserved  by  his  aunt 
.lehosheba  (2  Kings  xi.  1—3). 

878.  Athaliah  is  slain  at  Jerusalem  by  order  of  Jehoiada 
tin-  priest,    who   raises   .Jehoash  to  the   throne  of 
his  fatherly   Kinps  xi.  2O,  2l)- 
856.  Jehoa-h  gives  orders  for  the  repairs  of  the  temple 

(3  Klngi 

850.  Death  of  the  hi-h-priost  Jehoiada,  aged  130  years. 
"They  buried  him  in  the  eily  ,,f  I),ivi<!  among 
the  Kings,  because  he  had  done  good  iii  Israel 
both  toward  Cod,  and  toward  his  BOOM* 
(2  Chron.  xxiv.  15,  16). 

840.  Jehoash  having  lapsed  into  idolatry,  and  slain  Ze- 

rliariali.  son  of  .Jehoaid:!,   Is  defeated   by  lia/ael, 

Kin-  of  Syria,    and   is  assassinated   by  his  own 

sors-ants(2  Chron.  xxiv.    17—26). 

827.  Amazi.ih  invades  the  Kdomiies,  and  slays  1 0,000  in 

Mount  Seir(j  Kings  xiv.  7). 

826.  Am.i/.iah  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Jehoash, 
King  of  Israel,  at  Beth-shemesh  (2  Kings  xiv. 


8—14). 

iariah  or  1 


765.  Azariah  or  U/.ziah  becomes  a  leper  (2  Kings  xv   O 

75*.  Isaiah  begins  to  prophesy. 

742.   I'ckah,   King  of  Israel,  and  Re/.in,  King  of  Syria 

invade  Judah  (2  Ki.i-s  xvi.  5). 
741.   I'ekah  ravages  Judah  (4  Chron.  xxviii.  6). 
730  (about).  Ahaz  submits  to  Tiglath-I'ileser  II.  Kingof 

Assyria,  who  slays  lie/in  (2  Kings  xvi.  7-9). 
736.  Hezekiah  effects  a  reformation. 
713.  Sennacherib  invades    Judah   for   the  first  time   (2 

Kings  xviii  13).   Rawlinson  (Anct  Monarchies  ii. 

43*)  plaoei  this  invasion  B.C.  700. 
713.  Ambassadors     from     Bciodach-IJaladan,    King    of 

l:ab\l,,n.  arrive  in  Judah  (2  Kings  xx.  12—15). 
710.  Sennacherib  invades  Judah  for  the  second  time.  By 

divine  interposition  1*5,000  of  his  soldiers  perish 

in  one  night,   and  the  invaders  retire  (2  Kings 

xviii.  17    &c.).     Rawlinson  (Anct.    Monarchies  ii. 

43V)  assigns  B.C.  698  as  the  probable  date  of  this 

Invasion. 
698.  Manasseh  restores  idolatry,  profanes  the  temple,  and 

makes  his  children  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch 

(2  Kings  xxi.  1—9). 
678.  Esar-haddon,    King    of    Assyria,    places   different 

nations  in   Samaria,    and    expels  the   Israelites 

(2  Kings  xvii.  24). 
677.  Manasseh  is  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  to  Babylon 

by  Ksar-haddon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  ii). 
655.  Ilolofernes,  chief  captain  of  Xabuchodonosor,  King 

of  Nineveh,  is  slain  at  Bethulia,  by  Judith.    Xo 

authentic  records  mention  this  sovereign,  and  the 

]nst,,i-y    is    regarded  as  fictitious.     (See  JUDITH, 


624.  Josiah  effects    a  reformation  iu  religion   (2  Kings 

xxi.  26.  and  xxii.). 
623.  Josiah  celebrates  a  solemn  passover  (2  Kings  xxiii. 

610.  Josiah,  slain  at  Megiddo  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  King 
of  Egypt  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29),  is  succeeded  by  his* 
son  Jehoahaz.  After  reigning  three  months  ho 
is  imprisoned  at  Kiblah  by  Pharaoh,  who  exacts 
a  tribute  of  100  talents  of  silver  and  one  talent  of 
gold,  and  makes  Eliakinvson  of  Josiah,  king, 
under  the  name  of  Jehoiachim  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
31— 34)-  Eawlinson  (Anct.  Monarchies  iii.  486) 
assigns  these  events  to  B.C.  608. 

609.  Jeremiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  Jews,  and  tho 
destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

607.  Jeremiah  predicts  the  70  years'  captivity.  First 
reading  of  the  Roll. 

605.  Jehoiachim  bums  the  roll  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
23).  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  takes 
Jerusalem  and  carries  off  several  of  the.lcus 
into  captivity  in  liabylon  I  4  Kings  xxiv.  and  xxv.). 
Second  reading  of  the  Roll. 

598.  Nebuchadnezzar  suppresses  an  insurrection  in  Judah, 
and  carries  King  Jehoiaehin  and  more  captives 
into  Babylon  (2  Kings  xxiv.  lo,  16). 

597-  Duration  of  tho  captivity  and  the  restoration  pre- 
dicted. 

588.  Zedekiah  rebels  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  in- 
vades Judah.  and  lays  siege,  to  Jerusalem. 

5b6.  He  takes  Jerusalem  (7.1-.)  and  puts  out  th. 

Zedekiah,  whom  he  kee,  s  in  captivity  at      ' 
till  his  death  (2  Kings  xxv.  1—7). 

KINGS   OF   JUDAH. 


Authorized 

Version  of 
Kng.  Bible. 

Clinton. 

Winer. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

975 
958 

976 
959 

975 
957 

Rehoboam. 
Abijah. 

955 

956 
9*5 

891 

955 

13 

Asa. 
.Jehoshaphat. 
Jehoram. 

88c 

884 

885 

Almziah. 

884 

883 

884 

Athaliah. 

878 

839 

877 
83? 

878 
838 

Jehoash,  or  Joash. 
Amazltth. 

810 

808 

889 

t'z/.iah,  or  Azariah. 

758 

756 

758 

.lotham. 

74-s 

741- 

741 

Ahaz. 

4a6 
698 

1 

i 

Ilezekiah. 
Manasseh. 

643 

642 

641 

Amon. 

641 
6  10  or  608 
610  or  608 

640 
609 
609 

Is 

609 

609 

Josiah. 
Jehoahaz. 
Jehoiachim. 

599 

598 

598 

.lehoiaehin,  orConiah. 

599 

598 

598 

Zedekiah. 

588 

5«7 

5*6 

Jerusalem  destroyed. 

JUDAIZERS,  or  JUDAIZING  CHRIS- 
TIAXS. — Persons  who  during  the  ist  century 
sought  to  impose  upon  the  Christian  converts 
the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  observances,  or  who 
attempted  to  sanction  by  Jewish  example 
the  practice  of  Oriental  licentiousness,  were 
called  Judaizers.  Several  sects  repeated 
these  errors.  (See  CERINTHIANS,  EBIONITES, 
and  NAZARENES.) 

JUDE.— This  epistle  was  written  by  Jude, 
;he  brother  of  James,  and,  according  to  many 
of  the  Fathers,  son  of  Joseph,  the  husband  of 
;he  Virgin  Mary,  about  66.  Lardner  places  it 
Between  64  and  66,  Davidson  before  70,  and 
Credner  in  80.  It  was  first  mentioned  in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment,  about  170,  and  was 
accepted  as  authentic  by  the  Council  of  Car- 
thage in  397. 


JUDENBUEG 


[     539    1 


JUNIUS'S 


JUDENBURG. — An  armistice  for  six  days 
was  signed  at  this  place,  the  ancient  Iduiium, 
between  the  French  and  the  Axistrians,  April 
7,  1797.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  were 
signed  at  Leoben  April  18,  and  this  led  to  the 
treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  concluded  Oct.  17. 

JUDGES  were  appointed  by  God  to  rule  over 
the  people  of  Israel  (Judges  ii.  16)  B.C.  1405. 
Joshua  and  the  elders  ruled  from  B.C.  1451  to 
B.C.  1095.  The  government  by  judges  lasted 
from  B.C.  1405  to  B.C.  1095  ;  or,  according  to 
Hales,  from  B.C.  1564  to  B.C.  mo. 

JUDGES  (Book  of ).— This  book  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Samuel,  before  B.C.  1060,  though 
some  authorities  make  it  as  late  as  B.C.  562. 

JUDGMENT  GAP.— (See  BLACK  CAP.) 

JUDICIAL  ASTROLOGY  is  "so  called 
(N.  &  Q.  3rd  S.  vii.  497)  because  its  professors 
deliver  judgments,  or  opinions,  as  to  what  in 
their  judgment  the  events  will  be  which  will 
follow  certain  configurations  of  the  heavenly 
bodies :  opinions  based  on  the  past  experience 

°  JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PRIVY 
COUNCIL,  composed  of  the  Lord  President, 
the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  such  members  of  the 
Privy  Council  as  from  time  to  time  hold  cer- 
tain high  judicial  offices,  was  instituted  by 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41  (Aug.  14, 1833).  It  is  a  court 
of  appeal  in  ecclesiastical  and  maritime  causes. 
(See  DELEGATES  and  ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS.) 

JUDITH.— This  book  of  the  Apocrypha, 
relating  the  deliverance  of  Bethulia  from  Holo- 
fernes,  chief  captain  of  Nabuchodonosor,  King 
of  Nineveh,  by  Judith,  about  B.C.  655,  was 
written  between  B.C.  175  and  B.C.  100,  probably 
B.C.  170,  when  Antiochus  Epiphanes  attacked 
the  Temple.  Other  authorities  refer  it  to  the 
period  of  Demetrius  II.,  B.C.  129,  or  of  the  war 
of  Alexander  Jannseus,  B.C.  105-4. 

JUGGERNATH,  or  the  "Lord  of  the 
World,"  the  name  of  a  celebrated  temple  at 
Jaggernaut,  Jaggernaut  Puri,  Puri,  or  Jugger- 
nath,  in  the  province  of  Cuttack,  India,  com- 
pleted in  1198.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  British  in  1803.  A  pilgrim-tax,  instituted 
by  Sir  George  Barlow,  in  1806,  was  repealed  by 
Lord  Auckland  in  1839.  The  allowance  made 
by  the  East  India  Company  to  the  temple  was 
discontinued  in  June,  1851. 

JUGGLERS,  adepts  in  the  art  of  juggling, 
existed  as  early  as  B.C.  1491,  when  Pharaoh's 
magicians  imitated  the  miracles  performed  by 
Aaron  (Exod.  vii.).  The  Chinese  and  the 
Aztecs  took  great  delight  in  witnessing  the 
performances  of  jugglers.  The  practice  of  the 
art  was  attended  with  considerable  danger  in 
former  times.  A  horse  which  had  been  taught 
to  perform  a  number  of  tricks  was  condemned 
to  the  flames  and  actually  burned  at  Lisbon  in 
1601.  In  1739  a  juggler  in  Poland,  tortured 
until  he  confessed  that  he  was  a  sorcerer,  was 
hanged. 

JUGURTHINE  WAR  was  waged  by  the 
Roman  republic  against  Jugurtha,  King  of 
Numidia,  B.C.  m.  The  Consul  Calphurnius, 
in  the  first  year  of  the  war,  concluded  a  peace 
with  Jugurtha,  on  condition  that  he  shoiild 
submit  to  Rome.  It  was  not  observed,  and 
Aulus  having  been  defeated,  B.C.  109,  entered 


into  a  treaty  which  the  Roman  Government 
disavowed.  The  struggle  was  conducted  on 
the  part  of  the  Romans  by  the  famous  Caius 
Marius.  Jugurtha  was  killed,  and  his  domi- 
nions made  a  Roman  province,  B.C.  104. 

JULIAN  PERIOD  was  first  properly  ex- 
plained by  Joseph  Justus  Scaliger,  in  his  ' '  Do 
Emeiidatione  Temporum,"  published  at  Paris 
in  1583,  and  at  Geneva  in  1629.  Scaliger  cor- 
rected certain  inaccuracies  in  that  work  in  his 
"  Thesaurus  Temporum,"  &c.  The  period  con- 
sists of  7,980  years.  It  commenced  B.C.  4714, 
and  will  close  in  3266.  Hallam  says  that  Sca- 
liger was  very  proud  of  the  invention,  of  which 
he  confesses  himself  unable  to  perceive  the 
great  advantage.  (See  CALENDAR.) 

JULICH,  or  JULIERS  (Prussia),  the  ancient 
Juliacum,  so  called  from  its  supposed  founder, 
Julius  Caesar,  was,  with  the  adjoining  terri- 
tory, made  a  duchy  in  1356.  On  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  ducal  line,  March  25,  1609,  several 
claimants  appeared.  Juliers  was  taken  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1622.  It  was  allotted  to  the 
Count  Palatine  of  Neuburg  by  the  peace  of 
the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659.  The  French 
seized  it  and  annexed  it  to  France  in  1794,  and 
it  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

JULIOMAGUS.—  (See  ANGERS.) 

JULY. — This  month,  now  the  seventh,  was 
with  theTRomans  the  fifth  month  of  the  year, 
being  called  Quintilis.  Marcus  Antonius  (B.C.  49 
— A.D.  31)  changed  its  name  to  Julius,  after 
Caesar,  who  was  born  in  this  month.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  called  it  Msead-monath,  or 
"mead-month,"  because  the  meads  were  then 
in  bloom. 

JUMPERS.— This  sect,  akin  to  the  Dancers 
of  the  1 4th  century,  arose  among  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodists  about  1760.  They  re- 
ceived their  name  from  their  habit  of  jumping 
during  the  celebration  of  their  religious  rites. 
(See  CHASIDIM  and  CONVULSIONISTS.  ) 

JUNE  was  the  fourth  month  in  the  old 
Roman  calendar.  Numa  (B.C.  715 — 673)  gave 
it  the  sixth  place,  which  it  has  since  retained. 

JUNIOR  ATHEN^UM  CLUB  (London)  was 
opened  July  2,  1864. 

JUNIOR  CARLTON  CLUB  (London),  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  a  committee  of  Conser- 
vative noblemen  and  gentlemen,  was  opened 
July  i,  1864.  From  the  first  report,  May  29, 
1865,  it  appeared  that  during  the  first  six 
months  1,150  members  were  enrolled.  The 
new  house  in  Pall  Mall  was  commenced  in 
1866. 

JUNIOR  UNITED  SERVICE  CLUB 
(London)  was  founded  in  1826,  and  the  new 
house  was  built  in  1857. 

JUNIOR  UNIVERSITY  CLUB  (London) 
was  founded  in  1864,  and  the  new  house  was 
commenced  in  1866.  The  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Club  (q.  v.)  was  for  some  time  known  as 
the  Junior  University,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  University  Club,  though  it  never  took  the 
name. 

JUNIUS'S  LETTERS  were  published  in 
the  Public  Advertiser  under  the  signature  of 
"  Junius,"  the  first  appearing  Jan.  21,  1769, 
and  the  last,  making  the  6gth,  in  Jan.,  1772. 
The  first  authorized  edition,  printed  under  the 
author's  inspection,  jwas  published  in  London, 


JUNKSEYLON 


JUSTICIARY 


March  3,  1772,  and  was  issued  with  an  index 
and  a  table  of  contents  in  March,  1773.  The 
question  of  the  authorship  of  these  letters  has 
excited  considerable  controversy.  They  have 
been  attributed  to  various  persons,  and  the 
question  is  involved  in  mystery,  though  Sir 
Philip  Francis  (Oct.  22,  1740— Dec.  22,  1818)  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  the  author. 

JUNKSEYLON.— (Ste  SALA 

JUNONIA. — These  festivals,  in  honour  of 
Juno,  were  instituted  at  Kmae  B.C.  430.  The 
chief,  called  the  Matronalia,  was  observed 
March  i. 

JUNONIA  (Africa).— Caius  Gracchus,  who 
in  his  first  tribunate,  B.C.  123,  had  carried  a 
pivpnsal  for  establishing  a  colony  on  the  site 
of  Carthage,  under  the  name  Junonia,  took 
with  him  into  Africa  6,000  colonists,  n.r.  122, 
but  the  project  was  abandoned  after  his  death, 

B.C.   121. 

JUNTA.— This  name,  originally  applied  in 
Spain  to  the  councils  of  commerce,  mines,  Ac., 
VVHS  afterwards  extended  to  administrative 
and  political  assemblies.  In  1808  the  piovincial 
declared  against  the  ambitious  schemes 
of  Napoleon  I.,  and  excited  the  people  to  oppo- 
sition. A  supreme  central  junta,  conn 
deputies  from  the  provincial  juntas,  was 
organised  at  Aranjuez  in  Sep.,  and  the  apos- 
tolic junta  was  erected  in  1824. 

JUriTKU.-  Galileo  having  examined  this 
planet  with  a  new  telescope,  .Ian.  7,  1610, 
discovered  three  .".mail  stars,  which,  with  a 
fourth  not  at  first  perceptible,  h< 
to  l)c  satellites  Jan.  13.  The  rotation  was 
discovered  by  Jlo,,ke  in  May,  1664,  and  the 
Period  of  each  revolution  was  made  known  by 
Cassini  in  1665.  Koemer,  by  observation  of 
-  llites,  determined  the  velocity  of  li;_  lit 
in  1675.  Airy's  observations  were  made  at 
Cambridge  in  1834  and  1835. 

JUJIY. — Trial  by  12  compunrators,  which 
was  of  canonical  origin,  existed  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  times,  and  only  resembled  what  is 
Tiow  known  as  trial  by  jury  in  the  number 
of  persons  sworn.  Under  the  name  or' 
of  Law,  it  continued  to  be  the  law  of  Enj/i.md 
until  abolished  by  3*4  Will.  IV.  c.  42  (Aug.  14, 
1833).  Traces  of  trial  by  jury  are  found  in 
the  reigns  of  William  1.  and  II.,  Henry  I., 
and  Stephen  ;  but  it  was  not  fully  established 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Trial  by  jury 
i  Adopted  in  criminal  cases  in  the  reign 
of  John  (1199—1216),  and  was  the  established 
mode  of  dealing  with  them  at  the  end  of  the 
1 3th  century.  Witnesses  were  examined,  and 
evidence  was  first  laid  before  juries,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 1461) ;  but  this 
change  was  not  fully  carried  out  till  the  time 
of  rJdward  VI.  (1547 — 1553).  The  laws  respect- 
ing juries  were  remodelled  by  6  Geo.  IV.  e.  50, 
June  22,  1825.  (See  GRAND  JUKY.) 

JURY  COURT  (Scotland)  was  established 
as  subsidiary  to  the  Court  of  Session  by  55 
Geo.  III.  c.  42  (1815).  Improvements  were 
introduced  into  these  courts,  which  were  made 
a  permanent  part  of  the  judicial  establishment 
of  Scotland,  by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  35  (1819).  This 
court,  as  a  separate  tribunal,  was  abolished  by 
i  \\ill.  IV.  c.  69  (July  23,  18-0). 

JUSTICES  IN  EiUE,  or  Itinerant  Justices, 


the  judicial  representatives  of  the  royal  au- 
thority, were  established  by  the  parliament 
held  at  Northampton  Jan.  26,  1176.  They 
received  a  delegated  power  from  the  aula 
regia,  and  made  their  circuit  round  the 
kingdom  once  in  seven  years.  By  the  i2th 
article  of  Magna  Charta,  in  1215,  they  were 
ordered  to  be  sent  into  the  country  once  a 
year,  (.w  ASSIXK  COURTS.) 

JUSTICES  OF  THE  PEACE.— Conservators 
(q.  v.)  of  the  peace  received  this  title  when, 
by  34  Edw.  III.  c.  i  (1360),  the  power  of 
trying  felonies  was  intrusted  to  them.  From 
an  entry  in  the  Harleian  MSS.,  it  appears  that 
the  Countess  of  Richmond,  mother  of  Henry 
VI  i.,  was  a  justice  of  the  peace.  The  form  of 
the  commission  by  which  justices  of  the 
peace  are  appointed  was  settled  by  the  judges 
ill  1590.  The  jurisdiction  of  justices  at  <juarior 
sessions  is  defined  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  38  .'• 
1842).  The  office  is  noticed  in  Scotland  in  the 
act  of  1587. 

JUSTICIARY.— These  high  officers  were  first 
appointed  by  William  I.     Six  ail   <>,«•• 
clamores  populi  in  Ci'i-ia  Ri </;.*  were  appointed 
at  a  parliament  held  by  Henry  II.  at  Windsor, 
in  April,  1179. 

JUSTICIAK,   ()!'  SCOTLAND.— Geoffrey  of 
Maleville,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  IV. 

son  holding  this  <  I 
"V  record  remains. 

JUSTICIARY.  ClilKl'1,  or  GRAND  JUSTI- 
CIARY,   an    oflieer    who   under  the   > 
sovereigns  acted   as  president    of    the    Curia 
and  governed  the  kingdom  during  the 
king's  absence,  answered  to  the 
tul'nix    Aii<jt;<rui  the  Saxons.      Odo,  1'' 
Bayeux,  half  brother  to  William  I.  and  William 
Fitx-Osberne,  Earl  of  Hereford,  appointed  by 
William  I.  in  1067,  were  the  first  chief  justi- 
ciars  after  the  conquest.     The   office  fell  into 
disuse   in  the  reign  of   Henry  III.,    and  was 
superseded  March  8,  1268,  by  the  Chief  Justice 
of  the  King's  Bench. 

LJST  OF  CHIEF  JUSTICIARIES. 
A.D. 

1067.  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux  and  Karl  of  Kent  ami  Wil- 
liam Kit/.-!  >sb<  rm>.  Karl  of  Urn-ford. 

1073.  William  de  Wuri-ennc  and  Jiicli-ml  Kitz-Cilhert. 

1070.  Laiifriinc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  Geoffrey, 
Bi.-ho]'  of  ('out. •nice;  and  1,'olicrt,  Kail  of  Incretoii. 

1087,  Sep.  26.  Odo,  Bi.-hop  of  I!avru\  and  Karl  of  Ki-nt  ; 
William  <k-  Carilrfo,  BUhop  of  Durham. 

1094  ?   Ttaiiul].h  n.Miil  aril.  nl'!<  i  \\ards  Bishop  of  Durl.aiii. 

Iioo.  Aug.   S-  ]tol>m  Blot-t,  Bishop  of  Lincoln. 

1107-8.  Kojivr.  l',i,l,op  of  Salisbury;  V  Geoffrey  Ki.lel, 
V  Jialph  BaM-el  ;  'I  Kichard  ij asset;  ?  Geoffrey  do 
Clinton  ;  V  Alheiiedc  Vcro. 

1135.  Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury. 

1153,  Kov.     Henry,   Duke  of   Normandy}    ?  Richard   de 

LncL 

1154,  Dec.  Robert  de  Beaumont,  Earl  of  Leicester,  and 

Kiclmrd  de  Luci. 
1167.  Richard  de  Luci  alone. 

1179.  Kichard  Tooliffe,   Bishop  of  Winchester;  Geoffrey 

Ridel,  Bishop  of  Ely ;  and  Jobu  of  Oxford,  L'i,-h»|> 
of  Norwich. 

1180.  Ranulph  de  Glanville. 

1189,  Sep.  3.  lianulpli  de  Glanville. 

1189,  Sep.  15.  Iluph  I'u>ar,   I!islio]i  of  Durham,  and  AVil- 

liam  de  JIuiKlcvillc,  Kurl  «,f  Albcmaric. 
1189,  Dec.   ii.  BMiop  1'usiir  and  William  de  Longchatnp, 

Bishop  of  Ely. 

1191,  Oct.  Walter  de  ConBtantila.  Archbtahop  of  Uoucn. 
1193,  Seji.   Jlubcrt  AV'alt.  r.  Archbishop  of  Canli-rlinrv. 
1198,  July.    Geoffrisy    1-itz-l'oter,     nfter\v«rda     Eurl    of 

Eeeex. 


JUSTIN!  AN  A. 


KALAFAT 


A  D 

ii'}:),  May.  Geoffrey  Fitz -Peter,  Earl  of  Ks^. 

1314,  Feb.  i.  Peter  ile  Rupibas,  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

1415,  June.  Hubert  de  Burgh. 

1316,  Oct.  38.  Hubert  de  Burgh. 

1333,  July.  Stephen  de  Segrave. 

1358,  June  33-   Hugh  Bigot. 

1360,  Oct.  1 8.  Hugh  le  Despencer. 

1361,  July  5.  Philip  Basset. 
1363,  Oct.  Hugh  le  Despencer. 

JUSTINIANA.— (See  CARTHAGE.) 

JUSTINIAN  CODE.— This  compilation  of 
Roman  laws,  ordered  to  be  made  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian  I.,  was  promulgated  April  7, 
529.  A  revised  edition  was  issued  Nov.  16, 534. 
(,S'cv  AMALPHI.) 

JUST,  ST.— (See  YUSTB.) 

JUT B,  the  fibre  of  an  Indian  plant,  was 
introduced  into  this  country  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  sacking,  &c.,  about  1830. 

JUTERBOCK  (Prussia).  —  At  this  town 
Tctzel  commenced  the  sale  of  papal  indul- 
gences in  1517.  A  conference  held  here  in 
1523,  by  the  German  Lutheran  princes,  to 
adopt  measures  against  the  effects  of  the  Edict 
of  Worms,  resulted  in  the  League  of  Torgau 
(1526).  The  Swedish  general  Torstenson  de- 
feated the  Austriaiis  under  Gallas  at  this  place 
in  1644,  and  the  field  of  Denuewitz  (q.  v.)  is  in 
the  vicinity. 

JUTLAND  (Denmark).— This  peninsula  was 
the  home  of  the  Danes  and  Northmen,  who 
for  many  years  devastated  Europe.  During 
the  loth  and  i  ith  centuries  the  entire  surface 
was  covered  with  forests.  The  Jutes,  who 
established  themselves  in  Kent  and  Hamp- 
shire, came  from  Jutland.  It  was  overrun  by 
Wallenstein  in  1627,  and  restored  to  Denmark 
by  the  treaty  of  Liibeck  in  1629.  The  allies 
occupied  the  south  of  Jutland  in  1813,  and  an 
armistice  was  concluded  with  Denmark  Dec. 
15,  1813.  This  led  to  a  treaty  between  Den- 
mark and  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  concluded 
at  Kiel  Jan.  14,  1814.  (See  DENMARK.) 

JUVENALIA,  a  feast  instituted  at  Rome  by 
Nero  on  attaining  his  majority,  in  59.  He 
dedicated  the  first  clippings  of  his  beard  and 
whiskers  to  Jupiter,  and,  on  the  public  stage, 
sang  to  the  accompaniment  of  his  lyre  verses 
of  his  own  composition. 

JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.— By  i  &  2  Viet. 
c.  82  (Aug.  10,  1838)  Parkhurst  military  hospi- 
tal, Isle  of  Wight,  was  provided  for  the  deten- 
tion and  correction  of  young  offenders  of  both 
sexes.  Magistrates  and  justices  were  em- 
powered by  17  &  1 8  Viet.  c.  86  (Aug.  10,  1854) 
to  commit  convicts  under  16  years  of  age,  for 
certain  periods  of  tuition  in  reformatory 
schools  (q.  v.),  in  addition  to  such  term  of 
imprisonment  as  they  might  award.  (See 
FLOGGING.) 


K. 

KAABA.— (See  CAABA.) 

KABBELJAUWEN  AND  HOEKS,  or 
HOOKS,  the  former  signifying  the  Cod-fish 
party,  and  the  latter  the  Fish-hooks,  two  fac- 
tions that  arose  in  the  Netherlands  about 
1355,  soon  tlfter  the  dcatn  of  William  IV., 
"  dividing,"  as  the  historian  remarks,  "noble 


against  noble,  city  against  city,  father  against 
son,  for  some  hundred  and  fifty  years,  with- 
out foundation  upon  any  abstract  or  intelli- 
gible principle."  In  the  end,  the  Kabbel- 
j  an  won  represented  the  city,  or  municipal 
faction,  and  the  Hoeks  the  nobles,  or  aristo- 
crats, who  were  to  catch  and  control  them. 
The  Hoeks  were  defeated  in  a  naval  action 
July  21,  1490,  by  the  fleet  of  the  Kabbel- 
jauwen,  commanded  by-Jan  von  Egmont. 

KABUL.— (See  CABUL.) 

KABYLES,  or  BERBERS,  descended  from 
the  aborigines  of  Northern  Africa,  though 
conquered  by  the  Phoenicians,  the  Romans, 
the  Vandals,  and  the  Arabs,  continued  to 
occupy  the  countries  south  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean till  the  nth  century,  when  they  were 
driven  to  the  Atlas  Mountains  by  the  Saracens. 
The  French  occupied  the  valley  of  Sebaon  in 
1844.  Expeditions  were  sent  against  them  in 
1844,  1845,  and  1846.  Great  part  of  their  terri- 
tory was  subdued  in  1847,  and  the  remainder 
was  taken  by  Gen.  St.  Arnaud  in  1850.  (See 
ALGERIA.) 

KADRIS.— (See  DERVISH.) 

KAFFA.— (See  CAFFA.) 

KAFFRARIA  and  KAFFRE.  —  (See  CAF- 
FRARIA  and  CAFFRE  WAR.) 

KAGOSIMA  (Japan).— Mr.  Richardson,  an 
English  subject,  was  murdered  by  the 
Japanese  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Prince  of  Satsuma,  Sep.  14,  1862,  and  Ad- 
miral Kuper  was  instructed  to  proceed  to 
Kagosima,  his  capital,  and  exact  payment 
of  a  heavy  indemnity.  He  arrived  in  the 
bay  Aug.  n,  1863,  anchored  off  the  town 
Aug.  12,  and,  receiving  no  satisfactory  reply, 
seized  three  screw  steamers,  Aug.  15.  His 
squadron  was  immediately  attacked  by  the 
batteries,  and  retaliated  by  bombarding  the 
town,  which  was  reduced  to  rums  Aug.  16. 

KAGUL  (Battle). —The  Russians  defeated 
the  Turks  in  a  great  battle  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  River  Kagul,  or  Kahul,  Aug.  i,  1770. 

KAHOOLAUI.  —  (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHI- 
PELAGO.) 

KAI-FONG.— (See  CAI-FONG-FOTJ.) 

KAINARD  JI.— (See  KUTSCHOUC-KAINARDJI.  ) 

KAINLY  (Battle).— The  Russians,  after  a 
severe  struggle,  defeated  the  Turks  in  the 
plain  of  Kaiiily,  near  Erzeroum,  July  i,  1829. 

KAIRWAN.— (See  CAIRVAN.) 

KAISER  CARLSBAD.— (-See  CARLSBAD.) 

KAISERS-LAUTERN,  or  LAUTERN  (Ger- 
many).— The  castle  of  this  very  ancient  town 
was  built  by  Frederick  I.,  1152 — 1190.  The 
French,  under  Hoche,  failed  in  an  attack 
upon  the  allied  army  near  this  town,  Nov. 
28,  1793.  A  French  army  was  defeated  here 
by  Mollendorf,  with  a  loss  of  3,000  men  and 
several  pieces  of  cannon,  May  24,  1794. 

KALAFAT  (Wallachia).— At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Russian  war,  a  Turkish  force  of 
12,000  men  took  possession  of  this  town,  Oct. 
28,  1853,  and  an  attempt  made  to  dislodge 
them  by  a  corps  of  Russians,  20,000  strong, 
led  to  the  spirited  engagement  of  Citate,  in 
which  the  Turks  were  victorious,  Jan.  6,  1854. 
They  fortified  the  town,  and  maintained  t!  en- 
position  till  Austria  entered  the  Principalities, 
by  virtue  of  a  treaty  signed  June  14,  1854. 


KALEB 


[    542     ] 


KAPOLNA 


KALEB  MEDINA  (Battle).— A  combined 
force  of  English,  Austrians,  Turks,  and 
Druses,  defeated  Ibrahim,  son  of  Mehemet 
Ali,  at  this  place  in  Syria,  Oct.  10,  1840. 

KALEIDOSCOPE.— This  optical  instrument, 
invented  hi  1814  by  Sir  David  Brewster,  was 
patented  by  him  in  1817. 

KALISCH,  or  KALISZ  (Poland),  was  founded 
in  the  7th  century,  and  its  citadel  was  built 
by  Casimir  III.  (1333—1370).  Here  the  Rus- 
sians defeated  the  Swedes,  Nov.  19,  1706  ;  and 
the  Saxon  infantry,  commanded  by  Rcynicr, 
Feb.  13,  1813.  The  latter  victory  was  followed 
by  the  "  Treaty  of  Kalisch,"  between  Russia 
and  Prussia,  signed  Feb.  28,  1813.  A  secret 
convention  between  the  Austrian  and  Saxon 
commanders,  to  allow  the  troops  of  the  latter 
a  passage  through  the  Imperial  territories, 
was  concluded  at  this  place  about  the  end 
of  March,  1813.  A  conference  was  held  at 
Kalisch  between  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and 
the  King  of  Prussia,  in  Oct.,  1835. 

KALI  YrUGA.— (See  CALIYUGA.) 

KALKA  (Battle).— The  Mongols  defeated  the 
Russians  and  the  Curnans  on  the  banks  of 
this  river,  June  16,  1224. 

K  A  I.  MAR.— (See  CALMAR.) 

K  A  LM  UC  KS.— ( See  KALMUCKS.) 

KALPEE.— (Sff.  CATJ-KK.) 

KALUNGA  FORT  Hindustan)  was  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked,  during  the  Ghoorka  war, 
by  the  British,  under  Major-Gen.  Gillespie, 
who  fell  in  the  assault,  Oct.  31,  1814.  A  second 
storming  party  under  Col.  Mawby  also  failed, 
Nov.  27,  and  the  fort  was  evacuated  by  the 
Nepaulesc  garrison  Nov.  30. 

KAMA  K  U  KA.— (*,<•  YOKOHAMA.) 

K  A  M I X  K I  K< '  K ,  K  A  M  I X 1  KTX,  or  PODOLSK 
fKunipean  Russia). — This  town,  founded  by 
the  sons  of  Olgherd,  in  1331,  was  erected  into 
a  city  in  1374.  In  1672  it  was  seized  by  the 
Turks,  to  whom  it  was  ceded  in  1676.  They 
siUTenclered  it  to  the  Poles  in  1699.  The  Rus- 
sians took  it  in  1793,  and  demolished  the  forti- 
fications in  1812 ;  but  they  have  since  been 
rebuilt. 

KA  MPTULICON.  —This  flexible  substitute 
for  oil-cloth,  composed  of  powdered  cork  and 
india-rubber,  ami  said  to  be  the  invention  of 
Fanshawe,  was  patented  by  E.  Galloway, 
Feb.  14,  1844. 

KAMTSCHATKA  (Siberia)  was  discovered 
by  some  Russians,  who  had  been  wrecked 
upon  the  coast,  in  1639.  The  Cossacks  pene- 
trated into  the  country  in  1690,  and  the  Rus- 
sians took  possession  in  1696,  though  they  did 
not  succeed  in  subjugating  the  inhabitants 
until  1706.  Behring  ascertained  that  it  was  a 
peninsula  in  1728. 

KANAGAWA  (Japan).— By  the  treaty  of 
Jeddo  (q.  v.},  Aug.  26,  1858,  this  town,  the  sea- 
port of  Jeddo,  was  opened  to  British  subjects 
from  July  i,  1859. 

KANAWHA  (North  America).— Western  Vir- 
ginia, having  remained  loyal  to  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  separate  State,  under  the  name  of 
Western  Virginia,  or  Kanawha,  Dec.  31,  1862, 
and  was  inatigurated  at  Wheeling,  the  capital, 
June  20,  1863. 

KANDAHAR  (Afghanistan),    though   said 


by  some  authorities  to  have  been  built  by 
Lohrasp,  a  Persian  king,  who  nourished  at  a 
very  early  period,  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great), 
during  his  campaigns  in  Asia,  B.C.  334 — 323.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  nth  century  it  was  held 
by  the  Affghan  tiibes,  from  whom  it  was  taken 
by  the  Sultan  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni.  Zinghis 
Khan  seized  it  towards  the  commencement  of 
the  1 3th,  aud  Timour  in  the  i4th  century.  In 
1507  the  Emperor  Baber  took  it;  but  being  un- 
able to  retain  possession,  he  again  laid  siege  to  it 
in  1521,  effecting  its  capture  after  a  determined 
resistance.  In  1625  it  fell  under  the  power  of 
Shah  Abbas  I.  (the  Great),  from  whom  it  was 
recovered  in  1649.  In  1747  it  was  taken  by 
Ahmed  Shah,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  Aff- 
ghanistan.  The  seat  of  government  was,  how- 
ever, transferred  to  Cabul  in  1774.  During 
the  Affghan  war  (q.  r.),  a  British  force  occupied 
the  town  from  Aug.  7,  1839,  to  May  22.  1842. 
KANDSAG.— (See  ELIZABETOPOL.) 
K  ANDY  (Ceylon),  captured  by  Rajah  Singha 
I.,  ill  1582,  was  seized  in  Feb.,  1803,  by  the 
British,  who  evacuated  it  June  24,  after 
disastrous  occupation.  Kandy  was  once  m OK; 
conquered  by  the  English,  Feb.  14,  1815,  and 
was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  a  treaty  signed 
March  2.  >  Sit-  CKYI.ON.) 

KA.\<;AU<><>   ISLAND  (Gulf  St.  Vincent) 

was  discovered  by  Flinders  in  1802,  and  thus 
named  by  him  from  the  numbers  of  kan- 
garoos seen  sporting  about  in  every  open 

Spot. 

K  ANGRAH  ( Pun jaub).— This  important  for- 
tress, taken  in  1010  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghi/.ni, 
and  recaptured  in  1043  by  the  Rajah  of  Delhi, 
came  into  the  possession  of  England  on  the 
annexation  of  the  Punjaub  in  1849. 

KAX1SA,  or  CANISSA  (Hungary).— The  for- 
tifications of  this  town,  taken  by  the  Turks  in 
1600,  were  dismantled  in  1702. 

KANOJE,  KUNNOJ,  KUNNOUJ,  or 
CANOUJ  (Hindostan).— This  city,  though  not 
mentioned  in  the  poem  Mahabharat,  B.C.  1400, 
is  believed  to  be  nearly  as  ancient.  It  attained 
its  greatest  prosperity  about  590,  was  taken  by 
Mahmoud  in  1018,  and  by  Shahabuddin  Mo- 
hammed, sovereign  of  Ghoor,  in  1194.  It  was 
sacked  by  Mohammed  Toghluk,  Tyrant  of 
Delhi,  in  1340,  and  in  1528  was  seized  by  Baber, 
whose  son  and  successor,  Humayun,  sustained 
a  defeat  in  its  neighbourhood  from  his  Affghan 
rival,  Sher  Shah.  A  body  of  fugitive  mutineers 
was  defeated  here  with  great  slaughter  by  Sir 
Hope  Grant,  in  1857. 

KANSAS  (North  America)  formed  part  of 
Louisiana,  purchased  by  the  United  States 
Government  from  France  in  1803,  w&s  erected 
into  a  territory  in  May,  1854,  and  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state  Jan.  29, 
1 86 1.  A  convention  to  frame  a  constitution 
metinSep.,  1857.  A  resolution  to  appoint  acom- 
mittee  to  investigate  certain  charges  against 
President  Buchanan,  of  having  used  bribes 
and  other  influence  in  order  to  insure  the 
success  of  a  bill  legalizing  slavery  in  this  state, 
was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives, 
March  5,  1860. 

KA  ITi;L.— (See  CAPPEL.) 

KAPOLNA    (Battle).  —  The    Austrians    de- 


KARAITES 


C    543     1 


KENDAL 


feated  the  Hungarians  in  a  series  of  en 
counters  near  Kapolua,  Feb.  26  and  27,  1849 
KARAITES.— (See  CARAITES.) 
KAREGITES,  orCHAREGITES.— A  Moham 
medan  sect,  which  repudiated  the  authority 
of  Ali  in  657,  and  were  reduced  to  submission 
in  659.  Three  of  their  number  entered  int< 
another  conspiracy  against  Ali,  who  was 
stabbed  by  one  of  them  in  a  mosque  at  Cufa 
Jan.  19,  and  died  Jan.  21,  661.  The  term 
Karegite,  deserter,  or  rebel,  was  applied  to 
all  who  revolted  from  the  lawful  Imam. 

KARISMIANS,    or    KHARIZMIANS.—  (See 
CARISMIANS.) 

KARITA.—  (See  CAKITA,  Battle.) 
KARKAR  (Battle).— (See  AROEB.) 
KAIILOWITZ.— (See  CARLOWITZ.) 
KARNAK    (Egypt).  —  Nothing    certain    is 
known  respecting  the  foundation  of  this  tem- 
ple, which  contains  sculptures,  with  inscrip- 
tions for  the  most  part  of  the  time  of  Rameses 
III.,  B.C.  1200.     The  great  hall,   however,   is 
ascertained  to  have  been  built  by  Sethee  I., 
B.C.  1340.   Fragments  have  been  found  bearing 
the  name  of  Sesortasen  I.,  B.C.  2080. 

KARS  (Asiatic  Turkey).— Once  the  capital 
of  the  Chorzene  district,  in  Armenia,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Bagratid.  Princes,  928—961,  was 
exchanged  by  them  in  1064,  and  has  since 
been  known  under  the  name  of  Kars.  It  con- 
tains a  castle,  built  by  Amurath  III.,  in  1586, 
and  besieged  in  1735  by  Nadir  Shah,  who, 
after  cutting  off  a  Turkish  army  of  100,000 
men,  abandoned  the  enterprise.  The  Russians 
blockaded  the  town  for  a  few  months  in  1806. 
Paskewitch  laid  siege  to  it  July  7,  1828,  and 
captured  it  July  15.  The  Turkish  garrison, 
commanded  by  Gen.  Williams,  held  out  against 
the  investing  army  of  Russia  from  June  16, 
1855,  till  compelled  by  a  famine  to  capitulate, 
Nov.  25.  The  general  assault  made  by  the 
Russians,  Sep.  29,  was  repulsed.  Kars  was 
restored  to  the  Turks  by  the  third  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856. 
KASAN,  or  KAZAN.— (See  CAZAN.) 
KASHGAR,  or  CASHGAR  (China),  anciently 
called  Sule,  existed  before  the  Christian  aera, 
and  after  exchanging  rulers  several  times,  was 
conquered  by  the  Chinese  in  1759.  Marco  Polo 
visited  it  about  1275. 

KATHARINE  (ST.)  DOCKS  (London),  con- 
structed according  to  the  Local  and  Personal 
Act,  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  cv.  (June  10,  1825),  were 
founded  May  3,  1827,  and  opened  Oct.  25,  1828. 
They  occupy  an  area  of  24  acres,  obtained  by 
the  removal  of  1,250  houses,  including  St. 
Katharine's  Hospital  (q.v.],  and  the  cost  of 
construction  was  £1,700,000.  A  fire  in  the 
bonded  warehouses  of  these  docks  caused 
great  destruction  of  property  Jan.  i,  1866. 

KATHARINE  (ST.)  HOSPITAL  (London).— 
This  charity  was  founded  by  Matilda,  queen- 
consort  of  King  Stephen,  in  1145,  "for  a 
master,  brethren,  and  sisters,  and  almspeople, 
in  pure  and  perpetual  arms."  After  a  series 
of  lawsuits,  lasting  from  1255  to  1273,  it  was 
re  established  by  Eleanor,  consort  of  Henry 
III.,  "for  a  master,  three  brethren,  and  three 
sisters,  ten  bedeswomen,  and  six  poor 
scholars."  The  site  being  required  in  1824 
for  St.  Katharine's  Docks,  a  large  compensa- 


tion was  paid,  and  service  having  been  per- 
formed for  the  last  time  at  the  old  church, 
Oct.  30,  1825,  an  edifice  near  Regent's  Park  was 
erected  in  1827. 

KATZBACH  (Battle).— Blucher  defeated  the 
French,  commanded  by  Macdonald  and  Ney, 
011  the  banks  of  the  Katzbach,  Aug.  26,  1813. 
Blucher  took  18,000  prisoners  and  above  100 
guns. 

KAUAI.— (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

KEARNEYSVILLE  (Battle).  —  Skirmishes 
without  decisive  results  occurred  near  this 
hamlet  in  Virginia,  between  the  Confederates, 
under  Gen.  Lee,  and  the  Federals,  Oct.  16  and 
17,  1862. 

KEELING,  or  COCOS  ISLANDS  (Indian 
Ocean),  were  discovered  by  Keeling  in  1600. 

KEEPER. —(See  GREAT  SEAL  AND  LORD 
KEEPER.) 

KEEPER    OF  THE   ROLLS.— (See  CUSTOS 

ROTULORUM.) 

KEEPERS  OF  THE  PEACE.— (See  CONSER- 
VATORS.) 

KEHL  (Germany)  was  captured  by  the 
French  under  Marshal  Villars,  March  9,  1703, 
and  by  the  Duke  de  Berwick  in  Dec.,  1733. 
Moreau  surprised  the  fort  June  23,  1796.  The 
Austrians  attempted  to  recover  it  by  a  coup 
de  main,  but  failed,  Sep.  18,  1796.  After  a 
siege  of  50  days,  the  French  surrendered  to 
the  imperial  general,  Jan.  9,  1797.  Kehl  was 
again  given  up  to  the  French,  April  21,  1797, 
and,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  was  annexed 
to  the  French  empire,  Jan.  21,  1807.  It  was 
finally  restored  to  Baden  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  May  30,  1814. 

KEINTON,  or  KINETON.  —  (See  EDGEHILL 
Battle.) 

KELAT,  or  KHELAT  (Beloochistan).— This 
strongly  fortified  town  was  stormed  by  the 
English,  Nov.  13,  1839,  when  the  khan  and 
several  of  his  chiefs  fell  in  the  struggle.  It 
was  left  under  the  care  of  a  garrison  of  native 
';roops,  who  surrendered,  after  a  defence  of 
;hree  days'  duration,  to  Meer  Nusseer  Khan, 
July  27,  1840.  The  Beloochees,  having  plun- 
lered  the  town,  abandoned  it,  and  the  British 
;roops  regained  possession  Nov.  3,  1840. 
KELDEES.— (See  CULDEES.)  " 
KELLY'S  FORD  (Battle).— Gen.  Stuart  de- 
'eated  a  superior  Federal  force  at  this  ford,  on 
;he  Rappahannock  River  in  Virginia,  March  17, 

KEMAOON,  or  KUMAON  (Hindostan).— The 
vhole  of  this  district  was  ceded  to  the  East 
ndia  Company  by  the  convention  of  Almorah, 
April  27,  1815. 

KEMMENDINE  (Burmah).  —  This  fortified 
)ost  was  captured  by  the  British  troops  June 
o,  1824,  during  the  Burmese  war.  The  Bur- 
nese  failed  in  an  attempt  to  recapture  the 
)lace,  Dec.  i,  1824. 

KENDAL  (Westmoreland).— A  hospital  for 
epers  was  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
1154—89).  Edward  III.,  in  1331,  granted  a  letter 
f  protection  to  "John  Kempe,  of  Flanders, 
loth  weaver,"  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
loths,  afterwards  known  as  "  Kendals."  The 
rammar-school  was  founded  in  1535,  Sande's 
lospital  and  blue-coat  school  were  founded  in 
670,  the  dispensary  was  erected  in  1782,  the 


KENESAW 


[    544 


KERTCH 


obelisk  commemorating  the  expulsion  of  James 
II.  in  1788,  and  the  green-coat  (Sunday-school 
in  1814.  The  Lancaster  and  Kendal  canal  was 
opened  in  1819,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapel  was  completed  in  1837. 

KENESAW  MOUNTAIN  (Battle).— The 
Federals,  under  Gen.  Sherman,  were  repulsed, 
June  27,  1864,  with  a  loss  of  nearly  3,000  men, 
in  an  attack  upon  the  Confederate  forces  of  Gen. 
Johnston  stationed  on  this  mountain  in  Georgia. 

K  UN  I  LW(  >RTH  CASTLE  (Warwickshire) 
was  built  about  1122  by  Geoffrey  de  Clinton, 
on  land  granted  for  the  ptirix.su  by  llenrv  1 
In  1172  it  was  garrisoned  by  Henry  II.  against 
his  rebellious  sons  ;  and  in  1253  was  bestowed 
for  life  upon  Simon  De  Montfort,  Earl  of  Lei- 
cester. After  the  battle  of  Evesham  (q.  v.}, 
Kenilworth,  held  by  De  Montfort's  second  son, 
Simon,  was  taken  by  Henry  III.  after  a  six 
months'  siege.  In'  1286  Roger  Mortimer  held 
a  great  chivalric  meeting  or  "round  table  "  in 
this  castle,  which  was  enlarged  by  John  of 
Gaunt  in  1391.  In  1414  Henry  V.  kept  his 
Lent  here,  and  received  a  present  of  tennis- 
balls  from  the  French  Dauphin.  Queen  Kli/a- 
beth  was  entertained  herewith  great  magni- 
ficence by  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester, 
in  1575.  She  arrived  July  9,  and  prolonged  her 
visit  for  17  days.  The  decline  of  Kenilworth 
commenced  during  the  civil  wars,  when  it 
was  given  by  Cromwell  to  some  of  his  officers, 
by  whom  it  was  dismantled. 

KKNNKT  (Mat tie).— The  Danes  defeated 
Ethelrcd  II.  at  Kennet,  in  1006.  EthHred  II. 
retired  into  Shropshire,  and  assembled  the 
witan,  when  it  was  determined  to  make  a 
truce  with  the  invaders  to  give  them  food  and 
pay  tribute.  In  the  following  year  36,000 
pounds  of  gold  were  paid. 

K KXXINGTON  COMMON  'Surrey).— 
.leinmy  Dawson  was  hanged,  drawn,  and  quar- 
tered on  this  common,  near  London,  July  30, 
1746.  The  Chartists,  headed  by  i 
O'Connor,  held  a  meeting  here,  April  10,  1848, 
which  proved  a  failure  as  far  as  the  objects  of 
its  projectors  were  concerned.  Kennington 
Common  was  ordered  to  be  inclosed  and  con- 
verted into  a  public  pleasure-ground  by  15  & 
16  Viet.  c.  29  (June  17,  1852). 

KEN8AL-GREEN  CEMETERY  (London).— 
The  cemetery  at  this  place,  on  the  Harrow 
Road,  laid  out  by  a  joint-stock  company  incor- 
porated by  act  of  Parliament  in  1831-2,  was 
opened  Jan.  31,  1832,  and  consecrated  Nov.  2. 
Additional  ground  was  consecrated  by  the 
Bishop  of  London  Aug.  14,  1862.  A  fire,  the 
origin  of  which  was  not  ascertained,  broke 
out  in  the  catacombs  and  destroyed  several 
coffins,  Sep.  18,  1865. 

KENSINGTON  PALACE  AND  GARDENS 
(London).— From  the  Close  Roll,  temp.  Ed- 
ward I.,  it  appears  that  a  council  was  held 
Aug.  23,  1302,  "in  the  king's  chamber  at  Ken- 
sington." Kensington  House  was  the  seat  of 
Heneage  Finch,  Earl  of  Nottingham,  whose 
son  sold  it  to  William  III.  soon  after  his  acces- 
sion, and  he  converted  it  into  a  royal  palace. 
William  III.,  his  queen  Mary,  Queen  Anne,  and 
George  II., died  here.  Queen  Victoria  was  born 
here  May  24,  1819,  and  held  her  first  council 
here  in  1836.  The  Serpentine  was  formed  be- 


tween the  years  1730  and  1733,  an(l  the  bridge 
over  it,  which  separates  the  gardens  from  !  1  v<  Lo 
Park,  was  erected  from  the  designs  of  Remiie 
in  1826.  (See  SOUTH  KENSIN<;T<P 

KENT  (East-Indiaman),  1,400  tons  burden, 
carrying  troops  and  passengers,  amounting 
with  the  crew  to  637  souls,  left  the  Downs  in 
the  middle  of  Feb.,  1825,  and  after  expe- 
riencing bad  weather  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
took  fire  March  i.  The  flames  spread  with 
great  rapidity,  owing  to  the  violence  of  the 
gale,  and  all  on  board  were  in  expectation  of 
perishing,  when  they  were  rescued  by  the 
Co, n> i  r'<d.,  Capt.  Cook,  bound  for  Mexico.  Out 
of  the  whole  number  of  people  on  board,  554 
were  saved,  and  the  ill-fated  vessel  blew  vip  at 
two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  March  2. 

KKXT  .England),  on  the  coast  of  which 
Ca>sar  landed  B.C.  55,  was  erected  into  a  king- 
dom by  Hengist  in  455.  Ethelbert  (568 — 616) 
was  the  first  Christian  monarch  in  England. 
It  was  united  to  Wessex  in  824.  Alfred  made 
it  a  county  in  886. 

K  !•: NT  I  s  1 1  I-'l  RE,  a  term  first  applied  to  the 
enthusiastic  applause  elicited  at  the  various 
public  meetings  held  in  Kent,  in  1828  and  1829, 
against  1he  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Ad. 
KKNTISIJ  1'KTITJON,  drawn  up  at  the 
assizes  at  Maidstone,  April  29,  1701,  and  signed 
by  the  grand  jury,  several  magistral. 
freeholders,  was  presented  to  the  House  of 
Commons  May  8.  The  petitioners  besought 
that  assembly  to  "drop  their  disputes,  have 
regard  to  the  voice  of  the  people,  and  < 
their  loyal  addresses  into  bills  of  supply." 
The  House  refused  to  entertain  the  petition, 
and  imprisoned  William  Colepeppor  and  four 
other  persons  who  had  presented  it.  This  act 
provoked  a  memorial,  which  charged  the 
Commons,  under  15  points,  with  tyranny  ami 
oppression.  A  new  parliament,  which  met 
Dec.  30,  1701,  again  committed  Colepeppor  to 
prison,  and  passed  resolutions  in  answer  to 
the  Kentish  Petition,  Feb.  26,  1702. 

KKXTUCKY  (North  America),  first  visited 
by  Europeans  in  1767,  and  settled  in  1775,  ori- 
ginally formed  part  of  Virginia.  A  division 
took  place  in  1790,  when  its  first  constitution 
was  framed,  and  Kentucky  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  an  independent  state,  June  i, 
1792.  A  new  constitution  was  drawn  up  in 
1799,  and  another  in  1850. 

KERAITES.— Some  Tartar  tribes  who  were 
converted  to  Christianity  in  the  early  part  of 
the  nth  century.  Their  Princes  were  known 
under  the  title  of  Prester  John. 

KERBESTER.— (See  COEBIESDALE,  Battle.) 

KERESZTES  (Battle).— Mohammed  III.  de- 
feated the  Germans  in  this  plain  in  1596. 

KERGUELEN  LAND.  — (See  DESOLATION  - 
ISLAND.) 

KERTCH  (Crimea),  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Panticapseum  (q.  t>.),  capital  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Bosporus  (q.  v.),  became  a  Milesian 
settlement  about  B.C.  500,  and  was  annexed  to 
Rome  by  Pompey  B.C.  63.  The  Huns  seized  it 
in  375,  and  the  Genoese  in  1280.  They  were 
compelled  to  abandon  it  by  the  Turks  in  1475. 
These  were  displaced  by  the  Russians  in  1770, 
to  whom  the  place  was  formally  ceded  in  1792. 
An  expedition  against  the  peninsula  of  Kertch 


KESSELDORF 


[    545    ] 


KHORASSAN 


was  despatched  from  the  Crimea  by  the  allied 
forces  of  France  and  England,  May  23,  1855. 
Kertch  surrendered  May  25,  and  was  restored 
to  Russia  by  the  4th  article  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  March  30,  1856.  Kertch  is  still 
called  Bospor  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Crimea. 

KESSELDORF  (Battle).  —  Prince  Leopold, 
commanding  a  portion  of  the  Prussian  forces  of 
Frederick  II.  (the  Great),  defeated  the  Saxons 
under  Rutowski,  at  this  place,  in  Saxony, 

KErS1  INSURRECTION,  so  called  from  its 
leader,  a  tanner  by  trade,  broke  out  at  Wy- 
mondham,  in  Norfolk,  in  July,  1549.  The  in- 
surgents, whose  watchword  was  "  Kill  the 
gentlemen!"  having  defeated  a  force  sent 
against  them  and  captured  Norwich,  were  dis- 
persed in  an  encounter  at  Dussindale  (q.  v.), 
by  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  Aug.  27.  William 
Ket,  or  Knight,  the  leader,  and  his  brother 
Robert,  with  other  ringleaders,  tried  at  West- 
minster, Nov.  26,  were  executed. 

KEW  HOUSE  (Surrey)  was  made  a  royal 
residence  by  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales  (son 
of  George  II.),  who  took  it  upon  a  lease  from 
the  Cappel  family,  in  1730.  He  began  to  form 
the  pleasure-grounds,  then  containing  270 
acres ;  and  dying  here,  March  20, 1751,  the  work 
was  completed  by  his  widow,  Augusta,  Princess 
of  Wales.  George  III.  purchased  Kew  House 
about  1789.  It  was  afterwards  pulled  down, 
and  the  furniture,  &c.,  removed  to  Kew  Palace 
(q.v.}. 

KEW  PALACE  AND  GARDENS  (Surrey).— 
This  small  red-brick  building,  erected  in  the 
time  of  James  I.  or  Charles  I.,  was  purchased 
by  Queen  Charlotte  in  1781.  William  Aiton 
was  appointed  manager  of  the  botanical  gar- 
den of  Kew  in  1759,  and  the  pleasure  and  kit- 
chen gardens  were  also  placed  under  his  care 
in  1783.  He  published  his  "Hortus  Kewensis  ; 
or,  A  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  cultivated  in  the 
Royal  Botanical  Garden  of  Kew,"  in  1789. 
Dr.  Hill  had  published  a  catalogue  of  the 
plants  in  the  exotic  garden  of  Kew,  in  1768. 
Sir  W.  Chambers  erected  the  old  stove  in  1760, 
and  the  orangery  in  1761.  The  pagoda,  com- 
menced in  1761,  was  completed  in  1762.  A 
greenhouse  for  Cape  plants  was  built  in  1788  ; 
and  another,  for  the  vegetable  productions  of 
New  Holland,  was  added  in  1792.  The  former 
has  been  pulled  down ;  but  the  latter,  greatly 
improved,  is  known  as  the  Australian  House. 
The  conservatory  was  transferred  here  from 
Buckingham  House  in  1836.  A  committee  was 
appointed,  in  1838,  to  inqxiire  into  the  manage- 
ment, &c.,  of  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens, 
and  the  report  was  presented  in  May,  1840. 
The  gardens,  pleasure-grounds,  &c.,  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  management  of  the  Commis- 
sioners of  Woods  and  Forests,  and  in  1841  were 
thrown  open  to  the  public.  The  ornamented 
gateway  was  erected  in  1845-6.  In  1841  the 
orange-trees  were  removed  to  Kensington 
Palace  from  the  orangery,  which  was  consider- 
ably improved  in  1842.  The  palm-house  was 
finished  in  1848.  A  wooden  bridge,  built  over 
the  Thames  at  Kew  in  1759,  was  replaced  by 
the  stone  bridge  in  1783.  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker, 
who  died  Aug.  12,  1865,  effected  great  improve- 


ments in  these  gardens,  and  wrote  a  popular 
guide,  published  in  1847. 

KEYS.— (See  LOCKS  AND  KEYS.) 

KEY  WEST  (Florida),  supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  Cayo  Hueso,  or  Bone  Key,  was 
settled  in  1822. 

KHALULI  (Battle).— At  this  place,  on  the 
lower  Tigris,  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria, 
defeated  the  allied  forces  of  Susub,  Chaldsean 
monarch  of  Babylon,  and  Umman-minan,  King 
of  Elam,  about  B.C.  689. 

KHANDESH,  or  CANDEISH  (Hindostan), 
was  an  independent  sovereignty  from  the  early 
part  of  the  isth  century  till  it  was  conquered 
by  Akbar,  towards  the  close  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. A  famine,  which  carried  off  a  large 
number  of  the  population,  occurred  in  1803. 
It  was  annexed  by  the  British  Government  in 
1818,  although  not  finally  tranquillized  till 
1825. 

KHART  (Battles).— The  Russians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Turks  under  the  walls  of  this 

town,  in  Asia  Minor,  July  19,  1829. Paske- 

witch  advanced  with  another  army,  and  de- 
feated the  Turks  at  the  same  place,  Aug.  20, 
1829. 

KHARTANI.—  (See  ALGERIA  and  DAHARA, 
or  DAHRA  MASSACRE.) 

KHARTOUM,  or  KHARTUM  (Egypt),  the 
capital  of  Nubia,  consisted  only  of  a  few  huts 
until  1821,  was  made  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment for  Beledes-Sudan,  when  that  district 
became  an  Egyptian  province  in  1822.  An 
inundation  occurred  in  1850. 

KHERSON.— (-See  CHERSON.) 

KHIVA,  KHARASM,  KHAUREZM,  or 
URGENGE  (Asia).— This  country,  the  seat  of 
the  Carismians  (q.  v.),  after  forming  part  of 
the  empire  of  the  Seleucidse,  and  of  the  king- 
doms of  Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  and  of  the 
territory  of  the  Caliphs,  became  in  1692  an  inde- 
pendent monarchy  under  a  Seljukian  dynasty. 
In  1221  it  was  conquered  by  Zingis  Khan,  and 
in  1370  by  Timour,  whose  descendants  were 
expelled  from  the  throne  in  1511  by  Shahy  Beg, 
chief  of  the  Uzbeks.  In  1602  it  was  seized  by 
the  Cossacks,  and  in  1622  its  khan  offered  to 
become  a  vassal  of  Russia.  A  similar  proposal 
was  made  to  Peter  the  Great  in  1700,  but  on 
attempting  to  take  possession  in  1717,  he  was 
totally  defeated.  Nicholas  I.  renewed  attempts 
at  conquest  in  1839,  when  great  part  of  his  army 
perished  in  the  desert ;  but  a  commercial  treaty, 
obtained  in  1854,  greatly  extended  Russian  in- 
fluence. A  treaty  with  Russia,  concluded  in 
1842,  was  virtually  abandoned  in  consequence 
of  Khivan  aggressions  in  1846.  In  1857  Gen. 
Perofski  destroyed  the  Khivan  fort  of  Khoja- 
Nia"z,  which  had  obstructed  Russian  opera- 
tions against  Kokand  (q.  v.),  and  in  1858  Gen. 
Ignatief  was  despatched  on  a  mission  to  the 
khan. 

KHOI  (Battle).— The  Turks,  led  by  Selim  I., 
were  defeated  by  Shah  Ismael  in  this  plain, 
near  a  fortified  town  of  the  same  name,  in 
Persia,  in  1514. 

KHORASSAN  (Persia),  or  Country  of  the 
Sun,  was  invaded  by  the  Saracens,  who  over- 
threw the  Sassanides  dynasty  in  651.  Taher 
revolted,  and  established  his  sway  in  813 ; 
Tamerlane  conquered  it  in  1383 ;  Ismael,  de- 

N  K 


KHORSABAD 


[    546    ] 


KILLALA 


f  eating  Shakibek,  took  possession  of  it  in  1510  ; 
and  it  became  a  Persian  province  in  1768. 

KHORSABAD,  or  KHISHTABAD  (Assyria), 
is  mentioned  by  the  early  Arab  geographers, 
who  described  it  as  occupying  the  site  of  an 
ancient  Assyrian  city.  Excavations  for  the 
discovery  of  ancient  buildings,  sculpture,  &c., 
commenced  by  M.  Botta  in  1841,  disclosed  the 
first  Assyrian  edifice  discovered  in  modern 
times.  It  is  believed  the  ruins  formed  part  of 
the  great  city  of  Nineveh  (q.  v.}. 

KHYBER  PASS  (Afghanistan).  —  By  this 
route  Alexander  III.,  Tamerlane,  Nadir  Shah, 
and  other  conquerors,  penetrated  into  India, 
of  which  it  has  been  termed  the  iron  gate.  The 
passage  was  forced  by  Col.  Wade,  July  26,  1839. 
Keane's  army  retreated  through  it  in  1840. 
Brigadier  Wild,  on  his  way  to  the  relief  of  Jelal- 
abad,  assailed  the  key  of  the  pass  Jan.  15, 1842  ; 
but  for  want  of  additional  support  was  obliged 
to  retire  Jan.  23.  Major-Gen.  Pollock  entered 
the  pass  April  5,  and  the  rear  of  the  force 
emerged  from  it  April  14.  The  British  army, 
after  the  subjugation  of  the  Affghan  chiefs,  re- 
tired through  this  pass  in  Oct.,  1842. 

KI1YRPORK  (Hindustan).—  By  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  East  India  Company  and  the  ameers 
of  Scinde,  signed  here  April  20,  1832,  a  free 
passage  up  the  Indus  and  other  rivers  was 
secured  to  British  ships.  The  Ameer  of  Khyr- 
pore  ceded  the  place  by  treaty  in  1838,  and  it 
was  annexed  by  the  British  March  24,  1843.  A 
commission  to  investigate  an  alleged  forgery  of 
certain  documents  by  the  Ameer  AH  Murad, 
found  him  guilty  of  the  act,  Jan.  5,  1857. 

K I D  I)  K  R  M  f  N  S T E  R  (Worcestershire)  was 
represented  in  Parliament  in  1 300.  The  privi- 
lege, subsequently  lost,  was  restored  by  the 
Reform  Bill,  June  7,  1832.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated by  royal  charter  in  1637.  The  manufac- 
ture of  carpets  was  introduced  in  1745. 

KIEF,  KIEV,  or  KI<x\V  Kuropcan  Russia^, 
the  chief  town  of  a  government  of  the  same 
name,  is  of  great  antiquity,  was  a  flourishing 
place  during  the  gth  and  ioth  centuries,  w,is 
made  a  principality  in  1157,  annexed  to  Poland 
in  1386,  was  conquered  several  times  by  the 
Poles  and  Tartars,  and  ceded  in  perpetuity  to 
Russia  in  1686.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  was 
founded  in  1037,  the  Greek  academy,  the  oldest 
in  Russia,  in  1588,  and  the  university  in  1834. 
A  celebrated  fair  is  held  annually  in  January. 

KIEL  (Holstein),  the  capital,  joined  the 
Ilanseatic  League  in  1300.  Its  university  was 
founded  in  1665.  It  was,  with  the  duchy  of 
Holstein,  exchanged  for  other  places  by  Russia 
in  1773.  An  insurrection  in  favour  of  the  in- 
dependence of  Sleswig  and  Holstein  occurred 
here,  and  a  provisional  government  was  formed 
March  24,  1848.  By  the  convention  of  Gastein, 
Aug.  14, 1865,  Kiel,  unlike  the  rest  of  Holstein, 
was  to  be  held  by  Prussia  as  a  German  Federal 
harbour. 

KIEL  (Treaty). —Concluded  between  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Great  Britain,  at  this 
town,  Jan.  14,  1814.  Denmark  ceded  Norway 
to  Sweden,  while  the  latter  gave  up  Pome- 
rania  and  the  Isle  of  Rugen.  Heligoland  was 
assigned  to  England,  and  the  King  of  Sweden 
engaged  to  use  his  best  efforts  to  obtain  for 
Denmark  an  equivalent  for  Norway  at  the 


general  peace.  The  three  contracting  powers 
also  entered  into  engagements  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  against  Napoleon  I. 

KIERSY.—  (See  QUIERCY-SUR-OISE.) 

KILCULLEN  (Battle).  — Gen.  Dundas  was 
defeated  in  an  endeavour  to  dislodge  the  Irish 
rebels  from  their  position  at  this  place,  in 
Kildarn,  May  24,  1798.  In  consequence  of 
their  success,  the  insurgents  immediately  took 
up  a  position  between  Kilcullen  and  Xaas,  and 
attempted  to  intercept  Gen.  Dundas  in  his 
retreat.  The  English  army  having  received 
reinforcements,  the  rebels  were  defeated  in 
this  second  engagement  with  the  loss  of  about 
300  men. 

KILDARE  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  bishopric 
was  founded  early  in  the  6th  century,  and  \vas 
originally  governed  by  archbishops.  The  first 
bishop  was  St.  Conlaeth,  who  died  May  3,  519. 
By  the  Church  Temporaries  Act,  3^4  Will. 
IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  the  see  was  annexed 
to  Dublin  (q.  v.). 

KILDARE  (Ireland).  — The  abbey  of  St. 
Bridget,  one  of  the  oldest  in  Ireland,  was 
founded  about  the  sth  century.  It  was  fre- 
quently assailed  by  the  Danes,  and  a  parlia- 
ment was  held  here  in  1309.  The  "sacred 
fire,"  extinguished  for  a  short  time  in  1220, 
was  kept  burning  till  the  Reformation.  The 
town  was  taken  by  the  Marquis  of  Orrnond  in 
June,  1649  ;  and  the  Irish  rebels  were  defeated 
at  Kildai-e,  May  29,  1798. 

K1LFENORA  (Bishopric).—  No  trustworthy 
account  of  the  foundation  of  this  small  diocese 
exists.  The  first  bishop  of  whom  any  record 
has  been  preserved  is  Christian,  who  died  in 
1254.  From  1606  to  1617  Kilfenora  was  held 
by  the  Bishop  of  Limerick.  In  1661  it  was 
united  to  the  archbishopric  of  Tuam,  and 
formed  part  of  that  diocese  till  1742,  when  it 
was  held  by  the  Bishop  of  Clonfert.  In  1752 
it  \vas  annexed  to  Killaloe. 

KILIMANJARO,  or  THE  GREAT  MOUN- 
TAIN, the  highest  mountain  in  Africa,  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  Krapf,  a  missionary,  in 
April,  1848. 

K  I  Uv  r.NNY  (Ireland)  became  the  site  of  an 
English  settlement  shortly  after  Richard  do 
Clare  landed  in  Ireland  in  1 1 70.  A  cathedral 
was  founded  in  the  i2th  century,  and  the 
town  grew  up  around  it.  A  castle  in  course 
of  erection  was  destroyed  in  1193,  and  the 
present  edifice  was  founded  in  1195.  Parlia- 
ments were  frequently  held  here.  The  Duke 
of  Clarence  held  one  in  February,  1366,  when 
severe  enactments  were  made  against  the 
Anglo-Irish,  and  the  Brehon  law  was  suit- 
pressed.  The  preceptory  of  St.  John  was 
founded  in  1211,  and  the  Dominican  or  Black 
Abbey  in  1225.  Kilkenny  was  surrounded 
by  walls  in  1400,  and  was  made  a  city  in  1609. 
It  was  taken  by  Cromwell,  March  28,  16=50. 
William  III.  entered  Kilkenny  after  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  July  i,  1690.  The  grammar-sell  on!, 
founded  in  the  i6th  century,  was  endowed  by 
the  Duke  of  Ormond  in  1684.  The  episcopal 
palace  was  enlarged  in  1735,  and  the  St. 
James's  Asylum  was  endowed  in  1803.  Dis- 
turbances, which  broke  out  in  Kilkenny  in 


April,  1833,  were  speedily  suppressed. 
KILLALA  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  bi 


bishop;  ic 


KILLALA 


[     547     1 


KING 


was  founded  by  St.  Patrick  some  time  between 
434  and  441.  In  1623  the  see  of  Achonry  was 
annexed  to  Killala,  and  by  the  Church  Tem- 
poralties  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14, 
1833),  the  united  sees  were  added  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Tuam  (q.  v.). 

KILLALA  (Ireland).— A  French  expedition 
arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Killala  Aug.  22,  1798. 
They  landed  1,150  men,  with  four  field-pieces, 
and  arms,  ammunition,  and  equipments  for 
distribution  amongst  the  disaffected,  reached 
Ballina  Aug.  24,  defeated  a  force  sent  against 
them  at  Castlebar  (q.  v.)  Aug.  27,  and  were 
surrounded  at  Ballinamuck  (q.  v.}  Sep.  8. 

KILLALOE  (Bishopric).— The  cathedral  of 
this  diocese  was  founded  during  the  7th  cen- 
tury, and  the  first  bishop  was  St.  Flannan,  the 
date  of  whose  consecration  is  not  known. 
About  1195  the  sees  of  Roscrea  and  Inis-Cathay 
were  annexed  to  Killaloe,  and  in  1752  the 
bishopric  of  Kilfenora  was  also  united.  By  the 
Church  Temporalties  Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  the  sees  of  Clonfert  and 
Kilmacduagh  were  united  to  those  of  Killaloe 
and  Kilfenora. 

KILLALOE  (Ireland),  an  ancient  town,  long 
the  capital  of  the  O'Briens  of  Thomond,  who 
built  a  bridge  here  across  the  Shannon  in  1054. 
The  cathedral  was  rebuilt  about  1160.  Near 
this  place  Sarsfield  intercepted  the  artillery 
belonging  to  the  royal  army,  destined  for  the 
siege  of  Limerick  in  1691. 

KILLARNEY  (Ireland).  —  This  town  of 
Kerry  is  interesting  for  the  beautiful  lakes  in 
its  vicinity.  Irmisfallen  Abbey  was  founded  in 
the  sixth  century ;  and  Muckross  Abbey, 
anciently  called  Irrelagh,  founded  in  1440,  was 
rebuilt  in  1626.  Ross  Castle,  defended  by  Lord 
Muskerry  in  1652,  at  last  surrendered  to  the 
Parliamentary  forces.  Killarney  Church  was 
erected  in  1812.  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince 
Albert  visited  Killarney  in  Aug.,  1861. 

KILLIECRANKIE  (Battle).  —  Graham  of 
Claverhouse,  Viscount  Dundee,  having  erected 
the  standard  of  James  II.  in  Scotland,  at- 
tacked and  defeated  the  forces  of  William  III. 
in  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie,  near  Blair  Athol, 
July  27,  1689.  Dundee,  however,  received  a 
wound  which  caused  his  death,  and  his  fol- 
lowers dispersed. 

KILMACDUAGH  (Bishopric).— The  see  was 
founded  by  Colman  MacDuagh,  about  620. 
During  the  first  five  or  six  centuries  of  its 
existence,  the  succession  of  its  bishops  is 
exceedingly  indefinite.  It  was  annexed  to 
Clonfert  in  1602,  and  the  two  sees  were  added 
to  Killaloe  by  the  Church  Temporalties  Act, 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833). 

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL  (Dublin).— This 
institution,  for  the  maintenance  of  old  and 
disabled  soldiers,  was  founded  by  charter  in 
1680,  and  completed  in  three  years,  at  an 
expense  of  ^23,559.  The  chapel  was  conse- 
crated in  1686.  The  abolition  of  this  institu- 
tion was  proposed  in  1833 ;  but  objections 
having  been  made  by  the  inhabitants  of  Dublin, 
the  idea  was  abandoned. 

KILMALLOCK  (Ireland).  —  St.  Malloch  is 
said  to  have  founded  an  abbey  at  this  place,  in 
Limerick,  in  the  6th  century.  During  the 
1 3th  century  a  Dominican  abbey  was  erected. 


In  1598  Kilmallock  was  besieged  by  the  Irish, 
and  relieved  by  the  Earl  of  Ormond.  Several 
battles  were  fought  in  its  vicinity  in  1641  and 

1  KILMORE  (Bishopric).  —  This,  one  of  the 
most  modern  of  the  Irish  bishoprics,  was 
originally  fixed  at  Brefny,  and  Bishop  Hugh 
O'Finn,  the  earliest  on  record,  died  in  1136. 
The  see  was  transferred  to  KUmpre  in  1454, 
and  Feb.  24,  1660,  was  united  with  Ardagli. 
It  was  again  separated  in  1742,  and  remained 
distinct,  until  it  was  permanently  united  to 
Ardagh  by  the  Church  Temporalties  Act,  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833).  The  union  was 
effected  in  1839.  A  new  cathedral,  erected  on  a 
different  site  from  that  occupied  by  the  ancient 
edifice,  was  consecrated  by  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  Tuesday,  July  17,  1860. 

KILRUSH  (Battle).  —  The  Marquis  of 
Ormond,  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  defeated 
the  Irish,  taking  all  their  baggage  and  ammu- 
nition, at  Kilrush,  in  Clare,  in  April,  1643. 

EIL3YTH  (Battle).—  Montrose  defeated  the 
Covenanters  at  this  place,  in  Stirling,  Aug.  15, 


KI 


ILWINNING  (Scotland).  —  This  town  of 
Ayrshire  is  named  after  St.  Winning,  who, 
having  removed  from  Ireland,  resided  here 
during  his  efforts  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Caledonians.  A  monastery  in  his  honour  was 
founded  in  1140,  which  was  removed  in  1560, 
in  accordance  with  an  act  of  the  estates  of 
Scotland.  Kilwinning  was  the  first  place  in 
which  Freemasonry  obtained  a  footing  in 
Scotland,  and  its  lodge  continued  to  exercise 
supremacy  over  all  others  till  1736,  when  the 
Grand  Lodge  of  Scotland  was  founded  at 
Edinburgh.  The  ruins  of  the  monastery  were 
converted  into  a  Presbyterian  church  in  1  775  ; 
the  ancient  tower  fell  in  1814.  The  Eglinton 
tournament  (q.  v.)  took  place  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. 

KINBURN  (Russia)  was  attacked  by  a  force 
of  5,000  Turks,  commanded  by  Kap-Pasha,  who 
were  totally  defeated  by  the  Russians  under 
Suwarrow,  June  28,  1788.  The  combined 
French  and  English  fleets  bombarded  it  Oct. 
17,  1855,  and  compelled  the  garrison  to  sur- 
render. It  was  restored  to  Russia  by  the 
fourth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30, 
1856. 

KINDER  GARTEN.—  This  system  of  educa- 
tian  for  children  was  introduced  by  Frederick 
Froebel,  who  was  engaged  to  teach  it  at  Ham- 
burg by  Ronge  in  1849.  In  ^Si  it  w&s  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Madame  Ronge,  who 
established  a  Kinder  Garten,  or  children's 
garden,  at  Hampstead.  The  "  Practical  Guide 
to  the  English  Kinder  Garten"  was  published 
Ji  1855.  Great  prominence  is  given  in  this 
system  to  the  pastimes  of  the  young,  in  which 

odelling,  drawing,  and  singing  are  intro- 
duced, and  corporal  punishment  is  altogether 
excluded. 

KING.—  This  title,  under  different  forms  of 
orthography,  exists  amongst  most  of  the 
northern  nations  of  Europe.  From  the  old 
Latin  title  rex,  a  ruler,  comes  the  Italian  re,  the 
Spanish  rey,  and  the  French  roi.  The  English 
word  king  is  derived  from  the  Teutonic.  By 
some  writers  the  origin  of  the  kingly  office  is 


t  548  ] 


KING'S 


derived  from  Adam,  who  "governed  or  com- 
manded all  mankind,  as  long  as  he  lived." 
Nimrod  was  the  founder  of  the  earliest  post- 
diluvian kingdoms,  namely,  those  of  Babylon 
and  Assyria,  about  B.C.  2218.  Gibbon  affirms 
that  from  the  earliest  period  of  history  the 
sovereigns  of  Asia  were  known  by  the  title  of 
basileus,  or  king.  He  also  states  that  of  the 
whole  series  of  Roman  princes  in  any  age  of 
the  empire,  Hannibalianus  alone  was  distin- 
guished by  the  title  of  king.  This  nephew  of 
Coiistantine  I.,  made  King  of  Pontus  in  335, 
was  assassinated  by  his  cousins  in  337.  (See 
NATIONAL  ANTHEM.) 

KING-AT-ARMS.— England  is  placed  under 
the  heraldic  jurisdiction  of  Clarencieux  (q.  v.) 
and  Norroy  (q.  v.},  the  two  provincial  kings-at- 
arms,  and  of  Garter,  who  takes  precedence  in 
dignity  and  importance.  Clarencieux  king-at- 
arms  comprehends  in  his  jurisdiction  the  whole 
of  England  sovith  of  the  Trent,  and  Norroy 
presides  over  the  districts  north  of  that  river. 
Clarencieux  received  his  title  from  Lionel,  son 
of  Edward  III.,  and  Duke  of  Clarence,  and 
Norroy  from  his  being  the  north  king.  The 
precise  year  in  which  they  were  instituted  is 
unknown,  but  they  were  probably  founded 
by  Edward  III.  The  office  of  Garter  king-at- 
anns  was  created  by  Henry  V.  in  May,  1418. 

The  office  of  Bath  king-of-arms,  created  in 

1725,  was  constituted  Gloucester  king-of-arms 
Jan.  14,  1726.  Ireland  is  under  the  heraldic 
jurisdiction  of  Ulster  king-at-arms,  whose  dig- 
nity was  instituted  by  Edward  VI.  Feb.  2,  1553. 
In  Scotland,  the  Lyon  king-at-arms  is  an 
officer  of  great  antiquity. 

KING  CLUB,  or  CLUB  OF  KINGS  (London), 
of  which  all  the  members  bore  the  name  of 
"  King,"  existed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
(1660 — 1685),  who  was  himself  an  honorary 
member. 

KING  GEORGE'S  or  NOOTKA  SOUND 
(Australia),  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  about 
1774,  was  visited  in  1778  by  Capt.  Cook,  who 
changed  the  name  of  the  coast  from  Nootka  to 
King  George's  Sound.  The  Spaniards  in  1791 
recognized  the  right  of  England  to  the  posses- 
sion of  King  George's  Sound  ;  and  Vancouver 
arrived  here  in  April,  1792,  having  been  sent 
by  the  English  Government  to  receive  from 
the  Spaniards  the  restitution  of  the  territory, 
which  he  was  to  explore  and  survey.  A  settle- 
ment formed  upon  its  shores  in  1826  was 
transferred  to  Swan  River  in  1830.  Its  capa- 
cious harbour  is  much  frequented  by  whalers, 
and  is  used  as  a  coaling  station  for  steamships. 

KING  HENRY'S  COLLEGE.  —(See  CHRIST- 
CHURCH.) 

KING  OF  CLUBS  (London),  established 
about  1801  by  Robert  Smith,  brother  of  Sidney 
Smith,  assembled,  one  Saturday  in  each  month, 
at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern  in  the  Strand, 
and  discussed  literary  and  social  questions,  to 
the  exclusion  of  political  topics. 

KING  OF  ENGLAND.  —  Egbert  is  tisually 
believed  to  have  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
England  in  827 ;  but  Sharon  Turner  regards 
Athelstan  as  the  earliest  prince  who  bore  that 
title,  which  he  states  was  instituted  in  934. 
The  plural  number,  as  referring  to  the  king, 
was  first  adopted  by  Richard  I.  after  his  coro- 


nation, Sep.  3,  1189.  John  added  the  title  of 
"  Lord  of  Ireland;"  and  in  1337  Edward  III. 
assumed  that  of  "  King  of  France."  Henry 
VIII.  received  the  title  of  "His  Most  Christian 
Majesty"  from  Pope  Julius  II.  in  1513.  He 
changed  the  title  of  "  Lord  of  Ireland  "  into 
"  King  of  Ireland"  in  1542.  The  kingly  office 
was  abolished  by  the  Long  Parliament,  March 
17,  1649;  but  the  regnal  years  of  Charles  II. 
are  always  computed  from  the  date  of  his 
father's  death.  The  title  of  "  King  of  France  " 
was  relinquished  Jan.  i,  1801,  when  the  royal 
style  was  proclaimed  to  be  "  Georgius  Tertius, 
Dei  gratia  Britanniarum  Rex,  Fidei  Defensor," 
or  George  the  Third,  by  the  grace  of  God  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith.  Queen 
Victoria  was  proclaimed  throughout  British 
India  by  the  title  of  "Victoria,  by  the  grace  of 
God  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  the  colonies  and  dependencies 
thereof,  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and 
Australia,  Queen,  Defender  of  the  Faith," 
Nov.  i,  1858. 

KING  OF  ITALY.  —  After  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne,  the  title  "King  of  Italy"  was 
borne  by  the  heirs  to  the  imperial  throne  of 
the  Western  empire.  It  was  conferred  upon 
Victor  Emanuel  II.  of  Sardinia,  with  the  style 
of  "Victor  Emanuel  II.,  by  the  grace  of  God 
and  by  the  will  of  the  people,  King  of  Italy," 
&c.,  by  the  Italian  Parliament, March  17, 1861. 

KING  OF  THE  FRENCH.— This,  the  origi- 
nal title  of  the  French  sovereigns,  was  changed 
into  "King  of  France"  by  Philip  II.  (1180— 
1223).  The  National  Assembly  ordered  the  old 
style  to  be  resumed,  Oct.  16,  1789,  and  abolished 
royalty  Sep.  21,  1792.  Louis  XVIII.  revived 
the  royal  title,  as  King  of  France,  in  1814  ; 
and  Louis  Philippe  accepted  that  of  "King 
of  the  French,"  Aug.  9,  1830.  Royalty  was 
abolished  in  France  Feb.  26,  1848 ;  and 
Napoleon  III.  restored  the  title  of  emperor, 
Dec.  2,  1852. 

KING  OF  THE  ROMANS. —The  Emperor 
Henry  II.  assumed  this  title  previous  to  his 
coronation,  in  1014.  It  was  borne  for  many 
years  by  the  heirs  of  the  emperors  of  Germany, 
and  was  first  conferred  upon  Henry  the 
Third's  eldest  son  in  1055.  Napoleon  I.  con- 
ferred the  title  of  King  of  Rome  upon  his  son, 
March  20,  1811.  (See  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE.) 

KINGS.  — The  two  books  of  Kings  in  the 
Old  Testament,  which  originally  formed  only 
one  in  the  Hebrew,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Ezra  before  B.C.  444. 

KING'S  (or  QUEEN'S)  BENCH  (England). 
— Foss  (Judges  ii.  155)  remarks,  "  a  new  title 
was  given  to  the  head  of  the  king's  court,  by 
the  appointment  of  Robert  de  Brus  as  '  Capi- 
talis  Justicarius  ad  placita  coram  Rege 
tenenda ; '  or,  as  we  now  style  it,  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench."  By  28  Edw.  I.  c.  5  (1300), 
it  was  made  a  movable  court,  attendant  on 
the  king's  person,  but  it  has  seldom  been  held 
anywhere  except  at  Westminster.  During  the 
Interregnum  it  was  styled  the  Upper  Bench. 
The  Bail  Court  was  erected  as  a  branch  of  this 
court  by  n  Geo.  IV.  &  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70  (July  23, 
1830).  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Chief 
Justices,  given  by  Foss  in  his  Tabulae  Curiales. 


KING'S 


[    549 


KING'S 


CHIEF  JUSTICES   OF   THE   KING'S   (OB   QUEEN'S) 
BENCH   IN   ENGLAND. 

A.D.                                             CHARLES  I. 

1625,  March  37.  Ranulphe  Crewe. 
1627,  Feb.  5.  Nicholas  Hvdc. 

1631,  Oct.  24.  Thomas  Richardson. 

A.D.                                         HENRY  III. 

1368,  March  8.  Robert  de  Brus. 

1635,  April  14.  John  Bramston. 
1643,  Oct.  10.  Robert  Heath. 

EDWARD  I. 

1648,  Oct.  13.  Henry  Rolle. 

1273-4.  Kulpli  do  Hcngham. 
1389-90.  Gilbert  de  Thoruton. 
1295-6.  Roger  de  Brabazon. 

EDWARD  II. 

INTERREGNUM. 
1649,  Feb.  Henry  Rolle. 
1655,  June  15.  John  Glynne. 
1660,  Jan.  17.  Richard  Newdigate. 

1307,  July  8.  Roger  de  Brabazon. 
1316,  March.  William  Inge. 
1317,  June  15.  Henry  le  Scrope. 
J3«3,  sup.  Hervey  de  Staunton. 
1334,  March  2,1.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope. 

CHARLES  II. 
1660,  Oct  I.  Robert  Foster. 
1663,  Oct  19.  Robert  Hyde. 
1665,  Nov.  21-  John  Kelyiig. 
1671,  May  18.  Matthew  Hale. 
16^6  May  13.  Kichard  Rainsford 

1328,  Feb.  28.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope. 
1329,   May  i.  Robert  de  Malberthorpe. 
1329,  Oct.  38.  Henry  le  Scrope. 
1330,  Dec.  19.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope  (again). 

1678',  May  31.  William  Scroggs.  ' 
1681,  April  1  1.  Francis  1'emberton. 
1683,  Jan.  33.  Edmund  Sauuders. 
1683,  Sep.  if).  George,  afterwards  Lord  Jeffreys. 

1333,  March  28.  Richard  deWilughby. 

1332,  Sop.  30.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope  (again). 
J333,  Sep.  10.  Richard  de  Wilughby  (again). 
1337-  Geoffrey  le  Scrope  (again). 
133°,  Oct.  Richard  de  Wilughby  (again). 

JAMES  II. 

1685,  Feb.  George  Jeffreys. 
1685,  Oct.  23.  Edward  Herbert 
1687,  April  33.  Robert  Wright. 

1340,  July  2  1.  Robert  I'arning. 

WILLIAM  III.  AND  MARY. 

1341,  Jan.  8.  William  Scot. 
1346,  Nov.  26.  William  de  Thorpe. 

1689,  April  17.  John  Holt. 

1350,  Oct.  26.  William  de  Shareshull. 
1357,  July  5.  Thomas  de  Setone. 
1361,  May  24.  Henry  Green. 

1703,  March  8.  John  Holt. 
1710,  March  n.  Thomas  Parker,  Earl  of  Macclesfleld. 

1365,  Oct.  20.  John  Knyvet 

GEORGE  I. 

1372,  July.  John  de  Cavendish. 

1714,  Aug.  Thomas,  afterwards  Lord  Parker. 

RICHARD  II. 

J377>  June.  John  de  Cavendish. 

1718,  May  15.  John  Pratt. 
1735,  March  3.  Robert,  afterwards  Lord  Raymond. 

1381,  June  22.  Robert  Tresilian. 

GEORGE  II. 

1388.  Jan.  31.  Walter  de  Clopton. 

1737,  June.  John  Raymond. 

HENRY  IV. 

J733>  Oct.  31.  Philip  Yorke,  afterwards  Earl  of   Uard- 

1399,  Sep.  30.  Walter  de  Clopton. 
1400,  Nov.  15.  William  Gascoigne. 

wicke. 
'737,  June  8.  William  Lee. 
1754,  May  3.  Dudley  Ryder. 

IIEXRY  V. 

1413,  March  29.  William  Hankford. 

1756,  Nov.  8.  William   Murray,    Lord    Mansfield,    after- 
wards Earl  of  Mansfield. 

HENRY  VI. 

GEORGE  III. 

1422,  Oct.  William  Hankford. 

1760,  Oct.  Lord  Mansfield. 

1424,  Jan.  21.  William  Cheyne. 
1439,  Jan.  20.  John  Juyn. 
1440,  April  13.  John  Hody. 

1788,  June  4.  Lloyd,  Lord  Kenyon. 
1802,  April  ii.  Edward  Law,  Lord  Ellenborough. 
1818,  Nov.  2.  Charles  Abbott,  afterwards  Baron  Tenterden. 

1442,  Jan.  25-  John  Fortescue. 

GEORGE  IV. 

EDWARD  IV, 

1830,  Jan.  Charles  Abbott 

1461.  John  Markham. 

1469,  Jan.  23.  Thomas  Billing. 
1481,  May  7.    William  Huse. 

WILLIAM  IV. 

1830,  June.  Lord  Tenterden. 

RICHARD  III. 

1833,  Nov.  4.  Thomas,  afterwards  Lord  Denman. 

1483,  June  26.  William  Huse. 

VICTORIA. 

HENRY  VII. 

1837,  June.  Lord  Denman. 

1485,  Aug.  William  Huse. 

1850,  March  6.  Lord  Campbell. 

1495,  Nov.  24.  John  Fineux. 

1859,  June  34-  Alexander  J.  E.  Cockburn. 

HENRY  VIII. 

1509,  April.  John  Fineux. 
1526,  Jan.  23.  John  Fitz-James. 
I539i  Jan.  21.  Edward  Montagu. 
1545,  Nov.  9.  Richard  Lyster. 

KING'S   (or  QUEEN'S)    BENCH   (Ireland), 
was   established  by  Edward  I.  towards  the 
close  of  the  i^th  century. 

EDWARD  VI. 
1547,  Jan.  Richard  Lyster. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES    SINCE  THE  REVOLUTION. 

1552,  March  31.  Roger  Cholmley. 

WILLIAM  III.  AND  MARY* 

MARY. 

1689,  Feb.  13.  Thomas  Nugent 

1553,  Oct.  4.  Thomas  Bromley. 
1555,  June  11.  William  Portman. 

1690,  Dec.  6.  Richard  Reynell. 
1695,  June  7.  Richard  Pyne. 

1557,  May  8.  Edward  Saunders. 

ANNE. 

ELIZABETH. 

1702,  June  1  8.  Richard  Pyne. 

1558,  Nov.  17.  Edward  Saunders. 

1709,  Jan  4.  Alan  Brodrick. 

1559,  Jan.  22.  Robert  Catlin. 

1711,  Julys.  Richard  Cox. 

1574,  Nov.  8.  Christopher  Wray. 

1592,  June  3.  John  Popham. 

GEORGE  I. 
1714,  Oct  14.  William  Whitshed. 

JAMES   I. 
1603,  March.  John  Popham. 

1727,  April  3.  John  Rogerson. 

1607,  June  25.  Thomas  Fleming. 

GEORGE  II. 

1613,  Oct.  25.  Edward  Coke. 

1727,  July  31.  John  Rogerson. 

1616,  Nov.  16.  Henry  Montagu. 

1741,  Jan.  14.  Thomas  Marlay. 

1631,  Jan.  29.  James  Ley. 
1625,  Jan.  36.  Ranulphe  Crewe. 

1751,  Oct.  i.  St  George  Caulfield. 
1760,  Aug.  25.  Warden  Flood. 

KING'S 


KING'S 


A.D.  CF.'>::<;E  in. 

1761,  March  37.  Warden  Flood. 
1764,  S.-|>.  24-  John  Gore,  afterwards  Earl  Annaly. 
1784,  April  2<).  John  Scott  afterwards  Karl  of  ClonmeL 
iw£  Juno  13.  Arthur  Wolfe,  afterwards  Lord  Kil  warden. 
1803,  Sep.  13.  William  Downcs,  afterwards  Lord  Uownes. 

GEORGE   IV. 

1820,  Jan.  29.  Lord  Downes. 
1834,  Feb.  14.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe. 

WILLIAM   IV. 

1830,  June  «6.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June  20.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe. 
1841,  Nov.  lo.  Edward  Pennefather. 
1846,  Jan.  23.  Francis  Blaekburne. 
1852,  March  I.  Thomas  Lefroy. 
1866,  July  33.  James  Whiteside. 

KING'S  (or  QUEEN'S)  BENCH  PRISON 
(London).— This  debtors'  prison  is  said  to  have 
been  the  gaol  to  which  Judge  Gascoigne  com- 
mitted Prince  Henry  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
The  office  of  marshal  of  the  King's  Bench  was 
sold  to  a  company  of  proprietors  by  the  Earl 
of  Radnor,  Sep.  20,  1718,  for  ^10,500.  The 
prison  was  built  in  1751,  enlarged  in  1776,  and 
burned  by  the  mob  during  the  Gordon  riots 
(<j.  v.)  June  7,  1780.  Another  was  erected  in 
1781.  A  fire  broke  out  in  this  prison  July  13, 
1799,  and  was  not  extinguished  until  several 
apartments  had  been  destroyed.  The  free- 
dom of  prisoners  to  live  anywhere  within  the 
rules  of  this  prison  was  abolished  in  1835.  By 
5  &  6  Viet.  c.  22  (May  31,  1842),  the  Fleet  and 
Marshalsca  prisons  were  consolidated  with  the 
King's  Bench,  and  the  three  received  the  name 
of  the  Queen's  Prison. 

KING'S  BOOK,  called  also  "Valor  Ecclesi- 
asticus  Tempore  Henrici  VIII.,  Auctoritate 
Regia  institutus,"  is  the  return  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3 
(1534),  to  value  the  first-fruits  and  tenths 
bestowed  by  that  act  on  the  king.  John  Bacon 
published  an  edition  in  1786,  under  the  title  of 
"  Liber  Regis,  vel  Thesaurus  Rerum  Eccle- 
siasticarum  ;  "  and  it  has  been  printed  by  the 
Record  Commission  in  five  volumes,  which 
appeared  in  1810,  1814,  1817,  1821,  and  1825, 
with  a  sixth  containing  a  general  introduction, 
appendix,  and  index.  A  book  entitled,  "  A 
Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any 
Christian  Man,"  published  in  1543  by  authority 
of  Henry  VIII.,  was  also  known  as  the  King's 
Book.  (See  PRIMERS.) 

KING'S  COCK  -  GROWER.  —  (See  COCK- 
CROWER. 

KING'S  COLLEGE.— (See  ABERDEEN.) 

KING'S  COLLEGE  (Cambridge)  was  founded 
by  Henry  VI.  in  1441.  The  first  stone  of  the 
celebrated  chapel  was  laid  in  Sep.,  1447.  Henry 
VII.  gave  ,£5,000  towards  the  completion  oi 
the  building  in  1508,  and  his  executors,  under 
a  power  conferred  by  his  will,  gave  a  further 
sum  of  ^5,000  in  1513.  The  exterior  was  com- 
pleted in  July,  1515,  and  the  painted  windows 
were  designed  in  1526.  The  screen  and  stalls 
were  completed  in  1534.  Gibbs  erected  the 
Fellows'  building  in  1724.  The  new  buildings 
were  commenced  in  1824,  and  finished  in  1828. 

KING'S  COLLEGE  (London).  —  The  first 
steps  for  the  foundation  of  this  educational 
establishment  were  taken  at  a  meeting  over 
which  the  Duke  of  Wellington  presided,  June 


2i,  1828.  The  announcement  that  Government 
aad  granted  the  ground  originally  intended  for 
;he  east  wing  of  Somerset  House  for  the  site  of 
the  institution,  free  of  expense  for  a  thousand 
years,  was  made  May  16,  1829.  The  charter  of 
incorporation  bears  date  Aug.  14,  1829;  and  the 
building,  from  designs  by  Smirke,  was  opened 
in  1831.  Mr.  Marsden  left  the  college  a  library, 
consisting  of  about  3,000  volumes,  in  1835. 

KING'S  COLLEGE  HOSPITAL  (London) 
was  founded  in  1839.  The  statue  of  Dr.  Todd. 
ras  inaugurated  July  3,  1862. 

KING'S  (or  QUEEN'S)  COUNSEL.  —  Tho 
appointment  of  this  officer,  beyond  the  usual 
law  officers  of  the  crown,  is  believed  to  have 
originated  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
A  warrant  of  James  I.,  dated  April  21,  1603, 
speaks  of  Francis  Bacon  as  "one  of  the  learned 
councell  to  the  late  queen,  our  sister,  by 
special  commandment,"  and  confirms  him  in 
the  office ;  and  a  patent  exists  of  Aug.  25,  1604, 
by  which  he  was  formally  appointed. 

KING'S  COUNTY  (Ireland),  forming  part  of 
a  large  extent  of  territory,  known,  amongst 
other  names,  under  that  of  the  kingdom  of 
Offaly,  or  East  and  West  Glcnniallery,  was  con- 
fiscated to  the  crown  by  3  &  4  Philip  <fe  Mary, 
c.  2  (1556).  One  portion  was  named  Queen's 
County,  in  honour  of  Queen  Mary,  and  the 
other  King's  County,  in  honour  of  her  husband 
Philip.  The -native  chieftains  struggled  against 
this  settlement,  and  were  subdued  in  1600. 
Many  of  them  took  part  in  the  revolt  of  1641. 

KING'S  COURT,  or  AULA,orCURIAREGIS. 
—This  court,  established  by  William  I.  (1066— 
1087),  was  thus  named  because  composed  of  the 
great  officers  of  state  resident  in  the  palace,  in 
the  hall  or  court  of  which  it  was  held.  It  ac- 
companied the  king's  household  in  all  his  ex- 
peditions, and  exercised  unlimited  jurisdiction. 
(See  JUSTICIARY,  CHIEF.)  It  met  generally  at 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide.  Great 
inconvenience  having  ensued  from  making 
the  trial  of  common  causes  dependent  on  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign,  it  was  enacted  by 
the  nth  chapter  of  Magna  Charta,  June  15, 
1215,  that  a  fixed  court  should  be  erected  for 
their  settlement.  (See  COMMON  PLEAS.) 

KING'S  EVIL.— Touching  for  king's  evil  or 
scrofula  is  alleged  to  have  been  first  practised 
by  Edward  the  Confessor  (1043 — 1066),  and 
Evelyn,  in  his  Diary,  July  6,  1660,  records 
that  King  Charles  II.  began  to  touch  for  the 
evil,  "  according  to  custom."  A  notice  was 
issued  May  16,  1664,  that  "his  sacred  Majesty 
would  continue  the  healing  of  his  people 
during  the  month  of  May,  and  then  give  over 
till  Michaelmas."  In  White's  "  Coronations 
of  the  Kings  of  France,"  it  is  related  that 
Louis  XVI.,  immediately  after  his  coronation 
at  Rheims,  1111775,  touched  2,400  individuals 
who  were  suffering  from  this  disease,  and 
healed  them.  Queen  Anne  (1702 — 1714)  was 
the  last  English  monarch  who  touched  for 
the  evil.  Charles  Edward  touched  a  female 
child  for  the  king's  evil  at  Holyrood  House, 
in  October,  1745.  The  office  for  the  ceremony 
appeared  in  the  Litany  as  late  as  1719.  The 
Jacobites  contended  that  the  power  of  cure  did 
not  descend  to  Mary,  William  III.,  or  Anne. 

KING'S  HEAD  CLUB  (London).— This  club, 


KING'S 


KISSING 


also  called  the  Green  Ribbon  Club,  of  which 
Charles  II.  (1660 — 1685)  was  an  honorary 
member,  was  founded  by  Lord  Shaftesbury 
for  the  support  of  the  court  and  Government. 
The  members,  who  carried  the  celebrated 
Protestant  Flail  as  a  defence  against  the  an- 
ticipated attacks  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  wore 
pistol-proof  silk  doublets,  from  which  they 
derived  their  popular  nickname  of  hogs  in 
armour.  They  assisted  in  the  pope-burning 
procession  of  Nov.  16,  1680,  when,  according 
to  Roger  North,  they  introduced  the  expres- 
sion mobile  vulgus,  or  "  mob."  The  club  de- 
clined on  the  suppression  of  these  celebrations 
in  1683. 

KING'S  SPEECH.— The  first  from  the  throne 
is  said  to  have  been  delivered  by  Henry  I.  in 

11  KINGSTON  (Canada),  settled  in  1783  by  the 
Dutch,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Esopas,  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1838,  and  as  a  city  in 
1846.  The  seat  of  the  government,  established 
here  in  1840,  was  removed  to  Toronto  in  1844. 

KINGSTON  (Jamaica)  was  built  in  1693,  in 
consequence  of  the  destruction  by  an  earth- 
quake of  Port  Royal  in  1692.  It  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire,  Feb.  8,  1782;  and  the  cholera 
carried  off  about  one-eighth  of  the  popula- 
tion in  1850.  The  railroad  from  Kingston  to 
Spanish  Town  was  opened  in  1845.  The 
bishopric  of  Kingston  was  founded  in  1856. 
Kingston  suffered  severely  from  a  fire  which 
broke  out  March  29,  1862,  and  occasioned  the 
death  of  three  persons,  and  the  destruction 
of  property  to  the  value  of  ^250,000. 

KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES  (Surrey)  was 
the  abode  of  royalty  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period ; 
and  between  902  and  979  seven  kings  were 
crowned  at  this  place.  The  stone  on  which  this 
ceremony  was  performed  is  still  preserved.  A 
council  was  held  here  in  838.  King  John 
granted  the  town  its  first  charter  in  1 199.  In 
the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  III.  (1307 — 1377) 
it  returned  members  to  parliament,  a  privilege 
it  has  not  since  enjoyed.  Queen  Elizabeth's 
free  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1561. 
The  bridge  over  the  Thames  was  erected  in 
1827  ;  the  town-hall  in  1838.  Miss  Burdett 
Coutts  built  the  district  church  in  1845. 

KINGSTOWN  (Ireland),  called  Dunleary 
prior  to  the  embarkation  of  George  IV.  for 
England,  Sep.  3,  1821,  received  its  present 
name  in  honour  of  that  event.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  harbour  was  commenced  in  1817, 
from  designs  by  Rennie,  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
^800,000.  It  was  connected  with  Dublin  by 
railway,  Dec.  17,  1834,  and  with  Dalkey  by 
atmospheric  railway  March  29,  1844.  Queen 
Victoria  embarked  at  this  port,  on  her  return 
from  Ireland,  in  August,  1849.  The  Bird's 
Nest,  an  institution  for  the  education  anc 
maintenance  of  Roman  Catholic  children 
founded  April  7, 1861,  was  opened  April  9, 1862 

KINSALE  (Ireland).  —  This  town,  in  the 
county  of  Cork,  is  a  place  of  considerable 
antiquity.  Sir  John  de  Courcey  erected 
castle  on  the  Old  Head  of  Kinsale  in  the  i2th 
century  ;  and  in  1380  the  English  fleet  de 
feated  the  combined  naval  forces  of  Franc 
and  Spain  in  the  harbour.  A  Spanish  fore 
landed  here  Sep.  23,  1601,  and  seized  the  town 


n  behalf  of  the  Roman  Catholic  rebels ;  but 
;  was  besieged  by  the  English  and  recaptured, 
>ec.  28.  In  March,  1689,  Kinsale  was  gar- 
isoned  by  the  French  and  Irish  forces  of 
ames  II.,  who  held  it  till  the  end  of  1690, 
k'hen  it  surrendered  to  Gen.  Churchill,  after- 
wards Duke  of  Maryborough.  Kinsale  has  been 
:i  a  declining  condition  since  the  peace  of  1814. 
'he  railway  to  Cork  was  opened  May  16,  1863. 

KINTRISHI  (Battle). —The  Russians  de- 
eated  the  Turks  near  this  place  in  the  pro- 
ince  of  Erivaii,  March  15,  1829. 

KINTYRE.— (See  CANTIRE.) 

KIOGE  (Sea-fights).— In  the  Bay  of  Kioge, 
n  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  the 
Swedish  fleet  was  defeated  by  a  combined 
)utch  and  Danish  fleet,  in  1676.  From  the 
act  that  the  action  took  place  near  Bornholm, 

t  is  often  called  by  that  name. A  Swedish 

leet  having  assailed  a  Danish  fleet  here,  Oct. 
,  1710,  one  Danish  ship  of  90  guns  blew  up, 
,nd  two  of  the  Swedish  flag-ships  grounded 
>n  a  sandbank,  and  were  abandoned.  The 
Swedish  fleet  retired  Oct.  7. 

KIOW.— (See  KIEF.) 

KIPSALE,  KIPTCHAK,  or  KIPZAK  (Plains 
if),  extending  for  an  immense  distance  on 
>oth  sides  of  the  Volga,  were  conquered  by 
;he  Mongols  of  the  Golden  Horde  (q.  y.)  in  1235. 
Their  empire  was  dismembered  late  in  the  isth 

CeKIRCHDENKERN  (Battles).  — The  French 
were  defeated  by  the  allies  at  this  village  in 
Sermany,  July  15,  1761.  The  first  attack  was 
made  upon  the  English,  commanded  by  the 
Marquis  of  Granby,  and  both  leader  and  men 
displayed  extraordinary  gallantry.  The  corn- 
et was  renewed  July  16,  when  the  French 
were  again  defeated.  The  French  lost  5,000 
and  the  allies  only  1,500  men  in  killed  and 
wounded.  These  combats  are  sometimes  men- 
tioned under  the  name  of  Villingshausen. 

KIRCHENTAG.— This  association  of  minis- 
ters and  laymen,  belonging  to  the  different 
Protestant  Churches  in  Germany,  held  its  first 

eeting  at  Wittenberg  in  1848. 

K1RCHHOLM  (Battle).  —  Sigismund  III., 
King  of  Poland,  defeated  the  Swedes  at  Kirch- 
holm,  in  1605. 

KIRK. — (See  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND  and  FREE 
CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.) 

KIRKCALDY  (Fifeshire).— This  town,  the 
seat  of  an  ancient  establishment  of  the  Cul- 
dees,  was  erected  into  a  royal  burgh  in  1334, 
when  it  was  rendered  subject  to  the  Abbot  of 
Dumfermline  and  his  successors.  It  became 
independent  in  1450,  and  received  a  charter 
from  Charles  I.  in  1644. 

KIRKTON.-(&>e  CREIUTON.) 

KIR  OF  MOAB  (Palestine).— This  stronghold 
of  Moab,  mentioned  Isaiah  xv.  i,  was  noticed  in 
an  act  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  in  536.  In 
1131  Fulk,  Count  of  Anjou,  and  Latin  King  of 
Jerusalem,  erected  a  castle,  which  successfully 
resisted  a  siege  by  Saladin  in  1183. 

KIS  (Battle).— Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria, 
totally  defeated  Merodach  Baladan,  King  of 
Babylon,  and  his  Elamitish  allies,  near  this 
city  of  Chaldaea,  B.C.  702. 

KISSING,  as  a  religious  act,  was  practised  in 
the  time  of  the  patriarch  Job,  B.C.  2130,  who 


KISSINGEN 


t    552    ] 


KNIGHT 


protests  (Job  xxxi.  26  and  27)  that  he  had  not 
kissed  his  hand  to  the  sun  or  to  the  moon.  This 
mark  of  devotion  was  paid  to  Baal  (i  Kings 
xix.  18),  B.C.  910.  It  passed  to  the  Greeks,  and 
from  them  to  the  Romans.  L)r.  Winsemius  de- 
clares that  the  custom  was  unknown  in  England 
till  449,  when  the  Princess  Rowena,  daughter  of 
Hengist,  King  of  Friesland,  pressed  her  lips  to 
the  cup,  and  saluted  Vortigern  with  a  "little 
kiss."  From  a  passage  in  Evelyn's  Diary,  it 
appears  that  men  kissed  each  other  in  the 
streets  of  London  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th 
century.  The  Spanish  conqxierors  found  the 
custom  prevalent  in  the  New  World. 

KISSINGEN  (Bavaria).— The  importance  of 
this  fashionable  watering-place  arose  from  the 
patronage  of  Louis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria  (1825— 
1848).  The  celebrated  artesian  well,  2,000  feet 
deep,  commenced  in  1832,  was  completed  in 
1852.  The  Emperors  of  Austria  and  of  Russia, 
and  some  German  sovereigns,  met  here  June 
16— 21,  1864. 

KISS  OF  PEACE.— The  osculum  pacis,  or  the 
solemn  kiss  of  peace,  was  anciently  given  by 
the  faithful  one  to  the  other,  as  a  testimony 
of  cordial  love  and  affection.  After  the  priest 
had  given  the  salutation  of  peace,  the  deacon 
ordered  the  people  to  salute  one  another  with 
a  holy  kiss.  It  was  also  given  before  the 
Eucharist,  until  the  i2th  or  isth  century, 
when  the  Pax  (q.  v.)  was  introduced.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  3rd  century  the  kiss  of  peace 
was  given  in  baptism.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
omitted  at  the  coronation  of  Stephen  in  1 1 35. 
Henry  II.  of  England  refused  to  give  Becket 
the  kiss  of  peace,  cat  that  tune  the  usual  pledge 
of  reconciliation,  in  1169. 

KIT-CAT  CLUB  (London).— This  celebrated 
association,  formed  about  1700,  which  held 
its  first  meetings  at  a  small  house  in  Shire 
Lane,  originally  consisted  of  thirty-nine  noble- 
men and  gentlemen  distinguished  for  the 
warmth  of  their  attachment  to  the  house  of 
Hanover.  The  Duke  of  Marlborough,  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  Addison,  Garth,  and  many 
famous  men  of  the  period,  were  members. 
The  club  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from 
Christopher  Katt,  a  pastrycook,  at  whose 
house  the  members  dined. 

KITT'S,  ST.— (See  CHRISTOPHER'S,  ST.) 

KIWEROWA-HORKA  (Treaty),  concluded 
between  Russia  and  Poland,  Jan.  15,  1582,  at 
this  village  near  the  Polish  frontier,  ceded 
Livonia  to  the  latter  power.  The  peace, 
limited  by  the  original  compact  to  ten  years, 
was  renewed  in  1591. 

KLAGENFURT  (Illyria),  the  capital  of 
Carinthia,  belonged  to  the  crown  till  1518, 
when  Maximilian  I.  transferred  it  to  the  states 
of  Carinthia,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a 
fortress.  The  house  of  assembly  was  built  in 
1391.  At  various  times  the  city  has  suffered 
from  extensive  fires.  Those  which  occurred 
in  JSSSj  I723>  and  !796,  were  very  destructive. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French,  March  29,  1797, 
and  Napoleon  I.  made  it  his  head-quarters, 
March  30.  A  skirmish  took  place  here  between 
Chastellar  and  the  Italian  general  Rusca,  in 
June,  1809. 

KL AUSENBURG  (Battle).— George  Ragotski 
II.,  Waiwodo  of  Transylvania,  was  defeated 


and  slain  by  the  Turks  near  his  capital  city, 
in  May,  1660. 

KL  AUSENBURG  (Transylvania),  the  capital, 
called  Colosvar  or  Kolosvar  by  the  Hungarians, 
is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  by  them  named  Claudia,  whence  its 
modern  Latin  appellation  of  Claudiopolis.  A 
colony  of  Saxons  settled  in  the  town,  which 
they  enlarged  in  1178.  The  cathedral  was 
built  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  by  King  Sigis- 
mund,  1399.  Matthias  Corvinus  Huniades, 
King  of  Hungary,  was  bom  here  in  1443.  On 
a  lofty  eminence  stands  the  citadel,  erected  in 

KLEIN-SCHNELLENDORF  (Convention).— 
Frederick  II.  (the  Great)  of  Prussia,  by  a 
secret  convention,  concluded  at  this  castle  in 
Silesia  with  the  generals  of  Maria  Theresa, 
Oct.  9,  1741,  permitted  the  Austrians  to  retire 
from  Silesia  into  Moravia,  receiving  Lower 
Silesia,  and  the  right  to  take  Neisse  by  siege. 
Frederick  II.  broke  the  convention  before  the 
end  of  1741. 

KLOSTER  SEYVERN  (Treaty).— An  alliance 
was  concluded  at  this  place  near  Munich  be- 
tween Saxony,  Hesse,  Bavaria,  and  Franco, 
who  united  against  the  recognition  of  Ferdi- 
nand, brother  of  Charles  V.,  and  afterwards 
Emperor  of  Germany,  as  King  of  the  Romans, 
May  26,  1532.  The  place  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Hanoverian  village  where  the 
convention  of  Closter  Seven  (q.  v.}  was  signed. 

KLUM,  or  CHLUM.— (See  SADOWA,  Battle.) 

KNKELERS.— A  third  order  of  catechumens 
was  distinguished  by  this  name  by  the  Council 
of  Ncocft'sarea,  in  314  or  315,  and  other  councils. 
Amongst  the  penitents  was  an  order  of  kneelers 
or  prostrators. 

KNEELING  was  practised  as  the  ordinary 
posture  of  devotion  from  the  earliest  times. 
Amongst  the  primitive  Christians,  on  the 
Lord's  day,  all  prayers  were  performed  stand- 
ing, but  on  other  days  some  were  said  standing, 
some  kneeling. 

KNIGHT-BANNERET,  a  person  who  re- 
ceived the  order  of  knighthood,  under  the  royal 
standard,  for  some  distinguished  service  in  the 
field.  Shakspeare  (King  John,  i.  i)  speaks  of — 

•'  A  soldier,  by  the  honour-giving  hand 
Of  Cceur-de-Lion,  knighted  in  the  field." 

The  time  and  place  at  which  the  dignity  was 
first  conferred  have  excited  much  controversy. 
In  5  Rich.  II.  s.  ii.  c.  4  (1382),  bannerets  are 
mentioned  amongst  those  summoned  to  Parlia- 
ment. "  No  man,"  says  Hallam  (Middle  Ages, 
iii.  ch.  9,  pt.  2),  "  could  properly  be  a  banneret 
unless  he  possessed  a  certain  estate,  and  could 
bring  a  certain  number  of  lances  into  the  field. 
His  distinguishing  mark  was  the  square  banner, 
carried  by  a  squire  at  the  point  of  his  lance  ; 
while  the  knight-bachelor  had  only  the  coronet 
or  pointed  pendant.  When  a  banneret  was 
created,  the  general  cut  off  this  pendant  to 
render  the  banner  square."  Selden  states  that 
the  first  account  of  this  dignity  occurs  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  Edmondson  traces  it  as 
far  back  as  736.  The  Black  Prince  made  Sir 
John  Chandos  a  knight-banneret  in  1367.  The 
order  was  discontinued  from  1642  ;  the  last,  Sir 
John  Smith,  having  been  created  by  Charles  I. 


KNIGHT 


[    553 


KNIGHTHOOD 


after  the  battle  of  Edgehill.  It  was,  how- 
ever, revived  by  George  II.  after  the  battle  of 
Dettingen,  June  27,  1743;  and  Sir  William 
Erskine  was  made  a  knight-banneret  by  George 
III.  in  1764,  for  distinguished  services  in  the 
war  on  the  continent. 

KNIGHT-ERRANTRY  is  described  by  a 
writer  in  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica" 
(vii.  536)  as  "  a  practical  caricature  of  chivalry, 
which,  by  bringing  it  into  contempt,  exposed 
it  to  ridicule,  and  thus  sealed  the  doom  of  an 
institution  which,  with  all  its  follies,  absur- 
dities, and  vices,  has  conferred  essential  bene- 
fits upon  mankind."  Cervantes  wrote  "Don 
Quixote,"  of  which  the  first  part  was  published 
in  1605,  and  the  second  in  1615,  in  ridicule  of 
knight-errantry. 

KNIGHTHOOD.— The  institution  of  knight- 
hood originated  in  the  honour  anciently  be- 
stowed upon  those  who  excelled  in  horseman- 
ship. Hence  the  Latin,  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Dutch  words  for  knight  are  all 
derived  from  terms  which  signify  'horse.' 
Some  zealous  antiquarians  consider  that 
Pharaoh  conferred  the  honour  of  knighthood 
upon  Joseph  when  he  put  his  ring  on  his  finger 
and  invested  him  in  robes  of  dignity  (Gen.  xli. 
42),  B.C.  1715 ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  any  such  institution  until 
Romulus  established  the  equestrian  order  at 
Rome.  Modern  knighthood  did  not  originate 
in  this  order,  but  in  the  tenure  which  com- 
pelled feudal  vassals  to  hold  their  lands  by 
furnishing  armed  men  for  the  service  of  the 
sovereign,  the  obligation  to  furnish  one  soldier 
constituting  one  knight's  fee.  The  earliest 
mode  of  conferring  the  honour  of  knighthood 
in  England  was  the  consecration  of  the  novi- 
tiate's sword  by  the  priest  at  the  altar.  The 
first  knight  created  by  the  stroke  of  a  sword 
was  Athelstan,  who  was  dubbed  by  Alfred  the 
Great  in  goo.  The  chivalric  element  was  not 
introduced  into  knighthood  until  «the  period  of 
the  Crusades,  when  devotion  to  God  and  to  the 
fair  sex  became  the  chief  characteristics  of  all 
good  knights.  Ecclesiastics  were  prohibited 
from  conferring  knighthood  by  a  council  held 
in  1 102.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and 
Elizabeth,  all  persons  possessed  of  lands  yield- 
ing a  yearly  income  of  .£40  were  compelled  to 
receive  knighthood  or  pay  a  fine  ;  and  in  1626 
Charles  I.  recruited  his  exhausted  exchequer 
by  reviving  this  obsolete  custom.  The  com- 
pensation exacted  from  those  knights  who 
declined  to  perform  military  service  was 
abolished  by  16  Charles  I.  c.  20  (1640),  and  the 
service  itself  was  abolished  by  12  Charles  II. 
c.  24  (1660).  (See  FOREIGN  ORDERS.)  Many  of 
the  following  orders  are  noticed  under  their 
respective  titles : — 

A.D. 

1850.  Albert  (Saxony). 

1383.  Albert  the  Bear  (Anhalt  Coethon). 

1156.  Alcantara  (Spain). 

1733.  Alexander  Newsky  (Russia). 

1698.  Andrew,  St.  (Russia). 

1540.  Andrew,  St.  (Scotland). 

337  (before).  Angelic  Knights  of  St.  George. 
1735.  Anne,  St.  (Russia). 
1355.  Aununciada  (Sardinia). 
1383.  Antony,  St.  (Bavaria). 

370.  Antony,  St.  (Palestine). 
1764.  Apostolic  Order  of  St  Stephen  (Hungary). 


A.D. 

1383.  Argonauts  of  St.  Nicholas. 

1147.  Avis,  St.  Benedict  of  (Portugal). 

1330.  Band  or  Scarf  (Spain). 

1304  (before).  Bath  (England).  Revised  1725. 

1808.  Bavarian  Crown  (Bavaria). 

1313.  Bear  (Austria). 

1703.  Bee  (France). 

1815.  Belgian  Lion  (Holland). 

1459.  Bethlehem,  Our  Lady  of  (Papal  States). 

1701.  Black  Eagle  (Prussia). 

1608.  Blood  of  our  Saviour  (Austria). 

1370.  Bourbon  (France). 

1366.  Brician  (Sweden). 

1334.  Broom  Flower. 

1535-  Burguudian  Cross  (Palestine). 

1158.  Calatrava  (Spain). 

1714.  Catherine,  St.  (Russia). 

1063.  Catherine  of  Sinai,  St.  (Palestine). 

1348.  Chapel,  or  Poor  Knights  of  Windsor. 

1771.  Charles  III.  (Spain). 

1811.  Charles  XIII.  (Sweden  and  Norway). 

1807.  Charles  Frederick  (Baden). 

1702.  Chase-horn  (Wurtemberg). 
1306.  Christ  (France). 

1317.  Christ  (Portugal). 

1574-89-  Christian  Charity  (France). 

1369.  Cockle,  or  Ship  (France). 

1175.  Compostella,  or  Santiago  (Spain). 

1660.  Concord  (Prussia). 

1190.  Constantino  (Two  Sicilies). 

1606.  Cordon  Jaune  (France). 

1368  and  1448.  Crescent  (Naples  and  France). 

1801.  Crescent  (Turkey). 

1832.  Cross  of  the  South  (Brazil). 

1818.  Crown  of  Wurtemberg. 

802.  Crown  Royal  (France). 
1 3th  cent.  Cyprus. 
1319.  Danebrog  (Denmark). 
1653.  Death's  Head  (Wiirtembcrg). 
1400.  De  la  Calza  (Venice). 
1330.  De  la  Scama  (Spain). 

500.  Dog  and  Cock  (France). 
1379.  Dove  (Spain). 
1418.  Dragon  Overthrown  (Austria). 
1838.  Ducal  House  of  Peter  Frederick  Louis  (Oldenburg). 
1458.  Elephant  (Denmark). 
1450.  Ermia  (Brittany). 
1450.  Ermine  (France). 
1463.  Ermine  (Naples). 
1690.  Ernest  (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). 
1230.  Faith  and  Charity  (France). 
1790.  Family  Order  of  the  Golden  Lion  (Hesse). 

1715.  Family  Order  of  Loyalty  (Baden). 
1838.  Family  Order  of  Merit  (Oldenburg). 
1849.  Faustin,  St.  (Hayti). 

1811.  Ferdinand,  St.  (Spain). 
1800.  Ferdinand,  St.  (Two  Sicilies). 
1732.  Fidelity  (Denmark). 
1381.  Fools  (German  Empire). 
1829.  Francis  (Two  Sicilies). 
1849.  Francis  Joseph  (Austria). 
Frederick  (Wurtemberg). 


1344.  Garter  (England). 


Generosity  (Prussia). 

726.  Gennet  (France). 

337.  George,  St.,  Angelic  Knights  of. 
1470.  George,  St  (Austria). 
1739.  George,  St.  (Bavaria). 
1400.  George,  St.  (France). 
1470.  George,  St.  (Germany). 
1839.  George,  St.  (Hanover). 

1833.  George,  St.  (Lucca). 

1534.  George  at  Ravenna,  St.  (Papal  States). 

1498.  George  in  Rome,  St.  (Papal  States). 

1709.  George,  St.  (Russia). 

1301.  George  d'Alfama,  St.  (Spain). 

1819.  George  of  the  Reunion,  St.  (Two  Sicilies). 

1190.  Gerion,  St.  (Austria). 

1690.  German  Integrity  (Saxe-Gotha). 

1439.  Golden  Fleece  (Austria). 

1785.  Golden  Lion. 

1363.  Golden  Shield  (France). 

1559.  Golden  Spurs  (Papal  States). 

1831.  Gregory  the  Great,  St.  (Papal  States). 

1815.  Guelphic  Order  (Hanover). 

1834.  Henry  the  Lion  (Brunswick). 
1739.  Henry,  St.  (Saxony). 

1814.  Hermingilde,  St.  (Spain). 


KNIGHTHOOD 


[     554     1 


KNIGHTS 


ce). 
))!il  States). 


1578.  Holy  Ghost  (Fra 

1198.  Holy  (.host  (Pap 

1496.  Holy  Sepulchre  (Turkey). 

1048.  Hospitallers  (Palestine). 

1444.  Hubert,  St.  (Bavaria). 

1447.  Hubert,  St.  (German  Empire). 

1813.  Iron  Cross  (Prussia). 
1605.  Iron  Crown  (Austria). 

1814.  Iron  Helmet  (Hesse). 
1804.  Isabella,  St.  (Portugal). 

1815.  Isabella  the  Catholic  (Spain). 
1390.  James,  St.  (Holland). 

1310.  James,  St.  (Portugal). 

3175.  James  of  Compostella,  St.  (Spain). 

1738.  Januarius,  St.  (Two  Sicilies). 

1306.  Jesus  Christ  (France). 

1330.  Jesus  Christ  (Papal  States). 

1615.  Jesus  and  Mary  (Papal  States). 

1755.  Joachim,  St..  (Franconia). 

1812.  John,  St.  (Prussia). 

1048.  John,  St.,  of  Jerusalem  (Hospitaller,  Palestine). 

1807.  Joseph,  St.  (Tuscany). 
1351.  Knot  (Naples). 

I2i8.  Lady  of  Mercy  (Spain). 
1564.  Lamb  of  God  (Sweden). 
1607  (revived).  Lazarus,  St.  (France). 
1150.  Lazarus,  St.  (Palestine). 
1802.  Legion  of  Honour  (France). 

1808.  Leopold  (Austria). 
1833.  Leopold  (Belgium). 
1410.  Lily  of  Aragon  (Spain). 

1050  (about).  Lily  of  Navarre  (Spain). 
I8o8.   Lion  and  the  Sun  (Persia). 

1813.  Lion  of  Zaehringen  (Baden). 
1587.  Loreto  (Pupal  States). 

ix  7.  Louis  (Bavaria). 

1807.    Louis  (Hesse). 

1693.  Louis,  St.  (France). 

1836.  Louis,  St.  (Lucca). 

1 853.  Madonna  of  Cuadnloupo  (Mexico). 

1043.  Malta,  St.  John  of  (Austria). 

1757.   Maria   Theresa  (Austria). 

1618.  Mary  the  Glorious,  St.  (Papal  States). 

1614.  Mary  Magdalene.  St.  (France). 

1434.  Maurice.  St.  (Sardinia). 

1573.  Maurice  and  Lazarus,  St.  (Sardinia). 

1853.  Maximilian  (Bavaria). 

1806.  Maximilian  Joseph  (Bavaria). 

J8^4.    Medjidie  (Turkey). 

*  Merciful  Brethren  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Papal  States). 
1218.  Mercy  (Spain). 

3740.  Merit  (Prussia). 

1815.  Merit  (Saxony). 

3693.  Michael,  St.  (Bavaria). 

1469.  Michael.  St.  (France). 

1018.  Michael,  St.  (Germany). 

1818.  Michael  ami  George,  St.  (England). 

17=19.  Military  Merit  (France). 

1769.  Military  Merit  (I I. 

1792.  Military  Merit  (Hus^ia). 

1841.  Military  Merit  (Tuscany). 

3759.  Military  Merit  (\\mlemberg). 

1607.  Mount  Carmel  (France). 

1708.  Neighbourly  Love  (Austria). 

*  Nichan  (Tunis). 

1831.  Nichani-Iftihar  (Turkey). 
1383.   Nicolas,  St.  (Naples). 
1704.  Noble  Passion  (German  Empire). 
1841.  Oaken  Crown  (Luxemburg). 
733.  Oak  of  Navarre  (Spain). 
1847.  Olaf,  St.  (Norway). 

1818.  Our  Lady  of  the  Conception  of  Villa  Vicosa  (Por- 
tugal).' 

1317.  Our  Lady  of  Montesa  (Spain). 
1607.  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  (France). 
1768.  Palatine  Lion  (Bavaria). 

1837.  Palm  and  Alligator  (W.  Africa). 

*  Patrick,  St.  (Bavaria). 
1783.  Patrick.  St.  (Ireland). 
1826.  Pedro  (Brazil). 

3530.  Peter  and  Paul,  St.  (Papal  States). 

1838.  Peter  Frederick  Louis  (Oldenburg). 
1847.  Pius  (Papal  States). 

1748.  Polar  Star  (Sweden). 

134-!.  Poor  Knights  of  Windsor  (England). 

3393.  Porcupine  (France).    (See  CUAPEL.) 

1734.  Kcd  Eagle  (Prussia). 

1833.  Redeemer  (Greece). 


A.  1 .). 

312.  Kosary  of  Toledo  (Spain). 
1829.  Kose  (Brazil). 

516  (about).  Bound  Table  (England). 

827.  Koyal  Louis  (Bavaria). 

807.  Hue  Crown  (Saxony). 

701.  Uupert  (German  Empire). 
1118  or  1120.  Saviour,  St.  (Spain). 

561.  Saviour  of  the  World  (Sweden). 
815.  Savoy  (Sardinia). 

1825.  Saxe-Ernest  (Saxe-Gotha). 

380.  Seraphim  (Sweden  and  -Norway). 
1309.  Shi]>  or  Cockle  (France). 
1705.  Sincerity  (Prussia). 

765.  Stanislaus,  St.  (Russia). 

033.  Star  (France). 

351.  Star  (Sicily). 

861.  Star  of  India  (England). 

562.  Stephen,  St.  (Tuscany). 
500  (about).  Swan  (Flanders). 

1449.  Swan  (Prussia). 

535.  Sword  (Sweden  and  Norway). 

200.  Sword-Bearers  (Poland). 
1300  (about).  Sword  in  Cyprus  (Sardinia). 
1119.  Templars  (Palestine). 
1191.  Teutonic  Order  (Austria). 
1687  (revived  1809).  Thistle  (Scotland). 
1370.  Thistle  of  Bourbon  (Fnmee  i. 
1459.  Tower  and  Sword  (Portugal). 
1237  (before).  Truxillo  (Spain). 
I8o8.   Two  Sieilies  (Naples). 
1--6.    Vasa  (Sweden  and  Norway). 
1333.   Virgin  Mary  (P.-. pal  States). 
1814.  White  Cross  (Tuscan 


1335.  White  Eagle  (Pola 
1634. 


34.   White  Eagle  (Kussia 

33.  White  Falcon  (Saxe- Weimar). 
1815.  William  (Holland). 
1172.  Win- of  St.  Michael  (Portugal). 

1783.  Wolodomir,  St.  (Kussia). 

KNIGHT-MARSHAL.— The  earl-marshal  of 

Kngland  7.  '<•.;  had  a  knight  under  him  called 
the  knight-marshal.  In  ordinances  made  by 
Henry  VIII.  at  Eltham,  in  1526,  directions 
were  laid  down  for  his  attendance  at  court,  <fcc. 
KNIGHTS  ;  Female). —Beside  the  orders  of 
knighthood  bestowed  upon  men,  several  were 
instituted  for  the  honour  of  meritorious  ladies. 
The  following  table  exhibits  a  list  of  these,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  noticed  under 
their  titles:  — 

A.D. 

1645.  Amaranta  (Sweden). 

1714.  Anna,  St.  (Wiirtzburg). 

1784.  Anna,  St.  (Bavaria). 
1703.  Bee  (France). 

1319.  Calatrava  (Spain). 

1714.   Catherine,  St.  (Kussia). 

1498.  Cordelier.-  (France). 

1668.  Cross,  or  Starry  Cross  (Germany). 

1652.    1 'oath's  Head.' 

1804.  Elizabeth,  St.  (Brazil). 

1766.  Elizabeth,  St.  (Palatine). 

1801.  Isabela,  St.  (Portugal). 

1313.  James,  St.  (Spain). 

1107.  Ladies  Knights  of  Malta  (Palestine). 

1814.  Louisa,  St.  (Prussia). 

1793.  Maria  Louisa  (Spain). 

1261.  Mercy  (Spain). 

1708.  Neighbourly  Love  (Austria). 

1663.  Slaves  to  Virtue  (Austria). 

1668.  Starry  Cross  (Austria). 

1837.  Theresa  (Bavaria). 

1734.  Ulrica,  St.  (Sweden). 

Ladies  were  admitted  to  other  orders,  such  as 
Malta,  Santiago,  &c. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  ROUND  TABLE.— This 
order  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  King 
Arthur,  a  British  prince,  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Camelon  in  542.  Edward 
III.,  anxious  to  revive  it,  offered  free  conduct 
to  persons  from  various  parts  of  Europe,  de- 
sirous of  attending  a  solemn  festival  of  the 


KNIGHTS 


[    555 


KORAN 


Round  Table,  to  be  held  at  Windsor  in  1344. 
From  this  originated  the  order  of  the  Garter 
(q.  v.).  Philip  VI.,  King  of  France,  prohibited 
his  subjects  from  attending,  and  announced  his 
intention  of  holding  a  Round  Table  at  Paris. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  SHIRE.— The  repre- 
sentatives in  Parliament  of  the  English  coun- 
ties wero  first  summoned  about  1254,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  in  a  more  regular 
form  Jan.  20,  1265.  By  8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7  (1429), 
and  10  Hen.  VI.  c.  2  (1432),  amended  by  14 
Geo.  III.  c.  58  (1774),  knights  of  the  shire  were 
to  be  elected  by  persons  possessing  a  freehold 
to  the  value  of  forty  shillings  by  the  year 
within  the  county. 

KNITTING.— The  art  of  knitting  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  during  the  i6th  century. 
The  French  stocking-knitters  were  incorpo- 
rated into  a  guild  Aug.  26,  1527  ;  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  received  a  present  of  a  pair  of  black 
silk  stockings  in  1561,  which  gave  her  such 
satisfaction  that  she  refused  to  wear  any  other 
kind.  The  first  knitted  woollen  stockings  in 
England  were  worked  by  William  Ryder  in 
1564 ;  and  in  1577  the  art  of  knitting  seems  to 
have  been  common. 

KNIVES  were,  according  to  Anderson,  first 
made  in  England  in  1563.  Fosbroke  states  that 
towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  they 
formed  part  of  the  accoutrements,  and  were 
worn  by  European  women  at  the  girdle.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Normans  carried  about 
with  them  the  metscex,  or  eating-knife.  An 
Egyptian  knife,  with  blade  of  copper,  has 
been  found  in  the  catacombs  of  Sacarrah. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS.— This  political  party 
of  the  United  States  published  its  "  Platform 
of  Principles"  June  15,  1855.  Its  distinguish- 
ing features  were  the  approval  of  slavery  and 
hostility  to  the  Roman  Catholics. 

KNOXVILLE  (United  States).— This  town 
of  Tennessee,  having  been  occupied  by  the 
Federals,  Sep.  i,  1863,  was  entered  by  Gen. 
Burnside,  Sep.  3.  After  the  battle  of  Camp- 
bell's Station  (q.  v.)  he  was  besieged  here  by 
the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Longstreet,  Nov. 
1 7  and  1 8.  An  assault  was  repulsed  Nov.  29, 
and  the  garrison  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Sher- 
man Dec.'  3. 

KOHINOOR,  or  MOUNTAIN  OF  LIGHT. 
— This  diamond,  having  long  formed  a  chief 
feature  of  the  treasury  of  Delhi,  passed  in  1526 
into  possession  of  the  Mongol  Emperor  Baber. 
During  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe  (1658 — 1707) 


emperor  of  all  his  possessions,  and  narrowly 
escaped  with  life.  In  1739  it  was  seized  by 
Nadir  Shah,  and  in  1849  it  was  surrendered 
to  the  British  troops,  by  whom  it  was  pre- 
sented to  Queen  Victoria  June  3, 1850.  Having 
been  exhibited  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851,  it  was  recut'by  Coster,  of  Amsterdam, 
July  1 6 — Sep.  7,  1852,  and  its  weight  reduced 
to  106^  carats. 

KOKAND  (Asia).— The  Russians  were  in 
1852  defeated  in  an  attack  upon  this  fort  of 
Ak-Mesjed,  or  the  White  Mosque,  erected  in 
this  state  of  Turkestan  in  1817.  It  surren- 
dered after  a  siege  lasting  from  July  5  to  27, 


1853.  The  Kokandis  were  defeated  with  the 
loss  of  2,000  men  in  a  battle  fought  near  the 
same  place  Dec.  14,  1853.  Pishpek  surren- 
dered to  the  Russians  in  Oct.,  1862,  and 
Avliata  and  Hazret-i-Turkestan  in  1864. 
Another  battle  was  fought  near  Tashkend 
May  9,  1865,  and  the  town  surrendered  May  15. 

KOLIN,  COLIN,  KHOLIN,  KOLLIN,  or 
NEU-KOLIN  (Battle).— The  Prussians  under 
Frederick  II.  (the  Great)  sustained  a  signal 
defeat  from  the  Austrians  under  Marshal 
Daun,  at  this  town  in  Bohemia,  June  18,  1757* 

KOLOSVAR.— (See  KLAUSENBERG.) 

KOMARI.— (See  CAPE  COMORIN.) 

KONGE-LOV,  LEX  REGIA,  or  ROYAL 
LAW. — By  this  constitution,  established  in 
Denmark  Oct.  1660,  the  government  was 
changed  from  an  elective  into  an  hereditary 
monarchy,  and  the  power  of  the  sovereign  was 
made  absolute. 

KONGSBERG  (Norway).— The  silver-mines 
in  the  neighbourhood,  for  which  this  town  is 
celebrated,  were  discovered  in  1623. 

KONIAH,  or  KONIEH  (Battle).— The  Turkish 
army,  under  Reschid  Pasha,  was  defeated,  with 
a  loss  of  30,000  men,  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  at  this 
city,  the  ancient  Iconium  (q.  v.},  Dec.  21,  1832. 

KONIGSBERG  (Prussia).— This  city  was 
founded  in  1255  by  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic 
order,  at  the  suggestion  of  Premislaus  II.  of 
Bohemia.  The  royal  castle  was  erected  in  1257, 
and  the  cathedral  commenced  in  1332.  In  1365 
it  joined  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  in  1525 
became  the  residence  of  the  Prussian  dukes, 
and  the  capital  of  the  duchy.  The  university, 
founded  in  1544,  by  the  Margrave  Albert,  is 
called  the  Albertine  in  consequence.  Konigs- 
berg  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  1626,  and  the 
citadel  of  Fredericksburg  was  built  in  1657. 
The  Elector  Frederick  III.  was  crowned  King  of 
Prussia  at  this  place  in  1701.  The  plague  raged 
here  with  great  fury  in  1709,  and  much  damage 
was  done  by  fires  in  1764,  1769,  1775,  and  1811. 
The  Russians  entered  Konigsberg  in  triumph, 
Jan.  16,  1758,  the  French  seized  it  in  1807,  and 
it  was  again  fortified  in  1843.  The  coronation 
of  William  I.  of  Prussia  was  celebrated  here 
with  great  magnificence,  Oct.  18,  1861. 

KONIGSGRATZ.— (See  SADOWA,  Battle.) 

KONIGSHOFEN  (Battle)  was  fought  at  this 
place,  in  Germany,  June  2,  1525,  during  the 
Peasants'  War,  when  the  peasantry  were  de- 
feated by  the  imperial  troops,  and  perished  in 
great  numbers. 

KONIGSTEIN  (Germany)  was  surrendered 
to  the  Prussians,  after  a  blockade  of  some 
months,  March  9,  1793.  For  about  three 
months  in  1849,  the  King  of  Saxony  sought 
refuge  here,  on  account  of  the  revolutionary 
tendencies  of  his  subjects.  The  fortress  is 
considered  impregnable,  and  at  its  foot  stands 
the  camp  of  Pirna  (q.  v.). 

KOOM  (Persia)  was  built  by  the  Saracens 
about  the  beginning  of  the  gth  century.  The 
Affghans  destroyed  it  in  1722.  It  was  at  one 
time  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  silk 

KOORIA  MOORIA  ISLANDS.— (See  CURIA 
MARIA  ISLANDS.) 

KORAN.— This  word,  signifying  in  the  ori- 
ginal Arabic  "that  which  ought  to  be  read," 


KORDOFAN 


[    556    ] 


KURDISTAN 


is  the  name  given  to  the  bible  of  the  Moham- 
medans, which  was  prepared  by  Mohammed 
about  612,  and  collected  and  published  by  his 
successor  Abubeker  in  634.  The  divine  autho- 
rity of  the  book  was  denied  by  Djeab  Ibn- 
Dirhem  in  740,  and  by  others  in  826 ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Haroun  II.  in  842  prohibited 
all  discussion  on  the  subject.  The  first  Latin, 
translation  of  the  Koran  was  made  in  1143. 
Hinckelmann  published  the  Arabic  text  in 
1694.  Sale's  English  Koran  appeared  in  1734, 
and  Savary's  French  version  in  1783.  Fluegel's 
stereotyped  edition  was  published  at  Leipsic 
1111834.  The  work  contains  114  chapters  and 
6,000  verses,  and  the  contents  are  divided  into 
the  three  general  heads  of  precepts,  histories, 
and  admonitions. 

KORDOFAN,  or  THE  WHITE  LAND 
(Central  Africa).— This  district  of  the  Nigritia, 
long  tributary  to  the  King  of  Sennaar,  was 
taken  in  the  latter  half  of  the  i8th  century, 
by  the  King  of  Dar-Fur,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested  in  1820  by  Mehemet  Ali,  who  was  con- 
firmed in  the  possession  by  a  firman  issued  by 
the  Sultan  Feb.  13, 1841.  Slavery  was  abolished 
in  1857. 

KOREISH.— This  celebrated  Arabian  tribe 
was  descended  from  Fihr,  born  about  200,  and 
was  elevated  to  importance  by  Kussai,  born 
about  400.  The  custody  of  the  Caaba  (q.  v.} 
was  usurped  by  the  Koreishites  in  400,  and 
Mohammed  was  born  a  member  of  the  tribe 
in  570.  In  613  he  was  vigorously  opposed  in 
his  religious  reformation  by  his  fellow  Koreish- 
ites, and  a  war  resulted,  which  terminated  in 
the  total  defeat  of  his  opponents  in  630.  Mil- 
man  says  the  Koreishite  tribe  was  a  kind  of 
hierarchy,  exercising  religious  supremacy. 

KORNEUBURG  (Treaty)  was  concluded 
between  Frederick  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  Mathias  Corvinus,  King  of  Bohemia, 
Dec.  i,  1477.  Frederick  III.  agreed  to  invest 
him  with  the  crown  and  to  pay  100,000  ducats 
towards  the  expenses  of  the  war  against  La- 
dislaus  VI. 

KOSLIN,  or  COSLIN  (Prussia),  the  ancient 
Cholin,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1718,  was  restored 
by  Frederick  William  I.  (1713—40). 

KOSLOV.— (See  ECJPATORIA.) 

KOSTROMA.— (See  COSTKOMA.) 

KOTAH  (Hindostan).— A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  the  state  of  Kotah  and  the 
East  India  Company,  relative  to  the  succession, 
in  1817.  The  town  of  Kotah  was  the  scene  of 
the  murder  of  Major  Burton,  of  the  4oth  Ben- 
gal Infantry,  Oct.  15,  1857,  during  the  mutiny, 
when  his  two  sons  were  also  put  to  death,  and 
the  residency  was  plundered  and  burned. 
Gen.  Roberts  captured  it  March  30,  1858. 

KOTRIAH  (Battle).— Lieut.  Marshall,  at  the 
head  of  900  sepoys  and  60  horse,  defeated 
4,000  Beioochees,  posted  among  the  hills  of 
Kotriah,  in  Scinde,  Dec.  i,  1840. 

KOTZIM.— (See  CHOCZIM.) 

KOULEFTSCHA  (Battle).  —  The  Russians, 
after  a  desperate  contest,  in  which  victory 
wavered  from  one  side  to  the  other,  defeated 
the  Turks  in  the  valley  of  Kouleftscha,  June 
n,  1829. 

KOUS  AD  AC  (Battle).— The  Mongols  defeated 
the  Sultan  of  Iconium  at  Kousadac  in  1244. 


KOUYUNJIK  (Assyria). —Excavations  for 
the  recovery  of  ancient  sculptures,  &c.,  were 
commenced  here  in  1841  by  M.  Botta,  French 
consul  at  Mosul.  It  is  believed  that  the  ruins 
formed  part  of  the  city  of  Nineveh  (q.  v.). 

KOWNO  (Russia)  was  reached  by  the  in- 
vading army  of  Napoleon  I.,  June  23,  1812, 
and  taken  possession  of  by  the  advanced  guard 
the  following  morning.  The  Russian  com- 
mander Platoff  captured  3,000  French  soldiers 
here  Dec.  12,  and  the  remnant  of  the  "  Grand 
Army"  commenced  their  retreat  from  this 
point  Dec.  13. 

KRAJOVA  (Wallachia).— The  Russians  suf- 
fered a  defeat  from  the  Turks  near  this  town 
of  Wallachia,  Sep.  26,  1828.  Here  their  army 
commenced  its  retreat  from  Turkey,  April  24, 
1854. 

KRASNOI  (Battles).— The  French  defeated 
the  Russians  here  Aug.  10,  1812. The  Rus- 
sians gained  an  important  victory  over  tho 
French  army  under  Napoleon  I.,  near  this  town, 
in  Russia,  Nov.  17,  1812.  No  less  than  6,000 
prisoners  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors, 
together  with  part  of  the  emperor's  archives. 

KHKFELD.— (See  CKEVELDT,  Battle.) 

KREMLIN  (Moscow)  was  erected  as  a  palace 
by  the  Grand-duke  of  Russia  in  1367,  and  for- 
tified in  1492.  Napoleon  I.  reached  the  new 
palace,  built  in  1743,  Sep.  14,  1812.  He  re- 
mained here  till  Sep.  16,  when  the  conflagra- 
tion reached  the  Kremlin,  and  it  was  soon 
reduced  to  ashes.  Another  palace  was  built 
upon  its  site  in  1816. 

KHEUTZNACH  (Prussia).— This  town  was 
stormed  by  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus)  in  1632. 
The  French  drove  the  Austrians  from  this 
place,  Nov.  30,  1795.  Its  salt-springs  were  dis- 
covered in  1478. 

KROIA,  or  KROJA  (European  Turkey).— 
Amurath  II.  led  two  expeditions  on  a  large 
scale  against  this  town  in  1449  and  1450,  and 
they  were  both  unsuccessful.  The  Turks  were 
repulsed  in  another  attempt  in  1477.  By  a 
treaty  signed  Jan.  26,  1479,  the  Venetians  ceded 
it  to  the  Turks. 

KROTZKA  (Battle).— The  Austrians  were 
defeated  by  the  Turks  at  this  place  July  22, 

I7KULM.— (See  CULM,  Battle.) 

KUNOBITZA  (Battle).— John  Huniades  de- 
feated the  Turks  at  this  place,  in  the  Balkan, 
Dec.  24,  1443. 

KURDISTAN  (Asia),  the  ancient  Cordyene, 
or  Gordyene,  a  district  inhabited  by  the  wan- 
dering tribes  of  the  Carduchi.  Originally  sub- 
ject to  Persia,  it  was,  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
III.,  annexed  to  Syria.  The  Parthians  con- 
quered it  in  the  3rd  century  before  Christ. 
Lucullus  passed  the  winter  here  B.C.  68,  and 
Pompey  annexed  it  to  Rome,  B.C.  64.  It  again 
passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  kings  of 
Persia,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  Galerius, 
in  298.  It  was  restored  to  Chosroes  I.,  by 
Jovian,  by  the  treaty  of  July,  363,  and  it  after- 
wards fell  to  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  In  1258 
Kurdistan  was  conquered  by  the  Mongols, 
and  in  1388  by  the  Tartars  under  Tamerlane. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  country  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks  in  1515,  Persia  retaining 
only  about  a  fourth.  The  Kurds  remained  in  a 


KURILE 


[     SS7     1 


LABRADOR 


state  of  insubordination.  They  massacred  the 
Nestorian  Christians  in  1846,  destroying  67 
towns  and  villages.  The  Sultan  despatched  an 
army  into  Kurdistan  in  1846,  when  the  mur- 
derers of  the  Christians  were  punished,  and 
the  country  was  reduced  to  subjection. 

KURILE  ISLES  (Pacific  Ocean.)  — This 
group  of  26  islands  was  first  discovered  by  the 
Russians  in  1713.  Five  of  the  islands  were 
known  in  1720,  and  the  discovery  of  the  whole 
archipelago  was  completed  in  1778.  Capt. 
Golownin,  of  the  Russian  navy,  was  sent  to 
survey  them  in  1811.  The  Russians  formed  a 
settlement  on  one  of  them,  called  Urup,  in 
1828  ;  and  the  three  southernmost  islands  of 
the  group  are  occupied  by  the  Japanese. 

KURRACHEE  (Hindostan).— This  seaport 
town  of  Scinde,  celebrated  for  its  pearl-fishery, 
was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  British, 
Feb.  3,  1839. 

KUSTRIN,  or  CUSTRIN  (Prussia).— This 
strongly  fortified  town,  on  the  Oder,  was  be- 
seiged  Aug.  15,  and  burned  by  the  Russians 
Aug.  22,  1758.  The  battle  of  Zorndorf,  near 
Kiistrin,  was  fought  between  the  Prussians 
and  the  Russians,  Aug.  25,  1758.  It  lasted  from 
9  in  the  morning  until  7  at  night,  and  neither 
side  could  boast  of  having  obtained  a  victory. 
The  town,  rebuilt  by  Frederick  II.,  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1806,  and  occupied  by  them 
till  March  30,  1814,  when  it  surrendered  to  the 
allies.  The  fortifications  have  been  much 
strengthened  since  1815. 

KUTCH.— (See  CUTCH.) 

KUTSCHOUC-KAINARDJI  (Bulgaria).— A 
treaty  of  peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
was  concluded  at  this  village,  on  the  Danube, 
July  10,  1774  (O.S.).  It  was  confirmed  by  the 
leaders  of  the  armies,  July  15.  By  an  edict  of 
Catherine  II.,  March  19,  1775  (O.S.),  fixing  a 
day  of  thanksgiving  for  the  re-establishment 
of  peace,  the  ratifications  were  said  to  have 
been  exchanged  at  Constantinople,  Jan.  13, 
J775  (O.S.).  The  Crimea  was  declared  inde- 
pendent, and  the  free  navigation  of  the  Black 
Sea  guaranteed.  It  is  often  called  the  treaty 
of  Kainardji. 

KUTTENBERG  (Bohemia).— Silver  was 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  in  1237,  and  silver 
groschen  were  first  struck  here  in  130x3. 

KYTHUL  (Hindostan).— This  district  lapsed 
to  Great  Britain  in  1843,  through  failure  in  the 
succession. 


L. 

LAALAND,  or  LOLLAND  (Sea-fight).— The 
combined  Dutch  and  Swedish  squadrons  de- 
feated the  Danes  off  this  island  in  the  Baltic 
in  1644. 

LAB  ARUM,  or  SACRED  STANDARD,  was 
adopted  by  Constaiitine  I.  in  memory  of  the 
figure  of  the  cross,  with  the  legend  "  In  hoc 
sigiio  vinces,"  alleged  to  have  been  seen  by 
him  shining  at  midday  in  the  heavens,  during 
his  march  against  Maxentius  in  312.  This 
standard  was  entrusted  to  a  chosen  body  of 
50  men. 


LABENTO  (Battle).- The  Greeks  were  de- 
feated by  the  Normans  near  this  river,  in 
Italy,  in  1041. 

LABIAU,  or  LIEBAU  (Treaty).— By  this 
treaty,  signed  at  Labiau,  in  Prussia,  Nov.  20, 
1656,  Charles  X.  (Gustavus)  of  Sweden  recog- 
nized Frederick  William,  Duke  of  Prussia,  and 
his  descendants,  as  legitimate  and  independent 
sovereigns  of  Prussia.  It  is  regarded  as  having 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  Prussian  monarchy 

LABORATORY.— The  Royal  Laboratory  at 
Woolwich,  established  early  in  the  century, 
was  reorganized  in  1855. 

LABOUR  (Festival).— The  annual  celebra- 
tion of  this  festival  was  fixed  in  the  French 
Revolutionary  Calendar  of  1793  for  Sep.  19. 

LABOURERS  are  defined  as  servants  in 
agriculture  or  manufactures,  not  living  within 
the  master's  house.  The  Statute  of  Labourers, 
25  Edw.  III.  st.  i  (1350),  made  various  regu- 
lations respecting  wages,  and  the  penalties 
incurred  by  refractory  servants,  and  pro- 
hibited labourers  from  moving  from  one 
county  to  another  under  pain  of  imprison- 
ment. Hallam  (Middle  Ages,  ch.  ix.  pt.  2) 
remarks  on  this  subject:  "The  Statute  of 
Labourers  in  1350  fixed  the  wages  of  reapers 
during  harvest  at  threepence  a  day  without 
diet,  equal  to  five  shillings  at  present ;  that  of 
23  Hen.  VI.  c.  12,  in  1444,  fixed  the  reapers' 
wages  at  fivepence  and  those  of  common 
workmen  in  building  at  threepence-halfpenny, 
equal  to  6s.  8d.  and  4$.  Sd. ;  that  of  n  Hen.  VII. 
c.  22,  in  1496,  leaves  the  wages  of  labourers  in 
harvest  as  before,  but  rather  increases  those  of 
ordinary  workmen.  The  yearly  wages  of  a 
chief  hind  or  shepherd  by  'the  act  of  1444 
were  £i  4$.,  equivalent  to  about  £20,  those  of 
a  common  servant  in  husbandry  i8s.  4^.,  with 
meat  and  drink;  they  were  somewhat  aug- 
mented by  the  statute  of  1496."  The  same 
writer  comes  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  la- 
bouring classes,  especially  those  engaged  in 
agriculture,  were  better  provided  with  the 
means  of  subsistence  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  or  of  Henry  VI.  than  at  present.  Con- 
spiracies of  workmen  to  increase  their  wages 
or  interfere  with  the  prescribed  hours  of  work, 
were  made  punishable  by  fines  and  the  pillory, 
by  2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  15  (1548).  Statutes  re- 
lating to  hiring,  wages,  keeping,  &c.,  of  la- 
bourers, were  amended  by  5  Eliz.  c.  4  (1562), 
which  prohibited  masters  from  discharging 
their  servants,  or  servants  from  quitting  their 
employers  until  the  term  of  service  agreed 
upon  had  expired.  It  also  placed  the  regu- 
lation of  the  amount  of  wages  in  the  hands  of 
the  justices,  sheriffs,  mayors,  <fec.,  and  com- 
pelled employers  and  employed  to  abide  by 
the  appointed  rates  under  severe  penalties. 
In  harvest-time  artificers  were  compelled  to 
work,  under  pain  of  the  stocks,  and  single 
women  aged  between  12  and  40  years  were  at 
all  times  liable  to  be  sent  to  service.  The 
Labourers'  Dwellings  Act,  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  132 
(Aug.  14,  1855),  was  passed  to  facilitate  the 
erection  of  healthy  and  convenient  houses  for 
the  working  classes  by  public  companies 

LABRADOR  (North  America)  was  dis- 
covered in  1497,  by  Sebastian  Cabot.  Cor- 
tereal,  a  Portuguese,  was  the  first  who  landed 


LABUAN 


[    553    ] 


LADROXE 


here,  in  1500.  The  Moravians  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  1771,  with  a  view  of  Christianizing 
the  natives.  Martin  Frobisher,  in  1576,  was 
the  first  Englishman  who  made  a  voyage  to 
Labrador. 

LABUAN  (Indian  Archipelago).— This  island 
was  ceded  to  the  English  Government  in  1846, 
and  Sir  James  Brooke  took  possession  Oct.  28, 
1848.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  1855. 

LABURNUM,  or  GOLDEN  CHAIN  TREE, 
was  brought  to  this  country  from  the  Alps 
before  1596. 

LABYRINTH  of  Arsinoe,  near  Lake  Moeris, 
in  Egypt,  said  to  have  been  constructed 
by  the  kings  of  Egypt  about  B.C.  1800,  con- 
sisted of  3,000  chambers.  Herodotus  states 
that  it  was  used  as  a  burial-place  for  the  kings 
of  Egypt.  Lepsius  explored  it  in  June,  1843. 

The  Labyrinth  of  Crete,  near  Cnosus  (<?.  v.), 

the  retreat  of  the  fabled  Minotaur,  is  ascribed 

to    Daedalus. The    Labyrinth    of    Lemnos, 

described  by  Pliny,  is  said  to  have  been  sup- 
ported by  150  columns.  Dr.  Hunt  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  find  some  trace  of  it  in  1801. 

The  Labyrinth  near  Clusium,  in  Etruria, 

now  Chixisi,  is  supposed  by  some  authorities  to 
be  the  tomb  of  Porsenna,  who  lived  B.C.  508. 

The  Labyrinth  at    Hampton    Court    was 

erected  in  the  i7th  century. 

LA  CA.MORKA.—  The  origin  of  this  Nea- 
politan association  is  unknown.  A  writer  in 
"Notes  and  Queries"  (3rd  s.  ii.  409)  suggests 
that  it  is  descended  from  a  society  termed 
ISeati  Pauli,  which  appears  to  have  ravaged 
Italy  during  the  i8th  century,  and  which  bore 
some  resemblance  to  the  Vehmic  Courts  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

L  A  C  C  A D I VB  1  S  L  A N  D  S  (Indian  Ocean) 
called  the  Laccadives,  and  by  the  natives 
Lakara  Islands,  were  discovered  by  Vasco  de 
Gama  in  1499.  The  inhabitants  are  called 
Bfeplaya. 

LACE. — Beckmann  is  of  opinion  that  lace 
worked  by  the  needle  is  much  older  than  that 
made  by  knitting.  The  art  probably  origi- 
nated in  Italy.  A  treaty  alleged  to  have  been 
made  in  1390  between  England  and  the  city  of 
Bruges,  but  the  text  of  which  has  not  been 
discovered,  is  said  to  contain  the  earliest 
mention  of  lace.  In  1454  the  women  of  the 
mystery  of  threadworking  in  London  com- 
plained of  the  importation  of  six  foreign 
women,  probably  Flemings,  who  had  brought 
over  to  England  the  cut- work  or  darned  lace 
of  the  period,  which  had  previously  been  un- 
known. "Laces,"  "laces  de  file  soie  enfile," 
<fec.,  were  prohibited  in  England  by  3  Edw. 
IV.  c.  4  (1463),  the  first  public  document  in 
which  lace  is  mentioned.  The  importation  of 
lace  into  England  was  prohibited  by  a  French 
law  in  1483.  The  earliest  pattern-book  of 
needlework  lace  was  printed  at  Cologne  in 
1527.  Beckmann  asserts  that  the  knitting  of 
lace  is  a  German  invention,  due  to  Barbara 
Uttmann,  of  St.  Annaberg,  and  that  it  was 
found  out  before  1561.  The  oldest  pattern- 
book  for  making  point-lace  appeared  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Maine  in  1568.  It  was  written  by 
Nicholas  Basseus.  Designs  for  "  dantelles  " 
first  appeared  in  a  pattern-book  published  at 
Montbeliard  in  1598.  The  manufacture  of 


pillow- lace,  the  first  patterns  for  wh  ,1  ; 

Sublished  by  Mignerak  in  1605,  was  intro- 
uced  by  Flemish  refugees  into  Buckingham- 
shire about  1626.  Hammond,  a  framework 
knitter  of  Nottingham,  first  attempted  to 
apply  the  stocking-frame  to  lace-making  in 
1768,  and  after  undergoing  various  improve- 
ments, the  process  was  brought  to  perfection 
by  John  Heathcoate,  who  .patented  his  bobbin- 
net  machine  in  1809.  Jacquard's  apparatus 
was  applied  to  it  in  1837.  Frost  introduced 
the  point  machine  in  1777.  Morley's  double 
locker  machine  was  brought  out  in  1824. 

LACEDvEMON  (Greece).— The  ancient  name 
of  Laconia,  and  of  its  capital  city,  Sparta  </.  v.  . 

LA  CHARTREUSE.— (See  CABTHUSIANS. 

LACHOW,  LAE-CHOW,  or  LIAKHOW 
ISLANDS  (Arctic  Ocean).— This  group,  one  of 
which  was  seen  in  1759  or  1760  by  the  Jakut 
Eterikan,  was  first  visited  by  Liakhow  in 
April,  1770.  He  returned  in  1773  to  collect  furs 
and  mammoth  bones,  and  in  1775  the  group 
was  partially  surveyed  by  order  of  the  Russian 
Government. 

LACONIA,  or  LACONICA  (Greece).— This 
country  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Le- 
leges,  whose  kingdom  was  founded  about  B.C. 
1516.  According  to  tradition,  Lacedtemon,  the 
king  of  Laconia,  married  Sparta,  the  daughter 
of  his  predecessor,  B.C.  1490,  and  founded  a 
city,  which  he  named  after  his  wife,  while  his 
kingdom  was  known  by  his  own  name.  The 
Dorians  of  Sparta  had  made  then 
masters  of  the  whole  of  Laconia  by  the  mid'ilo 
of  the  8th  century.  They  waged  war  against 
the  Dorians  in  Messcnia  from  B.C.  743  to  724, 
and  from  B.C.  685  to  668,  and  the  country  was 
annexed  to  Laconia.  Owing  to  the  brief  sen- 
tentious mode  of  speech  practised  by  the 
Laconians,  the  term  "laconic  "  is  employed  to 
signify  a  similar  style.  (See  SPARTA.) 

LACQUERING.— (See  JAPANNING.) 

LACTEAL  VESSELS.— Gaspar  Asellius,  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Pavia,  discovered  these 
vessels  in  dissecting  a  dog,  July  23,  1622,  and 
announced  the  fact  in  1627.  John  Wesling 
gave  the  first  delineation  of  the  lacteals  from 
the  human  subject  in  1634.  Pecquet  dis- 
covered the  common  trunk  of  the  lacteals  and 
lymphatics  in  1647 ;  and  Jolyffe,  an  English 
anatomist,  the  distinction  between  the  1 
and  the  lymphatics  in  1650,  and  published  his 
discovery  in  1652. 

LADAK,  LADKAH,  or  MIDDLE  THIBET 
(Asia),  was  seized  by  Gholab  Singh,  ruler  of 
Cashmere,  in  1835,  and  still  forms  part  of  his 
dominions. 

LADE  (Sea-fight).— The  Persians  defeated 
the  loniaus  off  this  island,  near  Miletus, 

B.C.  494. 

LADIES  OF  THE  BEDCHAMBER.  — (See 
LORDS  AND  LADIES  OF  THE  BEDCHAMBER.) 

LADIES'  PEACE.— (See  CAMBRAY.) 

LADOCEA  (Battles).— Two  battles  were 
fought  at  this  place  in  Arcadia  :  the  first, 
between  the  Mantineans  and  the  Tegeatse, 
B.C.  423,  though  very  sanguinary,  proved  in- 
decisive ;  the  second,  between  the  A  elm -an 
League  and  Cleomenes  III.,  King  of  Sparta, 
B.C  226,  terminated  in  the  victory  of  the  latter. 

LADRONE,  LAZARUS,  or  THIEVES' 


LADY 


[    559 


LAKE 


ISLANDS,  also  called  the  LADRONES 
(Pacific  Ocean). — This  group  was  discovered 
by  Magalhaens  in  1520.  The  Spaniards  formed 
a  settlement  in  the  middle  of  the  ijih  cen- 
tury. The  Jesuits,  who  formed  a  settlement 
in  1667,  called  them  the  Mariamia  Islands. 
Anson  visited  them  in  1742. 

LADY.— The  title  properly  belongs  to  the 
wives  of  knights  and  of  all  superior  degrees 
except  the  wives  of  bishops.  The  term  is 
derived  from  the  Saxon  hlcef  dig,  loaf  day, 
because  it  was  formerly  the  custom  for  the 
mistress  of  the  manor  to  distribute  bread  to 
her  poorer  neighbours  at  stated  intervals. 
Fosbroke  (Antiq.)  remarks:  "The  ladies  of 
knights  and  baronets  were  called  Domince 
(whence  Dame  as  a  title  of  honour),  and  also 
Militissce,  Knightesses,  being  sometimes  so 
created  by  knights  by  a  blow  upon  the  back 
with  a  sword,  and  the  usual  ceremonies.  (See 
CONGRESS,  MERCY,  MONTESA,  MOUNT  CARMEL, 
OUR  LADY  OF  BETHLEHEM,  and  WOMAN.) 

LADY-DAY,  or  THE  ANNUNCIATION.— 
The  2sth  of  March,  the  day  on  which  the 
festival  of  the  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  is  held  by  the  Church,  received  the 
name  of  Lady  Day  in  consequence  of  its  being 
sacred  to  Our  Lady.  The  feast  originated, 
according  to  some  authorities,  in  350,  and 
according  to  others  in  the  7th  century.  Lady- 
Day  was  formerly  the  first  day  of  the  year. 
It  was  changed  for  Jan.  i  in  France  in  1564,  in 
Scotland  in  1599,  and  in  England  in  1752. 

LADY  OF  ENGLAND.— This  title  was  con- 
ferred upon  the  Empress  Maud  by  a  council 
held  at  Winchester  April  7,  1141. 

LAEKEN  (Belgium).  — The  palace  of  the 
Kings  of  Belgium  situated  in  this  suburb  of 
Brussels  (q.  v.},  was  erected  in  1782.  Leopold 
I.  died  here  Dec.  10,  and  was  buried  here  Dec. 
16,  1865. 

LAFAYETTE  (United:  States).— This  town 
of  Indiana  was  laid  out  in  1825. 

LAFFELDT,  LAWFELD,  or  VAL  (Battle).— 
Marshal  Saxe  defeated  the  allied  English, 
Dutch,  and  Austrian  army  at  this  village,  in 
Holland,  July  2,  1747.  The  allied  army  lost 
6,000  men  and  16  guns,  whilst  the  loss  of  the 
French  amounted  to  10,000  men.  Louis  XV., 
who  witnessed  the  battle,  remarked:  "The 
English  have  not  only  paid  all,  but  fought  all." 

LA  FLECHE  (France).— Henry  IV.  of  France 
founded  a  Jesuit  college  at  this  town  in  the 
department  of  Sarthe  in  1603.  The  town  was 
seized  by  the  Vendeans  twice  in  1793. 

LA  FLORIANO.— (See  GALAPAGOS.) 

LA  FEATTA  (Battle).— The  Pisans  were  de- 
feated by  the  Sicilians  in  this  battle  in  1135. 

LAGOS  (Africa).— This  stronghold  of  the 
slave-trade  was  bombarded  by  a  British  squad- 
ron Dec.  26  and  27,  1851.  The  forces  landed 
and  took  possession  of  the  town,  which  had 
been  deserted  by  the  enemy,  Dec.  28,  1851, 
and  it  was  made  an  English  colony.  The  island 
of  Lagos  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  King 
Diocemo,  Aug.  6,  1861. 

LAGOS  (Portugal).— An  association  for  the 
prosecution  of  African  discovery  was  formed 
here  in  1444.  Near  the  coast  Tourville  defeated 
Admiral  Rooke,  who  was  convoying  the 
Smyrna  fleet,  Juno  27,  1693.  The  English 


fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Boscawen,  de- 
feated a  French  fleet  in  this  bay,  Aug.  18,  1750. 

LAGOSTA  (Adriatic).— An  English  force  of 
300  men  landed  on  this  small  island,  then  in 
possession  of  the  French,  Jan.  21,  1813.  They 
made  preparations  to  besiege  the  enemy's  prin- 
cipal fort,  which  capitulated  Jan.  29,  when  the 
whole  island  was  surrendered  to  the  English 

LA  GRANDE  CHARTREUSE.— (See  CHAR- 
TREUSE.) 

LA  HARPE.— (See  Bow  ISLAND.) 

LA  HOGUE  (France).— Edward  III.  landed 
at  this  place,  near  Cherburg,  July  10,  1346. 
A  combined  Dutch  and  English  fleet  engaged 
the  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Tourville,  off 
Cape  La  Hogue,  May  19,  1692.  The  enemy 
escaped  in  a  fog,  but  chase  was  given,  and  the 
conflict  was  renewed  May  21,  when  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  French  squadron  was  destroyed. 

LAHORE  (Hindostan),  the  capital  of  the 
Punjaub,  was  taken  by  Sultan  Baber,  and  be- 
came the  residence  of  its  Mohammedan  con 
querors  in  1520.  It  was  captured  in  1756  by 
"Jassathe  Kalal,"  as  he  styled  himself  on  a 
medal  struck  in  commemoration  of  the  event  ; 
and  by  Shah  Zeman,  King  of  Cabul,  in  1798, 
who  bestowed  it  upon  his  brother  Runjeet 
Singh,  in  1799.  A  present  of  horses  from  King 
William  IV.  arrived  here  July  17,  1831.  A  re- 
volution occurred  at  Lahore  in  1844.  A  brigade 
of  British  troops,  under  the  command  of  Sir 
Hugh  Gough,  occupied  the  citadel  Feb.  22, 
1846,  and  a  treaty,  placing  the  Punjaub  under 
English  protection,  was  signed  March  9,  1846. 
It  was,  with  the  Punjaub,  annexed  to  British 
India,  March  9,  1849.  During  the  mutiny, 
Major  Spencer  and  two  native  officers  were 
murdered  here  in  July,  1857.  The  railway  to 
Umritsur  was  opened  March  3,  1862;  and  an 
exhibition  of  arts  and  industry  was  opened 
Jan.  20,  1864.  Sir  John  Lawrence,  the  Viceroy, 
held  a  durbar  of  unprecedented  magnificence 
here  Oct.  18,  1864. 

LAIBACH.— (See  LAYBACH.) 

LAITY.— The  term  was  first  used  in  the  2nd 
century ;  and  at  the  council  held  at  Rome  in 
502,  laymen  were  prohibited  from  interfering 
in  any  way  in  the  affairs  of  the  Church. 

LA  JAULNAIS  (Treaty).— The  Repiiblicans 
and  the  Royalists  in  La  Vendee  entered  into  a 
treaty  at  La  Jaulnais,  for  the  termination  of 
the  civil  war,  and  the  pacification  of  the  west 
of  France,  Feb.  20,  1795. 

LAKE. — (See  ASUNDEN,  CHAMPLAIN,  TRASI- 

MENE,  (fee.) 

LAKE  FUCINUS  (Italy),  situated  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  occupied,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  site  of  a  submerged  city 
named  Archippe.  The  sudden  rising  of  the 
waters  having  caused  repeated  inundations, 
a  subterranean  channel  was  constructed  by 
Claudius,  the  completion  of  which  was  cele- 
brated by  a  gladiatorial  seafight  in  52.  This 
having  been  suffered  by  Nero  (54—68)  to 
fall  into  decay,  was  repaired  by  Hadrian 
(117 — 138),  but  became  choked  up  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  Attempts  to  clear  it  were  in- 
effectually made  in  1240  and  subsequently.  It 
was  examined  and  described  in  1825  by  the 
Neapolitan  engineer  Rivera. 

LAKE  REGILLUS  (Battle).  —  Fought  be- 


LAKE 


[    56o    ] 


LAMPS 


tween  the  Latins  and  the  Romans,  according 
to  the  traditional  account,  July  15,  B.C.  498  or 
B.C.  496,  the  former  being  defeated.  The 
exiled  Tarquin  was  in  the  Latin  army.  Castor 
and  Pollux,  the  Dioscuri,  were  represented  in 
the  popular  lays  of  Rome  as  appearing  fighting 
in  the  Roman  ranks,  under  the  form  of  two 
gigantic  youths,  mounted  on  white  steedst 
This  battle  terminates  the  mythical  period  in 
the  history  of  Rome. 

LAKE  SCHOOL,  or  LAKISTS.  —  A  term 
applied  about  1809  to  the  poetry  of  S.  T.  Cole- 
ridge (1772— July  25,  1834) ;  Southey  (1774— 
March  21,  1843);  Wordsworth  (1770 — April  23, 
1850)  ;  and  others,  who  at  that  time  were  living 
near  the  English  lakes. 

LAMALS.M,  the  religion  of  Thibet,  the 
origin  of  which  is  involved  in  mystery,  is  a 
modification  of  Buddhism  (q.  i\).  The  hierarchy 
is  under  the  supreme  control  of  two  lamas, 
called  the  Dalai-lama  and  the  Tesho-lama,  or 
Bogdo-lama,  who  combine  temporal  and  spi- 
ritual authority  in  a  like  manner  to  the  popes. 
This  system  of  government  was  founded  by 
the  Lamaist  reformer  Tsong-kha-pa,  in  1355  or 

I3LAMBETH  ARTICLES,  nine  in  number,  of 
an  ultra-Calvinistic  character,  were  drawn  up 
Nov.  10,  1595,  by  Whitaker,  Master  of  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Regius  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity  to  that  University,  at  the 
request  of  Archbishop  Whitgift.  who  sovight  to 
impose  them  on  the  Church  of  England.  They 
wore  suppressed  by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  so  well  was  the  injunction  executed,  that 
for  many  years  a  copy  of  them  could  not  be 
obtained.  They  were  brought  forward  and 
rejected  at  the  Hampton  Court  conferences, 
Jan.  14,  15,  and  16,  1604.  The  Irish  Church 
adopted  them  in  1615. 

LAMBETH  DEGREES.— Previous  to  the  Re- 
formation, the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  held, 
as  legatua  natus  from  the  Pope,  the  right  of  con- 
ferring academical  degrees.  The  privilege  was 
confirmed  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21  (April  7,  1534). 

LAMBETH  PALACE  (London)  was  built  by 
Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
1200,  the  property  having  come  into  possession 
of  the  see  in  1197.  Archbishop  Boniface  made 
considerable  additions  to  it  in  1250,  and  the 
Lollards'  Tower  was  built  by  Archbishop  Chiche- 
ley  about  1443.  The  insurrectionists,  headed 
by  Wat  Tyler,  entered  the  palace,  killing  the 
Archbishop,  Simon  of  Sudbury,  and  Sir  Robert 
Hales,  June  14,  1381.  Burglars  effected  an  en- 
trance, Aug.  8,  1823.  Archbishop  Howley  made 
extensive  improvements  and  additions,  at  a 
cost  of  ^55,000,  in  1833.  The  new  suspension 
bridge  was  opened  Nov.  n,  1862. 

LA  ME  and  UNSTABLE  PEACE.— (See  LONG- 

JUMEAU.) 

LAMEGO  (Portugal),  the  ancient  Lamacum, 
or  Lameca,  was  wrested  from  the  Moors  by 
Ferdinand  I.  of  Castile,  in  1038.  The  cortes  of 
Portugal  assembled  here  in  1143.  The  Portu- 
guese rebels  captured  it  Dec.  3,  1826. 

LAMENTATIONS.— This  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  written  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
referred  by  many  chronologists  to  about  B.C. 
627,  is  by  others  said  to  have  been  written 
after,  and  iu  consequence  of,  the  sack  of 


Jerusalem  and  captivity  of  King  Zedekiah  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  B.C.  586. 

LAMIAN  WAR.— Athens,  in  alliance  with 
other  Greek  states,  made  war  upon  Antipater, 
governor  of  Macedon,  B.C.  323.  He  fled  to  the 
city  of  Lamia,  in  Thessaly,  where  he  was  be- 
sieged by  the  allies,  whom  he  finally  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Crannon  (q.  v.),  Aug.  7,  B.C. 

19. 

LAMMAS -DAY.— Aug.  i  is  thus  denomi- 
nated, but  the  origin  of  the  term  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  It  is  the  day  of  the  feast  of  St. 
Peter  ad  Vincula,  or  St.  Peter  in  bonds,  which 
was  instituted  in  317,  and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  received  its  title  from  the  Divine 
commission  to  Peter,  "  Feed  my  lambs." 
Others  state  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  the  Saxon 
Loaf-mass,  because  an  annual  feast  .was  then 
celebrated  to  return  thanks  for  the  first-fruits 
of  corn.  Lammas-day  is  one  of  the  four  cross 
quarter-days  of  the  year,  Whitsuntide  being 
the  first,  Lammas  the  second,  Martinmas  the 
third,  and  Candlemas  the  fourth. 

LA  MOLINELLA  (Battle).— A  sanguinary 
but  undecisive  battle  was  fought  near  La  Mo- 
linella,  between  some  Florentine  exiles,  as- 
sisted by  the  Venetians,  and  the  Florentines, 
July  25,  1467. 

LA  MOTHE,  or  LA  MOTTE  (France).— This 
town,  after  a  siege  of  five  months,  at  which 
bombs  (q.  v.)  were  first  used,  was  taken  from 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  by  Marshal  de  la  Force, 
in  1634.  Restored  in  1641,  it  was  retaken  and 
destroyed  by  Villeroy  in  1644. 

LAMPEDUSA  (Mediterranean).— This  small 
island,  the  ancient  Lopadussa,  was  made  a  state 
prison  by  the  King  of  Naples  in  1843. 

LAMPETER  (Wales).  —  The  college  of  St. 
David,  at  Lampeter,  Cardiganshire,  for  theolo- 
gical students,  founded  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
castle,  by  Bishop  Burgess,  in  1822,  was  erected 
in  1827,  and  incorporated  in  1828.  A  supple- 
mentary charter,  granting  power  to  confer  the 
degree  of  B.D.,  was  obtained  in  Aug.,  1852. 

LAMPETERS  or  LAMPETER  BBETHB  KN. 
—Henry  James  Prince,  who  entered  St.  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  in  March,  1836,  formed  this 
association  among  his  fellow-students.  II  a  v  in  ,-_;•, 
at  a  meeting  at  Swansea  in  June,  1842,  put 
forth  claims  to  be  considered  as  the  incarnation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  were  repudiated  by 
the  majority  of  the  brethren,  he  seceded  from 
the  connection,  and  established  the  Agapse 
mone  (q.  v.). 

LAMPS  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
the  Egyptians  ;  and  Herodotus  notices  a  feast 
of  lamps  held  annually  in  Egypt.  The  Jews 
used  lamps  in  public  festivals  and  religious 
ceremonies.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  made 
them  of  terra-cotta,  bronze,  and  also  of  gold 
and  silver.  They  were  kept  burning  in  sepul- 
chres, a  practice  adopted  by  the  Christians,  and 
which  gave  rise  to  the  fiction  respecting  per- 
petual lamps.  Numbers  of  lamps,  of  rich  and 
elaborate  workmanship,  have  been  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  destroyed  Aug.  24, 
79.  In  the  1 4th  century  they  were  made  of 
glass,  and  were  much  used  in  England.  They 
were  introduced  into  Ireland  in  1375.  The  Ar- 
gand  lamp  was  patented  Jan.  5,  1787,  and 
various  improvements  have  since  been  made. 


LANAI 


[    561     ] 


LANDAU 


LANAI. — (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

LANARK  (Scotland)  was  the  site  of  a 
Roman  encampment,  of  which  traces  are  still 
found.  Here  the  states  of  the  realm  were 
convoked  by  King  Kenneth  III.  in  978.  It  was 
a  royal  burgh  when  Malcolm  II.  came  to  the 
throne,  in  1003.  The  Covenanters  published 
their  testimony  at  Lanark  in  1682.  (See  N  EW 
LANARK.) 

LANCASHIRE  (England). —The  south  of 
Lancashire  is  said  to  have  been  inhabited  by 
the  Segantii,  or  Setantii,  i.e.  "  dwellers  in  the 
country  of  water."  It  formed  part  of  Nor- 
thumberland from  547  to  926.  It  contains 
several  traces  of  Roman  roads  and  stations. 
The  successors  of  William,  Earl  of  Ferrers, 
who  took  the  title  of  Earl  of  Derby,  held  the 
office  of  lords  of  the  county  till  1265,  when 
their  lands  were  forfeited,  and  bestowed  upon 
Edmund,  son  of  Henry  III.,  who  became  first 
Earl  of  Lancaster.  Riots  occurred  in  many 
parts  of  Lancashire  in  the  spring  of  1826. 
The  Southern  division  received  an  additional 
member  by  24  and  25  Viet.  c.  112  (Aug.  6, 
1861). 

LANCASHIRE  DISTRESS.— (See  COTTON 
FAMINE.) 

LANCASTER  (Duchy)  was  created  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  in  favour  of  Henry  Plantagenet, 
March  6,  1351,  and  was  bestowed  upon  his  son 
John  of  Gaunt,  Nov.  13,  1362.  It  was  made  a 
county  palatine.  The  duke  was  to  have  jura 
regalia,  and  power  to  pardon  treasons  or  out- 
lawries, and  make  justices  of  the  peace  and 
justices  of  assize  within  the  county.  The 
lordship  of  Ripon  was  annexed  to  it  by  37 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  16  (1645) ;  and  the  revenue  having 
declined,  other  lands  were  granted  by  2  &  3 
Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  20  (1555).  The  courts  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster  were  instituted  by  Edward 
III.  in  1376.  The  management  of  the  revenues 
was  entrusted  to  them.  Henry  Bolingbroke 
was  Duke  of  Lancaster  on  his  accession  to  the 
crown  as  Henry  IV.,  Sep.  30,  1399.  In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  he  procured  an  act  of  par- 
liament, ordering  that  the  duchy  of  Lancaster, 
<fec.,  should  remain  to  him  and  his  heirs  for  ever. 
It  was  declared  forfeited  to  the  crown  in  1461, 
and  was  vested  in  Edward  IV.  and  his  heirs, 
Kings  of  England,  for  ever. 

LANCASTER  (England).— The  Roman  Lon- 
govicus,  according  to  the  "Monumenta  Bri- 
tannica,"  received  a  charter  from  King  John 


(1199 — 1216),  with  increased  privileges  from 
Edward  III.  (1327 — 77).  The  castle,  now  a  gaol, 
was  originally  built  in  the  nth  century.  The 


army  of  the  Pretender  occupied  the  town 
three  days,  Nov.  6 — 9,  1715.  It  was  taken  by 
Prince  Charles  Edward  Nov.  24,  1745.  The 
railroad  to  Preston  was  opened  June  30,  1840, 
and  to  Carlisle,  Dec.  16,  1846. 

LANCASTER  (Pennsylvania)  was  founded 
in  1730,  and  incorporated  in  1818.  The  ses- 
sions of  Congress  were  removed  here  on  the 
capture  of  Philadelphia,  Sep.  26,  1777.  It  was 
the  chief  town  of  the  state  from  1799  to  1812, 
when  that  dignity  was  transferred  to  Harris- 
burg.  Franklin  College  was  established  in  1 787. 

LANCASTER  GUN.— C.  W.  Lancaster's  im- 
provements were  patented  July  3,  1849,  and 
Jan.  1 6,  1851.  Eight  old  cannon  were  rebored 


upon  this  system  and  employed  against  Sebas- 
topol.  Three  burst  during  the  siege  (Sep.  26, 
1854— Sep.  9,  1855). 

LANCASTER  HERALD.— This  officer,  said 
to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  III. 
in  1360,  and  made  a  king-at-arms  by  Henry  IV. 
1399 — 1413),  was  reduced  to  his  former  status 
by  Edward  IV.  (1461 — 1483),  who  afterwards 
abolished  the  office.  Henry  VII.  restored  it  in 
1485. 

LANCASTERIAN  SCHOOLS.— Joseph  Lan- 
caster opened  his  first  school  in  the  Borough 
Road,  London,  in  1798.  He  adopted  Dr.  Bell's 
monitorial  system,  which  he  brought  to  such 
perfection  that  in  1802  he  was  able  to  teach 
250  boys,  with  no  other  assistance  than  that 
afforded  by  the  senior  pupils.  Lancaster  pub- 
lished numerous  pamphlets  in  recommenda- 
tion of  the  plan,  and  obtained  influential 
friends,  by  whose  assistance  he  founded  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society  in  1805. 
In  1806  he  obtained  an  interview  with  George 
III.,  who  subscribed  ,£100  a  year  towards  the 
extension  of  the  system;  and  in  1808  he  re- 
signed his  school  into  the  hands  of  trustees,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  assumed  the  import- 
ance of  a  public  institution.  Owing  to  im- 
prudence in  the  conduct  of  his  affairs,  Lan- 
caster was  compelled  to  emigrate  to  America 
in  1818;  and  he  died  at  New  York,  in  very 
reduced  circumstances,  Oct.  24,  1838. 

LANCASTER  SOUND  (Arctic  Sea)  was  dis- 
covered by  Bylot  and  Baffin,  July  12,  1616, 
and  named  after  Sir  James  Lancaster.  Parry 
passed  through  it  in  1819. 

LANCASTRIANS  AND  YORKISTS.— The 
supporters  of  Henry  VI.,  of  the  House  of 
Lancaster,  and  of  Edward,  Duke  of  York, 
afterwards  Edward  IV. ,  who  contended  for  the 
crown  of  England,  1455 — 1461,  were  known  by 
these  titles.  The  struggle  is  also  designated 
the  War  of  the  Roses,  the  red  rose  having  been 
the  emblem  of  the  Lancastrian,  and  the  white 
of  the  Yorkist  party. 

LANCERS. — Cavalry  regiments  armed  with 
the  lance  were  introduced  into  the  French 
army  in  1807,  1810,  and  1812.  These  having 
proved  very  effective  during  the  Peninsular 
War,  the  Prince  Regent  authorized  the  arming 
of  the  gth,  i2th,  i6th,  and  23rd  regiments  of 
English  Light  Dragoons  as  Lancers,  Sep.  19, 
1816.  The  1 7th  Light  Dragoons  were  made 
Lancers  Aug.  20,  1822. 

LAND. — The  provisions  xisually  inserted  in 
acts  authorizing  the  taking  of  lands  for  public 
undertakings  were  consolidated  by  the  "  Lands 
Clauses  Consolidation  Act,"  8  Viet.  c.  18  (May  8, 
1845).  (See  ACRE  OF  LAND.) 

LANDAU  (Bavaria).— Founded  by  Rodolph 
of  Habsburg,  was  made  a  free  city  of  the 
empire  in  the  i4th  century.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  commenced  by  Vauban  in  1680, 
and  the  city  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1686.  Louis  William  of  Baden  invested 
Landau  June  16,  1702,  the  citadel  surrendered 
Sep.  9,  and  Landau  was  captured  Sep.  10. 
Tallard  besieged  it  in  1 703,  and  completed  its 
redxiction  Nov.  14.  Marlborough  obtained  pos- 
session of  it  Nov.  23,  1704.  The  Austrians 
expelled  the  French  in  1743.  It  was  frequently 
assailed  towards  the  close  of  the  i8th  century, 
o  o 


LANDED 


[     562     ] 


LANGUAGE 


and  it  was  besieged  in  1793  by  the  Austrians 
and  Prussians,  who  were  eventually  compelled 
to  abandon  the  undertaking.  It  was  ceded  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  1814,  but  was  restored 
to  Germany  by  that  of  1815. 

LANDED  ESTATES  COURT.— This  court 
was  erected  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  72  (Aug.  2, 
1858),  to  facilitate  the  sale  and  transfer  gf 
lands  in  Ireland.  The  sittings  were  appointed 
to  be  held  in  Dublin,  under  the  presidency  of 
three  judges,  who  were  ineligible  as  members 
of  parliament.  The  authority  of  the  court 
commenced  Nov.  i,  1858.  (See  ENCUMBERED 
ESTATES  ACT.) 

LAND  AND  EMIGRATION  BOARD.— (-See 
EMIGRATION.) 

LAN  I)  UN  (Battle).— At  this  village,  in  Bel- 

gum,  William  III.  was  defeated  by  Marshal 
ixemburg,  with  a  loss  of  12,000  men,  July 
10,  1693  (O.  S.).     It  is  called  by  French  writers 
the  battle  of  Xeerwindon. 

LANDFRIEDE.— A  perpetual  public  peace 
under  this  name,  designed  to  check  the  war- 
like operations  of  the  German  barons,  was 
established  by  a  diet  held  at  Worms  in  1495. 
It  failed  in  its  object,  as  the  predatory  habits 
of  the  nobility  remained  unchecked  till  the 
i6th  century.  (.SV«  BARONS  OK  GERMANY.) 

LA  Nix;  RAVE.—  This  title  originated  in  the 
ioth  century,  and  Albert  III.  was  the  first  of 
the  Habsburg  family  who  styled  himself  land- 
grave of  Alsace.  The  margraves  of  Thuringia 
assumed  the  title  in  the  nth  century.  The 
collateral  branch  of  the  house  of  Hesse  took  it 
in  1264. 

LANDRKCY  (Flanders).—  Francis  I.  cap- 
tured this  town  in  1543.  The  Emperor  Charles 
V.  failed  in  an  attempt  to  recapture  it  the 
same  year,  and  Prince  Eugene  besieged  it, 
but  without  success,  in  1712.  The  Prince  of 
Orange  invested  it  April  16,  1794,  and  it  sur- 
rendered April  30.  The  French  retook  it  July 
17,  1794. 

LANDSHUT  (Bavaria).  -The  Prussians  were 
defeated  by  the  Austrians  near  this  town, 
June  23,  1760.  The  attack  was  made  in  the 
dead  of  night,  and  the  result  was  a  complete 
victory.  St.  Martin's  church  was  built  in  1450. 
The  university  of  Ingoldstadt,  removed  here 
in  1800,  was  transferred  to  Munich  in  1826. 

LAND-TAX.— The  Danegelt  (q.  v.}  was  a 
species  of  land-tax.  The  rate  now  known  by 
the  name  was  first  levied  by  4  Will.  A*,  Mary, 
c.  i  (1692*),  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war 
against  France.  The  original  rate  was  three 
shillings  in  the  pound  on  the  rental,  and  the 
tax  was  continued  every  year,  most  frequently 
at  four  shillings  in  the  pound,  until  it  was 
made  perpetual  by  38  Geo.  III.  c.  60  (June  21, 
1798).  The  sum  fixed  by  this  act  as  the 
amount  of  the  land-tax  was  .£2,037,627  gs.  o\d. 
The  provisions  of  several  acts  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  land-tax  were  consolidated  by  42 
Geo.  III.  c.  116  (June  26,  1802).  By  3  &,4  Will. 
IV.  c.  13  (May  17,  1833),  the  collection,  &c.,  of 
the  tax  in  Scotland  were  vested  in  the  com- 
missioners of  taxes. 

LAND  TRANSPORT  CORPS,  superseding 
the  Ambulance  Corps  (q.  v.),  was  organized  by 
Col.  McMurdo  in  1855  to  furnish  a  means  of 
land  conveyance  for  the  British  troops  during 


the  Crimean  war.  It  has  since  been  designated 
the  Military  Train. 

LANDWEHR,  or  LAND  DEFENCE.  —  A 
force  under  this  name  was  raised  in  the 
Austrian  empire  in  1805.  The  introduction  of 
a  similar  system  into  Prussia,  suggested  by 
Major,  afterwards  Marshal  Knesebeck  in  1806, 
was  effected  by  a  royal  edict,  March  17,  1813, 
which  called  out  in  two  separate  levies  all  the 
men  from  26  to  32,  and  from  32  to  39.  By  the 
Landwehr-ordnung  or  Landwehr" regulation  of 
April  21,  1815,  Prussia  was  divided  into  104 
districts,  each  of  which  furnished  a  battalion. 
Landwehr  brigades  have  been  introduced  into 
the  regular  army,  and  did  much  service  against 
the  Austrians  in  1866. 

I ;  A  N  F  A  N  A  NAN.  —  (See  LANPHANANAN, 
Battle.) 

LANGOBARDI.— (See  LONGOBARDI.) 

LA  NURBS  (France),  the  ancient  Andema- 
tunnum  or  Lingonum  Civitas,  was  occupied 
and  made  the  head-quarters  of  the  Prussian 
and  Russian  armies  during  the  campaign  in 
France  in  1814.  (See  LINGONUM  CIVITAS.) 

LANGSIDK  (Battle  .—Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
having  escaped  from  Lochleven,  May  2,  1567, 
nme  troops,  which  were  defeated  at 
Langside.  near  Glasgow,  May  13,  1567. 

LANGUAGE.— Some  writers  contend  that 
language  was  revealed  from  heaven  ;  others 
that  it  is  of  human  invention.  The  latter 
opinion  was  prevalent  amongst  the  Greek 
and  Roman  philosophers  and  authors.  Jlohbcs 
says:  "The  first  author  of  speech  was  God 
himself,  that  instructed  Adam  how  to  name 
such  creatures  as  he  presented  to  his  sight 
(Gen.  ii.  ig\  for  the  Scripture  goeth  no  fur- 
ther in  this  matter.  But  this  was  sufficient 
to  induce  him  to  add  more  names,  as  the  ex- 
perience and  use  of  the  creatures  should  give 
him  occasion,  and  to  join  them  in  such  manner 
by  degrees,  as  to  make  himself  understood; 
and  so  by  succession  of  time  so  much  language 
might  be  gotten  as  he  had  found  use  for, 
though  not  so  copious  as  an  orator  or  philo- 
sopher has  need  of."  The  French,  Spanish,  and 
Italian  languages  are  derived  from  the  Latin. 
Francis  I.  (1515 — 17)  ordered  the  French  lan- 
guage to  be  used  in  all  public  acts,  but  the 
change  was  not  fully  effected  until  1629.  Hallani 
asserts  that  no  industry  has  hitherto  retrieved 
so  much  as  a  few  lines  of  real  Italian,  till  near 
the  end  of  the  T2th  century.  The  transforma- 
tion of  Anglo-Saxon  into  modern  English  was 
gradual.  The  Anglo-Saxon  chronicle  ends  at 
1154.  The  French  language,  which  was  spoken 
amongst  the  higher  classes  in  England  from 
the  Conquest,  fell  into  disuse  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  who  banished  Norman  French 
from  the  courts  of  law  in  1362.  According  to 
a  recent  estimate  there  are  3,014  languages 
and  general  dialects  in  the  world  :  viz.,  587  in 
Europe,  937  in  Asia,  226  in  Africa,  and  1,264 
in  America.  Amongst  the  most  celebrated 
linguists  may  be  mentioned  Arias  Montanus, 
the  Spaniard  who  completed  the  Antwerp 
Polyglott  Bible  in  1572  ;  and  James  Crichton, 
commonly  called  the  Admirable  Crichton  (1560 
— July,  1583),  both  of  whom  are  said  to  have 
known  from  12  to  15  languages.  Sir  William 
Jones  (Sep.  28,  1746 — April  27,  1794)  is  be- 


LANGUEDOC 


[  563  1 


LARENTALIA 


lieved  to  have  known  28  languages.  Joseph 
Caspar  Mezzofanti  (Sep.  17,  1774 — March  15, 
1849),  whom  Byron  termed  "  a,  walking  poly- 
glot, a  monster  of  languages,  and  a  Briarseus 
of  parts  of  speech,"  is  said  to  have  known 
120  languages.  Though  this  statement  may 
be  exaggerated,  he  was  conversant  with  above 
50,  and  was  the  greatest  linguist  the  world 
ever  knew.  Berthold  George  Niebuhr,  born  at 
Copenhagen  (Aug.  27,  1776— Jan.  2,  1831),  was 
in  1807  acquainted  with  20  languages,  and 
afterwards  added  to  the  number.  (See  ENG- 
LISH, FRENCH,  and  GREEK  LANGUAGES,  &c.) 

LANGUEDOC  (France),  under  the  Komans, 
formed  a  portion  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and 
enjoyed  the  freedom  of  Italy.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  known  as  Septimania,  from  its 
seven  cathedral  churches,  and  was  ceded  by 
Honorius  to  the  Goths  in  409.  The  Saracens, 
who  had  succeeded  them,  were  driven  out  by 
Charles  Martel  in  725.  In  the  nth  and  lath 
centuries  the  Albigeiisiaii  opinions  prevailed 
in  Languedoc.  Part  of  Languedoc  was  ceded 
to  France  in  1229,  and  the  remainder  was 
annexed  in  1270.  Languedoc  had  its  own 
provincial  assembly,  and  retained  the  right  of 
regulating  its  own  taxation  till  1789.  Above 
100,000  Huguenots,  of  whom  about  10,000 
perished  at  the  stake,  were  put  to  death 
after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
in  1685.  The  inhabitants  of  Languedoc  took 
up  arms  on  the  return  of  Napoleon  I.  from 
Elba  in  1815. 

LANGUE  D'OC  and  LANGUE  D'OIL,  or 
D'OUI.— In  the  nth  century  two  languages  were 
spoken  in  France,  the  former  the  Provencal,  or 
the  Romance,  in  the  south,  and  the  latter  the 
Langue  d'Oil,  or  d'Oui,  in  the  north.  The  use 
of  the  Langue  d'Oc  began  to  decline  towards 
the  end  of  the  i3th  century. 

LANPHANANAN  (Battle).— Macbeth  is  said, 
though  on  doubtful  authority,  to  have  been 
slain  at  this  place  in  Scotland,  in  1056,  about 
two  years  after  his  alleged  defeat  at  Dunsinane 
(q.  v.}.  According  to  other  accounts  Macbeth 
died  Dec.  5,  1056. 

LANSCRONA,  or  LANDSKRONA  (Battle). 
— Christian  V.  of  Denmark  sustained  a  severe 
defeat  from  Charles  XI.  of  Sweden  at  this 
place  in  Sweden;  July  14,  1677. 

LANSDOWN  (Battle).— The  Royalists  de- 
feated Sir  William  Waller  at  this  place,  near 
Bath,  July  5,  1643. 

LANSING  (United  States).— This  town  be- 
came the  capital  of  Michigan  in  1847. 

LANSQUENETS,  or  lance-men,  from  lanzk- 
nechte,  founded  by  Maximilian  I.  (1493 — 1519), 
played  an  important  part  in  the  European  wars 
of  the  1 6th  century. 

LANTERNS,  or  LANTHORNS,  were  made 
of  horn  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  sometimes 
skin  was  used,  to  allow  of  the  transmission  of  the 
light.  Aldhelm,  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  mentions 
a  glass  lantern,  in  705.  Asser,  in  his  life  of 
Alfred  (871 — 901),  relates  that  this  king  ordered 
a  lantern  to  be  constructed  of  wood  and  white 
ox-horn,  which,  when  planed  thin,  is  almost  as 
transparent  as  glass.  Lanterns  for  military 
purposes  are  said  to  have  been  devised  by  the 
Emperor  Alexius  (II.)  Comnenus,  in  1180. 

LANTHANIUM.—  This  metal  was  discovered 


by  Mosander,  who  gave  it  this  name  because  it 
had  been  so  long  concealed,  in  1839. 

LAOCOON.— This  celebrated  Greek  statue, 
the  production  of  the  Rhodian  sculptors,  Age- 
sander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodorus,  who 
nourished  in  the  reign  of  Titus  (79 — 81),  was 
found  among  the  ruins  of  the  baths  of  Titus  at 
Rome  in  1506,  and  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican. 
The  subject  of  the  group  is  the  death  of  the 
Trojan  priest  Laocoon  and  his  two  sons  by 
serpents,  sent  against  them  by  Minerva 
(^Eneid,  ii.  200).  It  was  carried  to  Paris,  but 
restored  to  Rome  in  1814. 

LAODICEA,  or  LAODICEIA  (Phrygia),  for- 
merly called  Diospolis  and  Rhoas,  was  rebuilt, 
and  named  after  his  wife  Laodice,  by  Antiochus 
Theus,  B.C.  260.  To  the  church  of  this  city 
one  of  the  seven  epistles  (Revelation  iii.)  was 
addressed  in  90.  It  suffered  frequently  from 
earthquakes,  having  been  nearly  destroyed  in 
65  and  494,  was  captured  by  the  crusaders  in 
1199,  and  by  the  Turks  in  1255.  It  was  reduced 
to  ruins  in  1402.  Councils  were  held  here  in 
366  and  481.  It  was  called  Laodicea  ad  Lycum, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Laodicea  Combusta,  one 
of  the  five  cities  built  by  Seleucus  I.  (B.C.  312 

280),  and  named  after  his  mother  Seleuca. 

LAON  (Combats).— Napoleon  I.  sustained  a 
check  at  this  place,  in  the  north  of  France, 
from  the  Allies  under  Blucher,  March  9  and 
10,  1814.  The  French  lost  6,000  men  and  46 
cannon  in  the  conflict,  and  were  compelled  to 
retreat  to  Soissons.  The  Allies  lost  about 
4,000  men.  (See  CRAONNE,  Battle.) 

LAON  (France). — This  ancient  town,  believed 
by  some  to  be  identical  with  iheSibrax  spoken 
of  by  Caesar,  received  Christianity  in  the  3rd 
century,  and  was  the  scene  of  an  ecclesiastical 
council  in  948.  The  Gothic  cathedral  was  con- 
secrated Sep.  6.  1114.  In  1419  Laon  was  taken 
by  the  English,  who  restored  it  to  the  French 
in  1429.  Henry  IV.  of  France  took  it  after 
several  engagements  in  1594,  and  erected  a 
citadel  and  other  fortifications.  The  ruins  of 
the  leaning  tower,  displaced  by  an  earthquake 
in  1696,  were  removed  in  1832. 

LAOS  or  SHAN  COUNTRY  (Asia).  —  This 
central  region  of  India,  beyond  the  Ganges, 
after  enjoying  a  long  independence  under  its 
wn  rulers,  was  seized  in  the  i8th  century  by 
the  Siamese,  who  established  a  vice-royalty. 
The  Burmese  were  assisted  by  15,000  of  the 
inhabitants  in  their  operations  against  the 
British  in  1825. 

LAPLAND,  or  LAND  OF  THE  LAPPS 
vEurope). — This,  the  most  northern  country  of 
Europe,  is  first  spoken  of  in  the  works  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  who  flourished  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  very  imperfectly  known  even 
in  the  i6th  century.  Lapland  was  originally 
divided  into  Russian,  Danish,  and  Swedish 
Lapland ;  but  the  three  districts  were  united  in 
4.  Admiral  Little  explored  the  northern 
coasts,  in  1822  and  1823. 

LA  PLATA.— (-See  PLATA,  LA.) 

LA  PRESE  (Battle).— The  Italian  National 
Guard  drove  the  Austrians  from  their  canton- 
ments at  this  place,  on  the  Stelvio,  July  n, 
1866. 

LARENTALIA,  LARENTINALIA,  or  LAU- 
RENTALIA.— These  festivals,  instituted  at 
002 


LARKS 


r  564 


LATIN 


Borne  about  B.C.  621,  commenced  Dec.  23,  were 
held  in  honour  of  Acca-Larentia,  nurse  of 
Romulus  and  Remus,  or  of  a  courtezan  who 
nourished  in  the  reign  of  Ancus  Martius. 

LARES  AND  PENATES.— The  public  wor- 
ship of  the  lares  and  penates,  or  the  spirits  of 
good  men,  instituted  at  Rome  by  Servius  Tul- 
liusfs.c.  578 — 534),  was  restored  by  Augustus 
Csesar  (B.C.  27 — A.D.  14).  It  also  formed  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  private  and  domestic 
life  of  the  Romans  through  every  period  of 
their  history. 

LARGER  CATECHISM.— (See  CATECHISM.) 
LARGS    (Battle).— At    this    place,    on    the 
Clyde,  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland  defeated  the 
Norwegians,  led  by  their  king,  Haco,  Oct.  3, 

CLARISSA  (Turkey),  the  Turkish  Yenitschir, 
the  capital  of  Thessaly,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Acrisius,  B.C.  1344,  and  took  part 
with  the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
B.C.  431 — 404.  Antiochus  the  Great  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  take  it  B.C.  191,  and 
Bohemond  failed  in  a  similar  effort,  in  1083. 

LA  ROCHE  ABEILLE  Battle).— The 
Roman  Catholic  forces  were  defeated  at  this 
place,  in  France,  by  the  Protestants,  under 
Coligni  and  Henry  de  Bearn,  in  1569. 

LA  RO'JHK  DABIEN  (Battle).— Charles  of 
Blois,  Duke  of  Britanny,  was  defeated  and 
made  prisoner  at  this  place,  in  France,  by  Jane 
of  Montfort,  June  20,  1347. 

LA  ROTHIERE  (Battle),  fought  at  this 
place,  in  France,  between  the  French,  com- 
manded by  Napoleon  I.,  and  the  allied  Aus- 
trian, Prussian,  and  Russian  army  under 
Blucher,  Feb.  i,  1814.  The  contest  was  \va;>vd 
with  great  heroism  on  both  sides  ;  but  the 
French  were  at  length  compelled  to  withdraw, 
leaving  the  field  of  battle  in  the  possession  of 
the  allies.  The  French  lost  6,000  men,  and  73 
pieces  of  cannon. 

LARYNGOSCOPE.— Dr.  Listen  in  1840 
stated  the  possibility  of  obtaining  a  view  of  the 
back  of  the  throat,  &c.,  by  means  of  a  specu- 
lum, and  Dr.  Warden  of  Edinburgh  showed 
the  larynx  in  1845  by  means  of  a  spatulse  and 
reflecting  prism.  In  1855  Garcia  published 
a  series  of  laryngoscopical  observations  on  the 
human  voice,  and  in  1857  Professor  Czermak 
of  Pesth  commenced  researches  which  resulted 
in  the  invention  of  a  laryngoscope  employing 
artificial  light,  which  he  exhibited  to  the  Me- 
dical Society  of  Vienna,  April  9,  1859. 

LAS  GARZAS.— (See  ABIPONIANS.) 

LAS  NAVAS  DE  TOLOSA.— (See  TOLOSA.) 

LASWAREE  (Battle).— A  desperate  en- 
counter between  the  British,  commanded  by 
Lord  Lake,  and  the  Mahrattas,  occurred  at  this 
village,  near  Delhi,  in  Hindostan,  Nov.  i,  1803. 
The  former  were  victorious. 

LATAKIA,  or  LADAKIYBH  (Syria\  the  an- 
cient Laodicca  ad  Mare,  was  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus  (I.)  Nicator,  aboxit  B.C.  300,  and  named  after 
his  mother.  Dolabella  took  refuge  here  from 
Cassius,  and  was  the  cause  of  much  destruction 
to  the  city  in  43.  The  remains  of  an  aqueduct, 
built  by  Herod  the  Great  about  B.C.  10,  are 
still  to  be  seen  ;  and  a  triumphal  arch,  believed 
to  have  been  erected  in  honour  of  Septuiiius 
Severus,  about  200,  is  in  a  state  of  great  perfec- 


tion. It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, May  1 6,  1796. 

LATER  AN  (Rome). — This  name,  derived 
from  the  old  Roman  family  of  the  Laterani, 
whose  chief  Plantius,  implicated  in  the  Piso 
Conspiracy,  was  executed  by  Nero  in  65,  was 
applied  to  their  palace,  presented  by  Const  an  - 
tiiie  I.  to  the  popes.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Lateran  palace  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1308. 
Gregory  XL,  on  restoring  the  seat  of  the  pa- 
pacy from  Avignon  to  Rome,  in  1377,  took  up 
his  abode  at  the  Vatican.  The  church  of  St. 
John  of  Lateran,  called  "the  Mother  and 
Head  of  all  the  churches  of  the  city  and  the 
world,"  built  by  Constantino  I.,  was  dedicated 
to  the  Saviour.  Lucius  II.,  who  rebuilt  it  in 
the  i2th  century,  dedicated  it  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist, and  it  is  celebrated  for  the  councils  held 
in  it  Oct.  5 — 31,  649;  Nov.  i,  864;  in  August, 
900;  Jan.  31,  993  ;  Feb.  12,  mi  ;  March  18—23, 
1112;  March  5,  1116;  March  1 8  to  April  5,  1123 
i'ninth  general) ;  April  20,  1139  (tenth  general) ; 
March  5—19,  1179  (eleventh  general);  Nov.  n 
— 30,  1215  (twelfth  general)  ;  and  May  3,  1512, 
to  March  16,  1517,  by  some  called  the  nine- 
teenth general.  Every  newly-elected  pope 
takes  possession  of  this  church  in  great  state, 
and  bestows  his  blessing  upon  the  people  from 
its  balcony.  A  new  palace,  adjoining  the 
church,  was  built  by  Sixtus  V.  in  1586. 

LATHAM  or  LATHOM  HOUSE  (Lan- 
cashire).— The  Countess  of  Derby  defended 
this  place  against  the  Parliamentary  forces 
from  Feb.  28  until  May  27,  1644,  when  it  was 
relieved  by  Prince  Rupert.  The  Parliamentary 
forces  renewed  the  siege  in  July,  1645,  and 
captured  it  Dec.  2. 

LATHE.— Diodorus  Siculus  attributes  the 
invention  to  a  nephew  of  Daedalus,  named  Ta- 
lus, ;ibout  B.C.  1240;  but  Pliny  states  that  it 
was  first  used  by  Theodore  of  Samos,  about 
B.C.  600.  The  classical  authors  make  frequent 
mention  of  the  lathe.  The  side  rest  is  described 
in  the  French  Encyclopaedia  in  1772,  and 
Maudslay  invented  one  in  1794,  Roberts  in- 
vented the  screw  lathe  in  1816,  Clement  im- 
proved the  side  rest  in  1818  and  received  the 
gold  Isis  medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  the 
improvement  in  1827. 

LATIN  EMPIRE.— The  Crusaders  captured 
Constantinople  April  9,  1204,  and  founded  the 
Latin  Empire  of  the  East,  which  was  over- 
thrown by  Michael  (VIII.)  Palseologus,  July  25, 
1261,  who  restored  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Em- 
pire. A  list  of  Latin  emperors  is  given  under 
Eastern  Empire. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE.— Originally  spoken  in 
Latium  by  the  Latins  (q.  v.},  was  afterwards 
adopted  at  Rome,  to  which  city  it  was  for 
many  years  practically  restricted.  Cicero 
(B.C.  106 — 43)  mentions  that  in  his  time  Greek 
was  the  language  used  by  almost  every  people. 
Afterwards  the  Romans  permitted  foreigners 
to  employ  it,  and  even  enforced  its  use  by  law. 
On  the  removal  of  the  government  to  Constan- 
tinople in  330,  Latin  was  retained  as  the  official 
language,  but  it  was  gradually  neglected  till 
Greek  again  became  nearly  universal.  Collo- 
quial Latin  was  already  much  corrupted  in  the 
6th  century.  Charlemagne,  on  succeeding  in 
800  to  the  Empire  of  the  West,  ordered  all-law 


LATINS 


[    565    1 


LAUSANNE 


proceedings  to  be  conducted  in  Latin.  This 
practice  continued  for  several  centuries  until, 
in  consequence  of  numerous  difficulties,  French 
was  generally  employed,  both  on  the  continent 
and  in  England.  During  the  Dark  Ages,  Latin 
suffered  from  the  common  neglect  of  learning, 
the  dialects  employed  by  the  monks  and 
schoolmen  having  become  much  corrupted. 
The  revival  of  letters  about  the  isth  century 
led  to  a  renewed  study  of  the  ancient  classic 
authors  and  a  consequent  restoration  of  pure 
Latin,  which  became  the  language  generally 
used  by  philosophers  and  theologians.  (See 
DICTIONARY,  GRAMMAR,  LAW,  ROMAN  LITERA- 
TURE, <fec.) 

LATINS,  or  LATINI,  signified  originally  the 
inhabitants  of  Latin  m  (q.  v.). 

LATITAT. — This  writ,  formerly  employed  in 
personal  actions  in  the  King's  (or  Queen's) 
Bench,  was  abolished  by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  39 
(May  23,  1832).  The  name,  according  to 
Wharton,  was  derived  from  a  supposition  that 
the  defendant  lurked  and  was  hid,  and  could 
not  be  found  in  the  county  of  Middlesex  (in 
which  the  court  is  held),  to  be  taken  by  bill, 
but  had  gone  into  some  other  county,  to  the 
sheriff  of  which  this  writ  was  directed,  to 
apprehend  him  there. 

LATITUDE  and  LONGITUDE.— 
Eratosthenes,  the  librarian  of  Alexandria 
(B.C.  223—194),  made  some  advance  towards 
an  accurate  measurement  of  latitude,  and, 
after  him,  Hipparchus,  B.C.  162,  who  showed 
how  longitude  might  be  determined  by  atten- 
tion to  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  The 
principles  laid  down  by  Hipparchus  were  suc- 
cessfully applied  by  Ptolemy  in  140,  in  his 
great  geographical  work.  A  reward  of  1,000 
crowns  was  offered  by  the  King  of  Spain,  in 
1598,  for  the  discovery  of  a  method  of  deter- 
mining longitude ;  and  about  the  same  time 
the  States-general  of  Holland  offered  10,000 
florins  for  the  same  object.  The  British 
Government  offered  ,£20,000  for  a  like  purpose 
ill  1714,  and  ^5,000  for  a  chronometer  to  keep 
time  within  certain  limits.  Harrison,  after 
much  delay  and  many  disputes,  gained  the 
prize  for  his  timepiece  in  1767.  Rewards  of 
various  amounts  have  been  granted  from  time 
to  time  by  parliament  for  improved  timepieces. 
The  act  of  1774  was  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  66  (July  15,  1828).  A  method  of  finding  the 
longitude  by  means  of  the  electric  telegraph 
was  brought  to  perfection  by  Airy  in  1847. 

LATITUDINARIANS.— This  term  was  used 
about  the  close  of  the  i7th  century  to  desig- 
nate some  divines  who  endeavoured  to  act  as 
mediators  between  the  Episcopalians  and  the 
Presbyterians.  Hales,  Chillingworth,  Burnet, 
and  Tillotson  belonged  to  this  party.  In  the 
reign,  of  Charles  II.  (1660—1685)  the  Latitudi- 
narians  attained  the  highest  positions  in  the 
Church. 

LATIUM  (Italy).— This  country  of  central 
Italy  derived  its  name  from  the  city  Latium, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  King  Latinus 
B.C.  1240.  .<Eneas,  according  to  the  legend, 
settled  here  with  a  colony  of  Trojans  B.C.  1181, 
and  the  new  colonists  and  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants, having  united  into  one  nation  under  his 
government,  were  known  as  the  Latins.  They 


formed  a  confederacy  of  towns,  with  Alba 
Longa  (q.  v.)  at  their  head ;  and  after  the  de- 
struction of  that  town  by  the  Romans,  B.C. 
665,  the  whole  territory  was  reduced  to  sub- 
jection. The  Latins  rebelled  B.C.  502,  and  a 
treaty  was  concluded  between  them  and  the 
Romans  B.C.  493,  by  which  their  independence 
was  acknowledged,  and  an  alliance  concluded 
between  the  two  powers.  They  joined  other 
states  against  Rome,  and  the  last  war  waged 
against  them  commenced  B.C.  340,  and  termi- 
nated B.C.  338  in  the  defeat  of  the  Latins,  after 
which  time  they  ceased  to  exist  as  an  inde- 
pendent people.  The  Roman  franchise  was 
B.C.  91  bestowed  upon  all  people  of  Italy  who 
were  allies  of  Rome. 

LA  TRAPPE.— (See  TRAPPISTS.) 

LATROCINIUM,  or  Meeting  of  Robbers, 
was  the  term  applied  by  Leo  I.  to  the  council 
held  at  Ephesus,  Aug.  8,  449,  in  favour  of 
Eutychus,  the  decree  of  which  was  supported 
by  Theodosius  II. 

LATTER  DAY  SAINTS.— This  term  has  been 
applied  to  the  Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  and  in 
more  modern  times  to  the  Mormonites  (q.  v.}. 

LAUDANUM,  or  TINCTURE  OF  OPIUM 
(q.  v.),  is  mentioned  in  a  manuscript  diary 
Oct.,  1601. 

LAUENBURG,  or  SAXE-LAUENBURG 
f Prussia). —This  duchy,  taken  from  the  Wends 
by  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony  (1139 — 
1180),  passed  by  inheritance  in  1689  to  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  through  whom  it  de- 
scended to  Hanover.  Seized  in  1803  by  the 
French,  it  was  included  in  1810  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-de-1'Elbe.  In  1815  it  was 
restored  to  Hanover,  which  ceded  it  to  Prussia, 
and  it  was  given  to  Denmark  in  exchange  for 
Pomerania  and  Riigen,  June  4.  By  the  con- 
vention of  Gastein  (q.  v.},  Aug.  14,  1865,  it  was 
transferred  to  Prussia  for  2,500,000  Danish 
dollars.  William  I.  converted  the  inhabitants 
into  Prussians  by  patent  Sep.  13,  and  took 
formal  possession  Sep.  15. 

LAUFFEN  (Battle).— Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  with  an  army  of  25,000  men,  defeated 
the  forces  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Romans, 
at  Lauffen,  near  Heilbronn  in  Wurtemberg, 
May  13,  1534. 

LAUNCESTON  (Tasmania),  ranking  next  in 
importance  to  the  capital,  Hobart  Town  (q.  v.}, 
was  f collided  in  1804,  and  made  a  free  port  in 
1845. 

LAUREL. — The  common  laurel  was  brought 
into  this  country  from  the  Levant  before  1629; 
the  Portugal  laurel  from  Portugal  before  1648  ; 
and  the  Alexandrian  laurel  from  Portugal 
before  1713.  The  royal  bay-tree  was  brought 
from  Madeira  in  1665,  and  the  glaucous  laurel 
from  China  in  1806. 

LAURENTALIA.-  (See  LARENTALIA.) 

LAURUSTINUS.  — This  shrub  was  brought 
to  England  from  the  south  of  Europe  before 
1596. 

LAUSANNE  (Switzerland),  the  capital  of 
the  canton  Vaud,  was  a  Roman  station.  The 
cathedral,  founded  in  the  ioth,  was  not  com- 
pleted until  the  i3th  century.  Gregory  X. 
consecrated  it  in  1275.  Rodolph  I.  had  an 
interview  here  with  Gregory  X.  Oct.  6,  1275. 
In  the  church  of  St.  Francis  a  council  was  held, 


LAUTUL^E 


[    566    ] 


LAWN 


April  16,  1449.  The  university  was  founded  iii 
1535.  A  memorable  controversy,  which  termi- 
nated in  the  adhesion  of  the  north-western 
portion  of  Switzerland  to  the  Reformation, 
took  place  in  the  cathedral  in  1536.  The 
academy  was  founded  in  1537,  and  printing  is 
said  to  have  been  carried  on  in  1556.  Gibbon 
resided  at  Lausanne  from  June  30,  1753,  to 
April  ii,  1758,  again  from  May,  1763,  to  April, 
1764,  and  with  little  intermission  from  1782  till 
June,  1793.  Here  a  great  part  of  the  "  History 
of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire" 
was  written.  The  French  seized  Lausanne 
Jan.  28,  1798. 

LAUTUL^E,  or  AD  LAUTULAS  (Battle).— 
The  Samnites  defeated  the  Roman  army,  com- 
manded by  Fabius,  at  this  pass,  between  Tar- 
racina  and  Fundi,  B.C.  315. 

LAVAL  (France).— This  town  was  gradually 
formed  round  an  old  castle,  destroyed  by  the 
Northmen  in  the  gth  century.  The  church 
was  built  in  1040.  Having  been  rebuilt,  it  was 
captured  by  Lord  Talbot  in  Oct.,  1466,  but  the 
French  regained  possession  in  1467.  The  V en- 
deans  captured  it  in  1793,  and  their  leader, 
Henry  de  la  Rochejaquelein,  defeated  the 
republican  forces  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
town  in  Oct. 

LA  VALETTA  (Malta).— This  city  was  com- 
menced by  Sir  John  do  la  Valette,  grand  master 
of  the  Knights  of  .Malta,  in  1566,  and  finished 
Aug.  18,  1571.  It  capitulated  to  the  French 
fleet  under  Admiral  Brueys,  June  12,  1798, 
when  Malta  and  its  dependencies  were  ceded 
to  tho  republic.  The  inhabitants  rose  in  re-volt 
in  Sep.,  1798,  and  the  French  garrison  retired 
within  the  walls  of  the  fortress,  where  they 
were  blockaded  by  the  English,  and  were  com- 
pelled by  famine  to  surrender,  Sep.  5,  1800. 

LAYAUB  (France,  one  of  the  strongholds 
of  the  Albigenses,  was  captured  by  Simon  IK- 
Montfort  in  1211,  when  a  wholesale  slaughter 
ensued.  Councils  were  held  here  in  1213  and 
July  6,  1368.  , 

LA  VENDEE  (France).— The  inhabitants  of 
this  portion  of  France  rose  against  the  revo- 
lutionary party  in  1791,  and  erected  the  stan- 
dard of  royalty  March  10,  1793.  Led  by  Henry 
de  la  Rochejaquelein,  the  Vendeans  stormed 
Thouars,  near  Saumur,  taking  6,000  prisoneis, 
May  5.  They  sustained  a  defeat  at  Fontenay, 
May  15;  stormed  Saumur  June  7;  failed  hi  an 
attack  upon  Nantes  June  20,  but  regained 
courage  and  had  established  the  royalist  ascen- 
dancy by  the  end  of  July.  They  failed  in  an 
attack  upon  Granville  Nov.  15  and  16;  beat  off 
their  assailants  at  Mans  Dec.  12,  were  in  turn 
defeated  at  Mans  Dec.  13,  and  escaped  to 
Laval.  Marceau,  with  Tilly  and  Klcber,  anni- 
hilated their  army  at  Saveiiay  Dec.  22.  Early 
in  1794  they  were  joined  by  the  Chouans  (q.  r.) 
and  gained  several  battles.  Henry  de  la 
Rochejaquelein  fell  in  a  skirmish  at  the  village 
of  Trementine  March  4.  They  won  a  battle  at 
La  Rouliere  Sep.  5,  at  Freliqu<3  Sep.  15.  Ne- 
gotiations were  carried  011  at  La  Jaunais  in 
Feb.  1795,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  April  20. 
The  final  pacification  of  the  province  was 
effected  by  the  treaty  of  Lucou  Jan.  17,  1800, 
nearly  1,000,000  victims  having  fallen  in  the 
struggle.  During  the  "Hundred  Days"  the 


inhabitants  of  this  district  again  rose  in  sup- 
port of  the  Bourbon  cause,  bvit  their  army 
was  defeated  at  Mathes  or  Croix  de  Vic,  June  4, 
1815. 

LAVENDER  was  introduced  into  England 
from  the  south  of  Europe  before  1568.  To  lay 
in  lavender  was  formerly  a  cant  phrase  for 
pawning.  The  plant  was  considered  an  emblem 
of  affection. 

LAVIS  (Battles).— The  Austrians  defeated 
the  French  in  an  attack  upon  their  position 
near  this  river,  in  the  Italian  Tyrol,  Nov.  i, 
1796. — The  French  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Austrians  on  the  same  river,  March  20,  1797. — 
The  Tyrolese  sustained  a  defeat  here  in  1809. 

LAW. — The  earliest  system  of  laws  is  said  to 
have  been  that  which  Phoroneus  introduced 
in  Argos,  B.C.  1753.  The  Jewish  laws  were 
promulgated  by  Moses,  B.C.  1491.  Lycurgus 
legislated  for  Sparta,  about  B.C.  776  ;  Draco  for 
the  Athenians,  B.C.  621;  and  Solon,  B.C.  594. 
The  civil  or  Roman  law  was  founded  by 
Servius  Tullius,  B.C.  566,  and  amended  by 
the  Twelve  Tables,  B.C.  450.  The  ancient 
Britons  were  governed  by  certain  fixed  laws, 
which  were  framed  by  their  chiefs  and  Druids, 
and  Sir  William  Dugdale  states  that  Mal- 
mutius  Dunwallo,  who  began  to  reign  B.C.  444, 
was  the  first,  British  lawgiver.  Ethelbert  pub- 
lished a  system  in  600,  and  Ina  one  in  692. 
Alfred  arranged  the  common  law  (q.  v.}  in  886. 
Athclstan  promulgated  a  code  in  928,  and 
Edgar  in  970;  and  in  1050  Edward  the  ('on 
fessm-  consolidated  the  British,  Saxon,  and 
Danish  laws  into  a  single  system,  which  was 
confirmed  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1070. 
Stephen's  charter  of  general  liberties  was 
granted  in  1136.  A  modification  of  the  Canon 
law  //.  v.  was  introduced  into  England  in 
1140,  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  7.  r.) 
brere  established  in  1164,  and  Magna  Charta 
(<]_.  v.)  was  granted  in  1215.  The  English 
laws  were  much  improved  by  Edward  III., 
who  has  been  called  the  English  Justinian. 
Law  pleadings  were  ordered  to  be  in  English 
by  36  Edw.  III.  c.  15  (1362),  and  the  civil 
law  was  superseded  by  the  common  law, 
except  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  in  1379. 
By  4  Geo.  II.  c.  26  (1731  ,  all  proceedings  in 
courts  of  justice  in  England  and  Scotland 
were  ordered  to  be  in  English.  (See  AGRA- 
RIAN LAWS,  BREHON  LAW,  INCORPORATED  LAW 
SOCIKTY,  &C.) 

LAW  COURTS.— By  28  Viet.  c.  48  (June  19, 
1865),  called  the  Courts  of  Justice  Building 
Act,  Government  was  empowered  to  raise 
funds  for  the  erection  of  new  law  courts  in 
the  metropolis,  by  contributing  ,£1,000,000 
stock  from  the  surplus  interest  fund,  and  by 
a  grant  of  .£200,000,  as  the  price  of  the  exist- 
ing courts  and  offices,  to  be  transferred  to  the 
Commissioners  of  Public  Works  and  Buildings. 
The  Courts  of  Justice  Concentration 
Act,  28  Viet.  c.  49  (June  19,  1865)  enabled  the 
commissioners  to  acquire  lands  in  London  for 
the  purposes  of  the  new  works. 

LAW  SOCIETY  CLUB  (London),  in  con- 
nection with  the  Incorporated  Law  Society 
</.  *-.),  was  established  in  1832. 

LAWFELD.— {&«  LAFFEI.D,  Battle.) 

LAWN  was  introduced  into  England  during 


LAWRENCE 


t    567    1 


LEAD 


the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603),  being  used 
for  the  large  ruffs  then  in  fashion. 

LAWRENCE,  ST.  (North  America).— This 
Gulf  was  first  explored  by  Cortereal  in  1500. 
Jacques  Cartier  surveyed  it  in  1535. 

LAW'S  BANK  (Paris)  originated  in  the  per- 
mission obtained  by  a  daring  speculator,  named 
John  Law,  to  establish  a  bank  in  Paris,  May  20, 
1716.  It  was  dissolved  by  the  regent,  and 
merged  into  the  Royal  Bank,  June  24,  1718. 
A  patent,  granting  possession  of  the  country 
of  the  Mississippi,  was  secured  at  the  same 
time.  It  took  the  title  of  the  Company  of  the 
Indies,  and  the  mint  of  France  was  handed 
over  to  it  July  25,  1719.  The  right  of  farming 
the  whole  of  the  public  revenue  was  conceded 
to  this  company  Aug.  27.  In  the  month  of 
November  the  shares  were  sold  at  sixty  times 
their  original  price.  It  was  ascertained,  May  i , 
1720,  that  the  bank  had  circulated  notes  repre- 
senting a  sum  of  one  hundred  and  ten  millions 
sterling,  and  an  edict  was  issued,  reducing 
them  in  value  one-half,  May  21.  Immediate 
ruin  followed,  and  John  Law,  who  resigned 
his  office  of  comptroller-general  May  29,  1720, 
died  in  poverty  in  March  1729. 

LAWYER.— Previous  to  the  Norman  con- 
quest few  persons  were  learned  in  the  law, 
except  ecclesiastics,  who  were  permitted  to 
practise  it  without  restraint  until  1217,  when 
Richard  Poore,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  prohibited 
them  from  pleading  in  secular  courts.  (See 
ATTORNEY,  BARRISTERS,  &c.) 

LAY  ABBOTS.— (See  ABBACOMITES.) 

LAYBACH,  or  LAIBACH  (Austria),  the 
ancient  ^Emona,  was  taken  by  the  French, 
March  17,  1797,  and  again  June  3, 1809.  It  was 
recaptured  by  the  Austrians  in  July,  1809.  A 
congress  was  held  here,  attended  by  the  Empe- 
rors of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the  Kings  of 
Prussia  and  Naples,  Jan.  8,  1821.  They  signed 
a  treaty,  in  which  they  engaged  to  oppose  the 
revolutionary  movement  in  Naples,  Feb.  2, 
1821.  (See  CARBONARI.)  This  treaty  formed 
the  subject  of  an  animated  discussion  in  both 
houses  of  the  English  Parliament  Feb.  19  and 
2i,  1821.  The  congress  of  Laybach  broke  up 
May  21. 

LAY  BROTHERS  AND  SISTERS.  —  The 
practice  of  admitting  uneducated  persons, 
termed  lay  brothers  and  sisters,  into  the  con- 
vents, to  assist  in  the  harder  kind  of  work, 
commenced  in  the  i  ith  century. 

LAYER'S  CONSPIRACY  to  seize  the  Tower, 
the  Bank,  and  the  Exchequer,  and  to  pro- 
claim the  Pretender,  was  formed  in  1722  by  a 
young  barrister  named  Layer,  Bishop  Atter- 
bury, Carte  the  historian,  a  non-juring  clergy- 
man named  Kelly,  Plunkett  the  Jesuit,  and 
others.  The  papers  of  the  conspirators  were 
intercepted,  and  Kelly  was  arrested  May  21. 
Layer  and  others  were  taken  shortly  after- 
wards. Atterbury  was  seized  Aug.  24.  A 
select  committee  was  appointed  to  examine 
into  the  matter.  Layer  was  found  guilty,  and 
executed  at  Tyburn,  May  17,  1723.  A  bill  of 
pains  and  penalties  was  passed  against  Atter- 
bury, and  it  received  the  royal  signature 
May  27.  Atterbury  quitted  England  for 
France  in  June,  1723,  and  he  died  in  Paris, 
Feb.  15,  1732. 


LAZARETTO.— This  name,  applied  to  the 
buildings  where  crews  and  passengers  of  ships 
suspected  of  contagion  perform  quarantine, 
is  derived  from  St.  Lazarus,  the  patron  saint 
of  lepers.  The  first  was  established  at  Venice 
during  the  plague  of  1423.  By  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  78, 
s.  18  (June  27,  1825),  persons  escaping  from  a 
lazaretto  are  liable  to  a  penalty  of  .£200. 

LAZARITES.— This  order  of  priests,  founded 
by  Vincent  de  Paul  in  1624,  and  charged  with 
the  care  of  the  sick,  was  confirmed  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1631.  They  exerted  much  influence  in 
France  just  before  the  political  changes  of  1830. 

LAZARO,  ST.  (Battle).— The  French  and 
Spaniards  attacked  the  Austrian  and  Piedmon- 
tese  camp  at  St.  Lazaro,  about  22  miles  from 
Piacenza,  at  n  at  night,  June  4,  1746.  After 
a  fiercely-contested  struggle  of  nine  hours' 
duration  the  French  and  Spaniards  were  com- 
pelled to  retire,  leaving  6,000  killed,  and  nearly 
9,000  wounded,  on  the  field  of  battle. 

LAZARUS,  ST.— This  military  and  religious 
order  was  established  by  the  Crusaders  at 
Jerusalem,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  relief 
to  lepers,  in  1119,  and  confirmed  by  Pope 
Alexander  IV.  in  1255.  Louis  VII.  (1137—80)  in- 
troduced the  order  into  France,  and  it  declined 
as  leprosy  disappeared.  The  Italian  order  was 
united  with  the  Hospitallers  in  1484,  the 
Savoy  branch  with  that  of  St.  Maurice  in  1572, 
and  the  French  branch  with  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  in  1693. 

LAZI.  —  This  Slavonian  tribe  inhabited 
Colchis,  in  Asia  Minor,  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  Lazica.  They  first  appear  in  history  in 
456,  when  their  king,  Gobazes,  was  defeated  by 
the  Emperor  Marcianus.  They  were  converted 
to  Christianity  in  522,  and  rebelled  against  the 
Romans  in  542,  but  returned  to  their  allegiance 
in  549.  In  550  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Persians,  who  subdued  a  great  part  of  the 
country  in  553.  The  Persians  were  finally 
defeated  by  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Roman 
and  Lazic  troops  in  556. 

LAZZARONI.— This  name  is  derived  from 
Lazarus,  the  sick  man  mentioned  in  the 
Gospels,  and  is  used  to  designate  the  lower 
orders  of  the  people  in  Naples.  The  hospital 
of  St.  Lazarus  is  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
poorer  classes,  or  lazzaroni.  They  aided 
Masaniello  in  the  revolution  of  1647.  They 
used  to  elect  yearly  a  head  or  chief  Lazzaro, 
who  was  formally  acknowledged  by  the  go- 
vernment, which,  by  this  means,  was  better 
able  to  control  and  wield  at  will  his  turbulent 
adherents,  50,000  or  60,000  in  number. 

LEA. — The  Danes  sailed  up  this  river  and 
built  a  fort,  probably  near  Ware,  in  895.  The 
Londoners  were  defeated  in  an  attack  upon  it 
in  896.  In  the  same  year  Alfred  cut  another 
channel  for  the  water,  and  thus  left  the  Danish 
fleet  aground,  whereupon  the  Danes  retired 
into  Shropshire. 

LEAD  is  frequently  spoken  of  in  the  Old 
Testament  during  the  time  of  Moses,  B.C.  1490, 
and  was  in  general  use  amongst  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Pliny,  in  his  Natural  History 
(23 — 79),  describes  the  manufacture  of  lead 
pipes.  Lead  mines  in  this  country  were 
worked  by  the  Romans  B.C.  54.  The  ancients 
poisoned  their  wines  with  lead.  Leaden  pipes 


LEADENHALL 


[    568    ] 


LEATHER 


for  the  conveyance  of  water  were  invented  by 
Robert  Brook  in  1538.  Pattinson's  process  for 
extracting  the  silver  from  lead,  which  in  30 
years  effected  a  saving  of  200,000  ounces  of  the 
more  precious  metal,  was  introduced  in  1829. 

LEADENHALL  MARKET  (London).  —  In 
1309  the  Leadenhall  was  a  manor-house,  owned 
by  Sir  Hugh  Neville.  It  was  sold  in  1408  to 
Sir  Richard  Whittington,  who  afterwards  pre-* 
sented  it  to  the  corporation  of  London.  In 
1419  Sir  Simon  Eyre  erected  a  granary,  or 
market  of  stone ;  and  in  1466  a  fraternity  of  60 
priests  was  established,  to  perform  service 
every  market-day.  The  chapel  was  not  taken 
down  till  1812. 

LEAGUES.  — The  most  important  leagues 
mentioned  in  history  are  the  following  : — 
B.C. 

323  to  167.  The  JEtolian  League  (q.  ».). 
280  to  146.  The  Aeliiean  Leftffoe. 
—    to  170.  The  Boeotian  League. 
A.D. 

1140.  The  Haiiseatic  League. 

1167,  April  7.   The  Lombard  Lengue  (q.  V .). 

1 1  >d.   March  2.  Second  Lombard  League. 

1255-  League  of  the  Rhine.     (See  BAUOXS  OF  OKUMAXY.) 

1370.  Leag.it:  of  Swabiu  and  of  the  Rhine.     (See  BAKONS 

OK   (IKU.MAXY.) 

1396.  Caddee  League  (i/.  r.). 

1405.   League  of   Marharh  (  q.  V.). 

1410.  L  ague  of  Oien  (q.  P.). 

1434.  Grey  League,  or  Lexgue  of  the  Orisons. 

1436.  League  of  the  Ten  Jortediottona. 

1405.  Th-  l.eag ,f  the  Public  iiood  or  Weal  (7.  r.1. 

1471.  League  of  the  Italian  States  against  the  Turks. 

148^.  The  Swabiaii  League  (•/.  ''.  i. 

1493,  April  22.   League   between   Venice,   Milan,  and   the 

Pope. 

1495.  Marcli  -51.  The  League  of  Venice. 
1508,  Dec.  10.  The  1  eague  of  Cambray  (q.  r.). 
1511,  Oct.  4.  The  Holy  League  (<?.».). 
1523.  The  Italian  League  is  formed  against  Francis  I. 
1526,  May    22.    The   League  of   Cognac,    iilso  called  the 

Holy  League  and  the  Clementine  Li-ague  (</.  c.). 
1530,  Dec.  31.  The  League  of  SmalcaM  (</.  r.). 
1538,  June.  The  Holy  League  of  Nuremberg  (17.  p.). 
1560.  League  of  Amboise  (//.  r.). 
150(1.    League  of  the  Beggars,  or  (Jueiix  (q.  V.), 
1571,  May   2'.     League   against   the   Turks.     (See   HOLY 

LKAOCTBS.) 

1576.  The  League,  or  Roman  Catholic  League  (q.  v .). 
1599.   League  of    Heidelberg  (q.  V.). 

1610.  Leagues  of  Halle  (q.  r.),  and  of  Wiirzburg  (>/.  r.). 
1638.  The   Solemn   League   and   Covenant.      (See  COVE- 

WAMTJEB8.) 
1651.  The    Roman   Catholic  League  and    the  Protestant 

League  in  Germany. 
1684,  March  5.  Another  League  against  the  Turks.     (See 

HOLY  LKAGUES.) 
1686,  July  9.  The  League  of  Augsburg  (7. ».). 

LEAMINGTON,  or  LEAMINGTON  PRIORS 
(Warwickshire).  —  This  town,  mentioned  in 
Domesday  Book  (1085-6)  as  the  property  of 
Robert  de  Montgomery,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
passed,  in  1160,  into  possession  of  Kenilworth 
Priory,  and  was  seized  by  the  crown  in  1539. 
Camden  mentioned  the  old  Spring  or  Spa  in 
1586,  the  waters  of  which  were  analyzed  in 
1688.  It  was  described  in  a  treatise  by  Dr. 
Guidott  in  1689.  Abbots  discovered  the  second 
spring  in  1 784,  and  erected  several  baths.  The 
assembly  rooms  were  built  in  1812,  and  the 
theatre  in  1814.  Queen  Victoria  allowed  the 
place  to  be  called  Leamington  Royal  in  1838. 
St.  Mary's  church  was  erected  in  1839,  Victoria 
bridge  was  widened  and  beautified  in  1840,  and 
the  college  was  built  in  1845. 

LEAP  YEAR,  or  BISSEXTILE.— The  name 
given  to  every  fourth  year  in  the  Julian  calen- 


dar,  B.C.  46.  In  leap  year  February  has  29, 
instead  of  28  days.  Under  this  arrangement 
the  years  were  made  a  little  too  long,  and  to 
rectify  this  error,  three  leap  years  are  omitted 
during  the  course  of  four  centuries  in  the 
Gregorian  calendar.  Thus  1800  was  not  a  leap 
year,  and  1900  will  not  be  ;  2000  will  be  a  leap 
year,  and  2100,  2200,  and  2300  will  not.  The 
Bissextile,  or  Biasextus  dies,  that  is,  the  sixth 
day  before  the  calends  of  March,  twice  over, 
was  placed  in  the  Roman  calendar  between 
Feb.  24  and  25.  By  21  Hen.  III.  '1175',  the 
Bissextile  day,  aiid  the  day  immediately  pre- 
ceding it,  were  to  be  considered  legally  as  one 
day. 

LEARNING.— The  golden  period  of  Grecian 
learning  was  the  age  of  Pericles,  who  died  B.C. 
429.  In  Rome  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus was  so  distinguished  for  learned  men 
and  great  authors,  that  it  is  usual  to  charac- 
terize the  ajras  most  remarkable  for  learning 
as  "  Augustan  ages."  During  the  6th  century 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Western  empire, 
learning  declined,  and  was  restricted  to  ecclesi- 
astics. Classical  learning  was  revived  in  the 
Anglo.-Saxoii  church  about  668.  The  ioth  cen- 
tury i.s  usually  considered  the  darkest  period 
of  human  history.  The  revival  of  learning  after 
the  period  of  depression  known  as  the  "  Dark 
Ages,"  took  place  in  the  i5th  century. 

Lf'lASE. — This  word  is  derived  from  the 
French  laisser,  to  let  or  give  leave,  and  signifies 
a  conveyance  creating  ari  estate  for  life,  for  a 
stated  period,  or  at  will.  During  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  leases  were  sometimes  extended 
to  several  hundred  years.  The  conveyance  by 
lea.se  and  re-lease  originated  soon  after  the 
Statute  of  Uses,  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10  (1535). 
Leases  required  by  law  to  be  in  writing,  were 
declared  void  unless  made  by  deed,  by  8  &  9 
Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  4,  1845).  Leases  and  sales  of 
settled  estates  were  facilitated  by  19  &  20  Viet. 
c.  120  (July  29,  1856),  which  was  amended  by 
21  &  22  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  2,  1858).  (See 
ENTAIL. 

LEATHER.— It  is  related,  Gen.  iii.  21,  that 
our  first  parents  were  clothed  with  skins  before 
they  \vere  turned  out  of  the  garden  of  Eden, 
and  this  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  ori- 
ginal suggestion  of  the  manufacture  of  leather. 
It  was  in  use  among  oriental  nations  for  shoes, 
girdles,  &c.  ;  and  with  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
for  numerous  articles  of  dress,  as  well  as  bot- 
tles and  other  vessels  for  containing  liquids. 
The  Romans  seem  to  have  obtained  the  art  of 
tanning  from  Cordova,  in  Spain,  whence  the 
name  Cordovan  leather.  It  was  used  for 
clothing  by  the  ancient  Britons,  who  also  ex- 
ported it  in  considerable  quantities.  A  customs 
duty  was  imposed  upon  leather  by  27  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  14  (1535).  A  duty  was  laid  upon  it  by 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  21  (1697),  and  an  export  duty 
of  i2d.  per  cent,  was  imposed  by  9  Anne,  c.  6 
(1710).  By  ri  Geo.  IV.  c.  16  (May  29,  1830),  all 
duties  and  drawbacks  upon  this  article  were 
repealed.  Leathern  money  is  said  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Romans,  and  during  the 
Middle  Ages  in  Italy,  and  even  in  England. 
The  Skinners  were  incorporated  in  1394,  the 
Leather  Sellers  in  1383,  and  the  Curriers  in 
1605. 


LEAVENWORTH 


[    569    1 


LEGANTINE 


LEAVENWORTH  (United  States).  —  This 
town,  in  Arkansas,  was  founded  in  1854. 

LEBANON,  MOUNT  (Syria),  was  subject  to 
the  kings  of  Tyre,  in  the  reign  of  Solomon 
(B.C.  1015 — 975),  fell  under  the  sway  of  the 
Mardaites,  who  rebelled  against  the  Saracens 
in  677,  and  became  a  stronghold  of  the  Assas- 
sins about  1190.  The  Marouites  and  the  Druses 
are  the  principal  inhabitants. 

LECH^EUM  (Battle).—  Agesilaus  II.  of  Sparta 
defeated  the  Athenians  and  their  allies  at  Le- 
chseum,  in  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  B.C.  393. 

LECH,  or  LECK.— (See  RAIN,  Battle.) 

LECTISTERNIUM.  — This  sacrificial  cere- 
mony was  first  observed  at  Rome,  B.C.  400, 
according  to  Livy. 

LECTOURE  (France),  the  ancient  Lactora, 
belonged  to  the  counts  of  Aimagnac,  until  be- 
sieged by  Louis  XL,  who  captured  it  in  1474, 
when,  in  spite  of  a  pledge  to  the  contrary,  the 
count  and  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the 
sword. 

LECTURES.  —  The  publication  of  lectures 
without  the  consent  of  the  lecturer  is  pro- 
hibited by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  65  (Sep.  9,  1835). 

LEDOS  (Battle).— The  Saracens  were  de- 
feated by  the  Spaniards  at  L6dos,  in  793. 

LEEDS  (Battle).— (See  WINWIDFIELD.) 

LEEDS  (Yorkshire),  Saxon  Loidis,  was  a 
Roman  station,  and  probably  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Danes  about  850.  Adel  Church, 
near  Leeds,  was  built  in  1140,  and  Kirkstall 
Abbey  was  founded  between  1147  and  1153. 
Leeds  became  celebrated  for  its  manufactures 
about  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  centiiry,  and 
received  its  first  charter  in  1627,  which  was 
renewed,  with  additional  privileges,  in  1673. 
A  large  portion  of  the  population  was  cut  off 
by  pestilence  in  1644-45.  Shenfield's  Free 
Grammar  School  was  established  in  1552  ;  St. 
John's  Church  was  founded  in  1634 ;  the 
Coloured-Cloth  Hall  was  built  in  1758,  the 
White-Cloth  Hall  in  1775,  the  Old  Library  was 
established  in  1768  ;  the  theatre  and  the  general 
infirmary  were  erected  in  1771  ;  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  in  1820 ;  and  the 
Mechanics'  Institution  in  1824.  They  were 
united  in  1842.  This  borough  was  enfranchised 
by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832.  The  Town-hall, 
constructed  to  contain  8,000  persons,  for  which 
the  town  council  voted  .£5,000  to  purchase  an 
organ,  and  ^8,500  to  erect  a  dome,  was  com- 
pleted at  a  cost  of  ^102,000,  and  opened  by 
Queen  Victoria  Sep.  7,  1858.  The  new  Grammar 
School  was  built  in  1859.  Tne  new  Infirmary 
was  founded  March  28,  1864.  It  was  made  a 
separate  assize  town  for  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire  by  an  order  in  council  June  10, 
1864,  a  motion  that  Wakefield  should  be  sub- 
stituted having  been  rejected  in  the  House  of 
Commons  Feb.  19. 

LEEDS  BANKRUPTCY  COURT  AFFAIR. 
—Mr.  Wilde,  Registrar  of  the  Leeds  Court  of 
Bankruptcy,  having  been  permitted,  on  the 
ground  of  ill-health,  to  retire  with  a  pension 
of  ;£6oo  a  year,  June  30,  1864,  was  succeeded, 
July  30,  by  Mr.  Welch,  who  had  advanced 
money  to  the  Hon.  Richard  Bethell,  son  of 
Lord  Chancellor  Westbury,  on  condition  that 
he  should  influence  his  father  to  procure  him 
the  appointment.  Mr.  Bethell,  in  consequence 


of  a  promise  from  his  father  of  some  provincial 
office,  Feb.  22,  1865,  went  to  Leeds  Feb.  23,  and 
announced  that  he  had  been  nominated  to 
succeed  Mr.  Welch,  who  was  transferred  to 
London ;  but  this  arrangement,  if  ever  made, 
was  set  aside  by  Lord  Westbury,  Feb.  26.  The 
circumstances  were,  however,  deemed  of  suffi- 
cient importance  for  investigation  by  a  select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  ap- 
pointed May  23.  The  report,  presented  June  26, 
acquitted  the  Chancellor  "  from  all  charge  ex- 
cept that  of  haste  and  want  of  caution  in  grant- 
ing a  pension  to  Mr.  Wilde,"  but  pronounced 
the  subsequent  proceedings  as  "  calculated  to 
excite  the  gravest  suspicions,"  and  affirmed 
that  the  inquiry  they  had  conducted  was 
"highly  desirable  for  the  public  interests." 
In  consequence  of  this  report  and  of  the 
scandal  created  by  the  Edmunds  (q.v.)  affair, 
a  vote  of  censure  on  Lord  Westbury  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  July  3,  and 
his  resignation  of  the  Chancellorship  was 
announced  July  4,  1865.  (See  PALMERSTON 
[SECOND]  ADMINISTRATION.) 

LEEK.— (See  DAVID'S,  ST.,  DAY.) 

LEEK  (Staffordshire).— The  ancient  church 
of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor  is  believed  to 
have  been  founded  between  1042  and  1066. 
The  town,  called  Lee  in  the  Domesday  Book 
(1085-6),  which  mentions  it  as  the  property  of 
the  crown,  was  bestowed  by  William  I.  upon 
his  nephew  Hugh  Lupus,  Earl  of  Chester,  in 
1086.  Ranulph  de  Blondeville,  sixth  Earl  of 
Chester,  founded  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 
Dieulacresse  abbey  about  1214,  and  Edward  VI. 
conferred  the  manor  upon  Sir  Ralph  Bagnall, 
July  7,  1552.  In  1646-7  the  town  was  visited 
by  the  plague.  Lord  Chancellor  Macclesfield 
founded  the  grammar  school  in  1723  ;  and  St. 
Luke's  church,  the  first  stone  of  which  was 
laid  May  13,  1847,  was  consecrated  Dec.  19, 
1848. 

LEESBURG  HEIGHTS  (Battle).— The  Con- 
federates having  occupied  the  Virginian  shore 
of  the  Potomac  for  several  months,  Gen. 
McClcllan,  whose  army  was  assembled  on  the 
Maryland  side,  made  a  reconnaissance  Oct.  19, 
1 86 1.  Several  Federal  companies  crossed  the 
river  Sunday,  Oct.  20,  and  took  up  a  position 
at  Leesburg  Heights,  or  Ball's  Bluff.  Their 
number  was  increased  to  about  1,700  men  by 
large  reinforcements,  Oct.  21,  when  they  occu- 
pied a  parallelogram,  bounded  on  three  sides 
by  a  dense  forest,  and  on  the  fourth  by  the 
river,  with  only  two  boats  capable  of  carrying 
60  persons  each,  as  a  means  of  return.  The 
Confederates  opened  a  heavy  fire  from  the 
surrounding  woods,  and  the  Federals,  their 
retreat  being  cut  off  by  the  destruction  of  the 
boats,  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat,  losing  Col. 
Baker  and  944  men.  The  Confederate,  Gen. 
Evans,  estimated  his  losses  at  300  men. 

LEGACY.— The  legacy  duty  was  first  imposed 
by  36  Geo.  III.  c.  52  (April  26,  1796).  All  gifts 
by  will  were  ordered  to  be  deemed  legacies  by 
8  &  9  Viet.  c.  76,  s.  4  (Aug.  4,  1845).  The  law 
of  legacies  was  amended,  and  the  legacy  duty 
was  extended  to  real  property,  by  16  &  n 
Viet.  c.  51  (Aug.  4,  1853). 

LEGANTINE  CONSTITUTIONS,  ecclesias- 
tical laws  made  in  national  synods,  held  in 


LEGATES 


[    570    ] 


LEIPSIC 


England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  in 
Nov.,  1237,  and  April  16,  1268.  The  first  synod 
was  held  under  Cardinal  Otho,  legate  of  Gre- 
gory IX.  ;  and  the  second  under  Cardinal  Ot- 
hobon,  legate  of  Clement  IV.  These  were 
edited,  with  a  glossary,  by  John  of  Athona, 
Canon  of  Lincoln,  about  1290. 

LEGATES. — The  Roman  ambassadors  were, 
so  called,  and  the  term  was  also  applied  to 
officers  who  accompanied  the  Roman  generals 
in  their  expeditions  to  render  advice  and  as- 
sistance. After  the  division  of  the  provinces 
of  the  empire  by  Augustus,  B.C.  27,  the  im- 
perial provinces  were  governed  by  legates. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  term  was  applied 
to  ambassadors  of  the  popes  being  cardinals. 
Other  papal  ambassadors  of  high  rank  were 
called  nuncios.  The  first  legate  that  appeared 
in  England  came  at  the  invitation  of  "William  I. 
Legatine  courts  were  established  by  Wolsey, 
Under  the  Pope's  authority,  to  relieve  him  of 
part  of  the  duties  of  the  lord-chancellorship  ; 
and  he  was  himself  made  papal  legate  in  1517. 

LEGER,  ST.,  RACE,  was  established  at  Don- 
caster  by  Col.  St.  Leger,  in  1776,  and  received 
this  name  in  1778. 

LEGHORN  .Tuscany).— This  celebrated  sea- 
port owes  its  importance  to  the  patronage 
of  the  Medici  family,  having  been  at  the 
commencement  of  the  isth  century  an  insigni- 
ficant fishing  village.  In  1421  it  was  ceded  to 
the  Florentines  by  the  Genoese,  and  in  1551 
its  population  only  numbered  749.  The  first 
stone  of  the  new  walls  was  laid  by  Francesco  I. 
March  28,  1577.  The  castle  was  founded  by 
Ferdinand  I.  in  1595,  and  the  Latin  school  was 
established  in  1663.  An  earthquake  did  great 
injury  to  the  city  in  1741.  A  large  public  s'.-hoi  >1 
was  established  in  1746.  Leghorn  was  sei/.cd 
by  the  army  of  the  French  republic  June  28, 
1796,  and  retained  till  1799,  when  the  French 
were  compelled  to  withdraw.  It  was,  however, 
retaken  by  Gen.  Clement  in  1800.  The  bishopric 
of  Leghorn  was  erected  in  1806.  In  1813  the  city 
was  restored  to  Tuscany.  It  was  seized  and 
plundered  by  insurgents,  April  22,  1849,  but  was 
recovered  from  them  by  the  Austrians,  May  12. 
An  alarm  of  fire  at  the  theatre  occasioned  the 
death  of  62  persons  in  June,  1857.  It  formed 
part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1859. 

LEGION,  a  body  of  men  in  the  Roman  army, 
formed  by  Romulus  B.C.  720,  consisting  of 
3,000  soldiers.  The  number  was  increased  by 
{Servius  Tullius  to  4,000,  B.C.  578  ;  and  to  5,000 
foot  and  300  horse,  B.C.  558.  Gibbon  is  of 
opinion  that,  after  undergoing  numerous 
changes,  the  constitution  of  the  legion  was  dis- 
solved by  Constantino  I.  (See  FOREIGN  and 
THUNDERING  LKGIUN. 

LEGION  OF  HONOUR.  —  This  order  of 
merit,  as  a  recompense  for  civil  and  military 
services,  established  May  19,  was  inaugurated 
by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  July  14,  1802.  The 
subject  had  been  brought  before  the  council 
of  state  in  May,  1801,  when  a  vote  in  its  favour 
was  carried  by  a  small  majority.  The  first 
crosses  were  distributed  at  the  head-quarters 
of  the  grand  army  at  Boulogne,  Aug.  16,  1804. 
It  was  reconstituted  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1816. 

LEQISLAT3 V Ii  ASH KMBLY.— (See NATIONAL 
Ays EM  ;•.!,•.  . 


LEGITIMISTS.— This  term  was  applied  in 
France  to  the  supporters  of  the  elder  branch  <  if 
the  Bourbon  family  in  1830.  They  held  a  con- 
gress at  Lucerne  in  June  1862,  when  about  800 
assembled. 

LEGNANO  (Battle).— Frederick  I.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  was  defeated  at  this  place,  near 
Verona,  by  the  forces  of  the  Lombard  League, 
May  29,  1176.  By  this  victory  the  Lombard 
cities  secured  their  independence.  Frederick 
I.  concluded  a  truce  of  six  years  with  the  Lom- 
bard League  in  1177,  and  the  treaty  of  Con- 
stance (</.  v.)  terminated  the  dispute.  The 
French  captured  Legnano  in  1510. 

LEICESTER  (Bishopric,  founded  in  680, 
was  merged  in  that  of  Lincoln  in  1078. 

LEICESTER  Leicestershire  ,  believed  to  be 
the  Roman  Rat*,  was  founded  by  a  British 
king,  according  to  some  authorities  Lear,  and 
became  one  of  the  Danish  burghs  about  878. 
Since  the  time  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307;  it 
has  returned  two  members  to  Parliament. 
Henry  V.  held  a  Parliament  here  April  30, 1414. 
Richard  III.  was  buried  in  the  Grey  Friars 
monastery,  Aug.  25, 1485.  In  the  abbey,  built  in 
1143,  Cardinal  Wolsey  died,  Nov.  28  or  29,  1530. 
The  town  Library,  formed  in  the  middle  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  removed  to  the  pre- 
sent building  in  1632.  During  the  Parliamen- 
tary wars,  the  town  was  taken  by  Charles  L, 
May  31,  1645,  and  recovered  by  Fairfax,  June 
17,  1645.  Charles  11.  ordered  the  destruction 
of  its  walls  in  1662.  The  manufacture  of 
stockings,  for  which  the  town  is  noted,  was 
introduced  in  1680.  On  the  inquiry  into 
the  state  of  the  municipalities,  the  corpora- 
tion refused  to  deliver  up  the  required  docu- 
ments and  to  submit  to  examination,  Sep.  24, 

1  LEIGHLIN  (Bishopric).— In  Ireland,  founded 

by  St.  I.aserian  in  -632,  was  united  to  Ferns 
V.  '•.  in  1600,  and  in  1835  the  two  dioceses 
were  merged  in  Ossory. 

UCININGEN  (Jermany',  formerly  a  county, 
gave  the  title  of  prince  to  the  line  in  1779. 
The  principality  lost  its  possessions  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  in  1803,  and  was  me- 
diatized in  1806. 

LUINSTKK  Ireland).  — This  eastern  pro- 
vince of  Ireland  formed  at  the  time  of  the 
English  invasion  (1170)  a  distinct  kingdom, 
under  Dermot.  An  order  for  the  settlement 
of  Leinster  was  made  in  1550.  In  1691  it  was 
erected  into  a  dukedom  in  favour  of  jMeinhard, 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Schomberg,  but  the  title 
became  extinct  in  1719.  It  was  revived,  and 
conferred  upon  James  Fitzgerald  in  1766. 

LEIPSIC  (Battle  .—The  French  army  under 
Napoleon  L,  amounting  to  about  190,000  men, 
was  at  tacked  at  this  place  by  290,450  of  the  allied 
forces  under  Prince  Schwartzeiiberg,  Blucher, 
and  other  generals,  Oct.  16,  1813.  The  battle 
was  renewed  Oct.  18  and  19,  when  the  French 
were  compelled  to  retreat,  leaving  25,000  pri- 
soners in  the  hands  of  the  allies.  The  total 
loss  of  the  French  was  upwards  of  60,000  men, 
and  that  of  the  allies  46,804  men.  After  the 
victory,  called  the  Battle  of  the  Nations,  the 
allies  entered  Leipsic,  and  Napoleon  I.  com- 
menced his  retreat  towards  the  Rhine.  The 
5oth  anniversary  of  this  battle  was  celebrated 


LEIPSIC 


LEXT 


with  much  enthusiasm  throughout  Germany, 
Oct.  18,  1863. 

LEIPSIC  (Treaties).— A  union  between  the 
German  Protestants  was  signed  at  Leipsic  in 
Feb.,  1631. The  Elector  of  Saxony  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Maria  Theresa  at  this 

place,  May  18,  1745. A  convention  between 

Great  Britain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia, 

was  signed  here  Oct.  21,  1813. A  Congress 

of  Ladies  (q.  v.}  was  held  here,  Oct.  15,  1865. 

LEIPSIC,  or  BREITENFELD  (Battles).— 
The  imperial  army,  commanded  by  Tilly,  was 
defeated  by  the  Saxons  and  Swedes,  under 
Charles  X.  (Gustavus),  in  the  plain  of  Leipsic, 
between  the  villages  of  Breitenfeld  and  Podel- 
witz,  Sep.  7,  1631  (N.  S.)  The  Austrians  left 
7,000  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  5,000  were 
taken  prisoners.  All  their  baggage  and  artil- 
lery were  lost. The  Swedish  general,  Tors- 

tensen,  defeated  the  Austrians  near  the  same 
place,  Nov.  2,  1642. 

LEIPSIC  or  LEIPZIG  (Saxony).— This  city, 
which  is  of  Wendish  origin,  and  sprung  up 
round  a  castle,  is  first  mentioned  in  1015.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Wratislaus  II.,  Duke  of  Bo- 
hemia, in  1082.  After  having  been  rebuilt,  it 
was  again  destroyed  by  Otho  IV.  in  1212.  The 
celebrated  university  was  founded  by  German 
seceders  from  the  university  of  Prague  in  1409. 
A  fire  destroyed  about  400  houses  in  1420. 
Here  Luther,  Eck,  and  Carlstadt  held  a  theo- 
logical discussion,  which  commenced  June 
27,  1519,  and  lasted  19  days:  The  book 
trade,  for  which  Leipsic  is  famous,  commenced 
in  1545.  The  town-hall  was  erected  in  1556. 
In  1680  and  1681  the  plague  carried  off  3,000 
of  the  inhabitants.  Leipsic  was  taken  by  the 
Prussians  in  1745,  by  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick 
in  1756,  and  by  the  French  in  1806.  The  wool 
market  was  established  in  1826.  The  book- 
sellers' exchange  has  been  erected  since  1834. 
Political  disturbances  took  place  in  1830,  1831, 
1848,  and  1849.  (See  INTERIM.) 

LEIRIA  (Portugal).— At  this  ancient  town, 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  the  first  printing-press 
in  the  peninsula  was  established  in  1466.  In 
July,  1808,  the  town  was  taken  by  the  French, 
who  destroyed  it  in  1811.  It  was  restored  in 
1813,  and  was  wrested  from  the  Miguelites, 
Feb.  15,  1834. 

LEITH  (Scotland),  called  Inverleith  in  the 
charter  granted  by  David  I.  for  the  erection  of 
Holyrood  Abbey,  in  1128.  The  Earl  of  Hert- 
ford burned  the  town  in  May,  1544.  Some 
French  troops,  sent  to  espouse  the  cause  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  fortified  Leith  in  1560. 
They  capitulated  to  the  English  army,  and  a 
treaty  was  signed  at  Edinburgh,  July  6,  which 
provided  that  they  should  all  leave  Scotland. 
An  extraordinary  convention  of  superinten- 
dents arid  ministers  was  held  here  in  Jan.,  1572, 
and  they  drew  up  the  agreement  of  Leith. 
The  first  newspaper  printed  in  Scotland  was 
the  Mercurius  Politicus,  which  appeared  at 
Leith  in  Oct.,  1653.  A  dock  was  commenced  in 
1720,  a  small  quay  in  1777,  and  the  wet  docks 
in  1800.  The  Trinity -house  was  erected  in 
1817,  the  town-hall  in  1828,  and  the  new  pier 
in  1852.  The  foundation  stone  of  St.  James's 
Episcopal  Church  was  laid  by  Mr.  Gladstone, 
Jan.  ii,  1862. 


LEITRIM  (Ireland),  which  originally  formed 
part  of  the  estates  of  the  O'Rourk  family,  was 
erected  into  an  English  county  by  Sir  Henry 
Sidney  in  1565.  The  inhabitants,  who  revolted 
in  1588,  were  reduced  to  subjection  in  1603. 

LEMBERG  (Galicia).— This  once  strongly- 
fortified  city,  founded  in  1259,  resisted  an 
Italian  force  in  1666,  and  a  Turkish  army  in 
1672.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  stormed  it  in 
1704,  and  Poniatowski  captured  it  in  1809. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1784,  and  the 
town -hall  was  built  in  1835. 

LEMNOS  (.ZEgean  Sea)  is  said  to  have  been 
peopled  by  a  Thracian  tribe,  whose  descen- 
dants were  expelled  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelas- 
gians.  It  fell  under  the  Persian  yoke  B.C.  505, 
and  was  subjected  to  Athens  by  Miltiades,  B.C. 
489.  The  Macedonians  obtained  possession 
for  a  short  time,  and  it  again  passed  under  the 
Athenian  yoke.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  laby- 
rinth. ( See  STALIMENE.  ) 

LEMURIA.— This  festival,  held  May  9,  IT, 
and  13,  for  the  souls  of  the  departed,  is  said  to 
have  been  instituted  B.C.  722,  by  Romulus,  to 
appease  the  manes  of  Remus. 

LENS  (Battle).— The  Austrians  and  Spaniards 
were  defeated  by  a  French  army  under  Conde, 
in  this  battle,  fought  Aug.  20,  1648.  The 
French  captured  100  colours  and  38  pieces  of 
cannon. 

LENT  is  derived  from  an  Anglo-Saxon  word, 
signifying  Spring.  Much  controversy  has  been 
excited  amongst  learned  men  respecting  the 
original  duration  of  this  fast,  some  contending 
that  it  lasted  40  days,  and  others  only  40  hours. 
Bingham  believes  it  probable  that  it  was  at 
first  a  fast  of  40  hours,  or  the  time  our  Saviour 
lay  in  the  -grave ;  that  is,  the  Friday  and 
Saturday  before  Easter.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
instituted  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  though 
it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
appears  to  have  been  first  enjoined  in  136. 
Consisting  at  first  of  only  a  few  hours,  it 
lasted  a  whole  week,  if  not  more,  in  the  time 
of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  about  250.  At 
Rome,  about  the  same  time,  it  lasted  three 
weeks  ;  and  by  the  fifth  canon  of  the  Council 
of  Nicsea,  June  19 — Aug.  25,  325,  was  increased 
to  six.  Then  it  received  the  name  of  Quadra- 
gesima, or  the  Forty  Days'  Fast,  because  it 
commenced  40  days  before  Easter.  In  reality 
its  duration  was  only  36  days,  all  the  Sundays 
being  omitted.  The  duration  of  Lent,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  first  observed  in  England  in 
640,  differed  very  much  in  the  early  churches. 
By  2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  19  (1548),  all  former  laws 
relating  to  fasts  were  repealed,  and  a  penalty  of 
i os.  or  10  days'  imprisonment,  was  ordered  to 
be  inflicted  on  those  that  ate  meat  at  Lent 
and  on  other  fasts.  The  penalty  was  doubled 
for  a  second  offence.  By  5  Eliz.  c.  5  (1563),  it 
was  enacted,  that  whosoever  should  notify  that 
eating  of  fish,  or  forbearing  of  flesh,  was  of 
any  necessity  for  the  saving  of  the  soul  of 
man,  or  that  it  was  the  service  of  God,  other- 
wise than  as  other  politic  laws  are  and  be, 
should  be  punished  as  spreaders  of  false  news. 
The  same  statute  laid  down  regulations  for 
the  observance  of  fasts.  Victuallers  were 
not  allowed  to  sell  flesh  in  Lent  by  27  Eliz. 
c.  ii  (1586)..  The  last  statute  on  the  subject 


LEOBEN 


[     572     ] 


LERIDA 


was  35  Eliz.  c.  7  (1593).  Several  proclamations 
having  reference  to  this  subject  were  issued, 
and  the  encouragement  of  the  navy  and  of 
fishery  was  generally  set  forth  as  the  ground 
of  these  regulations. 

LEOBEN  (Styria).— The  preliminaries  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  France  ! 
were  signed  at  the  castle  of  Eckeuwald,  near  J 
this  town,  April  18,  1797.     (See  CAMPO-FORMIO,  " 
Treaty.) 

LEOMINSTER  (Herefordshire''.— Merewald, 
ruler  of  the  western  part  of  Mercia,  erected  a 
monastery  here  about  660.  It  was  plundered 
by  the  Welsh  in  760,  by  the  Danes  in  980, 
and  again  by  the  Welsh  in  1055.  Henry  I.  gave 
the  monastery  to  the  abbey  of  Reading  in  1125. 
Queen  Mary  founded  the  grammar  school, 
May  28,  1554.  The  town-hall  or  Butter  Cross 
was  erected  in  1633,  and  Mrs.  Esther  Clark's 
almshouses  for  poor  widows  were  established 
in  1736.  The  history  of  the  Town  and  Borough 
has  been  written  by  the  Rev.  G.  F.  Townseiid. 

LEON  (Nicaragua),  founded  at  Old  Leon  in 
1523,  was  removed  to  its  present  site  in 
1532.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  1534,  and 
the  university  in  1812.  It  is  also  called 
Managua. 

U-:<>N  .Spain).— The  city  of  Leon  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  Romans  in  the  ist 
century  of  the  Christian  wra.  It  was  anciently 
called  Legio,  and  received  its  present  name  on 
its  capture  by  the  Visigoths  in  586.  It  was 
afterwards  seized  by  the  Moors,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  in  722,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
Christian  kingdom  of  Leon,  which  was  founded 
in  913.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Caliph  Al 
Mansur  in  996,  and  remained  in  his  power 
until  his  defeat  at  Calatana/or  in  998.  In  1037 
the  kingdom  of  Leon  was  annexed  to  Castile  ; 
and  with  the  exception  of  the  intervals  from 
1065  to  1072,  and  from  1157  to  1230,  did 

not    recover  its    independence. Leon    was 

erected  into  a  bishopric  in  the  3rd  century. 
Its  first  bishop  died  in  312,  and  the  see  was 
refounded  in  910.  The  cathedral  was  com- 
menced about  1199.  Councils  were  held  here 
in  1020,  1091,  and  1114.  The  French  under 
Soult  entered  Leon  Dec.  21, 1808,  and  destroyed 
many  of  the  old  buildings. 


KINGS   OF   LEON. 

A.D. 

A.T). 

913.  OrdonoII. 

ioj7.  Bermuda  III. 

933.  Froila  II. 
924.  Alphonso  IV. 
i)i~.   Ktimiro  II. 

10-57.   I'nitcd  to  Castile. 
1065.  Alphonso  VI. 
1072.  Again  united  to  Cas- 

950. Ordono  III. 

tile. 

955.  Sancho  I. 
967.  Kamiro  III. 

1157-  Ferdinand  II. 
1187.  Alphonso  IX. 

982.  Bermuda  II. 

1230.  Ferdinand  III. 

999.  Alphonso  V. 

LEONARDS-ON-SEA,  ST.  (Sussex).— This 
town,  forming  a  western  extension  of  Hastings 
(q.  v.),  was  commenced  in  1828. 

LEONINE  VERSES.— This  species  of  Latin 
versification,  consisting  of  hexameter  and  pen- 
tameter verses,  which  rhymed  in  the  middle 
and  at  the  end,  is  said  to  have  been  named 
after  Pope  Leo  II.  (682 — 84),  or  Leoninus, 
canon  of  St.  Victor,  Paris,  during  the  izth 
century.  They  have  been  traced  to  the  3rd 
century,  and  are  also  found  in  English  poetry. 


LEONTIUM,  or  LEONTINI  (Sicily),  founded 
by  colonists  from  Naxos,  B.C.  730,  fell  under 
the  yoke  of  Hippocrates,  B.C.  498,  and  of 
Hieron,  B.C.  476.  It  solicited  the  aid  of  the 
Athenians  against  the  Syracusans  B.C.  427, 
when  Gorgias,  the  eminent  sophist,  acted  as 
ambassador  for  his  native  city.  In  one  of  its 
streets  Hieronymus  was  assassinated  -by  Dino- 
menes,  B.C.  215.  It  passed  under  the  Roman 
sway,  with  the  whole  island,  B.C.  210. 

LEONTOPOLIS.  —  (See    HIEKACIANS     and 

NlCEPHORIUM.) 

LEPAXTO  (Greece).— The  ancient  Naupactos 
(q.v.},  called  by  the  Greek  peasants  Epakto, 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian  I.,  about  550.  Another  to\vn, 
built  upon  its  site,  was  besieged  in  1477  by  the 
Turks,  who  withdrew  after  having  lost  30,000 
men,  in  a  siege  of  about  four  months'  duration. 
The  Turks  seized  Lepanto  in  Aug.,  1499.  The 
town  sustained  several  sieges,  and  was  restored 
to  Venice  by  the  treaty  of  Carlowitz  Jan.  26, 
1699.  The  Greeks  captured  the  town  and 
citadel  of  Lepanto,  May  g,  1829. 

LEPANTO  (Sea-fight).  —  The  combined 
Spanish  and  Italian  fleets,  under  the  command 
of  Don  John  of  Austria,  defeated  the  Turks  in 
a  great  naval  battle  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto, 
Oct.  7,  1571.  The  Turks  are  said  to  have  lost 
224  ships  and  30,000  men,  and  the  Christiana 
15  galleys  and  8,000  men.  Cervantes,  the 
author  of  Don  Quixote,  received  a  wound  in 
this  action,  by  which  he  was  deprived  of  the 
use  of  his  right  hand  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  By  some  Italian  authors  this  is 
culled  the  battle  of  Curzolari,  from  a  group 
of  islets  of  this  name  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Acheloiis. 

LKI'KOSV.— This  contagious  disease  origi- 
nated in  Egypt  and  Arabia  at  a  very  early 
period.  It  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the 
Scriptures ;  and  special  regulations  were  pre- 
scribed concerning  those  afiiicted  with  it  by 
the  Mosaic  law,  B.C.  1491  (Lev.  xiii.).  Christ 
healed  a  leper  in  Galilee  in  28.  It  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is  described  by 
Hippocrates  (B.C.  460 — 357)  and  Galen  (130 — 
200).  The  Crusaders  introduced  the  disease 
into  Europe,  where  it  raged  with  such  virulence 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  that  almost  every 
town  had  its  lazar-house  fcr  the  reception  of 
lepers.  (See  LAZARETTO  and  LAZARUS,  ST.)  In 
1225,  during  the  reign  of  Louis  VIII.,  there 
were  in  France  no  less  than  2,000  of  these  insti- 
tutions. Since  the  commencement  of  the  i7th 
century  the  disease  has  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared from  Europe,  where  it  is  now  limited 
to  the  most  northern  and  southern  countries. 
It  was  very  prevalent  in  the  Faroe  Isles  in. 
1676,  and  five  persons  were  affected  with  it  in 
Great  Britain  in  1736.  The  last  case  mentioned 
here  was  described  by  Dr.  Edmonston  in  1809. 

LERIDA  (Spain).— The  ancient  Ilerda  was 
taken  during  the  civil  war  by  Julius  LV;sar, 
after  a  siege  of  nearly  six  weeks,  June  9,  B.C. 
49,  and  destroyed  by  the  Franks  in  256.  A 
council  was  held  here  in  524.  Having  been 
restored,  it  became  the  scene  of  frequent 
struggles  between  the  Moors  and  the  Spaniards. 
It  was  besieged  Oct.  2,  1707,  and  taken  by 
assault  Oct.  12.  Suchet  took  it  by  storm  May 


LESBOS 


[     573 


LEYDEN 


13,  1810.  The  Spaniards  regained  possession 
in  1814. 

LESBOS.— (-See  MITYLENE.) 

LESSER  BRETHREN,— (See  FRANCISCANS.) 

LETTER.— (See  ANONYMOUS  LETTERS,  BRIEF 
or  QUEEN'S  LETTER,  SEALED  LETTERS,  <fec.) 

LETTER- COPYING  MACHINE,  invented 
by  James  Watt  in  June,  1778,  and  patented  by 
him  in  May,  1780,  has  undergone  various  im- 
provements. 

LETTERS  OF  MARQUE.— These  commis- 
sions, authorizing  private  persons  to  equip  ves- 
sels of  war,  or  privateers,  on  their  own  account, 
against  an  enemy,  in  time  of  war,  were  first 
issued  in  this  country  in  1295.  The  cases  in 
which  they  might  be  granted  were  specified  by 
4  Hen.  V.  c.  7  (1417).  By  33  Geo.  III.  c.  66,  s.  9 
(June  17,  1793),  they  may  only  be  issued  to 
ships  belonging  to  British  subjects  ;  or  by  41 
Geo.  III.  c.  76  (June  27,  1801),  to  royal  vessels 
in  the  Customs  service.  The  abolition  of  pri- 
vateering was  resolved  upon  by  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  France,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sardinia,  and 
Turkey,  at  the  congress  at  Paris,  April  16, 

1  LETTER-WRIT  ING. -It  is  exceedingly 
doubtful  whether  epistolary  communication 

was  known  in  the  Homeric  age,  which  is  as- 
signed by  various  chronologists  to  different  pe- 
riods between  B.C.  1184  and  684.  David  wrote 
a  letter  to  Joab,  and  despatched  it  by  Uriah, 
B.C.  1035  (2  Sam.  xi.  14,  15),  and  Jezebel  wrote 
letters  in  Ahab's  name,  and  sealed  them  with 
his  seal,  B.C.  899(1  Kings  xxi.  8).  The  classical 
authors  regarded  Atossa,  queen  of  Darius  I. 
(Hystaspes),  who  nourished  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.,  as  the  inventor  of  letter- writing. 

LETTUCE  was  introduced  into  England 
about  1540. 

LEUCADIA  (Ionian  Islands')  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  Corinthians,  who  called  it  Leu- 
cas,  from  its  white  cliffs,  B.C.  700.  They  cut 
through  an  isthnms,  and  converted  Leucadia 
into  an  island.  The  canal  was,  however,  quite 
choked  up,  according  to  Polybius,  B.C.  218. 
Subsequently  it  was  cleared  out,  and  a  bridge 
thrown  across,  it  is  believed  by  Augustus, 
about  B.C.  17.  Sappho's  Rock,  where  the 
poetess  is  said  to  have  made  her  desperate  leap, 
B.C.  590,  and  the  tomb  of  Artemisia,  B.C.  352, 
are  in  this  town.  Leucadia  was  taken  by  the 
Turks  in  1467,  and  it  surrendered  to  the  Vene- 
tians Aug.  21,  1717.  An  English  force,  under 
Gen.  Oswald,  displaced  the  French,  March  22, 
1810.  The  fort  of  Santa  Maura,  erected  near  the 
town  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1825.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Santa  Maura,  from  the  fort. 

LEUCOPETRA  (Battle).— The  Consul  Mum- 
mius  defeated  the  forces  of  the  Achaean  League 
at  this  place,  in  Italy,  B.C.  147. 

LEUCTRA  (Battle).— The  Thebans  defeated 
the  Spartans  in  a  great  battle  on  this  plain,  be- 
tween Thespije  and  Platfea,  in  Boeotia,  in  July, 
B.C.  371.  By  this  victory  the  supremacy  of 
Sparta  was  destroyed. 

LEUTHEN,  or  LISSA  (Battle).— The  Prus- 
sians, under  Frederick  II.,  after  an  obstinate 
contest,  defeated  the  Austrian  s,  led  by  Prince 
Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Marshal  Dunn,  at  the 
village  of  Leuthen,  near  Lissa,  in  Silesia,  Dec. 


5,  1757.  The  Austrians  withdrew  through 
Lissa.  (See  LISSA,  Sea-Fight.) 

LEVANT.— The  countries  situated  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  have  re- 
ceived this  name,  from  the  French  lever,  to 
rise,  because  the  sun  rises  in  that  direction. 
The  English  trade  with  the  Levant  com- 
menced before  1513,  and  a  Levant  company  of 
merchants  was  chartered  in  1581,  and  a  second 
in  1592.  The  great  Levant  Company  was  estab- 
lished in  1605. 

LEVELLERS,  a  party  who  desired  that  "  all 
degrees  of  men  should  be  levelled,  and  an 
equality  should  be  established,  both  in  titles 
and  estates,  throughout  the  kingdom,"  ob- 
tained the  supremacy  in  the  army  of  the 
Long  Parliament  in  1647.  They  denounced 
all  existing  forms  of  government,  and  cla- 
moured for  the  blood  of  Charles  I.  They 
raised  an  insurrection  in  1649,  and  Cromwell 
took  measures  to  suppress  them.  Levellers 
appeared  in  Ireland  in  1762.  (See  ACEPHALI.) 

LEVERIAN  MUSEUM  (London).— This  fine 
collection  of  objects  of  natural  history  was 
formed  by  Sir  Ashton  Lever,  who  established 
it  at  Leicester  House,  Leicester  Square,  in 
1775.  Not  being  efficiently  supported,  Sir 
Ashton  was  compelled  to  dispose  of  it  by 
lottery  in  1785.  It  was  won  by  Mr.  Parkinson, 
who  sold  it  by  auction,  in  7,879  lots.  The  sale 
lasted  from  May  5  to  July  18,  1806. 

LEVITICUS,  the  third  book  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, was  written  by  Moses  before  B.C.  1451. 

LEWES  (Sussex),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  England,  was  fortified  by  the  Saxons, 
and  the  Normans  built  its  castle  soon  after  the 
Conquest.  The-  royal  army  was  defeated  here 
by  the  barons  May  13,  1264,  Henry  III.  having 
been  made  prisoner.  Prince  Edward  entered 
into  a  treaty,  called  the  Mise  of  Lewes,  May  14. 
The  6ooth  anniversary  of  the  battle  was 
celebrated  April  16,  1864. 

LEXICOGRAPHY.— (See  DICTIONARY.) 

LEXINGTON  (Battle).— (See  CONCORD.) 

LEXINGTON  (Kentucky),  founded  in  1776, 
was  the  chief  town  until  1792,  when  Frank- 
fort was  made  the  capital.  Lexington  was 
incorporated  in  1782. 

LEXINGTON  (Missouri),  fortified  by  the 
Federals  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  in 
1861,  was  besieged  by  the  Confederates  in 
Aug.,  and  surrendered  Sep.  20. 

LEYDEN  (Holland),  the  ancient  Lugdunum 
Batavorum,  withstood  two  celebrated  sieges 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1573  and  1574.  The  first 
commenced  Oct.  31,  1573,  and  was  raised  March 
21,  1574,  by  Louis  of  Nassau.  Valdez  returned 
with  8,000  Walloons  and  Germans,  May  26, 
1574.  Valdez  offered  pardon  to  the  citizens  on 
condition  of  an  immediate  surrender,  July  30 ; 
but  they  held  out,  although  reduced  to  ex- 
tremities by  want  of  provisions.  A  flotilla 
of  vessels,  fitted  out  at  Zealand  for  the  relief 
of  the  city,  broke  through  the  dykes,  and, 
assisted  by  an  inundation,  caused  by  a  violent 
equinoctial  gale,  Oct.  i  and  2,  entered  the  city 
Oct.  3,  and  Leyden  was  saved.  The  inhabit- 
ants had  suffered  severely  from  famine  and 
pestilence,  and,  in  acknowledgment  of  their 
heroism,  the  Prince  of  Orange  founded  the 
university  in  1575.  The  round  tower  called 


LIAMUIGA 


[     574     1 


LIBRARY 


the  Burg,  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  built  about  450  ;  St.  Pan- 
eras  church  was  erected  in  1280,  and  St.  Peter's 
in  1315.  The  town-hall  was  founded  in  1574. 
Here  Arminius  published  his  views,  which  led 
to  the  controversy  bearing  his  name,  Feb.  7, 
1604.  The  first  congregational  assembly  was 
formed  at  Leyden  in  1616.  In  Jan.,  1795,  Ley- 
den  was  seized  by  the  French,  who  held  it  tiH 
1813.  The  city  was  much  injured  by  a  fire 
caused  by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder,  Jan.  1 2, 
1807. 

LIAMUIGA.— (See  CHRISTOPHER'S,  ST.) 

LII5AU  (Russia).— This  seaport  of  Courland 
was  fortified  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  who 
erected  a  castle  in  1300.  It  was  annexed  to 
Russia,  March  28,  1795. 

LIBEL. — The  Roman  laws  treated  libel  as  a 
capital  offence,  and  during  the  latter  period  of 
the  empire  similar  severity  was  extended  to 
the  possessors  of  libellous  documents.  Ilallam 
(England,  ch.  xv.)  remarks, —  "The  law  of 
libel  has  always  been  indefinite — an  evil  pro- 
bably beyond  any  complete  remedy,  but  which 
evidently  renders  the  liberty  of  free  discussion 
rather  more  precarious  in  its  exercise  than 
might  be  wished.  It  appears  to  have  been  the 
received  doctrine  in  Westminster  Hall,  before 
the  Revolution,  that  no  man  might  publish  a 
writing  reflecting  on  the  government,  nor  upon 
the  character  or  even  capacity  and  fitness  of 
anyone  employed  in  it."  (See  BOOK  Ci:xs<u;s.) 
William  Pryiine  was  fined  .£5,000  for  having 
written  the  "  Hislrio-Mastix,"  expelled  from 
the  university  of  Oxford  and  the  bar,  was  ex- 
posed in  the  pillory,  and  committed  to  the 
Tower,  in  A.ug.,  1633.  He  was,  with  Henry 
Burton  and  Robert  Bast  wick,  condemned  in 
the  Star  Chamber  for  libels,  June  14,  1637,  and 
they  were  set  in  the  pillory  and  mutilated, 
June  30.  A  resolution  adopted  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  that  privilege  of  Parliament 
should  not  extend  to  cases  of  libel,  was  agreed 
to  by  the  Lords,  Xov.  29,  1763.  Major  John 
Scott,  a  member  of  The  House  of  Commons, 
was  reprimanded  by  the  House  for  a  libellous 
publication,  in  one  of  the  morning  papers, 
May  1 8,  1790.  Fox's  Libel  Bill  (32  Geo.  III. 
c.  60)  was,  with  the  support  of  Pitt,  passed  in 
1692.  By  60  Geo.  III.  c.  8  (Dec  30,  1819), 
offenders  convicted  a  second  time  were  liable 
to  banishment  for  such  term  of  years  as  the 
court  before  which  the  case  was  tried  might 
order.  This  penalty  was  repealed  by  n  Geo. 
IV.  <fc  i  Will.  IV.  c.  73  (July  23,  1830).  The 
libel  laws  were  amended  and  mitigated  by 
6  &  7  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  24,  1843). 

LIBERIA  (Africa  .—This  free  republic,  in 
Upper  Guinea,  was  fovinded  April  25,  1822,  by 
some  negro  colonists,  who,  sent  out  by  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  formed  Dec.  31, 
1816,  had  settled  on  the  island  of  Sherboro  in 
1820,  and  were  compelled  to  remove,  from  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  climate.  A  constitution 
was  framed  in  1839.  1'ne  independence  of  the 
colony,  declared  in  1847,  was  formally  recog- 
nized" by  France  and  England  in  1848,  and  by 
the  United  States  in  1862.  A  treaty  with  the 
United  States  was  concluded  in  London,  Feb. 
17,  T863. 

LIBERTINES.  —  Considerable    controversy 


has  been  excited  respecting  the  synagogue  of 
the  Libertines,  said  to  have  been  in  existence 
at  Jerusalem  in  37  (Acts  vi.  9).  Some  writers 
believe  it  refers  to  the  Libertini,  or  the  chil- 
dren of  freedmen ;  and  other  authorities  be- 
lieve the  Libertines  to  have  been  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Libertina,  a  city  near  Carthage. 

LIBERTINES,  or  SPIRITUALS,  sometimes 
called  Spiritual  Libertines,  who  defended  im- 
pure morals  with  a  profession  of  Christian 
faith,  appeared  in  Flanders  in  the  i4th  and 
i5th  centuries.  The  sect  spread  into  France, 
and  received  encouragement  from  Margaret, 
Queen  of  Navarre,  in  1533.  James  Gruet,  a 
member  of  this  sect  and  an  opponent  of  Cal- 
vin, was  put  to  death  at  Geneva  in  1550. 

LIBERTY.— {See  CAP,  JACOBIN,  or  BRETON 
CLUB,  and  RUMP-STEAK  CLUB.) 

LIBRARIES  (Free).— Powers  were  granted 
to  town  councils  to  establish  free  libraries, 
by  a  rate  levied  with  the  consent  of  a  majority 
of  two-thirds  of  the  voters,  by  13  &  14  Viet, 
c.  65  (Aug.  14,  1850).  This  act,  extended  to 
Ireland  and  Scotland  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  101 
(Aug.  20,  1853  ,  was  amended,  the  city  of 
London  being  specially  included,  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  70  (July  30,  1855).  (See  LIBRARY.) 

LIBRARY.  —  From  an  inscription  in  the 
Memnonium  at  Thebes,  which  is  ascribed  to 
the  i4th  centiiry  B.C.,  it  appears  that  a  library, 
or  "hall  of  books,"  formed  a  part  of  that 
palace.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient 
institution  of  the  kind  on  record.  The  earliest 
libraries  throughout  Christendom  were  those 
attached  to  churches. 


650  (about).  Sardanapalus  V.  (Edwards'  Memoirs  of 
Libraries,  i.  15)  prepares  a  scries  (if  inscribed 
tablets,  or  a  library  in  clav,  fur  public  instruction. 

537  (about).  Pisistratiis  founds  a  public  library  »t  Atbcns. 

;;-:-:.  ArUtotle  bequeath*  bU  collection  of  books  to  Theo- 

phraMus. 
Xj*.   Ptolemy    (I.)    Sotcr  (I.)    founds   the   library   in    the 

Serapii'tim  at  Alexandiia  (7.  v.). 
797.  Death  of  Attalus  I.,  founder  of  the  library  of  Per- 

gamos. 
id-.  I'aulus   yKmilius    establishes    the    first    library    at 

Home. 

38.  The  Palatine  Library  is  founded  at  Rome. 
A.I). 

330.  Constnntine  I.  founds  a  library  at  Constantinople. 
5y6.  St.   Augu.-tine  brings  nine   volumes  into   England, 
v,hich    form    the   nucleus    of    the   first    English 
library. 

640.  The  library  in  the  Seraprcum  at  Alexandria  is  de- 
stroyed. 

650  (about).  The  library  of  Flcury  is  founded. 
7^4.  The  library  of  Ileichenaii  is  'founded. 
744.  Charlemagne  founds  the  monastic  library  of  Fulda. 
820.  The  library  of  St.  Gall  is  founded. 
1215.  The  library  of  Salamanca  University  la  founded. 
1350 — 1364.    John   II.    founds    the    Imperial    Library  at 

Paris. 

1352.  Petrarch  presents  his  library  to  Venice. 
1366.  The  library  of  Prague  University  is  founded  by  the 

Km pcror  Charles  IV. 
1413.  Andreas   von    Stommow  establishes  a   library  at 

Dantzic. 
1440.  The  library  of  Ratisbon  is  founded.     The  library  of 

Vienna  is  founded,  and  also  that  of  L'lm. 
144=;.  Nuremberg  library  is  founded. 
144-.   Pope  Nicholas  V.  founds  the  Vatican  Library  at 

Koine. 

1473.  The  library  of  Glasgow  University  is  founded. 
1475.  Thomas  Scott,   Bishop  of  Lincoln,  builds  the  library 

of  Cambridge  University. 

1490.  The  Corviniaii  Library,  formed  by  Mathias  Cor- 
vinns.  King  of  Hungary,  numbers  nearly  50,000 
volumes. 


LIBRARY 


[     575     1 


LICHTENBERG 


1522.  A  library  is  commenced  at  Lincoln's  Inn  (q.  r.). 
1531.  The  library  of  Strasburg  University  is  established. 

1533.  Leland  receives  a  commission  from  Henry  VIII.   to 

peruse  and  diligently  to  search  all  the  libraries  of 
monasteries  and  colleges. 

*533 — r55'>  Christian  III.  of  Denmark  founds  the  Royal 
Library  of  Copenhagen. 

1534.  Albert  of  Brandenburg  begins  the  Koyal  Library  of 

Kiinigsbcrg. 
1540.  Gustavus  I.    (Vasa)   founds  the  Boyal  Library    of 

Stockholm. 

1513.  The  library  of  Leipsic  University  is  founded. 
1550   to   1579.  Albert  V.,   Duke  of   Bavaria,   founds  the 

library  of  Munich. 

l  vS6.  The  Dresden  library  is  founded. 
1558.  The  Ducal  Library  of  Wolfenbuttel  is  founded. 
1562.  The  library  of  Tubingen  University  is  founded. 
1580.  The  library  of   the  E^corial  (q.v.)  is  founded.     A 

town  library  is  founded  at  Ipswich. 

1601.  The  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  is  founded. 

1602.  The   Bodleian   Library    (q.  v.)   is  opened,  and    the 

Ambrosian  Library  (q.r.)  at  Milan  is  founded. 
1609.  The  Antwerp  library  is  founded. 
1629.  Padua  University  Library  is  established. 
1635.  The  library  of  Sion  College  is  founded. 
163^.  The    Harvard    Library  is   founded  at  Cambridge, 

1641.  The  library  of  the  Middle  Temple  (9.  t>.)  is  founded. 

1650.  The  Berlin  library  is  founded. 

1651.  Foundation  of    the    Cheetham    Libraiy    at    Man- 

chester (q.  V.). 

1660.  The  Hoyal  Public  Library  of  Hanover  is  founded. 

1683.  The  Advocate's  Library  (q.  c.)  is  founded  at  Edin- 
burgh. 

1690.  The  library  of  Bologna  University  is  founded. 

1692.  The  Ashmolean  Library  is  bequeathed  to  Oxford 
University.  (See  ASHMOLEAN  MrsEUM.) 

1695.  Archbifhop  Tenison's  Library  is  founded. 

1696.  The  library  of  the  University  of  Halle  is  founded. 
1700.  The  Cottontail  Library  (q.  v.)  is  purchased  for  public 

use. 

1703.  The  university  library  of  Heidelberg  is  founded. 

1714.  The  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Petersburg  is  founded. 

1725.  A  circulating  library  is  established  in  Kdinburgh. 

1729.  Dr.  Williams" s  Library  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 

1731.  Franklin  founds  the  first  American  subscription 
library  at  Philadelphia. 

1734.  The  library  of  Gottingen  is  founded. 

1737.  The  Koyal  Library  at  Paris  is  opened  to  the  public. 

1740.  A  circulating  library  is  established  in  London. 

1749.  The  Kadeliffe  Library  (q.  v.)  is  opened  at  Oxford. 

1753.  The  Harleian  Library  (q.  v.)  and  the  Sloane  Mu- 
seum are  purchased  by  the  nation. 

1796,  Feb.  29.  The  National  Library  of  Portugal  is 
founded. 

1803.  The  library  of  Count  Szechenyi  forms  the  foundation 
of  the  1'esth  library. 

1803.  The  library  of  the  Koyal  Institution  is  founded. 

1805-6.  The  library  of  the  East  India  House  is  com- 
menced. 

1806.  The  library  of  the  London  Institution  (q.  r.)  is 
founded. 

1809.  The  library  of  the  Russell  Institution  (q.  v.)  is 
founded. 

1823.  The  library  of  George  III.  is  given  to  the  British 
Museum  (17.  v.) 

1834.  A  library  for  the  city  of  London  is  founded  at 
Guildhall. 

1830.  The  library  of  the  Taylor  Institution  at   Oxford  is 

founded. 

1831.  The  Arandel  Library  is  added  to  the  British  Mu- 

seum, and   the   Congregational  Library   (q.  v.)   is 

founded. 

1836.  The  Royal  Library  of  Brussels  is  founded. 
1841,  May.  The  London  Library  is  established. 
1845,  Oct.  28.  The  GrenviUe  Library  is  bequeathed  to  the 

British  Museum. 
1850,  Aug.    14.   The  Public  Libraries  Act  is  passed  (13  & 

14  Viet.  c.  65).    (See  LIBRARIES,  FKKE.) 
1853,  Sep.  2.    The  burgesses  of   Manchester  open  a  free 

public  library,  under  the  act  of  1850.— Oct.  18.    A 

free  library  is  opened  at  Liverpool. 

1856.  A  public  library  is  founded  in  Melbourne,  Australia. 
1861,  July  ii.  The  citizens  of  London  reject,  by  a  large 

majority,  a  proposition  to  establish  a  free  public 

library  in  the  city. 
1865,  Sep.  6.  The  Central  Free  Library  at  Birmingham  is 

opened. 


A  list  of  Libraries  in  Great  Britain  and  her 
dependencies,  the  United  States,  &c.,  is  given 
in  "Notes  &  Queries,"  3rd  Series,  vol.  iii.  107. 

LIBURNIA  (Illyria)  received  Vatinius  as  its 
proconsul  B.C.  47.  A  revolt  against  the  Roman 
rule  was  suppressed  by  Octavius  B.C.  35.  The 
light  galleys  of  the  Liburni  rendered  im- 
portant assistance  to  Augustus  at  Actium, 
Sep.  2,  31  B.C.  Charlemagne  annexed  Liburnia 
to  his  empire  in  788. 

LIBYA  (Africa)  is  mentioned  by  Homer 
(B.C.  962 — B.C.  927)  and  described  by  Herodotus 
(B.C.  484 — B.C.  408).  The  Phoenicians  are  said 
to  have  colonized  it  B.C.  2080,  and  endeavoured 
to  monopolize  its  commerce  B.C.  600.  Cam- 
byses,  King  of  Persia,  led  an  expedition  into 
Lybia  B.C.  526,  and  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadel- 
phus,  Ptolemy  (III.)  Euergetes  I.,  caused  it  to 
be  explored  for  purposes  of  trade.  The  Romans 
assigned  the  country  to  Ptolemy  (VI.)  Philol- 
meter,  B.C.  164.  (See  AFRICA.) 

LICENSER  OF  PLAYS  was  first  appointed 
by  10  Geo.  II.  c.  28  (1736).  Brooke's  "  Gustavus 
Vasa "  was  the  first  play  the  performance  of 
which  was  prohibited  by  this  officer. 

LICENCES.  —  Gaming  -  houses  were  first 
ordered  to  be  licensed  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9 
(1541),  which  was  repealed  by  2  &  3  Phil.  & 
Mary,  c.  9  (1555).  Alehouses  were  licensed  by 
5  <fe  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  25  (1552) ;  wine-retailers  by 
12  Charles  II.  c.  25  (1660) ;  tea  and  coffee 
dealers  by  15  Charles  II.  c.  n,  s.  15  (1663)  ; 
spirit-merchants  by  2  Geo.  II.  c.  28  (1729) ; 
auctioneers  by  17  Geo.  III.  c.  50  (1777)  ;  post- 
horse  masters  by  19  Geo.  III.  c.  51  (1779) ; 
maltsters  by  24  Geo.  III.  sess.  2,  c.  41  (1784) ; 
and  tobacco  dealers  by  29  Geo.  III.  c.  68,  s.  70 
(1789).  The  General  License  Act  is  9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  61  (July  15,  1828).  Licences  for  refresh- 
ment-houses are  regulated  by  23  Viet.  c.  27 
(June  14,  1860),  which  came  into  operation 
July  i. 

LICHFIELD  (Bishopric).— A  bishop's  see, 
established  at  this  town,  in  669,  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  an  archbishopric  by  a  synod 
held  at  Calchutense,  or  Celchyth,  in  North- 
umberland, in  787.  The  dignity  was  suppressed 
by  the  synod  of  Cloveshoo,  or  Cliff,  Oct.  12, 
803.  The  see  removed  to  Chester  in  1075,  and 
to  Coventry  in  1102  ;  was  restored  to  Lichfield 
in  1129,  when  it  was  called  the  bishopric  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry.  The  latter  name  was 
discontinued  in  1837. 

LICHFIELD  (Staffordshire].— This  ancient 
city,  to  which  Edward  II.  granted  a  charter  of 
incorporation,  was,  with  the  suburbs,  consti- 
tuted a  distinct  county  by  Queen  Mary,  in 
1553.  The  cathedral,  founded  in  1148,  suffered 
greatly  during  the  civil  wars,  the  Parliamentary 
army  having  captured  the  city,  March  2,  1643, 
and  was  restored  in  1661. 

LICHFIELD  HOUSE  COMPACT,  alleged 
to  have  been  made  between  Daniel  O'Connell 
and  the  Whigs  in  1835,  at  No.  13,  St.  James's 
Square,  called  Lichfield  House,  from  Anson, 
Earl  of  Lichfield,  hence  its  name. 

LICHTENBERG  (Germany).— This  territory, 
consisting  of  the  old  lordship  of  Baumholder, 
ceded  by  Prussia  in  1816,  to  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  who  made  it  a  principality,  naming  it 
Lichtenberg,  after  an  ancient  castle,  was  by  a 


LICINIAN 


t     57''     1 


LIGHTING 


treaty  signed  at  Berlin,  May  31,  1834,  re- 
stored to  Prussia  for  an  annual  rent  of  80,000 
dollars. 

LICINIAN  LAW,  restricting  the  quantity  of 
land  which  any  citizen  of  Rome  might  possess 
to  500  jugera,  or  about  330  acres,  proposed  by 
the  Itoman  tribune,  C.  Licinius  Stolo,  B.C.  376, 
was  carried  B.C.  365. 
LIEBAU.— (See  LABIAU,  Treaty.) 
LIECHTENSTEIN,  or  LICHTENSTEIN 
(Germany). — This  principality,  the  smallest  of 
the  states  in  the  Germanic  confederation, 
belongs  to  one  of  the  most  ancient  houses  in 
Europe,  which  was  founded,  about  1206,  by 
.Ditmar.  Count  Anthony  Florian  obtained,  in 
1713,  a  vote  in  the  imperial  diet,  which  was 
confirmed  in  1723  to  his  son  and  posterity. 
There  is  another  Liechtenstein,  dependent  011 
Saxony. 

LIEGE  (Belgium). —A  bishop's  see,  estab- 
lished at  Tongres,  in  97,  was  transferred  to 
Maastricht  in  383,  and  to  Liege  in  713,  where 
the  tomb  of  St.  Lambert  (640 — Sep.  17,  708)  be- 
came a  resort  for  pilgrims.  Its  bishop  became 
a  prince  of  the  empire  in  the  ioth  century. 
One  of  its  bishops,  expelled  in  1406,  recovered 
possession  in  1408.  After  the  defeat  of  its 
army  at  Brusten  (q.  v.},  it  surrendered  to 
Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  Nov.  12, 
1467.  The  duke  again  took  offence,  and  having 
concluded  the  treaty  of  Peronne  (q.  r.)  with 
Louis  XI.  marched  against  Liege,  which  was 
taken  and  burned,  Sunday,  Oct.  30,  1468. 
Louis  XIV.  took  Liege  in  1688.  Maryborough 
obtained  possession  of  the  city  Oct.  13,  1702; 
the  citadel  surrendered  Oct.  23,  and  a  detached 
work,  called  the  Chartreuse,  Oct.  29.  The 
French,  who  assailed  it  without  success  in  the 
summer  of  1705,  obtained  possession  Oct.  10, 
1746.  The  French,  under  Gen.  Dumouriez, 
took  possession  of  Liege,  after  defeating  the 
Austrians  in  the  vicinity,  Nov.  28,  1792;  but 
they  were  in  turn  beaten  with  great  loss, 
March  4,  1793.  It  was  annexed  to  France  in 
1795.  The  Cossacks  captured  it  Jan.,  1814. 
Liege  formed  part  of  the  Netherlands  in  1814, 
and  was  added  to  Belgium  in  1830.  The 
cathedral  was  built  in  the  8th  century,  the 
church  of  St.  James  was  founded  in  1014  and" 
finished  in  1536,  and  the  university  was  founded 
by  the  King  of  Holland  in  1817. 

LIEGN1TZ,  or  LIGNITZ  (Battles).— The 
Saxons  and  Swedes  defeated  the  Imperialists 
May  13,  1634.  (See  PFAFFENDORF  and  WAHL- 
STATT,  Battles.) 

LIEGNITZ,  or  LIGNITZ  (Silesia).— The  ca- 
pital of  a  government  of  the  same,  was  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Liegnitz  from  1164 
to  1675.  The  Austrians  captured  it  in  1757. 
The  Ritter  Academy,  founded  in  1708,  was  re- 
modelled in  1810.  The  old  castle  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1834. 

LIESNA,  or  LIESZNA.— (See  LISSA,  Battle.) 

LIFE  ANNUITIES.— (See  ANNUITIES.) 

LIFEBOAT.— A  patent  for  a  lifeboat  was 

granted  to  Lukin  in  1785.     It  was  improved 

by  Greatbead,  who  launched  his  first  lifeboat 

Jan.   30,    1790 ;    and  for  his  services    in  this 

matter  he  received  a  grant  of  .£1,200,  June  31, 

1802.  The  Society  of  Arts  voted  him  their  gold 

medal  and  50  guineas  in  1804.     A  prize  of  100 


guineas,  offered  by  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, in  1850,  for  the  best  model,  was  awarded 
to  Beeching,  of  Yarmouth.  There  were  280 
competitors.  (See  ROYAL  NATIONAL  LIFEBOAT 
INSTITUTION.) 

LIFE-BUOY.— In  1818,  Lieut.  Cook  received 
a  gold  medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts  for  the 
invention  of  a  life-buoy.  (See  LIFE  PRE- 
SERVER. ) 

LIFE  GUARDS,  the  name  applied  to  'two 
regiments  of  guards  (q.  v.},  raised  in  1693  and 
1702,  7-educed  in  1783,  and  re-formed  as  Life 
Guards. 

LIFE  INSURANCE.— (See  INSURANCE.) 

LIFE-PRESERVER.— Various  apparatus  for 
the  preservation  of  life  from  shipwreck  have 
from  time  to  time  been  invented.  A  paper 
kite  was  employed  to  effect  communication 
with  the  shore  in  1740,  and  the  Society  of  Arts, 
in  1792,  gave  a  premium  of  50  guineas  to  Lieut. 
Bell  for  his  plan  of  throwing  from  the  shore  a 
rope  to  a  ship  in  distress  by  means  of  a  .shell 
discharged  from  a  mortar.  Capt.  Manby,  who 
had  made  an  experiment  on  this  plan,  had  his 
attention  again  directed  to  the  subject  by  wit- 
nessing the  death  of  67  persons  within  50  yards 
from  the  shore,  when  the  gun-brig  Snipe  was 
wrecked  at  Yarmouth,  Feb.  18,  1807.  He 
vowed  to  devote  his  life  to  the  prevention  of 
similar  catastrophes,  and  invented  the  me- 
thod of  communication  from  the  shore  by 
means  of  a  mortar  and  rope,  which  bears 
his  name.  The  apparatus  was  first  employed 
Feb.  12,  1808,  when  it  saved  the  crew  of  a  brig. 
Capt.  .Manby  died  Nov.  18,  1854,  with  the 
knowledge  that  he  had  been  the  means  of 
saving  more  than  1,000  lives.  R.  W.  Laurie, 
of  Glasgow,  patented  several  improvements  in 
apparatus  to  be  employed  for  the  preservation 
of  human  life,  July  9,  1849. 

LIGHT.— Pythagoras  and  the  Platonists 
were  the  first  whose  speculations  on  this  sub- 
ject are  recorded.  Little  definite  knowledge 
on  the  subject  was  obtained  until  the  law  of 
the  refraction  of  light  was  discovered  by 
Willebrord  Snell,  or  Snellius,  a  mathematician 
of  Ley  den,  in  1621,  and  was  made  public  by 
Descartes  in  1637.  Its  compound  nature  was 
discovered  by  Newton  while  experimenting 
on  the  prismatic  spectrum,  about  1666.  Brad- 
ley, astronomer  royal,  detected  its  aberration 
Dec.  21,  1725,  and  discovered  the  cause  in  Sep., 
1728.  (See  OPTICS.) 

LIGHT   DRAGOONS,     (See  LANCERS.) 

LIGHTHOUSE,  or  PHAROS.— The  Colossus 
of  Rhodes,  built  by  Chares  about  B.C.  290,  is 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  answered 
the  purpose  of  a  lighthouse.  These  edifices 
received  the  name  of  Pharos  from  the  light- 
house erected  on  the  island  of  Pharos  (q.  v.), 
for  the  purpose  of  lighting  the  harbour  of 
Alexandria,  B.C.  283.  The  Tour  de  Corduan, 
the  first  modern  lighthouse,  was  founded  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  in  1584,  and  com- 
pleted in  1 6 io.— (See  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE, 
<fec.) 

LIGHTING  OF  STREETS.— It  is  doubted 
whether  any  system  of  lighting  the  thorough- 
fares existed  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
though  they  illuminated  their  cities  on  public 
festivals.  Antioch  was  probably  lighted  by 


LIGHTNING 


[     577     1 


LIMA 


artificial  means  in  the  3rd  century.  The  go- 
vernor of  Edessa  ordered  lamps  to  be  kept  burn- 
ing during  the  night,  about  505.  Paris  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  modem  city  in  which  the 
streets  were  lighted.  An  order  to  the  inha- 
bitants to  keep  lights  burning  after  nine  in  the 
evening  was  issued  in  1524,  in  1526,  and  in 
1553.  Maitland  contends  that  a  similar  order 
was  issued  in  London  in  1414.  Vases  contain- 
ing pitch  and  rosin  were  used  for  this  pur- 
pose in  October,  1558.  Householders  were 
required  to  hang  out  a  light  when  it  was 
dark  in  1668.  Authority  was  granted  for 
lighting  the  streets  by  contract  by  9  Geo.  II. 
c.  20  (1736).  By  17  Geo.  II.  c.  29  (1744),  great 
improvements  -were  made  in  the  system  of 
lighting  the  streets  of  London.  The  Abbe 
Laudati  secured  a  20  years'  privilege  of 
letting  out  torches  and  lanterns  for  hire,  in 
Paris,  in  March,  1662.  Lighting  the  streets 
was  introduced  at  the  Hague  in  1553,  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1669,  at  Hamburg  in  1672,  at  Berlin 
in  1679,  at  Copeiihageii  in  1681,  at  Vienna  in 
1687,  at  Hanover  in  1696,  at  Leipsic  in  1702, 
at  Dresden  in  1705,  at  Cassel  in  1721,  at  Bruns- 
wick in  1765,  and  at  Zurich  in  1778.  (See  GAS.) 
LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS.— The  ancient 
Romans,  who  regarded  persons  or  places  struck 
by  lightning  with  horror,  believing  them  to 
be  devoted  to  the  wrath  of  Heaven,  surrounded 
places  struck  in  this  manner  by  a  wall,  and 
buried  things  with  mysterious  ceremonies. 
Some  authors  believe  that  they  possessed  the 
knowledge  of  conducting  lightning.  Modern 
lightning  conductors,  for  the  protection  of 
buildings,  were  suggested  by  Franklin  imme- 
diately after  his  electric  experiment  in  1752. 
Dr.  Watson  erected  the  first  in  England,  at 
Payneshill,  in  1762.  A  plan,  submitted  to  the 
Admiralty  by  W.  S.  Harris,  for  protecting 
ships  from  the  effect  of  lightning,  in  1821,  was 
adopted,  and  its  inventor  was  rewarded  with 
a  pension,  a  grant  of  .£4,000,  and  knighthood. 
The  plans  for  the  protection  of  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  were  furnished  by  him.  Professor 
Richmann,  of  St.  Petersburg,  was  killed  in  his 
room  by  a  shock  from  a  conductor  in  1753. 
LIGNITZ.— (See  LIEGNITZ,  Battles.) 
LIGNY  (Belgium).— This  village  was  cap- 
tTired  by  the  Spaniards  June  5,  1544.  (See 
FLEURUS,  Battle.) 

LIGUORIANS.  —(See  R  EDEMPTORISTS  . ) 
LIGURI A  (Italy)  was  inhabited  by  an  ancient 
people  called  the  Ligures  (see  GENOA),  of  whose 
"origin  nothing  authentic  has  been  recorded. 
They  first  came  into  collision  with  the  Romans 
B.C.  241,  and  P.  Lentulus  Caudinus  celebrated 
a  triumph  over  them  B.C.  236.  The  Ligurians, 
allied  with  the  Carthaginians,  commenced  hos- 
tilities by  attacking  Placentia  and  Cremona, 
Roman  colonies,  B.C.  200.  A  long  series  of 
wars,  extending  over  a  period  of  80  years,  en- 
sued between  the  Romans  and  the  Ligurians. 
Several  tribes  were  reduced  to  subjection  be- 
fore B.C.  173  ;  others  held  out,  and  one  tribe  in 
the  Maritime  Alps  was  not  reduced  to  obedi- 
ence until  B.C.  14.  The  Lombards  overran  the 
country  in  569. 

LIGURIAN  REPUBLIC.— The  French  cre- 
ated a  revolution  in  Genoa  early  in  1797,  and 
by  a  convention  signed  at  Montebello,  June  5 


and  6,  this  republic  placed  itself  under  the 
protection  of  France.  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
gave  it  the  name  of  the  Ligurian  republic 
June  14,  which  was  incorporated  with  France, 
by  a  convention  concluded  at  Milan,  June  4, 
1805.  The  Ligurian  republic  was  dissolved  in 
1814,  and  Genoa  was  annexed  to  Sardinia.  The 
inhabitants  revolted,  and  proclaimed  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Ligurian  republic,  April  3,  1849. 
The  revolt  was  suppressed  April  1 1 . 

LILAC,  a  favourite  flowering  shrub,  wiis 
introduced  into  this  country  in  the  reign  of 
Hen.  VIII.  (1509 — 47),  as  "six  lilac-trees,  which 
bear  no  fruit,  but  only  a  pleasant  smell,"  are 
enumerated  in  the  list  of  trees  in  the  palace 
gardens  at  Norwich,  taken  by  order  of  Crom- 
well. Other  authorities  state  that  it  was  not 
cultivated  in  England  before  1597.  The  Persian 
lilac  was  introduced  in  1640,  the  Rouen  lilac  in 
1795,  and  Josika's  lilac  in  1835. 

LILLE,  or  LISLE  (Conference).— Lord  Mal- 
mesbury  was  despatched  hither  in  June,  1797, 
to  resume  the  negotiations  for  peace  with 
the  French  Government,  which  had  been 
suddenly  broken  off  in  Dec.,  1796.  The  demands 
of  England  were  moderate.  The  French  ple- 
nipotentiaries required  the  recognition  of  the 
French  republic,  and  the  renunciation  by 
George  III.  of  the  title,  King  of  France.  After 
the  revolution  at  Paris,  Sep.  4,  the  former  ple- 
nipotentiaries were  recalled,  and  two  republi- 
cans sent,  who  required  Lord  Malmesbury  to 
produce  authority  from  the  English  Govern- 
ment to  surrender  all  the  conquests  made 
during  the  war,  or  to  quit  Lille  within  24 
hours,  Sep.  18.  Lord  Malmesbury  broke  up  the 
conference  and  withdrew. 

LILLE,  or  LISLE  (France),  formerly  Isla,  or 
L'Isle,  the  island,  was  founded  in  1007,  and 
walled  in  by  the  Count  of  Flanders  in  1030. 
Philip  II.  of  France  burned  it  in  1213,  and  it 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Philip  IV.  (the  Fair), 
in  1297.  The  collegiate  church  of  St.  Peter 
was  built  in  1066,  and  the  town-hall  in  1430. 
Lille  was  united  to  the  crown  of  Spain  in 
1496.  The  Huguenots  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  capture  it  in  1581,  and  the  French  besieged 
it  in  1645.  Louis  XIV.  took  it  from  the 
Spaniards  in  1667,  and  it  was  ceded  to  France 
by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  May  2 
(O.S.),  1668.  The  allies  having  besieged  it 
Aug.  13,  1708,  the  town  capitulated  Oct.  24, 
and  the  citadfel  Dec.  10.  The  allies  are 
said  to  have  had  17,000  killed  and  wounded 
during  the  siege.  It  was  restored  to  France 
by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  The  allied 
army  threatened  it  in  1744.  The  Austrians 
besieged  Lille  Sep.  24,  1792,  and  were  com- 
pelled to  retire  Oct.  8.  Louis  XVIII.  found 
refuge  here  for  a  few  days,  on  the  escape  of 
Napoleon  I.  from  Elba  in  1815. 

LILY.  —  The  gigantic  lily  was  introduced 
into  England  from  New  South  Wales  in  1800. 
(See  FLEUR  DE  LYS.) 

LILYB^EUM  (Sicily),  the  modern  Marsala 
(q.  -v.),  was  built  by  the  Carthaginians  B.C.  397. 
Pyrrhus  besieged  it  for  two  months  unsuccess- 
fully, B.C.  276.  The  Romans,  who  laid  siege 
to  it  during  the  first  Punic  war,  were  defeated 
B.C.  250,  and  it  capitulated  B.C.  241. 

LIMA  (Peru)  was  founded  by  Pizarro  as  his 
pp 


LIMBURG 


[    578    ] 


LIMOGES 


capital,  under  the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes, 
or  the  City  of  the  Kings,  Jan.  6,  1535.  Here 
he  was  assassinated,  Sunday,  June  26,  1541. 
The  archbishopric  was  founded  in  the 'i  6th 
century,  and  a  council  was  held  here  in  1583. 
The  inhabitants  revolted  against  Gen.  Santa 
Cruz,  July  29,  1838.  It  suffered  severely  from 
earthquakes  in  1746,  in  1828,  and  April  22  and 
23,  1860,  and  was  devastated  by  yellow  fever  in 
1854. 

LIMBURG  (Belgium).— The  French  demo- 
lished the  outworks  of  this  town,  the  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Limburg,  in  the  province  of 
Liege,  in  1675.  Marlborough  invested  Lim- 
burg Sep.  10,  1703,  and  the  garrison  surren- 
dered Sep.  27. 

LIMBURG  (Belgium  and  Holland).— This 
province  is  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by 
the  Eburones,  in  whose  territories  Julius 
Csesar  quartered  a  legion  B.C.  54.  The  Ebu- 
rones, who  attacked  the  Roman  camp,  and 
massacred  nearly  all  the  troops,  were  extermi- 
nated by  Caesar,  B.C.  53.  The  country  was 
formed  into  a  duchy,  which  was  annexed  to 
Burgundy  in  1430,  and  constituted  one  of  the 
United  Provinces.  It  was  ceded  to  France  in 
1795,  and  was  soon  after  restored  to  the  Nether- 
lands. After  the  revolution  of  1830,  the  pro- 
vince of  Limburg  was  divided  between  Belgium 
and  Holland. 

LIMBURG  (Germany).— The  Prussians  were 
driven  from  this  town,  on  the  river  Lahn,  in 
the  duchy  of  Nassau,  by  the  French,  Nov.  9, 
1792.  The  Prussians  regained  possession  of 
Limburg  in  a  few  days.  The  French  drove  the 
Austrians  from  Limburg  in  June,  1796,  and 
the  Austrians  recovered  it  Sep.  16,  1796. 

LIME  or  DRUM.HOND  LIGHT,  invented 
by  Capt.  T.  Drumrnond,  was  first  practically 
applied  in  the  survey  of  Ireland,  commenced 
in  1824,  and  is  described  by  the  inventor  in  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions  "  for  1826.  He  re- 
commended its  application  to  lighthouses  in 

1  LIME  or  LINDEN  TREE.  -This  handsome 
tree,  which  is  not  indigenous  to  this  country, 
existed  here  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century. 

LIMERICK  (Bishopric).  — The  reputed 
founder  of  this  Irish  diocese  is  St.  Munchin, 
of  whom  little  is  known  except  his  name.  Sir 
James  Ware,  however,  contends  that  it  was 
erected  by  Donald  O'Brien  about  the  time  of 
the  English  invasion.  Gille,  or  Gillebert,  in 
1 1 06,  is  the  first  bishop  of  whom  anything  is 
known. 

LIMERICK  (Ireland).— This  city,  the  capital 
of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  said  to 
have  been  a  place  of  some  repute  in  the  st 
century.  First  attacked  by  the  Danes  in  812 
it  was  captured  by  them  about  the  middle  of 
the  gth  century.  Donald  O'Brien  founded  the 
cathedral  about  the  period  of  the  English  in- 
vasion, and  built  a  convent  for  Black  nuns 
about  1174.  King  John  visited  Limerick  in 
1210,  and  erected  Thomond  Bridge  over  the 
Shannon,  and  in  1314  the  suburbs  were 
burned  by  the  Scotch,  under  Edward  Bruce. 
The  fortifications  wei-e  completed  in  14  _ 
The  bull  against  Elizabeihwas  placed  on  the 
gates  in  1570.  In  1641  Limerick  was  seized  by 


;he  confederate  Roman  Catholics,  under  Lords 

duskerry  and  Skerrin,  and  in  1643  it  became 

;he  head-quarters  of  the  Irish  papists.    Ireton 

,ook  it  after  a  six  months'  siege,  Oct.  29,  1651, 

and  died  here  the  following  Nov.  26.    William 

II.  commenced  the  siege  of  Limerick  Aug.  9, 

690,  and  after  a  great  expenditure  of  life,  was 

compelled  to  raise  it  Aug.  30.   It  was,  however, 

renewed  in   1691,  by  Gen.  Ginkell,   who  suc- 

ceeded in  taking  the  city.    A  truce  was  agreed 

n  Sep.  23,  1691,  and  the  celebrated  Treaty 


Limerick  (q.  v.)  was  signed  Oct.  3.  The 
769,  the  Ex- 
change in  1778,  the  gaol  and  lunatic  asylum 
in  1821,  and  the  City  Infirmary  in  1829.  The 
.ace  manufacture,  for  which  Limerick  is  cele- 
brated, was  introduced  in  1829.  Serious  riots 
occurred  June  15,  1830.  The  mob  attacked  the 
provision  warehouses,  flour  mills,  &c.,  doing 
damage  to  the  extent  of  .£10,000.  The  bank  was 
erected  in  1840,  and  the  workhouse  in  1841. 

LIMERICK  (Treaty),  called  the  Pacification 
of  Limerick,  which  put  an  end  to  the  authority 
of  James  II.  in  Ireland,  was  signed  Oct.  3, 

1691.  By  the  first  article  the  Roman  Catholics 
were  to  enjoy  such  privileges  in  the  exercise  of 
their  religion  as  were  consistent  with  the  laws 
of    Ireland,   or  such  as  they  enjoyed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.     A  general  amnesty  was 
granted  to  all  persons  willing  to  remain  in  Ire- 
land.   They  were  to  have  all  their  estates,  and 
all  the    rights,   privileges,    and     immunities 
which  they  enjoyed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
free  from  forfeitures,  or  outlawries  incurred 
by  them.     The   garrison  were  permitted  to 
march   out  with    the    honours   of    war,   and 
to  take  service  in  the  French  army.     About 
12,000   men  were    conveyed    to   France,    and 
enlisted    under   the  banner    of    Louis    XIV. 
They  formed  the  Irish  Brigade,  so  celebrated 
in    the    continental    wars   of    the    i8th   cen- 
tury.   William  III.  ratified  the  treaty  in  Feb., 

1692.  The  English  Parliament  accepted  the 
treaty,  but  the  Irish  Parliament  declared  that 
Gen.  Ginkell  and  the  lords  justices  had  ex- 
ceeded their  powers,  and,  in  1695,  passed  an 
act  putting  their  own  construction  upon  the 
terms   of   the   convention.      Sir    H.    Parnell 
brought  forward  a  motion  in  the   House  of 
Commons,  March  6,  1828,  for  an  address  to  the 
king,  praying  that  this  treaty  might  be  laid 
before  the  House.     This  led  to  an  animated 
discussion  respecting  the   obligations  it    im- 
posed upon  England  to  remove  the  disabilities 
of  the  Roman  Catholics. 

LIMITED  LIABILITY.—  (See  JOINT-STOCK 
COMPANIES  ACTS  and  JOINT-STOCK  BANKS.) 

LIMOGES  (France),  the  Augustoritum  of 
the  Romans,  was,  in  their  time,  the  chief  town 
of  the  Lemovices,  who  joined  Vercingetorix 
against  Julius  Csesar,  B.C.  52.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  848,  1029,  Nov.  18,  1031,  and  in 
1182.  It  was  called  Lemovica,  became  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Limousin,  and  was 
taken  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  in  1370. 
The  Black  Prince  was  shortly  after  compelled 
to  retire  to  England,  on  account  of  ill  health  ; 
and  the  capture  of  this  town,  in  which  he  is 
said  to  have  displayed  great  cruelty,  was  his 
last  military  exploit.  Its  cathedral  was  com- 
menced in  the  i3th,  and  the  church  of  St. 


LIMOUSIN 


579     1 


LINEN 


Micluiel-aux-Lions  was  built  in  the  15111  con 
tury. 

LIMOUSIN,  or  LIMOSIN  (France).— This 
province,  inhabited  by  the  Lemovices,  was 
wrested  from  the  Visigoths  by  Clovis  I.,  King 
of  the  Franks,  in  507.  It  was  included  in  Gui- 
eiine,  and  afterwards  made  a  separate  province, 
for  the  possession  of  which  the  kings  of  France 
and  England  waged  frequent  war.  Richard  I. 
lost  his  life  from  a  wound  received  whilst  be- 
sieging the  castle  of  Chalus-Chabrol,  in  Limou- 
sin, March  26,  1199.  Philip  II.  seized  it  in 
1203,  but  Louis  IX.  restored  it  to  the  English 
in  1259,  and  it  was  united  to  France  in  1370. 
It  was  united  to  the  French  crown  by  Henry  I V. 
in  1589.  Turgot  was  intendant  of  the  Limousin 
from  1761  to  1773. 

LINCELLES  (Battle).— Gen.  Lake  defeated 
the  French  at  this  village,  in  the  Netherlands, 
Aug.  1 8,  1793. 

LINCOLN  (Battles).— Ralph,  Earl  of  Ches- 
ter, and  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester,  attacked 
and  defeated  Stephen  at  Lincoln,  Sunday,  Feb. 
2,  1141.  Stephen  was  captured  and  imprisoned 
in  Bristol  Castle.  Maud  was  acknowledged  as 
"Lady  of  England"  at  Winchester,  April  7, 1141. 

A  French  army  that  had  been  sent  over  to 

assist  the  rebellious  barons  against  Henry  III., 
was  attacked  and  totally  defeated  by  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  and  Peter,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
at  Lincoln,  Saturday,  May  20,  1217.  Roger  of 
Wendover  states  that  in  derision  of  Louis,  son 
of  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  of  France,  and  the 
barons,  this  was  called  the  battle  of  the  Fair. 

LINCOLN  (Bishopric).  — The  two  sees  of 
Leicester  (q.  v.)  and  Lindisse,  or  Lindsey, 
erected  in  680,  were  united  in  873.  In  886  the 
seat  of  the  diocese  was  fixed  at  Dorchester, 
and  about  1078  it  was  transferred  to  Lincoln. 
The  see  of  Ely  was  created  from  that  of  Lin- 
coln in  1109,  that  of  Oxford  in  1541,  and  that 
of  Peterborough  in  1541  ;  and  it  was  further 
reduced  by  the  annexation  of  several  districts 
previously  under  its  jurisdiction  to  other  sees 
in  1837. 

LINCOLN  (Lincolnshire),  the  Roman  Lin- 
dum,  was  a  station  of  the  Romans.  "  Newport 
Gate  "  is  a  ruin  of  a  Roman  archway  erected  in 
418.  The  castle  was  founded  by  William  I.  in 
1086.  A  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted 
to  Lincoln  by  Henry  II.  (1154 — 1189).  Stephen 
was  captured  here  by  the  Earl  of  Chester,  and 
many  of  the  citizens  were  slaughtered  Feb.  2, 
1141.  Lincoln  was  taken  by  the  Parliamenta- 
rians under  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  May  5, 
1644.  The  city  was  represented  in  Parliament 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216—1272).  The 
cathedral,  founded  by  William  I.  in  1086,  was 
burned  down  in  1126,  and  was  afterwards 
rebuilt.  St.  Peter's  church  was  built  in  1723. 
The  famous  bell,  Great  Tom,  cast  in  1610, 
cracked  in  1827,  was  broken  up  in  1834. 

LINCOLN  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  founded  by 
Richard  Flemmyng,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  Oct. 
13,  1428,  was  extended  by  Rotherham,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln,  in  1479.  Other  emoluments  were 
added  by  Crew,  Bishop  of  Durham,  in  1718, 
and  Dr.  Hutchins  in  1781.  The  largest  quad- 
rangle was  erected  in  the  T.$ih  century,  the 
small  court  was  built  by  Sir  Thomas  Rother- 
ham in  1612,  and  the  chapel  was  built  in  1631 


by  Archbishop  Williams,  who  had  the  illumi- 
nated windows  brought  from  Italy  hi  1629. 
The  college  was  repaired  in  1818. 

LINCOLNSHIRE  (England).  —  A  Saxon 
kingdom,  called  Lindsey,  subordinate  to  Mer- 
cia,  occupied  the  same  extent  of  country  as 
Lincolnshire.  The  Danes  obtained  possession 
of  Lindsey  in  877. 

LINCOLN'S  INN  (London).— The  Earl  of 
Lincoln  erected  a  palace  here  in  1229,  whence 
the  name.  It  was  used  by  the  bishops  of 
Chichester  as  a  palace  until  1310,  when  a  law 
school  was  established.  Queen  Elizabeth 
made  a  grant  of  the  fee  simple  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  to  the  benchers.  Furnival's  Iiiu,  which 
belonged  to  the  Lords  Fumival  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  (1377 — 99),  was  purchased  by  the 
society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  (1537-53).  The  library  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  was  commenced  in  1522,  and  the  chapel 
was  erected  from  the  designs  of  Iiiigo  Jones 
in  1626.  The  hall  and  the  new  buildings  were 
opened  by  Queen  Victoria,  Oct.  30,  1845. 

LINCOLN'S  INN  FIELDS  (London).— Lord 
William  Russell  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  July  21,  1683.  The  square  was  enclosed 

mLI7NCOLN'S  INN  FIELDS  THEATRE  (Lon- 
don) was  situated  in  Portugal  Row,  on  the 
south  side  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  at  the  back  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  The  first  was 
originally  a  tennis-court,  which  was  converted 
into  "the  Duke's  Theatre"  by  Sir  William 
Davenant,  and  opened  in  1662.  The  second 
theatre  was  built  by  Congreve  and  others,  and 
opened  with  the  first  performance  of  "  Love 
for  Love,"  April  30,  1695.  It  was  pulled  down 
by  Christopher  Rich  in  1714,  and  the  new 
theatre  was  opened  after  his  decease  by  his 
son  John,  Dec.  18,  1714.  The  "Beggar's 
Opera"  was  brought  out  at  this  house  Jan.  29, 
1728.  Lincoln's  Inn  Theatre  was  converted 
into  a  barrack  in  1756,  and  was  finally  taken 
down  Aug.  28,  1848. 
LINDISFARNE.— (See  HOLY  ISLAND.) 
LINDSEY,  or  LINDUM  ISLAND  (Lincoln- 
shire).— This  province  was,  according  to  Bede, 
converted  to  Christianity  by  Paulinus,  in  628. 
The  Danes  seized  Lindsey  in  838,  and  again  in 
993.  A  bishop's  see,  established  at  Lindisse, 
supposed  to  be  Stow,  in  Lincoln  shire,  in  680, 
was  removed  to  Lincoln  in  1078. 

LINEN  was  woven  at  a  very  early  period. 
Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of  fine 
linen  (Gen.  xli.  42),  B.C.  1715.  The  Egyptians 
aad  attained  high  perfection  in  the  art  of 
manufacturing  linen  B.C.  700,  and  exported  it, 
according  to  Herodotus,  B.C.  478.  It  was  used 
"n  Britain  prior  to  the  Roman  invasion,  B.C.  55, 
and  the  manufacture  attained  great  perfection 
11  England  before  the  end  of  the  7th  century, 
[n  Ireland  it  was  woven  in  the  nth  century. 
Fine  linen  was  first  made  in  Wilts  and  Sussex, 
n  1253.  Irish  linen  was  used  at  Winchester 
n  1272.  In  1314  it  formed  the  chief  material 
of  clothing  in  Wales.  The  trade  was  much 
mproved  by  French  refugees  in  1685,  and 
encouraged  by  the  establishment  of  a  "  Linen 
Board,"  which  was  abolished  in  1828.  In 
1533  a  wheel  for  spinning  flax  was  in- 
vented at  Brunswick.  Machinery  was  first 
p  p  2 


LINGHIERA 


[    580    ] 


LIPPE 


used  in  this  manufacture  in  1725.  Linen 
was  manufactured  in  Scotland  early  in  the 
1 8th  century,  and  a  board  of  trustees  for 
its  encouragement  was  formed  in  1727.  The 
English  Linen  Company  was  established  in 
1764.  John  Kendrew,  of  Darlington,  invented 
the  flax-spinning  machine  in  1787.  Flax- 
weaving  by  steam  power  was  accomplished  in 
London  in  1812  or  1813.  The  duty  on  linen 
was  abolished  by  the  commercial  treaty  signed 
with  France,  Jan.  23,  1860. 

LIXGIIILRA  (Sea-fight  .—The  Venetians, 
assisted  by  the  Spaniards,  defeated  the  Genoese, 
off  this  place,  in  Italy,  Aug.  29,  1353. 

LIXGONUM  CIVITAS,  or  AXDEMATUN- 
NUM  (Gaul;.— Constantius  I.  (Chlorus',  in  298, 
defeated  the  Alemanni  at  this  town,  destroyed 
by  Attila  in  407.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  13m-- 
gundians,  and  became  the  capital  of  a  country 
called,  in  old  French,  Langone.  Louis  VII. 
( 1 1 37  —So)  made  it  a  duchy.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  380.  (See  LANGHI.S.) 

LINKOPING  (Sweden).— The  cathedral  of 
this  town,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Sweden, 
was  founded  in  the  i2th  century. 

LINLITI-IGOW  Battle  .— During  the  mino- 
rity of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  the  charge  of 
his  person  was  entrusted  to  certain  ] 
rotation.  He  came  of  age  at  14,  in  April, 
1525;  but  the  Earl  of  Angus  continued  to  con- 
trol  his  actions,  and  a  party  WHS  formed 
against  him  by  the  Earl  of  Lenox  and  others 
in  1526.  The  two  armies  met  at  the  bridge 
of  Linlithgow,  about  midsummer,  when 
Lenox  was  killed,  and  his  forces  were  de- 
feated. (8f  LOT i HANS. 

LINLITHGOW  Scotland).—  The  chief  town 
of  Linlithgow,  or  West  Lothian,  was  founded 
by  David  I.  (1124 — 53).  The  palace,  built  in 
the  i5th  century,  was  the  birth-place  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  Dec.  8,  1542.  A  council  was 
held  here  in  1553. 

LINX.EAX  SOCIETY  (London),  founded  in 
1788,  was  incorporated  March  26,  1802.  The 
library  and  herbarium  of  Linnseus,  now  in 
possession  of  the  society,  were  purchased  for 
;£i,ooo  by  Dr.  Smith.  The  Transactions  of  the 
society  were  first  published  in  1791. 

LINX.KAX  SYSTEM.— The  classification  of 
plants  according  to  their  stamens  and  pistils 
was  accomplished  by  the  great  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, Charles  Linne  or  Linnaeus,  who  was 
born  at  Rashult,  in  Sweden,  May  13.  1707  (O.S. ), 
and  died  at  Upsal,  Jan.  10,  1778.  It  was  origi- 
nally published  in  the  Hortux  Uplnndicus  in 
1731,  and  at  once  established  the  reputation  of 
its  author.  The  Species  Plant  arum  was  pub- 
lished in  1753. 

LINZ,  or  LINTZ  (Austria),  the  ancient 
Lentia,  at  one  time  a  Roman  station,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Margrave  of  Austria,  in  1036. 
Fardinger,  the  peasant  leader,  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attack  upon  it  in  1626 ;  and  it  was 
entered  by  the  army  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
where  he  was  declared  Duke  of  Austria,  in 
1741.  The  town-hall  was  built  in  1414,  and 
Trinity  column  was  erected  by  Charles  YF.  in 
1723.  The  fortifications  were  improved  after  a 
plan  by  Prince  Maximilian  d'Este  in  1850. 

LION  COLLEGE,  at  page  267,  is  a  misprint 
for  Sion  College  (q.  v.}. 


LION  AND  SUN.— This  Persian  order,  said 
to  have  existed  as  early  as  1244,  was  instituted 
in  1808. 

LION  AND  UNICORN  (Heraldry)  were 
first  adopted  as  supporters  of  the  royal  arms 
of  England  on  the  accession  of  James  I.,  in 
1603.  The  former  was  previously  the  supporter 
of  the  English,  and  the  latter  of  the  Scottish 
'shield. 

LIOPPO  (Battle).— Garibaldi  defeated  the 
Neapolitans  at  this  place,  in  Italy,  May  16, 
1860. 

LIPARA,  the  modern  Lipari,  was  founded 
on  one  of  the  Lipari  islands  by  the  Rhodians 
and  Cnidians,  B.C.  580.  Agathocles  ravaged  it 
B.C.  304 :  the  Carthaginians  captured  it  B.C.  264, 
and  made  it  a  naval  station  ;  C.  Aurelius  took 
it  B.C.  251,  and  it  was  annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire.  Attains,  who  attempted  to  make 
himself  emperor,  was  banished  hei-e  in  416. 
Robert,  King  of  Naples,  captured  it  in  1339. 
Khair  Eddin  Barbarossa  seized  the  town  and 
carried  the  inhabitants  into  slavery  in  1544. 

LIPARI  ISLANDS  Mediterranean  Sea).— 
This  volcanic  group,  consisting  of  seven  prin- 
cipal islands,  was  known  to  the  ancients  under 
UK-  names  of  the  ^Kolia;,  ITephi«sti;e,  or  Vul- 
canise Insulse,  and  of  the  Liparenses,  from  Li- 
para,  the  largest  of  the  group,  said  to  have 
been  so  called  from  Liparus,  one  of  its  early 
k inn's.  The  group  was  colonized  by  the  Dorians 
a'xiuf  H.C;.  580. 

LIPETZK  Russia)  was  founded  by  Peter  I. 
the  Great  in  1700. 

LIPOGRAMS,  verses  from  which  certain  let- 
ters were  excluded,  were  invented  by  the 
Greek  poet  Lasns,  who  was  born  B.C.  538.  Try- 
phiodorus,  the  Greek  grammarian,  who  flou- 
rished in  Egypt  in  the  sth  century,  according 
to  Addison  Spectator,  No.  59),  "  composed  aii 
odyssey,  or  epic  poem,  on  the  adventures  of 
Ulysses,  consisting  of  four-and-twenty  books, 
having  entirely  banished  the  letter  A  from  his 
first  book,  which  was  called  Alpha  (as  /,t<-ti.x 
a  non  lucendo],  because  there  was  not  an  Alpha 
in  it.  His  second  book  was  inscribed  Beta,  for 
the  same  reason.  In  short,  the  poet  excluded 
the  whole  four-and-twenty  letters  in  their 
turns,  and  showed  them,  one  after  another, 
that  he  could  do  his  business  without  them." 
Fabius  Claudius  Gordianus  Fulgentius  wrote 
similar  verse  in  Latin  in  the  6th  century,  and 
there  are  many  later  instances  of  this  kind  of 
verse. 

LIPPAU  (Battle),  fought  during  the  Hussite 
war,  between  the  Calixtines  and  the  Taborites, 
at  this  place,  near  Prague,  May  28,  1434.  The 
two  Procops  fell  in  the  encounter,  in  which  the 
Taborites  were  defeated.  It  is  also  called  the 
battle  of  Boehmischbrod. 

LIPPE  (Germany).— This  town  was  built  in 
the  i2th  century,  and  took  its  name  from  the 
river  Lippe,  near  which  Varus  and  his  three 
legions  were  slaughtered  by  the  Saxons,  under 
Arminius,  in  the  year  9.  It  was  made  a  princi- 
pality in  1129.  Bernard  VIII.,  who  died  in 
1563,  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  count, 
and  in  1613  he  divided  his  possessions  amongst 
his  three  sons,  who  founded  the  lines  of  Lippe- 
Detmold,  Lippe-Brake,  and  Lippe-Buckeburg, 
or  Schaumburg.  The  line  of  Lippe-Brake 


LIPPSTADT 


[    581     1 


LITANIES 


became  extinct  in  1709.  The  Aulic  ruler  of 
Lippe-Detmold  took  possession  of  the  whole  of 
Lippe-Brake  ;  but  the  Aulic  Council,  in  1734 
and  1737,  divided  it  between  Lippe-Biickeburg, 
or  Schaumburg,  and  Lippe-Detmold,  and  a  con- 
vention on  the  subject  was  concluded  between 
the  two  houses  in  1748.  Lippe-Detmold  ceded 
territory  to  Prussia,  May  17,  1850.  A  new 
constitution  was  adopted  March  15,  1853. 

LIPPSTADT  (Germany).  —  This  town  of 
Lippe-Detmold,  now  forming  part  of  Prussian 
Westphalia,  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757. 

LIRIS.—  (See  GAKIGLIANO.) 

LISBON  (Portugal)  received  from  Julius 
Csesar  the  rights  of  a  municipium,  with  the 
title  of  Felicitas  Julia,  and  was  also  called 
Olisipo,  or  Ulisippo.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Romans  by  the  barbarian  hordes  in  409.  The 
Moors  took  it  in  711,  and  it  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Alphonso  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  in  1147. 
It  was  made  an  archbishopric  in  1390,  and  a 
patriarchate  by  Clement  XI.  in  1716,  and 
became  the  seat  of  the  government  in  place  of 
Coimbra  in  1433,  and  was  taken  by  the  Duke 
of  Braganca  in  1640.  The  city  suffered  from 
an  earthquake  in  1531,  and  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  another,  when  30,000  or  40,000 
persons  lost  their  lives,  Nov.  i,  1755.  A  mau- 
soleum in  the  English  cemetery  is  erected  over 
the  grave  of  Fielding  the  novelist,  who  died 


the  terms  of  the  convention  of  Cintra  (g.  v.). 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  landed  here  April 
22,  1809,  upon  taking  command  of  the  army 
for  the  liberation  of  the  Peninsula.  The 
Bank  of  Lisbon  suspended  payment  Dec.  7, 
1827.  Insurrectionary  movements  occurred 


here  Oct.  8,  1754.  Lisbon  was  in  possession  of 
the  French  from  Nov.  30,  1807,  till  Sep.  15, 
1808,  when  they  retired  in  accordance  with 


March  i,  and  lasted  to  March  5,  and  April  25, 
1828.  The  troops  revolted  against  Don  Miguel, 
Aug.  21,  1831,  on  which  occasion  300  lives  were 
lost.  It  was  captured  by  Don  Pedro  in  July, 
1833.  A  mutiny  amongst  a  portion  of  the 
garrison  occurred  Feb.  13,  1838.  A  National 
Exhibition  was  opened  here  Sep.  18,  1865. 

LISBON  (Treaties).  —  A  treaty  of  peace 
between  Spain  and  Portugal  was  concluded  at 
Lisbon,  through  the  mediation  of  England, 
Feb.  13,  1668.  Spain  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  Portugal.  -  A  defensive  alliance 
with  Great  Britain  was  signed  at  Lisbon, 
May  16,  1703,  and  treaties  of  commerce, 
Dec.  27,  1703,  and  July  3,  1842.  (See  METHUEN 
TREATY.) 

LISBURN  (Ireland).—  Sir  Fulk  Conway 
erected  a  castle  at  Lisburn  in  1610,  and  the 
town,  built  by  one  of  his  descendants  in  1627, 
was  destroyed  by  the  Irish  rebels  in  1641,  and 
was  burned  in  1707.  Jeremy  Taylor,  Bishop  of 
Down  (q.  v.)  and  Connor,  died  here  Aug.  13, 
1667. 

LISIEUX  (France).—  The  inhabitants  of  this 
town,  the  ancient  Noviomagus,  afterwards 
called  Lexovii,  joined  in  the  Gallic  struggle 
against  Cajsar  B.C.  52.  The  Saxons  pillaged  it 
in  the  4th  century,  and  the  Northmen  in  877. 
It  was  burned  by  the  Bretons  in  1130,  taken 
by  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  in  1203,  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1415,  by  Charles  VII.  in  1448,  by  the 
Huguenota  in  1571,  and  by  Henry  IV.  in  1589. 


Councils  were  held  here  in  1055,  and  in  Oct., 
1106.  A  destructive  fire  took  place  Oct.  10, 
1864. 

LISLE.—  (See  LILLE.) 

LISMORE  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  bishopric 
was  founded  by  St.  Carthagh  about  631. 
Attempts  were  made  to  unite  it  with  Water- 
ford  in  1225  and  1326;  and  the  union  was 
effected  by  Edward  ill.  Oct.  2,  1363. 

LISMORE  (Ireland).— This  city,  at  first 
called  Dunsginne,  and  then  Lismore,  or  the 
Great  House,  in  the  county  of  Waterford,  was 
assailed  by  the  Danes  in  the  gth  century. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  castle,  which  was 
founded  by  King  John  when  Earl  of  Moreton, 
in  1185.  In  1189  it  was  seized  by  the  natives, 
and  in  1589  was  granted  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
by  whom  it  was  sold  to  Sir  Richard  Boyle, 
first  Earl  of  Cork.  Lismore,  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  the  Irish  rebels  in  1641  and  in 
1643,  was  taken  by  Lord  Castlehaven  in  1645. 

LISSA  (Adriatic  Sea).— This  island,  the 
ancient  Issa,  was  colonized  by  Dionysius  the 
Elder,  B.C.  387,  was  besieged  by  Agron,  King 
of  Illyria,  B.C.  232,  and  was  liberated  B.C.  229. 
The  Venetians  wrested  it  from  the  Normans 
in  1073. 

LISSA  (Sea-Fights).— Sir  William  Hoste  de- 
feated a  French  and  Italian  fleet  off  this  island, 
March  13,  1811. The  Austrian  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Admiral  Tegethoff,  defeated  the 
Italian  fleet,  with  great  loss,  July  20,  1866. 

LISSA,  LIESNA,  or  LESZNA  (Battle).— The 
Russians,  under  Peter  I.  (the  Great),  defeated 
the  Swedes  near  this  town,  in  Posen,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Punca  and  the  Sossa,  Oct.  8,  1708. 
The  Swedish  Gen.  Lowenhaupt,  with  inferior 
numbers,  repulsed  the  Russians  at  the  first 
charge,  Oct.  7.  The  battle  was  continued  Oct. 
8 ;  the  Russians  advanced  no  less  than  five 
times  ;  numbers  at  last  prevailed,  and  Lowen- 
haupt passed  the  Sossa  during  the  night, 
having  with  10,000  men  maintained  an  arduous 
conflict  with  40,000  Russians  during  two  days. 
(See  LEUTHEN.) 

LISSUS  (Illyria),  now  called  Alessio,  or 
Lesch,  was  founded  by  Dionysius  the  Elder, 
about  B.C.  385.  Scanderbeg,  after  his  victorious 
campaign  in  Albania,  died  at  this  town,  Jan. 
17,  1467,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in 


1476. 
LIS 


ISTOWEL   (Ireland)  was  captured  by  Sir 
Charles  Wilmot  in  1600. 

LITANIES,  or  ROGATIONS,  formerly  a 
general  name  for  prayers,  were  instituted  by 
Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  in  France,  about 
450,  and  established  by  a  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Orleans,  Julyio,  511.  Gregory  I.  instituted 
such  forms  at  Rome,  one  in  particular  under 
the  name  of  Litania  septiformis,  in  598.  Henry 
VIII.  ordered  a  litany  or  procession  to  be  set 
forth  in  English,  "because  the  prayers  being 
in  an  unknown  tongue,  made  the  people  negli- 
gent in  coming  to  church,"  June  n,  1544. 
Hallarn  says  it  had  been  translated  into  English 
in  1542.  In  the  Common  Prayer  Book  of  1549, 
the  Litany  was  placed  between  the  Commu- 
nion office  and  the  office  for  baptism.  In  the 
Second  Prayer  Book  of  1552,  it  was  placed  in 
its  present  position ;  and  it  was  used  as  a  dis- 
tinct service  till  1661. 


LITERARY 


582    ] 


LIVERPOOL 


LITERARY  CLUB.— (See  CLUB.) 
LITERARY    FUND  (London^.— The    Royal 

Literary  Fund  was  founded  by  David  Williams 
in  1790,  and  incorporated  in  1818.  Its  object 
is  to  relieve  authors  who  have  been  reduced  to 
want  through  age  or  misfortune.  At  the  anni- 
versary meeting,  April  12,  1804,  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.,  was  proposed 
as  a  patron. 

LITERATURE. — The  principal  facts  con- 
nected with  literature  are  recorded  in  the 
history  of  different  states,  ancient  and  mo- 
dern. Much  information  will  be  found  in 
llallam's  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe  in  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries,"  in  the  new  edition  of 
"  Lowndes'  Bibliographer's  Manual  of  English 
Literature,"  by  Mr.  Bohn,  in  Brunet's  "Manuel 
du  Libraire,"  and  other  works.  (See  GUILD  OF 
LITERATURE  AND  ART,  HISTORY,  LAXCTACK, 
PHILOSOPHY,  POETRY,  &c.  &c.) 

LITHIUM.— Lithia  was  discovered  by  Arf- 
wedson  in  1817.  Brande  obtained  Lithium  in 
1822,  and  Bunsen  and  Matthiessen  discovered 
the  present  mode  of  obtaining  it  in  1855. 

LITIKH !  R  A P 1 1 V .— Tl iis  art  was  invented  by 
Alois  Senefelder,  a  native  of  Prague,  who  pro- 
duced a  piece  of  music,  his  first  impression 
from  stone,  in  1796.  He  secured  a  patent  for 
his  invention  in  1800  in  several  (.Herman  states, 
extending  over  fifteen  years.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1801,  and  he  published 
a  work  on  the  subject  in  1817.  A  par;  i 
was  entered  into,  and  establishments  were 
formed  in  London  and  Paris,  in  1799,  but  they 
did  not  succeed.  Another,  at  Munich,  in  1806, 
was  more  prosperous;  and  the  inventor  was 
ultimately  appointed  to  the  inspectorship  of 
the  Royal  Lithographic  Establishment,  in 
October,  1809.  The  Society  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  Arts  in  London  voted  Senefelder  their 
gold  medal  in  1819. 

LITHOTOMY.— The  operation  of  cutting 
for  the  stone  was  practised  by  Ammonius  of 
Alexandria  about  B.C.  250,  and  by  Celsus  about 
17.  They  employed  the 'method  known  as  the 
less  or  minor  apparatus.  The  high  operation 
was  first  practised  at  Paris  by  Colot  in  1475; 
the  greater  apparatus,  so  called  from  the  nu- 
merous instruments  employed,  was  invented 
by  Johannes  de  Romanis  in  1590,  and  published 
by  Marianus  Sanctus  in  1524.  The  lateral 
operation  was  invented  by  Franco  before  1561, 
and  was  taught  at  Paris  by  Frere  Jacques  in 
1697.  ($ee  LITHOTRITY.) 

LITHOTRITY.— This  operation  is  believed 
to  have  been  practised  by  the  surgeons  of 
Alexandria  before  the  Christian  sera,  though 
it  was  first  suggested  in  modern  times  by 
Gruithuisen,  a  Bavarian  surgeon,  who  con- 
structed an  apparatus  for  the  purpose  in  1812. 
Civiale,  a  French  surgeon,  first  performed  the 
operation  in  1824.  Great  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  the  apparatus. 

LITHUANIA  (Russia),  occupied  in  1009  by  a 
savage  people,  whose  origin  is  unknown,  was 
conquered  by  the  Sword-bearers,  and  the 
Knights  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  i3th  century. 
Having  united  the  independent  tribes,  and 
concentrated  his  power,  Ringold  assumed  the 
title  of  grand  duke  in  1230,  and  was  succeeded 


by  his  son,  Mendog,  who  embraced  Christianity 
in  1252,  though  he  abjured  it  in  1255.  Witenes 
acquired  the  supreme  power  in  1282,  which  he 
transmitted  to  his  son  Ghedemiii  in  1315. 
Jagellon  came  to  the  throne  in  1381  ;  and  on 
condition  of  receiving  in  marriage  Hedwige, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Poland,  together  with 
the  crown  of  that  country,  he  consented  to 
become  a  Christian,  and  was  baptized,  with 
his  nobles  and  many  of  his  subjects,  Feb.  14, 
1386.  By  the  treaty  of  Lublin,  in  1569,  the  two 
countries  were  formally  united.  Part  of  it 
passed  with  Poland  under  the  sway  of  Russia, 
Feb.  17,  1772,  and  the  remainder  in  March, 
1794.  The  ancient  serpent-worship  is  said  to 
have  prevailed  in  Lithuania  till  late  in  the 
1 5th  century.  An  insurrection,  which  was 
soon  suppressed,  occurred  in  1831.  The  pea- 
sants took  part  with  Russia  during  the  Polish 
revolt  of  1848. 

LITTLE  or  LITTLE  HORNED  PARLIA- 
MENT. (See  BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT.) 

LITTLE  ROCK  (United  States  .  -This  town 
in  Arkansas,  founded  in  1820,  was  taken  by 
the  Federals  Sep.  10,  1863. 

LIT  U  KG  I KS  were  used  in  the  Temple  service 
of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  and, 
according  to  Mosheim,  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians, ' '  each  individual  1  >ishop  prescribed  to  his 
own  flock  such  a  form  of  public  worship  as  he 
thought  best."  Uniformity  in  the  churches  of 
a  province  was  agreed  to  at  various  councils, 
and  amongst  others  at  Agcla,  Sep.  n,  506,  and 
Gerona,  June  8,  517.  The  Breviary  of  the 
Komish  church  was  in  use  about  the  middle 
of  the  sth  century.  Henry  VIII.'s  "  Primer" 
was  published  in  1535.  The  Liturgy,  compiled 
under  the  superintendence  of  Cranmer,  by 
order  of  Edward  VI.,  was  issued  in  1549, 
and  revised  by  a  resolution  of  Parliament, 
April  29,  1559.  The  English  Liturgy  in  its 
present  form  was  established  by  an  act  of 
Parliament,  which  received  the  royal  assent 
May  19,  1662. 

LITVATOROK  (Treaty),  was  concluded  be- 
tween Austria  and  the  Ottoman  empire,  in 
u>;6.  The  Turks  relinquished  their  claim  to 
tribute  from  Hungary,  and,  for  the  fii'st  time 
in  the  history  of  their  diplomacy,  conde- 
scended to  conclude  peace  with  the  formalities 
used  by  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 

LIVERIES  were  not  assumed  by  the  trade 
companies  of  London  before  the  reign  of  Kd- 
ward  1.  (1272—1307);  but  they  afterwards  bo- 
came  so  dangerous  as  party  badges,  that  they 
were  regulated  by  16  Rich.  II.  c.  4  (1392),  and  by 
20  Rich.  II.  c.  2  (1396).  The  practice  was  for- 
bidden in  the  first  and  seventh  years  of  Henry 
IV.'s  reign  ;  again  by  13  Hen.  IV.  c.  3  (1411) ;  by 
8  Edw.  IV.  c.  2  (1468),  and  by  other  statute.;. 
They  were,  however,  allowed  at  coronations, 
and  in  great  public  ceremonies.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  restrictions,  the  companies 
were  compelled  to  obtain  the  king's  licence 
before  adopting  liveries. 

LIVERPOOL  (Lancashire).  — The  origin  of 
this  important  town,  and  even  the  etymology 
of  its  name,  are  involved  in  great  obscurity. 
Baines  (Hist,  of  Liverpool,  p.  58)  considers  the 
first  portion  of  the  name  to  be  derived  from 
the  Gothic  word  "  lide  "  or  "  tithe,"  the  sea  ; 


LIVERPOOL 


[    583 


LIVERPOOL 


but  other  authorities  regard  it  as  the  water- 
fowl called  the  "  liver"  which  they  state  to 
have  abounded  on  the  shores  of  the  Mersey  at 
an  early  date.  The  site  of  Liverpool  was 
granted  by  William  I.  (1066—87)  *°  Roger  of 
Poitou.  It  was  afterwards  purchased  by  King 
John  (1199 — 1216),  and  passed  through  \~ 
hands  of  the  Earls  of  Derby  and  Chester,  ui 
it  was  granted  to  the  House  of  Lancaster  by 
Henry  III.  (1216 — 72).  On  the  accession  of 
Henry  IV.  in  1399,  it  became  the  property  of 
the  crown,  and  it  continued  to  be  so  until  it 
was  sold  by  Charles  I.  in  1628. 


1171.  Henry  II.  embarks  from  Liverpool  on  his  expedition 

to  Ireland. 

1190.  Liverpool  first  mentioned  in  a  deed. 
1303  (about).  Liverpool  Castle  is  founded  by  King  John. 
1307,  Aug.  28.  King  John  grants  a  charter  to  Liverpool, 

erecting  it  into  a  free  burgh. 
1239,  March  24.  Ilenry  III.  erects  it  into  a  free  burgh  for 

ever. 
J335,  June  3-    Edward  III.  orders  a  fleet  to  assemble  at 

Liverpool,  in  readiness  to  attack  the  Scots. 
1356,  May  19.  The  first  mention  is  made  of  a  mayor  of 

Liverpool. 

1361.  The  plague  rages. 
1424.  A    quarrel  takes   place  between  the    retainers  of 

Thomas  Stanley  and  Sir  Richard  Molynenx. 
1548.  The  plague  carries  off  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
1561.  The  old  haven,  which  was  founded  in  the  reign  of 

Edward  III.,  is  destroyed  by  a  tempest. 
1571.  The  inhabitants  petition  Queen  Elizabeth  in  behalf 

of  her  "poor  decayed  town  of  Liverpool." 
1638.  Charles   I.    sells   the   lordship  of    Liverpool   to  the 

corporation    of    London,    in    liquidation    of    his 

debts. 
1635.  Liverpool  is  ordered  to  pay  ship-money. 

1643,  April.    Liverpool   is  taken   by  the  Parliamentary 

forces. 

1644,  June  24.  It  is  taken  by  the  Royalists,  under  Prince 

Rupert. 

1647.  It  is  made  a  free  port. 

1699,  June  24.  Liverpool  becomes  a  distinct  parish. 
1700  (about).  The  old  custom-house  is  built. 

1709.  Messrs.   Blundcll    and  Stithe   fonnd  the   Bluecoat 

Hospital. 

1710.  The  first  dock  is  completed.     (See  DOCKS.) 
1715.  The  castle  is  destroyed. 

1745.  Eight  companies  of  volunteers  are  enrolled  to 
oppose  the  Pretender. 

1749.  The  town-hall  is  founded.— March  25.  The  infir- 
mary is  opened. 

1752.  The  Seamen  s  Hospital  is  founded. 

1772.  Tiie  theatre  is  opened. 

17-8.  The  first  Liverpool  dispensary  is  founded. 

1785.  King's  dock  is  constructed. 

1791.  The  hospital  for  the  blind  is  established. 

1795.  The  interior  of  the  town-hall  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1799.  The  Athenaeum,  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in 
the  country,  is  opened. 

1803,  Sep.  14.  A  fire  destroys  property  to  the  amount  of 
nearly  £1,000,000  sterling.  The  Lyceum  is 
founded. 

1803.  The  Exchange  is  founded,  and  the  Botanical 
Gardens  are  opened. 

1807.  The  Corn  Exchange  is  founded. 

1809,  Oct.  25.  The  statue  of  George  III.  is  commenced. 

1810,  Feb.  ii.    The  tower  of  St.  Nicholas's  church  falls, 

killing  28  .persons.— Aug.  The  Academy  of  Arts 
is  opened. 

1811,  Julys.  The  first  number  of  the  Liverpool  Mercury 

is  published. 

1814.  The  Koyal  Institution  is  founded. 

1815.  The  Wellington  Rooms  are  built. 

1816.  Gas  is  introduced. 

1821.  July  19.  Prince's  dock  is  opened. 

1822.  March.  St.  John's  market  is  opened. 

1823.  The  Marine  Humane  Society  is  founded. 

1824.  The  infirmary  is  opened. 

1825.  The  Mechanics'  Institute  and  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 

Asylum  are  founded. 
1836.  The  old  dock  is  closed. 
1838,  Aug.  13.  The  new  Custom-house  is  founded. 


1830,  Sep.  Clarence  dock  is  opened. — Sep.  15.  The  railway 
to  Manchester  is  opened,  and  an  accident  causes 
the  death  of  Mr.  Huskisson,  M.P.  for  the  borough. 
The  Lunatic  Asylum  is  erected. 

1833,  April  13.  Brunswick  dock  is  opened.— May  33.  The 

cholera  breaks  out. 

1834,  Aug.  1 8.  Waterloo  dock  is  opened. 

1836,  Sep.  8.  Victoria  and  Trafalgar  docks  are  opened. 

1837,  July  4.   The  railway  to  Birmingham  is  completed. 

The  Statistical  Society  is  founded. 

1838,  Sep.  17.  The  railway  to  London  is  opened.— Oct.  31. 

The  Preston  railway  is  opened. 

1839,  Jan.  The  Koyal  Bank  is  opened.— Jan.  7.    A  storm 

does  great  damage. 

1842,  Sep.   23.    A  fire  destroys  property  to  the  value  of 

,£700,000. 

1843,  Jan.  The  Collegiate  Institution  is  opened. 

1846,  July  31.  Prince  Albert  lays  the  foundation  of  the 

Sailors'  Home. 

1847.  Mr.   Huskisson's    statue  is    erected. — Oct.    Several 

serious  commercial  failures  ocuur. 
1851,  Oct.    9.     Queen    Victoria    visits   Liverpool.     (See 

LlBRAEY.) 

1854,  Sep.  18.  St.  George's  Hall  is  opened. 

1855,  Feb.    19.     Serious    bread    riots    take  place,    15,000 

persons  being  thrown  out  of  employment  by  pro- 
tracted frosts.— Oct.  10.  The  Duke  of  Cambridge 
is  entertained  by  the  mayor  at  the  town-hall, 
and  the  town  is  illuminated. 

1857,  April  15.  The  Free  Library  and  Museum  are  founded 

by  Mr.  William  Brown.— Nov.  Numerous  failures 
occur. 

1858,  Oct.    12.    The   Association    for  the  Promotion  of 

Social  Science  meets. 

1860,  April  29.  The  Sailors'  Home  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
— Oct.  8.  The  Free  Library  and  Museum,  erected 
by  Mr.  Brown,  are  opened,  and  presented  by  him 
to  the  town  of  Liverpool. 

1862,  Sep.  8.  A  fire  in  the  Brovvnlow  Hill  workhouse,  in 
which  21  children  and  two  nurses  lose  their  lives. 

1864,  Jftn-  J5-  The  explosion  of  n  tons  of  gunpowder  oil 
board  the  Lottie  Sleigh,  at  anchor  in  the  Mersey, 
causes  great  destruction  of  property  in  Liver- 
pool and  Birkeimead. 

1866,  Jan.  10.  The  town  council  decide  to  erect  a  statue 
of  Prince  Albert  at  the  cast  front  of  St.  George's 
Hall. -June  23.  The  first  stone  of  the  Children's 
Infirmary  is  laid  by  Prince  Alfred,  Duke  of 
Edinburgh. 

(See  COTTON  FAMINE,  &c.) 

LIVERPOOL     ADMINISTRATION.  —  Mr. 

Perceval  having  been  assassinated  as  he  was 
entering  the  lobby  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
May  ii,  1812,  new  ministerial  arrangements 
became  necessary.  A  motion  for  an  address  to 
the  Prince  Regent,  praying  his  royal  highness 
to  take  such  measures  as  might  be  best  calcu- 
lated to  form  an  efficient  administration,  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  May  21,  by 
174  to  170.  The  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  who  re- 
ceived instructions  to  form  an  administration 
June  i,  declared  that  his  efforts  had  been  un- 
successful June  3.  The  Earl  of  Liverpool  an- 
nounced that  he  had  undertaken  the  task  June 
8.  The  cabinet,  formed  principally  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Perceval  administration,  was  thus 
constituted  :— 

Treasury Earl  of  Liverpool. 

Lord  Chancellor  Lord  Eldon. 

President  of  the  Council  Earl  of  Harrowby. 

Privy  Seal Earl  of  Westmoreland. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Mr.  N.  Vansittart 

Home  Secretary Viscount  Sidmouth. 

(Viscount  Castlereagh,  after- 
Foreign  Secretary -J     wards  Marquis  of  London- 

(    deny. 

Colonial  Secretary Earl  Bathurst. 

Admiralty Viscount  Melville. 

Board  of  Control Earl  of  Buckinghamshire. 

Ordnance  Earl  Mulgrave. 

Without  office Marquis  Camden. 


LIVONIA 


[     584    ] 


LOBOS 


The  Duke  of  Richmond  was  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  Mr.  Charles  Bathurst  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  a 
seat  in  the  cabinet,  in  1813.  The  Hon.  W. 
Wellesley  Pole,  master  of  the  mint,  was  ad- 
mitted to  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  in  1815.  Mr. 
Canning  became  president  of  the  Board  of 
Control,  in  place  of  the  Earl  of  Buckingham-- 
shire, in  1816.  Mr.  F.  J.  Robinson,  afterwards 
Viscount  Goderich,  and  ultimately  Karl  of 
Ripon,  was  admitted  into  the  cabinet  as  trea- 
surer of  the  navy  and  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade,  in  1818.  The  Uuke  of  Wellington 
was  made  master-general  of  the  ordnance  Jan. 
i,  1819,  in  place  of  Earl  Mulgrave,  who  retained 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet  without  office.  Mr.  Can- 
ning resigned  the  Board  of  Control  in  June, 
1820,  and  the  post  was  given  to  Mr.  C.  Bathurst, 
who  was  also  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lan- 
caster. Lord  Maryborough  succeeded  the 
Hon.  W.  Wellesley  Pole  as  master  of  the 
mint,  in  1821.  Sir  Robert  Peel  took  the  Home 
Office  in  Jan.,  1822,  in  place  of  Viscount  Sid- 
mouth,  who  retained  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
without  office  ;  and  the  Board  of  Control  was 
taken  from  Mr.  C.  Bathurst,  and  entrust  ed  to 
Mr.  C.  W.  W.  Wynne.  The  deatli  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Londonderry,  Aug.  12,  1822,  induced 
Mr.  Canning  to  resign  the  governor-generalship 
of  India,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed, 
though  he  had  not  quitted  England,  and  he 
accepted  the  foreign  .secretaryship  Sep.  16. 
Mr.  I1'.  J.  Robinson  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  Jan.  31,  1823,  in  place  of  Mr.  X. 
Vansittart,  who  had  resigned,  and  was  created 
Lord  Bexley,  March  i.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  chancellorship  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster 
in  place  of  Mr.  C.  Bathurst.  Mr.  Huskisson, 
as  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  obtained  a  seat  in  the  cabinet 
in  1825.  The  Earl  of  Liverpool  was  attacked 
by  apoplexy,  Saturday,  Feb.  17,  1827,  and  a 
new  ministry  was  formed  in  April.  The  Earl 
of  Liverpool  died  Dec.  4,  1828.  (See  CANNING 
ADMINISTRATION.) 

LIVONIA  (Russia)  was  visited  by  some 
Baltic  traders  from  Bremen  in  1158.  A  mission 
of  German  monks  converted  the  natives  to 
Christianity  in  1186.  The  Sword-bearers  sub- 
dued the  country  in  1237.  Kettler,  the  last 
grand  master  of  the  order,  abdicated  his  power 
in  favour  of  Poland  in  1561.  It  was  transferred 
to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Oliva,  May  3,  1660. 
Peter  I.  (the  Great)  of  Russia  made  himself 
master  of  the  country  in  1710,  and  it  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  Nystadt, 
Aug.  30,  1721.  Alexander  II.  liberated  the 
serfs  of  Livonia  Sep.  24,  1818. 

LLANDAFF  (Bishopric).— According  to  tra- 
dition, this  bishopric  was  created  by  King 
Lucius,  about  180,  and  Elvanus  was  the  first 
bishop.  Dubritius,  who  is  said  to  have  died  in 
612,  is  the  first  bishop  respecting  whom  any- 
thing is  certainly  known.  The  deanery  of 
Llandaff  was  founded  and  endowed  in  Nov. 
1843. 

LLANDEWYER  (Battle).  —  Llewelyn,  who 
had  made  a  descent  into  the  marshes,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  near  the  town  of  Llandeweyer, 
or  Llandeilo-Fawr,  Caermarthenshire,  Dec.  u, 
1282. 


LLEREXA  Battle).— Lord  Combermere  de- 
feated a  French  army  commanded  by  Drouet, 
near  this  town,  in  Spain,  April  n,  1812 

LLOYD'S  (London).— A  number  of  mer- 
chants who  were  in  the  habit  of  congregating 
at  a  coffee-house  kept  by  a  person  named 
Lloyd,  in  Abchurch  Lane,  Lombard  Street,  to 
transact  business,  early  in  the  i8th  century, 
afterwards  removed  to  Pope's  Head  Alley,  and 
thence  to  the  Royal  Exchange  in  1774.  On  the 
destruction  of  the  Royal  Exchange  by  fire,  the 
business  was  transferred  to  the  South  Sea 
House,  Old  Broad  Street,  Jan.  10,  1838,  and 
thence  to  the  Royal  Exchange,  Oct.  28,  1844. 
The  Austrian  Lloyd's  was  established  at  Trieste 
in  1833. 

LOADSTONE.— The  attractive  power  of  the 
natural  magnet  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks  in  Homer's  time,  B.C.  962,  and  it  is 
alleged  to  have  been  known  by  the  Chinese 
B.C.  1000.  The  directive  power  of  this  sub- 
stance was  probably  discovered  in  Europe 
about  1150,  although  a  Chinese  writer  de- 
scribes it  in  ITU.  The  Neapolitans  maintain 
that  it  was  adapted  to  the  compass  for 
maritime  purposes  by  a  citizen  of  Anialphi 

LOANDA,  LOANDO,  or  ST.  PAUL  DE 

LOANDO  Africa  ,  the  capital  of  Angola,  was 
commenced  by  the  Portuguese  in  1578.  Taken 
in  1640  by  the  Dutch,  it  was  recaptured  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1648. 

LOANO  (Battle).— The  French  defeated  an 
Austrian  and  Sardinian  army  in  the  valley  of 
Loano,  Nov.  23  and  24,  1795. 

LOANS. — Loans  to  the  public  on  parliamen- 
tary security,  resorted  to  in  place  of  aids  or 
benevolences  (q.  v.),  originated  in  1382,  when 
Richard  II.  demanded  the  loan  of  ,£40,000  for 
the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  mer- 
chants refused  to  lend  because  they  had  for- 
merly been  subjected  to  prosecutions  under 
pretence  of  having  defrauded  the  sovereign. 
Cardinal  Wolsey  resorted  to  forced  loans  as  a 
means  of  recruiting  the  exchequer  in  1522  and 
1525,  and  Parliament  afterwards  released  the 
king  from  all  obligation  to  pay  the  debts  si  >  c>  >n- 
tracted,  by  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (1543).  Charles 
I.  demanded  loans  from  his  subjects  in  1626, 
and  an  act  of  council  was  passed,  requiring  a 
general  loan  from  the  subject.  Necker  (1776 — 
1790)  introduced  loans  into  the  French  financial 
system. 

LOAN  SOCIETIES.— By  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  23 
(Aug.  21,  1835),  the  rules,  <fcc.,  of  these  associa- 
tions were  ordered  to  be  enrolled,  as  in  the  case 
of  friendly  societies.  New  regulations  were 
enforced  by  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  no  (Aug.  u,  1840), 
which  has  been  annually  continued  by  act  of 
Parliament. 

LOBAU  (Germany).— This  island,  in  the 
Danube,  was  captured  by  Napoleon  I.,  May  19, 
1809,  and  the  French  army  retired  here  after 
the  battle  of  Aspern,  May  22.  A  council  of 
war  was  held  by  Napoleon  at  10  at  night.  Ex- 
tensive works  were  erected  by  the  French,  who 
crossed  to  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  July 

2  LOBOS,  o*  SEAL  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean), 
were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  towards  the 
end  of  the  i6th  century,  though  the  Ameri- 


LOCAL 


[    585     ] 


LOFOE 


cans  pretend  to  have  discovered  them  in  1823. 
Lord  Alison  visited  the  islands,  Nov.  10,  1741. 
The  guano  (q.  v.),  for  which  they  are  celebrated, 
was  noticed  in  Acosta's  work  on  the  Indies, 
published  at  Seville  in  1590. 

LOCAL  EXAMINATIONS.  —  (See  UNIVER- 
SITY LOCAL  EXAMINATIONS.) 

LOCARNO  (Switzerland).— The  dome  of  the 
church  of  La  Madonna  del  Gasso,  at  this  town, 
on  Lake  Maggiore,  crushed  by  the  accumu- 
lated snows  of  winter,  fell  upon  the  assembled 
congregation  and  killed  53  women  and  one  old 
man,  Sunday,  Jan.  n,  1863. 

LOCHLEVEN  CASTLE  (Kinross-shire),  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Congal,  son  of  Don- 
gart,  King  of  the  Picts,  in  the  sth  century,  was 
the  prison  to  which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was 
conveyed  after  the  battle  of  Carberry  Hill, 
June  16,  1567.  She  made  her  escape  by  the 
aid  of  George  Douglas,  May  2,  1568.  (See 
LANGSIDE.) 

LOCKS.— (See  CANALS.) 

LOCKS  AND  KEYS.— The  most  ancient 
lock  and  key  known  is  one,  clumsily  made  of 
wood,  discovered  by  Bonomi  at  Khorsabad, 
which  is  believed  to  be  upwards  of  4,000  years 
old.  Locks  and  keys  were  used  by  the  Israel- 
ites at  a  very  early  period,  as  appears  from 
Judges  iii.  23 — 25  (B.C.  1343).  The  classical 
authors  attributed  the  invention  to  the  Lace- 
daemonians, whose  celebrated  lock  was  a  pad- 
lock in  principle.  Numerous  bronze  and  iron 
keys,  differing  little  from  the  more  common 
kinds  in  use  at  the  present  day,  were  found  at 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  The  most  beau- 
tiful and  ingenious  mediaeval  locks  and  keys 
were  made  in  the  i6th  century.  The  first 
patent  for  their  improvement  was  granted  to 
George  Black,  May  27,  1774,  but  no  great  ad- 
vance was  made  until  Barren  patented  his 
"double-acting  tumbler  lock,"  Oct.  31,  1778. 
Bramah's  lock  was  patented  April  23,  1784  ; 
Chubb's  original  lock,  Feb.  3,  1818 ;  Newell' s 
American  Parautoptic  lock  was  invented  in 
1841,  and  patented  in  England  April  15,  1851, 
and  Hobbs's  protector  lock,  Feb.  23,  1852. 

LOCOMOTIVE.— The  idea  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  locomotive  was  thrown  out  in  1759 
by  Watt,  who  patented  one  in  1784.  Richard 
Trevithick  made  one  for  the  Merthyr  Tydvil 
Railway  in  1804,  and  Brunton  another  of  a 
different  description  in  1813.  George  Stephen- 
son's  locomotive  with  toothed  wheels  was  tried 
at  West  Moor,  Killing-worth,  July  25, 1814.  The 
"  Rocket,"  the  joint  production  of  the  two 
Stephensons,  performed  an  experimental  trip 
on  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway 
Oct.  6,  1829.  The  use  of  locomotives  on  turn- 
pike and  other  roads  was  regulated  by  24  &  25 
Viet.  c.  70  (Aug.  6,  1861),  which  was  repealed, 
fresh  regulations  being  made  by  28  &  29  Viet. 
c.  83  (July  5,  1865). 

LOCRI,  or  LOCRI  EPIZEPHYRII  (Italy).— 
This  celebrated  city,  the  modern  Gerace,  was 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Locrians  from  Greece, 
B.C.  710,  683,  or  673,  according  to  different 
authorities,  and  received  a  written  code  of 
laws  from  Zaleucus,  B.C.  500.  Tradition  states 
that  10,000  of  its  inhabitants  totally  defeated 
130,000  Crotoniats  at  the  battle  of  the  Sagras, 
B.C.  510.  Much  uncertainty  prevails  respecting 


the  alleged  victory.  The  territory  of  Caulonia 
was  added  to  Locri  B.C.  389,  and  that  of  Hip- 
ponium  B.C.  388 ;  but  the  latter  city  was  taken 
by  the  Carthaginians  B.C.  379.  Dionysius  the 
tyrant  retired  to  Locri  on  his  expulsion  from 
Syracuse,  B.C.  356,  and  established  an  arbitrary 
and  oppressive  government.  The  inhabitants 
assisted  the  Carthaginians  against  the  Romans 
in  the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  216,  and  their 
city  was  invested  by  the  consul  Crispinus,  who 
was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  by  Hannibal 
B.C.  208.  It  was,  however,  taken  by  Scipio 
B.C.  205,  and  never  regained  its  former  impor- 
tance. It  existed  in  the  6th  century  of  the 
Christian  sera,  and  was  probably  finally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Saracens. 

LOCRIS,  or  LOCRIAx\TS.  —  The  Locrians, 
according  to  Clinton,  were  a  tribe  of  Leleges 
who  existed  before  the  time  of  Amphictyon 
(B.C.  1521),  but  derived  their  name  from  his 
grandson  Locrus.  They  soon  became  inter- 
mingled with  the  Hellenes,  and  in  historical 
times  are  distinguished  into  eastern  and 
western  Locrians.  The  eastern  Locrians  are 
mentioned  by  Homer  as  accompanying  Ajax 
to  the  Trojan  war,  but  the  western  Locrians  do 
not  appear  till  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when 
they  were  in  a  semi-barbarous  condition.  They 
promised  to  assist  the  Athenians  against  the 
^Ktolians,  B.C.  426,  but  afterwards  submitted 
to  Sparta,  and  joined  the  ^Etoliaii  League. 
The  Fourth  Sacred  war  was  undertaken  against 
them  B.C.  339,  and  they,  with  their  allies  the 
Thebans  and  Athenians,  were  defeated  by 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  at  Chseronea,  Aug.  7, 
B.C.  338. 

LOCUSTS  formed  one  of  the  ten  plagues  of 
Egypt,  B.C.  1491.  A  swarm  of  these  insects 
invaded  Italy,  and  being  drowned  in  the  sea, 
produced  a  pestilence,  which  carried  off  nearly 
a  million  men  and  beasts  in  591.  In  Venice 
30,000  persons  perished  on  account  of  a  famine 
caused  by  their  depredations  in  1478.  A  cloud 
of  locusts  entered  Russia,  and  were  found 
lying  dead  in  heaps  to  a  depth  of  four  feet  in 
1650.  This  island  was  visited  by  a  large 
number  in  1748.  Barbary  in  1724,  and  South 
Africa  in  1797,  suffered  from  their  ravages. 

LOD.— (See  DIOSPOLIS.) 

L  O  D  I  (Battle).  —  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  hotly-contested 
battle  at  the  bridge  over  the  Adda,  at  Lodi, 
May  10,  1796.  For  his  bravery  in  this  action 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  received  the  name  of 
"Le  Petit  Caporal,"  by  which  he  was  after- 
wards known  in  the  French  army. 

LODI  (Italy).— The  ancient  Laus  Pompeia 
stood  near  Old  Lodi,  or  Lodi  Vecchio,  which 
became  a  republic,  and  was  destroyed  by  the 
Milanese  in  1112.  The  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
built  Lodi  about  five  miles  from  the  site  of 
Laus  Pompeia,  in  1158.  The  Duke  of  Urbiiio 
took  Lodi  in  June,  1526,  and  the  French 
occupied  it  in  1800.  Napoleon  I.  made  Melzi 
Duke  of  Lodi  in  1807.  The  church  of  the 
Incoronata  was  founded  in  1476. 

LODI  (Treaty). — A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  this  place,  between  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan, 
and  the  Venetians,  April  5,  1454. 

LOFOE  (Congress).— Under  the  mediation 
of  Spain,  a  congress  for  the  restoration  of 


LOGARITHMS 


[    586    ] 


LOLLARDS 


peace  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  was  held  at 
Lofoe,  one  of  the  Aland  Islands,  in  May,  1718. 
A  treaty  was  negotiated,  by  which  the  Czar, 
Peter  I.  (the  Great),  in  consideration  of  the 
cession  of  certain  territory,  agreed  to  assist 
Charles  XII.  against  Norway,  Germany,  and 
Hanover.  The  preliminaries  were,  however, 
never  ratified,  and  the  conference  was  finally 
broken  up,  Sep.  24,  1719. 

LOGARITHMS,  the  invention  of  Baron 
Napier  of  Merchiston,  were  first  made  known 
to  the  learned  world  by  his  Latin  work, 
"  Mirifici  Logarithmorum  Canonis  Descriptio, 
sen  Arithmeticarum  Supputationum  Mirabilis 
Abbreviatio,"  published  in  1614.  Henry  Briggs, 
of  Gresham  College,  London,  made  some  im- 
provements upon  them,  and  printed  a  set  of 
tables  in  1618.  Gunter  applied  them  to  navi- 
gation in  1620. 

LOGIC. —Aristotle  (B.C.  384—322)  was  for 
many  years  almost  the  only  authority  in 
matters  of  abstract  reasoning;  the  first  who 
ventured  to  originate  a  new  system  of  thought 
being  Marius  Nizolius,  who  published  his 
work  "De  Veris  Principiis,  <kc."  in  1553. 
Aconcio's  treatise,  "De  Methodo,"  appeared  in 
1558,  and  Lord  Bacon's  "  Novum  Organum"  in 
1620.  Hobbes'  system  was  published  in  1655, 
in  his  "Elementa  Philosophise,"  and  Gassendi's 
"Syntagma  Philosophicum "  appeared  in  1658, 
above  two  years  after  the  death  of  the  author. 
Locke's  views  on  logic  were  announced  in  the 
"Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,"  which 
was  published  in  1690,  and  the  Cartesian 
system  was  published  in  the  posthumous 
works  of  Descartes  in  1701.  Amongst  modern 
writers  on  logic  may  be  mentioned  Archbishop 
Whately,  whose  "Elements of  Logic " appeared 
1111826;  John  Stuart  .Mill,  whose  '•System  of 
Logic"  appeared  in  1843  >  ^r  William  Hamil- 
ton, and  Dr.  Latham. 

LOGIERIAN  SYSTEM.  — This  system  of 
musical  instruments  was  invented  by  John 
Bernard  Logier,  born  at  Hesse-Cassel  in  1780. 
In  1797  he  first  turned  his  attention  to  the 
formation  of  a  system  for  facilitating  the 
acquirement  of  music.  He  obtained  a  patent 
for  the  chiropast  in  1814,  and  his  system  was 
soon  after  adopted  in  Dublin.  Academies  on 
this  plan  were  established  in  England  and 
Scotland,  and  one  was  opened  in  London  in 
1816.  The  system  nourished  from  1817  to 
1827.  Logier  died  in  1846. 

LOG-LINE  is  known  to  have  been  used  in 
navigation  as  early  as  1570.  Bourne  mentions 
it  in  1577. 

LOGOGRAPHIC  PRINTING.— A  mode  of 
printing  with  types  expressing  entire  words 
or  common  radices  and  terminations,  instead  of 
single  letters,  was  invented  by  Walter,  of  the 
Times,  and  Henry  Johnson,  about  1778,  and 
was  described  in  a  work  published  by  the  last- 
mentioned  in  1783.  The  Daily  Universal  Regis- 
ter, a  four-page  paper,  designed  to  introduce 
this  new  system  of  printing  to  the  public,  ap- 
peared Jan.  13,  1785.  The  price  was  2^d.,  and 
its  name  was  changed  to  that  of  the"  Times, 
Jan.  i.  1788. 

LOGOGRIPHES.— (See  CHABADE.) 

LOGROXO,  NAJARA,  or  NAVARRETE 
(Battle).— Edward  the  Black  Prince  defeated 


Henry,  brother  of  Peter  I.  (the  Cruel)  of 
Castile,  at  this  place,  in  Spain,  April  3,  1367. 
Before  the  battle  the  Castilians  encamped  at 
Najara,  and  the  allies  at  Navarrete,  and  it  is 
sometimes  named  after  these  places. 

LOGWOOD.— This  dye  was  introduced  into 
England  soon  after  the  accession  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth; but  owing  to  the  fugitive  character  of  She 
tints  it  produced,  was  prohibited  and  ordered 
to  be  forfeited  and  burned,  by  23  Eliz.  c.  9 
(1581).  This  act  was  repealed  by  13  &  14 
Charles  II.  c.  n,  s.  26  (1662).  The  English  log- 
wood-cutters formed  their  settlement  on  the 
Bay  of  Campeachy  about  1667. 

LOIRE  (France).— On  the  banks  of  this 
river,  the  ancient  Liger  or  Ligeris,  Julius 
Csesar  defeated  the  Turones,  B.C.  57.  The 
Danes  ascended  the  river  as  far  as  Tours  in  838 
and  in  882.  The  embankments  of  the  Loire 
gave  way,  causing  a  great  loss  of  life  and  de- 
struction of  property  in  1846,  and  in  June, 
1856. 

LOJA,    or   LOXA    (Spain).— Ferdinand  be- 
ll us  town,   in  Granada,  July  i,   1482, 
raised  the  siege  in  1483,  and  returned  and  cap- 
tured it  in  1486. 

LOJERA  (Sea-Fight).— A  Genoese  fleet  of  59 
galleys,  commanded  by  Antonio  Grimaldi, 
attacked  an  Arragonese  squadron  of  22  « 
at  Lojera,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sardinia, 
Aug.  29,  1353.  The  Spaniards  were  on  the 
point  of  surrendering,  when  the  Venetian  fleet 
under  Pisani  came  to  their  assistance,  and 
completely  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day. 
Only  eighteen  of  the  Genoese  galleys  were 
saved  from  destruction  or  capture,  and  the 
total  loss  of  the  vanquished  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  amounted  to  nearly  5,000  men. 

LOLLARDS.— The  origin  of  this  term,  ap- 
plied to  a  religious  sect  of  the  i4th  century,  is 
by  some  authorities  derived  from  the  German 
lalleii,  lollen,  or  lulleu,  "to  sing  in  a  low 
voice;"  and  by  others  is  referred  to  Walter 
Lollard,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Cologne  in 
1322.  The  early  Lollards  tended  the  sick  and 
followed  the  dead  to  the  grave,  chanting  in 
mournful  tones.  They  were  constituted  a 
religious  order  through  the  influence  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1472.  Julius  1 1 . 
conferred  further  privileges  upon  them  in 
1506.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  the 
society  of  itinerant  preachers  established  by 
Wyclitfe  in  England  in  1379,  and  his  followers. 
Uidicensed  preachers,  or  Lollards,  were  ordered 
to  be  imprisoned  until  they  justified  them- 
selves according  to  the  law  and  reason  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  by  5  Rich.  II.  st.  2,  c.  5  (1381). 
Henry  IV.,  under  pretence  that  they  conspired 
against  him,  punished  them  with  great  seve- 
rity. By  2  Hen.  IV.  c.  15  (1401),  no  person  v/as 
allowed  to  preach  without  the  bishop's  licence, 
and  heretics  who  refused  to  recant  were  to  die 
at  the  stake.  A  similar  act  was  passed  in 
Scotland  in  1425.  William  Sautre  was  burned 
at  London,  under  the  English  statute,  Feb. 
12,  1401.  Thomas  Badby,  a  Lollard,  was  exe- 
cuted in  April,  1410.  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  com- 
monly called  Lord  Cobham,  was  condemned 
as  a  heretic  Sep.  25,  1413.  He  escaped  from 
the  Tower,  was  captured  in  Wales  in  1418,  and 
executed  in  London,  Dec.  25. 


LOMBARD 


LONDON 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE,  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  Romanesque  (q.  v.),  was  first  em- 
ployed in  a  small  chapel  at  Friuli,  built  in 
the  8th  century.  The  cathedral  at  Novara, 
erected  in  the  nth  century,  is  the  most  re- 
markable example  of  this  style,  which  became 
extinct  in  the  i3th  century. 

LOMBARDISTS.  — Peter  Lombard,  Bishop 
of  Paris,  wrote  in  1164  a  "Book  of  Sentences," 
in  which  he  endeavoured  to  unite  the  two 
systemS  of  ecclesiastical  and  scholastic  theo- 
logy. His  disciples  were  called  Lombardists. 

LOMBARD  LEAGUES.— The  first  league 
between  the  independent  cities  of  Lombardy, 
signed  at  Puntido,  between  Milan  and  Ber- 
gamo, April  7,  1167,  had  for  its  object  the  de- 
fence of  Italian  liberties  against  the  preten- 
sions of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa), 
who  was  compelled,  in  1183,  to  sign  the  treaty 

of  Constance  (q.  v.). A  second  Lombard 

league  was  formed  March  2,  1226,  against  Fre- 
derick II.,  who  was  compelled  to  retire  to 
Naples.  (See  LEGNANO  and  LEAGUES.) 

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS  arrived  in  London 
from  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  their 
trade  of  usury,  in  1229.  Edward  III.,  then 
about  to  enter  upon  a  war  with  France,  issued 
a  commission  for  seizing  all  their  estates  in 
1337.  The  company  of  Lombard.  Merchants 
was  made  answerable  for  the  debts  of  their 
fellows  by  25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  23  (1352).  The 
street  in  which  they  took  up  their  residence 
in  London  is  named  Lombard  Street,  after 
them. 

LOMBARDY  (Italy).— The  fertile  plains  of 
Lombardy  were  originally  peopled  by  the 
Siculi,  who  were  expelled  by  a  tribe  of  Celtse 
about  B.C.  1400.  The  Etruscans  established 
their  authority  over  the  country  about  B.C. 
1000,  and  retained  it  until  expelled  by  the 
Gauls  B.C.  506,  when  it  received  the  name  of 
Gallia  Cisalpina.  (See  GAUL.)  It  was  ravaged 
by  Attila  in  452,  became  subject  to  the  Heruli 
in  476,  was  conquered  by  the  Ostrogoths  in 
489,  by  the  troops  of  the  Eastern  empire 
under  Narses  in  554,  and  by  the  Loiigobardi 
(q.  v.),  from  whom  it  received  its  name,  in  568. 
The  empire  of  the  Longobards  was  terminated 
by  Charlemagne  in  774,  when  Lombardy,  with 
the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  was  annexed  to  his 
territories,  and  in  843  formed  the  Prankish 
kingdom  of  Italy,  which  was  ruled  by  its  own 
kings  till  it  submitted  to  Otho  I.  (the  Great) 
in  961.  The  cities  gradually  adopted  indepen- 
dent forms  of  government,  each  possessing 
separate  laws  and  customs.  In  1002  they 
elected  Ardouin,  Marquis  of  Ivrea,  as  king,  in 
opposition  to  the  Germans,  who  nominated 
Henry  II.,  and  the  country  was  in  consequence 
involved  in  war  till  the  death  of  Ardouin  in 
1015.  On  the  death  of  Henry  II.  (the  Holy), 
in  1024,  the  Lombards  again  made  futile  efforts 
to  obtain  an  independent  sovereign.  A  civil 
war  between  the  "gentlemen"  of  Lombardy 
and  Eribert,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  commenced 
in  1035,  and  lasted  till  Conrad  II.  (the  Salic) 
promulgated  his  Feudal  edict  in  1037.  Milan 
became  a  republic  in  1 107,  and  Lodi,  Cremona, 
Verona,  Genoa,  Pavia,  and  other  cities,  soon 
followed  her  example,  and  asserted  their  new- 
born independence  by  rushing  into  civil  war. 


During  the  nth  and  i2th  centuries  they  united 
to  form  the  Lombard  leagues  (g.  v.)  against  the 
German  emperors,  and  were  afterwards  deso- 
lated by  the  contentions  of  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines,  which  they 'sought  to  escape  by 
purchasing  protection  from  Charles  of  Anjou, 
King  of  Naples  (1266 — 1285).  The  history  of 
Lombardy  is,  after  this  period,  the  history  of 
the  several  republics  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed, until  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct. 
1 8,  1748,  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  was  attached  to  the  house  of  Austria. 
In  Oct.,  1796,  Buonaparte  erected  Lombardy 
into  the  Transpadane  republic,  which  was  in- 
corporated with  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  June, 
1797,  and  formed  part  of  the  Italian  republic 
in  1802,  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1805. 
The  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  was  created 
by  the  allies,  and  given  to  Austria,  in  lieu  of 
her  Flemish  territories,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Nov.  20,  1815.  In  March,  1848,  Lombardy  re- 
volted from  Austria,  and  joined  the  King  of 
Sardinia,  but  it  was  reduced  to  subjection  by 
the  battles  of  Custoza,  July  23,  1848,  and  of 
Novara,  March  23,  1849.  By  the  peace  of  Villa- 
franca,  July  n,  1859,  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
ceded  nearly  all  Lombardy  to  the  Emperor  of 
the  French,  who  transferred  it  to  Victor  Ema- 
nuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  and  the  remainder  was 
incorporated  with  Italy  in  1866. 

LONATO  (Battle).— Napoleon  Buonaparte 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  this  town,  in  Lom- 
bardy, Aug.  3,  1796. 

LONDON  (Bishopric).— The  traditional  ac- 
count is  that  an  archiepiscopal  see  was  estab- 
lished at  London  by  Theanus,  in  180,  during 
the  reign  of  King  Lucius,  and  that  16  prelates 
completed  the  number  of  archbishops.  When 
Gregory  I.  despatched  Augustine  to  England 
in  596,  it  was  his  intention  that  London 
and  York  should  form  the  metropolitan  sees 
of  the  country  ;  but  Augustine  established  his 
seat  at  Canterbury.  Mellitus  became  the  first 
bishop  of  London  in  604.  He  was  expelled  in 
616,  and  had  no  successor  till  656,  when  Cedd 
was  consecrated  by  Finan,  Bishop  of  North  um- 
bria.  By  an  order  in  council,  Aug.  8,  1845,  the 
county  of  Hertford  and  part  of  Essex  were 
separated  from  the  diocese  of  London  and 
annexed  to  Rochester. 

LONDON  (Canada),  founded  in  1826,  was 
the  scene  of  extensive  conflagrations  in  1844 
and  1845. 

LONDON  (England)  is  first  mentioned  under 
the  name  of  Londinium  by  Tacitus,  who,  in 
recording  its  destruction  by  the  Britons  in  61, 
during  the  reign  of  Nero,  speaks  of  it  as 
having  been  at  that  time  famed  as  the  resort 
of  traders,  and  for  its  affluence  and  commerce. 
In  the  time  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  362,  it 
was  called  Augusta,  an  appellation  frequently 
bestowed  upon  great  cities,  and  in  the  Choro- 
graphy  of  Ravenna  it  is  styled  Londiuium  Au- 
gusta. According  to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 
it  was  built  by  a  king  named  Brutus,  and 
called  New  Troy,  afterwards  Trinovantum, 
and  having  been  surrounded  with  walls  by 
Lud,  was  called  Kaer  Lud,  i.  e.,  the  City  of 
Lud,  or  Lud-town.  Pennant  derives  the  name 
from  Llyn  din, — llyn  being,  in  Celtic,  a  lake, 
and  din  a  town.  Julius  Ccesar  does  not  men- 


LONDON 


LONDON 


tion  London,  though  it  must  have  been  iu  ex- 
istence when  he  invaded  England,  B.C.  54. 

A.D. 

306.  London  is  surrounded  by  walls. 

605.  A  council  is  held  by  Augustine. 

610.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  founds  St.  Paul's  Church. 

839.  The  Danes  dcsiroy  London. 

8b6.  It  is  rebuilt  by  Alfred  the  Great. 

948,  Sep.  8.  A  council  is  held 
1078.  Gundnlph,   Bishop    of    Kocbester,   commences  the 

AVhito  Tower,  in  the  Tower. 

1087.  A  great  fire  destroys  .St.  1  'mil's  and  other  buildings. 
1101.  Henry  I.  grants  i  he  city  a  charter. 

1103.  Sep.  A  council  is  held. 
1107,  Aug.  I.  A  council  is  held. 

1104,  May  24.  Another  council  is  hold. 

HiH.  The  Knights  Templars  settle  in  Holborn. 

1127.  A  council  is  held. 

1129,  Aug.  I.  Another  council  assembles. 

1136,  Jan.  A  council  is  held. 

1138,  Dec.  13.  Another  council  is  summoned. 

1143  (Mid  Lent).  Another  council  is  held. 

1151.  A  council  is  held. 

1154.  Another  council  is  held. 

1156.  London  is  established  as  the  capital. 

1166.  A  council  is  held. 

1  175,  May  18.  A  council  on  discipline  is  held. 

1176,  March  14.  A  tumultuous  council  assembles.  Old 
London  bridge  (17.  c.)  is  commenced. 

1185,  March  18.  Another  council  is  held. 

1189.  An  edict  is  issued  that  all  houses  are  to  be  built  of 
stone  up  to  a  certain  height,  and  covered  with 
slate  or  tiles.  Henry  Fitz-lilwyne  is  chosen  first 


lord  mayor  (i/.  r.). 
il  "is  held. 


1200.  A  council  "is 

121  1.  The  Tower  ditch  is  commenced. 

1313,  Aug.  25.  A  council  i>  held. 

1323.  St.  Paul's  Mceplc  is  erected. 

1226,  Jan.  13.  A  papal  bull  is  rejected  at  a  council. 

1333.   Another  council  is  held. 

1237,  K°v-  I9i  3i,  »»d  32.    A  council  is  held  by  the  legate 

(Mho. 

123*,  May  17.  A  council  is  h"ld. 
1344,  Feb.   22.    A  subsidy  is  granted   to  the   king  by  a 

council. 

1245.  Henry  111.  rebuilds  the  east-end  and  the  Tower  at 

his  own  expeu-e. 

1246,  Dec.   I.    A   council    is  held   to   consider  the  Pope's 

demand  for  a  third  of  the  revenues  of  the  Knglish 

clergy. 
J250.  A  factory  is   established    \iv  the    llanseatic   League 

(q.  V.). 

1255,  Jnu-  '3-  Another  council  is  held. 
1357-  Henry    III.    repairs    the    city   walls.—  Aug.   21.     A 

council  is  held. 
1259-  The    llnn.se    merchants  of    the    Steelyard   receive 

peculiar  privileges. 
126:,  May  if>.  A  council  is  held. 
1368,  April  1  6.  Another  council  assembles. 
1283.  Five  arches  of  London  bridge  are  destroyed  by  the 

severe  frost.  —  March  I.  A  council  assembles. 
1385.  The  great  conduit  in  Westchenp,  for  the  conveyance 

of  water  from  Tyburn  to  London,  is  commenced. 
1286,  April  30.  A  council  is  held. 
1291.  A  council  is  summoned. 
1297,  Jan.  14.  Another  council  assembles. 
1303,  Sep.  15—  Oct.  5.  Edward  I.  assembles  a  council  for 

the  purpose  of  establishing  peace  between  Eng- 

land and  Scotland. 
1331,  Dec.  Another  council  is  held. 
1339,  Feb.  A  council  assembles. 
1343,  Oct.  10.  A  council  on   ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  is 

held. 

1343,  March  19.  A  council  is  held  against  abuses. 
1349.  The  plague  is  said  to  have  carried  off  50,000  persons. 
J355-  London  sends  four  members  to  Parliament. 
1356,  May  16  to   34.    The  clergy    grant  a  tenth   of   their 

revenues  to  the  king  for  one  year,  at  a  council. 

1381,  June  15.  Wat  Tyler  is  killed"  in  Smithtield.     (See 

WAT  TYI.KK'S  [XSCBRECTIOH.) 

1382,  May.  A  council  is  held. 

1391,  Apiil28.  Another  council  assembles. 

1394.  The  aldermen  are  elected  for  life. 

1397,  Feb.  19.  A  council  against  the  followers  of  Wy- 

cliffe. 
1401,  Jan.  36  to   March  8.  Another  council  against  the 

Wycliffjtes. 


A.D. 

1406.  The  plague  destroys  more  than  30,000  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

1408,  July  33.  A  council  is  held. 

14:1.   The  (iuildhall  is  built. 

1413.  A  council  against  Sir  John  Oldcastle  and  the  Lol- 
lards— June  26.  It  breaks  up. 

I.u  v    Moorgate  is  built. 

1450.  Jack  Cade's  insurrection  (q.  r.). 

1453.  The  first  lord  mayor's  procession  by  water. 

1471.  Falconbridge  threatens  London,  and  burns  half  the 
houses  on  tl.e  biid/e. 

1503.  Fleet  ditch  is  made  navigable.  The  first  lord  mayor's 
dinner  is  held  at  (iuildhall. 

1513.  St.  Paul's  school  is  founded. 

1517.  Evil  May-day  (q.  r.) 

1529.  The  lord  mayoralty  is  limited  to  one  year. 

1548.  Old  Somerset  House  is  founded. 

1553.  Bridewell  is  given  to  the  city  for  charitable  pur- 
poses.—June  36.  Christ's  Hospital  (q.  v.)  is 
founded. 

1566,  June  7.  The  first  stone  of  the  Koval  Exchange  (q.  v.) 
is  laid. 

1568.  The  first  conduit  for  conveying  Thames  water  is 
made  at  Duwgate. 

1577,  Aug.  24.  William  Lamb  repairs  a  conduit  at 
llolboni  Cro.->.  which  receives  in  consequence  the 
name  of  Lamb's  Conduit  Fields. 

1580,  July  27.  A  royal  proclamation  prohibits  the  erection 
of  any  new  house  or  tenements,  "  where  no  for- 
mer house  hath  been  known  to  have  been," 
within  three  miles  ol  the  city  gates. 

1583.  Thames  water  is  lirst  brought  to  private  houses  by 
means  of  leaden  pipes  by  Peter  Morris. 

1593.  First  publication  of  the  bills  of  mortality. 

[598.  Stow's  Survey  of  London  and  Westminster  is  pub- 
lished. 

1603.  Sep.    16.    James  I.   issues  a  proclamation   against 

"multitudes    of   dwellers"    iu  and  about   Lon- 
don. 

1604.  The  plague  ravages  violently. 

1605.  The  gunpowder  plot  (q.  V.). 

1608,  June  10.  The  now  Exchange  in  the  Strand  is 
founded.— Sep.  24.  Whit, 'friars  (7.1:.)  and  Black- 
friars  are  made  sanctuaries  by  a  warrant  under 
the  privy  seal. 

1611,  May  9.  Founding  of  the  Charter  House  (q.  v.). 

16:3,  Sep.  29.   Completion  of  the  New  River  (q.  V.). 

1635.   The  plague  again  rages. 

1630,  July  24.  The  erection  ,,t  new  buildings  within  three 
miles  of  the  city  gales,  on  -round  previously  un- 
occupied, is  again  prohibited. 

1633,  Nov.  15.  The  Green-coat  School  in  Tothill  Fields  is 


erected  by  letters  patent. 
Enclosure  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 


1635- 

1643.  London  is  fortified. 
1647,  Sep.  25.  The   lord  mayor  and  aldermen   are  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower. 

1649,  March  24.  The  Puritan  soldiers  pull  down  Salisbury 

Court  ihcatre.  the  Fortune  theatre,  and  the  Cock- 
pit in  Drury  Lane. 

1650.  Cromwell  allows  the  Jews  to  settle  in  the  city. 
1653.  The  first  coffee-house  is  op-ncd. 

1661,  April   14.   The   Maypole    (q.  v.)  in    the    Strand    is 

erected. 
1663,  April  8.  Opening  of   Drury  Lane  theatre  (q.  v.). — 

April  23.  Incorporation  of  the  Hoyal  Society  (7.1'.). 

1665,  The  great  plague  is  estimated  at  a  100,000  persons. 

— Nov.  7.  The  Gazette  (q. »'.)  is  commenced, 

1666,  Sep.  2,  Sunday.  The  great  fire  of  London  breaks  out 

between  i  and  2  ill  the  morning,  at  the  house  of 
Farryner,  the  king's  bake  r,  in  Pudding  Lane.  It 
rages  for  several  days,  extending  over  nearly  live- 
sixths  of  the  city,  and  destroying  six  lives,  13.000 
houses,  89  churches,  including  St..  Paul's  cathe- 
dral, and  property  to  the  amount  of  nearly  ten 
millions  sterling.  Robert  Hubert,  n  French  Papist, 
was  hanged  on  his  own  confession,  for  having 
commenced  the  fire,  though  it  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  result  of  accident— Sep.  13.  A  proclama- 
tion is  issued  for  rebuilding  the  city. 

1667,  Mav  8.  An  order  in  council  is  issued  for  rebuilding 

the  city.  The  Rebuilding  Act  (19  Charles  II.  c.  3) 
is  passed.— Nov.  15.  The  common  council  pass  an 
act  for  the  prevention  of  fires. 

1670.  Temple  Bar  is  rebuilt. 

1671.  The  Monument  is  commenced. 

1672.  May  29-  A  new  conduit  and  a  statue  of  Charles  II. 

are  erected  in  Stock's  market 


LONDON 


t    589 


LONDON 


1675,  June  21.  The  first  stone  of  new  St.  Paul's  is  laid. 
1679.  The  Bagnio,  in  Newgate  Street,  is  built  and  opened. 
l6So,  March  35.  Introduction  of  the  penny  port  (q.  v.). 

1684,  Jan.— Feb.  5.  Frost  fair  is  held  on  the  Thames. 

1685.  The  French  I'rotestant  silk-weavers  settle  in  Spital- 

fields. 
1687,  April.  Bridgewater  House,  Barbican,   is  destroyed 

by  fire. 
1694.  The  Bank  of  England  is  incorporated,  and  Seven 

Dials  built. — June  24.  Glass  lights  are  first  used 

for  public  illumination. 

1697.  The  privilege  of  sanctuary  (q.  v.)  is  abolished  by  8 

&  9  Will.  III.  c.  37. 

1698.  The  first  workhouse  is  erected  in  Bishopsgate  Street. 
1703,  Nov.  36.  A  great  storm  does  considerable  injury. 
1705,  April  9.   The   Haymarket  theatre  (opera-house)   is 

opened. 

1708.  May  fair  is   abolished,  and  Bartholomew  fair  re- 

stricted to  three  days. 

1709,  Nov.  5.  Sacheverel's  celebrated  sermon  is  preached 

in  St.  Paul's. 
1711.  Fifty  new  churches  are  ordered  to  be  erected  by 

10  Anne,  c.  n. 
1715.  The    South   Sea  Company  is  formed.     (See  SOUTH 

SEA  COMPANY.) 

1722.  The  Chelsea  water -works  are  commenced. 
17.26.  The  old  East  India  House  is  built. 
173^.  The  city  conduits  are  taken  down  and  destroyed. 

1729.  Tyburn  Koad  is  called  Oxford  Street. 

1730.  The  Serpentine  is  formed  by  Queen  Catherine. 
1732,  June  7.  Vauxhall  Gardens  (q.  v.)  are  opened. — Aug. 

3.  The  first  stone  of  the  Bank  of  England  is  laid. 
—Dec.  7.  Covent  Garden  theatre  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1737.  The  new  Exchange  in  the  Strand  is  taken  down. — 
Sep.  30.  Stock's  market  is  removed  to  Farringdon 
Street,  and  called  Fleet  market  (?.  t>.),  and  Fleet 
ditch  is  covered  in. 

1739,  Oct.  17.    The   charter    of    the  Foundling    Hospital 

(q.  r.)  is  obtained.— Oct.  25.  The  first  stone  of  the 
Mansion  House  (q.  v.)  is  laid. 

1740.  The  first  circulating  library  is  established  by  Mr. 

Bathoc. 
1743,  April  5.  Ranelagh  Gardens  are  opened. — Dec.  13. 

London  stone  is  removed  to  its  present  site. 
1749,  Jan.  16.  The  bottle  conjuror  (?.».). 
1753-  Parliament  Street  is  commenced. 

1753.  Establishment  of  the  British  Museum  (q.  v.). 

1754,  March  33.  The  Society  of  Arts  is  formed. 

1756,  May  10.  AVhitfield's  Chapel,  Tottenham  Court  Road, 

is  founded. 

1757.  King's  (or  Queen's)  Bench  prison  is  built.    The  houses 

aie  removed  from  London  bridge. 
1760,  Oct.  31.  Blackfriars  bridge  (q.  v.)  is  founded. 
1761-3.  The  Cock   Lane  ghost  (q.  v.).— June  29.  The  City 

Read  is  opened. 

1764,  June.  The  houses  of  London  are  numbered. 
17  >5,  Feb.  13.  Almack's  (q.  v.)  Assembly-rooms  are  opened. 

—Nov.  7.  An  extensive  fire  in  Bishopsgate  Street. 
1766.  Signboards  are  removed. 
1768,  Dec.  10.  The  Royal  Academy  (q.  v.)  is  established. 

1770,  May  31.  Founding  of  Newgate  (q.  v.). 

1771,  March  27.  The  lord  mayor,  Brass  Crosby,   is  com- 

mitted to  the  Tower  by  a  warrant  of  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

1772,  Jan.  The  Pantheon  (q.  c.)  is  opened. 
1777.  Portland  Place  is  built. 

1779.  Tattersall's  (q.  v.)  is  established. 

1780.  The  Gordon  riots  (q.  v.). 
l*]?6.  Somers  Town  is  commenced. 

17)9,  Dec.   19.  A  market  is  established   in  St.   George's 

1731.  Camden  Town  is  commenced. 
1794.  Coldbath  Fields  prison  is  opened. 
17)8.  The  East  India  House  is  built. 

Ico5.  The  London  docks  are  opened.    (See  DOCKS.) 

1806,  Jan.  3.  The  public  funeral  of  Lord  Nelson. 

1807,  Jan.  38.   Gas  (q.  v.)  is  introduced  for  lighting  the 

streets. 
1811.  The  Mint  is  completed.— Oct.  II.  The  first  stone  of 

Waterloo  bridge  (q.  v.)  is  laid.    The  Egyptian  Hall 

is  built. 
1813.  Regent  Street  is  commenced. 

1815,  May  4.  The  first  stone  of  the  London   Institution, 

Finsbury  Circus,  is  laid. — May  23.  First  stone  of 
Southwark  bridge  (q.  v.)  is  laid. 

1816,  June  4.  Vauxhall  bridge  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1819.  The  Burlington  Arcade  is  built. 

1831.  Completion  of  the  Bank  of  England  (7.  ».). 


1834,  March   15.  The  first  pile  of  new  London  bridge  is 

driven.  —  May  10.  The  National  Gallery  (q.  c.)  is 
opened.  —  Dec.  2.  The  first  stone  of  the  London 
Mechanics'  Institute,  Southampton  Buildings,  is 
laid. 

1835,  March  2.  The  Thames  Tunnel  (q.  v.)  and  Bucking- 

ham Palace  are  commenced. 
1837    April  30.  London  University  is  founded.  —  June  34. 

The  Turnpike  Act  (7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  34)  is  passed. 
1838,  June  24.  The  new  Corn  Exchange  (g.v.)  is  opened. 
1829,  Sep.  10.  King's  College  (q.v.)  is  commenced.—  Sep. 


33.  The  new  Post-office  is  opened.  —  Sep.  29.  The 
new  police  commence  duty.  —  Nov.  30.  Far 
market  (q.v.)  is  opened. 


.  30.  Farringdoii 


1830,  June  33.  The  pillory  is  used  for  the  last  time. 

1831,  Aug.  I.  New  London  bridge  (q.  v.)  is  opened. 
1833,  Feb.  14.  The  cholera  makes  its  first  appearance. 
1833,  July  3.  Hungerford  market  is  opened. 

1835,  The  Duke  of  York's   column  is  completed.—  Oct.    3t. 

Lord  Brougham  lays  the  first  stone  of  the  City  of 
London  Schools. 

1836,  Dec.  14.  The  railway  from  London  to  Deptford  is 

completed. 

1837,  July  13.  Buckingham  Palace  (q.  v.)  is  first  inhabited. 

—Nov.  9.  Queen  Victoria  dines  at  Guildhall. 

1838,  Jan.  10.  The  Royal  Exchange  is  destroyed  by  fire.  — 

April  9.  The  National  Gallery  is  opened.—  Sep. 
17.  The  London  and  Birmingham  Railway  is 
opened.  —  Dec.  28.  The  London  and  Greenwich 
Railway  is  opened. 

1839,  July  i.  The  Great  Western  Railway  is  opened  as  far 

as  Twyford. 

1840,  Jan.  10.  The  penny  postage  comes  into  operation.  — 

April  10.  The  model  prison  is  founded  at  Penton- 
ville.  —  May  II.  The  London  and  Southampton 
Railway  is  opened. 

1841,  May.  London  Library  is  established.  —  June  30.  The 

tireat  Western   Railway  is  opened  to  Bristol.— 
Oct.  30.  A  fire  in  the  Tower. 
1843,  Jan.  17.  The  new  Royal  Exchange  is  founded. 

1843,  March  35.  The  Thames  Tunnel  (q.  v.)  is  opened.  — 

Nov.  4.  The  Nelson  statue  is  placed  in  Trafalgar 
Square.  —  Nov.  30.  The  statue  of  George  IV.  is 
erected  in  Trafalgar  Square. 

1844,  Feb.  7.  The  railway  (South-Eastern)   to  Dover  is 

opened.—  April.  Fleet  Prison  is  taken  down.— 
May  i.  Trafalgar  Square  is  opened.  —  Oct.  38. 
The  Royal  Exchange  is  opened  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria. 

1845,  Jan.  i.  The  new  Building  Act  comes  into  operation. 

—  April  18.  Hungerford  suspension  bridge  is 
opened.—  June  9.  New  Oxford  Street  is  opened.— 
July  30.  The  railway  to  Cambridge  and  Ely  is 
completed.—  Aug.  18.  A  fire  rages  in  Alderman- 
bury.  —  Sep.  Penny  Steamboats  commence  running 
on  the  Thames.  —  Oct.  30.  Queen  Victoria  opens 
Lincoln's  Inn  New  Hall.  Model  lodging-houses 
are  introduced. 

1846  Sep.  39.  The  Wellington  statue  is  erected  at  Hyde 
Park  Corner.  —  Oct.  31.  Twopenny  omnibuses 
commence  running. 

1847,  April  19.  The  new  portico  of  the  British  Museum  is 

opened. 

1848,  April  10.  The  Chartists  (q.  v.)  assemble  on  Kenning- 

ton   Common.—  July.   Street  orderlies  are  intro- 

1849,  Jan.  23.  The  baths  at  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields  are 

opened.—  Oct.  30.  Opening  of  the  Coal  Exchange 
(q.  v.).  The  cholera  re-appears. 

1850,  March  31.  The  lord  mayor  gives  a  grand  banquet  at 

the  Mansion  House  to  the  mayors  of  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland.—  March  39.  St.  Anne's  Church, 
Limehouse,  is  destroyed  by  fire.  —  Aug.  6.  The 
Great  Northern  Railway  is  opened  to  Peter- 
borough. —  Sep.  4.  The  workmen  at  Barclay's 
brewery  attack  the  Austrian  General  Haynau.— 
Nov.  35.  A  meeting  is  held  in  Guildhall  to  protest 
against  the  establishment  of  a  Romish  hierarchy 
in  England. 

1851,  May  i.  Opening  of  the  Great  Exhibition  (q.  v.)  — 

July  3.  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert  attend  a 
civic  banquet  at  Guildhall  in  honour  of  the  Exhi- 
bition. —  Oct.  30.  The  corporation  receive  Kossuth 
in  the  Guildhall. 

1853,  Nov.  18.  The  public  funeral  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton takes  place  in  St.  Paul's. 

1853,  July  37.  The  cab  strike  (q.  v.).  —  Oct.  5.  Special  re- 
ligious services  are  held  for  averting  the  cholera. 


LONDON 


[    59°    3 


LONDON 


A.D. 

1654,  Jan.  i.  The  Irvingite  church  in  Gordon  Square  is 
opened. — June  19.  The  King  of  Portugal  visits 
the  city.— July  18.  A  public  meeting  is  held 
against  the  mode  of  performing  the  ritual  of  the 
EsKibiished  Church  at  St.  Mini's.  Kniirhtshridue, 
and  St.  Barnabas',  Pimlico.—  July.  The  cholera 
!•••-;< i  >  tears. — Oct.  30.  Opening  of  the  Working1 
Mm's  College  (7.  ».). — Nov.  2.  A  great  meeting  in 
aid  of  the  Patriotic  Fund  (7.  v.). 

1855,  Feb.  23.  liread   riots  occur  in  the  east  of  London.— 

April  19.  Napoleon  III.  and  the  Empress  go  in 
.state;  to  the  (iuildhall.— May  6.  Meeting  in  favour 
of  administrative  reform  (g.v.). — June  11.  Smith- 
field  Market  is  closed.—. him;  13.  Opening  of  the 
Metropolitan  Cattle  .Market  (7.  r.).—  June  24  and 
July  I.  Kiots  against  the  Sunday  Trading  Hill 
(7.  i'.).— July  21.  The  statue  of  Sir  Hubert  Fed, 
in  Chi'ap.-idc,  is  uncovered. —  Aug.  14.  The 
M.  tro,.,.lis  Local  Management  Act  (iS  &  19  Viet, 
c.  120)  is  passsd.  (See  .M!.Ti:np<>i.n  AN  I!OAI;I> 
OF  WORKS.)  — NOV  5.  The  ratepayer.-  revert  a 
proposition  to  establish  free  libraries  and  mu- 
seums.—Nov.  29.  Establishment  of  the  Night- 
ingale fund  (q.  ».). 

1856,  April   29.    1'eace   is   officially   proclaimed.— May   29. 

Displays  of  fireworks  in  the  parks  in  celebration 
of  the  peace. — July  9.  The  Cuards  make  their 
public  entry.— Sep.  3.  Failure  of  the  British  Hank 
(7.  r.).  —  Oct.  19.  A  false  alarm  of  lire  at  the 
Surrey  Music  Hall. 

1857,  June  jj.  The  Educational  Conference  meets.—  June 

24.  Opening  of  the  South  Kensington  .Museum 
(7.  r.).—  Sep.  29.  The  corporation  obtains  the  con- 
servancy of  thcTnames.  (>'<•<•  TllA.MKs  E.MUA.XK- 
MKNT.)— Nov.  12.  In  consequence  of  numerous 
commercial  failures,  the  Hank  Charter  Act  is 

led.—  Deo.  12.   More  than  3,00: 
out  of  work  in  Spitall'.elds. 

1858,  Jan.   I.    London  is  divided  into  ten  postal  di.-tricts. 

— Jan.  31.  Launch  of  the  limit  l-limtrnt. — 
March  27.  Fifteen  lives  are  lost  at  a  tire  in 
Bloomabttry.  —  July  u.  About  loo  persons  are 
injured,  and  several  killed,  by  the  explosion 
of  a  firework  manufactory  in  the  Westminster 
Road, 

1859,  April   21.    Opening   of    the   first    drinking-fountain 

(7.  r.).-  May  25.  A  deputation  from  the  city  me- 
morializes the  Pn  mier  against.  Engli.-ii  interven- 
tion in  the  Italian  question.—  July  18.  Much  in- 
jury is  done  by  a  storm. — July  25.  Closing  oi 
Vauxhall  (iardcns  (7.  r.).—  Aug.  6.  The  strike  of 
the  build, i-s.  \.-.  ,>„,.  MKIKKS.)— Aug.  16.  Found- 
ing of  the  Tabernacle  at  Newington. — Aug.  21. 
Disturbance!  cominence  at  St.  (irorgcVin-thc- 
East,  in  consequence  of  the  alleged  Komish  t,  n- 
dcin -ics  of  the  rector. — Sep.  22.  The  metropolis  is 
divided  into  twenty  districts  for  ecclesiastical 
piii-j, 

1860,  March  7.  Opening  of  the  Floral  Hall   (7.  t>.).— May 

30.  A  train  breaks  through  the  walls  of  the  (ireat 
Northern  terminus  at,  King's  Cross,  and  injures 
several  people  in  the  public  street.— June  23.  A 
volunteer  rifle  review  is  held  in  Hyde  1'ark.  (See 
VOLUXTEERS.) — Aug.  26.  A  fire  in  Loin;-  Acre  in- 
jures St.  Martin's  Hall  and  other  buildings. 
— Dec,  Much  distress  is  occasioned  by  a  severe 
frost. 

1861,  March  23.  Opening  of  the  first  Street  Railway  (7.  p.). 

— April  8.  The  decennial  census  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  is  taken,  and  the  population  of  London 
is  returned  at  2,803,034  souls. — June  5.  The  new 
gardens  of  tin-  lioyal  Horticultural  Society  at  Ken- 
sington are  opened  by  Prince  Albert.— June  22. 
Mr.  Hraidwood,  superintendent  of  the  tire  brigade, 
is  killed  at  a  live  in  Tooley  Street,  and  property 
worth  about  £2,coo,oco  is  destroyed.— June. 
Another  strike  commences  in  the  building  trades. 
— July  II.  The  ratepayers  again  refuse  a  free 
library.— Sep.  2.  A  collision  on  the  North  London 
Kailway  occasions  the  loss  of  IS  lives. — Sep.  5. 
A  destructive  fire  breaks  out  in  Paternoster  Row. 
—Oct.  31.  The  Prince  of  Wales  opens  the  Middle 
Temple  library. 

1862  March  12.  Mr.  George  Peabody,  an  American  mer- 
chant, gives  £150,000  for  "the  poor.— March  23. 
Cainpden  House,  Kensington,  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
—May  i.  Opening  of  the  International  Kxhibi- 
tion  (7.  f-). 


1862,  May    24.     Opening    of     New   Wes'minster    Bridge 

(q.  ».).— July  10.  Mr.  Peabody  revives  the 
freedom  of  the  city. — July  13.  A  fire  in  Lam- 
beth destro\s  property  to  the  value  of  ,£[50,000. 
—Aug.  15.  A  fire,  attended  with  the  lo.-s  of  three 
lives,  takes  place  in  Cumberland  Street.  Hyde 
Park. — ( lot.  5.  A  riot  between  Irish  Konum  Catho- 
lics and  the  admirers  of  Garibaldi  takes  place  in 
Hyde  Park.— .Nov.  I.  Closing  of  the  International 
Kxhibiiion. — Nov.  22.  Austin  Friars  Church  is 
destroyed  by  fire. — Dec.  26.  Six  lives  are  lost  in  a 
fire  in" Portland  Place,  Soho. 

1863,  Jan.  9.  Opening    of    the   Metropolitan    Railway., — 

March  7.  The  Princess  Alexandra,  of  Denmark 
makes  a  public  entry  into  London. — March  9.  The 
Lord  Mayor  and  some  members  of  the  corpora- 
tion, on  behalf  of  the  city,  present  a  diamond 
necklace  and  earrings,  valued  at  £10,000,  to  the 
Princess  Alexandra  at  Windsor. — March  ic. 
ral  lives  are  lost  from  crowding  at  the  illumi- 
nations in  celebration  of  the  marriage  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales. — Nov.  19.  The  Common  Council 
vote  some  land  in  Victoria  Street,  and  a  sum  of 
£20,000,  for  the  construction  of  dwellings  for  the 
poorer  classes.  Dec.  ;H.  A  fire  in  Woo  i  and  Milk 
Streets  destroys  property  estimated  at  £  150,000. 

1864,  Jan.  I.    The   road   from   High  Street.  Scmthwark,  to 

the  Black  friars  Uoad.  is  opened. — Jan.  It.  open- 
ing of  the  Charing  Cross  Kailway.— March  i. 
Opening  of  the  South  London  Working  t 
Exhibition.— April  it.  (iarib.tldi  visits  London.-- 
July".  The  Savoy  chapel  is  destroyed  bv  tire. — 
Julys.  Foundation  of  the  Thames  "Kmb.mknient 
(q.  t).).— July  2S.  Passing  of  the  Street  .Music  (.Me- 
tropolis) Act  (27  &  2»  Viet.  c.  55). — July  29.  Pass- 
ing of  the  Metropolitan  Houseless  Poor  Act  (^7  ,'i 
28  Viet.  c.  116). — Sep.  19.  A  fire  in  Gresham 
Street  destroys  Haberdashers'  Hall,  and  property 
valued  at  nearly  half  amillion.— Oct.  17.  Opening 
of  the  North  London  Working  Classes'  Exhibition. 

1865,  Jan.  26.  The  Roman  Catholic   Free  Schoolr s  at 

St.  Peter's  Street,  Westminster,  fall  in,  severely 
injuring  more  than  ico  persons.-  ,l:m. 
Surrey  Theatre  (7.  r.)  is  destroyed  by  tire. — Feb. 
23.  Funeral  of  Cardinal  Wiseman"  at  Kensal 
dr.  ,n.  Savilic  House,  Leicester  Square,  is  de- 
stroy.-<|  by  lire. --Feb.  27.  Funeral  of  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland  in  Westminster  Abbey.—  April 
4.  The  Southern  Outfall  of  the  Main  Drainage- 
Wo.ks  is  opened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales.— May  I. 
Opening  of  the  West  London  Industrial  Exhibi- 
tion.— July  4.  Fire  at  Marlborouiih  House. — 
Oct.  27.  Funeral  of  Lord  Palm.-rstoii  in  West- 
minster Abbey. — Oct.  30.  A  great  fire  breaks  out 
at  Beat's  Wharf,  Tooley  Street.— Oct.  31.  The  Lx- 
plo.-ion  of  a  gasometer  at  Nine  Kims  causes  the 
death  of  10  persons,  the  serious  injury  of  22, 
and  great  destruction  of  properly. 

I8C6,  March  6.  Opening  of  the  City  Industrial  Exhibition 
at  Guildhall.— June  7.  Prince  Alfred.  Duke  of 
Edinburgh,  receives  the  freedom  of  the  city. — 
June  23.  Volunteer  review  in  Hyde  Park.— July 
23.  Riots  in  Hyde  Park  (7.  r.). 

LONDON  (Gates1;.  — The  old  Roman  gates 
were  four  in  number,  viz.,  Ludgaie,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  King  Ludd  B.C.  66 ;  Aldgate, 
named  on  account  of  its  antiquity  ;  Cripple- 
gate,  and  Dowgate.  In  addition  to  these,  were 
Bishopsgate,  built  before  685 ;  Alderso-;ite  ; 
Newgate,  erected  by  Henry  I.,  or  Stephen  ; 
Moorgate,  built  in  1415  ;  and  Temple  Bar,  re- 
built by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1670. 

LONDON  (Treaties).  —  Numerous  conven- 
tions and  treaties  with  the  representatives  of 
Foreign  Governments  have  been  concluded 
here.  The  best  known  are  three  treaties 
between  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Henry  VIII., 
signed  in  London,  Aug.  7,  1514.  The  first  pro- 
vided for  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive, 
between  France  and  England  ;  the  second  for 
a  marriage  between  Louis  XII.  and  Mary,  the 
youngest  sister  of  Henry  VIII. ;  and  the  third 


LONDON 


[     591     1 


LONDONDERRY 


secured  to  Henry  VIII.  the  payment  annually, 
for  10  years,  of  100,000  gold  crowns,  in  satis- 
faction of  arrears.  Treaties  of  peace, 

friendship,  commerce,  and  alliance,  with  Portu- 
gal, were  concluded  at  London,  June  16,  1373, 
and  Jan.  29,  1642. A  treaty  for  the  settle- 
ment of  affairs  in  Italy  was  signed  at  London, 

Feb.  17,  1720. A  treaty  of  peace,  friendship, 

and  alliance,  with  Spain,  was  concluded  at 
London,  Jan.  14,  1809;  an  additional  article  on 

commerce  March  21. A  treaty  between  the 

Five  Great  Powers  and  Belgium,  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  that  country  from  Holland,  was 

signed  here  Nov.  15,  1831. A  treaty  between 

Russia,  France,  and  England,  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  Greece,  was  concluded 
at  London  July  6,  1827,  and  another,  between 
Russia,  France,  Bavaria,  and  Great  Britain, 
regulating  the  succession  to  the  Crown  of 

Greece,   Nov.  20,   1852. A  treaty   for    the 

settlement  of  the  dispute  between  Turkey  and 
Egypt,  was  signed  between  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  England,  July  15,  1840.  Mehemet  All 

acceded  to  it,  Nov.  27. The  treaty  for  the 

pacification  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  was  signed 
at  London,  April  22,  1834 ;  additional  articles 

Aug.  18,  1834. The  treaty  regulating    the 

succession  to  the  crown  of  Denmark,  was 
signed  between  the  Great  Powers  and  Den- 
mark at  London,  May  8,  1852.  Wiirtemberg 
acceded  to  it,  Nov.  28,  1852;  Sardinia,  Dec.  4, 
1852 ;  the  Two  Sicilies,  Dec.  4,  1852,  and  Jan.  28, 
1853  !  Spain,  Dec.  6 ;  Tuscany,  Dec.  6  ;  Saxony, 
Dec.  9;  Oldenburgh,  Dec.  10;  Hanover,  Dec.  n; 
Hesse-Cassel,  Dec.  16;  Netherlands,  Dec.  20; 
Belgium,  Dec.  28, 1852  ;  and  Portugal,  March  19, 
1863. 

LONDON  BRIDGE.— The  first  bridge  over 
the  Thames  at  London  was  built  of  wood, 
about  994,  and  stood  lower  down  the  river, 
near  Botolph's  wharf.  It  was  much  injured 
by  the  Danes  in  1008,  and  the  ruins  were 
carried  away  by  a  flood  in  1091.  In  1097 
William  II.  imposed  a  heavy  tax  for  its  re- 
construction, and  this  bridge,  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1136,  was  restored  in  1163.  The  old 
stone  bridge,  commenced  by  Peter  of  Cole- 
church  in  1176,  was  completed  in  1209.  It  was 
926  feet  long,  40  feet  wide,  and  about  60  feet 
above  the  water,  and  stood  upon  19  pointed 
arches,  between  which  were  massive  piers.  A 
handsome  stone  chapel,  dedicated  to  St. 
Thomas  Becket,  stood  upon  the  centre  pier, 
and  appears  to  have  been  the  only  building 
erected  upon  the  bridge  at  its  foundation, 
though  in  course  of  time  a  row  of  houses  on 
each  side  of  the  road  was  added.  The  entire 
construction  was  defended  by  a  drawbridge. 
A  fire,  which  occurred  July  10, 1212,  occasioned 
the  death  of  more  than  3,000  persons,  and  did 
considerable  damage  to  the  bridge  itself ;  and 
in  1282  the  frost  destroyed  five  of  the  arches. 
The  custom  of  placing  the  heads  of  traitors 
over  London  Bridge  was  commenced  by 
Edward  I.  in  Aug.,  1305,  and  Paul  Hentzner, 
the  German  traveller,  counted  30  heads  on 
the  bridge  in  1598.  A  celebrated  passage  of 
arms  between  an  English  and  a  Scotch  knight 
took  place  on  the  bridge  April  23,  1390  ;  and  on 
tho  entry  of  Richard  II.  and  his  consort  into 
London,  Nov.  13,  1395,  nine  persons  were 


killed,  owing  to  the  excessive  crowding.  The 
drawbridge  tower  was  erected  in  1426,  and  the 
great  gate  and  tower  on  the  Southwark  side  of 
the  river,  together  with  two  arches  of  the 
bridge,  fell  Jan.  14,  1437,  but  without  causing 
any  loss  of  life.  The  houses  on  the  bridge 
were  burned  by  Falconbridge  during  his 
attempt  on  London,  May  14,  1471,  and  six 
houses  were  destroyed  by  fire  Nov.  21,  1504. 
In  1577  the  drawbridge  tower  was  rebuilt, 
the  heads  were  removed  to  Traitors'  gate, 
the  famous  Nonsuch  House  was  erected 
about  1579,  and  in  1582  the  water-works  were 
established.  A  fire  which  broke  out  Feb.  13, 
1633,  destroyed  more  than  a  third  of  the  houses 
on  the  bridge  ;  but  the  Great  Fire  of  1666  did 
comparatively  little  damage.  The  bridge  gate 
and  several  other  buildings  were  burned^* 
Sep.  8,  1725.  Owing  to  the  insecure  state  of 
the  bridge,  the  houses  were  removed  in  1757, 
and  a  temporary  wooden  bridge  was  erected, 
and  opened  in  Oct.  This  temporary  bridge 
was  destroyed  by  fire  April  n,  1758.  The 
drawbridge  was  removed  in  1760,  and  in  1800 
exertions  were  made  for  the  erection  of  an 
entirely  new  bridge.  Nothing  was  done,  how- 
ever, till  June  15,  1822,  when  the  corporation 
offered  three  premiums  for  the  best  designs, 
and  in  Dec.,  Messrs.  Fowler,  Borer,  and  Busby 
were  declared  the  successful  competitors.  The 
design  ultimately  adopted  was  that  of  Mr. 
John  Reniiie.  The  rebuilding  of  the  bridge 
was  officially  referred  to  Parliament,  Feb.  19, 
1823,  and  was  ordered  to  be  carried  into  effect 
by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  50  (July  4,  1823).  The  first 
pile  was  driven  March  15,  1824  ;  the  foundation 
stone  was  laid  by  Lord  Mayor  Garratt,  June  15, 
1825,  and  the  bridge  was  opened  by  William  IV. 
and  Queen  Adelaide,  Aug.  i,  1831.  The  con- 
tract for  building  the  bridge  was  £506,000.  The 
dimensions  are  :  — 

Ft.  in. 

Span  of  centre  arch  ....................................  150  6 

Height  of  ditto  from  high  water  ..................    29  6 

piers   .........................................................    z4  o 

Span  of  second  and  fourth  arches   ...............  140  o 

Height  of  ditto  from  high  water  ..................    27  6 

Piers   .........................................................    2,2,  o 

Span  of  the  abutment  arches  ........................  130  o 

Height  of  ditto  from  high  water  ..................    34  6 

Abutments    ................................................     73  o 

Clear  water-way    .......................................  690  o 

Length  of  bridge,  including  abutments    ......  938  o 

Ditto    without  abutments   ........................  783  o 

Width  of  bridge  from  parapet  to  parapet  ......     56  o 

Width  of  carriage-way    .     .                                   36  o 

Width  of  each  foot  -way  ..............................      9  o 

Total  height  of  bridge  on  east  side  from  low>      gQ 


LONDON  CONFERENCE.  —A  conference, 
attended  by  plenipotentiaries  from  European 
states  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  peace  be- 
tween Denmark,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  held  its 
first  meeting  in  London,  April  25,  1864.  It 
separated  without  accomplishing  the  object, 
June  25.  (See  DENMARK.) 

LONDON  CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY.— 
(See  CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY.) 

LONDONDERRY,  or  DERRY  (Ireland).— 
This  city,  situated  in  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  originated  in  a  monastery  founded  about 
546.  It  was  frequently  assailed  and  bunied 
in  civil  strife  and  by  the  Danes.  The  great 
church  was  built  in  1163.  Londonderry  was 


LONDON 


[    592    ] 


LONGEVITY 


taken  by  John  de  Courcey  in  1198,  and 
was  granted  by  Edward  II.  to  Richard  de 
Burgh  in  1311.  Londonderry  formed  part  of 
the  escheate'd  territory  granted  to  the  London 
companies,  by  whom  it  was  fortified  ;  the  first 
English  garrison  arriving  in  1566.  In  1568  it 
was  much  injured  by  an  explosion  in  the 
powder  magazine,  which  caused  the  English  to 
leave  the  place  ;  but  it  was  reoccupied  in  1600. 
It  was  burned  by  Sir  Cahir  O'Doherty  in  1608, 
and  it  received  a  charter  in  1613.  The  town- 
hall  was  erected  in  1622,  and  the  cathedral  \va.s 
completed  in  1633.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  rebellion  of  1641,  Londonderry  became  the 
asylum  of  the  Irish  Protestants,  who  success- 
fully defended  the  place  against  the  Royalists 
in  1649.  The  memorable  siege  by  James  II. 
commenced  April  20,  1689,  and  terminated  in 
the  retreat  of  the  besiegers,  July  30.  During 
the  interval,  3,200  of  the  defenders  died  from 
wounds  or  starvation,  and  the  assailants  lost 
about  8,000  men.  The  town-hall,  burned 
during  the  siege,  was  rebuilt  in  1692.  The 
court-house  was  commenced  in  1813,  and  the 
county  gaol  was  completed  in  1824.  The  colos- 
sal statue  of  the  Rev.  George  Walker,  who 
had  conducted  the  defence  in  1689,  was  inau- 
gurated Aug.  12,  1828.  The  Londonderry 
Literary  Society  was  established  in  1834. 

LONDON  HOSPITAL,  founded  in  1740,  was 
incorporated  in  1759.  The  first  stone  of  the 
new  wing  was  laid  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
July  4,  1864. 

LONDON  INSTITUTION.— For  educational 
purposes,  was  established  in  1806  in  the  old 
Jewry.  Professor  Person,  who  was  the  first 
librarian,  died  Sep.  25,  1808.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated April  30,  1815.  The  first  stone  of  the 
building  in  Finsbury  Circus  was  laid  !May  4, 
1815,  and  it  was  opened  April  21,  1819. 

LONDON  LIIiUAHV,  in  St.  James's  Square, 
was  opened  May  i,  1841.  The  first  volume  of 
the  catalogue  was  published  in  1847,  the 
second  in  1852,  and  a  new  edition  in  1865. 

LONDON  PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY  was 
founded  in  1841,  to  supply  the  poor  of  the 
metropolis  and  its  neighbourhood  with  bread 
and  coal  during  the  months  of  winter. 

LONDON  SACKED  HARMONIC  SOCIETY 
was  established  in  1848,  to  encourage  the 
practice  and  performance  of  oratorios,  anthems, 
services,  chanting,  psalmody,  <fec. 

LONDON  STONE.— Camden  considers  this 
stone  to  be  the  central  milestone  from  which  the 
British  high-roads  radiated  ;  but  Stow  states 
that  "  the  cause  why  this  stone  was  set  there 
(in  Cannon  Street),  the  time  when,  or  other 
memory  hereof,  is  none."  The  stone  was 
removed  from  the  south  to  the  north  side  of 
Camion  Street,  Dec.  13,  1742  ;  and  in  1798  it 
was  again  removed,  and  built  into  the  outer 
wall  of  St.  Swithin's  Church,  Camion  Street. 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY.— Thomas  Camp- 
bell, the  poet,  in  a  letter  to  Lord  Brougham, 
written  in  1825,  suggested  the  foundation  of 
a  college,  open  to  members  of  all  sects  and 
denominations,  and  ground  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  institution  of  this  kind 
was  obtained  by  a  deed  of  settlement  dated 
Feb.  n,  1826.  The  first  stone  of  the  build- 
•  ing  in  Gower  Street  was  laid  April  30,  1827, 


and  the  institution  was  opened  as  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  Oct.  i,  1828.  The  name 
was  changed  to  London  University  before  1831. 
An  application  having  been  made  for  a  charter 
April  25  and  26,  1834,  a  special  meeting  of  the 
proprietors,  to  consider  the  proposals  of  the 
Government,  was  held  Dec.  2,  1835,  and  two 
charters  were  granted  Nov.  28,  1836,  by  which 
the  University  of  London  was  established, 
and  the  name  of  London  University  was 
changed  to  that  of  University  College  (</.  r.). 

LONE  STAR  SOCIETY.— The  English  news- 
papers announced,  Aug..  21,  1852,  the  forma- 
tion about  1848  in  Alabama  and  other  Southern 
American  States,  of  a  society  called  the  order 
of  the  Lone  Star,  of  which  the  object  was 
"  the  extension  of  the  institutions,  the  power, 
the  influence,  and  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  over  the  whple  of  the  Western 
hemisphere,  and  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans." 

LONG  ANNUITIES.     (See  FUNDS.) 

LONCAKA  (Italy  .— On  the  approach  of  an 
allied  French  and  German  army,  a  portion  of 
the  citizens  of  Vicen/a  took  refuge  in  a  large 
cavern  called  the  grotto  of  Masano,  or  Longara, 
in  the  mountains  near  their  city,  in  1510. 
L'Herisson,  a  French  captain,  finding  it  im- 
possible to  force  a  passage  into  the  cavern, 
lighted  faggots  at  the  entrance,  when  all  the 
inmates,  amounting  to  6,000,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  young  man,  were  smothered. 

In  more  modern  times,  700  Arabs  in  Algeria 
7.  v.  were  destroyed  by  the  French  generals 
in  a  similar  manner.  (See  DAHABA  or  DAHRA 
MASSACRE.) 

LONGEVITY.— The  Antediluvians  attained 
an  extraordinary  age,  some  nearly  a  thousand 
years.  Methuselah,  who  lived  the  longest, 
was  969  years  old  when  he  died.  Noah  was 
500  years  old  when  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet 
were  bom  (Gen.  v.  32),  and  some  of  his  de- 
scendants exceeded  what  are  now  considered 
the  ordinary  limits  of  human  existence, 
though  no  one  born  after  the  Deluge  passed 
the  age  of  464  years,  or  one  half  of  that  at- 
tained  by  some  of  the  antediluvians.  Terah, 
the  last  who  exceeded  200,  died  B.C.  1921,  and 
since  his  time  but  few  instances  are  recorded 
of  persons  living  beyond  the  term  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  the  ordinary  limit  of  human 
existence  :  "  the  days  of  our  years  are  three- 
score years  and  ten,  and  if  by  reason  of 
strength  they  be  fourscore  years,  yet  is  their 
strength  labour  and  sorrow."  Alison,  refer- 
ring to  modern  times  (Hist,  of  Europe,  1815-52, 
vol.  v.  p.  408),  states  that  the  oldest  inhabit- 
ants of  the  globe  known  to  authentic  history 
have  been  found  amongst  the  slaves  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  speaks  of  one  in  Jamaica 
who  attained  the  age  of  180  years.  The  fol- 
lowing list  contains  a  selection  of  the  best- 
authenticated  cases  of  longevity,  though  the 
evidence  in  many  is  by  no  means  satisfactory. 
A  remarkable  instance  of  the  mode  in  which 
the  age  of  persons  is  exaggerated  appears  in 
Notes  and  Queries  (3rd  series,  vol.  vii.  pp.  154, 
207,  and  503).  The  reader  will  find  that  Miss 
Mary  Billinge,  who  died  at  Liverpool  Dec.  20, 
1863,  at  the  age,  it  was  said,  of  112  years,  was 
in  reality  only  91.  The  same  process,  applied 


LONGEVITY 


593 


LONGEVITY 


to  many  names  in  the  following  list,  would 
produce  a  similar  result. 


Hale,  |>Sh 


Adrtm 


Enos  .......................... 

Cainan  ............... 

Mahalaleel  ................. 

Jared  ....................... 

Enoch  was  translated 
Methuselah    ..............  , 

Lantech  .... 


Shem   

Arphaxad  

Salah 

Kbcr 

Peleg   

Keu  

Serug  

Nahor  

Terah  

Sarah  

Abraham   , 

Isaac    

Jacob  

Joseph 

Moses  .... 


Died 
aged 


Years. 
930 
912 
9°5 


95° 
6co 
438 
433 
464 
239 
239 
230 
148 
205 
127 


Aged 


Died 

A.n. 

66.  Marcus  Androgcncus  (killed  in  battle) 107 

95.  Apollonius  of  Tyana i^o 

371.  Galen  IAO 

491.  St.  Patrick 132 

500.  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns ...  124 

500.  Lywarch  Hen  (a  Welsh  bard) 150 

618.  St.  Coemgene  or  St.  Keiven 120 

861.  Piastus,  King  of  Poland I2o 

973.  Clarenbaldus 168  or  148 

973.  Swarlingus 143 

974.  Tugarus lie 

I4th  century.  Sir  Ralph  Vernon,  culled  "old  Sir 'Ralph'" 

or  Sir  Ralph  the  Long  Liver 150 

1499.  Agnes  Skuner  of  Surrey  no 

1510.  John  Kitchingraan  of  Chapel  Allerton,  Yorkshire  115 

1542.  Thomas  Newman  of  Bridlington,  Yorkshire 153 

1566.  Lewis  Cornaro,  of  Padua 104. 

1568,  Oct.  ii.  Roger  Brook,  of  Halifax  133 

1588,  Jan.  28.  Thomas  Cam,  London  107 

1613.  Countess  of  Desmond 145 

1635.  Thomas  Parr,  Wilmington,  Shropshire    iw 

1648.  Thomas  Damme,  Lelghton,  Cheshire  TU 

1653.  William  Mead,  M.D.,  Hertfordshire 148 

1655,  Feb.   20.    Elizabeth    Clayton,    of    Kirkburton, 

Yorkshire 113 

1656.  James  Bowles,  Kenilworth *"  1=3 

1605,  Feb.  8.   Widow  Allanby,  of  Thorlby,  Yorkshire  ill 
1666,  Nov.  Matthew  Carter,  of  Thornborough  York- 
shire  .... n3 

1668.  Mary  Allison,  of  Thorlby,  Yorkshire.  "I"!!!!""!!!  108 
1668.  William  Edwards,  Glamorganshire 168 

1670,  Dec.  9.  Henry  Jenkins,  Yorkshire    169 

1671,  Jan.  26.  Robert  Montgomery,  Skipton 137 

1685.  Gustavus  Holme,  Dover    173 

1691.  Mrs.  Eckelston,  King's  County,  Ireland '..'  14? 

1706.  John  Bayles,  Northampton 136 

1711.  Jane  Scrimshaw,  London 

1714.  William  Wi.kH.-y.  Shropshire !., 

1715,  May  31.  Elizabeth  Lewis,  Herefordshire 141 

1731.  Widow  Foss,  of  Morley,  Yorkshire   114 

1731,  Nov.  10.  John  Robert,  of  Halifax 114 

1734.  Peter  Zartan,  Hungary i8c 

1738.  Ralph  Bourn,  of  West  Tanfield,  Yorkshire 113 

1731.  William  Eclie,  Edinburgh I2o 

1733.  William  Loland,  Ireland  140 

1734.  John  Ronsey,  Scotland 138 

1739.  Margaret  Patten,  London 137 

1740.  James  Grasmay,  Hungary  125 

1741.  John  Rovin,  Hungi 
1741.  Wife  of  John  Rovi 


,ry 173 

i.  Hungary  «... ,.,.,  164 


Pied 

.D. 


Aged 


1743.  John  Philips,  of  Thorner,  Yorkshire  11-7 

1743.  Mary  Prymm,  London  121 

1743-  Peter  Mestanea,  Spain  

1743,  Sep.  20.  Mary  Myers,  of  Northwoods,  Yorkshire  120 

1746.  Francis  Thompson,  of  Biusoe,  Yorkshire  112 

1747.  Jonas  Surington,  Norway jm 

1749.  Mrs.  Bowles,  Berkshire '. 

1749.  Alexander  Bennet,  Down,  Ireland 135 

1749.  Joseph  Battlesworth,  Cornwall 136 

1753.  Don  Andrew  Bueno,  Badajoz 124. 

1753.  Evan  Peiree,  North  Wales    120 

1753.  Andrew  Schmidt,  Upper  Silesia '.     124 

175!  William  Congreve,  of  Sheffield 111 

1756.  Mr.  Elstoff,  of  Ledstone,  Yorkshire 114 

1757.  William  Sharply,  Koscommon,  Ireland  138 

1757.  John  Walney,  Glasgow    124. 

I757-  Robert  Parr,  Shropshire  

1757.  Alexander  McCulloch,  Aberdeen   133 

1758.  David  Grant,  Kinross,  Scotland 

1758.  Catherine  Giles,  Belfast    »"/."'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."'.  123 

1759-  James  Sheile,  Kilkenny,  Ireland   136 

1759.  Hannibal  Camoux,  Marseilles    121 

1759-  Donald  Cameron,  Scotland iqo 

1760.  Elizabeth  Hilton 131 

1761.  Jan.  Charles  Cottrell,  Philadelphia,  N.  America  120 

1761,  Jan.  Mrs.  Charles  Cottrell,  ditto n? 

1761,  July.  John  Newell,  Ireland 127 

•761.  Elizabeth  Marchant,  Ireland  133 


1763.  Catherine  Brebner,  Aberdeen '.'.'.'".'. 

1763.  John  Noon,  Galway,  Ireland  

1763.  Jane  Blake,  of  Leeds 

1763.  John  Michaelstone  

1763.  Elizabeth  Taylor,  London 

1763.  Matthew  Hubert,  Ireland    

1763.  Owen  Carollan,  Ireland 

1764.  July  15.  George  Kirton,  of  Oxnop  Hall,  York- 

shire  

1765.  Edglebert  Hoff,  New  York,  U.S....!...!.!!'.!!!!!!!!!!! 

1765.  Margaret  Foster,  Cumberland    

1766.  Thomas  Winslow,  Ireland    

1766.  Thomas  Dobson,  Hatfleld,  Yorkshire 

1766.  John  de  la  Somet,  Virginia,  U.S 

1766.  John  King,  Cambridgeshire 

1766.  John  Simpson,  of  Knaresborough    ..  .. 

1767.  John  Hill,  Edinburgh 

1767.  Francis  Auge,  Maryland,  U.S 

1768.  Catherine  Noon,  Ireland   

1768,  Dec.  Robert  Ogilby,  of  Leeds 

1769.  Martha  Preston,  of  Barns'ey 


1769.  John  Brookey,  Devonshire  .............................. 

1769,  Sep.  William  Hughes,  of  Tadcaster,  Yorkshire 
1769.  Mr.  Butler,  Kilkenny,  Ireland  ........................... 

1769.  Margaret  Foster  ....*.  ........................................ 

1770.  Isaac  Truernan,  of  Kettlewell,  Yorkshire  ......... 

1771.  John  Gough,  Ireland  ....................................... 

1772.  Mrs.  Keith,  Gloucestershire  .............................. 

1772-  Christian  Drackenburg,  Denmark    .................. 

177?.  Mrs.  Clum,  Lichfield  ....................................... 

1773.  Charles  McTindly,  Ireland  .............................. 

1775.  Peter  Garden,  Aberdeen  ................................. 

1776.  Mr.  Moval,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland    ............... 

1776  (about).  Mrs.  Phillip  i  .............................  126  or 

1777.  John  Houseman,  of  Sessay,  Yorkshire  ............ 

1777.  Ann  Foster,  Newcastle  .................................... 

1780.  Louisa  Truxo  (negress),  S.  America  .................. 

1780.  Kobert  McBride,  Scotland    .............................. 

1780.  Mr.  Evans,  London    ....................................... 

1780.  William  Ellis,  Liverpool  ................................. 

1780.  Thomas  Hume,  of  York  ................................ 

1782.  Valentine  Cateby,  of  Preston,  Yorkshire  ......... 

1784.  Mary  Frith,  of  Marsden,  Yo  kshire  ............  }  ..... 

1784.  Mary  Cameron,  Inverness-shire  ........................ 

1785.  John  Maxwell,  Cumberland    ........................... 

1785.  Cardinal  de  Salis,  Spain  ................................. 

1787.  Jonas  Warren,  Ireland  .................................... 

1790.  John  Jacob,  the  "Patriarch  of  Mount  Jura"  ... 

1791.  Ann  Green,  of  Spro  thorough,  Yorkshire  ............ 

1791.  Jonathan  Hartop,  Yorkshire  ........................... 

1793.  Mr.  Robertson,  Edinburgh  .............................. 

1794.  Alice  Atkinson,  of  York   ................................. 

1796.  Francis  Consitt,  of  Burythorpe,  Yorkshire  ......... 

1796.  Mrs.  Thompson,  Dublin    ................................. 

1797.  Charles  Macklin,  the  actor,  London    ............... 

1797.  A  mulatto,  name  unknown,  N.  America 


1798,  April  3.  Isaac  Ingall,  Sussex  ........................... 

1802.  Mrs.  Golden,  of  Hilton,  Yorkshire  .................. 

1804,  Nov.  Thomas  Martin,  Yorkshire  ..................... 


QQ 


LONG 


[    594    1 


LOOKING 


Died 


Aged 


1805.  John  Tucker,  Hampshire 131 

1805.  Elias  Hoyle,  of  Sowerby,  Yorkshire   113 

1806.  Catherine  Lopez  (negresa),  Jamaica 134 

1806.  Mr.  Creek,  Thurlow,  Suffolk 125 

1807.  Joseph  Rann  (negro),  Jamaica 140 

1807.  Mr.  Crobully,  Ireland    138 

1810.  Flora  Macdonald,  Isle  of  Lewes,  Scotland 130 

1813.  Anne  Wignell  (negress),  Jamaica ^46 

1813.  Mary  .Mei-an.  Ireland  129 

1813.  JohnGilley,  .Maine,  U.s 124 

1814.  Thomas  Uuiicombe,  of  Beverley  114 

1814.  Mary  Innes,  Isle  of  Skye 137 

1817,  April.  Mary  King,  Stoi.ehaven,  Yorkshire Ill 

1818.  David  Ferguson,  Kent  134 

1818.  William  M'K.-in,  Virginia,  I'.S 130 

1830.  William    Walkington,    of    Kirkby     Mis[>erton, 

Yorkshire in 

1834.  John  Maildnx,  Gloucestershire  121 

1836.  Ann  Mullhollarid,  Ireland    123 

1837.  Rebecca  Fury  (negress),  Jamaica 140 

1836.  John  Cuffee  (negro),  Virginia,  U.S 130 

1844,  Jan.  33.  George  Whartou,  of  Laverton,  York- 

shire       H2 

1845.  Bridget  ilevine.  Manchester  147 

1848.  Daniel  Aikin,  Canada  West I3O 

nthew  Pearson,  Yorkshire 113 

184s*.  Mrs.  Morun,  Ireland  131 

1850.  Richard  Dorner,  Ireland  135 

1851.  Visc.niint  Gardinville 113 

1853,  Feb.  34.  David  Kennison.  N.A 117 

1853,  Oct.  15.  Judy  (a  slave),  N.A no 

1855.  M.  A.  Provencal,  France  119 

1856.  Jane  Garbutt,  of  Welbury,  Yorkshire no 

1858.  James  Nolan,  Ireland   116 

1800.  Patrick  Sweenev,  Ireland    119 

1866,  Jan.  37-  Joseph  Civle,  ( 'ale.I.mia,  Wisconsin, 
said  by  the  American  journals  to  be  the  oldest 
man  in  the  world  141 

LONG  FRIDAY.— (-See  GOOD  FRIDAY.) 
LONG  ISLAND  (Bahamas)  was  discovered 
by  Christopher  Columbus  in  1492.  With  the 
group  to  which  it  belongs  it  was  seized  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1781,  and  was  restored  to  the 
British  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3, 

I7L3ONG  ISLAND  (Battle).— The  English, 
under  Gen.  Howe,  routed  the  American  revo- 
lutionary forces,  commanded  by  Gen.  Putnam, 
at  the  village  of  Flat  Hush,  in  Long  Island, 
New  York,  Aug.  27,  1776.  The  English  lost  61 
killed  and  257  wounded,  and  the  rebel  army 
2,000  men. 

LONG  ISLAND  (New  York).— Capt.  Wey- 
mouth  discovered  Long  Island  in  1605. 
LONGITUDE.— (See  LATITUDE.)  ' 
LONGJUMEAU  (Treaty)  was  concluded  here 
between  the  Huguenots  and  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, by  the  lame  Marshal  Biron,  March  20, 
1568.  It  was  proclaimed  in  the  edict  of  Long- 
jumeau,  March  23,  but  being  a  mere  stratagem 
on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics  to  weaken 
their  opponents,  was  speedily  broken.  It  was 
called  the  Ill-grounded  and  Patched-up,  or  the 
Lame  and  Unstable  Peace. 

LONG-LIVED  ADMINISTRATION,  also 
called  the  Short-lived  Administration,  held 
office  Feb.  n  and  12,  1746.  The  Pelham,  or 
Broad-Bottom  Administration,  having  resigned 
Feb.  10,  1746,  the  Earl  of  Bath  accepted  the 
Treasury,  with  Lord  Carlisle  as  Privy  Seal, 
Lord  Graiiville  as  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
state,  and  Lord  Winchelsea  at  the  Admiralty. 
George  III.  was  not,  however,  satisfied  with 
the  ministerial  arrangements,  and  the  Broad- 
Bottom  Administration  (q.  v.},  was  restored  to 
office  Feb.  12. 


LONGOBARDI,  or  LANGOBARDI.— The 
name  of  this  German  tribe  of  barbarians  is 
derived  either  from  the  length  of  their  beards 
or  from  the  circumstance  of  their  inhabiting 
the  plains  beside  the  Elbe — liirde  or  lord  sig- 
nifying a  "  fertile  plain  by  the  side  of  a  river." 
They  are  stated  by  the  ancient  authors  to  have 
been  a  branch  of  the  Suevi ;  but  Paul  Warne- 
frid,  who  wrote  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
and  was  himself  a  Longobard,  asserts  that 
they  originally  migrated  from  Scandinavia. 
They  first  appeared  in  history  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  when  they  were  settled 
between  the  Elbe  and  Oder,  and  but  little 
more  was  heard  of  them  till  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian I.  (527 — 565),  by  whom  they  were  invited 
into  Noricum  and  Pannonia.  Under  their  chief 
Alboin,  they  invaded  Italy  in  568,  and  speedily 
reduced  the  greater  portion  of  the  country  to 
subjection,  establishing  their  kingdom  of  Lom- 
bardy,  which  composed  the  modern  states  of 
Venice,  the  Tyrol,  the  Milanese,  Piedmont, 
Genoa,  Mantua,  Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany,  a 
large  portion  of  the  papal  states,  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  (See 
LOMBARD  Y.) 

LONG  PARLIAMENT,  summoned  by 
Charles  I.,  met  at  Westminster,  Tuesday, 
Nov.  3,  1640,  and  continued  its  sittings  until 
it  was  dissolved  by  Cromwell,  April  20,  1653. 
The  journal  of  this  Parliament  terminates 
Tuesday,  April  19.  It  was  said  of  this  Parlia- 
ment, that  "many  thought  it  never  would 
have  a  beginning,  and  afterwards  that  it  never 
would  have  an  end."  (See  DELINQUENTS.) 

LONG  WOOD  (Battle).  — The  Americans, 
under  Capt.  Holmes,  defeated  the  English  at 
this  place,  on  the  river  Thames,  Upper  Canada, 
March  4,  1814. 

LONGWOOD  (St.  Helena).— This  villa,  about 
six  miles  from  James's  Town,  and  the  best  in 
the  island,  became,  Dec.  10, 1815,  the  residence 
of  the  exiled  Napoleon  I.,  who  died  here  May 
5,  1821. 

LONGWY  (France),  founded  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury, annexed  to  Bar  in  the  isth,  taken  by  the 
French  in  the  i7th,  was  ceded  to  France  in 
1678,  and  was  fortified  by  Vauban.  The  Aus- 
trians  and  Prussians,  under  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick and  Gen.  Clairfait,  invested  it  Aug.  20, 
1792,  and  it  surrendered  Aug.  24.  It  was  bom- 
barded July  i,  1815,  and  the  besiegers  were 
compelled  to  retire  July  13.  The  siege  was  re- 
newed Aug.  10,  and  the  French  commander, 
Ducos,  capitulated  Sep.  18. 

LOO  (Holland).— William  III.  ratified  the 
peace  of  Ryswick  at  his  hunting  seat  of  Loo, 
Sep.  20,  1697.  A  treaty  between  Great  Britain, 
Prussia,  and  Holland,  was  concluded  here 
under  the  auspices  of  William  Pitt  in  1790. 

LOO-CHOO,  LEKEYO,  or  LIEOU-KIEOU 
ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean).— Capt.  Broughton 
visited  these  islands,  then  little  known  to 
Europeans,  in  1797.  A  Christian  mission  was 
established  in  1851. 

LOODIANA  (Hindostan).— This  town  and  the 
district  came  into  possession  of  the  British  in 
1836,  through  the  failure  of  the  line  of  suc- 
cession. 

LOOKING-GLASSES  are  mentioned  Job 
xxxvii.  18,  B.C.  2337,  and  Exodus  xxxviii.  8, 


LOOM 


[    595 


LORD 


B.C.  1490,  and  were  probably  made  of  polished 
metal.  Praxiteles, •  who  flourished  about  B.C. 
364,  is  said  to  have  made  a  mirror  of  silver,  and 
the  American  Indians  were  found  to  possess 
such  articles,  made  from  a  kind  of  vitrified 
lava,  plane,  concave,  and  convex,  in  1492. 
Beckniann  gathers  from  Pliny  that  they  were 
manufactured  of  glass  by  the  Sidonians  in 
77.  He  quotes  a  treatise  of  1279,  by  John 
Peckham,  a  Franciscan,  monk  of  Oxford,  in 
which  mirrors  are  particularly  described, 
and  as  having  the  back  covered  with  lead. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  women  wore  them  at  their 
girdles.  A  process  for  silvering  was  patented 
by  Drayton  in  Nov.  1843.  (See  GOBAIN,  ST.) 

LOOM  depicted  on  the  tombs  at  Thebes, 
about  B.C.  2000,  the  invention  having  been  as- 
cribed to  the  goddess  Isis,  was  in  vise  in  ancient 
Greece  and  Borne,  especially  amongst  the 
females  of  a  family.  In  India  and  China  it  has 
been  in  use,  in  a  rude  form,  from  the  earliest 
period.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  too,  its 
structure  was  exceedingly  simple.  Improved 
apparatus  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Flemings,  of  whom  Gervaise  says  that  weaving 
is  their  "natural"  business.  A  number  of 
these  people  established  themselves  at  Norwich 
in  1132,  and  John  Kemp,  with  a  body  of  work- 
men from  Flanders,  came  over  at  the  invitation 
of  Edward  III.,  in  1331.  A  method  for  the 
application  of  mechanical  power  to  the  hand- 
loom  was  submitted  to  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  by  M.  de  Gennes,  in  1678,  although  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  carried  into 
effect.  A  machine  was  patented  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Cartwright,  which  imitated  the  three 
movements  in  weaving,  in  1785,  and  another 
in  1787  ;  but  these  failed,  and  after  an  expen- 
diture of  ^40,000,  that  gentleman,  in  1809,  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  ^10,000  from  Parliament  as 
compensation.  The  first  power-loom  for  cot- 
ton-weaving was  erected  near  Glasgow  in  1798. 
Jacquard  exhibited  his  machine  at  Paris  in 
Sep.,  1801  (See  JACQUARD  LOOM),  and  an  electric 
loom  was  constructed  in  1854  by  M.  Bonelli, 
director-general  of  the  Sardinian  telegraphs, 
which  he  brought  to  England  in  1859.  (See 
ELECTRIC  LOOM.) 

LOOSE  COAT,  or  LOSE-COAT  FIELD 
(Battle).— Sir  Robert  AVells,  a  Lancastrian, 
having  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against 
Edward  IV.,  fell  upon  the  royal  troops  at 
Erpingham,  near  Stamford,  March  19,  1470. 
He  was  with  Sir  Thomas  Deland  taken  pri- 
soner, and  the  soldiers,  alarmed  by  the  cap- 
ture of  their  leaders,  took  to  flight,  casting 
off  their  coats,  lest  they  should  impede  their 
retreat,  on  which  account  the  battle  received 
this  name. 

LORCA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Eliocroca,  was 
besieged  several  times  during  the  Moorish 
occupation  of  Spain.  The  bridge  was  built  in 
1847. 

LORD. — (See  CONGREGATION  OF  THE  LORD.) 

LORD  ADVOCATE  (Scotland^,  also  called 
King's  or  Queen's  Advocate,  is  the  principal 
law-officer  of  the  Crown  in  Scotland,  the  same 
as  the  Attorney-general  in  England.  The  office 
of  King's  Advocate  is  known  to  have  existed 
in  1479,  but  it  was  not  until  1540  that  it  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  great  office  of  state. 


A  record  of  the  Court  of  Justiciary  in  1598 
contains  the  first  mention  of  a  Lord  Advocate. 

LORD  CAMPBELL'S  ACT.—  (See  DEATH  BY 
ACCIDENTS  COMPENSATION  ACT.) 

LORDtCHAMBERLAIN  OF  THE  HOUSE- 
HOLD is  mentioned  as  early  as  1208.  In  1341 
't  was  ordered  that  he  should  swear,  on  his 
appointment,  to  keep  the  laws  of  the  land, 
and  the  great  charter;  and,  in  1406,  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council. 

LORD  CHANCELLOR  (Scotland)  was  ori- 
ginally the  king's  conscience-keeper,  issuing 
his  writs  for  the  remedy  of  injustice,  and  be- 
came the  chief  judge  of  the  Court  of  Session 
at  its  establishment,  in  1533.  The  office  was 
abolished  at  the  Union,  March  6,  1707. 

LORD  CHIEF  JUSTICE.— (See  KING'S  or 
QUEEN'S  BENCH.) 

LORD  GENERAL.— (See  GENERAL.) 

LORD  GREAT  CHAMBERLAIN. —This 
office,  which  has  existed  in  England  from  a 
very  early  period,  was  granted  to  the  family  of 
De  Vere  during  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (noo — 
1135).  Owing  to  the  extinction  of  the  family 
in  1625,  it  became  the  subject  of  litigation, 
but  was  ultimately  confirmed  to  Lord  Wil- 
loughby  d'Eresby,  in  whose  family  it  still 
remains. 

LORD  HIGH  ADMIRAL.— When  admirals 
were  first  appointed  in  this  country,  each  officer 
of  the  kind  received  the  command  of  a  particu- 
lar fleet,  such  as,  the  king's  ships  north,  south, 
or  west  of  the  Thames,  or  the  fleet  of  the  Cinque 
Ports.  Sir  John  Beauchamp  was  appointed 
"admiral  of  the  king's  southern,  northern,  and 
western  fleets"  (July  18,  1360),  and  this,  Sir 
Harris  Nicolas  observes,  is  the  first  instance  of 
the  command  of  all  the  fleets  being  vested  in 
one  person.  Beauchamp  died  in  Dec.  1360, 
and  Sir  Robert  Herle  was  (Jan.  26,  1361) 
appointed  to  succeed  him  as  admiral  of  the 
three  fleets.  Many  similar  appointments  fol- 
lowed, and,  May  9,  1398,  John,  Marquis  of 
Dorset,  was  made  admiral  of  the  northern  and 
western  fleets  for  life,  the  Irish  fleet  having 
been  placed  under  his  direction  on  the  same 
terms.  Sir  Thomas  of  Lancaster  (second  son  of 
Henry  IV.),  afterwards  Duke  of  Clarence,  was 
appointed  "Admiral  of  England,"  Feb.  20, 
1405  ;  and  from  that  period,  as  Nicolas  remarks, 
"  there  was  always  an  admiral  of  England,  who 
commanded  in  chief  all  the  fleets  in  England, 
Ireland,  and  Aquitaine,"  the  office  having  been 
held  successively  by  the  Earls  of  Somerset  and 
Kent,  and  Sir  Thomas  Beaufort,  who  was  after- 
wards created  Earl  of  Dorset  and  Duke  of 
Exeter.  Sir  Thomas  of  Lancaster  was  pro- 
bably the  first  who  took  the  title  of  lord  high 
admiral,  which  was  borne  by  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  individual  officers  till  Nov.  20,  1632, 
when  the  office  was,  for  the  first  time,  put  in 
commission.  During  the  Interregnum,  the 
affairs  of  the  navy  were  managed  by  a  com- 
mittee of  Parliament,  until  Cromwell  himself 
undertook  the  direction.  The  Duke  of  York 
(afterwards  James  II.)  was  lord  high  admiral 
from  the  Restoration  till  May  22,  1684,  when 
Charles  II.  took  the  office,  James  II.  re- 
suming it  on  his  accession  in  the  following 
year.  It  remained  in  commission  after  his 
abdication,  till  Prince  George  of  Denmark 
QQ  2 


LORD 


[    596    1 


LORD 


was  appointed  lord  high  admiral  of  Eng- 
land, May  20,  1702,  and  of  Great  Britain, 
on  account  of  the  Union,  June  28,  1707, 
with  a  council  of  four  persons  to  assist 
him.  At  his  death,  Nov.  8  (O.S.  Oct.  28),  1708, 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, with  a  similar  council.  The  Earl  re- 
signed in  170^  ;  since  which  time  the  office  hns 
always  been  in  commission,  except  during  the 
interval  from  May  1827,  to  Sep.  1828,  in  which 
it  was  held  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  after- 
wards William  IV.  The  only  instance  of  a  lord 
high  admiral  for  Ireland,  is  that  of  James, 
Lord  Butler,  high  treasurer,  created  "Great 
Admiral  and  Keeper  of  the  Ports  in  Ireland," 
by  patent,  May  u,  1535.  There  was  a  lord  high 
admiral  in  Scotland  from  the  isth  century 
until  the  Union.  A  lord  high  admiral  having 
been  appointed  in  France,  Richelieu  suppressed 
the  office  in  1627,  but  it  was  re-established  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1669. 

LORD  HIGH  ALMONER  OF  ENGLAND, 
an  ecclesiastical  officer,  generally  a  bishop, 
who  in  olden  times  had  the  power  of  giving 
the  first  dish  from  the  king's  table,  or,  instead 
thereof,  alms  to  any  poor  person  he  pleased. 
Jlis  duties,  enumerated  in  an  old  juridical 
treatise  of  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  were  to 
collect  the  fragments  from  the  royal  table  for 
daily  distribution  to  the  poor,  to  visit  the 
sick  and  poor  persons  in  distress,  to  remind 
the  king  of  the  duty  of  almsgiving,  and  to  see 
that  the  value  of  the  cast-off  robes  should  be 
given  to  increase  the  king's  charity.  From 
the  wardrobe  accounts  of  the  i4th  year  of 
King  John,  it  appears  that  the  alms  were  at 
that  time  distributed  by  the  sovereign  on 
Maunday  Thursday.  Since  1730  the  office  of 
Lord  High  Almoner  has  been  held  by  the 
Archbishops  of  York. 

LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLOR  OF  ENG- 
LAND.—The  office  of  king's  chancellor  has 
been  traced  to  the  reign  of  Ethelbert,  King  of 
Kent  (568 — 616).  It  was  tisually  held  by  an 
ecclesiastic,  and  frequently  by  the  king's 
chaplain.  The  first  chancellor  after  the  Con- 
quest was  Arfastus,  Bishop  of  Hclmham, 
whose  name  occurs  in  a  charter  dated  1068. 
The  office  assumed  a  judicial  character  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  and  underwent  a  change  in 
its  constitution  under  Henry  III.,  who  ap- 
pointed an  officer  empowered  to  act  as  a 
chancellor,  but  without  possessing  that  title, 
his  special  province  being  the  custody  of  the 
seal.  (See  LORD  KEEPER.)  The  first  charter 
making  this  distinction  is  dated  June  14, 
1232.  The  chancellor  assumed  the  title  of 
chancellor  of  England  in  1266,  and  of  lord 
chancellor  in  the  reign  of  EdwardII.(i307— 27.) 
By  5  Eliz.  c.  18  (1563),  the  offices  of  loi'd  chan- 
cellor and  lord  keeper  were  declared  identical. 
The  vice-chancellor  (q.  v.)  was  appointed  by 
S3  Geo.  III.  c.  24  (March  23,  1813).  The  sala- 
ries of  the  chief  officers  of  the  lord  chancellor 
are  regulated  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  87  (July  i, 
1852).  The  lord  chancellor,  who  is  keeper 
of  the  king's  conscience,  takes  precedence 
of  all  the  other  law  officers  of  the  realm, 
ranking  next  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. Foss  (Judges  of  England)  gives  the 
following  list:— 


LORD  HIGH   CHANCELLORS    AND    LORD     KEEPERS 

OF    ENGLAND. 

WILLIAM  I. 

1068.  Arfastus. 

1070.  Osbert,  or  Osbern. 

1074.  Osmund. 

1078.  Maurice. 

1083.  William  Welson. 

1086.  William  Giffard. 

WILLIAM   II. 

1087.  William  Giffard. 
logo.  Robert  Bloet. 
1093.  Galdric. 

1094  (about).  William  Giffard  (again). 

IIKXUY   I. 

Iloo.  William  Giffard. 

HOI.  Roger. 

1103.  William  Giffard  (again). 

1104.  Waldric. 
Ilo8.  Rnnulph. 

1134.  Geoffrey  Ruf  us. 

BTKPBBH. 

1135.  Roger  Pauper. 
1139.  Philip. 

-    Robert  de  Grant. 

IIKXUY  II. 

I  54.  Thomas  ]!e-.>ket. 
73.  Ralph  de  Wanieville. 
8;.  Geoffrey  Plantngeuot. 

KICHAUI)    I. 

William  de  Lougchamp. 

Eustace. 

JOIIX. 

1199.  Hubert  Walter. 

1205.  Walter  de  Grey. 

1313.  Peter  de  Rupibus. 

.,..    /Walter  de  Grey  (again). 

I3I4-  [Richard  MarisVo. 

IIKXUY   III. 

I2T6.  Richard  Marisco. 

1326.  Ralph  de  K<-vill. 

123*.  Simon  Xorinanus  (keeper). 

1240.  Richard  Crassus  (keeper). 

1244-  Silvester  de  Everdon  (keeper). 

1240.  John  M  tinsel  (keeper). 

1247.  -John  de  I.exinton  (keeper). 

1348.  John  Hansel  (sixain,  keeper). 

1249.  John  de  Lexinton  (again,  keeper). 

1250.  William  de  Kilkenny  (keeper). 
1255-  Henry  de  Winglmm  (keeper). 
1360.  Nicholas  de  Ely  (keeper). 
1261.  Walter  de  Merton. 

1363.  Nicholas  de  Ely. 

..(•.   /Th,,n,;is  deCanfflnpe. 

I36S-  [Walter  Giffard. 

1267.  Godfrey  Giffard. 

1268.  John  de  Chisliull  (keeper). 

1269.  Richard  de  Hiddleton. 

1273.  John  de  Kirkeby  (keeper). 

KKWAUD  I. 
1272.  Walter  de  Merton. 

1274.  Robert  liurnell. 

-,„,   f  William  de  Hamilton  (keeper). 
*•*>*•  I  John  de  Lnngton. 

Adam  de  (  >sgodby  (keeper). 
i.im  de  Grenetield.        ' 


I  Adam 
••)  Willi. 
.  Willia 


1304.  William  de  Hamilton. 
1307.  Ralph  de  Ualdoek. 

KDWAKl)   II. 

1307.  Ralph  de  Baldock. 

-  John  de  Langton. 

/Adam  de  Osgodby  (keeper). 

I3'a  [Walter  Reginald. 

1311.  Adam  de  <  NgoMby  (keeper). 

1312.  Walter  Reginald  (again,  keeper). 
1314.  John  de  Sandale. 

1318.  John  de  Hotham. 

1320.  John  Salmon. 

1323.  Robert  de  Haldoek. 

1326.  William  de  Ayrcmyvme  (keeper). 

1326.  Henry  de  Cliff  (keeper) 

"  KDWAIM)    III. 

1327.  John  de  llolham  (again) 

de  ierlaston} 
Henry  de  liurgitersh. 
1330.  John  de  Strattord. 
1334.  Richard  de  Bury,  or  Aungerville. 


LORD 


[    597    1 


LORD 


1335-  John  de  Stratford  (again). 

1337.  Robert  de  Stratford. 

1338.  Richard  de  Byntenvorth. 
(John  de  St.  Paul  ) 

1339.  •]  Michael  de  Wath  V  Keepers. 
(Thomas  de  Baumburgh) 

1  John  de  St.  Paul  (keeper). 
T,._  J  John  de  Stratford  (again). 
^*P-  \  Kobert  de  Stratford. 

(.Robert  Burghchier,  or  Bouchier. 
1341.  Robert  Parning. 

(John  de  Thoresby        ) 
1343.  -{John  de  St.  Paul  V  Keepers. 

(Thomas  de  Brayton     ) 

Kobert  de  Sadington. 
1345-  John  de  Offord,  or  Ufford. 

/-David  de  Wollore  ^ 


(.Thomas  de  Cotyngham 

John  de  Thoresby. 
1356.  William  deEdiugton. 
1363.  Simon  Langham. 
1367.  William  do  Wykeham. 

1371.  Kobert  de  Thorpe. 

1372.  John  Knyvet. 
1377.  Adam  de  Houghton. 

KICHARD  II. 

1377.  Adam  de  Houghton. 

1378.  Richard  le  Scrope. 

1379.  Simon  de  Sudbury. 
(Hugh  do  Segrave  (keeper). 

1381.  <  William  de  Courtoneyo. 

( Richard  le  Scrope  (again). 

{Hugh  de  Segrave      ) 
William  de  Dighton}-  Keepers. 
John  de  Waltham   ) 
Kobert  de  Bray  broke. 

1382.  Michael  de  la  Pole. 
1386.  Thomas  de  Arundel. 

1389.  William  de  Wykeham  (again). 
1391.  Thomas  de  Arundel  (again.) 
1396.  Edmund  de  Stafford. 

f'i'homas  de  Arundel  (again). 
1399-|johndescarle. 

HENRY  IV. 

1399.  John  de  Scarle. 

1401.  Edmund  de  Stafford  (again). 

1403.  Henry  Beaufort. 

1405.  Thomas  Langley. 

1407.  Thomas  de  Arundel  (ngain). 

|Tn  (  John  Wakering  (keeper). 

•l  •  I  Thomas  Beaufort. 
1412-  Thomas  de  Arundel  (again). 

HENRY  V. 

1413.  Henry  Beaufort. 
1417.  Thomas  Langley  (again). 

HENRY  VI. 

1423.  Thomas  Langley. 

U22  /  simon  Gaunstede  (keeper), 
r**.  -^  Thomas  Langley  (again). 

1424.  Henry  Beaufort  (again). 
1426.  John  Kempe. 

1432.  John  Stafford. 
1450.  John  Kempe. 

1454.  Richard  Neville. 

1455.  Thomas  Bourchier. 

1456.  William  Waynflete. 

1460.  George  Neville. 

EDWARD  IV. 

1461.  George  Neville. 

,  .f..    /Robert  Kirkham  (keeper). 
140 '•  \Robert  Stilliugton. 

/  John  Morton  ) 

14*7?     J  Henry  Bourchier        [•    Keepers. 
*•»*   \  John  Morton  (again)) 

I  Lawrence  Booth. 
1474.  Thomas  Rotheram. 

„    JJohnAlcock. 
****   \  Thomas  Rotheram  (again). 

EDWARD  V. 

1483.  Thomas  Rotherham. 
1483.  John  Russell. 

RICHARD  III. 

1483.  John  Russell. 

1485.  Thomas  Barowe  (keeper). 

HENKY  VII. 

1485.  John  Alcock. 


1486.  John  Morton. 

1500.  Henry  Deno. 

1502.  William  Warham  (keeper). 

1504.  William  Warham. 

HENKY   VIII. 

1509.  William  Warham. 
1515.  Thomas  Wolsey. 
1529.  Thomas  More. 
1533.  Thomas  Audley  (keeper). 
1533.  Thomas  Audley. 

1544.  Thomas,  Lord  Wriothesley  (keeper). 

1545.  Thomas,  Lord  Wriothesley. 

EDWARD  VI. 

1547.  Lord  Wriothesley. 

„.„   <  William  Paulet  (keeper). 

1547-  \  Richard,  Lord  Rich. 

1551.  Thomas  Goodrich  (keeper). 

1552.  Thomas  Goodrich. 

MARY. 

1553-  Stephen  Gardiner. 
1556.  Nicholas  Heath. 

ELIZABETH. 

1558.  Nicholas  Bacon  (keeper). 
1579.  Thomas  Bromley. 
1587.  Christopher  ILittoii. 

1591.  William,  LordBurleigh. 

1592.  John  Puckering  (keeper). 
1596.  Thomas  Egerton  (keeper). 

JAMES  I. 

1603.  Thomas  Egerton  (keeper). 
1603.  Thomas  Egerton. 

1617.  Francis  Bacon  (keeper). 

1618.  Francis  Bacon. 
1621.  John  Williams. 

CHARLES  I. 
1625.  John  Williams. 
1625.  Thomas  Coventry. 

1640.  John  Finch. 

1641.  Edward  Lyttleton. 

1643.  Parliamentary  Commission. 
1645.  Richard  Lane. 
f  ,    (  The  Earl  of  Salisbury. 
1040.  ^  pariiamentary  Commissioners. 

1648.  Parliamentary  Commissioners. 

INTERREGNUM.* 

(Bulstrode  Whitelocke. 

1649.  <  John  L'Isle. 
(Richard  Keeble. 

.-  Bulstrode  Whitelocke. 
1654.  <  Thomas  Widdringtou. 

I  John  L'Isle. 
,,.,    /Nathaniel Fiennes. 
1030.  \john  L'Isle. 

(Bulstrode  Whitelocke. 
1659.  •<  Nathaniel  Fiennes. 

(John  L'Isle. 
1659.  William  Lenthall. 

(John  Bradshaw. 
1659.  \  Thomas  Tyrrell. 

(John  Fountain. 

1659.  Bulstrode  Whitelocke. 

1660.  William  Lenthall  (again). 

(Thomas  Widdrington. 
1660.  <  Thomas  Tyrrell. 
(John  Fountain. 
Edward  Montague,  Earl  of  Manchester. 

THE  RESTORATION. 

1660.  Edward  Hyde  (created  Earl  of  Clarendon). 

1667.  Orlando  Bridgeman. 

1672.  Anthony  Ashley,  Lord  Shaftesbury. 

1675.  Heneage,  Lord  Finch. 
1682.  Francis  North  (keeper). 

JAMES  II. 

1685.  Lord  Guildford. 
1685.  Lord  Jeffreys. 

WILLIAM  III. 
(John  Maynard 


1690.  -{Anthony  Keck 
(Wm.  Rawlinson 


Commissioners. 


(John  Trevor 
1690.  <  AVrn.  Rawlinson      >  Commissioners. 

(Geo.  Hutchins        )    ' 
1693.  John  Somers  (keeper). 


*  During  the  Interregnum  the  holders  of  the  Great  Seal 
were  styled  Lords  Commissioners. 


LORD 


[    598    ] 


LORD 


1697-  Lord  Homers. 

1700.  Nathan  Wright  (keeper). 

ANNE. 

1703.  Nathan  Wright. 
1705.  Hon.  William  Cowper  (keeper). 
1707.  Lord  Cowper. 

(Thomas  Trevor      'I 
1710.  <  Robert  Tracy          >  Commissioners. 

(  John  Scropc.  J 

17:0.  Simon  Harcourt  (keeper). 

1713.  Lord  Harcourt. 

GEORGE  I. 

1714.  Lord  Harcourt. 
1714.  Lord  Cowper. 

lUobi'i-tTnicy  ) 

1718.  -{John  Pratt  V  Commissioners. 

(.lames  Montague          ) 
1718.  Lord  Parker. 

(Joseph  Jekyll  ) 

173:;.  -(Jeffrey  Gilbert  >  Commissioners. 

v      (Robert  Raymond         ) 
1735.  Peter  King  (afterward*  Lord  King). 

GE011UE  II. 
1727.  Lord  King). 
1733.  Charles  Talbot. 
1737.  Philip  Vorke,  Lord  Hardwieke. 
'       (John  Willis  ) 

1756.  { Sydney-Stafford  SmythcJ.  Commissioners. 
(.John  Kardloy  Wilmot     j 

1757.  Robert  Henley  (keeper). 

<;EOI:(.E  in. 

1760.  Lord  Henley  (keeper). 

1761.  Lord  Henley  (created  Earl  of  Northington). 
I~f/>.  Lord  Camden. 

1770.    Charles  Vorko. 

(  Sydnov  Sta  Iford  Smythe) 
17-0.  -  ll.-nry  Buthurst  J- Commissioners. 

(Richard  Aston  ) 

177:.  Henrv  Bat  hurst  (afterwards  Lord  Apsloy  and 

I  MI-!  ll.iihnrst). 
1778.  Lord  Thnrlow. 


irst    }  Commissio  '.ITS. 


Commissioners. 


1783.  -{William  Henry  Ashl 
(Beaumont  Hotham 

1783.  Lord  Thurlow. 
(James  Kvn- 

1  703.  I  William  Henry  Ashhurst 
(johnWltaon 

1793.  Lord  i.oughborough. 

iHo'r.  Lord  Kldon. 

1806.  Lord  Krskiiie. 

1807.  Lord  Eldon  (again). 


1820.  T,ord  Eldon. 
1837.  John   Singleton    Copley    (created   Lord    Lynd- 
hiirst). 

WILLIAM  IV. 
1830.  Lord  Lyndhurst. 
1830.  Lord  Brougham. 
1834.  Lord  Lyndhiirst  (again). 

{Chas.  Christopher'  IVpys  ) 
Lancelot  Sliaihvell  >  Commissioners. 

John  Bernard  Bosanquet  j 

1836.  Lord  Cottenhani. 

VICTORIA. 

1837.  Lord  Cottenhani. 

1841.  Lord  Lyndhiirst  (again). 
1846.  Lord  Cottenhani  (again) 

(  Lord  I.amrdale 
1850.  •{  Lancelot  Shadwell  }•  Commissioners. 

(Robert  Mi 
1850.  Thorn 

1852.  Lord  St.  Leonards. 

1853.  Lord  Cranworth. 

1858.  Lord  Cholmsford. 

1859.  Lord  Campbell. 
1861.  Lord  Westbnry. 

1865.  Lord  Cranworth. 

1866.  Lord  Chelmsford. 

LORD  HIGH  CHANCELLOR  OF  IRE 
LAND. — The  appointment  of  this  officer  com 
mences  with  the  English  rule  in  Ireland  ;  bui 
the  earliest  lord  chancellor  whose  name  has 
been  preserved  is  Stephen  Ridel.  Deputies 
or  vice-chancellors,  also  form  part  of  the 
ancient  establishment  of  Ireland. 


Cottonham  (again). 

d  I.amrdale  ) 

icolot  Shadwell  }•  Commi 

)ort  Mousey  Rolfe  ) 

las  Wilde  (created  Lord  Truro). 


LORD   HIGH   CHANCELLORS  OF  IKELAND. 

JIICIIAKD  I. 
1189.  Stephen  Kidel. 

HENRY  III. 

1219.  John  do  Worcheley. 
1330.  Froniond  Ic  lirun. 

f  Ralph  Nevill. 
I232-  |  (jeoffrey  Turville  (Viee-Cliancellor). 

1335.  Alan  de  Saiicta  Fide. 

1336.  Robert  Luttrell. 

,.    f  (icoffrev  Turville. 
I337-  |  uai,,!,.  j-.ishop  of  Nonvich. 
1345.  William  Wei  ward. 


"{.'••»»>• 
d  le  Bran. 


J349         -      - 
1359.  Fromou 

EDWARD  I. 

1373.  Fromond  le  Brim. 
1383.  Walter  de  Fulburn. 
I3«W.  William  do  Bruorlaco. 

1392.  Thomas  Cantock. 

1393.  Walter  de  Thornburg. 
1294.  Adam  Wodingtoii. 

1395.  Thomas  Cantock  (again). 
KDWARD   II. 

1307.  Tliomas  Cantock. 
1314.  Richard  de  Hereford. 
1317.   William  Fit/. -John. 
1331.  Roger  Outlawe. 

1335.  Alexander  do  Bicknor. 

1336.  Roger  Outlawe  (again). 

EDWARD   III. 

1330.  Adam  de  Limborg. 

1331.  William  (Prior  of  St.  John's,  Dublin), 
f  Adam  de  Limborg  (again). 

I33«-  •£  Rogi'j-  ( (utlawo  (again). 
1-5^4.  Adam  do.  Limberg  (again). 
1335.  Roger  ( (utlawe  (again). 

1337.  Thomas  Charitoii. 

a   f  Robert  de  Hemiingberg. 
133°-  \  John  de  Battail  (ko.-,..-r). 

( Roger  Outlawe  (again). 
a33J-  \Thomas  Charlton  (again). 

,T    /  Robert  de  Askeby. 
I34I-  \John  le  Archer. 
1343.  Roger  Dairy  (keeper). 

1343.  John  do  Battail  (keeper,  again). 

1344.  John  le  Archer  (again). 

,-     ("John  Morice,  or  Morys. 
134°-  \Roger  Darcy  (keeper,  again). 
1349.  John  le  Archer  (again). 

I  William  Bromley  (keeper). 
^S0-  \  John  de  St.  Paul. 

1354.  Richard  de  Asshoton. 

1355.  John  do  St.  Paul  (again). 

1356.  John  de  Frowyk. 
(Thomas  Bin-lev. 

1357.  ^ Friar  John  de  Mora"!        Deputy 
(William  Draitoii        )  Chancellors. 

1359.  Thomas  Burley. 

1363.  Richard  de  Assheton  (again). 

1366.  Thomas  Scurlock. 

1367.  Thomas  le  Reve. 

1368.  Thomas  Burley. 
1370.  John  de  Botheby. 

1373.  William  Tany. 

(John  de  Botheby  (again). 

1374.  J  William  Tany  (again). 
(John  Keppock. 

RICHARD   II. 

„    /Robert  de  Wikeford,  or  Wickford. 
J3'7-  \Alexaiider  Balscot 
1379.  John  Col  ton. 
13^0.  William  Tany  (again). 
1381.  Ralph  Chene,  or  Cheney  (keeper). 
1385.  Robert  de  Wikeford  (again). 

f  Robert  Button  (Viee-Chancellor). 


{Robert  Sutton  (Vice-Chancell 
Alexander  Balscot  (again). 
Thomas  de  Everdon  (Vice-Cli 
Thomas  de  Everdon  (keeper) 


ice-Chancellor). 


. 

1387.  Richard  White. 

13^8.  Robert  Preston  (keeper). 
1389.  Alexander  Balscot  (again). 

1388.  Robert  Preston. 
1393.  Robert  Waldby. 

1393.  Richard  Northalis. 

1394.  Alexander  Balscot  (again). 

1395.  Robert  Waldby  (aguiu). 


LORD 


[    599    1 


LORD 


/"Alexander  Balscot  (again). 
h  )  Robert  de  Braybroke. 
I39~  *)  Robert  Button  (deputy  keeper). 
VThomas  Cranley. 

HENRY  IV. 

1399.  Thomas  Cranley. 

1400.  Alexander  Balscot  (again). 

1401.  Thomas  Cranley  (again). 

1403.  Thomas  de  Everdon  (deputy,  again). 

(Richard  Rede  ) 

1405.  4  John  Bermingham  !-  Deputies. 

(Robert  Sutton  (again) ) 
1407.  Laurence  Merbury  (deputy). 

1410.  Patrick  Barret. 

1411.  Robert  Sutton  (deputy,  again). 
1413.  Thomas  Cranley  (again). 

HENRY  V. 

1413.  Laurence  Merbury  (again). 
( Thomas  Cranley  (again). 
14  ^  \Patrick  Barret  (again). 
1416.  William  Fitz-Thomas. 
1419.  Laurence  Merbury  (again). 
14*1.  William  Fitz-Thomas  (again). 

HENRY  VI. 
1432.  Laurence  Merbury  (again). 

/Richard  Sedgrave,  or  Segrave. 
I433-   \RichardTalbot. 

,-    /William  Fitz-Thomas  (again). 
J43°'  \Richard  Fitz-Eustace. 
_  .  „    /Richard  Talbot  (again). 
1  •*'•  t  Robert  Sutton  (keeper,  again). 

1434.  Thomas  Chase  (keeper). 

1435.  Thomas  Strange  (deputy). 

,-     f  Richard  Fitz-Eustace  (deputy,  again). 
M3&   \Robert  Dyke  (keeper). 
1441.  Thomas  Strange. 

1444.  Ricbard  Wogan. 

1445.  William  Cheevers  (deputy). 
,     ("John  Talbot. 

I44&-   \Robert  Dyke  (deputy,  again). 
T..Q    /Thomas  Fitzgerald  (deputy). 

*  '  \Thomas  Talbot  (deputy). 
1451.  John  Talbot  (again). 

1453.  Edward  Fitz-Eustace. 

1454.  William  Wells  (deputy). 
6      f  Earl  of  Rutland. 

4    '    (_John  Dynham. 

EDWARD  IV. 

_.,T   /Robert  Preston  (deputy). 
1461-  (wiiHam  wells. 
1463.  Earl  of  Worcester. 
1463.  Earl  of  Kildare. 

1468.  Robert  Allameston. 

1469.  William  Dudley. 
/Lord  Portlester. 

J473-   \JohnTaxton. 

_„.    /Gilbert  de  Venham. 

1474-   \uowland  Fitz-Eustace. 

1480.  William  Sherwood. 

1481.  Lawrence  de  St.  Lawrence. 
1483.  Walter  Champflour  (keeper). 

Q      /Robert  de  St.  Lawrence. 
I4»3-   \ThomasFitzgerald. 
HENRY  VII. 
1485.  Robert  Fitz-Eustace. 

1493.  Alexander  Plunket. 

1494.  Henry  Deane. 
1496.  Walter  Fitzsimons. 
1498.  William  Rokeby. 

1501.  Walter  Fitzsimons  (again). 

JENRY   VIII. 

i  St.  Lawrence, 
'itzsimons  (again), 
ompton. 
1515.  William  Rokeby. 

1537.  Hugh  Inge. 

1538.  John  Alan. 

1533.  George  Cromer. 

1534.  John  Barnewall. 

,-a   /John  Allen  (keeper). 
JS38-  (john  Allen. 
-.fAf.    /Thomas  Cusack. 
I54D-  \RichardRead. 

ED  \VAKD  VI. 
1548.  John  Allen. 
1550.  Thomas  Cusack. 

MARY. 

1553.  Thomas  Cusack. 


-on  /Nicholas  S 
I509- 1  Walter  Fit 
I«7.  William  Co 


/William  Fitzwilliams  (keeper). 
(Hugh  Cui-wen. 

ELIZABETH. 
Hugh  Curwen. 
Robert  Weston. 
Adam  Loftus  (keeper). 
William  Gerrard. 
Adam  Loftus  (keeper). 
A.iam  Loftus. 

JAMES  I. 
'Thomas  Jones 


T___ 

1555- 

1558. 
1567. 
1573. 
1576. 
1577. 
1603. 


Anthony  St.  Leger 

f  William  Jones  ) 

T,Tn  J  William  Methwold      V  Keepers. 
I5I9-  <  Francis  Auugier  ) 

lAdam  Loftus  (afterwards  Viscount  Ely). 

CHARLES  I. 
1635.  Viscount  Ely. 

!  James  Usher 
Lord  Docwra 
William  Parsons 
Adam  Loftus 
{Lord  Dillon 
Adam  Loftus 
Christopher  Wandesford 
Philip  Mainwaring  J 

1639.  Richard  Bolton. 

INTERREGNUM. 
(Richard  Pepys        ) 

1655.  -<  Gerard  Lowther      >•  Commissioners. 
(Miles  Corbet  J 

1656.  William  Steele. 

THE  RESTORATION. 

1660.  Maurice  Eustace. 
1665.  Michael  Boyle. 

JAMES  II. 

T«*C  /Michael  Boyle. 
I68S'  i  Charles  Porter. 
1686.  Alexander  Titton. 

WILLIAM  III. 
C  Richard  Pyne      ) 


Richard  Ryves    J-  Keepers. 

Robert  Rochfortj 

Charles  Porter. 
(Archbishop  of  Dublin) 
1693.  <  Earl  of  Meath  J-  Keepers. 

(William  Hill 


SJohn  Jeffreyson        ) 
Thomas  Coote  >  Keepers. 

Nehemiah  DoneUan) 
John  Methuen. 
(Earl  of  Meath  ) 

1697.  -{Earl  of  Longford      } 
(Viscount  Blesinton   J 


Keepers. 


ANNE. 

1703.  John  Methuen  (again). 
1703.  Richard  Cox. 
1707.  Richard  Freeman. 

f  Earl  of  Kildare  ) 

T.T     1  Archbishop  of  Dublin    V  Keepers. 
1710.  /  Thomns  Keightley          ) 

tConstantine  Phipps. 

GEORGE  I. 
1714.  Alan  Brodrick. 

1735.  Richard  West. 

1736.  Thomas  Wyndham. 

GEORGE  II. 

1737.  Thomas  Wyndham. 
1739.  Robert  Jocelyn. 
1757.  John  Bowes. 

GEORGE  III. 

1760.  John,  Lord  Bowes. 
1767.  James  Hewitt, 
1789.  John  Fitzgibbon. 
1803.  John  Mitford. 

1806.  Right  Hon.  George  Ponsonby. 

1807.  Thomas  Manners  Sutton. 

GEORGE  IV. 
1830.  Lord  Manners. 
1837.  Anthony  Hart. 

WILLIAM  IV. 

1830.  William  Conyngham  Plunket 
c  f  Edward  Burtenshaw  Sugden. 
I835-^  Loi.d  piunket. 

VICTORIA. 

1837.  Lord  Plunket. 


LORD  [    600    ] 

o.      I  John  Campbell. 

*     \Edvvard  Burteushaw  Sugden. 
1846.  Maziere  Brady. 
1853.  Francis  Blackburno. 
1853.  Maziere  Brady  (again). 

1858.  Joseph  Napier. 

1859.  Maziere  Brady  (again). 
1866.  Francis  Blackbumc. 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  (England).— This  • 
officer,  called  also  the  Constable  of  All  Eng- 
land, existed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  of 
our  history.  His  jurisdiction  was  defined  by 
8  Rich.  II.  c.  5  (1385).  The  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, tried  and  executed  for  high  treason, 
May  21,  1521,  forfeited  the  office,  and  it  has 
never  been  revived.  The  lord  high  constable 
and  the  earl  marshal  were  judges  of  the  court 
of  chivalry,  called  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
Curia  Militaris.  This  office  ranked  as  the  first 
in  France,  where  it  existed  as  early  as  1060, 
and  was  suppressed  in  1626.  Napoleon  I. 
created  his  brother  Louis  constable  of  the 
empire. 

LORD  HIGH  CONSTABLE  OF  SCOTLAND. 
— This  office  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  in  1162 
was  held  by  Richard  de  Moreville.  Robert 
Bruce  conferred  the  dignity  of  constable  on 
Gilbert  de  Hay,  Earl  of  Errol,  and  his  heirs 
for  ever,  Nov.  12,  1315. 

LORD  HIGH  STEWARD  OF  ENGLAND.— 
The  office  of  Lord  High  Steward  is  of  great 
antiquity,  having  existed  before  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  (1043-66),  and  the  holder 
thereof  was  at  that  period  the  first  great  officer 
of  the  crown.  It  was  for  many  years  hereditary 
in  the  family  of  the  Earls  of  Leicester,  but  on 
the  attainder  of  Simon  of  Montfort  in  1265, 
it  was  abolished,  and  is  now  only  revived  for 
the  special  occasions  of  a  coronation,  or  the 
trial  of  a  peer.  Henry,  Earl  of  Arundel,  was 
created,  Jan.  12,  1559,  high  steward  for  the 
coronation  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Jan.  15,  to  hold 
that  office  from  "  the  rising  of  the  sun  on  the 
same  day  to  the  setting  thereof."  Whenever 
a  grand  jury  finds  a  true  bill  against  a  peer  on 
a  charge  of  treason  or  felony,  a  commission  is 
issued  constituting  a  lord  high  steward,  with 
authority  to  try  the  accused.  Edward,  Earl 
of  Devon,  appointed  lord  high  steward  in  1400, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  for  the  trial  of  the 
Earl  of  Huntingdon,  is  the  first  lord  high 
steward  created  for  this  purpose.  The  trial 
over,  the  lord  high  steward  breaks  his  rod, 
in  order  to  show  that  his  commission  has 
ended. 

LORD  HIGH  TREASURER  OF  ENGLAND. 
—This,  the  third  great  officer  of  the  crown, 
had  the  custody  of  the  royal  treasury,  and 
of  the  foreign  and  domestic  documents  kept 
there.  The  office  was  held  during  pleasure. 
The  first  lord  high  treasurer  was  Odo,  Earl  of 
Kent  and  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  in  the  reign  of 
William  I.  For  many  years  the  office  was 
held  by  ecclesiastics,  the  first  lay  treasurer 
being  Richard,  Lord  Scrope,  in  1371.  The 
Duke  of  Shrewsbury,  appointed  by  Queen 
Anne,  July  29,  1714,  and  who  resigned  office 
soon  afterwards,  was  the  last  Lord  High 
Treasurer  of  England.  Since  that  time  the 
office  has  always  been  vested  in  commissioners, 
the  chief  of  whom  is  the  first  lord  of  the 
treasury,  and  prime  minister. 


LORD 

LORD  HIGH  TREASURERS  OF  ENGLAND. 

WILLIAM  I. 
Odo,  Earl  of  Kent. 

HEMIY  I. 

Geoffry  de  Clinton, 
llaimlph  Flainbard. 
Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury. 
Kigelius,  Bishop  of  Ely. 

IIE.NKY  II. 
Geoffrey  Ridel. 
Richard  de  Ely. 

EICIIABD  I. 
Richard  de  Ely. 
William  de  Ely 

JOIW. 

William  de  Ely. 
Dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
Walter  de  Grey. 
Geoffrey,  Archdeacon  of  Norwich. 

HENRY   III. 

John  Ruthall. 
Wl.  Eustace  de  Faueonbridge. 

John  de  Fontibus. 

Walter  Maclerk,  or  Lacklatiuc. 

Hubert  de  Burgo. 

IVter  de  Orial. 
1334.  Hugh  de  Piitteslmll. 

(Jalfridus  Templuvius. 

William  Haverhull. 

Richard  de  Barking. 

I'liilip  Lovel. 
1358.  John  Craekhall. 
1260.  John,  Abbot  of  Peterborough. 
1263.  Nicholas  de  Ely. 
1266.  Thomas  de  Wymiiudhain. 
1269.  John  de  ChisfiuU. 
1271.  Philip  de  Ely. 

EDWARD  I. 

1274-  Joseph  de  Clancy. 
,    „     f  Walter  (liffard. 

197'1  Robert  BarneL 

1278.  John  de  Clancy. 

1279.  Thomas  Beck. 

1280.  Richard  de  Warren,  or  de  Ware. 
1284.  Walter  Wenlock. 

sf   /Hojrer  de  I.ougespee,  nllas  de  Molend. 
J*86'  V'ol'n  dc  Kirkel.y. 
1290.  William  de  Marchia. 
1293.  Peter  de  Leicester. 
1295.  Walter  de  Langton. 

EDWARD  II. 
1307.  Walter  Reynolds. 
1311.  John  de  Sandale. 
1313.  Walter  de  Norwich. 
1313.  John  de  Sandale  (again). 
.„  .  (  Walter  de  Norwich  (again). 
13151 1  John  de  Drokeucsford. 
1317.  John  Hotham. 
TOTS   /William  Walwaine. 
131  '  \.Tolin  de  Stratford. 
1319.  Walter  Staplcton. 


1321-  Walter  de  Norwich  (again). 
1322.  Roger  de  Northburgh. 
,,,.    /Walter  Stapleton  (again). 
*334-  \William  de  Melton. 

EDWARD  III. 

T,./-  /John  de  Stratford  (again). 
»3*»  \Adam  de  Orleton. 

1337.  Henry  de  Burghersh. 

1329.  Thomas  Charleton,  or  Chorlton. 

1330.  Robert  Woodhouse. 

1331.  William  Melton  (again). 

1332.  William  Ayremin. 

1333.  Robert  le  Ailstone. 

1336.  Henry  de  Burghersh  (again). 

1337.  Richard  de  Bury. 

1338.  William  de  la  Zouch,  or  le  Zouch. 
/Roger  de  Northburgh. 

J34°-  JRlehard  Sodington. 

1342.  Roger  de  Northburgh  (again). 

1343.  William  de  Cusans. 
1345.  William  de  Edington. 
1358.  John  de  Shepey. 
1361.  Simon  Langham. 
1363.  John  Barnet. 

1371.  Richard  Scrope,  Lord  Scrope. 
1376.  Richard  Ashton. 


LORD 


[    601     ] 


LORD 


1377.  Hemy  Wakeiield. 

RICHARD  II. 

1377.  Henry  Wakefield. 
1370.  Thomas  P.rentingham. 

1379.  Richard  Fitzalun. 

1380.  Thomas  Brentingbam  (again). 

1389.  John  Gilbert. 

1390.  John  Waltham. 
1395.  Roger  Walden. 

o    /Guy  de  Mona. 
*o9°-  \\villiam  le  Scrope. 
HENRY  IV. 
1399.  John  Northbury. 

1403.  Henry  Bowet. 

1404.  Lord  Roos,  or  Hos. 

1405.  Lord  Funiival. 

.,.„    /Nicholas  Bubbewith. 
14081  \Lord  Scrope  (again). 

1409.  Lord  Tiptoft. 

1410.  Lord  Scrope. 

HENRY  V. 
1413.  Earl  of  Aruudel  and  Surrey. 

1416.  Philip  Lech. 

1417.  Lord  Fitz-Hugh. 

HENRY  VI. 

1423.  John  Stafford. 

1425.  Lord  Hungerford. 

1431.  Lord  Scrope. 

1434.  Lord  Cromwell. 

1444.  Lord  Sudley. 

1447.  Marmaduke  Lumley. 

1448.  Lord  Say  and  Sole. 
1450.  Lord  Beauchamp. 
1453.  Lord  Tiptoft  (again). 

(Earl  of  Wiltshire  and  Ormond. 

1455.  •]  Thomas  Thorpe. 
(Viscount  Bourchier. 

1456.  Earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

1458.  Earl  of  Wiltshire  and  Ormond  (again). 

1460.  Viscount  Bourchier  (again). 

EDWARD   IV. 

1461.  Thomas  Bourchier. 

1462.  Earl  of  Worcester  (again). 

1464.  Lord  Grey,  of  Euthyn. 

1465.  Walter  Blount. 

1466.  Earl  Rivers. 

,      /John  Longstrother. 
i4°9-   X  William  Grey. 
T  .„    /Earl  of  Essex  (again). 
**!*•  XViscount  Bourchier. 
EDWARD  V. 

1483.  Earl  of  Essex. 

RICHARD  III. 

1483.  Earl  of  Essex. 

1484.  Richard  Wood. 

HENRY  VII. 
T  .R-    /Reginald  Bray. 
I4»5-  (William  Stanley. 
1486.  Lord  Dyuham. 
1501.  Earl  of  Surrey. 

HENRY  VIII. 
T  too    /Earlof  Surrey. 
J5°y-  Xl'hoinas  Cromwell. 
1523.  Earl  of  Surrey. 

ED \VARD  VI. 
1547.  Earl  of  Hertford. 

1551.  Earl  of  Wiltshire  (afterwards  Marquia 
Winchester). 

MARY. 
1553.  Marquis  of  Winchester. 

ELIZABETH. 

1558.  Marquis  of  Winchester. 
1572.  William  Cecil. 

1599.  Thomas  Sackville. 

JAMES   I. 

1600.  Earl  of  Salisbury. 
1614.  Earl  of  Suffolk. 
1618.  George  Abbott. 
1621.  Lord  Cranfield. 

1624.  James  Ley. 

CHAELES  I. 

1625.  James  Ley. 
1636.  William  Juxon. 
1643.  Lord  Cottiugton. 

CHARLES  II. 
T~      /Edward  Hyde, 
xow.  XEurl  of  Southampton. 


1667.  Duke  of  Albernarle. 

1672.  Lord  Clifford. 

1673.  Thomas  Osborne. 
f  Earl  of  Essex. 

1679.  1  Hon.  Laurence,  afterwards  Lord  Hyde  and 
(.        Earl  of  Rochester. 

1684.  Lord  Godolphin. 

JAMES  II. 

1685.  Earl  of  Rochester  (again). 
1687.  Lord  Belasyse. 

WILLIAM  III.  AND  MAKY. 
1689.  Viscount  Mordauut. 
ifinn    /John  Lowther. 
Ib9°-  (Lord  Godolphin  (again). 

WILLIAM  III. 
1694.  Lord  Godolphin  (again). 

1698.  Charles  Montague. 

1699.  Earl  of  Tankerville. 

1700.  Lord  Godolphin  (again). 

1701.  Earl  of  Carlisle. 

ANNE. 

1703.  Lord  Godolphin  (again). 
1710   Earl  Poulett. 
1711.  Earl  of  Oxford. 
1714.  Duke  of  Shrewsbury. 

LORD  HIGH  TREASURER  OF  IRELAND. 
—The  dignity  of  this  officer,  who  ranked  third 
of  the  crown  officers  in  Ireland,  is  as  ancient 
as  the  English  government  of  that  country. 
Originally  he  was  styled  the  treasurer  of  the 
exchequer.  John  de  St.  John  was  the  first 
holder  of  the  office,  in  1217. 

LORD  OF  THE  ISLES.— (See  HEBRIDES.) 

LORD  KEEPER.— The  office  of  lord  keeper 
of  the  great  seal  (q.  v.)  of  England  is  stated  on 
doubtful  authority  to  have  been  held  during 
the  chancellorship  of  Ranulph  (1108 — 1124),  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  by  Richard,  a  chaplain. 
Foss  says  the  first  charter  making  a  distinc- 
tion is  dated  June  14,  1232.  The  offices  of 
lord  chancellor  and  lord  keeper  were  declared 
identical,  as  far  as  England  is  concerned,  by 
5  Eliz.  c.  18  (1563).  A  list  of  lord  keepers  is 
given  under  lord  high  chancellor  of  England. 

LORD  LIEUTENANT.—  Hallam  (Hist,  of 
Eng.  vol.  ii.  c.  9)  states  that  the  military  juris- 
diction in  counties  was  transferred  from  the 
sheriffs,  or  justices  of  the  peace,  to  a  new 
officer  called  the  lord  lieutenant,  during  the 
reign  of  Mary.  "The  office  gave  him  the 
command  of  the  militia,  and  rendered  him  the 
chief  viceregent  of  his  sovereign,  responsible 
for  the  maintenance  of  public  order.  This 
institution  may  be  considered  as  a  revival  of 
the  ancient  local  earldom."  Lords  lieutenant 
of  counties  were  appointed  in  Ireland  by  i  &  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  17  (Aug.  23,  1831). 

LORD  MARSHAL.— (See  EARL  MARSHAL.) 

LORD  MAYOR.  —  The  title  of  Lord  was 
granted  to  the  mayor  of  London  in  1354. 
Charles  I.  conferred  this  distinction  on  the 
chief  magistrate  of  Dublin  in  1641,  but  it  was 
not  borne  by  him  until  1665.  The  chief  magis- 
trate of  York  and  of  Edinburgh  is  also  styled 
Lord  Mayor. 

LORD  MAYOR  (London).  —  According  to 
the  Liber  Albus,  the  principal  representatives 
of  the  sovereign  power  in  the  city  of  London 
have  since  the  Norman  conquest  acted  at 
various  times  under  different  names.  William 
I.  styled  this  officer  his  Portgrave,  or  Port- 
greve,  afterwards  corrupted  into  Portreve.  In 
a  charter  of  Henry  I.  he  is  called  a  Justiciar, 
and  in  a  charter  of  Henry  II.,  in  which  the 
right  of  the  aldermen  to  elect  one  every  year 


LORD 


t    602    ] 


LORD 


is  confirmed,  he  is  styled  Mayor.     In  olden 

1367.  James  Andrew. 

1445.    Symken,   or   Simon 

times  the  mayor  was  elected  on  the  feast  of 
the  apostles  Simon  and  Jude  (Oct.  28),  and  it 
was  customary  for  him  on  the  day  of   his 

1368.  Simon  Morden. 
1369.  John  Chichester. 
1370.  John  Bernes. 
1371.  John  Bernes. 

Eyer. 
1446.  Johan  Olney. 
1447.  Johan  Gidn'ey. 
1448.  Stephen    Browne 

election  to  go  on  foot  by  land,  or  by  boat  on 

1372.  John  I'vel. 

(again). 

the  river    Thames,   to    Westminster,   or  the 
Tower,   to  be  sworn  into  office.     At  first  the 
Lord  Mayor    frequently  held  the    office   for 

1373.  Adam  de  Bury. 
1374.  William  Wulworth. 
1375.  John  Warde. 
(Adam     Stable      (de- 

1449.  Thomas  Chalton. 
1450.  Nicolas  Wyfforde. 
1451.  William  Gregory. 
1452.  Geffrey  Fcldyng. 

several  consecutive  years  ;  but  Edward  I.,  iri 
1285,   limited  it  to  one  year,  and  this  rule, 
except  in  special  cases,  has  since  been  observed. 
Henry  Fitz-Elwyne,   the   first  who  held  the 
office,  was  appointed  by  the  crown  in   1188. 

1376.  •!     posed). 
(Nicholas  Brembre. 
1377.  Nicholas  Brembre. 
1378.  John  Philipot. 
1379.  John  Hadley. 
l38o.  William  Walworth. 

1453.  John  Norman. 
1454.  Stephen  Forster. 
1455.  William  Marowe. 
1456.  Thomas   Caning,   or 
Canings. 
1457.  Geffrey    Boleyn,    or 

The  title   Lord  was  added  to  mayor  in  1354. 
The  procession  was  converted  into  a  pageant 
in  1454  by  Sir  John  Norman,  who  proceeded 

1381.  John  Northampton. 
1382.  John  Northampton. 
1383  to  1385   Nicholas  Brem- 
bre. 

Boleine. 

1458.  Thomas  Scot. 
1459.  William  Henlyn. 
1460.  Richard  Lee.  " 

to  Westminster  in  a  barge. 

1386.  Nicholas  Exton. 

1387.  Nicholas  Exton. 

1461.  Hugh  Wyche. 
1462.  Thomas  Cooke. 

LORD  MAYORS  OF  LONDON. 

1388.  Nicholas  Twyford. 
1389.  William  Venour. 

1463.  Mathew  Philip. 
1464.  Rauf  Josselyne. 

A.T>.                                                     A.D. 

1390.  Adam  Bamme. 

1465.  RaufVerney. 

1189  to   1212.    Henry    Fitz- 

1300.  Elias  Russel. 

1391.  John  Hondo. 

1466.  Johan  Vonge. 

Elwyne. 

1301  to  1307.  John  le  Blount. 

1392.  William  Staundon. 

1467.  Thomas  Owlgrave. 

1213.  Roger  Fitz-Alan. 

1308.  Nicholas  de  Farndone. 

1393.  John  Hadley. 

1468.  William  Taylour. 

1214.  Serlo  le  Mercer. 
1215.  William  Hardel. 

1309.  Thomas  Ronievn. 
1310.  Richer  de  Refham. 

1394.  John  Fresslio. 
1395.  William  More. 

1469.  Richard  Lee. 
1470.  Johan  Stockton. 

(James  Alderman  (de- 

1311.  John  Gizors. 

1396.  Adam  Bamme. 

1471.  William  Edward. 

I2i6.  <     posed). 

1312.  John  Gizors. 

1397.  Richard  Whittington. 

1472.  William  Hampton. 

(.Solomon  de  Basing. 

1313.  Nicholas  de  Farndone. 

1398.  Drew  Barentyn. 

1473.  Johan  Tate. 

1217  to  1222.   Serlo  le  Mercer. 

1314.  John  Gizors. 

1399.  Thomas  Knolles. 

1474.  Robert  Drope. 

1423  IOI226.  Richard  Rcngcr. 
1327  to  1230.  Roger  le  Due. 

TVS-  .Stephen  de  Abingdon. 
1316  to  1318.  John  de   Wen- 

1400.  John  Fraunceys. 
1401.  John  Shadworth. 

147=;.    Robert  liassot. 
1476.   Rauf  Jossel;, 

1231  to  1236.  Andrew  Buke- 

grave. 

1402.  John  Walcot. 

1477.  Humphrey  Ib'vton'e. 

rel. 

1319.  llamo  de  ChlggeweDe. 

1403.  William  Askham. 

1478.  Richard  Gardiner. 

1237.  Richard  Ronger. 

1320.  Nicholas  de  Farndone. 

1404.  John  Hondo. 

1479.  Bartilmew  James. 

1238.  William  Joynier. 

1321.    Hainode  Chiggewelle. 

1405.  John  Woodcock. 

1480.  Johan  Browne. 

I  -'39.  Gerard  lint'. 

1322.  Hamo  de  Chiggewelle. 

1406.  Richard  Whittington. 

1481.  William  Haryot. 

1240.  Reginald  de  Bungay. 

1323.  Nicholas  de  Farndone. 

1407.  William  Staundon. 

1482.  Edinond  Bhaa. 

1241  to  1243.  Ralph  Eswy. 
1244.  Michael  Tovy. 

1324.  Hamo  do  Chiggewulle. 
(  Hamo  de  Chiggewelle 

1408.  Drew  Barentyn. 
1409.  Richard  Merlawe. 

1483.  Robert  Billesdon. 
1484.  Thomas  Hylle. 

1245.  John  Gizors. 

1335-  I     (dcp.»edj. 

1410.  Thomas  Knolles. 

1485.  Hugh  Bryce. 

1246.  Peter  Fitz-Alan. 

/  Itirhard  do  lietoigne. 

1411.  Robert  Chichele. 

1486.  Henry  Colet. 

1247.  Michael  Tow  or  Tony. 
1248.  Michael  Tovy. 

1326.  Richard  de  Botuiguo. 
13^7.   1  1  'lino  de  Chiggewelle. 

1412.  William  Walderne. 
1413.  William  Crowmer. 

1487.  William  Home. 
14**.   Hubert  Tate. 

1249.  Roger  Fitz-Roger. 

1328.  John  do  Griintlmm. 

1414.  Thomas  Fauconer. 

1489.  William  White. 

I25o.  John  Norman. 

1329.  Simon  Swanlond. 

1415.  Nicholas  Wotton. 

1490.  Johan  Mathew. 

1251.  Adam  de  Basing. 
1252.  John  Tulesan. 

1330.  John  de  Pountniey. 
1331.  John  de  Pounteney. 

1410.  Henry  Barton. 
1417.  Richard  Merlawe. 

1491.  Hugh  Clopton. 
1492.  William  Martyn. 

1253.  Nicholas  Bat. 

1332.  John  de  Protons. 

1418.  William  Sevenoke. 

1493.  Rauf  Astiy,  or  Ostrich. 

1254  to  !257-  Ralph  Hardel. 
1258.  John  Gizors. 

1333.  John  de  Pountonov. 
1334.  Reginald  do  Conduit. 

1419.  Richard  Whittington. 
1420.  William  Cambrege. 

1494.  Richard  Chawry. 
1495.  Henry  Colet  (again). 

J2S9-  William  Fitz-Richard. 

1335-  Nicholas  Wotton. 

1421.  Richard  Chichele. 

1496.  Johan  Tate  (again). 

1260.  William  Fit/.-Riebard. 

'330.  John  de  Pounteuey. 

1422.  William  Waldorn. 

1497.  William  Purchase. 

I26l   to   1264.  Thomas  Fitz- 

1337.   Henry  Darcy. 

1423.    William     Crowmer 

1498.  Johan  Peroival. 

Thomas. 

1338.  Henry  Darcy. 

(again) 

1499.  Nicholas  Alwyn. 

!HugliFitz-Otho(war 

:339-  Andrew  Aubrey. 

1424.  John  Michell. 

1500.  Johan  Reymington. 

den). 
WilliamFitz-Richard 
(warden). 

1340.  Andrew  Aubrey. 
(  John  Oxen  ford  (died). 
0+  '  \Simon  Fraunceys. 

1425.  Johan  Coventre. 
1426.  William  Rynwell. 
1427.  Johan  Gedney. 

1501    Johan  Bhaa. 
1502.  Bartholomew  Reed. 
1503.  William  Capel. 

1266.  Alan  la  Suche    (war- 

1342. .Simon  Fraunceys. 

1428.  Henry  Barton  (again). 

1504.  John  Wyngar,  or  Win- 

den). 

1343.  John  Hamond. 

1429.  William     Estfleld,     or 

ger. 

f  Thomas  de  Eppegrave 

1344.  John  Hamond. 

Kastfield. 

1505.  Thomas  Knesworth. 

I26,J     (warden). 
I3°><  Stephen     de     Edde- 

1345.  Richard  Lacere. 
1346.  Geoffrey     Wichyng- 

1430.    Nicholas    Wotton 
(again). 

1506.  Richard  llandon. 
1507.  William  Browne  (again 

(.     worthe  (warden). 

ham. 

1431.  Johan  Wellis,or  Welles. 

in  I5I3)- 

1268.  Hugh  Fitz-Otho  (war- 
den). 

1347.  Thomas  Legge. 
1348.  John  Lovekyn. 

1432.  Johan  Parneys,  or  Par- 
veis. 

1508.  Stephen  Jenyns. 
1509.  Thomas  Bradbury. 

1269.  John  Adrien. 

1349.  Walter  Turke. 

1433.  Johan     Broklev.    or 

1510.  Henry  Keble. 

1270.  John  Adrien. 

1350.  Richard  Kislingbury. 

Brocle. 

1511.  Roger  Aichiley. 

1271.  Walter  Hervey. 
1272.  Walter  Hervey. 

1351.  Andrew  Aubrey. 
1352.  Adam  Fraunceys. 

1434.  Robert  Otley,  or  Roger 

Otely. 

1512.  William  Copinger. 
1513.  William  Browne  (John 

1273.  Henry  Waleys. 

1353.  Adam  Fraunceys. 

1435.  Henry    Frowyk,     or 

Tate). 

12/4    to     1280.    Gregory    de 
Rokesley. 

1354.  Thomas  Legge. 
1355.  Simon  Fraunceys. 

Frow. 
1436.  Johan    Michell,     or 

1514.  George  Menoux. 
1515.  William  Butler. 

1281  to  1283.  Henry  Waleys. 

1356.  Henry  Picard. 

Michael. 

1516.  John  Rest. 

1284.  Gregory  de  Rokesley. 

1357.  John  Stody. 

1437.  William    Estfield 

1517.  Thomas  Exmewe. 

1285.  Ralph     de     Sandwich 

1358.  John  Lovekyn. 

(again). 

1518.  Thomas  Mil-fine. 

(warden). 

1359.  Simon  Dolsely. 

1438.  Stephen  Browne. 

1519.  James  Varford. 

1286.  John  Bretone  (warden). 

1360.  John  Wroth. 

1439.  Robert  Large. 

1520.  John  Brugo. 

1287  to  1292.  Ralph  de  Sand- 

1361. John  Pecche. 

1440.  Johan  Paddesley. 

1521.  John  Milbome. 

wich  (warden). 

1362.  Stephen  Cavendish. 

1441.  Robert  Clopton. 

1522.  John  Monday. 

1293  to  1296.  John  Bretone. 

1363.  John  Notte. 

14^42.  Johan    Atherley,    or 

1523.  Thomas    Baldrv, 

1297.  Henry  Waleys. 
1298.  Henry  Waleys. 
1299.  Elias  Russel. 

1364.  Adam  de  Bury. 
1365.  John  Lovekyn. 
1366.  John  Lovekyn. 

Hatherley. 
1443.  Thomas  Chatworth. 
1  444.  Henry  Frowyk  (again). 

Baldrie. 
1524.  William  Bailey. 
1525.  John  Allen. 

LORD 


[    603    ] 


LORD 


1526.  Thomas  Seamer. 

1609.  Thomas  Cambell. 

1695.  Thomas  Lane. 

1774.  Frederick  Bull. 

1537.  James  Spencer. 

1610.  William  Craven. 

1696.  John  Honblon. 

1775.  John  Wilkes. 

1528.  John  Rtulstone. 

1611.  James  Pemberton. 

1697.  Edward  Clarke. 

1776.  John  Sawbridge. 

1539.  Ralph  Dodmer. 
1530.  Thomas  Pagitor. 

1613.  John  Swinnerton. 
1613.  Thomas  Middleton. 

1698.  Humphrey  Edwin. 
1699.  Francis  Child. 

1777.  Thomas  Halifax. 
1778.  James  Esdaile. 

1531.  Nicholas  Lambard. 

1614.  John  Haves. 

1700.  Richard  Lcvett. 

1779.  Samuel  Plumbe. 

1533.  Stephen  Pecocke. 

1615.  JohnJolles. 

1701.  Thomas  Abney. 

1780.  Brackley  Kennet. 

1533.  Christopher  Askew. 

1616.  John  Leman. 

1702.  William  Gore. 

1781.  Watkin  Lewes. 

1534.  John  Champneis. 

1617.  George  Bolles. 

1703.  William  Dashwood. 

1783.  William  Plomer. 

1535.  John  Allen  (again). 

1618.  Sebastian  Harvey. 

1704.  John  Parsons. 

'.783.  Nathaniel  Newnham. 

1536.  Ralph  Waren. 

1619.  William  Cockain. 

1705.  Owen  Buckingham. 

1784.  Robert  Peckham. 

1537.  Kichard  Gre.slmm. 

1620.  Francis  Jones. 

1706.  Thomas  IJ'iwlinson. 

1785.  Richard  Clark. 

1538.  William  Forman. 

1621.  Edward  Barkham. 

1707.  Robert  Bedingfield. 

17*6.  Thomas  Wright. 

1539.  William  Holies. 

1622.  Peter  Proby. 

1708.  William  Withers. 

1787.  Thomas  Sainsbury. 

1540.  William  Roch. 

16^3.  Martin  Lumley. 

1709.  Charles  Duncombe. 

1788.  John  Burnell. 

154:.  Michael  Dormer. 

1624.  John  Goare. 

1710.  Samuel  Garrard. 

1780.  William  Gill. 

1543.  John  Cootes,  or  Cotes. 

1625.  Allen  Cotton. 

1711.  Gilbert  Heathcote. 

1790.  William  Pickett. 

.....    /William  Bowyer. 

1626.  Cuthbert  Aket. 

1712.  Robert  Beachcroft. 

1791.  John  Boy  dell. 

IS43-  \Ralph  Waren  (ag:;iu). 

1627.  Hugh  Hammersley. 

1713.  Richard  Hoare. 

1793.  John  Hopkins. 

1544.  William  Laxton. 

1628.  Richard  Deane. 

1714.  Samuel   Stanier,    or 

1793.  James  Sanderson. 

1545.  Martin  Bowes. 

1629.  James  Cambell. 

Stainer. 

1794.  Paul  le  Mesurier. 

1546.  Henry  Hurbarthome. 

1630.  Robert  Ducy. 

1715.  William  Humphreys. 

1795.  Thomas  Skinner. 

1547.  John  Gresham. 

1631.  George  Whitmore. 

1716.  Charles  Peers. 

1796.  William  Curtis. 

1548.  Henry  Amcotes. 

1633.  Nicholas  Raynton. 

1717.  James  Bateman. 

1797.  Brook  Watson. 

1549.  Rowland  Hill.first  Pro- 

1633. Kalph  Freeman. 

1718.  William  Lewen. 

1798.  JohnWilliamAnderson. 

testant  lord  mayor. 

1634.  Thomas  Moulson. 

1719.  John  Ward. 

1799.  Richard  Carr  Glynn. 

1550.  Andrew  Jude. 

1635.  Robert  Packhurst. 

1720.  George  Thorold. 

1800.  Harvey    Christopher 

I  SSL  Richard  Dobbes. 

1636.  Christopher  Cletheroe. 

1731.  John  Fryer. 

Coombe. 

1552.  George  Barnes. 

1637.   Edward  Bromfield. 

1722.  William  Stewart. 

1801.  William  Staines. 

1553.  Thomas  White. 

1638.  Richard  Fenn. 

1723.  Gerard  Conyers. 

1803.  John  Earner. 

1554.  John  Lion. 

1639.  Maurice  Abbott 

1734.  Peter  Delme. 

1803.  Charles  Price. 

1555-  William  Gerard. 

1640.  Henry  Gar  way. 

1735.  George    Mertins,    or 

1804.  John  Perring. 

1556.  Thomas  Offley. 

1641.  William  Acton. 

Martyns. 

1805.  Peter  Perchard. 

1557.  Thomas  Curteis. 

1642.  Richard  Gurney. 

1736.  Francis  Forbes. 

1806.  James  Shaw. 

1558.  Thomas  Leigh,  or  Lee. 

1643.  Isaac  Pennington. 

1737.  John  Eyles. 

1807.  WiUiam  Leighton. 

1559.  William  Huet. 

1644.  John  Wollaston. 

1728.  Edward  Beecher. 

1808.  John  Ainsley. 

1560.  William  Chester, 

1645.  Thomas  Atkins. 

1729.  Robert  Baylis. 

1809.  Charles  Flower. 

1561.  William  Harper. 

1646.  Thomas  Adams 

1730.  Richard  Brocas. 

1810.  Thomas  Smith. 

1562.  Thomas  Lodge. 
1563.  John  White. 

1647.  John  Gavre  (committed 
to  the  Tower). 

1731.  Humphrey  Parsons. 
1732.  Francis  Child. 

1811.  Joshua        Jonathan 
Smith. 

1564.  Richard  Malorie. 

1648.  John  Warner. 

1733.  John  Barber. 

1813.  Claudius       Stephen 

1565.  Richard  Champion. 
1566.  Christopher  Draper. 

1649.  Abraham   Reynardson 
(committed  to  Tower 

1734.  William  Billers. 
1735.  Edward  Bellamy. 

Hunter. 
1813.  George  Scholey. 

1567.  Roger  Martin. 

by  Parliament). 

1736.  John  Williams. 

1814.  William  Domville. 

1568.  Thomas  Rowe. 

1650.  Thomas  Foote. 

1737.  John  Thompson. 

1815.  Samuel  Birch. 

1569.  Alexander  Avenon. 

1651.  Thomas  Andrews. 

1738.  John  Barnard. 

1816.  MathewWood. 

1570.  Rowland  Hevward. 

1652.  JohnKendrek. 

1739.  Micajah  Perry. 

1817.  Mathew  Wood  (again). 

1571.  William  Allen. 

1653.  John  Fowkes. 

1740.  John  Salter. 

1818.  Christopher  Smith. 

1572.  Lionel  Ducket 

1654.  Thomas  Vyner. 

-„._    /Humphrey  Parsons. 

1819.  John  Atkins. 

1573.  John  Kivers. 
1574.  James  Hawes. 

1655.  Christopher  Pack. 
1656.  JohnDethick. 

1'41'  \Daniel  Lambert. 
/Robert  Godschal. 

1830.  George  Brydges. 
1821.  John  Thomas  Thorpe. 

1575.  Ambrose  Nicholas. 

1657.  Kobert  Tichborne. 

J742-  \George  Heathcote. 

1823.  Christopher  Magnay. 

1576.  John  Langley. 
1577.  Thomas  Ramsey. 

1658.  Richard  Chiverton. 
1659.  John  Ireton. 

1743.  Robert  Willimot,  or 
Willmot. 

1823.  William  Heygate. 
1824.  Robert  Waithman. 

1578.  Richard  Pipe. 
1579.  Nicholas  Woodrofe. 

1660.  Thomas  Alleyne. 
1661.  Richard  Browne. 

1744.  Robert  Westley. 
1745.  Henry  Marshall. 

1825.  John  Garratt 
1826.  William  Venables. 

1580.  John  Branche. 

1662.  John  Frederick. 

1746.  Richard  Hoare. 

1837.  Anthony  Browne. 

1581.  James  Harvie. 

1663.  John  Robinson. 

1747.  William  Benn. 

1828.  Matthias  Prime  Lucas. 

1582.  Thomas  Blancke. 
1583.  Edward  Osborne. 

1664.  Anthony  Bateman. 
1665.  John  Lawrence. 

1748.  Robert  Ladbroke. 
1749.  William  Calvert. 

1829.  William  Thompson. 
1830.  John  Crowder. 

1584.  Edward  Pullison. 

1666.  Thomas  Bludworth. 

,„_      /Samuel  Pennant. 

1831.  John  Key. 

1585.  Wolstan  Dixie. 

1667.  William  Bolton 

1  '5°-  \John  Blachford. 

1832.  John  Key  (again). 

1586.  George  Barne. 

1668.  William  Peake. 

1751.  Francis  Cockayne. 

1833.  Peter  Laurie. 

1587.  George  Bond. 

1669.  William  Turner. 

.„,„   /Thos.  Winterbottom. 

1834.  Charles  Farebrother. 

1588.  Martin  Calthorp,  or 

1670.  Samuel  Sterling. 

1/s*  \RobertAlsop. 

1835.  Henry  Winchester. 

Colthorpe. 

1671.  Richard  Ford. 

1753.  Crispe  Gascoyne. 

1836.  William  Taylor  Cope- 

1589.  John  Hart. 

1672.  George  Waterman. 

*„.    /Edward  Ironside. 

land. 

1590.  John  Allot. 

1673.  Robert  Hanson. 

*75r  \Thomas  Rawlinson. 

1837.  Thomas  Kelly. 

1591.  William  Web. 
1593.  William  Rowe. 

1674.  William  Hooker. 
1675.  Robert  Vyner. 

1755.  Stephen       Theodore 
Janssen. 

1838.  John  Cowan. 
1839.  Samuel  Wilson. 

T-n,     (Cuthbert  Buckle. 
1593-  X  Richard  Martin. 

1676.  Joseph  Sheldon. 
1677.  Thomas  Dnvies. 

1756.  Slingsby  Bethell. 
1757.  Marshe  Dickinson. 

1840.  Chapman  MarshaD. 
1841.  Thomas  Johnson. 

1594.  John  Spencer. 

1678.  Francis  Chaplin. 

1758.  Charles  Asgill. 

1842.  John  Pirie. 

1595.  Stephen  Slany. 
T_  ,    /Thomas  Skinner. 

1679.  James  Edwards. 
1680.  Robert  Clavton. 

17=59.  Richard  Glyn. 
1760.  Thomas  Chitty. 

1843.  John  Humphrey. 
1844.  William  Magnay. 

I59°-  (  Henry  Bill  in-sly. 

1681.  Patience  Ward. 

1761.  Matthew  Blakiston. 

1845.  Michael  Gibbs. 

1597.  Richard  Saltenstall. 

1683.  John  Moore. 

1763.  Samuel  Fludyer. 

1846.  John  Johnson. 

1598.  Stephen     Some,     or 

1683.  William  Prichard. 

1763.  William  Beckford. 

1847.  George  Carroll. 

Soame. 

1684.  Henry  Tulse. 

1764.  William  Bridgen. 

1848.  John       Kinnersley 

1599.  Nicholas  Mosley. 

1685.  James  Smith. 

1765.  William  Stephenson. 

Hooper. 

1600.  William  Ryder. 

1686.  Robert  Jeffery. 

1766.  George  Nelson. 

1849.  James  Duke. 

1601.  John  Gerrard. 

1687.  John  Peake. 

1767.  Robert  Kite. 

1850.  Thomas  Farncomb. 

1602.  Robert  Lee. 

1688.  John  Shorter. 

1768.  Thomas  Harley. 

1851.  John  Musgrove. 

1603.  Thomas  Bennet. 

fo      /John  Chapman. 

1769.  Samuel  Turner. 

1852.  William  Hunter. 

1604.  Thomas  Low.- 

1689.  (Thomas  rnkington. 

„      /William  Beckford. 

1853.  Thomas  Challis,  M.P. 

1605.  Henry  Hollyday. 
1606.   John  Wats. 

1690-91.  Thomas  I'ilkington 
1692.  Thomas  Stamp. 

V'0-  \BarlowTrecothick. 
1771.  Brass  Crosby. 

1854.  Thomas  Sidney. 
1855.  Francis  Graham  Moon. 

1607.  Henrv  Rowe. 

1693.  John  Fleet. 

1773.  William  Nash. 

1856.  David  Salomons. 

1608.  Humphrey  Weld, 

1694.  William  Ashurst 

1773.  James  TWiishend. 

1857.  Thomas  Quested  Finnis. 

LORD 


[    604    ] 


LORDS 


1858.  Robert  Walter  Garden.  1863.  William  A.  Rose. 

1797.  Thomas  Fleming. 

1831.  Thomas  Whelan. 

1859.  David  W.  Wire. 

1864.  William  Lawrence. 

1798.  Thomas  Andrews. 

183.2.  Charles  PalmerArcher. 

1860.  James  Carter. 

1865.  Warren  Ktonncs  Hale. 

1799.  John  Sutton  and  John 

1833.  George  Whiteford. 

1861.  William  Cubitt,  M.P. 

1866.  B.  S.  Phillips. 

Exshaw. 

1834.  Arthur  Pen-in. 

1863.  William    Cubitt,    M.P. 

1867.  Thomas  Gabriel. 

1800.  Charles  Thorp. 

1835.  Arthur  Morrison. 

(second  time). 

1801.  Richard  Manders. 

1836.  William  II. 

1803.  Jacob  Poole. 

1837.  Samuel  Warren. 

The  term  of  office  commences  Nov.  g,  in  the 

1803.  Henry  Ilutton. 

[838.  Gem-^e  Hovte. 

your  preceding  the  one  mentioned  in  the  fore- 

1804. Meredith  Jenkin. 
1805.  James  Vance. 

1839.  Nicholas    William 
Brady. 

going  list. 
LORD  MAYOR  (Dublin).—  The  title  of  Lord 

1806.  Joseph  Pemberton. 
1807.  Hugh  Trevor. 

1840.  Jolm  Kingston  James. 
1841.  Dan.  O'Connell,  M.P. 

was  first  assumed  by  the  Mayors  of  Dublin  in 

1808.  Frederick  Darley. 

1843.  Dan.  O'Conncll,  M.P. 

1665.     The  year  in  the  following  list  is  that  of 
election  to  office. 

1809.  William  Stumor. 
1810.  Nathaniel  Hone. 
iSn.  William  Henry  Archer. 

1843.   Geoi 
1844.  Timothy  O'Brien. 
1845.  John  L.  Arabin. 

1813.  Abraham    Bradley 

1846.  John  Keshan. 

LORD    MAYORS   OF  DUBLIN. 

Kin- 

1847.  Michael  Staunton. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

1813.  John  Cash. 

1848.  Jeremiah  Dunne. 

1665.  Daniel  Bellingham. 
1666.  John  Desmyuiers. 

1733.  Thomas  How. 
1734.  Nathaniel  Kane. 

1814.  John  Claudius  Bcres- 
ford. 

1849.  Timothy  O'Brien,  M.P. 
1850.  John  Reynolds,  M.P. 

l(,(,-.  .Mark  Quin. 

1735.  Richard    (i  rat  tan    and 

1815.  Robert  Shaw. 

1851.  Benjamin    Lee    Guin- 

1668. John  Forrest. 

George  Forbes. 

i*  16.  Mark  Bloxham. 

ness. 

1669.  Lewis  Desmyniers. 
1670.  Enoch  Reader. 

1736.  James  Som 
1737.  William  Walker, 

1*17.  Jolm  Alley. 
1818.  Thomas  Ji  -Kenny. 

1853.  John  D'Arcy. 
1853.  Robert  HenryKinahan. 

1671.  Jolm  Totty. 

1738.  John  Macarroll. 

1819.  William  Stanur. 

1854.  Edward  M'Donuel. 

1673.  Robert  Deey. 

1739.  Daniel  Falkiner. 

1830.  Abraham  Bradley 

1855.  Joseph  Boyce. 

1673.  Joshua  Allen. 
1674.   Francis  Brewster. 

1740.  Samuel  Cooke. 
1741.  AVilliiimAldricb. 

1831.  John  Kingston  James. 

1856.  Fergus  Farrell. 
1857-  Richard  Atkinson. 

1675.  William  Smith. 

1743.  Gilbert  King. 

1832.  John  Smyth  Fleming. 

1858.  John  Campbell. 

1676.  Christopher  Lovet 

1743.  David  Tew  and   Wil- 

1833. Richard  Smyth. 

1859.  James  Lambert. 

1677.   Jolm  Smith. 

liam  Aldrieh. 

1834.  Drury  Jones. 

1860.  Redmond  Carroll. 

1678.   IVtcr  Ward. 

1744.  John  Walker. 

1835.  Thomas  Abbot. 

1861.  Richard  Atkinson. 

1679.  John  Eastwood. 
1680.  Luke  Lowther. 

1745.  Daniel  Cooke. 
1746.  Richard    White     and 

1836.  Samuel  William  Tyn- 
dall. 

1863.  Denis  Moylan. 
1863.  John       Prendergast 

16^1.   Humphrey  Jcrvis. 

William  Walker. 

1837.  Edmund  Nugent. 

Vereker. 

1683.  Humphrey  Jcrvis. 

1747.  George  Ribton. 

1838.  Alexander      Montgo- 

1864. Peter  Paul  M'Swiney. 

l6'<3.   Elias  Best. 

174*.   Robert  Ross. 

mery. 

1865.  John  Harrington. 

Id^}.   Abel  Ram. 

1749.  John  A  damson. 

1839.  Jacob  West. 

:866.  JamesWilliamMackey. 

I68t  John  Knox. 

1750.  Thomas  Taylor. 

1830.  Robert  W.Harry. 

1867.  William  Lane  Joynt. 

16-^6.  John  Castleton. 

17:51.  John 

1687.  Thomas  llaeket. 

1753.  Charles  Burton. 

LORDS.—  (See  HOUSE  OF  LORDS,  and  PEERS.) 

1753.  Andrew  Murray. 

LORDS   OF  ARTICLES  (Scotland),  a  com- 

1689. Terence  M'Dcrmott. 
1690.  John  dtrington. 

1754.   Hans  Bailie. 
1755.   Pereival  Hunt. 

mittee  of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  abolished 

l6<ii     Michael  Mitchell. 

1756.  John   ' 

in  1690. 

1693.'  Michael  .Mitchell. 

175-.  Thomas  Mead. 

1.'  MID'S  BRETHREN.—  (See  CANONS.) 

1693.  John  Rogerson. 

1758.  Philip  Crampton. 

LORD'S  DAY.—  (See  SUNDAY.) 

1694.  George  Blackball. 
1695.   William  Watts. 
1696.  William  Billington. 
1697.  Bart.  Van  llomrigh. 
1698.  Thomas  Quin. 

1759.  John  Tew. 
1760.  Patrick  Hamilton. 
1761.  Timothy  Allen. 
1763.   Charles'  R.,,.,ell. 
1763.   William  Forbes. 

LORDS    JUSTICES.  —  Persons  under  dif- 
ferent titles  have  been  appointed  by  various 
English  kings  since  the  Norman  Conquest,  to 
act  as  their  substitutes  in  the  government  of 

1699.  Thomas  Quin. 
1700.  Mark  Rainsford. 
1701.  Samuel  Walton. 
1703.  Thomas  Bell. 

1764.  Benjamin  Gealo. 
1765.  James  Taylor. 
1766.  Edward  Sankev. 
1767.    Francis  Fetherston. 

part  or  the  whole  of   their  kingdom    when 
absent,  or  under  other  exceptional   circum- 
stances. William  I.  appointed  Odo,  of  Bayeux, 

1703.  John  Page. 

1768.  Benjamin  Barton. 

and  William  Fitz-Osbern,   Earl  of  Hereford, 

1704.  Francis  Stoyte. 
1705.  Williams  Gibbons. 
1706.  Benjamin  Burton. 
1707.  John  Pearson. 

1769.  Thomas  Blackball. 
1770.  George  Reynolds. 
1771.  Francis     Booker    and 
William  Forbes. 

custodes  regni,  or  guardians  of  the  realm,  on 
his  departure  for  Normandy,  in  Lent,  1067. 
Seven  persons  were  appointed  as  lords  justices 

1708.  William  Fownes. 
1709.  Charles  Forrest. 
1710.  John  Eccles. 
1711.  Ralph  Gore. 
1713.  Samuel  Cooke. 

1773.  Richard  French. 
1773.  William  Lightburne. 
1774.  Henry  Hart. 
1775.  Thomas  Emerson. 
1776.  Henry  Bevan. 

by  4  &  5  Anne,  c.  20  (1705),  and  by  6  Anne, 
c.  41  (1707)  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
Aug.  i,  1714,  18  persons  acted  with  the  lords 
justices  until  the  arrival  of  George  I.  from 

1713.  Samuel  Cooke. 
1714.  James  Barlow. 
1715.  Jolm  Stoyte. 

1777.  William  Dunn. 
1778.  Anthony  King. 
1779.  .lames  Hamilton. 
l*"8o    Killner  Swettenham 

Hanover.    George  I.  entrusted  the  government 
to  13  lords  justices,  on  quitting  the  kingdom 
in  May,   1719  ;  the  same  course  was  pursued 

1717.  Anthony  Barkey. 

1781.  JolmDurragh. 

during  his  visits  to  the  continent,   in   1720, 

1718.  William  Quail. 
1719.  Thomas  Wilkinson. 
1730.  George  Forbes. 
1731.  Thomas  Curtis. 
1733.  William  Dickson. 
1733.  John  Porter. 

1783.  Nathaniel  Warren. 
1783.  Thomas  Green. 
1784.  James  Horan. 
1785.  James  Shiel. 
1786.  George  Alcock. 
1787.  William  Alexander. 

1723,   1725,  and  1727.    George  II.,  during  the 
lifetime  of  Queen  Caroline,  left  her  as  regent 
when  he  went  abroad,  and   after  her  death 
appointed  lords  justices  during  such  absence. 
George  III.  never  quitted  the  kingdom  ;  but 

1734.  Jolm  Reyson. 

1788.  John  Rose. 

George  IV.,   on  setting  out  for  Hanover,  in 

1735.  Joseph  Kane. 
1736.  William  Empson. 
1737.  Nathaniel  Whitwell. 

1789.  John  Exshaw. 
1790.  Henry  Hovvison. 
1791.  Henry  Gore  Sankcy. 

Sep.,    1821,   entrusted  the  administration    of 
affairs  to  19  lords  justices.    No  such  appoint- 

1738. Henry    Burrowes  and 

1793.  John  Carleton. 

ment  has  been  made  during  the  temporary 

Jolm  Page. 
1739.  Peter  Verdoen. 
1730.  Nathaniel  Pearson. 
1731.  Joseph  Nuttall. 
1733.  Humphrey  French. 

1793.  William  James. 
1794.  Richard  Moncrieffe. 
1795.  Sir  William  Worthing- 
ton. 
1796.  Samuel  Read. 

absence   of  Queen  Victoria,   and  in  reply  to 
questions  asked  in  Parliament  in  1843,  minis- 
ters declared  that  it  was  not  deemed  necessary 
to  nominate  either  a  regent,  or  lords  justices. 

LORDS 


[    605    ] 


LOTTERY 


LORDS  JUSTICES  OF  APPEAL  (Court  of 
Chancery).— By  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  83,  Aug.  7, 
1851,  power  was  given  to  the  sovereign  to 
appoint  two  barristers  of  not  less  than  15 
years'  standing,  to  be  judges  of  the  Court  of 
Appeal  in  Chancery,  and,  with  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, to  form  such  Court  of  Appeal.  They 
were  to  be  styled  lords  justices,  and  the  power 
exercised  by  the  lord  chancellor  in  the  Court 
of  Chancery  was,  from  Oct.  i,  1851,  transferred 
to  this  new  court. 

LORDS  AND  LADIES  OF  THE  BED- 
CHAMBER. —  The  groom  of  the  stole,  an 
officer  who  from  ancient  times  had  custody  of 
the  stole,  or  long  robe  worn  on  state  occasions 
by  the  sovereign,  was  the  first  lord  of  the  bed- 
chamber. The  Duke  of  Lauderdale,  who  held 
the  office  under  Charles  II.  (1660 — 1685),  and 
the  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  the  reign  of  George  I. 
(1714 — 1727),  each  bore  the  name  of  First 
Gentleman  of  the  Bedchamber,  and  had  12 
lords  under  them.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Victoria,  June  20,  1837,  this  office  was  super- 
seded by  that  of  the  First  Lady  of  the  Bed- 
chamber, by  whom  the  duties  are  still  dis- 
charged. (See  MAIDS  OF  HONOUR  and  MISTRESS 
OF  THE  ROBES.) 

LORD  STEWARD  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 
This  office  has  the  supreme  control  of  the 
royal  household.  The  post  is  one  of  great 
dignity,  and  was  instituted  at  a  very  early 
date.  By  3  Hen.  VII.  c.  14  (1486),  the  lord 
steward  was  empowered  to  hold  a  court  for  the 
trial  of  treasons  committed  by  members  of  the 
royal  household,  and  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12 
(1541),  this  jurisdiction  was  extended  to  all 
cases  of  quarrelling  and  striking  within  the 
palace.  This  authority  was  abolished  by  12  <fc 
13  Viet.  c.  101  (Aug.  i,  1849).  By  32  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  39  (1540),  the  office  of  lord  steward  was 
changed  to  that  of  great  master  of  the  king's 
house.  It  was  restored  by  i  Mary,  s.  3,  c.  4 
(1553)-  (See  LORD  HIGH  STEWARD  OF  ENG- 
LAND.) 

LORETO,  or  LORETTO  (Italy).— This  town, 
near  Ancona,  is  celebrated  for  the  Santa  Casa, 
or  Holy  House,  which  is  said  to  be  that  in 
which  the  Virgin  Mary  was  born,  the  scene  of 
the  Annunciation  and  of  the  Incarnation,  and 
the  residence  of  the  Holy  Family,  on  their 
return  from  Egypt,  April  B.C.  3.  According 
to  the  legend,  the  Santa  Casa  was  (May  6,  1291) 
conveyed  by  angels  from  Nazareth  to  a  hill 
near  Fiume,  in  Dalmatia,  called  also  Torsatto, 
thence,  Dec.  10,  1294,  to  Recanati,  and  finally 
to  its  present  site,  Dec.  16,  laurel  grove,  called 
Lauretta,  from  its  owner.  Such  is  the  origin 
of  the  name  of  the  town  that  has  grown  up 
around  the  sanctuary.  The  wealth  of  the 
place  proved  a  temptation  to  the  Turkish 
corsairs,  and  Sixtus  V.  fortified  it  in  1586.  The 
French,  under  Marmont,  took  possession  ol 
Loreto  Feb.  12,  1797,  and  carried  the  lady  ol 
Loreto  to  Paris.  The  image  was,  however, 
restored  April  8,  1802,  and  was  received  in  a 
procession. 

LORIMERS,  makers  of  bits,  spurs,  and 
horse  furniture  generally,  were  incorporated  in 

7L'OBIENT  (France).  — Louis  XIV.  granted 
the  French  East  India  Company  permission  to 


establish  magazines  and  docks  in  the  Bay  of 
St.  Louis  in  1666.  The  building  of  the  town 
commenced  in  1709 ;  it  was  incorporated  in 
1738,  and  fortified  in  1744.  An  English 
!orce,  under  Gen.  Sinclair,  landed  Sep.  20, 
1746,  but  was  obliged  to  re-embark  Sep.  28. 
3n  the  dissolution  of  the  French  East  India 
Company,  in  1770,  the  French  Government 
made  L' Orient  one  of  the  stations  of  their 
navy. 

LORRAINE  (France)  was  conquered  by 
Clovis  I.  in  491,  and  apportioned  to  Lothaire 
II.,  receiving  from  him  the  name  of  Lotha- 
ringia,  or  Lothair-regne,  the  kingdom  of  Lo- 
thaire, in  855.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in 
916.  France  and  Germany  contended  for  its 
possession,  and,  in  959,  agreed  to  divide  it  into 
Lower  and  Upper  Lorraine.  Lower  Lorraine, 
which  formed  part  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
divided  between  Belgium  and  Holland.  The 
Alsatian  line  of  dukes  in  Upper  Lorraine, 
founded  by  Albert  of  Alsace  in  1044,  continued 
in  power  till  the  duchy  was  annexed  to  the 
French  crown.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  con- 
cluded Nov.  1 8,  1738,  the  duchy  of  Tuscany 
was  exchanged  for  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar,  which  were  ceded  to  Stanislaus  I.  (Lec- 
zinski)  during  his  life.  He  died  Feb.  23,  1766, 
and  Lorraine  was  reunited  to  France. 

LOSANTE-VILLE.— (£ee  CINCINNATI.) 

LOST  AND  FOUND  OFFICE.  — (See 
HACKNEY  COACHES.) 

LOTHIANS  (Scotland).  —  This  district, 
anciently  called  Laudonia,  comprises  the 
counties  of  East  Lothian  or  Haddington,  Mid 
Lothian  or  Edinburgh,  and  West  Lothian  or 
Linlithgow.  It  was  seized  in  449  by  the  Saxons, 
who  retained  possession  till  1020,  when  it  was 
ceded  to  Malcolm  II.,  and  has  since  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Scotland. 

LOTTERY.— The  Congiaria  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  which  formed  part  of  the  Saturnalia, 
bore  some  resemblance  to  the  modern  lottery, 
the  emperors  employing  them  to  secure  the 
favour  of  the  people.  In  this  manner  Augustus 
distributed  gifts,  B.C.  30 ;  Nero  (54—68) ;  and 
Elagabulus  (218 — 222).  Florence  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  coimtry  in  Europe  in  which 
a  lottery  was  established,  the  emergencies  of 
the  state  having  been  met  by  such  a  device,  in 
1530.  Lotteries  passed  from  Italy  into  France, 
under  the  name  of  blanques,  and  were  legalized 
by  Francis  I.  in  1539.  In  1572  and  1588  the 
Duke  de  Nivernois  instituted  a  lottery  at  Paris 
for  providing  marriage  portions  to  young 
women  belonging  to  his  estates.  The  lottery 
received  such  high  approval  from  the  Pope, 
that  he  granted  to  its  supporters  the  remission 
of  their  sins.  The  disposal  of  merchandise  by 
this  means,  which  had  become  common,  was 
prohibited  in  Jan.,  1658;  and  all  private 
lotteries  were  forbidden,  iinder  severe  penal- 
ties, in  1661,  1670,  1681,  1687,  and  1700.  The 
name  lottery,  common  in  Italy,  was  first  used 
in  France  about  1658.  A  lottery  was  drawn  at 
Osnaburg  in  1521  ;  one  at  Amsterdam,  for 
building  a  church-steeple,  in  1549;  one  at 
Delft  in  1595  ;  and  one  at  Hamburg,  to  erect  a 
house  of  correction,  in  1615.  The  first  at 
Nuremberg  was  drawn  in  1715  ;  and  at  Berlin 
in  July,  1740.  The  famous  Italian  or  Genoese 


LOUDON 


[    606    ] 


LOUVAIN 


lottery  was  introduced  by  a  member  of  the 
senate  of  Genoa,  named  Benedetto  Gentile,  in 
1620.  It  was  forbidden  by  Benedict  XIII. 
(1724 — 1730) ;  but  Clement  XII.  (1730 — 1740) 
established  it  at  Rome;  and  it  was  thence 
introduced  into  Germany,  the  first  having 
been  drawn  at  Berlin,  Aug.  31,  1763.  A  lottery 
existed  in  the  principality  of  Anspach  and. 
Bayreuth,  from  1769  to  1788  ;  and  one  at  Nouf- 
chatel  in  1774  became  bankrupt.  The  first 
lottery  in  England,  proposed  in  1567  and  1568, 
was  drawn  at  the  west  door  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  day  and  night,  from  Jan.  n  to 
May  6,  1569.  The  profit  was  devoted  to  the 
repair  of  harbours.  Another  was  drawn  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Virginian  Company  in  1612. 
Lotteries  were  suspended  in  1620,  on  the 
ground  of  their  immoral  tendency.  A  lottery 
was,  however,  permitted  in  1630,  to  aid  a 
project  for  supplying  the  metropolis  with 
water.  Charles  II.  used  them  after  the  re- 
storation in  1660,  to  reward  his  adherents. 
A  loan  of  ,£1,000,000  was  raised  by  Government 
on  the  sale  of  tickets  in  1694;  another  of 
^3,000,000  in  1746;  and  another  of  ,£1,000,000 
in  1747.  For  a  short  period  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  they  were  prohibited.  In  1778  an 
act  requiring  an  annual  licence,  at  a  cost  of 
.£50,  to  be  taken  out,  reduced  the  number  of 
offices  from  400  to  5 1 ;  and  they  were  al ;  < 
abolished  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  60(1826);  the  last 
public  lottery  having  been  drawn  Oct.  18, 1826. 
An  act  imposing  a  penalty  of  £50  for  adver- 
tising them  (6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  66),  was  passed 
Aug.  13,  1836.  Lotteries  were  legalized  in  the 
United  States  by  act  of  congress  in  1776,  but 
are  said  to  have  been  suppressed.  The  art- 
unions  in  Kngland,  involving  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  lottery,  originated  in  Edinburgh 
in  1836,  and  were  legalized  by  9  &  10  Viet. 
c.  48  (Aug.  13,  1846).  Lotteries  were  abolished 
in  France  in  1836,  and  in  Hesse  Darmstadt  in 
1852. 

LOUDON  HILL  (Battle)  was  fought  near 
Drumclog  iq.  ?•.),  June  i,  1679. 

LOUDUN  (Treaty  was  signed  at  this  town 
in  l/rance  .May  3,  1616,  and  promulgated  at 
Blois  as  an  edict.  The  regent  Mary  de  Medici 
confirmed  the  rights  of  the  Huguenots  as 
assured  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  by  a  sup- 
plementary article  granted  a  large  sum  of 
money  to  the  Prince  of  Conde  and  others. 

LOUISA  (Order).— This  Prussian  order 
was  created  Aug.  3,  1814,  for  the  reward 
of  women  who  had  rendered  services  in  hos- 
pitals to  the  sufferers  in  the  war  of  1813  and 
1814. 

LOUISBURG  (Cape  Breton)  was  fortified 
by  the  French  in  1720.  The  English  estab- 
lished themselves  here  April  30,  1745,  wresting 
the  town  from  the  French  June  15,  1745.  The 
English  flag  was  hoisted  June  17.  It  was 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct. 
7  (O.S.),  1748.  An  English  force  landed  in 
the  neighbourhood  June  8,  1758,  repulsed  a 
sortie  by  the  garrison  July  9,  and  captured 
the  town  July  26,  1758.  It  was  finally  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  by  the  4th  article  of  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  (See  LUDWIGS- 
BURO.  ) 

LOUIS  D'OR,  or  GOLDEN  LOUIS,  a  piece 


of  money  first  coined  in  France  in  1641, 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  ceased  to  be  a 
legal  coin  in  1795.  Louis  XVIII.  re-established 
this  gold  coin  011  his  return  to  Paris  in  1814. 
It  has  been  replaced  by  the  Napoleon.  Those 
coined  previous  to  1726  are  also  called  Louis- 
blancs  and  Louis  d'argent. 

LOUIS,  FORT  (Africa),  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Senegal,  was  captured  by  an  English 
force  April  22,  1758.  Fort  Louis,  in  Guada- 
loupe,  was  taken  Feb.  13,  1759. 

LOUISIADE  ISLANDS  ^Pacific).  —  This 
group  was  discovered  by  Bougainville,  in 
1768. 

LOUISIANA  (North  America).  —  This 
country,  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  the 
French  in  1673,  was  named  after  Louis  XIV. 
by  D'Iberville,  a  Frenchman,  who  formed  the 
first  settlement  in  1699.  A  charter  was  granted 
to  the  colony  in  1712.  The  company  formed 
by  Law's  Mississippi  scheme  received  the 
territory  in  1717,  and  in  1762  it  was  ceded  to 
Spain.  Transferred  to  the  French  by  the 
secret  treaty  of  lldefoiiso,  signed  Oct.  i,  1800, 
it  was  sold  to  the  United  States  Government 
for  15,000,000  dollars  in  1803.  Louisiana  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  April  8,  1812,  and  it 
Ian.  26,  1861. 

LOUISON.  —(See  GUILLOTINE.) 

LOUIS,  ST.  (Africa).— This  town  of  Sene- 
gambia,  founded  by  the  French  in  1626  and 
burned  in  1827,  became  in  1837  the  head- 
quarters for  the  steam  navigation  of  the 
Senegal. 

LOUIS,  ST.  (Missouri),  was  founded  in  1764. 
The  university  was  established  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  1832. 

LOUIS,  ST.  (Orders).— Louis  XIV.  of  France 
instituted  an  order  of  this  name  in  1693,  as  a 
reward  of  literary  merit.  It  was  enlarged  in 
1779  by  Louis  XVI.,  and  having  been  suppressed 
at  the  revolution,  was  restored  in  1815.  No 
knights  have  been  created  since  1815.  The 
order  of  St.  Louis  of  llc.s.se  was  established  in 
1807  ;  and  that  of  Lucca  in  1836. 

LOUISVILLE  (United  States).— This  place 
in  Kentucky,  founded  in  1773,  was  named  in 
honour  of  Louis  XVI.  when  made  a  town  in 
1780. 

LOUTH  (Ireland),  conquered  by  De  Courccy 
1179-1180,  was  made  a  county  by  King  John 
in  1210,  and  included  in  the  province  of 
Leinster  some  time  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

LOUVAIN  (Belgium),  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Julius  Caesar,  was  walled  in  1156. 
It  gave  employment  to  150,01.0  weavers  in  the 
i4th  century,  when  it  was  capital  of  the  duchy 
of  Brabant,  large  numbers  of  whom  having 
been  banished,  emigrated  to  England  in  1382. 
The  castle  was  built  about  900,  and  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Pierre,  founded  in  1040,  was 
completed  in  1358.  The  guildhall  was  built  in 
1317;  the  university,  established  in  1423,  was 
attended  by  6,000  students  in  the  i6th  century  ; 
and  the  town-hall  was  built  in  1448.  The 
Austrian  governor,  Don  John,  received  the 
submission  of  the  inhabitants  in  1577  ;  and  a 
French  revolutionary  force  mastered  the  pla--e 
in  1792.  The  university,  suppressed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  was  restored  in 
1817.  It  was  relinquished  by  the  state  in  1834, 


LOUVIERS 


[    607    ] 


LUBECK 


and  restored  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  in 

1  LOUVIERS  (France).— Richard  I.  concluded 
a  treaty,  which  was  soon  broken,  with  Philip 
II.  (Augustus),  at  this  town  in  1196.  Henry  V. 
captured  it  in  1418,  and  the  French  recovered 
it  in  1450.  The  Duke  of  Bedford  having  taken 
it  after  a  long  siege  in  1451,  razed  it  to  the 
ground.  In  1545  Charles  V.,  anxious  to  give  a 
check  to  the  Lutherans,  caused  the  university 
of  Louvain  to  draw  up  a  Concession  of  Faith 
in  32  articles.  The  town  was  rebuilt,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  for  which  it  is  cele- 
brated, commenced  in  1680,  and  that  of  cotton 

"Yc-UVRE  (Paris).— The  early  history  of  the 
Louvre  is  lost  in  obscurity.  St.  Foix  says 
Dagobert  I.  kept  his  horses  and  hounds  in 
a  building  on  its  site  about  629.  Philip  II. 
(Augustus)  repaired  the  edifice  in  1204,  con- 
verted it  into  a  state  prison,  and  built  a  large 
tower.  About  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century 
it  was  used  as  a  residence  for  foreign  princes 
visiting  the  king.  Charles  VI.  lived  there 
about  1380,  but  afterwards  quitted  it  for  the 
Tuileries.  Francis  I.  commenced  the  present 
edifice  in  1528.  Charles  IX.,  during  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572, 
is  said  to  have  fired  on  the  retreating  Hugue- 
nots from  one  of  the  windows.  Charles  IX. 
and  other  kings  made  great  additions.  Louis 

XIV.  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  fagade  from 
designs  by  Bernini,  Oct.  17,  1665.     The  crown 
pictures  were  deposited  here  in  1681.     Louis 

XV.  in   1719  lived    here.      The    Luxemburg 
collection,  including  a  fine  series  by  Rubens, 
was  removed  here  in   1785.      A  decree  was 
passed  in  May,  1791,  for  making  it  a  depository 
of  objects  of  science  and  art.     In  July,  1793, 
all    pictures,    statues,    vases,     &c.     in    royal 
collections    were    ordered    to  be  transferred 
here,   and  the  collection  was  opened  to  the 
public  Aug.  10.      The  museum  of  sculptures, 
commenced  in   1797,   was  opened  under  the 
name  of   the  Musee  Napoleon  in  1803.      The 
buildings  of  the  new  Louvre,  begun  by  Napo- 
leon  I.,  were    finished    and   inaugurated  by 
Napoleon  III.  Aug.  14,  1857.     The  Louvre  was 
assailed  during  the  revolution  of  July,  1830. 

LOVAT'S  REBELLION.  —  Simon  Fraser, 
afterwards  Lord  Lovat,  was  despatched  from 
St.  Germain  by  the  son  of  James  II.  for  the 
purpose  of  attempting  a  rising  in  Scotland, 
where  he  landed  towards  the  end  of  1702. 
Having  betrayed  his  trust,  he  returned  to 
France  in  1703,  was  thrown  into  the  Bastille, 
and  remained  a  prisoner  till  1708.  He  re- 
turned to  Scotland,  drove  the  Pretender's 
forces  out  of  Inverness,  Nov.  15,  1715,  and 
held  it  for  the  Government.  For  aiding  the 
cause  of  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  1745,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower  June  17,  1746  ;  brought 
to  trial  March  9,  1747 ;  and  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill  Thursday,  April  9. 

LOVE.— (See  AGAP^MONE,  COURTS  OF  LOVE, 
&c.) 

LOVE-FEASTS.— (See  AGAP.E,  and  FEASTS.) 

LOVERS  (War  of  the).— Henry  III.  of 
France,  having  for  politic  reasons  disclosed  to 
Henry  of  Navarre  the  amour  of  his  wife 
Margaret  with  the  Viscount  of  Turenne,  the 


ladies  of  the  Navarrese  court  incited  their 
lovers  to  warfare  against  the  discourteous 
sovereign  as  an  enemy  of  womankind. 
Hostilities  commenced  April  15,  1580.  Cahors 
was  taken  after  a  siege  of  four  days,  and  the 
war  was  terminated  after  lasting  seven  months 
by  the  treaty  of  Fleix  (q.  v.},  Nov.  26.  This 
was  the  seventh  of  the  French  wars  of 
religion. 

LOVERS  OF  GOD.— (See  AMEDIANS.) 

LOVICZ  (Poland).  -First  mentioned  in  1136, 
became  the  residence  of  the  primates  of 
Poland  about  1355. 

LOW  CHURCH.  —  (See  HIGH  AND  Low 
CHURCH.) 

LOW  COUNTRIES  (Europe).— The  term  is 
frequently  applied  to  portions  of  the  country 
now  constituting  Belgium  (q.  v.),  and  Holland 
(q.  v.}. 

LOWELL  (United  States).  —  This  town  of 
Massachusetts  was  incorporated  in  1826. 

LOWER  EMPIRE.— The  designation  applied 
to  the  Roman  Empire  in  its  decline,  commen- 
cing, according  to  some  historians,  with  the 
reign  of  Constantino  I.,  and,  according  to 
others,  with  its  separation  into  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Empires  at  the  death  of  Theodo- 
sius  I.,  in  395.  The  term  is  applied  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  Eastern  Empire  (q.  v.).  Its 
history  (L'Histoire  du  Bas  Empire)  by  Lebeau 
and  Ameilhou,  appeared  at  Paris,  in  29  vols.,  in 

I7LOWESTOFT  (Suffolk).— This  town,  believed 
to  have  been  founded  as  early  as  the  4th  cen- 
tury, received,  in  1573,  privileges  from  Queen 
Elizabeth,  which  were  renewed  by  Charles  I. 
Feb.  26,  1629.  It  was  much  injured  by  fire 
March  10,  1645.  A  lighthouse  was  erected  in 
1676,  and  a  ship  canal  to  Lake  Lothington' was 
commenced  in  1827.  The  harbour  was  con- 
nected with  the  sea  in  1831.  The  infirmary 
was  opened  in  1840.  (See  SOLEBAY.) 

LOWOSITZ,  or  LOBOSITZ  (Battle),  was 
fought  between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians  at 
this  place,  in  Bohemia,  Oct.  i,  1756.  Each  of 
the  combatants  claimed  the  victory,  but  the 
Austrians  were  compelled  to  retire. 

LOW  SUNDAY.— The  first  Sunday  after 
Easter  received  this  name,  according  to  Hone, 
because  the  church  service  was  lowered  from 
the  pomp  of  the  festival  of  the  preceding  Sun- 
day. It  was  also  called  Quasi  Modo,  from  the 
first  words  of  the  hymn,  or  mass  on  that  day, 
and  Dominica  inAlbis. 

LOYALTY  LOAN.— This  term  is  applied 
to  a  loan,  showing  the  patriotic  feeling  of  the 
country,  raised  between  Dec.  i — 5,  1796,  when 
^18,000,000  were  subscribed  in  a  few  ho\irs, 
and  hundreds  went  away  disappointed  at  being 
too  late  to  contribute  their  share. 

LUBECK  (Germany),  founded  in  1140,  was 
ceded  to  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  in  1158,  and 
taken  by  the  Danes  in  1201,  was  made  a  free 
imperial  city  in  1226,  when  the  Danish  garrison 
was  expelled.  It  became  the  head  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  in  1241.  Its  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1170,  and  finished  in  1341  ;  the  Ma- 
rien-Kirche  was  built  in  1304,  and  the  Raath- 
haus  in  1442.  Blucher  threw  himself  into 
the  town  to  avoid  the  French  army,  when 
it  was  carried  by  assault,  and  suffered  a 


LUBECK 


[    608    ] 


LUCKNOW 


three  days'  pillage,  Nov.  6,  1806.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  the  empire  Nov.  12,  1810,  and  re- 
gained its  freedom  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic, 
Oct.  19,  1813. 

LUBECK  (Treaty),  was  concluded  at  this 
town,  between  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  and 
Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  May  22,  1629. 

LUBLIN  (Poland).— This  town,  founded^in 
the  loth  century,  was  ravaged  by  the  Mongols 
in  1241.  The  church  of  St.  Nicholas  was  com- 
menced in  986.  A  treaty  was  signed  here  in 
1569,  for  the  incorporation  of  Lithuania  with 
Poland.  A  diet  was  held  here  in  1703. 

LUCANIA  (Italy),  settled  by  the  Samnites 
about  B.C.  420,  rose  into  such  importance  that 
a  league  was  formed  against  it  by  the  cities  of 
Magna  Graucia  B.C.  393.  The  Lucanians  tri- 
umphed in  a  great  battle  fought  B.C.  390,  and 
the  younger  Dionysius  concluded  a  treaty  with 
them  B.C.  358.  They  were  reduced  to  subjec- 
tion by  the  Romans,  B.C.  272,  and  in  the  civil 
war  between  Marius  and  Sylla,  B.C.  88,  their 
nationality  was  extinguished. 

LUCAR,  ST.,  or  SAN  LUCAR  DE  BARRA- 
MKDA  (Spain),  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by 
Alphonso  X.,  in  1264.  Christopher  Columbus 
landed  here  on  returning  from  his  fourth  voy- 
age in  Dec.  1504.  Magalhaens  sailed  from  this 
port  on  the  first  voyage  round  the  world,  Sep. 
20  or  2i,  1519,  and  one  of  the  ships  belonging 
to  the  expedition  returned  Sep.  6,  1522. 

LUCAYOS.— (See  BAHAMA  ISLANDS.) 

LUCCA  (Italy).— The  ancient  Luca,  the  chief 
town  of  the  duchy  of  that  name,  is  mentioned 
by  Livy  as  having  given  shelter  to  the  consul 
Sempronius,  when  he  retired  before  Hannibal, 
B.C.  218.  Subsequently  it  fell  into  tho  hands 
of  the  Ligurians,  and  became  a  Roman  colony 
B.C.  177.  A  meeting  of  200  senators,  including 
Ca:s-ir,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  was  held  here 
B.C.  56  ;  and  by  virtue  of  the  Lex  Julia  it  was 
made  a  municipal  town  B.C.  49.  Narses,  the 
eunuch,  took  it  after  a  long  siege,  in  553.  It 
became  a  Lombard  duchy  in  572;  was  con- 
quered by  Arnulph  in  895  ;  and,  having  acquired 
its  independence,  in  1055,  joined  the  league  of 
the  Ghibellines  in  1262.  Pisa  commenced  hos- 
tilities against  it  in  1341,  to  prevent  its  union 
with  Florence,  and  it  submitted  to  that  town  in 
1342.  The  inhabitants  paid  300,000  florins  to 
Charles  IV.  for  their  freedom  in  1370.  Pope 
Urban  VI.,  offended  at  the  Genoese,  honoured 
Lucca  with  his  presence  in  1386;  and  Gregory 
XII.  made  it  his  residence  in  1408,  previous  to 
taking  refuge  in  Venice.  It  was  besieged  by 
the  Florentines  in  1430,  and  was  the  place  se- 
lected for  a  conference  between  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  and  Paul  III.,  Sep.  10,  1541.  The 
French  took  it  in  March,  1799;  it  was  made  a 
principality,  and  bestowed  by  Napoleon  Buona- 
parte on  his  sister  Elise,  June  23,  1805.  It  was 
made  a  duchy  in  1815,  and  was  annexed  to 
Tuscany  (q.  ?'.),  Oct.  n,  1847.  The  market- 
place is  formed  from  an  ancient  amphitheatre. 
The  church  of  St.  Frediaims  was  founded  in 
the  7th  century ;  St.  Michael's  v/as  built  of 
white  marble  in  764.  The  church  of  St.  Ro- 
manus  was  founded  in  the  8th  century ;  the 
cathedral  by  Pope  Alexander  in  1060  ;  and  the 
old  town-hal1,  now  a  poor-house,  in  1413.  The 
Academy  of  Letters  and  Sciences  was  insti- 


tuted in  1817  ;  the  fine  aqueduct  by  Nottolini 
as  commenced  in  1815,  and  finished  in  1832. 
LUCENA  (Spain).— The  Moors  besieged  this 
city  April  21,  1483,  and,  having  been  defeated 
by  the  Spaniards  in  a  great  battle  under  its 
walls,  retired. 

LUCERA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Luceria,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  founded  by  Diomcdes  about 
B.C.  1184,  allied  itself,  B.C.  326,  with  the  Ro- 
mans, who  delivered  it  from  the  power  of  the 
Samnites  B.C.  320.  Constans  II.  took  the  city 
from  the  Lombards,  and  destroyed  it  in 
663  ;  and  in  1227  it  was  restored  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.  A  mosque,  built  by  the 
Saracens,  was  converted  into  a  cathedral  in 

L  U  C  E  R  N  E  (Switzerland).- This  canton 
joined  the  Swiss  confederation  in  1332.  The 
town  of  the  same  name  was  surrounded  by 
towers  in  1385.  A  treaty  between  the  French 
and  the  Swiss  was  concluded  here  Mays,  1521. 
Incited  by  the  French,  the  inhabitants  rose  in 
revolt  in  1798.  The  town  was  retaken  by  the 
Federal  forces  Dec.  16,  1813.  Toleration  was 
granted  to  the  Protestants  in  1828.  The 
government  having  determined  to  entrust  the 
Jesuits  with  the  education  of  the  young,  an 
attack  was  made  on  the  place  by  a  large  body 
of  Protestants,  Dec.  8,  1844.  The  monument 
to  the  Swiss  Guards  who  defended  the  Tuile- 
ries  against  the  Parisian  mob,  Aug.  10,  1792, 
was  erected  in  1821.  (See  LEGITIMISTS.) 

LUCIA,  or  LUC1E,  ST.  (West  Indies),  one 
of  the  Leeward  Islands,  was  first  colonized  by 
the  P^nglish  in  1639.  The  settlers  were  expelled 
by  the  Caribs,  and  the  French  planted  a  colony 
in  1650.  It  was  the  cause  of  many  contests 
between  the  French  and  English.  The  latter 
took  it  in  Feb.,  1762  ;  again  Dec.  30, 1778  ;  again 
May  25,  1796,  and  finally  June  22,  1103.  The 
capitulation  was  signed  June  30.  It  suffered 
from  an  earthquake  Aug.  12,  1788. 

LUCIFEHIANS,  the  followers  of  Lucifer, 
Bishop  of  Cagliari,  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Arians,  who,  having  been  sent  to  espouse  the 
cause  of  Athanasius  at  the  Council  of  Milan  in 
355,  was  so  violent  in  his  conduct  that  Constan- 
tius  II.  banished  him.  He  attended  a  council 
at  Alexandria  in  362,  summoned  by  Athanasius, 
on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Constantius  II. 
After  going  from  place  to  place,  he  at  length 
retired  to  Sardinia  in  363,  and  founded  the 
sect  that  bears  his  name.  He  died  in  371,  and 
though  he  had  some  followers  in  Italy  and 
Spain,  the  sect  had  disappeared  by  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sth  century. 

LUCIFER  MATCHES  superseded  the  more 
costly  and  less  convenient  Eupyrions  and  Pro- 
metheans,  of  instantaneous  light-box  notoriety, 
in  1832.  The  splint-cutting  machine  employed 
in  their  manufacture  was  patented  by  Partridge 
in  1842.  Sturge's  improved  lucifer  matches 
were  patented  in  1853.  Lundstrom,  a  Swede, 
invented  the  Swedish  safety  match  at  Jonko- 
ping,  in  1855.  Hochstaetter's  safety  matches 
were  patented  in  1859. 

LUCIGNANO  (Battle).— The  Florentine  army, 
under  the  Marquis  of  Marignano,  defeated  the 
French,  under  Marshal  Strozzi,  at  this  place,  in 
Italy,  Aug.  2,  1554. 

LUCKNOW  (Hindostan),    with  Oudh,    the 


[    609    ] 


LUNATICS 


province  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Mohammedans  about  1300.  The 
nabob  was  defeated  in  an  engagement  with  the 
English,  Oct.  23,  1764.  (See  BUXAR,  Battle.) 
The  city  was  made  the  residence  of  the  court 
in  1775,  and  was,  with  the  territory,  annexed  to 
the  English  possessions  in  India,  Feb.  7,  1856. 
The  native  soldiers  grew  refractory  May  i, 
1857,  and  the  place  was  invested  by  the  rebels 
July  i,  1857.  It  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Havelock 
and  Sir  James  Outram,  Sep.  25,  1857,  and  by 
Sir  Colin  Campbell,  Nov.  17, 1857.  The  English 
retired  Nov.  22,  1857,  and  Sir  Colin  Campbell 
recaptured  it  March  21,  1858.  The  foundation 
stone  of  a  memorial  to  Sir  Henry  Lawrence 
and  others  who  fell  in  the  mutiny  of  1857,  was 
laid  Jan.  2,  1864. 

LU^ON  (France),  made  a  bishopric  in  1317, 
was  taken  by  the  Huguenots  in  1568.  The 
Vendeans  were  defeated  here  June  21  and 
Oct.  i,  1793,  and  the  treaty  for  the  pacification 
of  La  Vendee  was  concluded  here,  Jan.  17, 
1800.  (See  LUZON.) 

LUDDITES,  so  called  from  a  mythical  Capt. 
Ludd,  under  whose  authority  they  professed 
to  act,  commenced  their  riots  at  Nottingham 
in  opposition  to  the  application  to  stocking- 
weaving  of  improved  machinery  Nov.  10,  1811. 
They  attacked  the  house  of  a  manufacturer  at 
Bullwell,  and  destroyed  its  contents,  Nov.  n, 
and  extended  their  operations  into  Derby  and 
Leicester,  where  many  frames  were  destroyed 
in  Dec.  In  consequence  of  the  serious  aspect 
matters  had  assumed,  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  Parliament  Feb.  14,  1812,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adding  new  legal  powers  to  those 
already  existing  for  their  suppression.  It 
was  during  the  debate  on  this  bill  that 
Lord  Byron  delivered  his  maiden  speech  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  opposing  it  with  great 
vehemence.  The  Prince  Regent  sent  a  message 
to  both  houses  of  Parliament  June  27,  1812, 
calling  upon  them  to  take  proper  measures 
for  the  restoration  of  order,  as  the  combina- 
tions had  become  more  powerful,  subjected 
themselves  to  military  training,  and  were 
bound  by  an  oath  of  secrecy  and  confederation. 
A  new  bill  was  accordingly  brought  in,  and 
passed  July  24,  its  operation  being  limited 
to  March  25,  1814.  A  military  force  was  as- 
sembled, and  the  local  militia  called  out,  for 
the  protection  of  life  and  property.  Fourteen 
of  the  ringleaders  were  executed  at  York, 
Jan.  10,  1813.  After  a  temporary  inactivity 
the  Luddites  recommenced  their  nefarious 
proceedings  in  May,  1814,  and  again  in  1816. 
Some  of  the  ringleaders  were  executed  at 
Derby  Nov.  7,  1817.  (See  DERBY  TRIALS.) 

LUDLOW  (Shropshire).— This  town,  called 
by  the  Britons  Dinan  Leys  Tywysog,  passed, 
soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  into  the 
possession  of  Roger  de  Montgomery,  who 
erected  the  castle.  It  was  bestowed  by  Henry 
I.  (noo — 1135)  on  a  Norman  knight  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Sir  Fulke  de  Dinan. 
Taken  by  King  Stephen  (1135 — 1154),  it  sub- 
sequently became  the  residence  of  the  lords 
of  the  Welsh  marches.  The  town  was  walled 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307).  The 
castle,  after  undergoing  many  changes  of 
ownership  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 


became  in  1483  the  abode  of  the  young  King 
Edward  V.  and  his  brother  the  Duke  of  York, 
before  their  removal  to  London.  Prince 
Arthur,  son  of  Henry  VII.,  died  here,  April  2, 
1502.  The  grammar-school  was  founded  in 
1552.  Milton's  masque  of  "Comus"  was  per- 
formed in  the  castle  in  1631. 

LUDWIGSBURG,  or  LOUISBURG  (Wiir- 
temberg),  founded  in  1704  and  completed  in 
1718,  was  made  a  royal  residence  in  1727. 

LUGDUNUM  (Battle).— Albinus,  who  at  the 
head  of  an  army  from  Britain,  had  crossed 
into  Gaul,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Severus 
near  Lugdunum,  now  Lyons,  Feb.  19, 197.  The 
victors  plundered  Lyons,  and  having  captured 
Albinus,  cut  off  his  head. 

LUGO  (Italy).— This  town  was  taken  and 
pillaged  by  the  French  in  1796,  when  the  un- 
fortunate inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword. 

LUGO  (Spain.) — The  ancient  Lucus  Augusti, 
founded  by  the  Romans,  who  named  it  after 
Augustus.  It  was  taken  by  the  Moors  in  714, 
and  was  wrested  from  them  in  755.  It  was 
seized  by  the  French  in  1809. 

LUKE  (Gospel),  the  third  in  order  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  was  written  by 
Luke  the  physician,  friend  and  companion  of 
Paul.  By  the  best  authorities  it  is  referred  to 
the  year  63  or  64.  It  was  in  common  use  in 
the  Christian  church  in  120. 

LUNA  (Etruria.)— The  Romans  established 
a  colony  at  this  place,  the  modern  Luni,  B.C.  . 
177.  The  Normans  plundered  it  in  867,  and  it 
afterwards  fell  into  decay.  Benedict  VIII. 
repulsed  the  Saracens  here  in  1016. 

LUNATIC  ASYLUMS.— The  public  exhibi- 
tion of  patients  at  Old  Bethlem  Asylum, 
Moorfields,  London,  was  prohibited  in  1771. 
Piriel  introduced  the  non-restraint  system 
into  the  Bicetre,  at  Paris,  in  1792,  but  it  was 
not  until  after  the  revelation  of  the  enormities 
practised  at  the  York  Asylum,  made  by  Mr. 
Higgins  in  1813,  that  it  was  adopted  in  Eng- 
land. It  was  tried  at  Lincoln  in  1837,  and 
proved  so  successful  in  its  operation,  that  it 
was  introduced  at  Hanwell  in  1839,  and  shortly 
afterwards  in  other  important  establishments. 
Provisions  for  the  erection  of  county  lunatic 
asylums  were  made  by  48  Geo.  III.  c.  96 
(June  23,  1808),  which  was  amended  by  9  Geo. 
IV.  c.  40  (July  15, 1828).  This  act  was  repealed 
by  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  126  (Aug.  8,  1845),  which  was 
explained  and  amended  by  9  &  loVict.  c.  84 
(Aug.  26,  1846),  and  by  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  43 
(June  25,  1847).  The  laws  respecting  lunatic 
asylums  in  England  were  consolidated  and 
amended  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  97  (Aug.  20,  1853). 
County  lunatic  asylums  were  ordered  to  be 
erected  in  Ireland  by  i  &  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  33 
(May  28,  1821),  and  in  Scotland  they  are 
regulated  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  i  (Aug.  25,  1857), 
amended  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  89  (Aug.  2,  1858). 
(See  GEEL  and  HOSPITALS.) 

LUNATICS.— Formerly  a  legal  distinction 
existed  between  a  lunatic  and  an  idiot,  the 
former  being  a  person  who  had  lost  the  use  of 
reason,  which  he  once  possessed ;  the  latter, 
one  who  had  no  understanding  from  the  day 
of  his  birth.  By  the  Roman  law,  persons  of 
unsound  mind  might  be  deprived  of  the  man- 
agement of  their  property  on  application  to 

RR 


LUNAWARA 


[    610    ] 


LUTHERANS 


the  praetor  by  the  next  of  kin.  The  custody 
of  idiots  and  of  their  lands,  formerly  vested 
in  the  lord  of  the  fee,  was,  by  17  Edw.  II. 
c.  19  (1324),  made  a  prerogative  of  the  crown. 
By  17  Edw.  II.  c.  10  (1324),  the  king  was  to 
provide  for  the  custody  and  sustentation  of 
lunatics,  and  to  preserve  their  lands  and  the 
profits  of  them  for  their  use,  when  they  cam,e 
to  their  right  mind.  Various  laws  on  the 
subject  are  found  in  the  statute-book.  By 

15  &  16  Geo.  II.  c.  30  (1742),   the  marriage  of 
lunatics  was   declared   illegal.      The  laws  on 
lunacy  were  consolidated  and    amended    by 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  70  (Aug.  15,  1853).    (See  LUNATIC 
ASYLUMS.  ) 

LUNAWARA  (Hindostan),  the  chief  town  of 
the  principality  of  the  same  name,  was  freed 
from  the  tribute  paid  by  its  rajah  to  Scindia, 
by  a  treaty  concluded  with  the  British  Govern- 
ment Dec.  30,  1803.  It  was,  however,  re- 
imposed  in  1806,  and  Scindia  ceded  his  right 
to  supremacy  over  the  rajah  in  1819. 

LUND  HILL  (Yorkshire).— An  explosion  of 
gas  took  place  at  a  colliery  here  Feb.  19,  1857, 
when  189  persons  lost  their  lives.  The  first 
body  was  not  recovered  until  April  10. 

LUND,  or  LUNDEN  (Battle).— Charles  XI. 
of  Sweden,  after  a  hard  fight,  gained  a  slight 
advantage  over  the  army  of  Christian  V.  of 
Denmark  at  this  place  in  Sweden,  Dec.  14, 
1676. 

LUND,  or  LUNDEN  (Sweden),  in  Gothland, 
was  a  considerable  city  before  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  in  830.  The  Scandinavian  pirate 
kings,  who  took  it  in  920,  were  elected  here. 
Its  cathedral  was  founded  in  the  nth  century  ; 
the  university  by  Christian  I.  in  1479,  the 
present  structure  having  been  erected  in  1668. 
In  1104  its  archbishop  exercised  authority 
over  all  bishops  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden.  PufTeiidorff  filled  a  professional 
chair  in  this  university  in  1670;  and  Lhm;uus 
matriculated  here  in  1727. 

LUND,  or  LUNDEN  (Treaty).— A  treaty  of 
peace  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  was 
signed  at  this  place  in  Sweden,  Sep.  26,  1629. 

LUNDRENSES.— (See  FAKTII 

LUNDY  ISLAND  (Bristol  Channel).— This 
island,  off  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  was  for- 
tified by  Morisco,  a  pirate,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  i3th  century.  It  was  held  for  Charles  I. 
during  the  Parliamentary  wars  in  1643,  and 
was  sold  for  about  ^9,400  in  1840. 

LUNEBURG  (Hanover)  was  till  1369  the 
residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick-Lline- 
burg.  The  gymnasium  was  founded  in  1383, 
and  the  Ritter  Academy,  or  college  of  nobles, 
in  1656.  In  1692  the  duchy  was  united  to 
Hanover,  and  in  1807  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  French  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  In  1810  it 
was  divided  into  the  departments  of  Bouches- 
de-1'Elbe  and  Bouches-du-Weser,  and  in  1814  it 
reverted  to  Hanover. 

LUNEVILLE  (France),  only  a  village  pre- 
vious to  the  nth  century,  was  afterwards 
fortified,  and  during  the  wars  between  the 
Dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Lorraine  sustained 
several  sieges.  The  French  captured  it  in  1638, 
and  destroyed  the  fortifications.  The  castle 
of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine  was  built  in  1707. 


Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  built  a  palace  at 
Luneville  in  the  i8th  century. 

LUNEVILLE  (Treaty)  was  concluded  at 
LuneVille,  in  France,  between  the  French  re- 
public and  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  Feb.  9, 
1801,  and  consisted  of  19  articles.  Many  of 
these  explained,  and  others  confirmed,  the 
provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Campo-Formio, 
Oct.  17,  1797.  The  Rhine,  as  far  as  Holland, 
was  made  the^  boundary  of  France,  and  the 
independence  of  the  Batavian,  Cisalpine,  Hel- 
vetic, and  Liguriaii  republics  was  recognized. 

LUPERCALIA,  or  WOLF  FESTIVAL.— This 
annual  festival,  established  at  Rome  at  an 
early  period,  in  honour  of  Romulus  and  Remus, 
and  so  called  from  lupus,  a  wolf,  the  animal 
recorded  to  have  suckled  them,  was  observed 
Feb.  15.  Augustus  endeavoured  to  restrain 
the  license  of  this  festival,  which  was  alto- 
gether abolished  in  496.  The  place  where  the 
priests  of  Pan  assembled  was  called  Luperca. 

LUSATIA  (Germany). — Made  a  marquisate 
by  Henry  I.,  in  931,  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity by  Otho  I.,  in  968.  It  was  annexed  to 
Bohemia  in  1319,  and  was  ceded  to  Saxony  by 
the  Treaty  of  Prague  in  1635.  The  greater 
portion  of  Lusatia  was  assigned  to  Prussia  by 
the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  June  8,  1815. 

LUSIAD. — This  epic  poem,  commenced  by 
Louis  de  Camoeiis,  the  Portuguese,  at  Santarem 
about  1547,  and  continued  at  intervals  in  Africa 
and  India,  was  published  at  Lisbon  in  1572. 
An  edition  translated  into  English  by  Richard 
Fanshawe,  was  published  at  London  in  1655 ; 
and  another  by  Mickle  in  1776.  Camoens,  born 
about  1524,  died  in  great  poverty  in  1579. 

I. rsiTANIA.— (See  PORTUGAL.) 

LUSTRUM.— This  expiatory  sacrifice,  a  lus- 
tration or  purification  of  the  whole  people, 
performed  by  one  of  the  Roman  censors  at  the 
end  of  every  five  years,  was  instituted  by 
Servius  Tullius  B.C.  566.  The  last  was  cele- 
brated at  Rome  in  74,  during  the  reign  of 
Vespasian. 

LUTE. — This  instrument,  of  Arabic  origin, 
first  introduced  into  Spain,  whence  it  was 
diffused  over  all  Europe,  attained  its  highest 
popularity  during  the  i6th  century,  when  the 
best  lutes  were  constructed  in  England. 

LUTHERANS,  the  term  applied  to  the 
followers  of  Martin  Luther,  born  at  Eisleben, 
in  Thuringia,  Nov.  10, 1483,  is  used  for  the  Ger- 
man Protestants,  most  of  whom  are  Lutherans. 
At  an  early  age  Luther  became  acquainted  with 
the  views  disseminated  by  Wycliffe  and  John 
Huss,  and  is  said  to  have  received  those  im- 
pressions which  induced  him  to  separate  from 
his  church,  on  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1510.  At 
Wittenberg,  where  he  filled  the  theological 
chair,  Tetzel,  the  legate  of  Pope  Leo  X.,  arrived 
to  raise  money  by  the  sale  of  indulgences  ; 
whereupon  Luther  drew  up  his  famous  95 
theses,  condemning  the  abuse  of  indulgences, 
and  he  transmitted  a  copy  of  them  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  Oct.  31,  1517.  Sum- 
moned to  appear  before  Cardinal  Cajetan  at 
Augsburg,  after  several  conferences  Luther 
appealed  "from  the  Pope  ill  informed  to  the 
Pope  better  informed,"  Nov.  28,  1518.  After  a 
conference  with  Militz,  in  Jan.,  1519,  he  wrote 
ail  explanatory  and  submissive  letter  to  the 


LUTTER 


[    611     ] 


LUXURY 


Pope,  March  3,  1519.    In  a  disputation  at  Leip 
sic  he  denied  the  Pope's  supremacy,  June  27 

1519,  and  published  an  address  to  the  Empero 
and  the  Christian  nobility  of  Germany  in  June 

1520.  A  bull  against  Luther  and  his  writing 
was  issued  by  Eck  in  Aug. ;  and  in  the  same 
month    Luther's  treatise  on  the  Babylonian 
captivity  of  the  Church  appeared,  denouncing 
the  papacy  as  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  anc 
antichrist.     In  Oct.  he  had  a  conference  with 
Militz,  and  having  been  excommunicated,  h< 
destroyed  the  bull  before  an  immense  multi 
tude,  Dec.  10,  1520.     At  the  diet  of  Worms  he 
maintained  his  opinions,  April  16,  1521,  and  an 
edict    was    consequently  issued  commanding 
his  apprehension  and  the  destruction  of  his 
writings,  May  8,  1521.     He  was  conveyed,  to 
Wartburg,  under  the  protection  of  Frederick 
Elector  of  Saxony,  where  he  began  his  trans 
lation  of   the  Bible  into  German,  completing 
the  New  Testament  in  1521.     Luther  repaired 
to  Wittenberg,  where  religious    disturbances 
had  arisen,  and  restored  order  in   1522.     He 
abandoned  the  monastic  life,  and  his  monastery 
being  deserted,  was  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
Elector,  in   1524,   when  a  league  of    German 
princes  was  formed  to  check  the  progress  of 
his  opinions,  which  had  spread  over  Switzer- 
land, found  entrance  into  Scotland,  and  were 
adopted  as  the  national  faith  in  Sweden  and 
Denmark,    1524.      Luther   married    Catherine 
von  Bora,  a  nun  who  had  left  her  convent,  in 
1525,  in  which  year  many  of  his  followers  were 
burned  as  heretics.     His  Liturgy  and  Order  of 
Divine  Worship  was  published  in   1526  ;   and 
he  presented    the   Articles  of  Torgau  to  the 
Elector  of    Saxony  in   1530.     At  the  diet  of 
Augsburg,  the  Protestants  read  their  celebrated 
"  Confession,"    June    25,    1530.      A    complete 
edition  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  in 
three  folio  volumes,  was  published  in  1534.     A 
league  called  the  Holy  Alliance  was  formed  at 
Nuremberg,   between  the    Emperor    and  the 
Eoman  Catholic  princes,  for  u  years,  against 
the  Protestants,  June  10,  1538.     Luther  died  at 
Eisleben,  Feb.  18,  1546. 

LUTTER  (Battle).— Gen.  Tilly,  commanding 
the  army  of  the  German  Roman  Catholic 
league,  defeated  the  Danes  under  Christian  IV. 
at  this  town  in  Brunswick,  Aug.  27,  1626. 

Lti  TZ  E  N  (Battles).  —  The  Swedes,  com- 
manded by  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus),  who  lost 
his  life  in  the  battle,  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Austrians,  under  Wallenstein, 

near  this  town  in  Saxony,  Nov.  16,  1632. 

Napoleon  I.  defeated  the  Russians  and  Prus- 
sians in  an  engagement  fought  at  the  village  of 
Gross  Gorschen,  nearLtitzen,  May  2,  1813. 

LUXEMBURG  (Belgium  and  Holland)  was 
ceded  to  Siegfried  by  the  monastery  of  Treves, 
and  created  a  county  in  965.  In  the  i2th  cen- 
tury it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Counts 
of  Limburg,  who  took  the  title  of  Counts  of 
Luxemburg.  The  Emperor  Charles  IV.  erected 
it  into  a  duchy  in  1354.  It  came  to  Philip  of 
Burgundy  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  in  1443,  and 
through  him  passed  to  the  house  of  Spain,  with 
whom  it  remained  till  the  peace  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, when  part  of  it  was  ceded  to  France, 
Nov.  7,  1659.  It  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 


Treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  and  it 
passed  to  Holland  in  exchange  for  certain 
German  principalities  in  1814,  and  became  a 
grand  duchy.  In  consequence  of  the  Belgian 
revolution,  Luxemburg  was  dismembered,  and 
a  portion  was  assigned  to  Belgium  by  the  con- 
ference of  London,  Oct.,  1831,  and  a  fresh 
division  was  made  by  a  treaty  signed  in 
London  April  19,  1839. 

LUXEMBURG  (Holland).— This  town,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  old  duchy,  and  now 
of  Dutch  Luxemburg,  was  taken  by  the  Span- 
iards from  the  Duke  of  Orleans  in  1542 ;  by 
Francis  I.  in  1543 :  and  was  captured  by 
Charles  V.  May,  i54~4.  Louis  XIV.  blockaded 
it  in  1 68 1,  but  withdrew  on  the  protest  of  the 
European  powers,  in  1682.  It  was  ceded  to 
him  by  the  Treaty  of  Ratisbon  in  1684,  and 
restored  at  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  Sep.  20,  1697. 
Having  been  besieged  by  the  French,  under 
Gen.  Hatry,  it  capitulated,  after  its  supplies 
were  nearly  exhausted,  June  7,  1795.  It  was 
taken  by  the  allies  in  1813,  and  was  surren- 
dered by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 
As  a  fortress  it  was  stipulated,  in  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna,  that  it  should  be  held  by  the  Ger- 
man confederation,  Feb.  3,  1815.  The  fortifi- 
cations have  been  greatly  strengthened  since 
1830.  A  projecting  rock  called  Le  Bouc  has 
been  hollowed  out,  and  contains  casemates  for 
4,000  men. 

LUXOR,  or  EL-UKSUR  (Egypt).  —  This 
palace,  at  a  village  near  Thebes,  was  built  by 
Amenophis  Memnon,  one  of  the  Pharaohs  who 
reigned  during  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  about  B.C.  1518.  Several  chambers  and 
columns  were  added  to  the  temple  by  Ame- 
noph  III.,  B.C.  1327.  The  sculptures  on  the 
wings  of  the  portals  represent  occurrences  in 
the  reign  of  Rameses  Miamum,  B.C.  1556.  It 
was  plundered  by.  the  Persians  B.C.  520;  and 
one  of  the  massive  obelisks  of  red  granite  was 
removed  by  the  French  in  1831,  and  set  up  in 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  in  1836. 

LUXURY  was  carried  to  excess  amongst  the 
Romans  during  the  latter  period  of  the  Re- 
public and  under  the  Empire.  Gibbon  declares 
that  the  most  remote  countries  of  the  ancient 
world  were  ransacked  to  supply  the  pomp  and 
delicacy  of  Rome,  and,  in  commenting  upon  a 
passage  in  Tacitus,  remarks  :  "It  was  a  com- 
plaint worthy  of  the  gravity  of  the  senate, 
that,  in  the  purchase  of  female  ornaments, 
the  wealth  of  the  state  was  irrevocably  given 
away  to  foreign  and  hostile  nations.  The 
annual  loss  is  computed,  by  a  writer  of  an 
nquisitive  but  censorious  temper,  at  upwards 
of  ;£8oo,ooo  sterling."  Caligula  is  said  to 
aave  served  up  pearls  of  great  value,  dis- 
solved in  vinegar,  about  31.  In  1340  an  edict 
was  issued  in  France  to  restrain  men  from 
partaking  of  more  than  soup  and  two  dishes. 
Various  Sumptuary  Laws  (q.  v.)  for  the  re- 
straint of  luxury  are  found  in  our  statute- 
jook.  By  10  Edw.  III.  st.  3  (1336),  all  classes 
were  prohibited  from  having  more  than  two 
mirses  at  any  meal,  excepting  at  certain  stated 
estivals.  This  statute  was  repealed  by  19  & 
>o  Viet.  c.  64  (July  21,  1856).  The  diet  and 
,pparel  of  each  class  of  the  community  were 
egulated  by  37  Edw.  III.  c.  8 — 14  (1363),  and 

BR    2 


LUZON 


[     612     ] 


LYON 


many  subsequent  acts,  all  of  wliich  were  re 
pealed  by  i  James  I.  c.  25  (1604). 

LUZON,  or  LUCON  (Indian  Archipelago 
one  of  the  Philippines  (q.  v.],  was  discoverec 
by  Magalhaens  in  1521.  (See  MANILLA.) 

LUZZARA  (Battle).  —A  desperate  but  inde 
cisive  contest  occurred  at  this  place  in  Italj 
between  the  Imperialist  army,  under  Prin<?e 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  and  the  Franco-Spanish  anc 
Piedmontese  forces  of  the  Due  de  Vendome 
Aug.  13,  1702. 

LYI3IA.—  (See  LIBYA.) 

LYC.EAX  GAMES,  celebrated  by  the  Area 
dians  in  honour  of  Zeus,  were  instituted  by 
Lycaon,  son  of  Pelasgus,  B.C.  1320. 

LYCANTIIROPIA,  or  WOLF  MADNESS> 
prevailed  in  the  Jura  in  1600,  when  persons 
affected  acted  like  wild  beasts,  devouring  chil 
dren  and  committing  every  kind  of  atrocity. 

LYCAOXIA  (Asia  Minor).— This  district,  the 
boundaries  of  which  frequently  varied,  is  first 
mentioned  in  history  B.C.  401,  when  it  was 
traversed  and  plundered  by  Cyrus  the  Younger. 
For  some  years  the  inahbitants  maintained 
their  independence,  but  they  subsequently 
succumbed,  and,  with  the  other  peoples  of 
Asia  Minor,  passed  successively  under  the 
rule  of  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  B.C.  336—323, 
of  the  Seleucicba,  B.C.  311,  and  of  Antiochus 
the  Great,  B.C.  223,  on  whose  defeat  by  the 
Romans,  B.O.  190,  the  country  was  conferred 
upon  Kurnenes  II.  of  Pergamus.  On  the  death 
of  King  Amyntas  in  battle  against  the  Cili- 
cians,  B.C.  25,  it  was  annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire. 

LYCEUM.  —  In  this  celebrated  school  at 
Athens,  dedicated  to  Apollo  Lyceius,  Aristotle 
and  his  disciples  taught  while  walking  about, 
and  their  philosophy  from  that  circumstance 
is  called  the  Peripatetic.  Philip,  son  of 
Demetrius,  during  his  invasion  of  Attica, 
destroyed  the  trees  of  the  Lyceum,  B.C.  200. 

LYcKi:.\I  TIIKATUK  'London},  called  also 
the  English  Opera-house,  derives  its  name 
from  an  academy  built  in  1765.  It  was  con- 
verted into  a  theatre  in  1790,  and  into  an 
English  opera-house  in  1809.  Having  been 
destroyed  by  fire  Feb.  16,  1830,  it  was  rebuilt, 
and  reopened  Monday  July  14,  1834. 

LYCIA  Asia  Minor),  originally  Milyas,  was 
known  to  Homer,  who  makes  frequent 
allusions  to  it  in  the  Iliad,  B.  c.  962,  and 
enumerates  its  people  among  the  allies  of 
Troy,  B.C.  1192.  This  country  was  subdued 
by  Harpagns,  the  general  of  Cyrus,  and  made 
a  Persian  province  B.C.  546.  It  was  conquered 
by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  B.C.  333  ;  by  the 
Romans,  who  ceded  it  to  the  Rhodians,  B.O. 
1 88 ;  became  a  Roman  province  in  48  ;  and  was 
constituted  a  separate  province  by  Theodosius 
II.  (402 — 450).  It  was  visited  in  1838 — 1840  by 
Sir  Charles  Fellows,  who  discovered  the  re- 
mains of  ii  cities. 
LYDDA.— (See  DIOSPOLIS.) 
LYDIA  (Asia  Minor).— Its  history  dates  as 
far  back  as  B.C.  1200  ;  but  the  real  Lydian  ajra 
commenced  about  B.C.  713,  with  Gyges,  who 
reigned  till  B.C.  678,  the  dynasty  of  the 
Mennnadn  closing  with  Croesus,  B.C.  556, 
when  ^  Cyrus  reduced  the  country  to  the 
condition  of  a  Persian  province.  The  Romans 


bestowed  it  upon  the  King  of  Pergamus  B.C. 
189,  and  it  reverted  to  them  again  B.C.  173. 
(See  MEDIA.) 

LYIXG-IN  HOSPITALS.— The  first  institu- 
tion of  this  kind  was  opened  in  a  private 
house  at  Dublin  by  Dr.  Bartholomew  Mosse, 
March  25,  1745,  and  proved  so  advantageous 
that  in  1747  several  influential  men  in  London 
obtained  from  him  information  as  to  his 
regulations,  with  a  view  to  the  establishment 
of  similar  hospitals  at  London.  (See  HOS- 
PITALS.) 

LYME  REGIS  (Dorsetshire),  received  a 
royal  charter  in  1284,  and  was  represented  by 
two  members  in  Parliament.  It  was  plun- 
dered by  the  French  in  1404,  and  again  in 
1416,  and  it  withstood  a  two  months'  siege  by 
the  Royalists  in  1644.  It  has  only  returned 
one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons  since 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832. 

I .  V  M  PHATIC    VESSELS.  —  (See    LACTEAL 

EJB.) 

LYN'CHBURG  (United  States).— This  town 
in  Virginia,  founded  in  1786,  was  incorporated 
in  1805. 

LYNCH  LAW  is  described  in  Webster's 
American  Dictionary  as  "  the  practice  of 
punishing  men  for  crimes  and  offences  by 
unauthorized  persons,  without  a  legal  trial." 
The  same  authority  adds  :  "  The  term  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  a  Virginian  farmer,  named 
Lynch,  who  thus  took  the  law  into  his  own 
bonds."  The  accuracy  of  this  definition  is 
questioned.  Some  writers  believe  Judge 
Lynch  to  be  a  mythical  personage,  and  others 
trace  the  origin  of  the  phrase  to  one  Lynch, 
sent  to  America  in  1687-8,  to  suppress  piracy. 
He  had  authority  to  dispense  with  the  usual 
forms  of  law  in  the  punishment  of  the  pirates, 
and  from  this  circumstance  the  term  arose. 
Sir  Harris  Xicolas  mentions  the  case  of  a 
widow  who  had  committed  murder,  put  to 
death  in  this  manner  by  some  of  her  own 
sex,  in  1429.  By  others  the  term  is  derived 
from  James  Lynch  Fitzstephen,  Mayor  of 
Gal  way  in  1526,  who  caused  his  own  son, 
convicted  of  murder,  to  be  hanged  before  his 
own  door. 

LYXX,  LYNN  REGIS,  or  KING'S  LYNN 
Norfolk),  received  its  charter  from  King  John, 
who  remained  three  days  in  the  town,  when 
evading  the  forces  of  the  barons,  Oct.  9,  1216. 
ft  returned  two  members  to  Parliament  in 
1295,  and  was  detached  from  the  see  of 
Norfolk,  of  which  it  formed  a  fief,  under  the 
name  of  Lynn  Episcopi,  by  Henry  VIII.  (1509 
—1547).  St.  Margaret's  Church  was  founded 
"n  i roo,  St.  Nicholas'  by  Edward  III.,  and  the 
grammar-school  in  1510.  After  a  three  weeks' 
siege  it  capitulated  to  the  Parliamentary  forces 

LY(?N  COURT  (Scotland).— This,  the  chief 
icraldic  tribunal  of  Scotland,  presided  over  by 
he  Lyon  King-at-Arms,  was  regulated  by  the 
Scotch  Parliament  in  1592 — 1672. 

LYON  KING-AT-ARMS  (Scotland). —This 
)ffice  existed  at  a  remote  period, — according 
:o  some  authorities  as  early  as  the  i2th 
century.  The  first  recorded  appearance  of 
".yon  king-at-arrns  is  at  the  coronation  of 
Robert  II.,  in  March,  1371. 


LYON 


[    6x3    ] 


LYRE 


LYON  or  LYONS  (Battle).—  Clodius  Albinus 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Septimius  Severus, 
in  a  great  battle  fought  at  Lyons,  Feb.  19,  197. 
It  terminated  the  civil  war,  and  150,000 
Romans  are  said  to  have  been  engaged  on  the 
occasion. 

LYON,  or  LYONS  (France).—  The  ancient 
Lugdunus,  Lugdunum,  or  Lugudunum.  A 
Roman  colony  is  said  to  have  been  settled 
B.c.  43,  by  L.  Munatius  Plancus,  with  the 
people  of  Vienne,  driven  from  their  homes  by 
the  Allobroges.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Gallia 
Lugdunensis. 

B.C. 

10,  Aug.  i.   An  altar  is  dedicated  to  Augustus  by  60 

Gallic  states. 
A.D. 

40.  Caligula  visits  Lyons,  and  institutes  games  in  honour 
of  Augustus. 


41—54.  Claudius  I.,  a  native,  makes  it  a  colony. 
Having  been  reduced  to  ashes  in  o 
makes  a  liberal  grant  to  rebuild  it. 


59. 


ight,  Ne 


168  —  180.  The  Christians  are  cruelly  persecuted. 

197,  Feb.  19.  It  is  pillaged  and  burned  after  the  defeat  of 

Clodius  Albinus  by  Septimius  Severus.   A  council 

is  held  respecting  Easter. 
199.  Another  council  is  held. 
383,  Aug.  25.  The  Emperor  Gratian,  seeking  refuge  from 

rebellion,  is  murdered  here. 
475.  A  council  is  held. 
500,  Sep.  z.  A  conference  of  bishops  is  held  by  the  Bur- 

gundian  King  Gundibald. 
517.  A  council  is  held. 
561  —  613.  Lyons  forms  part  of    the  kingdom  of   Bur- 

gundy. 

566  or  567.  A  council  on  discipline  is  held. 
583,  May.  A  council  on  discipline  is  held. 
039.  A  council  is  held  against  the  Jews. 
843.  Lyons  is  allotted  to  the  Emperor  Lothaire  I. 
848.  A  council  is  held. 
855.  Lyons  passes  under  the  rule  of  Charles,   King  of 

Provence. 

863.  It  is  seized  by  Charles  I.  (the  Bald). 
879.  It  forms  part  of  the  territory  of  Boson. 
1055.  A  council  is  held. 
1157.  The  archbishops  receive  the  title  of  exarch,  and  are 

confirmed  in  their  temporal  power  by  the  Em- 

peror. 
1178.  The  followers  of  Waldo  are  prohibited  from  preach- 

ing by  Archbishop  John. 
1544.  Pope  Innocent  IV.  having  taken  refuge  here  from 

the  Emperor,  Frederick  II.,  pronounces  a    fresh 

sentence  of  excommunication  against  him. 
1345,  June  28—  July  17.    The  thirteenth  General  Council, 

at  which  Innocent  IV.  passes  sentence  of  deposi- 

tion against  Frederick  II.,  is  held  here. 
1374,  May  7—  July  17.    The   fourteenth  General  Council, 

for  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 

is  held  here. 
1305.  Clement  V.  issues  an  order  for  a  meeting  of  Cardi- 

nals at  Lyons. 
1307.  It  is  united  to  France  by  Philip  IV. 

1538,  March  21.  A  council  against  Luther  is  held  here. 

1539.  Two  bronze  tablets,  containing  the  oration  of  Clau- 

dius on  giving  the  civitas  to  the  nations  of  Gaul, 

are  dug  up. 

1560.  The  Calvinists  capture  Lyons. 
1563.  Charles  IX.  regains  possession. 
1573.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
1596.  Henry  IV.  visits  Lyons. 
1646  —  55.  The  town-hall  is  erected. 
1709—10.  Great  distress  during  the  winter. 
1793,  Oct.  10.  Lyons  is  taken  after  a  siege  of  66  days  by 

the  army  of  the  French  Convention,  and  the  in- 

habitants are  cruelly  treated. 

1814.  The  Austrians  take  possession  of  Lyons. 

1815,  March  8.   Napoleon  I.   arrives  here  on  his  escape 

from    Elba,   and  persuades  the    inhabitants    to 
espouse  his  cause. 

1816,  June  8.  A  conspiracy  is  discovered  and  suppressed. 

1817.  Serious  bread  riots  take  place. 

1831,  Nov.  23.  The  artisans  rebel  and  drive  out  the  troops. 
—Dec.  31.  Marshal  Soult  at  the  head  of  40,000 
troops  occupies  Lyons. 


1834,  April  15.  An  insurrection  occurs.— April  31.  It  is 
suppressed. 

1840,  Aug.  31.  A  great  reform  banquet  is  held  on  the 
plain  of  Chatillon. — Nov.  4.  An  inundation  sweeps 
away  100  of  the  neighbouring  villages. 

1849,  June  15.  A  revolt,  which  causes  great  loss,  occurs. 

1850,  Aug.  15.  Louis  Napoleon  is  entertained  at  a  grand 

banquet. 
1853.  An  equestrian  statue  of  Napoleon  is  erected. 

LYON,  or  LYONS  (Treaties).— The  Archduke 
Philip,  on  the  part  of  Spain,  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  Louis  XII.  of  France  at  Lyons, 
where  it  was  signed  April  5,  1503.  It  provided 
that  Philip's  infant  son  Charles  should  marry 
Claude,  a  princess  of  France  ;  and  the  youthful 
couple  were  thenceforth  to  assume  the  titles 
of  King  and  Queen  of  Naples,  and  Duke  and 
Duchess  of  Calabria.  The  French  division  of 
the  kingdom  was  to  be  ruled  by  some  person 
named  by  Louis  XII.,  and  the  Spanish 
division  by  the  Archduke  Philip,  or  some 
person  appointed  by  Ferdinand  in  the  interval 
before  the  marriage  took  place.  All  places 
unlawfully  seized  by  either  party  were  to  be 
given  up.  War  broke  out  soon  after  the  treaty 
was  signed,  and  much  controversy  has  been 
excited  amongst  French  and  Spanish  writers 

respecting  this  transaction. Another  treaty 

between  France  and  Spain  was  concluded  at 
Lyons  Feb.  n,  1504,  and  was  ratified  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  at  the  convent  of  St. 
Maria  de  la  Mejorado,  March  31.  It  guar- 
anteed to  Aragon  the  undisturbed  possession 
of  her  Italian  conquests  for  three  years,  from 
Feb.  25,  1504,  and  provided  for  a  general  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities. By  a  treaty  concluded 

here  Jan.  17,  1601,  Henry  IV.  obtained  from 
Savoy  all  the  country  included  between  the 
Soane,  the  Rhone,  and  Mount  Jura,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  marquisate  of  Saluces,  which 
he  relinquished  to  Duke  Charles  Emanuel  I. 

LYONNAIS  (France).— This  territory,  which 
belonged  to  the  Burgundians  in  413,  and  to  the 
Franks  in  534,  was  afterwards  erected  into  a 
county,  the  greater  portion  of  which  Philip 
IV.  united  to  France  in  1307. 

LYON'S  INN  (London).— This  inn  of  chan- 
cery, originally  an  hostelry  with  the  sign  of 
the  Lion,  belonged  (Crabb's  History  of  Eng- 
lish Law,  p.  554)  to  the  Inner  Temple  from 
the  reign  of  Henry  V.  (1413 — 1422),  if  not 
before.  The  hall  was  erected  in  1700.  This 
Inn  was  sold  by  auction,  Dec.  2-4,  1862. 

LYON  VERSES  differ  from  Palindromes 
(q.  v.}  in  that  each  word,  and  not  each  letter,  is 
reversed  in  order  to  ascertain  the  double 
reading,  which  frequently  assumes  the  nature 
of  question  and  answer.  They  were  invented 
by  Caius  Sollius  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  who 
was  born  at  Lyons  about  431,  and  died  Aug.  21, 
482,  or  484.  The  following  epitaph  in  Gum- 
wallow  churchyard,  Cornwall,  is  an  English 
Lyon  Verse  : — 

"Shall  we  all  die? 
We  shall  die  all; 
All  die  shall  we— 
Die  all  we  shall." 

LYRE.  —  The  invention  of  this  musical 
instrument  was  ascribed  by  the  Greeks  to 
Apollo,  or  to  Mercury.  A  similar  instrument 
was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  was 
also  in  use  amongst  the  Hebrews. 


LTSIMACHIA 


t    614    ] 


MACCABEES 


LTSIMACHIA  ( Thracian  Chersonesus) , 
founded  by  Lysimacliua,  King  of  Thrace,  B.C. 
309,  whence  its  name,  was  injured  by  an  earth- 
quake about  B.C.  282,  captured  by  the  Syrians 
B.C.  281,  by  the  Egyptians  B.C.  247,  and  by 
Philip  V.,  of  Macedon,  B.C.  205,  when  it  was 
destroyed.  Restored  by  Antiochus  the  Great 
B.C.  195,  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans  B.C.  191, 
The  Emperor  Justinian  I.  (527 — 65),  sur- 
rounded it  with  fortifications,  after  which  it 
was  called  Hexamilium. 

LYTHAM  (Lancashire).  —  This  town, 
mentioned  in  Domesday  Book  (1085-6)  under 
the  name  Lidun,  became  late  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  I.  (1189 — 1199)  the  site  of  a  Benedic- 
tine priory,  founded  by  Richard  Fitz-Roger. 
Lytham  Hall  was  erected  between  1757  and 
1764,  and  a  church  was  built  on  the  ground 
occupied  by  the  priory,  in  1770.  The  school 
was  rebuilt  in  1821,  the  baths  were  erected  in 
1829,  and  the  church  of  St.  Cuthbert  com- 
menced March  20,  1834.  The  lighthouse,  on  a 
point  called  "The  Double  Stanners,"  between 
Lytham  and  Blackpool,  was  swept  away  in  a 
gale,  Jan.  22,  1862. 


M. 

MAASTRICHT,  or  MAESTRICHT  (Holland), 
called  the  German  Gate  of  the  Netherlands. 
the  ancient  Trajectum  ad  Mosam,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  Limburg,  founded  in  the 
5th  century,  has  sustained  several  memorable 
sieges.  The  seat  of  the  bishopric  was  trans- 
ferred there  from  Tongres  in  383.  In  1576 
the  inhabitants  expelled  the  Spaniards,  who 
regained  possession,  and  committed  great 
atrocities,  Oct.  20.  Having  again  driven  out 
the  Spaniards,  the  Duke  of  Parma  invested  it 
March  12,  1579.  A  general  assault,  April  8, 
was  repulsed,  but  it  was  carried  by  storm 
June  29.  The  city  was  delivered  up  to  the 
infuriated  soldiers  for  three  days,  when  men, 
women,  and  children  were  treated  with  great 
barbarity.  One  historian  relates  that  not 
more  than  400  citizens  remained  alive,  and 
Strada  says  that  8,000  of  the  inhabitants  were 
slain  during  the  siege,  and  of  these  1,700  were 
females.  It  regained  its  independence  in  1622, 
and  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1673.  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
capture  it  in  1675.  The  Duke  of  Marlborough 
occupied  Maastricht  in  1703.  It  was  invested 
by  the  French  April  3,  1748,  and  though  they 
did  not  succeed  in  capturing  it,  yet  the  pre- 
liminaries of  peace,  signed  a  short  time  after, 
provided  that  it  should  be  delivered  to  them, 
and  the  garrison  marched  out  with  the  honours 
of  war  May  3.  The  French  again  besieged  it 
Feb.  n,  1793,  and  retired  in  March,  without 
having  effected  their  object.  They  returned 
in  1794,  and  the  city  capitulated  to  them 
Nov.  4.  Holland  ceded  Maastricht  to  Belgium 
by  a  treaty  with  France  in  1795,  and  having 
long  remained  under  French  influence,  it  was 
restored  to  Holland  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
May  30,  1814.  This  city  remained  faithful  to 
Holland  during  the  revolution  of  1830. 


MACADAMIZING.— John  Loudon  Macadam, 
who  invented  the  mode  of  road-making  that 
takes  its  name  from  him,  first  put  it  into 
practice  on  the  Bristol  roads  in  1815.  He  was 
appointed  general  surveyor  of  roads  in  1827, 
and  received  from  Parliament  two  grants, 
amounting  to  .£10,000. 

MACALO  (Battle).  —  The  Milanese  forces, 
under  Carlo  Malatesta,  were  defeated  at  this 
place,  near  Cremona,  by  the  Venetians,  under 
Carmagnola,  Oct.  n,  1427. 

MACAO  (China).— The  Portuguese  formed  a 
settlement  here  in  1517,  and  it  was  granted  to 
them  for  purposes  of  trade  in  1537.  They  kept 
it  a  close  port  till  1849,  when  it  was  declared 
free.  By  a  treaty  concluded  at  Tien-tsin 
Aug.  13,  1862,  Macao  was  definitely  ceded  to 
Portugal. 

MACARONI. —  This  preparation  of  wheat 
flour  is  an  invention  of  the  Italians,  and  has 
for  many  years  formed  an  important  branch 
of  manufacture  in  Genoa  and  Naples.  An 
establishment  for  its  manufacture  was  opened 
in  Spitalfields  in  1730. 

MACARONI  CLUB  (London).— This  club  of 


dandies  was  formed  in  1772,  by  a  number  of 
young  men  of  fashion,  who  had  travelled  in 
Italy,  and  adopted  the  title  in  contradistinc- 


tion to  the  London  Beefsteak  Club  (</.  p.). 
Hence,  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  extravagant 
dress  were  known  as  macai 

MACARONIC  VERSE,  or  MACARONICS.— 
The  term  was  first  applied  to  this  kind  of 
verse  by  Theophilus  Folcngo,  or,  as  he  called 
himself,  Merlinus  Coccaius,  an  Italian  monk 
(1491 — Dec.  9,  1544).  Hallam  says  that  Folengo, 
having  written  an  epic  poem  which  he  thought 
worthy  of  the  ./Eneid,  and  being  told  by  a 
friend  that  he  had  equalled  Virgil,  threw  it 
into  the  fire  in  a  rage,  and  wrote  Macaronics 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Antonius  de  Arena, 
of  Avignon,  is  said  to  have  written  macaronic 
verse  in  1519.  It  became  very  fashionable, 
and  was  introduced  into  English  literature, 
about  1483,  by  John  Skelton,  who  died  June 
21,  1529,  and  has  been  called  a  rhyming 
Rabelais. 

MACARTHY  ISLAND  (Africa),  comprised 
in  the  colony  on  the  Gambia,  was  guaranteed 
to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3, 
i7%3- 

MACASSAR  (Eastern  Seas).— This  station, 
on  the  island  of  Celebes,  was  obtained  as  a 
settlement  by  the  Portuguese  in  1512.  In 
1603  the  rajah,  with  all  his  subjects,  embraced 
Mohammedanism.  It  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  English  in  1811,  and  they  defeated  the 
King  of  Boni  in  1814.  It  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch  in  1816.  The  harbour  was  made  a  free 
port  from  Jan.  i,  1847.  The  Dutch  call  it 
VLaardingen. 

MACCABEES.  —  A  name  considered  to  be 
cabalistically  derived  from  the  motto  "Who 
among  the  gods  is  like  Jehovah !"  inscribed  on 
the  Jewish  banner  used  during  their  war  with 
Syria,  B.C.  166.  The  first  of  these  apocryphal 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  giving  a  history 
of  the  struggles  of  the  Jews  with  their  ene- 
mies in  the  period  B.C.  175 — 135,  was  written 
soon  after  the  events  narrated,  by  an  unknown 
author.  The  second,  an  abridgement  of  the 


MACCABEES 


[    615    ] 


MACEDONIA 


larger  work  of  Jason  of  Gyrene,  now  lost,  and 
embracing  the  time  from  about  B.C.  185 — 170, 
was  written  about  B.C.  150.  The  third  is  con- 
sidered by  Dr.  Allix  to  have  been  written  B.C. 
200 ;  and  the  fourth,  attributed  to  Josephus, 
about  70.  Of  the  authorship  of  a  fifth  book, 
a  relation  of  Jewish  affairs  from  some  time 
previous  to  the  birth  of  Christ  to  that  event, 
nothing  whatever  is  known.  The  four  books 
were  admitted  as  canonical  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  Dec.  13,  1545—060.  3,  1563. 

MACCABEES  (JEra\  commenced  Nov.  24, 
166. 

MACCABEES  (Festival),  instituted  in 
honour  of  the  seven  Maccabees,  who  opposed 
the  tyrant  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.C.  167,  and 
died  in  defence  of  the  Jewish  law,  was  cele- 
brated generally  in  the  Christian  Church  in  the 
4th  century.  In  the  Roman  martyrology  it  is 
fixed  Aug.  i. 

MACCLESFIELD  (Cheshire)  was  incorpo- 
rated by  charter  in  1260.  The  church  of  St. 
Michael  was  founded  by  Eleanor,  Queen  of 
Edward  I.,  in  1278,  the  grammar-school  in 
1502.  A  subscription  library  was  established 
in  1770,  and  a  school  of  design  in  1851.  A 
free  school  was  founded  in  1838.  The  manu- 
facture of  silk,  for  which  this  town  is  cele- 
brated, made  great  advances  between  1808  and 
1825. 

MACE,  an  improvement  on  the  club  as  a 
weapon  of  war  in  barbarous  times,  is  men- 
tioned in  Homer,  B.C.  962,  and  was  probably 
introduced  into  Europe  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 3th  century.  The  heavy  cavalry  were 
supplied  with  the  mace  in  the  isth  and  i6th 
centuries  ;  but  it  went  out  of  use  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603).  Dr. 
Clarke  considers  its  use  in  corporations  to  be 
derived  from  the  ceremonies  attendant  on  the 
preservation  of  Agamemnon's  sceptre  by  the 
Chseroneans,  B.C.  1201.  Cromwell,  when  forci- 
bly dissolving  the  Long  Parliament,  April  20, 
1653,  said,  pointing  to  this  symbol  of  the 
speaker's  authority,  "  Kernove  that  fool's  bau- 
ble ! "  This  mace  was  melted  down  and  sold 
by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  Aug.  9, 
1649.  Charles  II.  presented  one  to  the  Royal 
Society,  to  be  placed  before  the  president. 
Lord  Chancellor  Finch's  house  in  Queen  Street 
•was  broken  into  and  the  mace  stolen  Nov.  7, 

1  MACEDONIA,  or  MACEDON  (Greece).— 
The  name  is  derived  by  some  writers  from 
Macednus  or  Macedon,  a  descendant  of  Deuca- 
lion, and  other  authorities  believe  it  to  be  a 
corruption  of  Mygdonia,  a  district  of  the 
country.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Macedonia 
are  believed  to  have  been  Thracian  and  Illyrian. 
tribes,  with  which  Hellenic  settlers  inter- 
mingled. 

B.C. 

761.  Caranus  settles  in  Macedon  with  a  Greek  colony. 
513.  Macedon  invaded  by  Darius  I.,  King  of  Persia,  and 

compelled  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  him. 
479.  Macedon  is  delivered  from  the  Persian  yoke  by  the 

battle  of  Plataea  (q.  v.). 
433.  Potidam,  in   Macedon,  revolts  from  the  Athenian 

confederacy. 

439.  Potidasa  is  taken  by  the  Athenians. 
413.  On  the  death  of  Perdiccas  II.,  his  legitimate  sons 

are  murdered  by  his  natural  son  Archelaus,  who 

usurps  the  throne. 


B.C. 

399.  Archelaus  is  assassinated. 

3y«.  Thrace  and  Macedon  arc  at  war. 

368.  Alexander  II.  is  assassinated. 

359.  Philip  II.  wages  war  against  the  Athenians  and  the 
Illyrians. 

358.  Philip  II.  takes  Pydna  and  Amphipolls. 

356,  June.  Potidaea  is  taken  by  Philip  II.— July.  Birth  of 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great). 

353.  Philip  II.  takes  Methone,  losing  an  eye  by  an  arrow 
during  the  siege.  He  expels  the  tyrants  from 
Pheras.  Demosthenes  delivers  his  first  Philippic 
(q.  r.). 

347.  Olynthus  is  captured  by  Philip  II. 

346.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Athens.  Philip  II.  obtains 
the  mastery  of  the  Phocaeans. 

344.  Philip  II.  invades  Illyria.  and  subdues  Sparta.  De- 
mosthenes delivers  his  second  Philippic. 

343.  Philip  II.  conducts  an  expedition  into  Acarnania, 
where  he  is  opposed  by  the  Athenians. 

34?.  Thrace  is  invaded  by  Philip  II.  Aristotle  resides  at 
the  Macedonian  court  as  tutor  to  the  young  prince 
Alexander. 

340.  Byzantium  is  besieged  by  Philip  II.,  who  is  com- 
pelled by  Phociou  to  retire. 

338,  March.  A  golden  crown  is  voted  to  Demosthenes  at 
the  Dionysiac  festival.  Philip  II.,  by  means  of 
the  Macedonian  phalanx,  gains  the  battles  of 
Elatea  and  Cheeronea  (q.  v.),  and  thus  renders 
himself  master  of  Greece. 

336,  July.  Philip  II.  is  assassinated  by  the  youth  Pau- 
sanias,  at  JEges,  during  the  marriage  games  of 
his  daughter.  He  is  succeeded  by  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great),  aged  30  years,  who  is  elected  gene- 
ralissimo of  the  Greek  allies  against  Persia. 

335.  Alexander  III.   conquers  the  Thracians,   the  Illy- 

rians, and  the  Triballi,  and  takes  and  destroys 
Thebes. 

334.  He  crosses  the  Hellespont,  gains  the  battle  of  Grani- 
cus  (q.  v.),  and  takes  Sardis,  Miletus,  and  Hali- 
carnassus. 

333.  The  Lacedemonians  unite  with  Memnon  the  Rhodian 
against  Alexander  III.  He  cuts  the  Gordian 
knot  (q.  i'.),  and  gains  the  battle  of  Issus  (q.  v.). 
Parmenio  takes  Damascus. 

332.  Alexander  III.  takes  Tyre  and  Gaza,  subdues  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  and  founds  Alexandria. 

331,  Oct.  i.  He  defeats  Darius  III.  at  the  battle  of  Ar- 
bela  (q.  v.),  takes  Babylon,  and  burns  Persepolis. 

330.  The  seat  of  government  is  transferred  from  Mace- 
donia to  Susa,  in  Babylon.  Alexander  III.  sub- 
dues Hyrcania,  Aria,  and  Aornus,  and  puts  Par- 
menio to  death  on  a  charge  of  treason. 

329.  Alexander  III.  enters  Bactria,  marries  the  native 
princess  Koxana,  and  claims  divine  honours. 

338.  Alexander  III.  kills  Clitus,  and  causes  the  philoso- 
pher Calisthenes  to  be  put  to  death. 

336.  Alexander  III.  crosses  the  Indus,  defeats  Porus,  and 

takes  and  destroys  the  city  of  Sangala. 

333-  Alexander  III.  is  compelled  by  the  mutinous  dispo- 
sition of  his  troops  to  return  to  Babylon,  where  he 
dies  in  May  or  June.  Macedon  engages  against 
Greece  in  the  Lamian  war. 

323,  Aug.  7.  The  Macedonians  defeat  the  Greeks  at  the 
battle  of  Crannon,  which  puts  an  end  to  the 
Lamian  war. 

313.  War  is  carried  on  against  the  ^Etolians. 

311.  Koxana  and  her  son  Alexander  IV.  are  put  to  death 
by  Cassander. 

394.  Alexander  V.  and  Antipater  wage  civil  war  in 
Macedon.  The  former  is  aided  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  who  afterwards  procures  his  assassi- 
nation, and  usurps  the  throne. 

288.  Pyrrhus,  who  invades  Macedon,  is  expelled  by  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes.  . 

387.  Demetrius  is  driven  from  Macedonia,  and  the  king- 
dom is  divided  between  Lysimacluis  and  Pyrrhus 

380.  The  Gauls  invade  Macedon.  The  Achasan  League  is 
renewed  against  Macedon. 

378.  Antigonus  Gonatas  seizes  the  crown. 

372.  Pyrrhus  invades  Sparta,  and  is  killed  at  Argos. 

368.  Antigonus  Gonatas  takes  Athens.  Macedon  is  asain 
ravaged  by  the  Gauls. 

221.  Macedon  is  invaded  by  the  Illyrians,  who  are  de- 
feated by  Antigonus  Doson. 

2ii.  Philip  V.  forms  an  alliance  with  HannibaL 

205.  Philip  V.  concludes  a  treaty  with  the  Romans. 

303.  Philip  V.  is  at  war  with  Rhodes. 

300.  Philip  V.  declares  war  against  the  Romans. 


MACEDONIANS 


[    616    ] 


MADAGASCAR 


B.C. 

197.  Philip  V.  is  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Cynosceph- 

al£e. 

IQI.  Philip  V.  strives  to  conciliate  the  Romans. 
186.  Philip  V.  is  compelled  to  surrender   several  cities 

and  territories. 

171.  War  is  renewed  with  Rome. 

108,  Juno  32.  Perseus,  the  last  King  of  Macedon,  is  de- 
feated and  made  prisoner  by  the   Romans,  at  the 

battle  of  Pydna.    Macedou  is  divided  into   four 

Roman  provinces. 
149.  Andriscus,  calling  himself  Philip,  son  of  Perseus, 

reconquers  Macedon. 
148.    Andriscus  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Q. 

Csecilius  Metellus. 

"75.  Thracian  invaders  commit  great  ravages. 
A.D. 

263.  Macedon  is  ravaged  by  the  Goths. 
334.  It  is  settled  by  some  Sarmatian  tribes,  by  order  of 

Constantino  I.  « 

443.  Attila  ravages  Macedon. 
482.  It  is  ravaged  by  Theodoric,  tho  Ostrogoth. 
559.  The  Bulgarians,  who  invade  Macedon,  are  repulsed 

by  Belisarins. 

840.  A  Persian  colony  settles  on  the  Axius. 
97*.  Macedon  is  conquered  by  the  Bulgarians, 
looi.  It  is  reconquered  by  Basilius  II. 
1065.  A  colony  of  Uzes  is  settled  in  Macedon. 
1304.  Macedon  is  erected  into   the   kingdom   of  Thessa- 

lonica. 

1222.  Macedon  is  recaptured  by  Theodore  I.ascaris. 
1430.  Macedon  is  conquered  by  Amurath  II.,  by  whom  it 

is  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

KINGS   OF   MACEDON. 


B.C. 

Perdiccas  I. 

Argfcus. 

Philip  I. 

Aeropus. 

Alee  las. 

540.  Atnyntas  I. 
500.  Alexander  I. 
454.   IVrdiccas  II. 
413.  Archelau-i. 
399.  Orestes  and  ASropus. 
394,  Piuixaiiiiis. 
303.  Amyiitas  II. 
369.  Alexander  II. 
368.  Ptolemrcus  Alorites. 
364.  Perdiccas  III. 


359.  Philip  II. 

tnderllL  the  Great 

343.   Philip   (III.)   Aridreus, 

and  Alexander  IV. 
31  >  CaMander. 

296.   Philip  IV- 

3<j5.  Demi-trills  1'oliorcetes. 

287.   Pyrrhus. 

imachus,  &c. 
283.  Antigonus  Uonatas. 
239.    Don. 'tri!i>  II. 

229.  Antigonus  Doson. 

230.  Philip  V. 
17*.    IVi 

149 — 148.  Audriscus. 


MACEDONIANS.— This  name,  given  to  the 
Semi-Arians,  is  derived  from  Macedonius,  a 
deacon  who  was  made  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Arians  in  341,  and  was  acknow- 
ledged as  Patriarch  in  342.  When  the  Arians 
separated  into  the  Arians  and  the  Semi- Arians, 
in  359,  Macedonius  took  part  with  the  latter, 
and  he  was  expelled  from  the  see  in  360,  after 
which  time  the  Semi- Arians  were  called  Mace- 
donians. They  were  condemned  by  the  second 
general  council,  held  at  Constantinople  May 
— July  30,  381.  They  are  also  called  Piieuma- 
tomachians,  or  Adversaries  of  the  Spirit. 

MACELLUM.— In  this  castle  near  Csesarea 
Constantius  II.  confined  Julian  and  Gallus, 
nephews  of  Constantino  I.,  from  345  to  March 

'MACERATA  (Italy),  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name  annexed  to  the  ecclesiastical 
estates  by  Charlemagne,  was  made  a  bishop's 
see  in  1322.  Napoleon  I.,  by  a  decree  dated 
March,  1807,  annexed  this  province  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  It  was  restored  to  the 
Papal  States  in  1814-15,  and  formed  part  of 
the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 

MACHIAVELLIAN  PRINCIPLES.  —  This 
term  is  applied  to  the  principles  advocated  in 
the  celebrated  work  "  II  Principe,"  by  Niccolo 
Machiavulli  (1469— June  22, 1527),  the  Florentine 


statesman.     It  was  first  published  at  Rome, 
Jan.  4,  1532. 

MACHINE -BREAKING.  —  By  the  fourth 
clause  of  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30  (June  21,  1827), 
a  person  breaking  or  destroying  any  machine 
employed  in  any  manufacture  in  England,  was 
liable  to  transportation  for  seven  years,  or 
imprisonment  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two 
years.  If  the  offender  was  a  male,  whipping, 
either  publicly  or  privately,  might  be  added  to 
the  imprisonment.  A  special  commission  for 
the  trial  of  machine-breakers  was  held  in 
Hampshire  in  1830. 

MACHINES.— (See  CARRIAGES.) 

MACHPELAH.— (See  BURIAL  and  HEBRON.) 

MACHYNLLETH  (Wales).  —  The  Romans 
had  a  station  at  this  town  in  Montgomery- 
shire. Here  the  Parliament  of  Wales  met  and 
acknowledged  Owen  Glendower,  as  prince  of 
Wales,  in  1402  ;  and  Owen  Glendower  entered 
into  a  treaty  in  1403  with  the  Percys  and  the 
Mortimers  to  restore  Richard  II.,  if  he  could 
be  found  alive,  to  the  English  throne  ;  or,  in 
case  of  his  decease,  to  make  the  Earl  of  March 
king.  This  alliance  was  dissolved  by  the 
battle  of  Hateley  Field  (q.  v.).  The  church 
was  rebuilt  in  1827. 

MACIEJOVICE,  or  MACIEWICE  (Battle).— 
A  Russian  army  of  12,000  men,  commanded  by 
Person,  defeated  10,000  Poles  led  by  Thaddaeus 
Kosciusko  at  this  place,  in  Poland,  Oct.  10, 
1 794.  Kosciusko  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was 
liberated  after  two  years'  imprisonment,  and 
died  at  Soleure,  in  France,  Oct.  15,  1817. 

.MACKENZIE  RIVER  (North  America)  is 
named  after  Alexander  Mackenzie,  who  dis- 
covered it  in  1 785,  and  explored  the  stream,  at 
first  called  the  Athabasca  River,  to  the  place 
where  it  discharges  itself  in  the  Frozen  Ocean, 
which  he  reached  July  15. 

MACKINTOSH.— (See  INDIA-RUBBER.) 
MACON  (France),  the  ancient  Matisco,  was 
occupied  by  one  of  the  legions  of  Julius  Caesar 
B.C.  52.  Councils  were  held  here  in  581  (Nicolas 
says  Nov.  i,  582),  Oct.  23,  585,  in  624,  and  July, 
1286.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  Macon  was 
governed  by  its  own  counts.  Louis  IX. 
annexed  it  to  France  in  1238.  It  was  ceded 
to  Burgundy  by  Charles  VII.  in  1435,  and 
reunited  to  France  in  1477.  It  was  made  a 
bishop's  see  in  the  5th,  and  suffered  severely 
in  the  religious  wars  during  the  i6th  century. 
Great  atrocities  were  perpetrated  in  the  Macon- 
nais  in  1789.  The  seats  of  the  nobility  and 
several  churches  were  completely  destroyed. 
The  French  were  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon 
an  Austrian  detachment  at  this  town,  March 
ii,  1814.  An  inundation  committed  much 
havoc  at  Macon  and  in  the  neighbourhood,  in 
Nov.,  1841.  A  reform  banquet  was  held  at 
Macon  Sep.  20,  1847. 

MACON  (N.  America).  —  This  town  in 
Georgia  was  only  a  village  about  1822.  The 
Wesleyan  female  college  was  founded  in  1839. 

MACQUARIE  RIVER.  —  (See  GOLD  DIS- 
COVERIES.) 

MADAGASCAR  (Indian  Ocean).— The 
existence  of  this  island,  long  known  to  the 
Arabs  and  Moors,  was  first  brought  to  Europe 
in  1298  by  the  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo, 
who  describes  it  under  the  name  Mugaster. 


MADAIN 


[    617    ] 


MADRAS 


A.D. 

1506.  A  ship  under  the  command  of  Coutinho,  forming 
part  of  Tristan  da  Cunha's  exploring  squadron, 
takes  refuge  from  a  storm  in  one  of  the  harbours 
of  Madagascar.  On  his  return  Coutinho  per- 
suades Tristan  da  Cunlia  to  visit  it, 

1508.  It  is  again  visited  by  the  Portuguese. 

1509.  Diego  Lopez  de  Siquera  goes  on  an  expedition  to 

Madagascar. 

1510.  It  is  visited  by  Juan  Serrano. 

1548.  The  Portuguese  form  the  first  European  settlement 
in  the  island. 

1642.  The  French  having  destroyed  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ment, form  one  which  they  call  Fort  Dauphin. 

1644.  The  English  plant  a  colony  in  St.  Augustine  Bay. 

1669.  A  French  governor-general  arrives. 

1673.  Several  of  the  French  are  massacred  by  the  natives. 

1774,  Feb.  14.  Count  Benyowski,  sent  out  by  the  French 

Government,  arrives. 

1775,  Oct.  12.  Count  Benyowski  obtains  supreme  autho- 

rity in  the  island. 

1776,  Dec.  10.  Count  Benyowski  embarks  for  France. 

1785,  July  7.  Count  Benyowski  returns  to  the  island. 

1786,  May  23.  Count  Benyowski  is  killed  in  an  encounter 

with  a  French  expedition. 

1810.  Kadama  I.  (the  Great)  begins  his  reign. 

1811,  Feb.  17.  The  French  factories  surrender  to  an  Eng- 

lish force. — May  19.  The  English  garrison  is  cap- 
tured, but  the  French  are  again  expelled. 

1817.  Oct.  18.   A  treaty,   abolishing  the   slave   trade,    is 

signed  at  Tamatave  between  England  and  the 
King  of  Madagascar. 

1818.  Missionaries  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society 

arrive  in  the  island. 
1830,  Oct.  n.  Additional  articles  to  the  treaty  of  1817  are 

signed. 

1823,  May  31.  Other  articles  are  signed. 
1825,  March.  The  army  of  Kadama  I.  replaces  the  French 

flag  at  Fort  Dauphin  by  that  of  their  king. 

1828,  July  27.  Kadama  I.  (the  Great)  dies,5and  Ranuvolona 

Manjaka,  one  of  his  n  wives,  succeeds. 

1829,  June  1 1.    Ranavolona  Manjaka  is  crowned.— June 

15.  A  French  expedition  arrives  at  Tamatave. 
—Oct.  3.  The  French  attack  the  fort  at  Tamatave. 
— Oct.  26.  They  are  repulsed  at  Foulepoint. — Nov. 
3.  The  French  succeed  in  an  attack  on  Point  a 
Larre,  and  a  treaty  is  concluded. 

1835,  Feb.  6.  Kanavolona   Manjaka  issues  an  edict  for- 

bidding the  teaching  of  the  Bible.— Aug.  27. 
Most  of  the  missionaries  leave  the  island. 

1836,  Ranavolona  Manjaka  sends  an  embassy  to  England 

and  to  France. 

1837,  March  i.  The    embassy   is    presented    to  William 

IV. — March  7.  The  embassy  has  a  special  inter- 
view with  William  IV.  at  Windsor  Castle. 

1845,  June  17.  In  consequence  of  restrictions  thrown  in 
the  way  of  trade,  a  joint  English  and  French  ex- 
pedition attacks  Tamatave. 

1849,  Feb.  19.  Queen  Ranavolona  Manjaka  orders  two 
houses  used  for  Christian  worship  to  be  destroyed. 
A  cruel  persecution  of  the  native  Christians 
ensues. 

1853,  Nov.  The  merchants  of  Mauritius  and  Reunion  pay 
the  Queen  of  Madagascar  an  indemnity  of  15,000 
dollars  in  order  to  re-open  the  trade. 

1857,  June.  A  conspiracy  against  the  Queen,  in  which  M. 
Ida  Pfeiffer  and  Prince  Rakoto  are  concerned,  is 
frustrated. 

1861,  Aug.  23.  Queen  Ranavolona  Manjaka  dies,  and  is 

succeeded  by  her  son,  Kadama  Rakotond. 

1862,  Sep.  12.    Treaties  of  friendship  and  commerce  be- 

tween England,  France,  and  Madagascar  are 
signed  at  Antanavarivo.— Sep.  23.  He  is  crowned 
as  Kadama  II. 

1863,  May  12.    Kadama  II.  and    his  chief  minister  are 

assassinated.  His  widow  ascends  the  throne  as 
Queen  Kadobo. 

1864,  Feb.  25.  Tv\o  ambassadors  from  Madagascar  land 

at  Southampton. 

1865,  June  37.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  between 

England  and  Madagascar  is  concluded  at  Anta- 
navarivo. The  first  English  church  in  the  island 
is  erected  at  Tamatave. 

1866,  July  5.  The  treaty  of  June  37,  1865,  is  ratified. 


MADAIN,  or  MADYN,  AL.—  (See  CTESIPHON.) 
MADEIRA  (North  Atlantic  Ocean).- This, 


;he  largest  of  a  group  of  islands,  called  the 
Madeiras,  or  Northern  Canaries,  is  said  to  have 
afforded  a  refuge  to  an  Englishman  named 
Robert  Macham,  or  Machim,  who,  fleeing 
rom  France  with  Anna  d'Arfet  in  1346,  was 
cast  by  a  storm  upon  its  coast.  From  this 
circumstance  the  island  is  said  to  have  been 
called  Machico,  This  story  is,  however,  gene- 
rally regarded  as  an  invention,  and  the  real 
discoverer  of  Madeira  is  believed  to  be  Gon- 
zalves  Zarco,  the  Portuguese,  who  visited  it 
in  1419.  It  was  covered  with  forests,  and  its 
name  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  word  madera, 
signifying  timber.  The  Portuguese  soon  after 
formed  a  settlement,  and  erected  Funchal  into 
a  city  in  1508.  Madeira,  with  Portugal,  passed 
under  Spanish  rule  in  1580,  and  again  became 
a  Portuguese  colony  in  1640.  A  garrison  of 
British  troops,  under  Col.  Clinton,  landed  on 
the  island  July  24,  1801,  in  anticipation  of 
an  attack  from  the  French  ;  and  these  having 
been  withdrawn,  a  second  force,  commanded 
by  Commodore  Hood  and  Major  Beresford, 
took  possession  Dec.  24,  1807,  and  remained 
till  the  peace  of  June  20,  1814.  The  partisans 
of  Don  Miguel  seized  it  Aug.  23,  1828,  and  it 
declared  for  Donna  Maria  June  10,  1834.  The 
vines  were  nearly  all  destroyed  by  the  o'idium 
in  1851. 

MADISON  (N.  America).— A  town  of  Jeffer- 
son county,  Indiana,  was  founded  in  1808. 

MADISON  (N.  America).  —  The  capital  of 
Wisconsin,  founded  in  1836,  is  the  seat  of  a 
university  established  in  1851. 

MADONNA  DELL'  OLMO  (Battle).  —  The 
French  and  Spanish  army  besieging  Coni,  was 
attacked  at  Madonna  dell'  Olmo,  by  Charles 
Emanuel  I.,  King  of  Sardinia,  Sep.  30,  1743. 
The  former,  who  gained  the  day,  abandoned 
the  siege  Oct.  22. 

MAD  PARLIAMENT,  summoned  to  effect  an 
accommodation  between  Henry  III.  and  the 
barons,  assembled  at  Oxford  Barnabas-day, 
June  n,  1258,  and  was  attended  by  all  the 
nobility,  archbishops,  <fec.,  and  nearly  100 
barons.  The  king  and  the  barons  respectively 
elected  12  persons  to  form  a  committee  of  24, 
to  amend  all  matters  appertaining  to  the  king 
and  the  kingdom.  The  committee  required, 
amongst  other  things,  that  the  king  should 
observe  faithfully  Magna  Charta,  provided  that 
the  chief  justiciar,  chancellor,  and  other  high 
officers,  should  be  chosen  from  year  to  year, 
and  ordered  that  three  parliaments  should  be 
held  every  year :  namely,  the  first  Oct.  6,  the 
second  Feb.  3,  and  the  third  June  i.  These, 
called  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  were  received 
publicly  by  the  citizens  of  London  July  22. 
Henry  III.,  who  refused  to  abide  by  them  in 
Feb.,  1261,  accepted  them  in  1262,  and  again 
in  1263.  They  were  publicly  promulgated  at  a 
council  held  at  London,  Sep.  8,  1263.  The 
King  of  France  having  been  appealed  to  by 
both  Henry  III.  and  the  barons,  annulled 
them  at  a  council  held  at  Amiens,  Jan.  23, 

^MADRAS  (Hindostan).— Its  original  desig- 
nation was  Chennapatanam,  i.  e.,  the  city  of 
Chennappa,  an  Indian  prince,  Madras  being 
the  name  of  a  village  which  existed  before 
the  present  city  was  founded. 


MADRAS 


[    618    ] 


MADRID 


1639,  March  I.  The  East  India  Company  receive  permis- 

sion from  the  native  princes  to  establish  a  factory. 
1641.  Fort  St.  George  is  built  at  Madras. 
165?.  Fort  St.  George  is  erected  into  a  separate  govern- 

ment. 

1680.  The  first  English  church  is  commenced. 
1687.  Fort  St.  George  is  made  a  corporation. 
1702.  David  Khan,  general  of  Aurung/.ebe,  lays  siege  to 

Madras,  but  without  success. 
1738.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  esta- 

blish a  mission. 
1746,  Sep.  14.    Madras  is  bombarded  and  taken  by  the 

French,  under  M.  do  la  Bourdonuais,  when  the 

."Mi-sion  House  is  destroyed. 

1748,  Oct.  18.  Madras  is  restored  to  England  by  the  treaty 

of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1749,  Aug.  Madras  is  evacuated  by  the  French. 

1750,  The  Company  obtain  large   grants  of  land    near 

Madras. 

1756.  The  fortifications  are  strengthened. 
175*4,  Dec.  12.  The  French  under  Lully  lay  siege  to  Madras. 
1759,  Feb.  16.  The  garrison  is  relieved  by  Admiral  Pocock, 

and  Lally  is  compelled  to  raise  the  siege. 

1769,  April  4.   Ilyder  Al:,    having  surprised   Madras,  and 

obtained  possession  of  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  com- 
pels the  governor  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace. 

1770,  July  26.  Sir  John  Lindsay,  the  King's  commissioner, 

arrives  at  Madras,  where  disputes  commence  be- 
tween himself  and  the  president. 

1776,  Aug.  10.  Madras  is  threatened  by  the  approach  of 
Jlyder  AH.  —  Aug.  24.  Lord  Pigot,  the  governor, 
is  imprisoned  by  the  council. 

1780,  July.   The  province  is  thrown  into  consternation  by 

the  arrival  of  Ilyder  All  and  100,000  men.  —  Nov. 
5.  Sir  Kyre  Coote  takes  the  command  of  the  Ma- 
dras army. 

1781,  Jan.  10.  Sir  Thomas  Uumbold,  governor,  and  four 

membersof  the  council,  are  dismissed  liv  the  Com- 
pany.— July  I.  Sir  Kyre  Coote.  defeats  iiyder  Ali. 

1783.  Gen.  Stuart  is  arrested  by  the  governor  and  sent  to 

England. 

1784,  April  26.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  dies  at  Madras. 

1787.  The  Military  Male  Orphan  Asylum  is  founded. 

1788.  The  Female  <  irphan  Asylum  i's  founded. 
1790,  Dec.  iz.  Lord  Cormvallis  arrives  at  Madras. 
1796.  A  lighthouse   is  erected. 

1800,  Dec.  26.  Sir  Thomas  Strange  Is  appointed  the  first 

chief  justice. 
1803.  A  navigable  canal  is  opened,  connecting  the  Black 

town  with  the  river  Ennore.   A  fire  destroys  more 

than  1,000  honses. 

1807,  Dec.  9.  A  hurricane  does  considerable  damage. 
1809.  The  Sepoys  at  Madras  mutiny. 

1811.  Much  damage  is  done  by  a  hurricane. 

1812.  The  college  for  the  instruction  of  young  civilians  in 

the  native  languages  is  founded.' 

1817,  Feb.  Public  schools  are  commenced  at  Madras. 

1818.  St.  Andrew's  bridge  is  finished. 
1820.  St.  Andrew's  church  is  opened. 

1833,  Aug.  28.  By  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  85,  s.  89,  power  is  given 

to  the  crown  to  appoint  a  bishop. 
1835,  Feb.  14.  The   Rev.  Daniel  Corrie  is  appointed  first 

Bishop  of  Madras,  pursuant  to  the  act  of  1833. 
1844,  Jan.  i.  The  new  lighthouse  on   the  Esplanade  is 

opened. 
1847.  Measures  are  taken  for  improving  the  drainage  of 

the  Black  town. 

1864,  July  6.  The  railroad  to  Bangalore  is  opened: 

1865,  Sep.  II.  The  branch  to  Cuddapa  is  opened. 

MADRAS  (Presidency).  —  A  governor  and 
council  were  appointed  for  Madras  by  24  Geo. 
III.  c.  25  (Aug.  13,  1784);  and  Lord  Macartney, 
nominated  in  1784  as  the  first  governor  under 
this  act,  arrived  at  Madras  early  in  1785. 


.. 
J..OK    f  Lord  Macartney. 

1  5l  \Jime  4.  Alexander  Davidson. 
1786.  Sir  A.  Campbell. 
1789.  John  Hollond. 
T-n      /Feb-  J3-  K-  J-  Hollond. 

/y  '   IFeb.  20.  Maj.-Gen.  William  Medows. 
1792.  Sir  Charles  Oakely,  bart. 
1794.  LordHobart. 
1798.  Maj.-Gen.,  afterwards  Lord  Harris. 


1799.  Lord  Olive,  afterwards  Earl  I'owis. 
1803.  Lord  William  Bentiuck. 
8        /Sep.  II.  William  Petrie. 

''   \Dec.  24.  Sir  (ieorge  Hilaro  Barlow,  bart. 

1813.  Lieut. -Gen.  John  Abercromby. 

1814.  Hugh  Elliot. 

1830.  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  bart. 
Q  „    /July  10.  Henry  Sullivan  Grreme. 
I82''   (Oct.  18.  Stephen  Humbold  Lushington. 
1832.  Lieut. -(.ion.  Sir  Frederick  Adam. 
1837.  Lord  Elphinstone. 
1842.  Marquis  of  Twceddale. 
1848.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  bart. 

1853.  James  Thomason. 

1854.  Lord  Harris. 

1859.  Sir  Charles  E.  Trcvelyan. 

1860.  Sir  W.  T.  Denison. 

MADRID  (Spain).— Some  Spanish  authorities 
claim  greater  antiquity  for  their  metropolitan 
city  than  is  possessed  by  Rome,  but  no  men- 
tion of  it  occurs  in  history  until  the  reign  of 
Ramiro  II.,  about  931. 

A.D. 

1083.  The  Moorish  fort  of  Majerit,  or  Madrid,  is  taken  by 
Alphonso  VI. 

Iigo.  Madrid  is  taken  by  the  Moors. 

1212.  Alphonso  IX.  recaptures  it. 

1461.   Madrid  is  enlarged  by  Henrique IV. 

1473,  Jan.  A  council  is  held  at  Madrid. 

!532.  Charles  V.  makes  it  a  royal  residence. 

1560.  Philip  II.  declares  Madrid  the  only  seat  of  the 
Spanish  court. 

1563.  Philip  II.  founds  the  Escorinl  (<?. »,'.). 

[640.  Philip  IV.  founds  the  college  of  St.  Isidore. 

l6«8.  The  hospital  of  St.  Fernando  is  founded. 

1706,  June  24.  Madrid  is  taken  by  the  Earl  of  Galway. 

1734.  The  old  palace  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1737.  The  theatre  ile  la  Crux  is  bnil't. 

1749.  The  Plaza  de  Toros  is  built,  and  the  Academy  of 
Arts  is  founded. 

175=;.  Ferdinand  VI.  founds  the  Botanical  Gardens. 

I«c6.  The  theatre  iM  J'ritiriji-  is  established. 

1808,  March  23.  Murat  arrives  at  Madrid.— May  2.  The  in- 
habitants fail  in  an  attempt  to  expel  the  French.— 
July  25-  Joseph  liiiDiiaparte  is  proclaimed  King 
of  Spain  at  Madrid.— July  27.  He  is  compelled  to 
leave  the  city.— Dec.  4.  The  city  again  surrenders 
to  the  French. 

1812,  Aug.  12.  Madrid  is  entered  by  the  English,  under  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley. 

1842.  The  museum  de  la'Trinidad  is  opened. 

1852,  Oct.  7.  Funeral  services  are  performed  in  honour  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

1854,  July  17.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  consequence 
of  the  unpopularity  of  the  queen  mother,  who  is 
compelled  to  leave  the  kingdom. 

1856,  Jan.  7.  A  mutiny  breaks  out  amongst  the  national 
militia.  (See  SPAIN.) 

MADRID  (Treaties).— The  following  are  the 
most  important  treaties  concluded  at  this 
city  :— 

A.D. 

1536,  Jan.  14.  Between  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  Charles 
V.  The  former,  nt  that  time  a  prisoner,  restored 
Burgundy  and  Charolais  to  the  Emperor,  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  to 
the  duchy  of  Milan,  to  Asti,  and  Genoa.  Other 
humiliating  conditions  were  extorted,  and  Francis 
I.  summoned  a  secret  meeting  in  his  chamber,  at 
which  he  declared  that  he  did  not  intend  to  abide 
by  the  conditions  of  the  treaty. 

1667,  May  23.  Peace  and  friendship  between  Great 
Britain  and  Spain. 

1670,  July  18.  Peace  and  friendship  between  Great 
Britain  and  Spain. 

1715,  Dec.  14.  Commerce  between  Great  Britain  and 
Spain. 

I7S0)  Oct.  5.  Commerce  between  Great  Britain  and 
Spain. 

1814,  July  5-  Friendship  and  alliance  between  Great 
Britain  and  Spain.— Aug.  28.  Additional  articles. 


MADRIGAL 


[    619 


MAGDALENS 


1834,  Feb.  9.  A  convention  between  France  and  Spain  for 

the   stay  of   French   troops  in  Spain.— June  30. 
Prolongation  of  the  convention. 

1838,  Dec.  30.   A  convention  between  France  and  Spain 
for  settlement  of  French  claims. 

1835,  June  38.  For  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  be- 

tween Great  Britain  ami  Spain. 

1836,  Dec.  28.  Peace  and  friendship  between  Mexico  and 

Spain. 

1840,  Feb.  6.  Peace  and  friendship  between  Ecuador  and 
Spain. 

1844,  April  25.  Peace  and  friendship  between  Chili  and 

Spain. 

1845,  March  30.   Recognition,   peace,  and  friendship  be- 

tween Venezuela  and  Spain. 

1850,  May  10.    Recognition,    peace,    and    friendship    be- 

tween  Costa    Kica  and   Spain. — July  25.    Peace 
and  friendship  between  Nicaragua  and  Spain. 

1851,  March  16.  Concordat  with  Home. 

MADRIGAL.— This  short  lyrical  poem,  in- 
vented by  the  Flemings  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 6th  century,  was  imitated  by  the  Italians. 
In  England,  Morley's  first  book  of  madrigals 
was  published  in  1594.  The  Madrigal  Society, 
a  club  of  amateurs,  was  founded  in  London 
in  1741,  the  Western  Madrigal  Society  in  1840, 
and  the  English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Union 
in  1851.  Rimbault's  Bibliotheca  Madrigalium 
was  published  in  1847.  Hallam  remarks  that 
"some  of  our  old  madrigals  are  as  beautiful 
in  language  as  they  are  in  melody." 

MADURA  (Hindostau),  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  East  India  Company  with  the 
Carnatic,  in  1801.  It  sustained  several  sieges 
during  the  i8th  century.  Capt.  Calliaud  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  capture  the  town  of  Madura 
in  May,  1757.  A  second  attack  in  July  was 
not  more  successful. 

MADURA  (Indian  Ocean).— This  island  off 
the  coast  of  Java  has  belonged  to  the  Dutch 
since  1747. 

MEANDER  (Battles).— This  river,  now  called 
Meinder,  in  Asia  Minor,  celebrated  for  its 
numerous  windings,  which  have  rendered  its 
name  proverbial,  was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  of 
the  Turks  by  John  II.  in  1119  ;  and  of  another 
by  the  army  of  Manuel  I.  in  1177. 

MAESTRICHT.—  (See  MAASTRICHT.) 

MAGALHAENS'  or  MAGELLAN  STRAIT 
(South  America),  the  most  extensive  strait  in 
the  world,  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans,  was  discovered  in  Oct.,  1520,  by  Ferdi- 
nando  Magalhaens,  incorrectly  called  Magellan, 
a  Portuguese,  who  sailed  in  the  Spanish  ser- 
vice. Magalhaens  cleared  it  Nov.  28. 

MAGAZINES.— The  following  list  contains 
the  names  of  the  principal  literary  magazines 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  the  date  at  which 
they  were  first  published  : — 


A.T>. 

1865.  Argosy. 

778.  Arminian  (Methodist). 
849.  Art-Journal. 
Artizan. 
Daily's   Magazine  of 

Sports. 
848.  Baptist  Reporter. 
776.  Bath  and  Bristol. 
1863.  Beau  Monde. 

1866.  Belgravia. 

1837.  Bentley's  Miscellany. 
1776.  Biographical. 
1817.  Blackwood's. 
1788.  Botanical. 


A.D. 

1760.  British. 

1855.  British  Workman. 

1854.  Chambers's  Journal 

(new  series),     [iclc. 
1841.  Chess  Player's  Chron- 

1760.  Christian. 

1836.  Church  of  England. 
1829.  Colburn's  United  Ser- 
vice. 

1860.  Cornhill. 
1787.  County. 

1761.  Court. 

1833.  Dublin  University. 
1805.  Eclectic. 


A.D. 

1773.  Edinburgh  Magazine 
and  Review. 

1835.  Educational. 
I7«2.  European. 
1793.  Evangelical. 

1865.  Fortnightly  Review. 
1830.  Eraser's. 

1731.  Gentlemans. 

1859.  Geologist. 

1860.  Good  Words. 
1766.  Gospel. 
1758.  Grand. 
1787.  Humourist's. 

1851.  Hunt's  Yachting. 
1760.  Imperial. 

1770.  Lady's. 
1 7o°'  Lawyer's. 

1852.  Leisure  Hour. 
1735.  Literary. 

1732.  London. 

1862-  London  Society. 
1859.  Macmillan's. 
175?.  Magazine  of  Maga- 
zines. 

1836.  Magazine  of  Zoology. 
1823.  Mechanics'. 


1774.  Medical. 
1831.  Metropolitan. 
1796.  Monthly. 
1766.  Musical. 
1840.  Nautical. 
1814.  New  Monthly. 

1831.  New  Sporting. 

1859.  Once  a  Week. 

1832.  Penny. 

1798.  Philosophical. 

1761.  Protestant. 

1863.  Routledge's  Magazin 

for  Boys. 
1759.  Royal. 

1860.  St.  James's. 
1832.  Saturday. 
1739.  Scot's. 
1795.  Sporting. 

1839.  Sporting  Review. 
1832.  Tait's  Edinburgh. 

1861.  Temple  Bar. 

1769.  Town  and  Country. 

1747.  Universal. 

1863.  Victoria. 

1824.  World  of  Fashion. 

1843.  Zoologist. 


Some  of  the  above  are  completed,  as  in  the  cage  of  the 
Penny  Magazine,  and  others  have  ceased  to  appear. 

MAGDALENE  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— 
Henry  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buckingham  (exe- 
cuted for  high  treason  May  17,  1521),  com- 
menced building  Buckingham  House  on  the 
site  of  an  ancient  hostel  in  1519,  and  this  was 
completed  and  converted  into  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene College  by  Thomas,  Lord  Audley,  lord 
high  chancellor  of  England,  in  1542.  Samuel 
Pepys,  secretary  to  the  Admiralty  in  the 
reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  bequeathed 
his  library  to  this  institution.  He  died 
May  26,  1703.  It  is  now  called  Magdalene 
College. 

MAGDALEN  HALL  (Oxford).— This  school, 
erected  by  William  Wayneflete,  to  prepare  stu- 
dents for  admission  to  Magdalene  College,  was 
called  St.  Mary  Magdalen  Hall  as  early  as  1487, 
and  became  an  independent  hall  in  1602.  The 
president  and  fellows  of  Magdalene  College,  by 
act  of  Parliament,  in  1816  obtained  Hertford 
College,  to  which  they  removed  in  1822. 

MAGDALEN  HOSPITAL  (London)  was  es- 
tablished. Aug.  8,  1758,  for  the  relief  and 
reformation  of  penitent  women. 

MAGDALEN  or  ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE 
COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded  by  William 
Patten,  commonly  called  Wayneflete,  lord 
high  chancellor  of  England,  July  18,  1458. 
(See  MAGDALEN  HALL.)  The  great  quad- 
rangle was  commenced  in  1743,  and  the  foun- 
dation  of  the  tower  was  laid  in  1492.  The 
foundations  of  the  new  buildings  were  laid  in 
1733,  and  the  chapel  was  restored  in  1833. 
James  II.  recommended  Anthony  Fanner  as 
president  in  1687.  The  fellows  elected  Dr.  John 
Hough  April  15,  and  for  this  were  expelled  by 
the  king  Dec.  10.  The  constitution  has  been 
changed  by  rules  published  under  the  authority 
of  17  &  iSVict.  c.  81  (Aug.  7,  1854). 

MAGDALENS,  orMAGDALENES.— The  first 
religious  association  formed  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  fallen  women  was  established  in  Ger- 
many before  1215.  A  similar  order  of  nuns 
was  established  in  France  by  Bertrand,  a 
citizen  of  Marseilles,  about  1272.  The  convent 
of  the  Magdalene  of  Naples  was  founded  by 


MAGDEBURG 


[    620    ] 


MAGNA 


Queen  Sancha,  of  Aragon,  in  1324,  and  that 
at  Metz  was  established  or  refounded  in  1452. 
The  Paris  convent  dates  from  1492,  when 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  gave  his  hotel  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  a  nunnery  for  penitents. 
The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  established  by 
Pope  Leo  X.  in  1515.  The  Magdalen  Hospital, 
London,  was  opened  Aug.  8,  1758. 

MAGDEBURG  (Prussia),  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Saxony,  and  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  Europe,  was  in  existence  in  the 
8th  century.  The  Elector  Maurice,  who  be- 
sieged it  in  Nov.,  1550,  took  it  Nov.  3,  1551, 
and  entered  the  city  Nov.  7.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Austrian  general  Tilly,  the  inhabitants 
mercilessly  slaughtered,  and  the  city,  with 
the  exception  of  about  140  houses,  burned  to 
the  ground,  May  10,  1631.  The  archbishopric 
was  founded  in  968  by  the  Emperor  Otho  I. 
(the  Great),  whose  statue  stands  in  the 
market-place.  In  1648  the  archbishopric  was 
converted  into  a  duchy,  and  given  to  Bran- 
denburg in  exchange  for  Pomerania.  The 
cathedral,  a  fine  Gothic  edifice,  which  contains 
the  tombs  of  Otho  I.  and  the  Empress,  was 
erected  between  1211 — 1363,  and  restored  1825 — 
1834.  The  church  of  the  Virgin  was  built  in 
the  nth  century,  and  the  French  Reformed 
church  in  the  i7th  century.  A  conspiracy, 
concocted  in  1761  by  Baron  Trenck,  while 
a  prisoner  in  the  fortress,  to  release  16,000 
captive  Austrians,  and  master  the  garrison, 
WHS  frustrated.  After  having  been  invested 
15  days  by  the  French,  under  Marshal  Ney, 
Magdeburg  capitulated  Nov.  8,  1806,  and 
was  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia, by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  July  9,  1807. 
It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30, 
1814. 

MAGDEBURG  CENTURIES.— The  publica- 
tion of  the  centuries  of  Magdeburg,  written 
according  to  a  plan  drawn  up  by  Matthias 
Flacius  in  1552,  to  show  the  agreement  of  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  with  that  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  commenced  at  Magdeburg  in  1560 
and  terminated  in  1574.  The  "  Centuriaturs," 
as  its  editors  were  called,  only  carried  the 
history  down  to  1300. 

MAGELLAN  STRAIT.  —  (See  MAGALHAENS' 
STRAIT.) 

MAGENTA.— This  shade  of  crimson  dye, 
named  after  the  battle  of  Magenta,  and  pre- 

Eared  from  gas  tar,  was  brought  out  in  France 
i  1860,  and  thence  quickly  introduced  into 
England. 

MAGENTA  (Battle).— The  French  and  the 
Sardinians,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  defeated 
the  Austrians  near  this  town  in  Lombardy, 
June  4,  1859. 

MAGHAZUL  (Battle),  was  fought  in  a  field 
near  Toledo,  between  the  Saracenic  monarch 
Abderahaman,  grandson  of  King  Abdallah, 
and  the  rebel  Caleb  Aben  Hafsun,  in  912.  The 
royal  troops  gained  the  victory,  losing  3,000, 
whilst  the  rebels  lost  7,000  men. 

MAGI  were  entrusted  with  the  care  of  reli- 
gion by  Dejoces,  and  formed  one  of  the  six 
tribes  into  which  he  divided  the  Medes,  B.C. 
700.  They  were  constituted  into  a  sacred 
caste  or  college  when  the  Medes  and  Persians 
became  united  under  Cyrus,  B.C.  559.  Two 


brothers  of  the  magi  revolted  against  Cam- 
byses,  and  usurped  the  supreme  authority 
during  his  absence  in  Egypt,  B.C.  523;  but 
were  put  to  death  with  such  a  large  number 
of  their  sect  that  the  day  was  afterwards 
observed  by  the  Persians  as  the  "  Massacre  of 
the  Magi,"  B.C.  522.  The  primitive  religion, 
which  consisted  in  the  worship  of  Ormuzd,  the 
symbol  of  light  and  goodness,  having  become 
much  debased,  was  reformed  by  .Zoroaster, 
about  B.C.  555.  (See  GUEBRES.) 

MAGIC,  called  the  Black  Art,  was  originally 
taught  by  the  magi,  who  diffused  a  knowledge 
of  their  mysteries  through  Greece  and  Arabia, 
on  their  expulsion  from  Persia,  about  B.C.  500. 
Smedley  (Occult  Sciences,  p.  190)  states,  that 
"  according  to  the  Talmud  and  the  Cabbala, 
which  profess  to  agree  with  the  Bible,  magic 
is  divided  into  three  classes, — the  first,  includ- 
ing all  evil  enchantments  and  magical  cures, 
the  citation  of  evil  spirits,  and  the  calling 
forth  the  dead  through  the  aid  of  demons,— 
to  be  punished,  like  idolatry,  with  death  ;  the 
second,  including  those  magical  practices  which 
are  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  evil  spirits,  by 
which  man  is  often  led  astray  and  sunk  into 
eternal  darkness, — to  be  punished  with  scourg- 
ing ;  and  the  third,  including  astrology  and  all 
intercourse  with  the  lower  spirits,  excepted 
from  punishment,  but  pronounced  wrong,  as 
leading  from  reliance  upon  God."  The  Council 
of  Laodicea,  in  366,  condemned  all  magicians 
and  enchanters,  and  the  ancient  laws  dealt 
with  them  very  severely.  Trials  on  charges  of 
having  employed  magical  arts  were  common 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  (See  ALCHEMY,  WITCH- 
CRAFT, c\. -c. 

MAGICIANS.— (See  JUGGLERS  and  MAGIC.) 

MAGIC  LANTERN.— Roger  Bacon  is  said  to 
have  invented  this  instrument  about  1260 ;  but 
it  was  not  generally  known  till  a  much  later 
date.  Cellini,  who  died  Feb.  13, 1570,  describes 
optical  experiments  which  apparently  de- 
pended for  their  effects  on  an  apparatus  of  this 
kind.  Kircher,  who  was  born  in  1602  and 
died  in  1680,  is  frequently  styled  the  inventor 
of  the  magic  lantern.  The  invention  of  the 
Argand  lamp  in  1787,  and  of  the  phantas- 
magoria in  1802,  produced  considerable  im- 
provements in  the  construction  and  operation 
of  the  instrument. 

MAGIC  MIRROR.— (-See  CRYSTAL  GLASS  or 
STONE.) 

MAGIC  SQUARE.— This  mathematical  ar- 
rangement of  a  set  of  numbers  was  known  at 
an  early  period  to  the  Hindoos,  Egyptians,  and 
Chinese.  Emanuel  Moschopxilus,  who  wrote 
upon  them  in  Greek  in  the  middle  of  the  isth 
century,  was  the  first  author  who  refers  to  the 
magic  square. 

MAGISTRATES.  —  (See  JUSTICES  OF  THE 
PEACE,  and  STIPENDIARY  MAGISTRATES.) 

MAGNA  CHARTA,  or  THE  GREAT 
CHARTER,  embodying  some  of  the  "  good  old 
laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor,"  with  numerous 
provisions,  intended  to  secure  the  liberty  of 
the  subject,  was  extorted  by  the  barons  from 
King  John.  Soon  after  the  king's  return  from 
France,  Stephen  Langton  and  several  barons 
determined  to  obtain  redress  of  grievances, 
met  at  Edmundsbury  Nov.  20.  They  presented 


MAGNA 


[    621     ] 


MAGNETISM 


their  demands  to  the  king  Jan.  6,  1215,  and 
were  censured  by  the  Pope  May  19.  They 
entered  London  May  24,  and  agreed  to  meet 
the  king  at  Rmmymede,  a  field  between 
Staines  and  Windsor,  where  the  charter  was 
sealed,  June  15,  1215.  John  violated  its  stipu- 
lations in  Aug.,  1215,  appealed  to  the  Pope 
Sep.  13,  1215,  who  annulled  the  agreement, 
excommunicated  the  barons,  and  suspended 
Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
in  Dec.,  1215.  It  was  confirmed  by  the  guar- 
dians of  the  youthful  King  Henry  III.  at 
Bristol,  Nov.  12,  1216,  and  subsequently  by 
other  kings  so  frequently,  that  Sir  Edward 
Coke  counted  32  confirmations,  additions,  or 
renewals  about  1600.  From  a  copy  preserved 
in  Lincoln  Cathedral,  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners on  the  Public  Records  caused  a  fac- 
simile to  be  engraved  and  published,  which  is 
to  be  found,  with  a  translation,  in  the  first 
volume  of  "  Statutes  of  the  Realm."  (See 
GRAND,  or  GREAT  PRIVILEGE.) 

MAGNA  GR^ECIA,  or  MAJOR  GR.ECIA 
(Italy).  —  This  name  was  applied  by  Greek 
writers  to  their  colonies  formed  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Italy,  Cumse  having  by 
general  consent  the  precedence  in  point  of 
antiquity,  although  the  date  of  its  founda- 
tion, B.C.  1050,  is  not  to  be  relied  upon.  There 
is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  precise  dates  of 
the  various  settlements  ;  but  the  greater 
number  of  them  were  probably  made  between 
B.C.  735  and  B.C.  685.  Sybaris,  B.C.  720,  and 
Crotona,  B.C.  710,  the  two  most  powerful 
cities,  were  founded  by  the  Achseans.  Taren- 
tum,  a  Spartan  colony,  was  established  about 
B.C.  708 ;  Metapontum  by  the  Achaeans,  B.C. 
700 — 680 ;  and  Locri  by  the  Locrians,  about 
B.C.  700.  The  date  of  the  league  between 
Crotona,  Sybaris,  and  Metapontum,  to  expel 
the  lonians  from  Siris,  cannot  be  fixed  with 
any  degjree  of  accuracy.  A  great  change  in 
the  political  condition  of  these  cities  was 
brought  about  by  the  teaching  of  Pythagoras, 
who  arrived  at  Crotona  about  B.C.  530.  An 
army  of  100,000  Crotonists  took  the  field 
against  300,000  Sybarites,  and,  after  defeating 
them  on  the  banks  of  the  Traeis,  utterly 
destroyed  the  city  of  Sybaris,  B.C.  510.  Thurii, 
founded  B.C.  443,  and  Heraclea,  B.C.  432,  were 
the  two  latest  of  these  settlements.  The 
Italian  Greeks  having  allied  themselves  against 
Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  were  defeated  by  him 
in  an  important  engagement  on  the  river 
Helleporus,  or  Helorus,  near  Caulonia,  B.C.  389, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  were  attacked  in 
the  north  by  the  Lucanians,  with  whom  they 
waged  war  till  B.C.  282,  when  they  applied  to 
the  Romans  for  aid.  The  celebrated  expedi- 
tion of  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  whose  assist- 
ance had  been  invoked  by  the  Greeks,  began 
B.C.  280.  He  left  them  entirely  at  the  mercy 
of  the  Romans  on  his  departure,  B.C.  274. 
Nearly  all  these  cities  declared  for  Hannibal 
after  the  victory  of  that  general  over  the 
Romans  at  Cannae,  Aug.  2,  B.C.  216  ;  but  they 
suffered  the  penalty  of  this  partisanship  when 
fortune  turned  in  favour  of  the  Romans ;  the 
towns  were  pillaged  and  the  people  put  to  the 
sword  or  sold  into  slavery,  —  a  subjugation 
from  which  they  never  recovered.  Cicero 


describes  them  in  his  time,  B.C.  106 — 43,  as 
sunk  into  utter  ruin. 

MAGNANO  (Battle).— Marshal  Kray,  at  the 
head  of  an  Austrian  army,  defeated  the 
French,  commanded  by  Gen.  Scherer,  at  this 
place,  near  Verona,  April  5,  1799. 

MAGNESIA  (Battle).— The  two  Scipios 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  Antiochus  the 
Great,  King  of  Syria,  near  Magnesia,  usually 
called  Magnesia  ad  Sipylum,  in  Lydia,  and 
drove  him  out  of  Western  Asia,  B.C.  190.  (See 
MANISSA.) 

MAGNESIA  AD  M^ANDRUM  (Greece).— 
This  jEolian  city,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Magnesians  from  Thessaly,  was  destroyed  by 
the  Cimmerians  B.C.  726,  and  rebuilt  by  the 
Milesians  B.C.  725.  It  was  assigned  to  The- 
mistocles  by  Artaxerxes,  to  supply  him  with 
bread,  when  he  was  banished  from  Athens, 
B.C.  471  ;  and  the  inhabitants  raised  a  statue 
to  his  honour  in  the  Agora.  The  Romans 
incorporated  it  with  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus 
B.C.  188.  A  town  of  Lydia,  of  the  same  name, 
called  Magnesia  ad  Sipylum  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  above,  is  known  under  the  modern 
name  of  Manissa  (q.  v.}. 

MAGNESIUM.  —  This  metal  was  first  ob- 
tained by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  in  1808,  and 
examined  by  Bussy  in  1830.  Sonstadt  patented 
various  processes  for  producing  it  in  1862-3. 

MAGNETISM. — This  word  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  Magnes,  the  name  of  a  Phrygian 
shepherd,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  was 
detained  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  nails  in  his 
boots,  or  by  his  metal  crook.  Other  autho- 
rities state  that  it  is  derived  from  the  Lydian 
province  of  Magnesia,  whence  the  Greeks 
obtained  the  loadstone  about  B.C.  1000. 


A.D. 

1576.  Robert  Norman  discovers  the  dip  of  the  magnetic 
needle. 

1590.  Julius  Csesar,  a  surgeon  of  Rimini,  observes  the 
conversion  of  iron  into  a  magnet  by  position. 

1600.  Gilbert  publishes  his  treatise  "  De  Magnete." 

1650  (about).  Bond  discovers  the  true  progress  of  the  de- 
viation of  the  compass. 

1688.  Halley  publishes  his  theory  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism. 

1699.  Halley  constructs  the  first  magnetic  chart. 

1732.  Graham  discovers  the  diurnal  variation. 

1746.  Dr.  Gowan  Knight  constructs  artificial  magnets. 

1750.  Michell  publishes  his  treatise  on  artificial  magnets. 

1756.  Canton  makes  4,000  observations  on  the  variation  of 
the  needle,  and  ascertains  that  it  is  greater  in 
summer  than  in  winter. 

1780.  Coulomb  propounds  the  double  fluid  theory. 

1786.  Cassini  discovers  the  annual  periodical  variation 
of  the  magnetic  needle.  Coulomb  constructs  his 
balance  of  torsion. 

1813.  Morichini  magnetizes  a  needle  by  exposing  it  to  the 
violet  rays  of  the  spectrum. 

1817.  Professor  Hansteen,  of  Christiana,  publishes  his 
work  on  the  Magnetism  of  the  Earth. 

18^1.  Mr.  J.  H.  Abraham,  of  Sheffield,  receives  the  large 
gold  medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  his  mag- 
netic guard,  to  protect  persons  engaged  in  needle- 
pointing,  &c. 

1835.  Christie  proves  that  heat  diminishes  magnetic 
force. 

1830.  Haldat  produces  magnetism  by  friction. 

1831.  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris  improves  the  mariner's  com- 

pass, and  invents  the  hydrostatic  magneto- 
meter. Faraday  produces  electricity  by  means  of 
a  magnet. 

1846.  Professor  Faraday  propounds  the  laws  of  diamag- 
iietism. 

1848.  Faraday  discovers  magneto-crystalline  force. 


MAGNI 


[    622    ] 


MAIDSTONE 


1851.  Gen.  Sabine  demonstrates  that  the  terrestrial  mag 

netic  force  has  periods. 
1856.  Professor  Tyndall  proves  the  existence  of  diainag 

netic  polarity. 

(See  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM,  LOADSTONE,  and  MA 
KINEK'S  COMPASS.) 

MAGNI.— {See  CHINA.) 

MAGNOLIA,  of  several  varieties,  has  been 
introduced  into  England  at  different  periods 
The  Magnolia  glauca,  or  the  deciduous  swamp 
magnolia,  was  brought  from  North  America  in 
1688  ;  the  Magnolia  grandijlora,  great-flowerec 
magnolia,  or  laurel  bay,  was  introduced  from 
the  same  country  in  1734;  and  the  Magnolia 
Yulan,  or  conspicua,  from  China  in  1790.  The 
Yulan  magnolia  has  been  cultivated  in  China 
since  627. 

MAGOG.— (-See  GOG  AND  MAGOG.) 

MAGYARS,  called  Ugri  by  the  Russians, 
being  members  of  the  Ugriau  race,  whence,  by 
corruption,  the  name  Hungary  (q.  v.),  migrated 
from  the  southern  part  of  the  Uralian  moun- 
tains, and  settled  on  the  plains  of  the  Lower 
Danube,  under  Arpad,  their  leader,  in  889. 
They  invaded  Bavaria  in  900,  inspiring  such 
terror  by  the  prowess  of  their  arms  and  the 
rapidity  of  their  movements,  that  walled 
towns  in  Europe  are  said  to  have  had  their 
origin  at  that  period.  Defeated  in  battle 
by  the  Saxon  Prince  Henry  I.  (the  Fowler), 
in  934,  and  again  by  Otho  I.  (the  Great), 
in  955,  their  power  was  completely  broken. 
Andrew  III.,  who  came  to  the  throne  in 
1290,  was  the  last  king  of  the  Arpad  family, 
which  became  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  1301. 

MAHAIH:LKSH\VA   iiindostan).— sir  John 

Malcolm  established  this  station  in  1828,  and  a 
sanatorium  has  since  been  erected. 

MAHARA.Il'O!!!-;  Battle).-  Sir  I fn^h  (after- 
wards Lord)  Gough  defeated  a  Mahratta  army 
of  18,000  men,  supported  by  100  guns,  at  this 
town,  in  Gualior,  Dec.  29,  1843.  Sir  Hugh  had 
about  14,000  troops  and  40  guns.  The  Mah- 
rattas  lost  3,400  men. 

MAKE  (Hindostan). — This  place,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  was  taken  by  Munro,  Feb.  10, 
1711,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  in 
1722.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1760  ; 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763; 
again  captured  in  1793  ;  and  restored  to  France 
in  1815. 

MAHOGANY,  so  called  from  Mahogaiii,  the 
American  name  of  the  tree,  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1595.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
carpenter  is  said  to  have  discovered  its  value 
in  making  articles  of  furniture  ;  but  it  was 
brought  into  notice  by  Woolaston,  a  cabinet- 
maker of  Long  Acre,  who,  in  1720,  was  em- 
ployed by  Dr.  Gibbons  to  make  first  a  candle- 
box,  and  afterwards  a  bureau,  with  some 
planks  which  he  had  received  from  the  West 
Indies.  The  Duchess  of  Buckingham  having 
seen  the  latter  article,  begged  some  of  the 
wood  from  the  doctor,  and  had  one  made, 
which  soon  brought  it  into  general  use. 

MAHRATTAS,  or  MAHARATTAS.  —  The 
origin  of  this  people  of  Hindostan  is  unknown, 
but  the  empire  bearing  their  name  was  founded 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  iyth  century,  by 
Sevajee,  who  received  from  the  King  of  Be- 


japore  a  jaghire  in  the  Carnatic.  He  sup- 
planted his  father  in  the  jaghire  of  Poonah  in 
1647,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sambajee 
in  1680.  From  1689  till  1818  the  nominal 
sovereign  of  the  period  was  kept  a  close 
prisoner,  the  Peishwa  wielding  the  supreme 
authority.  When  the  succession  of  Ragoba 
was  disputed  in  1773,  he  entered  into  a  treaty 
with  the  English  Government,  by  which  ho 
was  to  give  them  possession  of  Salsette  and 
Bassein,  and  they  in  return  were  to  replace  him 
in  office ;  but  as  the  English  obtained  the 
coveted  towns  by  other  means,  the  treaty 
was  not  carried  out.  Bajeron,  the  Peishwa, 
having  tried  to  form  a  confederacy  against 
the  English,  was  compelled  to  cede  a  territory 
worth  ,£340,000  a  year  in  1815.  Having  at- 
tacked the  houses  of  the  British  residency, 
Nov.,  1817,  he  was  defeated  in  an  engage- 
ment, and  fled.  He  wandered  as  a  fugitive 
till  he  surrendered  to  Sir  John  Malcolm  in 
June,  1818.  At  this  time  50,000  square  miles 
of  Poonah  territory  came  into  British  pos- 
session, a  small  principality  being  assigned  to 
the  rajah  of  Satara,  representative  of  the 
founder  of  the  rule.  Failing  legitimate  heirs, 
this  principality  fell  to  the  English  in  1848. 
A  battle  between  the  Mahrattas  and  the 
British,  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  was  fought 
at  Maharajpore,  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated,  with  the  loss  of  56  pieces  of  artillery, 
Dec.  29,  1843. 

M  A I  DA  Hattle).— An  English  force  of  about 
4,800  men,  under  the  command  of  Sir  John 
Stuart,  having  effected  a  landing  in  Calabiia, 
July  i,  1806,  attacked  and  defeated  the  French, 
entrenched  in  a  strong  position  near  the  village 
>(  Mai  da,  7,000  strong,  commanded  by  Gen. 
Reynier,  July  4,  1806. 

MAIDEN,  HALIFAX  GIBBET,  or  WIDOW, 
111  instrument  for  putting  criminals  to  death, 
somewhat  similar  to  the  modern  guillotine, 
was  in  use  in  Halifax  and  other  parts  of 
England  as  early  as  the  ijth  century,  and  was 
jrought  into  Scotland  during  the  i6th  century  ; 
;he  commonly  received  account,  that  it  was 
ntroduced  into  that  kingdom  by  the  Regent 
James,  Earl  of  Morton,  being  incorrect.  It 
was  last  used  in  England  in  1650,  and  the 
Earl  of  Argyle,  the  last  in  Scotland  who 
suffered  by  it,  June  30,  1685,  declared  that  it 
was  "  the  sweetest  maiden  he  had  ever  kissed." 
An  instrument  of  this  kind  is  said  to  have 
)een  in  use  in  various  Italian  towns  about  the 
same  period. 

MAID  OF  ORLEANS.— (See  ORLEANS.) 

MAIDS  OF  THE  CROSS.— (&«  CROSS,  MAIDS 

IF    THE.) 

MAIDS  OF  HONOUR.— Four  ladies  bearing 
his  title  are  mentioned  as  having  formed  part 
if  the  queen's  establishment  in  the  wardrobe 

account  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307).     The  num- 
jer  is  now  limited  to  eight,  each  of  whom 

enjoys  a  salary  of  ^400  per  annum.     Maids  of 
lonour  were  suppressed  in  France  by  Madame 
tfontespaii  in   1673.     (See  LORDS  AND  LADIES 
>F  THE  BEDCHAMBER.) 
MAIDSTONE  (Kent),  anciently  called  Caer 

\Ieguaid,  or  Medwig,  the  city  of  the  Medway, 

md  by  the  Saxons  Medwegestan   and   Med- 
Lestane,  was  a  possession  of  the  Archbishops 


MAIL 


[    623    ] 


MAIN 


of  Canterbury,  and  is  so  described  in  Domes- 
day Book,  in  1086-7.  A  hospice  for  pilgrims 
travelling  to  Canterbury  was  founded  in  1260. 
It  received  charters  from  Edward  VI.,  Eliza- 
beth, James  I.,  Charles  II.,  and  George  II., 
and  has  returned  two  members  to  Parliament 
since  the  time  of  its  first  charter.  During  the 
Great  Rebellion  the  Kentish  men,  who  had 
risen  for  the  king,  were  attacked  and  defeated 
at  Maidstone  by  Fairfax,  June  i,  1648.  The 
Gothic  palace  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
bury was  built  in  1348  ;  its  parish  church,  one 
of  the  largest  in  England,  was  erected  in  the 
i4th  century,  and  has  been  recently  restored. 
A  college,  founded  by  Archbishop  Courteiiay 
in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  (1377 — 1399],  was 
suppressed  by  Edward  VI.,  the  building  now 
accommodating  All  Saints'  College,  founded 
in  1846.  The  county  gaol  was  erected  at  a  cost 
of  ,£200,000  in  1818. 

MAIL  COACHES.— John  Palmer,  manager 
of  the  Bath  and  Bristol  theatres,  submitted  to 
Mr.  Pitt,  then  prime  minister,  the  first  sketch 
of  his  plan  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  in 
1782,  and  a  second,  further  developed,  in  1783. 
In  July  of  the  same  year  the  post-office 
authorities  furnished  Government  with  three 
volumes  of  objections  to  the  proposed  inno- 
vation. In  spite,  however,  of  this  opposition, 
the  first  mail  coach  started  from  London  for 
Bristol  Aug.  8,  1784,  performing  the  journey 
the  same  day.  The  post-office  declared  its 
opinion  that  the  plan  was  prejudicial  to 
revenue  and  commerce  in  1786.  Mr.  Palmer's 
original  agreement  was  for  2^  per  cent,  on  the 
surplus  of  the  net  revenue  over  ^240,000,  and 
a  salary  of  ^1,500  a  year,  as  comptroller- 
general  of  the  post-office,  but  Parliament 
refused  to  ratify  the  agreement,  and  he  only 
obtained  a  grant  of  ,£50,000. 

MAILLOTINS.  —  The  name  given  to  the 
citizens  of  Paris  who  revolted  on  account  of 
the  tax  of  the  twelfth  denier  upon  provisions 
in  1382.  They  rushed  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
and  finding  no  weapons  but  leaden  mallets,— 
hence  their  name, — fell  upon  the  collectors  of 
the  tax  with  these,  and  killed  several.  The 
example  set  by  Paris  was  imitated  by  many 
provincial  towns.  The  dukes  of  Anjou,  Berri, 
and  Burgundy,  who  acted  as  guardians  for 
their  nephew  Charles  VI.,  entered  into  a  treaty 
with  the  revolted  Parisians.  The  French  army, 
after  the  battle  of  Rosebec,  or  Rosbach, 
Nov.  17,  1382,  marched  upon  Paris,  and  the 
citizens  were  punished  with  fines  and  confis- 
cation in  1383. 

MAILS. — An  act  for  the  conveyance  of 
mails  by  railway  (2  Viet.  c.  98)  was  passed 
Aug.  14,  1838. 

MAIMING,  once  punished  by  inflicting  a 
similar  injury  on  the  offender,  as  in  the  Mosaic 
economy,  "  an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth,"  was  afterwards  met  by  fine  and  impri- 
sonment. By  22  &  23  Charles  II.  c.  i  (March  6, 
1671),  the  Coventry  Act  (q.  v.},  since  repealed, 
malicious  wounding  and  maiming  was  made  a 
capital  offence.  It  was  made  a  capital  felony, 
if  the  intention  to  commit  murder  is  proved, 
or  otherwise,  punishable  with  transportation 
for  life,  by  i  Viet.  c.  85  (July  17,  1837).  By 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  25  (1846),  maiming  by  fire,  gun- 


powder, or  explosive  and  destructive  sub- 
stances, was  declared  to  be  felony. 

MAIN  DRAINAGE.— (See  DRAINAGE.) 

MAINE  (N.  America)  was  discovered  by  one 
of  the  Cabots  in  1497.  The  French  visited  it 
soon  after,  and  called  the  northern  part  of  the 
country  Maine,  and  the  eastern  portion  Acadie 
or  Acadia.  The  first  settlement  was  made  at 
Phippsburg  in  1607,  and  several  others  were 
formed  by  the  English  about  1635.  Sir  Ferdi- 
nand Gorges  received  a  proprietary  charter  in 
1639.  Maine,  united  to  Massachusetts  as  the 
county  of  Yorkshire  in  1652,  was  purchased 
from  the  Gorges  family  by  Massachusetts  in. 
1676.  It  was  the  theatre  of  the  war  between 
France  and  England  from  1702  to  1713,  at  the 
close  of  which  Acadia  was  ceded  to  England 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  n,  1713.  In 
1820  Maine  became  an  independent  state. 
After  the  war,  in  1814,  the  settlement  of  the 
boundary  between  Maine  and  the  British  pro- 
vince of  New  Brunswick  was,  by  the  fourth 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814, 
referred  to  two  commissioners,  one  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  King  of  England,  and  the  other 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
event  of  a  disagreement  between  these  com- 
missioners, the  matter  was  to  be  referred  to 
some  friendly  sovereign  or  state,  whose  decision 
was  to  be  final  and  conclusive.  Disputes  arose, 
and  the  King  of  Holland  was  named  arbitrator. 
He  decided  in  favour  of  Great  Britain,  but  the 
United  States  Government  refused  to  be  bound 
by  the  award.  Commissioners  were  sent  out 
in  1839,  to  examine  the  boundary-line  claimed 
by  England.  In  1841  another  commission  went 
to  examine  the  line  advocated  by  America, 
and  they  both  reported  in  favour  of  the  Eng- 
lish claim.  The  controversy  was  at  last  settled 
by  the  Ashburton  treaty  (q.  v. ),  concluded  at 
Washington  Aug.  9,  1842,  by  which  the  Ame- 
ricans obtained  seven-twelfths  of  the  disputed 
territory.  Maine  was  separated  from  Massa- 
chusetts in  1820. 

MAINE,  or  LE  MAINE  (France),  under  the 
Romans  formed  part  of  the  Lyonnais,  and, 
made  a  county  in  the  icth  centuiy,  was  in 
1 1 10  united  to  Anjou,  with  which  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  England  in  1156.  Philip 
II.  (Augustus)  took  it  in  1204,  but  the  English 
regained  possession.  Henry  III.  of  England 
renounced  all  claim  to  it  by  the  treaty  of 
Abbeville,  May  20,  1259,  and  Edward  III.  did 
the  same  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  May  8, 1360. 
Retaken  by  Henry  V.  (1413 — 22),  it  was  surren- 
dered by  treaty  in  1448,  and  formed  a  separate 
duchy  till  1481,  when  Louis  XI.  re-united  it  to 
France.  Henry  II.  of  France  gave  it  to  his 
third  son,  afterwards  Henry  III.,  who,  on 
becoming  king,  bestowed  it  upon  the  Duke  of 
Alencon,  one  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  suitors,  and 
at  his  death  without  heirs,  June  10,  1584,  it 
reverted  to  France. 

MAINE  LIQUOR  LAW.— This  law,  prohi- 
biting the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  except  for  certain  stated  purposes, 
and  ordering  the  arrest  and  imprisonment 
of  drunkards,  was  established  in  Maine, 
June  2,  1851. 

MAIN  PLOT,  a  conspiracy  formed  in  1603, 
to  place  Arabella  Stuart  on  the  throne,  was 


MAINTENANCE 


[    624    ] 


MALAGA 


called  the  Main  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Bye, 
the  Surprise,  or  the  Surprising  Plot  (q.  v.). 
Arabella  Stuart  was  a  cousin  of  James  I.,  being 
the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Lennox,  brother 
to  Lord  Darnley,  the  king's  father.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  and  Lord  Cobham  are  said  to  have 
been  the  prime  movers  in  this  plot.  They 
were  seized  in  July.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
indicted  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  Aug.  21, 
and  was  tried  and  condemned  at  Winchester, 
Nov.  17,  and  Lord  Cobham  Nov.  25.  They 
were  both  reprieved,  the  latter  on  the  scaffold, 
Dec.  9 ;  but  Raleigh  was  kept  in  the  Tower 
until  1616,  and  was  after  another  imprison- 
ment executed  Oct.  29,  1618. 

MAINTENANCE.— The  Cap  of  Maintenance, 
Dignity,  or  Estate,  was  used  by  English  sove- 
reigns at  a  very  early  period,  and  mention  is 
made  of  one  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I., 
Sep.  3,  1189.  The  Pope  frequently  sent  a  cap 
of  estate  as  a  present  to  a  temporal  prince, 
and  Edward  IV.  received  one  from  Sixtus  IV. 
April  23,  1482. 

MAINZ.—  (See  MAYENCE.) 

MAIPU,  or  MAYPU  (Battle).  —  The  repub- 
lican army,  led  by  San  Martin,  defeated  the 
Royalists  in  a  plain  bordering  on  the  river 
Maipu,  in  Chili,  April  5,  1818. 

MAITLAND  CLUB  (Glasgow),  named  after 
Sir  Richard  Maitland,  who  died  March  20,  1586, 
was  instituted  March  31,  1828.  The  object  of 
the  association  is  the  publication  of  works 
illustrative  of  the  history,  antiquities,  and 
literature  of  Scotland. 

MAJESTY.— The  title  of  majesty,  at  first 
applied  amongst  the  Romans  to  the  dictators, 
the  consuls,  and  the  senate,  as  the  represen- 
t.itivcs  of  the  power  of  the  people,  was  appro- 
priated by  the  Emperor  Tiberius  (14 — 37).  It 
was  also  adopted  by  the  German  emperors,  and 
was  introduced  into  France  by  Louis  XL,  who 
was  the  first  to  assume  it  permanently  and 
officially.  Francis  I.  saluted  Henry  VIII.  with 
this  title  at  their  interview  in  1520,  and  he  was 
the  first  English  monarch  to  whom  it  was  ap- 
plied. The  French  Assembly,  in  1791,  abolished 
the  title. 

MAJOLICA,  soft  enamelled  pottery  made  by 
the  Moors,  was  introduced  into  Italy  from 
Majorca,  whence  the  name,  in  the  i2th  century. 
The  classical  designs  of  Raffaelle,  and  other 
distinguished  artists,  were  adopted  from  1520 
to  1560,  and  it  received  the  name  of  Raffaelle 
ware.  The  manufacture  gradually  declined  in 
the  1 6th  century. 

MAJORCA,  or  MALLORCA  (Mediterranean 
Sea).— This  island  is  the  largest  of  the  Balearic 
(q.  v.)  group,  and  but  little  is  known  of  its 
early  history.  After  the  final  expulsion  of  the 
Moors,  in  1268,  James  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  con- 
ferred the  islands  upon  his  third  son,  and  they 
formed  a  separate  kingdom  till  1349.  In  1521 
the  peasants  revolted  against  the  nobility,  and 
committed  great  excesses.  Majorca  declared 
for  Charles  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion. The  island  was  captured  in  June,  1715, 
and  it  remained  faithful  to  Spain  during  the 
occupation  of  the  peninsula  by  the  French. 
(See  MINORCA.) 

MAJOR  EXCOMMUNICATION.— (See  ANA- 
THEMA and  EXCOMMUNICATION.) 


MARIAN  (Indian  Archipelago).— This  island, 
one  of  the  Moluccas,  was  destroyed  by  the 
eruption  of  a  volcano,  and  the  inhabitants, 
amounting  to  4,000,  were  nearly  all  killed,  June 
1 6,  1862. 

MALABAR  (Hindostan).— This  tract  of 
country,  extending  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the 
river  Chandragiri,  was  conquered  by  a  king 
from  above  the  Ghaut  mountains,  at  a  very 
early  period.  Vasco  de  Gama  landed  May  20, 
1498,  and  the  Portuguese  soon  after  formed 
settlements.  In  1761  Hyder  Ali  subdued  the 
country,  and  he  appointed  a  deputy  in  1782. 
A  serious  rebellion  was  provoked  by  an  attempt 
made  by  Tippoo  Saib  to  introduce  religious 
changes  in  1788.  Christianity  was  introduced 
at  Malabar  at  a  very  early  period.  (See  NES- 
TORIANS.) 

MALACCA  (Malay  Peninsula),  the  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  by  a 
Malay  king  in  1250.  The  Portuguese  visited 
the  town  in  1507,  Albuquerque  captured  it  in 
1511,  and  it  was  made  a  Portuguese  settlement. 
The  Dutch,  who  failed  in  an  attack  in  1605, 
reduced  the  place  in  1640,  and  held  it  till  Aug. 
I7>  J795»  when  it  was  taken  by  the  English. 
Having  been  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens, 
March  25,  1807,  it  was  soon  recaptured,  and 
again  given  to  the  Dutch  in  1814.  The  town 
and  a  district  of  1,000  square  miles  were  ex- 
changed by  the  King  of  the  Netherlands  for 
the  British  possession  of  Bencoolen,  in  the 
island  of  Sumatra,  by  a  treaty  concluded 
March  17,  1824.  The  exchange  was  fixed  to 
take  place  March  i,  1825.  Malacca,  with  Singa- 
pore and  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  have  been 
included  in  the  Bengal  Presidency  since  1851. 

.M  A  LACHI,  the  last  of  the  prophetical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  written  by  Malachi,  a 
contemporary  of  Nehemiah,  is  by  the  best 
authorities  referred  to  B.C.  410.  It  is  noticed 
in  Mark  i.  2,  ix.  u,  12,  Luke  i.  17,  and  Rom. 
ix.  13. 

MALACHITE,  a  green  mineral  found  in 
large  quantities  in  the  copper  mines  of  Siberia 
and  Australia.  A  solid  mass  weighing  above  20 
tons  was  found  in  the  Ural  mountains  in  1835. 

MALAGA  (Sea-Fight). —An  allied  English 
and  Dutch  fleet,  consisting  of  41  English  and 
12  Dutch  ships  of  the  line  and  6  frigates,  en- 
gaged the  French  fleet,  of  50  ships  of  the  line 
and  8  frigates,  off  Malaga,  Sunday,  Aug.  13, 
1704.  The  battle  lasted  till  night.  It  was  not 
renewed  Aug.  14,  and  the  French  fleet  sailed 
away  Aug.  15.  No  ships  were  captured ;  but 
the  English  and  Dutch  lost  nearly  3,000,  and 
the  French  4,000  in  killed  and  wounded.  Sir 
George  Rooke  commanded  the  allied  fleets. 

MALAGA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Malaca,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
Phoenicians,  and  passed  under  the  sway  of  the 
Carthaginians,  the  Romans,  the  Goths,  and 
the  Moors,  in  rapid  succession.  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  wrested  it  from  the  Moors,  after 
a  siege  of  three  months'  duration,  Aug.  18, 
1487.  Sebastian,  at  the  head  of  a  French 
army,  captured  Malaga,  with  120  pieces  of 
cannon  and  a  quantity  of  stores,  Feb.  5,  1810. 
The  castle,  built  by  the  Moors  in  1279,  shows 
traces  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  Spanish 
artillery  in  the  siege  of  1487.  The  cathedral, 


MALAKHOFP 


[    625     ] 


MALMO 


commenced  in  1526,  was  not  completed  until 
1782  ;  and  the  custom-house,  begun  in  1791, 
was  finished  in  1829.  The  breakwater  was 
commenced  in  1588.  The  national  guard 
revolted,  and  proclaimed  the  Spanish  con- 
stitution of  1812  in  this  town,  July  25,  1836. 

MALAKHOFF  (Crimea).— During  the  expe- 
dition to  the  Crimea  by  the  allied  English, 
French,  and  Turkish  forces,  in  the  autumn 
of  1854,  this  small  white  stone  tower,  form- 
ing one  of  the  defences  of  Sevastopol,  was 
much  strengthened  by  the  Russians,  who  con- 
structed a  large  semicircular  mound,  with 
30  guns  at  its  base.  As  the  siege  progressed, 
the  defences  of  the  Malakhoff  were  still 
farther  extended,  and  it  became,  in  fact,  the 
key  of  the  whole  position.  It  was  assaulted 
June  18,  1855,  by  the  French,  who,  after  a 
gallant  struggle,  were  compelled  to  retire. 
The  Russians  did  everything  in  their  power  to 
render  the  Malakhoff  impregnable,  and  the 
-result  of  their  labours  has  been  described 
as  "a  formidable  palisade  or  abattis  of 
sharpened  stakes  in  front;  then  an  earthen 
parapet  of  enormous  height  and  thickness  ; 
then  a  deep  and  wide  ditch  ;  then  three  tiers 
of  batteries  rising  one  above  another,  armed 
with  more  than  60  guns  of  large  calibre  ;  then 
sheltered  spots  at  which  riflemen  might  be 
posted ;  and,  lastly,  a  place  d'armes  large 
enough  to  contain  a  powerful  defensive  or 
offensive  body  of  infantry."  The  French 
collected  25,000  men,  exclusive  of  5,000  Sar- 
dinians and  the  reserves,  for  the  second  assault 
on  the  Malakhoff,  and  it  was  delivered  Sep.  8, 
1855,  with  success.  For  six  hours  the  Russians 
made  fruitless  attempts  to^expel  the  French. 

MALAY,  EASTERN  or  INDIAN  ARCHI- 
PELAGO (Pacific),  also  called  Malasia,  com- 
prises the  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands  (q.  v.}, 
the  Philippines  (q.  v.),  the  Sunda  Islands 
(q.  v.),  &c. 

MALDIVE,  or  MALEDIVA  ISLANDS 
(Indian  Ocean).  —  This  group,  according  to 
some  authorities,  consisting  of  40,000  or  50,000, 
and,  according  to  others,  of  I,QOO  or  2,000 
islands,  is  described  by  two  Mohammedan 
travellers  of  the  gth  century.  Soarez  re-dis- 
covered them  in  1506,  and  a  Portuguese  ma- 
riner, wrecked  upon  them  in  1512,  found  them 
occupied  by  Mohammedans.  (See  MALI.) 

MALDON  (Essex).— A  writer  in  Smith's 
"Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography" 
(i.  p.  645),  questions  the  generally  received 
opinion,  that  Colonia  and  Camelodunum  (q.  v.) 
are  identical,  and  believes  Colchester  to 
represent  the  former,  and  Maldon  the  latter 
place.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Elder,  who,  in  920,  built  and 
fortified  the  town.  The  Danes,  who  attacked 
it  in  921,  were  repulsed,  but  they  returned  and 
captured  it  in  993.  Queen  Mary  granted  it  a 
charter  June  18,  1553.  It  has  sent  members 
to  Parliament  since  1329.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1608. 

MALEGNANO.— (See  MARIGNANO  and  PAVIA, 
Battles.) 

MALEKITES.— This  branch  of  the  Sonnites 
was  founded  by  Malek  Ibn  Ans,  who  died  at 
Medina  about  802. 

MALET'S    CONSPIRACY.— Gen.  Malet,  a 


republican,  spread  a  report  at  Paris,  Oct.  23, 
1812,  of  the  death,  during  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, of  Napoleon  I.,  and,  aided  by  a  few 
accomplices,  obtained  the  control  of  the  city. 
They  were  arrested  and  condemned  to  death 
by  a  military  commission,  Oct.  29. 

MALICIOUS  INFORMATIONS.— (See 
INFORMERS.) 

MALICIOUS  WOUNDING  AND  MAIMING. 
— (See  COVENTRY  ACT.) 

MALIGNANTS.— (See  ENGAGERS.) 

MALI,  or  MALDIVA  ATOLL  (Maldive 
Islands),  the  largest  of  the  group,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  native  prince,  called  "  The  Sultan 
of  the  Thirteen  Atolls  and  Twelve  Thousand," 
was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  i6th 
century. 

MALINES  (Treaty),  concluded  against 
France  April  5,  1513,  between  Leo  X.,  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  Henry  VIII.,  and 
Ferdinand  V.  Henry  VIII.  undertook  to  in- 
vade Normandy,  Picardy,  and  Guienue  ;  Fer- 
dinand V.  Beam  and  Languedoc ;  Leo  X. 
Provence  and  Dauphiny;  and  Maximilian  I. 
the  interior  of  France. 

MALINES,  MECHLIN,  or  MECHELEN 
(Belgium).  —  This  city,  fovinded  in  the  5th 
century,  destroyed  by  the  Northmen  in  884, 
was  rebuilt  in  887,  and  fortified  in  930.  The 
fine  Gothic  church  of  St.  Rombaud  was  com- 
menced in  1220.  In  1333  Adolphus  de  la  Marck 
sold  Malines  to  the  counts  of  Flanders,  and  it 
subsequently  passed  into  the  power  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy.  The  explosion  of  a 
powder-magazine  occasioned  great  loss  of  life 
and  property  in  1546.  Malines  has  been  several 
times  sacked, — by  the  Spaniards  in  1572,  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  1578,  and  by  the  English  in 
1583.  Marlborough  took  it  in  1706,  and  it  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  1792,  and  1794, 
and  in  1804  they  destroyed  the  fortifications. 
The  Academy  of  Painting  was  founded  in  1771. 
Malines  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric  in 
1561.  Synods  were  held  here  in  1570  and  1607. 

MALISSET.— (See  PACTE  DE  FAMINE.) 

MALLICOLO,  or  MANICOLA  (New  He- 
brides).— This  island,  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
group,  was  discovered  by  Quiros  in  1606.  Capt. 
?ook  landed  upon  it  in  July,  1774. 

MALMAISON  (France).— A  castle,  near  Ver- 
sailles, was  the  retreat  of  the  Empress  Josephine 
after  her  divorce  from  Napoleon  I.,  and  the 
scene  of  her  death,  May  29,  1814.  A  decree 
was  passed  in  1853  for  the  erection  of  a  monu- 
ment to  her  memory. 

MALMESBURY  (Wiltshire).  —  The  monas- 
tery, founded  in  670,  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes  in  the  a,th  century.  It  was  restored, 
iestroyed,  again  restored,  and  was  made  a 
mitred  abbey  by  Edward  III.  (1327 — 77).  The 
wn  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentary  army 

1643. 

MALMO  (Sweden). — An  important  town  in 
1259,  was  fortified  in  1434.  A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded here  between  Sweden  and  Denmark  in 
1524.  On  the  death  of  Frederick  I.  of  Den- 
mark, April  10,  1533,  Malmo  declared  in  favour 
of  Christian  II.,  who  had  been  kept  in  cap- 
tivity from  1523.  An  armistice  between  the 
Danes  and  the  army  of  Sleswig-Holstein  was 
signed  at  Malmo,  Aug.  26,  1848. 

S  3 


MALO-JAROSLAWITZ 


[    626    ] 


MAMELON 


M ALO-J AROSLAWITZ  (Battle).  —Napoleon 
I.  with  a  portion  of  the  French  army,  having 
reached  this  town,  Oct.  23,  1812,  on  the  retreat 
from  Moscow,  was  assailed  by  the  Russians 
under  Doctoroff,  Oct.  24,  when  a  series  of 
furious  encounters  ensued.  The  town,  fired  in 
several  places,  was  taken  and  retaken  seven 
different  times,  and  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed. Though  the  French  succeeded  in  ex- 
pelling the  Russians,  their  losses  were  very 
severe,  and  at  a  council  of  war  held  the  night 
of  the  battle,  Napoleon  I.  determined  to  fall 
back  by  the  Smolensko  road. 

MALO,  ST.  (France.) —This  seaport  town, 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  about  the  ioth 
century,  was  attacked  by  John  of  Gaunt  in 
1378.  The  privateers  of  St.  Malo  did  so  much 
mischief  to  English  commerce,  that  in  1693, 
and  again  in  1695,  the  English  bombarded  the 
town,  but  without  success.  They  destroyed  a 
number  of  privateers  and  other  ships  in  the 
harbour  of  St.  Malo,  June  8,  1758.  Another 
descent  made  upon  the  coast  of  France  at  St. 
Malo,  Sep.  16,  1758,  terminated  in  a  severe  loss, 
600  having  been  killed  and  wounded  and  400 
taken  prisoners.  The  railway  to  Ronnes  was 
opened  in  1864. 

MALPLAQUET  (Battle). —The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough  and  Prince  Eugene,  at  the  head  of  an 
allied  English  and  German  array,  defeated  1h<: 
French  under  Marshal  Villars  in  this  plain, 
near  the  river  Sart,  Sep.  n,  1709.  The  allies 
lost  18,000,  and  the  French  15,000,  in  killed  and 
wounded. 

MALSERHEYDE,  or  MALSHERAID 
(Battle).  — The  Swiss  defeated  the  army  sent 
against  them  by  Maximilian  I.  at  this  place  in 

MALT. — A  duty  on  malt  was  first  imposed 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  has  formed 
a  regular  branch  of  the  revenue  since  1695. 
It  was  made  perpetual  by  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  18 
(April  3,  1822),  and  the  law  was  amended  by  n 
Geo.  IV.  c.  17  (May  29,  1830).  New  regulations 
were  imposed  by  i  Viet.  c.  49  (July  12,  1837). 
Malt  used  in  feeding  animals  was  allowed  to 
be  made  duty  free  by  27  Viet.  c.  9  (April  28, 
1864),  and  the  excise  duty  is  changed  according 
to  the  weight  of  grain  used  by  28  &  29  Viet. 
c.  66  (June  29,  1865),  which  took  effect  Sep.  7, 
1865.  The  question  of  the  repeal  of  the  malt- 
tax  has  frequently  been  debated  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  tax  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  in  1713,  and  into  Ireland  in  1783.  The 
imposition  of  a  new  malt-tax  in  Scotland 
caused  serious  riots  at  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
in  1724. 

MALTA  (Knights).  —  This  island  was  con- 
ferred by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  upon  the 
Hospitallers  (q.  v.)  for  the  heroism  which  they 
displayed  against  the  Saracens  during  the 
siege  of  Rhodes.  They  took  possession  Oct. 
26,  1530;  and  are  frequently  called  the  Knights 
of  Malta. 

MALTA  (Mediterranean  Sea). -This  island, 
the  ancient  Melita,  was  first  colonized  by  the 
Phoanicians,  and  afterwards  by  the  Car- 
thaginians. The  Romans  laid  it  waste  B.C. 
257.  The  apostle  Paul  was  wrecked  here  on 
his  voyage  from  Palestine  to  Rome,  in  59 
(Acts  xxviii.  i).  It  fell  under  the  power  of 


j  the  Vandals,  and  was  wrested  from  them  by 
IMisarius  in  533.  They  retained  possession 
till  it  was  conquered  in  870  by  the  Arabs,  who 
were  expelled  by  the  Normans,  under  Count 
Roger,  in  1090,  and  they  held  the  island  till 
1189,  when  it  passed  under  the  sway  of  the 
German  emperors.  It  was  in  the  possession  of 
France  from  1258  till  1282,  when  it  passed  to 
the  house  of  Aragon.  The  Emperor  Charles  V. , 
who  inherited  it  as  King  of  Aragon,  made  a 
grant  of  it  to  the  Hospitallers,  or  Knights  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  in  1530.  Soliman  I. 
assailed  Malta  with  a  fleet  of  159  vessels,  carry- 
ing 30,000  troops,  May  18,  1565.  The  attack 
on  the  castle  of  St.  Elmo  commenced  May 
24,  and  the  besieged  were  reduced  to  the  la.st 
extremity  when  relieved  by  a  Sicilian  fleet, 
and  the  Turks  withdrew  Sep.  8.  A  new  city, 
called  La  Valetta,  after  the  grand  master, 
who  had  defended  the  place  so  heroically 
against  the  Turks,  was  commenced  in  1566, 
and  completed  Aug.  18,  1571.  The  Turks  failed- 
in  another  attack  upon  the  island  in  1601.  The 
French  expedition  to  Egypt  arrived  off  the 
island  June  9,  1798,  and  the  grand  master, 
Ferdinand  Hompesch,  surrendered  without 
striking  a  blow,  June  n.  Napoleon  pursued 
his  course  to  Egypt  June  19.  The  inhabitants 
revolted  in  1798,  and  waged  war  against  the 
French,  in  which  they  were  assisted  by  an 
Knglish  squadron,  until  Sep.  5,  1800,  when  the 
French  commander  surrendered  the  whole 
island  to  the  English.  By  the  ioth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Amiens  (March  25,  1802),  Eng- 
land engaged  to  restore  Malta  to  the  Hospi- 
tallers, and  its  independence  was  to  be  placed 
under  the  guarantee  and  protection  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Austria,  Spain,  Prussia,  and 
Russia.  In  consequence  of  the  aggressions  of 
Napoleon  I.  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Holland, 
and  his  preparations  to  carry  on  war,  the  Eng- 
lish Government  refused  to  give  up  the  island, 
and  hostilities  were  renewed.  Malta  was 
formally  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  May  30,  1814. 

M  AiVERN,  or  GREAT  MALVERN  (Worces- 
tershire).—  Edward  the  Confessor  (1043 — 66) 
established  a  hermitage  at  this  place,  which 
was  afterwards  erected  into  a  priory,  and  on 
the  destruction  of  the  monasteries,  Latimer 
requested  that  it  might  be  spared  for  the 
maintenance  of  preaching  and  hospitality. 
Henry  VII.  (1485 — 1509)  frequently  resided  at 
Malvern  ;  but  it  owes  its  modem  celebrity  to 
the  mineral  waters  which  abound  in  its 
vicinity.  Dr.  Wall  wrote  a  treatise  on  their 
efficacy  in  1756. 

MALVERN  HILL.— (See  CHICKAHOMINY, 
Battles.) 

MALWAH  (Hindostan).— This  extensive  pro- 
vince was  invaded  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1707, 
and  was  wrested  by  them  from  the  Mongol 
empire  about  1732. 

MAMELON  (Crimea).— This  hill,  about  one- 
third  of  a  mile  in  advance  of  the  Malakhoff, 
and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  allied  French 
and  English  batteries,  formed  one  of  the  chief 
defences  of  Sebastopol  during  the  siege.  It 
was  about  a  mile  in  circumference  at  the  base, 
and  the  sides,  consisting  of  quarries,  were 
steep  and  rugged.  This  was  fortified  by  the 


MAMELUKES 


[    627    ] 


MANCHESTER 


Russians  in  Feb.,  1855.  The  French  captured 
the  Mamelon  June  8,  1855. 

MAMELUKES,  MAMLOUKS,  or  MEM- 
LOOKS.— Malek  Salech,  the  Ayoubite  sultan 
of  Egypt  in  1230,  formed  some  Turkish  and 
Circassian  slaves  into  a  body-guard,  under  this 
name,  the  word  mameluke  signifying,  in  Arabic, 
slave.  They  revolted,  and  placed  one  of  their 
own  body  on  the  throne,  in  1254.  There  were 
two  dynasties  of  the  Mameluke  sovereigns; 
namely,  the  Baharites,  founded  by  Bayers 
in  1244 ;  and  the  Borgites,  who  supplanted 
the  Baharites  in  1381.  Tumanbeg,  the  last 
sultan  of  the  Mamelukes,  was  put  to  death  at 
Cairo,  by  order  of  Selim  I.,  April  23,  1517. 
The  Mamelukes  were  massacred  at  Cairo  by 
Meheinet  Ali,  March  i,  1811. 

MAMERS  (France),  once  a  fortified  town, 
•was  taken  by  the  Normans  in  the  nth  cen- 
tury. The  English  seized  it  in  1359  and  in 
1417,  when  they  destroyed  the  fortifications. 

MAMERTINES.— Some  Campaniai*  merce- 
naries, who  took  possession  of  Messina  about 
B.C.  284,  assumed  the  name  of  Mamertini, 
or  "  children  of  Mars,"  from  Mamers,  an 
Oscan  name  of  that  deity.  Hence  Messina  (q.  v. ) 
was  sometimes  called  Mamertina.  Hieron  II. 
of  Syracuse  besieged  them  in  Messina  for  five 
years  (B.C.  270—65). 

MAMRE.— (See  HEBRON.) 

MAN. — (See  ISLE  OF  MAN,  and  SODOR*  AND 
MAN.) 

MANAAR  (Manaar  Passage).— This  island, 
on  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  was  occupied  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1560.  They  were  expelled  by 
the  Dutch  in  1658,  and  it  passed  under  the  rule 
of  the  English  in  1796. 

MANASSAS,  BULL  or  BALL'S  RUN  (Bat- 
tles).— The  Confederates  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Federalists,  or  the  Union  party,  after  nine 
hours'  severe  fighting,  at  Bull's  Run,  near 
Manassas  Junction,  in  Tennessee,  N.  America. 
July  21,  1861.  The  Federalists,  who  were  in 
much  greater  strength  than  their  opponents, 
were  seized  with  a  sudden  panic,  and,  aban- 
doning arms,  &c.,  fled  in  wild  confusion  fr.om 
the  field  of  battle.  (See  "  STONEWALL"  BRIGADE.  ) 

The  second,  frequently  called  the  battle 

of  Groveton,  the  name  of  a  village  where  some 
of  the  most  desperate  struggles  occurred,  was 
fought  Aug.  30,  1863.  Preliminary  encounters 
had  taken  place  Aug.  28  and  29,  and  on  the 
last-mentioned  day  a  very  bold  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Federals  to  capture  the  provision 
and  ammunition  trains,  but  the  real  contest 
came  off  Aug.  30.  The  Confederates,  under 
Jackson,  Longstreet,  and  Lee,  completely  de- 
feated the  Federals  commanded  by  Pope,  and 
they  fled  in  confusion  to  Centreville.  In  the 
encounter  of  the  three  days  the  Federals  lost 
20,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  30 
cannon,  and  40,000  small  arms.  A  monument 
in  memory  of  those  who  fell  in  the  two  battles 
was  erected  on  the  field  June  10,  1865. 

MANCHESTER  (Bishopric) .— An  order  in 
council,  dated  Dec.  12,  1838,  passed  for  the 
erection  of  this  diocese,  did  not  take  effect, 
and  was  subsequently  repealed  by  jo  &  n 
Viet.  c.  108  (July  23,  1847),  which  established 
the  bishopric  upon  another  footing.  Another 
order  in  council  was  issued  Aug.  10,  1847,  for 


carrying  this  act  into  effect,  and  the  new  see 
was  subjected  to  the  metropolitan  jurisdiction 
of  the  Archbishop  of  York.  James  Prince  Lee, 
nominated  the  first  bishop  Oct.  23,  1847,  was 
consecrated  Jan.  23,  1848. 

MANCHESTER  (Lancashire).  —The  Celts, 
who  migrated  from  Gaul,  established  a  fort 
here,  called  Mancenion,  or,  "the  place  of 
tents,"  about  B.C.  38  ;  and  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  in  78,  who  gave  the 
name  of  Mancunium  to  this  station.  The 
town  was  afterwards  called  Manigceastre,  or 
Mancestre. 

A.D. 

79.  Agricola  erects  four  forts  at  Mancenion. 
446.  Manchester  is  constituted  a  parish. 
620.  It  is  taken  by  Edwin  of  Northumbria. 
870.  It  is  taken  by  the  Danes. 
920.  Edward  the  Elder  fortifies  Manchester. 
1301.  Thomas  de  Grelley  grants  the  "  Great  Charter  of 

Manchester." 
1338.  The  cotton  manufacture  is  introduced  by  Flemish 

artisans.     (See  COTTON,  &c.) 

1431  (about).  The  old  church,  or  cathedral,  is  founded. 
1509.  The  free  grammar-school  is  founded. 
1553.  An  act  is  passed  for  the  improvement  of  Manchester 

cottons. 

1565.  The  plague  carries  off  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
1578.  The  college  is  refounded. 
1616.  An  extraordinary  flood. 
1643,  July  15.  A  broil   between    the    Royalists  and  the 

Puritans,  in  which  several  lives  are  lost. 
1643,  Jan.    13  to  21.    The  Puritans,    under  Sir  Thomas 

Fairfax,  occupy  Manchester. 
1645.  The  plague  rages  with  great  violence. 
1651,  Dec.  16.  Chetham  Library  and  College  are  founded. 
1654,  July  19.  Manchester  sends  its  first  representative  to 

Parliament,  by  order  of  Cromwell.     The  town 

lost  the  franchise  at  the  Restoration. 
1730.  Manchester  is  described  as  the  largest,  richest,  and 

most  populous  and  busy  village  in  England. 
1745,  Nov.   38.    Prince   Charles  Edward  and    his    army 

enter  Manchester. 
1753.  The  Mercury,  the  first  Manchester  paper  of  im- 

portance,    is     established.      The     infirmary    is 

founded. 

1753,  June  32.  Slight  shocks  of  an  earthquake  are  felt. 
The  infirmary  building  is  opened. 
Cotton  goods'  are  first  exported. 
1761,  July  17.  The  Bridgewater  Canal  between  Manches- 

ter and  Worsley  is  opened. 

1779.  Oct.  Q.  Riots  against  the  introduction  of  machinery 

take  place. 

1780.  The  muslin  manufacture  is  introduced. 

1781.  The  Philosophical  Society  is  founded. 
1783.  A  night-watch  is  first  appointed. 
1787.  A  great  flood  does  much  damage. 

1789,  June  19.  The  Queen's  Theatre  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1792.  The  workhouse  is  erected. 

1803.  The  Philological  Society  is  founded. 

1806.  Broughton  bridge  is  erected.    The  portico  is  built. 

1808,  May  34  and  35.  A  dispute  between  the  masters  and 

weavers  respecting  wages  leads  to  a  riot,  which 
is  quelled  by  the  military. 

1809.  The  Exchange  is  opened,  and  the  Manchester  and 

Salford  Water  Company  established. 
1811.  Hackney  coaches  are  introduced. 
1813,  April  10.  A  riotous  meeting  of  the  populace  is  held 

in  the  Exchange. 

1816,  Nov.  4.  The  first  reform  meeting  is  held  at  Peter's 

1817.  Strangeway's  bridge  is  opened.—  March  10.  Meeting 

of  the  "Blanketeers"  (q.  v.). 

1818.  Gas  is  introduced. 

1819,  Aug.  16.  Contest  at  Peterloo  (q.  ».). 

1830,  Aug.  i.  Blackfriavs  bridge  is  opened.    The  Cham- 

ber of  Commerce  is  established.  ^ 

1831.  Rusholme  Road  cemetery  is  formed.     The  Natural 

History  Society  is  instituted. 

1832,  Aug.  19.  The  town-hall  is  founded. 

1833.  The  Royal  Institution  and  the  Deaf   and  Dumb 

Asylum  are  established. 

1834.  The  Mechanics'  Institute  is  founded. 

1835,  Jan.  i.  Omnibuses  are  introduced. 

SS   2 


1755. 
1760. 


MANCHESTER 


[    628    ] 


A.D. 

1836.  Owing  to  commercial  distress,  numerous  riots  take 

place,    Broughtou  suspension-bridge  and  Hunt's 

Bank  bridge  are  opened. 
1827.  The  Botanical  and  Horticultural  Societyis  founded. 

1838,  Oct.  7.  The  first  musical  festival  is  held. 

1839,  Maya.  Serious  riots  take  place;  a  factory  is  burned 

and  numerous  provision-shops  are  robbed.  The 
Improvement  Committee  is  formed,  and  the 
Phrenological  Society  is  founded. 

1830,  Sep.  15.  The  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway'is 

opened.  The  Royal  Institution  is  inaugurated. 
The  Concert-hall  is  opened. 

1831.  The  Botanical  Gardens  at  Old  Trafford  are  opened. 
1833.  May   14.  A  tumultuous  meeting  in  favour   of  the 

Reform  Bill,  is  held  in  Peter's  Fields.— May  17. 
The  cholera  makes  its  first  appearance. — Aug.  9. 
The  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  which  makes 
Manchester  a  Parliamentary  borough,  is  cele- 
brated by  a  public  festival. 

1833.  The  Choral  Society  is  founded. 

1834.  The  Statistical  Society  is  founded. 

1835.  Manchester  is   incorporated   by  the  Municipal  Re- 

form Act. 

1836,  March  23.  The  Blind  Asylum  is  founded. 

1837,  Feb.  i.  The  Corn  Exchange  is  opened.    Harpurhey 

cemetery  is  established.  The  Athenaeum  ia  built, 
and  tbe  Architectural  Society  founded. 

1838,  May  24.  The   East  Lancashire  railway  is  opened. 

— Oct.  23.  Mancliester  receives  a  charter  of  incor- 
poration.     The  Geolojrieal  Soeiety  is  established. 
1831),  June  20.  Victoria  bridge,  over  the  Irwell,  is  opened. 

1840,  Oct.  5.  Manchester  College,  in  connection  with  Lon- 

don University,  is  opened.    The  Victoria  Gallery 

is  opened. 

1843.  The  British  Association  meets  nt  Manchester. 
J844,  May  7.  The  Theatre   Royal   is  burned   down. — Sep. 

26.  Albert  bridge  is  opened. 

1845.  April.    The     public     baths    and    wash-houses    are 

opened. — June   lo.  The    Connnen-ial    Sri Is  are 

founded — Sep.  29.  The  new  Theatre  Koyal  is 
opened.— Dec.  23-  The  anti-corn-law  league  hold 
a  meeting. 

1846.  Peel  Park  is  opened. 

1847.  The    Exchange    is    enlarged.      (See  MANCHESTER, 

BUhoprto.) 
1849.  Tin1  borough  guril  is  ereeted. 

1851,  Oct.  7.  Queen   Victoria   visits  Manchester.     Owen's 

College  is  founded. 

1852,  Sep.  2-  The  free  library  is  opened. 

1855,  June  21.  The   building  for  the  Mechanics'  Institute 

is  founded. 

1857,  May  5.  The  Art-Treasures  Exhibition  (q.  «.)  is  opened 
by  Prince  Albert. 

1861.  The  British  Association  meets  at  Manchester  for  the 
second  time. 

1863 — 5.  The  cotton  famine  (q.  v.)  occasions  great  dis- 
tress. 

1863,  Oct.  13—15.  The  Church  Congress  meets  nt  Man- 
chester. 

1866,  Feb.  18.  The  church  of  St.  John,  built  on  a  site  pre- 
sented by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  is  consecrated.— 
March  2.  A  Workman's  Art  Exhibition  is 
opened  at  the  Royal  Institution. 

MANCHESTER  (N.  America),  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, merely  a  village  in  1840,  received  a 
charter  in  1846. 

MANCHESTER  ART-TREASURES  EXHI- 
BITION.— The  proposal  for  holding  an  art- 
treasures  exhibition  at  Manchester  was  made 
at  a  meeting  held  at  Manchester,  March  26, 

1856.  A  guarantee-fund    of    ^74,000    having 
been  raised  in  three  weeks,  a  site  was  selected 
at  Old  Trafford,  adjoining  the  Botanical  Gar- 
dens, for  the  erection  of  the  building,  which 
was  a  parallelogram,  of  660  feet  by  220  feet, 
covering  an  area  of  130,0x30  square  feet,  at  a 
cost  of    about  ^30,000.     The  arrangement  of 
the  art-treasures  was  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  George  Scharf,  F.R.S.     The  number  of 
paintings  of  all  kinds,  collected  in  this  build- 
ing, by  old  masters,  was  1,115,  and  by  modern 
masters,  689.      There    were,  in    addition,    969 


water-colour  drawings,  388  British  portraits, 
59  cases  of  enamels,  260  original  sketches  and 
drawings  by  the  old  masters,  937  engravings  in 
line,  161  in  mezzotinto,  246  etchings,  and  600 
photographs.  The  museum  of  ornamental  art 
comprised  17,000  articles.  It  was  opened  by 
Prince  Albert,  May  5,  1857,  an(i  closed  Oct.  17. 
During  the  time  it  remained  open  it  was 
visited  by  1,335,915  persons. 

MANDATES,  or  LETTERS  FROM  THE 
POPE,  requesting  a  bishop  to  confer  the  next 
vacant  benefice  upon  some  person  named 
therein,  were  first  issued  by  Adrian  IV.  (1154 — 
1159).  The  practice  was  continued  by  Alex- 
ander III.  (1159 — 1181),  until  Clement  IV.,  in 
1266,  issued  a  bull  claiming  the  right  of  nomi- 
nation in  certain  cases.  The  right  of  issuing 
royal  mandates  to  judges,  for  interfering  in 
private  causes,  was  relinquished  as  a  preroga- 
tive of  the  crown  by  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307). 

MANFREDONIA  (Italy),  named  after  King 
Manfred,  who  founded  it  in  1250,  was  at  first 
named  Novum  Sipontum,  because  it  stood  near 
the  site  of  that  ancient  town.  A  bay  in  the 
vicinity  is  called  the  Gulf  of  Manfredonia.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1620. 

MANGALORE  (Hindostan).  —  This  town, 
supposed  to  have  been  colonized  by  Arabs  at  a 
very  early  period,  was  taken  by  Ilyder  Ali  in 

1767.  The  English,   who  captured  it  Feb.  25, 

1768,  and  retired  early  in  May,  recovered  it  in 
1 783,  the  fortress  surrendering  March  9.  Tippoo 
Sail)  besieged  it  May  23,  and,  having  converted 
the   siege  into  a  blockade,  the  garrison  capi- 
tulated Jan.  26,  1784.     The  English  restored  it 
by  the  treaty  of   1784;  but  it  came  into  their 
possession,  with  the  whole  of  the  Carnatic, 
after  the  overthrow  of  Tippoo  in  1799. 

.M  A  N  ( I A I  >O  HE  (Treaty),  was  concluded  be- 
tween the  English  and  Tippoo  Saib  at  this 
town,  in  Hindustan,  March  n,  1784.  A  resti- 
tution of  conquests  was  agreed  to  on  both 
sides. 

MANGANESE  was  included  among  iron 
ores  until  1774,  when  Scheele,  and  afterwards 
Gahn,  proved  that  the  metal  in  this  mineral 
was'  distinct  from  iron. 

MANGAREVA  GROUP.— (See  GAMBIER  IS- 
LANDS.) 

MANICHvEANS.— This  heretical  sect  was 
founded  in  Persia,  about  261,  by  Mani,  Manes, 
or  Manichseus,  who  styled  himself  the  Apostle 
of  Christ  and  the  Paraclete.  He  endeavoured 
to  engraft  Christianity  upon  the  doctrines  of 
the  Magi,  who  believed  in  the  two  principles. 
The  heresy  spread  rapidly  through  Persia, 
Iv.cypt,  and  Palestine,  ultimately  affecting  the 
whole  Roman  empire.  Mani  was  burned  alive 
by  Varanesl.  in  277.  Milman  (Lat.  Christianity, 
b.  ii.  c.  4)  remarks,  "That  sect,  in  vain  pro- 
scribed, persecuted,  deprived  of  the  privilege 
of  citizens,  placed  out  of  the  pale  of  the  law 
by  successive  Imperial  edicts  ;  under  the  ab- 
horrence not  merely  of  the  orthodox,  but  of 
almost  all  other  Christians,  were  constantly 
springing  up  in  all  quarters  of  Christendom 
with  a  singularly  obstinate  vitality."  It  ap- 
peared under  various  disguises,  and  many  of 
its  main  features  were  adopted  by  the  Pauli- 
cians  (q.  v.),  who  arose  at  Samosata.  Diocle- 
tian, in  296,  issued  severe  laws  against  the 


MANILIAN 


[    629    ] 


MANTES 


Manich&aiis,  who  were  condemned  by  several 
councils,  and  Pope  Leo  I.  ordered  their  books 
to  be  burnt  in  443.  (See  DOCET^E.) 

MAX!  LI  AN  LAW.— Caius  Manilius,  one  of 
the  tribunes  (B.C.  66),  proposed  the  revival  of  a 
law  relating  to  the  enrolment  of  Freedmen, 
which  had  been  carried  by  the  popular  party 
under  Carbo,  and  was  afterwards  repealed  by 
Sylla.  By  proposing  it  suddenly,  at  a  late 
hour  of  the  day,  when  the  majority  of  the 
citizens  were  absent  from  the  forum,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  his  object ;  but  it  was  instantly 
annulled  by  the  senate,  because  it  had  been 
illegally  passed.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  celebrated  Manilian  law,  vesting 
the  sole  management  of  the  war  against 
Tigranes  I.  and  Mithridates  VI.  in  Pompey. 
It  was  supported  by  Caesar  and  Cicero,  and 
passed  B.C.  65. 

.MANILLA  ISLANDS.— (See  PHILIPPINES.) 

MANILLA,  or  MANILA  (Indian  Archipel- 
ago).— This  city,  on  the  island  of  Luzon  (q.  v.), 
and  capital  of  the  Philippines,  was  founded  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1543.  An  expedition,  fitted 
out  at  Madras,  under  Admiral  Cornish  and  Col. 
W.  Draper,  took  the  place  Oct.  6,  1762  ;  when, 
to  save  the  rich  cargoes  that  lay  in  the  port,  a 
ransom  of  .£1,000,000  was  promised ;  an  ar- 
rangement which  the  King  of  Spain  afterwards 
refused  to  ratify.  It  was  restored  to  Spain  by 
the  peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  The  cathedral, 
commenced  in  1654,  was  completed  in  1672. 
The  royal  college  for  the  instruction  of  youths 
was  founded  by  Philip  IV.  in  1645  ;  the  bronze 
statue  of  Charles  IV.,  standing  in  the  public 
square,  was  presented  to  the  town  by  Ferdi- 
nand VII.  in  1824.  England  was  allowed  to 
trade  in  1809,  a  privilege  previously  withheld 
from  foreigners,  and  extended  to  all  nations  in 
1814.  An  earthquake  in  1645  destroyed  3,000 
lives  ;  and  others  in  1762,  1824,  and  1852,  did 
much  damage.  A  fire,  by  which  10,000  huts 
were  destroyed,  30,000  persons  rendered  home- 
less, and  50  lives  lost,  occurred  March  26,  1833. 
It  suffered  from  an  earthquake  July  3,  1863, 
which  destroyed  about  1,000  lives  and  much 
property. 

MANIS8A  (Greece),  the  ancient  Magnesia  ad 
Sipylum,  surrendered  to  the  Romans  under 
Scipio,  B.C.  190,  and  was  nearly  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake.  Tiberius  granted  funds  from 
the  treasury  to  aid  in  its  restoration  in  17. 
The  Emperor  of  Nicsea,  Theodore  II.,  died 
here  in  1258,  and  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks  in  1312. 

MANNHEIM  (Baden). —Frederick  IV.,  the 
Elector  Palatine,  enlarged  and  fortified  this 
place,  then  merely  a  village,  in  1606.  It  suf- 
fered greatly  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
The  French  captured  it  ^in  1688,  and  the  forti- 
fications were  improved  in  1699.  The  French 
besieged  Mannheim  in  1793  ;  and,  having  re- 
tired, returned  and  captured  it  Sep.  20,  1795. 
The  French  garrison  capitulated  to  the  Aus- 
trians,  Nov.  22.  Mannheim  was  again  taken, 
March  2,  1799,  by  the  French,  who  were 
expelled  by  the  Austrians  Sep.  18,  1799.  One 
portion  of  the  allied  army  passed  the  Rhine  at 
this  place  in  the  night  Dec.  31,  1813.  Mann- 
heim was  made  the  seat  of  the  electoral  court 
in  1719.  It  was  removed  to  Munich  in  1778, 


and  the  town  was  assigned  to  Baden-Baden  by 
the  treaty  of  Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801.  The 
palace,  founded  in  1720,  was  completed  in  1731, 
and  the  academy  was  founded  in  1757. 

MANOR. — In  feudal  times,  a  manor  was  a 
territorial  district,  with  jurisdiction,  rights, 
and  perquisites  thereto  belonging.  In  England 
manors  were  afterwards  called  baronies,  and 
ultimately  lordships.  Each  lord  held  a  court, 
called  Court  Baron  (q.  v.),  for  redressing 
wrongs  and  settling  disputes  among  the 
tenants.  A  writer  in  the  National  Cyclopaedia 
remarks  :  "  The  modern  English  manor  derives 
its  origin  from  subinfeudation,  as  it  existed 
before  the  modifications  of  the  system  of 
tenures  introduced  in  1215  by  Magna  Charta, 
and  the  still  more  important  alterations  made 
in  1290,  by  the  statute  '  Quia  Emptores,'  and 
in  1 324  by  the  statute  'de  Praerogativa  Regis,' 
by  which  statutes  the  granting  land  in  fee 
simple,  to  be  held  by  the  grantee  as  a  tenant 
or  vassal  to  the  grantor,  was  stopped." 

MANRESA  (Spain).— A  French  brigade  was 
cut  off  by  the  Spaniards,  near  this  town,  in 
1810.  The  French  captured  and  destroyed  it 
in  May,  1811.  The  modern  bridge  over  the 
Carbonero  was  built  in  1804. 

MANSARD,  or  MANSART  ROOF,  was 
invented  by  the  French  architect,  Francis 
Mansard,  or  Mansart  (1598 — 1666),  and  named 
after  him. 

MANSION  HOUSE  (London)  was  founded 
in  1739,  from  the  designs  of  George  Dance, 
city  surveyor.  The  use  of  the  Mansion  House, 
furniture,  carriages,  &c.,  and  an  allowance  of 
^8,000,  is  granted  to  the  Lord  Mayor  during 
the  year  that-  he  holds  the  office.  It  was  first 
occupied  in  1753,  by  Thomas  Winterbottom, 
who  died  during  his  mayoralty. 

MANS,  LE  (France),  the  capital  of  Maine, 
till  1790,  is  built  upon  the  site  of  the  Roman 
Suindinum,  which  in  the  4th  century  was 
called  Cenomani,  from  which  the  present  name 
is  derived.  Its  earlier  inhabitants,  the  Ce- 
nomani,  joined  Vercingetorix  against  Caesar, 
B.C.  52.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame  du  Prl 
dates  from  the  i  ith,  the  church  de  la  Couture 
from  the  i2th,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Julian 
from  the  i^th  century.  Henry  II.  of  England 
was  born  at  Le  Mans  in  March,  1133.  It  was 
frequently  assailed  in  the  wars  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  passed  into  the  power  of 
the  latter  in  1481.  The  church  de  1'Ancienne 
Visitation  was  opened  in  1737.  Henry  IV.  took 
it  in  1589,  and  the  Vendeans  Dec.  10,  1793,  but 
they  were  expelled  by  Marceau  Dec.  16.  The 
Chouans  took  Le  Mans  in  March,  1799. 

MANSURAH,  or  EL  MANSOORAH  (Battle). 
—The  Saracens  defeated  the  Crusaders  at  a 
great  battle  near  this  town  in  Lower  Egypt, 
the  ancient  Tanis,  April  5,  1250,  when  Louis  IX. 
was  compelled  to  purchase  peace  on  very 
humiliating  terms.  The  French  garrison  here 
was  massacred  by  the  Arabs  in  1798. 

MANTAILLE  (France).— A  council  assembled 
at  this  castle  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  Oct. 
15,  879,  conferred  the  title  of  king  on  the  Duke 
of  Boson. 

MANTES  (France).  —  William  I.,  having 
marched  with  an  army  from  Normandy  into 
France,  burned  this  town  to  the  ground  in 


MANTINEA 


[    630    ] 


MARANON 


Aug.  1087,  when  his  horse  is  said  to  have  set 
its  foot  on  some  hot  ashes,  and,  by  plunging 
violently,  bruised  its  rider  on  the  pommel  of 
his  saddle.  The  injuries  William  I.,  received 
brought  on  an  illness,  of  which  he  died  at  the 
monastery  of  St.  Gcrvas,  Sep.  9.  Bertrand  du 
Guesclin  took  it  April  7,  1364,  and  the  English 
in  1418,  who  lost  it  in  1449.  Henry  IV.  (1589 — 
1610}  destroyed  the  fortifications. 

MAXTIXKA,  or  MANTINEIA  (Greece).— 
This  city  of  Arcadia,  said  to  have  been  named 
after  Mantineus,  son  of  Lycaon,  was  founded 
by  the  inhabitants  of  four  or  five  villages  at  an 
early  period.  Mention  is  made  of  it  about  B.C. 
540  ;  and  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween Mantinea  and  Tegea,  B.C.  423.  The 
Spartans,  under  Agis  II,  defeated  the  combined 
army  of  Argives,  Mantineans,  and  Athenians, 
near  this  place,  in  June,  418  B.C.  They  were 
defeated  by  the  Spartans  B.C.  385,  and 
compelled  to  retire  frsmi  their  city,  the  walls 
of  which  were  destroyed.  They  returned 
after  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  July,  371  B.C.,  and 
began  to  rebuild  their  city.  Epaniinondas, 
the  Theban  general,  defeated  them  at  the 
second  battle  of  Mantinea,  June  27,  B.C.  362.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  action  and  died 
exclaiming,  "  I  have  lived  long  enough,  for  I 
die  uiiconquered."  The  city  was  taken  and 
pillaged,  and  the  inhabitants  were  sold  as 
slaves,  by  Antigonus  Dusun,  King  of  Mace- 
donia, B.C.  222.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  called 
Antigonea,  after  Antigonus  Doson,  and  did 
not  resume  its  former  name  until  the  time 
of  Hadrian.  In  addition  to  the  aforemen- 
tioned battles,  the  defeat  of  Archidamus  and 
the  Spartans  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  B.C. 
295  ;  the  defeat  of  the  Spartans  under  Agis  IV., 
by  Aratus  and  the  Achseans,  B.C.  242  ;  and 
the  defeat  of  the  Spartans  by  the  Achaean 
forces  under  Philopcemen,  B.  c.  207,  are  all 
known  as  battles  of  Mantinea,  because  they 
were  fought  in  a  plain  near  that  city.  It  is 
now  called  Palfeopoli. 

MAX-TRAPS  an.l  KPUING-GUN8.— By  7  & 
8  Geo.  IV.  c.  18  (May  28,  1827),  any  person 
setting  any  spring-gun,  man-trap,  or  other 
engine  calculated  to  destroy  life,  or  inflict 
grievous  bodily  harm,  was  to  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour.  The  act  did  not  extend  to 
Scotland.  By  the  fourth  clause,  spring-guns, 
&c.,  might  be  set  inside  a  dwelling-house  for 
the  protection  thereof,  from  sunset  to  sunrise. 

MANTUA  Italy;.— This  city  of  Northern 
Italy  was  founded  by  the  Etruscans  at  a  very 
early  date,  bvit  little  is  known  with  certainty 
respecting  its  ancient  history.  It  passed  under 
the  Roman  power  B.C.  197,  and  was  the  birth- 
place of  Virgil,  B.C.  70.  Its  territories  were 
distributed  among  the  veterans  of  Augustus, 
B.C.  41  ;  and  it  was  sacked  by  the  troops  of 
Vitellius  in  69.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  Mar- 
comani  in  270,  and  in  403.  It  was  taken  by 
Alaric  I.  in  408.  After  numerous  reverses  of  for- 
tune, Mantua  passed  into  the  hands  of  Louis  I. 
of  Gonzaga  in  1328;  and,  under  his  rule,  at- 
tained great  importance.  In  1392  a  con- 
federation was  signed  here  with  other  Italian 
cities,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  equilibrium 
of  Italy.  It  was  erected  into  a  marquisate  in 
1433,  and  into  a  duchy  in  1530.  Mantua  was 


erected  into  a  bishopric  in  808.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  827,  1053,  and  1067.  The  war  of 
the  Mantuaii  succession  commenced  in  1627. 
The  Imperialists  took  Mantua  July  17,  1630, 
and  the  war  ended  with  the  peace  of  Cherasco, 
signed  April  6,  1631.  In  1701  it  was  occupied 
by  the  French,  and  in  1707  was  taken  by  the 
Imperialists.  On  the  extinction  of  the  house 
of  Gonzaga  in  1708,  it  passed  into  the  power 
of  Joseph  I.  of  Austria  ;  and  in  1791  Leopold 
II.  and  the  Bourbon  emigrants  organized  a 
coalition  here  against  the  French  republic.  It 
was  taken  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  after  a 
siege  which  lasted  from  June  14,  1796,  till  Feb. 
2,  1 797,  and  erected  into  the  chief  town  of  the 
department  of  the  Mincio.  The  Austrians 
regained  possession  July  30,  1799.  It  was 
restored  to  France  in  1800,  after  the  battle  of 
Mareiigo,  and  to  Austria  in  1814.  By  the 
treaty  of  Zurich,  Nov.  10,  1859,  Mantua  and 
Peschiera  were  the  only  towns  of  Lombardy 
left  to  the  house  of  Austria,  and  these  were 
surrendered  in  Oct.  1866. 

MANTUA  (Treaties).— At  a  congress  held 
here  in  1392,  an  alliance  between  Florence, 
Hulogna,  Mantua,  and  other  Italian  states,  was 

concluded. Pius    II.,    who    remained   here 

from  May,  1459,  to  Jan.,  1460,  assembled  a  oon- 
gress,  bvit  failed  in  his  attempt  to  get  up  a 
crusade  against  the  Turks,  who  had  taken 

Constantinople. Maximilian  I.,  Julius   II., 

and  Ferdinand  IV.  entered  into  a  treaty  here 
in  1511,  respecting  Milan,  which  they  had 

wrested  from   Louis  XII. Leopold  II.  and 

the  exiled  princes  of  the  house  of  Bourbon 
met  here  in  1791,  in  order  to  form  a  coalition 
against  France. 

MAXU.— (See  MENU.) 

MAORIES,  supposed  to  be  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  New  Zealand,  have  a  tradition 
that  their  ancestors  arrived  in  the  island  in 
seven  canoes  500  years  ago.  In  1814,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  established  a  mis- 
sion for  their  conversion,  which  laboured  with 
little  effect  till  1830,  when  the  progress  of 
( 'hristiaiiity  became  very  rapid.  The  last  case 
of  cannibalism  occurred  amongst  them  in  1843. 
The  Maories  were  at  war  with  the  colonists 
from  1843  to  1847,  in  1860,  and  from  1863  to 
1864.  The  Pai  Marire  (q.  v.)  religion  arose  in 
1864.  (See  NEW  ZEALAND.) 

MAPLE. — The  scarlet  maple  was  introduced 
into  England,  from  N.  America,  before  1656, 
and  the  ash-leaved  maple  from  the  same  part 
of  the  world  before  1688. 

MAI'S  AND  CHARTS.  —  Anaximander  of 
Miletus  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  geographical 
maps,  about  B.C.  568.  The  first  maps  engraved 
on  copperplate  were  used  to  illustrate  an 
edition  of  Ptolemy's  Geography,  published  in 
1478 ;  and  the  first  maritime  charts  seen  in 
England  were  brought  by  Bartholomew  Co- 
lumbus in  1488.  Mercator's  projection  was 
invented  in  1556,  by  Gerard  Mercator,  and 
improved  in  1599  by  Wright. 

MAKACAIBO,  or  MARACAYBO  (Battle).— 
The  republicans  were  defeated  by  the  royalist 
forces  Nov.  13,  1822,  near  this  town,  in  Vene- 
zuela, at  that  time  forming  port  of  the  republic 
of  Colomb'a. 

MARANON.— (See  AMAZON.) 


MAEATHON 


t    631     ] 


MARDIA 


MARATHON  (Battles).— A  great  battle,  in 
which  the  Greeks,  under  Miltiades,  defeated 
the  Persians  and  secured  the  independence  of 
Greece,  was  fought  on  the  plain  of  Marathon, 
in  Attica,  mentioned  as  a  place  of  importance 

in  the  Homeric  poems,  Sep.  n,  B.C.  490. The 

Greeks,  during  the  war  of  independence, 
defeated  2,000  Turks  at  Marathon,  July  18, 
1824. 

MARBACH  LEAGUE.— The  Elector  of  May- 
ence,  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  several  powerful 
princes,  and  many  of  the  free  towns,  under 
pretence  of  redressing  various  wrongs  and 
abuses,  formed  a  league  at  Marbach  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  1405,  against  the  Emperor,  who  made 
some  concessions,  and  the  league  was  dis- 
solved. 

MARBLE.— Pliny  (23—79)  states  that  marble 
was  first  employed  as  a  material  for  sculpture 
by  Dipaenus  and  Scyllis,  who  were  born  in 
Crete  about  B.C.  580.  They  used  the  white 
marble  of  Pharos  in  their  works.  Crassus,  the 
orator,  B.C.  91,  was  the  first  who  used  foreign 
marble  in  his  house.  The  practice  of  staining 
marble  commenced  during  the  reign  of  Clau- 
dius I.  (41 — 54),  and  of  covering  it  with  gold 
under  Nero  (54 — 63).  It  was  very  costly  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  Edward  III.  (1327 — 77) 
paid  £10  for  a  slab  to  cover  the  grave  of 
Richard  de  Gravesend,  Bishop  of  London. 

MARBLE  ARCH  (London)  was  erected  by 
George  IV.  as  a  gateway  to  Buckingham 
Palace,  in  1830,  and  was  removed  to  Cumber- 
land Gate,  Hyde  Park,  March  29,  1851.  The 
original  cost  was  ^80,000,  and  the  expense  in- 
curred by  the  removal  amounted  to  ;£n,ooo. 

MARBURG  (Hesse-Cassel)  was  made  a  town 
in  1227,  and  was  one  of  the  residences  of  the 
Landgraves  of  Thuringia.  The  church  of  St. 
Elizabeth,  commenced  in  1235,  was  not  com- 
pleted until  1283.  The  Landgrave  Philip 
founded  the  first  Lutheran  university  at  this 
town  in  1527.  A  conference  was  held  in  its 
castle  between  Luther,  Melancthon,  and  other 
German  reformers,  Oct.  1-3,  1529.  The  botan- 
ical garden  was  formed  in  1530.  The  French, 
who  captured  Marburg  June  3,  1759,  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  Austrians  Sep.  n.  The  French 
took  it  again  in  1760 ;  and  the  garrison,  assailed 
by  the  Austrians  without  success  in  1761,  was 
compelled  to  surrender  in  1762.  The  French 
destroyed  its  fortifications  in  1807.  (See 


MARCH. — The  third  month  in  the  year  was 
named  Martius  by  the  Romans,  after  the  god 
Mars.  The  Anglo-Saxons  called  it  Hlyd  Monath, 
i.e.  stormy  month.  The  old  proverb,  ' '  A  bushel 
of  March  dust  is  worth  a  monarch's  ransom," 
expresses  the  value  formerly  attached  to  a 
dry  March.  (See  FIELD  OF  MARCH.) 

MARCHES,  or  country  lying  near  the  marks 
or  boundaries  of  two  kingdoms,  often  had 
peculiar  rights  and  customs.  Edward  I.,  in 
1296,  appointed  a  lord  warden  of  the  Marches 
to  guard  the  border  against  invasions  by  the 
Scotch.  The  authority  of  the  lords  of  the 
marches,  called  lords  marchers,— whence  the 
title  marquis, — between  England  and  Wales, 
was  abolished  by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  26  (1536). 
The  Court  of  the  Marches  of  Wales  was 
abolished  by  i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  27  (ifiSg^. 


MARCHFELD  (Battle).  —  Ottocar  II.,  of 
Bohemia,  was  defeated  and  killed  in  this 
battle,  fought  on  the  plain  of  the  Marchfeld, 
near  Vienna,  by  Rodolph  I.,  Aug.  26,  1278. 

MARCHIONESS.— The  title  of  marchioness 
was  bestowed  upon  Lady  Anne  Rochfort  in 
1532,  and  she  was  invested  at  Windsor,  Sunday, 
Sep.  i. 

MARCIANISTS,  a  branch  of  the  Euchites, 
or  Messalians,  and  a  distinct  sect  from  the 
Marcionites,  were  thus  named  from  Marcianus 
Trapezita,  who,  in  the  time  of  Justinian  I. 
(527 — 565),  observed  the  Sabbath  as  a  fast. 

MARCIANOPOLIS  (Mcesia),  named  after 
Marciana,  the  sister  of  Trajan  (98 — 117),  who 
built  it  in  her  honour,  was  the  capital  of  the 
second  Mcesia.  The  Goths  assailed  it  in  the 
3rd  century,  but,  on  the  payment  of  tribute, 
retired.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Bulgaria, 
and  was  frequently  besieged. 

MARCIONITES.— A  sect  of  heretics  founded 
by  Marcion,  said  to  have  been  a  sailor,  son  of 
the  Bishop  of  Sinope,  about  150.  He  held  that 
there  were  three  original  principles.  His  fol- 
lowers were  the  forerunners  of  the  Mani- 
chseans.  They  admitted  no  married  persons 
to  their  baptism,  requiring  all  candidates  to 
be  either  virgins,  widows,  bachelors,  or  di- 
vorced persons.  Marcion  held  it  lawful  to  re- 
peat baptism  three  times  for  the  remission  of 
sins.  Tertullian  wrote  against  this  heresy  in 
207,  and  it  was  not  extinct  till  the  6th  century. 
(See  CERDONIANS  and  DOCET^E.) 

MARCODURUM.—  (See  DUREN.) 

MARCOMANNI.— The  name  Marc-o-manni, 
i.e.  Men  of  the  Marches,orFrontier,or  Borderers, 
was  given  by  the  Romans  to  various  tribes  on  the 
confines  of  Germany.  Some  hordes  under  this 
name  were  driven  out  of  Gaul- by  Julius  Caesar, 
B.C.  58.  Marobodnus  formed  a  league  amongst 
these  tribes,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  Tibe- 
rius (afterwards  emperor)  in  the  year  6.  The 
Cherusci  defeated  the  Marcomanni  in  17,  and  a 
peace  was  mediated  between  them  by  Drusus. 
Domitian  made  war  upon  them,  and  was  de- 
feated in  90.  In  alliance  with  other  tribes  they 
invaded  the  Roman  empire  in  166,  when  a  war 
commenced,  which  was  not  brought  to  a  close 
until  1 80.  They  ravaged  Italy  in  270.  The 
last  notice  of  the  Marcomanni  is  in  451,  when 
they  formed  a  contingent  of  the  army  with 
wfiich  Attila  invaded  Gaul  and  Italy. 

MARCOSIANS.— The  followers  of  Marcus 
and  Calarbasus,  who  adopted  the  Valentinian 
system,  and  are  said  to  have  anointed  their 
dead,  arose  in  the  2nd  century. 

MARCOU,  or  MARCOUF,  ST.  (English  Chan- 
nel.)— These  islands,  off  the  coast  of  France, 
were  taken  by  the  English  in  1795.  The  small 
garrison  repulsed  an  attack  made  by  a  flotilla 
of  French  gunboats,  May  7,  1798.  The  English 
lost  one  man  killed  and  four  wounded,  whilst 
the  French  admitted  a  loss  of  several  hundred 
in  killed  and  wounded.  These  islands  were 
restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens, 
March  25,  1802. 

MARCOUSSIS  (Treaty),  between  Louis  XII. 
and  Ferdinand  V.,  by  which  all  differences  be- 
tween France  and  Spain  were  arranged,  was 
concluded  at  Marcoussis,  Aug.  5,  1498. 

MARDIA  (Battle).— Constantine  I.  defeated 


MARENGO 


[    632    ] 


MARINER'S 


his  rival  Licinius,  in  this  plain,  in  Thrace,  ii 
315.  In  consequence  of  this  defeat,  Licinius 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  Constantino  I.  in 
Dec.,  315.  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egyp 
were  assigned  to  Licinius. 

MARENGO  (Battle).— The  Austrian  arm 
under  Melas  was  totally  defeated  by  the  French 
at  this  village,  near  Alessandria  (q.  v.),  in  Italy 
June  14,  1 800.  The  Austrians  had  defeated 
their  antagonists  at  all  points,  and  Napoleor 
Buonaparte  was  about  to  order  a  retreat,  when 
Desaix,  who  was  killed  in  the  moment  of  vie 
tory,  counselled  further  resistance,  and  Keller 
maun  by  a  brilliant  charge  changed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  day.  A  pageant,  representing  the 
battle,  was  held  on  thin  plain,  in  presence  01 
Napoleon  I.,  the  empress,  and  a  large  assem 
blage  of  spectators,  in  1805. 

MARGARITA  (Caribbean  Sea).— This  island 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498. 

MARGATE  ;Kent).— The  name  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  Meregate,  on  account  of  the 
hollow  between  two  hills  in  which  the  town  is 
situated.  Bathing-machines  were  introduced 
about  1790.  The  first  stone  of  the  General 
Sea-Bathing  Infirmary  was  laid  June  21,  1792, 
and  Trinity  church  wa-s  erected  in  1825. 

MARGUS,  MORGUM,  or  MURGl 
ties). — Carinus,  who  disputed  the  empire  with 
Diocletian,  was  defeated  and  slain  near  this 
city  of  Mcesia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Margus 
and  the  Danube,  in  May,  285.  The  Goths 
defeated  a  Human  army  under  Sabinian  at 
Margus,  in  505.  Its  site  is  occupied  by  i'assa- 
rowitz. 

MARIA  ISLAND  (Pacific)  was  discovered  by 
Tasman  in  1642. 

MARIA  LOUISA  (Order),  of  Spain,  was 
founded  in  17^2  fur  ladies  only. 

MARIAN  PERSECUTION  commenced  in 
Jan.,  1555,  when  30  persons  found  using  the 
service-book  of  Edward  VI.  were  .seized  and 
imprisoned.  Rogei-s  was  burned  at  the  stake 
in  Smithfield,  Feb.  4,  and  Hooper,  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  at  Gloucester,  Feb.  9.  Justices  of 
the  peace  were  ordered  to  search  for  heretics, 
and  many  persons  were  apprehended  and  exe- 
cuted, 13  having  been  burned  at  Srnithfield, 
June  27.  Ridley  and  Latimer,  condemned 
as  obstinate  heretics,  were  burned  at  Oxford, 
Oct.  16.  Cranraer  suffered  in  the  same  manner 
at  Oxford,  March  21,  1556.  According  to  the 
lowest  estimate,  500  persons,  belonging  to 
the  clergy  and  the  laity,  suffered  during  this 
persecution,  which  terminated  at  the  death  of 
Mary,  Nov.  17,  1558.  Above  1,000  persons 
sought  refuge  in  Germany  and  Switzerland 
whilst  the  persecution  lasted. 

MARIA  THERESA  (Order),  of  Austria,  was 
founded  in  1757. 

MARIE-GALANTE  (Caribbean  Sea).— This 
island,  discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus 
in  1493,  and  named  after  his  ship,  was  settled 
by  the  French  in  1647. 

BCABIBNBEBG  (Saxony).  -This  town,  cele- 
brated for  its  iron  and  silver  mines,  was 
founded  by  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  in  1519. 

MARIENBURG  (Belgium),  built  in  1542, 
was  taken  in  1554  by  the  French,  and  restored 
by  them  in  1559  to  the  Spaniards,  who  ceded 
it  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1659.  The  French,  who 


took  it  in  1814,  were  expelled  in  1815,  and  its 
fortifications  were  demolished  in  1849. 

MARlENBURG(Prussia).— Thegrand  master 
and  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who 
had  a  fortress  here  in  1274,  removed  their  seat 
from  Venice  to  this  town  in  1309.  A  k 
Prussian  cities,  called  the  Convention  of  Ma- 
rienburg,  was  formed  in  1436.  The  Teutonic 
knights  compelled  the  Prussians  to  dissolve 
this  league.  The  Poles  having  assailed  the 
castle  unsuccessfully  in  1410  and  1420,  cap- 
tured it  in  1457.  The  Swedes  captured  it  in 
1626  and  1655.  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland,  took  it 
in  1460.  The  castle,  which  had  fallen  into  de- 
cay, and  the  palace  were  restored  by  the  King 
of  Prussia  in  1820. 

MARIENBURG  (Treaty),  concluded  at  this 
town,  in  Brandenburg,  between  Charles  X. 
of  Sweden  and  Frederick  William,  PJlector  of 
Brandenburg,  June  15,  1656,  was  an  offensive 
and  defensive  alliance,  formed  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  against  Poland. 

MARIENWERDER  (Prussia).— The  Prussian 
cities  of  the  province  having  formed  a  league 
against  the  Teutonic  knights,  in  1440,  trans- 
ferred their  allegiance  to  the  King  of  Poland 
in  1454.  The  capital,  of  the  same  name,  was 
founded  by  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1233,  and 
the  cathedral  was  commenced  in  1255,  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Eugene  de  Beauharnaia  was 
surprised  by  the  forces  of  Wittgenstein,  and 
suffered  a  severe  defeat,  Jan.  12,  1813. 

MARIETTA  (N.  America;,  founded  by 
colonists  from  New  England,  in  1788,  was 
named  after  Marie  Antoinette.  The  college 
was  founded  in  1832. 

MARKJXANO,  or  MALI  :<  JNAXO  (Battles).— 
Francis  t.  defeated  an  allied  German,  Italian, 
and  Swiss  army,  under  the  command  of  Maxi- 
milian I.,  at  this  village,  near  Milan,  Sep.  13 
and  14,  1515.  After  this  victory,  Bayard  was 
knighted  by  the  French  king.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  battle  of  the  Giants  and  of  St. 

Donato. A  second  encounter  near  the  same 

place,  is  better  known  as  the  battle  of  1'avia. 

The  French  and  Sardinians  defeated  the 

Austrians  here,  June  8,  1859. 

MARINE  INSURANCE.— (See  INSURANCE.) 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.—  The  Chinese  are 
said  to  have  used  this  instrument  as  early  as 
B.C.  2634,  though  their  written  records  of  the 
properties  of  the  loadstone  only  date  from  125. 
[11  their  great  dictionary  Poi-weii-yeu-fou,  it  is 
said  to  have  been  used  265—419.  The  precise 
;imo  at  which  it  was  introduced  into  Europe 
s  very  uncertain,  but  it  was  known  at  a  much 
earlier  period  than  is  generally  supposed, 
and  is  noticed  in  a  French  satire,  La  Bible, 
written  by  Guyot  de  Provins  about  1190.  It 
s  described  by  Bailak-Kibdjaki  in  1242,  as 
icing  in  use  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  is  noticed 
>y  Brunetto  Latinl  in  1260.  Some  authorities 
nsist  that  Marco  Polo  brought  the  instrument 
Tom  China  in  1260,  while  others  claim  the 
lonour  of  its  invention  for  Flavio  Gioja,  a  sea- 
nan  of  Amalphi,  near  Naples.  Flavio  Gioja, 
11  1310,  attached  a  card  to  the  needle,  and  thus 
>btained  the  credit  of  the  invention,  and  as  he 
applied  the  Mediterranean  sailors,  the  inven- 
ion  came  into  more  general  use.  The  declina- 
ion  of  the  magnetic  needle  was  discovered  by 


MARINES 


C    633    ] 


MARYBOROUGH 


Columbus  in  1492,  the  dip  of  the  needle  by 
Robert  Normand,  of  Wapping,  in  1576,  and  the 
variation  of  the  declination  by  Gellibrand  in 
1625.  The  Liverpool  compass  committee  was 
formed  in  1854.  (See  MAGNETISM.) 

MARINES  were  first  established  as  a  nursery 
to  man  the  fleet  by  an  order  in  council,  Oct. 
1 6,  1664.  The  third  regiment  of  the  line  was 
called  the  Marine  regiment  in  1684.  In  the 
reign  of  William  III.  the  soldiers  on  the  navy 
establishment  seem  to  have  been  put  in  train- 
ing as  seamen.  Marines  were  regularly  estab- 
lished in  1698,  and  six  regiments  were  raised 
in  1702.  On  the  recommendation  of  Lord 
Anson,  130  companies  were  raised  and  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  Admiralty  in  1755. 
The  title  "Royal"  was  bestowed  upon  the 
corps  by  George  III.,  May  i,  1802.  as  a  mark 
of  approbation  for  their  services  during  the 
war. 

MARINO,  SAN  (Italy).— A  hermit  named 
Marinus,  who  had  been  a  mason,  came  from 
Dalmatia,  and  settled  in  this  locality  in  469, 
and  at  his  death  a  church  was  built,  and  a  vil- 
lage gradually  formed.  It  had  become  a  walled 
town,  and  was  called  Plebs  Santi  Marini  cum 
Castello,  in  the  loth  century  ;  and  the  com- 
mune of  San  Marino  purchased  some  neigh- 
bouring lands  from  the  lords  of  Urbino,  in  the 
1 2th  century.  In  the  civil  wars  between  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  the  people  sided  with 
the  latter,  for  which  they  were  excommuni- 
cated by  Innocent  IV.  (1243 — 1254).  Called 
upon  to  pay  taxes  to  the  papal  government 
aboiit  the  end  of  the  i4th  century,  they  re- 
fused, and  on  reference  of  the  dispute  to  a 
judge  of  Rimini,  decision  was  given  in  their 
favour;  from  which  period  San  Marino  has 
been  acknowledged  as  an  independent  state. 
This  independence  was  respected  by  Napoleon 
I.,  and  confirmed  by  Pius  VII.  on  his  restora- 
tion in  1814. 

MARIOLATRY.— The  worship  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  practised  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
founded  on  the  salutation  of  the  Angel  Ga- 
briel, and  Mary's  exclamation  in  the  Magni- 
ficat (Luke  i.  48),  was  not  known  in  the 
first  ages  of  Christianity.  The  Collyridians 
(q.  v.}  were  condemned  for  their  adoration  of 
the  Virgin  towards  the  end  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. Mary  was  declared  to  be  the  mother  of 
God  by  the  third  general  council  assembled  in 
the  Church  of  the  Mother  of  God,  at  Ephesus, 
in  431.  Mosheim  (b.  iii.  pt.  ii.  ch.  iv.  s.  3), 
commenting  on  the  loth  century,  says  :  "  The 
worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  previously 
had  been  extravagant,  was  in  this  century 
carried  much  further  than  before.  Not  to 
mention  other  things  less  certain,  I  observe, 
first,  that  near  the  close  of  this  century,  the 
custom  became  prevalent  among  the  Latins, 
of  celebrating  masses,  and  abstaining  from 
flesh,  on  Saturdays,  in  honour  of  St.  Mary. 
In  the  next  place,  the  daily  office  of  St.  Mary, 
which  the  Latins  call  the  Lesser  Office,  was 
introduced ;  and  it  was  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Urban  II.  in  the  Council  of  Clermont. 
Lastly,  pretty  distinct  traces  of  the  Rosary 
and  Crown  of  St.  Mary,  as  they  are  called,  or 
of  praying  according  to  a  numerical  arrange- 
ment, are  to  be  found  in  this  century.  For 


they  who  tell  us  that  St.  Dominic  invented  the 
Rosary,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  do  not  offer 
satisfactory  proof  of  their  opinion.  The  Ros- 
ary consisted  of  fifteen  repetitions  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  salutations 
of  St.  Mary :  and  what  the  Latins  called  the 
Crown  of  St.  Mary,  consisted  of  six  or  seven, 
repetitions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  sixty  or 
seventy  salutations,  according  to  the  age  as- 
cribed by  different  authors  to  the  holy  Virgin." 
(See  ANNUNCIATION,  ASSUMPTION,  CANDLEMAS 
DAY,  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,  INVOCATION  OF 
SAINTS,  NATIVITY,  &c.) 
MARISCHAL. -(See  EARL  MARISCHAL.) 
MARISCHAL  COLLEGE.— (See  ABERDEEN.) 
MARK. — An  old  gold  coin  in  England,  value 
138.  40!.,  bore  this  name.  The  silver  mark 
seems  to  have  originated  in  Denmark,  and  was 
long  current  on  the  continent,  especially 
amongst  the  northern  nations.  James  VI. 
(1567 — 1603)  of  Scotland  coined  a  two-mark 
piece,  a  balance-mark,  and  a  half-mark,  in 
silver.  Previous  to  his  accession  to  the  British 
throne,  he  had  two  sets  of  thistle-marks,  so 
named  from  the  thistle  on  the  reverse,  and  half - 
marks  struck.  These  seem  to  have  been  the  last 
coins  of  this  name  struck  in  Great  Britain. 
MARK-DUREN.— (See  DUREN.) 
MARKETS,  held  in  former  times  chiefly  on 
Sundays  and  holidays,  as  the  people  then  as- 
sembled for  divine  service,  were  forbidden  to 
be  held  in  churchyards  by  13  Edw.  I.  c.  5 
(1285).  By  27  Hen.  VI.  c.  5  (1448),  Sunday 
markets,  except  on  the  four  Sundays  in  har- 
vest, were  prohibited ;  and  by  29  Charles  II. 
c.  7  (1677),  markets  were  declared  illegal  on 
any  Sunday.  (See  FORUM,  and  List  in  INDEX.) 

MARK,  ST.  (Gospel),  is  supposed  by  the  best 
authorities  to  have  been  written  between  60 
and  63,  by  John,  whose  surname  was  Mark 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25),  the  cousin  of  Barnabas.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Coptic 
Church,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Alexandria,  about  66. 

MARK'S,  ST.  (Venice),  considered  the  finest 
Byzantine  church  in  Western  Europe,  was 
built  between  977  and  1043,  the  original  church 
having  been  destroyed  in  976.  The  foundation- 
stone  came  into  possession  of  Mr.  Douce  in 
1834,  and  is  preserved  in  the  Doucean  Mu- 
seum, Goodrich  Court,  Herefordshire.  Ho- 
well,  in  his  letters,  mentions  a  huge  iron  chest 
as  tall  as  himself,  which  he  saw  in  the  trea- 
sury, with  a  crevice  for  receiving  the  gold, 
bequeathed  to  the  saint,  in  1619.  The  Emperor 
Frederick  I.  and  Pope  Alexander  III.  met  here, 
when  a  proclamation  of  peace  was  made  with 
much  ceremony,  July  24,  1177. 

MARLBOROUGH  (Wiltshire)  received  its 
first  charter  in  1205.  A  parliament  met  here 
Nov.  1 8,  1267,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  when 
the  statutes  of  "  Marleberg  "  were  made,  which 
have  since  been  constantly  received  as  the  law 
of  the  land.  The  grammar-school  was  founded 
by  Edward  VI.  in  1551,  and  the  college,  for  the 
education  of  500  pupils,  sons  of  clergymen  and 
others,  was  incorporated  in  1843.  ($>ee  BERAK- 
BIRIG,  Battle.) 

MARLBOROUGH     CLUB     (London)     was 
founded  in  1864  and  closed  in  1866. 
MARLBOROUGH    HOUSE    (London)    was 


MARMANDE 


[    634    ] 


MARRIAGE 


built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  for  the  great 
Duke  of  Maryborough,  in  1709-10,  and  WHS 
bought  by  the  Crown  as  a  residence  for  the 
Princess  Charlotte  and  Prince  Leopold  in 
1817.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Queen  Dowager 
Adelaide,  Dec.  2,  1849,  Marlborongh  House 
was  used  for  the  Vernon  gallery  of  paintings. 
These  were  removed,  and  it  was  prepared  for 
the  residence  of  the  Prince  and  Princess  "of 
Wales,  on  their  marriage  in  1863. 

MAHMAXDE  (France).— This  ancient  town 
is  said  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Goths, 
and  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  8th 
century.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1185  by  Richard  I. 
of  England,  and  captured  by  Simon  De  Mont- 
fort  in  1212,  and  by  Amaury  De  Montfort  in 
1219.  The  English  took  it  in  1427.  It  was 
besieged  by  Henry  of  Navarre  in  1577,  and  by 
(Jonde"  in  1652. 

MARONITES.— Gibbon  (ch.  xlvii.)  asserts: 
— "  In  the  style  of  the  Oriental  Christians,  the 
Monothelites  of  every  age  are  described  under 
the  appellation  of  Maronites,  a  name  which 
has  been  insensibly  transferred  from  a  hermit 
to  a  monastery,  from  a  monastery  to  a  nation. 
Maron,  a  saint  or  savage  of  the  5th  century, 
displayed  his  religious  madness  in  Syria  ;  the 
rival  cities  of  Apamea  and  L'mesa  disputed  his 
relics,  a  stately  church  was  erected  on  his 
tomb,  and  600  of  his  disciples  united  their 
solitary  cells  on  the  banks  of  the  Orontes." 
The  subject  is  involved  in  obscurity;  but  the 
truth  appears  to  be,  that  John  Maro,  or  Maron, 
a  monk,  founded  several  convents  on  Mount 
Lebanon  during  the  5th  century.  He  main- 
tained the  independence  of  his  followers,  and 
assi  nned  the  title  "  Patriarch  of  Antioch." 
His  followers  became  infected  with  the  .Mono- 
thelite  doctrines  in  the  7th  century,  and  were 
from  that  time  called  Maronites,  and  regarded 
as  a  distinct  sect.  They  renounced  the  Mono- 
thelite  doctrines  in  1182,  and  were  readmitted 
into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  They  yielded, 
however,  only  a  modified  obedience  to  Home, 
and  have  frequently  been  subjected  to  severe 
persecutions.  A  college  for  the  education  of 
the  Maronite  clergy  was  founded  at  Rome  in 
1585,  and  they  accepted  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  in  1736.  A  large  number  of 
the  Maronite  Christians  were  massacred  by  the 
Druses  (q.  v.),  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Keyrout 
and  Lebanon,  in  May  and  June,  1860,  and  from 
1,000  to  2,000  were  killed  in  the  streets  of 
Damascus,  July  9.  The  remarks  of  Gibbon 
hold  good,  that  "the  humble  nation  of  the 
Maronites  has  survived  the  empire  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  they  still  enjoy,  under  their 
Turkish  masters,  a  free  religion  and  a  miti- 
gated servitude." 

MAROONS. — When  Spain  was  dispossessed 
of  Jamaica  (q.  v.)  by  the  English,  May  3,  1655, 
the  slaves  belonging  to  the  Spaniards  betook 
themselves  to  the  mountains,  and,  recruited 
by  runaways,  soon  became  formidable  under 
the  name  of  Maroons.  Gen.  Trelawney,  in 
1738,  succeeded  in  making  an  arrangement  by 
which  they  were  confined  to  certain  localities. 
A  rebellion  broke  otit  amongst  them  in  1795, 
which  was  suppressed  March  21,  1796,  and  600 
of  the  insurgents  were  transported  to  Nova 
Scotia,  350  of  whom  were  removed  to  Sierra 


Leone  in  Oct.,   1800,  at  a  cost  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  ,£5,903  igs.  8c£. 

MAROUGA  (Battle).  — The  Roman  army, 
led  by  Julian,  on  their  retreat  from  Assyria, 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Marouga  in  363. 

MAR-PRELATE  TRACTS.— The  first  of  these 
tracts,  under  the  name  of  Martin  Mar- Prelate, 
was  printed  at  a  movable  press,  and  appeared 
n  1588.  A  letter,  instructing  the  archbishop 
to  find  out  and  commit  to  prison  the  authors 
and  printers,  was  issued  by  the  council  in 
Nov.,  1588.  John  Penry,  a  Welshman,  exe- 
cuted May  29,  1593,  for  writing  a  pamphlet, 
was  suspected  of  having  assisted  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  these  libels  upon  the  prelacy.  They 
have  also  been  attributed  to  Throgmorton, 
to  Udal,  and  to  Fenner. 

MARQUE.— (See  LETTERS  OF  MARQUE.) 

MARQUESAS,  or  MENDANA  ISLANDS 
(South  Pacific  Ocean),  were  discovered  by 
Alvaro  de  Meudaua  in  1595,  who  named  them 
in  honour  of  the  Marquis  of  Mendoza,  Viceroy 
of  Peru.  Hood's  Island,  one  of  the  group,  was 
discovered  by  Capt.  Cook,  April  6,  1776,  and 
several  others  by  the  Americans  in  1797.  The 
Mniiiti-iif  announced,  Dec.  20,  1842,  that  they 
had  been  taken  in  the  name  of  the  King  of 
the  French.  With  the  exception  of  three — 
Huahine,  Raiatea,  and  Borabora  —  they  were 
placed  under  the  protectorate  of  France,  June 
19,  1847,  and  a  project  formed  by  the  French 
in  1850,  of  making  one  of  them  a  penal  settle- 
ment, was  abandoned. 

MARQUIS.— The  title  of  marquis  is  derived 
from  the  lords  marchers,  appointed  to  guard 
the  marches,  or  boundary  lauds,  who  were 
suppressed  by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  26  (1536).  In 
the  time  of  Edward  III.  a  foreign  nobleman, 
the  Marquis  of  Juliers,  was  made  an  English 
peer,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Cambridge  ;  and 
Richard  II.  created  Robert  de  Vere  Marquis  of 
Dublin  in  1385,  he  being  the  first  English 
peer  who  bore  the  title.  Winchester,  created 
in  1551,  is  the  most  ancient  in  exi 
The  Marquis  of  Huntly  and  the  Marquis  of 
Hamilton,  created  in  1599,  were  the  first  who 
bore  the  title  in  Scotland.  The  practice  of 
granting  it  as  a  second  title  to  a  dukedom  was 
adopted  after  1689. 

MARRIAGE.— The  institution  of  marriage 
is  usually  referred  to  Gen.  ii.  21-25,  when  God, 
in  the  garden  of  Eden,  gave  Eve  to  Adam  as 
his  wife.  This  view  of  the  subject  is  con- 
firmed by  the  answer  given  by  Christ  to  the 
Pharisees,  in  29  (Mark  x.  6— 10).  Among  the 
ancient  Greeks  the  nuptials  were  celebrated 
with  various  ceremonies ;  but  no  record  was 
kept  of  their  solemnization,  and  the  only  proof 
of  their  having  taken  place  was  afforded  by 
the  guests  who  were  present  at  the  wedding 
feast.  The  social  position  of  wives  among  the 
Greeks  was  extremely  low,  sterility  being 
esteemed  in  some  states  a  sufficient  cause  for 
separation.  Among  the  Romans  no  forms 
were  requisite,  though  certain  ceremonies 
were  usually  observed.  The  Lex  Julia  et  Lex 
Papia  Poppaia,  passed  B.C.  18  and  A.D.  9, 
placed  certain  restrictions  respecting  the 
parties  between  whom  marriages  might  be 
contracted.  Roman  wives  were  treated  with 
great  consideration.  They  presided  over  the 


MARRIAGE 


[    635    ] 


MARSEILLE 


education  of  the  children,  conducted  the 
household,  and  shared  in  the  honour  and 
respect  shown  to  their  husbands. 

A.D. 

335.  Ecclesiastics  are   forbidden  to  marry    after    ordi- 
nation by  the  Council  of  Nicsea. 
366.  Marriage  during  Lent  is  prohibited  by  the  Council 

of  Laodicea. 

692.  Bishops  are  prohibited  from  marrying. 
731.  The   Council  of  Koine  defines  the  degrees  of  con- 
sanguinity within  which  marriage  is  unlawful. 
868,  May  16.  The  Canons  of  Worms  prohibit  the  clergy 
from  marrying. 

1073 — 85.  Priests  are  compelled  to  take  the  vow  of  celi- 
bacy. 

1100 — 1200.  Matrimony  is  first  mentioned  as  a  sacrament. 

1199.  Innocent  III.  orders  the  marriage  ceremony  to  be 
solemnized  in  churches. 

1533.  Bishops  are  empowered  to  grant  licences  for  marry- 
ing without  banns. 

1538.  A  proclamation  is  issued  in  England  enforcing 
clerical  celibacy. 

1545 — 1563.  The  Council  of  Trent  includes  marriage 
amongst  the  seven  sacraments. 

1549.  The  marriage  of  the  clergy  is  permitted  by  3  &  3 
Edw.  VI.  c.  21. 

1554.  The  married  clergy  who  do  not  separate  from  their 
wives  are  expelled. 

1695,  May  i.  A  duty  on  a  somewhat  similar  scale  to  that 
adopted  in  the  tax  upon  births  (q.  i-.)  is  imposed 
upon  marriages  by  6  &  7  Will.  III.  &  Mary,  c.  6. 

1754,  March  I.  Clandestine  marriages  are  prohibited  by 
36  Geo.  II.  c.  33  (Lord  Hardvvicke's  act). 

1773.  The  Royal  Marriage  Act  (13  Geo.  III.  c.  2)  prohibits 
the  descendants  of  George  II.,  unless  of  foreign 
birth,  from  contracting  any  marriage  without  the 
royal  consent,  until  they  attain  the  age  of  25 
years.  After  that  age  the  consent  of  Parliament 
is  necessaiy. 

1808,  July  2.  By  48  Geo.  III.  c.  149,  a  stamp-duty  of  los. 
is  imposed  upon  every  licence  for  marriage,  and 
of  £4  for  every  special  licence. 

1833,  July  23.  The  act  of  1754  is  amended  by  3  Geo.  IV. 
c.  75,  which  limits  the  right  of  granting  licences 
to  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York. 

1833,  March  36.  Certain  provisions  of  the  act  of  1833  are 
repealed  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  17. — July  18.  Former 
laws  are  repealed  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  76,  which  re- 
quires a  religious  ceremony  as  essential  to  the 
marriage  contract. 

1836,  Aug.    17.  Marriages  are  (by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  85) 

made  legal  without  a  religious  ceremony,  by 
registrar's  certificate,  or  in  dissenting  chapels. 
They  are  ordered  to  be  registered  by  6  &  7  Will. 
IV.  c.  86. 

1837,  June  30.  The  marriage  acts  are  amended  by  I  Viet. 

c.  33. 
1840,  Aug.  7.  Provisions  are  made  (by  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  73) 

for  solemnizing  marriages  near  the  residence  of 

the  contracting  parties. 
1856,  July   39.    The  marriage  and  registration   acts  are 

amended  by  I9,&  20  Viet.  c.  119.      (See  DIVOKCE.) 
1858,  July  3.  The  bill  for   authorizing  marriage  with  a 

deceased   wife's    sister    passes    the    Commons. — 

July  23.  It  is  rejected  by  the  Lords. 
1862,  Feb.  19.  The  bill  for  authorizing  marriage  with  a 

deceased  wife's  sister  passes  the  second  reading 

in  the  House    of    Commons. — March    12.    It    is 

thrown  out  on  the  motion  to  go  into  committee. 

(See  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  AND  MARRIAGES,  and 
REGISTRATION  OF  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  AND  MAR- 
RIAGES.) 

MARRIAGE  LAW  REFORM  INSTITUTION 
(London),  for  the  purpose  of  legalizing  mar- 
riage with  a  deceased  wife's  sister,  was  founded 
Jan.  it;,- 1851. 

MARROW  CONTROVERSY,  respecting  a 
book  entitled  "  Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity," 
written  by  Edward  Fisher,  a  Puritan  soldier, 
and  published  in  1646.  It  was  republished  in 
1717  by  the  Rev.  J.  Hog,  who  issued  an  ex- 
planatory pamphlet  in  1719.  A  committee 
appointed  by  the  General  Assembly  presented 


their  report  in  1720  condemning  the  book,  and 
ordering  the  people  not  to  read  it.  This  pro- 
duced a  protest,  signed  by  twelve  ministers, 
called  the  "Twelve  Brethren,"  the  "  Repre- 
senters,"  and  the  "Marrow  Men,"  presented 
to  the  General  Assembly  in  1721.  Another 
committee  was  appointed,  and  it  condemned 
the  Marrow  men,  who  were  called  before  the 
bar  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1722,  and 
rebuked. 

MARRUCINI.— This  nation,  of  Sabine  origin, 
frequently  in  alliance  with  the  Marsi  and 
Peligni,  became  allies  of  the  Romans,  B.C.  304. 
During  the  Social  war  (q.  v.)  they  revolted, 
and  about  the  end  of  B.C.  89  they  were  de- 
feated and  their  territory  ravaged  by  Sul- 
picius,  Pompey's  lieutenant,  and  they  were 
afterwards  reduced  to  submission  by  Pompey 
himself,  B.C.  52.  They  revolted  against  An- 
tonius  B.C.  43. 

MARSAILLE,  or  MARSAGLIA  (Battle).— 
Marshal  Catinat  defeated  Victor  Amadeus  and 
Prince  Eugene  near  this  town,  between  Pig- 
nei-ol  and  Turin,  in  Piedmont,  Oct.  4,  1693.  It 
is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Orbazzano. 

MARSALA  (Sicily),  the  ancient  Lilybseum 
(q.  v.),  was  restored  by  the  Saracens,  who  es- 
teemed its  harbour  so  highly  that  they  called 
it  Marsa  Alia,  i.e.  the  port  or  harbour  of  God. 
In  the  1 6th  century  the  harbour  was  blocked 
up  with  a  mound  of  sunken  rocks,  by  order  of 
Charles  V.,  to  protect  it  from  the  Barbary 
corsairs.  Garibaldi  selected  it  as  a  landing- 
place  on  his  invasion  of  Sicily  in  1860. 

MARSEILLAISE.— This  celebrated  repub- 
lican hymn  was  composed  by  Rouget  de  Lille, 
a  French  officer  of  engineers,  whilst  quartered 
at  Strasburg,  in  Feb.,  1792.  It  was  called 
the  Marseillaise,  because  a  body  of  troops  on 
their  march  from  Marseilles  entered  Paris  in 
July,  1792,  playing  the  tune,  at  that  time 
little  known  in  the  capital.  The  author,  who 
had  fallen  in  love  with  the  daughter  of  Diet- 
rich, mayor  of  Strasburg,  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed the  verses  in  a  single  night,  and  to  have 
repeated  them  the  following  morning  to  the 
young  girl,  to  whom  he  was  passionately  at- 
tached. Alison  calls  the  Marseillaise  hymn 
the  "Rule  Britannia"  of  the  Revolution. 

MARSEILLE,  or  MARSEILLES  (France), 
the  ancient  Massalia,  called  by  the  Romans 
Massilia,  was  founded  by  the  Phocseans,  B.C. 
600. 

B.C. 

543.  A  second  colony  settles  at  Massalia. 

2i8.  The  inhabitants  assist  the  Romans  in  the  second 

Punic  war. 
154.  They  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Romans  against  the 

Deceates  and  Oxybii. 
49.  The  people  refuse  to  admit  Julius  Csesar  within  the 

gates,  and  the  place  is  besieged  and  captured. 
A.D. 

409.  Cassian  founds  two  abbeys. 
470    Euric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  takes  Marseilles. 
839.  It  is  plundered  bv  the  Saracens. 
1190.  Richard  I.  of   England  embarks   at  Marseilles  for 

the  Holy  Land. 

1314.  Marseilles  is  erected  into  an  independent  republic. 
1351.  It  passes  under  the  dominion    of    the  counts    of 

Provence. 

1433.  It  is  sacked  by  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon. 
1481.  It  is  reunited  to  the  French  crown. 
1534.  The  inhabitants  repel  an  attack  by  the  Constable  of 

Bourbon. 
1596.  Marseilles  submits  to  Henry  IV. 


MARSHAL 


[    636    ] 


MARTINICO 


1650.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  established  on  a  per- 
manent basis. 

1660.  Louis  XIV.  takes  away  its  franchise. 

J7?o.  The,  plague  carries  off  about  40,000  persons. 

1789,  April  30.  The  inhabitants  of  Marseilles  join  in  the 
Revolution. 

1793,  Aug.  25.  Marseilles  is  taken  by  the  republicans,  for 
having  assisted  the  (iirmidinj. 

1855.  The  new  harbour  of  l.a  Joliette  is  completed. 

1858—1860.  The  Exchange  is  eroded. 

1863,  July  5.  A  fire  causes  great  destruction. 

MARSHAL,  or  MARESCHAL.—  This  term, 
derived  by  Nicod  from  polemarchut,  and  by 
Matthew  Paris  from  Marti s  senescallus,  was 
first  applied  to  an  officer  who  hud  the  care  or 
command  of  horses.  Napoleon  I.  created  18 
marshals  of  the  empire  in  1804.  (See  EARL 
MARISCHAL  and  EAKL  MARSHAL.) 

MARSHALL: A  COURT,  or  BOARD  OF 

GJIKMX  CLOTH,  was  a  court  of  justice, 
noticed  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
(1216 — 72),  having  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  the 
king's  palace  and  within  the  verge,  described 
by  13  Rich.  II.  st.  i,  c.  3  (1390),  not  to  exceed 
12  miles  of  the  king's  lodging.  Its  power, 
confirmed  by  several  statutes,  was  derived 
from  the  common  law.  By  28  Edw.  I.  st.  3, 
c.  3  (1300),  the  pleas  that  could  be  held  in  the 
court  of  Verge  were  defined,  and  by  2  Hen.  IV. 
C.  23  (1400),  regulation.-;  respecting  feus  were 
laid  down.  Its  powers  were  extended  to 
treasons,  misprisions  of  treasons,  murders, 
manslaughters,  bloodsheds,  tV:c.,  by  33  lien. 
VIII.  c.  12  (1542).  This  court  \v;is  abolished  by 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (June  27,  1828).  (See  PALACE 
COURT). 

MARSHALS!-: A  PRISON  (London),  erected 
in  Southwark  in  the  i3th  century,  was  under 
the  control  of  the  king's  marshal.  In  1376  the 
citizens  of  London  rescued  a  prisoner  com- 
mitted contrary  to  the  liberties  of  the  city. 
The  Gordon  rioters  released  the  prisoners, 
Wednesday,  June  7,  1780.  By  5  Viet.  sess.  2, 
c.  22  (May  31,  1842',  it  was  abolished,  and  it 
has  since  been  taken  down. 

MAUS1AN,  or  MARSIC  WAR.— (See  SOCIAL 
WAR.) 

MARSI,  or  MARSIAXS,  a  nation  of  central 
Italy,  first  mentioned  in  Roman  history  B.C. 
340,  at  which  time  they  were  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  Romans,  against  whom  they  leagued 
with  the  Sainnites,  B.C.  368.  They  concluded 
a  treaty  with  the  Romans  3048.0.,  but  again 
took  up  arms  B.C.  301,  when,  having  been  de- 
feated, they  were  compelled  to  purchase  peace 
by  the  cession  of  part  of  their  territory.  They 
became  faithful  allies  of  Rome,  and  were 
among  the  first  to  offer  volunteers  to  the  fleet 
and  army  of  Scipio,  B.C.  205.  In  the  Social, 
sometimes  called  the  Marsic  war,  B.C.  91,  they 
took  a  prominent  part,  and  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Romans ;  but  in  the  next 
campaign,  B.C.  89,  after  repeated  defeats,  they 
were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  The  Marsi 
received  the  full  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  and 
from  that  time  ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate 
nation. 

MAR'S  INSURRECTION.— The  Earl  of  Mar, 
called  Bobbing  John,  from  his  tendency  to 
change  sides,  invited  the  gentry  to  meet  at  a 
hunt,  Aug.  27,  1715,  and  proclaimed  the  Pre- 


tender as  James  VIII.  of  Scotland  and  HI.  of 
England,  at  Brae-mar,  in  Aberdeenshire,  Sep.  6. 
His  force  had  gradually  increased  from  about 
50  to  5,000  men,  when  he  entered  Perth,  Sep.  28. 
Mar,  who  remained  some  time  inactive,  was 
defeated  at  Sheriff-muir,  near  Stirling,  Nov. 
13,  and  escaped  with  the  Pretender  from  Mont- 
rose,  Feb.  4,  1716,  whence  they  proceeded  to 
France.  Some  of  the  chiefs  of  the  insurrection 
were  captured  and  about  20  were  executed. 

MARS  STKA.MER,  plying  between  Water- 
ford  and  Bristol,  struck  on  a  reef  on  the  Welsh 
coast,  April  i,  1862,  and  sank  almost  imme- 
diately. Of  the  55  persons  on  board,  50 
perished. 

MARSTON  MOOR  (Battle),  was  fought  be- 
tween the  Royalists  under  Prince  Rupert,  and 
the  Parliamentary  army  under  Lord  Fairfax 
and  Oliver  Cromwell,  at  Marston  Moor,  in 
Yorkshire,  July  2,  1644.  It  commenced  about 
7  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  the  left  whig  of 
the  king's  army  totally  routed  the  right  wing 
of  the  Parliamentarians  ;  but  Cromwell  with 
his  "  Ironsides"  managed  to  defeat  the  king's 
right  wing.  After  a  severe  struggle,  victory 
declared  in  favour  of  the  Parliamentarians,  the 
R(  lyaiist  s  1<  wing  all  their  artillery,  ammunition, 
and  baggage. 

M  A  i;  1  A  HAN  (Pegu).— This  fortress  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  English  in  1824,  and  it  was 
captured  by  them  during  the  second  war  in 
Burmah,  April  5,  1852. 

MART  A,  ST.  .New  Grenada).— This  city, 
founded  in  1525,  was  made  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric in  1529. 

MAitTELLO  TOWERS.— (See  DUNOENESS.) 

MARTIAL  LAW.— Power  exercised  by  the 
king  of  dispensing  with  ordinary  law  pro- 
ceedings in  time  of  war,  and  proceeding  by 
his  own  absolute  authority.  By  a  clause  of 
the  Bill  of  Rights,  3  Charles  I.  c.  i  (1628), 
commissions  for  proceeding  by  martial  law 
were  declared  illegal,  and  prohibited;  but 
Parliament  waa  itself  compelled  to  issue  similar 
commissions  in  1644.  Martial  law,  signifying 
military  law,  is  regulated  by  court  martial 
(q.v.). 

MA  KTINESTI  (Battle).— An  allied  Austrian 
and  Russian  army,  commanded  by  Prince 
Coburg  and  Gen.  Suwarrow,  defeated  the 
Turks  at  this  place  in  Wallachia,  Sep.  22,  1789. 
No  less  than  5,000  Turks  fell  in  the  battle,  and 
2,000  in  the  pursuit.  It  is  also  called  the  battle 
of  Rimnik,  from  the  name  of  the  village,  near 
Martinesti,  where  it  was  fought. 

MARTINICO,  or  MARTINIQUE  (Atlantic 
Ocean),  called  by  the  natives  Madiana,  erro- 
neously supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been 
discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1493,  was  in 
reality  discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus, 
June  15,  1502,  during  his  fourth  voyage.  It 
was  settled  by  some  French  colonists  from  St. 
Christopher's  in  1635.  The  Dutch  assailed  it 
in  1674,  and  were  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
Admiral  Penn  failed  in  an  attempt  to  capture 
it  in  1695.  The  cultivation  of  the  coffee-plant 
was  introduced  in  1727.  The  principal  fortifi- 
cations were  attacked  by  an  English  squadron 
Jan.  24,  1759,  and  after  doing  considerable 
damage,  the  expedition  withdrew.  The  island 
surrendered,  Feb.  16,  1762,  to  an  English  force, 


MARTIN 


637    ] 


MARYPORT 


which  had  landed  Jan.  16 ;  and  it  was  restored 
to  the  French  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10, 
1763.  It  was  retaken  Feb.  5,  1781,  and  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783. 
The  English  again  effected  a  landing  Feb.  5, 
1794,  and  after  gaining  several  battles,  the 
whole  island  capitulated  March  23,  1794.  The 
French  failed  in  an  attempt  to  recover  it,  Dec. 
7,  1795,  and  it  was  restored  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  March  25,  1802.  An  English  fleet 
landed  10,000  troops  on  the  island,  Feb.  3, 
1809,  It  surrendered  Feb.  24,  and  was  restored 
to  France  at  the  general  peace  in  1814.  The 
slaves  rebelled  in  1833,  and  a  number  of  them 
were  killed,  and  several  taken  prisoners,  in  a 
battle  fought  Dec.  24.  An  earthquake  did 
serious  damage  to  Fort  Royal,  and  caused  the 
death  of  about  700  persons,  Jan.  n,  1839. 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848. 

MARTIN  MAR-PRELATE.  —  (See  MAR- 
PRELATE  TRACTS.) 

MARTINMAS,  MARTLEMASS,  MARTIL- 
MASS,  or  ST.  MARTIN'S  DAY,  Nov.  n,  was 
formerly  observed  as  a  day  of  feasting  and 
jollity.  It  was  instituted  in  honour  of  St. 
Martin,  the  son  of  a  Roman  military  tribune. 
He  was  born  in  Hungary,  in  316,  settled  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Poitiers,  was  Bishop  of 
Tours  in  374,  and  died  in  400.  His  festival 
was  instituted  in  650.  Sonie  authors  refer  the 
festivities  practised  on  this  day  to  an  ancient 
Athenian  festival  in  honour  of  Bacchus.  (See 
MICHAELMAS.) 

MARTIN'S  (ST.)  HALL  (London).  —  The 
first  stone  of  this  edifice,  built  from  designs 
by  R.  Westmacott,  was  laid  June  21,  1847 ; 
and  it  was  opened  Feb.  n,  1850.  It  was  da- 
maged by  fire  Aug.  26,  1860. 

MARTYR.  —  Since  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen,  a  man  full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Acts  vi.  5),  chosen  in  31  to  be  one  of  the 
seven  deacons  first  appointed,  the  Christian 
Church  has  furnished  a  long  succession  of 
martyrs,  who  have  freely  given  up  their  lives 
in  defence  of  the  truth.  Stephen  the  pro- 
tomartyr  was  stoned  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vii. 
58 — 60)  in  May,  37.  Polycarp,  the  last  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,  suffered  death  in  169. 
Eusebius,  who  wrote  in  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  century,  is  the  first  writer  who  gives  an 
account  of  the  early  martyrs. 

MARTYRS  (Mra.).— (See  DIOCLETIAN  ./ERA.) 

MARY  (Queen  of  England),  the  only  child  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Queen  Catherine  that  arrived 
at  maturity,  was  born  at  Greenwich,  Monday, 
Feb.  1 8, 1516,  was  proclaimed  Queen  in  London, 
July  19,  and  entered  the  city  Aug.  3,  1553. 
Although  Jane  (q.  v.)  was  acknowledged  queen 
for  a  few  days,  the  accession  of  Mary  is 
reckoned  from  the  day  on  which  Edward  VI. 
died,  July  6,  1553.  Mary  was  crowned  Oct.  i, 
1553,  and  was  married  at  Winchester  to  Philip 
of  Spain,  July  25,  1554.  They  had  no  children, 
and  Philip  became  King  of  Spain  on  the  abdi- 
cation of  his  father,  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  Jan.,  1556.  Mary  died  at  St.  James's, 
broken-hearted  from  grief,  caused  by  the 
negligence  of  her  husband  and  the  loss  of 
Calais,  Nov.  17,  1558,  and  was  buried  in  Henry 
VII.'s  chapel  at  Westminster,  Dec.  13.  She 
was  called  Bloody  Queen  Mary  from  the 


severity  with  which  she  persecuted  the  Re- 
formers. According  to  the  lowest  estimate, 
one  archbishop,  three  bishops,  several  clergy- 
men, and  about  300  of  the  laity,  perished  at 
the  stake,  whilst  numbers  died  in  prison 
during  her  reign.  She  is  sometimes  called 
Mary  I.  (See  WILLIAM  III.  and  MARY  II.) 

MARYLAND  (N.America).— The  first  English 
province  created  in  America  was  named  Mary- 
land, after  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles 
I.,  Who  granted  the  absolute  proprietary  to 
Lord  Baltimore,  in  1632.  The  first  colonists 
were  chiefly  Roman  Catholic  gentlemen  and 
their  families,  sent  out  from  England  under  the 
charge  of  Lord  Baltimore's  brother,  in  1634. 
A  house  of  assembly  was  established  in  1639 ; 
it  was  divided  into  two  houses  in  1650, — the 
one  consisting  of  members  chosen  by  the 
Proprietary,  and  the  other  chosen  by  the  Free- 
men. In  1645  Cleyborne  succeeded  in  stirring 
up  an  insurrection,  the  governor  was  obliged 
to  flee  to  Virginia,  and  peace  was  not  restored 
till  1646.  Parliamentary  commissioners  took 
possession  of  the  government  in  1652,  but 
restored  it  to  the  governor  in  1658.  In  1689 
an  association,  formed  for  the  defence  of  the 
Protestant  religion,  overthrew  the  proprietary 
government.  A  governor  was  sent  out  in  1692, 
and  the  province  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Crown  till  1715,  when  it  was  restored  to  the 
heir  of  the  proprietary.  In  1765,  on  the 
passing  of  the  Stamp  Act,  riots  occurred,  and 
the  house  of  the  stamp-master  was  destroyed. 
A  provincial  congress  assembled  in  1774,  and 
took  the  government  into  its  own  hands,  and 
a  constitution  was  adopted  in  1776,  declaring- 
it  a  free  state.  In  1814  a  British  fleet  landed 
troops  under  Gen.  Ross,  who  routed  the  Ameri- 
cans at  Bladensburg  (q.  v.),  Aug.  24. 

MARYLAND  COLONY  (Africa^,  near  Cape 
Palmas,  was  founded  in  1834  by  free  coloured 
emigrants  sent  from  the  state  of  Maryland,  in 
America  ;• — whence  the  name. 

MARYLEBONE  (London).— The  manor  of 
Marylebone  was  obtained  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
exchange  for  certain  crown  lands,  in  1544.  The 
park  was  assigned  by  Charles  I.  as  security  for 
debts  contracted  by  him  during  the  civil  war 
in  1646.  Marylebone  Street  was  built  about 
1679,  an(i  received  this  name  because  it  led 
from  Hedge  Lane  to  Marylebone.  The  gardens, 
which  were  a  favourite  resort  of  Sheffield, 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  were  situated  at  the 
back  of  the  old  manor-house.  Admission  to 
this  fashionable  place  of  amusement  was  free 
until  1737,  when  a  shilling  was  charged.  They 
were  closed  in  1778.  The  manor-house  was 
pulled  down  in  1791. 

MARYLEBONE  THEATRE  (London).— The 
new  building  was  opened  Monday,  Dec.  12, 

1  MARY  MAGDALENE  (ST.).— (See  MAGDA- 
LENE COLLEGE  and  HALL,  &c.) 

MARY  OF  MERTON,  ST.  (Canons).— Re- 
gular canons  of  the  order  of  St.  Austin  settled 
at  Merton,  in  Surrey,  in  1117.  Henry  I.  made 
a  grant  to  them  of  the  whole  town  in  1121, 
and  they  erected  a  church  and  priory  in  honour 
of  the  Virgin. 

MARYPORT  (England).  —  This  seaport  in 
Cumberland  was  founded  in  1750. 


MARY 


[    638    ] 


MASTER 


MARY,  ST.— (See  CARMELITES,  GLORIOUS 
VIRGIN,  MARIOLATRY,  &c.) 

MARY  (ST.)  HALL  (Oxford).— This  hall  was 
conferred  by  Edward  II.  on  Oriel  College  in 
1325.  It  was  made  a  separate  place  of  educa- 
tion in  1333,  and  it  subsequently  became  an 
independent  academical  hall.  Thomas  Dyke 
bequeathed  funds  towards  the  support  of  foiu- 
scholars  in  1667. 

MAS-A-TIERRA.— (See  JUAN  FERNANDEZ.) 

MASCALI  (Sicily),  anciently  called  Calli- 
polis,  was  besieged  by  Hippocrates  of  Gela 
early  in  the  sth  century  B.C.  The  Saracens 
erected  a  fortress,  but  the  town  possesses  no 
modern  importance. 

MASCALUCIA  (Sicily).  —  This  town  was 
much  injured  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  ^-Ktna 
in  1669,  and  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1818. 

MASCARA  (Algeria),  the  ancient  Victoria, 
was  at  one  time  the  residence  of  Abd-el-Kader. 
The  French  seized  it  Dec.  5,  1835,  and  again  in 
1841  ;  and  on  the  last  occasion  annexed  it  to 
their  colony  in  Algeria. 

MASCARENHAS.— (See  BOURBON.) 

MASKS.  — The  kings  and  priests  of  Egypt 
wore,  upon  certain  occasions,  masks  of  papyrus, 
representing  the  heads  of  hawks,  lions,  and 
other  birds  and  animals,  and  from  them  the 
knowledge  of  masks  passed  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  by  whom  they  were  employed  in 
dramatic  exhibitions.  The  tragic  masks  of 
the  Greek  stage  were  frequently  very  beauti- 
ful; but  in  comedy  a  grotesque  effect  was 
produced  by  representing  the  mouth  opened 
and  the  features  distorted.  The  custom  of  the 
use  of  masks  by  public  executioners  is  men- 
tioned in  1295.  They  were  first  worn  by 
English  ladies  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
(1558 — 1603).  In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  (1660 
— 1685),  they  were  always  worn  by  ladies  in  the 
theatre,  and  in  the  time  of  Anne  they  were 
tised  on  horseback,  being  suspended  to  the 
side  by  a  string.  (See  IRON  MASK.) 

MASONS  were  incorporated  in  1411. 

MASOURAH  (Battle).— {See  MANSURAH.) 

MASQUERADES,  or  MASKED  BALLS.— 
Dramatic  masques  were  introduced  into  this 
country  about  1340.  The  masked  ball,  or  mas- 
querade, originated  in  Italy  towards  the  com- 
mencement of  the  1 6th  century,  was  introduced 
into  the  French  court  by  Catherine  de  Medici 
(1519 — 1589),  into  England  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1513,  and  into  Germany  towards  the  end  of 
the  1 7th  century.  The  Bishop  of  London 
preached  a  sermon  against  them,  Jan.  6,  1724  ; 
in  consequence  of  which  orders  were  issued 
that  no  more  than  the  six  subscribed  for  at 
the  beginning  of  the  month  should  take  place. 

MASS. — The  word  missa,  or  mass,  was  first 
employed  in  religious  ordinances  in  394,  to  in- 
dicate the  particular  services  specially  appro- 
priated to  different  persons,  who  left  the  church 
when  the  portion  of  the  service  which  con- 
cerned them  was  concluded.  It  was,  indeed, 
the  general  name  for  every  part  of  divine  ser- 
vice, sometimes  signifying  the  lessons,  some- 
times the  collects  or  prayers,  and  sometimes 
the  dismission  of  the  people.  The  Roman 
Catholic  mass  was  introduced  into  England  in 
680.  The  term  was  afterwards  applied  to  the 


elements  of  the  Eucharist,  and  a  decree,  order- 
ing all  to  bow  down  at  the  elevation  of  the 
host,  or  mass,  was  published  in  1201.  In  Eng- 
land the  order  of  Communion  was  substituted 
for  the  Mass  April  i,  1548. 

MASSACHUSETTS  (N.  America).— This 
state  was  first  settled  by  the  Puritans,  who  ar- 
rived at  New  Plymouth,  U.S.,  in  the  Mayflower, 
Dec.  22,  1620.  Salem  and  Charlestown  were 
founded  in  1629,  and  Boston  in  1630;  and  in 
1692  the  colonies  were  united  under  the  Indian 
name  of  Massachusetts.  A  charter  for  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  was  obtained  from  the  crown  in 
1629.  Its  first  constitution,  formed  in  1780,  was 
amended  in  1820.  Slavery  was  abolished  by 
law  in  1783,  and  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  adopted  in  1788. 

MASSA  DI  CARRARA,  MASSA,  or  DU- 
CALE  (Italy),  the  chief  town  of  a  duchy  of 
the  same  name,  which  was  in  1829  united  to 
Modena,  and  was,  with  it,  incorporated  in  the 
new  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 

M  ASS AGETvE.— This  Asiatic  tribe,  by  some 
supposed  to  be  Scythians,  drove  the  Cimme- 
rians from  the  Araxes  B.C.  635,  and  penetrated 
into  Media  B.C.  632,  whence  they  were  expelled 
by  Cyaxares,  B.C.  609.  Cyrus  the  Elder  was 
killed  in  battle  against  them,  B.C.  529.  Alex- 
ander III.  (the  Great)  defeated  them  B.C.  328. 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  calls  the  Alani  "the 
ancient  Massagetse."  Niebuhr  considers  them 
Mongols,  and  Humboldt  assigns  them  to  the 
Indo-European  family. 

.MASS  ALIA,  or  M  AS  SIL  I A  .  —  (See 
MARSEILLE,  or  MARSEILLES.) 

MASS-HOOK,  "MIHSALE,"  or  MISSAL, 
the  ritual  used  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
was  compiled  by  Gelasius  I.  (492 — 6),  and  im- 
proved by  Gregory  I.  (the  Great)  (590—604). 
The  services  were  translated  into  English  for 
the  Church  of  England  in  1549,  and  by  3  &  4 
Edw.  VI.  c.  10  (1549),  the  use  of  missals  was 
abolished.  In  early  times  various  missals  were 
in  use,  but  the  adoption  of  the  Roman  missal 
was  ordered  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545 — 
1563).  It  was  revived  by  Clement  VIII.  in  1604, 
and  by  Urban  VIII.  in  1634. 

.M  A  SSI  I.IAXS.— (See  SEMI-PELAGIANS.) 

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES.  —  The 
official  master  of  the  ceremonies  at  the  English 
court  was  instituted  by  James  I.,  in  1603,  for 
the  purpose  of  introducing  foreign  ambas- 
sadors, &c.,  to  the  sovereign.  Sir  Lewis 
Lewkenor  was  appointed  to  the  office,  with  a 
salary  of  ^200  per  annum.  The  first  person 
who  assumed  the  title  to  signify  his  supre- 
macy in  the  ball-room  was  Capt.  Webster,  who 
preceded  Beau  Nash  in  the  office  at  Bath.  He 
became  master  of  the  ceremonies  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  visit  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1703. 

MASTER-GENERAL  OF  THE  MILITARY. 
— Constantino  I.  (306  —  337)  instituted  two 
masters-general,  one  for  the  cavalry  and  one 
for  the  infantry.  Before  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Constantius  II.  (337 — 361)  their  number  had 
been  increased  to  four.  A  master  of  the 
military  was  elected  annually  at  Venice  be- 
tween 737  and  742.  instead  of  a  doge. 

MASTER  OR  KEEPER  OF  THE  ROLLS 
OF  CHANCERY.— The  rolls  of  the  exchequer 
commence  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  the  earliest 


MASTER 


[    639    ] 


MATCHIN 


extant  being  that  of  his  3ist  year  (1131).  The 
title  of  "  Custos  Rotulorum  Cancellarise  Domini 
Regis  "  is  found  for  the  first  time  attached  to 
the  name  of  John  de  Langton,  on  the  Patent 
Roll  of  14  Edw.  I.  (1286),  although  the  office 
no  doubt  existed  before  that  date.  The  duties 
of  this  officer  are  defined  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c. 
94  (Aug.  28,  1833).  His  salary  is  regulated  by 
i  Viet.  c.  46  (July  12,  1837).  The  master  of  the 
rolls  is  a  patentee  officer  and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  may  sit  in  Parliament,  and  administer 
justice  in  the  Rolls  Court ;  but  his  decrees  are 
not  valid  until  signed  by  the  chancellor.  By 
virtue  of  his  office  he  is  chief  of  the  masters 
in  chancery  and  of  the  Petty-Bag  Office.  Lord 
Romilly,  Master  of  the  Rolls,  submitted  to  the 
treasury,  Jan.  26,  1857,  a  proposal  for  the  pub- 
lication of  materials  for  the  History  of  Eng- 
land from  the  invasion  of  the  Romans  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  Lords  of  the  Trea- 
sui-y,  in  a  minute  dated  Feb.  9,  1857,  approved 
of  the  plan,  and  the  publication  of  two  series, 
one  of  Chronicles  and  Memorials,  and  the  other 
of  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  commenced  in 
1857. 

MASTERS   OF   THE    ROLLS    FROM   THE   REIGN   OF 
GEORGE   III. 

1760,  Oct.  Thomas  Clarke. 
1764,  Dec.  4.  Thomas  Sewell. 
1784,  March  30.  Lloyd  Ker.yon. 
1788,  June  4.  Richard  Arden. 
itfoi,  May  27.  William  Grant. 
1818,  Jan.  6.  Thomas  Plumer. 

GEORGE   IV. 
Jan.  Thomas  Plumer. 
April  5.  Robert,  Lord  Gifford. 
Sep.  14.   John  Singleton   Copley   (afterwards  Lord 

Lyndhurst). 
1827,  May  2.  John  Leach. 

WILLIAM  IV. 
1830,  June.  John  Leach. 
1834,  Sep.  29.  Charles  Christopher  Pepys. 

1836,  Jan.  16.  Henry,  Lord  Langdale. 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  June.  Henry,  Lord  Langdale. 

1851,  March  28.  John  Romilly  (afterwards  Lord  Romilly). 

MASTER  OF  THE  REVELS.— The  follow- 
ing list  of  persons  who  held  this  appointment 
was  communicated  to  "  Notes  and  Queries"  by 
Mr.  E.  F.  Rimbault.  It  was  copied  from  the 
handwriting  of  Sir  Henry  Herbert,  one  of  the 
last  to  hold  the  office  : — 

DATE. 

Not  on  record  Sir  Richard  Guildford. 

[1544]  36  Hen.  VIII Sir  Thomas  Cawerden. 

Not  on  record    Sir  Thomas  Beneger. 

Not  on  record    Sir  John  Fortescue. 

July  24  CIS?®],  31  Eliz.    ...  Edmund  Tilney,  Esq. 

June  23  [1603],  i  Jac Sir  George  Buck. 

[1612],  10  Jac.  I Sir  John  Astley. 

[1617]  15  Jac.  I Benjamin  Johnson. 

Aug.  21  [1629],  5  Car.  I.  {  •nJJJ^EjJ*^  and  8im°n 

To  these  may  be  added  the  following :  — 

1673.  Thomas  Killigrew.     I    1725.  Charles  Henry  Lee. 
1683.  Charles  Killigrew.      |    1744.  Solomon  Dayrolle. 

The  ancient  jurisdiction  of  the  master  ot  the 
revels  was  transferred  in  1737  to  the  "  licenser 
of  the  stage,"  who,  with  the  deputy  licenser, 
performed  all  the  duties  of  the  office  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Solomon  Dayrolle,  no  successor 
was  appointed. 


1820, 

as 


MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS  (Ireland).— The 
earliest  on  record  was  William  de  Bardelby, 
appointed  in  1334. 

MASTERS   OF  THE   ROLLS  (IRELAND). 

VICTORIA. 

1837,  Jan.  28.  Sir  Michael  O'Loghlen. 
1842,  Nov.  i.  Francis  Blackburne. 
1852,  March  i.  Thomas  Lefroy. 

MASTERS  IN  CHANCERY.— Foss  considers 
that  masters  or  clerks  in  chancery  existed  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  (1189 — 99),  and 
that  they  were  appointed  to  attend  the  king  in 
his  progresses,  when  they  assumed  the  title  of 
vice-chancellor.  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who 
was  made  chancellor  April  29,  1587,  always  had 
masters  in  chancery  present  when  he  sat  in 
court,  to  assist  him  hi  his  decisions.  The  office 
was  abolished  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  80  (June  30, 
1852). 

MASTER  AND  SERVANT.— Various  statutes 
have  been  passed  for  the  regulation  of  the  law 
between  master  and  servant.  By  32  Geo.  III. 
c.  56  (1792),  a  master  knowingly  giving  a  good 
character  to  a  bad  servant  is  liable  to  a  fine  of 
£•20,  or  three  months'  imprisonment  with  hard 
labour.  The  payment  of  certain  classes  of 
servants  is  required  to  be  made  in  money  by 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Oct.  15,  1831).  A  commit- 
tee of  the  House  of  Commons  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  law  between  master  and  ser- 
vant issued  their  report  in  1866. 

MASTER  OF  THE  WARDROBE. —This  office 
existed  in  very  early  times,  and  received  from 
Henry  VI.  (1422  —  61)  important  privileges, 
which  were  enlarged  by  James  I.  (1603 — 25). 
The  salary  attached  to  the  office  was  ^2,000 
per  annum,  and  there  were,  in  addition  to 
the  master,  many  inferior  functionaries.  They 
were  all  abolished  by  22  Geo.  III.  c.  82  (1782), 
which  transferred  the  duties  of  the  wardrobe 
establishment  to  the  lord  chamberlain's  de- 
partment. 

MASULIPATAM  (Hindostan).— This  city  was 
mentioned  by  Marco  Polo,  in  his  travels,  cir- 
culated in  1298,  and  was  conquered  by  the 
Bhamenee  sovereigns  of  the  Deccan  in  1480. 
In  1751  it  was  taken  and  fortified  by  the 
French,  who  were  expelled  by  the  British, 
under  Col.  Forde,  April  6,  1759  ;  and  Masulipa- 
tam  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  in 

MATAMORAS  (Battle).  —  The  Americans, 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Taylor,  defeated 
the  Mexican  army  at  this  town,  in  Mexico, 
May  8,  1846. 

MATARO  (Spain).— This  place,  made  a  city 
in  1701,  was  sacked  by  Duhesme,  under  cir- 
cumstances of  great  cruelty,  June  17,  1808. 
The  church  of  St.  Maria  was  founded  in  1675, 
the  college  in  1737,  and  it  was  incorporated 
with  the  university  of  Cervera  in  1829.  The 
railroad  to  Barcelona,  the  first  constructed  in 
Spain,  was  opened  in  October,  1848. 

MATCHES. — Friction  matches  were  in- 
vented by  Walker,  of  Stockton-on-Tees,  in 
April,  1827.  (See  LUCIFER  MATCHES.) 

MATCHIN  (Bulgaria).— The  Turks  con- 
structed a  camp  here,  which  was  destroyed  by 
the  Russians  Oct.  20,  1771.  The  Russians  ob- 
tained an  advantage  over  the  Turks  in  an 


MATHEMATICS 


[    640    ] 


MAUVE 


encounter  near  this  town,  July  9,  1791.  The 
Turks  defeated  the  Russians  in  an  engagement 
here  Dec.  24,  1853. 

M  A  T  H  E  M  A  T I C  S.— This  term,  which  an- 
ciently signified  all  knowledge  calculated  to 
strengthen  the  mental  powers,  is  applied  to 
algebra,  arithmetic,  geometry  (q.  v.),  and  kin- 
dred sciences. 

MATINS. — Prayers  were  offered  in  the  morn- 
ing by  the  early  Christians.  Clement,  who 
died  about  220,  declares  that  men  are  un- 
worthy of  light  who  do  not  offer  adoration  to 
its  Author  at  the  earliest  dawn.  The  massacre 
on  Bartholomew's  Day  (q.  v.)  (Aug.  24,  1572), 
was  termed  the  French  or  Paris  Matins,  and 
the  massacre  of  the  false  Demetrius  and  the 
Poles  at  Moscow,  May  29,  1606,  the  Matins  of 
Moscow. 

MATRIMONIAL  CAUSES  ACT.— (See  DI- 
VORCE.) 

MATRONALIA.— (See  JUNONIA.) 

MATTER  HO  UN.— (See  ALPINE  CLUB.) 

MATTHEW,  ST.  (Gospel),  written,  according 
to  the  best  authorities,  in  57  or  58,  though 
various  dates  between  37  and  61  are  assigned 
to  it.  Home  assigns  it  to  37  or  38. 

MATTIUM.—  (See  CATTI.) 

MA TURINES,  MATHURINS,  or  TRINITA- 
RIANS.— This  order  of  friars,  founded  in 
France  for  the  redemption  of  captives,  by  St. 
John  do  Matha  and  Felix  de  Valois,  about  1197, 
and  at  first  called  Trinitarians,  received  the 
name  of  Maturines,  or  Mathurines,  because, 
from  1226,  they  occupied  a  church  at  Paris, 
dedicated  to  St.  Mathurin.  They  were  sup- 
pressed in  France  in  1790.  The  order  was  in- 
troduced into  England  in  1224,  and  received 
the  lands,  revenues,  and  other  privileges  of  the 
decayed  order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The 
Maturinc  friars,  who  were  governed  according 
to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  possessed  about 
12  houses  in  this  country. 

MAUBEUGE  (France).— This  town  was 
fovinded  in  the  7th  century,  and  was  for  a  con- 
siderable period  the  capital  of  Hainault.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1649,  and  was 
ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Nirneguen,  Aug. 
10,  1678.  Vaubaii  erected  the  fortifications  in 
1680  ;  and  in  1793  it  was  besieged  by  the  Prince 
of  Coburg,  who  was  compelled  to  retire  by 
Marshal  Jourdan.  Its  manufactory  of  arms 
was  founded  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1704.  It  has 
sustained  several  sieges,  and  surrendered  to  the 
Prussians  in  June,  1815. 

MAUL — (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

MAUNDY  THURSDAY,  the  day  before  Good 
Friday,  is  so  called  because  on  this  day  it  was 
usual  to  distribute  to  the  poor  bread  and 
other  "doles,"  contained  in  maunds  or  bas- 
kets. St.  Augustine  is  the  earliest  who  is 
known  to  have  practised  it.  It  was  also  cus- 
tomary to  wash  the  feet  of  pilgrims  on  this 
day.  The  first  English  monarch  who  distri- 
buted alms  to  the  poor  on  Maundy  Thursday 
was  Edward  III.,  in  1363.  The  day  was  some- 
times called  "Shere  Thursday,"  because  people 
vised  to  shear  or  cut  their  hair  and  beards  for 
the  occasion.  It  was  so  named  in  1511.  A 
money  payment  was  substituted  for  the 
"doles"  in  1838. 

MAUPERTUIS.-- (&e  POITIERS,  Battle.) 


MAURA  SANTA.— (-See  LEUCADIA). 

MAURETANIA,  or  MAURITANIA  (Africa). 
— This  country,  now  forming  part  of  Algiers 
(q.  v.),  Morocco,  and  Fez,  was  unknown  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe  until  B.  c.  202,  when  the 
Romans  fought  in  Africa  against  Hannibal. 
Julius  Caesar  confirmed  Bogudes  and  Bochus, 
as  joint  kings  of  Mauretania,  B.C.  49,  and  the 
kingdom  was  erected  into  a  Roman  province 
B.C.  46.  Augustus  conferred  it  upon  Juba  II., 
B.C.  25,  and  on  his  death  it  passed  to  his  son 
Ptolemy,  who  was  slain  by  Caligula  in  41. 
Claudius  I.  divided  the  kingdom  into  the  two 
provinces  of  Mauretania  Tingitana,  and  Mau- 
retania Csesariensis,  in  42.  It  was  invaded  by 
a  horde  of  Frankish  invaders  from  Spain,  in 
256,  and  was  conquered  by  Genseric  the  Van- 
dal in  429.  The  Arabs  first  appeared  in  the 
country  in  667,  and  completed  its  conquest  in 
709. 

MAURICE,  ST.— This  military  order,  es- 
tablished in  Savoy  in  1434,  by  Duke  Amadeus 
VIII.,  was  renewed  by  Emaiiuel  Philibert,  and 
joined  to  that  of  St.  Lazarus  in  1572.  It  was 
reorganized  and  extended  to  civilians  in  1816. 

MAURITIUS,  or  ISLE  OF  FRANCE  (Indian 
Ocean). — This  island  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1505.  The  Spaniards  called  it 
Cerne,  and  in  1598  it  was  seized  by  the  Dutch, 
who  named  it  Mauritius  in  honour  of  their 
Stadtholder,  Maurice  ;  but  they  formed  110  set- 
tlement till  1644.  They  abandoned  the  colony 
in  1712,  and  it  was  neglected  until  the  French 
formed  a  .settlement  in  1715,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  island  in  1721.  It  was  captured  by 
the  English  Dec.  2,  1810,  and  has  remained  in 
their  possession  ever  since.  It  was  made  a 
bishopric  in  1854. 

MAUR,  or  MAUR  LES  FOSSES,  ST.  (France), 
a  Benedictine  Abbey,  founded  in  638,  and  called 
St.  Peter,  was  named  St.  Maur  in  the  isth  cen- 
tury. The  treaty  of  St.  Maur  des  Fosses  between 
Louis  XI.  and  the  leaders  of  the  League  of  the 
Public  (luod,  was  signed  here  Oct.  29,  1465. 
Charles  IX.  issued  an  edict  here  against  the 
Huguenots  in  1569.  It  became  the  home  of 
the  celebrated  congregation  of  the  Benedictines 
in  1618. 

MAUSOLEUM.— On  the  death  of  Mausolus, 
King  of  Caria,  B.C.  353,  his  wife  Artemisia  tes- 
tified her  affection  by  erecting  at  Halicarnas- 
sus  (q.  v.)  a  magnificent  building  to  his  me- 
mory, which  received  the  title  of  the  Mauso- 
leum, and  ranked  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world :  hence  all  sepulchral  edifices 
of  more  than  usual  magnificence  are  styled 
mausolea.  The  ruins  of  this  edifice  were  used 
by  the  Hospitallers,  who  had  taken  possession 
of  the  site  in  1404,  in  the  erection  of  their 
castle  of  St.  Peter  in  1484  and  1522.  In  1846 
the  British  Government  arranged  with  the 
Porte  for  the  purchase  of  the  remaining  ruins  ; 
and  in  1856  Mr.  Charles  Newton  was  appointed 
vice-consul  at  Mitylene,  with  full  powers  to 
transmit  the  acquisitions  to  England.  He 
formed  a  valuable  collection,  including  the 
colossal  statue  of  Mausolus  ;  and  the  whole 
arrived  in  this  country  in  July,  1857,  and  was 
deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  (See  ALBERT 
MAUSOLEUM.) 

MAUVE.— In  1848  Dr.  Stenhouse  announced 


MAXIMIANISTS 


[    641     ] 


MAY-POLE 


the  possibility  of  extracting  purple  dyes  from 
lichens  by  macerating  them  in  lime  water. 
This  discovery  was  applied  and  extended  by 
Manias,  of  Lyons,  who  produced  in  1857  the 
fashionable  dye  known  as  mauve. 

MAXIMIANISTS,  a  branch  of  the  Donatists, 
so  named  from  Maximinus,  their  leader,  arose 
in  the  Donatist  community  in  Africa  towards 
the  close  of  the  4th  century. 

MAY.— This  month  derives  its  name  either 
from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  or  from 
its  having  been  dedicated  by  Romulus  to  the 
Roman  majores,  or  senators.  It  was  the  second 
month  in  the  old  Alban  calendar,  the  third  in 
that  of  Romulus,  and  the  fifth  in  that  of  Numa 
Pompilius.  The  Saxons  termed  it  Tri-Milchi, 
because  pasture  was  so  plentiful  that  they 
were  able  to  milk  their  cows  thrice  during  the 
day.  (See  FIELD  OF  MARCH  or  MAY.) 

MAYBURY.— (See  DRAMATIC  COLLEGE.) 

MAY-DAY.— From  the  earliest  periods  it  has 
been  customary  to  celebrate  the  return  of 
spring  with  peculiar  sports.  The  Romans  had 
their  Floralia,  held  011  the  4th  of  the  calends  of 
May.  The  earliest  recorded  circumstance  in 
connection  with  the  celebration  of  May -day  in 
England  is,  that  the  Druids  were  accustomed  to 
assemble  on  the  night  of  the  last  day  in  April 
and  light  large  bonfires  to  hail  the  return  of 
spring.  Chaucer  alludes  to  the  universality  of 
its  observance  in  his  time ;  and  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  queen  and  court  joined 
in  the  sports.  May  Fair  was  abolished  in  Lon- 
don in  1708.  (See  EVIL  MAY-DAY.) 

MAYENCE,  MAINZ,  or  MENTZ  (Hesse- 
Darmstadt),  originated  in  the  Roman  fort  of 
Moguntiacum,  erected  by  Drusus,  B.C.  13,  011 
the  site  of  which  the  city  stands.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Vandals  in  406,  and  was  rebuilt 
by  Dagobert  II.  The  archbishopric  of  Mayence 
was  founded  by  Boniface  in  747,  and  the  cathe- 
dral was  commenced  in  978.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  752  or  753,  813,  829,  847,  848,  852, 
857,  860, 1023, 1049, 1051,  March,  1055, 1069,  1071, 
1080,  1085, 1094, 1131,  1159, 1225,  1233, 1239, 1259, 
1261,  1310,  1387,  1439,  and  1441.  Printing  is 
said  to  have  been  invented  in  this  city  by  John 
Gutenberg  in  1440.  It  was  a  free  and  impe- 
rial city  for  some  years,  but  submitted  to  the 
archbishop  in  1462.  In  1631  Mentz  was  taken 
by  the  Swedes,  and  in  1644  and  1688  by  the 
French,  who  lost  it  in  1689.  It  was  again 
seized  by  the  forces  of  the  republic  in  1792, 
and  retaken  by  the  Prussians  in  1793.  It  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  For- 
mio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  and  erected  into  the  chief 
town  of  the  department  of  Mont  Tonnerre,  and 
in  1814  it  was  ceded  to  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt.  The  university,  founded  in 
the  i  sth  century,  was  suppressed  in  1802.  It 
was  made  a  Federal  fortress  in  1825.  The 
bronze  statue  of  Gutenberg  was  erected  in 
1837.  A  powder  magazine  exploded  in  Nov., 
1857,  and  caused  a  serious  loss  of  life.  The 
Prussians  occupied  the  city  Aug.  26,  1866. 

MAYENNE  (France).— The  Earl  of  Salis- 
bury captured  this  ancient  town  in  1424. 
Charles  IX.  made  it  a  duchy  in  1573.  The 
Vendeans  took  it  in  1793. 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE  (Ireland).— The 
Roman  Catholic  college  of  St.  Patrick  at  May 


looth,  in  the  county  of  Kildare,  was  founded 
n  1795,  according  to  the  provisions  of  an  act 
of  the  Irish  Parliament,  for  the  education  of 
persons  destined  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priest- 
aood.  It  was  built  at  a  cost  of  ,£32,000,  and  is 
supported  by  an  annual  parliamentary  grant. 
A  lay  college  was  opened  in  1802,  depen- 
dent on  voluntary  subscriptions.  By  8  &  9 
Viet.  c.  25  (June  30,  1845),  the  college  was 
placed  on  a  new  footing,  and  permanently 
endowed  for  the  maintenance  and  education 
of  500  students  and  20  senior  scholars.  A 
commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  operation  of  the  institution,  Sep.  19,  1853. 
Several  unsuccessful  motions  have  been  made 
.n  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Maynooth  grant. 

MAYO  (Bishopric),  is  said  to  have  been  es- 
tablished in  665,  though  it  was  not  in  exist- 
ence long,  and  little  is  known  of  its  history. 

MAYO  (Ireland),  forming  part  of  Connaught, 
was  granted  by  Henry  II.  to  William  Fitz- 
Adelm  de  Burgho,  in  i ifo.  William  de  Burgho, 
Earl  of  Ulster,  was  assassinated  in  1333,  and 
about  this  time  Mayo  was  made  a  county. 
For  two  centuries  it  remained  in  a  very  un- 
settled state.  The  native  chiefs  submitted  to 
Elizabeth  in  1575,  but  the  supremacy  of  the 
English  was  not  acknowledged  until  1586.  The 
old  families  took  part  in  the  rebellion  of 
641,  and  the  French  attempted  an  invasion 
in  1798. 

MAYOR.— This  office  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Richard  L,  who  appointed  a  mayor  as  chief 
officer  of  the  city  of  London,  in  place  of  the 
bailiffs,  in  1189,  and  the  precedent  was  copied 
by  King  John,  in  respect  to  the  bailiff  of  King's 
Lynn,  in  1204.  The  first  mayor  of  Dublin  was 
appointed  in  1409.  (See  LORD  MAYOR.) 

MAYOR  OF  THE  PALACE.— An  important 
officer  of  the  French  court  under  the  Merovin- 
gian kings.  His  duty  was  originally  to  super- 
vise the  royal  funds,  and  to  regulate  the 
government  of  the  household.  Afterwards 
the  mayors  acquired  political  influence,  and 
acted  as  regents  during  the  minority  of  the 
sovereign,  until  ultimately  the  whole  power  of 
the  kingdom  devolved  upon  them,  and  the 
kings,  called  Faineants  (q.  v.}  became  mere 
puppets.  Gogon,  mayor  of  Austrasia,  obtained 
the  direction  of  the  government  in  575,  and 
after  679  there  were  no  more  kings.  The 
mayor  of  Burgundy,  in  614,  induced  Clotaire 
II.  to  grant  that  in  future  the  office  should  be 
conferred  by  the  great  proprietors,  not  by  the 
king,  and  held  during  life.  The  office  became 
hereditary  in  687,  and  Pepin  the  Short  de- 
posed Childeric  III.  and  was  proclaimed  king 
in  his  stead  in  752.  (See  FRANCE.  ) 

MAYOTTA  ISLAND  (Indian  Ocean).— This 
volcanic  island,  which  forms  one  of  the  Co- 
moro group,  was  avoided  by  Europeans  unti 
1840.  It  was  ceded  to  the  French  in  1841,  who 
commenced  their  occupation  June  13,  1843. 

MAY-POLE.— The  custom  of  rearing  the 
May -pole  is  traced  to  the  Roman  Floralia,  but 
nothing  is  known  respecting  the  period  at 
which  it  was  introduced  into  this  country. 
Du  Cange  speaks  of  a  charter  of  the  year 
1207,  which  states  that  May -poles  were  taken 
by  grant,  and  erected  in  the  streets  and  at 
T  T 


MAZACA 


[    642    ] 


MECHITARISTS 


the  houses  of  great  men.  The  May-pole  in 
the  Strand  was  taken  down  in  April,  1718. 

MAZACA.—  (See  C^SARKA.) 

MAZARINS.— (See  FRONDEURS.) 

M  HAL-TUB  PLOT.— This  was  a  fictitioxis 
plot  fabricated  by  a  known  criminal  named 
Dangerfield,  and  ascribed  by  him  to  the  Pres- 
byterians, lie  directed  the  revenue  officers  to 
search  the  lodgings  of  Col.  Mansel,  where  they 
found  a  number  of  seditious  documents,  which 
were  afterwards  proved  to  be  forgeries.  Dan- 
gcrficld  was  accordingly  committed  to  New- 
gate, where  he  acknowledged  that  he  had  been 
bribed  by  the  Papists  to  forge  these  papers,  and 
that  proofs  of  the  truth  of  his  confession  were 
deposited  in  a  ut<'<t.l-tn/>  in  the  house  of  a  Mrs. 
Cellier,  a  Roman  Catholic  and  his  mistress, 
where  they  were  in  fact  found.  This  took 
place  in  1679.  Dangerfield  was  put  in  the 
pillory,  and  also  whipped,  and  was  again  con- 
victed of  libel,  May  30,  1685.  On  his  return 
a  man  named  Francis  assaulted  him,  and  he 
died  a  few  days  afterwards.  Francis  was 
tried  and  executed. 

MEALS.— (See  GRACE  AT  MEALS.) 

MKANKE.— (See  M  I:I:AXI:K,  Battle.) 

MEASURES.— The  English  measure  of  Win- 
chester was  made  the  general  standard  by  a 
law  of  King  Edgar,  in  974.  The  first  standard 
ell  was  established  from  the  length  of  Henry 
the  First's  ana  in  nor,  and  the  measure  for 
cloth  was  made  uniform  througho\it  the  king- 
dom by  18  Hen.  VI.  c.  16  (1439),  which  estab- 
lished the  yard  and  the  inch  as  the  standards. 
Public  standards  of  measures  were  ordered  to 
be  deposited  in  all  the  principal  towns  by  u 
Hen.  VII.  c.  4  (1494);  and  the  capacity  of  the 
bushel  was  regulated  by  12  Hen.  VII.  c.  5 
(1496).  The  length  of  the  statute  mile  was 
regulated  by  35  Eliz.  c.  6  (1593).  Charles  I. 
issued  a  proclamation  ordering  a  uniform 
measure  for  every  commodity  throughout  the 
kingdom  in  1636.  Parliament  attempted  to 
introduce  uniformity  of  measure  in  1759,  but 
without  success.  By  10  Geo.  III.  c.  39  (i 770*1, 
a  standard  Winchester  bushel  of  eight  gallons 
was  ordered  to  be  kept  in  every  market-town. 
The  various  laws  on  the  subject  were  amended 
by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  63  (Sep.  9,  1835),  which 
abolished  heaped  measure,  and  ordered  in- 
spectors of  measures  to  be  appointed. 

MEATH  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  bishopric  is 
composed  of  several  minor  sees,  which  were 
anciently  distinct.  The  most  important 
appears  to  have  been  Clonard,  which  was 
founded  by  St.  Finian  in  520.  Eugene  was 
the  first  prelate  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Bishop  of  Meath  in  1174. 

MEATH  (Ireland)  formed  one  of  the  king- 
doms into  which  Ireland  was  divided  in  early 
times.  Richard  Strongbow  subjected  Meath 
to  the  English  in  1171,  and  Henry  II.  (1154 — 89) 
conferred  it  as  a  county  palatine  on  Hugh  de 
Lacy.  For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  it  was 
the  theatre  of  continual  warfare  ;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509 — 47)  the  ancient 
county  was  divided  into  East  Meath  and  West 
Meath. 

MEAUX  (France). — This  town,  supposed  to 
be  identical  with  the  Roman  latinum,  was 
burned  by  the  Northmen  iu  the  gth  century. 


The  bishopric  of  Meaux  was  founded  in  375, 
and  a  council  was  held  here  June  17,  845. 
The  cathedral  was  commenced  in  the  i2th 
century.  It  obtained  a  charter  in  1179. 
Henry  V.  of  England  besieged  it  in  1422,  and 
it  surrendered  June  5.  Artillery  is  said  to 
have  been  used  in  the  siege.  The  French 
recovered  it  in  1439 ;  it  joined  the  League  in 
1587  ;  and  submitted  to  Henry  IV.  in  1^94. 
The  prisoners  were  massacred  here  by  the 
republicans  Sep.  5,  1792.  The  Russians 
attacked  Meaux  Feb.  26,  1814,  and  the  allies 
passed  the  Marne,  at  Meaux,  March  28,  1814. 

MEAUX  (Treaty),  concluded  at  this  place 
during  the  regency  of  Blanche  of  Castile  rath 
Raymond  VII.,  April  12,  1229,  secured  the 
marquisate  of  Provence  to  France,  and  pro- 
vided for  the  marriage  of  one  of  Raymond's 
daughters  with  a  brother  of  Louis  IX. 

MECCA  (Arabia)  is  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
place of  Mohammed,  April,  570,  who  was  ex- 
pelled July  15,  622,  and  captured  it  Jan.  n, 
630.  In  692  it  was  captured  by  Abdelmelik, 
and  in  929  it  was  plundered  by  the  Carma- 
thians.  In  1184  Renaud  de  Chatillou  failed  in 
an  attempt  upon  Mecca.  In  1803  it  was  seized 
by  the  Moslem  sect  of  the  Wahabees,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  in  1818  by  Ibrahim  I'asha. 

.M  HCI! . \X1CS.  —The  ancients  were  no  doubt 
acquainted  with  the  application  of  the  me- 
chanical powers  at  a  very  early  period,  but  the 
principles  on  which  their  action  depends  were 
not  known  till  a  comparatively  late  period. 
Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322)  is  the  first  author  who 
wrote  on  mechanics,  and  Archimedes  (B.C. 
287 — 212)  is  the  most  eminent  of  ancient 
mechanicians. 

A.D. 

1577.  Stevinus,  of  Flanders,  discovers  the  true  theory  of 
the  inclined  plane. 

1592.  Galileo  is  said  to  have  written  his  treatise  "  Delia 
Seieii/.a  .Meranica." 

1634.  Galileo  publishes  the  work  "Delhi  Scienza  Me- 
oantca." 

1638.  Galileo  publishes  his  dialogues  on  motion,  and  Cas- 
telli  writes  on  the  motions  of  fluids. 

1661.  The  laws  of  percussion  are  discovered  sinmltji- 
neously  by  Iluyghcns,  Wallis,  and  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren. 

1670.  Wallis  publishes  his  treatise  "  De  Motu." 

1687.  Newton  publishes  his  "  Principia,"  and  Varignon 
his  "New  Kyslem  of  Mechanics." 

1695.  La  Hire  publishes  a  treatise  on  mechanics. 

1736.  Euler  describes  rectilinear  and  curvilinear  motion. 

1743.  D'Alembert  makes  important  discoveries  in  dy- 
namics. 

1750.  The  preservation  of  areas  is  discovered  simul- 
taneously by  Euler,  Daniel  Bernoulli,  and  the 
Chevalier  D'Arci. 

175?.  Euler,  D'Alembert,  and  Clairault,  solve  the  problem 
of  the  tin-,".'  hdilii'x. 

1788.  Lagrang-e  publishes  the  "  Mecanique  Analytique." 

1798.  Laplace  commences  the  "  Mecnnique  C'el 

1843.  Professor  Whewell  publishes  his  treatise  on  dy- 
namics. 

MECHANICS'  INSTITUTIONS.— The  first 
was  established  in  London  by  Dr.  Birkbeck,  at 
Southampton  Buildings,  Holborn,  Dec.  2,  1823. 

MECHANICSVILLE.— (See  CHICKAHOMINY, 
Battles.) 

MECHITARISTS,  or  MEKHITARISTS, 
Armenian  Christians  named  after  Peter  Mech- 
itar,  or  Mekhitar,  who  was  born  at  Sebaste  in 
1676.  He  repaired  to  Constantinople  in  1700, 
and  having  in  vain  endeavoured  to  unite  the 
Armenians,  was  compelled  to  quit  the  city  and 


MECHLIN 


C    643    ] 


MEDIATIZED 


took  refuge  in.  the  Morea,  founding  at  Modon, 
in  1708,  an  Armenian  monastery.  On  the  con- 
quest of  the  Morea  by  the  Turks  in  1717, 
Mechitar  repaired  to  Venice,  and  the  island 
of  St.  Lazaro  was  granted  to  him,  and  here 
he  established  a  printing  press,  and  formed 
the  society  that  bears  his  name,  for  the 
diffusion  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Armenian 
language  and  literature.  Mechitar  died  at 
Venice  April  27,  1749.  The  society  have 
branches  at  Constantinople,  Paris,  Vienna, 
and  other  places,  and  their  publications  have 
a  large  circulation  in  the  Levant. 

MECHLIN.— (See  MALINES.) 

MECKLENBURG  (Germany).— This  ancient 
duchy  was  originally  peopled  by  the  Heruli 
and  the  Vandals,  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Obotrites  in  782.  Charlemagne  failed  in  his 
attempts  to  reduce  this  tribe  to  subjection  ; 
but  in  1159  Henry  the  Lion  subdued  their 
chief,  Niclot,  and  seized  his  territories.  The 
two  lines  of  Mecklenburg  and  Werle  were 
founded  by  John  the  Theologian  and  Niclot, 
on  the  death  of  their  father,  Henry-Burwin 
II.,  in  1236.  The  latter  became  extinct  in 
1436.  The  entire  duchy  was  conferred  upon 
Wallenstein  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II., 
March  4,  1628 ;  but  in  1631  it  was  restored  to 
Adolphus  Frederick  and  John  Albert,  the  then 
existing  representatives  of  the  lines  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Gustrow. 
The  division  of  the  duchy  between  the  great 
branches  of  Strelitz  and  Schwerin  was  effected 
March  8,  1701.  In  1815  the  dukes  assumed  the 
title  of  grand  dukes.  The  two  governments 
assembled  at  Schwerin,  in  1848,  to  consider 
the  adoption  of  a  new  constitution,  which  was 
agreed  to  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Schwerin. 
Owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  nobility,  he 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  -his  assent  in 
1850. 

MEDALS. — This  term,  properly  speaking, 
originated  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  medal- 
lions of  the  Roman  empire  were  large  metal 
pieces,  presented  by  the  emperors  as  tokens  of 
esteem,  or  by  the  mint-masters  to  the  em- 
perors as  specimens  of  workmanship.  These 
were  not  common  until  after  the  accession  of 
Hadrian,  in  117;  after  which  they  seem  to 
have  continued  in  frequent  vise  until  the  end 
of  the  Western  empire.  It  is  a  contested 
point  whether  they  were  or  were  not  current 
as  pieces  of  coin.  The  earliest  modern  medal 
is  one  in  gold,  of  David  II.  of  Scotland, 
thought  to  have  been  struck  between  1330  and 
1370.  A  medal  of  John  Huss,  dated  1415,  is 
of  questionable  authenticity.  The  German 
medals  commence  in  1453,  the  Papal  medals  in 
1464,  the  Danish  in  1474,  the  English  in  1480, 
the  Spanish  in  1503,  and  the  Venetian  in  1509. 

MEDELLIN  (Battle).— Marshal  Victor,  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  defeated  March  28, 
1809,  the  Spaniards  under  Cuesta,  near  this 
town,  the  ancient  Metellinum,  founded  by  Q. 
C.  Metellus. 

MEDIA  (Asia).  —  Berosus  states  that  the 
Medes  had  conquered  Babylon  before  B.C. 
2000,  and  that  the  dynasty  lasted  224  years. 
Rawlinson  (Anct.  Monarch,  iii.  ch.  vi.),  who 
ranks  Media  third  amongst  the  five  great 
monarchies  of  the  ancient  world,  declares 


that  Median  history  from  B.C.  2234  to  B.C.  835, 
is  a  blank. 

B.C. 
7 10.  The    Medes    are    subdued    by  Sargon,    King  of 

Assyria. 
647.  The  Medes  establish  their  independence. 

634.  The  Medes  invade  Assyria,  and  are   defeated  with 

great  loss,  their  king  being  slain. 

63?.  Cyaxares  leads  another  Median  army  into  Assyria. 
He  is  compelled  to  withdraw  on  account  of  tho 
invasion  of  his  own  territories  by  the  Scythians. 

627.  Cyaxares  again  invades  Assyria. 

635.  Cyaxares  and  his  allies  capture  Nineveh. 

615.  The  war  between  Media  and  Lydia  commences. 

610,  Sep.  30.  The  battle  of  Halys  (q.  v.)  is  interrupted  by 
the  eclipse  of  Thales,  and  peace  is  concluded  be- 
tween Media  and  Lydia.  The  date  of  this  battle 
is  Sep.  30,  610  B.C.,  according  to  Ideler  ;  B.C.  610, 
according  to  Kawlinson ;  B.C.  585,  according  to 
Bosanquet;  and  May  38,  584  B.C.,  according  to 
Airy. 

558.  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  rebels.  Astyages  invades 
Persia  and  is  victorious  in  a  battle  lasting  two 
days.  Astyages,  who  advances  on  Pasargadse,  is 
defeated  in  a  second  battle^  also  extending  over 
two  days.  He  continues  his  advance,  and  is  com- 
pletely routed  in  the  vicinity  of  Pasargadas,  by 
Cyrus,  who  assumes  the  style  "  King  of  Media 
and  Persia."  (See  PEHSIA.) 


B,  C. 

710.  Median    Revolt  and 

Interregnum. 
704.  Dejoces. 
651.  Phraortes. 


KINGS  OF  MEDIA. 
ACCORDING  TO  HERODOTUS. 
B.C. 

629.  Cyaxares. 
589.  Astynges. 


554.  Cyrus  the  Persian. 


B.C. 

710.  Arbianes    and  Inter- 
regnum. 
688.  Artacus. 
648.  Artynes. 
The  lists  givi 
sidered  authentic. 
B.C. 

633-  Cyaxares. 


ACCORDING  TO   CTKSIAS. 
B.C. 

636.  Astiharas. 

586.  Astyigas,  or  Aspadas. 

551.  Cyrus  the  Persian. 


by  Ctesias  and  Herodotus  are  not  con- 


B.C. 

|    593.  Astyages. 


MEDIAEVAL  or  MIDDLE  AGES,  according 
to  Hallam  (View  of  the  State  of  Europe  during 
the  Middle  Ages),  comprised  about  1000  years, 
from  the  invasion  of  France  by  Clovis  I.,  in  486, 
to  that  of  Naples  by  Charles  VIII.  in  1494. 
Dowling,  in  his  "  Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Study  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  fixes  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451,  as  the  commence- 
ment, and  the  revival  of  classical  literature  in 
the  isth  century  as  the  end,  of  the  period. 
Fleury  fixes  the  commencement  at  the  fall  of 
the  Western  empire  in  476,  and  the  termina- 
tion with  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  May  29,  1453.  G.  T.  Manning,  in 
"  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
makes  them  extend  from  400  to  1500,  divided 
into  the  following  periods  : — 

First  period    400  to    800 

Second  period   800  to    964 

Third  period  964101066 

Fourth  period    1066  to  1300 

Fifth  period    1300  to  1500 

MEDIATIZED  PRINCES.— By  articles  24 
and  25  of  the  German  Act  of  Confederation, 
signed  July  12,  1806,  those  German  princes  and 
nobles  who  had  been  subject  to  the  emperor 
were  designated  mediatized  princes,  being 
placed  under  the  sovereigns  in  whose  domi- 
nions their  territories  were  situated. 

TT   2 


MEDICAL 


[    644    ] 


MEDMENHAM 


MEDICAL  COUNCIL. —This  council  was 
established  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  90  (Aug.  2, 1858), 
an  act  to  regulate  the  qualifications  of  prac- 
titioners in  medicine  and  surgery.  Sir  Ben- 
jamin Brodie,  elected  the  first  president  of  the 
council  in  Nov.,  1858,  died  Oct.  21,  1862. 

MEDICINE.- A  writer  in  the  eighth  edition 
of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  (xiv.  p.  450) 
remarks  that  "  the  earliest  historical  develop- 
ment of  scientific  medicine  is  everywhere 
traced  from  a  priesthood."  The  Egyptians 
were  the  earliest  medical  practitioners.  With 
them  medicine  was  under  the  control  of  the 
state,  and  doctors  who  departed  from  the  pre- 
scribed methods  of  treatment  were  guilty  of  a 
capital  offence,  in  the  event  of  their  patient's 
decease.  The  earliest  work  on  medicine  is  the 
Hindoo  Ayur  Veda,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  about  B.C.  1400.  The  worship 
of  ^Esculapius,  the  god  of  medicine,  was  in- 
troduced into  Greece  about  B.C.  1200 ;  but  the 
profession  of  physic  was  restricted  to  the 
priesthood  until  about  B.C.  500.  Hippocrates, 
born  about  B.C.  460,  founder  of  the  Hippocra- 
tean  or  the  Dogmatic  school,  is  the  father  of 
the  Greek  system  of  medicine,  which  declined 
about  B.C.  336,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Alexandrian  school,  B.C.  332.  The  epistle  of 
Diocles  on  the  Preservation  of  Health  was 
written  about  B.C.  312,  and  continued  in  high 
repute  for  about  400  years.  Herophilus,  who 
flourished  B.C.  285;  Erasistnitus,  B.C.  300 — 260; 
and  Serapion,  B.C.  250,  were  the  most  eminent 
practitioners  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  The 
medical  became  a  distinct  profession  at  Rome 
about  B.C.  200.  It  was  at  first  practised  ex- 
clusively by  slaves  orfreedrnen.  Archagathus, 
a  Peloponnesian  who  settled  at  Rome,  B.C.  200, 
was  the  first  regular  practitioner,  but  it  was 
not  regarded  with  much  interest  until  after 
the  great  pestilence  which  depopulated  the 
city  B.C.  187.  Asclepiades,  B.C.  90:  Themison, 
B.C.  60 ;  Thessalus,  in  55  ;  and  Galen,  in  165, 
are  the  most  eminent  Roman  physicians  ;  and 
after  the  death  of  the  last-named,  medical 
science  suffered  a  serious  decline.  The  Greek 
system  was  revived  at  Constantinople  in  328, 
and  flourished  under  Oribasius  in  360  ;  Ae'tius 
in  525 ;  and  Paul  of  ^Egina  in  640.  The  Ara- 
bian physicians  attained  celebrity  in  the  7th 
century,  the  most  important  being  Ebu  Sina,  or 
Avicenna,  whose  great  work,  the  "Almalecus," 
was  written  about  1020.  Mondini,  who  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Bologna  in  1316  ;  Guy 
de  Chauliac,  who  flourished  in  1350 ;  and  the 
celebrated  painter  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452 — 
1520)  were  eminent  medical  practitioners,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advance  of  the 
science.  The  medical  profession  in  Britain  owes 
its  rise  to  Thomas  Linacre,  who  founded  the 
College  of  Physicians  in  London  in  1518.  Har- 
vey published  his  work  on  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  1628 ;  Pecquet  discovered  the  anatomy 
of  the  lacteal  vessels  in  1647  ;  Malpighi  demon- 
strated the  relation  of  the  pulmonary  tissue  to 
the  circulation  in  1661  ;  and  Mayow  obtained 
advanced  views  on  the  subject  of  respiration 
in  1668.  (See  DOCTOR.) 

MEDICI  FAMILY,  first  rose  to  importance 
in  1251,  and  Silvester  de  Medici  became  gon- 
faloniere  at  Florence  in  1378.  Cosmo  de  Medici, 


called  "the  father  of  his  country,"  born  in 
1389,  died  Aug.  i,  1464,  and  Lorenzo  de  Medici, 
called  "the  Magnificent,"  born  in  1448,  died 
April  8,  1492,  were  the  most  illustrious  mem- 
bers of  this  family.  The  last  male  of  the 
family  died  in  1737,  and  the  last  female  in 
1743.  (See  FLORENCE  and  TUSCANY.) 

MEDINA  DEL  CAMPO  (Spain).— During  a 
revolt  in  Spain,  in  1520,  this  town  was  taken 
by  the  royal  troops,  \inder  Antonio  de  Fou- 
seca,  who  treated  the  inhabitants  with  great 
cruelty. 

MEDINA,  or  MEDINET  EL  NABI  (Arabia), 
is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  asylum  of 
Mohammed  when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  15, 
622,  and  the  scene  of  his  death,  June  8,  632.  The 
celebrated  mosque  containing  the  tomb  of  the 
Prophet  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  1508. 
It  was  restored  by  Kayd  Beg,  King  of  Egypt, 
in  1514.  Medina  was  taken  by  the  Wahabees 
in  1803,  but  was  recovered  from  them  by 
Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1818. 

MKDI.VA  DE  RIO  SECO  (Spain),  supposed 
by  some  authorities  to  be  the  ancient  Tela, 
was  the  scene  of  a  victory  gained  by  the 
French  army,  under  Bessieres,  over  the 
Spaniards,  July  14,  1808,  when  the  town  of  Rio 
Seco  was  taken  and  pillaged.  The  Spaniards 
defeated  the  French  here,  Nov.  23,  1809  ;  but 
were,  in  their  turn,  defeated  and  dispersed 
Nov.  26,  and  the  French  entered  the  town 
Nov.  27. 

.MKDIXA  SIDONIA  (Spain)  was  taken  by 
Abderahman  1.  in  764,  and  surrendered  to 
Ah iln inso  X.  in  1254. 

MEDIOLANUM  IXSUBRUM  (Italy),  the 
capital  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  was  taken  by  the 
Humans  from  the  Insubres,  B.C.  222.  A  battle 
between  the  Romans  and  the  allied  Insubrians 
and  Boii,  in  which  the  latter  lost  several 
thousand  men,  took  place  here  B.C.  194.  It 
probably  submitted  with  the  other  towns  of 
the  Insubres  about  B.C.  190.  Under  the  Romans 
it  became  a  municipium,  and  rapidly  grew  in 
importance.  The  usurper  Aureolus  was  be- 
sieged here  in  268  by  the  Emperor  Gallienus, 
who  was  killed  by  the  hands  of  his  own  sol- 
diers in  the  course  of  the  siege  (March  20). 
The  place  subsequently  surrendered  to  Marcus 
Aurelius  Claudius  II.,  sumamed  Gothicus,  who 
put  Aureolus  to  death.  About  303  it  gained  in 
importance  by  being  chosen  as  the  residence 
of  the  Emperor  Maximian  I.,  who  thus  made 
it  the  capital  of  Northern  Italy.  For  a  cen- 
tury it  was  the  residence  of  successive  em- 
perors. Attila  ravaged  it  in  452,  and  it  was 
selected  as  a  residence  by  the  Gothic  king 
Odoacer  in  476.  Belisarius  having  taken  the 
place,  it  was  recovered  by  the  Goths  in  539, 
after  a  protracted  siege,  which  was  charac- 
terized by  great  barbarity  on  the  part  of  the 
besiegers.  They  put  the  male  inhabitants, 
300,000  in  number,  to  the  sword,  and  reduced 
the  women  to  slavery.  (See  MILAN.) 

MEDJIDIE.— This  Turkish  order  was  in- 
stituted in  1852,  and  was  conferred  on  several 
English  officers  who  served  in  the  Crimea. 

MEDLEY  CLOTHS.— (See  CLOTH.) 

MEDMENHAM  CLUB.— A  society  of  wits 
and  humorists  are  said  to  have  assembled  at 
Medmenham  Abbey,  Desborough,  Bucks,  in 


MEDSCHID 


[    645     ] 


MELBOURNE 


the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  They  took 
the  title  of  Monks  of  St.  Francis. 

MEDSCHID  or  MESCHED  ALI  (Asia),  the 
ancient  Hira  (q.  v.},  was  taken  in  1806  by  the 
Wahabees,  who  were  speedily  expelled  by  the 
inhabitants. 

MEEANEE,  or  MIYANI  (Battle).— Fought 
Feb.  17,  1843,  during  the  campaign  in  Scinde. 
Sir  Charles  Napier,  with  a  force  amounting 
only  to  2,600  men,  assailed  the  Belooches,  who 
mustered  30,000  infantry  and  5,000  cavalry, 
with  15  guns.  They  were  strongly  posted, 
their  wings  resting  on  large  woods  extending 
on  each  side  of  the  plain,  with  a  natural 
ravine  in  front  of  their  position.  After  a 
fierce  contest  of  three  hours'  duration,  the 
Belooches  gave  way,  leaving  their  artillery, 
stores,  &c.,  in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

MEERUT,  or  MERUT  (Hindustan),  an  an- 
cient city  of  Delhi,  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
first  conquests  of  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni,  in  1018. 
In  1240  it  resisted  the  forces  of  Turmacherin 
Khan  ;  but  in  1399  it  surrendered  to  Timour. 
Together  with  the  rest  of  the  district  in  which 
it  is  situated,  Meerut  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  British  in  1803,  and  it  was  selected 
as  the  seat  of  a  judicial  and  revenue  establish- 
ment in  1809.  The  native  troops,  after  having 
on  several  occasions  shown  signs  of  insubordi- 
nation, mutinied  here  May  10,  1857,  and  left 
for  Delhi  May  n. 

MEGALOPOLIS  (Greece),  or  the  "Great 
City,"  once  the  capital  of  Arcadia,  was 
founded  B.C.  370.  It  was  besieged  by  Poly- 
sperchon,  who  failed  in  the  attempt  to  take  it, 
B.C.  318,  it  joined  the  Achaean  League,  B.C.  239, 
and  was  captured  B.C.  222,  by  Cleomenes  III., 
who  laid  a  great  part  of  the  town  in  ruins.  It 
was  rebuilt,  but  never  regained  its  former  im- 
portance. 

M  E  G  A  R  A  (Greece),  according  to  some 
authorities,  was  founded  by  Car,  son  of  Pho- 
roneus,  while  others  attribute  its  origin  to 
Pandion,  in  the  reign  of  Pylas.  At  a  very 
early  period  the  city  was  conquered  by  the 
Dorians,  and  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  was  one 
of  the  most  nourishing  cities  of  Greece.  The 
Megarians  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Athe- 
nians B.C.  455,  and  surrendered  to  Philip  II. 
of  Macedon  after  the  battle  of  Chseronea  (q.  v.), 
Aug.  7,  B.C.  338.  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  de- 
clared it  a  free  city  B.C.  307,  and  it  joined  the 
Achaean  League  B.C.  242. 

MEGIDDO  (Battles).— Joshua  (xii.  21)  gained 

a  victory  over  its  king  B.C.  1451. The  Kings 

of  Canaan  fought  at  Taanach  (Judges  v.  19), 

near  the  waters  of  Megiddo,  B.C.  1265. King 

Josiah  was  killed  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  in  the 
valley  of  Megiddo,  B.C.  610  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 

MEHUDPORE  (Battle).— Sir  Thomas  Hislop 
defeated  Holkar  and  the  Mahratta  army  at  this 
town,  in  Hindostan,  Dec.  21,  1817. 

MEININGEN  (Germany)  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen  in 
1681. 

MEISSEN  (Saxony).— Founded  in  922,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  in  928,  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  I.,  who  built  a  castle,  long  the 
residence  of  the  ancient  Saxon  princes.  The 
cathedral,  founded  by  Otho  I.  (936 — 973),  con- 


tains some  antique  monuments,  and  some 
paintings  by  Albert  Durer  and  Cranach. 
Frederick  I.  founded  the  prince's  chapel  in 
1425.  The  castle  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt 
in  1471,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  celebrated 
china,  known  as  Dresden,  commenced  here  in 
1710.  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  entered  Meissen, 
on  the  retreat  of  the  Austrians,  Dec.  6,  1745, 
and  1,400  Prussians  surrendered  to  the  Aus- 
trians at  this  place,  Dec.  3,  1759.  A  part  of 
the  Prussian  army  attacked  the  French  at  the 
bridge  of  Meissen,  in  order  to  give  Blucher  an 
opportunity  of  crossing  the  Elbe  at  another 
point,  Oct.  i,  1813. 

MEISTERSINGERS,  or  MASTER8INGERS. 
— A  corporation  of  German  citizens,  formed  for 
the  cultivation  of  poetry  in  the  isth  century, 
and  the  successors  of  the  Minnesingers  (q.  v.}. 
They  are  said  to  have  originated  at  Mayence, 
whence  they  spread  to  Augsburg,  Nuremberg, 
Strasburg,  and  other  cities.  The  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  incorporated  them  in  1378,  and 
they  attained  great  celebrity  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. They  had  rules  like  other  corporations, 
and  the  members  were  obliged  to  submit  to 
an  apprenticeship.  The  most  celebrated  poems 
of  this  school  are,  "The  History  of  Reynard 
the  Foxe,"  translated  into  English  in  1481,  and 
the  "Owle  Glass,"  published  in  London  in 
1709.  Hans  Sachs,  the  shoemaker  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  wrote  much  between  1530  and  1538, 
was  a  celebrated  Meistersinger. 

MEKHITARISTS.— (See  MECHITARISTS.) 

MELAZZO,  or  MILAZZO  (Battle).— The 
Royalist  forces  were  defeated  near  this  town, 
the  ancient  Mylse  (q.  v.},  by  Garibaldi,  June 
20,  1860.  The  Royalists  having  taken  refuge 
in  the  town,  surrendered  June  21. 

MELBOURNE  (Australia),  named  after  Lord 
Melbourne,  at  that  time  prime  minister  of  Eng- 
land, made  the  capital  of  Port  Philip,  or  Victoria, 
in  1851,  is  seated  on  the  River  Yarra-Yarra. 
It  was  colonized  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  in 
1835,  and  was  officially  recognized  and  desig- 
nated in  1837.  Melbourne  was  made  a  muni- 
cipality in  1843,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop  in 
1847.  It  has  increased  rapidly  since  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  its  vicinity  in  1851.  It 
became  the  seat  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1852.  The  hospital  was  founded  in  1846. 
The  university  was  opened  in  April,  1855,  and 
the  post-office  in  1859.  A  flood,  caused  'by  the 
rising  of  the  waters  of  the  Yarra-Yarra  forty 
feet  above  their  usual  level,  submerged  the 
greater  portion  of  the  city,  and  destroyed 
about  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  property,  Dec. 
14—24,  1863.  The  first  stone  of  the  Victoria 
Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  laid  by 
Sir  C.  Darling,  March  6,  1866. 

MELBOURNE  ADMINISTRATIONS. 
— Owing  to  some  disagreement  respecting  the 
Irish  Coercion  Bill,  then  under  the  considera- 
tion of  Parliament,  Viscount  Althorp  resigned 
the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  July 
7,  1834,  and  Lord  Grey,  the  Prime  Minister, 
following  his  example,  resigned  July  9.  After 
certain  negotiations,  Viscount  Melbourne  kissed 
hands  as  Prime  Minister,  July  16.  Several 
members  of  the  Grey  administration  re- 
mained in  the  cabinet,  which  was  thus  con- 
stituted :— 


MELBOURNE 


[  646  ] 


MELODRAMA 


Treasury Viscount  Melbourne. 

Lord  Chancellor  Lord  Brougham. 

President  of  the  Council  Marquis  of   Lansdowne. 

Privy  Seal Karl  of  Mulgrave. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Viscount  Althorp. 

Home  Secretary Viscount  Duncannon. 

Foreign  Secretary   Viscount  I'almerston. 

Colonial  Secretary Hon.  S.  Rice. 

Admiralty Lord  Auckland. 

Board  of  Control    Mr.  Charles  Grant 

I'ostmaster-denernl   Marquis  of  Conyngham. 

Chancellor  of   the  Duchy  of  1       rf  Holland. 

Lancaster ) 

Paymaster  of  the  Korces  Lord  John  Russell. 

Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland Mr.  E.  J.  Littleton. 

The  death  of  Lord  Spencer,  Nov.  10,  rendered 
new  arrangements  respecting  the  chancellor- 
ship of  the  exchequer  necessary,  as  Viscount 
Althorp  succeeded  to  his  father's  title.  Vis- 
count Melbourne  went  to  Brighton  Nov.  ^  14, 
1834,  to  make  certain  propositions  to  William 
IV.,  who  informed  him  that  he  should  not 
require  him  to  complete  the  arrangements, 
and  the  first  Melbourne  administration  was 
dissolved.  (.SVc  l'i:i:i,  KIUST  A  i  ..MINISTRATION.) 

The  second  Melbourne  administration  was 

formed  on  the  resignation  of  the  first  Peel 
administration,  April  8,  1835,  and  was  an- 
nounced in  both  houses  of  Parliament,  April 
1 8.  The  cabinet  consisted  of— 

Treasury. 


nint  Melbourne. 

mi.-  of  l.;m-il,j\\  lie. 


ITesid.'i'il  of  the  Council Marquis  . 

***  S"al «?££•  Bice.,  created 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer    <     I-ord    Monteagle,    Aug. 

Home  Secretary  Lord  John  Hussell. 

Foreign  Secretary  


Colonial  Secretary 


Lord  Palinerston. 
Mr.   Charles   i ; rant,  made 
Huron    Ulcnelg,  May  4, 


IB35- 
OP  I  A 


Lord  Auckland. 


Board  of  Trade  ..................  <     created  Baron     s\,leu- 

(     ham,  Aug.  IO,  1840. 

Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  j  L    d  HoUand. 
Lancaster   .....................  ) 

The  great  seal  was  placed  in  commission.  The 
Earl  <if  Minto  succeeded  Lord  Auckland  at  the 
Admiralty  Sep.  19,  1835.  Sir  C.  C.  Pepys,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Cotteiiham,  was  made  lord 
chancellor  Jan.  19,  1836.  Mr.  Francis  Thorn- 
hill  Baring  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
Aug.  26,  1839;  the  Marquis  of  Normanby  be- 
came colonial  minister  Feb.  20,  1839,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  succeeded  him  Aug.  30,  1839. 
The  Earl  of  Clarendon  became  privy  seal  Jan. 
15,  1840.  Mr.  T.  B.  (afterwards  Lord)  Macau- 
lay  became  secretary  at  war  Sep.  27,  1839  I  Mr- 
Henry  Labouchere  was  made  president  of  the 
board  of  trade,  in  place  of  Mr.  Poulett  Thom- 
son Aug.  29,  1839;  and  the  Earl  of  Clarendon 
took  the  chancellorship  of  the  duchy  of  Lan- 
caster Oct.  20,  1840.  Ministers  only  obtained 
a  majority  of  five  in  committee  on  the  Jamaica 
Suspension  bill,  May  6,  1839,  whereupon  they 
resigned,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  aided  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  undertook  the  task  of 
forming  an  administration.  They  obtained  the 
co-operation  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen,  Lord  Ellenborough,  Lord  Stanley, 
Sir  James  Graham,  Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  and 
Mr.  Goulbum  ;  but  the  Queen  refused  to  dis- 
miss the  ladies  of  the  bedchamber,  May  10, 


and  Sir  Robert  Peel  abandoned  the  task,  the 
Melbourne  administration  being  reinstated  in 
office.  A  vote  of  want  of  confidence  in  ministers, 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Commons  by  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  was  carried  June  4,  1841,  by  312 
to  311,  whereupon  ministers  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment. After  the  recess,  a  vote  of  want  of  con- 
fidence, introduced  in  both  branches  of  the 
legislature,  was  carried  against  ministers  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  Aug.  24,  by  168  to  72,  and 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  Aug.  27,  by  360  to 
269 ;  and  the  resignation  of  the  ministry  was 
announced  in  both  houses  Aug.  30.  (See  PEEL 
(SECOND)  ADMINISTRATION.) 

MELCHITES,  or  IMPERIALISTS.— Those 
who  sided  neither  with  the  Eutychians  nor  the 
Nestorians  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  Oct.  8 
— Nov.  i,  451,  first  received  this  mime. Mem- 
bers of  the  orthodox  party  in  the  Monophy- 
site  controversy  at  Alexandria,  about  537, 
were  styled  Melchites,  a  Syrian  word,  mean- 
ing Imperialists,  because  they  adhered  to  the 
faith  of  their  emperors.  The  name  is  applied 
to  Christians  in  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the 
East,  who  were  induced  by  the  Jesuits  in  the 
1 7th  century  to  use  the  liturgy  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Greek,  or  Eastern  Church,  whilst 
acknowledging  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and 
accepting  the  Romish  doctrines. 

MKLKTIAXS,  the  followers  of  Meletius, 
Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Thebais,  who  was 
deposed  by  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  at  a 
council  at  Alexandria,  in  301.  The  Meletians 
afterwards  made  common  cause  with  the 
A  rims.  The  Council  of  Nictwa,  June  19 — Aug. 
25,  325,  in  vain  attempted  to  heal  the  breach. 
They  were  numerous  about  306.  Mosheim, 
who  states  that  the  cause  of  the  deposition  of 
'.Meletiu-s  is  involved  in  uncertainty,  says  that 
the  Mcletian  party  was  in  existence  in  the  sth 
century. 

MKLFI,  or  MELPIII  (Italy).— This  ancient 
town,  made  the  capital  of  the  Norman  states 
of  Apulia  in  1042,  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  Aug.  14,  1851.  The  cathedral  and 
all  the  principal  buildings  were  overwhelmed, 
and  about  600  persons  were  killed. 

MELIGNANO,  or  MELEGNANO.— (See  MA- 
RIONANO,  Battle.) 

MELITENA,  or  MELITENE  (Armenia).— 
Trajan  198 — 117)  erected  it  into  a  city,  and 
Anastasius  I.  (491 — 518;,  and  Justinian  I.  (527 — 
65)  surrounded  it  with  walls.  A  council  was 
held  here  in  357.  (See  EUSTATHIAXS.) 

MELITENA.,  or  MELITENE  (Battle).— The 
Persian  monarch,  Chosroes  I.  (Nushirvan), 
fought  a  great  battle  at  this  place,  the  modern 
Malathiah,  in  Lesser  Armenia,  in  577.  Chos- 
roes I.  retreated  the  day  after  the  battle, 
burning  the  town  before  he  retired. 

MELLINGEN  (Battle).— The  French  defeated 
the  Swiss  at  the  passage  of  the  Reuss,  at  Mel- 
lingen,  in  1798. 

MELODICA. — This  keyed  instrument  was 
invented  by  Stein,  at  Augsburg,  in  1770. 

MELODICON.— This  keyed  instrument  was 
invented  by  Peter  Riffelsen,  of  Copenhagen,  in 

MELODISTS'  CLUB.— (See  CONCERT.) 
MELODRAMA.— Is  said  to  have  been  first 
applied  to  a  kind  of  opera  by   Rinuccini,  a 


MELON 


[    647    ] 


MEMPHIS 


Florentine,  who  died  in  1621.  The  dramatic 
entertainment  known  in  England  by  the 
name  was  introduced  by  Thomas  Holcroft, 
who  was  born,  in  London  Dec.  10,  1745  (O.S.), 
and  died  March  23,  1809.  His  first  comedy 
appeared  in  1781. 

MELON. — The  musk  melon  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Jamaica  in  1570,  and  the 
water  melon  from  Italy  in  1597. 

MELORA,  or  MELORIA  (Sea-fight).  — The 
Pisans  defeated  the  Genoese  in  a  naval  battle 
at  this  place,  near  Leghorn,  in  1241,  and  the 
Genoese  defeated  the  Pisans  in  another, 
fought  at  the  same  place,  Aug.  6,  1284. 

MELOS  (JEgeau  Sea),  one  of  the  Cyclades,  is 
said  to  have  been  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians, 
and  at  a  later  period  to  have  received  a  colony 
of  Lacedaemonians.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
Athenians,  under  Nicias,  B.C.  426,  and  was 
again  invaded  by  a  large  force  B.C.  416.  The 
city  was  besieged  by  sea  and  laud,  but  held 
out  for  several  months.  Two  successful  sallies 
were  made  by  the  Melians,  but  their  provisions 
having  become  exhausted,  they  surrendered 
at  discretion.  The  victors  put  all  the  men 
capable  of  bearing  arms  to  death,  and  sold  the 
women  and  children  for  slaves,  500  Athenian 
settlers  being  sent  to  form  a  new  colony.  A 
Peloponnesian  squadron,  under  Antisthenes, 
defeated  the  Athenian  navy  here  B.C.  413.  The 
Lacedaemonians,  under  Lysander,  having 
defeated  the  Athenians,  their  colony  was  re- 
called, and  the  captive  Melians  restored  to 
their  country,  B.C.  404.  It  subsequently  be- 
came part  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks,  under  Soliman  I.  (1520 
—  1566).  It  is  called  Milo,  and  is  included  in 
the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece. 

MELPUM.— This  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  was 
destroyed  by  a  force  of  Insubrii  Boii  and 
Senones,  B.C.  396. 

MELRICHSTADT  (Battle).— An  undecided 
battle  between  Rodolph  of  Swabia  and  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.  was  fought  at  this  place, 
in  Fraiiconia,  in  1078. 

MELROSE  (Scotland).— This  site,  occupied 
by  a  Culdee  house,  called  Old  Melrose,  after 
the  1 2th  century,  founded  in  635,  and  burned 
by  Kenneth  II.  in  839,  or,  according  to  other 
authorities,  by  the  Danes  in  850,  was  super- 
seded by  an  abbey  for  Cistercian  monks, 
founded  in  1136  by  David  I.,  and  completed  in 
1146.  In  1322  it  was  destroyed  by  Edward  II. 
In  1326  it  was  rebuilt  by  Robert  Bruce,  and 
completed  inthereignof  JameslV.  (1488 — 1513). 
It  was  again  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1545. 
The  chronicle  of  Melrose,  containing  annals 
from  731  to  1275,  was  printed  in  1684  and  1835. 

MELTON  MOWBRAY  (Leicestershire), 
called  Medeltune  and  Meltone  Mowbray, 
received  the  name  of  Mowbray  from  its 
ancient  lords,  by  command  of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 
89.)  In  1613  the  town  was  considerably  dam- 
aged by  fire,  and  in  1637  the  plague  raged  with 
great  violence.  A  battle  was  fought  here 
between  the  Royalists  and  the  Parliamentary 
troops,  the  latter,  2,000  strong,  being  routed 
with  great  slaughter,  in  1645.  In  1736  the 
church,  a  handsome  and  spacious  structure 
with  lofty  towers,  was  struck  by  lightning, 
and  fragments  of  the  south  and  north-east 


pinnacles,  weighing  from  5  cwt.  to  6  cwt., 
were  precipitated  through  the  north  transept. 
MELUN  (France),  the  ancient  Melodunum, 
a  town  of  the  Senones,  was  taken  by  Clovis  I. 
in  494,  and  by  the  Northmen  in  the  gth  century. 
Councils  were  held  here  in  1216,  Nov.  8,  1225, 
and  Jan.  21,  1301.  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  first 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Melun, 
commenced  in  June,  1359,  and  terminated  by 
the  surrender  of  the  city  to  the  Dauphin. 
Henry  V.  of  England  took  it  in  1420,  and  the 
French  recovered  possession  in  1435. 

MEMEL  (Prussia).— This  town,  built  in  1279, 
was  fortified  in  1312.  It  was  greatly  damaged 
by  fire  in  1323,  and  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1404.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1757,  and  again  occupied  by 
them  in  Dec.,  1813.  The  king  and  queen  of 
Prussia  concluded  a  convention  with  Napoleon 
I.  at  this  town  in  1807.  Large  portions  of  the 
town  were  destroyed  by  fires  in  1379,  1457, 
1540, 1678,  and  again  Oct.  4,  1854. 
MEMLOOKS.— (See  MAMELUKES.) 
MEMMINGEN  (Germany)  was  ceded  to 
Bavaria  by  arrangements  definitively  con- 
cluded Feb.  25,  1803.  It  was  fortified  by  Mack 
in  1805,  was  taken  by  the  French  Oct.  9,  and 
the  Tyrolese  occupied  it  in  1809. 
MEMNONIUM.— (See  LIBRARY  and  THEBES.) 
MEMPHIS  (Egypt).— Herodotus  ascribes  the 
foundation  of  this  place,  the  Moph  of  the  Old 
Testament,  to  Menes,  first  King  of  Egypt, 
B.C.  3893,  according  to  Lepsius ;  B.C.  3643, 
according  to  Bunsen;  B.C.  2412,  according  to 
Hales  ;  and  B.C.  2320,  according  to  Wilkinson. 
Some  fix  as  the  date  of  its  foundation  B.C.  2188  ; 
and  Diodorus  Siculus  ascribes  it  to  Uchoreus, 
one  of  the  successors  of  Osymandyas,  King  of 
Thebes,  B.C.  2100.  In  order  to  reconcije  the 
discrepancy  in  these  statements,  some  his- 
torians ascribe  its  foundation  to  Menes,  and  its 
completion  and  extension  to  Uchoreus,  who 
first  made  it  a  royal  city.  Memphis  was  taken 
by  the  Persians  under  Cambyses,  B.C.  525, 
when  many  of  its  temples  and  palaces  were 
destroyed.  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  who 
wintered  here  B.C.  332,  did  it  much  injury 
by  founding  Alexandria.  Memphis,  made 
the  capital  B.C.  272,  was  taken  by  Aiitiochus 
Epiphanes  B.C.  171,  and  was  visited  and  re- 
stored by  Septimius  Severus,  in  202.  In 
the  7th  century  it  passed  under  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Arabs,  and  gradually  fell  into 
decay,  Cairo  being  built  from  its  rums.  The 
Arabian  traveller  Abdallatif  visited  it  in  the 
1 2th  century.  The  ruins  were  discovered 
and  excavated  by  M.  Mariette,  between 
1850  and  1854.  The  most  celebrated  of  its 
sacred  buildings  were,  the  temple  of  Ptah,  or 
Hephsestos, — the  elemental  principle  of  fire, — 
said  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  foundation 
of  the  eity,  and  improved  and  beautified  by 
several  monarchs  ;  the  temple  of  Proteus,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phoanicians  about 
the  sera  of  the  Trojan  war ;  the  temple  of  Isis, 
founded  at  an  early  period,  and  completed  by 
Amasis  B.C.  564  ;  and  the  temple  of  Apis,  called 
the  cathedral  of  Egypt,  founded  by  Psammeti- 
chuo.  Memphis  ceased  to  be  the  metropolis 
of  Egypt  on  the  foundation  of  Alexandria,  B.C. 
332.  It  soon  after  fell  into  obscurity,  and  of 


MEMPHIS 


[    648    ] 


MERCANTILE 


this  celebrated  city,  which,  according  to 
Diodorus,  was  seven  leagues  in  circumference, 
and  contained  numerous  beautiful  temples, 
not  one  stone  remains,  —  even  the  site  011 
which  it  stood  being  disputed. 

MEMPHIS  (N.  America;.— This  town,  in  Ten- 
nessee, founded  early  in  the  century,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Federals  June  6, 1862.  An  engage- 
ment between  the  Confederate  boats  and  the  Fe-" 
deral  fleet  took  place  off  the  town  the  same  day. 

MKNAI  STRAIT  (Wales).— The  Romans 
crossed  this  strait,  separating  Caernarvonshire 
from  the  island  of  Anglesey,  to  attack  the 
Druids  in  their  last  stronghold,  in  59.  A  ferry- 
boat was  lost,  containing  50  persons,  Dec.  4, 
1785.  A  suspension-bridge  over  the  strait,  100 
feet  above  the  level  of  high  water,  was  com- 
menced by  Telford  in  1818,  and  completed  in 
1825,  at  a  cost  of -j£i 20,000.  The  bridge  was 
opened  Jan.  30,  1826.  The  Britannia  tubular 
bridge,  101  feet  above  the  level  of  high  water, 
was  completed  by  Stephenson  March  5,  1850,  at 
a  cost  of  ,£621,865. 

MENDE  (France).— This  town,  under  the 
rule  of  its  bishops  from  an  early  age  till  1306, 
was  fortified  by  Bishop  Adalbert  in  1151.  It 
was  frequently  besieged  during  the  religious 
wars  of  the  i6th  century;  and  Henry  IV.  of 
France  destroyed  its  citadel  in  1597. 

MENDICANTS.  or  MKGGING  FRIARS,  re- 
ligious orders  in  the  Romish  Church,  supported 
by  charitable  contributions,  were  established 
in  1215,  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  They  increased 
rapidly  in  numbers,  and  became  a  great  bur- 
then not  only  to  the  people  but  to  the  Church, 
(iregory  X.,  by  the  23rd  article  of  the  Consti- 
tutions of  the  Council  of  Lyons,  May  7 — July 
17,  1274,  reduced  the  mendicant  orders  to  four : 
viz.,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and 
Augustines,  or  Austin  l-'riars.  The  Domini- 
cans and  Franciscans  obtained  great  power 
both  in  Church  and  State.  Their  influence 
began  to  decline  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Reformation  in  the  i6th  century.  (See  JACO- 
BITES.) 

M  KN'DICITY  SOCIETY  (London),  for  the 
suppression  of  mendicity,  was  founded  in  1818. 
It  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  checking 
the  practice  of  public  begging,  by  putting  the 
laws  in  force  against  impostors  who  adopt  it 
as  a  trade,  and  by  affording  prompt  and  effec- 
tual assistance  to  those  whom  sudden  calamity 
and  unaffected  distress  may  render  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  the  benevolent. 

MENDOZA  (South  America),  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  March  20,  1861.  The  city,  situated 
011  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cordilleras,  was  in 
one  moment  reduced  to  a  mass  of  ruins.  The 
calamity  occurred  at  about  a  quarter  to  nine, 
p.m.  Out  of  a  population  of  12,000  souls, 
10,000  were  buried,  and  of  these  2,000  were 
rescued,  many  of  them  having  sustained 
severe  injuries.  The  same  night  a  fire  "broke 
out  among  the  ruins  of  one  of  the  largest 
buildings  in  the  city,  and  about  600  persons 
were  actually  burned  alive.  An  eye-witness 
remarks,  "This  earthquake  is  probably  the 
worst  on  record ;  never  was  destruction  so 
complete." 


MENEHOULD,  ST.  (France). -This  ancient 
town  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1436,  and 
afterwards  sustained  several  sieges.  A  peace 
was  concluded  here  May  15,  1614,  with  Conde" 
and  some  nobles  who  had  revolted,  and  by  one 
of  the  articles  the  Etats-Ge'ne'raux  assembled 
at  Paris  in  October.  It  was  the  last  meeting 
under  the  old  monarchy.  The  Spaniards,  who 
took  it  in  1652,  were  expelled  in  1653. 

"MENES  ( JSra).— The  sera  of  Menes,  the  first 
king  of  Egypt,  is  fixed  by  Lopsius,  B.C.  3893  ; 
by  Bunsen,  B.C.  3643  ;  by  Hales,  B.C.  2412 ;  by 
Wilkinson,  B.C.  2320;  and  by  Prichard,  B.C.  2214. 

MENIN  (Belgium).— The  allied  army  took 
possession  of  this  town  Aug.  25,  1706,  and  it 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  June,  1744. 

M  E  N  N  O  N  I  T  ES.— A  sect  of  Anabaptists 
founded  by  Menno,  sumamed  Simonis,  in  1536. 
Born  at  Witmarsum,  in  Friesland,  in  1505,  and 
commencing  life  as  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  be- 
came a  convert  to  the  Anabaptists  in  1536,  and 
was  allowed  to  settle  in  the  United  Provinces 
by  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  towards  the 
close  of  the  i6th  century.  Meiino  died  in  Hol- 
steiii  Jan.  13, 1561.  In  1630  and  1649, conferences 
of  the  Anabaptists  of  Germany,  Flanders,  and 
Friesland  were  held  at  Amsterdam,  when  the 
rigorous  laws  of  their  founder  were  mitigated. 
During  the  1 7th  century  they  obtained  tolera- 
tion in  England,  Holland,  and  Germany.  The 
Mennonites  of  the  United  States,  at  their  annual 
conference  at  Germantown,  March  6  and  7, 
1865,  passed  a  series  of  resolutions  in  favour  of 
the  Federals.  (See  GALENISTS.) 

.M  ION'S  A  KT  TI10HO.—  This  partial  kind  of 
divorce,  ii  i,«  ,i*d  <i  tlioro  (from  table  and  bed), 
effected  by  a  sentence  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  but  not  annulling  the  marriage,  was 
superseded  by  a  decree  for  a  judicial  separa- 
tion, under  the  7th  clause  of  20  &  21  Viet.  c. 
85  (Aug.  28,  1857).  (See  DIVORCE.) 

M  i:\SURATION.-The  origin  of  this  science 
is  uncertain,  though  it  is  generally  ascribed  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  Euclid,  B.C.  320,  a 
mathematician  of  Alexandria,  was  the  first 
who  embodied  the  leading  principles  into  a 
regular  system.  Archimedes,  B.C.  250,  a  fa- 
mous geometrician  of  Syracuse,  made  great 
discoveries  in  this  science.  Cavalieri,  an  Ita- 
lian mathematician,  who  died  at  Bologna  Dec. 
3,  1647,  invented  and  applied  to  this  science 
the  celebrated  doctrine  of  indivisibles.  This, 
however,  was  superseded  by  Newton's  (born 
1642,  died  March  20,  1727)  still  more  celebrated 
method  of  fluxions. 

MENTONE.— (See  MONACO.) 

MENTZ.— (See  MAYENCE.) 

MENU,  or  MANU  (Institutes).— A  code  of 
Indian  civil  and  religious  law,  named  after 
Menu,  son  of  Bramah,  by  whom  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  revealed.  Its  origin  is  ascribed 
to  the  period  between  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C. 
927)  and  the  Twelve  Tables  of  the  Romans,  B.C. 
450.  According  to  Schlegel,  it  was  seen  by 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  B.C.  336 — 323.  In 
1 794  it  was  translated  into  English  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones,  and  in  1830  into  French  by  Des 
Longchamps. 

MERCANTILE  MARINE  ACT,  13  &  14 
Viet.  c.  93  (Aug.  14,  1850),  which  provides  for 
the  engagement  of  merchant  seamen  for  sani- 


MERCARA 


[    649    ] 


MERCY 


tary  measures  during  voyages,  for  naval  courts, 
log-books,  desertions,  wages,  and  other  matters 
connected  with  the  merchant  service,  was 
amended  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  7,  1851). 
The  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act  (19  &  20 
Viet.  c.  6cO,  assimilating  the  law  in  Scotland 
to  the  English  law  on  the  subject,  was  passed 
July  21. 

MERCARA,  or  MERCARAH  (Hindostan).— 
This  fortress,  the  capital  of  Coorg,  built  by 
Hyder  Ali  in  1773,  was  taken  by  the  East 
India  Company's  forces  in  1834,  and  annexed 
to  their  dominions. 

MERCATOR'S  PRO JECTION.— This  method 
of  geographical  projection,  employed  in  the 
construction  of  nautical  maps,  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Gerard  Mercator,  the  Latin 
name  given  to  Gerhard  Kauffmann,  born  at 
Rtippelmonde,  in  East  Flanders,  March  5,  1512. 
He  died  at  Doesburg,  Dec.  2,  1594.  Edward 
Wright,  who  died  in  1615,  first  investigated 
the  principles  and  applied  them  to  purposes  of 
navigation.  His  theory  is  explained  in  "Cer- 
tain Errors  in  Navigation  Detected  and  Cor- 
rected," published  in  1599. 

MERCERS'  COMPANY  can  be  traced  back 
as  a  metropolitan  guild  to  1172,  and  was  in- 
corporated by  letters  patent  (17  Richard  II.)  in 
1394.  Richard  II.  was  a  free  brother,  and 
Queen  Elizabeth  a  free  sister,  of  the  Mercers' 
Company.  The  charter  was  confirmed  and  re- 
newed Feb.  14,  1425,  and  Dec.  22,  1684.  It 
ranks  first  amongst  the  12  great  livery  compa- 
nies of  London,  and  is  governed  by  a  prime  and 
three  other  wardens,  and  40  assistants,  with 
232  liverymen.  The  hall  was  built  in  1672. 
There  is  scarcely  a  single  mercer  in  the  com- 
pany. 

MERCHANT  ADVENTURERS.— This  cele- 
brated commercial  company,  said  to  have  ori- 
ginated in  the  London  Mercers'  Company,  ob- 
tained privileges  from  John  of  Brabant  in 
1296,  and  established  themselves  at  Antwerp 
under  the  title  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St. 
Thomas  Becket.  In  1358  they  were  encouraged 
by  Louis,  Count  of  Flanders,  who  permitted 
them  to  form  an  establishment  at  Bruges  ;  and 
in  1406  they  received  their  first  charter  from 
Henry  IV.  of  England.  Edward  IV.  granted  a 
new  charter  in  1466.  Their  importance  was 
much  increased  by  the  celebrated  treaty  known 
as  the  Intercursus  magnus,  which  was  con- 
cluded between  Henry  VII.  and  Philip,  Arch- 
duke of  the  Netherlands,  Feb.  24,  1496  ;  and 
in  1497  the  company  began  to  assume  the  title 
of  the  Merchant  Adventurers.  Henry  VIII. 
granted  them  a  charter  in  1513  ;*  Queen  Eliza- 
beth granted  them  a  charter  in  1560,  and  a 
second,  July  8,  1564,  confirming  all  former 
charters  and  privileges.  Owing  to  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Hanse  towns,  they  were  tempo- 
rarily expelled  from  Germany  in  1597,  but 
they  were  soon  invited  to  return.  James  I. 
granted  them  a  charter  in  1617,  and  their  pri- 
vileges were  confirmed  by  Charles  I.  in  1634. 
They  settled  at  Dort  in  1647,  and  made  Ham- 


*  Their  first  charter  of  incorporation  was  dated  Feb.  6, 
1554,  »i  which  they  were  described  as  "The  Merchant  Ad- 
venturers for  the  Discoveries  of  Lands,  Countries,  Isles," 
&c.,  not  before  known  or  frequented  by  the  English. 


burg  their  principal  staple  about  1651.  After 
1 66 1  Hamburg  became  their  only  foreign  sta- 
tion. In  1765  the  company  published  a  report, 
wherein  they  stated  that  their  trade  had  been 
long  declining. 

MERCHANTS.  —  By  Magna  Charta  (1215) 
foreign  merchants  were  allowed  to  come,  go, 
and  stay  in  England  for  the  exercise  of  their 
calling  without  being  subject  to  unreasonable 
imposts.  By  27  Edw.  III.  (1353)  it  was  enacted 
that  if  any  difference  should  arise  between  the 
king  and  a  foreign  state,  the  alien  merchant 
was  to  have  40  days',  or  longer,  notice  to 
leave  the  country.  By  5  Rich  II.  (1382)  English 
merchants  were  exempted  from  this  statute, 
which  restrains  English  subjects  from  leaving 
the  kingdom  without  a  licence.  By  8  Henry 
VI.  (1429)  none  were  allowed  to  sell  to  mer- 
chant strangers  but  for  ready  money.  In  1561 
the  number  of  merchants  in  London  was  327. 
During  the  threatened  Spanish  invasion,  300 
met  weekly  to  practise  the  art  of  war.  In 
1588  some  of  these  held  commands  at  Tilbury. 
From  time  to  time  companies  of  merchants 
were  established  in  London  for  foreign  trade. 
The  Barbary  merchants  were  incorporated  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the  Levant  or 
Turkey  Company  was  established  in  1581. 
Their  success  led  to  the  formation  of  the  old 
East  India  Company,  which  had  a  monopoly 
of  the  traffic  until  a  new  company  was  incor- 
porated by  9  Will.  III.  (1698),  on  condition  of 
their  lending  the  Government  ^2,000,000.  Both 
companies  were  subsequently  united.  In 
France,  Louis  XIV.  passed  two  decrees,  in 
1669  and  1701,  allowing  the  nobles  to  trade 
by  land  and  sea  without  derogating  from 
their  nobility.  An  attempt,  made  in  1711, 
to  exclude  merchants  from  the  House  of 
Commons  failed.  (See  ACTON  BURNEL,  and 
CAURSINES). 

MERCHANT  TAYLORS.— This  company, 
formerly  called  the  Guild  of  Taylors  and 
Linen  Armourers,  was  incorporated  by  Ed- 
ward IV.  in  1466.  As  many  of  the  mem- 
bers were  great  merchants,  Henry  VII.  re- 
incorporated  them  in  1503,  under  the  title 
of  Merchant  Taylors  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
In  1607,  June  7,  a  great  banquet  was  given  to 
James  I.,  which  cost  above  ,£1,000.  This  com- 
pany includes  more  royal  and  noble  personages 
among  its  members  than  any  of  the  city  com- 
panies. The  hall,  built  in  1430,  and  destroyed 
in  the  fire  of  1666,  was  rebuilt  and  reopened 
Nov.  3,  1671.  The  Merchant  Taylors'  School 
was  founded  Sep.  24,  1561. 

MERCIA  (England).— This  ancient  kingdom, 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Angles, 
under  Crida,  in  586,  was  conquered  by  the 
Northumbrians  in  655,  and  soon  after  regained 
its  independence.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop- 
ric, though  little  is  known  of  its  history. 

MERCURY.— The  transit  of  this  planet  over 
the  sun  was  first  observed  by  Gassendi,  in 
1631.  (See  CALOMEL,  HARLEQUIN,  and  QUICK- 
SILVER.) 

MERCY,  or  LADY  OF  MERCY  (Order).- 
It  was  established  in  1218  by  James  I. 
of  Aragon,  in  the  city  of  Barcelona,  for 
the  purpose  of  redeeming  Christian  cap- 
tives in  the  power  of  the  Moors.  It  is  some- 


MERGUI 


[    650    ] 


MERTON 


times  called  St.  Eulalia,  from  the  name  of  the 
patron  saint  of  the  principal  church  in  that 
city.  It  was  extended  to  ladies  in  1261.  A 
dispute  between  the  knights  and  priests  of 
the  order  about  the  election  of  a  master,  de- 
cided in  favour  of  the  priests  by  Pope  John 
XXI.  or  XXII.  (1316—34),  led  to  the  withdrawal 
of  the  knights,  and  the  society  from  that  time 
has  been  composed  entirely  of  priests.  In  i68'8 
the  Duchess  of  Dudley  bequeathed  .£100  per 
annum  for  the  liberation  of  English  captives. 

MERGUI  (Hindostiin).— This  town,  in  Te- 
iiasserirn,  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1824, 
and  was  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Yandaboo,  Feb.  24,  1826. 

M  E  R  I  D  A  (Mexico),  in  Yucatan,  was 
founded  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  site  of  a 
Mexican  city  in  1542.  The  "  Cozumel  Cross," 
supposed  to  have  been  originally  worshipped 
by  the  natives  of  Cozumel,  is  preserved  at 
llerida. 

MERIDA,  or  EMERITA  AUGUSTA  (Spain), 
the  ancient  metropolis  of  Lusitania,  a  town  of 
great  antiquity,  was  built  by  the  legate  Pub- 
lius  (Jarisius,  B.C.  24.  The  Moors,  under  Musa, 
took  it  in  712;  but  they  allowed  the  inhabi- 
tants to  retain  their  temples,  creed,  and 
bishops.  It  was  taken  from  the  Moors  Nov.  19, 
1229,  from  which  time  it  began  to  decline. 
Philip  11.,  in  1580,  ordered  drawings  tobe  made 
of  the  ruins,  which  in  1734  were  burned  in  the 
palace  at  Madrid.  The  French  took  Merida 
June  8,  1811.  At  Aroyo  des  Molinos,  near  this 
town,  the  English,  under  Gen.  Hill,  defeated 
the  French,  under  Girard,  Oct.  28,  1811.  Merida 
was  wrested  from  the  French  by  the  English  in 
April,  1812. 

MKUIXKS,  or  MERINITES.— This  Moorish 
tribe  appeared  iu  the  north- west  pails  <>f 
Africa  in  1213.  They  made  themselves  masters 
of  Fez,  and  before  1268  had  established  their 
supremacy  throughout  Morocco.  Under  their 
king,  Abu  Juzef,  they  entered  Spain  in  1274, 
and  withdrew  in  1294.  (See  ECIJA.) 

.Ml 'Hi  I  NO  SHLK1'  were  first  brought  into 
England  from  Spain  in  1788,  and  a  second  fluck 
was  imported  in  1791.  Some  authorities  be- 
lieve that  the  merinos  are  descended  from 
English  sheep  imported  into  Spain.  Edward 
IV.,  in  1464,  sent  a  score  of  Costal  ewes  and 
four  rams  to  John  II.,  King  of  Aragon. 
Catherine,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  had 
a  flock  of  sheep  as  her  dowry  in  1390.  Merino 
sheep  were  introduced  into  the  German  states 
in  1765,  into  Hungary  in  1775,  and  into  France 
in  1786. 

.MMIMAID  CLUB  (London),  called  by  Hal- 
lam  "the  oldest, perhaps,  and  not  the  worst  of 
clubs,"  was  established  at  the  Mermaid  (whence 
the  name)  Tavern,  in  Bread  Street,  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  at  the  beginning  of  the  i7th 
century.  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Selden, 
Donne,  Camden,  Beaumont,  and  Fletcher,  were 
members  of  this  celebrated  association. 

MEROE  (Africa).— This  ancient  kingdom  of 
Central  Africa  is  considered  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  military  caste  which  removed 
from  Egypt  during  the  reign  of  Psammetichus  I. 
(B.C.  660 — 614).  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  capi- 
tal were  discovered  by  Caillaud  between  1819 
and  1822. 


MEROVINGIANS,  the  first  race  of  the  kings 
of  France  (f).  v.),  who  reigned  from  418  to  752. 
The  name  Merovingian  is  derived  from  Mero- 
vgeus,  the  third  king,  who  began  to  reign  in 
45 T.  The  French  monarchy  was  founded  in 
481  by  Clovis  I.,  the  fifth  of  the  Merovingian 
race. 

MERRY  ANDREW.— Hearne  is  of  opinion 
that  this  term  originated  from  Andrew  Borde, 
a  physician,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  says,  "Twas  from  the  doctor's 
method  of  using  such  speeches  at  markets  and 
fairs,  that  in  after-times  those  that  imitated 
the  like  humorous,  jocose  language,  were  styled 
Merry  Andrews,  a  term  much  in  vogue  on  our 

MERSEBURG  (Battles).— Henry  I.  (the 
Fowler),  Emperor  of  Germany,  defeated  the 
Hungarians  at  this  town,  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
in  934.  The  Hungarians  are  said  to  have  lost 
40,000  men.  This  extended  plain,  between 
Mcrseburg  and  Leipsic,  became  the  scene  of 
numerous  battles  in  later  times.  During  the 
contention  between  the  Emperor  Henry  i  V .  and 
Gregory  VII.  a  great  battle  was  fought  here 
between  the  papal  and  the  imperial  forces. 
Henry  IV.  having  invaded  Saxony,  was  de- 
feated in  1080.  Rudolph  of  Swabia  was  killed 
in  the  encounter,  and  Henry  IV.  took  the  city 
of  Morseburg  soon  after. 

Mh'USLY  ISLAND  ,Kssex).— The  Danes  as- 
sembled here  in  895,  and  made  excursions  up 
the  rivers  Lea  and  Thames. 

MKRTIiYU  TYDV1L  (Wales).— This  place 
derives  its  name  from  Tydvil,  daughter  of 
Brychan,  Prince  of  Brycheiniog  in  the  sth  cen- 
tury. The  first  congregation  of  dissenters  in 
Wales  was  funned  here  in  1620.  The  Glamor- 
ganshire canal,  connecting  Merthyr  Tydvil 
with  Cardiff,  was  completed  in  1796.  Serious 
riots  occurred  amongst  the  workmen  at  the 
Iron-works,  June  3,  1831,  when  several  lives 
were  lost.  An  explosion  of  gas  that  occurred 
in  the  Cethin  coal-pit  at  this  town,  resulted  in 
the  destruction  of  50  lives,  Feb.  19,  1862.  A 
colliery  explosion,  which  caused  the  death  of 
upwards  of  30  persons,  occurred  here,  Dec.  20, 
1865. 

MERTON  (Surrey)  was  anciently  called 
Meretuii.  Cynewulph,  King  of  Wessex,  was 
murdered  here  in  784.  Ethelred  and  his  brother 
Alfred,  afterwards  king,  fought  a  great  battle 
with  the  Danes  at  this  place,  in  the  spring  of 
871.  The  English,  at  first  victorious,  were 
eventually  compelled  to  withdraw.  The  priory, 
built  of  wood  in  1117,  was  rebuilt  in  stone 
in  1130. 

MERTON  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded 
at  Maiden,  in  Surrey,  by  Walter  de  Merton, 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  Jan.  7,  1264,  and  was 
i-emoved  to  Oxford  in  1274.  The  library  was 
built  in  1376  by  William  Rede.  The  outer 
court  was  rebuilt  in  1589.  Dr.  Wylliot  en- 
dowed 12  portionistte  in  1380,  John  Chamber 
two  more  in  1604,  and  Henry  Jackson  four 
scholarships  in  1753.  Great  changes  in  the 
constitution  of  the  college  were  made  by  17  & 
18  Viet.  c.  81  (Aug.  7,  1854). 

MERTON  STATUTES.  —  A  council  assem- 
bled at  the  abbey  of  Merton,  Jan.  23,  1236, 
when  various  enactments  were  made  that 


MERU 


[    65*    3 


MESSINA 


have  since  formed  part  of  the  statute  law  of 
England,  and  are  known  as  the  Statutes  of 
Merton. 

MERU,  or  MERV  (Asia),  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Alexander  III.  (B.C.  336 — 323),  and 
having  been  destroyed,  was  rebuilt  by  An 
tiochus,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Antiochia 
Margiana.  Here  Orodes  I.,  or  Arsaces  XIV., 
of  Parthia,  settled  the  soldiers  of  Crassus, 
whom  he  had  made  prisoners,  B.C.  53.  It  was 
a  favourite  residence  of  many  of  the  Persian 
monarchs,  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Uzbeg 
Tartars  in  1786. 

MESMERISM  was  first  advocated  by  Fried- 
rich  Anton  Mesmer,  in  1766,  in  his  treatise 
"  De  Planetarum  Influxu.  In  1778  he  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  opened  an  establishment 
for  the  cure  of  diseases  by  his  magnetic  pro- 
cess. In  consequence  of  the  alleged  success 
of  his  attempts,  the  French  Government,  in 
1784,  appointed  a  committee  of  inquiry  to 
examine  into  the  system,  and  the  result 
was  a  report  stating  it  to  be  a  complete  im- 
posture. Mesmer  was,  in  consequence,  com- 
pelled to  leave  France.  He  lived  in  retirement 
in  England  until  1799,  when  he  published  a 
new  explanation  of  his  theory.  He  returned 
to  Germany,  and  died  in  great  poverty  at  Merse- 
burg,  March  5,  1815.  In  1817  the  Prussian  law 
prohibited  the  practice  of  mesmerism  by  any 
except  members  of  the  medical  profession; 
and  the  council  of  University  College,  London, 
passed  a  resolution  to  prevent  its  introduction 
into  their  hospitals,  Dec.  27,  1838.  -An  inge- 
nious correspondent  in  "Notes  and  Queries," 
July  3,  1852,  quotes  from  Apuleius  an  early 
allusion  to  mesmerism ;  and  Glanvil,  in  his 
"  Scepsis  Scientifica,"  published  in  1665,  refers 
to  something  very  similar. 

MESNE  PROCESS  is  denned  by  Wharton 
as  "all  those  writs  which  intervene  in  the 
progress  of  a  suit  or  action  between  its  be- 
ginning and  end,  as  contradistinguished  from 
primary  and  final  process."  Arrest  on  mesne 
process,  where  the  debt  or  cause  of  action  was 
under  £20,  was  abolished  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c. 
70  (July  2,  1827).  The  change,  which  did  not 
extend  to  Scotland  and  Ireland,  was  applied 
to  the  last-mentioned  country  by  10  Geo.  IV.  c. 
35  (June  4,  1829) ;  and  arrest  on  mesne  process 
in  civil  actions  was  abolished,  except  in  certain 
specified  cases,  by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  no  (Aug.  16, 
1838). 

MESOLONGHI,  or  MESSOLONGHI.  —  (See 

MlSSOLONGHI.) 

MESOPOTAMIA  (Asia).— This  country  was 
called,  in  the  Old  Testament,  Aram  Naharaim, 
or  Syria  between  the  two  waters  (i.  e.  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates),  and  Padan  Aram, 
i.  e.  Syria  of  the  Plain.  It  is  first  mentioned 
as  the  country  where  Nahor  and  his  family 
settled  (Gen.  xxiv.  10),  and  was  inhabited  (B.C. 
1200 — noo)  by  a  number  of  petty  tribes.  It 
passed  successively  under  the  sway  of  the  Baby- 
lonians, the  Medes,  and  the  Persians.  After 
the  battle  of  Issus,  in  Nov.,  333  B.C.,  it  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  Macedonians.  The  Romans 
obtained  possession  of  Mesopotamia  in  165. 
Jovian  surrendered  it  to  the  Persians  in  363. 
The  Carmathians  (q.  v.}  overran  it  in  902,  and 
the  Turks  conquered  it  between  1514  and  1516. 


MESSALIANS.— (See  EUCHITES.) 

MESSANA.— (See  MESSINA.) 


MESSAPIANS,  said  to  have  been  a  tribe  of 
lapygians,  were  the  early  inhabitants  of  Cala- 
bria (q.  v.). 

MESSENE  (Greece),  the  capital  of  Messenia 
(q.  v.),  in  the  Peloponnesus,  was  founded  by 
Epaminondas  B.C.  369,  and  maintained  its  in- 
dependence until  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  146. 

MESSENIA  (Greece).— The  earliest  inhabi- 
tants of  this  country  are  said  to  have  been  the 
Leleges.  Polycaon  named  the  country  Messene, 
in  honour  of  his  wife,  B.C.  1499.  At  the  Dorian 
conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Cresphontes 
obtained  Messenia.  Numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants left  their  country  and  settled  in  various 
parts  of  Greece,  Italy,  <fec.,  at  the  close  of  the 
second  Messeniaii  war  (q.  v.),  B.C.  668.  Those 
that  remained  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  helots,  and  the  whole  of  Messenia  was  in- 
corporated with  Sparta.  For  nearly  300  years 
Messenia  was  in  the  condition  of  a  conquered 
country,  though  the  people  made  an  abortive 
effort  to  recover  their  independence  B.C.  464. 
After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  B.C.  371,  in  which 
the  Spartans  were  totally  defeated,  Epaminon- 
das determined  to  restore  Messenia,  and  he 
built  the  town  of  Messene  (q.  v.),  B.C.  369,  in- 
viting back  to  their  country  the  exiles  from 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Africa.  Under  the  protection 
of  Thebes,  Messenia  maintained  its  indepen- 
dence. Its  people  fought  with  the  Achseans  at 
the  battle  of  Sellasia,  B.C.  221.  The  Messe- 
nians  having  made  war  against  the  Achaean 
League,  were  defeated,  and  their  chief  city 
was  captured  B.C.  183.  Messenia,  with  the 
rest  of  Greece,  lost  its  independence,  and 
was  incorporated  with  the  Roman  empire 
B.C.  146. 

MESSENIAN  WARS.— The  first  of  these 
wars,  between  Messenia  and  Sparta,  lasted  20 
years,  from  B.C.  743  to  B.C.  724.  The  former 
were  obliged  to  submit.  The  second  began 
B.C.  685,  and  lasted  to  B.C.  668,  terminating  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Messenians.  Some  authori- 
ties believe  that  both  wars  occurred  some- 
what later.  Taking  advantage  of  the  devasta- 
tion caused  by  the  great  earthquake  at  Sparta, 
the  Messenians  again  revolted ;  and  the  third 
Messenian  war  commenced  B.C.  464,  and  ended 
in  their  entire  overthrow,  B.C.  455. 

MESSINA  (Sicily),  the  ancient  Messana  or 
Messene,  was  originally  called  Zancle,  said  to 
be  derived  from  a  Sicilian  word,  signifying  a 
sickle.  It  was  thus  named  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  formation  of  the  port.  The  date  of 
its  foundation  cannot  be  ascertained  with  ac- 
curacy, though  it  is  generally  believed  to  have 
derived  its  origin  from  a  colony  from  Naxos, 
which  was  not  founded  until  B.C.  735.  The 
Samians  obtained  possession  of  Zancle  B.C.  493, 
and  were  expelled  about  B.C.  478  by  Anaxilas 
of  Rhegium,  who  called  it  Messene,  from  the 
Grecian  city  of  that  name,  from  which  his 
ancestors  came.  From  that  time  it  was  gene- 
rally known  as  Messene  or  Messana.  The  in- 
habitants regained  their  independence  B.C.  461, 
but  were  compelled  to  surrender  their  town  to 
the  Athenians,  B.C.  426.  They  joined  the  Syra- 
cusans  B.C.  425,  again  became  independent, 


METALLURGY 


[    652    ] 


METEMPSYCHOSIS 


B.C.  415,  and  enjoyed  great  prosperity  until 
their  city  was  taken  and  completely  destroyed 
by  the  Carthaginians  tinder  Himilcon,  B.C.  396. 
Messana,  gradually  restored,  again  became  an 
important  city,  and  was  captured  by  Agathocles 
B.C.  312.     Some  time  after  his  death,  probably 
about  B.C.   284,   the  city  fell  a  prey  to   the 
Mamertines  (q.  v.),  who  endeavoured  to  change 
its  name  to  Mamertina.     Having  been  assailed 
by  Hieron  of  Syracuse,   one  portion  of    the 
citizens  desired  to  seek  the  assistance  of  the 
Carthaginians,  and  another  that  of  the  Romans. 
The  latter  prevailed,  and  this  appeal  to  Rome, 
B.C.  264,  led  to  the  first  Punic  war.     Messina 
flourished  under  Roman  protection,  and  became 
a  station  for  their  fleets.     Cassius,  in  command 
of  Pompey's  fleet,  destroyed  Caesar's  squadron 
here,   B.C.   48.      The  Saracens,   who  captured 
Mussina  in  829,  were  expelled  by  the  Normans 
under  Count  Roger  in  1072.  Richard  I.,  during 
the  third  crusade,  landed  here  with  his  army, 
Sep.  14,  1190,  and  embarked  for  the  Holy  Land 
April   10,    1191.      In   1672  the  inhabitants  re- 
volted against  the  Spaniards,  and  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  French  ;  but  their  city  was 
taken  by  the  Spaniards,  Sep.  17,  1678,  and  was 
ceded  to  Austria,  Feb.  17,   1720.     The  plague 
carried  off  nearly  50,000  persons  in  1743.     Mes- 
sina has  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes. 
It  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  one  in 
1693.    Others  occurred  in  1780  and  1783,  and  on 
the   last   occasion  the   magnificent   quay  and 
many  beautiful  edifices    were    destroyed.     A 
revolution  broke  out  Jan.  12,  1848,  but  it  was 
soon  suppressed.     A  general  rising  took  place 
in  Sicily,  March  15,  1860,  and  several  persons 
were  arrested  in  Messina,  May  2.     The  revolu- 
tion was,  however,  successful  ;  the  connection 
with  Naples  was  severed,   and  Messina  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
METALLURGY.—  Tubal  Cain  was  "an  in- 
structor of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron  " 
(Gen.  iv.  22).     According  to  Hallam,  Agricola, 
a  native  of   Saxony   (1494  —  1555),   acquired  a 

Date. 

Metal. 

Discovered  by 

1783  

Tellurium   

Mueller. 
Klaproth. 
Klaproth. 
Klaproth. 
Gadolin. 
Vanquelin. 
Ilatchcll. 
Rose. 
Hisinger   and   Berze- 

Tcnnant. 
Tcnnant. 
Wollaston. 
Wollaatoa. 

Davy. 
Davy. 

Davy. 
Davy. 
Davy. 
Davy. 

Stnmicyer. 
Arfwedson. 

Borzelius, 
WOhler. 
WObler. 

licr/.clius. 
Scfstrorn. 
Mosander. 
Mowuader. 
Mosander. 
Mosander. 
Klaus. 
H.  Rose. 
I'.imscn  and  Kirchoff. 
CrookM. 
Reich  and  Riohter. 
Hermann. 
Svanberg. 

Bahr.'  

1794  

.lirconium  
Titanium  
Yttrium    
Chromium  
Culumbium    ... 
Pelopium    

!794  

1797  
1801  

1802  (about)  

1803 

1803  
1803  

Trillium   
(  Isinium  

I8ol.  . 

Palladium  
Rhodium     

1803.:::::.:::::...::: 

1807  

1808 

Potassium  

1808  

Calcium  

[808 

Magnesium     ... 
Strontium  
Cadmium    
Lithium  
Silicium  
Aluminium    ... 
Glucinium  
Thorinum  
Vanadium  
I.anthanium  ... 
Krhium    
Terbium  
Didymium  
Ruthenium  
Niobium  
Ocsium   
Thallium  
Indium    
Ilnicnium   
Noiinm 

1808  

1824  

1828..:..:..:.::.:::.: 

lij::::::::::::::::: 
1830  
is^q 
1840":::"::::"".'" 

1840  
1841  

lit::::::::::::::::: 

1861  

1861     . 
1863 

1863  

1863 

1863  
1863 

Tantalum     (see 
Columbium) 
Wasium 

Dianium  is  identical  with  Pelopium  and  Columbium. 

METAMORPHISTS  .—Certain  sacramen- 
tarians,  who  affirmed  that  Christ's  body  was 
wholly  deified,  arose  about  1450. 
METAPHYSICS,   or   the    "science    of   the 
principles  and  causes  of  all  things  existing," 

perfect  knowledge  of  the  processes  of  metal- 
lurgy from  the  miners  of  Chemnitz,  and  per- 
ceived the  immense  resources  that  might  be 
drawn  from  the  abysses  of  the  earth.  "  He  is 
the  first  mineralogist,"  says  Cuvier,  "  who  ap- 
peared after  the  revival  of  science  in  Europe." 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  metals, 
with  the  date  of  discovery  : — 


Date. 

MetaL 

Discovered  by 

Known     to    the 
Ancients  
Ditto  
Ditto  

Copper  
Gold  
Iron  

:::::: 

Ditto 

Lead        

Ditto 

Ditto  

Silver  

Ditto 

Tin           .    .. 

149°  
153°  

Antimony  
Bismuth  
Zinc 

Basil  Valentine. 
Agricola. 

1733  
1738  

Cobalt  

Brandt. 

1741  

1751 

$t:::::::::::::::: 

Platinum    
Nickel  
Manganese  

Wood. 
Cronstedt. 
Scliccle  and  Gahn. 

1783  

Molybdenum  ... 

vart. 
Hielm. 

was  first  treated  of  by  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322). 
The  title  was  applied  to  the  series  of  works 
which  followed  his  "Physics,"  and  were  in 
consequence  styled  "/aerd  TO.  <j>v<nicd,"  or  "after 
the  physics." 

METAPONTUM,  orMETAPONTIUM(Magna 
Graecia). — The  foundation  of  this  city,  as- 
signed to  various  persons  and  periods,  was 
doubtless  the  work  of  an  Achsean  colony.  The 
Metapon tines  joined  Athens  against  Sicily,  B.C. 
414.  Hannibal  occupied  Metapontum  from 
B.C.  212  to  B.C.  207,  and  on  retiring  took  with 
him  all  the  inhabitants  who  dreaded  lest  the 
Romans  should  punish  them  for  their  alliance 
with  the  Carthaginians. 

METAURUS  (Battle),  was  fought  at  a  place 
called  II  Monte  d' Asdrubale,  near  Fossombrone, 
upon  the  banks  of  this  river,  in  Italy,  B.C.  207, 
between  Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal, 
and  the  Roman  consuls  C.  Claudius  Nero  and 
M.  Livius.  Hasdrubal  was  slain  in  this  contest, 
and  the  Carthaginians  were  totally  defeated. 
Hannibal  remained  some  time  ignorant  of  his 
brother's  fate.  Hasdrubal's  head  was  thrown 
into  his  camp,  when  Hannibal  exclaimed,  "  I 
recognize  the  doom  of  Carthage." 

METEMPSYCHOSIS,  or  the  doctrine  of  the 


METEOROLITE 


[    653 


METROPOLIS 


transmigration  of  souls,  was  long  supposed  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  Egyptians.  It 
appears,  however,  to  have  existed  in  Greece, 
in  some  form  or  other,  before  any  intercourse 
existed  between  Egypt  and  Greece.  Pytha- 
goras (B.C.  580 — B.C.  507)  first  gave  the  doctrine 
that  settled  form  it  long  assumed  in  ancient 
Greece.  Empedocles,  who  nourished  B.C.  444, 
held  that  plants  had  souls,  and  that  into 
plants,  as  well  as  into  animals,  the  vital  prin- 
ciple passed  after  death.  It  was  a  favourite 
doctrine  of  the  Hindoos. 

METEOROLITE.— There  are  four  principal 
theories  respecting  the  nature  of  these  phe- 
nomena, viz.,  that  they  are  stones  projected 
by  lunar  volcanoes;  stones  from  terrestrial 
volcanoes  ;  that  they  are  the  result  of  gaseous 
combinations  in  the  air  ;  and  that  they  are 
asteroids  which  are  drawn  by  the  earth  as 
they  come  within  the  force  of  its  attraction. 
The  last  theory  receives  support  from  the  fact, 
that  since  1833  showers  of  meteorolites  have 
fallen  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  America 
annually,  Nov.  12,  13,  or  14.  (See  AEROLITES.) 

METEOROLOGY,  or  the  science  of  atmo- 
spheric phenomena,  was  cultivated  in  very 
ancient  times.  Aristotle  (B.C.  384—322^,  in 
his  work  upon  meteors,  collected  from  various 
sources  all  that  was  known  on  the  subject. 
Dalton  published  his  Meteorological  Essays  in 
1793.  The  Meteorological  Society  of  London, 
established  in  1823,  began  to  publish  its  trans- 
actions in  1839.  (See  AEROLITES,  ATMOSPHERE, 
BAROMETER,  STORMS,  THERMOMETER,  WINDS, 
&c.) 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.— The 
name  adopted  by  a  Wesleyan  society  estab- 
lished at  New  York  in  1766  by  some  Irish 
emigrants.  John  Wesley  appointed  Dr.  Coke 
bishop  of  the  new  society,  Sep.  2,  1784.  A 
separation  ensued  in  1830,  when  the  seceders 
assumed  the  name  of  the  Methodist  Protes- 
tant Church.  Another  secession  took  place  in 
1842,  out  of  which  arose  the  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist Connection  of  America,  formed  at  Utica 
in  1843,  and  in  1844  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  became  a  separate  society. 
The  fourteenth  delegated  general  conference  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  assembled  at 
Philadelphia,  May  2,  1864,  resolved  to  celebrate 
the  first  centenary  of  American  Methodism, 
Tuesday,  Oct.  2,  1866,  and  voted  an  address  in 
support  of  the  Government.  A  Convention  of 
ministers  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  met  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  April  6, 
1864. 

METHODISTS.— John  Wesley,  and  some  of 
his  friends,  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  formed 
themselves  into  an  association  for  the  more 
strict  observance  of  their  religious  duties, 
about  1729,  and  received,  amongst  other  nick- 
names, that  of  Methodists,  in  allusion  to  the 
Methodici,  or  physicians  in  ancient  Rome, 
mentioned  by  Celsus.  The  Methodists  practised 
self-denial,  visited  the  poor  and  the  sick,  and 
spent  rnuch  time  in  meditation  and  prayer. 
John  Wesley  formed  his  followers  into  a 
regular  society,  May  i,  1738.  Such  was  the 
origin  of  what  are  termed  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists.  Their  first  meeting-house  was 
founded  at  Bristol,  May  12,  1739.  George 


Whitfield  separated  from  the  Wesleyans,  and 
founded  the  Whitfieldites,  or  Whitfieldians 
(q.  v.),  in  1741.  The  first  watch-night  of  the 
Methodists  was  held  in  London,  April  9,  1742  ; 
the  rules  of  the  society  were  first  published 
May  i,  1743,  and  the  first  conference  was  held 
in  1744.  A  further  separation  occurred  in  1797, 
when  the  Methodists  divided  into  two  sects 
called  the  Old  Methodists,  and  the  New  Con- 
nection. The  Welsh  Calvimstic  Methodists 
arose  in  1785,  the  Primitive  Methodists  or 
Ranters  in  1810,  the  Independent  Methodists 
in  1 8 10,  the  Bible  Christians  or  Bryanites  in 
1815,  and  various  Methodist  sects  have  since 
sprung  into  existence.  The  Wesleyan  Associa- 
tion, formed  in  1834,  and  the  Wesleyan  Reform 
Association  in  1849,  amalgamated  in  1857,  and 
took  the  title,  United  Free  Church  Metho- 
dists. 

METHONE  (Macedonia)  is  said  to  have  been 
settled  by  some  Eretrians  about  B.C.  730 — 720. 
Philip  II.  besieged  it  B.C.  353,  captured  it  B.C. 
352,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground.  During  the 
siege,  Philip  II.  was  wounded  in  the  eye  by  an 
arrow,  having,  according  to  tradition,  a  label 
with  these  words,  "Astor  to  Philip's  right 
eye."  This  bowman  had  offered  his  services 
to  the  king,  declaring  that  he  could  bring 
down  a  bird  in  its  flight  with  his  arrows.  "  It 
is  well,"  said  Philip,  "I  shall  make  use  of 
thee  when  I  wage  war  with  starlings." 

METHONE  (Messenia),  called  Pedasus  by 
Homer,  was  given  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Nauplia  by  the  Spartans  at  the  end  of  the 
second  Messenian  war,  B.C.  668.  The  Athenians 
were  defeated  in  an  attempt  to  regain  posses- 
sion of  Methone,  B.C.  431.  It  was  captured  by 
Agrippa  about  B.C.  31.  Trajan  (98 — 117)  made 
it  a  free  city.  (See  MODON.) 

METHUEN  TREATY  was  concluded  between 
England  and  Portugal,  by  the  English  am- 
bassador at  Lisbon,  Paul  Methuen,  whence 
its  name,  Dec.  27,  1703.  It  regulated  the  com- 
merce between  the  two  countries,  admitting 
the  wines  of  Portugal  at  33^-  per  cent,  less  duty 
than  that  paid  on  French  wines.  A  defensive 
alliance  had  been  signed  May  16,  1703.  The 
Metheun  Treaty  was  abrogated  in  1836. 

METONIC  CYCLE,  so  called  from  its  in- 
ventor Meton,  an  astronomer  of  Athens,  is  a 
cycle  of  19  years,  or  6,940  days,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  the  new  moons  fall  on  the  same 
days  of  the  year,  and  the  eclipses  return  in 
nearly  the  same  order.  It  commenced  July 
15,  432  B.C.  Calippus,  who  lived  about  B.C. 
330,  discovered  and  corrected  its  error,  and 
invented  the  Calippic  Period  (q.  v.). 

METRIC  SYSTEM.— Its  use  was  legalized 
by  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  117  (July  29,  1864),  entitled 
the  "Metric  Weights  and  Measures  Act."  (See 
DECIMAL  SYSTEM.) 

METRONOME.— This  ingenious  instrument 
for  determining  the  movement,  i.  e.  the  quick- 
ness or  slowness,  of  musical  compositions,  was 
invented  in  1812  by  John  Maelzel,  civil 
engineer  and  mechanician  to  the  Emperor  of 
Austria.  A  similar  instrument  was  contrived 
in  France  in  1698. 

METROPOLIS.— (See  ANCYRA.  ) 

METROPOLIS  MAIN  DRAINAGE  RATE. 
— (See  DRAINAGE.) 


METROPOLITAN 


[    654 


MEXICO 


METROPOLITAN.— A  term  applied  to  the 
prelate  who  resided  in  the  capital  city  of  each 
province,  the  clergy  and  the  other  bishops  of 
the  province  being  subject  to  his  authority. 
The  establishment  of  metropolitans  originated 
at  the  end  of  the  3rd  century,  and  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Council  of  Nicsea  June  19 — 
Aug.  25,  325.  Mosheim  believes  the  preroga- 
tives of  metropolitans  to  have  originated  ii 
the  councils  first  summoned  in  the  2nd  cen 
tury.  The  first  metropolitan  or  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  was  Augustine,  created  by  Ethel- 
bert  on  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  in  597. 
Pauliuus,  the  first  metropolitan  of  York,  was 
appointed  in  627.  Patrick  Graham,  made 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrew's  in  1466,  was  the  first 
metropolitan  in  Scotland. 

METROPOLITAN  BOARD  OF  WORKS  was 
established  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  120  (Aug.  14, 
1855),  "An  Act  for  the  better  Local  Manage- 
ment of  the  Metropolis."  The  first  meeting 
took  place  Dec.  22,  1 855,  when  Mr.  J.  Thwaites 
was  elected  chairman.  The  powers  of  the 
board  were  extended  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  104 
(Aug.  2,  1858),  which  placed  the  purification 
of  the  Thames  and  the  main  drainage  of  the 
metropolis  under  their  direction.  (See  THAMES 
EMBANKMENT.) 

METROPOLITAN  CATTLE-MARKET  (Lon- 
don).—By  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  61  (Aug.  i,  1851), 
power  was  given  to  certain  commissioners  to 

rvide  a  new  cattle-market  for  the  metropolis. 
WM  called  the  Metropolitan  Market  Act. 
In  pursuance  of  such  powers,  a  new  cattle- 
market  was  prepared  in  Copenhagen  Fields,  in 
the  north  of  London,  and  it  was  opened  June 
13, 1855,  Smithfield  having  been  closed  Juno  n. 
The  sales  commenced  June  15. 

MMTKOPOLITAN  CLUB  (London)  was 
founded  in  1864. 

METROPOLITAN  DISTRICT  RAILWAY 
(London  \vas  incorporated  by  27  &  28  Viet. 
c.  322  (July  29,  1864),  to  construct  an  inner 
circle  of  lines  north  of  the  Thames. 

METROPOLITAN  KHKK  DRINKING- 
POUNTAINS  ASSOCIATION  (London)  was 
formed  in  April,  1859.  (See  DKINKING-FOUN- 

TAINS.) 

METROPOLITAN  FIRE  BRIGADE.— (See 
FIRE  BRIGADE.) 

METROPOLITAN  HOUSELESS  POOR 
ACT.— By  this  Act,  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  116  (July 
29,  1864),  the  guardians  of  metropolitan  par- 
ishes and  unions  were  ordered,  after  the 
ensuing  Sep.  29,  to  keep  an  account  of  their 
expenditure  for  the  relief  of  the  houseless 
poor  between  the  hours  of  eight  o'clock  at 
night  and  eight  in  the  morning,  and  to  obtain 
reimbursement  of  the  same  from  the  Metro- 
politan Board  of  Works.  It  was  made  per- 
petual by  28  Viet.  c.  34  (June  2,  1865),  which 
required  the  Poor  Law  Board  to  inspect  the 
casual  wards,  and  empowered  the  police  to 
provide  for  the  temporary  relief,  according  to 
the  previous  act,  of  destitute  persons  not 
charged  with  any  offence. 

METROPOLITAN  RAILWAY  (London).— 
The  first  act  for  the  North  Metropolitan  Rail- 
way was  granted  in  1853.  It  was  re-incor- 
porated as  the  Metropolitan  Railway  by  17  & 
18  Viet.  c.  221  (Aug.  7, 1854),  and  opened  Jan.  10, 


1863.  The  extension  to  Ludgate  Hill  was 
opened  Dec.  2,  1864.  It  has  obtained  various 
acts  for  extensions  and  increased  powers. 

METTRAY.— The  Reformatory  at  this  town, 
near  Tours,  in  France,  was  established  by  M. 
Demetz  in  1839.  It  is  managed  by  an  associa- 
tion, called  the  "Paternal  Society  of  Mettray." 
METZ  (France)  was  called  Divodurum  by 
the  Romans,  and  was  the  chief  town  of  the 
Mediomatrici.  In  the  sth  century  it  was 
called  Mettis.  The  inhabitants  in  a  time  of 
peace  were  massacred  by  the  army  of  Vitellius 
in  69,  and  Metz  was  destroyed  by  the  Huns  in 
452.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Austrasia,  sometimes  called  the  kingdom  of 
Metz,  in  561,  and  it  was,  for  a  time,  the  capital 
of  Lorraine.  It  became  a  free  imperial  city  in 
985,  and  was  used  by  the  German  emperors  as 
a  barrier  against  France.  A  diet  was  held  here 
in  1356.  Charles  VII.  besieged  it  in  1444,  and 
it  only  preserved  its  freedom  by  the  payment 
of  100,000  crowns.  Henry  II.  obtained  posses- 
sion of  Metz  in  1552;  and,  although  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.  besieged  it  with  100,000  men, 
after  10  months  he  was  obliged  to  withdraw, 
Jan.  1,1553.  Metz  con  tinned,  in  the  possession 
of  the  French,  to  whom  it  was  formally 
secured  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648. 
The  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
Gothic  buildings  in  Europe,  founded  in  1014, 
was  not  finished  till  1546.  The  choir  was  built 
in  1130.  Its  fortifications  were  planned  by 
Vauban  and  continued  by  Marshal  Belleisle. 
The  fort  Belle-Crnix,  commenced  in  1731,  is  a 
masterpiece  of  military  construction.  Metz 
lo  a  bishop's  see  at  an  early  period, 
and  councils  were  held  here  in  Oct.,  590  ;  in 
753 ;  in  835 ;  May  28,  859 ;  in  June,  863 ;  Sep.  9, 
869  ;  and  May  i,  888. 

A!  BUI  -AX  France).— This  town,  which  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Melun  (q.  v.),  was 
united  to  France  in  1204.  Edward  III.  took  it 
in  1346 ;  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  wrested  it  from 
Charles  II.  (the  Bad)  hi  1364,  and  it  was  taken 
by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1417.  Henry  V., 
of  England,  held  several  conferences  here,  in 
July,  1419,  with  the  Queen  of  France,  respect- 
ing a  marriage  contract  with  her  daughter 
Katherine.  They  led  to  no  result,  but  were 
renewed  at  Troyes. 

MEXICO  (N.  America).  —  The  earliest  in- 
habitants of  Anahuac  or  Mexico,  of  whom  any- 
thing definite  is  known,  are  the  Toltecs,  who, 
having  been  expelled  from  their  own  country 
in  472,  travelled  southward  and  settled  in 
Mexico,  where  they  established  a  kingdom  in 
667.  In  consequence  of  a  famine,  followed  by 
pestilence,  this  people  migrated,  about  1051, 
and  were  succeeded,  after  a  lapse  of  about  a 
century,  by  the  Chichcmecs.  The  Aztecs 
settled  in  the  country  about  1216,  founded  the 
city  of  Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico,  in  1325,  and 
established  their  monarchy  in  1352.  Mexico 
was  made  known  to  Europeans  by  Hernandez 
de  Cordova  in  1517. 

A.D. 

1519,  April  3T.  Fernando  Cortes  lands  in  Mexico. 
521,  Aug.  13.  Ho  takes  the  citv  of  Mexico. 
5«,  Oct.   15.    diaries  V.  constitutes  Cortes  governor  of 
the  conquered    territory,    which   is  called     \n\v 
Spain.     Gil  Goncalez  de  Avila  explores  the  west 
coast. 


MEXICO 


[    655    ] 


MEXICO 


A.D. 

1530.  Charles  V.  establishes  a  viceregal  government  for 
New  Spain. 

1535.  Mendoza  erects  the  first  Mexican  mint. 

1547,  Dec.  2,.  Death  of  Cortes  at  Castilleja  de  la  Cuesta, 
near  Seville. 

1553.  The  university  of  Mexico  is  founded.  Robert  Tom- 
son,  an  English  merchant,  visits  Mexico,  and  is, 
with  his  companions,  persecuted  on  account  of 
his  religion. 

1571.  The  Inquisition  is  established  in  Mexico. 

1609.  An  insurrection  of  negro  slaves  is  suppressed  by 
the  viceroy. 

1624.  Tlie  province  is  involved  in  civil  strife,  owing  to  the 
attempt  of  the  viceroy  to  obtain  a  monopoly  for 
the  sale  of  corn. 

1639,  June  so.  Thc  city  of  Mexico  is  overwhelmed  by  an 
inundation,  which  continues  for  five  years. 

1653.  A  formidable  insurrection  of  the  Indians  8  sup- 
pressed. 

1659.  The  first  auto-da-fe  at  Mexico  is  celebrated  by  the 
Inquisition.  Fifty  victims  suffer. 

1693,  June  8.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  the  city  of 
Mexico,  and  the  palace  of  the  viceroy  is  burned 
by  the  mob. 

1767,  June  25.  The  Jesuits  arc  expelled  from  Mexico. 

1808,  Sep.  15.  The  Mexicans  arrest  the  viceroy  Iturri- 
garay,  and  send  him  prisoner  to  Spain. 

1810.  A  plot 'for  the  overthrow  of  the  Spaniards  is  de- 

teetecl  and  suppressed. 

1811,  July  27.    Miguel  Hidalgo,  the  rebel  priest,  is  exe- 

cuted. 

1815,  Dec  33.  Morelos  is  shot  for  raising  an  insurrection. 

1817,  April  15.  Xavier  Mina  lands  in  Mexico,  and  goes  to 
the  assistance  of  the  revolutionists. — Nov.  II.  He 
is  shot  as  a  rebel. 

1831,  Feb.  24.  Augustin  de  Iturbide  proclaims  the  "  Plan 
of  Ignala,"  the  principles  of  which  are  "Inde- 
pendence, the  maintenance  of  Roman  Catho- 
licity, and  Union." 

1822,  Feb.  34.  The  first  Mexican  congress  assembles. — 
May  18.  Iturbide  is  proclaimed  emperor. — Is'ov. 
Gens.  Garza,  Santa  Anna,  and  Echavari  declare 
against  the  emperor. 

1833,  March  8.    Iturbide  abdicates. — Oct.  Congress  sanc- 

tions a  federal  constitution.     (See  CALIFORNIA.) 

1834,  June  30.  An  alliance  is  made  with  Columbia. — July 

19.  Itnrbide  is  shot  for  an  attempt  to  recover  his 
authority. — Oct.  4.  A  federal  constitution,  founded 
on  that  of  the  United  States,  is  adopted  by  Con- 
gress. 

1835,  April  15.  Guadulupe  Victoria  is  sworn  into  office  as 

president. 

1839,  March  30.  Congress  decrees  the  expulsion  of  the 
Spaniards.— July  5.  A  Spanish  expedition  for  the 
recovery  of  Mexico  sails  from  Havana. — Sep.  II. 
It  surrenders  to  Gen.  Santa  Anna. — Sep.  15.  The 
president  Guerrero  publishes  a  decree  abolishing 
slavery. — Dec.  33.  Guerrero  is  deposed,  and  is 
succeeded  by  Bustamente. 

1833.  The  Texans  revolt. 

1833,  May  ii.  Santa  Anna  is  elected  president. 

1836,  April  21.   Santa  Anna  is  defeated  by  the  revolted 

Texans,  under  Gen.  Houston. 

1838,  Nov.  30.  War  is  declared  against  France. 

1839,  March  9.  Peace  is  concluded  with  France  at  Vera 

Cruz. 

1844,  April  13.   The  Texans  conclude  a  treaty   with  the 

United  States  for  annexation  to  the  Union. 

1845,  Jan.  4.    Fall  of  Santa  Anna,  who  is  arrested  on  a 

charge  of  treason. — June  4.  War  is  declared 
against  the  United  States  on  the  Texas  ques- 
tion. 

1846,  May  8.    The  Mexicans  are  defeated  by  the  United 

States  army,  under  Gen.  Taylor,  at  Palo  Alto.— 
May  8.  They  lose  the  battle  of  Matamoras. — Aug. 
18.  Gen.  Kearney  takes  Santa  Fe. — Sep.  34.  Gen. 
Taylor  takes  Monterey. 

1847,  Jan.  19.  The  American  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico 

are  massacred  by  the  Mexican  population. — 
Jan.  38.  Gen.  Price  defeats  the  Mexicans  at  El 
Embudo.  Gen.  Taylor  defeats  the  Mexicans, 
under  Santa  Anna,  at  the  battle  of  Angostura,  or 
Bueno  Vista. — April  18.  Gen.  Scott  defeats  Santa 
Anna  at  Cerro-Gorda  (q.  v.). — Aug.  30.  Gen. 
Scott  defeats  the  Mexicans  at  Coutreras. — Aug. 
23-  A  truce  is  agreed  upon.— Sep.  8.  Hostilities 
recommence. — Sep.  15.  Gen.  Scott  takes  the  city 
of  Mexico. 


A. I). 

1848,  Feb.  2.    The  preliminaries  of  peace  are  signed  at 

Guadalupe- Hidalgo. — May   19.   Peace  is  ratified 

with  the  United  States. 
1853,  Sep.  13.  A  revolution  breaks  out  in  the  provinces  of 

Xalisco  and  Guadalaxara. 
I853,  Jan-  6.  Gen.  Arista  abdicates  the  presidency.— Feb. 

7.     Santa  Anna  is    recalled.— March   17.     Santa 

Anna  is  elected  president. — Dec.  16.  He  is  made 

dictator  for  life. 

1855,  Aug.  9.    Santa  Anna  abdicates  the  dictatorship.— 

Sep.  13.  Martin  Carrera,  his  successor,  also  abdi- 
cates, and  is  succeeded  by  Alvarez.— Dec.  8.  Al- 
varez abdicates,  and  is  succeeded  by  Comonfort. 

1856,  March   22.    Comonfort  suppresses  the   insurrection 

of  Haro  y  Tamariz.— March  31.  The  property  of 
the  ecclesiastics  is  confiscated. 

1858,  Jan.  ii.   A  revolution  breaks  out  under  Gen.  Zu- 

loaga.— Jan.  21.  Comonfort  quits  Mexico,  and  is 
succeeded  by  Zuloaga.  Shortly  afterwards 
Benito  Juarez  is  declared  constitutional  president 
at  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  country  is  ravaged  by  civil 
war. 

1859,  Jan.   6.     Zuloaga  is  deposed,   and  a  junta  elects 

Miramon  as  his  successor. — Jan.  26.  Miramon 
restores  Zuloaga.— Feb.  2.  Zuloaga  abdicates.— 
April  ii.  Miramon  enters  Mexico,  and  assumes 
the  presidency.— July  13.  The  constitutional  pre- 
sident Juarez  confiscates  the  ecclesiastical  pro- 
perty.—Sep.  34.  A  conspiracy  against  Miramon 
is  suppressed.— Dec.  26.  Miramon  defeats  the 
liberal  general  Colima. 

1860,  March   13.    Miramon  bombards  Vera  Cruz.— March 

21.  He  raises  the  siege.— May  I.  Zuloaga  issues  a 
decree,  in  which  he  assumes  the  presidency,  and 
deposes  Miramon. — May  9.  He  is  arrested  by 
Miramon. — May  lo.  Thecorp.v  tiplomatiqiie  ceases 
to  hold  official  communication  with  Miramon. — 
Aug.  10.  Miramon  is  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Siloa,  by  Gen.  Degollado.— Dec.  25.  Miramon 
being  defeated  in  several  engagements,  the  vic- 
torious army  of  Juarez  enters  Mexico. 

1861,  Jan.  19.  Juarez  becomes  president. — Jan.  21.  Anew 

ministry  is  formed. — June  30.  Congress  appoints 
Juarez  president  of  the  republic  and  absolute 
dictator.— July  27.  Rupture  of  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  the  English  and  French  Governments. 
—Oct.  31.  A  convention  between  England,  France, 
and  Spain,  for  intervention  in  Mexico,  is  signed 
at  London. — Nov.  24.  The  English  and  French 
Governments  despatch  an  ultimatum  to  President 
Juarez. — Dec.  7.  The  French  ambassador  quits  the 
capital.— Dec.  8.  A  Spanish  squadron  arrives  off 
Vera  Cruz.— Dec.  15.  The  congress  adjourns, 
after  investing  the  president  with  full  powers- 
Dec.  16.  The  English  ambassador  leaves  the 
capital.— Dec.  17.  The  Spanish  troops  land  at 
Vera  Cruz,  and  occupy  the  town  and  fort  of 
St.  John  d'Ulloa. 

1863,  Jan.  7.  Gen.  Prim,  with  a  force  of  united  English, 
French,  and  Spaniards,  arrives  at  Vera  Cruz. — 
Jan.  10.  The  allies  address  a  proclamation  to  the 
Mexican  people. — Jan.  29.  The  allies  reject  the 
reply  of  the  Government  to  their  ultimatum, 
and  march  towards  Mexico.— Feb.  19.  A  truce  is 
concluded  at  Solednd  to  facilitate  a  definite  settle- 
ment of  the  claims  of  the  allies. — Feb.  27.  The 
French  quit  Vera  Cruz  and  march  upon  Tehua- 
can. — March  I.  The  Spanish  troops  occupy  Ori- 
zaba. The  English  embark  on  board  the  fleet 
stationed  off  Vera  Cruz.— April  9.  The  allies  hold 
a  conference  at  Orizaba,  the  result  being  that 
England  and  Spain  decline  to  commence  hostili- 
ties, and  prepare  to  leave  the  country,  while 
France  insists  on  the  necessity  of  active  measures 
for  the  protection  of  the  French  inhabitants. — 
April  16.  The  French  declare  war  against  Presi- 
dent Juarez.— April  18.  The  French  march  from 
Cordova  and  commence  hostilities. — April  28.  The 
Mexicans  are  defeated  in  the  mountains  of  Co- 
Ombres,  near  Aculcingo.— May  5.  The  French  are 
repulsed  with  loss  in  an  attempted  assault  upon 
the  heights  around  Puebla.— May  18.  The  Mexican 
general  Marquez  joins  the  French  with  3000 
men.— Sep.  23.  Gen.  Forey,  having  arrived  at 
Vera  Cruz  and  assumed  the  direction  of  the 
French  expedition,  issues  a  proclamation  pro- 
mising the  Mexicans  entire  freedom  in  the  choice 
of  a  new  government. 


MEXICO 


[    656    ] 


MEXICO 


1863,  Oct.  27.  The  Mexican  congress  publishes  a  mani- 
festo protesting  against  the  French  invasion  and 
proclamation. 

1863,  Jan.   13.    The  French  evacuate  Tampico.—  Feb.  24. 

Gen.  Forey  quits  Orizaba,  and  marches  towards 
the  capital.—  March  18.  The  French  lay  siege  to 
Puebla.—  May  8.  Gen.  Bazaine  defeats  the  Mexi- 
cans, under  Gen.  Comonfort,  at  San  Lorenzo.  — 
May  1  8.  Gen.  Ortega  surrenders  Puebla  to  (Jen- 
Forey  after  a  two  months'  siege.  —  May  31.  Pre- 
sident Juarez  transfers  his  government  from 
Mexico  to  San  Louis  de  Potosi.—  June  5.  Gen. 
Bazaine  occupies  Mexico.  —  June  10.  The  main 
body  of  the  French  army,  under  Gen.  Forey, 
enter  the  capital.—  June  24.  A  provisionary  go- 
vernment, entitled  "  the  Regency  of  the  Mexican 
Empire,"  is  established  at  Mexico.—  July  8.  The 
Assembly  of  Notables  is  solemnly  inaugurated, 
with  power  to  decide  the  future  form  of  the 
Mexican  government.—  July  10.  The  Assembly 
resolves  by  250  votes  against  20  to  adopt  an  here- 
ditary monarchical  government,  under  a  Roman 
Catholic  Emperor  of  Mexico,  and  toinvite  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand  Maximilian,  eldest  brother  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  to  accept  the  imperial  title. 
The  provisional  government  accordingly  assumes 
the  style  of  "  Regency  of  the  Mexican  Empire."  — 
July  22.  The  permanent  committee  of  the  repub- 
lican national  assembly  at  .  San  Louis  Potosi  pro- 
tests against  the  proposed  changes  and  calls  upon 
the  people  to  resist  French  domination.—  Aug.  n. 
The  French  occupy  Tampico.  —  Oct.  I.  Marshal 
Forey  transfers  his  command  to  Gen.  Baznine, 
and  'returns  to  Europe.—  Oct.  3.  The  Archduke 
Ferdinand  Maximilian  receives  a  Mexican  depu- 
tation,  anil  consents  to  accept  the  imperial  office, 
provided  his  election  is  ratified  by  a  free  vote  of 
the  whole  Mexican  people.  —  Nov.  12.  The  Mexican 
general,  Comonfort,  ex-president  of  the  republic, 
is  surprised  and  shot  by  a  band  of  Mexicans  at 
Chamacuero.—  Nov.  30.  The  French  occupy  Mo- 
relia.—  Dec.  8.  They  enter  Guanajuato.—  Dec.  18. 
On  the  approach  of  the  allied  French  and  Mexi- 
can forces,  1'resident  .Inure/,  quits  Sun  Louis  de 
Potosi  for  Saltillo.—  Dec.  19.  The  French  occupy 
Querctaro.  —  Dec.  24.  The  Imperialist  general, 
Mejia,  enters  San  Louis  de  Potosi.—  Dec.  27.  He 
repulses  the  republican  forces  of  Gens.  Durango 
and  Zacatecas. 

1864,  Jan.   5.  The  French  enter    Guatalaxara.—  Jan.   23. 

The  French  seize  Campeachy,  and  thereby  compel 
Yucatan  to  declare  in  favour  of  the  Imperialist 
rty.  —  Feb.  2-  The  French  occupy  Agnas  Ca- 
entes.  —  Feb.  6.  They  enter  Yacatecas.  —  Feb.  26. 
The  port  of  Acapulco  is  blockaded  by  a  French 
squadron.  —  Feb.  27-  The  ex-president  Santa  Anna 
lands  at  Vera  Cruz  and  signifies  his  adhesion  to 
the  French  intervention  and  his  intention  of  ab- 
staining from  any  political  manifestation.  —  March 
12.  Santa  Anna  is  compelled  by  Gen.  Bazaine  to 
return  to  Havana.—  March  26.  Gen.  Vidaurri,  im- 
perialist governor  of  the  states  of  New  Leon  and 
Coahuila,  is  compelled  to  evacuate  Monterey, 
which  is  occupied  by  the  republicans  under  Or- 
tega. —  April  3.  President  Juarez  enters  Monterey 
and  makes  it  the  seat  of  the  republican  govern- 
ment—April 5.  The  Washington  House  of  Re- 
presentatives unanimously  resolves  that  "  the 
people  of  the  United  States  will  never  recognize 
a  monarchial  government  which  has  been 
established  in  America  on  the  ruins  of  a  repub- 
lican government,  and  under  the  auspices  of  a 
European  power."  —  April  10.  The  Archduke 
Ferdinand  Maximilian  receives  a  Mexican  depu- 
tation at  Miramar,  and  consents  to  accept  the 
imperial  dignity,  under  the  title  of  Maximilian  I., 
Emperor  of  Mexico.  A  treaty  is  signed  with 
France  relative  to  the  duration  of  the  French  oc- 
cupation of  the  country.  —  May  17.  The  Impe- 
rialists defeat  the  republican  general,  Doblada,  at 
Matehuela.  —  May  20.  End  of  the  regency,  the 
administrative  functions  being  discharged  till 
the  arrival  of  the  Emperor  by  Gen.  Almonte.— 
May  28.  The  Emperor  and  Empress  arrive  at  Vera 
Cruz.  —  June  3.  The  French  occupy  Acapulco.  — 
June  12.  The  Emperor  and  Empress  enter  the 
capital. 


par 
lie 


1864,  June    26.     An    imperial    decree    is    published    in- 

vesting the  Empress  with  the  dignity  of  regent 
of  the  empire  in  the  event  of  the  absence  or 
decease  of  the  Emperor. — July  4.  The  French 
occupy  Durango.— July  29.  An  imperial  decree 
raises  the  blockade  of  all  the  Mexican"  ports. — 
Aug.  20.  Gen.  Castagny  occupies  Saltillo. — Aug. 
26.  He  occupies  Monterey.  —  Sep.  4.  Gens.  Vi- 
daurri and  Quiroja  submit  to  the  imperial  go- 
vernment. —  Sep.  21.  The  French,  under  C'ol. 
Martin,  defeat  the  Juarist  Gens.  Ortega,  ,\egreie, 
and  Carbajal,  at  Estanzuela.  The  Imperialists 
are  defeated  atToluca. — Sep.  26.  Matamoras  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  Imperialist  general,  Mejia. — Oct.  29. 
The  Juarists  evacuate  Colima. — Oct.  30.  The  F.m- 
peror  returns  to  the  capital  after  a  tour  in  the 
provinces. — Nov.  13.  The  French  and  Mexican 
forces  occupy  Mazutlan.  —  Nov.  15.  The  Impe- 
rialists, under  Gen.  Marques,  seize  Manzanillo  — 
Nov.  22.  The  French,  under  Col.  Clinchant, 
defeat  the  Juarist  forces  of  (Jens.  Arteaga,  Neri, 
&c.,  at  Xiquilpaii. — Dec.  4.  The  Emperor  forms  a 
Council  of  State. — Dec.  20.  The  Juarists  are  re- 
pulsed in  an  attack  upon  Colima.— Dec.  27.  The 
Juarists,  under  Col.  Rosales,  del'eat  the  French  at 
San  Pedro.— Dec.  31.  The  Juurists  faU  in  an 
attack  upon  Mazutlan. 

1865,  Jan.  i.  The  Emperor  founds  the  order  of  the  Eagle  of 

Mexico.  President,  . I  uarez  issues  a  proclamation 
calling  upon  the  people  to  resist  foreign  invasion. 
— Feb.  6.  Tczuitlan  is  taken  from  the  Juarists  by 
the  Austrian  legion.— Feb.  9.  Oaxaca,  with  it 

girrison  of  7,000  men,  is  surrendered  by  Gen. 
iaz  to  Marshal  Bazaine.— March  29.  Guaymas, 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  taken  by  the  French. — 
April  10.  An  imperial  constitution  is  promul- 
gated. The  Emperor  founds  the  order  of  St. 
Charles  for  ladies  ;  and  reforms  the  orders  of  the 
Engle  of  Mexico  and  of  our  Lady  of  Gaudeloupe. 
A  Jimri.it  force,  under  Gen.  Kegulus,  defeats  tin; 
Belgian  legion  at  Tacamburo.  —  April  12.  The 
Juarist  (,eu.  Xegrete  occupies  Saltillo  and  Mon- 
terey.— April  24.  The  French  and  Belgian.-,  defeat 
Gen.  Iteguliis  at  Vanijuco.— June  7.  The  French 
occupy  Sultillo.  Gen.  Negrete  raises  the  siege  of 
Matamoras. — June  17.  Death  at  New  York  of 
Gen.  Doblada,  formerly  a  minister  of  the  Mexican 
Republic. — June  24.  Marriage  of  Marshal  Buzuine 
with  great  ceremony. — July  14.  The  French  take 
I'rnputi.— July  20.  Col.  Garnier  occupies  llcrmo- 
rillo.— July  23.  The  guerilla  chief  Publita  is  de- 
feated and  killed  by  French  cavalry. — Aug.  I?. 
The  Imperialists  occupy  Hermansilla. — Sep.  15. 
Gen.  Briancourt  enters  Chihuahua. — Oct.  25.  The 
Juarists  are  defeated  before  Matamoras. 

1866,  Jan.  3.  The  Juarists  seize  Toluca. — Jan.  5.  Bagdad, 

on  the  Rio  Grande,  is  captured  bv  American  Fili- 
busters from  Texas  under  Gen'.  Reed.-  I'Vb.  7. 
Alarmos  is  captured  and  sacked  by  the  Liberals. 
— March  4.  Cupt.  D'Huart,  a  member  of  the  Bel- 
gian mission,  ia  murdered  by  guerillas  near 
Mexico. — March  25.  The  Juarists  capture  Chi- 
huahua.— June  23.  Matamoras  capitulates  to  the 
Juarists.— Sep.  The  Empress  arrives  in  Europe. 

MEXICO  i  Treaties).—  A  treaty  of  union,  &c., 
between  Mexico  and  Colombia,   was    signed 

here    Oct.    3,    1823. A   boundary    treaty, 

between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  was 
concluded  Jan.  12,  1828,  and  an  additional 
article  was  signed  April  5,  1831. A  com- 
mercial treaty  between  Chili  and  Mexico  was 

signed    March   7,   1831. Another  boundary 

treaty,  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 

was  signed  April  3,   1835. A  treaty  for  the 

suppression  of  the  slave  trade  was  concluded 
between  Great  Britain  and  Mexico  Feb.  24, 
1841  ;  and  a  convention  between  the  same 
powers  was  signed  Oct.  15,  1842. A  conven- 
tion between  Mexico  and  the  United  States 

was  concluded  Jan.  30,  1843. A  convention 

between  Mexico  and  Great  Britain  was  signed 
Dec.  4,  1851. A  convention  between  Mexico 


MEZIERES 


C    657     ] 


MICROSCOPE 


and  Spain,  respecting  British  claims,  was  coi 

eluded  Dec.  6,  1851. An  agreement  betwee 

Great  Britain  and  Mexico  was  signed  Nov.  27 

1852. A  treaty  of  boundary  between  Mexic 

and  the  United  States  was  concluded  here 
Dec.  30,  1853. 

MEZIERES  (France),  the  chief  town  of  th 
department  of  the  Ardennes,  was  gradual! 
formed  round  a  castle  founded  in  the  gt 
century.  Refugees  from  Liege  settled  her 
between  1214  and  1418,  and  it  was  besieged  b; 
an  Austrian  and  Spanish  army  in  1521.  ThL 
Chevalier  Bayard  took  the  command  of  th 
garrison,  and  compelled  the  Imperialists  t 
retire  in  confusion  Sep.  27.  The  militar 
school,  founded  in  1748,  was  transferred  tc 
Metz.  The  Prussians  bombarded  it  in  1815 
and  it  surrendered  after  a  siege  of  42  days. 

MEZ1ERES-EN-BRENNE  (France).  —  Thi 
town,  in  the  department  of  Iiidre,  is  cele 
brated  for  its  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Marie 
Madeleine,  and  built  in  1339. 

MEZZOTINTO,  or  MIDDLE  -  TINT.  —  A 
style  of  engraving,  the  invention  of  which  it 
ascribed  to  Prince  Rupert  by  Evelyn  in  his 
"  Sculp tura,"  published  in  1662.  The  discovery 
however,  is  really  due  to  Louis  von  Sieger 
(1609 — 76),  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  service 
of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  who  en 
graved  a  portrait  of  the  Queen  of  Bohemia  ii 
this  style  about  1643.  Theodore  Caspar  dt 
Fiirstenberg,  who  practised  the  art  in  1656,  and 
Prince  Rupert  are  believed  to  have  been  pupils 
of  Siegen.  The  earliest  work  by  Prince  Rupert 
is  the  "Executioner  of  St.  John,"  completed 
in  1658. 

MHOW.— (See  CRAWLEY  COURT  MARTIAL.) 
MICAH,   the  sixth  in  order   of   the  minor 
prophets  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  considered, 
by  the  best  authorities,  to  have  been  delivered 
about  B.C.  750. 

MICHAELMAS.— The  feast  of  St.  Michael, 
celebrated  Sep.  29,  was  instituted  in  487. 
Michaelmas-day  was  formerly  marked  by  the 
display  of  great  hospitality,  and  many  curious 
customs  were  connected  with  it.  Michaelmas 
term  was  altered  by  16  Charles  I.  c.  6  (Nov., 
1640),  and  by  24  Geo.  II.  c.  48  (1751).  The 
common  tradition,  attributing  the  origin  of  the 
Michaelmas  goose  to  the  fact  that  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  eating  one  on  that  day  when  she 
received  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
armada,  is  incorrect :  public  thanksgiving  for 
the  victory  had  been  offered  in  London  Aug.  20, 
1588.  The  practice,  moreover,  existed  in 

England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (1461 83), 

and  appears  to  have  been  an  imitation  of  a 
custom  observed  on  the  continent  of  eating  a 
goose  on  St.  Martin's  day,  or  Martinmass, 
Nov.  ii.  The  goose  is  called  amongst  several 
continental  nations  St.  Martin's  bird. 

MICHAEL'S  MOUNT  (ST.),  (Cornwall).— 
This  island,  lying  off  the  coast,  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  be  the  Ictis  mentioned  by 
Diodorus  Siculus.  This,  however,  is  a  disputed 
point.  It  received  the  name  from  a  supposed 
appearance  of  the  archangel  St.  Michael  about 
495.  In  the  sth  century  it  was  an  object  of 
religious  veneration,  and  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor founded  and  endowed  an  abbey  or  priory 
of  Benedictines  before  1044.  It  was  annexed 


by  Robert,  Earl  of  Morton,  and  made  subject, 
in  religious  matters,  to  the  abbey  of  Mount  St. 
Michael,  in  Normandy,  and  remained  in  this 
condition  till  the  French  wars  in  1414,  when 
the  statute  passed  in  1380  for  suppressing  alien 
priories  was  put  in  force.  Henry  V.  or  VI. 
gave  this  alien  priory  to  Syon  Abbey,  Mid- 
dlesex, under  which  rule  it  continued  until 
I533>  when  it  was  dissolved.  In  1542  the 
abbey  was  given  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  granted 
the  revenues  to  Humphrey  Arundell.  After 
his  death,  in  1550,  it  was  sold  to  Job  Milton. 
The  mount  was  fortified  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Earl  of  Oxford  (John  de  Vere),  a  Lan- 
castrian, surprised  it  in  Sep.,  1473,  and  it  was 
wrested  from  him  by  the  Yorkists  in  Feb., 
1474.  The  Cornish  rebels  seized  it  in  1549,  and 
the  Parliamentarians  in  1646.  The  St.  Aubyns 
purchased  it  in  1660.  The  pier  was  rebuilt  in 
1726,  and  Queen  Victoria  visited  the  mount 
Sep.  6,  1846. 

MICHAEL,  ST.— Louis  XI.  of  France  insti- 
tuted the  order  of  St.  Michael  in  1469,  and  the 
order  of  St.  Lazarus  was  joined  to  it  in  1693. 
A  similar  order  was  introduced  into  Germany 
in  1618. 

MICHIGAN  (N.  America).  — The  French 
penetrated  into  this  country  early  in  the  i7th 
century,  and  formed  a  settlement  at  Detroit  in 
1647,  founding  that  town  in  1670.  Michigan 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  1763, 
and  was  not  entirely  relinquished  by  them  to 
the  United  States  until  1796.  Michigan  was 
erected  into  a  territory  in  1805,  and  was  admit- 
ted into  the  Union  as  a  distinct  state  in  1836. 

MICROMETER.— This  instrument,  applied 
;o  telescopes  and  microscopes,  for  measuring 
very  small  distances,  was  first  constructed  by 
Gascpigne,  an  Englishman,  in  1640,  and  used 
3y  him  for  measuring  the  diameters  of  the 
sun  and  moon.  Gascoigne,  who  perished  in  the 
3ivil  wars,  July  2,  1644,  published  no  account 
>f  his  invention.  Richard  Townley  preserved 
>ne  of  the  instruments,  and  it  was  improved 
jy  Hooke.  Without  any  knowledge  of  these 
nventioiis  and  improvements,  Auzout  and 
i'icard,  in  1666,  published  an  account  of  a 
nicrometer  invented  by  them.  Christian 
luygheiis  (April  14, 1629 — June  8,  1695)  effected 
'urther  improvements,  and  to  each  of  the 
fore-mentioned  persons,  at  some  period  or 
ther,  has  this  invention  been  attributed. 
MICROSCOPE.— Single  microscopes,  in  the 
orm  of  glass  globes  containing  water,  were  in 
ise  amongst  the  ancients.  A  magnifying  lens 
f  rock  crystal  was  found  in  the  ruins  of  Nine- 
'eh.  The  invention  of  the  compound  micro- 
cope  has  been  attributed  to  Jansen  and 
Galileo  in  1609,  and  to  Cornelius  Drebbel  in 
620.  It  is  now  generally  believed  to  have 
een  invented  by  Zacharias  Jansen,  assisted  by 
is  father,  Hans  Jansen,  spectacle-makers  at 
MMdleburg,  about  1590.  They  presented  one 

0  Prince  Maurice  in  1617.     Prichard  perfected 
ae  diamond  microscope,  Dec.  i,  1824.    It  was 
he  first  in  which  this  precious  stone  had  been 
sed,  and  it  was  found  greatly  superior  to  glass 

1  power.    Professor  Riddell,  of  the  university 
f  New  Orleans,   in  1851  constructed  a  bino- 
ular  microscope,  for  rendering  both  eyes  ser- 
iceable  in  microscopical  observations. 

u  u 


MICROSCOPICAL 


[    658    ] 


MIGRATORY 


MICROSCOPICAL   SOCIETIES.— The 

Microscopical  Society  was  instituted  in  Lon- 
don Sep.  3,  1839,  for  the  promotion  and  diffu- 
sion of  improvements  in  the  optical  and 
mechanical  construction  ;  for  the  communica- 
tion and  discussion  of  observations  and  disco- 
veries ;  for  the  exhibition  of  new  or  interesting 
microscopical  objects  and  preparations  ;  for 
submitting  difficult  and  obscure  microscopical' 
phenomena  to  the  test  of  various  instruments; 
and  for  the  establishment  of  a  library  of  stan- 
dard microscopical  works. The  Dublin 

Microscopical  Society,  for  promoting  a  know- 
ledge of  the  minute  structure  of  organic 

beings,  was  founded  in  Oct.  1840. The  Que- 

kett  Microscopical  Club  was  established  in 
London  in  1865. 

MIDDLE  AGES.— (See  MEDIEVAL  AGES.) 

MIDDLEBURG  (Holland).— The  Prince  of 
Orange  wrested  this  strongly  fortified  town,  in 
the  province  of  Zealand,  from  the  Spaniards, 
after  a  two  years'  siege,  Feb.  19,  1574.  In  1581 
a  religious  sect,  called  the  Browiiists  7.  p.), 
from  their  founder  Robert  Brown,  settled  at 
Middleburg.  Disunion  appeared  in  their  ranks, 
and  Brown  left  them  and  returned  to  England 
in  1589.  The  town-hall  was  founded  in  1468. 
—(See  EOOA.) 

MIDDLE-CLASS  EXAMINATIONS.  —  The 
Convocation  of  Oxford  University  passed  a 
statute  authorizing  middle-class  examinations, 
June  1 8,  1857,  and  the  first  commenced  at 
Oxford,  June  21, 1858.  The  name  has  since  been 
changed  to  University  Local  Examinations 
(q.  v.). 

MIDDLESBOROUGH  (England).— The  first 
house  of  this  thriving  town,  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  was  built  in  1830. 

MIDDLESEX  (England),  before  the  Roman 
invasion,  B.C.  5*5,  formed  part  of  the  territories 
of  the  Trinobaiites,  the  first  British  tribe  which 
submitted  to  the  Romans.  Julius  Cfesar  in- 
vaded it  B.C.  54  ;  it  passed  under  the  dominion 
of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Claudius  I.  (41—54), 
and  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Essex, 
established  in  527. 

MIDDLE -TEMPLE  HALL  (London)  was 
builb  in  1570.  It  contains  an  equestrian  pic- 
ture of  Charles  I.,  supposed  to  be  a  genuine 
Vandyke;  and  portraits  of  Charles  II.,  Queen 
Anne,  George  I.,  and  George  II.  New  buildings 
were  erected  in  1831,  and  the  new  library, 
completed  in  1861,  was  opened  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales  Oct.  31. 

MIDDLE  THIBET.— (See  LADAK.) 

MIDDLETON  (England).  —  This  parish,  in 
Lancashire,  was  granted  in  1513  to  Sir  Richard 
Assheton  for  his  bravery  at  Flodden  Field,  and 
was  only  a  small  village  in  1775.  In  1812  it 
was  the  scene  of  rioting  by  discontented  work- 
men. The  church  was  built  by  Sir  R.  Assheton, 
in  1524;  the  grammar-school  was  founded  by 
royal  charter,  Aug.  n,  1572;  and  in  connection 
with  the  grammar-school  Samuel  Radcliffe 
founded  two  scholarships  at  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford,  in  1648. 

MIDDLETOWN  (N.  America).— This  city 
of  Connecticut,  called  Mattabesick  by  the 
Indians,  was  settled  in  1650.  The  Wesleyan 
university  was  founded  in  1831. 

MIDHURST  (Sussex)  is  supposed  to  have 


been  the  Roman  Miba,  or  Mida,  described  in 
the  Chorography  of  Ravenna,  as  existing  in 
the  south  of  Britain.  Its  free  grammar-school 
was  founded  in  1672.  Cowdry  House,  the 
seat  of  the  Montagues,  near  this  town,  built  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1793. 

MIDIANITES,  deriving  their  name  from 
Midian,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  were 
early  engaged  in  trade  between  the  East  and 
the  West.  Joseph  was  sold  by  his  brethren, 
B.C.  1728,  to  a  party  of  Midianites  carrying 
spices,  the  produce  of  the  East,  into  Egypt 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  28).  They  were  defeated  and 
almost  exterminated  by  the  Jews,  B.C.  1451 
(Num.  xxxi.).  The  Jews  fell  under  their  rule 
B.C.  1252  (Judges  vi.  i — 6).  Gideon  triumphed 
over  them  B.C.  1245  (Judges  viii.  28).  (See 
CRESCENT.) 

MIDNAPORE  (Hindostan).  —  This  district 
and  town  of  Orissa  were  ceded  to  the  Eng- 
lish by  Cossim  Ali  Khan,  in  1761.  They  were 
devastated  by  a  famine,  which  carried  off 
nearly  half  of  the  population  in  1770.  A 
similar  disaster,  but  of  less  severity,  occurred 

MIDWIFERY. — In  ancient  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome,  the  obstetric  art  was  exclusively 
professed  by  females,  male  physicians  being 
only  called  in  when  the  life  of  the  mother 
was  considered  in  great  danger.  The  first 
printed  book  on  the  subject  was  published  by 
Eucharius  Roesslin  in  1513.  The  practicability 
of  the  Csesarean  operation  on  the  living 
mother  was  proved  by  Francis  Rousset  in  1581 ; 
and  the  science  was  permanently  established 
on  a  firm  foundation  by  the  treatise  of  Francis 
Mauriceau  in  1668.  The  invention  of  the 
forceps  was  made  by  Dr.  Paul  Chamberlen  in 
1640.  Male  accoucheurs  were  first  employed 
by  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  in  France.  A 
school  for  midwives  was  established  in  the 
Hotel  Dieu  at  Paris  in  1745. 

MIES  (Battle).  —  The  Hussites  defeated  a 
Saxon  army,  near  Mies,  July  21,  1426. 

MIGRATORY  BIRDS,  or  B IRDS  OF 
PASSAGE,  the  English  venial  immigrants, 
generally  acknowledged  as  such,  and  concern- 
ing which  authentic  statistics  have  been  pub- 
lished, as  far  as  regards  the  London  district, 
are  25  in  number.  They  make  their  appearance 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  London  in  the  fol- 
lowing order : — 


Earliest 
date  of 
arrival. 

Latest 
date  of 
arrival. 

Order  of 
arrival. 

Name  of 
Bird. 

Mar.  II 

Mar.  1  6 
Mar.  25 
Mar.  27 
Mar.  29 
Apr.  i 
Apr.  2 
Apr.  5 
Apr.  6 
Apr.  9 
Apr.  9 
Apr.  9 
Apr.  9 
Apr.  12 

*  In  IS 
usual  tin 

Mar.  39  (1834)* 
April  17  
April  20  
May  8  (1834)... 
April  25  
April  20 

2  

3  
4  

6.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

ChSffchaff. 
Wheatcar. 

Wryneck. 
Sand-martin. 
Black-cap. 
Willow-wren. 
Redstart. 
Swallow. 
Whinchat. 
Martin. 
Tree-pipit. 
Nightingale. 
Yellow-wagtail. 
Whitothroat. 

st  three  weeks  after  its 

May  8  (1834)... 
April  28  
May  25  (1834) 
April  21  

8  
9  

10  
12  

April  25  
April  23  

34,  every-  bird  \ 
e. 

13  

JA  

vns  at  lea 

MIGUELTTES 


[    659    ] 


MILETUS 


Earliest 
date  of 
arrival. 

Latest 
date  of 
arrival. 

Order  of 
arrival. 

Name  of 
Bird. 

Apr.  13 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  16 

May  15   

May  16(1834) 
April  29  

7  

Cuckoo. 
Sedge-warbler. 
Lesser-whitethroat. 

Apr.  20 

May  ,3    

8  

Turtle-dove. 

Apr.  21 

May  23  (1834) 

y  

i  ;  ,-i  i  s.-.i  11  >pper-warbler. 

Apr.  23 

May  13   

2,0  

Garden-warbler. 

Apr.  23 
Apr.  34 

May  31  (1834) 
May  g  

23  . 

Wood-wren. 

Kedbacked  Sliripe. 

Apr.  30 
May  i 

K|  ::::::::: 

33  

34  

Spotted-flycatcher. 

Goatsucker. 

May  i 

May  29  (1834) 

25  

Swift 

MIGUELITES.— The  supporters  of  Don  Mi- 
guel, the  third  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal 
(q.  v.).  Soon  after  his  father's  death  (March  10, 
1826)  he  attempted  to  obtain  the  crown  to  the 
exclusion  of  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria,  his  eldest 
brother's  daughter,  who  had  been  proclaimed 
Queen.  He  assumed  the  title  of  King,  June 
30,  1828,  and  after  carrying  on  a  civil  war  for 
some  time  signed  an  agreement  at  Evora 
Monte  not  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Portu- 
gal, May  26,  1834. 

MILAN  (Italy).— This  city,  the  ancient  Me- 
diolanum  (q.  v.),  rose  from  its  ruins,  and  re- 
gained some  of  its  former  importance  in  the 
qth  century.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Pavia,  after  its  capture  in  924,  settled  here, 
and  Otho  I.  was  crowned  King  of  Italy  at 
Milan  in  961.  Conrad  II.  laid  siege  to  it  in 
1037,  and  retired  in  1038  without  achieving  his 
object.  Councils  were  held  here  in  346,  347, 
355»  380,  390,  451,  679,  1009,  1103,  in  Feb.  1117, 
and  Sep.  12,  1287. 

A.D. 

1041.  The  people  expel  the  nobles. 

1043.  The  city  is  blockaded  by  the  expelled  nobles. 

1044.  Peace  is    restored    between    the    nobles    and    the 

people. 

1107.  Milan  becomes  a  republic. 

1137.  The  people  make  war  upon  other  Italian  cities,  and 
destroy  Como. 

1154.  The  Milanese  are  defeated  in  a  sanguinary  battle  by 
the  people  of  Pavia,  and  they  submit  to  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  I. 

1158.  Frederick  1.,  with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  besieges 
Mil.-ui,  which  is  reduced  by  famine  and  pestilence. 

1161.  The  Milanese  having  rebelled,  Frederick  I.  again 
lays  siege  to  their  city. 

1163,  March  i.  The  consuls  and  chief  citizens  solicit 
the  clemency  of  Frederick  I.  at  Lodi. — March  4. 
They  deliver  up  the  keys.— March  26.  Frederick  I. 
enters  the  city  and  destroys  the  fortifications. 

1167.  The  Lombard  cities  form  a  league  for  their  defence, 
and  .Milan  is  restored. 

1183.  The  struggle  between  Frederick  I.  and  the  Lombard 
cities  is  brought  to  a  close  by  the  peace  of  Con- 
stance. 

1187.  The  citizens  choose  Uberto  Visconti  of  Placentia  as 
their  podesta. 

1359.  Struggles  between  the  nobles  and  the  people  re- 
commence. 

1377,  J"11-  Visconti  takes  Milan  from  Napoleone  della 
Torre,  and  the  people  salute  him  "  Perpetual 
Loid." 

1337.  The  government  of  Milan  is  remodelled,  and  24 
nobles,  subject  to  an  imperial  vicar,  are  made 
rulers. 

1395.  Milan  is  erected  into  a  duchy,  Gian  Galeazzo  Vis- 
conti having  purchased  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Milan  from  Wenceslaus,  King  of  the  Romans. 

1425.  Commencement  of  the  wars  between  Milan  and 
Venice. 

1438,  April  19.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Florence. 

1447,  Aug.  13.  The  rule  of  the  Visconti  terminates  with 
the  (tenth  of  Philip  Maria  Visconti. 


A.D. 

1449—50.  Milan  is  taken  by  Sforza,  who  is  proclaimed 
duke. 

1499.  Milan  is  occupied  by  the  French. 

1513.  It  is  a '.rain  occupied  by  the  French. 

1535-  Charles  V.  seizes  Milan. 

1540.  It  is  given  to  Philip  of  Spain  by  his  father  Charles  V. 

1549.  The  Goldeu  Bull  of  Milan  is  promulgated. 

1603.  The  Ambrosian  (17.  v.)  library  is  founded. 

1639.  Philip  IV.  signs  the  treaty  known  as  the  Capitula- 
tion of  Milan. 

1700.  Milan  is  seized  by  the  Austrians. 

1707,  March  13.  The  French  sign  a  treaty  at  Milan,  re- 
signing all  their  conquests  in  Lombardy. 

;733i  Dec.  39.  The  citadel  surrenders  to  the  French. 

1796.  It  is  taken  by  the  French. 

1797,  June  14.   The  Ligurian  Republic  (q.  ».)  is  formed. 
179$,  June  24.  The  convention  of  Milan  is    signed  be- 
tween France  and  Sardinia. 

1799,  May  24.  Milan  is  taken  by  the  Austrians,  under  Gen. 

Hohenzollern. 

1800,  June  2.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  enters  Milan. 

1805,  May  26.  Napoleon  I.  is  crowned  King  of  Italy,  with 

the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  at  Milan. 
1807,  Dec.  17.  Napoleon  I.  publishes  the  Milan  decree  pro- 
hibiting the  nations  of  the  continent  from  holding 

intercourse  witli  the  English. 
1815,  April  30.  Insurrections  break  out  at  Milan. 
I84«,  March  18.  The  Milanese  rise  against  the  Austrians, 

and  drive  them   from  the    city.  —  Aug.  5.    Tho 

Austrian  forces  re-euter  the  city. 
1849,  AuS-  6.  Peace  is  concluded  here  between  Austria 

and  Sardinia. 
X8S3,  Feb.   6.  The  Milanese  revolt  from  Austria,  but  are 

speedily  reduced  to  order. 

1857,  Jan-  '5-  l'"e  Emperor  of  Austria  visits  Milan. 
1659,  June  8.  Napoleon  III.   and  Victor   Emauuol  enter 

Milan. 
1860,  Feb.  15.  Victor  Emanuel  is  enthusiastically  received 

at  Milan. 
1864,  April.  The  Government  confiscates  some  dep6ts  of 

arms. 


MILAN  (Treaties).— A  capitulation  between 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  and  the  Swiss  cantons  was 
signed  here  Sep.  3,  1639. A  general  capitu- 
lation for  the  evacuation  of  Lombardy  by  the 

French  was  concluded  here  March  13,  3707. 

A  treaty  between  France  and  the  Venetian 
Republic,  signed  on  the  one  part  by  Napoleon 
I.  and  Lallemand,  and  on  the  other  by  Dona, 
Justiniani  and  Mocenigo,  was  concluded  here 
May  16,  1797.  The  Grand  Council  of  Venice 
renounced  its  rights  of  sovereignty  and  recog- 
nized the  authority  of  an  assembly  of  the 

citizens.     This  treaty  was  never  ratified. 

A  convention  between  the  French  Republic 
and  Charles  Emanuel  II.  of  Sardinia,  was 

signed  June  24,  1798. Peace  was  concluded 

here  between  Austria  and  Sardinia,  Aug.  6, 

MILAN    DECREE.  —  (See    CONTINENTAL 

SYSTEM.) 

MILAN  EDICT,  granting  toleration  to  the 
Christians,  was  issued  at  Milan  by  Constantino 
I.  in  313.  It  established  universal  religious 
toleration. 

MILESIAN  WAR,  waged  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Miletus  (q.  v.)  in  defence  of  their  liberties 
against  the  Lydians,  lasted  from  B.C.  623  to 
B.C.  612.  The  Milesians  were  defeated  in  two 
engagements  by  Sadyattes,  King  of  Lydia. 
The  war  was  continued  by  his  successor  Aly- 
attes,  who  was  taken  ill,  in  consequence,  "it 
was  believed,  of  his  troops  having  burned  a 
temple  in  the  territory  of  Miletus,  and  he  at 
once  made  peace  with  the  Milesians. 

MILETUS  (Asia  Minor).— This  city,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  peopled  by  Carians  at  an 
u  u  2 


MILEVIS 


[    660    ] 


MILL 


arly  period,  passed  through  the  hands  of 
everal  tribes,  and  was  seized  by  the  lonians, 
who  massacred  all  the  women.  Gold  coins 
are  said  to  have  been  struck  here  B.C.  800. 
The  inhabitants  carried  011  war  against  the 
Lydians  B.C.  623—612.  They  rose  against  the 
Persians  B.C.  500,  and,  after  sustaining  several 
defeats,  their  city  was  taken  B.C.  494,  and  the 
inhabitants  were  carried  to  Ampe,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tigris.  Miletus  regained  its  indepen- 
dence after  the  battle  of  Mycale  (q.  v.),  B.C. 
479,  and  soon  after  joined  the  Athenians. 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  took  the  city  by 
assault  B.C.  334.  It  was  visited  by  the  Apostle 
Paul  (Acts  xx.  17),  who  summoned  the  elders 
of  the  Church  of  Ephesus  to  meet  him  here  in 
April,  B.C.  56,  and  it  was  an  early  see  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

MILEVIS  (Africa).— Councils  were  held  here 
Avig.  27,  402,  and  in  416.  The  French  took  pos- 
session of  the  town,  now  called  Milah,  in  1838. 

MILFORD  (Wales).— This  town,  founded  in 
1790,  is  connected  with  London  by  the  South 
Wales  Railway.  The  church  was  erected  in 
1805.  The  naval  establishments  were  removed 
to  Pembroke  in  1814. 

MILFORD  HAVEN  (Wales)  is  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  with  deep  water  and  excellent  anchorage, 
capable  of  sheltering  the  whole  of  the  British 
navy.  Here  Richard  II.  embarked  on  his  ex- 
pedition to  Ireland  in  May,  1399.  A  French 
fleet,  carrying  troops  intended  to  assist  O\ven 
Glendower  in  his  opposition  to  Henry  IV., 
arrived  here  in  1407.  The  Earl  of  Richmond, 
afterwards  Henry  VII.,  who  sailed  from  Jlur- 
fleur  Aug.  i,  1485,  landed  at  Milford  Haven 
Aug.  7.  Two  lighthouses  were  erected  on  St. 
Ann's  Head  in  1800.  The  Great  K«.<t<  i-n  win- 
tered in  Milford  Haven  in  1860,  and  returned 
for  repairs,  after  having  been  disabled  in  a 
hurricane,  Sep.  12,  1861.  The  foundation- 
stoiie  of  Hubberston  Dock  was  laid  Sep.  23, 
1864. 

MILITARY  ASYLUM.— (.See  CHELSEA  and 
ROYAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM.) 

MILITARY  FRONTIER  (Austria).  —  This 
tract  of  country,  so  named  because  it  is  placed 
under  a  purely  military  government,  extends 
from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  Transylvania,  and 
was  originally  intended  to  form  a  barrier 
against  the  Turks.  The  system  was  introduced 
by  Ferdinand  I.  (1558—64),  who  planted  mili- 
tary colonists  in  Croatia.  It  was  further  ex- 
tended in  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries,  the 
system  in  existence  at  present  having  been 
established  in  1807. 

MILITARY  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR.— 
(See  POOR  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR.) 

MILITARY  TRAIN.— The  name  given  to 
the  Land  Transport  Corps  (q.  v.),  on  its  reor- 
ganization in  1858. 

MILITIA. — The  national  force,  denominated 
the  Fyrd,  which  existed  in  this  country  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  was  improved  and  ex- 
tended by  Alfred  (871—901).  Henry  II.  issued 
an  ordinance  commanding  all  persons  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  arms  in  1181.  By  13 
Edw.  I.  c.  5  (1285),  the  scale  of  arms  for  dif- 
ferent ranks  was  revised.  Hallam,  with  re- 
ference to  the  changes  that  occurred  in  the 
system  of  national  defence,  remarks  (Middle 


Ages,  chap.  ii.  pt.  2),  "The  feudal  military 
tenures  had  superseded  that  earlier  system  of 
public  defence  which  called  upon  every  man, 
and  especially  every  landholder,  to  protect  his 
country.  The  relations  of  a  vassal  came  in 
place  of  those  of  a  subject  and  a  citizen.  This 
was  the  revolution  of  the  gth  century.  In  the 
1 2th  and  i3th  another  innovation  rather  more 
gradually  prevailed,  and  marks  the  third  pe- 
riod in  the  military  history  of  Europe.  Mer- 
cenary troops  were  substituted  for  the  feudal 
militia."  The  first  commission  of  array  (q.  v.) 
for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  of  which  any 
record  remains,  was  issued  in  1324,  and  the  last 
in  1557.  The  modern  system  was  introduced 
by  13  Charles  II.  c.  6  (1661),  by  which  the  sole 
right  of  commanding  the  militia  by  sea  or 
land  was  vested  in  the  crown.  Further  pro- 
visions were  made  by  13  and  14  Charles  II. 
c.  3  (1662),  and  by  15  Charles  II.  c.  4  (1663); 


and  the  various  regulations  in  force  were 
amended  by  i  Geo.  I.  c.  14  (1714).  Measures 
were  taken  for  the  better  ordering  of  the 
militia  by  30  Geo.  II.  c.  25  (1757),  which  was 
explained  and  amended  by  31  Geo.  II.  c.  26 
(1758).  All  the  laws  in  force  were  consoli(  lated 
by  2  Geo.  III.  c.  20  (1762).  Protestant  dissent- 
ing ministers  and  schoolmasters  were  ex- 
empted from  service  in  the  militia  by  19  Geo. 
III.  c.  44  '1779  .  The  militia  lawswere  amend- 
ed and  consolidated  by  26  Geo.  III.  c.  107 
(1786).  The  supplementary  militia  act,  37  Geo. 
III.  c.  3  (Nov.  ii,  1796),  provided  for  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  militia,  and  the  laws  relating 
to  the  subject  were  again  amended  by  42  Geo. 
III.  c.  90  (June  26,  1802).  The  acts  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  respecting  the  militia  in  Ireland 
were  amended  and  consolidated  by  49  Geo.  III. 
c.  120  (June  19,  1809).  Police  constables  are 
exempted  from  serving  in  the  militia  by  2  &  3 
Viet.  c.  93  (Aug.  27,  1839).  The  militia  laws 
were  again  amended  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  50 
(June  30,  1852),  by  16  <fc  17  Viet.  c.  133 
(Aug.  20,  1853),  by  17  <fc  18  Viet.  c.  13  (May  12, 
1854),  and  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  57,  100  and  106 

'MILKY  WAY.— Democritus,  a  celebrated 
philosopher  of  Abdera,  was  the  first  who 
taught  that  this  luminous  trail  in  the  heavens, 
called  the  milky  way,  consisted  of  a  confused 
multitude  of  stars,  about  428  B.C.  Soon  after 
the  discovery  of  the  telescope,  Galileo  (1564 
—Jan.  8,  1642)  announced  that  he  had  re- 
solved the  whole  of  the  milky  way  into 
stars. 

MILL. — A  machine  of  some  kind  or  other  for 
grinding  corn  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and 
was  in  use  amongst  all  ancient  nations.  The 
time  when  the  mortar,  probably  the  earliest 
instrument  used  for  the  purpose,  was  super- 
seded by  the  hand-mill,  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. Moses  threatened  Pharaoh  with  the 
destruction  of  all  the  first-born  of  Egypt, 
"  even  unto  the  first-born  of  the  maid-servant 
that  is  behind  the  mill "  (Exod.  xi.  5),  B.C. 
1491,  and  he  commanded  the  Israelites  not  to 
pledge  a  mill  of  this  kind  (Deut.  xxiv.  6), 
B.C.  1451.  Cattle-mills  were  introduced  at  an 
early  period.  Water-mills  were  invented  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  appear  to  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  60 — 


MILLEDGEVILLE 


[    661     ] 


MINERVE 


44).  Floating  mills  were  invented  in  536.  Wind- 
mills, used  in  Hungary  before  718,  were  in- 
troduced into  England  about  1040.  Mills  for 
draining  water  off  land  first  occur  in  Holland 
in  1408. 

MILLEDGEVILLE  (N.  -America).  —  This 
town,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  was  captured  by 
the  Federals,  Nov.  20,  1864. 

MILLENARIANS,  or  CHILIASTS,  a  name 
given  to  those  who  believe  that  the  saints  will 
reign  on  earth  with  Christ  1,000  years.  These 
opinions,  grounded  on  Rev.  xx.,  arose  in  the 
2nd  century,  and  have  existed,  with  various 
changes  and  modifications,  since  that  period. 
Papias  (169),  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  and  a  dis- 
ciple of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  was  the  first 
who  held  these  views,  and  they  were  warmly 
supported  by  Justin  Martyr  (103—167).  In  the 
4th  century  the  milleriarians  held  the  follow- 
ing tenets  : — that  the  city  of  Jerusalem  would 
be  rebuilt ;  that  Christ  would  come  down  from 
heaven  and  reign  upon  earth  with  his  ser- 
vants ;  and  that  the  saints  during  this  period 
would  enjoy  all  the  delights  of  a  terrestrial 
paradise.  According  to  Mosheim,  Cerinthus, 
in  the  ist  century,  held  opinions  of  a  similar 
character.  (See  FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN.) 

MILLENARY  PETITION.— This  address  to 
James  I.,  drawn  up  by  the  Puritans  in  1603, 
was  called  the  millenary  petition  because  they 
pretended  that  it  bore  the  signatures  of  1,000 
ministers,  though  some  hundreds  were  wanted 
to  complete  that  number.  Hallam  says  it  was 
signed  by  825  ministers  from  25  counties.  The 
Puritans  met  James  I.  on  his  journey  from 
Scotland  to  take  possession  of  the  English 
throne,  and  presented  this  address.  The  uni- 
versities declared  against  it  June  9,  1603  ;  but 
it  was  discussed  at  the  Hampton  Court  con- 
ference, Jan.  14,  1604. 

MILLENNIUM.  -The  ancient  tradition,  that 
Christ  and  his  saints  should  reign  upon  earth 
for  i, ooo  years,  was  revived  in  the  ioth  century, 
when  the  people  were  taught  that  the  millen- 
nium was  at  hand,  that  Satan  would  be  set 
free,  that  the  reign  of  Antichrist  would  com- 
mence, and  that  after  a  short  season  of 
triumph  the  last  judgment  would  take  place. 
Multitudes,  as  the  eventful  year  approached 
(about  950),  forsook  their  homes,  making 
over  their  property  to  the  Church.  (See  MIL- 
LENARIANS. ) 

MILLESIMO(Battle).— Napoleon  Buonaparte 
in  his  despatches  to  the  French  Directory,  pre- 
tended to  have  defeated  the  Austriaiis  under 
Beaulieu,  near  this  town  of  Piedmont,  on  the 
Bormida,  April  14,  1796.  No  such  battle  was, 
however,  fought. 

MILLIDUSE  (Battle).— Gen.  Paskewitch,  at 
the  head  of  a  Russian  army,  stormed  the 
Turkish  camp  at  this  place,  near  Erzeroum, 
July  2,  1829.  The  victors  captured  30  pieces  of 
cannon,  19  standards,  and  1,500  prisoners. 

MILLSPRINGS  (Battle).— The  Confederates, 
though  at  first  successful,  were  ultimately  foiled 
in  an  attack  upon  the  Federal  camp,  at  this 
place,  in  Kentucky,  Jan.  19,  1862. 

MILTON  (Kent).— This  town,  anciently  called 
Midletun  and  Middleton,  formed  part  of  the 
demesnes  of  the  Saxon  kings.  Hosting,  the 
Dane,  built  a  fort  here  in  893,  and  it  was  burned 


by  Earl  Godwin  about  1052.  The  fee  of  the 
manor  remained  vested  in  the  crown  till  the 
reign  of  Charles  I. 

MILWAUKEE  (N.  America),  in  Wisconsin, 
was  founded  in  1835. 

MINCIO  (Battles).— The  French,  under  Na- 
poleon Buonaparte,  defeated  the  Austrians  on 
the  banks  of  this  river,  in  Lombardy,  May  29, 

1796. The  French  were  defeated  here  by  the 

Austrians,  Dec.  26,  1800. Eugene  Beauhar- 

nais  gained  a  victory  over  the  Austrians  Feb.  8, 
1814. In  1848,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revo- 
lution in  Italy,  the  Austrian  general  Radetsky 
retreated  to  the  Mincio,  April  2.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Charles  Albert,  who  forced  the  pas- 
sage of  the  river  April  8.  Charles  Albert,  after 
losing  the  battle  of  Valeggio,  was  compelled, 
July  26,  to  retrace  his  steps  and  abandon  the 

line  of  the  Mincio. The  Austrians  retreated 

to  the  left  bank  after  the  battle  of  Magenta,  in 
June,  1859,  and  recrossed  it  July  23,  to  fight 
the  battle  of  Solferino  (q.v.).  The  allied  French 
and  Sardinians  followed  them  across  the  river 
Aug.  i,  and  found  the  Austrians  had  taken 
shelter  in  the  lines  of  the  Quadrilateral. 

MINDANAO,  or  MAGINDANAO  (Philippine 
Islands). — The  Arabians  at  an  early  period  vi- 
sited this  island,  the  largest  of  the  group,  and 
Magalhaens  took  possession  of  it  in  1521.  The 
Mohammedan  population  are  governed  by  a 
native  ruler,  and  the  Spaniards  possess  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  island. 

MINDEN  (Battle)  was  fought  at  this  town  in 
Prussia,  Aug.  i,  1759,  between  the  allied  army, 
composed  of  English,  Hessians,  and  Hanover- 
ians, commanded  by  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  the  French,  under  Marshal  De  Con- 
tades.  The  allies,  who  gained  a  complete  vic- 
tory, lost  2,000  men,  whilst  the  French  lost 
7,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

MINERALOGY.— Agricola  of  Saxony  (1494 
— iS5S)  is  stated  by  Cuvier  to  have  been  the 
first  mineralogist  after  the  revival  of  science 
in  Europe.  Becker's  "  Physica  Subterranea" 
was  published  in  1669,  and  Kircher's  "Mundus 
Subterraneus"  in  1 662.  Woodward  is  the  founder 
of  scientific  mineralogy  in  this  country.  His 
"Natural  History  of  the  Earth"  was  published 
in  1695.  Wallerius  published  his  celebrated 
system  in  1 747.  Cronstedt's  great  work,  "Forsog 
til  Mineralogie,"  appeared  in  1758,  and  com- 
menced a  new  sera  in  the  history  of  the  science. 
Werner's  system  was  founded  in  1774,  and 
Hauy's  "  Traite"  de  Mineralogie"  was  published 
in  1801.  The  Mineralogical  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  1801. 

MINERAL  WATERS.  —  Boyle,  in  1663  and 
1678,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  used 
tests  to  detect  the  ingredients'in  mineral  waters. 
Gregory,  in  1707,  procured  the  solid  ingredients 
by  evaporation  ;  and  Boulduc,  in  1726,  employ- 
ed alcohol  to  separate  the  saline  substances. 
After  the  discovery  of  carbonic  acid  by  Dr. 
Black,  in  1778,  more  attention  was  paid  to  the 
analysis  of  mineral  waters. 

MINERVE  (France).— This  stronghold  of  the 
Cevennes  was  captured  during  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses  in  1210.  One  hundred 
and  forty  of  the  inhabitants  cast  themselves 
headlong  into  the  flames  Jxily  23,  to  escape 
the  fury  of  their  persecutors. 


MINES 


[    662    ] 


MINSTRELS 


MINES.  —  The  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians 
were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  forming  sub- 
terranean shafts  and  galleries  in  their  pursuit 
of  metallic  ores,  although  they  chiefly  de- 
pended on  what  are  called  stream  vcirks.  The 
Athenians  worked  silver-mines  at  Laurium  in 
Attica  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  and  the  Romans 
obtained  quicksilver  from  Almaden  in  Spain  at 
an  early  period.  The  art  of  mining  known  in 
Britain  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Romans,  was 
much  neglected  after  their  departure.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  chiefly  practised  by  Jews.  The 
king,  by  his  royal  prerogative,  has  a  right  to 
all  mines  containing  gold  and  silver.  By  i 
Will.  III.  &  Mary,  c.  30  (1689),  copper  or  tin 
mines  in  which  gold  is  found  are  not  to  be 
deemed  royal  mines.  Gunpowder  was  first 
employed  in  mines  in  1620.  The  company  of 
Mine  Adventurers  was  formed  in  1690  for  the 
purpose  of  working  the  lead  and  copper  mines 
of  South  Wales.  A  mania  for  mining  specula- 
tions raged  in  England  in  1824  and  1825,  in 
consequence  of  the  opening  of  Mexico  to  Bri- 
tish intercourse.  Numerous  statutes  have  been 
passed  for  the  management  of  mines.  By  10 
Ceo.  II.  c.  32  (1737),  it  was  declared  a  capital 
offence  to  set  fire  to  any  mine,  and  by  9  Geo. 
III.  c.  29  (1769),  the  destruction  of  any  appa- 
ratus connected  with  mines  rendered  the  of- 
fender liable  to  seven  years'  transportation. 
To  damage  the  roads  leading  to  mines  was 
made  a  misdemeanour  by  39  «fc  40  Geo.  III.  c. 
77  ;.Iuly  9,  1800),  and  to  steal  from  mines  was 
made  larceny  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  s.  37 
(June  21,  1827).  The  employment  of  women  in 
mines  was  prohibited  by  5  <fe  6  Viet.  c.  </,  (  \;u  . 
10,  1842;.  New  rules  for  the  government  and 
inspection  of  mines  wei-e  imposed  by  23  &  24 
Viet.  c.  151  (Aug.  28,  1860).  The  French  Ecole 
des  Mines  was  founded  in  1783.  The  London 
School  of  Mines  was  opened  with  an  inaugural 
address  by  Sir  Henry  T.  De  la  Beche,  Nov.  6, 
1851.  (See  DEAN  FOREST.) 

MINGRELIA  (Asia).— This  principality  in 
the  Caucasus  was  well  known  in  ancient  times 
under  the  name  of  Colchis  (q.  v.).  The  Turks 
took  possession  of  the  country,  leaving  the 
government  in  the  hands  of  native  princes, 
during  the  isth  century  ;  and  it  remained  in 
their  power  until,  by  the  treaty  of  Kutschouc- 
Kainardji,  July  10,  1774,  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  Mingrelia  was  declared  independent. 
The  Russians  obtained  an  ascendancy  over  the 
princes  of  Mingrelia  in  1812  ;  and  by  the  treaty 
of  Gulistan  (q.  v.),  Oct.  12,  1813,  the  Turkish 
Government  renounced  all  claim  to  this  pro- 
vince. 

MINIE  RIFLE  was  invented  at  Vincennes 
by  M.  Minie"  in  1833.  The  Minie"  principle,  with 
certain  modifications,  was  adopted  in  the  Eng- 
lish service  in  1851.  The  Minie  rifle  has  been 
superseded  by  the  Enfield  and  Whitworth  rifles, 
and  these  have  been  replaced  by  the  Needle 
Gun  (q.  v.). 

MINIMS,  or  LEAST  BRETHREN,  in  con- 
trast to  the  Minorites,  or  Lesser  Brethren,  of 
St.  Francis  d'Assisi,  were  founded  by  St. 
Francis  of  Paulo,  in  Calabria,  in  the  isth 
century.  He  first  formed  an  association  of 
hermits,  called  Hermits  of  St.  Francis,  who 
lived  in  separate  cells,  in  1453.  They  were 


assembled  in  convents  in  1474,  and  several 
establishments  were  formed  in  Italy  and 
France.  St.  Francis  died  April  2,  1507.  (See 
BBIBKNK.) 

MINING,  or  MILITARY  MINES.  — Long 
before  the  invention  of  gunpowder  it  was 
customary  to  undermine  besieged  places,  and 
•support  the  roofs  of  the  excavations  by 
wooden  props,  which,  being  consumed  by 
slow  fire,  the  roof  fell  in,  and  a  breach  was 
effected.  The  first  theory  of  mines  since  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  appears  in  a  MS.  of 
George  of  Sienna,  in  1480,  and  it  was  put  into 
practice  by  the  Genoese  at  the  siege  of  Saz- 
zana,  in  1487.  The  plan  failed,  and  was  not 
resumed  till  1503,  when  mines  were  success- 
fully employed  by  the  Neapolitans  against  the 
French.  Candia  was  defended  against  the 
Turks  by  1,173  mines  during  the  siege  that 
terminated  in  1669. 

MINISTER  OF  WAR.— The  direction  of  colo- 
nial affairs  and  of  war  was  vested  in  one  person 
until  June  8,  1854,  when  a  division  was  made, 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle  retaining  the  war  de- 
partment, and  Sir  G.  Grey  being  appointed  to 
preside  over  the  colonial  office.  (See  ABERDEEN 
ADMINISTRATION.  ) 

MINNESINGERS,  or  LOVE-SINGERS,  flou- 
rished in  Germany  during  the  i2th  and  i3th 
centuries.  Henry  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
in  1190,  was  a  minnesinger,  as  was  also  the 
Kmpcror  Conrad  IV.  in  1264.  When  Rodolph 
of  II a)  >sburg  ascended  the  throne  in  1273,  the 
minnesingers  begun  to  decline.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  minnesingers  was  Walther 
von  der  Vogelweide  (1190 — 1240),  who  went  to 
the  crusades  in  1197.  Whilst  a  child  he  wrote 
many  "lays,"  one  a  song  of  triumph  on  the 
coronation  of  Philip  II.  at  Mentz,  in  1198.  He 
assisted  as  a  principal  at  the  famous  conten- 
tion of  minnesingers,  or  poetic  battle  of  Eise- 
nach, in  1207.  (tire  MEISTKUSINGERS.) 

MINNESOTA  (N.  America)  was  erected  into 
a  territory  March  3,  1849,  the  portion  west  of 
the  Mississippi  having  previously  formed  a 
part  of  the  territory  of  Iowa,  and  that  east  of 
the  Mississippi  a  part  of  Wisconsin.  In  1850 
it  was  divided  into  nine  counties. 

MINOA.— (See  HERACLKA.) 

MINORCA,  or  MENORCA  (Mediterranean), 
the  second  in  size  of  the  Balearic  Isles  (q.  v.), 
colonized  by  the  Phoenicians  at  an  early  period, 
passed  successively  under  the  sway  of  the  Car- 
thaginians, the  Romans,  the  Vandals,  and  the 
Arabs,  The  Genoese  took  it  in  1146,  and  in 
1229  it  was  conquered  by  Don  James  of  Ara- 
gon  ;  and  in  1287  by  Alphonso  III.,  his  grand- 
son, who  reduced  the  Moors  to  slavery.  The 
English  under  the  Earl  of  Stanhope  captured 
it  Sep.  30,  1708,  and  held  possession,  in  which 
they  were  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
April  ii,  1713,  till  June  29,  1756,  when  it  capi- 
tulated to  the  French.  It  was  restored  to  the 
English  at  the  peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
The  French  and  Spaniards  took  it  Feb.  5,  1782, 
and  the  English  recaptured  it  Nov.  15,  1798. 
It  was  finally  ceded  to  Spain  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  March  25,  1802. 

MINORITES,  or  MINOR  FRIARS.  —  (See 
CAPUCHINS  and  FRANCISCANS.) 

MINSTRELS,  described  by  Percy  as   "an 


MINT 


[    663    ] 


MISRULE 


order  of  men  in  the  Middle  Ages  who  sub 
sisted  by  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music,  an 
sang  to  the  harp  verses  composed  by  them 
selves  or  others,"  called  by  the  monkish  his 
torians  joculatores,  mimi,  and  jestours,  wen 
the  real  successors  of  the  ancient  bards 
Richard  I.  (1189 — 99)  was  a  great  patron  of  th 
minstrels,  and  his  exploits  furnished,  theme 
for  their  lays.  It  is  recorded  that  in  1374  six 
minstrels  performed  at  Winchester  on  the 
anniversary  of  Alwyne  the  bishop.  John  o 
Gaunt,  in  1380,  had  a  court  of  minstrels  a' 
Tutbury,  and  Henry  V.  was  accompanied  on 
his  voyage  to  France  in  1415  by  18  minstrels 
An  ordinance  was  passed  in  1456  for  the  im 
pressment  of  youths  to  supply  vacancies  bj 
death  amongst  the  king's  minstrels.  They 
found  free  access  amongst  all  classes  as  late 
as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509—47).  A 
Welsh  minstrel  was  executed  for  singing  a 
prophecy  against  Henry  VIII.,  July  i,  1541. 
They  afterwards  became  neglected,  and  when 
Elizabeth  was  entertained  at  Kenilworth 
Castle,  in  1575,  the  appearance  of  a  minstrel 
excited  much  wonder.  By  some  authorities 
the  decline  of  the  minstrel's  art  is  attributed  to 
the  statute  39  Eliz.  c.  4  (1597),  which  included 
minstrels  amongst  rogues,  vagabonds,  and 
sturdy  beggars,  and  adjudged  them  to  be 
punished  accordingly. 

MINT.— The  honour  of  first  establishing  a 
system  of  metallic  currency  is  ascribed  to  the 
Greeks,  about  the  8th  or  gth  century  before 
Christ.  At  Home,  the  mint  operations  were 
carried  on  in  the  temple  of  Juno  Moneta,  or 
the  Adviser.  The  mint  officers  formed  a  cor- 
poration. It  was  worked,  in  the  time  of  the 
republic,  by  public  slaves  ;  but  freedmen  were 
employed  by  Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  60 — March  15, 
44).  The  Gothic  kings  of  Rome  improved  the 
status  of  the  superior  officers.  In  274  the 
workmen  rose  in  rebellion  because  Aurelian 
introduced  some  reforms  in  the  management, 
and  the  lives  of  7,000  of  the  Roman  soldiery 
were  sacrificed  in  putting  down  the  disturb- 
ance. The  mints  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were 
superintended  by  "  moneyers."  Barons  and 
bishops  were  permitted  the  privilege  of  issuing 
coins,  and  provincial  towns  of  importance  were 
likewise  allowed  to  establish  mints.  In  1279 
the  various  mints  in  England  were  placed 
under  one  master.  Many  privileges,  granted 
by  Edward  1.  (1272 — 1307)  and  his  successors  to 
the  officers  of  the  mint,  have  been  gradually 
withdrawn,  and  are  now  abolished.  In  1643  a 
mint  was  established  at  New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford, 
where  the  plate  of  the  colleges  was  coined  to 
enable  Charles  I.  to  provide  the  means  of 
carrying  on  hostile  operations  against  the  Par- 
liament. In  1695  there  were  mints  at  York, 
Bristol,  Chester,  Exeter,  and  Norwich.  The 
management  of  the  mint  was  entirely  re- 
modelled by  7  Will.  IV.  &;  i  Viet.  c.  9  (April 
21,  1837).  The  new  building  was  completed 
in  1811. 

MINUET.— This  dance,  said  to  have  been 
invented  in  the  province  of  Poitou,  in  France, 
and  first  danced  at  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1653,  was  introduced  from  that  country  into 
England  in  the  i8th  century. 
MIRACLE  PLAYS.— These  dramatic  enter- 


tainments were  generally  founded  upon  the 
legendary  histories  of  the  saints,  thus  differ- 
ing from  the  mediaeval  Mystery  Plays  (q.  v.), 
which  were  based  on  Biblical  subjects.  A 
miracle  play  on  the  life  of  St.  Catherine  was 
performed  at  Dunstable  late  in  the  nth  or 
early  in  the  i2th  centuiy.  Pope  Urban  IV.,  in 
establishing  the  Corpus  Christ!  festival,  about 
1264,  sanctioned  the  representation  of  theso 
dramas  as  one  of  its  adjuncts,  and  they  con- 
tinued popular  in  England  throughout  the 
i5th  and  following  centuries. 

MIRANDA  (Portugal).  — This  bishopric, 
founded  at  a  very  early  period,  was  united 
with  that  of  Braganga  in  1782. 

MIRANDOLA  (Italy).— This  small  town,  in 
Modena,  once  the  capital  of  a  duchy,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  papal  forces,  after  a  short  siege, 
Jan.  20,  1511.  It  was  taken  in  1707  by  the 
Imperialists,  who  sold  it  to  the  Duke  of 
Modena,  and  its  fortifications  were  demo- 
lished in  1746. 

MIRRORS.— (See  BURNING,  CRYSTAL,  LOOK- 
ING GLASSES,  <fcc.) 

MIRZAPORE  (Hindostan).— Part  of  this 
district,  belonging  to  Oudh,  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  by  a  treaty  signed  May 
21,  1775,  and  the  remainder  by  another  treaty 
of  Nov.  14,  1801. 

MISDON  (Battle).— Fought  near  this  forest 
during  the  war  in  La  Vendee,  July  28,  1794. 
The  Vendeans  were  defeated,  Cottereau,  one 
of  the  Chouan  leaders,  being  killed. 

MISENUM  (Bay  of  Naples).— This  promon- 
tory, said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
Misenus,  the  trumpeter  of  tineas,  became  a 
ravourite  site  for  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
Romans  towards  the  close  of  the  republic. 
It  was  made  a  station  for  the  Roman  fleet 
B.C.  27.  Pliny  the  Elder  was  stationed  here  in 
when  he  was  induced  to  visit  the  eruption 
Mount  Vesuvius,  in  which  he  perished. 
Romulus  Augustulus,  the  last  Emperor  of  the 
West,  was  coimned  here,  in  the  villa  of  Lu- 
cullus,  in  476.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens 
n  845,  and  destroyed  by  a  volcanic  eruption 
n  1538. 

MISENUM  (Treaty).  — During  the  civil  war 
5etween  the  triumvirs  and  Sextus  Pompey, 
conferences  were  held  on  board  a  vessel  off  the 
jromontory  of  Misenum,  and  peace  was  con- 
cluded, B.C.  39.  The  war  was  renewed  B.C.  38. 
MISERICORDE.— (See  DAGGER.) 
MISRULE  (Lord,  of).— This  officer  was,  in 
'ormer  times,  appointed  with  great  ceremony 
,o  preside  over  the  Christmas  festivities.  Stow 
ays : — "  There  was  in  the  king's  house,  where- 
oever  he  was  lodged,  a  lord  of  misrule,  or 
master  of  merry  disports,  and  the  like  had  ye 
n  the  house  of  every  nobleman  of  honour  or 
good  worship,  were  he  spiritual  or  temporal ; 
.mongst  the  which,  the  mayor  of  London,  and 
ither  of  the  sheriffs,  had  their  several  lords 
if  misrule,  ever  contending,  without  quarrel 
r  offence,  who  should  make  the  rarest  pas- 
imes  to  delight  the  beholders.  These  lords, 
>eginning  their  rule  on  Allhallow-eve,  con- 
inued  the  same  till  the  morrow  after  the 
east  of  Purification,  commonly  called  Candle- 
nas  Day."  The  lord  of  misrule  went  under 
ifferent  titles  in  other  countries  (See  ABBOT 


MISSAL 


[    664    ] 


MTSSOLONGHI 


OF  FOOLS,  &c.),  and  is  not  heard  of  in  Eng- 
land after  1640. 

MISSAL.— (See  MASS-BOOK.) 

MISSIONARY  BISHOPS  exercise  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  missionary  and  other  enterprises 
of  the  Church  of  England  in  places  not  under 
British  government : — 

A.D. 

1841.  Jerusalem. 

i86r.  Honolulu,  Sandwich  Islands. 

1861.  Melanesian,  or  South  Pacific  Isles. 

1863.  Orange  Hiver  Territory. 

1863.  Central  Africa. 

1864.  Africa,  Niger  Territory. 

MISSIONARY  AND  MISSION.— In  accord- 
ance with  the  command  given  by  our  Saviour 
to  his  disciples  when  he  appeared  to  them  after 
the  resurrection  (Mark  xvi.  15),  "  Go  ye  into 
all  the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every 
creature,"  Christian  missionaries  were  sent 
forth  during  the  ist  century.  St.  Paul,  and 
John  the  beloved  disciple,  who  flourished 
about  52,  were  amongst  the  first  Christian 
missionaries.  Eusebius  declares  that  in  the 
2nd  century  the  followers  of  the  apostles 
went  forth  into  distant  lands  to  preach  the 
Gospel ;  and  in  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries  mis- 
sions spread  rapidly.  Ulphilas  went  on  a 
mission  amongst  the  Goths  of  Moesia  about 
360.  St.  Patrick  visited  Ireland  in  the  sth 
century  ;  and  Gregory  the  Great  sent  a  number 
of  Benedictine  monks  as  missionaries  to  Mri- 
tain  in  the  6th  century.  Marco  Polo  introduced 
Christian  missionaries  into  China  in  1275. 
The  Portuguese  in  1490  and  subsequent  years 
sent  missionaries  to  Abyssinia ;  and  on  the 
discovery  of  America,  missions  were  sent  to  all 
the  different  European  settlements.  During 
the  1 6th  century  the  Romish  Church  made  great 
exertions  for  the  propagation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion;  and  in  1549  Xavier  landed  in 
Japan,  and  founded  a  mission  there.  Other 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  penetrated  into 
Chili  and  Peru  in  1580.  The  Dutch,  in  1621, 
sent  missions  to  Amboyna.  In  1622,  Gregory 
XV.  established  a  congregation  of  cardinals, 
for  the  purpose  of  forwarding  the  missionary 
work  ;  and  in  1627  Urban  VIII.  added  a  col- 
lege, in  which  missionaries  were  taught  the 
languages  of  the  countries  to  which  they  were 
to  be  sent. 

MISSIONARY  RIDGE  (Battle). -The  Confe- 
derates were  defeated  by  the  Federals,  after  a 
severe  struggle,  at  this  place,  in  Tennessee, 
Nov.  25,  1863. 

MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES.— The  first  mis- 
sionary society  established  in  London  was 
made  a  corporation,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
President  and  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel  in  New  England,  and  the  parts 
adjacent  in  North  America,"  by  an  ordinance 
of  Parliament,  July  27,  1649.  The  following 
lists  contain  the  dates  of  the  establishment  of 
the  principal  missionary  societies  in  England 
and  on  the  continent : — 

ENGLISH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES. 
A.T). 

1701,  June  16.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

in  Foreign  Tarts. 
1-732.  Mora-rlanMissions. 

1786.  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 
179?.  Baptist  Missionary  Society. 


A.D. 

795.  London  Missionary  Society. 

796.  Glasgow  Missionary  Society. 
1796.  Methodist  New  Connection. 

1796.  Scottish  Missionary  Society. 

1797.  Baptist  Home  Missionary-  Society. 

799.  Church  of  England  Missionary  Society. 

809.  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 

the  Jews. 

810.  Primitive  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 
1816.  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society. 
1816.  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 
1819.  Home  Missionary  Society. 

1825.  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

1830.  Church  of  Scotland  Mission. 

1835.  United  I'reshyterian  Synod. 

1836.  Colonial  Missionary  Society. 
836.  London  City  Mission. 

1837.  Town  Missionary  and  Scripture  Readers'  Associa- 

tion. 

1840.  Welsh  Foreign  Missionary  Society. 
1840.  General  Assembly  of   the  Presbyterian  Church  of 

Ireland. 
1843.  British   Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

among  the  Jews. 

1842.  Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod. 

1843.  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
[844.   Patagonian  Missionary  Society. 

1844.  Presbyterian  (Free)  Churchin  England. 

1844.  Thames  Church  Mission. 

1845.  Naval  Missionary  Society  for  the  Loochoo  Islands. 

1849.  Society  for  Irish    Church  Missions    to   the   Roman 

Catholics 

1850.  Chinese  Kvangelizntinn  Society. 

1853.  Society  for  English  Church  Missions  to  the  Roman 

Catholics. 
1853.  Open  Air  Missions. 

CONTINENTAL,  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES. 
1714.  Royal  Danish  Mission  College. 
1732.  United  Brethren. 
1797.  Netherlands  Missionary  Society. 

1831.  German  Missionary  Society. 

1822.  Paris  Society  for  Kvangelieal  Missions. 

1828.  Rhenish  Missionary  Society. 

1833.  Berlin  Missionary  Society. 

i«35.  Swedish  Missionary-  Society  (Stockholm). 

1836.  Evangelical  Lutheran  Missionary  Society. 

1836.  Gossner's  Missionary  Society. 

1836.  North  C'.erman  Missionary  Society. 

1842.  Norwegian. 

1x46.  Swedish  Missionary  Society  (Lund). 

1850.  Berlin  Missionary  Union  for  China. 

(See  BIBLE  SOCIETIES.) 

MISSISSIPPI  (N.  America).— De  Soto  was 
the  first  who  traversed  this  region,  in  1542  ; 
and  La  Salle  visited  it  in  1681.  The  French 
made  the  first  settlements  in  1698,  under 
D'Iberville,  on  Ship  Island:  and  in  1700  some 
Jesuit  missionaries  were  found  here.  The 
northern  portion  of  Mississippi  was  ceded  to 
England  by  France  in  1763.  With  Alabama  it 
was  formed  into  a  territory  in  1798.  A  sepa- 
ration ensued  in  1817,  when  Mississippi  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  an  independent  state. 
It  seceded  Jan.  9,  1861. 

MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME.— (See  LAW'S  BANK.) 
MISSOLONGHI,  or  MESOLONGHI  (Greece). 
— This  small  town  became  celebrated  for  the 
sieges  it  sustained  against  the  Turks  during 
the  war  of  Greek  independence.  The  Greeks 
having  carried  it  by  storm  Nov.  i,  1821,  the  Turks 
laid  siege  to  it  in  Oct.,  1822.  The  assault,  six 
times  renewed,  was  repulsed  Jan.  5,  1823,  and 
the  Turks  were  compelled  to  retreat  Jan.  27. 
Lord  Byron  died  here  April  19,  1824.  The 
Turkish  army  returned  April  17,  1825,  and 
commenced  the  bombardment  May  7.  They 
received  a  considerable  reinforcement  July  10  ; 
but  after  making  the  most  extraordinary 


MISSOURI 


[    665    ] 


MOABITES 


efforts,  were  compelled  to  suspend  operations 
in  October.  The  blockade  was  renewed  in 
November,  and  another  bombai-dment  com- 
menced Jan.  25,  1826.  The  garrison,  driven  to 
extremities,  boldly  cut  their  way  through  the 
besieging  forces,  and  the  town  was  captured 
April  22.  The  Greeks  wrested  it  from  the 
Turks  in  1829,  and  it  was  included  in  the  new 
kingdom  of  Greece. 

MISSOURI  (N.  America).  —  The  French 
worked  the  Missouri  lead-mines  in  1720 ;  but 
no  permanent  settlement  was  made  before  1755, 
when  St.  Genevieve  was  founded.  The  region 
now  called  Missouri  was  formerly  known  as 
Upper  Louisiana.  Louisiana,  on  its  cession  to 
the  United  States  in  1803,  was  divided  into 
two  governments,  viz.  Louisiana  and  Louisiana 
territory.  In  1812  the  latter  name  was  changed 
into  Missouri.  Application  was  made  in  1817 
for  its  admission  as  a  state  into  the  Federal 
union.  This  met  with  serious  opposition  on 
account  of  its  slaves,  and  it  was  not  admitted 
until  1821,  and  then  only  on  the  condition 
that  slavery  should  be  recognized  in  Missouri, 
but  in  no  other  state  north  of  latitude  36°  30'. 
It  was  very  much  divided  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  in  1861. 

MISSOURI  COMPROMISE,  drawn  up  by 
Mr.  Clay,  enacted  that  slavery  should  not  be  re- 
cognized, except  in  Missouri,  north  of  latitude 
36°  30',  and  passed  the  United  States  congress 
in  Feb.,  1820.  This  compromise,  after  having 
existed  above  30  years,  was  repealed  in  1854, 
when  the  inhabitants  of  every  state  were  left 
free  to  regulate  their  own  domestic  institu- 
tions, subject  only  to  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

MISSOURI,  or  MUD  RIVER  (N.  America), 
was  explored  to  its  sources  by  Lewis  and 
Clarke  in  1 804-6. 

MISSUNDE  (Battle).— The  Danes  repulsed 
the  Prussians  here  after  a  severe  struggle 
during  the  Sleswig-Holstein  war,  Feb.  2,  1864. 

MISTLETOE,  or  MISLETOE.  —  This  para- 
sitical plant,  which  grows  upon  the  oak  and 
other  trees,  was  regarded  with  peculiar  ven- 
eration by  the  Druids  (q.  v.).  Mistletoe  was 
found  growing  upon  an  oak  at  Ledbury,  in 
Herefordshire,  in  1829;  and  a  specimen  on  an 
oak -branch  was  exhibited  at  the  Horticul- 
tural Society  in  London,  April  4,  1837.  This 
established  the  fact,  long  doubted,  that  the 
mistletoe  grows  upon  the  oak  as  well  as  upon 
other  trees. 

MITHRIDATE,  a  preparation  in  the  form  of 
an  electuary,  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  com- 
pound known,  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
B.C.  70,  by  Damocrates,  physician  to  Mithri- 
dates  "VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  whence  its  name. 

MITHRIDATIC  WARS.— Mithridates  VI., 
King  of  Pontus,  having  defeated  the  Roman 
armies  in  Asia,  commanded  all  the  Romans  to 
leave  the  country ;  but  before  they  could  do  so 
80,000  of  them  were  massacred  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, B.C.  88.  This  led  to  the  struggle  known 
in  history  as  the  first  Mithridatic  war,  which 
lasted  four  years.  After  many  battles,  Mith- 
ridates VI.  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  B.C.  84. 

A  second  Mithridatic  war,  which  was  of 

short  duration,  broke  out  B.C.  83,  and  was 
brought  to  a  close  B.C.  82. The  Third,  or 


Great  Mithridatic  war,  commenced  B.C.  74. 
The  Romans,  under  Lucullus,  defeated  Mith- 
ridates VI.  at  Cabira,  B.C.  71,  and  again  in  B.C. 
69 ;  but  in  consequence  of  a  mutiny  among 
his  troops,  Lucullus  was  deprived  of  the  fruits 
of  his  victories.  Mithridates  VI.  collected 
another  army,  but  the  war  was  soon  brought 
to  a  close.  Mithridates  VI.  was  totally  de- 
feated by  the  Romans,  under  Pompey,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  B.C.  66.  After  various 
efforts,  unwilling  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life,  B.C.  63. 

MITRE,  the  episcopal  crown,  or  head-dress, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  first  worn  by  bishops 
about  the  7th  century.  Cardinals  wore  mitres 
until  1245,  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  where  they 
were  exchanged  for  hats.  The  English  bishops 
wore  mitres  from  the  time  of  the  Saxons  till 
the  Reformation.  (See  Ti ABA.) 

MITTAU,  or  MITAU  (Russia),  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Courland,  an  ancient  town, 
founded  by  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1271,  was 
captured  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  in  1701. 
Peter  I.  (the  Great)  seized  the  town  Sep.  14, 
1705,  and  the  citadel  surrendered  on  the  same 
day.  The  castle  was  erected  in  1739.  The 
town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1788,  and 
it  was  annexed  to  Russia  in  1795.  Louis 
XVIII.  resided  here  from  1797  to  1807. 

MITYLENE  (Sea-fight).— During  the  war  of 
independence,  the  Turkish  and  Greek  squad- 
rons fought  a  battle  off  Mitylene,  Oct.  7,  1824, 
on  which  occasion  the  Turks  were  defeated 
and  their  fleet  was  destroyed. 

MITYLENE,  or  LESBOS  (^gean  Sea).— 
Lesbos  is  said  to  have  been  peopled  by  the 
Pelasgians,  who  were  followed  by  the  lonians 
and  the  ^Eolians.  It  was  made  a  Roman  pro- 
vince about  B.C.  48;  and  during  the  Middle 
Ages  received  the  name  of  Mitylene,  from  its 
chief  city.  Mohammed  II.  conquered  it  and 
annexed  it  to  the  Turkish  empire,  in  1462. 

MITYLENE,  or  MYTILENE,  the  chief  town 
of  the  island  of  Mitylene,  or  Lesbos,  is  first 
mentioned  in  history  during  the  struggle 
between  the  ^olians  and  the  Athenians,  for 
the  possession  of  Sigeum,  B.C.  606.  It  re- 
volted against  the  Athenians,  B.C.  428.  The 
Venetians  captured  it  in  1185,  and  the  Turks 

U1MIXED,  or  SEMI-NORMAN.— (-See  GOTHIC 

ARCHITECTURE.) 

MIYANL— (See  MEEANEE,  Battle.) 
MNEMONICS,  or  MNEMOTECHNY,  the 
science  of  artificial  memory,  was  introduced 
by  Simonides  the  younger,  B.C.  477.  Richard 
Grey,  rector  of  Hinton  in  Northamptonshire, 
wrote  a  work  on  the  subject,  entitled 
"  Memoria  Technica,  or  a  New  Mode  of  Arti- 
ficial Memory,"  published  in  1730. 

MOABITES.— The  descendants  of  Moab,  the 
offspring  of  Lot's  incestuous  connection  with 
his  eldest  daughter  (Gen.  xix.  37),  B.C.  1897, 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Ar,  from  which  they 
expelled  the  Emims,  a  race  of  giants  (Deut.  ii. 
9 — n).  The  Israelites  occupied  part  of  the 
country,  and  Eglon,  its  king,  oppressed  them 
for  the  space  of  18  years  (Judges  iii.  12,  &c.) 
B.C.  1343.  David  subdued  the  Moabites 
(2  Sam.  viii.  i  &  2)  B.C.  1040,  and  they  invaded 
Israel  B.C.  835.  (See  KIR  OF  MOAB.) 


MOBILE 


t    666    ] 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


MOBILE  (N.  America).— A  town  with  this 
name  was  founded  at  the  mouth  of  Dog  river, 
by  Bienville,  in  1702.  It  was  almost  destroyed 
by  inundations,  and  another  town,  at  the 
mouth  of  Mobile  river,  was  founded  in  1711. 
Mobile  was  ceded  to  England  by  the  French 
r,t  the  peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  The 
Spaniards  captured  it  in  1780,  and  it  was  ceded 
by  them  to  the  United  States  in  1813.  Farra- 
gut  defeated  the  Confederate  fleet  in  Mobile 
Bay,  Aug.  5,  1864. 

MOCKERN  (Battles).  —  Wittgenstein,  in 
command  of  a  Russian  army,  defeated  the 
French,  under  the  Viceroy  Eugene  Beauharnais, 

at  this  place,  near  Leipsic,   April  5,    1813. 

Blucher,  at  the  head  of  the  Prussians,  with 
some  Russian  and  German  allies,  defeated  the 
French  here,  commanded  by  Ney,  Oct.  16, 1813. 
It  was  one  of  the  combats  in  the  great  battle 
of  Lcip.sic. 

MODELS.  —  The  Greeks  attributed  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  modelling  to  a  potter 
of  Sicyon,  named  Dilmtades.  They  relate  that 
his  daughter,  on  the  eve  .of  parting  from  her 
lover  at  Corinth,  remarked  the  shadow  of  his 
profile  projected  on  a  wall,  and  traced  its 
outline,  thereby  producing  the  first  attempt  at 
portrait-painting.  Her  f.Jh; T  i-  >;:<u;ived  the 
lilling  in  the  design  with  clay,  and  sub- 
mitting the  result  to  the  action  of  his  furnace, 
and  thus  the  first  model  in  relief  was  obtained. 
Tdis  production  is  .said  to  have  been  destroyed 
at  Corinth  when  the  city  was  sacked  by 
Mummius,  B.C.  146.  The  Roman  sculptor 
Arcesilaus,  who  flourished  B.C.  65,  was  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  his  models  from 
Hie  human  figure. 

MODENA  (Duchy).— The  territory  consti- 
tuting the  duchy  of  Modena  was,  about  the 
end  of  the  gth  century,  in  the  possession  of 
Adalbert.  The  Emperor  Henry  V.  made  himself 
muster  of  it  in  1 1 15.  Modena  acquired  a  certain 
degree  of  independence  in  1125,  and  after  many 
years  of  internal  struggles,  Obizzo  II.  of  Este 
became  Lord  of  Modena  in  1289.  After  under- 
going various  revolutions,  it  fell  under  the 
rule  of  Obizzo  III.,  in  1336.  Borso  received 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Modena  and  R  'ggio  in 
1452.  Leo  X.  purchased  the  duchy  from  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  into  whose  hands  it 
had  fallen  a  short  time  previous,  for  40,000 
ducats,  in  1514,  and  Alphonso  I.  delivered  it 
from  the  papal  yoke  in  1527.  The  French  an- 
nexed Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic  in 
171)7,  and  in  1805  it  formed  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  The  duchy  was  given  to 
Francis  I.  of  Austria  in  1815.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  between  France  and  Sardinia 
against  Austria,  Francis  V.,who  had  succeeded 
to  the  duchy  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Jan. 
21,  1846,  took  refuge  at  Mantua,  June  14,  1859. 
The  treaty  of  Viila-Franca,  July  u,  1859,  pro- 
vided for  the  return  of  the  duke ;  but  this 
provision  was  not  fulfilled,  and  the  duchy 
of  Modena  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy. 

MODENA  (Italy),  anciently  called  Mutina, 
or  Mutinum,  a  city  of  Etruscan  origin,  was  in 
the  possession  of  Rome  B.C.  218,  and  a  Roman 
colony  was  established  here  B.C.  183.  The 
Ligurians,  who  seized  it  B.C.  177,  were  soon 


go 

by 


expelled.  During  the  civil  war  it  sustained  a 
siege  of  four  months  against  Marcus  Antonius, 
B.C.  43.  Modena  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
Constantino  I.  in  312,  and  was  laid  waste  by 
Attila  in  452.  It  fell  into  a  state  of  total 
decay  after  the  conquest  of  the  Longobards, 
but  recovered  much  of  its  former  importance 
under  the  Countess  Matilda  (1076 — 1115,  . 
Hungarian  partisans  of  Pope  Innocent  VI. 
plundered  the  city  in  1360;  and  it  was  seized 
by  Pope  Julius  II.  in  1510.  Alphonso  I.  made 
himself  master  of  it  in  1527.  An  engage- 
ment between  the  French  and  Austrians,  in 
which  the  forces  of  the  latter  were  routed, 
took  place  under  its  walls,  June  12,  1799.  Th6 
cathedral,  with  a  marble  tower,  was  com- 
menced in  1099.  The  palace,  commenced  in 
the  i7th  century,  contains  a  fine  library  of 

.,000  volumes  and  3,000  manuscripts,  founded 
y   Francis   II.   about  the    end    of    the   i7th 
century. 

MO  DON  (Greece),  the  ancient  Methone 
('/.  '•  •  •  was  captured  by  the  Venetians  in  1124, 
and  was  annexed  by  them  in  1204.  The  Turks 
took  Modon  in  Aug.,  1500;  the  Venetians  re- 
covered possession  in  1686;  and  it  again  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in  1715.  Ibrahim 
Pasha  landed  Feb.  24,  1825,  and  defeated  the 
Greek  army  in  the  neighbourhood,  A] 
The  Greeks,  however,  avenged  themselves  by 
destroying,  by  means  of  fire-ships,  a 
portion  of  the  Egyptian  fleet  anchored  under 
the  walls  of  Motion,  -May  13.  The  Turks  sur- 
rendered to  a  combined  English  and  French 
force  in  Sep.  1828.  The  French  garrison  re- 
embarked  in  July,  1833,  and  Modon  forms  part 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Gi-eece. 

MCESIA  (Europe),  corresponding  to  the  mo- 
dem Bulgaria  and  Servia,  became  the  seat  of 
a  Gallic  tribe,  B.C.  277.  The  Romans  pene- 
trated into  Moesia  B.C.  75,  and  it  was  subju- 
gated by  them  about  B.C.  29.  The  Goths  in- 
vaded the  country  in  250,  and  defeated  the 
Romans  at  an  obscure  town,  Forum  Trebonii, 
in  Nov.,  251,  on  which  occasion  the  Emperor 
Decius  and  a  large  portion  of  his  army  perished 
in  a  morass.  The  Visigoths  overran  Moesia  in 
the  4th  century.  The  people,  who  received 
the  name  of  Bulgarians,  were,  according  to 
the  best  authorities,  of  Turkish  origin,  being, 
in  fact,  the  remnant  of  the  Huns,  who,  after 
the  death  of  Attila  in  453,  retired  beyond  the 
Euxine.  They  invaded  the  Eastern  empire  in 
559,  and  were  repulsed  by  Belisarius.  In  the 
7th  century  they  advanced  into  Moesia,  and 
founded  the  first  Bulgarian  kingdom,  which 
lasted  from  640  to  1018,  when  it  was  subjected 
to  the  Greek  empire. 

MOGADOR  (Morocco),  founded  in  1760,  was 
bombarded  by  the  French,  Aug.  16,  1844. 

MOHACS,  or  MOHACZ  (Battles).— Soliman 
I.,  at  the  head  of  a  Turkish  army,  defeated 
the  Hungarians,  in  the  plain  near  the  town  of 
Mohacz,  in  Hungary,  Aug.  29,  1526.  Louis  J  f. 
was  killed,  and  30,000  Christians  are  said  to 
have  fallen  in  the  battle. The  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine and  the  Imperialists  gained  a  victory 
ver  the  Turks  at  the  same  place,  Aug.  18, 
1687. 

MOHAMMEDANISM.— Mohammed  was 
born  at  Mecca,  in  570,  and  began  to  preach 


MOHILEF 


[    667    ]. 


MOLWITZ 


there  in  6og.  In  613  his  views  were  opposed 
by  the  Koreishites,  who,  July  15,  622,  com- 
pelled him  to  quit  Mecca  and  seek  an  asylum 
at  Medina.  This  flight  to  Medina  fixes  the 
Moslem  sera  of  the  Hegira  (q.  v.).  Being 
made  the  prince  of  Medina,  he  was  enabled  to 
declare  war  against  such  as  refused  to  credit 
his  statements,  and  in  the  battles  of  Beder 
and  Ohud  Mount  in  623,  and  of  the  Nations 
or  the  Ditch  in  625,  he  defeated  his  Koreishite 
opponents.  In  630  he  recaptured  Mecca, 
where  he  was  installed  as  prince  and  prophet, 
and  completed  the  conquest  of  Arabia.  He 
died  at  Medina,  Monday,  June  8,  632.  The 
doctrines  of  Mohammed  include  a  belief  in 
one  God  and  a  future  state,  and  permit  the 
practice  of  polygamy.  The  sacred  book  is  the 
Koran  (q.  r.}.  Comrooder  Tyabjee,  a  Hindoo 
Mohammedan,  was  admitted  in  London  as  an 
attorney,  Nov.  25,  1858. 

MOHILEF,  or  MOHILOW  (Russia).— This 
ancient  town,  taken  by  Charles  XII.  of  Swe- 
den in  July,  1708,  was  recovered  by  Peter  I. 
(the  Great)  in  1709,  and  was  annexed  to  Eussia 
in  1772.  The  French  defeated  the  Russians  at 
this  town,  July  23,  1812. 

MOHOCKS.— Under  the  name  of  Mohocks, 
Mohawks,  or  Hawkabites,  some  villains  went 
about  London,  at  night,  in  1711,  assaulting 
persons  whom  they  met.  They  frequently  cut 
off  the  ears  of  their  victims,  slit  their  noses, 
and  committed  other  cruelties.  A  proclama- 
tion offering  a  reward  of  .£100  for  any  person 
who  should  discover  one  of  these  offenders 
was  published  March  17,  1712.  (See  HELL- 
FIRE  CLUBS.) 

MOLD  (Wales).— A  castle  erected  on  Bailey 
Hill,  near  this  town,  in  Flintshire,  was  during 
the  1 2th  and  i3th  centuries  frequently  be- 
sieged by  the  contending  English  and  Welsh 
armies.  Owen  Gwynnethtook  it  in  1145.  The 
English  captured  it  soon  after,  and  it  was  re- 
taken by  the  Welsh  in  1201. 

MOLDAVIA  (Europe),  one  of  the  Danubian 
principalities,  forming  part  of  the  ancient 
Dacia,  was  ravaged  by  the  various  hordes 
which  invaded  the  Byzantine  empire.  The 
Cumans  established  their  rule,  which  was  sub- 
verted by  the  Nogai  Tartars.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  1 4th  century  it  was  re-colonized  by 
descendants  of  Roman  settlers,  under  a  chief 
called  Bogdan.  Hence  the  country  was  called 
by  the  Turks  Bogdania.  In  1536  the  country 
submitted  to  the  Turks.  The  voyvode  was 
to  be  elected  by  the  principal  clergy  and 
nobles,  whose  choice  was  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  sultan.  He  was  not,  however,  to  interfere 
in  their  local  affairs,  nor  were  the  Turks  to 
settle  in  Moldavia.  In  1711  the  Turks  abolished 
the  privilege  enjoyed  by  the  people  of  elect- 
ing the  voyvodes.  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt,  in  1711,  to  obtain 
possession  of  Moldavia.  In  1739  the  Russians 
occupied  Moldavia,  but  evacuated  it  at  the  peace 
of  Belgrade  (q.  v.}.  By  the  ioth  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Kutschouc-Kainardji,  July  10,  1774, 
Russia  obtained  the  right  of  interceding  with 
the  Porte  in  favour  of  the  principalities.  By 
the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812,  the 
eastern  portion  of  Moldavia  was  ceded  to  Rus- 
sia. An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Moldavia, 


March  6,  1821  ;  and  the  Turks  withdrew  Nov. 
23,  1824.  A  Russian  general  administered  the 
provinces  from  1832  to  1834,  when  Michel 
Sturdza  was  elected  hospodar  of  Moldavia, 
and  governed  till  April,  1848.  Upon  his  resig- 
nation in  June,  1849,  Gregory  Ghika,  a  native 
Boyard,  was  elected  hospodar.  The  Russians 
occupied  Moldavia  in  1853,  but  retired  on  the 
approach  of  the  allied  forces  in  1854,  the  Aus- 
trians  occupying  it  until  1856.  By  the  22nd 
article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856, 
the  principalities  of  Wallachia  (q.  v. )  and  Mol- 
davia, under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Porte,  were 
guaranteed  in  all  their  privileges  and  immu- 
nities by  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  and 
they  were  united  by  the  Convention  of  Paris, 
Aug.  19,  1858.  Colonel  Alexander  John  Couza 
was  appointed  hospodar  by  the  Electoral  As- 
sembly of  Moldavia,  Jan.  17,  1859.  By  a  pro- 
clamation made  at  Jassy  and  Bucharest,  Dec. 
23,  1861,  this  principality  and  Wallachia  were 
declared  united  into  one  state  under  the  title 
of  Roumania,  or  Rumania  (q.  v.). 

MOLESME,  or  MOLEMES  (France).— A  Be- 
nedictine abbey  was  founded  at  this  place  in 
1071,  by  Robert  of  Champagne,  who  afterwards 
established  the  Cistercians  (q.  v.). 

MOLINISTS.—  This  sect  was  founded  by 
Louis  Molina,  born  at  Cuenca,  in  New  Castile, 
in  1535.  He  joined  the  society  of  Jesus,  and 
published  his  "De  Concordia  Gratise  et  Liberi 
Arbitrii,"  at  Lisbon,  in  1588,  in  which  he  en- 
deavoured to  show  that  the  doctrines  of  pre- 
destination and  grace  are  consistent  with  free 
will.  The  Dominicans  assailed  him,  and  Cle- 
ment VIII.,  who  attempted  in  vain  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  controversy  in  1594,  referred  it  to  a 
council  in  1598.  It  decided  in  1602  against  the 
Molinists.  The  dispute  was  still  raging  at  the 
death  of  Molina,  Oct.  12,  1601.  His  antagonists 
were  called  Thomists,  because  they  upheld  the 
opinions  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  Paul  V.  in  1609 
forbade  both  the  Jesuits  and  the  Dominicans 
from  reviving  the  controversy. 

MOLOKAL—  (See  HAWAIIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.) 

MOLUCCAS,  or  SPICE  ISLANDS  (Indian 
Archipelago). — This  group  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1511.  The  Spaniards,  under 
Magalhaens,  seized  them  in  1519,  and  the  Por- 
tuguese returned  in  1521.  Sir  Francis  Drake 
landed  in  the  Moluccas  in  1579,  and  the  Dutch 
made  a  permanent  settlement  in  1596.  These 
islands,  taken  by  the  English  in  1796,  were 
restored  to  the  Dutch,  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens, 
March  25,  1802.  They  were  again  occupied 
by  the  English  in  1810,  but  were  finally  re- 
stored to  the  Dutch  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
May  30,  1814. 

MOLWITZ  (Battle).— The  Prussians  defeated 
the  Austrian  army  in  the  plain  of  Molwitz, 
near  Brieg,  in  Silesia,  April  10,  1741.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  battle  the  Austrians 
were  victorious,  and  Frederick  II.  fled  to  Op- 
peln,  where  he  took  refuge  in  a  windmill. 
This  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  remark  that 
in  this  battle  Frederick  had  covered  himself 
with  glory  and  with  flour.  A  writer  says ; 
"  On  this  occasion  he  rode  a  horse  called  '  Tall 
Grey,'  which  carried  him  sixty-five  English 
miles  without  food  or  resting.  Ever  after  the 
battle  he  was  called  '  Molwitz  Grey,'  and  sur- 


MOLYBDENUM 


[    668    ] 


MONMOUTH 


vived  to  the  year  1760."  The  panic  caused  by 
the  defeat  of  the  Prussian  cavalry  having  sub- 
sided, the  Prussian  infantry,  who  are  said  to 
have  delivered  five  volleys  for  one  of  the  Aus- 
trians,  gained  the  battle  which  Frederick  II. 
deemed  lost.  (See  SADOWA,  Battle.) 

MOLYBDENUM.— This  metal  was  discovered 
about  1782,  by  Ilielm. 

MOMBAS,  MOMBAZ,  or  MOMBACA  (Africa). 
— Vasco  de  Gama  visited  this  port  in  1498.  It 
was  captured  and  burned  by  Almeida  in  1505, 
and  having  been  rebuilt,  was  again  destroyed 
in  1528  by  the  Portuguese,  who  held  it  until 
1720,  when  it  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Imam 
of  Muscat.  The  inhabitants  obtained  their 
independence  in  1824.  The  castle  was  built  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1635. 

.MOXA. —  Set  AMJLKSEY.) 

MONACAC Y  RIVER  (Battle).— The  Confede- 
rates having  invaded  Maryland,  defeated  Gen. 
Wallace  on  the  banks  of  this  stream,  July  9, 
1864. 

MONACHISM,  existed  in  some  form  or  other 
amongst  the  Jews,  as  the  example  of  Elijah 
proves  i  Kings  xvii.— xix.).  The  Essenes,  de- 
scribed by  Josephus  (38 — 100),  are  supposed  to 
have  been  ascetics.  Pachomius,  in  the  4th 
century,  was  the  first  to  introduce  regular  mon- 
asteries. Monachism  assumed  various  forms. 
(See  AiinoT,  AnivMKT.K,  ANACIIOKKTS,  &c.) 

MONACO  (Italy).— This  small  principality, 
the  ancient  Portus  Herculis  Monoeci,  or  Mon- 
reci  Portus,  founded  by  Greeks  of  Massilia, 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Genoese  house  of 
Grimaldi,  about  968,  and  was  placed  under  the 
protection  of  France  in  1641.  The  male  branch 
of  the  Grimaldis  becoming  extinct  in  1731,  the 
state  passed,  by  marriage,  to  the  house  of  Ma- 
tignon,  which  assumed  the  name  of  the  original 
family.  In  1815  Monaco  passed  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  King  of  Sardinia,  who  seized 
the  communes  of  Mentone  and  Roquebrune, 
and  incorporated  them  with  his  own  territories 
in  1849.  They  were  ceded  to  France  by  a 
treaty  concluded  Feb.  2,  1861. 

MONAGHAN  (Ireland).— Henry  II.  bestowed 
this  part  of  Ireland  upon  De  Courcey  in  1177. 
The  native  chieftains  carried  on  a  struggle 
against  the  English  with  little  cessation  until 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Monaghaii  was  made 
a  shire  in  1568.  Its  chief  town,  of  the  same 
name,  was  called  in  ancient  times  Muinechan, 
i.e.  the  town  of  monks. 

MONARCHIANS.—  (See  PATRIPASSIANS.I 

MONASTERY.— (See  ABBEY,  ALIEN  PKIORIES, 
&c.) 

MONCOX  (Treaty).  — By  this  treaty,  con- 
cluded between  France  and  Spain,  at  Moii<;on, 
in  Aragon,  March  5,  1626,  the  affairs  of  the 
Grisoiis  and  the  Valtelinese  were  to  be  replaced 
in  the  same  state  as  in  the  beginning  of  1607, 
the  Roman  Catholic  was  to  be  the  only  religion 
cultivated,  the  forts  in  the  Valteline  were  to  be 
razed,  and  the  Valtelinese  were  to  pay  the 
Grisoiis  such  annual  sum  as  might  be  agreed 
upon.  The  treaty  was  ratified  at  Barcelona  in 
April. 

MONCONTOUR  (Battle).— The  Huguenots 
were  defeated  by  the  Roman  Catholic  army 
near  this  place,  between  Poitiers  and  the 
river  Loire,  in  Poitou,  Oct.  3,  1569.  Admiral 


Coligni,  who  commanded  the  Huguenots,  with 
difficulty  saved  the  wreck  of  the  army. 

MONDAY  POPULAR  CONCERTS.  —  (See 
CONCERT.) 

MONDOVI  (Italy).  —  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
defeated  the  Sardinian  army,  commanded  by 
Colli,  at  this  place  in  Sardinia,  April  22,  1796. 
The  Piedmontese  took  Moiidovi  in  May,  1799  ; 
and  it  was  recaptured  by  the  French  Nov.  2,  in 
the  same  year. 

MONEY. — The  earliest  mention  of  money  as 
a  medium  of  exchange  is  the  purchase  of  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  from  the  sons  of  Ephron 
the  Hittite,  by  Abraham,  for  400  shekels  of 
silver  (Gen.  xxiii.  16),  B.C.  1859,  when  the 
money  was  no  doubt  uncoined,  and  regulated 
by  weight.  The  invention  of  coined  money  is 
attributed  to  the  Lydians.  (See  COIN.)  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  temple  of  Juno  Mo- 
iieta,  that  served  the  Romans  as  the  mint  for 
their  silver  coinage,  which  commenced  B.C. 
269.  The  term  sterling  was  first  applied  to 
money  about  1216.  The  importation  of  base 
foreign  money  into  this  kingdom  was  prohi- 
bited by  the  statute  J)<.f<tlx<i  ,,«nittti,  27  Edw.  I. 
(1299).  In  1360  leather  was  used  as  money  in 
France.  Tin  was  coined  in  England  in  1684. 
Various  materials  have  been  used  for  money. 
(See  COINING,  COPPER  AND  GOLD  COINAGE,  &c.) 

MONGOLS,  or  MOGULS.— Nearly  all  the 
wandering  tribes  of  Asiatic  barbarians  that 
desolated  Europe  from  the  4th  to  the  i2th  cen- 
tury are  supposed  to  have  been  of  Mongolian 
origin.  Under  their  leader  Zingis  Khan  (1206 
— 1227)  they  ravaged  Asia,  invading  China  in 
1210,  and  Persia  in  1218.  They  invaded  Russia 
in  1235,  reached  Siberia  in  1242,  completed  the 
conquest  of  the  empire  of  the  caliphs  in  1258, 
and  reached  India  in  1298.  The  death  of  Ca- 
zan,  May  31,  1304,  put  an  end  to  the  Mongol 
supremacy  in  Persia ;  but  under  Tamerlane 
(1370 — 1405)  they  reconquered  that  country, 
and  subdued  Hindostan  and  other  parts  of 
Asia.  His  successors  in  India  took  the  name 
of  the  Great  Mogul,  which  was  first  assumed 
by  Baber  in  1525.  They  have  been  known 
under  various  designations  ;  amongst  others, 
as  Scythians,  Huns,  Tartars,  and  Turks.  Pro- 
fessor Dieterici  estimates  their  number  at 
528,000,000,  or  about  half  the  human  race. 

MONITORIAL,  MUTUAL,  orMADRAS 
SYSTEM,  introduced  by  Dr.  Andrew  Bell 
(1753 — Jan.  28,  1832),  in  1795,  whilst  superin- 
tending an  institution  at  Madras  for  the  edu- 
cation of  orphans  of  the  military.  He  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1797,  and  the  system  of  mutual  instruction 
was  carried  out  by  Joseph  Lancaster.  (See 
LANCASTERIAN  SCHOOLS.) 

MONMOUTH  (Monmouthshire),  the  ancient 
Mongwy,  so  named  from  its  situation  on  the 
rivers  Momiow  and  Wye,  was  a  Roman  station. 
The  Saxons  erected  a  fortress,  which,  after  the 
Conquest,  was  bestowed  upon  William  Fitz- 
Baderon,  whose  sons  assumed  the  surname  of 
Monmouth.  In  1240  two  hospitals  were 
founded  by  John  de  Monmouth,  and  in  1257 
John,  Lord  of  Monmouth,  rebuilt  the  castle 
on  a  larger  scale.  It  suffered  so  severely  from 
siege  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  in  1265,  that 
it  had  to  be  rebuilt.  It  then  passed  into  the 


MONMOUTHSHIRE 


[    669    ] 


MONTANISTS 


hands  of  John  of  Gaunt.  Henry  V.  was  born 
here  Aug.  9,  1388.  The  parish  church  occupies 
the  site  of  an  alien  priory  for  black  monks  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  founded  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  (1100-35).  Monmouth  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1550.  Its  charter  was  renewed  in  1557 
by  Queen  Mary;  in  1606  by  James  I.  ;  and  in 
1666  by  Charles  II. 

MONMOUTHSHIRE  (England),  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Silures,  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Romans,  in  78.  They  held  the  county  until 
408.  It  was  annexed  to  the  Oxford  circuit  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1660 — 85),  and  remained 
partly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lords 
Marchers'  court,  until  its  abolition  in  1689. 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.— The  Duke  of 
Monmoxith,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.,  born 
at  Rotterdam  in  1649,  and  educated  in  France, 
was  banished  from  England  in  1683,  for  his 
share  in  the  Rye-House  Plot.  He  landed  at 
Lyrne,  in  Dorsetshire,  June  n,  1685,  was  pro- 
claimed king  at  Taunton,  June  20,  and  attack- 
ed the  king's  army  at  Sedgemoor  (q.  v.),  near 
Bridgewater,  July  6.  After  fighting  three 
hours,  the  rebels  gave  way,  having  sustained  a 
loss  of  1,500  men.  Monmouth,  who  was  dis- 
covered in  a  ditch  covered  _with  fern,  July  8, 
was  tried  and  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  July 
15,  1685. 

MONOGRAMS  are  of  ancient  origin,  being 
found  on  coins  of  Philip  II.  of  Macedou 
(B.C.  359—336),  and  of  his  son  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great),  B.C.  336 — 323.  Constantine  I. 
(323—337),  inscribed  an  early  Christian  mono- 
gram on  his  coins.  They  were  used  in  France 
during  the  7th  century. 

MONOPHYSITES.  —  This  sect  of  heretics 
originated  in  the  sth  century,  and  maintained 
that  the  divine  and  human  natures  of  Christ 
were  so  united  as  to  constitute  but  one  nature. 
They  were  the  followers  of  Eutyches,  and 
branched  into  several  sects.  The  term  Mono  - 
physite  was  first  used  after  the  condemnation 
of  the  doctrines  by  the  fourth  general  council, 
held  at  Chalcedon  in  451.  In  Egypt  and  the 
East  they  are  called  Jacobites  (q.  v. ). 

MONOPOLI  (Italy). -This  town  in  Terra  de 
Bail  was  surrounded  with  walls  by  Charles  V. 

mM5ONOPOLY.— Justinian  I.  made  the  sale  of 
silk  a  monopoly,  in  532,  and  the  privilege, 
which,  as  Gibbon  remarks,  checked  the  fair 
competition  of  industry,  prevailed  extensively 
in  the  Roman  empire.  In  1597  and  1601,  the 
English  House  of  Commons  complained  of  the 
injury  inflicted  upon  the  community  by  pa- 
tents of  monopoly,  and  in  the  last-mentioned 
year  Elizabeth  returned  a  message,  promising 
to  abolish  them.  Sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  Sir 
Francis  Mitchell  were  degraded  from  knight- 
hood, fined,  imprisoned,  and  eventually  ban- 
ished, for  abusing  the  power  granted  to  them 
of  a  monopoly  for  licensing  alehouses  and  in- 
specting inns,  and  manufacturing  gold  and 
silver  thread,  in  1621.  Monopolies  were  de- 
clared contrary  to  law,  and  all  such  grants 
void,  by  21  Jarnes  I.  c.  3  (1624). 

MONOTHELITES.— This  sect  was  founded 
by  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  who  endeavoured 
to  reconcile  the  Monophysites  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  in  630,  by  publishing  an  edict  assert- 


ing the  existence  of  a  human  and  divine 
nature,  but  only  of  one  will,  in  Christ.  The 
sixth  general  council,  held  at  Constantinople 
Nov.  7,  680— Sep.  16,  681,  decided  that  the 
two  wills  were  harmonized  in  the  person  of 
Christ.  A  council  against  the  Monothelites 
was  held  at  Hatfield,  Sep.  17,  680. 

MONROE  DOCTRINE.  —  James  Monroe 
(April  28,  1758— July  4,  1831),  President  of 
the  United  States  from  1817  to  1824,  an- 
nounced the  determination  of  his  government 
to  resist  any  European  interference  in  the 
affairs  of  the  independent  governments  of 
South  America.  This  resolution  gave  rise  to 
what  has  been  termed  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

MONROVIA  (Africa),  the  capital  of  the 
Liberian  republic,  was  founded  in  1821. 

MONS  (Belgium). — About  653  a  hermitage, 
and  then  a  chapel,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  was 
built  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  this  town. 
Alberic,  Count  of  Hainault,  made  it  a  place 
of  residence,  and  in  804  Charlemagne  made 
it  the  capital  of  Hainault.  About  the  end  of 
the  roth  century  it  was  besieged  by  Hugh 
Capet.  In  1290  the  city  was  enlarged  ;  and 
in  1436  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  Under  Charles  V.  Mous  attained 
great  prosperity,  which  declined  under  the 
exactions  of  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  1569.  Mons 
was  invested  by  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Luxemburg,  in  1678,  and  again  in  1691,  under 
Louis  XIV.,  when  the  walls  were  destroyed. 
It  remained  in  their  hands  till  the  peace  of 
Ryswick,  Oct.  30,  1697.  The  French  took  it 
again  in  1701,  but  were  driven  out  by  Prince 
Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  Oct.  20, 
1709.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  n,  1713, 
Mons  was  restored  to  Austria.  The  French 
captured  it,  after  a  siege  of  16  days,  June  27, 
1746,  and  again  Nov.  7,  1792.  (See  JEMMAPES, 
Battle.)  It  was  annexed  to  France  in  1794, 
and  was  restored  to  the  Netherlands  in  1814. 
Its  fortifications  have  been  restored  since  1818 

MONSA,  or  MONZA  (Italy).— For  some  time 
the  capital  of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  has  sus- 
tained 32  sieges.  The  cathedral  was  founded 
in  the  6th  century.  The  Iron  Crown  of  Loni- 
bardy  was  kept  here. 

MONSELICE  (Italy).— This  town,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Padua,  was  captured  by  an  allied 
French  and  Imperial  army  in  1510,  after  an 
obstinate  resistance. 

MONS-EN-PUELLA  (Battle).— Philip  IV.  of 
France  defeated  the  Flemish  army  at  this 
village  in  France  in  1304. 

MONTAGNARDS,  or  THE  MOUNTAIN,  the 
Extreme  or  Red  Republican  party  in  the 
French  Revolution,  so  named  from  the  higher 
benches  in  the  hall  of  the  National  Assembly, 
on  which  they  took  their  places  in  1791. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Robespierre,  Danton, 
Marat,  &c.,  they  opposed  the  Girondists  (q.  v.), 
and  inaugurated  the  Reign  of  Terror  (q.  v.), 
but  at  length  suffered  on  the  guillotine.  An 
attempt  to  form  another  Mountain  party  during 
the  revolution  of  1848  proved  a  failure.  (See 
JACOBINS.) 

MONTANA  (N.  America).— This  territory  of 
the  United  States  was  organized  by  an  act  of 
Congress  in  1864. 

MONTANISTS,  or  CATAPHRTGIANS,  the 


MONTARGIS 


[    670    ] 


MONTEREAU 


followers  of  Montanus,  a  Phrygian,  who  de- 
clared himself  to  be  a  prophet  of  God,  seut  to 
complete  the  Christian  scheme.  It  is  said  by 
some  to  have  originated  in  126,  by  others  in 
150,  and  by  Eusebius  in  172.  Montanus  had 
been  a  heathen,  and,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, a  priest  of  Cybele.  Tertullian  joined  the 
sect  in  204.  They  were  distinguished  for  their 
austerity.  Jerome  (345 — 420)  wrote  against 
their  doctrines.  They  existed  till  the  6th 
century. 

MONTARGIS  (France).— This  town  was  be- 
sieged by  the  English,  but  without  success,  in 
1427,  was  captured  by  them  in  1431,  and 
retained  till  1438.  Its  castle  was  destroyed  in 
1809.  The  allied  Austrian  and  Russian  army 
took  possession  of  Montargis  in  1814.  The 
allies  evacuated  it  after  the  battle  of  Monte- 
voau  (q.  V.). 

MONTAUBAN  (France).— Count  Alphouse 
of  Toulouse  founded  this  town  in  1144.  It 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  1317.  The  Hugue- 
nots fortified  it,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
forces,  led  by  Morluc,  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
capture  it  in  1580.  It  resisted  another  siege  in 
1621,  but  was  taken  by  Richelieu  in  1623,  and 
its  fortifications  were  soon  after  destroyed. 
An  insurrection  occurred  in  1790.  The  cathe- 
dral was  finished  in  1739. 

MONTRELIAR1)  (Franco).— Tin's  town,  once 
the  capital  of  a  small  territory  ruled  by  its 
own  counts,  passed  to  the  Wiirtemberg  family 
in  1395.  The  French,  under  Marshal  Luxem- 
burg, took  it  in  1647,  and  Louis  XIV.  having 
captured  it  in  1674,  destroyed  the  fortifications. 
The  French  took  it  in  1723,  and  it  was  annexed 
to  France  in  1801. 

MONT  BLANC  (Alps),  the  highest  mountain 
in  Europe,  was  first  ascended  by  Horace  de 
Saussure,  a  Genevese,  Aug.  3,  1787.  The  second 
ascent  was  not  made  until  Aug.  18,  1822,  by 
Mr.  F.  Clissold.  Since  that  time  numerous 
ascents  have  been  made. 

MONT  DE  PIETE  was  established  as  a 
charitable  institution  in  Italy  in  the  isth 
century.  Paul  III.  (1534 — 1549)  sanctioned  one 
at  Rome,  and  these  establishments  were 
afterwards  introduced  into  other  countries 
of  Europe.  The  Mont  de  Piete  at  Padua, 
founded  in  1491,  is  the  oldest  on  record. 
The  French  plundered  these  establishments 
during  their  occupation  of  Italy,  in  1796  and 
1797.  (See  PAWNBROKERS.) 

MONTEBELLO  (Convention),  concluded  be- 
tween Napoleon  Buonaparte  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  Genoa,  at  Montebello,  June  5  and  6, 
1797.  The  latter  recognized  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people,  and  a  provisional  government 
was  formed.  It  received  the  name  of  the 
Ligurian  Republic  (q.  v.),  June  14. 

MONTEBELLO,  or  MONTEBELLO  CAS- 
TEGGIO  (Battles).— The  Austrians  were  de- 
feated at  this  village,  in  Piedmont,  by  the 
French  under  Lannes,  June  9,  1800.  The  PYench 
general  took  the  title  of  Duke  of  Montebello 
from  this  victory. The  French  and  Sardi- 
nians defeated  the  Austrians  here,  after  a 
struggle  which  lasted  five  hours,  May  20, 

1  MONTE  CASINO  (Italy).— Benedict  founded 
his  celebrated  monastery  on  the  site  of  a 


temple  to  Apollo,  in  529.  The  Saracens  de- 
stroyed it  in  883.  It  was  restored  and  greatly 
extended  in  1065.  Markwald  besieged  it  for 
eight  days  in  1198,  when  it  was  delivered,  ac- 
cording to  monkish  legends,  by  a  miracle. 
Milman  terms  it  "that  great  model  republic, 
which  gave  its  laws  to  almost  the  whole  of 
Western  Monasticism."  Gregory  VII.  took 
refuge  here  in  1083.  Its  library  was  spared 
on  the  suppression  of  monastic  institutions  in 
Italy  in  1866. 

MONTE  CHRISTO  (Mediterranean).— This 
small  island,  the  ancient  Oglasa,  seized  by 
pirates  in  the  i6th  century,  contains  the  ruins 
of  a  fortress  and  an  abbey. 

MONTE  CORONA.— Anew  congregation  of 
the  Camaldolites,  so  named  from  the  moun- 
tain on  which  the  monastery  was  situated, 
was  founded  by  Paolo  Giustiniani  in  1522. 

MONTE  LONE  (Italy).— A  colony  from  Locri 
Epizephyrii,  established  a  town  here  called 
Ilipponium,  which  was  taken  by  Dionysius  of 
Syracuse,  B.C.  389.  The  Carthaginians  restored 
the  inhabitants  B.C.  379,  but  the  town  was 
taken  by  the  Bruttians,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Romans,  who  planted  a  colony,  called  Vibuna, 
B.C.  192.  Frederick  II.  (1210 — 46)  founded 
another  town  in  the  neighbourhood,  which 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1783. 

M  O  N  T  E  L  O  R  O  (Battle).  —  Francis  Sf orza 
defeated  the  forces  of  his  rival,  Nicholas 
Piccinino,  in  this  engagement,  Nov.  8,  1443. 

.VOXTtiM.—  (.*<'    ,  r.M.) 

MOXTEN'EGUO,  TZEKNAGORA,  or  ZER- 
NAGORA  (Turkey;,  formed  part  of  the  ancient 
lllyricum,  and  afterwards  of  Servia.  The  in- 
habitants, who  maintained  their  independence 
for  some  time,  were  conquered  by  the  Turks 
in  1526.  The  Montenegrins  rebelled  in  1700, 
massacred  all  the  Turks,  and  declared  them- 
selves independent.  Some  Montenegrin  tribes 
joined  Russia  against  Turkey  in  1712.  The 
temporal  and  spiritual  axithority  previously 
vested  in  the  Vladika  was  separated  by  Prince 
Daniel  in  1851.  The  Turks  invaded  Monte- 
negro in  1853,  and,  after  gaining  a  few  barren 
victories,  retired.  They  returned  May  23, 
1862,  and  after  several  conflicts  captured 
Rjeka,  Aug.  25,  and  defeated  the  last  effective 
forces  of  the  Montenegrins.  A  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  Sep.  9,  which  afiirmed  the  so- 
vereignty of  the  Porte,  and  authorized  the  con- 
struction of  a  military  road,  defended  by  forts, 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  country. 

MONTENOTTE  (Africa).  —  An  agricultural 
colony  was  formed  in  the  commune  of  Tenez, 
in  Algeria,  under  this  name,  in  1848. 

MONTENOTTE  (Italy).— Napoleon  Buona- 
parte defeated  the  Austrians  at  this  village  in 
Sardinia,  April  12,  1796.  Soult  was  driven 
from  his  position  at  Montenotte,  by  the  Impe- 
rialists, in  March,  1800.  Montenotte,  with  the 
surrounding  district,  was  made  one  of  the 
three  departments  into  which  the  Ligurian 
republic  was  divided  on  its  annexation  to 
France,  June  4,  1805. 

MONTE  OLMO  (Battle).— Francis  and  James 
Piccinino  were  defeated  at  this  place,  in  Italy, 
by  Sforza,  Aug.  19,  1444,  when  Francis,  the 
elder  brother,  was  made  prisoner. 

MONTEREAU    (Battle).  —  Napoleon   I.   de- 


MONTEREAU 


t    671    ] 


MONTPELLIER 


feated  the  allied  Russian  and  German  army 
at  this  town,  seated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Yonne  and  the  Seine,  Feb.  18,  1814.  The 
French  took  possession  of  the  town,  which 
had  been  occupied  by  their  opponents,  Feb.  6. 

MONTEREAU  (France).  —  Jean-sans-Peur, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  assassinated  here  in 
1419.  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
took  it  in  1420,  and  Charles  VII.  regained 
possession  in  1438. 

MONTEREY  (Battle).— This  town,  the  capital 
of  New  Leon,  in  Mexico,  was  taken  by  the 
United  States  army,  after  an  assault  that 
lasted  three  days,  Sep.  24,  1846. 

MONTESA  (Order).  —  King  James  II.  of 
Aragon  founded  in  1317  an  order  of  knight- 
hood called  Our  Lady  of  Montesa,  named  after 
this  castle  in  Valencia.  The  estates  of  the 
Templars  and  of  the  Hospitallers  in  Valencia 
were  granted  to  the  order  by  Pope  John  XXI. 
or  XXII.  (1316 — 34).  It  was  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  crown  in  1587. 

MONTE  SUELLO  (Battle).  —  The  Italian 
volunteers  under  Gen.  Garibaldi  were  defeated 
in  an  attack  upon  the  Austrian  position  at  this 
place  in  Italy,  Tuesday,  July  3,  1866.  Gari- 
baldi received  a  slight  wound  in  the  action. 

MONTE  VIDEO  (S.  America,  French),  called 
also  San  Felipe  de  Monte  Video,  the  capital  of 
Uruguay,  was  built  by  a  colony  from  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1723.  It  was  seized  Feb.  3,  1807,  by 
the  English,  who  withdrew  July  7.  When 
Monte  Video  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  the 
Brazilians  took  possession  of  the  town ;  but 
they  were  expelled,  after  a  long  siege,  in  1814. 
The  Brazilians  recaptured  it  in  1821.  By  the 
treaty  signed  Aug.  27,  1828,  it  regained  its  in- 
dependence, and  was  made  the  capital  of 
Uruguay  (q.  v.),  with  which  it  was  united.  It 
was  blockaded  by  the  Buenos  Ayres  fleet  from 
1842  to  1848. 

MONTFERRAT  (North  Italy).— The  ancient 
marquisate  of  Montferrat  was  created  by  Otho 

I.  (the  Great)  in  967,  in  favour  of  Alderan.     In 
1187  the  titles  of  Marquis  of  Montferrafc  and  of 
Tyre  were  united  in  the  person  of  Conrad,  who 
was  assassinated  April  29,   1192  ;    and  by  the 
marriage  of  Yolande,  daughter  of  William  V., 
with  the  Greek  Emperor  Andronicus  Palseolo- 
gus  in  1284,  the  succession  to  the  marquisate 
became  hereditary  in  their  line.     In  1414  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  bestowed  upon  Theodore 

II.  the  title  of  the  "Imperial  Vicar  in  Italy." 
On  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  in  1533,  the 
succession    was  contested  by  Frederick    II., 
Gonzaga,  Marquis  of  Mantua,  Louis  II.,  Mar- 
quis of    Saluces,   and  Charles  III.,   Duke  of 
Savoy.     Charles  V.  decided  the  case  in  favour 
of  the  Marquis  of  Mantua,  Jan.  5,  1536.     In 
1574  it  was  erected  into  a  duchy  ;  and  in  1613 
it  was  taken  by  Charles  Emanuel  I.,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  who  was  soon  compelled  to  relinquish 
his  conquest.     His  son,  Victor  Amadeus  I.,  ob- 
tained the  cession  of  part  of  the  country  in 
1631 ;  and  in  1708  the  whole  of  Montferrat  was 
annexed  to  his  dominions.     In  1797  it  was  in- 
corporated with  the    Cisalpine  republic ;    in 
1805  it  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy ; 
and    in    1815   it  was  given   to  the   King  of 
Sardinia. 

MONTGOMERY  (N.  America).— This  town 


of  Alabama  was  founded  in  1817.  The  Congress 
of  the  Confederate  States,  which  assembled 
here  Feb.,  1861,  held  its  last  meeting  at  Mont- 
gomery May  21,  after  which  it  was  transferred 
to  Richmond. 

MONTGOMERY  (Wales).— Baldwin  built  a 
castle  here  in  1067.  It  was  taken  by  Roger 
Montgomery,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  in  1090,  and 
from  him  received  its  name.  The  Welsh  took 
the  castle  and  put  all  the  garrison  to  the  sword 

MONTIEL  (Battle),  was  fought  March  14, 
1369,  at  Montiel,  in  Spain,  between  Peter  I. 
(the  Cruel),  King  of  Castile,  and  his  brother, 
Henry  of  Trastamare,  aided  by  French  knights. 
Peter  I.,  who  was  defeated,  took  refuge  in  the 
castle  of  Montiel,  and  was  killed  by  his  brother 
in  attempting  to  escape,  March  23. 

MONTIGLIO  (Battle).— Boniface  II.  of  Mont- 
ferrat defeated  the  people  of  Asti  at  this  place, 
in  Piedmont,  June  19,  1191. 

MONTLHERY  (Battle).— Louis  XL,  during 
the  civil  war  excited  by  the  League  for  the 
Public  Weal  or  Good,  encountered  the  rebellious 
nobles  at  this  place,  July  16,  1465.  Victory 
was  claimed  by  both  armies.  This  is  the  last 
occasion  in  which  the  oriflamme  was  displayed 
in  the  French  army.  The  castle  was  built  in 
999. 

MONTMARTRE  (France).— The  name  of  this 
place,  which  now  forms  part  of  Paris,  is  de- 
rived by  some  from  Mons  Martis,  the  site  of  a 
temple  to  Mars,  and  by  others  from  Moiis 
Martyrum,  because  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Denis  and  his  three  com- 
panions. The  Northmen  pillaged  it  in  887,  and 
Louis  VI.,  the  Fat  (1108—37),  formed  a  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  which  was  suppressed  in  1789. 
Combats  between  the  allied  armies  and  the 
French  took  place  on  the  heights,  of  which 
Blucher  gained  possession,  March  30,  1814. 

MONTMIRAIL  (Battle).— The  French,  under 
Napoleon  I.,  defeated  the  allied  Prussians  and 
Russians  at  this  town,  in  the  department  of 
Marne,  Feb.  u,  1814. 

MONTMIRAIL  (France).— The  kings  of 
France  and  England,  Louis  VII.  and  Henry  II., 
with  a  large  assembly  of  retainers,  met  at 
this  place  in  the  department  of  Sarthe,  Jan.  6, 
1169,  where  Becket  was  to  throw  himself  on 
the  mercy  of  Henry  II.  This,  however,  he  re- 
fused to  do,  and  the  meeting  broke  up  in  con- 
fusion. 

MONTPELLIER  (France).— This  town  was 
built  in  the  8th  century,  to  replace  the  episco- 
pal town  of  Maguelonne,  destroyed  by  Charles 
Martel.  It  passed  to  the  house  of  Aragon  in 
1202,  and  in  1276  to  the  kings  of  Majorca,  from 
whom  it  was  purchased  by  Philip  VI.  of  France, 
in  1349.  In  1371  it  was  conferred  on  Charles 
the  Bad,  King  of  Navarre,  in  exchange  for 
certain  lordships  in  France,  but  in  1378  it  was 
re-united  to  France.  The  bishopric  of  Mague- 
lonne was  transferred  hither  in  1538.  Mont- 
pellier  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Huguenots 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (i574_8g),  and  after 
enduring  a  long  siege,  it  surrendered  in  1622 
to  Louis  XIII.,  who  issued  an  edict  for  the 
restoration  of  peace  between  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  the  Huguenots,  Oct.  20.  The  Found- 
ling Hospital  was  built  in  1180,  the  University 


MONTREAL 


[    672    ] 


MOOLTAN 


in  1196,  and  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  the  first 
botanical  garden  established  in  France,  in  1558. 
Councils  were  held  at  Montpellier,  May  17, 
1162;  in  Dec.,  1195;  Jan.  8,  1215;  Aug.  21, 
1224  ;  and  Sep.  6,  1258. 

MONTREAL  (N.  America).— In  1535  Jacques 
Cartier  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  the 
site  occupied  by  this  city  in  Lower  Canada, 
then  called  Hochelaga.  It  was  founded  by 
French  settlers  in  1642,  and  called  Ville  Marie, 
was  taken  by  the  English  Sep.  8,  1760,  by  the 
Americans  Nov.  12,  1775,  the  English  regain- 
ing possession  June  15,  1776.  It  suffered 
severely  from  cholera  in  July,  1832.  A  col- 
lision between  the  civilians  and  the  military 
in  garrison  took  place  Sep.  29,  1833.  Alarming 
riots  broke  out,  in  which  the  partisans  of  Papi- 
neau  ranged  themselves  against  the  supporters 
of  the  government,  Nov.  6,  1837,  and  again 
when  the  royal  assent  was  given  to  the  Rebel- 
lion Losses  Indemnity  Bill.  The  houses  of 
parliament  were  burned  to  the  ground,  and 
the  library  with  the  archives  of  Canada  was 
destroyed  April  25,  1849.  The  Hotel  Dieu  was 
founded  about  the  time  when  the  colony  was 
settled,  the  patients  being  tended  by  the  nuns 
of  St.  Joseph  de  la  Fleche.  The  general  hos- 
pital, attended  by  the  Grey  nuns,  was  estab- 
lished by  Madame  D'Youville  in  1747.  Mont- 
real College  was  founded  by  the  priests  of  St. 
Sulpice  about  1760.  McGill  College,  founded 
by  a  merchant  of  that  name,  who  died  in  1813, 
was  made  a  university  by  royal  charter  in 
1821,  and  received  a  new  charter  in  1852.  The 
bishopric  was  founded  in  1850.  The  Roman 
Catholic  parish  church,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
£80,000,  with  a  fine  chime  of  bells,  one  of 
which  weighs  25,ooolb.,  was  opened  in  1829. 
The  cathedral,  destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  10,  1856, 
has  been  rebuilt.  A  flood,  occasioned  by  the 
breaking  of  the  ice  of  the  St.  Lawrence  in  the 
spring  of  1861,  laid  the  greater  part  of  the  city 
under  water,  and  occasioned  the  destruction  of 
a  large  amount  of  property. 

MONTREUIL-SUR-MER  (France).  —  This 
town  received  a  charter  in  1189.  Edward  I. 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  here  in  1298.  It 
was  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Bre- 
tigny,  May  8,  1360.  Du  Guesclin  recovered  it 
in  1370.  Charles  V.  took  it  in  1537,  and  it 
again  surrendered  to  the  Spaniards  in  1544. 
Napoleon  I.  formed  a  camp  here  for  the  con- 
templated invasion  of  England  in  1804  and 
1805. 

MONTROSE  (Scotland)  received  its  first 
charter  from  David  I.  early  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. John  Baliol  resigned  the  crown  and 
sceptre  of  Scotland  into  the  hands  of  Edward 
I.,  at  Montrose,  July  10,  1296.  From  this  port 
Sir  James  Douglas,  bearing  the  heart  of  King 
Robert  Bruce,  embarked  for  the  Holy  Land  in 
1330 ;  and  the  Pretender,  with  a  few  of  his  fol- 
lowers, sailed  on  his  return  to  France,  Feb.  4, 

I7MONTROUGE  CLUB.— Established  during 
the  French  Revolution  in  1789,  and  so  called 
from  a  place  near  Paris,  where  its  meetings 
were  held.  Mirabeau,  Sieyes,  Latouche,  and 
the  Chevalier  Laclos  were  members.  They 
conspired  against  the  throne,  and  at  one  time 
favoured  a  project  of  supplanting  the  elder 


Bourbons  by  the  Orleans  branch  of  the 
family. 

MONTSERRAT  (Spain).— The  ancient  con- 
vent of  our  Lady  of  Montserrat,  a  fortress  in 
Catalonia,  was  stormed  by  Suchet,  in  1811. 
The  French  were  speedily  compelled  to  retire, 
and  the  fortress,  having  been  taken  and  re- 
taken, was  destroyed  hi  July,  1812.  The  Carlists 
made  it  their  stronghold  in  1827. 

MONTSERRAT  (West  Indies).— This  island, 
one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  was  discovered  by 
Christopher  Columbus,  in  1493.  A  settlement 
was  formed  by  some  Irish  Roman  Catholics 
in  1632.  The  French  captured  it  in  1664,  and 
it  was  restored  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Breda,  July  20,  1667.  The  colony  obtained  a 
constitution  in  1689.  Retaken  by  the  French 
in  1782,  it  was  restored  to  England  by  the 
treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783. 

MONUMENT  (London)  was  erected  on  Fish 
Street  Hill  to  commemorate  the  great  fire  of 
1666.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  was  the  architect, 
and  the  column,  commenced  in  1671,  was  com- 
pleted in  1677.  In  consequence  of  several 
cases  of  suicide  by  persons  who  precipitated 
themselves  from  the  top,  an  iron  fence  was 
placed  round  the  gallery  in  1839. 

MONUMENTAL  BRASSES.— The  custom  of 
inscribing  effigies  of  the  dead,  and  inscriptions 
to  their  memory,  upon  plates  of  brass  inlaid 
upon  the  floors  and  walls  of  churches,  was 
probably  introduced  into  this  country  from 
Flanders.  English  examples  exist  from  1277 
to  1631,  and  the  art  has  been  lately  revived. 

Mo'XZA.— :See  MONSA.) 

MOODKEE,  or  MUDKI  (Battle).  —  The 
English  army,  under  the  command  of  Sir 
Hugh  < if ter wards  Lord)  Gough  and  Sir  John. 
Littler,  defeated  the  Sikhs  at  this  small  town, 
on  the  Sutlcj,  in  Hindostan,  Dec.  18,  1845. 
Seventeen  guns  were  captured. 

MOOK,  or  MOOKER  HEATH  (Battle).— 
The  Spaniards,  under  Davila,  defeated  the 
Dutch  under  Louis  of  Nassau,  who  fell  in  the 
encounter,  at  this  place,  near  Nimeguen,  in 
Feb.,  1574. 

MOOLTAN,  or  MOULT  AN  (Hindostan),  the 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
Punjaub,  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Malli,  described  in  1582  as  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Hindostan.  Runjeet  Sing 
captured  it  in  1806,  and  again  in  1818.  He 
appointed  Sawun  Mull  governor  in  1821,  and 
by  him  Mooltan  was  fortified  and  made  the 
strongest  city  in  that  part  of  India.  Moolraj, 
his  eldest  son,  having  succeeded,  expressed  a 
wish  to  resign  the  government  of  Mooltan, 
which  had  come  under  the  sway  of  the  British 
after  the  death  of  Runjeet  Sing  ;  whereupon 
Mr.  Vans  Agnew,  a  Bengal  civilian,  and  Lieut. 
Anderson,  were  sent  with  an  escort  of  1,400 
Sikhs,  to  receive  the  fortress.  These  gentle- 
men were  treacherously  assailed  by  his  orders, 
April  1 8,  1848,  and  afterwards  murdered.  This 
barbarous  act  roused  the  indignation  of  the 
British  authorities,  and  after  the  battles  of 
Kennyree,  June  18,  and  Suddoosam,  July  i, 
in  both  of  which  Moolraj  was  defeated,  Mool- 
tan was  invested  by  Gen.  Whish,  Aug.  18,  and 
was  upon  the  point  of  falling  into  his  hands, 
when  the  whole  of  the  Sikh  troops  deserted 


MOON 


[    673    ] 


MORAVIA 


and  joined  Moolraj,  and  Whish  was  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege.  It  was  resumed  Dec.  27, 
under  the  command  of  Lord  Gough,  arid  Mool- 
taii  was  carried  by  storm  Jan.  2,  1849.  Moolraj, 
who  shut  himself  up  in  the  citadel,  surren- 
dered unconditionally  Jan.  22.  The  native 
troops  here  rebelled  Sep.  2,  1858.  . 

MOON.— Thales,  who  flourished  B.C.  609, 
taught  that  the  moon  shines  with  a  light 
borrowed  from  the  sun,  and  Anaxagoras  (B.C. 
499 — 427)  explained  the  cause  of  her  eclipses. 
Aristarchus  of  Samos  determined  her  distance 
from  the  earth  about  B.C.  281,  and  Hipparchus 
of  Bithynia  measured  her  revolution  and  orbit, 
and  calculated  her  eclipses,  about  B.C.  140. 
Posidonius  (about  B.C.  135 — 51)  discovered  her 
effect  upon  the  tides,  and  Ptolemy  discovered 
her  evection  about  130.  Horrocks,  who  died 
Jan.  3, 1641,  propounded  a  theory  of  the  moon, 
anclHevelius(i6n— 1687)  publishedlunar  maps. 
Cassini  (1625 — 1712)  discovered  that  her  axis  is 
inclined  to  the  ecliptic.  Beer  and  Madler  com- 
menced their  maps  of  the  moon,  <fec.,  in  1838, 
and  in  1849  Mr-  Blunt  exhibited  to  the  British 
Association  a  plaster  model  of  part  of  her 
surface.  Professor  Bond,  in  1851,  showed 
daguerreotypes  of  the  moon,  taken  at  the 
Cambridge  Observatory,  United  States ;  and  in 
1852  Warren  De  la  Eue  obtained  positive  photo- 
graphs by  the  collodion  process.  Hansen's 
"Tables  de  la  Lune"  were  published  at  the 
expense  of  the  British  Government  in  1857. 
\V.  R.  Birt  read  a  report  on  the  physical  aspect 
of  the  moon  before  the  British  Association  at 
Manchester,  in  Sep.,  1861,  and  recommended 
the  formation  of  a  catalogue  of  lunar  objects 
at  the  Bath  Meeting  in  Sep.,  1864. 

MOORE  (Treaty),  was  concluded  between 
France  and  England,  Aug.  30,  1525.  The  in- 
tegrity of  the  French  kingdom  was  guaran- 
teed against  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

MOORISH,  or  ARABIAN  ARCHI- 
TECTURE.—This  style  originated  early  in  the 
7th  century,  and  was  founded  upon  the  By- 
zantine school.  The  mosque  El  Aksa,  at  Jeru- 
salem, rebuilt  in  780  ;  the  Nilometer  at  Cairo, 
erected  in  848  ;  and  the  mosque  of  Teyloun  in 
876,  are  the  most  important  early  examples. 

MOORS.— The  origin  of  the  inhabitants  of 
ancient  Mauretania  is  unknown.  They  as- 
sisted the  Vandals  in  their  invasion  of  Africa, 
under  Genseric,  in  429,  and  were  defeated  by 
the  Roman  forces  of  the  exinuch  Solomon  in 
535.  In  543  they  revolted  against  the  Romans, 
and  slew  Solomon  at  the  battle  of  Tibesti. 
For  some  years  they  opposed  the  domination 
of  the  Arabian  Moslems,  by  whom  they  were 
subdued  in  709.  Yahye  Ben  Aly  introduced 
them  into  Spain,  to  assist  him  against  his 
brother  Alcasim  Ben  Hamud,  in  1019,  and  after 
a  series  of  conquests  they  established  their 
supremacy  in  the  country  in  1031.  In  1058 
Roger  Guiscard  defeated  them  in  Sicily,  and 
in  1070  they  founded  the  city  of  Morocco  (q.  v.). 
The  Moors  in  Spain  revolted  against  their  rulers 
in  1143,  and  were  opposed  by  the  united  forces 
of  all  the  Christian  princes  of  the  peninsula  in 
1193.  In  1238  they  established  their  kingdom 
of  Granada  (q.  v.],  which  continued  to  flourish 
till  1492.  The  severity  of  Cardinal  Ximenes 
de  Cisiieros  in  employing  the  Inquisition 


against  them,  produced  an  insurrection  of  the 
Moors  of  the  Alpuxarras,  which  lasted  from 
1500  to  1502,  when  they  were  compelled  to 
become  Christians,  and  from  that  time  ob- 
tained the  name  of  Moriscoes.  In  1516  they 
founded  the  piratical  states  of  Algiers  and 
Tunis,  in  Africa.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  at 
the  instigation  of  Clement  VII.,  ordered  that  all 
the  Moors  in  Spain  should  be  baptized  before 
Dec.  8,  1525,  or  leave  the  country  by  Jan.  i, 
1526.  They  offered  50,000  crowns  for  a  respite 
of  five  years ;  but  Charles  V.  ordered  that 
those  who  were  not  baptized  by  Jan.  15,  should 
forfeit  their  goods,  and  be  sold  as  slaves.  Many 
took  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Valencia,  but 
eventually  submitted,  and  even  purchased  the 
privilege  of  retaining  some  of- their  customs 
for  80,000  ducats.  In  1568  they  rebelled  against 
the  government  of  Philip  II.  in  Spain.  Large 
numbers  of  them  left  that  country  in  1571, 
and  in  1609  they  were  expelled  by  order  of 
Philip  III. 

MOORSHEDABAD,  or  MURSHEDABAD 
(Hindostan),  also  called  Muksoosabad,  the 
chief  town  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
which,  at  the  commencement  of  the  isth  cen- 
tury, was  invaded  by  the  Patan  Mussulmans, 
and  finally  subjugated  by  Akbar  in  1584.  In 
1742  the  Mahrattas  plundered  the  city  of 
Moorshedabad,  which  was  the  capital  of  Bengal 
until  1757.  Its  ruler,  Surajah  Dowlah,  was  de- 
feated June  23,  1757,  by  Clive  at  Plassey,  and 
Jaffier  Khan  was  declared  nabob.  The  English 
deposed  him  in  1760,  and  raised  Cossim  Ali 
Khan  in  his  stead,  but  he  engaged  in  war 
against  them,  and  was  in  turn  deposed,  and 
Jaffier  Khan  reinstated.  Moorshedabad  was 
ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1765. 

MOPLAYS.— (See  LACCADIVE  ISLANDS.) 

MOPSUESTIA  (Cilicia).— The  origin  of  this 
town  is  traced  to  the  soothsayer  Mopsus  by  some 
writers.  The  Emperor  Constantius  II.  (337—61) 
built  a  bridge  here  across  the  river  Pyramus. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  called  Mamista,  and 
is  now  known  under  the  name  of  Messis  or 
Mensis.  A  council  was  held  here  June  17,  550. 

MORADABAD  (Hindostan).— The  province, 
with  chief  town  of  the  same  name,  was  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  sovereign 
of  Oudh,  in  1801. 

MORANT  BAY.— (&«  JAMAICA.) 

MORAT,  orMURTEM  (  Battle).— Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy  was  defeated  by  the  Swiss 
at  Morat  or  Murtem,  in  the  canton  of  Freiburg, 
in  Switzerland,  June  22,  1476. 

MORAVIA  (Austria). — This  province  was  in- 
habited by  the  Quadi  until  407,  when  it  was 
seized  by  the  Heruli,  who  retained  it  till  its 
conquest  by  the  Longobardi  in  548.  A  king- 
dom of  Great  Moravia  was  subsequently 
formed,  which  received  Christianity  in  856. 
In  908  the  kingdom  was  dissolved  and  divided 
between  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia ; 
and  in  1061  the  whole  was  incorporated  with 
Bohemia.  It  became  a  margraviate  in  1086, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  Austrian  dominions 
in  1526.  Moravia  was  the  chief  theatre  of  the 
war  between  the  French  and  the  allied  Austrian 
and  Russian  armies  in  1805.  It  was  separated 
from  Bohemia,  and  made  a  distinct  province 
in  1849. 


MORAVIAN 


[     674     1 


MOROCCO 


MORAVIAN,  BOHEMIAN,  or  UNITED 
BRETHREN. -The  Bohemian  Brethren  dis 
sen  ted  from  the  Calixtines  (q.  v.},  a  branch  ol 
the  Hussites,  in  1433.  They  sent  envoys  to 
Luther  in  1522,  and  having  been  expelled  from 
Bohemia  in  1547,  took  refuge  in  Poland  and  at 
Marienwerder,  in  Prussia.  Maximilian  II. 
granted  them  toleration  in  1564,  and  many  of 
them  congregated  at  Fulriek,  in  Moravia,  from 
which  they  received  the  name  of  Moravians. 
Their  settlements  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
were  destroyed  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
(1618 — 48).  Count  Zinzendorf  permitted  them 
to  settle  at  Herrnhut,  on  his  estate  of  Bethels- 
dorf,  in  1722.  Several  changes  were  at  this 
time  made  in  the  constitution  of  the  sect,  and 
its  followers  received  the  name  of  the  United 
Brethren.  One  of  their  principal  objects  is  to 
send  out  missions  to  the  heathen.  Their  first 
mission  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  West  In- 
dies, was  established  in  1732.  They  formed 
one  in  Greenland  in  1733.  They  were  first 
established  in  England  about  1738.  They  are 
sometimes  called  Moravians. 

MORDEN  COLLEGE  (Blackheath).— Sir 
John  Morden,  a  Turkey  merchant,  by  a  codicil 
to  his  will,  dated  March  9,  1703,  endowed  this 
asylum  for  aged  and  poor  merchants,  in 
which  he  had  established  twelve  pensioners 
during  his  lifetime.  After  his  death,  Sep.  6, 
1708,  his  widow  reduced  the  number  to  four  ; 
but  after  her  own  decease,  in  June,  1721,  the 
full  number  was  restored,  and  it  has  since 
been  increased  to  thirty.  Sir  Gregory  Page, 
who  died  in  1775,  left  money  for  repairing  the 
chapel. 

.MoltEA  (Greece).— Finlay  (Greece  and  Tre- 
bizond,  p.  29)  states  that  "the  Morea  must 
have  come  into  general  use,  as  the  name  of 
the  peninsula  (the  Peloponnesus),  among  the 
Greeks  after  the  Latin  conquest."  This  took 
place  in  1205,  when  the  country  was  formed 
into  the  principality  of  Achaia  tq.  ?'.).  In  1262 
Misithra,  now  Mistra,  and  other  fortresses  were 
ceded  to  the  Byzantines,  who  established  a 
despotism  in  T 349.  The  Morea  was  captured  by 
the  Turks  in  1346,  and  held  by  thorn  until  1687, 
when  it  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Venetians, 
who  retained  it  till  1715.  A  convention  for  its 
evacuation  was  signed  Aug.  6,  1828,  and  the 
Turks  retired  Oct.  7.  The  following  are  the 
Byzantine  despots  of  the  Morea  : — 

A.D. 

1 349.  Manuel  Cantacuzenos. 

13^8.  Theodore  Paleologns  I. 

1407.  Theodore  Pnleolojrus  II. 

1438.  Constantino  XI.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

1430.  Thomas. 

1450.  Demetrius. 

MORELLA  (Spain). — The  French  captured 
this  ancient  town  Dec.  17,  1707.  The  Carlists 
under  Cabrera  having  surprised  it  in  1838,  it 
was  twice  assailed  without  success,  and  the 
siege  was  raised  Aug.  18.  Espartero  took  it 

mMO4RENA,  or  BLACK  MOUNTAINS  (Spain). 

— Swiss  and  German  colonies  were  established 
this  mountain  range  in  1767. 
MOREONITES.— (See  COSLESTINES.) 
MORETON  BAY.— (-See  QUEENSLAND.) 
MORGARTEN    (Battles) .— The    Swiss    de- 


feated an  Austrian  army  at  this  place,  on  the 

borders  of  Zug  and  Schwyz,  Nov.  15,  1315. 

The   French  defeated  the   Swiss  at  this  place 

in  1798. The  Austrians  were  defeated  here 

by  the  French  in  1799. 

MORICE,  or  MORRIS  DANCE,  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Moors  into  Spain, 
whence  it  was  brought  into  England  in  1332. 
It  was  but  little  practised,  however,  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  (1485 — 1509),  when  it  be- 
came a  frequent  entertainment  at  the  May- 
games  and  weddings.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
morris  was  that  bells  were  attached  to  the 
legs  of  the  performers.  Petrarch  exhibited  his 
skill  as  a  morris  dancer  on  the  occasion  of  his 
coronation  at  Rome  in  1341. 

MORISCOES.— (See  MOORS.) 

MORISONIANS.  or  followers  of  the  Rev. 
James  Morison,  of  Kilmarnock,  who  was  sus- 
pended from  his  office  in  the  Scotch  Presby- 
terian Church  in  1841,  and  formed  the  Evan- 
gelical Union  in  1843.  They  hold  Arminiaii 
and  Pelagian  doctrines. 

MORLAIX  (France).— This  ancient  town  in 
Britanny,  at  one  period  strongly  fortified,  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1374.  The  Duke  of 
Hritanny  received  it  in  1381.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Earl  of  Surrey  in  1522.  It  surrendered 
to  Hein-y  IV.  of  France  in  1594,  and  the  fortifi- 
cations were  destroyed  towards  the  end  of  the 
1 6th  century. 

MORMONITES,  MORMONS,  or  LATTER- 
DA  V  SAINTS.— This  sect  was  founded  at  Pal- 
myra, in  North  America,  by  Joseph  Smith, 
Sep.  22,  1827,  the  day  on  which,  according  to 
his  own  statement,  he  came  into  possession  of 
the  Golden  Bible,  or  the  Book  of  Mormon,  pub- 
lished at  Palmyra  in  1830.  The  first  European 
edition  appeared  at  Liverpool  in  1841.  The 
first  conference  was  held  at  Fayette,  June  i, 
1830.  They  removed  to  Kirtland,  in  Ohio,  in 
Jan.,  1831.  In  1831  they  founded  the  city  of 
Zio.i,  in  Missouri,  but  were  compelled  to  quit 
the  state,  and  took  refuge  in  Illinois,  in  1838, 
whereupon  they  built  the  "holy  city"  of  Nau- 
voo,  or  the  City  of  Beauty.  The  foundation  of 
the  Mormon  temple  was  laid  April  6,  1841. 
Smith  was  shot  by  a  mob  which  broke  into 
the  prison  of  Carthage,  where  he  was  confined, 
June  27,  1844.  In  1847  the  Mormons,  expelled 
from  Illinois,  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  Valley,  which  they  reached 
July  24,  1847.  The  territory  of  Utah  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  Sep.  19,  1850.  An  expe- 
dition was  sent  against  the  Mormonites  from 
the  United  States  in  1857,  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  them  to  subjection.  An  arrangement 
was,  however,  effected  without  a  collision. 
The  first  Mormon  mission  to  England  was  de- 
spatched in  1837,  and  in  five  years  many  con- 
verts had  been  made. 

MOROCCO,  or  MAROCCO  (Africa).  —  This 
empire,   the  ancient  Mauretania   (q.  v.~),   was 
formed  by  the  union  of  several  small  kingdoms 
under  the  Arabs. 
A.D. 

829.  The  city  of  Fez  is  founded  by  Edris. 

058.  Abu  Bekr  assumes  the  title  of  Sovereign  of  Mo- 

007.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  invades  Spain,  at  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Spanish  Moors. 
131.  Morocco  is  invaded  by  the  Almohades. 


MOROCCO 


[    675 


MORTMAIN 


1303.  The  province  of  Fez  asserts  its  independence. 

1368.  The  Merines  invade  Morocco. 

1413.  English  ships  trade  to  Morocco. 

1415.  The  Portuguese  invade  Morocco,  and  take  Ceuta. 

1508.  The  Portuguese  authority  extends  over  a  consider- 
able portion  of  Morocco. 

1516.  The  Sherifs  establish  their  supremacy,  and  estab- 
lish the  dynasty  which  still  reigns  in  Morocco. 

'.So0-  Fez  is  subject  to  Morocco. 

*577-  Queen  Elizabeth  sends  an  ambassador  to  the  em- 
peror. 

*578,  Aug.  4.  Sebastian,  King  of  Portugal,  perishes,  with 
his  whole  army,  in  battle  against  the  Moors,  at 
Alcazar. 

1585.  An  English  company  is  formed  for  trading  to  Mo- 
rocco. 

1633.  An  English  squadron  assists  the  Emperor  in  destroy- 
ing Salee. 

$663.  Tangier  is  ceded  to  the  British. 

1774.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  fails  in  an  attempt  to 
expel  the  Spaniards. 

1784.  The  English  give  up  Tangier. 

1815.  The  inhabitants  rise  in  insurrection. 

1844,  Aug.  6.  The  French,  under  the  Prince  de  Joinville, 
bombard  Tangier. — Aug.  14.  Marshal  Bugeaud 
defeats  the  imperial  forces  on  the  banks  of  the 
Isly. — Aug.  16.  De  Joinville  takes  Mogador. — 
Sep.  6.  Peace  is  concluded  with  France. 

1851,  March  2,6.  The  French  bombard  Salee. 

1853,  March  33.  Peace  is  again  concluded  with  France. 

1*59,  Oct  2,2,.  Spain  declares  war  against  Morocco.— Nov. 
18.  The  Spanish  troops  land  on  the  coasts  of 
Morocco. 

1860,  Jan.  i.  The  Spaniards,  under  Gen.  Prim,  gain  the 
battie  of  Castillejos,  and  advance  upon  Tetuan. 
—Feb.  4.  The  Spaniards  take  Tetuan.— Feb.  16. 
A  truce  is  agreed  upon.— Feb.  33.  Hostilities  are 
resumed.— March  33.  The  Spanish  gain  the  battle 
of  Tetuan.— March  39.  The  Queen  of  Spain 
agrees  to  preliminaries  of  pence,  the  Emperor 
undertaking  to  pay  30,000,000  piastres  as  indem- 
nity, and  to  leave  Tetuan  in  the  hands  of  the 
Spanish  until  the  payment  is  completed. — April 
37.  A  treaty  of  peace  is  signed. 

1S66,  Jan.  3.  Ambassadors  from  the  court  of  Morocco  are 
received  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  at  the 
Tuileries. 


MOROCCO,  or  MAROCCO  (Morocco).— This 
city,  the  chief  town  of  the  empire  of  the  same 
name,  was  founded  in  1070,  by  Moorish  adven- 
turers from  Spain.  In  1121  it  was  besieged  by 
the  Almohades,  who  were  compelled  to  retire  ; 
but  in  1132  they  again  attacked  the  city,  which 
surrendered  to  their  leader  Abdelmumin.  In 
1673  it  was  taken  from  Muley  Achmet  by 
Muley  Ismael.  The  plague  carried  off  many 
of  the  inhabitants  in  1678. 

MORPHINE,  or  MORPHIA.— This  alkaloid 
of  opium,  named  after  Morpheus,  on  account 
of  its  effect  as  a  narcotic,  is  mentioned  by 
Ludwig  in  1688.  It  was  obtained  from 
opium  by  Sertuerner,  a  German  chemist,  in 
1803. 

MORRIS  ISLAND.— (See  CHARLESTON.) 

MORTALITY.— (See  BILLS  OF  MORTALITY.) 

MORTARA  (Italy).— Charlemagne  defeated 
the  Lombards  near  this  town  in  Piedmont,  in 
774.  The  Austrians  took  it  March  21,  1849. 

MORTARA  CASE.  —Edgar  Mortara,  aged 
seven  years,  the  son  of  Jewish  parents  residing 
at  Bologna,  was  forcibly  removed  from  his 
home  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  June  23, 
1858.  The  alleged  reason  for  the  abduction 
was  that  the  boy  had  been  secretly  baptized 
by  a  maid-servant  during  a  serious  illness 
which  he  had  suffered  two  years  before. 

MORTARS.— The  Chinese  are  said  to  have 
constructed  guns  to  throw  .stones  of  12  pounds 


300  paces,  as  early  as  757.  When  Algesiras 
was  besieged  by  Alphonso  XI.,  King  of  Castile, 
n  1343,  the  Moorish  garrison  threw  against 
him  ' '  certain  thunders  "  through  long  mortars. 
A  mortar  is  still  shown  at  Venice  with  its 
marble  shot  used  at  the  siege  of  Chioggia  in 
1366.  The  Arabian  authors  say  that  gunpowder 
was  first  used  in  mortars,  which  were  at  that 
time  cylinders  excavated  in  a  rock,  during  one 
of  the  early  sieges  of  Alexandria.  In  1771  an 
experiment  was  tried  at  Gibraltar,  for  dis- 
charging stones  from  a  mortar  of  this  kind, 
called  a  rock  mortar.  The  excavation,  four 
feet  long,  was  carefully  polished,  and  15 
hundredweight  of  stones  were  put  in,  some 
of  which  were  thrown  a  distance  of  500  yards. 
Mortars  were  first  made  in  England  in  1543, 
and  they  were  in  general  use  in  1588. 

MORTELLA  TOWERS,  sometimes  misspelt 
Martello  Towers,  are  said  to  have  received  this 
name  from  the  Mortella  tower  in  Mortella 
Bay,  commanding  the  entrance  to  St.  Fiorenzo, 
in  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  was  assailed  by 
a  cannonade,  that  lasted  three  hours,  from 
two  British  men-of-war,  the  Fortitude,  74,  and 
the  Juno,  32-gun  frigate,  Feb.  7,  1794.  The 
tower  only  mounted  two  i8-pounders  and  one 
6-pounder,  and  the  garrison  consisted  of  33 
men,  yet  it  sustained  no  damage,  while  the 
Fortitude  caught  fire,  and  was  saved  with 
difficulty.  A  height  in  the  neighbourhood  had 
been  occupied  by  1,400  men,  and  the  garrison 
was  compelled  to  surrender  to  this  force  on 
the  same  day.  The  Duke  of  Richmond  gave 
the  plan  for  the  first  erected  in  England  about 
1805.  They  extended  during  the  French  war 
from  Hythe  in  Kent  to  Seaford  in  Sussex, 
altogether  about  74  in  number.  Though  these 
circular  buildings  may  have  derived  the  name 
by  which  they  are  known  in  England  from  the 
Corsican  fortress,  yet  some  such  mode  of 
defence  was  adopted  at  a  much  earlier  date. 
Robertson,  in  his  Life  of  Charles  V.,  relates 
that  the  Spaniards  in  the  i6th  century  were 
compelled  to  erect  watch-towers  at  regular 
distances  along  the  coasts,  and  to  keep  guards 
constantly  on  the  alert,  to  protect  the  popula- 
tion on  the  sea-coast  from  the  descents  of  the 
pirates  of  Algiers. 

MORTIMER'S  CROSS  (Battle),  was  fought 

near  Wigmore,  in  Herefordshire,  between  the 

rival  factions  of  York  and  Lancaster,  Feb.  2, 

1461.    The  Earl  of  Pembroke  commanded  the 

i  Lancastrian  forces,  which  were  defeated  with 

j  great  slaughter. 

j  MORTLACH  (Battle).— Malcolm  II.  of  Scot- 
land defeated  the  Danes  under  Camus,  a 
relation  of  Sweyn,  at  this  place,  six  miles 
from  Dundee,  in  1010.  The  victory  was  due 
to  the  valour  of  a  colony  of  the  old  Batavian 
Catti  (q.  v.),  whose  leader,  Robert,  slew  the 
Danish  general,  for  which  he  was  made  a 
knight,  and  created  Great  Marischal  of  Scot- 
land. From  him  the  Scotch  family  of  Chatti, 
Kethi,  or  Keith,  is  descended.  (See  ABER- 
LEMNO  and  EARL  MARISCHAL.) 

MORTMAIN.— Purchases  made  by  corporate 
bodies  are  said  to  be  purchased  in  mortmain, 
or  dead  hand;  the  reason  for  the  title,  according 
to  Blackstone  (book  i.  c.  18),  being  that  such 
purchases  were  "usually  made  by  ecclesiasti- 

X  X    2 


MOSAICS 


[    676    ] 


MOTTA 


cal  bodies,  the  members  of  which  (being  pro- 
fessed) were  reckoned  dead  persons  in  law  ; 
land,  therefore,  holden  by  them  might,  with 
great  propriety,  be  said  to  be  held  in  mortua 
manu."  In  order  to  check  the  increasing 
importance  of  the  Church,  the  giving  of  land 
in  mortmain  was  prohibited  by  g  Hen.  III. 
c.  36(1225),  which  was  enforced  by  7  Edw.  I. 
st.  2  (1279),  and  extended  to  all  guilds  and 
corporations,  lay  or  ecclesiastical,  by  15  Rich.  II. 
c.  5  (1391).  These  prohibitions  were  repealed 
by  i  &  2  Philip  &  Mary,  c.  S,  s.  51  (1554),  which 
was  repealed  by  i  Eliz.  c.  i,  s.  2  (1558).  The 
king  was  empowered  to  grant  licences  to  pur- 
chase in  mortmain  by  7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  37 
(1696).  Gifts  in  mortmain  by  will  were  re- 
strained by  9  Geo.  II.  c.  36  (1736),  which  took 
effect  June  24,  1736.  It  was  repealed,  as  far 
as  it  related  to  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  by  45  Geo.  III.  c.  101  (July  10, 
1805). 

MOSAICS.— The  invention  of  mosaic  paint- 
ing is  ascribed  to  the  Persians,  by  whom  it 
was  practised  at  a  very  early  date.  The  Greeks 
excelled  in  it,  and  transmitted  it  to  the 
Romans  about  the  reign  of  Augustus  (B.C.  31— 
A.D.  14),  and  during  the  reign  of  Constantino  I. 
(323 — 37)  it  bucame  the  principal  means  of 
decorating  the  Christian  temples.  Venice  was 
the  principal  seat  of  the  mosaic  art  from  the 
nth  to  the  1 6th  century.  Mosaic  work  was 
much  improved  in  the  i7th  century  by  the  ap- 
plication of  enamel,  to  express  the  finer  gra- 
dations of  tint. 

MOSCOW  (Russia),  founded  in  1147,  was, 
from  1300  to  1703,  the  capital  of  Russia.  It 
was  besieged  in  1369-70,  and  in  1382  was 
taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  nearly  destroyed. 
The  city  was,  however,  rebuilt,  and  had 
attained  some  degree  of  prosperity,  when  it 
once  more  fell  a  prey  to  the  Tartars  in  1571. 
(See  MATINS.)  A  Polish  impostor  threatened 
it  in  1608,  and  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
1610.  The  French,  under  Napoleon  I.,  entered 
Moscow  Sep.  14, 1812.  The  great  conflagration 
commenced  Sep.  15,  and  raged  till  Sep.  20. 
The  French  retired  Oct.  24.  The  Kremlin  (q.  v.) 
was  rebuilt  in  1816,  and  has  since  been  greatly 
enlarged.  The  church  of  the  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin  was  founded  in  1326 ;  those  of  St. 
Michael  and  of  the  Transfiguration  were 
founded  in  1328,  and  rebuilt  in  1527  ;  and  the 
Pokrovskoi  Cathedral  was  built  in  1554.  It 
was  originally  constructed  of  nine  separate 
churches  ;  1 1  have  since  been  added,  making 
20  places  of  worship  joined  together.  The 
Beloi  Gorod,  or  White  Town,  contains  the 
university,  founded  in  1753,  which  was  almost 
destroyed  in  the  French  invasion  ;  the  found- 
ling hospital,  erected  in  1 763  ;  the  excise  office, 
built  in  1817 ;  and  the  great  military  hospital, 
founded  by  Peter  I.  (the  Great).  The  great  bell 
was  cast  in  1734,  but  fell,  in  consequence  of  a 
fire,  in  1737.  The  railroad  to  St.  Petersburg 
was  opened  in  1851. 

MOSCOW  (Treaties).  —  Truces  between 
Russia  and  Poland  were  concluded  April  9, 

1672,  and  Aug.  17,  1678. A  convention 

between  Russia  and  Sweden  was  signed  May 

22,  1684. A  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  was 

concluded  by  Russia  and  Poland  May  6,  1686.  ! 


An  alliance  between  Russia  and  Denmark 

was  entered  into  here  Jan.  23,  1701. An 

alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  was 
signed  Dec.  n,  1742  ;  and  a  convention  between 
the  same  powers,  Oet  20,  1801. 

MOSKIRCH  (Battle).— Moreau,  at  the  head 
.of  a  French  army,  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
this  village  May  5,  1800. 

MOSKOWA.— (See  BORODINO,  Battle.) 

MOSQUITO  COAST  TERRITORY,  or 
MOSQUITIA  (Central  America),  was  disco- 
vered by  Christopher  Columbus  in  1502,  and 
called  by  him  Cariay.  The  Spaniards  formed 
several  settlements,  and  it  became  one  of  the 
favourite  haunts  of  the  bucaneers.  The  first 
English  settlement  was  formed  in  1730.  A 
commission,  despatched  by  Trelawney,  gover- 
nor of  Jamaica,  took  formal  possession  of  the 
country,  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Great 
Britain,  April  16,  1740;  and  an  order  in  council 
was  issued,  sending  a  number  of  troops  i?i 
1744,  and  another  in  1748.  Spain  took  umbrage 
at  these  movements,  and  England  agreed  to 
demolish  her  fortification  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  A  convention,  by  which 
the  English  consented  to  evacuate  the  territory, 
signed  July,  1786,  was  confirmed  by  the  treaty 
of  Madrid,  Aug.  28,  1814.  A  British  protec- 
torate was  established,  and  two  vessels  of  war 
occupied  the  harbour  of  San  Juan  in  Jan., 
1848.  This  led  to  negotiations  with  the  United 
States,  and  the  Bulwer-Clayton  treaty  //.  v.} 
was  concluded  April  19,  1850.  By  a  treaty 
signed  at  Comayagua,  Nov.  28,  1859,  Great 
Britain  ceded  the  Bay  Islands  to  Honduras  ; 
and  by  another  treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  Nicaragua,  signed  at  Managua  Jan.  28, 
1860,  and  ratified  at  London  Aug.  2,  the  rights 
of  the  Mosquito  Indians  were  gviaranteed. 

MOSS  TROOPERS.— Freebooters  dwelling 
on  the  borders  of  England  and  Scotland,  whose 
ravages  are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Kdward  I.  (1272 — 1307),  when  they  earned  off 
a  wealthy  citizen  of  Newcastle,  and  demanded 
a  heavy  ransom  as  the  price  of  his  liberty. 
In  1529  James  V.  of  Scotland  marched  against 
them  with  8,000  men,  and  put  numbers  to 
death,  the  celebrated  Johnnie  Armstrong  being 
one  of  the  sufferers.  Measures  were  taken 
for  their  suppression  by  13  &  14  Charles  II. 
c.  22  (1662),  which  compelled  the  Borderers 
to  apprehend  them  wherever  they  were  known 
to  exist.  They  were  deprived  of  benefit  of 


clergy  by  18  Charles    II.  c.  3  (1666).     These 

.  II.  c.  37  (i- 
MOSUL,  or  MOZUL  (Asiatic  Turkey^'  the 


acts  were  renewed  by  6  Geo.  II.  c.  37  (1733). 


ancient  Mespila,  was  the  seat  of  the  Hama- 
danids  of  Mesopotamia  in  892.  Zenghi,  the 
atabek  or  ruler  of  Mosul,  asserted  his  inde- 
pendence in  1 12 1.  The  town  was  taken  by 
Saladin  in  1183,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians  in  1625.  Amurath  IV.  recovered 
Mosul  in  1639.  Botta,  the  French  consul  at 
Mosul,  commenced  his  explorations  at  Nineveh 
in  1843,  and  Layard  arrived  in  1845,  in  order 
to  pursue  his  excavations  on  the  site  of 
Nineveh,  which  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Tigris.  (See  MUSLIN.) 

MOTTA  (Battle).— The  Hungarians  were 
defeated  at  this  place  by  the  Venetians,  under 
Malatesta,  Aug.  24,  1412. 


MOTYA 


[    677    ] 


MUGGLETONIANS 


MOTYA  (Sicily).— This  Phoenician  colony 
passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Carthaginians, 
and  was  made  a  naval  station  by  them,  B.C. 
407.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  captured  it,  and 
put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  B.C.  397. 
The  Carthaginians  regained  possession  B.C. 
396  ;  but  it  never  recovered  its  former  im- 
portance. 

MOUKDEN,  or  MUKDEN  (China).— This 
town  of  Manchuria,  called  by  the  Chinese 
Fungtien-foo,  was  made  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  Manchu  emperors  in  1631. 

MUULINS  (France),  received  its  name  from 
the  numerous  windmills  on  the  banks  of  the 
Allier.  It  does  not  occupy,  as  some  authors 
have  supposed,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Gergovia 
Bo'iorum.  The  old  castle  was  built  by  the 
Duke  of  Bourbon  in  1530.  Catherine  de  Medici, 
by  the  advice  of  L'Hopital,  convoked  an  as- 
sembly of  Notables  here  in  Jan.,  1566,  and 
the  grand  oi-dinance  of  Moulins  was  issued  in 
Feb.  Admiral  Coligni  took  an  oath  before  the 
assembly,  Jan.  29,  that  he  was  neither  the 
author  of  nor  an  accomplice  in  the  plot  for 
the  assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Guise. 

MOULMEIN  (Hindostan).— This  town  was 
ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  Bur- 
mese by  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo,  Feb.  24, 1826. 

MOUNT  ATHOS  (Greece),  called  by  the 
Franks  Monte  Santo,  and  by  the  Greeks 
Agion-oros,  both  terms  implying  "  Holy 
Mountain."  It  has  received  this  appellation 
from  its  numerous  monastic  establishments. 
According  to  the  monkish  tradition,  no  female 
has  set  foot  upon  the  Holy  Mountain.  Xerxes 
cut  a  passage  for  his  fleet  through  the  isthmus 
that  connects  the  peninsula  to  the  mainland, 
on  his  invasion  of  Greece,  B.C.  480.  From 
documents  still  extant,  it  appears  that  con- 
vents existed  on  this  mountain  as  early  as 
961. 

MOUNT  CALVARY  (Jerusalem),  the  place 
where  Christ  was  crucified,  Friday,  April  5, 
A.D.  30.  Clinton  gives  29,  Hales  31,  and  other 
authorities  38,  as  the  date  of  the  Passion.  In 
Hebrew,  the  place  where  the  Saviour  suffered 
is  called  Golgotha,  the  place  of  a  skull  (Matt. 
xxvii.  33;  Mark  xv.  22;  and  John  xix.  17). 
In  the  English  version  of  St.  Luke  (xxiii.  33) 
it  is  called  Calvary,  and  in  the  original  Cranion, 
of  which  the  Latin  translation  in  the  Vulgate 
is  Calvaria.  Hadrian  placed  statues  of  Jupiter 
and  Venus  on  this  mount  in  131.  (See  HOLY 
PLACES.) 

MOUNT  CARMEL  (Knights  of  the  Order 
of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel).— This  order 
was  founded  in  1607,  by  Henry  IV.  of  France. 
Paul  V.  confirmed  it  in  July.  1608,  when  it 
was  joined  to  the  order  of  St.  Lazarus  of 
Jerusalem.  In  1645  this  arrangement  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent  X.,  and  the  order 
was  named  Knights  of  our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel  and  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  The 
uniform  of  the  erder  was  settled  in  1695.  In 
1779  the  two  orders  were  again  separated,  and 
St.  Lazarus  took  the  precedence  in  rank,  Our 
Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  holding  a  secondaiy 
station.  (See  CARMELITES.) 

MOUNT  GILBOA  (Palestine).— This  moun- 
tain range,  near  the  city  of  Jezreel,  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Saul  by  the 


Philistines  (i  Sam.  xxv.  i ;  2  Sam.  i.  6  <fe  xxi. 
12  :  i  Chron.  x.  i — 8),  B.C.  1055.  (See  ENDOR.) 

MOUNT  H^EMUS.— The  ancient  name  of 
the  range  of  mountains  extending  from  the 
Adriatic  Sea  to  the  Euxine,  and  now  known  as 
the  Balkan. 

MOUNT  HOREB.— (See  SINAI.) 

MOUNT  SINAI. -(See  SINAI.) 

MOUNT  VESUVIUS.— (See  VESUVIUS.) 

MOURNING.— Pulleyn  (Etymological  Com- 
pendium, p.  215)  states  that  "  the  colours  of 
the  dress,  or  habit,  worn  to  signify  grief,  are 
different  in  different  countries.  In  Europe, 
the  ordinary  colour  for  mourning  is  black;  in 
China,  it  is  white,  a  colour  that  was  the 
mourning  of  the  ancient  Spartan  and  Roman 
ladies ;  in  Turkey,  it  is  blue,  or  violet ;  in 
Egypt,  yellow  ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown  ;  and  kings 
and  cardinals  mourn  in  purple.  Every  nation 
gave  a  reason  for  their  wearing  the  particular 
colour  of  their  mourning ;  black,  which  is  the 
privation  of  light,  is  supposed  to  denote  the 
privation  of  life ;  white  is  an  emblem  of 
purity  ;  yellow  is  to  represent  that  death  is 
the  end  of  all  human  hopes,  because  this  is 
the  colour  of  leaves  when  they  fall,  and 
flowers  when  they  fade ;  brown  denotes  the 
earth,  to  which  the  dead  return ;  blue  is  an 
emblem  of  the  happiness  which  it  is  hoped 
the  deceased  enjoys ;  and  purple,  or  violet, 
is  supposed  to  express  a  mixture  of  sorrow 
and  hope."  White  was  the  original  colour  of 
mourning  in  Spain,  the  last  occasion  on  which 
it  was  used  being  on  the  death  of  Don  Juan, 
heir  of  Castile,  in  1495.  In  consequence  of  the 
serious  injury  done  to  trade  by  protracted 
public  mournings,  George  III.  reduced  their 
duration  to  half  their  previous  length,  by  an 
order  issued  from  the  chamberlain's  office, 
Jan.  12,  1768.  (See  FRAGA.) 

MOUSQUETAIRES.— (See  MUSKETEERS.) 

MOZAMBIQUE  (Africa).— This  part  of  the 
eastern  coast  was  discovered  by  Vasco  de 
Gama  in  1498,  and  its  chief  town  was  taken 
by  Albuquerque  in  1506.  The  city  of  Mozam- 
bique, on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  was 
founded  in  1763,  and  incorporated  in  1813. 
By  decrees  of  the  Portuguese  Government, 
issued  in  June,  1354,  custom-houses  were 
ordered  to  be  established  on  the  Mozambique 
^oast. 

MOZYR  (Russia).— The  Tartars  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  take  this  town  in  1240.  It  passed 
from  Polish  to  Russian  rule  in  1795. 

MUCKROSS  ABBEY.  -(See  KILLARNEY.) 

MUDKI.— (See  MOODKEE.) 

MUFF.— This  protection  for  the  hands  was 
invented  in  France  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  (1643 — 1715),  and  was  introduced  thence 
into  England  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
(1660 — 85),  being  used  by  gentlemen  in  the 
great  frost  of  1683-4.  Muffs  |made  of  fea- 
thers were  fashionable  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.  (1760—1820). 

MUGGLETONIANS.-  An  English  sect,  fol- 
lowers of  Lodowicke  Muggleton,  a  journey- 
man tailor,  who  in  1651  commenced  as  a  reli- 
gious teacher,  declaring  that  he  and  his  com- 
panion John  Keeve  were  the  "  two  witnesses  " 
mentioned  in  Revelation  xi.  3 — 7.  In  1656  a 
book  was  pxiblished,  entitled  "  The  Divine 


MUHLBERG 


[    678    ] 


MUNICIPAL 


Looking-Glass,"  containing  a  statement  and 
defence  of  their  principles.  William  Penn  re- 
plied in  "  The  New  Witnesses  proved  Old 
Hereticks,"  published  in  1672.  Muggleton 
was  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey  for  blasphemy, 
and  convicted,  Jan.  17,  1676.  He  died  March 
14,  1697.  An  edition  of  Muggleton' s  works 
appeared  in  1756,  and  one  of  the  works  of 
Reeve  and  Muggleton  was  published  in  1832. 
The  Muggietonians  were  in  existence  in  the 
middle  of  the  igth  century. 

MUHLBERG(Baitle).— TheEmperorCharles 
V.  defeated  the  Saxons  and  their  Protestant 
allies  at  Miihlberg,  or  Mulhausen,  on  the  Elbe, 
Sunday,  April  24,  1547.  John  Frederick  the 
Elector  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

MUHLDORF  (Battle).— Louis  V.  of  Bavaria 
took  Frederick  of  Austria  prisoner,  and  de- 
feated his  army  at  this  place  in  Bavaria,  Sep. 
28,  1322. 

MUHLHAUSEN  (Prussia).— Muntzer  the 
Anabaptist  made  his  head-quarters  at  Miihl- 
hausen  in  1524.  It  was  a  free  and  imperial 
city  until  1802,  when  it  was  annexed  to  Prus- 
sia. In  1806  it  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  and  restored  to  Prussia  in  1813. 

MULBERRY-TREE,  a  native  of  Persia,  was 
brought  to  England  before  1548.  Its  intro- 
duction into  this  country  is  ascribed  to  the 
knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  who  planted 
mulberry-trees  in  Kent.  Its  longevity  is  re- 
in irkable,  extending  in  some  known  < 
three  centuries.  The  white  mulberry  was 
introduced  from  China  before  1596,  the  red 
mulberry  from  North  America  before  1629,  and 
tin.'  paper  mulberry  from  Japan  before  1751. 

MULE,  or  MULE  JENNY,  a  machine  em- 
ployed in  spinning  cotton,  invented  about 
1775,  by  Samuel  Crompton,  was  in  general  use 
about  1786.  In  1812  Crompton  found  on  in- 
vestigation that  there  were  between  four  and 
five  million  spindles  at  work  on  the  principle 
of  his  invention,  although,  from  his  not  hav- 
ing taken  out  a  patent,  he  received  no  pecu- 
niary benefit  therefrom.  Parliament  voted 
him  £5,000  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  merit 
in  promoting  the  manufactures  of  the  country. 

MULHOUSE,  or  MULHAUSEN  (France), 
was  made  a  free  and  imperial  city  in  1273,  by 
Rodolph  I.  of  Habsburg,  and  became  the  chief 
town  of  a  small  republic,  which  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  the  Swiss  cantons,  in  1514. 
Turenne  defeated  the  Imperialists  near  Mul- 
house  in  1674.  The  manufacture  of  printed 
calicoes  was  introduced  in  1746,  and  for  weav- 
ing cotton  in  1762.  It  declared  in  favour  of 
annexation  to  France  in  1793,  and  this  was  ac- 
complished by  treaty  in  1798. 

MULTIPLYING.— The  craft  of  multiplying 
gold  and  silver,  or  alchemy,  was  declared 
felony  by  5  Hen,  IV.  c.  4  (1404).  This  statute 
was  repealed  by  i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  30  (1690). 

MUMMY. — The  use  of  mummy  as  a  drug 
commenced  either  in  noo  or  in  1300,  and  was 
very  common  during  the  i6th  and  the  early 
part  of  the  i7th  century.  (See  EMBALMING.) 

MUNDA  (Spain).— Cn.  Scipio  defeated  the 
Carthaginians  near  this  town,  the  modern 
Monda,  B.C.  216.  Julius  Ccesar  defeated  the 
sons  of  Pompey  at  the  same  place,  March  1 7, 


45  B.C.,  when  Munda  was  captured  and  de- 
stroyed. Cn.  Pompey  was  wounded  in  the 
battle,  and  was  killed  in  the  pursuit. 

MUNDANE  jERA  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  or 
ABYSSINIAN  ^ERA.— The  creation  of  the 
world  was  fixed  by  this  sera  B-.C.  5502.  This, 
computation  was  continued  until  284,  and  ten 
years  were  deducted  from  it  in  285,  making 
what  was  the  year  5787  by  the  previous  mode 
of  computation,  5777. 

MUNDESORE,  or  MUNDISORE  (Battle).— 
Gen.  Stuart  defeated  the  Bundela  rebels  at 
this  place  in  Hindostan,  Nov.  24,  1857. 

MUNDISORE,  or  MUNDISSOOR  (Treaty). 
— At  this  town,  in  the  territory  of  Gualior,  the 
younger  Holkar,  reduced  to  subjection  by  the 
battle  of  Mehudporc  (<•/.  c. },  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  British  Government,  Jan.  6,  1818. 
In  consideration  of  protection  to  be  afforded 
by  the  English,  he  ceded  large  territories  in 
Khandesh  and  elsewhere,  and  engaged  to 
commit  110  act  of  hostility  against  any  state 
whatever. 

MUNFORDSVILLE  (N.  America).  —  This 
town,  in  Kentucky,  was  taken  by  the  Con- 
federates, Sep.  17,  1862. 

MUNICH  (Germany;,  built  by  Henry  the 
Lion,  of  Saxony,  and  called  Villa  Municheii 
in  the  1 2th  century,  was  a  walled  town 
in  the  i3th  century,  and  was  made  the  im- 
perial residence  by  Louis  III.,  who  restored 
and  extended  it  in  1327.  It  was  made  the 
capital  of  Bavaria  in  the  isth  century,  and 
suffered  from  fires  in  1327  and  1448.  It  was 
taken  by  Gustavus  II.  (Adolplms  of  Sweden 
in  1632,  by  the  Austrians  in  1704,  1741,  and 
1743,  and  by  the  French  general  Moreau  July  2, 
1800.  The  university,  originally  established 
at  Ingoldstadt  in  1472,  was  removed  to  Land- 
shut  in  1800,  and  to  Munich  in  1826.  The 
paper  manufacture  was  established  in  1347. 
The  old  palace  is  said  to  have  been  built  from 
Yasari's  designs,  at  the  close  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  cathedral  was  commenced  in 
1368,  and  St.  Michael's  church  in  1583.  St. 
Peter's  was  built  in  1370,  and  restored  in  1607. 
The  bishopric  of  Freysingcii  was  transferred 
to  Munich  and  made  an  archbishopric  in 
1817.  The  academy  of  painting  was  formed  in 
1770,  the  theatre  was  erected  in  1823,  the  old 
picture  gallery  in  1836,  and  the  new  one  in 
1853.  Napoleon  I.  visited  Munich  Oct.  12, 
1805,  and  again  Jan.  14,  1806,  on  the  marriage 
of  Eugene  Beauharnais.  The  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences,  founded  in  1759,  was  re-organized 
in  1827.  The  public  library,  formed  by  Albert 
III.  between  1550  and  1579,  contains  400,000 
volumes,  22,000  MSS.,  and  extensive  natural 
history  and  scientific  collections. 

MUNICH  (Treaties).  —  A  territorial  treaty 
with  Austria  was  concluded  here  April  14, 

1816. A  treaty  of  commerce  with  Wurtem- 

berg  was  signed  here  Jan.  18,  1828. A 

treaty  of  friendship  and  alliance  with  Greece 
was  concluded  here  Nov.  i,  1832. 

MUNICIPAL  CORPORATIONS.— The 
Romans,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Social  War, 
B.C.  88,  brought  the  towns  of  Italy  under  their 
government,  but  permitted  them  to  retain 
their  local  administration,  which  was  carried 
on  by  a  municipal  constitution.  Charters  of 


MUNICIPAL 


[    679    ] 


MURET 


incorporation  existed  in  France  as  early  as  974. 
Municipal  corporations  existed  in  England 
before  the  Norman  Conquest.  Charters  of  in- 
corporation were  frequently  given  to  towns 
by  the  Norman  sovereigns,  one  of  the  earliest 
being  that  of  London,  which  was  granted  by 
Henry  I.  in  noi.  The  making  of  statutes  by 
bodies  corporate  was  regulated  by  19  Hen.  VII. 
c.  7  (1503).  By  the  Corporation  and  Test  Act, 
13  Charles  II.  st.  2,  c.  i  (1661),  no  one  was 
permitted  to  hold  any  office  in  a  corporation 
unless  he  had  previously  received  the  sacra- 
ment according  to  the  rites  of  the  Established 
Church.  This  act  was  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV. 
c.  17  (May  9,  1828).  Roman  Catholics  are 
permitted  to  hold  lay  offices  by  10  Geo.  IV. 
c.  7  (April  13,  1829).  (See  MUNICIPAL  REFORM 
ACT.) 

MUNICIPAL  REFORM  ACT.  —  By  5  &  6 
Will.  IV.  c.  76  (Sep.  9,  1835),  certain  corporate 
towns  and  boroughs  therein  specified  were 
placed  under  a  new  constitution.  The  change 
was  extended  to  Ireland  by  3  &  4  Viet, 
c.  108  (Aug.  10,  1840),  and  both  acts  were 
amended  by  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  75  (Aug.  6,  1861). 
A  similar  reform  had  been  effected  in  Scotland 
by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.c.  76  &  77  (Aug.  28,  1833), 
amended  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  17  (May  14,  1846). 

MUNSTER  (Ireland)  existed  as  a  kingdom 
at  an  early  period.  Brian,  surnamed  Boru, 
usurped  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland  in  the  i  ith 
century,  and  was  killed  by  the  Danes  at 
Clontarf  (q.  v.),  April  23,  1014.  Henry  II. 
subdued  Munster  in  1172.  The  whole  of  Mun- 
ster,  with  the  exception  of  Clare,  was  divided 
into  counties  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1509 — 47).  Clare  formed  part  of  Connaught 
until  1602,  when  it  was  added  to  Munster. 

MUNSTER  (Prussia)  was  founded  about 
700,  under  the  name  of  Meiland,  which  was 
afterwards  changed  to  Mimigardevorde,  or 
Miningerode.  Charlemagne,  after  taking  the 
town,  created  it  a  bishopric  in  780,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  its  form  of  government  till  1803. 
It  became  a  principality  in  the  i2th,  and  joined 
the  Hanseatic  league  in  the  i3th  century.  The 
church  of  St.  Leger  was  built  in  the  i2th,  the 
cathedral  in  the  isth  century,  and  the  palace 
in  1767.  John  Bockelsohn,  called  John  of 
Leyden,  leader  of  the  Anabaptists,  with  a 
number  of  his  followers,  held  the  town  from 
Feb.  27,  1534,  till  June  24,  1535,  when  it  was 
taken  by  storm.  The  Congress  at  Munster 
in  July,  1643,  signed  the  preliminaries  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  in  Jan.,  1647,  but  the  definitive 
treaty  was  not  signed  till  Oct.  24,  1648.  (See 
WESTPHALIA,  Treaty.)  It  was  evacuated  by 
the  French,  and  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  in  1758.  The  French 
general  d'Armentieres, captured  it  after  a  short 
siege,  July  25,  1759,  and  it  was  retaken  by 
Gen.  Imhoff,  Oct.  20.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
at  Paris,  it  was  ceded  to  Prussia  May  23,  1802  ; 
but  was  again  given  up  July  9,  1807,  and  re- 
leased from  the  French  yoke  by  the  allies  in 
1813.  Its  fortifications  were  destroyed  in  1765. 

MURAL  CIRCLE.— This  instrument,  which 
superseded  mural  arcs  and  quadrants,  was 
invented  by  Edward  Troughton,  in  1812. 

MURCIA  (Spain). — This  province  was  colo- 
nized by  the  Carthaginians,  about  B.C.  200, 


and  passing  successively  under  the  sway  of 
the  Romans  and  the  Goths,  came  by  conquest 
into  possession  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  I., 
in  552.  It  was  recovered  by  Suintilha,  the 
Gothic  king,  in  624,  and  was  subjugated  by 
the  Moorish  invaders  in  712.  The  Caliphs  of 
Cordova  held  it  till  1144,  when  the  Kings  of 
Granada  seized  the  province,  which  was,  how- 
ever, restored  to  its  former  owners  in  1221. 
In  1239  it  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  tribu- 
tary to  Castile,  and  the  Moors  were  finally 
dispossessed  in  1266. 

MURCIA  (Spain),  capital  of  the  province, 
and  supposed  to  be  the  Vergilia  of  the  Romans, 
was  made  one  of  their  seven  chief  cities  by 
the  Moors,  in  787.  The  bishopric  of  Cartha- 
gena  was  transferred  to  this  city  in  1291.  On 
the  approach  of  Prince  Alphonso  with  a  power- 
ful army,  the  inhabitants  offered  unconditional 
submission,  in  1239.  On  two  occasions  during 
the  Peninsular  war,  April  23,  1810,  and  1812, 
it  suffered  from  the  depredations  of  the  French 
army.  An  earthquake  caused  much  damage 
to  the  city  March  21,  1829.  The  cathedral, 
commenced  1353,  has  since  received  additions 
and  renovations  at  various  times,  the  belfry 
tower  having  been  built  between  1522 — 1766, 
and  the  fagade  of  Corinthian  columns  in  1737. 
The  episcopal  palace,  commenced  in  1748,  was 
finished  in  1752.  The  seminary  of  San  Ful- 
gensio,  now  in  decay,  was  founded  in  1592  ; 
the  institute  of  secondary  instruction  in  1837, 
and  a  normal  school  in  1844. 

MURDER. — The  first  murderer  was  espe- 
cially preserved  from  death  in  consequence  of 
his  crime  by  the  divine  protection,  Gen.  iv.  15. 
After  the  Deluge  the  law  of  blood  for  blood 
was  established,  Gen.  ix.  6  (B.C.  2347),  and  was 
confirmed  by  the  Levitical  law.  Murder  was 
a  capital  crime  among  the  Egyptians,  and  also 
among  the  Greeks,  who  established  the  court 
of  the  Ephetse  for  its  suppression,  B.C.  1179.  It 
was  also  made  capital  by  the  Roman  laws,  by 
the  code  of  Justinian  in  529,  by  the  laws  of 
the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  and  by  those  of  the 
ancient  Germans.  The  Anglo-Saxons  com- 
pounded for  it  with  a  fine,  and  the  same  prin- 
ciple was  continued  by  the  Normans.  The 
murder  of  a  master  by  a  servant,  a  husband 
by  his  wife,  or  a  priest  by  his  subordinate, 
was  judged  petit  treason  by  25  Edw.  III. 
stat.  5,  c.  2  (1350).  Murderers  were  denied 
benefit  of  clergy  by  4  Henry  VIII.  c.  2  (1512). 
The  various  statutes  relating  to  murder  were 
amended  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (June  27,  1828), 
which  ordered  the  execution  of  murderers  to 
take  place  the  day  next  but  one  after  the 
sentence,  and  the  bodies  of  convicts  to  be 
dissected  or  hung  in  chains.  The  dissection 
clause  was  repealed  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  75 
(Aug.  i,  1832),  the  hanging  in  chains  by  4  &  5 
Will.  IV.  c.  26  (July  25,  1834),  and  the  limita- 
tion of  the  interval  between  sentence  and  exe- 
cution by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  30  (July  14,  1836). 
(See  EXECUTIONS.) 

MURET  (Battle).— Simon  de  Montfort  de- 
feated Peter  II.  of  Aragon,  and  the  Albigenses, 
near  this  town,  in  France,  Sep.  12,  1213.  Peter 
II.  fell  in  the  action.  Pope  Innocent  III.,  in  a 
letter  dated  Jan.  17,  1214,  celebrates  this  as  a 
great  triumph  over  the  heretics. 


MURFREESBOROUGH 


[    680    ] 


MUTINA 


MURFREESBOROUGH' Battles)  .—The 
Confederates  defeated  the  Federals  at  this 
place  in  Tennessee,  Dec.  31,  1862.  The  conflict 
was  renewed  Jan.  2,  1863,  when  the  Confede- 
rates, after  a  severe  struggle,  were  compelled 
to  retire. 

MURIATIC  ETHER.— (-See  ETHER.) 
MURRAIN.— (See  CATTLE  PLAGUE.) 
MURSA,  or  MURSIA  (Pannoiiia).— Hadrian 
(117 — 138)  founded  a  colony  at  this  place  on 
the  Drave,near  its  confluence  with  the  Danube, 
called  Mursa  Major,  to  distinguish  it  from 
another  town  of  the  same  name,  about  12 
miles  distant.  Constantino  II.  made  it  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  in  338.  Constantius  II. 
obtained  a  signal  victory  over  Magnentius, 
near  this  town,  Sep.  28,  351.  Magnentiu.s, 
who  fled  first  to  Aquilea,  crossed  the  Alps  into 
Gaul,  and  after  another  defeat  put  an  end  to 
his  own  life  in  Aug.,  353.  Esseck  (q.  v.},  the 
capital  of  Slavonia,  is  built  upon  its  site. 
MURSH  m  >AKA  D.— (See  MOORHHEDABAD.) 
MURVIBDRO  .Spain  .—The  ancient  Saguii- 
tuin,  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  713,  was  recovered 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1238,  besieged  by  the 
French  under  Suchet  in  Sep.,  iSn.  Blake  was 
defeated  in  an  attempt  to  raise  the  siege,  Oct. 
25.  It  surrendered  Jan.  9,  1812.  The  French 
were  compelled  to  retire  in  June. 

MUSCAT  'Arabia),  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince taken  by  Albuquerque  in  1507,  was  held 
by  the  Portuguese  till  1648,  when  the  Arabs 
regained  possession.  A  treaty  having  reference 
to  the  Slave  Trade  with  Great  Britain,  was 
signed  at  Muscat,  Sep.  10,  1822,  and  an  ad- 
ditional article  Dec.  17,  1839.  A  treaty  of  com- 
merce and  navigation  was  concluded  with  the 
United  States  at  Muscat,  March  21,  1833. 

MUSEUM.— Tl:e  first  institution  with  this 
name  was  founded  at  Alexandria,  about  B.C. 
280,  by  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadelphia,  and  was 
enlarged  by  Claudius  I.  (41 — 54).  It  was  set 
apart  for  the  worship  of  the  Muses  and  the 
cultivation  of  science.  (See  ASHMOLEAN,  BRI- 
TISH, I'Yrzwii.LiAM  MCSKUM,  ivc.) 

MUSIC. — Jubal,  the  son  of  Lamcch,  was 
"  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
the  organ,"  Gen.  iv.  21  (B.C.  3874).  The  mythi- 
cal Orpheus  is  said  to  have  flourished  B.C.  1260. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  the  only  ancient 
people  who  possessed  a  knowledge  of  musical 
characters.  Lasus  of  Hermione,  in  Argos, 
who  flourished  B.C.  548,  was  the  first  who 
wrote  on  the  theory  of  music,  and  Aristoxenus 
(B.C.  335)  is  the  most  ancient  author  on  the 
subject  whose  works  are  extant. 


A.D. 

374 — 97.  Introduction  of  the  Ambrosian  chant. 
600.  Introduction  of  the  Gregorian  chant. 
886.  Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have  appointed  a  musi- 
cal professorship  at  Oxford. 

1034.  Guido  Aretinus  invents    a  scale  of  six  notes,  and 
introduces  the  use  of  cleffs  or  cliffs. 

10^3.  Franco,  of  Liege,  invents  metrical  music. 

1463.  Doctors  and  bachelors   of  music  first  mentioned  at 
Cambridge  University. 

1495.  The  art  of  printing  music  is  introduced  into  Eng- 
land. 

1515.  Music  printing    from  metal  types  is  invented  by 
Uttavio  de  Petrucci. 

4350.  The  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  of  England  is 
set  to  music  by  John  Marbeck. 


1565.  The  Accademia    degli    Filarmonici  is   established 

before  this  year,  at  Vicenza. 
1600.  Jacopo  Peri  invents  recitative  about  this  time. 

1604.  James  I.   incorporates  the  Musicians'  Company  of 

London. 

1605.  Ludovieo  Viadann  invents  thorough  bass. 

1650.  The  use  of  bars  in   music  becomes  general,   and; 

sonatas  are  introduced. 
.1653.  A  Venetian  lady  named  Barbara  Strozzi  invents  the 

cantata. 
1669,  June  2S.  Louis  XIV.  sanctions  the  establishment  of 

a  French  Koyal  Academy  of  Music. 
1710.  George  Frederick  Handel  lirst  visits  England.    (See 

OIJATORIO.)    The  Academy  of  Ancient  Music  is 

founded  at  London. 

r-738.  The  Roval  Society  of  Musicians  is  founded. 
1741.  The  Madrigal  Society  is  founded  at  London. 
1704.  Young  Mozart  visits  London. 
1791.  Haydn  visits  London. 
1833.  The     Koyal     Academy    of    Music     of    London    is 

founded. 
1860,  June  5.  The  Society  of  Arts'  committee    appointed 

to  decide  on  a  uniform  musical  pitch  present 

their  report. 

(See     CONCERT,     HANDEL    COMMEMORATIONS, 
LOGIERIAN  SYSTEM,  OPERA,  ORGAN,  <fec.) 

MUSICAL  FESTIVALS.— The  festival  of  the 
three  choirs  of  Gloucester,  Worcester,  and 
Hereford,  was  instituted  in  1724,  for  the  relief 
of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  clergy  of 
,  hose  dioceses.  The  Birmingham  festivals 
commenced  in  1778.  Similar  meetings  were 
held  at  York  and  Chester  in  1791.  A  festival 
was  held  at  Norwich  in  1811,  and  another  at 
Edinburgh  in  1815.  (See  HANDEL  COM.M 

MUSICAL  GLASSES.— (See  HARMONICA.) 

MUSK.— The  duty  on  this  article,  used  both 
as  a  perfume  and  in  medicine,  reduced  in 
1832,  was  altogether  repealed  by  8  Viet.  c.  12 
(May8,  1845). 

MUSKETEERS.  MUSQUETEERS,  or 
MOUSQUKTAIRKS,  a  body  of  cavalry,  at- 
tached to  the  persons  of  the  French  monarchs, 
in  some  respects  answering  to  the  household 
troops,  was  abolished  in  1775  by  Count  Ger- 
m.'tiii,  war  minister  to  Louis  XVI. 

11  US  KETS.— Experiments  were  made  before 
the   King  of  Sweden  at  Aggerhaus,  April  8, 
1845,  in  which  a  new  kind  of  musket  \\ 
with  a  smooth  barrel,  against  a  breed  i 
rifle.   This  established  the  immense  sup 
of  the  rifle  over  the  best  muskets.     (See  EN- 
FIKLD   MUSKET.   FIRE-ARMS,   HYTHE,  NEEDLE 
GUN.) 

MUSLIN,  a  fine  cotton  cloth,  so  called  froin. 
Mosul,  in  Mesopotamia,  where  it  was  original  I y 
manufactured,  was  first  imported  from  India 
into  England  in  1670.  Considerable  quantities 
were  manufactured  in  France  and  England  in 

1  MUSR.— (See  CAIRO.) 

MUSTARD,  was  first  prepared  for  use  at 
table,  in  its  present  form,  in  1720,  by  Mrs.  Cle- 
ments, of  Durham, — whence  the  name  Durham 
mustard. 

MUTA,  or  MUTAH  (Battle). —The  Moham- 
medans first  encountered  the  Romans,  whom- 
they  defeated,  at  Muta,  a  village  near  Damas- 
cus, in  629. 

MUTILATION.— (See  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.) 

MUTINA,  or  MUTINUM  (Battle).— During 
I  the  Roman  civil  wars,  Marcus  Aiitonius  was 
j  defeated  under  the  walls  of  Mutina,  the  mo- 


MUTINY 


MYSTERY 


dern  Modena  (q.  v.},  April  27,  43  B.C.,  and  was 
compelled  to  abandon  the  siege. 
MUTINY.— (See  LIST  IN  INDEX.) 
MUTINY  ACT.  —  Renewed  every  year  for 
punishing  officers  or  soldiers  who  are  guilty 
of  mutiny  or  desertion,  was  first  passed  by 
i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  5  (1689). 

MUTINY  OF  THE  BOUNTY.  — This  ship 
sailed  from  England  in  1787,  on  a  voyage  to 
the  Society  Islands,  and,  having  taken  on  board 
a  large  number  of  bread-fruit  trees  for  trans- 
plantation in  the  West  Indies  quitted  Otaheite, 
April  7,  1789.  At  daybreak,  April  28,  Capt. 
Bligh,  the  commander,  was  pinioned,  and,  with 
18  of  the  crew  who  had  refused  to  join  the 
mutineers,  placed  in  the  ship's  boat  with  i4olb. 
of  bread,  solb.  of  meat,  and  a  few  gallons  of 
water.  They  landed  at  Otaheite  April  30,  but 
having  been  driven  off  by  the  natives,  made 
for  Timor,  touched  at  New  Holland  June  5, 
and  reached  Timor,  where  they  were  relieved 
by  the  Dutch,  June  12,  having  been  46  days  in 
an  open  boat,  with  a  scanty  allowance  of  food. 
Capt.  Bligh  reached  England  March  14,  1790. 
Fourteen  of  the  mutineers  were  captured,  but 
four  perished  in  the  wreck  of  the  Pandora. 
Ten  were  brought  to  England  in  irons,  and 
tried  by  court-martial  at  Portsmouth,  Sep.  12, 
1792.  The  proceedings  closed  Sep.  18,  when 
six  of  them  were  sentenced  to  death,  and  four 
acquitted.  (See  PITCAIRN'G  ISLAND.) 

MYCALE  (Battle).— The  Persian  army  under 
Tigranes  was  defeated  at  this  Ionian  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  by  the  Greeks,  under  Leoty- 
chides,  King  of  Sparta,  and  Xanthippus, 
in  Sep.  B.C.  479.  But  few  of  the  vanquished 
survived  the  contest ;  and  the  Greeks,  after 
burning  the  Persian  fleet  and  camp,  retired 
with  their  booty  to  Samos.  The  battles  of  My- 
cale  and  Platsea  were  both  gained  by  the 
Greeks  on  the  same  day. 

MYCEN2E,  or  MYCENE  (Greece).  —  This 
town,  the  name  of  which  was  derived  by  the 
ancients  from  Mycene,  daughter  of  Inachus,  is 
sviil  to  have  been  built  by  Perseus,  B.C.  1457. 
The  Argives,  anxious  to  bring  the  whole  dis- 
trict  under  their  sway,  laid  siege  to  Mycene, 
B.C.  468.  They  turned  the  siege  into  a  block- 
ade, and  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  by 
famine  to  capitulate. 

MYCOI.E  (Sea-fight).— The  corsairs  of  Na- 
renta  defeated  the  Venetian  fleet  off  this  bay, 
near  Zara,  and  slew  the  doge,  Pietro  Sanudo, 
in  887. 

MYL-ffi  (Sea-fights).— The  Roman  fleet,  com- 
manded by  C.  Duillius,  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginians near  this  promontory,  in  Sicily,  B.C. 

260. Near  the  same  place,   Agrippa,   with 

the  fleet  of  Octavian,  defeated  Sextus  Pompey's 
squadron,  B.C.  36. 

MYL/E  (Sicily).— The  date  of  the  foundation 
of  this  city,  the  modem  Melazzo  (q.  ?.},  is  un- 
certain. Siefert,  who  identifies  it  with  a  city 
called  Chersonesus,  by  Eusebius,  fixes  it  as 
early  as  B.C.  716.  It  was  most  decidedly  in 
existence  before  Himera,  founded  B.C.  '648. 
The  Athenian  fleet,  under  Laches,  captured 
Myla3  B.C.  427.  It  was  taken  by  Agathocles 
B.C.  315.  In  its  neighbourhood  the  Mamer- 
tines  were  defeated  by  Hicron  of  Syracuse, 
B.C.  270. 


MYONNESUS  (Sea-fight).— In  the  Asiatic 

ar,  the  Romans  gained  a  great  naval  victory 
over  the  fleet  of  Antiochus  I.  (the  Great),  off 
;his  promontory  in  the  bay  of  Ephesus,  B.C. 
190.  The  date  usually  given  is  Dec.  23,  but 
according  to  the  amended  calendar  it  took 
place  in  Aug. 

MYRIOKEPHALON  (Battle).  —  The  Greek 
Emperor  Manuel  I.  was  defeated  in  a  narrow 
defile  near  this  castle,  by  Kilidsch  Arslan  II., 
Sultan  of  Iconium,  in  Sep.,  1176. 

MYRRH  is  first  mentioned  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
25)  among  the  wares  the  Ishmaelites,  to  whom 
Joseph  was  sold  by  the  Midianite  merchant- 
men, were  carrying  into  Egypt,  B.C.  1728.  it 
was  used  by  the  Egyptians  for  embalming 
their  dead.  The  Greeks,  Romans,  and  other 
ancient  people,  employed  it  as  a  medicine. 

MY  SI  A  (Asia  Minor)  was  inhabited  by 
various  tribes  of  Phrygians,  Trojans,  JSolians, 
and  Mysians  ;  but  little  is  known  of  the  people 
or  their  institutions.  They  are  mentioned  by 
Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927)  as  allies  of  Priam. 
Mysia  was  successively  subject  to  Lydia, 
Persia,  Syria,  and  Rome  ;  and,  under  the  last- 
mentioned,  formed  part  of  the  province  of 
Asia. 

MYSORE  (Hindostan). — This  province,  also 
called  Mahesura  and  Maisoor,  invaded  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  1310,  was  for  many  years 
governed  by  rajahs,  who  traced  their  descent 
from  the  same  tribe  of  which  the  god  Krishna 
was  a  reputed  member  ;  but  the  earliest  sove- 
reign on  record  is  Cham  Raj,  whose  reign 
commenced  in  1507.  The  public  career  of 
Hyder  Ali  commenced  at  Mysore  in  1749,  and 
he  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  province  in 
1760.  Seringapatam,  the  capital,  was  stormed 
and  taken  by  the  English  May  4,  1799,  when 
the  whole  district  passed  under  their  control. 
In  1818  military  means  were  successfully  em- 
ployed to  rid  Mysore  of  the  banditti  tribes  by 
which  it  had  previously  been  infested. 

MYSTERIES.  —  The  pagan  mysteries  origi- 
nated in  Egypt,  where  Isis  and  Osiris  were 
worshipped  with  secret  rites  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  earliest  mysteries  practised  by 
the  Greeks  were  those  of  the  Cabiri,  which 
were  celebrated  at  Samothrace.  The  mys- 
teries of  the  Curetes,  who  existed  as  early  as 
B.C.  1534,  and  of  the  Corybaiites,  rank  next  in 
point  of  antiquity.  The  most  celebrated  were 
the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  (q.v.),  which  were  intro- 
duced at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  by  Eumolpus  the 
Hierophant,  B.C.  1356.  This  festival  was  sacred 
to  Ceres,  and  was  observed  with  such  strict 
secrecy  that  death  was  the  penalty  for  in- 
truding during  the  ceremonies  without  initia- 
tion. It  was  introduced  at  Rome  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian  (117 — 138),  and  ceased  in  396. 
MYSTERY  PLAYS.— The  origin  of  these 
mediaeval  dramatic  entertainments  has  been 
referred  to  the  pilgrims  who  journeyed  to  the 
East  in  the  i  ith  century.  They  are  first  men- 
tioned in  England,  the  first  performance  on 
record  being  one  noticed  by  Matthew  Paris,  as 
having  taken  place  at  Dunstable  in  the  early 
part  of  the  i2th  century.  The  oldest  extant 
is  the  "Harrowing  of  Hell,"  ascribed  to  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.  (1327— 77).  Hallam,  from 
internal  evidence,  believes  it  not  later  than 


MYSTICS 


t    682    ] 


NAGASAKI 


1350.  Warton  refers  the  Chester  mysteries  to 
1327,  but  Hallam  considers  this  at  least  a 
century  too  early.  The  French  mysteries 
commenced  in  the  i4th  century,  and  exceeded 
the  English  in  the  magnificence  of  their  ap- 
pointments. (See  AMMERGAU  MYSTERY,  DRAMA, 
MIRACLE  PLAYS,  &c.) 

MYSTICS.— This  sect  of  Christians  origin- 
ated towards  the  end  of  the  3rd  century,  and 
maintained  that  primary  reason  is  an  emana- 
tion from  the  Godhead,  and  that  solitude  and 
mortification  of  the  natural  man  are  the  most 
effectual  means  of  promoting  its  reception  and 
development.  During  the  4th  and  ^th  cen- 
turies they  increased  in  number.  Mystic  the- 
ology was  introduced  into  the  Western  empire, 
where  it  made  many  converts,  in  824.  The 
mystics  vigorously  opposed  the  schoolmen  in 
the  i3th  century,  and  were  numerous  in  Eu- 
rope in  the  i4th,  when  John  Tauler,  of  Stras- 
burg,  who  died  May  17,  1361,  Henry  Suso  of 
Ulrn,  who  died  in  1365,  and  John  Ringsbroech, 
Prior  of  Grosenthal,  in  Brabant,  who  died  in 
1381,  nourished.  (See  ILLUMINATI  and  SWE- 

DENBORfilANS. ; 

MYTHO  (Cochin  China\— This  town,  in  the 
south-west  of  the  country,  was  taken  by  the 
French,  April  12,  1861. 

MYTHOLOGY,  the  "science  which  treats 
of  the  myths,  or  various  popular  traditions 
and  legendary  tales  current  among  a  people, 
and  objects  of  general  belief."  Three  modes  of 
explanation  have  been  attempted,  the  first 
being  that  which  asserts  the  real  existence  of 
all  mythic  persons  at  some  remote  period;  the 
second,  known  as  the  philosophic  theory, 
regards  mythology  as  the  poetic  guise  of 
human  science ;  and  the  third,  or  theologic 
theory,  considers  it  as  the  theology  of  poly- 
theism. The  origin  of  mythology  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  system  in  vogue 
in  Greece  and  at  Rome  was  derived  from  the 
Egyptians. 

MYTILENE.— (-Sec  MITYLEKE.) 


N. 

NAARDEN  (Holland).— Don  Frederick  sum- 
moned the  inhabitants  of  this  town,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  to  surrender  Nov.  22, 
1572.  The  inhabitants  refused  to  abandon  the 
cause  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Don  Fred- 
erick invested  the  place  Dec.  2,  when  it  was 
taken,  and  an  inhuman  massacre  perpetrated. 
Louis  XIV.  took  Naarden  in  1672,  and  the 
stadtholder,  William  III.,  regained  possession 
in  1673.  It  was  besieged  in  1813  and  1814. 

NAAS  (Ireland)  in  early  times  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  of  Leinster,  and  some  re- 
mains of  their  ancient  palace  still  exist.  A 
priory  was  founded  in  the  i2th  century,  for 
canons  regular  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine. 
It  was  destroyed  in  1316,  when  the  town  was 
sacked  by  the  Scots,  but  was  soon  afterwards 
restored.  A  convent  for  Dominican  friars  was 
founded  in  1355  ;  a  parliament  was  held  here 
in  1419 ;  and  a  convent  for  Friars  Eremites  of 


the  order  of  St.  Augustine  was  founded  in 
1484.  Queen  Elizabeth  granted  Naas  a  charter 
in  1569.  A  party  of  insurgents  in  1577  bxirned 
between  700  and  800  houses  on  the  night  of 
a  festival.  James  I.  confirmed  and  extended 
the  charter  of  Elizabeth  in  1609,  and  Charles  I. 
granted  a  new  charter  in  1628  ;  but  the  town 
has  always  been  governed  by  the  charters  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.  It  was  garrisoned  by 
the  Earl  of  Ormond  in  1648,  and  after  many 
vicissitudes,  was  taken  by  the  Parliamenta- 
rians in  1650.  It  was  attacked  by  the  insur- 
gent Irish,  who  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of 
150  men,  May  24,  1798. 

NABLUS,  or  NABULUS  (Palestine).— This 
town,  the  Shechem  (q.  v.),  or  Sichem  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  Sychar  of  the  New, 
was  named  Neapolis,  or  New  City,  by  Vespa- 
sian (70—79). 

NABONASSAR  (^Era).— Nabonassar,  the 
founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Babylon,  was  the 
author  of  this  sera,  which  commenced  Wed- 
nesday, Feb.  26,  B.C.  747.  It  included  a  period 
of  424  Egyptian  years,  from  the  commence- 
ment of  Nabonassar's  reign  to  the  death  of 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  B.C.  323;  and  was 
brought  down  to  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius 
(138—161). 

NACHITSHEVAN  (Asia).— This  province  of 
Persia  was  ceded  to  Russia  at  the  peace  of 
Tourkmantchai,  Feb.  22,  1828,  and  soon  after- 
wards was,  with  the  province  of  Erivan,  for- 
mally annexed  to  the  Russian  empire,  under 
the  title  of  the  province  of  Armenia.  The 
town  of  Nachitshevan  was  captured  by  the 
Russians  in  1827.  It  is  also  called  Nakhich- 

NACIIITSHEVAN  (Russia).— Catherine  II. 
founded  this  town,  on  the  Don,  in  1780.  The 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Armenians. 

NACOLIA  (Phrygia).— The  Emperor  Valens 
defeated  the  usurper  Procopius  near  this  town 
in  May,  366.  Procopius,  deserted  by  his  troop?, 
wandered  amongst  the  woods  and  mountains 
of  Phrygia,  until  he  was  at  length  betrayed 
and  put  to  death,  May  28.  The  Gothic  garrison 
at  Nacolia  revolted  against  the  Emperor  Arca- 
dius  (395—408). 

NAFELS,  orNAEFELS  (Battle).— The  Swiss 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  this  place,  in  Swit- 
zerland, in  1388.  Occupying  the  heights,  the 
Swiss  hurled  large  stones  and  masses  of  rock 
upon  the  antagonists,  and  threw  them  into 
confusion.  The  small  town  of  Nafels  was 
burned  by  the  invaders  the  night  before  the 
battle. 

NAGASAKI,  or  NANGASAKI  (Japan),  one 
of  the  five  imperial  cities,  was  made  the  site  of 
a  settlement,  through  Portuguese  influence,  in 
1566.  It  became  the  scene  of  numerous  mas- 
sacres during  the  persecution  of  native  Chris- 
tians in  1622.  The  port  was  visited,  in  1808,  by 
the  British  frigate  Phaeton,  under  the  command 
of  Capt.  Pellew,  who  detained  as  prisoners 
some  Dutchmen  coming  on  board;  an  act 
which  led  to  the  suicide  of  the  Japanese 
governor.  Two  English  merchantmen,  the 
Charlotte  and  Mary,  succeeded,  by  a  strata- 
gem, in  getting  cargoes  of  copper  in  1813  ;  but 
a  similar  attempt  failed  in  1814.  An  English 
squadron,  under  Admiral  Stirling,  by  the  aid 


NAGPORE 


[    683    ] 


NAMUR 


of  threats,  obtained  supplies  of  such  provisions 
as  they  required,  Sep.  7,  1854.  Another  squad- 
ron, with  the  steam-yacht  Emperor  as  a  present 
from  Queen  Victoria  to  the  tycoon  of  Japan, 
entered  this  port  Aug.  3,  1858;  and  it  was 
opened  to  British  subjects  by  the  treaty  of 
Jeddo  (Aug.  26,  1858)  from  July  i,  1859. 

NAGPORE  (Hindustan).— Near  this  town, 
then  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
an  English  army  was,  in  time  of  peace,  at- 
tacked by  the  rajah  of  Nagpore's  troops, 
Nov.  26,  1817.  After  a  conflict  of  18  hours' 
duration,  the  English  obtained  a  victory  and 
captured  the  town,  which,  with  the  province, 
was  incorporated  with  the  English  empire  in 
the  East  Indies  on  the  death,  without  issue, 
of  the  last  descendant  of  Rajogee,  Dec.  n, 

1  NAG'S  HEAD   CONSECRATION.  —  Roman 

Catholic  writers  have  concocted  a  story  that 
Matthew  Parker,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
from  1559  to  1576,  had  been  consecrated  at  the 
Nag's  Head  tavern,  in  Cheapside.  The  official 
register  shows  that  he  was  consecrated  at  Lam- 
beth, Dec.  17,  1559,  ky  Bishops  Barlow,  Cover- 
dale,  Scory,  and  Hodgkins,  suffragan  of  Bed- 
ford. The  object  of  the  calumny  was  to  show 
that  the  succession  of  bishops  in  the  English 
Church  could  not  be  traced  to  apostolic  times. 
The  succession  has  never  been  broken,  and  al- 
though in  this  instance  25  sees  were  vacant,  all 
except  Oxford  had  been  filled  up  before  the 
end  of  1662.  One  writer  justly  calls  the  story 
a  "  malignant  invention." 

NAHOR.— (See  HARAN.) 

NAHUM,  one  of  the  minor  prophets,  who, 
B.C.  713—711,  foretold  the  destruction  of  Nine- 
veh and  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  empire, 
which  events  occurred  B.C.  625,  according  to 
some  authorities,  and  B.C.  606,  according  to 
others.  His  festival  is  held  Dec.  24. 

NAILS. — The  earliest  nails  known  were  made 
of  copper ;  and  flat-headed  nails  of  iron  have 
been  found  in  British  barrows.  The  first 
machine  for  making  nails  was  invented  by 
French,  of  \Vimborne,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1790. 
A  machine  was  invented  in  America  in  1810,  by 
which  the  manufacture  was  greatly  facilitated. 
Since  that  year  numerous  improvements  have 
been  effected.  Much  controversy  has  been  ex- 
cited respecting  the  number  of  nails  used  in 
the  crucifixion.  Noniius  and  Gregory  Nazian- 
zon  (329—390)  affirm  that  only  three  were  used; 
and  Curtius,  who  wrote  a  treatise  "  De  Clavis 
Dominicis,"  at  the  commencement  of  the  i7th 
century,  contends  for  four.  Other  writers  have 
argued  in  support  of  different  numbers,  some 
being  in  favour  of  as  many  as  14.  (See  FEASTS.) 

NAISSUS  (Mcesia).  — Claudius  II.  defeated 
the  Goths  in  a  great  battle  near  this  town  in 
269.  Constantino  I.  (the  Great)  was  bom  here 
in  274.  The  division  of  the  empire  between 
Valens  and  Valeiitinian  I.  took  place  at  Na'issus 
in  June,  364.  Having  been  destroyed  by  Attila 
and  the  Huns  in  411,  it  was  restored  by  Justi- 
nian I.  (527 — 65).  The  modern  Nissa  occupies 
its  site. 

NAJARA.— (See  LOCROKO,  Battle.) 

NAKED  SAGES.— (See  GYMNOSOPHIT^;.) 

NAMAQUALAND,  or  GREAT  NAMAQUA 
LAND  (Africa),  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes 


of   Namaquas,  was  first  explored  by  Sir   J. 
Alexander  in  1837. 

NAMES. — Among  the  Hebrews,  names  pos- 
sessed a  specific  meaning,  and  were  not  in- 
herited by  children  from  parents.  The  Greeks 
bad  only  one  name,  which  frequently  received 
a  patronymic  for  distinction,  as  Achilles,  son  of 
Peleus ;  but  the  Romans  usually  had  three 
names,  —  the  prcenomen,  denoting  the  indi- 
vidual ;  the  nomen,  indicating  the  gens  or  clan 
of  which  he  was  a  member ;  and  the  cognomen, 
specifying  the  particular  branch  of  the  clan. 
A  fourth  name — the  agnomen — was  sometimes 
added  as  an  honour;  and  it  was  usually  de- 
rived from  the  incidents  for  which  it  was  con- 
ferred. Africanus,  Coriolanus,  &c.,  were  names 
of  this  class.  The  practice  of  bearing  heredi- 
tary names  commenced  about  the  i3th  century. 
The  first  pope  who  changed  his  name  on  his 
elevation  to  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  was  Peter  di 
Bocca  Porca,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Sergius 
II.,  in  844,  because  he  deemed  himself  un- 
worthy to  bear  the  same  name  as  his  apostolic 
predecessor.  Some  authorities  state  that  the 
custom  was  introduced  by  Octavian,  who  be- 
came John  XII.  in  956.  Monks  and  nuns 
frequently  adopted  new  names  on  taking  their 
vows,  in  token  that  they  renounced  everything 
connected  with  their  former  mode  of  life. 

NAMPTWICH,  or  NANTWICH  (Cheshire).— 
This  town  is  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book 
under  the  name  of  Wick.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1561.  Here  Fairfax  de- 
feated the  Royalist  army  brought  from  Ireland 
to  support  the  cause  of  Charles  I.,  Jan.  25, 
1644  (N.  S.).  George  Monk,  afterwards  Duke 
of  Albemarle,  was  captured  in  this  battle. 
Lambert  defeated  the  Royalists,  who  formed 
a  league  to  overthrow  the  authority  of  Crom- 
well, at  Nantwich,  Aug.  19,  1659.  A  mob  en- 
deavoured to  rescue  some  poachers  who  had 
been  imprisoned,  and  caused  a  riot,  which  was 
quelled  by  the  military,  Feb.  9,  1829. 

NAMUR  (Belgium).— The  province  was 
united  to  Luxemburg  in  the  i2th  century. 
Philip  HI.  (the  Good)  acquired  Namur  by  pur- 
chase in  1421 .  The  town  was  founded  in  the  7th 
century,  Don  John  seized  the  citadel  in  1577, 
and  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Louis 
XIV.,  July  i,  1692.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
English,  under  William  III.,  July  3,  1695,  and 
attacked  with  such  fury  that  the  French  gar- 
rison of  14,000  men,  under  Marshal  de  Bouf- 
flers,  capitulated  Aug.  4.  The  citadel  held 
out,  and  was  besieged  Aug.  12.  An  attempt 
to  carry  it  by  storm  was  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter,  Aug.  30 ;  but  the  garrison  surren- 
dered Sep.  i.  The  Count  of  Nassau  assailed  it 
without  success  in  1704.  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Aubin  was  consecrated  in  1772.  Namur  was 
ceded  to  Austria  in  1713  ;  garrisoned  by  the 
Dutch  in  1715  ;  and  taken  in  1746  by  the 
French,  who  restored  it  to  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct.  18,  1748.  The 
fortifications,  demolished  by  Joseph  II.  of 
Austria  in  1784,  were  afterwards  restored. 
Namur  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Du- 
mouriez,  Dec.  7,  1792,  and  having  been  eva- 
cuated by  them  in  March,  1793,  was  retaken 
in  1794.  The  allies  captured  it  in  Jan.,  1814, 
and  it  was  the  scene  of  an  obstinate  battle 


t    684    ] 


NAPLES 


between  the  Prussians  and  the  French  in  1815. 
(See  GEMBLOUBS,  Battle.) 

NANCI  (France  .—No  record  of  the  old  town 
exists  previous  to  the  nth  century,  and  the 
new  town  dates  from  1603.  The  church  of  the 
Cordeliers,  built  in  1484,  contains  the  tombs 
of  several  Dukes  of  Lorraine.  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  who  took  Nanci  in  Nov., 
1475,  was  killed  here  by  Rene  II.,  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  Jan.  5,  1477.  Nanci  was  wrested  by 
the  French  from  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  in  1633. 
Stanislaus  I.,  after  abdicating  the  crown  of  Po- 
land i:i  1735,  resided  here  till  his  death,  Feb. 
23,  1766.  The  fortifications  were  demolished 
by  Louis  XIV.  (1643 — 1715  on  the  restoration 
of  the  town  to  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine.  In 
1790,  the  French  army  stationed  here  re- 
volted against  the  National  Assembly.  Bouillo 
marched  on  the  town  with  3,000  infantry  and 
1,400  horse,  and  took  it  after  a  short  resist- 
ance. It  was  captured  by  Blucher  in  Jan., 
1814. 

NANKIN  (China',  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  empire  in  420,  and  continued  to  occupy 
this  position  till  the  end  of  the  isth  century. 
The  removal  of  the  imperial  residence  and  the 
u'jnt  transfer  of  the  six  great  tribunals 
to  Pekin,  caused  ic  to  decline.  In  1842  the 
British  army  forced  a  passage  up  the  river, 
and  the  troops  landed  Aug.  9,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  storming  the  city.  Tho  Chinese  sub- 
mitted, and  the  treaty  of  Nankin  was  con- 
finded  by  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  Aug.  29.  The 
Tapping  rebels  took  Nankin,  March  19,  1853. 
They  committed  great  ravages,  and  destroyed 
the  celebrated  Porcelain  Tower  (commenced  in 
1413),  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  interest 
in  Nankin,  in  1856.  The  Imperialists  recovered 
ion  May  21,  1862,  but  the  Taepings 
seized  it  again  in  1863.  After  several  combats 
Nankin  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  July 
19,  1864. 

France),  the  ancient  Condivic- 
num,  or  CondLv:::ivuii,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
as  the  capital  of  the  N  as  metes,  or  iNamuetes, 
from  which  is  derived  the  modern  name 
Nantes.  In  445  it  withstood  a  siege  of  60 
days  from  the  Huns ;  in  the  gth  century  it 
was  almost  entirely  desti-oyed  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  in  992  it  was  taken  by  the  Duke  of 
Britanny.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  was 
reduced  to  ashes  by  an  accidental  fire  in  1118. 
X a-  ites  was  made  a  bishopric  at  an  early  period, 
and  councils  were  held  here  in  660,  1127,  July 
i,  1264,  and  April  23,  1431.  It  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Louis  XII.,  on  his  marriage  with 
Anne  of  Britanny,  in  1498.  The  celebrated 
edict  of  Nantes,  issued  here  by  Henry  IV. 
April  13,  1598,  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  Oct. 
22,  1635.  The  Royalists  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  the  town,  June  20,  1793,  when  it 
became  the  scene  of  the  atrocious  cruelties  of 
Carrier ;  no  less  than  18,000  persons  having 
perished  by  the  guillotine  or  Noyades  dur- 
ing his  administration.  In  1799  the  Vendeans 
defeated  the  republican  array  here.  An  out- 
break of  the  working  classes,  caused  by  dis- 
tress and  the  spread  of  socialist  doctrines, 
took  place  in  1848,  and  was  suppressed  by  the 
military,  but  not  without  serious  loss  of  life. 

NANTUCKET    N.  America  .—This  town  of 


Massachusetts,  on  a  small  island  of  the  same 
name  off  the  coast,  bought  from  the  Indians 
in  1659,  was  the  first  place  in  America  whicii 
engaged  in  the  whale  fishery.  It  was  almost 
destroyed  by  fire  July  13,  1846. 

NAPHTHA.— This  highly  inflammable  fluid, 
which  oozes  out  of  the  ground  in  Persia,  Italy, 
and  other  countries,  is  supposed  by  Gibbon  to 
have  formed  the  basis  of  the  Greek  fire,  used 
with  such  effect  in  sieges  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Gibbon  calls  it  "  liquid  bitumen,  a 
light,  tenacious,  and  inflammable  oil."  It  is 
supposed  to  have  secured  the  deliverance  of 
Constantinople  when  besieged  by  the  Saracens, 
668 — 675  and  716 — 718.  (See  PETROLEUM.) 

NAPIER'S  RODS,  or  BOXES.— This  contriv- 
ance to  facilitate  the  multiplication  and  divi- 
sion of  large  numbers  was  invented  by  John 
Napier,  Baron  of  Merchiston.  The  invention 
was  first  explained  in  his  "  Rabdologise,  seu 
Nurnerationis  per  Virgulas,"  published  at 
Edinburgh  in  1617,  and  would  perhaps  have 
been  more  used  but  for  his  discovery  of  loga- 
rithms. Napier  was  born  at  Merchiston  Castle 
in  1550,  and  died  there  April  3,  1617. 

NAPLES  Italy,,  the  ancient  Neapolis,  was 
made  a  duchy,  subject  to  the  Byzantine 
empire,  in  the  6th  century. 

A.D. 

1084.  The  Norman  conquest  of   Naples  is  completed  by 

Ko:'c]  i  (iuiscard, 

1130.  Roj.  •  ,•  H.  rule-  i.oth  Naples  and  Sicily. 
1139.  Naples  and  Sicily  are  united  into  the  kingdom  of 

the  Two  Sicilies  by  pap.il  investiture. 
1194.  Henry  VI.  of  (iermany  succeeds  to  the  throne  of 

'   i  and  Sicily. 

1220.  Frederick  II.  makes  Naples  the  capital  of  Italy. 
1 25--  Innocent  IV.  pronounces  Naples  part  of  the  Holy 

See. 
1266,  Feb.  26.  Manfred  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Charles 

of  Anjou  at  Crandella. 
1268,  Aug.  23.  Charles  of  A-.ijou  defeats  the  rightful  heir, 

(  oniadin,  at  Tagliaeo/zo. — Oct.  29-    Conradin  i.-i 

b   In  .ided  at  S 
1283.  Sicily  is  separated  from  the  kingdom  ol    ' 

the  revolution  known   as  the    Sicilian  Vespers 

1309.  The  Xeapolitan  crown  is  disputed  by  Robert  the 
<;ood  and  Charobci-t,  King  of  Hungary,  and  is 
allotted  by  Clement  V.  to  the  former. 

1345,  Sep.  18.  Andrew  of  Hungary,  king  consort  of 
Joanna  I.,  is  murdered. 

1347.  Louis  I.  of  Hungary  invades  Naples,  and  expels  tho 
queen. 

1349.  Joanna  I.  is  restored. 

1383,  May  22.  Joanna  1.  is  strangled  by  order  of  Charles 
Duraaso. 

1403.  Ladislaus  resists  the  encroachments  of  the  Duke  of 

1404.  Ladislaus  invades  Rome. 
1408.  Lad;s!aus  again  invades  Rome. 
1413.  Ladislaus  attacks  Koine  a  third  time. 

1420.  Joanna  II.  adopts  AJphouso  of  Aragon  as  her  suc- 
cessor. 

1433.  Joanna  II.   revokes  the  adoption,   and   nominates 

Louis  III.,  Duke  of  Anjou,  as  her  heir. 
1424,  June  2.   Battle  of  Aquila  ((</.  ».). 

1434.  Death  of  Louis  of  Anjou. 

1435.  Feb.  2.  Death   of   Joanna   II.,   who  bequeaths   tlie 

crown  to  Rene  of  Anjou.     His  claim  is  contested 

by  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon. 
1442.  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  and  I.  of  Naples  secures  tho 

crown. 

1453.  Rene  of  Anjou  invades  the  kingdom. 
1459.  John,   Duke  of    Calabria,    son    of    Rene",    invades 

Naples. 
1462,  Aug.  18.  Battle  of  Troia  or  Troja. 

1494.  Napk-s  is  invaded  and  conquered  by  Charles  VIII. 

of  France. 

1495.  Naples  is  taken  from  the  French. 


NAPLES 


[    685     1 


NAPLES 


1501  June  25-  By  a  papal  bull,  Naples  is  divided  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards,  who  expel  King 
Frederick  II. 

1503.  The  French  are  expelled,  and  the  kingdom  is  again 
annexed  to  Spain. 

1510.  The  Jews  are  expelled  from  the  Neapolitan  tcrri- 

1534.  The  French,  under  Stuart,  Duke  of  Albany,  invade 
Naples. 

1526.  The  Pope  invades  Naples. 

1527.  The  French,  under  Lautrec,  ravage  Naples. 
1565.  The  Inquisition  is  prohibited  in  Naples. 
1615.  Ossuna  is  viceroy  in  Naples. 

1620.  Ossuna  fails  in  an  attempt  to  become  sole  ruler  of 

Naples. 
1647    June  6.  Masaniello,  a  fisherman  of  Amalphi,  raises 

an  insurrection.— July  16.  He  is  assassinated  by  his 

colleagues,  and  the  revolt  is  quelled.— Aug.  21. 

The  Neapolitans  again  revolt,  and  are  assisted  by 

the  Duke  of  Guise. 

1648,  April  4.  Spanish  supremacy  is  restored. 
1702.  A  conspiracy  to  establish  an  Austrian  government 

1706.  Prince  Eugene  expels  the  French  from  Naples. 

1713,  April  n.  Naples  is  ceded  by  Spain  to  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht 

1720.  Victor  Amadeus  cedes  Sicily  to  Austria  in  exchange 
for  Sardinia. 

J734>  May  10.  The  infant  Don  Carlos  enters  the  Nea- 
politan kingdom  with  a  force  of  30,000  men.— 
May  27-  His  generals  defeat  the  Imperialists  at  the 
battle  of  Bitonto,  which  puts  an  end  to  the 
Austrian  dominion  in  Naples. 

1735,  July  3.  Don  Carlos  is  crowned  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  at  Palermo,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  crowns  of  Spain  and  the  Two  Sicilies  are 
never  to  be  united. 

1738,  July  6.  Institution  of  the  order  of  St.  Januarius. 

1743.  Naples  is  advised  by  England  to  preserve  neutrality 
in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession. 

1759.  The  King  of  Naples,  succeeding  to  the  throne  of 
Spain,  resigns  the  crown  of  Naples  and  Sicily  to 
his  son  Ferdinand. 

1768.  The  Jesuits  are  expelled. 

1782.  The  Inquisition  is  abolished. 

1784.  Many  monasteries  are  suppressed. 

1785.  Baro'niul  service  is  abolished. 

1788.  Naples  ceases  to  be  in  feudal  subjection  to  Rome. 
1793,  Sep.  3.  War  is  declared  against  the  French  republic. 
1796,  Oct.  ii.  Peace  is  concluded  at  Paris  between  Naples 
and  France. 

1798,  Nov.  29.  Ferdinand  IV.,  having  published  a  mani- 

festo against  the  French,  marches  against  them 
in  Italy,  and  enters  Rome. 

1799,  Jan.  4.    The  French  take  Gaeta,— Jan.  14.    On  the 

approach  of  the  French,  Ferdinand  IV.  deserts 
his  capital.— Jan.  23.  Parthenopean  republic  is 
established. — June  26.  Nelson  takes  Naples  from 
the  French,  and  hangs  Prince  Caracciolo. — July 

12.  Fort  St.  Elmo  surrenders  to  Capt.  Troubridge. 
— Aug.  12-  The  Neapolitans  take  Rome. 

1801,  March  28.  Peace  is  concluded  with  France  by  the 
•  treaty  of  Florence. 

1805,  July  26.    An    earthquake    destroys    20,000    lives. — 

Sep.  21.  A  treaty  with  France  is  concluded  at  Paris, 
by  which  Naples  agrees  to  maintain  neutrality  in 
the  Italian  wars,  and  Napoleon  I.  consents  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  the  Neapolitan  states. 
—Dec.  27.  Ferdinand  IV.  is  dethroned. 

1806,  Feb.  8.  The  French  enter  Naples.— Feb.  15.    Joseph 

Buonaparte  is  crowned  king. — July  4.  Sir  John 
Stuart  defeats  the  French  at  Maida. 

1808,  July  15.  Joachim  Murat  is  made  king. 

1810,  July  20.  The  English  take  a  Neapolitan  squadron. 

1814.  Jan.  ii.  Murat  concludes  an  nlliance  with  Austria. 

—Feb.  3.  A  truce  is  concluded  with  the  English. 

1815.  April  10.    Austria  declares  war  against  Naples. — 

May3-  Murat  is  defeated  by  the  Austrian*  at 
1  olentino.— May  16.  Murat  flees  from  Italy.— 
May  20.  Tke  convention  of  Casa  Lanzi  (q.  •».). — 
June  17.  Ferdinand  IV.  is  restored  to  the  throne 
under  the  title  of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.— Oct.  8.  Murat  lands  in  Calabria  with  30 
friends,  and  attempts  to  recover  his  throne. — Oct. 

13.  Being  taken,  he  is  tried  by  court-martial,  and 
shot. 

1816.  A  treaty  is  concluded  wit'i  Great  Britain. 


1820,  July  13.  Gen.  Pepe,  who  heads  an  insurrection  of 
the  Carbonari  (q.  ».),  compels  the  king  to  grant  a 
new  constitution. 

1831.  The  Austiians  invade  Naples. — March  7.  They 
defeat  Pepe  at  Rieti. — March  19.  Pep_e  flees  to 
Barcelona.  —  March  20.  Naples  capitulates. — 
March  23.  A  convention  is  signed  for  the  occu- 
pation of  Naples  by  the  Austrians,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  is  appointed. — May  15.  Fer- 
dinand I.  re-enters  his  capital. 

1825,  Jan.  4.  Death  of  Ferdinand  I.  The  Austrian  army 
of  occupation  is  diminished  in  number. 

1827,  June.  Destructive  inundations. 

1838.  An  insurrection  of  the  Carbonari  is  suppressed.— 
Aug.  23  to  29.  A  Neapolitan  squadron  bombards 
Tripoli  without  success. 

1838,  June.  Ferdinand  II.  (Bomba)  grants  the  monopoly 
of  Sicilian  sulphur  to  a  private  company,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  treaty  of  1816. 

1840,  April  17.  In  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  Ferdi- 
nand II.  to  discontinue  the  monopoly,  the  English 
commence  hostilities. — May.  The  monopoly  is 
abolished,  and  peace  is  restored. 

1847,  Sep.  Numerous  insurrections  in  Calabria  and  Sicily. 

1848,  Jan.  28.  Ferdinand  II.  promises  to  grant  a  consti- 

tution.—May  15.  KiOts  in  Naples,  in  which  the 
Lazzaroni  assist  the  military  against  the  revo- 
lutionists. 

1849,  Sep.  4.  Pius  IX.  visits  Ferdinand  II.  at  Portici. 

1856,  Oct.  The  French  and  English  ambassadors  are  re- 

called from  Naples,  owing  to  the  refusal  of  Fer- 
dinand II.  to  attend  to  the  remonstrances  of  their 
governments  on  his  oppressive  government. — 
Dec.  8.  Milano  attempts  the  king's  life. 

1857,  June  27.    (See  CAGLIARI   AFFAIR.) — Dec.  16.   An 

earthquake  destroys  about  10,000  lives. 

1858,  Dec.  27.  A  political  amnesty  is  granted. 

1859,  March  7.  Baron  Poerio,  with  68  Neapolitan  exiles, 

arrives  in  Queenstown,  Ireland. — May  22.  Death 
of  Ferdinand  II. — June  16.  Another  amnesty  is 
proclaimed.— July  7.  Revolt  of  the  Swiss  troops 
at  Naples. 

1860,  March  26.  The   foreign  ambassadors  at  the  Nea- 

politan court  present  an  address  to  Francis  II., 
recommending  political  reforms. — May  14.  Gari- 
baldi assumes  the  dictatorship  of  Sicily  (q.  v.).— 
June  7.  Napoleon  III.  refuses  to  mediate  be- 
tween Francis  II.  and  the  Sicilian  revolutionists. 
— June  26.  Francis  II.  proclaims  a  general  am- 
nesty, promises  a  liberal  ministry,  agreement 
with  Sardinia,  the  adoption  of  the  national  flag, 
and  a  vice-regal  and  liberal  government  for 
Sicily.— June  27.  The  French  ambassador,  Baron 
Brenier,  is  wounded  by  the  mob. — June  28.  A 
liberal  ministry  is  formed.  Naples  is  declared  in 
a  state  of  siege,  and  the  queen-mother  flees  to 
Gaeta. — July  10.  The  troops  attempt  a  revolt 
against  the  constitution,  and  proclaim  Count 
Trani  king,  as  Louis  I. — Aug.  10.  Prince  Lucien 
Murat  asserts  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  Naples. — 
Aug.  17.  The  Neapolitan  provinces  rebel.— Aug. 
19.  Garibaldi  lands  in  Naples,  and  occupies  Reggio. 
— Aug.  21.  The  fort  of  Reggio  surrenders  to  him. 
—Aug.  27.  Garibaldi  accepts  the  title  of  dictator 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.— Sep.  6.  Francis  II.  leaves 
Naples  for  Gaeta.— Sep.  7.  Garibaldi  enters 
Naples.— Sep.  15.  He  expels  the  Jesuits,  and 
declares  the  estates  of  the  crown  national  pro- 
perty.— Sep.  19.  He  defeats  the  royalists  at  Ca- 
jazzo.— Oct.  i.  The  Neapolitans  are  defeated  at 
theVolturno.— Oct.  6.  The  Sardinian  Government 
announces  that  its  army  is  about  to  enter  the  Nea- 
politan territory.— Oct.  17.  Defeat  of  the  Nea- 
politans at  Isernia.— Oct.  18.  Garibaldi  publishes 
a  decree  stating  that  Naples  ought  to  be  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Italian  kingdom. — Oct.  21.  The 
people  vote  in  favour  of  annexation  to  Sardinia, 
the  numbers  being  1,310,266  for,  and  10,103 
against. — Nov.  2-  Capua  surrenders  to  the  Sardi- 
nians.— Nov.  3.  The  siege  of  Gaeta  commences. 
—Nov.  7.  Victor  Emanuel  of  Sardinia  enters 
Naples. — Nov.  13.  The  English  legation  is  sup- 
pressed.— Nov.  14.  A  reaction  in  favour  of  Francis 
II.  commences  in  the  provinces. — Nov.  27-  The 
army  of  Garibaldi  is  disbanded. — Dec.  8.  Francis 
II.  addresses  a  conciliatory  proclamation  to  th« 
Neapolitans. 


NAPLES 


t     686    ] 


NAPLES 


1861,  Jan.  3.  Prince  Carigiian  is  named  governor-general. 
— Jan.  15.  The  Bourbon  army,  under  Gen.  Lovera, 
defeats  the  Sardinians  near  Tagliacozzo.— Feb.  14. 
Gaeta  surrenders  to  Gen.  Cialdini,  and  Francis 
II.  and  the  queen  retreat  thence  to  Koine. — 
April  5.  Francis  II.  protests  from  Koine  against 
Victor  Emanuel's  assumption  of  the  title  of  '-King- 
of  Italy."— June.  Attempts  are  made  to  restore 
Francis  II. 

1863,  May  18.  The  first  stone  of  a  new  harbour  is  laid  by 
Victor  Emanuel.— Dec.  15.  The  urst  stone  of  an 
English  Protestant  church  is  laid. 


RULERS   OF   NAPLES   AND   SICILY. 


1043.  William  I. 
1046.  Drogo. 
1051.  Hunafrey. 


COUNTS  OF  APULIA. 


1054.  Robert  Guiscard. 
1085.  Roger  I. 


107?.  Roger  I. 


COUNTS  OF  SlflLT. 

|    1 101.  Roger  II. 


KINGS  OF  NAPLKS    AM)  SICILY. 


1 130.  Roger  II. 

1154.  William  I. 

iiM>.  Wiiiiam  II. 

1180.  Tailored. 

1194.  William  III. 

1194.  Henry  VI.  of  Germany. 


1197.  Frederick  I. 

1250.  Conrad  I. 

1^54.  Conrad   II.,  or   Con- 

radin. 

1258.  Manfred. 
1266.  Charles  of  Anjou. 


KINGS  OF  NAPLES. 


1283.  Charles  of  Anjou. 

1385.  Chnik-sII. 
1309.  Kobert. 
1343.  Joanna  I. 

1382.  Charles    III.    of   Du- 
ra/./.n. 

1386.  Ladislaiis. 
1414.  Joanna  II. 


1435.  Alphonso  I.,  King  of 
-icily,  and 
Aragon. 

145s.  F'Tdinand  I. 
t4')4-  Alp!' 

1495.  Ferdinand  II. 

1496.  Frederick  II. 


KINGS  OF  SICILY. 


1283.  Peter  I.  (the  Great). 
1285.  James  I. 

1295.  Interregnum. 

1296.  Frederick  II. 
1337.  Peter  II. 
1342.  Louis  I. 
I35S-  Frederick  III. 
1377.  Mary. 

1391.  Mary  and  Martin  I. 
1402.  Martin  I. 


1409.  Martin  II.,  the  f'.lder. 

1410.  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of 

Ara  (,'011. 

1416.  Alphonso  I.,  King  of 
Sicily,  Aragon,  and 
Naples. 

1458.  John  of  Arapm. 

1479.  Ferdinand  II.,  the 
Catholic,  of  Spain. 


KINGS  OF  NAPLES,   SICILY,   AND   SPAIN. 


1503.  Ferdinand    III.  of  Na- 
ples (II.  of  Sicily). 
1516.  Charles  I. 
1556.  Philip  I. 
1598.  Philip  II. 


1631.  Philip  III. 
1665.   diaries  II, 
1700.   Philip  IV. 
1707.  Charles  HI.  of  Aus- 
tria. 


KING  OF  NAPLES. 
1713.   Charles  III. 

KINO  OF  SICILY. 
1713.  Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy. 


1720.  Charles  III.  (VI.  of  Germany). 

KINGS  OF  THE  TWO   SICILIES. 
1735.  Charles  III.,  Don  Carlos. 
1759.  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples  (III.  of  Sicily). 

KINGS   OF  NAPLES. 

1806.  Joseph  Buonaparte.      |      1808.  Joachim  Murat. 

KING  OF  SICILY. 
1806.  Ferdinand  III. 

KINGS   OF  THE  TWO  SICILIES. 
1815.  Ferdinand  I.  (IV.)  re-       1859.  Francis  II. 
1826.  Francis  I.         [stored.       1861.  Victor      Emanuel, 
1830.  Ferdinand  II.  King  of  Italv. 


NAPLES  (Italy).— This  city  was  founded  by 
a  colony  of  Cumseans,  by  whom  it  was  termed 
Parthenope,  about  B.C.  1030.  About  B.C.  416, 
its  inhabitants  separated  into  two  commu- 
nities, who  occupied  different  quarters  of  the 
city,  distinguished  as  Palaepolis,  or  the  old 
town,  and  Neapolis,  or  the  new  town.  From 
the  latter  designation  is  derived  the  modern 
title  of  the  city.  In  consequence  of  tho 
piracies  of  the  Paljepolitans,  the  Romans  be- 
sieged and  took  the  city,  B.C.  326,  and  from  that 
period  the  name  Palseipolis  disappears  from 
history.  Neapolis  was  admitted  to  Roman 
protection,  and  became  a  dependency  of  tho 
republic.  Pyrrhus  threatened  the  city  B.C.  280, 
and  it  was  sacked  by^the  partisans  of  Sylla  B.C. 
82.  The  poet  Virgil  was  buried  here  B.C.  19, 
and  the  city  became  a  favourite  summer  water- 
ing-place of  the  wealthy  Romans.  It  had  its 
schools  and  colleges,  and  was  called  the  learned. 
The  Quinquennalian  games  (<}.  v.)  were  cele- 
brated every  fifth  year.  The  Emperor  Nero  made 
his  rirst  appearance  as  an  actor  at  Naples  in  64. 
Theodoric  I.  (the  Great)  took  the  city  in  493, 
and  it  was  captured  by  Bclisarius,  after  a  long 
siege,  in  536.  Totila  retook  it  in  543,  it  sur- 
rendered to  Narses  in  553,  and  was  definitely 
united  to  the  Eastern  empire.  In  572  it 
became  a  duchy.  It  was  ravaged  by  the  plague 
in  1020,  and  in  1139  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant public  buildingsat  Naples  are,  the  uni- 
versity, founded  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
in  1224;  the  cathedral,  commenced  in  1272,  and 
completed  in  1316  ;  the  Castel  Nuovo,  built  by 
Charles  I.  in  1283  ;  the  Museo  BorbonicO, 
founded  as  cavalry  barracks  in  1586,  and  con- 
verted to  its  present  purpose  in  1 790  ;  the  royal 
palace,  begun  in  1600,  burned  down  in  1837, 
and  rebuilt  and  greatly  enlarged  ;  the  Teatro 
Reale  di  San  Carlo,  which  was  opened  in  1737, 
and  burned  and  rebuilt  in  1816.  The  bishopric 
of  Naples  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
St.  Aspernus,  who  was  consecrated  by  St. 
Peter,  in  44.  It  became  metropolitan  in  966. 
Councils  were  held  at  Naples  in  1565,  1568, 
and  1576.  Naples  was  taken  by  Manfred  in 
1250,  and  by  Louis  I.  of  Hungary  in  1347  ;  it 
was  retaken  by  John  I.  in  1348.  Louis  I. 
of  Anjou  seized  it  in  1383  ;  Rene"  of  Anjou 
in  1438  ;  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  in  1442  ;  and 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  in  1494.  It  was  also 
taken  by  the  French  in  1501,  and  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1503.  The  French  general  Lau- 
trec  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  in  1528. 
In  1647  the  city  was  the  scene  of  Masaniello's 
insurrection,  and  it  was  much  injured  by  an 
earthquake  Sep.  8,  1694.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Austrians  in  1707,  submitted  to  Don  Carlos 
in  1734,  and  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
French  Parthenopean  republic  in  1799.  Jo- 
seph Buonaparte  made  his  entry  into  Naples 
in  1806,  and  resided  here  till  he  went  to  ascend 
the  Spanish  throne  in  1808.  Ferdinand  IV. 
re-entered  the  city  as  king  in  1815.  The  rail- 
way to  Nocera  was  opened  in  1839.  Naples 
was  again  the  scene  of  insurrections  in  1848. 
It  was  declared  in  a  state  of  siege  June  28, 
1860.  Francis  II.  quitted  Naples  Sep.  6,  and 
it  was  entered  by  Garibaldi  Sep.  7.  Victor 
Emanuel  made  his  official  entry  Nov.  7.  Popu- 


NAPLES 


NATAL 


lar  demonstrations  were  made  in  favour  of 
Francis  II.  Nov.  14.  Victor  Emanuel  returned 
to  Turin  Dec.  27. 

NAPLES  (Treaties).— Several  treaties  have 
been  signed  here,  the  principal  being— 

A.D. 

1759,  Oct.  3.  With  Austria. 

1793,  July  12,.  Alliance  with  Great  Britain. 

1-798,  Dec.  I.  Alliance  with  Great  Britain. 

1803,  June  35.  With^the  French  Republic. 

1-14,  Jan.  ii.  Alliance  with  Austria. 

1831,  Oct.  31.  Military  convention  with  Austria,  Prussia, 

and  Russia,  for  the  occupation  of  Sicily. 
1838,  Feb.  14.    A   convention  on    the  slave  trade,   with 

Great  Britain  and  France. 

1845,  April   29.  Commerce  and    navigation    with  Great 

Britain.— June  14.  Commerce  and  navigation  with 
France. — S-'ep.  1301-35.  Commerce  and  navigation 
with  Russia. — Dec.  I.  Commerce  and  Navigation 
with  United  States. 

1846,  Jan.  13.  Commerce  and  navigation  with  Denmark. 

— Feb.  7.  Commerce  and  navigation  with  Sar- 
dinia.— July  4.  Commerce  and  navigation  with 
Austria. 

1847,  Jan.  37.  Commerce  and  navigation  with  Prussia. — 

April  15.  Commerce  and  navigation  with  Belgium. 
— Nov.  17.  Commerce  and  navigation  with  Hol- 
land. 

NAPOLEON.— (See  Louis  D'On.) 

NAPOLI-DI-ROMANIA  (Greece),  the  ancient 
Nauplia,  founded  by  an  Egyptian  colony,  was 
taken  by  the  Argives  in  the  7th  century  B.C. 
It  grew  into  importance  during  the  crusades, 
and  was  taken  by  the  Franks  in  1205,  and 
made  the  capital  of  a  duchy.  The  Venetians 
took  it  in  the  i4th  century,  and  ceded  it  to  the 
Turks  in  1540.  The  Venetians  regained  pos- 
session in  1686,  and  it  was  stormed  by  the 
Turks  July  4,  1715.  The  Greeks,  who  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  take  it  by  escalade,  Dec.  15, 
1821,  having  been  compelled  to  withdraw, 
returned  and  captured  it,  Dec.  12,  1823.  The 
seat  of  government,  transferred  to  Napoli-di- 
Romania  June  24,  1824,  was  removed  to  Argos 
in  1829.  Capo  d'Istrias  was  assassinated  here 
Oct.  9,  1831.  The  town  and  fort  of  Napoli, 
seized  by  insurgents  Feb.  13,  1862,  were  re- 
covered by  the  royal  troops  March  13. 

NAPPAGH  FLEET.— (See  DEFENDERS.) 

NARBONNE  (France),  the  ancient  Narbo 
Martius,  was  the  second  colony  founded  by 
the  Romans  beyond  the  Alps,  B.C.  118.  Some 
of  Caesar's  tenth  legion  settled  here,  and  it 
was  then  called  Decumanorum  Colonia.  It 
became  the  capital  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  in 
309,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Visigoths  in  462, 
who  made  it  the  capital  of  their  kingdom  ; 
and  it  was  captured  by  the  Saracens  in  720, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Pepin  le  Bref  in 
759,  and  annexed  to  the  Prankish  monarchy. 
The  Northmen  captured  it  in  859.  In  1272  the 
cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  Europe,  was  founded.  In  1310, 
30,000  of  its  inhabitants  perished  by  the 
plague.  It  was  successfully  defended  by 
Ayrneri  III.,  Viscount  of  Narbonne,  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Black  Prince  in  1355,  and  it 
was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  France  in  1507. 
In  the  religious  wars  of  this  century,  Nar- 
bonne sided  with  the  League,  but  in  1596  sub- 
mitted to  Henry  IV.  Councils  were  held  here 
Nov.  i,  589;  June  27,  791  ;  March  27,  947;  in 
990 ;  March  17  and  Aug.  8,  1043  '•>  m  1054 ; 
Oct.  i,  1055  ;  March  19,  1091 ;  in  Jan.,  1211  ;  in 
1227  ;  in  1235  ;  and  in  April,  1374. 


NARCEIA.— Pelletier  produced  this  alkali 
from  opium,  in  1832. 

NARENTA  (Bosnia).— This  town  during  the 
zoth  century  was  inhabited  by  pirates,  who 
were  almost  exterminated  by  the  Venetians  in 
997.  (See  MYCOLE.) 

NARVA  (Russia).  —  This  town,  founded  in 
1213,  and  sold  to  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1346, 
was  taken  by  Ivan  II.  in  1553.  The  Swedes 
recaptured  it  in  1581.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
with  8,000  men,  attacked  the  intrenched  camp 
of  the  Russian  army  (which  had  been  besieging 
Narva),  and  gained  a  complete  victory,  Nov. 
30,  1700.  No  less  than  18,000  Russians  fell  in 
the  battle,  and  30,000  surrendered  themselves 
prisoners  on  the  following  day.  The  Swedes 
lost  only  600  men.  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  fled  in 
consternation,  leaving  to  his  generals  the  com- 
mand of  the  army.  The  town  was  taken 
by  storm  by  Peter  I.,  Aug.  20,  1704,  and 
it  has  since  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Russians. 

NASEBY  (Battle),  was  fought  at  this  village, 
near  Market-Harborough,  in  Northampton- 
shire, June  14,  1645,  between  the  Royalists  and 
the  Parliamentary  army.  The  latter  gained  a 
complete  victory,  taking  500  officers  and  4,000 
men  prisoners,  with  all  the  king's  artillery  and 
ammunition. 

NASHVILLE  (Battle).  —  Gen.  Thomas  de- 
feated the  Confederate  forces  of  Gen.  Hood,  at 
this  place,  Dec.  16,  1864. 

NASHVILLE  (N.  America),  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Tennessee,  contains  a  university, 
founded  in  1806.  Nashville,  occupied  by  the 
Confederates  in  1861,  was  captured  by  the 
Federalists  Feb.  25,  1862.  The  Fenian  senate 
assembled  here  Feb.  19,  1866. 

NASSAU  (Germany)  derives  its  name  from 
the  castle  of  Nassau,  built  in  the  beginning  of 
the  i2th  century.  In  1255  Walram  I.  and  Otho, 
the  sons  of  Henry  the  Rich,  shared  the  terri- 
tory between  them.  The  former  became  the 
founder  of  the  present  family  of  Nassau,  and 
the  descendants  of  Otho  were  the  founders  of 
the  house  of  Orange-Nassau,  of  which  William 
III.  of  England  was  a  member.  In  1605  Louis 
II.  became  possessed  of  all  the  lands  belonging 
to  the  elder  branch  of  the  family.  At  his  death 
in  1625,  the  family  was  divided  into  three 
branches,  which,  however,  had  been  reunited 
into  one  when  Napoleon  I.  founded  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  and  bestowed 
the  title  of  duke  upon  Frederick  William.  It 
was  occupied  by  the  Prussians  and  annexed  to 
Prussia  in  1866. 

NASSAU  (New  Providence).— This  town,  the 
capital  of  the  island  (the  smallest  of  the  Ba- 
hama group),  having  been  destroyed  by  the 
French  and  Spaniards  in  1703,  and  resettled  in 
1718,  was  fortified  in  1740,  and  declared  a  free 
port  in  1787.  A  museum  and  library  were 
established  in  1847,  and  improvements  were 
commenced  in  the  harbour  in  1848.  The  town 
suffered  severely  from  a  tornado  March  30, 
1850.  It  was  made  a  bishop's  see  in  1861. 
During  the  American  civil  war,  1861 — 5,  it  was 
used  as  a  harbour  for  blockade-runners.  • 

NATAL  (Africa).— The  Portuguese  discovered 
this  country  in  1498,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Natal,  because  they  landed  on  Christmas  Day. 


NATCHEZ 


NATIONAL 


'  ire  races  were  swept  away  by  the  Zulu 
Cail'ros  in  1810,  and  the  English  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  1824.  They  were  joined  by  some 
Dutch  Boers,  who  left  Cape  Colony  in  1836,  and 
obtained  by  treaty  some  land  from  Dingaan, 
chief  of  the  Zulu  tribes.  Several  of  the  Boers 
were  massacred  by  Dingaan  in  1838.  They  re- 
moved to  Port  Natal,  and  renounced  their 
allegiance  to  Great  Britain  in  1839.  A  small 
British  force  was  sent  in  1842  from  the  Cape, 
which  the  Boers  permitted  to  land,  but  after- 
wards commenced  hostilities.  The  British 
maintained  their  position  until  the  arrival  of 
reinforcements,  when  the  Boers  were  defeated 
and  driven  out  of  the  territory.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  Cape  Colony  in  1844,  made  a  separate 
government  in  1845,  and  a  bishopric  in  1853. 
(See  COLENSO  CASE.) 

NATCHEZ  (N.  America).— This  city  of  Mis- 
sissippi, named  after  an  Indian  tribe,  was 
settled  by  the  French  in  1716.  The  Indians 
destroyed  it  in  1729,  but  they  were  nearly  ex- 
terminated by  the  French  in  1730,  aud  the  town 
was  soon  after  rebuilt. 

NATIONAL  ANTHEM.— Much  controversy 
has  been  excited  respecting  the  authorship  of 
'•  God  save  the  King."  For  many  years  it  was 
attributed  to  several  persons,  the  general  opi- 
nion being  in  favour  of  Dr.  Bull.  A  writer  in 
"  Notes  and  Queries  "  (2nd  series,  vii.  64),  who 
favours  the  claim  of  Anthony  Young,  organist 
of  All-Hallows,  Barking,  in  the  reign  of  James 
II.,  draws  the  following  conclusions  : — "  i.  The 
tune,  being  in  Bull's  MSS.,  is  of  the  time  of 
James  I.  2.  That  A.  Young  united  it  to  a 
*  God  save  the  King'  in  the  time  of  James  II. 
3.  That  it  slept  until  George  II.,  1745.  4.  That 
Young's  granddaughter  received  a  pension  for 
its  composition;  and  5.  That  her  granddaugh- 
ter, in  1789,  received  ,£100,  the  proceeds 
thereof."  Another  view  is,  that  both  the  words 
and  the  music  were  composed  by  Dr.  Henry 
Carey,  in  honour  of  a  birthday  of  George  II., 
and  were  performed  on  such  an  occasion  at  a 
dinner  given  by  the  Mercers'  Company  in  Lon- 
don. Henry  Carey,  who  was  a  natural  son  of 
the  Marquis  of  Halifax,  was  born  in  1696,  and 
died  Oct.  4,  1743. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLIES.— A  national  as- 
sembly which  commenced  its  sittings  at  Berlin, 
May  22,  1848,  after  coming  in  collision  with  the 
crown,  was  dissolved  by  force,  Nov.  13.  The 
deputies  continued  to  meet,  and  the  assembly 
was  dissolved  by  royal  proclamation,  Dec.  5. 
The  old  German  Diet  at  Frankfort  passed  a 
resolution,  March  30,  1848,  summoning  a  Ger- 
man national  assembly,  which  met  at  Frank- 
fort in  April,  1848.  Its  sittings  were  removed 
to  Stuttgardt,  in  Wiirtemberg,  May  30,  1849, 
and  the  assembly  was  dissolved  by  the  police 
June  16. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  (France).  —  This 
title  was  asstimed  June  17,  1789,  by  the  States- 
general  of  France,  which  had  assembled  at 
Versailles  May  5.  The  hall  of  the  Assembly 
was  closed  by  order  of  Louis  XVI.  June  20, 
upon  which  the  memljers  adjourned  to  the 
Tennis-court  Hall,  and  took  an  oath  not  to  dis- 
solve until  they  had  prepared  and  voted  a 
constitution.  Admission  to  the  Tennis-court 
having  been  afterwards  refused  to  them,  the 


members  met  at  the  church  of  St.  Louis, 'June 

22.  Louis  XVI.  reopened  the  Assembly  June 

23.  The  mob  broke  in  Oct.  5,  and  compelled 
the  King  to  remove  to  Paris  Oct.  6.     The  As- 
sembly held  its  lirst  meeting  after  the  removal 
to  Paris  in  the  hall  of  the  archbishop's  palac.v. 
(Jet.  9,    1789,   from  which  place  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Riding-school  Hall,  Oct.  19,  1790. 
Mirabeau,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  leaclcr.s 
of  the  Assembly,  was  made  president  Feb.  i, 
1 791 .     It  declared  its  sittings  permanent  J  uly 
17,  1791;  but  having  entered  into  an  agreement 
with  Louis  XVI.,  was  dissolved  Sep.  29,  1791. 
As  it  had  framed  the  constitution,  it  is  some- 
times   called   the    Constituent  Assembly.     A 
new  chamber,  under  the  name  of  the  r* 
Legislative  Assembly,  met  Oct.  i,    17 

was  dissolved  in  Aug.,  1792.  (See  NATIONAL 
CONVENTION.)  After  the  expulsion  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  provisional  government  issued 
a  decree  summoning  a  national  assembly  for 
April  20,  1848.  By  a  subsequent  decree  the 
elections  were  fixed  for  April  23,  and  th- 
ing  was  postponed  till  May  4.  The  govern- 
ment decided  in  favour  of  a  presidency,  and 
a  single  chamber  consisting  of  750  members, 
both  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  A 
motion  for  its  dissolution,  May  19,  1849,  was 
carried  Feb.  14,  1850,  and  the  new  elections 
were  fixed  for  May  4.  The  new  assembly  met 
May  28,  and  was  dissolved  Dec.  2,  1851,  by 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  introduced  a  new  con- 
stitution. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  (France)  was 
formed  at  Paris,  by  the  extreme  democratical 
party,  in  1831.  The  members  bound  them- 
selves, on  their  life  and  honour,  to  combat  the 
stranger  and  the  Bourbons  by  all  pecuniary 
and  personal  sacrifices,  and  to  come  to  no  ac- 
commodation with  them,  to  whatever  extremi- 
ties the  country  might  be  reduced. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE 
PROMOTION  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Brougham,  held 
its  first  meeting  at  Birmingham,  Oct.  12 — 16, 
1857.  Its  objects  are,  "  To  aid  the  develop- 
ment of  the  social  sciences,  and  to  guide  the 
public  mind  to  the  best  practical  means  of 
promoting  the  amendment  of  the  law,  the 
advancement  of  education,  the  prevention 
and  the  repression  of  crime,  the  reformation 
of  criminals,  the  establishment  of  due  sanitary 
regulations,  and  the  recognition  of  sound 
principles  in  all  questions  of  social  economy. " 
The  annual  meetings  have  been  held  at 

1857,  Oct.  12— 16 Birmingham. 

1858,  Oct.  ii    Liverpool. 

1859,  Oct-  I0    Bradford. 

1860,  Sep.  24 (ilasgo\v. 

1861,  Aug.  14 — 21    Dublin. 

1862,  June  6—13 London. 

1863,  Oct.  7— 14  Edinburgh. 

1864,  Sep.  23 — 29 York. 

1865,  Oct.  4—io  Sheffield. 

1866,  Oct.  1—7 Manchester. 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  —  In  conse- 
quence of  the  bull  of  Pius  V.  against  Queen 
Elizabeth,  April  25,  1570,  absolving  all  her  sub- 
jects from  allegiance  to  her,  several  Roman 
Catholic  zealots  believed  that  in  taking  her 
life  they  would  perform  a  meritorious  act. 


NATIONAL 


NATIONAL 


She  was  in  constant  danger,  and  a  national 
association,  formed  in  London  about  1582,  to 
protect  Queen  Elizabeth  from  assassination, 
or  to  revenge  her  death,  was  legalized  by  27 
Eliz.  c.  i  (1584),  entitled  "  An  Act  for  provision 
to  be  made  for  the  surety  of  the  queen's  most 
royal  person,  and  the  continuance  of  the  realm 
in  peace."  After  the  discovery  of  the  Assassi- 
nation Plot  (q.  v.),  a,  similar  association  was 
formed  in  London,  Feb.  27,  1696.  The  sub- 
scribers bound  themselves  to  do  their  utmost 
to  preserve  the  life  of  William  III.,  or  to 
avenge  his  death.  Lord  Keeper  Somers  re- 
moved from  the  commission  of  the  peace  all 
magistrates  who  refused  to  sign  it.  The  asso- 
ciation was  embodied  by  7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  27 
(1696),  by  which  the  signature  of  all  persons 
holding  civil  or  military  appointments  was 
rendered  imperative.  A  similar  document 
was  signed  by  the  Irish  Parliament  Dec.  2, 

NATIONAL  CLUB  (London^  was  founded 
in  1845.  Its  objects  are  to  maintain  the  Pro- 
testant principles  of  the  constitution  in  the 
administration  of  public  affairs  ;  to  uphold  a 
system  of  national  education,  based  on  Scrip- 
ture ;  to  preserve  the  united  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  in  its  true  Protestant  faith 
as  the  established  religion  of  the  country ;  to 
raise  the  moral  and  social  condition  of  the 
people;  to  co-operate  with  all  persons  who 
hold  these  principles,  and  to  present  in  the 
metropolis  a  central  place,  where  they  may 
meet,  and  devise  the  fittest  means  of  pro- 
moting their  common  object. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  (France),  sub- 
stituted for  the  National  Legislative  Assembly, 
met  in  one  of  the  halls  of  the  Tuileries,  Sep.  21, 
1792.  Its  sittings  were  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  the  Riding  School.  Its  first  act 
(Sep.  25)  was  to  declare  royalty  abolished,  and 
to  proclaim  a  republic.  By  another  decree  it 
was  ordered  that  the  old  calendar  should  be 
abandoned,  and  that  all  public  acts  should  be 
dated  from  the  first  year  of  the  French  re- 
public. This  sera  began  Sep.  22,  1792.  It 
adopted  a  new  constitution,  Aug.  10,  179^. 
The  convention  sent  Louis  XVI.  and  his  queen 
to  the  block,  and  having  involved  Europe  in 
war,  was  dissolved  Oct.  26,  1795.  "  The  de- 
struction of  human  life,"  says  Alison,  "  which 
took  place  during  its  government,  in  civil 
dissension,  was  unparalleled ;  it  amounted 
to  above  a  million  of  human  beings." 
(See  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  and  DIRECTORY 
French.) 

NATIONAL  COVENANT.  —(See  COVE- 
NANTERS.) 

NATIONAL  DEBT.— Some  long  annuities 
created  by  Charles  II.  are  scarcely  sufficiently 
important  to  be  regarded  as  forming  part 
of  the  English  national  debt,  which  was  com- 
menced by  William  III.  in  1692.  A  sinking 
fund  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  national 
debt,  a  million  sterling  being  devoted  to  that 
purpose,  was  proposed  and  carried  by  Pitt, 
March  29,  1786.  As  there  was  no  surplus  to 
meet  the  payment,  it  was  determined  to 
appropriate  part  of  the  fund  to  the  public 
exigencies,  March  3,  1813.  The  plan  of  keep- 
ing up  a  nominal  fund  was  abandoned  in  1824, 


and  it  was  directed  that  one-fourth  of  the 
actual  surplus  revenue  should  in  future  be 
applied  to  the  purpose,  July  10,  1828. 


A.D. 

Period. 

Principal. 

Charges. 

1689 

I7o« 

At  the  Revolution    
Queen    Anne's    Acces- 

£664,363 

£39,855 

1714 

1737 
1763 

1775 

1784 

Accession  of  George  I... 
Accession  of  George  II. 
Peace  of  Paris   
Commencement  of  Ame- 
rican wur  
Conclusion  of  American 

54,145,363 

53,093,338 
138,865,430 

138,583,635 

3,351,353 
3,3!  7,551 
4,853,051 

4,471,571 

1793 

Commencement        of 

1817 

Conclusion    of    French 

1859 

March  31.     Total    debt 
and  charge  

805,078,554 

38,6l3,207 

NATIONAL  DEBT  SINCE   1860. 


A.D.  |        Funded. 

Unfunded. 

Total. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1860 
1861 

785,963,000 
785,  119,609 

16,338,300 
16,689,000 

803,190,300 

801,808,609 

1863 
1863 

784,353,338 
783,306,739 

16,517,900 
16,495,400 

800,  770,238 
799,8o3,i39 

1864 

777,439,334* 

13,136,000 

790,565,334 

58 

775,768,395 
777,687,734 

lo,743,5oo 
8,187,700 

786,510,795 
785,875,434 

(See  AIDS,  BENEVOLENCE,  and  FUNDS.) 

NATIONAL  GALLERY  (London).— In  1823 
Sir  George  Beaumont  expressed  his  willing- 
ness to  present  his  collection  of  paintings 
to  the  nation,  so  soon  as  the  formation  of 
a  national  gallery  should  be  decided  upon. 
This  led  to  the  purchase  of  the  Angerstein 
collection,  March  26,  1824,  by  the  Government, 
for  £57,000.  It  was  opened  in  Pall  Mall, 
May  10,  1824,  and  the  Beaumont  pictures 
were  added  in  1825.  The  Rev.  W.  Holwell  Can- 
bequeathed  his  collection  of  pictures  to  the 
National  Gallery  in  1831 ;  Mr.  Robert  Vernon 
presented  his  in  1847  (we  MARLBOROUGH 
HOUSE)  ;  Turner  bequeathed  some  pictures  in 
1851,  and  Mr.  Sheepshanks  presented  his 
valuable  collection  Feb.  2,  1857.  A  select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  was 
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  National  Gallery 
in  1854,  and  the  institution  was  reconstituted 
by  a  Treasury  minute  dated  March  27,  1855. 
The  building  in  Trafalgar  Square,  commenced 
in  1833,  was  completed  and  opened  to  the  pub- 
lic in  1838.  The  House  of  Commons  voted  a 
sum  of  money  for  enlarging  the  National 
Gallery,  June  19,  1865. 

NATIONAL  GUARD  (France),  a  kind  of 
citizen  militia,  was  first  formed  in  Paris  by 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  in  July,  1789. 
This  force  became  so  popular  that  in  1 790  it 
was  established  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 


*In   1864  the  sum  of  £5,000,000  of  the   Unredeemed 
Funded  Debt  was  cancelled,  and  a  Terminable  Annui 
created  in  lieu  thereof,  under  the  36  Viet.  c.  35  s.  3  (JUU9 
8,  1863). 

Y     Y 


NATIONAL 


[    690    ] 


NATURALIZATION 


was  reorganized  in  1795.  The  command  was 
offered,  in  1796,  to  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  and 
refused  by  him.  It  was  reorganized  in  1805, 
1813,  and  1814  ;  was  disbanded  by  Charles  X. 
April  13,  1827,  and  was  re-established  by  the 
constitution  of  1830.  The  defection  of  the 
National  Guard  from  Louis  Philippe  in  1848 
was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  over, 
throw.  The  National  Guard  throughout  France 
was  reconstructed  by  a  decree  dated  Jan.  n, 

1  NATIONAL  LIFE-BOAT.— (See  ROYAL 
NATIONAL  LIFEBOAT  INSTITUTION.) 

NATIONAL  POLITICAL  UNION  (London). 
• — This  political  association,  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  unity  to  the  proceedings  of 
the  various  political  unions  throughout  the 
country,  held  its  first  meeting  in  Lincoln's  Imi 
Fields,  Oct.  31,  1831,  under  the  presidency  of 
Sir  Francis  Burdett.  A  resolution  to  resist  the 
payment  of  taxes  until  the  Reform  Bill  was 
made  the  law  of  the  land  was  passed  May  9, 

1  NATIONAL      PORTRAIT      EXHIBITION 

(London).  —  Resolutions  for  holding  an  ex- 
hibition of  English  historical  portraits,  as 
suggested  by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  wore  passed 
id  a  mooting  held  at  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  July  13,  1865.  The  exhibition  was 
opened  at  South  Kensington,  Monday,  April 
16,  and  closed  Saturday,  August  18,  1866. 

NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 
(London  W;LS  established  by  a  warrant  of  the 
Treasury  Dec.  2,  1856,  when  a  board  consist- 
ing of  13  trustees  was  appointed.  The  first 
meeting  was  held  Feb.  9,  1857,  and  by  a 
Treasury  warrant,  Feb.  28,  George  Scharf, 
F.S.A.,  was  appointed  secretary  and  keeper. 
Temporary  apartment*  were  taken  at  29,  Great 
George  Street,  Westminster,  and  the  collection 
was  opened  to  the  public,  by  tickets  only,  Jan. 
15,  1859.  The  use  of  tickets  was  dispensed 
with  Feb.  25,  1860.  The  ninth  report,  pre- 
sented April  12,  1866,  gives  the  following 
return  of  visitors  : — 

1859  5,305 

1860  6,392 

1861   10,907 

1863* iy,927 

NATIONAL    RIFLE    ASSOCIATION.  —  A 

Committee  for  a  National  Volunteer  Rifle  Meet- 
ing, appointed  at  Ilythe  Aug.  i,  1859,  was  dis- 
solved Oct.  29,  and  the  National  Rifle  Associa- 
tion, "for  the  encouragement  of  volunteer 
rifle  corps,  and  the  promotion  of  rifle  shooting 
throughout  Great  Britain,"  was  established  at 
a  meeting  held  at  the  Thatched  House  Tavern, 
St.  James's,  Nov.  16,  1859.  Lord  Herbert,  the 
first  president  of  the  association,  resigned  that 
office  Feb.  16,  1861.  The  annual  meetings 
have  been  held  at  Wimbledon  as  follows  : — 


1863  

1865  

•  10,475 
.  14,885 
.  16,643 

i860,  July  2 — Q. 
J86l,  July  4— 13. 
1863,  July  I— 13. 
1863,  July  7— 18. 


1864,  July  12—33. 
1863,  July  10—23. 
1866,  July  9—31. 


NATIONAL  SCHOOLS,  conducted  on  Dr. 
Bell's  system,  were  founded  by  the  National 
Society  for  promoting  the  Education  of  the 


Exhi'ji(io<!  year. 


Poor  in  the  Principles  of  the  Established 
Church,  throughout  England  and  Wales,  which 
was  instituted  at  a  meeting  held  Oct.  16,  1811, 
and  received  a  constitution  and  rules,  Oct  2 1 . 
The  central  school  in  London  was  opened  .hmo 
19,  1812,  and  others  were  soon  after  estai 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  e 
was  incorporated  May  23,  1817.  (See  TRAINING 
SCHOOLS.)  The  Irish  National  School  system 
for  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  was  es- 
tablished by  Archbishop  Whately  and  others 
in  1831. 

NATIONAL  VACCINE  ESTABLISHMENT. 
(See  JENNERIAN  INSTITUTION.) 

NATIONAL  VEREIN.— (See  GERMANY.) 

NATIONAL  WORKSHOPS  were  established 
at  Paris  by  decrees  issued  Feb.  27  and  28,  1848, 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  occupation  for 
the  numerous  unemployed  workmen  in  that 
capital.  About  5,000  were  at  first  admitted, 
but  the  number  soon  increased  to  above 
100,000.  They  rose  against  the  government, 
June  22,  were  overcome,  after  a  fierce  struggle 
by  General  Cavaignac,  and  the  national  work- 
shops were  dissolved  July  4,  having  been  in 
existence  about  four  months. 

N  A  'I'  I  ( >NS.—  (See  DITCH,  LEIPSIC  (Battle),  and 
MOHAMMEDANISM.) 

NATIVITY.— There  are  three  ecclesiastical 
festivals  so  called.  The  first  is  to  coTnmemo- 
rate  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  (see  CHRISTMAS;  ; 
the  second  in  order  of  appointment  is  the 
nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  which  was 
instituted  in  488,  and  is  celebrated  June  24  ; 
and  the  third  is  the  nativity  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  which  is  observed  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church  Sep.  8,  and  was  appointed  by  Pope 
Scr_ius  1.  1687 — 701).  (See  MARIOLATRY.) 

NATURAL  HISTORY.— Solomon  "spake  of 
trees,  from  the  cedar-tree  that  is  in  I., 
even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the 
wall:  he  spake  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowl, 
and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes  "  (i  Kings 
iv.  33),  B.C.  1000.  The  subject  was  > 
by  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — 322),  Theophrastus  (B.C. 
394—287),  Dioscorides  (40—70),  and  by  Pliny 
(23—79).  Otto  Brunfels  of  Strasburg  published 
a  work  on  botany  in  1530  ;  and  a  professorship 
thereof  was  founded  at  Padua  in  1533.  Turner, 
an  Englishman,  who  became  Dean  of  Wells, 
published  at  Cologne  a  work  on  birds  in  1548. 
The  first  part  of  Gesner's  work,  "  The  History 
of  Animals,"  appeared  in  1551.  A  history  of 
fishes  was  published  by  Salviani  in  1558 ; 
Ray's  work  on  ornithology  came  out  in  1676  ; 
Robert  Morison  of  Aberdeen,  who  is  styled  by 
Hallam  "the  founder  of  classification,"  pub- 
lished his  "Historia  Plantarum  Univi.- 
in  1672;  and  Tournefort  his  "Elemens  de  la 
Botanique"  in  1694.  Grew,  who  discovered 
the  sexual  system  in  plants,  published  his 
physiological  theory  in  1682. 

NATURALIZATION.— Children  born  abroad 
were,  under  certain  restrictions,  entitled  to  in- 
herit as  if  born  in  England,  by  25  Edw.  III.  si. 
i  (1351).  This  statute  was  renewed  by  33  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  25  (1541).  The  laws  relating  to  aliens 
were  amended  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  66  (Aug.  6, 
1844).  The  law  for  naturalization  in  a  British 
colony  is  regulated  by  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  83  (July 
22,  1847), 


NATURAL 


[    691    ] 


NAVARRE 


NATURAL  RELIGION.— (See  FREE 

THINKERS.) 

NATURE-PRINTING,  an  invention  for  obtain 
ing  an  exact  reproduction  of  natural  objects,  so 
that  numerous  impressions  may  be  taken,  was 
perfected  in  the  imperial  printing-office  in  Vien- 
na, by  Andrew  Worsing,  about  1852.  Kniphoff,  ol 
Erfurt,  produced  something  of  the  kind  in  a 
crude  form  in  1761,  and  Kyhl,  of  Copenhagen, 
in  1833.  The  process  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Henry  Bradbury  in  1856. 

NAUCEKUKE  POWDER  MILLS,  situated 
on  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  about  five  miles  from 
Redruth,  blew  up  on  the  morning  of  Sep.  9, 
1862.  The  explosion,  which  was  attributed  to 
lightning,  caused  the  death  of  eight  women. 

NAUMACHIA.— Julius  Caesar  ordered  a  por 
tion  of  the  Campus  Martius  to  be  excavated 
B.C.  46,  in  order  to  form  a  lake  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  this  spectacle,  -the  imitation  of  a 
naval  battle,  in  which  great  loss  of  life  fre 
quently  occurred.  Augustus  (B.C.  31 — A.D.  14 
constructed  an  artificial  lake  near  the  Tiber 
and  Claudius  I.  (41 — 54)  used  Lake  Fucinus  for 
similar  exhibitions. 

NAUMBURG  (Prussia).— The  Hussites  be- 
sieged this  old  town  in  1432,  but  retired  with- 
out securing  its  capture.  A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded here  in  1554,  between  Augustus,  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  John  Frederick,  the  deposed 
Elector.  It  played  an  important  part  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1806.  Napoleon  I.  advanced  to  this 
town  April  29,  1813.  The  see  was  founded  by 
Otho  I.  (936 — 73),  and  the  cathedral  was  com- 
pleted in  1249. 

NAUPACTUS  (Greece).  —  The  Athenians 
settled  the  Messenians  at  this  town  B.C.  455, 
but  they  were  expelled  B.C.  405  by  the  Lo- 
crians,  who  retained  possession.  The  Social 
War  was  brought  to  a  close  by  a  peace  con- 
cluded here  B.C.  217.  It  frequently  changed 
owners,  and  having  been  given  by  Philip  V.  to 
the  jEtolians,  was  by  them  defended  against 
the  Romans  for  two  months,  B.C.  191.  The 
modern  Lepanto  (q.  v. )  occupies  its  site. 

NAUPLI A.— ( See  NAPOLI-DI-ROMAN  i  A)  . 

NAUTICAL  ALMANACK.— (See  ALMA- 
NACK, NAUTICAL.) 

NAUVOO  (N.  America).— This  town,  in  Illi- 
nois, was  founded  by  the  Mormons  in  1840. 
Their  temple  was  destroyed  in  1848,  when  the 
Mormons  were  expelled,  and  sought  refuge  in 
Utah. 

NAVAL  BATTLES.— (See  SEA-FIGHTS  in 
Index.) 

NAVAL  COURT-MARTIAL.— (See  COURT- 
MARTIAL) 

NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  CLUB  (London), 
was  opened  as  a  club  in  Sep.  1862,  and  re- 
moved to  Cambridge  House,  Piccadilly,  April 
17,  1866. 

NAVAL,  MILITARY,  AND  COUNTY  SER- 
VICE CLUB  (London),  opened  at  the  estab- 
lishment once  occupied  by  Crockford's  Club, 
May  5,  1849,  and  closed  in  1851. 

NAVAL  RESERVE.— (See  ROYAL  NAVAL 
RESERVE.) 

NAVARETTE.— (See  LOGRONO,  Battle.) 

NAVARINO  (Greece)  takes  its  name  from 
a  fortress  built  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  called 


Paleo-Avarino,  which  stood  on  the  ruins  of 
a  fort  built  by  the  Athenians  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Pylus,  B.C.  424.  The  name  Ava- 
rino  is  derived  from  the  Avars,  who  settled 
here  in  the  6th  century.  The  modern  town, 
Navarino,  called  by  the  Greeks  Neokastoro,  or 
Neocastro,  is  built  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  ruins  of  the  old  fort,  now  called  Old  Nava- 
rino. The  Turks  took  Navarino  in  1500;  it 
was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Venetians  in 
1686,  and  it  was  retaken  by  the  Turks  in  1718. 
The  Turkish  garrison  capitulated  to  the  Greeks 
Aug.  9,  1821.  The  Turks  recaptured  the  place 
after  a  short  siege,  May  23,  1825,  and  evacuated 
it  after  the  battle  of  Navarino  (q.  v. ),  by  a 
convention  signed  Sep.  7,  1828.  The  French 
troops,  which  were  sent  to  the  assistance  of 
the  Greeks,  and  entered  Navarino  Oct.  6,  1828, 
withdrew  from  the  fortresses  of  Navarino, 
Modon,  and  Cronon,  in  July,  1833. 

NAVARINO  (Sea-fight),  a  combined  British, 
French,  and  Russian  fleet,  engaged  and  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Turkish  and.  Egyptian 
squadrons,  under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  in  the  Bay 
of  Navarino,  Oct.  20,  1827.  The  forts  on  the 
coast  took  part  in  the  engagement,  and  in- 
flicted much  damage  on  several  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  allied  fleet.  The  action,  fought 
to  secure  the  independence  of  Greece,  resulted 
in  the  annihilation  of  the  naval  power  of  Tur- 
key. It  lasted  four  hours,  and  the  scene  of 
wreck  and  devastation  which  presented  itself 
at  its  termination  was  such  as  has  rarely  been 
witnessed.  Of  the  Turkish  fleet,  which  at 
the  commencement  of  the  action  consisted 
of  70  sail,  no  less  than  62  were  burned, 
sunk,  or  driven  on  shore  complete  wrecks ; 
and  from  a  statement  of  the  Turkish  admiral, 
it  appears  that  on  board  of  two  line-of -battle 
ships,  each  having  a  crew  of  850  men,  650 
were  killed  in  one  ship,  and  400  in  the  other. 

NAVARRE  (France),  called  Lower  or  French 
Navarre,  was  a  portion  of  the  Spanish  kingdom 
of  Navarre  assigned  to  John  d'Albret  in  1515, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  old  kingdom  of 
Navarre.  Henry*  (afterwards  Henry  IV.  of 
France)  became  King  of  Navarre,  June  10, 
1572,  and  on  his  accession  to  the  French 
throne,  July  31,  1589,  Navarre  was  annexed  to 
France.  The  formal  incorporation  took  place 
n  1620. 

NAVARRE  (Spain).— This  part  of  Spain, 
called  by  Prescott  "the  little  kingdom  of 
Navarre,  embosomed  within  the  Pyrenees," 
was  inhabited  at  an  early  period  by  the  Vas- 
cones,  wha.were  expelled  by  the  Romans.  It 
was  seized  by  the  Visigoths  in  470,  invaded  by 
the  Saracens  early  in  the  8th  century,  and  fell 
under  the  sway  of  Charlemagne  in  778.  It 
Became  an  independent  state  in  858.  In  1035 
Navarre  was  divided  into  three  kingdoms, 
Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Castile.  Aragon  was  re- 
inited  to  Navarre  in  1076,  and  separated  again 
n  1134.  In  1285  it  became  an  appanage  of 
France,  but  recovered  its  independence  in  1328. 
In  1452  it  was  disturbed  by  the  Agramonts 
xnd  Beaumonts  (q.  v.}.  Ferdinand  conquered 
t  in  1512.  The  estates  of  Navarre  took  the 
xith  of  allegiance  to  him  March  23,  1513,  and 
t  was  incorporated  with  Castile  by  a  solemn 
,ct  in  the  cortes  of  Burgos,  June  15,  1515. 

YY   2 


NAVIGATION 


[    692    ] 


NAVY 


The  French,  who  invaded  it  in  1516,  were  de- 
feated March  25,  and  Cardinal  Ximenes  ordered 
the  principal  fortresses  to  be  destroyed. 
Francis  I.,  of  France,  invaded  Navarre  in  1521. 
His  army  having  sustained  a  severe  defeat  at 
Esquiros,  June  30,  1521,  was  compelled  to 
retire. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  NAVARRE. 

857.  Garcias  I.  994.  Garcias  III. 

880.  Fortunio.  loot.  Saivho     III. 

905.  Sancho  I.  Great.) 

92(5.  Garcias  IT.,  surnamed  1035.  Garcias  IV. 

the  Trembler.  1054.  Sancho  IV. 
970.  Sancho  II. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF  ARAGON  AND  NAVARRE. 
1076.  Sancho  V.  I     1104.  Alphonao  I. 

1094.  Peter  I. 

KINGS  OF  NAVARRE. 


(the 


1134.  Garcias  V. 
1150.  Sancho  VI.  (the  Wise.) 
1194.  Sancho  VII.  (the   In- 
firm.) 


1234.  Thihaut  I. 
1353.  Thihaut  II. 
1270.  Henry  I. 
1274.  Juanna  I. 


KINGS  OF  FRANCE  AXD  NAVARRE. 
1285.  Philip  IV.  I     1316.  Philip  V. 

ip>  Louis  X.  1322.  Charles IV. 

1316.  John  I. 

SOVEREIGNS    OF  NAVARRE. 


1328.  Juanna  II.  and  Philip 

d'Evrmix. 
1349   Charles  II.  (the  Bad.) 

1387.  Charles  III. 
1425.  Blanche. 
1441.  John. 
1479.  Kleanor. 
1479.  Francis  Phoebus. 


1483.  Catherine  de  Foix. 
1494.  Catherine  and  John 

d'Albret. 
1517.  llcnrv  II. 
1555.  Juanna  III.  and  An- 

tonv  <ie  Bourbon. 
1572-89.  Henry  HI. 


NAVIGATION.— The  earliest  notice  of  this 
art  is  in  connection  with  the  Deluge,  when 
God  commanded  Noah  to  build  the  ark  (Gen. 
vi.  14),  which  was  completed,  and  received  the 
patriarch  and  his  family,  with  its  other  in- 
tuatos,  B.C.  2348.  In  the  early  period  of  their 
history  the  Egyptians  carried  on  maritime 
traffic  with  India,  Sesostris  being  represented 
as  the  first  who  sailed  in  "long  ships,"  B.C. 
1416 — 1353  ;  although  the  ships  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians had  visited  the  principal  parts  of  the 
known  world  B.C.  1800.  Rawlinson  Ancf. 
Monarchies,  ii.  ch.  ix.  p.  448,  n.)  says,  "  The 
Chaldseans,  whose  '  cry  was  in  their  ships ' 
(Is.  xliii.  14),  no  doubt  possessed  a  mercantile 
marine  which  had  long  been  accustomed  to 
the  navigation  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  But  they 
probably  fell  very  far  short  of  the  Phoenicians 
both  as  respected  their  vessels  and  their  nau- 
tical skill."  The  story  of  the  Argonautic 
expedition  shows  the  state  of  .navigation 
among  the  Greeks  at  that  time,  B.C.  1263. 
In  their  wars  with  the  Carthaginians,  the 
Romans  found  it  necessary  to  form  a  navy, 
B.C.  260.  Venice  began  to  assufne  importance 
on  the  seas  about  600 ;  and  the  Genoese 
about  1000.  In  modern  times  navigation  has 
attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection  by  the  aid 
of  the  mariner's  compass  7.  r. ',  logarithms,  in- 
vented in  1614,  and  the  quadrant,  in  1731. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.— The  first  maritime 
code  accepted  in  Europe  was  the  Oleron  Laws 
<<).  i-.).  Foreign  ships  were  prohibited  from 
fishiiig  and  trading  on  the  English  coasts  by 
5  Eliz.  c.  5  (1562).  The  Act  of  Navigation  of 
the  Long  Parliament,  passed  Oct.  9,  1651, 


prohibited  importation  into  the  British  ter- 
ritories, except  iu  ships  owned  and  manned 
by  English  subjects,  and  these  restrictions 
were  confirmed  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  18  (1660); 
which  is  sometimes  styled  the  Charta  Mari- 
time. Several  acts  of  similar  import  were 
afterwards  passed,  which  were  consolidated 
and  amended  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  54  (Aug. 
28,  1833).  Most  of  these  restrictions  were 
repealed  by  the  act  to  amend  the  laws  in 
force  for  the  encouragement  of  British  ship- 
ping and  navigation,  12  <fe  13  Viet.  c.  29  (June 
26,  1849),  which  came  into  operation  Jan.  i, 
1850.  Steam  navigation  is  regulated  by  14  & 
15  Viet.  c.  79  (Aug.  7,  1851),  which  took  effect 
Jan.  i,  1852.  Further  provisions  were  made 
by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Law  Amendment 
Act,  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  131  (Aug.  20,  1853),  amend- 
ed by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  104  (Aug.  10,  1854^, 
18  &  19  Viet.  c.  91  (Aug.  14,  1855),  and  25  & 
26  Viet.  c.  63  (July  29,  1862).  Foreign  ships 
were  admitted  to  the  coasting  trade  by  17  &  18 
Viet.  c.  5  (March  23,  1854). 

NAVIGATORS'  or  SAMOAN  ISLANDS. 
(Pacific).  A  group  consisting  of  three  larger 
and  five  smaller  islands,  were  visited  by  mis- 
sionaries from  Otaheite  in  1830. 

NAVVY.— A  writer  in  "  Notes  and  Queries" 
(xi.  p.  424)  asserts  that  this  term,  as  applied 
to  a  railway  labourer,  is  a  corruption  of  the 
word  navigator,  the  name  by  which  men  em- 
ployed in  constructing  navigable  canals  were 
designated.  Navvy  took  the  place  of  the 
more  appropriate  term,  excavator.  Towards 
the  end  of  1854,  a  number  of  navvies  were 
sent  to  the  Crimea  to  construct  a  line  of  rail- 
way between  Sebastopol  and  Balaclava,  which 
place  they  reached  in  February,  1855. 

NAVY  (English).— The  ancient  Britons  made 
use  of  boats  rudely  formed  of  wickerwork, 
and  covered  with  skins.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  reign  of  Alfred  that  a  fleet  was  con- 
structed. 


.. 

53.  The  use  of  boats  of  various  sizes,  for  warlike  as 
well  as  for  commercial  purposes,  is  common 
amongst  the  early  Britons. 

A.D. 
897.  Alfred  the  Grent  causes  a  fleet  of  "  long  ships"  to  be 

built  to  resist  the  Danes. 
964.  Edgar,  in  a  charter  of  doubtful  authenticity,  asserts 

his  authority  over  the  ocean  lying  round  Britain. 
973.  Edgar,  with   his  marine   force,  make*  ft  triumphal 
|i]-nci'.-.sion  on  the  river  Dee,  his  own  barge  being 
rowed  by  eight  tributary  kings. 

978 — 1016.  The  laws  of  Ethelred  II.  order  ships  of  war 
to  be  prepared  annually  after  Easter. 

1008.  Ethelred  II.  order  ships  to  be  built  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  prepares  a  large  fleet 

1012.  Ethelred  II.  hires  45  ships  from  the  Danes,  and 
levies  the  "  heregeld  "  to  defray  the  expense  of 
his  navy. 

1053.  Edward  the  Confessor  abolishes  the  heregeld, 
"wherewith  the  people  were  manifoldly  dis- 
tressed." 

1066.  Harold  II.  assembles  a  large  fleet  at  Sandwich.— 
Sep.  8.  He  is  compelled  to  dismiss  it  for  want  of 
provisions. — Sep.  27-  The  fleet  with  which  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  embarked  for  England  is 
variously  estimated.  Thierry  states  that  it  num- 
bered 400  ships  and  more  than  l.ooc  transport 
boats.  Other  writers  mention  different  numbers, 
ranging  from  696  to  3.000  vessels. 

1171.  Henry  II.  assembles  a  large  fleet  to  convey  his  army 
to  Ireland.— Oct.  18.  He  lands  at  Waterford. 

Il8r.  Henry  II.  prohibits  the  sale  of  British  ships  to 
foreigners. 


NAXOS 


[    693    ] 


NEBULAR 


A.D. 

1189.  Richard  I.'s  fleet  for  the  invasion  of  Palestine  co: 

gists  of  loo  ships  and  14  busses;  viz.,  "vessels  of 
great  capacity,  very  strongly  and  compactly 
built."  Sir  Han-is  Nicolas  states  that  the  reign  of 
Richard  I.  forms  the  first  great  epoch  in  the  naval 
history  of  England. 

1191.  Richard  I.'s  fleet  is  scattered  by  storms  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

1300.  King  John  is  stated,  on  doubtful  authority,  to  have 
demanded  that  all  ships  whatever  should  lower 
their  sails,  as  a  token  of  respect,  when  they  met 
his  fleet  at  sea. 

1394.  Edward  I.  divides  the  navy  into  three  squadrons, 
stationed  at  Yarmouth,  Portsmouth,  and  in  Ire- 
land and  the  West. 

1303 — 1307.  A  document  which  asserts  the  right  of  Eng- 
land to  the  sovereignty  of  the  narrow  seas  was 
signed  about  this  time. 

1330,  Oct.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  the  Flemings,  in 
which  they  admit  the  English  sovereignty  of  the 
narrow  seas. 

1340,  June  34.  Edward  III.  defeats  the  French  fleet  at 

1346,  July?!8' The  fleet  in  which  Edward  III.  invades 

France  is  estimate:!  at  from  i.oooto  1,600  vessels; 

but  this  is  regarded  as  an  exaggeration. 
1373,  Jan.  8.  Edward  III.  hires  galleys  and  seamen  from 

the  Genoese. 
1413.  Henry  V.  causes  larger  ships  to  be  built  than  were 

before  known,   and  evinces  a  great  desire  for  the 

improvement  of  the  navy. 
1415,  Aug.  10.  Henry  V.  embarks   for  France  with  a  fleet 

of  1,500  ships. 
1488.  Henry  VII.  builds  the  Great  Harry,  the  first  ship  of 

the  roval  navy. 
1500.  The  King's  ships  form  a  distinct  class,   exclusively 

devoted  to  warlike  purposes. 
1515.  Henry  VIII.  builds  the  Henry-Grace-a-Dieu,    and 

establishes  the  Trinity  House  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  navigation. 
1546.  The  royal  navy  consists  of  58  ships,  amounting  to 

13,455  tons,  with  8,546  sailors. 
1553-  The  Great  Harry  is  burned  at   Woolwich.     English 

merchants  fit  out  ships  for  voyages  of  discovery 

and  trade. 
1588.  The   English   navy    defeats  the    Spanish    armada 

sists  of  42  ships,  17,055  tons, 

1636.  Chaplains'are  appointed  in  the  navy.     The  navy  is 

divided  into  rates. 

1637.  The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas  is  launched. 

1649.  The   Constant-Warwick,  the  first  British  frigate,  is 

built. 
1674,  Feb.  9.  The  Dutch  yield  the  honour  of  the  flag  to  the 

Englisn  navy. 
1688.  The  English  navy  consists  of  173   ships,   of  101,893 

tons,  with  43,003  sailors.    (See  MAKINES.) 
1703,  Nov.   36 — Dec.  i.  The  great  storm  rages,  in  which 

13  ships  belonging  to  the  royal  navy,  with  1,500 

men,  are  lost. 

1714.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  comptroller  and  commis- 
sioners of  the  navy  is  defined  by  i  Geo.  1.  st.  3, 

c.  35. 

1747.  A  naval  uniform  is  established. 
1749.  The  Articles  of  War  are  established  by  33  Geo.  II. 

c-33- 
1833.  The   Comet,  the  first  steamer    constructed  for  the 

royal  navy,  is  built. 
1840.  The  Dwarf  screw  steamer  is  employed  in  the  service 

of  the  Admiralty. 
1845.  Screw  steam  ships  of  war  are  introduced  into  the 

navy. 

1853,  Aug.  15.  The  Admiralty  are  empowered  to  raise  a 

body  of  royal  naval  coast  volunteers,  by  16  &  17 
Viet.  c.  73. 

1854,  March    10.  The   Queen  reviews  the  Baltic  fleet  at 

Spithead. 

1856,  April  33.  A  naval  review  at  Spithead  before  the 
Queen  and  the  members  of  both  houses  of  Parlia- 
ment. 

1859,  Aug.  13.  A  reserve  volunteer  force  of  seamen  is  es- 
tablished by  33  &  33  Viet.  c.  40. 

NAXOS,  or  NAXUS  (Archipelago),  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  is  said  to  have 
received  its  name  from  Naxos,  who  planted  a 


•    •• 

1603.  The  English   navy  con 
with  8,346  sailors. 


colony  of  Carians  in  the  island.  The  Persians 
having  assailed  it  without  success  B.C.  501, 
conquered  it  B.C.  490.  The  Athenians  reduced 
the  inhabitants  to  subjection  B.C.  471.  They 
revolted  B.C.  467,  and  having  been  defeated, 
their  navy  was  destroyed  B.C.  466.  It  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  bishop  in  the  sth  century, 
and  its  first  bishop,  Barachus,  was  present 
at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Mai-co 
Sanudo,  a  Venetian,  took  possession  of  Naxos, 
and  founded  a  state  called  the  duchy  of  the 
JSgean  Sea,  in  1207.  It  lasted  360  years,  and 
was  overthrown  by  the  Turks  in  1566.  Naxos 
forms  part  of  the  modem  kingdom  of  Greece. 

NAXOS,  or  NAXUS  (Sicily).  —  This,  the 
most  ancient  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily, 
was  founded  B.C.  735,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
thus  named  because  among  its  first  settlers 
were  some  people  from  the  island  of  Naxos. 
Hippocrates  of  Gela  conquered  it  about  B.C. 
495,  and  it  was  subject  to  Hieron  I.  of  Syracuse 
B.C.  476.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  seized  it  B.C. 
403,  sold  the  inhabitants  to  slavery,  and  de- 
stroyed the  city.  (See  TAUROMENIUM.) 

NAZARENES,  the  name  was  applied  to  the 
Jewish  Christians  as  a  term  of  reproach 
(Acts  xxiv.  5),  in  56,  and  also  to  the  early 
Jewish  Christians,  who  maintained  that  they 
were  bound  to  observe  the  Mosaic  law.  Some 
of  them  retired  to  Pella  in  66.  (See  EBIONITES.) 
Later  sects  of  Nazarenes  held  peculiar  notions 
on  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  are  mentioned  as 
heretics  by  Epiphanius  in  the  4th  century. 
These  heretics  are  said  to  have  sprung  up  in 
the  2nd  century.  Some  authorities  contend 
that  the  Christians  recognized  this  name  till 
the  heresy  of  the  Nazarenes  broke  out,  and 
that  in  consequence  they  adopted  the  appel- 
lation of  Christians  (Acts  xi.  26),  in  41.  Thesa 
writers  contend  for  a  much  earlier  date  than 
that  usually  accepted  for  the  origin  of  the, 
heresy. 

NAZARETH  (Galilee).  —  From  this  eity, 
where  the  Saviour  passed  the  commencement: 
and  the  greater  portion  of  his  human  existence,, 
his  followers  were  called  Nazarenes.  Prince 
Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  wrested  thia. 
town  from  the  Saracens  in  May,  1271^  during 
the  last  crusade.  (See  LORETO.) 

NAZARITES,  or  NAZIRITES,  members 
of  either  sex,  amongst  the  Jews,  bound  by 
a  particular  vow,  as  set  apart  for  the  service 
of  God  (Numb.  vi.  i — 21).  Samson,  Samuel, 
and  St.  John  the  Baptist,  were  Nazarites  for 
life. 

NEAPOLIS.— (See  NAPLES.) 

NEAPOLIS  (Palestine),  the  ancient  Shechem, 
or  Sichem  (q.  v.},  the  modern  Nablus  (q.  v.), 
or  Nabulus,  received  the  name  of  Neapolis, 
when  restored  by  Vespasian  about  70. 

NEBRASKA  (N.  America)  formed  part  of 
Louisiana  when  purchased  by  the  United 
States  Government  in  1803,  and  was  separated 
from  Kansas  and  made  a  distinct  territory  by 
act  of  congress  in  1854. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS.  —  The  theory 
that  nebulae  are  planetary  or  solar  bodies  in 
course  of  formation,  and  hence  that  the  uni- 
verse is  derived  from  nebulae,  was  originated 
by  Sir  William  Herschel,  who  read  a  paper  on 
the  subject  to  the  Royal  Society  June  20,  i8nv 


NECKLACE 


[    694    ] 


NEMEAN 


NECKLACE.  —  (See  ANNUNCIADA  and 
DIAMOND  NECKLACE.) 

NECROMANCERS,  or  persons  who  pre- 
tended to  practise  the  art  of  divination  by 
conjuring  up  the  dead,  originated  in  the  East 
at  a  very  remote  age.  Saul  consulted  the 
Witch  of  Endor  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  7 — 25)  8.0.1055. 
(See  CRYSTAL  GLASS  and  SPIRIT-RAPPING.) 

NECTARINE.  —  This  fruit-tree  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Persia  about  1562. 

NEEDLE  GUN.  —  The  invention  has  been 
claimed  for  several  persons.  Capt.  James 
Whitley  had  a  breech-loading  gun  constructed 
in  Dublin  in  1823 ;  Abraham  Mosar  took  out  a 
patent  in  London  for  a  musket  constructed  on 
the  principle  of  placing  and  igniting  the  charge 
in  front  of  the  projectile,  by  means  of  a  needle, 
Dec.  15,  1831 ;  and  John  Hanson  of  Hud- 
dersfield,  patented  a  needle  gun  in  1843. 
Nicolas  Dreyse,  a  locksmith,  the  inventor  of 
the  needle  gun  used  with  such  effect  in  the 
German  war  of  1866,  had  long  turned  his 
attention  to  the  subject,  and  finally  induced 
the  Prussians  to  adopt  his  improved  rifle. 
(See  SNIDER  GUN.) 

NEEDLES,  though  introduced  into  England 
from  Germany,  were  at  first  called  Spanish 
needles,  from  the  fact  that  the  manufacture 
originated  in  Spain.  Needles  were  first  mii'le 
in  England  about  1565  ;  and  the  art  having 
declined,  was  re-introduced  in  1650.  .The 
needlemakera  were  incorporated  in  1656. 

NEEMUCH  (Hindostan). — The  native  officers 
at  this  town  who  swore  on  the  Koran  and  on 
Ganges  water  that  they  would  be  true  to  their 
salt,  June  2,  1857,  violated  their  oath,  joined 
in  the  mutiny,  massacred  several  of  the 
Europeans  June  3,  expelled  the  remainder, 
and  obtained  entire  possession  of  the  town 
June  10. 

NEERWINDEN,  or  NERWINDEN  (Battle).— 
The  Imperialists,  commanded  by  the  Arch- 
duke Charles,  defeated  the  French  republicans, 
under  Dumouriez,  at  this  village,  near  Tirle- 
mont,  March  18,  1793.  (See  LANDEN.) 

NEGAPATAM  (Hindostan),  was  a  small  vil- 
lage until  fortified  by  the  Portuguese  colonists. 
The  Dutch  captured  it  in  1660,  under  whose 
rule  it  became  a  place  of  importance.  They 
improved  the  fortifications,  and  made  Negapa- 
tam  the  capital  of  their  colonies  on  the  coast 
of  Coromandel.  The  English  took  it  after  a 
siege  of  four  weeks'  duration,  Nov.  12,  1781  ; 
and  it  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles, Sep.  3,  1783. 

NEGAPATAM  (Sea-fights).  —  Admiral  Po- 
eock,  with  seven  ships  of  the  line,  defeated  a 
French  fleet  off  this  port,  April  28,  1758.  The 
English  vessels  received  considerable  damage, 

but  their  opponents  fled. Another  naval 

action  between  De  Suffren  with  a  French,  and 
Sir  Edward  Hughes  with  an  English,  fleet, 
took  place  off  this  port,  July  6,  1782.  The 
former  had  168  killed  and  601  wounded,  and 
the  latter  77  killed  and  233  wounded.  The 
French  fleet  escaped. 

NEGRAIS  (Bay  of  Bengal).— The  English 
formed  a  settlement  on  this  island  in  1687,  but 
it  was  soon  after  abandoned.  It  was  occupied 
by  an  English  force  in  1751,  and  was  ceded  in 
1757  by  the  Burmese,  who  attacked  it  and 


slaughtered  all  the  inhabitants  in  1759.  The 
English  captured  it  during  the  Burmese  war  in 
1824,  and  it  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany by  the  fourth  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Yandaboo,  Feb.  24,  1826. 

NEGRO.— (-See  ALBINOS  and  SLAVERY.) 

NEGROPONT  (^Egean  Sea),  the  ancient  Chal- 
cis  (q.v.),in.  the  island  of  Eubcea,  fell  under 
the  rule  of  the  Venetians  in  1204,  receiving 
from  them  the  name  of  Negropont,  and  was 
wrested  from  them  by  the  Turks  in  1470.  The 
Venetians  failed  in  an  attempt  to  regain  pos- 
session in  1688.  During  the  insurrectionary 
war,  the  pasha  was  besieged  in  the  fortress, 
which  was  relieved  by  the  Turkish  fleet  March 
17,  1823.  A  reinforcement  of  3,000  men  en- 
abled the  Turks  to  resume  the  offensive  in 
June,  1824. 

NEGUS.— This  beverage,  consisting  of  wine 
mixed  with  water,  was  named  after  Col.  Fran- 
cis Negus,  commissioner  for  executing  the 
office  of  master  of  the  horse  during  the  reign 
of  George  I.  (1714 — 27).  During  a  quarrel,  in 
which  high  words  were  used  between  some 
Whigs  and  Tories,  he  recommended  them  to 
dilute  their  wine  as  he  did,  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance wine  and  water  was  nicknamed 
negus. 

NEHEMIAII.— This  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, giving  the  history  of  the  Jews  from  B.C. 
445  to  B.C.  433,  was  written  by  Nehemiah, 
governor  of  Judaea.  The  date  of  composition 
is  not  known. 

NEIGHBOURLY  LOVE.  —  This  order  for 
females  was  founded  by  the  Empress  Eliza- 
beth of  Austria  in  1708. 

NEILG1IEU1UKS  (Hindostan).— This  range 
of  mountain  territory,  in  the  presidency  of 
Madras,  remarkable  for  its  salubrity,  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  English  in  1799. 
Ootakamund,  the  first  sanitary  station  on  the 
northern  mountains,  was  founded  in  1822. 

NEISSE  (Prussia),  said  to  have  been  built  in 
966,  was  not  fortified  before  1594.  Frederick 
II.  took  it  in  December,  1741,  and  he  laid  the 
first  stone  of  Fort  Preussen  in  1743.  The 
Austrians  besieged  it  without  success  in  1758. 
The  episcopal  palace  is  an  ancient  building, 
and  here  in  1769  a  celebrated  meeting  took 
place  between  Frederick  II.  and  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  The  French  under  Vandamme  laid 
siege  to  Neisse  Jan.  17,  1806.  Gen.  Kleist, 
with  4,000  men,  attempted  to  relieve  it  during 
the  night,  April  20,  1807,  but  was  defeated  by 
the  arrival  of  Jerome  Buonaparte  with  a 
powerful  reinforcement.  It  capitulated  June  6, 
1807,  when  this  large  fortress,  with  320  pieces 
of  cannon  and  5,000  men,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French.  The  library,  containing  10,000 
volumes,  was  burned  during  the  siege. 

NELL ARU.— (See  FURRUCKABAD.) 

NELSON  (New  Zealand)  was  settled  in  1843. 
Extensive  coal-fields  were  discovered  in  1852, 
and  gold  was  found  in  the  vicinity  in  1856. 
The  bishopric  was  founded  in  1858. 

NEMEAN  GAMES  were  celebrated  at  Nemea 
(whence  their  name),  a  village  in  Argolis. 
According  to  the  legend,  they  were  instituted 
in  memory  of  Opheltes,  or  Archemorus,  who 
was  killed  by  a  dragon  while  Hypsipile,  his 
nurse,  was  gone  to  show  the  seven  champions, 


NEMOURS 


[    695    ] 


NESTORIANS 


on  their  way  to  attack  Thebes,  the  nearest 
well.  They  were  first  celebrated  B.C.  1230, 
and  are  said  to  have  been  revived  by  Hercules 
B.C.  1226.  Philip  V.  of  Macedonia  was  made 
president  of  the  Neineaii  games  by  the  Argives 
B.C.  208.  Having  fallen  into  neglect  they  were 
restored  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (117 — 138), 
and  soon  after  his  reign  ceased  altogether. 

NEMOURS  (France).— The  old  castle,  for- 
merly the  seat  of  the  dukes  of  Nemours,  con- 
tains a  library  of  10,000  volumes.  The  title  of 
duke  was  first  borne  by  the  Armagnac  family 
descended  from  Caribert,  son  of  Clotaire  II. 
who  died  in  630.  Louis,  the  last  duke  of  tha  ; 
family,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cerignola 
in  Apulia,  April  28,  1503.  Gastjn  de  Foix 
who  was  made  the  next  duke  by  Louis  XII. 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ravenna,  April  u, 
1512.  The  title  was  given  to  Philip  of  Savoy 
by  Francis  I.  in  1528,  and  continued  in  his  line 
until  1659.  It  is  borne  by  the  second  son  of 
the  late  Louis  Philippe.  An  edict  issued  here 
by  Henry  III.  of  France,  July  7,  1585,  revoked 
all  concessions  made  to  the  Huguenots.  (See 
ALGERIA.) 

NEO-C^ESAREA  (Pontus).— Is  supposed  to 
have  been  founded  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
(14 — 37).  Councils  were  held  here  in  314  or 
315,  and  in  358.  It  was  at  one  time  called 
Adrian opolis,  and  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed 
by  ail  earthquake. 

NEO  (NEW)  PLATONISTS.— This  name  is 
given  to  the  philosophers  of  the  school  of 
Alexandria,  who  endeavoured  to  combine  the 
doctrines  of  Plato  and  Christianity  into  one 
system.  The  sect  was  founded  by  Ammonius, 
named  Saccas,  or  the  sack-carrier,  because  he 
had  commenced  life  as  a  porter  (160 — 243),  and 
numbered  Plotinus  (205 — 270)  and  Porphyry 
(233 — 305)  among  its  most  distinguished  mem- 
bers. Proclus,  one  of  the  last  distinguished 
members  of  the  sect,  died  in  485.  Some 
writers  style  Philo  Judaaus  (B.C.  20 — A.D.  40) 
and  some  of  the  early  fathers,  Neo-Platonists. 

NEPAUL  (Hindostan)  is  said  to  have  been 
conquered  in  1323  by  Hurr  Singh,  Prince  of 
Oudh.  The  Ghoorkas,  who  completed  the  con- 
quest of  Nepaul  in  1768,  and  the  Newars, 
principally  artisans,  are  the  inhabitants.  A 
treaty  of  commerce  was  concluded  between 
the  British  Government  and  Nepaul,  March  i, 
1792,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Dinapore,  concluded 
Oct.  1801,  political  relations  were  established 
between  the  two  governments.  This  alliance 
was  dissolved  in  1804,  and,  until  1812,  little 
intercourse  took  place.  The  repeated  remon- 
strances of  the  English  against  border  inva- 
sions were  neglected,  and  Nov.  i,  1814,  war 
was  declared.  It  was  carried  on  with  great 
vigour,  and  the  Nepaulese,  after  numerous 
defeats,  sued  for  peace.  The  treaty  of  Segoulee 
was  signed  Dec.  2,  1815.  The  signature  of  the 
rajah  having  been  withheld,  the  English  again 
took  the  field,  and  the  Nepaulese,  after  having 
sustained  several  severe  defeats,  offered  to 
treat,  and  the  unsigned  treaty  of  1815  was 
duly  ratified,  March  4,  1816.  Jung  Bahadoor 
sent  a  contingent  of  Ghoorka  troops  to  the  aid 
of  the  British  during  the  mutiny  of  1857. 

NEPHALIA.— Festivals  celebrated  in  Greece 
in  honour  of  various  deities  were  so  called 


because    no  wine  was    used  during  the  fes- 
tivities.    They  were  instituted  at  Athens  B.C. 

'NEPHILIM.— (See  GIANTS.) 

NEPTHALITES,  EPHTHALITES,  or 
WHITE  HUNS,  a  branch  of  the  nation  of  the 
Huns,  from  whom  the  Turkomans  are  probably 
descended,  emigrated  to  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  after  having  been  defeated  by 
the  Sienpi  Tartars  in  100.  Having  extended 
their  conquests  from  that  point  to  the  centre 
of  India,  an  expedition  was  undertaken  against 
them  by  Firouz,  King  of  Persia,  who  encoun- 
tered the  cavalry  of  the  Huns  supported  by 
a  line  of  2,000  elephants,  and  lost  both  his 
army  and  his  life  in  488.  They  were  subdued 
by  the  Turks  about  545. 

NEPTUNE.— The  planet  Uranus,  discovered 
by  the  elder  Herschel  in  1781,  had  deviated  so 
much  from  its  primary  position,  that  in  1830 
the  longitudinal  error  amounted  to  half  a 
minute  of  space.  This  deviation  could  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  disturbing  action  of  an 
undiscovered  planet,  which  was  discovered  and 
named  Neptune  by  Mr.  Adams,  of  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  Sep.  23,  1846.  About  the 
same  time  M.  le  Verrier,  the  French  astrono- 
mer, made  a  similar  discovery. 

NERAC  (France),  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
duchy,  was  the  scene  of  a  conference  between 
Catherine  de  Medici  and  Henry  of  Navarre  in 
Feb.  1579.  A  secret  treaty  was  signed  extend- 
ing the  concessions  granted  to  the  Huguenots 
by  the  treaty  of  Bergerac.  The  inhabitants 
revolted,  and  their  town  was  taken  by  Mayenne 
in  1621,  when  the  fortifications  were  destroyed. 

NERCHINSK,  or  NIPCHOO  (Treaty),  was 
concluded  between  Russia  and  China  at  this 
j)lace  in  Siberia,  founded  in  1658,  settling  the 
boundaries  of  these  respective  empires,  Oct.  21, 
1727.  It  provided  for  a  Russian  resident  at 
Pekin,  and  permitted  200  merchants  to  trade 
in  China  once  in  three  years.  In  consequence 
of  the  death  of  Catherine  I.,  it  was  not  ratified 
until  June  14,  1728. 

NERESHEIM  (Battle).— An  indecisive  action 
was  fought  at  this  place,  in  Germany,  between 
the  French,  commanded  by  Moreau,  and  the 
Austrians,  led  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  Aug. 
10,  1796. 

NERl. — (See  BIANCHI  AND  NERI.) 

NERVII,  described  as  the  most  warlike  of 
the  tribes  of  Belgica,  are  first  mentioned  by 
Caesar  B.C.  57,  when  he  defeated  them  in  a 
severely  contested  battle  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Sambre.  They  rose  again  in  arms  B.C.  54, 
when  they  joined  the  Eburones  in  an  un- 
successful attack  upon  the  camp  of  Quintus 
Cicero,  and  were  subdued  by  the  Romans  B.C. 
53.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Gallic  states,  B.C.  52, 
the  Nervii  sent  5,000  men  as  their  contingent 
to  the  relief  of  Alesia. 

NESBIT  MOORE  (Battle)  was  fought  May  7, 
1402,  between  the  Scotch,  under  Sir  P.  Hep- 
burn, of  Hailes,  and  the  English,  under  the 
Earls  of  Percy  and  March.  The  Scotch  were 
defeated,  their  leader  and  most  of  his  knights 
were  slain,  and  the  rest  taken  prisoners. 

NESTORIANS.— This  sect  at  first  consisted 
of  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople (428 — 431),  who  taught  that  the 


NETHERLANDS 


[    696    ] 


NEVADA 


Virgin  should  not  be  worshipped  as  the  mother 
of  God,  and  that  the  divine  and  human  natures 
were  not  so  united  in  Christ  as  to  form  but  one 
person.  His  views  were  condemned,  and  he 
himself  deposed,  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(the  third  general  council)  June  22 — July  31, 
431  ;  and  after  leading  the  life  of  an  exile  in 
Arabia,  he  died  in  Egypt  about  450.  Barsumas, 
Bishop  of  Nisibis,  established  the  doctrines  in 
Persia  in  440,  and  founded  the  school  of  Nisibis, 
which  subsequently  carried  Nestorianism  into 
Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  India,  Tartary,  and 
China.  Babacus,  Archbishop  of  Seleucia,  held 
a  council  in  499,  at  which  the  whole  Persian 
church  professed  Nestorian  views,  and  made 
regulations  prohibiting  celibacy  in  the  priest- 
hood. A  separate  patriarchate,  which  was 
established  about  the  same  time  at  Seleucia, 
was  transferred  to  Bagdad  in  752,  and  after- 
wards to  Mosul.  When  the  Portuguese,  under 
Vasco  de  Gama,  arrived  on  the  Malabar  coast  in 
1498,  they  found  upwards  of  100  churches  be- 
longing to  the  Nestorian  Christians.  Chris- 
tianity is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Malabar  by  sonic  Nestorians  in  the  sth 
century.  The  inquisition  was  established  at 
Goa  to  repress  the  heresy,  and  in  1807  the 
churches  had  dwindled  to  55.  The  Nestorians 
reject  image-worship,  and  regard  the  Scriptures 
as  the  only  source  whence  true  doctrine  is  to 
be  derived.  (See  ADOPTIANS.) 

NKTI I  K U I ,.\  N  I  >S.— (See  BELGIUM,  HOLLAND, 
and  UNITED  PROVINCES.) 

NETLEY  HOSPITAL.— The  Royal  Victoria 
Hospital  at  Netley,  on  Southampton  Water,  for 
invalid  soldiers,  was  commenced  in  1855. 
Queen  Victoria,  who  laid  the  foundation  stone, 
May  19,  1856,  visited  it  May  8,  1863.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation  stone  of 
a  monument  in  memory  of  the  medical  officers 
who  died  in  the  Crimea,  Aug.  i,  1864. 

NEUBURG  (Bavaria  . —The  French,  who 
seized  this  town,  in  the  circle  of  Swabia,  in 
1702,  abandoned  it  on  the  approach  of  Marl- 
borough,  July  7,  1704. 

NEUCHATEL,  or  NEUFCHATEL  (Switzer- 
land), was  a  fief  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  had  its  line  of  counts  till  1288.  It 
was  admitted  into  the  Swiss  confederation  in 
1398,  and  the  county  of  Valendis  having  been 
joined  to  it  in  1579,  the  counts  changed  their 
title  to  that  of  Prince  of  Neuchatel.  After  the 
death  of  William  III.  of  England,  on  whom 
the  title  had  devolved,  it  passed  to  his  nephew, 
Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  in  1702.  Napoleon  I. 
compelled  the  King  of  Prussia  to  surrender  it 
in  1806,  and  gave  it  to  Gen.  Berthier ;  but  it 
was  restored  to  Prussia  in  1814.  A  republican 
government  was  established  in  1848,  since 
which  time  the  King  of  Prussia's  authority 
has  been  but  nominal.  An  attempt  was  made, 
Sep.  2,  1856,  to  re-establish  the  authority  of 
Prussia.  It  proved  unsuccessful,  and  compli- 
cations having  arisen,  the  great  powers  at  last 
mediated  between  the  contending  parties  in 
a  conference  assembled  at  Paris,  March  15, 
1857,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  May 
26,  by  which  the  King  of  Prussia  resigned  his 
sovereignty,  retaining  only  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Neuchatel. 

NEUHAUSEL    (Hungary).  —  This    fortress, 


taken  by  the  Turks,  Sep.  24,  1663,  was  wrested 
from  them  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  in  1685. 

NEU-KOLIN.— (See  KOLIN.) 

NEUSATZ  (Hungary),  founded  in  1700,  was 
taken  by  the  Austrians  from  the  Hungarian 
insurgents,  June  n,  1849. 

NEUSS  (Prussia). —The  ancient  Novesium, 
sacked  by  Attila  in  451.  The  Northmen  sacked 
it  in  the  gth  century,  and  the  Emperor  Philip 
took  it  in  1206.  The  Church  of  St.  Quirinus 
was  built  in  1209.  Charles  the  Bold  besieged 
it  July  29,  1474,  and  after  making  mai;y  as- 
saults  raised  the  siege  June  28,  1475,  and  the 
Spaniards  took  it  in  1586.  The  French  cap- 
tured it  in  1642  and  in  1794,  and  defeated  the 
Russians  in  the  neighbourhood  hi  1813. 

NEUSTRIA  (France).  — On  the  death  of 
Clovis  I.  at  Paris,  Nov.  27,  511,  his  kingdom 
was  divided,  when  Soissons  and  its  territory, 
afterwards  called  Neu  stria,  or  West  France, 
was  allotted  to  his  son  Clotaire  L,  who  reigned 
from  511  to  561. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF  NEUSTRIA. 


A.n. 

561.  Chilpericl. 

584.  Clotiiiiv  II. 

628.  Dagobert  I. 

638.  Clovis  II. 

656.  Clotaiiv  III. 

670.  Thierry  III. 

691.  Clovis  111. 


695.  Childebert  III. 

711.  Dagobert  III. 

715.  C'hilperlc  II. 

720.  Thierry  IV. 

743.  Chilperic  III. 

7=;:;.  I'i'iiin. 

768.  Carloman. 


Carloman  died  Dec.  3,  771,  and  his  brother 
Charlemagne  became  sole  King  of  France. 
Louis  I.,  in  837,  allotted  Neustria  to  his 
youngest  son,  Charles  the  Bald,  who  in  840 
became  King  of  France,  and  the  first  of  the 
Carolingian  line. 

NKI  TKALITY  LAWS. -The  plenipotentia- 
ries of  Austria,  I-' ranee,  Great  Britain,  Prussia, 
Russia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey,  assembled  in 
Paris,  in  1856,  in  order  to  establish  a  uniform 
system  respecting  the  relations  between  belli- 
gerents and  neutrals,  agreed  to  the  following 
points : — The  abolition  of  privateering  ;  the 
right  of  a  neutral  flag  to  cover  enemy's  goods, 
unless  contraband  of  war  ;  the  freedom  of 
neutral  goods,  not  being  contraband  of  war, 
from  capture  when  under  an  enemy's  ting  ; 
and  that  blockades,  to  be  binding,  must  be 
effective.  The  declaration  embodying  these 
resolutions  was  signed  at  Paris,  April  16,  1856. 
(See  ARMED  NEUTRALITY.) 

NEVA  (Battle). — Alexander  I.  of  Russia  de- 
feated the  Swedes  and  the  Danes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Neva  in  1241,  and  took  the  surname  of 
Newski  in  commemoration  of  the  event. 

NEVA  (Russia). — Inundations  of  the  Neva 
occurred  in  1728,  1729,  1735,  1740,  1742,  and 
1777  ;  but  the  most  extensive  and  disastrous 
happened  Nov.  19,  1824,  when  the  river  rose 
to  the  first  story  of  the  houses  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. Carriages  and  horses  were  swept  away, 
and  a  regiment  of  carbineers,  who  had  climbed 
to  the  roofs  of  their  barracks,  were  drowned. 
At  Cronstadt  a  loo-gun  ship  of  the  line  was 
left  in  the  middle  of  the  market-place,  more 
than  10,000  lives  were  lost,  and  property  to 
the  amount  of  many  millions  was  destroyed 
by  this  terrible  calamity. 

NEVADA    (N.  America),  was  organized  as 


NEVAHEND 


t    697     ] 


NEWCASTLE 


a  territory  of  the  United  States,  March  2,  1861. 
Numerous  silver  mines  were  discovered  in 
1862.  It  was  admitted  as  a  state  of  the  Union 
Oct.  31,  1864. 

NEVAHEND  (Battle),  called  by  the  Arabs 
"  the  victory  of  victories,"  because  it  subjected 
the  Persians  to  their  sway,  was  fought  in  640. 

NEVERS  (France).— The  ancient  Noviodu- 
num,  the  principal  stronghold  of  the  Sues- 
sones  captured  by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  57,  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  506,  and  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Nevirnum.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  gth  century  its  rulers  obtained  the 
title  of  count.  It  was  annexed  to  Burgundy  in 
1384,  and  Francis  I.  made  it  a  duchy  in  1538. 
The  town  has  been  frequently  besieged. 

NEVILLE'S  CROSS.— (See  DURHAM  or  NE- 
VILLE'S CROSS,  Battle.) 

NEVIS  (Atlantic  Ocean),  one  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  discovered  by  Columbus,  and  named 
after  the  mountain  Nieves,  in  Spain,  was  first 
colonized  by  the  English  in  1628.  It  was  taken 
by  the  French  Feb.  14,  1782,  and  restored  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Sep.  3,  1783.  Since  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves,  Aug.  i,  1834,  it  has 
declined.  The  Wesleyans  founded  a  mission  in 
1789. 

NEW  ABERDEEN.— (See  ABERDEEN.) 

NEW  ADELPHI  THEATRE.  —(See  ADELPHI 
THEATRE.) 

NEW  ALBANY  (N.  America).— This  city,  on 
the  Ohio,  in  Indiana,  was  founded  in  1813. 

NEW  AMSTERDAM  (Berbice).— This  town 
was  commenced  by  the  Dutch  in  1796.  (See  NEW 
YORK.) 

NEW  AQUILEIA.— (See  GRADO.) 

NEWARK  (N.  America),  in  New  Jersey, 
was  settled  by  a  Puritan  colony  from  Connecti- 
cut in  1666. 

NEWARK  (Nottinghamshire).  —  The  castle 
was  built  in  1125  by  Alexander,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  who,  having  rebelled  against  King 
Stephen  in  1139,  was  taken  and  sent  prisoner  to 
his  own  castle.  Here  King  John  died  Oct.  19, 
1216,  and  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  a  guest  after 
his  fall  in  1530.  Edward  VI.  granted  its  first 
charter  of  incorporation,  which  was  extended 
by  Charles  II.  Newark  was  given  up  to  the 
Scotch  army  May  8,  1646.  In  1775  the  wooden 
bridge  over  the  Trent  was  replaced  by  one  of 
brick. 

NEW  BARCELONA  (S.  America).  —  This 
town  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1634. 
The  province  of  the  same  name,  of  which  it 
was  the  capital,  with  six  other  provinces, 
formed  themselves  into  the  American  Confede- 
ration of  Venezuela,  April  19,  1810. 

NEW  BLACKFRIARS  BRIDGE  (London). 
The  works  were  commenced  Feb.  6,  1864  ;  the 
temporary  bridge  was  opened  June  u,  1864, 
and  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  bridge 
was  laid  by  Warren  Stormes  Hale,  Lord 
Mayor,  July  20,  1865. 

NEW  BRITAIN  (Pacific  Ocean).— This  island, 
separated  from  New  Guinea  by  a  narrow  strait, 
was  seen  by  Le  Maire  and  Schouten  in  1616. 
William  Dampier  was  the  first  to  land,  Feb.  27, 
1700. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK  (N.  America)  originally 
formed  a  part  of  Nova  Scotia,  at  that  time  called 
Acadia,  or  New  France.  The  first  attempt  to 


colonize  it  was  made  in  1639,  and  a  number  of 
French  emigrants  settled  in  the  country  in 
1672.  It  was  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  April  n,  1713.  In  1764  the  first 
British  colonists  landed,  and  in  1785  the  country 
was  separated  from  Nova  Scotia  and  named 
New  Brunswick.  A  great  conflagration  occurred 
in  this  colony  in  1825,  when  a  district  of  more 
than  100  miles  in  length,  including  many 
towns,  was  destroyed.  (See  FREDERICTON.) 

NEWBURN  (Battle). -The  Scotch  defeated 
some  of  the  adherents  of  Charles  I.  at  this 
place,  upon  the  Tyne,  near  Newcastle,  Aug.  27, 
1640. 

NEWBURY  (Battles).— The  Royalist  army, 
commanded  by  Charles  I.,  attacked  the  Par- 
liamentarians at  this  village  in  Berkshire,  Sep. 
20,  1643.  The  cavalry  were  completely  defeated 
by  the  Royalists,  but  the  infantry  stood  firm, 
and  Essex  was  enabled  to  retire  in  good  order. 

Lord  Falkland  fell  in  this  encounter. A 

second  battle  was  fought  at  Newbury,  Oct.  27, 
1644,  when  the  Parliamentarians,  commanded 
by  Waller  and  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  failed 
in  their  attack  upon  the  King's  forces,  and 
afterwards  withdrew  into  winter  quarters. 

NEW  CALEDONIA  (Pacific  Ocean).— Capt. 
Cook  discovered  this  island  Sep.  4,  1774,  and 
lauded  upon  it  and  named  it  the  following  day. 
The  French  took  possession  Sep.  20,  1853,  ar>d 
made  it  a  convict  settlement.  British  Colum- 
bia (q.  v.)  was  at  first  called  New  Caledonia. 
(See  DARIEN.) 

NEW  CARTHAGE.— (-See  CARTHAGENA.) 

NEWCASTLE  (N.  South  Wales).  —  The 
bishopric  was  founded  in  1847. 

NEWCASTLE  ADMINISTRATION.  —  The 
death  of  Mr.  Pelham,  at  that  time  prime  min- 
ister, occurred  March  6,  1754,  and  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  a  few  days  afterwards, 
was  appointed  head  of  the  Government.  The 
cabinet  consisted  of, — 

Treasury  Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Lord  Chancellor Earl  of  Hardwicke. 

President  of  the  Council Earl  Granville. 

Privy  Seal    Lord  Gower. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ...Mr.  H.  Bilson  Legge. 

Principal    Secretaries    of  |g?1gi°1£5SSn,    after- 

Me  (     wards  Lord  Grantham. 

Admiralty    Lord  Anson. 

Board  of  Trade Earl  of  Halifax. 

The  Duke  of  Marlborough  superseded  Lord 
Gower  as  privy  seal,  Jan.  8,  1755  ;  and  Sir 
George  Lyttleton,  bart.,  afterwards  Lord  Lyt- 
tleton,  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
Nov.  22,  1755.  Mr.  Henry  Fox,  afterwards 
Lord  Holland,  succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Robinson 
as  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state, 
Nov.  25,  1755.  The  Duke  of  Newcastle  resigned 
office  Nov.  ii,  1756.  (See  DEVONSHIRE  ADMIN- 
ISTRATION. ) 

NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT  ADMINISTRA- 
TION, also  called  Chatham  (First)  Administra- 
tion.— The  Devonshire  Administration  was  dis- 
solved April  5,  1757,  and  after  negotiations  that 
extended  over  nearly  three  months,  the  Earl 
of  Newcastle  returned  to  the  Treasury,  June 
29,  while  William  Pitt,  afterwards  Lord  Chat- 
ham, was  the  actual  head  of  the  Government. 
The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :— 


NEWCASTLE 


NEW  FOREST 


Principal     Secretaries    of 
State  


Treasury  Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Lord  Keeper    Sir  Robert  Henley. 

at  of  the  Council Earl  Granville. 

Privy  Seal    Earl  Temple. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer    ...Mr.  II.  Bilson  Lcgge. 

(William      Pitt,      afterwards 
\     Karl  Chatham. 
••"  (Earl  of  lioltlernesse. 

Admiralty    Lord  AIIMHI. 

Ordnance Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Board  of  Trade Earl  of  Halifax. 

George  II.  died -suddenly  Oct.  25,  1760.  The 
Newcastle  and  Pitt  Administration  retained 
office,  though  certain  changes  followed  in  a 
short  time.  Lord  Keeper  Henley  was  made 
Lord  Chancellor  Jan.  16,  1761.  Viscount  Bar- 
rington  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
March  12,  1761.  Mr.  Charles  Townshend  took 
the  Ordnance  March  18,  1761.  Lord  Sandys 
succeeded  the  Earl  of  Halifax  as  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  March  21,  1761.  The  Earl 
of  Bute  succeeded  the  Earl  of  Holdernesse  as 
one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state,  March 
25,  1761.  Mr.  Legge  was  also  replaced  by  Lord 
Barrington.  Pitt  having  obtained  information 
of  a  secret  treaty  between  France  and  Spain, 
urged  upon  his  colleagues  to  declare  war 
against  Spain.  This  they  refused  to  do,  where- 
upon he  resigned,  and  the  Earl  of  Egremont 
was  appointed  in  his  place,  Oct.  9,  1761.  His 
relative,  Earl  Temple,  followed  his  example, 
and  the  privy  seal  was  entrusted  to  the  Duke 
of  Bedford,  Nov.  27,  1761.  The  ministry  strug- 
gled on  without  its  real  head  until  May,  1762, 
when  the  Earl  of  Newcastle  resigned.  (See 
BUTE  ADMINISTRATION. ) 

NEWCASTLE- Ul><  >X-TYNE  occupies  the  site 
of  the  Poiis  yElii,  a  fortress  of  the  Humans,  built 
about  120.  The  Saxon  kings  had  a  residence 
here  called  Ad  Murum,  which,  in  636,  was  the 
scene  of  the  baptism  of  t  \vo  royal  converts, — 
Penda,  King  of  the  Mercians,  and  Sigibert, 
King  of  the  East  Angles.  The  Danes  destroyed 
all  the  monasteries  and  churches  of  Newcastle, 
and  murdered  their  inmates,  in  876.  At  the 
time  of  the  Conquest  it  was  called  Monkches- 
ter,  from  the  number  of  monks.  The  castle, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  town,  was  built  in 
1080  by  Robert  Curthose,  the  eldest  son  of 
William  I.  It  was  seized  in  1135  by  David  I., 
King  of  Scotland.  The  Scotch  held  it  till  1157, 
when  it  was  restored  to  Henry  II.  Baliol,  King 
of  Scotland,  did  homage  for  that  crown  to  Ed- 
ward I.  in  the  hall  of  the  castle,  in  1292.  New- 
castle coal  is  first  noticed  in  1234.  The  Trinity 
House  was  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII.  (1509 
— 47).  In  the  war  between  Charles  I.  and  his 
Parliament,  Newcastle  embraced  the  King's 
cause.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Earl  of  Leven, 
and,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  was  taken, 
Oct.  29,  1644.  Newcastle  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  King's  army  in  the  rebellion 
of  1745.  The  bridge  carried  away  in  1771 
by  a  flood,  was  replaced  by  another  in 
stone.  The  high  level  bridge  for  general 
traffic  and  the  railroad  was  erected  1846 — 50. 
St.  Nicholas'  church,  built  in  1091,  and  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1210,  was  rebuilt  in  1359.  St. 
Andrew's  church  was  built  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. All  Saints'  church,  commenced  in  17 
and  completed  in  1796,  stands  on  the  site  of  an 
old  edifice  that  existed  in  1284.  The  Literary 


and  Philosophical  Society  was  founded  in  1793, 
and  the  new  lecture-room  in  1802.  The  assem- 
bly-room was  founded  in  1766,  and  the  dispen- 
sary in  1777.  St.  Thomas's  church,  commenced 
in  1828,  was  opened  in  1830.  The  town  gaol 
was  built  in  1827  ;  and  the  theatre,  built  in 
1788,  was  pulled  down  in  1835,  and  was  re- 
opened in  1837.  The  Newcastle  and  Darling- 
ton Railway  was  opened  April  15,  1844.  A  fire 
broke  out  about  midnight,  Oct.  5,  1854,  in 
Gateshead,  and,  having  spread  to  Newcastle, 
many  lives  were  lost,  and  property  estimated 
at  more  than  a  million  sterling  was  destroyed. 
(See  HARTLEY  COLLIERY.  ) 

NEW  CITY  CLUB  (London)  was  inaugurated 
Wednesday,  May  30,  1866. 

NEW  COLLEGE  (London)  was  founded  at 
St.  John's  Wood,  in  1850,  for  the  education  of 
dissenting  ministers. 

NEW  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  at  first  called 
St.  Mary  of  Winchester,  was  founded  by 
William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
who  was  born  at  Wykeham,  in  Hampshire,  in 
1324.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid  March  5, 
1380,  and  the  building  was  completed  in  six 
years,  the  society  taking  possession  April  14, 
1386.  William  of  Wykeham  died  Sep.  27,  1404, 
and  was  buried  in  the  chantry  of  Winchester 
Cathedral.  James  I.,  his  Queen,  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  were  entertained  in  the  hall 
of  New  College,  Aug.  29,  1605.  The  garden- 
court  was  built  in  1684,  and  the  chapel  was 
restored  by  Wyatt  in  1789.  Great  changes  in 
the  constitution  were  made  by  17  &  18  Viet. 
!  Ott.  7,  1854). 

NKW  KM; LA XI)  (N.  America).— The  region 
granted  by  James  1.  totlie  Plymouth.  Company 
in  1606,  and  then  called  North  Virginia,  was 
explored  by  Capt.  John  Smith  in  1614,  and 
named  by  him  New  England.  It  consisted  of 
the  settlements  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  and 
the  surrounding  districts,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  known  as  Yankees.  The  New  England 
Council  surrendered  its  charter  to  the  crown 

niNEw' EXCHANGE  (London),  founded  in  the 
Strand  June  IQ,  1608,  was  removed  in  1737. 

NKW  FnKKST  Hampshire)  was  formed 
by  order  of  William  I.  in  1079.  William  of 
Malmesbury  says  that  William  I.  destroyed 
the  towns  and  churches  for  more  than  30 
miles,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  this  forest ; 
and  others  affirm  that  he  levelled  52  churches 
to  the  ground.  William  II.  (Rufus),  while 
hunting  in  this  forest,  was  killed  by  an  arrow 
shot  by  Walter  Tyrrell,  Aug.  2,  noo.  In  1788 
a  survey  was  taken  of  the  New  Forest,  when 
the  amount  of  land  was  estimated  at  92,362 
acres.  The  timber  was  found  to  be  rapidly 
decaying  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  and 
John  Norton,  woodward  of  the  New  Forest, 
was  ordered  to  enclose  300  acres  as  a  nursery 
for  young  oaks,  Dec.  13,  1669.  A  hurricane 
swept  over  the  New  Forest  in  November,  1703, 
when  no  less  than  4,000  of  the  best  oaks  were 
destroyed.  The  right  of  the  Crown  to  keep 
deer  in  the  New  Forest  was  extinguished,  and 
arrangements  made  for  enclosure,  &c.,  by 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  76  (Aug.  7,  1851).  A  commis- 
sion to  inquire  into  the  right  of  pamiage  was 
appointed  in  1854. 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


[     699     ] 


NEW  HEBRIDES 


NEWFOUNDLAND  (Atlantic  Ocean)  was 
visited  by  Norwegians  about  1000,  and  re- 
discovered by  John  Cabot  June  24, 1497.  Cor- 
tereal  visited  it  in  1500.  A  settlement  was 
attempted  in  1536  without  success  ;  and  a 
charter  for  the  colonization  of  Newfoundland 
was  granted  May  2,  1610.  Three  settlements 
were  afterwards  made,  viz.,  by  Lord  Baltimore, 
in  1623  ;  by  Lord  Falkland,  in  1633 ;  and  by 
Sir  David  Kirk,  in  1554.  Quarrels  between 
the  French  and  English  settlers  led  to  hosti- 
lities in  1696,  and  again  in  1702.  By  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  Newfoundland  was  declared 
to  belong  to  England,  April  n,  1713.  The 
French  took  St.  John's  June  24,  1762,  and  it 
was  recaptured  Sep.  18.  Coal  was  discovered 
in  Newfoundland  in  1763.  A  governor  was 
appointed  in  1728.  An  act  passed  prohibiting 
the  Americans  from  fishing,  March  30,  1775, 
was  rescinded  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
Sep.  3,  1783.  The  representative  assembly  was 
established  in  1832,  and  Newfoundland  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  1839. 

NEW  FRANCE  (N.  America).— A  French 
expedition  under  Verazzani,  sent  out  by 
Francis  I.,  took  possession  of  a  large  extent 
of  territory  on  the  north-east  coast  of  America, 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  New  France,  in  1524. 
It  is  called  Canada  (q.  ?/.). 

NEWGATE  (London),  mentioned  as  a  prison 
as  early  as  1207,  and  burned  in  the  great  fire 
of  1666,  was  afterwards  rebuilt.  It  was 
pulled  down  in  1778,  and  the  new  edifice  was 
nearly  completed  when  the  Gordon  rioters  at- 
tacked it  June  6,  1780,  liberated  the  prisoners, 
and  set  it  on  fire.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  ceased 
to  be  a  debtors'  prison  in  1815.  Mrs.  Fry 
commenced  her  labours  for  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  female  prisoners  in  Newgate  in 
1808.  She  states  that  the  usual  amusements 
were  swearing,  gaming,  and  fighting;  and 
that  some  were  destitute  even  of  clothing, 
while  others  enjoyed  delicacies  sent  in  by 
their  friends.  An  attempt  was  made  to  classify 
prisoners  in  1811;  and  the  inspectors  of 
prisons,  in  their  annual  reports  of  1836,  1838, 
and  1843,  called  attention  to  the  serious  evils 
arising  from  gaol  association.  The  interior  of 
the  prison  was  repaired  in  1851. 

NEW  GENEVA.— (-See  GENEVA  and  WATER- 
FORD.) 

NEW  GEORGIA  (Pacific  Ocean).— Vancou- 
ver bestowed  this  name  upon  the  various 
groups  of  islands  in  Nootka  Sound,  in  1792. 
The  term  is  sometimes  restricted  to  Solomon's 
Islands,  discovered  by  the  Spaniard  Mendana 

U1NEW  GRANADA  (S.  America)  was  dis- 
covered by  Ojeda  in  1499.  The  first  settlement 
in  the  country  was  made  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1510.  The  people  proclaimed  their  indepen- 
dence in  1811.  The  state  was  united  with 
Venezuela  and  called  Colombia,  Dec.  17,  1819, 
and  with  other  South  American  states  in 
1823.  The  union  was  dissolved  in  1831.  New 
Granada  became  an  independent  republic,  and 
Gen.  Santander  was  installed  president,  April 
i,  1833.  A  small  part  of  New  Granada  is  in 
Central  America.  A  treaty  was  concluded  with 
Panama  Sep.  6,  1861.  A  new  treaty  of  union 
was  concluded  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the 


states  of  New  Granada,  Sep.  20,  1861,  when 
the  republic  took  the  name  of  the  "  United 
States  of  Columbia."  Gen.  Mosquera,  pre- 
sident of  New  Granada,  addressed  a  proclama- 
tion to  the  inhabitants  of  Ecuador,  Aug.  15, 
1863,  inviting  them  to  unite  their  government 
with  that  of  the  newly  formed  Union,  and 
proposed  a  treaty  for  their  signature,  Sep.  29. 
Ecuador  having  rejected  this  treaty,  he  pub- 
lished a  proclamation  announcing  his  desire 
to  "deliver"  Ecuador,  Oct.  19,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of 
that  state,  Nov.  20.  A  battle  took  place  at 
Cuaspud,  between  the  forces  of  the  two  re- 
publics, Dec.  6,  which  resulted  in  the  triumph 
of  New  Granada.  An  armistice  was  concluded 
Dec.  12,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Pen- 
sagni  Dec.  30,  by  which  Mosquera  renounced 
the  execution  of  his  project  by  armed  force. 
Insurrectionary  movements  were  made  towards 
the  end  of  1864  and  early  in  1865. 

NEW  GUATEMALA  (Central  America), 
capital  of  the  republic  of  Guatemala,  was 
founded  in  1776,  soon  after  the  destruction  by 
an  earthquake  of  Old  Guatemala  (q.  v.}. 

NEW  GUINEA  (Pacific  Ocean).  —  (See 
PAPUA.) 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  (N.  America)  was  first 
settled  in  1623,  and  placed  itself  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  in  1641.  It  was 
made  a  separate  province  by  act  of  parliament 
in  1679,  and  the  first  congress  assembled  in 
1776.  A  constitution  was  drawn  up  in  1784, 
and  amended  in  1792. 

NEW  HARMONY  (N.  America).— The  Ger- 
man Socialists  removed  to  this  town,  in 
Indiana,  in  1815.  (See  HARMONISTS.)  They 
sold  the  place  to  Robert  Owen  in  1824,  but  his 
attempt  to  establish  a  communist  town  resulted 
in  a  failure. 

NEW  HAVEN  (Connecticut)  was  settled  in 
1638,  by  a  colony  of  English  under  Theophilus 
Eaton,  the  first  governor,  and  C.  Mather, 
the  first  minister,  called  the  Moses  and  Aaron 
of  the  settlement.  It  was  united  by  royal 
charter  to  Connecticut  in  1665,  and  New 
Haven  was  constituted  a  city  in  1784.  The 
most  important  institution  in  this  city,  and 
the  oldest  and  most  extensive  in  the  United 
States,  is  Yale  College,  founded  in  1701  at 
Saybrook  and  Hillingworth,  and  removed  to 
New  Haven  in  1717.  New  Haven  was  taken 
by  the  English  in  July,  1779.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  was  adopted  by 
New  Haven,  Jan.  9,  1788. 

NEWHAVEN  (Sussex).— This  town,  called 
in  the  Norman  survey  Meeching,  was  the 
scene,  in  1545,  of  an  invasion  by  the  French, 
who  were  repulsed  by  the  Sussex  yeomen. 
About  50  of  the  inhabitants  entered  into  a 
"  solemn  league  and  covenant "  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  reformed  religion  in  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  March  31,  1644.  The  harbour  was 
repaired  in  1731,  and  an  obelisk  has  been 
erected  in  memory  of  the  wreck  of  the  Brazen 
sloop-of-war,  which  struck  upon  the  Ave  rocks, 
Jan.  26,  1800,  when  only  one  man  was  saved 
out  of  her  crew  of  104.  Louis  Philippe, 
having  abdicated  the  French  crown,  landed 
here  March  3,  1848. 

NEW    HEBRIDES    (Pacific    Ocean).  —  One 


NEW  HOLBORN 


[    700    ] 


NEWPORT 


portion  of  this  extensive  group  was  discovered 
by  Quiros  in  1605,  and  called  by  him  Tierra 
Australia  del  Espiritu  Sancto.  It  was  explored 
by  Bougainville  in  1768.  Capt.  Cook  visited 
the  group,  giving  it  the  name  of  the  New 
Hebrides,  in  July,  1774.  Capt.  Bligh  dis- 
covered the  most  northern  portion  of  the 
group  in  1789. 

NEW  HOLBORN  THEATRE  (London),' 
commenced  in  1865,  was  opened  Saturday, 
Oct.  6,  1866. 

NEW  HOLLAND.— The  name  given  by  the 
Dutch  to  Australia  (q.  v.). 

NEW  ILIUM..— (See  ILIUM.) 

NEW  INDEPENDENTS.— This  aect  was 
founded  in  1616  by  John  Robinson,  a  Norfolk 
divine.  They  maintain  that  every  congrega- 
tion of  Christians  has,  according  to  the  New 
Testament,  full  ecclesiastical  power  over  its 
members,  and  hence  they  are  called  New  Inde- 
pendents. The  Scottish  Independents,  also 
called  New  Independents,  and  Haldanites,  or 
llaldanite  Independents,  from  their  founder, 
Robert  Haldane,  arose  in  1797. 

NEW  INN  (London),  founded  in  1485,  on  the 
old  foundation  of  St.  George's  Inn,  is  attached 
to  the  Middle  Temple.  Sir  Thomas  More 
(1480 — July  6,  1535)  studied  at  New  Inn. 

NEW  1XX  HALL  Oxford;.— A  collection 
of  houses  called  Trilleck's  Inns  in  1349,  from 
John  Trilleck,  Hishop  of  Hereford,  were  inhe- 
rited in  1391  by  William  of  Wykeham,  who 
granted  them  to  New  College,  and  they  re- 
ceived the  name  of  New  Inn  Hall.  An  addi- 
tional range  of  building  was  added  in  1836. 

NEW  IKK  LAX  I)  (Pacific  Ocean)  was  disco- 
vered and  named  by  Carteret,  in  1767. 

NEW  JERSEY  (North  America)  was  first 
colonized  by  the  Dutch  from  New  York,  be- 
tween 1614  and  1620.  A  colony  of  Swedes  and 
Finns  settled  in  1627.  Charles  II.,  in  June, 
1664,  separated  this  territory  from  the  New 
Netherlands  and  granted  it  to  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  York,  who  sold  the  patent  to  Lord 
Berkeley  and  Sir  G.  Carteret.  The  Dutch  in 
1673  regained  possession,  but  resigned  it  in 
1674,  when  Penn  and  some  of  his  friends  pur- 
chased a  portion  of  the  province.  It  was 
divided  into  East  and  West  Jersey  in  1676. 
Great  confusion  having  arisen  in  regard  to  the 
appointment  of  governors,  the  proprietors, 
Lord  Berkeley,  &c.,  in  1702,  surrendered  the 
government  to  the  crown.  New  Jersey  formed 
part  of  the  state  of  New  York  until  1736,  when 
a  separation  ensued.  It  published  its  consti- 
tution July  2,  1776,  and  was  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  Union. 

NEW  JERUSALEM.— (See  ANABAPTISTS  and 

Mt'NSTER.) 

NEW  LANARK  (Lanarkshire)  was  founded 
by  David  Dale,  in  1783.  Robert  Owen  endea- 
voured to  establish  Communism  here  in  1801, 
and  the  first  infant  school  in  Great  Britain  was 
established  here  in  1815. 

NEW  LONDON  (N.  America).- This  town, 
in  Connecticut,  founded  in  1644,  was  taken 
and  burned  by  Arnold,  Sep.  8,  1781. 

NEWMARKET  (Cambridgeshire).  —  The 
earliest  mention  of  this  town  is  in  1227,  when 
it  is  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  a 
market  transferred  from  Exiling  on  account 


of  the  plague.  James  I.  established  races 
here  in  1605,  and  erected  a  hunting-seat,  after- 
wards called  the  King's  House.  Having  fallen 
into  decay,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Charles  II. 
(1660 — 85),  who  was  a  great  patron  of  horse- 
racing.  It  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire,  March  22,  1683,  during  the  races,  and  a 
large  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed. 
The  race-ground  became  the  property  of  the 
Jockey  Club  in  1753.  The  first  and  second 
spring  and  the  July  meetings  instituted  in 
1753;  the  first  and  second  October,  in  1762; 
the  third  October,  or  Houghtoii,  in  1770  ;  and 
the  Craven  Stakes,  in  1771,  are  run  at  New- 
market. (See  HORSE-RACING.) 

NEW  MEXICO  (N.  America).— This  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  was  formed  Sep.  9, 
1850,  out  of  the  country  ceded  by  Mexico  after 
the  war  with  the  Americans. 

NEW  NETHERLANDS  (N.  America).— 
The  Dutch  gave  this  name  to  the  settlements 
established  by  them  in  Delaware  Bay  and  011 
the  western  shore  of  the  Hudson,  between 
1610  and  1623. 

NEW,  or  NOVA  ALBION.— (See  BRITISH 
COLUMBIA  and  CALIFORNIA.) 

NEW,  or  NUKVA  ISABELLA.— (See  DO- 
MINGO, SAN,  or  ST.) 

NEW  ORLEANS  (Battle),  took  place  Jan.  8, 
1815,  between  the  Americans,  under  Gen. 
Jackson,  and  the  English,  under  Gen.  Paken- 
ham,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  3,000  in  killed  and  wounded. 

NEW  ORLEANS  Louisiana)  was  founded  by 
Bienville,  the  French  governor  of  Louisiana, 
in  1717.  The  colony  was  conveyed  to  Spain  in 
1762,  and  restored  to  France  in  1801.  Napo- 
leon I.  sold  it  to  the  United  States  in  1803. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1849.  The 
Federal  fleet,  under  Commodore  Farragut, 
having  arrived  in  the  harbour,  April  24,  1862, 
the  town  surrendered.  It  was  occupied  by 
Gen.  Butler  April  26,  and  the  forts  capitu- 
lated April  27. 

XLW    PHILHARMONIC    SOCIETY.  — (See 

BBT.) 

NEW  PHILIPPINES  (Pacific  Ocean),  more 
properly  called  the  Carolines,  were  named 
from  La  Carolina,  a  term  applied  to  one  of 
those  islands  visited  by  the  Spaniard  Lazeano 
in  1686.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  Jesuits 
of  Manilla  to  establish  missions  here  about 
1600.  The  small-pox  committed  great  ravages 
among  the  natives  in  1854. 

NEW  PLATONISTS.— (See  ECLECTICS  and 
NEO  PLATONISTS.) 

NEW  PLYMOUTH  (N.  America).— The  Pil- 
grim Fathers,  after  landing  from  the  May- 
ftower,  reached  this  spot  in  Massachusetts, 
'Dec.  ii,  1620  (O.S.),  and  named  the  town 
which  they  founded  Plymouth,  or  New  Ply- 
mouth. An  annual  festival  is  held  Dec.  22, 
in  what  is  termed  the  Pilgrims'  Hall,  built  in 
1824,  to  commemorate  the  event. 

NEWPORT  (Isle  of  Wight).— The  parish 
church  was  built  in  1172;  and  the  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1619.  In  the  school- 
room of  the  town  negotiations  were  opened 
between  Charles  I.  and  the  Parliament,  Sep. 
1 8,  1648,  and  closed,  the  King  having  agreed 
to  some  of  the  demands,  Nov.  27,  1648.  The 


NEWPORT 


NEWSPAPERS 


coffin  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Charles  I.,  who  died  here  of  a  broken  heart, 
Sep.  8,  1650,  was  discovered  in  the  church  in 
1793,  and  a  tablet  to  her  memory  was  erected 
by  Queen  Victoria,  in  NeAvport  church.  St. 
Thomas's  church  was  founded  in  1854,  on  the 
site  of  an  ancient  edifice  built  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III. 

NEWPORT  (Monmouthshire).— Edward  III. 
(1327 — 77),  granted  this  town  its  first  charter, 
which  was  confirmed  by  James  I.  (1603 — 25). 
Of  the  old  castle,  supposed  to  have  been 
f  oimded  by  Robert  Fitzroy,  Earl  of  Gloucester, 
only  a  square  tower  and  a  part  of  the  great 
hall  remain.  A  handsome  stone  bridge  was 
built  over  the  river  Usk  in  1800.  This  town 
was  the  scene  of  Chartist  riots,  Monday, 
Nov.  4,  1839.  The  rioters,  led  by  one  John 
Frost,  a  retired  draper  of  Newport,  amount- 
ing to  10,000  in  number,  armed  with  guns, 
&c.,  met  in  front  of  the  Westgate  Hotel, 
where  the  magistrates  were  assembled,  with 
about  30  soldiers  and  several  special  constables. 
The  rioters  commenced  breaking  the  windows 
of  the  hotel,  and  fired  upon  the  inmates.  The 
soldiers  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  mob, 
which,  with  its  leaders,  fled  from  the  city, 
leaving  about  20  dead,  and  many  dangerously 
wounded.  Frost  and  several  of  his  associates 
were  apprehended  011  the  following  day,  tried 
at  Monmouth  Dec.  31,  and  found  guilty  of 
high  treason,  Jan.  5,  1840.  Their  sentence  was 
subsequently  commuted  into  transportation 
for  life. 

NEWPORT  (N.  America).— This  town  of 
Rhode  island  was  settled  in  1639.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  Dec.  g,  1776. 

NEW  PROVIDENCE  (Bahama  Islands).— 
The  chief  island  of  the  group  was  colonized 
by  the  English  in  1629.  Taken  in  1641  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  occupied  for  a  brief  period  by 
the  Americans  in  1776,  it  was  restored  to  the 
English  in  1783.  (See  NASSAU.) 

NEW  RIVER  (London).— In  1605  the  lord 
mayor  and  citizens  of  London  were  empowered 
to  bring  a  stream  of  fresh  water  to  the  north 
parts  of  the  city  of  London,  from  Chadwell 
and  Amwell,  in  the  county  of  Hertford,  but 
nothing  was  done  till  Hugh  Middleton  offered, 
March  28,  1609,  to  begin  the  work  within  two 
months,  and  to  make  and  finish  the  river,  pro- 
vided the  common  council  would  transfer  to 
him  the  powers  vested  in  them  by  two  acts  of 
Parliament.  This  was  agreed  to,  and  the  New 
River  was  completed  as  far  as  the  basin  at 
Islington,  Sep.  29,  1613. 

NEW  ROYAL  BRUNSWICK  THEATRE.— 
(See  BRUNSWICK  THEATRE.) 

NEW  ROYALTY  THEATRE.— Known  as 
Miss  Kelly's  or  the  Soho  Theatre,  received  the 
name  of  the  New  Royalty  in  1861. 

NEWRY  (Ireland). — A  Cistercian  abbey  was 
founded  here  in  1157,  by  Maurice  Mac  Lough- 
lin,  King  of  Ireland,  and  a  castle  was  built  by 
John  De  Courcey.  It  was  destroyed  in  1318, 
and  rebuilt  in  1480.  Marshal  Bagnal  restored 
the  castle,  rebuilt  the  town,  for  which  James 
I.,  in  1613,  granted  the  entire  lordship  in  fee 
to  him  and  his  heirs  for  ever,  and  peopled 
it  with  Protestant  settlers.  After  the  Resto- 
ration, the  town  continued  to  flourish  till  1689, 


when  it  was  burned  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick 
in  his  retreat  from  the  Duke  of  Schomberg. 
The  custom-house  was  built  in  1726.  A  very 
considerable  trade  was  carried  on  with  the 
West  Indies  in  1758. 

NEWS-BOOKS,  or  pamphlets  of  news,  the 
forerunners  of  the  modern  newspaper,  were 
first  issued  from  the  English  press  in  the  i6th 
century.  They  merely  treated  of  some  poli- 
tical event,  either  foreign  or  domestic,  and  did 
not  appear  at  stated  periods,  or  even  under 
the  same  title.  A  proclamation  against  certain 
"bookes  printed  of  newes,  of  the  prosperous 
successes  of  the  king's  majestie's  arms  in 
Scotland,"  was  issued^  in  1544.  A  collection, 
commencing  in  1579,  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  news-books  continued 
to  appear  until  the  close  of  the  i7th  century. 
Burton  remarks,  in  the  "  Anatomy  of  Melan- 
choly," of  which  the  first  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1614,  "If  any  read  now-a-days,  it  is 
a  play-book,  or  pamphlet  of  newes."  (See 
NEWSPAPERS.  ) 

NEWS-LETTERS  were  used  in  this  country 
as  a  medium  for  the  circulation  of  intelligence 
before  the  printed  news-book  (q.  v.),  the  fore- 
runner of  the  modern  newspaper,  made  its 
appearance.  A  writer  in  the  eighth  edition  of 
the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  remarks  (xvi. 
1 80),  "The  first  journalists  were  the  writers 
of  'news-letters.'  Originally  the  dependents 
of  great  men,  each  employed  in  keeping  his 
own  master  or  patron  well  informed,  during 
his  absence  from  court,  of  all  that  transpired, 
the  duty  grew  at  length  into  a  calling.  The 
writer  had  his  periodical  subscription  list,  and 
instead  of  writing  a  single  letter,  wrote  as 
many  letters  as  he  had  customers.  Then  one, 
more  enterprising  than  the  rest,  established 
an  '  intelligence-office,'  with  a  staff  of  clerks." 
News-letters,  giving  an  account  of  events  that 
happened  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  are 
given  in  Sir  John  Fenn's  collection  of  the 
"  Paston  Letters." 

NEW  SOUTH  SHETLAND,  or  ZETLAND 
ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean).  —  This  group  of 
islands  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  discovered  by  Gheritz  in  1598,  was 
explored  towards  the  south,  where  it  crosses 
the  antarctic  circle,  by  Biscoe  in  1832,  and  by 
Sir  J.  Ross  in  1842.  The  latter  gave  them  the 
name  of  Danger  Islets. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES  (Australia).  —  The 
eastern  coast  of  Australia,  from  Cape  Howe  to 
Cape  York,  was  discovered  by  Capt.  Cook  in 
1770.  He  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name 
of  the  king,  calling  it  New  South  Wales,  and 
he  named  the  island  in  which  he  performed 
the  ceremony,  Possession  Island.  The  first 
convicts  arrived  Jan.  20,  1788,  and  the  settle- 
ment formed  at  Botany  Bay  was  transferred 
to  Sydney  (q.  v.}  in  1789.  Transportation  to 
New  South  Wales  was  abolished  by  an  order 
in  council  Sep.  4,  1848.  The  colony  received  a 
new  constitution  in  1855. 

NEWSPAPERS.— The  Romans  possessed 
publications  agreeing  in  some  respects  with 
the  modern  newspaper.  These  manuscript 
journals,  called  Acta  Diurna,  or  Journals  of 
Public  Events,  were,  as  the  title  denotes, 
simply  records  of  daily  occurrences.  They 


NEWSPAPERS 


[     702     ] 


NEWSPAPERS 


were  issued  by  government  authority  as  early 
as  B.C.  691.  The  privilege  was  withdrawn 
about  B.C.  40.  During  the  wars  carried  on 
between  Venice  and  the  Turks,  Notizie  Scritte, 
in  manuscript,  appeared  at  Venice,  of  which 
the  first  number  was  issued,  it  is  believed, 
in  1536,  and  was  continued  monthly.  Stations 
were  appointed  where  the  people  might  come  _ 
to  hear  them  read  on  payment  of  a  small  coin 
called  a  Gazeta,  from  which  the  name  Gazette 
is  derived,  and  30  volumes  are  preserved 
in  one  of  the  libraries  of  Florence.  The 
earliest  in  the  British  Museum  library  is  a 
printed  copy,  dated  1570.  Offices  were  estab- 
lished about  this  time  in  France,  on  the 
suggestion  of  the  father  of  Montaigne,  the 
essayist,  for  receiving  intimations  that  any 
person  wished  to  make  public.  These  were 
copied  out  and  posted  on  the  walls,  and  even- 


tually gave  rise  to  regularly  published  adver- 
tising sheets.  The  "news-letters"  v.  >•.  wov 
introduced  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 


(1422 — 61).  In  these  the  gossip  of  the  town 
was  collected  by  "correspondents,''  and  posted 
to  their  employers  in  the  country,  at  a  salary 
of  a  few  pounds  a  year.  The  collection  of 
newspapers  in  the  British  Museum  contains 
seven  numbers — four  in  manuscript  and  three 
in  Roman  type— of  the  /iV-'' '••>'/'  M<  rfurie,  the 
first  dated  July  23,  1588.  For  many  years 
these  were  considered  the  earliest  printed 
English  newspapers,  but,  in  1839,  Mr.  Watts 
showed  that  they  were  forgeries  executed 
about  1740.  The  same  collection  contains  what 
must  be  considered  as  the  first  regularly  pub- 
lished newspaper  in  England,  bearing  the  title 
of  T/tf.  Certamt  A<  i<-x<>f  /he  Present  Week;  the 
first  number  being  dated  May  23,  1622.  The 

Dull//    l'i-orri;<l  infix  of  l,ot!i    I  In, <  xix  of  t'n  fliti  in,  nl, 

i'r.  is  11  Nov.  3, 1640,  to  Nov.  3, 1641,  in  two  volumes, 
formed  the  first  systematic  account  of  the  kind 
laid  before  the  public.  It  was  followed  by 
fHiii-ndl  Oir.iii-i-fncf-s,  brought  out,  weekly; 
and  this  was  succeeded  by  the  host  of  Mer- 
Curiet,  including  the  famous  M< :,•<•,',•;,>.• 
liriloiinicux,  from  1642  to  1654.  During  the 
residence  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.  at  Oxford, 
on  account  of  the  plague  that  devastated  the 
metropolis,  the  first  number  of  the  Oxford 
Gazette  appeared,  Nov.  13,  1665.  It  was 
transferred  to  London  with  the  court,  and  took 
the  title  of  London  Gazette,  Feb.  5,  1666. 
Amongst  the  earliest  commercial  papers  was 
the  City  Mercury,  with  which  L'Estrange  was 
connected,  commenced  Nov.  4,  1675.  The 
first  paper  circulated  gratuitously  was  Do- 
mestick  Intelligence,  in  1679.  The  forerunner 
of  literary  journals  is  the  Mercurius  Lil>m- 
rius,  first  published  April  9,  1680.  The  Daily 
Courant,  the  first  morning  paper,  appeared 
March  n,  1702.  Archbishop  Laud's  licensing 
decree,  aimed  at  the  newspaper  press,  came 
into  operation  July  n,  1637  ;  the  restriction 
being  renewed  at  intervale  by  act  of  Parliament, 
till  it  expired  in  1693.  A  stamp  duty  of  one 
penny  was  proposed  in  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1701,  but  abandoned.  An  act  (10  Anne,  c. 
19)  was  carried  imposing  the  stamp  for  a  period 
of  32  years,  Aug.  i,  1712.  The  bill  for  the 
abolition  of  the  stamp  duty  (18  &  19  Viet.  c. 
27)  received  the  royal  assent  June  15,  1855.  A 


duty  of  one  shilling  on  advertisements  had 
been  originally  charged,  which  was  raised  in 
time  to  three  shillings  ;  and  May  31,  1815,  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  imposed  an 
additional  sixpence.  This  tax  was  abolished 
by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  63  (Aug.  4,  1853).  \\'ar- 
ri'n/cit  Ti</ infix  appeared  in  1641,  and  the  Jhdtlin. 
News  Letter  in  1685.  Pue'a  (>>•<•  I'rrcnci^,  a  daily 
paper,  made  its  appearance  in  Ireland  in  1700, 
and  was  probably  the  first  in  that  country  ; 
the  second,  also  daily,  being  Falkener'x  Jour- 
nal, in  1728.  The  first  newspaper  published 
in  Scotland,  printed  by  order  of  the  Pro- 
tector, was  called  Mercv.r'i:'*  /'</////Vi<x,  ;md 
it  appeared  Oct.  26,  1653.  It  was  for  the  use 
of  his  troops  in  garrison  at  Leith,  and  the  pub- 
lication was  transferred  to  Edinbiirgh  in  Nov. 
1654.  The  first  number  of  the  Alt  /•<•«/•/ </*  <'nl,-- 
appeared  Jan.  8,  1661.  The  Edinl'i'i-nh 
Gazette  was  established  in  1669.  The  Calc<ion  m  >t 
y  was  first  issued  April  28,  1720.  The 
press  in  India  originated  with  Hicf.-intf.--  < 
published  at  Calcutta,  Jan.  29,  1781.  The  U«l- 
cutta  ffazetfr  \vus  brought  out  by  the  govern- 
ment, March  4,  1784.  The  Bengal  Ilnrk'K ,-", 
started  in  Jan.,  1795,  appeared  as  a  daily 
paper  April  29,  1819.  A  censorship  was  estab- 
lished by  Lord  Welleslcy  April,  1799.  ' 
Howe,  a  native  of  St.  Kitt's,  established  the 
Gazette,  the  first  Australian  newspaper, 
March  5,  1803.  The  Boston  Ntn-x  letter,  the 
first  number  being  dated  April  24,  1704,  was 
the  first  newspaper  published  in  America. 
The  Dull ;i  San,  of  New  York,  which  com- 
menced Sep.  23,  1833,  was  the  first  of  the 
penny  papers  of  that  country.  French  jour- 
nalism took  its  rise  from  Thcjophraste  Renaudot, 
who  brought  out  the  Gazette  in  May,  1631,  and 
obtained  a  monopoly  of  the  business  of  sup- 
plying the  Parisians  with  news  by  letters 
patent  granted  in  Oct.,  1631.  A  Frankfort 
bookseller  brought  out  the  first  German  news- 
paper in  1615.  In  1605  Abraham  Verhoeven 
received  from  the  archduke  the  exclusive  pri- 
vilege of  publishing  news,  and  commenced  the 
Nieuwe  Tiii'lmjln-ii,  of  Antwerp.  The  I 
van  Gend  appeared  at  Ghent  in  1667.  Ac- 
cording to  the  New»paper  /'/v.«  Dindory  for 
1866,  there  are  published  in  the  United  King- 
dom 1,257  newspapers,  distributed  as  f<>l- 
lows  : — England,  933  ;  Wales,  43  ;  Scotland, 
139  ;  Ireland,  128  ;  '  British  Islands,  14.  Of 
these  there  are  43  daily  papers  published  in 
England,  i  in  Wales,  12  in  Ireland,  12  in  Scot- 
land, i  in  the  British  Islands.  On  reference  to 
E receding  editions  of  the  Directory,  we  find 
iat,  in  1821,  267  journals  were  published  in 
the  United  Kingdom ;  in  1831,  295 ;  in  1841, 
472  ;  in  1851,  563,  and  in  1861,  1,102.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  newspapers  that  have 
appeared  in  the  metropolis,  with  the  date  of 
their  establishment.  Many  of  them  enjoyed 
but  a  short  existence  : — 

A.D. 

1819,  Jan.  24.  Age. 

1835,  May  IS-  Age. 

1860.  Age  we  Live  In  (-weekly). 

1831,  Oct.  15.  Albion. 

1809.  Anti-Gallican  Monitor. 

i*53i  Jan.  V-  Associa! ion  Medical  Journal  (weekly). 


NEWSPAPERS 


[    703    1 


NEWSPAPERS 


I  838,  Jan.  3.  Athenaeum  (weekly). 

1690,  March  17.  Athenian  Gazette. 

1836,  May  31.  Atlas  (weekly). 

1863,  April.  Atlas  (for  India,  weekly). 

1850.  Australian  Gazette  (weekly). 

1807.  Aurora  (daily). 

1861,  Oct.  19.  Bee  Hive  (weekly). 

1830.  Bell's  Life  in  London  (weekly). 

1796,  May  i.  Bell's  Weekly  Messenger  (weekly). 

1858,  Jan.  Bookseller  (monthly). 

1839,  April.  Britannia  (weekly). 
1848,  Jan.  i.  British  Banner  (weekly). 
1803.  Bent's  Literary  Advertiser  (monthly). 
1770.  Birigley's  Journal. 

1732,  Sep.  22.  British  Journal. 

1^54^  Jan.  British  Journal  of  Photography  (weekly). 

1863,  Jan.  British  Medical  Journal  (weekly). 

1857,  Jan.  3.  British  Standard  (weekly). 
1763,  May  39.  Briton  (Norih). 

1843,  Feb.  it.  Builder  (weekly). 
1856.  Builders'  Weekly  Reporter. 
1865,  Jan.  6.  Bullionist  (weekly). 

1856.  Canadian  News  (fortnightly). 

1858,  Cape  and  Natal  News  (fortnightly). 
1843,  Nov.  I.  Chemical  Gazette  (fortnightly). 

1859,  Dec.  10.  Chemical  News  (weekly). 

1855,  Julv27-  Christian  Cabinet  (weekly). 

1857,  Nov.  13.  Christian  Chronicle  (weekly). 
1848,  Aug.  Christian  Times  (weekly). 
1859.  Christian  World  (weekly). 

1861,  Jan.  Church  Review  (weekly). 

1862,  June.  Church  and  State  Review  (weekly). 

1863,  Church  Standard  (weekly). 
1863,  Jan.  Church  Times  (weekly). 
1843,  Jan.  Churchman  (weekly). 
1675,  Nov.  4.  City  Mercury. 

1857,  July  18.  City  Press  (weekly). 

1853,  Jan.  i.  Civil  Service  Gazette  (weekly). 

1853,  May.  Clerical  Journal  (fortnightly).' 

1861,  Jan.  5.  Colliery  Guardian  (weekly). 
1832.  Commercial  Daily  List. 

1853.  Constitution  (fortnightly). 
1826.  Cooper's  John  Bull. 
1865,  Oct.  Cosmopolitan  (weekly). 
1848,  Oct.  Cottage  Gardener  (weekly). 

1846.  County  Courts'  Chronicle  (monthly). 

1840.  Courier  de  1'Europe  (weekly). 
1631,  Oct.  9.  Courant  (weekly). 

1856,  April  36.  Court  Circular  (weekly). 
1839.  Court  Journal  (weekly). 

1753,  Jan.  4.  Covent  Garden  Journal. 
1726.  Craftsman. 
1843,  Nov.  Critic  (fortnightly). 
1703,  March  n.  Daily  Courant. 
184(3,  Jan.  31.  Daily  News. 

1855,  June  29.  Daily  Telegraph. 

17x5,  Jan.  I3/  Daily  Universal  Register. 

1789.  Diary. 

1 80 1.  Dispatch  (weekly). 

1641.  Diurnal  Occurrences  (weekly). 

1679.  Domestiek  Intelligence. 

1862,  Oct.  Draper  (weekly). 
1713.  Dyer's  News  Letter. 

11348,  Sep.  2-  Economist  (weekly). 

1383,  July  10.  Ecclesiastical  Ga/.ette  (monthly). 

1857,  Eclipse  (weekly). 

1847,  Oct.  Educational  Times  (monthly). 

1856,  Jan.  4.  Engineer  (wreekly). 

1843,  Jan    English  Churchman  (weekly). 

1861,  Oct.  English  Leader  (monthly). 

1861.  English  News  (bi-monthly). 

1841,  Jan.  I.  English  Journal  of  Education  (monthly). 

1838,  Sep.  30.  Era  (weekly). 

1857,  June  29.  Evening  Herald. 

1851,  Oct.  6.  Evening  Journal  (three  times  a  week). 

1789,  March  2.  Evening  Mail  (three  times  a  week). 

1709,  Sep.  6.  Evening  Post. 

1856,  March  17.  Evening  Star  (daily). 

1808,  Jan.  Examiner  (weekly). 

1846,  Sep.  i.  Express  (daily). 

1853,  Jan.  i.  Field  (weekly). 

1855,  Jan.  24.  Freeman  (weekly). 

1859,  July  9.  Freemason's  Magazine  (weekly). 

1855,  Oct.  13.  Free  Press  (monthly). 

1843.  Friend  (monthly). 

1841,  Jan.  28.  Gardeners'  Chronicle  (weekly). 

1845.  Gardeners'  and  Farmers'  Journal  (weekly). 

1853.  Gas  and  Water  Times  (monthly). 

1 766.  General  Advertiser 


1853,  Oct.  3.  General  Shipping  List  (weekly). 

1803.  Globe  (daily). 

:865,  June  5.  Glowworm  (daily). 

846,  Jan.  31.  Guardian  (weekly). 

859,  Jan.  Hermann  (German,  weekly). 

847,  Jan.  Home  News  (weekly). 

857.  Homeward  Mail  (on  arrival  of  each  mail  from  the 

East). 

863,  Oct.  Illustrated  Christian  Times  (weekly). 
:S57,  Oct.  31.  Illustrated  Inventor  (weekly). 
1843,  May  14.  Illustrated  London  News  (weekly). 

855,  June  9.  Illustrated  Times  (weekly). 
861,  Oct.  13.  Illustrated  Weekly  News. 

863,  Feb.  Illustrated  Sporting  News  (weekly). 

710.  Independent  Whig. 

843,  May.  Indian  Mail  (on  arrival  of  mail  vid  Marseilles). 

840,  June.    Indian  News    (on    arrival  of    each  Indian 

mail). 

843,  July  9.  Inquirer  (weekly). 
808.  Instructor. 

856,  Jan.  i.  Insurance  Gazette  (monthly). 
747,  Dec.  Jacobite  Journal. 

783,  Feb.  8.  Jesuit  (weekly). 

845.  Jewish  Chronicle  (weekly). 

[820,  Dec.  17.  John  Bull  (weekly). 

[778.  Johnson's  Sunday  Monitor  (first  Sunday  Newspaper). 

:849,  Feb.  10.  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting  (fortnightly). 

:848,  Oct.    Journal  of    Horticulture,   Cottage   Gardener, 

and  Country  Gentleman. 
1852.  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  (weekly). 
[853,  March.     Journal     of     the    Photographic    Society 

(monthly). 
[837.  Jurist  (weekly). 


1837,  Jan.  38.  Justice  of  the  Peace  (weekly). 
1663,  Aug.  31.  Kingdom's  Intelligencer  (week 
645,  Oct.  Kingdom's  Weekly  Po 


1855,  Nov.  Knight's  Official  Advertiser  (monthly). 
1693,  Feb.  18.  Ladies'  Mercury. 
1847,  Jan.  3.  Lady's  Newspaper  (weekly). 
1833,  Oct.  3.  Lancet  (weekly). 

1854.  Law  Chronicle  (monthly). 
1843,  Aprils.  Law  Times  (weekly). 
1850,  March  30.  Leader  (weekly). 

1855,  July.  Liberator  (monthly). 

1863,  March  6.  L'lntemational  (daily). 
1737.  Literary  Courier  of  Grub  Street. 
1855,  Aug.  i.  Literarium  (weekly). 

1855,  May  5.  Literary  Churchman  (fortnightly). 
1817,  Jan.  Literary  Gazette  (weekly). 

1842,  Nov.  Lloyd's  Weekly  London  Newspaper. 

1842,  June  29.  London  Commercial  Record  (weekly). 
1858.  London  and  China  Express  (tri-moiithlv). 
1858.  London  and  China  Telegraph  (tri-monthly). 
1860.  London  and  Provincial  News  (weekly). 

1665,  Nov.  7.  London  Gazette. 

1832.  London  and  Mercantile  Journal  (weekly). 

1852.  London  Mail  (fortnightly). 

1864,  Jan.  Londoner  Anzeiger  (weekly). 

1856,  Aug.  4.  Londoner  Deutsches  Journal  (weekly). 
1696,  June  3.  London  Mercury. 

1860,  July  7.  London  Review  (weekly). 

1837,  March.  Magnet  (weekly). 

1832,  Dec.  Mark  Lane  Express  (weekly). 

1858,  Dec.  31.  Mechanics'  Magazine  (weekly). 

1852,  Jan.  14.  Medical  Circular  (weekly). 

1850,  July  6.  Medical  Times  (weekly). 

1832.  Mercantile  Journal  (weekly). 

1  86  1,  April  1  6.  Methodist  Recorder  (weekly). 

1857,  Military  Spectator  (weekly). 

1835,  Aug.  29.  Mining  Journal  (weekly). 
1863,  April  35.  Mirror  (weekly). 

1866,  Sep.  27.  Mitchell's  Maritime  Register  (weekly). 

1858,  Jan.  5.  Monetary  Times  (three  times  a  week). 
1860,  June  9.  Money  Market  Review  (weekly). 
1794,  Feb.  8.  Morning  Advertiser  (daily). 

1769,  June  38.  Morning  Chronicle  (daily). 

I7«i,  Nov.  i.  Morning  Herald  (daily). 

1772,  Nov.  Morning  1'ost  and  Daily  Advertiser. 

1856.  Morning  News  (daily). 

1856,  March  17.  Morning  Star  (daily). 

1856,  Jan.  26.  Musical  Gazette  (weekly). 

1862.  Musical  Standard  (fortnightly). 

1844,  June.  Musical  Times  (monthly). 

1836.  Musical  World  (weekly). 
1860.  National  Reformer  (weekly). 

i§33,  *"eb.  9.  Naval  and  Military  Gazette  (weekly). 
1860.  New  Zealand  Examiner  (monthly). 
1805.  News. 

1843,  Sep.  39.  News  of  the  World  (weekly). 


NEWSPAPERS 


[     704     1 


NEWSPAPERS 


1817.  New  Times. 

1841,  April  14.  Nonconformist  (weekly). 

1849,  Nov.  3.  Notes  and  Queries  (weekly). 

1793.  Observer  (weekly). 

1863,  Aug.  Orb  (weekly). 

1863,  Oct.  3.  Orchestra  (weekly). 

1733-  Old  Whig. 

1855,  July  10.  Overland  Mail  (weekly). 

1865,  Feb.  7.  Pall  Mall  Gazette  (daily). 

1833,  Jan.  Patriot  (twice  a  week). 

1839.  Pawnbrokers'  Gazette  (weekly). 

185  [,  Oct.  12.  Penny  Illustrated  Paper  (weekly). 

1857,  April  18.  People  (weekly). 
1853.  People's  Paper  (weekly). 

1855,  June  l.  Philanthropist  (monthly). 

1849,  Jan.  6.  The  Phonetic  News. 

1853.  Photographic  Journal  (monthly). 

1858,  Sep.  10.  Photographic  .News  (weekly). 

1843.  Poor  Law  Unions'  Gazette  (weekly). 
1853,  May  7-  Pre-Js  (weekly). 

1857,  Sep.  20.  Presse  de  Londres  (weekly). 

1657,  May  36.  Public  Advertiser  (Newcomb's). 

1655,  Oct.  8.  Public  Intelligencer. 

1760,  Jan.  13.  Public  Ledger  (daily). 

1861,  Oct.  5.  Public  Opinion  (weekly). 

I837,  Sep.  Publishers  Circular  (fortnightly). 

1841,  July  17.  Punch  (weekly). 

1861,  Sep.  7.  Queen  (weekly). 

1851,  Feb.  26.  Racing  Times  (weekly). 

1845,  July  13.  Kail  way  Gazette  (weekly). 

1835.  Railway  Journal  (weekly). 

1844,  April  13.  Railway  Record  (weekly). 

1837.  Railway  Times  (weekly). 
1863,  Jan.  3.  Reader  (weekly). 

1838,  Jan.  Record  (three  times  a  week). 


1847.  Reporter  (weekly). 
1836,  .Inn. 


35-  Representative  (daily). 
1833,  Jan.  6.  Representative  (weekly). 
1704,  Feb.  Review  (weekly). 
1859,  Jan.    Review 
(weekly) 


nd  Country   Gentleman's   Journal 


1850,  May  5.  Reynolds's  Weekly  Newspaper. 
1853,  March.  Sailors'  1 1 ome  Journal  (monthly). 

1855.  Nov.  3.  Saturday  Review  (weekly). 
1692,   May  8.  Scots  Mercury. 

1863,  Nov.  2.  Shareholder's  Guardian  (weekly). 

1845,  May8.  Shipping  Advertiser  (daily). 

1836,  Jan.  4.  Shipping  Gazette  (daily). 
1857.  Solicitors'  Journal  (weekly). 

1838.  July  5.  Spectator  (weekly). 

1837.  As  an  evening  paper  \  Of      -,     ,,  / ,   .,   x 
1857,  June  39-  As  a  morning  paper  }  Standard  (daily). 
1857,  Oct.  10.   Statesman  (weekly). 

1761.  St.  James's  Chronicle  (three  times  a  week). 
1788.  Star  (daily). 

1793,  Oct.  i.  Sun   (first  daily  evening  paper  merged   in 
Albion). 

1859,  March  1 6.  Sporting  Life  (twice  a  week). 
1863,  Oct.  Sporting  Gazette  (weekly). 

186=;,  Aug.  Sportsman  (three  times  a  week). 

1865,  Jan.  7.  Sunday  Gazette  (weekly). 

1833.  Sunday  Times  (weekly). 

1710,  Aug.  3.  Swift's  Examiner  (weekly). 

1840.  Tablet  (weekly). 

1788,  Jan.  T.  Times  (daily). 

1756,  Nov.  6.  Test. 

1745,  Nov.  5.  True  Patriot. 

1857,  Jan.  3.  Union  (weekly). 

1833,  Feb.  9.  United  Service  Gazette  (weekly). 

1758.  Universal  Chronicle  (weekly). 

1839.  Universal  Corn  Reporter  (weekly). 

1860,  Dec.  29.  Universal  News  (weekly). 
1860,  Dec.  8.  Universe  (weekly). 

1859,  Oct.  26.  Volunteer  Service  Gazette  (weekly). 
1835,  Jan.  7.  Watchman  (weekly). 

1860,  Jan.  5.  Weekly  Budget. 

1846,  July  18.  Weekly  Chronicle. 

1856.  Weekly  Record. 

1849,  Oct.  13.  Weekly  Register. 
1853.  Weekly  Reporter. 
1862,  April.  Weekly  Review. 

1857.  Weekly  Star. 

1847,  Jan.  34.  Weekly  Times. 
1857.  Wellington  Gazette  (monthly). 
1849,  Jan.  8.  Wesleyan  Times  (weekly). 
17-0,  Feb.  17.  Whisperer. 

1840.  Witness. 
J753i  Jan-  4-  World. 


PROVINCIAL   NEWSPAPERS. 
1746 — 1748.  Aberdeen  Journal. 
1741.  Aris's  Birmingham  Gazette. 
1757.  Bath  Chronicle. 
1743.  Bath  Journal. 
1737.  Belfast  News  Letter. 
1767.  Bristol  Gazette. 
1715 — 1735.  Bristol  Journal. 
1773.  Bristol  Mirror. 
1730,  April  38.  Caledonian  Mercury. 

1748.  Cambridge  Chronicle. 
1730.  Chelmsford  Chronicle. 

1773.  Chester  Chronicle. 
1730.  Chester  Courant. 
1741.  Coventry  Standard. 

1774.  Cumberland  Pacquet. 
1733.  Derby  Mercury. 

1735.  Dublin  Evening  Post. 
1711.  Dublin  Gazette. 
1685.  Dublin  Newsletter. 

1705.  Edinburgh  Courant. 

1718,  Dec.  24.   Edinburgh  Evening  Courant. 
1669.  Edinburgh  Gazette. 
1763.   Exeter  Flying  Post. 
1728.  Faulkner's  Journal. 
1755.  Free  Public  Register. 

1763.  Freeman's  Journal. 
1715.  Glasgow  Courant. 
1739.  Glasgow  Journal. 
1733.  Gloucester  Journal. 
1772.  Hampshire  Chronicle. 
1739.  Hereford  Journal. 

1739.  Ipswich  Journal. 

1717.  Kentish  Gazette. 
1774.  Kerry  Evening  Post. 
1767.    Kilkenny  Journal. 
1661.  Kingdom's  Intelligencer. 
1720  (about).  Leeds  Courant. 

1718.  Leeds  Mercury. 
1753.  Leicester  Journal. 
1766.  Limerick  Chronicle. 
1765.  Liverpool  Advertiser. 
1772.   Londonderry  Standard. 
17*6.   Maidstone  Journal 
1730.  Manchester  Gazette. 

1660,  Dec.  31.  Mercurius  Caledonius. 

1711.  Newcastle  Courant. 

1761.  Norfolk  Chronicle. 

1720.  Northampton  Mercury. 

1714.  Norwich  Courant,  or  Weekly  Packet. 

1720.  Norwich  Mercury. 

1706.  Norwich  Postman. 
1709.  Nottingham  Journal. 

1757.  Nottingham  and  Leicester  Journal. 

1740.  Oxford  Journal. 
1700.  Pue's  Occurrences. 
1733.  Reading  Mercury. 
1720.  Salisbury  Journal. 

1746.  Saunders's  (originally  Esdaile's)  News  Letter. 
1706.  Scots  Courant. 

1764.  Sherborne  Journal. 
1772.  Shrewsbury  Chronicle. 

1695.  Stamford  Mercury. 

1641.  Warranted  Things  from  Ireland. 

1736.  Western  Flying  Post. 
1709.  Worcester  Journal. 
1720    (about).  York  Courant. 
1730   (about).  York  Journal. 

COLONIAL   AND   FOREIGN   NEWSPA  I'F.TJS. 
1798.  Allgemeine  Zeitung  (Germany). 
1830.  Argus  (Sweden). 
1795.  Bengal  Hurknru. 

1749.  Berlingske  Tidende  (Denmark). 

1719.  Boston  Gazette  (America). 
1704.  Boston  News  Letter  (Americ:i). 

1784.  Calcutta  Gazette  and  Oriental  Advertiser. 

1763.  Christumin  tntelligentssedler  (Norway). 

1843.  Djeridei  Havadis  (Turkey). 

1755.  Ede's  Boston  Gazette  (America). 

1631.  Gazette  (France). 

1650.   Gazette  I!iii-lesi(ne  (France). 

1834. 


Hellenike  Salpigz  (Greece). 
Ilicking's  Gazette  (Calcutta). 


Indepeiidant. 
Journal  de  Paris. 


NEW  STYLE 


t    705     ] 


NEW  YORK 


1789,  Aug.  37.  Journal  des  D(§bats. 

1843.  L'Independance  Beige. 
1837,  March  14.  La  Presse. 

1844,  L'Oceanie  Francaise  (Tahiti). 
1835.  Le  Siecle. 

1773  (about).  Massachusetts'  Spy. 

1673.  Mercure  Galant. 

1830.  Moniteur  Beige. 

1789.  Moniteur  Universel. 

1731.  New  England  Courant  (N.  America). 

1858.  New  York  Tribune. 

1839.  New  Zealand  Gazette. 

1605.  Niewetijdinghe  (Belgium), 

1643.  Ordinaire  Post  TiiU-udc-  (Sweden). 

1739.  Pennsylvania  Gazette  (America). 

17111  century  irregularly,  lielacioues  (Spain). 

1833.  Soter  (Greece). 

1835.  Spectateur  de  L'Orient  (Turkey),  afterwards  Cour- 
rier  de  Smyrne. 

1803.  Sydney  Gazette. 

1833.  Tabuiini  Vaqai  (Turkey),  formerly  Mouiteur'  Otto- 
man. 

1719.  Weekly  Mercury  (Philadelphia). 

1794  (about).  World,  The  (India). 

NEW  STYLE.  — Sir  Harris  Nicolas  states, 
with  reference  to  this  change,  "The  errors  in 
the  Julian  method  of  computing  the  year  hav- 
ing long  attracted  the  attention  of  astro- 
nomers, Pope  Gregory  XIII.  undertook  to 
reform  the  Roman  Calendar ;  and  the  altera- 
tion made  by  him  in  October,  1582,  created  what 
is  commonly  termed  the  New  Style,  but  which 
was  sometimes  called  the  Roman  Style  ;  while 
the  Calendar  obtained  the  name,  from  its 
creator,  of  Gregorian.  After  great  considera- 
tion, that  pontiff  published  his  new  Calendar, 
in  which  10  days  were  deducted  from  the  year 
1582,  by  calling  what,  according  to  the  old 
Calendar,  would  have  been  the  sth  of  October, 
the  isth  of  October,  1582."  The  difference 
between  the  Old  Style  and  the  New  Style 
from  1582  to  2100  is  as  follows  : — 

From  Oct.  5,  1582,  to  Feb.  39,  1700...  10  days. 
From  March  I,  1700.  to  Feb.  39,  i8oo...n  days. 
From  March  I,  1800,  to  Feb.  39,  1900..  13  days. 
From  March  I,  1900,  to  Feb.  39,  3100.. .13  days. 

The  change  made  by  Gregory  XIII.  was  gra- 
dually introduced  into  other  countries,  Eng- 
land (See  OLD  STYLE)  being  amongst  the  last  to 
make  the  alteration,  whilst  Russia  and  Greece 
still  adhere  to  the  olden  mode  of  computation. 
The  following  table  shows  at  what  time  the 
New  Style  was  adopted  in  different  parts  of 
Europe : — 

A.D. 

1583,  Dec.  35.  Artois. 
1701,  Jan.  13.  Basel. 
1701,  Jan.  13.  Berne. 
1583,  Dec.  35.  Brabant. 
1583.  Denmark. 
1753,  Sep.  England. 
1583,  Dec.  35.  Flanders. 

1583,  Dec.  30.  France. 
1700,  Dec.  13.  Friesland. 

1584.  Germany  (Roman  Catholics). 

1699,  Nov.  15.  Germany  (Protestants). 

1700,  Dec.  13.  Groningen. 
1700,  Dec.  13.  Guelderland. 
1583,  Dec.  35.  Hainault. 
1583,  Dec.  35.  Holland. 
1587.  Hungary. 

1583,  Oct.  15.  Italy  (Parts  of). 
1583,  Dec.  30.   Lorraine. 
1583,  Dec.  25.  Malines. 
1700,  Dec.  13.  Overyssel. 
•   1586.  Poland. 

1583,  Oct.  15.  Portugal. 
1583,  Oct.  15.  Rome. 


A.D. 

1701,  Jan.  13.  Schafhauseu. 

1583,  Oct.  15.  Spain. 

1683,  March  i.  Strasburg. 

1753,  March  I.  Sweden. 

15*3  or  1584.  Switzerland  (parts  of). 

1701,  Jan.  13.  Switzerland  (Protestants  of). 

1749  or  1751.  Tuscany. 

1700,  Dec.  13.  Utrecht. 

1700,  Dec.  13.  ZUtphen. 

1701,  Jan.  13.  Zurich. 

NEW  SWEDEN  (N.  America).— A  band  of 
emigrants  from  Sweden  and  Finland  settled  in 
1638,  on  land  in  Delaware  Bay,  near  the  New 
Netherlands,  which  they  purchased  from  the 
natives.  They  extended  their  boundaries  over 
the  country  now  called  Pennsylvania,  giving 
it  the  name  of  New  Sweden.  It  surrendered 
to  the  Dutch  in  1655.  (See  DELAWARE.) 

NEW  TOLEDO.— (-See  CUMANA.) 

NEWTONBARRY  (Ireland).  — Some  cattle, 
seized  for  tithes  by  the  Rev.  Alex.  M'Clintock, 
were  put  up  to  auction  in  this  village,  in  the 
county  of  Wexford,  Saturday,  June  18,  1831, 
when  a  riot  ensued,  in  which  12  or  13  persons 
were  killed,  and  several  severely  wounded. 
The  coroner's  jury  on  the  bodies  of  those  that 
were  killed,  after  sitting  several  days,  being 
unable  to  agree,  was  discharged  without  giv- 
ing a  verdict. 

NEWTONIAN  PHILOSOPHY.— The  atten- 
tion of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  (born  at  Woolsthorpe, 
Lincolnshire,  Dec.  25,  1642),  was  directed  to 
the  subject  of  gravitation  in  1666,  by  seeing 
an  apple  fall  from  a  tree,  and  the  train  of 
thought  suggested  by  this  trivial  incident  led 
to  the  philosophical  demonstration  of  this 
great  principle.  His  views  on  the  subject 
were  explained  in  the  "  Principia,"  which  was 
first  published  in  1687.  Newton  was  made 
master  of  the  mint  in  1699,  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  in  1703,  was  knighted 
by  Queen  Anne,  April  16,  1705,  and  died  Mon- 
day, March  20,  1727. 

NEWTOWN.— (See  CAMBRIDGE,  U.S.) 

NEWTOWN  BUTLER  (Ireland).— The  Pro- 
testants of  Enniskillen  (q.  v.)  defeated  the 
Jacobites  at  this  town,  in  Fermanagh,  July 
30,  1689.  In  their  retreat  they  set  fire  to  the 
church,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  who  had 
sought  refuge  there  perished. 

NEW  TROY.— (See  LONDON.) 

NEW  WESTMINSTER  (British  Columbia).— 
A  bishopric  was  ordered  to  be  established  here 
in  1865. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.— The  first  of  January 
was  observed  as  a  day  of  rejoicing,  and  a  feast 
was  instituted  by  Numa,  dedicated  to  Janus, 
the  god  of  the  new  year,  B.C.  713.  During  the 
pontificate  of  Felix  II.  or  III.  (483-92),  a  Chris- 
tian festival,  called  the  Octave  of  Christmas, 
was  instituted. 

NEW  YORK  (United  States).— This  city  is 
built  on  Manhattan  Island,  which  was  dis- 
covered by  Henry  Hudson  in  1609, 

A.D. 

1614.  New  York,  or  Manhattan  island,  is  settled  by  the 
Dutch. 

1633.  The  Dutch  erect  a  fort  on  the  south  of  Manhattan 
island,  which  forms  the  nucleus  of  New  Amster- 
dam. 

1643.  They  build  a  church  in  the  fort. 

1656.  New  Amsterdam  is  laid  out  in  streets. 

Z  Z 


NEW  ZEALAND 


[     706    ] 


NIC^EA 


1664,  Aug.  37.  New  Amsterdam  surrenders  to  the  Eng- 

lish, who  change  its  name  to  New  York. 

1665,  June  12.  New  York   is  incorporated,    and    placed 

under  the  government  of  a  mayor,  five  aldermen, 
and  a  sheriff. 

1667,  July  20.  New  York  is  formally  ceded  to  Great  Bri- 
tain by  the  tro:ity  of  Bredu. 

lfi-5,  July  -50.  The  Dutch  take  New  York. 

1674,  Feb.  19.  It  is  restored  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty 
of  Westminster. 

1678.  The  city  is  said  to  contain  343  houses. 

1683.  New  York  receives  a  legisl;>!ive  assembly. 

1686    James  II.  grants  tin-  town  its  first  charter. 

1688.  New  York  is  added   to  the    jurisdiction    of  New 

1603.  The'  episcopal  church  is  established  in  New  York, 
and  William  Bradford  sets  up  the  first  printing 
pren. 

1700.  The   Legislative   Assembly  passes   an  act  for  the 


1713.  The 


expulsion  of  the  Jesuit-. 

Indians 
city. 


foiled  in  an  attempt  to  burn  th 


. 

1734.  The  city  is  fortified  against  the  Indians. 
1741.  Another  incendiary  plot    of    the   Indians  is    sup- 

pressed. 

17-0.  Columbia  College  is  founded. 
1765,  Nov.  5.    Governor  ('olden   is   burned   in   effigy  for 

supporting  the  Si:iin;i  Act 

1775.  The    inhabitant*    send   a   petition    to     the    English 

Parliament  for  a  re.tress  of  grievances.  The 
petition  was  presented  by  Edmund  Burke,  but 
was  not  brought  up. 

1776,  Sep.   i^.    The  city,  having  been  evacuated  by  the 

republicans,  is  sei/.ed  by  the  KnglMi  troops. 
1783,  Nov.  25.  The  English  evacuate  th.-  city. 
1785.  The,  congress  meets  at  New  York. 

1787,  Feb.  4.    A  bishop  for  -New  York  is  consecrated  at 

Lambeth. 

1788,  July  26.    New  York  state  adopts  the  constitution  of 

tiie  l'nite.1  States. 

1789,  April  30.  Washington  is  inaugurated  as  first  pre- 

sident of  the  United  States,  at  New  York. 
1795.  The  yellow  fever  rages. 
1807.  TheColle-eof    Physicians  is  founded. 
[Six,   May  19.   Nearly  100  buildings  '»'•''  destroyed  by  fire. 
1816    Dec.  4.   A  destructive  lire  mires  in  ;he  city. 
1826.  The  National  Academy  of  Design  is  instituted. 
I«31.   The  1'niversity  is  founded. 
1832.  The  cholera  breaks  out. 
1835,  Dec.    id.    A  fire   destroys    property   amounting    to 

18,000,000  dollars.    The  Croton  waterworks  are 

comin 

1842.  The  Crotou  waterworks   are  Completed. 
1845,  July  19.     A  fire  destroys  302   houses  and  property 

tii  the  amount  of  10,000,000  dollars. 
1849,  May  9.    Serious  riots  take  place  at  the  Astor-IIouse 

Theatre,   in  consequence   of   the  rivalry    of   the 

American  actor  Forrest,  and  Macrcady,  who  was 

compelled  to  quit  the  theatre  in  disguise,  and  the 

mob  was  not  reduced  to  order  until  the  military 

had  been  called  out. 
1853,  July    14.    The  Exhibition   of    the   Industry  of    all 

Nations  is  opened. 

1857,  June   16.    Iliots  take    place.—  Oct.    A    commercial 

panic  causes  much  distress. 

1858,  Oct.  5.  The  Exhibition  is  destroyed  by  fire. 
1860,   Feb.  2.  Fifty  persons  perish  in  a  fire. 

1863,  July  13-16.  Hiots,  inconsequence  of  the  President's 

decree  ordering  a  forced  conscription,  are  sup- 
pressed by  the  military.  (See  fxn  F.I>  STATKS.) 

1864,  Nov.  35.  A  project  to  burn  part  of  the  town  is  dis- 

covered and  prevented. 

1865,  Julv  13.    1'.  T.  Barnum's  Museum  is  destroyed  by 

fire. 

NEW  ZEALAND  (South  Pacific)  was  dis- 
covered by  Tasman  in  Dec.,  1642;  and  Capt. 
Cook  sailed  round  the  islands  in  1769  and 
1770.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  sent 
several  missionaries  out  in  1814.  The  New 
Zealand  Company  formed  a  settlement  in 
1839;  and  the  British  Government  established 
the  colony,  making  Auckland  the  capital, 
Sep.  19,  1840.  An  attempt  to  execute  a  war- 
rant produced  a  disastrous  war  with  the 


natives,  June  17,  1843,  which  continued  with 
interruptions  till  1847.  Another  dispute 
respecting  land  led  to  a  renewal  of  hostili- 
ties May  3,  1860.  The  Otago  settlement  was 
formed  by  persons  connected  with  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1848.  The  Canterbury 
settlement  was  formed  by  an  association  of 
gentlemen  connected  with  the  Church  of 
England,  in  1850.  The  New  Zealand  Com- 
pany was  dissolved  in  1851.  New  Zealand 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  1841,  and 
it  received  a  new  constitution  by  15  &  16  Viet. 
c.  72  (Jan.  30,  1852).  New  sees  were  estab- 
lished at  Christchurch  in  1856,  at  Nelson  and 
at  Wellington  in  1858,  at  Waiapu  in  1859,  and 
at  Dunedin  in  1865.  Two  settlers  were  mur- 
dered near  Auckland,  by  natives  of  the  tribe 
of  Waikatoes,  July  15,  1863,  which  outrage 
led  to  an  outbreak  of  the  neighbouring  savage 
population.  Gen.  Cameron  having  proceeded 
against  the  insurgents  with  500  men,  defeated 
them  with  great  loss  July  17,  and  on  the  22nd 
attacked  and  captured  the  native  village  of 
Kiri-Kiri.  Volunteer  corps  were  organized 
among  the  colonists,  about  4,000  settlers 
taking  arms  for  the  defence  of  their  adopted  • 
home.  After  a  long  and  destructive  contest 
the  Maories  (q.  r.)  were  reduced  to  subjection 
Aug.  6,  1864.  The  Rev.  Carl  Sylvius  Volkner, 
a  missionary  of  the  Church  of  England,  was 
taken  from  the  schooner  Ecli^f,  and  bar- 
barously murdered  by  the  Pai  Marire  (q.r.) 
natives,  at  Opotiki,  March  2,  1865.  (See  DUNE- 
DIN,  (fee.) 

NEZIB  (Battle).— Ibrahim  Pasha  routed  the 
forces  of  the  Sultan  under  Hafiz  Pasha,  near 
this  place,  in  Syria,  June  24,  1839,  seizing  all 
their  baggage,  with  10,000  prisoners.  The 
Turks  also  lost  6,000  men  killed  and  wounded. 

NGAMI  (Africa  .  — Herodotus  (B.C.  484— 
B.C.  408 )  refers  to  lakes  in  the  interior  of  Africa. 
This  lake,  that  appears  upon  some  Por- 
tuguese charts  in  1508,  was  visited  by  Living- 
stone, Murray,  and  Oswell,  July  28,  1849. 
Livingstone  visited  it  for  the  second  time  in 
1850. 

NIAGARA  (N.  America),  the  capital  of  Lin- 
coln county,  Canada  West,  was  burned  by  the 
Americans  in  Dec.,  1813. 

NIAGARA  (N.  America).— The  falls  of  this 
river  were  first  visited  by  Father  Hennepin,  a 
French  missionary,  in  1678.  The  fort  of  Nia- 
gara, afterwards  called  Fort  Erie  (q.  v.),  was 
taken  by  the  English,  July  24,  1759.  Blondin 
first  crossed  the  falls  on  a  tight  rope,  Aug.  1 7, 

1  NIC^A,  or  NICE  (Battle).  —  Septimius 
Severus  defeated  Pescennius  Niger,  near  this 
citv,  in  Bithynia,  in  194. 

NIC2EA,  or  NICE  (Bithynia). —This  city, 
called  Ancore,  or  Helicore,  is  said  to  have  been 
colonized  by  Bottiseans,  and  destroyed  by  the 
Mysians.  Antigonus  rebuilt  it  B.C.  316,  and 
named  it  Antigonea ;  but  Lysimachus,  having 
conquered  this  part  of  Asia,  changed  its  name 
to  Nic;«a,  in  honour  of  his  wife  Niceea,  daugh- 
ter of  Antipater.  It  became  a  city  of  great 
importance,  and  the  Kings  of  Bithynia  often 
resided  here.  The  celebrated  Council  of 
Nicrea,  the  first  general  council,  was  held 
from  June  19  to  Aug.  25,  325.  It  was  greatly 


NICARAGUA 


[    707 


NICOMEDIA 


injured  by  an  earthquake,  Oct.  n,  368,  and 
was  restored  by  the  Emperor  Valens.  Other 
councils  met  here  Sep.  24 — Oct.  23,  787,  in  1232 
and  1250.  The  Greeks  held  it  as  a  strong  bul- 
wark against  the  Turks,  who  captured  it  in 
1078.  The  Crusaders  wrested  it  from  them, 
June  24,  1097.  Nicsea  was  made  the  capital  of 
Western  Asia  by  Theodore  Lascaris  I.,  in  1204. 
(See  EASTERN  EMPIKE,  for  list  of  Greek  Empe- 
rors of  Nice.) 

NICARAGUA  (Central  America)  formed 
part  of  the  Spanish  kingdom  of  Guatemala 
(q.  v.)  until  Sep.  21,  1821,  when  the  people 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain  and  declared  their 
independence.  It  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  a  confederacy  called  the  Republic 
of  Central  America,  which  was  dissolved  in 
1839.  As  early  as  1527  it  was  proposed  to  con- 
struct a  ship  canal  through  Nicaragua,  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  Surveys  with  this  view  were  made 
in  1781,  1838,  and  1851,  and  various  schemes 
have  been  at  different  times  projected.  (See 
BULWER-CLAYTON  TREATY.)  The  American 
Filibuster  Walker  having  landed  here,  was 
totally  routed  by  the  Nicaragua  troops  near 
San  Juan  del  Sur,  June  28,  1855 ;  but  he 
afterwards  made  himself  dictator  of  the  state. 
The  Filibusters  were  expelled  in  1857  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  several  states. 
A  treaty  of  recognition,  peace,  and  friendship 
was  concluded  with  Spain,  at  Madrid,  Jiily  25, 
1850.  The  constitution  was  settled  Aug.  19, 
1858.  A  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce,  and 
navigation  between  Great  Britain  and  Nica- 
ragua was  signed  at  Managua,  Jan.  28,  1860, 
and  ratifications  were  exchanged  at  London, 
Aug.  2.  This  state  joined  Guatemala  against 
San  Salvador,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
latter  declared  war,  March  23,  1863.  (See  MOS- 
QUITO COAST  and  SALVADOR,  SAN.) 

NICE  (France),  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
colonized  by  Phocseans  from  Marseilles  in  the 
5th  century.  With  the  neighbouring  territory, 
it  was  made  a  Roman  province  under  Augustus, 
and  after  undergoing  various  changes,  became 
a  dependency  of  Genoa  in  630.  One  part  of  Nice, 
the  Quartierde  laCroix  de  Marbre,  is  thus  named 
from  a  marble  cross  erected  to  commemorate 
the  reconciliation  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I., 
June  18,  1538,  when  the  treaty  of  Nice  was 
concluded  through  the  intervention  of  Pope 
Paul  III.  Near  this  cross  stands  an  obelisk, 
erected  in  1823,  in  memory  of  the  two  visits 
of  Pius  VII.  in  1809  and  1814.  Francis  I. 
took  the  town,  Aug.  15,  1543,  but  the  citadel 
resisted  all  his  efforts,  and  his  army  retired 
Sep.  8.  The  Duke  de  Feuillade  invested  Nice 
in  1705,  and  it  surrendered  Dec.  9.  The 
Austrians  took  Nice  March  3,  1744,  and  the 
French,  under  Belleisle,  obtained  possession 
in  June,  1747.  The  French  overran  Nice  in 
1792.  It  was  incorporated  with  the  French 
republic  in  Nov.,  1792,  and  formally  ceded  by 
the  King  of  Sardinia,  May  15,  1796.  The 
Austrians,  under  Melas,  entered  Nice  May  n, 
1800,  and  it  was  restored  to  Sardinia  in  1814. 
The  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  having  demanded 
the  cession  of  Nice  as  a  return  for  services 
rendered  to  Sardinia  in  the  war  against  Austria, 


Nice  was  annexed  to  France  by  treaty  signed 
in  Turin  March  24,  1860,  and  the  transfer  was 
made  Jtme  14. 

NICENE  CREED.— A  confession  of  faith, 
in  which  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Father 
and  the  Son  is  asserted,  was  drawn  up  by 
the  first  general  council,  assembled  at  Nicsea, 
June  19 — Aug.  25,  325.  The  words  "and  the 
Son,"  after  "  who  proceedeth  from  .  the 
Father,"  asserting  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  were  added  at  the  second  general 
council,  held  at  Constantinople  from  May  to 
July  30,  381.  This  clause,  which  is  called  the 
filioque,  has  given  rise  to  much  controversy, 
and  is  rejected  by  the  Greek  Church.  It  was 
accepted  by  the  Spanish  bishops  in  447,  and  by 
those  of  Rome  in  883. 

NICEPHORIUM  (Mesopotamia).— This  town 
on  the  Euphrates  is  said  by  some  authorities  to 
have  been  founded  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great) 
(B.C.  336 — 323),  and  by  others  by  Seleucus  Cal- 
linicus  (B.C.  246 — 226).  Justinian  I.  (527 — 65) 
erected  a  fortress,  and  the  Emperor  Leo  III. 
(717 — 41)  changed  its  name  to  Leontopolis. 

NICHOLAS,  ST.  —  (See  ARGONAUTS  OF  ST. 
NICHOLAS.) 

NICIAS  (Peace).— This  treaty,  establishing 
a  peace  of  50  years  between  Athens  and 
Sparta,  and  named  after  the  Athenian  Nicias, 
by  whom  it  was  negotiated,  was  concluded 
April  10,  B.C.  421. 

NICKEL,  a  white  metal  that  enters  largely 
into  the  composition  of  German  silver,  and  is 
found  in  most  parts  of  Europe  and  South 
America,  was  first  described  by  Cronstedt  in 

I7NICOBAR  ISLANDS  (Indian  Ocean),  con- 
sisting of  nine  larger  and  several  smaller 
islands,  were  settled  in  1756  and  1768  by  the 
Danes,  who  on  both  occasions  were  compelled 
to  withdraw  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness 
of  the  climate.  Some  missionaries  remained 
until  1792.  The  Danes,  who  laid  claim  to  them 
in  1841,  withdrew  it  in  1848. 
NICOLAIEFF,  or  NIKOLAIEV  (Russia),  the 

Erincipal  station  of  the  Black  Sea  fleet,  was 
junded  in  1790.  The  dockyards  are  very  ex- 
tensive, and  numerous  schools  for  naval  cadets, 
shipbuilders,  and  pilots,  exist  in  the  town. 
Nicholas  I.  founded  another  town  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amour,  in  1853. 

NICOLAITANES.— These  heretics  of  the  ist 
century,  mentioned  in  the  Revelation  of  St. 
John  (ii.  6  and  15),  who  are  said  to  have  taken 
the  name  from  Nicolas,  a  proselyte  of  Antioch, 
one  of  the  seven  deacons  (Acts  vi.  5),  allowed 
a  community  of  wives,  and  held  that  the  pas- 
sions ought  to  be  allowed  to  exhaust  them- 
selves by  indulgence.  Further  allusion  is  made 
to  them  Rev.  ii.  14,  where  the  doctrine  of  Balaam 
is  said  to  be  to  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols, 
and  to  commit  fornication.  A  Gnostic  sect  of 
the  and  century  revived  this  heresy. 

NICOMEDIA  (Bithynia),  called  Ismid,  was 
built  upon  the  ruins  of  Astacus,  by  Nicomedes 
I.,  B.C.  264,  and  made  the  metropolis  of  Bithy- 
nia. Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  general, 
died  here  B.C.  183.  It  prospered  greatly,  and 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  B.C.  74. 
It  was  a  favourite  residence  of  several  Empe- 
rors, among  others  of  Diocletian  and  Con- 

Z  Z   2 


NICOPOLTS 


[    708    ] 


NILE 


stantine  I.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  in  Nov.  or  Dec.,  359,  and  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  in  1327. 

NICOPOLIS  Battle).  The  Sultan  Bajazet 
I.  defeated  the  Christians  under  Sigismund, 
King  of  Hungary,  at  a  great  battle  fought 
near  this  place,  in  Bulgaria,  Sep.  28,  1396. 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  encounter 
between  the  Turks  and  the  Christians. 

XK'OPOLIS  (Egypt)  was  founded  by  Au- 
gustus B.C.  24,  in  commemoration  of  the  sur- 
render of  Alexandria  ;  and  in  less  than  a  cen- 
tury its  name  disappeared  from  history. 

NICOPOLIS,  or  the  City  of  Victory  Greece1, 
w;',s  fi  Minded  B.C.  30,  in  honour  of  the  victory 
of  AH  him,  by  Augustus,  who  instituted  a 
quinquennial  festival,  called  Actia,  sacred  to 
Apollo,  in  commemoration  of  that  victory. 
Christianity  was  introduced  by  the  apostle 
Paul,  wlio  dates  his  epistle  to  Titus  from  this 
city  about  Aug.  64.  Nicopolis,  which  was  for 
a  longtime  the  chief  city  of  Western  Greece, 
gradually  fell  into  decay.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  sth  century  it  was  plundered  by  the 
Goths. 

NIBBLA  (Spain  was  taken  from  the  Moors 
by  Alphonso  X.  in  1257,  and  gave  the  title  of 
count  in  1369. 

NIELLO-WOBK,  found  in  Byzantine  works 
of  the  1 2th  century,  was  revived  by  Thomas 
Finiguerra  (1410 

NIEMEN,  or  liEMEL  Russian  Poland  .-- 
After  the  battle  of  Friedland  the  Russians  re- 
treated and  crossed  the  Xiemen, at  Tilsit,  .'lune 
18,  1807.  The  Kivnrh  army,  under  Napoleon 
I.,  crossed  the  Nicnien  for  the  invasion  of 
Russia,  June  24,  1812.  The  wretched  . 
of  this  imposing  army  recrossed  the  Niemen, 
Dec.  12,  1812,  when  3,000  were  taken  prisoners 
by  Platoff.  In  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1831 
a  battle  was  fought  near  this  river,  May  27, 
in  which  the  Russian  general  Sacken  was  de- 
feated by  the  Poles,  with  the  loss  of  2,000  men. 

NIENTSCHANTZ     Russia  .  —  Peter  I.  (the 
Great!   wrested    this    fortress,    near  the   river 
from   the   Swedes,    May  12,    1703,    and 
with  some  of  the  materials  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  St.  Petersburg. 

NIGER  EXPEDITION  was  undertaken  for 
the  purpose  of  planting  an  English  colony  in 
tlie  centre  of  Africa,  the  Government  granting 
;£6o,ooo  for  that  purpose.  The  expedition,  con- 
sisting of  three  ships, — the  Albert,  the  Wilber- 
force,  and  the  Komla,,,— sailed  May  12,  1841. 
They  began  to  ascend  the  Niger  Aug.  20.  Fever 
broke  out  in  Sep.  The  expedition  arrived  at 
Adda  Kudder  Sep.  u,  when  the  Xmn/ii.t  was 
sent  back  with  the  sick.  The  Wilberforce  fol- 
lowed directly  after,  and  the  Albert,  the  last 
vessel,  gained  the  island  of  Fernando  Po  Oct. 
17,  1841,  and  thus  the  Niger  expedition,  from 
the  unhealthy  effects  of  the  climate,  became  a 
total  failure.  It  was  stated  in  the  House  of 
Commons  that  the  object  of  the  expedition 
was  to  secure  the  effectual  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade. 

NIGER,  or  JOLIBA  (Africa). —Various  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  discover  the  source 
of  the  river  Niger.  The  first,  in  1788,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  African  Association,  was 
entrusted  to  John  Ledyard,  who  died  at  Cairo 


in  <  >ct.     Mungo  Park  was  sent  out  in  1795,  and 
again  in  1805.  Though  he  did  not  succeed  in  dis- 
covering the  source  of  the  Niger,  he  obtained 
much  valuable  information  respectingthe  river. 
He  was  killed  by  the  natives  on  his  second 
journey.  Capt.  Clapperton  went  out  in  1824,  the 
brothers  Richard  and  John  Lander  in  1829-30, 
and  Dr.  Barthin  1854.  (See  MISSIONARY  BISHOPS 
and  NK;KK  EXPEDITION.) 
NIGHT-CAPS.— (&«  CAP  and  HATS.) 
NIGHTINGALE    FUND.  —  A  meeting   was 
held  at  Willis's  Rooms,  Nov.   29,  1855,  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  funds  to  establish  an  insti- 
tution for  the   training  of  nurses,  as   an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  services  of  Miss  Florence 
Nightingale  in  the  Russian  war. 
NIGRITIA.— (See  SOUDAN.) 
Mill  LISTS.— (See  ABRAHAMITES.) 
NlillAU    (Pacific   Ocean).— (See    HAWAIIAN 
ARCHIPELACO. 

Nl  KA  SEDITION.— (See  CIRCUS  FACTIONS.) 
NIKOLSIM  RG,  or  NIKALSBURG 
(Treaties). — Bethlen  Gabor,  by  a  treaty  con- 
cluded with  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  at 
this  town  in  Moravia,  Jan.  7,  1622.  renounced 
the  title  of  King  of  Hungary,  receiving  in  lieu 
thereof  large  territories  in  that  country  and 
Silesia,  and  a  yearly  pension  of  50,000  florins. 

-The  preliminaries  of  peace  between  Prussia 

and  Austria  were  signed  here  July  26,  1866. 

N  ILK  (Battle).— Julius  Csesar  defeated  Ptole- 
nia'iis  and  the  Egyptians  on  the  banks  of  this 
river,  B.C.  47.  Ptolemseus  was  drowned  in 
attempting  to  escape. 

NILE  Egypt).  Tin's  celebrated  river,  called 
by  the  Egyptians  the  "Abyss  of  Waters,"  is 
formed  of  two  streams,  the  Blue  River  and 
the  White  River,  which  How  together  at 
Khartoum,  and  each  of  which  has  been  re- 
garded as  the  main  stream  of  the  river.  The 
canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  commenced 
B.C.  610,  and  completed  B.C.  280,  was  repaired 
by  C.  Petronius,  B.C.  22.  The  Nile  was  ex- 
plored 900  miles  above  Syene  in  62.  < 
Indicopleustes  heard  of  the  sources  of  the 
Blue  Nile  in  the  territory  of  the  Agows  in  the 
6th  century,  and  Fra  Mauro  represented  them 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  in  the  isth  cen- 
tury. Paez  discovered  and  described  its 
source  in  1618,  and  it  was  also  reached  by  the 
traveller  Bruce,  Nov.  4,  1770.  M.  Linart  as- 
cended the  White  River  as  far  as  El  Ais  in 
1827,  ancl  it  was  explored  as  far  as  Chanker 
by  a  Turko-Egyptian  expedition  in  1840.  M. 
Brun-Rollet  ascended  still  higher  in  1854. 
Capt.  John  Banning  Speke  having  discovered 
the  Victoria  Nyanza,  Aug.  3,  1858,  conceived 
the  idea  that  the  Nile  probably  found  its  source 
in  its  waters.  He  accordingly  obtained  facili- 
ties from  the  British  Government,  and  in  com- 
pany with  Capt.  Grant  embarked  from  Ports- 
mouth April  27,  1860.  After  great  delays,  in 
consequence  of  difficulties  with  the  native 
chiefs,  they  reached  the  river  July  21,  1862, 
and  succeeded  in  tracing  it  to  the  Nyanza  or 
lake,  July  28.  They  were  received  at  a  special 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
June  24,  1863,  when  Speke  was  presented  with 
a  gold  medal  conferred  on  him  by  the  King  of 
Italy.  Capt.  Speke  was  killed  by  the  accidental 
discharge  of  his  gun  while  out  shooting  at 


NILE 


[     709    ] 


NINEVEH 


Corsham,  near  Bath,  Sep.  15,  1864.  Samuel 
White  Baker,  in  March,  1861,  commenced  an 
expedition  to  discover  the  sources  of  the  Nile, 
iu  which  he  was  accompanied  by  his  wife. 
They  set  sail  upon  the  Nile  at  Cairo  April  15, 
reached  the  Atbara  junction  with  the  Nile 
June*  13,  and  after  a  year's  exploration  on  the 
Abyssinian  frontier,  arrived  at  Khartoum  June 
ii,  1862.  Here  they  remained  till  Dec.  18,  when 
they  commenced  their  voyage  up  the  White 
Nile,  reaching  Gondokoro  Feb.  2,  1863.  The 
journey  was  resumed  March  26,  and  after 
immense  difficulties  and  delays,  arising  chiefly 
from  the  treachery  and  rapacity  of  the  native 
chieftains,  they  reached  Whoa  Jan.  13,  1864, 
and  the  junction  of  the  Somerset  or  Victoria 
White  Nile  Jan.  22,  and  discovered  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  the  great  reservoir  of  the  Nile's  equa- 
torial waters,  March  14.  They  arrived  at 
Khartoum  May  5,  1865,  and,  continuing  their 
return  journey,  July  i,  soon  reached  Suez  and 
Cairo,  whence  they  took  steamer  to  England. 
For  this  discovery  Baker  received  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  Nov.  10,  1866. 

NILE  (Sea-fight).— In  the  roadstead  of 
Bequiers,  between  Aboukir  and  Rosetta,  the 
French  fleet,  consisting  of  the  flag-ship  (120 
guns),  three  8o-gun  ships,  nine  74-guii  ships, 
two  4o-gun  frigates,  and  two  36-guii  frigates, 
commanded  by  Admiral  Brueys,  was  discovered 
by  Nelson,  Aug.  i,  1798.  His  fleet  consisted 
of  13  74-gun  ships,  one  so-gun  ship,  and  the 
brig  Mutine.  The  French  vessels  were  an- 
chored close  into  the  shorej  and  were  protected 
by  gunboats  and  a  battery  erected  on  Aboukir 
Island.  Lord  Nelson,  in  spite  of  the  superior 
force  and  the  advantageous  position  of  the 
enemy,  determined  upon  an  attack,  which 
commenced  at  sunset.  Several  French  ships 
had  been  taken  when  a  fire  broke  out  on 
board  L'Orient,  and  she  blew  up  at  10  o'clock. 
.  Firing  ceased  for  10  minutes,  and  was  resumed 
by  the  Franklin.  Another  suspension  took 
place,  and  the  contest  was  again  renewed  at 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  Aug.  2.  Only  two 
ships  of  the  line  and  two  frigates  of  the  French 
fleet  escaped.  The  British  loss  amounted  to 
218  killed  and  671  wounded.  Nelson  signalled 
to  the  fleet  his  intention  to  return  public 
thanks  to  the  Almighty  for  this  glorious  vic- 
tory at  2  P.M.  Aug.  2.  1798. 

NILOMETER  (Africa).— A  graduated  pillar 
placed  in  a  square  well  in  the  island  of  Rhoda, 
opposite  Old  Cairo,  to  mark  the  daily  rise  of 
the  Nile,  was  first  constructed  by  Soliinan, 
seventh  caliph  of  the  Ommiades,  in  715.  Al 
Motawakkel,  tenth  caliph  of  the  Abbasides, 
built  a  new  Nilometer  in  860  ;  and  Mostunser 
Pillah,  fifth  of  the  Fatirnite  princes  of  Egypt, 
repaired  it  in  1092. 

NIMBUS.— This  halo  round  the  head  or  body 
of  divine  persons  is  called  a  nimbus  when  it 
surrounds  the  head,  and  an  aureola  when  it 
envelops  the  whole  body— the  union  of  the  two 
being  called  a  glory.  It  is  of  pagan  origin. 
Images  of  the  gods  were  adorned  with  a 
crown  of  rays ;  and  when  the  Roman  emperors 
assumed  divine  honours,  they  appeared  deco- 
rated in  the  same  manner.  It  afterwards 
became  so  common,  that  it  appears  on  coins, 
round  the  heads  of  the  consuls  of  the  late 


empire.  It  was  for  a  long  tune  avoided  in 
the  Christian  representations,  and  the  first 
example  is  a  gem  of  St.  Martin  iu  the  early 
part  of  the  6th  century.  After  the  i  ith  cen- 
tury it  was  employed  to  distinguish  the 
Saviour,  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  apostles,  saints, 
&c.  From  the  5th  to  the  i2th  century  the 
nimbus  had  the  form  of  a  disc  or  plate  over 
the  head ;  from  the  i2th  to  the  isth  century  it 
was  a  broad  golden  band  round  or  behind  the 
head ;  from  the  isth  century  it  was  a  bright 
fillet  over  the  head,  and  in  the  i7th  it  dis- 
appeared altogether. 

NIMEGUEN  (Treaty).— Conferences  for 
peace  were  opened  at  Nimeguen  in  July,  1675, 
and  Charles  II.  of  England,  having  signed  a 
convention  with  Holland,  Jan.  26,  1678,  for 
the  withdrawal  of  the  English  contingent  from 
the  French  army,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Nimeguen  between  France  and 
Holland  Aug.  10.  Spain  acceded  to  the  treaty 
Sep.  17,  1678,  the  Emperor  of  Germany  Feb.  5, 
1679,  and  Sweden  March  29,  1679. 

NIMEGUEN,  NYMEGEN,  or  NJMEGEN 
(Holland),  the  ancient  Noviomagus  of  the 
Batavi,  is  a  strongly  fortified  town.  The 
castle  of  Valkenburg,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  Julius  Caesar,  was  repaired  by  Charlemagne 
about  780.  William  of  Holland  mortgaged  the 
town  to  the  Duke  of  Guelderland  in  1247. 
Maurice  captured  it  in  1591.  The  Duke  of 
Marlborough  arrived  at  Nimeguen  July  2, 
1702,  to  assume  the  command  of  the  allied 
armies.  The  stadtholder  William  V.  removed 
the  coxirt  here  in  1786.  The  Duke  of  York, 
who  formed  an  intrenched  camp  before  Nime- 
guen in  1794,  had  an  indecisive  engagement 
with  the  French  Oct.  28.  The  French  be- 
sieged the  town  Nov.  i,  and  the  English  made 
a  successful  sortie  Nov.  3.  The  French  batteries 
were,  however,  re-established  Nov.  6,  and  the 
English  garrison  was  withdrawn  Nov.  8,  the 
fortress  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  French, 
who  in  1797  destroyed  the  ancient  castle  of 
Valkenburg.  The  town-hall  was  built  in  1554. 

NIMROUD,  or  NIMRUD.— (See  CALAH.) 

NINEVEH  (Assyria).— Nimrod,  or  Asshur, 
is  said  to  have  founded  this  city  about  B.C. 
2218,  but  some  authorities  believe  that  it  had 
no  existence  till  the  reign  of  Ninus,  B.C.  2182. 
It  is  mentioned  on  the  tablet  of  Karnak  (q.  v.). 
Diodorus  asserts  that  Nineveh  was  destroyed 
by  Arbaces  the  Mode,  B.C.  876;  but  Layard 
considers  this  destruction  to  have  been  most 
probably  a  mere  depopulation.  Jonah's  pro- 
phecy to  the  inhabitants  of  Nineveh  was  de- 
livered some  time  between  B.C.  760 — B.C.  750, 
or  B.C.  862,  according  to  some  authorities,  and 
the  city  was  conquered  and  destroyed  by 
Cyaxares,  B.C.  625.  The  extent  of  the  ancient 
city  was  60,  or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
74  square  miles.  Heraclius  defeated  Rhazates, 
the  Persian  general,  in  a  great  battle  on  its  site, 
Dec.  i,  627.  Layard's  discoveries  of  antiquities 
at  Nineveh  commenced  April,  1840,  but  no 
excavations  of  importance  were  made  till  the 
autumn  of  1845.  In  1848  he  published  "  Nine- 
veh and  its  Remains,"  and  in  1853  his  "  Dis- 
coveries in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon." 
The  antiquities  discovered  by  him  have  been 
deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  (See  MOSUL.) 


NINGPO 


t    710    ] 


NIVELLE 


NINGPO  (China)  was  taken  by  Sir  Henry 
Pottinger  Oct.  13,  1841.  The  Chinese  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  recover  it  March  10,  1842. 
A  British  consul  and  British  subjects  were 
allowed  to  reside  at  the  port  by  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  Nankin,  signed  Aug.  29,  1842. 
This  city,  seized  by  the  rebels,  Dec.  9,  1861, 
was  recovered  by  the  Imperial  forces,  May  21, 
1862. 

NIOBIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  by 
H.  Rose  in  1845. 

NIORT  (France). — This  town  having  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  English  with  the 
rest  of  Poitou  in  1151,  was  wrested  from  them 
in  1202.  The  English  recaptured  it  in  1290, 
and  lost  it  again  in  1308.  They  took  it  again 
in  1361,  but  the  French  regained  possession 
by  stratagem  in  1373.  The  Huguenots  were 
besieged  here  in  1569. 

N1PON.— (See  JAPAN.) 

NISHAPORE,  or  NI8HAPUR  (Persia),  was 
destroyed  by  Alexander  HI.  (the  Great)  during 
his  eastern  expedition,  about  B.C.  331.  Having 
been  restored  and  raised  to  a  royal  city  by 
the  Seljukian  Turks,  it  was  .sacked  by  the  Tar- 
tars in  1269,  and  taken  in  1739  by  Nadir  Shah, 
wlio  reduced  it  to  ruins. 

NISIBIS  (Mesopotamia;,  the  modern  Nisibin, 
is  .supposed  to  be  the  Zobah  of  scripture, 
whose  kings  are  mentioned  as  having  been 
defeated  by  the  Israelites,  i  Sam.  xiv.  47,  and 
2  Sam.  viii.  3,  about  B.C.  1093  and  B.C.  1040. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  the  Mace- 
donians, and  called  Antiochea  Mygdonise.  It 
was  taken  from  the  Parthians  by  the  Romans, 
under  Lucullus,  after  a  long  siege,  B.C.  68. 
They  did  not  retain  possession,  and  it  was  re- 
captured by  Trajan  in  116.  Lucius  Verus  took 
it  in  165,  and  Sapor  I.,  King  of  Persia,  in  256  ; 
but  it  was  recovered  by  Odenathus  in  264. 
Diocletian  and  Galerius  met  here  and  received 
the  Persian  ambassador,  and  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Persians  in  298.  Sapor  II. 
besieged  Nisibis  for  60  days  in  338,  for  80 
days  in  346,  and  for  100  days  in  350,  being  on 
each  occasion  compelled  to  retire.  The  city 
was,  however,  surrendered  to  him  by  treaty 
by  the  Emperor  Jovian  in  363,  and  the  in- 
habitants retired  to  Amida.  That  rising  city, 
with  this  accession  of  inhabitants,  recovered  its 
former  splendour,  and  became  the  capital 
of  Mesopotamia.  The  Romans,  under  Arda- 
biuius,  attempted,  but  without  success,  to 
regain  Nisibis  in  420,  and  the  Saracens,  having 
taken  it  in  640,  levelled  its  walls  with  the 
ground. 

NISI  PRIUS.— The  clause  in  the  writ  sum- 
moning a  jury,  from  which  this  legal  phrase 
is  derived,  was  introduced  by  13  Edw.  I.  c.  30 
(1285),  and  enforced  by  14  Edw.  III.  c.  16 
(1340).  The  judges  sit  in  Middlesex  at  Nisi 
Prius  by  virtue  of  18  Eliz.  c.  12  (1576). 

NISMES,  or  NIMES  (France).— The  ancient 
Nemausus  noticed  by  Strabo  as  the  capital  of 
the  Volcse  Arecomici,  came  under  the  sway  of 
Rome  B.C.  119,  and  was  fortified  by  Augustus 
B.C.  14.  It  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Visi- 
goths, from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  Moors 
in  the  8th  century.  Charles  Martel  took  it  in 
737.  In  the  i6th  century  it  became  a  strong- 
hold of  the  Calviru'sts.  By  the  pacification  of 


Nismes,  agreed  to  in  1629,  the  Huguenots  were 
secured  in  the  possession  of  their  estates,  and 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  of  all 
the  privileges  accorded  by  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
They  were,  however,  deprived  of  their  fortified 
cautionary  towns.  The  fortifications  were 
destroyed  by  Louis  XIII.  (1610—43).  The 
amphitheatre,  erected  by  the  Roman  Emperor 
Antoninus  Pius  (138 — 161)  is  still  in  a  state  of 
fair  preservation.  Nismes  retains  two  of  its 
Roman  gates --the  Porte  d'Auguste,  founded 
B.C.  1 6,  and  the  Porte  de  France.  Councils 
were  held  here  in  389,  July  6 — 14,  1096,  and 
in  1284.  The  cathedral  was  almost  destroyed 
during  the  wars  of  the  i6th  and  iyth  centuries, 
and  the  town  suffered  much  in  the  French 
revolution  of  1789. 

NISSA,  or  NISCH  (Battle).  —Amurath  II., 
Sultan  of  the  Ottomans,  sustained  a  severe 
defeat  from  the  Hungarians,  under  John 
Hunniades  and  Scanderbeg,  near  this  town  in 
Servia,  Nov.  3,  1443. 

XISSA,  or  NISCH  (Servia).— The  ancient 
Naiissus  (q.  v.),  the  birthplace  of  Constantino  I. 
(Feb.  27,  274),  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in 
1376,  and  again  in  1389.  John  Hunniades 
wrested  it  from  the  Turks  in  1443.  It  again 
fell  into  their  possession,  and  was  recovered 
by  r.miis  of  Baden,  Sep.  24,  1689.  The  Turks 
regained  possession  in  1690.  The  Austriaus 
took  it  July  28,  1737,  and  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Turks  the  same  year. 

NIT Jt  !•:.—(,*  e  SALTPETRE.) 

NITRIC  ACID. -Liquid  nitric  acid  was 
obtained  as  early  as  the  yth  century.  Its 
nature  was  demonstrated  in  1785  by  Caven- 
dish. Deville  made  some  important  discove- 
ries in  1849. 

NITROGEN,  or  AZOTE,  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  Rutherford,  of  Edinburgh,  and  described 
in  his  "  DC  Acre  Mephitico,"  published  in  1772. 
Dr.  Priestley,  who  termed  it  "  phlogisticated 
air,"  also  described  it  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  for  1772.  Lavoisier  showed  it 
to  be  a  component  of  atmospheric  air  in  1774. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE.— This  highly  explo- 
sive compound,  discovered  by  Sobrero  in 
1847,  is  described  as  ten  times  more  powerful 
than  gunpowder. 

NIVE  (Battles).— Soult's  position  on  this 
river  was  menaced  by  Hill,  Nov.  16,  1813 ; 
and  it  was  attacked  and  forced  by  the  English 
army  Dec.  8.  Soult,  anxious  to  regain  the 
position,  assailed  the  English  army,  only 
30,000  strong,  with  60,000  troops,  Dec.  10,  and, 
after  making  a  most  desperate  attack,  was 
compelled  to  retire.  Other  struggles  oc- 
curred Dec.  ii  and  13,  but  the  English  main- 
tained their  ground,  and  the  passage  of  the 
Nive  was  effected.  In  these  actions  the  French 
lost  6,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  2,500 
prisoners,  whilst  the  English  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  5,019  men. 

NIVELLE  (Battle).— The  French  position 
on  this  river  was  carried  by  the  English  army, 
commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  after 
an  arduous  struggle,  Nov.  10,  1813.  The 
English  army  advanced  in  order  or  battle 
Nov.  ii,  and  crossed  the  Nivelle  Nov.  12. 
Marshal  Soult  lost  4,265  men,  including  1,200 
prisoners,  and  the  English  2,294  men. 


NIVELLES 


NONSUCH 


NIVELLES  (Belgium).— This  town  origin- 
ated in  an  abbey  founded  by  St.  Gertrude, 
about  645.  The  church  dedicated  to  this  saint 
was  built  in  1048. 

NOBILITY.— The  rank  of  nobiles,  or  known 
meh,  among  the  Romans,  was  restricted  to 
the  patricians  till  B.C.  336,  when  the  plebeians 
were  permitted  to  attain  the  dignity.  Hotmail, 
in  his  "  Franca  Gallia,"  ascribes  to  Hugh 
Capet,  King  of  France,  the  device  of  making 
such  honours  hereditary  in  987.  The  first 
recorded  summons  for  the  creation  of  an 
English  peer  was  issued  by  Henry  III.  in 
1265.  Titles  were  abolished  in  France  June 
1 8,  1790 ;  but  Napoleon  I.  revived  them  in 
March,  1808.  The  hereditary  peerage  of  that 
country  was  extinguished  in  1831. 

NOBLE. —This  gold  coin,  of  the  value  of 
6s.  8d.,  was  struck  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
in  1344.  George  nobles  were  first  coined  in 

I5N3OCERA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Nuceria,  in- 
habited by  people  of  the  Oscan  race,  took  part 
with  the  Samnites  against  the  Romans  B.C.  315, 
for  which  the  consul  Fabius  besieged  and 
captured  the  city,  B.C.  308.  Hannibal  reduced 
it  by  famine  B.C.  216,  and  in  the  civil  war  it 
was  taken  by  C.  Papius  B.C.  90.  The  battle 
between  Narses  and  Te'ias,  which  terminated 
the  Gothic  monarchy  in  Italy,  was  fought  near 
this  city  in  533.  A  colony  of  20,000  Saracens 
was  established  here  by  Frederick  II.  (1215 — 
1246),  whence  its  name  Nocera  dei  Pagani. 
Charles  of  Anjou  assailed  it  and  destroyed  its 
fortifications  in  1269. 

NOLA  (Italy)  was  founded  by  the  Etruscans 
as  early  as  B.C.  800,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties ;  but  there  is  much  doubt  on  the  subject. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  Samnites  about  B.C. 
440,  and  by  the  Romans  B.C.  313.  Hannibal 
assailed  it  in  three  successive  years,  B.C.  216 — 
214.  The  inhabitants  took  part  with  Marius 
in  the  civil  war,  and  were  put  to  the  sword  by 
Sylla,  who  divided  the  country  amongst  his 
victorious  followers,  B.C.  82.  Alaric  1.  laid  it 
waste  in  410  ;  and  Genseric,  King  of  the 
Vandals,  destroyed  it,  selling  the  inhabitants 
into  slavery,  in  455.  Augustus  died  here, 
Aug.  19,  14.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
in  254,  and  St.  Paulinus  (died  in  431),  its  bishop, 
is  said  to  have  invented  church  bells,  whence 
they  were  called  "  nola  "  and  "  campana."  The 
Carbonari  attempted  a  revolution  here  June  2, 
1820. 

NOMINALISTS  AND  REALISTS.  —  These 
celebrated  ecclesiastical  parties  originated  in 
the  discussion  between  Anselm,  Abbot  of  Bee, 
and  Roscellinus,  a  canon  of  Compiegne,  in  1092, 
the  doctrines  of  Anselm  giving  rise  to  Realism, 
and  those  of  Roscellinus  to  Nominalism.  The 
controversy,  which  raged  with  great  fury 
during  the  i2th  century  and  then  declined, 
was  revived  by  the  Franciscan  Nominalist,  Wil- 
liam Occam,  who  died  April  7, 1347,  and  founded 
the  sect  of  the  Occamists.  His  followers  were 
expelled  from  Prague  in  1408,  and  their  books 
were  prohibited  in  France  by  Louis  XI.  in 
1473.  The  Realists  maintained  that  general 
ideas  (uni-cersalia)  are  real  things  with  positive 
existence  ;  the  Nominalists,  on  the  other  hand, 
merely  regarded  them  as  words  or  names.  The 


Nominalists  were  in  later  times  called  Concep- 
tualists. 

NONCONFORMISTS.— The  name  used  gen- 
erally to  describe  dissenters  from  the  Church 
of  England,  was  first  applied  to  those  who 
refused  to  comply  with  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
(2  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  i)  passed  in  1549.  A  pro- 
clamation against  unlicensed  preaching  was 
issued  by  Elizabeth,  Dec.  27, 1558 ;  and  the  Non- 
conformists, under  the  name  of  Puritans  (q.  v.}, 
formed  their  first  presbytery  at  Wandsworth 
in  1572.  On  the  passing  of  the  Uniformity 
Act  of  Charles  II.,  2,000  clergymen  voluntarily 
resigned  their  livings,  Aug.  24, 1662.  James  II.'s 
Declaration  of  Indulgence  was  promulgated 
April 4,  1687,  and  the  Toleration  Act(i  Will.  & 
Mary,  st.  i,  c.  18)  was  passed  May  24,  1689. 
The  Nonconformists  held  a  Bicentenary  on  the 
anniversary  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  Sunday, 
Aug.  24,  1862. 

NONES. —  This  term  was  applied  by  the 
Romans  to  the  sth  day  of  each  month, 
excepting  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
when  it  was  applied  to  the  seventh.  The 
nones  formed  part  of  the  system  of  com- 
puting time  ascribed  to  Romulus,  B.C.  753. 
(See  IDES.  ) 

NON JURORS,  headed  by  Bancroft,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  the  Bishops  of 
Bath  and  Wells,  Ely,  Gloucester,  Norwich,  and 
Peterborough,  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  William  III.,  were  deprived 
Feb.  i,  1691.  The  Bishops  of  Chichester  and 
Worcester,  who  had  also  declined  to  take  the 
oaths,  died  in  the  interval.  To  these  men  and 
their  followers  the  term  Nonjurors  was  applied. 
They  divided  into  two  sections  in  1720,  in 
consequence  of  a  dispute  respecting  the 
administration  of  the  communion.  By  9 
Geo.  I.  c.  18  (1723),  they  were  subjected  to 
similar  taxes  as  Papists.  Their  worship  was 
conducted  in  hired  rooms  or  private  houses ; 
and  they  became  extinct  in  1780. 

NON,  or  NUN  (Africa).— This  cape,  which 
long  formed  the  boundary  of  ocean  navi- 
gation, was  doubled  in  1412,  by  an  expe- 
dition fitted  out  by  John  I.  of  Portugal. 
Some  writers  contend  that  a  Catalan  doubled 
it  as  early  as  1346,  and  that  some  Dieppe 
mariners  penetrated  as  far  as  Sierra  Leone  in 
1364.  The  story  is  not  supported  by  satis- 
factory evidence. 

NON-RESISTANCE  OATH,  inserted  in  the 
Corporation  and  Test  Act  ( 13  Charles  II.  st.  2,  c.  i) 
of  1 66 1,  and  required  to  be  taken  by  all  corpo- 
ration officers,  was  to  the  following  effect : — "  I 
do  declare  and  believe  that  it  is  not  lawful, 
upon  any  pretence  whatsoever,  to  take  arms 
against  the  king,  and  that  I  do  abhor  that 
traitorous  position  of  taking  arms  by  his 
authority  against  his  person,  or  against  those 
that  are  commissioned  by  him."  It  was  re- 
pealed by  5  Geo.  I.  c.  6,  s.  2  (1719),  an  act  for 
quieting  and  establishing  corporations.  A 
homily  on  the  subject  was  written  in  1569, 
and  the  doctrine  was  laid  down  in  the  canons 
of  convocation  of  1606.  (See  FIVE-MILE  ACT.) 

NONSUCH  PALACE  (Surrey).— Henry  VIII. 
having  purchased  the  manor  of  Ewel  cum 
Cuddington,  ordered  two  parks,  called  the 
Great  and  the  Little,  to  be  laid  out.  In  the 


NOOTKA 


NORMANDY 


latter  he  began  to  build  the  palace  of  No-asuch 
in  1543.  Queen  Mary,  Nov.  23,  1557,  granted 
Nonsuch  to  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  by  whom  it 
was  completed.  Camden  says  it  is  built  with 
so  much  splendour  and  elegance  that  it  stands 
a  monument  of  art,  and  you  would  think  the 
whole  science  of  architecture  had  been  ex- 
hausted on  the  building.  Queen  Elizabeth 
visited  Nonsuch  in  1559,  1567,  1579,  and  1580. 
She  purchased  it,  and  it  became  her  favourite 
residence.  Here  the  Earl  of  Essex  first  ex- 
perienced her  displeasure  on  his  sudden  return 
from  Ireland,  Sep.  28,  1599.  James  I.  settled 
Nonsuch  upon  his  queen,  Anne  ;  and  in  1650  a 
survey  was  taken  of  it  by  the  Commonwealth 
commissioners,  and  it  was  sold.  At  the  Resto- 
ration, Nonsuch  and  all  the  lands  were  restored 
to  the  queen-mother,  and  George  Lord  Buckley 
was  appointed  keeper  Sep.  5,  1660.  A  pro- 
clamation was  issued  July  26,  1665,  for  re- 
moving the  receipt  of  the  exchequer  from 
Westminster  to  his  Majesty's  honour  of 
Nonsuch,  in  the  county  of  Surrey.  In  1760 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  Barbara,  who 
had  been  created  Duchess  of  Cleveland  and 
Baroness  of  Nonsuch,  and  by  her  Nonsuch  was 
pulled  down,  and  the  parks  were  turned  into 
farms. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.  —  (See  KING  GEORGE'S 
SOUND.) 

NO  POPERY.— This  cry  was  raised  by  the 
ringleaders  in  the  Gun  inn  rints  </.  v.  ,  in  1780. 
A  similar  cry  was  raised  during  some  disturb- 
ances in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  in  Feb.,  1779. 

NORBA  C.KSARKA.      ,sv,  ALCANTARA.) 

X<  >Ul>AI,BINGIA.  —Charlemagne  expelled 
the  Saxons  from  Holstein  (q.  v.},  and  formed 
it  into  the  margraviate  of  Nordalbingia,  about 
Sir. 

NOHDKX  Battled— The  Danes,  under  Hast- 
ings, defeated  the  army  of  Charles  the  Fat  at 
this  town,  in  East  Friesland,  in  882. 

NORDKOPING,  or  XORKOPING  (Sweden). 
— At  a  diet  held  at  this  town,  in  1769,  the 
French,  or  the  Hat  party,  who  had  long 
opposed  the  Russian  and  English,  called  the 
I 'a]  i  party,  obtained  the  ascendancy. 

NORDLINGEN  (Battles'.— Two  battles  were 
fought  at  this  walled  town,  in  Bavaria,  the 
first  between  the  Austrians  and  Bavarians, 
under  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  and  the 
Swedes,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  and  Count  Horn,  Aug.  27,  1634.  The 

latter  were  defeated. In  the  second,  the 

Spaniards  and  Austrians  were  defeated  by 
the  French,  under  Turenne  and  the  Duke 
d'Enghien,  in  1645. 

NORE  (Mutiny).  —  Great  discontent  pre- 
vailed amongst  the  sailors  in  the  English 
navy  early  in  1797.  They  complained  that, 
although  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
had  increased,  they  received  the  same  amount 
of  wages  as  that  paid  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  In  April  the  men  broke  into  open 
mutiny  at  Spithead.  They  refused  to  obey 
the  commands  of  their  officers,  appointed 
delegates,  and  drew  up  petitions  to  Parlia- 
ment for  redress  of  grievances.  Lord  Howe 
succeeded  in  repressing  this  mutiny,  but 
another  broke  out  May  27,  1797,  in  the  fleet 
lying  at  Sheerness.  The  ringleader  was  one 


Richard  Parker,  who  was  nicknamed  Rear- 
Admiral  Parker.  The  mutineers  removed  the 
ships  to  the  Nore,  hoisted  the  red  flag,  sent 
their  officers  on  shore,  and  made  the  most 
extravagant  demands.  They  seized  some 
store-ships,  and  blockaded  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames.  Owing  to  the  energetic  measures 
of  the  authorities,  the  mutineers  began  to 
waver,  and  fired  a  royal  salute  on  the  king's 
birthday,  June  4.  One  by  one  the  ships 
returned  to  their  stations,  the  last  red  flag 
having  been  hauled  down  June  13.  Richard 
Parker,  president  of  the  delegates,  arrested 
with  others  June  14,  was  executed  on  board 
the  ^i/ndwicli,  at  Sheerness,  June  30.  (See 
CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY.) 

NOREIA,  or  NOREJA  (Styria),  the  capital 
of  Noricum,  celebrated  for  the  great  defeat  in- 
flicted upon  the  Romans  by  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones,  B.C.  113.  The  Boii  besieged  it  B.C. 
59.  The  modern  town  of  Neumark  occupies 
its  site. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND  (Pacific  Ocean)  was 
discovered  in  1774  by  Capt.  Cook,  when  it  was 
uninhabited.  A  settlement  of  freemen  and 
convicts,  made  in  1787,  was  abandoned  in  1810. 
It  was  made  a  penal  settlement  in  1825,  and  on 
the  withdrawal  of  the  convict  establishment 
in  1856,  the  inhabitants  of  Pitcairn's  Island 
took  possession. 

XOKKTM  Kurope),  the  country  forming  a 
large  portion  of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  received  this  name  from  Noreia, 
its  capital,  and  was  inhabited  by  a  Celtic  race, 
anciently  called  Taurisci.  The  Boii  settled  in 
the  northern  part  of  Noricum,  B.C.  58.  It  was 
made  a  Roman  province  B.C.  15.  (-See  AUSTRIA.) 

XOKIvITTKN,  or  GROSS  JAGERNDORF 
(Battle  .—The  Prussians  attacked  the  Rus- 
sians, 30,000  strong,  in  an  intrenched  camp 
near  the  forest  of  Norkitten,  in  Prussia,  Aug. 
30,  1757,  and  after  gaining  some  advantages, 
were  compelled  to  retire  in  confusion.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  battle  they  captured 
80  pieces  of  cannon,  which  they  were  obliged 
to  relinquish,  with  13  pieces  of  their  own 
artillery. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS  for  the  training  of 
teachers  were  instituted  in  France  in  1795. 
The  Normal  school  at  Paris,  suppressed  in  1821, 
was  re-established  June  28,  1833.  Normal 
schools  were  introduced  into  England  in  1808, 
and  into  Tuscany  by  a  decree  issued  Dec.  3, 
1846. 

N(  )RMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  —  Fergusson 
(Illustrated  Handbook  of  Architecture,  ii. 
643),  says  of  the  round-arched  Norman  Gothic, 
"No  building  in  this  style  is  known  to  have 
been  even  commenced  before  the  year  1050, 
and  before  1150  the  pointed  style  had  super- 
seded it.  Indeed,  practically  speaking,  all  the 
great  and  typical  examples  are  crowded  into 
the  last  50  years  of  the  nth  century." 

NORMANDY  (France).— This  duchy,  which 
comprises  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Neustria,  was  ceded  to  Rollo,  Rolf,  or  Haoul, 
the  Norseman  or  Norman,  by  Charles  III.  (the 
Simple),  according  to  the  treaty  or  conference 
of  St.  Clair-sur-Epte,  which  was  concluded 
between  them  in  911.  (See  NORTHMEN.)  Rollo 
is  believed  to  have  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  French 


NORROY 


NORTH  ALLERTON 


9*7- 


crown,  but  the    subject    is   involved  in  con- 
siderable obscurity. 

A.D. 

913.  Hollo  is  baptized  at  Rouen  by  the  name  of  Robert. 

933.  The    Franks  invade    Normandy    under    Raoul   of 
Burgundy,  who  is  compelled  to  retire  and  pay  a 
heavy  Danegelt  as  the  price  of  peace. 
.  Rollo  abdicates    in    favour    of    his    son,   William 
Long-lie-  Kpee,  -who  does  homage  to  Charles  III. 

931.  William  I.  invades  Britanny,  and  annexes  part  of 
that  country. 

933.  William  I.  takes  the  Channel  Islands  and  sup- 
presses an  insurrection  under  Count  Riulpb, 
whom  he  puts  to  death. 

937.  Cornouaille  is  permanentlv  annexed  to  Normandy. 

William  I.  revolts  against  Louis  IV.  of  France. 

938.  William  I.  ravages  Flanders. 

940.  William  I.  swears  fealty  to  Otho  I.  of  Germany, 
but  after  many  vacillations  returns  to  his  alle- 
giance to  Louis  IV. 

942,  Dec.  17.  William  I.  is  murdered  by  Balzo,  the 
nephew  of  Count  Rlulph. 

944.  Normandy  is  invaded  by  the  French  and  Flemings, 

who  defeat  the  Normans  at  the  battle  of  Arques. 

945.  Richard  I.  (the  Fearless)  is  restored  by  the  aid  of 

Harold  Blaatand,  King  of  Denmark. 

960.  A  confederacy,  headed  byLothaire,  King  of  France, 

is  formed  against  Richard  I. 

961.  Richard  I.   defeats  Lothaire   at  the  battle  of  the 

Fords. 
963.  Thibaut,   Count  of   Chartres,    invades  Normandy, 

and  is  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Hermondeville. 
996.  Richard  II.  suppresses  an  insurrection  occasioned 
by  the  tyranny  of  the  nobles. 

1003.  Ethelred  II.  of  England  makes  an  unsuccessful  de- 
scent upon  the  Norman  coasts. 

1035.  The  Normans  form  settlements  in  the  south  of 
Italy. 

1035,  July  3.  Robert  I.  undertakes  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  dies  from  poison  at  Niceea,  in 
Bithynia. 

1064.  William  II.  (the  Bastard)  annexes  Maine  to  Nor- 
mandy. 

1066.  William  II.  (the  Bastard)  invades  England. 

1106,  Sep.  38.  Henry  I.  of  England  defeats  Robert  Court- 
hose  and  conquers  Normandy  at  the  battle  of 
Tinchenbray. 

1151.  Henry  Plantagenet  receives  the  investiture  of  Nor- 
mandy. 

1204.  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  annexes  Normandy  to  France. 

1339.  Philip  VI.  re-establishes  the  duchy  of  Normandy 
in  favour  of  his  son  John. 

1346.  Normandy  is  ravaged  by  Edward  III.  of  England. 

1360,  May  8.  The  treaty  of  Bretigny. 

1364,  May  16.  Battle  of  Cocherel  (?. ».). 

1417.   The  English  seize  Normandy. 

1450.  Normandy  is  restored  to  France. 

1468.  The  states-general  declare  that  Normandy  shall 
never  be  detached  from  the  French  crown. 

1499.  Louis  XII.  establishes  the  parliament  of  Rouen. 

1639.  The  sedition  of  the  Nu-pieds,  or  Barefeet,  is  sup- 
pressed. 

1654.  Louis  XIV.  suppresses  the  Norman  states. 

1771.  The  parliament  of  Rouen  is  suppressed. 

1774.  Louis  XVI.  restores  the  parliament  of  Rouen. 


135- 

144. 
151- 
189. 


DUKES   OF   NORMANDY. 
Rollo. 

William  I.,  Longrie-Ep6e,  or  Long-sword. 
Richard  I.,  the  Fearless. 
Richard  II.,  the  Good. 
Richard  III. 
Robert  I.,  le  Diable. 

William  II.,  the  Bastard  (I.  of  England). 
Robert  II.,  suruamed  Courthose. 
Henry  I. 
Stephen. 

Geoffrey  Plantagenet. 
Henry  II.  (i  154  King  of  England). 
Richard  IV.,  Cceur-de-Lion  (I.  of  England). 
John. 
Normandy  is  reunited  to  France. 


NORROY    KING-AT-ARMS.— The  office  of 
this    herald,   whose   province    comprises    the 


whole  of  England  north  of  the  Trent,  is  traced 
by  Edmondson  to  1323,  but  Anstis  states  that 
it  was  created  by  Edward  III.  (1327  —  1377). 
Richard  II.  changed  the  title  to  "March  King- 
at-Arms  "  in  1386,  and  Henry  VI.  to  "  Lancas- 
ter King-at-Arms  "  in  1423,  but  the  original 
name  was  restored  by  Edward  IV.  in  1468. 

NORTH  ADMINISTRATION.  —  Frederick, 
Lord  North,  created  Earl  of  Guildford  in  1790, 
who  filled  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer in  the  Graf  ton  administration^.  v.), 
became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  Jan.  28, 
1770,  on  the  resignation  of  the  Duke  of  Graf- 
ton.  The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :  — 


President  of  the  Council  .........  Earl  Gower. 

Privy  Seal    ...........................  Earl  of  Halifax. 

,  Earl       of      Hillsborough, 

Principal       Secretaries      of        -"™*    *"**   * 
"e  ..............................     Earl  of  Rochford. 

V  Lord  Weymouth. 
Admiralty  ..............................  Sir  Edward  Hawke. 

The  Great  Seal  was  at  first  placed  in  commis- 
sion. Lord  Apsley,  afterwards  Earl  Bathurst, 
was  made  Lord  Chancellor  Jan.  23,  1771.  He 
resigned  in  1778,  and  Lord  Thurlow  was  ap- 
pointed June  3.  Lord  Weymouth  resigned, 
and  the  Earl  of  Sandwich  became  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state  in  his  place  Dec. 
19,  1770.  Sir  E.  Hawke  resigned  the  Admi- 
ralty, and  was  succeeded  Jan.  12,  1771,  by  the 
Earl  of  Sandwich,  whose  place  as  Secretary  of 
State  was  supplied  by  the  Earl  of  Halifax 
Jan.  22,  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  and  Berkshire 
taking  the  Privy  Seal.  The  Earl  of  Halifax 
died  June  8,  1771,  and  was  succeeded,  June  12, 
by  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  and  Berkshire,  the 
Privy  Seal  being  filled  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton. 
The  Earl  of  Dartmouth  succeeded  the  Earl  of 
Hillsborough  as  Secretary  of  State,  Aug.  14, 
1772.  The  Earl  of  Dartmouth  replaced  the 
Duke  of  Grafton  as  Privy  Seal,  Nov.  4,  1775. 
Viscount  Weymouth  and  Lord  George  Sack- 
ville  Germaine,  afterwards  Viscount  Sackville, 
became  Secretaries  of  State  in  place  of  the 
Earls  of  Rochford  and  Dartmouth,  Nov.  10, 
1775.  Earl  Bathurst  became  President  of  the 
Council  as  successor  of  Earl  Gower,  Nov.  24, 
1779.  Lord  Weymouth  resigned  his  secretary- 
ship of  State,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl 
of  Hillsborough,  Nov.  24,  1779.  Mr.  Welbore 
Ellis,  afterwards  Lord  Mendip,  succeeded  Vis- 
count Sackville  as  Secretary  of  State,  Feb.  22, 
1782.  The  ministry  grew  extremely  unpopu- 
lar on  account  of  the  American  war,  and  Lord 
North  announced,  his  resignation  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  March  20,  1782.  (See  ROCKINQ- 
HAM,  Second,  ADMINISTRATION.) 

NORTH  ALLERTON  (Yorkshire).-  This 
town  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  a 
Roman  station,  and  subsequently  a  Saxon 
borough,  but  the  date  of  its  foundation  is 
unknown.  In  Domesday  Book  it  is  called 
Alvertine  and  Alreton.  The  church  is  said 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Northumbrian 
apostle  Paulinus,  about  630.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  (uoo  —  1135)  a  castle  was  built  on 
the  west  side  of  the  town  by  the  Bishop  of 
Durham.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  one 
destroyed  by  order  of  Henry  II.  about  1174. 


NORTH  AMERICAN 


NORTH-EAST 


Near  the  town  the  famous  battle  of  the 
Standard  was  fought  between  the  English 
and  the  Scotch,  the  latter  being  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  10,000  men,  Aug.  22,  1138. 
About  1345  a  monastery  of  Carmelites  was 
founded,  and  in  1476  an  hospital,  which  has 
since  been  rebuilt.  During  the  rebellion  of 
1745,  the  English,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  encamped  here. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS,  consisting 
of  about  1 20  tribes,  or  nations,  each  speaking 
a  different  language,  were  estimated,  in  1853, 
by  the  United  States  commissioner  of  Indian 
affairs,  to  amount  to  400,764.  The  state  of 
Georgia  expelled  the  Cherokees  from  their 
territory  in  1834.  This  induced  the  Federal 
government  to  take  measures  to  fix  a  boun- 
dary for  their  residence  ;  and  all  the  tribes 
living  east  of  the  Mississippi  have  been  re- 
moved to  the  west  of  that  river  since  1836. 

NORTHAMPTON  (Battle).  —  Margaret, 
Queen  of  Henry  VI.,  raised  an  army  to  main- 
tain the  cause  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  early 
in  1460.  The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  who  took 
the  command,  engaged  with  the  Yorkist  forces 
near  Northampton,  July  10,  1460,  when  he  was 
totally  defeated.  Henry  VI.  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  Queen  Margaret  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  Scotland. 

NORTHAMPTON  (Northamptonshire),  the 
Autona  of  Tacitus,  was  anciently  known  as 
North  An.i'tHt/ii/',  according  to  some  anti- 
quarians, and,  according  to  others,  a.s  Jlnm/i- 
tune,  to  which  the  word  North  was  after- 
wards prefixed.  In  921  it  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Danes,  who  made  it  their 
principal  station  when  their  forces  were  pre- 
paring to  besiege  Towcester.  In  1010  it  was 
again  attacked  and  burned  by  the  Danes.  At 
the  Norman  Conquest  the  town  was  bestowed 
on  Earl  Waltheof.  Having  conspired  against 
the  king,  he  was  executed  April  29,  1075,  and 
his  possessions  were  given  to  the  Earl  of  Hunt- 
ingdon and  Northampton,  who  erected  a 
strong  castle  for  the  defence  of  the  town. 
The  priory  of  St.  Andrew  was  founded  in 
1076,  and  the  abbey  of  Black  Canons  about 
1 1 12.  Henry  I.  assembled  a  great  council 
here,  Sep.  8,  1131.  The  parliament  held  at 
Northampton,  Jan.  26,  1176,  ordered  Justices 
in  Eyre  (q.  v. )  to  be  sent  round  the  kingdom 
once  in  seven  years.  A  convention  of  barons 
and  prelates  assembled  here  in  1180  to  con- 
sider the  laws  of  the  realm.  King  John,  in 
the  ioth  year  of  his  reign,  being  displeased 
with  the  city  of  London,  removed  his  court 
of  exchequer  here.  Northampton  was  one 
of  the  strongholds  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
barons  as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
conditions  of  Magna  Charta.  The  last  parlia- 
ment held  here  was  summoned  Monday,  Nov. 
5, 1380,  when  a  poll-tax  was  ordered,  which  led 
to  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler.  The  town  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1675.  It  received  a 
charter  of  incorporation  from  Henry  II.  (1154 — 
89).  The  church  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
the  .Knights  Templars,  after  a  model  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  Of  the  castle, 
only  a  few  remains  are  to  be  traced,  the  em- 
battled walls  and  gates  having  been  demo- 
lished in  1662.  A  flood  did  great  damage  in 


1720,  and  shocks  of  an  earthquake  were  felt  in 
1750  and  1776.  St.  Thomas's  Hospital  was 
founded  in  1450,  the  free  grammar-school  in 
1556,  the  infirmary  in  1747,  and  the  present 
building  in  1793.  The  bluecoat-school  was 
founded  in  1700;  the  barracks  were  opened 
in  1796,  and  the  gaol  in  1846.  Dr.  Wiseman 
opened  the  new  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
April  21,  1864. 

NORTHAMPTON  (Treaty).— The  peace  con- 
cluded with  Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  March  17, 
1328,  was  ratified  at  Northampton  May  4,  1328. 

NORTH  BRITON  NEWSPAPER  was 
brought  out  May  29,  1762,  in  opposition  to 
Lord  Bute's  administration,  by  John  Wilkes, 
M.P.  for  Aylesbury.  In  the  45^1  number, 
Saturday,  April  23,  1763,  George  III.  was  ac- 
cused of  falsehood,  and  a  general  warrant  was 
issued,  April  26,  against  the  authors,  printers, 
and  publishers,  who  were  taken  into  custody 
April  30,  and  released  May  6.  They  brought 
an  action  against  the  King's  messengers  for 
false  imprisonment.  It  was  tried  at  Guildhall 
July  6,  and  resulted  in  a  verdict  in  their 
favour,  with  .£300  damages.  Parliament  met 
Nov.  15,  1763,  and  the  house  resolved,  by  a 
majority  of  237  against  m,  that  the  paper 
entitled  the  Nurth  Briton,  No.  45,  was  a  false 
and  scandalous  libel,  and  that  it  should  be 
burned  by  the  common  hangman.  This  sen- 
tence was  carried  out  in  Cheapside  Dec.  3, 
under  the  direction  of  Alderman  Harley, 
sheriff  of  London,  when  a  riot  ensued.  The 
hangman  only  succeeded  in  burning  part  of 
the  paper,  and  the  remainder  was  carried  away 
in  triumph  by  the  mob. 

NORTH  CAROLINA  (United  States).— This 
province  was  formed  in  1729,  when  George  II. 
divided  Carolina  into  two  divisions,  known  as 
North  and  South.  The  Mecklenburg  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  made  in  this  state  ,May 
20,  1775,  was  the  lirst  proposal  for  a  separation 
of  the  American  colonies  and  the  British 
crown.  North  Carolina  was  admitted  a  state 
of  the  American  Union  Nov.  27,  1789.  North 
Carolina  University,  situated  at  Chapel  Hill, 
Orange  county,  was  founded  in  1791,  and 
Raleigh  was  erected  into  the  capital  in  1792. 
It  seceded  May  21,  1861. 

NORTH-EAST  PASSAGE.— The  first  expe- 
dition to  discover  a  route  to  Eastern  Asia  by 
coasting  along  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
was  despatched  from  England  under  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  in  1553,  and  after  discovering  Nova 
Zenibla  (q.  v.),  was  laid  up  in  winter  quarters 
on  the  coast  of  Lapland,  where  the  crew  were 
frozen  to  death.  Other  expeditions  were  con- 
ducted by  Burroughs  in  1556,  and  by  Pet  and 
Jackman  in  1580.  William  Barentz  made 
three  voyages  for  this  purpose  on  behalf  of 
the  Dutch  government,  between  1594  and  1596, 
and  Henry  Hudson  in  1608  resumed  the  at- 
tempt for  the  English.  In  1609  he  conducted 
a  Dutch  expedition,  and  in  1676  a  voyage  was 
made  for  the  same  nation  by  Wood.  Behring 
nade  an  abortive  attempt  in  1741,  and  several 


sledge  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  Russian 
b  (1820—1823),  established  the  im- 
possibility of  opening  the  passage  in  con- 


sequence  of  the  alternations  of  open  sea  with 
fields  of  ice. 


NORTHERN 


NORWAY 


NORTHERN  CANARIES.— (See  MADEIRA.) 

NORTHERN  C1RCARS  (Hmdostan).— The 
Mohammedans  first  appeared  in  this  extensive 
province  about  1471 ;  and  in  1541  and  1550 
added  considerably  to  their  conquests.  It 
formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Aurungzebe  in 
1687.  In  return  for  military  services,  the  dis- 
trict was  granted  by  the  Nizam  to  the  French 
East  India  Company ;  but  on  the  capture  of 
Masulipatam,  April  6,  1759,  by  the  English,  the 
maritime  ports  fell  under  their  dominion.  Four 
of  the  Circars  were  ceded  to  the  East  India 
Company  by  treaty,  Nov.  12,  1766  ;  and  Guiitoor 
was  obtained  in  1788.  The  tribute  of  ^70,000 
annually  paid  by  the  Company  was  redeemed 
by  a  payment  of  ,£1,200,000  in  1823. 

NORTH  FORELAND  (Sea-fights).  — Monk, 
afterwards  Duke  of  Albemarle,  and  Penn,  de- 
feated the  Dutch  fleets  off  the  North  Foreland, 

June  2  and  3,  1653. The  second  and  most 

memorable  engagement,  which  extended  over 
four  days,  commenced  June  i,  1666.  The  Duke 
of  Albemarle,  with  an  English  fleet  of  54  ships, 
attacked  a  Dutch  fleet  of  80  ships,  under  De 
Ruyter  and  Tromp.  Darkness  separated  the 
combatants,  and  the  contest  was  renewed  June 
2,  when  a  squadron  of  16  ships  joined  the 
Dutch,  and  the  English,  having  only  28  ships 
with  which  to  contend  against  this  superior 
force,  were  compelled  to  withdraw,  in  order  to 
repair  damages.  Rupert,  with  20  ships,  joined 
Albemarle's  fleet  June  3,  and  the  battle  was 
renewed  that  afternoon,  and  again  in  the 
morning,  June  4,  on  which  day  the  combatants 

separated,  each  side  claiming  a  victory. The 

third  sea-fight  off  the  North  Foreland  took 
place  July  25,  1666.  The  fleets  were  nearly 
equal  in  point  of  numbers,  each  commander 
having  about  80  sail.  The  Dutch  were  totally 
defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Prince  Rupert 
and  the  Duke  of  Albemarle  chased  De  Ruyter 
and  his  retreating  squadrons  to  their  own 
shores  and  insulted  the  Dutch  hi  their  own 
harbours.  The  English  fleet  captured  Schelling 
Aug.  9,  and  destroyed  200  Dutch  ships.  (See 
GOODWIN  SANDS.) 

NORTH,  or  ICY  CAPE  (Arctic  Sea).— An 
Englishman,  named  Richard  Chancellor,  was, 
in  1553,  the  first  to  pass  this,  the  most  northerly 
point  in  Europe,  in  the  island  of  Mageroe,  and 
anchor  in  the  White  Sea.  In  his  own  account 
of  the  expedition  he  relates  that  "  he  came  at 
last  to  the  place  where  he  found  no  night  at  all, 
but  a  continual  light  and  brightness  of  the  sun 
shining  clearly  upon  the  huge  and  mighty  sea." 

NORTHMEN,  or  NORSEMEN.— The  Scan- 
dinavian pirates  of  the  gth  and  ioth  centuries 
were  so  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  main- 
land of  Europe.  The  English  called  them 
Danes  (q.  v.). 

A.D. 

830.  The  Norsemen  attack  the  French  coasts,   but  are 

unable  to    penetrate    into    the    interior    of    the 

country. 

830.  They  ravage  the  banks  of  the  Loire. 
837.  They  plunder  the  coasts  of  the  Netherlands. 
841,  May.  Uouen  is  burned  and  pillaged  by  Osker. 
845,  March  28.  Reyner  Lodbrok  takes  Paris,  and  levies 

heavy  subsidies  from  Charles  I.  (the  Bald). 
850.  Korie  receives  Kustringia  from  Lothaire. 
855.  The  Northmen  engage   in  civil  war,  and  fight  the 

great  buttle   of  Flensborg,  in  Jutland,  in  which 

Eric  the  lied  is  slain. 


A.D. 

861, 

865. 

866, 
87o. 

876, 
879, 


April  6.  The  Northmen  under  Jarl  Welland  sail  up 

the  Seine  and  seize  Paris. 
Kobert-le-Fort  is  defeated  by  the  Northmen  at  the 

battle  of  Melun. 
July  25.    Kobert-le-Fort  is  killed  by  the  Northmen 

in  a  great  battle. 
Charles  I.  (the  Bald)  encourages  the  Northmen  to 

settle  peaceably  in  France. 
Sep.  16.  Kollo  or  Kolf  enters  the  Seine. 
Nov.  30.     Louis  III.  defeats  the  Northmen  at  the 

battle  of  the  Vigenne. 

880.  They  are  defeated  at  the    battle    of    Ardennes.— 

Feb.  2.  They  defeat  the  Germans  with  great 
slaughter  at  Ebbsdorf,  or  Luneburg  Heath. 

881.  Louis  III.  defeats  the  Northmen   at  the   battle  of 

Saulcourt.  The  Northmen  invade  the  Khiue, 
Scheldt,  and  Meuse  country  in  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing years. 

883.  Friesland  is  ceded  to  Godfrey  the  Northman. 

885,  July  25.  Kollo  occupies  Kouen  and  besieges  Paris. 

888,  June  24.  Eudes  Capet  defeats  the  Northmen  at  the 
battle  of  Montfaucon. 

891.  Arnolph  defeats  the  Northmen  at  the  battle  of 
Louvain. 

911,  July  20,  Saturday.  Eollo  sustains  a  severe  defeat 
from  the  Frankish  and  Burgundian  forces  at 
Chartres.  A  treaty  is  concluded  shortly  after  at 
Suint  -Clair-sur-Epte.  by  which  Kollo  receives  in 
marriage  Eisella,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  (the 
Simple),  agrees  to  become  a  Christian,  and  is  in- 
vested with  the  sovereignty  of  part  of  Neustria, 
which  was  afterwards  known  as  Normandy. 

NORTHUMBRIA  (England).— This  kingdom 
was  founded  by  Ida  in  547. 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE.— The  idea  that  a 
shorter  track  to  India  might  be  discovered  than 
that  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was  first 
broached  by  John  Cabot  about  1496,  and  in 
1500  the  Portuguese  despatched  the  first  expe- 
dition sent  out  for  the  express  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  passage,  under  the  command  of 
Caspar  de  Cortereal.  A  reward  of  ,£20,000  was 
offered  for  the  discovery  of  the  north-west 
passage  by  18  Geo.  II.  c.  17  (1745),  and  a  like 
sum,  with  ,£5,000  for  the  first  approach  within 
one  degree  of  the  North  Pole,  by  16  Geo.  III. 
c.  6  (1776),  and  58  Geo.  III.  c.  20  (May  8,  1818). 
The  last-mentioned  act  was  amended  by  i  &  2 
Geo.  IV.  c.  2  (Feb.  23,  1821).  The  passage  was 
discovered  by  Capt.  M'Clure,  of  the  Investi- 
gator, Oct.  26,  1850,  and  in  May,  1854,  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  awarded  him  its 
gold  medal  for  the  discovery.  For  the  various 
voyages  undertaken  in  search  of  the  north- 
west passage,  see  ARCTIC  CIRCLE,  and  FRANK- 
LIN'S EXPEDITIONS. 

NORWAY  (Europe).— The  traditions  of  Nor- 
way point  to  Odin,  who  is  said  to  have  arrived 
in  the  north  about  B.C.  70,  as  the  founder  of 
the  nation. 


Olaf  Troetelia  founds  the  province  of  Vermeland. 

Harold  I.,  Harfager,  vows  neither  to  cut  nor  comb 
his  hair  until  he  has  completed  the  conquest  of 
Norway. 

Harold  I.,  Harfager,  defeats  the  provincial  rulers  at 
the  sea-fight  of  Hafursfiord,  which  establishes 
his  authority  over  the  whole  of  Norway,  and 
releases  him  from  his  vow. 

Eric  I.,  deposed  for  his ;  tyranny  by  his  brother  Haco, 
embraces  Christianity,  and  is  invested  by  Athel- 
stan  with  the  sovereignty  of  Northumbria. 

Haco  I.  proposes  to  establish  Christianity,  but  is 
opposed  by  his  subjects. 

Harold  II.,  Blaatand,  King  of  Denmark,  establishes 
Harold  II.,  Graafeld,  son  of  Eric  I.,  on  the  Nor- 
wegian throne. 


Olaf  I.  overthrows  the  idols  in  the  temple  at  Dron- 
theim. 


NORWAY 


[     716    ] 


NORWICH 


A.  1). 

A.D. 

A.D. 

looo.  Olaf  I.   is  defeated  and   slain   by  the    Danes  and 

963.  Harold  II.,  Graafeld. 

1157.  Inge  I. 

Swedes,     who     divide    Norway    between    them, 

977.  Haco  II.,  Jarl. 

1161.  Haco  III. 

under  the  lieutenancy  of  Eric  II.  and  Swevii  I., 

995.  Olaf  I. 

!  HIS  VI. 

sons  of  llaco  II. 

ooo.  Eric  II.  and  Sweyn  I. 

1186.  Swerro. 

1015.  Olaf  11.  defeats  the  fleet  of  Sweyn  off  the  coast  of 

015.  Olaf  II.,  the  Saint. 

1202.  llaco  IV. 

Vikia,     and     thereby    secures     the     Norwegian 

030.  Sweyn  II. 

1204.  (iuthrum. 

tin-one. 

035.  Magnus  I.,  the  Good. 

1205.  Inge  II 

1028.  Canute  the   Great  invades    Norway,   and  compels 

04-.  Harold  III.,  Hardrade. 

1407.   Ilaeo  V. 

Olaf  II.  to  flee  into  Sweden. 

066.  Magnus  II.   and  Olaf 

1247.   llaco  VI. 

1030,  July  29.  Olaf  II.  is  slain  in  an  endeavour  to  recover 
his   kingdom,    bv   the  forces   of  Canute,   at  the 
battle  of  Sticklastadt. 

111. 
069.  Olaf  III.  (alone). 
093.  Magnus  III.,  Barefoot. 

1263.  Magnus  VII.,  the  Le- 
gislator. 
1280.  Eric  III.,    the  Priest- 

1047.  Denmark  is  separated  from  Norway. 

103.  Olaf    IV.,    Sigurd    I., 

hater. 

1066,  Sep.  2,S.    Harold    III.,     H.irdrade,     falls     in    battle 

and  Eysteiu  II. 

1299.  llaco  VII. 

against  the  English  at  Stanford  Bridge.    After  his 

Il6.  Eystein    11.     and    Si- 

1319. Magnus  VIII.  Sweden 

death  Norway  is  divided  between  Olaf  III.  and 

gurd  I. 

(II.)- 

Magnus  II. 

122-  Sigurd  I. 

1343.   llaco  VIII. 

lofx;.  Olaf  III.  reigns  alone. 

130.  Magnus  IV.  and  Ha- 

13*0. Olaf  V.,  III.  of  Den- 

10*9. The  Hebrides  become  independent  of  Norway. 

rold  IV. 

mark. 

I  190.   Magnu-i  III.  invades  Britain. 

134.  Harold  IV.  (alone). 

After  the  death  of  Olaf  V., 

109*.  Magnus  III.  conquers  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Hebrides, 
and  the  Orknev  and  Shetland  islands. 

136.  Sigurd  II.  and  Inge  I. 
140.  Sigurd     II.,     Inge     I., 

Aug.  3,  1387,  Norway  and 
Denmark      were     united 

1103.  Magnus  III.  is  killed  by  the  Irish,   and  his  kingdom 

Magnus      V.,      and 

under  one  crown  till  1*14, 

is  divided  between  his  sons  Sigurd,  Eysteiu,  and 

Eystein  III. 

when  Xorwav  was  added 

Olaf. 

1  155.   Ky.steiii  111.  and  Inge  I. 

to  Sweden. 

1186.  Magnus  V.  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Swerro,  natural 

(See  SOVKUKKINS  OF  DENMARK  AND  SWEDEN.) 

son  of  Sigurd  11. 
1240.  The  jarl  Skule,  half-brother  of    Inge   II.,   asserts 
his  claim  to  the  Norwegian  throne. 

NORWICH  (Bishopric).—  The  see  of  the  East 
Angles  was  founded  about  630,  by  a  Burgun- 

1242.  Skule  is  defeated  and  slain  by  llaco  V. 

1250.  The  Hanse  league  obtains  exclusive  privUeges  in 
Norway. 

1261.  Iceland  (q.  v.)  is  annexed. 

1263.  Haco  VI.  invades  Scotland,  and  is  defeated.  (See 
I.AIIOS,  Battle.) 

1286.  Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  daughter  of  Eric 
III.,  is  heiress  to  the  throne  of  Secithmd. 

1319.  Death  of  Hueo  VII.,  with  whom  the  greatness  of 
Norway  becomes  extinct.  The  sceptre  devolves 
on  Magnus  VIII..  King  of  Sweden. 

1343.  Magnus  VIII.  resigns  the  throne  of  Norway  in 
favour  of  his  son,  llae.,  Mil. 

1349.  Norway  is  ravaged  by  the  plague. 

1380.  Iceland  is  eeded  to  Denmark. 

1387.  Norway  is  annexed  to  Denmark  and  Sweden,  under 
the  government  .if  Margaret. 

1397,  July  12.  Denmark,  Nuru  ay,  and  Sweden  are  for- 
mally united  into  one  kingdom  by  the  union  of 
C'almar. 

1448.  Norway  and  Sweden  are  separate  from  Denmark. 

1450,  Aug.  29.  Norway  and  Denmark  are  reunited. 

J5r/>-  The  Reformation  is  introduced  into  Norway. 

1567.  The  Swedes  invade  Norway. 

1812,  Aug.  27.  Norway  is  guaranteed  to  Sweden  by  the 
Emperor  of  Ku.-sia  in  exchange  for  Finland. 

1814,  Jan.  14.  Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  ihe  treaty 
of  Kiel  (7.  r.),  which  creates  great  dissatisfai-tii.il 
among  the  Norwegians. — April  II.  A  constitution 
is  adopted  by  the  diet  of  Kidsvold.— May  17.  1'rince 
Christian,  afterwards  Kingof  Denmark,  is  elected 
king.— Aug.  14.  An  armistice  is  concluded  with 
the  Swedes,  who  compel  Christian  to  abdicate  the 
throne.— Nov.  4.  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden  ac- 
cepts the  constitution  of  Eidsvold,  which  declares 
Norway  a  free,  independent,  indivisible,  and 
inalienable  state,  united  to  Sweden  under  the 
same  king. 

1821.  The  law  for  abolishing  hereditary  nobility  is  pawed. 

1844.  King  ( )scar  grants  the  Norwegians  a  national  flag. 

1847,  Aug.    The  order  of  St.  Olaf  is  instituted  for  Nor- 

1860,  Aug.  £  ChariM  XV.  of  Sweden  and  his  Queen  are 
solemnly  crowned,  atDrontheim,  King  and  Queen 
of  Norway. 

1864,  Nov.  4.  Celebration  of  the  soth  anniversary  of  the 

union  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

1865,  May  r.   A  commission  for  discussing  the  revision  of 

the  treaty  of  union  between  Sweden  and  Norway 
assembles  at  Stockholm. 

SOVEREIGNS   OF   NORWAY. 

A.D.  A.I). 
630.  Olaf  Troetelia.  824.  Olaf  Geirstada. 

640.  Half  dan  I.  840.  HalfdanlH.  the  Black. 

700.  Eystein  I.  863.  Harold  I.,  Harfager. 

•73°   Halfdan  II.  934.  Eric  I. 

7«4-  Endrod.  940.  llaco  I.,  the  Good. 


iliuu  named  Felix,  who  fixed  his  seat  at  Sil- 
thestur,  or  Dunwich,  in  Suffolk.  Bishop  Bi.sus, 
or  Bosa,  divided  the  diocese  into  two  seen, 
fixing-  the  new  one  at  North  Elmhani,  in  Nor- 
folk, in  673.  Wylred,  or  Wildred,  reunited 
them  in  870,  making  Elmhani  the  episcopal 
town  ;  and,  after  his  death,  the  country  was 
in  .such  a  disturbed  state,  owing  to  the  ravages 
of  the  Danes,  that  the  see  remained  vacant 
till  about  955.  It  was  transferred  to  Thetford 
by  Herfast  about  1078,  and  to  Norwich  by  Her- 
bert de  Losinga  in  1092. 

NORWICH  (Norfolk)  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  a  castle,  built  near  the  Venta 
Icenorum  of  the  Romans.  It  was  called  North- 
wic,  or  Northern  town.  Uffa,  King  of  the  East 
Angles,  is  said  to  have  built  the  castle  in  575, 
and  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  princes  the  town 
became  a  place  of  some  importance.  Alfred 
the  Great  fortified  it  against  the  Danes,  who 
plundered  and  burned  it  in  1004.  It  was  re- 
built, and  the  castle  restored,  in  1018.  From 
this  time  it  rapidly  increased  in  size  and  im- 
portance. Henry  I.  held  his  Christmas  here 
in  1 1 22,  and  raised  it  to  an  equality  of  fran- 
chise and  privilege  with  London.  Some  Flem- 
ings introduced  the  art  of  weaving  in  1132. 
In  1189  the  Jews  were  almost  exterminated, 
on  the  ground  of  having  permitted  the  cruci- 
fixion of  a  Christian  boy.  The  town  was 
plundered  and  the  castle  taken  by  the  dauphin 
of  France  in  1210.  A  great  number  of  worsted 
and  woollen  manufacturers  from  the  Low 
Countries  settled  here  about  1337.  Nearly 
one-third  of  the  inhabitants  fell  victims 
to  the  plague  in  1349.  The  city  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  county  of  Norfolk,  under  the 
name  of  the  city  and  county  of  Norwich,  in 
1403.  A  fire  destroyed  718  houses  in  1507,  and 
a  rebellion  broke  out  in  1549.  The  rebels, 
20,000  strong,  under  the  brothers  Ke1 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  Aug.  27, 
by  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Upwards  of  300 
Flemings  settled  here,  and  established  the 
manufacture  of  bombazine,  in  1565.  During 
the  civil  war  the  city  was  held  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary army.  The  cotton  manufacture  was 


NORWOOD 


NOVA  ZEMBLA 


introduced  in  1784,  and  a  fabric  called  "Nor- 
wich crape"  was  produced  in  1819.  The  ca- 
thedral, commenced  in  1094,  was  completed  in 
1280,  and  the  spire  was  erected  in  1361.  A 
Benedictine  monastery,  founded  in  1094,  was 
completed  in  noi.  St.  Andrew's  Hall  was 
built  in  1415.  The  free  grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1547,  and  the  Norfolk  and  Norwich 
Hospital  in  1771.  The  first  musical  festival 
was  held  in  1824.  The  railroad  to  Yarmouth 
was  opened  May  i,  1844,  the  line  to  London 
through  Cambridge  in  1845,  and  the  line  to 
London  through  Colchester  in  1850.  Its  first 
public  library  was  established  in  1784,  and  a 
new  free  library  was  opened  in  1857.  The 
church  congress  met  here  Oct.  3—7,  1865. 

NORWOOD  (Surrey). — The  school  of  indus- 
try for  girls  was  founded  in  1812.  Norwood 
has  long  been  celebrated  as  the  haunt  of  gyp- 
sies, many  of  whom  were  apprehended  and 
sent  to  prison  as  vagrants  in  1815.  St.  Luke's 
church  was  completed  and  consecrated  July 
15,  1825;  Beulah  Spa  was  opened  in  Aug.  1831  ; 
and  the  South  Metropolitan,  commonly  called 
Norwood  cemetery,  covering  40  acres  of  land, 
was  consecrated  Dec.  6,  1837. 

NOTABLES.— One  of  the  stipulations  ob- 
tained by  the  nobles  from  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
by  the  treaty  of  St.  Maur  (Oct.  29,  1463),  was, 
that  he  should  call  an  assembly  of  notables, 
to  consist  of  12  prelates,  12  knights  and 
squires,  and  12  lawyers.  The  Guises  sum- 
moned an  assembly  of  notables  at  Fon- 
tainebleau,  Aug.  20,  1560.  L'Hopital  caused 
one  to  be  assembled  at  Mouliiis  in  Jan.,  1566. 
Richelieu  assembled  one  in  Paris  in  1626.  An 
assembly  of  notables  was  summoned  by  the 
advice  of  Calonne,  to  consider  how  the  finan- 
cial difficulties  of  the  country  were  to  be  met, 
Jan.  29,  1787.  It  met  Feb.  22,  and  was  dismissed 
May  25.  They  were  again  convoked  by  the 
King,  with  the  concurrence  of  Necker,  Nov.  6, 
1788.  Napoleon  I.  summoned  an  assembly  of 
Spanish  notables,  which  met  at  Bayonne,  June 
15,  1808. 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC.— Short-hand  writers 
among  the  Romans  received  the  name  of  Ex- 
ceptores,  when  employed  to  draw  up  public 
documents  in  the  4th  century.  Persons  who 
performed  duties  corresponding  to  those  of 
the  modern  notary  were  styled  tabelliones  at 
the  same  period.  By  a  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Cologne,  in  1310,  notaries  were  ordered  to 
make  use  of  seals.  In  England  they  executed 
royal  charters,  1043 — 1066 ;  and  power  of  ad- 
mitting to  practise  was  vested  in  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21, 
s.  4  (1533).  The  terms  of  their  apprenticeship 
and  admission  to  practice  were  regulated  by 
41  Geo.  III.  c.  79  (June  27,  1801),  and  by  6  &  7 
Viet.  c.  90  (Aug.  24,  1843). 

NOTRE-DAME-DES-ERMITES.  —(See  EIN- 

SIEDELN.) 

NOTTINGHAM  (England)  resisted  an  in- 
cursion of  the  Danes,  who  were  defeated  near 
the  town  by  Alfred  in  866.  Its  castle  was  forti- 
fied and  bestowed  on  his  natural  son  Peverel,  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  in  1068.  Richard  I., 
having  captured  the  castle,  held  a  council  here 
March  30,  1194  ;  and  it  obtained  the  privileges 
of  a  county  from  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 1461). 


Charles  I.  erected  his  royal  standard  hero 
Aug.  22,  1642  ;  and  the  castle  was  taken  by  the 
Parliamentarian  forces,  after  a  brave  defence, 
in  Sep.  The  Luddite  riots  (q.  v.)  of  1811  and 
1814  originated  here ;  and  during  the  reform 
excitement,  much  property  was  destroyed,  and 
the  castle  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  was  burned 
Oct.  10,  1831.  St.  Mary's  church,  supposed 
to  have  been  erected  in  the  isth  century,  was 
repaired  at  a  cost  of  ,£9,000,  and  reopened  in 
1848 ;  and  St.  Barnabas,  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  built  at  a  cost  of  ^20,000,  was  con- 
secrated in  Aug.,  1844.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1513  ;  the  general  hos- 
pital in  1781  ;  the  general  lunatic  asylum  in 
1810 ;  the  dispensary  in  1831  ;  and  the  founda- 
tion stone  of  the  new  lunatic  asylum  was  laid 
Oct.  30,  1857.  The  barracks,  built  in  1792, 
were  ordered  to  be  renewed  by  a  resolution 
of  Government  in  1857  ;  and  the  People's  Col- 
lege was  founded  by  George  Gill  in  1847.  An 
act  for  the  inclosure  of  1,300  acres  of  pas- 
ture land  was  passed  June  30,  1845.  A  new 
church  was  consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of  Lin- 
coln Nov.  3,  1864.  The  new  theatre  was 
opened  Sep.  25,  1865.  The  British  Association 
held  their  meeting  here  Aug.  22 — 31,  1866. 

NOVARA  (Battles).— The   Duke   of   Orleans 

surprised  this  town  in  Italy,  June  u,  1495. 

The  French  and  Milanese  fought  a  battle  in 
the  neighbourhood,  April  5,  1500,  which  did 

not  lead  to  any  important  results. Leo  X. 

having  engaged  a  large  body  of  Swiss  to 
defend  his  newly-acquired  territory,  they 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  French  here, 

June  6,  1513. The  French,   under  Lautrec, 

captured  it  in   1527. The   Sardinian  army 

was  totally  defeated  by  the  Austrians  under 
Radetsky,  March  23,  1849.  Charles  Albert 
abdicated  after  this  defeat,  and  the  whole  of 
Lombardy  was  restored  to  Austria. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  (N.  America),  discovered  in 
1497,  settled  by  the  French  in  1604,  and 
called  by  them  Acadia,  was  granted  by  charter 
to  Sir  W.  Alexander  in  1621,  when  its  name 
was  changed  to  Nova  Scotia.  The  French, 
however,  were  not  expelled  until  1654 ;  and 
the  colony  was  restored  to  them  by  the  treaty 
of  Breda,  July  25,  1667.  War  having  again 
broken  out,  Port  Royal,  in  Acadia,  was  cap- 
tured in  1710,  and  named  Annapolis,  in  honour 
of  Queen  Anne,  and  the  whole  colony  was 
secured  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
April  ii,  1713.  The  French  and  Indians 
frequently  attacked  the  new  colony,  until 
finally  conquered  in  1758.  The  bishopric  of  Nova 
Scotia  was  founded  Aug.  n,  1787.  Gold  was 
discovered  on  the  Tangier  river  in  March,  1861. 
Joseph  Howe,  provincial  secretary,  presented 
an  official  report  on  the  subject,  Sep.  4,  1861. 

NOVATIANS,  the  followers  of  Novation,  a 
presbyter  at  Rome,  who  denied  the  right  of 
the  Church  to  restore  the  "lapsed,"  took  their 
rise  in  250.  Novatian,  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  opposition  to  Cornelius,  was  con- 
demned by  a  council  in  251  ;  Marcianus, 
Bishop  of  Aries,  was  deposed  for  holding  these 
tenets  in  2^4.  They  assumed  the  name  of 
Cathari,  or  Puritans.  The  sect  declined  in  the 
5th  century. 

NOVA  ZEMBLA  (Arctic  Ocean),  known  at 


NOVELLA 


t    718    ] 


NUBIA 


an  early  period  to  the  Russians,  was  discovered 
by  an  English  seaman  named  Willoughby  in 
1553.  Stephen  Bin-roughs  made  a  voyage  to 
Nova  Zembla  in  1556  ;  and  the  Dutch  navigator 
Barentz  between  1594  and  1596. 

NOVELISE,  or  NOVELS,  forming  part  of 
the  Justinian  code,  were  prepared  and  pub- 
lished in  534. 

NOVELS.— The  "Decameron"  of  Boccaccio, 
published  in  1358  ;  "  Don  Quixote,"  the  first 
part  of  which  was  produced  in  1605,  by  Miguel 
(Jervantes  (1547 — April  23,  1616);  and  "Gil 
Ulas,"  and  similar  works,  by  Le  Sage  (1668 — 
Nov.  17,  1747),  are  early  examples  of  novels  as 
distinguished  from  the  romance  'q.  v.},  popular 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  most  celebrated 
English  novels  are  those  of  AphraBehn  (1642 — 
April  16,  1689',  Daniel  Defoe  (1663— April  24, 
1731),  Henry  Fielding  (1707  — Oct.  8,  1754), 
Samuel  Richardson  (1689 — July  4,  1761),  Law- 
rence Sterne  (1713 — March  18,  1768),  Tobias 
Smollett  (1721 — Oct.  21,  1771),  Oliver  Gold- 
smith (1728— April  3,  1774),  Charlotte  Smith 
(1749 — Oct.  28,  1806),  Jane  Austen  (1775 — July 
24,  1817),  Ann  Radcliffe  (1764 — Feb.  7,  1823), 
Henry  Mackenzie  (1745 — June  14,  1831),  Anna 
Maria  Porter  (1781 — June  21,  18321,  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (1771— Sep.  21,  1832),  William  Godwin 
(1756 — April  7,  1836),  John  Gait  (1779 — April 
it,  1839),  Frances  Burney,  afterwards  Madame 
D'Arblay(i752 — Jan.  6,  1840),  Theodore  Edward 
Hook  (1788— Aug.  24,  1841),  Capt.  Frederick 
Marryat  (1792 — Aug.  2,  1848),  Maria  Edge- 
worth  (1767 — May  21,  1849),  James  Fenimore 
Cooper  (1789  —  Sep.  14,  1851),  Amelia  Opie 
(1769 — Dec.  2,  1853),  Susan  Ferrier  (1782 — Nov., 
1854),  Charlotte  Bront<5  (1816— March  31,  1855), 
Sidney  Owenson,  afterwards  Lady  Morgan 
(1783  —  April  13,  1859),  Washington  Irving 
(1783 — Nov.  28,  1859),  George  Payne  Rainsford 
James  (1801 — June  9,  1860),  Catherine  Grace 
Frances  Gore  (1799 — Jan.  29,  1861),  Frances 
Trollope  (1778— Oct.  6,  1863),  and  William 
Makepeace  Thackeray  (iSu—  Dec.  24,  1863). 

NOVEMBER,  called  blnt-monath,  blood- 
month,  or  month  of  sacrifice,  by  the  Sax- 
ons, consisted  of  30  days  in  the  time  of 
Romulus  (B.C.  753 — 715);  increased  to  31  by 
Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  60 — 44);  and  was  again  re- 
duced to  30  by  Augustus  (B.C.  31 — A.D.  14).  An 
annual  thanksgiving,  Nov.  5,  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  deliverance  of  the  nation  from 
the  perils  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  (q.  v.),  ap- 
pointed by  3  James  I.  c.  i  (1606),  was  discon- 
tinued by  Royal  Wai-rant,  Jan.  17,  1859. 

NOVGOROD  (Russia).— The  Russian  monar- 
chy was  founded  here  under  Ruric  in  862.  Kief 
was  made  the  capital  in  the  gih  century,  and 
Novgorod  became  an  independent  republic  in 
1150.  The  church  of  St.  Sophia  was  founded 
in  the  nth  century.  It  joined  the  Hanseatic 
league  in  1272  ;  and  one  of  their  factories  was 
established,  which  led  to  such  a  degree  of 
prosperity,  that  the  saying  arose,  "Who  can 
resist  God  and  the  great  Novgorod  ?"  Ivan  I.  or 
III.  (Vasilivitch)  destroyed  its  independence  in 
1477  5  and  Ivan  II.  or  IV.  massacred  25,000  of 
the  inhabitants  in  1570.  A  monument  in  com- 
memoration of  the  arrival  of  Ruric  was  erected 
in  Sep.,  1862.  A  large  amount  of  property  was 
destroyed  by  a  fire  June  16,  1864. 


NOVI  (Italy).— The  King  of  Sardinia  drove 
Marshal  Maillebois  from  his  position  at  this 
town,  near  Genoa,  in  1746.  It  capitulated  to 
Marshal  London,  Oct.  3,  1788.  The  French, 
commanded  by  Jornbert,  were  signally  de- 
feated by  Suwarrow,  when  15,000  men  were 
put  hors  de  combat,  Aug.  15,  1799. 

NOVIODUNUM.— (See  NEVEES.) 

NOVIOMAGUS.—  (See  LISIEUX,  NIMEGUEN, 
and  NOYON.) 

NOVUM  ORGANUM.— This  work  of  Lord 
Bacon,  first  made  known  by  his  treatise  on  the 
"  Advancement  of  Learning,"  -in  1605,  was 
published  with  a  dedication  to  James  1.,  in 
1620.  It  was  entitled  "  Instauratio  Magna  (i.  e. 
Novum  Organum,  sive  Indicia  vera  de  Inter- 
pretatione  Nature)." 

NOYADES.— Jean  Baptiste  Carrier  was  sent 
by  the  Montagnards  to  Nantes,  with  procon- 
sular powers  for  the  suppression  of  all  opposi- 
tion to  their  party,  in  1793.  He  arrived  Oct.  8, 
and  immediately  commenced  operations  for 
the  extermination  of  the  Royalists.  The  guil- 
lotine and  discharges  of  musketry  proving  too 
slow  in  their  effects,  he  placed  94  priests  in 
the  hold  of  a  ship  stationed  on  the  Loire,  and 
having  secured  the  hatchways,  scuttled  the 
vessel,  which,  of  course,  sank  with  all  on  board, 
Nov.  15,  1793.  This  mode  of  execution  was 
repeated  till  the  Loire  had  received  between 
4,000  and  5,000  victims,  whose  bodies  so  in- 
fected its  water  that  it  was  rendered  illegal 
to  drink  of  them,  or  to  use  fish  caught  in  its 
stream.  These  wholesale  executions  were 
termed  the  nni/mfrx  im,//'UKef>,  from  tmt/i /•,  to 
drown.  Carrier  himself  termed  them  revolu- 
tionary Imtks;  and  in  four  months  the  number 
of  his  victims  amounted  to  18,000.  He  wa.s 
recalled  to  Paris,  and  after  a  long  trial  was 
condemned  and  executed,  Dec.  16,  1794. 

NO  YON  (France),  the  ancient  Noviomagus 
Verornanduorum,  a  town  of  the  Veromandui, 
WHS  made  a  bishopric  in  531.  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Charlemagne,  who  was  crowned  here 
Oct.  9,  768 ;  and  Hugh  Capet  was  crowned  King 
of  France  here,  July  i,  987.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  814,  in  Lent,  1233,  July  26,  1344. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  at  Noyon  between 
Francis  I.  and  Charles,  afterwards  Charles  V., 
Aug.  13, 1516.  Charles  engaged  to  marry  Louisa, 
the  French  king's  infant  daughter,  on  her  at- 
taining her  twelfth  year,  and  was  to  receive 
as  her  dowry  the  claims  of  France  on  Naples. 
Charles  was  to  pay  100,000  gold  crowns  every 
year  until  the  marriage  took  place.  The 
treaty  was  not  executed.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  by  Pepiii-le-Bref,  and  the  town-hall 
was  built  in  1499.  (See  BRENNEVILLE,  Battle.) 

NUBIA  (Egypt),  comprising  part  of  the 
ancient  Ethiopia,  formed  a  treaty  with  the 
Emperor  Diocletian  (284 — 305),  and  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  at  an  early  period,  con- 
tinuing in  that  faith  till  the  i^th  century. 
The  caliph  Omar  I.  exacted  from  it  an  annual 
tribute  of  360  slaves,  about  637,  which  was 
maintained  till  about  1150.  Contests  were 
carried  on  almost  uninterruptedly  between 
the  people  of  Nubia  and  the  sultans  of  Egypt 
during  the  i4th  century  ;  and  they  ended  in 
the  extinction  of  Christianity  and  the  breaking 
up  of  the  kingdom  into  a  number  of  petty 


NUISANCES 


NURSIA 


Mohammedan  states.  An  expedition  by  Me- 
hemet  Ali  brought  it  into  nominal  subjection 
to  the  pashas  of  Egypt  in  1820.  The  architec- 
tural ruins  at  Sabooa  are  ascribed  to  the  age 
of  Rameses,  B.C.  1355 — B.C.  1289. 

NUISANCES.— The  mayors  and  bailiffs  of 
towns  were  ordered  to  compel  the  inhabitants 
of  the  districts  under  their  jurisdiction  to 
remove  all  filth  and  other  nuisance  by  12 
Rich.  II.  c.  13  (1388).  Numerous  sanitary 
regulations  were  made  by  the  Nuisances'  Re- 
moval and  Diseases'  Prevention  Act,  n  <fe  12 
Viet.  c.  123  (Sep.  4,  1848,  which  was  amended 
by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  in  (Aug.  i,  1849),  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  116  (Aug.  14,  1855),  and  by  23  &  24  Viet. 
c.  77  (Aug.  6,  1860).  The  law  was  applied  to 
Scotland  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  103  (July  29,  1856). 
(See  SMOKE  NUISANCE.) 

NUMANTIA  (Spain),  the  site  of  which  is 
marked  by  the  ruins  at  Puente  de  don  Guarray, 
offered  a  brave  resistance  to  the  Roman  arms 
for  20  years.  It  was  reduced  B.C.  133,  after 
a  siege  of  15  months,  by  Scipio  Africanus, 
who  brought  against  it  an  army  of  60,000  men. 
The  conqueror  received  the  surname  of  Nu- 
mantius. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Celtiberians  (q.  v.),  whose  chief  town 
was  Numantia,  commenced  B.C.  153,  and  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  Scipio  Africanus,  the 
conqueror  of  Carthage,  who  levelled  the  city 
of  Numantia  with  the  ground,  B.C.  133. 

NUMERALS.— (-See  ARABIC  NUMERALS.) 

NUMIDIA  (Africa).— The  Romans  became 
acquainted  with  this  country  B.C.  264,  during 
the  first  Punic  war,  when  the  Carthaginians 
employed  the  people  as  light  cavalry.  They 
transferred  their  services  to  the  Romans  B.C. 
256,  and  aided  them  throughout  the  second 
Punic  war,  B.C.  218 — 201.  Masinissa,  the  king, 
who  was  rewarded  with  a  large  accession  of 
territory,  died  B.C.  149  ;  his  son  Micipsa,  at  his 
death,  left  the  kingdom  to  Adherbal  and 
Hiempsal,  his  sons,  and  his  nephew  Jugurtha, 
B.C.  n8.  Jugm-tha  having  murdered  his 
cousins,  the  Romans  declared  war  against  him 
B.C.  in  ;  and  he  was  captured  and  put  to  death 
B.C.  104.  (See  JUGURTHINE  WAR.)  The  country 
was  made  a  Roman  province  by  Julius  Caesar 
for  having  taken  part  in  the  civil  war  against 
him,  and  Sallust  the  historian  was  appointed 
governor  B.C.  46.  Caligula  changed  the  go- 
vernment of  the  province  in  39.  It  was 
wrested  from  the  Romans  by  the  Vandals, 
under  Genseric,  in  429.  They  were  subdued 
by  Belisarius,  general  of  the  Emperor  Justi- 
nian I.,  in  533.  The  Mohammedans,  com- 
manded by  Akbah,  seized  Numidia  in  667. 

NUMISMATICS.— The  Greeks  and  Romans 
formed  collections  of  coins  as  objects  of  beauty, 
but  not  for  purposes  of  historical  inquiry. 
The  earliest  known  collection  is  that  of  the 
poet  Petrarch,  who  died  July  18,  1374,  and  the 
first  writer  on  numismatics  is  Eneas  Vico, 
whose  discourse  on  medals  appeared  at  Venice 
in  1555.  The  science  was  first  applied  to  aid 
profound  and  critical  research  into  antiquity 
by  Spanheim,  about  1671,  and  in  1692  the  la- 
bours of  previous  authors  were  consolidated 
by  Jobert  in  his  "  Science  de  Medailles." 
Arldison's  dialogues  on  the  Usefulness  of  An- 


cient Medals  were  first  published  in  a  separate 
form  in  1724. 

NUNCIO  is  the  name  given  to  an  ambas- 
sador from  the  papal  court,  when  he  is  not  a 
cardinal.  (See  LEGATES.)  James  II.  received 
in  public  Francisco  d'Adda,  the  last  papal  nun- 
cio sent  to  the  court  of  England,  July  3,  1687, 
whereupon  several  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
resigned  their  offices. 

NUNHEAD  CEMETERY  (London),  compris- 
ing 50  acres  of  ground,  was  consecrated  by 
the  Bishop  of  Winchester  July  29,  1840. 

NUNNERY  AND  NUNS.— Pachomius,  who 
died  in  348,  is  said  to  have  founded  the  first 
of  these  societies  for  women.  Saint  Syncle- 
tia,  who  died  about  310,  aged  84  years,  is  by 
some  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  convents 
for  women.  The  first  institution  of  the  kind 
in  England  was  founded  at  Folkstone  by  Ead- 
bald,  King  of  Kent,  in  630.  By  13  Edw.  I.  st. 
i,  c.  34  (1285),  the  abduction  of  a  nun  from 
her  convent,  even  with  her  own  consent,  was 
piuiished  with  three  years'  imprisonment. 
Convents,  as  well  as  monasteries,  were  sup- 
pressed by  Henry  VIII.  in  1539.  In  1633  a 
Protestant  nunnery  was  in  existence  at  Ged- 
ding  Parva,  in  Huntingdonshire. 

NUNS  OF  OUR  HOLY  SAVIOUR.— (See 
BRIGETTINES.) 

NUREMBERG,  or  GERMAN  LEAGUE.— 
This  alliance  was  formed  June  10,  1538,  be- 
tween the  Roman  Catholic  princes  of  Germany 
and  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  against  the  Pro- 
testant league  of  Smalcald  (q.  v.). 

NUREMBERG,  or  NURNBERG  (Bavaria), 
received  from  Henry  III.  power  to  coin  money, 
and  other  privileges,  about  the  middle  of  the 
nth  century,  and  was  made  a  free  city  in  1219. 
The  library  was  formed  in  1445.  The  people 
of  Nuremberg  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Pro- 
testants, and  diets  were  held  here  in  1523  and 
1524  ;  and  the  first  religious  peace,  called  the 
Peace  of  Nuremberg,  was  concluded  in  July, 
1532,  and  ratified  at  Ratisbon  Aug.  2.  The 
Protestants,  who  were  allowed  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  promised  obedience  to 
the  Emperor,  and  engaged  not  to  protect  the 
Zwinglians  and  the  Anabaptists.  It  retained 
its  independence  till  1803,  when  Napoleon  I. 
bestowed  it  upon  the  King  of  Bavaria.  The 
castle,  built  by  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.  in  1030, 
was  presented  by  the  town  to  the  King  in  1855. 
The  Protestant  church  of  St.  Lawrence,  rich 
in  old  German  paintings,  was  built  by  the 
Emperor  Adolphus  (1292 — 1298).  The  church 
of  St.  Sebaldus,  with  the  bronze  shrine  of  the 
saint,  was  completed,  after  thirteen  years' 
labour,  by  Peter  Vischer  in  1519.  The  Frauen- 
kirche,  with  its  famous  astronomical  clock, 
founded  by  Charles  IV.,  was  completed  in 
1361.  The  town-hall,  adorned  with  paintings 
by  Albert  Durer,  was  built  in  1619.  The  Gym- 
nasium was  opened'in  1526,  by  Melancthon,  to 
whom  a  statue  was  erected  in  1826. 

NURSIA  (Italy),  a  Sabine  city,  first  men- 
tioned as  furnishing  volunteers  to  the  army  of 
Scipio  during  the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  205. 
Augustus  punished  the  inhabitants  for  their 
conduct  in  the  Perusian  war,  about  B.C.  40.  It 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  the  sth 
century  ;  the  first  bishop  of  whom  any  record 


NYANJA 


[    720    ] 


OBELISKS 


remains  was  living  in  495.  St.  Benedict, 
founder  of  the  monastic  order  bearing  his 
name,  was  born  here  in  480. 

NYANJA,  or  NYASSA  LAKE  (Africa).— 
This  large  inland  sea  of  equatorial  Africa  was 
first  described  in  1624  by  the  missionary  Luizi 
Mariano. 

NYMPHENBURG  (Treaty)  was  concluded 
at  this  palace  in  Munich,  between  Spain  and 
Bavaria,  towards  the  end  of  May,  1747.  It 
was  guaranteed  by  France.  The  document  has 
not  been  preserved. 

NYSTAIVr  (Treaty)  was  signed  Aug.  30,  1721, 
between  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  of  Russia  and 
the  Swedish  regency  at  this  town,  built  in 
1617.  Sweden  ceded  Livonia,  Ingria,  Esthonia, 
and  Carelia,  part  of  Wiborg,  and  some  small 
islands,  in  return  for  Finland  and  2,000,000 
of  rix-doUara. 


o. 


OAHU  (Pacific  Ocean).— (See  HAWAIIAN  AR- 
CHIPELAGO HI  id  HONOLULU.) 

OAK. — The  evergreen  oak  was  introduced 
into  England  from  the  south  of  Kurope  before 
1581  ;  the  scarlet  oak  from  North  America 
before  1691  ;  the  chestnut-leaved  oak  from 
North  America  before  1730;  and  the  Turkey 
oak  from  the  south  of  Kuropo  before  1735.  The 
tree  in  which  Charles  JI.  concealed  himself  at 
Boscobel,  in  Shropshire,  after  the  battle  of 
Worcester,  Sep.  3,  1651,  denominated  the  Royal 
Oak,  was  preserved  with  great  care.  (*SW- 
FAIRLOP  OAK.) 

OAK II AM  Rutlandshire).— By  an  ancient 
custom  the  lord  of  the  manor  was  entitled  to 
demand  from  every  peer  passing  through  his 
domains  a  shoe  from  one  of  his  horses,  or  the 
equivalent  in  money  ;  and  the  ruins  of  the 
old  castle  of  Oakham,  supposed  to  have  been 
built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 89),  are 
covered  with  horse-shoes  obtained  in  this 
manner  by  its  former  possessors.  The  gram- 
mar-school was  founded  in  1581,  and  the 
Agricultural  Hall  in  1837. 

OAK-PLAIN.— (See  ACLEA.) 

OAKS  RACE.— These  stakes,  which  are  run 
for  annually  at  Epsom,  were  instituted  by  the 
1 2th  Earl  of  Derby,  whose  bay  mare,  Bridget, 
won  the  first  race,  May  14,  1779. 

OAK  SYNOD  was  held  in  June,  403,  in  a 
suburb  of  Chalcedou  called  ad  Quercum,  or 
the  Oak,  where  a  church  and  a  monastery 
had  been  founded  by  Rufinus.  Theophilus, 
Bishop  of  Alexandria,  had  brought  accusa- 
tions against  Chrysostom,  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  charges  embodied  in  47 
articles  were  launched  against  him  at  this 
synod.  It  lasted  14  days,  and  45  bishops  sub- 
scribed the  sentence  of  deposition  against 
Chrysostom,  who  refused  to  appear.  The 
synod  appealed  to  the  Emperor ;  Chrysostom 
was  arrested,  but  was  reinstated,  and  a 
council  held  at  Constantinople  in  403  pro- 
nounced in  his  favour 

OASIS,  or  AUASIS  (Africa).- Three  of  these 


solitary  places  in  the  deserts  of  Libya  were 
celebrated  in  ancient  history  under  this  name, 
—the  Greater  Oasis,  according  to  Herodotus 
(B.C.  484 — 408),  seven  days'  journey  west  of 
Thebes ;  the  Ammonium,  the  site  of  the  famed 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  visited  by  Alex- 
ander III.  the  Great)  B.C.  333,  with  its  cele- 
brated oracle ;  and  the  Lesser  Oasis.  Juvenal 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  person 
banished  to  one  of  these  solitary  places,  in  the 
sandy  deserts  of  Libya,  in  94.  Timasius,  the 
master-general  of  Theodosiua  I.,  was  banished 
by  Eutropius  to  the  Oasis  111396.  Nestorius, 
Bishop  of  Constantinople,  was  also  transferred 
from  Petrato  the  Oasis,  111435.  The  Oases  fell 
under  the  power  of  the  Arabs  in  043,  and 
were  visited  by  Poncet  in  1698,  by  Browne  in 
1792,  by  Horneinann  1111798,  and  by  Calliaud 
in  1819. 

OATKS'S  PLOT — (See  POPISH  PLOTS.) 

OATHS.— Abraham  sealed  his  covenant  with 
Abimelech  by  an  oath,  B.C.  1891  (Gen.  xxi.  23) ; 
and  they  were  sanctioned  by  the  Mosaic  law 
B.C.  1496  (Lev.  v.  4).  Oaths  were  common 
amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  were 
introduced  into  judicial  proceedings  in  Eng- 
land by  the  Saxons  in  600;  and  150  monks 
were  sworn  at  a  synod  held  at  Cliff,  in  Aug., 
824.  With  reference  to  the  claim  set  up  by 
Innocent  III.  in  1200,  and  maintained  by  his 
successors,  to  grant  dispensations  from  pro- 
misery  oaths,  Uallam  (Middle  Ages,  c.  vii. 
S.  2  remarks:  "  Two  principles  are  laid  down 
i  the  Decretals— that  an  oath  disadvantageous 
to  the  Church  is  not  binding  ;  and  that  one 
extorted  by  force  was  of  slight  obligation,  and 
might  be  annulled  by  ecclesiastical  authority. 
As  the  first  of  these  maxims  gave  the  most 
unlimited  privilege  to  the  popes  of  breaking 
all  faith  of  treaties  which  thwarted  their  in- 
terest or  passion,  a  privilege  which  they  con- 
tinually exercised,  so  the  second  was  equally 
convenient  to  princes  weary  of  observing 
engagements  towards  their  subjects  or  their 
neighbours.  They  protested  with  a^aad  grace 
against  the  absolution  of  their  people  from 
allegiance  by  an  authority  to  which  they  did 
not  scruple  to  repair  in  order  to  bolster  up 
their  own  perjuries."  (See  ABJURATION,  ACT  OF 
•  \CY,  ALLEGIANCE,  CORONATION  OATH, 
JEWISH  DISABILITIES  BILL,  &c.) 

OBADIAH.  —  This  minor  prophecy,  com- 
posed, according  to  the  best  authorities,  about 
B.C.  585  or  B.C.  580,  is  a  favourite  study  of  the 
modern  Jews,  who  apply  its  denunciations 
against  Edom  to  the  Christians,  and  found 
many  of  their  hopes  of  restored  nationality  on 
its  predictions  of  the  future  triumphs  of 
Zion. 

OBELISKS.  —  Pliny  (23—79)  mentions  two 
that  stood  before  the  temple  in  Alexandria  ; 
one,  Cleopatra's  Needle,  is  still  in  existence, 
and  bears  the  name  of  Rameses  II.,  who  flou- 
rished B.C.  1360.  The  Emperor  Augustus  (B.C. 
31 — A.D.  14)  removed  several  from  Egypt  to 
Rome,  and  succeeding  emperors  following  his 
example,  48  in  all  were  transported.  Four  of 
these  were  restored  and  set  up  by  Pope 
SixtusV.  (1585—90).  Another  was  set  up  by 
Innocent  X.  in  1651  ;  another  by  Alexander 
VII.  in  1667;  and  one  for  Pius  VII.  in  1822. 


OBER  AMMERGAU 


[    721 


ODD  FELLOWS 


An  obelisk,  removed  by  the  French  from 
Luxor,  was  erected  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
Paris,  Oct.  25,  1836. 

OBER  AMMERGAU. —  (-See  AMMERGAU 
MYSTERY.) 

OBIDOS  (Battle!.  — Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
defeated  the  French  in  an  encounter  near  this 
fortified  town  in  Portugal,  Aug.  15,  1808.  It 
is  memorable  as  the  place  where  English 
blood  was  first  spilt  in  the  Peninsular  war. 

OBLIVION.— The  title  Act  of  Oblivion  was 
given  to  13  Charles  II.  c.  3  (1660),  which 
granted  a  general  pardon  and  indemnity  to 
all  state  offences  committed  between  Jan.  i, 
1637,  and  June  24,  1660,  excepting  to  the 
persons  mentioned  by  name  in  13  Charles  II. 
st.  i,  c.  15  (1660) ;  to  those  who  had  embezzled 
the  king's  goods ;  and  to  Romish  priests  or 
persons  engaged  in  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1641. 
Fifty-six  of  the  regicides  were  attainted,  of 
whom  29  were  brought  to  trial,  and  n  exe- 
cuted. Disqualification  from  office  was  the 
punishment  imposed  upon  20  others. 

OBOE.— (See  HAUTBOIS.) 

OBSERVANTS,  FRIARS  OBSERVANT,  or 
OBSERVANT  FRANCISCANS.  —  When  St. 
Bernard  of  Sienna  reformed  the  Franciscans, 
about  1400,  those  that  remained  under  the  re- 
laxed rule  were  termed  Conventuals,  and  those 
that  accepted  the  Reformation,  Observants  or 
Recollects.  The  reformation  was  confirmed 
by  the  Council  of  Constance,  the  xyth  general 
council  (Nov.  16,  1414 — April  22,  1418),  and 
afterwards  by  Eugenius  IV.,  who  ascended 
the  papal  chair  in  1431. 

OBSERVATORY.— The  tower  of  Babel, 
erected  about  B.C.  2247  (Gen.  xi.  i — 9),  is  sup- 
posed by  some  writers  to  have  been  an  obser- 
vatory. The  tomb  of  Osmandyas  in  Egypt 
was  an  edifice  of  this  kind.  Observatories 
existed  amongst  the  Chinese  and  the  Hindoos 
at  a  remote  period.  The  observatory  at  Alex- 
andria, built  B.C.  300,  was  the  most  celebrated 
of  ancient  times.  The  first  modern  observa- 
tory was  erected  at  Cassel  in  1561. 


A.D. 

1561.  Cassel. 

1576,  Aug.  13.  Isle  of  Huen. 

1640  (about).  Dantzic. 

1656.  Copenhagen. 

1670.  Paris. 

1675,  Aug.  10.  Greenwich. 

1711.  Berlin. 

1725.  Petersburg. 

1769.  Padua. 

1773.  Oxford. 

1776.  Edinburgh. 


785.  Dublin. 

814.  Konigsberg. 

831.  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

833.  Paramatta. 

834.  Cambridge. 
833.  Christiania. 

839.  Pulkowa. 

840.  Cambridge,  U.S. 

1843.  Washington,  U.S. 

1844.  Liverpool. 


OCANA  (Battle).— The  French,  under  Mor- 
tier  and  Soult,  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  a 
plain  near  this  town  in  Spain,  Nov.  19,  1809. 
The  French  took  20,000  prisoners,  and  45  pieces 
of  cannon,  and  all  the  ammunition  of  the 
Spanish  army. 

OCANA  (New  Granada). — A  congress  which 
assembled  at  this  town  declared  Ignacio  Mar- 
ques president,  April  23,  1828. 

OCCULT  SCIENCES.— (See  ALCHEMY,  AMU- 
LET, ASTROLOGY,  AUGURY,  BIBLIOMANCY,  CRYS- 
TAL GLASS,  DIVINATION,  EXORCISTS,  FORTUNE- 
TELLERS, KING'S  EVIL,  MAGIC,  ORACLES,  Rosi- 
CRUCIANS,  SORCERERS,  SPIRIT-RAPPING,  TABLE- 
TURNING,  and  WITCHCRAFT.) 


OCEANIA,  a  name  sometimes  given  to. 
Australasia  (q.v.),  the  fifth  division  of  the 
globe,  consisting  of  Australia,  Polynesia,  and 
the  islands  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

OCEAN  MONARCH.— This  American  emi- 
grant ship,  on  the  same  day  that  she  sailed 
from  Liverpool  with  399  persons  on  board, 
took  fire  off  Orme's  Head,  Aug.  24,  1848,  and 
was  burned  to  the  water's  edge  in  a  few  hours, 
178  lives  being  lost. 

OCKLEY.—  (See  ACLEA,  Battle.) 

OCTARCHY.— (See  HEPTARCHY.) 

OCTOBER,  the  eighth  month  of  the  Roman 
year,  as  its  name  implies,  was  introduced  into 
the  calendar  of  Romulus  B.C.  753. 

OCTOBER  CLUB  was  first  formed  in  Lon 
don  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  and 
Mary,  about  1690.  It  consisted  of  a  large 
number  of  members,  many  of  them  being  Ja- 
cobites. In  1703  the  club  comprised  about 
150  county  members  of  Parliament,  who  wero 
of  opinion  that  their  party  was  too  backward 
in  punishing  and  turning  out  the  Whigs. 
Their  meetings,  first  held  at  the  Bell,  were 
afterwards  transferred  to  the  Crown,  in  King 
Street,  Westminster. 

OCTROI.— This  excise  duty,  levied  by  the 
Government  on  all  articles  entering  Paris  and 
other  large  towns  of  France,  was  first  imposed 
in  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century.  It  was 
abolished  by  the  National  Assembly  in  1790, 
restored  Oct.  18,  1798,  and  re-organized  in  1816, 
1842,  and  1852.  This  tax  was  abolished  in  Bel- 
gium in  1848. 

OCZAKOW,  OCZAKOFF,  or  OTCHAKOF 
(Russia),  is  first  noticed  under  its  present  name 
in  1557,  and  possessed  a  citadel  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  Russian  army,  under  Mlinnich, 
amounting  to  70,000  men,  with  a  powerful  ar- 
tillery train,  besieged  it  July  10,  and  a  powder- 
magazine  having  blown  up  and  buried  6,000 
men  in  the  ruins,  the  Turkish  garrison  sur- 
rendered July  13,  1737.  The  Turks  laid  siege 
to  it  Oct.  28,  but  were  compelled  to  withdraw, 
on  account  of  sickness  in  their  ranks,  Nov. 
10,  1737.  The  Turks  regained  possession  in 
1738.  It  was  assailed,  though  without  success, 
by  the  Russians  in  1769;  was  invested  by 
Prince  Potemkin  July  12,  1788 ;  and  taken 
Dec.  17.  It  was  ceded  to  Russia  Jan.  9,  1792. 
The  fortifications  were  blown  up  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  French  and  English,  Oct.  18, 

1855- 

ODD  FELLOWS.— Nothing  positive  seems 
to  be  known  respecting  their  origin.  The 
Loyal  Ancient  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fel- 
lows claims  to  have  been  founded  in  55,  during 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nero.  A  marble 
mason  named  Bolton,  having  removed  from 
London  to  Manchester  in  1809,  established  in 
that  town  an  Odd  Fellows'  club  in  imitation 
of  one  with  which  he  had  been  connected  in 
the  metropolis.  The  association  proved  so 
successful  that  it  became  the  parent,  in  1812, 
of  the  Manchester  Unity  of  Odd  Fellows, 
which  numbered  in  1864  no  less  than  358,556 
members.  In  the  Odd  Fellows'  Magazine  for 
March,  1837,  an  Odd  Fellow  is  said  to  be  "  like 
a  fox  for  cunning ;  a  dove  for  tameness  ;  a 
lamb  for  innocence  ;  a  lion  for  boldness ;  a  bee 
for  industry ;  and  a  sheep  for  usefulness." 
3  A 


ODENSE 


[     722    3 


OFFICE 


The  first  number  of  an  Odd  Fellows'  Magazine. 
appeared  at  Manchester  in  March,  1828.  It 
was  continued  till  Jan.,  1843.  An  Odd  Fel- 
lows' newspaper,  of  which  52  numbers  were 
issued,  was  published  in  London  in  1839. 

ODENSE,  or  ODENSEE  (Denmark).— One 
of  the  most  ancient  towns  in  the  kingdom, 
the  foundation  of  which  is  referred  by  tradi- 
tion to  Odin.  The  bishopric  was  established 
in  988,  and  the  cathedral,  commenced  in  1080, 
was  completed  in  1301.  A  diet,  assembled  in 
1527,  secured  the  religious  liberty  of  Denmark, 
and  another  diet  was  held  in  1539. 

ODKSSA  (Russia)  was  founded  by  the  Em- 
press Catherine  II.  in  1794,  and  received  as  its 
governor  the  Duke  of  Richelieu,  a  French 
emigrant,  in  1803.  In  1817  it  was  declared 
a  free  port  for  30  years,  a  privilege  after- 
wards extended  by  imperial  ukase  till  Aug. 
27,  1854.  The  batteries  having  fired  upon  the 
Fiirloi.'*,  steam  frigate,  under  a  flag  of  truce, 
April  6,  1854,  it  was  bombarded  by  the  French 
and  English  fleets,  April  22.  The  steam  frigate 
Tiger,  having  stranded  here,  was  fired  upon 
in  a  cowardly  manner  by  the  garrison,  May 
12,  1854.  The  English  and  French  expedition 
to  the  Bug  and  the  Dnieper  lay  at  anchor  off 
this  port  from  Oct.  8 — 14,  1855. 

ODESSUS.— This  town,  near  the  site  of 
which  the  modern  Varna  stands,  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Milesians,  in  the  reign  of 
Astyages  (B.C.  593 — 558).  The  Bulgarians  seized 
it  in  679. 

ODKYPOOR,  or  MEWAR  (Hindostan).— 
Its  former  capital,  Chitore,  was  sacked  in 
1303  by  the  Mohammedans,  and  again  March 
16,  1527.  It  was  taken  in  1567  by  Akbav, 
and  most  of  its  inhabitants  perished.  On  the 
loss  of  his  capital,  the  Nan:',  Oody 
founded  <  ideypoor,  since  that  time  the  capital 
of  Mewar.  The  Nan  a  of  Oodeyporo  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  Ivist  India  Company  in 
1818,  by  which  he  became  a  tributary  of  the 
British  Government. 

ODUMKTKII,  PKDOMETER,  PERAMBU- 
LATOR, or  WAY-.M  MAST  KHU,  to  measure  the 
steps  taken  by  a  person,  or  the  revolutions 
made  by  the  wheel  of  a  vehicle,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  distance  travelled,  was,  according 
to  Beckman,  known  in  the  ipth  century.  John 
Fernel,  physician  to  Catherine  of  Medici,  used 
one  in  1550 ;  and  Hulsius,  in  his  Treatise  on 
Mechanical  Instruments,  published  at  Frank- 
fort in  1604,  describes  such  an  instrument. 
Butterfield  invented  one  towards  the  end  of 
the  1 7th  century.  It  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved. 

ODONTOLOGY,  the  science  of  the  teeth, 
was  first  accurately  treated  of  by  Pin-kin]  e,  in 
1835,  and  by  Retzius  in  1837.  Tue  relations 
between  the  teeth  and  the  rest  of  the  body 
were  explained  by  Professor  Richard  Owen  to 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Dec.,  1839. 
He  published  his  "  Odontography  "  1840—45. 

ODRYS/E  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  Scythian  expedition  of  Darius  I.,  B.C.  507  ; 
and  they  raised  an  army  of  150,000  men  against 
Macedonia,  B.C.  429.  Xenophon  arid  the  Ten 
Thousand,  in  their  "retreat,"  assisted  to  re- 
store Seuthes,  one  of  their  kings,  to  the  throne, 
B.C.  400.  They  were  engaged  in  dissensions 


with  the  Athenians  respecting  the  possession 
of  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  B.C.  382 — 357,  and 
ceded  the  disputed  territory  in  the  latter  year. 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  after  a  10  years'  con- 
test, brought  them  under  tribute,  and  founded 
Philippopolis  in  the  heart  of  their  country, 
B.C.  343.  Sadales  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to 
the  Romans  B.C.  42.  A  formidable  rebellion 
against  their  Roman  masters  was  with  diffi- 
culty put  down  by  Poppauis  Sabinus  in  26. 
Vespasian  incorporated  the  country  with  the 
empire  about  72. 

ODYSSEY.— (See  ILIUM.) 

OEDENBURG,  or  ODENBURG  (Hungary), 
the  ancient  Scarabantia,  called  by  the  Hun- 
garians Sopron,  or  Soprony,  is  celebrated  for 
the  diet  held  here  by  Leopold  I.  in  1681,  with 
a  view  of  conciliating  the  Hungarians.  The 
Austrians  were  defeated  here  by  the  Hunga- 
rians, May  7,  1849. 

OELAND,  or  OLAND  (Baltic  Sea). —  This 
island,  belonging  to  Sweden,  seized  by  the 
Danes  in  1360,  was  soon  after  restored. 

OKLS  (Prussia).— The  castle  of  this  town  of 
Silesia  was  built  in  1558.  It  was  the  capital 
of  a  small  duchy  annexed  to  Brunswick  in 

(EXIAD/E  (Greece). — This  town  in  Acarnania 
is  first  noticed  B.C.  455,  and  was  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  Pericles  B.C.  454.  Tho  inhabitants, 
who  sided  with  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  were  compelled,  chiefly 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Demosthenes, 
to  declare  for  Athens,  B.C.  424.  The  TEtolums 
made  themselves  masters  of  (Eniadse  about 
B.C.  350,  and  retained  possession,  till  B.C.  219, 
when  it  was  taken  by  Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 
It  was  captured  by  the  Romans,  and  made 
over  to  their  allies,  the  jEtolians,  B.C.  211,  but 
restored  to  the  Acarnanians  B.C.  189.  Col. 
Leake  described  its  ruins  in  1855. 

(KXOPllYTA  .'Buttle)  was  fought  B.C.  456, 
between  the  Athenians,  commanded  by  My- 
ronides,  and  the  Boeotians.  The  latter  were 
signally  defeated. 

(EXOTKIA  (Europe).— This  name  was  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  southern  part  of  Italy, 
from  (Enotrus,  one  of  the  sons  of  Lycaon,  who, 
according  to  the  legend,  settled  there  B.C.  1710. 
According  to  another  legend,  the  name  was 
changed  to  Italy,  from  Italus,  another  chief  or 
king. 

OEREBRO.— (See  OREBRO.) 

OESEL  (Baltic  Sea).— This  island  was  taken 
in  1583  from  the  Teutonic  knights  by  the 
Danes,  who  ceded  it  to  Sweden  in  1645.  It 
was  captured  by  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  in  1710, 
and  was,  with  the  government  of  Livonia, 
ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt,  Aug. 
30,  1721. 

OFEN.— (See  BUDA.) 

OFFA'S  DYKE,  extending  from  Bristol  to 
the  north  of  Flint,  was  constructed  by  Offa, 
King  of  Mercia,  in  779,  in  order  to  protect  his 
territories  from  the  attacks  of  the  Welsh. 

OFFICE,  HOLY,  the  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  Inquisition  (q.  v.),  belongs  more 
properly  to  the  Congregation  established  at 
Rome  by  Paul  III.  in  1542.  Its  organization 
was  settled  by  Sixtus  V.  (1585—90),  and  the 
Inquisition  is  under  its  control. 


OFFICES 


[    723 


OLD  STYLE 


OFFICES.— The  purchase  and  sale  of  offices 
was  abolished  by  5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  16  (1552) 
An  order  in  council,  enforcing  the  prohibition 
appeared  July  19,  1702.  By  31  Geo.  II.  c.  22 
(1758),  a  duty  was  imposed  upon  all  salaries 
fees,  and  perquisites  of  offices  and  pensions 
payable  by  the  crown,  exceeding  the  value  oi 
£ico  per  annum,  and  it  was  made  perpetual 
by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  97  (Aug.  19,  1836). 

OGLIO  (Battle).— The  brothers  Visconti,  of 
Milan,  were  defeated  on  the  banks  of  this 
river  in  Italy  with  great  loss,  by  Count  Lando, 
chief  of  an  irregular  band,  in  1357. 

OGULNIAN  LAW.— So  called  from  tribunes 
of  the  name  of  Ogulnius,  by  whom  it  was  pro- 
posed, B.C.  300.  Its  object  was  to  remove  the 
last  exclusive  privilege  retained  by  the  patri- 
cians ;  namely,  that  of  being  alone  eligible  for 
the  sacred  offices  of  Pontificate  and  Augurate. 
By  this  law  all  orders  of  priests  were  increased, 
and  the  priesthood  opened  to  the  plebeians. 

OHIO  (N.  America)  was  explored  in  1673  by 
the  French  from  Canada,  who  destroyed  an 
English  settlement  on  the  Great  Miami  in 
1752,  bringing  on  the  war  between  France  and 
England,  of  1755.  At  the  peace,  it  was,  with 
Canada,  ceded  to  the  English,  Feb.  10,  1763, 
and  passed  into  the  power  of  the  United 
States  Government  after  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence, Sep.  15,  1783.  The  first  territorial 
legislature  met  in  Sep.,  1799,  and  Ohio  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  separate  state  in 
1802. 

OHUD,  MOUNT  (Battle).— Mohammed  was 
defeated  by  the  Koreish  on  Mount  Ohud,  near 
Medina,  in.  623  or  624.  Mohammed  himself 
was  wounded  in  the  face  with  a  javelin,  and 
two  of  his  teeth  were  broken. 

OIL. — Jacob  poured  oil  on  the  stone  which 
formed  his  pillow  at  Bethel,  B.C.  1760  (Gen. 
xxviii.  1 8).  It  was  extensively  used  in  the 
sacrificial  worship  of  the  Jews,  and  in  anoint- 
ing their  high  priests  and  kings.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  extracted  oils  from  the  olive,  castor- 
berry  tree,  lettuce,  flax,  and  other  sources, 
and  used  them  in  the  toilet,  as  well  as  for 
lamps  and  in  cookery.  Athens  exported  large 
quantities  of  olive  oil ;  and  at  Rome,  bathers 
and  the  athletse  habitually  used  it  for  purposes 
of  anointment.  Jan  Van  Eyck  is  regarded  as 
the  inventor  of  oil  colours  in  1410,  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  they  were  known  at  least  two 
centuries  before  his  time.  All  vessels  con- 
taining oil  were  ordered  to  be  gauged  by 
4  Rich.  II.  c.  i  (1380),  which  was  repeated  and 
enforced  by  subsequent  acts.  Imported  oils 
were  taxed  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  4  (1660),  and 
the  duty  on  olive  oil  was  increased  by  2  Will.  & 
Mary,  s.  2,  c.  4  (1690).  The  duty  on  chemical 
or  essential  oils  was  fixed  at  is.  per  Ib. 
by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  97  (Aug.  14,  1855),  which 
repealed  the  duties  on  vegetable  and  fish  oils. 
Taylor's  apparatus  for  the  manufacture  of  oil- 
gas  was  invented  in  1815.  (See  COD  LIVER 
OIL.) 

OIL  SPRINGS,  or  WELLS.— (See  NAPHTHA 
and  PETROLEUM.) 
OLANEGE.— (See  ALNEY,  Battle.) 
OLD  BAILEY  (London).  —  The  Sessions  or 
court  house,   commenced    in    1770,   was   not 
completed  until  1783.      Improvements    were 


made  in   1808.     The  pillory  in  the  Old  Bailey 
was  used  for  the  last  time  June  22,  1830. 

OLDENBURG  (Germany).  —  The  title  of 
count  was  assumed  in  1155,  by  Christian  I., 
whose  descendants  reigned  in  Denmark, 
Russia,  and  Sweden.  The  duchy  was  formed 
of  the  two  counties,  Oldenburg  and  Delmen- 
horst,  by  Joseph  II.,  in  1773.  It  joined  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1808,  was  incor- 
porated with  the  French  empire  by  Napoleon  I. 
in  1810,  and  was  restored  to  the  duke  in  1814. 
Augustus  first  assumed  the  title  of  grand  duke 
in  1829.  It  received  a  new  constitution  in  1849, 
which  was  remodelled  in  1852.  Kniphausen 
was  added  to  the  grand  duchy  in  1854.  Olden- 
burg entered  into  an  alliance  with  Hanover 
against  Prussia,  March  30,  1865,  and  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Austrians,  submitted  to  Prussia, 
with  which  it  signed  a  treaty  of  alliance, 
Aug.  27, 1866. 

OLD  FORT  (Crimea).— The  allied  English, 
French,  and  Turkish  army  reached  Old  Fort, 
near  Eupatoria,  Sep.  12,  1854.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  days  the  forces  disembarked  with 
their  material.  The  English  mustered  26,000 
men  and  54  guns ;  the  French  24,500  men  and 
70  guns  ;  and  the  Turks  about  7,000  men. 

OLD  GUATEMALA,  or  GUATEMALA- 
LA-VIEJA  (Central  America),  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1524,  suffered  severely  from 
earthquakes  in  1541  and  1773.  It  was  restored 
in  1799.  (See  NEW  GUATEMALA.) 

OLD  ILIUM.— (See  ILIUM.) 

OLD  MAN  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN.  —  The 
name  given  in  Europe  to  the  leader  of  the 
Assassins  (q.  v.}. 

OLD  PRICES.— (flfc  O.  P.  RIOTS.) 

OLDRIDGE.— (See  BOYNE,  Battle.) 

OLD  ROYALTY  THEATRE  (London), 
opened  June  20,  1787,  was  burned  down  April 
ii,  1826.  (See  BRUNSWICK  THEATRE.) 

OLD  SEVILLE.— (See  ITALICA.) 

OLD  STYLE.  —  An  attempt  was  made  in 
England  to  reform  the  calendar  (q.  v.)  March  16, 
JSSs,  when  a  bill,  entitled  "An  act  giving  her 
Vlajesty  authority  to  alter  and  new-make  a 
calendar,  according  to  the  calendar  used  in 
ither  countries,"  was  read  a  first  time.  It  was 
read  a  second  time  March  18,  1585,  and  then 
;he  subject  dropped.  The  alteration  was 
effected  by  24  Geo.  II.  c.  23  (1751),  entitled 
'  An  act  for  regulating  the  commencement  of 
;he  year,  and  for  correcting  the  calendar  now 
"n  use."  This  measure  effected  two  great 
•eforms,  first  in  substituting  the  Gregorian  for 
;he  Julian  calendar,  and,  secondly,  in  abolish - 
ng  the  practice  of  commencing  the  legal  year 
VIarch25.  (See  YEAR.)  The  act  provided  :"  I. 
That  throughout  all  his  Majesty's  dominions 
n  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  the 
upputation  according  to  which  the  year  of 
iur  Lord  began  on  the  25th  of  March. shall 
not  be  used  after  the  last  day  of  December, 
1751  ;  and  that  the  first  day  of  January  next 
ollowing  shall  be  reckoned  as  the  first  day  of 
•he  year  1 752,  and  so  in  all  future  years.  II.  That 
romand  after  the  ist  day  of  January,  1752, 
he  several  days  of  each  month  shall  go  on  and 
>e  reckoned  and  numbered  in  the  same  order, 
md  the  feast  of  Easter  and  other  Movable 
easts  thereon  depending  shall  be  ascertained 
3  A  2 


OLD  TOWN 


[     724     1 


OLMUTZ 


according  to  the  same  method,  as  they  now 
are,  until  the  2nd  of  September,  1 752  ;  that 
the  natural  day  next  immediately  following 
the  2nd  of  September,  1752,  shall  be  called 
and  reckoned  as  the  i4th  day  of  September, 
omitting  the  eleven  intermediate  nominal 
days  of  the  common  Calendar  ;  that  the  day 
which  followed  next  after  the  said  i4th  of 
September  shall  be  reckoned  in  numerical  order 
from  that  day ;  and  all  public  and  private  pro- 
ceedings whatsoever  after  the  ist  of  January, 
1752,  were  ordered  to  be  dated  accordingly.  III. 
That  the  several  years  of  our  Lord  1800,  IQOO, 
2100,  2200,  2300,  or  any  other  hundredth  years 
of  our  Lord,  which  shall  happen  in  time  to 
come  (except  only  every  fourth  hundredth 
year  of  our  Lord),  whereof  the  year  2000  shall 
be  the  first,  shall  not  be  deemed  Bissextile  or 
Leap-years,  but  shall  be  considered  as  common 
years,  consisting  of  365  days  only  ;  and  that  the 
years  of  our  Lord  2000,  2400,  2800,  and  every 
other  fourth  hundredth  year  of  our  Lord, 
from  the  year  2000  inclusive,  and  also  all  other 
years  of  our  Lord,  which  by  the  present  suppu- 
tation  are  considered  Bissextile  or  Leap-years, 
shall  for  the  future  be  esteemed  Bissextile  or 
Leap-years,  consisting  of  366  days.  TV.  That 
whereas,  according  to  the  rule  then  in  use  for 
calculating  Easter-day,  that  feast  was  fixed  to 
the  first  Sunday  after  the  first  full  moon  next 
after  the  2ist  of  March  ;  and  if  the  full  moon 
happens  on  a  Sunday,  then  Easter-clay  is  the 
Sunday  after,  which  rule  had  been  adopted  by 
the  General  Council  of  Nice,  A.D.  325  ;  but  as 
the  method  of  computing  the  full  moons  then 
used  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  according 
to  which  the  table  to  find  Easter  prefixed  to 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  formed,  had 
become  considerably  erroneous,  it  was  enacted 
that  the  said  method  should  be  discontinued, 
and  that  from  and  after  the  2nd  of  September, 
1 752,  Easter-day  and  the  other  Movable  and 
other  Feasts  were  henceforward  to  be  reckoned 
according  to  the  Calendar,  Tables,  and  Rules 
annexed  to  the  Act,  and  attached  to  the  Books 
of  Common  Prayer."  (See  NEW  STYLE.) 
OLD  TOWN.— (See  CIVITA  VECCHIA.) 
OLEAROS,  or  OLIAROS.— (See  ANTIPAROS.) 
OLERON  (British  Channel).  —  This  island, 
the  ancient  Uliarus  Insula,  was  ceded  to 
England  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  May  8, 
1360.  It  was  retaken  by  the  French,  and  has 
frequently  been  attacked.  Louis  XIV.  (1643— 
1715)  fortified  it. 

OLERON  (France).— Under  the  mediation  of 
Edward  1.  of  England,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  this  town  of  Beam,  in  1288,  between 
Philip  IV.  of  France  and  Alphonso  III.  of 
Aragon. 

OLERON  LAWS.— Hallam  (Middle  Ages, 
ch.  ix.  pt.  2)  remarks,  with  reference  to  this 
celebrated  code  of  maritime  law — "A  set  of 
regulations,  chiefly  borrowed  from  the  Conso- 
lato,  was  compiled  in  France  under  the  reign 
of  Louis  IX.,  and  prevailed  in  their  own  coun- 
try. These  have  been  denominated  the  laws 
of  OleYon,  from  an  idle  story  that  they  were 
enacted  by  Richard  I.,  while  his  expedition  to 
the  Holy  Land  lay  at  anchor  in  that  island." 
Cleirac,  in  his  "  Us  et  Coutumes  de  la  Mer," 
published  in  1621,  assigns  1266  as  the  date  of 


production.     At  the  time  this  code  was  formed 
the  English  navy  consisted  of  33  ships. 

OLIVA.— A  treaty  of  peace  "was  ratified  at 
this  town,  in  Prussia,  May  3,  1660,  between 
Poland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  Casimir  V.,  King  of  Poland,  re- 
lounced  all  claim  to  the  crown  of  Sweden. 
Drontheim  and  Bornholm  were  ceded  to  Den- 
mark, and  Esthonia  and  Livonia  to  Sweden. 

OLIVE,  "in  the  western  world,"  says  Gib- 
bon, ' '  followed  the  progress  of  peace,  of  which 
it  was  considered  as  the  symbol.  Two  centu- 
ries after  the  foundation  of  Rome,  both  Italy 
and  Africa  were  strangers  to  that  useful  plant ; 
it  was  naturalized  in  these  countries,  and  at 
length  carried  into  the  heart  of  Spain  and 
Gaul."  It  was  so  highly  valued  by  the  Israel- 
ites that  it  was  planted  in  the  outer  court  of 
the  second  temple.  A  law  of  the  Roman 
republic  prohibited  the  culture  of  the  vine 
and  the  olive  beyond  the  Alps,  that  the 
value  of  those  in  Italy  might  be  kept  up. 
Olive-trees  were  cultivated  in  the  botanic  gar- 
den at  Oxford  in  1648  ;  and  some  planted  in  the 
open  ground  at  Camden  House,  Kensington, 
in  1719,  produced  fruit.  The  Cape  olive,  and 
the  wave-leaved  olive,  were  introduced  from 
the  Cape  in  1730,  the  sweet-scented  olive  from 
China  in  1771,  and  the  laurel-leaved  olive  from 
Madeira  in  1784. 

OLIVENZA  (Spain).— This  town,  belonging 
to  Portugal,  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  May 
20,  1801,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
Olivenza  was  confirmed  to  Spain,  Sep.  29,  1801. 
The  French,  under  Soult,  captured  it  Jan.  22, 
1811,  and  it  was  retaken  by  the  English,  under 
Beresford,  after  a  few  days'  siege,  April  17, 
1811.  It  was  again  occupied,  June  24,  1811,  by 
the  French,  who  blew  up  the  fortifications. 
Olivenza  was  restored  to  Portugal  by  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1814;  but  Ferdinand  VII. 
refused  to  give  it  up,  and  the  town  is  held  by 
Spain  in  spite  of  the  treaty. 

OLIVETANS,  or  BRETHREN  OF  OUR 
LADY  OF  MOCXT  OLIVET.— This  branch  of 
the  Benedictines  was  founded  by  John  Tolom- 
mei,  at  a  solitary  place  near  Sienna,  in  1319. 

OLMO.— (See  MADONNA  DELL'  OLMO.) 

OLMUTZ  (Austria).— This  town,  at  a  later 
period  the  capital  of  Moravia,  resisted  an 
attack  by  the  Mongols  in  1242.  Here  Mathias 
Corvinus  concluded  what  was  termed  the  per- 
petual peace  with  the  Kings  of  Bohemia  and 
Poland,  in  July,  1479.  Sigismund  I.,  King  of 
Poland,  held  a  congress  in  April,  1527.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Swedes,  under  Torstenson,  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  1642,  and  was  be- 
sieged unsuccessfully  by  Frederick  II.,  for 
seven  weeks,  in  1758.  It  was  made  an  arch- 
bishopric in  1777.  Here  Lafayette  was  im- 
prisoned in  1794,  and  Ferdinand  I.  resigned 
the  crown  to  his  nephew,  Dec.  2,  1848.  The 
cathedral  was  founded  about  1300.  Its  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1527,  transferred  to 
Brunn  in  1778,  and  reorganized  in  1827,  was 
transferred  to  Kremsier  in  consequence  of  the 
outbreak  in  1848.  A  conference,  under  the 
auspices  of  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia,  at  which 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria  and  Prussia 
came  to  terms  on  the  Hesse-Cassel  dispute, 
was  held  here  Nov.  29,  1850. 


OLNEY 


[    725     ] 


OMMIADES 


OLNEY.—  (See  ALNEY.) 

OLOT  (Spain).  —  This  ancient  town,  of  which 
some  Roman  remains  exist,  was  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1427.  It 
was  rebuilt,  and  suffered  severely  during  the 
war  of  independence.  The  Spaniards  were 
defeated  by  the  French  in  a  battle  here,  Dec. 

1  8,  1809. 

OLP^E  (Greece).—  The  Ambraciots  captured 
this  town  of  Argos  Amphilochium,  B.C.  426. 
They  were  defeated  by  the  Acarnanians  in  a 
battle  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  the  same 
year. 

OLTENITZA  (Battle).—  About  12,000  Turks, 
who  crossed  the  Danube  from  Turtukai,  Nov. 

2  and  3,  1853,  established  themselves  at  Olten- 
itza,  where  they  were  assailed  by  the  Russians, 
Nov.  4.   The  engagement  terminated  in  favour 
of  the  Turks,   who  only  lost   106  men.     The 
Russian  loss  amounted  to  1,000  in  killed  and 
wounded. 

OLYMPIA  (Battle).—  The  Eleians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Arcadians,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Olympia,  B.C.  364,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
celebration  of  the  io4th  Olympiad,  the  Arca- 
dians were  in  possession  of  Olympia.  Assisted 
by  the  Achaians,  the  Eleians  surprised  the 
Arcadians  in  the  celebration  of  the  games,  and 
obtained  a  complete  victory. 

OLYMPIA  (Greece).—  The  temple  and  sacred 
grove  of  Zeus  Olympius  were  planned  by 
Libon  of  Elis,  after  the  destruction  of  Pisa  by 
the  Eleians,  B.C.  572,  when  the  spoils  of  the 
conquered  cities  were  devoted  to  the  erection 
of  a  temple,  which  was  completed  about  B.C. 
472.  Phidias  executed  the  colossal  statue  of 
Zeus  in  ivory  and  gold,  and  the  figures  in  the 
pediments,  B.C.  437  —  433.  The  site,  plan,  and 
dimensions  of  the  temple  have  been  shown  by 
the  excavations  of  the  French  commission 
made  in  1829. 

OLYMPIAD,  a  term  of  four  years,  deriving 
its  name  from  the  Olympic  games,  commenced 
with  the  new  rnoon  of  the  summer  solstice, 
July  i,  776  B.C.  This  system  of  computing 
time  was  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  it  ceased  after  the  305  th  Olympiad,  in 


OLYMPIC  GAMES.—  The  chief  of  the  four 
great  national  festivals  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
celebrated  every  fifth  year  at  Olympia  (q.v.), 
whence  the  name.  The  exact  interval  at  which 
they  recurred  was  one  of  49  and  50  lunar 
months  alternately.  The  origin  of  the  games, 
which  lasted  five  days,  is  unknown.  Some 
authors  assert  that  they  were  founded  by  the 
Idaji  Dactyli,  B.C.  1453.  There  was  a  tradition 
that  Iphitus,  King  of  the  Eleians,  had  revived 
the  festival  —  B.C.  884  according  to  Eratos- 
thenes, B.C.  828  according  to  Callimachus,  and 
B.C.  776  according  to  other  authorities.  Hero- 
dotus recited  parts  of  his  history  at  the  Olym- 
pic games  B.C.  456.  They  were  celebrated  at 
Antioch  in  44,  and  were  discontinued  at  Elis 
in  394,  and  at  Antioch  by  a  decree  of  Justin  I. 

OLYMPIC  THEATRE  (London)  was  built 
in  1805,  by  Philip  Astley,  of  Astley's  Amphi- 
theatre, and  opened  Sep.  18,  1806.  It  was 
burned  March  29,  1849,  and  having  been  rebuilt, 
was  opened  Dec.  26,  1849. 


OLYNTHI ACS.— Three  orations,  delivered 
by  Demosthenes,  towards  the  end  of  B.C.  350, 
in  behalf  of  the  Olynthians,  assailed  by  Philip 
II.  of  Macedon. 

OLYNTHIAN  WARS.— The  Olynthians  had 
become  so  powerful  that  Acanthus  and  Appol- 
lonia,  jealous  of  their  supremacy,  applied  to 
Sparta  for  aid,  B.C.  383.  The  Spartans  sent  an 
army,  under  Eudamidas,  B.C.  382,  and  Teleu- 
tias  joined  him  soon  after  with  10,000  men. 
Both  generals  were  defeated,  and  Teleutias  lost 
his  life,  B.C.  381.  In  the  next  campaign  the 
Olynthians  submitted  to  Polybiades,  the 

Spartan    general,     B.C.     379. War    broke 

out  between  the  Olynthians  and  Philip  II., 
King  of  Macedon,  B.C.  350,  which  ended  iu 
the  entire  destruction  of  the  city  of  Olynthus, 
B.C.  347. 

OLYNTHUS  (Greece).— Artabazus,  the  Per- 
sian general,  having  captured  the  town  and 
put  all  the  inhabitants  to  death,  gave  it  to  the 
Chalcidic  Greeks,  B.C.  480.  From  its  situation 
it  became  of  great  importance,  B.C.  392.  (See 
OLYNTHIAN  WARS.) 

OMAGH  (Ireland),  anciently  called  Oigh- 
Magh,  signifying  "  the  seat  of  the  chiefs,"  is 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  in  792.  The 
soldiers  of  James  II.  set  fire  to  the  town,  and 
destroyed  it,  with  its  church  and  castle,  in 
1689.  The  town,  having  been  rebuilt,  was 
again  destroyed  by  fire,  in  1743.  The  county 
infirmary  was  established  in  1796. 

OMENS.— The  belief  in  Omens,  or  signs 
received  by  the  ear,  and  in  Prodigies,  or 
signs  conveyed  by  extraordinary  phenomena, 
occurrences,  and  events  out  of  the  ordinary 
course  of  nature,  prevailed  at  a  very  early 
age,  and  was  common  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  (See  AUGURY,  HARUSPICES,  &c.) 

OMERCOTE  (Scinde).— This  fortified  town 
was  taken  by  the  Ameers  of  Scinde  from  the 
Rajah  of  Joudpore  in  1813.  The  north-west 
tower  of  the  fort  was  swept  away  in  1826  by 
the  overflowing  of  a  branch  of  the  Indus. 

OMER,  ST.  (France),  called  Sithieu  or  Sithiu, 
an  abbey  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St. 
Omer  about  648.  The  town  received  a  charter 
in  1127.  The  cathedral,  a  fine  building  in  the 
Gothic  style,  was  completed  in  the  middle  of 
the  1 6th  century.  Within  the  walls  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Bertin,  the  only  remaining  frag- 
ment of  which  is  a  tower  built  in  the  i^th 
century,  Childeric  III.,  the  last  of  the  Mero- 
vingian kings  of  France,  was  confined  by 
Pepin  in  752.  Louis  XL  captured  St.  Omer 
in  1477,  the  Imperialists  in  1489,  and  Louis 
XIV.  in  1687.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in 
1650.  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  was 
defeated  in  battle  here  by  Marshal  Luxem- 
burg in  1677,  and  the  town  was  ceded  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  Aug.  10, 
1678. 

OMMIADES.— This  dynasty  was  founded  in 
Arabia  by  Moawiyah,  in  655  or  66 1.  Merwan 
II.,  the  fourteenth  and  last  caliph  of  this  race, 
was  slain  in  a  mosque  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  Feb.  10,  750,  when  the  Abbassides  (q.  v.) 
assumed  the  reins  of  power.  Abderahman, 
the  only  member  of  the  Ommiades  who 
escaped  the  massacre  at  Damascus,  founded 
a  caliphate  in  Spain  in  755.  Eighteen  caliphs 


OMNIBUS 


[     726    ] 


OPERA 


reigned,    Hixem  III.,   who  resigned  in  1031, 
being  the  last. 

ARABIA. 


Began  to  reign. 

A.D. 

655  or  661.  Moawiyab.  I. 

680.  Yezid  I. 

683.  Moawiyahll. 

684.  Merwau  I. 
6S4.  Abdalmolik. 
•705.  Walid  I. 
•715.  Soliman. 


Began  to  reign. 

A.i). 

717.  Omar  II. 
740.  Yezid  II. 
724.  Hashem,  or  Hixem. 

743.  Walid  II. 

744.  Yezid  III.  (5  months). 
744.  Ibrahim  (3  months). 
744.  Mervvan  II. 

SPAIN. 

Began  to  reign. 

A.D. 

1009.  Mohammed  II. 

loot).  Soliman. 

1016.  Ali  Ben  Hamnd. 

1017.  Abderahman  IV. 
1021.  Alcassim. 

1033.  Abderahmnn  V. 
1023.  Mohammed  III.  (cou- 
sin of  Hixem  II.) 
1035.  Hixem  III. 


Began  to  reign. 

A.L>. 

755.  Abderahmau  I. 

787.  Hixem  I.,  or  Hashem. 

796.  Alhakein. 

821.  Abderahman  II. 

852.  Mohammed  I. 

886.  Alnuindhir. 

888.  Abdullah. 

913.  Abderahman  III. 

961.  Allia'.tcm  I. 

976.  Hixem  II. 

OMNIBUS.— Conveyances  of  the  kind  began 
to  run  in  Paris  March  18,  1662,  and  though  at 
first  much  used,  fell  into  neglect  until  revived 
early  in  the  century.  Charles  Knight  says 
"  the  omnibus  was  tried  about  1800,  with  four 
horses  and  six  wheels  ;  but  we  refused  to 
accept  it  in  any  shape  till  we  imported  the 
fashion  from  Paris  in  1830."  The  omnibus  was 
introduced  there  in  1827,  and  Mr.  Shillibeer 
started  the  first  pair  in  the  metropolis,  from 
the  Bank  to  the  Yorkshire  Stingo,  New  Road, 
July  4,  1829.  Omnibuses  began  to  run  in 
Amsterdam  in  Sep.,  1839.  They  are  regulated 
by  16  <fc  17  Viet.  c.  33  (June  28,  1853). 

OMSK  (Siberia)  was  founded  in  1716. 

ONE-POUND  NOTES  were  first  issued  by 
the  Bank  of  England  March  4,  1797.  They 
were  withdrawn  in  1823,  and  were  again  issued 
Dec.  16,  1825,  for  a  short  time,  to  relieve  com- 
mercial dis; : 

ONORE  (llindostan).— This  place,  near  Bom- 
bay, was  captured  by  the  Portuguese  in  1569. 
Gen.  Mathews  took  it  by  storm  Jan.  5,  1783, 
when  the  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been 
cruelly  treated ;  and  it  was  ceded  to  the  Eiig 
lish  in  1799. 

ONTARIO  (Bishopric).  —  This  diocese,  in 
Canada,  was  separated  from  Toronto  in  1861, 
the  first  bishop  having  been  elected  June  13. 

OODE Y POOR.—  (See  ODEYPOOR.) 

OOJEIN,  or  UJEIN  (Hindostan),  one  of  the 
seven  sacred  cities  of  the  Hindoos,  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Ozoana,  or  Ozene,  mentioned  by  Pto- 
lemy (139 — 161).  Vicramadilya,  King  of  Oojein, 
was  so  celebrated  that  the  Samoat  lera  used 
to  this  day  throughout  India  dates  from  the 
commencement  of  his  reign,  B.C.  57.  Oojein 
was  taken  by  the  Mohammedans  in  1310, 
and  it  came  under  the  power  of  the  Pataus 
in  1387.  It  was  subjugated  by  Akbar  in 
1561.  The  Mahrattas  took  it  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century,  and  it  was  the  capital 
of  Scindia's  possessions  till  1810,  when 
the  seat  of  the  government  was  •  fixed  at 
Gualior. 

OOTACAMUND,  or  OOTAKAMUND  (Hin- 
dostan).— A  sanitary  station  at  this  place,  on 
the  Neilgherry  Hills,  was  founded  in  1822. 


OPERA.—  This  term,  at  first  applied  to  the 
earliest  Italian  plays  of  a  mixed  character,  and 
then  to  lyrical  dramas,  was  afterwards  re- 
stricted to  musical  compositions.  Mdnestrier, 
the  Jesuit,  considers  the  Song  of  Solomon  to 
be  the  earliest  opera  on  record.  The  more 
probable  account  is  that  the  opera  proceeds 
from  the  sacred  musical  plays  of  the  isth 
century.  "The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul  "was 
performed  at  Rome  in  1440,  and  "Orfeo,"or 
the  descent  of  Orpheus  into  hell,  was  produced 
in  that  city  in  1480.  Sutherland  Edwards,  in 
his  "  History  of  the  Opera,"  from  which  much 
of  the  information  in  this  article  is  derived, 
states  that  Clement  IX.  was  the  author  of 
seven  libretti. 


.. 

1574.  Claudio  Merulo  composes  the  music  of  a    drama, 

which  is  played  before  Henry  III.  of  France  at 

Venice. 
1581.  Baltasarini,    or  Beaujoyeux,   produces    the  Ballet 

Comique  de  la  Retjne,  which  is  said  to  huve  cost 

3,600,000  francs. 
1597.  The  opera  of  Dafne  is  performed  for  the  first  time 

in  the  Corsi  palace  at  Florence. 
1600.  Euriilii-i'  is  reiiivsenU'd  publicly  at  Florence,  on  the 

marriage  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  with  Marie  de 

1608.  Gagliano  composes  new  music  to  the  libretto  of 
Da/tic,  and  Monteverde's  Orfeo  is  produced  in 
Italy. 

1645.  Cardinal  Mazarin  introduces  the  Italian  opera  into 

Part*. 

1646.  Tli<i    first    French   opera,   entitled  Akebar,   Roi  de 

Mogul,   is  produced   in  the  episcopal  palace  of 

CwpantrM. 
1656.  The  first  English  opera  is  produced  at  Sir  W.  IJave- 

nunt's  . 
1671.  Tin:  second  I-Yrnrh  opera,  La  Pastorale  en  Musiqne, 


',!  privately  at  Issy.    The  third,  Vo 
bcnm  -the  first  Krcnch  opera  heard  by  the  Parisian 
public,  is  produced. 

1673.  Lulli,  in  conjunction  with  Quinault,  writes  Cadmus 
inul  ll,;-niii>iu',  which  is  produced  upon  the  French 

1677.  Purcell  (born  1658)  produces  his  first  opera,  Dido 

and  /Eneas. 

1678.  Thiele's  Adam  and  Eve,  the  first  opera  produced  in 

public  in  Germany  in  the  German  language,  is 

played  at  Hamburg. 
1685.  Dryden's  celebrated  opera,  the  music  by  Grabut, 

Albion  and  AlbdMtu,  is  performed  at  the  Duke's 

Theatre. 

1690.  Purcell  composes  music  for  the  Tempest. 
i6;l.   Purcull  produces  his  King  Arthur  in  England. 
1705.  The  Opera  liou.se  (7.  v.)  in  the  Haymarket  is  opened. 

1710.  Italian  opera  is  introduced  into  England  about  this 

time.  Buononcini's  Alinnliiilf  is  produced  in 
England,  being  the  first  work  performed  entirely 
in  the  Italian  language. 

1711.  Handel's  first  opera,  Hinaldo,  is  produced  at  the 

Opera  House,  in  the  Haymarket. 
171?.  Handel's  11  Pastor  Fido  is  produced  at  the  Opera 

House. 

1713.   Handel's  Teseo  is  produced. 
1715.  Handel's  Amadigi  w  brought  out. 

1722.  Buononcini's  Griselda  is  produced. 

1723.  Handel's  Ottone  and  Flavin  are  brought  out. 

1724.  Handel's  Giulio  Cesare  and  Tamerlatto  are  produced. 
1727.  Buononcini's  last  opera,  Astyanax,  is  produced. 
1733.  Rameau's  Hippolyte  et  Aricie  is  produced  at  Paris. 
1737.   Kameau  produces  his  Castor  and  Pollux. 

1752.  Pergolese's  Serva  Padrona  is  produced  in  Paris.   This 

opera  causes  the  celebrated  dispute  between  the 

French  and  Italian  stage. 
1760.  Galuppi's  Mondo  delta  Luna  is  represented  in  Lon- 

don. 
1780.  Paisiello's  Barbiere  di  Siviglia  is  produced  at  St. 

Petersburg. 
1794,  Jan.  21.  Admission  to  the  National  Opera  of  Paris 

is  granted  free  of  charge. 
1806.  C.it.-iiani  appears  in  London. 
1841.  Weber's  Der  Freischutg  is  performed  at  Berlin. 


OPERA  HOUSE 


[     T21     ] 


OPTICS 


1836.  Oberon   Weber's  last  opera,  is  produced  at  Covent 

Garden. 

1838.  Catalani  sings  for  the  last  time  in  Dublin. 
1849,  Aug.  3.  GuiUaume  Tell,  the  last  opera  written  by 

Rossini,  is  represented  for  the  first  time  at  the 

Academic  Royale,  Paris. 
1831.  Meyerbeer's   Robert  le  Diable   is  produced  at  the 

AcadtSmie  Koyale. 
1833.  Giulia,  or  Giulietta,  Grisi  first  distinguishes  herself 

as  Adalgisa,  in  Norma,  at  Milan. 

1835.  I  Puritani  is  played  for  the  first  time  in  London,  for 

Grisi's  benefit. 

1836,  Jan.  36.  Meyerbeer's  second  grand  opera,  Les  Hugue- 

nots, is  produced  at  the  Academic  Royale. 
1840.  Donizetti's  Lucresia  Borgia  is  produced  at  Paris. 
1844.  Donizetti's  last  opera,  entitled  Calarino  Comoro,  is 

performed  at  Naples. 

1847.  Mademoiselle  Alboni  appears  at  the  Royal  Italian 

Opera,  Covent  Garden. 

1848.  April  8.  Donizetti  dies  at  Bergamo,  in  his  52nd  year, 

having  composed  64  operas. 

1849.  Meyerbeer's  third  opera,  Le  Prophets,  is  produced  at 

the  Academic  Royale. 
l86t.  Giulia  Grisi  retires  from  the  stage. 
1865.  Meyerbeer's  last  v,-ork,  the  Africaine,  is  performed  in 

Paris  and  London. 

OPERA  HOUSE  (London).  —  The  Italian 
Opera  House,  or  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  built  by 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  was  opened  April  9,  1705,  and 
was  burned  down  June  18,  1789.  It  was  rebuilt 
in  1790,  by  an  architect  named  Novasielsky. 
The  colonnade  and  arcade  were  added  in  1818. 

OPHIR,  the  name  of  an  ancient  country 
celebrated  for  gold.  Its  position  has  not  been 
ascertained,  and  Arabia,  India,  and  Africa  are 
contended  for  by  different  authorities.  Jose- 
phus  considers  Malacca  to  be  Ophir,  and  Sir 
Emerson  Tennant  supports  this  view.  Purchas 
says  Ceylon.  The  ships  of  Solomon  and  of 
Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  brought  450  talents  of 
gold  to  Jerusalem,  B.C.  1000  (i  Kings  ix.  26 — 
28,  x.  ii,  and  2  Chron.  viii.  17,  18,  and  ix. 
10  &  21).  Jehoshaphat  built  ships  at 
Tarshish,  to  go  to  Ophir  for  gold,  about  B.C. 
913  (i  Kings  xxii.  48,  and  2  Chron.  xx.  36, 
37).  Gold  from  Ophir  is  also  mentioned 
Job  xxii.  24,  and  xxviii.  16;  Psalm  xlv.  9 ;  and 
Isaiah  xiii.  12.  (See  BATHURST  and  GOLD 
DISCOVERIES.) 

OPHITE,  or  OPHITES,  an  Anti-Jewish 
Gnostic  sect,  so  called  from  "  o$i?,"  a  serpent, 
arose  in  Egypt  about  140.  Some  of  them  sup- 
posed the  serpent  (Gen.  iii.)  to  have  been  the 
Divine  Wisdom,  or  Christ  himself,  come  to  set 
men  free  from  the  ignorance  in  which  the 
Demiurge  (Son  of  Darkness  or  of  Chaos)  wished 
to  enthral  them.  The  sect  lasted  till  the  6th 
century.  (See  ANOINTING,  CAINITES,  &c.) 

OPHTHALMIC  HOSPITAL.— The  first  in- 
stitution of  this  description  in  England  was 
founded  in  Moorfields  in  1804.  (See  HOSPITALS.) 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE  was  invented  by 
Helhmoltz  in  1851. 

OPIUM,  chiefly  obtained  from  Persia, 
Arabia,  and  India,  was  anciently  prepared  at 
Thebes.  The  opium  trade  to  China  became  a 
monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  1773,  and  was  transferred  to  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  1793.  The  Chinese  pro- 
hibited the  importation  in  1796.  The  culti- 
vation of  opium  in  India  was  restricted  to  the 
districts  of  Bahar  and  Benares  in  1797.  Ser- 
turner  proved  opium  to  be  a  compound  sub- 
stance in  1812.  Turkey  opium  was  introduced 
into  the  Indian  Archipelago  in  1815.  On  the 


cessation  of  the  East  India  Company's  trading 
powers  in  1834,  a  superintendent  of  trade  was 
sent  out  to  China  by  the  British  Government. 
Disputes  arose  with  the  Chinese,  who,  in  1839, 
destroyed  20,000  chests  of  opium. 

OPORTO  (Portugal)  stands  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Cale,  or  Calem,  also  called  Portus 
Cale,  whence  the  name  Portugal  is  by  some 
writers  derived.  The  Alani  afterwards  founded 
Castrum  Novum,  of  which  Oporto,  i.  e.  the 
Port,  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Arian  Goths,  under  Leovogildo, 
in  540.  The  Goths  gave  way  to  the  Moors  in 
716,  and  the  town  was  destroyed  by  Almansor 
of  Cordova  in  820.  It  was  rebuilt  and  re- 
peopled  by  Gascons  and  French  in  999,  and  it 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors,  who 
retained  possession  till  1092,  when  it  was 
finally  taken  by  the  Christians.  A  tax  having 
been  laid  upon  linen  manufactures,  the  women 
rose  and  routed  the  soldiers  in  1628.  Another 
riot  ensued  in  1661,  on  account  of  a  tax  im- 
posed upon  paper.  An  insurrection  occurred 
in  1756,  when  the  wine  monopoly  was  created 
by  Pombal,  and  for  this  insurrection  26  persons 
were  put  to  death.  The  French,  under  Soult, 
took  Oporto  by  storm  March  29,  1809.  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  passed  the  Douro  May  n, 
1809,  and  surprised  Soult,  who  was  obliged  to 
retreat.  The  Miguelites  seized  Oporto  July  3, 
1828.  Don  Pedro  landed  near  Oporto,  of  which 
he  took  possession,  July  8,  1832.  The  Miguel- 
ites attacked  Oporto  Sep.  19,  and  were  re- 
pulsed with  great  slaughter.  They  continued 
the  siege,  and  failed  in  another  assault, 
March  4,  1833.  An  exhibition  was  held  in 
Sep.,  1865. 

OPPIDO  (Italy),  supposed  to  occupy  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Mamertium,  was  made 
a  bishop's  see  about  1301.  The  town  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1783. 

O.  P.  RIOTS  (Covent  Garden  Theatre).— The 
new  theatre  was  opened  Monday,  Sep.  18,  1809, 
and  the  prices  of  admission  having  been 
raised,  the  public  assembled  in  large  numbers, 
and  by  uttering  loud  cries  of  O.  P.,  or  old 
prices,  prevented  the  actors  from  being  heard. 
This  was  repeated  night  after  night.  The 
managers,  having  tried  in  vain  to  overcome  the 
opposition  by  the  aid  of  a  pugilistic  corps, 
with  Dutch  Sam  at  their  head,  submitted 
Dec.  16,  1809,  by  returning  to  the  old  prices. 

OPSLO  (Battle).  —  Christian  of  Denmark 
suppressed  a  revolt  of  the  Norwegian  nobles 
at  this  town,  the  ancient  capital  of  Norway, 
in  1508.  Opslo  was  almost  completely  de- 
stroyed by  fire  May  24,  1624,  and  Christiania 
was  soon  after  founded  upon  its  site  and  made 
the  capital. 

OPTICS,  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
nature  of  light  and  vision,  was  very  imper- 
fectly known  until  the  i6th  and  i7th  cen- 
turies. 


B.C. 

434.  Buniing  glasses  are  mentioned  by  Aristophanes,  in 

the  comedy  of  the  "  Clouds." 
300.  Euclid  writes  the  first  treatise  on  Optics. 
A.D. 
65.  Seneca  observes  the  magnifying  power  of  convex 

lonot-s  and  the  refraction  of  light  by  prisms. 


OPTIMISTS 


[     728    ] 


ORANGEMEN 


A.D. 

140  (about).  Claudius  Ttolemy,  the  astronomer,  writes  his 
five  books  of  optics,  in  which  the  subject  is  first 
treated  in  a  scientific  manner. 
174.  Galen  announces  the  principle  of  binocular  vision. 

1030 — 38.  The  Arabian  philosopher  Alhazen  makes  impor- 
tant discoveries  in  the  theory  of  vision,  and  in  the 
laws  of  reflection  and  refraction. 

1366  (about).  Roger  Bacon,  in  his  Opus  Majus,  describes 
the  application  of  lenses  to  aid  defective  sight,  or 
to  counteract  the  effects  of  distance. 

1370.  The  science  is  cultivated  by  Vitello. 

1535.  Maurolycus  makes  important  researches  into  the 
laws  of  light  and  shade. 

1571.  J.  Fleschier  publishes  a  work  on  the  rainbow. 

I5»8.  Baptista  I'orta  publishes  his  MagiaNaturalis,  which 
contains  a  description  of  the  camera  obscura 
(<?•  "•)• 

1600.  Guido  Ubaldp  explains  the  laws  of  perspective. 

1604.  Kepler  explains  the  functions  of  the  retina. 

1611.  Kepler  founds  the  science  of  Dioptrics,  which  treats 
of  the  transmission  of  light  through  transparent 
substances. 

1619.  Christopher  Scheiner  proves  the  resemblance  be- 
Uvi'i/n  the  eve  and  the  camera  obscura. 

1631.  Willebrord  Siiollius,  of  Leyden,  discovers  the  true 
theory  of  refraction. 

1630.  Descartes  publishes  his  "  Dioptrics." 

1663,  Dec.  38.  Death  of  Francis  Maria  Grimaldi,  dis- 
coverer of  the  inflection  of  light.  Dr.  Ilooke 
publishes  his  "  Experiments  upon  Colours." 

1669.  Erasmus  Bartholinus  discovers  double  refraction. 
1672.  Newton   announces  the  different  refrangibility  of 

light. 
1675.  Koemer  discovers  the  velocity  of  light. 

1670.  NVwton  announces  his  theory  of  "  Colours." 

1678.  Christian  Huyghens  announces  the  wave  theorv  of 
light,  and  discovers  the  phenomenon  of  polariza- 
tion. 

1725.  Bradley  makes  known  the  aberration  of  the  fixed 
stars. 

1800 — 1803.  Dr.  Thomas  Young  supports  the  wave  theory 
of  light,  and  demonstrates  the  general  law  of  in- 
terference. 

l8to.  Col.  E.  L.  Mains  discovers  polarization  by  reflection. 

1811.  Francois  Arago  investigates  the  colours  of  polarized 

light,  and  discovers  circular  polarization. 

1812.  Biot  announces   his   fallacious  theory  of    movable 

polarization. 

1818.  Fresnel  establishes  his  theory  of  double  refraction, 
and  publishes  the  true  theory  of  the  inflection 
of  light. 

1830.  Sir  David  Brewster  proves  the  identity  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  metallic  and  elliptic  polarization. 

(See  LIGHT,  PHOTOGRAPH v,  <fec.) 

OPTIMISTS.  —  This  sect  of  philosophers 
maintain,  not  merely  that  "whatever  is,  is 
right,"  but  that  whatever  is,  is  absolutely  best, 
and  hence  that  even  crimes  form  part  of  the 
divine  plan  in  the  government  of  the  universe. 
Malebranche  (1638 — Oct.  13,  1715)  and  Leib- 
nitz (1646 — Nov.  14,  1716)  are  regarded  as  the 
founders  of  optimist  philosophy. 

ORACLES.— The  most  ancient  oracle  was 
that  of  Jupiter  at  Dodona,  a  city  of  Epirus, 
destroyed  by  the  JEtolians  B.C.  219,  when  the 
temple  of  the  god  was  razed  to  the  ground. 
The  celebrated  oracle  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi, 
was  founded  B.C.  1263.  The  temple  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  B.C.  548.  The  Amphictyons  re- 
built it  at  a  cost  of  300  talents,  or  about 
,£  1 15,000.  The  temple  was  plundered  by  Sylla 
B.C.  82,  and  Nero  in  67,  and  having  fallen  into 
neglect,  was  restored  by  Hadrian  (117—138). 
The  oracle  was  finally  silenced  by  Theodosius  I. 
(373-395). 

ORAN  (Algeria)  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
caliphs,  and  it  contained  extensive  bazaars 
and  flourishing  manufactures  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. The  Pisans  formed  establishments  at 
Oran  and  on  the  neighbouring  coasts,  in  1373, 


and  the  Spaniards,  under  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
invaded  and  captured  Oran  in  1509.  It  was 
retaken  by  the  Algerines  in  1708,  and  in  1732 
was  again  captured  by  the  Spaniards,  who  left 
it  1791,  after  an  earthquake  had  destroyed 
everything  except  the  fort.  The  French  took 
Oran  Dec.  10,  1830.  They  constructed  docks, 
which  were  opened  in  1850,  and  added  many 
public  buildings  and  streets  to  the  old  town. 
In  1837  a  military  colony  of  spahis  (native 
cavalry)  was  established,  and  the  colony  has, 
since  its  acquisition  by  France,  been  under  the 
control  of  a  military  governor. 

ORANGE  (Battles).  — The  Cimbri  defeated 
a  Roman  army  commanded  by  the  Proconsul 
Q.  Servilius  Caepio,  at  this  place,  the  ancient 
Arausio,  Oct.  6,  B.C.  105.  Caepio,  jealous  of  the 
consul  C.  Mallius  Maximus,  had  given  battle 
without  waiting  for  his  colleague.  The  Cimbri, 
flushed  with  victory,  attacked  and  defeated  the 
army  of  Mallius.  The  total  loss  was  80,000 
soldiers  and  40,000  camp  followers.  The  two 
commanders,  who  escaped,  were  degraded  and 
sentenced  to  death,  though  the  sentence  was 
not  carried  out. 

OKANGE  (France).— This  town,  called  by 
the  Romans  Arausio,  is  remarkable  for  its 
Roman  remains,  consisting  of  a  triumphal 
arch  (supposed  to  commemorate  the  triumph 
of  Marius  over  the  Teutones,  at  Aix,  B.C.  102), 
a  theatre,  and  a  circus  or  hippodrome.  (See 
CIMBRI.)  Councils  were  held  here  Nov.  8,  441, 
and  July  3,  529.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
the  capital  of  a  small  principality  of  the  same 
name.  On  the  death  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
in  1531,  without  children,  it  was  inherited  by 
his  sister,  who  married  the  Prince  of  Nassau, 
and  the  Nassau  family  were  confirmed  in  pos- 
session by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  Sep.  20,  1697. 
Frederick  I.,  of  Prussia,  claimed  it  on  the 
death  of  William  III.  of  England,  in  1702,  and 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  u,  1713,  he  was 
allowed  to  exchange  it  for  other  possessions 
with  France. 

ORANGE  LODGES.— The  first  was  formed 
by  the  Orangemen  (q.  v.)  at  Armagh,  Sep.  21, 
1795  ;  and  the  Duke  of  York  became  a  patron 
in  1 797.  They  fell  into  comparative  neglect  at 
the  close  of  the  war  in  1815.  It  was  decided 
to  revive  them  in  Ireland  Aug.  28,  1828 ;  and 
at  a  great  Orange  meeting  held  in  Dublin  Sep. 
15,  1828,  the  acceptance,  by  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, of  the  office  of  grand  master  of  the 
Orangemen  of  the  United  Kingdom,  was  an- 
nounced. Debates  respecting  the  legality  of 
the  Orange  lodges  occurred  in  the  House  of 
Commons  March  4  and  6,  and  Aug.  4,  n,  15, 
19,  and  20,  1835  ;  and  a  series  of  resolutions 
against  them  was  agreed  to  in  the  House  of 
Commons  Feb.  23,  1836.  Many  magistrates 
were  dismissed  in  1845  because  they  were 
members  of  Orange  lodges. 

ORANGEMEN.— This  name  was  given  by 
the  Roman  Catholics  to  the  Protestants  of 
Ireland,  on  account  of  their  support  of  the 
cause  of  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange.  It 
was  first  assumed  in  1795  as  the  designation 
of  a  political  party  by  the  Protestants,  who 
formed  loyal  associations  in  opposition  to  the 
society  of  United  Irishmen,  organized  in  1791 
for  the  purpose  of  creating  an  insurrection, 


ORANGE  RIVER 


t    729    3 


ORDEALS 


and  establishing  a  republic  in  connection  with 
France.  (See  BELFAST.) 

ORANGE  RIVER  (Africa).  —  A  district, 
watered  by  a  river  of  this  name,  was  made 
British  territory  after  the  suppression  of  the 
Caffre  rebellion,  in  1848.  It  was  erected  into 
a  free  state  in  1854.  A  missionary  bishop  was 
appointed  in  1863. 

ORANGE-TREE,  introduced  into  Europe  by 
the  Moors,  was  cultivated  at  Seville  towards 
the  end  of  the  i2th,  and  at  Palermo  and  Rome 
in  the  isth  century.  It  is  also  said  to  have 
been  brought  from  China  to  Portugal  in  1547. 
Oranges  are  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  England 'by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  i6th  century  orange-trees 
were  planted  at  Beddington,  in  Surrey,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  they  had 
attained  the  height  of  18  feet.  They  were 
destroyed  by  frost  in  1739.  The  Syringa,  or 
mock  orange,  was  brought  from  the  south  of 
Europe  before  1596.  The  duty  on  oranges  was 
repealed  in  1860. 

ORATIONS.— (-See  FUNERALS  and  FUNERAL 
RITES.) 

ORATORIANS,  Fathers  or  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  a  society  for  the  exercise  of  devo- 
tion with  religious  study,  was  founded  in  Italy 
by  Philip  Neri  (July  21,  1515 — May  26,  1595)  in 
1550,  and  called  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
It  received  the  public  approval  of  Gregory 
XIII.  in  1577.  It  took  the  name  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Priests  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus, 
and  the  rule  framed  by  the  Fathers  was  ap- 
proved by  Paul  V.,  Feb.  21,  1612.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  chapel  or  oratory  built  by 
Neri  at  Florence.  The  French  society  of 
Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  the  Holy  Jesus  was 
instituted  by  Peter  de  Berulle  in  1613.  Dr.  New- 
man introduced  the  Congregation  into  England 
in  1847. 

ORATORIO.  —  Some  composition  of  this 
kind  was  known  in  the  Church  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  though  the  modem  oratorio  is  generally 
believed  to  have  originated  in  Italy  about 
1540.  Oratorios  were  introduced  into  England 
by  Handel  in  1720,  but  were  not  performed  in 
public  till  1732.  They  were  so  successful  that 
in  1737  they  were  performed  twice  a  week 
during  the  season  of  Lent.  Handel's  "Mes- 
siah" appeared  in  1741  ;  Haydn's  "Creation" 
in  1798;  Mendelssohn's  "St.  Paul"  Sep.  20, 
1837;  and  his*" Elijah"  Aug.  26,^1846.  (See 
HANDEL  COMMEMORATIONS.) 

ORBAZZANO.— (See  MARSAILLE,  Battle.) 

ORCADES  (North  Sea).  —  Ancient  writers 
represent  this  group,  at  the  extreme  north  of 
Britannia,  to  consist  of  between  30  and  40 
small  islands,  supposed  to  be  the  modern 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands  (q.  v.).  Agricola 
is  said  to  have  discovered  them  in  84. 

ORCHARD  HOUSES,  for  growing  fruit,  were 
introduced  into  England  by  Rivers  about  1849. 

ORCHARDS,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ort- 
geard,  or  wyrt-yard,  existed  in  this  country 
in  ancient  times  as  appendages  to  monastic 
establishments,  yet  do  not  seem  to  have  become 
general  before  the  beginning  of  the  iyth 
century. 

ORCHESTRION. —A  musical  instrument, 
invented  in  France  by  the  Abb£  Vogler,  in 


1789.  Kunz,  a  Bohemian,  gave  the  same  name 
to  an  instrument  invented  by  him  in  1796. 

ORCHIAN  LAW.— A  sumptuary  law,  pro- 
posed B.C.  181,  by  Orchius  (whence  its  name), 
one  of  the  tribunes,  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  senate.  It  limited  the  number  of  guests 
at  any  entertainment,  ordering  the  doors  of 
the  house  to  be  left  open  during  the  meal,  to 
guard  against  any  infringement  of  the  law. 

ORCHOMENUS  (Arcadia). —  This  city  was 
built,  according  to  Pausanias,  by  a  son  of  Ly- 
caon  ;  and  the  kings  of  Orchomeiius  are  said 
to  have  ruled  over  the  greater  part  of  Arcadia. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  Lacedae- 
monians left  the  hostages  they  had  taken  from 
the  Arcadians  in  Orchomenus.  The  people 
were,  however,  compelled  to  surrender  them 
to  the  Athenians,  B.C.  418.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Cassander  B.C.  313,  in  the  war  waged 
by  him  against  Polysperchon. 

ORCHOMENUS  (Bceotia),  called  the 
Minyaaan  Orchomenus,  to  distinguish  it  from 
Orchomenus  in  Arcadia,  was  capital  of  the 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Minya?,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Boeotian  confederacy  60  years 
after  the  Trojan  war.  It  continued  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Thebans  until  war  broke  out 
between  Sparta  and  Thebes,  B.C.  395,  when 
Orchomenus  assisted  the  Spartans.  At  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas  (q.  v.),  B.C.  387,  Thebes 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  Orchome- 
nus. After  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (q.  v.},  B.C. 
371,  the  Thebans  became  undisputed  masters 
of  Bosotia,  and  burned  Orchomenus  to  the 
ground,  killed  all  the  male  inhabitants,  and 
sold  the  women  and  children  into  slavery, 
B.C.  368.  It  was  rebuilt  during  the  Phocian 
war  (B.C.  357—8.0.  344).  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  Sacred  war,  B.C.  346,  Philip  II.  gave 
Orchomenus  to  its  old  enemy  Thebes,  and  the 
people  destroyed  the  city  a  second  time,  and 
sold  all  its  inhabitants  as  slaves.  After  the 
battle  of  Chseronea  (q.  v.),  in  which  the 
Thebans  and  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  B.C. 
338,  it  was  rebuilt  by  order  of  Philip  II.,  but 
it  never  regained  its  former  importance. 

ORDEALS,  or  God's  judgments,  are  of  great 
antiquity,  some  writers  being  of  opinion  that 
the  jealousy-offering  mentioned  in  Numbers  v., 
B.C.  1496,  is  a  test  of  this  kind.  Ordeal  of  fire 
was  known  to  the  Greeks,  and  was  practised 
by  the  Brahmins.  Blackstone  says  :  "  The 
most  ancient  species  of  trial  was  that  by 
ordeal ;  which  was  peculiarly  distinguished  by 
the  appellation  of  Judicium  Dei,  and  some- 
times Vulgaris  Purgatio,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  canonical  purgation,  which  was  by  the 
oath  of  the  party."  The  trial  by  ordeal  in 
England  was  of  two  sorts,  either  fire  ordeal  or 
water  ordeal.  Fire  ordeal  was  performed, 
either  by  taking  up  in  the  hand  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron,  of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds  weight ; 
or  else  by  walking  barefoot  and  blindfold,  over 
nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  laid  lengthwise  at 
unequal  distances ;  and,  if  the  party  escaped 
being  hurt,  he  was  adjudged  innocent :  but  if 
it  happened  otherwise,  as  without  collusion  it 
usually  did,  he  was  then  condemned  as  guilty. 
Water  oi'deal  was  performed,  either  by  plung- 
ing the  bare  arm  up  to  the  elbow  in  boiling 
water,  and  escaping  unhurt  thereby;  or  by 


ORDERS 


[     730    ] 


ORGAN 


casting  the  person  suspected  into  a  river  or 
pond  of  cold  water,  and  if  he  floated  without 
any  action  of  swimming,  it  was  deemed  an 
evidence  of  his  guilt,  but  if  he  sank  he  was 
acquitted.  There  were  several  other  species 
of  ordeal  in  use  in  different  countries.  Notice 
of  ordeals  in  England  first  occurs  in  the 
laws  of  Ina,  King  of  Wessex  (688  —  727). 
This  mode  of  punishment  was  formally  abo- 
lished by  Henry  III.  in  1218,  when  Trial  by 
Battel  (q.  v.). 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL,  provoked  by  Napo- 
leon I.'s  Berlin  decree  (q.  v.),  were  issued  by 
the  English  Government  Jan.  7  and  Nov.  n, 
1807.  They  prohibited  trading  to  any  ports 
under  the  influence  of  France.  These  orders, 
which  led  to  several  discussions  in  Parliament, 
were  revoked,  as  far  as  the  United  States  were 
concerned,  June  23,  1812,  and  were  altogether 
repealed  in  1814. 

O  R  D  I  N  A  L .  —  (See  COMMON  PRAYER  and 

ORDINATION.) 

ORDINANCES.  — French  laws  were,  after 
the  reign  of  Philip  IV.,  orthe  Fair  (1285 — 1314), 
usually  styled  ordinances.  Louis  XIV.  (1643 — 
1715  ordered  a  collection  of  these  ordinances 
to  be  published,  and  the  first  volume  appeared 
in  1723.  The  ordinances  of  Charles  X.,  which 
led  to  the  expulsion  from  France  of  the  elder 
Bourbons,  appeared  in  the  Moniteur  July  25, 
1830.  During  the  great  rebellion,  the  more 
important  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  settled 
by  ordinances.  (See  SELF-DENYING  ORDINANCE.) 

ORDINATION  for  the  ministry  was  insti- 
tuted by  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Apostles. 
Forcible  ordinations  were  common  in  the  4th 
century,  and  the  only  mode  by  which  a  person 
could  evade  the  designs  of  a  bishop  or  congre- 
gation who  thought  him  fit  for  the  office,  was 
by  swearing  that  he  would  not  be  ordained. 
In  the  sth  century  troublesome  politicians  and 
even  sovereigns  were  disqualified  from  taking 
part  in  public  affairs  by  being  ordained. 
Avitus  in  456,  and  Glycerins  in  475,  were  set 
aside  in  this  manner.  All  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  ordination  were  abolished  by  the 
ordinal  of  1550.  It  was  revised  in  1661. 

ORDNANCE.  —  As  early  as  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  (1216 — 72)  the  military  stores  of  the 
country  were  vinder  the  charge  of  an  officer 
called  the  "  Balistarius,"  or  "  keeper  of  the 
cross-bows."  This  office  was  abolished  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 61).  The  master  of 
the  kings  ordnance  was  first  appointed  about 
1461.  The  office  was  formerly  conferred  for 
life,  and  was  so  bestowed  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
on  the  Earl  of  Essex,  March  29,  1596.  The 
last  master-general  appointed  for  life  was  Sir 
William  Compton,  who  assumed  the  office 
Jan.  22,  1660.  The  master-general,  with  sur- 
veyor-general and  other  officers,  constituted 
the  Board  of  Ordnance.  The  letters  patent  of 
the  master-general  of  the  ordnance  were  re- 
voked May  25,  1855,  when  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  the  army  was  vested  in  the  secretary 
of  war.  The  Ordnance  Office  was  built  in 
1767. 

ORDNANCE  SURVEY.— The  trigonometri- 
cal survey  (q.  v.)  of  England  was  commenced 
in  1 784,  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  ob- 
servatory at  Greenwich  with  the  French  arc 


of  the  meridian  at  Paris.  This  led  to  the 
great  undertaking  of  a  general  survey  of  the 
British  Isles,  begun  in  1791.  The  ordnance 
survey  of  Ireland  commenced  in  1824,  of 
s  •:  >t  iMid  in  1809,  and  the  great  survey  of  India 
in  1804. 

OREBRO,  or  OEREBRO  (Sweden).  —  A 
.national  council  assembled  here  in  1529  abo- 
lished the  Roman  Catholic  and  adopted  the 
Lutheran  system.  Here,  in  1540,  the  act  of 
succession  in  favour  of  Gustavus  I.  ;Vasa) 
originated.  It  was  confirmed  at  Westeras  in 

1542.  The  castle  was  built  in  the  i3th  century. 
Bernadotte    was    elected     Crown    Prince     of 
Sweden  at  Orebro  in   1810,   and  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  here  between  Great  Britain 
and  Sweden,  July  18,  1812.      It  consisted  of 
four  articles,  and  was  ratified  by  the  Prince 
Regent  of  England  Aug.  4,  and  by  the  King  of 
Sweden  Aug.  17. 

OREGON  (N.  America)  is  said  to  have  been 
visited  by  the  Spaniard  Bartolomi  Ferrelo,  in 

1543.  Sir  Francis  Drake  touched  here  in  1579  ; 
Capt.  Gray,  an  American  trader,  sailed  along 
part  of    the   coast  in   1789;    Capt.    Baker,  an 
Englishman,  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Colum- 
bia,  or  Oregon    River,   in  1792  ;    and    Lieut. 
Kroughton,    R.N.,    sailed    100  miles    up    the 
river,  taking  formal  possession  in  the  name  of 
George  III.,  1111792.    A  dispute  having  arisen 
between  Spain  and  England  as  to  the   sove- 
reignty, both  countries  relinquished  exclusive 
possession  by  the   convention  of   Madrid,    in 
1791,  when  Nootka  Sound  was  ceded  to  Eng- 
land.     An    American    company,    formed    by 
Astor,  of  New  York,  made  a  settlement  at  a 
point  in  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  which  was 
named  Astoria,   March  24,   1810.     It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  in  1814.     The  United 

iovernmeiit  laid  claim  to  the  territory, 
and  after  much  negotiation,  it  was  agreed  by 
treaty,  June  12,  1846,  that  the  United  States 
should  possess  up  to  49°  N.  latitude,  leaving 
free  to  England  the  navigation  of  the  Columbia. 
Oregon,  constituted  a  territory  by  act  of  con- 
gress, Aug.  14,  1848,  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  in  1859. 

OREL  (Russia),  the  chief  town  of  a  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name,  founded  in  1566, 
first  rose  into  importance  during  the  i7th 
century.  It  has  been  several  times  assailed. 
A  great  part  was  destroyed  by  fire  June  7, 
1848. 

ORELLANA.— (See  AMAZON.) 

ORENBURG  (Russia),  the  chief  town  of  a 
government  of  the  same  name  on  the  river 
Ural,  was  founded  in  1742. 

ORFAH.— (See  EDESSA.) 

ORGAN. — An  instrument  of  an  inferior  kind 
was  in  use  at  a  very  early  period.  Athenjeus 
says  the  organ  was  invented  by  Ctesibius,  a 
native  of  Alexandria,  B.C.  150 — 120.  Other 
authorities  assert  that  it  was  used  in  Spain  as 
early  as  450  ;  that  Pope  Vitalian  invented  it  in 
660,  and  that  the  first  organ  erected  in  France 
was  in  the  church  of  St.  Corneille,  at  Com- 
piegne,  in  757.  Theophilus,  a  monk,  wrote  a 
treatise  on  organ  building  in  the  nth  century. 
According  to  the  best  authorities,  the  organ 
did  not  assume  its  present  form  until  the  isth 
century.  Bingham  contends  that  the  use  of 


ORGANO-LYRICON 


[     73t     ] 


ORLEANS 


organs  was  introduced  into  the  Church  after 
the  time  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (1224 — March  7, 
1274).  According  to  his  view,  Marino  Sanutus, 
who  nourished  about  1300,  first  introduced 
wind  organs  into  churches,  whence  he  was 
surnamed  Torcellus,  the  Italian  term  for  an 
organ.  Bingharn  shows  that  the  story  of  the  in- 
vention by  Pope  Vitalianis  unworthy  of  credit. 

ORGANO-LYRICON,  a  musical  instrument 
invented  by  M.  de  St.  Pern  at  Paris,  in  1810. 

ORIEL  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded, 
under  the  name  of  St.  Mary's  House,  by 
Edward  II.,  Dec.  6,  1324,  at  the  instigation  of 
his  almoner,  Adam  de  Brome,  who  became  its 
first  provost  in  1326.  Edward  III.  granted  the 
college,  in  1327,  a  large  messuage,  called  La 
Oriole,  to  which  it  was  removed,  and  from 
which  it  takes  its  name.  The  south  and  west 
sides  were  rebuilt  in  1620,  and  the  north  and 
east  between  1637  and  1642.  The  first  library 
was  built  in  1444,  and  lasted  till  the  rebuilding 
of  part  of  the  college  in  1637.  In  1372  the 
students  obtained  a  licence  for  a  chapel  within 
their  premises,  which  was  built  at  the  expense 
of  the  Earl  of  Arundel.  This  chapel  was 
pulled  down  in  1620,  and  the  new  edifice  was 
finished  in  1642.  Carter's  Building  was 
erected  in  1729.  The  library  was  commenced 
in  1788,  and  the  college  was  enlarged  in  1817. 
Great  changes  were  made  in  the  constitution  of 
the  college  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  81  (Aug.  7,  1854). 

ORIENTAL  CLUB  (London)  was  founded 
by  Sir  John  Malcolm  in  1824. 

ORIFLAMME,  or  AURIFLAMMA,  of  St. 
Denis,  or  royal  banner  of  France,  was  borne  at 
the  head  of  the  French  armies  from  the  i2th 
to  the  isth  century.  Fabian,  quoting  a  de- 
scription from  Robert  Gaguin,  whom  Erasmus 
calls  a  discreet  historiographer,  says  it  was  "  a 
cloth  of  red  silk,  which  was  named  the  auri- 
flamme,  and  borne  for  a  banner  in  the  field 
against  the  barbarian  or  heathen  people,  by 
virtue  whereof  the  French  princes  won  many 
victories  ;  but  after,  when  this  precious  relic, 
or  aurifiamme,  was  borne  against  Christian 
princes,  the  virtue  thereof  ceased,  and  was  at 
length  lost,  but  yet  the  like  thereof  is  kept 
at  St.  Denys,  and  had  in  great  reverence  of 
the  bishops  and  abbots  of  the  same  place." 
Louis  VI.  (the  Fat)  used  it  for  the  first  time  as 
a  royal  standard  in  his  war  against  Henry  I.  of 
England,  in  1424,  and  he  afterwards  took  it 
from  the  altar  of  St.  Denis  whenever  he  went 
on  an  expedition  ;  and  Louis  VII.  of  France 
took  it  with  him  in  the  second  crusade,  in  1148. 
Fabian  relates  that  it  was  borne  by  the  French 
in  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  in  1356  ;  and  it  is  said 
to  have  been  borne  in  battle  for  the  last  time 
by  Louis  XI.  at  the  battle  of  Montlhery  (q.  v.~), 
July  16,  1465.  It  was  comprised  in  an  in- 
ventory of  the  treasury  of  St.  Denis  made  in 

ORIGENISTS.— The  supporters  of  Origenes, 
or  Origen,  a  Christian  father,  born  in  Egypt 
in  184  or  185.  He  was  ordained  a  presbyter  at 
Caesarea,  in  Palestine,  in  228,  and  he  died  in 
253.  In  the  4th  century  a  great  controversy 
arose  respecting  Origen,  whose  name,  in  spite 
of  his  various  erroneous  opinions,  had  always 
been  held  in  veneration.  The  orthodox  con- 
demned his  writings  in  378.  Justinian  I. 


issued  an  edict  against  the  Origenists  in  544, 
and  they  were  condemned  by  the  second 
council  of  Constantinople,  being  the  fifth  gen- 
eral council,  May  4 — June  2,  553. 

ORIHUELA  (Spain).— The  Romans  are  sup- 
posed to  have  had  a  station  at  this  town. 
Though  it  was  not,  as  some  writers  assert,  the 
ancient  Orcelis,  it  might  have  been  the  ancient 
Thiar.  The  Moors  took  it  in  713,  and  it  was 
finally  wrested  from  them  by  Jayme  I.  of 
Aragon  in  1265.  It  was  sacked  in  1520,  and 
has  suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of  war, 
inundations,  and  plagues.  An  earthquake  did 
considerable  damage  March  21,  1829.  It  was 
made  a  bishopric  March  23,  1 566.  The  univer- 
sity, established  in  1568,  was  suppressed  in 
1835.  The  episcopal  palace  and  the  theological 
seminary  of  San  Miguel  were  both  founded 
in  1733.  The  poor-house,  founded  in  1743,  was 
enlarged  in  1818.  The  hospital  was  founded  in 
1764,  and  the  cathedral  was  extended  in  1829. 

ORION. — A  steam-ship  thus  named,  plying 
between  Glasgow  and  Liverpool,  was  lost  on 
the  rocks  near  Portpatrick  lighthouse,  June  18, 
1850,  when  about  100  passengers  perished. 

ORISSA,  or  ORIXA  (Hindostan).  —  This 
ancient  kingdom  existed  as  early  as  473.  It 
fell  under  the  Mongol  yoke  in  1558,  and  the 
country  was  wrested  from  its  Hindoo  princes 
by  Akbar  in  1592.  The  English  received  per- 
mission to  trade  to  Piplee,  in  Orissa,  in  1634. 
Clive  captured  it  in  1755,  and  the  East  India 
Company  were  empowered  to  receive  the 
revenues  of  Orissa,  Bahar,  and  Bengal,  by  the 
treaty  of  Allahabad,  Aug.  12,  1765.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  English  in  1803.  The  inhabitants 
suffered  from  famine  in  1866. 

ORIZABA  (Mexico).— The  peak  of  Orizaba, 
an  extinct  volcano  near  the  town  of  the  same 
name,  was  explored  by  Lieut.  Reynolds  iu 
1848.  (See  MEXICO.) 

ORKNEY  (Bishopric),  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  Columba,  or  St.  Servianus,  in 
the  6th  century,  was  suppressed  in  1689.  The 
earliest  authentic  date  connected  with  this  see 

^ORKNEY  and  SHETLAND  ISLES,  or 
ORCADES  (North  Sea),  originally  peopled  by 
Scandinavians,  were  seized  by  the  Scotch 
in  889.  The  Norwegians  conquered  them  in 
1098,  and  held  them  till  1263,  when  they 
were  driven  out  by  Alexander  III.  The  islands 
were  afterwards  retaken  by  the  Danes. 
James  III.  of  Scotland,  who  married  Margaret, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  in  1469, 
received  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles  as  her 
dowry,  and  they  have  since  remained  part  of 
Scotland.  The  harvest  was  destroyed  by  a 
hurricane  in  1778.  A  lighthouse  was  built  in 
1806  on  the  Point  of  Start.  Some  ancient 
relics  of  the  early  Scandinavian  or  Scottish 
kings  were  discovered  in.  these  islands  April  6, 
1858. 

ORLEANS  (France),  the  Genabum  of  the 
Romans,  was  afterwards  named  Aurelianum, 
from  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  rebuilt  it  in  the 
2nd  century.  Caesar  mentions  an  insurrec- 
tion which  occurred  B.C.  52,  after  which  he 
burned,  the  town.  Attila,  who  besieged 
Orleans  in  451,  was  defeated  under  its  walls 
by  Jitius.  JEgidius  defeated  the  Visigoths  in 


ORLEANSVILLE 


[    732    ] 


ORSINI 


a  battle  in  the  neighbourhood  in  463.  A 
council  was  held,  July  10,  511,  to  regulate 
ordination  and  the  use  of  litanies  ;  and  ano- 
ther, May  7,  538,  by  which  many  indignities 
were  inflicted  on  the  Jews.  Other  councils 
were  held  June  23,  533;  in  541 ;  Oct.  28,  549  ; 
in  638  ;  and  in  1022,  when  13  Manichfeaiis 
were  condemned  to  be  burned.  On  the  death 
of  Clotaire  I.,  in  561,  his  kingdom  was  divided 
among  his  sons,  and  Orleans  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Gontran.  The  Northmen  captured  it  in  855, 
and  again  in  865.  The  university  was  founded 
in  1309.  The  siege  of  Orleans  was  commenced 
by  the  English  Oct.  21,  1428.  Joan  of  Arc, 
called  the  Maid  of  Oileans,  relieved  the  city 
April  29,  1429,  and  the  siege  was  raised  May  8. 
She  was  taken  at  Compiegne  May  26,  1430, 
and  was  burned  at  Rouen  May  30,  1431.  The 
Etats-Generaux  assembled  here  Dec.  13,  1560, 
and  the  edict  of  Orleans,  abolishing  the  con- 
cordat, and  the  sale  of  offices,  appeared  Jan.  15, 
1561.  The  Huguenots,  under  the  Prince  of 
Conde"  and  Admiral  Coligni,  assembled  here 
in  1562.  Orleans  was  besieged  Feb.  24,  1563, 
by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  who  was  assassinated 
under  its  walls  by  Poltrot  de  Mere".  The 
struggle  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  edict 
of  Amboise,  March  19,  when  the  two  parties 
united  for  the  purpose  of  wresting  Havre  do 
Grace  from  the  English..  The  cathedral  was 
begun  by  Henry  IV.  in  1601.  (See  BOURBONS, 
COLLATERAL  BRANCHES.) 

ORLEANSVILLE  (Algeria)  was  founded  by 
the  French  in  1843.  Bon-Maza  surrendered 
to  the  French  here,  April  13,  1847. 
ORLOFF  DIAMOND.— (See  DIAMOND.) 
ORMUS,  orHORMUZ  (Persian  Gulf). -The 
kings  of  Ormus,  celebrated  for  its  pearl-fishery 
and  great  wealth,  became  tributaries  of  the 
sultans  of  Kerman,  until  they  were  delivered, 
about  1505,  by  the  Portuguese,  who  took  pos- 
session of  this  island  in  1507.  They  were 
expelled  by  the  Persians,  assisted  by  the 
English,  in  1622.  The  disciples  of  Zoroaster 
took  refuge  in  its  caves,  and  were  afterwards 
called  Parsees  (g.  v.).  Milton,  in  "  Paradise 
Lost"  (b.  ii.),  alludes  to  its  reputation  for 
wealth — 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind." 

ORNAMENTED     GOTHIC.  —  (See    GOTHIC 

ARCHITECTURE.  ) 

ORNITHOLOGY.— Aristotle,  in  his  "His- 
tory of  Animals,"  B.C.  350,  gives  a  brief  .account 
of  birds  ;  and  Pliny  (23 — 79)  in  his  "  Natural 
History,"  in  72,  also  deals  with  the  subject. 
Pierre  Belon  wrote  upon  it  in  1551  ;  Conrad 
Gesner  of  Zurich  in  1555  ;  and  the  three 
volumes  of  Ulysses  Aldrovandus  appeared 
in  1559 — 1603;  Willughby's  "  Ornithologise 
Libri  tres"  was  published  posthumously  in 
1676,  and  Ray's  "Synopsis"  in  1713.  The 
first  edition  of  "  Systema  Naturae,"  by 
Limijeus,  was  published  at  Leyden  in  1735  ; 
Wilson's  "American  Ornithology,"  1808 — 1814  ; 
Cuvier's  "Animal  Kingdom"  in  1817;  and 
Latham's  "History  of  Birds"  1821 — 1824. 
The  Ornithological  Society  was  established 
in  1837,  and  the  Acclimatization  Society  was 
amalgamated  with  it  in  1866. 


ORONTES.  —  (See  HITTITES,  and  HOMS, 
Battle.) 

OROPUS  (Greece),  a  Boeotian  town,  was 
taken  at  an  early  period  by  the  Athenians, 
who  were  expelled  B.C.  412.  Some  of  the  in- 
habitants founded  another  town  of  the  same 
name,  farther  inland,  B.C.  402.  It  was  a 
frequent  source  of  strife  between  the  Boeo- 
tians and  the  Athenians  ;  and  it  was  given  to 
the  latter  by  Philip  II.  B.C.  338.  The  inhabi- 
tants recovered  their  independence  B.C.  318, 
and  Cassander  obtained  possession  of  the 
town  B.C.  312,  but  did  not  hold  it  long.  The 
inland  town  is  supposed  to  have  been  aban- 
doned soon  after  this  time. 

ORPHAN  INSTITUTIONS.  —  It  is  not 
known  when  asylums  for  the  maintenance  of 
orphans  were  first  established,  though  they 
existed  among  the  Romans.  Trajan  (98—117), 
the  Antonines  (138 — 180],  and  Alexander  Seve- 
rus  (222 — -235),  founded  several,  but  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  become  frequent  until  the 
introduction  of  Christianity.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  they  were  very  numerous,  espe- 
cially in  the  Netherlands.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  orphan  asylums  in  the  world  is 
that  established  by  A.  11.  Franke  at  Halle 
in  1698.  The  following  are  the  principal 
orphan  asylums  in  the  metropolis  and  its 
vicinity  : — 


A,D. 

I820. 
1758. 

1839. 

1837. 
1749- 

1837. 
1831. 
I8l3. 

18^7. 
1849. 

IS44. 

Sg 


Adult  Orphan  Institution,  Regent's  Park. 

Asylum  for  Friendless  and  Deserted  Orphan  Girls, 
Lambeth 

l!:iys\v;itcr  Kpisropal  Chapel  Female  Orphan  School. 

liritish  Orphan  Asylum,  Cluplmm  Rise. 

Incorporated    Clergy  Orphan    Society,    St.    John's 
Wood. 

Infant  Orphan  Asylum,  Wansti-ad. 

.lews'  Orphan  Asylum,  (iimdinim's  Fields. 

London  Orphan  Asylum,  ('lapton. 

Merchant  .Seamen's  Orphan  Asylum,  Bow  Road. 

National  (late  Cholera)  Orphan  Home,  Ham  Com- 
mon. 

New  Asvlum  for  Infant  Orphans,  Stamford  Hill. 

Orphan  Working  School,  H.iverstock  Hill. 

Sailors'  Orphan  Girls'  School  and  Home,   White- 
chapel. 

1786.  School  of  Industry  for  Female  Orphans,  St.  John's 
Wood. 

ORPHEONISTS.— A  party  of  3,000  arrived 
in  London  from  France  to  fulfil  a  musical 
engagement  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  June  24, 
1860. 

ORPHEUS  STEAMER.  —  H.  M.  S.  steam- 
corvette  Orpheus,  21  guns,  struck  on  a  sand- 
bank at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  of  Ma- 
iiukau,  New  Zealand,  Feb.  7,  1863,  and  soon 
after  foundered.  Commodore  Burnett,  C.B., 
23  officers,  and  166  seamen  and  marines,  pe- 
rished, only  70  being  saved  out  of  a  crew  of  260. 

ORRERY.— The  Chinese  are  said  to  have 
constructed  such  pieces  of  mechanism  to  illus- 
trate planetary  motion,  B.C.  2000.  Archimedes 
(B.C.  287—212)  constructed  one,  and  Posidonius 
B.C.  51.  Huyghens  (1629 — 1695)  attended  to 
their  construction  ;  and  Roemer  invented  one 
which  he  described  in  1705.  Graham  con- 
structed one,  which  was  presented  to  the  Earl 
of  Orrery,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name, 
about  1700.  The  Royal  Institution,  London, 
had  one  made  in  1801,  and  another,  on  a  much 
larger  scale,  by  Dr.  Pearson,  in  1813. 

ORSINI  CONSPIRACY.— This  attempt    t«> 


ORSINI  FACTION 


[     733     1 


OSTEND 


assassinate  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  and  the 
Empress,  on  their  way  to  the  opera  at  Paris, 
by  throwing  hand-grenades  at  the  carriage, 
was  made  Jan.  14,  1858.  Orsini,  Rudio,  and 
Fieri,  were  condemned  to  death,  and  Gomez 
to  hard  labour  for  life,  Feb.  26.  Orsini  and 
Fieri  were  guillotined  at  Paris,  and  Rudio's 
sentence  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude 
for  life,  March  13.  Dr.  Bernard  was  arrested  at 
Bayswater,  London,  Feb.  14  ;  and,  after  a  trial 
at  the  Old  Bailey  extending  over  six  days,  was 
acquitted  April  17.  Violent  addresses  against 
England,  from  the  colonels  of  the  French 
army  to  the  Emperor,  appeared  in  the 
Moniteur,  Jan.  27,  1858.  Lord  Palmerston's 
conspiracy-to-murder  bill  was  introdviced 
into  the  House  of  Commons  Feb.  8,  1858 ; 
and  defeated  on  the  second  reading  by  a  ma- 
jority of  19,  Feb.  19,  1858,  which  led  to  the 
resignation  of  the  Palmerston  (first)  adminis- 
tration. 

ORSINI  FACTION,  opposed  to  the  Colonna 
family,  .adherents  of  the  Ghibelline  party  at 
Rome,  joined  the  Guelphs  about  1200.  Their 
influence  declined  in  1280.  The  Orsini  and 
Colonna  factions  raged  at  Rome  in  1339. 

ORSOVA  (Turkey).— This  strongly  fortified 
town  of  Wallachia,  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1738, 
was  ceded  by  Austria  to  the  Porte,  Sep.i,  1739. 
The  Austrians  were  defeated  near  Orsova  by 
the  Turks,  Aug.  8,  1788,  when  the  victors  set 
fire  to  the  town.  New  Orsova,  which  forms 
part  of  Servia,  was  captured  by  the  Austrians, 
April  1 6,  1790. 

ORTEGAL  (Sea-fight).  —Commodore  Fox 
attacked  a  French  fleet  and  convoy,  amounting 
in  all  to  170  sail,  off  Cape  Ortegal,  June  20, 
1747.  The  ships  of  war,  being  fast-sailing 
vessels,  escaped,  but  48  merchantmen  were 
captured.  Their  gross  tonnage  amounted  to 
16,051  tons,  and  the  crews  to  1,197  men. 

ORTHES,  or  ORTHEZ  (France),  was  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  Beam  till  1460  ; 
and  of  Jeanne  d'Albret,  mother  of  Henry  IV., 
who  founded  a  Protestant  college  about  1^62. 
The  castle  of  Moncada  was  built  by  Gaston  de 
Foix  in  1240,  and  formed  for  two  years  the 
prison  of  Blanche  of  Navarre,  poisoned  by 
her  sister  in  1462.  A  year's  truce  was  con- 
cluded at  Orthes  by  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain  with 
Louis  XII.,  April  i,  1513.  The  governor,  Vis- 
count d' Orthes,  refused  to  obey  the  royal 
order  for  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
Aug.  24,  1572.  In  the  vicinity,  Sir  A.Wellesley 
gained  a  victory  over  Soult,  Feb.  27,  1814. 

ORVIETO  (Italy).— This  town,  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  since  509,  built  upon  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Herbanum,  possesses  one  of  the  finest 
churches  in  Italy,  founded  in  1290,  and  com- 
pleted in  the  i4th  century.  A  league  between 
the  Pope,  Venice,  and  Naples  against  the  Greek 
empire  was  concluded  here  in  1281.  It  was 
dissolved  by  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (q.  v.}  in 
128?. 

OSACA  (Japan).— Permission  was  given  to 
British  subjects  to  reside  here  for  purposes  of 
trade,  from  Jan.  i,  1863,  by  the  treaty  of 
Jeddo,  Aug.  26,  1858. 

OSBORNE  HOUSE  (Isle  of  Wight).— The 
original  name  of  this  manor  was  Austerborne. 
It  was  purchased  by  Queen  Victoria  from  Lady 


Isabella  Blatchford,  in  1845,  when  the  old  house 
was  pulled  down,  and  the  present  mansion 
erected  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Cubitt. 

OSCA.— (See  HUESCA.) 

OSCHOPHORIA.— A  festival  thus  named, 
from  the  practice  of  carrying  boughs  hung 
with  grapes,  was  instituted  at  Athens,  in 
honour  of  Minerva  and  Bacchus,  or  Ariadne 
and  Bacchus,  by  Theseus,  about  B.C.  1235. 

OSIANDRISTS.— The  followers  of  Andrew 
Osiander,  a  Lutheran,  who  was  deprived  of 
his  office  as  preacher  at  Nuremberg  in  1548, 
because  he  would  not  agree  to  the  Augsburg 
Interim.  Appointed  to  the  divinity  chair  at 
the  university  of  Konigsberg,  he  published,  in 
1550,  a  treatise,  "  De  Lege  et  Evangelic,"  in 
which  his  views  respecting  justification  gave 
offence.  Osiander  died  Oct.  17,  1552. 

OSIMO.— (See  AUXIMUM.) 

OSMA,  or  UXAMA  (Spain).— This  town, 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Alphonso  I.  of  Leon,  in 
746,  was  rebuilt  in  938,  and  fortified  in  1019. 
The  cathedral  was  founded  in  1232,  and  the 
university  in  1550.  The  see  was  established 
about  597. 

OSMIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  by 
Tennant  in  the  grains  of  native  platinum,  in 
1803. 

OSNABURG,  or  OSNABRUCK  (Hanover), 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Wittekindsburg,  was 
surrounded  by  walls  in  1082.  The  cathedral 
was  built  in  the  i2th  century,  and  a  council 
against  heretics  was  held  in  1538.  A  univer- 
sity, established  in  1632,  was  suppressed  in 
1633.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia  was  signed  at 
Osnaburg  and  Miinster,  Oct.  24,  1648.  Charle- 
magne founded  the  bishopric  of  Osnaburg  in 
780.  Since  the  peace  of  Westphalia  it  has  been 
held  by  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant 
bishop  alternately.  It  was  secularized  and 
united  to  Hanover  in  1802. 

OSSORY  (Bishopric),  regarded  as  the  most 
ancient  in  Ireland,  was  founded  by  St.  Kiaran, 
in  402,  at  Saighir,  or  King's  county,  and  was 
transferred  to  Aghabo,  or  Aghavoe,  in  1052, 
and  to  Kilkenny  in  1180.  According  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Church  Temporalities  Act, 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug.  14,  1833),  the  sees  of 
Ferns  and  Leighlin  were  united  to  Ossory  on 
the  death  of  Bishop  Elrington  in  1835. 

OSTEND  (Belgium),  from  a  small  village  in  the 
gth  century,  had  become  an  important  seaport 
about  i  loo.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  sea  in  1334. 
Having  been  rebuilt,  it  was  walled  by  Philip 
the  Good  in  1445 ;  and  fortified  by  the  Prince 
of  Orange  in  1583.  The  siege  by  the  Spaniards, 
commencing  in  1601,  terminated,  after  a  loss 
of  50,000  men  to  the  garrison,  and  80,000  to  the 
besiegers,  Sep.  20,  1604,  with  the  capitulation 
of  the  town.  It  again  capitulated  to  the  allies 
July  16,  1706 ;  was  ceded  to  the  Emperor  in 
1715  ;  and  surrendered  to  the  French  Aug.  15, 
1745.  The  French  took  possession  of  Ostend 
July  13,  1794  ;  and  the  English  assailed  it  un- 
successfully May  20,  1798.  It  was  given  up  by 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814.  The  town 
suffered  considerable  damage  by  the  explosion 
of  a  powder  magazine  in  1826.  The  railway  to 
Ghent  was  opened  Sep.  2,  1838. 

OSTEND  COMPANY,  for  carrying  on  trade 
with  the  East  Indies,  was  established  here  in 


OSTIA 


[     734 


OTTOMAN 


1719  ;  received  from  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
in  Aug.,  1723,  a  charter,  which  was  suspended 
in  1727.  The  company  was  dissolved  in  1731. 

OSTIA  (Italy)  was  founded  by  Ancus  Mar- 
tins B.C.  640,  and  exempted  from  military 
levies  B.C.  207.  Application  for  exemption 
from  naval  levies  was  also  made,  but  refused, 
B.C.  191.  A  squadron  in  its  harbour  was  de-- 
stroyed  by  Cilician  pirates  B.C.  67  ;  and  in  the 
civil  wars  the  town  was  taken  by  Marius  and 
given  up  to  plunder  by  his  soldiers,  B.C.  87. 
Claudius  I.  (41 — 54)  cut  a  new  channel  called 
Portus  Romanus,  or  Augusti.  It  declined  gra- 
dually, and  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  ruin  by 
827.  Another  town  having  been  erected  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  site  of  the  old  one, 
was  occupied  by  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples 
(1386 — 1414),  and  fortified  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1471 — 
i484),who  built  the  castle.  The  French  seized 
it,  and  were  driven  out  by  Pope  Julius  II., 
who  formed  a  "  holy  league "  against  them, 
Oct.  4,  1511. 

OSTRACISM.  —  This  mode  of  banishment 
among  the  Athenians,  at  first  for  a  term  of  10 
years,  afterwards  reduced  to  five,  is  said  to 
have  been  established  by  Cleisthenes,  B.C.  510. 
It  was  discontinued  B.C.  452. 

OSTROGOTHS,  or  EASTERN  GOTHS, 
with  the  other  branches  of  the  same  nation, 
took  possession  of  Dacia  in  270,  and  were  sub- 
jected by  the  Huns  in  376.  Their  king,  Theo- 
doric  the  Great,  served  under  the  Emperor 
Zeno  in  482  0^483,  and  from  Pannonia  marched 
with  all  his  tribe  into  Italy  in  489,  and  con- 
quered and  put  to  death  ( kloacer,  establishing 
his  authority  over  that  country  in  493.  The 
Ostrogoths  were  overthrown  by  Belisarius  and 
Narses  about  553. 

O  S  T  R  O  L  E  N  K A  (Battle).  —  The  Russians 
were  defeated  by  the  French  under  Marshal 

Oxidinot,  at  this  town,  in  Russia,  in  1807. 

The  Poles  gained  a  victory  over  them  at  the 
same  place,  May  26,  1831. 

OSTHOWNO  (Battles).— The  French  fought 
some  severe  battles  with  the  Russians  near 
this  town,  on  the  Dwina,  July  25,  26,  and  27, 

OSWEGO  (N.  America).— This  town,  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  the  Oswego  River,  was 
founded  in  1722.  A  fortress  was  built  on  the 
western  side  of  the  river  in  1727,  and  a  fort 
was  erected  on  the  opposite  bank  in  1755. 
They  were  both  captured  by  Montcalm  in  1756, 
and  were  afterwards  given  up  to  the  English, 
who  held  them  till  1795.  Oswego  was  taken 
by  the  English  May  6,  1814. 

OSWESTRY  (Shropshire),  anciently  called 
Oswaldstree,  is  said  to  have  been  named  after 
Oswald,  King  of  Northumbria,  killed  by 
Penda  in  the  battle  of  Maserfeld,  Aug.  5,  642. 
By  some  authorities  the  site  of  the  battle  is 
fixed  at  Winwick,  in  Lancashire,  and  by  others 
at  Oswestry.  Oswald  was  honoured  as  a  saint, 
his  day  falling  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death, 
Aug.  5.  Edward  I.  ordered  it  to  be  walled  in 
1277. 

OTAGO  (New  Zealand).— This  province  was 
settled  by  members  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  in  1848.  Gold  was  discovered  here 
in  June,  1861.  Dunedin,  its  chief  town, 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  1865. 


OTAHEITE  (Pacific  Ocean),  the  chief  of  the 
Georgian  or  Tahitian  Islands,  w.as  discovered 
by  the  Spaniard  Qiiiros  in  1606;  visited  by 
Capt.  Wallis  in  1767,  and  by  Cook  several 
times  between  the  years  1769  and  1778.  (8<>e 
BREAD-FRUIT  TREE,  and  MUTINY  OF  THE 
BOUNTY.)  Missionaries  arrived  in  1797,  and 
the  king,  Pomaree  II.,  embraced  Christianity 
in  1816.  By  a  treaty  with  the  queen,  Pomare, 
it  was  placed  under  French  protection,  Sep.  9, 
1843  ;  and  the  French  admiral  on  that  station 
asserted  the  complete  sovereignty  of  France 
over  it  in  Nov.,  1843.  This  led  to  a  remon- 
strance on  the  part  of  England,  and  his  pro- 
ceedings were  disavowed  by  the  government 
Feb.  29,  1844. 

OTCHAKOF,    or  OTCHAKOW.— (See  OCZA- 

KOW.) 

OTFORD  (Battle).— The  Kentish  men  were 
defeated  at  Otford,  by  Offa,  King  of  Mercia, 
and  his  army,  in  774. 

OTRANTO(Italy).— The  ancient  Hydruntum, 
or  Hydrus,  founded  at  a  very  early  period, 
probably  by  Greeks,  was  a  port  of  some  im- 
portance B.C.  191,  and  the  usual  place  of  pas- 
sage from  Italy  to  the  East  in  400.  .It  was  one 
of  the  last  cities  in  the  south  of  Italy  held 
by  the  Greek  emperors,  who  lost  it  in  the 
nth  century.  About  12,000,  being  more 
than  one-half  the  population,  were  slaugh- 
tered by  the  Turks  when  they  sacked  it  in 
1480. 

OTTAWA  (Canada),  founded  in  1827  and 
called  Bytown,  which  name  was  changed  to 
Ottawa  on  its  incorporation  as  a  city  in  1854, 
was  made  the  capital  of  Canada  in  1858. 

OTTERBURN,  or  CHEVY  CHASE  (Battle\ 
on  which  the  well-known  ballad  seems  to  bo 
founded,  was  fought  between  the  English, 
under  Henry  Percy,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Nor- 
thumberland, and  the  Scots,  commanded  by 
the  Earl  of  Douglas,  Aug.  10,  1388.  The  for- 
mer having  been  taken  prisoner  and  the 
latter  slain,  the  victory  remained  undecided. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE,  or  TURKEY.— This 
empire  was  founded  by  Osman,  the  son  of 
Ertoghrul,  "  The  Right-hearted  Man,"  whose 
name  has  been  corrupted  into  Othman,  or 
Ottoman.  Gibbon  (ch.  xlii.)  says  the  name 
Turks  (q.  v.)  first  became  known  in  Europe  in 
the  6th  century,  but  later  writers  believe  the 
Huns,  who  appeared  in  Europe  in  the  sth 
century,  to  have  been  Turks.  The  Ottomans 
style  themselves  Osmanlis.  Bajazet  I.  wa,-> 
the  first  who  took  the  title  of  sultan,  his 
predecessors  having  been  styled  emirs. 

A.D. 

258.  Birth  of  Othman,  or  Osman. 
299.  Othmnn,  or  Osman  I.,  murders  his  uncle  Deinclar, 

and  founds  the  Ottoman  empire. 
321.  The  Turks  enter  Europe,  and  ravage  Thrace  and 

Macedonia. 
326.  Death  of  Othman  I.,  who  is  succeeded  by  his  son 

Orchan. 
1337.  Orchan  makes  Bnjsa,  or  Boursa,  his  capital,  and 

completes  the  conquest  of  BittivMia. 

1329.  The  Janissaries  (q.  v.)  are  orfriiiii/.cil. 

1330.  The  Turks  conquer  Nicsca,  in  Bithynin. 

1333.  Orchan  forms  an  alliance  with  the  Greek  Emperor 

Andronicus  III.  (Prtlrcologus). 
336.  Korasi,   the   ancient  Mysia,    is  conquered  by  the 

Turks. 
338.  Caramania,  the  ancient  Phrygia,  is  reduced  under 

the  Turkish  yoke. 


OTTOMAN 


t     735     1 


OTTOMAN 


1346.  The  Turks  take  the  Morea  (q.  r.). 

1356.  The  Turks  make  their  first  ponnanent  settlement  in 

Europe,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace. 

1357.  Amurath  I.,  son  of  Orchan,  captures  Gallipoli. 
1360.  Amurath  I.  takes  Hadrianople. 

1363.  Amurath  I.  invades  Bulgaria. 
1360.  He  makes  Hadrinnople  his  capital. 
1376.  Kerman  is  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  dominions. 
1380.  Amurath  I.  purchases  the  territories  of  the  Emir  of 
Hamid. 

1388.  Part  of  Albania    is   brought   under  the  Ottoman 

yoke. 

1389.  June  15  or  Aug.  27.  Battle  of  Cossova  (q.  v.). 

1390.  Bajazet  I.  invades  Philadelphia,  in  Asia  Minor. 

1391.  Bajazet .  I.  conquers  Wallachia,  and  obtains  a  foot- 

ing in  Constantinople. 
1396,  Sep.  28.  Battle  of  Nicopolis  (q.v.).  Bajazet  I.  annexes 

1400,  Sep.  i.  War  commences  between  Bajazet  I.  and 

1403,  July  28.  Battle  of  Angora  (q.  v.). 

1403,  March.  The  death  of  Bajazet  I.  in  captivity  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  dismemberment  of  his  empire  by  his 
three  sons.  Soliman  establishes  his  govern- 
ment at  Hadrianojile,  Isa  at  Brusa,  and  Moham- 
med in  Amasia,  an'i  the  three  wage  civil  war. 

1419.  Mohammed  I.  annexes  Wallachia. 

1422.  The  Ottoman  empire  is  reunited  by  Amurath  II. 

1430.  Macedonia  is  conquered  and  annexed  by  Amurath 

1435—1437.  War  with  Venice. 

1440.  Amurath  II.  fails  in  an  attempt  to  capture  Belgrade. 

1442.  The   Turkish    army  is  almost  annihilated  at  the 

battle  of  Vasag. 

1443.  Scanderbeg  restores   Albania    to    independence. — 

Nov.  3.   Battle   of  Nissa   (q.  •».).— Dec.  24.   Battle 
of  Kunobitza  (q.  v.). 

1444.  July   12.   The   treaty  of  Segedin  (q.  ».).— Nov.   10. 

Battle  of  Varna  (q.  v.). 

1448,  Oct.  17-19.  Second  battle  of  Cossova  (q.  v.). 
1453,  May  29.  Constantinople  is  captured  by  Mohammed 

II.,  and  the  Eastern  empire  is  dissolved. 
1456.  Battle  of  Belgrade  (q.  v.). 
1460.  Greece  is  conquered  by  the  Turks. 
1463.  War  is  declared  against  Venice. 
1466.  Epirus  is  annexed. 
1472.  The  Turks  enter  Italy. 
1475.  The  Genosse  possessions  in  the  Crimea  are  seized  by 

the  Turks. 

1479,  Jan.  26.  Peace  is  restored  with  the  Venetian  Re- 

public. 

1480.  Mohammed  II.  takes  Otranto,  and  is  defeated  in  an 

attempt  upon  Rhodes. 
1484.  Spain  is  invaded  by  the  Turks. 
1499.  Aug.  Battle  of  Lepanto  (q.  v.). 
1503.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Venice,  whose  possessions 

on  the  mainland  of    Greece  are  ceded    to   the 

Turks. 

1513.  The  Janissaries  dethrone  Bajazet  II.,  and  confer  the 

sceptre  on  his  son  Selim. 

1514.  Battle  of  Shaldiran,  or  Kalderoon. 

1515.  Selim  I.  defeats  the  Persians  at  Khargandede,  and 

subdues  Mesopotamia  and  Kurdistan. 

1516.  Aug.  24.  Battle  of  the  Darik  (q.  v.). 

1517.  Selim    I.    annexes    Egypt    to  his  dominions,   and 

takes  Jerusalem. 

1518.  Selim  I.  conquers  part  of  Arabia, 

1521,  Aug.  20.  Soliman  I.,  the  Magnificent,  takes  Bel- 
grade. 


1522.  Soliman  I.  conquers  Rhodes  (q.  v,). 
1526.  Soliman  I.  assails  Austria  and  Hu 
Battle  of  Mehacs. 


ungary.— Aug.  29. 


1529,  Sep.  26 — Oct.  14.  Siege  of  Vienna. 

1=33.  Peace  is  restored  with  Austria  and  Hungary. 

1536.  Soliman  I.  forms  an  alliance  with  Francis  I.  of 
France  against  Charles  V. 

1539.  The  southern  parts  of  Arabia  are  subdued,  and  as 
unsuccessful  invasion  of  India  is  conducted  by 
Suleiman  Pasha. 

1541.  War  recommences  in  Hungary,  and  the  Turks  take 
Buda. 

1552.  Transylvania  is  made  tributary  to  the  Turks. 

1560.  Bajazet,  son  of  Soliman  I.,  rebels  against  his 
father. 

1571,  May  24.  Pius  V.  forma  a  Holy  League  against  the 
Turks. — Aug.  I.  The  capitulation  of  Famagusta 
completes  the  conquest  of  Cyprus. — Oct.  7.  Sea- 
fight  of  Lepanto  (q.  v.). 


1574.  Amurath  III.  signalizes  his  accession  by  the  murder 
of  his  five  brothers. 

1583.  Commercial  relations  are  first  established  with 
England. 

1589.  The  Persians  obtain  pence  by  ceding  the  provinces 
of  Georgia,  Azerbijan,  Shirwan,  and  Loristan  to 
Turkey. 

1595.  Mohammed  III.  succeeds  his  father,  and  murders 
his  19  brothers  and  the  concubines  of  his  father. 

1600.  Abd-al-Kulim  Karayasiji,  the  "Black  Scribe,"  com- 
mences a  formidable  revolt  in  Asia, 

1602.  The  Black  Scribe  is  defeated  and  slain. 

1603.  The  accession  of  Achmed,  or  Ahmed  I.,  is  memo- 

rable from  his  refusal  to  murder  his  brothers. 
1606.  Treaty  of  Litvatorok  (q.v.). 
1609.  Tobacco  is  introduced  into  Turkey. 
1618.  Georgia,  Erivan,  and  Tabriz  are  ceded  to  Persia. 

Mustapha  I.  is  deposed. 
1622.  Otlnnan,  or  Osman  II.,  is  murdered  by  his  subjects, 

who  restore  Mustapha  I. 
1632.  An  insurrection   of   the  Janissaries  is  suppressed 

with  great  cruelty. 

1635.  Amurath   IV.  murders  his  brothers  Bajazet  raid 

Soliman. 

1636.  Amurath  IV.  murders  his  brother  Kazim. 

1637.  Azof  is  taken  by  the  Cossacks. 

1638.  The  Turks  take  Bagdad  and  massacre  the  inha- 

bitants. 

1639.  v««  (?•  "•),  in  Armenia,  is  ceded  to  Turkey. 
1642.  Azof  is  recaptured. 

1615,  March.  War  is  declared  against  Venice. 

1664,  Aug.  i.  Battle  of  St.  Gotthard. 

1669.  Candia  (q.  v.)  is  taken  from  the  Venetians. 

1673,  Nov.  I.  Battle  of  Choczim  (q.v.). 

1678.  War  is  commenced  against  Russia. 

1681.  The  Ukraine  and  Cossack  territories  are  ceded  to 

Russia,  and  peace  is  restored. 
1683,  Sep.    12.  Vienna,  on  the  point  of  surrendering  to 

Mohammed  IV.,  is  relieved  by  John  Sobieski. 

1686.  Sep.  2.  Buda  is  retaken  by  the  Austrians. 

1687.  Mohammed  IV.  is  depose'd  by  his  brother,  Soliman 

1688.  Belgrade,  Bosnia,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia  are  wrested 

from  the  Turks. 

1690.  Belgrade  is  recovered. 

1691,  Aug.  19.  Battle  of  Salankeman  (q.v.). 
1697,  Sep.  II.  Battle  of  Szenta  (q.  v.). 
1699,  Jan.  26.  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (q.  v.). 

1703.  The  Janissaries  revolt  and  depose  Mustapha  II. 

1710.  The  Turks  declare  war  against  Russia. 

1711,  July  10.  Treaty  of  Falczi  (q.  v.). 

1713.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  is  made  prisoner  at 
Bender  (q.  v.). 

1715.  The  Turks  reconquer  the  Morea. 

1716.  The  Austrians  seize  Temeswar.    Battle  of    Peter- 

wardein  (q.  v.). 

1717,  Aug.  16  (N.S.).  Battle  of  Belgrade  (q.v.). 

1718,  July  21.  Treaty  of  Passarowitz. 

1726.  War  is  declared  against  Persia.  The  printing-press 
is  introduced  into  Turkey. 

1730,  Sep.  17.  Achmet,or  Ahmed  III.,  abdicates  in  favour 
of  his  nephew,  Mohammed  V.,  or  Mahmoud  I. 

1732.  Peace  with  Persia  is  restored  by  the  treaty  of 
Erivan,  which  cedes  all  the  territory  beyond  the 
Araxes  to  the  Sultan. 

1739,  July  22-  Battle  of  Krotzka.— Sep.  18.  Treaty  of  Bel- 
grade (q.v.). 

1743.  Turkey  is  recognized  by  the  great  powers  as  an  in- 
tegral portion  of  Europe. 

1749.  Insurrection  of  the  Wahabees  (q.  v.). 

1766.  Insurrections  break  out  in  Georgia. 

1768.  War  is  declared  against  Russia. 

1770.  Sea-fight  at  Tchesme.  AH  Bey  revolts  in  Egypt. 
The  Russians  take  Akermanu,  Azof,  Bender,  and 
Crim  Tartary. 

I773-  Tne  Egyptian  insurrection  is  quelled. —  June  19. 
Battle  of  Brailow  (q.  r.). 

1774,  July  21  (X.  S.).  Treaty  of  Kutschouc-Kainardji  (q.v.). 

1784,  Jan.  8.  Cession  to  Russia  of  the  Crimea  (q.v.). 

1787.  War  is  renewed  with  Russia. 

1788.  War  with  Austria  recommences. — Dec.  17.  Storming 

of  Oczakow  (q.v.). 

1790,  Dec.  22-  Storming  of  Ismail  (q.  v.). 
1792,  Jan.  o.  Treaty  of  Jassy  (q.  v.). 

1798.  War  is  declared  against  France.     (See  EGYPT.) 

1799.  An  alliance  is  formed  with  England.-^July  25-  Bat- 

tle of  Aboukir  (q.  r.). 
1801,  March  13  and  21.  Battles  of  Alexandria  (q.  v.). 


OTTOMAN 


[    736    ] 


OTTOMAN 


1802,  Jan.  25.  Peace  with  France  is  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris. 

1807,  Jan.  7.  War  is  declared  against  Russia.— Feb.  19. 

Sir  John  Duckworth  forces  the  passage  of  the 
Dardanelles  (q.  v.).— May  29.  Selini  III.  is  deposed 
by  Mustapha  IV. 

1808.  The  Janissaries  revolt  at  Constantinople  and  mas- 

sacre the  regular  troops. 
1810,  Sep.  7.  Battle  of  Battin  (q.v.). 

1812,  May  28.  Treaty  of  Bucharest  (q.  t).). 

1813.  A  Turkish  army  of  1 00,000  men  ravages  Servia. 
1818.  The  Wahabees  are  finally  subdued. 

1820,  Revolt  of  Ali,  Pasha  of  Albania. 

1821,  March.  Moldavia    and  Wallachia  rebel.— April  22 

(Easter  Sunday).  The  Christians  are  persecuted, 
and  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  is 
hanged  by  the  Turkish  mob.  (Sec  GREECE.) 

1822,  April  n.  The  Turks  take  Scio  (q.  v.),  and  massacre 

the  inhabitants. 

1823,  The  Greek  inhabitants  of  Pergamo  are  massacred. 

1824,  March  2.  Mehemet  Ali  revolts.— July  28.  Treaty  of 

Erzeroum  (q.  r.).— Oct.  7.  The  Turkish  fleet  is 
almost  annihilated  by  the  Greeks  at  Mitylene. — 
Nov.  23-  The  Turks  evacuate  Moldavia. 

1826,  June  15.   Massacre  of  the  Janissaries  (q.  v.). 

1827,  Oct.  20.  Sea-fight  at  Xavarino  (q.  r.). 

1828,  Jan.  5.   132  French   residents,   120  English,  and  85 

Russians,  are  expelled  from  Turkey. — April  26. 
War  is  declared  by  Russia. — May  20.  The  Em- 
peror of  Russia  heads  his  army  in  person. — .lune 
18.  Brailow  (q.  v.)  surrenders  to  the  Russians. — 
June  23-  They  seize  Anapa.— July  20.  They  gain 
the  heights  of  Schumla.— Aug.  24.  Battle  of 
Akhalzikh.— Sep.  8.  The  Turks  close  the  Ros- 
phorus. — Sep.  <).  The  Russians  take  the  fortress 
of  Bajazet.— Sep.  24.  They  take  Toprak-Knli.- 
Oct.  II.  Surrender  of  Varna  ('/.»>.). — Oct.  15.  The 
Russians  retire  from  Schumla  and  reeross  the 
Danube.— Oct.  18.  The  Russians  blockade  the 
Dardanelles.--  Oct.  30.  The  garrison  of  the  castle 
of  the  Morea  surrenders  to  the  French  general 
Motion. 

1829,  May  6.   The   Russians  again  cross  the  Danube.— 

June  II.  Battle  of  Kouleftscha.  —  June  3  -  Loss 
of  Silistria  (q.  v.).  Prince  Paskewitch  gains  a 
great  victory  over  the  I'asha  of  Erzeroum. — 
July  2.  Battle  of  Milliduse.— July  9.  Paskcwitch 
seizes  Erzeroum. — Inly  27.  Battle  of  Schumla.— 
Aug.  20.  The  Russians  occupy  Hadriauople. — 
Sep.  14.  Treaty  of  Iladrianople. 

1830,  April  23.  Turkey  acknowledges  the  independence  of 

Greece.— May  7.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  the 
United  States.— May.  Albania  rebels  against  the 
Porte. 

1831,  The  Albanian  Insurrection  is   suppressed,  the  first 

Turkish  newspaper  is  established,  and  the  cholera 
appears  in  the  country.  Mehemet  Ali  revolts  in 
Egypt,  and  invades  Syria. 

1832,  April  15.  War  is  declared  against  Mehemet  Ali.  (See 

SYHIA.) 

1833,  Feb.  18.  A  Russian  squadron  arrives  at  Constanti- 

nople to  assist  the  Sultan  against  Mehemet  Ali. — 
Feb.  21.  The  Porte  accepts  the  mediation  of  France 
to  arrange  its  disputes  with  Mehemet  Ali. — May  6. 
The  Porte  concludes  a  peace  with  Mehemet,  who 
is  declared  independent,  and  invested  with  the 
government  of  Syria  and  Adana. — July  20.  A 
treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  is  concluded  with 
Russia. 

1834,  A  regular  postal  system  is  established  in  Turkey. 

1838,  March  30.  The  office  of  grand  vizier  is  abolished.— 

Aug.  16.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with 
England  and  France. 

1839,  Mehemet  Ali  revolts  in  Syria  (q.  v.). 

1840,  July  15.  Treaty  of  London  (q.  i:). 

1842.  War  is  declared  against  Persia. 

1843.  Insurrection  in  Albania  (q.v.). 

1846,  April  30.    A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with 
Russia. 

1848.  Insurrections  in  the  Danubian  Principalities. 

1849,  April  30.  A  treaty  relative  to  the  government  of  the 

Danubian  Principalities  is  concluded  with  Russia. 
— Aug.  21.  The  Hungarian  generals,  Bern  and 
Kossuth,  take  refuge  in  New  ( >rsova.  (See  HUN- 
OAKY.)— Sep.  16.  The  Porte  refuses  to  surrender 
the  Hungarian  refugees  to  Austria  and  Russia. — 
Nov.  3.  The  Hungarian  fugitives  are  transferred 
to  Schumla, 


A.D. 

1849,  Nov.  4.  The  English  fleet  under  Sir  William  Parker 

arrives  in  the  Dardanelles.— Dec.  31.  Russia  re- 
sumes diplomatic  relations  with  Turkey,  which 
had  been  suspended  in  consequence  of  the  Hun- 
garian refugee  difficulty. 

1850,  April  6.  Austria  resumes  diplomatic  relations. 

1851,  Feb.  I.  Mustapha  I'asha  suppresses  an  insurrection 

in  Samos.— March  4.  An  insurrection  breaks  out 
in  Turkish  Croatia.— March  19.  Battle  of  Jayca. 

1852,  Feb.  14.  A  treaty  respecting  the  Holy  Places  '(q.  v.) 

of  Palestine  is  concluded  with  France. 

1853,  Feb.  28.  Prince  Menschikoff  arrives   at  Constanti- 

nople as  ambassador  extraordinary  from  the  court 
of  Russia,  to  insist  on  the  repeal  of  the  concessions 
made  to  Roman  Catholic  Christians  respecting  the 
Holy  Places. — May  5.  Menschikoff  presents  his 
ultimatum.— May  19.  The  Porte  concedes  some 
points  to  Russia. — May  21.  They  are  deemed  un- 
satisfactory, and  the  Russian  ambassador  quits 
Constantinople.— June  6.  All  Christian  nations 
receive  a  confirmation  of  the  privileges  and  rights 
granted  to  their  worship  in  Turkey. — June  26. 
The  r.i.iperor  of  Kussia  publishes  a  manifesto 
against  Turkey. — July  2.  A  Russian  army  of  occu- 
pation, under  Prince  Gortschakoff,  enters  the 
Danubian  Principalities.— July  14.  The  Porte  pro- 
tests against  the  occupation  of  the  Principalities. 
— Sep.  26.  A  grand  national  council  of  the  Turkish 
nation  insists  on  the  evacuation  of  the  Princi- 
palities.—t  Jet.  5.  War  is  declared  against  Russia. 
(See  RUSSIAN  WAB.) 

1854,  Jan.   28.    The  Greek  provinces  of  Epirus  and  Al- 

bania revolt. — March  14.  The  rebels  an;  assisted 
by  volunteers  from  Athens. — March  19.  The 
Porte  demands  that  the  Greek  Government 
should  prevent  its  subjects  from  aiding  the  Al- 
banian rebels. — March  21.  His  ultimatum  is  re- 
jected.—March  28.  The  Greek  ambassador  quits 
Constantinople.— April  22.  Abdi  I'asha  defeats 
the  Greeks  at  Damoko. — April  25  Osman  I'asha 
seizes  Peta,  the  head-quarters  of  the  insurrection. 
— May  26.  Greece  (q.v.)  promises  to  preserve 
strict  neutrality  in  the  Turkish  question. — June 
14.  A  convention  respecting  the  Danubian  Prin- 
cipalities is  signed  with  Austria,  and  she  agrees 
to  occupy  the  Principalities  with  her  troops  until 
the  conclusion  of  peace. — June  18.  The  insurgent 
camp  at  Kalabak  is  taken  by  Abdi  I'asha. — Sep. 
20.  The  Russians  evacuate  the  Principalities. 

1855,  March  15.    A  treaty  of  alliance  is  concluded  with 

Sardinia. 

1856,  March  30.    Peace  with  Russia  is  restored  by  the 

treaty  of  Paris. — May.  An  insurrection  breaks 
out 

1857,  Jan.  21.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Austria  for  the 

establishment  of  telegraphic  communication. 

1858,  Jan.  7.  Death  of  Rescind  Pasha.— May  23.  Death  of 

Abdi  I'asha. — June  15.  Massacre  of  the  Christian 
inhabitants  of  Jeddah  (q.  v.).  —  July  21.  The 
Montenegrins  are  defeated  near  Kostainizza. — 
July  28.  The  Montenegrins  seize  Kolaschin. — 
Aug.  1 8.  The  Sultan  adopts  important  financial 
reforms.— Nov.  8.  The  Montenegrin  boundaries 
are  fixed  by  the  commissioners  of  the  allied 
powers  at  Constantinople. 

1859,  July  31.  The  Christians  are  persecuted  in  Candia. 

— Sep.  17.  A  plot  against  the  Sultan  is  discovered 
at  Constantinople. 

1860,  May  5.  Prince  Gortschakoff  states  that  the  Chris- 

tians in  Turkey  are  again  subjected  to  ill  treat- 
ment.—May  30.  The  Turkish  Government  ex- 
amines the  charge. — June  i.  England  refuses  to 
interpose  in  favour  of  the  Christians,  such  inter- 
ference beingcontrary  to  the  treaty  of  Paris.— June 
3.  The  French  and  Russian  ambassadors  declare 
that  their  governments  are  satisfied  with  the 
conduct  of  Turkey  towards  the  Christians.  (See 
DRUSES  and  MAROXITKS.)— Oct.  23.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  Bulgarian  clergy  join  the 
Romish  communion. 

1861,  Jan.  28.  A  revolution  breaks  out  in  Herzegovina.— 

April  29.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with 
France. — May  16.  Omar  Pasha,  with  an  inter- 
national commission  of  foreign  consuls,  goes  to 
Herz  govina  to  restore  order. — June  5.  The 
French  evacuate  Svria.— June  2s.  Death  of  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Medj'id,  who  is  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Abdul  Aziz. 


OUDENARDE 


737  ] 


OVERTURES 


1861,  Sep.  I.  Omar  Pasha  commences  operations  agains 
Luca  Vukalovitch,  the  leader  of  the  insurgent 
of  Herzegovina  (q.  v.). 

1863,  May  23.  Ihe  Turks  invade  the  Montenegrin  terri- 
tory. (Sea  MONTENEGRO.) — June  15.  A  dispute 
breaks  out  in  Belgrade  between  the  Turks  and 
Servians.  (See  SERVIA.)— Sep.  5.  A  conventior 
is  concluded  at  Constantinople  by  Russia,  France, 
and  Turkey,  respecting  the  preservation  of  the 
Holv  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem. 

1863,  April  7.  The  Sultan  visits  Egypt  (q.  v.)  and  lands 

Alexandria. 

1864,  June  8.  I'riiice  John  Couza  of  Roumania  visits  the 

Borte.— Aug.  I.  An  amnesty  is  published  in 
favour  of  political  offenders.— Aug.  19.  Polish 
refugees  are  expelled  from  the  Ottoman  terri- 
tories.—Aug.  26.  The  peasantry  are  emancipated. 

1805,  Jan.  20.  Death  of  Mehemed  Pasha,  minister  of 
marine. — June  23.  Changes  take  place  in  the 
cabinet.— Aug.  The  cholera  (7.  v.)  breaks  out  and 
rages  with  great  violence. — Sep.  5 — 8.  A  fire 
destroys  about  15,000  houses.— Oct  I«.  Lord 
Lyons  arrives  as  British  ambassador. 

1866,  Feb.  13.  The  cholera  conference  at  Constantinople. — 
Aug.  9— Xov.  Revolt  in  Candia. 

OTTOMAN  RULEES. 

A.n.  A.D. 

1299.  Osman,    Othman,    or  1618.  Osman  II. 

Ottoman  I.  1623.  Mustaplia  I.  (again). 

1326.  Orchan.  1633.  Amtirath  IV. 

1360.  Amurath  I.  1640.  Ibrahim. 

1389.  Bajazet     I.,    Ilderim,  i6|3.  Mohammed  IV. 

or  The  Lightning.  1687.  Soliman  II. 

1403.  Soliman,*     Isa,     and  1691.  Ahmed,  or  Achmet  II. 

Mohammed.  1695.  Mustapha  II. 

1410.  Musa-Chclebi.  1703.  Ahmed,  or  Achmet  III. 

1413.  Mohammed  I.  1730.  Mohammed     V.,      or 
1431.  Amurath  II.  Mahmoud  I. 

1451.  Mohammed  II.  1754.  Osman  III. 

1481.  Bajazet  II.  1757.  Mustapha  III. 

I5'3.  Selim  I.  1774.  Abdul-Ahmed. 

1530.  Soliman  I.,  the  Mag-  17^9.  Selim  III. 

nificent.  1807.  Mustapha  IV. 

1566.  Selim  II.  1808.  Mohammed     VI.,    or 
1574-  Amurath  III.  Mahmoud  II. 

1595.  Mohammed  III.  1839.  Abdul-Medjid. 

1603.  Ahmed,  or  Achmet  I.  1861.  Abdul-  Viz. 
1617.  Mustapha  I. 

OUDENARDE  (Belgium),  surrendered  to  a 
force  of  French  and  English  in  1658,  was 
besieged  by  the  stadtholder  in  1674,  and  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  took  it  in  1706.  The 
French  were  defeated  here  July  u,  1708,  by 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  Prince  Eugene, 
when  Prince  George,  afterwards  George  II., 
distinguished  himself. 

OUDH,  or  OUDE  (Hindostan),  supposed  to 
be  the  ancient  Kosala,  the  earliest  seat  of  civi- 
lization in  India,  was  conquered  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans in  1195.  Baber's  army,  which 
had  been  sent  to  subdue  the  country,  was 
defeated  by  the  Affghans  in  1528.  It  was  con- 
quered by  Akbar  in  i559,  and  the  dynasty  of 
Saadat  Ali  established  in  1720.  An  action,  in 
which  the  English  were  victorious,  under 
Major  Hector  Munro,  was  fought  at  Buxar 
Oct.  23,  1764,  and  the  rulers  of  Oudh  became 
tributary  to  the  English.  A  treaty  with 
Warren  Hastings  was  concluded  in  1773  ;  and 
another,  which  resulted  in  the  spoliation  of 
the  Begums  and  the  subsequent  impeachment 
of  Hastings,  was  signed  Sep.  19,  1781.  The 
nuwab  was  deposed,  and  Saadat  II.  raised  to 
the  throne  Jan.  21,  1798,  and  Wajid  Ali  was 

*  Tlii.s  prince  is  sometimes  designated  Soliman  I.,  and 
the  other  two  of  the  name  respectively  Soliman  II.  and 


pensioned  off  with  ,£120,000  per  annum,  the 
territory  annexed,  and  the  title  of  king  abo- 
lished Jan.  i,  1856,  the  fact  being  announced 
by  official  proclamation  Feb.  7,  1856.  Oudh 
joined  in  the  mutiny  of  1857  (See  INDIA),  and 
its  pacification  was  announced  Jan.  25,  1850. 
(See  FYZABAD  and  LUCKNOW.) 

OULART  (Battle).— A  picked  detachment 
of  no  men,  chosen  from  the  North  Cork 
militia,  under  Lieut.-Col.  Foote,  attacked  the 
Irish  rebels  under  Father  John  Murphy  at  the 
hill  of  Oulart,  in  Wexford,  Whitsunday, 
May  27,  1798.  The  rebels  were  driven  from 
their  position  and  were  in  full  retreat,  when 
an  alarm  that  they  were  rushing  on  a  body  of 
cavalry  caused  them  to  turn  upon  their  pur- 
suers, who  were  all  slain  except  Col.  Foote,  a 
sergeant,  and  three  privates. 

OURIQUE  (Battle).— Near  this  small  town 
of  Portugal,  Count  Alphonso  Henriques,  with 
a  force  of  13,000  soldiers,  defeated  the  com- 
bined armies  of  five  Moorish  sovereigns, 
July  25,  1139.  The  five  leaders  of  the  infidels 
fell  in  the  action,  and  the  victorious  Alphouso 
was  immediately  hailed  King  of  Portugal 

OUR  LADY.—  (See  MERCY,  MONTESA,  MOUNT 
CARMEL,  OLIVETANS,  &c.) 

OUR  LADY  OF  BETHLEHEM  (Order).— 
A  military  order  which  Pius  II.  instituted, 
Jan.  18,  1459,  in  honour  of  the  recovery  of 
Lemnos  from  the  Turks.  It  again  fell  into 
their  power,  and  the  order  was  not  established 

OUZEL  GALLEY  SOCIETY  (Dublin). 
—The  origin  of  this  society,  for  deciding 
commercial  difficulties  by  arbitration,  was 
as  follows.  Early  in  1700  much  legal  per- 
plexity was  occasioned  by  the  case  of  the 
Ouzel  Galley,  a  vessel  in  the  port  of  Dublin, 
and  it  was  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  a 
committee  of  merchants,  who  decided  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all  parties.  A  permanent 
society  was  established  in  consequence,  which 
received  the  name  of  the  Ouzel  Galley 
Society,  in  1705.  Its  members  consist  of 
a  captain,  lieutenants,  and  crew,  elected 
from  the  most  respectable  merchants  of 
Dublin,  and  the  general  business  of  the  society 
is  transacted  at  periodical  convivial  meetings 

OVATION. —  The  first  ovation,  or  lesser 
triumph  among  the  Romans,  was  accorded  to 
Publius  Postumius  Tubertus,  after  his  victory 
over  the  Sabines,  B.C.  469.  It  received  the 
name  from  the  fact  that  a  sheep  was  sacrificed. 

OVERLAND  MAIL.  —  The  overland  route 
:o  India  via  Marseilles  was  established  in  1837. 
A  new  route  via  Trieste,  on  the  Adriatic,  was 
"ried  by  Lieut.  Waghorn,  under  whose  superin- 
tendence the  express  which  arrived  at  Suez 
Oct.  19,  1845,  reached  Alexandria  Oct.  20,  and 
was  by  him  conveyed  to  London,  where  it 
arrived  Oct.  31,  at  4.30  A.M. 

OVERSEERS  of  the  poor  were  appointed 
or  parishes  by  43  Eliz.  c.  i.  (1601),  and  for 
townships  by  13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  12  (i6«) 
See  BISHOP.) 

OVERTURES,  called  sinfonia  by  the  Ita- 
ians,  originated  in  France,  where  Lulli 
,l633— 87),  the  father  of  French  dramatic  music, 
assisted  in  giving  them  a  settled  form.  They 
were  introduced  into  concert-rooms  and  thca- 
res  abovit  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 


OVIEDO 


t     738    ] 


OXFORD 


OVIEDO  (Spain),  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  and  known  in  the  Middle 
Ages  as  Civitas  Episcoporum,  from  the  number 
of  bishops  who  took  refuge  in  it  from  the 
Mo«»rs,  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Froila  I.  in  759.  A  great  part  of  the  town 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1521.  The  fortress 
was  built  by  Alphonso  III.  in  912,  and  th« 
university  was  founded  by  Philip  III.  in  1604. 
The  church,  erected  in  the  gth  century,  was 
taken  down  and  the  cathedral  commenced  in 
the  i4th  century,  one  of  the  towers  having  been 
finished  in  1575.  The  library  was  founded  in 
1764  ;  the  provincial  hospital  in  1752  ;  and  the 
consolidated  hospitals  of  San  Francisco  in 

1837.       (.SW-  A.STURIAS.) 

OWENITES,  or  OWKNISTS.  —  The  name 
sometimes  given  to  English  Communists  (q.  v.) 
or  Socialists  (q.  v.},  from  Robert  Owen  .May 
14,  1771 — Nov.  17,  1858),  who  is  regarded  as 
their  founder. 

OWHYHEB.— (See  HAWAII,  or  OWIIVHI  i:. 

o.\  FOI;  i »  Bishopric).— This  see  was  founded 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  1541. 

'OX  l'< )  It  I )  <  )xfovdshire),  called  Oxnaford  by 
the  Saxons  ;md  Oxeneford  in  Domesday  Book, 
existed  as  early  as  the  8th  century.  It  was 
burned  by  the  Danes  in  1010.  Edmund  Iron- 
side died  here  Nov.  30,  1017,  and  Canute  held 
several  national  councils,  infusing  to  admit 
the  Normans,  it  was  stormed  by  William  I.  in 
1067.  It  sustained  a  three  mo7iths'  siege  from 
Stephen.  The  Kmpross  .Maud  made  her  escape, 
and  it  surrendered  Dec.  21,  1142.  The  great 
charter,  with  all  the  privileges  ami  lil> 
London,  was  granted  by  Henry  II.  '1154 — 1189). 
The  Mad  Parliament  assembled  here  June  n, 
1258.  John  .Hereford's  riot,  when  the  colleges 
and  halls  were  sacked  by  the  townsmen,  took 
place  in  1355.  Councils  were  held  in  1160, 
June  n,  1222,  Nov.  29,  1241,  in  1322,  Nov.  18, 
1382,  and  Jan.  14,  1409.  Henry  VIII.  made  it 
liis  residence  for  some  time  in  1518.  Queen 
Elizabeth  delivered  a  long  Latin  speech  on  her 
visit  in  1592.  Latimer  and  Ridley  suffered  at 
the  stake  Oct.  16,  1555,  and  Cranmer  March 
21,  1556.  After  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  Charles 
I.  took  possession  of  the  town,  Oct.  26,  1642. 
He  established  a  mint,  where  the  plate  of  New 
Inn  Hall  was  coined  for  his  use,  and  settled 
the  exchequer  here  Feb.  13,  1643.  Charles  I. 
also  summoned  a  parliament,  which  sat  from 
Jan.  22  till  April,  1644.  The  city  surrendered 
to  the  Parliamentary  forces  June  24,  1646. 
Parliament  met  here  Oct.  9,  1665,  during  the 
plague  of  London  (See  GAZETTE),  and  March 
91,  1 68 1.  The  family  of  the  Veres,  to  whom  it 
gave  a  title,  became  extinct  in  1702  ;  but  the 
title  was  revived  in  1711.  The  botanical  gar- 
den, the  first  in  England,  was  formed  in  1632  ; 
the  town -hall  was  erected  in  1753  ;  the  new 
county  hall  and  courts  in  1840. 

OXFORD  ADMINISTRATION.—  (See  HAR- 
LEY  ADMINISTRATION.) 

OXFORD,  or  ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES.— 
This  collection  of  relics  of  antiquity,  found  in 
the  island  of  Paros,  early  in  the  1 7th  century, 
was  purchased  by  Thomas,  Earl  of  Arundel,  in 
1624,  and  brought  to  England  in  1627.  It  con- 
sisted, when  entire,  of  37  statues,  128  busts, 
and  250  inscriptions,  besides  sarcophagi,  altars, 


fragments,  and  gems ;  and  having  been  dis- 
persed, the  remains  were  presented  to  the 
university  of  Oxford,  in  1667,  by  Henry 
Howard,  afterwards  Duke  of  Norfolk.  Another 
portion,  called  the  Pomfret  Marbles,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Oxford  in  1755.  Amongst  the  re- 
mains presented  by  Henry  Howard,  is  the 
Parian  chronicle,  which  contains  a  chronologi- 
cal compendium  of  the  history  of  Greece  from 
B.C.  1582  to  B.C.  355,  the  90  years  to  B.C.  264 
having  been  lost.  The  accuracy  of  these  tables 
has  been  questioned,  and  even  their  authen- 
ticity denied.  Clarendon  (ch.  i.  119!  .says  Of 
the  Earl  of  Arundel,  their  collector,  "lie  was 
willing  to  be  thought  a  scholar,  and  to  under- 
stand the  most  mysterious  parts  of  antiquity, 
because  he  made  a  wonderful  and  costly  pur- 
chase of  excellent  statues  whilst  he  was  in 
Italy  and  in  Rome  (some  whereof  he  could 
never  obtain  permission  to  remove  from  Rome, 
though  he  had  paid  for  them),  and  had  a  rare 
collection  of  the  most  curious  medals  ;  whereas 
in  truth  he  was  only  able  to  buy  them,  and 
never  to  understand  them." 

OXFORD  AND  (JAMB  RIDGE  BO  AT 
I;A<  !•;.  (&<  UNIVERSITY  P.OAT  RACE.) 

OXFOKD  AND  CAMIMIIKJK  CLUB  (Lon- 
don) was  founded  in  1829,  and  is  sometimes 
erroneously  called  the  Junior  University  Club 
('/•  '•-  • 

OXFORD'S  ATTEMPT.  —  Edward  Oxford 
fired  two  pistols  at  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince 
Albert  as  they  were  passing  up  Constitution 
Hill,  June  10,  1840.  He  was  found  guilty 
July  10,  and  being  insane,  was  imprisoned 
for  life. 

OXFORD  STREET  (London). —By  2  &  3 
Viet.  c.  80  (Aug.  24,  1839  ,  permission  was 
given  to  the  authorities  to  extend  this  street 
to  Holborn. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.— The  Britons  and 
Saxons  established  schools  of  learning  at  Ox- 
ford, which  were  restored  by  Alfred  the  Great, 
the  reputed  founder  of  the  university,  about 
879.  In  Alfred's  time,  the  institution  was 
styled  the  school  or  the  schools,  and  it  is  men- 
tioned as  the  university  in  a  deed  dated  1 190. 
Edward  III.  granted  a  great  charter  to  the 
students,  June  27,  1355,  and  their  privileges 
were  confirmed  by  a  charter  of  Henry  VIII.  in 
1510.  The  university  was  incorporated  by  13 
Eliz.  c.  29  (1570).  The  privilege  of  returning 
two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons  was 
accorded  to  the  university  by  letters  patent  of 
James  I.,  in  1604.  During  the  civil  war  the 
colleges  espoused  the  cause  of  Charles  I.,  and 
in  Jan.,  1643,  they  sent  their  plate  to  the  mint 
to  be  coined  for  his  use.  A  commission  of  in- 
quiry into  the  state  of  the  university  was 
issued  Aug.  31,  1850,  and  the  report  of  the 
commissioners  was  presented  April  27,  1852. 
The  constitution  of  the  university  was  changed 
by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  81  (Aug.  7,  1854),  which  was 
amended  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  3  (June  23,  1856). 
The  theatre,  by  Sir  C.  Wren,  was  founded  Jnly 
26,  1664,  and  opened  July  9,  1669.  The  first 
stone  of  the  museum  was  laid  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  June  20,  1855,  and  it  was  opened  in 
June,  1860.  The  difference  between  colleges 
and  halls  is,  that  the  latter  are  not  incorpo- 
rated. 


OXFORD 


[     739 


OYSTERS 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  colleges  anc 

A.D. 

halls,  with  date  of  establishment  :  — 

!75S)  i>ec.  30.    Vinerian,  Fellowship  and  Scholarships.— 

1853.  Five  Scholarships. 

COLLEGES. 
A.D.                                                    A.D. 

1825.  Dean  Ireland's,  four  Scholarships. 
1830.  Eldon,  Law  Scholarship. 

873.  University. 

1508.  Brasenose. 

1830  and  r86o.  Four  Boden  Scholarships. 

1263  and  1268.  Baliol. 

1516.  Corpus  Christi. 

1831.  Three  Mathematical  Scholarships.—  1864.  Increased 

1264.  Merton. 

1524.  Christ  Church. 

to  four. 

1314.  Exeter. 

1554.  Trinity. 

1831.  Two  Kennicott  Hebrew   Scholarships.—  1863.    Re- 

13-4. Oriel. 

I5S7*  St.  John's. 

duced  to  one. 

1340.  Queen's. 
1386.  New. 

1571.  Jesus. 
1613.  Wadhatn. 

1832.  Three  Pusey  and  Ellerton  Scholarships. 
I833i  Feb.  Two  Johnson's  Scholarships. 

1428.  Lincoln. 
1437.  All  Souls. 

1624.  Pembroke. 
1714.  Worcester. 

1863.  Three  Denver  and  Johnson  Scholarships. 
1834.  Hertford  Scholarship. 

1458.  Magdalen. 

1857.  Four  Taylor  Scholarships. 

1860.  Two  Burdett-Coutts  Scholarships. 

HALLS. 

A.D. 

1  269.  St.  Edmund's. 
1333-  St.  Mary. 
1393.  New  Inn. 

A.D. 

1487.  Magdalen. 
I547(shortly  after)  St.  Alban 
1855.  Litton's. 

(See  ASHMOLEAN  MUSEUM,  BAMPTON  LECTURES, 
BODLEIAN   LIBRARY,  CLARENDON  PRESS,  RAD- 
CLIFFE  LIBRARY,  &c.) 

1762-72.  Chancellor's    Prizes,   for    Latin    Verse,   English 

Essay,  and  Latin  Kssay. 
1810.  Xewdcgatc.  Kngli.-h  Verse. 
1825.  Ellerton,  Theological  ivssay. 
1835.  Two  Denver,  Theological  Essays.— 1863.  Merged  in 

Denyer  and  Johnson  Scholarship. 
1848.  English  I'oem  on  Sacred  Subject. 
1850.  Arnold,  Historical  Essay. 
1*55.  Stanhope,  Historical  Essay. 
1856.  Gaisford  Prizes,  Greek  Verse  and  Greek  Prose. 
1862.  Johnson,  Memorial  Prize  Essay. 

PROFESSORSHIPS. 

1503.  Margaret,  Divinity. 
1546.  Regius,  Civil  Law. 
1546.  Regius,  Divinity. 
1546.  Regius,  Greek. 
1546.  Regius,  Hebrew. 
1546.  Regius,  Medicine. 

1618,  Oct.  29.  Sedleian,  Natural  Philosophy;  commenced 

1621. 

1619.  Savilian,  Astronomy. 
1619.  Savilian,  Geometry. 

1631.  Whyte's  Moral  Philosophy. 

1622-  Caniden,  Ancient  History. 

1624.  Tomlins,  Anatomy. — 1858.  Annexed  to  Linacre, 
Physiology. 

1626.  Music. 

1636.  Laudian,  Arabic. 

1669.  Botany. 

1708.  Poetry. 

1724.  Lord  Almoner's,  Arabic. 

1724.  Regius,  Modern  History. 

1749.  Experimental  Philosophy. 

1755,  Dec.  30.  Vinerian,  Common  Law;  commenced  1758. 

1780.  Clinical. 

1795.  Rawlinsonian,  Anglo-Saxon. 

1798,  Jan.  36.  Aldrichian,  Anatomy;  commenced  1803. 

1798,  Jan.  36.  Aldrichian,  Chemistry;  commenced  1803. 

1798,  Jan.  26.  Aldnchian,  Practice  of  Medicine;  com- 
menced 1803. 

1825.  Political  Economy. 

1830.  Boden,  Sanscrit. 

1839.  Logic. 

1843.  Regius,  Ecclesiastical  History. 

1*4,'.  Uririns,  Pastoral  Theology. 

1842.  Exegesis  of  Holy  Scripture  ;  commenced  1847. 

1854.  Latin  Literature. 

1854.  Chichele,  Modern  History  ;  commenced  1863. 

1854.  Chichele,  International  Law  and  Diplomacy ;  com- 
menced 1859. 

1854.  Waynflete,  Chemistry. 

1854.  Waynflete,  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy. 

1854.  Linacre.  Physiology. 

1861.  Hope,  Zoology. 

UNIVERSITY  FELLOWSHIPS  AND  SCHOLARSHIPS. 

1647,  May  38.  Craven,  two  Scholarships. — 1649.  Com- 
menced.— 1819,  March.  Increased  to  five. — 1858. 
New  regulations  made,  and  increased  to  six. 

1715,  July.  Two  Radcliffe's  Travelling  Fellowships.  In- 
creased to  three  under  Act  of  1854. 


OXYGEN  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley, 
who  termed  it  Dephlogisticated  Air,  Aug.  i, 
1774,  and  by  Scheele,  who  called  it  Empyreal 
Air,  in  1775.  Lavoisier  made  a  series  of  ex- 
periments in  1789,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 

OyxeYRYNCHUS,     or     OXYRHNCHUS 

(Egypt). — The  name  is  derived  from  a  fish  of 
the  sturgeon  species,  worshipped  in  Egypt  in 
early  times.  This  town,  the  modern  Behneseh, 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishop  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury. The  first  bishop,  Theodore,  is  repre- 
sented in  372  occupying  the  episcopal  throne. 
According  to  Gibbon,  this  stately  and  po- 
pulous city,  the  seat  of  Christian  orthodoxy, 
had  devoted  the  temples,  the  public  edifices, 
and  even  the  ramparts,  to  pious  and  charitable 
uses. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER.— Writs  of  Oyer 
and  Terminer  were  only  to  be  granted  before 
justices  of  either  bench  in  eyre,  save  in  excep- 
tional cases,  when  a  special  royal  warrant  was 
required  by  13  Edw.  I.  st.  i,  c.  29  (1285).  These 
regulations  were  enforced  by  2  Edw.  III.  c.  2 
(1328);  9  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  5  (1335);  and  by 
20  Edw.  III.  c.  3  (1346).  The  rule  by  which 
no  judge  or  other  lawyer  could  act  in  this 
commission  within  his  own  county  where  he 
was  born  or  lived,  was  abolished  by  12  Geo.  H. 
c.  27  (1739). 

O  YES  !— In  the  old  Norman  law  courts  the 
crier  pronounced  oyez,  "hear  ye,"  to  enjoin 
silence.  This  injunction,  corrupted  into  the 
meaningless  phrase,  "  Oh  yes,"  is  still  used 
by  public  criers  and  heralds. 

OYSTER  POINT.  — (See  CHARLESTON  and 
CHARLESTOWN.) 

OYSTERS.— British  oysters  were  much  es- 
;eemed  by  Roman  epicures,  and  Juvenal,  in 
lis  4th  satire,  commemorates  those  of  Rich- 
jorough  in  Kent  as  possessing  peculiar  excel- 
ence.  The  stealing  of  oysters,  or  oyster 
orood,  from  the  beds,  was  declared  larceny  by 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  s.  36  (June  21,  1827).  A 
convention  was  signed  Aug.  2,  1839,  bv  France 
and  England,  for  settling  the  limits  of  the 
>yster-beds  of  each  nation.  The  regulations 
;hus  established  were  embodied  in  6  <fe  7  Viet, 
j.  79  (Aug.  22,  1843),  which  limited  the  period 
jf  the  oyster  fishery  to  the  interval  between 
Sep.  i  and  April  30.  All  oysters  and  dredges 
"ound  on  fishing  vessels  from  May  i  to  Aug. 
51,  may  be  seized  by  the  coast-guard  and 

3B    2 


OZONE 


[     740     1      • 


PAGAS2B 


excise  officers,  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  101  (Aug.  14, 
1855).  The  growth  of  the  oyster  in  France 
has  been  much  improved  since  1858  by  the 
labours  of  M.  Ooste. 

OZOXK.— Attention  was  first  directed  to 
this  odour  evolved  during  the  working  of  the 
electric  machine,  by  Professor  Schonbein  of 
Basel,  in  1840.  Baumert  in  1853  contended 
that  there  are  two  kinds  of  ozone,  but  this 
was  shown  to  be  a  mistake  by  Andrews  in 
1856.  Andrews  and  Tait  published  the  results 
of  a  series  of  experiments  in  1860. 


P. 

PACIFICATION.—  The  name  given  to  the 
edicts  issued  by  the  French  monarchs  in 
favour  of  the  Huguenots,  or  Protestants. 

The  first  was  promulgated  by  Charles  IX.  in 
1562.  (See  AMBOISE,  EDICT  OF  XAXTI.S,  XISMF.S, 
<fec.)  The  term  is  also  applied  to  other  agree- 
ments. (See  BRUSSELS  [The  Union  of]  GHENT, 


PACIFIC  OCEAN,  or  the  South  Sea,  was 
first  seuii  by  Vasci.)  Nunez  tie  Balboa,  Sep.  25, 
1513.  Maaalha0M  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and 
entered  this  ocean,  to  which,  on  account 
of  the  calm  weather  that  prevailed,  he  gave 
the  name  of  the  Pacific,  in  1521.  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  supposed  to  be  the  first  Knglishman 
>\v  it,  reached  its  shores  in  1573.  (See 
DARIF.N.) 

PACIFIC  STEAMER,  belonging  to  the 
Collins  line,  running  between  New  York  and 
Liverpool,  was  totally  lost,  with  all  on  board, 
in  the  early  part  of  1856.  She  left  Liverpool 
Jan.  23,  1856,  with  45  passengers  and  a  crew 
of  141  men,  and  was  never  heard  of  after- 
wards. It  is  supposed  that  she  struck  sud- 
denly 011  an  iceberg,  and  foundered  with  all 
on  board. 

PACTE  DE  FAMINE.—  A  company  called 
the  Societe  Malisset,  under  government  con- 
trol, had  been  formed  in  Paris  in  1767,  for  the 
purpose  of  buying  and  storing  grain  in  order 
to  keep  up  the  price.  The  conduct  of  Louis 
XV.  ,  in  making  vise  of  the  society  to  fill  his 
treasury,  excited  much  public  indignation  in 
1774,  and  it  was  called  the  Pacte  de  Famine. 
It  wars  suppressed  in  1789. 

PA  DAN  -ARAM.—  (See   HARAN  and  MESOPO- 

TAJ1  fA.) 

PADERBORN  (Prussia).—  This  ancient  town 
of  Westphalia,  made  a  bishopric  by  Charle- 
magne, in  795  was  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  Councils  were  held  here  in  777,  780, 
782,  and  785.  At  the  first,  generally  desig- 
nated the  diet  of  Paderborn,  multitudes  of 
the  Saxons  were  baptized.  The  cathedral, 
commenced  early  in  the  nth  century,  was 
not  finished  till  1143.  The  Lutheran  religion 
was  suppressed  and  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
stored in  1604.  The  town  was  taken  and  pil- 
laged by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  1622,  and 
was  annexed  to  Prussia  hi  1803.  It  afterwards 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
and  was  restored  to  Prussia  in  1813. 


PADLOCK.— Ducange  states  that  a  lock  of 
this  description  was  in  use  as  early  as  1381, 
though  a  later  date  is  usually  assigned  for 
the  invention. 

PADSTOW  (Cornwall).— This  town  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Danes  in  981. 

PADUA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Patavium,  was, 
according  to  Virgil,  founded  by  Anterior, 
who  escaped  thither  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 
The  Pataviaiis  were  constantly  at  war  with  the 
Cisalpine  Gauls,  and  B.C.  301  they  defeated 
Cleonyrnus  the  Lacedaemonian,  who  had  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Medoacus.  Patavium  gra- 
dually fell  into  the  power  of  Rome,  though 
it  seems  to  have  retained  some  of  its  former 
independence,  as  M.  jEmilius,  a  Roman  consul, 
was  sent  to  quell  a  riot,  B.C.  174,  and  the  in- 
habitants refused  to  receive  the  emissaries  of 
M.  Aiitonius,  B.C.  43.  Patavium  was  occupied, 
in  69,  by  Primus  and  Varus,  the  generals  of 
;n,  011  their  advance  into  Italy.  Attila 
•d  it  in  452 ;  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  chief  cities  when  the  province  was  overrun 
by  the  Lombards  under  Alboin  in  568  ;  and 
was  burned  to  the  ground  by  Agilulplb 
of  the  Longobardi,  in  601.  In  1164  Padua 
formed  a  league  with  other  states  against 
Frederick  I.  ;  in  1167  it  joined  the  L<> 
league ;  and  by  the  peace  of  Constance,  in 
1183,  its  freedom  was  recognized.  Eccelino 
da  Romano,  who  made  himself  master  of 
Padua  Feb.  25,  1237,  was  driven  out  in  1256, 
by  a  coalition  of  the  towns  of  Upper  Italy. 
A  council  was  held  here  in  1350.  In  1337  it 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  Carrara  family, 
who  held  it  till  1405,  when  it  was  taken  by 
the  republic  of  Venice.  Maximilian  I.  besieged 
it  Sep.  15,  1509,  and  retired  Oct.  3.  The 
French  occupied  it  April  28,  1797,  and  it  passed 
into  the  power  of  Austria  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo-F<  >rmio.  The  university  was  celebrated 
as  early  as  1221,  the  hospital  was  founded  in 
1420,  the  bank  in  1490,  the  public  library  in 
1540,  and  the  library  of  the  university  in  1629. 
The  botanical  garden  was  instituted  by  the 
Venetian  senate  in  1545,  and  the  observatory 
dates  from  1767.  In  consequence  of  disturb- 
ances among  the  students  which  took  place 
Feb.  9,  1848,  the  university  was  closed,  and  it 
was  not  reopened  until  1850. 

P/EONIA  (Macedonia).— This  district,  inha- 
bited by  the  Pseones,  was  overrun  by  Mega- 
bazus  B.C.  506,  and  was  finally  annexed  to 
Macedon  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great). 

PAGANS.  —  This  term,  from  pagani,  or 
dwellers  in  the  pagi,  was  applied  to  the 
heathens,  because  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  districts  were  the  last  to  receive 
Christianity.  Theodosius  I.  promulgated  an 
edict  against  pagan  sacrifices  in  385,  and  soon 
after  closed  all  the  heathen  temples  and 
shrines.  After  his  death  (Jan.  17,  395),  few 
vestiges  of  paganism  remained.  Pagan  cere- 
monies were  revived  in  Christian  churches  in 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  Paganism 
was  imputed  to  the  classic  enthusiasts  of  the 
1 5th  century,  who  professed  a  secret  devotion 
to  the  gods  of  Homer  and  Plato. 

PAGAS^iE  (Thessaly),  celebrated  in  mytho- 
logical history  as  the  port  at  which  Jason 
built  the  ship  Argo,  was  conquered  by  Philip  II. 


PAI  MARIRE 


PAL^OLOGI 


of  Macedon  B.C.  353.  The  inhabitants  were 
transferred  to  Demetrias,  founded  B.C.  290, 
Pagasae  was  afterwards  restored,  and  became 
a  flourishing  city. 

PAI  MARIRE.— The  name,  the  exact  mean 
ing  of  which  is  unknown,  though  it  is  sup- 
posed to  signify  "wait,"or  "bide  your  time,"  is 
applied  to  a  new  religion  that  appeared  in  i 
among  the  Maori  converts  to  Christianity,  and 
spread  with  great  rapidity  through  every  part 
of  New  Zealand.  This  new  faith  is  described 
as  the  original  heathenism  of  the  natives, 
slightly  modified  by  Judaism,  and  partaking  as 
much  of  the  character  of  a  political  revolution 
as  of  a  religious  system.  Cannibalism  is  en- 
joined as  a  religious  rite,  and  the  initiated 
profess  to  have  the  power  of  speaking  in  a 
language  revealed  by  heaven  and  unintelligible 
to  the  vulgar.  The  Rev.  Carl  Sylvius  Volkner, 
a  missionary  of  the  Church  of  England,  was 
barbarously  murdered  at  Opotiki,  on  the  east 
coast,  by  the  Pai  Marire  fanatics,  March  2, 
1865. 

PAINS  AND  PENALTIES.— Certain  bills, 
passed  by  the  legislature  to  inflict  specified 
penalties  for  particular  acts  against  state 
offenders,  were  known  by  this  title.  The  last 
instance  was  the  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
introduced  against  Queen  Caroline  in  1820.  It 
passed  the  House  of  Lords,  but  was  not  in- 
troduced into  the  House  of  Commons. 

PAINTING.— This  art  appears  to  have  ori- 
ginated in  Egypt,  where  it  was  employed 
2,000  years  before  the  Christian  gera.  The 
Greeks,  however,  attribute  its  origin  to  their 
ancestors.  (See  DRAWING.)  Greek  art  was 
not  established  on  an  independent  basis  until 
the  Persian  invasion  in  the  sth  century  B.C., 
it  having  previously  been  a  mere  adjunct  to 
architecture  and  the  celebration  of  religious 
mysteries.  Polygnotus,  who  removed  from 
Thasos  to  Athens  about  B.C.  463,  painted  the 
first  portrait,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  historic  painting.  Apollodorus  of  Athens 
(about  B.C.  408)  first  practised  nice  discrimi- 
nation of  light  and  shade,  in  which  he  was 
much  excelled  by  the  celebrated  Zeuxis  of 
Heraclea  (B.C.  455 — B.C.  400).  Apelles  (about 
B.C.  332)  was  remarkable  for  his  delicacy  of 
finish,  and  is  regarded  as  the  chief  of  ancient 
portrait  painters.  The  classic  period  of  paint- 
ing began  to  decline  about  B.C.  300,  when 
Antipholus  the  Egyptian,  and  others,  intro- 
duced caricatures  and  pictures  of  still-life. 
Fabius  Maximus  introduced  painting  into 
Rome  B.C.  289,  but  the  greatest  impetus  was 
given  to  the  art  by  the  number  of  master- 
pieces which  Mummius  brought  from  Corinth, 
B.C.  146.  The  materials  of  ancient  art  appear 
to  have  been  wood,  clay,  plaster,  stone,  parch- 
ment, and  canvas,  on  which  pictures  were 
painted  in  distemper  or  with  a  medium  of 
wax.  The  establishment  of  Christianity,  and 
the  subversion  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the 
northern  barbarians,  caused  a  decline  in 
painting  as  well  as  in  the  other  arts  ;  and  the 
Iconoclasts  (q.  v.)  destroyed  many  valuable 
specimens  of  the  semi-barbarous  Byzantine 
school,  which  was  chiefly  employed  in  the 
decoration  of  churches.  (See  ILLUMINATION.) 
Giovanni  Cimabue  (1240 — 1300)  is  regarded  as 


the  restorer  of  painting  and  the  founder  of 
the  Italian  school  ;  but  the  trammels  of  the 
Byzantine  school  were  first  shaken  off  by 
Giotto  di  Bondone  (1276 — Jan.  i8t  1336).  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  (1452 — May  2,  1520)  and 
Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti  (1474— Feb.  17, 1564) 
were  the  most  eminent  artists  of  the  Floren- 
tine school.  Raphael  Sanzio  da  Urbino  (April  6, 
1483 — April  6, 1520)  founded  the  Roman  school; 
and  Tiziano  Vecelli,  better  known  as  Titian 
(1477 — 1576),  was  the  greatest  master  of  the 
Venetian  school.  Antonio  Allegri,  better 
known  as  Correggio  (1494 — March  5,  1534)  was 
also  a  great  master  in  the  Italian  school. 
The  earliest  master  of  the  German  school 
was  Wilhelm  von  Coin,  or  William  of  Cologne, 
who  flourished  in  1380.  Hubert  van  Eyck 
(1366 — Sep.  18,  1426;  and  his  brother  John 
(1370 — July  14,  1441)  are  eminent  masters  of 
the  Flemish  school,  which  they  established  at 
Bruges.  They  are  also  the  reputed  inventors 
of  oil-painting,  although  there  is  no  doubt 
that  art  was  only  considerably  improved  by 
them,  having  been  known  as  early  as  the 
8th  century.  The  Spanish  school  was  founded 
by  Antonio  del  Ruicon  about  1446  ;  the  Dutch 
by  Luke  van  Leyden  (1494 — 1533);  the  French 
by  Jeannet  Clouet  about  1523 ;  and  the  Eng- 
lish school  may  be  said  to  have  commenced 
when  Holbein  settled  at  the  court  of  Henry 
VIII.  in  1526. 

PAISLEY  (Scotland)  originated  in  a  monas- 
tery founded  in  1160  by  Walter,  high  steward 
of  Scotland.  Pope  Honorius  III.  erected  it 
into  an  abbey  in  1219.  It  was  burned  by  the 
English  in  1307,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  with 
great  splendour.  James  IV.  erected  the 
small  town  into  a  burgh  in  1488.  In  the  times 
of  the  Reformers  the  abbey  was  stripped  of  its 
altars  and  figures,  and  the  only  part  of  the 
edifice  that  remains  is  used  as  a  parish  church. 
The  races  were  established  in  1608.  Linen 
thread  was  first  made  in  Paisley  in  1722 ; 
silk  gauze  in  1760;  and  nearly  27,000  people 
were  employed  in  the  manufacture  in  1784. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the 
manufacture  of  shawls  was  introduced.  The 
grammar-school  was  founded  Jan.  3,  1576 ; 
and  the  county  hall  or  castle  in  1818.  A 
society  for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts, 
established  here,  held  its  first  exhibition  in 
May,  1831. 

PALACE  COURT,  superseding  in  many  re- 
spects the  ambulatory  court  of  the  Board  of 
Green  Cloth,  or  Court  of  Marshalsea,  was  in- 
stituted by  Charles  I.  in  1631,  and  had  juris- 
diction over  all  personal  actions  whatsoever 

ithin  12  miles  of  His  Majesty's  Palace  at 
Whitehall.  It  was  removed  from  Southwark 
;o  Scotland  Yard  in  1801,  was  abolished  by 
k  13  Viet.  c.  101  (Aug.  i,  1849),  and  its 
powers  ceased  Dec.  i. 

PALAEOGRAPHY,  or  the  art  of  deciphering 
ancient  manuscripts  and  inscriptions,  was 
greatly  improved  by  the  Benedictines  of  St. 
Maur,  who  published  a  compilation  of  palseo- 
^raphical  knowledge  in  1748.  It  is  also  called 
diplomatics  (q.  v.). 

PALJiOLOGL— This  illustrious  Byzantine 
amily  is  first  mentioned  about  1078,  when 
Jeorge  Palaeologus  was  a  faithful  servant 


PALEONTOLOGY 


I     742     ] 


PALERMO 


of  the  Emperor  Nicephorus  III.  He  was 
killed  while  defending  Dyrrhachium,  or  Du- 
razzo,  against  the  Normans  in  1081.  The 
PaL-eologi,  the  last  Greek  family  that  occupied 
the  throne  of  Constantinople,  reigned  from 
1260  to  1453.  A  branch  of  the  Palreologi 
ruled  over  Montferrat  in  Italy  from  1305  to 
1530. 

PALEONTOLOGY.— This  science,  treating 
of  the  evidences  of  the  fossil  remains  of 
plants  and  animals  in  the  earth's  crust,  has 
received  illustration  from  the  works  of  Olivier 
(Aug.  23,  1769 — May  13,  1832),  Owen,  Forbes 
(1815 — Nov.  18,  185^),  and  others.  The  Pa- 
Iseontological  Society,  for  the  illustration  and 
description  of  British  fossil  organic  remains, 
was  founded  in  London  in  1847. 

PAL/EP<  >LIS.— (See  NAPLES.) 

PALAMITES,  the  supporters  of  Gregory 
Palamas,  a  Greek  ascetic  of  the  i4th  century, 
who  renounced  the  world,  retired  into  a  cell, 
and  practised  great  austerities.  Having  spent 
ten  years  at  Mount  Athos,  and  ten  years  at 
Beroea,  he  repaired  to  Thessalonica  for  the 
restoration  of  his  health.  He  took  the  lead 
of  the  monks  against  Barlaam,  and  gained  a 
triumph  over  him  at  a  council  held  at  Con- 
stantinople, June  ii,  1341.  At  another  council, 
held  at  Constantinople  in  1345,  the  Palarnites 
were  condemned,  and  Palamas  was  cast  into 
prison  in  1347.  Having  obtained  his  release, 
he  was  nominated  though  not  ordained  pa- 
triarch, and  in  1354  was  consecrated  Arch- 
bishop of  Thessalonica,  but  the  magistrates 
refused  to  admit  him,  and  he  retired  to 
Lunmos. 

I'AI.ATIXATK  Germany).— This  division, 
consisting  of  two  parts,  the  Upper  or  Bava- 
rian and  the  Lower  or  Ithenish  palatinate,  was 
under  one  sovereign  until  1620,  when  the 
Elector  Ferdinand,  having  accepted  the  crown 
of  Bohemia,  was  defeated  in  a  battle  near 
Prague,  and  lost  his  dominions  and  electoral 
dignity,  which  were  given  by  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  to  Bavaria.  Charles  Louis  re- 
covered the  Lower  or  Rhenish  Palatinate  by 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  1111648.  Maximilian 
Emmanuel,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  having  been 
placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  the 
Elector  Palatine,  John  William,  recovered  the 
Upper  Palatinate  and  the  ancient  rights  of 
his  house  in  1 706 ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
between  Charles  VI.  and  Louis  XIV.  in  1714, 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria  regained  the  Upper 
Palatinate.  In  the  wars  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, the  French  took  possession  of  that  part 
of  the  Palatinate  which  lay  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  and  retained  it  by  the  treaty  of 
Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801.  The  territory  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  ceded  by  Bavaria 
in  1802  for  other  possessions.  By  the  treaty 
of  1819,  Bavaria  regained  the  greater  part  of 
the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
which  it  had  lost  in  1801,  the  remainder  being 
allotted  to  Prussia  and  Hesse  Darmstadt. 

PALATINATK  CATECHISM.— (See  HEIDEL- 
BERG, or  PALATINATE  CATECHISM.) 

PALATINE  COUNTIES.— -Selden,  referring 
to  counts  palatine,  says  : — "  The  name  was 
received  here  doubtless  out  of  the  use  of  the 
empire  of  France,  and  in  the  like  notions  as 


it  had  in  that  vise."  Three  English  counties 
viz.,  Chester,  Durham,  and  Lancashire,  and 
one  Welsh  county,  viz.,  Pembroke,  were 
counties  palatine.  The  palatine  of  Chester 
was  conferred  by  William  I.  upon  Hugh  Lupus 
in  1077.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216 — 72  it 
was  annexed  to  the  crown,  giving  the  title  of 
Earl  of  Chester  to  the  king's  eldest  son.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  abolished  by  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70, 
s.  14  (July  23,  1830).  The  palatine  of  Lan- 
caster was  instituted  by  Edward  III.,  who 
created  Henry,  Earl  of  Derby,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, March  6,  1351.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.  (1461—83)  it  was  vested  in  the  crown. 
Durham  was  made  a  county  palatine  by 
William  I.  (1066—87).  By  6  Will.  IV.  c.  19 
(June  21,  1836),  the  jurisdiction  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  crown.  The  palatine  jurisdic- 
tion of  Pembroke  was  taken  away  by  27  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  26  (1536). 

1'ALATINES. —  Protestant  refugees  from 
France  and  the  Rhine  provinces,  who  arrived 
in  England  in  1709.  They  lived  in  tents  on 
Blackheath,  and  other  open  places  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  metropolis,  and  numbers  were 
sent  to  Ireland  and  N.  America. 

1'ALK  Cephalonia). — This  town,  first  men- 
tioned in  the  Persian  war,  when  200  of  its 
cili/ens  fought  at  the  battle  of  Plataea,  B.C. 
479,  joined  the  Athenian  alliance  B.C.  431,  sur- 
rendered to  the  Romans  B.C.  189,  and  after- 
wards became  the  capital  of  the  island. 

PALEMBANG  Sumatra  .—In  1780 the  Dutch 
placed  the  rajah  Muda  on  the  throne,  Palem- 
bang  being  his  capital.  They  had  only  a 
factory  at, Palenibang  in  1811,  when  the  Sultan 
began  hostilities  against  them,  and,  under 
pretence  of  carrying  them  to  Batavia,  sunk 
their  ships.  The  Dutch  regained  their  East 
India  possessions  in  1816,  but  the  country 
remained  in  rebellion  till  1821. 

PALENCIA  Spain,  the  ancient  Pallantia, 
the  chief  town  bf  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
was  made  a  bishop's  see  of  the  early  Church. 


Councils  were  held  here  Oct.  25,  1114,  in  1129, 
and  Oct.  4,  1388.  In  the  ioth  century  Al- 
phonso  founded  the  celebrated  school,  which 


as  transferred  to  Salamanca  in  1240.  The 
cathedral,  commenced  in  1321,  was  completed 
in  1504.  The  French  captured  Palencia  in  1808; 
the  English  entered  in  Sep.,  1812  ;  and  Sir 
A.  Wellesley  defeated  the  French  in  some 
warmly  contested  combats  in  the  neighbour- 
hood a  few  davs  afterwards. 

PALEOPOLL— (See  MANTINEA.) 

PALERMO  (Sicily),  the  ancient  Panormus, 
is  first  mentioned  in  history  B.C.  480,  when 
the  great  Carthaginian  armament,  under  Ha- 
milcar,  landed  and  made  it  their  head-quarters. 
It  was  a  principal  naval  station  B.C.  406,  and 
was  one  of  the  few  cities  that  remained 
faithful  to  the  Carthaginians  at  the  time  of 
the  siege  of  Motya,  B.C.  397.  Pyrrhus  at- 
tacked and  made  himself  master  of  Panormus 
B.C.  276;  but  it  was  soon  retaken  by  the  Car- 
thaginians, who  held  it  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
first  Punic  war,  B.C.  264.  The  Roman  consuls, 
Atilius  Calatinus  and  C.  Scipio,  captured 
Panormus  B.C.  254,  and  it  became  one  of  their 
principal  naval  stations.  (-See  PANORMUS,  Battle.) 
It  received  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  20,  fell,  with 


PALESTINE 


f     743 


PALLENE 


the  rest  of  Sicily,  into  the  hands  of  the  Goths 
in  493,  and  was  the  last  city  of  the  island 
wrested  from  them  by  Belisarius,  in  535.  The 
Saracens  captured  it  in  855.  From  the  top  of 
the  royal  palace,  built  by  King  Roger  the 
Norman  in  1129,  Father  Piazzi  discovered 
the  planet  Ceres  in  1801.  The  cathedral,  a 
magnificent  Gothic  structure,  was  built  in 
nSo  by  Archbishop  Walter,  an  Englishman, 
and  contains  the  tombs  of  Roger  the  Nor- 
inaii  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  When 
Sicily  was  united  to  Naples,  the  Court  was 
removed  from  Palermo,  but  again  resided 
here  from  1806  to  1814.  Palermo  revolted 
Dec.  12, 1848,  against  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  and,  after  three  days'  fighting,  a 
provisional  government  was  proclaimed.  The 
King  issued  the  charter  of  a  constitution  for 
his  Sicilian  subjects  Feb.  28,  1849;  but  hosti- 
lities were  resumed  March  26.  Through  the 
mediation  of  the  French  and  English  admirals, 
the  city  was  given  up  to  Gen.  Filangieri, 
May  13.  Palermo  was  attacked  by  Garibaldi 
May  27,  1860,  and  the  royal  troops  were  driven 
out  of  the  town,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
citadel,  which  afterwards  surrendered.  The 
Two  Sicilies  were  annexed  to  Sardinia  Nov.  3, 
1860.  The  university  was  founded  in  1447. 
A  council  was  held  at  Palermo  Nov.  10,  1388. 
A  revolt  occurred  in  Sep.,  1866. 

PALESTINE  ASSOCIATION.  —  (See  GEO- 
GRAPHICAL SOCIETY.) 

PALESTINE,  THE  LAND  OF  ISRAEL,  THE 
HOLY  LAND,  JUDAH,  or  JUDAEA  (Syria).— 
At  the  time  of  the  call  of  Abraham,  B.C.  1921, 
this  country,  called  the  land  of  Canaan,  was 
inhabited  by  the  Jebusites,  Amorites,  Gir- 
gashites,  Hivites,  Arkites,  Smites,  Arvadites, 
^emarites,  and  Hamathites, — descendants  of 
Ham,  or  Canaan,  son  of  Noah.  The  Perizzites 
are  first  mentioned  Gen.  xiii.  7  (B.C.  1918)  ; 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  B.C.  1491,  it 
was  peopled  by  seven  tribes,  viz. ,  the  Cauaan- 
ites,  Hittites,  Amorites,  Perizzites,  Hivites,  Je- 
busites, and  Girgashites.  Antiochus  the  Great, 
King  of  Syria,  reduced  the  whole  of  Palestine 
under  his  authority  B.C.  198,  and  it  was 
erected  into  a  Roman  province  by  Augustus 
in  the  year  6.  The  division  of  the  country 
into  First,  Second,  and  Third  Palestine,  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  Theodosian  code  in  409. 
The  term  Holy  Land,  so  generally  employed 
in  modern  times,  occurs  but  once  in  the  Bible 
(Zech.  ii.  12).  Albert  Edward,  Prince  of 
Wales,  left  England  on  a  visit  to  the  Holy 
Land,  Feb.  6,  1862.  After  visiting  the  Pyra- 
mids, Philse,  Thebes,  &c.,  Jemsalem  was 
reached  March  31,  Mount  Carmel  April  15, 
Mount  Lebanon  May  12,  and  the  Prince  arrived 
in  England  June  14. 

PALESTRINA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Prseneste, 
became  the  stronghold  of  the  Colonna  family 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  capitulated  to  the 
papal  crusaders  in  1299,  when  Boniface  VIII. 
expelled  its  rulers.  After  his  death,  Oct.  n, 
1303,  it  was  recovered  and  fortified  by  the 
Colonna  family.  Rienzi,  the  Roman  senator, 
made  a  vain  attempt  to  take  it  in  1354.  It  was 
wrested  from  the  Colonna  family  by  Eugenius 
IV.  in  1437,  and  Urban  VIII.  (1623 — 44)  con- 
ferred it  upon  the  Barberini,  whose  palace 


still  exists.  Fragments  of  a  Roman  calendar, 
discovered  here  in  1773,  were  published  at 
Rome,  under  the  title  of  Fasti  Prsenestiiii,  in 

PALESTRO  (Battles).  —  Two  were  fought 
near  this  town,  in  Piedmont,  between  the 
Austrians  and  the  Sardinians  aided  by  the 
French,  in  1859.  The  first  took  place  May  30, 
when  the  French  and  Sardinians  were  vic- 
torious, capturing  more  than  1,000  prisoners 
and  80  cannon;  and  the  second  May  31, 
when  the  French  and  Sardinians  were  again 
successful. 

PALIMPSESTS.  —  The  term  is  applied  to 
parchments  from  which  the  original  writing 
has  been  erased  by  means  of  pumice-stone  or 
some  other  substance,  to  make  room  for  a  fresh 
subject  being  written  thereon.  The  practice 
became  general  with  the  Latins  in  the  9th  and 
loth  centuries,  and  reached  its  greatest  height 
in  the  i  ith  century.  Edicts  forbidding  it  were 
issued  in  Germany  in  the  i3th  and  i4th  cen- 
turies. The  Clementine  constitutions  were 
printed  by  Nicholas  Janson  upon  palimpsest 
parchment  in  1476.  Cicero's  treatise  "  De 
Republica,"  written  on  a  palimpsest,  was  dis- 
covered in  the  Vatican  library  at  Rome,  and 
printed  in  1821.  The  New  Testament,  written 
on  palimpsest  fragments,  was  published  in 
Paris  by  Dr.  Tischendorf  in  1843,  and  he  com- 
pleted the  work  by  the  addition  of  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Old  Testament  in  1845. 

PALINDROMES,  words  or  sentences  that 
read  the  same  backwards  or  forwards,  are 
frequently  known  as  Sotadic  verses,  from  their 
alleged  inventor,  Sotades  of  Thrace,  who 
flourished  at  Alexandria  about  B.C.  280,  and 
was  put  to  death  for  the  licentiousness  of  his 
writings  by  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadelphia.  They 
were  very  common  among  Latin  authors,  but 
are  rare  in  English.  (See  LYON  VEBSES.) 

PALLADIUM,  generally  found  as  an  alloy 
with  platinum  and  other  metals,  but  some- 
times in  a  pure  state,  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Wollaston  in  1803. 

PALLADIUM.— Ancient  authors  give 
different  traditions  respecting  the  origin  of 
this  celebrated  statue  of  Pallas  or  Minerva ; 
some  stating  that  it  fell  from  heaven  during 
the  building  of  Ilium,  others  that  it  fell  at 
Pessinus,  in  Galatia,  others  that  Electra  gave 
it  to  her  son  Dardanus,  and  others  that  it  was 
merely  an  ingenious  automaton  ;  but  all  agree 
that  the  fate  of  Ilium  depended  on  its  pre- 
servation. Its  capture  consequently  became 
a  great  object  with  the  Greeks  during  the 
siege,  and  it  was  stolen  by  Ulysses  and  Dio- 
medes,  B.C.  1183.  Other  authorities  state 
that  only  a  fictitious  statue  was  stolen,  and 
that  the  real  palladium  was  conveyed  into 
Italy  by  .ZEneas,  B.C.  1181,  and  was  preserved 
with  great  secrecy  in  the  temple  of  Vesta. 
Elagabalus  attempted  to  carry  it  off  in  219, 
but  a  counterfeit  image  was  substituted  for  it. 
The  Roman  palladium  was  a  small  statue, 
three  cubits  and  a  half  in  height,  and  it  was 
kept  in  a  barrel  and  placed  near  other  barrels 
to  prevent  theft. 

PALLAS.— This  planet  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bremen,  March  28,  1802. 

PALLENE    (Sea-fight).— The  knights  of 


.PALL  MALL 


[     744 


PALMERSTON 


Rhodes  destroyed  a  Turkish  fleet  off  this  head- 
land, in  the  ^]gean  Sea,  in  1344. 

PALL  MALL  (London)  derives  its  name 
from  the  game  of  Pailee  MaiHe",  somewhat 
analogous  to  cricket,  introduced  from  France 
into  England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
(1660—85),  and  at  that  time  played  in  St. 
James's  Park.  Pell  Mell  is  first  mentioned  by 
Pepys  July  26,  1660. 

PALL,  or  PALLIUM.— The  origin  of  this 
vestment,  sent  from  Rome  to  all  archbishops 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  disputed.  It 
was  worn  by  the  bishops  at  Ravenna  as  early  as 
540.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.  (1073 — 85)  arch- 
bishops were  in  the  habit  of  going  to  Rome  to 
receive  it.  The  popes  derived  a  large  revenue 
from  the  sale  of  pallia  in  the  isth  cen- 
tury. Gregory  XI.  (1370 — 78)  issued  a,  decretal 
which  declared  that  an  archbishop  could  not 
call  a  council,  bless  the  chrism,  consecrate 
churches,  ordain  a  clerk,  or  consecrate  a  bishop, 
before  he  had  received  his  pallium  ;  and  that 
before  any  archbishop  could  obtain  this  sacred 
vestment  he  should  swear  fidelity  to  the  Pope. 
It  WHS  also  decreed,  that  upon  the  translation 
of  an  archbishop  he  was  not  to  carry  away  his 
pall,  but  apply  to  the  Pope  for  a  new  one,  and 
that  his  successor  should  make  no  use  of  the 
one  left  behind.  Tertulliau  (160 — 240)  \«rote  a 
treatise  entitled  "  De  Pallio."  Augustine,  the 
first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  received  the 
pall  from  Rome  in  601.  (Bet  I>K<;II.MIATION.) 

PALLONIO,  or  GItKAT  BALL,  was  known 
amongst  the  Romans  as  "  Follis  pugillatorius." 
A  game  called  Pallone,  in  some  respects  re- 
sembling Tennis,  is  very  common  in  Italy.  A 
treatise  on  the  game  was  published  in  Venice 
in  1555. 

PALMARY  SYNOD,  held  at  Rome  by  Theo- 
doric  the  Great,  Nov.  6,  502,  was  called  the 
Palmary  synod  from  an  edifice  or  hall  of  that 
name  in  which  it  was  held.  Its  object  was  to 
investigate  charges  brought  against  Pope  Sym- 
machus,  who  was  declared  innocent ;  and  he 
resumed  the  pontifical  throne  with  the  full  au- 
thority of  the  synod,  composed  of  120  bishops. 

i'.VLMERSTON  ADMINISTRATIONS.— The 
vote  of  censure  against  the  Aberdeen  adminis- 
tration (q.  v.),  for  its  conduct  of  the  war  against 
Russia,  having  been  carried  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  Jan.  29,  1855,  by  305  against  148, 
the  resignation  of  that  ministry  was  announced 
Feb.  i.  After  various  negotiations,  an  intima- 
tion was  made  in  Parliament,  Feb.  8,  to  the 
effect  that  Lord  Palmerston  had  accepted  office 
as  prime  minister,  and  the  cabinet  was,  Feb. 
1 6,  announced  as  follows  : — 

Treasury  Viscount  Palmerston. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Cranworth. 

President  of  the  Council Karl  Granville. 

Privy  Seal Duke  of  Argyle. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Mr.  Gladstone. 

II' inic  Secretary Sir  George  Grey,  Bart. 

Foreign  Secretary Earl  of  Clarendon. 

Colonial  Secretary Mr.  Sidney  Herbert. 

Admiralty Sir  James  Graham,  Bart. 

Board  of  Control  Sir  Charles  Wood,  Bart. 

Seeretary  at  War  Lord  Panmure. 

Pul.lic  Works Sir  Wm.  Molesworth,  Bart. 

Without  onice Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 

The  Peelite  section  of  the  cabinet  objected  to 
the  appointment  of  the  committee  of  inquiry 


into  the  conduct  of  the  war  ;  and  the  resigna- 
tion of  Sir  James  Graham,  Messrs.  Sidney 
Herbert  and  Gladstone,  was  announced  Feb. 
22,  whereupon  the  following  changes  and  ad- 
ditions were  made  in  the  cabinet  :  — 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  .....  Sir  G.  Coruewall  Lewis. 

Colonial  Secretary  ...............  Lord  John  Russell. 

Admiralty  ...........................  Sir  C.  Wood,  Hart. 

Board  of  Control  ..........  .......  Mr.  Vernou  Smith. 

Board  of  Trade  ...................  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley. 

Postmaster-General  ............  Viscount  Canning. 

Earl  of  Hanowby. 


Lord  John  Russell,  on  his  return  from  the 
Vienna  mission,  was  sworn  into  office  May  i. 
He  resigned  for  the  second  time  during  the 
same  year,  July  16,  and  his  place  was  filled  by 
Sir  William  Molesworth,  Bart.,  who  died  Oct. 
28,  and  was  succeeded  as  colonial  minister  by 
Mr.  Henry  Labouchere.  The  Duke  of  Argylc 
was  made  postmaster-general  on  the  appoint- 
ment of  Lord  Canning  to  the  governor-general- 
ship of  India,  and  the  Earl  of  llarrowby  became 
lord  privy  seal.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
chancellorship  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  by 
Mr.  M.  T.  Baiues.  An  amendment  on  the 
second  reading  of  the  Conspiracy  Bill  (See 
OI;SIM  CONSPIRACY)  was  carried  against  the 
Palmerston  administration  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  Feb.  19,  1858,  by  234  to  215,  and 
the  members  of  the  cabinet  resigned  office 
on  the  following  day.  (See  DERBY  ADMINIS- 
TRATIONS.) -  The  second  Palmerston  adminis- 
tration was  formed  on  the  resignation  of  the 
second  Derby  administration,  June  n,  1859. 
The  cabinet,  announced  in  Parliament  June  30, 
was  thus  constituted  :—• 


Treasury 

Lord  Chancellor 

President  of  the  Council 

Privy  Seal 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer.... 

Home  Seeretary 

1'oreign  Seeretary 

Colonial  Seeretary 

Admiralty 

India 

Secretary  at  War 

Postmaster-General 

Duchy  of  Lancaster 

Poor  LAW  Board 

Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.. 


Viscount  Palmerston. 

Lord  Campbell. 

Earl  Granville. 

Duke  of  Argvle. 

Mr.  Gladstone. 

Sir  ( I.  Cornewall  Lewis,  Bart. 

Lord  John  Kussell. 

Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Duke  of  Somerset. 

Sir  Charles  Wood,  Bart. 
'Mr.  Sidney  Herbert,  i  n  ated 

Lord  Herbert  Juuei 
"Earl  of  Elgin. 

Sir  George  Grey. 

Mr.  Milner  Gibson. 

Mr.  CardweU. 


1861. 


Mr.  Milner  Gibson  was  appointed  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
his  place  at  the  Poor  Law  Board  being  supplied 
by  Mr.  C.  P.  Villiers,  who  also  obtained  a  scat 
in  the  cabinet.  The  Earl  of  Elgin  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  China,  and  Lord  Stanley  of 
Alderley  succeeded  him  as  postmaster-general 
in  1860.  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  was  created  a 
peer  in  1861,  and  died  Aug.  2,  when  his  place 
as  secretary  at  war  was  supplied  by  Sir  G. 
Cornewall  Lewis,  Bart.,  who  died  April  13, 
1863,  and  was  succeeded  by  Earl  de  Grey.  Sir 
G:  Cornewall  Lewis  was  succeeded  in  the 
home  secretaryship  by  Sir  George  Grey,  whose 
place  at  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  was  filled  by 
Mr.  CardweU,  Sir  Robert  Peel  taking  the  Irish 
secretaryship.  Lord  Campbell  died  June  23, 
1861,  and  Sir  Richard  Bethell  became  lord 
chancellor  with  the  title  of  Lord  Westbury. 
He  resigned  July  4,  1865,  in  consequence  of 


PALM  PLAY 


C     745 


PANEEPUT 


the  vote  of  censure  passed  by  the  House  of 
Commons  July  3  (See  EDMUNDS  SCANDAL  and 
LEEDS  BANKRUPTCY  COURT  AFFAIR),  and  was 
succeeded  by  Lord  Cranworth.  The  Duke  of 
Newcastle  resigned  the  colonial  secretaiyship 
oil  account  of  ill  health.  He  died  Oct.  18, 
1864,  and  his  place  was  filled  by  Mr.  Card  well, 
who  was  succeeded  in  the  duchy  of  Lancaster 
by  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  Lord  Palmerston 
died  Oct.  18,  1865,  and  new  arrangements  were 
made.  (See  RUSSELL  [Second]  ADMINISTRATION.) 

PALM  PLAY.— (See  FIVES.) 

P  A  L  M  S  U  N  D  A  Y,  also  called  Passion 
Sunday,  the  last  Sunday  in  Lent,  is  so  named 
from  the  ovation  received  by  our  Saviour  on 
his  way  to  Jerusalem  to  present  himself  in 
the  temple  (Matt.  xxi.  8  &  9,  and  John  xii. 
12 — 16),  April  i,  30.  The  custom  existed  in  the 
yth  century.  Caxton,  in  his  directory  for  the 
festival,  1483,  says  that  the  yew  was  our  sub- 
stitute for  the  palm.  In  1548  Edward  VI. 
issued  proclamations  abolishing  many  of  the 
ceremonies  connected  with  this  day. 

PALMYRA  (Syria),  the  Tadmor  or  Thadmor 
of  the  Hebrews  (i  Kings  ix.  18,  and  2  Chron. 
viii.  4),  was  founded,  or  enlarged,  by  Solomon, 
about  B.C.  1001.  Both  its  Greek  name  Palmyra, 
and  its  Hebrew  name  Tadmor,  signify  the  city 
of  palms,  and  the  Arabs  call  it  Tedmor.  It 
(submitted  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  in  130,  and 
rose  to  its  highest  power  in  the  3rd  century. 
Sapor  I.,  King  of  Persia,  was  defeated  here  by 
Odenathus  in  262.  Odenathus  was  murdered 
about  267,  and  his  wife  Zeiiobia  assumed  the 
title  of  Queen  of  the  East.  Her  army  having 
been  defeated  at  Antioch  and  at  Emesa,  Zeno- 
bia  was  besieged  in  her  capital  by  the  Emperor 
Aurelian  in  272.  She  attempted  to  make  her 
escape,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  Palmyra 
surrendered  in  274.  The  citizens  slew  the 
Roman  garrison,  and  Aurelian  destroyed  Pal- 
myra. It  was  restored  by  Justinian  I.  in  527, 
and  again  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  744. 
It  was  plundered  by  Tamerlane  in  1400.  The 
ruins  were  discovered  by  some  English  mer- 
chants in  1691.  Their  account  was  not  be- 
lieved ;  but  these  reports  were  confirmed  in 
1751,  when  Palmyra  was  visited  by  Wood  and 
Dawkius,  who  published  an  elaborate  account 
of  the  ruins  and  the  inscriptions.  Tiby  and 
Mangles  visited  the  ruins  in  1816. 

PALOS  (Spain).— From  this  small  seaport 
town  of  Andalusia,  Christopher  Columbus 
sailed  on  the  voyage  in  which  he  discovered 
America,  Friday,  Aug.  3,  1492,  and  here  he 
landed  on  his  return,  March  15,  1493.  Vin- 
cent Pinzon  sailed  from  Palos  in  Dec.,  1499, 
on  the  voyage  in  which  he  discovered  the 
Amazon,  and  Cortes  landed  here  after  the 
conc.uest  of  Mexico  in  1528. 

PAMPELUNA,  or  PAMPLONA  (Spain).  - 
This  town,  rebuilt  by  the  sons  of  Pompey, 
and  called  Pompeiopolis,  B.C.  68,  was  taken 
from  the  Romans  by  Euric,  in  466.  Childebert 
I.  sacked  it  in  542,  and  Charlemagne  captured 
it  in  778.  The  Saracens  captured  it  in  802,  and 
it  was  recaptured  in  806  by  the  Franks,  who 
repulsed  an  attack  by  the  Saracena  in  868. 
It  became  the  capital  of  Navarre  in  978.  The 
bishopiic  was  founded  in  1130.  The  Moors, 
who  held  it  some  time,  called  it  Bambilonah, 


whence  the  modern  name  Pamplona.  The 
Gothic  cathedral  was  built  by  Charles  III.  of 
Navarre  in  1397,  on  the  site  of  an  older  edifice, 
founded  in  1 100  ;  the  citadel  was  strengthened 
in  1521  by  Charles  V.,  and  enlarged  by  Philip 
II.  in  1557.  A  council  was  held  here  in  1023. 
Pampeluna  was  seized  by  the  French  general 
d'Armagnac,  Feb.  9,  1808.  The  English,  under 
Gen.  Hill,  blockaded  Pampeluna,  in  June, 
1813.  The  blockade,  raised  July  27,  was 
renewed  in  Sep.,  and  the  town  surrendered 
Oct.  31,  1813.  The  French  occupied  it  in  1823. 
The  citadel  was  seized  by  Marshal  O'Donnell, 
and  held  for  a  short  period,  in  Sep.,  1841. 

PAMPHLETS  were  in  common  use  in 
England,  in  political  and  religious  contro- 
versy, about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 
The  term  occurs  in  the  Philobiblon  of  Richard 
de  Bury,  .written  in  the  i4th  centiiry,  and  is 
used  in  Caxton's  translation  of  Virgil,  pub- 
lished in  1490.  The  publication  of  pamphlets 
without  a  licence  was  declared  illegal  by  the 
judges,  May  16,  1680,  and  a  stamp  duty  was 
first  imposed  upon  them  by  10  Anne,  c.  19, 
1712.  (See  NEWS-BOOKS.) 

PANAMA  (Central  America).— The  Isthmus 
of  Panama  or  Darien,  connecting  North  and 
South  America,  was  first  seen  by  Columbus, 
in  1502,  and  the  first  Spanish  settlement  was 
made  in  1510.  Sir  F.  Drake  visited  Panama 
in  1573.  The  town  of  Panama  was  destroyed 
by  the  buccaneer  Sir  Henry  Morgan,  in  1670, 
and  a  new  town  -was  founded  four  miles  to 
the  westward  in  1671.  The  Scotch  attempted 
to  found  a  colony  on  the  west  coast  of  Panama 
in  1698.  (See  DARIEN.)  The  city,  which  has 
been  restored,  is  the  capital  of  a  state  of  the 
same  name.  The  Panama  railway,  commenced 
in  1850,  and  completed  in  1854,  was  opened 
throughout  for  traffic,  Jan.  27,  1855.  (See  NEW 
GRANADA.) 

PANATHEN/EAN  GAMES,  or  PANA- 
THEN^EA.— The  Athensea  (q.  v.),  instituted  at 
Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva,  received  the 
name  of  Panathensea  about  B.C.  1234.  The 
greater  Panathenaea  were  celebrated  in  the 
third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  and  the  lesser 
Panathensea  were  celebrated  annually. 

PANDECTS,  the  chief  rules  of  law  con- 
tained in  the  writings  of  the  Roman  juriscon- 
sulti,  were  ordered  by  Justinian  I.  to  be  pre- 
pared in  530.  They  were  published  at  the  end 
of  three  years  (Dec.  16,  533),  although  he  had 
granted  ten  for  the  performance  of  the  work. 
A  story  was  long  current  that  a  copy  of  the 
Pandects  had  been  found  by  the  Emperor 
Lothare  II.  at  Amalphi  (q.  v.},  after  the  cap- 
ture of  the  town  in  1137. 

PANDOSIA  (Battles).— Alexander,  King  of 
Epirus,  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  with  the 

Bruttians  near  this  town,  B.C.  326. Pyrrhus 

defeated  the  Romans  in  a  battle  at  a  town  of 
Lucania  of  the  same  name,  B.C.  280.  He  is 
said  to  have  employed  2,000  archers. 

PANDOSIA  (Greece). —The  date  of  the 
foundation  of  this  city  of  Bruttium,  fixed 
by  Eusebius  B.C.  774,  is  uncertain.  It  was 
captured  by  the  consul  P.  Sempronius,  in  the 
second  Punic  war,  B.C.  204. 

PANEAS.— (See  OESAREA  PHILIPPI.) 

PANEEPUT     (Hindostan).  —  The     Delhi 


PANG^UM 


[    746    ] 


PAPAL  AGGRESSION- 


dynasty  was  defeated  at  this  town,  and  the 
Mongol  dynasty  founded  by  the  Sultan  Baber, 
in  1525.  Here  the  Affghans,  under  Ahmed 
Shah  in  1761,  gained  a  victory  over  the  Mah- 
rattas,  of  whom  60,000  were  slain,  and  20,000 
made  prisoners. 

PANG/KUM,  or  PANG/EUS  (Macedonia).— 
Gold  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  this 
mountain  B.C.  1550.  There  were  also  silver 

PANIUS,  or  PANIUM  (Battle).— Antiochus 
the  Great  defeated  Scopas  and  the  vEtolians 
at  this  town,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  B.C.  198. 

PAXMELODICON.— This  musical  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  Leppich,  at  Vienna,  in 
1810. 

PANNONIA.— This  country,  inhabited  by 
Celtic  tribes,  was  attacked  by  the  Romans, 
under  Octavianus,  B.C.  35,  and  made  a  Roman 
province  by  Tiberius  in  8.  It  was  ceded  to 
the  Huns  by  Theodosius  II.  about  447;  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  Ostrogoths  at  the  death 
of  Attila  111453 ;  and  to  the  Longobardi  (527 — 65) 
from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Avari  in  568.  The 
Uiigri,  or  Hungarians,  settled  here  in  889,  and 
from  them  it  received  the  name  of  Hungary. 

PANOPTICON  (London).— The  Royal  Pa- 
nopticon Institution  was  incorporated  by 
charter,  Feb.  20,  1851,  and  the  building  in 
Leicester  Square,  from  the  designs  of  T. 
Hayter  Lewis,  was  opened  March  16,  1854. 
It  failed  as  a  scientific  institution,  and  was 
converted  into  a  circus  for  equestrian  perfor- 
mances, and  its  name  changed  to  the 
A  Him  libra  Palace.  It  was  opened  with  a 
religious  service,  and  a  concert  of  sacred 
music,  Sunday,  Feb.  7,  1858. 

PANORAMA,— This  pictorial  contrivance 
was  invented  by  Robert  Barker,  an  English 
artist,  about  1794.  His  first  work  of  the  kind 
was  a  view  of  Edinburgh.  Thomas  Girtin 
produced  a  semicircular  view  of  London, 
taken  from  the  top  of  the  Albion  mills,  near 
Blackfriars  bridge,  about  the  same  time. 

PANORMUS  (Battle).— During  the  first 
Punic  war  the  Roman  consul  C.  Csecilius 
Metellus  defeated  the  Carthaginians,  com- 
manded by  llasdrubal,  under  the  walls  of  this 
city,  the  modern  Palermo,  B.C.  250.  In  this 
struggle  the  elephants,  which  on  former 
occasions  had  been  used  with  such  effect 
against  the  Romans,  were  driven  back  and 
spread  confusion  in  the  ranks  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians. 

PANTALONE.— This  musical  instrument 
was  invented  by  Hebenstreit  towards  the  end 
of  the  1 7th  century. 

PANTALOON  appears  to  have  been  first 
introduced  on  the  English  stage  early  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603). 

PANTALOONS,  trousers  fitting  tight  to  the 
leg  or  knee,  with  this  name,  came  into  fashion 
about  1790.  The  word  was  in  use  before  that 
time. 

PANTHEISM  is  fully  developed  in  the 
"  Vedas "  of  the  Hindoos,  a  compilation 
which,  according  to  some  Oriental  scholars, 
dates  as  far  back  as  B.C.  1600.  Speculations 
of  this  kind,  among  the  Greeks,  seem  to  have 
originated  with  Anaximander,  of  Miletus 
(B.C.  610 — 547)  ;  and  were  prosecuted  by  Py- 


thagoras (B.C.  580 — B.C.  507) ;  by  Heraclitus  ^B.C. 
513) ;  and  by  Xenophaiies  (B.C.  540 — B.C.  500). 
The  system  was  supported  by  John  Scot  us 
Erigena,  875  ;  and  Giordano  Bruno,  burned 
alive  as  a  heretic,  in  the  Campo  di  Fiore,  at 
Rome,  Feb.  17,  1600.  It  was  advocated  by 
Spinoza  (1632 — Feb.  21,  1677),  followed  by 
Kant  (1724 — Feb.  12,  1804),  Fichte  (1762 — Jan. 
28,  1814),  Frederick  Schelling  (1775— Aug., 
1854),  and  Hegel  (1770 — Nov.  14,  1831).  The 
admirers  of  Spinoza  and  Kant  refuse  to  in- 
clude them  in  the  list  of  atheistical  writers. 

PANTHEON  (London).— This  building,  ori- 
ginally designed  by  James  Wyatt  as  a  theatre 
and  public  promenade,  was  opened  in  Jan., 
1772.  (See  HANDEL  COMMEMORATIONS.)  It  was 
burned  down  Jan.  14,  1792.  The  new  building 
erected  in  its  place  was  taken  down  and 
restored  in  1812,  and  was  converted  into  a 
bazaar  by  Sydney  Smirke  in  1834. 

PANTHEON  (Rome)  was  built  by  Agrippa, 
son-in-law  of  Augustus,  and  dedicated  to 
Cybele  and  Neptune,  B.C.  25.  It  was  con- 
secrated as  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  ad 
Martyres,  by  Boniface  IV.,  on  the  calends  of 
Nov.,  608. 

P  ANTIC  AP2EUM  (Tauric  Chersoncsus), 
sometimes  called  Bosporus,  of  which  it  was 
the  capital.  Justinian  I.  (527 — 65)  repaired  its 
walls.  Its  site  is  occupied  by  Kertch,  also 
called  Bospor. 

PANTOGRAPH,  or  PENTAGRAPH.— This 
instrument  for  copying,  reducing,  or  en- 
larging plans,  was  invented  by  Christopher 
Schemer  in  1603.  Professor  Wallace  improved 
upon  it,  and  produced  the  eidograph  (<j.  c.). 

PANTOMIME.— This  dramatic  entertain- 
ment, in  which  the  actors  express  themselves 
by  gestures  and  attitudes,  was  in  vogue  among 
the  ancients  from  the  earliest  times,  and  was 
brought  from  Etruria  to  Rome  (B.C.  364). 
Pantomimic  dances  were  practised  on  the 
Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and  Bathyllus  (B.C. 
22).  Gibbon  (ch.  xxxi.)  says  :  "  The  panto- 
mimes, who  maintained  their  reputation  from 
the  age  of  Augustus  to  the  6th  century,  ex- 
pressed, without  the  use  of  words,  the  various 
fables  of  the  gods  and  heroes  of  antiquity  ; 
and  the  perfection  of  their  art,  which  some- 
times disarmed  the  gravity  of  the  philosopher, 
always  excited  the  applause  and  wonder  of 
the  people."  The. modem  pantomime  was  in- 
vented in  Italy  by  Ruzzante,  an  author  and 
actor,  who  lived  about  1530,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  England  shortly  afterwards.  (See 
HARLEQUIN.) 

PAPAL  AGGRESSION.— A  papal  brief  from 
Rome,  constituting  an  episcopal  hierarchy  in 
England  and  Wales,  in  place  of  the  vicars 
apostolic,  arrived  in  England  in  Oct.,-  1850. 
By  this  instrument  England  was  parcelled  out 
into  Romish  dioceses,  and  Dr.  Wiseman  was 
constituted  first  Archbishop  of  Westminster  ; 
the  ceremony  of  his  enf/<roiti~uti<»i  being  per- 
formed with  much  pomp  at  the  cathedral 
church  of  St.  George's,  Southwark,  Dec.  6, 
1850.  The  agitation  caused  by  this  act  of 
papal  aggression,  led  to  the  passing  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assumption  Bill  (14  & 
15  Viet.  c.  60),  Aug.  i.,  1851,  which  prohibited 
the  constitution  of  bishops  of  pretended  pro- 


PAPAL  MANDATES 


[     747     1 


PAPIER 


viiices  under  a  penalty  of  ^100.    It  remained 
a  dead  letter. 

PAPAL  MANDATES.— (-See  MANDATES.) 
PAPAL  SCHISM,  or  GREAT  SCHISM 
OF  THE  WEST,  commenced  in  1378,  when  two 
popes,  Urban  VI.  and  Clement  VII.  (Antipope) 
were  elected.  The  latter  repaired  to  Avignon, 
and  rival  popes  ruled  at  Rome  and  Avignon 
until  the  election  of  Martin  V.,  by  the  Council 
of  Constance,  Nov.  n,  1417.  Some  authors 
fix  the  termination  of  the  schism  at  the  abdi- 
cation of  Clement  VIII.  (Antipope)  in  1429. 

PAPAL  STATES  ( Italy  j. —  Rome  was  go- 
verned by  its  bishops  after  the  fall  of  the 
Western  empire.  Rome  refused  to  pay  the 
Emperor  Leo  III.  the  accustomed  tribute  after 
his  condemnation  by  Gregory  II.,  in  726.  Pepin 
having  defeated  Astulphus,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards, obliged  him  to  give  up  the  exarchate 
of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  "  to  the  Holy 
Church  of  God  and  the  Roman  republic,"  in 
756  ;  a  cession  which  was  confirmed  and  added 
to  by  Charlemagne  in  774.  The  duchy  of 
Benevento  was  obtained  in  1053.  The  Countess 
Matilda  ceded  territory  to  Gregory  VII.  in 
1077,  and  the  whole  of  her  states  to  Pascal  II. 
in  1 102.  The  claim  of  the  Church  was  dis- 
puted by  some  of  the  emperors,  but  Innocent 
III.  succeeded  in  establishing  it  in  1199,  and 
Rodolph  I.  of  Habsburg,  by  letters  patent,  de- 
fined and  recognized  the  States  of  the  Church 
in  May,  1278.  The  papal  court,  having  been 
removed  from  Rome  to  Avignon  by  Cle- 
ment V.,  in  1309,  was  brought  back  to  the 
former  city,  and  the  government  reduced  to  a 
regular  form  in  1371.  Pope  Julius  II.  con- 
quered Romagna,  Bologna,  and  Perugia,  1503 — 
1513.  Ferrara  was  annexed  in  1597;  Urbino 
in  1632 ;  and  Castro  and  Ronciglione  in  1650. 
The  legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli, 
and  Ravenna,  with  other  territories,  were  in- 
corporated with  the  Cisalpine  republic  by 
Napoleon  Buonaparte,  in  1797.  Pius  VI.,  de- 
prived of  his  temporal  power,  was  sent  off  to 
Sienna,  Feb.  23,  1798,  and  his  dominions  were 
erected  into  the  Rom  an  republic,  March  20, 1798. 
Pius  VII.  having  been  restored,  a  concordat 
was  signed  between  Rome  and  France,  in  Sep., 
1 80 1  ;  but  his  dominions  were  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  May  21,  1808,  and  he  was 
carried  prisoner  to  Savona  July  6,  1809.  He 
was  restored  to  liberty,  and  allowed  to  re- 
turn to  Rome,  Jan.  23,  1814.  Pius  IX.  fled  to 
Gaeta  Nov.  25,  1848,  and  a  republican  form  of 
government  was  established  at  Rome  Feb.  8, 

1849.  Pius  IX.  returned  to  Rome,   the  city 
being  occupied  by  French  troops,   April  12, 

1850.  The  papal  army,  commanded  by  Lamo- 
riciere,  surrendered  prisoners  of  war  at  An- 
cona,  Sep.  29,  1860,  and  the  larger  portion  of 
the  Papal   States    was  annexed  to  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy  in  1859-60. 

PAPER.— The  Egyptian  Government  held  a 
monopoly  for  the  growth  and  sale  of  this  ar 
ticle,  which  was  manufactured  from  the  C</j>c- 
rus  papyrus,  probably  as  early  as  B.C.  2000, 
and  appears  to  have  become  of  considerable 
commercial  importance  B.C.  330.  A  fine  qua- 
lity made  at  Rome  was  called  August,  after 
the  emperor.  A  tumult  arose  owing  to  its 
scarcity,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (14 — 37).  The 


demand  for  paper  throughout  the  world  had 
increased  to  such  an  extent,  that  Finnus  de- 
clared he  had  seized  as  much  .in  Egypt  as 
would  support  his  whole  army,  273.  The  ex- 
port duty  was  abolished  by  Theodoric  the 
Great  (493 — 526).  Paper  from  cotton,  called 
by  the  Greeks  charta  bombycina,  was  made  by 
the  Arabs  in  the  7th  century,  and  a  factory 
was  established  at  Samarcand  in  706.  Meer- 
man  fixes  the  date  of  the  invention  of  linen 
paper  between  1270  and  1300.  The  Chinese 
discovered  the  art  of  manufacturing  it  from 
fibrous  matter  in  95.  The  manufacture  was 
commenced  in  the  Netherlands  in  1613.  A 
person  named  Tate  had  a  paper-mill  at  Hert- 
ford in  1490.  A  German,  named  Spielmah, 
who  was  knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  had 
one  at  Dartford,  in  Kent,  in  1580.  Charles 
Hildeyerd  took  out  a  patent  for  paper-making 
in  1665.  Thomas  Watson  effected  important 
improvements  in  1713.  Fine  paper  was  made 
by  Whatman,  at  Maidstone,  in  1770.  The  art 
was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1695.  It 
seems  to  have  come  into  France  from  Spain 
about  1260,  and  to  have  been  practised  in 
Germany  in  1312.  A  patent  was  granted  to 
Jerome  Lanyer  in  London,  for  a  method  of 
making  "  velvet-paper,"  May  i,  1634  ;  and  a 
similar  article  would  appear  to  have  been  pro- 
duced by  a  Frenchman  at  Rouen  in  1620  or 
1630.  The  first  paper-mill  in  North  America 
was  erected  at  Roxburgh,  Philadelphia,  in  1690. 
The  second  was  built  in  1710.  France  erected 
its  first  paper-machine  in  1815,  and  Berlin  in 
1818.  The  duty  was  abolished  in  England  by 
24  Viet.  c.  20  (June  12,  1861).  A  summary  of 
the  patents  for  making  paper  from  various 
materials,  with  the  dates,  is  given  in  "  Cham- 
bers's  Encyclopaedia,"  vol.  vii.  p.  242.  The 
paper-stainers  were  incorporated  in  1582. 

PAPER  MONEY.— Banking  establishments 
for  the  issue  of  notes,  or  paper  money,  have 
existed  in  England  since  the  end  of  the  i7th 
century.  The  Bank  of  England,  founded  by 
William  Paterson,  and  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  July  27, 1694,  has  long  been  the  greatest 
circulator  of  paper  money  in  the  world.  ^5 
notes  were  first  issued  in  1795.  An  act  was 
passed  for  the  issue  of  notes  under  .£5,  March 
3,  1797 ;  and  ,£1  and  £2  notes  were  issued 
March  10.  During  the  great  monetary  panic 
of  1825,  the  temporary  issue  of  £1  notes  proved 
of  much  service. 

PAPHLAGONIA  (Asia  Minor)- is  mentioned 
by  Homer,  B.C.  962  ;  was  incorporated  in  the 
Lydian  empire  by  Croesus,  B.C.  560 — 546  ;  and 
in  that  of  Persia  by  Cyrus,  B.C.  546.  Nominally 
independent  for  some  time  afterwards,  it  fell 
to  the  share  of  Eumenes,  B.C.  323.  It  was 
united  to  Pontus  by  Mithridates  III.,  B.C. 
290 ;  formed  a  part  of  the  province  of  Galatia, 
under  the  Romans,  B.C.  25  ;  and  was  made  a 
separate  province  by  Coustantine  I.  (323 — 
337)- 

PAPIAN  LAW,  proposed  and  carried  B.C. 
65,  by  C.  Papius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  required 
all  foreigners  to  depart  from  Rome. 

PAPIER  MACHE.— The  date  of  the  origin 
of  the  manufacture  of  articles  for  use  or  orna- 
ment from  paper,  ascribed  by  some  writers  to 
the  French,  and  by  others  to  the  English,  is 


PAPUA 


[     748     ] 


PARDON 


uncertain.  Many  of  the  fine  old  ceilings,  in 
deep  relief,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 
1603),  are  of  paper  pulp,  moulded  into  form, 
much  after  the  manner  of  papier  mache'.  The 
process  was  known  at  Paris  in  1740,  and  papier 
niache  was  used  for  snuff-boxes  about  the 
same  time.  John  Baskerville,  a  printer  at 
Birmingham,  manufactured  it  in  1745,  and 
from  that  time  its  use  has  gradually  spread 
throughout  the  country. 

PAPUA,  or  NEW  GUINEA  (Pacific  Ocean), 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511. 
Saavedra,  a  Spaniard  sent  from  Mexico  by 
Cortes,  visited  it  in  1528  and  1529.  Villabos 
changed  its  name  from  Papua  to  New  Guinea 
in  1543.  Dampier  sailed  along  the  northern 
coast  in  1699.  Capt.  Cook  ascertained  it  to  be 
an  island  in  1770  ;  Mac  Cluer  gave  his  name  to 
that  bay  in  1 792  ;  and  Flinders  surveyed  the 
coast  in  Torres  Strait  in  1802.  In  consequence 
of  a  survey  made  of  the  south-west  coast  by 
Kloff,  the  Dutch  founded  a  colony,  and  erected 
Fort  Dubus  in  Triton's  Bay,  in  1828.  Parts  of 
Papua  were  surveyed  in  1845,  1848,  and  1858. 
Protestant  missions  were  established  in  1855. 

1'AL'Y'RUS,  the  name  given  to  the  paper 
made  by  the  Egyptians  from  the  papyrus 
plant,  was  used  for  writing  about  B.C.  2000. 
The  rolls  of  that  material  were  made  known 
in  Europe  through  the  French  expedition,  in 
1798  ;  specimens  of  which  were  printed  by 
Cadet  in  1805.  Of  the  funereal  papyri  in 
the  Turin  museum  a  fac-simlle  was  published 
by  Dr.  Lepsius  in  1842.  The  books  of  Numa 
Pompilius,  containing  the  earliest  Roman 
laws,  probably  consisted  of  this  substance. 
Philostratus  mentions  it  as  a  staple  manu- 
facture of  Alexandria,  in  244.  It  continued  to 
be  used  in  Italy  till  about  the  i2th  century. 
In  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  1,756  rolls  were 
found  about  1753. 

PARA,  or  BELEM  (Brazil),  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  by 
l'rain:is  Caldeyni,  in  1615.  It  was  attacked  in 
1834  and  1835  by  the  Indians,  who  took  it  and 
kept  possession  for  six  months  in  1836. 

i 'ARABLE.— Under  this  figurative  form  of 
speech,  Nathan  reproved  David,  B.C.  1035  (2 
Sam.  xii.)  ;  and  our  Saviour  taught  the  Jews 
about  30  (Matt,  xiii.,  &c.). 

PARACHUTE. -A  machine  of  this  kind 
was  used  in  Siam  about  1650.  The  first  ex- 
periment in  Europe  was  made  by  Normand,  at 
Paris,  in  1783.  Blanchard  made  a  successful 
experiment  at  Strasburgh  in  1787.  Garneriii, 
a  Frenchman,  descended  in  London  from  a 
height  of  8,000  feet,  narrowly  escaping  with 
his  life,  Sep.  2,  1802 ;  and  his  daughter  twice 
performed  the  feat  in  1816.  Cocking  was 
killed  in  making  a  descent  in  a  parachute 
from  a  balloon  at  Lee,  near  Blackheath,  July 
24,  1837. 

PARADISE  LOST.— This  epic  poem  was 
commenced  by  Milton  about  1658,  and  com- 
pleted in  1665.  It  was  published  by  Simmons 
in  1667,  the  terms  being  an  immediate  pay- 
ment of  £5,  another  instalment  to  the  same 
amount  when  1,300  copies  had  been  sold;  a 
third  payment  of  £5  when  the  same  number 
of  the  second  edition  was  disposed  of  ;  and  .£5 
after  the  sale  of  the  third.  After  the  poet's 


death,  his  widow  cancelled  her  claims  on  the 
publisher  for  ^8,  and  the  third  edition  was 
issued  in  1678.  The  Paradise  Regained  ap- 
peared in  1671. 

PARAFFIN  was  discovered  by  Reichenbach 
in  coal,  wood,  and  tar,  in  1830;  and  Young 
patented  his  process  for  procuring  it  from 
bituminous  coal  in  1850.  (See  NAPHTHA  and 
PETROLEUM.  ) 

PARAGUAY  (S.  America).— A  large  colony 
of  Spaniards  founded  the  city  of  Assumption 
in  1535.  The  Jesuits,  who  established  nu- 
merous missions,  and  received  a  mandate  from 
the  Spanish  court,  prohibiting  others  from 
entering  without  permission,  in  1690,  were  ex- 
pelled in  1767.  (See  ABIPONIANS.)  Rebelling 
against  the  Spaniards  in  1810,  the  country 
formed  itself  into  a  republic  in  1811,  of  which 
Dr.  Francia  was  made  dictator  in  1814,  an  office 
he  held  till  his  death  in  Sep.  20,  1840.  Another 
republican  constitution  was  adopted  in  1844. 
A  commercial  treaty  with  the  Argentine  Re- 
public was  signed  in  1852  ;  with  the  United 
States,  Franco,  and  Sardinia,  in  1853  ;  and 
with  Great  Britain,  March  4,  1853.  New  Bor- 
deaux, a  French  colony  011  the  banks  of  the 
Paraguay,  established  in  1855,  was  soon  after 
abandoned.  The  Paraguay  fleet  seized  two 
Argentine  war  steamers,  and  occupied  Cor- 
rientes,  April  13  and  14,  1865  ;  and  war  was 
declared  April  16.  The  Argentine  Republic, 
Brazil,  and  Uruguay,  signed  a  treaty  of  al- 
liance against  Paraguay,  May  4,  1865.  The 
Paraguayans  were  defeated  near  Yatah,  Aug. 
17,  1865,  and  they  evacuated  the  Argentine 
territory  Nov.  3.  (See  URUGUAY.) 

PARANA  S.  America  .—The  English  and 
French  signed  a  treaty  with  the  Argentine 
Confederation,  respecting  the  navigation  of 
the  river  Parana,  July  10,  1853.  This  province 
of  Brazil,  formed  in  1855,  is  named  after  the 

PAR  ANILINE.— (See  ANILINE.) 

I' A  11 A  SOLS  were  used  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  the  Romans  employed  them  as 
a  protection  against  the  sun  at  the  theatre. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  borne  by 
horsemen  in  Italy.  The  modern  parasol  was 
first  used  in  France  about  1680. 

1'ARCHMENT.— The  term  is  derived  from 
C/,n,'/a  Pergccmma,  said  to  be  taken  from 
Pergamus,  to  whose  king,  Eumenes  II.  (B.C. 
197 — 159),  the  invention  has  been  attributed. 
It  was,  however,  in  use  among  the  Persians 
long  before  that  period  ;  and  among  the 
lonians,  as  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  B.C. 
450.  Parchment  superseded  papyrus  for 
public  documents  in  Europe  about  the  end 
of  the  7th  century.  Vegetable  parchment 
was  described  by  Gaine  in  1854,  and  by  Barlow 
in  1857. 

PARCHWITZ.— (See  PFAFFENDORF,  Battle.) 

PARDO  (Treaty).— Concluded  at  this  town 
in  Spain,  between  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
Governments,  March  31,  1778.  It  confirmed 
the  treaty  of  Ildefonso. 

PARDON,  a  branch  of  the  royal  prerogative 
in  England,  and  said  by  the  Saxons  to  be 
derived  a  lege  SUCK  dignitatis,  was  declared  to 
belong  solely  to  the  king,  "united  and  knit 
to  the  imperial  crown  of  this  realm,"  by  27 


PARGA 


[     749 


PARIS 


Hen.  VIII.  0.24(1536).  BytheActof  Settlement 
(12  &i3  Will.  III.  c.  2,  June  12,  1701),  no  pardon 
under  the  great  seal  of  England  is  pleadable 
to  an  impeachment  by  the  House  of  Commons. 

PARGA  (Turkey)  maintained  its  municipal 
independence  after  the  fall  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  under  the  protection  of  Venice,  till 
that  state  was  taken  by  the  French,  Oct.  17, 
1797.  Ali  Pasha  endeavoured  to  capture  it 
after  the  treaty  between  Russia  and  the  Porte, 
signed  in  March,  1800,  when  a  Turkish  bey 
was  sent,  who  held  it  until  a  Russian  garrison 
arrived  in  1806.  They  gave  way  to  a  French 
force,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
July  7,  1807.  The  fortress  was  taken  by  the 
English  March  22,  1814.  It  was  handed  over 
to  the  Porte,  by  agreement,  May  28,  1817  ;  and 
the  entire  population  of  800  families,  having 
received  from  Turkey  ^150,000,  the  value  of 
their  immovable  property,  emigrated  to  Paxo 
and  Corfu  in  May,  1819. 

PARIAN  CHRONICLE.— (See  OXFORD  or 
AEUNDELIAN  MARBLES.) 

PARIS  (France),  the  Roman  lutetia,  was 
the  capital  of  the  Parisii.  Julius  Csesar 
summoned  the  Gauls  to  assemble  here  B.C. 
53,  and  the  city  was  taken  by  his  lieutenant 
Labienus  B.C.  52.  Coxmcils  were  held  at 
Paris  in  360;  551;  557;  Sep.  u,  573;  in  577; 
Oct.  18,  615  ;  in  Nov.,  825  ;  June  6,  829 ;  Feb. 
14,  846 ;  in  849;  853  ;  1024  ;  Oct.  17,  1050  ;  Dec. 
2,  1104;  in  1147;  Jan.,  1185;  in  1196;  1201; 
Oct.,  1210;  in  1212;  Aug.,  1215;  July  6,  1223; 
May  15,  1225;  Jan.  28,  1226;  in  1229;  1248; 
Nov.  12,  1253;  July  13,  1255;  in  Feb.,  1256; 
April  10,  1261  ;  Nov.  18,  1263;  Aug.  26,  1264; 
in  Dec.,  1281  ;  April  10,  1302;  March  12,  1303  ; 
Oct.  ii  to  26,  1310;  May  7,  1314;  March  3, 
1324  ;  March  9  to  14,  1347  ;  Feb.  4,  1395 ;  May 
22,  1398;  Oct.  21,  1404;  in  1406;  Aug.  ii  to 
Nov.  5,  1408 ;  March  i  to  April  23,  1429 ;  and 
Feb.  3  to  Oct.  9,  1528. 


350.  St.  Penis  introduces  Christianity. 

355.  Julian  the  Apostate  visits  Lutetia. 

361.  Julian  is  proclaimed  emperor  at  Paris. 

451.  The  city  is  preserved  from  the  Huns  by  St.  Gene- 
vieve. 

4«6.  Clovis  I.  occupies  Paris. 

507.  Clovis  I.  makes  it  his  capital  city. 

522.  Childebert  I.  founds  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame. 

841.  Paris  is  ravaged  by  the  Northmen. 

845.  The  Northmen  make  another  attack  upon  Paris. 

850.  A  famine  prevails. 

855.  The  Northmen  again  attack  Paris,  which  suffers 
from  famine. 

861,  April  6.  Another  attack  by  the  Northmen. 

868.  It  suffers  from  famine. 

873.  Another  famine. 

885.  The  Northmen,  who  had  besieged  Paris  for  13 
months,  are  repelled  by  Count  Eudes  and  Bishop 
Goslin. 

896.  Another  famine. 

899.  Another  famine. 

940.  Another  famine. 

975.  A  famine  carries  off  numbers  of  the  inhabitants. 

987.  Hugh  Capet  becomes  King  of  France. 

998.  The  church  of  St.  Germain  1'Auxerrois  is  founded. 
1160.  Notre  Dame  is  rebuilt 
1163.  The  church  of  St.  Germain  is  completed. 
1169.  The  university  is  founded. 
1183.  The  first  portion  of  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  is 

consecrated. 

1190.  Paris  is  surrounded  by  walls  by  Philip  II.  (Augus- 
tus). 

1223.  The  Temple  is  built. 
1223.  The  western  front  of  Notre  Dame  is  built. 


A.D. 

1248.  The  Sainte  Chapelle  is  completed. 

1253.  Robert  of  Sorbonne  founds  the  school  of  La  Sor- 

bonne. 

1302.  The  parliament  of  Paris  is  organized. 
1306.  The  inhabitants  rebel,  and  besiege  Philip  IV.  in  the 

palace  of  the  Temple. 
1313.  Philip  IV.  divides  Paris  into  three  districts,  and 

rebuilds  the  Palais  de  Justice. 
1350-64.  John  II.  founds  the  Imperial  Library. 
1357.  The  first  Hotel  de  Ville  is  founded. 
1383.  The  insurrection  'of   the  MaiUotiia  breaks  out,  in 

consequence  of  an  unpopular  tux. 
1391.  The  French  artists  form  themselves  into  a  society 

called  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke. 
1396.  The  arsenal  is  founded. 
1418.  The  English  enter  Paris  at  the  invitation  of  John 

the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy. 
1422.  Henry  VI.  is  crowned  King  of  England  and  France 

1436.  The  English  are  expelled. 

1469.  The  Ecole  de  Mddeciii  is  founded. 

1500.  The  Pout  Notre  Dame  is  constructed. 

1528.  Francis  I.  commences  the  Louvre  (q.  ».). 

1533.  The  church  of  St.  Eustaclie  is  founded. 

I533-  The  Hotel  de  Ville  is  founded. 

1544.  Charles  V.  marches  on  Paris,  the  north-east  and 

south   quarters  of    which    the    Duke    of    Guise 

surrounds  with  a  ram  j, art. 
1551.  The  Fontaine  des  Innocents  is  erected. 
1564.  The  palace  of  the  Tuilcries  is  commenced. 
1572,  Aug.  24.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
1578.  Henry  III.  founds  the  Pont  Neuf. 
1583.  The  original  Palais  de  Luxemburg  is  completed. 
1604.  The  Pont  Neuf  is  completed. 
1610.  The  Jardin  des  Plantes  is  formed. 
1612.  The  Place  Royale  is  completed. 
1616.  The  Champs  Elysees  are  laid  out. 
1622-  Paris  is  erected  into  an  archbishopric. 
1645.  The  church  of  the  Val-de-Grace  is  founded. 
1648.  The  Itoyal  Academy  of  Painting  is  founded. 
1662.  Louis  XIV.  holds  a  carrousel  in  honour  of  Madlle. 

de  la  Valliere. 

1670.  The  boulevards  are  opened.    The  Hotel  des  Inva- 

Jides  is  founded. 

1671.  The  Uoyal  Academy  of  Architecture  is  founded. 

1672.  The  Porte  St.  Denis  is  erected,  and  the  Observatory 

is  completed. 
1674.  The  Porte  St.  Martin  is  built 

1684.  The  Pont  Royal  is  built. 

1685.  The  Place  des  Victoires  is  formed. 
1706.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides  is  completed. 

1716,  May  20.  Law  receives  permission  to  establish  a 
bank.  (See  LAW'S  BANK.) 

1718.  Peter  I.  of  Russia  visits  Paris.  The  palace  of  the 
Elysee  is  founded. 

1722-  The  Palais  Bourbon,  or  Chamber  of  Deputies,  is 
founded. 

1728.  The  names  of  the  streets  are  first  put  up. 

1752.  Louis  XV.  founds  the  Ecole  Militaire. 

1761.  The  southern  boulevards  are  completed. 

1764,  Feb.  The  Pantheon,  or  church  of  81 
founded. 

1779.  The  Odeon  is  built. 

1781.  The  Theatre  de  la  Porte  St.  Martin  is  built. 

1784.  The  Burse  is  established.  The  bones  and  human 
remains  from  the  cemeteries,  which  are  sup- 
pressed, are  deposited  in  the  catacombs. 

1786.  The  Palais  de  la  Legion  d'Honneur  is  built. 

1787.  The  Theatre  Francais  is  founded. 

1790.  The  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  or  Pont  de  Louis  XIV.,  is 

completed. 

1791.  The  Pantheon,  or  church  of  St  Genevieve,  is  com- 

pleted. 

1792.  Sep.  3.  Massacre  of  the  Abbaye  (q.  ».). 

1798.  The  first  National  Exposition  is  held  at  Paris. 

1799.  The  Ode'on  is  destroyed  by  fire. 

1800.  The  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise  (q.  v.)  is  formed. 
1802.  The  Rue  Rivoli  is  commenced.     Gas  is  introduced. 

1806.  The  Pont  de  Jena,  the  Arc  de  1'Etoile,  and  Arc  de 

Triomphe  du  Carrousel,  are  founded.    Numbers 
are  first  placed  on  the  houses. 

1807.  The  OdcSou  is  rebuilt. 

1808.  Napoleon  I.  founds  the  Bourse,  or  Exchange. 

1810,  Aug.  15.  The  column  in  the  Place  Vendome  is  com- 
pleted. 

1814.  March  30.  Paris  surrenders  to  the  Allies. 

1815.  The  English  encamp  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne. 

1816.  The  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  is  founded. 


St  Genevieve, 


PARIS 


750     ] 


PARLIAMENT 


A.D, 

1819.  Gas  is  introduced. 

1820.  The  Theatre  du  Gymnase  Dramatique  is  erected. 
1837.  The  Theatre  du  Vaudeville  and  the  Cirque  <  >lym- 

pique  are  built. — June  1 1.     The  Royal  Society  of 
Horticulture  is  established. 
1829.  The  Pont  des  Invalides  is  completed. 

1831,  July  28.  Louis  Philippe  founds  the  column  of  July. 

1832,  March  28.  The  cholera  appears  in  1'aris. 
1836.  The  Arc  de  1'Etoile  is  completed. 

1840.  The  fortifications  of   Paris  are   commenced. — July 

38.  The  column  of  July  is  inaugurated. 
1842.  Thechurchof  the  Madeleine  is  consecrated. 

1844.  The  first  Creche,  or  public  nursery,  is  established. 

1845.  The  Jardin  d'lliver  is  opened. 

1847,  April.  The  Theatre  Lyrique  is  opened. 

1848,  Feb.  22.    A  revolution  breaks  out  at  Paris.     (See 

FlIANCE.) 

1852,  July.  The  New  Louvre  is  commenced. 

1855,  May  15.  The  Industrial  Exhibition  is  opened.     The 

International  Statistical  Congress  meets  at  Paris. 

1859,  I'd'-   9-    An  imperial  decree   orders  important  ex- 

tensions of  the  Parisian  boundaries. 

1860,  The  Fontaine  St.  Michel  is  erected.— Dec.  20.  The 

Moniteur  contains  a  decree  admitting  English 
subjects  to  travel  without  pas-iports  after  In-e.  Jl. 
The  population  of  Paris  is  returned  at  1,500,129. 

1861,  March  31.  The  remains  of  the  Emperor   Napoleon 

are  removed  from  the  Chapel  of  St.  Jerome,  in  the 
church  of  the  Invalides,  to  the  tomb  beneath  the 
dome. 

1866,  May  i,  Tuesday.  The  Fine  Arts  Exhibition  is 
opened. 

(See    FRANCE,    PARLIAMENT    (FRENCH),     UNI- 
VERSAL EXHIBITION  (Paris),  &c.) 

PARIS    (Treaties).— The    following  are  the 
most  important  treaties  concluded  at  Paris  : — 

A.D. 

1229,  April  12.  Between  Louis  IX.  and  the  Count  of 
Toulouse,  who  ceded  Languedoc  to  the  French 
crown.  This  treaty  put  an  end  to  the  war  of  the 
Albigenscs. 

1303,  May  20.  Between  Edward  I.  of  England  and 
Philip  IV.  Aquitaine  is  ceded  to  England. 

1635,  Feb.  8.  France  and  the  Dutch  States-General  form 
an  alliance  against  Spain. 

1763,  Feb.  10.  Between  France  and  Spain,  and  Great 
Britain  and  Portugal.  France  eeiles  Nova  Scotia 
and  Canada  to  England,  and  Spain,  Florida. 
This  treaty,  with  that  of  Mubertsburg  (q.  p.),  be- 
tween the  German  Powers  and  Poland,  con- 
cluded the  Thirty  Years'  war. 

1796,  May  15.  P.. 'tween  France  and  Sardinia.  Savoy  and 
Nice  are  ceded  to  the  French  republic. — Oct.  n. 
Between  Naples  and  France. 

1810,  Jan.  6.  Between  France  and  Sweden.  Sweden 
receives  Rligen  and  Pomerania,  and  agrees  to 
exclude  English  commerce. 

1814,  April  H.   Between  the   Allies  and  Buonaparte,  who 

renounces  the  rulership  of  France.  This  is  also 
called  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau. — May  30. 
Between  France  and  the  Allied  powers.  France 
is  confined  within  the  limits  of  1792. 

1815,  Aug.    2.    Convention   between    Great   Britain    and 

Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  Napoleon  I.  is 
committed  to  the  custody  of  the  English. — Sep. 
26.  (See  HOLY  ALLIANCE.)— Nov.  ^.  Between 
France  and  the  Allied  powers,  to  settle  the  French 
boundaries,  &c.  France  promises  to  pay  an  in- 
demnity of  700,000,000  francs,  and  allow  certain 
fortresses  to  be  garrisoned  by  the  Allies  for  three 
years. 

1817,  June  10.  Between  Austria  and  Spain,  confirming 
the  congress  of  Vienna.— Nov.  23.  (See  CON- 
CORDAT.) 

1856,  March  30.     Between   Russia   and    Turkey,    Great 

Britain,  France,  and  Sardinia. 

1857,  March  4.    Peace  between    England   and   Persia.— 

May  26.  Between  England,  France,  Austria, 
Prussia,  Russia,  and  the  Swiss  Confederation, 
respecting  Neuchatel. 

1860,  Jan.  23-    Commercial  treaty    between  France  and 

England. 

1861,  Feb.  2.  Between  France  and  the  Prince  of  Monaco, 

for  the  cession  of  Mentone  and  Roquebrune  to 
France. 


A.T>. 

1864,  Sep.  15.  A  convention  is  signed  with  Italy  respect- 
ing the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  from 
Rome,  and  the  substitution  of  Florence  for  Turin 
as  the  capital  of  Italy. 

PARISH. — The  name  was  sometimes  applied 
to  a  bishop's  see  among  the  early  Christians. 
Alexandria  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  city 
divided  into  parishes.  According  to  Cam- 
deu,  England  was  divided  into  parishes  by 
Honoriusl.,  about  630,  though  some  authorities 
attribute  it  to  Alfred  the  Great  in  890.  Lay 
parishes  existed,  according  to  Bede,  about  700, 
and  the  division  is  to  be  found  in  the  laws  of 
Edgar  in  970.  The  creation  of  parishes  was 

Srobably  not  fully  effected  till  the  time  of  the 
orinan  conquest,  1066.  The  parish  clerks 
were  incorporated  in  1233.  By  7  &  8  Viet.  c. 
59  (July  29,  1844),  a  person  in  holy  orders  is 
allowed  to  act  as  parish  clerk. 

PARIS  INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITION.— The 
"Palais  de  I'lndustrie"  was  opened  at  Paris 
by  Napoleon  III.,  May  15,  1855,  when  Prince 
Napoleon,  president  of  the  commission,  read 
a  report  giving  an  account  of  its  rise  and 
progress.  It  was  visited  by  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert,  Aug.  24,  1855.  The  price 
of  admission  was  half  a  franc,  and  on  Sunday, 
for  the  working  classes,  two  sous.  It  was 
closed  Nov.  15,  1855. 

PA  UK  was  originally  a  portion  of  the  forest 
appropriated  by  the  lord  of  the  soil  for  the 
use  of  animals  of  the  chase.  The  first  park 
was  that  of  Woodstock,  made  by  Henry  I.  in 
1123.  St.  James's  Park  is  the  oldest  in  Lon- 
don, having  been  formed  by  Henry  VIII. 
in  1530.  (See  BATTERSEA,  GREEN,  HYDE,  ST. 
JAMES'S,  REGENT'S,  and  VICTORIA  PARKS.) 

1 '  A  I !  K.  E  R  S  O  C I E  T  Y.— Named  after  Dr. 
Matthew  Parker,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1559 — 76),  was  established  at  Cambridge  in  1840 
for  the  purpose  of  publishing  the  works  of 
the  fathers  and  early  writers  of  the  Reformed 
English  Church.  The  last  work  in  the  series 
appeared  in  1855. 

I'ARKHURST.— (See  JUVENILE  OFFENDERS.) 

PARLIAMENT.— Parry  (Parliaments  and 
Councils  of  England,  Introd.  x.)  remarks:-- 
"At  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  the 
Curia  Regis  was  called  the  King's  Parlia- 
ment, a  term  then  employed  to  express  any 
assembly  met  for  purposes  of  conference." 
It  did  not  then  denote  a  legislative  assembly, 
though  the  term  began  to  be  used  in  that 
sense  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  (1307 — 27).  The  two  branches  of 
the  legislature  assembled  in  the  same  room 
as  late  as  1342.  Their  joint  assent  became 
necessary  before  any  act  could  become  law 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (1461—83). 

A.D. 

1205.  The  first  writ  on  record  is  issued  by  John. 
1244.  The  prelates  and  barons  deliberate  separately. 
1254-  A    representative    parliament,    composed     of    two 

knights  from  every  shire,  is  convened  to  grant  an 

aid. 
1258,  June  n.  The  Mad  Parliament  (q.  i'.)meets  at  Oxford. 

This  is  the  first  called  a  parliament. 
1265.  The  earliest  writ  extant  is  issued. 
1295.  Borough  representation  is  said  to  commence. 
1311.  Annual  parliaments  are  ordered. 
1322.  Wales  is  represented  in  Parliament. 
1327,  Jan.  20  or  31.  Edward  II.  is  deposed  by  both  houses 

of  Parliament. 


PARLIAMENT 


7Si     ] 


PARLIAMENT 


1399,  Sep.  29.  llichard  II.  is  deposed  by  Parliament,  and 
the  House  of  Commons  begins  to  assert  its  control 
over  pecuniary  grants. 

1404,  Oct.  6.  The  Unlearned  Parliament,  or  the  Parliament 
of  Dunces,  so  called  because  lawyers  were  pro- 
hibited from  attending,  meets  at  Coventry  (q.  v.). 

1407,  Nov.  9.  The  Lords  and  Commons  are  permitted  to 
assemble  and  transact  business  in  the  sovereign's 
absence. 

1413,  May  25.  Members  of  Parliament  are  ordered  to 
reside  in  the  cities  and  boroughs  they  represent. 

1430,  Feb.  23.  The  Commons  adopt  the  4os.  qualification 
for  county  electors. 

1459.  The  Purliamentum  Diabolicum  is  held  at  Coven- 
try (q.  v.). 

1483.  The  statutes  are  first  printed. 

1543.  Members  of  Parliament  are  exempted  from  arrest. 
(See  FERBABS'S  ARREST.) 

1549.  The  eldest  sous  of  peers  are  permitted  to  sit  in  Par- 
liament 

1614,  April  5.  The  Addled  Parliament  (q.  v.). 

1640,  Nov.  3.  The  Long  Parliament  assembles. 

1649,  l'^'1'-  »  T'le  House  of  Lords  is  abolished. 

1653,  April  20.  Cromwell  dissolves  the  Long  Parliament. 

1660,  April  25.  The  House  of  Lords  is  restored,  but  only 

consists  of  peers  temporal. 

1661,  Nov.  20.  The  bishops  are  permitted  to  resume  their 

seats  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

1667.  An  attempt  is  made  to  unite  the  English  and  Scotch 
Parliaments. 

1677.  Roman  Catholics  are  excluded  from  sitting  in  either 
house,  by  30  Charles  II.  st.  2. 

1694.  Triennial  parliaments  are  ordered  by  6  Will,  and 
.Alary,  e.  2. 

1707,  May  i.  The  Parliaments  of  England  and  Scotland 
are  united  by  5  Anne,  c.  8.— Oct.  23.  The  first  Par- 
liament of  Great  Britain  assembles. 

1715.  Septennial  parliaments  are  ordered  by  I  George  I. 
st.  2,  c.  38. 

1800,  July  2.    The  Irish  Parliament  is  incorporated  with 

that  of  Great  Britain  by  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  67. 

1801,  Jan.  33.    The  united  Parliament   of   Great   Britain 

and  Ireland  holds  its  first  meeting. 

1829,  April  13.  The  Koman  Catholic  Emancipation  Act 
(10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7)  permits  Roman  Catholics  to  sit 
and  vote  in  either  house  of  Parliament  on  swearing 
fidelity  to  the  king  and  constitution. 

1833,  June  7.  Passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  (<?.  t>.). 

1858,  July  23.  Jews  are  admitted  to  sit  in  both  houses  by 
21  &  33  Viet.  c.  49. 

LIST  OF  PARLIAMENTS  SINCE  THE  UNION  BETWEEN 
GREAT   BRITAIN   AND    IRELAND. 


Royal 

Assembled. 

Speech 
delivered. 

Dissolved. 

GEORGE  III. 

1st.  —  796,  Sep.  27- 
2nd.—  802,  Nov.  16. 
3rd.-  806,  Dec.  15. 
4th.  —  807,  June  22. 

Oct.  6. 

Nov.  33. 
Dec.  19. 
June  36. 

1803,  June  39. 
1806,  Oct.  34. 
1807,  April  37. 
1813,  Sep.  39. 

5th.—  813,  Nov.  34. 
6th.—  1819,  Jan.  14. 

Nov.  30. 
Jan.  31. 

1818,  June  lo. 
1830,  Feb.  38. 

GEORGE  IV. 

7th."—  1820,  April  31. 
8th.—  1836,  Nov.  14. 

April  37. 

Nov.  31. 

1836,  June  14. 
1830,  July  33. 

WILLIAM  IV. 

9th.  —1830,  Oct.  36. 
loth.  —  1831,  June  14. 

Nov.  3. 
June  21. 

1831,  April  33. 
1^32,  i?ec.  3. 

nth.—  1833,  Jan.  2> 

Feb.  5. 

1834,  Dec.  29. 

13th.  —  1835,  Feb.  19. 

Feb.  34. 

I837,  July  17. 

VICTORIA. 

1  3th.—  1837,  Nov.  15. 

Nov.  30. 

1841,  June  33. 

I4th.  —1841,  Aug.  19. 
I5th.  —1847,  Nov.  1  8. 
loth.  —  1852,  Nov.  4. 

Aug.  34. 

K:£ 

1847,  July  33. 
1853,  July  I. 
1857,  March  31. 

I7tli.—  1857,  April  30. 
l8th.—  1859,  May  31. 

May  7. 
June  7. 

1859,  April  33. 
1865,  July  6. 

I9th.  —  i.s66,  Feb.  i. 

Feb.  6. 

(See  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS,   HOUSE  OF  LORDS, 
HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT,  &c.) 

PARLIAMENT  (French).— The  ancient 
French  parliament,  which  existed  as  early  as 
the  accession  of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  in  987, 
was  a  movable  court,  composed  of  the  great 
seigneurs  and  prelates  of  the  realm,  who  as- 
sembled under  the  presidency  of  the  king,  and 
accompanied  him  in  his  removes  from  place  to 
place.  In  1190,  Philip  II.  (Augustus)  insti- 
tuted the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  as- 
sembled three  times  a  year ;  and,  in  1302 
Philip  IV.  (the  Fair)  divided  it  into  three 
chambers, — the  Grande  Chambre,  or  Chambre 
ties  Plaids,  for  the  decision  of  causes  relating 
to  the  crown  and  matters  of  public  import- 
ance ;  the  Chambre  des  Enquetes,  which  regu- 
lated appeals ;  and  the  Chambre  des  Requeles, 
for  the  transaction  of  ordinary  parliamentary 
business.  The  first  public  ministry  was  formed 
in  1312,  when  avocats  and  procureurs  geiufraux 
were  appointed.  In  1453  Charles  VII.  formed 
the  Enquetes  into  two  chambers,  and  created  a 
new  chamber,  entitled  the  Tournelle  Criminelle, 
as  a  final  court  of  appeal.  In  1598  a  Chambre 
de  I'  Edit  was  erected,  for  deciding  cases  re- 
ferring to  Protestants— it  became  extinct  in 
1669  ;  and  in  1667  the  Tournelle  Civile  was  in- 
stituted, to  relieve  the  Grande  Chambre  of  some 
of  its  business.  In  1753  Louis  XV.  tried  un- 
successfully to  substitute  a  Chambre  Roy  ale  for 
the  parliament,  but  in  1771  it  became  ob- 
noxious on  account  of  its  unwise  proceedings, 
and  was  suppressed.  There  were  parliaments 
at  Aix,  Bordeaux,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Rouen, 
and  Toulouse,  which  were  all  suppressed  at 
the  same  time.  The  parliament  of  Paris  was 
restored  by  Louis  XVI.  Nov.  12,  1774. 

PARLIAMENT  (Ireland).— The  Irish  Parlia- 
ment was  modelled  on  that  of  England,  and 
exhibited  much  the  same  progressive  develop- 
ments. In  1494  Sir  Edward  Poynings,  one  of 
the  lord  deputies,  obtained  the  passing  of  the 
act  which  bears  his  name.  It  rendered  the 
assent  of  the  English  Parliament  essential  to 
all  laws  made  in  Ireland,  and  ordered  all  for- 
mer English  statutes  to  be  deemed  binding  in 
Ireland.  This  act  was  repealed  in  April,  1782. 
The  Irish  Parliament  was  united  to  that  of 
Great  Britain  by  the  third  article  of  the  Act 
of  Union,  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (July  2,  1800). 
It  was  prorogued  for  the  last  time  Aug.  2, 
1800,  and  met  at  London  as  an  integral  portion 
of  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  Jan.  22, 

'PARLIAMENT  (Scotland)  .—The  ancient 
forms  of  government  in  Scotland  seem  to  have 
been  nearly  analogous  with  those  adopted  in 
this  country,  the  legislature  being  conducted 
by  the  sovereign  with  the  advice  of  his  council. 
The  first  assembly  properly  called  a  parliament 
was  convoked  at  Scone  by  John  Baliol,  Feb.  9, 
1292.  Burgesses  were  admitted  by  Robert 
Bruce  July  15,  1326,  when  a  grant  of  the  tenth 
penny  of  all  rents  was  made  to  the  king  by  the 
earls,  barons,  burgesses,  and  free  tenants  in 
full  parliament  assembled.  The  Scotch  Par- 
liament differed  from  that  of  England  in 
having  only  one  house,  but  a  committee, 
known  as  the  Lords  of  Articles  (q.  v. },  answered, 
to  some  extent,  the  purpose  of  a  hotise  of 
peers.  The  Parliaments  of  England  and  Scot- 
land were  united  by  5  Anne,  c.  8  (May  i,  1707). 


PARMA 


[     752     ] 


PARTITION 


PARMA  (Battles).— The  Austrians  and  Sar- 
dinians fought  an  indecisive  battle  near  this 

town  in  Italy,  June  29,  1734. Suwarrow,  at 

the  head  of  a  Russian  army,  defeated  the 
French,  commanded  by  Marshal  Macdonald, 
June  19,  1799. 

PARMA  (Italy),  in  the  ancient  GnUia  Cis- 
',  was  colonized  by  the  Romans  after 
the  subjugation  of  the  Boii,  B.C.  183.  It  re- 
ceived a  colony  of  Goths  by  order  of  Gratian, 
in  377  ;  was  included  in  Lombardyin  572  ;  and 
was  transferred  by  Charlemagne  to  the  papal 
see  about  774.  The  cathedral,  which  contains 
a  fresco  by  Correggio,  was  consecrated  in  1106. 
The  government  was  usurped  by  the  Correggio 
family  in  1334.  The  French,  who  obtained 
possession  in  1499,  were  expelled  in  1513  by 
Maximilian  I.,  Parma  and  Piacenza  being 
given  to  Pope  Leo.  X.  In  1543  Paul  III. 
erected  Parma  and  Piacenza,  with  the  sur- 
rounding  territory,  into  a  duchy  in  favour  of 
his  natural  son,  Peter  Louis  Farnese,  who  was 
assassinated  Sep.  10,  1547.  The  duchy  was 
held  for  the  Emperor  till  1557,  when  it  was 
restored  to  the  Farnese  line,  which  became  ex- 
tinct in  1731.  The  duchy  passed  to  Don  Carlos, 
who  exchanged -it  with  Austria  for  the  Two 
Sicilies,  in  1735.  Parma  and  Piacenza  were, 
with  Guastalla,  restored  to  Spain  in  1748. 
The  Academy  of  Painting  was  founded  in 
1716,  and  that  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  1752.  When 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  invaded  Italy,  he  com- 
pelled the  duke  to  furnish  supplies  for  his 
army,  May,  1796;  but  peace  was  agreed  to 
Nov.  6,  1796.  In  1815  Parma,  Piaceuza,  and 
Guastalla  were  formed  into  a  duchy,  and  be- 
stowed upon  Maria  Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon 
I.  After  her  death,  Dec.  18,  1847,  certain 
territories  were  exchanged  with  Modem.  An 
insurrection  took  place,  and  the  Austrian 
garrison  was  expelled,  March  19,  1848;  and 
Charles  II.  resigned  in  favour  of  his  sou, 
Charles  III.,  March  14,  1849.  Charles  III.  was 
assassinated  March  20,  1854,  and  his  wi.low, 
Marie  Therese  de  Bourbon,  became  regent  for 
her  infant  son.  An  insurrection  occurred 
April  30,  1859,  when  the  duchess  left  the 
capital,  to  which  she  returned  May  4.  An 
alliance  with  Tuscany  and  Modena  was  signed 
Aug.  20.  Another  revolution  occurred  soon 
after,  and  Parma  was  annexed  to  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860.  Col.  Anviti  was 
seized  at  Parma  and  put  to  death  with  great 
cruelty,  Oct.  6,  1859. 

PAROS,  or  PARUS  (/Egean  Sea).  — This 
island,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  inhabited  by  Cretans  and 
Arcadians.  The  loiiians  colonized  it  at  an 
early  period.  The  Oxford,  or  Arundelian 
marbles,  were  found  here. 

PAR RUT  (Battle!.— Ethelwulph defeated  the 
Danes  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Parretin  845. 

PARRICIDE. — The  Athenians  had  no  law 
against  parricides,  as  they  professed  to  believe 
that  nobody  could  be  so  wicked  as  to  kill  a 
parent.  This  was  also  the  case  with  the 
Romans  until  L.  Ostius  killed  his  father, 
about  B.C.  172.  It  was  then  enacted  that  the 
criminal,  after  he  had  been  first  scourged  until 
the  blood  came,  should  be  sewn  up  in  a  leathern 
sack  with  a  dog,  an  ape,  a  cock,  and  a  viper, 


and  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  This  punishment 
was  changed  by  the  Lex  Pompeia  into  that  of 
the  sword,  or  burning,  or  throwing  to  wild 
beasts. 

PARSDORF  (Armistice).  —  A  truce,  con- 
cluded at  Alessandria  between  France  and 
Austria,  June  16,  1800,  was  extended  to  Ger- 
many, under  the  name  of  the  armistice  of 
Parsdorf,  July  15.  Hostilities  ceased  at  all 
points,  and  could  not  be  resumed  without  12 
days'  notice.  Negotiations  were  resumed,  and 
the  preliminaries  of  peace,  on  the  basis  of  the 
treaty  of  Campo-Forrnio,  were  signed  at  Paris 
July  28,  1800. 

PARSEES.— Owing  to  the  persecutions  of 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of  Persia,  the 
Guebres,  descendants  of  the  ancient  fire-wor- 
shippers, sought  refuge  in  the  north-western 
parts  of  Hindostan,  chiefly  Bombay  and  Goo- 
jurat,  about  652,  when  they  were  called  Par- 
sees,  or  Persians. 

PARTHENON,  or  "HOUSE  OF  THE 
VIRGIN." — The  temple  of  Minerva,  protectress 
of  Athens,  was  built  in  that  city  in  the  time 
of  Pericles, — Callicrates  and  Ictinus  being  the 
architects,  and  Phidias  the  chief  sculptor, — 
about  B.C.  448.  It  suffered  from  the  ex- 
plosion of  a  powder  magazine  during  a 
siege  by  the  Venetians  in  1687.  (See  ELGIN 
MARB  i 

PARTHENON  CLUB  (London),  with  which 
the  Erectheum  was  amalgamated  in  1854,  was 
dissolved  in  1862. 

PARTHENOPE.— (See  NAPLES.) 

PARTHEXOPEAN  REPUBLIC  was  estab- 
lished in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  by  the  French, 
after  its  conquest,  Jan.  23,  1799.  Cardinal 
Ruffo  took  the  field,  at  the  head  of  17,000 
Calabrians,  and  Macdonald  received  orders 
from  the  Directory  to  abandon  Naples,  May, 
1799,  and  the  short-lived  republic  came  to  an 
end  in  J  uno. 

PARTMIA  (Asia),  subject  at  an  early  period 
to  Media,  to  Persia,  and  subsequently  to 
Alexander  III.  and  his  successors,  threw  off 
the  Hyro-Macedonian  rule,  when  tl»e  dynasty 
of  the  Arsacidsu  was  established,  B.C.  250.  On 
the  death  of  Artabanes,  the  last  king,  Ar- 
taxerxes  usurped  the  supreme  power,  and 
founded  the  new  Persian  dynasty,  called  the 
Sassanides,  in  226.  The  empire  extended  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  Indus,  and  from  the 
Oxus  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  at  the  death  of 
Mithridates,  B.C.  130.  It  was  invested  by  the 
Romans,  under  the  triumvir  Crassus,  B.C.  55, 
who  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Carrhse 

B'PARTITION  TREATIES.— A  treaty,  regu- 
lating the  succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
and  its  partition,  was  concluded  between  Eng- 
land and  Holland  Aug.  18,  1698. Another 

treaty  for  the  same  purpose,  between  England, 
France,  and  Holland,  was  signed  in  London 
Feb.  21,  1700,  andat  the  Hague,  by  the  French 
envoy  and  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  States- 
General,  March  25. The  first  treaty  for  the 

partition  of  Poland,  between  Austria,  Prussia, 

and   Russia,  was    made    in    Feb.,    1772. A 

second  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  Aug.  5, 

1772. The    third,   for  the    final  partition 

of  the  kingdom,  was  concluded  Oct.  24,  1795. 


PARTRIDGES 


[    753    1 


PATHOS 


PARTRIDGES   AND    PHEASANTS.— It  is 

recorded  that  Becket  dined  off  a  pheasant  on 
the  day  he  was  assassinated,  Dec.  29,  1170. 
Fine  and  imprisonment  for  taking  partridges 
and  pheasants  were  awarded  byn  Hen.  VII. 
c.  17  (1497). 

PASARGAD^E  (Persia).— The  name  of  this 
town  is  sometimes  written  Passagarda  an " 
Pasargada.  It  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Cyrus  B.C.  558,  after  his  defeat  of  Astyages 
near  this  spot.  The  kings  of  Persia  were 
consecrated  here  by  the  magi. 

PASCHAL  CYCLE,  formed  by  the  multi- 
plication of  the  sun's  cycle,  28  years,  with  that 
of  the  moon,  19  years,  to  ascertain  when 
Easter  occurs,  was  adopted  by  the  general 
Council  of  Nica^a,  325.  It  was  discontinued  in 
England  by  act  of  Parliament,  Sep.  2,  1752. 

PASQUINADE.— This  name,  given  to  a  short 
satirical  poem,  is  derived  from  Pasquino,  a 
tailor  of  Rome,  who,  towards  the  close  of 
the  isth  century,  wrote  lampoons,  and  hung 
them  up  on  a  mutilated  statue  during  the 
night. 

PASSARO,  CAPE  (Sea-fight).— Admiral 
Byng,  created  Viscount  Torrington  in  1721, 
defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  this  cape,  on  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  July  31,  1718.  The  English 
captured  five  ships  of  the  line  and  eight 
frigates. 

PASSAROWITZ  (Peace).— A  treaty  of  peace 
between  Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
the  Venetians,  and  the  Turks,  was  concluded 
at  Passarowitz,  the  ancient  Margus,  in  the 
province  of  Servia,  July  21,  1718.  The  congress 
opened  June  5.  The  Sultan  ceded  Belgrade, 
Temeswar,  and  parts  of  Bosnia,  Servia,  and 
Wallachia,  to  the  emperor.  The  Venetians 
lost  the  Morea. 

PASSAU  (Bavaria).— The  bishopric,  of  which 
it  is  the  capital,  founded  in  the  7th  century, 
and  for  a  long  time  an  independent  state,  was 
secularized  in  1803,  and  united  to  Bavaria  in 
1809.  A  treaty,  securing  religious  freedom  to 
the  Protestants,  and  terminating  the  first  war 
of  religion  in  Germany,  was  signed  in  the  build- 
ing now  used  for  the  post-office,  on  behalf  of 
Charles  V.,  July  31,  1552.  The  cathedral  and 
part  of  the  town  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1662. 
The  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Maximilian 
Joseph  was  erected  in  1828. 

PASSENGERS  in  public  vehicles  are  pro- 
tected by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22  (Sep.  22,  1831), 
by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  79  (Aug.  10,  1838),  and  by  16  & 
17  Viet.  (June  28,  1853).  The  laws  relating  to 
passengers  by  sea  were  amended  and  consoli- 
dated by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  44  (June  30,  1852), 
repealed  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  119  (Aug.  14,  1855), 
which  substituted  new  regulations,  and  was 
amended  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  51  (July  13,  1863), 
that  came  into  operation  Oct.  i.  (See  DEATH 
BY  ACCIDENTS  COMPENSATION  ACT.) 

PASSIONISTS,  a  congregation  of  Roman 
Catholic  priests  founded  by  Paul  Francis 
(1694 — 1775),  surnamed  Paul  of  the  Cross,  in 
1737.  The  first  convent  was  established  on 
the  Celian  Hill,  at  Rome.  It  has  been  revived 
since  1830. 

PASSOVER,  or  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread, 
commemorating  deliverance  from  the  destroy- 
ing angel  when  the  first-born  of  Egypt  were 


smitten,  was  ordained  by  God  to  be  observed 
by  the  Jews  for  ever,  B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xii.). 

PASSPORTS  are  of  ancient  date.  A  pass- 
port granted  by  Julius  Csesar  to  a  philosopher 
ran  thus  : — "  If  there  be  any  one,  on  land  or 
sea,  hardy  enough  to  molest  Potamon,  let  him 
consider  whether  he  be  strong  enough  to  wage 
war  with  Csesar."  The  system  became  very 
oppressive  in  Europe  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century.  British  subjects  were  allowed  to 
travel  in  France  without  passports  from  Jan. 
i,  1861,  and  in  Italy  from  June  26,  1862.  A 
convention  for  the  abolition  of  passports,  con- 
cluded by  Bavaria,  Hanover,  Saxony,  and 
Wtirtemberg,  came  into  operation  Jan.  i, 
1866. 

PASTOUREAUX,  or  SHEPHERDS,  fol- 
lowers of  an  impostor  in  Flanders,  called  the 
Master  of  Hungary,  arose  in  1251.  They  spread 
into  France,  entering  the  city  of  Orleans  on 
St.  Barnabas  day,  June  n,  and  committed 
dreadful  outrages  on  the  inhabitants.  At 
Bourges  the  leader  was  slain,  and  his  followers 
massacred.  A  similar  rising  in  France  led  to 
a  general  massacre  of  the  Jews  in  1321. 

PATAGONIA  (S.  America),  so  named  by 
Magalhaens,  who  discovered  it  in  1520.  Sir 
Francis  Drake  sailed  along  the  coast  in  1578, 
and  Capt.  Cook  explored  it  in  1774.  A  settle- 
ment, formed  by  the  Chilians  at  Port  Famine 
in  1843,  wa?  removed  to  Sandy  Point  in  1850. 
An  expedition  to  discover  a  suitable  site  for  a 
new  colony  was  despatched  in  1854. 

PATAY  (France).— Lord  Talbot  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  French,  under  Joan 
of  Arc,  at  this  town,  June  18,  1429. 

PATENTS  for  titles  of  nobility  were  first 
made  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  (1377 — 1399). 
Patents  for  new  inventions  are  founded  upon 
a  statute  passed  in  1623,  which  grants  the  pri- 
vilege "  of  the  sole  working  or  making  of  new 
manufactures  within  the  realm  to  the  true  and 
first  inventor  and  inventors  of  such  manufac- 
tures." An  act  (5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  83)  for  im- 
proving the  patent  laws  was  passed,  under 
the  auspices  of  Lord  Brougham,  Sep.  10,  1835. 
Commissioners  of  patent  laws  were  appointed 
by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  83  (July  i,  1852).  The 
Commissioners  printed  the  specifications  of 
all  the  patents  granted  in  England  from  1711 
to  1852,  in  volumes,  of  which  the  first  appeared 
in  1853,  and  the  last  in  1858.  The  first  number 
of  the  Commissioners  of  Patents'  Journal  ap- 
peared in  Jan.,  1854.  The  Library  and  Read- 
Ing-Room,  in  Southampton  Buildings,  were 
opened  in  March,  1855,  and  the  Museum  at 
South  Kensington  in  1859.  The  charge  for  admis- 
sion made  on  certain  days  has  been  abolished 
since  May,  1858.  (See  INVENTORS'  INSTITUTE.) 

PAT  BRINES,  holding  Gnostic  opinions, 
[leaded  by  a  certain  Gerard,  made  their  ap- 
pearance at  Monteforte,  and  were,  many  of 
them,  burned  at  Milan  by  Archbishop  Heri- 
bert,  about  1026.  The  term  Paterini,  or  Pate- 

nes,  was  also  applied  to  the  Paulicians,  the 
Manichseans,  and  other  sects. 

PATERSON  (N.  America).— This  town,  in 
New  Jersey,  was  founded  in  1791  for  the  ma- 
nufacture of  cotton. 

PATMOS,  PALMOSA,  or  PATINO  (JSgean 
Sea)/ — St.  John  is  said  to  have  been  banished 


PATNA 


[     754    1 


PATRIPASSIANS 


to  this  island,  one  of  the  Sporades,  according 
to  some  authorities  during  the  persecution  ol 
Nero  in  64,  and  according  to  others  during 
that  of  Domitiau  in  95.  Here  he  received  the 
Revelation  (i.  9,  &c.). 

PATNA,  or  PATTANA  (Hindostan),  in  San 
scrit,  Pataliputra,  the  Palimhothra  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  capital  of  Bengal,  B.C.  419,  was  visited  by 
Megasthenes,  as  ambassador  from  Seleucus 
Nicator  to  Sandracottus,  B.C.  305.  It  was  in 
corporated  with  the  empire  of  Delhi  in  1194. 
The  English  failed  in  an  attempt  to  establish 
a  factory  here  in  1620.  Major  Camac  defeated 
Shah  Alum  II.  here  in  Jan.,  1761.  Ellis  cap- 
tured it  June  25,  1763  ;  but  the  troops  having 
been  made  prisoners  while  engaged  in  plunder, 
it  was  retaken  Nov.  6.  An  action,  in  which 
Mir  Casim  was  defeated,  secured  the  town  to 
the  English,  Oct.  23,  1764.  A  column  marks 
the  grave  of  200  English  prisoners  murdered 
in  cold  blood  by  Mir  Casim  in  1763.  Dr.  Lyell 
was  murdered  by  the  mutineers  in  the  streets, 
July  3,  1857. 

PATOCHIN  (Battle).— Louis  of  Baden  de- 
feated the  Turks  in  this  battle,  fought  Aug. 
30,  1689. 

PATRyE,  PATRAI,  or  PATRAS  (Greece), 
one  of  the  12  Achaean  cities,  was  founded  by 
the  lonians,  took  the  Athenian  side  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  B.C.  431  ;  and,  through  the 
persuasion  of  Alcibiades,  connected  itself  by 
a  wall  with  the  port  of  Athens,  B.C.  419. 
Casaaader.  one  of  Alexander  the  Thirds 
generals,  having  taken  it,  was  driven  out  by 
Aristodcmus  B.C.  314.  The  inhabitants  ex- 
pelled the  Macedonians  and  renewed  the 
Achaean  League  with  Dyme,  Phane,  and 
Tritsea,  B.C.  280.  After  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  it  was  taken  by  Cato,  B.C.  48.  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  chose  it  for  a  winter  residence 
B.C.  32-31.  It  was  restored  and  colonized 
with  Roman  soldiers  by  Augustus,  about  B.C. 
20 ;  sent  an  archbishop  to  the  Council  of 
Sardica  in  May,  347  ;  and  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  in  the  6th  century.  It  was 
restored  and  purchased  by  the  Venetians  in 
1408  ;  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1446  ;  and 
recovered  by  the  Venetians  in  1533.  The 
Turks  burned  it  in  1770,  and  the  Russians 
destroyed  a  Turkish  fleet  off  Patras  in  1772. 
The  Turks  held  it  till  the  revolution  in 
1828,  when  it  capitulated  to  the  French, 
and  forms  part  of  the  modern  kingdom  of 
Greece. 

PATRIARCH. — The  appellation  was  given 
to  the  early  ancestors  of  the  Jews;  also  to 
certain  governors  among  the  Jews  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  70.  The  order 
became  extinct  in  the  end  of  the  4th  century. 
It  was  first  applied  to  bishops,  by  authority  of 
the  Church,  in  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451, 
although  Socrates  in  his  history  says  it  began 
to  be  used  as  the  title  of  eminent  bishops 
after  the  second  general  council  held  at 
Constantinople  in  381.  There  were  four  great 
patriarchates  in  the  early  Church,  viz : — 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Constantinople,  and 
Rome,  to  which  a  fifth,  Jerusalem,  was  added 
in  451.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  was 
distinguished  as  oecumenical  or  universal 


patriarch,  and  the  Bishop  of  Rome  as  prince  of 
the  patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS,  an  appellation  given  to  the 
Roman  populace  by  Romulus.  It  belonged  to 
every  Roman  citizen  till  the  creation  of  the 
patres  minorum  gentium  by  Tarquin,  and 
formed  the  exclusive  source  of  the  senate, 
consuls,  and  pontifices,  till  B.C.  365.  Headed 
by  L.  Tarquinius,  they  conspired  against  King 
Servius  and  murdered  him,  B.C.  534.  The 
dignity  censed  to  be  hereditary  in  the  reign 
of  Constantino  I.  (323 — 337).  The  Patres  were 
the  heads  of  the  Patrician  houses. 

PATRICK,  ST.  (Order),  consisting  of  the 
sovereign,  a  grand  master,  and  15  knights,  was 
founded  in  Ireland  by  George  III.,  Feb.  5, 1783. 
The  number  was  increased  to  22  by  the  new 
statutes  of  1833. 

PATRICK'S  (ST.)  CATHEDRAL  (Dublin) 
was  founded  by  Archbishop  Comyn,  in  1190, 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1283,  and  having  been 
rebuilt,  was  dissolved  at  the  Reformation,  and 
used  for  courts  of  justice  about  1539.  Mary 
(I553~8)  restored  it  to  its  original  use.  It 
was  re-opened,  having  been  restored  by  Mr. 
Guiness,  Feb.  24,  1865. 

PATRIOTIC  FUNDS.— After  Admiral 
Jervis's  victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet,  a  sub- 
scription was  made  at  Lloyd's  for  the  relief 
of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had 
fallen  in  the  engagement,  March  3,  1797.  At 
a  meeting  of  merchants,  under-writers,  and 
other  subscribers  to  Lloyd's,  July  20,  1803,  it 
was  resolved  to  raise  a  fund  on  an  extended 
scale  for  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those 
killed  in  defence  of  their  country,  and  up- 
wards of  ,£100,000  was  subscribed  by  the  end 
of  the  month.  The  committee  voted  swords, 
pieces  of  plate,  and  sums  of  money,  to  the 
officers  and  men  engaged  in  the  gallant  defence 
of  Dominica,  May  i,  1805.  In  the  House  of 
Commons,  Lord  Howick  characterized  it  as 
"that  mischievous  system  of  rewards,"  tend- 
ing to  bring  the  government  into  contempt, 
Dec.  19,  1806.  InCobbett's  "  Political  Register" 
it  was  represented  as  a  "  grand  means  of 
making  a  formidable  opposition  to  govern- 
ment." Its  funds  amounted  to  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  million  of  money,  Jan.  24,  1807. 
A  commission  was  issued  June  13,  1854,  by 
Queen  Victoria,  presided  over  by  Prince 
Albert,  to  raise  and  distribute  a  fund  for  those 
engaged  in  the  Russian  war.  A  military 
musical  fete  in  aid  of  the  fund  was  given  at 
the  Crystal  Palace,  Oct.  28,  1854 ;  a  great 
meeting  was  held  in  London,  Nov.  2  ;  and  a 
million  was  soon  collected.  Out  of  the  fund, 
which  eventually  amounted  to  £1,458,000,  an 
nstitution  for  the  education  of  300  daughters 
of  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines,  was  esta- 
}lished,  the  foundation-stone  being  laid  by 
Queen  Victoria,  on  Wandsworth  Common, 
July  ii,  1857.  Another  patriotic  fund,  for  the 
•elief  of  the  sufferers  by  the  Indian  mutiny, 
>riginated  at  a  public  meeting  held  in  London 
Aug.  25,  1857.  The  sum  collected  amounted 
Lo  £434,729  in  Nov.,  1858. 

PATRIPASSIANS,  the  followers  of  Praxeas, 
a  Phrygian,  who  maintained  that  the  Father 
was  born  of  the  Virgin,  died  upon  the  cross, 
%nd  was  buried,  arose  at  Rome  towards  the 


PATTEN  MAKERS 


[    755    1 


PAUL'S 


end  of  the  2nd  century.  They  were  called  Mo- 
narchians.  Tertullian  wrote  against  Praxeas. 
The  term  was  also  applied  to  the  followers 
of  Noe'tus — called  Noetians  or  Callistiaus — a 
native  of  Smyrna,  who  early  in  the  ^rd 
century  maintained  that  God  was  united  with 
the  man  Christ,  and  in  him  was  born  and 
suffered  ;  and  to  the  Sabellians  (q.  v.). 

PATTEN  MAKERS  (London).— This  com- 
pany was  formed  in  1670. 

PAULIANS,  PAULINIANS,  or  PAULIAN- 
ISTrf.— The  followers  of  Paul  of  Samosata, 
who  held  some  peculiar  notions  respecting  the 
Godhead.  Bingham  asserts  that  he  denied 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  introduced  a  new 
form  of  baptism.  Paul  of  Samosata  was 
accused  of  heresy  at  the  Council  of  Antioch 
in  264,  but  escaped  censure.  He  was  con- 
demned by  another  council  held  at  Antioch 
in  269,  and  was  expelled.  The  Council  of 
Nicaea  (June  19 — Aug.  25,  325)  ordered  the 
Paulians  to  be  re-baptized  previous  to  admis- 
sion into  the  Church. 

PAULICIANS,  or  Disciples  of  St.  Paul, 
originated  with  one  Constantino,  of  Mananalis, 
near  Samosata,  in  660.  He  fell  a  martyr  to  his 
principles  in  687.  According  to  other  autho- 
rities they  were  followers  of  Paid  and  John, 
two  brothers  living  at  Jerusalem,  who  held 
Gnostic  or  Manichsean  opinions,  and  were 
named  after  the  former.  They  were  frequently 
persecuted,  and  it  is  said  that  100,000  were 
extirpated  by  the  sword,  the  gibbet,  or  the 
flames,  by  order  of  the  Empress  Theodora, 
about  845.  Carbeas,  commander  of  the  guards, 
followed  by  5,000  of  the  sect,  renounced  the 
allegiance  of  Rome,  leagued  with  the  Moham- 
medans, founded  and  fortified  the  city  of 
Tephrice,  and  defeated  the  Emperor  Michael 
III.  (842—867)  under  the  walls  of  Samosata. 
Led  by  Chrysocheir,  successor  of  Carbeas,  they 
pillaged  Nicsea,  Nicomedia,  Ancra,  and  Ephesus 
in  868,  turning  the  cathedral  of  the  latter  city 
into  a  stable  for  mules  and  horses,  to  manifest 
their  abhorrence  of  images  and  relics.  They 
were  attacked  by  the  forces  of  Basilius  I., 
their  leader  slain,  and  Tephrice,  their  strong- 
hold, taken,  in  871.  Constantino  V.  (Copro- 
nymus)  having  discovered  a  great  number  of 
them  in  Melitene  and  Theodosiopolis,  trans- 
planted them  to  Constantinople  and  Thrace, 
and  so  introduced  their  doctrine  into  Europe, 
about  750.  John  I.  (Zimisces)  removed  a 
powerful  colony  of  the  sect  from  the  Calybiaii 
hills  to  Philippopolis,  in  Thrace,  in  970.  Having 
spread  through  Italy  into  the  southern  pro- 
vinces of  France,  a  persecution  was  raised 
against  them,  and  large  numbers  were  slain  in 
1200.  The  charge  of  Manichseism  is  said  to  be 
unfounded.  Mosheim  says  that  a  remnant  of 
the  sect  existed  in  Bulgaria  in  the  i7th  cen- 
tury. (See  PATERINES.) 

PAUL'S  (ST.)  CATHEDRAL  (London).— 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  denies  Camden's  state- 
ment that  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  occupied  the 
site  of  a  Roman  temple  to  Diana,  and  asserts 
that  "  there  is  authentic  testimony  of  a  Chris- 
tian church  planted  here  by  the  apostles 
themselves,  and,  in  particular,  very  probably 
by  St.  Paul."  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
any  such  edifice  existed  in  London  till  the 


reign  of  Lucius,  in  185,  when  St.  Faganus  and  St- 
Uamianus  visited  England  to  consecrate  build- 
ings, which  had  been  devoted  to  the  service  of 
pagan  divinities,  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
The  church  they  founded  or  consecrated  was 
destroyed  during  the  Diocletian  persecution 
in  303,  and  another  erected  on  its  site  was 
burned  by  the  Saxons  in  the  sth  or  6th  cen- 
tury. Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  and  his 
nephew  Sebert  founded  a  new  church  in  610, 
which  was  severely  injured  by  a  fire  in  962,  and 
totally  burned  in  1087,  after  which,  Maurice, 
Bishop  of  London,  commenced  the  erection  of 
Old  St.  Paul's.  This  cathedral  was  much 
damaged  by  fire  in  1137.  In  1221  a  new 
steeple  was  erected.  The  choir  was  completed 
in  1240,  and  in  1256  Fulco  Basset,  Bishop  of 
London,  added  the  subterranean  church  of  St. 
Faith.  The  spire  was  struck  by  lightning 
Feb.  i,  1444,  and  again  June  4,  1561,  when 
a  fire  was  kindled  which  rendered  the  removal 
of  the  roof  and  steeple  a  matter  of  necessity. 
Various  attempts  were  made  to  effect  a  com- 
plete restoration,  but  no  active  measures  were 
taken  till  1632,  when  Inigo  Jones  commenced 
the  portico.  All  works  were  stopped  by  order 
of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1643.  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  of  1666.  The  ground  was  cleared  for  a 
new  building  May  i,  1674,  and  the  warrant  to 
begin  the  works  was  granted  May  i,  1675.  The 
first  stone  was  laid  June  21,  and  divine  service 
was  celebrated  for  the  first  time  in  the  uncom- 
pleted edifice  on  the  occasion  of  the  public 
rejoicings  for  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  Dec.  2, 
1697.  The  last  stone  was  set  up  in  1710,  the 
whole  building  having  been  completed  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  and  by  the  same  master- 
mason,  and  during  the  presidency  of  one 
Bishop  of  London.  The  expense  was  defrayed 
by  a  tax  on  the  coal  consumed  in  London,  and 
amounted  to  £747,954  28.  gd.  The  iron  railing 
cost  £11,202  os.  6d.  The  principal  dimensions 
of  St.  Paul's  are  as  follows  : — length  from  east 
to  west,  510  ft.  ;  breadth  from  north  to  south 
porticos,  282  ft.  \  breadth  of  west  entrance, 
ioo  ft. ;  circuit,  2,292  ft.  The  extreme  height 
is  404  ft.  ;  that  of  the  campanile  towers,  222 
ft.,  and  of  the  west  pediment,  120  ft.  The 
dome  is  420  ft.  in  circumference,  and  the  ball 
6  ft.  in  diameter.  The  anniversary  musical 
festivals  for  the  benefit  of  the  orphans  and 
widows  of  the  clergy  have  been  solemnized  in 
the  cathedral  since  1697.  The  organ  was  built 
by  Bernard  Schmydt  in  1694,  and  the  bell  was 
recast  by  Richard  Phelps  in  1716.  Gas  was 
first  employed  in  the  cathedral  May  6,  1822, 
and  it  was  first  opened  for  evening  service 
Sunday,  Nov.  28,  1858. 

PAUL'S  (ST.)  CROSS  (London).— This 
ancient  pulpit  cross  of  timber  stood  at  the 
north  side  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  date 
of  its  erection  is  not  known,  but  in  1259 
Henry  III.  summoned  a  general  assembly  to 
meet  there.  In  1382  it  was  struck  by  light- 
ning, and  was  restored  by  Thomas  Kempe, 
Bishop  of  London  (1448 — 1489).  It  was  taken 
down  by  order  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1643. 

PAUL'S  (ST.)  SCHOOL  (London).— This 
institution  was  endowed  in  1512  by  John 
302 


PAUPER 


[    756    ] 


PAWNBROKERS 


Collette  or  Colet,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for  153 

Eoor  men's  children,  a  school  having  existed 
rom   1509.      Having    been  destroyed  in  the 
great  fire,  a  new  building  was  erected  by  Sir 
C.  Wren,  in  1673.     This  was  replaced  by  the 

rsent  edifice,   completed  by  George  Smith 
1826. 

PAUPER  COLONIES.— Establishments  with, 
this  name  originated  in  Holland,  in  1818. 
Gen.  Van  den  Bosch,  on  his  return  from  Java, 
laid  before  the  King  of  Holland  a  plan  for  a 
pauper  colony  ;  a  meeting  was  held  at  the 
Hague,  and  a  regular  society  formed.  A 
writer  in  the  British  Almanack  for  1829  says  : 
— "  Having  received  the  sanction  of  the  king, 
the  society  was  recommended  to  all  the  local 
authorities,  and  soon  found  itself  in  possession 
of  .£5,380,  obtained  from  more  than  20,000 
members.  With  these  funds,  having  been 
enabled  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements, 
the  society  purchased  the  estate  of  Wester- 
bech  Sloot,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Zuyder 
Zee,  and  not  far  from  the  town  of  Steenwyk. 
This  estate  cost  them  ^4,660,  and  it  contained 
from  1,200  to  1,300  acres,  about  200  of  which 
were  under  a  sort  of  culture,  or  covered  with 
bad  wood,  and  the  rest  a  mere  heath.  They 
let  the  cultivated  land,  about  one-tenth  of 
the  whole  ;  deepened  the  Aa  (which  runs 
through  the  estate),  so  that  it  is  navigable 
for  boats ;  and  built  storehouses,  a  school,  and 
dwellings  for  about  fifty -two  families,  of  from 
six  to  eight  persons  each.  Their  operations 
were  begun  in  Sep.,  1818  ;  by  Nov.  10  the 
houses  were  ready  ;  and  the  communes  sent 
some  poor  families."  The  expense  of  each 
family  was  as  follows  : — 

£    s.  d. 

Building  each  house   4113    4 

Furniture  and  implements   868 

Clothing  IX  10    o 

Two  cows,  or  one  cow  and  ten  sheep  13  10    o 

Cultivation  and  seed,  first  year  33    6    8 

Advances  in  provisions  434 

Advances  of  other  kinds  434 

Flax  and  wool  to  be  spun 10  13    4 

Seven  acres  uncultivated  land,  net   868 


Total  establishment .£141 


The  writer,  after  entering  into  various  details, 
gives  the  result  of  the  experiment  as  follows  : 
— "  In  the  course  of  seven  years  from  its  first 
establishment,  the  colony  of  Fredericks  Oord 
contained  a  population  of  6,778,  including 
that  of  Omme  Schanze,  which  is  under  a 
more  rigid  control.  Among  the  number  were 
2,174  orphans  and  foundlings.  The  total 
number  forming  all  the  colonies  in  Holland, 
were  stated  to  Mr.  Jacob  at  20,000 ;  but  he 
thinks  it  exaggerated  :  there  were,  however, 
8,000  in  North  Holland."  The  society  having 
suspended  payment  in  1858,  the  state  under- 
took the  temporary  management,  and  the 
system  was  reorganized. 

PAUPERS.— (See  POOR-LAWS.) 

PAVEMENT.— The  Carthaginians  are  said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  paved  their  towns 
with  stones ;  and  the  practice  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Romans,  who  paved  their 
streets  B.C.  174.  London  was  first  paved  about 

PAVIA  (Battle),  sometimes  called  the  second 
battle  of  Marignauo  or  Malegnano,  was  fought 


Feb.  24,  1525,  between  the  French,  under 
Francis  L,  at  that  time  besieging  Pavia,  and 
the  Imperialists,  assisted  by  the  garrison  of 
Pavia.  The  action  began  at  midnight,  Feb.  23, 
with  an  attack  upon  the  French,  who  were 
encamped  in  the  park  of  Mirabella,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Ticino  ;  and  in  two  hours  the  Im- 
perialists gained  a  complete  victory,  losing 
only  700,  whilst  the  French  lost  8,000  men. 
The  latter  immediately  retired  from  Italy.  It 
was  after  this  action  that  Francis  I.,  who  had 
a  very  narrow  escape  for  his  life,  is  said  to  have 
written  in  a  letter  to  his  mother  :  "  All  is 
lost  except  honour."  (See  MARIGNANO,  Battle.) 
PAVIA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Ticinum,  after- 
wards Papia,  founded  by  the  Ligurii,  is  first 
mentioned  in  history  as  the  place  where  Au- 
gustus met  the  funeral  procession  of  Drusus, 
in  the  year  9.  A  sedition  among  the  troops  of 
Vitellius  broke  out  in  69  ;  and  while  command- 
ing its  garrison,  Claudius  II.  was  saluted  with 
the  imperial  title  in  268.  It  was  taken  by  Attila 
in  452,  by  Odoacer  in  476,  and  by  Alboin,  after 
a  siege  of  more  than  three  years,  in  570,  when 
it  became  the  residence  of  the  Lombard  kings 
and  the  capital  of  Italy,  under  the  name  of 
Pavia.  It  surrendered  to  Charlemagne,  at 
the  close  of  a  15  months'  blockade,  in  774. 
It  was,  with  its  43  churches,  reduced  to 
ashes  by  the  Magyars  in  924.  The  people  of 
Pavia  defeated  the  Milanese  in  1154.  Victor 
IV.  was  elected  pope  by  a  council  held  here 
Feb.  5,  1160,  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
held  his  stirrup  and  kissed  his  feet.  The  uni- 
versity, supposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Charlemagne  in  774,  was  restored  in  1361  by 
Galeazzo  Visconti,  who. was  styled  Count  of 
Pavia,  and  conferred  many  privileges  upon  it 
in  1396.  The  church  of  St.  Michael,  perhaps 
the  oldest  in  Italy,  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  7th  century;  and  the  church  Del  Car- 
mine, which  contains  valuable  paintings,  was 
built  in  the  i4th  century.  A  cathedral  was 
commenced  in  1484.  The  citadel,  completed 
in  1469,  was  partly  destroyed  in  1527,  and  suf- 
fered from  the  French  in  1796.  Councils  were 
held  herein  1128,  and  Feb.,  1160  ;  and  the  i8th 
general  council  was  transferred  from  Pavia. 
(See  BASEL.)  It  was  made  a  county  in  1395. 
The  army  of  Charles  V.,  under  the  viceroy 
Lannoy,  came  to  its  relief  when  besieged  by 
Francis  I.  ;  and  in  the  battle  which  ensued 
Francis  I.  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner, 
Feb.  24,  1525.  Lautree  took  it  in  1527.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  French  and  Sardinian  army 
Oct.  29,  1 733  ;  and  again  by  the  united  troops 
of  France,  Spain,  Naples,  and  Genoa,  in  July, 
1745.  The  populace  rose  against  the  French 
occupants,  and  took  the  castle,  May  26,  1796. 
It  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in 

1  PAVILION  THEATRE  (London)  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  Feb.  13,  1856,  and  the  new 
edifice  was  opened  Dec.  30,  1858. 

PAVLOGRAD  (Russia)  was  founded  in  1780. 
The  garrison  (consisting  chiefly  of  Corsicans) 
of  Fort  Magon,  in  Minorca,  captured  in  1782 
by  the  Spaniards,  were  allowed  to  settle  here. 

PAWNBROKERS. — The  Emperor  Augustus 
established  a  fund  at  Rome  for  lending  money 
to  those  who  could  leave  a  sufficient  pledge, 


PAWTUCKET 


[    757 


PEARLS 


B.C.  31  ;  Tiberius  lent  money  on  lands  in  14  ; 
and  Alexander  Severus  advanced  money  to 
the  poor  without  interest,  in  222.  (See  MONT 
DE  PIETE.)  Maximilian  I.  permitted  the  citi- 
zens of  Nuremberg  to  drive  out  the  Jews  and 
establish  an  exchange  bank,  where  those  re- 
quiring money  might  leave  their  effects  in 
pledge,  in  1498.  In  the  Netherlands,  France, 
and  England,  such  houses  were  known  under 
the  name  of  Lombards,  and  to  evade  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  Church  against  interest,  it  was 
exacted  beforehand,  as  a  present.  Thelombard, 
or  lending-house,  at  Brussels,  was  established 
in  1619,  at  Antwerp  in  1620,  at  Ghent  in  1622. 
The  mont  de  piete  of  France  was  instituted  by 
royal  command  in  1777.  The  present  system 
in  England  was  established  by  De  Northburgh, 
Bishop  of  London,  the  practice  being  for  the 
preacher  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  in  his  sermon,  to 
declare,  at  the  end  of  a  year,  that  the  article 
pledged  would  be  foif  eited  if  not  redeemed  in 
14  days.  The  rate  of  interest  is  fixed  by 
39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  99  (July  28,  1800).  The  law 
was  amended  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  27  (June  23, 
1856),  and  by  23  Viet.  c.  21  (May  15,  1860). 

PAWTUCKET  (N.  America).— The  first  cloth 
factory  in  America  moved  by  water  was  es- 
tablished at  this  town,  situated  partly  in  Rhode 
Island  and  partly  in  Massachusetts,  in  1790. 

PAX. — This  instrument,  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  sometimes  called  the 
Tabula  Pacis,  Pacificale,  or  the  Osculatorium, 
was  introduced  in  the  i2th  or  isth  century. 
The  custom  of  giving  the  kiss  of  peace  (q.  v.) 
before  the  communion,  prevailed  until  the  pax 
was  introduced.  The  priest  kissed  the  instru- 
ment first,  then  it  was  kissed  by  the  clerk, 
and  finally  by  the  laity ;  and  this  process  was 
substituted  for  the  former  general  exchange 
of  salutations.  A  pax  appears  amongst  the 
regular  ecclesiastical  instruments  ordered  in 
the  parish  churches  of  Yorkshire  in  1250. 

PAYMASTER  GENERAL  was  first  ap- 
pointed in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1660-85). 
The  duties  are  regulated  by  an  act  passed  in 
1848.  Pursers  received  the  name  of  naval 
paymasters  in  1844. 

PAZ  DE  AYACUCHO  (3.  America).— This 
town  in  Bolivia  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1548,  under  the  name  of  Nuestra  Seiiora  de 
la  Paz.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishop  in 
1605,  and  its  name  was  changed,  in  1825,  to 
Paz  de  Ayacucho,  in  honour  of  the  victory  of 
Ayacucho. 

PAZZI  CONSPIRACY,  formed  by  Fran- 
cesco Pazzi,  and  sanctioned  by  Pope  Sixtus 
IV.,  to  murder  Lorenzo  and  Julian  de  Medici, 
at  Florence.  The  attempt  was  made  during  the 
celebration  of  high  mass  in  the  cathedral.  The 
work  of  assassination  was  undertaken  by  two 
priests,  and  the  elevation  of  the  host  was  the 
signal  agreed  upon  for  the  onset,  April  26, 
1478.  Julian  fell  beneath  their  daggers,  but 
Lorenzo  escaped  with  a  slight  wound.  The 
populace  took  up  arms  ;  70  of  the  Pazzi  party, 
including  the  two  assassins,  were  killed ;  Sal- 
viati,  Archbishop  of  Pisa,  one  of  the  conspi- 
rators, was  hanged  in  his  robes  :  and  altogether 
more  than  200  persons  were  put  to  death. 

PEABODY  GIFTS.  — George  Peabody,  an 
American  merchant,  born  at  Danvers,  Massa- 


chusetts, Feb.  18, 1795,  came  to  England  in  1827, 
settled  in  London  in  1837,  and  commenced 
business  as  a  banker  in  1843.  On  retiring  after 
having  amassed  a  large  fortune,  Mr.  Peabody, 
by  a  letter  dated  March  12,  1862,  presented 
.£150,000  to  be  applied  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  condition  of  the  poor  of  London.  The  first 
block  of  buildings  known  as  the  Peabody 
Dwellings,  erected  in  Spitalfields,  were  opened 
in  1864.  Mr.  Peabody  made  a  second  donation 
of  £150,000  for  the  same  purpose  in  1866.  In 
1852,  the  2ooth  anniversary  of  the  settlement 
of  his  native  town,  Danvers,  Mr.  Peabody 
founded  there  an  Educational  Institute  and 
Library.  He  contributed  largely  to  the  Grin- 
nell  Arctic  Expedition,  to  the  Baltimore  Insti- 
tute of  Science,  Literature,  and  the  Fine  Arts, 
and  other  institutions. 

PEACE. — (See  CONSERVATORS  and  JUSTICES 
OF  THE  PEACE,  Kiss  OF  PEACE,  LANDFRIEDE, 
and  TRUCE  or  PEACE  OF  GOD.) 

PEACEABLE  CATHOLICS.  —  (See  POLITI- 
CIANS.) 

PEACE  OF  CLEMENT  IX.— (See 
JANSENISTS.) 

PEACE  OF  RELIGION,  or  RELIGIOUS 
PEACE,  confirming  the  treaty  of  Passau  (q.  v.), 
was  concluded  at  Augsburg  and  published  by 
a  recess  of  the  Diet,  Sep.  26,  1555.  It  granted 
toleration  to  Protestants  who  accepted  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg.  One  article,  called 
the  Ecclesiastical  Reservation,  which  provided 
that  all  ecclesiastics  who  left  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  should  forfeit  their  prefer- 
ments and  benefices,  caused  much  dissatisfac- 
tion. 

PEACE  SOCIETY,  for  the  promotion  of 
permanent  and  universal  peace,  was  estab- 
lished in  1816  ;  held  a  meeting  at  Paris,  Aug. 
22,  1849 ;  in  Exeter  Hall,  Oct.  30,  1849 ;  at 
Frankfort,  Aug.  22,  1850;  at  Birmingham, 
Nov.  28,  1850;  at  Manchester,  Jan.  27,  1853; 
and  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  12,  1853.  -A-  deputation 
from  the  society  had  an  interview  with  Nicho- 
las I.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Feb.  10,  1854.  The  soth  anniversary  meeting 
was  held  in  London,  May  22,  1866. 

PEACH  was  introduced  into  England  from 
Persia  in  1562. 

PEAK'S  STATION.  — (See  HANOVER  COURT- 
HOUSE, Battle.) 

PEAR  was  introduced  into  England  during 
the  Roman  occupation.  The  snowy  pear  was 
brought  from  N.  America  in  1746. 

PEA  RIDGE.— (See  ELKHOKN,  Battle.) 

PEARLS  are  mentioned  by  Job  (xxviii.  18) 
as  possessing  considerable  value,  B.C.  2130. 
Clodius,  the  tribune,  gave  a  pearl,  dissolved  in 
vinegar,  to  each  of  his  guests,  B.C.  61.  Cleo- 
patra made  a  wager  with  Antony  to  serve  up 
her  pearl  eardrops,  worth  £76,000,  at  a  repast, 
in  32.  Ceylon  was  famed  for  its  fisheries  in 
the  time  of  Pliny  (23—79).  Britain  was  cele- 
brated for  its  pearls  in  the  ist  century  B.C. 
Scotch  pearls  were  in  demand  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. Seville  imported  upwards  of  697  lb. 
weight  in  1587.  A  pearl  was  obtained  from 
Margarita,  by  Philip  II.,  worth  £31,875, 
in  1574.  Joint  stock  companies,  formed  to 
prosecute  the  Columbia  fishery  in  1825,  were 
abandoned  in  1826  ;  and  an  English  company 


PEASANTS'  WAR 


[    758    ]        PEEL  ADMINISTRATIONS 


undertook  the  same  enterprise  at  Algiers  in 
1826.  The  total  value  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1856  was  £56,  162.  Linnasus 
announced  the  discovery  of  a  method  of  pro- 
ducing them  artificially  in  1761,  and  an  imita- 
tion was  devised  by  a  Parisian  bead-maker, 
named  Jaquin,  about  1656.  The  Scotch  pearl 
fishery  was  revived  in  1860.  (See  ORMUS.) 

PEASANTS'  WAR.—  A  struggle,  called  the 
Bundschuh,  broke  out  in  1502,  and  another,  the 
War  of  Poor  Conrad,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1514. 
The  peasants  of  the  small  towns  rebelled  in 
Swabia,  and  those  of  the  Thurgau  rose  in  arms 
in  June,  1524,  when  many  outrages  were  com- 
mitted. After  a  temporary  lull  it  broke  out 
again  early  in  1525,  on  a  more  extended  scale, 
the  peasants  of  Alsace,  Franconia,  Lorraine, 
the  Palatinate,  and  Swabia  joining  in  the 
movement.  They  published  a  manifesto  con- 
taining their  demands,  embodied  in  12  articles. 
The  insurgents,  after  some  successes,  were 
defeated  by  the  army  of  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand, May  2  ;  again  at  Konigshofen,  June  2  ; 
and  were  put  down  after  100,000  persons  hud 
perished,  in  June,  1525.  The  Anabaptists 
(q.  v.)  took  part  in  the  movement.  (See  BEAU- 
VAIS,  JACQUERIE,  PRAOUERIE,  &c.) 

PECQUIGNY,  or  PICQUIGNY  (Peace).—  The 
treaty  of  Amiens  (q.  v.),  Aug.  29,  1475,  was 
ratified  at  Pecquigny,  near  Amiens,  on  which 
account  it  sometimes  passes  by  that  name. 
It  was  renewed  for  the  lives  of  Louis  XI.  and 
Edward  IV.  in  1477. 

PEDA8U8.—  (&«  METHONE.) 

PEDLARS.—  (SeeCHApBooKS,HAWKERS,&c.) 

PEDOM  ETBB.  —  (£  <•  OUOM  KTER.) 

PEEL  A  I  )M  I  X  1ST  UATI  <  >XS.—  The  first  was 
formed  on  the  resignation  of  the  first  Mel- 
bourne administration  (7.  v.),  Nov.  14,  1834. 
William  IV.  applied,  Nov.  15,  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  who  advised  that  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
Bart.,  at  that  time  travelling  in  Italy,  should 
be  summoned  to  form  an  administration.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  became  prime  minister, 
provisional  arrangements  were  made,  and  Sir 
Robert  Peel  obeyed  the  call,  and  reached 
London  Dec.  9.  He  immediately  assumed  the 
responsibilities  of  office,  and  his  cabinet, 
formed  at  the  end  of  the  month,  was  thus 
constituted  :  — 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury) 

and    Chancellor    of   the  {•  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Bart. 

Exchequer  ..................  ) 

Lord  Chancellor    ...............  Lord  Lyndhurst. 

President  of  the  Council  ......  Earl  of  Kosslyn. 

Privy  Seal    ........................  Lord  Wharncliffe. 

Home  Secretary  ..................  Mr.  Ili-nry  (ioulhurn. 

.Korean  Secretary  ...............  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Colonial  Secretary  ...............  Earl  of  Aberdeen. 

Admiralty    ........................  E:ivl  de  Grey. 

Board  of  Control  ...............  Lord  Kllenborough. 

Secretary  at  War  ...............  Mr.  Herriea. 

Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  Sir  Henry  Hardinge. 
Master    of  the  Mint  and) 

President  of  the  Board  V  Mr.  A.  Baring. 

of  Trade  .....................  ) 

Paymaster  of  the  Forces    ...Sir  E.  Knatchbuli,  Bart 


Parliament  was  dissolved  Dec.  29,  1834,  and  a 
new  parliament  was  summoned  to  meet  Feb. 
19,  1835.  A  coalition  having  been  formed 
between,  the  Whigs  and  the  Radicals,  an 
amendment  to  jbhe  address  was  proposed  in 


the  House  of  Commons,  and  carried,  Feb.  26, 
by  309  to  302.  Three  adverse  divisions  having 
taken  place  respecting  the  appropriation  of 
the  revenues  of  the  Irish  Church— namely, 
first,  a  resolution  proposed  by  Lord  John 
Russell,  carried  April  2,  by  322  to  289  ; 
secondly,  the  resolution  carried  in  committee, 
April  6,  by  262  to  237  ;  and  thirdly,  a  further 
resolution  in  favour  of  the  appropriation  prin- 
ciple, carried  against  ministers,  April  7,  by 
285  to  258 — Sir  Robert  Peel  announced  the 
resignation  of  the  ministry  April  8.  (See 

MELBOURNE     SECOND    ADMINISTRATIONS.) 

The  second  Peel  administration  was  formed 
on  the  resignation  of  the  second  Melbourne 
administration,  Aug.  30,  1841.  The  cabinet, 
formed  by  Sep.  8,  was  thus  constituted  : — 

Treasury  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Bart. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Lyndhurst. 

President  of  the  Council Lord  Whamcliffe. 

Privy  Seal    Duke  of  Buckingham. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer   ...Mr.  Goulburn. 

'•retury Sir  James  Graham,  Bart. 

Foreign  Secretary Earl  of  Aberdeen. 

Colonial  Secretary Lord  Stanley. 

Admiralty    Karl  of  Iladdington. 

(Lord  Ellenborough,    created 

Board  of  Control  -!     Earl  of  Elleuborough  Oct. 

I     14,  is. 14. 

Secretary  at  War  Sir  II.  Hardinge. 

Board  of  Trade Earl  of  Kipon. 

Treasurer     of     the     Navy) 

and   Paymaster    of    the  V  Sir  E.  Knatchbuli,  Bart. 

Forces   ) 

Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  Lord  Eliot. 
Without  office Duke  of  Wellington. 

Lord  Ellenborough  accepted  the  governor- 
generalship  of  India,  and  was  succeeded  at 
the  Ijuard  of  Control  by  Lord  Fitzgerald  and 
Vesci,  Oct.  23,  1841.  The  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham resigned  the  privy  seal  Jan.  31,  1842,  and 
it  was  intrusted  to  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  and 
Queensberry  Feb.  2.  The  Duke  of  Wellington 
was  made  commander-in-chief  Aug.  15,  1842. 
The  Eurl  of  Ru>on  succeeded  Lord  Fitzgerald 
and  Vesci  (who  died  May  n,  1843)  a*  the  Board 
of  Control,  May  17,  1843  ;  and  Mr.  Gladstone 
was  made  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
master  of  the  mint,  June  10,  1843.  Sir  Henry 
Hardinge  was  succeeded,  May  17,  1844.  as 
secretary  at  war,  by  Sir  Thomas  Fremantle, 
Bart.,  who,  having  been  appointed  chief  sec- 
retary for  Ireland,  was  replaced  by  Mr.  Sidney 
Herbert,  Feb.  4,  1845.  Lord  Somerset,  made 
chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  Sep.  3, 
1841,  and  the  Earl  of  Lincoln  (afterwards 
Duke  of  Newcastle),  made  first  commissioner 
of  woods  and  forests  Sep.  16.  1841,  were  both 
admitted  to  seats  in  the  cabinet  in  1845.  A 
division  ensued  in  the  cabinet  respecting  the 
expediency  of  an  immediate  repeal  of  the 
corn  laws  in  the  autumn  of  1845,  and  ministers 
resigned  Nov.  25.  Lord  John  Russell  failed 
in  his  attempts  to  form  an  administration, 
Dec.  20,  and  the  Peel  administration,  with  the 
exception  of  Lord  Stanley,  who,  in  1844,  had 
been  summoned  to  the  House  of  Peers  as  Baron 
Stanley,  returned  to  office.  Lord  Stanley 
(became  Earl  of  Derby  in  1851,  See  DERBV 
ADMINISTRATIONS)  resigned  the  colonial  sec- 
retaryship, and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone, Dec.  20,  1845.  The  Earl  of  Lincoln 
succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Fremantle,  Bart.,  as 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  Feb.  14,  1846. 


PEEL  ISLAND 


t    759    3 


PEKIN 


Sir  Robert  Peel  carried  the  repeal  of  the  corn 
laws  ;  but  this  change  in  his  policy  produced 
a  division  amongst  his  followers,  the  two 
parties  being  afterwards  called  Peelites  (q.  v.) 
and  Protectionists  (q.  v.).  The  latter,  availing 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the 
second  reading  of  the  Irish  Coercion  Bill,  voted 
against  ministers,  who  were  defeated  by  292 
to  219.  The  division  took  place  early  in  the 
morning,  June  26,  1846,  the  day  on  which  the 
bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  passed  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  resignation  of  the  Peel 
administration  was  announced  in  both  houses 
of  Parliament  June  29.  (See  RUSSELL  FIRST 
ADMINISTRATION.  ) 

PEEL  ISLAND  (Pacific),  in  the  centre  of 
the  Bonin  or  Archbishop  group,  was  settled  by 
about  20  persons  engaged  in  whaling,  in  1830. 

PEELITES. — This  name  was  given  to  that 
section  of  the  Conservative  party  which,  after 
the  rupture  caused  by  the  repeal  of  the  corn 
laws  (q.  v.)  in  1846,  adhered  to  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
They  were  thus  designated  as  opponents  to 
the  Protectionists  (q.  v.}.  Some  of  them  joined 
the  Liberal  party.  (See  PALMERSTON  ADMINIS- 
TRATIONS.) 

PEEP-O'DAY-BOYS.— This  Irish  faction  ori- 
ginated at  Market-hill,  in  Armagh,  July  4, 
1784.  (See  DEFENDERS.) 

PEERS  AND  PEERAGE.— The  nobility  of 
the  realm,  consisting  of  barons,  dukes,  earls, 
marquises,  and  viscounts  (q.  v.),  are  called 
peers,  or  equals,  because  they  enjoy  an  equality 
of  right  in  all  public  proceedings.  They  are 
created  either  by  tenure,  by  writ,  or  by  patent. 
Peerage  by  tenure  originated  at  the  Norman 
conquest,  when  the  land  was  divided  between 
the  followers  of  William  I.  The  earliest  peerage 
by  writ  is  of  1265,  when  a  writ  of  summons  to 
Parliament  was  issued  by  Henry  III.  The  first 
peer  created  by  patent  was  John  de  Beau- 
champ,  made  Baron  of  Kidderminster  by 
Richard  II.,  Oct.  10,  1387.  Peers  are  free  from 
arrest  in  civil,  but  not  in  criminal  cases.  In 
cases  of  treason  and  felony,  they  can  only 
be  tried  by  their  fellow  peers  ;  but  in  misde- 
meanours they  are  tried  by  an  ordinary  jury. 
Peeresses  are  tried  by  the  same  tribunals  as 
peers,  by  20  Hen.  VI.  c.  9  (1442).  By  4*5 
Viet.  c.  22  (June  21,  1841),  peers  convicted  of 
crimes  were  rendered  liable  to  the  same  penal- 
ties as  commoners.  The  elevation  of  Sir  James 
Parke  to  the  peerage  for  the  term  of  his  na- 
tural life,  by  the  title  of  Lord  Wensleydale, 
Jan.  16,  1856,  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee by  the  House  of  Lords  to  inquire  into 
the  legality  of  liie-peei-ages.  A  report,  de- 
ciding that  such  peerages  could  not  entitle 
their  holders  to  sit  or  vote  in  Parliament,  was 
presented  Feb.  25,  in  consequence  of  which 
Lord  Wensleydale  received  a  patent  with  the 
usual  remainder  to  "  the  heirs  male  of  his  body 
lawfully  begotten,"  the  following  July.  The 
Irish  peers  form  part  of  the  nobility  of  the 
realm ;  and  by  the  4th  article  of  the  Irish  Act 
of  Union,  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (July  2,  1800), 
four  of  the  Irish  bishops  and  28  temporal 
peers  are  permitted  to  sit  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  same  act  permits  the  sovereign 
to  create  one  new  Irish  peerage  whenever 
three  of  those  existing  become  extinct ;  and 


when  the  number  is  reduced  to  100  noblemen, 
every  vacancy  may  be  immediately  supplied. 
The  peers  of  Scotland  are  regarded  as  forming 
part  of  the  nobility  of  Great  Britain.  By  the 
2  3rd  article  of  the  Act  of  Union,  5  Anne  c.  8 
(1706),  1 6  of  their  number  are  permitted  to 
sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  representatives 
of  the  rest.  As  this  act  limits  the  right  of 
election  of  these  representatives  to  the  Scotch 
peers  then  existing,  it  follows  that  no  new 
Scotch  peerages  can  be  created.  Sir  William 
Dugdale's  "  Baronage  of  England,"  which  was 
published  in  1675-6,  is  the  earliest  work  on 
the  English  peerage.  The  first  edition  of 
Collins's  "  Peerage"  was  published  in  1709. 

PEG-TANKARD.  —  Invented  by  Dunstan, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (960-88),  to  prevent 
one  guest  from  taking  a  larger  draught  than 
his  companions.  The  divisions  were  marked 
by  pegs  or  pins;  hence  the  expression,  "A  peg 
too  low." 

PEGU  (Asia),  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name,  was  besieged  by  the  Burmese,  and 
capitulated  in  1757.  The  English  obtained  pos- 
session of  Pegu  in  1824,  and,  having  restored 
it  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Burmah, 
it  was  again  taken,  Nov.  21,  1852.  The  whole 
province  was  annexed  by  proclamation,  Dec. 
30,  1852,  and  the  close  of  the  war  officially  pro- 
claimed, June  30,  1853. 

PEIHO  (China).— An  attempt  to  force  a  pas- 
sage up  the  mouth  of  this  river  by  a  French 
and  English  squadron,  under  Admiral  Hope, 
June  24,  1859,  was  resisted  by  th^  Chinese 
forts,  and  resulted  in  a  disastrous  repulse. 
The  English  lost  25  men  killed  and  93  wounded 
on  board  the  gunboats,  and  64  killed  and  252 
wounded  in  the  attempt  to  effect  a  landing. 
The  Taku  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  were 
captured  by  the  allied  French  and  English 
squadron  Aug.  21,  1860. 

PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE,  the  penalty  for 
those  who,  being  arraigned  for  felony,  refused 
to  plead  and  remained  mute,  was  substituted 
for  close  imprisonment  with  scanty  diet,  about 
1406.  It  meant  "  strong  and  hard  pain ; "  for  the 
sufferer  was  literally  pressed  to  death,  large 
weights  being  placed  upon  him.  This  punish- 
ment, inflicted  at  Cambridge  as  late  as  1741, 
was  abolished  by  12  Geo.  III.  c.  20  (1772). 

PEISHWA,  or  PRIME  MINISTER,  among 
the  Mahrattas,  seized  the  supreme  power,  and 
fixed  his  residence  at  Poonah  in  1749.  The 
title,  which  originated  in  1708,  was  abolished 
in  1818. 

PEKIN  (China)  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
the  Mongols,  led  by  Zingis  Khan,  when  the  in- 
habitants, for  want  of  ammunition,  are  said  to 
have  discharged  ingots  of  gold  and  silver  upon 
their  assailants,  1214.  Kublai  Khan  rebuilt  it, 
and  made  it  his  capital  in  1260.  It  is  divided 
into  Neitching,  the  Northern,  or  Exterior,  and 
Waitching,  the  Southern,  or  Interior  City  ;  the 
former  the  Tartar,  and  the  latter  the  Chinese 
portion.  A  British  embassy,  intrusted  to 
Lord  Macartney,  arrived  Sep.  14,  1793.  The 
city  was  entered  by  the  allied  armies  of  France 
and  England,  Oct.  12,  1860.  A  convention  was 
signed  Oct.  24,  and  they  evacuated  Pekin  Nov. 
5,  1860.  The  English  plenipotentiary  took  up 
his  residence  at  Pekin  Feb.  26,  1861. 


PELAGIANISM 


[     760    ] 


PELUSIUM 


PELAGIANISM,  so  named  from  Pelagius, 
supposed  to  be  the  Greek  name  for  Morgan,  or 
Seaborn,  a  native  of  Britain,  its  founder,  who 
began  to  disseminate  his  views  respecting  ori- 
ginal sin  and  grace,  maintaining  man's  com- 
plete Free  Will,  at  Rome,  in  404  ;  and  after  the 
capture  of  that  city,  in  1410,  in  the  Holy  Land 
was  examined  by  a  council  at  Jerusalem,  Aug.  i," 
and  another  at  Diospolis,  Dec.  20,  415,  at  both  of 
which  the  tenets  passed  without  condemnation. 
It  was  condemned  by  a  council  at  Carthage  ;  18 
bishops  in  Italy  were  deposed  for  their  ad- 
herence to  it  ;  and  Pelagius  himself  was  banished 
from  Italy  by  the  Emperor  Honorius  in  418. 
Having  extended  into  Britain,  two  Gallic 
bishops  were  summoned  over  to  suppress  the 
doctrine  in  442.  A  conference  was  held  at  Veru- 
lam  between  its  supporters  and  the  orthodox 
party  in  446,  and  the  Pelagians  were  banished 
from  Britain  in  452.  The  Council  of  Orange 
decreed  the  doctrine  of  Augustus,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Pelagian!  sm  and  Semi-pelagiaiiism,  to 
be  established,  July  3,  529.  Their  decree  was 
confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Valencia,  and  by 
Pope  Boniface  II.  in  530. 

PELAGONIA  (Macedonia).—  The  name,  at 
first  applied  to  a  district,  was  afterwards  con- 
ferred upon  the  chief  town  of  the  Pelagones, 
the  capital  of  the  Fourth  Macedonia. 

PELASGI,  an  ancient  race  spread  over 
Greece,  and  the  islands  of  the  yEgean  Sea,  are 
first  mentioned  by  Homer  as  furnishing  a  con- 
tingent under  Achilles  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 
B.C.  962.  ,Niebuhr  considers  them  to  have  been 
the  original  inhabitants  both  of  Greece  and 
Italy. 

PELEKANON  (Battle).  —  Orchan  defeated 
Andronicus  III.,  who  was  wounded  in  the  en- 
counter, in  1329. 

PELEW  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean),  said  to 
have  been  discovered  by  the  Spaniavi! 
1545,  were  first  brought  into  notice  through 
the  wreck  of  the  Antelope,  East-Indiaman,  in 
1783.  Prince  Lee  Boo,  .son  of  King  Abba  Thulle, 
who  had  been  intrust  ed  by  his  father  to  Capt. 
Wilson,  was  brought  in  1  784  to  Engla?:  i 
he  only  survived  five  months.  The  East  India 
Company  sent  information  of  the  event 
to  the  islands  in  1790,  together  with  a  pre- 
sent of  live  stock  and  vegetables,  which 
were  found  to  have  flourished  well  when  the 
place  was  re-visited  by  an  English  vessel  in 

I7PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION.—  The  death 
of  the  Earl  of  Wilmington  rendered  new 
ministerial  arrangements  necessary,  and  Mr. 
Pelham,  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle, 
was  made  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  Aug.  25,  1743.  His 
colleagues  in  the  cabinet  were  :  — 

Lord  Chancellor    ...............  Lord  Hardwicke. 

1'ivsidciit  of  the  Council    ...Eurl  of  Harrington. 
Privy  Seal    ........................  Earl  Oower. 

Secretaries  of  State  ......... 


Ordnance  ...........................  Duke  of  Montagu. 

Paymaster  of  the  Forces   ...Sir  T.  Winnington,  Bart. 
Earl  Gower  was    succeeded  by  the   Earl    of 
Cholmondeley,   as  lord    privy   seal,   in  Dec., 
1743.     Lord  Carteret,  who  had  succeeded  to 


the  title  of  Earl  Granville,  resigned  Nov.  24, 
1744,  and  the  Pelham  administration  was  re- 
constructed. The  chiefs  of  several  parties 
coalesced ;  from  which  circumstance  the  new 
ministry  was  called  the  Broad  Bottom  Admi- 
nistration (q.  v.}. 

PELIGNI,  a  people  of  central  Italy,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Ovid,  of  Sabine  descent,  are  first 
mentioned  in  Roman  history  as  having  been 
attacked  by  the  Latins,  B.C.  343.  They  entered 
into  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Romans,  B.C 
304  ;  afforded  them  material  aid  against  the 
Samnites  at  the  battle  of  Sentinum,  B.C.  295; 
and  raised  volunteers  for  Scipio,  B.C.  205.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Social  War,  B.C.  90,  they 
joined  the  Marsi,  making  their  chief  city,  Cor- 
finium,  the  capital  of  the  confederate  states. 
They  submitted  to  the  Romans  B.C.  88,  and 
were  soon  after  admitted  to  the  franchise.  In 
the  civil  war  between  Csesar  and  Pompey,  their 
chief  town,  Corfiuium,  was  garrisoned  to  op- 
pose Caesar,  B.C.  49 ;  and  they  espoused  the 
side  of  Vespasian  against  Vitellius,  in  69,  which 
was  their  last  appearance  in  history. 

PHI, LA  (Macedonia).— Philip  II.  made  this 
a  royal  residence,  and  it  became  the  capital 
instead  of  Edessa  (q.  v.}.  Alexander  III.  (the 
Great 'i  was  born  here  in  July,  B.C.  356.  JEmi- 
lius  Paulus  took  it  B.C.  168,  and  it  became  a 
Roman  colony. 

PELLA  (Palestine),  also  called  Butis,  is  said 
to  have  been  colonized  by  Macedonians.  An- 
tiochus  III.  (the  Great)  took  it  B.C.  198,  and  it 
troyed  by  Alexander  Jannseus  (B.C.  104 
— B.C.  77),  King  of  the  Jews.  Pompey  restored 
it,  B.C.  50,  and  the  Jews  took  refuge  here  in  66, 
when  Jerusalem  was  threatened.  (See  EBION- 
rn:s,  NAZARENES,  &c.) 

PELLS. —  (See  EXCHEQUER,  Comptroller- 
General.) 

PELOPIUM,  discovered  in  columbite  by 
1 802,  is  now  known  as  niobium. 

PELOPONNESIAN  WAR,  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  at  the  head  of  a  confederacy, 
commenced  with  the  siege  of  Potidsea  by  the 
Athenians,  B.C.  431.  The  contest  continued 
27  years,  and  was  terminated  by  the  defeat  of 
the  Athenians  at  yEgospotami,  after  which  Ly- 
sander  sailed  to  Athens,  compelled  it  to  sur- 
render, and  demolished  the  walls,  B.C.  404. 

PELOPONNESUS.  —  The  southern  part  of 
Greece  received  this  name  from  Pelops,  of 
Lydia,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  settled 
there  B.C.  1283.  The  name  was  changed  to 
that  of  Morea  after  1205. 

PELUSIUM  (Egypt;.— The  modern  Tineh, 
called  Sin  by  the  Hebrews  (Ezekiel  xxx.  15), 
and  by  the  Copts  Peromi,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  ancient  Abaris  or  Anaris,  founded 
B.C.  2000.  The  Assyrians,  under  Sennacherib, 
encamped  under  its  walls,  when  the  field-mice 
gnawed  asunder  their  bow-strings  and  shield- 
straps,  about  B.C.  710,  or,  according  to  Raw- 
linson,  B.C.  698.  Cambyses  took  it  when  he 
invaded  Egypt,  B.C.  525,  and  it  fell  before  the 
Persian  arms  B.C.  456.  Alexander  III.  (the 
Great)  entered  it  B.C.  333.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Persians  B.C.  309,  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
B.C.  173,  and  by  Marcus  Antonius  B.C.  55. 
When  Amrou  subdued  the  country,  in  618,  it 
surrendered,  and  afterwards  fell  into  decay. 


PELWORM 


[    761     1 


PENNY 


PELWORM.- This  island,  off  the  coast  of 
Sleswig,  belonging  to  Denmark,  was  detached 
from  the  larger  island  of  Nordstrand  by  a  flood 

PEMANEON  (Battle).— John  Ducas  Vataces, 
Emperor  of  Nicsea,  defeated  the  Latin  Em- 
peror, Robert  of  Courtenay,  in  this  battle, 
fought  in  1224. 

PEMBROKE  (Wales).— The  shire  of  which 
this  town  is  the  capital  was  a  county  palatine 
until  1536.  The  castle,  a  Norman  structure, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Gilbert  Strongbow, 
who  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Pembroke 
from  Henry  I.,  in  1107.  Henry  VII.  was  born 
in  the  castle  Jan.  21,  1456.  In  the  suburbs  are 
the  ruins  of  a  priory  founded  in  1098.  It  was 
captured"  in  1648,  after  a  six  weeks'  siege,  by 
Cromwell.  The  royal  dockyard  was  removed 
from  Milford  to  this  place  in  1814. 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE  (Oxford),  built  on 
the  site  of  Broadgates  Hall,  and  sometimes 
called  Segrim,  or  Segreve  Hall,  was  established 
by  letters  patent  June  22,  1624.  The  chapel 
was  consecrated  in  1732. 

PEMBROKE  HALL  (Cambridge)  was 
founded  under  the  name  of  Valence-Mary,  by 
Mary  de  St.  Paul,  widow  of  Aymerde  Valence, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  in  1347.  The  chapel,  built 
by  Matthew  Wren,  Bishop  of  Ely,  from  the 
designs  of  his  nephew,  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
was  consecrated  in  1665. 

PENAL  SERVITUDE  was  substituted  for 
transportation  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  20, 
1853),  which  took  effect  from  Sep.  i,  1853  ;  and 
was  amended  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  3,  June  26, 
1857,  ana  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  47  (July  25,  1864). 

PENANCE.  —  The  practice  of  performing 
penance  as  expiation  for  sin  was  introduced 
into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  about  the 
middle  of  the  2nd  century.  In  the  4th  cen- 
tury they  were  divided  into  four  classes, — 
weepers,  hearers,  kneelers,  and  standers.  The 
laws  on  the  subject  became  so  numerous 
that  the  penitents  were  compiled  into  a  sepa- 
rate code  by  John  Jejunator,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  about  595.  Public  penance 
gradually  ceased  in  the  lath  century.  Bing- 
ham  states  that  the  performance  of  penance 
always  necessitated  the  penitent  to  assume 
sackcloth  and  ashes,  and  either  to  shave 
the  head,  or  wear  the  hair  dishevelled.  It 
is  one  of  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

PENANG,  or  PRINCE  OF  WALES'  ISLAND 
(Strait  of  Malacca),  was  bestowed_  by  the  King 
of  Keddah  as  a  marriage  portion  on  Capt. 
Francis  Light,  an  Englishman  who  had  mar- 
ried his  daughter,  in  1785.  He  transferred  it 
to  the  East  India  Company,  and  was  made 
governor  July  7,  1786.  It  was  made  an  inde- 
pendent presidency  in  1805;  and,  with  other 
settlements  in  the  strait,  was  again  brought 
under  the  government  of  Bengal  in  1830.  It 
was  placed  under  the  general  government  of 
India  in  1851. 

PENATES.— (See  LAKES  AND  PENATES.) 

PENINSULAR  AVAR.— Application  for  aid 
against  the  French  invaders  having  been  made 
by  Spain,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  sailed  from  Cork 
with  10,000  men,  July  12, 1808,  and  the  troops 
landed  at  Figueras,  in  Portugal,  Aug.  i — 3. 


He  defeated  the  French  at  VimeiraAug.  21.  A 
convention,  called  the  convention  of  Cintra,  by 
which  Junot  agreed  to  evacuate  Portugal,  was 
signed  Aug.  30.  The  English  army  entered 
Lisbon,  and  Wellesley  obtained  leave  to  return 
home  in  Sep.  The  command  of  20,000  men 
having  devolved  upon  Sir  John  Moore,  he  com- 
menced his  retreat  before  Soult,  and  reached 
Corunna  Jan.  13,  1809.  A  battle  was  fought,  in 
which  Moore  lost  his  life,  Jan.  16  ;  and  the  em- 
barkation of  the  troops  was  completed  Jan. 
1 8.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  again  received  the 
command,  and  arrived  at  Lisbon  April  22, 1809. 
After  several  successful  campaigns,  the  French 
were  driven  out  of  the  country,  April  5,  1814. 

PENISCOLA  (Spain)  was  taken  from  the 
Moors  in  1233  by  James  I.  of  Aragon.  It  ca- 
pitulated to  the  French  marshal  Suchet,  with 
74  pieces  of  cannon  and  1,000  men,  in  Feb., 
1812.  It  was  strengthened  and  garrisoned, 
June,  1813,  and  was  invested  by  the  Spaniards 
in  March,  1814  ;  but  held  out  until  after  peace 
had  been  concluded,  in  April,  1814. 

PENITENCE.— The  order  of  Penitence  of  St. 
Magdalen  was  founded  by  Bernard,  a  native 
of  Marseilles,  for  the  reformation  of  fallen 
women,  in  1272,  and  was  constituted  by  Pope 
Nicholas  III.  (1277-80)  under  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine. 

PENITENTIARY.— The  first  was  established 
by  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  in  1786.  (See 
MAGDALENS.) 

PENITENTIARY  PRIESTS,  whose  duty 
was  to  receive  the  confession  of  offenders  and 
direct  them  in  the  conduct  of  repentance,  were 
established  in  some  of  the  eastern  churches  in 
the  3rd  century.  The  office  of  penitentiary 
presbyter  was  abolished  at  Constantinople  in 

i,  and  other  churches  followed  the  example, 
office  of  penitentiary  at  Rome  is  filled  by 
a  cardinal. 

PENITENTS.— (See  BIANCHI.) 

PENNSYLVANIA  (N.  America)  was  first 
settled  by  the  Swedes  and  Finns  in  1627. 
They  were  reduced  by  the  Dutch  in  1655  ;  and 
the  whole  territory  passed  under  English  rule 
in  1664.  It  was  granted  by  letters  patent  to 
William  Penn,  in  consideration  of  a  debt  due 
by  government,  March  4,  1681.  He  founded 
Philadelphia  in  1682,  where  the  delegates  of 
the  colonies  assembled  to  resist  taxation  by 
the  mother  country  in  1774.  The  constitution 
was  adopted  Dec.  13,  1787. 

PENNY.— This  coin,  originally  of  silver,  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  King  of 
Wessex  (688 — 727).  It  was  reduced  by  Edward 
III.  from  22j  to  20  grains  in  weight,  in  1346. 
The  first  legal  copper  coin  was  introduced  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  about  1609. 

PENNY  BANKS  were  established  in  1851. 

PENNY  POST.— (-See  POSTAGE  and  POST 
OFFICE.) 

PENNY  READINGS.— Mr.  J.  R.  Planche 
delivered  an  address  at  a  series  of  readings 
blended  with  music,  given  at  the  Crown  and 
Anchor  Tavern,  in  the  Strand,  in  1830.  Penny 
readings,  established  at  Ipswich  by  Scully  and 
Go  wring  in  1859,  were  gradually  introduced 
as  an  amusement  for  winter  evenings  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  "  Penny  Read- 
ings in  Prose  and  Verse,"  by  J.  E.  Carpenter, 


K 


PENON  DE  VELEZ 


[    762    ] 


PERE-LA-CHAISE 


the  circulation  of  which  has  extensively  popu- 
larized the  movement,  was  issued  by  Wanie 
and  Co.,  London,  in  1865. 

TENON  DE  VELEZ  (Morocco)  was  founded 
by  Pedro  of  Navarre,  in  1508.  The  Moors 
seized  it  in  1522,  and  the  Spaniards  regained 
possession  in  1664. 

PEN,  PEONNA,  or  PETHERTON  (Battle).— 
Cenwalch,  King  of  Wessex,  defeated  the  Britons 
in  this  battle,  fought  in  658. 

PENRUDDOCK'S  REBELLION,  in  favour 
of  monarchy,  was  suppressed  in  Devonshire, 
whither  the  Royalists  had  retreated,  Col.  John 
Penruddock  being  taken,  amongst  others,  and 
executed,  May  16,  1655. 

PENSACOLA  (N.  America).— This  town  in 
Florida  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  May 
10,  1781.  The  English  occupied  it  in  1814,  it 
passed  to  the  United  States  in  1820,  and  it  was 
evacuated  by  the  Confederates  May  9,  1862. 

PENSIONARY  PARLIAMENT.— This  name 
was  given  to  the  second  Parliament  summoned 
by  Charles  II.,  from  the  number  of  pensions 
conferred  during  the  session.  It  met  May  8, 
1661,  and  consisted  of  16  sessions,  the  last  of 
which  terminated  Dec.  30,  1678.  It  was  dis- 
solved Jan.  24,  1679,  and  has  also  been  called 
the  Long  Parliament. 

PENSION  LJST.—  To  prevent  the  crown 
from  burdening  the  revenue  with  improvident 
grants,  a  law  (i  Anne  c.  7)  was  passed,  regu- 
lating all  made  after  March  25,  1702  ;  and  a  civil 
list  was  settled  on  George  III.,  in  lieu  of  the 
larger  branches  of  the  hereditary  revenue,  in 
1760.  The  pension  list  was  examined  by  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1837. 

1'UNTAG  HAPH.—  (See  PANTOGRAPH.) 

PKXTA  l><  )LIS.— (See  CYRENA 

PENTATEUCH,  or  the  five  books  of  Moses, 
were  written  by  the  Hebrew  lawgiver  about 
B.C.  1452.  (See  COLENSO  CASE,  DKCKIOTALS,  ttc. ; 

PENTECOST,  or  FEAST  OF  WEEKS,  ob- 
served seven  weeks  after  the  Passover,  was  es- 
tablished by  M  uses,  at  the  command  of  God, 
B.C.  1491  (Lev.  xxiii.  15).  The  Holy  Ghost 
descended  upon  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem, 
according  to  the  promise  of  our  Saviour,  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  May  26,  30  (Acts  ii.  i — 6). 

PENTLAND  HILLS  (Scotland  .—An  insur- 
rection having  broken  out  in  Scotland,  on 
account  of  the  feelings  of  hatred  entertained 
towards  Archbishop  Sharp,  the  insurgents 
were  defeated  here  Nov.  28,  1666. 

PENZANCE  (Cornwall)  received  a  charter 
for  a  market  and  fair  in  1332  ;  was  incorporated 
in  1615  ;  was  burned  by  the  Spaniards  in  July, 
1595  ;  and  was  taken  by  Fairfax,  the  Parlia- 
mentary commander,  in  1646.  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  was  born  here  Dec.  17,  1778. 

PEPPER,  first  noticed  by  Hippocrates 
(B.C.  460 — 357),  was  a  favourite  ingredient  in 
Roman  cookery.  Alaric  I.  demanded  3,000  Ib. 
weight  of  pepper  as  a  portion  of  the  ransom  of 
Rome,  in  409.  A  few  pounds  of  pepper  was 
considered  a  rich  present  in  the  i3th  century. 

PEPPERERS.— (See  GROCERS'  COMPANY.) 
^PEPUZIANS.— The  patriarch  of  the  Monta- 
riists  resided  in  171  or  172  at  Pepuza,  to  which 
they  gave  the  mystical  name  of  Jerusalem,  a 
small  town  in  Phrygia ;  and  on  this  account 
they  are  called  Pepuzians  and  Cataphrygians. 


PERA.— The  residence  of  the  English  am- 
bassador is  situated  in  this  suburb  of  Constanti- 
nople, which  suffered  severely  from  a  fire  in 
1831,  when  the  ambassador's  residence  was 
destroyed.  Pera  has  frequently  suffered  from 
conflagrations.  (See  GALATA.) 
PERAMBULATOR.— (See  ODOMETER.) 
PERCEVAL  ADMINISTRATION.— On  the 
death  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  Oct.  30,  1809, 
Mr.  S.  Perceval  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :— 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,-) 

Su^a'nd  "S  *he>M''-  Spencer  Perceva,. 

Duchy  of  Lancaster ) 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Eldon. 

Pivsiilent  of  the  Council Eiirl  CanuU-n. 

Privy  Seal   Karl  of  Westmoreland. 

Home  Secretary Mr.  Iticluinl  Uyder. 

Foreign  Secretary Marquis  of  Welledey. 

Colonial  Secretary    Earl  of  Liverpool. 

Admiralty    Lord  Miiluruve. 

( )rdnu.iicu Earl  of  Chutlmm. 

Board  of  Trade Earl  Bathurst. 

Lord  Mulgrave  became  master-general  of  the 
ordnance  May  i,  1810,  and  was  replaced  at  the 
Admiralty  by  Mr.  Charles  Yorke,  June  23. 
Viscount  Melville  succeeded  Mr.  Charles  Yorke 
at  the  Admiralty  in  March,  1812.  Viscount 
Castlereagh  became  foreign  minister,  in  place 
of  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  who  resigned  ; 
and  Viscount  Sidney  became  president  of  the 
council  in  April,  1812.  As  the  prime  minister, 
Mr.  Perceval,  was  entering  the  lobby  of  Die 
House  of  Commons,  May  n,  1812,  he  was  shot 
by  a  man  named  Bellingham.  Death  was 
almost  instantaneous.  (See  LIVERPOOL  ADMI- 
NISTRATION.) 

PERCUSSION  GUNS.— The  substitution  of 
detonating  powder  for  flint  and  steel  in  dis- 
charging firearms  was  the  invention  of  the 
Rev.  A.  J.  Forsyth,  of  Belhelvie,  Aberdeen- 
shire,  whose  patent  was  dated  April  n,  1807. 
Percussion-cup  guns  were  introduced  into  the 
French  army  in  1830.  (See  FIRE  ARMS.) 

PERCY  SOCIETY  (London),  named  after 
Dr.  Thomas  Percy  (1728—1811),  Bishop  of  Dro- 
more,  was  founded  in  1840  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  to  light  important  but  obscure  speci- 
mens of  ballad  poetry  or  works  illustrative  of 
that  department  of  literature. 

PERED  (Battle).— The  allied  Russian  and 
Austrian  array  defeated  the  Hungarians,  com- 
manded by  Georgey,  in  this  battle,  fought 
June  20,  1849. 

PEREKOP  (Russia).— The  Tartar  lines,  ex- 
tending across  the  isthmus  of  Perekop,  from 
the  Sea  of  Azof  to  the  Black  Sea,  were  forced 
by  the  Russian  marshal  Mtinnich,  May  27, 
1736.  The  fortress  of  Perekop,  situated  on  the 
isthmus,  was  assailed  by  Marshal  Lacy,  and 
capitulated  in  two  days,  July  10,  1738.  It  was 
carried  by  assault,  against  a  defending  army  of 
50,000  Tartars  and  7,000  Turks,  the  Russian 
assailants  being  commanded  by  Prince  Dolgo- 
ruki,  in  1771. 

PERE-LA-CHAISE  (Paris).— This  most  im- 
portant cemetery  of  the  French  metropolis  is 
named  after  Pere-la-Chaise,  the  confessor  of 
Louis  XIV.,  who  occupied  a  house  on  its  site 
Aug.  25,  1624- Jan.  20,  1709).  The  ground 


PERFECTIBILISTS 


[     763    1 


PERJURY 


had  for  about  150  years  been  the  property  of 
a  convent  of  Jesuits,  who  were  compelled  to 


sell  it  to  pay  their  debts,  in  1763.     In  1800  it 

by  the  municipali 
who  employed  M.   Brongniart  to  convert  it 


was  purchased  by  the  municipality  of  Paris, 


into  the  French  National  Cemetery.  It  was 
consecrated  in  the  early  part  of  1804,  and  was 
first  used  for  interments  May  21,  1821.  On 
the  approach  of  the  Allied  armies  to  Paris  in 
1814,  Pfere-la-Chaise  was  strongly  fortified  by 
the  pupils  of  the  schools  of  Alfort,  who  were, 
however,  driven  from  their  position  by  the 
Russians,  March  30. 

PERFECTIBILISTS.  -(See  ILLUMINATI.) 
PERFUMERY.—  The  use  of  perfumes  (Pro- 
verb xxvii.  9)  is  of  the  highest  antiquity. 
They  were  employed  by  the  Egyptians  in  the 
embalming  of  the  dead,  and  by  the  Jews  in 
the  service  of  the  temple.  Babylon  was  cele- 
brated by  the  ancients  for  the  excellence  of  its 
perfumes.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used  them 
extensively,  and  regarded  them  as  an  offering 
acceptable  to  the  gods  ;  and  their  poets  always 
accompany  the  description  of  the  appearance 
of  any  of  their  divinities  by  a  notice  of  the 
ambrosial  odour  which  they  diffused.  The 
taste  for  perfumes  reached  its  height  in  this 
country  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  pomander 
balls  and  pounce-boxes  figure  largely  in  the 
writings  of  her  time.  Perfumery  was  taxed, 
and  dealers  were  compelled  to  take  out  a 
licence  by  26  Geo.  III.  c.  49  (1786). 

PERGAMUS,  or  PERGAMUM  (Asia  Minor). 
—This  city,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
colony  of  Arcadians,  and  to  have  been  named 
after  Pergamus,  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  was,  with 
the  surrounding  districts,  formed  into  a  king- 
dom by  a  Paphlagonian  eunuch,  named  Phile- 
tserus,  B.C.  283.  Lysmiachus,  one  of  Alexander 
the  Third's  generals,  had  selected  this  place 
for  the  reception  of  his  treasures,  amounting 
to  9,000  talents,  and  he  committed  its  govern- 
ment to  PhiletaBrus,  who  revolted.  Attains  I., 
one  of  his  successors,  who  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  died  B.C.  197.  Eumenes  II.,  his  son, 
who  rendered  it  a  large  and  powerful  kingdom, 
and  collected  a  library  only  inferior  to  that  of 
Alexandria,  died  B.C.  159.  It  was  bequeathed 
to  the  Romans  by  Attalus  III.,  B.C.  133,  and, 
having  revolted,  was  subdued  and  made  a 
Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Asia,  B.C. 
1  30.  It  contained  one  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia,  mentioned  Rev.  ii.  12.  A  council  was 
held  here  in  152. 


A.D. 

383.  Philetffirus. 
263.  Eumenes  I. 
241.  Attains  I. 
197.  Eumenes  II. 


SOVEREIGNS   OF  PERGAMUS. 
\.~D. 


159.  Attains    II.    (Philadel- 

phus). 
138.  Attalus      III.      (Philo- 

metor). 


PERGA,  or  PERGE  (Pamphylia).  —  At  this 
city,  renowned  for  the  worship  of  Artemis, 
Paul  and  Barnabas  preached  with  great  suc- 
cess (Acts  xiii.  13  and  xiv.  25),  in  45. 

PERIGUEUX  (France).— This  town,  in  the 
old  province  of  Purigord,  stands  near  the  site 
of  the  Roman  Vesunna,  the  capital  of  the 
Petrocorii.  Louis  IX.  (1226-70)  ceded  it  to  the 
English,  from  whom  it  was  finally  wrested  by 
Charles  V.  (1364-80).  It  was  a  stronghold  of 


the  Huguenots,  was  several  times  assailed, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  French  crown  in  i6«. 

PERIM,  or  MEHUN  (Strait  of  Bab-el-Man- 
deb). — This  island,  commanding  the  entrance 
of  the  Red  Sea,  was  occupied  by  the  English 
in  1799,  on  account  of  the  French  invasion  of 
Egypt.  They  withdrew  in  1801,  but  sent 
another  expedition,  which  landed  here  Feb.  i, 
1857,  and  took  formal  possession  Feb.  14. 

PERINTHUS  (Thrace),  originally  a  Samian 
colony,  was  founded,  according  to  Syncellus, 
B.C.  599,  but  Panofka  places  its  origin  as  early 
as  B.C.  looo.  It  was  taken  by  the  Persians 
B.C.  506,  and  besieged  B.C.  340  by  Philip  II.  of 
Macedon,  who  was  compelled  to  abandon  the 
enterprise  B.C.  339.  It  was  at  one  time  called 
Mygdonia,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Hera- 
clea  in  the  4th  century  of  the  Christian  sera ; 
and  its  old  imperial  palace  and  aqueducts 
were  restored  by  the  Emperor  Justinian  I. 
(527—565)- 

PERIODICALS.— (See  MAGAZINES,  NEWS- 
PAPERS, and  REVIEWS.) 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY  was  founded 
by  Aristotle  the  Stagirite,  who  became  a  pupil 
of  Plato  B.C.  367.  He  was  appointed  tutor 
to  Alexander  III.  of  Macedon,  at  that  time 
13  years  old,  B.C.  342,  and  was  assigned  the 
Lyceum  at  Athens  as  a  school  wherein  to 
teach  his  disciples,  B.C.  333.  Having  been 
charged  with  impiety  and  condemned  to  death, 
he  fled  to  Chalcis,  where  he  died  in  Aug.  B.C.  322. 
From  his  habit  of  giving  lessons  while  walking 
in  the  groves  of  the  Lyceum  at  Athens,  his 
system  has  received  the  title  of  the  Peripatetic 
school. 

PERISABOR  (Assyria).— This  city,  also 
called  Anbar,  was  destroyed  by  Julian  during 
his  invasion  of  Assyria  in  363. 

PERJURY.— The  Levitical  law  punished  the 
crime  of  wilful  perjury  with  death  (Lev.  v.  i). 
The  Greeks  had  severe  laws  against  it ;  but  it 
was,  notwithstanding,  so  common  amongst 
them  that  Grceca  fides  became  a  proverbial 
expression  for  false  witness.  Other  ancient 
nations  punished  it  with  death  or  fines ;  but 
most  frequently  it  was  regarded  as  an  offence 
of  so  serious  a  nature  that  the  criminal  was 
left  to  the  justice  of  the  gods.  The  early 
Christians  had  various  laws  on  the  subject  ; 
by  some  of  which  it  was  atoned  by  severe 
penances,  while  others  rendered  the  perjurer 
excommxmicate  for  life.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
inflicted  whipping,  and  sometimes  death,  on 
perjurers.  By  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  25  (1494),  per- 
jury committed  by  unlawful  maintenance, 
imbracing,  or  corruption  of  officers,  or  in  the 
chancery,  or  before  the  king's  council,  shall 
be  punished  by  the  discretion  of  the  lord- 
chancellor,  treasurer,  both  the  chief  justices, 
and  the  clerk  of  the  rolls ;  and  if  the  com- 
plainant prove  not,  or  pursue  not  his  bill,  he 
shall  yield  to  the  party  wronged  his  costs  and 
damages.  By  5  Eliz.  c.  9  (1562)  perjurers 
were  rendered  liable  to  six  months'  imprison- 
ment, with  a  fine  of  ^40,  and  in  default  of 
payment,  to  have  both  ears  nailed  to  the 
pillory.  By  8  Geo.  I.  c.  6  (1722),  a  quaker 
making  a  false  affirmation  incurred  the  penal- 
ties of  a  wilful  perjurer.  By  2  Geo.  II.  c.  25, 
s.  2  (1729),  the  judges  were  empowered  to 


PERNAMBUCO 


[     764    J 


PERSIA 


sentence  persons  convicted  of  this  crime  to 
transportation  or  imprisonment  for  seven 
years  ;  and  the  modes  of  indictment  and  pro- 
secution were  regulated  by  23  Geo.  II.  c.  n, 
ss.  i  &  2  (1749).  The  last-mentioned  act  was 
amended  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  100,  s.  19  (Aug.  7, 
1851).  The  Abolition  of  Oaths  bill,  5  &  6  Will. 
IV.  c.  62  (Sep.  9,  1835),  declares  the  making  of- 
a  false  declaration  to  be  a  misdemeanour. 

PERNAMBUCO  (Brazil).— This  city,  com- 
prising the  towns  of  Recife,  San  Antonio,  Boa 
Vista,  and  Olinda,  was  founded  by  Duarte 
Coelho  in  1530,  and  was  seized  and  occupied 
for  30  days  by  the  English  in  1594.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch  Feb.  16,  1630,  and  was  the 
scene  of  an  insurrection  in  1661,  when  the 
governor  was  arrested  by  the  populace,  and 
sent  home  to  Portugal.  In  1676  it  was  erected 
into  a  bishop's  see.  An  insurrection  resulted 
in  the  flight  of  the  governor,  Nov.  7,  1710. 
Insurrections  occurred  in  March,  1817,  in  1821, 
and  in  1829. 

PERNAU,  or  PERNOW  (Russia).— Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  landed  here  Oct.  17,  1700,  in 
his  campaign  against  the  Russians. 

PERONNE  (France).— Charles  III.  (the 
Simple)  died  a  captive  in  its  castle,  Oct.  7,  929. 
Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  held 
Louis  XI.  prisoner  here  in  1468,  extorting 
from  him  (Friday,  Oct.  14)  a  treaty  by  which 
he  abandoned  the  sovereignty  of  Burgundy, 
and  consented  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  the 
revolt  which  he  himself  had  excited  in  Lk'^u. 
(See  IKON  CAGE.)  The  assembly  of  notables 
that  met  at  Tours  in  Nov.,  1470,  declared 
the  treaty  null  and  void,  and  pronounced  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  guilty  of  high  treason. 
Peronne  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
troops  of  Charles  V.  in  1536  ;  and  here  the 
Roman  Catholic  league  was  organized  by 
the  Duke  of  Guise  in  1576.  Never  having 
been  captured,  it  was  styled  La  Pucelle  (the 
maiden),  a  designation  rendered  no  longer 
appropriate,  as  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  carried  it 
by  assault  June  26,  1815. 

PERPENDICULAR,  ENGLISH.— (See 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.) 

PERPETUAL  CURACY.— (-See  CURATE.) 

PERPETUAL  EDICTS.— One  was  compiled 
under  the  directions  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
by  Salvius  Julianus,  in  132  ;  another,  stipu- 
lating terms  of  peace  between  Spain  and  the 
Netherlands,  was  signed  at  Marchc-en- Famine 
Feb.  12,  and  at  Brussels  Feb.  17,  1577,  and 
published  March  12.  The  brothers  John  and 
Cornelius  De  Witt  induced  the  states  of  Hol- 
land to  pass  a  perpetual  edict  abolishing  the 
office  of  stadtholder  in  1667.  It  was  repealed 
July  3,  1672,  and  William  Prince  of  Orange 
appointed  stadtholder  July  8. 

PERPETUAL  MOTION.— The  Marquis  of 
Worcester,  who  died  in  April,  1667,  Bishop 
Wilkins  (1614  — Nov.  19,  1672),  and  others, 
constructed  machines  to  establish  perpetual 
motion,  which  was  shown  to  be  impossible  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1642 — March  20,  1727),  and 
De  La  Hire  in  1678.  The  French  Academy,  in 
1775,  declared  "The  construction  of  perpetual 
motion  is  impossible."  Various  patents  have 
been  taken  out  for  machines  of  the  kind. 

PERPIGNAN  (France),  said  to  have  been 


founded  in  1068,  was  taken  from  Spain  by 
Louis  XI.  in  1474.  It  was  restored  to  Spain  in 
1493  ;  again  besieged,  without  effect,  in  1542  ; 
retaken  by  France  in  1642  ;  and  ceded  to  that 
country,  with  the  province  of  Roussillou,  by 
the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659.  The 
university  was  founded  by  King  Pedro  in  1349, 
and  a  council  was  held  here  in  1408.  Its  de- 
fences were  thoroughly  repaired  in  1823. 

PERS ARMENIA.  -The  nobles  of  Armenia 
rebelled  against  Artasires  about  440,  and  re- 
duced his  kingdom  to  a  province  of  Persia, 
under  the  name  of  Persarmenia. 

PERSECUTIONS.— The  most  important  are 
the  ten  general  persecutions  to  which  the 
early  Christians  were  subjected  by  the  Roman 
emperors.  They  are  as  follows  : — 

A.D. 

64.  The  Christians  are  first  persecuted  by  Nero,  on  a 
charge  of  having  set  fire  to  Rome.  Tacitus 
enumerates  crucifixion,  burning  alive,  and  bait- 
ing by  dogs  and  wild  beasts,  among  their  tortures. 
95.  The  second,  under  Domitian,  commences  with  the 
banishment  of  his  niece  Domitilla,  and  the  exe- 
cution of  the  consul  Clemens. 

106.  The  third  under  Trajan. 

166.  The  fourth  by  Marcus  Aurelius. 

198.  Septimius  Severus  publishes  his  edict  against  the 
Christians. 

335.  The  favourites  of  Alexander  Severus  arc  barba- 
rously massacred  by  Maximin  I.  As  there  were 
many  Christians  among  them,  it  is  styled  the 
sixth  persecution. 

350.  The  Kmpenir  Decius  exceeds  all  his  predecessors  hi 
the  severity  of  his  persecutions. 

358.  Valerian  adopts  severe  measures  against  the  Chris- 
tians. 

375.  Aurclian  publishes  edicts  against  Christianity. 

303,  Feb.  24-  Diocletian  publishes  his  first  edict  against 
the  Christians,  ordering  the  demolition  of  their 
churches  and  the  execution  of  all  who  refused 
to  renounce  their  worship.  The  persecution  thus 
commenced  was  continued  with  great  barbarity 
for  ten  years.  (See  MAKIAN  PERSECUTION.) 

PERSEPOLIS  (Persia),  supposed  to  have 
been  from  the  earliest  times  the  capital,  con- 
tained the  magnificent  royal  palace  which, 
together  with  a  large  portion  of  the  city,  was 
burned  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  in  his 
drunken  frenzy,  B.C.  331. 

PERSIA,  or  IRAN  (Asia).—  According  to  the 
national  traditions,  its  first  king  was  Mah-a- 
bad,  who  taught  the  inhabitants  agriculture 
and  the  manufacture  of  metals,  and  introduced 
other  arts  of  civilization.  Rawlinson  makes 
it  fifth  in  order  of  the  "  Five  Great  Monarchies 
of  the  Ancioiit  Eastern  World."  Its  early  his- 
tory is  involved  in  obscurity. 

B.C. 

2160.  Kaiumarath,  or  Kaiomurs    (according  to  national 

traditions),  founds  the  Pischdadiau  dynasty. 
2010.  Persia  is  tributary  to  Syria. 

1740.  Parhang,  King  of  Turan,  invading  Persia  with  an 
army    of  400,000  men,   defeats  Nodar,  and  es- 
tablishes his  own  son  Afrasiab  on  the  Persian 
throne. 
1730  (about).  Afrasiab  retires  to  his  own  country,  and  is 

succeeded  in  Persia  by  Zu  or  Zoab. 
1661.  Afrasiab  invades  Persia,  and  subverts  the   1'isrh- 

dadian  dynasty. 
643.  Kai-Kobad,  or  Cyaxares,  expels  the  Turani  from 

Persia,  and  establishes  the  Kaianite  dynasty. 
640  (about).    Persia  is  invaded  and  made  tributary  by 

the  Scythians. 

625.  The  Persians  assist  in  the  capture  of  Xineveh. 
598.  Kai-Kaus,  King  of   Persia,  is  defeated  and   made 
prisoner  by  the  King  of  Turan,  from  whom  he  is 
rescued  by  Bustem. 


PERSIA 


765 


PERSIA 


538.  Cyrus  conquers  Babyl 

1'iicenicia  is   annexed  to  Persia.    The   religion  of 


.. 

596.  Egypt,   Syria,  Arabia,   and  Asia  Minor    ar«    sub- 

jected by  the  Persians. 
559.  Cyrus,  or  Kai-Khosru,  becomes  King  of  Persia,  and 

defeats  the  Assyrians  and  the  Babylonians. 
558.  On  the  death  of  Astyages  of  Media,  that  country  is 

annexed  to  Persia  by  Cyrus. 
548.  Battle  of  Thymbra  (q.  v.). 

554.  According  to  Rawlinson,  Cyrus  seizes  Sardis  and 
takes  Croesus,   King  of    I>ydia,    prisoner.     Most 
chronologers  give  the  date  B.C.  546. 
543.  Cyrus  annexes  Asia  Minor. 
538.  Cyrus  conquers  Babylon. 
536. 

Zoroaster  is  established.  Cyrus  issues  his  decree 
for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
(q.  r.). 

529.  Death  of  Cyrus. 
525.  Cambyses  conquers  Egypt  and  makes  it  a  Persian 

province. 
522.  Cambyses  is  slain  by  accident,  and  the  sovereignty 

is  usurped  by  Smerdis  the  Magian. 

521.  Assassination  of  Smerdis  by  seven  conspirators,  the 
chief  of  whom,  Darius  I.  (Hystaspis),  ascends 
the  throne. 

517.  Darius  I.  takes  and  destroys  Babylon. 
513.  Darius  I.  invades  Macedonia.     Death  of  Zoroaster. 
508.  Darius  I.  makes  Macedon,  Thrace,  and  the  countries 

north  of  the  Indus,  tributary  to  his  power. 
501.  The  Persians  are  defeated  in  the  Naxian  war. 
500.  The  lonians  revolt. 
499.  The  Athenians    assist    the  Ionian    rebels    against 

Persia. 

495.  The  Ionian  revolt  is  suppressed. 
494.  The  Greeks  are  defeated    in  the  naval  battle  of 

Lade. 
492.  Mardonius  invades  Greece  (q.  t>.),  and  is  defeated 

both  by  sea  and  land. 
490.  Datis    and    Artaphernes    invade    Greece     without 

success.    (See  MARATHON.) 
486.  The  Egyptians  revolt. 

485.  Darius  I.    (Hystaspis)  dies,   and  is   succeeded  by 
Xerxes  I.  (the  Ahasuerus  of  the  book  of  Esther). 
480.  Xerxes   I.     invades    Greece.      (See    ARXEMISIUM, 

SALAMIS,  and  THERMOPYLAE.) 

4*79.  The   Persians,    after  the    defeats  of    Mycale   and 
Plataea  (q.  v.\  retreat  from  Greece,  and  lose  their 
supremacy  in  Macedon  and  Thrace. 
466.  The  Persians  are  defeated  at  the  Eurymedon  (q.  v.). 

Ionia  regains  her  independence. 
465.  Assassination  of  Xerxes  I.  by  Artabanus  and  the 

eunuch  Spamitres. 

464.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Longimanus)  succeeds. 
458.  Artaxerxes  I.  marries  the  Jewess  Esther. 
455.  An  Egyptian  revolt  is  suppressed. 
449.  The   Greeks    defeat    the    Persians   at  Salamis,  in 

Cyprus. 
447.  Megabyzus,  Satrap  of  Syria,   rebels,   and  compels 

Artaxerxes  I.  to  concede  his  demands. 
425.  Artaxerxes  I.  falls  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy.  Xerxes 
II.  reigns  for  two  months,  and  is  succeeded  by 
Sogdianus. 

413.  The  Egyptians  shake  off  the  Persian  yoke. 
401.  The  Spartans  send  an  army  into  Persia  to  assist  the 
rebel  Cyrus,  who   is  defeated  and  slain   at  the 
battle  of   Cunaxa  (q.  v.)  ;  and  his  Greek  allies, 
under    Xenophon,     commence    the    memorable 
retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  (q.  v.). 
396.  Agesilaus,   King  of    Sparta,    invades  Persia,   and 

pains  many  important  victories. 

394.  The  Spartans  are  defeated  by  the  Persians  and 
Athenians  at  the  naval  battle  of  the  Cnidus 
(q.  «.). 

387.  Clazomense  and  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor 
are  restored  to  Persia  by  the  peace  of  Antalcidas 
(q.  v.). 
383.  The  Bithynians  render  themselves  independent  of 

Persia. 
359.  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus),  on  his  accession,  murders 

all  his  relations  and  many  of  the  nobility. 
354.  The  Thebans  assist  Artabazus  in  his  revolt  against 

Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus). 

351.  The  Sidonians  revolt.    In  dread  of  being  defeated 
by  Artaxerxes  III.,   they  burn  their   city   and 
perish  in  the  flames. 
350.  Artaxerxes  III.   (Ochus)   invades   and    subjugates 

Egypt 

338.  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus),  with  all  his  family,  is 
poisoned  by  Bagoas. 


334.  Persia  is  invaded  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great). 
(See  MACEDON.) 

331,  Oct.  i.  Alexander  III.  makes  himself  master  of 
Persia  by  his  victory  at  Arbela  (q.  v.). 

330.  Darius  III.  (Codomannus)  is  assassinated  by  Bessus, 
and  Persia  is  added  to  the  Macedonian  do- 
minions. 

323.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  III.,  Persia  is  seized  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  King  of  Syria. 

256  or  250.  Persia  passes  under  the  Parthian  dynasty 
of  the  Arsacidse. 

A.D. 

226.  Artaxerxes,  or  Ardshir,  founds  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanides  (q.  v.). 

240.  Ardshir  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son  Shahpoor  or 
Sapor  I. 

258.  Shahpoor  I.  annexes  Mesopotamia. 

260.  Shahpoor  I.  takes  the  Roman  Emperor  Valerian 
prisoner. 

383.  The  Roman  Emperor  Carus  invades  Persia  and 
subdues  Mesopotamia  and  Ctesiphon. 

297-  Galerius  invades  Persia  and  is  defeated  by  Narses, 
King  of  Persia. 

298.  Galerius  defeats  Narses,  and  compels  him  to  sur- 
render Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  other  pro- 
vinces to  the  Romans. 

326.  Christianity  is  prohibited  in  Persia. 

337.  War  is  renewed  with  Rome. 

348.  The  Romans  under  Constantius  II.  are  defeated  at 
Singara. 

363,  April  7.  The  Emperor  Julian  invades  Persia.— 
June  26.  Julian  is  killed  while  pursuing  the 
fugitive  Persians  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris. 

366.  Iberia  is  added  to  Persia. 

412.  Yezdijird  I.  reconquers  Armenia. 

420.  The  death  of  Yezdijird  I.  is  followed  bv  a  war   of 

succession,  which  terminates  in  favour  of  Vah- 
ranes  or  Baharam  V. 

421.  Arabia  Felix  is  made  tributary  to  Persia. 

422.  Another  Roman  war  is  commenced. 

428.  Armenia  is  permanently  united  to  Persia. 

430.  The  Huns  invade  Persia. 

488.  Firoze  and  most  of  his  sons  fall  in  battle  against 

the  Huns. 
502.  Anastasius  I.  refuses  to  pay  tribute  to  Kobad,  King 

of  Persia,  who  declares  war  against  the  Eastern 

empire. 
540.  Chosroes,  or  Nushirvan  I.,  invades  Syria  and  sacks 

Antioch. 

550.  The  Persians  attack  the  Lazi  (q. ».). 
572.  Dara  is  taken  by  the  Persians. 
586.  The  Romans  gain  a  great  victory  over  the  Persians 

at  Solaion. 
590.  Baharam    heads    a    general    insurrection    against 

Hoormuz,  or  Hormisdas,  who  is  deposed  and  put 

to  death.     Baharam  is  defeated  by  the  Greeks 

and  Persian  loyalists  at  the  battle  of  Balarath. 
6ll.  Chosroes,  or  Nushirvan  II.,  overruns  Syria.     (See 

ANTIOCH.) 
614.  Chosroes,  or  Nushirvan  II.,  completes  the  conquest 

of  Palestine. 
616.  Chosroes,   or   Nushirvan  II.,  conquers  Egypt  and 

Asia  Minor. 
622.  Heraclius  invades  Persia  and  defeats  the  Persians 

in  several  battles. 

628.  Chosroes,  or  Nushirvan  II.,  is  murdered  by  his  son 

Siroes,  and  peace  is  concluded  with  the  Eastern 
empire. 

629.  Ardshir,  the  last  male  descendant  of  the  Sassanides, 

is  murdered. 
636.  The  Saracens  invade  Persia  and  gain  the  battle  ol 

Cadesia  (q.  v.). 
651.  Yezdijird   is  betrayed  to  the  Saracens,    and    the 

whole  of  Persia  passes  under  their  yoke. 
813.  Taher  revolts  from  the  caliph,  and  establishes  the 

Taherite  dynasty. 

872.  Yakoub-ben-Seis  establishes  the  Soffaride  dy- 
nasty. 

874.  Ismael  Samanee  establishes  the  Saminide  dynasty.   , 
932.  The  Bowides  (q.  ».)  establish  their  authority  in  some 

parts  of  Persia. 
957.  Alp  Tegin  founds  the  independent  principality  of 

Ghizni  (q.  ».).  " 

1026.  The  Persian  poet  Ferdusi  flourishes. 
1038.  The  Seljukian  Turks  take  Persia,  and   establish 

their  dynasty. 

1068.  Alp  Arslan  conquers  Georgia  and  Armenia. 
1157.  Persia  is  convulsed  with  civil  war. 


PERSIA 


[    766    ] 


PERTH 


A.D. 

1194.  Defeat  and  death  of    Togrel,    the  last  Seljukian 

sultstn  of  Persia. 

1318.  The  Mongols  (q.  v.)  invade  Persia. 
1323-  Persia    U  subdued  by  the  Mongols  under  Zingis 

Khan. 
1258.  Holagou  Khan,  grandson  of  Zingis,  conquers  and 

governs  I'ersia. 

1299.  A  famine  and  pestilence  ravage  Persia. 
1345.  Bagdad  is  made  the  capital. 
7380.  Timour  invades  I'ersia. 
1387.  Timour  takes  Ispahan  (q.v.). 
1393.  Timour  completes  the  conquest  of  Persia. 
1437.  Jehan  Shah   conquers  Georgia   and  great  part  of 

Persia. 
1468.  The   White  Sheep   (q.  v.)  obtain  possession  of  the 

western  portion  of  the  countrv. 
1488.  Death  of  the  Sultan  Hyder  in  battle  with  the  King 

of  Shirwan  at  Gulistan. 
1502.  Ismail  Shah  expels  the  Turks  of  the  White  Sheep, 

and  esMlilishes  the  Snllide  dynasty. 
1514,  Aug.  17.  Battle  of  Shaldiran  (q.  v.). 
1519.   Ismael  reconquers  Georgia. 
1534.  The  Persians  defeat  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Sul- 

tamah. 

1571.  Persia  is  desolated  by  plague  and  famine. 
1574.  Casbin,  or  Kasviii,  is  made  the  capital. 
1584.  Shah  Abbas  I.  takes  Casbin. 
1590.  Peace  is  purchased  from  the  Turks  by  the  cession 

of    Georgia,  Erivan,  and  Tabreez.      Ispahan  is 

made  the  capital. 
1606.  Shah  Abbas  I.  annexes  Laristan  and  Kandahar  to 

Persia. 
1618.  The   Turks,  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Shiblai,  are 

compelled     to     surrender    Servia,    Erivan,    and 

Tabreez. 

1634-5.  The  Turks  again  take  Erivau  and  Tabreez. 
1631  The    Turks    take    Bagdad    and    massacre    30,000 

Persians. 

1709.  The  Affghans  take  Kandahar. 
1722-  The  Affghans  defeat  the   Persians  at  the  battle  of 

Goolnabad,  and   take    Ispahan.     The   tin-one    is 

usurped    by   the   Affghan   chieftain    Meer  .Mah- 

inoud.     PetK  I.  of  ilussia  invades  I'ersia. 
1724,  June    23.    A  treaty  for   the   partition   of     Persia    is 

signed  between  K'.i-.-ia  and  Turkey  at  Constan- 
tinople. 

1726.  War  with  Turkey. 
1734,  Nov.   2rt.   The   'I  urks  are  defeated  at  Bagdad   by 

Nadir  Klmuli,  with  the  loss  of  30,000  men. 
1739.  Nadir  Shah  invades  India  and  sacks  Delhi. 
1747.  Assassination  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  establishment  of 

the  Affghan  kingdom  of   Persia. 
1749.  The  Affghaus  lay  siege  to  Herat. 
7757.  Mazenderan  is  annexed  to  Persia. 
1760.  The  seat  of  government  is  transferred  to  Shiraz. 
1768.   Khorassan  becomes  a  Persian  province. 
1783.    Georgia  revolts  and  joins  i; 
1794.  Aga  Mohammed  establishes  the  Knjaror  Turkoman 

dynasty,  and  makes  Teheran  his  capital  city. 
1797,  May  74.  Aga  Mohammed  is  assassinated. 

1800,  Nov.  An   English   mission  has  an   interview  with 

the  shah. 

1801,  Jan.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Great  Britain. 
1805.  The  Persians  defeat  the  Affghans. 

180;;,  March  73.  A  preliminary  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Great  Britain  is  concluded  at  Teheran. — Xov.  9. 
A  British  naval  expedition  carries  on  war 
against  the  pirates  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

1813,  Oct  73.  Treaty  of  Gulistan  (q.  v.). 

1874,  Nov.  25.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  is  concluded 
with  Great  Britain  at  Teheran. 

1837.  The  cholera  rages  in  Persia. 

1831-5.  An  English  expedition  explores  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

1833,  July  28.  Treaty  of  Erzeroum  with  Turkey. 

1826,  Sep.  28.  War  i's  declared  by  Kus.-ia.. 

7827,  July  31.    Capture   by  the  Russians  of  Abbassabad 

1828,  Feb.  23-  Treaty  of  Turkmanshai. 

1839,  Feb.  73.  The  Kussian  ambassador  and  several 
members  of  the  legation  at  Teheran  are  assassi- 
nated. 

1830.  Several  shocks  of  an  earthquake  are  felt  in 
I'ersia. 

1847,  Oct.  28.  A  treaty  of  commerce  is  concluded  with 
Great  Britain  at  Teheran. 

1847.  Salar  revolts  against  the  shah  in  Khorasean, 

1857,  Aug.  15.  The  shah's  life  is  attempted. 


A.D. 

1353, 


1857, 


1858, 


Jan.  5.  The  shah  signs  a  convention  agreeing  not 
to  send  troops  to  Herat  (q.  t>.),  unless  that  terri- 
tory is  invaded  by  a  foreign  power. 

April.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Russia. 

Oct.  36.  The  Persians  seize  Herat. — Nov.  I.  The 
English  Government  declares  war. — Dee.  7.  An 
English  force  disembarks  near  Bushire  (q.  ».). 

Jan.  27.  A  strong  detachment,  under  Gen.  Outran!, 
lands  at  IJushire. — Feb.  8.  The  Persians  are  de- 
feated near  Khooslinb. — March  4.  Treaty  of 
Paris  (q.  r.}.— March  36.  The  Persians  are  driven 
from  their  intrenehments  at  Mohammerah.— 
July  37.  Herat  is  restored. 

June  39.  Mohammed  Khasim  Khan,  hereditary 
Prince  of  Persia,  dies  at  Teheran,  aged  13  years. 
— Sep.  9.  Important  administrative  reforms  are 
announced. 


ANCIENT   SOVEREIGNS   OF   PERSIA. 


B.C. 

559-  Cyrus. 

529.  Cambyses. 

523.  Smerdis. 

531.   Darius  I.  (Hystaspis). 

485.  Xerxes  I. 

465.  Artabanus. 

464.  Artaxerxes   I.   (Longi- 

435.  Xerxes  1 1. 
435.  Sog.lianus. 


434.'  Darius  II.  (Nothus). 
405.  Artaxerxes    II.     (Mne- 

359.  ArtaxerxcsIII.  (Ochus). 

338,   Arses. 

33',.  Darius      III.      (Codo  - 

manna). 
331.  Alexander     III.      (the 

Great). 


From  B.C.  323  to  226  A.D.  the  throne  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  dynasties  of  the  Seleucid;-  and 
•  >f  the  Arsacidai  7.  r.).  The  Sassanides  </.  v.} 
ruled  till  652,  and  were  followed  by  various 
foreign  rulers  ;  and  the  Taherites,  tin 
rides,  the  Samanides,  the  Bowides,  and  the 
Ghiznevides  (9.  ».)  established  their  sway  in 
different  parts  of  the  country. 


SHAHS   OF 
A.  P. 

1503.  Ismail,  or  Ishmael. 
[543.  Tamasp.  or  Thamas  I. 
I  "n.    Ismail  Meorza. 
1577.   Mohammed  Meerza. 
1583.  Abbas  I.  (the  Great). 
1037.  SIlil1'  Snofu. 
7641.  Abbas  II. 
7667.  Soliman. 
[694.   Hussein. 

<  r  Mahmoud. 

1735.  Ashraff. 

1729.  Tamasp,  or  Thamas  II. 
1732.  Abbas  III. 

1736.  Nadir  Shah. 

7747.  Adil  Shah. 

7748.  Shah  liokh. 


PERSIA. 
A.D. 

7750.  Interregnum. 
7753.  Kureeni  Khan. 
7779.  Abool-Fatteh-Khan. 
17*0.   Interregnum. 

7787.  AH-Moorad-Khan. 
7785.  Jafficr  Khan. 

7788.  Interregnum. 
77.^9.   Looft-Ali-Khan. 
7794.  Aga    -     Mohammed- 
Khan. 

7797.  Fatteh-Ali-Khan. 

7834.  Mohammed  Shah. 

1848.  Nasr-ul-Din. 

ood-deen,orNasser- 
ud-deen-Shah. 


PERSPECTIVE,  first  employed  in  scenes 
for  the  tragedies  of  jEschylus  about  B.C.  500, 
was  revived  by  Bramantino,  of  Milan,  who 
drew  up  the  rules  in  1440. 

PERTH  (Scotland),  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  a  burgh 
in  1106  ;  was  fortified  by  Edward  I.  in  1298, 
and  besieged  and  taken  by  Robert  Bruce  in 
1312.  James  I.  of  Scotland  was  murdered  in 
the  Black  Friars'  monastery,  Feb.  20,  1437. 
The  Gowrie  conspiracy  occurred  here  in  1600, 
and  Oliver  Cromwell  took  possession  of  the 
city  and  erected  a  fortress  in  1651.  An  attack 
upon  churches  and  monasteries,  caused  by  a 
sermon  of  John  Kiiox,  May  u,  1559,  led  to  the 
introduction  of  a  French  garrison,  who  held 
the  town  for  Queen  Mary.  They  capitulated 
to  the  reformers  June  26,  1559.  Prince  Charles 
Edward  proclaimed  his  father  king,  Sep.  4, 


PERTH 


[    767 


PERUGIA 


1745.  The  statue  to  Prince  Albert  was  in- 
augurated in  presence  of  Queen  Victoria,  Aug. 
30,1864.  (See  ARTICLES  OF  PERTH.) 

PERTH  (Western  Australia)  was  made  a 
bishopric  in  1856. 

PERU  (S.  America).— The  national  traditions 
of  Peru  go  back  to  the  nth  century,  when 
monarchical  government  was  introduced  by 
the  first  Inca,  Blanco  Capac,  who  is  supposed 
by  the  natives  to  have  acted  by  divine  ap- 
pointment. Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  first  in- 
formed of  its  existence  by  a  son  of  the  Cacique 
of  Comogra  in  1512,  was  unable  to  effect  any 
discovery.  Part  of  the  coast  was  explored  by 
Pascual  de  Andagoya  in  1522,  and  in  Nov., 
1524,  Francisco  Pizarro  sailed  from  Panama  on 
his  first  expedition.  The  term  Peru  is  said  to 
be  a  corruption  of  Bird,  the  name  of  a  native 
ciiieftain,  with  whom  the  Spaniards  had  deal- 
ings during  their  discoveries. 

A.!). 

1536.  Francisco  Pizarro  reaches  the  coast  of  Peru,  and 

returns  to  Panama. 

1531,  Jan.  Francisco  Pizarro  sails  from  Panama  to  con- 
quer Peru. 

153?,  May.  The  first  Spanish  colony  in  Peru  is  established 
at  St.  Michael's.— Nov.  16.  Francisco  Pizarro  takes 
the  Inca  Atahuulpa  prisoner. 

1533,  Aug.  29.  Atahualpa  is  executed  at  Caxamalca. 

1535,  Jan.  6.  Francisco  Pizarro  founds  Lima. 

1537,  July  12.  Battle  of  Abaiicay  (q.  v.). 

1541,  June  36.  Francisco  Pizarro  is  assassinated  at  Lima. 

1544,  March.  A  new  system  of  laws,  introduced  by  Vela, 

causes  civil  war  in  Peru. 

1545,  Oct.  20.  The  new  laws  are  revoked. 

1546,  The  Spanish  conquest  is  completed. 

1547,  Oct.  26.  Gonzalo  Pizarro  gains  the  battle  of  Htvarina. 
1551,  Sep.  13.  Antonio  de  Mendoza  commences  his  bene- 
ficent viceroyalty  of  Peru. 

1571.  The  Inquisition  is  introduced. 

1580.  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  visit  the  country. 

1718.  The  province  of  Quito  is  detached  from  Peru,  and 
added  to  New  Grenada. 

1778.  The  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Potosi,  Charcas, 
Chiquitos,  &c.,  are  separated  from  Peru,  and 
erected  into  a  distinct  government. 

1780.  Tapac  Amaru  heads  a  formidable  but  fruitless  in- 
surrection against  the  Spaniards. 

1831,  July  38.  San  Martin  proclaims  Peru  free  and  inde- 
pendent.—Aug.  3.  San  Martin  is  made  protector. 
— Sep.  33.  He  seizes  Callao. — Sep.  36.  He  orders 
the  English  squadron,  under  Lord  Cochrane,  to 
quit  the  Peruvian  coasts. 

1833,  May  24.  The  Royalists  are  defeated  at  Pinohacha.— 
Sep.  20.  The  Peruvian  congress  is  formally  in- 
siallod,  and  Snn  Martin  resigns  the  protectorship. 

1833.  Sep.  i.  Bolivar  is  invested  with  the  chief  authority 

at  Lima. 

1834,  Dec.  9.    The  battle  of  Ayacucho  (q.  v.)  secures  the 

liberties  of  Peru. 

1826,  Jan.  23.  Callao,  the  last  Spanish  stronghold  in  Peru, 
surrenders. 

1839,  Feb.  37.  The  Peruvians  are  defeated  by  the  Colum- 
bians at  Tarqui,  in  Quito.— Feb.  28.'  A  treaty  is 
concluded  between  the  two  republics. 

1834,  An  insurrection  under  Gen.  Ganiarra  is  suppressed 

by  Gen.  Miller. 

1835,  Feb.  25.  Gen.  Salavery  seizes  Callao,  and  proclaims 

himself  head  of  the  republic.— Aug.  13.  His  army 
is  totally  defeated  at  Yauaeocha. 

1836,  Feb.  7.  Salavery  sustains  another  severe  defeat,  and 

is  made  prisoner,  in  the  pass  of  Tingo.— Feb.  18. 
He  is  executed. 
.  1837,  May  17.    War  is  declared  against  Chili.— Nov.  17. 

Peace  is  restored. 

1851,  April  21.  Riots  break  out  at  Arequipa  in  consequence 
of  the  election  of  Gen.  Echenique  to  the  presi- 
dency. 

1857,  Aujr.  1 1." The  English  charge  d'affaires  is  assassinated. 

1858,  Feb.  31.    Gen.  Vivanco  rebels,  and  bombards  and 

takes  Arica. — March  8.  The  insurrection  is  sup- 
pressed by  Gen.  Ramon  Castillo.— Oct.  36.  The 
ports  of  Ecuador  are  declared  in  a  state  of  siege. 


. 
S.  American  republics 


j859i  O"3*-  9-  C"en-  Castilla  announces  that  he  shall  occupy 
Ecuador  unless  a  settled  government  is  adopted. 

1863,  Oct.  Two  Peruvian  ships  of  war  engage  in  a  con- 
flict with  the  Brazilian  authorities  at  Belem, 
relative  to  the  rights  of  the  latter  to  levy  customs 
duties  on  vessels  entering  the  Amazon. 

1863,  April  3.  Death  of  the  president,  Marshal  San  Ra- 

mon.—Aug.  5.  His  successor,  Gen.  Pezet,  enters 
Lima. 

1864,  April  14.  The  Spaniards  seize  the  Chincha  islands, 

and  declare  their  intention  to  hold  them  until  the 
Peruvian  Government  shall  have  made  reparation 
for  alleged  outrages  committed  by  Peruvian  sub- 
jects on  the  small  Basque  colony  of  Talamon. 
Nov.  14.  A  congress  of 
assembles  at  Lima. 

1865,  Jan.  In  consequence  of  the  rupture  of  negotiations 

concerning  the  Chincha  islands,  Admiral  Pareja 
anchors  with  a  Spanish  squadron  off  Callao,  and 
presents  an  ultimatum.— Jan.  28.  A  treaty  is  signed 
at  Callao,  by  which  Peru,  paying  an  indemnity 
of  60,000,000  reals,  is  confirmed  in  possession  of 
the  Chincha  islands.— Feb.  3.  The  islands  are  for- 
mally restored  to  Peru.— Feb.  5.  Vice-President 
Castilla  is  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy. — 
Feb.  38.  An  insurrection  against  President  Pezet 
breaks  out  in  the  south  of  Peru,  in  consequence 
of  the  popular  indignation  at  the  Spanish 
treaty. — April  4.  The  revolutionary  movement 
extends  into  the  north. — May  8.  The  government 
troops  defeat  the  insurgents  at  Arica. — June  8. 
President  Pezet  declares  Arica,  Islay,  and  Quilca 
in  a  state  of  blockade. — June  24.  The  crew  of  the 
frigate  Amaeonas,  blockading  Arica,  mutiny,  kill 
several  officers,  and  seize  several  other  vessels. — 
Dec.  5.  A  treaty  of  alliance  with  Chili  is  signed  at 
Lima.— Dec.  30.  It  is  ratified  at  Santiago. 

1866,  Feb.  7.    The  combined  Peruvian  and  Chilian  fleets 

defeat  a  Spanish  squadron  off  the  island  of 
Chiloe.— May  3.  The  Spanish  fleet  is  defeated  in 
an  attack  upon  Callao. 

PERUGIA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Perusia,  is 
first  noticed  in  history  B.C.  310,  when  the  Pe- 
rugians shared  in  the  great  defeat  of  the 
Etruscans  by  the  Romans  at  the  Vadimonian 
lake.  In  alliance  with  the  people  of  Clusium, 
they  renewed  the  war  against  Rome  B.C.  295  ; 
and  having  suffered  two  defeats,  were  obliged 
to  sue  for  peace,  B.C.  294,  and  by  the  payment 
of  a  large  sum  of  money  obtained  a  truce  for 
40  years.  Perugia  afterwards  became  a  de- 
pendency of  Rome,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  civil  war  between  Octavius  and  L.  An- 
tonius,  B.C.  41.  It  was  taken  by  Octavius,  pil- 
laged, and  burned,  B.C.  41,  and  was  afterwards 
restored.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  57, 
St.  Herculanus,  a  follower  of  St.  Peter,  being 
the  first  bishop.  It  was  taken  and  occupied 
by  Belisarius  in  537  ;  was  besieged  by  Totila 
in  547 ;  but  held  out  for  two  years,  and  only 
surrendered  after  Belisarius  had  quitted  Italy. 
It  was  recovered  by  Narses  in  552.  The  uni- 
versity was  founded  in  1320.  In  1416  Perugia 
came  into  the  hands  of  Braccio  da  Montone. 
It  was  twice  visited  by  the  plague,  viz.,  in 
1348,  when  100,000  persons  perished,  and  again 
in  1524,  when  the  celebrated  painter  Perugino 
died.  In  1512  it  was  united  to  the  Papal 
States  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  and  in  1540  the 
citadel  was  erected  by  Pope  Paul  III.  The 
bronze  statue  of  Julius  III.  was  erected  in  1555, 
in  gratitude  for  his  restoration  of  many  of 
their  privileges.  The  necropolis  of  Perugia 
was  discovered  in  1840.  The  Perugians  having 
revolted  against  the  Pope  in  1859,  their  city 
was  taken  by  the  papal  troops,  June  20.  The 
Sardinians  took  it  Sep.  14,  1860,  and  it  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


PERUVIAN  BARK 


[    768    ] 


PETERBOROUGH 


PERUVIAN,  or  JESUITS'  BARK.— Its  me- 
dicinal qualities  were  discovered  by  the  Jesuits 
"in  S.  America  ;  a  diseased  person  having,  by 
accident,  taken  water  impregnated  with  it. 
As  a  medicine  it  was  first  used  in  Spain  in 
1640,  and  in  England  about  1654.  The  Mer- 
curius  Politicus,  Feb.  3 — 10,  1659,  announces 
where  "the  Feaver  Bark,  commonly  called 
the  Jesuits'  powder,  brought  over  by  James 
Thompson,  merchant  of  Antwerp,"  may  be 
obtained. 

PESARO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Pisaurum,  of 
which  nothing  is  known  previous  to  B.C.  184, 
when  a  Roman  colony  formed  a  settlement.  It 
was  one  of  the  first  places  occupied  by  Caesar 
after  his  passage  of  the  Rubicon,  B.C.  49.  The 
greater  part  of  the  town  having  been  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  soon  after  the  battle  of  Ac- 
tium,  B.C.  31,  it  was  restored  by  Augustus. 
The  manufacture  of  pottery,  which  existed  at 
Pesaro  from  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
was  revived  in  1300  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  and 
attained  great  perfection  under  the  Dukes  of 
Urbino  in  the  middle  of  the  iyth  century.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Sardinians  Sep.  12,  1860. 

PESCHIERA  (Italy).— This  town  of  Mantua, 
one  of  the  celebrated  Quadrilateral,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Sardinians,  May  30,  1848,  and  re- 
covered by  the  Austrian  army  under  Radetsky 
in  March,  1849.  It  was  invested  in  June,  1859. 
The  Austrians  surrendered  it  by  treaty  con- 
cluded Sep.,  1866. 

PESHAWAR  (Hindostan),  the  capital  of  a 

S-ovince  in  the  Punjaub,  was  founded  by  the 
ongol  emperor  Akbar.  Runjeet  Singh  cap- 
tured it  in  1818.  The  sepoy  garrison  mutinied 
Oct.  23,  1848,  and  expelled  the  resident,  Major 
Lawrence. 

PESSINUS,  or  PESINUS  (Galatia).— This 
great  commercial  town  was  celebrated  for  its 
temple  to  Rhea  or  Cybele  (q.  v.}.  The  Romans 
sent  a  special  embassy  to  Pessinus  B.C.  204,  in 
accordance  with  a  command  in  the  Sibylline 
books  to  remove  the  statue  to  Rome. 

PESTALOZZIAN  SCHOOLS  of  education, 
established  by  Johann  Heinrich  Pestalozzi, 
who  was  born  at  Zurich,  in  Switzerland,  Jan. 
12,  1746,  and  turned  his  farm  into  a  school  in 
1775,  but  was  compelled  to  give  it  up  in  1780 
from  want  of  funds.  At  the  request  of  the 
Swiss  directory,  he  opened  a  second  school  in 
1798  at  Stanz,  in  Unterwalden,  from  which  he 
was  compelled  to  retire  on  account  of  ill  health 
and  the  interference  caused  by  the  war.  In 
1800  he  founded  an  educational  institution  at 
the  castle  of  Burgdorf .  It  was  broken  up  in 
1825.  Pestalozzi  died  Feb.  17,  1827. 

PESTH  (Hungary),  built  by  Arpad  about 
889,  and  walled  in  the  isth  century,  was  for 
nearly  160  years  in  possession  of  the  Turks, 
who  were  expelled  in  1686.  An  inundation  of 
the  Danube  destroyed  1,200  houses  in  March, 
1838.  The  Hungarian  revolution  broke  out 
here  Sep.  n,  1848,  and  Count  Lamberg,  the 
imperial  commissioner,  was  murdered  on  the 
Buda-Pesth  bridge,  Sep.  28.  Pesth,  taken  by 
the  imperial  forces  Jan.  5,  1849,  was  evacuated 
by  them  April  21,  and  bombarded  May  4. 
Near  the  city  is  the  field  of  Rakos,  where  the 
national  assembly  of  the  Magyars  met  in  the 
open  air  from  1268  to  1525.  The  Neugebaude, 


used  as  barracks,  was  erected  in  1786  by 
Joseph  II.,  who  also  transferred  the  university 
from  Buda  to  this  city  in  1784.  The  Ludovi- 
cium,  a  military  school,  was  built  in  1837,  and 
the  town-hall  in  1844.  The  emperor  visited 
the  city  June  6  and  Dec.  12,  1865,  opened  the 
Hungarian  diet  Dec.  14,  and  returned  with 
the  empress  Jan.  30,  1866.  (See  BUDA.) 

PESTILENCE.  |  (See  PLAGUE.) 

PET ALISM.— This  form  of  banishment,  in- 
stituted by  the  Syracusans,  was  borrowed 
from  the  Athenian  ostracism,  the  difference 
being  that  the  names  were  written  upon  olive- 
leaves  instead  of  shells,  and  the  sentence 
lasted  only  five  years.  Petalism  was  abolished 

B.C.  452. 

PETARD.— This  implement  of  war,  for 
forcing  open  the  gates  of  towns,  was  first  used 
by  the  French  Huguenots  at  the  siege  of 
Cahors  in  1580,  and  was  soon  afterwards  in- 
troduced into  England. 

PETCHENEGANS,  a  Slavonic  tribe,  men- 
tioned in  Byzantine,  Russian,  and  Hungarian 
annals  from  the  ioth  to  the  i2th  century. 
After  a  vain  attempt  to  enter  Russia,  they 
occupied  the  country  between  the  Russian  and 
Greek  empires,  and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Igor  I.  in  920.  They  invaded  Russia,  for 
the  first  time,  in  968,  and  laid  siege  to  Kief. 
It  was  on  the  point  of  surrendering  from  fa- 
mine, when  it  was  relieved  by  the  Russians, 
and  the  siege  was  raised.  They  defeated  Vla- 
dimir I.  at  Vassilef,  on  the  Stugna,  in  996,  and 
they  laid  siege  to  Bielgorod  in  997,  but  were 
compelled  to  retreat.  The  Emperor  John  II. 
drove  them  out  of  Thrace  in  1122,  and  from 
that  time  they  ceased  to  be  formidable. 

PETELIA,  or  PETILIA  (Battle).— Spartacus, 
who  had  raised  an  insurrection  among  the 
slaves,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Crassus  near 
this  town,  in  Lucania,  B.C.  71. 

PETELIA,  or  PETILIA  (Greece),  the  modem 
Strongoli,  an  ancient  city  of  Bruttium,  was 
founded,  according  to  Greek  tradition,  by 
Philoctetes,  soon  after  the  Trojan  war.  It 
supported  the  Roman  cause  during  the  second 
Punic  war,  B.C.  216  ;  was  besieged  by  the  Brut- 
tians  and  Carthaginians,  under  Himilco,  and, 
having  been  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  was, 
after  several  months'  resistance,  compelled  to 
surrender. 

PETER  (Epistles).— The  first  was  written  by 
St.  Peter  to  the  Christians  in  Asia  Minor  about 
64,  and  the  second  Epistle  was  written  by  the 
same  Apostle  about  65.  It  was  formally  ad- 
mitted into  the  canon  by  a  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Hippo,  Oct.  8,  393. 

PETERBOROUGH  (Bishopric)  was  estab- 
lished by  order  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1541. 

PETERBOROUGH  (Northamptonshire).  — 
Penda,  King  of  Mercia,  having  embraced  the 
Christian  religion,  founded  a  monastery  at 
this  place,  anciently  called  Medeshamstede, 
about  655.  It  was  dedicated  to  St.  Peter ; 
and  from  this  monastery  the  town  was  called 
Petriburgus — hence  its  present  name.  Having 
been  plundered  and  burned  by  the  Danes  in 
807,  it  was  restored  in  966.  The  monastery 
was  burned  Aug.  3,  1116.  Queen  Catherine, 
who  died  at  Kimbolton,  Jan.  7,  1536,  was 
buried  here  Jan.  26.  Henry  VIII.  issued  a 


PETERHEAD 


769  1 


PETERSWALDE 


circular  calling  upon  the  gentry  to  attend 
the  body  from  Kimbolton  to  Peterborough 
Abbey.  As  the  burial  place  of  Queen 
Catherine,  it  was  spared  on  the  suppression  of 
the  monasteries.  The  cathedral,  commenced 
in  1118,  and.  completed  in  1528,  was  desecrated 
by  the  Parliamentary  forces  in  1643.  The 
body  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  brought  from 
Fotheringay  to  this  cathedral  in  July,  1587, 
was  transferred  to  Westminster  Abbey  in  1612. 
Peterborough  has  received  numerous  charters, 
which  were  confirmed  in  1796,  when  a  new 
one  was  obtained. 

PETERHEAD  (Scotland)  was  founded  by 
George  Earl  Marischal,  in  1593.  James 
Francis  Edward,  the  Pretender,  landed  here, 
Dec.  22,  1715 ;  and  the  estates  of  the  Maris- 
chal family  were  forfeited,  in  consequence  of 
their  adherence  to  the  house  of  Stuart.  The 
town-house  was  built  in  1748.  The  south 
breakwater  was  constructed  in  1 773,  and  the 
north  breakwater,  commenced  from  designs 
by  Thomas  Telford  in  1818,  was,  while  in  an 
unfinished  state,  nearly  destroyed  by  a  storm 
in  1819.  It  was,  however,  completed  in  1822. 

PETER  LE  PORT,  or  ST.  PETER  PORT 
(Guernsey). — Edward  I.  gave  orders  for  a  pier 
to  be  built  here,  in  1274,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
commerce  of  the  island ;  but  many  delays  took 
place,  and  the  project  was  not  executed  until 
1570.  The  church  was  built  in  1312.  Eliza- 
beth granted  a  charter  to  the  islanders,  for  the 
collection  of  petty  customs,  Aug.  28,  1580.  It 
was  confirmed  by  James  I.,  June  15,  1605,  and 
renewed  by  Charles  II.,  Feb.  n,  1668.  The 
town  hospital  was  erected  in  1742,  and  greatly 
enlarged  in  1810.  Fort  George  was  built  after 
the  commencement  of  the  American  war,  in 
J775-  Queen  Victoria  landed  at  Peter  le  Port 
Aug.  12,  1859. 

PETERLOO  RIOT  took  place  in  St.  Peter's 
Fields,  near  Manchester,  Monday,  Aug.  16,  1819. 
A  large  number  of  persons,  belonging  chiefly 
to  the  labouring  classes,  had  assembled  in  St. 
Peter's  Fields,  under  the  leadership  of  Henry 
Hunt,  to  petition  for  reform.  The  military 
were  ordered  to  disperse  them,  when  about 
six  persons  were  killed  and  30  or  40  wounded. 

PETER  PENCE,  or  PETER'S  PENCE.— 
Ina,  King  of  Wessex,  is  said  to  have  imposed 
a  tax  of  one  penny  upon  every  house  in  Eng- 
land, in  order  to  found  a  school  at  Rome,  about 
720.  It  was  called  Rom-feoh,  or  Rome-scot. 
Offa,  King  of  Mercia,  levied  a  tax  of  one  penny 
upon  each  house  in  his  dominions  possessed 
of  30  pence  a  year,  for  the  support  of  the 
English  school  at  Rome,  in  790 ;  and  this  being 
afterwards  extended  to  all  England,  and 
claimed  as  a  right  instead  of  a  gift,  received 
the  name  of  Peter's  pence,  or  Peter-pence. 
The  tax,  which  occasioned  frequent  disputes, 
was  abolished  by  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21  (1534). 

PETERSBURG  (N.  America).— This  town, 
in  Virginia,  was  destroyed  by  a  conflagration 
in  July,  1815.  The  first  cotton-mill  was  erected 
in  1828.  During  the  siege  of  Richmond,  the 
Federals,  under  Grant,  were  repulsed  with 
great  loss,  June  18,  and  again  after  the  ex- 
plosion of  a  mine,  July  30,  1864.  The  Con- 
federates abandoned  Petersburg  April  2,  1865. 

PETERSBURG,  ST.  (Russia),  was  founded 


by  Peter  I.  (the  Great),  from  whom  it  takes 
its  name,  May  27,  1703.  The  Swedes,  under 
Charles  XII.,  failed  in  an  attack  June  25,  1705. 
It  was  made  the  capital  in  1712,  and  a  tri- 
umphal procession  took  place  in  1714,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  naval  victory  gained  over  the 
Swedes.  It  was  threatened  by  Gustavus  III. 
of  Sweden  in  June,  1788.  The  Hermitage 
Palace,  commenced  in  1765,  was  completed  in 

1804.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  was  founded 
in  1725,  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1757,  and 
the  University  in  1829.     St.  Petersburg  was 
inundated  by  the  river  Neva,  Nov.  9,  1824, 
when  many  lives  were  lost,  and  much  pro- 
perty was  destroyed.      The    imperial   palaca 
was  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  Dec.  29,  1837. 
The  National  Museum  of  Antiquities,   Paint- 
ing,  and  Sculpture  was  opened  in   1851.      A 
fire,  which  occurred  June  10,   1862,  destroyed 
property  to  the  amount  of  nearly  a  million 
sterling.     (See  NIENTSCHANTZ.  ) 

PETERSBURG,  ST.  (Treaties).— The  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important : — 

A.D. 

1715,  Oct.  30.  An  alliance  between  Russia  and  Prussia. 
1744,  Feb.  4.  An  alliance  between  Russia  and  Poland. 
1755,  Sep.  30.  An  alliauce  between  Great  Britain  anil 

Russia.       • 
1763,  May  5.    Peace  is  concluded  between  Russia  and 

Prussia. 
1766,  June  20.   Of  commerce  between  Russia  and  Great 

Britain. 
1773,  Aug.  5.   A  convention  for  the  partition  of  Poland  it 

entered  into  by  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 
1787,  Jan.  ii.    Of  commerce  between  France  and  Russia. 
1795,  Sep.  28.  A  triple  alliance  is  concluded  between  Great 

Britain,  Russia,  and  Austria. 
1801,  March   13.     Of    commerce    and   navigation    with 

Sweden. 

1805,  April  ii.  A  treaty  against  Napoleon  I.  is  concluded 

between  Great  Britain  and  Russia. 
1813,  April  5.   An  alliance  against  France  is  concluded  by 

Russia  and  Sweden,  the  former  country  agreeing 

to  unite  Norway  to  the  latter. 
1852,  Dec.  18.    Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  th» 

United  States. 
1834,  Jan.  29.  A  treaty  is  concluded  between  Russia  and 

Turkey.— June  23.    Of  commerce  and  navigation 

with  Sweden. 
1843,  Jan.  ii.  Of  commerce  with  Greece. 

PETER'S  (ST.)  COLLEGE,  or  PETER- 
HOUSE  (Cambridge).— This,  the  most  ancient 
college  of  Cambridge  University,  was  founded 
by  Hugh  de  Balsham,  Bishop  of  Ely,  for  a 
master  and  14  fellows,  in  1257.  Its  charter 
was  dated  1284.  Andrew  Perne  founded  two 
additional  fellowships  in  1589,  Lady  Ramsay 
two  in  1601,  and  Thomas  Parke  four  in  1637. 
Seven  of  the  fellows  of  this  college  were  for- 
merly chosen  from  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  and  seven  from  the  southern ;  but 
these  restrictions  were  removed  by  letters 
patent,  which  took  effect  in  June,  1839. 

PETERSWALDE  (Battle).— Napoleon  I.  de 
feated  a  body  of  Russian  cavalry,  under  the 
command  of  Col.  Blucher,  son  of  Marshal 
Blucher,  at  this  place,  in  Silesia,  Sep.  17, 

PETERSWALDE  (Convention),  consisting  of 
14  articles,  was  signed  between  England  and 
Russia,  at  Peterswalde,  in  Silesia,  July  6, 1813. 
A  supplementary  convention  was  signed  in 
London  Sep.  30.  It  provided  for  the  subsidies 
to  be  paid  by  England  to  Russia,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  German  legion  in  the  service  of 
3° 


PETERWARDEIN 


[     770     ] 


PEWTERERS 


the  Czar,  and  led  to  the  last  coalition  of  the 
Allies  against  Napoleon  I. 

PETERWARDEIN,  or  PETERWARADIN 
(Austria),  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
Peter  the  Hermit,  who  assembled  an  army 
here  for  the  first  crusade,  in  1096.  The  Turks 
took  the  town  July  15,  and  the  citadel  July  27, 
1526  ;  and  Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  Turks* 
with  great  slaughter  here,  Aug.  5,  1716.  The 
Turkish  commander  and  30,000  of  his  troops 
were  slain,  and  250  pieces  of  heavy  artillery 
captured.  The  Hungarians  having  seized  it, 
the  Austrians  established  a  blockade,  and  it 
surrendered  Aug.  17,  1849. 

PETITIONERS.  --See  ABHORRERS.) 

PETITION  OF  RIGHT.  —  (-See  BILL  OF 
RIGHTS.) 

PETITIONS.— By  13  Charles  II.  stat.  i,  c.  5 
(1661),  no  petition  to  the  crown  or  Parliament 
for  the  alteration  of  any  matter  of  church  or 
state  established  bylaw,  was  permitted  to  bear 
inure  than  20  signatures,  unless  it  had  pre- 
viously been  approved  by  certain  stated  legal 
authorities.  The  subject  possesses  a  right  to 
petition  the  crown,  and  by  i  Will.  &  Mary 
s.  2,  c.  2  (16891,  all  prosecutions  and  commit- 
ments on  account  of  exercising  this  right  are 
invalid.  The  manner  of  proceeding  upon 
electioneering  petitions  is  prescribed  by  n  &  12 
Viet.  c.  98  (Sep.  4,  1848). 

I'KTIT  TREASON.      X'«  TREASON.) 

PETRA  (Arabia  .—This  city,  the  capital  of 
Arabia  Petnea,  and  the  modern  \V;i«ly  Musa, 
the  Sela  or  Selah  of  the  Old  Testament,  was 
inhabited  by  Horim,  i.  e.  "  Dwellers  in  Caves." 
The  Nabathteans  took  it  in  the  4th  century 
B.C.,  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  (23— Aug. 
24,  79)  as  a  great  resort  for  travellers.  It  was 
subdued  by  Trajan's  lieutenant,  A.  Cornelius 
Palma,  in  "106,  and  remained  for  many  years 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
Its  neighbourhood  abounds  in  ruins  of  the 
temples  and  mausoleums  erected  during  the 
Roman  occupation.  Petra  was  an  ancient  epis- 
copal see  ;  Asterius,  who  occupied  this  diocese 
in  347,  being  its  first  bishop.  Burchardt  visited 
the  ruins  in  1812;  Irby,  Mangles,  Banks,  and 
Leigh  in  1818  ;  and  Laborde  and  Linant  in  1828. 

PETRA  (Colchis).— This  town  of  the  Lazi,  in 
Asia  Minor,  was  founded  by  Joannes  Tzibus,  one 
of  Justinian  the  First's  generals.  It  was  taken 
by  Chosroes  I.,  King  of  Persia,  in  541,  and,  after 
a  protracted  siege,  was  recovered  by  the 
Romans  in  551,  when  it  was  finally  destroyed. 
Its  ruins  are  known  by  the  name  of  Oudjenar. 

PETRO-BRUSIANS.— The  followers  of  Peter 
de  Bruys,  who  preached  in  the  south  of 
France  early  in  the  i2th  century,  and  after 
doing  so  for  about  20  years,  was  burned  at 
the  stake  at  St.  Gilles,  in  Languedoc,  in  1130. 
According  to  Peter  the  Venerable,  who  wrote 
a  work  to  refute  his  errors  in  1126,  Peter  de 
Bruys  denied,  "  i.  Infant  baptism ;  2.  Respect 
for  churches  ;  3.  The  Worship  of  the  cross.  The 
cross  on  which  the  Redeemer  was  so  cruelly 
tortured  ought  rather  to  be  an  object  of  horror 
than  of  veneration.  4.  Transubstantiation  and 
the  real  presence.  It  is  asserted,  but  not 
proved,  that  he  rejected  the  Eucharist  alto- 
gether :  he  probably  retained  it  as  a  memorial 
rite.  5.  Prayers,  alms,  and  oblations  for  the 


dead.  To  these  errors  was  added  an  aversion 
to  the  chanting  and  psalmody  of  the  Church ; 
he  would^  perhaps  replace  it  by  a  more  simple 
and  passionate  hymnology. " 

PETROLEUM,  or  ROCK  OIL,  obtained  in 
various  parts  of  the  globe  from  oil  springs  or 
wells,  is  also  known  as  Bitumen  and  Naphtha. 
Large  quantities  of  Paraffin  are  extracted 
from  petroleum,  the  oil  of  which  is  said  to 
have  been  used  for  lamps  in  Ohio  as  early  as 
1819.  The  first  well  at  Oil  Creek,  Pennsyl- 
vania, was  sunk  in  1859,  an(i  the  supplies  are 
so  large,  the  region  has  been  named  Petrolia. 
On  account  of  the  various  accidents  caused  by 
its  inflammable  nature,  provisions  for  its  safe 
keeping  were  enacted  by  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  66 
(July  29,  1862).  A  tax  was  laid  upon  it  in  the 
United  States,  from  July  i,  1864. 

PETROPAULOVSKI  (Asiatic  Russia^,  or, 
"the  Harbour  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,"  the 
principal  military  station  in  the  province  of 
Kamtschatka,  was  bombarded  Aug.  31,  1854, 
by  the  English  and  French  squadrons.  The 
attack  was  renewed  Sep.  4,  and  a  landing 
effected ;  but  the  expedition  proved  unsuccess- 
ful, and  was  abandoned  Sep.  7.  An  English 
squadron  was  sent  again  in  May,  1855,  when 
the  town  and  fort  were  found  to  be  deserted, 
the  Russians  having  carried  off  all  their  guns 
and  munitions  of  war. 

i'i'Ti  V  UA<;  OFFICE,  a  branch  of  the  Court 
of  Chancery,  is  regulated  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  94 
(Aug.  31,  18481,  and  by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  109 
(Aug.  i,  1849). 

PEUTINGERIAN  TABLE,  or  map  of  the 
world,  20  feet  long  and  one  foot  broad,  serving 
as  a  specimen  of  the  "  Itinera  picta"  of  the 
ancients,  was  discovered  by  Conrad  Celtes,  at 
Spires,  in  1508,  and  sold  by  him  to  Peutinger, 
whose  transcript  was  published  in  1591,  the 
original  having  been  lost.  In  1598  it  was 
j  found,  and  editions  appeared  in  1618,  1682, 
'  and  1686,  when  it  was  once  more  lost,  and  not 
recovered  until  1714.  A  very  beautiful  edition 
appeared  in  1753,  and  another  in  1824. 

PEVENSEY  iSussex)  was  ravaged  by  the 
Earl  of  Godwin  in  1049.  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  is  supposed  to  have  landed  here 
Sep.  28,  1066.  King  John  granted  it  a  charter 
April  27,  1208,  and  in  the  time  of  Henry  III., 
1 220,  it  was  a  considerable  port.  The  castle 
was  besieged,  but  without  success,  by  Simon 
de  Montfort,  in  1265.  James  I.  of  Scotland, 
taken  prisoner  by  Henry  IV.  in  1406,  was  con- 
fined in  Pevensey  Castle  for  18  years. 

PEWS. — Seats  in  churches  existed  in  England 
as  early  as  1400,  and  are  mentioned  in  records, 
under  the  term  pues,  in  1450  ;  and  pew-doors 
are  mentioned  in  1520.  The  first  reading-pew 
is  mentioned  in  Bishop  Parklmrst's  "Visita- 
tion of  Norwich,"  in  1596,  and  the  first  au- 
thority for  setting  up  reading-desks  is  the 
canon  of  1603.  The  earliest  pew  for  the  use  of 
the  congregation  is  one  in  the  north  aisle  of 
Geddington  St.  Mary,  in  Northamptonshire, 
bearing  date  1602.  Another  in  the  same  church 
dates  from  1604.  Women's  pews  are  mentioned 
in  the  parish  accounts  of  Leverton,  in  Lanca- 
shire, for  1639,  showing  that  the  sexes  were 
separated  in  church  at  that  time. 

PEWTERERS  (London),  incorporated  in  1473. 


PFAFFENDORF 


[     771     ] 


PHILADELPHIA 


PFAFFENDORF  (Battle).— The  Austrians, 
under  Gen.  Landohn,  were  defeated  Aug.  15, 
1760,  in  Silesia,  near  Liegnitz,  between  Pfaffen- 
dorf   and  Parchwitz,  with  the  loss  of   10,000 
men,  by  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia. 
PHALANSTERIES.— (See  FOURIERISTS.) 
PHALANX. —The  celebrated  Greek  phalanx 
was  brought  to  a  state  of  perfection  by  Philip 

II.  of  Macedon,  in  his  Illyrian  wars,  B.C.  359. 
(See  INFANTRY.) 

PHANARIOTS.— Greek  nobles  of  Constan- 
tinople, who  sprang  into  existence  soon  after 
the  capture  of  that  city  by  Mohammed  II., 
May  29, 1453.  They  received  this  name  because 
they  resided  in  the  Phanar,  the  quarter  of 
Constantinople  which  surrounded  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Greek  patriarch. 

PHARAOH'S  SERPENTS.  —  The  Chemical 
Gazette,  Oct.  6,  1865,  notices  the  sale  at  Paris 
of  a  curious  toy,  made  of  sulpho-cyanide  of 
mercury,  under  the  name  of  Pharaoh's  serpent. 

PHARISEES.— A  Hebrew  sect,  whose  name 
was  derived  from  "  Pharash,"  a  Hebrew  word 
signifying  separated  ;  because  they  made  pre- 
tensions to  superior  strictness  in  religious 
observances  (Luke  xviii.  9).  Their  origin  is 
involved  in  obscurity,  though  Josephus,  him- 
self a  Pharisee,  says  they  formed  a  consider- 
able sect  B.C.  no.  He  speaks  of  three  sects  as 
having  been  in  existence  B.C.  150,— the  Phari- 
sees, the  Sadducees,  and  the  Essenes. 

PHARMACY.— The  Egyptians,  in  the  time 
of  Osiris,  were  celebrated  for  their  pharmacy, 
and  the  art  was,  at  a  very  early  date,  in  high 
estimation  among  the  Chinese,  who  studied 
plants,  boiled  them  in  water,  and  prepared 
extracts.  The  first  Pharmacopoeia  appeared 
at  Nuremberg  in  1542,  and  the  first  in  England 
was  published  in  1618.  The  Edinburgh  Phar- 
macopoeia appeared  in  1699,  and  the  Dublin  in 
1807.  The  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  London 
was  instituted  June  i,  1841,  and  obtained  a 
royal  charter  Feb.  18,  1843.  The  constitution 
and  management  of  this  society,  and  the  qualifi- 
cations of  pharmaceutical  chemists,  are  regu- 
lated by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  56  (June  30,  1852). 

PHAROS  ^Egypt).— The  name  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  pilot  of  Menelaus,  who 
died  on  this  island  from  the  bite  of  a  serpent, 
on  his  return  from  the  Trojan  war.  Alexander 

III.  (the  Great)  converted  the  island  into  a 
breakwater,  B.C.  332,  for  his  projected  capital 
of  Alexandria,  and  connected  it  with  the  main- 
land by  an  embankment  a  mile  in  length.    The 
celebrated  light-house,   or   tower  of    Pharos, 
commenced  by  Sostratus  of   Cnidus  B.C.  298, 
was  completed  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  (II.) 
Philadelphus,   B.C.    283.      Julius    Caesar    was 
besieged  here  B.C.  47.     (See  MARBLE.) 

PHARSALIA  (Battle). -Fought  in  the  plain 
of  Pharsalia,  in  Thessaly,  near  Pharsalus  (q.  v.}, 
Aug.  9,  or,  according  to  the  amended  calendar, 
June  6,  B.C.  48,  during  the  civil  war  between 
Pompey  and  Julius  Csesar.  The  latter  gained 
a  complete  victory,  which  rendered  him  master 
of  the  Roman  world. 

PHARSALUS  (Greece),  considered  by  Leake 
to  have  been  one  of  the  strongest  cities  in 
Greece,  is  first  mentioned  after  the  Persian 
wars.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Athenian  com- 
mander Myronides,  B.C.  455,  without  success. 


Medius,  Tyrant  of  Larissa,  took  Pharsalus  by 
force  about  B.C.  395.  It  was  for  some  time  in 
the  possession  of  the  Syrian  monarch  Antio- 
chus  the  Great,  and  surrendered  to  the  Roman 
consul  Acilius,  B.C.  191. 

PHAZANIA.— (See  FEZZAN.) 

PHEASANT.— (See  PARTRIDGES  AND  PHEA- 
SANTS.) 

PHER/E  (Thessaly),  celebrated  in  legend  as 
the  residence  of  Ametus  and  his  son  Eume- 
lus,  the  latter  of  whom  took  n  ships  to  the 
Trojan  war.  About  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  Lycophron  established  a  tyranny 
at  Pherae,  and  sought  to  gain  the  dominion  of 
all  Thessaly.  This  was  achieved  about  B.C. 
374  by  his  son  Jason,  who  was  assassinated  in 
Aug.  or  Sep.,  B.C.  370.  Pherae,  with  the  rest  of 
Thessaly,  became  subject  to  Macedonia  B.C. 
352  ;  it  surrendered  to  Antiochus  the  Great, 
King  of  Syria,  B.C.  191  ;  and  it  soon  after  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  consul  Acilius. 

PHIGALIAN  MARBLES,  consisting  of  the 
freize  of  the  cella  of  the  ancient  temple  to 
Apollo  Epicurus,  at  Phialia  or  Phigalia,  in 
Arcadia,  were  deposited  in  the  British  Museum 
in  1815.  The  freize  represents  the  contests 
between  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithae,  and 
between  Amazons  and  Greeks.  Chandler  gave 
an  account  of  the  temple  in  1765,  and  it  was 
carefully  examined  in  1812. 

PHILADELPHIA  (Asia  Minor).— This  city 
of  Lydia,  the  modern  Allahsher,  founded  by 
Attains  Philadelphus  of  Pergamus,  B.C.  159, 
is  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse  (i.  n  &  iii.  7) 
as  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  in  96. 
Strabo(B.c.  60 — A.D.  21)  says  it  was  subject  to 
frequent  earthquakes,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  (14 — 37)  it  was  destroyed  by  one.  The 
Turks  assailed  it  frequently,  and  it  was  at 
last  taken  by  them  under  Bajazet  I.  in  1390. 
Several  ancient  cities  bore  this  name. 

PHILADELPHIA  (N.  America).— The 
Swedes  penetrated  into  the  country  bordering 
on  Delaware  Bay  as  early  as  1627,  and  this 
city  was  laid  out  in  1682.  According  to  the 
design  of  William  Penn,  its  founder,  it  was  to 
have  rivalled  Babylon  in  extent  and  splendour, 
but  was  restricted  to  its  present  boundaries  by 
the  charter  of  1701.  The  old  state-house  was 
erected  in  1735.  Here  the  first  congress  as- 
|  sembled,  Sep.  5, 1774,  and  adopted  the  Declara- 
tion of  Rights  ;  and  here  also  was  promulgated, 
July  4,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  the  congress 
retired  to  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia  fell, 
Sep.  26,  1777,  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
under  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  held  it  till  June 
1 8,  1778.  The  American  Philosophical  College 
was  founded  in  1740,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital  in  1750.  A  convention  met  here  May 
17,  1787,  and  agreed  on  a  constitution  for  the 
United  States,  Sep.  17.  In  1793  and  1798  the 
yellow  fever  raged.  Philadelphia  continued  to 
be  the  capital  of  the  United  States  till  1800, 
when  it  was  superseded  by  Washington.  The 
university  of  Pennsylvania  was  founded  in 
1791  by  the  union  of  two  previous  Institutions, 
the  first  of  which  was  erected  in  1755.  The 
first  United  Statesbank,  now  the  Girard  Bank, 
built  of  marble,  in  the  Corinthian  style,  was 
erected  in  1797.  The  Athenpeum  was  founded 
3o  2 


PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY         [     772    ] 


PHILISTINES 


in  1815;  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in 
1817  ;  and  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1824. 
A  Fenian  congress  was  held  here  Oct.  16,  1865. 
PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY  (London)  was 
instituted  in  1788,  and  incorporated  in  1806. 
It  was  removed  to  Redstone  Hill,  near  Reigate, 
in  1850.  (See  LONDON  PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY.) 
PHILEMON.— This  epistle  was  written  by 
St.  Paul,  during  his  captivity  at  Rome  in  63 
or  64,  to  Philemon,  a  wealthy  inhabitant  of 
Colossse. 

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY  (London),  for 
the  cultivation  of  instrumental  and  especially 
orchestral  music,  was  founded  in  1813.  The 
first  concert  took  place  in  the  Argyle  Rooms, 
March  8,  1813.  After  the  destruction  by  fire  of 
the  Argyle  Rooms,  Feb.  6,  1830,  the  concerts 
were  given  in  the  concert-room  of  the  Italian 
Opera  House,  and  since  1833  they  have  been 
held  in  Hanover  Square  Rooms. 

PHILIPHAUGH  (Battle).— The  Royalists, 
under  the  Duke  of  Montrose,  were  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  by  the  Covenanters,  under 
David  Leslie,  at  this  village,  in  Selkirkshire, 
Sep.  13,  1645.  The  prisoners  were  butchered 
in  cold  blood,  and  some  women  captured 
after  the  battle  were  drowned  by  order  of  the 
preachers. 

PHILIPPEVILLE  (Algeria). -This  town,  in 
the  province  of  Constantino,  built  from  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Rusicade,  was  founded  in 
Oct.,  1838. 

PHILIPPI  (Battles).— The  first  was  fought 
during  the  civil  war  in  Rome,  between  the  forces 
commanded  by  Cassius  and  Brutus,  and  the 
army  of  Octavius  and  Marcus  Antonius,  in  the 
autumn  B.C.  42.  The  wing  commanded  by 
Octavius  was  defeated  by  Brutus,  whilst  An- 
tonius triumphed  over  Cassius,  who  in  des- 
pair retired  into  his  tent  and  ordered  his 

freedman,  Pindarus,  to  despatch  him. The  | 

second  battle,  fought  20  days  after  the  first, 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  republican  army 
under  Brutus,  who  fled  into  a  wood  and  com- 
mitted suicide.  It  was,  according  to  the  well- 
known  legend,  on  the  eve  of  the  first  battle, 
that  the  ghost  of  Julius  Csesar  visited  Brutus 
in  his  tent,  and  uttered  the  words,  "  We  shall 
meet  again  at  Philippi." 

PHILIPPI  (Macedonia),  deriving  its  name 
from  Philip  II.,  the  father  of  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great),  having  been  originally  called 
Crenides,  or  the  "  Place  of  Fountains,"  was 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Thasians  B.C.  360. 
This  city  was  visited  by  the  apostle  Paul,  ac- 
companied by  Silas,  in  48  (Acts  xvi.  12 — 40), 
and  again  on  his  departure  from  Greece  in  56 
(Acts  xx.  6).  The  gospel  for  the  first  time 
gained  a  home  in  Europe  at  Philippi  in  62. 
The  ruins  of  the  city,  still  called  Philippi,  or 
Feliba,  were  visited  by  Dwight  and  Schauflfler 
in  1834. 

PHILIPPIANS.— This  epistle  was  written 
by  St.  Paul  at  Rome  to  the  Philippian  Church 
in  62  or  63. 

PHILIPPICS,  a  name  given  to  the  orations 
of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  II.,  and  after- 
wards applied  to  those  of  Cicero  against  Marcus 
Antonius.  Demosthenes  delivered  his  first 
Philippic  in  the  spring,  B.C.  351,  and  the  second 
B.C.  344.  (See  OLYNTHIACS.)  Cicero  delivered 


14  Philippics  against  Marcus  Antonius,  com- 
mencing Sep.,  B.C.  44.  Marcus  Antonius  re- 
plied to  the  first  Sep.  19.  The  last  Philippic 
was  delivered  April  22,  B.C.  43. 

PHILIPPINE  COMPANY.— This  commer- 
cial company  was  formed  in  Spain  in  1785,  with 
a  capital  of  .£1,200,000.  Though  many  valu- 
able privileges  were  granted  to  it  by  the  crown, 
and  a  charter  for  25  years,  the  speculation 
proved  a  failure. 

PHILIPPINES  (Indian  Archipelago).— This 
group,  consisting  of  about  1,200  islands,  was 
discovered  in  1521,  by  Fernando  Magalhaeiis, 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  the  Archipelago  of 
St.  Lazarus,  and  diedon  one  of  them,  April 26, 
1521.  The  Spaniards  sent  a  fleet  from  Mexico 
in  1564,  and  made  a  settlement  in  the  island  of 
Zebu,  naming  the  group  after  Philip  II. 
Another  fleet,  despatched  to  Luzon  in  1570, 
effected  a  landing  in  the  Bay  of  Manilla,  and 
took  possession  of  the  town  of  Manilla.  The 
Spaniards,  having  made  an  attack  on  the  Soo- 
loo  pirates  in  1590,  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter.  The  English  took  Manilla  Oct.  6, 
1762,  but  restored  it  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
Feb.  10,  1763.  Another  expedition  against  the 
Sooloo  pirates,  who  had  committed  many 
outrages,  achieved  a  complete  success  in  1 8  51. 

PHILIPPINES,  STAROWERSKI,  or  OLD 
FAITH  MEN,  a  Russian  sect  founded  by 
Philip  Pustoswiat,  under  whose  leadership 
they  settled  in  Polish  Lithuania  in  1700,  are  a 
branch  of  the  Raskolniks. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS  (Turkey).— This  town  of 
Thrace  was  founded  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
B.C.  343,  on  the  site  of  a  town  called  Eumol- 
pias  or  Poneropolis.  The  Thracians  obtained 
possession,  and  it  remained  in  their  hands 
until  they  were  subdued  by  the  Romans. 
Philippopolis  was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  250, 
after  a  long  siege,  during  which  100,000  persons 
are  said  to  have  perished.  (See  PAULICIANS.) 
The  Turks,  under  Amurath  I.,  captured  and 
annexed  it  to  the  Ottoman  empire  in  1363.  It 
was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1818,  and  suffered  from  an  extensive  confla- 
gration in  1846. 

PHILI PPSBURG  (Germany),  originally 
called  Udenheim,  was  named  Philippsburg 
after  Philip  von  Sotern,  Archbishop  of  Spires, 
who  founded  it  after  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 
The  Swedes  took  it  in  1633,  the  Imperialists 
in  1635,  the  Allies  in  1675,  and  the  French  in 
1644,  in  1688,  and  June  12,  1734,  when  Marshal 
Berwick  was  killed  under  its  walls.  By  an 
additional  article  to  the  treaty  of  Campo- 
Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797,  the  Austrians  agreed  to 
evacuate  Philippsburg.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
French  under  Bernadotte  in  1799,  the  siege 
being  raised  April  7.  It  was  again  invested  in 
Aug.,  the  siege  being  raised  Sep.  20.  The 
French  returned  in  1800,  and  it  was  ceded  to 
them  by  the  convention  of  Hohenliiiden, 
Sep.  28.  It  was  restored  to  Baden  in  1802. 

PHILISTINES.— This  ancient  people,  des- 
cended from  Ham,  the  son  of  Noah,  emigrated 
at  a  very  early  date  from  Egypt  into  Syria, 
called  after  them  Philistia,  and  afterwards 
Palestine  (q.  v.).  Their  chief  city,  Gaza,  is 
mentioned  as  early  as  B.C.  2218.  They  reduced 
the  Israelites  to  subjection  B.C.  1156  (Judges 


PHILOLOGICAL  SOCIETY 


[     773     1 


PHOENICIA 


xiii.  i),  but  were  compelled  to  set  them  at 
liberty  by  Samson,  who  destroyed  their  chief 
nobility  by  pulling  down  the  temple  where 
they  were  assembled,  B.C.  1117  (Judges xvi.  30). 
In  the  time  of  Eli,  B.C.  1116  (i  Sam.  iv.  n), 
they  seized  the  ark  of  the  Lord,  which  they 
were  compelled  to  restore  by  the  miraculous 
plagues  it  brought  upon  them;  and  they 
sustained  a  severe  defeat  from  Samuel  at 
Mizpeh,  B.C.  1096  (i  Sam.  vii.  2—13).  In  the 
reign  of  Saul  they  harassed  the  Israelites 
(i  Sam.  xiv.  52),  and  the  death  of  that  monarch 
occurred  while  fighting  against  them  in  Mount 
Gilboa,  B.C.  1055  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  4).  David 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Philistines, 
and  Jehoshaphat  made  them  tributary  to  hirn, 
B.C.  912  (2  Chron.  xvii.  n).  In  the  reign  of 
Jehoram  they  invaded  Judah,  and  carried 
away  the  king's  wives  and  sons  into  captivity, 
B.C.  887  (2  Chron.  xxi.  17).  They  again  in- 
vaded Judah,  and  took  Bethshemesh  and 
Ajalon,  B.C.  740  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  Their 
country  was  invaded  by  the  Assyrians  and 
the  Egyptians,  who  took  their  strong  city  of 
Ashdod  (q.  v.}.  Pompey  incorporated  Philistria 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Syria,  B.C.  62. 

PHILOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  (London),  for 
the  investigation  of  the  structure,  the  affi- 
nities, and  the  history  of  languages,  and  for 
the  philological  illustration  of  the  classical 
writers  of  Greece  and  Rome,  was  instituted 
May  18,  1842. 

PHILOMATHIC  INSTITUTION  (London), 
founded  in  1807,  published  a  quarterly  journal 
from  1824  to  1826. 

PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY  OF  GREAT 
BRITAIN.— (See  VICTORIA  INSTITUTE.) 

PHILOSOPHY.— The  term  philosophy,  or 
the  love  of  wisdom,  was  first  employed  by 
Pythagoras,  who  flourished  B.C.  529  ;  but  phi- 
losophy itself  is  of  much  more  ancient  origin. 
It  appears  to  have  nourished  in  India  and 
China  in  the  most  remote  ages  ;  and  the  ear- 
liest authentic  histories  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  represent  their  priesthood  as  highly 
versed  in  natural  and  speculative  science, 
which  they  used  to  strengthen  their  power 
over  the  superstitious  and  the  ignorant.  Greek 
philosophy  comprises  the  following  schools  : — 
the  Academic,  Alexandrian,  Aristotelian  or  Pe- 
ripatetic, Cynic,  Cyrenaic,  Eclectic,  Eleatic,  Epi- 
curean, ionic,  Megarian,  Peripatetic,  Platonic, 
Pythagorean,  Socratic,  and  Stoic.  The  philo- 
sophy of  the  Romans  was  derived  from  that  of 
the  Greeks,  but  never  attained  equal  celebrity. 
Domitian  expelled  all  the  philosophers  from 
Rome  in  go.  Mediseval  philosophy  commences 
with  Boethius,  born  about  475.  The  Scholastic 
school  originated  in  the  gth  century,  and  for 
many  years  was  the  only  system  of  orthodox 
philosophy.  During  the  loth  century  the 
influence  of  Arabian  learning  was  felt  through- 
out the  civilized  world,  and  Cordova  became 
celebrated  as  a  seat  of  learning.  The  Specula- 
tive school  commenced  about  1520,  and  the 
inductive  method  of  Lord  Bacon  was  pub- 
lished in  the  treatise  on  the  "Advancement 
of  Learning,"  in  1605.  The  most  important 
modern  systems  of  philosophy  are  the  Carte- 
sian, the  Copernican,  and  the  Newtonian. 

PHILTER,   or    PHILTRA,   a  potion  given 


by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  excite  love. 
Lucretius  is  said  to  have  died  from  drinking 
one,  Oct.  15,  B.C.  55  ;  and  the  madness  of 
Caligula  (37—41)  is  attributed  by  some  to  a 
similar  cause. 

PHINTIAS  (Sicily)  was  founded  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Hymera,  about  B.C.  280, 
by  Phintias,  Tyrant  of  Agrigentum.  He 
peopled  it  with  the  inhabitants  of  Gela  (q.  v.), 
which  town  he  utterly  destroyed.  It  afforded 
shelter  to  the  Roman  fleet  when  attacked  by 
that  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war, 
B.C.  249.  Cicero  (B.C.  106— Dec.  7,  43)  mentions 
it  as  a  seaport,  carrying  on  a  large  trade  in 
corn ;  but  in  the  time  of  Strabo  (B.C.  60— 
A.D.  2i1  it  had  fallen  into  decay. 

PHOC^A  (Asia  Minor).— This  city,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  emigrants  from 
Phocis,  under  the  leadership  of  Philogenes  and 
Damon,  became  a  member  of  the  Ionic  con- 
federacy. The  people  were  great  navigators. 
When  their  city  was  besieged  by  Cyrus  (B.C. 
553),  they  embarked  with  their  wives  and 
children,  and  took  refuge  in  Corsica. 

PHOCIAN  WAR.— (See  SACRED  WARS.) 

PHOCIS  (Greece).— This  country,  celebrated 
for  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  which  originally  be- 
longed to  the  Phocians,  is  said  to  have  derived 
its  name  from  Phocus,  a  son  of  Ornytion.  The 
Phocians,  having  invaded  Doris,  B.C.  457,  were 
compelled  to  retire  by  the  Lacedaemonians, 
under  Nicomedes.  The  Delphic  oracle,  which 
had  been  taken  from  them  by  the  Delphians, 
was,  through  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians, 
restored  B.C.  450.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war 
they  were  zealous  allies  of  the  Athenians,  but, 
by  the  treaty  of  Nicias,  B.C.  421,  the  temple 
was  once  more  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
Delphians.  After  the  battle  of  Leuctra, 
B.C.  371,  the  Phocians  became  subject  to  the 
Thebans;  but,  having  deserted  the  alliance, 
the  Thebans,  in  revenge,  induced  the  Am- 
phictyonic  council  to  condemn  the  Phocians 
to  pay  a  fine,  on  the  plea  that  they  had  culti- 
vated the  Cirrhaean  plain,  B.C.  357.  This  they 
refused  to  do  ;  the  Amphictyonic  council  con- 
secrated the  Phocian  territory  to  Apollo,  upon 
which  the  Phocians  seized  the  temple  at  Delphi, 
which  led  to  the  third  Sacred  or  Phocian 
war.  Their  leader,  Philomelus,  was  killed  in 
a  battle  near  the  town  of  Neon,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded, B.C.  353,  by  his  brother  Onomarchus, 
who  was  killed  B.C.  352,  when  his  brother 
Phayllus  assumed  the  leadership.  They  were 
at  length  conquered  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon, 
their  towns  given  up,  and  themselves  expelled 
from  the  Amphictyonic  council,  B.C.  346. 

PHOENICIA  (Syria).— This  maritime  king- 
dom, one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world, 
was  originally  peopled  by  the  sons  of  Anak, 
more  than  28  centuries  B.C.  Some  authorities 
state  that  Agenor  was  the  first  King  of  Phce- 
nicia,  B.C.  1497  ;  but  all  agree  that  the  country 
itself  was  the  seat  of  a  great  nation,  and 
renowned  for  its  naval  enterprise  at  a  much 
earlier  period.  A  colony  of  Phoenicians,  led  by 
Elissa  or  Dido,  settled  in  Africa  B.C.  878,  and 
founded  Carthage  (q.  v.).  Phoenicia  was  in- 
vaded by  Shalmaneser  IV.,  King  of  Assyria, 
B.C.  723 ;  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Baby- 
lon, B.C.  587 ;  and  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia, 


PIICENIX  CLUBS 


[     774    1 


PHRYGIA 


B.C.  536.  The  Phoenicians  subsequently  assisted 
the  Persians  in  their  wars  with  the  Greeks, 
and  sustained  a  total  defeat  from  Cimon,  at 
the  naval  battle  of  the  Eurymedon,  B.C.  466. 
They  revolted  from  Persia  B.C.  352,  and  were 
conquered  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great) 
B.C.  331.  After  his  death,  B.C.  323,  Phoenicia 
was  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  Ptolemy  (I.) 
Soter,  King  of  Egypt.  It  was  seized  by  Anti- 
gonus  of  Phrygia,  B.C.  315,  and  passed  under 
the  protectorate  of  Tigraiies  I.,  King  of  Ar- 
menia, B.C.  83.  It  formed  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria  B.C.  62,  and  was  deprived 
of  all  its  liberties  by  Augustus,  B.C.  20.  The 
Turks  annexed  it  to  their  empire  in  1516. 

PHCENIX  CLUBS.— A  combination  consist- 
ing principally  of  young  tradesmen  of  Cork 
and  Kerry,  pledged  to  rise  in  rebellion  at  a 
moment's  notice,  was  discovered  in  Ireland  in 
Dec.,  1858,  and  several  arrests  were  made  Dec. 
12.  Daniel  Sullivan,  indicted  March  30,  1859, 
for  being  a  member  of  a  Phoenix  club,  was, 
after  three  days'  trial,  found  guilty  and  sen- 
tenced to  ten  years'  penal  servitude. 

PHONOGRAPHY.  —  Franklin  proposed  a 
phonetic  alphabet  in  1768,  and  various  sys- 
tems have  been  suggested.  The  Phonetic 
Society  for  the  promotion  of  this  science  was 
founded  in  March,  1843,  under  the  name  of  the 
Phonographic  Corresponding  Society.  The 
Phonetic  A"'  /'•.«,  a  weekly  newspaper,  appeared 
Jan.  6,  1849,  but  did  not  enjoy  along  existence. 
A  conference  of  philologists  was  held  in  Lon- 
don in  1854,  when  two  rival  alphabets  were 
produced. 

PHOSPHORUS  was  discovered  in  1668,  by 
an  alchemist  named  Brandt,  at  Hamburg. 
Nearly  all  the  phosphorus  is  now  manufactured 
from  calcined  bones,  called  bone-earth. 

PHOTO-GALVANOGRAPHY.— This  art,  for 
producing  engravings  from  photographs  by 
the  galvano-plastic  process,  was  invented  by 
Paul  Pretsch  of  Vienna,  and  patented  in  Kng- 
land  Oct.  29,  1852. 

PIIOTO-GLYPHIC  ENGRAVING.  —  This 
new  art  of  engraving  by  the  action  of  light 
was  patented  by  Fox  Talbot,  April  21,  1858. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.— A  discussion  took  place 
at  the  meeting  of  the  Photographic  Society, 
Nov.  3,  1863,  respecting  the  sun  pictures  or 
photographs  found  in  Boulton's  library  at 
Soho,  and  supposed  to  have  been  taken  by 
Boulton,  or  some  member  of  the  Lunar 
Society,  about  1780.  The  general  impression 
was  unfavourable.  Thomas  Wedgwood  was 
the  first  to  try  this  process,  in  1802.  Leebeck, 
in  1810,  made  some  striking  discoveries,  as 
also  did  BeYard  in  1812.  Ntcephorus  Niepce, 
in  1814,  discovered  what  he  termed  helio- 
graphy,  or  sun-drawing,— the  art  of  fixing  the 
photograph.  Daguerre  made  his  discoveries 
known  in  1838,  and  the  French  Government 
gave  him  a  pension  of  6,000  francs  per  annum. 
(See  CALOTYPE  PROCESS,  DAGUERREOTYPE,  Arc.) 

PHOTO-HELIOGRAPH,  or  SOLAR  PHO- 
TOGRAPHIC TELESCOPE.— This  apparatus, 
for  obtaining  daily  photographs  of  the  sun, 
suggested  in  1854  by  Sir  John  Herschell, 
was  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Messrs. 
De  la  Rue  and  Ross,  and  set  up  in  Kew  Obser- 
vatory in  1857.  In  1860  it  was  conveyed  to 


Spain,  to  assist  the  observation  of  the  solar 
eclipse  visible  in  that  country. 

PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.  —  This  art,  by 
which  a  photograph  is  impressed  on  a  litho- 
graphic stone,  and  copies  are  taken  in  the 
ordinary  way,  was  invented  by  Macpherson, 
of  Rome.  Ligar,  the  surveyor-general  of  Vic- 
toria, Australia,  applied  it  to  the  printing  of 
plans  in  May,  1860.  Morven  communicated 
a  new  method  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  at 
Paris,  in  June,  1863. 

PHOTOMETER.— This  principle  originated 
with  Bouguer,  and  was  perfected  by  Lambert 
in  1760.  Professor  Ritchie,  in  1825,  communi- 
cated to  the  Royal  Society  the  description  of 
a  new  photometer.  Leslie  and  others  have 
effected  various  improvements  in  this  instru- 
ment. 

PHOTO-SCULPTURE,  for  taking  likenesses 
in  the  form  of  statuettes  and  medallions,  was 
invented  in  1864,  by  M.  Willeme. 

PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY,  a  name  given,  in 
March,  1860,  by  Col.  James,  R.E.,  director  of 
the  ordnance  survey,  to  a  process  for  copying 
ancient  documents'and  plans.  The  reduced 
print  is  transferred  to  stone  or  zinc,  from 
which  any  number  of  copies  may  be  taken. 

PHRENOLOGY,  or  CRANIOLOGY,  was 
reduced  to  a  system  by  Dr.  Gall,  who  first 

Eropounded  it  at  Vienna  in  1796.  Dr.  Spurz- 
eim  assisted  him  in  his  investigations  in 
1800;  and  in  1807  they  removed  to  Paris, 
where  they  published  their  work  on  the 
"  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous 
System  in  general,  and  of  the  Brain  in  parti- 
cular," in  iSioand  1812.  Little  was  known  of 
phrenology  in  England  till  1815,  when  a  severe 
criticism  on  its  promulgators,  published  in 
the  K<i'i itim i-iih  Rir'ti'w,  directed  attention  to 
the  subject.  George  Combe  was  led  to  a  con- 
sideration of  its  truth  or  falsity  in  1816  ;  and 
in  1819  he  published  his  "  Essays  on  Phreno- 
logy," a  work  which  is  the  chief  English 
authority  on  the  subject. 

PHRYGIA  (Asia  Minor).  —  The  traditions 
respecting  the  origin  of  the  Phrygians  are  of 
the  most  conflicting  character.  It  appears 
that  they  had  their  cradle  in  the  mountains 
of  Armenia,  and  that  they  were  among  the 
most  ancient  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  "Iliad"  they  are  mentioned  as  the  allies 
of  the  Trojans.  They  attained  the  supremacy 
of  the  sea  about  B.C.  891,  but  were  excelled  by 
the  Cyprians  B.C.  865.  Phrygia  was  invaded  by 
Agesilaus  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  in  his  expedition 
against  Persia,  B.C.  395  ;  and  the  district 
known  as  Great  Phrygia  was  assigned  by 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great)  to  Antigonus,  B.C. 
333.  Antigonus  the  Great  conquered  Lesser 
Phrygia  B.C.  319,  and  united  the  two  under 
one  sceptre ;  but  they  were  again  divided 
on  his  death,  B.C.  301.  Seleucus  annexed  both 
to  the  Syrian  dominions  B.C.  282  ;  but  after 
the  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  at  the  battle 
of  Magnesia,  B.C.  190,  the  two  provinces  were 
given  by  the  Romans  to  their  ally  Eumenes  II. 
of  Pergamus.  After  the  death  of  Attains 
III.  of  Pergamus,  B.C.  133,  Phrygia,  with  the 
rest  of  his  territories,  became  subject  to  Rome. 
It  was  declared  free  B.C.  120,  but  again  passed 
under  the  Roman  sway. 


PHYLACTERY 


[    775    3 


PICENTINES 


PHYLACTERY,  derived  from  the  Greek, 
and  signifying  a  preservative,  consisting  of 
four  scrips  or  scrolls  of  parchment,  or  the 
dressed  skins  of  a  clean  animal,  inscribed 
with  four  paragraphs  of  the  law,  taken  from 
Exod.  xiii.  2 — 10  ;  n — 16 ;  Deut.  vi.  4 — 9  ;  and 
xi.  13 — 21,  and  other  passages,  was  worn  by 
the  Jews  as  a  frontlet  on  the  forehead  and 
arms.  The  custom,  which  is  derived  from 
their  interpretation  of  Exod.  xiii.  9  and  16, 
was  prevalent  during  our  Saviour's  sojourn 
upon  earth. 

PHYLE  (Greece),  a  strong  fortress,  still 
called  Fill,  commanding  the  narrow  pass 
across  Mount  Parnes.  through  which  runs  the 
road  from  Thebes  to  Athens,  is  memorable  as 
the  place  seized  by  Thrasybulus  and  the 
Athenian  exiles,  B.C.  404,  whence  they  com- 
menced their  operations  against  the  Thirty 
Tyrants. 

PHYSIC.— Hippocrates,  called  the  father  of 
medicine  (q.  v.),  born  at  Cos  B.C.  460,  usually 
carried  his  physic  about  with  him.  Galen, 
who  was  born  at  Pergamus  in  131,  was  the 
first  who  compounded  and  sold  physic  at 
Rome.  The  College  of  Physicians  in  1696 
established  a  dispensary  for  the  sale  of  pure 
physic,  and  in  1724  obtained  an  act  for  the 
better  viewing  of  drugs.  A  dispensary  was 
established  in  London  in  1732  for  supplying 
the  nobility  and  gentry  with  advice  and 
physic  at  the  cost  of  2*.  a  head  per  quarter. 

PHYSICIANS.— By  3  Hen.  VIII.  c.  u  (1511), 
no  one  was  permitted  to  practise  within  Lon- 
don, or  seven  miles  thereof,  as  a  physician  or 
surgeon,  unless  he  had  been  previously  ex- 
amined and  licensed  by  the  Bishop  of  London 
or  the  Dean  of  St.  Paul's.  The  necessity  for 
the  ecclesiastical  warrant  was  removed  by  the 
charter  of  incorporation  granted  to  the  London 
physicians  by  Henry  VIII.,  Sep.  23,  1518, 
which  was  confirmed  by  the  act  for  establish- 
ing the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  14  &  15 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  5  (1522-3).  The  building  in  Pali- 
Mall  was  opened  in  1825.  Physicians  were 
allowed  to  practise  surgery,  and  were  released 
from  holding  parish  offices,  by  32  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  40  (1540).  A  stamp  duty  of  ,£15  on  physicians' 
licences  to  practise  was  imposed  by  55  Geo.  III. 
c.  184  (July  ii,  1815),  which  was  repealed  by 
22  &  23  Viet.  c.  36,  s.  2  (Aug.  13,  1859).  The 
Association  of  the  King  and  Queen's  College 
of  Physicians  (Ireland)  was  instituted  in  1816. 

PHYSIOCRA T S.— This  ,sect  of  political 
philosophers,  a  branch  of  the  Economists  (q.v.), 
taught  that  the  soil  was  the  sole  source  of 
wealth,  and  that  its  cultivators  were  the  only 
productive  class.  It  was  founded  by  Francis 
Quesnay  (1694— Dec.  16,  1774",  physician  to 
Madame  de  Pompadour.  He  made  known  his 
opinions  in  his  "Tableau  Economique,"  pub- 
lished in  1758.  His  "  Physiocratie ;  ou,  du 
Gouvernement  le  plus  avantageux  au  genre 
humain,"  appeared  in  1768. 

PHYSIOGNOMY.  —  Delia  Porta  (1550— 
Feb.  4,  1615),  a  Neapolitan  physician,  rirst 
instituted  comparisons  between  the  physiog- 
nomies of  human  beings  and  of  different 
species  of  animals.  The  system  was  carried  out 
by  Thomas  Campanella  (1568 — March  21,  1639). 

PHYSIOLOGY.— This  science  treats  of  the 


|  phenomena  of  living  bodies  in  a  healthy  state* 
|  and  is  dependent  upon  a  knowledge  of  an- 
atomy (q.  v.).  The  science  of  vegetable  phy- 
siology was  founded  by  Grew,  whose  attention 
was  directed  to  the  subject  in  1664,  and 
Malpighi,  whose  first  work  appeared  in  1671. 
They  investigated  the  resemblance  between 
the  functions  of  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

PIACENZA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Placentia, 
was  colonized  by  the  Romans  B.C.  219  ;  was 
besieged  by  Hasdrubal,  who  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  B.C.  208^  and  plundered  by  the 
Gauls  B.C.  200.  Spuriniia,  one  of  the  generals 
of  Otho,  in  the  struggle  with  Vitellius,  occu- 
pied it  in  69,  and  it  was  taken  by  Totila  in  546, 
by  famine.  It  was  one  of  the  first  places 
that  revived  after  the  invasion  of  the  northern 
barbarians,  and  in  the  loth  century  became 
one  of  the  principal  marts  of  the  Peninsula. 
The  church  of  St.  Antonio,  at  one  period  the 
cathedral,  where  St.  Barnabas  is  said  to  have 
preached  to  the  people,  founded  in  324,  was 
rebuilt  in  903,  and  restored  in  1104  and  again 
in  1562.  The  cathedral  was  consecrated  by 
Pope  Innocent  II.  in  1132,  and  the  ducal 
palace  was  erected  in  1281.  Piacenza  having 
revolted  from  the  Milanese  in  1447,  and  placed 
itself  under  the  protection  of  Venice,  was  re- 
taken by  Francesco  Sforza  in  Dec.,  1447,  and 
given  up  to  pillage.  The  French,  under 
Louis  XII.,  took  it ;  and  it  was  recaptured  by 
Pope  Julius  II.,  and  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Popes  till  1543,  when  Paul  III.  gave  it  to 
his  son  Peter  Farnese.  It  formed  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Parma  until  annexed  to  the  Italian 
kingdom  in  1860. 

PIAL1A,  or  PIA,  festivals  in  honour  of 
Hadrian,  at  Puteoli,  appointed  by  Antoninus 
Pius,  in  142,  to  be  held  in  the  second  year  of 
each  Olympiad. 

PIANOFORTE.— The  Italians,  the  French, 
and  the  Germans  dispute  the  honour  of  this 
invention.  Count  Carli  says  it  was  invented 
in  1714  by  Bartolommeo  Cristofori,  of  Padua, 
during  his  stay  in  Florence.  The  French 
attribute  it  to  Marius,  a  harpsichord  maker ; 
and  the  Germans  ascribe  it  to  C.  A.  Schrceter, 
a  German  organist,  in  1717.  It  has  received 
various  improvements. 

PIARISTS.  BRETHREN  OF  THE  PIOUS 
SCHOOLS,  or  SCOLOPINI,  a  religious  con- 
gregation founded  at  Rome  in  1599  ^or  the 
education  of  the  poor,  was  patronized  by  Paul 
V.  in  1617,  and  was  approved  as  a  religious 
order  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1621. 

PIC ARDS.  — This  sect  of  Adamites  (q.  v.) 
was  so  called  from  Picard,  a  Fleming,  who 
raised  a  rebellion  in  Germany  in  1415.  He 
represented  himself  as  the  son  of  God,  and 
having  penetrated  into  Bohemia,  was  defeated 
in  battle  and  slain  in  1420. 

PICARDY  (France).— The  name  of  this  pro- 
vince does  not  date  earlier  than  1200,  when  the 
students  from  the  frontier  of  France  and 
Flanders  were  called  Picards  at  the  Paris 
university,  on  account  of  their  quarrelsome 
disposition.  It  was  ceded  to  Philip  III.  (the 
Good),  Duke  of  Burgundy,  by  the  treaty  of 
Arras,  Sep.  21,  1435  ;  and  it  was  annexed  to  the 
French  crown  in  1463. 

PICENTINES.— This  Sabine  tribe,  according 


PICHEGRU'S  CONSPIRACY 


[    776 


PILGRIMAGE 


to  Strabo,  consisted  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Picenum,  transported  by  the  Romans  from 
that  town  shortly  after  its  conquest,  B.C.  268. 
In  the  second  Punic  war  they  arrayed  them- 
selves on  the  side  of  Hannibal,  for  which  they 
were  afterwards  punished  by  being  kept  from 
military  service,  and  employed  only  as  mes- 
sengers and  couriers.  The  Romans  founded 
the  colony  of  Salernum  in  their  territory 
B.C.  194,  that  they  might  the  more  effectually 
hold  them  in  check.  They  joined  in  the  Social 
war  against  Rome,  B.C.  90,  and  were  subdued 
B.C.  89. 

PICHEGRU'S  CONSPIRACY,  so  called  from 
Pichegru,  its  chief,  a  general  in  the  French 
republican  army,  who  devised  this  plot  for  the 
restoration  of  royalty  in  France.  He  was  ar- 
rested in  Paris  Feb.  15,  1804,  having  just  arrived 
from  London,  and  was  found  strangled  in 
prison  April  5. 

PICQUET,  or  PIQUET.— This  game  at  cards 
is  supposed  by  Pere  Daniel  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  France  in  the  reigu  of  Charles  VII., 
about  1430.  The  earliest  French  piquet  cards 
that  have  been  discovered  are  those  formerly 
belonging  to  Henin,  and  are  assigned  to  1425. 
This,  however,  is  doubtful. 

PICQUIGNY.—  (See  AMIENS,  PECQUIGNY,  <fcc.) 

PICTS.— The  Picts,  or  the  painted,  so  called 
from  their  custom  of  painting  their  bodies,  are 
regarded  as  a  Scythian  tribe  which  landed  in 
Ireland  about  the  time  of  the  first  peopling  of 
these  islands,  and  being  expelled  thence, 
settled  in  the  northern  parts  of  Britain. 
The  Romans  subdued  them  in  47  ;  but  they 
subsequently  threw  off  all  control,  and  proved 
a  continual  source  of  alarm  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  northern  provinces.  Several  walls  were 
erected  to  prevent  their  incursions.  (See  ROMAN 
WALLS.)  After  the  departure  of  the  Romans 
their  incursions  became  so  frequent  that 
Vortigem  applied  to  Hengist  and  Horsa  to 
assist  him  in  subduing  them  in  449 ;  and 
this  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Saxons 
in  England.  The  Picts  waged  fierce  wars 
with  their  Scottish  neighbours  for  many 
years,  took  Edinburgh  in  685,  and  reached 
their  highest  point  of  national  glory  during 
the  reign  of  their  king  Hungus,  or  Ungus  the 
Great,  about  730.  In  767  the  Scotch  invaded 
the  Pictish  domains,  and  penetrated  to  their 
capital,  where  a  great  battle  was  fought  with 
doubtful  success.  In  839  the  Danes  invaded 
their  territory,  and  so  weakened  them  that 
Kenneth  II.  of  Scotland  asserted  his  claim  to 
the  Pictish  crown,  and  in  842  united  all  Scot- 
land under  one  sovereign.  (See  BRECHIN, 
BRITANNIA,  GALLOWAY,  INVERNESS,  and  SCOT- 
LAND.) 

PICTS'  HOUSES,  ealled  also  Earth,  Eird,  or 
Yird  Houses,  are  said  by  Martin  (Description 
of  the  Western  Islands,  1703)  to  be  "little 
stone-houses,  built  under  ground,  called  earth- 
houses,  which  served  to  hide  a  few  people  and 
their  goods,  in  time  of  war."  They  are  sup- 
posed to  be  similar  to  the  caves  which  Tacitus 
says  the  Germans  dug  in  the  earth,  as  places 
of  refuge  or  store-houses  for  corn. 

PICTS'  WALL.— (Ste  HADRIAN'S  WALL.) 

PICTURES.  —  (See  ICONOCLASTS,  IMAGES, 
PAINTING,  <fcc.) 


PIEDMONT  (N.  Italy).— This  country,  which 
forms  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Sardinian 
states,  receives  its  name  from  its  situation  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps,  and  is  composed  of  the 
eastern  portions  of  Transpadane  Gaul  and  the 
northern  part  of  ancient  Liguria.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  the  dominions  of  the  counts  of  Savoy 
in  1220,  and  on  the  death  of  Thomas  II.  in 
1233,  was  erected  into  a  separate  county  under 
his  son  Thomas.  It  was  again  united  to  Savoy 
in  1418.  Its  territory  was  increased  by  the 
annexation  of  Alessandria,  Valencia,  Lomel- 
lina,  and  Val  di  Sesia,  in  1703  ;  Tortona  in 
1735  ;  Novara  in  1736 ;  and  Vigevano,  Anghiera, 
Voghera,  and  Bobbio,  in  1745.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  French  in  1796,  and  was  restored 
to  Sardinia  (q.  v.)  in  1814.  (See  ITALY.) 

PIE-POUDRE,  PIE-POWDER,  or  DUSTY- 
FOOT  COURT,  held  at  fairs  and  markets,  was 
established  to  decide  upon  the  spot,  in  all 
cases  of  dispute  between  buyer  and  seller.  The 
name  is,  according  to  some  authorities,  de- 
rived from  the  French  pie  poudre,  because  jus- 
tice was  done  to  an  injured  person  before  the 
dust  of  the  fair  was  off  his  feet ;  and  according 
to  others,  from  pied  pouldreux,  a  pedlar.  By 
17  Edw.  IV.  c.  2  (1477),  the  owner  of  the  fair  or 
market,  or  his  steward,  was  forbidden  to  en- 
tertain any  action  that  did  not  originate  in  the 
same  fair  or  market.  The  book  kept  by  the 
Pie-powder  court  at  Bartholomew  fair  from 
1790  is  preserved  in  the  City  Library  at  Guild- 
hall. The  last  entry  is— "  Sep.  2,  1854.  The 
Lord  Mayor  not  having  proclaimed  Bartholo- 
mew fair,  the  court  of  Pie-powder  consequently 
was  not  held." 

PIERRE,  ST.  (West  Indies).— This  town,  in 
the  island  of  Martinico,  founded  by  a  French 
planter  from  St.  Christopher's,  in  1635,  was 
captured,  with  the  rest  of  the  island,  by  the 
English,  in  1762,  and  again  in  1794  and  in 
1809.  The  town  suffered  severely  from  an 
earthquake  in  1839. 

PIETISTS.— This  term  is  applied  in  Ger- 
many to  the  followers  of  Philip  James  Spener, 
who,  in  1670,  attempted  to  revive,  at  Leipsic, 
what  he  called  vital  religion.  With  this  object 
he  formed  societies,  called  Colleges  of  Piety, 
which  led  to  violent  commotions  and  long  and 
bitter  controversies.  (See  CHASIDIM.) 

PIGNEROL,  or  PINEROLO  (Piedmont).— 
The  French  took  Pignerol  in  1630,  obtained 
possession  by  purchase  in  1631,  and  were  con- 
firmed in  their  possession  by  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  in  1648.  Pignerol  was  restored  to 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  by  the  treaty  of  Turin,  in 
1696.  The  French  were  driven  out  of  Pignerol 
by  the  Allies  in  1799.  (See  IRON  MASK.) 

PIGOTT  DIAMOND.— (See  D!AMOND.) 

PILGRIMAGE  OF  GRACE.— An  insurrec- 
tion, caused  by  the  suppression  of  the  smaller 
monasteries,  broke  out  in  Lincolnshire  in  Sep., 
1536,  and  was  suppressed  in  Oct.  The  people 
of  York  rebelled,  for  the  same  cause,  in  Dec., 
and  termed  their  revolt  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace.  They  bore  banners  on  which  the  five 
wounds  of  Christ  were  displayed,  and  they  de- 
manded the  suppression  of  heresy  and  the 
restitution  of  the  property  of  the  Church. 
Robert  Aske  was  their  leader,  and  they  were 
joined  by  Lords  Darcey,  Latimer,  Scroop,  th« 


PILGRIMAGES 


[     777 


PIOMBINO 


Archbishop  of  York,  and  others.  They  seized 
Hull  and  York,  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  who 
was  sent  against  them,  induced  them  to  dis- 
perse about  Christmas.  Insurrections  broke 
out  in  the  north  and  in  Somersetshire  early 
in  1537,  and  many  of  the  ringleaders  were 
executed. 

PILGRIMAGES.— Helena,  mother  of  Con- 
stantino I.,  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusa- 
lem in  326,  when  she  founded  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Pilgrimages  became  com- 
mon throughout  the  Christian  world  about 
500,  and  continued,  notwithstanding  the  dis- 
approval of  many  of  the  "fathers,"  till  they 
reached  their  height  about  1000.  The  prin- 
cipal point  of  pilgrimage  for  the  Mohamme- 
dans is  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  their  prophet. 
The  pilgrimage  is  enjoined  by  the  Koran.  The 
celebration  of  the  centenary  jubilee,  by  which 
pilgrims  to  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  were  promised 
plenary  indulgence,  was  established  by  Boni- 
face VIII.  in  1300.  It  was  reduced  by  Clement 
VI.  to  a  period  of  50  years,  in  1350.  The  Hin- 
doos, who  perform  a  journey  to  the  temple  of 
Juggernath  twice  a  year,  in  the  months  of 
March  and  July,  were  in  1806  subjected  to 
what  was  called  the  pilgrims'  tax,  which  was 
abolished  by  the  British  Government  in  1839. 
The  three  Child-pilgrimages  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  among  the  most  singular  of  the 
phenomena  connected  with  religious  fana- 
ticism. The  first  and  most  extraordinary  was 
the  Boy  or  Children's  crusade  of  1212,  which 
was  commenced  under  the  auspices  of  a  French 
shepherd-boy,  named  Stephen,  who  appeared 
at  Vendome,  and  announced  himself  divinely 
commissioned  to  conduct  a  crusading  army  of 
boys  to  the  Holy  Land.  Having  collected 
30,000  children,  they  embarked  in  seven  large 
ships  at  Marseilles,  under  the  false  protection 
of  two  merchants,  named  Hugh  Ferreus  and 
William  Porcus.  Two  of  the  vessels,  with  all 
their  passengers,  were  lost  in  a  storm  that 
arose  two  days  after  their  departure  ;  and  the 
remainder,  on  reaching  the  Holy  Land,  were 
sold  as  slaves  to  the  Saracens  by  their  two  in- 
famous protectors,  and  not  one  of  the  30,000 
children  returned  to  France.  The  second 
Child-pilgrimage  was  confined  to  the  city  of 
Erfurt,  and  commenced  July  15,  1237,  when 
about  1,000  children  assembled,  apparently 
without  any  previous  arrangement,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Armstadt,  leaping,  dancing,  and  ex- 
hibiting all  the  symptoms  of  the  extraordinary 
dancing  mania  which  at  times  disturbed 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  This  agita- 
tion was  immediately  suppressed  by  the  pa- 
rents of  the  children.  The  third  Child-pil- 
grimage was  undertaken  by  about  100  children, 
who  set  out  from  Halle,  to  Mount  St.  Michael, 
in  Normandy,  in  1458  ;  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  successfully  performed. 

PILGRIM  FATHERS.— The  Mayflower,  with 
about  100  English  Puritans  on  board,  sailed 
from  Plymouth,  Sep.  6,  1620,  and  arrived  off 
Cape  Cod  in  Nov.  An  exploring  party  reached 
Massachusetts  Bay  Dec.  u  (O.  S.),  and  founded 
New  Plymouth  (q.  v.). 

PILLAR  SAINTS.— (See  STYLITES.) 

PILLORY  was  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  Gauls  also  employed  it  as  an 


instrument  of  punishment,  under  the  name  of 
the  Boia  ;  and  for  centuries  it  was  common  in 
most  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  abolished  in 
France  in  1832,  and  in  England  by  i  Viet.  c. 
23  (June  30,  1837).  (See  BREWERS,  FORGERY, 
INFORMERS,  LIBEL,  <fec.) 

PILLOW.— (See  FORT  PILLOW.) 

PILNITZ  (Germany).  — An  interview  took 
place,  Aug.  27,  1791,  between  the  Emperor 
Leopold  II.  and  Frederick  William  II.  of 
Prussia,  and  other  sovereigns,  at  the  palace  of 
Pilnitz,  the  summer  residence  of  the  electors 
of  Saxony,  situated  at  a  village  of  the  same 
name,  near  Pirna,  in  Saxony,  when  they 
agreed  to  take  up  arms  to  assist  Louis  XVI.  in 
upholding  monarchical  government  in  France, 
and  issued  a  declaration  calling  on  the  sove- 
reigns of  Europe  to  render  aid.  England  stood 
aloof,  William  Pitt  being  in  favour  of  non- 
intervention. 

PILOTAGE.— The  establishment  of  pilots  at 
particular  ports  is  confirmed  either  by  ancient 
charters  of  incorporation,  such  as  those  pos- 
sessed by  the  corporations  of  Deptford  (q.  v.), 
Strond,  and  the  Trinity  House  (q.  v.},  or  by 
special  statutes.  The  laws  relating  to  pilotage 
were  consolidated  by  48  Geo.  III.  c.  104  (June 
25,  1808),  which  was  amended  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c. 
125  (July  5,  1825).  Further  regulations  were 
made  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  129  (Aug.  20,  1853), 
which  unites  the  Cinque  Ports  with  the 
Trinity  House  pilots  ;  and  all  the  regulations 
on  the  subject  were  embodied  in  part  v.  of 
the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  17  &  18  Viet.  c. 
104  (Aug.  io,  1854). 

PINE  APPLE,  or  ANANAS,  first  mentioned 
by  Oviedo  in  1535,  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  the  West  Indies  in  1657. 

PINEROLO.— (See  PIGNEROL.) 

PINES.— (See  ISLE  OP  PINES,  SEVEN  PINES, 
Battle,  Ac.) 

PINE  TREES.— The  stone  pine  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  the  south  of  Europe 
before  1548  ;  the  Norway  spruce  before  1548 ; 
the  cluster  pine  before  1596;  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon  from  the  Levant  before  1683  ;  and  Sir 
Joseph  Banks'  pine  from  Chili  in  1796. 

PINKIE  (Battle),  fought  at  this  place,  near 
Musselburgh,  between  the  English,  under  the 
Protector  Somerset,  and  the  Scotch,  led  by  the 
Regent  Arran,  Sep.  io,  1547,  to  enforce  the 
marriage  treaty  of  July  i,  1543,  between 
Edward  VI.  of  England  and  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  when  the  latter  were  defeated  with  a 
loss  of  io, ooo  men.  The  English  army  amounted 
to  18,000  and  the  Scotch  to  26,000  men. 

PINKZOW  (Poland).— The  anti-Trinitarians, 
or  Socinians,  also  called  Pinkzovians,  separated 
from  the  Protestant  churches  at  a  synod  held 
here  in  1563. 

PINS  made  of  iron  wire  were  used  in  Eng- 
land in  the  i4th  century.  Brass  pins  were  in- 
troduced from  France  before  1543.  A  law 
enacting  how  those  offered  for  sale  were  to  be 
manufactured,  entitled  "An  acte  for  the  true 
making  of  pins,"  was  passed  (35  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  6)  in  1543.  The  pin-makers  were  incorpo- 
rated in  1636.  The  first  machine  for  making 
was  in  vented  in  1824. 

PIOMBINO  (Italy),  at  one  time  the  capital 
of  a  principality,  which  included  the  island  of 


PIRACY 


[     778     ] 


PISTOJA 


Elba,  was  captured  by  the  Genoese  in  1125. 
The  principality,  ruled  by  the  Appiani  family 
till  1589,  was  held  by  the  Spaniards  till  1619, 
and  after  various  vicissitudes  was  ceded  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Florence,  March  28, 
1801,  and  was  bestowed  by  Napoleon  I.  on  his 
sister  Elise,  June  23,  1805.  Prince  Bacciochi, 
Napoleon's  brother-in-law,  held  possession  of  it 
from  1805  to  1815,  when  it  was  joined  to  Tus- 
cany. 

PIRACY  prevailed  in  the  Mediterranean  at 
an  early  period.  Pompey  exterminated  the 
pirates  of  Cilicia  B.C.  66.  Piracy  was  practised 
by  the  Danes,  who  infested  Europe  in  the  gth 
and  ioth  centuries.  The  first  execution  by 
hanging,  drawing,  and  quartering  was  that  of 
the  pirate  William  Marsh,  in  1242.  The  offence 
was  afterwards  treated  with  considerable 
leniency :  the  only  rule  imposed  by  31  lien. 
VI.  c.  4  (1452),  is,  that  pirates  robbing  passen- 
gers with  safe  conduct,  should  be  compelled  to 
make  restitution.  By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1535', 
it  was  made  punishable  with  death,  without 
benefit  of  clergy,  and  further  provisions  were 
enacted  by  28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15  (1536).  The 
crime  was  defined,  and  a  distinction  made 
between  principals  and  accessories,  by  n  & 
12  Will.  III.  c.  7  (1700)  ;  and  further  pn 
on  the  same  points  were  made  by  8  Geo.  1.  c. 
24  (1722).  A  bounty  was  awarded  for  killing 
or  capturing  pirates  by  6  Geo  IV.  0.49  .Juno 
22,  1825),  which  was  repealed  by  13  <fc  14  Viet, 
c.  26  (June  25,  1850).  The  penalty  for  piracy 
was  made  death  when  the  crime  is  aggravated 
by  attempted  murder,  and  transportation  in 
other  cases,  by  7  Will.  IV.  and  i  Viet.  c.  88  (July 
*7>  I837).  (See  SLAVE-TRADE.) 

PIRAEUS.— (See  GREECE.) 

PIRMASENS  (Battle).— The  French,  under 
Gen.  .Moreau,  were  defeated  by  the  Prussians, 
commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  at  this 
town  in  Bavaria,  with  a  loss  of  22  pieces  of 
artillery  and  4,000  men,  Sep.  14,  1793. 

PIRN  A  (Germany).— This  town,  to  Saxony, 
was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1639.  The  united 
Austrians  and  Saxons  were  defeated  here  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  in  1745;  and  the  King  of 
Poland  blockaded  the  Saxon  camp  in  Sep., 
1756.  The  suburbs  were  fired  by  the  Prussians, 
and  260  fine  houses  destroyed,  Nov.  10,  1758. 
The  intrenched  camp  at  Pirna,  strengthened  by 
Napoleon  1.  in  1813,  was  taken  by  the  Allies. 

PISA  'Italy). — Nothing  certain  is  kiio\\n  uf 
the  origin  of  this  town.  Livy  states  that  a 
Latin  colony  was  sent  to  Pisa,  at  the  request  of 
the  inhabitants,  about  B.C.  179.  It  became 
subject  to  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  sth  cen- 
tury, and  passed  successively  to  the  Goths,  the 
Longobardi,  and  the  Carolingians.  Under  the 
last  it  became  an  independent  community, 
with  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  emperors. 
The  Saracen  pirates  were  defeated  near  the 
town  by  the  Pisans  in  874.  Hugo  of  Provence 
came  to  Pisa  in  926,  and  received  the  homage 
of  the  great  feudatories  as  King  of  Italy.  The 
Saracens  made  an  attack  on  the  town  in  1005, 
and  again  invested  it  in  1012.  The  Pisans,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Genoese,  wrested  the 
island  of  Sardinia  from  the  Moors  in  1022.  At 
this  time  Pisa  was  a  republic,  and,  during  the 
century,  maintained  the  maritime  supremacy 


of  the  Mediterranean.  A  war  commenced  be- 
tween Pisa  and  Genoa  in  1070,  which  lasted  for 
more  than  two  centuries,  and  ended  in  the  ruin 
of  Pisa.  Horse-races  were  run  in  1264.  In  a 
naval  battle,  off  Melora,  Aug.  6,  1284,  the 
Pisans  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  fleet,  and 
above  16,000  men  in  killed  and  prisoners.  The 
Genoese  attacked  and  destroyed  the  Porto  Pi- 
sano,  and  blocked  up  the  entrance  with  sunken 
ships  filled  with  stones  in  1290.  The  cathedral, 
a  magnificent  Gothic  building,  commenced  in 
1068,  was  completed  in  m8.  The  Campo 
Santo,  or  national  cemetery,  was  formed  in 
1228,  and  the  university  in  1330.  Councils  were 
held  at  Pisa,  May  30,  1134  ;  March  25 — Aug.  7, 
1409 ;  and  Sep.  i,  1511.  In  1341  Pisa  made  war 
on  Lucca,  which  submitted  in  1342.  In  1405 
the  citadel  and  other  strongholds  were  sold  to 
the  Florentines  by  Marshal  Boucicault;  but  the 
citizens  soon  retook  the  citadel.  The  Floren- 
tines then  blockaded  Pisa,  and  took  possession 
of  the  town  Nov.  8,  1406.  When  Charles  VIII. 
of  France  visited  Italy  in  1494,  and  showed  hos- 
tility to  Florence,  the  Pisans  drove  out  the 
Florentines  and  restored  the  republic  under 
the  protection  of  France.  Pisa  was  besieged 
by  the  Florentines,  without  success,  in  1499 ; 
again  in  1504 ;  and  they  took  the  town  by 
blockade  June  8,  1509.  Pisa  was  then  united 
to  Florence.  The  first  public  botanical  garden 
was  formed  at  Pisa  in  1545.  It  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1799,  and  delivered  up  by  them 
to  the  Allies  Feb.  20,  1814.  It  was  annexed  to 
Sardinia  by  a  vote  of  the  people  taken  March 
ii  and  12,  1860. 

l'l«  I  CULTURE,  or  ARTIFICIAL  FISH- 
CULTURE,  practised  amongst  ancient  nations 
Isaiah  xix.  10),  was  revived  by  Reiny,  a 
fisherman  of  the  Vosges,  in  1842.  The  estab- 
lishments at  Huningue,  erected  in  1852-4;  at 
Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  in  1853  ;  and  at  Arca- 
chon,  in  France,  are  the  most  extensive.  (See 
ACCLIMATISATION  SOCIKTV,  &c.) 

I '  1 S 1 1 )  I A  A  sia  .Minor  .  —  The  inhabitants 
were  never  subdued,  though  part  of  their 
country  was  included  in  the  Roman  province 
of  Cilicia,  B.C.  64. 

PI  SOX.—  (See  EDEN  and  GOLD.) 

PISTOJA,  or  PISTOIA  (Italy  .—This  town, 
anciently  called  Pistorium,  was  of  no  import- 
ance in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  It  was  in- 
closed within  walls  by  Desiderius,  the  last  of 
the  Lombard  kings,  who  reigned  from  756  to 
774.  It  became  an  independent  municipality, 
and  was  subjugated  by  Florence  about  1150. 
A  citadel  was  built  in  1252.  The  feuds  between 
two  branches  of  a  Pistojaii  family,  named 
Cancellieri,  at  the  close  of  the  i3th  century, 
originated  the  factions  of  the  Bianchi  (q.  v. ) 
and  Neri,  which  spread  to  Florence,  and  caused 
much  misery  to  both  cities.  The  Florentine 
Neri  blockaded  Pistoja,  which  surrendered. 
April  14,  1306,  on  condition  of  safety  to 
life  and  property.  The  victors,  however, 
committed  great  barbarities,  and  razed  the 
walls  to  the  ground.  It  became  subject  to 
Florence  in  1329.  The  cathedral  was  built 
early  in  the  i2th  century.  The  palace  del 
Commune,  or  degli  Anziani,  dates  from  the 
1 3th  century,  and  the  episcopal  palace  from 
the  i3th  century.  The  Jaiisenist  prelates  and 


PISTOL 


[     779     1 


PITTSBURG 


clergy  of  Tuscany  drew  up  the  Propositions  of 
Pistoja,  at  a  council  summoned  by  Scipio 
Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoja,  in  1787. 

PISTOL.  —  Grose  states  that  this  fire-arm 
derives  its  name  from  having  been  invented  at 
Pistoja,  in  Tuscany.  The  wheel-lock  pistol 
was  common  in  Germany  as  early  as  1512,  and 
became  the  characteristic  weapon  of  the  Reiters, 
or  Pistoliers,  who  were  enrolled  soon  after. 
Pistols  were  used  in  France  in  1544.  A  clumsy 
pistol,  called  a  dag,  was  carried  by  the  English 
cavalry  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509-47). 
Double-barrelled  pistols,  and  pistols  capable  of 
discharging  two  or  three  balls  from  a  single 
barrel  without  reloading,  were  invented  about 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  ;  and  the  flint- 
lock is  first  mentioned  in  connection  with 
pistols  in  1588. 

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND  (Pacific  Ocean),  dis- 
covered by  a  young  officer  named  Pitcairn, 
belonging  to  the  ship  Carteret,  in  1768,  was 
visited  by  Capt.  Cook  in  1777.  The  mutineers 
of  the  Bounty  established  a  colony,  consisting 
of  9  British  sailors,  6  native  Tahitian  men,  and 
12  women,  on  this  island,  in  1790.  Through 
dissensions  and  massacres,  there  remained,  in 
1800,  only  one  Englishman,  Adams,  the  Tahi- 
tian females,  and  19  children.  Capt.  Beechy 
found  an  interesting  colony  of  66  persons  here 
in  1825.  A  scarcity  of  water  caused  the  colo- 
nists to  repair  to  Tahiti  in  1831 ;  but  after  re- 
maining five  months,  they  returned  to  Pit- 
cairn's  Island  in  1832.  The  islanders,  who 
were  placed  under  the  protection  of  England 
in  1839,  removed  to  Norfolk  Island  in  1856. 
Some  of  them  returned  to  Pitcairn's  Island  in 

1  PITT  ADMINISTRATIONS.— The  first  Pitt 
administration  was  formed  soon  after  the  dis- 
missal of  the  Coalition  (North  and  Fox)  Min- 
istry (q.  v.),  Dec.  18,  1783.  William  Pitt,  at 
that  time  not  quite  24  years  of  age,  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  Dec.  19.  Lord  Stanhope  remarks 
that  it  consisted  of  seven  cabinet  ministers, 
of  whom  only  one,  the  prime  minister,  was  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was 
thus  constituted : — 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury) 

and    Chancellor    of  the  >•  Mr.  Pitt. 

Exchequer    ) 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Thurlow. 

•  i     *    f  *!,    r>         -i      /Earl  Gower,  afterwards  Mar- 
President  of  the  Council...  {     quis  of  s^afford. 

Privy  Seal    Duke  of  Rutland. 

I?      •       <s  ™>f0  /Lord  Sydney,  made  Viscount 

Foreign  Secretary j    Sydney  June  9,  1789. 

_         c  /Marquis  of  Caermarthen,  af- 

Home  Secretary j     towards  Duke  of  Leeds. 

.     .  /Lord    .Howe,    created    Earl 

Admiralty    |    Howe  in  Julyj  ^gg 

The  ministry  held  its  first  meeting  Dec.  23, 
1783.  After  an  interval  of  a  few  weeks,  the 
Duke  of  Richmond,  as  master-general  of  the 
ordnance,  was  admitted  to  a  seat  in  the  cabi- 
net. The  Marquis  of  Caermarthen  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  home  office,  June  5,  1789,  by  Mr. 
William  Wyndham  Greiiville,  afterwards  Lord 
Grenville,  who  took  the  foreign  office  in  May, 
1791,  and  was  s\icceeded  at  the  home  office 
by  Mr.  Henry  Dundas,  afterwards  Lord  Mel- 
ville. He  became  colonial  secretary  July  n, 
1 794,  and  was  replaced  at  the  home  office  by 


the  Duke  of  Portland.  Viscount  Sydney  re- 
signed the  secretaryship  for  foreign  affairs  in 
May,  1791,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Gren- 
ville. The  third  secretaryship  of  state  for  war 
and  colonies,  suppressed  at  the  peace  of  1782, 
was  re-established  in  1794,  when  Mr.  Henry 
Dundas,  afterwards  Lord  Melville,  received 
the  appointment.  Mr.  Windham,  as  secretary 
at  war,  obtained  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  in  1794. 
The  privy  seal  was  placed  in  commission  March 
8,  1784,  Earl  Gower,  afterwards  Marquis  of 
Stafford,  receiving  the  appointment  Nov.  24 ; 
it  passed  to  Earl  Spencer  July  u,  1794 ;  to  the 
Earl  of  Chatham  Dec.  17,  1794;  and  to  the 
Earl  of  Westmoreland  Feb.  14,  1798.  Lord, 
afterwards  Earl  Camden,  replaced  the  Marquis 
of  Stafford  as  president  of  the  council,  Dec.  i, 
1784.  He  was  succeeded,  July  n,  1794,  by 
Earl  Fitzwilliam,  who  gave  place  to  the  Earl 
of  Mansfield,  Dec.  17,  1794.  The  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham was  made  lord  president  Sep.  21,  1796. 
The  Earl  of  Chatham  succeeded  Earl  Howe  at 
the  admiralty  in  July,  1788,  and  was  replaced 
by  Earl  Spencer  March  4,  1795.  Lord  Thurlow 
resigned  the  lord  chancellorship  June  12,  1792, 
the  great  seal  being  placed  in  commission 
until  Jan.,  1793,  when  Lord  Loughborough 
became  lord  chancellor.  Difficulties  respect- 
ing Roman  Catholic  emancipation  led  to  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Pitt  early  in  1801.  The 
acceptance  of  office  as  prime  minister  was 
communicated  to  the  House  of  Commons  by 
'Mr.  Addington,  Feb.  10,  and  his  name  appeared 
in  the  Gazette  as  chief  of  a  new  administration. 

(See   ADDINGTON    ADMINISTRATION.) Pitt's 

second  administration  was  formed  on  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Addington  administration, 
May  10,  1804  ;  and  Mr.  Pitt's  appointment  was 
gazetted  May  12.  The  cabinet  was  thus  con- 
stituted :— 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury') 

and    Chancellor    of    the  [  Mr.  Pitt. 

Exchequer   ) 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Eldon. 

President  of  the  Council...    Duke  of  Portland. 

Privy  Seal    Earl  of  Westmoreland. 

Foreign  Secretary Lord  Harrowby. 

TT  Q  *  /Lord  Hawkesbury,  after- 
Home  Secretary |  wardg  Earl  Q{  Uverpoo\. 

Colonial  Secretary Earl  Camden. 

Admiralty    Viscount  Melville. 

Sir  Charles  Middleton,  afterwards  Lord  Bar- 
ham,  succeeded  Viscount  Melville  at  the  ad- 
miralty April  30,  1805.  The  Duke  of  Portland 
was  succeeded,  Jan.  14,  1805,  as  privy  seal,  by 
Mr.  Addington,  created  Viscount  Sidmouth 
Jan.  12,  who  was  followed  by  Earl  Camden, 
July  10,  1805.  Lord  Mulgrave  succeeded  Lord 
Harrowby  as  foreign  secretary,  Jan.  n,  1805; 
and  Viscount  Castlereagh  became  colonial  se- 
cretary when  Earl  Camden  took  the  privy  seal, 
July  10,  1805.  This  administration  was  dis- 
solved by  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  Jan.  23,  1806. 
(See  ALL  THE  TALENTS  ADMINISTRATION.) 

PITT  or  REGENT  DIAMOND.—  (See 
DIAMOND.) 

PITTSBURG  (N.  America).— This  place  in 
Pennsylvania,  called  Fort  du  Quesne,  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  English  army  under 
Gen.  Bradock,  by  the  French  and  Indians,  July 
a,  1755.  It  was  taken,  Nov.  25,  1758,  by  the 
English  under  Gen.  Forbes,  who  strengthened 


PITTSBURG 


I    780    ] 


PLAGUE 


the  fort  and  named  it  Pittsburg,  or  Fort  Pitt, 
in  compliment  to  the  minister.  The  town, 
chartered  in  1816,  was  almost  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1845. 

PITTSBURG  LANDING  (Battle).— The 
Federals  were  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh, 
in  Mississippi,  Sunday,  April  6,  1862.  The. 
Federals,  having  received  large  reinforcements 
during  the  night,  attacked  the  Confederates 
Monday,  April  7.  The  latter,  being  greatly 
outnumbered,  were  compelled  to  retire,  which 
they  did  in  good  order,  and  unmolested. 

PIURA,  or  SAN  MIGUEL  (Peru).  —  This 
city,  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1531,  was  the  first 
Spanish  settlement  in  Peru. 

FIX.— (See  ASSAY.) 

PLACENTIA.— (See  PIACENZA.) 

PLAGUE  AND  PESTILENCE.— "The  terms 
pest,  pestilence,  and  plague,"  Bays  a  writer  in 
the  eighth  edition  of  the ' '  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,"  "  were  long  employed  in  Great  Britain, 
as  were  the  corresponding  terms  in  other 
languages,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times,  to  denote  rightly  a  disease  attacking  a 
great  number  of  persons  simultaneously  and 
in  succession,  and  destroying  a  large  proportion 
of  those  whom  it  attacked  ;  in  short,  a  widely- 
diffused  and  malignant  epidemic."  Provisions 
for  the  relief  of  plague-stricken  persons  were 
made  by  2  James  I.  c.  31  (1604),  which  was  re- 
pealed by  7  Will.  IV.  and  i  Viet.  c.  91,  s.  4  .July 
*7,  1837).  (See  LAZARETTO  and  QUARANTINE.) 
B.C. 

1491.  The  Egyptians  are  visited  by  a  pestilence  during  the 

Israeiitish  exodus.    (See  CATTLE  PLAGUE.) 
1471.  The  mutinous  companions  of   Korah,  Oathan,  and 
Abiram,  to  the  number  of  14.700  persons,  perish 
by  pestilence  (Numbers  xvi.  46—49). 
1017.  A  pestilence  in  Palestine  destroys  70,000  persons  in 

three  days. 

790.  A  plague  devastates  Italy. 

710.  The  army  of  Sennacherib  perishes  before  Jerusalem. 
594.  A  third  part  of  the  inhabitants  of    Jerusalem  fall 

victims  to  a  plague. 
480.  The  Persian  army  in  Greece  loses  150,000  men  from 

pestilence. 
453-2.  Nearly  half  the  population  of  Rome  perishes  from 


plague. 
Uhens  is 


430.  Athens  is  visited  by  the  first  of  what   from  their 

intensity  are  termed  the  oecumenical  plagues. 
437.  A  pestilence   commences    in    Egypt,   and    extends 
almost  throughout  the  known  world.     It  breaks 
out  afresh  at  Athens. 
366.  The  plague  rages  at  liome,  where,  at  its  height,  it  is 

said  to  have  destroyed  10,000  citizens  daily. 
201.  The  destruction  of   swarms  of  locusts  occasions  a 

plague  in  Italy,  an  I  it  continues  for  many  years. 
187.  Rome  suffers  from  a  plague. 

126.  Africa  is  devastated  by  a    plague  occasioned    by 
putrid  swarms  of  locusts,  and  *Soo,ooo  persons  die 
in  Numidia,  and  300,000  in  Carthage. 
89.  The  Roman  army  loses  10,000  men  from  a  plague. 
30-25.  A  pestilence  rages  throughout  the  known  world. 
A.D. 
40.  Babylon  and  all  the  countries  between  Italy  and 

India  suffer  from  plague. 
64.  A  plague  breaks  out  in  Home. 
80.  At  Rome  10,000  persons  perish  daily. 
88.  Kome  loses  a  large  number  of  inhabitants  daily  for 

some  time  from  pestilence. 

93.  A  plague  in  Scotland  destroys  about  160,000  persons. 
114.  A  pestilence  breaks  out  in  Wales,  where  45,000  per- 
sons die. 
166.  The  Syrian  army  brings  back  the  Oriental  plague, 

which  spreads  throughout  Italy. 
195.  Italy  is  ravaged  by  the  plague. 

218.  Scotland  loses  100,000  of  its  populace  from  a  pesti- 
lence. 
250—265.  Plague  rages  throughout  the  world. 


A.D. 

362.  The  mortality  in   Rome  from  plague  is    said    to 

amount  to  5,000  persons  daily. 
325.  Britain  is  visited  by  a  pestilence. 
450-67.  Pestilence  rages  at  Rome. 
502.  Scotland  is  visited  by  a  fatal  epidemic. 
532.  An  oecumenical  plague  ruges  at  Constantinople. 
565.  Europe  is  ravaged  by  pestilence,  which  continues 

several  years. 
590.  A  plague  desolates  Rome.      One  of  its  symptoms 

was  a  violent  tendency  to  sneeze,  in  consequence 

of   which   it  became  usual  to  address  a  person 

sneezing  with  the  words  Duminui  tecum,  "  God 

bless  you,"  or  similar  expressions. 
664.  A  plague  rages  in  Britain. 

717.  30,000  people  die  of  the  plague  at  Constantinople. 
749.  Another  plague  breaks  out  at  Constantinople,  and 

rages  with  such  malignity  that  the  survivors  are 

too  few  to  bury  the  dead. 
762.  England  and  Wales  are  visited  by  pestilence,  which 

is  said  to  have   carried    off    34,000    persons    in 

Chichester  alone. 
874.  A  destructive  epidemic,  caused  by  the  putrid  bodies 

of    swarms   of   locusts,   desolates  the  northern 

parts  of  Gaul. 
940.  The  northern  countries  of  Europe  are  desolated  by 

a  plague,  40,000  persons  dying  in  Scotland. 
1005.  The  plague  appears  in  various  parts  of  the  globe, 

and  carries  off  more  than  half  its  inhabitants. 
1068.  A  pestilence  rages  in  England  and  Constantinople. 
1096.  England,   Holland,  and  Palestine  are  desolated  by 

a  pestilence. 
1 1 20.  A    pestilential    period    of    272    years    commences. 

England  suffers  from  erysipelas,  and  loses  one- 
third  of  its  inhabitants  in  five  years. 
1173.  Dysentery  is  fatal  to  many  in  England. 
1221.  Europe  is  visited  by  famine  and  plague. 
1235.  England  suffers  from  famine  and  leprous  diseases, 

20,000  persons  dying  in  London. 
1314.  The  plague  rages  in  Europe. 
1316.  Fever  and  dysentery  prevail  in  England. 
1334.  China  is  visited  by  a  pestilence. 
1337.  A  famme  occasions  a  pestilent  epidemic  in  China. 
1340.  A  plague  commences  in  China,  ravages  the  whole 

of  Asin,  and   spreads  over  the  entire  extent  of 

Europe. 
1348-9.  The  ciicumenical  plague  rages  at  Florence.     In 

London    50,000  die  in    one  week.     Venice  loses 

100,000  of   its  inhabitants,   Liibeck  90,000,   and 

300,000  perish  in  Spain. 
1352.  Another  plague  destroys  900,000  people  in  China, 

14,000  at  Basel,  16,000  at  Erfurt,  50,000  at  Paris, 

50,000  at  Norwich,  56,000  at  Marseilles  in   one 

month,  62,000  at  Avignon,  and  100,000111  London. 

Spain  loses  two-thirds   of   its  inhabitants,    and 

Ireland  is  nearly  depopulated. 
1361.  The  plague  rages  at  Liverpool. 
1365.  Cologne   and  its  neighbourhood  lose  20  ooo  of  its 

inhabitants. 
1374.  St.   Vitus's  Dance  rages  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,    and 

extends  to    nearly  all  the    towns   in    the  Low 

Countries. 
1394.  Spain  is  visited  by  a  plague,  which  destroys  10,000 

persons  in  the  city  of  Valencia. 
1401.   London  loses   30,000   persons,    and    14,000  die  of 

dysentery  at  Bordeaux. 
1406.  A  plague  breaks  out  in  London. 
1418.  In  Paiis  50,000  die  of  the  plague  in  five  weeks. 
1437.  A  plague  rages  in  France. 
1445-60.   Asia,  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain  suffer 

from  pestilence. 
1485.  The  "sudor  Anglicus,"  or  sweating  sickness,  breaks 

out  with  great  violence  in  the  army  of  the  Earl 

of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII. 
1489.  The  plague  rages  in  the  Low  Countries. 
1493.  The  venereal  disease  appears  at  Rome,  where  it 

rages  as  a  pestilential  fever. 
1499.  A  great   plague  breaks  out  in  England.     London 

loses  30,000  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  king  and 

court  retire  to  Calais. 
1504.  China  is  visited  by  a  pestilence. 
1517.  The  sweating   sickness   again  rages  in  England, 

carrying  off  its  victims  within  three  hours  after 

the  first  attack. 

1^34.  Milan  loses  50,000  of  its  inhabitants. 
1535.  The  sweating  sickness  extends  its  ravages  to  Ger- 
many, Holland,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  France. 
1541.  A  plague  rages  in  Constantinople    and  parts    of 

France. 


PLAGUE 


PLANETS 


A.D. 

1548-  The  plague  breaks  out  at  Liverpool. 

1551.  The  sweating  sickness  rages  for  the  last  time  in 

London. 
1557.  Spain  is  nearly  depopulated  by  a  new  pestilence, 

which  originates  among  the  Spanish  Arabs. 
1563.  Famine    and    pestilence  destroy  20,000  people    in 

London. 
1565.  A  fatal  epidemic  prevails  in  France,  and  destroys 

many  lives  at  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Vienna, 

Cologne,  Dantzic,  Leyden,  and  London. 

1577.  July  6.  The  gaol  fever  breaks  out  at  Oxford.     (See 

BLACK  ASSIZE.) 

1578.  A  plague  rages  in  the  Low  Countries. 

1579.  A   pestilential  catarrh    destroys    8,000  persons   in 

Ltibeck,  4,000  in  Rome,  and  3,000  in  Hamburg. 
A  plague  also  breaks  out  at  Grand  Cairo,  where 
50,000  people  die  in  eight  months. 


1582.  A  plague  breaks  out  in  London. 
The  plague 
Russia  suffers  from  a  famine  and  plague,  of  which 


37.  The  plague  reappears  in  L< 


persons 


500,000  die,  and  30,000  perish  in  Livonia. 

1603.  A    plague  ravages  England,   and   destroys  36,000 

persons  in   London.     Paris  also  suffers  from  a 
similar  epidemic. 

1604.  The  plague  reappears  in  London. 

1610.  Spain  suffers  from  epidemics,  and  200,000  people 

die  of  plague  at  Constantinople. 
1618.  A  plague  rages  in   N.   America,  and  reduces  the 

Massachusetts  tribe  of  Indians  from  3, 

to  300. 

1625.  The  whole  of  England  is  visited  by  the  plague,  and 

30,000  persons  perish  in  London. 

1626.  Pestilence  destroys  60,000  persons  at  Lyons. 

1630.  An  extraordinary  pestilential  fever  destroys  many 
lives  in  France.  It  was  attended  by  mortification 
of  the  extremities,  which  frequently  dropped  off 
suddenly.  The  oecumenical  plague  rages  in 
Milan. 

1635.  Leyden  loses  20,000  of  its  inhabitants  from  an  epi- 
demic pestilence. 

1645.  A  plague  breaks  out  at  Manchester. 

1646.  The  yellow  fever  rages  with  great  violence  in  the 

West  Indies,  12,000  persons  dying  at  Barbadoes 

and  St.  Christopher's. 
1649.  Epidemics  carry  off  200,000  persons  in  the  southern 

provinces  of  Spain. 
1654.  A    pestilence    rages   in  several  parts    of   Eui-ope, 

and   destroys  200,000    lives    in    Moscow,    13,200 

at  Amsterdam,   13,000  at  Leyden,  and  9,000  at 

R!ga. 
1656.  The   Neapolitan  territories   are    desolated    by    the 

plague,  which  carries  off  400,000  of  the  inhabi- 

tants. 
1662.  Venice  loses  60,000  of  its  inhabitants  from  a  pes- 

tilence. 

1664,  Nov.  2.  The  Great  Plague  (also  called  oecumenical) 

commences  in  London. 

1665,  The   Great  Plague  carries  off    68,596    persons    in 

London,  and  spreads  over  England. 

1666,  May.  The  plague  ceases. 

1675.  The  plague  destroys  11.500  persons  at  Malta. 

1  68  1.  The  plague  rages  in  Germany. 

1710.  The  sweating  sickness  carries  off  30,000  persons  in 

Stockholm,  and  25,000  in  Copenhagen. 
1717.  The  true  plague  destroys  8o,oco  lives  at  Aleppo. 
1720.  Marseilles  and  its    neighbourhood  suffer    from    a 

visitation    of    the    plague.      One    district    loses 

87,659  persons  out  of  a  population  of  247,899. 
1736,  Feb.  and  March.  A  pestilence  rages  at  Grand  Cairo, 

and  destroys  100,000  people. 
1743.  Messina  suffers  from  the  plague. 
1751.  A  contagious  fever  carries  off  150,000  persons  at 

Constantinople,  and  30,000  people  die  of  famine 

and  plague  in  Cyprus. 
1763.  Naples  loses  20,000  of  its  inhabitants  from  a  malig- 

nant fever. 

1769.  A   famine,    attended    with    pestilence,   carries   off 

3,000,000  people  in  Bengal. 

1770.  Famine  and  pestilence  destroy   168,000  persons  in 

Bohemia,  20,000  persons  in  Russia  and  Poland, 

and  occasion  a  weekly  mortality  of  1,000  persons 

at  Constantinople. 
1772.  The  plague  carries  off  133,299  persons  at  Moscow, 

and  80.000  persons  at  BassoraU. 
1781.  The  Asiatic  cholera  breaks  out  in  Hindostan,  and 

destroys  20,000  lives.     (See  CHOLERA.) 
1793.  Egypt    loses  800,000  of    its    population  from  the 

plague. 


JK..U. 

1799.  A  pestilence  destroys  247,000  persons  in  Fez,  and 
occasions  an  average  mortality  of  3,000  daily 
throughout  the  Barbary  states. 

1810.  A  pestilence  of  the  yellow  fever  type  breaks  out  at 
Gibraltar,  and  devastates  Italy. 

1813.  The  plague  carries  off  160,000  persons  in  Constan- 
tinople. 

1813.  The  plague  at  Malta  destroys  4,483  lives. 

1825.  Grand  Cairo  loses  30,000  persons  from  a  pestilence. 

1834.  The  plague  rages  with  great  fatality  in  Egypt. 

1847.  In  Glasgow  about  15,000  persons  die  ol  an  epidemic 
remittent  fever. 

(See  CATTLE  PLAGUB,  CHOLERA,  <fec.) 

PLANETS,  or  PLANETOIDS.  —  Mercury, 
Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  were  known 
to  the  ancients.  The  four  satellites  of  Jupiter 
were  discovered  by  Galileo  in  1610.  Saturn 
has  eight  satellites.  Titan  was  discovered  by 
Huyghens  in  1455.  Cassini  discovered  Japhet 
in  1671,  Ehea  in  1672,  Tethys  and  Dione  in 
1684  ;  Mimas  and  Enceladus  were  discovered 
by  Sir  William  Herschel  in  1789  ;  Hyperion  by 
Lassell  and  Bond  in  1848  ;  and  Chiron  by  Gold- 
schmidt  in  1861.  The  planet  Uranus,  Herschel, 
or  Georgium  Sidus,  was  discovered  at  Bath  by 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  March  13,  1781.  In  1787  he 
discovered  its  satellites,  Oberon  and  Titania, 
and  subsequently  four  others,  which  have 
never  been  observed  since.  Two  more,  within 
the  orbits  of  those  previously  noticed,  were 
discovered  by  Lassell  and  Otto  Struve  in  1847. 
The  planet  Neptune,  first  seen  by  Dr.  Galle 
Sep.  23,  1846,  was  observed  simultaneously,  but 
without  concert,  by  Messrs.  Adams  and  Le 
Verrier  the  same  year,  and  its  satellite  by 
Lassell  in  1847.  The  following  list  gives  the 
date  of  discovery  of  the  asteroids,  charac- 
terized by  the  number  expressing  the  order 
of  their  discovery,  which  is  inclosed  in 
brackets. 


Date. 


Name  of  Planet. 


A.D. 

1801,  Jan.      i    Ceres  (i)   ... 

1802,  March«8    Pallas  (2)  ... 
1804,  Sep.       I    Juno  (3)    ... 
1807,  March  29  i  Vesta  (4)  ... 
1845,  Dec.      8    Asrrsea  (5)... 
1847,  Ju'y      1    Hebe  (6)   ... 
1847,  Aug.    13  !  Iris  (7)  

1847,  Oct.      1 8  i  Flora  (8)   ... 

1848,  April  25    Metes  (9) 


1849,  April  12 

1850,  May    ii 
1850,  Sep.     13 


1850,  Nc 


Hygeia  (10) 

Parthenope  (n) ... 

Victoria  (12) 

Egeria  (13)  


851,  May    19  j  Irene  (14) 

1851,  July    29  i  Eunomia  (15) 

1852,  March  17  \  Psyche  (16)  

1854,  April   17  |  Thetis  (17)    

1852,  June    24  j  Melpomene  (18)  ... 


852,  Aug 
1852,  Sep. 
1852,  Nov. 
1852,  Nov. 

1852,  Dec. 

1853,  April 


22  :  Fortuna  (19) 
19  j  Massilia  (20) 


1853,  April 
May 


.utetia  (21) 

16  !  Calliope  (22) 

15  ,  Thalia  (23)   

5  j  Themis  (24) 

7    Phocea  (35) 

1853,  May      5  |  Proserpine  (26)  ... 

1853,  Nov-      8  '  Euterpe  (27) 

1854,  March  i  i  Bellona  (28) 

1854,  March  I  '  Amphitrite  (29)   ... 

1854,  July    23    Urania  (30) 

1854,  Sep.       I  !  Euphrosyne  (31)... 

1854,  Oct.     36  ;  Pomona  (32) 

1854,  Oct.     38  ,  Polyhymnia  (33).. 

855,  April    6  |  Circe  (34) 


Discovered  by 


J855i  April  19    Lei: 


.(35) 


Piazzi. 

Olbers. 

Harding. 

Olbers. 

Hencke. 
Ditto. 

Hind. 
Ditto. 

Graham. 

De  Gasparis. 
Ditto. 

Hind. 

De  Gasparfg. 

Hind. 

De  Gasparis. 
Ditto. 

Luther. 

Hind. 
Ditto. 

De  Gasparis. 

Goldschmidt. 

Hind. 
Ditto. 

De  Gasparis. 

Chacornac. 

Luther. 

Hind. 

Luther. 

Marth. 
.....Hind. 
,...  |  Ferguson. 
....Goldschmidt 
....   Chacornac. 
....     Ditto. 
...!  Luther. 


PLANTAGENET 


[     782     ] 


PLATA,  LA 


A.D. 

1855,  Oct.  5 

1855,  Oct.  5 

1856,  Jan.  12 
1856,  Feb.  8 
1856,  March  i 
1856,  May  2,2, 

1856,  May  23 

1857,  April  15 
1857,  May  27 
1857,  June  26 
1857,  Aug.  16 
1857,  Sep.  15 


1857,  Sep. 

1857,  Sep.  19 

1857,  Oct.  4 

1858,  Jan.  22 
1858,  Feb.  4 
1858,  April  4 
1858,  Sep.  10 
1858,  Sep.  10 


1859,  Sep.  22 

1860,  March  24 
1860,  Sep.  13 
i860,  Sep.  14 
1860,  Sep.  14 

1860,  Sep.  14 

1861,  Feb.     II 
1861,  March  6 
1861,  Marchio 
1861,  April   10 
1861,  April   18 
1861,  April   29 
1 86 1,  April   29 
1861,  Mav       5 
1861,  May     29 

1861,  Aug.  13 

1862,  April  7 
1862,  Aug.  29 
1862,  Sep.  22 
1862,  Oct.  21 

1862,  Nov   12 

1863,  March  15 

1863,  Sep.  15 

1864,  May   2 
1864,  Sep.  30 

1864,  Nov.  27 

1865,  April  26 
1865,  Aug.  25 

1865,  Sep.     19 

1866,  Jan.      4 
1866,  May    16 
1866, 

1866,  Aug.      6 
1866,  Oct.       I 


Name  of  Planet. 


Fides  (36) 

Atalanta  (37)  

Leda  (38) 

LaBtitia  (39) 

Harmonia  (40) 

Daphne  (41) 

Isis  (42) 

Ariadne  (43) 

Nysa  (44)  

Eugenia  (45)    

Hestia  (46)    

Aglaia(47)   

Doris  (48) 

Pales  (49) 

Virginia  (50)    

Neinausa  (51) 

Europa  (52) 

Calypso  (53) 

Alexandra  (54)    ... 

Pandora  (55)    

Melete  (56)* 

Mnemosyne  (57)  ... 
Concordia  (58)     ... 

Olympia  (59)   

Titania(6o) 

Echo  (6i)f  


Erato  ;(6a) 

Ausonia  (63) 

Angelina  (64)  . 


Mnxiiiiiliana(65) 

Maia  (66) 

AMU  (67)   

Leto(68)   

Hesperia  (69)  

Panopea  (70)  

1'VnmiM  (71)}  

ru'til- (73C":::::: 

Galatea  (74) 

Eurydice  (75)  

Frcia(7C) 




Diana  (78) 

Kurynomc  (79)    .. 

Sappho  (80) 

Terpsichore  (81).. 

Alcmera  (82)   

Beatrix  (83) 

Clio  (84)    

Io(85)    

Cemele  (86) 

Sylvia  (87)    

Thisbe  (88)   

Jupiter  (89) 

Antiope  (90) 


Discovered  by 


and 


Luther. 

Goldschmidt. 

Chacoruac. 

Ditto. 
Goldschmidt. 

Ditto. 
Pogson. 

Ditto. 
Goldschmidt. 

Ditto. 
Pogson. 
Luther. 
Gohlschmidt. 

Ditto. 
Ferguson. 
Laurent. 
Goldschmidt. 
Luther. 
Goldschmidt. 
Searle. 
Goldschmidt 

Schubert. 
Luther. 

Ditto. 

Chacornac. 
Ferguson. 

Ditto. 

Lesser  and  Forster. 
De  Gasparis. 
Tempel. 

Ditto. 
Tuttle. 
Pogson. 
Luther. 
S.-hiaparelli. 
(inld.-rhmidt. 

IVtlTS. 

Lather. 

Tuttle. 

Tempel. 

Peters. 

D' Arrest. 

Peter*. 

Luther. 

Watson. 

Pogson. 

Luther. 

TempeL 

G:i..p:iris. 

Luther. 

Peters. 

Tietjen. 

Pogson. 

Peters. 

Stephen. 

Luther. 


PLANTAGENET,    derived    from    plawta 
genista,   the   broom  plant,   a  sprig  of  which 


*  M.  Goldschmidt  was  searching  for  the  planet  Daphne, 
Sep.  9,  1857,  when  he  came  across  an  object  which  he 
took  to  be  that  planet,  and  observed  it  as  such.  In  No. 
1,160  of  the  Astronomische  Nachirchter,  M.  Schuberr.  of 
Berlin,  showed  that  the  planet  observed  by  M.  Gold- 
schmidt was  not  Daphne,  but  a  new  planet.  The  new 
planet  was  in  vain  sought  for  on  many  occasions,  till  at 
last  it  was  re -discovered  by  M.  Goldschmidt,  Aug.  27, 
1861.  It  received  the  name  of  Melete,  though  previously 
to  its  optical  re  discovery  it  had  been  known  by  the 
name  of  Pseudo-Daphne. 

t  On  its  discovery,  this  planet  received  the  name  of 
Danae;  but  as  that  name  rather  closely  resembles  Daphne, 
to  prevent  confusion,  the  name  Echo  has  been  substi- 
tuted. 

$  A  new  planet,  observed  by  mistake  for  Maia  (66),  by 
Dr.  Peters,  of  Hamilton  College,  America,  in  May,  1861. 
In  a  recent  number  of  the  Axtronomiscke  Nactlirchter,  Mr. 
Safford  shows  the  planet  observed  by  Dr.  Peters  on  that 
occasion  to  be  a  new  one.  This  planet  is  remarkable  for 
having  the  least  mean  distanre  of  any  of  those  yet  dis- 
covered. 


Geoffrey,  the  founder  of  the  house,  is  said  to 
have  worn  in  his  cap,  is  the  name  of  a  line  of 
14  kings  who  reigned  in  England  from  1154 
to  1485.  The  first  monarch  of  the  house,  Henry 
II.,  ascended  the  English  throne  Dec.  19,  1154. 
The  second,  Richard  I.,  succeeded  July  6,  1189. 
The  family  was  divided  into  the  two  branches 
of  Lancaster  and  York  on  the  deposition  of 
Richard  II.,  who  was  succeeded  by  Henry  IV., 
Sep.  30,  1399.  The  line  closed  with  Richard 
III.,  Aug.  22,  1485. 

PLANTATIONS. —  The  name  at  first 
given  to  the  English  colonies.  (See  BOARD  OF 
TRADE.) 

PLASSEY  (Battle)  was  fought  at  Plassey, 
a  village  of  Bengal,  June  23,  1757.  The  Eng- 
lish force,  under  the  command  of  Col.  Clive, 
consisted  of  about  1,000  Europeans  and  2,100 
Sepoys,  while  the  army  of  the  Soubahdar  of 
Bengal  amounted  to  50,000  foot,  18,000  horse, 
with  50  pieces  of  cannon.  Clive  gained  a  com- 
plete victory,  which  established  the  power 
of  the  English  in  Bengal,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  our  empire  in  India. 

PLASTERERS  were  incorporated  in  1501. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.  —  The  method  of 
taking  casts  from  the  human  face  in  this  ma- 
terial was  invented  by  the  Florentine  artist 
Andrew  del  Verrochio  (1432-88).  Plaster  of 
Paris,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  abun- 
dance in  which  it  is  found  near  Paris,  espe- 
cially at  Montrnartre,  was  first  employed  as  a 
manure  in  France  in  1776. 

PLATjEA  (Greece)  is  mentioned  by  Homer 
B.C.  962.  It  resisted  the  supremacy  of  Thebes  ; 
formed  an  alliance  with  Athens,  B.C.  519 ; 
and  furnished  1,000  men  to  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  Sep.  n,  B.C.  490.  The  people  fought 
at  Artemisiurn,  B.C.  480 ;  and  the  city  was 
burned  to  the  ground  by  the  Persians.  The 
Persian  general  Mardonius  was  defeated  with 
immense  loss  by  the  Greeks  under  Pausanias 
and  Aristides,  at  Platsea,  Sep.,  B.C.  479.  (See 
MVCALE.)  A  small  party  of  Thebans  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  take  the  city  B.C.  431.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  Peloponnesian  army,  when  the 
Plataeans  sent  off  their  old  men,  women,  and 
children  to  Athens,  B.C.  429.  The  besiegers, 
having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  take  it  by  as- 
sault, raised  a  circumvallation  of  two  parallel 
walls,  with  a  ditch  on  either  side  of  the  city, 
over  which  one  half  of  the  besieged  made  their 
escape  to  Athens,  B.C.  428.  Owing  to  want  of 
provisions,  the  remainder  surrendered,  and 
were  put  to  death  B.C.  427.  The  survivors  re- 
ceived from  Athens  the  town  of  Scione,  B.C. 
420 ;  and  having  been  restored  to  their  native 
city,  it  was  surprised  by  the  Thebans  and 
destroyed  B.C.  372.  They  were  again  rein- 
stated by  Philip  II.,  B.C.  338.  The  city  is 
mentioned  by  Hierocles,  in  the  6th  century, 
and  its  walls  were  restored  by  Justinian  I. 
(527 — 565). 

PLATA,  LA  (S.  America).— The  extensive 
country  watered  by  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and 
its  tributaries  the  Parana  and  Uruguay,  was 
first  visited  by  the  Spaniard  Juan  Dias  De 
Soils,  who  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary 
in  1515,  and  took  formal  possession  in  the 
name  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He  was  killed 
in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives,  who  roasted 


PLATE 


[    783 


PLAYING  CARDS 


and  devoured  the  slain.  Sebastian  Cabot,  in 
command  of  another  expedition,  sailed  up  the 
estuary  in  1526,  and  on  account  of  the  quan- 
tities of  the  precious  metals,  and  especially  of 
silver,  brought  by  the  Indians,  named  it  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  River  of  Silver.  He  built  a 
fort,  and  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  founded 
Buenos  Ayres  in  1535.  The  Jesuits,  who  com- 
menced missionary  work  in  the  i  jih  century, 
were  suppressed  in  1768.  The  country  was, 
with  the  exception  of  some  trifling  commercial 
privileges  allowed  in  1602,  and  renewed  in  1618 
and  1622,  kept  dependent  on  Peru  till  1778.  A 
royal  "  audiencia  "  was  established  at  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1605.  The  last  fleet  which  had  mono- 
polized the  trade  between  Europe  and  Spanish 
America,  sailed  from  Cadiz  in  1748  ;  and  free 
trade  with  several  of  the  American  ports  was 
permitted  in  1774.  The  Portuguese  settlement 
in  Brazil  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  river  in 
1553  ;  and  a  definite  boundary  was  established 
between  the  colony  and  the  Indians  to  the 
south  in  1740.  The  various  provinces  of  La 
Plata  were  erected  into  the  viceroyalty  of 
Rio  de  La  Plata  in  1778.  Repudiating  the 
sovereignty  of  Joseph  Buonaparte,  the  country 
organized  an  independent  government  in  the 
name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  May  25,  1810.  A 
sovereign  constituent  assembly  was  convened 
at  Buenos  Ayres  in  Jan.,  1813,  which  con- 
tinued in  power  till  dissolved  in  April,  1816  ; 
and  a  general  congress  declared  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  provinces  July  9,  1816.  Gen. 
Puyerredon  remained  supreme  director  till 
1820.  After  various  attempts  to  recover  their 
authority,  the  Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the 
troops  of  the  republic  in  July,  1821.  Great 
Britain  recognized  its  independence  in  1824; 
and  a  blockade  of  the  port  of  Buenos  Ayres 
by  a  Brazilian  fleet,  instituted  in  1827,  was 
raised  through  British  intervention,  in  Oct., 
1828.  The  Argentine  Confederation,  or  the 
Confederation  of  La  Plata,  was  formed  in  Jan., 

1834.  Gen.  Rosas  attained  absolute  power  in 

1835.  At  the  request  of  Brazil,  England  and 
France  sent  out  a  combined  fleet,  which  forced 
the  chains  Rosas  had  drawn  across  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  and  destroyed  the  batteries  he 
had  erected  at  Point  Obligado,  Feb.  19,  1845. 
The  states  opposed  to    the  despotic  rule  of 
Rosas  entered  into  a  treaty  to  depose  him  ; 
and  Gen.  Urquiza,  at  the  head  of  their  troops, 
totally  defeated  the  army  of  the  dictator  on 
the  plains  of  Moron,  Feb.  2,  1851.     A  federal 
constitution  was  published  at  Santa  Fe,  May  i, 

1853.  The  country  continued  divided  into  two 
parties  and  distinct  governments  ;  and  treaties 
of  commerce,  concluded  between  them  in  Dec., 

1854,  and  Jan.,  1855,  were  annulled  March  18, 
1856.  (See  ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION,  BRAZIL, 
BUENOS  AYRES,  PARAGUAY,  PARANA,  URUGUAY, 
&c.) 

PLATE.— The  exportation  of  gold  or  silver 
plate  without  a  licence  was  prohibited  by  9 
Edw.  III.  st.  2,  c.  i  (1335).  By  8  Will.  III.  c. 
8  (1696),  provision  was  made  for  converting 
wrought  plate  into  coin  ;  and  tax-collectors 
were  authorized  to  receive  the  land-tax  in  plate 
instead  of  money.  The  sale  of  plate  that  has 
not  been  stamped  at  the  assay  office  renders 
the  seller  liable  to  a  fine  of  .£50  by  24  Geo.  III. 


c.  53  (1784),  and  the  counterfeiting  of  the 
assayer's  stamps  was  made  a  capital  offence 
by  52  Geo.  III.  c.  143,  s.  8  (July  23,  1812).  The 
penalty  was  commuted  to  transportation  or 
imprisonment  by  i  Will.  IV.  c.  66  (July  23, 
1830).  The  laws  relating  to  the  assay  of  gold 
and  silver  plate  were  amended  by  17  &  18 
Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  10,  1854). 

PLATE  GLASS.— (See  GLASS.) 

PLATING.— The  art  is  of  great  antiquity. 
By  5  Hen.  IV.  c.  4  (1403),  all  work  of  this  kind 
upon  copper  or  latten  was  prohibited  except 
in  ornaments  for  the  Church,  of  which  some 
part  was  to  be  left  uncovered  to  show  the 
copper  or  brass.  The  modern  method  of 
plating  with  silver  on  copper  was  invented  in 
1742  by  Thomas  Bolsover,  an  ingenious  me- 
chanic of  Sheffield. 

PLATINUM.— This  important  metal  was  not 
known  before  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 
Wood  met  with  the  ore  in  Jamaica  in  1741, 
and  introduced  it  into  Europe.  He  published 
a  paper  describing  it  in  1750. 

PLATOMETER.— This  apparatus  for  mea- 
suring areas  of  regular  and  irregular  plane 
figures  was  invented  by  John  Lang,  of  Kirk- 
caldy,  Dec.  24,  1851. 

PLATONIC  CHRISTIANS.— The  name  ap- 
plied to  the  Neo  (New)  Platonists  (q.  v.). 

PLATTSBURG  (N.  America).— The  Governor- 
general  of  Canada,  Sir  G.  Prevost,  having 
planned  an  expedition  against  this  town,  a 
flotilla  from  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  land 
batteries,  opened  fire  simultaneously  ;  but 
several  assaults  having  failed,  the  enterprise 
was  abandoned  Sep.  n,  1814. 

PLAY-GROUNDS.— In  1858  an  abortive  at- 
tempt was  made  to  form  a  society  to  provide 
play-grounds  for  the  recreation  of  children  of 
the  humble  class,  and  an  act  (22  Viet.  c.  27) 
was  passed  April  19,  1859,  to  facilitate  grants 
of  land  near  populous  places  for  the  use  of 
regulated  recreation  for  adults,  and  as  play- 
grounds for  children. 

PLAYING  CARDS,  originally  derived  from 
India,  were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Saracens.  They  are  noticed  in  Europ'e  as  early 
as  1275,  and  were  known  in  England  before 
1464.  Rodolph  I.  is  said  to  have  amused  him- 
self with  playing  cards,  and  mention  of  them 
occurs  in  German  manuscripts  between  1286 
and  1384.  They  were  used  in  Italy  in  1299.  The 
invention  has  long  been  erroneously  attributed 
to  the  French,  who,  in  1392,  are  said  to  have 
tried  this  means  of  amusing  Charles  VI.  in  the 
intervals  of  his  terrible  malady.  A  duty  placed 
upon  them  in  this  country  by  authority  of  the 
Lord  Treasurer  during  the  reign  of  James  I. 
(1603 — 1625),  was  mentioned  in  a  protest  made 
by  the  Commons  against  illegal  taxation  in 
1631.  A  duty  of  6d.  a  pack,  imposed  by  9  Anne 
c.  23,  s.  39  (1710),  and  increased  in  1789  and 
1801  until  it  reached  2S.  6d.,  was  reduced  in 
1828  to  is.,  and  by  25  Viet.  c.  22  (June  3,  1862), 
to  T,d.  on  each  pack.  Dr.  Buchau  explains 
the  number  of  cards  in  a  pack,  <fec.,  in  the 
following  manner: — "The  whole  number  of 
cards  in  a  pack,  52,  is  equal  to  the  number  of 
weeks  into  which  the  year  is  divided;  and 
the  number  of  cards  in  each  suit,  viz.,  thir- 
teen, is  equivalent  to  the  number  of  weeks 


PLEBEIANS 


[     734     1 


PLOT 


contained  in  each  quarter  of  the  civil  year. 
The  number  of  spots  or  pips  upon  one  8uil 
is  55,  which, 

Multiplied  by  4,  give  ....................................  220 

lips  upon  pictured  cards  ..............................     12 

Honours,  counted  at  ten  each  ........................  120 

Number  of  cards  in  each  suit  ........................    13 

Total  ..................  365 

The  precise  number  of  days  contained  in  the 
solar  year."  The  card  makers  were  incor- 
porated in  1629. 

PLEBEIANS.—  The  people,  as  opposed  to  the 
patricians  or  nobles  of  Rome,  revolted  and  ob- 
tained a  decree  of  the  senate  to  have  two  of 
their  order  elected  annually  as  tribunes,  B.C. 
494.  Three  plebeians  were  created  decemvirs 
about  B.C.  451.  Military  tribunes  were  chosen 
from  the  plebeians  about  B.C.  444.  A  plebeian 
was  raised  to  the  consulate  about  B.C.  366. 
A  plebeian  was  made  one  of  the  censors  B.C. 
351  ;  two  plebeians  were  appointed  consuls  B.C. 
172  ;  and  two  censors  B.C.  131. 

PLESSIS  LES  TOURS  (France).—  This  castle 
was  surrounded  with  a  triple  fortification  by 
Louis  XL,  who  retired  here  in  1482,  and  died 
Aug.  30,  1483.  An  assembly  of  the  states  was 
held  in  the  grand  apartment  of  the  castle,  at 
which  the  deputy  from  Paris  bestowed  upon 
Louis  XII.  the  title  of  "  Father  of  his  People," 
in  May,  1506. 

PLOT,  CONSPIRACY,  &c.  —  The  following 
are  the  most  important  conspiracies  and  insur- 
rections in  English  history  :  — 

A.D. 

1051.  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  rebels  against  E  Award  the 

Confessor. 

1071.  Herewurd  de  Walle  rebels  against  William  I. 
1074.  Earl  Waltheof  and  other  Norman  barons  rebel. 
1088.  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  assisted  by  his  uncle 

Odo,  Bishop  of   Bayeux,  conspires  against  Wil- 

liam II. 
1095.  Robert  Mowbray  heads  a  conspiracy  for  dethroning 

William  II.,  and    conferring  the  crown  on   his 

cousin,  the  Earl  of  Albemarle. 
1  103.  Belesine,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  opposes  the  accession 

of  Henry  I. 
1137.  Several  nobles  conspire  in  favour  of  the  Empress 

Matilda,  and  begin  the  civil  wars  of   Stephen's 

reign. 
1173.  Queen    Eleanor    and   her    sons    conspire    against 

Henry  II. 
1213.  The  barons  take,  arms  against  King  John. 


Constantino  Fitz-Arnulph  head*  an  insurrection  f 
of  Philip  II.  of  France,  Kin 
of  England. 


making  Louis,  son 


1233.  Richard,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  forms  a  confederacy 

ns-.-.hist  Henry  III.  and  his  minister,  the  Bishop 

of  Winchester. 

1264.  Simon  de  Montfortcommences  the  Barons'  war  (q.  r.). 
1270.  A  rebellion  of  the  Irish  is  suppressed. 
1312.  The  barons  league  against  Gaveston. 
1322.  The   Earl  of   Lancaster  conspires  with  the  Scotch 

against  Edward  II. 
1326.  Queen  Isabella  and  the  barons  commence  the  con- 

spiracy which  leads  to  the  dethronement  of  Ed- 

M-ardII. 

1329.  An  insurrection  in  the  south  of  Ireland. 
1381.  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  (q.v.). 
1388.  A  conspiracy  by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  against  his 

nephew   Richard    II.  is    alleged   to    have    been 

formed  tliis  year. 
1393.  The  Irish  rebel. 
1399.  Henry  Bolingbroke,  Duke  of   Lancaster,  conspires 

against  and  dethrones  Richard  II. 

1401.  The  Welsh  revolt  under  Owen  Glendower. 

1402.  The  Percies  conspire  against  Henry  IV. 

1408.  The  Earl  of  Northumberland  and  Owen  Glendower 
rebel. 


1415.  The  Earl  of  Cambridge,  Lord  Scropo,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Grey  form  a  plot  for  making  the  Earl  of  March 
king. 

1450.  Cade's  insurrection  (q.  r.). 

1452.  The  Yorkist  insurrection  against  Henry  VI. 

1469.  Sir  John    Conyers  and   others   rebel   against  Ed- 

ward IV. 

1470.  The  Earl  of  Warwick  and  the  Duke  of   Clarenco 

cause  Edward  IV.  to  be  dethroned. 

1471.  Edward  IV.  rebels  against  Henry  VI.,  and  recover* 

the  crown. 

1483.  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  conspires  against  hi§ 
nephew,  Edward  V.,  and  obtains  the  crown.  The 
Duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  Bishop  of  Ely  plot 
for  the  dethronement  of  Richard  III. 

1486.  Conspiracy  of  Lambert  Simnel. 

1493.  Perkin  Warbeck's  insurrection. 

1497.  Flammock's  rebellion  (q.  v.). 

1505.  The  Duke  of  Suffolk  conspires  against  Henry  VII. 

1534,  June  1  1.  FitzGerald's  rebellion.    (See  IRELAND.) 

1530.  Dr.  Mackerel,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Capt. 
Cobler,  heads  an  insurrection  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  Lancashire.  The  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace  (q.  r.). 

J549>  June  9.  The  inhabitants  of  Devon  and  Cornwall 
rebel  under  Arundel.  Ket's  insurrection  (q.  v.). 

1553.  The  Duke  of  Northumberland  conspires  in  favour 

of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

1554.  Wyatt's  insurrection  (q.  v.). 

1556.  Clever's  rebellion  is  suppressed  in  Norfolk. 

1557.  Sir  Thomas  Stafford  heads  a  rebellion  in  Yorkshire. 
1559.  l)r-  Story  plots  against  Queen  Elizabeth. 

1564.  The  sons  of  Cardinal  Pole  conspire  against  Queen 

Elizabeth. 
1569.  The  Earls  of   Northumberland  and  Westmoreland 

rebel. 

1529-  FiUMaurice's  rebellion.    (See  IRELAND.) 
1581.  The     Jesuit     Campion     conspires     against    Queen 

Elizabeth. 

1581.  Throgmorton's  conspiracy  is  defeated. 
1586.  Babyngton's  conspiracy  (q.  r.). 
1594.  The  plot  of  Roderigo  Lopez  is  detected. 
1597.  Tyrone's  rebellion.    (See  IRELAND.) 
roor.  The  Essex  conspiracy  (q.  v.). 
1603.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and    others    conspire    against 

James  I.,  and  in  favour  of  Arabella  Stuart.     (See 

BVE  and  MAIN"  PLOTS.) 


rwickshire    and 


. 
1608.  Sir  Cahir  O'Doberty's  insurrection.     (See  IRELAND.) 

641.  Oct.  23.  Phelim  O'Neil's  Ulster  rebellion  (q.  r.). 

642.  The  Great  Rebellion  commences. 

643.  Waller's  plot  (q.  v.). 

654.  Gerard,    nicknamed     "  tha     Generous,"     conspire* 

against  Cromwell. 

655.  Penruddock's  rebellion  (q.  v.). 
'-.".  Syuilercombe's  plot  (q.  v.). 

658.  Sezby  conspires  to  assassinate  Cromwell. 
1661.  Insurrection    of    the   Fifth-monarchy  men    (q.  v.). 

Venner's  insurrection  (q.  •».). 
665.  The  plot  of  Col.  Danvers  is  frustrated. 
670,  Dec.  6.  Col.  Blood's  conspiracy  commences  with  tha 

seizure  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond. 

678,  Aug.    12.     Oates's  Popish    plot  is   disclosed.      (See 

POPISH  PLOTS.) 

679.  The  Meal-tub  plot  (q.  v.~). 

683,  June  12.  The  Rye-house  plot  (?.».). 

685,  June  20.  The  Duke  of  Moumouth  rebels  atTaunton. 

689.  Claverhouse,  Lord  Dundee,  rebels  in  Scotland  against 

William  and  Mary. 
696.  The  Assassination  plot  (q.  v.). 
703.  Simon  Frazer's  plot  for  placing  the  son  of  James  II. 

on  the  throne  is  frustrated. 
711.  Guiscard  conspires  against  the  ministers. 
715,  Sep.  6.  Mar's  insurrection  (7.  ».). 
718.  James  Sheppard,  a  madman,  conspires  against  tha 

life  of  George  I. 
722.  Layer's  conspiracy  (q.  t'.). 
740.  A  Jacobite  confederacy  in  favour  of  the  Pretender 

is  formed  in  Scotland. 
745,  Aug.  19.  The  Scotch  rebellion  in  favour  of  the  Pre- 

tender commences. 

761.  Insurrection  of  the  Whitcboys  (q.  v.). 

762.  The  Levellers  rise  in  Ireland. 

769.  The  Steelboys'  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Ireland. 

775.  The  American  rebellion  commences. 

784.  Rise  of  the  Defender*  and  Peep-o'-IMy-Boy*  (q.v  .). 


1605,  Nov.  4.  The  Gunpowder  Plot  (q.v.). 
1607.  Capt.  Pouch's  insurrection  in    Wa 


Northampton  is  suppressed. 
'' 


PLOWCZE 


[    785 


PNEUMATIC    DESPATCH 


1786.  The  Rightboys  rebel  in  Ireland. 

1794.  Conspiracy  of  the  Corresponding  Society  (q.  «.). 

1798.  A  rebellion,  under  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald,  breaks 

out  in  Ireland  (q.  v.). 

1803,  July  23.  Emmett's  insurrection  in  Ireland. 
1815.  A  rebellion  breaks  out  in  Tipperary. 
1817.  The  Green-bag  inquiry  (q.  v.). 
1820.  The  Cato  Street  conspiracy  (q.  v.). 
1837.  Papineau's  "Sons of  Liberty"  rebellion  in  Canada  is 

suppressed. 
1848.  Smith  O'Brien's  insurrection  in  Ireland  is  suppressed. 

1857.  The  Sepoys  rebel  in  India  (q.  ».). 

1858.  The  Phoenix  clubs  (q.  v.)  are  suppressed. 

1863.  The  Fenians  (q.  v.)  hold  secret  meetings  at  Clonmel. 

PLOWCZE  (Battle).— The  Teutonic  knights 
were  defeated  by  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians 
at  this  place,  in  Poland,  in  1331.  According 
to  Polish  historians,  20,000  of  the  vanquished 
were  left  dead  on  the  field,  while  they  them- 
selves only  lost  500  men. 

PLUMBERS  were  incorporated  in  1612. 
•PLUM.STEAD  MARSH.— (See  ERITH.) 

PLUM-TREE.— It  is  believed  that  some  va- 
rieties of  the  plum  are  indigenous  in  England. 
Pliny  (23— Aug.  24, 79)  states  that  it  was  brought 
from  Syria  to  Greece,  and  that  it  was  after- 
wards imported  into  Italy  and  France.  Lord 
Cromwell  imported  several  varieties  from 
Italy  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509— 
47).  The  date-plum  was  introduced  from  Bar- 
bary  before  1596,  and  the  Pishamin  plum  from 
N.  America  before  1629.  The  green-gage  was 
introduced  into  France  by  Claude,  queen  of 
Francis  I. ;  the  American  red-gage  was  first 
raised  in  1790  ;  and  the  Washington  plum  was 
imported  from  America  in  1821. 

PLURALITIES.— The  holding  by  the  same 
person  of  more  than  one  benefice  with  cure  of 
souls  was  strictly  prohibited  by  the  Council  of 
Lateran,  in  1215,  except  in  the  case  of  men 
specially  eminent  for  learning,  who  were  some- 
times permitted  to  enjoy  more  than  one  bene- 
fice, provided  they  were  not  more  than  30 
miles  distant  from  each  other,  and  the  holder 
agreed  to  reside  in  each  of  them  for  some  rea- 
sonable time  every  year.  The  holding  of  plu- 
ralities in  the  Anglican  Church  was  restrained 
by  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1529),  which  was 
amended  by  57  Geo.  III.  c.  99  (July  10,  1817). 
Both  these  statutes  were  repealed  by  i  &  2 
Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  14,  1838),  which  prohibited 
more  than  two  preferments,  or  one  preferment 
and  one  benefice,  to  be  held  together,  and  re- 
duced the  distance  permitted  between  two 
benefices  enjoyed  at  the  same  time  to  10 
miles.  The  laws  relating  to  pluralities  were 
amended  by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  98  (Aug.  14,  1850) ; 
and  provisions  for  the  union  of  contiguous 
benefices  were  made  by  18  and  19  Viet.  c.  127 
(Aug.  14,  1855). 

"PLUS"  AND  "MINUS."  — The  signs  + 
"  plus,"  or  more,  and  —  "minus,"  or  less,  em- 
ployed in  algebra  and  arithmetic,  and  first 
used  in  their  present  sense  in  1522,  1524,  or 
1526,  by  Christopher  Rudolph,  were  afterwards 
employed  by  Michael  Stifelius,  whose  work 
on  algebra  appeared  in  1544.  He  published  a 
second  edition  of  Rudolph  in  1571. 

PLYMOUTH  (Devonshire)  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Tameorwerth  of  the  Saxons.  At 
the  time  of  the  Conquest  (1066)  it  was  known 
as  Button,  or  South  Town  ;  acquired  the  name 


of  Sutton  Prior  and  Button  Falletort  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307) ;  and  was  incor- 
porated by  the  name  of  Plymouth  in  1439. 
Here  Edward  the  Black  Prince  embarked  on 
his  expedition  to  France  in  1355,  and  landed 
on  his  return  with  his  royal  captives.  In  the 
reigns  of  Edward  III.  (1327—77)  and  of  Henry 
IV.  (1399 — 1413),  the  French  landed  and  at- 
tempted to  burn  the  town,  but  were  driven 
back  to  their  ships.  The  plague  committed 
great  ravages  in  1579  and  1581.  A  body  of 
Spaniards  made  a  descent  on  the  coast  in  July, 
1595;  but  their  progress  was  soon  checked, 
and  22  chests,  full  of  papal  bulls,  dis- 
pensations, and  pardons,  were  seized  and 
burned  in  the  market-place.  Charles  I.  and 
his  court,  with  120  ships  and  6,000  troops  from 
Portsmouth,  remained  here  for  10  days  in 
1625.  The  Royalists  besieged  the  town  from 
Sep.,  1643,  to  the  end  of  the  year,  and  it  was 
afterwards  blockaded  for  nearly  a  year  and  a 
half;  but  the  Parliamentarians  kept  possession. 
After  the  Restoration  the  present  citadel  was 
built,  and  the  fortifications  were  improved.  The 
dockyard,  commenced  in  1688,  has  been  called 
Devonport  dockyard  since  1824.  A  fire'  oc- 
curred in  the  dockyard,  and  destroyed  500  tons 
of  cordage,  700  sails,  and  1,050  tons  of  hemp, 
during  the  night,  July  3,  1761.  Another  fire 
broke  out  in  the  dockyard  in  five  different 
places  simultaneously,  and  consumed  stores 
and  buildings  to  the  value  of  .£149,880,  July 
27,  1770.  The  last  fire  occurred  Sep.  27,  1840, 
when  several  ships  and  a  large  quantity  of 
timber  were  destroyed.  The  celebrated  break- 
water at  Plymouth,  commenced  Aug.  12,  1812, 
was  completed  in  1841.  The  grammar-school 
was  founded  in  1572 ;  the  Red-boys'  school  was 
established  by  will  dated  1632  ;  a  school  and 
an  asylum  for  orphans  was  founded  in  1625  ; 
Charles's  almshouses  were  built  in  1679  ;  the 
Grey  school  was  founded  in  1713  ;  and  the 
Athenamm  was  opened  Feb.  4,  1819.  A  me- 
chanics' institute  was  established  in  Dec.,  1827. 
A  fire  broke  out  in  the  theatre,  Jan.  6,  1863. 
The  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  visited  Ply- 
mouth, July  1 8,  1865.  (See  DEVONPORT,  EDDY- 
STONE  LIGHTHOUSE,  Ac.) 

PLYMOUTH  (N.  America).— This  town,  in 
North  Carolina,  was  taken  by  the  Confederates, 
April  28,  1864.  (See  NEW  PLYMOCJTH.) 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN  received  the 
name  from  having  originated  at  Plymouth 
about  1830.  The  chief  doctrinal  peculiarities 
of  the  brethren  are  their  professed  adherence 
to  the  Christianity  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
their  condemnation  both  of  established  and 
nonconformist  churches,  the  former  of  which 
they  consider  too  latitudinarian,  in  desiring 
to  embrace  within  their  pale  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  a  country,  and  the  latter  too  sectarian, 
because  they  exclude  all  but  the  members  of 
their  own  party.  They  are  called  Darbyites, 
from  Mr.  Darby,  who  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
their  founder.  A  schism  occurred  when  Mr. 
Darby  and  his  adherents  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  brethren. 

PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH.— This  mode  of 
conveying  mails  was  suggested  in  two  pamph- 
lets published  by  Medhurst  early  in  the  igth 
century.  A  company  was  formed  in  1859,  for 

3E 


PNEUMATIC  FOUNTAIN 


POISONING 


establishing  in  the  metropolis  a  system  of 
pneumatic  despatch  tubes,  adapted  for  the 
conveyance  of  parcels  and  light  goods.  The 
project  was  sanctioned  by  22  &  23  Viet.  c. 
137,  Local  and  Personal  (Aug.  13,  1859) ;  and  a 
permanent  tube  was  laid  down  between  the 
Eustoii  Station  and  the  Post  Office  in  Eversholt 
Street,  for  the  conveyance  of  mail-bags.  This 
tube  was  opened  Feb.  20,  1863.  The  continua* 
tion  from  Euston  Square  to  Holborn  was  opened 
Nov.  7,  1865. 

PNEUMATIC  FOUNTAIN.  —  (See  HYDRO- 
STATICS.) 

PNEUMATIC  RAILWAY.— Henry  Pinkus, 
an  American,  took  out  a  patent  for  a  railway 
on  the  atmospheric  principle,  called  by  him 
the  Pneumatic  Railway,  in  1835.  (See  ATMO- 
SPHERIC RAILWAY.)  A  model  pneumatic  rail- 
way was  established  in  the  grounds  of  the 
Crystal  Palace,  in  Aug.,  1864. 

PNKUMATOMACHIANS.  —  (See  MACEDO- 
NIANS and  SEMI-AIUANS.) 

POACHERS.— >c-«  GAME  LAWS.) 

POCLOC  (Battle).  —  The  Prussians,  under 
Gen.  Van  Horn,  defeated  the  Austrian  brigade 
of  Gen.  Potschappel,  taking  7  officers  and  500 
men  prisoners,  at  this  place,  near  Turiiau, 
Tuesday,  June  26,  1866. 

PODELWIT/.  —  (See  LEIPSIC,  or  BREITEN- 
FELD,  Battles.) 

PODESTA,  termed  by  Hallam  (Middle  Ages, 
chap.  iii.  p.  i)  "a  new  and  singular  species  of 
magistracy,"  was  introduced  into  the  Lombard 
cities  about  the  end  of  the  i2th  century. 
Frederick  I.  appointed  podcstas,  instead  of  the 
elective  consuls,  at  Milan  in  1158,  and  this 
office  was  abolished  in  1159.  When  revived  by 
the  citizens  themselves,  after  the  peace  of 
Constance  in  1183,  the  podesta  was  made  the 
criminal  judge,  and  preserver  of  the  peace. 

PODOLIA,  or  KAMINEIECK  (Russia).— 
This  Polish  province  was  ceded  to  the  Turks  in 
1676,  and  having  been  recovered  by  the  Poles, 
was  conquered  and  annexed  to  Russia  in  1772. 
(See  KAMINEIECK.) 

POETICAL  SOCIETIES.  —  (See  COURTS  OF 
LOVE.  ) 

POET-LAUREATE.— Disraeli  remarks  (Cu- 
riosities of  Literature),  "The  custom  of  crown- 
ing poets  is  as  ancient  as  poetry  itself."  Fred- 
erick II.  crowned  the  King  of  Verses,  at  Ancona, 
in  1220.  Petrarch  received  the  laurel  crown 
at  Rome  on  Easter  Day,  1341.  Maximilian  I. 
founded  a  poetical  college  at  Vienna  in  1504. 
In  England  the  king's  versifier  existed  as  early 
as  1251.  Gulielmus  Peregrinus  and  Robert 
Baston  acted  as  royal  poets  to  Richard  I. 
(1189 — 99)  and  Edward  II.  (1307 — 27).  Chaucer 
assumed  the  title  of  poet-laureate  about  1369. 
The  title  of  king's  poet-laureate  first  occurs  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (1461 — 1483),  when 
John  Kay  held  the  office.  The  first  patent  was 
granted  in  1630.  The  ode  performed  at  the 
court  on  New  Year's  Day  was  discontinued  in 
1790. 

POETS-LAUREATE. 
Appointed 
1470.  John  Watson. 

1485.  Andrew  Bernard,  died  after  1523. 
1489  and  1493.  John  Skelton,  died  June  25,  1529. 
1512.  Robert  Whittington,  died  in  1530. 
?      Edmund  Speuser  (1553— Jan.  16,  1599). 


Appointed 

1599.  Samuel  Daniel*  (1562— Oct.,  1619). 

1619.  Ben  Jonsoii  (1574— Aug.  16,  1637). 

1637.  William  Davenant,  Sir  (1605— April  7,  1668). 

1670,  deposed  1688.  John  Dryden  (1630 — May  I,  1700). 

1688.  Thomas  Shadwell  (1640— Dec.  6,  1692). 

1692.  Nahum  Tate  (160— Aug.  12,  1715)- 

1715.  Nicholas  Howe  (1673 — Dec  6,  171°). 

1718.  Lawrence  Eusden(llev.),  died  Sep.  27,  1730. 

1730.  Colley  Cibber  (1671— Dec.  12,  1757). 

1757.  William  Whitehead  (1715— April  14,  1785). 

1785.  Thomas  Warton  (1728 — May  21,  1790). 

1790.  Henry  James  Pye  (1745— Aug.  n,  1813). 

1813.  Kobert  Southey  (1774,  Aug.  12—1843,  March  31). 

1843.  William  Wordsworth  (1771— April  21,  1850). 

1850.  Alfred  Teimyson,  born  in  1809. 

POETRY  has  in  all  ages,  and  amongst  all 
nations,  been  the  original  form  of  literary 
composition.  "It  is  the  first  step  by  which 
our  nature  raises  itself  above  the  physical  im- 
pulses to  which  we  are  subject  in  common 
with  the  lower  order  of  creation,  the  first 
attempt  to  embody  thought  in  a  connected 
and  permanent  form."  (Mure,  Language  and 
Literature  of  Greece,  i.  146.)  The  song  of 
thanksgiving  uttered  by  Moses  and  the  Israel- 
ites after  their  deliverance  from  Pharaoh,  B.C. 
1491  (Exod.  xv.  i — 19),  is  the  most  ancient 
poetical  composition  extant.  Among  the 
Greeks  poetry  was  coeval  with  their  national 
existence.  They  referred  its  origin  to  Orpheus, 
who  is  reputed  to  have  lived  B.C.  1397  ;  but  the 
poetic  period  of  the  Greeks  did  not  commence 
till  the  time  of  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927),  and 
continued  till  B.C.  560.  The  early  history  of 
Rome  was  preserved  in  the  rude  Baturnian  bal- 
lads of  the  reigns  of  Tullus  Hostilius  and  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus;  but  the  chief  Roman  poets 
did  not  flourish  till  a  much  later  period,  Virgil 
being  born  B.C.  70,  and  Horace  B.C.  65.  Modern 
poetry  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  commencing 
with  the  rude  songs  of  the  Germans,  one 
of  which,  composed  about  883,  in  honour  of  a 
victory  over  the  Normans,  possesses  much 
merit.  The  Provencal  bards  of  France,  whose 
productions  date  from  1096,  are  the  real  origi- 
nators of  modern  poetry.  Lawrence  Minot, 
whose  poems  on  the  wars  of  Edward  III.  were 
composed  in  1352,  is  the  earliest  original  Eng- 
lish  poet ;  and  John  Barbour,  who  completed 
his  great  work  "The  Bruce"  in  1373,  produced 
the  first  Scotch  poem.  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  the 
father  of  English  poetry,  died  Oct.  25,  1400. 
The  Earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  executed  Jan.  19, 
1547,  was  the  first  English  author  who  wrote 
blank  verse. 

POINT  DE  GALLE.— (£?eGALLE.) 
POISONING.— This  crime  prevailed  to  a 
great  extent  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans.  A  vegetable  poison  for  destroying 
life  easily  and  without  pain  was  much  used 
about  B.C.  200,  at  Rome,  where  the  professional 
poisoners  were  chiefly  women.  One  of  these, 
named  Locusta,  is  notorious  as  having  fur- 
nished the  potion  administered  to  the  Emperor 
Claudius  L,  Oct.  12,  54.  By  22  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  9  (1531),  poisoners  were  ordered  to  be  boiled 
to  death.  (See  BOILING  TO  DEATH.)  A  confe- 
deracy of  secret  poisoners  was  discovered  at 


*  Since  the  appointment  of  Daniel,  the  office  has,  with 
the  exception  of  the  case  of  Dryden,  been  held  for  life. 


POITIERS 


[     787    ] 


POLAND 


Borne  in  1659.  Margaret  d'Aubrai,  the  wife 
of  the  Marquis  of  Brinvilliers,  pursued  her 
fatal  career  of  poisoning  in  1670  ;  and  the 
crime  had  become  so  prevalent  in  France  at 
this  period,  that  a  special  court  was,  in  1679, 
established  to  deal  with  the  evil.  The  most 
notorious  of  modern  poisoners  in  England  was 
William  Palmer,  who  poisoned  his  friend  Cook, 
Nov.  21,  1855.  Palmer's  wife  and  brother,  it  is 
supposed,  previously  suffered  the  same  fate. 
He  was  executed  at  Stafford  June  14,  1856. 
(See  FIERY  CHAMBER  and  WATER  TOFANA.) 

POITIERS,  or  POICTIERS  (Battles).— Alaric 
II.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Clovis  I.  in  a  great  battle  fought  at  a 
place  called  Vougle  (after  which  it  is  sometimes 
named),  near  Poitiers,  in  507.  (See  CAGOTS.) 
The  Saracens  were  defeated  between  Poitiers 
and  Tours,  the  battle  being  known  under  both 
names,  Oct.  10,  732.  The  Saracen  caliph,  Abd- 
el- Rahman,  was  slain,  and  the  victory  put  an 

end  to  the  invasion. A  third  great  battle 

was  fought  on  the  plain  of  Maupertuis,  be- 
tween Tours  and  Poitiers,  and  known  by  each 
of  these  names,  Sep.  19,  1356.  The  English, 
commanded  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  French; 
and  their  king,  John  I.,  and  his  son  Philip, 
were  taken  prisoners. 

POITIERS,  or  POICTIERS  (France),  the 
capital  of  Poitou,  known  to  the  Romans  as 
Limonum,  afterwards  took  the  name  of  its 
inhabitants,  the  Pictavi  or  Pictones,  who  sub- 
mitted to  Julius  Caesar  B.C.  52.  It  was  pillaged 
by  the  Vandals  in  410.  Poitiers  surrendered  to 
the  English  in  1360,  but  reverted  to  France  in 
1372.  The  church  of  Montierneuf,  which 
belonged  to  a  Benedictine  abbey,  was  finished 
in  1096,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Pierre,  which 
was  commenced  by  Henry  II.  of  England  in 
1154,  was  not  finished  till  1379.  The  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1431,  was  abolished  in  1789. 
Councils  were  held  here  in  590  ;  Jan.  13,  1000; 
in  1023;  in  1073  ;  Jan.  13,  1074;  Jan.  15,  1078  ; 
Nov.  1 8,  1 100  ;  and  June  25,  1106.  During  the 
religious  wars  of  the  i6th  century  it  was  taken 
from  the  Huguenots  by  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  committed  great  cruelties.  An  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  to  retake  it  in  1569 
by  Coligni.  (See  BERGERAC,  Treaty.) 

POITOU  (France).— This  ancient  province 
formed  part  of  Aquitania  Secunda,  and  was 
held  successively  by  the  Vandals,  the  Visi- 
goths, and  the  Franks.  It  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  England  by  the  marriage  of  Henry 
Plantagenet  to  Eleanor  of  Guiemie  in  1151, 
and  was  recovered  in  1202  by  Philip  II. 
Having  been  ceded  to  France  in  1259,  it  was 
overrun  by  the  English ,  under  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,  in  1356,  and  was  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1361.  It  reverted  to  the  crown  of 
France  in  1373. 

POISCHWITZ  (Armistice),  concluded  June  4, 
1813,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Bautzen  (q.  v.), 
at  this  village,  near  Jauer,  in  Silesia,  between 
Napoleon  I.  and  the  allied  Russian  and  German 
sovereigns.  It  was  to  last  till  July  20,  with 
six  days'  notice  of  termination. 

POISSY  (France). -Charles  I.  (the  Bald) held 
a  council  here  in  869.  It  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1346  and  1419,  and  by  the  army 


of  the  League  in  1589.  (See  COLLOQUY  OF 
POISSY.) 

POLA  (Sea-fight).— The  Venetian  captain- 
general  Vettore  Pisani  was  defeated  off  this 
town  of  Illyria,  by  the  Genoese  fleet  of  Luciano 
Doria,  May  7,  1379.  The  loss  on  both  sides 
was  heavy,  the  Genoese  admiral  being  among 
the  slain. 

POLAND.— The  Poles  regard  Duke  Lech  or 
Lesko  I.,  who  began  to  reign  in  550,  as  the 
founder  of  their  nation.  His  successors  held 
the  country  for  about  300  years;  but  the 
history  of  this  dynasty  is  not  considered 
trustworthy.  The  authentic  history  of  Poland 
commenced  with  the  establishment  of  the 
Piast  dynasty  in  842. 

A.I>. 

843.  The  peasant  Piastus  is  elevated  to  the  throne,  and 

founds  the  dynasty  of  the  Piasts. 
965.  Miecislaus  I.  is  converted  to  Christianity. 
968.  Miecislaus  I.  defeats  the  Saxons  at  Cidin. 
983.  Miecislaus  I.  is  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Emperor 

Otho  II.    The  Graud-duko  Vladimir  the  Great 

invades  Poland. 

989.  MiecisJaus  I.  invades  Bohemia, 
looi.  Poland  is  erected  into  a  kingdom. 
1005.  Boleslaus  I.  invades  Bohemia. 
1018.  Boleslaus  I.  concludes  a  treaty  with  the  Emperor, 

who  absolves  him  from  paying  homage  for  his 

kingdom. 
1034.  The   death   of   Miecislaus    II.,   whose    eldest  son 

is    an    infant,    plunges  the  kingdom  into  civil 

anarchy. 
1043.  Casimir  I.  subdues  the  rebel  Masos  at  the  battle  of 

Plocsko. 

ic6r.  The  Poles  invade  Hungary. 
1079,  May  7.  Boleslaus  II.  murders  St.  Stanislaus,  Bishop 

of  Cracow,  by  whom  he  had  been  excommuni- 
cated. 

io8t.  Boleslaus  II.   is   expelled  from  Poland  in  conse- 
quence, and  commits  suicide. 
1096.  Sbigniew  rebels  against  his  father. 
1 109.  Henry  V.  of  Germany  is  compelled  by  the  Poles  to 

raise  the  siege  of  Glogaw. 
1116.  Sbigniew  is  assassinated  by  order  of  his  brother 

Boleslaus  III. 

1138.  Boleslaus  III.,  having  been  defeated  by  the  Rus- 
sians, dies  of  grief. 
1177.  Miecislaus  III.  is  deposed. 
1227.  Assassination  of  Lesko  the  White. 
1333.  The  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order  settle  in  Poland. 
1241.  Poland  is  ravaged  by  the  Tartars. 
1204.  Boleslaus  V.  subdues  the  Jadvingi. 
1389.  The   death  of    Lesko  the    Black    is    followed    by 

frightful  anarchy. 
1296.  King  Premislaus  is  assassinated  by  his  cousin,  the 

Margrave  of  Anhalt. 
1337.  Silesia  is  seized    by   the    King  of  Bohemia.    The 

Inquisition  is  introduced. 
1335.  Casimir    III.    cedes    Pomerania    to    the    Teutonic 

knights. 

1347.  A  code  of  laws  is  prepared  at  Wisliza. 
1370.  At  the   death  of   Casimir    III.   the  Piast   dynasty 

becomes  extinct,  and  the  crown  is  conferred  upon 

Louis  I.  of  Hungary. 
1386.  Ladislaus  V.  compels  the  Lithuanians  to  embrace 

Christianity. 

1410,  July  15.  Battle  of  Tannenburg  (q.  v.). 
1440.  Ladislaus  VI.  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Hungary. 
1498.  The   Wallachians  invade  Poland,    and   carry  into 

captivity  100,000  of  the  inhabitants. 

1569.  Lithuania  is  finally  united  to  Poland.   (See  LUBLIN.) 
1577.  The  Poles  subdue  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine. 
1579.  The  Poles  invade  Ingria. 
1502,  Jan.  15.  Treaty  of  Kiwerowa-Horka  (q.  v.). 
1586.  Stephen  organizes  a  militia  composed  of  Cossacks. 
1620.  Poland  is  invaded  by  the  Turks. 
1635.  The  Cossacks  revolt. 

1654.  The  Russians  invade  Poland. 

1655.  Charles  X.  (Gustavus)  of   Sweden  subjugates  Po- 

land. 

1660.  The  Poles  recover  their  independence. 
1668.  John  II.  abdicates  the  throne. 
1673.  Annexation  of  the  Ukraine  (q.  t'.). 

3E  2 


POLAND 


788    ] 


POLAND 


1673,  Nov.  II.  Battle  of  Choczim  (q.  ».)• 

1674.  John  Sobieski  is  elected  king. 

1683,  Sep.  12.  John  III.  (Sobieski)  delivers  Vienna  from 
the  Turks. 

1690.  The  Polish  army  mutinies. 

1699,  Jan.  26.  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (q.  ».). 

1704.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  deposes  Frederick  Au- 
gustus I. 

1724.  A  conflict  between  the  Jesuits  and  Lutherans  takes, 
place  in  the  streets  of  Thorn. 

I733-  On  the  death  of  Frederick  Augustus  I.  the  succession 
to  the  crown  is  dispute:!  by  Stanislaus  Leso/.inski, 
who  is  supported  by  the  French,  and  Frederick 
Augustus  II.,  son  of  the  late  kin;?,  whose  cause  is 
espoused  by  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Germany. 

1768.  The  Confederation  of  Bar  (q.  v.). 

1772,  Aug.  5.  A  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland  is 
signed  at  St.  Petersburg  by  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Russia. 

1789,  The   Poles  declare  themselves  independent  of  the 

Russians. 

1790,  March  29.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Prussia. 

1791,  May  3.  A  now  constitution  is  granted. 
179-j.  W.ir  is  declared  by  Russia. 

1793.  Another  partition  treaty  is  signed. 

1794,  March    24.     Koseiusko   expels   the    Russians   from 

Cracow. — May  15.  He  seeks  aid  from  the  French. 
— June  15.  Cracow  surrenders  to  the  Prussians. 
—Nov.  4.  Suwarrow  defeats  Kosciusko  at  Praga, 
where  12,000  Poles  are  slain. — Nov.  9.  Suwarrow 
enters  Warsaw. 

1795.  Tin-  third  treaty  of  partition  is  signed,  by  which 

the  kingdom  of  Poland  becomes  extinct. — Nov. 
25.  Stanislaus  II.  abdicate*  at  Grodno. 

1796,  Nov.  Kosciusko  is  set  at  liberty  by  the  Emperor 

Paul. 
1798,  Feb.  ii.  Death  of  the  ex-king  Stanislaus  II.  at  St. 

1'eterslmrg. 
1804,  Nov.   27.    Napoleon   I.   fixes  his  head-quarters  at 

Posen, 

1806,  Dec.  18.  Napoleon  I.  enters  Warsaw. 

1807,  Jan.  14.  A  supreme  legislative  commission  isopened 

at  Warsaw.— July  7.  The  treaty  of  Tilsit  (?.  r.) 
is  concluded. 

1809.  The  Poles  assist  the  French.— April  15.  The  Austrian 
army,  under  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  enters 
Poland.— April  19.  The  Austrians  defeat  Ponia- 
towski. — April  23.  They  occupy  Warsaw. — May 
14.  Dombrowski  defeats  the  Austrians  at  the 
battle  of  Thorn. — June  I.  The  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand evacuates  Warsaw. 

1812,  June  28.  The  general  diet  at  Warsaw  proclaims  the 

re-establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 

1813,  Aug. — Sep.  Owing  to  an  inundation,   the  country 

suffers  from  famine. 

1815,  June  20.  Cracow  is  made  a  free  republic.  The 
.Czar  Alexander  1.  is  proclaimed  King  of  Poland 
at  Warsaw.— Dec.  21.  A  new  constitution  is  com- 
pleted. 

1818.  Personal  slavery  is  abolished  in  Courland,   and  the 

lir.^t  Polish  diet  is  summoned. 

1819,  July  31.  Liberty  of  the  press  is  abolished  in  Poland. 
1833,  Sep.  13.  The  Polish  diet  is  opened  at  Warsaw. 

1830,  Nov.  29.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Warsaw. — 

Dec.  20.  Gen.  Chlopicki  is  made  dictator. 

1831,  Jan.  25.  The  diet  declares  Poland  independent,  and 

proclaims  the  throne  vacant. — Jan.  30.  Prince 
Adam  Czartoryski  is  elected  president  of  the 
national  government. — Feb.  6.  The  Russian  army 
enters  Poland. — Feb.  19  and  20.  Battle  of  Gro- 
chow.— March  31.  Battle  of  Wawz.— April  3.  The 
Czar  Alexander  I.  publishes  a  ukase  against  the 
insurgents  in  Wilna. — April  5.  The  Russians  are 
compelled  to  evacuate  Wilna,  and  Courland  is 
declared  in  a  state  of  war. — April  6.  The  Rus- 
sians are  defeated  with  a  loss  of  12,000  men  at 
the  battle  of  Zelichow.— April  lo.  The  Poles, 
who  are  victorious,  fix  their  head-quarters  at 
Seidlice. — May  18.  The  Poles  seize  Ostrolenka. 
—May  26.  Battle  of  Ostrolenka.— May  29.  Tine 
Poles  defeat  the  Russians  under  Gen.  Sacken. — 
June  10.  Gen.  Diebitsch,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Russian  forces,  dies  of  cholera  at  Pultusk. 
• — Tune  19.  The  Russians  defeat  the  Poles  at 
Wilna.— July  12.  The  Polish  general  Gielgud  is 
•hot  by  one  of  his  own  officers  • — Tuly  14.  Battle 
of  Minsk.  — Aug.  15  and  16.  Disturbances  at 
Warsaw. 


A.r>. 

1831,  Sep.  7.  The  Russians  attack  Warsaw.— Sep.  8. 
Warsaw  surrenders. — Oct.  20.  Nicholas  I.  an- 
nounces the  termination  of  the  Polish  war. 

1834,  Feb.  26.  An  imperial  ukase  is  published,  consti- 
tuting Poland  an  integral  part  of  the  Russian 
empire. 

1838,  Feb.  10.  A  treaty  for  the  surrender  of  Polish 
refugees  is  signed  by  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia. 

1836,  Feb.  16.  An  insurrection  in  Cracow  is  suppressed  by 
the  Austrians. 

1841.  The  incorporation  of  Poland  with  the  Russian 
empire  is  rendered  complete.  Russian  laws, 
taxes,  and  language,  are  introduced. 

1845,  A   conspiracy   for  the   restoration    of  Polish   inde- 

pendence is  discovered  and  suppressed. 

1846,  Feb.   22.    A    general   Insurrection    against    Russia 

breaks  out.  The  Austrians  under  Gen.  Collin 
are  expelled  from  Cracow. — Feb.  26.  Gen.  Collin 
defeats  the  insurgents  at  Gdow. — Feb.  27.  They 
take  refuge  in  Cracow. — Nov.  16.  The  republic  of 
Cracow  is  disfranchised,  and  is  annexed  to 
Austria. 

1847,  May.  Poland  is  made  a  Russian  province. 

1848,  April  26.  A  revolt  breaks  out  at  Cracow.— May  u. 

The  insurgent  leader  Mieroslawski  is  taken 
prisoner. 

1851,  Jan.  13.  The  customs  barrier  between  Russia  and 
Poland  is  abolished. 

1856,  May  27.  Alexander  II.  grants  an  amnesty  in  favour 

of  Polish  refugees.— June  6.  It  is  rejected  by  the 
central  committee  of  the  Polish  Democratic 
Society. 

1857,  Sep.   7.    Alexander    II.   visits    Warsaw. — Dec.    2. 

Decrees  ure  issued  for  the  amelioration  of  the 
posiiion  of  the  rural  population  of  Poland. 

1860,  Oct.  22 — 26.  The   Kmperors  of  Russia   and  Austria, 

and  the'  Prince- regent  of  Prussia,  have  an  inter- 
view at  Warsaw. 

1861,  Feb  25.  Disturbances  break  out  at  Warsaw. — Feb. 

«8.  An  address  is  delivered  to  Alexander  II., 
praying  for  the  restoration  of  Polish  nationality. 
— March  9.  Alexander  II.  refuses,  but  agrees  to 
redress  certain  grievances. — April  8.  Warsaw  is 
kept  in  order  by  a  military  force.— May  30.  Death 
of  Prince  Gortchakoff,  lieut.-general  of  Poland. — 
Oct.  I.  The  law  for  abolishing  serfdom  among 

rsantry  takes  effect. — Oct.    14.    The  kingdom 
declared  in  a  state  of    siege.— Oct.   15.    Dis- 
turbances at  Warsaw  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
death  of  Koseiusko. 

1862,  June  8.  The  Grand  Duke  Constantino  is  appointed 

lieut. -general  of  Poland. — Inly  3.  His  life  is  at- 
tempted.— Aug.  7.  An  attempt  is  made  on  the 
life  of  the  Marquis  Wielopolski,  chief  of  the 
civil  administration.— Aug.  15.  His  life  is  again 
attempted. 

1863,  Jan.  23-  The  Poles  rise  against  the  conscription  and 

attack  the  Russian  forces.— Jan.  24.  The  king-, 
dom  is  proclaimed  in  a  state  of  siege. — Jan.  31. 
Lithuania  and  Volhynia  are  declared  in  a  state 
of  siege. — Feb.  2.  The  national  committee  of 
insurrection  issues  its  first  proclamation  from 
Warsaw. — Feb.  8.  A  convention  is  signed  at 
Warsaw  by  Russia  and  Prussia  for  the  co-ope- 
ration of  the  last-named  country  in  suppressing 
the  rebellion. — Feb.  19.  The  insurgent  leader, 
Louis  Mierosluwski,  announces  that  he  has  en- 
tered the  Polish  territory,  and  received  the  com- 
mandership-in-chief  of  the  insurrection  from  the 
national  provisional  government— Feb.  23.  Miero- 
slawski is  defeated  and  put  to  flight  by  the.lf  ussians. 
— March  7.  Langiewicz  is  defeated. — March  10. 
The  insurgent  chief  Langiewicz  declares  himself 
dictator  of  Poland,  by  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the 
central  revolution ary  committee.  Mieroslawski 
protests  against  the  dictatorship  of  Langiewicz.— 
March  19.  Langiewicz,  having  been  defeated  in 
several  important  engagement*,  crosses  the  Aus- 
trian frontier.— March  20.  Langiewicz  is  arrested, 
and  the  central  committee  at  Warsaw  resumes  the 
direction  of  the  insurrection. — March  24.  The 
insurgent  leaders  address  an  appeal  for  help  to 
the  people  of  Europe.— April  12.  An  amnesty  is 
published  in  favour  of  all  the  rebels  who  shall 
have  laid  down  their  arms  by  May  13.— May  3. 
The  central  committee  of  the  revolution  declares 
itself  a  "provisional  government.'' 


POLARIZATION 


[    789 


POLLENTIA 


1863,  Aug.  35.  The  Grand  Duke  Constantino  quits 
Warsaw  for  St.  Petersburg.— Sep.  3.  Lelewel, 
at  the  head  of  700  Poles,  attacks  and  defeats 
a  much  superior  Russian  force,  but  sustains 
great  losses  in  the  encounter.— Sep.  6.  The 
Russians  attack  Lelewel,  who  falls  in  the 
ting  into 
made  upon 


engagement ;     his     followers 
Galicia.— Sep.    19.     An  attempt 


the  life  of  Count  Berg,  lieut.-general  of  the  king- 
dom.— Nov.  6.  Czachowski,  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  the  Kussians,  dies  of  his  wounds 
soon  after. 

1864,  March  6.  An  imperial  ukase  is  published,  relieving 

the  Polish  peasantry  from  the  oppressive  rights 
of  the  nubility  and  lauded  proprietors. — Sep.  II. 
An  imperial  rescript  orders  the  creation  at  War- 
saw of  a  Kussian  university.— Nov.  8.  Many 
lioman  Catholic  convents  are  secularized. 

1865,  Feb.  Langievvicz  takes  refuge  in  Switzerland. 

1866,  June.  Much  agitation  prevails  in  Poland. 


POLARIZATION.— (See  OPTICS.) 

POLAR  REGIONS.  —  (See  ARCTIC  CIRCLE, 
FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITIONS,  FROZEN  OCEAN, 
NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE,  &c.) 

POLAR  STAR,  the  name  given  to  a  star  of 
the  second  magnitude,  the  nearest  visible  star 
to  the  North  Pole,  in  the  constellation  called 
the  Little  Bear.  Its  discovery  is  ascribed  by 
the  Chinese  to  the  Emperor  Yong-Cheng,  who 
reigned  B.C.  1970. 

POLICE.  —  Henry  Fielding,  the  author, 
when  acting  as  a  stipendiary  magistrate,  intro- 
duced, in  1753,  a  system  of  paid  police,  who 
were  placed  under  the  orders  of  the  acting 
magistrate  at  Bow  Street.  The  Thames  police 
was  established  in  1798.  The  new  police  force 
for  the  metropolis  was  formed  by  10  Geo.  IV. 
c.  44  (June  19,  1829),  and  was  to  extend  to  12 
miles  from  Charing  Cross.  By  2  &  3  Viet, 
c.  47  (Aug.  17,  1839),  this  distance  was  ex- 


SOVEREIGNS   OF   POLAND. 

DUKES. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

£43.  Piastus. 

913.  Ziemomislaus. 

861.  Ziemovitus. 

964.  Miecislaus  I. 

893.  Lesko,  or  Lescus  IV. 

KIXGS. 

992.  Boleslaus  I. 

1445.  Interregnum. 

1025.  Miecislaus  II. 

1445.  Casimir  IV. 

1034.  Richense,  or  Richsa. 

1493.  John  (Albert  I.). 

1037.  Interregnum. 

1501.  Alexander. 

1041.  Casimir  I. 

1506.  Sigismund  I. 

1058.  Boleslaus  II. 

1548.  Sigistnund  II. 

081.  Ladislaus  I. 

1573.  Interregnum. 

102.  Boleslaus  III. 

1574.  Henry  of  Valois. 

138.  Ladislaus  II. 
146.  Boleslaus  IV. 

1575.  Stephen  Batthori. 
m86.  Interregnum. 

173.  Miecislaus  III. 

1587.  Sigismund  III. 

177.  Casimir  II. 

1633.  Ladislaus  VII. 

194.  Lesko  V.  (the  White). 
200.  Miecislaus  IV. 
303.  Ladislaus  III. 
306.  Lesko  V.  (again). 
327.  Boleslaus  V. 

1648.  John  II.,  or  Casimir  V. 
1668.  Interregnum. 
1669.  Michael  -  Koributh  - 
Wiesnowiski. 
1674.  John  III.  (Sobieski). 

379.  Lesko  VI.  (the  Black). 

1697.  Interregnum. 

389.  Interregnum. 

1697.  Frederick-  Augustus  I. 

295.  Premislaus. 

l"oi.  Stanislaus  I.  (Lesczin- 

296.  Ladislaus  IV. 

ski). 

1300.  Wenceslaus. 

1709.  Frederick-  Augustus  I. 

1304.  Ladislaus  IV.  (again). 

(again). 

1333.  Casimir       III.       (the 

1733.  Frederick  -  Augustus 

Great). 

II. 

1370.  Louis  I.  of  Hungary. 

1763.  Interregnum. 

1383.  Interregnum. 

1764.  Stanislaus  II.  (Augus- 

1385. Hedwige    and  Ladis- 
laus V. 
1399.  Ladislaus  V.  (alone). 

tus  Poniatowski). 
1794.  Extinction      of       the 
kingdom. 

1434.  Ladislaus  VI. 

I  tended  to  15  miles  from  Charing  Cross  ;  and 
the  force  was  placed  under  the  control  of  two 
commissioners.  The  city  police,  though 
similar  in  organization,  remains  under  the 
control  of  the  corporation.  By  19  Viet.  c.  2 
(Feb.  28,  1856),  the  metropolitan  police  was 
placed  under  the  management  of  one  commis- 
sioner. The  police  for  counties  and  boroughs 
is  regulated  by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  69  (July  21, 
1856),  and  the  police  for  Scotland  is  regulated 
by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  72  (Aug.  25,  1857). 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  —  This  science, 
which  teaches  the  principles  which  goveni  the 
production  and  accumulation  of  wealth,  and 
its  distribution  and  consumption,  was  little 
understood  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It 
may  be  said  to  owe  its  origin  practically  to  the 
free  towns  that  rose  in  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  though  the  system  was  not  expounded 
until  a  later  period.  The  English  claim  to  be 
the  first  who  established  the  just  principles  of 
commercial  intercourse.  Some  continental 
writers  award  the  honour  to  the  Italians  and 
the  French.  Sir  Dudley  North's  "Discourses 
upon  Trade,  "published  in  1691;  Hume's  "Poli- 
tical Discourses,"  in  1752  ;  Harris's  "Essay  on 
Money  and  Coins,"  in  1757 ;  Adam  Smith's 
"Wealth  of  Nations,"  in  1776;  and  Mill's 
"  Political  Economy,"  in  1821,  are  the  principal 
English  works  on  this  science. 

POLITICIANS,  or  POLITIQUES.  —  This 
term,  at  first  applied,  during  the  religious  wars 
in  France,  to  both  Huguenots  and  Roman 
Catholics  of  moderate  opinions,  was  in  1572 
given  to  the  faction  headed  by  the  Duke 
d'AlenQOii  and  the  sons  of  Montmorenci.  The 
Duke  was  arrested,  the  sons  of  Montmorenci 
were  sent  to  the  Bastille,  and  several  of  their 
subordinates  were  executed.  At  a  later  period, 
the  Roman  Catholics  who  desired  to  make 
peace  with  the  Huguenots,  were  termed 
Politiques,  or  "  Peaceable  Catholics." 

POLKA.— The  lavolta  described  by  Sir  John 
Davies  in  The  Orchestra  (1596),  is  supposed 
by  a  writer  in  Notes  and  Queries  (xii.  152) 
to  have  resembled  the  modern  polka,  intro- 
duced into  England  about  1842. 

POLL  ACT,  putting  a  price  upon  the  heads 
of  many  Irishmen  of  distinction,  was  passed 
at  Trim,  in  Ireland,  by  the  Junto  of  the  Pale, 
1465.  It  was  first  put  in  force  by  the  Earl  of 
Desmond. 

POLLALORE  (Battle).  —  Sir  Eyre  Coote 
defeated  Hyder  Ali  at  this  place,  in  Hindostan, 
Aug.  27,  1781.  The  battle  lasted  from  nine  in 
the  morning  till  sunset,  and  was  very  hotly 
contested. 

POLL,  or  CAPITATION  TAX,  was  levied  in 
the  Roman  empire.  It  was  first  imposed  in 
England  by  the  Parliament  held  at  Northamp- 
ton, Nov.  5,  1380..  The  severity  employed  by 
the  tax-gatherers  in  its  collection  led  to  the 
rebellion  of  Wat  the  Tyler,  in  1381.  (See  WAT 
TYLER'S  INSURRECTION.)  In  1667  every  subject 
was  assessed  by  head  according  to  his  rank. 
The  tax  was  abolished  by  William  III.  in  1690. 
(See  POLL  ACT.) 

POLLENTIA  (Battle).— A  great  victory  was 
gained  by  the  Roman  general  Stilicho  over  the 
Goths,  under  Alaric  I.,  at  this  place  near  Turin, 
Easter  Day,  March  29,  403.  Immense  quan- 


POLOCZ 


I    790    1 


POMPEIOPOLIS 


titles  of  spoil  were  secured  and  some  thou- 
sands of  prisoners  released. 

POLOCZ,  or  POLOTZK  (Russia).  —  This 
town  was  in  existence  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Buric  (847 — 79),  the  founder  of  the  Russian 
power.  It  contains  a  ruined  castle  and  a 
handsome  church  and  college,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Josuits.  The  French  seized 
the  town  in  July,  1812,  and  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Russians  Oct.  20. 

POLTAVA,  or  PULTAVA  (Russia),  founded 
in  1608,  was  besieged  by  Charles  XII.  in  May, 
1709,  with  an  army  of  about  18,000  men. 
Peter  I.  (the  Great)  came  to  its  relief  with  a 
force  of  between  50,000  and  60,000  men,  and 
the  celebrated  battle  of  Poltava  was  fought, 
June  15,  in  which  the  Swedish  monarch  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter  and  compelled 
to  take  refuge  in  Turkey. 

POLYANDRIA,  or  POLYANDRY,  the 
system  which  allows  a  woman  to  have  several 
husbands,  existed  amongst  many  ancient 
nations,  and,  according  to  Julius  Csesar  (B.C. 
100 — 44),  prevailed  in  Britain.  It  was  common 
amongst  the  Picts. 

POLYGAMY  was  allowed  among  the  Jews  ; 
has  prevailed  in  Asia  from  time  immemorial ; 
and  is  still  permitted  among  the  Moham- 
medans. Polygamy  was  made  felony  in  Eng- 
land by  an  act  passed  in  1 604. 

POLYGLOTT.  —A  name  given  to  Bibles  with 
the  text  printed  in  many  languages.  The  idea 
appears  to  have  originated  with  Origen,  who 
arranged  the  Old  Testament  in  several  lan- 
guages in  the  3rd  century.  The  principal  Poly- 
glotts  are, — i.  the  Complutensian  Polyglutt 
(q.  v.),  in  four  languages,  prepared  under  the 
superintendence  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  1502 
— 1515  ;  2.  the  Antwerp  Polyglott,  in  eight 
volumes  folio,  edited  by  Montanus,  and  brought 
out  1569 — 72  ;  3.  the  Parisian  Polyglott,  in 
ten  volumes  folio,  edited  by  Le  Jay,  and 
brought  out  1628—45  ;  4.  the  London  Poly- 
glott, in  six  volumes  folio,  edited  by  Brian 
VValton,  and  brought  put  1654 — 57  (it  con- 
sisted occasionally  of  nine  languages) ;  and  5. 
Bagster's  Polyglott,  in  one  volume  folio,  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1831,  the  Old  Testament 
being  in  eight,  and  the  New  in  nine  languages. 

POLYNESIA.— This  term,  signifying  "many 
islands,"  is  applied  to  the  numerous  groups 
scattered  over  a  great  part  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  work  of  discovery  in  this  region 
was  commenced  by  Magalhaens,  who  reached 
the  Ladroiie  Islands  March  6,  1520.  He  was 
followed  at  the  close  of  the  century  by  Men- 
daua  and  other  Spanish  navigators.  The  Dutch 
made  further  discoveries  in  the  i7th  century, 
and  these  were  considerably  extended  by  the 
English  navigators,  the  most  celebrated  of 
whom,  Capt.  Cook,  was  killed  in  a  collision 
with  the  natives  of  Hawaii,  or  Owhyhee, 
Feb.  14,  1779.  (See  AUSTRALASIA,  FEEJEE, 
FRIENDLY,  and  LA  DRONE  ISLANDS,  OCEANIA, 
&c.,  &c.) 

POLYPLECTRON.  —  This  musical  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  Dietz  about  1828. 

POLYSTYLUS.— (See  ABDERA.) 

POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTION  (London), 
for  scientific  studies  and  amusements,  was 
opened  to  the  public  Aug.  6,  1839.  A  serious 


accident  occurred  here,  by  the  fall  of  a 
staircase,  Jan.  3,  1859,  when  one  person  was 
killed  and  nearly  40  injured.  (See  ECOLE  POLY- 
TECHNIQUE.) 

POLYTHEISM  appears  to  have  originated 
from  a  superstitious  feeling  regarding  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  the  great  powers  of  na- 
ture. The  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  Moses 
(B.C.  1570)  were  polytheists.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans,  though  acknowledging  a  supreme 
god,  worshipped  the  lesser  gods,  and  were 
essentially  polytheists.  In  many  parts  of  the 
world  polytheism  still  prevails. 

POMEGRANATE. —This  tree,  a  native  of 
most  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  of 
China,  introduced  into  England  in  1548,  was 
cultivated  by  Gerard,  in  1596. 

POMERANIA  (Prussia).— This  province  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  Wends,  who  settled 
in  it  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
and  called  it  Po  More  (beside  the  sea).  Mesti- 
bock,  who  flourished  about  960,  was  the  first 
prince  of  Pomerania.  On  the  death  of  Sam- 
bor,  in  1107,  the  country  was  divided  into  two 
parts.  The  eastern  part  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Teutonic  knights  in  1296,  and 
rather  more  than  a  century  afterwards  was 
annexed  to  the  Polish  crown.  The  princes  of 
the  other  part  of  Pomerania  were  recognized 
as  princes  of  the  German  empire  and  dukes  of 
Pumerania  in  1182.  This  dukedom  separated 
into  two  in  1295;  was  reunited  in  1478;  and 
the  ducal  line  becoming  extinct  on  the  death 
of  Boleslaus  XIII.  in  1637,  the  country  was 
afterwards  divided  between  Prussia  and  Swe- 
den. The  latter  relinquished  to  Prussia  part 
of  the  territory  in  1720,  and  the  remainder, 
some  of  which  had  been  previously  ceded  to 
Denmark,  in  1815. 

POMEROY  (N.  America).— This  town  of  the 
state  of  Ohio  was  founded  in  1841. 

POM  FRET.  — (-See  PONTEFRACT,  OXFORD 
MARBLES,  &c.) 

POMONA,  or  MAINLAND  (Orkney  Islands), 
the  largest  of  the  group,  supposed  to  have  been 
colonized  by  the  Picts,  was  conquered  by  the 
Normans  about  876,  and  remained  subject  to 
the  kings  of  Norway  and  Denmark  till  1468, 
when  it  was  annexed  to  the  Scottish  crown  by 
treaty. 

POMPEII  (Italy).— The  date  of  the  founda- 
tion of  this  city  is  unknown.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  conquered,  by  the  Samnites  about 
B.C  440,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans about  B.C.  360.  In  the  Social  war,  which 
began  B.C.  91,  Pompeii,  with  the  other  towns 
of  Campania,  revolted  and  joined  the  Marcian 
confederacy ;  but  it  escaped  the  punishment 
which  was  inflicted  on  some  of  the  other  cities. 
A  quarrel  between  its  inhabitants  and  those  of 
Nuceria,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated, 
occurred  in  59 ;  and  Pompeii  was  almost  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  Feb.  5,  63.  Other 
shocks  followed  at  intervals.  The  first  recorded 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  occurred  Aug.  24,  79,  and 
overwhelmed  the  town.  It  remained  buried 
till  accidentally  discovered  in  1748.  Excava- 
tions were  commenced  in  1755,  and  the  whole 
city  was  recovered. 

POMPEIOPOLIS  (Paphlagonia)  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Pompey  the  Great 


POMPEY'S  PILLAR 


PONZA 


(B.C.  106 — Sep.  29,  B.C.  48).  Eupatoria  (q.  v.}_ 
Pampeluna,  Soli,  and  other  towns  bore  this 
name. 

POMPEY'S  PILLAR,  near  Alexandria,  was 
erected  by  Publius,  Prefect  of  Egypt,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  capture  of  Alexandria,  in 
297>  ty  Diocletian,  who  in  the  inscription  is 
termed  the  invincible. 

POMPTINE,  or  PONTINE  MARSHES 
(Italy),  in  the  south  of  Latium,  received  this 
name  from  their  proximity  to  the  town  of 
Suessa  Pometia.  The  first  attempt  to  drain 
them  was  made  B.C.  160.  Trajan  commenced 
a  road  through  them  in  107,  and  it  was  opened 
in  no.  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
drained  them  in  500.  Boniface  VIII.  (1294 — 
1303)  constructed  a  canal,  and  Martin  V.  ano- 
ther in  1417.  Pius  VI.  1111778  commenced  a 
system  of  drainage  which  was  completed  in 
1798. 

PONDICHERRY  (Hindostan),  the  capital  of 
the  French  possessions,  was  purchased  by 
them  from  the  Rajah  of  Bejapore  in  1672, 
though  they  did  not  form  a  settlement  till 
1674.  It  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  but 
restored  in  1697.  Peace  between  the  English 
and  the  French  was  concluded  here,  Dec.  26, 
1754.  Pondicherry,  unsuccessfully  attacked 
by  the  English  in  1748,  was  taken  by  them, 
Jan.  15,  1761;  Oct.  17,  1778;  Aug.  23,  1793; 
and  1803.  It  was  restored  to  the  French  in 
1815. 

PONT-A-CHIN,  orTOURNAY  (Battle),  was 
fought  near  Tournay,  in  Belgium,  between  the 
French,  nearly  100,000  strong,  under  Pichegru, 
and  the  Allies,  May  23,  1794.  After  a  despe- 
rate struggle,  which  lasted  from  five  in  the 
morning  till  nine  at  night,  the  Allies  made  a 

tallant  charge  and  drove  the  enemy  from  the 
eld.  It  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  the 
battle  of  Espierres. 

PONTEFRACT,  or  POMFRET  (Yorkshire).— 
In  the  time  of  the  Saxons  this  town  was  called 
Kirkby.  Its  present  name  is  derived  from  the 
]  .atin  pons  fractus,  from  the  breaking  of  a 
bridge  over  the  Aire.  Pomfret  Castle,  the 
remains  of  which  still  exist,  built  in  1080,  was, 
during  the  civil  war,  garrisoned  by  Charles  I. 
It  was  attacked  by  the  Parliamentarians  in 
1644,  and  taken  by  them  in  1645  ;  retaken  by 
the  Royalists  in  1648 ;  and  surrendered  to  Lam- 
bert, March  25,  1649,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  Parliament.  The  workhouse  was  built 
in  1864.  The  story  of  the  assassination  of 
Richard  II.  is  doubted,  and  by  some  authorities 
he  is  supposed  to  have  escaped  from  Pontefract 
Castle  early  in  1400.  The  accounts  of  the  Cham- 
berlain of  Scotland,  as  late  as  1417,  contain  an 
entry  of  expenses  for  "the  custody  of  King 
Richard  of  England,"  who  is  said  to  have  died 
in  Stirling  Castle  in  1419.  Lords  Rivers  and 
Grey,  Sir  Thomas  Vaughan,  and  Haute,  seized 
by  order  of  Richard  III.,  April  30,  1483,  were 
executed  in  Pontefract  Castle  about  June  26. 

PONTIANAK  (Borneo),  the  chief  of  the 
Dutch  settlement  in  the  island,  was  founded 
in  1823.  They  had  a  factory  as  early  as  1776. 

PONTIFEX  MAXIMUS.-The  office  of  chief 
pontiff  among  the  Romans  is  said  to  have  been 
instituted  by  Numa  Pompilius  (B.C.  715 — B.C. 
673).  Tiberius  Coruncanius  (B.C.  254)  was  the 


first  plebeian  who  obtained  the  office.  The 
Emperor  Augustus  was  made  Pontifex  Maxi- 
mus  in  12,  and  the  office  was  held  by  the 
emperors  after  his  time  until  discontinued  by 
Gratian  in  375.  Maximilian  I.,  of  Germany, 
assumed  the  title  in  1511,  and  it  is  borne  by 
the  popes. 

PONTIFFS,  five  in  number,  including  the 
Pontifex  Maximus,  according  to  tradition  were 
appointed  by  Numa  Pompilius  (B.C.  715 — B.C. 
673).  The  number  was  increased  to  nine,  four 
being  plebeians,  by  the  Ogulnian  Law  (B.C.  300), 
to  15  by  Sylla  (B.C.  81),  and  to  16  by  Julius 
Caesar  (B.C.  46— B.C.  44). 

PONTIGNY  (France). -To  the  hospitable 
care  of  the  abbot  of  this  monastery,  some 
miles  from  Sens,  founded  in  1114,  the  Pope 
commended  Thomas  Becket,  when  he  was 
exiled  from  England,  in  1164.  Henry  II. 
caused  the  fugitive  to  be  driven  from  his 
retreat  in  1165. 

PONTOISE  (France)  was  fortified  by  the 
Capetian  kings,  who  made  it  their  residence. 
The  Northmen  took  it  in  885,  the  English  in 
1419  and  in  1437.  Charles  VII.,  who  failed  in 
an  attempt  in  Aug.,  1441,  captured  it  before 
the  end  of  ^  the  year,  and  it  was  besieged  in 
1589.  The  Etats  Generaux  met  here  Aug.  27, 
1561,  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  trans- 
ferred to  this  town  in  1652,  1720,  and  1753. 

PONTUS  (Asia  Minor).— This  country,  the 
name  of  which  signifies  the  Sea  Province,  was 
the  home  of  the  Amazons,  and  was  visited  by 
the  Argonauts.  It  originally  formed  part  of 
Cappadocia,  and  was  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian 
empire.  This  satrapy,  afterwards  called  Pon- 
tus  by  the  Macedonians,  was  bestowed  on  one 
of  the  royal  family  of  Persia,  named  Ariobar- 
zanes  (B.C.  480).  In  the  time  of  Mithridates 
VI.  (the  Great),  Pontus  included  the  whole  of 
Paphlagonia  and  part  of  Bithynia.  Mithri- 
dates VI.  assisted  the  Greeks  against  the 
Scythians,  B.C.  112 — no,  and  after  conquering 
many  petty  Scythian  princes  in  Europe, 
formed  connections  with  the  Germanic  na- 
tions as  far  as  the  Danube,  B.C.  108 — 105.  His 
first  war  with  Rome,  B.C.  88 — 84,  arose  through 
bhe  attacks  of  his  neighbour  Nicomedes  III., 
King  of  Bithynia,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Romans.  He  lost  Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  and 
Paphlagonia.  A  second  war  with  Rome  took 
place  B.C.  83 — B.C.  82,  and  a  third  war  occurred 
3.0.  74 — B.C.  66,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of 
Vlithridates  VI.  and  the  reduction  of  Poiitus 
;o  a  Roman  province.  (See  MITHBIDATIC 
WARS.) 

KINGS  OF  PONTUS. 


B.C. 

Date        f  Ariobarzanes  I, 
unknown   \Mithridates  I. 
363.  Ariobarzunes  II. 
337.  Mithridates  II. 
303.  Mithridates  III. 
366.  Ariobarzanes  III. 
340.  Mithridates  IV. 
190.  Pharnacesl. 


B.C. 

156.  Mithridates  V. 
120.  Mithridates    VI.    (sur- 
named       Eupator, 
and  the  Great). 
63.  Pharnaces  II. 
47.  Made    a   Roman  pro- 
vince. 


PONZA(MediterraneanSea).—  This  island,the 
ancient  Pontia,  was  ravaged  by  the  Saracens, 
and  remained  uninhabited  till  1760.  It  was 
ittacked  by  the  English,  Feb.  26,1813,  and  after 
i  short  conflict  the  governor  capitulated,  and 


POONA 


[     792     ] 


POPE 


the  garrison  of  the  fortress  surrendered  as 
prisoners  of  war.  Some  Sicilians  captured  it 
June  28,  1857.  (See  CAGLIARI  AFFAIR.) 

POONA,  or  POONAH  (Hindostan),  chief  town 
of  the  coilectorate  of  the  same  name,  was 
included  in  the  estate  of  Shahjee,  who  built 
the  palace  for  his  own  residence  in  the  lyth 
century.  The  power  of  the  minister  was  made" 
supreme  by  Balajee,  and  that  of  the  rajah 
merely  nominal,  in  1749.  (See  PEISHWA.)  The 
minister  Bajee  Rao  allied  himself  with  Scindia 
against  Holkar  ;  but  having  been  defeated  in 
an  engagement,  he  sought  the  aid  of  the  English 
in  1802.  Col.  Wellesley,  after  marching  at  the 
head  of  his  horse  a  distance  of  upwards  of  60 
miles  in  32  hours,  took  possession  of  the 
city  in  time  to  save  it  from  being  burned 
by  the  enemy,  April  19,  1803.  Having  leagued 
with  the  native  powers  against  the  English  in 
1817,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Poona,  by 
which  the  Mahratta  confederacy  was  dissolved, 
his  claims  limited  to  his  own  possessions,  and 
Ahmednuggur  and  other  places  were  ceded  to 
the  English,  June  13,  1817.  In  the  progress  of 
the  war  the  Peisliwa  was  compelled  to  flee, 
and  ultimately  resigned  his  office,  and  retired 
to  Benares  on  a  pension,  June  3,  1818.  An 
earthquake  occurred  June  10,  1819.  Water- 
works were  completed,  chiefly  at  the  expense 
of  Sir  Jamsetjee  Jeejeebhoy,  in  1850.  The 
government  school  is  united  with  the  Sanscrit 
college,  established  in  1821.  The  railroad  to 
the  Ghauts  was  opened  in  April,  1863.  Sir 
Bartle  Frere  held  a  grand  durbar  here,  Sep. 
5,  1865. 

POOR  CLARES.—  (See  CLARE,  ST.) 

POOR  CONRAD  LEAGUE.—  (See  PEASANTS' 
WAR.) 

POOR  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR,  or, 
KNIGHTS  OF  THE  CHAPEL,  were  first  es- 
tablished by  King  Edward  III.  in  1348,  and 
consisted  of  26  veteran  knights,  "infirm  in  body, 
indigent,  and  decayed."  The  original  consti- 
tution of  the  order  was  altered  by  EdwardlV. 
in  1482-3,  after  which  it  fell  into  a  state 
of  decline,  from  which  it  was  raised  by 
Elizabeth,  who  re-established  it  for  13  poor 
knights,  Aug.  30,  1559.  T1«8  number  was 
raised  to  18  in  1659.  William  IV.  changed 
the  title  of  the  order  to  "  Military  Knights  of 
Windsor,"  its  present  designation,  in  Sep., 


*  POOR- 


R-LAWS.—  By  23  Edw.  III.  c.  7  (1349), 
it  was  declared  illegal  to  give  anything  to  a 
beggar  who  was  able  to  work.  Poor  people 
were  ordered,  to  abide  in  the  place  of  their 
birth  by  12  Rich.  II.  c.  7  (1388).  Appropriators 
of  benefices  were  ordered  to  distribute  an  an- 
nual sum  to  their  poor  parishioners  by  15  Rich. 
II.  c.  6  (1391).  Paupers  were  prohibited  from 
begging,  except  in  the  hundred  where  they 
last  dwelt,  by  n  &  19  Hen.  VII.  (1495  and  1504), 
and  if  able-bodied,  were  to  be  whipped,  by  22 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (1530).  The  first  act  enjoin- 
ing the  systematic  maintenance  of  the  aged 
and  impotent  poor  was  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  25 
(I53S)-  The  present  system  of  poor-laws  was 
commenced  by  43  Eliz.  c.  2  (1601),  which 
appointed  overseers  of  the  poor,  authorized  the 
erection  of  poor-houses,  and  taxed  the  house- 
holders in  order  to  raise  a  poor-rate.  This  was 


followed  by  numerous  statutes,  which  were 
consolidated  and  amended  by  the  Poor-Law 
Amendment  Act,  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  76  (Aug. 
14,  1834).  This  act  instituted  the  "  Poor  Law 
Commissioners,"  whose  period  of  office  was 
extended  by  subsequent  acts  till  they  were 
superseded  by  the  "Commissioners  for  ad- 
ministering the  Laws  for  the  Relief  of  the 
Poor  in  England,"  who  were  appointed  by 
10  &  ii  Viet.  c.  109  (July  23,  1847).  Their 
name  was  changed  to  that  of  the  ' '  Poor-Law 
Board"  by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  103  (Aug.  i,  1849). 
The  removal  of  the  poor  is  regulated  by  9  &  10 
Viet.  c.  66  (Aug.  26,  1846)  and  n  &  12  Viet.  c. 
1 10  (Sep.  4,  1848).  The  first  poor-law  act  for 
Ireland  was  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  56  (July  31,  1838). 
The  Scotch  poor  are  regulated  by  8  &  g  Viet.  c. 
83  (Aug.  4,  1845),  which  has  been  amended  by 
subsequent  acts.  (See  METROPOLITAN  HOUSE- 
LESS POOR  ACT.) 

POORUNDAH  (Hindostan).— A  treaty  of 
peace  was  concluded  here  with  the  Mahrattas, 
England  acquiring  the  island  of  Salsette  and 
other  territory,  June  3,  1776. 

POP  AY  AN  (New  Granada),  founded  by  Ben- 
alcazar,  in  1537,  was  much  injured  by  an 
earthquake  in  1827. 

POPE,  from  the  Greek  iran-as,  or  irana, 
signifying  a  father,  was  the  common  name  of 
all  bishiips  in  the  early  Church.  Gregory  VII., 
at  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  1076,  ordered  the 
title  to  be  restricted  to  the  bishops  of  Rome. 
(See  ABDICATION,  ANTI-POPES,  AVIGNON,  LE- 
GATES, NUNCIO,  PAPAL  SCHISM,  <fec.)  In  the 
following  list,  in  which  the  date  of  elevation  to 
the  papal  chair  is  given,  the  names  of  the 
anti-popes,  and  of  those  whose  right  is  dis- 
puted, are  printed  in  italics. 

BISHOPS  OF   ROME. 


A.D. 

43.  Peter,  St 

67.  Linus.  (Tertullian  men- 
tions Clement  in  68.) 

78.  Cletus,  or  Anacletus. 

91.  Clement  I. 
loo.  Evaristus. 
109.  Alexander  I. 
119.  Sixtus  1. 
129.  Telesphorus. 
139.  Hvginus. 
143.  Pius  I. 
157.  Anicetus. 
168.  Soter. 
177.  Eleutherius. 
190.  Victor  I. 
302.  Zephyrinus. 
319.  CallixtUB  I. 
223.  Urban  I. 
230.  Pontianus. 

235.  Anterus. 

236.  Fabian. 
251.  Cornelius, 

253.  Lucius  I.,  Novation. 

253.  Stephen  I. 

257.  Sixtus  II. 

259-  Denis. 

259.  Dionvsius. 

269.  Felix  I. 

375.  Kutychian. 

383.  Caius. 

396.  Marcellinus. 

304.  Interregnum. 

308.  Marcellus  I. 

310.  Ensebius. 

311.  Miltiades, 

chindes. 
314.  Sylvester  I 


Mel  - 


A.D. 

336.  Marcus. 

337.  Julius  I. 
352.  Libcrius. 
356.  J',-li.r  II. 
367.  Damasus  I. 

385.  Ursinus,    or    Urticinus, 

Siricus. 
385.  Sericiu*. 
399.  Aiiitstasius  I. 
402.   Innocent  I. 

417.  Zosimus. 

418.  Eulalius. 
418.  Boniface  I. 
422-  Crelestine  I. 
432.  Sixtus  III. 

440.  Leo  I.,  the  Great 
461.  Hilary. 
468.  Simplicius. 
483.  Felix  II.  or  III. 
492.  Gelasius  I. 
496.  Anastasiut  II. 
498.  iMurentius. 
498.  Symmachus. 
514.  Hormisdas. 
523.  John  I. 
526.  Felix  III.  or  IV. 
530.  Boniface  II. 
530.  Dioscorus. 
532.  John  II. 
535    Agapetus  L 

536.  Silveriug. 

537.  Vigilius. 
Pelagius  I. 
John  III. 

574.  Benedict  I. 
578.  Pelagius  II. 
590.  Gregory  I.,  the  Great. 


POPE 


[     793 


POPLAR  TREE 


A.D. 

A.D. 

A.D.                                                        A.D. 

604.  Sabinian. 

999,  April  3.  Sylvester  II. 

1378,  Sep.  21.  Clement  VII. 

1566,  Jan.  7.  Pius  V. 

606.  Boniface  III. 

1003,  June  9.  John  XVII. 

1389,  Nov.  2.  Boniface  IX. 

1573,  May  13.  Gregory  XIII. 

608.  Boniface  IV. 

1003,  Dec.  26.  John  XVIII. 

1394,  Sep.  28.  Benedict  XIII. 

1585,  April  34.  Sixtus  V. 

615.  Deoclatus  I. 

1009.  Sergius  IV. 

140.1,  Oct.  17.  Innocent  VII. 

1590,  Sep.  15.  Urban  VII. 

617.  Boniface  V. 

ioi3,  July  6.  Benedict  VIII. 

1406,  Nov.  30.  Gregory  XII. 

1590,  Dec.  5.  Gregory  XIV. 

625.  Honoriusl. 
638.  Severinus. 

1024^  Au<g'°John  XIX. 

1409,  June.  Alexander  V. 
1410,  May   17.    John  XXII. 

1591,   Oct.  29.  Innocent  IX. 
i  S92,  Jan.  30.  Clement  VIII. 

640.  John  IV. 

1033.  Benedict  IX. 

or  XXIII. 

1605,  April  i.  Leo  XI. 

642.  Theodorusl. 

1044,  May.  Gregory  VI. 

1416.  Interregnum. 

1605,  May  16.  Paul  V. 

649.  Martin  I. 

1044.  Sylvester  III. 

1417,  Nov.  ii.  Martin  V. 

1621,  Feb.  2.  Gregorv  XV. 

654.  Eugenius  I. 

1046,  Dec.  35.  Clement  II. 

1424.  Clement  VIII. 

1633,  AuS-  6-  Urban  VIII. 

657.  Vitalian. 

1046,  Nov.  8.   Benedict  IX., 

1431,  March.  Eugenius  IV. 

1644,  Sep.  15.  Innocent  X. 

673.  Adeodatus. 

restored. 

1439,  Nov.  17.  Felix  V. 

1655,  April  7.  AlexanderVII. 

676.  Domnus  I. 

1048,  July  17.  Damasus  II. 

1447,  March  6.  Nicolas  V. 

1667,  June  30.  Clement  IX. 

679.  Agatho. 

1048.  Leo  IX. 

1455,  April  8.  Callixtus  III. 

1670,  April  29.  Clement  X. 

682.  Leo  II. 
684.  Benedict  II. 

1054,  April  19.  Interregnum. 
1055,  March.  Victor  II. 

1458,  Aug.  Pius  II. 
1464,  Aug.  31.  Paul  II. 

1676,  Sep.  21.  Innocent  XI. 
1689,  Oct.  6.  Alexander  VIII. 

685.  John  V. 

1057,  Aug-  2-  Stephen  IX. 

1471,  Aug.  9.  Sixtus  IV. 

1691,  July  13.  Innocent  XII. 

686.  Conon. 

1058,  March  30.  Benedict  X. 

1484,  Aug.  29.  Innocent  VIII. 

1700,  Nov.  33.  Clement  XI. 

687.  Sergius  I. 

1058,  Dec.  38.  Nicolas  II. 

1492,  Aug.  11.  Alexander  VL 

1721,  May  8.  Innocent  XIII. 

687.  Paschal. 

1061,  Sep.  30.  Alexander  II. 

1503,  Sep.  22.  Pius  III. 

1734,  May  29.  Benedict  XIII. 

687.  Theodorus. 

1061.  Honoring. 

1503,  Nov.  i.  Julius  II. 

1730,  July  12.  Clement  XII. 

701.  John  VI. 

1073,  April  33.  Gregory  VII. 

1513,  March  1  1.  Leo  X. 

1740,  Aug.  17.  BenedictXIV. 

705.  John  VII. 

1080.  Clement  III. 

1522,  Jan.  2.  Adrian,  or  Ha- 

1758, July  6.  Clement  XIII. 

708.  Sisinnius. 

1085.  Interregnum. 

drian  VI. 

1769,  May  19.  ClementXIV. 

•708.  Constantino  I. 

1086,  May  34.  Victor  III. 

1523,  Nov.  19.  Clement  VII. 

17-5,  Feb.  15.  Pius  VI. 

715.  Gregory  II. 

1088,  March  12.  Urban  II. 

J534,  Ocf-  13-  Paul  Ilr- 

I8io,  March  13.  Pius  VII. 

731.  Gregory  III. 

1090,  Aug.  13.  Pascal  II. 

1550,  Feb.  8.  Julius  III. 

1823,  Sep.  28.  Leo  XII. 

741.  Zachary. 

1118.  Gregory  VIII. 

1555,  April  9.  Marcellus  II. 

1829,  March  31.  Pius  VIII. 

752.  Stephen  II. 
753.  Stephen  III. 

1118,  Jan.  25.  Gelasius  II. 
1119,  Feb.  i.  Callixtus  II. 

1555,  May  23.   Paul  IV. 
1559,  Dec.  Pius  IV. 

1831,  Feb.  2.  Gregory  XVI. 
1846,  June  16.  Pius  IX. 

757.  Paul  I. 
767.  Constantine  II. 

I  I2i.  Ccelestine. 
1124,  Dec.  21.  Honorius  II. 

POPE    JOAN.  —  This  game  of  cards  is  of 

767.  Theophilactus. 
768.  Philip. 
768.  Stephen  IV. 
773.  Adrian,  or  Hadrian  I. 

1130,  Feb.  15.  Innocent  II. 
1130,  Feb.  15.  Anacletus  II. 
1138.  Victor  IV. 
1  143,  Sep.  26.  Ccelestine  II. 

great  antiquity,   having  been  played  in  this 
country  before  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558  — 
1603),  when  it  was  known  as  Pope  Julio.     (See 

705.  Leo  III. 

1144,  March  12.  Lucius  II. 

CURSE  OF  SCOTLAND.) 

816.  Stephen  V. 
817.  Paschal  I. 
834.  Eugenius  II. 

1145,  Feb.  27.  Eugenius  III. 
1153,  July  9.  Anastasius  IV. 
1154,  Dec.  3.  Adrian,  or  Ha- 
drian IV. 

POPE  JOAN,  or  JOANNA.—  According  to  the 
story  told  by  some  chroniclers,  a  female  named 
Joan  assumed  male  attire,  took  the  name  of 

837.  Valentine. 

1159,  Sep.  7.  Alexander  III. 

"John  of    England,"    became  a  monk,    was 

838.  Gregory  IV. 

1159.  Victor  IV. 

elected  pope  on  the  death  of  Leo  IV.,   and 

844.  Sergius  II. 
847.  Leo  IV. 
8s*    Benedict  III.  (See  POPE 

1164,  April  33.  Paschal  III. 
1168.  Callixtus  HI. 

occupied  the  papal  chair  from  July  19,  855, 
to    March   10,   858.      This,   however,    is    gen- 

JOAN.) 

1181,  Sep.  I.  Lucius  III. 

erally  believed  to  have  been  the  time  during 

855.  Anastasius. 

1185,  Nov.  35.  Urban  III. 

which   Benedict   III.    was  pope.      The  story, 

858.  Nicolas  I. 
867.  Adrian,  or  Hadrian  II. 
873.  John  VIII. 

1187,  Oct.  30.  Gregory  VIII. 
1187,  Dec.  19.  Clement  III. 
1191,  Mar.  30.  Ccelestine  III. 

with  many  variations,  was  believed  until  the 
Reformation,   and  Joan's  female    statue  long 

882.  Marin,  or  Martin  II. 

1198,  Jan.  Innocent  III. 

occupied  a  place  among  the   popes   in   the 

884.  Adrian,  or  Hadrian  III. 

1216,  July  18.  Honorius  III. 

cathedral  of  Sienna. 

885.  Stephen  VI. 
891.  Formosus. 

1237,  March  19.  Gregory  IX. 
1241,  Oct.  Ccelestine  IV. 

POPE'S  MERCHANTS.—  (-See  CAURSINKS.) 
POPISH    PLOTS.  —  Titus  Oates,   who  had 

891.  Sergius. 
896.  Boniface  VI. 
896.  Stephen  VII. 

1243,  June.  Innocent  IV. 
1254,  IJec-  J2-  Alexander  IV. 

been  chaplain  of  a  man-of-war,  and  dismissed 
the  service  for  immoral  conduct,  invented  a 

897.  Romanus. 
898.  John  IX. 
898.  Theodorus  II. 
900.  Benedict  IV. 

1261,  Aug.  29.  Urban  IV. 
1265,  Feb.  5.  Clement  IV. 
1269-1270.  Interregnum. 
1271,  Sep.  i.  Gregory  X. 

plot  against  the  Roman  Catholics,  asserting 
that  they  had  conspired  to  assassinate  Charles 
II.,    and  extirpate    the    Protestant    religion. 

903.  Christopher. 

1276,  Feb.  31.  Innocent  V. 

The  particulars  were  laid  before  the    Lord- 

903.  LeoV. 
904,  Sergius  III. 
911.  Anastasius  III. 
913.  Lando. 

1376,  July    11.    Adrian    or 
Hadrian  V. 
1376,  Sep.  13.  John  XX.  or 

treasurer,  Danby,  Aug.  12,   1678  ;  and  several 
Roman    Catholics  were,   in  consequence,   ac- 
cused, and  upon  false  testimony  convicted  and 

914.  John  X. 

1377.  Nov.  25.  Nicolas  III. 

executed.    Among  them   was  the  venerable 

938.  Leo  VI. 
929.  Stephen  VIII. 

1281,  Feb.  22.  Martin  IV. 
1385,  April  2.  Honorius  IV. 
1288,  Feb.  15.  Nicolas  IV. 

Viscount    Stafford,   beheaded    Dec.    29,    1680. 
Oates,  who  had  caused  the  death  of  so  many 

930!  LeonV!I.' 

1293.  Interregnum. 

innocent  men,  was  convicted  of  perjury,  May 

939.  Stephen  IX. 
943.  Martin  III. 
946.  Agapetus  II. 

•Tlf      T,  !.„  YTT 

1294,  July  5.  Ccelestine  V. 
1294,  Dec.  34.  Boniface  VIII. 
1303,  Oct.  32.  Benedict  X.  or 

8,  1685,  and  was  fined,  put  in  the  pillory,  an-i 
publicly  whipped.     William  III.  pardoned  him 
June    6,    1689,   and  granted  him   a  pension. 

956.  Joan  All. 
963.  Leo  VIII. 

1305,  June  15.  Clement  V. 

Babyngton's  Conspiracy,  the  Gunpowder  Plot, 

964.  Benedict  V. 

1314.  Interregnum. 

and  other  conspiracies  to  assassinate  English 

965.  John  XIII. 
972.  Benedict  VI. 
974.  Boniface  VII. 
974.  Domnus  II. 

1316,  Aug.  7.  John  XXI.  or 

1334,  Dec.  20.  Benedict  XI. 
or  XII. 

sovereigns,   formed  by  Roman  Catholics,  are 
known  as  popish  plots. 
POPLAR  TREE.—  In  ancient  times  the  pub- 

984. Benedict  VII. 

1343,  May  7.  Clement  VI. 

lic  places  of  Rome  were  adorned  with  rows  of 

98!  John  XIV. 

1352,  Dec.  18.  Innocent  VI. 

this  tree  ;  hence  it  came  to  be  called  populi, 

986.  John  XV. 
996.  Gregory  V. 
997.  John  XVI. 

1363,  Sep.  Urban  V. 
1370,  Dec.  30.  Gregory  XI. 
1378,  April  9.  Urban  VI. 

as  being  a  tree  appropriated  to  the  people. 
The  grey  poplar  is  indigenous  in  England; 

POPLIN 


794 


POPULATION 


the  Lombardy  poplar  was  brought  from  Italy 
about  1758. 
POPLIN.—  Silk  was  woven  at  Avignon, 
in    the     isth  century,    into    a    fabric    called 
papeline.      It  was  imitated  in   England  and 
called  poplin  ;  and  the  manufacture  was  intro- 
duced into  Ireland  in  1  775. 
POPOCATEPETL   (Mexico).—  The  last  erup- 
tion of  this  volcano,  near  the  city  of  Mexico, 
took  place  in  1540.     One  of  Cortes's  followers 
reached  the  summit,  and  the  brothers  Gleimie 
scaled  it  in  1827. 
POPULATION.  —  The     population    of    the 
world  is  estimated  as  follows  :  — 

POPULATION  OF  AU 

French     Islands 
(Pacific)  9,946 
New            South 
Wales     367,495 
New  Zealand  ...         125,812 
Queensland  45,°77 
South  Australia         135,329 

POPULATION      OF     THE 
TOWNS  OF  T 

Aberdeen  73,794 

3TRALASIAN   STATES. 

Spanish  Colonies 
(Pacific,  &c.)...     3,860,000 
Tasmania  9',5H 
Victoria  604,858 
Western      Aus- 
tralia                18,700 

PRINCIPAL     CITIES     AND 
HE  WORLD. 

Madras    300,000 
Madrid  475,785 
Malaga  113,050 
Malta   131,401 
Manchester     and 
Salford  460,428 
Marseilles    350,000 
Melbourne  
MerthyrTydvil...       83,875 
Messina   94,133 
Mexico  170,000 
Milan    180,000 
Montreal  75,ooo 
Moscow   386,370 
Munich  137,113 
Nankin         (esti- 

Alexandria   400,000 
Amsterdam  243,755 

Balli. 

AVeimar              Wyld's 
Almanack.            Atlas. 

Antwerp   108,975 
Baltimore  214,037 

Belfast  119,242 

Europe   237,700,000 
Asia  390,000,000 
Africa  60,000,000 
America  39,000,000 
Oceanica    ...       20,000,000 

736,700,000 

321,906,000         240,734,113 
461,196,000         413,844,300 
107,615,000         100,000,000 

43,164,000       46,493,000 

2,695,000          22,000,000 

835,576,000      823,060,413 

Berlin  445,*4o 
Birmingham    296,076 
Bologna    78,000 
Bordeaux  149,938 
Boston   177,903 
Bradford  106,318 
Breslau  129,747 
Brooklyn  273,425 

POPULATION   OF   I 

UROPEAN   STATKS. 
MiTklt/nlmrg 
Srh-.v.Tin    548,449 
Nassau    457,571 
Netherlands  3,372,653 
Norway  1,433,734 
Oldenburg     295,343 
Portugal  3.5*4,677 

Hniss  Is  169,640 
Buenos-Ayres  122,000 
Buffalo  84,000 
O'li/-  7i,9i4 
Calcutta    413,182 
Cairo  250,000 
Canton            (esti- 
mated)     1,000,000 
Chicago  109420 

Naples  419,850 
Newcastle  109,108 
New  Orleans  170,766 
New  York  814,377 
Norwich  74,«9' 
Nottingham  74,693 
Ocii-s.-a  104,169 
Oldham  94344 
Palermo  186,170 
''«"«  1,525,535 

Baden  1,309,291 
Belgium  4,*94,o7i 

Denmark   1,600,551 
France    37,472,732 
Great  Britain  and 

Cincinnati     160,060 
Cologne  H4,72I 
Constantinople    ...     800,000 
Copenhagen  150,000 
Cork    78,893 

Greece  1333,508 

59330,752 

Hanover  1,888,070 
Hesse  Cassel  ;38,454 
Hesse  Darmstadt       853,250 
Holstein    Hclilcs- 
wig  and  Lauen  - 
burS     I,°°4,473 

Hiixe-Weimar    ...       273,253 
Saxony    2,225,240 
Spain   16,301,851 
Sw.-den  3,9!7,339 
Switzerland  2,534,242 

Turkey     15,500,000 

I'esth  131,705 
Petersburg,  St.  ...  520,131 
I'hila.lelphia  568,034 
Portsmouth  "  94,799 
1'nigiii-  143,580 
I'uebla  71,631 

Delhi  153  434 

Dresden  "7,  75° 

Luxemburg    and 

Limberg  413,831 

AFRICAN  STATES. 

Dundee  90,435 
Edinburgh   168,098 

Higa  72,136 
Rio.lani-iro  305,906 

POPULATION  OF 
Algeria    2,966,836 
Cape     of      Good 
Hope  267,096 
Dutch  Colonies...       110,118 
Egypt  5,000,000 

Rotterdam  105,984 
Rouen  103,333 
St.  Ktienne  94,433 

Client  H4,90L 
(ilasgow    394,857 
Granada  100,678 
Ilambui*  I7«,84I 
Hull    97,661 

St.  Louis  16^,179 
Salford  103,414 
Saragossa  83,189 
Seville  153,000 

Portuguese  Colo- 
nies       1,057,931 
Sierra  Leone  41,806 
Spanish  Colonies           15,000 

LMERICAN  STATES. 

Danish  Colonies           37,137 
French  Colonies         301,333 
Mexico  7,995,436 
Paraguay   1,337,43' 

Gold  Coast  15^346 

POPULATION  OF  1 

Argentine       Re  - 
public  1,171,800 
Brazil  7,677,800 

KOnigsberg  94,579 

Sheffield  185,17* 
Smyrna  150,000 
Stockholm  116,972 
Strasburg  T.?,6^ 
Sunderland  85,797 

Lemberg  *7°,384 
Lille   ...T.  78641 

Lisbon   275,286 
Liverpool  443,938 
London     2,803,989 
Louisville     75,  196 

Toulouse...!  103,144 

British     Colonies 
(exclusive       of 

Spanish  Colonies    3,066,000 
Swedish  Colony            18,000 
United  States  31,445,089 
Uruguay  24o,9°5 

ASIATIC  STATES. 
Portuguese  Colo- 
nies        1,288,483 
Russia   8,328,642 
Siam  11,800,000 
Turkey  16,050,000 

Valencia  I45,512 

Canada  2,507,657 
Dutch  Colonies...         85,793 
Chili                           I  6"6  243 

Lyons     37^803 
Madeira    102,837 

Vienna  476,222 
Warsaw  158,130 

TED   KINGDOM  ACCORD- 
OS  OF  1861. 

...      20  228.40*7 

POPULATION  OF 
Ceylon  2,079,881 
China  (about)  ...  500,000,000 
French  Colonies      2,219,876 
India  (British)      143,271,210 

POPULATION  OF   THE  UN] 
ING  TO  CENS 

Java  13,019,108 

Ireland                                 ..           5.8^0.300 

Islands  in  the  British  Seas 

145,6/4 

*  The  cession  of  Venetia  in  1866  caused  a  diminution 
in  the  population  of  Austria  and  an  increase  in  that  of 
Italy,   and  several   of  the  smaller    German   states   were 
about  the  same  time  incorporated  with  Prussia. 

Total  population  of  the  United  Kingdom      29,321,288 

Exclusive  of  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Mer- 
chant Seamen  abroad,  the  total  is  29,070,933 

POPULATION 


[     795    1 


POPULATION 


POPULATION   OF   ENGLISH   COUNTIES. 
General  Report  on  the  Census  of  1861,  Vol.  III.  p.  79. 


1851. 


Bedford   

Berks 

Buckingham  

Cambridge  

Chester 

Cornwall 

Cumberland    

Derby    

Devon    , 

Dorset   

Durham    

Essex 

Gloucester  

Hereford  

Hertford  

Huntingdon 

Kent 

Lancaster 

Leicester  

Lincoln 

Middlesex    

Monmouth  

Norfolk 

Northampton 

Northumberland  

Nottingham 

Oxford  

Rutland    

Salop 

Somerset  

Southampton 

Stafford 

Suffolk 

Surrey    

Sussex  

Warwick 

Westmoreland    

Wilts 

Worcester    

York  (East  Hiding)  .. 
York  (North  Riding) 
York  (West  Riding)  .. 


184,207 


140,350 
i",977 

16,300 
169,348 
273,577 
319,29° 
242,693 
314,404 
368,333 
i59,47i 
306,798 

40,805 
183,830 
146,441 
111,193 
158,927 
572,166 


POPULATION  OF  WELSH   COUNTIES. 


I8ol.        1831.       1841.        1851.        1861. 


Anglesey 

Brecon 

Cardigan  

Caermarthen 
Caernarvon  ... 
Denbigh  , 


33,8o6 
32,325 


, 

4i,52i 
60,399 


43,82 


58,0 


50,891 


106,336 


57,327 
6i,474 
70,796 

:  10,633 
87,830 

92,583 


Flint  ..„ 

Glamorgan  ... 

Merioneth 

Montgomery 
Pembroke    ... 
Kadnor 


1801.       1831.        1841.       1851. 


39,469 
70,879 
29,5o6 
48,184 
56,38o 
19,135 


53,893 
:o2,o73 
34,382 
60,245 
73,788 
22,533 


231,849 
38,843 
67,335 
94,i4o 


69,737 

317,752 


96:278 
25,383 


POPULATION   OF   IRISH   COUNTIES. 


Antrim 

Armagh    

Carlow 

Cavan    

Clare 

Cork  

Donegal    

Down 

Dublin  

Fermanagh .. 

Galway 

Kerry 

Kildare 

Kilkenny 

King's  

Leitrim 


1831.       183 


317,683 
197,427 
78,952 
15,076 


348,370 


50,011 
30,997 


368,685 


227,933 
258,322 
703,716 
389,149 


,763 


108,424 
169,945 
144,325 
141,524 


1841 


376,1? 


378,588 

190,086 


544,8i8 
237,395 
299,302 
410,353 
105,768 
371,478 
301,800 

90,946 
124,515 

90,043 
104,744 


Limerick  

Londonderry 

Longford 

Louth    

Mayo 

Meath    

Monaghan   ... 

Queen's 

Roscommon... 

Sligo  

Tipperary 

Tyrone  

Waterford    ... 
Westmeath  ... 

Wexford  

Wicklow  .... 


1831- 


333,013 
113,558 
107,481 
366^28 
176,836 
195,536 
145,851 
249,613 
171,765 
402,563 
304,468 
148,233 
136,872 
183,713 

121,557 


1841. 


381,638 
333,174 


183,838 

300,420 

153,930 


435,553 
312,956 
173,971 
141,300 
203,033 
136,143 


1851. 


262,1^ 


107,657 
274,830 
Ho,75o 
141,758 
111,633 
174,492 
128,510 
331,487 
255,819 
164,051 
111,409 
180,159 


POPULATION 


[    796 


POPULATION 


POPULATION  OF  SCOTCH  COUNTIES 


Aberdeen 

Argyle   

Ayr 

Banff 

Berwick    

Bute   

Caithness 

Jluckmiinuan ... 

Dumbarton 

Dumfries 

Edinburgh   

Elgin,  or  Morav 

Fife    .'.. 

Forfar   

Hmldington 

Inverness 

Kincardine  

Kinross 


1831. 


55.  4<) 
97,310 

127,499 

33.385 
13,797 
89,181 

I3,363 

37,317 
70,878 
:9i,5i4 
3i,39« 
14,556 
:  13,355 
35.  <  -- 


, 
7,726 


1841. 


1851 


89,398 


221,569 
79-7-H 

i9»,97-i 
59,315 
36,613 
i6,33' 
41,111 
2i,45o 
52,034 
75,87» 

273,997 
42,695 

154,770 

204.425 

37.634 

hs.s.-s 
34,466 
7,977 


Kirkcudbright 
(Stcwartry)  ... 

Lanark 

Linlithgow  

Nairn 

Orkney          and 
Shetland 

Peebles 

Perth 

Renfrew    

Koss    and    Cro- 
marty 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk 

Stirling 

Sutherland  

Wigtown 


29,211 
47,698 

17,844 
8,322 

46,824 

8,735 

135,593 

78,501 

56,318 
33,721 
5,388 
50,835 
23,ii7 
22,918 


38,903 


9,28 

53,134 
10,046 
[38,347 
112,175 

68,762 

40,892 
6,637 
65,376 
23,840 
33,240 


1841. 


41,119 

.26,972 
26,872 

9,317 

6i,o65 

10,499 
'37,457 
t55,°72 

78,685 
46,025 
7,99° 
82,057 
34,782 
39,195 


1851. 


62,533 


82,707 


86,23 

-5.793 
43,389 


- 
I77,56i 

81,406 
54,H9 
10,449 
91,296 
25,346 
43,095 


THE   POPULATION   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   CITIES   AND   TOWNS   OF   ENGLAND. 


Ashton-under-Lyme 
Bath  .... 


Birkenhend 

Birmingham    

Blackburn    

Bolton   

Bradford  

Brighton  

Bristol   

Burnlev 

Bury 

Cambridge  

Canterbury  

Carlisle 

Chatham  

Cheltenham 

Clii'stcr 

Colchester 

Coventry  

Derby 

Dover 

Dudley  


Catt^hcud     

Halifax 

llndderslleld    

Hull 

Ipswich , 

Leeds 

Leicester   

Lincoln  

Liverpool  

London  

Macclesfield 

Muidstone 

Manchester  and  Salford  ... 

Merthyr  Tydvil    

Newcastle-upon-Tyne 

Northampton  

Norwich 

Nottingham 

Oldham 

Oxford   

Plymouth  and  Devonport 

Portsmouth  

Preston  

Reading 

Rochdale   

Sheffield 

Shrewsbury 

Southampton   

South  Shields    

Stnlybridgo    

Stockport   

Stoke-upon-Trent   

Suuderland 


82,753 
15,083 
24,799 
16,012 
12,205 
71,433 

5,405 
11.302 
11,108 
10,200 
ii,476 
15,767 

8,325 
16,140 
12,544 
17,923 
13,043 


8,784 
12^66 
9,671 


13,670 
62,534 

33-453 

8,599 

104,104 

138,815 

17,143 


14,945 
32,573 

8,427 
36,74» 
34,253 
29,479 


io,392 


9,617 

15,165 

17,545 
31,557 
25,821 


13)39^ 


12,441 
50,800 
2,569 

143,986 
27,091 
42,345 
43,537 
41,994 

104,408 

10,026 

19,140 

20,917 


21,124 

22,942 

2i,344 
16,167 
27,298 
23,627 
11,922 
23,430 
28,242 
15,177 

21,552 

19,035 
43,510 

20,201 

123,393 
4°,639 
11,217 

201,751 

1,654,994 

3o,9H 

15,79° 

237,832 
27,28i 
53,6i3 
I5,35i 
60,505 
50,680 
5o,5i3 
20,619 
65,963 
50,389 
33,871 
15,595 
i8,35i 
91,692 
31,297 


25,469 

51,589 
4o,735 


1841. 


29,791 

54,24° 
34,469 

232,841 
46,536 
61,171 

i°3,778 

137)338 


26,310 
28,424 
35,051 
27,766 
19,443 
36,812 
40,609 

37)962 
40,688 

25,568 
33,582 


32,9H 

172,270 
60,584 
17,533 

375,955 

2,362,236 

39,048 

20,801 

401,321 
63,080 
87,784 
26,657 
68,713 
57,407 
72,357 
27,843 

102,380 
72,096 
69,542 
21,456 
29,195 

135,31° 
19,681 

35,305 
28,974 
20,760 
53,835 
84,027 
67,394 


1861. 


33,917 
52,528 
51,649 

206,076 
63,126 
7°,395 

106,218 
87,3i7 

154,093 
28,700 


21,324 
29,417 
36,177 
39,693 
31,110 
23,809 
41,647 
43,091 
25,325 
44.  '(75 
41,749 
33,587 
37,oi4 


1)i6.!) 


2,8 


5,101 
23,058 

460,428 
83,875 

109,108 
33,8i3 
74,891 
74,693 
94,344 
27,56o 

127,382 
94,799 
82,985 
25,045 
38,184 

185,172 
22,163 
46,960 
35,239 
24,921 
54-6HI 

101.207 
85,797 


PORCELAIN 


[     797 


PORTLAND 


POPULATION   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   CITIES   AND   TOWNS   OF   ENGLAND — Continued. 


1801. 

1811. 

1831. 

1831. 

1841. 

1851. 

1861. 

10,117 

11,963 

14,896 

19,672 

24,604 

41,606 

13,171 

17,548 

23,173 

23,306 

Wakefield 

11,393 

14,164 

18842 

Walsall        

10,399 

11,189 

11,914 

15066 

19,857 

25,'68o 

37,760 

11,321 

12,682 

14,823 

TUX 

Wigan 

14,060 

17,716 

37  65$ 

30,584 

43,190 

53,011 

67,514 

93,345 

119    748 

Worcester        .   . 

13,814 

17,023 

18,610 

30,448 

27  865 

York         ...           

16  8J.6 

19,099 

31,711 

38843 

PORCELAIN  and  POTTERY.— The  Assy- 
rians, the  Egyptians,  the  Etrurians,  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Romans,  excelled  in  the  manufacture 
of  pottery  ;  and  the  art  was  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  China  at  an  early  period.  (See 
CHINA-WARE.)  Thence  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  was  carried  to  the  Corea,  and  thence 
again  into  Japan,  where  it  was  cultivated 
with  great  success.  Oriental  porcelain  was 
introduced  into  London  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1518,  though  occasional  specimens  had 
been  previously  imported  through  the  Bar- 
bary  states.  Soft  porcelain  of  inferior  quality 
was  made  at  St.  Cloud  in  1695,  and  at  Chel- 
sea before  1698 ;  but  no  advance  was  made 
towards  the  manufacture  of  hard  porcelain 
until  1706,  when  it  was  attempted  in  Saxony. 
In  1712  the  Jesuit  father  Frangois  Xavier 
d'Entrecolles  sent  a  complete  description  of 
the  mode  of  making  it  from  China  to  France, 
and  its  production  was  prosecuted  with  success 
at  Sevres  in  1769.  The  manufacture  of  porce- 
lain was  introduced  at  Derby  in  1750,  at 
Worcester  in  1751,  Caughly  (Shropshire)  1756, 
Rockingham  1757,  Plymouth  1760,  Bristol  1772, 
Nantgarrow  (Glamorganshire)  1813,  and  Swan- 
sea 1814.  The  celebrated  porcelain  tower  of 
Nankin,  originally  built  by  King  A-you,  about 
B.C.  833,  was  rebuilt  by  Kien-wen-ti  about 
373,  and  after  being  again  destroyed,  was  a 
second  time  rebuilt  by  Hoang-li-ta'i,  in  1413. 
(See  BURSLEM,  CROCKERY- WARE,  DRESDEN 
CHINA,  EARTHENWARE,  ENAMELLING,  MAJOLICA, 
MEISSEN,  SEVRES,  WEDGWOOD  WARE,  &c.) 

PORCIAN  LAWS.  — Three  Roman  Taws, 
brought  forward  by  three  different  members 
of  the  Porcian  family,  enacted  that  no  magis- 
trate should  punish  with  death,  or  scourge 
with  rods,  a  Roman  citizen  when  condemned, 
but  allow  him  the  alternative  of  exile.  The 
period  when  these  laws  were  passed  cannot 
be  ascertained  with  accuracy. 

PORT  ADELAIDE.— (See  ADELAIDE.) 

PORT-AU-PRINCE.— (See  PORT  REPUBLI- 
CAN.) 

PORT  DALRYMPLE.— (See  GEORGE  TOWN.) 

PORT  EGMONT  (Falkland  Islands)  was 
discovered  by  Commodore  Byron,  in  1766, 
and  a  small  settlement  formed  by  the  English, 
who  were  expelled  by  the  Spaniards,  in  1770. 
This  nearly  led  to  a  war,  but  Spain  surren- 
dered the  sovereignty  of  the  islands  to  Eng- 
land, Jan.  22,  1771. 

PORT  ELIZABETH  (Africa).— This  town, 
in  Algoa  Bay,  was  founded  in  1820.  The  Grey 
Institute  Schools  were  introduced  in  1854. 

PORTEOUS  RIOT  occurred  at  Edinburgh 


during  the  night,  Sep.  7,  1736.  The  mob 
broke  into  the  Tolbooth  Prison,  seized  Capt. 
Porteous,  and  hanged  him  on  a  sign-post. 
None  of  the  rioters  were  discovered,  although 
a  reward  of  .£200  was  offered.  Capt.  Porteous, 
who  had  been  in  command  of  the  city  guard, 
April  14,  at  the  execution  of  one  Andrew  Wilson, 
a  malefactor,  had  ordered  them  to  fire  upon 
the  crowd,  an  attempt  at  rescue  being  appre- 
hended ;  and  several  persons  were  wounded. 
For  this  he  was  found  guilty  of  murder,  June 
22  ;  but  the  Queen,  who  acted  as  regent  during 
the  absence  of  George  II.,  grunted  a  reprieve, 
in  Aug.,  for  six  weeks.  The  mob,  however, 
took  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  and  executed 
the  prisoner. 

PORTER.— The  generally  received  account 
of  the  origin  of  this  beverage  is,  that  a  London 
brewer,  named  Ralph  Harwood,  succeeded, 
about  1720,  in  brewing  malt  liquor  which 
combined  the  flavours  of  ale  and  beer,  or  ale, 
beer,  and  twopenny,  and  called  it  "  entire," 
or  "entire  butt,"  to  show  that  it  was  drawn 
from  one  cock.  It  acquired  the  name  of  porter 
from  its  consumption  by  porters  and  labourers. 
Mr.  Henry  T.  Riley,  in  a  communication  to 
Notes  and  Queries  (x.  123),  quotes  a  passage 
from  Nicholas  Amherst's  "Terrse  Filius,"  for 
May  22,  1721,  in  which  porter  is  mentioned. 

PORTERAGE  ACT,  for  regulating  the  rates 
of  porterage  on  small  parcels  in  London, 
Westminster,  and  Southwark,  was  passed 

PORT  GLASGOW,  or  NEW  PORT  GLAS- 
GOW (Scotland).  —  This  town,  founded  by 
the  magistrates  of  Glasgow,  in  1668,  as  the 
seaport,  received  a  municipal  constitution  in 
1775.  A  graving  dock  was  constructed  in 
1762  ;  a  chapel  of  ease  in  1774 ;  and  the  parish 
church  in  1823.  It  received  the  privilege  of 
sending  a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons 

mpORTGRAVE,  or  PORTGREVE.— (See  LORD 
MAYOR,  London.) 

PORTICI  or  PORTICO  (Italy).— This  town, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  stands  near 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Herculaneum, 
destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Aug. 

24PORT  JACKSON  (Australia),  discovered  by 
Capt.  Cook  in  1770,  was  colonized  principally 
by  convicts  in  1788.  Sydney,  the  capital  of 
New  South  Wales,  is  situated  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Port  Jackson. 

PORTLAND  (Dorsetshire).  -  This  island 
derives  its  name,  according  to  some  writers, 
from  Port,  a  Saxon  freebooter,  who  settled 


PORTLAND 


[    798 


PORT  PHILIP 


here  about  501.  The  Danes  landed  and  slew 
the  governor  in  787,  and  it  was  plundered  by- 
Earl  Godwin  in  1052.  The  French  invaded  it 
and  did  great  damage  in  May,  1416.  Portland 
Castle,  the  residence  of  the  governor,  was 
built  by  Henry  VIII.  about  1520.  The  Port- 
land stone  found  in  this  island  first  became 
known  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  (1603 — 25).  The 
sea  is  continually  encroaching  on  the  laud,  and 
slips  of  the  cliff  took  place  in  1665,  1734,  and 
1792.  The  prison  for  convicts  was  erected  in 
1848.  A  breakwater  is  in  course  of  construc- 
tion here,  the  first  stone  of  which  was  laid  by 
Prince  Albert  July  18,  1849. 

PORTLAND  (Sea-fight).— A  Dutch  fleet  of 
73  ships  of  war,  commanded  by  Van  Tromp, 
with  a  convoy  of  300  merchantmen  returning 
from  the  Isle  of  Rhe",  was  encountered  off 
Portland  by  an  English  fleet  of  70  sail,  under 
Blake,  Feb.  18,  1653,  and  a  contest  ensued 
which  continued  till  dusk.  The  Dutch  at- 
tempted to  escape,  but  were  pursued  and 
overtaken  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Feb.  19,  when 
the  engagement  was  renewed.  A  running 
fight  was  continued  till  the  fleets  were  within 
a  few  miles  of  Calais,  when  the  enemy  effected 
their  escape,  Feb.  20,  having  lost  n  ships  of 
war,  60  merchantmen,  1,500  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  700  prisoners. 

I'oiiTLAND  (United  States^.— This  city  of 
Maine,  at  first  called  Falmouth,  was  founded 
in  1632.  Afire  kindled  by  a  cracker  thrown 
by  a  boy  during  the  celebration  of  Indepen- 
dence Day,  July  4,  1866,  consumed  nearly  all 
the  business  portion  of  the  city,  including 
eight  churches,  the  banks,  newspaper-offices, 
and  hotels  ;  destroyed  property  to  the  value 
of  $10,000,000  ;  and  rendered  more  than  2,000 
families  houseless. 

PORTLAND  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  on  the  dissolution  of  All  the  Talents 
Administration  (q.  v.),  March  25,  1807.  The 
cabinet  consisted  of 

Treasury  Puke  of  Portland. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Eldon. 

President  of  the  Council Lord  Camden. 

Privy  Seal    Karl  of  Westmoreland. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer    ...Mr.  Spencer  Perceval. 

Hmn«  (Wrotn rv  /Lord  Ilawkesbury,  after- 
Home  becretaly |  wnrds  Ear,  of  Liverpoo,_ 

Foreifi-n  Secretary Mr.  Canning. 

Coloniiil  Secretary Viscount  Castlereagh. 

Admiralty    Lord  Mulgrave. 

Board  of  Control  Mr.  Dimdas. 

Board  of  Trade Karl  Bathurst. 

Lord  Harrowby  (created  Earl  Harrowby  July 
1 8)  was  made  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
July  ii,  1809.  Dissensions  broke  out  in  the 
cabinet ;  Viscount  Castlereagh  and  Mr.  Canning 
fought  a  duel,  Sep.  22,  having  previously 
resigned  their  offices.  Earl  Bathurst  became 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  Oct.  n, 
1809.  The  Duke  of  Portland  died  Oct.  30,  1809, 
and  after  various  negotiations,  Mr.  Spencer 
Perceval  was  appointed  prime  minister  in  Nov., 
1809.  The  Coalition  (North  and  Fox)  Admi- 
nistration (q.  v.),  presided  over  by  the  Duke 
of  Portland,  sometimes  goes  by  the  name. 
(See  PERCEVAL  ADMINISTRATION.) 

PORTLAND  VASE,  formerly  known  as  the 
Barberini  vase,  one  of  the  choicest  specimens 
of  'ancient  art,  was  discovered  at  Monte  del 
Grano,  near  Rome,  about  the  middle  of  the 


1 6th  century,  in  a  marble  sarcophagus  sup- 
posed to  have  been  that  of  Alexander  Severus 
(222 — 235)  and  his  mother  Julia  Mammsea.  It 
was  placed  in  the  Barberhii  palace  at  Rome, 
where  it  remained  till  1770,  when  it  was  pur- 
chased by  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  arid  afterwards 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Duchess  of 
Portland.  The  Duke  presented  it  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1810,  and  it  was  broken  to 
pieces  by  a  man  named  Lloyd,  Feb.  7,  1845. 
The  fragments  were  skilfully  put  together, 
and  the  vase  was  restored. 

PORT  LOUIS  (Mauritius),  the  capital  of  the 
island,  owes  its  origin  to  M.  delaBourdonnaye, 
the  French  governor,  who  fortified  it  and 
made  it  the  seat  of  government  in  1734.  It 
was  taken  by  the  English  in  1810,  and  ceded 
to  England  in  1815.  Port  Louis  was  ravaged 
by  fire  in  1816,  and  by  the  cholera  in  1819. 
(See  FALKLAND  ISLANDS.) 

PORTO  BELLO,  or  PUERTO  BELLO 
(S.  America),  in  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 
founded  by  Columbus  in  1502,  was  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  the  English,  under  Admiral 
Vernon,  Nov.  21,  1739.  (See  GROG.)  At  this 
time  the  town  was  the  great  mart  for  the  com- 
merce of  Chili  and  Peru  ;  but  in  1740  the  gal- 
leons ceased  to  resort  here,  and  it  rapidly  de- 
clined in  importance.  , 

PORTO  D'ANZO  (Sea-fight.)— The  Venetian 
admiral  Vettove  Pisani  defeated  the  Genoese 
fleet,  under  Luigi  de  Fieschi,  near  the  pro- 
montory of  Autium,  or  Porto  d'Anzo,  in  Italy, 
May  30,  1378.  It  is  remarkable  as  having 
taken  place  during  a  violent  gale. 

PORTO  FEIIRAJO  (Elba),  the  capital  of  the 
island,  was  built  and  partly  fortified  by  Cosmo 
I.,  Duke  of  Florence,  in  1548.  The  fortifications 
were  completed  on  a  magnificent  scale  by 
Cosmo  II.  in  1628.  Porto  Ferrajo  is  celebrated 
as  having  been  the  residence  of  Napoleon  I. 
from  May  4,  1814,  to  Feb.  26,  1815,  when  he 
made  his  escape  to  France. 

PORTOLONGO  (Sea-fight).  —  The  Venetian 
fleet,  under  the  captain-general  Pisani,  was 
attacked  by  the  Genoese  squadron  of  Paganino 
Doria,  off  this  place,  to  the  south  of  the  Morea, 
and  completely  routed,  Nov.  4,  1354. 

PORTO  NOVO  (Battle).  — Sir  Eyre  Coote 
defeated  Hyder  Ali  near  this  seaport  town,  in 
the  presidency  of  Madras,  July  i,  1781.  The 
English  force  amounted  to  9,500  men,  with  55 
light  field-pieces ;  and  Hyder  Ali  had  under  his 
command  80,000  men,  with  47  pieces  of  heavy 
artillery.  The  former  lost  587  men  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  the  latter  10,000  men. 

PORTO  or  PUERTO  RICO  (West  Indies).— 
This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1493.  Sir  Francis  Drake  and  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins attempted  to  take  it  in  1595,  but  were 
repulsed.  It  was  captured  by  the  English 
towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century,  and 
abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of 
dysentery.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by 
an  English  force,  under  Gen.  Abercrombie,  in 
1797.  A  revolt,  that  broke  out  against  the 
Spanish  Government  in  1820,  was  suppressed 
in  1823. 

PORT  PHILIP  (New  South  Wales).— The 
harbour  of  Port  Philip  was  discovered  by 
Lieut.  John  Murray  in  the  beginning  of  1802, 


PORTRAIT 


[    799 


PORTUGAL 


and  was  named  after  the  first  governor  of  the 
colony.  Col.  Collins,  with  a  party  of  convicts, 
landed  in  1804,  to  found  a  settlement,  but  af- 
terwards removed  to  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
Another  settlement  was  formed  in  1835.  Mel- 
bourne, the  capital  of  the  colony  of  Victoria 
(q.  v.),  called  Port  Philip  until  1839,  is  situated 
near  this  harbour. 

PORTRAIT.— {See  NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  EX- 
HIBITION, NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  GALLERY,  PAINT- 
ING, <fec.) 

PORT  REPUBLICAN  (Hayti),  formerly 
called  Port-au-Prince,  the  capital  of  the  re- 
public of  Hayti,  founded  in  1749,  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1770.  The 
negroes  who  had  revolted  committed  great 
devastation  in  1791,  and  it  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1794.  A  disastrous  earthquake  oc- 
curred May  7,  1842,  and  nearly  one-third  of  the 
town  was  destroyed  by  fire  Jan.  9,  1843. 

PORT  ROYAL  (Jamaica),  formerly  the  com- 
mercial capital  of  the  island,  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1602.  A  new 
town  was  built,  and  it  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  June  7,  1692  ;  and  having  been 
rebuilt,  was  again  destroyed  by  a  hurricane, 
Aug.  28,  1722.  The  public  offices  were  then 
removed  to  Kingston  (q.  v.). 

PORT  ROYAL  (N.  America),  founded  by 
the  French  in  Acacna  in  1604,  was  captured  by 
the  English  in  1613  and  1627,  and  having  been 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye, 
JMnrch  17,  1632,  was  again  taken  in  1654,  re- 
stored by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  retaken  May  13, 
1690,  and  finally  in  1710,  when  it  was  named 
Annapolis  in  honour  of  Queen  Anne. 

PORT  ROYALISTS.— This  order  of  nuns 
was  founded  by  Matilda  de  Garlande  and 
Eudes  de  Sully,  who  built  the  celebrated 
nunnery  of  Port  Royal  at  Chevreuse,  near  Ver- 
sailles, in  France,  in  1204.  In  1609  its  rules 
were  reformed  by  the  abbess  Angelica,  and  in 
1626  the  community  removed  to  Paris.  The 
nuns  added  the  title  of  Filles  du  St.  Sacrament 
to  their  other  names  in  1647  ;  and,  in  conse- 

Sueiice  of  their  increased  numbers,  re-estab- 
shed  their  old  house  at  Chevreuse,  which 
had  become  a  retreat  for  learned  and  pious 
men,  and  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Port 
Royal  des  Champs.  The  newly  constituted 
house  supported  the  Jansenists  (q.  v.},  and  was, 
in  consequence,  separated  from  the  Paris  house, 
established  by  royal  letters  patent  in  July, 
1665.  Blaise  Pascal  joined  Port  Royal  in  1654. 
It  continued  a  source  of  trouble,  till  sup- 
pressed by  a  bull  of  Pope  Clement  XL,  Oct.  29, 
1709.  The  building  was  pulled  down  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1710.  The  Paris  establishment  con- 
tinued until  the  suppression  of  all  the  religious 
houses  in  1790.  On  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons  in  1814,  the  Port  Royalists  inhabited 
a  house  in  the  Rue  St.  Antoine  ;  and  in  the 
early  part  of  1841  they  formed  two  divisions, 
one  of  which  settled  at  Lyons,  and  the  other 
at  Besangon. 

PORTSMOUTH  (Hampshire)  derives  its 
name,  according  to  some  authorities,  from  its 
situation  at  the  mouth  of  a  capacious  harbour 
on  the  southern  coast.  Other  writers  say  that 
it  was  thus  named  from  Port,  who,  with  his 
sons  Bieda  and  Masgia,  landed  here,  501,  and 


are  supposed  to  have  founded  the  ancient  town 
of  Porchester,  which  stood  about  three  miles 
to  the  north-west.  On  the  retiring  of  the  sea 
from  this  place,  the  inhabitants  removed,  and 
erected  the  present  town.  Alfred  the  Great 
fitted  out  a  fleet  here,  and  defeated  the  Danes 
in  893.  It  was  a  place  of  importance  in  the 
time  of  Henry  I.  (noo — 35),  and  received  its 
first  charter  from  Richard  I.  in  1193.  A  naval 
station  was  established  here  in  1204.  The 
French  attacked  and  burned  a  considerable  part 
of  the  town,  and  were  afterwards  repulsed, 
with  great  loss,  in  1377.  It  was  strongly  for- 
tified by  Edward  IV.  (1461—83).  A  powerful 
French  fleet,  with  a  large  military  force  for 
the  invasion  of  England,  having  anchored  off 
St.  Helen's,  an  English  army  assembled  at 
Portsmouth ;  and  the  fleet,  after  a  desperate 
engagement,  repulsed  the  French,  with  great 
loss,  in  1544.  The  dockyard  was  formed  be- 
fore 1548,  and  the  fortifications  were  greatly 
strengthened  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 
1603).  The  Duke  of  Buckingham  was  assas- 
sinated here  by  Felton,  Aug.  23,  1628.  Felton 
was  hanged  at  Tyburn  Nov.  28,  1628,  and  after- 
wards gibbeted  on  Southsea  Common.  During 
the  civil  war  the  town  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Parliamentarians.  Charles  II.  was  married 
here  to  Catherine  of  Braganga  May  20,  1662. 
Disastrotis  fires  occurred  in  the  dockyard  July 
3,  1761,  and  July  27,  1770.  Another  (the  work 
of  an  incendiary  named  James  Aitken,  alias 
John  the  Painter)  took  place  Dec.  7,  1776.  It 
broke  out  in  the  day,  several  hours  before  the 
incendiary  had  intended,  and  the  damage  was 
confined  to  the  rope-house  and  a  few  adjoining 
store-houses.  Painter  confessed  the  crime, 
and  was  hanged  at  Portsmouth  dock-gate 
March  10,  1777.  The  fortifications  were 
strengthened  and  extended  in  the  time  of 
William  III.  The  Royal  George  sank  here  Aug. 
29,  1782,  when  Admiral  Kempenfelt,  with  400 
men  and  as  many  women  and  children,  pe- 
rished. A  bill  was  passed  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  1786 
for  the  fortification  of  Portsmouth  and  Ply- 
mouth, which  required  an  outlay  of  several 
hundred  thousand  pounds.  The  parish  church 
of  St.  Thomas,  founded  about  1220,  was  rebuilt 
in  1693.  The  church  of  St.  Paul's,  Southsea, 
was  built  in  1822,  and  All  Saints',  Newtown, 
in  1827.  A  mechanics'  institution  was  founded 
in  1825.  Lord  Palmerston,  in  his  cabinet  mi- 
nute on  the  defences  of  the  country,  in  1846, 
said  that  10,000  men  were  required  for  the 
garrisons  of  Portsmoxith,  Plymouth,  and  Chat- 
ham ;  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  considered 
that,  in  the  event  of  a  declaration  of  war, 
Portsmouth  ought  to  have  a  garrison  of  10,000 
men.  The  French  fleet  visited  Portsmouth 
Aug.  29— Sep.  2,  1865. 

PORTSMOUTH  (N.  America).— This  town, 
in  New  Hampshire,  was  founded  in  1623,  and 
received  a  charter  of  incorporation  in  1633.  A 
fire,  which  destroyed  102  buildings,  occurred  in 
Dec.,  1802 ;  and  a  still  more  destructive  one,  de- 
stroying 397  buildings,  took  place  in  Dec.,  1813. 

PORTUGAL  (Europe).— This  kingdom,  the 
ancient  Lusitania,  was  inhabited  by  one  of 
the  most  warlike  races  of  Iberia,  and,  like 
Spain  (q.  v.),  was  governed  successively  by 
the  Carthaginians,  the  Romans,  the  Vandals, 


PORTUGAL 


[    800    ] 


PORTUGAL 


Visigoths,  and  Moors.  It  became  a  distinct 
principality  in  1095,  and  was  erected  into  a 
kingdom  in  1139. 

A.I). 

1095.  Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Leon,  confers  the  earldom  of 
Portugal  on  Count  Henrique. 

1 107.  Guimaraens  is  made  the  capital. 

1139,  July  25.  Alphonso  I.  is  proclaimed  King  of  Por- 
tugal, after  the  battle  of  Ourique  (q.  v.).  Coimbra 
(q.  v.)  is  made  the  capital. 

1147,  Oct.  25.  Alphonso  1.  takes  Lisbon  from  the  Moors. 

1158.  He  takes  Alcazar  do  Sol,  and  extends  his  rule 
beyond  the  Tagus. 

Il68.  Alphonso  I.  is  made  prisoner  by  the  King  of  Leon, 
at  Badajos,  and  is  compelled  to  resign  his  con- 
quests in  Galicia  as  his  ransom. 

1317.  Alphonso  II.  defeats  the  Moors  in  the  battle  of 
Alcazar  do  Sol. 

1223.  The  Moorish  territory  of  Algarve  is  annexed  to 
Portugal. 

1245.  Sanclio  II.,  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Lyons,  is 
compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Castile. 

1254.  Alphonso  III.  marries  Beatrice  de  Guzman,  daughter 
of  the  King  of  Castile,  during  the  lifetime  of  his 
first  queen,  Matilda. 

1262.  Death  of  Queen  Matilda. 

1399.  Don  Alphonso  rebels  against  his  father,  Denis. 

1308.  An  alliance  is  contracted  with  the  King  of  Aragon. 

1328.  The  King  of  Castile  marries  Maria,  Infanta  of 
Portugal. 

1355,  Jan.  7.  Inez  de  Castro,  wife  of  the  Infant  Don 
Pedro,  is  murdered  at  Coimbra  (q.  v.). 

1361.  Pedro  I.  causes  the  corpse  of  his  murdered  wife 
Inez  to  be  solemnly  crowned. 

1373  June  1 6.  A  treaty  of  peace,  friendship,  and  com- 
merce between  England  and  Portugal  is  con- 
cluded at  London. 

1383.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  I.,  the  succession  to  the 
crown  is  disputed  by  the  Queen  of  Castile  and 
Don  Joam,  natural  son  of  Pedro  I. 

1385,  Aug.  14.  Joam,  or  John  I.,  totally  defeats  the  Cas- 
tilhins  at  the  battle  of  Aljulmrota  (q.  v.). 

1387.  John  I.  marries  I'hilippa  of  Lancaster. 

1403.  Peace  is  established  with  Castile. 

1415.  John  I.  besieges  Ceuta,  and  forms  various  settle- 
ments in  Africa. 

1419.  The  Portuguese  discover  Madeira  (q.  v.). 

1433.  Lisbon  is  made  the  capital. 

1437.  Duarte  is  defeated   at  Tangier  by  the  Moors,  who 

retain  the  Infant,  Don  Ferdinand,  as  hostage. 

1438.  Duarte  dies  of  the  plague,  and  the  crown  is  left  to 

his  infant  son  Alphouso,  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother,  Leonora. 

1440.  Don  Pedro,  Duke  of  Coimbra,  obtains  the  regency. 

1443.  Don  Ferdinand  dies  in  captivity  among  the  Moors. 

1446.  Alphonso  attains  his  majority. 

1449.  Civil  war  breaks  out  between  the  king  and  the  late 
regent,  and  the  latter  is  defeated  and  slain. 

1483.  The  Duke  of  Braganca,  detected  in  treasonable 
practices,  is  executed. 

1491,  July  13.  The  Infant,  Don  Alphonso,  is  killed  by  a 
fall  from  his  horse. 

1495.  Accession  of  Emanuel,  founder  of  the  Viseo  line  of 
Portuguese  sovereigns. 

1407  Nov.  19.  Vasco  de  Gama,  in  the  service  of  Portugal, 
doubles  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (q.  v.). 

1500.  Cabral  discovers  Brazil  (q.  ».). 

1509.  Albuquerque  founds  the  Portuguese  empire  in  India. 

1526.  The  Inquisition  is  introduced. 

1578,  Aug.  4.  Battle  of  Alcazar,  or  Alcazar-quiver  (q.  v.). 

1580.  On  the  death  of  Henry,  the  succession  to  the  Por- 
tuguese throne  is  disputed  by  Antonio,  Prior  of 
»  Crato,  the  Duke  of  Braganca  and  Savoy,  the 

Prince  of  Parma,  the  Pope,  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land, and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  is  secured  for 
the  last-mentioned  by  the  Duke  of  Alva. 

1585.  An  impostor  asserts  himself  to  be  King  Sebastian 
who  was  slain  at  Alcazar.  (See  SEBASTIANISTS.) 

1594.  Another  impostor  claims  to  be  King  Sebastian. 

1640,  Dec.  i.  The  Spaniards  are  expelled  by  the  Duke  of 

Bragamja,  who  ascends  the  throne  as  John  IV., 
and  founds  the  Braganca  family  of  Portuguese 
monarchs. 

1641,  The  Archbishop  of  Braga  conspires  to  restore  the 

Spaniards. 

1642,  Jan.  29.  A  treaty  between  England  and  Portugal  is 

signed  at  London.  The  Portuguese  are  expelled 
from  Japan  (q.  v.). 


644.  Battle  of  Monti  jo. 

603.  The  Spaniards  invade  Portugal  and  seize  Evora  and 
other  places. 

665.  The  Portuguese,  under  Gen.  Schomberg,  defeat  the 
Spaniards  at  the  battle  of  Villa- Viciosa,  or 
Monies  Claros,  which  secures  the  sovereignty 
of  Portugal  to  the  house  of  Bragauca. 

1667.  Alphouso  VI.  becomes  odious  from  his  intemperance, 

and  is  deposed  by  his  brother  Don  Pedro,  who 
assumes  the  regency. 

1668,  Feb.  13.  1'eace  with  Spain  is  restored  by  the  treaty 

of  Lisbon. 

697.  The  cortes  assemble  for  the  last  time. 
*03,  May  16.  Portugal  joins  the  grand  alliance  against 

France.    (See  METHUEN  TJJEATY.) 
736.  War  is  renewed  with  Spain. 
1748.  John  V.    assumes    the    title    of     "Most    Faithful 

Majesty." 

1755)  Kov-  '•  The  great  earthquake  overwhelms  Lisbon. 
(See  EARTHQUAKES.) 

1758.  The   Duke  of  Aveiro   conspires  against  the  king, 

and  is  detected  and  executed. 

1759.  The  Jesuits  are  expelled  on  a  charge  of  implication 

in  the  conspiracy. 

1760.  Don  Pedro,  Prince  of  Brazil,  marries  his  niece,  the 

Infanta  Maria. 

1762.  The  Spaniards  invade  Portugal,  and  seize  Braganca, 

Miranda,  Almeida,  and  other  places. 

1763,  Feb.  10.  Peace  is  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris. 

1777.  Fall  of  the  minister  Pombal. 

1778,  March  31.  A  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  is 

concluded  with  Spain,  at  Pardo. 

1792.  Queen  .Maria  Fraiicesca  becomes  insane,  and 
her  son  John,  Prince  of  Brazil,  is  declared  re- 
gent 

1801,  March  3.  Spain  declares  War,  and  invades  Por- 
tugal.— June  6.  Peace  is  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Badajos.— Sep.  29.  Treaty  of  Abrautes 
(?•»•)• 

1807,  Oct.  22.  An  alliance  with  Great  Britain  is  concluded 

at  London. — Oct.  27.  A  treaty  for  the  partition  of 
Portugal  is  concluded  between  France  and  Spain 
at  Fontainebleau. — Nov.  27.  A  French  army, 
under  Junot,  reaches  Lisbon. — Nov.  29.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  approach  of  the  French,  the  court 
sails  for  Brazil. 

1808,  June  19.  The  Portuguese  revolt  against  the  French. 

— June  21.  Battle  of  Castro  d'Airo. — July  25- 
An  English  force,  under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley, 
arrives  at  Oporto. — Aug.  17.  Battle  of  Rolica. 
— Aug.  21.  Battle  of  Vimeira  (q.  v.). — Aug.  30. 
The  convention  of  Cintra  (7.  •».). 

1809,  March  29.  The  French,  under  Marshal  Soult,  take 

Oporto. 

1810,  Aug.  27.    Massena  takes  Almeida  (q.v.).- — Sep.   27. 

Battle  of  Busaco  (q.  v.). 

1811,  May  5.  Battle  of    Fuentes  de  Onoro  (q.  v.).— May 

11.    Almeida  is  recovered. 

1812,  April     ii.    Battle     near     Llerena.     The     English 

Parliament  grants  <£ioo,ooofor  the  relief  of  the 
Portuguese  sufferers  by  war  this  year. 

1820,  Aug.  24.  The  garrison  at  Oporto  revolts,  and  forms 

a  provisional  government. — Sep.  15.  The  revo- 
lution spreads  to  Lisbon. — Oct.  I.  The  revolution- 
ists of  Oporto  enter  Lisbon  and  establish  a  con- 
stitutional junta. 

1821,  July  4.  The  court  returns  to  Portugal,  and  is  estab- 

lished at  Lisbon. — Aug.  21.  Kiots  at  Lisbon. 

1822,  Jan.   25.    The  independence  of    Chili  is  acknow- 

ledged.—Oct  I.  The  king  swears  fidelity  to  the 
constitution. — Oct.  12.  Brazil  (q.  v .)  shakes  off 
its  dependence  on  Portugal. 

1823,  May    27.    The  troops   declare    against  the   consti- 

tution.—June  5.  The  king  revokes  the  consti- 
tution. 

1824,  April  20.  Prince  Miguel  publishes  a  manifest  against 

Freemasons. — May  9.  Miguel  is  deprived  of  the 
commandership-in-chief.—  May  13.  He  flees  into 
France. 

1825,  May  13.    Portugal  recognizes  the  independence  of 

Brazil.— Aug.  29.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with 
Brazil. 

1826,  Feb.    18.    Death  of   John  VI.     Don  Pedro,  at  the 

time  absent  in  Brazil,  is  proclaimed  king,  and 
the  Infanta  Isabella  regent-  April  26.  Pedro 
confirms  the  regency.— May  2.  Pedro  resigns  the 
Portuguese  crown  to  his  daughter,  Maria  II.,  and 
pi  re  of  Brazil. 


PORTUGAL 


[    801    ] 


PORTUGAL 


A.D. 

1826,  July  9.  Popular  insurrections  break  out  at  Bra- 
ganca  and  other  places.— Oct.  4.  Don  Miguel 
swears  at  Vienna  to  respect  the  Portuguese 
constitution. — Oct.  6.  The  Marquis  of  Chaves 
rebels  at  Lisbon.— Oct.  29.  Maria  II.  is  betrothed 
to  Don  Miguel.— Dec.  3.  The  assistance  of  Eng- 
land is  solicited. — Dec.  10.  The  rebels  are  de- 
feated by  the  Duke  of  Tereeira.— Dec.  25.  The 
English  auxiliary  force  lands  at  Lisbon. 

1837,  Jan.   9.     Battle    of    Coruches. — Feb.    4.    Battle    of 

Barca.— April  29.  The  troops  garrisoned  at 
Elvas  mutiny. — Dec.  7.  The  Bank  of  Lisbon  sus- 
pends payments. — Dec.  19.  The  Infant  Don 
Miguel  is  proclaimed  regent. — Dec.  30.  He  arrives 
in  London. 

1838,  Feb.  23.  Don  Miguel  arrives  at  Lisbon.— March  3. 

Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  formally  renounces 
all  claim  to  the  Portuguese  crown. — April  28. 
The  British  auxiliary  force  quits  Portugal.— 
May  3.  Miguel  convokes  the  three  estates  of  the 
realm. — June  30.  Miguel  assumes  the  title  of  king. 


realm. — June  30.  Miguel  assumes  the  title  of  king. 
(See  MIGUELITES.) — July  4.  Queen  Maria  II. 
sails  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Lisbon.— July  15. 
Miguel  dissolves  the  three  estates.— Aug.  24.  He 
seizes  the  Madeira  Islands.— Sep.  2.  Maria  II., 
Queen  of  Portugal,  arrives  at  Gibraltar.— Oct.  6. 
Maria  II.  arrives  in  London.— Nov.  9.  Miguel  is 
thrown  from  his  carriage,  and  seriously  hurt. — 
Dec.  22.  Maria  II.  is  received  by  George  IV.  at 
Windsor. 

1829,  Aug.  ii.  Don  Miguel  is  defeated  in  an  attempt  to 

take  the  island  of  Tereeira,  one  of  the  Azores. 

1830,  July  3.  Miguel  is  appointed  regent. — Dec.  15.   His 

life  is  attempted. 

1831,  Aug.  21.   An  insurrection  at  Lisbon,  in  favour  of 

Queen  Maria  II.,  is  suppressed. 

1832,  Feb.   10.    Don  Pedro,  ex-emperor  of  Brazil  (q.  ».), 

sails  from  Belle- Isle.— March  3.  He  arrives  at 
Tereeira,  and  assumes  the  regency  on  behalf  of 
his  daughter  Maria  II.— June  28.  Maria  II.  sails 
from  St.  Michael  for  Portugal. — July  8.  Don 
Pedro  disembarks  near  Oporto,  and  occupies  that 
city  the  following  day. — Sep.  9  and  19.  Don 
Miguel's  troops  are  defeated  in  attempts  to  seize 
Oporto. 

1833,  April  9.   The  Miguelites  take  Monte  Cavello.— June 

8.  Admiral  Napier  assumes  the  command  of  Don 
Pedro's  fleet. — July  5.  Napier  captures  Miguel's 
fleet  at  St.  Vincent— July  23.  The  Miguelist 
general,  the  Duke  of  Cadaval,  evacuates  Lisbon. 
— July  28.  Don  Pedro  enters  Lisbon. — Aug.  15. 
He  summons  a  meeting  of  the  cortes. — Sep.  22- 
Maria  II.  enters  Lisbon. 

1834,  April  21.    Don   Pedro  concludes  an  alliance  with 

Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain.— May  26.  The 
Miguelists  capitulate  at  Evora  Monte.— May  29. 
Miguel  signs  an  agreement  to  abstain  from  in- 
terference in  the  affairs  of  Portugal. — June  I. 
He  quits  Portugal  and  retires  to  Genoa. — Aug.  18. 
The  cortes  meet.— Sep.  20.  Maria  II.,  having 
attained  her  majority,  swears  fidelity  to  the  con- 
stitution.— Sep.  24.  Death  of  Don  Pedro.— Dec.  I. 
Maria  II.  marries  Augustus,  Duke  of  Leuchten- 
berg. 

1835,  March  28.  Death  of  the  Prince  Consort  Augustus, 

1836,  Jan.  i.    Maria  II.  marries  Ferdinand  Augustus  of 

Saxe-Coburg  Gotha. — Sep.  lo.  The  constitution  of 
1822  is  proclaimed  at  Lisbon. — Nov.  3.  An  out- 
break in  favour  of  Don  Pedro's  charter  and  the 
constitution  of  1822  occurs  at  Lisbon. — Nov.  18. 
An  amnesty  is  decreed  in  favour  of  the  insur- 
gents. 

1837,  Aug.  1 8.  The  Duke  of  Tereeira  fails  in  an  attempt 

to  restore  Don  Pedro's  charter. — Sep.  2c.  The 
Duke  of  Tereeira  and  his  friends  seek  refuge  in 
England. 

1838,  Feb.    13.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Lisbon. — 

March  21.  The  cortes  adopt  a  new  constitution. 
—April  4.  Maria  II.  swears  fidelity  to  the  new 
constitution. — April  7.  The  Oporto  wine  company 
is  re-established. 

1840,  Nov.  A  misunderstanding  takes  place  with  Spain 
respecting  the  navigation  of  the  Douro. 

1846,  April  14.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  the  nor- 
thern districts  of  Guimaraeus,  Prado,  and  Penella. 
— May  16.  A  revolution  breaks  out  at  Coimbra, 
where  a  junta  and  national  guard  are  organized. 
— May  21.  Kiots  in  Lisbon  are  suppressed. 


A.D. 

1846,  June  16.  Don  Miguel  is  proclaimed  king  at  Borey. 

— June  24.  Don  Miguel  publishes  a  letter  as- 
serting that  he  will  never  renounce  his  claim 
to  the  Portuguese  throne  on  any  condition 
whatever. — Oct.  6.  The  Palmella  ministry  re- 
signs.—Oct.  7.  The  national  guard  is  sup- 
pressed.—Oct.  9.  The  Duke  of  Tereeira  lands  at 
Oporto,  and  is  arrested. — Oct.  12-  A  provisionary 
government  is  established  at  Oporto  under  the 
Count  das  Artas,  who  assures  Queen  Maria  II. 
that  his  object  is  to  prevent  civil  war.— Oct. 
37.  Maria  II.  publishes  a  proclamation  stating 
that  she  will  exercise  absolute  sovereignty  until 
the  restoration  of  order.  —  Oct.  28.  Gen. 
Schwalbach  defeats  the  rebels.— Oct  31.  The 
Itoyalists  are  victorious  at  Evora,  and  an  Eng- 
lish fleet,  under  Admiral  Parker,  anchors  in 
the  Tagus.— Nov.  26.  Palmella  is  banished.— 
Dec.  22.  Marshal  Saldanha  gains  a  great  victory 
over  the  rebel  forces  under  the  Count  of  Bomfin, 
at  Torres  Vedras. 

1847,  Jan.  7.    The    insurgents,  under  Count  das  Artas, 

enter  Oporto. — Jan.  30.  The  rebels  are  defeated 
at  Villaponca  by  Gen.  Cazal.— April  28.  Maria  II. 
consents  to  grant  a  general  amnesty  and  to  concede 
someof  the  demands  of  the  malcontents. — May  21. 
England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  hold  a 
conference  at  London,  at  which  the  three  former 
powers  agree  to  assist  in  restoring  order. — June 


9.  Maria  II.  publishes  a  conciliatory  proclamation. 
— June  15.  The  insurgent  general  Sa-da-Ban- 
deira,  and  a  large  number  of  his  officers,  submit. 


ne  30.  The  junta  of  Oporto  capitulate,  and 
the  town  is  entered  by  the  Spaniards. 

1850,  June  22.  An  American  squadron  enters  the  Tagus 

to  enforce  the  claims  of  the  United  States. 

1851,  Aprils.  The  Duke  of  Saldanha  heads  an  insurrection 

of  the  soldiery.— April  13.  He  enters  Coimbra. — 
April  24.  Oporto  declares  in  his  favour.— May  3. 
The  revolt  extends  to  Lisbon. — May  4.  Saldanha 
is  made  head  of  the  administration.— May  7.  The 
King-consort  resigns  the  commandership-in- 
chief  of  the  army. — May  25.  Maria  II.  dissolves 
the  chamber  of  deputies.— July  38.  The  electoral 
law  is  altered. — Sep.  24.  Don  Miguel  marries  the 
Princess  Adelaide  of  Lowenstein-Ilosenberg. 

1852,  July  8.  The  hereditary  Prince  of  Portugal  swears  to 

respect  the  constitution. — July  o.  An  important 
additional  act  of  the  constitution  is  published, 
by  which  capital  punishment  for  political 
offences  is  abolished,  and  other  reforms  are  in- 
troduced.— Dec.  18.  The  interest  on  the  public 
debt  is  converted  from  five  to  three  per  cent. 

1853,  Nov.  15.    Death  of   Maria   II.,  who    is   succeeded 

by  her  son  Pedro  V.,  under  the  regency  of  his 
father. — Dec.  19.  The  King  regent  takes  the  con- 
stitutional oaths. 

1854,  June    3.   The  young  King  visits  London.— Sep.  3. 

He  visits  France.— Dec.  30.  All  the  slaves  of  the 
Portuguese  crown  are  declared  free. 
I^5S>  Sep.  16.  Pedro  V.  assumes  the  government. 

1856,  June  6.  The  Saldanha  ministry  resigns,  and  is  suc- 

ceeded by  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Louie.  The 
cholera  rages  in  Lisbon. 

1857,  April  29.    The    marriage   of    the    king    with    the 

Princess  Stephanie  of  Hohenzollera-Sigmaringen 
is  celebrated  by  proxy  at  Berlin.— Nov.  27.  The 
French  slaver  Charles  et  Georges  is  seized  by  a 
Portuguese  cruiser  and  taken  to  Mozambique. 
The  French  Government  maintains  that  the 
negroes  found  on  board  were  free  labourers. 

1858,  May  27.  The  king  receives  the  investiture  of  the 

Garter.— Aug.  13.  The  Charles  et  Georgts  arrives 
at  Lisbon. — Oct.  13.  The  French  Government 
demands  the  restoration  of  the  vessel. — Oct.  25. 
It  is  surrendered  by  the  Portuguese  Government. 

1859,  March  16.    A  new  ministry  is  formed  under  the 

Duke  of  Tereeira. — July  17.  Death  of  the  young 
queen,  from  diphtheria. 

1860,  April  26.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Tereeira,  president 

of  the  council. — Aug.  3.  A  commercial  treaty  is 
concluded  with  Japan. 

1861,  Nov.  II.    Death  of   King  Pedro  V.,  who  is  suc- 

ceeded by  his  brother  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Oporto,  their  father  Ferdinand  II.,  husband  of 
the  late  queen  Maria  II.,  acting  as  regent. — Dec. 
33.  Solemn  inauguration  of  the  reign  of  King 
Louis  I. 


POSEN 


[    802    ] 


POSTS 


1862,  Feb.   19.     A  new  ministry  is  formed,   under   the 

Marquis  Louie.— Aug.  13.  By  a  treaty  signed  at 
Tien-tsin,  Macao  is  definitively  ceded  to  Por- 
tugal.—Oct.  2.  Louis  I.  marries  Pia,  youngest 
daughter  of  Victor  Kmiinuel  I. 

1863,  Sep.  38.  Birth  of  Carlos,  the  heir  apparent. 

1864,  May  27.  The  hereditary  peerage  is  abolished. 

1865,  July  31.  Another  prince,  named  Alphonso,  is  born. 

—Sep.  3.  The  Aguiar  ministry  is  formed. — .Seji, 
18.  The  Portuguese  International  Exhibition  is 
opened  at  Oporto. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF  PORTUGAL. 
COUNTS. 

A.D.  I  A.D. 

1095.  Henrique,  or  Henry  of    1112.  Theresa,  queen  regent. 
Burgundy.  |  1138.  Alphonso. 


KI? 
1139.  Alphonso  I. 

•GS. 
1385.  Joam,  or  John  I.,  the 

1185.  Sancho  I. 

Great. 

1212.  Alphonso  II.  (the  Fat). 

1433.  Edward. 

1223-  Sancho  II. 
1248.  Alphonso  III. 

143-1.  Alplionso       V.,       the 
African. 

1379.  Denis,  or  Dionysius. 

1481.  Joam,  or  John  II. 

1325.  Alphonsi,  IV. 

1495.  Einanuel. 

1357.  Pedro,  or  Peter  I.,  the 

1521.  Joam,  or  John  III. 

Sr\  en-. 

I.SS7-   Sebastian. 

1367.  Ferdinand  I. 

[£9&   lli-nry  the  Cardinal. 

I     PORTUGAL  UNDKIt   SPANISH   KINGS. 

1580.   Philip  II. 

1623.  Philip  IV. 

1590.  Philip  III. 

HOUSE   OF    BUAGAXf/A. 

1640.  Joam,    or  John    IV. 

I7«6.  Maria    I.,   Francesca 

(the  Fortunate). 

(alone). 

1656.  Alphonso  VI. 

iKifi.  Joam,  or  John  VI. 

1683.  Pedro,  or  Peter  II. 
1706.  Joam,  or  John  V. 

]K26.    Pedro,  or  Peter  IV. 
iH4f,.   Mariu  11.  (da  Gloria). 

1750.  Jose  |  ill. 

1828.  Miiruc-1. 

1777.  Pedro,    or    Peter  III. 
and  Maria  I.  (Fran- 

1833.  Maria  11.  (restored). 
[853.   Pedro,  or  Peter  V. 

cesca). 

1861.  Louis  I. 

POSEN  (Prussia).—  This  province  formerly 
belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Part  of 
it  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1772,  and  the 
remainder  in  1793.  It  was  taken  from  Prussia 
and  annexed  to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  in  1 807, 
and  restored  in  1815.  The  secret  societies  for 
the  deliverance  of  Poland  from  foreign  do- 
minion, which  led  to  the  revolution  of  1830, 
had  their  ramifications  in  the  duchy  of  Posen. 
An  insurrection  of  the  Poles  took  place  in 
April,  1848,  attended  by  great  atrocities  on 
the  part  of  the  peasants,  which  were  retaliated 
by  the  German  troops.  The  revolt  was  put 
down  in  May,  1848. 

POSEN  (Prussia),  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  was  erected  into  a 
bishopric  on  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Poland  in  the  ioth  century,  and  became 
the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Poland  in  the 
i3th  century.  A  large  part  of  the  older  por- 
tions of  Posen  were  destroyed  in  the  great  fire 
of  1803.  Napoleon  I.  gave  an  audience  here 
to  the  deputies  of  Poland  on  behalf  of  that 
kingdom,  Nov.  29,  1806.  Murat  threw  up  his 
command  in  the  French  army  here,  and  aban- 
doned the  cause  of  Napoleon  I.,  Jan.  17,  1813. 
Eugene  made  a  resolute  stand  at  Posen  for 
three  weeks,  on  the  retreat  of  the  French  from 
Russia,  and  evacuated  the  city  Feb.  12,  1813. 
An  insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  Feb.,  1846, 
was  soon  suppressed. 

POSTMASTER-GENERAL.— The  first  post- 
master in  England  was  Sir  Thomas  Randolph, 


who  received  the  appointment  in  1581.  James 
I.  constituted  the  office  of  postmaster  for 
foreign  parts,  which  was  bestowed  upon  Mat- 
thew de  1'Equester,  in  1619.  This  office  he 
assigned  to  William  Frizell  and  Thomas 
Witherings,  who  were  protected  by  royal 
denunciation  against  private  adventurers,  in 
1632.  The  office  of  postmaster  was  regulated 
by  12  Charles  II.  c.  35  (1660),  which  was 
repealed  by  9  Anne,  c.  10  (June  i,  1711).  This 
act  ordered  the  establishment  of  one  post- 
master-general, to  be  made  and  constituted 
by  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal. 

POST-OFFICE  (London).— A  letter  office,  in 
connection  with  the  principal  mails,  was  estab- 
lished in  1635,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Thomas  Witherings,  whose  receiving-house 
was  in  Sherbome  Lane.  By  an  act  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  passed  in  1656,  the  erection 
of  a  central  general  office  was  ordered  ;  and 
after  the  Restoration  the  measure  was  con- 
tinued by  12  Charles  II.  c.  35  (1660),  and  it  was 
amended  by  9  Anne,  c.  10  (June  i,  1711).  At 
the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  the 
General  Post-office  was  situated  in  Cloak  Lane, 
near  Dowgate,  whence  it  was  transferred  to 
Bishopsgate  Street,  and  afterwards  to  Lombard 
Street.  In  1765  four  houses  in  Abchurch 
Street  were  added  to  the  establishment  ;  but 
the  accommodation  proving  insufficient,  com- 
missioners for  choosing  a  new  site  were 
appointed  by  the  private  act,  55  Geo.  III.  c. 

§i  (1815),  and  a  spot  at  the  junction  of  Newgate 
trect  and  St.  Martin's-le-Grand  was  selected. 
Excavations  for  the  new  building  were  com- 
menced in  1818,  but  the  proceedings  were 
suspended,  and  the  first  stone  was  not  laid  till 
May,  1824.  It  was  opened  for  business  Sep. 

23POST-OFFICE  SAVINGS  BANKS.— By  24 
Viet.  c.  14  (May  17,  1861),  the  postmaster- 
general  was  empowered  to  direct  his  officers 
at  various  places  to  receive  cash  deposits  for 
remittance  to  the  general  office  at  London,  to 
be  repaid  at  2^  per  cent,  interest.  No  deposit 
may  be  of  less  value  than  is.,  and  all  the 
existing  act  relating  to  savings  banks  apply 
to  the  Post-office  banks.  In  accordance  with 
this  act,  Post-office  savings  banks  were  opened 
throughout  Great  Britain,  Sep.  16,  1861.  It 
was  amended  by  26  Viet.  c.  14  (May  4,  1863). 
POSTS  AND  POSTAGE.— Cyrus  the  Elder, 
Kingof  Persia,  6.0.559,  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  first  to  establish  a  regular  system  of  post- 
ing. Herodotus  (B.C.  484—8.0.  408)  describes  the 
Persian  mode  of  forwarding  communications 
by  what  they  called  relays,  couriers  being 
stationed  along  the  road,  one  man  and  horse 
to  every  day's  journey.  A  somewhat  similar 
course  was  pursued  by  the  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  B.C.  31.  Prescott  states  that 
the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  possessed  insti- 
tutions of  the  kind  long  before  they  were 
introduced  into  modem  Europe.  Establish- 
ments of  this  kind  existed  in  France  under 
Charlemagne  (768  —  814),  and  Charles  V. 
(1364  —  80).  In  England  royal  messen-ws 
were  employed,  under  the  name  of  cokinus, 
nuncius,  and  garcio,  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters,  as  early  as  1252.  Sir  Bryan  Tuke 
exercised  supervision  over  these  officials,  hold- 


POSTS 


[    803    ] 


POUGHKEEPSIE 


ing  a  situation  analogous  to  the  modem 
postmaster-general  (q.  v.),  in  1533.  Edward 
IV.  established  post-stations  at  distances  of 
20  miles  from  each  other,  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  about  1470.  By  2  <fc  3  Edw. 
VI.  c.  3  (1548),  the  hire  for  post-horses  was  made 
a  penny  a  mile.  The  letting  of  post-horses 
was  vested  solely  in  the  postmaster-general 
and  his  department  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  35 
(1660).  The  duty  on  licences  for  letting  post- 
horses  was  regulated  by  25  Geo.  III.  c.  51 
(1785).  The  letter-office  of  England  and 
Scotland  was  established  in  1635,  and  a  weekly 
conveyance  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  was 
set  on  foot  by  Edmund  Prideaux  in  1649, 
which  was  opposed  by  the  common  council  of 
London  ;  but  Parliament  declared  that  the 
office  was  "in  their  sole  power  and  at  their 
disposal,"  March  21,  1649.  The  private  under- 
takers, who  performed  the  work  for  the  public 
at  a  cheaper  rate,  continued  to  flourish,  and 
expressed  their  determination,  "by  God's 
help,"  to  go  on  ;  but  John  Manley  having 
farmed  it  for  £10,000  per  annum,  the  adven- 
turers were  forcibly  put  down  in  1653  ;  and 
an  ordinance  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
1657,  set  forth  that  Government  holding  the 
monopoly  of  posts,  would  be  the  best  means  to 
discover  and  prevent  many  dangerous  and 
wicked  designs  against  the  commonwealth. 
Farmed  to  Daniel  O'Neal  for  ^21,500,  the 
revenue  was  settled  upon  the  Duke  of  York, 
the  king's  brother,  in  1663.  It  was  again 
farmed,  to  Sir  William  Petty,  at  ^43,000,  in 
1 674.  The  metropolitan  penny  post  was  set  np 
in  1 68 1  by  Robert  Murray,  an  upholsterer,  who 
assigned  his  interest  to  William  Dockwra,  a 
London  merchant,  in  1683.  It  was  decided  in 
1697  that  its  revenues  formed  part  of  the 
general  post,  and  Dockwra  was  appointed 
comptroller.  A  pension  of  £500  per  annum 
for  10  years  was  awarded  to  him  in  1702. 
Povey  attempted  to  establish  a  half-penny 
post  in  1708.  An  additional  penny  was 
authorized  by  law  to  be  laid  on  letters  for 
the  villages  round  London  in  1727  ;  and  the 
metropolitan  rate  was  raised  from  id.  to 
sd.  in  1801.  A  distinct  postal  system  had 
been  organized  for  Scotland  in  1662,  and 
Sir  Robert  Sinclair  received  a  grant  from 
King  William  III.  of  the  whole  revenue,  with 
a  salary  of  .£300  a  year,  to  keep  up  the  estab- 
lishment, in  1698.  The  system  was  reorgan- 
ized and  consolidated  by  9  Anne,  c.  10  (June 
i,  1711).  The  cross-posts  were  farmed  in  1720, 
to  Mr.  Allen,  who  cleared  out  of  his  con- 
tract .£12,000  a  year,  for  42  years.  The  net 
revenue  was  ,£96,339  in  1724.  The  privilege 
of  franking  was  confirmed  and  regulated 
by  Parliament  in  1764.  Palmer's  improve- 
ments were  adopted  Aug.  2,  1784.  (See  MAIL 
COACHES.)  All  previous  post-office  acts  were 
repealed,  their  chief  provisions  being  consoli- 
dated into  one  general  statute,  by  i  Viet.  c.  32 
(July  12,  1837) ;  i  Viet.  c.  33  (July  12,  1837')  ; 
i  Viet.  c.  34  (July  12,  1837)  ;  i  Viet.  c.  35  (July 
12,  1837);  i  Viet.  c.  36  (July  12,  1837);  and 
i  Viet.  c.  76  (July  17,  1837).  A  uniform  rate 
of  id.  on  inland  letters,  to  take  effect  from 
Oct.  5,  1840,  was  established  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c. 
52  (Aug.  17,  1839).  A  treasury  minute  was 


accordingly  issued,  Nov.  12,  1839,  fixing  the 
rate  of  postage  at  ^d.  per  half-ounce,  to 
take  effect  on  and  after  Dec.  5.  The  uniform 
rate  of  id.  for  the  United  Kingdom  came 
into  operation  Jan.  10,  1840.  The  book 
post,  established  in  1848,  was  extended  in  1855 
and  1857.  Postmasters  were  permitted  to 
purchase  unspoiled  stamps  of  the  public  at  2^ 
per  cent,  discount,  Feb.  i,  1862.  (See  DIREC- 
TORY.) 

POTASSIUM. —This  metal  was  discovered 
by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1807,  and  an  im- 
proved process  was  discovered  by  Gay-Lussac 
and  Thenard  in  1808. 

POTATO.— This  plant,  a  native  of  Chili  and 
Peru,  was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Spaniards 
early  in  the  i6th  century,  and,  according  to  the 
generally  received  account,  into  England  from 
Virginia  by  the  colonists  sent  out  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  in  1584,  who  returned  in  July, 
1586.  Some  authors  contend  that  the  plant 
was  first  described  by  Caspar  Bauhin  in  1590, 
and  afterwards  introduced  here.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  some  specimens  were  brought  by 
Hawkins  in  1565  and  by  Drake  in  1585,  though 
it  did  not  at  first  attract  much  attention.  For 
a  long  period  the  cultivation  was  limited  to 
the  garden,  and  it  was  not  planted  as  a  field 
crop  in  Scotland  until  1732.  By  the  middle  of 
this  century  it  was  generally  known  through- 
out England.  The  potato  disease  first  appeared 
near  Liege  in  1842,  broke  out  in  Canada  in 
1844,  and  caused  the  failure  of  the  potato  crops 
in  Ireland  in  1845,  and  the  four  folio  wing  years. 
(See  BRANDY.) 

POTATO  WAR,  or  KARTOFFEL-KREIG.— 
The  name  given  to  the  Prussian  war  waged 
in  Bohemia  respecting  the  succession  in  1778, 
on  account  of  the  numerous  petty  skirmishes 
and  manceuvrings  respecting  convoys. 

POTID.EA  (Greece).— This  Dorian  city,  ori- 
ginally colonized  from  Corinth,  surrendered  to 
the  Persians  B.C.  480.  It  revolted  from  Athens 
B.C.  433,  and  was  allied  with  the  Corinthians. 
The  Olynthians  held  it  B.C.  382,  the  Athenians 
took  it  B.C.  364,  and  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,who 
took  it  in  June,  B.C.  356,  gave  it  to  the  Olyn- 
thians, by  whom  it  was  destroyed.  Cassander 
(B.C.  354 — B.C.  296)  founded  a  new  city  on  its 
site,  and  named  it  Cassandria.  It  fell  under  the 
rule  of  the  despot  Apollodorus,  B.C.  279,  and 
was  destroyed  by  the  Huns  in  the  sth  century. 

POTOMAC.— (-See  CHANCELLORSVILLE,  LEES- 
BURG  HEIGHTS,  <fec.) 

POTOSI  (S.America).— The  silver  mines,  near 
this  town  of  Bolivia,  in  Peru,  were  discovered 
by  an  Indian  in  1545. 

POTSDAM  (Prussia).— The  royal  palace  o 
Sans  Souci,  called  the  Versailles  of  Prussia, 
containing  Frederick  (II.)  the  Great's  apart- 
ments in  the  state  in  which  he  left  them,  was 
built  1660 — 1673.  The  town-hall  was  completed 
in  1754.  Over  the  tomb  of  Frederick  II.,  at 
the  hour  of  midnight,  Alexander  I.  of  Russia 
and  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  vowed 
eternal  friendship,  Nov.  3,  1805.  Napoleon  I. 
visited  the  tomb  precisely  one  year  after,  Nov. 
3,  1806. 

POTTERY.— (See  PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY.) 

POUGHKEEPSIE  (N.  America).— This  city 
of  New  York  was  founded  by  the  Dutch  in 

3F   2 


POULTERERS 


PR.ETORIAN  GUARDS 


1690.  The  constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  ratified  here  by  the  convention  in  1788. 

POULTERERS  were  incorporated  in  1504. 
The  first  poultry  show  in  London  was  held  in 
Baker  Street,  Jan.  n — 14,  1853. 

POULTRY  COMPTER  (London).— The  date 
of  the  foundation  of  this,  the  old  sheriffs'  prison, 


is  not  known,  but  it  was  certainly  very  ancient, 
and  Stow  says,  "  I  have  not  read  of  the  original 
thereof."  It  is  stated  that  the  name  Compter, 
applied  to  debtors'  prisons,  is  derived  from 
coiH/m.tare,  to  account,  because  "whosoever 
slippeth  in  there  must  be  sure  to  account,  and 
pay  well  too,  ere  he  get  out  again."  The  last 
slave  imprisoned  in  England  was  Somerset, 
who,  in  1772,  was  confined  in  this  prison,  the 
only  one  spared  in  the  Gordon  riots  of  1780. 
It  was  not  much  used  after  1804.  The  Wood 
Street  Compter,  established  in  1555,  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  great  fire  of  1666. 

POUND.— The  pound  used  from  the  time 
of  William  I.  to  Henry  VII.,  was  taken  from 
7,680  picked  grains  of  wheat  well  dried.  By 
31  Edw.  I.  c.  i  (1303),  the  weight  of  the  London 
pound  was  settled  at  12  and  15  ounces  in 
different  cases.  The  pound  avoirdupois,  intro- 
duced by  Henry  VIII.  in  1532,  contained  7,000 
grains  Troy.  A  standard  'brass  weight  of 
one  pound  Troy,  manufactured  in  1758,  and 
preserved  in  the  custody  of  the  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  was  made  the  imperial 
standard  pound  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  74,  s.  4  vJune 
17,  1824),  which  fixed  the  weight  of  the  pound 
avoirdupois  at  7,000  grains  Troy. 
POUNDAGE.— (SeeTuNNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.) 
POWDER.  —  (See  GUNPOWDER  and  HAIR 
POWDER.) 

PO\VER    LOOM.— (See  COTTON  TRADE  and 
LOOM.) 

I'OWHATAN.— (See  JAMES  RIVER.) 

POYNINGS'S  ACT    or  LAW.— The  statvite 

named  after  Sir  Edward  Poynings,  appointed 

lord-deputy  of  Ireland,  Sep.  13, 1494,  restricting 

legislation  in  the  Irish  Parliament  to  measures 

that  had  first  been  approved  of  by  the  English 

council,  was  passed  at  Drogheda  in  1494,  and 

was  repealed  in  April,  1782. 

POZZUOLL— (See  PUTEOLI.) 

PRJEMONSTRATENSIANS,    or    NORBER 

TINE  ORDER  OF  CANONS,  was  established 

by  St.  Norbert  in  France  in  1120.     The  spot 

chosen  in  the  forest  of  Coucy,  in  the  diocese  oi 

Laon,  was  called  Pr6  Montre",  because  pointed 

out  in  a  vision :    hence  the  name,     Adopting 

the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  they  were  approved 

by  Pope   Honorius  II.  in   1126.    Norbert  was 

appointed  Bishop  of  Magdeburg  in  1127,  anc 

the  order   spread  rapidly  in   Germany.     H 

died  June  6,  1134.     Nicholas  IV.  granted  them 

permission  to   eat  flesh  when  travelling,  in 

1288  ;   and  Pius  II.  extended  the  licence  to  t 

general  use  of  that  diet,  except  during  Lent 

n  1460.     They  came  into  England  in  1146,  anc 

were  called  White  Canons. 

PR^EMUNIRE,  from  prcemuniri,  a  corrup 
form  of  prcemoneri,*  to  be  forewarned,  is  th 


name  of  a  writ  issued  for  the  prosecution  of 
persons  charged  with  certain  offences,  and  it 
is  also  applied  to  the  offences  for  which  the 
writ  is  issued,  which  were  originally  such  as 
related  to  the  dominion  of  the  papacy  in  this 
country.  Persons  convicted  under  writs  of 
praamunire  are  placed  out  of  the  pale  of  the 


*    "  Proemunire  facias,  A.  JB.,  cause  A.  B.  to  be  fore 
warned  that  he  appear  before  us  to  answer  the  conte 
wherewith  he  stands  charged:   which  contempt  is  par 
ticnlarly    recited   in    llu;   preamble    to   the   writ." — Kerr 
Student's  Blacksltmc. 


royal  protection,  their  possessions  are  forfeited 
to  the  crown,  and  they  themselves  are  com- 
mitted to  prison  during  the  sovereign's  pleasure, 
he  first  statute  of  praemunire  is  27  Edw.  III. 
i,  c.  i  (1353),  but  the  most  important  which 
enerally  goes  by  the  name  is  16  Rich.  II.  c.  5 
392).   It  prohibits  the  purchase  of  papal  bulls 
rom  Rome,  and  declares  the  English  crown 
ndependent  of   the  temporal  sovereignty  of 
tie  Pope.     The  killing  of  a  person  attainted 
L  a  praemunire  was  first  declared  unlawful  by 
Eliz.  c.  i,  s.  21  (1562).     By  13  Charles  II.  c.  i 
1661),  the  assertion  that  Parliament  possesses 
egislative  authority,  independent  of  the  royal 
auction,  is  declared  a  prsemunire,  and  by  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  31  Charles  II.  c.  2  (May  27, 
679^,  the  illegal  confinement  of  English  sub- 
ects  in  foreign  prisons  renders  the  offender 
subject  to   the  same  penalties.     The   offence 
eally  consists  in  "introducing  a  foreign  power 
nto  this  land,  and  creating  an   imperium  In. 
mperio,  by  paying  that  obedience  to  papal 
u-oeess  which  constitutionally  belongs  to  the 
Town  alone." 

PRUNES TE  (ItalyN,  an  ancient  city  of 
latium,  which  joined  the  Romans  B.C.  499,  was 
afterwards  in  alliance  with  the  Volscians.  (See 
ALLIA.)  It  was  taken  by  Sylla  B.C.  82,  and  was 
ifterwards  known  as  Civitas  Palas  Praenestina, 
whence  the  modern  name  Palest rina.  The 
ragments  of  a  Roman  calendar,  called  Fasti 
Praenestini,  found  here  in  1773,  were  published 
at  Rome  in  1779. 

PRAETOR.— This  title,  originally  applied  to 
;he  Roman  consuls,  was  specially  appropriated 
DO  a  magistrate  called  the  prcetov  urbanus,  B.C. 
366.  A  plebeian  first  obtained  the  office  B.C. 
337.  A  second  praetor,  called  prcetor peregrinus, 
for  deciding  questions  in  which  foreigners 
were  concerned,  was  created  B.C.  246.  Two 
nore  were  appointed  for  the  provinces  B.C. 
227,  and  two  more  B.C.  197.  The  number  of  the 
praetors  was  increased  by  Sylla  to  eight,  B.C.  80, 
to  16  by  Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  46—6.0.  44),  reduced 
to  12  by  Augustus  (B.C.  27— A.D.  14),  and  again 
raised  to  16  by  Tiberius  (14 — 37). 

PRyETORIAN  GUARDS,  so  named  because 
hen  first  instituted  they  kept  watch  and  ward 
round  the  prcelorium,  or  general's  tent,  were 
formed  into  nine  or  ten  cohorts,  and  made  body- 
guards by  Augustus  (B.C.  27 — A.D.  14).  Claudius 
I.  having  been  raised  by  them  to  the  throne  in 
41,  gave  to  each  a  donation  of  .£120.  Their  ex- 
pectations or  demands  in  that  respect  rose  so 
high  that  Hadrian  in  117  complained  that  the 
promotion  of  a  Caesar  had  cost  him  two  millions 
and  a  half  sterling.  The  Emperor  Pertinax 
was  murdered  by  them  March  28,  193,  after 
which  they  openly  putthe  empire  up  to  auction, 
proclaiming  from  the  ramparts  that  the  Roman 
world  was  to  be  disposed  of  to  the  highest 
bidder,  and  it  was  "knocked  down  "  to  Didius 
Julianus.  Septimius  Severus  banished  them, 
on  pain  of  death,  100  miles  from  the  capital, 


PRAGA 


[     805    ] 


PREEZ 


and  remodelled  the  force,  establishing  the 
office  of  praetorian  prsefect,  in  197.  During  a 
popular  tumult,  they  were  besieged  by  the 
citizens  in  their  camp  in  238.  Diocletian 
abolished  their  privileges,  and  reduced  their 
numbers  in  303.  Constantine  I.  suppressed 
them  in  313. 

PRAGA  (Poland),  a  suburb  of  Warsaw,  was 
destroyed  by  the  Russians,  Nov.  5,  1794.  The 
Poles,  after  a  two  days'  conflict,  were  defeated 
here  by  the  Russians,  Feb.  25,  1831. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.— This  term  is  said 
to  have  been  applied  to  certain  formal  proclama- 
tions under  the  Byzantine  empire.  An  ordi- 
nance issued  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  in  March, 
1268,  resisting  the  claim  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome  to  nominate  the  bishops  of  France,  was 
renewed,  extended,  and  confirmed  by  the  Etats 
Geiieraux  assembled  by  Charles  VII.  atBourges, 
in  July,  1438.  It  suppressed  annatcs,  prohibited 
appeals  to  Rome,  and  was  the  charter  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  A  concordat,  abrogating  the 
chief  provisions  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  was 
signed  Aug.  18,  1516,  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I. 
— Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  pub- 
lished a  document  April  19,  1713,  to  which  the 
name  of  Pragmatic  Sanction  has  also  been 
given.  Its  object  was  the  settlement  of  his 
hereditary  estates  upon  his  eldest  daughter, 
Maria  Theresa  ;  and  it  directed  that  in  default 
of  male  issue  of  his  line,  his  daughter  should 
succeed  in  order  of  seniority,  in  preference  to 
those  of  his  brother,  the  Emperor  Joseph  I. 
It  received  the  assent  of  the  King  of  Spain 
April  25,  1725  ;  of  the  Empress  of  Russia  Aug. 
6,  1726  ;  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  Sep.  i,  1726  ; 
of  the  King  of  Prussia  Oct.  12,  1726 ;  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  States-General  March  19,  1731 ; 
of  the  Elector  of  Cologne  Aug.  26,  1731 ;  of 
the  Germanic  empire  Jan.  n,  1732  ;  and  of 

Louis  XV.  of  France  Nov.  18,  1738. Charles 

IV.  of  the  Two  Sicilies  published  a  Pragmatic 

Sanction  Oct.  6,  1759. Ferdinand  VII.  of 

Spain  published  a  Pragmatic  Sanction  abolish- 
ing the  Salic  Law  in  Spain,  March  29,  1830. 
(See  CARLISTS.)  Several  edicts  or  rescripts 
have  received  this  name. 

PRAGUE  (Battles).— -Ziska,  at  the  head  of 
the  Hussites,  gained  a  victory  near  Prague, 

July  14,  1420. Another  battle,  in  which  the 

Elector  Palatine  was  defeated  by  Maximilian, 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  was  fought  here,  Nov.  8, 

1620. Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  defeated  the 

Austrians  in  their  encampment  on  the  Mol- 
dau,  near  Prague,  May  6,  1757.  The  Austrian 
camp,  military  chest,  and  60  pieces  of  artillery 
were  captured. 

PRAGUE  (Bohemia).  —  The  old  town  was 
founded  about  759,  and  the  Neustadt,  or  new 
town,  in  1348.  Prague  was  captured  by  Henry 
I.  (the  Fowler)  in  934.  Boleslaus  I.  of  Poland 
besieged  it  in  1005.  The  Jews  were  nearly 
exterminated  by  the  populace,  in  consequence 
of  a  rumour  that  they  had  insulted  the  Host, 
in  1290.  The  cathedral  was  commenced  in 
1344  ;  the  city  was  made  the  capital  of  Ger- 
many in  1347  ;  the  first  university  in  Germany 
was  founded  here  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV. 
in  1348  ;  and  the  palace  of  the  kings  of  Bohe- 
mia in  1353.  The  Hussite  insurrection  took 
place  in  1419.  The  articles  of  Prague  were 


promulgated  by  Ziska  in  1420.  The  Hussites 
took  it  in  1424,  and  an  arrangement  with 
them,  called  the  Compacta  of  Prague,  was 
made  in  1433.  Sigismund  captured  Prague  in 
1435.  The  bishopric  of  Prague  was  founded 
by  Boleslaus  II.  in  967,  and  councils  were  held 
here  in  1355  ;  April  29,  1381  ;  June  17,  1392  : 
and  June  7,  1421.  Part  of  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  Swedes,  July  31,  but  the  remainder  re- 
sisted their  efforts.  It  was  occupied  Nov.  26, 
1741,  by  the  French,  under  Marshal  Broglie. 
They  were  blockaded  by  Prince  Charles  of 
Lorraine  for  nearly  two  years,  when,  most  of 
the  garrison  having  escaped,  the  rest  capitu- 
lated in  1742.  Prague  was  taken  by  Frederick 
II.  of  Prussia  in  1744.  He  laid  siege  to  the 
town  in  1757,  but  was  eventually  obliged  to 
retire  and  evacuate  Bohemia.  A  congress  of 
the  Allied  powers  and  Napoleon  I.  met  here 
July  5,  1813,  and  broke  up  Aug.  9.  The 
people  revolted  against  Austria,  June  12,  1848, 
and  the  insurrection  was  quelled  June  19. 

PRAGUE  (Treaties).  —  The  preliminaries 
between  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Em- 
peror, signed  at  Pirna  in  Nov.,  1634,  formed 
the  basis  of  a  treaty  concluded  at  Prague, 

May  30,  1635. Peace  between  Austria  and 

Prussia  was  concluded  here  Aug.  23,  1866. 

PRAGUERIE.  —  The  French  nobles,  insti- 
gated by  the  Dukes  of  Bourbon  and  Aleiicon, 
and  the  Counts  of  Vendome  and  Dunois,  re- 
belled against  Charles  VII.  in  1440.  They 
quitted  the  court  and  retired  to  Blois,  taking 
with  them  the  Dauphin  Louis,  then  a  minor  ; 
and  the  movement  received  the  name  of  Pra- 
guerie  from  the  Hussite  war.  The  people  de- 
clared for  Charles  VII.,  and  the  refractory 
nobles  speedily  made  submission. 

PRAISE  GOD  BAREBONE'S  PARLIA- 
MENT.— (See  BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT.) 

PRAYER  is  first  mentioned  Gen.  iv.  26. 
Bingham  states  that  the  custom  of  holding 
morning  and  evening  prayer  daily  in  churches 
commenced  in  the  3rd  century.  Prayers  for 
the  dead  commenced  about  215,  and  prayers  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  and  Saints  had  become  common 
in  the  Sth  century.  (See  COMMON  PRAYER.) 

PRE-ADAMITES.  —  The  theory  that  the 
earth  had  inhabitants  before  the  time  of  Adam 
was  first  advocated  by  Isaac  de  la  Peyrere 
(Pererius)  in  1655. 

PRECEDENCE  was  settled  in  England  by 
31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10  (1539),  amended  by  subse- 
quent statutes.  Regulations  for  Scotland  were 
made  by  statute  in  1623  and  in  1661. 

PREDESTINATION.  —  This  doctrine  was 
first  taught  in  the  Christian  Church  by  St. 
Augustine,  about  420.  It  led  to  bitter  contro- 
versies, and  in  469  Faustus  protested  against 
it.  Lucidus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Augustine  and 
an  advocate  of  predestination,  was  compelled 
to  retract  his  opinion  at  the  councils  of  Aries 
and  Lyons,  both  held  in  475.  It  spread  into 
Gaul  in  510,  and  was  established  by  the  Council 
of  Orange  July  3,  529.  The  controversy  was 
revived  in  the  gth,  and  again,  after  the  Refor- 
mation, in  the  i6th  century.  It  was  introduced 
into  Switzerland  by  Calvin,  about  1554.  (See 
ARMINIANS,  CALVINISM,  and  JANSENISTS.  ) 

PREEZ,  or  PREETZ  (Denmark),  owes  its 
origin  to  a  convent,  founded  in  1216. 


PRENZLOW 


[     806    ] 


PRESS-GANG 


PRENZLOW,  or  PRENZLAU  (Prussia).— 
St.  Mary's  Church,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able brick  buildings  in  Germany,  was  built 
1325 — 40,  Twenty  thousand  Prussians,  under 
the  Prince  of  Hohenlohe,  surrendered  to  the 
French  here,  in  Oct.,  1806. 

PREROGATIVE  COURT  was  established 
for  the  trial  of  will  cases,  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who  appointed  its  judge,  and  enjoyed  by  spe- 
cial prerogative  a  probate  of  all  wills  made  in 
his  archbishopric.  Appeals  from  this  court 
were  at  one  time  made  to  the  Pope,  but  by  25 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  (1533),  they  were  ordered  to 
be  made  to  the  king  in  Chancery.  This  act 
was  repealed  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  92  (Aug.  7, 
1832),  which  transferred  the  appeal  to  the 
Privy  Council,  and  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41 
(Aug.  14,  1833),  it  was  ordered  to  be  made  to 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 
This  court  was  abolished  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  85 
(Aug.  28,  1857). 

PRESBURG,  or  PRESSBURG  (Hungary).— 
Buda  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  in  1446,  Presburg  was  declared  the 
capital  of  Hungary,  and  the  diets  were  held 
here.  A  congress  held  here  Nov.  7,  1491,  es- 
tablished the  succession  to  the  Bohemian  and 
Hungarian  crowns,  under  certain  contingencies, 
in  the  house  of  Habsburg.  It  was  again  made 
the  capital  after  the  capture  of  Buda  by  the 
Turks  in  1541,  but  in  1784  Joseph  II.  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  the  government  to  Buda. 
Presburg  was  taken  by  Bethleii  Gabor  in  1619, 
and  was  retaken  in  1621  by  the  Imperialists 
under  Boucqxioi.  A  diet  was  held  here  in 
1687.  The  royal  palace  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1811.  The  defences  of  Presburg  were 
strengthened  in  1850. 

PRESBURG,  or  PRESSBURG  (Treaty).  — 
An  armistice,  between  France  and  Austria, 
was  signed  at  Austerlitz,  Dec.  6,  1805,  and  the 
definitive  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at 
this  town  in  Hungary,  Dec.  26,  1805.  Austria 
ceded  Venice  and  other  territory  to  Italy,  re- 
cognized the  independence  of  the  Helvetian 
republic,  the  title  of  Napoleon  I.  as  King  of 
Italy,  and  the  elevation  of  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia and  of  the  Duke  of  Wtirtemberg  to  the 
rank  of  kings,  and  of  the  Duke  of  Baden  to 
that  of  grand  duke. 

PRESBYTER  I ANISM  appears  to  have  been 
the  early  form  of  church  polity  among  the 
Valdeuses,  from  the  treatise  of  Archbishop 
Seyssel,  of  Turin,  in  1520,  confirmed  by  a 
letter  of  Morel,  a  Valdensean  minister,  in 
1530.  Luther  advised  the  Bohemians  to  elect 
their  own  pastor  in  1523.  John  a  Lasco 
established  this  form  of  church  government 
at  Embden  in  1544,  and  its  divine  right 
was  maintained  in  a  conference  held  at  Wesel 
in  1566,  and  also  by  the  synod  at  Embden  in 
1571.  It  was  introduced  into  Westphalia  in 
1588.  The  system  was  recognized  by  the  Bo- 
hemian Book  of  Order,  adopted  in  1616,  and 
has  existed  in  Hungary  since  1564.  It  was 
partially  adopted  in  Switzerland  in  1541,  and 
was  popular  in  France  in  1555  ;  the  first  na- 
tional synod  having  been  held  at  Paris  in  1559, 
and  the  last  at  Loudun  in  1669.  The  first 
Dutch  synqd  met  at  Dort  in  1574.  A  party, 


consisting  of  15  ministers  and  a  number  of 
laymen,  met  at  Wandsworth  to  choose  elders, 
Nov.  20,  1572.  It  was  declared  by  Parlia- 
ment to  be  "  lawful,  and  agreeable  to  the 
word  of  God,"  and  an  order  for  the  election 
of  elders  was  made  in  March,  1646.  With  the 
exception  of  chapels  for  the  king  and  peers, 
all  parishes  were  declared  to  be  under  this 
form  of  church  government  in  1648.  It  was 
superseded  by  episcopacy  at  the  Restoration 
in  1660.  The  first  general  assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  met  in  1560;  the  assembly 
was  dissolved  by  Cromwell  in  1653.  Presby- 
terianism  was  established  by  law  in  Scotland 
in  1689.  The  first  meeting  of  a  presbytery 
in  Ireland  took  place  at  Carrickfergus,  June 
10,  1642.  The  first  congregation  in  America 
was  formed  at  Rehoboth  in  1690,  and  the  first 
presbytery  at  Philadelphia  in  1705.  The  ge- 
neral assembly  was  instituted  in  1788.  Dis- 
sensions broke  out,  and  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterians (q.  v.)  seceded  in  1810. 

PRESCOTT  (N.  America).— A  number  of 
American  sympathizers,  having  landed  at 
this  place  in  Upper  Canada  in  1838,  were 
attacked  and  compelled  to  surrender  by  the 
English  under  Capt.  Sandom  and  Col.  Young, 
April  16. 

PRESIDENT.— The  first  president  of  the 
United  States  (q.  v.)  of  America,  George  Wash- 
ington, was  elected  in  1789.  Louis  Napoleon 
was  chosen  president  of  the  French  republic 
Dec.  10,  1848. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  COUNCIL,  the  fourth 
great  office  of  state  in  England,  was,  at  the 
new  modelling  of  the  privy  council  by  Charles 
II.,  in  1679,  bestowed  upon  Anthony  Ashley, 
Lord  Shaftesbury.  This  officer  was  styled 
Principalis  et  Capitalis  Consiliarius  in  the 
time  of  King  John  (1199 — 1216). 

PRESIDENT  STEAMER  left  New  York  for 
Liverpool  in  April,  1841,  and  was  never  heard 
of  afterwards.  Among  the  passengers  were 
Lord  William  Lennox  and  Tyrone  Power,  the 
celebrated  actor. 

PRESS.— (See  ALDINE  PRESS,  BOOK  CENSORS, 
INQUISITORS  OF  THE  PRESS,  NEWSPAPERS,  &c.) 

PRESSED  TO  DEATH.—  (See  PEINE  FORTE 

ET   DURE.) 

PRESS-GANG.  — "The  uncertainties  of 
raising  troops  by  voluntary  enlistment,"  says 
Hallam,  "led  to  the  usage  of  pressing  soldiers 
for  service,"  and  in  the  preamble  of  an  act 
empowering  the  king  to  levy  troops  by  this 
compulsory  method,  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Irish  rebellion  in  1641,  it  is  declared  that  no 
man  should  be  compelled  to  go  out  of  his 
country  to  serve  as  a  soldier  except  in  cases  of 
urgent  necessity.  The  practice  of  raising  sea- 
men for  the  Royal  Navy  in  this  manner  is  said 
to  have  prevailed  from  an  ancient  date,  and  by 
2  Rich.  II.  c.  4  (1378),  a  remedy  is  provided 
against  desertion.  Various  statutes  have  regu- 
lated the  exemptions  and  penalties  for  con- 
cealment, and  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  24  (Aug.  21, 
1835),  the  period  of  compulsory  service  is 
limited  to  five  years.  The  first  impressment 
of  sailors  in  Ireland  was  made  in  1678.  It  was 
decided  by  the  judges  and  crown  lawyers  that 
the  power  was  indispensably  inherent  in  the 
crown  in  1676.  A  debate  011  a  bill  brought 


PRESSOVA 


[     807    ] 


PRINCETON 


into  the  House  of  Commons  by  Mr.  Pitt,  for 
setting  the  press-gang  to  work,  led  to  a  duel 
between  the  minister  and  Mr.  Tierney,  who 
opposed  it,  the  hostile  meeting  having  taken 
place  on  Putney  Heath,  Sunday,  May  27,  1798. 

PRESSOVA.— (See  EPERIKS.) 

PRESTER  JOHN.— (See  KERAITES.) 

PRESTON  (Lancashire),  founded  on  the  de- 
cline of  Ribchester,  the  Rigodunum  of  the 
Romans,  was  ravaged  by  Bruce  in  1322.  The 
parish  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Wilfred,  was 
erected  in  930.  James  I.  visited  Preston  Aug. 
14,  1617.  The  plague  broke  out  in  1630. 
Having  declared  for  Charles  I.,  it  was  taken 
by  Sir  J.  Seaton  after  a  desperate  resistance, 
Feb.  12,  1643,  and  was  retaken  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  March  17.  The  Royal  forces,  under  Sir 
Philip  Musgrove,  were  defeated  here  by  Crom- 
well, Aug.  17,  1648.  The  rebels,  partisans  of 
the  house  of  Stuart,  were  defeated  near  this 
town  by  Gen.  Carpenter,  Nov.  13,  1715,  and 
many  of  them  were  executed  in  the  beginning 
of  1716.  Prince  Charles  Edward,  the  Pre- 
tender, passed  through  Preston  in  his  retreat 
towards  Scotland,  Dec.  12,  1745.  The  first 
cotton-mill  was  built  in  1777.  A  riot  occurred 
March  3,  1854.  The  first  stone  of  a  new 
town-hall  was  laid  Sep.  2,  1862.  An  industrial 
exhibition  was  held  here  from  Sep.  21  to  Dec. 
7,  1865.  (See  COTTON  FAMINE.) 

PRESTON  GUILD  was  acknowledged  by 
Royal  charter  about  1175.  The  earliest  re- 
corded guild  is  that  of  June  27,  1328,  when 
certain  laws  passed  at  a  preceding  guild  were 
confirmed  ;  and  the  second  on  record  was  held 
in  1397.  Since  1542  the  guild  has  been  held 
regularly  every  20  years  :  the  last,  proclaimed 
at  the  Corn  Exchange,  Saturday,  Aug.  23, 1862, 
took  place  Sep.  2 — 7. 

PRESTONPANS  (Battle)  was  fought  at  this 
village,  near  Edinburgh,  Sep.  21,  1745,  between 
the  Royal  army,  under  Sir  John  Cope,  and  the 
Highlanders,  under  Charles  Stuart,  the  Young 
Pretender.  The  former  we're  defeated. 

PRETENDERS.  —  James  Francis  Edward 
Stuart,  called  the  Old  Pretender,  or  the  Cheva- 
lier de  St.  George,  a  son  of  James  II.,  was 
born  June  10,  1688.  A  bill  of  attainder  was 
passed  against  him  in  1701.  Early  in  March, 
1 708,  he  put  to  sea  from  Dunkirk,  and  his  fleet 
was  dispersed  by  Admiral  Byng.  He  set  sail 
from  the  same  port  in  Dec.,  1715,  landed  at 
Peterhead,  in  Scotland,  Dec.  22,  and,  after  a 
vain  attempt  to  obtain  the  crown,  escaped  from 

Montrose  to  France,  Feb.  4,  1716. Charles 

Edward,  the  Young  Pretender,  landed  in  Scot- 
land Sep.  4,  1745.  After  gaining  the  battles  of 
Prestonpans  and  Falkirk  Muir,  he  was  routed 
at  Culloden,  April  16,  1746.  Having  wandered 
for  six  months  among  the  Highlands,  ^30,000 
being  offered  for  his  head,  he  escaped  Sep.  20, 
1746,  and  landed  at  a  small  port  near  Morlaix,  in 
Britanny,  Sep.  29.  He  died  at  Rome,  Jan.  31, 
1788. 

PRIDE'S  PURGE,  so  called  from  the  activity 
with  which  Col.  Pride  seized  upon  the  members 
of  the  Long  Parliament  as  they  entered  the 
House  of  Commons,  Dec.  6,  1648.  Many  were 
taken  prisoners,  some  fled  to  the  country,  and 
only  50  members  remained  (Dec.  8),  who  were 
afterwards  styled  the  "Rump  Parliament  (q.  v.). 


PRIEST.—  Melchizedek,  King  of  Salem,  is 
called  "the  priest  of  the  most  high  God"  (Gen. 
xiv.  18),  B.C.  1913 ;  Aaron  and  his  sons  were 
consecrated  to  the  office  B.C.  1496  (Lev.  viii.  & 
ix.),  and  all  the  tribe  of  Levi  B.C.  1496  (Num. 
iii.).  During  the  famine  in  Egypt,  when 
Joseph  bought  up  the  land  for  Pharaoh,  the 
priests  were  left  in  possession  of  their  portion, 
B.C.  1706  (Gen.  xlvii.  22).  The  duties  of  the 
priests  were  connected  with  the  kingly  office 
among  the  early  Greeks,  and  were  performed 
by  the  heads  of  families,  as  appears  from 
various  passages  in  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927). 
Five  priests  were  selected  from  among  so  many 
aristocratic  families  to  superintend  the  oracle 
of  Delphi  about  B.C.  595. 

PRIMERS.  —  The  first  of  these  devotional 
works,  in  which  the  practice  of  praying  to 
saints  was  denounced,  with  a  design  to  weaken 
the  papal  system,  was  printed  by  John  Byddel, 
June  16, 1535.  This  was  followed  by  a  second  in 
1539;  and  a  third,  under  the  express  sanction  of 
Henry  VIII.,  was  published  in  1545.  The  three 
primers,  edited  by  Dr.  Edward  Burton,  were 
published  in  an  octavo  volume  by  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1834. 

PRIMOGENITURE.— In  the  times  of  the 
patriarchs  the  firstborn  son  always  inherited 
his  father's  position  as  head  of  his  family.  The 
Roman  law  did  not  acknowledge  the  principle 
of  primogeniture,  and  it  was  not  recognized  in 
France  until  the  time  of  the  Capets,  and  was 
abolished  there  in  1790.  It  was  established  in 
England  by  the  Normans,  and  took  effect 
almost  in  all  cases,  except  where  its  operation 
was  hindered  by  the  customs  of  gavelkind  and 
borough-English  (q.  v.). 

PRINCE  EDWARD'S  ISLAND  (N. 
America),  discovered  by  Cabot,  June  24,  1497, 
and  included  in  the  territory  of  New  France, 
and  called  St.  John's,  was  granted  in  1663  as 
a  feudal  tenure  to  Sieur  Doublet,  a  French 
naval  officer.  It  was  taken  by  the  English 
in  1745,  restored  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle ;  retaken  by  them  in  1 758  ;  and, 
at  the  peace  of  1763,  confirmed,  with  Cape 
Breton,  to  England.  In  1768  it  was  erected 
into  a  separate  colony.  The  first  house  of 
assembly  met  in  1773. 

PRINCE  RUPERT'S  or  RUPERT'S  LAND 
(N.America),  named  after  Prince  Rupert,  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  (q.  v.)  Com- 
pany, was  made  a  bishopric  in  1850. 

PRINCE'S  ISLAND  (Atlantic  Ocean),  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  was  discovered  in  1471,  and 
now  belongs  to  Portugal. 

PRINCESS'S  THEATRE  (London),  opened 
for  opera  in  1840,  was  taken  by  Mr.  Charles 
Kean  in  1850,  and  during  his  management, 
which  lasted  till  Aug.  29,  1859,  several  of  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  were  revived  with  great 
splendour.  A  ballet  girl  named  Sarah  Gibson, 
in  attempting  to  rescue  a  companion  whose 
dress  had  caught  fire  during  the  performance 
of  a  pantomime,  was  so  severely  injured  that 
she  died,  Jan.  28,  1863. 

PRINCETON  (Battle).  —  Washington  de- 
feated the  English  army  at  this  town  in  New 
Jersey,  Jan.  3,  1777.  The  College  was  founded 
in  1746,  and  the  Presbyterian  seminary  in 


PRINCE  OF  WALES 


PRINTING 


PRINCE     OF    WALES'S   ISLAND.  —  (Se« 

PENANG.) 

PRINCE  OF  WALES'S  THEATRE.— (-See 
QUEEN'S  THEATRE.) 

PRINCE  OF  WALES  YACHT  CLUB  (Lon- 
don) was  established  in  1851. 

PRINCE  WILLIAM'S  ISLANDS.  —  (See 
FEEJEE  ISLANDS.) 

PRINTING.— The  art  of  block-printing  was 
known  in  China  as  early  as  B.C.  202,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  from  that 
country  into  Europe  by  Marco  Polo,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  i^fh  century.  It  was  first 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  playing-cards 
and  little  books  of  devotion,  consisting  in 
most  cases  of  only  one  page,  illustrated  by 
rude  pictures,  and  containing  short  scripture 
texts.  The  earliest  date  on  these  books  is 

1423.  The  invention  of  printing  with  movable 
type  is  claimed  for  several  persons,  the  chief 
of  whom  are  Lawrence  Coster  (1370 — 1440)  of 
Haarlem ;   John   Gutenberg,    born   at    Mentz 
(Mayence)  about  1400,  settled  at  Strasburg  in 

1424,  returned  to  Mentz  in  1441,  dying  thei-e 
Feb.    24,    1468;   John  Mentelin   (1410 — 78)  of 
Strasburg  ;  John  Faust,  who  died  about  1490  ; 
and  Peter  Schoeffer,  orSchoffer,  of  Mentz,  who 
died  about  1502.   Coster  is  said  to  have  printed 
by  means  of    separate    wooden   types,    tied 
together  with  thread,  as  early  as  1430;   but 
the  evidence  is  doubtful.      John  Gutenberg, 
or  Geinsfleisch,  established  himself  at  Mentz 
in  1441,  and  printed  two  small  books  in  1442. 
In   1443  he  took  John   Fust,  or  Faust,    into 
partnership ;  and  in  1450   he   first  employed 
cut    metal    types    in  the   production  of  the 
Mazarin    Bible,    which    appeared    five  years 
later.     About  the  same  year  Peter  Schoeffer, 
the  servant  of  Gutenberg  and  Fust,  invented 
cast  metal  types,  which  were  first  used  in  1459. 
The  Gothic  types,  or  black  letter,  gave  place 
to  Roman  letters  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century.     By  39  Geo.  III.  c.  79,  s.  23  (July  12, 
1799),  all  persons  possessing  printing  materials 
were  required  to  send  a  notice  thereof  to  the 
clerk  of    the  peace,  for  transmission  to   the 
secretary  of  state.     This  act  was  amended  by 
51  Geo.   III.   c.   65  (June  10,   1811),  and    by 
2  &  3  Viet.  c.  12  (June  4,  1839). 

A.D. 

1455.  The  Mazarin  Bible  is  printed  by  Gutenberg. 

1457.  Faust  and  Schoeffer  print  the  Psalter. 

1463.  Count  Adolplms  of  Nassau  takes  Mentz,  and  com  - 

pels  the    printers    to    remove    to    other    towns, 

whereby  the  art  is  diffused. 

1465.  Greek  characters  are  introduced,  being  at  first  con- 

fined to  quotations.     Printing  first  practised  in 
Italy  at  Subiaco,  in  the  Papal  States. 

1466.  Sweynheym  and  Pannartz  establish  the  first  press 

at  Rome. 

1467.  They  introduce  Roman  types. 

1468.  A  book  is  said  to  have  been  printed  at  Oxford. 

1469.  The  first  French  press  is  established  at  Paris. 

1470.  "  Signatures  "  are  first  employed  by  Antonio  Zorat 

at  Milan. 

1474.  Caxton,  who  sets  up  the  first  press  in  England,  at 

Westminster,  prints  the  "  Game  of  Chess." 

1475.  Printing  is  introduced  into  Spain,  at  Barcelona. 

1476.  The  first  work  wholly  in  Greek  type  is  printed  at 

Milan. 

1488.  The  first  Bible  in  Hebrew  characters  is  printed  at 
Soricino,  in  Italy. 

1495.  The  art  of  printing  music  is  introduced  into  Eng- 
land. 

150°.  Aldus  Manutius  invents  Italic  type  about  this  year. 

1501.  Printing  is  introduced  into  Scotland. 


1515.  Ottavio  de  Petrucci   invents  music-printing  from 

metal  types. 
1536.  The  New  Testament,  being  the  first  English  Bible 

(7.  v.),  is  printed  at  Antwerp. 
1539.  The  first  patent    of    king's  printer  is  granted  to 

Thomas  Bcrthelet. 

1539.  The  Great  or  Cromwell's  Bible,  the  first  printed  by 

authority  in  England. 

1540.  The  "  Byrth  of    Mankynd,"  the    earliest  English 

work  in  which  copper-plate  printing  is  em- 
ployed, is  printed. 

1543.  The  "Imprimerie  Koyale"  is  established  at  Paris 
by  Francis  I. 

1551.  Humphrey  Powell  introduces  printing  into  Ireland. 

1637.  By  order  of  the  Star-Chamber,  the  businesses  of 

printer  and  type-founder  are  ordered  to  be  kept 
distinct,  and  only  four  type-founders  are  per- 
mitted in  the  kingdom. 

1638.  The  first  press  in  America  is  set  up  at  Cambridge, 

MaMadraMttB. 

1730.  Type-founding  is  first  practised  with  success  in 
Kngland,  by  William  Caslon. 

1735.  Stereotype-printing  isiuvented  by  Ged,  of  Edinburgh. 

1736.  Printing  is  introduced  into  Turkey. 

1776.  The  printing  of  maps  with  movable  types  is  invented 

by  Conrad  Sweynheym. 

1778.   Henry  Johnson  invents  logographic  printing  (q.  ».). 
1780.  Tilloch  invents  an  improved  system  of  stereotype. 

1784.  Valentine  Iliiuy  invents  embossed  typography,  and 

applies  it  to  printing  books  for  the  blind. 

1785,  Jan.  13.  The  Daily   l.'iiirrrxal  Register   (afterwards 

the  Times)  is  brought  out  as  a  specimen  of  logo- 
graphic  printing. 

1790.  W.Nicholson  patentsaself-actingprintingmachine. 

1800.  Lord  Stanhope  invents  the  Stanhope  press. 

1804.  Konig  directs  his  attention  towards  the  improve- 
ment of  the  printing-press. 

1811,  April.  The  sheet  II  of  the  "Annual  Register,"  for 
1810,  printed  this  month,  is  the  first  work  printed 
by  a  machine. 

1814,  Nov.  38.  The  Times  is  the  first  steam-printed  news- 

paper, Konig's  machine  being  the  apparatus  em- 
ployed. 

1815.  Composition  balls  for  inking  type  are  invented  by 

Pienjaniin  Foster.  Cowper  commences  his  inven- 
tions connected  with  the  press,  and  introduces  the 
inking-roller. 

1817.  K.  Ackerman  introduces  lithographic  printing  into 

England. 

1818.  George  Clymer,  of  Philadelphia,  patents  the  Colum- 

bian press  in  London.  Applegath  takes  out  a 
patent  for  improvements  in  cylindrical  printing 
machinery. 

1837.  Galli  °f  Edinburgh,  invents  a  system  of  printing 
for  the  blind.  " 

1840.  Anastatic  printing  (q.  v.)  is  introduced. 

1854.  Andrew  Worsing,  of  Vienna,  invents  Nature- 
printing  (</.  v. ). 

1858.  Hoe's  American  printing  machine  is  introduced 
into  England. 

PRINTING  IN  COLOURS.— This  art  origi- 
nated in  the  desire  of  the  old  printers  to 
enable  their  productions  to  vie  with  the  illu- 
minated MSS.  of  their  predecessors  the  monks. 
The  Psalter  of  Faust  and  Schoeffer,  printed  in 
1457,  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples,  and 
Lucas  Cranach  produced  the  first  attempt  in 
printing  in  chiaroscuro,  in  1509.  A  very  fine 
German  engraving  in  colours,  bearing  the 
date  of  1543,  is  n°t  considered  authentic.  Mr. 
J.  B.  Jackson  devoted  much  time  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  published  a  work  on  engraving  and 
printing  in  chiaroscuro  in  1754  ;  and  in  1819 
William  Savage  commenced  his  "  Hints  011 
Decorative  Printing."  George  Baxter's  first 
efforts  in  printing  in  colours  were  made  in  1835 
and  in  1837  M.  Engelmann  succeeded  in  effect- 
ing it  by  lithography. 

PRINTING-MACHINE.— For  a  long  period 
after  the  invention  of  printing,  the  press 
remained  unaltered.  About  1620,  William 


PRIORIES 


[    809    ] 


PRIZE-MONEY 


Jansen  Blaeuw  introduced  several  improve- 
ments. The  first  patent  for  machine-printing 
was  taken  out  by  William  Nicholson  in  1790, 
and  Donkin  and  Bacon  introduced  a  new 
machine,  in  which  the  type  was  arranged  on 
piston,  in  1813.  The  first  practically  success- 
ful machine  was  Konig's,  which  was  con- 
structed in  1814.  In  1816  Edward  Cowper 
made  a  machine  for  using  curved  stereotype 
plates;  in  1818  one  for  ordinary  type  ;  and  in 
1827,  conjointly  with  Applegath,  he  invented 
a  four-cylinder  machine  for  the  Times,  which 
printed  between  4,000  and  5,000  copies  per 
hour.  Applegath's  vertical  machine,  in- 
vented in  May,  1848,  produces  no  less  than 
15,000  impressions  per  hour.  Hoe's  American 
machine  was  introduced  into  this  country  in 
1858.  (See  PRINTING.) 

PRIORIES,  originally  offshoots  from,  and 
subordinate  to,  the  great  abbeys,  were  intro- 
duced into  this  country  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  7th  century.  The  alien  priories 
(q.  v.}  were  dissolved  by  act  of  Parliament, 
and  granted  to  the  crown  in  1414.  Cathedrals 
founded  for  priories  were  turned  into  dean- 
eries and  prebends  in  1540.  The  priory  of 
Canterbury,  with  others,  was  dissolved  about 
1538.  The  priors  of  cells  were  granted  pensions 
of  ,£13  per  annum  by  Henry  VIII.,  in  1538. 

PRISCILLIANISTS,  followers  of  Priscillian, 
Bishop  of  A vila,  in  Spain,  in  372.  This  doctrine 
was  a  strange  compound  of  Gnostic  and 
Manichsean.  opinions,  and  his  followers  were 
excommunicated  by  the  Council  of  Saragossa 
in  381,  and  sentenced  to  exile  by  Gratian.  They 
were  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Bordeaux 
in  384.  Priscillian,  and  two  of  his  adherents, 
were  beheaded  at  Treves  in  385,  being  the 
first  reputed  heretics  who  judicially  suffered 
capital  punishment. 

PRISONERS  OP  WAR.— Among  the  an- 
cients, prisoners  of  war  were  either  sacrificed 
to  appease  the  manes  of  such  as  had  fallen  in 
fighting  against  them,  or,  as  was  most  frequent 
among  the  most  polished  nations,  were  made 
slaves.  During  the  feudal  ages  they  were 
ransomed,  and  the  present  custom  of  exchang- 
ing prisoners  was  not  firmly  established  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  ijtla  century.  The 
Dutch  were  in  the  habit  of  selling  the  captives 
they  made  in  Barbary  to  the  Spaniards,  as  late 
as  1664  ;  and  in  1792  Christian  prisoners  of  war 
were  employed  as  domestic  slaves  in  Turkey. 
PRISONS.— By  i4Edw.  III.  s.  i,  c.  10(1340), 
the  custody  of  prisons  was  vested  in  the 
sheriffs,  and  heavy  penalties  on  such  as 
assisted  prisoners  to  escape  were  imposed  by 
16  Geo.  II.  c.  31  (1743).  John  Howard's  efforts 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  prisoners  com- 
menced in  1755,  in  consequence  of  the  hard- 
ships he  endured  during  a  captivity  at  Brest 
as  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  Elizabeth  Fry  began 
her  benevolent  exertions  among  the  female 

Sisoners  at  Newgate  in  1808.  .The  laws  re- 
ing  to  the  building  and  regulation  of  the 
prisons  of  England  and  Wales  were  consoli- 
dated and  amended  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  64  (July  10, 
1823).  The  four  inspectors  of  prisons  were 
first  appointed  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  38  (Aug.  25, 
1835).  In  addition  to  Bridewell  (q.  v.\  the  Fleet 
prison,  the  King's  (or  Queen's)  Bench,  the 


Marshalsea,  Newgate,  and  the  Poultry  Compter 
(q.  v.},  the  chief  prisons  connected  with  Lon- 
don are  the  following  : — 

A.D. 

1615.  Coldbath  Fields  Prison,  or  the  Middlesex  House  of 
Correction.  1794.  Rebuilt. 

1791.  Giltspur  Street  Compter,  a  debtors'  prison,  built  by 
Dance. 

1849,  Sep.  26.  Holloway  New  City  Prison  commenced. 

1791-8.  Horsemonger  Lane  Gaol. 

1775.  House  of  Detention,  Clerkenwell.  Rebuilt  in  1818 
and  1844. 

1813.  Millbank  Prison,  or  Penitentiary. 

1840,  April  10—1843,  Dec.  31.  Model  Prison,  Pentonville. 

1618.  Tothill  Fields  Prison.  1655.  Repaired.  1836.  Re- 
built. 

1813-15.  Whitecross  Street  Prison. 

PRIVAS  (France),  held  for  two  months,  in 
1629,  against  Louis  XIII.,  by  Montbrun,  was 
at  last  abandoned,  when  its  fortification  were 
destroyed,  and  the  gallant  defender  hanged. 
A  synod  of  the  reformed  churches  was  held 
in  the  town  in  1612. 

PRIVATEERS.— (See  LETTERS  OF  MARQUE  ) 

PRIVILEGE.  —  (See  BOOKS,  and  GRAND 
or  GREAT  PRIVILEGE.) 

PRIVY  COUNCIL,  originating  in  the  ne- 
cessity felt  by  the  monarch  to  seek  advice  in 
important  state  affairs  at  a  time  when  the 
great  council  of  the  realm,  or  the  Parliament, 
was  not  assembled,  existed  in  some  form  from 
the  earliest  period,  but  only  began  to  be 
known  by  this  name  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  about  1488.  Some 
authors  declare  that  it  was  instituted  by 
Alfred  in  896.  It  assumed  high  arbitrary 
powers  under  Henry  VIII.,  in  1540,  of  which 
it  was  deprived  in  the  succeeding  reign.  By 
16  Charles  I.  c.  10  (1641),  its  interference  in 
civil  cases  was  prohibited,  and  by  6  Anne,  c.  7 
(1707),  it  was  enacted  that  it  should  remain 
in  existence  six  months  after  the  demise  of 
the  crown.  The  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  (q.  v.)  was  instituted  by  3  &  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  41  (Aug.  14,  1833).  The  "Privy 
Council  Register"  was  commenced  Aug.  18, 
1540.  (See  ADMINISTRATIONS  and  EDUCATION.) 

PRIVY  SEAL,  which  accompanies  the  royal 
sign  manual,  originated  in  the  practice  of 
persons  using  their  armorial  bearings  to  attest 
the  mark  made  for  their  signature,  when  the 
art  of  writing  was  not  very  common.  A 
charter  bearing  the  seal  of  Offa,  King  of 
Mercia  (755 — 794),  and  another  with  that  of 
Ethelwulph,  King  of  Wessex  (837—58),  were 
found  at  St.  Denis  in  France.  In  Scotland  the 
practice  began  with  King  Duncan  in  1094 ; 
and  in  Ireland  in  the  i2th  century.  It  was 
also  used  by  dignified  ecclesiastics  in  France 
and  England,  the  earliest  known  being  of 
1128.  The  offices  of  clerks  of  the  signet  and 
privy  seal  were  regulated  by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  49 
'June  23,  1832).  The  Lord  Privy  Seal  was 
called  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  in  the  time  of 
Edward  III.  (1327 — 77).  The  office  was  usually 
Jlled  by  ecclesiastics  until  1538,  when  Lord 
Marney  succeeded  Bishop  Fox. 

PRIZE  COURT.  —  (See  HIGH  COURT  OF 
ADMIRALTY.) 

PRIZE-MONEY.— By  an  act  passed  in  1404, 
;he  king  claimed  a  fourth  part,  the  remaining 
iiree-fourths  to  be  equally  divided  among  the 


PROBATE  COURT 


[  810  ] 


PROVENCE 


captors.  An  act  (2  Will.  IV.  c.  53)  for  con- 
solidating and  amending  the  laws  relating  to 
army  prize-money  received  the  royal  assent 
June  23,  1832.  A  proclamation  for  the  distri- 
bution of  naval  prize-money,  by  which  flag 
officers  were  to  have  one-sixteenth,  captains 
and  commanders  one-sixth  of  the  remainder, 
and  a  scale  was  fixed  for  the  shares  of  subal-* 
terns  and  men,  was  issued  March  21,  1834. 
James  Vaughan,  a  watchman  of  Marylebone, 
for  representing  himself  as  next  of  kin  to 
Corporal  Leason,  deceased,  in  order  fraudu- 
lently to  obtain  some  prize-money  due  to  him, 
was  banged  at  Newgate,  Nov.  26,  1806. 

PROBATE  COURT,  for  testamentary  mat- 
ters, was  constituted  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  77 
(Aug.  25,  1857).  (See  ADMINISTRATOR  and  HIGH 
COURT  OF  ADMIRALTY.) 

PROCESSION  OF  THE  HOLY  GHOST.— 
(See  HOLY  GHOST,  NICENE  CREED,  &c.) 

PROCESSIONS  ACT.— By  13  Viet.  c.  2 
(March  12,  1850),  all  processions  in  Ireland 
with  firearms,  banners,  emblems,  <fcc.,  were  de- 
clared unlawful. 

PROCLAMATIONS.— By  31  Hen..VHL  c.  8 
(1539),  the  king's  proclamations  were  deemed 
as  valid  as  acts  of  Parliament.  This  act  was 
repealed  by  i  Edw.  VI.  c.  12  (1547).  (See 
DISPENSING  POWER.) 

PRODIGIES.— (See  OMENS.) 

PROHIBITED  BOOKS.— (See  BOOK  CENSORS 
and  INDEX  EXPURGATORIUS.) 

PROME  (Burmah)  was  occupied  by  English 
troops  April  25,  1825,  and  the  Burmese  were 
defeated  here  Dec.  i,  2,  and  5.  It  was  again 
captured  by  the  English,  July  9,  1852,  and 
having  been  evacuated,  was  retaken  Oct.  10, 
1852.  An  inundation  of  the  Irrawaddy  nearly 
destroyed  this  town  in  1856. 

PROMENADE  CONCERTS.— (-See  CONCERTS.] 

PROMISSORY  NOTES  were  probably  intro- 
duced with  bills  of  exchange  (q.  v.},  to  which 
they  bear  so  much  resemblance,  in  the  isth 
century. 

PROMOTING  CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE. 
— (See  SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRISTIAN 
KNOWLEDGE,  SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRIS- 
TIANITY AMONG  THE  JEWS,  &C.) 

PROPAGANDA.— (See  JACOBIN  CLUB.) 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE.— The  congregation 
was  founded  at  Rome,  for  the  propagation  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  by  Gregory  XV., 
June  22,  1622  ;  and  the  college  was  established 
in  1627. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FAITH.  —  A 
Roman  Catholic  Association  was  founded  at 
Lyons  in  1822,  and  the  Leopoldiner-Verein  at 
Vienna  in  1829. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  GOSPEL  IN 
FOREIGN  PARTS.— This  society,  which  grew 
out  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  New  England,  established  July  27, 
1649,  was  incorporated  by  William  III.  June 
16,  1701.  Its  operations  were  extended  to  the 
West  Indies  in  1710,  to  Madras  in  1728,  to 
Australia  in  1795,  to  Hindostan  in  1818,  to 
South  Africa  in  1820,  to  New  Zealand  in  1839, 
to  Ceylon  in  1840,  and  to  Borneo  in  1849. 

PROPERTY  TAX.- (See  INCOME  TAX.) 

PROPHESYINGS,  or  meetings  of  the  Pres- 
byterians for  prayer  and  the  exposition  of 


scripture,  commenced  at  Northampton  about 
1570,  and  were  forbidden  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
May  7,  1577. 

PROPONTIS,  the  modern  Sea  of  Marmora, 
had  many  colonies  planted  on  its  shores  by 
Greeks  from  Miletus,  B.C.  750.  The  Goths 
passed  the  Bosphorus  here  to  invade  Greece, 
destroying  the  ancient  city  of  Cyzicus,  in  259. 

PROSTRATORS.  —  (See  KNEELERS,  PEN- 
ANCE, &c.) 

PROTECTIONISTS,  so  named  from  the 
metropolitan  society  for  the  protection  of 
agriculture,  formed  in  opposition  to  the  anti- 
corn  law  league,  with  the  Dukes  of  Richmond 
and  Buckingham  as  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent, Feb.  17,  1844.  They  separated  from  Sir 
Robert  Peel  when  he  proposed  the  abolition  of 
the  duty  on  corn  in  1846. 

PROTECTOR S.— (See  INTERREGNUM,  RE- 
GENTS, &c.) 

PROTESTANTS.— The  second  diet  of  Spires, 
in  1529,  decided  that  religious  differences 
could  only  be  settled  by  an  ecclesiastical 
council,  thus  entirely  disallowing  the  right  of 
private  judgment.  A  solemn  protest  was 
made  against  this  decision  by  the  Lutheran 
princes  of  Germany,  April  19,  1529,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  members  of  the  reformed 
churches  have  since  been  known  as  Protest- 
ants. The  protest  was  drawn  up  by  Luther 
and  Melancthon,  and  was  signed  by  John, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  Ernest,  hereditary  Prince  of 
Saxony,  and  by  the  representatives  of  13  im- 
perial towns.  In  reply  to  those  who  object  to 
the  application  of  the  term  to  members  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  the  Bishop  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol,  in  a  sermon  on  Matt.  xxii.  20, 
preached  in  Bristol  Cathedral,  Nov.  4,  1866, 
said,  "Never  let  us  be  ashamed  of  that  word 
which  is  so  often  urged  against  us  as  a  very 
watchword  of  disunion  ;  never  let  us  shrink 
from  speaking  of  our  Church  as  Protestant. 
Catholic  it  is  in  its  faith  and  principles  ;  Pro- 
testant in  its  attitude  to  false  teaching  and 
doctrinal  error." 

PROTESTANT  or  EVANGELICAL 
UNION,  a  defensive  alliance  for  10  years, 
was  formed  between  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany,  at  the  convent  of  Ahansen,  in 
the  territory  of  Anspach,  May  4,  1608.  It  was 
joined  by  15  imperial  cities,  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  opposition  to  it  formed  the  Holy 
League  (q.v.).  The  Protestant  Union  met  for 
the  last  time  at  Heilbronn,  in  May,  1621. 

PROVENCAL.— (See  LANGUE  D'Oc.) 

PROVENCE  (France),  forming  a  portion  of 
the  Gallia  Narbonensis  of  the  Romans,  taken 
by  the  Visigoths  and  the  Burgundians  in  416, 
was  partly  recovered  in  450,  conquered  by  the 
Franks  in  534,  and  by  Charles  Martel  in  739. 
Boso  was  declared  King  of  Provence  in  879. 
It  was  included  in  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 
Forcalquier  was  joined  to  it  in  1208,  and  Pro- 
vence was  united  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Meaux  (q.  v.),  April  12,  1229.  It  passed  by  mar- 
riage to  the  Count  of  Anjou  in  1245.  Having 
been  made  over  to  Louis  XI.  and  his  successors 
in  1481,  it  was  re-united  to  the  crown  of  France 
in  1486. 


PROVERBS 


PRUSSIA 


PROVERBS. —  Solomon's  Proverbs  were 
written  before  B.C.  976.  Zenobius,  a  sophist, 
made  an  epitome  of  the  proverbs  of  Terrams 
and  Didymus  about  200,  and  a  collection  was 
formed  by  Diogenianus  also  about  the  same 
time.  Both  of  these  were  edited,  with  many 
additions,  by  Andrew  Schott,  at  Antwerp,  in 
1612.  The  "Adagia"  of  Erasmus  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1500.  A  large  collection  of  proverbs, 
by  Michael  Apostolius,  was  published  by  the 
Elzevirs  in  1653  ;  Ray's  collection  appeared  in 
1672,  and  Oswald  Dyke's  in  1708. 

PROVIANT  MASTER.— (See  COMMISSARIAT.) 

PROVIDENCE  (N.  America).— This  town  of 
Rhode  Island,  founded  in  1636,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1649.  Brown  University,  belonging 
to  the  Baptists,  established  at  Warren  in 
1764,  was  removed  to  Providence  in  1770.  The 
Athenaeum  was  founded  in  1836,  Butler  Hospi- 
tal in  1848,  and  the  normal  school  in  1854.  ($ee 
NEW  PROVIDENCE.) 

PROVINCE  WELLESLEY  (Malay  Peninsula) 
was  obtained  by  purchase  from  the  King  of 
Quedah  in  1802. 

PROVINCIAL  CONSTITUTIONS  were  made 
in  convocation  of  the  clergy  of  the  province 
of  Canterbury,  commencing  under  Stephen 
Langton  (1207 — 29)  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
and  ending  under  Henry  Chicheley  (1414-43), 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  They  were  collected, 
and  edited  with  a  gloss,  by  William  Lyndwood, 
official  of  the  court  of  Canterbury,  and  after- 
wards Bishop  of  St.  David's  ;  and  were  re- 
ceived by  the  province  of  York,  in  convoca- 
tion, in  1463.  (See  CANON  LAW  and  LEGAN- 
TINE  CONSTITUTIONS.  ) 

PROVISIONS,  or  reversionary  grants  of 
benefices,  were  made  by  Clement  V.  about 
1307,  on  the  plea  that  all  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices belonged  to  the  Pope.  (See  MAD  PAR- 
LIAMENT.) 

PROVISORS.  —  The  statute  of  provisors 
(25  Edw.  III.  c.  6),  forbidding  appeals  to  the 
papal  court,  and  making  it  penal  to  procure 
ecclesiastical  appointments  from  Rome,  was 
passed  in  1350.  Several  statutes  of  a  similar 
nature  were  afterwards  passed. 

PRUD'HOMMES.  —  A  council  was  estab- 
lished in  1452,  by  King  Rene,  to  decide  dis- 
putes between  the  fishermen  of  Marseilles. 
Louis  XI.  allowed  the  citizens  of  Lyons  to 
appoint  a  prud'homme  to  settle  questions 
that  might  arise  between  merchants  attend- 
ing the  fair  in  1464.  Napoleon  I.,  by  a  decree 
dated  March  1 8,  1809,  established  a  council  of 
nine  members  at  Lyons  to  arbitrate  between 
workmen  and  employers,  masters  and  ap- 
prentices. A  council  of  prud'hommes  was  es- 
tablished at  Paris  in  1844,  three  more  in  1847, 
and  several  have  since  been  formed  in  various 
parts  of  France. 

PRUSA,  or  PRUSA  AD  OLYMPIUM  (Asiatic 
Turkey),  the  modern  Brusa,  Boursa,  or  Broussa, 
built  by  Prusias,  King  of  Bithynia,  B.C.  187, 
was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  259,  and  by  Orchan, 
the  son  of  Othman,  in  1325.  He  allowed  the 
Christian  inhabitants  to  ransom  their  lives 
and  property  by  a  payment  of  30,000  crowns 
of  gold,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  new 
Ottoman  empire.  (See  BRUSA.) 

PRUSSIA   (Europe).  —  This   country,   inha- 


bited at  an  early  period  by  Slavonic  tribes,  was 
visited  by  the  Phoenicians  in  the  4th  century 
B.C.  During  the  ioth  century  it  was  in- 
habited by  a  barbarous  tribe,  known  as  the 
Borussi.  According  to  other  authorities  they 
were  called  the  Porusses,  because  they  occu- 
pied a  territory  beyond  the  river  Kuss,  a  tri- 
butary of  the  Memel ;  Po  signifying  behind. 

A.D. 

997.  St.  Adalbert,   Bishop  of  Prague,  preaches   Chris- 
tianity to  the  barbarous  Prussians,  by  whom  he 
is  murdered. 
1015.  Prussia  is  ravaged  by  Boleslaus  I.,  of  Poland. 

1163.  Berlin  is  founded  by  Albert  I,,  the  Bear. 

1164.  Boleslaus  IV.,  of  Poland,  who  invades  the  country- 

perishes  with  his  army. 

1193.  Casimir  II.,  assisted  by  the  Silesians,  wages  war. 

1219.  The  Germans  institute  a  crusade  against  them. 

1383.  The  Teutonic  knights  complete  the  conquest  of 
Prussia. 

1309.  They  fix  their  capital  at  Marienburg. 

1411.  Frederick  of  Hohenzollern  (VI.  of  Nuremberg) 
acquires  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg  (q.  v.) 
from  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  by  purchase. 

1454.  The  Prussians  revolt  against  the  Teutonic  knights, 
and  are  assisted  by  the  King  of  Poland. 

1466,  Oct.  19.  By  the  treaty  of  Thorn,  West  Prussia  and 
Ermland  are  ceded  to  Poland. 

1531,  April.  Albert  of  Brandenburg  concludes  a  four 
years'  truce  with  Poland. 

1525,  April  8.  By  the  treaty  of  Cracow,  Albert  of  Bran- 
denburg is  invested  with  the  sovereignty  of  the 
possessions  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  estab- 
lishes Lutheranism  in  his  dominions. 

1544.  The  university  of  Konigsberg  is  founded. 

1600.  Cleves,  Kavensburg,  &c.,  are  annexed. 

161°.  John  Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  assumes 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Prussia. 

1648.  By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  part  of  Pomerania, 
the  county  of  Hohenstein,  the  Archbishopric  of 
Magdeburg,  and  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt 
and  Minden,  are  annexed  to  Prussia. 

1656.  Prussia  is  declared  independent  of  Poland  by  treaty. 

1657,  Sep.  19.  By  the  treaty  of  Vehlau,  Poland  acknow- 

ledges the  independence  of  Prussia. 
1686-  The   Prussians  assist  the  Hungarians  against  the 

Turks. 
1694-  The  Elector,  Frederick  III.,  founds  the  university  of 

Halle. 

1700,  Nov.  16.  By  the  treaty  of    the   Crown,   signed  at 

Vienna,  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.  agrees  to  recog- 
nize the  Elector  Frederick  III.  as  King  of 
Prussia. 

1701,  Jan.   18.    Frederick   III.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 

crowns  himself  King  of  Prussia  at  KOnigsberg, 

by  the  title  of  Frederick  I. 
1703.  Frederick    I.    joins    the    grand    alliance    against 

France.    Neufchatel  is  annexed  to  Prussia. 
1711.  Pomerania  is  invaded  by  the  Kussians,  Poles,  and 

Danes. 

1714.  Prussia  obtains  Upper  Guelders. 

1715.  War  is  declared  against  Sweden. 

1719,  Aug.   14.    An    alliance    is    concluded   with    Great 

Britain. 
1730,  Jan.   20.    Peace  is  concluded  at  Stockholm  with 

Sweden.     Stettin  is  ceded  to  Prussia. 
1725,  Sep.  3.  Prussia,  France,  and  England  form  the  league 

of  Hanover  against  Austria. 
1736,  Oct.     12.    Prussia    secedes    from    the    league     of 

Hanover,  and  concludes  the  treaty  of  Wuster- 

hausen  with  the  Emperor. 

1730.  The  king's  eldest  son,  Charles  Frederick,  and  his 

friend,  Lieut.  Von  Katte,  are  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned at  Klistrin.— Nov.  6.  Katte  is  beheaded. 

1731.  The  principality   of  Meurs,  the  county  of  Lingen, 

and  the  seigniories  of  Heristal  and  Tournhout , 
are  ceded  to  Prussia. 

1740,  Dec.    23.    An    expedition    against  Maria   Theresa 

enters  Silesia. 

1741,  April  10.  Battle  of  Molwitu  (q.  v.). 

1743,  June  ir.  By  the  peace  of  Breslau  (q.  v.~),  Glatz  and 

Silesia  are'ceded  to  Prussia. 

1744,  Friesland  is  annexed  to  Prussia. 

1745,  June  4.  Buttle  of  Hohenfrieburg. — Nov.  23.  Battle 

of  Hennersdorf.— Dec.  15.  Battle  of  Kesseldorf 
—Dec.  35.  Treaty  of  Dresden. 


PRUSSIA 


[    812     ] 


PRUSSIA 


1748.  The  Code-Frederick  is  compiled  by  the  king,  Chan- 
cellor Cocceius,  and  other  lawyers. 
1751.  The  crown  peasants  are  emancipated. 

1756,  Jan.  16.   An  alliance  is  concluded  with  England.— 

Aug.  31.  Commencement  of  the  Seven  Years 
war  (q.  v.). — Oct.  I.  Battle  of  Lowositz. — Oct.  13. 
The  Saxon  army  capitulates  at  1'ima. 

1757,  May  I.  A  secret  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Prussia 

is  concluded  between  France  -and  Austria.— 
June  18.  Frederick  II.  sustains  a  severe  defea 
at  Koliu.— June.  1'russia  is  invaded  by  th« 
Kussians.— Aug.  30.  Battle  of  Gross-Jagern- 
dorff  (q.  r.).— Nov.  4.  Battle  of  Kossbach.— Nov. 
2,3.  Battle  of  Breslau  (q.  t'.).  — Dec.  5.  Battle  of 
Leuthen  (q.  v.). 

1758,  Aug.   25.   Battle  of  Zorndorf.  —  Oct.   14.   Battle  of 

Hochkirchen. 

1759,  July  23.    The  Prussians  are  defeated  by  the  R 

siuns  at  Zullic-hati.—  Aug.  I.  Battle  of  Mindeii.— 
Aug.  12.  The  Kussians  defeat  the  Prussians  with 
great  slaughter  at  Cunersdorf. — Nov.  21.  The 
Prussians  lost-  the  battle  of  Maxen. 

1760,  Aug.  15.  Battle  of  Pfaffendorf.— Oct.  9.  Berlin  sur- 

renders to  the  Kussians,  Austrians,  and  Saxons. 
— Nov.  3.  Battle  of  Torgau  (q.  v.). 

1762,  April  7.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Sweden.— May  5. 

Peace  with  Russia. — July  21.  Battle  of  Burkers- 
dorf.— Aug.  16.  Battle  of  Reichenbach.— Oct.  29. 
Battle  of  Freiberg. 

1763,  Feb.  15.  Treaty  of  Hubcrtsburg  (q.  v.). 

1769,  Aug.  25.  Frederick  II.  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
conclude  a  convention  of  neutrality  at  \eisse. 

1772,  Aug.  5.  Prussia  participates  in  the  first  treaty  for 
the  partition  of  Poland. 

1778,  July  4.  Frederick  II.,  who  has  a  dispute  with  Aus- 
tria respecting  the  Bavarian  succession,  invades 
Bohemia.  (See  POTATO  WAI;.) 

1781,  May  8.   Prussia  joins  the  armed  neutrality. 

1785,  July  23.  The  Fiirsten-Bund  alliance  is  concluded  at 

Berlin,  and  commences  the  Germanic  Confede- 
ration. 

1786,  Aug.  17.  Death  of  Frederick  II. 

1790,  Jan.  31.   An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Turkey.— 

March  29.  A  fictitious  treaty  is  concluded  with 
Poland. — July  27.  A  convention  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Netherlands  is  concluded  with  Eng- 
land and  Austria.  A  new  code  of  laws  is  intro- 
duced. 

1791,  Aug.  27.  Conference  of  Pilnitz. 

1792.  The  Prussians  invade  France. 

1793.  They  invade   Poland  and   seize  Dantzic.      By  the 

second  partition  of  Poland,  Prussia  acquires 
Thorn,  Posen,  and  other  places. 

1794.  The  Prussians  fail  in  an  attempt  to  take  Warsaw. 

1795,  April   5.    Treaty    of    Basel    (q.  v.).      By    the   third 

treaty    for    the    partition    of     Poland,     Prussia 
acquires  Warsaw. 
1801,  April  3.  The  Prussians  seize  Hanover. 

1804,  March  8.  The  convents  are  suppressed. 

1805,  Dec.  15.  Treaty  of  Vienna  (q.  v.). 

1806,  April  i.  The  Prussians  seize  Hanover  and  proclaim 

Frederick  William  III.  king,  whereupon  Eng- 
land declares  war.— Sep.  24.  In  consequence  of 
the  occupation  of  Wesel  and  other  towns  by  the 
French,  war  is  declared  against  Napoleon  I. — 
Oct.  14.  Battles  of  Auerstadt  and  Jena  (q.  v.). — 
Oct.  21.  Berlin  is  occupied  by  the  French.— Nov. 
19.  Napoleon  I.  publishes  the  Berlin  decree  (q.  v.). 

1807,  July  7.  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (q.  v.). 

1808,  Serfdom  is  abolished. 

1812,  March   14.    Prussia  is  compelled   to    conclude    an 

alliance  with  France  and  Austria,  The  Jews  are 
admitted  to  civil  rights. 

1813,  Feb.  28.  Treaty  of  Kalisch.— March  4.  The  French 

evacuate  Berlin.— March  16.  War  is  declared 
against  France.— May  31.  Napoleon  I.  invades 
Silesia.— Aug.  26.  Battle  of  the  Katzbach. 

1814,  Jan.   2.   The   Allies  cross   the   Rhine    and    invade 

France. — Jan.  29  and  30.  The  battle  of  Brienne 
(q.  v.). — March  7.  Battle  of  Craonne. — March  9 
and  10.  Combats  at  Laon. — June  6.  The  King 
visits  England. 

1815,  May  25.  The  congress  of  Vienna  concludes  its  sit- 

tings.—Sep.  26.  Th»  Holy  Alliance  is  formed. 
1817,  Aug.  An  insurrection  in  Breslau  is  suppressed  with 

great  severity. 
1819,  Aug.  i.  The  congress  of  Carlsbad  (q.  «.). — Sep.  lg. 

Death  of  Marshal  Biucher. 


Provincial  parliaments  are  established. 
8^6,  M;iy  2o.  Commerce  with  England  is  permitted  on 

the  same  terms  as  with  other  countries. 
831.  The  cholera  breaks  out. 

833,  March  22.  The  Zollverein  (q.  v.)  is  instituted. 
1842,  Jan.  25.  The  King  of  Prii>Ma  ,.nici;iu-.s  as  godfather 

at  the  baptism  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
1844,  July  26.  The  King's  life  is  attempted  by  Tesch. 

1848,  March  14.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Berlin.— 

April  23.  A  military  insurrection  is  suppressed  at 
Warsaw.— Nov.  12.  Berlin  is  declared  in  a  state 
of  siege.— Nov.  29.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
meets  in  the  castle  of  Brandenburg. — Dec.  5.  A 
new  constitution  is  promulgated. 

1849,  March  28.  The  King  of  Prussia  is  elected  hereditary 

emperor  of  the  Germans. — April  28.  The  King 
declines  to  accept  the  title.— May  10.  Martial  law 
is  proclaimed. — June  12.  An  attempt  is  made  on 
the  life  of  the  Prince  of  Prussia.— June  23.  The 
Prussians  occupy  Carlsruhe. — July  ic.  An  armis- 
tice is  concluded  with  Denmark.— Sep.  8.  The 
Frankfort  assembly  declares  Frederick  William 
IV.  the  head  of  the  Bavarian  imperial  consti- 
tution.— Sep.  30.  An  interim  is  concluded  with 
Austria.— Nov.  12.  Austria  protests  against  the 
Bavarian  constitution,  and  the  alliance  of  Prussia 
with  the  minor  states  of  Germany. — Dec.  7.  A 
convention  is  signed  between  the  King  of  Prussia 
and  the  Prince  of  Uohenzollern  and  Sigmaringen. 

1850,  Feb.    6.    The   King   swears   fidelity  to   the  consti- 

tution.— Feb.  21.  Hanover  withdraws  from  the 
Prussian  alliance.— March  20.  Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen  is  Incorporated  with  Prussia.— May  22. 
The  King's  life  is  attempted.— June  20.  Hesse - 
Darmstadt  secedes  from  the  Prussian  league.— 
July  2.  A  treaty  of  peace  is  concluded  with  Den- 
mark.—July  6.  A  congress  of  deputies  from  the 
Zollverein  meets  at  Cassel. — Aug.  25.  The  King 
refuses  to  acknowledge  the  Frankfort  diet. — Nov. 
6.  Death  of  the  prime  minister,  Count  Branden- 
burg.—Nov.  7.  The  entire  Prussian  army  is  called 
out.— Dec.  10.  The  army  is  reduced  to  its  former 
footing. 

1851,  Jan.  18.    The   isoth   anniversary  of  the   Prussian 

monarchy  is  celebrated. — May  18.  The  King  visits 
the  Emperor  of  Russia. — May  27.  The  two  sove- 
reigns leave  War«aw,  to  meet  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  at  Olmiitz.— May  31.  The  statue  of  Frede- 
rick II.  (the  Great)  is  erected  at  Berlin.— Sep.  7. 
A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  Hanover. 

1852,  Jan.  12.  The  council  of  state  is  revived.— May  28. 

The  industrial  exhibition  of  Berlin  is  opened.— 
June  7.  A  customs  union  with  Austria  is  refused. 
—Nov.  21.  The  minister  of  state,  Gen.  Thule,  dies 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 

1853,  Feb.  19.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded   with 

Austria. — March  26.  A  democratic  plot  is  dis- 
covered at  Berlin.— May  19.  The  King  visits 
Vienna.— Nov.  14.  The  naval  affairs  of  the  king- 
dom are  separated  from  the  military  department, 
and  an  admiralty  board  is  established.— Dec.  25. 
Death  of  Gen.  Radowitz  at  Berlin. 

1854,  Jan.  13.  Protocols  are  signed  with  the  Allies.— April 

9.  A  new  protocol  is  concluded. — April  20.  A 
treaty  is  signed  with  Austria.— June  8.  The  King 
has  an  interview  with  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
at  Tetschen.— Sep.  6.  The  Prussian  Government 
declares  its  intention  to  remain  neutral  in  the 
Eastern  question. 

1856,  March  10.  M.  Hinckeldy,  the  superintendent  of  the 

Prussian  police,  is  killed  in  a  duel.— March  18. 
Prussia  is  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  con- 
ference of  Paris. — May  4.  Public  rejoicings  are 
held  in  Berlin  in  consequence  of  the  end  of  the 
Russian  war.— Sep.  An  insurrection  commences 
in  Neufchatel,  and  royalist  subjects  of  Prussia 
are  imprisoned. — Dec.  8.  The  Prussian  Govern- 
ment threatens  war  unless  they  are  set  at  liberty. 

1857,  Jan.  15.  The  captives  are  released. — March  15.  A 

conference  for  the  adjustment  of  the  Neufchatel 
difficulty  assembles  at  Paris.— May  26.  A  treaty 
between  Prussia  and  Switzerland  is  signed  at 
Paris,  and  terminates  the  dispute.— Sep.  9.  A 
treaty  with  the  Argentine  confederacy  is  signed 
at  Parana.— Oct.  23.  In  consequence  of  the 
severe  illness  of  Frederick  William  IV.,  the 
Crown  Prince  is  appointed  regent  for  three 
months. 


PRUSSIA 


[    813    ] 


PRUSSIA 


.. 

l8srf,  Jan.  6.  The  regency  is  continued. — Jan.  25. 
Marriage  of  Prince  Frederick  William,  eldest 
son  of  the  Crown  Prince,  to  the  Princess  Royal 
of  England.— Aug.  10.  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince 
Albert  visit  their  daughter  in  Prussia.— Oct.  7. 
The  Crown  Prince  is  made  regent  during  the 
King's  life. — Oct.  25-  The  Prince-regent  swears 
fidelity  to  the  constitution.— Nov.  5.  Buron  de 
Manteuffel's  ministry  resigns,  and  is  succeeded 
by  that  of  the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen. 

1859,  Jan.  27.  Birth  of  Frederick  William  Victor  Albert, 

eldest  son  of  the  Princess  Royal. — May  5.  The 
Prussian  Government  asserts  its  intention  of  en- 
deavouring to  terminate  the  Italian  war. — June 
19.  The  government  states  that  the  Prussian  army 
has  been  called  out  for  the  protection  of  Germany. 
— July  25.  The  army  is  restored  to  a  peace  footing. 

1860,  Jan.  13.  In  opening  the  diet,  the  Prince-regent  an- 

nounces important  changes  in  the  military  organi- 
zation of  the  kingdom. — March  27-  Prussia  pro- 
tests against  the  French  annexation  of  Savoy. — 
April  25-  Jews  are  admitted  to  judicial  appoint- 
ments.— May  4.  The  Prussian  chambers  express 
their  intention  of  aiding  the  Sleswig-Holsteiners 
in  the  maintenance  of  their  political  rights.— 
June  16.  The  Prince-regent,  with  other  German 
sovereigns,  has  an  interview  with  Napoleon  III. 
at  Baden-Baden. —Oct.  12.  Queen  Victoria  has 
an  interview  with  the  Prince-regent  at  Coblentz. 

1861,  Jan.  2-    Death  of  Frederick  William  IV.,  who  is 

succeeded  by  the  Prince-regent  as  William  I. — 
Jan.  13.  An  amnesty  is  published  in  favour  of 
political  offenders. — Jan.  24.  A  commercial  treaty 
with  Japan  is  signed  at  Jeddo.— Feb.  6.  The 
Baron  de  Vincke  carries  an  amendment  on  the 
address  of  the  chambers  to  the  King,  to  the 
effect  that  Prussia  should  not  oppose  the  con- 
solidation of  Italy.— May  I.  The  Macdonald 
affair  is  amicably  adjusted. — June  I.  A  general 
commercial  code  for  Germany  is  adopted  by  the 
chambers. — July  14.  Oscar  Becker,  a  Leipsic 
student  of  unsound  mind,  attempts  the  .King's 
life  at  Baden.— Sep.  v>.  The  Society  of  the 
Prussian  People  (Preussicher  -  Volks  -  Vereiri)  is 
founded  at  Berlin.— Oct.  6.  William  I.  and  Napo- 
leon III.  meet  at  Compiegne.— Oct.  18.  William  I. 
and  Queen  Augusta  are  crowned  at  Konigsberg, 
and  an  amnesty  is  issued. — Dec.  6.  The  election 
of  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  results 
in  the  victory  of  the  party  of  progress. 

1862,  Jan.  I.  German  is  substituted  for  the  French  lan- 

guage in  Prussian  diplomatic  despatches. — March 
II.  The  chambers,  having  resisted  the  military 
expenditure  of  the  government,  are  dissolved. 
— March  18.  A  new  ministry  is  formed  by  Von 
der  Heydt. — May  19.  A  new  parliament  assem- 
bles, with  a  large  majority  against  ministers  in 
the  Lower  House.— May  20.  Diplomatic  relations 
are  suspended  with  Electoral  Hesse,  in  conse- 
quence of  disrespectful  treatment  experienced 
by  the  Prussian  envoy. — June  7.  William  I. 
signifies  his  assent  to  the  policy  of  the  cabinet.— 
Sep.  23.  After  a  long  and  violent  debate,  the 
chambers  reject,  by  308  to  n  votes,  the  govern- 
ment proposition  for  the  military  expenses  of  the 
kingdom.  Van  der  Heydt  resigns  in  consequence, 
and  is  succeeded  by  Herr  Othon  von  Bismarck- 
Schoenhausen.— Oct.  I.  M.  de  Bodelschwingh  is 
appointed  minister  of  finance. — Oct.  1 1.  The 
Chamber  of  Peers  passes  the  military  budget, 
which  had  been  rejected  by  the  deputies. — Oct. 
13.  The  assent  of  the  peers  being  declared  un- 
constitutional by  the  deputies,  William  I.  closes 
the  session,  and  announces  his  intention  of  go^- 
veming  independently  of  the  constitution. 

1863,  Feb.  3,  William  I.  refuses  the  lower  chamber  the 

right  of  controlling  the  expenditure  of  the 
nation. — Feb.  8.  A  convention  with  Russia,  by 
which  Prussia  agrees  to  aid  in  suppressing  the 
Polish  insurrection,  is  signed  at  Warsaw.— Feb. 
17.  France  remonstrates  against  the  Russo- 
Prussiaii  convention. — May  n.  In  consequence 
of  a  dispute  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  between 
the  vice-president  De  Bockum-Dolffs  and  the 
minister  of  war,  De  Roon,  relative  to  the  right 
of  the  president  to  interrupt  the  ministers,  the 
latter  decline  in  future  to  appear  in  the  chamber. 


1863,  May  22.   The  Chamber  addresses   the  King  on  its 

relation  with  the  ministers.— May  27.  William  I. 
replies  and  closes  the  session.  —  May  31.  The 
Crown  Prince  remonstrates  with  his  father  upon 

von  Bismarck  issues  a  royal  decree,  suppressing 
all  journals,  foreign  or  Prussian,  expressing  ten- 
dencies "  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  the  state." 
— June  3.  The  Crown  Prince  formally  protests 
against  this  decree. — July  18  and  19.  A  fete  is  held 
in  honour  of  the  liberal  members  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.— Aug.  2.  William  I.  and  Francis 
Joseph  I.  of  Austria  meet  at  Gastein. — Aug.  4. 
William  I.  declines  to  attend  the  congress  of 
German  sovereigns  at  Frankfort. — Sep.  2-  The 
Chambers  are  dissolved  by  royal  decree. — Oct.  20. 
The  party  of  progress  obtain  a  majority  in  the 
elections  for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. — Nov.  9. 
Opening  of  the  Chambers. — Nov.  21.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  vote  of  the  Deputies,  William  I. 
recalls  his  decree  respecting  the  press. — Dec.  z- 
The  Chamber,  by  231  to  63  votes,  resolves  that 
"  the  honour  and  interest  of  Germany  demand 
that  all  the  German  states  should  preserve  the 
rights  of  the  duchies  of  Sleswig  and  Holstein, 
that  they  should  recognize  the  hereditary  Prince 
of  Sleswig  -  Holstein  -  Sonderburg  -  Augusten- 
bourg  as  Duke  of  Sleswig-Holstein,  and  that  they 
should  lend  him  assistance  in  the  vindication  of 
his  rights." 

1864,  Jan.    16.  Prussia  unites  with  Austria  in  an  ulti- 

matum addressed  to  the  Danish  Government. — 
Jan.  21.  An  allied  Prussian  and  Austrian  army 
enters  Holstein.  (See  DENMARK.)— Jan.  22.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  rejects  a  demand  for 
money  to  carry  out  military  intervention  in 
Sleswig-Holstein.— Jan.  25.  Closing  of  the 
Chambers.  —  March  15.  The  Prussian  ports  are 
blockaded  by  Denmark.  —  April  25.  Meeting  of 
the  London  Conference  (q.  v.). — May  3.  Deatli  of 
Count  de  Rantzau.— Aug.  20-25.  William  I.  visits 
the  Austrian  court  at  Vienna.— Oct.  27.  Herr  von 
Bismarck  visits  Napoleon  III.  at  Paris.— Oct.  30. 
Peace  is  restored  with  Denmark  (q.  v.). — Nov.  36. 
Prussia  advances  claims  to  the  succession  of  the 
Elbe  duchies. 

1865,  Jan.  14.  Opening  of  the  diet.— March  24.  A  minis- 

terial order  is  published  for  the  transfer  of  the 
depot  of  the  Prussian  fleet  on  the  Baltic  from 
Dantzic  to  Kiel. — April  14.  Austria  protests 
against  the  Prussian  occupation  of  Kiel. — May  5. 
A  project  for  the  reorganization  of  the  army  is 
rejected  by  the  Deputies.— May  15  and  16.  The 
5oth  anniversary  of  the  union  with  the  Rhine 
provinces  is  celebrated.— May  23.  A  treaty  with 
Belgium  is  signed  at  Berlin.— May  30.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  is  concluded  with  Great  Britain. 
—June  8.  The  soth  anniversary  of  the  annexa- 
tion of  Pomerania  and  Rtigen  is  celebrated  at 
Stralsund. — June  17.  The  diet  is  closed.  —  June 
21.  A  postal  convention  is  concluded  with  Den- 
mark. —  June  24.  Kiel  is  made  the  principal 
station  of  the  Prussian  fleet.— July  5.  William  I. 
issues  a  decree  estimating  the  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure, and  prescribing  the  regulation  of  the 
finances. — July  22.  An  intended  banquet  of 
liberal  deputies  is  prohibited  at  Cologne.— Aug. 
14.  Signing  of  the  convention  of  Gastein  (q.  v.). 
— Aug.  16.  A  treaty  of  navigation  is  concluded 
with  Great  Britain. — Aug.  20.  William  I.  meets 
Francis  Joseph  of  Austria  at  Salzburg. — Sep.  15. 
Acquisition  of  Lauenburg. — Sep.  16.  Herr  von 
Bismarck  is  raised  to  the  rank  of  count— Nov. 
4.  Count  Bismarck  is  received  by  Napoleon  III. 
at  Paris. — Nov.  8.  Count  Bismarck  returns  to 
Berlin.— Dec.  19.  Count  Eulenberg  is  sentenced 
to  four  and  a  half  months'  imprisonment  for 
being  concerned  in  the  death  of  M.  Ott,  a 
cook. 

1866,  Jan.  15.  The  Chambers  are  opened  by  Count  Bis- 

marck.— Feb.  33.  The  Chambers  are  unexpectedly 
closed.  —  May  7.  Count  Bismarck's  life  is  at- 
tempted at  Berlin  by  Ferdinand  Blind,  who  after- 
wards commits  suicide. — May  13.  A  conditional 
treaty  of  alliance  is  concluded  with  Italy. — June 
7.  The  Prussians  enter  Holstein. — June  12.  The 
Prussians  enter  Altona.  The  Austrian  ambas- 
sador leaves  Berlin. 


PRUSSIA 


[    814    ] 


PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM 


1866,  June  15.  An  ultimatum  is  forwarded  by  Prussia 
to  the  governments  of  Saxony,  'Hanover, 
Hesse  Cassel,  and  Nassau,  and  is  rejected  by 
all.  War  is  declared  against  Snxouy,  which 
is  entered  by  Prussian  troops.  —  June  16.  Aus- 
tria declares  her  intention  to  afford  Saxony 
military  aid  against  Prussia,  who  accepts  this 
statement  as  a  declaration  of  war.  —  June  17. 
William  I.  and  Count  Bismarck  leave  Berlin  fo.r 
the  army.  The  Prussians  enter  Hanover  and 
occupy  Dresden.  Prussia  formally  declares  war 
against  Austria.  —  June  18.  Hostilities  are  com- 
menced by  the  Austrians,  who  fire  upon  a 
Prussian  patrol.  —  June  2,0.  The  Prussians  enter 
Pirna  and  Freiberg.—  June  34.  The  Prussians  are 
repulsed  in  Galicia.—  June  36.  Battle  of  Pocloc 
(</.  v.).  —  June  27-  The  Austrians  sustain  a  severe 
defeat  from  the  Prussians  under  the  Crown  Prince 
at  Nachod.  The  Prussians  arc  again  defeated 
in  (ialicia.  The  Prussians  defeat  the  Hanoverians 
near  Langeiisalza.—  June  2«.  Battle  of  Trau- 
tenau  (,,.  •)'.),—  Prince  Krcderiek  Charles  defeats 
the  Austrians  at  Miinchcngriitz.  —  June  29.  Battle 
of  (iitschin  (?.  ».).—  July  3.  Battle  of  Sadowa  or 
Konigsgratz  (q.v.).—  July  9.  Battle  of  Zwittau 
(q.v.).  —  July  ii.  The  Bavarians  are  defeated  at 
Kissingen  by  the  Prussians  under  (Jen.  <lc-  Man- 
teuffel.  —  July  12.  The  Prussians  enter  liriiiin.  — 
July  14.  Tin;  Prussians  defeat  the  German-Fede- 
rals at  Aschaffenburg.—  July  15.  Battle  of  Tro- 
bitschau  (17.  «.).  —  July  16.  The  Prussians,  under 
(Jen.  Vogel  von  Falkcnsti-in,  enter  Frankfort-on- 
Ihe-Maine.  —  July  31.  The  Prussians  evacuate 
Frankfort.  —  July  25.  The  Prussians  defeat  the 
Bavarians  at  (ierscheim.—  July  26.  A  preliminary 
treaty  of  peace  with  Austria  is  signed  at  Xikols- 
burg  (q.  v.).  —  Battle  of  Wurzb  irg  (q.  v.).  —  Aug.  I. 
An  armistice  is  signed  at  Kissingen  and  Wurz- 
burg.—  Aug.  5.  Tin-  li-gislativi-  chambers  are 
opened  by  William  I.  —  Aug.  8.  France  di-ninnds 
a  rectification  of  her  eastern  frontier,  whirh  is 
refused  by  Prussia.—  Aug.  13.  IVace  with  \Viir- 
temberg  is  signed  at  Berlin.  —  Aug.  17.  A  royal 
message  for  the  incorporation  of  Hanover,  Klcc- 
toral  Hesse.  Nassau,  and  Frankfort,  is  laid  before 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  —  Aug.  23.  Peace  with 
Bavaria  is  signed  at  Berlin.—  Aug.  23.  Peace 
with  Austria  is  signed  at  Prague.  -Aug.  27.  An 
alliance  is  concluded  with  Oldenburg.-  S,  '-p.  3. 
I'eaee  uith  Ili-sse  Darmstadt  is  signed  at  Berlin. 
—  Sep.  7.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  pas,,  the 
Annexation  Bill  by  273  to  14  votes—  Sep.  8.  The 
treaties  between  Prussia  and  Altenburg,  Anhalt, 
Brunswick,  Hanse  Towns,  Lippe  (both  states), 
Oldenburg,  Keuss,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe- 
Weimar,  Schwartzburg  (both  states),  and  Waldeck 
are  ratified.—  Sep.  10.  The  treaty  between  Prussia 
and  Mecklenburg  (both  states)  is  ratified.—  Sep. 
15.  The  treaty  between  Prussia  and  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt is  ratified.—  Sep.  20.  The  decree  for  annexing 
Frankfort,  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  and  Nassau  is 
issued.  —  Oct.  31.  The  treaty  of  peace  between 
Saxony  and  Prussia  is  signed  at  Berlin. 


MARGRAVES   OF   BRANDENBURG. 


A.D. 

1134.  Albert  I.  (the  Bear). 

A.D. 

1388.  Jossus,  the  Bearded. 

1170.  Otlio  I. 

1411.  Sigismund  (again). 

1184.  Otho  II. 
1306.  Albert  II. 

1415.  Frederick   I.    (VI.    of 
Nuremberg). 

1221.  John  I.  and  Otho  III. 

1440.  Frederick     II.,    Dent 

1266.  John  II. 

de  Fer. 

1282.  Otho  IV. 

1470.  Albert  III. 

1309.  Waldemar. 

1476.  John      III.,       Cicero 

1319.  Henry  I.,  le  Jeune. 

(.Margrave). 

1330.  Interregnum. 
1333.  Louis  I.,  of  Bavaria. 

1486.  John  III.  (Elector). 
1499.  Joachim  I. 

1353.  Louis  II.,  the  Roman. 

1535.  Joachim  II. 

1365.  Otho  V.,  le  Faineant. 
1373.  Weneeslaus. 

1571.  John-George. 
1598.  Joachim-Frederick. 

1378.  Sigismund. 

1608.  John-Sigismund. 

DUKES  OF  PRUSSIA. 

1618.  John-Sigismund.           1  1640.  Frederick-William. 
1619.  George-  William.           |  1688.  Frederick  III. 

KINGS  OF  PRUSSIA. 
A.D. 

1701.  Frederick  I. 
1713.  Frederick-William  I. 
1740.  Frederick       II.,       the 
Great. 


1786.  Frederick-William  II. 


1797.  Frederick  -   William 
1840.  Frederick   -   William 


1  86  1.  William  I. 


PRUSSIC  ACID,  or  HYDROCIANIC  ACID, 
was  procured  by  Scheele  from  Berlin  or  Prus- 
sian blue,  in  1782.  Berthollet  showed  its  com- 
position to  l)e  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen, 
in  1787;  and  Gay-Lussac  isolated  cyanogen 
itself,  showing  the  true  constitution  of  the 
acid,  in  1815. 

PRUTH  (Europe),  from  the  Buckowina  to 
its  mouth,  was  constituted  the  boundary  be- 
tween Russian  and  Turkish  Moldavia,  by  the 
treaty  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812.  The  river 
boundary  was  crossed  by  the  army  of  Russia, 
May  7,  1828 ;  and  a  second  time,  leading  to 
a  declaration  of  war  by  Turkey,  July  2,  1853. 
(See  FALCZI.) 

PRYDHAIN.— (See  BRITANNIA.) 

PRYTANIS,  the  chief  magistrate  in  many 
of  the  Grecian  states.  This  office  was  insti- 
tuted at  Corinth,  at  the  death  of  the  last  king, 
B.C.  745,  and  abolished  by  Cypselus  when  he 
gained  absolute  power,  B.C.  655. 

PSALMS  AND  PSALTERS.— The  Book  of 
Psalms  is  the  production  of  various  authors, 
the  earliest  being  Moses,  who  composed  the 
goth.  David,  who  wrote  the  greatest  number, 
is  termed  the  psalmist.  The  Psalms  were 
translated  into  the  Saxon  language  in  709  ;  and 
the  Latin  Psalter,  on  vellum,  published  by 
Faust  and  Schoeffer,  of  Mayence,  in  1457,  is 
the  earliest  printed  book  to  which  a  date  is 
attached.  Attempts  were  made  to  render  the 
Psalms  into  metrical  English  verse  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  or  Richard  I.  ;  and  in 
1540  they  were  translated  into  French  verse  by 
Clement  Marot.  Sternhold  and  Hopkins's  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms  was  first  published  as  part 
of  the  Prayer-book  in  1562,  and  is  known  as 
the  Old  Version.  The  New  Version,  by  Tate 
and  Brady,  appeared  in  1698.  (See  AMBROSIAN 
and  GREGORIAN  CHANTS.) 

PSEUDOSCOPE.— This  apparatus,  called  the 
pseudoscope  because  it  ' '  conveys  to  the  mind 
false  perceptions  of  all  external  objects," — 
converting  the  appearance  of  a  raised  relief 
into  that  of  a  hollow  cast,  and  producing  nlany 
other  illusions,  was  invented  by  Professor 
Wheatstone,  who  described  it  in  the  Bakerian 
Lecture  read  before  the  Royal  Society  Jan.  15, 
1852. 

PSKOW,  or  PSKOV  (Russia),  capital  of  a 
government  of  the  same  name,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Grand-duchess  Olga  in 
the  roth  century,  formed  one  of  the  Hanse 
towns  during  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries.  It 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Gustavus  II. 
(Adolphus)  in  1614,  and  fortified  by  Peter  I.  (the 
Great)  in  1701.  The  Kremlin  was  erected  by 
Prince  Dowmont  1266 — 1299. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM,  which  maintained 
the  immobility  of  the  earth  and  the  revolution 
of  the  planets  around  it,  was  named  after 
Claudius  Ptoleniseus  of  Alexandria  (139 — 161), 
and  prevailed  till  the  time  of  Copernicus 
(1473— May  24,  1543). 


PTOLEMAIS 


[     815 


PULTAVA 


PTOLEMAIS.— (See  ACRE.) 

PUBLICANI,  or  PUBLICANS,  denying  all 
religious  ordinances,  and  acknowledging  only 
the  existence  of  God,  were  tried  by  a  tribunal 
of  archbishops,  bishops,  and  eminent  theolo- 
gians, at  Vezelay,  seven  being  condemned  to 
be  burned,  'in  1134.  The  sect  was  excom- 
municated by  the  Council  of  the  Lateran,  in 
1179.  They  were  also  called  Poplicans,  or 
Populicans. 

PUBLIC  BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES.— 
These  useful  establishments  are  of  humble 
origin.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  cholera 
at  Liverpool,  in  1832,  a  poor  woman,  living  in 
a  back  street  in  that  town,  knowing  from  ex- 
perience the  misery  and  sickness  consequent 
upon  dirt,  offered  her  neighbours  the  oppor- 
tunity of  washing  at  a  copper  which  she  was 
fortunate  enough  to  possess.  Her  dwelling 
was  soon  crowded  ;  benevolent  ladies  rendered 
assistance,  and  85  families  used  this  humble 
wash-house  at  a  charge  of  one  penny  per  week. 
The  idea  was  taken  up,  and  a  small  es- 
tablishment was  opened  in  Frederick  Street, 
Liverpool,  in  1842.  In  Sep.,  1844,  a  meeting 
was  held  at  the  Mansion  House,  and  a  sub- 
scription raised,  with  the  view  of  introducing 
them  in  London ;  and  while  the  first  was  in 
course  of  erection,  an  act  of  Parliament  was 
passed  to  encourage  the  establishment  of 
public  baths  and  wash-houses  (9  &  10  Viet.  c. 
74),  Aug.  26,  1846.  Another  act,  relating  to 
the  establishment  of  similar  places  in  Ireland 
(9  <fe  10  Viet.  c.  87),  received  the  royal  assent 
the  same  day.  Temporary  establishments  had 
been  provided  as  early  as  1844,  and  these  gave 
place  to  buildings  erected  for  the  purpose, 
affording  every  accommodation  both  for  pur- 
poses of  washing  and  bathing. 


1845.  Glasshouse  Yard,  London  Docks. 

1846.  George  Street,  Euston  Square. 
1849.  Orange  Street,  Leicester  Square. 
1849.  Lisson  Grove. 

1851.  Great  Smith  Street,  Westminster. 

1851.  Greenwich. 

1853.  St.  James's,  Westminster. 

1853.  All  Saints,  Poplar. 

1853.  St.  Giles's. 

1853.  St.  George's,  Bloomsbury. 

1853.  Lambeth. 

1854.  St.  George's,  Hanover  Square. 
1854.  Bermondsey. 


PUBLIC    GOOD,    WEAL,    or   WELFARE 

( League),  was  concluded  at  Paris  by  the  French 
nobles  against  Louis  XI.  towards  the  end  of 

1464.  More  than  500  princes,  knights,  &c.,  are 
said  to  have  joined  this  League.     The  Duke  of 
Berri,  brother  to  Louis  XL,  joined  it  in  March, 

1465,  and  the  civil  struggle,  known  as  the  War 
of  the   Public  Good,  Weal,  or  Welfare,   com- 
menced.    The  battle  of  Montlhe'ry  was  fought 
July  1 6,  1465,  and  the  League  was  dissolved 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaties  of  Conflans 
(q.  v.)  and  St.  Maur-les-Fosses  (q.  v.). 

PUBLIC  GOOD,  WEAL,  or  WELFARE 
(War). — The  name  given  to  the  struggle  waged 
between  Louis  XL,  of  France,  and  the  leaders 
of  the  League  of  the  Public  Good,  Weal,  or 
Welfare  (q.  v.},  which  broke  out  in  March,  146-5. 

PUBLIC  HOUSES.— {See  VICTUALLERS.)     ' 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.— The  Calendar  was  first 
published  in  1866.  (See  CHARTER-HOUSE,  EDU- 
CATION, ETON  COLLEGE,  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS, 
HARROW,  MERCHANT  TAYLORS,  PAUL'S,  St., 
RUGBY,  SHREWSBURY,  WESTMINSTER,  and  WIN- 
CHESTER.) 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  CLUB  (London),  formed 
in  1865,  was  dissolved  June  15,  1866. 

PUBLIC  WELFARE. —  The  Committee  of 
General  Safety  in  Paris  was  superseded  April 
6,  1793,  by  the  Committee  of  Public  Welfare, 
consisting  of  nine  members  of  the  Convention 
who  were  to  deliberate  in  secret.  Robespierre 
became  a  member  July  27,  and  its  number  was 
increased  to  12,  Sep.  6.  It  obtained  a  virtual 
dictatorship  Oct.  10,  and  decided  that  the 
Queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  should  be  brought 
to  trial,  which  resulted  in  her  execution,  Oct. 
16  ;  resolved  on  the  destruction  of  the  Dan- 
tonists,  the  chief  of  whom  were  executed, 
April  5,  1794 ;  issued  a  decree,  refusing 
quarter  to  the  English  or  Hanoverian  soldiers, 
in  these  words,  "  No  prisoner  shall  be  taken 
from  the  English  or  Hanoverians,"  May  29, 
1794;  and  sent  all  the  farmers-general  to 
the  revolutionary  tribunal,  where  they  were 
at  once  condemned,  May  8,  1794.  Their  power 
gradually  declined  ;  and  they  were  defeated 
in  an  attempt  to  save  Fouquier-Tinville,  July 

3°PIUCKLECHURCH  ( Gloucestershire j  was  the 
court  of  the  Saxon  King  Edmund  I.,  who  was 
assassinated  here  by  an  outlaw  named  Liofa, 
May  26,  946. 

PUEBLA,  or  PUEBLA  DE  LOS  ANGELES 
(Mexico),  founded  in  1533,  was  besieged  by 
the  French  March  18,  1863,  and  surrendered 
May  18. 

PUERTO.— (See  PORTO  BELLO,  Rico,  <fcc.) 

PUGILISM,  or  BOXING,  called  "the  noble 
art  of  self-defence,"  was  practised  amongst 
ancient  nations,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
patronized  in  England  by  Alfred  the  Great 
(871—901),  and  Richard  III.  (1483—85).  It  was 
made  a  profession  early  in  the  i8th  century, 
the  first  public  exhibition  taking  place  about 
1740.  Nicholas,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Russia, 
witnessed  a  prize  fight  at  Coombe  Warren,  in 
1817.  The  great  contest  between  John  Heenan, 
the  "Benicia  Boy,"  an  American,  and  Tom 
Sayers,  an  Englishman,  in  which  the  latter, 
after  a  fight  of  two  hours'  duration,  was 
virtually  victor,  took  place  at  Farnborough, 
April  17,  1860.  Heenan  was  defeated  by  King 
in  another  encounter  at  Wadhurst,  Dec.  10, 
1863.  (See  CURTAIN  THEATRE.) 

PULLEY. —The  invention  of  the  pulley 
is  ascribed  to  Archimedes,  B.C.  287  —  B.C. 

212. 

PULPIT.— The  pulpitum  of  the  Romans, 
where  the  actors  on  the  stage  recited  their 
parts,  is  described  by  Pollux  in  his  "  Onomas- 
ticon,"  written  about  176.  In  churches  it  gene- 
rally faced  the  west,  that  the  people  might  sit 
facing  the  east,  till  the  direction  was  changed 
by  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  on  his  foundation  of 
the  chapel  of  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1584.  It  was  ordered  that  clocks  should  be 
placed  over  the  pulpits  in  1483. 

PULTAVA  and  PULTOWA.— (See  BENDER 
and  POLTAVA.) 


PULTUSK 


[    816    ] 


PURITANS 


PULTUSK  (Poland).— The  united  army  of 
the  Saxons  and  Poles  was  defeated  here  by 
Charles  XII.,  May  i,  1703.  An  action,  of 
which  both  claimed  the  victory,  was  fought 
here  between  the  French  and  the  Russians, 
Dec.  26,  1806. 

PULU,  or  VEGETABLE  SILK,  was  first 
imported  from  Hawaii  in  1844. 

PUMPS,  according  to  Yitruvius,  were  in- 
vented by  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  and  thence 
called  machincK  Ctesibicce,  about  B.C.  200.  Ladles 
or  cups  for  drinking  were  first  attached  to 
wells  and  springs  by  Edwin,  King  of  Nor- 
thumberland (617 — 633). 

PUNCH  AND  JUDY,  from  the  Italian 
Pulcinella  or  Policinella,  of  which  various 
derivations  are  given,  said  to  have  originated 
about  1600,  became  popular  in  England  in  the 
1 7th  century.  The  earliest  notice  of  Punch  in 
England,  according  to  Mr.  Peter  Cunningham, 
is  found  in  entries  in  the  Overseer's  book  of 
St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields  for  1666  and  1667. 

PUNCTUATION  was  not  introduced  into 
Greek  literature  till  B.C.  365.  For  some  time 
after  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing, 
arbitrary  marks  were  employed  to  divide  sen- 
tences. The  common  parenthesis,  interroga- 
tion, and  period  were  gradually  introduced  in 
the  1 6th  century.  The  colon  is  found  in  Bale's 
"  Acts  of  English  Worthies,"  published  in  1550, 
the  note  of  admiration  in  Day's  edition  of 
Edward  the  Sixth's  Catechism,  printed  in  1553, 
and  the  semicolon  in  Hackluyt's  Voyages, 
which  appeared  in  1599. 

PUNIC  WARS.— The  first  of  these  wars 
between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians  com- 
menced B.C.  264,  and  closed  with  conditions 
humiliating  to  the  latter,  B.C.  241.  The  second 
began  by  the  capture  of  the  island  of  Saguntum 
by  Hannibal,  B.C.  218,  and  closed  with  his 
defeat  at  Zama,  Oct.  ig,  B.C.  202.  Peace  was 
granted  soon  after,  and  the  ratifications  were 
exchanged  B.C.  201.  The  third  opened  B.C. 
149,  and  terminated  with  the  destruction  of 
Carthage,  B.C.  146. 

PUNJAUB  (Hindostan),  deriving  its  name 
from  two  Persian  words  signifying  five  rivers 
(the  Jhelum,  Cheiiab,  Ravi,  Beas,  and  Sutlej), 
was  invaded  by  Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  who 
defeated  Porus,  with  his  army  of  30,000  foot, 
4,000  horse,  and  200  elephants,  B.C.  327.  The 
Mohammedans  effected  some  conquests  about 
705.  It  was  overrun  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni 
about  1001.  The  dynasty  of  the  slave  kings, 
with  Delhi  for  their  capital,  was  founded  in 
1205.  Tamerlane  invaded  it  in  1398  ;  and 
Nanak  (1469 — 1539)  founded  the  Sikh  power.  It 
was  raised  to  an  independent  kingdom,  under 
Runjeet  Singh,  1791 — 1839.  Hostilities  broke 
out  between  the  Sikhs  (q.  v.)  and  the  English, 
Nov.  17,  1845  ;  and  the  battle  of  Moodkee,  in 
which  Sir  Hugh  Gough  commanded  and  Sir 
Robert  Sale  was  wounded,  was  fought  Dec.  18. 
(See  LAHORE.)  The  battle  of  Goojerat,  in 
which  the  Sikhs  were  totally  routed,  fought 
Feb.  21,  1849,  was  followed  by  the  annexation 
of  the  country,  March  29,  1849. 

PUNT  ID O  (Italy).  —  The  first  Lombard 
League  (q.  v.}  was  signed  at  this  convent, 
situated  between  Bergamo  and  Milan,  April  7, 
1167. 


PUPILS  OF  ST.  AUGUSTINE.  —  (See 
JANSENISTS.) 

PUPPETS.— In  French  Marionettes  and  in 
Italian  Fantoccini,  miniature  figures,  or  dolls, 
worked  by  wires  in  puppet  plays  or  exhibi- 
tions, a  kind  of  amusement  believed  to  have 
been  common  in  Egypt  and  Etruria,  and 
amongst  other  ancient  nations.  Something 
similar,  in  China  and  India,  is  known  as 
Ombres  Chinoises.  In  England  puppets  are 
mentioned  under  the  name  "Motions,"  the 
pieces  performed  being  for  the  most  part 
taken  from  Bible  narratives.  Robert  Powel's 
puppet  show  is  noticed  in  the  Tatler,  May  15, 
1709.  When  Le  Sage  was  prevented  from 
writing  for  the  French  theatre,  in  1721,  he 
composed  puppet  plays. 

PURCELL  CLUB.— (See  CONCERT.) 

PURE  GOTHIC.— (-See  GOTHIC  ARCHITEC- 
TURE.) 

PURGATORY,  "possible  with  St.  Augus- 
tine," says  Milman  (Lat.  Christ.,  vol.  vi.  b.  xiv. 
ch.  2),  "probable  with  Gregory  the  Great,  grew 
up,  I  am  persuaded  (its  growth  is  singularly 
indistinct  and  untraceable),  out  of  the  mercy 
and  modesty  of  the  Priesthood."  Origen,  in 
240,  taught  that  the  souls  of  good  men  will,  at 
the  judgment-day,  pass  through  a  purgatorial 
fire  ;  Augustine,  in  407,  expressed  an  opinion 
that  this  might  take  place  in  the  interval 
between  death  and  the  day  of  judgment ;  and 
Gregory  I.,  in  604,  established  it  as  an  article 
of  faith.  The  Benedictine  monks  industriously 
disseminated  the  doctrine  in  615  ;  and  the 
duty  of  all  persons  to  pray  for  souls  in  pur- 
gatory was  enjoined  by  the  Pope  in  1000. 
Peter  Lombard  taught  that  sins  committed 
after  baptism  were  so  punished,  in  1164.  It 
was  declared  to  be  an  article  of  faith  by  the 
Council  of  Florence  in  1439.  The  doctrine 
had  gone  out  of  fashion  in  England  in  1547. 
"  Yet,"  says  Hallam  (Hist,  of  Eng.  vol.  i., 
ch.  i.  s.  3),  "in  the  first  liturgy  put  forth 
under  Edward  VI.  (1549)  the  prayers  for  de- 
parted souls  were  retained;  whether  out  of 
respect  to  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  or  to 
the  immemorial  antiquity  of  the  practice.  But 
such  prayers,  if  not  necessarily  implying  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory  (which  yet,  in  the  main, 
they  appear  to  do),  are  at  least  so  closely  con- 
nected with  it  that  the  belief  could  never  be 
eradicated  while  they  remained.  Hence,  in 
the  revision  of  the  liturgy,  four  years  after- 
wards, they  were  laid  aside  ;  and  several  other 
changes  made,  to  eradicate  the  vestiges  of  the 
ancient  superstition."  (See  INDULGENCE.) 

PURIFICATION.  —  (See  CANDLEMAS  DAY, 
FEASTS,  and  LUSTRUM.) 

PURITANS.— The  name  was  first  applied, 
according  to  Fuller,  in  1564,  and.  to  Strype,  in 
1569,  to  persons  who,  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  refused  to  adhere  to  the  episcopal 
form  of  worship.  They  returned  in  consider- 
able numbers  from  the  continent,  in  1558. 
Many  of  the  clergymen  were  deprived  of  their 
benefices  in  1565.  A  proclamation  against 
them  was  issued  in  1573,  and  they  were  for- 
bidden to  leave  the  kingdom  without  licence, 
July  21,  1635.  James  II.  published  his  de- 
claration of  indulgence  April  4,  1687  ;  and  the 
Toleration  Act,  passed  May  24,  1689,  relieved 


PURPLE 


[    817    ]        PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY 


from  the  penal  statutes  all  Protestant  dis- 
senters except  Unitarians.  (See  DISSENTERS, 
MAE-PRELATE  TRACTS,  MILLENARY  PETITION, 
NONCONFORMISTS,  NOVATIANS,  &c.) 

PURPLE  was  procured  by  the  Phoenicians 
from  several  species  of  univalve  shell-fish,  the 
Tyrians  being  famed  for  cloth  dyed  in  this 
manner,  B.C.  2112.  It  is  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  construction  of  the  Jewish 
tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv.  4),  B.C.  1491,  and  was 
worn  in  Greece,  B.C.  559.  Its  use  was  restricted 
to  the  person  and  palace  of  Justinian  I.,  under 
a  penalty  of  death,  in  532.  After  having  been 
lost  for  ages,  the  method  of  producing  the 
Tyrian  purple  was  rediscovered  in  the  iyth 
century.  (See  COCHINEAL.) 

PURVEYORS  for  the  royal  household  were 
subjected  to  some  restrictions  in  the  exercise 
of  their  arbitrary  duties,  by  Magna  Charta, 
June  15,  1215,  and  many  subsequent  statutes. 
The  prerogative  was  abolished  by  12  Charles 
II.  c.  24  (1660). 

PUSEYISM.— (See  TRACTAKIANISM.) 

PUTEOLI  (Italy),  the  modern  Pozzuoli, 
originally  called  Dicsearchia,  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Cumae,  B.C.  521  ;  fortified  by  the 
Roman  senate  against  Hannibal  B.C.  215  ; 
became  the  principal  port  for  landing  supplies 
of  corn  for  the  Roman  army  B.C.  212;  and 
received  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  194.  St.  Paul 
landed  here  on  his  journey  to  Rome,  in  59 
(Acts  xxviii.  13).  It  was  a  favourite  resort  of 
the  Roman  nobility  towards  the  close  of  the 
republic,  and  here  Cicero  had  a  villa,  which 
he  named  Academia,  B.C.  45.  In  its  theatre, 
capable  of  containing  25,000  spectators,  Augus- 
tus presided  at  the  games,  B.C.  31,  and  Nero 
entertained  Tiridates  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  with 
combats  of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts  in  66. 
It  was  captured  by  Alaric  I.  in  410,  by  Genseric 
in  455,  and  by  Totila  in  545.  An  eruption  of 
the  Solfatara  caused  much  destruction  in  1198, 
and  a  volcanic  disturbance  of  the  Monte  Nuovo 
did  considerable  damage  in  1538.  (See  PIALIA.) 

PUTRID  SORE  THROAT.  —  (See  DIPH- 
THERIA.) 

PYDNA  (Greece),  whence  Themistocles  took 
ship  for  Asia,  B.C.  466,  was  captured  by 
Archelaus,  who  removed  its  site  20  stadia 
from  the  sea,  B.C.  411.  It  was  betrayed  to 
Philip  II.  in  the  beginning  of  the  Social  war, 
B.C.  358,  when  Demosthenes  ransomed  some 
Athenian  citizens  who  had  been  sold  into 
slavery.  Olympias  took  refuge  here,  and  it 
was  besieged,  and  she  was  made  prisoner  by 
Cassander,  B.C.  316.  The  fate  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy  was  decided  in  a  plain  near  this  city, 
when  Perseus  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
by  the  Romans,  under  Lucius  JSmilius  Paulus, 
June  22,  B.C.  r68. 

PYLUS.— The  inhabitants  of  this  city,  the 
modern  Navarino,  emigrated  to  Cyllene  at  the 
close  of  the  second  Mes&enian  war,  B.C.  668. 
A  fort  was  erected  upon  the  promontory  by 
Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  commander,  B.C. 
424.  Here,  with  five  galleys  allowed  for  his 
defence,  he  was  besieged  by  the  Spartans. 
Eurymedon  came  to  his  relief,  and  he  defeated 
the  fleet  of  the  besiegers  B.C.  425.  A  treaty 
was  concluded  by  which  the  Athenians  agreed 
to  give  up  the  fortress  to  the  Lacedaemonians, 


B.C.  421 ;  nevertheless  they  retained  possession 
till  B.C.  409.  The  Avars  settled  here,  in  the 
6th  century,  from  whom  it  received  its  name 
of  Avarino,  subsequently  corrupted  into  Nava- 
rino (q.  v.}. 

PYRAMIDS  (Battle).— Napoleon  Buonaparte, 
having  defeated  the  Mameluke  army,  at 
Chebreisse,  in  Egypt,  July  13,  1798,  pursued 
them  to  the  plain  of  the  Pyramids,  near  Cairo, 
where  he  gained  another  victory,  July  21.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  Napoleon,  in  en- 
couraging his  troops  before  the  battle,  used 
the  expression,  "Forty  centuries  look  down 
upon  you  from  the  pyramids." 

PYRAMIDS  (Egypt).— The  great  pyramid  is 
ascribed  to  Cheops,  who  employed  100,000 
men  20  years  in  building  it,  at  dates  rang- 
ing from  B.C.  3230— B.C.  2120  ;  the  second  to 
Cephren  or  Cephrenes,  B.C.  1032  ;  and  the 
third  to  Mycerinus,  B.C.  960.  There  are  other 
pyramids  of  inferior  size.  Sir  G.  Cornewall 
Lewis  declared  there  is  no  evidence  for  any 
building  in  Egypt,  not  even  the  Pyramids, 
before  Solomon's  temple,  B.C.  ion.  They  were 
explored  by  Davison  in  1763 ;  by  Belzoni  in  1815  ; 
by  Capt.  Caviglia  in  1816  ;  and  by  Col.  Vyse 
in  1836. 

PYRENEES  (Treaty).— This  peace,  between 
France  and  Spain,  by  which  the  former  was 
confirmed  in  possession  of  Alsace  and  Pignerol, 
and  received  Roussillon  and  part  of  Cerdagne, 
was  concluded  at  the  Isle  of  Faisans,  near 
Bidasoa,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

PYROMETER,  or  fire-measurer,  was  invent- 
ed by"  Musschenbroek,  in  1730.  Ramsden's 
was  described  in  1785,  and  Wedgwood's  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1782,  1784, 
and  1786.  Professor  Daniel  in  1821  constructed 
one  which  gained  him  the  Rumford  medal,  in 
1830.  Ericsson's  was  shown  at  the  Great 
Exhibition  in  1851. 

PYROTECHNY.— (See  FIREWORKS.) 

PYRRHIC,  or  MARTIAL  DANCE,  in  which 
the  performers  were  armed,  and  went  through 
all  the  military  evolutions,  is  ascribed  to  Mi- 
nerva, and  was  revived  by  Pyrrhus,  B.C.  318 — 272. 
It  was  performed  at  the  Panathenaic  festivals, 
and  was  introduced  at  Rome  by  Julius  Caesar 
(B.C.  46 — 44).  Athenaeus  (about  200)  says  the 
Pyrrhic  dance  was  still  practised  in  his  time. 

PYRRHONISM,  a  school  of  Greek  sceptics, 
founded  by  Pyrrho  of  Elis,  about  B.C.  340. 
His  system  was  fully  expounded  by  Sextus 
Empiricus,  about  180. 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY,  instituted 
by  Pythagoras,  born  at  Samos  B.C.  580,  was 
carried  into  practice  at  Crotona,  where  he 
settled  B.C.  535.  A  dispute  having  arisen 
regarding  the  spoil  of  the  conquered  Sybarites 
during  the  popular  tumult  that  ensued,  the 
house  of  MIlo  was  fired,  and  many  of  the 
Pythagoreans  perished  in  the  flames,  B.C.  510. 
The  general  persecution  of  the  sect  throughout 
Magna  Graecia,  which  followed,  only  ceased  on 
the  establishment  of  a  democratic  form  of 
government.  Pythagoras  is  supposed  to  have 
died  at  Metapoiitum,  about  B.C.  507.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of 
philosopher,  or  lover  of  wisdom.  The  distin- 
guishing feature  of  his  system,  the  metemp- 
sychosis, or  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 


PYTHIAN  GAMES 


QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE 


souls,  prevailed  amongst  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Hindoos.  The  system,  which  declined 
B.C.  300,  was  revived  about  B.C  100. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES,  originally  musical  con- 
tests near  Delphi,  in  celebration  of  the  victory 
of  Apollo  over  the  Python,  were  said  to  have 
been  established  by  Apollo  himself.  They 
were  celebrated  every  ninth  year  till  B.C.  586 
and  afterwards  every  fifth  year  till  about 
394.  A  flute  contest  and  athletic  sports  were 
added  B.C.  586,  and  chariot  races  B.C.  582. 
Some  authorities  contend  that  it  was  only  from 
B.C.  586  they  received  the  name  of  Pythian. 

PYX.— This  vessel,  used  in  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic Church  for  the  Eucharistic  elements, 
was  in  early  times  in  the  form  of  a  dove. 


Q. 


QUACKERY.— Impostors  in  the  practice  of 
medicine  have  existed  in  all  ages,  and  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome  were  very  nume- 
rous. Hippocrates  Ridens  (May  17,  1686} 
sketches  one  thus  :  "  His  sagacity  is  remarka- 
ble ;  for  he  hath  found  out  an  art  both  to 
conceal  his  own  ignorance  and  impose  on  that 
of  other  folks,  to  his  own  advantage.  His 
prime  care  is  to  get  the  names  of  diseases 
without  book,  and  a  bead-roll  of  rattling  terms 
of  art,  which  he  usss  to  beguile  the  mobile, — 
first  of  their  senses,  and  next  of  their  pence. 
He  has  an  excellent  talent  in  persuading  well 
people  they  are  sick  ;  and,  by  giving  them  his 
trash,  verifies  the  prediction,  and  is  sure  to 
make  them  so."  A  quack  who  exhibited  upon 
a  stage  in  Co  vent  Garden  in  1690,  amused  his 
spectators  by  taking  13  grains  of  some  poisonous 
drug,  under  the  inspection  of  several  surgeons 
and  physicians.  He  contrived  by  some  means 
to  prevent  any  visible  ill-effects  from  a  dose 
that  would  have  killed  20  men.  St.  John  Long, 
a  celebrated  quack,  was  tried  for  the  man- 
slaughter of  one  of  his  patients  (Miss  Cashin), 
Oct.  30,  1830.  He  was  found  guilty,  and  fined 
.£250.  A  coroner's  inquest  returned  a  verdict 
of  manslaughter  against  the  same  quack,  Nov. 
ii,  1830,  for  having  occasioned  the  death  of 
Mrs.  Catherine  Lloyd.  He  was  tried  on  this 
charge,  and  acquitted,  Feb.  19,  1831. 

QUADI.— This  ancient  people  inhabited  parts 
of  the  modern  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Moravia. 
They  submitted  to  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  about  168.  At 
a  later  period  they  joined  a  confederacy  of 
German  nations  against  Rome.  They  led  the 
Romans  into  a  defile,  where  no  water  could  be 
obtained,  occupied  every  strong  post,  and  left 
them  to  perish,  in  174  ;  but  the  Romans  un- 
expectedly obtained  a  supply  and  defeated  the 
Quadi  in  battle.  The  second  war  lasted  three 
years, — from  178  to  180, — with  no  decisive 
result,  and  the  Quadi  remained  unsubdued. 
Having,  about  353,  invaded  the  Roman  empire, 
Constantius  II.  expelled  them,  and  spread 
desolation  and  terror  throughout  their  country. 
They  overran  Gaul  in  407,  and  their  name  dis- 
appears from  history  about  the  sth  century. 

QUADRA.— (See  VANCOUVER  ISLAND.)     ' 


QUADRAGESIMA.— (See  LENT.) 
QUADRAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  the  4oth  day  before  Good  Friday. 
The  festival  of  the  establishment  of  St.  Peter's 
Chair  at  Antioch,  instituted  about  36,  is  kept 
on  Quadragesima  Sunday  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Edward  HI.  celebrated  a 
jubilee  on  this  day  in  1377. 

QUADRANT.— The  first  astronomical  quad- 
rant of  which  any  account  exists  is  that  used 
by  Ptolemy,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  who 
flourished  in  Egypt  about  the  middle  of  the 
2nd  century.  The  instrument  known  as  Davis's 

Quadrant  or  back-staff,  was  invented  by  Capt. 
ohn  Davis  in  1590.  A  portable  quadrant  was 
invented  by  Gunter  in  1618.  Hartley's  quad- 
rant, supposed  to  have  been  invented  in  1731 
by  John  Hadley,  who  died  Feb.  15,  1744,  is  the 
chief  instrument  now  in  use  for  observing 
altitudes  at  sea. 

QUADRATURE,  or  SQUARING  THE 
CIRCLE.— Archimedes  (B.C.  287—212)  is  the 
first  who  attempted  a  practical  solution  of  the 
question.  Gregory  of  St.  Vincent,  an  able 
mathematician,  published  his  work  on  the 
quadrature  of  the  circle  in  1647.  It  was  refuted 
by  Descartes  and  other  eminent  mathemati- 
cians. After  the  time  of  Newton  (Dec.  25, 
1642 — March  20,  1727),  mathematicians  seem 
to  have  relinquished  the  attempt  to  solve  the 
problem,  though  numerous  pretended  solu- 
tions were  put  forward.  Mathulun,  a  French- 
man, in  1727  offered  3,ooolivres  to  any  one  who 
should  prove  his  solution  wrong,  and  he  was 
actually  compelled  by  a  court  of  law  to  pay  the 
reward.  Causans  in  1753  offered  to  bet  300,000 
francs  on  the  correctness  of  his  process,  and 
deposited  10,000  francs,  which  were  claimed  by 
several  persons,  and,  amongst  others,  by  a 
young  lady,  who  brought  an  action  for  them  ; 
but  the  bet  was  declared  null.  The  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  resolved  in  1755  not  to 
examine  any  more  pretended  solutions, — a 
course  which  was  afterwards  followed  by  the 
Royal  Society  in  England. 

QUADRILATERAL  (Italy).— The  name  given 
to  the  four  fortresses,  Mantua,  Legnago,  Pes- 
chiera,  and  Verona,  which  constituted  the  chief 
defence  of  the  Austrian  province  of  Venetia. 
This  line  of  defence  was  ceded  with  Venetia  to 
Italy  by  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at 
Vienna,  Oct.  3,  1866. 

QUADRILLE,  a  dance  of  French  origin,  was 
ntroduced  into  England  about  1813.  A  game 
at  cards,  called  quadrille,  ana  in  Lancashire 
"  preference,"  was  introduced  in  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century. 

QUADRIVIUM,  or  FOUR  BRANCHES, 
consisting  of  arithmetic,  astronomy,  music, 
and  geometry,  formed  a  course  of  study  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  whilst  the  Trivium,  or 
;hree  branches,  included  grammar,  logic,  and 
rhetoric. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.— This  treaty  of 
alliance  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
;he  Emperor,  for  the  purpose  of  guaranteeing 
;he  succession  of  the  reigning  families  in  Great 
Britain  and  France,  and  settling  the  partition 
of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  was  signed  in  London 
Aug.  2,  1718.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  acceded  to  it 
tfov.  18,  1718.  On  the  accession  of  Holland, 


QTLESTOR 


[    819    ] 


QUATRE  BRAS 


in  Feb.,  1719,  it  obtained  the  name  of  the  Quad- 
ruple Alliance.  Spain  acceded  to  the  terms  of 
this  alliance  Jan.  26,  1720.  (See  Aix  LA 
CHAPELLE,  Treaties.)  The  alliance  signed  at 
London  April  22,  1834,  between  England, 
France,  Portugal,  and  Spain,  respecting  the 
affairs  of  the  Peninsula,  also  bears  this  name. 

QUAESTOR.— Two  quaestores  parricidii,  who 
acted  as  public  prosecutors  in  cases  of  murder, 
or  any  capital  offence,  existed  in  Rome  during 
the  period  of  the  Kings.  Two  qusestores 
classici,  who  had  charge  of  the  public  money, 
were  first  appointed  about  B.  c.  485 .  The  number 
was  doubled  B.C.  421,  and  it  was  decided  that 
they  should  be  chosen  from  the  patricians  and 
the  plebeians.  It  was  not,  however,  till  B.C. 
409  that  a  plebeian  was  elected,  and  then  the 
choice  fell  on  three  plebeians  and  one  patrician. 
They  also  had  charge  of  the  funds  of  the  army, 
to  which  they  were  paymasters.  The  number 
of  quaestors  was  increased  to  eight,  B.C.  265. 
Sylla  raised  the  number  to  20,  and  Julius 
Caesar  to  40.  During  the  time  of  the  Emperors 
their  number  varied;  and  from  the  reign  of 
Claudius  I.  (41 — 54)  it  became  customary  for 
quaestors,  on  entering  office,  to  give  gladiato- 
rial spectacles  to  the  people  ;  so  that  none  but 
the  wealthiest  Romans  could  aspire  to  the 
office. 

QUAIL  FIGHTING.— (See  COCK  FIGHTING.) 
QUAKERS,  or  SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS.— 
This  sect  was  founded  in  1647  by  George  Fox, 
who  was  born  at  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
July,  1624,  and  died  in  London,  Jan.  13,  1691. 
Fox  was  brought  before  Mr.  Justice  Gervase 
Bennet,  at  Derby,  in  1650.  "He,"  says  Fox, 
"  was  the  first  that  called  us  Quakers,  because 
I  bid  them  quake  at  the  word  of  the  Lord."  A 
Quaker  in  Colchester  starved  himself  to  death 
upon  the  presumption  that  he  could  fast  40 
days,  in  April,  1656.  Another  Quaker,  who 
personated  Jesus  Christ  at  Bristol  and  other 
places,  was  found  guilty  of  blasphemy,  and  was 
sentenced  to  be  whipped,  put  in  the  pillory, 
and  his  tongue  bored  through  with  a  hot  iron, 
Dec.  17,  1656.  The  Quakers  appointed  meetings 
for  sufferings  in  1675,  and  attempted  to  estab- 
lish themselves  in  Holland  and  Germany  in 
1677.  William  Penn  became  a  Quaker  in  1666, 
and  founded  Pennsylvania  in  1682.  An  address 
was  presented  to  James  II.  by  the  Quakers 
in  March,  1685.  After  congratulating  him  on 
his  accession,  it  proceeded  thus  :  "  We  are  told 
thou  art  not  of  the  persuasion  of  the  Church 
of  England  any  more  than  we,  and  therefore 
we  hope  that  thou  wilt  grant  ufito  us  the  same 
liberty  which  thou  allowest  thyself."  An  act 
of  indulgence  to  the  Quakers,  that  their  solemn 
affirmation  should  be  accepted  instead  of  an 
oath,  was  passed  in  1696,  and  in  1828  their 
affirmation  was  allowed  in  civil  and  criminal 
trials.  In  1761  members  engaged  in  the  slave- 
trade  were  disowned.  The  White  Quakers, 
who  appeared  in  the  streets  dressed  in  white, 
and  went  about  indoors  in  a  state  of  nudity, 
imitating  the  Adamites  (q.  v.\  created  some 
commotion  in  Ireland  early  in  the  igth  century. 
The  Hicksite  schism,  so  called  from  Elias  Hicks, 
its  originator,  commenced  in  America  in  1827, 
and  the  Beaconites  arose  soon  after.  Further 
dissensions  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Evan- 


gelical Quakers  and  the  Wiburites,  and  great 
changes  have  occurred  in  this  sect.  Mixed 
marriages  were  sanctioned  Nov.  2,  1858.  By  23 
Viet.  c.  18  (May  15, 1860),  which  came  into  force 
June  30,  marriages  solemnized  according  to 
the  usage  of  Quakers,  where  only  one  of  the 
parties  is  a  Quaker,  are  declared  valid. 

QUARANTINE  was  devised  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  communication  from  one 
country  to  another  of  contagious  diseases.  The 
term  originally  signified  a  period  of  40  days, 
during  which  persons  coming  from  foreign 
parts  were  not  permitted  to  land.  It  originated 
as  early  as  1127,  at  Venice,  where  pest-houses, 
or  lazarettos  (q.  v.),  were  established  in  1423. 
Regulations  for  ships  to  perform  quarantine 
were  passed  in  1710.  All  former  quarantine 
acts  were  repealed  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  78  (June  27, 
1825),  and  the  existing  quarantine  regulations 
depend  upon  its  provisions  and  orders  in 
council  issued  under  its  authority. 

QUARRIES. —Egypt  in  ancient  times  pos- 
sessed numerous  quarries,  those  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Syene  and  in  the  island  of  Elephan- 
tine being  the  best  known.  The  masterpieces 
of  Grecian  sculpture  were  executed  in  the  white 
marble  obtained  from  the  quarries  of  Attica 
and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  quarries 
at  Ephesus  constituted  an  immense  labyrinth. 
One  of  these,  in  the  hill  Epipolae,  with  the  stone 
from  which  the  edifices  of  Syracuse  were  built, 
about  B.C.  732,  was  large  enough  to  hold  7,000 
Greek  soldiers  taken  prisoners  when  Nicias 
retreated  from  that  city,  B.C.  413.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  quarries  were  worked  by  slaves. 
The  most  celebrated  quarries  in  England  are 
those  of  Portland,  which  furnished  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  with  the  stone  for  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  the  Monument,  and  most  of  the 
public  edifices  in  London  built  after  the  Great 
Fire  in  1666.  The  quarries  near  Plymouth, 
which  were  opened  in  1812,  furnished  the  stone 
for  the  construction  of  the  breakwater. 

QUARTERING  in  Heraldry  has  been  traced 
to  the  1 4th  century. 

QUARTERLY  REVIEW.— The  first  number 
appeared  in  London  in  April,  1809,  under  the 
editorship  of  William  Gifford,  a  celebrated 
political  writer  and  critic,  who  was  born  at 
Ashburton,  in  Devonshire,  in  April,  1757,  and 
died  in  London,  Dec.  31,  1826. 

QUARTER  SESSIONS  COURT  was  ordered 
to  be  held  in  every  quarter  of  the  year,  or 
oftener  if  required,  in  1388 ;  and  by  subsequent 
statutes,  quarter  sessions  were  directed  to  be 
held  at  uniform  periods.  By  i  Will.  IV.  c.  70 
(July  23,  1830),  these  periods  were  fixed  the 
first  week  after  Oct.  n,  the  first  week  after 
Dec.  28,  the  first  week  after  March  31,  and  the 
first  week  after  June  24.  Further  regulations 
were  made  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  38  (June  30,  1842). 

QUASI  MODO.— (See  Low  SUNDAY.) 

QUATRE  BRAS  (Battle),  fought  at  this 
village  in  Belgium,  between  the  Allied  army 
and  the  French,  under  Marshal  Ney,  June  16, 
1815.  The  inferiority  of  the  Allies  in  numbers, 
and  their  want  of  artillery  and  cavalry,  the 
Belgian  horse,  2,000  strong,  having  left  the 
field  in  a  panic  early  in  the  action,  rendered 
the  combat  for  a  long  time  unequal.  The  Eng- 
lish, however,  received  reinforcements,  and 
30  a 


QUEBEC 


[    820    ] 


QUEEN'S  COLLEGE 


after  a  desperate  struggle  the  battle  ended  in 
favour  of  the  Allies. 

QUEBEC  (Battle),  fought  on  the  heights  of 
Abraham,  near  this  city,  Sep.  13,  1759.  The 
English,  who  gained  a  complete  victory,  were 
commanded  by  Gen.  Wolfe  (1726 — 59),  and  the 
French  by  the  Marquis  De  Montcalm  (1712 — 59'. 
Both  commanders  were  killed,  and  a  monument 
in  their  memory  has  been  erected  on  the  site  of 
the  battle. 

QUEBEC  (Canada),  founded  on  the  site  of 
the  Indian  village  Stadacona,  by  the  French, 
July  13,  1608,  was  captured  in  1629  by  the 
English,  and  restored  March  17,  1632,  to  the 
French,  who  fortified  it  in  1690.  The  city  sur- 
rendered to  the  English  Sep.  18,  1759,  and 
was  ceded  to  them  at  the  peace  of  Paris, 
Feb.  10,  1763.  During  the  revolutionary  war, 
the  Americans  under  Montgomery  attempted 
to  take  the  city  by  assault  during  the  night 
Dec.  31,  1775,  and  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss.  The  Roman  Catholic  Seminary  was 
founded  in  1636,  and  made  a  university  in  1854  '< 
and  the  Presbyterian  college  was  founded  in 
1862.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1793,  and  the 
seat  of  government  April  17,  1856;  and  gave 
place  to  Ottawa  in  1858.  A  fire,  which 
destroyed  1,650  houses,  and  rendered  12,000 
persons  homeless,  occurred  May  28,  1845  ; 
another,  which  destroyed  upwards  of  1,200 
dwellings  in  less  than  eight  hours,  and  left 
15,000  people  without  shelter,  June  28,  1845  ; 
another,  which  destroyed  120  houses  in  the 
St.  Louis  suburbs,  June  7,  1862;  and  a  still 
more  extensive  calamity  of  the  kind,  attri- 
buted to  Fenian  emissaries,  Aug.  17,  1866. 

QUEDLINBURG  (Prussia)  was  founded  in 
920  by  Henry  I.  (the  Fowler).  The  celebrated 
convent,  established  in  932,  or  937,  was  sup- 
pressed in  i 801 . 

QUEEN. — The  word,  derived  from  the  Saxon 
cwen,  signifying  wife,  originally  referred  ex- 
clusively to  the  wife  of  a  king.  The  wives  of 
the  Roman  emperors  were  distinguished  by  the 
title  Augusta.  By  25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  2 
(1350),  it  was  made  high  treason  to  conspire  the 
death  of  a  queen  consort,  or  to  violate  her 
chastity.  The  Salic  law  (q.  v.)  excluded 
females  from  exercising  royal  authority ;  but 
by  i  Mary,  s.  3,  c.  i  (1553),  the  dignity  of 
queen-regnant  was  declared  constitutional  in 
this  country.  Queens-consort  are  regarded  in 
law  as  single  women  in  some  respects,  and  may 
possess  private  property,  which  they  are 
entitled  to  bequeath  or  sell.  This  liberty  was 
confirmed  by  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  88  (July  28, 
1800). 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY.— The  first-fruits 
and  tenths  (See  ANNATES),  which  originally 
formed  part  of  the  papal  exactions  from  the 
British  clergy,  were,  by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3 
(1534),  annexed  to  the  revenue  of  the  crown, 
and  continued  to  form  part  of  the  royal  income 
until,  by  2  &  3  Anne,  c.  n  (1703),  Queen  Anne 
obtained  authority  to  devote  them  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  the  livings  of  poor  clergymen, 
which  she  did  by  letters  patent,  Nov.  3.  By 
i  &  2  Viet.  c.  20  (April  n,  1838),  the  offices  of 
first-fruits,  tenths,  and  Queen  Anne's  bounty 
were  consolidated ;  and  by  4  <fc  5  Viet.  c.  39,  s;  4 
June  21,  1841),  provisions  were  made  for  sub- 


stituting an  equivalent  for  the  first-fruits  and 
tenths  paid  by  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners 
to  the  governors  of  the  bounty. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  FARTHINGS.— In  accord- 
ance with  a  suggestion  made  by  Dean  Swift,  in 
1712,  that  the  copper  money  of  the  realm 
should  be  re-coined,  and  adorned  with  devices 
of  a  medallic  type,  a  few  pattern  farthings 
were  struck.  The  most  celebrated  is  the 
farthing  of  1713,  which  bears  a  bust  on  the 
obverse,  and  a  figure  of  Peace  in  a  car,  with  the 
legend  "  Pax  missa  per  orbem"  on  the  reverse. 
The  farthing  of  1714,  known  as  the  "  canopy 
farthing,"  from  the  device  of  Britannia  seated 
under  a  portal,  is  very  rare.  Another  pattern 
farthing,  dated  1715,  after  Queen  Anne's  death, 
has  the  motto  "  Bello  et  pace"  in  basso-relievo, 
and  is  the  most  scarce.  Some  impressions  in 
gold  and  silver  were  struck  from  the  same 
dies,  but  the  designs  were  poor,  and  the  pro- 
ject was  abandoned.  A  Queen  Anne's  farthing 
of  the  ordinary  type  is  worth  from  145.  to  £i ; 
but  much  higher  prices  have  been  paid. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE'S  ISLANDS  (N.  Pa- 
cific), forming  part  of  British  Columbia,  first 
observed  by  Capt.  Cook,  while  exploring  the 
north-west  coast  of  America,  in  1778,  were 
thought  by  him  to  form  part  of  the  continent. 
They  were  ascertained  to  be  islands  by  Capt. 
Dixon,  in  1787,  who  gave  them  their  present 
name,  and  were  included  in  the  colony  of 
British  Columbia  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  2, 
1858).  Gold  was  discovered  in  one  of  the 
group  in  1850. 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE'S  ISLANDS,  or 
Till:  ARCHIPELAGO  OF  VERA  CRUZ 
(S.  Pacific),  discovered  in  1595  by  Alvaro  de 
Mendana,  who  named  the  principal  one  in  the 
group  Vera  Cruz.  They  were  visited  in  1767 
by  Capt.  Carteret,  who  called  them  Queen 
Charlotte's  Islands,  and  changed  the  name  of 
the  island  of  Vera  Cruz  to  that  of  Egrnont. 
La  Perouse  is  supposed  to  have  been  ship- 
wrecked on  one  of  the  group  in  1788. 

QUEEN'S  BENCH.— (-See  KING'S  (or  QUEEN'S) 
BENCH.) 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGE  (Cambridge).— Henry 
VI.  granted  two  charters,  dated  Dec.  3,  1446, 
and  Aug.  21,  1447,  for  the  College  of  St.  Ber- 
nard. The  last-mentioned  was  revoked  by  a 
charter  dated  March  30,  1448,  granting  Queen 
Margaret  licence  to  found  the  Queen's  College 
of  St.  Margaret  and  St.  Bernard,  which  she 
did  April  15.  It  was  further  endowed  by 
Elizabeth  Woodville,  consort  of  Edward  IV., 
in  1465.  Richard  III.  granted  the  forfeited 
estates  of  John  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford,  to  the 
college  ;  but  this  grant  was  annulled  on  the 
accession  of  Henry  VII.  in  1485.  A  by-fellow- 
ship was  founded  in  1694. 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded 
by  Robert  Eglesfield,  confessor  to  Philippa, 
queen  of  Edward  III.,  in  1340,  for  a  provost 
and  12  fellows,  to  be  chosen  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  the  counties  of  Cumberland  and 
Westmoreland.  Eight  fellowships  and  four 
scholarships,  open  to  all,  and  four  exhibitions, 
confined  to  the  province  of  Canterbury,  were 
also  founded,  from  property  left  for  that  pur- 
pose by  John  Michel  in  1739.  The  foundation- 
stone  of  the  south  quadrangle  was  laid  by  the 


QUEEN'S  COLLEGES 


[    821    ] 


QUIBERON  BAY 


provost,  Dr.  William  Lancaster,  Feb.  6,  1710. 
Queen  Caroline,  in  1733,  gave  .£1,000  towards 
its  completion,  which  took  place  in  1759.  The 
interior  of  the  west  side  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1778.  The  library  was  begun  in  1692, 
and  the  outside  finished  in  1694.  The  chapel, 
the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  1714, 
was  dedicated  on  All  Saints'  day,  1719.  The 
window  over  the  altar  contains  the  Holy 
Family,  painted  by  Price  in  1717.  King 
Henry  V.  is  supposed  to  have  been  educated 
here.  Great  changes  were  made  by  17  &  18 
Viet.  c.  8 1  (Aug.  7,  1854). 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGES  (Ireland).— By  8  &  9 
Viet.  c.  66  (July  31,  1845),  the  Queen  was 
authorized  to  endow  new  colleges  for  the 
advancement  of  learning  in  Ireland.  Charters 
were  accordingly  granted  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college  at  Cork,  Dec.  19,  1845,  and  others 
at  Belfast  and  Galway,  Dec.  30.  In  order  to 
enable  the  students  at  these  colleges  to  receive 
degrees,  letters  patent  were  issued,  Aug.  15, 
1850,  for  the  foundation  of  the  "Queen's 
University  in  Ireland,"  the  seat  of  which  was 
ordered  to  be  in  Dublin.  The  university  held 
its  first  senate  June  19,  1851,  and  conferred 
degrees  for  the  first  time  in  1852. 

QUEENSLAND,  or  MORETON  BAT  (Aus- 
tralia).— Moreton  Bay  was  separated  from  New 
South  Wales  and  erected  into  a  colony,  under 
the  name  of  Queensland,  by  letters  patent 
published  Dec.  4,  1859.  The  family  of  Mr. 
Wills,  a  settler  from  Victoria,  consisting  of  19 
people,  were  barbarously  massacred  by  the 
aboriginal  natives,  Oct.  19,  1861.  (See  BRIS- 
BANE.) 

QUEEN'S  LETTER.— (See  BRIEF.) 

QUEEN'S  PRISON.— (SeeKiNG's (or  QUEEN'S) 
BENCH  PRISON.) 

QUEEN'S  THEATRE  (London). —This 
theatre,  in  Tottenham  Street,  Tottenham 
Court  Road,  was  built  by  Paschali  for  the 
concerts  of  ancient  music,  which  were  re- 
moved, in  1794,  to  the  King's  Theatre,  in  the 
Haymarket.  It  was  hired  in  1802  by  Col. 
Grenville,  for  his  entertainment — the  Pic-Nic 
Society — and  in  1810  it  was  converted  into  a 
theatre,  under  the  name  of  the  Regency, 
afterwards  called  the  Queen's  Theatre.  It  was 
re-decorated  and  re-opened  as  a  fashionable 
theatre,  called  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Theatre, 
Saturday,  April  15,  1865. 

QUEENSTOWN  (Canada).— The  Americans 
were  defeated  here  by  the  English,  Oct.  13, 
1812,  their  commander,  Gen.  Wadsworth,  with 
900  men,  being  taken  prisoners.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Americans  in  May,  1813  ;  and  in 
Dec.  they  made  an  attempt  to  destroy  the 
town  with  red-hot  shot,  but  were  defeated  by 
an  English  force.  It  was  again  occupied  by 
the  Americans  in  June,  1814. 

QUEENSTOWN  (Ireland)  was  so  named  by 
Queen  Victoria  on  her  first  visit  to  Ireland, 
Aug.  3,  1849.  It  had  previously  been  called  the 
Cove  of  Cork,  and  was,  as  recently  as  1786, 
a  small  village,  inhabited  by  a  few  pilots  and 
fishermen.  During  the  French  war  it  became 
a  place  of  some  importance,  and  a  rendezvous 
for  shipping.  A  pier  was  built  in  1805,  and 
the  parish  church  in  1810. 

QUEEN     VICTORIA     STEAMER,      Capt. 


Church,  sailed  from  Liverpool  for  Dublin, 
with  112  persons,  Feb.  14,  1853.  About  mid- 
night she  passed  the  Bailey  lighthouse,  when 
a  thick  snow-storm  commenced,  which  ren- 
dered surrounding  objects  nearly  invisible. 
In  a  short  time  the  ship  struck  upon  the 
Howth  rocks,  at  the  entrance  to  Dublin  har- 
bour, and  sank  almost  immediately.  Efforts 
were  made  to  use  the  boats,  but,  owing  to 
the  general  panic,  they  proved  of  little  ser- 
vice, and  59  of  the  passengers  were  drowned. 
The  calamity  was  attributed  to  the  careless- 
ness of  the  captain  and  his  officers,  who  all 
perished. 

QUEKETT  CLUB.  —  (See  MICROSCOPICAL 
SOCIETIES.)' 

QUENTIN,  ST.  (Battle),  in  which  a  Spanish 
army,  assisted  by  a  body  of  English  troops,  der 
featedthe  French,  commanded  by  the  Constable 
Montmorency,  whose  object  was  to  raise  the 
siege  of  St.  Quentin,  Aug.  10,  1557. 

QUENTIN,  ST.  (France),  the  ancient  Au- 
gusta Veromanduorum,  received  Christianity 
in  the  3rd  century  from  St.  Quentin,  and  was 
named  after  him  in  the  gth.  It  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  which  was  transferred  to  Noyon 
in  the  6th  century.  It  was  united  to  the 


crown  and  fortified  in  1215,  ceded  to  Burgundy 
in  1435,  and  reunited  to  France  in  1477.     It 
was  besieged  by  a  Spanish  army  of  50,000  me 
with  an  auxiliary  corps  of  8,000  English,  i 


477. 
men, 
n 

1557,  and  was  bravely  defended  by  Admiral 
Coligni,  who  surrendered  it  in  the  same  year  ; 
and  it  was  restored  to  France  in  1559.  Being 
a  strongly  fortified  place,  it  was  considered  one 
of  the  bulwarks  of  France  on  the  north- 
eastern frontier.  The  linen  manufacture  was 
introduced  in  1579.  The  canal  connecting  it 
with  the  Oise,  commenced  in  1738,  was  com- 
pleted by  Napoleon  I.  in  1810.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  destroyed  in  1820. 
QUERCUM,  AD.—  (See  OAK  SYNOD.) 
QUERN.—  This  primitive  hand-mill,  formed 
of  two  heavy  stones,  is  said  to  have  been  used 
by  the  Romans.  Boswell  states  that  it  was 
the  ancient  instrument  of  the  Highlanders, 
and  that  he  and  Dr.  Johnson  observed  a 
woman  using  one  in  the  Isle  of  Skye  during 
their  tour  in  the  Hebrides  in  1  773.  He  adds  that 
it  had  then  almost  entirely  gone  out  of  use. 
QUESNE,  DU.—  (See  FORT  PITT.) 
QUESNOY  (France).—  This  town  was  forti- 
fied in  1150,  and  a  siege,  in  1340,  is  mentioned 
by  Froissart.  It  was  captured  by  Louis  XI. 
in  1477,  an(i  D7  Turenne  in  1654.  The  Duke 
of  Ormond  besieged  it  June  8,  1712  ;  it  sur- 
rendered July  4,  and  was  recaptured  by  the 
French  Oct.  4.  The  Austrians  took  it,  after  a 
short  siege,  Sep.  n,  1793  ;  and  the  French 
were  defeated  in  a  great  battle  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, Sep.  13.  The  French  regained  pos- 
session Aug.  15,  1794.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Allied  armies  June  29,  1815. 

QUIBERON  BAY  (France).—  An  English 
fleet  destroyed  some  French  ships  and  dis- 
mantled the  forts  in  this  bay  in  Sep.,  1746. 
Admiral  Hawke  defeated  the  French  fleet 
here  Nov.  20,  1759.  A  body  of  French  emi- 
grants and  soldiers,  to  the  number  of  about 
3,000,  conveyed  by  an  English  fleet,  landed  in 
Quiberon  Bay  June  27,  1795.  They  took  pos- 


QUICKSILVER 


t    822    ]    QUINQUARTICULAB  CONTROVERSY 


session  of  Port  Penthievre  June  30 ;  but  their 
hopes  of  support  from  the  population  of  the 
surrounding  country  not  being  realized,  they 
were  defeated  by  the  republican  army,  July  20, 
1795.  The  English  fleet,  owing  to  stormy 
weather,  could  not  approach  the  shore  to  suc- 
cour them ;  and  the  royalists  capitulated,  on 
condition  that  the  lives  of  the  soldiers  should 
be  spared,  and  the  emigrants  allowed  to  em- 
bark. In  spite  of  this,  the  National  Conven- 
tion decreed  that  all  the  prisoners  should  be 
put  to  death  ;  and  800  were  shot,  the  re- 
mainder being  allowed  to  escape.  The  forts 
in  the  bay  were  attacked  and  dismantled  by 
an  English  squadron  under  Sir  Edward  Pellew, 
June  4,  1800.  A  monument  to  the  memory 
of  the  victims  of  the  expedition  of  1795  was 
erected,  under  the  auspices  of  Marshal  Soult, 

"VuiCKSILVER,  or  MERCURY,  was  known 
to  the  ancients  from  the  remotest  ages.  The 
most  productive  quicksilver-mine  is  that  of 
Almaden,  in  Spain,  mentioned  by  Pliny  as 
producing,  in  his  time,  10,000  Roman  pounds 
annually.  The  next  in  importance  is  that  of 
Idria,  in  Illyria,  discovered  accidentally  by  a 
peasant  in  1497.  The  mines  of  Huancavelica, 
in  Peru,  were  discovered  about  1566  or  1567. 
Its  use  for  refining  silver  was  discovered  in 
the  1 6th  century,  and  it  was  first  employed 
for  this  purpose  in  the  silver-mines  of  Peru 
in  1571. 

QUIERS.— 'See  CHIERI.) 

QUIERCY-SUR-OISE,  orKIERSY  (France). 
— Charles  Martel  died  at  this  place  Oct.  22,  74 1 


Councils  were  held  here  in  April  or  May,  849 ; 
in  853 ;  Feb.  25,  857  ;  and  in  March,  858.  The 
nobles  of  France  obtained  from  Charles  I. 


(the  Bald)  an  edict,  rendering  hereditary  all 
fiefs,  earldoms,  and  duchies,  at  a  diet  held 
here,  June  14 — 16,  877.  Hal  lam  remarks  that 
in  this  reign  the  Church  took  the  ascendant 
in  national  councils. 

QUIETISM.— The  views  of  this  sect  were 
embodied  in  the  works  of  Michael  Molinos,  a 
Spanish  priest,  in  the  1 7th  century.  His  books 
were  condemned  at  Rome,  and  he  was  impri- 
soned in  1687,  and  died  Dec.  29, 1696.  About  the 
same  time,  Madame  Guyon,  or  Guion,  became 
a  great  advocate  of  quietism  in  France.  She 
fixed  her  residence  at  Paris  in  1688  or  1689, 
and  wrote  several  works  in  its  favour,  which 
were  condemned  by  Bossuet,  who  caused  her 
to  be  confined  in  a  monastery  for  six  months. 
She  was  afterwards  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille 
for  several  years,  and  died  June  9,  1717.  The 
Archbishop  of  Paris  called  her  writings  "a 
monstrous  and  diabolical  system."  They  were 
defended  by  Fe"nelon,  which  led  to  his  con- 
demnation by  Innocent  XII.  in  March,  1699. 
(See  HESYCHASTS.) 

QUILLOTA  (Chili),  founded  in  1726,  has 
suffered  severely  from  earthquakes,  and  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  one  in  1823.  The  copper- 
mines  in  its  vicinity  are  the  richest  in  Chili. 

QUILLS  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for 
writing  in  the  sth  century.  The  earliest  au- 
thentic account  of  their  use  is  in  the  writings 
of  Isidore,  who  died  April  4,  636. 

QUILOA,  or  KEELWA  (Africa),  situated  on 
an  island  close  to  the  mainland,  was  taken  by 


the  Portuguese,  after  repeated  attacks,  in  1505. 
When  they  made  Mozambique  the  centre  of 
their  settlements  in  Africa,  the  town  fell  into 
decay,  and  was  ultimately  wrested  from  them 
by  the  Imam  of  Muscat.  On  its  first  occupa- 
tion by  the  Portuguese  it  was  the  capital  of 
Eastern  Africa,  but  no  traces  of  its  ancient 
splendour  existed  when  visited  by  Capt.  Beaver 
in  1812. 

QUILON  (Hindostan).  — This  town  on  the 
coast  of  Travancore,  formerly  called  Coulan, 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  825.  The 
Dutch  wrested  it  from  the  Portuguese  in  1662, 
and  it  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English. 

QUIMPERLE  (France).— This  fortified  town 
was  taken  from  the  English  in  1373,  and  by 
Henry  IV.  in  the  Breton  war  in  1595. 

QUIMPER,  or  QUIMPER  COREXTIX 
(France*,  derives  its  present  name  from  its 
first  bishop  in  the  sth  century,  previously  to 
which  it  was  called  Coriospitum.  Charles  of 
Blois  took  the  town  in  1345,  and  put  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  to  death.  It 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  English  auxi- 
liaries of  De  Montfort  in  1364.  In  the  Breton 
war,  Quimper  sided  with  the  party  of  the 
Duke  of  Mercoeur,  but  was  compelled  to  sxib- 
mit  to  Henry  IV.  in  1595.  The  cathedral, 
commenced  in  1424,  was  completed  in  1856. 

QUIXCE. — Some  writers  regard  the  quince 
as  a  Phocsean  importation  into  this  country  ; 
others  say  that  it  was  introduced  by  the 
Romans.  It  was  cultivated  in  English  gardens 
in  1573,  and  is  mentioned  in  Peacham's 
Emblems  as  a  feature  of  the  fruit-garden  in 
1612.  The  Portugal  quince  was  cultivated  in 
England  in  1729,  and  the  Japan  quince  in 

I7QUINDECEMVIRS,  an  order  of  priests  said 
to  have  been  appointed  by  Tarquin  the  Proud, 
about  B.C.  520,  to  take  care  of  the  Sibylline 
books.  At  first  only  two,  called  Dmimviri 
(q.  v. ),  were  chosen ;  but  the  number  was 
increased  to  10  about  B.C.  367,  and  to  15  (hence 
their  name)  by  Sylla,  B.C.  82. 

QUIXINE.  —  This  important  vegetable  al- 
kali, contained  principally  in  the  yellow  bark, 
was  discovered  by  Pelletier  and  Caventou  in 

1  QUINISEXTUM,  or  QUINISEXT  COUNCIL, 
from  being  supplementary  to  the  fifth  and 
sixth  general  councils,  and  called  also  the 
council  in  Trullo,  from  having  being  held  in 
the  "Dome"  chapel  of  the  imperial  palace 
at  Constantinople,  was  summoned  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian  II.  in  691.  It  is  the 
great  authority  for  the  discipline  of  the 
Greek  Church. 

QUINQUAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  or  SHROVE 
SUNDAY,  is  so  called  because  it  occurs 
about  the  soth  day  before  Easter.  Its  observ- 
ance was  instituted  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
about  1572. 

QUINQUARTICULAR  CONTROVERSY,  on 
the  five  points,  predestination,  free-will,  effec- 
tual grace,  final  perseverance,  and  the  extent 
of  redemption,  arose  at  Cambridge  in  1594. 
Two  conferences  were  held  in  order  to  arrive 
at  a  settlement,  Feb.  n,  1626;  and  Bishop 
Davenant  preached  a  sermon  on  the  subject 


QUINQUENNALIAN  GAMES 


[    823    ] 


RADCLIFFB  LIBRARY 


before  Charles  I.  in   1630.      The  controversy 
was  revived  at  Oxford  and  in  Ireland  in  1631. 

QUINQUENNALIAN  GAMES,  also  called 
Neronia,  were  instituted  at  Rome  by  Nero,  in 
60,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  festivals,  and 
were  celebrated  every  four  years.  They  con 
sisted  of  musical,  gymnastic,  and  equestrian 
contests,  and  were  celebrated  at  Naples  and 
other  Italian  towns.  They  appear  to  have 
ceased  after  Nero's  time.  They  were  revived 
by  Domitian,  in  honour  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus 
in  86,  and  were  called  Capitoline  Games. 

QUINTILIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  of  the  2nd 
century,  so  called  after  their  founder,  a  female 
named  Quintilia,  of  Carthage.  They  attri- 
buted extraordinary  gifts  to  Eve,  for  having 
eaten  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  and  allowed 
women  to  be  priests  and  bishops.  They  denied 
water-baptism.  Tertullian  wrote  against  this 
heresy  early  in  the  3rd  century. 
QUINTILIS.— (See  JULY.) 
QUINZE  VINGTS.— (See  BLIND.) 
QUIRITES,  the  name  given  to  the  Sabines, 
who  settled  in  Rome  and  built  a  new  town  on 
the  Quirinal  and  Capitoline  hills  in  the  time 
of  Romulus,  B.C.  722,  whilst  the  Romans  occu- 
pied the  Palatine  Hill.  On  the  death  of  their 
chief,  Titus  Tatius,  Romulus  became  king  over 
both  Romans  and  Quirites. 

QUISTELLO  (Battle).  — The  Austrians  de- 
feated the  French  at  this  place,  on  the  Secchia, 
Sep.  15,  1734. 

QUITO  (S.  America),  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Ecuador,  founded  by  Sebastian 
Benalcasar  in  1534,  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
by  Charles  V.  in  1541,  and  made  a  bishop's  see 
in  1545.  A  plain  near  the  city  was  chosen  by 
the  French  and  Spanish  astronomers  in  1736 
for  measuring  a  degree  of  the  meridian ;  and 
their  labours  from  that  time  till  1742  are  com- 
memorated by  an  alabaster  slab,  with  a  Latin 
inscription,  placed  in  the  church  of  the  Jesuits. 
It  formed  part  of  New  Grenada  in  1718,  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia  in  1819,  and  became  the 
capital  of  Ecuador  in  1831.  Earthquakes  are  of 
frequent  occurrence.  One  occurred  April  28, 
1755,  and  another,  Feb.  4,  1797,  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  above  40,000  persons  in  the  province. 
During  the  revolt  against  the  Spaniards,  the 
leaders  of  the  Junta  of  Quito,  to  the  number 
of  300,  were  slaughtered  by  the  Spanish  vice- 
roys of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  and  Peru  in  1811. 
An  earthquake  occurred  March  22,  1859,  which 
reduced  the  city  to  ruins. 

QUOITS.— The  ancient  game  of  throwing 
the  discus,  according  to  the  legend,  was  in- 
vented by  Perseus,  a  Greek,  who  having  inad- 
vertently slain  his  grandfather,  Acrisius,  in 
thro  wing  one,  exchanged  the  kingdom  of  Argos 
(to  which  he  was  heir  on  the  death  of  Acrisius) 
for  that  of  Tiryns  or  Tirynthus,  and  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Mycenae  about  B.C.  1313. 
Quoits  formed  a  favourite  amusement  amongst 
the  lower  classes  of  London  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  (1603 — 25).  In  the  country,  the 
rustics,  not  having  round  perforated  quoits  to 
play  with,  used  horseshoes ;  and  in  many 
places  the  quoit  itself  is  called  a  shoe. 

QUORUM,  a  term  derived  from  the  words 
used  in  the  commission  issued  to  justices  of 
the  peace,  the  form  of  which  was  settled  by 


all  the  judges  in  1590.  The  expression  em- 
ployed is  quorum  unum  A.  B.  esse  volumus, 
"  of  whom  we  will  that  A.  B.  be  one ;"  thus 
rendering  it  necessary  that  certain  individuals 
(said  to  be  of  the  quorum)  should  be  present 
at  the  transaction  of  business.  Hence,  when 
in  a  meeting,  &c.,  it  is  necessary  that  a  cer- 
tain number  should  be  present  to  give  validity 
to  its  acts,  that  number  is  said  to  form  a 
quorum. 

QUO  WARRANTO  ACT,  passed  Nov.  7, 1280, 
by  which  a  writ  may  be  directed  to  any  person 
who  holds  any  office  or  franchise,  to  inquire 
by  what  authority  he  does  so.  A  quo  warranto 
was  brought  against  the  charter  of  the  corpo- 
ration of  London  by  Charles  II.,  and  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench  gave  judgment  against  the 
city,  and  declared  their  charter  forfeited, 
June  12,  1683.  An  act  for  reversing  this  judg- 
ment, and  for  restoring  the  city  to  its  ancient 
rights  and  privileges,  passed  May  20,  1690. 


R. 

RAAB  (Hungary).—  A  battle  was  fought  near 
this  town,  between  the  Austrians,  under  the 
Archduke  John,  and  the  French,  under  Eugene 
Beauharnais,  June  14,  1809.  The  former  were 
defeated,  and  the  town  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French,  June  24.  They  began  building  a 
fortress  Aug.  15.  Raab  was  occupied  by  the 
Austrians,  under  Windisgratz,  Dec.  26,  1848. 
The  Hungarians  took  possession  shortly  after- 
wards, and  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians 
under  Gen.  Haynau,  June  28,  1849. 

RACING.  —  (See  CHARIOT  RACES,  HORSE- 
RACING,  &c.) 

RACK.— This  instrument  of  torture,  used 
against  the  Christians  in  early  times,  and 
employed  by  the  Inquisition,  is  said  to  have 
been  introduced  into  the  Tower  by  the  Duke 
of  Exeter,  when  constable,  in  1447,  and  thence 
called  the  "  Duke  of  Exeter's  daughter."  Hol- 
linshed  mentions  its  having  been  used  in  1467. 
It  was  in  common  use  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  (1509 — 47),  and  from  that  time  till  1640, 
when  it  was  abolished,  it  was  the  instrument 
of  torture  for  prisoners  confined  in  the  Tower. 

RACQUET,  or  RACKET,  hand-tennis,  is 
said  to  have  originated  in  the  i4th  century. 
This  game  was  first  played  with  the  naked 
hand,  and  then  with  a  glove.  Afterwards 
;hongs  or  cords  were  bound  round  the  hand 
;o  make  the  ball  rebound  more  forcibly  ;  and 
from  this,  according  to  St.  Foix,  the  game 
derived  its  name.  In  1424  a  damsel  named 
Margot  played  at  hand-tennis  at  Paris  better 
;han  any  man. 

RADCLIFFE  LIBRARY.— Dr.  John  Rad- 
cliffe,  who  died  Nov.  i,  1714,  bequeathed  by 
will  £40,000  to  the  university  of  Oxford  for  a 
ibrary.  The  first  stone  of  the  building  was 
aid  May  12,  1737,  and  it  was  opened  April  13, 
1749.  An  observatory,  of  which  the  founda- 
tion was  laid  June  22,  1772,  was  completed  in 
1786.  The  Lunatic  Asylum  on  Headington 
EIUl  (1827)  received  a  portion  of  the  funds  left 


RADCOT  BRIDGE 


[    824    ] 


RAILWAYS 


by  this  benevolent  man,  and  was  called  the 
Radcliffe  Asylum. 

RADCOT,  or  REDECOT  BRIDGE  (Battle).— 
De  Vere,  created  Duke  of  Ireland,  who  had 
raised  an  army  in  support  of  the  cause  of 
Richard  II.,  was  defeated  at  Radcot  Bridge,  in 
Oxfordshire,  Dec.  20,  1387.  He  made  his  es- 
cape into  Ireland. 

RADICALS. —  The  extreme  democrats  in 
England  first  received  the  name  of  Radicals 
about  1819. 

RADOM  (Poland).— In  1767,  by  the  influence 
of  Russian  intrigues  and  gold,  178  confedera- 
tions were  formed  in  Poland,  and  these  were 
all  united  at  Radom,  June  23. 

RADSTADT,  or  RASTADT  (Baden).— The 
Margrave  of  Baden,  Louis  William,  fixed  his 
residence  at  this  place,  then  a  small  village, 
towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century.  The 
palace,  built  on  the  model  of  that  of  Versailles, 
was  from  1725  till  1771  the  residence  of  the 
margraves  of  Baden.  A  congress  assembled  at 
Radstadt  Dec.  9,  1797,  to  negotiate  a  peace 
between  France  and  the  German  empire.  It 
was  dissolved  by  the  Emperor,  April  7,  1799. 
During  the  insurrection  in  Baden  of  1849,  the 
insurgents  shut  themselves  up  in  Radstadt. 
After  a  month's  siege  they  surrendered  to  the 
Prussians,  July  23. 

RADSTADT,  or  RASTADT  (Treaty),  was 
signed  at  this  place  by  Marshal  Villars,  on 
the  part  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and  by 
Prince  Eugene  for  the  Emperor  Charles  VI., 
March  17,  1714.  The  definitive  treaty  was 
signed  at  Baden  'r/.  r.) 

RAFFAKLLi;  WARE.— (See  MAJOLICA.) 

|;  \  FTS.— Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  entered  into 
a  contract  to  supply  Solomon  with  cedar  of 
Lebanon  for  the  building  of  the  temple,  which 
was  to  be  brought  to  Jaffa  in  floats  (i  Kings  v. 
9  ;  and  2  Chron.  ii.  16),  B.C.  1014.  The  Romans 
transported  timber  by  water  for  building 
purposes  and  for  firewood.  It  appears  to  have 
been  conveyed  in  this  manner  to  the  river 
Saale,  in  Saxony,  the  duty  being  remitted  to 
the  monastery  of  Porta  in  1258.  The  duty  on 
floats  on  the  same  river  was  reduced  in  1410. 
A  citizen  of  Freiberg  commenced  the  convey- 
ance of  timber  on  the  Mulda  by  rafts  in  1431, 
and  the  nobility  unsuccessfully  attempted  to 
prohibit  it  in  1486.  Timber  was  first  floated 
on  the  Elbe  for  building  the  church  of  Aschers- 
leben,  in  1495.  The  city  of  Paris  having  con- 
sumed all  the  wood  in  its  neighbourhood, 
John  Rouvel,  a  merchant,  suggested  bringing 
supplies  by  means  of  rafts  in  1549  ;  and  his 
plans  were  carried  out  by  Rend  Arnoul  in  1566. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.— Thomas  Cranfield 
commenced  what  he  called  a  fragment  school 
in  Mint  Street,  Southwark,  early  in  the  igth 
century.  Efforts  were  made  to  establish 
schools  for  the  neglected  and  outcast,  and  in 
1837  the  first  Ragged  school  was  opened  in 
Westminster.  The  Field  Lane  Ragged  school 
was  opened  in  1843,  and  the  Ragged  School 
Union  was  formed  in  1844.  Tne  Bristol  Ragged 
school  for  males  and  females  was  established 
in  1846,  and  similar  schools  were  opened  in 
the  same  year  in  Manchester,  York,  and  other 
towns.  A  ragged  school  for  boys  was  opened 
in  Aberdeen  in  1841. 


BAGGED  SCHOOLS  AND  SHOE-BLACK   SOCIETIES. 
A.D. 

1805.  Refuge  for  the  Destitute,  Manor  House  Dalston 
Lane. 

1843.  Brook  Street  Kefuge,  Hampstead  Road. 

1849.  Field  Lane  Night  Refuges  and  Ragged  Schools. 

1849.  Grotto  Passage  Refuge,  Paddington  Street,  Mary- 
lebone. 

.1851.  Central,  Ship  Yard,  Temple  Bar. 

1853.  Boys'  Home,  Reformatory  and  Refuge,  Bridge 
House,  Wandsworth. 

1853.  Boys'  Refuge,  Commercial  Street,  Whitechapel. 

1853.  Islington  Reformatory,  Copenhagen  Street,  Cale- 
donian Road. 

1853.  St.  Pancras'  Industrial  School  and  Refuge,  Gray's 

Inn  Road. 

1854.  East  London,  Mansel  Street,  Whitechapel. 
1854.  South  London,  High  Street,  Southwark. 

1856.  Reformatory  and  Refuge  Union,  New  Street, 
Spring  Gardens. 

1856.  Westminster  Female  Refuge,  Vincent  Square,  West- 

minster. 

1857.  North- West  London,  Marylebone  Road. 
1857.  West  London,  Castle  Lane,  Westminster. 

1857.  Islington  and  North  London,  Church  Street,  Isling- 
ton. 

1857.  Dotting  Hill,  Johnson  Street. 

1858.  Union  Jack,  Mill  Place,  Commercial  Road. 

1858.  North-West      London      Preventive     Reformatory, 

Euston  Road. 
1864.  Refuge  for  the  Homeless,  Newport  Market. 

RAGMAN  ROLL,  containing  the  legal  attes- 
tation of  allegiance  of  the  nobility  and  gentry 
of  Scotland  to  Edward  I.,  was  subscribed  in 
1296,  and  having  been  deposited  in  the  Tower, 
was  published  in  Prynne's  Records  in  1666, 
and  by  the  Bannatyne  Club  in  1834. 

RAGUSA  Austria).— This  town,  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  656  by  refugees  from  old 
Ragusa,  the  ancient  Epidaurus,  was  soon  after 
enlarged  and  fortified.  From  1260  to  1368 
Ragusa  was  governed  by  Venetian  rectors,  who 
held  office  for  two  years,  and  were  chosen  from 
the  patrician  families  of  Venice.  War  broke 
out  in  1368  between  Venice  and  the  King  of 
Hungary,  and  Ragusa  gained  her  independence 
and  power  to  choose  her  own  rectors.  In  1414 
the  Ragusans  purchased  peace  with  the  Otto- 
mans by  agreeing  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of 
500  ducats.  The  manufacture  of  woollens  was 
introduced  in  1433  from  Florence.  The  Turks 
ravaged  the  district  of  Canale  in  1471,  and 
Ragusa  purchased  safety  by  paying  a  tribute 
amounting  to  8,000  ducats.  The  town  was 
nearly  destroyed  in  1667  by  an  earthquake. 
During  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries,  Ragusa 
continued  to  enjoy  her  independence.  Napo- 
leon I.  seized  the  town  May  27,  1806,  and 
defeated  the  Russians  under  its  walls,  Sep.  29. 
In  1814  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Austria. 

RAID  OF  RUTHVEN,  sometimes  called  the 
First  Gowrie  Conspiracy,  headed  by  Alexander 
Ruthven,  Earl  of  Gowrie,  against  Lennox  and 
Arran,  favourites  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
who  was  seized  at  Ruthven  Castle  ;  and  the 
obnoxious  persons  were  removed  Aug.  23, 1582. 
James  VI.  remained  in  the  power  of  the 
faction  till  he  made  his  escape  to  the  castle  of 
St.  Andrews,  June  27,  1583. 

RAILWAYS.— Wooden  rails  for  the  trans- 
port of  coal  were  constructed  at  the  Newcastle 
collieries  about  1630,  and  a  surface  of  iron  was 
laid  upon  the  rails  in  1716.  Rails  wholly  com- 
posed of  cast  iron  were  used  at  Whitehaven  in 
1738,  and  an  edge-rail  of  similar  materials  was 
laid  down  at  Colebrookdale  about  1767.  John 


RAILWAYS 


[    825    ] 


RAILWAYS 


Carr  introduced  an  improved  rail  nailed  to 
wooden  sleepers  in  1776,  and  William  Jessop 
invented  a  rail  and  wheel,  specially  adapted 
for  each  other,  in  1789.  Stone  blocks  were 
first  employed  instead  of  wooden  sleepers  in 
1800,  by  Benjamin  Outram,  of  Little  Eaton, 
Derbyshire  ;  and  roads  so  constructed  were 
known  as  "Outram  roads,"  and  afterwards  as 
"tram  roads."  The  first  important  edge-rail 
was  that  at  Penrhyn  slate-quarries,  which  was 
laid  down  in  1801  ;  and  the  first  line  for  public 
use  was  that  of  the  Surrey  Iron  Railway,  in- 
corporated the  same  year.  The  first  patent  for 
a  locomotive  steam-carriage  was  taken  out  by 
Richard  Trevithick  and  Andrew  Vivian,  March 
24,  1802.  This  engine  was  adapted  for  traction 
on  common  roads,  but  in  1804  Trevithick  in- 
vented an  engine  to  work  on  iron  rails,  which 
was  tried  at  Merthyr  Tydvil  the  same  year, 
and  proved  a  scientific  triumph,  though  its 
application  to  business  purposes  was  imprac- 
ticable. Blenkinsop  patented  a  locomotive 
with  racked  wheels,  intended  to  work  on 
cogged  rails,  in  1811 ;  and  aline  on  this  prin- 
ciple was  actually  opened  at  the  Middleton 
collieries,  near  Leeds,  Aug.  12,  1812.  A  loco- 
motive to  work  upon  legs,  moving  alternately 
like  those  of  a  horse,  was  projected  by  Brunton, 
of  the  Butterley  works,  in  1813,  but  blew  up 
during  its  construction,  and  the  needlessness 
of  all  contrivances  to  increase  the  adhesion  of 
wheels  upon  railroads  was  demonstrated  by 
Blackett,  of  Wylam,  the  same  year.  George 
Stephenson's  first  engine  was  tried  upon  the 
Killingworth  railway,  July  25,  1814,  and  ex- 
celled all  its  predecessors,  although  its  speed 
was  not  greater  than  that  of  a  horse's  walk. 
In  1815  Stephenson  discovered  the  steam-blast, 
and  applied  it  in  the  construction  of  a  second 
engine ;  and  in  1829  he  employed  a  multi- 
tubular  boiler  in  the  "Rocket,"  which  proved 
the  victor  in  the  competition  of  engines  held  at 
Ramhill  in  Oct.,  attaining  a  maximum  speed 
of  29  miles  per  hour,  and  an  average  of  15  miles. 
The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  the 
first  public  line  worked  by  steam  power,  was 
opened  Sep.  15,  1830.  (See  LIVERPOOL.)  Bru- 
nei introduced  the  broad  gauge  in  1838,  and  it 
was  adopted  in  the  Great  Western  railway. 
Stationary  engines  were  originally  employed 
on  the  Blackwall  railway,  which  was  opened 
July  4,  1840.  They  were  afterwards  abandoned 
for  locomotives.  Trains  worked  by  atmo- 
spheric pressure  were  started  on  the  Kingston 
and  Dalkey  lines  in  1843,  on  the  Croydon  line 
in  1845,  and  on  the  South  Devon  railway  in 
1847 ;  but  the  system  proved  a  failure.  The 
mania  for  railway  speculation  reached  its 
height  in  1845,  when  prospectuses  were  issued 
and  warrant  obtained  for  the  construction  of 
no  less  than  1,428  new  lines.  The  conveyance 
of  mails  by  railroad  is  regulated  by  i  &  2 
Viet.  c.  98  (Aug.  14,  1838).  Companies  are 
compelled  to  provide  proper  gates  and  gate- 
keepers at  places  where  railroads  and  public 
highways  cross,  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  45  (Aug.  17, 
1839) ;  and  railways  were  placed  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  Board  of  Trade  by  3  &  4  Viet. 
c.  97  (Aug.  10,  1840).  The  phraseology  of  rail- 
way bills  was  much  simplified  by  the  Railway 
Clauses  Consolidation  Act,  8  &  9  Viet.  c.  20 


(May  8,  1845),  and  the  gauge  was  regulated  by 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  57  (Aug.  18,  1846).  The  juris- 
diction was  transferred  from  the  Board  of  Trade 
to  a  body  of  railway  commissioners  by  9  &  10 
Viet.  c.  105  (Aug.  28,  1846).  This  act  was  re- 
pealed by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  64  (Aug.  7,  1851), 
which  restored  the  authority  of  the  board. 
Malicious  acts  upon  railways  are  punished  by 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  19  (July  3,  1851) ;  and  further 
measures  for  the  regulation  of  the  railroad  sys- 
tem were  made  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  31  (July  10, 
1854).  Stephenson's  engine  was  introduced 
into  France  in  1829.  The  first  line  in  America 
was  constructed  in  1830  in  Massachusetts,  and 
was  about  four  miles  in  length.  A  compre- 
hensive railway  system,  extending  over  a  dis- 
tance of  347  miles,  was  sanctioned  by  the  Bel- 
gian Government  May  i,  1834.  The  English 
Government  authorized  the  construction  of 
two  lines  in  India  in  1849.  George  Stephenson, 
the  father  of  English  railroads,  died  at  Tapton, 
near  Chesterfield,  Aug.  12,  1848.  (See  CLEAR- 
ING HOUSE,  Railway ;  GAS  ;  METROPOLITAN 
RAILWAY,  &c.,  &c.)  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  principal  lines  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land :— 
A.D. 

1854,  Sep.  19.  Aberdeen  and  Huntley. 

1855,  June  15.  Abingdon. 
1850,  Sep.  2-  Alloa  Branch. 

1849,  June  4.  Ambcrgate  and  Rowsley. 
1857,  May.  Andover  and  Salisbury. 

1854,  Oct.  lo.  Ardsley  Extension. 

1856,  July  9.  Ascot  and  Wokingham. 
1856,  Aug.  Ayr  and  Dalmellington. 

1856,  Oct.  13.  Ayr  and  Maybole. 

1850,  Nov.  14.  Bagenalstown  to  Kilkenny. 

1855,  Nov.  7.  Ballymena  and  Portrush. 
1849,  Aug.  I.  Bandon  and  Ballinhassig. 

1857,  Sep.  5.  Banff,  Macduff,  and  Turriff. 

1856,  Nov.  2.  Bedale  and  Leyburn. 

1846,  Nov.  Bedford  (London  and  North- Western). 
1848,  March  i.  Belfast  and  Arm-g-h. 

1848,  April  II.  Belfast  and  Ballymena. 

1849,  Aug.  2,,  Belfast  and  County  Down. 
1855,  Nov.  3,.  Bideford  Extension. 

1837,  July  4.  Birmingham  and  Liverpool. 

1839,  Aug.  2.    Birmingham,  Worcester,  and  Derby  Junc- 

tion. 
1842,  Feb.  Bishopstoke  and  Oosport. 

1848,  June.  Blackburn  and  Bolton. 

1850,  June  22-  Blackburn,  Clitheroe,  and  Chatburn. 

1855,  Aug.  Blairgowrie  Branch. 

1852.  Blyth  and  Tyne. 

1856,  June  16.  Boston,  Sleaford,  and  Midland  Counties. 

1857,  Oct.  5.  Bradford,  Wakefleld,  and  Leeds. 
1857,  Nov.  12.  Bridport. 

1855,  April  9.  Burscough  and  Southport. 

1849,  Dec.  12.  Burston  and  Norwich. 
1848,  Feb.  Caledonian. 

l8S7,  Nov.  2-  Cannock  Branch. 

1847,  Sep.  Carlisle  and  Moffat. 

1856,  Sep.  4.  Carlisle  and  Silloth  Bay. 

1848,  July  24.  Carlow  Junction  to  Bagenalstown. 
1856,  Aug.  5.  Caterham. 

1856,  Feb.  8.  Cavan. 

1864,  Jan.  ii.  Charing  Cross. 

1848.  Chester  and  Crewe. 

1855,  Aug.  10.  Chipping  Norton  Branch. 
1847,  April  28.  Cocker-mouth  and  Workington. 

1840,  June  15.  Colchester  and  Ipswich. 

1851,  Dec.  8.  Cork  and  Bandon. 

1850,  June  8.  Cork,  Blackrock,  and  Passage. 

1856,  March  16.  Crieff  Junction. 

1856,  Dec.  i.  Crystal  Palace  and  Wandsworth  Common. 

1850,  Oct.  28.  Cumnock  to  Gretna. 

1850,  July  8.  Darlington  and  Barnard  Castle. 

1825,  Dec.  27.  Darlington  and  Stockton. 

1853,  Sep.  8.  Deeside. 

1856,  Sep.  Derby  and  Kipley. 

1844,  May  26.  Dublin  and  Drogheda. 

1846,  July  30.  Dublin,  Drogheda,  and  Howth. 


RAILWAYS 


[    826 


RALEIGH 


1851,  Aug.  i.  Dublin  and  Galway. 

1834,  Dec.  17.  Dublin  and  Kingston. 

1855,  Aug.  14.  Dundalk  and  Newbliss. 
1840,  April  I.  Dundee  and  Arbroath. 
1832.  Dundee  and  Newtyle. 

1847,  May  34.  Dundee  and  Perth. 

1856,  Sep.  33.  Dursley  and  Midland  Junction. 

1857,  Aug.  18.  East  Fife. 
1855,  July  9.  East  Grinstead. 
1838,  May  34.  East  Lancashire. 

1848,  Oct.  I.  East  Lincolnshire. 

1846,  June  18.  Edinburgh  and  Berwick. 
1843,  Feb.  18.  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow. 

1855,  March  19.  Evesham  and  Campden. 

1851,  May  12.  Exeter  and  Crediton. 
1857,  June  8.  Fife  to  Strathmiglo. 

1856,  May  36.  Forth  and  Clyde  Junction. 

1849,  March  30.  General  Terminus  and  Glasgow  Harbour. 
1840,  Aug.  12.  Glasgow  and  Ayr. 

1850,  Oct.  28.  Glasgow  and  South- Western. 

1837,  July  6.  Grand  Junction. 

1857,  Oct.  19.  Great  South- Western  to  Koscrea  (Ireland). 

1848,  Oct.  1.  Grimsby  and  Boston. 

1858,  March  I.  Grimsby  and  Louth. 

1852,  Nov.  30.  Halesworth  and  Haddiscoe. 
1857,  May  I.  Hammersmith. 

1835,  July  I.  Hartlepool. 

1849,  July  2.  Haughley  to  Burston. 

1855,  June  i.  Hereford,  Koss,  and  Gloucester. 

1857,  Nov.  Hertford  and  Welwyn  Junction. 

1855,  Aug.  II.  Horncastle  and  Kirkstead. 

1850,  July  I.  Huddersficld  and  Sheffield. 
1846,  Oct.  Hull  and  Hridlingtnn. 

1854,  June  37.  Hull  and  Ilolderness. 
1840,  July  i.  Hull  and  Selby. 

1856,  Oct.  II.  Huntly  to  Keith. 

1855,  Nov.  5.  Inverness  and  Nairn. 

1856,  July  5.  Inverary  and  Old  Meldrum. 

1846,  Dec.  23.  Ipswich  and  Bury  St.  Edmund's. 

1856,  July  17.  Jedburgh. 

1847,  April  31.  Kendal  and  Windermere. 

1854,  May.  Killarney  Junction. 

1855,  Oct.  II.  Kingston  to  Dalkey. 

1854,  Nov.  Kirriemuir  Branch. 
1846,  Dec.  16.  Lancaster  and  Carlisle. 
1840,  June  30.  Lancaster  and  Preston. 
1840.  Leeds  and  Bradford. 

1855,  Aug.  I.  Leeds,  Bradford,  and  Halifax. 

1858,  May  8.  Leicester  and  Hitchin. 
1852.  Leicester  and  Swannington. 

1857,  July  29.  Leominster  and  Kington. 

1856,  Dec.  I.  Lesmahagow. 

1854,  July  3.  Leven. 

1857,  Nov.  I.  Limerick  and  Castle  Connel. 

1848,  Nov.  20.  Liverpool  and  Bury. 
1830,  Sep.  15.  Liverpool  and  Manchester. 

1838,  Oct.  31.  Liverpool  and  Preston. 

1838,  Sep.  17.  London  and  Birmingham. 

1840,  July  4.  London  and  Blackwall. 

1841,  Sep.  31-  London  and  Brighton. 
1841,  June  30.   London  and  Bristol. 

1845,  July  30.   London  and  Cambridge. 
I86o,  Sep.  29.  London,  Chatham,  and  Dover. 

1843,  March  29.  London  and  Colchester. 

1839,  June  I.  London  and  Croydon. 

1836,  Dec.  14.   London  and  Deptford. 

1844,  Feb.  7.  London  and  Dover. 
1838,  Dec.  38.   London  and  Greenwich. 

1846,  June  27.  London  and  Hastings. 

1838,  Sep.  17.  London  and  Liverpool. 
1850,  Aug.  6.  London  and  Peterborough. 
1846,  July.  London  and  Richmond. 

1840,  May  II.  London  and  Southampton. 
1856,  June.  London  and  Southend. 

1839,  July  I.  London  and  Twyford  (Great  Western). 
1848,  Sep.  3.  Louth  and  Firsby. 

1843,  Aug.  Manchester  and  Birmingham. 

1841,  March  i.  Manchester  and  Leeds. 

1844,  Oct.  i.  Manchester  and  Normanton. 

1855,  April.  Manchester  and  Southport. 

18^7,  Aug.   Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire. 

1856,  Aug.   Miiybole  and  Girvan. 
1863,  Jan.  10.  Metropolitan. 

1857,  Jan.  i.  Mid  Kent  and  North  Kent  Junction. 

1854,  Feb.  25.  Middlesborough  and  Guisborough. 

1840,  June  30.   Midland  Counties. 

1855,  Nov.  8.  Mullingar  and  Longford. 
1844,  April  15.  Newcastle  and  Darlington. 


1854,  April  I.  Newmarket  and  Bury. 
1845,  July  30.  Newport  to  Brandon. 
1849,  May  38.  Newry  to  Warrenpoint. 
1857,  Nov.  3.   Norton  Branch. 

1839,  May  30.  Nottingham  and  Derby. 

1855,  July.  Oldham  Branch. 


1855,  July  4.  Feeble 


,  April  7.  Perth  and  Dunkeld. 

1848,  Sep.  TI.  Perth  and  Forfar. 
1857,  March.  Picton  and  Stokesley. 
1854,  June  33.   Port  Carlisle. 

1849,  Preston  and  Langridge. 
1856,  July  9.  Reading. 

1850,  Oct.  21.  Royston  and  Hitchin. 
1852,  July  i.  St.  Andrew's. 

1848,  May.   Scottish  Central. 

1856,  April  5.  Selkirk  and  Galashiels. 

1838,  Nov.  i.  Sheffield  and  Rotherham. 

1849,  Nov.  12.  Shrewsbury  and  Birmingham. 

1854,  Aug.  28.  Somerset  Central. 

1850,  South  Devon. 

1856,  June  4.  Staines  and  Ascot. 

1857,  Nov.  i.  Stamford  and  Essendine. 
1825,  Sep.  27.  Stockton  and  Darlington. 

1852,  Aug.  10.  Stotfleld  and  Lossiemouth  to  Elgin. 
1857,  Nov.  ii.  Strood  to  Faversham. 

1856,  Oct.  30.  Sydenham  and  Wandsworth. 
1848,  Dec.  Torquay  Branch. 

1839,  Aug.  Ulster. 

1857,  Aug.  10.  Ulverstone  and  Lancaster. 
1857,  Dec.  i.  Wells  and  Fakenham. 
1844,  May  27.  West  London. 

1857,  Jan.  ii.  Whitehaven,  Cleator,  and  Egremont. 
1852,  July  I.  Widness  and  Garston. 

1855,  Oct.  22.  Wimbledon  and  Croydon. 
1852,  Feb.  18.  Worcester  and  Stoke. 
1844,  May  I.  Yarmouth  and  Norwich. 

1840,  June.  York  and  North  Midland. 

RAIN  (Battle).— Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus),  at 
the  head  of  a  Swedish  army,  defeated  Tilly,  at 
Rain,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lech,  in  Germany, 
April  5,  1632.  Tilly  died  of  a  wound  received 
in  this  battle,  and  the  victorious  leader,  Gus- 
tavus II.,  fell  at  Liitzen,  Nov.  16.  The  battle 
of  Rain  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Lech, 
or  Leek. 

RAINBOW.— Appeared  in  the  heavens  in 
confirmation  of  the  first  covenant  (Gen.  ix.  13), 
made  with  Noah  (B.C.  2348,  Usher),  on  his  de- 
liverance from  the  Deluge.  Fleschier published 
a  work  on  the  rainbow  in  1571.  Newton 
ascribes  the  first  explanation  of  the  rainbow  to 
Antonio  de  Dominis,  Archbishop  of  Spalato, 
whose  account,  said  to  have  been  composed  in 
1590,  was  published  at  Venice  in  1611.  The 
true  theory  was  explained  by  Descartes,  in  his 
"  Dioptrics."  Mariotte,  in  1686,  considered  it 
to  be  produced  by  refraction. 

RAJMAHAL  (Hindostan),  accordingto  native 
authorities,  was  founded  B.C.  3000.  The  Eng- 
lish obtained  possession  in  1765.  The  splendid 
palace,  the  ruins  of  which  exist,  was  built  by 
the  Sultan  Sujah,  brother  of  Aurungzebe, 
in  1630,  and  was  greatly  injured  by  a  fire, 
which  also  destroyed  a  large  portion  of  the 
town,  in  1631. 

RAJPOOTANA  (Hindostan).— This  exten- 
sive district,  so  called  from  the  Rajpoots,  its 
early  inhabitants,  was  conquered  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans in  1194,  though  it  maintained  a 
qualified  independence.  At  the  death  of  Aurung- 
zebe, in  1707,  it  became  nominally  subject  to 
the  Emperor  of  Delhi,  and  its  chiefs  achieved 
their  independence  in  1748. 

RAKOWITZ  (Battle). —A  large  army  of 
Turks  was  defeated  by  Stephen,  Vaivode  of 
Moldavia,  in  this  battle,  fought  in  1475. 

RALEIGH.— (See  NORTH  CAROLINA.) 


RALEIGH  CLUB 


[     827    ] 


RAPHIA 


RALEIGH  CLUB  (London).— Prince's  Club, 
established  in  1849,  and  afterwards  called  the 
Ottoman  Club,  was  re-organized  as  the  Raleigh 
Club  in  April,  1858. 

RALEIGH'S  CONSPIRACY.— James  I.  hav- 
ing broken  faith  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  to 
whom  he  had  promised  toleration  and  indul- 
gence, a  design  was  formed,  in  1603,  to  take 
away  his  life  arid  that  of  his  eldest  son,  Prince 
Henry,  and  to  place  Arabella  Stuart  upon  the 
throne.  The  conspirators,  amongst  whom  were 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Sir  Griffin  Markham,  Lords 
Grey  and  Cobham,  with  many  others,  arrested 
in  July,  were  removed  to  Winchester  in  Nov. 
Sir  Griffin  Markham  and  others  were  found 
guilty  Nov.  15,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  Nov.  17, 
Lord  Cobham  Nov.  25,  and  Lord  Grey  Nov.  26, 
but  were  not  executed.  William  Clarke 
arid  William  Watson,  two  priests  concerned  in 
the  conspiracy,  were  hanged  Nov.  29;  and 
Brooke,  Lord  Cobham's  brother,  was  beheaded 
Dec.  5.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  executed, 
nominally  fjg^is  share  in  this  conspiracy,  Oct. 
29,  1618.  SoHe  writers  contend  that  he  was 
falsely  accused. 

RAMBOUILLET  (France).— The  castle  was 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  France  to  the  time 
of  Charles  X.  Here  Francis  I.  died  March  31, 
1547,  and  Charles  X.  signed  his  abdication  of 
the  French  throne,  Aug.  2,  1830.  Napoleon  III. 
converted  the  castle  into  a  seminary  for  officers' 
daughters  in  1852. 

RAMESES.— (See  GOSHEN.) 

RAMILLIES  (Battle).— The  Allies,  under 
the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
defeated  the  French,  under  Marshal  de  Ville- 
roi,  with  great  slaughter,  at  this  village,  near 
Tirlemont,  in  Belgium,  May  23  (0.  S.  May  12), 
1706. 

RAMMEKENS  (Holland),  constructed  as  a 
fortress  in  1547,  and  called  Zeeburg,  was  one 
of  the  Cautionary  towns  (q.  v.)  given  in  July, 
1585,  to  Queen  Elizabeth  by  the  States-general, 
for  the  aid  rendered  by  her  against  Spain.  (See 
GUEUX.) 

RAMMELSBERG  (Germany).— The  mines 
in  this,  one  of  the  Harz  mountains,  have, 
according  to  popular  tradition,  been  worked 
since  968. 

RAMNUGGUR  (Hindostan).— This  town  in 
the  Punjaub  was  stormed  by  Maha  Singh, 
father  of  Runjeet,  in  1778.  Several  severe 
skirmishes  between  the  English  under  Lord 
Gough,  and  the  Sikhs  under  Shere  Singh,  took 
place  in  the  neighbourhood  in  Nov.,  1848  ;  and 
Lord  Gough  gained  a  signal  victory  here 
Dec.  3. 

RAMSGATE  (Kent),  called  also  Rium's  Gate, 
or  gate  of  Rium,  in  the  isle  of  Thanet.  After 
the  Revolution,  in  1689,  the  inhabitants  began 
to  trade  with  Russia  ;  and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  1 7th  century  this  place,  at  that  time  a 
small  fishing  village,  gradually  increased  in 
importance.  The'pier  was  commenced  in  1750, 
and  is  described  by  Pennant,  in  1787,  as  the 
finest  existing.  The  harbour  was  formed  in 
1780 — 1795.  A  stone  lighthouse  was  erected 
in  the  commencement  of  the  igth  century,  and 
the  parish  church  in  1827. 

RANELAGH  GARDENS  (London) .  — This 
celebrated  place  of  public  entertainment  at 


Chelsea  was  commenced  about  1 740,  on  groimd 

:e  the  property  of  Viscount  Ranelagh.  The 
Rotunda,  which  constituted  the  principal  attrac- 
tion, was  commenced  in  1741,  and  opened  April 
5,  1742.  Ranelagh  was  last  used  in  1802,  for 
an  installation  ball  of  the  knights  of  the  Bath. 
A  portion  of  the  site  is  occupied  by  the  gardens 
of  Chelsea  Hospital. 

RANGOON  (Hindostan). —This  town,  the 
name  of  which  signifies  "  City  of  Victory," 
built  in  1753,  by  Alompra,  the  founder 
of  the  Burmese  monarchy,  was  occupied  by 
the  English  May  n,  1824,  during  the  first 
Burmese  war.  It.  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire  Dec.  28,  1850,  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
rebuilt  nearly  a  mile  from  the  site  of  the  old 
town.  In  the  second  Burmese  war  it  was 
attacked  by  the  English,  Jan.  2,  1852,  and  was 
stormed  and  captured  April  14.  Rangoon  was 
much  injured  by  conflagrations  in  Feb.,  1853, 
and  Dec.,  1855. 

RANTERS.— A  sect  which  arose  in  1645 
received  this  name,  also  given  to  the  Pri- 
mitive Methodists,  who  separated  from  the 
old  Methodist  society  June  28,  1808.  The 
first  general  meeting  after  the  society  had  been 
divided  into  circuits  was  held  at  Nottingham 
in  1819  ;  and  a  society  of  Ranters  was  founded 
in  London  in  Dec.,  1822. 

RAPE. — The  ancient  Jewish  laws  punished 
this  ciime  with  death  when  the  woman  was 
betrothed  to  another  man  ;  and  in  other  cases 
compelled  the  ravisher  to  marry  her,  and  pay 
a  fine  of  50  shekels  to  her  father.  The  Roman 
codes  made  it  in  every  case  a  capital  offence  ; 
and  it  was  treated  with  the  same  severity  by 
the  laws  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
William  I.  changed  the  penalty  to  mutilation 
and  blinding,  and  by  3  Edw.  I.  c.  13  (1275),  it 
was  reduced  to  a  mere  misdemeanour,  punished 
by  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  a  fine,  unless 
the  offender  were  prosecuted  within  40  days 
after  the  commission  of  the  crime.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  inefficacy  of  this  law,  rape  was 
made  a  capital  felony  by  13  Edw.  I.  c.  34  (1285) ; 
and  by  1 8  Eliz.  c.  8  (1576),  persons  convicted 
of  this  crime  were  deprived  of  benefit  of 
clergy.  The  laws  on  the  subject  were  con- 
solidated by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (June  27,  1828), 
which  made  the  carnal  abuse  of  a  girl  under 
10  years  of  age,  even  with  consent,  a  capital 
felony,  and  of  females  between  10  and  12  a 
misdemeanour,  punishable  by  imprisonment 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  court.  Transportation 
for  life  was  substituted  for  the  capital  penalty 
by  4  &  5  Viet.  c.  56  (June  22,  1841). 

RAPHIA  (Battles).— Sargon,  Kingof  Assyria, 
defeated  the  Philistines,  under  Khanum,  King 
of  Gaza,  and  the  Egyptian  troops  under  Shebek, 
at  the  city  of  Rapikh,  B.C.  720.  Rawlinson 
(Ancient  Monarchies,  ii.  414)  styles  this  en- 
counter "the  first  combat  between  the  two 

great'powers  of  Asia  and  of  Africa." Antio- 

chus  III.  of  Syria  was  defeated  here  with 
great  loss  by  Ptolemy  (IV.)  Philopator,  B.C. 

2IRAPHIA  (Syria).  —  Rapikh,  the  Raphia  of 
classic  historians,  and  the  modern  Refah, 
situated  between  Rhinocorura  and  Gaza,  was 
represented  by  its  bishop  in  a  council  held  at 
Ephesus  in  476,  in  one  held  at  Constantinople 


RAPHOE 


[    828    ] 


RAVENNA 


in  536,  and  at  the  fifth  general  council  held  at 
Constantinople  May  4— June  2,  553. 

RAPHOE  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  see  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Eunan  in  885.  By 
the  Church  Temporalities  Act,  3*4  Will.  IV. 
c.  37  ( Aug.  14,  1833),  it  was  annexed  to  Derry. 

RAPPAHANNOCK.  —  (See  CHANCELLORS- 
VILLE,  FREDERICKSBUKG,  KELLY'S  FORD,  WIL- 
DERNESS, &c.) 

RASKOLNIKS,  or  RASKOLNITES,  the  name 
given  to  various  dissenters  from  the  Established 
Church  in  Russia.  The  first  sect  was  formed 
by  a  monk  named  Andrew  in  1003  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  i7th  century  that  they  obtained  a 
separate  organization.  Persecuted  in  1666,  they 
were  tolerated  in  1772.  (See  PHILIPPINS.) 

RASPBERRY.— The  Virginian  raspberry  was 
brought  from  N.  America  before  1696,  and  the 
flowering  raspberry  in  1700.  Some  seeds  of 
this  plant,  found  in  the  cavity  of  the  stomach 
of  an  ancient  Briton,  exhumed  at  Dorchester, 
were  sown,  and  germinated  about  1835. 

JIAHTADT.— (See  RADSTADT.) 

RATHENAU,  or  RATH  ENOW  (Battle).— 
Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
defeated  the  Swedes,  who  had  been  subsidized 
by  the  French  to  invade  his  territory,  near 
this  town  of  Prussia,  in  June,  1675. 

RATH  MINES  (Battle). —The  Marquis  of 
Ormond,  while  besieging  Dublin,  was  attacked 
by  Col.  Jones,  at  this  place,  in  the  vicinity,  and 
after  a  struggle,  which  lasted  two  hours,  was 
defeated  Aug.  2,  1649. 

RATIBOR  (Prussia)  became  a  principality  in 
1288,  and  was  united  to  Oppeln  in  the  i$th 
century.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  Swedes 
in  1642,  and  by  the  Prussians  in  1745. 

RATIONALISM,  denying  the  possibility  of 
a  revealed  religion,  introduced  by  Amos  Co- 
menius  in  the  i7th  century,  began  to  assume 
a  systematic  form  in  Germany  under  the  ad- 
vocacy of  Reimarus,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Hamburg,  who  died  March  i,  1768.  It 
spread  to  the  Lutheran  Church  in  1782. 
Among  theologians,  Eichhorn  took  the  lead 
in  his  Library  of  Biblical  Literature  (1788— 
1801).  The  system  was  more  fully  developed 
by  Dr.  Paiilus,  of  Heidelberg,  in  his  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament "  (1200—1804) 
and  "Life  of  Jesus"  (1828).  An  opposition 
was  commenced  by  Reinhard,  which  con- 
tinued from  1810  to  1817,  producing  a  second 
form  of  the  sceptical  system  that  was  fully 
applied  by  Dr.  Strauss  in  his  "  Life  of  Christ," 
published  in  1835  and  1836. 

RATISBON,  or  REGENSBURG  (Bavaria), 
founded  by  Tiberius  (14—37)  under  the  name 
of  Colonia  Augusta  Tiberii,  was  afterwards 
called  Reginum.  The  bishopric  was  founded 
in  642,  and  councils  were  held  here  in 
768  or  769 ;  in  Aug.,  792  ;  Jan.  20,  799 ;  and 
Jan.  14,  932.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
Eastern  Franks  in  889.  The  stone  bridge 
over  the  Danube  was  built  in  1135.  Ratisbon 
was  made  a  free  city  in  1183.  The  Scotch 
Benedictine  Chiirch  of  St.  James  was  found- 
ed in  1165,  and  the  Gothic  cathedral,  com- 
menced in  1275,  was  completed  in  1634.  In 
the  Bishop's  palace,  now  a  brewery,  the  Empe- 
ror Maximilian  II.  died,  Oct.  12,  1576.  Since 
the  xoth  century  Ratisbon  has  sustained  17 


sieges.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saxons  in  1703, 
and  by  Napoleon  I.  in  1805.  Near  the  cathedral 
is  the  old  hall,  in  which  the  German  diets  held 
their  meetings  from  1663  till  1806.  In  the 
middle  of  the  1 7th  century,  Ratisbon  began  to 
decline.  The  German  empire  was  governed  by 
the  diet  of  Ratisbon  in  1792,  and  a  congress  of 
German  princes  met  here  Aug.  3,  1802.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Austrians  April  28,  1809.  The 
Walhalla,  founded  in  1830,  was  completed  in 
1842.  The  cathedral  was  restored  in  1830.  A 
monument  was  erected  in  1817  to  Kepler,  who 
died  here  Nov.  15,  1630.  It  was  made  a  free 
port  in  1853. 

RATISBON  (Treaties).— A  peace  was  con- 
eluded  at  this  place  between  France  and  the 
Emperor,  Oct.  13,  1630,  which  led  to  the 

settlement  of  the  Mantuan  succession. A 

truce  for  20  years  was  agreed  to  at  Ratisbon, 
between  France  and  Spain  and  Germany, 

Aug.  15,  1684. A  convention  was  signed  here 

between  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  Elec- 
tor of  Wiirtemberg,  June  2,  1804. 

RATZEBURG  (Denmark ),  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Lauenburg,  was  taken  by  the  Danes 
in  1693.  The  Prussians  obtained  possession 
Sep.  13, 1866. 

RAUCOUX,  ROCOUR,  or  ROCOUX  (Bat- 
tle).— Marshal  Saxe  defeated  the  Allies  under 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  this  village, 
between  Liege  and  Viset,  in  Belgium,  Oct.  u, 
1746.  The  loss  of  the  Allies  was  estimated  at 
12,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  3,000 
prisoners. 

RAVENNA  (Battle). —A  battle  between 
the  French  and  the  Allied  Spaniards  and 
Papal  forces  was  fought  here  Easter  Sun- 
day, April  ii,  1512,  in  which  the  French 
were  victorious,  though  they  lost  their  general, 
Gaston  de  Foix.  The  vanquished  lost  800 
men-at-arms,  1,300  light  cavalry,  and  7,000 
infantry ;  and  the  victors  700  men-at-arms, 
880  archers,  and  9,000  infantry.  The  result  of 
the  battle  was  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the 
French. 

RAVENNA  (Italy).— Strabo  relates  that  this 
city  of  Cispadane  Gaul  was  of  Thessalian  origin. 
It  became  subject  to  Rome  B.C.  234,  and  was 
occupied  by  Metellus,  the  general  of  Sylla,  B.C. 
82.  Augustus  made  it  the  permanent  naval 
station  of  the  Roman  Adriatic  fleet,  and  erected 
a  celebrated  pharos  or  lighthouse  at  the  mouth 
of  its  harbour.  It  was  erected  into  the 
capital  of  the  Western  empire  by  Honorius  in 
404.  Odoacer,  King  of  Italy,  was  besieged  here 
for  three  years  by  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  and 
a  few  days  after  his  surrender  was  stabbed  by 
his  captor,  March  5,  493.  In  Dec.,  539,  Belisarius 
took  the  city  from  the  Gothic  King  Vitiges, 
and  in  568  it  was  made  the  capital  of  an 
exarchate,  comprising  the  provinces  of  Rome, 
Venice,  and  Naples,  besides  other  territories. 
Astulphus,  King  of  the  Lombards,  took  the  city 
and  abolished  the  exarchate-in  752,  and  it  was 
wrested  from  him  and  presented  to  the  Pope 
by  King  Pepin,  in  756.  From  this  time  its  pros- 
perity declined.  Pietro  Traversari  declared 
himself  Duke  of  Ravenna  in  1218,  and  in  1275 
it  passed  into  the  power  of  the  Polenta  family. 
In  1441  it  was  seized  by  the  Venetian  republic, 
by  which  it  was  ceded  to  the  Pope  in  1509. 


RAVENSBURG 


[    829    ] 


RECIPROCITY  TREATY 


Ravenna  was  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy  in  1860.  The  bishopric  of  Ravenna, 
founded  by  St.  Apollinaris,  a  disciple  of 
St.  Peter,  in  44,  was  erected ,  into  an  arch- 
bishopric in  439.  Councils  were  held  at 
Ravenna  in  Feb.,  419  ;  in  874  ;  July  22  to 
Sep.,  877  ;  in  898  ;  April  20,  967  ;  in  968  ; 
May  i,  998  ;  in  1014  ;  April  30,  1016;  in  1128  ; 
April  28,  1253  ;  in  1261 ;  July  8,  1286;  June  17, 
1310;  June  17 — 21,  1311;  Oct.  10,  1314  j  and 
Oct.  27,  1317. 

EXARCHS   OF  RAVENNA. 


A.D. 

568.  Flavins  Longinus. 

584.  Smaragdus. 

590.  Eomanus. 

597.  Callinicus. 

603.  Smaragdus  (again). 

611.  Johannes  Remigius. 

616.  Eleutherius. 

619.  Isaac. 

638.  Plato. 

648.  Theodoras    I.    (Callio- 

pas). 

649.  Olympius. 


Theodoras  I.  (again). 
Gregory. 
Theodoras  II. 
Johannes  Platyn. 
Theophilactus. 
Johannes  Rizocopus. 
Eutychius      the      Eu- 
nuch. 

Scholasticus. 
Paul. 
Eutychius  (again). 


RAVENSBURG  (Westphalia).— This  ancient 
town  and  district  of  Germany  were  erected 
into  a  county  by  Hermann  I.  about  1071.  The 
family  of  its  counts  became  extinct  in  1346. 
It  was  afterwards  conferred  upon  the  Duke 
of  Juliers,  and  in  1666  it  was  annexed  to 
Prussia. 

RAVENSPUR  (Yorkshire).  —Henry  Boling- 
broke,  afterwards  Henry  IV.,  landed  at  this 
town,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  July  4, 
1399.  Edward  IV.,  accompanied  by  his  brother 
Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  landed  here 
with  2,000  men  from  Zealand,  March  14, 

READERS.— (See  CARAITES.) 

READING  (Berkshire)  was  in  possession  of 
the  Danes  in  871,  who  were  compelled  to 
evacuate  it  in  872.  It  was  burned  by  them  in 
1006,  and  an  abbey  of  nuns  was  destroyed.  A 
Benedictine  monastery  was  erected  by  Henry 
I.  in  ii2i  ;  in  which  he  was  buried  in  1135. 
A  council  was  held  at  Reading,  July  30,  1279. 
Henry  VI.  summoned  a  parliament  to  meet 
here  March  6,  1453  ;  and  in  consequence  of  the 
severity  of  the  plague  in  London,  the  Michael- 
mas sittings  of  the  courts  of  justice  were 
transferred  to  Reading  in  1625.  During  the 
civil  war  it  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarian 
forces  under  the  Earl  of  Essex,  April  27,  1643. 
The  church  of  St.  Lawrence,  a  Norman  struc- 
ture, was  repaired  in  1434  ;  St.  Mary's  was 
rebuilt  in  1551  ;  the  Free  Grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1556 ;  the  Oracle,  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  poor,  was  founded  by  John 
Kendrick  in  the  i7th  century  ;  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  chapel  was  erected  in  1840.  An 
industrial  exhibition  was  opened  Sep.  13,  1865. 
(See  ENGLEFIELD,  Battle.) 

REALISTS.— (See  NOMINALISTS.) 

REAL  PRESENCE.— The  second  Council  of 
Nicsea  (Sep.  24— Oct.  23,  787)  declared  that 
the  elements  in  the  Lord's  supper  were  the 
real  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  the  doctrine 
that  this  was  the  effect  of  a  miraculous  change 
had  gained  ground  in  the  Greek  Church  as 
early  as  813.  Radbert,  a  monk,  who  became 


Abbot  of  Corbey,  denned  and  maintained  it  in 
831.  Scotus,  in  his  "De  Eucharistia,"  opposed 
it  in  844 ;  and  a  violent  controversy  on  the 
question  took  place  between  Lanfranc  and 
Berengarius  in  1059.  It  was  opposed  by 
Wycliffe  in  1381.  Luther  maintained  it  under 
the  name  of  consubstantiation  in  1524.  Dis- 
putations on  the  doctrine  were  held  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  in  1549  and  1550. 

REAPING-MACHINE  was  invented  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Bell,  Carmylie,  Forfarshire,  about 
1836.  At  a  trial  of  reaping-machines,  held  at 
Keillor  farm,  Forfarshire,  Sep.  4,  1852,  the 
unanimous  verdict  of  the  judges  was  given  in 
favour  of  this  machine.  Hussey's  American 
machine  competed  on  this  occasion. 

REASON  (Temple).— The  National  Conven- 
tion at  Paris  ordered  the  worship  of  the 
Goddess  of  Reason,  Nov.  10,  1793.  Gobel, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  with  a  number  of  the 
clergy,  abjured  the  Christian  faith  at  the  bar 
of  the  National  Assembly,  and  soon  after 
Madame  Maillard,  a  member  of  the  opera 
coips,  was  driven  in  a  magnificent  car  to  the 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  where  she  was  ele- 
vated on  the  high  altar,  and  received  homage 
from  the  crowd.  The  sacred  edifice  was 
thenceforth  styled  the  "Temple  of  Reason." 
A  similar  act  of  impiety  was  afterwards 
enacted  in  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  the 
Divinity  being  personated  by  Madame  Momoro. 

REATE  (Italy).— This  ancient  city,  one  of 
the  chief  strongholds  of  the  Sabines,  is  first 
mentioned  in  history  about  the  time  of  its 
subjection  to  Rome,  B.C.  290.  Its  inhabitants 
sent  many  volunteers  to  serve  under  Scipio, 
B.C.  205,  and  they  were  assisted  by  Cicero  in 
a  legal  contest  with  the'  citizens  of  Interamna, 
B.C.  54.  Reate  was  erected  into  a  bishopric 
at  a  very  early  date,  St.  Prosdocimus,  who 
flourished  46,  being  its  first  bishop.  (See  RIETI, 
Battles.) 

REBECCA  RIOTS,  against  toll  and  turnpike 
gates,  broke  out  in  Wales  in  Feb.,  1843, 
and  spread  from  the  rural  districts  of  Pem- 
brokeshire and  Caennarthenshire  into  the 
mining  and  manufacturing  districts  in  July. 
An  old  woman,  keeper  of  a  toll-gate,  having 
been  murdered  Sep.  10,  a  proclamation,  offer- 
ing .£500  reward  for  the  discovery  of  incen- 
diaries, appeared  in  the  Gazette  Oct.  3,  and  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  operation  of 
the  turnpike  laws  in  Wales  was  appointed 
Oct.  10.  A  special  commission  for  the  trial  of 
the  prisoners  was  opened  at  Cardiff,  Oct.  27, 
when  several  persons  were  sentenced  to  various 
terms  of  transportation  and  imprisonment.  It 
closed  Oct.  30. 

REBELLION.— (See  PLOT.) 

RECANATI.— (See  LORETO.) 

RECEIPTS.  —  Stamp  duties  were  first  laid 
upon  receipts  for  money  by  23  Geo.  III.  c.  49 
(1783),  which  was  amended  by  24  Geo.  III. 
c.  7  (1784),  and  31  Geo.  III.  e.  25  (1791). 
Additional  duties  were  imposed  by  35  Geo. 
III.  c.  55  (May  5,  1795),  and  a  uniform 
stamp  of  id.  on  all  sums  above  £2  was 
imposed  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  59  (Aug.  4,  1853). 
The  forgery  of  receipts  was  made  a  capital 
felony  by  45  Geo.  III.  c.  89  (July  10,  1805.) 

RECIPROCITY    TREATY,  for  the  regula- 


RECITATIVE 


[    830    ] 


REFORMATION 


tion  of  trade,  &c.,  with  Canada,  was  concluded 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
at  Washington,  by  Lord  Elgin,  June  7,  and 
ratified  by  the  Senate  Aug.  5,  1854.  Notice  of 
abrogation  was  given  by  the  United  States 
Government  in  1864. 

RECITATIVE.—  This  mode  of  singing  was 
first  employed  by  Jacopo  Peri  in  his  opera  of 
"  Eurydice,"  which  was  performed  at  Florence 
in  1600.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  restoration  of 
the  method  of  singing  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  the 
supposition  is  correct. 

RECOLLECTS.— (See  OBSERVANTS.) 

RECORDER.— This  officer  acts  as  a  legal 
adviser  of  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen.  As 
a  judge  in  their  courts,  and  in  corporations,  he 
takes  precedence  of  all  who  have  not  filled  the 
office  of  mayor.  The  earliest  known  recorder 
of  the  city  of  London  is  John  de  Norton,  who 
was  appointed  in  1298. 

RECORDS,  PUBLIC.— The  public  records  of 
England  were  first  preserved  by  order  of 
Henry  I.,  in  noo,  and  a  roll  of  his  reign  is 
still  in  existence.  The  pipe  rolls  extend  in 
an  unbroken  series  from  1156  to  1831,  and  form 
a  collection  of  public  documents  unequalled 
in  the  archives  of  Europe.  The  making  of 
false  entries  hi  the  records  was  declared 
punishable  by  fine  by  8  Rich.  II.  c.  4  (1384). 
The  records  are  mostly  written  on  parchment, 
the  earliest  on  paper  being  of  the  time  of 
Edward  II.  They  are  generally  in  the  Latin 
language,  except  during  the  Interregnum, 
when  English  was  substituted.  Latin  was 
abolished  in  the  keeping  of  the  records,  as 
well  as  in  other  legal  matters,  by  4  Geo.  II.  c. 
26  (1731).  Many  efforts  have  been  made  for 
the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  records.  A 
commission,  to  inquire  into  the  best  measures 
to  be  adopted,  was  appointed  July  19,  1800, 
and  was  frequently  renewed,  the  last  time 
being  by  royal  letters  dated  March  12,  1831. 
The  commissioners  presented  their  report  Feb. 
7,  1837,  and  the  result  was  the  passing  of  the 
"  Act  for  keeping  safely  the  Public  Records," 
i  <fe  2  Viet.  c.  94  (Aug.  14,  1838),  which  estab- 
lished the  Public  Records  Office.  (See  DOMES- 
DAY BOOK,  MASTER  OR  KEEPER  OF  THE  ROLLS, 
VALOR  ECCLESIASTICUS,  &c.) 

RECOVERIE  S.—  (See  FINES  AND  RECO- 
VERIES.) 

RECRUITING.  —  The  Royal  Commission 
appointed  to  consider  and  report  upon  the 
best  means  of  recruiting  the  English  army, 
presented  their  report  Oct.  31,  1866. 

RECULVER  (Kent).— The  ancient  fortress 
of  Regulbium  was  erected  by  the  Romans 
towards,  the  end  of  their  occupation  of  Britain, 
and  the  Saxons  changed  its  name  to  Raculf 
Ceastic.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  gave  up 
his  palace  at  Canterbury  to  St.  Augustine,  and 
retired  to  this  place  in  597.  In  669,  Egbert 
conferred  it  upon  Bassa,  a  mass-priest,  that  it 
might  form  the  site  of  a  monastery ;  and  in 
949,  the  castle  and  monastery  were  granted  to 
Canterbury  Cathedral  by  Edred.  The  church 
was  pulled  down  in  1809,  and  the  only  ruins 
remaining  are  the  west  towers,  which  are 
known  as  "  the  Sisters."  The  sea  encroaches 
on  the  coast  at  this  place  at  an  average  rate  of 


two  feet  every  year,  and  the  beach  beneath 
the  old  churchyard  is  strewn  with  the  bones 
that  have  been  washed  out  by  the  tide. 

RECUSANTS.  —  Persons  who  refused  to 
attend  church  on  Sundays  and  holidays  were 
so  styled  by  i  Eliz.  c.  2  (1559).  Dissenting 
Protestants  were  relieved  from  the  penalties 
of  this  act  by  i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  18  (1689),  and 
Roman  Catholics  in  1791.  The  act  itself  was 
repealed  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  102  (Aug.  9,  1844). 
(See  ACCEPTANTS.) 

REDAN  (Sebastopol),  one  of  the  defences 
of  this  town,  was  attacked  by  the  English, 
who  were  repulsed  with  loss  by  the  Russians, 
June  18,  1855.  They  experienced  another 
repulse  Sep.  8,  1855,  and  it  was  evacuated  by 
the  Russians  Sep.  9,  1855.  The  term  is  applied 
to  a  particular  kind  of  field  fortification,  and 
was  employed  by  Sir  A.  Wellesley  in  Portugal 
in  1810. 

RED  DRAGON.—  (See  ROUGE  DRAGON.) 
REDECOT.— (See  RADCOT  BRIDGE.) 
REDEMPTIONISTS.— (See  MATURINES.) 
KKDKMPTORISTS,    or    LIGUORIANS,     a 
congregation   of   missionary   priests    founded 
in  Naples,    by  Liguori,   in   1732.     They  were 
approved    by    Benedict    XIV.    in    1749,    and 
having  passed  into  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
were  introduced  into  France  about  1830. 

REDHILL  REFORMATORY  (Surrey),  for 
juvenile  offenders,  was  established  by  Robert 
Young  in  1788,  and  incorporated  in  1806.  Its 
operations  were  for  many  years  carried  on 
in  St.  George's-in-the-Fields.  Land  was  pur- 
chased at  Redhill,  and  the  school  was  opened 
in  April,  1849.  Forty-five  of  the  boys  were 
confirmed  by  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  in 
May,  1859. 

REDHINA  (Battle).— Sir  A.   Wellesley  de- 
feated the  French,  under  Massena  and  Ney,  at 
this  place  in  Portugal,  March  12,  1812. 
RED  REPUBLIC.— (See  MONTAGNARDS.) 
RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT  (N.   America), 
purchased    by   the    Hudson's   Bay    Company 
in  1811,  received  a  new  colony  from  Scotland 
in  1815. 

RED  R  0  S  E.— (See  LANCASTRIANS  AND 
YORKISTS.) 

RED  RUSSIA.  —  Galicia  and  Lodomeria 
were  generally  known  under  this  name  until 

RED  SEA,  or  ARABIAN  GULF,  waa 
navigated  in  the  time  of  Sesostris  (B.C.  1500). 
An  extensive  trade  with  India  and  China  was 
carried  on,  through  the  Red  Sea,  from  the  7th 
century  till  the  discovery  of  the  passage  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  much  used  for 
what  is  termed  the  Overland  Route.  (See 
NILE,  OVERLAND  MAIL,  &c.) 

REFORM  ASSOCIATION,  for  the  professed 
objects  of  insuring  the  registration  of  electors 
and  protecting  them  in  the  exercise  of  the 
ranchise,  was  instituted  at  a  meeting  held  in 
Westminster,  May  20,  1835. 

REFORMATION.— The  errors  of  the  Romish 
Church  excited  much  opposition  in  early  times, 
and  the  Paulicians  in  the  7th  century  endea- 
voured to  effect  a  change.  The  Valdenses  have 
3een  termed  the  precursors  of  the  Reformation. 
tt  commenced  in  England,  where  the  arrogant 
claims  of  Rome  were  always  doggedly  resisted  ; 


REFORMATORY  SCHOOLS          [    831    ] 


REFORM  BILLS 


and  the  seed  sown  by  Wycliff e  afterwards  took 
root  in  Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

1017.  A  reformation  is  attempted  in  France  by  the  Albi- 

1360.  John  Wycliffe  opposes  papal  tyranny  in  England. 

1408.  John  Huss  introduces  reformed  doctrines  in  Bo- 
hemia (q.  v.). 

1498.  Jerome  Savonarola,  the  Dominican  precursor  of  the 
Reformation,  is  burned  for  heresy  at  Florence. 

1517.  Martin    Luther     commences    the    Reformation    in 

1519.  It  is  introduced  into  Switzerland  by  Ulric  Zuin- 
glius. 

1531.  Andreas  Bodenstein,  better  known  as  Carlstadt, 
from  the  place  of  his  birth,  introduces  the  Re- 
formation into  Denmark. 

1535.  The  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  pro- 

duces the  War  of  the  Peasants.     Prussia  receives 
the  reformed  faith. 

1537.  It  is  officially  established  in  Denmark. 

1538.  Feb.  39.  Patrick  Hamilton  is  burned  at  St.  Andrew's 

for  preaching  the  Reformation  in  Scotland. 

1539.  The   Reformation  is  established  in   England,   and 

the  receivers  of  the  new  views  assume  the  title 
of  Protestants  (q. ».). 

1533.  John  Calvin  preaches  in  France. 

1534.  The  papal  supremacy  is  abolished  in  England. 
1535-  George  Browne,  the  first  Protestant  Archbishop  of 

Dublin,  introduces  the  Reformation  into  Ireland. 

1536.  The  reformed  views  are  adopted  in  Norway. 

1539.  The  Reformation  is  officially  recognized  and  adopted 

in  Saxony. 
1541.  Protestantism  is  preached  in  Venice  and  Naples. 

1544.  It  is  completed  in  Sweden. 

1545.  Hungary  and  Transylvania  receive  the  principles  of 

the  Reformation. 

1547.  John  Knox  preaches  in  Scotland. 

1548.  Commencement  of  the  Adiaphoristic  Controversy. 
1550.  The  Reformers  are  numerous  in  Spain. 

1556.  John  &  Lasco  preaches  the  Reformation  in  Poland. 

1559.  Gustavus     I.     (Vasa)     introduces     the    Reformed 

doctrines  into  Lapland. 

1560.  Protestantism  is  established  in  Scotland. 

1567.  The  receivers  of  the  Reformation  are  numerous  in 
Holland,  where  they  are  persecuted  by  the  Duke 
of  Alva. 

1614.  It  is  adopted  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 

1617.  The  centenary  of  the  Reformation  is  celebrated  in 
Germany  by  a  Protestant  jubilee. 

REFORMATORY  SCHOOLS,  for  the  better 
care  and  reformation  of  youthful  criminals  in 
England  and  Scotland,  were  established  by  17 
&  18  Viet.  c.  86  (Aug.  10,  1854).  A  Reforma- 
tories' Industrial  Exhibition  was  opened  at  the 
Agricultural  Hall,  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  May 
19,  1865.  (See  JUVENILE  OFFENDERS,  METTBAY, 
PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY,  REDHILL  REFORMA- 
TORY, &c.) 

REFORM  BANQUETS  (French).— A  reform 
banquet  was  held  at  Ma?on,  Sep.  20,  1847,  and 
the  leaders  of  the  French  opposition  determined 
on  holding  a  grand  reform  banquet  at  Paris, 
Jan.  19,  1848.  The  project  was  prohibited  by 
the  police,  according  to  a  law  passed  Aug.  24, 
1790;  but  the  promoters  persisted  in  their 
design,  and  announced,  Feb.  14,  their  intention 
of  celebrating  the  feast  the  following  Feb.  22. 
A  large  open  space  in  the  Champs  Elyse'es  was 
selected,  and  preparations  were  made  for  the 
accommodation  of  6,000  guests,  when  a  com- 
promise was  effected  with  Government,  by 
which  the  banquet  was  to  be  converted  into  a 
procession.  Owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  opposi- 
tion deputies  to  take  part  in  the  procession, 
addresses  were  published  in  the  afternoon  of 
Feb.  21,  announcing  the  abandonment  of  the 
entire  scheme.  On  the  following  day  the 


people  assembled,  according  to  the  first  arrange- 
ments, and  remained  in  order  till  the  evening, 
when  barricades  were  erected,  and  the  revolu- 
tion commenced,  which  resulted  in  the  expul- 
sion of  Louis  Philippe  from  France  (q.  v.). 

REFORM  BILLS.— The  Earl  of  Chatham 
made  some  observations  in  the  House  of  Lords 
on  the  question  of  Parliamentary  Reform, 
in'  supporting  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham's 
motion  on  the  state  of  the  nation,  Jan.  22,  1770. 
William  Pitt's  motion  for  a  select  committee 
on  Parliamentary  Reform  was  rejected  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  a  majority  of  20  (for, 
141 ;  against,  161),  May  7,  1782.  Three  resolu- 
tions brought  forward  by  the  same  statesman, 
May  7,  1783,  were  rejected  by  a  majority  of  144 
(for,  149  ;  against,  293) ;  and  his  last  proposal  on 
the  subject  was  thrown  out  by  a  majority  of 
74  (for,  174  ;  against,  248),  April  18,  1785.  (See 
CORRESPONDING  SOCIETY.)  Sir  Francis  Bur- 
dett's  plan  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  59, 
June  15,  1819 ;  and  Daniel  O'Connell's  project 
for  introducing  universal  suffrage,  triennial 
parliaments,  and  the  ballot,  was  rejected  by 
306  votes,  May  28,  1830.  The  first  reform  bill 
introduced  by  Government  was  that  of  the 
Grey  administration,  which  was  brought  into 
the  House  of  Commons  March  i,  1831,  and 
was  read  a  first  time  March  14.  The  first 
division  took  place  March  22,  when  a  majority 
of  one  (for,  302 ;  against,  301 )  declared  in 
favour  of  the  second  reading.  On  the  ques- 
tion of  a  committee,  Gen.  Gascoyne  proposed 
as  an  amendment,  "that  the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives for  England  and  Wales  ought  not  to 
be  diminished,"  which  was  carried  by  a  majo- 
rity of  eight  (for,  299 ;  against,  291),  April  19. 
The  bill  was  relinquished  in  consequence,  and 
Parliament  dissolved  April  23.  A  new  Parlia- 
ment assembled  June  14,  and  the  bill  was  again 
introduced  June  24.  The  motion  for  its  second 
reading  passed  by  a  majority  of  136,  Thursday 
morning,  July  7*  (for,  367  ;  against,  231),  and 
a  majority  of  109  (for,  345  ;  against,  239)  de- 
clared in  favour  of  the  third  reading,  Sep.  22  ; 
but  the  bill  was  rejected  in  the  Lords  on  the 
second  reading,  by  a  majority  of  41  (for,  158  ; 
against,  199),  Oct.  8.  A  new  bill,  introduced 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  Dec.  12,  passed  its 
first  reading  without  a  division.  The  motion 
for  its  second  reading  was  carried  by  a  majority 
of  162  (for,  324;  against,  162),  Sunday  morn- 
ing, Dec.  1 8,  and  it  was  read  a  third  time 
by  a  majority  of  116  (for,  355  ;  against,  239), 
Friday,  March  23,  1832.  This  bill  was  reada 
first  time  in  the  Lords  March  26;  and  the 
second  reading  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  9 
(for,  184 ;  against,  175),  April  13.  The  bill  was 
consequently  carried  into  a  committee  of  the 
Lords,  where  an  amendment  by  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst  for  considering  the  question  of  enfran- 
chisement before  that  of  disfranchisement  was 
carried  against  Government  by  a  majority  of 
35  (for,  151  ;  against,  116),  May  7.  The  ministry 


*  This  division  took  place  at  five  in  the  morning  of 
Thursday,  July  7,  at  the  termination  of  the  discussion 
commenced  on  Wednesday  evening.  Many  of  the  divisions 
on  the  Reform  question  took  place  at  an  early  hour  in 
the  morning,  and  consequently  authorities  differ  re- 
specting dates,  some  giving  the  day  on  which  the  debate 
commenced,  and  others  that  on  -which  it  terminated. 


REFORM  CLUB 


[  832  ] 


REGENT'S  CANAL 


resigned  May  9,  but  resumed  their  offices  May 
1 8,  having  obtained  powers  to  create  a  sufficient 
number  of  new  peers  to  secure  them  a  majority 
in  the  Lords.  The  bill  passed  the  Lords'  com- 
mittee May  30,  and  was  read  for  the  third  time 
by  a  majority  of  84  (for,  106;  against,  22),  June 
4.  (See  CHANDOS  CLAUSE.)  It  received  the 
royal  assent  June  7,  and  appears  in  the  statute- 
book  as  the  "  Act  to  amend  the  Representation 
of  the  People  in  England  and  Wales,  2  &  3 
Will  IV.  c.  45  (June  7,  1832)."  The  represen- 
tation of  Scotland  was  amended  by  2  &  3  Will. 
IV.  c.  65  (July  17,  1832),  and  that  of  Ireland  by 
2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  88  (Aug.  7,  1832).  Lord  John 
Russell  obtained  leave  to  introduce  another  re- 
form bill,  Feb.  13,  1854  ;  which,  inconsequence 
of  the  Russian  war,  was  withdrawn,  April  n. 
Mr.  Disraeli  introduced  a  bill  Feb.  28,  1859, 
which  was  thrown  out  on  the  second  reading 
by  a  majority  of  39,  March  31.  Lord  John 
Russell  introduced  another  measure,  March  i, 
1860,  which  was  withdrawn  June  n.  Mr.  Glad- 
stone introduced  another  reform  bill,  dealing 
with  the  Extension  of  the  Franchise  only, 
March  12,  1866.  It  was  read  a  second  time  by 
a  majority  of  5  (for,  318 ;  against,  313),  April  27. 
The  Redistribution  of  Seats  bill  was  brought 
in  May  7,  and  the  second  reading  was  carried 
without  a  division,  May  14,  ministers  having 
consented  to  consider  both  measures  as  parts 
of  one  scheme.  Lord  Dunkellin's  amendment, 
proposing  a  rating  instead  of  a  rental  quali- 
fication, was  carried  against  ministers  by  a 
majority  of  n  (for,  315;  against,  304),  June  18, 
and  the  resignation  of  the  Government  was 
announced  June  26.  (See  ADMINISTRATIVE 
REFORM  ASSOCIATION,  THIRD  DERBY  ADMINIS- 
TRATION, &c.) 

REFORM  CLUB  (London)  was  founded  in 
1830.  The  edifice  in  Pall  Mall  was  completed 
in  1841.  The  New  Reform  Club  was  formed  in 
1866. 

REFORMED  PRESS YTERY.-(&eC AMERO- 

NIANS.) 

R KFR ACTION.— (See  LIGHT,  OPTICS,  &c.) 

KKFKKSHMENT-HOUSES  in  England  were 
subjected  to  a  licence  duty  by  23  Viet.  c.  27 
(June  14,  1860),  and  in  Ireland  by  23  &  24  Viet. 
c.  107  (Aug.  28,  1860).  The  Public  and  Refresh- 
ment Houses  Act,  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  64,  passed 
July  25,  1864,  was  amended  by  28  &  29  Viet.  c. 
77  (June  29,  1865). 

REFUGE.— (See  ASYLUM,  HEBRON,  RAGGED 
SCHOOLS,  SANCTUARY,  &c.) 

REGALIA,  or  the  Insignia  of  England,  kept 
in  the  jewel-house  of  the  Tower,  were  made 
for  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.,  April  23,  1661, 
the  former  set  having  been  destroyed  in  1649 
by  order  of  the  Long  Parliament.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  carry  off  the  regalia  from  the 
Tower  by  the  notorious  Col.  Blood,  May  9, 
1671. 

REGATTA,  from  the  Italian,  meaning  a 
race  on  the  water,  was  first  applied  to  a  fete 
at  Venice,  in  which  the  gondoliers  contended 
for  prizes.  The  term  was  introduced  into 
this  country  and  applied  to  boat-races  about 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  such  a  contest, 
which  took  place  on  the  Thames  June  23,  1775, 
being  announced  as  a  novelty. 

REGED  (Scotland),  corresponding  to  Annan- 


dale,  in  Dumfriesshire,  formed  one  of  the 
numerous  small  kingdoms  into  which  the 
country  was  divided  in  626. 

REGENCY  BILLS.— A  measure  of  this  kind 
was  passed  in  1751,  appointing  the  Princess 
dowager  of  Wales  regent,  on  the  death  of 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  should  the  crown 
descend  to  a  minor.  During  the  first  illness 
of  George  III.,  he  himself  proposed  one,  the 
name  of  his  mother  being  included,  April, 
1765.  Mr.  Pitt  moved  three  resolutions  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  when  George  III.  was 
a  second  time  attacked  by  his  malady,  to  con- 
sider what  steps  should  be  taken  to  provide 
for  the  government,  Dec.  10,  1788.  The  de- 
cision of  the  legislature  as  to  what  powers 
should  be  invested  in  the  regent  was  submitted 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  Dec.  30,  1788  ;  and  a 
bill,  which  passed  the  Commons,  after  a  warm 
discussion,  was  introduced  Feb.  3,  1789,  and 
reached  the  second  reading  in  the  Lords,  Feb. 
19,  1789,  after  which  it  was  abandoned,  owing 
to  the  recovery  of  the  king.  It  was  revived 
and  passed  Feb.  5,  1811,  and  the  Prince  of 
Wales  exercised  the  regency  till  the  death  of 
his  father.  (See  REGENTS.)  By  i  Will.  IV.  c.  2 
(Dec.  23,  1830),  the  administration  of  the  go- 
vernment, in  the  event  of  the  crown  descend- 
ing to  the  Princess  Alexandrina  Victoria  in 
her  minority,  was  provided  for ;  and  by  3  <fe  4 
Viet.  (Aug.  4,  1840),  Prince  Albert 'was  ap- 
pointed regent  in  the  event  of  the  demise  of 
the  crown  during  the  minority  of  the  next  in 
succession. 

REGENSBURG.— (See  RATISBON.) 

REGENT  or  PITT  .DIAMOND.  -  (See  DIA- 
MOND.) 

REGENTS  were  first  appointed  in  England 
by  Henry  III.,  under  the  name  of  Custodes 
regni,  about  1230.  The  Black  Prince,  then 
Duke  of  Cornwall,  was  left  guardian  of  the 
kingdom  in  1339,  when  he  was  but  ten  years 
of  age,  and  his  son  Richard,  when  still 
younger,  during  the  absence  in  France  of 
Edward  III.  in  1372.  During  the  minority  of 
Henry VI.,  the  Duke  of  Bedford  was  appointed 
protector,  and  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  in  his 
absence  in  1422  ;  and  the  peers  elected  the 
Duke  of  York  protector  in  1454,  Henry  VI. 
having  been  considered  mentally  incapable  of 
e  xercising  authority.  This  regency  terminated 
with  the  recovery  of  the  king,  but  he  had  a 
relapse  after  the  battle  of  St.  Alban's,  and  the 
duke  was  re-appointed  by  Parliament,  Nov.  19, 
1455.  During  the  minority  of  Edward  VI.,  his 
iincle,  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  created  Duke  of 
Somerset,  was  declared  protector,  March  13, 
1547.  When  George  I.  went  to  Germany,  he 
left  the  Prince  of  Wales  guardian  of  the  king- 
dom, July  7,  1716  ;  and  George  II.  appointed 
Queen  Caroline  regent  when  he  visited 
Hanover,  May  17,  1729.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
(George  IV.)  assumed  the  regency  on  account 
of  his  father's  mental  incapacity,  Feb.  5,  1811. 
On  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  was  recognized  as  regent  of 
the  kingdom,  Sep.  2,  1715. 

REGENT'S  CANAL  (London).  —  The  new 
branch,  uniting  all  the  principal  canals  in  the 
kingdom  with  the  river  Thames,  which  had 
been  nearly  seven  years  incomplete,  was 


REGENT'S  PARK 


[    833     ] 


REGIUM   DONUM 


finished  under  the  superintendence  of  J.  Nash, 
and  opened  Aug.  i,  1820. 

REGENT'S  PARK  (London).— This  park, 
consisting  of  part  of  old  Marylebone  Park, 
long  disforested,  was  commenced  by  James 
Morgan  in  1812,  but  the  public  were  not 
admitted  to  the  inner  plantations  until  1838. 
The  terraces  were  designed  by  John  Nash  and 
Decimus  Burton.  The  Botanical  Gardens  were 
opened  in  1839.  The  ice  gave  way  suddenly 
whilst  crowded  with  skaters,  Jan.  15,  1867. 
Nearly  200  persons  were  immersed,  and  of 
these  about  50  were  drowned. 

REGGIO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Rhegium 
Julium,  in  Calabria,  was  founded  by  the 
Chalcidians  about  B.C.  720;  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Pythagoreans  after  the  death 
of  their  master,  B.C.  507;  rose  to  great  pros- 
perity under  Aiiaxilas,  who  obtained  power 
B.C.  494,  and  died  B.C.  476,  expelled  his  two 
sons  B.C.  461,  and  fitted  out  a  large  fleet  and 
army  against  Dionysius  the  Elder,  of  Syracuse, 
B.  c.  399.  After  sundry  attempts  he  took  the 
city,  and  destroyed  it,  slaughtering  the  citi- 
zens, or  selling  them  for  slaves,  B.C.  387.  It 
was  restored  by  the  younger  Dionysius,  whose 
yoke  was  thrown  off  B.C.  351.  Through  fear 
of  Pyrrhus,  it  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans,  received  from  them  a  garrison  of 
Campaiiian  troops,  who  rose  against  the  inha- 
bitants, putting  the  men  to  the  sword,  and 
reducing  to  slavery  the  women  and  children, 
B.C.  280.  The  Romans  took  the  city,  and 
punished  their  rebel  soldiers,  B.C.  270.  An 
earthquake  nearly  destroyed  it  B.C.  91,  and  it 
became  a  Roman  municipium  B.C.  88.  Octa- 
vius  made  it  the  head-quarters  for  his  fleet 
and  army  in  the  war  with  Sextus  Pompeius, 
B.C.  38 — 36.  It  was  captured  by  Alaric  I.  in 
410,  and  by  Totila  in  549.  Having  been  sub- 
ject to  the  Greek  emperors,  and  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  it  came  into  possession  of  Robert 
Guiscard  in  1060.  Gonzalvo  of  Cordova  an- 
nexed it  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  early  in 
the  1 6th  century.  It  was  sacked  by  the  Turks 
in  1543,  in  1558,  and  in  1593.  An  earthquake 
in  1783  did  not  leave  a  house  uninjured,  and  a 
second  did  much  damage  in  1841. 

REGGIO  (Italy).  — This  town  in  Modena, 
the  ancient  Regium  Lepidi,  or  Lepidum,  also 
called  Regium,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Jimilius  Lepidus  (died  B.C.  13),  after  whom 
it  was  named  Forum  Lepidi.  Captured  by 
the  Goths  in  409,  it  was  restored  by  Charle- 
magne. It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1702, 
by  Prince  Eugene  in  1706,  and  by  the  Sar- 
dinians in  1742.  A  revolt  in  1831  was  speedily 
suppressed. 

REGICIDES.— (See  INDEMNITY  AND  OBLI- 
VION.) 

REGIFUGIUM,  or  FUGALIA.— This  festival, 
which,  according  to  the  legend,  was  instituted 
in  commemoration  of  the  flight  of  Tarquinius 
Superbus  from  Rome  (Feb.  24,  B.C.  510),  was 
held  annually,  Feb.  24,  according  to  some 
authorities,  and  May  24  according  to  others. 

REGILLUS.— (See  LAKE  REGILLUS.) 

REGIMENTS  appear  to  have  been  first  con- 
stituted and  so  designated  in  France,  about 
1562.  The  French  guards  were  raised  by 
Charles  IX.  for  his  personal  defence  in  1563. 


In  England  mention  is  made  of  them  during 
the  threatened  invasion  in  1588,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1598. 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  in  1660,  the  army 
having  been  disbanded,  two  regiments,  one  of 
foot  and  the  other  of  horse,  were  re-formed. 
(See  COLDSTREAM  GUARDS,  HORSE  GUARDS,  &c.) 
The  Scotch  corps,  which  returned  from  France 
in  1 66 1,  and  was  called  the  first,  or  royal  regi- 
ment of  infantry,  is  the  oldest  regular  corps 
in  Europe.  The  two  regiments  of  lifeguards 
at  the  head  of  the  army  list  were  raised  in 
1788.  One  regiment  of  infantry  was  raised  in 
Ireland  in  1684,  afterwards  called  the  Royal 
Irish,  in  honour  of  its  gallant  conduct  at  the 
siege  of  Namur  in  1695. 

REGISTRATION  OF  BIRTHS,  DEATHS, 
AND  MARRIAGES. —The  i2th  article  of 
Thomas  Cromwell's  injunctions,  issued  in  Sep., 
1538,  ordered  that  a  record  of  these  should 
be  kept  in  each  parish.  Various  subsequent 
injunctions  having  met  with  little  attention, 
a  bill  to  enforce  the  performance  of  the  royal 
mandate  was  introduced  into  Parliament 
in  March,  1563,  but  was  not  passed.  The 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  made  some  exer- 
tions in  the  matter  in  1597,  and  again  in  1603. 
By  6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  6  (1694),  certain  duties 
on  marriages,  births,  and  burials,  also  on 
bachelors  and  widowers,  and  for  having  them 
duly  registered,  were  imposed,  to  enable  the 
king  to  carry  on  the  war  with  France.  By 
52  Geo.  III.  c.  146  (July  28,  1812),  alterations 
were  made  in  the  existing  law.  The  registra- 
tion act,  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86,  passed  Aug.  17, 
1836,  came  into  force  July  i,  1837.  This  was 
amended  by  i  Viet.  c.  22  (June  30,  1837).  A 
general  registry  office  for  births  and  deaths 
was  formed  in  Dublin  by  26  Viet.  c.  u  (April 
20,  1863) ;  and  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  90  (July  28, 
1863)  a  general  registry  for  marriages  was 
established.  The  registration  in  Scotland  was 
assimilated  to  that  of  England  by  17  &  18  Viet, 
c.  80  (Aug.  7,  1854). 

REGISTRATION  OF  DEEDS.  —  Bargains 
and  sales  of  land  were  required  to  be  registered 
by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16  (1536).  A  register  was 
established  for  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire 
by  2  &  3  Anne,  c.  4  (1703) ;  one  in  the  East 
Riding  for  wills  and  deeds  by  6  Anne,  c.  35 
(1707)  ;  one  for  Middlesex  by  7  Anne,  c.  20 
(1709)  ;  and  one  for  the  North  Riding  by  8 
Geo.  II.  c.  6  (1734).  Bills  of  sale  of  personal 
chattels,  to  prevent  fraud  upon  creditors,  are 
required  to  be  registered  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  36 
(July  to,  1854). 

REGISTRATION  OF  VOTERS  was  estab- 
lished by  2  Will.  IV.  c.  45,  s.  26  (June  7,  1832). 
The  law  was  amended  by  6  Viet.  c.  18  (May  31, 
1843).  The  law  in  Scotland  was  amended  by 
19  &  20  Viet.  c.  58  (July  21,  1856). 

REGIUM  DONUM,  or  Royal  Gift,  to  the 
amount  of  £600,  was  granted  in  1672,  as  secret 
service  money,  by  Charles  II.,  to  be  distributed 
annually  among  the  Presbyterian  clergymen  of 
Ireland.  Having  been  discontinued,  it  was 
renewed  in  1690  by  William  III.,  who  increased 
the  sum  to  ^1,200.  George  I.  granted  a  con- 
siderable sum  for  the  relief  of  ministers  belong- 
ing to  the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and 
Baptists,  in  1 723 .  It  was  further  augmented  to 
3H 


REGRATIXG 


[     834    ] 


RENDSBURG 


,£2,200  in  1784,  to  ,£5,000  in  1792,  and  to  .£38,953 
in  1856. 

REG  RATING.— (See  FORESTALLING.) 

REGULAR  CANONS.— (See  AUGUSTINES, 
and  CANONS,  Regular  and  Secular. ) 

REICHEXAU  (Switzerland).— A  Benedictine 
abbey,  founded  on  this  island,  in  the  lake  of 
Constance,  by  St.  Firmin,  in  724,  was  joined  t6 
the  bishopric  of  Constance  in  1536.  In  a  school, 
at  another  Reichenau,  in  the  Grisons,  Louis 
Philippe  filled  the  post  of  professor. 

REICHENBACH  (Battle).— The  French  were 
defeated  in  an  attack  upon  the  Russian  rear 
guard,  near  this  place,  in  Saxony,  May  22, 1813. 

R  El  C I  f  K  X  B  AC  1 1'  ( i  urmany  .—The  Prussians 
defeated  the  Austrians  near  this  town,  in 
Silesia,  Aug.  16,  1762.  Preliminaries  of  peace 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  were  signed  Aug. 
5,  1790.  A  congress  was  assembled  here  by  the 
English  ministry,  to  form  an  alliance  against 
Russian  aggression,  in  1791.  The  treaty  that 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  grand  alliance 
against  Napoleon  I.  was  signed  here  June  14, 
1813  ;  and  Austria  gave  her  adherence  to  it 
July  27. 

R  E  1C  IIENBERG'  Germany).—  The  Prussians, 
under  the  Prince  of  Bevern,  drove  the  Aus- 
trians, commanded  by  Count  KOnigsogg,  from 
a  strong  position  near  this  town  of  Bohemia,  in 
1757.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1813. 

REICHSRATH,  or  Council  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  was  extended  by  an  imperial  patent, 
March  5,  1860.  It  met  in  May,  and  a  new 
constitution  was  promulgated  Oct.  20.  Both 
houses  re-assembled  May  i,  1861.  It  was 
suspended  Sep.  20,  1865,  and  again  convoked 
Jan.  2,  1867,  to  meet  Feb.  25. 

REIGATE  (Surrey),  anciently  called  Cherch- 
felle,  or  Churchfield,  at  which  place  a  church 
existed  in  1199,  in  the  reign  of  King  John. 
Reigate  castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  before 
the  Xorman  conquest,  and  in  1216  \v;is  in 
possession  of  Louis,  Dauphin  of  France.  It 
was  demolished  by  order  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, July  4,  1648.  Reigate  priory  is  said  to 
have  been  built  by  William  de  Warren,  who 
died  in  1240.  Reigate  received  a  charter  from 
Edward  II.  in  1313,  and  another  from  Charles 
II.  in  1673.  It  first  sent  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1295,  and  continued  to  do  so  till  1832, 
when  the  number  was  reduced  to  one  by  the 
Reform  Bill. 

REIGN  OF  TERROR.— The  first  period  of 
anarchy,  bloodshed,  and  confiscation,  called 
the  reign  of  terror,  commenced  in  France  on 
the  election  of  Robespierre  as  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Welfare,  July  27,  1793, 
and  extended  to  Danton's  death,  April  5,  1794. 
The  second  period  extended  from  April  5  till 
the  fall  of  Robespierre,  July  27,  1794.  Nearly 
a  million  persons  were  put  to  death  during  this 
short  time.  (See  MONTAGNARDS.) 

REIMS.— (SeeRHEiMS.) 

RELICS.— Those  of  St.  Andrew,  St.  Luke, 
and  Timothy,  were  transported  in  pomp  by 
Constantius  II.  to  the  church  of  the  Apostles  at 
Constantinople,  in  360  ;  and  what  were  called 
the  ashes  of  Samuel,  the  prophet  and  judge  of 
Israel,  received  a  like  distinction  about  410.  An 
extensive  trade  sprang  up  in  relics  at  Jerusalem, 
the  articles  consisting  of  dry  bones,  chips  of 


wood,  rusty  nails,  and  rotten  rags  of  cloth, 
which  were  said  to  possess  the  virtue  of  working 
every  description  of  miracle,  about  604.  At  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  April 
9,  1204,  these  formed  a  valuable  portion  of  the 
pillage,  the  abbot  Martin  securing  as  his  share 
"  a  stain  of  the  blood  of  the  Lord,  a  piece  of  the 
holy  cross,  the  arm  of  the  apostle  James,  some 
of  the  bones  of  John  the  Baptist,  some  of  the 
milk  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  many  more." 
Baldwin  II.  sold  to  Louis  IX.  the  crown  of 
thorns  which  had  been  placed  on  the  head 
of  the  Saviour  for  the  sum  of  10,000  marks 
of  silver,  the  relic  being  transferred  from 
Venice  to  Paris,  where  the  king,  barefoot  and 
in  his  shirt,  carried  it  in  triumph  through  the 
streets  in  1261.  When  the  Council  of  Basel 
met  for  the  deposition  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV., 
and  many  bishops  absented  themselves  through 
timidity,  their  place  was  supplied  by  the 
collected  relics  of  many  famous  saints,  which 
were  borne  by  the  priests  through  the  city, 
and  introduced  into  the  hall  of  council  May  16, 
1439.  The  shrine  of  Thomas  Becket  was 
plundered,  and  many  objects  of  superstitious 
veneration  in  England  were  destroyed  in  1538. 
The  sale  of  relics  was  prohibited  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  in  1198.  (See  COLOGNE,  <fec.) 

RELIGION.— The  term  is  derived,  according 
to  the  best  authorities,  from  reltgare,  to  bind 
fast,  implying  an  obligation,  a  restraint.  The 
following  are  the  principal  divisions  : — 


Malte- 
Brun. 

Hussel. 

B  albi. 

260,000,000 
4,coo,ooo 
96,000,000 
6,000,000 
170,000,000 
147,000,000 

Christians  
.Jews   
Moliiumnedans   ... 
Bnihininists  
Buddhists  
Oilier  sects    

238,000,000 
5,000,000 

110,000,000 

6,000,000 

15,000,000 

100,000,000 

252,000,000 
3,930,000 
120,105,000 
111,353,030 
315,977,000 
134,490,000 

CHRISTIE 
Romanists  118,300,000 
Greek  Church  63,520,000 
Church  of  ICngland     16,000,000 
Methodist*  2,100,000 

Independents    2,000,000 
Universalists    600,000 

NS. 
Quakers  245,000 
Memnonites  150,000 
Moravians  70,000 
New  Cliureli  40,000 
Morinonites  40,000 

(See  PEACE  OF  RELIGION.) 

RE. ML— (See  RHETMS.) 

REMONSTRANCE,  called  the  G rand  or 
Great  Remonstrance,  consisting  of  206  articles, 
condemnatory  of  the  acts  of  Charles  I.,  was 
debated  17  hours  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  carried  by  a  majority  of  n  (the  numbers 
being  159  for,  and  148  against),  Nov.  22,  1641. 
It  was  presented  to  the  king  Dec.  i. 

REMONSTRANTS.— The  followers  of  James 
Arminius  were  thus  named  from  a  remon- 
strance presented  by  them  to  the  states  of 
Holland,  setting  forth  the  grievances  under 
which  they  suffered,  and  praying  for  redress, 
in  1610.  (See  ARMINIANS.)  They  opposed  the 
Gomarists  (q.  v.}. 

RENAISSANCE.— This  style  of  architecture, 
which  gradually  superseded  the  Gothic,  arose 
in  Italy  in  the  isth,  and  was  introduced  into 
France  early  in  the  i6th  century. 

RENDSBURG  (Holstein),  encircled  by  walls 
in  1539,  was  till  1581  alternately  in  the  hands 
of  the  Holsteiners  and  Danes.  It  was  fortified 


RENIEGA 


[    835    ] 


RETHEL 


anew  by  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark  in  1669, 
and  additional  fortifications  were  constructed  in 
1685  and  1695.  The  Convention  of  Rendsburg, 
between  Christian  V.  of  Denmark  and  the  Duke 
of  Holstein  Gottorp,  was  signed  July  10,  1675. 
The  general  assembly  of  the  states  met  here 
April  3,  1848,  and  the  town  was  taken  by  the 
Prussian  and  Holstein  troops  in  1848.  The 
Danes  regained  possession  and  dismantled  it 
in  1852.  The  Prussian  troops  took  possession 
of  Rendsburg  July  21,  1864. 

R'ENIEGA  (Battle)  was  fought  in  1521, 
between  the  French,  under  Andre  Lesparre, 
and  the  Spaniards,  in  which  the  latter  were 
victorious,  capturing  the  French  general,  and 
recovering  Navarre. 

RENNES  (France),  captured  in  841,  the 
capital  of  a  country  till  992,  taken  by  the 
Count  de  Montfort  in  1341,  and  besieged  by  the 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  from  Oct.  3,  1356,  to  July 
3.  I357>  was  the  seat  of  the  parliament  insti- 
tuted by  Henry  II.  in  1555.  A  council  was 
held  here  May  22,  1273.  Rennes  was  devastated 
by  a  fire,  which  lasted  from  Dec.  22  to  29, 
1720,  consuming  850  houses.  The  parliament 
house  of  the  states  of  Britanny,  now  the  Palais 
de  Justice,  was  erected  in  1670.  In  1788 
1,200  gentlemen  of  the  states  of  Britanny  met 
at  Rennes  and  St.  Brieux  and  chose  12  of  their 
number  as  a  deputation  to  bear  the  remon- 
strances of  the  various  states  to  the  king.  An 
insurrection  broke  out  Jan.  26,  1789. 

RENTS. — The  system  of  paying  rents  in 
money  instead  of  in  kind  was  introduced  in 
1136.  Sir  Richard  Phillips  estimates  the  pro- 
portion of  rents  to  produce  as  follows:  "In 
the  age  of  the  Plantagenets,  rents  were  to 
produce  as  i  to  30 ;  at  the  Revolution  i  to  12  ; 
under  the  funding  system  they  rose  as  i  to  7. 
In  the  paper-money  times  they  became  as  i  to 
5  and  4 ;  and  under  the  fall  of  markets,  have, 
since  1830,  been  as  3-5,  and  3  '  i."  A  great 
reduction  in  rents  was  made  in  1621,  owing  to 
the  cheapness  of  wheat ;  and  in  1703  a  sudden 
fall  in  prices  rendered  farmers  unable  to  pay 
their  rents,  which  experienced  the  greatest 
rise  about  1812.  By  8  Anne,  c.  14  (1709),  no 
goods  could  be  taken  in  execution  unless  the 
sheriff  has  previously  paid  the  landlord  the 
rent  due  ;  and  by  4  Geo.  II.  c.  28  (1731),  arrears 
of  all  kinds  of  rent  were  made  recoverable  by 
distress.  No  arrears  can  be  recovered  for 
more  than  six  years,  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27, 

'  REPEAlTljF  THE  UNION.— The  agitation 
for  the  repeal  of  the  union  commenced  in  1810, 
and  Daniel  O'Connell  formed  associations  with 
that  object  in  1829.  The  House  of  Commons, 
by  a  majority  of  485,  rejected  his  motion  for 
repeal,  April  27,  1834.  The  National  Loyal 
Repeal  Association,  which  had  been  formed  in 
1840,  was  again  in  active  operation  early  in 
1843,  and  a  monster  meeting  was  held  at  Trim, 
March  16,  1843.  O'Connell  was  tried  for  con- 
spiring, Jan.  15,  and  convicted  Feb.  12,  1844. 
Having  appealed  to  the  House  of  Lords,  the 
sentence  was  reversed,  Sep.  4,  and  he  was 
released  from  custody  Sep.  5. 

REPHAIM.— (See  GIANTS.) 

REPHIDIM  (Battle).— The  Israelites,  who, 
after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  suffered  from 


thirst  at  this  place,  where  Moses  smote  the 
rock,  and  water  gushed  forth  (Exod.  xvii.), 
defeated  the  Amalekites,  B.C.  1491. 

REPORTING.— Sir  Symonds  D'Ewes's  (1602 
— 1650)  Journal  of  the  Parliaments  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  appeared  in  1682.  As  the  publica- 
tion of  the  proceedings  of  Parliament  was 
declared  to  be  a  breach  of  privilege,  various 
expedients  were  adopted  in  order  to  give  the 
public  the  necessary  information,  and  reports 
appeared  in  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  the 
"London  Magazine,"  and  other  periodicals. 
Some  newspaper  proprietors  were  in  1771 
summoned  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Commons  for  having  published  an  account  of 
the  debates,  but  after  a  struggle  the  point  was 
conceded.  (See  JOURNALS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF 
LORDS,  JOURNALS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS, 
&c.) 

REPUBLICAN  CALENDAR.— (See  REVOLU- 
TIONARY CALENDAR.) 

REPUBLICANS.— A  party  in  the  United 
States,  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
received  this  name  in  1856.  They  secured 
the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in  1860,  and 
have  since  been  called  Unionists.  Their 
opponents  go  under  the  general  designation  of 
Democrats. 

REPUBLIC  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA.— 
(See  CENTRAL  AMERICA  and  NICARAGUA.  ) 

REQUESTS.— (See  CONSCIENCE.) 

RESERVE  FORCES.— By  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  40 
(Aug.  13,  1 859),  the  Admiralty  was  empowered 
to  raise  a  body  of  men,  not  exceeding  30,000, 
to  be  called  the  Royal  Naval  Coast  Volunteers ; 
and  by  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  42  (Aug.  13,  1859),  *ne 
sovereign  was  empowered  to  raise  and  keep 
up  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  reserve  force  of 
soldiers  not  exceeding  20,000  men.  (See  ROYAL 
NAVAL  RESERVE.) 

RESTITUTION  (Edict).— Issued  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war,  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand 
II.,  was  published  March  6,.  1629.  The  object 
of  the  measure  was  to  restore  ecclesiastical 
matters  to  the  state  they  were  in  at  the  peace 
of  Passau  (q.  v.}.  It  was  altogether  in  favour 
of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  having  excited 
great  opposition,  was  revoked  at  the  end  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  war  (q.  v.),  in  1648. 

RESTORATION.— (See  INTERREGNUM.) 

RETFORD,  EAST  (Nottinghamshire).— The 
first  charter  was  granted  to  this  town,  by 
Henry  III.,  in  1246,  and  a  second  by  Edward 
I.,  Nov.  27,  1279.  It  first  sent  representatives 
to  Parliament  in  1315,  but  in  1330  the  bur- 
gesses petitioned  the  king  to  release  them 
from  the  privilege,  oil  account  of  their  being 
too  poor  to  pay  the  expenses  of  their  repre- 
sentatives. A  fresh  charter,  granted  by  Ed- 
ward III.  in  1336,  was  confirmed  by  another 
granted  by  Henry  VI.  in  1424.  The  town-hall 
was  built  in  1388,  and  rebuilt  in  1755.  East 
Retford  again  sent  representatives  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1571,  but,  owing  to  the  bribery  and 
corruption  of  the  voters,  an  act  was  passed, 
July  23,  1830,  which  extended  the  franchise  of 
Retford  to  the  whole  of  the  freeholders  of  the 
hundred.  A  great  flood  happened  in  1795, 
which  caused  much  damage  to  the  town. 
Retford  was  first  lighted  by  gas  Dec.  22,  1831. 

RETHEL  (France)  is  supposed  to  have  been 

3H   2 


RETREAT 


[     836     ] 


REVIEWS 


built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  fort.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  ruled  by  its  own  counts, 
and  was,  in  1581,  made  the  seat  of  a  duchy, 
conferred  by  Henry  III.  on  the  Duke  of 
Nevers,  whose  descendants  sold  it  to  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  and  it  was  called  Rethel  Mazarin. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1650,  and 
was  retaken  by  Turenne  in  1655.  The  Aus- 
trians  were  defeated  by  the  French  in  a  battle 
fought  near  this  town,  Dec.  13,  1650. 

RETREAT  OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND, 
known  to  the  ancients  as  the  "Return  of  the 
Cyreian  Greeks."  Cyrus  II.,  King  of  Persia, 
took  the  field  with  100,000  barbarians  and  13,000 
Greeks,  commanded  by  Clearchus,  and  en- 
countered the  army  of  his  brother,  Artaxerxes 
II.,  near  Cunaxa,  losing  the  engagement  and 
his  own  life,  B.C.  401.  The  Greeks  were  vic- 
torious on  their  part  of  the  field,  and 
commenced  their  return  homewards  to  the 
city  of  Ephesus,  in  Ionia.  Clearchus  having 
fallen  by  the  treachery  of  the  Persians,  Xen- 
ophon  was  chosen  leader.  The  march  termin- 
ated at  Cotyora,  after  many  dangers  and 
difficulties,  as  narrated  by  Xenophon  in 
his  "  Anabasis, "  the  distance,  3,465  English 
miles,  having  been  accomplished  in  15  months, 
B.C.  400. 

REUNION.— (See  BOURBON,  CLUBS,  Foreign, 
GEORGE,  ST.,  &c.) 

REUS  (Spain).— This  town  of  Tarragona 
was  founded  in  1151,  and  its  commerce  was 
established  by  some  English  merchants,  who 
settled  here  in  1750. 

REUSS  Germany'.— Several  small  states  of 
Germany  were  thus  designated,  and  three  of 
them  became  extinct,  one  in  1236,  another  in 
1532,  and  the  third  in  1550.  Two  only,  namely 
Reuss  Greiz  and  Ileuss  Schleiz,  exist,  derived 
from  the  two  sons  of  Henry  the  Peaceful,  who 
died  in  1535.  The  rank  of  counts  of  the  empire 
was  bestowed  upon  them  in  1673,  and  the 
title  of  prince  was  conferred  upon  the  elder, 
or  Reuss  Greiz  line,  in  1778,  and  upon  the 
younger,  or  Reuss  Schlcix;  line,  in  1806.  They 
both  joined  the  Germanic  Confederation  in 
.1813.  They  ceased  to  exist  as  independent 
states  by  treaties  concluded  with  Prussia  in 
1866. 

REUSS  (Germany).  — Pope  Benedict  XII, 
the  tool  of  Philip  VI.  of  France,  having  re- 
newed the  excommunication  of  the  Emperor 
Louis  V.,  the  electors  met  at  Reuss  in  1338 
and  declared  that  the  Pope  had  no  jurisdic 
tion  over  the  German  empire.  They  pro- 
hibited the  publication  of  papal  bulls  in  Ger- 
many without  the  previous  consent  of  the 
German  bishops. 

REVELATION  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DI- 
VINE, or  THE  APOCALYPSE,  was  written  ir 
the  island  of  Patmos  in  96  or  97.  The  Alogians 
(q.  v.)  in  the  2nd  century  rejected  it,  attri- 
buting the  authorship  to  Cerinthus.  Justin 
Martyr  (103 — 167),  andlrenseus,  about  200,  give 
important  evidence  in  its  favour.  Dionysius, 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  (247 — 265),  states  that  it 
was  rejected  by  many  persons  of  good  character. 
Jerome,  writing  early  in  the  sth  century,  says 
that  the  Oriental  Church  did  not  admit  it  into 
the  canon,  and  it  is  not  included  in  the  list  oi 
books  declared  canonical  by  the  Council  oi 


Laodicea,  in  366.  The  Council  of  Toledo,  Dec. 
9>  633,  excommunicated  those  who  refused  to 
acknowledge  its  inspiration.  Erasmus  and 
Luther  doubted  its  authenticity.  It  is  in- 
cluded in  the  canon,  and  accepted  as  the  work 
of  St.  John.  Several  counterfeit  books  of  the 
kind  appeared  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church, 
h  as  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  Peter,  mentioned 
ay  Eusebius,  and  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  Paxil,  said 
:o  have  been  found  in  a  stone  chest  at  Tarsus. 

REVEL,  or  REVAL  (Russia),  was  founded 
as  a  bishopric  by  Valdemar  II.  of  Denmark, 
about  1218.  The  oldest  church  is  the  Estho- 
nian,  mentioned  in  1284.  That  of  St.  Olai  was 
founded  in  1329,  and  having  been  destroyed  by 
fire,  was  rebuilt  in  1820.  Revel,  fortified  in 
1360,  and  held  for  some  time  by  the  Lithua- 
nian knights,  was  ceded  to  Sweden  in  1562. 
The  Danes  bombarded  it  in  1569;  the  Russians 
attacked  it  in  1577  ;  and  it  was  captured  by 
Peter  I.  (the  Great),  in  1710.  The  harbour 
\vns  much  improved  in  1713.  (See  ESTHONIA.) 

REVELS.  —  (See  MASTER  OF  THE  REVELS, 
MISRULE,  Lord  of,  <fcc. 

RKVEXUB.  —  The  greater  portion  of  the 
public  revenue  of  Kngland  was  anciently  de- 
rived from  the  rents  of  the  crown  property. 
As  the  royal  estates  di-nvascd  in  extent,  while 
the  national  expenditure  became  more  heavy, 
the  system  of  tenths  or  fifteenths  (See  AIDS 
and  BBNBVOLENCE  was  introduced,  by  Parlia- 
ment granting  to  the  crown  a  tenth  or  fifteenth 
part  of  the  movable  property  of  the  people. 
This  system  was  gradually  abandoned,  and  the 
revenue  is  mainly  derived  from  the  customs, 
stamp,  and  excise  duties,  and  the  assessed,  in- 
come, land,  and  property  taxes,  with  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  post-office.  The  public  revenues 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  consolidated 
by  56  Geo.  III.  c.  98  (July  i,  1816).  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  public  revenue  of  Eng- 
land at  different  periods  : — 


William  II... 

350,000 

•Tames  I  

°~O""1~~" 

600,000 

llrnrv  I  

...      300,000 

Chariot  I  

895,8,9 

Stephen   .... 
Richard  I.    . 

...      250,000 
150,000 

Interregnum  

Chari.'s  II  

1,517.247 

1,000,000 

John 

loo  ooo 

James  II  

2,001,855 

11,-nrv  III.  .. 
Edward  I.   .. 

80,000 
150,000 

William  &  Mary  ... 
Anno  (at  the  Union) 

3,895,2°5 
5,691,803 

Ed  war,  I  II. 

100,000 

George  I  

6,762,643 

Edward  III. 

...     154,139 

George  II  

8,522,540 

Kirhard  II... 

...     130,000 

George  III.  (1788) 

15,572,971 

HenrylV.   .. 

100,000 

Ditto  (1800)    

36,728,000 

llrnr'v  V  
Henry  VI.  .. 

...    76.643 

64,976 

Ditto  (1814)    
George  IV  

71,153,000 
58,000,000 

K.luAi-.l  IV. 

100,000 

William  IV  

56,000,000 

Edward  V... 

100,000 

Victotia(l845)  

53,060,354 

Richard  III. 

ICO.OOO 

Ditto  (1850)    

53,810,680 

Henry  VII... 
Henry  VIII. 

400,000 
800,000 

Ditto  (185^)    
Ditto  (I86o)    

59,496,154 
71,089,669 

Edward  VI. 

...    400,000 

Ditto  (1865)   

7°,313,436 

Mary  

...    450,000 

REVIEWS. — The  Journal  des  Savans,  com- 
menced at  Paris  in  1665,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  publication  of  the  kind.  The  Monthly 
Review,  established  in  1749,  was  the  first  in 
England. 
,\.D. 

1864.  Anthropological  Review. 
1859.  Bentlny's  Quarterly  (discontinued  in  1860). 
1835.  British  and  Foreign. 
1845.  British  Quarterly. 

1852,  May  I.  British  and  Foreijrn  Evangelical  Review. 
1837,  Jan.  Church  of  England. 


REVIVALS 


[    837    1 


REVOLUTIONS 


A.D. 

1836.  Dublin. 

1861,  Feb.  i.  Dublin  Quarterly  of  Medical  Science.     New 

Series. 

1861,  Jan.  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science. 
1802,  Oct.  Edinburgh. 
1863,  May.  Fine  Arts  Quarterly. 
1827.  Foreign  Quarterly. 
1844.  Foreign     and     Colonial     Quarterly,    or    the    New 

Quarterly  (discontinued  in  1846). 
1853.  London  Quarterly. 
1855.  National. 
1853.  New  Quarterly. 

1844.  North  British. 

1845.  Prospective  (being  a  continuation  of  the  Christian 

Teacher:   discontinued  in  1855). 
1861,  Oct.  Popular  Science  Review. 
1809,  Feb.  Quarterly. 
1817.    Quarterly  Journal    of  Science.    New  Series,  Jan., 

I82T. 

1820.  Retrospective. 
1863,  Jan.  i.  Union  Review. 
1824.  Westminster. 

(See  ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS,  MAGAZINES,  NEWS- 
PAPERS, &c.) 

REVIVALS.— The  first  great  period  of  reli- 
gious enthusiasm  to  which  the  name  of  "  re- 
vival" was  given,  commenced  in  New  England 
in  Dec.,  1734.  The  last  great  revival  occurred 
Sep.  23,  1857,  when  J.  C.  Larophier  commenced 
a  series  of  weekly  prayer-meetings  at  Fulton 
Street,  New  York.  These  meetings  were  at 
first  poorly  attended,  but  gradually  excited 
great  interest,  and  were  held  every  day,  besides 
being  imitated  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  movement  afterwards  passed  into  Scot- 
land and  the  north  of  Ireland.  Belfast  was 
one  of  its  chief  centres,  and  it  reached  its 
height  about  Sep.,  1859. 

REVOLUTIONARY  CALENDAR.— The  Na- 
tional Convention  of  France  passed  a  decree, 
Nov.  24,  1793,  for  the  establishment  of  the  new 
calendar,  according  to  the  report  presented  by 
Fabre  d'Eglantine,  Oct.  6.  The  year  was  to 
consist  of  365  days,  divided  into  12  months, 
each  containing  30  days.  Five  complementary 
days,  called  sansculottides,  were  added,  and  a 
sixth  complementary  day  was  to  be  introduced 
every  fourth  year.  The  first  year  of  the  French 
republic,  according  to  this  calendar,  com- 
menced at  midnight,  Sep.  22,  1792.  The  fol- 
lowing calculations  are  given  by  a  writer  in 
the  "National  Cyclopaedia."  "Though  every 
period  of  four  years  was  a  Franciade,  and  the 
last  year  of  the  Franciade  was  called  Sextile 
(having  six  complementary  days),  yet  in  fact 
An  IV.,  An  VIII.,  <fcc.,  are  not  leap-years.  The 
f ollowing  list  will  afford  the  necessary  expla- 
nation : — 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 


begins  Sep.  22,  1792. 

„  22,  1793- 

„  22,  1794- 

„  23,  1795- 

„  23,  1796. 

„  22,  1797- 

„  32,  1798. 

„  23,  1799- 

„  23,  1800. 

,,  23,  1801. 

„  23,  1802. 

„  24,  1803. 

•i  23,  1804. 

„  23,  1805. 


"  When  the  Gregorian  year  is  not  leap-year, 
the  beginnings  of  the  months  are  as  follows, 
according  as  the  Republican  year  begins  on 
Sep.  22,  23,  or  24  : — 


Venddmiaire 

Brumaire 

Frimaire 

Nivose 

Pluvidse 

Ventose 

Germinal 

Floreal 

Prairial 

Messidor 

Therm  idor 

Fructidor 


is  Sep. 
„  Oct 
„  Nov. 


„  Jan.  20, 

„  Feb.  19, 

„  March  31, 

„  April  20, 

„  May  20, 

„  June  19, 

„  July  10, 

„  Aug.  IS, 


23,  24. 

23,  24- 

22,  23. 

22,  23- 

21,  22. 

20,  21. 

22,  23- 

21,  2?. 
21,  22- 
20,  21. 
20,  21. 
19,  20. 


"But  when  the  Gregorian  year  is  leap-year, 
the  beginnings  of  the  months  are  as  follows, 
according  as  the  republican  year  begins  on 
Sep.  22,  23,  or  24  : — 


Vend^miaire  is  Sep.      33,    23,    34- 

Brumaire        „  Oct.      22,     23,     24. 

Frimaire         ,,  Nov. 

Nivose 

PluviSse 

Ventose 

Germinal 


Floreal 
Prairial 

Messidor 


21,  22,  23- 

„  Dec.     3  r,  22,  23. 

„  Jan.      30,  21,  22. 

„  Feb.     19,  20,  31. 

,,  March  20,  21,  22. 


.,  April  19,  20,  21. 
„  May  19,  30,  Zl. 
„  June  18,  19,  20. 


Thennidor      „  July 
Fructidor        ,,  Aug.     17, 


"  For  instance,  what  is  14  Flore'al,  An  XII.  ? 
The  republican  year  begins  Sep.  24,  1803  ;  so 
Floreal  falls  in  1804,  which  is  Gregorian  leap- 
year.  Look  at  the  third  Table  ;  and,  when  the 
year  begins  Sep.  24,  the  ist  of  Floreal  is  April  21 : 
consequently,  the  i4th  is  May  4,  1804."  Brady 
(Clavis  Calendaria,  i.  38)  quotes  the  following 
summary  of  the  revolutionary  calendar  : — 

"  Autumn — wheezy,  sneezy,  freezy. 
Winter — slippy,  drippy,  nippy. 
Spring — showery,  flowery,  bowery. 
Summer — hoppy,  droppy,  poppy. 

The  Gregorian  reckoning  was  restored  from 
and  after  Jan.  i,  1806,  by  an  imperial  decree, 
dated  Sep.  9,  1805. 

REVOLUTIONARY  TRIBUNAL  (Paris).— 
A  tribunal  for  the  trial  of  political  offenders, 
established  Aug.  17,  1792,  was  dismissed  Nov. 
30.  The  National  Convention  was  induced  by 
Robespierre  and  the  Montagnards,  or  Red 
Republicans,  March  10,  1793,  to  restore  it  with 
additional  powers.  During  the  trial  of  the 
Girondists,  its  name  was  changed  from  Extra- 
ordinary to  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  Oct.  30, 
1793.  Between  the  date  of  its  establishment, 
and  July  27,  1794,  a  period  of  16  months,  no 
less  than  2,730  persons  were  condemned  to  the 
guillotine  by  this  infamous  tribunal,  the  last 
victims  of  which  were  Robespierre  and  his 
accomplices,  July  28—30,  1794.  A  third  tri- 
bunal, reorganized  Aug.  9,  1794,  was  replaced, 
Dec.  24,  by  a  fourth,  which  was  dissolved  June 
2,1795.  (/See  REIGN  OF  TERROR.) 

REVOLUTIONS.— The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  most  important,  which  are  described  at 
greater  length  under  the  countries  where  they 
took  place  : — 


A.D. 

848.  Bavaria. 

830.  Belgium. 

821.  Brazil. 

775.  British  America. 

830.  Brunswick  -  Wolfen- 

biittel. 
1649.  China. 


A.D. 

1819.  Colombia. 

1773.  Denmark. 

1649  and  1689.  England. 

1859.  Florence. 

1789—1830—1848.  France. 

1797.  Genoa. 

1831—1843.  Greece. 


REVOLVER 


RHODE  ISLAND 


Hanover. 
Hesse-Cassel. 

1795 — 1813.  Holland. 
Hungary. 
Lombardy. 

1858.  ilexico. 
MoJena. 
Naples. 
Paniid. 
Peru. 


D. 

795—1830.  Poland. 

640.  Portugal. 

798—1848.  Home. 

730—1763.  Kussia. 

*4*.  Saxony. 

848—1860.  Sicily. 

525— 1772— 18°9-  Sweden. 

8sg.  Tuscany. 

860.  United  States. 

797—1848.  Venice. 


REVOLVER.— The  earliest  example  of  a 
revolving  fire-arm  in  existence  is  a  matchlock, 
which  has  a  revolving  breech  with  four  cham- 
bers, in  the  Tower  armoury,  supposed  to  be  of 
the  1 5th  century.  A  specimen  of  the  i7th  cen- 
tury, in  the  Hotel  Clugni,  at  Paiis,  has  eight 
chambers  ;  and  a  brass  pistol  with  six  cham- 
bers, and  supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Charles 
I.,  forms  part  of  the  collection  in  the  United 
Service  Museum,  London.  Elisha  H.  Collier 
patented  a  rotating  chamber-gun  in  America 
in  1818;  and  in  Aug.,  1819,  Cornelius  Coolidge 
patented  a  weapon  in  which  an  attempt  was 
made  to  introduce  a  mechanical  contrivance 
for  assisting  the  chambers  to  revolve.  Samuel 
Colt  commenced  his  improvements  in  repeat- 
ing fire-arms  in  1829,  and  patented  the  revolver 
which  bears  his  name  in  1835.  In  1836  he 
produced  a  weapon  combining  his  pistol  with 
the  American  bowie-knife ;  but  the  combina- 
tion proved  a  comparative  failure,  and  was 
abandoned.  (See  ARQUEBUS.) 

RILKTIA,  or  R/KTIA  (Europe).  — This  an- 
cient country,  including  the  Grisons,  the  Tyrol, 
and  parts  of  Lombardy,  became  known  to  the 
Romans  in  the  2nd  century  B.C.  After  a 
struggle  of  many  years,  Rhfwtia  was  conquered 
by  the  Roman  consuls  Drusus  and  Tiberius, 
B.C.  15.  According  to  tradition,  the  Rhaetians 
were  a  tribe  of  Etruscans,  driven  from  the 
plains  of  Lombardy  by  the  Gauls. 

RHAMANIEH.— (See  CANOPUS.) 

RHEA.— (SeeCvBELE,  PESSINUS,  PLANETS,&C.) 

RH:E,  ISLE  OF  (France),  having  been  taken 
by  the  French  Huguenots,  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1625.  It  was 
attacked  by  an  English  fleet  and  army,  under 
the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
July  22,  1627.  The  attack  failed,  and  Bucking- 
ham returned  to  England,  having  lost  two- 
thirds  of  his  forces.  (See  PORTLAND.) 

RHEGIUM.— (See  BEOGIO.) 

RHEIMS,  or  REIMS  (France),  the  ancient 
Durocortorum,  was  the  capital  of  the  Remi ; 
and,  having  been  captured  by  the  Romans, 
was  made  by  them  the  capital  of  Belgica 
Secunda.  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
Rheims  about  360,  from  which  date  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  bishop.  Clovis  I.  and  the  chief  lords 
of  his  court  were  baptized  by  St.  Remi,  then 
Bishop  of  Rheims,  in  496  ;  and  in  744  it  was 
erected  into  an  archbishopric.  Sigebert  I. 
transferred  his  capital  from  Rheims  to  Metz 
in  561.  The  abbey  church  of  St.  Remi,  the 
burial-place  of  St.  Remi,  the  apostle  of  the 
Franks,  was  erected  between  1048  and  1162  ; 
and  the  cathedral,  commenced  in  1212,  was 
finished  in  1241.  The  archbishop's  palace  dates 
from  the  i2th  century,  and  various  sovereigns 
of  France  have  at  different  times  lodged  within 
its  walls.  Councils  were  held  here  in  625 ;  July, 


874 ;  Jan.  28,  893  ;  July  6,  900 ;  in  923 ;  975  ; 
987  ;  Jan.  23,  988  ;  June  17,  991 ;  May  12,  1015 ; 
Oct.  3,  1049;  in  1093;  Sep.  17,  1094;  in  1097; 
July  2,  1105;  March  28,  1115;  Oct.  19 — 30, 
1119;  Oct.  19,  1131;  March  21,  1148;  Oct.  26, 
1157;  in  May,  1164;  July  23,  1235;  Oct.  i, 
1287  ;  Sep.  30,  1302 ;  and  April  28,  1408.  In 
1421  Rheims  was  taken  by  the  English,  who 
were  driven  out  by  Joan  of  Arc  in  1429,  and 
Charles  VII.  was  crowned  in  the  cathedral, 
Joan  of  Arc  bearing  her  sacred  banner,  July  18. 
The  French  kings  were  crowned  here  from 
1179  to  1830,  the  only  exceptions  being  Henry 
IV.,  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Napoleon  I.  This  town, 
which  was  taken  March  12,  1814,  by  a  corps  of 
Russians  under  St.  Priest,  a  French  emigrant, 
was  recaptured  the  next  day  by  Napoleon  1., 
when  2,000  Russians  and  their  commander 
were  slain.  The  town-hall,  begun  in  1627,  was 
not  finished  till  1825. 

RHEINFELD,  or  RHEINFELDEN  (Switzer- 
land). —This  free  town  was  ceded  to  the  Duke 
of  Austria  by  the  Emperor  Louis  V.  in  1330. 
A  battle  took  place  here  March  8,  1638,  in 
which  the  Imperialists  were  routed  by  the 
French,  and  the  town  surrendered  May  13. 
The  French  took  it  in  1744. 

I!  1 1 KINFELH,  or  HESSE  -  RHEINFELS 
(Germany). — On  the  partition  of  the  estates 
of  Philip  I.  (the  Magnanimous),  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  between  his  four  sons,  at  his  death  in 
1567,  Hesse-Rheinfels  was  allotted  to  his  third 
son  Philip,  who  dying  without  issue,  Nov. 
20,  1583,  it  reverted  to  his  elder  brother 
William  IV.,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  It 
was  again  separated  in  March,  1627,  when 
Maurice  of  He.sse-(  'assel  abdicating  in  favour 
of  his  eldest  son,  William  V.  (the  Constant) 
assigned  it  to  his  youngest  son  Ernest. 

RHENISH  LEAGUE,  formed  by  the 
influence  of  Mazarin,  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  Protestant  Leagues  of  Germany,  in 
Aiig.,  1658,  was  renewed  for  three  years  in 
Aug.,  1660.  It  was  dissolved  in  Jan.,  1668. 
(See  LEAGUES.) 

RHINE.  —  (See  CONFEDERATION  OF  THE 
RHINE,  GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION,  PRUSSIA, 
&c.) 

RHINOCORURA,  or  RHINOCOLURA 
(between  Egypt  and  Palestine),  the  modern 
El-Arisch  (q.  v.),  was  founded,  according  to 
Diodorus  Siculus,  as  a  penal  colony,  by  a  king 
of  Ethiopia,  and  derived  its  name  from  the 
convicts  having  their  noses  cut  off.  Baldwin 
I.,  King  of  Jerusalem,  returning  from  his 
Egyptian  expedition,  fell  sick  and  died  here, 
in  March,  1118. 

RHOAS.— (See  LAODICEA.) 

RHODE  ISLAND  (N.  America)  was  settled 
by  Roger  Williams,  who  fled  from  religious 
persecution  in  Massachusetts,  in  June,  1636. 
He  received  a  grant  of  territory  from  the 
Narraganset  Indians,  March  24,  1638,  and 
obtained  a  charter  in  1644,  which  was  renewed 
by  Charles  II.  in  1663,  and  remained  in  force 
till  1842.  It  was  seized  by  the  English,  Dec.  8, 
1776;  attacked  by  the  French  and  Americans 
without  effect,  Aug.  8,  1778  ;  abandoned  by  the 
English  in  1779  ;  and  occupied  by  the  French, 
July  ii,  1780.  Rhode  Island  was  the  last  of 
the  states  that  gave  in  their  adherence  to  the 


RHODES 


839    ] 


RICHARD  THE  THIRD 


federal  constitution,  which  was  done  in  May, 
1790.  In  the  war  with  England,  in  1812,  it  lent 
no  aid  to  the  United  States  forces.  An  effort 
was  made  to  upset  the  constitution  in  1840. 
A  number  of  the  people  took  up  arms,  in  1841, 
under  Dorr,  who  was  made  prisoner  in  1842. 
A  new  constitution  was  agreed  to  and  adopted 
in  1844. 

RHODES  (Archipelago),  the  ancient 
Rhodos,  was  taken  possession  of  by  a  branch 
of  the  Doric  race,  who  held  it  at  the  time  of 
the  Trojan  war,  B.C.  1184.  It  was  of  small 
political  importance  among  the  states  of 
Greece  till  the  city  of  Rhodes  was  built  and 
made  the  capital  of  the  island,  B.C.  408.  It 
was  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  Athens  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  B.C.  431. 
The  inhabitants  changed  sides  in  the  contest 
B.C.  412.  The  appearance  of  Conon  with  his 
fleet  in  their  waters  induced  them  to  support 
the  Athenian  cause,  B.C.  396.  The  democracy 
which  had  been  established  proving  unsatis- 
factory, the  banished  aristocrats,  with  the 
assistance  of  Sparta,  recovered  power,  B.C. 
390.  During  the  Social  war  it  took  part 
against  Athens,  B.C.  357 — 355.  It  submitted 
to  Alexander  III.,  and  received  a  Macedonian 
garrison,  which  was  expelled  B.C.  323  ;  gaining 
the  highest  distinction  by  its  resistance  to 
the  successors  of  the  conqueror,  till  it  was 
besieged  by  Deme'trius  Poliorcetes,  B.C.  304. 
((See  COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES.)  Under  favour  of  the 
Romans  it  extended  its  authority  to  several 
of  the  adjacent  islands,  and  fought  against 
Mithridates  VI.,  B.C.  108.  In  the  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey,  the  Rhodians,  who  had 
long  held  supremacy  at  sea,  took  part  with  the 
former,  B.C.  50 ;  and  continuing  their  aid  to 
Cassius,  were  defeated  by  the  Romans  and 
completely  subjugated,  B.C.  42.  They  then 
held  their  liberties  by  the  caprice  of  the 
emperors,  and  their  city  was  made  by  Con- 
stantine  I.  the  metropolis  of  the  Provincia 
Insularum  in  330.  It  was  taken  by  Chosroes 
II.,  King  of  Persia,  in  616 ;  by  the  Saracens 
in  651 ;  and  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  Aug. 
15,  1309.  (See  HOSPITALLERS.)  Mohammed 
II.  besieged  it  ineffectually  in  1480,  and  the 
Sultan  Soliman  I.  compelled  it  to  capitulate 
after  a  vigorous  siege  and  brave  defence,  that 
lasted  from  June  to  Dec.,  1522.  An  earth- 
quake, which  occurred  in  Rhodes  rApril  22, 
1863,  destroyed  2,000  houses,  and  swallowed 
up  or  otherwise  killed  and  wounded  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants. 

RHODIUM.— This  metal,  so  called  from  the 
rose-colour  of  one  of  its  solutions,  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1803. 

RHCETEUM  (Asia  Minor),  the  post  assigned 
to  Ajax  for  defence  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 
where  his  sepulchre  was  erected,  and  the 
citizens  celebrated  his  memory  with  divine 
honours,  B.C.  1184. 

RHUDDLAN,  or  RHYDDLAN  (Wales),  was 
attacked  by  Harold  II.,  when  he  invaded  the 
country  with  Tostig,  and  its  castle  burned,  in 
1063.  It  was  again  destroyed  by  Llewelyn 
and  his  brother  David,  when  fighting  for  their 
independence,  in  March,  1282.  The  parliament 
at  which  the  statute  of  Wales  (12  Edw.  I.) 
was  enacted,  was  held  here  by  Edward  I., 


March  19,  1284.  Here  his  infant  son  was 
acknowledged  Prince  of  Wales  in  1284.  The 
castle,  held  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  wars, 
was  taken  by  Gen.  Mytton  in  1646. 

RHYMED  ENDS.— (-See  BOUTS  RIMES.) 

RIAZAN  (Russia),  founded  in  1208,  became 
the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Riazan  in  1487, 
and  was  destroyed  by  the  Tartars  in  1568. 
Having  been  rebuilt,  it  was  made  the  chief 
town  of  the  government  of  Riazan  by  Cathe- 
rine II.  in  1778. 

RIBBON-MEN.— Owing  to  the  secret  na- 
ture of  the  constitution  of  this  faction  of 
Irish  Roman  Catholics,  the  date  of  institution 
is  not  known.  Some  authorities  refer  their 
origin  to  about  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century,  while  others  state  that  they 
were  not  heard  of  till  nearly  20  years  later. 
Their  outrages  are  mentioned  in  March,  1820, 
and  they  have  ever  since  been  intimately 
connected  with  the  troubles  of  Ireland. 
Numerous  murders  were  committed  by  them 
in  1858  and  1862. 

RIBSTON  PIPPIN.— This  species  of  apple- 
tree  is  traditionally  said  to  have  sprung  from 
some  pips  brought  from  Rouen,  by  Sir  Henry 
Goodricke,  and  sown  at  Ribston  Hall  about 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century. 

RICE,  probably  originally  a  native  of  India, 
and  an  important  item  of  food  to  a  large 

Eroportion  of  the  human  race,  was  described 
y  Theophrastus,  B.C.  322 ;  by  Dioscorides 
about  54 ;  and  by  Pliny  the  Elder  in  72.  It 
was  introduced  into  Carolina,  where  the  best 
is  produced,  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th 
century. 

RICHARD  THE  FIRST,  the  fourth  child 
and  third  son  of  Henry  II.  and  his  wife  Elea- 
nor, was  born  at  Oxford,  Sep.  13,  1157;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  English  throne  July  6,  1189; 
and  was  crowned  Sunday,  Sep.  3.  When 
young  he  was  betrothed  to  Adelais,  daughter 
of  Louis  VII.  of  France  ;  but  the  union  did 
not  take  place,  and  Richard  married  Beren- 
garia  of  Navarre,  at  Limesol,  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  May  13,  1191,  and  she  was  crowned 
queen  the  following  day.  They  had  no  chil- 
dren. Richard  I.  died  Tuesday,  April  6,  1199, 
from  the  effects  of  a  wound  received  before 
the  castle  of  Chalus  Chabrol,  March  26.  He 
was  buried  at  Fontevrault.  Richard  I.  was 
surnamed  Coeur  de  Lion,  or  lion-hearted,  on 
account  of  his  great  bravery.  Bereugaria,  who 
survived  him,  died  in  1230. 

RICHARD  THE  SECOND,  son  of  Edward 
the  Black  Prince  and  Joan  of  Kent,  was  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  Feb.,  1366.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  Monday,  June  22,  1377,  and  he  was 
crowned  at  Westminster,  July  16.  In  1382 
Richard  II.  married  Anne  of  Bohemia,  called 
the  "good  queen  Anne,"  who  died  in  1394. 
He  married  Isabella,  a  child  seven  years  old, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  in  1396. 
He  was  deposed  Sep.  30,  1399,  and  is  generally 
believed  to  have  died  at  Stirling  in  1419.  He 
left  no  issue  by  either  marriage,  and  his 
second  queen  died  Sep.  13,  1409.  Richard  II. 
was  surnamed  Bordeaux  from  the  place  of  his 
birth. 

RICHARD  THE  THIRD,  the  youngest  son 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  born  at  Fotherin- 


RICHBOBOUGH 


RINGS 


gay,  Oct.  21,  1450,  assumed  the  crown  June 
26,  1483,  and  was,  with  his  queen,  Anne, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  widow 
of  Prince  Edward,  crowned  at  Westminster, 
July  6,  and  again  at  York,  Sep.  8.  They  had 
but  one  child,  Edward,  born  at  Middleham,  in 
Yorkshire,  in  1473.  He  died  April  9,  1484,  and 
the  Queen  herself  died  March  16,  1485. 
Richard  III.  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth  Field,  Monday,  Aug.  22,  1485,  and  was 
buried  at  Leicester,  Aug.  25.  He  was  sur- 
named  Crook-back. 

RICHBOROUGH  (Kent),  theRutupise  of  the 
Romans,  a  fortress  erected  by  them  for  the 
protection  of  the  sea-board,  was  commenced 
in  43,  and  completed  in  205. 

RICHMOND  (Surrey;,  originally  called 
Sheen,  the  name  of  the  palace  of  Henry  I., 
which,  having  been  burned  down,  Dec.  21, 
1498,  was  rebuilt,  and  the  name  changed  to 
Richmond  by  Henry  VII.  in  1499.  He  died 
here,  April  21,  1509.  Chaucer  was  surveyor  of 
works  to  the  palace  in  1389.  Edward  III.  died 
at  Richmond,  June  21,  1377,  as  did  the  "  good 

?ueen  Anne  "  of  Richard  II.  in  1394.  Philip 
.  of  Spain  was  here  the  guest  of  Henry  VII. 
in  1506,  and  Charles  V.  lodged  here  in  1522. 
Queen  Elizabeth,  who  had  been  imprisoned 
here  by  her  sister,  and  had  afterwards  chosen 
it  as  her  favourite  residence,  breathed  her  last 
within  its  walls,  March  24,  1603.  It  WHS  de- 
stroyed during  the  great  rebellion.  A  priory 
of  Carthusian  monks  was  founded  by  Henry 
V.  in  1414.  Henry  VIII.  seized  and  appro- 
priated it  in  1540;  Mary  restored  it  in  1557; 
and  it  was  finally  suppressed  in  1559.  The 
convent  of  Observant  friars  was  founded  by 
Henry  VII.  in  1499,  and  was  suppressed  in 
1534.  Bishop  Duppa's  almshouses  were 
founded  in  1661  ;  the  theatre  was  built  in 
1766.  Richmond  bridge,  begun  Aug.  23,  1774, 
was  finished,  at  a  cost  of  ^26,000,  in  1777,  and 
the  church  of  St.  John  was  erected  in  1831. 

RICHMOND  (U.  States).— This  city,  the 
capital  of  Virginia,  founded  1  >y  an  act  of  legis 
lature  in  1742,  was  made  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment in  1780.  A  fire,  which  broke  out  in  the 
theatre  Dec.  26,  1811,  caused  the  death  of  72 
persons.  Richmond  became  the  capital  of  the 
Confederate  States  in  July,  1861,  and  the 
Congress  assembled  July  20.  The  Federals 
under  Gen.  Kilpatrick  and  Col.  Dahlgreen 
attempted  to  seize  the  city,  March  i,  1864,  bui 
were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  It  was  taken 
April  3,  1865.  (See  CHICKAHOMINY,  Battles,  and 
UNITED  STATES.) 

RICHMOND  PARK  (Surrey),  enclosed  by 
Charles  I.  in  1636,  was  thrown  open  to  the 
public  Dec.  20,  1752. 

RICHMOND  SHILLING.— (See  COAL.) 

RIETI  (Battles).— The  French  defeated  th 
Neapolitans  at  this  place  in  Naples,  the  ancient 

Reate,  in  1798. The  Austrians  defeated  Gen. 

Pepe  here,  March  7,  1821. 

RIFLE  CORPS.— (See  NATIONAL  RIFLE  AS- 
SOCIATION, VOLUNTEERS,  &c.) 

RIFLED  FIRE-ARMS.  —  The  citizens  of 
Leipsic  are  said  to  have  possessed  arms  with 
a  grooved  bore  as  early  as  1498,  and  Sir  Hugh 
Plat,  in  the  "Jewel  House  of  Art  and  Na- 
ture," of  which  the  first  edition  appeared  in 


594,  alludes  to  the  principle.  Various  im- 
jrovements  were  made  and  many  patents  were 
aken  out  for  rifled  arms,  which  were  first 
ntroduced  into  the  French  army  in  1826, 
Capt.  Delvigne's  plan  being  adopted.  It  was 
much  improved  in  1846.  A  cannon,  rifled  in 
:6i5,  is  in  the  Museum  at  St.  Petersbiirg. 
See  ARMSTRONG  GUN,  BULLETS,  ENFIELD  MUS- 
KET, LANCASTER  GUN,  MINIE  RIFLE,  <fcc.) 

RIGA  (Russia),  founded  by  Albert,  Bishop 
of  Livonia,  in  1200.  In  the  i3th  century  it 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  1 6th  century  belonged  to  the 
Teutonic  knights.  It  contains  two  palaces, 
the  must  ancient  having  been,  until  1561,  the 
residence  of  the  masters  of  the  Brethren  of 
the  Sword,  an  order  of  knighthood  which  pre- 
ceded the  Teutonic  in  these  countries.  Riga, 
taken  by  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus)  in  1621,  and 
by  Peter  I.  (the  Great)  in  1710,  was  annexed  to 
Russia  in  1721.  Part  of  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1812,  and  a  granite  column  was  erected 
in  1817,  to  commemorate  the  repulse  of  the 
French  by  the  citizens  in  1812.  A  council  was 
held  here  in  1429. 

RIGHT-BOYS,  a  secret  association  formed 
in  Ireland  about  1786. 

RIGHTS.— (-See  BILL  and  DECLARATION  OF 
RIGHTS.) 

KHiSRAAD.— This  constitution,  or  "  Coun- 
cil of  the  Realm"  of  Denmark,  was  established 
in  1854,  and  modified  Oct.  2,  1855.  It  consisted 
of  80  members,  47  of  whom  represent  Den- 
mark; 13  Schleswig;  18  Holstein ;  and  2 
Lauenburg. 

KIMKNANT,  or  RYMENANTS  (Battle).— 
The  Spaniards,  under  Don  John  of  Austria, 
were  defeated  at  this  town,  in  France,  by  the 
allied  English  and  Dutch,  under  Norris,  Aug.  i, 

RIMINI  (Italy1,  the  ancient  Ariminum  (q.  v.), 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  200.  The  celebrated 
council  of  Arians  and  Athanasians  met  here  in 
May,  359.  On  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire, 
it  became  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Pentapolis, 
and  was  subject  to  the  Exarchs  of  Ravenna 
till  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards  in  the  6th 
century.  It  belonged  to  the  Emperor  Otho 
III.  in  1002,  Malatesta  acting  as  his  viceroy  ; 
was  seized  by  Venice  in  1504;  by  the  French  in 
1512  ;  and  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1672.  The  church  of  St.  Francesco,  now 
the  cathedral,  built  in  the  i4th  century,  as- 
sumed its  present  form  in  1450.  The  library 
was  founded  in  1617. 

RIMNIK  (Battle).— (See  MARTINESTI.) 

RINDERPEST.— (See  CATTLE  PLAGUE.) 

RINGING  OF  BELLS.— This  custom,  almost 
peculiar  to  England,  was  introduced  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period. 

RINGMERE  (Battle).— The  Danes,  having 
landed  at  Ipswich,  defeated  Ulfkytel,  the 
general  of  the  East  Angles,  in  a  battle  fought 
here,  May  18,  1010. 

RING  MONEY  was  in  use  amongst  the 
Egyptians  and  other  ancient  nations.  It  is 
alluded  to  in  a  Norse  law  made  about  1220, 
and  was  current  in  Sweden  and  Norway  as  late 
as  the  i2th  century.  The  silver  fish-hook 
money  of  Ceylon  was  issued  as  late  as  1659. 

RINGS.  —  Pharaoh    gave    Joseph    his    ring 


RIO  JANEIRO 


[    841     ] 


RIOTS 


(Gen.  xli.  42),  B.C.  1715  ;  the  Israelites  offered 
to  '-.he  Lord,  amongst  other  ornaments,  the 
rings  they  had  taken  from  the  Midianites, 
B.C.  1451  (Numb.  xxxi.  50).  The  use  of  rings 
and  seals  was  common  in  Egypt  B.C.  1700. 
Rings  were  also  worn  by  the  Etruscans  and 
Sabiues.  The  Romans  used  iron  rings,  and 
gold  rings  are  first  mentioned  B.C.  321.  It  is 
recorded  that,  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  Aug. 
2,  216  B.C.,  Hannibal  collected  several  bushels 
of  gold  rings.  Love  rings  were  used  in  the 
isth  century.  The  ring  was  used  in  marriage 
among  Christians  as  early  as  860.  (See  CRAMP 
RINGS,  WEDDING  OF  THE  ADRIATIC,  &c.) 

RIO  JANEIRO  (Brazil).— The  bay  of  Rio  was 
discovered,  Jan.  i,  1531,  by  Martin  Alphonso 
de  Sousa,  a  Portuguese  navigator.  An  expe- 
dition under  the  Chevalier  de  Villagagnon, 
despatched  by  Admiral  Coligni  in  1555,  estab- 
lished a  settlement  on  the  Janeiro,  which  was 
visited,  in  1557,  by  three  vessels  bearing 
colonists  and  missionaries  from  the  church  of 
Geneva.  In  consequence  of  religious  disputes 
between  the  governor  Villagagnon  and  the 
settlers,  many  returned  home.  The  colony 
was  abandoned  in  1560,  on  account  of  the 
attacks  of  the  Portuguese,  who  founded  the 
city  of  Rio  in  1567.  The  French  captured 
it  in  1711,  and  it  was  restored  in  1713.  In 
1763  Don  Joseph  transferred  the  viceregal 
residence  from  Bahia,  previously  the  capital 
of  Brazil.  In  1808  it  became  the  residence  of 
the  Portuguese  court,  and  in  1822  was  consti- 
tuted the  capital  of  the  independent  empire 
of  Brazil.  A  revolution  took  place  in  1831, 
when  the  Emperor  Pedro  I.  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  son,  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  under 
the  title  of  Pedro  II.  An  alleged  insult,  offered 
by  the  Brazilian  authorities  at  Rio  Janeiro  to 
three  officers  of  the  English  ship-of-war  Forte, 
led  to  a  rupture  between  the  two  countries, 
Jan.  2,  1863.  (See  BRAZIL.) 

RIO  DE  LA  PLATA  (S.  America^.  —  (See 
PLATA,  LA.) 

RIOT  ACT. — Means  for  the  suppression  of 
riots  were  provided  by  17  Rich.  II.  c.  8  (1393), 
by  13  Hen.  IV.  c.  7  (1411),  by  2  Hen.  V.  st.  i, 
c.  8  (1414),  and  by  3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  5  (1548). 
The  last-mentioned  act  made  it  high  treason 
for  an  assemblage  of  12  or  more  persons  to 
refuse  to  disperse  upon  proclamation.  The 
statute  known  as  the  Riot  Act  is  i  Geo.  I.  st. 
2,  c.  5  (1714).  The  capital  penalty  it  enforced 
was  removed  by  7  Will.  IV.  and  i  Viet.  c.  91 
(July  17,  1837),  and  by  4  &  5  Viet.  c.  56  (June 
22,  1841). 

RIOTS.— The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most 
serious  riots  in  English  history.  (See  PLOTS, 
&c.) 


1189.  On  the  accession  of  Richard  I.  riots  break  out  at 
London  and  York,  and  many  Jews  are  massacred. 

122,1.  Westminster  Convent,  London,  is  destroyed  by  a 
mob.  The  ringleader  is  hanged,  and  several  of 

and  feet. 


1363.  A  skirmish  takes  place  in  London  between  the  gold- 

smiths' and  tailors'  companies.     Thirteen  of  the 

most  violent  rioters  are  hanged. 
1371.  Norwich  cathedral  and  monastery  are  burned  by 

rioters. 
1381.  Disorderly  assemblies  and  incendiary  fires  occur  in 

London,   Cambridge,   and    other    places,  during 

Wat  Tvler's  insurrection  (q.  v.). 


1515.  The  "  clear  the  causeway  "  riot  at  Edinburgh  (q.  v.) 
results  in  the  death  of  350  of  the  rioters. 

1517.  The  Evil  May-day  (q.  v.)  riots. 

1628.  Dr.  Lambe  is  murdered  in  London  by  a  mob. 

1637,  July  23.  Edinburgh  is  the  scene  of  religious  riots 
on  the  introduction  of  the  liturgy. 

1683.  The  Guildhall,  London,  is  the  scene  of  riots  on  the 
election  of  a  sheriff. 

1710,  Feb.  28.  The  partisans  of  Dr.  Sacheverell  cause  dis- 
turbances in  London,  and  destroy  many  dis- 
senters' chapels,  &c. 

1715,  May  29.  The  Newcastle  and  Ormond  riots  break  out 

in  London. 

1716,  July  24.   The  Mug-house  riot  in   Salisbury  Court, 

Fleet  Street,   is  raised  by  the  Jacobites.    Their 

leader,  Vaughan,  is  shot. 
1725,  Jan.    25.  The  Shawfleld  riot  against  the   malt-tax 

breaks  out  at  Glasgow. 
J735,  Jan.   30.   A  riot  in   London.    (See  CALVES'  HEAD 

CLUB.) 
1736,  Sep.  7.  The  Porteous  riot  at  Edinburgh.    Numerous 

gin-riots. 
1749,  Jan.   16  (O.  S.).     Riot  caused  by  the  imposture  of 


the  bottle-con  jurer(g.  ».).— Oct.  18.  The'executi 
it  London  oc< 


of  a  sailor  i 


occasions  a  riot  among  his 

comrades. 
1758,  Aug.  12.  The  operatives  at  Manchester  raise  riots, 

with  the  view  of  obtaining  increased  wages. 
1763,  Oct.  3.   A  riot  breaks   out  among  the  Spitalficlds 

weavers,  who   burn   the  looms  of   one   of   their 

masters,  and  destroy  large  quantities  of  silk. 
1765,  May.  In  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  French 

silks,    riots    break  out    among    the    Spitalfields 

weavers. 
1768,  May  10.  The  Wilkes  riot  takes  place  in  St.  George's 

Fields.    The  soldiers  fire  on  the  mob,  and  William 

Allen  is  killed. 

1779,  Feb.  2.   "  No  popery  "  riots  break  out  at  Edinburgh. 

—Oct.  9.  Ki<  ts  against  the  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery take  place  at  Manchester. 

1780.  The  Gordon  Riots  (q.v.). 

1791,  July  14.  An  attempt  to  celebrate  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  French  He  volution  occasions  a  riot 
at  Birmingham. 

1797.  Numerous  riots  take  place  in  Scotland,  in  conse- 

quence of  the  Militia  Act. 

1798,  May  22.  The  Earl  of   Thanet  and  others  stir  up  a 

riot   at  Maidstone,   on   the  occasion   of    Arthur 
O'Connor's  trial  and  his  conviction  for  high  treason. 
1806.  The  "Threshers'  "  riots  in  Ireland. 

1808,  May  14.  A  riot  of  cotton-  Dinners  at  Manchester  is 

suppressed  by  the  military. 

1809,  Sep.    18.   The   "O.   P."    riot  (q.  v.)  commences  at 

Cpvent  Garden  Theatre. 

1810,  April  6.  A  gang  of  rioters  endeavour  to  rescue  Sir 

Francis  Burttett  as  he  is  conducted  under  escort 
to  the  Tower. 

1811,  Nov.  10.  The  Luddites  (q.v.)  commence  rioting  at 

Nottingham. 

1813,  Jan.  i.  A  riot  which  commenced  the  last  day  of  the 

year. 

1814,  Dec.  16.  Riots  at  the  Crow  Street  Theatre,  Dublin. 

1815,  March  6,  &c.  Robinson's  Corn  Bill  occasions   riots 

in  London  and  Westminster.  (See  COHN  LAWS.) 
—April  6.  A  serious  riot  breaks  out  at  Dartmoor 
military  depot,  occasioned  by  an  attempted  escape 
on  the  part  of  some  American  prisoners,  seven  of 
whom  are  shot. 

1816,  May  4.  A  bread  riot  takes  place  at  Bridport. — Dec. 

2.  The  .Spafields  riot  in  London.  Platt,  of  Snow 
Hill,  is  shot  by  the  rioters. 

1817,  Jan.  38.  Riots  take  place  in  London  on  the  occasion 

of  the  opening  of  Parliament  by  the  Prince 
Regent,  who  is  fired  at  by  some  one  in  the  mob. 
— March  10.  The  blanketeers  (q.v.)  create  dis- 
turbances at  Manchester. 

1819,  Aug.  16.  The  riot  at  Manchester,  known  as  the 
Field  of  Peterloo. 

1831,  Aug.  14.  A  riot  occurs  in  London,  at  the  funeral 
procession  of  Queen  Caroline. 

1833,  Dec.  14.  A  riot  breaks  out  in  Du'din  theatre.  From 
the  circumstance  that  a  bottle  was  thrown  into 
the  Marquis  of  Wellesley's  box,  the  disturbance 
is  known  as  the  ''  bottle  riot." 

1836.  Numerous  food  riots  at  Manchester. 

1839.  Numerous  riots  in  the  manufacturing  districts  and 
at  Spitalfields.— May  3.  A  factory  is  burned  by 
the  mob  at  Manchester. 


RIPATLLB 


[    842    ] 


ROADS 


A.I). 

1830,  June  15.    A  food  riot,  attended  with  loss  of    life, 

breaks  nut  at  Limerick. 

1831.  June  3.  Riots  occur  among  the  iron-miners  at  Mer- 

thyr  Tydvil.— June  8.  The  Forest  of  Dean  (q.  v.) 
is  the  scene  of  riots.— June  18.  A  disturbance 
takes  place  at  Newtonbaity  ('/•''•),  in  Ireland, 
in  which  12  or  13  persons  are  killed.— Oct.  8.  The 
rejection  of  the  Reform  Bill  by  the  House  of 
Lords  occasions  riots  at  Derby  and  Nottingham. — 
Oct.  29.  Riots  at  Bristol. 

1838,  May   28    to  31.    Thorn's  riots    at  Bough  ton,   near 

Canterbury. — Dec.  12.  A  proclamation  is  issued 
on  account  of  numerous  Chartist  riots. 

1839,  July    15.    Chartist   riots  at   Birmingham.— Nov.    4. 

John  Frost,  at  the  head  of  a  gang  of  Chartist 
rioters,  attacks  Newport  ('/•''). 

1840,  Jan.  II.  An  intended  outbreak  of  the  Chartists  at 

Sheffield  is  discovered  ami  prevented. 
1843,  June  Jo.  Food  riots  break  out  at  Cork. 
1843.  The  "Rebecca"  rioters  in  Wales  destroy  turnpikes, 

&c. 
1846,  April.  Food  riots  in  Tippcrary. 

1848,  March  7.  Riots  at  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.— April 

10.  The  Chartist  meeting  on  Kenniugton  Common. 
(See  CII.VUTIST.S.) 

1849,  July  12,.  A  riotous  affray  between  Orangemen  and 

Roman  Catholics  takes  place  with  fatal  results  at 
Dolly's  Brae,  in  Ireland. 

1851,  May  28.  Free-trade  riots  at  Tamworth. — Inly  14.  A 

fatal  Orange  and  Roman  Catholic  riot  breaks  out 
at  Liverpool. 

1852,  June  20.  Stockport  is  the  scene  of  riots  against  the 

Roman  Catholics.— July  14.  Riots  between  Ionian 
Catholics  and  Protestants  at  Belfast.— July  23. 
Five  men  are  Killed  and  several  wounded  at  the 
election  riot  at  .six-mile-bridge  (q.  v.). 
1855,  Feb.  19.  Bread  riots  at  Liverpool  (//.  r.). — June  24. 
Riotous  assemblages  against  Lord  (irosveuor's 
Sunday-trading  Bill  commence  in  Hyde  Park 

1857,  July,  &c.  Religious  riots  at  Belfast,  inconsequence 

of  the  opposition,  of  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
open-air  preaching. 

1858,  March  12.  A  serious  riot  at  Dublin.— Aug.  8.  Riots 

against  machine-labour  in  agriculture  occur  at 
Kilkenny. 

1859,  March  29.  Religious  riots  at  Gahvay,  in  consequence 

of  Father  U a vax./.i's  anti-popcrv  orations. 

1861,  Feb.  II.  An  outbreak  of  the  convicts  at  Chatham  is 

suppressed  by  the  military. 

1862,  Oct.  5.  A  riot  occurs  in  Hyde  Park  between  the  ad- 

herents of  the  Pope  and  the  admirers  of  Gen. 
Garibaldi. 

1863,  March.    Riots  occur  among  the  distressed    cotton 

operatives    at    Staleybridge   and  Ashton-under- 

1864,  Feb.  23.    Riots  at  the   Rotunda,  Dublin  (7.  p.),  in 

consequence  of  the'  proposed  erection  of  a  statue 
to  Prince  Albert.  {Set  KiMANS.)  A 
Riots  occur  in  Belfast,  on  the  oc.v.Mon  of  the 
erect!  >n  of  a  statue  to  Daniel  O'Connell  at 
Dublin.  Seven  persons  are  killed,  and  150  sustain 
serious  injury. 

1866,   July  23.  A  monster  meeting  in  Hyde  Park  (q.  v.), 
summoned  by  the  Reform  League,  ends  in  a  riot. 

RIPAILLE  (Savoy).— Amadeus  VIII.,  Duke 
of  Savoy,  founded  a  convent  of  the  Knights  of 
St.  Maurice,  near  Thonon,  to  which  he  retired 
after  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1434.  The  her- 
mits lived  so  well,  that  faire  ripaille  passed 
into  a  proverb  denoting  a  life  of  ease  and  dis- 
sipation. Amadeus  VIII.  was  elected  Pope, 
Nov.  17,  1439,  by  the  Council  of  Basel,  which 
deposed  Eugenius  IV.,  and  he  took  the  title 
Felix  V.  He  was  not  recognized  by  several 
states,  and  at  the  dissolution  of  the  Council  of 
Basel  in  1449,  he  renounced  the  tiara. 

1UPON  (Bishopric).— The  erection  of  this 
see,  recommended  in  a  report  of  the  Ecclesias- 
tical Commissioners,  dated  March  17,  1835, 
was  carried  into  effect  Oct.  5,  1836. 

RIPON  (Yorkshire).— This  town  is  first  no- 


ticed hi  661.  The  monastery,  built  by  Arch- 
bishop Wilfrid  in  678,  having  been  totally 
destroyed  by  the  Danes,  was  restored  and  in- 
corporated by  Alfred  in  886.  It  was  again  de- 
stroyed by  the  Danes  in  the  middle  of  the  ioth 
century,  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  for  the 
third  time  destroyed  by  William  I.  in  1069.  It 
soon  revived,  but,  with  its  monastery,  was 
"burned  by  Robert  Bruce  in  1323.  Ripon 
minster  was  built  in  1140  by  Thurstan,  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  who  founded  St.  Mary's  hos- 
pital in  1144.  During  the  plague  in  London 
in  1401,  Henry  IV.  retired  with  his  court  to 
Ripon,  and  James  I.  rested  here  in  1617,  011  his 
way  to  Scotland.  The  grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1546.  Charles  I.  was  at  Ripon  in  1633. 
An  agreement  with  the  Covenanters  (q.  v.)  was 
signed  at  Ripon,  Oct.  26,  1640.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Parliamentary  forces  under  Sir  Thomas 
Mauleverer  in  1643,  and  again  occupied  by 
Charles  I.  in  1644.  In  1767  an  act  was  passed 
for  making  the  river  Ure  navigable  from  its 
junction  with  the  Swale.  The  market  was 
built  in  1781,  the  theatre  in  1792,  the  town- 
hall  in  1801,  Trinity  Church  in  1826,  and  Ripon 
minster  was  erected  into  a  cathedral  in  1836. 

RIVOLI  (Battles).— Davidowich,  at  the  head 
of  iin  Austrian  army,  defeated  the  French  be- 
tween Bardolino  and  Rivoli,  near  Verona,  Nov. 

17,  1796. The  French,  under  Napoleon  I., 

defeated  the  Austrians,  under  Alvinzi,  at  the 
same  place,  near  Verona,  Jan.  17,  1797. 

ROAD  Ml'ltDKK.— Francis  Saville  Kent,  a 
child  about  four  years  of  age,  was  found  on  the 
morning  of  June  30,  1860,  in  an  outhouse  close 
to  his  father's  dwelling  at  Road,  near  Frome, 
Wilts,  with  his  throat  cut.  Suspicion  fell 
upon  several  persons,  but  in  spite  of  the  efforts 
made  to  discover  the  perpetrator  of  the  crime, 
it  remained  a  mystery,  until  Constance  Emily 
Kent  surrendered  at  Bow  Street,  April  25, 
1865,  on  her  own  confession  of  having  killed 
her  brother,  she  being  at  the  time  only  16 
years  of  age.  The  prisoner,  who  pleaded 
guilty,  was  tried  at  Salisbury,  July  21,  1865. 
The  capital  sentence  was  commuted,  and  she 
was  transported  to  Freemantle. 

ROADS.— The  invention  of  paved  roads  has 
been  ascribed  to  the  Carthaginians,  and  the 
Greeks  are  regarded  as  the  earliest  nation  that 
legislated  for  their  repair  and  maintenance. 
The  Romans  were  celebrated  for  the  excellence 
of  their  military  roads,  the  earliest  of  which, 
the  Via  Appia,  was  constructed  by  Appius 
Claudius  B.C.  312.  Julius  Caesar  caused  roads 
to  be  made  between  all  the  chief  cities  of 
Italy,  which  were  thus  brought  into  connec- 
tion with  the  Roman  forum,  the  centre  of  the 
internal  communication  of  the  empire.  Mile- 
stones were  established  throughout  their  entire 
length,  and  a  system  of  post-houses  was  insti- 
tuted, which  enabled  the  traveller  to  progress 
at  the  rate  of  100  miles  per  day.  Gibbon 
states,  "If  we  carefully  trace  the  distance 
from  the  wall  of  Antoninus  to  Rome,  and  from 
thence  to  Jerusalem,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
great  chain  of  communication,  from  the  north- 
west to  the  south-east  point  of  the  empire,  was 
drawn  out  to  the  length  of  four  thousand  and 
eighty  Roman  miles,"  of  which  only  85  miles 
was  by  water-communication.  He  adds  : 


ROANOKE 


[     843     1 


ROCHELLE 


"  They  united  the  subjects  of  the  most  distant 
provinces  by  an  easy  and  familiar  intercourse ; 
but  their  primary  object  had  been  to  facilitate 
the  marches  of  the  legions  ;  nor  was  any 
country  considered  as  completely  subdued,  till 
it  had  been  rendered,  in  all  its  parts,  pervious 
to  the  arms  and  authority  of  the  conqueror." 
The  most  important  Roman  roads  in  Britain 
are  Watling  Street,  Hermin  Street,  Ikenild 
Street,  and  the  Fosse.  The  first,  and  most 
celebrated  of  these,  ran  from  Richborough,  in 
Kent,  through  London,  to  Chester,  and  was 
named  by  the  Saxons  in  honour  of  the  sons  of 
Watln,  one  of  their  mythic  heroes.  Hermin 
Street  extended  from  Pevensey  to  the  south- 
east of  Scotland,  and  was  called  Hermin  Street 
by  the  Saxons,  in  honour  of  one  of  their  divi- 
nities. Ikenild,  or  Iknield  Street,  extended 
from  the  coast  of  Norfolk  to  the  south-west  of 
Cornwall,  and  is  of  uncertain  etymology ;  and 
the  Fosse,  or  Ryknield  Street,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Tyne  to  St.  David's,  in  Wales.  From 
the  time  of  the  Romans  no  measures  were 
taken  to  secure  the  proper  regulation  of  the 
roads  of  the  kingdom,  until  the  passing  of  13 
Edw.  I.  stat.  2,  c.  5  (1285),  which  ordered  high- 
ways between  market-towns  to  be  increased  in 
breadth.  Toll  was  first  levied  in  1346.  The 
earliest  statute  providing  for  the  systematic 
repair  of  roads  was  2  &  3  Philip  &  Mary,  c.  8 
(1555),  which  ordered  two  surveyors  of  high- 
ways to  be  elected  annually  in  every  parish. 
Turnpikes  were  established  by  16  Charles  II. 
c.  i  (1663),  though  the  system  did  not  become 
general  till  1767,  when  it  was  extended  to  all 
the  chief  roads  of  the  kingdom.  The  use  of  the 
spirit-level  in  laying  out  roads  was  commenced 
in  Scotland  by  Lord  Daer  in  1790  ;  and  in  1815 
Thomas  Telford  introduced  his  system  of  road- 
makiiig  in  the  Holyhead  Road.  John  Lou- 
doii  Macadam  introduced  his  method,  named 
after  him,  Macadamizing,  about  1815.  Wooden 
pavement  was  introduced  in  London  about 
1839,  but  proved  unsuccessful,  and  was  re- 
moved. Agdn  tried  in  Holborn  in  1841,  it 
again  failed.  Prescott  states  that  the  art  of 
roadmaking  was  carried  to  extraordinary  per- 
fection by  the  incas  of  Peru. 

ROANOKE  (N.  America).— This  island  of 
N.  Carolina  was  discovered  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  July,  1584.  Another  expedition, 
under  Sir  R.  Greenvill,  sailed  April  9,  1585, 
landed  at  Roanoke  June  26,  1585,  and  formed 
the  first  settlement  in  N.  America.  It  did  not, 
however,  prove  successful,  and  the  settlers, 
rescued  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  arrived  at  Ports- 
mouth July  27,  1586.  Another  band  of  settlers, 
left  at  Roanoke  by  Sir  R.  Greenvill  in  1586, 
perished.  Albemarle  Island  and  Plymouth, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Roanoke,  were  taken 
by  the  Federals  in  1864. 

ROASTING  ALIVE.  -Servetus  was,  at  the 
instigation  of  John  Calvin,  roasted  alive  at 
Geneva,  011  a  charge  of  heresy,  Oct.  27,  1553. 
(See  BURNING  ALIVE.) 

ROBBERS.— According  to  the  English  laws, 
robbery  is  the  crime  of  theft  attended  with 
threats  or  violence.  Hallam  (Middle  Ages,  ii. 
376)  states  that  "highway  robbery  was,  from 
the  earliest  times,  a  sort  of  national  crime." 
The  Anglo-Saxons  punished  it  with  fine,  and 


in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (noo — 35)  it  was 
made  a  capital  offence.  It  was  included  in 
the  list  of  capital  crimes  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV. 
c.  29  (June  21,  1827),  which  was  repealed  by  7 
Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet.  c.  87  (July  17,  1837),  except 
in  cases  where  the  offence  was  attended  with 
cutting  and  wounding.  (See  LATBOCINIUM.) 

ROBERVALLIAN  LINES,  named  after  M. 
de  Roberval  (1602 — 75),  who  claimed  to  be 
their  inventor,  are  said  to  have  been  first 
known  in  Italy  in  1644.  They  were  noticed 
by  James  Gregory  on  his  visit  to  Padua  in 
1668,  and  published  in  his  "Universal  Geo- 
metry" in  1692. 

ROBES  (Mistress  of)  was  formerly  (Thorns, 
The  Book  of  the  Court),  during  the  reign  of  a 
female  sovereign,  held  conjointly  with  that 
somewhat  incongruous  office  for  a  lady,  the 
Groom  of  the  Stole.  The  Duchess  of  Marl- 
borough  held  both  offices  in  the  reign  of  Qvieen 
Anne  (1702 — 14),  and  the  Countess  of  Suffolk 
was  in  1734  appointed  Mistress  of  the  Robes 
and  Groom  of  the  Stole  to  Caroline,  queen  of 
George  II. 

ROBINSON  CRUSOE.-  (See  JUAN  FERNAN- 
DEZ.) 

ROCCA,  or  ROCCHA.  —  (See  ALUM  and 
EPESSA.) 

ROCCASECCA  (Battle).— Ladislaus,  King  of 
Naples,  was  defeated  by  Louis  of  Anjou,  in 
this  action,  fought  May  19,  1411. 

ROCHDALE  (Lancashire).— A  church  ex- 
isted here  prior  to  1193.  Edmund  De  Lacy 
obtained  a  charter  for  a  market  in  1241,  and 
the  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1564. 
John  Byron  was  created  Baron  Byron  of  Roch- 
dale by  Charles  I.  in  1642.  St.  Mary's  Church 
was  erected  in  1740,  St.  James's  Church  in 
1814,  and  the  Presbyterian  chapel  in  1717. 
The  Rochdale  canal  was  opened  in  1804. 
Rochdale  first  sent  a  member  to  Parliament 
in  1832.  The  new  town-hall  was  commenced 
in  1865.  (See  COTTON  FAMINE.) 

ROCHEFORT  (France)  was  founded  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1644,  and  made  a  naval  station 
in  1666.  An  expedition  against  Rochefort, 
contemplated  by  the  English  in  1757,  was  not 
carried  out.  The  Seamen's  Hospital  was 
founded  in  1787.  In  1809  Lord  Cochrane 
burned  five  French  vessels  which  lay  at  anchor 
here.  Napoleon  I.,  defeated  in  a  vain  attempt 
to  escape  to  America  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  gave  himself  up  at  Rochefort,  July 
15,  1815,  to  Capt.  Maitland,  of  the  Bellerophon. 
A  million  of  francs  was  voted  in  1840  for 
building  a  fort  to  profbct  the  roadstead.  The 
convict  establishment  was  closed  in  1852. 

ROCHELLE  (France). — By  the  marriage  of 
Eleanor  of  Guienne  with  Henry  Plantagenet, 
afterwards  Henry  II.,  May  18,  1152,  this  town 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  was 
captured  by  Louis  VIII.  in  1224.  In  1360  it 
was  ceded  to  England,  but  was  recovered  by 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin  in  1372.  The  Huguenots 
held  it  from  1557  to.  Oct.  28,  1628,  when  it 
surrendered  to  Louis  XIII.,  who  razed  it  to  the 
ground.  They  had  sustained  a  siege  from  Dec., 
1572  to  1573,  when  peace  was  made.  It  was 
again  fortified  by  Vauban  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  An  attempt  made  by  the  English  in 
1809  to  destroy  the  French  fleet  here,  was  only 


ROCHESTER 


[     844    ] 


ROGATION  WEEK 


partly  successful.  The  Carbonari  raised  an 
insurrection  here  in  1821. 

ROCHESTER  (Bishopric).— This  diocese  was 
founded  by  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  in  604, 
and  St.  Augustine  ordained  Justus  as  its  first 
bishop.  The  patronage  of  the  see  was  vested 
in  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  King 
John,  Nov.  22,  1214.  By  an  order  in  council, 
Aug.  8,  1845,  great  alterations  were  made  in 
its  extent  and  territory,  large  districts  in  Kent 
being  separated  from  Rochester  and  added  to 
Canterbury  and  London,  in  exchange  for  the 
whole  county  of  Hertford  and  the  greater  part 
of  Essex. 

ROCHESTER  (Kent).— A  missionary  church, 
afterwards  the  cathedral,  was  established  here 
in  600,  by  St.  Augustine,  who  consecrated 
Justus  first  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  604.  The 
cathedral  suffered  much  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Danes,  and  at  the  Norman  conquest 
was  in  ruins.  Gundulph,  who  was  made 
bishop  in  1077,  restored  it,  and  it  was  dedicated 
in  1130.  The  castle  is  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  Odo  of  Bayeux  in  1088.  The  cathedral 
was  roofed  with  lead  in  1199,  and  it  suffered 
much  in  1264  from  the  troops  of  Simon  de 
Montfort,  who  used  it  as  a  stable  while  they 
were  besieging  the  castle.  Queen  Elizabeth 
visited  Rochester  in  1573,  and  James  I.  and 
the  King  of  Denmark  in  1606.  Watt's  hospital 
was  built,  in  1579,  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas 
was  rebuilt  in  1624,  and  the  town-hall  was 
founded  in  1687.  A  free  school  was  founded 
in  1701.  The  bridge  was  rebuilt  in  1857. 

ROCHESTER  (N.  America  ,  in  New  York, 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1817,  and  as  a 
city  in  1834.  In  1812  the  post  was  brought  on 
horseback  by  a  woman. 

ROCKETS  for  war  purposes  were  invented 
by  Sir  W.  Congreve,  Bart.  (See  CONGREVE 
ROCKETS.)  At  the  siege  of  Acre,  Nov.  3,  1840, 
the  explosion  of  the  powder  magazine,  which 
proved  so  disastrous  to  the  enemy,  is  said  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  rocket. 

ROCK  I  X(  i  1 1  A  M  A  DM  I NISTRATIONS.—  The 
first  was  formed  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
Grenville  administration  (q.  r.  ,  in  July,  1765, 
and  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  was  gazetted 
first  lord  of  the  Treasury  July  13.  The  cabinet 
was  thus  constituted  : — 

Treasury    Marquis  of  Ttockiiipham. 

Lord  Chancellor Karl  of  Xorthington. 

President  of  the  Council Earl  of  Windid-ra. 

Privy  Seal Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer Mr.  Uowdeswell. 

;l)uke  of  Grafton  and  Gen. 
Conway,  who  acted  as 
leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

Admiralty Earl  of  Egmont. 

Board  of  Trade  Earl  of  Dartmouth. 

The  Duke  of  Grafton  resigned,  and  Lord 
Hardwicke  having  refused  the  Secretaryship, 
though  he  accepted  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  the 
Duke  of  Richmond  was  appointed  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state  in  his  place,  May 
6.  1766.  Lord  Rockingham  made  overtures  to 
Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  Lord  Chatham),  and  Lord 
Shellmrne ;  and  negotiations  having  been 
carried  on  for  some  time,  the  Rockingham 
ministry  was  dismissed,  being  succeeded  by 
the  Chatham  (second)  administration  (<?.  r.-, 


July  30,  1766.  -  The  second  Rockingham 
administration  took  office  on  the  dissolution  of 
the  North  administration  </.  o.  ,  March  20, 
1782.  The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :  — 

Treasury    ..........................  Marquis  of  Rockingham. 

Lord  Chancellor  ..................  Lord  Thurlow. 

President  of  the  Council  ......  Lord  Camden. 

Privy  Seal     ........................  I)uke  of  Grafton. 

"Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ......  Lord  John  Cavendish. 

Principal      Secretaries     of  fEarl  of  Shelburne  and  Mr. 
State    ...........................  \     Charles  James  Fox. 

Admiralty  ...........................  Viscount  Keppel. 

Comm:mder-in-Chief   .........  Gen.  Conway. 

Ordnance  ...........................  Duke  of  Richmond. 

Duchy  of  Lancaster  .........  ""**  **«" 


Mr.  Thomas  Townshend  was  secretary  at  war, 
and  Edmund  Burke  paymaster-general  in  this 
administration,  which  was  dissolved  on  the 
death  of  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  July  i, 
1782.  (See  SHELBFRNE  ADMINISTRATION.) 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  (N.  America).—  This 
extensive  mountain-range,  which  commences 
with  the  plateau  and  Cordilleras  of  Mexico 
and  California,  extends  to  Russian  America. 
Alexander  Mackenzie,  employed  by  the  North- 
west Fur  Company,  was  the  first  Euro]  .can 
who  in  1793  crossed  these  mountains.  Messrs. 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  dispatched  in  1805  by  the 
United  States  Government  to  reach  the  Pacific 
overland,  succeeded,  after  an  arduous  march 
of  50  days,  in  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

ROCOCO.—  This  debased  style  of  decoration 
in  architecture  was  adopted  in  France  by 
Louis  XIV.  and  XV.  (1643  —  1774),  and  prevailed 
in  Germany  in  the  i8th  century. 

ROCROY  Battle).—  A  great  victory  was 
gained  by  the  French,  under  the  youthful 
Prince  de  Conde,  over  the  Spaniards  and  Wal- 
loons, under  Francisco  de  Melo,  at  Rocroy, 
May  19,  1643.  In  this  battle,  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  Conde's  military  renown,  9,000 
Spaniards  and  Walloons  were  slain. 

HOC  ROY  (France)  was  only  a  village  until 
fortified  by  Francis  I.  to  defend  the  northern 
frontier,  in  1537.  It  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  town  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1547  —  1589). 
Conde"  took  it  for  the  Spaniards  in  1653,  and  it 
was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

ROCROY  (Treaty).—  The  truce  for  three 
months  between  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy 
and  Louis  XI.  of  France,  concluded  April  4, 

1471,  and  subsequently  prolonged  till  June  13, 

1472,  was  converted  into  a  treaty  of  peace  at 
Rocroy,  Oct.   3,    1471.     Lonis   XI.   refused  to 
ratify  the  treaty,   and  war  between    France 
again  broke  out  in  1472. 

ROD.—  (See  BLACK  ROD,  DIVINING  ROD,  &c.) 

RODEZ,  or  RHODEZ  (France),  is  mentioned 
by  Ptolemy  (139  —  161),  under  the  name  of 
Segodunum,  as  the  principal  town  of  the 
Ruteni,  a  people  of  Gaul.  Rodez  became  the 
capital  of  a  county  in  820,  and  was  united  to 
France  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  in  1589. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral  of  the  isth  century. 

ROGATIONS.—  (See  LITANIES.) 

ROGATION  WEEK.—  In  former  times  it 
was  a  general  custom  for  the  people  to  accom- 
pany the  bishop  or  some  of  the  clergy  into  the 
fields,  on  one  of  the  three  days  pi-eceding  Holy 


ROHILCUND 


]       ROMAN  CATHOLIC   LEAGUE 


Thursday,  to  implore  the  mercy  of  God,  to 
pray  that  ho  would  avert  the  evils  of  plague 
and  pestilence,  that  he  would  send  good  and 
seasonable  weather,  and  give  in  due  season 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  The  litanies  or 
rogations  then  used  gave  this  week  the  name 
of  rogation  week.  They  were  first  observed 
by  Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  in  469.  He 
introduced,  at  the  same  time,  the  custom  of 
perambulating  parishes.  In  the  canons  of 
Cuthbert,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  made  in 
747,  the  clergy  and  the  people  are  ordered  to 
observe  with  great  reverence  the  three  days 
before  Ascension-day,  according  to  the  custom 
of  our  forefathers.  In  the  injunctions  issued 
under  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603),  it  is  ordered  that 
the  people,  with  the  curate  and  substantial 
men  of  the  parish,  shall  walk  about  the 
parishes  with  willow  wands,  and  at  their 
return  to  church  make  their  common  prayers ; 
that  the  curate,  at  certain  and  convenient 
places,  shall  admonish  the  people  to  give 
thanks  to  God,  in  the  beholding  of  God's 
benefits,  for  the  increase  and  abundance  of 
his  fruits,  saying  the  io3rd  Psalm,  <fcc.,  at 
which  time  the  minister  shall  inculcate  this 
or  suchlike  sentences  :  "  Cursed  be  he  which 
translateth  the  bounds  and  doles  of  his  neigh- 
bour;" or  such  order  of  prayer  as  shall  be 
hereafter  appointed. 

ROHILCUND  (Hindostan).— This  province 
was  occupied  by  the  Mongols  under  Baber  in 
1526,  and  became  a  flourishing  country.  The 
Rohillas  conquered  it  about  1738.  The  Nabob 
of  Oudh  entered  into  a  treaty  in  Oct.,  1773, 
with  Warren  Hastings,  for  its  subjugation. 
A  corps  under  Col.  Champion  defeated  the 
Rohillas,  April  23,  1774,  and  the  country  was 
handed  over  to  the  nabob,  who  put  several 
tribes  to  the  sword,  without  regard  to  sex  or 
age.  It  was  ceded  to  the  English,  Nov.  14, 
1801.  A  body  of  15,000  Mahratta  horse,  under 
Meer  Khan,  invaded  Rohilcund  in  Feb.,  1805, 
and  took  possession  of  its  capital,  Moradabad. 
An  English  force  marched  on  the  town,  when 
the  Mahrattas  fled;  but  were  pursued  and 
defeated,  March  2.  They  suffered  a  second 
defeat  March  10,  which  so  disheartened  the 
survivors,  that  the  Mahrattas  retired  across 
the  Ganges. 

ROHILLAS.— This  body  of  Affghans,  of  the 
tribe  of  Roh  or  Rohilla,  from  the  mountains 
which  separate  Persia  from  India,  erected  an 
independent  state  in  Hindostan  about  1738. 
They  defeated  the  last  army  the  Mongols  ever 
assembled,  in  1750.  The  Mahrattas  invaded 
and  devastated  their  country  in  1771,  and 
Zabita  Khan,  their  chief,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Subahdar  of  Oudh  for  their  expulsion. 
The  Mahrattas,  who  retired  across  the  Ganges, 
returned  in  1772,  and  extorted  a  sum  of  money 
as  the  price  of  their  retreat.  (See  ROHILCUND.  ) 

ROLICA,  or  RORICA  (Battle).— The  French, 
under  Laborde,  were  defeated  near  this  town, 
in  Portugal,  by  the  English  and  Portuguese, 
commanded  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  Aug.  17, 
1808. 

ROLLING  MILL,  for  the  working  of  metals, 
was  introduced  by  Corb  in  1784. 

ROLLS  CHAPEL  (London),  founded  by 
Henry  III.  (1216 — 1272),  as  an  hospital  for 


the  reception  of  converted  Jews,  was  soon 
crowded  with  converts.  Edward  I.,  in  1279, 
bestowed  upon  it  half  the  estates  of  several 
Jews,  who  were  hanged  for  chipping  the 
current  coin.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
England  in  1290,  to  the  number  of  16,511, 
caused  the  House  of  Converts  to  become  neg- 
lected. They  appear  to  have  retained  their 
residence  until  1377,  when  the  house  was  con- 
verted into  a  receptacle  for  valuable  records, 
or  rolls  of  parchment ;  and  hence  the  present 
name. 

ROLLS  COURT  (London).— Edward  III.  in 
1377  annexed  the  house  and  the  chapel  to 
the  newly  created  Custos  Rotulorum.  The  first 
stone  of  the  present  Master's  house  was  laid 
Sep.  18,  1717.  The  orders  and  decrees  of  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls  were  made  valid  by  3 
Geo.  II.  c.  30  (1730). 

ROMAGNA  (Italy).— This  name  was  given 
in  the  Middle  Ages  to  a  tract  of  country  north 
of  the  Apennines,  extending  along  the  coast 
of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  river  Foglia,  near 
Pesaro,  to  the  Scoltenna,  or  Panaro,  which 
partly  separates  Bologna  from  Modena.  The 
name  of  Romagna,  or  Romandiola,  is  said  to 
have  been  given  to  it  in  consequence  of  the 
exarchs  having  fixed  their  residence  at 
Ravenna  in  568,  which  thereby  became  a 
second  Rome,  being  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
government  in  Italy.  It  was  annexed  to  the 
Papal  States  by  Julius  II.  (1503 — 1513).  After 
the  division  of  the  country  into  legations, 
the  name  of  Romagna  continued  in  use,  being 
applied  more  especially  to  the  eastern  portion, 
near  the  Adriatic.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Romagna  decided  in  favour  of  annexation  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  March  n  and  12, 1860,  for 
which  they  were  excommunicated  by  Pius  IX., 
March  29. 

ROMAINVILLE  (Battle).— The  French,  after 
a  desperate  resistance,  were  defeated  by  the 
Allies  on  this  elevation,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Paris,  March  30,  1814. 

ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  was  a  mixture 
of  all  ancient  styles.  The  Composite,  a  com- 
bination of  the  Corinthian  and  the  Ionic,  in- 
vented by  the  Romans,  is  sometimes  called 
the  Roman  order.  (See  ARCH,  TUSCAN  ORDER, 
&c.) 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  BISHOPRICS.— The 
Church  of  Rome  has  731  archbishops  and 
bishops  on  its  establishment.  After  the  Re- 
formation, England  and  Wales  were  placed 
under  the  care  of  bishops  in  parlibus — the 
first  appointment  having  been  made  March 
23,  1623 — and  afterwards  of  Vicars-Apostolic. 
By  a  brief  dated  Sep.  30,  1850,  the  hierarchy 
was  restored  in  England,  and  one  archbishop 
and  12  bishops  appointed.  In  Ireland  there 
are  four  Roman  Catholic  archbishops  and  24 
bishops.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Scot- 
land is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  three  bishops 
in  parlibuf. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  or  HOLY  ROMAN 
CATHOLIC  LEAGUE.  —  This  confederacy, 
sometimes  termed  the  Holy  Union,  of  the 
French  Roman  Catholics,  called  also  The 
League  par  excellence,  was  formed  at  Peronne 
by  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  1576,  as  a  barrier  to 
the  succession  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  regal  dig- 


ROMAN  CATHOLICS 


[    846    ] 


ROMAN  WALLS 


nity.  Civil  war,  called  the  War  of  the  League, 
ensued  (See  the  Battles  of  ARQUES,  COUTEAS, 
IVRY,  and  SENLIS),  which  lasted  till  1593, 
when  Henry  IV.  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  league  was  dissolved. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.— The  following  are 
the  most  important  incidents  in  the  history 
of  the  Roman  Catholics  or  Papists  : — 


1535-  Henry  VIII.  puts  to  death  several  Roman  Catho- 
lics who  deny  the  rgyal  supremacy,  Bishop 
Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More  being  among  the 
number. 

1581.  It  is  declared  treason  to  make  Romanist  proselytes 
from  the  Established  Church,  by  23  Eliz.  c.  I. 

1585.  It  is  made  felony  to  relieve  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  by  27  Eliz.  c.  2. 

1593.  Popish  recusants  are  prohibited  from  wandering 
above  five  miles  from  their  houses,  by  35  Eliz. 
c.  2. 

1604.  Roman  Catholics  are  prohibited  from  sending  their 

children  to  foreign  places  for  their  education,  by 
I  James  I.  c.  4. 

1605.  The  Gunpowder  I'lot  (q.  v.). 

1672-  Papists  are  prohibited  from  holding  offices  under 
government,  by  25  Charles  II.  c.  3. 

1677.  Papists  are  excluded  from  Parliament  by  30  Charles 

II.  st.  2. 

1678.  Oates'splot  (q.v.). 

1689.  Roman  Catholics  are  not  included  in  the  Toleration 
Act,  I  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  18,  s.  17.  Papists  arc  de- 
barred the  crown,  by  I  Will.  &  Mary,  scss.  2,  c. 

1780.  The  Gordon  Riots  (?.  t>.). 

1791.  Roman  Catholics  arc  released  from  various  penal- 
ties and  disabilities  by  31  Geo.  III.  c.  32. 

1824.  The  Roman  Catholic  Association  is  founded. 

1829,  March  30.  The  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Hill  passes 
the  Commons  by  a  majority  of  178. — April  10. 
It  is  passed  by  the  Lords,  majority  104.—  April  13. 
It  receives  the  royal  signature,  and  appears 
among  the  statutes  as  lo  Geo.  IV.  c.  7.— April  28. 
The  Dake  of  Norfolk  and  Lords  Clifford  and 
Doimer  take  their  oaths  ami  seats  in  the  house  of 
Peers,  being  the  lirst  Roman  Catholic  members 
of  that  house. 

1832,  Aug.  15.  Roman  Catholics  are  placed  on  the  same 
footing  as  Protestant  Dissenters  with  respect 
to  their  places  of  worship,  &e.,  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV. 
c.  115. 

1840.  St.  George's  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  is  erected  in 
Southward 

1844,  Aug.  9.  Further  concessions  are  made  to  Roman 
Catholics  bv  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  102. 

1850,  Sep.  24.    Pius  IX.  publishes  a  bull  establishing   a 

Romish  priesthood  in  Great  Britain. 

1851,  April  22.    The   Roman  Catholic   Defence   Associa- 

tion is  formed  at  Dublin.— Aug.  I.  'Ihe  establish- 
ment of  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Great 
Britain  is  prohibited  bv  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  60,— the 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill  (q.  v.). 

ROMANCE.  —  The  earliest  work  in  this 
species  of  writing  is  a  Greek  romance,  called 
"Theagenes  and  Chaiiclea,"  by  Heliodorus, 
Bishop  of  Tricca,  in  Thessaly,  who  flourished 
about  390,  and  is  called  the  "  Father  of 
Romances."  European  romantic  fiction  may 
be  said  to  have  originated  with  the  legendary 
stories,  of  English  origin,  relating  to  Arthur 
and  the  knights  of  the  Round  Table,  which 
were  turned  into  prose  in  the  course  of  the 
i3th,  1 4th,  and  isth  centuries.  (See  LANGUE 
D'oc.) 

ROMAN  CREED.— (See  APOSTLES'  CREED  ) 

ROMANESQUE.— A  debased  style  of  archi- 
tecture and  ornaments,  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Egypt,  adopted  by  the  Romans 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  (B.C.  31— A.D.  14), 
and  prevailed  till  about  800. 

ROMAN    LAW.— The    civil   law   is    thus 


designated  because  it  is  based  upon  the  old 
Roman  law,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Servius  Tullius,  B.C.  566.  (See  CODES,  &c.) 

ROMAN  LITERATURE.  — The  earliest 
literary  efforts  recorded  at  Rome  were  ballads 
and  private  and  political  squibs  ;  written  in 
the  Saturnian.  and  Fescemiine  metres.  (See 
AVERSE.  )  Roman  literature  originated  at  a  later 
period,  being  founded  upon  that  of  Greece. 
Browne  (Hist,  of  Roman  Classical  Literature, 
preface,  p.  v.),  says:— "The  Roman  mind, 
naturally  vigorous  and  active,  was  still  uncul- 
tivated, when  about  two  centuries  and  a  half 
before  the  Christian  era  (B.C.  240),  conquest 
made  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  acquainted 
for  the  first  time  with  Greek  science,  art, 
and  literature  ;  and  the  last  rays  of  classic 
taste  and  learning  ceased  to  illumine  the  Ro- 
man world  before  the  accession  of  the  Anto- 
nines  (138)."  The  most  eminent  Roman  poets 
and  dramatists  were  Livius  Androiiicus 
•(flourished  B.C.  240),  Nasvius  (B.C.  274 — 202), 
Plautus  (B.C.  254—184),  Csecilius  Statius  (died 
B.C.  168),  Ennius  (B.C.  239 — 169),  Terence  (B.C. 
194 — 159),  Lucilius  (B.C.  148 — 103),  Lucretius 
(B.C.  95 — Oct.  15,  B.C.  55),  Catullus  (B.C.  87 — 47), 
Virgil  (B.C.  70 — Sep.  22,  B.C.  19),  Tibullus  (B.C. 
54—18),  Propertius  (B.C.  51— after  B.C.  16), 
Horace  (B.C.  65 — Nov.  27,  B.C.  8),  Ovid  (B.C. 
43— A.D.  1 8),  Persius  (34 -Nov.  24,  62),  Lilcan 
(39 — April  30,  65),  Statius  (61 — 96),  Juvenal 
flourished  83—100),  Martial  (43 — 104),  and 
Claudian  (died  after  404).  The  chief  prose 
authors  were  Fabius  Pictor  (B.C.  225 — 216), 
Cato  the  Censor  (B.C.  234—149),  Cicero  (B.C. 
106 — Dec.  7,  B.C.  43),  Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  100 — 
March  15,  B.C.  44),  Sallust  (B.C.  86 — May,  B.C. 
34),  Cornelius  Nepos  (died  about  B.C.  32), 
Varro  B.C.  116 — 28),  Pollio  (B.C.  76 — A.D.  4), 
Livy  (B.C.  59 — A.D.  17),  Seneca  (died  in  65),  Pliny 
the  Elder  (23— Aug.  24,  79),  Tacitus  (61—117). 
(See  COMEDY,  DRAMA,  SATIRE,  TRAGEDY, 
VERSE,  &c.) 

ROMANOFF.— (Sf.e  COSTROMA,  RUSSIA,  &c.) 
ROMAN  REPUBLIC  was  proclaimed 
March  20,  1798,  and  terminated  Nov.  29.  A 
republic  was  again  established  Feb.  8,  1849, 
and  dissolved  after  the  capture  of  Rome  by 
the  French,  July  4. 

ROMAN  ROADS.— (See  ROADS.) 
ROMANS.— (.See  KING  OF  THE  ROMANS.) 
ROMANS  (Epistle).— According  to  Greswell 
and  Neander,  this  epistle  was  written  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  at  Cenchrea,  near  Corinth,  in  56. 
Alford  dates  its  production  at  Corinth,  in  58. 
A  person  named  Tertius  acted  as  his  amanu- 
ensis. 

ROMA   SECUNDA,    or  NEW  ROME.— (See 
AQUILEIA,  BYZANTIUM,  &c.) 

ROMAN  STATES.— (See  PAPAL  STATES.) 
ROMAN  STYLE.— (See  NEW  STYLE.) 
ROMAN  WALLS  were  erected  to  defend 
Britain  from  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots.  The  first  wall,  80  Roman  miles  -in 
length,  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway 
Frith,  and  was  constructed  by  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  in  121.  (See  HADRIAN'S  WALL.) 
The  second  wall,  32  Roman  miles  in  length, 
extended  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  the  Firth 
of  Clyde,  and  was  built  by  Lollius  Urbicus,  in 
the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  about  140.  (See 


ROME 


t     847     1 


ROME 


AGRICOLA'S  WALL.  )    The  fi  rst  wall  was  renewed 
and  strengthened  by  Septimius  Severus,  208— 

10.  It  had  battlements  and  towers  to  contain 
soldiers.    Many  remains  of  these  walls  still 
exist. 

ROME,  ROMAN  EMPIRE,  ROMAN  RE- 
PUBLIC (Italy).— Chronologists  have  referred 
the  foundation  of  Rome  to  various  dates  : — 
Varro,  to  April  21,  B.C.  753  ;  Cato,  to  B.C.  751  ; 
Polybius,  to  B.C.  750;  Fabius  Pictor,  to  B.C. 
747  ;  and  Cincius,  to  B.C.  728.  The  computa- 
tion of  Varro  is  usually  adopted.  The  diffi- 
culty of  discriminating  between  truth  and 
fiction  in  the  early  history  of  Rome,  has  been 
pointed  out  by  various  writers.  Smith  in  his 
comprehensive  work  (A  History  of  the  World 
from  the  earliest  records  to  the  present  time, 
Ancient  History,  vol.  ii.  ch.  xx. )  remarks : — "  We 
cannot  make  out  a  true  and  consistent  history 
"by  eliminating  the  improbabilities  of  these 
legends,  or  by  selecting  from  the  interpreta- 
tions of  the  ancients  that  which  may  seem  to 
us  the  most  reasonable.  But,  by  a  careful  com- 
parison of  language,  antiquities,  institutions, 
traditions,  and  other  real  elements  of  fact, 
illustrated  by  light  reflected  on  them  by  the 
legends,  we  can  arrive  at  certain  broad 
conclusions.  They  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
steady  growth  of  the  city,  till  it  became  the 
head  of  Latium,  on  the  one  hand,  and  derived 
wealth  and  commercial  importance  from  its 
connection  with  Etruria  on  the  other.  A 
constitution,  based  on  a  patriarchal  aristocracy, 
with  an  elective  monarchy  at  its  head, 
was  modified  by  the  introduction  of  new 
elements,  chiefly  from  the  conquered  Latin 
states,  till  the  necessity  arose  for  a  new 
military  organization,  and  a  new  distribution 
of  political  power  among  all  classes  of  the 
citizens."  Councils  were  held  at  Rome  in  197 ; 
251 ;  256  ;  258  ;  260 ;  313  ;  June,  342  ;  349  ;  352  ; 

as8 ;  364 ;  366 ;  367 ;  369 ;  372 ;  374 ;  375 ;  377 ; 

378  ;  379  ;  382  ;•  Jan-  6>  386  ;  in  390 ;  400  ;  Aug. 

11,  430 ;  in  May,  431 ;  July  31,  433  ;  in  444  ;  445 ; 
Sep.  29,  447;  Feb.  22,  449;  in  Oct.,  449;  451; 
458  ;  462 ;  Nov.  17,  465;  July  28,  484  ;  Oct.  5, 
485  ;  March  13,  488  ;  in  495 ;  496  ;  March  i,  499  ; 
in  501 ;  Nov.  6,  502  ;  in  503  ;  504 ;  530  ;  Dec.  7, 
531 ;  in  534;  Dec.,  590;  Feb.,  591 ;  July  5,  595  ; 
in  600 ;  April  5,  601 ;  in  606 ;  Feb.  27,  610  ;  in 
640 ;  Jan.,  641 ;  648  ;  650 ;  Dec.  19,  667  ;  in  Oct., 
679  ;  March  27,   680 ;  in  704 ;  721 ;  731 ;  732  ; 
March  22,  745  ;  Oct.  25,  745 ;  April  12,  769 ;  in 
774  ;  799;  Dec.,  800;  816;  823  ;  Nov.  15,  826  ;  in 
848  ;  Dec.  8,  855  ;  in  860  ;  861  ;  862  ;  863  ;  868  ; 
Oct.  4,  868 ;  in  872  ;  875 ;  in  April,  876 ;  July, 
877 ;  878  ;  May  i,  879 ;  in  Aug.,  879  ;  896  or  897 ; 
898 ;  949 ;  Nov.   6 — 22,   963  ;  Feb.  26,  964 ;  in 
Jan.,  967  ;  968  ;  969  ;  April  23,  971  ;  in  975  ;  989 ; 
996 ;  April  24,  998  ;  Jan.  6,  1001 ;  Dec.  3,  1002  ; 
Nov.  i,  1007;  April  6,  1027;  in  1044;  Jan.,  1047; 
April  ii,   1049;   May  2,   1050;  in  1051;  1053; 
April  18,  1057 ;  April  13,  1059 ;  in  1061 ;  1063  ; 
1065  ;  1070 ;  1072 ;  Feb.  24,  1075  ;  in   1076 ;  in 
Lent,  1078 ;  Nov.,  1078 ;  Feb.,  1079;  1080;  May  4, 
1081 ;  Nov.  20,  1083;  in  1084;  Jan.,  1085  ;  1089; 
Aug.  7,  1098  ;  April  25,  1099;  in  March,  1102; 
1104;  March  26,  1105;  in  Slay,  1105;  March  7, 
ino  ;  in  1144  ;  1200 ;  Nov.,  1210 ;  Nov.  18,  1227  ; 
in  1228 ;   Oct.    30,    1302 ;  in  1412  ;  and  1413. 
Landon  (Manual  of  Councils)  omits  many  of 


the  above  given  by  Sir  H.  Nicolas  (Chronology 
of  History),  and  mentions  in  addition  councils 
in  March,  487  ;  in  639 ;  in  703  ;  in  744 ;  in  792  ;  in 
993 ;  and  in  1725.  (See  EASTERN  EMPIRE, 
HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE,  ITALY,  POPES,  WESTERN 
EMPIRE,  &c.) 

B.C. 

753,  April  21.  Romulus,  according  to  the  legend,  founds 

Rome  on  the  Palatine  Mount. 
750.  The  forcible  abduction  of  the  Sabine  women  leads 

to  a  war  with  the  Sabines. 
747.  The  Sabines  settle  on  the  Capitoline  and  the  Qui- 

rinal,  and  form  a  league  with  Romulus. 
733.  Romulus  founds  the  Circensian  games. 
716.  Romulus  is  assassinated  by  the  senators,  and  an  in- 
terregnum of  one  year  ensues. 

715.  The  Romans  elect  Nunia  Pompilius  as  his  successor. 
710.  Numa  regulates  the  priesthood. 
670.  The  combat  between  the   Horatii   and  the  Curiatii 

(q.  v.). 
665.  Tullus  Hostilius  defeats  the  Albans  and  destroys 

their  city. 
640.  Ancus  Marcius  succeeds  Tullus  Hostilius.     Rise  of 

the  plebeian  order,  and  foundation  of  the  port  of 

Ostia. 

621.  The  Larentalia  festivals  are  established. 
616.  Accession  of  Tarquinius  Priscus. 
615.  Foundation  of  the  Capitol  (q.  v.). 
605.  The  Circus  Maximus  is  erected. 
600.  The  Cloacae  are  built. 

578.  The  first  Roman  money  is  coined.    Death  of  Tar- 
quinius Priscus,  and  accession  of  Servius  Tullius. 
566.  The  first  census  (q.  ».),  the  number  of  citizens  being 

estimated  at  ^4,700. 
550.  Servius  Tullius  divides  the  Romans  into  six  classes, 

institutes  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  and  surrounds 

Rome  with  a  wall  and  ditch. 
534.  Servius  is  murdered  by  his  daughter,  Tullia,  and  her 

husband,  Tarquinius  Superbus,  who  succeeds. 
530.  The  Sibylline  books   are  removed  from   Cuma    or 

Cumae  to  Rome. 
510.  The  violation  of  Lucretia  by  Sextus  Tarquinius  leads 

to  the  expulsion  of   the  Tarquins  (See  REGIFU- 

GIUM),  and  the  establishment  of  a  consular  go- 
vernment, under   L.  Junius   Brutus  and  Lucius 

Tarquinius  Collatinus. 
509.  The  Romans  conclude    a    commercial  treaty  with 

Carthage. 

508.  A  new  census  is  taken. 
507.  The  Capitol  is  dedicated. 
502.  War  is  commenced  against  the  Latins. 
501.  The  dictatorship  is  instituted. 
500.  The  patricians   and  plebeians  commence  their  civil 

contests. 
498  or  496,  July  15.  The  Romans  are  victorious  at  Lake 

Regillus  (q.  v.). 

496.  The  Romans  take  Fidenas  (q.  v.). 
494.  The  plebeians  secede  to   Mons   Sacer,    the  Sacred 

Mountain. 
493.  Rome  is  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  independence 

of  the  Latins.     Caius  Mariius  takes  Corioli  (q.  v.). 

The  Comitia  Tributa  are  established,  and  the  city 

is  visited  by  a  famine. 
491.  Coriolanus  is   banished,  and  takes  refuge  with  the 

Volscians. 
489.  Coriolanus    leads   a  besieging  army    of    Volscians 

against  Rome. 
488.  At  the  intercession    of    his  mother,  Volumnia,   he 

withdraws  from  Rome,  and  is  murdered  by  the 

incensed  Volscians. 
485.  Quaestors  are  appointed. 
484.  The  first  Agrarian  law   (9.  v.)  is  proposed,   for    the 

division  of  the  conquered  territory  of  the  Her- 

nici. 
477,  July  16.  The  family  of  the  Fabii,  with  the  exception 

of  one  child,  perishes  in  battle  with  the  Veieutea 

at  the  Cremera. 

474.  A  truce  of  40  years  is  concluded  with  Veii. 
471.  The  Publilia  lex  is  passed,  which  vests  the  election 

of  the  plebeian  magistrates  in  the  Comitia  Tri- 
buta. 

468.  The  Romans  take  Antium. 
460.  L.  Quinctius  Cincinuatus,  "awful  from  the  plough," 

is  elected  to  the  consulship. 
458.  Cincinnatus    is    made   dictator,    and   delivers   the 

Romans  from  the  Sabines  and  the  JEqui. 


ROME 


ROME 


B.C. 

456.  The  Aventine  Mount  is  assigned  to  the  plebeians. 

454.  An  embassy  is  despatched  to  Greece  to  investigate 
the  Grecian  laws. 

451.  Appointment  of  the  Decemviri. 

449.  Ill  consequence  of  the  attempted  violation,  by  Appius 
Claudius,  of  Virginia,  who  is  killed  by  her  father 
Virginius,  to  save  her  from  dishonour,  the  d  cem- 
virate  is  abolished ;  and  the  plebeians  secede  a 
second  time  to  the  Sacred  Hill. 

445.  Marriage  between  patricians  and  plebeians  is  per- 
mitted by  the  Lex  Caiiuleia. 
44.  Three  military  tribunes  are  elected,  but  the  election 

is  annulled. 

43.  The  office  of  censor  and  that  of  the  naval  duumviri 
arc  instituted. 

440.  Rome  is  visited  by  a  famine. 

438.  The  Fidena'aiis  revolt. 

437.  The  Fidemeans  are  reduced  to  subjection  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Three  military  tribunes  are  in 
office. 

434.  War  is  declared  against  the  Etruscans. 
433.  The  Temple  of  Apollo  is  dedicated. 

43t.  Tubertius  defeats  the  ^Equi  and  Volsci  at  Mount  Al- 
gid us. 

436.  Fidena;  again  revolts,  and  is  taken  and  destroyed  by 
the  Romans. 

435.  A  truce  for  zo  years  is  concluded  with  the  Veii. 
433.  Vulturnium  is  taken  by  the  Samnites. 

420.  The  number  of  quaestors   is  raised  from  two  to  four. 

The  Samnites  take  Cumin. 
418.  Lavici  is  taken  from  the  ^Cqui,  and  erected  into  a 

Roman  colony. 

414.  Bola  is  taken  and  colonized  by  the  Romans. 
409.  Three  plebeiuii  qiux-stors  are  elected. 
407.  The  Romans  are  defeated  by  the  Volscians. 
406.  War  is  declared  against  the  Veii.     The  Roman  army 

first  receives  regular  pay. 
405.  The  Romans  lay  siege  to  Vrii. 
403.  Bachelors  nrc  taxed  by  the  "  JEa  Uxorum." 
402.  The  Volscians  recapture  Anxur. 
400.  The  first    Lectisterniam,  or  public  banquet  of    the 

gods,  is  celebrated,  in  consequence  of  a  plague. 

-lilencc  prevails. 

.    Veii  is  taken  by  the  dictator  Camilla* 
393.  The  lands  of  the  Veiicntes  are  partitioned  among  the 

plebeians.    A  truce  for  2°  years  is  concluded  with 

the  Etruscan  confederacy. 

391.  Camillus,  who  is  impeached,  goes  into  exile. 
3yo,  July    1%.     The   Gauls,    under    Hrcnnus,    defeat    the 

Romans   at  the   battle  of  Allia.— July  31.    They 

enter  and  burn  Rome.    The   Gauls  besiege  the 

Capitol. 

389.  The  city  is  rebuilt. 
3.7.  Institution  of  the  Capitoline  games. 
3x4.  Manlius  Capitolinus,  convicted  of  having  aimed  at 

sovciviiru  power,   is   hurled   from   the   Tarpeian 

rock. 

380.  Prwneste  is  taken  by  the  Romans. 
376.  Civil  war  recommences  between  the  patricians  and 

plebeians.     The  "Licinian    Rogations,"  enacting 

that  one  of  the  consuls  shall  be  a  plebeian,   are 

passed. 
375.  Lucius  Sextus  is  the  first  plebeian  elevated  to  the 

consular  dignity.     The  office  of  prajtor  is  insti- 
tuted ;  and  curule  nediles  are  first  appointed. 
364.  The    Ludi   Scenici,  instituted   in   consequence   of    a 

pestilence,  are  the  earliest  dramatic  performances 

held  at  Rome. 
363.  M.  Curtius,  in  obedience  to  an  oracle,  leaps  into  a 

gulf  opened  in  the  Forum. 

361.  Manlius  Torquatus  defeats  the  Gallic  champion. 
351.   An  alliance  is  concluded  with  the  Samnites. 
350.  The   Gallic  invaders  of    Italy   are  defeated  by  the 

consul  Popilius. 

348.  The  treaty  with  Carthage  is  renewed. 
343.  The  first  Samnite  war  commences. 
343.  The  army  mutinies  at  Capua,  and  the  plebeians  rise 

in  insurrection. 

341.  End  of  the  first  Samnite  war. 
340.  The  great  Latin  war  commences. 
338.  The  great  Latin  war  is  concluded,  after  three  cam- 
paigns,  by    the  triumph   of    the   Romans.    The 

Campaiiiaiis  submit  to  Rome. 
337.  The  vestal  Misurtia  is  buried  alive  for  breaking  her 

vow  of  chastity.     The  praitorship  is  thrown  open 

to  the  plebeians. 

334.  Cales,  in  Campania,  is  made  a  Roman  colony. 
333.  A  league  is  concluded  with  Alexander  of  Epirus.       •» 


326.  The   Second,   or    Great   Samnite    war,    commences. 

Publius  Philo  takes  Palacopolis. 
333.  A  league  is   concluded  with  the  Apuleians  and  the 

Leucanians. 
331.  The  Romans    are   defeated   at  the    Caudine    Forks 

(<?•  r-)- 

315.  The  Samnites  defeat  the  Romans  at  Lantulae. 
314.  A  revolt  of  the  Campanians  is  suppressed. 
313.  The   Via   Appia,    the   tirst  Roman  military  road,   is 

constructed  by  Appius  Claudius  Caeeus. 
310.  Roman  victory  over  the  Etruscans  at  the  Vadimonian 

lake. 

308.  The  Marsi  join  the  Samnites. 
307.  The  Samnites  are  defeated  by  the  proconsul  Fabius 

at  the  battle  of  Allifa.-. 
306.  The  commercial  treaty  with  Carthage  (B.C.  348)  is 

renewed. 

304.  Close  of  the  second  Samnite  war. 
301.  The  Marsi  again  make  war  against  the  Romans. 
300.  The  Lex  Ogulina  admits  the  plebeians  to  the  priest- 
hood. 

398.  The  third  Samnite  war  commences. 
295.  The   Romans    defeat    the    allied    Etruscans,    Gauls, 

Samnites,  and  I'mbiians  at  Sentinum. 
391.  The   first  Roman   colony  is   founded  at  Veuusia,  in 

the  territory  of  the  Samnites. 
390.  The  Samnites  are  defeated,  and  sue  for  peace,  which 

terminates  the  third  Samnite  war. 

380.  The  Tiiumviri  Capitales  are  appointed. 
366.  The  hist  secession  of  the  plebeians. 

2*53.  The  Romans  are  defeated  at  Arretium.     Etruria  is 
annexed  to  the  Roman  territories. 

381.  Pyrrlms,  King  of  Epirus,  engages  in   war  against 

the  Romans. 
280.  Pyrrhus  defeats  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of  Pan- 

dosia,  near  Heraclea. 
379.  Pyrrhus  is  victorious  at  Asculum. 
375.  Battle  of  Beneventum. 
373.  An  embassy  is  received  from  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 

King  of  Egypt. 

369.  The  first  silver  coinage  is  struck  at  Rome. 
366.  The  whole  of  Italy  is  subjected  to  Rome. 
364.  Commencement  of  the  first  Punic  war  (q.  t>.).  Gladia- 
tors first  exhibit  at  Rome. 
361.  The  Romans  build  their  first  fleet. 
356.  M.  Atilius  Regulus  gains  a  naval  victory  over  the 

Carthaginians  at  llimera. 
354.  Pauormus,   in  Sicily,  is  besieged  and  taken  by  the 

Romans. 
350.  The  Roman  commander  Regulus  is  cruelly  executed 

at  Carthage  (q.  v.)  •  and  the  revolt  of  the  Falisci 

is  suppiv.-sed. 

247.  The  Carthaginians  invade  Italy.    ' 
341.   End  of  the  first   Punic   war.     Sicily  is  reduced  to  a 

Roman   province;  and  a  revolt  of  the  l-'alisri  is 

suppressed.     Overflow  of  the  Tiber. 
235.  A  revolt  is  suppressed  in  Sardinia ;  and,  the  empire 

being  at  peace,  the  temple  of  Janus  is  closed. 
331.  Corsica   and  Sardinia  are    annexed   to   the   R-jman 

dominions. 
338.  The  Romans  send  an  embassy  to  Greece  for  the  first 

time. 
32=;.  The  Gauls  invade  Italy,  and  are  defeated  at  Clu- 

sium. 

333.  Marcellus  defeats  the  Gauls  at  Clastidium. 
330.  The  Circus  Flaminius  is  built,  and  the  Via  Flaminia 

constructed. 
318.  Commencement  of  the  second  Punic  war.     Battle  of 

the  Ticinus. 

317.  Hannibal  defeats  Flaminius  at  Lake  Thrasymene. 
316,  Aug.  2.  The  battle  of  Cannae  (q.v.). 
215.  The  extravagance  of  the  Roman  ladies  is  restrained 

by  the  Lex  Oppia. 

213.  The  Romans  engage  in  war  with  Philip  V.  of  Mace- 
don. 
208.  Marcellus  is  defeated  and  slaiu  by  Hannibal  near 

Venusia. 

202.  The  battle  of  Zama  (q.  v.). 
201.  End  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
197.  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  is  defeated  at  the  battle  of 

Cynoscephahe  (q.  r.),  which  ends  the  war  against 

him.     Citizens  are  exempted  from  scourging  and 

capital  punishments  by  the  Lex  Porcia. 
192.  War  is  commenced  against  Antiochus  III.  (the  Great 

of  Syria. 

1 88.  Peace  with  Antiochus  the  Great  is  ratified. 
183.  Death  of  Scipio  Africanus. 
181.  Discovery  of  the  sacred  books  of  Numa  Pompilius. 


ROME 


ROME 


179-  Tiberius  Gracchus  subdues  the  Celtiberians  (q.  ».). 

174.  The  Roman  streets  are  paved. 

171.  Another  war  against  Macedonia  is  commenced. 

168,  June  23.  Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  is  defeated 

the  battle  of  Pydiia,  and  his  kingdom  is  added  to 
.       the  Roman  states. 

167.  The  first  public  library  is  opened  at  Rome. 

161.  Philosophers    and  orators  are  banished    from    the 
x  city. 

156.  Commencement  of  the  wars  with  Dalmatia  (q.  v.). 

153.  The  first  Celtiberian  war. 

149.  Commencement  of  the  third  Punic  war. 

146.  Subjection  of  Epirus,  and  destruction  of  Carthage 
and  Corinth. 

143.  The  Celtiberian  takes  the  name  of  the  Numantine 
war  (q.  v.). 

138.  Lusitania  is  annexed  to  Koine. 

134.  Commencement  of  the  first  Servile  war  in  Sicily. 

133.  Pergamus  and  Spain  become  Roman  province^ 
Legislation  and  murder  of  Tiberius  Gracchus. 

133.  Conclusion  of  the  Servile  war. 

131.  Civil  war,  in  which  Caius  Gracchus  is  killed. 

115.  Submission  of  the  Ligures. 

113.  Commencement  of  the  Cimbrian  war. 

III.  The  Jugurthine  war  (q.  v.)  is  commenced  in  Africa. 

106.  Jugurtha  is  made  prisoner,  and  Numidia  becomes 
a  Roman  province.  Birth  of  Cicero  and  of 
Pompey. 

104.  The  eagle  becomes  the  national  standard. 

103.  The  second  Servile  war  breaks  out  in  Sicily. 

ici.  Defeat  of  the  Cimbri  at  Campus  Raudius  (q.  v.). 
.-        T/TWV-r  J2-  Birth  of  Julius  Ca;sar. 

967rynenaica  is  bequeathed  to  the  Roman  republic. 
91.  Commencement  of  the  Marsian  or  Social  war. 

88.  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Italy  are  admitted  to 
the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  The  Mithridatic 
war  and  the  civil  wars  of  Marius  and  Sylla 
commence. 

87.  Anarchy  prevails  at  Rome,  owing  to  the  factions  of 

Sylla  and  Marius. 
86.  Death  of  Caius  Marius. 

84.  End  of  the  fir^t  Mithridatic  war. 

83.  The  Capitol  (q.  v.)  is  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  second 
Mithridatic  war  commences. 

83.  Sylla,  having  taken  Rome,  and  published  his  pro- 
scription,  is   declared  perpetual   dictator.      The 
second  Mithridatic  war  is  concluded. 
79.  Abdication  of  Sylla. 

74.  Commencement  of  the  third  Mithridatic  war.  Bi- 
thyiiia  and  Cyrenaica  become  Roman  provinces. 

73.  The  Servile  war  of  Italy  is  commenced  by  the  revolt 
of  70,000  slaves  under  Spartacus. 

71.  Spartacus  is  killed,  and  the  insurrection  is  sup- 
pressed. 

69.  War  against  the  Cretans. 

67.  Crete  is  erected  into  a  Roman  province. 

65.  Catiline's  conspiracy. 

64.  Pompey  erects  Syria  into  a  Roman  province. 

63.  Pompey  captures  Jerusalem.  Suppression  of  Cati- 
line's conspiracy  (q.  v.). 

60.  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  form  the  first 
triumvirate. 

58.  The  aedile  Scaunis  erects  his  marble  theatre,  which 
is  said  to  have  accommodated  30,000  persons. 
Banishment  of  Cicero,  and  commencement  of 
Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul. 

55.  Csesar  invades  Britain  (q.  v.).  Commencement  of 
the  Parthian  war. 

53.  The  murder  of  Claudius  by  the  partisans  of  Milo 
occasions  a  riot  at  Rome,  in  which  the  senate- 
house  is  burned  down. 

51.  Gaul  is  erected  into  a  Roman  province. 

49.  Civil  war  commences  between  Pompey  and  Cassar. 

48.  Pompey  is  defeated  at  Pharsalia  (q.  v.). 

47.  Caesar  defeats  Pharnaces,  King  of   Pontus,  at  Zela 

46,  April  6.  Caesar  defeats  Scipio  and  Juba  at  Thapsus. 

Suicide  of  Cdto  at  Utica.     Cassar  is  made  dictator 

for  10  years. 
44,  March  15.  Assassination  of  Julius  Caesar,  by  Brutus, 

Cassius,  and  other  conspirators. 
43.  The  second  triumvirate  is  formed  by  Octavius  Caesar, 

Marcus  Antonius,  and  Lepidus. — Dec.  7.  Cicero  is 

put  to  death. 
43.  Brutus  and  Cassius  are  defeated  by  the  forces  of  the 


40.  Marcus  Antonius  is  reconciled  to  Octavius  Cajsar, 
and  marries  his  sister  Octavia, 

36.  Lepidus  is  excluded  from  the  triumvirate. 

34,  May.  Death  of  the  historian  Sallust.  Dalmatia  is 
made  a  Roman  province. 

33.  Civil  war  commences  between  Antonius  and  Oc- 
tavius. 

31,  Sep.  3.  Defeat  of  Antonius  at  Actium  (?.«.). 

30.  Octavius  Caesar  is  sole  master  of  Rome.  The  temple 
of  Janus  is  again  closed. 

37,  Jan.  Rome  becomes  an  empire  under  Octavius,  who 

assumes  the  title  of  Augustus  Caesar. 
^_25-  The  Pantheon  is  built. 
23-  The  conspiracy  of  Murenais  suppressed. 
12-  Augustus  is  made  pontifex  maximus. 
9.  Battle  of  Teutoberg  (q.  •».). 
8.  Death  of  Horace  and  his  patron  Maecenas. 
4,  April  5.  Jesus  Christ  is  born  in  Judaea. 


41 


triumvirate  at  the  battle  of  Philippi  (q.  v.). 
.  The  Perusian  war  breaks  out  between  Marcus  An- 


tonius and  Octavius  Ca-sar. 


s— 9Tl)almatia  is  subdued  by  Tiberius.    Ovid  is  exiled  to 

Tomis. 
14,  Aug.  19.  Death  of  Augustus. 

17.  Cappadocia  becomes  a  Roman  province.    Livy  dies. 

18.  Death  of  Ovid. 

33.  Sejanus,  the  praetorian  prefect,  obtains  absolute 
ascendancy  over  Tiberius,  and  poisons  Drusus. 

37.  Tiberius  retires  to  Capri,  and  Thrace  becomes  a 
Roman  province. 

31.  Condemnation  and  execution  of  Sejanus. 

43.  Conquest  of  Mauritania,  which  is  divided  into  two 
provinces. 

48.  Messalina,  wife  of  Claudius  I.,  is  put  to  death  on  a 
charge  of  conspiracy.  Lycia  is  made  a  Roman 
province. 

So.  The  British  chief  Caractacus,  King  of  the  Silures, 
is  carried  prisoner  to  Rome. 

60.  Nero  puts  his  mother  Agrippina  to  death.  Nero  in- 
stitutes the  Quinquennalian  Games,  or  the  Nero- 
nian  festival. 

64.  Home  is  nearly  destroyed  by  a  fire,  said  to  have 

been  occasioned  by  Nero. 

65.  St.  Paul,  St.  Peter,  the  poet  Lucan,  and  the  philo- 

sopher Seneca,  are  put  to  death  by  order  of  Nero, 
who  kills  his  wife  Poppaea. 

68,  June  9.  Kero,   alarmed  at  the  revolt  of  Vindex  in 

Gaul,  and  Otho  in  Lusitania,  stabs  himself. 

69,  April  4.  Vitellius  secures  the  sceptre  by  his  victory 

of  Bedriacum  (q.  v.). 
71.  Titus  and   Vespasian  celebrate  their  triumph  for 

the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (q.  v.),  and  the  temple 

of  Janus  is  closed. 
75.  Vespasian  founds  the  Coliseum  (q.  v.).    The  Temple 

of  Peace  is  completed. 
80.  A  fire  rages  at  Rome  for  three  days. 
84.  Domitian  assumes  the  surname  of  Germanicus. 
86.  The  Dacian  war  is  commenced. 
93.  Commencement  of  the  Sarmatian  war. 
[co.  Dacia  is    made   a    Roman   province,   and  Arabia 

Petra?a  is  conquered.     Trajan  marches  into  the 
r-..          East. 

113.  Trajan*s^ealuHinisereeted  in  the  Forum. 
^  


130.  Hadrian  commences  a  tour  through  the  provinces. 

131.  War  is  commenced  with  the  Jews. 
135.  End  of  the  Jewish  war. 

loo.  The  pillar  of  Antoninus  is  erected  at  Rome. 

183.  Lucilla  is  exiled  and  put  to  death,  for  conspiring 

against  her  brother  Commodus. 
191.  A  destructive  fire  at  Rome. 
196.  Capture  and  destruction  of  Byzantium  (q.  v.~). 
303.  The  triumphal  arch  of  Severus  is  erected. 
315.  Caracalla  extends  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens 

to  all  his  subjects  who  are  willing  to  pay  for 

318,  May  16.  Elagabalus  revolts  at  Antioch,  and  secures 
the  imperial  throne. 

236.  The  Goths  exact  tribute  from  the  Romans. 

350.  Invasion  of  the  Goths. 

353.  Peace  with  the  Goths  is  purchased. 

355.  The  barbarians  invade  the  empire  on  every  side. 

358.  The  legions  in  various  provinces  set  up  numerous 
candidates  for  the  empire;  who  are  known  as  the 
Thirty  Tyrants;  although- Gibbon  states  that  their 
number  did  not  exceed  19. 

269.  Claudius  II.  defeats  the  Goths  at  the  battle  of 
Naissus. 

370.  Dacia  is  separated  from  the  empire,  and  surren- 
dered to  the  Goths. 

31 


ROME 


[    850    ] 


ROME 


A.I). 

270.  The  Alemanni  and  the  Marcomanni  are  defeated, 
and  the  walls  of  Rome  are  restored. 

27? — 4.  Siege  and  capture  of  Palmyra.  Aurelian  founds 
the  Temple  of  the  Sun. 

284,  Aug.  29.  Commencement  of  the  Diocletian  sera 
(q.v.). 

286,  April  i.  Diocletian  associates  Maximian  with  him- 
self in  the  government. 

292,  March  r.  The  empire  is  divided  into  four  sove- 
reignties, under  Maximian  (at  Milan),  Diocletian, 
Galerius  (sometimes  called  Maximian  II.),  and 
Constantius. 

298.  Galerius  extends  the  empire  eastward  as  far  as  the 
Tigris. 

303.  Diocletian's  Persecution. 

305.  May  i.  Abdication  of  Diocletian  and  of  Maximian. 

306.  Maxh'iiait  resumes  the  purple.      Constaiitius  dies  at 

York,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Constantine  I. 

307.  Constantine    I.    marries  Fausta,   daughter  of    his 

rival  Maximian. 


308.  Six  emperors  contend  for  the  Roman  empire:  viz., 
ins,    Lieinius,    Maximin,   Maximian,   " 
s,  and  Constantine  I. 


Max- 


310.  Maximian    is    captured    by    Constantine     I.,    and 

Strangled  nt  Marseilles. 

311.  Death  of  Galerius,  or  Maximian  II. 

312.  Constantine  I.  adopts  as  his  ensign  the  sign  of  the 

cross  (<j.  c.),  and  establishes  Christianity.— Oct. 
28.  Maxeulius,  defeated  by  Constantine  I.  at 
Saxa  Kubra,  is  drowned  in  the  Tiber  in  his  flight. 

313.  April    30.     Maximin    is     defeated     by   Lieinius    ai 

Heraclea,  and  dies  at  T;>rsus  shortly  afterwards. 

314.  Oct.  K.  Constuntiiiu  I.   defeats  his  rival  Liciuius  at 

Cibalis  (,,.,:). 

323,  Sep.  i«.   Lieinius  is  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Chry- 

sopoHs.  after  which  Constantine  I.  reigns  alone. 

324.  Lieinius   is   murdered   by  order   of  Constantine    I., 

who  removes  to  Constantinople  (q.v.). 
337.  The  empress  Kausta  is  put  to  death. 

330.  The  seat  of  government    is  transferred  to  Constan- 

tinople, and  Christianity  is  formally  reeo-ni/.ed 
as  the  established  religion.  C'onsta'ntine  I.  di- 
vides the  empire  into  the  Kastem,  Illyrian, 
Italian,  and  Gallic  prefectures. 

331.  The  heathen  temples  are  destroyed. 

334.  A  revolt  of  300,000  Sarmatian  slaves  is  suppressed. 

337,  May  23-  Doath  of  Constantino  I. — Sep.  n.  Constan- 
tine II.  reigns  in  Caul,  Con-tans  I.  in  Italy  and 
Afriea.  and  Constantius  II.  in  the  Kast. 

340,  Mareh.  Constans  I.  defeats  his  rival  Constantine  II. 
at  Aquileia,  and  ])iits  him  to  death. 

350.  Constans  I.  is  put  to  death  in  Gaul  by  the  rebel 
Magnentius. 

355.  Julian  marries  Helena,  sister  of  the  Emperor,  and 
is  proclaimed  < 

361.  Julian,  proclaimed  Augustus  by  the  legions  at  Paris, 
immediately  abjures  Christianity,  but  publishes 
a  decree  of  universal  toleration. 

363.  Julian    invades    Persia.—  .lime  26.    He   is  killed   in 

battle,  and  is  succeeded  by  Jovian,  who  restores 
ianity. 

364,  March  28.  Valentinian  I.  shares  the  empire  with  his 

brother  Valens,  who  reigns  as  Augustus  at  Con- 
stantinople. This  originates  the  Eastern  and 
'Western  empires  (<?.?».). 

395.  The  government  of  the  Western  empire  is  trans- 
ferred from  Rome  to  Milan. 

404.  Honorius  restores  the  walls  of  Rome. 

408.  Rome  is  besieged  by  Alaric  I.,  King  of  the  Goths. 

409.  Alaric  I.  retires  on  the  receipt  of  a  heavy  ransom. 

410.  Aug.  24.    It  is  taken  by  Alaric  I.  and  undergoes  a 

six  days'  pillage. 

417.  The  restoration  of  the  city  is  completed. 
455,  June  15—29.    Rome  is  taken  and  sacked  by  the 

Vandals  under  Genseric. 
472,  July  n.  It  is  sacked  by  Count  Ricimer,  general  of 

the  barbarians. 
476.  Odoacer  takes  Rome  and  assumes  the  title  of  King 

of  Italy,  which  terminates  the  history  of  ancient 

Rome,  and  puts  an  end  to  the  Western  empire. 
500.  Theodoric  the  Great  visits  Home. 

536,  Dec.  10.  Belisarius  enters  Rome. 

537,  March  11.  Vitiges,"  King  of  the  Goths,  lays  siege  to 

Rome. 

538,  March.    Vitiges  is  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  by 

Belisarius. 

546,  May.  Another  siege  is  commenced  by  the  Gothic 
king  Totila.— Dec.  17.  Totila  takes  the  city. 


A.D. 

547,  Feb.  Belisarius  recovers  Rome. 
541).  Totiia  again  seizes  the  city. 

553.  It  is    wrested  from  the   Goths  by  Narses  and  an- 
nexed   to    the     Eastern    empire.      Justinian    I. 
abolishes  the  senate. 
595.  The  Lombard-  In  ,-i,  ge  Rome. 

600.  According   to  Gibbon,  "  Rome  had  reached,  about 
the  close  of  the  6th  century,  the  lowest  period  of 
her  depression." 
"  727.  Ina,  King  of  Wessex,  founds  an  English  church  at 

Rome  in  honour  of  the  Virgin. 
728.  Rome  becomes  an  independent  republic,  under  the 

temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Pope. 
754-  Rome  is  delivered  trom  the  Lombards  by  Pepin. 
790.  Off  a,    King    of    Mercia,    extends    the   payment   of 

Romescot.     (See  PETE u  Pi: 
800,  Dee.  25.  Charlemagne  is  crowned  Emperor  of  Rome 

and  of  the  West,  at  Rome. 
846.  Rome  is  threatened  by  the  Saracens. 

he  Germans  capture  Rome. 
v  ..  )'i  b.  2.  Otho  I.  is  crowned  at  Rome  by  John  XII. 

(Sir  HOLY  ROHAN  KMI-IHK.) 

1055.  The  title  King  of  the  Romans  (q.r.)  is  created. 
1081.  The  Emperor  Henry  IV.  lays  siege  to  Rome. 
1083,  June  9.  Henry  IV.  enters  Borne. 
mi,  Feb.   12.  A  treaty  is  signed  at  Rome  between  the 

Emperor  Henry  V.  and  the  Pope.' 
1144.  The  Roman  senate  is  restored. 
1155.  Arnold  of  Brescia  is  burned  at  Rome. 

i !  le  of  Tuseulum.     Frederick  I.  takes  Rome. 

le  of  Viterbo. 
1252 — 5s-    Rome   under  the   government  of   the   senator 

Brancaleone. 
1265.  The    Romans    elect    Charles    of    Anjou   perpetual 

1278.  Charles  is  compelled  by  the  Pope  to  abdicate. 
1309.  The  Pope  (Clement  V.)  removes  to  Avignon. 

1341,  April  8.  ]Mrarch  Is  crowned  with  'laurel  in  the 
Capitol. 

1347,  May  20.  Cola  di  Rienzi  assumes  the  government. — 
Aug.  I.  He  is  invested  with  the  order  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  in  the  Lateran,  with  great,  pomp.- 
Nov.  20.  He  puts  to  death  Stephen  and  John 
Colonmi.— Dec.  15.  He  is  compelled  to  abdicate. 

1351.   Rien/.i  finds  an  asviuin  at  Avignon. 

1354.  Rien/.i  is  restored' to  power  by  Pope   Innocent  VI., 
•made  senator  of  Rome. — Oct.  8.  Iticnzi  is 
murdered  by  the  populace. 

1434,  May  29.  The  Romans  revolt  against  the  temporal 
authority  of  the  Pope. 

1450.  Nicholas  V.  commences  the  cathedral  church  of  St. 
Peter. 

1453,  Jan.  9.  Stephen  Porcaro  is  hanged  for  sedition. 

building  of    St.   Peter's  is  resumed  by   Pope 
Julius  II. 

1527,  May  6.  Rome  is  assailed  by  the  Constable  de  Bourbon. 

1593.  TlK'  academv  of  St.  Lake  is  founded. 

Nation  <  f  St.  Peter's  by  Irbaii  VIII. 
.   id.   The  Jesuits  are  expelled. 

t~'}~,  I  lee.  27.  Ail  insurrection  breaks  out.  in  which  Gen. 
Duphot  is  killed.— Dec.  29.  The  French  embassy 
quits  the  fity. 

1798,  Feb.  10.  The  French  army  under  Berthier  enters 
Rome.—  l-'eb.  15.  Pins  VI.,  deprived  of  his  tem- 
poral authority,  is  removed  from  Rome.— .March 
2o.  The  French  proclaim  the  Roman  republic. — 
Nov.  29.  They  abandon  the  city  to  the  Aea- 
polita 

1800,  July  3.  Pius  VII.  repairs  to  Rome. 

1806,  Feb.  13.  Napoleon  I.  asserts  that  he  is  Emperor  of 
Kome.  and  the  Pope  only  his  viceroy. 

1808,  Feb.  2.  The  French  enter  Rome.—  May "gi.  Napoleon 

I.  annexes  the  papal  states  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  of  which  he  declares  Rome  the  second 
city. 

1809,  May  17.    Napoleon   I.   declares  Rome  a  free   and 

imperial   city  of    the    French    empire. — July    5. 

Arrest  of  Pius  VII.  by  Gen.  Radet. 
1811,  March  20.  Birth  of  Napoleon's  son,  who  receives 

the  title  of  King  of  Rome. 
1814,  Jan.  23.  Pius  VII.   returns   to  Rome.— Aug.  7.  He 

restores  the  Jesuits  and  the  Inquisition. 
1819,  April   2.   The  Emperor  and   Empress  of   Austria 

visit  Rome. 
1823,  July  '5-  The  church  of  St.  Paul  is  destroyed  by 

1846,  June  16.  Cardinal  Mastai  Ferrcti  is  raised  to  the 
popedom  by  the  title  of  Pius  IX. 


ROME 


t    851     ] 


ROME 


A.D. 

1847, 


July  13.  A  plot  to  create  a  popular  insurrection  is 
discovered. 

9.  Battle  of  the  Piave.  —  Nov.  15.  Count 
si,  minister  of  justice,  is  assassinated. — Nov. 
16.  An  insurrection  breaks  out,  and  Cardinal 
Palma,  the  Pope's  secretary,  is  killed.— Nov.  24. 
Pius  IX.  quits  Home  in  disguise.— Nov.  27.  Pius 
IX.  protests  at  Gaeta  against  the  revolution.  The 
French  Government  dispatches  M.  c'.e  Corcclles, 
with  a  force  of  3,500  men,  to  his  assi.'tam'c.  - 
Dec.  II.  A  commission  of  regency  is  appointed. 

1849,  Feb.  5.  The  "Constituent  Assembly"  meets.— Feb. 

8.  It  declares  the  Pope  deprived  of  all  temporal 
power,  and  proclaims  the  Koman  republic. — Feb. 
14.  Pius  IX.  protests  against  his  loss  of  tem- 
poral power.— Feb.  18.  Pius  IX.  appeal*  for  as- 
sistance to  the  Koman  Catholic  powers. — April 
36.  A  French  army  under  Marshal  Oudinot  occu- 
pies Civita  Vecchia.— April  30.  The  French  fail 
in  an  attack  on  the  city.— May  5.  The  Koman 
forces  under  Garibaldi  defeat  the  Neapolitans. — 
June  3.  The  French  commence  the  siege  of  Kome. 
— June  21.  They  enter  the  city. — June  30.  It  sur- 
renders to  the  French.— July  3.  Oudinot  enters 
and  sends  the  keys  to  the  Pope.— July  4.  Disso- 
lution of  the  Constituent  Assembly. — July  15. 
The  papal  authority  is  restored.— Aug.  3.  The 
French  general  proclaims  the  restoration  of  the 
Pope,  and  announces  that  the  city  will  remain 
under  the  protection  of  a  French  army  of  occupa- 
tion.—Sep.  4.  Pius  IX.  visits  the  King  of  Naples 
atPortici. — Sep.  12.  He  publishes  an  amnesty,  and 
promises  judicial  and  administrative  reforms. 

1850,  April  12.  Pius  IX.  returns  to  Kome. — Sep.  24.  He 

publishes  a  bull  establishing  a  Komau  Catholic 
hierarchy  in  England.  Assassinations  are  fre- 
quent. 

1851,  April  25.  A  concordat  is  signed  with  Tuscany. 
1853,  Aug.  15.  Alarm  is  given  of  unintended  insurrection, 

in  consequence    of    which    many    arrests    take 

place. 

185.5,  Aug.  18.  A  concordat  is  signed  with  Austria. 
1857,  Mav  4-  l'm3  IX.  leaves  Kome  on  a  tour  through  his 

dominion*.— Sep.  5.  Pius  IX.  returns  to  Rome. 

1859,  Feb.  22.  Pius  IX.  announces  his  readiness  to  make 

arrangements  for  the  evacuation  of  his  territories 
by  the  French  and  Austvians.— June  15.  Pius  IX, 
protests  against  the  insurrections  in  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  other  places.— June  20.  His  forces 
bombard  and  take  Perugia.— July  12.  Pius  IX. 
protests  against  Sardinian  interference  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Komagna.— Aug.  26.  A  concordat 
is  signed  with  the  Queen  of  Spain,  who  engages 
to  send  an  army  of  occupation  into  the  Roman 
states,  in  case  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
troops. — Sep.  I.  Opening  of  the  national  assembly 
of  the  Komagna  at  Bologna. — Sep.  7.  The  as- 
sembly unanimously  votes  in  favour  of  sepa- 
ration from  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope. — 
Sep.  26.  Pius  IX.  annuls  all  the  acts  of  the  as- 
sembly.— Oct.  i.  A  decree  is  published  ordering 
public  acts  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  name  of  King 
Victor  Emauuel. — Oct.  9.  The  Sardinian  ambas- 
sador quits  Koine. — Nov.  6.  Prince  Eugene  di 
Savoy-Carignan  is  invested  with  the  regency  of 
the  Komagna.— Nov.  14.  He  declines  the  office, 
which  is  conferred  upon  Gen.  Buoncompagni.— 
Dec.  7.  Pius  IX.  again  protests  ngainst  the  in- 
terference of  Sardinia.— Dec.  24.  Modena,  Parma, 
and  the  Komagna  are  formed  into  the  province 
of  .(Emilia. — Dec.  31.  Napoleoii  HI.  insists  upon 
the  cession  of  the  legations. 

1860,  Jan.  8.  Pius  IX.  refuses  to  surrender  the  Legations. 

— Jan.  27.  The  concordat  with  Tuscany  is  an- 
nulled.— March  19.  Kome  is  the  scene  of  riots  on 
•the  anniversary  of  Garibaldi's  birthday.— March 
20.  Suppression  of  the  Lombard  concordat. — 
March  26.  Pius  IX.  excommunicates  all  who 
have  taken  any  part  in  the  rebellion  of  his  pro- 
vinces.— March  29.  It  is  published. — May  I.  Pius 
IX.  appeals  to  the  Roman  Catholics  of  every 
nation  for  a  loan  of  50,000,000  francs. — May  19. 
An  irruption  of  Tuscan  volunteers  under  Gen. 
Ziambianchi  into  the  Papal  States  is  repulsed. 
— Sep.  6.  An  insurrection  commences  in  the 
Marches.  —  Sep.  7.  The  Sardinian  Government 
demands  the  dismissal  of  the  foreign  troops  from 
the  papal  army. 


A.D. 

1860,  Sep.  9.  The  Sardinian  general,  Fanti,  threatens  to 
invade  the  Koman  states.—  Sep.  II.  Cardinal 
Antonelli,  papal  secretary  of  state,  rejects  the 
Sardinian  ultimatum,  in  consequence  of  which 
Gens.  Fanti  and  Cialdini  enter  the  papal  terri- 
tories. —  Sep.  12.  Cialdini  occupies  Pesaro.  — 
Sep.  13.  He  seizes  Sinigaglia.  —  Sep.  14.  Fanti 
takes  Perugia.  —  Sep.  18.  The  papal  troops  under 
Lamoriciere  are  defeated  by  Cialdini,  at  Castel- 
fidardo.  The  Sardinian  admiral,  Persano,  bom- 
bards Ancona.  —  Sep.  28.  Pius  IX.  protests  against 
the  Sardinian  invasion.  —  Sep.  29.  Ancona  surren- 
ders to  the  Sardinians.—  Oct.  6.  The  Sardinians 
evacuate  the  papal  cities,  which  are  occupied  by 
the  French.  —  Nov.  3.  The  result  of  popular  suf- 


frage  in  the  Marches  is  published,  ai 
in  favour  of  a 


greatly 

on  to  Piedmont.  —  Nov.  4. 
Protest  of  the  papal  government  against  it. 

1861,  Feb.   15.    The   pamphlet    u  La    France,   Rome,    et 

l'Italie"is  published  at  Paris.—  Feb.  26.  Cardinal 
Antonelli  replies  to  it  in  a  note  to  the  papal 
minister  at  Paris.  —  March  27.  Count  Cavour  states 
in  the  Sardinian  chambers  that  it  is  essential 
to  make  Rome  the  capital  of  Italy.  —  April  15. 
The  papal  government'  protests  against  Victor 
Emaiiuel's  assumption  of  the  title  of  "King  of 
Italy."  —  May  21.  A  petition  for  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  troops,  signed  by  10,000  of  the 
inhabitants,  is  forwarded  to  Napoleon  III. 

1862,  Jan.  6.  A  railway  to  Ceprano  is  opened.  —  March  25. 

Pius  IX.  pronounces  an  allocution  in  favour  of 
the  temporal  power.  —  June  8.  Twenty-three 
monks  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Philippine 
Islands  during  the  i6th  century,  are  canonized 
with  great  pomp. 

1864,  Sep.  15.  A  treaty  for  the  evacuation  of  Home  by 

the  French  army,  within  two  years,  is  concluded 
between  Italy  and  France.  —  Dec.  8.  Pius  IX. 
issues  an  Encyclical  Letter  announcing  a  uni- 
versal jubilee  for  1865. 

1865,  Jan.  5.  By  decree  in  the  Moniteur  the  last  part  only 

of  the  Encyclical  Letter  is  allowed  to  be  pub- 
lished in  France.—  Feb.  8.  The  Bishops  of  Be- 
sancon  and  Moulins  are  reprimanded  by  imperial 
decree  for  having  read  the  whole  of  the  Ency- 
clical Letter  from  their  pulpits.  —  April  15  —  May  4. 
Signer  Vegezzi  visits  Kome  on  a  special  mission 
to  Pius  IX.  from  the  Italian  Government.  —  June  5 
—  2,1.  Signor  Vegezzi  visits  Kome  on  a  second 
special  mission  to  Pius  IX.  from  the  Italian  Go- 
vernment. —  Sep.  27.  Pius  IX.  condemns  Free- 
masonry and  Fenianism. 

1866,  Oct.  29.  Pius  IX.  delivers  two  allocutions  :  in  the  one, 

while  condemning  the  conduct  of  the  Italian 
Government,  protesting  against  the  invasion  and 
usurpation  of  the  Papal  territories,  and  de- 
nouncing the  attempt  to  make  Rome  the  capital 
of  Italy,  he  expresses  his  determination  to  uphold 
the  temporal  power  ;  and  in  the  other  he  refers  to 
the  violation  bv  the  Russian  Government  of  the 
concordat  of  1848.  —  Dec.  2  —  it-  Departure  of  the 
French  garrison.  —  Dec.  8.  Pius  IX.  addresses  an 
invitation  to  Roman  Catholic  bishops  to  assemble 
at  Rome  in  June,  1867,  to  celebrate  the  i8th 
centenary  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  the  canonization  of  several 
martyrs,  confessors,  and  virgins.  —  Dec.  9.  Pius 
IX.  grants  a  farewell  interview  to  the  officers  of 
the  French  troops  in  Rome.  —  Dec.  15.  Signor 
Tonello,  on  a  mission  from  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment, is  received  by  Pius  IX.—  Dec.  17.  Gen. 
Hontebello  leaves  Rome. 


KINGS   OF   ROME. 

Began  to  reign. 
B.C. 


Began  to  reign. 

B.C. 

753.  Romulus. 
715.  Numa  Pompilius. 
673.  Tullus  Hostilius. 
640.  Ancus  Martius. 
510.  Consular  government  is  established,  under  Brutus 
and  Collatinus. 


616.  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

578.  Servius  Tullius. 

534.  Tarquinius  Superbus. 


27-  Augustus  Caesar. 
A.D. 
14.  Tiberius. 


EMPERORS   OF   ROME. 
A.D. 


37.  Caligula. 
41.  Claudius  I. 
54-  Nero. 

31 


HMMII  ANY 


ilb*. 
((Mho. 

69       M    M 

Till-,. 

l(l     \i 

•n.  HUN,  M 

•  OHIllllH. 

I'urtl 


(ll.ill,h,M»     „ 

n  in 

.:||     I'lui,. 

I!       til 

im,l     (llll- 


153. 


•I..,,. 

.si,*.  MiiiHiiu-.  II.  mi, I  (juln 
nd    .M,i-i 


I  I.,  III. 

ilmliu. 

...in  I. 

MIL  I 

In),    tf*i 

niiil  I  i 

III*,    l.l.iiiliiK,     niiil 


M..I      I       ..II        I.  II,  till.          II 

1 

i  ,  ii,.  i  •,   Ron  in  iicrau  . 

i  r  \i,\  .  I'oi-i   .  \v  i    ii  UN  EMPIRI 
i;<  i.\i  HAN  i    (Battle),     Tin'     Luatrl 

foiltod    ICa--"!-  -l.i.    I  111  icl.el,     ill     I  Ills 

OlU!OUlltor,   \\  h  i,-h  : 

i;.  'Mui;  \.\  n\     Kranco)   u  m  .•.iptuiv,!   i,\- 
i   the   i:i:i,  i,    i'i  in- 

lid  ,.f  Romo 

mil  in  \\.is  Issued  n. 

RONOAGLIA      n  '     I..-I.1  .-. 

,ii,t   hen  In  <>i   i:.. 

lOC'ldcd   in  favour  of    the1  impel  ial  ;nil  I  in 
rii.V  in   i 
ll()N< 

in  i  in-  \  aii,-\   ,  .1  i  in-  same  n 

celel.raled     :r<      tin-      s|i,,|       \\  |1(-|-,-       !;,,[  :i 
i      p  •-.  i       ,>i     I  i   HI,,-,   \\lin    II.-K!   invade.  I   Spain   in 
i,      ,l,-l,-:it,.i|    ami 

.  ..us,    li-il    liy    Ilii-ir    dnl.e,    l.ii|»i. 

ire  ;i  limnhvil  pl.i. 
inoii  mill.  I  keep  t  he   \\  lmlc 
\\-iirlil  from  pa-;sinr.    Tin-  III.  irk    I'i  inrr  invaded 

Spain  through  MII    i 

ll  l'i-a  I  ,-,  I     lici-c     1  1\      t  lif     I'Yriii  Ii     in    .1  inn', 

14,      Sit-    \     Wi'llrslcy 

.1     Sniilt     in    his    atli-nipl-i    In   I'l.n-c    Ihc 

RONCIO  LION  E  (Italy),    Thisoounty,  wi,i,-i. 

lii-ramr    par!  nl'   !  lie    I'apal  Slat, 

annexed    i«     lln-    m-\\     l.in;-,,l,.in     »(     Italy     in 

iH.,,,  („,. 

HONDA     Spain     \\.-r.    t',,un,lr,l  l,y  Hi- 
anil  l.d-alii.-    !lu-   capital    ,.!'   Ill,'    iM,.,.ii.--li    cl.icl 


M.oii    Mi-lir    n.  :  [Cj  :m,| 

doomed 

ml      of 
Spain     ill      i.  (!'.,.       The    Span 

i:<  nth.     i  hi   old  i,  t  m  fi  i,  or  a 

in  M»KS. 

I:<MIT  IND-BKANCH    d 

repiil.liean  party,  wh, 

ol'    I  he    •  UOtiOU    "('    I  he 

1  'hni-eh  of    Km. land  dl  1,,-llion, 

.;    mm  d  Mr    name  aboul 
K'tl'K  MAK  I  NG       Tin 
li'mnans  n    od   I  he    I,  ml I ,1      for  I  h,  ir 

nary  in 

spin  t  h,  bar!  of  troi 

Maehim  i  ,      |o    .iid     lln-     in.inual    ope 
latinn    ',-  nled   l.y   S\  I 

and  patented  in    i  /  ;  |.       It 

d    |,.r    In  nip  .,!    I  In 

MI,,  tin     Mount 

a     paten!     had    1 ,,  ,  n     1,,-ln,,-    I.il  .  n    mil     |,,i    I  In- 
.Hue   i  ,i  n  i ....     in    Km-  l.i  m  I 

1,'iH.n  KM. 

li'H.I  ,,,U1I-    in      All 

ill!   ii  -m    I  he  I  inn.:  ,,f  I  In 

HOHAMONlrS    I'.IIWKI:      Rosan I,    the 

.       Of       1.,'ld     (  'Illlnid.      I  i,    . 

Hem      M      in.rt  l\  bcfon 

t ,,    I  he    I  hr,  me,    in    [1 

injnrv.    II, -in  \     II.  kept     In  i    in    . 

ai  w isinei,;  the  approaches  to  which  formed 

in!  i  loate    I  h.,l     il    i  mild    only  I.e 

i  bread 

"  hieh    I  d    I"!'  I  ha!    pull 

|-:iealior  i,,  :.aid   to  h.,  inolid  's 

ret  nal   l.y     means   of    llns    I  I.,  ha\,- 

! ;. .-  i  m l   ',.  .1    i  HI  i  i,  d   ,  i 

<  lodstow    <  'lnirch,  whence    her    I  .• 
InoVed   lii  I  he  eoniliioli  ceiiiel  1-1  \-    I  ,y    ||n      ! 
,.|     lam-nln    m    IIOI  ;    I, ill     I  Ins    u  , 
I    in   I  In-  church. 

\    Roman    Catholic  d,  - 

lied    l.y 

SI  .    I  '..mini, •    al.ont     , 

and  abo  of  1  in- 

Mosheim,    win, 

account  B in  the 

,. .1  n  century,     it  com  Lsta  in  roi 

the  I'alei-iio.'  ler,  and 
1  lie  e,  .niplll  a  ' 

•   -I    I. .1    I  1m     , 

i  in-d  the  name  ,  •! 

I,,  the  Ai.i.e  Provost,  it  . 

Id  tO    I"'  in    hoaniir    of    tin-  Ml,  , 
\\  hieh     t  he    \  ir'Hi     Mary    liorc  :, 
:  ill,  n  into  m 
aim, it    i 

HOSAS  (Spain),  anf-ienlly  called   |{hoda,  and 
said    In   have  lieen   loimded    I  >y    t  In-    Khn.i 
the   n.th    century   i<  ,  n   l>y   I  In-  Sara 

.  n  l.y  the  French  In  1645.  in  10 

i'hev   were    defeated     In-    .- 
l.\      tin 

,  i     arm,  d      VOH   el  I,      anehored    in      the 
.av,   protected    I  ,y    t  he  p,  ,wei  fn  I  I  >al  I ,  i  n-;  of  t  he 

to\sii  ami  oaitle,  were  out  out  l.y  ti,,- i.oais  ,.f 


ROSBACE 


853 


.m  i  ,n  h  H  quadrou,  and  i  I.K- nt.  T.ui'.m  ,  ,,,,i 
bolo  "i    i ii'  HI  captured 

.     I.       ll    Ml       I,,    .     . 

|.i.-.|     l,\     tliO   I  IpOUiai  '    I'V    I. IK: 

French,  uudi 

.  I   -UK! 

I1''  i|    !         I    I    II  IK  I.I'  I  ,   .  'I'll!', 

Kovfllioi    w.i.i  :ili..ii!     fco     "i  NMldl  i  ,  when     l.i. nl 
Hi!,,     l-i  !     I I,, 'I    v,  i!  ii    in    1  IngU    Ii   foi 

repulwjd  I  w  o  u     uiltM  ol  i  be  I  i'1  n<  ii  wil 

!<l;in;-  III  or.      'I!'1    Gitiidel,    Ii"  ,'->,'  i  ,     Iliri 

m. i   i,.. i, i  Coohran  Ith  i  be 

i  i  j|    I  h.-  Ii  >i  i    '  'i  i   I  •  <  '-i  i  .  I   1 1 1 .  .   •.  •     .  •  I      I  •'• '     i 
I  In      I'M   ucli    in    ,\|H  il,    [8l  | 

l,i .,  i;  Mil.    oi     KOSSHAt'll      i;.,ii  ii 

1 1 1 1 <  •  I     :  1 1      I  1 1 1 ; ,    |  .  I  i  •   .    ,    in     i 
II..      '.'-.I        |0,OOO      I   i'  ii'-ll      :ilnl 

:iii<l   An 

woimiii  ti,  .in. i   |,>  i  onen  ,     i  be  i>  ii  1 1.  m  M  .,i 
i  i.y  Napoleon   I.  i it., 

bl   M    In-   '  in  Ifl'f  i  I    lln:    ruliiin  n  .   i   i  • 

I"  COD m, i. Hi-  I  In:    vn-t.oiy,  Io 

I,.       .   Ill    :i .:  :i    I  |i.|iliy    L.    l':irlH. 

i;<  >,  IUEI '.     i.'1  '.'.Kill';!,!!;!':.     or    i;</,  BACH 
Uharli      VI.,   K  lu     ol     Pram  .  .    di 
Eeated  the  revolted  N'  therl  md<  r«und<  <•  I'liiiip 
vuii  ,\rii:\.  M,  al   IID    town  MI  Flandi 

•  I.M.MHN     Ireland).       The     \ 

(..-..lilt-  in.  ni loned  I.-,  Ptolemy    .  •/,    16 

\i  ...  later  i"  riod  >i 

WIIH      of  f  ll|  in  .  I       h  y      III.:       I'.  .  I       .III.  I       I  IK 

<)'(' i 

I  lir     <  )   Kf  lly:i.        Mil.  an      l'.n:-h,,li 

adventurer,    tii    -  L.I    i>,     Mm,  .u^ii     MOM    <>i' 
i:<t.ii  1 1,-,  K  in;-,  ni  1 1.  land  ided  >< . 

•m  I  it  lit  1 1     I , ,    i ,  i  i .  .1 1     in      IO7J.        It,    W:IH 

i  by  William  do  Uurgo  Fitzafdi  lin,  Lord 

i,  i  i  .inn  IP  -i  ,ni  i  104,    'Hi.   abbe]  i "'  i  IK  order 

i.l     I'M    n  I, n.       I    i  i.ii        WOH    lniiii.li'. I    l.y  <  H  '..IKH  , 

i    Connaught,    about    >  - ,  /  .    ••'  IK  i    i  IK- 

ili.    i  u  i  n . ,  .  ,1    --.  li  K  l>   .M  ,       I  1 1 1    to 

WHH  i.niii,  i.y  sir   ftoberl  di    i  fiord   In  .  68 

Aliilt.i,  I. mil    HI    i      [6,       'I'll.'     jinVVcr 

<>i    i  in:   ( » ( lonon    •>••''  ;   brol  •  n   in    a 

;•,.!  .IK  .  i   over    i  M'  i  M    i . ,    HK    LU   1 1  i>   in    ii 

Ivided  ini"  IM i 

i,  ...I  .,i  i. if  -..,!,.  MI.    1 1,.  Q'(  lonor  i'on  bavlug 

|'.n  I       wil.ll      Mir.      II     I.   i      in     MI    ',.   nl/,      In 

in    i.,|  i   ;    I. ill,  In;  W:IM 

•  .  '   '  I       I  n       |  >'  .  |  1:1  l  I      nl 

n :it  i  IM-   I:.  Btoral  K.n   in    n.i.  .      i ;•• 

oi  I'.oyif,  now  in  M  mnded  in  xi  i •  ;. 

•• ,      I  II.      .-In.    I     I',/,  u      ..I       I  IK:     munly, 

<i'-riv<  .I    n     origin   i i    i  IK-  abbey  I..UIKI.  .1 

by  .SL    ( 'OIIKI ii    111     ;jo,      li     i •  H  in.  1 1  ,      'nl    l    , 

UK- mi.f  i;<  io    i1;, i liaini'iii ,    imi,   WUM  dinfran 
chined  Jan    r,  t8os. 

|{.<)S('i;iv\     i;i  i,.,|.i  K       :'i     ( ' ,in,    win 

Mom  i    In-. I     .-il.onl     l,    .,,    loiiinl.  >l     :i    OKU, 

I  In       |.l.i.  ••    m     I  M   I. m. I.   .ili.l     ll      I, 

ol     .|.h'"<       '        |,  .ill'   '  I    I  o    K  I  ll.llot:    ,i  I  Mill  I 

I ; '  i,  .  i',      'I'd,      l'i .  »>  i  n  1 1 '  >,  |  IK-,  , 

I 1  oi  1 1  1 1.,  i  y  befon   i  ,'.'.,  1 1 1,  .1.0 

III.         oi  1 1  li     ol     I   i  .UK,         I  ii   loi  i-     l    ,/  ;   ;      I  In       

,  i  oiu    N.    Ann  rn -:i,,     I  I  In     10   . 

willnilll.   llioniM,    :il:o    lloni     N.     \nnrif.-i,     lirlor. 

i.n'1  I  In;    «  'Imi.-i    rOtC,    Irom    (   liin.-L,  iilion 


uoNi'i.M  \  i:  .     [ttLAND  •    DAicnu 

\\:u-  of).— (See    LANKJAHTIUA:, 
if  O  K  K 1 1   i 

ROSI'/ITAf  BgJ  ptt,       kid  I"  I'''..     l»  '  n  It  nil  nh  il 

i  MK  i  ni  .  .1  I  In  .->  |.  1 ,1  :i  I  ,  .  I  I  In  '  'ini  ,i  I  I  ,'.i,  Ii  n  I , 
lii.Mll  :;/  ,,  \v,i,  I  il  '  n  aDd  lorl  lln  .1  I.y  lln: 
''n  in-li  in  [708,  .m. I  v.  l  .  I  ,  •  I  lioni  lln  in  I.-,  lln- 

pril  19, 1801      AH  bJuglinh 

.  It  I.  .1 1 ,  .  I     I,  .i  -.-.  In  I  on  n  • 

I  in  I    i    li   I, i.i 

ITA    MToM';    i,     UK     IIMIII.    c,iv.-n    Io  ... 
<!oiii<    in    tin:    llnli:  I,    MUM,  inn,    wlm  l, 

•i  ,\  .  i  i- .  I   >  .1    l''rt- iii- 1 

IK      linn  ,    -I     I  .u  I     ,  '.!      .Inli.  n.    EU)    '  H.,.    in 

i  /.  M         llf. n  i  . .   I  In-    |  to:  ,::<• ;;:,!.  Hi   i  ,1     I  If 

mil     on      lln-     <  .1 1  ,i  I  u  l:i  I  ion     ol      Alt       UKliii.      in 

Hoi,      illld      WUM       I l"lll       I"      I'.lfllll.l      n 

II  i  .  .1   |,K  ,-.    ..I    1,1  ,,  i      bfl  Mil  I    lOfig 
ml      '    h  ,-|,  will.-,    wil  li  .in    in;  'i  i|'i  i»n    in  HIM-,- 

iMKUHK<;« ;    vi/..,    iin-io"!  vein*',    <    fifiiii    or 
.'i    i  in    oouni  1-1     :nni   Qreek,    'l  im 

m  .  i  M.I o.  •  i    ,  Hi..-  i  •'     in.     .  o  . 

ii-uiy  (V.)  i';|.i|iii;iiK:M,  win.   m  .  eeded  io  i  im 

I  In 1.0,      -  •  i,    wln-n    only    loiir  0*   li\  ' 

M.    it  appeari  to  1  rooted  uhoui, 

I  I  I  l.i.i  i.  .1.'.  I'M  K!H.) 
IM  CSK'IMH'I  A.NS.       A    M.-fl    of    v  i 

1 1 1  i  i  .  ,i       i  n    l .1  ny  ,    \\  In  .: ..-    .       i  ,1 ,  i  K  .     l.i-.railH! 

In     I      I    DOW!]    l»    I  In-   pnlilii'   ill   I  In-    l  /I  II   t  . 

III  l', l, I    :i,    Woll.     :i|i|ii  .11  ft|    :i  I    I  ':i  i  ••..- 1   foil! i" 

ii    ;iffoinil    nl'   i  'In  i  ,1  fin    I!..  ,.  nl   i.  n/.     or     Hony 

(IroMH),   :i.  i  h  i  "I I, I.    ..I     lln      i  ,1  li    ft-nlm-y. 

long  loloui  n  m  i  in  i  ;.f  i  .hi   rttu i 

to  <  "-i  IN  my  .-in.  i  i nit-ti  a  Morel  looiei 

iv, w  ;i<ii-|ii.i  v.'iio  lived  i i  in  i'  m  ;i  building 

iMllf.l    S:in,-Ii     8] "         -'.I"  "      01    di«d    :M     th« 

,fi    ui   io6.    '1'in    aooi  !  1 1  •  1 1   1 1  -t  ,in 

I  MM.  I.,  I  inn-  l.y  I  In-  :n  1 1  n  I:  ,;:n  >n  ol  i  K  v  nn  in 
It.  l  :  III  hil'  n,-,  OK I  "I,  .MI  il  Io  I  lif 

lltHl,  illillllfl  ion       ,'l     ll        I.HlM.I,   I          'I  IK       i 
C.lilllH     )i;i\f     Mo I.     l.ffli      lii-:inl     t,| 

ordi  i    'm.  i  MM.-  :,n.  i  UK-  middle  oi  tbi  t8tb 

fflilni-y.    Mo;ilif ini  ftinti-inl      lifil    lln    o. inn;  WUM 

1 1  ,|  ,i  K  - 1  i ,,  i  in  i  'IK  in  i- ;     oi  in,      "i  bippei 
RO8KILD,    or    IHIK.SK  i  i,i»   (Treati( 

n    1 1,  n  in..  1 1,    .on  i    j>  wi  del 
oonomded  IK  n    No  .i«»im  in.  i.l1 

i  .  In    ,  .1  Io  i.il  il ;,    I  In     I  M    .1  -,  .  I    I,  ii  I.  n 

x.   Ghistavui  ,  KIIIR  "'''  Sw.-.i.  n 

,'1 H    '  IVI  i      III'       I-  ni"     .  ,|     I  It  .nl, 

f,  lilt- ll  K  If  I  I       .1       |  M   .If     .1  I        III  1,1       |  il.H   fill 

through  i  in-  UK  'ii  itlon  --i  Prano(  and  Kngland, 

0       i    .o  ,:;.      (S«  ll,\t;i  i  .    I  i.  ..IK      , 


RO.SH  (Bl  ihoprio)     HI..    l''uiKiin:in   founded 

" 

WIIM    ^I'.'lililillly    I'oriiK-tl    .-noiiinl     I  In-     ii 


1 1  ilt.  y 


,|.K  .      mil.   I, m,  I     in   -,70,       A 


Of  I     ll      I I      .1     1,1     ,ln,|,l   I, 

..ml.  il  l,o  Cork    in    , 

I  {OSS      II.  n  I  OK  I      ATM    in  ,  l,      ili.,    I 
l.y     I  I.  in  -,    III.,      m. I      <  nl      nn  nil' 
nn    III     III    i    ...  ..        Tin       privill   ".      '/.M    ;    It    lilioiil     In  .1 

on     lln      petition    "I     lln      mli.il.il.iMl       < 
'liol'         I       l  .     ited     IK''      "L 

I  iifl     '  '.i    I  I.       in      i'. |  ,        .li.liii      K  -,  i  |.   .  ininioi  !   i 

li/.i-il   l.y    l'"|"      ,      III.     "Man  Of     I.'"      ,  '  'h.  'I    In  K 

:il     lln-   .1 1    ".  |.    m    i  /  ,  |,  d   ill  tin: 

U,OSS,    or    M<;\V     HOSS     ll,  I.,,K||.      ,i,,,,mnl..! 

with  w.-iiin  in  i  •!',,,  V..IM  taken  D    •  iwrii, 

:nnl  tin-  loi  I  iln  .ilion,     '.VIM-   t|i  OK'll    IK  ,|   in    if.  t., 


ROSTOCK 


[    854    ] 


ROUEN 


Some  insurgents  who  attacked  the  town  were 
defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  Gen.  John- 
ston, June  4,  1798. 

ROSTOCK  (Germany),  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a,  city  in  1030,  was  taken  and  burned  by  Val- 
demar  I.,  King  of  Denmark,  in  1161.  It  was 
annexed  to  Mecklenburg  in  1323,  and  joined 
the  Hanseatic  League,  from  which  it  separated 
in  1492.  St  Peter  s  Church,  remarkable  for  a 
steeple  420  feet  in  height,  was  founded  at  the 
end  of  the  i2th  century.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1419.  Rostock  was  repeatedly  oc- 
cupied in  the  1 8th  century. 

II'  )TA,  or  COFFEE  CLUB  (London).— This 
political  society,  for  contriving  an  equal  govern- 
ment by  rotation,  was  formed  in  1659.  All 
the  principal  officers  of  state  were  to  be  chosen 
by  ballot,  and  a  certain  number  of  members  of 
Parliament  were  to  be  changed  annually  by 
rotation  —whence  its  name. 

ROTHENBURG  (Bavaria)  was  long  in  the 
possession  of  the  counts  of  Rothenburg,  who 
became  extinct  about  noo,  when  the  town 
was  ceded  to  the  Emperor.  It  was  mortgaged 
by  Conrad  IV.  and  Louis  V.  to  the  house  of 
Hohenlohe  ;  but  on  the  last  occasion  the  town 
redeemed  itself,  and  obtained  a  promise  from 
Louis  V.  in  1335  that  it  should  not  be  mort- 
gaged again.  This  promise  was  confirmed 
by  Charles  IV.  and  Wenceslaus.  RothenbtUV 
remained  in  possession  of  the  empire  till 
1802,  when  it  was  bestowed  on  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria. 

ROTHERIIAM  (Yorkshire)  is  supposed  to 
have  been  founded  early  in  the  Saxon  period, 
and  possessed  a  weekly  market  and  annual  fair 
before  the  Conquest.  Roche  Abbey,  in  the 
neighbourhood,  was  built  in  1147.  A  second 
market  and  fair  were  granted  by  Edward  I.  in 
1307.  The  parish  church,  a  handsome  Gothic 
structure,  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
A  college,  founded  in  1482,  was  suppressed 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  remains 
still  exist,  and  are  used  as  an  inn.  The  Free 
Grammar-school  was  founded  in  1584.  Hollis's 
schools,  for  the  education  of  30  children, 
were  founded  in  1663.  A  meeting-house  for 
DLiseiiters  was  built  in  1705.  Almshouses  for 
four  aged  .females  were  founded  in  1780.  A 
public  library  was  established  in  1 775,  which, 
with  the  news-room  and  dispensary,  founded 
in  1806,  occupy  a  substantial  building  erected 
in  1828.  The  new  Poor-house  was  built  in  1839. 

ROTHERHITHE  (Surrey),  commonly  called 
Redriff,  a  parish  and  suburb  of  London,  is 
noted  for  its  numerous  docks.  The  great  dock, 
finished  in  1700,  was  leased  by  the  South-Sea 
Company  in  1725,  and  called  Greenland  dock. 
It  was  purchased  by  a  company  of  merchants 
in  1807,  and  afterwards  much  enlarged,  and 
called  the  Commercial  dock.  A  new  dock  was 
added  to  it  Jan.  22,  1812.  The  church  was 
built  in  1714  and  1715  ;  but  the  tower  was  not 
finished  till  1739.  It  contains  a  monument  to 
Lee  Boo,  Prince  of  the  Pelew  Islands,  who 
died  of  small-pox  Dec.  29,  1784.  A  fire,  which 
consumed  206  houses,  occurred  June  i,  1765. 
The  Asiatic  cholera  broke  out  here  in  Feb.,  1832. 

ROTHESAY  CASTLE.— This  stcarn-packet 
was  wrecked  on  the  voyage  from  Liverpool  to 
Beaumaris,  near  the  latter  place,  Aug.  17,  1831. 


From  135  to  145  persons  were  sxipposed  to  have 
been  on  board,  of  whom  only  22  were  saved. 

ROTHIERE.— (See  LA  ROTHIERE,  Battle.) 

ROTHWEIL  (Germany)  was  seized  by  the 
French  in  1643.  The  imperial  forces  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  French,  under  Turenne,  in 
1644,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796. 
It  was  bestowed  011  the  Duke  of  Wurternberg 
in  1802. 

ROTTERDAM  (Holland)  derives  its  name 
from  the  river  Rotte,  which  runs  through  the 
town.  It  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  1270. 
Maximilian  besieged  it  in  1489,  and  after  an 
ubVdn-ito  defence  of  six  months,  the  city  sur- 
rendered, on  condition  of  an  amnesty.  A  body 
of  Spaniards,  retreating  from  the  siege  of 
Bricl  in  1572,  were  allowed  to  pass  through 
the  town  in  bodies  of  50,  with  unloaded  arms. 
The  first  detachment  on  entering  slew  the 
guard  at  the  gates ;  the  rest  then  rushed  in, 
and  all  persons  found  in  arms  were  slain. 
The  inhabitants  were  treated  as  if  the  town 
had  been  taken  by  assault.  Rotterdam  was  at 
the  height  of  its  prosperity  in  the  i7th  and 
1 8th  centuries.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French 
in  .Ian.,  1795.  The  Bank  was  founded  in  1635, 
the  Exchange  was  built  in  1736,  and  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  was  founded  in  1771.  The 
Mouse  overflowed  in  1775  and  1825.  The  Mu- 
seum was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1863. 

ROUEN  France,  anciently  called  Rotoma- 
gus,  is  first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (139 — 161), 
as  the  capital  of  the  Velocasses,  a  Celtic  peo- 
ple. It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  North- 
men in  May,  841,  and  July  25,  885  ;  was  ceded 
with  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Neustria,  of 
which  it  was  then  the  capital,  to  the  Normans, 
under  Rollo,  about  911  or  912  ;  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  the  Count  de  Cotentin  in 
930,  and  by  Otho  I.  and  Louis  IV.  of  France 
in  948.  Prince  Arthur  was  murdered  here 
by  order  of  his  uncle  John,  April  3,  1203.  It 
was  conquered  by  Philip  II.  June  4,  1204, 
and  remained  subject  to  the  kings  of  France 
until  taken  by  the  English,  led  by  Henry  V., 
Jan.  19,  1419.  Joan  of  Arc  was  burned  here 
May  30,  1431.  The  town  was  recovered  by 
the  French,  under  Charles  VII.,  in  1449.  It 
revolted  against  Louis  XI.  in  1465,  and  was 
retaken  by  him  in  1466.  The  Huguenots  cap- 
tured it  in  1562,  and  it  was  immediately  be- 
sieged by  the  Royalists,  and  captured  by  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  Oct.  20,  1562,  when  it  was  given 
up  to  pillage  for  eight  days.  The  cathedral 
of  Notre-Dame,  a  splendid  Gothic  edifice,  was 
commenced  in  the  i3th  century,  but  not  com- 
pleted till  the  1 6th.  Rouen  was  made  an 
archbishopric  in  260 ;  and  councils  were  held 
here  in  689,  1049,  1055,  1072,  1073,  1074 ;  Feb., 
1096;  Oct.  7 — Nov.  5,  1118;  in  Nov.,  1119; 
Oct.,  1128;  Feb.  n,  1190;  March  27,  1223;  in 
1231  ;  June  18,  1299 ;  and  Dec.  15,  1445.  Four 
or  five  hundred  Protestants  were  massacred 
here  on  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  Aug.  24,  1572. 
It  was  besieged  for  eight  months  by  Henry  IV. 
in  1593,  and  at  last  taken  by  the  treachery  of 
its  governor.  Its  parliament,  established  in 
1499,  and  suppressed  in  1771,  was  restored  for 
a  third  interval  in  1774.  An  assembly  of 
notables  met  here  in  1596.  A  famine  occurred 
in  1 789  ;  and  the  Revolution  gave  rise  to  some 


ROUGE   CROIX 


855    ] 


ROYAL    ACADEMY 


troubles  in  1792,  1793,  and  1795.  Louis  Philippe 
visited  it  in  May,  1831,  and  again  in  1832. 
The  abbey  church  of  St.  Ouen,  founded  in  the 
6th  century,  was  rebuilt  in  the  i2th  century, 
and  having  been  destroyed  by  fire,  was  again 
rebuilt  in  the  i4th  and  following  centuries. 
It  was  much  damaged  by  the  Huguenots  in 
1562.  The  great  clock-tower  was  built  in  1389, 
and  the  court-house  was  completed  in  1499. 
The  railway  to  Havre  was  opened  May  13,  1847. 

ROUGE  CROIX,  or  RED  CROSS.— This 
pursuivant  was  established,  according  to  Noble, 
by  Henry  V.  (1413 — 22). 

ROUGE  ET  NOIR,  called  also  TRENTE- 
ET-QUARANTE,  a  game  of  chance  introduced 
into  France  about  1789,  was  prohibited  in  1838. 

ROUGE  or  RED  DRAGON.— This  pursuivant 
was  established  by  Henry  VII.,  Oct.  29,  1485. 

ROULETTE  TABLE  was  introduced  on 
the  continent  at  the  commencement  of  the 
iqth  century. 

ROUM.— (See  ICONIUM.) 

ROUMANIA.— The  Danubian  Principalities, 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  were  proclaimed  at 
Jassy  and  Bucharest  to  be  united  into  one 
state  under  the  title  of  Roumania,  Dec.  23, 
1861.  The  first  meeting  of  the  elective  assem- 
blies of  both  states  as  a  common  legislative 
chamber,  was  held  Feb.  6,  1862,  when  a 
ministry  was  appointed,  and  Prince  Alexander 
John  Couza  declared  that  Roumania  should 
for  ever  form  an  independent  state.  A  body  of 
Polish  exiles  who  sought  a  retreat  in  the 
principalities,  were  disarmed  and  their  leaders 
arrested,  April  15,  1864.  The  people  accepted 
by  vote  a  new  constitution,  May  10 — 14,  1864. 
A  conspiracy  was  discovered  against  Prince 
John,  for  alleged  complicity  in  which  Dr.  D. 
Lamberti  and  Prince  G.  Soutzo  were  arrested, 
May  22.  A  large  body  of  troops  seized  Prince 
Couza  in  his  palace,  and  compelled  him  to  sign 
his  abdication,  Feb.  22,  1866.  The  chambers 
proclaimed  the  Count  of  Flanders,  the  brother 
of  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  Hospodar,  Feb. 
23,  and  on  his  refusal  Prince  Charles  of  Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen  was  chosen.  A  congress 
on  the  affairs  of  Roumania  met  at  Paris, 
March  10,  1866. 

ROUMELIA,  or  ROMANIA  (Europe).— 
Corresponding  to  the  ancient  Thrace  and 
Macedonia,  v/as  ravaged  by  the  Turks  in  1321, 
and  portions  were  annexed  to  their  empire  in 
1356  and  1430. 

ROUND,  CATCH,  and  CANON  CLUB.—  (See 
CONCERTS.) 

ROUNDHEADS.— (See  CAVALIERS.) 

ROUND  TABLE.— (See  GARTER,  KENILWORTH 
CASTLE,  KNIGHTS  OF  THE  ROUND  TABLE,  &c.) 

ROUND  TOWERS.— (See  TOWERS.) 

ROUNDWAY  DOWN  (Battle).  — An 
encounter  between  the  Royalists  and  the 
Parliamentarians  took  place  on  Rpundway 
Down,  near  Devizes,  July  13,  1643,  in  which 
the  latter  were  routed  with  great  slaughter. 

ROUSSILLON  (France).— This  old  province, 
nearly  identical  with  the  modem  department 
of  the  Pyrenees-Orientales,  obtained  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Ruscino,  afterwards  called 
Rosciliona,  now  Tour  de  Roussillon,  near  Per- 
pignan  (q.  v.).  The  province  was  made  subject 
to  the  Romans  about  B.C.  58.  It  was  taken  by 


the  Visigoths  in  462,  and  by  the  Saracens  in 
720,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  Pepin  in  759. 
It  was  united  in  the  gih  and  loth  centuries 
with  the  county  of  Ampurius,  in  Spain  ;  from 
which  it  was  separated  towards  the  close  of  the 
latter  century,  and  governed  by  its  own  counts, 
the  last  of  whom  bequeathed  it  to  the  kings  of 
Aragon  in  1178.  John  II.  of  Aragon  ceded  it 
to  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1462,  as  security 
for  money  borrowed.  It  was  restored  by 
Charles  VIII.  to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  in  1493. 
It  was  conquered  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1642,  and 
was  annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees  in  1659.  The  Spaniards  invaded  it 
in  1793,  and  were  expelled  in  1794. 

ROUT.— The  name  given  to  a  fashionable 
evening  assembly  in  London  towards  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  century. 

ROUTIERS.— (See  BRABAN?ONS.) 

ROVEREDO  (Battle).— The  Austrians  were 
defeated  by  the  French  near  this  town,  in  the 
Tyrol,  Sep.  4,  1796.  So  close  was  the  pursuit, 
that  the  republicans  entered  Roveredo  pell- 
mell  with  the  fugitives. 

ROVEROY,  or  ROUVRAY.— (See  HERRINGS, 
Battle  of.) 

ROXBURG  CASTLE  (Scotland),  supposed 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Saxons  while  they 
held  the  sovereignty  of  the  Northumbrian 
kingdom,  was  made  a  royal  palace  by  David  I. 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1124  ;  was 
surrendered  to  the  English  by  William  the 
Lion  in  1174,  as  a  part  of  the  price  of  his 
freedom  ;  but  was  restored  in  1189.  The 
castle  was  seized  by  Edward  I. ;  and  the 
court  of  King's  Bench  was  held  here  in  1292. 
It  was  taken  by  Sir  James  Douglas  by  stra- 
tagem March  6,  1313,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  demolished  by  Robert  Bruce. 
Edward  III.  restored  the  castle,  and  kept 
Christmas  here  in  1335.  Sir  Alexander  Ram- 
say took  it  by  escalade  in  1342  ;  but  it  was 
regained  by  the  English  in  1346,  who  held  it 
till  Aug.  3,  1460,  when  James  II.  of  Scotland 
lost  his  life  in  besieging  it.  His  widowed 
queen,  Mary  of  Gueldres,  then  captured  the 
castle,  and  it  was  entirely  demolished.  The 
Duke  of  Somerset  partly  restored  it  in  1547. 
It  was  given  'up  to  the  Scotch  in  1550,  and 
again  destroyed. 

ROXBURGHE  CLUB  (London).  —  Insti- 
tuted in  1812,  in  commemoration  of  the  sale 
of  the  library  of  John,  third  Duke  of 
Roxburghe,  who  died  March  19,  1804,  for  the 
purpose  of  printing  a  limited  number  of 
impressions  of  MSS.  and  rare  books. 

ROXBURY  (N.  America),  in  Massachusetts, 
was  incorporated  in  1630,  and  was  made  a  city 
by  charter  in  1846. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  (London).— The  Society 
of  Artists,  formed  in  1761,  obtained  a  charter 
Jan.  26, 1765.  A  rupture  occurred  in  Oct.,  1768. 
This  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  under  the  patronage  of  George  III., 
Dec.  10,  1768.  The  Associates  were  created  in 
1769.  The  first  exhibition  of  the  academicians 
took  place  in  Pall  Mall,  Jan.  2,  1769.  George 
III.  in  1771  granted  them  apartments  in  Old 
Somerset  House  ;  and  afterwards,  in  1780,  in 
New  Somerset  House.  Their  first  exhibition 
at  the  latter  took  place  in  May,  1780.  They 


ROYAL  ACADEMY 


t    856    ] 


ROYAL  COLLEGE 


removed  to  the  National  Gallery,  where  the 
first  exhibition  was  opened  May  i,  1838.  The 
report  of  the  Royal  commissioner  appointed 
Feb.  2,  1863,  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  appeared  in  1863. 

PRESIDENTS. 
768.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
793.   Ui-.ijiunin  \\Y-t. 
830.  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence. 
830.  Sir  Martin  A.  Shee. 
850.  Sir  Clmrles  Kastlake. 
866,  Feb.  I.  Francis  Grant. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC  (London'.— 
A  society  bearing  this  title  was  established  in 
1720  for  the  encouragement  of  the  Italian 
opera.  George  Frederick  Handel,  Giovanni 
Bononcini,  and  Attilio  Ariosto,  the  three 
most  eminent  composers  of  the  day,  were 
engaged  to  supply  works  and  superintend 
arrangements  ;  but  the  institution  was  not 
successful,  and  after  an  existence  of  about 
nine  years  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of 
the  quarrels  of  the  singers.  The  Academy  of 
Music  was  founded  by  the  Earl  of  Westmorland 
in  1822.  The  first  concert  took  place  Dec.  8, 
1828,  and  the  charter  of  incorporation  was 
granted  in  1830. 

ROYAL  ADELAIDE.— This  steamer,  from 
Cork  to  London,  which  arrived  at  Plymouth 
Mardi  28,  1850,  and  left  March  29,  with  about 
180  passengers  and  a  crew  of  24  men,  was 
totally  wrecked  on  the  Tongue  Hand,  <>ii  Mar- 
gate, on  the  night  of  Saturday,  March  30, 
when  all  011  board  perished. 

ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.— (See 

ACKKT'LTURAL  SOCII   < 

ROYAL  ASSENT  is  given  to  bills  by  the 
Sovereign  in  person  in  the  House  of  Lords,  or 
by  letters  patent,  under  the  great  seal,  com- 
municated to  both  houses  by  commissions. 
The  assent  is  expressed,  "  Le  roy  (lareyne1 
le  veult,"  and  refused,  "  Le  roy  (la  reyne) 
s'avisera."  A  militia  bill  for  Scotland  in  1707, 
to  which  Queen  Anne  refused  to  give  her 
assent,  is  the  last  instance  of  a  refusal. 

ROYAL  ASTRONOMICAL  SOCIETY  OF 
LONDON.  —  The  Astronomical  Society  was 
founded  in  1820,  and  its  charter  was  granted 
March  7,  1831,  since  which  time  it  has  taken 
the  title  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of 
London. 

ROYAL  CARRIAGE  DEPARTMENT 
(Woolwich),  for  making  gun  carriages,  was 
organized  as  a  distinct  establishment  in  1803. 

ROYAL  CHARTER  screw  steamer,  Capt. 
Taylor,  bound  from  Port  Phillip,  Australia,  to 
Liverpool,  was  totally  wrecked  in  Redwharf 
Bay,  on  the  Anglesey  coast,  during  the  night, 
Oct.  25,  1859,  459  lives  being  lost.  The  vessel 
had  from  £500,000  to  ,£800,000  worth  of  gold 
on  board,  much  of  which  was  recovered. 

ROYAL  CHARTERS.— (See  CHARTER.) 

ROYAL  CIRCUS  THEATRE  (London).— 
Opened  for  equestrian  performances  in  1783, 
and  destroyed  by  fire  Aug.  12,  1805,  was  rebuilt 
and  its  name  changed  to  Surrey  Theatre 
(q.  v.},  April  23,  1810. 

ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  CHEMISTRY.— (See 
CHEMISTRY,  College.) 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE  (Dublin),  founded 
Aug.  2,  1769,  and  opened  in  1779,  was  built  at 


a  cost  of  ,£40,000.  This  sum  was  raised  partly 
by  Parliamentary  grants,  partly  by  subscrip- 
tions, and  partly  by  lotteries. 

ROYAL  EXCHANGE  (London).— The  foun- 
dation of  the  original  edifice  was  laid  by  Sir 
Thomas  Gresham,  June  7,  1566.  Queen 
Elizabeth  opened  it  Jan.  23,  1571,  and  by  the 
£ound  of  trumpets  her  herald  named  it  the 
Royal  Exchange.  It  was  destroyed  in  the 
great  fire  in  Sep.,  1666.  Charles  II.  laid  the 
foundation  of  another  structure,  Oct.  23,  1667, 
and  it  was  opened  Sep.  28,  1669,  having  cost 
£58,962.  It  was  repaired  and  extended  in 
1769,  Parliament  contributing  £10,000  towards 
the  expense.  This  edifice  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  Jan.  10,  1838.  The  new  Royal  Exchange, 
commenced  in  1838,  was  opened  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  state,  Oct.  28,  1844. 

ROYAL  FORESTS.—  See  FORESTS.) 

ROYAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY.— (See 
GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY.) 

ROYAL  GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY.  —  (See 
GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY.) 

ROYAL  GEORGE,  of  108  guns,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Kempenfelt,  sank  at  Portsmouth, 
nearly  900  lives  being  lost,  at  10  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  Aug.  29,  1782.  A  court-martial 
which  was  held  on  Capt.  Waghonie,  relative 
to  the  catastrophe,  acquitted  him,  Sep.  9. 
Sixteen  guns  and  other  things  were  recovered 
by  the  diving-bell,  Nov.  21.  The  wreck  was 
surveyed  by  aid  of  the  diving-bell,  when  the 
whole  of  the  decks  were  found  to  have  fallen 
in,  May  24,  1817;  and  much  property  was 
red  ill  1839. 

HoYAL  (ilFT. — (See  BASILIKON  DORON  and 

Rttill'M     DONUM.) 

ROYAL  If  os  I '  IT  A  LS.  -(See  HOSPITALS.) 

ROYAL  HOUSEHOLD.— The  duties  of  the 
different  officers  of  the  royal  household  were 
first  defined  and  reduced  to  order  by  Edward 
III.  (1327 — 77).  The  expenses  connected  with 
it  were  fixed  at  ,£12,059  9s-  lld-  by  tbe  private 
act,  ii  Hen.  VII.  c.  36  (1494),  which  was 
amended  by  subsequent  statutes.  The  duties 
of  the  great  master  of  the  king's  household 
were  regulated  by  32  Henry  VIII.  0.39(1540), 
which  was  repealed  by  i  Mary,  st.  3,  c.  4(1553). 
(See  LORD  STEWARD  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.)  The 
purveyance  system,  which  empowered  the 
officers  of  the  royal  household  to  purchase 
goods  for  their  master's  use  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  vendors,  was  abolished  by  12 
Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660).  Edmund  Burke  com- 
menced his  efforts  against  the  extravagance 
of  this  department  in  1780,  and  procured  the 
suppression  of  several  unnecessary  offices  by 
22  Geo.  III.  c.  82  (1782).  (See  MARSHALSEA 
COURT.) 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY,  for  the  re- 
covery of  persons  from  drowning,  was  founded 
in  London,  by  Drs.  Hawes,  Fothergill,  and 
Cogan,  in  1774.  There  were  221  depots  for 
drags,  <fec.,  in  connection  with  this  institution, 
in  1851.  A  Humane  Society  was  established 
in  Holland  in  1767. 

ROYAL  INDIAN  MILITARY  COLLEGE.— 
The  Military  Academy  at  Addiscombe  House 
(q.v.),  for  the  training  of  cadets,  received  this 
name  on  the  transfer  of  the  government  of 
India  from  the  company  to  the  crown  in  1858. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTION 


[    857    ] 


ROYAL   SOCIETY 


ROYAL  INSTITUTION  OF  GREAT  BRI- 
TAIN (London)  was  founded  by  Count  Rum- 
ford  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  March  9,  1799,  and 
received  its  charter  of  incorporation  Jan.  13, 
1800.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  and  Professor 
Faraday,  both  officially  connected  with  the 
institution,  made  some  of  their  most  im- 
portant discoveries  in  its  laboratory.  Its 
library  was  formed  in  1803.  In  1833,  John 
Fuller,  of  Rose  Hill,  endowed  two  professor- 
ships, of  chemistry  and  physiology,  and  in 
1838  Mrs.  Acton,  of  Euston  Square,  gave 
;£i,ooo  towards  establishing  a  septennial  prize 
for  the  best  essay  on  the  goodness  of  Provi- 
dence as  exemplified  by  scientific  research. 

ROYAL    IRISH    ACADEMY   (Dublin),    for 
the  study  of   science,   polite    literature,  and 
antiquities,  was  instituted  May  2,  1785,  and 
incorporated  Jan.  28,  1786. 
ROYALISTS.— (See  CARDINALISTS.) 
ROYAL  LITERARY  FUND.— (See  LITERARY 
FUND.) 

ROYAL  LONDON  YACHT  CLUB  (London). 
—This  club,  first  established  in  May,  1838, 
as  the  Arundel  Yacht  Club,  was  changed  to 
the  London  Yacht  Club  in  1845  or  1846.  In 
1849  the  Queen  Dowager  Adelaide  became  its 
patroness,  and  it  assumed  the  title  of  the 
Royal  London  Yacht  Club,  receiving  from  the 
Admiralty  authority  to  use  the  blue  ensign  of 
the  Royal  Navy. 

ROYAL  MARINES.—  (See  MARINES.) 
ROYAL  MARRIAGE  ACT,  12  Geo.  III.  c.  n 
(1772),  prohibited  members  of  the  royal  family 
from  contracting  marriage  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  sovereign,  signified  under  the  great 
seal,  until  they  attained  the  age  of  25  years. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM  (London), 
also  called  the  Duke  of  York's  School,  was 
founded  at  Chelsea  by  the  Duke  of  York, 
June  19,  1801,  and  opened  in  1803. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  COLLEGE.— (See  CA- 
DETS' COLLEGE,  SANDHURST,  <fcc.) 

ROYAL  NATIONAL  LIFEBOAT  INSTI- 
TUTION.—The  Royal  National  Institution  for 
the  Preservation  of  Life  from  Shipwreck, 
founded  in  1824,  and  the  Shipwrecked  Fisher- 
men and  Mariners'  Royal  Benevolent  Society, 
formed  at  Bath  by  Rye  in  1839,  were  amal- 
gamated in  1855  under  the  name  of  the  Royal 
National  Lifeboat  Institution.  Commander 
Read,  by  order  of  the  Admiralty,  prepared 
the  first  wreck-chart  in  1854.  This  useful 
society  has  nearly  200  lifeboat  stations  in 
England.  (See  LIFEBOAT.) 

ROYAL  NAVAL  ASYLUM  (London),  insti- 
tuted in  1801,  was  removed  to  Greenwich  and 
incorporated  with  the  hospital  in  1821. 

ROYAL  NAVAL  CLUB  (London).  —  The 
Naval  Club,  founded  about  1674,  was  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  Royal  Naval  Club  formed  in  1765. 
It  numbered  Boscawen,  Rodney,  Durham,  and 
other  naval  heroes,  amongst  its  members,  and 
was  a  favourite  resort  of  William  IV.  when 
Duke  of  Clarence.  It  is  now  extinct. 

ROYAL  NAVAL  COAST  VOLUNTEERS.— 
By  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  73  (Aug.  15,  1853),  the 
Admiralty  were  empowered  to  raise  a  number, 
not  exceeding  10,000,  of  Royal  Naval  Coast 
Volunteers,  by  voluntary  entry  from  among 
seafaring  men  and  such  others  as  might  be 


deemed  suitable.  They  were  to  be  entered 
for  a  period  of  five  years,  and  were  to  be  exer- 
cised on  board  ship  or  on  shore  for  a  time 
not  exceeding  28  days  in  each  year.  By  19 
&  20  Viet.  0.83,8.  10  (July  29,  1856),  the  officers 
of  the  coast-guard  were  to  train  and  exercise 
the  Royal  Naval  Coast  Volunteers. 

ROYAL  NAVAL  RESERVE. —By  22623 
Viet.  c.  40  (Aug.  13,  1859),  the  Admiralty  was 
authorized  to  enrol  a  force  of  seafaring  men, 
not  exceeding  30,000,  to  be  called  Royal  Naval 
Volunteers,  as  a  volunteer  auxiliary  force  to 
the  navy;  such  men  to  undergo  systematic 
drill  for  28  days  in  every  year,  and  to  be 
liable  for  service  in  case  of  emergency  for 
periods  not  exceeding  five  years.  Officers  in 
the  merchant  service  were  made  available  to 
command  the  Royal  Naval  Reserve  by  24  &  25 
Viet.  c.  129  (Aug.  6,  1861). 

ROYAL  NAVAL  VOLUNTEERS.— (.See 
ROYAL  NAVAL  RESERVE.) 

ROYAL  PREROGATIVE.- Blackstone 
defines  the  sovereign's  prerogative  as  "that 
special  pre-eminence  which  the  king  has,  over 
and  above  all  other  persons,  and  out  of  the 
ordinary  course  of  the  common  law,  in  right 
of  his  regal  dignity."  He  enjoys  supreme 
sovereignty  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
and  he  is  declared  politically  perfect,  it  being 
a  constitutional  maxim  "  that  he  can  do  no 
wrong."  He  is  the  supreme  head  of  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  force  of  the  kingdom,  the  foun- 
tain of  justice,  mercy,  honour,  office,  and 
privilege,  and  the  only  person  empowered  to 
send  or  receive  ambassadors,  to  declare  war  or 
conclude  peace,  and  to  coin  the  money  of  the 
realm.  The  royal  prerogative  was  defined  by 
17  Edw.  II.  stat.  i  (1324),  and  was  continued 
by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  24  (1535).  Constitutional 
limitation  of  the  royal  powers  was  secured  by 
the  Bill  of  Rights,  3  Charles  I.  c.  i  (1627), 
which  placed  the  sole  power  of  granting  money 
to  the  sovereign  in  the  hands  of  the  people's 
representatives  in  Parliament.  The  feudal 
rights  of  the  king  were  abolished  by  12  Charles 
II.  c.  24  (1660),  and  the  dispensing  power  of 
the  crown  was  abolished  by  i  Will.  &  Mary 
s.  2,  c.  2  (1689). 

ROYAL  RESIDENCE.— (See  CUTTACK.) 
ROYAL  SOCIETY  (London).— A  number  of 
gentlemen  residing  in  London,  among  whom 
were  Drs.  Wilkins,  Wallis,  and  Goddard,  with 
Forster,  professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham 
College,  associated  themselves  for  scientific 
investigation  in  1645.  Some  of  them  removed 
to  Oxford  in  1652,  and  formed  a  similar  society 
there.  The  two  were  united,  and  held  their 
meetings  in  London  in  1659.  They  were  sus- 
pended for  some  time,  but  at  the  Restoration 
in  1660,  were  resumed  in  Gresham  College.  A 
ode  of  rules  was  drawn  up  Nov.  28,  and  the 
first  formal  proceedings  took  place  Dec.  5. 
The  society  having,  in  1662,  presented  a  con- 
gratulatory address  to  Charles  II.,  received 
from  him  a  charter,  which  was  amended  and 
renewed  April  22,  1663.  Charles  II.  also  be- 
stowed a  mace  upon  the  society  in  1663 ;  and 
signed  his  name  in  the  charter-book  as  its 
founder,  Jan.  9,  1665.  The  first  number  of  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions"  was  published 
March  6,  1665.  The  place  of  meeting  was 


EOYAL  SOCIETY 


RUM 


changed  to  Arundel  House  in  Jan.,  1667,  and 
again  to  Gresham  College  in  Oct.,  1674.  The 
delivery  of  lectures  was  commenced  in  1674, 
and  a  sum  of  money  for  a  lectureship  was  left 
by  Lady  Sadlier,  widow  of  Dr.  Croone,  in  1701, 
the  first  of  which  was  delivered  in  1738. 
The  Bakerian  lecture  on  electro-chemistry  was 
founded  in  1774.  A  legacy  of  ^400,  received 
on  the  death  of  the  Bishop  of  Chester  (Dr. 
Wilkins),  was  expended  in  the  purchase  of 
certain  farm  rents  at  Lewes,  in  Jan.,  1675. 
The  college  and  lands  at  Chelsea,  which  had 
been  granted  to  the  society,  were  sold,  and  the 
proceeds  were  invested  in  stock  in  Jan.,  1682. 
A  paid  secretary  was  appointed  at  a  salary  of 
.£50  per  annum  in  1686.  The  society  removed 
to  a  house  in  Crane  Court,  Fleet  Street,  in 
1701,  and  the  Government  assigned  it  apart- 
ments in  Somerset  House  in  1782.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  was  appointed  president  in  1703,  hold- 
ing the  office  till  his  death,  March  20,  1727. 
The  society  published  the  first  edition  of  his 
Principia  in  1687.  Originally  issued  monthly, 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  were  col- 
lected and  published  in  90  volumes,  embracing 
the  period  from  1665 — 1800.  Sir  Godfrey  Copely 
founded  a  gold  medal,  purchased  with  the  inte- 
rest of  ,£100,  April  14,  1704;  Count  Rumford  pre- 
sented a  sum  of  ,£1,000  in  the  3  per  cents,  for 
a  similar  purpose  in  1796  ;  and  George  IV. 
made  an  annual  grant  of  100  guineas  for  two 
medals  in  1825.  In  1857  the  society  removed 
from  Somerset  House  to  rooms  in  Burlington 
House.  The  Society  of  Arts  (g.  v.)  offered 
prizes  for  the  encouragement  of  Arts,  and 
established  the  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy in  their  rooms  in  1760. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  (Scotch).— The  Philoso- 
phical Society  of  Edinburgh,  established  in 
1739,  was  incorporated  as  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  by  royal  charter,  March  29,  1783, 
and  was  inaugurated  June  23,  in  the  College 
Library,  from  which  it  removed  to  a  house  in 
George  Street  in  1810.  It  received  a  second 
charter  in  1811,  and  obtained  apartments  in 
the  Royal  Institution  in  1826. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  CLUB  (London),  supposed 
to  be  the  Virtuoso's  Club,  mentioned  by  Ward 
(Secret  History  of  Clubs,  1709),  was  established 
about  1743,  under  the  name  of  the  Royal  Phi- 
losophers, which  title  it  retained  till  1786. 
Its  members  met  in  the  city  until  1746,  when 
they  removed  to  a  tavern  near  Temple  Bar,  in 
1 780  to  the  Crown  and  Anchor  in  the  Strand, 
in  1848  to  the  Freemasons'  Tavern,  and  in  1857 
to  the  Thatched  House. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  LITERATURE  OF 
THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  (London),  founded 
in  1823,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter, 
Sep.  13,  1826.  (See  LITERARY  FUND.) 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  MUSICIANS  (Lon- 
don) was  founded  in  1720,  and  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Female  Musicians  in  1839. 

ROYALTY  THEATRE.— (See  NEW  ROYALTY, 
OLD  ROYALTY,  and  BRUNSWICK  THEATRES.) 

ROYAL  VICTORIA  HOSPITAL.— (See  NET- 
LEY  HOSPITAL.) 

RUBICON  (Italy).— This  river  formed  the 
political  boundary  of  Italy  when  Julius  Caesar 
held  the  government  of  Cis-alpine  Gaul.  By 
crossing  it  with  his  army  in  Jan.,  B.C.  49, 


Caesar  was  accused  of  having  caused  the  great 
Civil  War.  In  the  controversy  regarding  its 
identification,  the  arguments  in  favour  of 
Fiurnicino,  or  Pisatello,  seem  to  preponderate, 
although  a  papal  bull  pronounced  in  favour  of 
another  stream,  the  Luso,  or  Lusa,  in  1756. 

RUBIDIUM. —This  metal,  discovered  by 
Bunscn,  by  observation  of  the  Spectrum  (q.  v.), 
was  made  known  by  him  in  1861. 

RUEL,  or  RUEIL  (France).  —  Charles  the 
Bald,  about  870,  gave  this  domain  to  the  abbey 
of  St.  Denis,  in  the  possession  of  which  it 
remained  till  1635,  and  soon  after  Richelieu 
built  a  castle.  During  the  civil  strife  between 
Conde  and  the  paiiiament  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  queen  mother  with  Mazarin  on  the 
other,  called  the  War  of  the  Fronde,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  at  this  town,  March  n, 
1649. 

RUFFLES  appear  to  have  come  into  use  as 
an  article  of  dress  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1509 — 47).  Hand-ruffs  were  plaited  and  edged 
with  lace  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 1603). 
The  Rev.  William  Cole,  in  his  journey  to  France, 
in  1765,  was  taken  for  a  clergyman  because  he 
did  not  wear  rutiies.  They  seem  to  have  gone 
out  of  fashion  during  the  French  Revolution  of 
1789. 

RUGBY  (Warwickshire).— The  school  was 
founded  by  Lawrence  Sheriff,  a  London  trades- 
man, and  native  of  the  place,  in  1567.  It  was 
regulated  by  17  Geo.  HI.  c.  71  (1777),  and  rose 
to  great  distinction  under  Dr.  Arnold,  1827— 
1842.  The  Elborow  School  was  founded  by 
Richard  Elborow  in  the  i8th  century  ;  the  pa- 
rochial schools  were  built  in  1830;  St.  Mat- 
thew's Church  was  founded  in  1841 ;  and  the 
Literary  Institute  in  1847. 

RUGEN  (Baltic  Sea),  the  Holy  Island  of  the 
Slavonic  Varini,  captured  by  the  Duke  of  Po- 
land in  1 1 24,  and  by  the  King  of  Denmark  in 
1169,  was  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  1648.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Danes  in  1677.  Having  been  restored  to 
Sweden,  Sep.  2,  1679,  it  was  taken  when  Peter 
I.  sent  the  Russian  fleet  against  Charles  XII., 
Nov.  17,  1715.  Riigen  was  assigned  to  Sweden 
by  the  peace  of  Nystadt,  Aug.  30,  1721.  It 
capitulated  to  the  French,  Sep.  7,  1807,  and  was 
ceded  by  them  to  Sweden  by  treaty,  Jan.  6, 
1 8 10 ;  and  by  Sweden  to  Denmark  by  the  treaty 
of  Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814  ;  and  by  Denmark  to  the 
King  of  Prussia,  June  4,  1815. 

RULE  BRITANNIA,  supposed  to  have  been 
composed  by  Mallet,  formed  part  of  the  masque 
of  "Alfred,"  first  performed  before  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  Aug.  i,  1740.  "  Alfred"  was 
the  joint  production  of  James  Thomson  (1700 
—Aug.  27,  1 748)  and  David  Mallet  (1700— April 

21,  1765.) 

RUM.— This  West  Indian  spirit  is  the  pro- 
duct of  molasses  and  the  refuse  of  the  sugar- 
manufactory.  It  is  not  known  when  the 
manufacture  of  rum  commenced,  or  whence 
the  spirit  derived  its  name.  Ships  carrying 
rum  must  be  of  at  least  50  tons  burden,  by 
16  &  17  Viet.  c.  107,  s.  144  (Aug.  20,  1853), 
which  prohibits  the  importation  of  the  spirit 
in  casks  of  less  than  20  gallons,  or  in  bot- 
tles of  more  than  three  pints.  The  duties 
charged  upon  its  importation  have  undergone 


RUMERSHEIM 


[    859    ]          RUSSELL  ADMINISTRATIONS 


several  changes.  By  21  Viet.  c.  16  (May  n 
1858),  a  rate  of  8s.  zd.  per  gallon  is  charged  01 
every  gallon  of  rum  brought  into  the  Unitec 
Kingdom. 

RUMERSHEIM  (Battle).— The  Imperialists 
commanded  by  the  Count  de  Mercy,  wer< 
defeated  by  the  French,  commanded  bj 
Count  Dubourg,  at  this  place  in  Alsace,  Aug 


[P  PARLIAMENT.  —  After  the  Long 
Parliament  (<?.  v.}  had  been  sitting  eight  years 
Col.  Pride,  invading  the  House  of  Commons 
sent  47  members  to  prison  and  excluded  gt 
more,  leaving  a  remnant  of  about  50,  Dec.  6 
1648.  It  voted  the  late  treaty  with  King 
Charles  I.  dishonourable  and  dangerous,  Dec 
13  ;  and  that  he  should  be  tried  for  treason 
against  the  people,  Dec.  23.  On  the  peers  re 
fusing  their  concurrence,  the  Commons  passec 
the  ordinance  for  the  king's  trial,  Jan.  6,  1649 
and  the  members  who  wished  to  accept  th« 
king's  concessions  were  expelled  the  house  Feb 
i.  This  Parliament  voted  the  Hoiise  of  Lords 
"  useless  and  dangerous  "  Feb.  6,  and  the  office 
of  king  unnecessary  Feb.  7.  It  passed  acts 
abolishing  the  office  of  king  and  the  peerage 
March  17  and  19,  1649.  It  took  the  style  oJ 
"  Parliamentum  Reipublicse  Anglite"  Feb.  9, 
1650.  It  passed  the  Navigation  Act,  affecting 
Dutch  commerce,  Oct.  9,  1651,  and  in  the  same 
month  fixed  its  own  dissolution  at  Nov.  3, 
1654.  An  act  prohibiting  the  use  of  titles  con- 
ferred since  Jan.  4,  1642,  was  passed  Jan.,  1652 ; 
and  an  act  of  amnesty  Feb.  24,  1652.  Between 
it  and  the  council  of  officers  considerable  dif- 
ferences arose  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  new 
legislature.  Cromwell  entered  the  house  with 
a  strong  guard,  and  terminated  its  existence 
by  expelling  the  members,  April  20,  1653.  The 
Rump  is  included  in  the  general  term  Long- 
Parliament.  (See  BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT.' 

RUMP  STEAK,  or  LIBERTY  CLUB  (Lon- 
don), in  opposition  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
(1676 — March  18,  1745),  was  in  existence  in 

I7RUNES,  or  RUNIC  CHARACTERS,  the 
alphabet,  consisting  of  1 6  letters,  used  by  the 
Teutonic  nations,  was  ascribed  by  tradition 
to  the  god  Odin,  B.C.  508,  although  it  was 
probably  introduced  to  the  people  on  the 
coast  of  the  Baltic  by  Phoenician  traders  long 
before  the  Christian  sera.  The  invention  has 
also  been  ascribed  to  Ulphilas,  Bishop  of  the 
Goths,  in  350.  They  ceased  to  be  used  in 
Sweden  in  1001,  and  were  condemned  in  Spain 
by  the  Council  of  Toledo  in  1115. 

RUNNERS.— (See  COURIERS.) 

RUNNYMEDE  (Surrey).— King  John  met 
the  barons  on  this  plain,  near  Egham,  and 
granted  Magna  Charta  (q.  v.},  June  15,  1215. 

RUPERT'S  LAND.— (See  PRINCE  RUPERT'S 
•  LAND.) 

RUSCIA  (Italy),  the  navale  Tkuriorum, 
which  had  been  transferred  to  Ruscianum,  or 
Rossano,  was  beseiged  by  Totila  in  547,  and 
after  two  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Romans, 
under  Belisarius,  to  relieve  the  garrison,  fell 
in  548. 

RUSH-LIGHTS.— (See  CANDLES.) 

RUSSELL  ADMINISTRATIONS.— The  first 
was  formed  after  the  resignation  of  Sir  Robert 


Peel's  Second  Administration,  announced  in 
Parliament  June  29,  1846.  Lord  John  Russell 
completed  his  arrangements  early  in  July,  and 
the  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  : — 


Treasury  

Lord  Chancellor 

President  of  the  Council- 
Privy  Seal   


Chancellor  of  Exchequer 

Home  Secretary 

Foreign  Secretary 

Colonial  Secretary 

Admiralty 


Board  of  Control 

Duchy  of  Lancaster 

Woods  and  Forests  

Paymaster-General 

Postmaster-General 

Board  of  Trade 

Chief    Secretary   for    Ire- 
land  .. 


/Lord     John    Russtell,    made 

X     Earl  Russell  July  30,  1861. 

/Lord,  created  Earl  Cottenham 

X     June  n,  1850. 
...Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
...Earl  of  Minto. 

/Mr.,    became    Sir    C.  Wood, 

X    Bart.,  Dec.  31,  1846. 
...Sir  George  Grey,  Bart. 
...Viscount  Palmerston. 
...Earl  Grey. 
...Earl  of  Auckland. 

(Sir  John  Hobhouse,  created 
•<     Baron  Broughton  Feb.  36, 

...Lord  Campbell. 

! Viscount     Morpeth,    became 
Earl  of  Carlisle,  Oct.  7, 1848. 
Mr.,  made  Baron  Macaulay 
Sep.  TO,  1857. 

...Marquis  of  Clanricarde. 
...Earl  of  Clarendon. 
/Mr.  Labouchere,  created  Ba- 
X    ron  Taunton  Aug.  13,  1859. 


The  Earl  of  Bessborough,  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  died  May  16,  1847,  an<*  the  Earl  of 
Clarendon  succeeded  him,  May  20.  Mr.  La- 
bouchere  was  appointed  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
July  22,  and  his  successor,  as  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  did  not  receive  a  seat  in  the  ca- 
binet. The  Earl  of  Auckland  died  Jan  i,  and 
Sir  Francis  T.  Baring  (made  Baron  Northbrook 
Dec.  19,  1865),  became  first  lord  of  the  Admi- 
ralty dan.  15,  1849.  Tlie  Ear>l  of  Carlisle  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster, 
March  6,  1850,  in  place  of  Lord  Campbell,  ap- 
pointed lord  chief  justice.  Sir  Thomas  Wilde, 
created  Baron  Truro  and  lord  chancellor  July 
15,  1850,  Lord  Cottenham  having  resigned 
June  19 ;  and  Mr.  Fox  Maule  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  cabinet  as  secretary  at  war.  The 
Government,  having  been  for  some  time  in  a 
precarious  state,  was  defeated  by  100  to  52, 
Feb.  20,  1851,  upon  a  motion  to  bring  in  a  bill 
to  make  the  franchise  in  the  comities  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  the  same  as  that  of  the 
boroughs,  and  resigned  office  Feb.  21.  The 
Earl  of  Aberdeen  and  Sir  James  Graham 
biaving  refused  to  assist  Lord  John  Russell  in 
the  reconstitution  of  his  cabinet,  and  Lord 
Stanley  (became  Earl  of  Derby  June  30)  having 
declined  the  task  of  forming  an  administration,, 
the  Russell  ministry  resumed  office,  and  the 
ministerial  crisis  terminated  March  3.  Earl 
Granville,  who  had  succeeded  Mr.  Macaulay 
as  paymaster  of  the  forces,  and  Lord  Seymour, 
made  first  commissioner  of  works  April  15, 
[850,  obtained  seats  in  the  cabinet  in  1851. 
Lord  Palmerston  resigned  the  foreign  secretary- 
ship, and  Earl  Granville  was  appointed  as  his 
successor,  Dec.  26,  1851.  Mr.  Fox  Maule,. 
:reated  Baron  Panmure  April  13,  1852,  and 
Became  Earl  of  Dalhousie  in  1860,  replaced 
Lord  Broughton  at  the  Board  of  Control,  Feb. 
5,  1852.  An  amendment  proposed  by  Lord  Pal- 
merston to  the  Government  Militia  Bill  was 
carried  by  135  to  126,  Feb.  20;  and  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  dissolution  of  the  Russell 
administration  was  made  in  both  branches  of 
he  legislature  Feb.  23.  (See  DEKBY  ADMINIS- 


RUSSELL  INSTITUTION 


[    860    ] 


RUSSIA 


TRATIONS.) The  Second  Russell,  sometimes 

called  the  Russell-Gladstone  administration, 
was  a  reconstruction,  soon  after  his  death 
(Oct.  18,  1865),  of  Lord  Palmerston's  Second 
Administration  (q.  v.).  The  principal  appoint- 
ments appeared  in  the  London  Gazette,  Nov.  6  ; 
and  the  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :  — 


Treasury  

Lord  Chancellor 

President  of  the  Council 

Privy  Seal    

Chancellor  of  Exchequer 

Home  Secretary 

Foreign  Secretary 

Colonial  Secretary 

Admiralty 

India 

Secretary  at  War  

Postmaster-General 

Poor  Law  Board   

Board  of  Trade 


...Earl  Russell. 
...Lord  Craii  worth. 
...Earl  Granville. 
...Duke  of  Argyle. 
...Mr.  Gladstone. 
,...Sir  G.  Grey,  Bart. 
...Lord  Clarendon. 
....Mr.  Cardwell. 
....Duke  of  Somerset. 
...Sir Charles  Wood,  Bart. 
...Earlde  6rey  and  Ki|,<>n. 
...Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley. 
...Mr.  C.  Pelham  Villk-rs. 
...Mr.  T.  Miluer  Gibson. 


The  Right  Hon.  Chichester  Fortescue  succeeded 
Sir  Robert  Peel  as  chief  secretary  for  Ireland, 
Nov.  20,  1865.  Mr.  Goschen,  who  became  vice- 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  place  of 
Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Hutt,  Dec.  i,  1865, 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lan- 
caster, with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  Jan.  n,  1866. 
At  the  India  Office,  Earl  de  Grey  and  Ripon 
succeeded  Sir  Charles  Wood,  created  Viscount 
Halifax,  Feb.  20,  1866,  and  the  Marquis  of 
Hartington  took  Lord  de  Grey  and  Ripon's 
place  as  secretary  at  war,  Feb.  16.  Lord 
Dunkellin's  amendment,  proposed  in  com- 
mittee on  the  Reform  Bill,  for  a  rating  instead 
of  a  rental  qualification,  having  been  carried 
by  a  majority  of  n,  June  18,  the  resignation 
of  the  administration  was  announced  June  25. 
(See  REFORM  BILLS,  THIRD  DERBY  ADMINIS- 
TRATION, &c.) 

RUSSELL  INSTITUTION  (London).  —  A 
lease  for  the  ground  was  obtained  from  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  July  26,  1802,  by  James 
Burton,  who  proposed  to  erect  a  suite  of  as- 
sembly and  ball-rooms.  The  progress  of  the 
work  was  delayed  by  a  fire,  which  occurred 
in  1802.  The  Russell  Assembly-rooms  were 
opened  in  Feb.,  1804.  This  speculation 
failed,  and  early  in  1808  meetings  were  held 
for  the  establishment  of  a  literary  and  scien- 
tific society,  and  it  was  agreed  to  raise  12,500 
guineas  in  500  shares  of  25  guineas  each. 
General  meetings  were  held  April  20  and 
July  7,  and  the  property  was  transferred  to 
trustees  for  the  formation  of  the  Russell 
Institution,  Oct.  8.  The  news-room  was 
opened  June  4,  1808,  the  circulation  of  books 
commenced  Jan.  2,  1809,  and  lectures  were 
first  delivered  in  1810.  The  ball-room,  con- 
verted into  a  library,  was  opened  March  23, 
1814.  The  first  catalogue  was  published  in 
1809,  the  second  in  1814,  the  third  in  1820,  the 
fourth  in  1826,  the  fifth  in  1835,  and  the  sixth 
in  1849. 

RUSSIA.— The  kingdom,  extending  over 
large  portions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  correspond- 
ing in  some  respects  with  the  ancient  Sarma- 
tia,  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  the  Rhoxo- 
lani  or  Roxolani,  a  Gothic  people  that  settled 
there  at  a  very  early  period,  though  several 
other  derivations  are  given.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned as  Russia  about  839. 


A.D. 

863.  Kuric  the  Norman,  chief  of  the  Varangians,  estab- 
lishes his  government  at  Novgorod. 

865.  The  Russians  attack  Constantinople,  and  are  de- 
feated by  the  Emperor  Michael  III. 

879.  Death  of  Ruric,  who  is  succeeded  by  his  infant  son 
Igor  I.,  under  the  regency  of  his  kinsman  Uleg. 

883.  Oleg  makes  Kief  his  capital. 

907.  Another  expedition  against  Constantinople  is  con- 
ducted by  Oleg,  who  receives  tribute  from  the 
Emperor  Leo  VI. 

913.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  the  Eastern 
empire. 

941.  Igor  I.  invades  the  Eastern  empire,  and  is  repulsed 
by  the  Emperor  Romanus  I. 

945.  A  second  treaty  is  signed  with  the  Emperor.  Igor  I. 
is  assassinated  at  Korosten,  and  is  succeeded  by 
his  sou  Sviatoslaf  I.,  his  widow  Olga  acting  as 
regent. 

957.  The  queen  regent,  Olga,  visits  Constantinople, 
wheiv  she  is  baptized,  and  abdicates  in  favour 
of  her  son. 

966.  Sviatoslaf  I.  overthrows  the  empire  of  the  Khozars. 

068.  He  defeats  the  Bulgarians  in  battle. 

970.  He  cresses  the  Balkan  and  invades  Thrace. 

971,  July.  He  sustains  a  defeat  from  John  I.  at  Dory- 

stolon  or  Durostole. 

077  Civil  war  breaks  out  between  the  brothers  Vladi- 
mir I.,  Yaropolk,  and  Oleg. 

980.  Yaropolk  I.  is  assassinated  by  his  brother  Vladimir  I. 

988.  Vladimir   I.   (the  Great)   takes   Cherson   from   the 

Greek  Emperor  Basil  II.,  whose  sister  Anne  he 

marries,  and  he  embraces  Christianity. 

1015.  On  the   death  of   Vladimir   I.,  his    dominions  are 

divided. 

1036.  Yaroslav  I.  re-unites  his  father's  dominions. 
1038.  Yaroslaf,  Prince  of  Novgorod,  promulgates  the  first 

Russian  code  of  laws. 
1043.  Vladimir  I.,  Prince  of  Novgorod,  attacks  Constan- 


tinople, and  is  defeated  with  great  1 

1054.  Civil  war  breaks  out  at  the  death  of  Yaroslav  I. 

1158.  Yury  I.  founds  Vladimir  and  makes  it  his  capital. 

1224,  June  16.  The  Tartars  of  the  Golden  Horde  defeat  the 
Russians  in  a  great  battle  on  the  Kalka,  and 
establish  themselves  in  the  south-east  parts  of 
Russia. 

1235.  Russia  is  invaded  by  the  Mongols,  under  Batou 
Khan. 

1241.  Alexander  (Newski)  defeats  an  invading  army  of 
Swedes  and  Danes  at  the  battle  of  the  Neva 
(q.v.). 

1253.  Alexander  I.  (Newski)  receives  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke  from  the  Tartars. 

1300.  The  Russians  make  Moscow  their  capital,  and  in- 
vade Finland. 

1330.  The  principality  of  Kief  is  seized  by  Ghedemin, 
Duke  of  Lithuania. 

1338.  Ivan  I.,  surnamcd  Kalitu,  becomes  grand 'prince, 
and  establishes  the  principle  of  hereditary  suc- 
cession. 

1340.  Red  Russia  is  conquered  by  the  Poles  and  Hun- 
garians. 

1352.  Red  Russia  is  seized  by  the  Lithuanians. 

1380.  Dimitri,  or  Demetrius  III.,  defeats  the  Tartars  at 
the  battle  of  the  Don,  and  is  surnamed  Donskoi. 

1382.  War  is  carried  on  against  the  Tartars,  who  burn 
Moscow. 

1395.  Russia  is  invaded  by  Timour  the  Tartar. 

1425.  Death  of  Vasili,  or  Basil  IV.,  in  whose  reign  the 
first  Russian  coinage  was  established. 

1462.  Accession  of  Ivan  III.,  or  John  Vasilowitz  the 
Great,  the  founder  of  the  modern  Russian 
empire. 

1473.  Ivan  III.  marries  Sophia,  niece  of  the  last  Greek 
Emperor  Constantine  XIII.,  and  adopts  the  two- 
headed  eagle  as  his  badge. 

1476.  The  Russians  cease  paying  tribute  to  the  Tartars. 

1477.  War  with  the  Tartars. — Jan.  15.  Novgorod  submits 

to  Ivan  III. 

1480.  The  Mongol  power  in  Russia  is  destroyed  by  Ivan 

1481.  Ambassadors    are    first   received    at    the    Russian 

court. 
1483.  The  Russians  first  use  artillery. 

1487.  Battle  of  Sviaga. 

1488.  War  with  Sweden. 

UQ-I  A  league  against  Denmark  is  concluded  with 
Sweden.  The  punishment  of  the  knout  is  intro- 
duced into  Russia. 


RUSSIA 


RUSSIA 


A.D. 

1506.  A  war  is  undertaken  against  Poland. 

1510.  The  Tartars  invade  Kussia. 

1531.  Battle  of  Kazan. 

1523.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Poland. 

1534.  The  Russians  sustain  a  defeat  from  the  Tartars  on 
the  Volga. 

1530.  Peace  is  concluded  with  the  Tartars. 

1538.  Death  of  the  Queen-regent  Helena,  whose  young 
son,  Ivan  IV.,  is  kept  in  tutelage  by  the  three 
brothers  Shuiski. 

1541.  A  Tartar  invasion,  under  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea, 
is  repelled. 

1543.  Ivan  IV.  (the  Terrible),  at  the  age  of  14,  puts  to 
death  Andrew  Shuiski  and  assumes  the  govern- 
ment. 

1545.  Ivan  IV.  is  solemnly  crowned  czar  by  the  patriarch, 

being  the  first  Russian  monarch  crowned  with 
public  and  ecclesiastical  ceremony. 

1546.  The  "Strelitzes,"  the  first  standing  army  in  Russia, 

established. 
1550.  War  is  resumed  with  the  Tartars. 

1553.  Oct.  2.  Cazan  is  captured  by  the  Czar,  and  its  in- 

habitants are  massacred. 

1554.  The  Russians  discover  .Siberia. 

1555.  Tribute  is  exacted  from  the  Siberians. 

1557.  The   peasantry    are  declared   the  property  of  the 

landowners. 

1558-  War  is  commenced  with  the  Teutonic  knights. 
1563.  Russia  and  Sweden  unite  in  a  war  against  Poland. 

1570,  Jan.  In  consequence  of  a  pretended  insurrection  at 

Novgorod,   Ivan  IV.  massacres  25,ooo  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

1571.  Russia    is  overrun    by    the    Tartars,    who    burn 

Moscow. 

1579.  Ivan  IV.  solicits  the  hand  of  Elizabeth,  Queen  of 
England.  He  puts  his  eldest  son  to  death. 

1589.  The  Greek  Church  in  Russia  is  declared  inde- 
pendent of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

1598.  Death  of  the  Czar  Feodor  I.,  and  extinction  of  the 
Ruric  dynasty. 

1604.  A  monk  pretends  to  bo  Demetrius,  a  deceased  son 

of  the  Czar  Ivan  IV. 

1605.  On  the  death  of    Boris   Godunow,   the    throne  is 

seized  by  the  pseudo  Demetrius. 

1606.  May  39.  The  Matins  (q.  v.)  of  Moscow. 

1607.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Sweden. 

1609.  A  second  impostor  asserts  himself  to  be  Demetrius. 

1610.  The  Poles  are  expelled  from  Moscow. 
1613.  Accession  of  the  Romanoff  dynasty. 

1617,  Feb.  37.  Treaty  of  Stolbova. 

1618.  Ladislaus  of  Poland  marches  as  far  as  Moscow. 
1634,  June  15.  Treaty  of  Wiasma. 

1649.  The  laws  are  revised. 
1651.  English  traders  are  excluded  from  Russia. 
1654.  The  Cossacks  are  taken  under  Russian  protection, 
which  occasions  a  war  with  Poland. 

1656,  Oct.  3.    The  truce  of  Wilna,   or  Niemetz,  is  con- 

cluded with  Poland. 

1657.  The   Czar  refuses  to  receive  an  ambassador  from 

Oliver  Cromwell. 
1660,  May  3.  The  peace  of  Oliva  (q.  ».). 

1667,  Jan.  30.  The  treaty  of  Andrussow  (q.  v.). 

1668.  Russian  ambassadors  are  first  sent  to  the  courts  of 

France  and  Spain. 

1671.  The  insurrection  of  Stenko  Radzin,  who  is  executed. 

1673.  Submission  of  the  Tourgouth  Tartars. 

1678.  War  is  commenced  against  the  Turks. 

1681.  By  the  treaty  of  Bakhtchisarai,  the  Turks  resign 
all  claim  to  the  Ukraine  and  the  Cossack  terri- 
tory, and  peace  is  restored. 

1683.  A  mutiny  breaks  out  among  the  Strelitzes. 

1686,  May  6.  An  alliance  between  Russia  and  Poland 
against  Turkey  is  signed  at  Moscow. 

1688.  The  Czar  Ivan  V.  resigns  his  share  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

1696.  The  Russians  take  possession  of  Kamtschatka. 

1697.  Peter  I.  visits  England  and  Holland. 

1698.  In  consequence  of  a  revolt,  Peter  I.  massacres  the 

Strelitzes. 

1700,  Nov.  30.  Peter  I.  is  defeated  by  the  Swedes  at 
Narva.  He  builds  the  first  Russian  frigate,  and 
founds  the  navy. 

1703,  May   37.     Foundation    of    St.    Petersburg    (7.  v.}. 

Ingria  is  invaded  by  the  Russians. 

1704,  Aug.  30.  The  Russians  recover  Narva. 
1706.  Kamtschatka  (q.  v.)  is  subdued. 

1708.  Revolt  of  the  Cossacks  under  Mazeppa,  who  is  as- 
sisted by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 


1709,  July  8.  Charles  XII.  is  defeated  by  Peter  I.  at  Pol- 

tava (q.  v.). 

1710,  War  is  commenced  with  Turkey.    (See  OTTOMAlf 

EMPIKE.) 

1711,  July   10.  The  treaty  of  Falczi  (q.v.).    A  directing 

senate  is  established. 
1713.  Catherine   I.,    the  wife  of  Peter  I.,   receives  the 

title  of    Czarina.      St.   Petersburg  is  made  the 

capital. 

1718,  July  7.  Death  of  the  Czarowitz  Alexis,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  murdered  by  his  father. 
1731,  Aug.  30.   The  peace  of   Nystadt  (q.v.).    The  Czar 

Peter  I.  assumes  the  style  of  "  Emperor  of  all 

the  Russias." 

1733.  Persia  cedes  territory  to  Russia. 
1735,  Feb.  8.  Death  of  Peter  I.,  or  the  Great. 
1730,  Jan.  39.  Death  of  Peter  II.,  and  extinction  of  the 

Romanoff  dynasty;  the  throne  is  conferred  upon 

Anne  of  Courland. 
1733.  The  Russians  invade  Poland. 
J735-  The  Russian  possessions  in  Persia  are  relinquished. 

1739,  Sep.  18.  The  treaty  of  Belgrade  (q.v.). 

1740,  A  conspiracy  against  the  Czarina  is  detected. 

1741,  War  against  Sweden. 

1742,  Dec.  15.    The  army  revolts  and  deposes  Ivan  VI. 

The  throne  is  conferred  on  Elizabeth,  youngest 
daughter  of  Peter  I.  and  Catherine  I. 

1743,  Aug.  17  (O.  8.).  Treaty  of  Abo  (q.v.). 
1748.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Austria. 

1752.  Sir  Charles  Hanbury  Williams  is  sent  to  Warsaw 
by  the  English  Government,  to  effect  a  union 
between  Russia,  Poland,  and  Saxony. 

1757.  Russia  takes  part  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and 
invades  Prussia. 

1760,  Oct.  9.  The  Russians  and  Austrians  take  Berlin. 

1763,  May    5.    Peace  is  concluded  with   Prussia  at  St. 

Petersburg. — July  10.  A  revolution  breaks  out  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  Peter  III.  is  deposed. — July 
14.  Death  of  Peter  III.  (See  HOLSTEIN.) 

1764.  The  imprisoned  czar,  Ivan  VI.,  is  put  to  death. 
1760,  June   30.  A  treaty  of   commerce  with  England  is 

signed  at  St.  Petersburg  (q. ».). 

1768.  Turkey  declares  war  against  Russia.  (See  OTTO- 
MAN EMPIRE.) 

1773.  Russia  participates  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland. 

1773.  Rebellion  of  the  Cossack  Pugatcheff,  who  claims 

to  be  the  deceased  Czar,  Peter  III. 

1774.  July    10    (O.  S.).    Treaty  of    Kutschouc-Kainardji 

(q.  v.). 

1775.  The  impostor  Pugatcheff  is  broken  on  the  wheel. 
1778.  Prince  Potemkin  is  made  minister. 

1780.  The  Armed  Neutrality  (q.  v.). 

1787.  The  war  with  Turkey  is  renewed. 

1788.  War  against  Sweden. 

1790.  The  Swedes  fail  in  an  attack  upon  St.  Petersburg. 

—Aug.  14.  The  treaty  of  Wereloe. 
1793,  Jan.  9.  The  treaty  of  Jassy  (q.  v.). — June  8.  War  is 

declared  against  Poland. 
1793,  March  35.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  England 

against  France.     Russia    acquires    considerable 

territory  by  the  second  partition  of  Poland. 
1795.  Final  partition  of  Poland  between  Russia,  Prussia, 

and  Austria. 

1798,  Dec.   29.    Russia  joins  England  and  Austria  in  a 

coalition  against  France. 

1799,  Suwarrovv  assists  the  Austrians  in  Italy.     Russia 

secedes  from  the  Anglo-Austrian  alliance,  and 
forms  a  coalition  with  France. 

1800,  Dec.  30.    The    Czar  invites  the  contending  sove- 

reigns of  Europe  to  meet  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
settle  their  differences  by  a  private  combat,  in 
which  their  ministers  should  act  as  squires. 

1801,  March   24.    Paul  I.  is  assassinated  by  a  party  of 

noblemen  under  Gens.  Benningsen  and  Pahlen. — 
May  17.  A  convention  is  signed  with  England. 

1805,  April   ii.   Russia  again  joins  the  coalition  against 

France. 

1806,  A  Russian  army  occupies  Moldavia    and   Walla- 

chia.— Nov.  28.  The  French  enter  Warsaw  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  the  Poles  against  the 
Russians. 

1807,  June  25.  Alexander  I.  has  an  interview  with  Napo- 

leon I.  on  the  Niemen,  at  Tilsit.— July  9.  Treaty 
of  Tilsit— Oct.  6.  War  is  declared  against 
Sweden. — Nov.  8.  War  is  declared  against  Eng- 
land. 

1809,  May  5.  War  is  declared  against  Austria. — Sep.  17. 
Treaty  of  Frederickshamm  (q.  P.). 


RUSSIA 


[    862    ] 


RUSSIA 


1813,  April  5.  A  coalition  is  formed  w  ith  Sweden  against 
France.  —  June  34.  The  French,  under  Napoleon  I., 

cross  the  Niemen  (q.v.).—  July  18.  Treaty  of  (  irebro. 

—  Aug.  17.   The  Russians  are  defeated  at  Smo- 
lensko.—  Sep.  7.  The  French  engage  the  Russians 
at   the   Borodino   (q.  ».).—  Sep.    14.    The    French 
enter  Moscow  (q.  v.),  which  is  burned  by  the  in- 
habitants.— Oct.  19.  The  French  commence  their 
retreat.—  Nov.   26—38.    Battles    of   the    Beresina 
('/.  v.).    The  French  lose  about  2S7,ooo  men  in  the 
campaign. 

1813,  Feb.  28.     Treaty  of   Kalisch  (q.  v.).—  June  4.    The 

armistice   of   Poisehewitz  ('/•  *'•)•  —  June  14.    The 
convention  of  Reichenbnch  {q.  r.). 

1814,  March  31.  Alexander  I.   and  the  Allies  enter  Paris. 

—  June  6.  Alexander  I.  visits  England. 

1815,  June    20.    Alexander    I.  is    proclaimed   King    of 

Poland. 

1817,  Dec.  27.  The  ministry  of  public  instruction  is  united 
to  that  of  religions  affairs. 

1820.  The  Jesuits  are  expelled  from  K 

1823.  1'he  Grand-duke  Constantino  resigns  his  right  to 
the  throne. 

18^5.  Alexander  I.  sets  out   on  a  tour  through  his   do- 
minions. —  Dec.  i.  Alexander  I.  dies  at  Taganrog, 
and   is  succeeded   by  his  brother,   .'Si- 
Dec.  26.  A  military  "revolt,  under  '<'..; 
suppressed  at  St.  Petersburg.  —  Dec.  29.  The  troops 
at   Moscow  proclaim   Cun.stautine,   uud  300  are 
slain. 

1826,  Feb.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  visits  .  St.  IVleivbnrg. 

—  Sep.  3.   Coronation  of   .Nicholas  I.  at  MOSCOW.  — 
Sep.  98.   Will-  is  declared  ag.iins;  Persia  (7.  :•.). 

1837,  July  9.  Nicholas  I.  visits  England,  find  ;. 
garter. 

1828,  Feb.   22.    The  treaty  of    Turkmanshai.—  April   26. 

War    is  declared   against    the 
(q.  ».). 

1829,  May  24.  Coronation  of  Nicholas  I.  at  W 

King  of    Poland.—  Sep.    14.     Treaty  of  lladriu- 
nople  (q.  •».). 

1830,  Nov.   29.   An    insurrection    breaks   out    in    i'oland 


1831,  June  27.  Death  of  the  fi  rand-duke  Constant  inc.— 
Sep.  8.  Capture  of  Warsaw  by  the  l; 

1834,  Jan.  29.  A  treaty  for  the  surrender  of  Polish 
refugees  to  the  Russian  authorities  is  concluded 
with  Austria  and  Pr: 

1840,  Jan.   Failure  of  the  expedition  against  the  Turco- 

mans of  Khiva,  in  Central  Asia.—  .Inly  15.  1,'u-  i:i. 
England,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Turkey  conclude 
a  treaty  at  London  for  the  expulsion  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha  from  Syria. 

1841.  The  Circassian  war  commences. 

1844,  June  1—8.  Nicholas  I.  visits  England. 

1845,  An    insurrectionary    movement    is    suppressed   in 

Poland  (q.  v.). 

1846,  June  9.  The  Grand-duke  Constantine  visits  Ports- 

mouth. 

1847,  Poland  is  made  a  province  of  the  empire. 

1848,  March  3.    The  French   revolution   occasions  great 

excitement  at  St.  Petersburg.—  April.  An  insur- 
rection commences  in  White  Russia. 

1849,  May.  A  Russian  force  is  sent  to  the  assistance  of 


the   Austrians  in   Hungary   (?.».).—  Nov.    R 

of   Hu 
from  Turkey. 


demands  the  expulsion 


ngarian  refugees 


1850,  Jan.  6.    A  conspiracy  against  Nicholas   I.  is  de- 

tected. 

1851,  The  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  railway  is  com- 

menced. 

1852,  May  8.  Nicholas  I.  visits  Vienna.—  May  16.  Nicho- 

las I.  goes  to  Pots,  lam. 

1853,  Feb.  Dispute  with  Turkey  (See  OTTOMAN  EMPII;K) 

respecting  the  Holy  Places  (q.v.).  —  July  2.  The 
Russians  occupy  the  Danubian  principalities. 
—  Sep.  24.  The  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria 
have  an  interview  at  Ohniitz.  —  Oct.  2.  Nicholas 
I.  meets  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  King  of 
Prussia  at  Warsaw.—  Oct.  5.  War  is  declared  by 
Turkey.  (See  RUSSIAN  WAK). 

1854,  Feb.   7.  Baron  Brunow,  the   Russian  ambassador, 

leaves  England.  —  March  5.  Ten  of  the  northern 
governments,  inclusive  of  Poland,  are  declared 
in  a  state  of  siege.—  April  23.  Nicholas  I.  is- 
sues a  manifesto  asserting  that  his  only  object 
in  the  war  is  the  defence  of  the  Christian 
faith. 


1855,  March  2.  Death  of  Nicholas  I.  at  St.  Petersburg.— 

Sep.  25.  Alexander  II.  visits  Nicolaieff. — Oct.  15. 
Alexander  II.  orders  a  levy  of  10  men  in  1,000 
throughout  the  empire,  seven  provinces  only 
excepted.— Nov.  9.  Alexander  II.  visits 

xov.  1 8.  Alexander  II.  returns  to  St. 
Petersburg. — Xov.  21.  A  treaty  is  signed  by 
France  and  England  with  Sweden,  by  which  the 
latter  power  engages  to  cede  no  territory  to 
Russia,  anil  receives  the  promise  of  assistance 
from  the  other  parties  in  the  event  of  K* 
aggression. 

1856,  Jan.  29.  Death  of  Prince  Paskewitch  at  Warsaw.— 

March  30.  The  treaty  of  Paris.— May  17.  The 
department  of  public  instruction  is  placed  under 
the  immediate  control  of  tiie  Emperor. — May  22. 
Alexander  II.  visits  Warsaw.— .May  27.  Alex- 
auder  II.  grants  a  political  amnesty  "to  the  Poles. 
—Sep.  2.  Alexander  11.  publishes'  a  manifesto 
against  English  and  French  interference  in  UKS 
affairs  of  Naples. — Sep.  7.  Alexander  II.  is 
solemnly  crowned  at  Moscow. 

1857,  Jau-  26.  The  works  of  the  St.  Petersburg  and  War- 

saw   railway    are    entrusted    to   a   company  of 
Kus-iaii     and     foreign     capitalists. — June   14.    A 
commercial  treaty  is  signed  with  France.—  S 
An  interview  between   the   emperors  of    i 
and  of  France  takes  place  at  Stutgardt— Oct.  i. 
Alexander  II.  meets  the   Emperor  of  Austria  nt 
Weimar.— Dec.   16.   The  department  of  military 
colonies  is  abolished. 

1858,  Jau.    15.     A   committee    is   established   under    the 

idency  of  the   Emperor,  to  consider  tl 
i-ares  for  ameliorating  the  condition   of   tho 
-.—May    28.    A    frontier  treaty  is   coiieladi  d 
with  China.— June  9.  A  treaty  of 'commerce  and 
navigation  is  concluded  with  Belgium.—  July  2- 
The    royal   peasants    are    admitted    to    personal 
rights. — Dec.   31.     A   commercial   treaty  is  con- 
cluded with  Great  Britain. 

1859,  May  27.   The  Kussian  Government  protests 

any  intervention  on  the  part  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  in  the  Italian  question. — July  27. 
An  expedition  against  Schamyl  is  sent  into  Dag- 
hestan.— Aug.  5.  Ulu-  Kale,  in  the  Ca; 
surrenders  to  the  Russians. — Aug.  8.  Prince  Ba- 
riatinski  announces  the  subjection  of  the  tribes 
of  the  Caucasus. — Aug.  26.  Extension  of  po- 
litical rights  among  the  serfs.— Sep.  7.  Capture 
of  the  Circassian  lender  Schamyl.— Sep.  -40.  The 
Czarowit/.  Nicholas  attains  his  majority. 

1860,  Feb.    13.   Russia  rejects   the  principle  of  the   sove- 

•  ily  of  the  people. — May  5.  The  Russian  Go- 
vernment invites  a  conference  of  the  European 
powers  to  assemble  in  Russia  for  considering 
the  condition  of  Christians  in  Turkey. — June  12. 
New  regulations  are  made  respecting  the  national 
bank. — June  19.  War  recommences  in  the  Cau- 
casus.—Sep.  14.  A  commercial  treaty  is  con- 
cluded with  Austria.- — Oct.  10.  The  Russian  am- 
bassador is  recalled  from  Turin.— Oct.  22-  The 
emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  the  Prince- 
'•,it  of  Prussia,  have  an  interview  at  Warsaw. 
— Xov.  14.  Treaty  between  Russia  and  China,  1  y 
which  the  former  obtains  lerritorv  on  the  Amur. 

1861,  Feb.    Troubles  in    Poland    (q. «.).— March    i«.  An 

imperial  manifesto  is  published,  which  decrees 
the  total  emancipation  of  the  serfs  of  the  umpire 
within  two  years. — April  lo.  A  commission  of 
the  States  of  Finland  is  summoned  to  meet  at 
llelsingfors  in  1S62.— May  30.  Death  of  Prince 
Gortschakoff. 

1862,  Jan.  ii.  A  treaty  for  the  establishment  of  electric 

raph  communication  with  Turkey  is  signed 
at  St.  Petersburg.— March  20.  Death  of  Count 
Nesselrode. — June  10.  A  destructive  fire  at  St. 
Petersburg. 

863,  Jan.  22.  Difficulties  recommence  in  Poland.  (See 
POLAND.) — Feb.  8.  A  treaty  with  I'm-  - 
concluded  at  Warsaw  for  united  action  in  sup- 
pressing the  Polish  insurrection — Feb.  18.  France 
remonstrates  with  Russia  on  the  condition  of 
Poland,  and  invites  the  C/.ar  to  adopt  recon- 
ciliatory  measures.— April  7.  England,  France, 
and  Austria  send  separate  notes  to  St.  Petersburg, 
remonstrating  against  the  Russian  cruelties  in 
Poland.— Sep.  7.  The  French  proposal  for  a 
congress  is  rejected. 


RUSSIA 


[    863    ] 


RUSSIAN  WAR 


A.D. 

1864,  March   31.    Major-gen.    Heymann    defeats    three 

independent  Circassian  tribes,  the  remnant  of 
which  retreat  into  Turkey.  (See  ClRCASSlA.) — 
June  z.  Circassia  la  declared  to  be  entirely 
subject  to  Russia. — Sep.  16.  Sir  A.  Buchanan  is 
appointed  ambassador  from  England. 

1865,  April   24.    Death    of    the    Czarowitz    Nicholas    at 

Nice. — June  6.  His  funeral  takes  place  at  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Petersburg. 

1866,  April  16.  Karakasovv  fails  in  an  attempt  to  assassi- 

nate Alexander  II.— July  37.  The  Abasians  defeat 
the  Russians. — Aug.  Insurrection  in  the  Cau- 
casus.— Sep.  15.  Karakasovv  is  executed. — Sep.  17. 
Railway  from  Rostor  to  Moscow  is  opened. — 
Nov.  17.  Marriage  of  the  Princess  Dagmar  with 
the  Czarowitz. 

RULERS   OF  RUSSIA. 
DUKES   AND   GRAND-DUKES. 

A.I). 


A.D. 

863.  Rurie. 

879.  Oleg. 

913.  Igor  I. 

945-  Olga. 

o^-j.  Sviatoslav  I. 

973.  Yaropolk  I. 

980.  Vladimir  I.,  the  Great. 
1015.  Sviatopolk  I. 
1018.  Yaroslav  I. 
1054.  Isiaslav  I. 
1067.  Vseslav. 


1073.  Sviatoslav  II. 
1078.  Vsevolod  I. 
1093.  Sviatopolk  II. 
1113.  Vladimir  II. 
1125.  Mstislav. 
1 133.  Yaropolk  II. 

1137.  Viatcheslav. 

1138.  Vsevolod  II. 
ru6.  Igor  II. 
1146.  Isiaslav  II. 
1149.  Yury  I. 


SCHISM   OF   EIGHTY-SIX   YEARS. 


AT  KIEF. 
1154.  Kostislavl. 
>.  Isiaslav  III. 
1.  Mstislav  II. 
- .  i.  Gleb.  lourievitch. 
173.  laroslav    II        Isias- 

lavitch. 
179.  Roman  I. 
179.  Sviastolav  III. 
193.  Ruric  II. 
193.  Roman  II. 
306.  Vsevolod  III. 
1313.  Mstislav  III. 
1330.  Vladimir  III. 
1339.  Michael  I.,    Vsevolo- 
dovitch. 


AT  MOSCOW. 
154.  AndrowI.Bogolioubski. 


1175.  Michael  I. 
1177.  Vsevolod  HI. 


1313-38.  Yury  II. 
(1317-18.  Constantin.) 
1338.  Yaroslav  II.,  Vsevolo- 
dovitch. 


AT  VLADIMIK. 


1340.  laroslav  II.,  Vsevolo- 

dovitch. 
1347.  Sviatoslav   III.,   Vse- 

volodovitch. 
1349.  Andrew     I.,     Yaros- 

lavich. 

1252.  Alexander  I.,  Newski. 
1363.  Yaroslav  III.,  Yaros- 

lavitch. 
1373.  Vassili  or  Basil  I. 


1376.  Dmitri  I. 

1294.  Andrew  II. 

1295.  Daniel. 

1304.  Vassili  or  Basil  II. 
1304.  Michael  II. 
1319.  Yury  III. 
1333.  Dmitri  II. 
1336.  Alexander  II. 
1338.  Ivan  I.,  Kalita. 


AT  MOSCOW. 


1340.  Simeon,  the  Proud. 
1353.  Ivan  II. 
1359.  Dmitri  III. 
1363.  Dmitri    III.     or    IV., 
Donski. 


1389.  Vassili  or  Basil  III. 
1435.  Vassili  or   Basil   IV., 

the  Blind. 

1463.  Ivan  III.,  the  Great. 
1505.  Vassili  or  Basil  V. 


Ivan  IV.,  the  Terrible.  ;  1610.  Vladislaus  of  Poland. 


Feodor  I. 
Boris  Godunow. 
Feodor  II. 

Dmitri  V.  (the  False). 
Vassili    or    Basil    VI. 
(Chouiski). 


1613.  Michael  III. 
1645.  Alexis  I. 
1676.  Feodor  III. 
1683.  Ivan-V.  and  Peter  I. 
(the  Great). 


1689.  Peter   I.,    the    Great 

(alone). 

1735.  Catherine  I. 
1737.  Peter  II. 
1730.  Anne. 
1740.  Ivan  VI. 
1743.  Elizabeth. 


EMPERORS. 


1762.  Peter  III. 

1763.  Catherine  II. 
1796.  Paul  I. 
1801.  Alexander  I. 
1835.  Nicholas  I. 
1855.  Alexander  II. 


RUSSIA  COMPANY. —The  English  trade 
was  opened  by  some  Englishmen  who  formed 
a  company  under  the  direction  of  Sebastian 
Cabot  in  1553.  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  and  the 
crews  of  two  vessels  perished  in  1553  (See 
NORTH-EAST  PASSAGE),  but  a  third  vessel  under 
Richard  Chancellor  entered  the  White  Sea. 
Chancellor,  who  reached  Archangel,  was  sent 
for  by  Ivan  IV.,  and  visited  Moscow,  when  in- 
ternational commerce  was  established,  and  the 
company  was  incorporated  as  the  Russia  Com- 
pany in  1554,  Richard  Chancellor  and  Anthony 
Jenkinson  being  the  agents.  Chancellor  paid 
another  visit  to  Moscow  in  1555,  and  the  Russia 
Company  was  confirmed  by  the  first  express 
statute  passed  in  England  in  1566. 

RUSSIAN  AMERICA  consists  chiefly  of 
territory  used  for  hunting,  and  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Imperial  Fur  Company.  New 
Archangel,  on  the  island  of  Sitka,  is  the  only 
town. 

RUSSIAN  WAR. —The  Sultan  of  Turkey 
finding  it  impossible  to  comply  with  the 
demands  of  the  Czar  respecting  the  Holy 
Places  and  Turkish  subjects  professing  the 
Greek  religion,  the  Russian  embassy  was  re- 
called from  Constantinople,  May  21,  1853. 


1853,  May  38.  A  manifesto  is  issued  to  the  great  powers 

by  the  Sultan.— June  8.  The  English  fleet,  under 
Admiral  Dundas,  is  ordered  to  the  Dardanelles. — 
July  3.  The  Russian  army  crosses  the  Pruth. — 
Oct.  5.  Turkey  declares  war.— Oct.  23.  The  first 
encounter  takes  place  at  Isatcha. — Oct.  30.  The 
English  fleet  enters  the  Dardanelles. — Nov.  4. 
The  Turks  are  victorious  at  Oltenitza,  the 
Russians  losing  1,000  men. — Dec.  31.  The  "  Iden- 
tic Note  "  is  accepted  by  the  Sultan. 

1854,  Jan.  3.  Sweden  and  Denmark  declare  in  favour  of 

neutrality.— Jan.  4.  The  Allied  fleets  of  England 
and  France  enter  the  Black  Sea. — Jan.  6.  The 
Turks  are  victorious  at  Citate,  with  a  loss  to  the 
Russians  of  3,000  men. — Jan.  8.  The  Russians 
enter  the  Dobrudscha.— Feb.  33.  English  troops 
embark  for  the  East.— March  n.  The  Baltic 
fleet,  under  Napier,  sails  from  Spithead. — March 
19.  The  _French  troops  for  the  East  begin  to 
embark.  —  March  20.  The  French  Baltic  fleet 
sails  from  Brest. — March  38.  Declaration  of  war 
by  England  and  France — April  14.  The  siege  of 
Silistria  is  commenced  by  the  Russians.— April 
15.  A  convention  is  concluded  between  France, 
Turkey,  and  England.— April  18.  Lliders  is  de- 
feated by  Omar  1'asha  near  Rassova. — April  30. 
Austria  and  Prussia  agree  to  remain  neutral.— 
April  23.  Bombardment  of  Odessa  by  the  French 
and  English  fleets.— May  13.  The  Tiger  is  lost  off 
Odessa,  and  her  crew  are  made  prisoners  by  the 
Russians.— June  14.  Treaty  of  Boyadji-Keuy 
between  Austria  and  Turkey. — June  33.  The 
siege  of  Silistria  is  raised  by  the  Russians.— July 
7.  The  Turks  are  victorious  at  Giurgevo. — July 
38.  Wallachia  is  evacuated  by  the  Russians.— 
July  39.  The  Turks  are  defeated  by  the  Russians 
near  Bayazid.—  Aug.  6.  The  Turks  are  again 
defeated  at  Kurekdere. — Aug.  13 — 15.  Bomar- 
sund,  besieged  by  the  Allied  fleets,  surrenders 
unconditionally.— Aug.  30.  The  Austrians  enter 
the  principalities.— Aug.  34.  Kola,  in  the  White 
Sea,  is  bombarded  by  the  Miranda,  and  com- 
pletely destroyed.— Sep.  7.  The  Allies  are  foiled 
at  Petropaulovski.— Sep.  14.  The  Allies  (25,000 
French,  25,000  British,  and  8,000  Turks)  land  at 
Old  Fort,  in  the  Crimea.— Sep.  15.  Moldavia  is 
evacuated  by  the  Russians.— Sep.  30.  Battle  of 
the  Alma  (</.  u.).— Sep.  33.  The  Russian  fleet  is 
sunk  in  the  harbour  of  Sebastopol  by  Menschi- 
koff.— Sep.  36.  Balaclava  is  occupied  by  the  Eng- 
lish.—Sep.  39.  Death  of  Marshal  St  Arnaud,  the 
French  commander-in-chief. — Oct.  3.  The  siege 
army  encamps  before  Sebastopol. 


RUSTCHUK 


[     864     ] 


SAARDAM 


i854i  Oct.  17.  The  bombardment  commences. — Oct.  25. 
Battle  of  Balaclava,  and  famous  charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade.— Nov.  5.  Battle  of  Inkermann.— 
Dec.  2.  Tripartite  treaty  between  Austria,  England, 
and  France  against  Russia  is  signed  at  Vienna. — 
Dec.  22.  Admiral  Dundas  is  succeeded  by  Sir  E. 
Lyons. — Dec.  24.  Admiral  Bruat  succeeds  Admiral 
Hamelin. 

1855,  Jan.   26.    Sardinia  joins  the  Allies. — June  29.  The 

Sebastopol  committee  is  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  the  army. — Feb.  6.  A  warrant  is  issued, 
giving  commissions  to  sergeants  and  corporals. — 
Fell.  24.  The  French  air  defeated  at  the  White 
Works.— March  2.  Death  of  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia. 
— March  15.  Conferences  are  commenced  at  Vienna. 
—April  4.'  A  fleet  for  the  Baltic,  under  Admiral 
Sir  R.  S.  Dundas.  sails  from  Spithead. — April  9. 
Seliastopo!  is  again  bombarded.— April  24.  Em- 
barkation of  the  Sardinian  army  at  (.enoa.  The 
conferences  at  Vienna  are  closed. — May  16.  Gen. 
Canrobert  is  succeeded  in  the  Crimea  by  IVlissier. 
— May  22.  An  expedition  is  sent  to  the  sea  of  Azof. 
—May  25-  Kertcli  and  Yenikale  are  taken  by  the 
Allies.— May  26.  The  Allies  enter  the  sea  of  Azof. 
— June  3.  Taganrog  is  cannonaded  by  the  Allies.— 
June  5.  Massacre  at  Hango  by  the  Russians  of 
a  boat's  crew,  under  a  flag  of  truce. — June  6. 
Sebastopol  is  a  third  time  bombarded. — June  8. 
The  Mamelon,  Quarries,  and  White  Works  are 
taken. — June  17.  Sebastopol  is  a  fourth  time 
bombarded. — June  lH.  The  Allies  arc  i 
the  Malakhoff  and  the  Redan.— June  2-.  Death 
of  Lord  Raglan. — Aug.  9.  Sweahorg  is  bom- 
barded.--Aug.  16.  The  Russians  are  defeated  at 
the  Tchcrnaya.— Sep.  8.  Repulse  of  the  Eimli-h 
nt  the  Kedan;  the  Malakhoff  is  taken  by  the 
French;  evacuation  of  Sevastopol  by  the  Rus- 
sians.— Sep.  9.  Entrance  of  the  Allies  into  Selias- 
topo].— Sep.  24.  Tamaii  and  Fanagoria  an;  taken 
by  the  Allies.-  Sep.  j,,.  The  Rnssh, 
feated  by  the  French  in  a  cavalry  action  at 
Eupatori'a.  The  Turkish  garrison  of'lvars,  under 
Gen.  Williams,  repulses  the  Russians.— Oct.  17. 
The  forts  of  Kinburn  capitulate  to  the  Allies.— 
Xov.  6.  The  Turks,  under  Omar  1'asha,  defeat 
the  Russians,  and  force  the  pas-age  of  the 
Ingour. — Nov.  25.  Kars  surrenders  to  Gen.  Mou- 
ravicff. — Dec.  16.  Proposals  of  peace,  approved 
by  the  Allies,  are  sent  to  St.  I'etersburg  by 
Austria. 

1856,  Jan.  16.  Bases  for  peace  are  agreed  to  by  Russia. — 

Fell.  i.  A  protocol  is  signed  at  Vienna  by  the 
ministers  of  Russia.  France,  England.  Austria. 
and  Turkey. — Feb.  5.  The  report  of  Sir  John 
M'Xiell  anil  Col.  Tulloch,  commissioners  to  the 
Crimea  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  army,  is 
published. — Feb.  25.  The  plenipotentiaries  of 
France,  Austria.  Great  Britain.  Russia,  Sardinia, 
and  Turkey,  Prussia  being  afterwards  admitted, 
meet  at  Paris  and  agree  to  an  armistice,  to  con- 
tinue in  force  till  March  31. — Feb.  29.  A  sus- 
pension of  hostilities  is  agreed  upon  in  the 
Crimea.— March  30.  A  treaty  of  peace  is  signed 
at  Paris. — April  16.  The  congress  is  closed. — April 
29.  The  treaty  is  ratified  at  Paris. 

RUSTCHUK  (Turkey).  —  This  town  was 
taken  by  the  Russians,  under  Gens.  Langeron 
and  Markow,  Oct.  14,  1811  ;  and  it  again  ad- 
mitted a  Russian  force  in  1828. 

RUTHENIUM  —Klaus  proved  the  existence 
of  this  metal  in  platinum  ores,  in  1843. 

RUTHVEN.— (-See  COWRIE  CONSPIRACIES, 
RAID  OF  RUTHVEN,  &c.) 

RUTUPIJ3.—  (See  RICHBOROUGH.) 

RYAL,  or  RIAL.— A  gold  noble  of  the  value 
of  i  os.,  coined  by  Edward  IV.  in  1465,  and 
named  in  imitation  of  a  French  coin  which 
bore  the  impression  of  the  king  in  his  royal 
robes.  (See  COIN,  and  GOLD  COINAGE.) 

RYE  (Sussex),  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Novus  Portus  of  the  Romans, 
was  pillaged  by  a  party  of  piratical  Danes, 


under  Hastings,  in  893.  The  castle  was  built 
by  the  Earl  of  Kent,  1134 — 1154.  A  charter, 
conveying  permission  to  fortify  the  town,  was 
granted  by  Richard  I.  in  1194.  The  Hugue- 
nots, driven  from  France  by  Catherine  de 
Medicis,  found  refuge  here  in  1572.  The  har- 
bour was  nearly  choked  up  in  the  i6th  century, 
and  an  act  was  obtained  for  improving  it  in 
1548.  An  attempt  to  form  a  new  mouth  by  a 
canal,  in  1750,  having  been  found  useless,  was 
abandoned,  and  the  old  one  was  again  resorted 
to  and  improved  in  1778.  The  free  grammar- 
school,  founded  by  Thomas  Peacock  in  1638, 
nd  a  school  for  poor  children,  by  James 
Saunders,  in  1702,  have  been  united. 

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT,  for  an  insurrection  in 
England  and  Scotland,  in  order  to  secure  tlio 
succession  to  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  was 
discovered  June  12,  1683.  The  Earl  of  Essex, 
son  of  Lord  Capel,  was  found  in  the  Tower 
with  his  throat  cut,  July  13  ;  Lord  William 
Russell  was  executed  July  21,  and  Algernon 
Sydney  Dec.  7,  1683.  The  Duke  of  Monmouth 
\vas  pardoned,  and  Hampden,  grandson  of  John 
1 1  aim  >den,  fined  ,£40,000,  Feb.  6,  1684.  The con- 

ntlors  intended  to  murder  Charles  II.  and 
the  Duke  of  York. 

I!  V  M  !•: \AXTS.— (See  RIMENANT,  Battle.) 

II YS  WICK  (Treaty).  —  Negotiations  were 
opened  at  this  village,  between  Delft  and  the 
Hague,  in  Holland,  May  9,  1697,  to  terminate 
the  war  which  had  commenced  in  1688,  with 
France  against  Holland,  Germany,  Spain,  and 
England.  Three  separate  treaties,  by  which 
l.miis  XIV.  resigned  some  of  his  conquests 
and  recognized  William  III.  as  King  of  Eng- 
land, were  signed  by  England,  France,  Spain, 
and  Holland,  Sep.  10  (O.  S.)  or  Sep.  20  (N.  S.), 
697,  and  by  Germany  Oct.  30. 


S. 

SAALFELD  (Germany).— This  small  walled 
town  of  Saxe-Meiningen  contains  the  ruins  of 
an  old  castle  erected  in  the  8th  century.  The 
cathedral  of  St.  John,  built  in  1212,  is  remark- 
able for  its  fine  painted  windows.  It  was  the 
capital  of  an  independent  principality  till  1749, 
when  it  was  joined  to  Saxe-Coburg,  passing 
to  Saxe-Meiningen  in  1826.  Bavaria  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  confederates  of 
Smalcald  at  this  town,  Oct.  24,  1531.  Lannes, 
at  the  head  of  the  French,  defeated  the  Prus- 
sians here,  Oct.  10,  1806.  Prince  Louis  Ferdi- 
nand of  Prussia  was  killed  in  the  encounter. 

SAARBRUCK,  or  SARREBRUCK  (Prussia  , 
founded  in  the  icth  century,  was  united  to 
Nassau  in  1380.  The  town,  taken  by  the 
French  in  1676,  was  soon  after  re-captured 
and  burned  by  the  Imperialists.  The  palace, 
which  at  one  time  belonged  to  the  princes  of 
Nassau-Saarbrucken,  was  destroyed  by  the 
French  in  1793.  Saarbriick  belonged  to  France 
from  1749  to  1814,  and  was  given  to  Prussia 

"VAARDAM,  or  ZAANDAM  (Holland),   cele- 
brated   as    the    place  where    Peter    I.    (the 


SAARLOUIS 


[    865    ] 


SACRAMENTARIAN  CONT. 


Great)  resided,  when  working  as  a  common 
shipwright,  under  the  name  of  Peter  Mik- 
ha'ilov,  iu.  1696. 

SAARLOUIS,  or  SARRELOUIS  (Prussia).— 
The  town  was  founded  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1680, 
and  the  fortress  was  erected  by  Vauban  in 
1681.  It  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

SAAZ,  or  SAATZ  (Battle).— Ziska  defeated 
the  Germans,  Sep.  i,  1421,  at  this  place  in 
Bohemia,  founded  in  the  jih  century. 

SAB/EANS.— (See  SHEBA.) 

SABA,  ST.— The  Venetians  erected  Herze- 
govina (q.  v.)  into  a  duchy,  under  the  name  of 
St.  Saba. 

SABBATARIANS.— The  term  was  applied 
in  the  4th  century  to  the  followers  of  Sabba- 
tius.  (See  MARCIANISTS.)  In  the  i6th  century 
some  Anabaptists,  who  observed  the  seventh, 
instead  of  the  first  day  of  the  week,  received 
the  name  of  Sabbatarians.  It  is  uncertain 
when  they  first  appeared  in  the  Protestant 
Church,  but  Fuller  says  they  existed  as  early 
as  1633.  The  republication  of  King  James's 
Book  of  Sports  (q.  v.},  Oct.  18,  1633,  revived 
the  Sabbatarian  controversy.  There  are  two 
congregations  of  Sabbatarians  in  London,  the 
first  dating  as  far  back  as  1678.  One  is  among 
the  General,  and  the  other  among  the  Parti- 
cular Baptists.  A  tract  supporting  this  doc- 
trine was  published  in  1740.  They  are  some- 
times called  the  Seventh-Day  Baptists. 

SABBATH,  as  a  name  for  Sunday  (q.  v.), 
was,  according  to  the  elder  Disraeli,  first  used 
in  England  in  1554.  In  Low  Latin,  and  the 
languages  derived  from  the  Latin,  the  term 
designates  Saturday. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.— The  Jews  received 
the  command  for  its  observance  every  seventh 
year,  in  which  they  were  neither  to  sow  their 
fields  nor  prune  their  vineyards  (Exod.  xxiii. 
TO  &  n),  B.C.  1491.  The  injunction,  repeated 
Lev.  xxv.  2 — 7,  is  referred  to  Deut.  xv.  i — u, 
and  xxxi.  10 — 13.  The  Jews  observed  it  after 
their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

SABELLIANS.— The  followers  of  Sabel'lius, 
according  to  some  authorities  a  bishop,  and 
according  to  others  a  presbyter  of  .Upper 
Egypt,  who  flourished  256 — 270,  and  taught 
that  the  Father  suffered  on  the  cross,  and 
that  there  is  but  one  person  in  the  Godhead. 
Pope  Dionysius  pronounced  condemnation  of 
the  doctrines  of  Sabellius  in  a  council  held  at 
Rome  in  260.  Marcellus,  Bishop  of  Ancyra, 
maintained  the  doctrine  in  325.  The  "  His- 
toria  Sabellina"  was  published  by  Wormius  in 
1696.  The  Sabellians  were  also  called  Patri- 
passians  (q.  v.).  Hallam  says  that  Servetus 
held  what  were  nearly  Sabellian  opinions. 

SABINES,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  named  from  Sabus,  one  of 
their  deities.  Little  is  known  of  their  history. 
They  were  at  war  with  the  Romans  at  a  very 
early  period.  A  contest  broke  out  between 
them  B.C.  504,  and  a  body  of  the  Sabines  mi- 
grated to  Rome,  where  they  were  welcomed, 
and  founded  the  powerful  family  and  tribe  of 
Claudii.  The  Sabines  carried  their  ravages  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome,  B.C.  469.  On  their 
defeat  by  Marcus  Horatiiis,  B.C.  449,  their 
camp  was  found  full  of  plunder  obtained  in 
the  Roman  territories.  They  were  again  at 


war  with  the  Romans  B.C.  290,  and  having 
been  vanquished  many  of  them  were  sold  as 
slaves.  The  remaining  citizens  were  admitted 
to  the  Roman  franchise,  but  without  the 
rights  of  suffrage.  These  were  granted  to 
them  B.C.  268,  and  from  that  time  they  en- 
joyed all  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens. 
The  last  time  they  are  mentioned  as  a  distinct 
people  is  during  the  second  Punic  war  (B.C. 
218 — B.C.  202),  when  they  served  as  volunteers 
in  the  army  of  Scipio. 

SABRINA  LAND  (Antarctic  Ocean)  was 
discovered  by  Balleny,  March  20,  1839. 

SAC  (BRETHREN  OF  THE).— This  religious 
order,  established  in  the  beginning  of  the 
1 3th  century,  had  monasteries  in  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  England.  They  never 
ate  flesh  or  drank  wine,  and  only  wore  wooden 
sandals  in  addition  •  to  the  sac,  from  which 
they  took  their  name. 

SACCATOO,  or  SO  KOTO  (Africa).— A  king- 
dom under  this  name  was  established  in 
Soudan  in  1816.  The  town  of  Saccatoo  was 
founded  in  1803.  The  traveller  Clappertoii 
died  here,  April  13,  1827. 

SACHEVERELL  RIOTS  (London).  —  Dr. 
Henry  Sacheverell,  rector  of  St.  Saviour's, 
Southwark,  preached  two  sermons,  one  at 
Derby  and  the  other  at  St.  Paul's,  the  latter 
Nov.  5,  1709,  of  which  Mr  Dolben  complained 
as  being  contrary  to  Revolution  principles. 
The  House  of  Commons  voted  them  "  scan- 
dalous and  seditious,"  and  ordered  Dr.  Sache- 
verell to  be  impeached,  Dec.  13.  Dr.  Sache- 
verell, brought  to  trial  Feb.  27,  1710,  was 
found  guilty  March  23,  and  sentenced  to  sus- 
pension for  three  years.  The  people,  con- 
ceiving the  Church  in  danger,  during  the 
progress  of  the  trial  broke  into  several  meet- 
ing-houses, tore  down  the  pulpits  and  pews, 
and  made  a  bonfire  of  them  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields.  Soldiers  were  called  upon  to  disperse 
the  mob,  and  the  London  trained  bands  were 
kept -on  duty.  In  1713  Sacheverell  was  pre- 
sented to  the  living  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn, 
and  he  died  June  5,  1724. 

SACRAMENT.— In  the  primitive  ages  of 
hristianity  there  were  but  two  sacraments, 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Otho,  Bishop 
of  Bamberg,  was  the  first  who,  in  1124,  enu- 
merated seven  sacraments.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  Peter  Lombard  and  of  Gratian,  this 
number  was  generally  adopted  by  the  Romish 
clergy,  and  received  the  approval  of  Pope 
Eugeiiius  IV.  at  the  Council  of  Florence  in 
1439.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Dec.  13,  1545 — 
Dec.  3,  1563)  decided  that  there  were  seven  ; 
namely,  Baptism,  Confirmation,  the  Eucharist, 
or  Supper  of  the  Lord,  Extreme  Unction, 
Marriage,  Ordination,  and  Penance,  instead  of 
the  two  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ.  The  Be- 
lediction  with  the  Sacrament  arose  in  the 
Romish  Church  soon  after  the  institution  of 
the  Festival  of  Corpus  Christi  in  1264.  A  sect 
sprang  up  in  England  early  in  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, founded  by  Dr.  Deacon,  who  increased 
their  number  to  12.  The  founder  published 
his  views  on  Christianity  in  1748. 

SACRAMENTARIAN  CONTROVERSY, 
amongst  the  Lutherans,  commenced  in  1524, 
when  Martin  Luther  engaged  in  a  dispute 
3* 


SACRAMENT  ARIES 


[    866    ] 


SADLER'S  WELLS 


with  Andrew  Carlstadt.  Luther  taught  the 
real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  elements  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  as  fire  is  in  heated  iron, 
the  doctrine  being  termed  Consubstantiation. 
Carlstadt,  who  was  supported  by  Bucer  and 
Capito,  maintained  that  the  Eucharist  was 
only  a  commemoration  of  the  Saviour's  sacri- 
fice. Zwinglius  took  the  same  view  in  1525, 
and  Luther's  doctrine  was  condemned  by  an 
assembly  of  Swiss  divines  at  Berne  in  1528. 
The  diet  of  Spires,  in  1529,  resolved  to  sup- 
press the  Sacramentarians  or  Sacramentaries, 
as  the  opponents  of  Luther  were  called. 
Their  supporters  drew  up  the  Tetrapolitan 
Confession  (q.  v.),  for  presentation  to  the  diet 
of  Augsburg,  in  1530.  They  existed  in  Eng- 
land in  considerable  numbers  about  1537. 

SACRAMENTARIES  .—These  liturgical 
books,  containing  the  prayers  and  order  of  the 
celebration  of  mass  and  of  the  sacraments, 
wore  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  most  celebrated  sacramentaries  are  those  of 
Pope  Gelasius  I.  (492 — 496)  and  of  Pope  Gregory 
I.  (the  Great)  (590—604).  About  the  nth  or 
1 2th  century  they  were  incorporated  with  the 
mass-books  or  missals  (q.  v.}.  No  sacramen- 
taries were  employed  by  the  Greek  Church. 
(See  SAOKAMBNTARIAN  CONTROVERSY.) 

SACRAMENTO  (California).— A  settlement 
was  made  in  1839,  and  the  first  house  wa,s 
built  in  the  spring  of  1849.  Gold  was  discovered 
in  the  Sacramento  River,  in  Sep.,  1847.  It 
became  the  capital  of  California  in  1854. 

SACRED. — The  Christian  emperors  did  not 
use  the  term  until  the  time  of  Justin  II.,  in 

S'S.     It  was  first  added  to  the  title  of  majesty, 
this  country,  by  .lamus  I.,  in  1603. 

SACRED  COLLEGE.— (fite  CARDINAL.) 

SACRED  FIRE.— (-See  KILDAKE,  VESTALS, 
&c.) 

SACRED  HARMONIC.— (.See  CONCERT, 
LONDII-  IARMONIC  SOCIETY,  <fec.) 

SACRED  HEART  OF  JESUS.  —  This 
feast,  said  to  have  originated  with  a  French 
nun  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century, 
was  :ipprovod  by  Clement  XII.  in  1732  and 
in  1736,  ami  by  Clement  XIII.  in  1765. 

SACRED  STANDARD.— (See  LABARUM.) 

HACKED  WARS.— The  first,  in  which  the 
Amphictyonic  Council  declared  war 
the  Cirrhreans,  B.C.  595,  in  defence  of  Delphi, 
lasted  until  B.C.  586,  when  Cirrha  was  taken, 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  surrounding 
country  dedicated  to  the  god.  The  second 
lasted  from  B.C.  448  to  B.C.  447.  The  Phocians 
having  been  sentenced  by  the  Amphictyonic 
Council  to  pay  a  fine  for  having,  as  they 
pretended,  cultivated  the  Cirrhsean  plain, 
B.C.  357,  seized  the  temple,  which  led  to  the 
Phocian  or  the  third  Sacred  war.  It  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  Philip  I.  of  Macedon, 
B.C.  346,  and  the  temple  was  restored  to 
the  Amphictyons.  By  some  writers  the  first 
contest  is  termed  the  Cirrhajan  war,  and  the 
two  latter  the  first  and  second  Sacred  wars. 
The  fourth  Sacred  war  was  waged  B.C.  339— 
B.C.  338. 

SACRIFICE.— Cain  offered  one  of  the  fruit 
of  the  ground,  and  Abel  of  the  firstlings  of 
his  flock,  B.C.  3875  (Gen.  iv.  2—4).  Noah, 
after  leaving  the  ark,  offered  up  a  burnt- 


offering,  B.C.  2347  (Gen.  viii.  20).  Abraham 
was  commanded  by  God  to  offer  up  his  son 
Isaac  as  a  sacrifice,  B.C.  1872  (Gen.  xxii.  2). 
The  Jewish  system  of  sacrifice  was  instituted 
B.C.  1496.  A  decree  of  the  Roman  senate 
abolished  human  sacrifices  B.C.  99.  The 
Egyptians,  says  Herodotus,  offered  up  swine 
•to  Dionysus,  god  of  the  Nile,  and  to  the  Moon, 
B.C.  408  ;  and  the  Scythians  to  their  deities 
sacrificed  chiefly  horses,  B.C.  408.  Julius  Caesar 
•found  the  Druids  of  Britain  practising  human 
sacrifices,  B.C.  55.  Gibbon  (ch.  1.)  remarks, 
"  The  altars  of  Phoenicia  and  Egypt,  of  Rome 
and  Carthage,  have  been  polluted  with  human 
gore,"  and  the  Arab  tribe  of  the  Dumatians 
annually  sacrificed  a  boy  in  the  3rd  century. 
The  Mohammedan  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  is  con- 
summated by  a  sacrifice  of  sheep  and  camels. 
The  tribes  of  the  Suevi  were  in  the  habit  of 
resorting  to  the  sacred  wood  or  sonnenwald,  in 
the  marquisate  of  Lusace,  and  there  offering 
human  sacrifice,  in  248.  Theodosius  I.  prohi- 
bited sacrifice  at  Rome  in  385.  (See  HECATOMB. 

SACRILEGE.— A  statute  (4  Hen.  VLII.  c.  2 
was  enacted  against  it  in  1512.  It  was  made 
punishable  with  death  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29, 
s.  10  (1827),  and  with  transportation  for  life 
by  5  <fe  6  Will.  IV.  c.  81  (Sep.  10,  1835).  Tho 
penalty  was  reduced  to  a  term  of  imprison- 
ment for  three  years  by  6  Will.  IV.  c.  4  (1836). 

8ACBIPOBTUS  Battle).  -The  consuls 
Marius  the  younger  and  Papirius  Carbo  were 
defeated  by  Sylla,  at  this  place,  in  Italy,  with 
the  loss  of  20,000  slain  and  8,000  prisoners, 
B.C.  82. 

SADDLES.— Zonaras  relates  that  Constan- 
tino the  younger  was  killed,  in  340,  by  a  fall 
from  his  saddle,  which  seems  to  be  the  first 
mention  of  them.  They  appear  to  have  been 
made  of  wood  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  I.  In  385  he  ordered  that  saddles 
of  more  than  60  pounds  weight  should  not  be 
put  upon  post-horses.  The  Emperor  Maurice 
ordered  those  of  the  cavalry  to  have  large 
coverings  of  fur  in  the  6th  century.  Ethelbert, 
King  of  Kent,  bestowed  one  adorned  with 
gems  upon  St.  Augustine's  abbey,  in  605.  In 
a  reformation  of  the  Cluniacs,  in  1233,  it  is 
ordered  that  no  abbot  or  prior  ride  without 
one.  Among  the  old  Germans  and  Franks, 
carrying  a  saddle  from  place  to  place  was  an 
ignominious  punishment.  The  saddlers  of 
London,  who  are  said  to  have  formed  a  com- 
pany before  967,  were  incorporated  in  1272. 

SADDUCEES.— A  party  amongst  the  Jews, 
who  did  not  believe  that  the  Oral  Law  was  a 
revelation  of  God  to  the  Israelites,  denied  the 
existence  of  departed  souls,  and  the  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead.  According  to  the  Jewish 
account,  now  generally  rejected,  they  derived 
their  name  from  Sadoc  or  Zadoc,  a  follower  of 
Antigonus  of  Socho,  president  of  the  Jewish 
Sanhedrim  about  B.C.  250.  Some  writers 
pretend  that  they  rejected  all  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, except  the  Pentateuch.  They  are  not 
heard  of  after  the  ist  century. 

SADLER'S  WELLS  THEATRE  (London).— 
A  band  of  music  was  provided  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  drinkers  of  the  medicinal 
waters  here,  in  1683.  Rosoman  sold  three- 
fourths  of  his  interest  in  the  place  for  ,£7,000, 


SADOWA 


[    867    ] 


SAINT  SIMONIANS 


June  10, 1771.  The  theatre  was  opened  in  1765. 
An  accident  caused  by  a  false  alarm  of  fire,  by 
which  1 8  persons  were  suffocated  or  tram- 
pled to  death,  occurred  Oct.  19,  1807.  Two 
benefits  took  place  for  the  relief  of  the  suf- 
ferers, Nov.  2  and  3,  and  two  brothers  were 
convicted  at  the  Middlesex  sessions  for  having 
caused  the  riot  which  led  to  the  catastrophe, 
Dec.  4,  1807. 

SADOWA,  or  KONIGSGRATZ  (Battle).-The 
Prussians,  commanded  by  King  William  I.  in 
person,  defeated  the  Austrians,  under  Field- 
Marshal  Benedek,  at  the  village  of  Sadowa, 
near  Konigsgratz,  in  Bohemia,  Tuesday,  July 
3,  1866.  The  attack  was  commenced  by  the 
Austrian  artillery  about  7.30  A.M.  At  ten 
o'clock  the  Prussians,  under  Gen.  Stuhnapl, 
advanced  upon  the  villages  of  Sadowa,  Dohel- 
nitz,  and  Mokrowena,  whence,  after  hard  fight- 
ing, "in  which  the  needle  g\m  (q.  v.}  did  good 
service — for  this  battle,  like  Molwitz  (q.v.),  was 
gained  by  rapidity  of  firing — they  expelled 
the  enemy;  and  by  2.30  P.M.  they  had  seized 
the  village  of  Chlum,  or  Khun,  the  centre  of 
the  Austrian  position.  The  advantage,  however, 
remained  with  the  Austrians  till  about  3.30, 
when  the  Prussian  Crown  Prince  drove  their 
left  flank  from  the  village  of  Lipa.  By  4.30 
the  retreat  had  become  general,  but  the  firing 
continued  till  nine.  Three  Austrian  arch- 
dukes were  wounded.  Prince  Lichtenstem 
and  Prince  Windischgratz,  with  about  15,000 
men,  were  made  prisoners;  and  160  guns,  IT 
sets  of  colours,  and  3  cavalry  standards  were 
captured.  The  Austrian  army  consisted  of 
about  190,000,  and  the  Prussians  of  220,000 
men. 

SAFETY.— (See  GENERAL  SAFETY,  PUBLIC 
WELFARE,  <fec.) 

SAFETY  LAMP.— The  "  Davy"  was  invented 
by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  the  "  Geordy"  by 
George  Stephenson  in  1815.  It  was  decided  to 
be  sometimes  a  source  of  danger  when  ven- 
tilation was  neglected,  by  a  committee  formed 
to  inquire  into  the  subject  after  the  great 
explosion  near  Suiiderland  in  1839. 

SAFFRON,  the  same  as  the  Latin  crocus, 
mentioned  by  King  Solomon  and  Homer, 

which  was  much  used  by  the  ancients  as  a    founded  in   1829,  and  the  new  building,  by 
perfume  and  in  cookery,  was  first  introduced     " 
into  Spain  by  the  Arabs,  and  into  England  by 
a  pilgrim,  who  brought  a  bulb  from  the  Levant 
in   1339.      Its   cultivation  was  an   important 
feature  of  European  husbandry  in  the   isth 
and  1 6th  centuries.     In  the  neighbourhood  of 
Saffron  Walden  it  was  much  grown  about  1582. 
Henry  II.,   King  of  France,  issued  an  order 
against  its  adulteration  in  1550. 

SAGAN  (Prussia)  was  sold  to  Wallenstein  by 
Ferdinand  II.,  for  150,800  guilden,  in  1627. 
It  passed  at  his  death  in  1634  to  the  princes 
of  Lobkowitz,  who  sold  it  to  Peter,  Duke  of 
Courland,  in  1785.  The  duke  abdicated  in 
1795,  and  his  second  daughter  was  created 
Duchess  of  Sagan  in  1845. 

SAGE. —Mexican  sage  was  introduced  into 
this  country  from  Mexico  in  1724,  and  blue 
African  sage  from  the  Cape  in  1731. 

SAGONE  BAY  (Corsica)  is  also  called  La- 
zone  Bay.  Here  two  French  store-ships  and  a 
large  transport  were  discovered  lying  under 


the  protection  of  a  battery  by  Capt.  R.  Barrie, 
who  attacked  and  destroyed  the  vessels  and 
demolished  the  fortification,  May  i,  1811. 

SAGRAMENTO,  ST.,  or  COLONIA  DEL 
SACRAMENTO  (S.  America).  —  This  Portu- 
guese settlement  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  was 
founded  by  the  governor  of  Rio  Janeiro  in 
1678,  and  was  claimed  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1680.  They  relinquished  their  claim  by  the 
treaty  of  Lisbon,  June  18, 1701,  and  by  a  treaty 
signed  at  Utrecht  Feb.  6,  1715.  It  was  ceded 
to  Spain  by  treaty,  Jan.  13,  1750.  Portugal  re- 
covered it  by  a  convention,  signed  Feb.  12, 1761 ; 
but  on  the  commencement  of  war  between  the 
two  countries,  in  1762,  it  was  again  seized  by 
the  Spaniards,  who  resigned  it  for  the  fourth 
time  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
Hostilities  recommenced,  and  continued  until 
the  Portuguese  ceded  it  to  Spain  by  the  treaty 
of  St.  Ildefonso,  Oct.  i,  1777.  It  was  finally 
annexed  to  the  empire  of  Brazil  in  1825. 

SAGRAS  (Battle).— Fought  B.C.  560,  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities,  and  B.C.  510  according 
to  others,  on  this  river  of  Bruttium,  between 
Caulonia  and  Locri,  on  which  occasion  10,000 
Locrians  are  said  to  have  defeated  130,000 
Crotoniats. 

SAGUNTUM,  or  SAGUNTUS  (Spain),  some- 
times called  Zacynthus,  because  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  a  colony  of  Greeks  from  that 
island,  was  besieged  while  in  alliance  with  the 
Romans,  by  Hannibal,  in  the  spring,  B.C.  219, 
and  taken,  after  a  brave  resistance,  when  all 
the  male  adults  were  put  to  death,  B.C.  218. 
This  led  to  the  second  Punic  war.  It  was  reco- 
vered by  the  Romans,  who  restored  and  made 
it  a  colony,  B.C.  210.  A  mosaic  pavement  of 
Bacchus  was  discovered  here  in  1745.  The 
town  of  Murviedro  (muri  veteres)  occupies  its 
site,  and  the  convent  of  La  Trinidad  that  of 
the  great  temple  of  Diana. 

SAIGON  (Asia).— The  French  defeated  the 
Chinese  at  this  place  in  Cochin  China,  Feb.  17, 
1859,  and  an  armistice  was  concluded  July  30. 
The  port  and  river  were  opened  to  trade  by 
Jan.  i,  1860,  and  Saigon  became  French  terri- 
tory Jan.  i,  1863. 

SAILORS'    HOME    (London    Docks)    was 


Green,  was  opened  in  May,  1835. 

SAINTES  (France).— The  ancient  Medio- 
lanum  Santonuni,  capital  of  the  Santones, 
contains  a  cathedral,  built  on  the  site  of  a 
church  founded  by  Charlemagne  (768 — 814). 
The  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Normans  in 
850.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  Louis  IX.  defeated  the 
English  in  the  vicinity  in  1242.  It  suffered 
much  during  the  wars  of  religion.  The  church 
of  St.  Eutrope  was  built  in  the  nth  century. 
Councils  were  held  here  in  562 ;  Jan.,  1081 ; 
Nov.  4,  1089 ;  March  2,  1097;  and  in  1282. 

SAINTS.  —  (See  CANONIZATION,  INVOCATION 
Ac.) 

SAIXT,  SAN,  SANTA,  or  ST.— Many 
subjects  with  this  prefix  will  be  found  under 
the  word  itself  in  the  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment. 

SAINT  SIMONIANS,  followers  of  the  Count 
de  Saint  Simon,  a  French  Communist  (Oct.  17, 
1760 — May  19,  1825),  who  ruined  himself  by 
his  expensive  mode  of  living. 

3  K    2 


SAIS 


[    868    ] 


SALERNO 


SAIS  (Egypt),  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
was  one  of  the  sacred  cities.  The  Saite  dy- 
nasty of  kings  came  to  an  end  B.C.  408. 

SALAMANCA  (Battle).  — Lord  Wellington, 
at  the  head  of  46,000  English,  Portuguese,  and 
Spanish  troops,  defeated  a  French  army,  equal 
in  point  of  numbers,  near  this  town  in  Spain, 
July  22,  1812. 

SALAMANCA  (Spain),  the  Roman  Salman- 
tica,  and  called  by  the  Spaniards,  from  its  fine 
architectural  remains,  Roma  la  Chica,  or  Little 
Rome,  was  stormed  and  captured  by  Ordofto  I. 
in  862.  An  agreement  between  the  Archduke 
Philip  and  King  Ferdinand,  concluded  here 
Nov.  24,  1505,  is  called  the  Concord  of  Sala- 
manca. It  capitulated  to  the  Earl  of  Galway, 
June  7,  1706,  and  was  occupied  by  a  Spanish 
force,  under  the  Duke  del  Parque,  in  Oct.,  1809. 
Lord  Wellington  reached  it  June  17,  1812  ;  took 
the  forts  by  assault  June  27.  (See  SALAMANCA, 
Battle.)  The  bridge  of  27  arches  across  the 
Tormeo  rests  on  the  piers  of  Trajan's  bridge. 
The  university,  founded  by  Alphoiiso  IX.  of 
Leon  in  1200,  was  united  with  that  of  Palencia 
in  1240.  It  had  14,000  students  in  the  i4th  cen- 
tury. Councils  were  held  here  Oct.  21,  1310  ; 
May  24,  1335  ;  Nov.  23, 1380 — May  19,  1381  ;  and 
in  1410.  The  schools  of  the  university  were 
built  in  1415  ;  the  four  colegios  mayores  were 
founded — San  Bartolome",  in  1410  ;  Cuenca  in 
1506;  Santiago  in  1521  ;  and  King's  College  in 
1625.  Their  privileges  were  much  curtailed 
in  1770.  The  Jesuits'  college  was  built  in  1614. 
The  old  cathedral  was  erected  in  the  lath  cen- 
tury ;  the  new  one,  begun  in  1513,  was  finished 
in  1734.  The  Plaza  Mayor,  capable  of  contain- 
ing nearly  20,000  persons,  and  sometimes  used 
as  a  bull  arena,  was  erected  between  1 700  and 
1733.  Twenty  convents,  and  about  20  col- 
leges, were  destroyed  by  the  French  during 
their  occupation  of  the  town  before  the  retreat 
of  1812. 

SALAMIS  (Greece),  also  called  Pityoussa, 
the  Island  of  Pines,  the  modern  Kuluri,  was 
colonized  by  the  ^Eacidae  of  ^Egina  at  an  early 
period.  Ajax,  the  son  of  Telamon,  king  of 
the  island,  joined  the  expedition  against 
Troy,  taking  with  him  12  ships,  B.C.  1193.  It 
continued  independent  till  a  dispute  arose, 
B.C.  620,  between  the  Athenians  and  the 
Megarians  for  its  possession,  both  claimants 
citing  the  "  Iliad  "  in  support  of  their  preten- 
sions, when  it  was  finally  adjudged  to  the 
Athenians.  It  voluntarily  received  a  Mace- 
donian garrison,  B.C.  318,  and  they  held  it 
until  it  was  purchased  by  the  Athenians,  B.C. 
232.  Budorum,  the  western  promontory  oJ 
the  island,  was  taken  by  the  Peloponnesians 
B.C.  429. 

SALAMIS  (Sea-fights).— The  Persian  fleet, 
under  Xerxes,  was  defeated  in  the  Bay  o1 
Salamis  by  the  Greek  fleet,  commanded  by  The 
mistocles,  in  Dec.,  B.C.  480.  The  Persian  fleet 
consisted  of  1,207,  and  the  Greek  of  366  ships. 
The  Greeks  defeated  the  Persians  in  a  sea- 
fight  off  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  B.C.  449. The 

Grrtjco-Egyptian    fleet,   under    Menelaus    and 
Ptolemy  (I.)  Soter,  were  defeated  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  off  the  same  place,  B.C.  306. 
SALAMONICA.— (See  CULVERIN.) 
SALANG,  or  JUNKSEYLON  (Bay  of  Bengal) 


— This  island,  belonging  to  Siam,  was  captured 
jy  the  Burmese  in  1810. 

'  8 A  1 , A  \  K  E.MAN  (Battle).— At  this  place,  on 
he  borders  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
Louis,  Margrave  of  Baden,  defeated  the  Turks, 
20,000  of  whom,  the  Vizier  Mustapha  Koprili 
jeing  among  the  number,  were  slain,  Aug.  19, 
1691. 

SALASSI. — This  powerful  Alpine  tribe,  pro- 
bably of  Ligurian  origin,'  is  first  mentioned 
n  history  in  connection  with  an  unprovoked 
ittack  made  upon  it,  B.C.  134,  by  the  Roman 
consul  Appius  Claudius,  who  suffered  a  defeat 
and  lost  5,000  men  in  the  engagement.  Having 
repaired  his  disaster  in  another  attack,  and 
slain  a  great  number  of  his  opponents,  he 
claimed  a  triumph.  To  prevent  the  ravages  of 
the  tribe,  a  Roman  colony  was  established  at 
Eporedia  (Ivrea),  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley 
leading  to  their  country,  B.C.  100.  Having 
revolted,  B.C.  35,  they  were  subdued  by  Valerius 
Messala,  B.C.  33.  Again  revolting,  Terentius 
Varro  compelled  them  to  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  sold  the  whole  nation  (42,000  persons  into 
slavery,  B.C.  25.  The  gold-washings  of  the 
valley  constituted  the  chief  cause  of  dispute. 

S  A  LI 5  AN  ( Battle ) .  —  The  Persian  general 
Sarbara/a  having  retired  within  the  walls  of 
this  town,  it  was  suddenly  attacked  by  the 
Romans  under  Heraclius,  and  taken,  after  a 
brave  defence,  in  624.  Sarbaraza  effected  his 
escape. 

SA  I ,( 'EDE'S  CONSPIRACY.  —  Salcede,  a 
Spaniard  by  birth  and  distantly  connected 
with  the  House  of  Lorraine,  arrested  at 
Bruges,  July  21,  1582,  revealed  a  conspiracy 
formed  by  the  Guises  to  seize  Henry  III.  of 
France,  assassinate  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and 
place  France  under  the  control  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  Salcede  was  condemned  to  be  torn  to 
pieces  by  four  horses,  Oct.  25,  1582. 

SALDANHA  BAY  (Africa).— A  Dutch  fleet 
was  captured  by  Commodore  Johnstone  in 
this  bay,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  three 
ships,  of  1,100  tons  each,  being  saved  from 
the  fire,  and  afterwards  brought  to  England, 
July  21,  1781.  A  Dutch  squadron,  with  2,000 
troops  on  board,  destined  to  attack  the  English 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was  captured  in 
the  same  place  by  Admiral  Elphinstone,  Aug. 
17,  1796. 

SALKM  (X.  America.)— This  place  in  Massa- 
chusetts was  settled  in  Sep.,  1628.  A  fire  did 
great  damage  in  1692. 

SALEM  (Palestine),  a  city  of  Sechem,  of 
which  Melchizedek  was  king  (Gen.  xiv.  18, 
Heb.  vii.  i  and  2),  is,  by  the  Jewish  com- 
mentators, said  to  be  Jerusalem  (Ps.  Ixxvi.  2). 
Jerome  (345 — Sep.  30,  420)  declares  that  Salem 
existed  in  his  time,  and  that  it  was  near 
Scythopolis. 

SALERNO  (Italy),  the  Roman  Salernum, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Salerno,  or  Princi- 
pato-Citra.  The  Romans  decided  to  establish 
a  colony  here  B.C.  197,  the  settlement  being 
actually  formed  B.C.  194.  It  was  taken  by 
Papius,  the  Samnite  general,  during  the  Social 
war,  B.C.  90—88,  and  again  by  the  Goths  in 
the  6th  century.  Having  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  Lombards,  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Saracens  in  872.  The  siege  was  raised  by  the 


SALE 


SALONICA 


Emperor  Louis  in  873.  The  Saracens  eventu- 
ally succeeded  in  capturing  it  in  905.  The 
Greek  emperor  dispossessed  the  Saracens  in 
920.  Having  reverted  to  the  Lombards,  the 
Saracens  laid  siege  to  it  in  1005.  They  were 
defeated  by  the  Crusaders,  in  a  great  battle 
in  the  neighbourhood,  in  1016.  In  another  at- 
tempt, in  1016,  a  force  of  Norman  knights,  on 
their  way  from  Jerusalem,  came  to  the  rescue. 
It  was  captured,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months, 
by  Robert  Guiscard,  who  deposed  Gisulph,  the 
last  of  the  Lombard  princes,  in  1077,  and  the 
city  rose  to  great  eminence,  being  classed  with 
the  opulentissimce  urbes  of  Campania.  Its 
school  of  medicine  was  celebrated  as  early  as 
1069.  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who  took  refuge 
here  in  1084,  died  here,  May  24,  1085.  An 
assembly  of  barons  met  and  elected  Roger  II., 
Duke  of  Apulia,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  in 
1130.  The  citizens  betrayed  the  Empress 
Constance  to  Tancred,  King  of  Sicily,  in  1191. 
It  was  sacked  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  in 
1193.  Urban  VI.,  in  his  struggles  with 
Charles  III.,  King  of  Naples,  took  refuge  here 
in  1385.  The  crew  of  the  Cugliari  were  under- 
going their  trial  here  when  they  were,  with 
the  vessel,  delivered  up  to  the  English  Govern- 
ment, June  8,  1858.  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Matthew  was  built  by  Robert  Guiscard  in  1084, 
on  the  site  of  an  older  edifice  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens.  The  bronze  doors  were  erected  in 
1099  ;  the  harbour  was  commenced  by  John  of 
Procida  in  1260  ;  the  tomb  of  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
was  restored  in  1578 ;  and  the  university, 
probably  the  oldest  in  Europe,  was  replaced 
by  the  Lyceum  in  1817. 

SALE,  or  SALLEE  (Africa).— This  port  of 
Morocco,  long  a  haunt  for  pirates,  whence  the 
expression  "a  Sallee  rover,"  was,  with  the 
assistance  of  an  English  squadron,  destroyed 
in  1632,  when  300  Christian  captives  were 
rescued.  The  French  bombarded  Sallee  in 
Nov.,  1851. 

SALICES  (Battle),  fought  in  377,  near  one  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  the  Goths,  under  Fritigern,  was 
attended  by  great  slaughter  on  both  sides, 
without  any  decided  advantage  to  either. 

SALIC  LAW,  supposed  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted, in  511,  by  Clovis  I.,  to  exclude  females 
from  inheritance,  is  still  in  operation  in  Franc 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  attempted,  in  defiance  of 
this  law,  to  secure  the  crown  for  his  daughter 
Isabella  Clara  Eugenia,  niece  of  Henry  III.,  in 
1590.  Charles  VI.  of  Austria  dying  without 
male  issue,  Maria  Theresa  succeeded  to  the 
throne  by  virtue  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
in  1740.  The  Salic  law  was  abolished  in  Spain 
March  29,  1830.  (See  CARLISTS.)  Queen  Vic- 
toria was  excluded  from  the  throne  of  Hanover 
in  1837  by  the  operation  of  the  Salic  law. 

SALISBURY  (Bishopriciwas  originally  estab 
lished  at  Sherborne,  in  705,  and  St.  Aldheln 
was  appointed  its  first  bishop.  It  was  removed 
to  Salisbury,  then  known  as  Old  Sarum,  by 
Bishop  Herman,  in  1072.  By  an  order  in 
council,  dated  Oct.  5,  1836,  the  county  of  Berk 
shire  was  separated  from  the  diocese  of  Salis 
bury,  and  annexed  to  Oxford. 

SALISBURY,  or  NEW  SARUM  (Wiltshire) 
had  its  origin  in  a  quarrel  between  the  bishop 


ind  canons  of  Old  Sarum.     The  captain  of  the 
:astle    sided    with    the    clerical    party,    and 
ounded  a  cathedral  at  New  Sarum  in  1220.    It 
was  completed  in  1258,  and  the  city  received 
A,  charter  from  Henry  III.  (1216 — 72),  and  was 
walled  in  1315.     It  has  returned  members  to 
arliament  since   1294.     A  council  was  held 
ere  by  Edward  II.,  Oct.  20,  1324 ;  a  parliament 
y  Edward  III.,  Oct.   16,   1328;    and  another 
<y  Richard  II.,  April  29,   1384.     The  poultry- 
narket  contains  a  hexagonal  cross  of  the  time 
if  Edward  HI.  (1327—77).     A  rising  in  favour 
if  Charles  II.  was  made  by  Sir  Joseph  Wag- 
taffe,  who   surprised  the  judges,  March  u, 
665.     During  the  great  plague  the  court  re- 
moved from  London    to  Salisbury,  July  27, 
665.     James  II.  having  joined  the  main  body 
if  his  army  here,  was  deserted  by  the  Duke  of 
Grafton  and  Lord  Churchill,  Nov.  22,  1688. 

SALLEE.— (See  SALE.) 

SALLENTINES,  or  SALENTINES,  inhabit- 
ing the  southern  part  of  the  Italian  peninsula, 
re  mentioned  by  Livy  as  having  been  defeated 
•y  the  consul  L.  Volumnius,  who  took  some 
)f  their  towns  B.C.  306.  According  to  some 
writers,  the  historian  confounds  them  with  a 
neighbouring  nation.  In  the  fourth  Samnite 

ar  they  joined  the  confederacy  against  the 
iomans,  and  were  defeated  by  L.  ^Emilius 
3arbula,  B.C.  281.  War  was  declared  against 
;hem  by  the  Romans  B.C.  267  ;  and  they  were 
subdued  B.C.  266.  Having  revolted,  they  were 
defeated  B.C.  213,  after  which  their  name  dis- 
appears from  history. 

SALMON  FISHERY.— The  laws  relating  to 
salmon  fisheries  in  England  were  amended  by 
24  &  25  Viet.  c.  109  (Aug.  6,  1861),  which  came 
nto  operation  in  Oct.  of  that  year.  This 
act  was  amended  by  28  &  29  Viet.  c.  121 
July  5,  1865).  The  Irish  salmon  fisheries  are 
-egulated  by  separate  acts,  and  the  laws  re- 
fating  to  salmon  fisheries  in  Scotland  were 
regulated  and  amended  by  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  97 
Aug.  7,  1862),  which  came  into  operation  Jan. 
i,  1863. 

SALONA,  or  SALONS  (Dalmatia),  became 
the  chief  town  of  Dalmatia  after  the  fall  of 
Dalminium,  B.C.  117,  was  taken  by  Cosconius 
B.C.  78,  and  by  Asinius  Pollio  B.C.  39.  M. 
Octavius,  commanding  a  squadron  for  Pompey, 
was  compelled  to  retreat  from  before  it  with 
loss,  B.C.  34.  It  maintained  a  siege  against 
Bato,  the  native  leader,  in  the  year  6.  Diocle- 
tian built  the  palace,  which  gives  its  name  to 
the  modern  town  of  Spalato  (q.  v.},  to  which 
he  retired  after  his  abdication,  May  i,  305. 
Glycerius,  Emperor  of  the  West,  accepted  its 
bishopric  when  he  resigned  his  sceptre  in  474. 
It  was  taken  by  Odoacer,  King  of  the  Heruli, 
in  481.  Belisarius  made  it  his  starting-point 
in  the  expedition  to  Italy  in  544,  as  did  Narses 
in  552.  It  was  pillaged  and  burned  by  the 
Avars  in  639.  A  council  was  held  here  in 
Oct.,  1076. 

SALONICA,  or  SALONIKI  (European  Tur- 
key), the  ancient  Thessalonica,  in  early  times 
also  called  Emathia,  Halia,  and  Therma,  was 
the  resting-place  of  Xerxes  on  his  march  to 
invade  Greece,  B.C.  481.  It  was  taken  by 
Pausanias  about  B.C.  479,  occupied  by  the 
Athenians  B.C.  421,  and  appears  to  have  been 


SALSETTE 


[     870    ] 


SALVADOR,   SAN 


rebuilt  by  Cassander  and  named  Thessalonicj 
in  honour  of  his  wife,  B.C.  315.  It  surrenderee 
to  the  Romans  June  22,  B.C.  168.  Cicero  founc1 
refuge  here  during  his  banishment,  B.C.  58 
It  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  Pompeian 
party  in  the  first  civil  war,  B.C.  49,  and,  siding 
with  Octavius  and  Antonius  in  the  second, 
was  made  a  free  city  B.C.  42.  The  apostle 
Paul  addressed  epistles  to  its  church  in  52.  11 
was  made  a  Roman  colonia  in  the  middle  oi 
the  3rd  century.  The  widow  and  daughter  oi 
the  Emperor  Diocletian  were  beheaded  here 
in  313.  Its  inhabitants  were  massacred  for 
sedition  by  order  of  Theodosius  (the  Great)  in 
390,  and  it  was  besieged  by  the  Ostrogoths 
who  were  defeated  by  Sabiniarius  in  479. 
Salunica  was  stormed  after  a  few  days 
fighting,  and  the  citizens  were  slaughtered  or 
sold  into  slavery  by  the  Saracens,  whose  fleet 
appeared  before  the  city  July  29,  904.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily  Aug.  15,  1185, 
Boniface  III.,  Marquis  of  Montferrat,  founded 
the  Latin  kingdom  of  Thessalonica  in  1204 
Theodore  Angelus  expelled  Demetrius,  the  son 
of  Boniface  III.,  and  assumed  the  title  of  em- 
peror in  1222.  Vataces,  Emperor  of  Nic;ea, 
united  it  to  his  own  empire  in  1234.  On  the 
marriage,  in  1284,  of  Violante  with  Andro- 
iiicus  II.,  the  Greek  emperor,  her  father  Wil- 
liam, Marquis  of  Montferrat,  gave  up  as  her 
dowry  the  nominal  s  vereignty  of  Thessalo- 
nica. After  various  changes,  it  was  taken 
from  the  Venetians  by  the  sultan  Amurath  II., 
in  March,  1430. 

SALSETTE  (Hindostan).— This  island,  for- 
merly part  of  the  Mongol  empire,  was  taken 
by  the  Portuguese  in  the  1 6th  century.  The 
Mahrattas  conquered  the  island  in  1750,  and 
the  English  Dec.  28,  1774.  The  cause 
nccting  it  with  the  island  of  Bombay  was 

noted    in    1813.      The    temple-caves 
K:tnhari  or  Kenery,  the  largest  of  which  is  a 
Buddhist  temple,  are  of  great  antiquity. 

I'  was,  according  to  Fosbroke,  imported 
into  England  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  the 
"Romans  made  pits  and  mines  (those  at 
Droitwich  being  mentioned)  in  816.  The  art 
of  making  common  salt  was  published  by  Dr. 
Brownrigg  in  1748.  Beds  of  rock-salt  were 
discovered  in  searching  for  coal  at  Marbury, 
near  North  wich,  about  1670,  and  near  Lawton 
in  1779.  A  second  stratum  was  found  at 
North  wich  in  1781.  In  Lower  Normandy  it 
h.i.s  Ijecu  procured  by  filtration  through  sea- 
sand  and  evaporation  from  sea-water  since  the 
gth  century;  and  in  Sardinia  since  1550,  from 
which  place  the  process  was  introduced  into 
Saxony  in  1559.  The  works  at  Ostia,  on  the 
Tiber,  were  formed  B.C.  640;  those  at  Welicska, 
in  Poland,  in  1237 ;  and  at  Bochnia,  Galicia,  in 
1251.  Those  on  the  banks  of  the  lagunes  ori- 
ginated a  quarrel  between  Venice  and  Padua 
in  1336.  A  duty  of  ics.  per  bushel  was  im- 
posed on  salt  in  this  country  in  1798.  It  was 
increased  to  15.?.  in  1805,  reduced  to  23.  in  1823, 
and  abolished  Jan.  5,  1825.  (See  CHELTENHAM, 
ETON  MONTEM,  GABELLE,  ISCHL,  &c.) 

SALTERS'  COMPANY  (London).— A  livery 
was  granted,  to  this  company  by  Richard  II. 
in  1394.  The  Baiters'  Hall,  built  in  Bread 
Street  about  1451,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1533. 


Arms  were  granted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1530. 
The  company,  one  of  the  12  chief  companies, 
was  incorporated  by  letters-patent  of  Eliza- 
beth, July  20,  1558.  The  hall,  mentioned  in 
1578  as  having  been  rebuilt,  was  again  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1598.  The  present  hall, 
commenced  Oct.  16,  1823,  was  finished  in  1827. 
.SALT  LAKE  CITY  (N.  America).  —  The 
capital  of  the  Mormonite  state  of  Utah,  was 
founded  near  the  Great  Salt  Lake  in  1847. 

SALTPETRE,  or  NITRE,  is  mentioned  in 
the  works  of  Roger  Bacon  (1214 — June  n, 
1292).  Lully  speaks  of  obtaining  aquafortis 
from  it  before  1315.  Gunther,  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  granted  the  right  of  collecting  it, 
as  it  occurred  in  the  form  of  an  incrustation 
on  walls  of  houses,  in  1419.  A  burgher  of 
Halle  obtained  a  similar  grant  in  1460 ;  and 
another  had  a  contract  for  collecting  it  from 
two  heaps  of  rubbish  before  the  gates  of  Halle 
in  1544.  The  magistrates  of  that  town  had  a 
manufactory  for  saltpetre  in  1545.  In  the 
Prussian  states  the  royal  right  of  collecting 
it  was,  on  the  urgent  representation  of  the 
people,  abolished,— an  indemnification  being 
made  to  government  in  1798. 

SALU/ZO,  ov  SALUCES  (Italy).  —  The 
French,  under  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  took 
possession  of  Saluzzo  in  16^0.  The  marquisate 
was  ceded  to  the  duchy  of  Savoy  by  Henry  IV., 
in  exchange  for  other  territory,  by  a  treaty 
concluded  at  Lyons  Jan.  17,  1601  ;  and  the 
ancient  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the  mar- 
quises of  Saluzzo,  has  been  converted  into  a 
prison.  The  abbey  of  Staffarda,  built  in  1135, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1341.  The  cathedral 

'iimenced  in  1480. 

SALVADOR,  SAN  or  ST.  (Central  America). 
—This  state,  at  one  time  called  Cuscatlan,  or 
the  Land  of  Riches,  was  conquered  by  Alva- 
rado,  one  of  the  officers  of  Cortes,  in  1523,  and 
remained  under  Spanish  rule,  attached  to 
Guatemala,  till  united  to  Mexico  by  the  revo- 
lution of  1821.  A  confederation  was  formed 
with  Honduras,  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  and 
Uca,  under  the  name  of  the  Confede- 
ration of  Central  America,  in  1821.  It  was 
dissolved  in  1839.  The  capital,  bearing  the 
same  name,  was"  totally  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, April  16,  1854.  Gen.  Barvios  was 
elected  president  of  this  republic  Feb.  i,  1860. 
The  neighbouring  state  of  Guatemala  declared 
war  against  San  Salvador,  Jan.  23,  1863,  and 
despatched  an  invading  army  under  the  pre- 
sident Raphael  Carrera,  which  entered  the 
country  Feb.  i,  and  sustained  a  defeat  at 
Ocotepeque  Feb.  24.  Honduras  declared  for 
San  Salvador,  March  i,  and  war  was  announced 
with  Nicaragua,  March  23.  The  troops  of  San 
Salvador  having  been  defeated  by  Carrera  at 
Santa  Rosa,  June  16,  a  faction  of  the  inhabi- 
tants proclaimed  Francois  Duenas  president, 
and  established  a  government  under  his 
direction  at  Sansonate.  Gen.  Gonzales  as- 
sumed the  same  title  at  Santa  Anna,  during 
the  absence  of  Barvios,  June  29,  but  was 
defeated  and  put  to  flight  by  the  army  of 
Guatemala,  July  2.  The  troops  of  Nicaragua 
occupied  the  port  of  La  Union  July  26.  Nego- 
tiations having  failed  between  Gens.  Barvios 
and  Carrera,  the  latter  laid  siege  to  the  town 


SALVADOR,   SAN 


[    871     ] 


SAMARITANS 


of  San  Salvador  Sep.  29,  and  compelled  his 
opponent  to  surrender  Oct.  26.  Barvios  took 
to  flight,  and  embarking  on  an  American 
vessel  Nov.  19,  quitted  the  republic.  Francois 
Duefias  entered  the  capital  as  president  Feb. 
12,  1864,  and  opened  a  constituent  assembly 
Feb.  1 8,  which  sanctioned  his  assumption  of 
the  office  of  the  ex-president  Barvios,  Feb.  20. 

SALVADOR,  SAN  or  ST.,  or  CAT  ISLAND 
(Bahama  or  Lucayos  Islands),  called  by  the 
native  Indians  Guanahani,  or  Cat  Island,  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  his  first  voyage  to 
America,  Oct.  n,  1492,  was  the  first  laud  in 
the  New  World  reached,  by  this  enterprising 
navigator. 

SALVAGE  CORPS.  —  (See  FIRE  SALVAGE 
CORPS.) 

SALVATIERRA.— (See  CALATRAVA.) 

SALZBACH,  or  SASBACH  (Baden).— 
Turemie,  who  commanded  the  forces  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  killed  near  this  town,  as  he  was 
visiting  a  battery  on  the  eve  of  giving  battle 
to  the  troops  of  the  Emperor,  under  Monte- 
cuculli,  July  27,  1675.  A  monument  was 
erected  on  the  spot  in  1829. 

SALZBURG  (Austria),  built  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Juvavum,  was  destroyed  by  Attila 
in  448.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Salzburg,  the  residence  of  the  native  kings 
of  Noricum,  and  was  restored  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury. Charlemagne  held  a  conference  here 
with  the  ambassadors  of  Nicephorus  I.  in 
803.  Councils  were  held  here  Jan.  26,  807  ; 
Feb.  i,  1178;  in  1274;  in  1281 ;  in  1287  ;  Nov.  n, 
1288;  in  1291  ;  in  1310;  in  1340;  July,  1380; 
Jan.,  1386;  Nov.  18,  1418;  Feb.  8,  1451;  and 
Oct.  19,  1490.  The  Benedictine  church  con- 
tains fine  painted  glass  windows  of  1480.  St. 
Margaret  was  built  in  1485.  Paracelsus,  whose 
grave  is  in  the  churchyard  of  St.  Sebastian, 
died  here  Sep.  24,  1541.  The  university  church 
was  built  between  1696  and  1707 ;  the  cathedral, 
with  a  facade  of  white  marble,  between  1614 
and  1668.  One  of  its  eight  gates,  called  the 
New  Gate,  was  cut  through  the  Monk's 
Hill  by  Archbishop  Sigismund,  in  1767.  By 
the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  Oct.  17,  1797, 
Salzburg  was  ceded  to  Austria.  The  French 
were  defeated  here  in  a  great  battle,  by  the 
Austrians  under  the  Archduke  John,  Dec.  14, 
1800.  The  university  was  abolished,  and  a 
lyceum  or  academy  established,  in  1806.  Salz- 
burg was  ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Tuscany  in 
Dec.,  1802;  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1805  ;  and  again  ceded  to  Austria  by  the  peace 
of  Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805.  The  Austrian 
general  Jellachich  was  defeated  here  by  the 
French,  April  29,  1809.  In  1818  the  city  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire.  The  botanic  garden 
was  opened  in  1850. 

SALZBURG  (Duchy).— This  country,  having 
been  wrested  from  the  Celts  by  the  Romans, 
and  reduced  to  a  state  of  ruin  on  the  fall  of 
the  empire,  was  visited  by  Hrodbert,  or 
Rupert,  a  Scotsman,  who  converted  the  people 
to  Christianity,  and  became  their  first  bishop, 
in  716.  Arno,  the  seventh  in  succession,  was 
made  archbishop  by  Pope  Leo  III.  in  798. 
The  Protestants,  having  received  permission, 
left  the  duchy  in  1732,  to  the  number  of 
30,000,  and  settled  in  Prussia,  Wiirtemberg, 


and  Georgia  (North  America).  The  see  having 
been  secularized,  was  given,  with  the  title  of 
elector,  to  the  ex -duke  of  Tuscany,  in  1801.  It 
was  annexed  to  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Pres- 
burg, Dec.  26,  1805 ;  was  transferred  to  Bavaria 
by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Oct.  14,  1809;  and 
restored  to  Austria  in  1815. 

SAM  AN  IDES.— Ismael,  founder  of  this 
dynasty,  invited  by  the  Abbassides,  crossed 
the  Oxus  with  10,000  horse,  conquered  the 
Soffarian  army,  and  established  himself  in 
Persia,  in  874.  He  was  recognized  as  padishah, 
or  king,  by  the  caliph  in  900.  After  a  duration 
of  125  years,  the  Samanides  were  conquered 
by  the  Ghiznevides  in  999. 

SAMARA  (Russia)  was  built  in  1591,  as  a 
defence  against  the  Calmucks,  and  surrounded 
by  a  wall  and  moat.  The  fortifications  were 
destroyed  in  1703.  The  country  was  formed 
into  a  government  by  a  ukase  issued  in  Dec., 
1850,  and  Samara  was  made  the  capital. 

SAMARCAND,  or  SAMARKAND  (Asia),  the 
ancient  Maracanda,  the  capital  of  Sogdiana, 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  an  Arab 
chief  about  B.C.  465,  was  taken  by  Alexander 
III.  (B.C.  336 — B.C.  323).  Zingis  Khan  took  it 
in  1220,  and  Timour  in  1359.  Silk  paper  was 
manufactured  here  in  650.  It  was  united  to 
Bokhara  by  Abdullah  at  the  close  of  the  i6th 
century. 

SAMARIA  (Palestine).— This  city,  known 
to  the  Assyrians  as  Beth-Khumri,  or  "the 
House  of  Omri,"  was  founded  by  Omri  (i 
Kings  xvi.  23,  24),  and  made  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  about  B.C.  924.  The 
Syrians  were  defeated  in  attempts  to  capture 
it  (i  Kings  xx.  i),  B.C.  901,  and  (2  Kings  vi. 
24,  &c.)  B.C.  892.  Shalmaneser  IV.,  King  of 
Assyria,  took  it  after  a  siege  of  three  years' 
duration  (2  Kings  xviii.  9,  10),  B.C.  721,  and 
the  10  tribes  were  carried  into  captivity. 
After  their  return  a  feud  sprang  up  between 
the  Jews  and  the  Samaritans,  and  a  rival 
temple  was  erected  on  Mount  Gerizim,  B.C. 
409.  Alexander  III.  (B.C.  336 — 332)  took  the 
city,  and  John  Hyrcanus  destroyed  it  after 
besieging  it  one  year,  B.C.  109.  Having  been 
rebuilt  by  the  Jews  it  was  taken  by  Pompey, 
and  restored  to  the  Samaritans.  Gabinius 
fortified  it,  and  Herod  the  Great  restored  it, 
B.C.  25,  under  the  name  of  Sebaste  (g.  v.). 

SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH,  differing  in 
some  respects  from  the  Hebrew  text,  was  first 
edited  in  the  Polyglott  of  J.  Morinus,  in  1632. 
It  is  said  by  some  authorities  to  have  come 
into  the  hands  of  the  Samaritans  as  an  inheri- 
tance from  the  10  tribes.  Others  contend  that 
it  was  introduced  by  Manasseh,  when  the 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  founded,  B.C. 
09.  Various  theories  respecting  its  origin 

ive  been  advocated. 

SAMARITANS,  the  name  given  to  the 
colonists  brought  from  beyond  the  Euphrates 
to  inhabit  (2  Kings  xvii.  24)  Samaria  (q.  v.), 
by  Esar-haddon,  King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  678. 
Great  enmity  existed  between  them  and  the 
Jews,  though  they  claimed  to  be  of  the  same 
descent  (John  iv.  12).  A  small  remnant  of 
the  Samaritans  exists  at  Nablus,  the  ancient 
Sechem,  and  missionaries  were  sent  to  them  in 
1823  and  1838. 


h;i\ 


SAMAROBRIVA 


[    872     ] 


SANCTUARY 


SAMAROBRIVA. —(See  AMIENS.) 

SAMBAS  (Borneo).— The  Dutch  began  to 
trade  here  about  1604.  In  consequence  of  the 
piratical  habits  of  the  inhabitants,  an  English 
expedition  was  despatched  against  Sambas  in 
1812,  and  it  was  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
Another  expedition  was  sent,  in  1813,  under 
Col.  Watson,  who  carried  the  fort  by  storm, 
July  3,  and  compelled  the  rajah  to  retire  into 
the  interior  of  his  dominions. 

SAME,  or  SAMOS  (Ionian  Sea1).— The  name 
given  by  Homer  to  the  island  of  Cephallenia, 
the  modern  Cephalonia,  of  which  the  earliest 
inhabitants  were  Taphians.  Its  chief  city,  of 
the  same  name,  was  founded  at  a  very  early 
period.  All  the  towns  of  the  island  joined  the 
Athenian  alliance,  B.C.  431,  and  Same  sub- 
mitted to  Rome  B.C.  187.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Samos  or  Samus  (>/.  v.  . 

SAMIAN  WAR,  between  the  Athenians  and 
the  Samians,  occurred  about  B.C.  440.  In  the 
beginning  of  this  war  Pericles,  the  Athenian 
commander,  defeated  the  Samian  fleet,  landed 
his  troops  on  the  island,  and  besieged  Samos. 
Having  heard  that  a  Phoenician  fleet  was  com- 
ing to  the  assistance  of  the  Samians,  he  drew 
off  part  of  his  forces  to  intercept  it.  The  be- 
sieged, taking  advantage  of  his  absence,  carried 
the  naval  encampment  of  the  Athenians  by 
surprise.  Pericles  returned,  and  again  closely 
besieged  the  town.  The  Samians,  who  ventured 
upon  another  battle,  in  which  they  were  de- 
feated, defended  the  town  for  nine  months, 
when  they  capitulated  through  famine.  They 
were  condemned  to  dismantle  their  fort, 
deliver  up  their  ships,  and  pay  the  cost  of 
the  siege  by  instalments. 

SAMNITES.— This  people,  of  Sabine  origin, 
conquered  Campania  between  B.C.  440  and  B.C. 
420,  afterwards  overran  Lucania,  and  within  a 
century  spread  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Italy.  The  Samnites  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Rome  B.C.  354.  The  first  Samnitc  war  began 
B.C.  343,  and  after  several  victories  gained  by 
the  Romans,  was  concluded  B.C.  341.  In  the 
Great  Latin  war,  B.C.  340 — B.C.  338,  the  Samnites 
were  allies  of  the  Romans.  The  second  or 
Great  Samuite  war  commenced  B.C.  326.  The 
Roman  army,  having  been  decoyed  by  the 
Samnites  into  a  narrow  pass  called  the  Caudiiie 
Forks  (q.  v.)  in  the  spring  B.C.  321,  had  to  pass 
under  the  yoke  in  the  presence  of  the  whole 
Samnite  army.  A  truce  for  two  years  was  made 
B.C.  318  ;  but  the  war  was  renewed,  and,  after 
suffering  many  defeats,  the  Samnites  were  com- 
pelled to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  B.C. 
304.  The  third  Samnite  war  commenced  B.C. 
298.  The  Samnites,  with  their  allies  the  Gauls, 
were  defeated  in  a  great  battle  B.C.  295,  and 
were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace  B.C.  290.  They 
joined  Pyrrhus  B.C.  282,  and  again  submitted 
to  Rome  B.C.  272.  The  Samnites  declared  for 
Hannibal  B.C.  216,  but  renewed  their  submis- 
sion to  Rome  B.C.  209.  They  joined  in  the 
Social  war,  and  many  of  them  were  in  the  army 
of  the  younger  Marius,  which  was  defeated  at 
Sacriportus  (q.  v.)  B.C.  82.  The  Samnites,  hav- 
ing again  revolted,  were  defeated  by  Sylla  at 
the  battle  of  the  Colline  gate,  Nov.  i,  B.C.  82. 

SAMOAN  ISLES.— (See  NAVIGATORS'  IS- 
LANDS.) 


SAMOSATA    (Syria).— The  capital  of  Com- 
magen  (q.  v.),  taken  by  Ventidius,  the  general 


of  Marcus  Antonius,  B.C.  38,  was  the  native 
place  of  Paul,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  who  denied 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  was  deposed  in  269. 
Captured  by  Chosroes  II.  in  609,  it  was  reco- 
vered by  Heraclius  in  625. 

.  SAMOS,  or  SAMUS  (vEgean  Sea),  called  by 
ancient  writers  Anthemus,  Cyparissia,  Dryusa, 
Melamphylus,  and  Parthenia,  was  occupied  by 
Carians  and  Lieges,  and  afterwards  by  lonians. 
The  Samians  became  remarkable  for  their  com- 
merce about  B.C.  776.  During  the  rule  of 
Polycrates,  B.C.  532 — 522,  the  Samian  navy  was 
the  most  powerful  in  Greece.  Near  this  island 
was  fought  the  celebrated  battle  of  Mycale,  B.C. 
479,  in  which  the  Greeks  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Persians.  The  maritime 
strength  of  Samos  was  broken  B.C.  44o(<S'ee  SA- 
MIAN WAR)  ;  and  from  B.C.  439  to  B.C.  412  Samos 
remained  without  a  fleet.  It  formed  part  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Asia  B.C.  84,  and  was 
the  residence  of  Antonius  and  Cleopatra  B.C.  32. 
Smith  (Hist,  of  World,  Anct.  Hist.  iii.  ch. 
xxxvi.)  says,  "The  Ionian  island,  where,  five 
hundred  years  before,  the  praises  of  wine  and 
love  had  been  sung  by  Anacreon,  while  Poly- 
crates  feasted  a  former  King  of  Egypt,  wit- 
nessed orgies  amidst  which  there  was  no 
Amasis  to  lift  the  voice  of  warning."  It  was 
plundered  by  the  Saracens  in  the  8th  century. 
Mohammed  II.  assailed  it  in  1453,  and  it  was 
sacked  by  the  Turks  in  1550.  A  battle  was 
fought  here  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks, 
Aug.  17,  1824,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated. 
Mustapha  Pasha  .suppressed  an  insurrection, 
Feb.  i,  1851.  (See  PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.) 

8AMOTHRACE,  SA.MOTHRAC1A,  or  the 
THUACIA.X  SAMOS  uKgean  Sea).— The  inha- 
bitants of  this  island  joined  Xerxes  in  his  ex- 
pedition against  Greece,  and  a  Samo-Thracian 
ship  sank  an  Athenian  ship  at  the  battle  of 
Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  B.C.  449.  The  Mysteries 
of  the  Cabiri  were  celebrated  here.  Perseus 
took  refuge  here  after  his  defeat  by  the  Romans 
at  the  battle  of  Pydna  (q.v.),  B.C.  168.  St. 
Paul  passed  a  night  here  at  anchor  on  his  first 
voyage  from  Asia  to  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  n),  in 
48. 

SAMPFORD-COURTENAY  (Battle).— The 
insurgent  Roman  Catholics  of  Devon  and 
Cornwall  were  defeated  by  the  Protestant 
forces  under  Lord  Russell,  at  Sampford-Courte- 
nay,  in  Devonshire,  Aug.  17, 1549.  This  action 
completely  crushed  the  Cornish  rebellion.  The 
leaders  were  taken  prisoners  and  executed. 

SAMUEL  (Books  of),  forming  originally  one 
book,  were  divided  into  two  in  the  Septuagint. 
It  is  believed  that  the  larger  part  of  the  first 
book  was  written  by  the  prophet  Samuel  about 
B.C.  1060.  The  question  of  authorship  of  both 
books  has  been  keenly  discussed. 

SANCIOS.— (See  ITALICA.) 

SANCTUARY.— The  custom  of  setting  apart 
places  in  which  criminals  were  safe  from  legal 
penalties  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Levitical  appointment  of  cities 
of  refuge.  (See  ASYLUM.)  The  right  of  sanc- 
tuary was  expressly  recognized  by  the  code  of 
Ina,  promulgated  in  693.  Alfred  the  Great  in 
887  allowed  criminals  to  obtain  safety  for  three 


SANDALS 


[     873     ] 


SANITARY   SCIENCE 


days  by  fleeing  to  a  church ;  and  in  1670  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  made  express  laws  on  the 
subject.  Sanctuary  was  understood  to  be 
merely  a  temporary  privilege,  and  by  21 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  2  (1529),  felons  or  murderers 
availing  themselves  of  it  were  to  be  branded 
with  the  letter  A  on  the  right  thumb,  in  token 
that  they  abjured  the  realm.  (See  ABJURATION 
OF  THE  REALM.)  The  privilege  of  sanctuary 
was  taken  away  from  all  persons  guilty  of 
high  treason  by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13  (1534), 
and  from  pirates  by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  (1535). 
By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19  (1535),  all  persons  in 
sanctuary  were  to  wear  badges,  and  were 
prohibited  from  wearing  weapons,  and  from 
going  abroad  before  sunrise  or  after  sun- 
set. By  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (1540),  many  sanc- 
tuaries were  abolished,  and  the  only  places 
permitted,  to  retain  the  privilege  were  cathe- 
drals, parish  churches,  and  hospitals,  together 
with  Wells,  Westminster,  Manchester,  North- 
ampton, Norwich,  York,  Derby,  and  Lancaster. 
The  same  statute  abolished  the  privilege  of 
sanctuary  in  cases  of  wilful  murder,  rape,  bur- 
glary, highway  robbery,  and  arson.  Westches- 
ter  was  substituted  for  Manchester  as  a  sanc- 
tuary city  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15  (1541).  These 
acts  were  repealed  by  i  James  I.  c.  26,  s. 
34  (1604),  and  the  abolition  of  sanctuary  was 
again  enforced  by  21  James  I.  c.  28,  s.  7  (1624). 
In  the  case  of  debtors,  however,  it  continued 
to  exist  in  a  modified  form  until  it  was  abo- 
lished by  8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  27  (1697).  The  Lon- 
don sanctuaries  were  the  Minories  ;  Salisbury 
Court,  Whitefriars;  Ram  Alley  and  Mitre 
Court,  in  Fleet  Street ;  Fulwood's  Rents, 
Holborn  ;  Baldwin's  Gardens,  Gray's  Inn  Lane ; 
the  Savoy  ;  Montague  Close,  Deadman's  Place  ; 
and.  the  Mint,  in  Southwark.  Owing  to  the 
laxity  of  the  authorities,  the  Mint  retained 
some  of  its  privileges  as  a  sanctuary  until  the 
reign  of  George  I.  (1714—27). 

SANDALS.— The  ancient  Egyptians  wore 
sandals  of  papyrus  and  sometimes  of  leather, 
and  people  of  rank  are  said  to  have  carried 
magnificence  in  this  article  of  dress  to  a  great 
extent.  The  Emperor  Elagabalus  (218 — 22) 
wore  sandals  adorned  with  precious  stones, 
never  using  the  same  pair  twice. 

SANDEMANIANS.— (See  GLASITES.) 

SANDHURST  (Berkshire).— The  Royal  Mili- 
tary College,  established  at  High  Wycombe  in 
1799,  was  removed  to  Great  Marlow  in  1802  by 
its  founder,  the  Duke  of  York,  and  to  the 
new  edifice  erected  at  Sandhurst  in  1812.  The 
Cadets',  or  Staff  College,  was  established  in 
1858. 

SANDOMIR  (Russian  Poland).— A  confede- 
racy of  the  nobles  of  Little  Poland  was  formed 
against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  in  favour 
of  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  at  this  fortified  town, 
in  1702,  and  was  afterwards  joined  by  the 
nobles  of  Lithuania  and  Great  Poland.  It  was 
renewed  after  the  battle  of  Poltava  in  1709. 

SANDWICH  (Kent),  supposed  to  be  the 
Portus  Rutupensis  of  the  Romans,  was  the 
harbour  of  Rutupise.  The  Danes,  defeated 
here  by  Athelstan  in  851,  destroyed  the  town 
in  993,  and  again  landed  in  ion,  when  they 
besieged  Canterbury,  which  they  burned. 
Canute  visited  the  town  on  leaving  England 


in  1014  ;  landed  here  in  1016,  and  again  in 
1029.  The  Danes  ravaged  it  in  1047  ;  Harold  II. 
assembled  a  large  fleet  here  in  1066  ;  and  Wil- 
liam I.  made  it  the  chief  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
in  1067.  The  corporation  held  the  power  in 
1315  of  inflicting  capital  punishment  by  drown- 
ing. The  French,  under  Marshal  de  Bruze", 
plundered  the  town  in  1438,  and  again  Aug. 
28,  1457.  The  castle  was  held  in  1471  against 
Edward  IV.  by  Falconbridge  and  his  followers. 
A  mole  was  constructed  in  1493.  The  harbour 
began  to  be  difficult  of  access  in  1500,  and  a 
century  later  was  quite  closed.  A  great  num- 
ber of  Flemings  settled  here  in  1561,  and 
introduced  silk-weaving.  St.  Thomas's  Hos- 
pital was  founded  in  1392,  and  the  grammar- 
school  in  1563.  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  the 
town  in  1573,  and  the  Guildhall  was  erected 
in  1579. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  —  (See  HAWAIIAN 
ARCHIPELAGO.) 

SAN  FELIPE  DE  MONTE  VIDEO.  — (See 
MONTE  VIDEO.) 

SAN  FRANCISCO  (N.  America).  —  The 
original  name  of  this  seaport  in  California 
was  Yerba  Buena,  and  it  was  connected  with 
a  Spanish  settlement  of  missionaries,  called 
San  Francisco,  founded  in  1776.  The  property 
was  secularized  in  1834.  The  modern  city  was 
founded  in  1839.  Gold  was  discovered  in  the 
neighbourhood  in  Sep.,  1847,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1848. 
A  mint  was  established  in  1853. 

SANGALA  (Hindostan).— This  ancient  city 
was  captured  and  destroyed  by  Alexander  III. 
(the  Great),  B.C.  326,  when  17,000  Indians  were 
killed,  and  70,000  made  prisoners. 

SANHEDRIM,  GREAT  SANHEDRIM,  or 
SANHEDRIN.— The  great  council  of  the  Jews 
consisted  of  71  or  72  members,  and  decided  the 
most  important  affairs  of  Church  and  State. 
It  is  usually  considered  to  have  originated  in 
the  70  elders  who  were  appointed  by  Moses 
(Num.  xi.  16)  to  assist  him  in  his  judicial 
duties,  B.C.  1490.  It  was  in  existence  in  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ  (John  xi.  47,  Acts  ix.  2). 
The  Great  Sanhedrim  was  summoned  by  Na- 
poleon I.  in  July,  1806,  and  met  at  Paris  to  the 
number  of  71,  March  9,  1807.  This  was  the 
first  meeting  of  the  kind  since  the  dispersion 
of  the  Israelites  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  70.  According  to  the  Talmud,  there 
was  in  every  large  city  of  Palestine  a  Lesser 
Sanhedrim,  consisting  of  23  members. 

SANITARY  SCIENCE. —A  writer  in  the 
eighth  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica"  (xix.  602)  remarks, — "In  the  books  of 
Moses  we  have  a  surprising  instance  of  the 
care  which  was  taken  to  prevent  disease  by 
the  inculcation  of  hygienic  precepts  and  the 
adoption  of  sanitary  laws."  Hippocrates,  who 
died  B.C.  357,  embodied  many  valuable  direc- 
tions for  the  preservation  of  health  in  his  work 
on  "Airs,  Waters,  and  Places;"  and  the  Ro- 
man physician  Celsus,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  aera,  devoted  considerable  attention 
to  the  same  subject.  The  earliest  measures 
directing  attention  to  sanitary  matters  in 
modern  Europe,  were  adopted  in  consequence 
of  the  epidemics  which  repeatedly  depopulated 


SAN  JOSE 


[    874    ] 


SANTIAGO 


entire  nations.  (See  PLAGUE  and  LAZARETTO.) 
In  1802  the  French  Government  established  a 
council  of  health  for  the  sanitary  regulation  of 
Paris ;  and  in  1851  the  entire  country  was 
brought  under  control  of  a  central  council, 
with  minor  branches  in  each  department. 
The  public  health  movement  in  England  was 
commenced  by  Dr.  Southwood  Smith,  who 
made  several  suggestions  tending  to  sanitary 
reform  in  his  work  on  fevers,  published  in 
1830.  In  1838  his  report  on  the  state  of  Beth- 
nal  Green  and  Whitechapel  excited  consider- 
able attention.  The  first  report  of  the  Re- 
gistrar-General appeared  in  1839.  Mr.  Edwin 
Chadwick's  report  on  the  condition  of  the  la- 
bouring poor  appeared  in  1840,  and  his  report 
on  interment  in  towns  in  1843.  The  Health  of 
Towns  Association  was  formed  in  Nov.,  1844, 
and  numerous  legislative  and  popular  mea- 
sures, amongst  which  the  following  deserve 
particular  notice,  have  since  been  adopted  : — 

Baths  ami  Wash-houses  Act,  9  &  TO  Viet.  c.  74  (Aug.  26, 
1846),  amended  by  :o  &  n  Viet.  c.  61  (.Ttily  2,  1847). 

(S<i>  I't:i:UC  I5ATHS  AND  V,'A*II-H<>! 

Common  '•  M  Act,  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  38  (July  34, 

1851),  extended  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  41  (Aug.  4,  1853). 

Diseases  Prevention  Act,  18  &  19  Viet.  c.   116  (Aug.  14, 
iS?5). 

Labouring"  Classes  Lodging-houses  Act,  14  &  15  Viet.  c. 
3^  (.Inly  24,  1851).  (See  LAum 

Metropolitan  Interments  Acts,  13  &  14  Vicr.  c.  53  (Aug.  5, 
1850),  repealed  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  85  (July  i,  1853), 
which  was  amended  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  134  (Aug. 
20,  1853),  and  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  138  (Aug.  14,  1855). 

Nuisances  Kcmoval  Act,  9  &  lo  Viet.  c.  96  (Aug.  28,  1846), 
renewed,  amended,  and  made  perpetuul  byll  &  13 
Viet.  c.  133  (Sep.  4,  1848),  and  by  13  &  13  Viet.  c.  ill 
(Aug.  i,  1849).  The  provisions  on  the  suli: 
consolidated  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  121  (Aug.  14,  1855), 
which  was  amended  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  77  (Aug.  6, 
1860),  and  by  26  &  37  Viet.  c.  117  (July  28.  i 

Public  Health  Act,  II  &  12  Viet.  c.  (^  < 


amended  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  50  (Aug.  i,  1851),  by  21 
&  22  Viet.  c.  (>S  (An-.  2,  185 '<),  by  34  &  35  Viet.  c.  61 
(An--.  I,  1861),  and  by  39  &  30  Viet  c.  99  (Aug.  7, 


1866). 
Smoke  Nuisance  Abatement  Act,    16   &   17   Viet.  c.  128 

(Aug.   20,  1853),  amended  by  19  &  30  Viet.   c.    107 

(July  29,  1856). 
Towns'  Improvement  Clauses  Act,   10  &  II   Viet.   c.   34 

(June  31,  1847). 

(See  ALKALI  WORKS  ACT,  BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 
THAMES,  VACCINATION,  &c.) 

SAN  JOSE,  or  SAN  JOSE  DEL  INTERIOR 
(Central  America^  the  capital  of  Costa  Rica, 
was  nearly  destroyed byan  earthquake  in  1831. 

SAN  JUAN.— (See  GREY  TOWN,  NICARAGUA, 
&c.) 

SAN  LU CAR.  —  (See  CIRCUMNAVIGATION, 
LUCAR,  SAN,  &c.) 

SANQUHAR  (Scotland)  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  the  old  castle  of  Sanquhar,  the 
ruins  of  which  exist  on  an  eminence  to  the 
south-east  of  the  town.  Taken  by  the  English 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  it  was  made  a 
burgh  in  1484,  and  a  royal  burgh  by  James  VI., 
in  1596.  (See  CAMERONIANS.)  The  town -hall 
was  built  and  presented  to  the  town  by  the 
Duke  of  Queensberry  in  1734.  The  old  church, 
part  of  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  the  Picts,  was  taken  down,  and  a  new  one 
erected  on  its  site,  in  1823. 

SAN  REMO  (Italy)  was  a  republic  in  1170, 
and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Pisans 
against  Genoa.  The  English  bombarded  it  in 


SANSCRIT,  or  SANSKRIT,  the  ancient 
language  of  the  Hindoos,  is  a  branch  of  the 
Indo-European  family  of  languages.  It  was 
introduced  into  India  by  the  Brahmins.  Its 
earliest  literature  is  the  Vedas,  in  which  it  is 
nearly  related  to  the  Zend,  the  ancient  lan- 
guage of  Persia.  Sir  William  Jones  (1746— 
April  27,  1794)  translated  the  books  of  Mana 
and  other  Sanscrit  works.  A  professorship  of 
Sanscrit  was  founded  at  Oxford  in  1830. 

SANSCULOTT1DES.—  (See  REVOLUTIONARY 
CALENDAR.) 

SANTA  CRUZ,  or  ST.  CROIX  (Canary  Isles), 
the  chief  town  of  Teiieriffe,  and  the  capital  of 
the  Canary  Islands,  was  founded  by  Bartholo- 
mew Diaz  in  1486.  A  Spanish  fleet  of  16 
vessels,  protected  by  the  guns  of  the  castle 
and  seven  batteries  erected  on  the  shore,  was 
attacked  and  destroyed  by  Admiral  Blake, 
April  20,  1657.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
take  Santa  Cruz  was  made  by  Nelson,  who 
lost  his  right  arm  in  the  engagement,  July 
24,  1797.  It  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  Virgin 
Isles  belonging  to  Denmark. 

SANTA  Pfi  DE  BOGOTA  (S.  America),  the 
capital  of  New  Granada,  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1538,  was  the  seat  of  the  Congress 
of  Columbia  in  1811,  and  remained  the  capital 
till  1831.  The  Spaniards  took  it  in  1816,  audit 
was  delivered  by  Bolivar  in  1819.  An  earth- 
quake did  much  damage  in  1827. 

SANTA  HERMANDAD.  —  (See  HOLY 
BROTHERHOOD.  ) 

SANTA  LUCIA  (Battle).  —  An  indecisive 
:: tent  took  place  at  this  village,  near 
Verona,  between  the  Sardinian  forces  under 
Charles  Albert,  and  the  Austrians  under 
Radctsky,  May  6,  1848.  The  Sardinians  lost 
98  killed  and  694  wounded,  and  the  Austrians 
nearly  as  many. 

SANTA  MARIA  DE  LA  VITORIA.  —  (See 
CEUTLA.) 

SANTA  MAURA.— (See  LEUCADIA.) 

SANTANDER  (Spain;.— This  seaport  town, 
capital  of  a  small  province  of  the  same  name, 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  French  in  June, 
and  again  in  Nov.,  1808.  The  Spaniards  carried 
it  by  assault  in  the  beginning  of  June,  1809 ; 
and  it  was  retaken  with  great  slaughter  by  the 
French,  June  10.  It  was  evacuated  by  them 
Aug.  15,  1812.  Santander  was  declared  a 
free  port  by  a  government  decree,  March  30, 
1818. 

SANTAREM  (Portugal).  —  Alphonso  I. 
wrested  it  from  the  Moors  in  1147,  and  it  was 
much  improved  by  Alphonso  III.  in  1254. 

SANTIAGO,  or  SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOS- 
TELIA  (Spain),  was  one  of  the  first  towns 
wrested  from  the  Moors  by  the  sxiccessors  of  • 
Pelayo,  and  was  held  by  them  until  997,  when 
it  was  retaken  by  the  Moors,  who  destroyed 
the  temple,  and  placed  its  bells  in  the  mosque 
at  Cordova,  where  they  remained  till  that 
town  was  taken  by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1235. 
They  were  then  brought  back  to  Santiago  on 
the  shoulders  of  his  Moslem  captives.  On  the 
building  of  the  cathedral,  about  the  end  of  the 
gth  century,  the  bodies  of  the  apostle  St. 
James,  and  two  of  his  disciples,  Athanasius 
and  Theodorus,  were,  according  to  tradition, 
discovered,  and  placed  in  a  subterranean 


SANTIAGO 


t    875     1 


SARAH  SANDS 


chapel,  underneath  the  principal  altar.  It 
became  a  resort  for  pilgrims  (See  JAMES,  ST., 
Order) ;  and  no  less  than  916  left  England  for 
Santiago  in  1428  ;  and  this  number  increased  to 
2,280  in  1433.  The  offerings  of  the  pilgrims 
were  supposed  to  have  made  the  church  im- 
mensely rich.  The  cathedral  was  founded  in 
1082.  An  hospital  for  pilgrims  was  erected 
in  the  isth  century.  Santiago  is  the  see  of 
an  archbishop,  and  the  seat  of  a  \\niversity 
founded  in  1533.  When  the  town  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1809,  Marshal  Ney  ordered 
half  of  the  money  to  be  handed  over  to  pay  his 
troops,  and  it  amounted  to  ,£40,000.  The  town 
was  abandoned  by  the  French  in  1814.  (See 
CARACAS,  CUBA,  HOLY  COAT,  &c.) 

SANTIAGO,  ST.  IAGO,  or  ST.  JAGO  DE 
CHILI  (S.  America),  the  capital  of  Chili,  was 
founded  by  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  Feb.  24,  1541. 
It  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  in  1822 
and  1829.  A  fire  broke  out  in  the  Jesuit  church 
of  La  Compania,  during  the  celebration  of  a 
feast  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
Dec.  8,  1863.  The  interior  of  the  building, 
with  the  roof,  being  constructed  of  timber, 
the  flames  spread  with  great  rapidity,  and  as 
there  was  only  one  door  for  egress,  upwards  of 
2,000  victims,  mostly  women  and  children, 
perished.  One  hundred  and  sixty  waggon- 
loads  of  corpses  were  taken  from  the  ruins. 

SAP1ENZA  (Mediterranean).— This  island, 
on  the  south  coast  of  the  Morea,  anciently 
called  Sphacteria,  is  celebrated  for  a  naval  vic- 
tory, gained  in  the  vicinity,  by  the  Athenians 
over  the  Lacedaemonians,  B.C.  425.  The  Geno- 
ese captured  and  destroyed  •  the  Venetian  fleet 
here,  Nov.  4,  1354. 

SAPPERS  AND  MINERS. —(-See  EN- 
GINEERS.) 

SAPPHIC  VERSE,  attributed  to  the  poetess 
Sappho,  who  was  born  at  Mitylene,  in  the  isle 
of  Lesbos,  about  B.C.  610.  In  consequence  of 
a  hopeless  love  for  Phaon,  a  young  Lesbian, 
Sappho  is  said  to  have  thrown  herself  into  the 
sea  from  Mount  Leucas,  B.C.  590.  (See  LEU- 
CADIA.)  The  Lesbians  paid  her  honour  after 
her  death,  and  stamped  then-  coinage  with  her 
image. 

SAPPHIRE  was  one  of  the  jewels  em- 
ployed in  constructing  Aaron's  breast-plate, 
B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xxviii.  18),  and  mention  is 
made  of  it  Job  xxviii.  6.  It*  was  used  in  the 
costume  of  the  Tyriau  nobles.  Sapphires  are 
found  in  greatest  abundance  in  Pegu,  Ava,  and 
Ceylon.  A  few  specimens  have  been  found  in 
Bohemia,  France,  and  Saxony.  They  are,  next 
to  diamonds,  the  hardest  and  most  valuable  of 
precious  stones,  although  their  constituents 
are  almost  entirely  clay,  with  a  little  iron  as 
colouring  matter.  (See  CORUNDUM.) 

SARACENS,  the  name  of  an  Arab  tribe,  is 
by  some  authorities  derived  from  Sarah,  the 
wife  of  Abraham,  whom  they  are  said  to  claim 
as  their  foundress,  to  avert  the  stigma  of  their 
descent  from  the  bond-woman  Hagar.  Bo- 
chart  denies  this  theory,  and  asserts  that  they 
were  called  Saracens  in  consequence  of  their 
nomadic  and  predatory  habits,  Saraka  being 
the  Arabic  verb  "  to  plunder."  Reland  states 
that  the  word  simply  denotes  the  eastern  ori- 
gin of  the  Saracens,  Sharaka  being  a  modifi- 


cation of  the  Arabic  "  to  rise,"  and  applied  in 
this  case  because  the  east  is  the  quarter  in 
wlu'ch  the  sun  rises.  They  are  mentioned  by 
the  classical  geographers,  who  do  not  define 
very  exactly  the  locality  they  occupied.  In 
consequence  of  their  predatory  encroachments, 
the  Emperor  Decius  caused  a  number  of  lions 
to  be  conveyed  into  their  country  from  Africa, 
and  turned  loose  among  them,  in  251.  The 
name,  at  first  applied  to  a  tribe,  then  to  the 
Bedouin  Arabs,  was  afterwards  given  to  all 
Moorish  and  Mohammedan  people,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  opponents  of  the  Crusaders,  and 
in  fact  to  all  opponents  of  Christianity.  (See 
CRUSADES,  MOORS,  MOHAMMEDANISM,  OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE,  &c.) 

SARAGOSSA,  or  ZARAGOZA  (Spain),  capi- 
tal of  the  old  kingdom  of  Aragon,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Phoenicians  or  Cartha- 
ginians, was  rebuilt  by  the  Roman  Emperor 
Augustus,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Csesarea 
Augusta.  It  was  taken  in  470  by  the  Goths, 
who  were  expelled  by  the  Saracens  in  712.  It 
was  made  the  capital  of  a  separate  Moorish 
state  in  1017.  Alphonso  I.  of  Aragon  besieged 
and  took  it  in  m8,  and  it  was  subsequently 
united  to  the  kingdom  of  Castile.  Councils 
were  held  here  in  381 ;  Nov.  i,  592;  Nov.  i, 
691  ;  and  Dec.  15,  1318.  Saragossa  is  celebrated 
in  modern  history  for  the  two  sieges  it  sus- 
tained during  the  Peninsular  war.  The  French, 
who  attempted  to  carry  it  by  assault,  June  16, 
1808,  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  They 
then  commenced  a,  regular  siege,  and  succeeded 
in  effecting  an  entrance,  Aug.  4,  when  a  deadly 
struggle  commenced,  which  lasted  for  n  days. 
The  Spanish  commander  Palafox  having  been 
reinforced,  the  French  abandoned  the  siege 
during  the  night,  Aug.  14,  with  the  loss  of 
several  thousand  men.  The  second  siege  com- 
menced Dec.  20,  1808.  The  outworks  were 
soon  taken  by  the  French,  and  a  series  of  san- 

fuinary  combats  ensued  day  and  night  until 
an.  27, 1809,  when  a  general  assault  was  made, 
and  the  French  succeeded  in  getting  within 
the  walls.  The  garrison  made  an  obstinate  de- 
fence ;  but  an  epidemic  fever  broke  out  amongst 
them,  and  Palafox  surrendered  on  honourable 
terms,  Feb.  20,  1809.  During  the  siege,  54,000 
persons  perished,  of  whom  only  6,000  were 
killed  by  the  enemy,  the  rest  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  plague.  The  Spaniards  were 
defeated  in  the  neighbourhood  by  the  French, 
June  1 6,  1809.  Saragossa  was  abandoned  by 
the  French  in  July,  1813.  A  body  of  Carlist 
troops  occupied  the  principal  posts,  March  2, 
1838.  The  inhabitants,  without  chiefs,  and 
badly  armed,  attacked  the  assailants,  made 
2,000  prisoners,  and  expelled  the  remainder. 

SARAH  SANDS.— This  iron  screw  steamer, 
with  300  soldiers  on  board,  left  Portsmouth 
for  Calcutta  in  the  middle  of  Aug.,  1857.  A 
fire  broke  out  in  the  hold  Nov.  u.  The  sol- 
diers succeeded  in  clearing  out  the  powder- 
magazine,  with  the  exception  of  two  barrels, 
one  of  which  exploded  shortly  afterwards,  and 
the  ship  became  a  mass  of  flames.  The  fire, 
after  raging  24  hours,  was  subdued  by  the 
exertions  of  the  soldiers  and  the  crew.  A 
strong  gale  sprang  up,  and  the  vessel,  with 
15  feet  of  water  in  the  hold,  succeeded  in 


SARATOGA 


t     876    ] 


SARDINIA 


reaching  the  Mauritius,  Nov.  21,  aud  not  a 
single  life  was  lost. 

SARATOGA  (N.  America).— Near  this  to^vn 
an  English  force  under  Gen.  Burgoyne  sur- 
rendered to  the  revolted  Americans  under  Gen. 
Gates,  Oct.  17,  1777. 

SARAWAK  (Borneo),  the  capital  of  a  settle- 
ment of  the  same  name,  was  founded  in  1841 
by  Sir  James  Brooke,  who  was  appointed  its 
rajah.  An  outbreak  of  the  Chinese  settlers 
took  place  Feb.  18,  1857.  They  attacked  and 
burned  the  dwelling-houses  of  the  Europeans 
and  killed  several  persons.  Sir  James  Brooke 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  English  escaped. 
The  arrival  of  a  small  steamer  enabled  the 
rajah  to  drive  the  Chinese  out  of  the  town, 
when  they  were  attacked  by  the  native  Dyaks, 
and  after  a  guerilla  warfare  of  several  days, 
utterly  routed.  The  Chinese  settlements  were 
destroyed,  and  out  of  a  population  of  4,000  or 
5,000,  not  more  than  2,000  escaped. 

SARDICA. — This  ancient  town  of  Illyriawas 
considerably  enlarged  by  the  Emperor  Trajan 
(98 — 117).  According  to  Zonaras,  the  Emperor 
Basil  I.  besieged  it  without  success  in  876.  A 
council,  at  which  English  bishops  are  said  to 
have  been  present,  was  held  here  in  347. 

SARDINIA  (Mediterranean  Sea).— This 
island,  which  was  also  called  Ichnusa  and 
Sandaliotis,  is  said  to  have  been  originally 
peopled  by  a  colony  of  Libyans,  who  crossed 
over  from  Africa  under  the  leadership  of 
Sardus,  whence  the  name  Sardinia,  about 
B.C.  1200;  but  the  traditions  relating  to  its 
early  history  are  obscure  and  conflicting.  Its 
authentic  history  commences  with  its  capture 
by  the  Carthaginians,  of  which  the  precise 
date  is  unknown.  From  Sardinia  the  Romans 
obtained  large  supplies  of  corn. 

B.C. 

510-480.  Sardinia  is  conquered  by  the  Carthaginians. 
379.  The  Sardinians  revolt  against  the  Carthaginians. 
359-  L.   Cornelius   Sci]>io   defeats  the  Carthaginian   licet 

off  Olbia,  in  Sardinia,  and  uftcrxvaru- 

city. 
358.  The  island  is  ravaged  by  the  Romans,  under   C. 

Sulpicius. 
238.  The  Carthaginians  cede  their  right  to  the  island  to 

the  Romans. 
237.  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  erected  into  the  second  of  the 

Koman  provinces,  are  placed  under  a  prn-tor. 
335.  T.  Mitnlius  Torquatus  gains  several  victories  over 

the  inhabitants. 
315.  The    inhabitants   revolt    under     the    native    chief 

Hampsicora,  who  is  subdued  by  Torquatus,  and 

commits  suicide. 
177-5.  A  revolt  is  suppressed,  with   great  severity,  by 

the  consul  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus. 
114.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed  by  M.  Csecilius  Me- 

tellus. 
49.  Julius  Caesar  expels  the  forces  of  the  Roman  senate 

from  Sardinia. 
39.  It  is  ceded  to   Sextus  Pompeius  by  the  treaty  of 

Misenum. 
A.D. 
456.  Sardinia  is  wrested  from  the   Roman  empire  bv 

Genseric  the  Vandal. 

534.  It  is  recovered  for  Justinian  I.  by  Cyrillus. 
551.  It  is  seized  by  the  Goths,  under  Totila. 
594.  Zabardus,  governor  of  Sardinia,  compels  the  bar- 
barous mountaineers  to  embrace  Christianity. 
730.  The   Saracens   obtain  a  footing  in  the  island,  and 

pillage  Cagliari. 
739.  The  Saracens  are  expelled, 
looo.  It  is  conquered  by  the  Moor  Musat,  who  assumes 

the  title  of  King  of  Sardinia. 
1033.  Musat  is  expelled  by  the  allied  forces  of  Genoa  and 

Pisa. 


1164.  Frederick  I.   (Barbarossa)  sells  Sardinia   to  Bari- 

sona,  native  prince  or  judge  of  the  province  of 
Arborea,  who  adopts  the  royal  title,  and  is 
crowned  at  Pavia,  but  is  unable  to  support  the 
dignity. 

1165.  The  Pisans  obtain  the  sovereignty  of  Sardinia. 
1309.  James   II.   of    Aragon   receives  the  investiture  of 

Sardinia  and  of  Corsica  from  Pope  Clement  V. 
1334,  Feb.  38.  The  infant  Don  Alphonso  of  Aragon  con- 
quers the  Pisau  admiral  Manfred,  at  the  battle  of 

Lucocisterua. 
1353.  The  defeat  of  the  Pisan  fleet,  under  Gaspar  Doria, 

by  the  Aragonese  admiral  Francisco  Carroso,  in 

the  bay  of  Cagliari,  establishes   the  authority  of 

the  King  of  Aragon  over  the  greater  part  of  the 

island. 

!355,  April  15.   Pedro  IV.  of  Aragon  establishes  the  re- 
presentative government  of  the  Stumeuti. 
1395.  The  code  of  laws  known  as  the  "  Carta  de  Logu  " 

is  promulgated. 
1409,  June  36.   Don   Martin,   Infant  of    Sicily,  gains  a 

great  victory  over  the  rebellious  Sardinians  near 

Cagliari. 
1438.  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  obtains  the  formal  cession 

of  the  province  of  Arborea,  and  thereby  extends 

his  authority  over  the  whole  island. 
1478.  A  rebellion,  headed  by  the  Marquis  of  Oristano,  is 

suppressed. 

1493.  The  Inquisition  is  established. 
1547.  Andrea  Doria,  with  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Holy 

League,  fails  in  an  attack  upon  Sardinia. 
1540.  The  island  is  desolated  by  a  famine. 
1637,  Feb.  31.   Sardinia  is  invaded  by  the  French,  under 

Count  Harcourt. 
1668,  July  31.   Assassination  of   the  Marquis  of  Cama- 

russa,  the  Spanish  viceroy,  in  Sardinia. 
1708,  Aug.  13.   An  English  fleet,  under  Sir  John  Leake, 

anchors  off  Cagliari,  and  conquers  the  island. 
1710.  The  Spaniards,  under  the  Duke   of  Tursis,  fail  ill 

an  attempt  at  its  recapture. 
1714.  Sardinia  is  ceded  to  the  Kmperor  by  the  treaties  of 

Utrecht,  Kadstadt,  and  Baden. 
1717,  Aug.  33.    A   Spanish   tleet,    under  the  Marquis   de 

Lede,  arrives  at  Cagliari,  and  recovers  the  whole 

island  in  less  than  two  months. 
1730,  Feb.     17.     Sardinia    is    restored    to    the    Kmperor 

Charles  VI.,  who  cedes  it  to  Victor  Amadeus  II. 

of  Savoy,  in  exchange  for  the  island  of  Sicily. 

(See  SARDINIA,  KINGDOM.) 

SARDINIA,  KINGDOM  (Italy),  comprising 
Savoy,  Piedmont,  and  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
was  established  by  Victor  Amadeus  I.  (II.  of 
Savoy;  in  1720.  (See  SAVOY.) 

A.D. 

1730,  Sep.  3.  Abdication  of  Victor  Amadeus  I.  in  favour 

of  his  son  Charles  Emanuel  I. 
1733,  Oct  31.  Victor  Amadeus  I.  expires  in  prison,  where 

he    is  confined    for  an    attempt    to    regain   the 

throne. 
I733i  SeP-   26.  Chartes  Emanuel  I.  engages  in   the  war 

of  the  Polish  succession. 
1736,  June  6.   Tortona  and  Novara  are  ceded  to  Sardinia 

by  the  treaty  of  Luxemburg. 
1743,  Feb.   i.   A    convention    is    signed  at  Turin    with 

Maria  Theresa. 
1743,  Sep.    13.    By    the   alliance    of   Worms,    Sardinia 

obtains  the  marquisate  of  Finale  on  condition  of 

assisting  Austria  against  Spain. 
1745,  Dec.  26.   By  the  preliminary  treaty  of  Turin,  peace 

with  France  is  restored,  and  Sardinia  acquires 

the  Milanese. 
1748,  Oct.  18.   By  the  treaty  of   Aix-la-Chapelle,  Milan 

reverts  to  Austria,  and  Finale  to  Genoa. 
1763.  A  decree  is  issued  liberating  the  serfs  in  Savoy. 
1770.  A  new  code  of  laws  is  adopted  in  Savoy. 
1793,  Sep.   The  French  invade  the  Sardinian  territories, 

and  occupy  Savoy  and  Nice. — Nov.  37.  Savoy  and 

Nice  are  annexed  to  France. 
[796,  May   15.   Peace   with   France    is    restored  by  the 

treaty  of  Paris,  by  which  Savoy  and  Nice  are 

ceded    to    France.— Oct.    16.     Death    of    Victor 

Amadeus  II. 
1798,  Dec.   9.   Charles  Emanuel   II.   is   deposed   by    the 

French,  and  compelled  to  retire  to  Leghorn. 


SARDINIA 


[    877 


SARDINIA 


1799,  March  3.  Charles  Emanuel  II.  removes  to  Cagliari, 

and    is    acknowledged  king    by    the  Sardinian 

islanders. — May  27.    Turin  is    occupied   by    the 

Austrians  and  the  Russians. 
1803,  June   4.    Abdication    of    Charles    Emanuel    II.  in 

favour  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Aosta. — Sep. 

II.  Piedmont  is  incorporated  with  the    French 

republic. 
1805.  May  26-    Napoleon  I.  is  crowned  King  of  Italy  at 

Milan,  and  includes  Sardinia  in  his  kingdom. 
1814.  Victor  Emanuel  I.  is  restored,  and  returns  to  Turin. 

— Dec.  14.  Genoa  is  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 

Sardinia. 
1821,  March  13.   Abdication   of    Victor    Emanuel    I.    in 

consequence  of  a  popular  insurrection. 
1824,  Jan.  10.  Death  of  the  ex-king  Victor  Emanuel  I. 
1830.  The  army  is  increased  by  120,000  men. 
1839,  Nov.   28.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with 

Sweden. 

1847,  The  department  of  public  instruction  is  created. 

1848,  Feb.  8.  A  ne\r  constitution  is  granted,  establishing 

a  free  press  and  two  legislative  chambers. — March 
23.  Charles  Albert  joins  Milan  and  Venice 
against  Austria. — April  3  and  4.  A  revolution  is 
suppressed  in  Savoy. — April  8.  The  Austrians  are 
defeated  by  the  Sardinians  at  Goito  (q.  v.).— April 
15.  Charles  Albert  decrees  that  the  national  flag 
of  Italy  shall  be  a  tricolour  of  green,  white,  and 
red.— May  30.  Peschiera  is  surrendered  by  the 
Austrians  to  Charles  Albert.— June  28.  The  Sar- 
dinian chambers  vote  the  annexation  of  Lom- 
bardy  to  Sardinia.— July  4.  The  Venetian  as- 
sembly votes  the  incorporation  of  Venice  with 
Sardinia.— Aug.  5.  Milan  capitulates  to  the 
Austrian  marshal  Radetsky. — Aug.  9.  An  armis- 
tice is  concluded  between  the  Sardinian  and 
Austrian  armies. 

1849,  Feb.   i.    Meeting  of    the  Sardinian  parliament. — 

March  12.  Sardinia  announces  the  termination  of 
the  armistice.— March  20.  Hostilities  are  re- 
sumed.— March  2,1.  The  Austrians  defeat  the 
Sardinians  at  Gambolo,  and  take  Mortara.— 
March  23.  Battle  of  Novara.— Charles  Albert 
abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emanuel  II. 
— March  25.  The  new  king  has  an  interview  with 
Kadetsky,  at  Novara.— March  26.  They  conclude 
an  armistice. — July  28.  The  ex-king  Charles 
Albert  dies  at  Oporto.— Aug.  6.  A  peace  is  con- 
cluded with  Austria  at  Milan.— Sep.  24.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  is  concluded  with  Tuscany. 

1850,  April  9.  All  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  is  abolished 

by  the  Siccardi  law.— April  18.  The  Archbishop 
of  Turin  publishes  a  pastoral  letter  to  his  clergy, 
enjoining  regulations  opposed  to  this  law.— May 

4.  He  is  arrested. — May   14.  The  papal  govern- 
ment protests  against  his  imprisonment. — Nov. 

5.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  France. 

1854,  Jan.  20.  The  corn  laws  are  repealed  in  Sardinia. 

1855,  Jan.   10.  Sardinia  joins  the  Allies  against  Russia. 

—March  2.  The  chambers  pass  a  bill  for  the 
abolition  of  convents. — March  15.  A  treaty  of 
alliance  is  concluded  with  Turkey.— May  9.  A 
Sardinian  army,  under  Gen.  de  la  Marmora, 
lands  in  the  Crimea. — Aug.  16.  The  Sardinian 
general  Montevecchio  is  mortally  wounded  in 
the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya. — Nov.  23.  Victor 
Emanuel  II.  visits  Paris.— Nov.  30.  He  visits 
London. 

1856,  April   16.  The  Sardinian   plenipotentiaries  request 

England  and  France  to  decide  against  any  mili 
tary  occupation  of  Italy  by  foreign  powers.- 
May26.  Lord  Clarendon  replies,  condemning  such 
occupation. 

1857,  March   16.   In  consequence  of  the    attacks  of  the 

Sardinian  press  upon  the  Austrian  government, 
the  Austrian  ambassador  is  recalled  from  Turin. 
— March  23.  Count  Cavour  recalls  the  Sardinian 
representative  from  Vienna.  (See  CAGLIARI 
AFFAIR.) — June  29.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed 
at  Genoa. — Oct.  30.  Death  of  Count  Josepl: 
Siccardi. 

1859,  Jan.  30.  Marriage  of  the  Princess  Clotilde,  eldest 
daughter  of  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  to  Prince  Napo- 
leon, cousin  of  the  Emperor  of  the  French.— April 
19.  The  Austrian  government  demands  that  the 
Sardinian  army  should  be  restored  to  a  peace 
footing.— April  25-  A  French  force  disembarks 
Genoa  to  the  assistance  of  the  Sardinians. 


A.D. 

859,  April  26.     The  Sardinian   government  rejects  the 
Austrian  ultimatum. — April  29.   The    Austrians, 
under   Gen.   Gyulai,   enter  the    Sardinian  terri- 
tory. —  April    39.    Victor    Emanuel    II.   confides 
'  the    government    to  his  cousin,   Prince  Eugene 

of  Savoy-Carignan,  and  takes  the  command 
of  his  army  in  person.  (See  AUSTRIA,  and 
ITALY.) — July  n.  The  preliminary  treaty  of 
Villa  Franca  is  signed.— July  13.  Resignation  of 
the  Cavour  ministry. — July  19.  It  is  succeeded 
by  the  Ratazzi  administration. — Aug.  8.  Victor 
Emanuel  II.  makes  his  solemn  entry  into  Milan. 
— Sep.  3.  A  deputation  from  Tuscany  requests 
Victor  Emanuel  II.  to  incorporate  that  countiy 
with  his  own  kingdom.— Sep.  15.  He  receives  the 
oaths  of  deputies  from  Parma  and  Modena. — 
Sep.  24.  A  deputation  from  Bologna  requests  him 
to  annex  the  Legations. — Oct.  10.  The  customs 
barriers  between  Lombardy,  Piedmont,  Modena, 
Parma,  and  the  Romagna,  are  abolished. — Oct. 
20.  The  Emperor  of  the  French,  in  a  letter  to 
Victor  Emanuel  II.,  advocates  the  formation  of 
an  Italian  confederation,  which  the  latter  declares 
impracticable. — Oct.  31.  The  enlarged  kingdom 
of  Sardinia  is  divided  into  17  provinces. — Nov. 
10.  The  preliminary  articles  of  Villa  Franca  are 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Zurich.— Dec.  7.  The 
Sardinian  constitution  is  proclaimed. 
[860,  Jan.  15.  Count  Cavour  undertakes  the  formation 
of  a  new  ministry. — Feb.  25.  The  French  govern- 
ment recommends  the  complete  annexation  of 
Parma  and  Modena  to  Sardinia  ;  the  establish- 
ment of  a  protectorate,  administered  by  the  King 
of  Sardinia  in  the  name  of  the  Pope,  in  the 
Romagna ;  the  re-establishment  of  the  duchy  of 
Tuscany,  and  the  incorporation  of  Savoy  and 
Nice  with  the  French  empire.— Feb.  29.  Sardinia 
accedes  to  the  French  propositions,  except  in  the 
cases  of  Tuscany,  Savoy,  and  Nice,  which  are  re- 
ferred to  the  votes  of  the  people. — March  n.  A 
public  demonstration  is  made  in  Nice  against 
annexation  to  France. — March  15.  France  repeats 
her  desire  for  the  preservation  of  the  duchy  of 
Tuscany. — March  16.  The  result  of  the  public  votes 
in  Tuscany  is  declared  to  be  in  favourof  annexation 
to  Sardinia. — March  18.  ^Emilia  is  annexed  to  Sar- 
dinia.—March  22.  Tuscany  is  annexed  to  Sardinia. 
— March  24.  Savoy  and  Nice  are  ceded  to  France  by 
a  treaty  signed  at  Turin. — March  27.  Prussia 
protests  against  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and 
Nice  by  France. — March  31.  Victor  Emanuel  II. 
releases  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  provinces 
from  their  allegiance,  and  officially  announces 
the  approaching  annexation  to  France. — April 
15.  The  inhabitants  of  Nice  vote  in  favour  of 
annexation  to  France. — April  22.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Savoy  declare  in  favour  of  annexation 
to  France.— May  18.  The  government  asserts  its 
disapprobation  of  Garibaldi's  expedition  to  Sicily. 
— May  29.  The  Chambers  confirm  the  cession  of 
Savoy  and  Nice. — June  14.  The  French  take 
possession  of  their  Piedmontese  acquisitions. — 
July  31.  Lord  John  Russell  addresses  a  note  to 
the  Sardinian  government,  dissuading  it  from 
attacking  Austria  and  Naples. — Sep.  7.  Count 
Cavour  demands  that  the  foreign  troops  shall 
quit  the  Roman  states.— Sep.  11.  The  papal  go- 
vernment rejects  the  Sardinian  ultimatum,  in 
consequence  of  which  Gen.  Cialdiui  enters  the 
Roman  states.  (See  ROME.) — Sep.  18.  The 
French  ambassador  quits  Turin.  (See  NAPLES.) 
— Oct.  10.  The  Russian  ambassador  is  recalled 
from  Turin. — Oct.  26.  The  Spanish  minister  is 
summoned  from  Turin.— Nov.  3.  The  results  of 
the  voting  in  Naples  in  favour  of  annexation  to 
Sardinia  are  published.— Nov.  7.  Victor  Emanuel 
II.  enters  Naples,  and  announces  his  assumption 
of  the  sovereignty  of  the  country. — Dec.  26.  Four 
decrees  are  published,  annexing  the  Marches, 
Umbria,  Naples,  and  Sicily  to  the  dominions  of 
Victor  Emanuel  II. 

1861,  Feb.  18.  The  first  national  parliament  of  Italy  as- 
sembles at  Turin.— March  7.  A  frontier  treaty  is 
concluded  with  France.— March  17.  Publication 
of  the  law  conferring  upon  Victor  Emanuel  and 
his  descendants  the  title  of  King  of  Italy.— June 
6.  Death  of  Count  Cavour  at  Turin.  (See  ITALY, 
&c.) 


SARDIS 


SARZANA 


KINGS  OF  SARDINIA. 
A.D. 

1730.  Victor-Amadeus  I. 

1730.  Cliarles-Emanuel  I. 

1773.  Victor-Amadeus  II. 

1796.  Charles-Eniiinuel  II. 

1803.  Victor-Emanui-1  I. 

1805.  Continental  Sardinia  forms  part  of  the  kingdom  of 

Italy. 

1814.  Victor- Emanuel  I.,  again. 
1831.  Charles-Felix. 
1831.  Charles-Albert. 
1849.  Victor-Emauuel  II. 

SARDIS,  or  SARDES  (Asia  Minor),  the 
ancient  capital  of  Lydia,  was  taken  by  the 
Cimmerians  about  B.C.  635,  and  remained  in 
their  possession  until  Alyattes  II.  drove  them 
out  of  Asia,  B.C.  617.  It  became  subject  to  the 
Persians  B.C.  554,  and  was  taken  by  the  I  on  inns, 
assisted  by  the  Athenians,  B.C.  499,  when  the 
town  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  Persians 
were  defeated  by  the  Greeks  in  the  plain 
before  Sardis,  B.C.  395.  It  surrendered  to 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  B.C.  334,  and  was 
taken  by  Seleucus  I.,  in  his  war  against  Lysi- 
machus,  B.C.  283.  Antiochus  the  Great  made 
himself  master  of  it  B.C.  214,  and  held  it  for 
25  years,  when  the  inhabitants,  in  his  absence, 
delivered  it  up  to  the  Romans,  in  whose 
custody  it  remained.  It  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (14 — 37), 
who  ordered  it  to  be  rebuilt.  Sardis  v. 
of  the  first  towns  to  embrace  Christianity,  its 
people  having,  it  is  said,  boon  converted  by  the 
apostle  John.  It  is  one  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia  mentioned  in  Revelation  i.  u).  It 
was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  the  i  ith  century, 
nnd  again  in  the  i4th  century.  It  v. 
taken  by  Tamerlane  (1370 — 1405).  Sart,  which 
now  occupies  the  .site  of  rtardis,  is  a  miserable 
place,  consisting  of  a  few  mud  lints. 

SA  RKPTA  (Russia'1.— This  fortified  town,  on 
the  Volga,  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Mora- 
vian Brethren  in  1765. 

S  ARM  ATI  A,  a  name  given  by  the  Romans  to 
all  the  countiy  in  Europe  and  Asia  between 
the  Vistula  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  people 
inhabiting  this  country  were  usually  called 
Bauromatpe  by  the  Greeks,  and  Harmatse  by 
the  Romans.  The  Sarmatians  began  to 
threaten  the  Roman  empire  in  the  reign  of 
Nero  (54—68).  They  assembled  on  the  borders 
of  Thrace  in  64,  for  the  purpose  of  invading 
that  province  ;  some  of  them  having  been 
defeated  by  the  Romans,  the  rest  dispersed. 
They  entered  Mcesia  in  69,  defeated  10  Roman 
cohorts,  and  ravaged  the  country,  but  were*  de- 
feated and  driven  across  the  Danube.  Hadrian 
defeated  them  in  119,  and  Marcus  Aurelius 
in  161,  and  again  in  180;  and  the  Emperor 
Caracalla  gained  some  victories  over  them  in 
215,  assuming,  on  that  account,  the  surname 
of  Sarmatieus.  They  were  defeated  by  Aure- 
lian  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  II.,  and  by  the 
Emperor  .Cams,  16,000  having  been  cut  to 
pieces  and  compelled  to  recross  the  Danube  in 
282.  They  were  subdued  by  Constantino  I. 
(the  Great)  in  322 ;  and  he  espoused  their 
cause  in  332  against  the  Goths,  whom  he  de- 
feated, and  nearly  100,000  perished  by  famine 
and  the  sword.  The  Goths  defeated  them  in 
334.  The  Sarraatians  joined  the  Goths  against 


the  Romans  in  378,  and  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter  by  Theodosius  I.  They  joined 
the  Vandals  and  other  barbarians  in  an  inva- 
sion of  Gaul  in  407.  Those  who  remained  in 
Sarmatia  were  afterwards  subdued  by  Attila, 
and,  with  their  princes,  served  in  his  army 
when  he  invaded  Gaul  in  451.  Upon  his  death, 
in  453,  they  recovered  their  liberty,  and  were 
allowed  by  the  Roman  emperor  to  settle  in 
Pannoiiia,  Moesia,  and  other  provinces  on  the 
Danube,  where  they  remained  in  peace,  till 
finally  subdued  by  the  Goths,  with  whom,  in 
process  of  time,  they  were  amalgamated. 

SARMIZEGETHUSA,  or  ZARMIZK- 
QETHU8A  (l)acia\  for  some  time  the  capital, 
was  taken  by  Trajan  in  101. 

SARXO  (Battles).  —  A  battle  was  fought 
near  this  river,  in  Italy,  between  the  troops 
of  Justinian  I.  under  Narses,  and  the  Goths, 
under  their  king  Teias,  in  553.  The  battle 
lasted  two  days,  and  ended  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Goths,  whose  king  fell  in  the  en- 
counter.   John  of  Anjou  defeated  Fer- 
dinand I.  of  Naples  near  the  Sarno,  July  7, 
1460. 

SAROSCHUTZ  (Moravia).— After  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  Francis  I.  of  Austria  opened 
negotiations  with  Napoleon  I.,  who  received 
him,  Dec.  4,  1805,  in  his  tent  at  Saroschlitz, 
when  an  armistice  was  agreed  upon  that  was 
definitively  concluded  at  Austerlitz,  Dec.  6. 

SAKUM,  or  OLD  KARUM  (Wiltshire),  ori- 
ginally a  British  settlement,  is  supp< 
have  been  taken  by  Vespasian  (48 — 50),  and 
made  a  Roman  station,  called  Sni-liiix/nni'i.i  or 
Sorviodun  <>>,<.  The  Faxons  wrested  it  from  the 
Britons  in  552,  and  named  it  SK<ir<'xi>iir'«j.  It 
was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Wesscx  till 
the  octarchy.  The  town  was  fortified  by 
Alfred  the  Great,  and  here  Edgar  convoked 
a  witenagemot  in  960,  to  deliberate  on  the 
best  means  of  defence  against  the  incursions 
of  the  Danes.  It  was  taken  and  burned  by 
Sweyn,  afterwards  King  of  Denmark,  in  1003. 
The  scat  of  the  bishopric  of  Sherborne  was 
removed  to  this  place  in  1072,  and  a  cathedral 
founded  which  was  finished  in  1092.  On  the 
completion  of  the  Norman  survey  in  1086, 
William  I.  summoned  all  the  bishops,  abbots, 
barons,  and  knights  of  the  kingdom  to  Sarum, 
to  do  homage  for  the  lands  they  held  by  feudal 
tenure.  William  II.  assembled  a  council  here 
in  1095  or  1096,  in  which  William,  Count  of 
Ku,  was  impeached  for  high  treason.  Henry 
I.  resided  here  in  noo,  in  1106,  and  in  1116. 
A  council  was  held  here,  at  which  Henry  I. 
was  present,  March  20,  1116.  The  castle  was 
repaired  on  the  accession  of  Henry  II.  in  1154. 
The  oppressions  of  the  castellans,  or  captains 
of  the  castle,  and  their  disputes  with  the 
bishops  and  clergy,  led  to  the  removal  of  the 
cathedral  to  its  present  site  at  New  Sarum,  or 
Salisbury  (q.  v.),  in  1220.  Old  Sarum  returned 
two  members  to  Parliament  from  1294  until 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill.  The  inhabi- 
tants gradually  established  themselves  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  new  cathedral,  and  Old  Sarum 
began  to  decay. 

SARZANA  (Italy).— This  town,  founded  B.C. 
176,  was  taken  from  the  Florentines  by  the 
Genoese  in  1407,  and  ceded  to  Thou 


SASSANIDES 


879 


SAVINGS-BANKS 


Campo  Frggoso,  on  his  abdication  of  the 
dignity  of  Doge  of  Genoa,  in  1421.  It  was 
recovered  for  Florence  by  Lorenzo  de  Medici, 
May  22,  1487.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
which  was  founded  at  Luna,  under  Bishop 
Habetdeus,  who  flourished  in  484,  and  removed 
to  Sarzana  in  1204.  The  cathedral  was  founded 
in  1200,  and  a  fortress  was  built  in  1262. 

SASSANIDES,  a  name  given  to  the  Persian 
dynasty,  founded  by  Artaxerxes  or  Ardshir  I. 
about  226.  They  governed  Persia  until  the 
Mohammedan  conquest  in  651. 

SATARA,  or  SATTARA  (Hindustan),  taken 
by  the  English  in  1818,  was  absorbed  in  the 
Indian  empire  in  1848. 

SATELLITES.  —  (See  GEORGIUM  SIDUS, 
JUPITER,  PLANETS,  SATURN,  &c.) 

SATIN. — This  variety  of  silk  is  mentioned 
in  the  i^fh  century.  It  was  originally  im- 
ported into  Europe  from  China. 

SATIRE,  from  the  Latin  safura,  originally 
signifying  a  collection  of  various  things,  is 
said  to  have  been  first  written  by  Ennius  (B.C. 
235 — 169).  Lucilius  was  the  first  who  used 
it  in  a  regular  poetical  form,  B.C.  148,  and 
formed  the  model  which  Horace  avowedly 
followed  (B.C.  65 — A.D.  8).  Varro,  B.C.  116 — 28, 
the  most  learned  of  all  the  Romans,  wrote 
the  "  Menippean,"  or  cynical  satires.  Juvenal 
(59—128)  adopted  it  to  lash  the  vices  of  his  age. 
Persius,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  applied 
it  with  great  circumspection  to'  that  tyrant 
(34 — 62).  In  this  country  it  was  used  by 
Butler  to  ridicule  the  Puritans  in  his  "  Hudi- 
bras,"  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1663. 
Dryden  (1631 — 1700)  and  Pope  (1688 — 1744)  em- 
ploved  it  in  numerous  compositions. 

SATURDAY,  the  seventh  and  last  day  of 
the  week,  so  called  from  the  idol  Seater,  wor- 
shipped on  this  day  by  the  ancient  Saxons. 
Others  say  it  derived  its  name  from  having 
been  dedicated  by  the  Romans  to  Saturn. 

SATURN.— This  planet  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  Its  ring  was  first  noticed  by  Galileo 
(1564— Jan.  8,  1642).  Huyghens  discovered 
the  first  of  its  satellites  in  1655  ;  four  more 
were  discovered  by  Dominic  Cassini  between 
1671 — 84.  Two  more  were  discovered  by  Sir  "VV. 
Herschel  in  1 789 ;  and  the  eighth  was  dis- 
covered by  Lassell  in  England,  and  by  Bond 
in  America  in  1848.  Goldschmidt,  in  April, 
1 86 1,  believed  that  he  had  discovered  a  ninth. 

SATURNALIA,  festivals  in  honour  of 
Saturn,  instituted,  according  to  some  author- 
ities, before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Others 
assert  that  the  Saturnalia  were  first  observed  at 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius  (B.C.  673 
— B.C.  640),  after  a  victory  gained  over  the 
Sabines ;  whilst  some  maintain  that  they 
were  first  celebrated  B.C.  497,  after  a  victory 
obtained  over  the  Latins  by  the  dictator  Pos- 
thumius. 

SATURNIANS.— The  followers  of  Saturnius, 
a  Gnostic  of  Antioch,  who  founded  a  school 
between  no  and  134.  The  sect,  which  did  not 
extend  beyond  Syria,  soon  came  to  an  end. 

SAUCHIEBURN.  —  (See  BANNOCKBURN, 
Battle.) 

SAUGOR  AND  NERBUDDA  TERRI- 
TORIES (Hindostan),  conquered  by  Akbar 
and  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Delhi  about 


1599.  The  peishwa  obtained  a  nominal  su- 
premacy when  Delhi  fell  in  1803.  The  country 
was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1818.  In  the  fort 
of  Saugor  the  42nd  native  regiment  attempted 
to  incite  the  3ist  to  mutiny.  The  latter  not 
only  remained  faithful,  but  drove  the  42nd 
from  the  station,  July  7,  1857. 

SAUMUR  (France),  the  capital  of  the  Sau- 
murois,  was  taken  from  the  Count  of  Blois  by 
Fulk  of  Anjou,  in  1026,  and  was  annexed  to 
the  French  crown  in  1570.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Vendeans  after  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
republican  army,  June  7,  1793.  They  were 
forced  to  abandon  it  June  24.  The  castle  was 
constructed  at  different  periods  between  the 
nth  and  i3th  centuries.  A  Protestant  aca- 
demy, founded  by  Duplessis  Mornay,  while 
governor  of  the  town,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
(1589 — 1610),  was  dissolved  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1684.  Gen.  Berton,  who  in  1822  raised  an 
insurrection  and  marched  upon  Saumur,  was 
taken  and  executed.  Councils  were  held  at 
Saumur  Dec.  2,  1253  ;  Aug.  31,  1276  ;  March  9, 
1294  ;  May  9,  1315 ;  and  in  1342. 

SAUROMATvE.— (See  SARMATIA.) 

SAVAGE'S  STATION.— (See  CHICKAHOMTNY, 
Battle.) 

SAVANDROOG  (Hindostan).  —  This  strong 
fortress  of  Mysore,  seated  on  the  top  of  a  rock, 
was,  notwithstanding  its  great  strength,  taken 
by  the  English,  after  a  siege  of  seven  days,  in 
1791. 

SAVANNAH  (N.  America).— This  town  in 
Georgia,  founded  by  Gen.  Oglethorp  in  1733, 
was  taken  by  the  English  in  1776,  and  held  by 
them  till  1782,  when  it  was  abandoned.  A 
fire,  which  desti-oyed  463  buildings,  and  other 
property  to  the  value  of  nearly  ^800,000, 
occurred  June  10,  1820.  It  was  taken  by 
Sherman,  Dec.  20,  1864. 

SAVENAY  (Battle).— The  Vendeans  were 
defeated  at  this  town  on  the  Loire,  near 
Nantes,  by  Kleber  and  Marceau,  Dec  22  1703 

SAVIGLIAN,  or  SAVILLIAN  (Italy).— This 
town  of  Sardinia,  taken  by  Francis  I.  (1515 — 47), 
was  restored  by  Henry  III.  in  1574.  The  battle 
of  Genola  (q.  v.}  was  fought  near  this  town. 

SAVINGS-BANKS.— Defoe,  in  his  "Giving 
Alms  no  Charity,"  published  in  1704,  suggested 
a  substitution  of  savings  for  poor-rates,  by 
passing  acts  of  Parliament  "  which  shall  make 
drunkards  take  care  of  wife  and  children ; 
spendthrifts  lay  up  for  a  wet  day ;  lazy  fellows 
diligent ;  and  thoughtless,  sottish  men  careful 
and  provident."  Francis  Maseres  carried  a 
billfthrough  the  Commons,  which  was,  how- 
ever, rejected  by  the  Lords,  to  enable  rate- 
payers of  parishes  to  receive  and  invest  savings, 
in  1771.  A  savings-bank  was  established  at 
Hamburg  in  1778,  and  one  at  Berne  about 
1787.  Mrs.  Priscilla  Wakefield  opened  one  for 
children  at  Tottenham  in  1798,  and  another 
for  adults  in  1804.  The  Rev.  J.  Smith,  of 
Wendover,  issued  propositions  to  his  parish- 
ioners on  the  subject  iri  1799.  One  was . 
founded  at  Bath,  by  eight  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, in  1808.  The  first  institution  carefully 
organized  was  the  Parish  Bank  Friendly 
Society  of  Ruthven,  by  the  Rev.  H.  Duncan, 
in  1817.  Savings-banks  were  first  placed 
under  the  protection  of  Government  by  57  Geo. 


SAVIOUR 


SAVOY  PALACE 


III.  cc.  105  &  130  (July  ii  &  12,  1817).     By  9 
Geo.  IV.  c.  92  'July  28,  1828),  the  laws  relating 
to  savings-banks  in  England  and  Ireland  were 
consolidated,  and  all  former  statutes  repealed. 
This  act  was  slightly  amended  by  3  &  4  Will. 

IV.  (June  10,  1833).     These  acts  were  extended 
to  Scotland  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Sep.  9, 
1835).     Further  amendments  to  the  savings- 
banks  acts  were  made  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  83  (Aug. 
9,  1844).      The  laws  respecting  the  purchase  of 
Government  Annuities  by  means  of  savings- 
banks    were    consolidated    and    amended   by 
16  &   17  Viet.  c.   45  (Aug.   4,    1853).      Further 
provision  was  made  by  23  &  24  Viet.   c.  137 
(Aug.  28,  1860),  and  by  26  Viet.  c.  25  (June  3, 
1863).     (See  POST-OFFICE  SAVINGS-BANKS.) 

SAVIOUR.— (See  BLOOD  OF  OUR  SAVIOUR, 
BRIGETTINES,  <fcc.) 

SAVOIR  VIVRE  CLUB.— (See  BOODLES'S 
CLUB.) 

SAVON  A  (Italy).  — The  ancient  Savo,  de- 
stroyed in  639,  was  restored  in  981.  A  harbour 
was  formed  in  1197.  It  had  formerly  two 
harbours,  but  one  was  filled  up  by  the  Genoese, 
from  commercial  jealousy,  in  1525.  The 
Sistine  chapel  at  Savona  was  founded  bySixtus 
IV.  (1471 — 84),  and  the  cathedral  was  built 
in  1604.  (See  CAMERA Y  LKAC.I-I:.  An  explo- 
sion of  gunpowder  in  the  citadel  destroyed 
half  the  houses  in  the  town  in  1648.  A  fleet 
of  16  French  and  Spanish  vessels,  laden  with 
munitions  of  war,  WHS  .sunk  in  the  harbour, 
by  an  English  squadron,  in  1745.  Savona  was 
taken  by  the  Sardinians  in  1746.  A  corps 
of  10,000  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  was 
defeated  here  by  the  French  in  1794,  and 
the  town  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1795. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Austrians  in  April,  1800, 
and  was  surrendered  by  them  to  the  French, 
June  15.  Pope  Pius  VII.  was  detained  here 
from  1809  till  1812,  by  order  of  Napoleon  I. 

SAVOY  Europe).  — Part  of  the  ancient 
Sapaudia.  whence  the  name  Saboia,  or  Savoy, 
is  derived. 

A.D. 

413.  Savoy  is  annexed  to  Burgundy. 

no\  becomes  a  province  of  France. 

<>y  forms  part  of   Aries. 
1027.  Death   of     lierthold,     Count    of    Maurienne,    and 

founder  of  tin-  house  of  Savoy. 
1034.  Humbert  I.  ree.ei.es   large    accessions  of  territory 

from  the  Emperor  Conrad  II. 
IIII.  Amadens    II.   of    Mauriennc   receives  the   title   of 

Count  of  Savoy  from  the  Emperor  Henry  V. 
1174.  Savoy  and  Piedmont  are  invaded  by  the  Emperor 

F.vderick  I. 
1207.  Count   Thomas   receives  large   grants  of    hind    in 

Piedmont  from  Philip  of  Germany. 

1220.  The  remainder  of   Piedmont,  is  annexed  to  Savoy. 
1362.  Count  Boniface  is  made  prisoner  by  his  subjects  at 

Turin. 
1266.  Peter  of  Savoy  acquires  the  city  of  Berne,  which 

lie  greatly  improves. 

1285.  Geneva  enters  into  alliance  with  Savoy. 
1316.  Amadeus  V.,   or    the   Great,   receives   Maulevrier, 

in   Normandy,  from  Philip  V.,  or  the  Long,  of 

France. 
1416,  Feb.    19.     Savoy    is    erected  into    a   duchy   under 

AniMiiens    VMI.     Onevn   is   brought  under  the 

dominion  of  the  Counts  of  Savoy. 

1418.  The  territory  of  Piedmont  is  added  to  Savoy. 

1419,  Oct.  5.  Nice  and  other  territories  are  ceded  to  Savoy 

by  the  treaty  of  Chambery. 

1487.  Charlotte,  Queen  of  Cyprus,  confers  thnt  isl-ind 
upon  tiie  dukes  of  Savoy,  who  assume  the  title 
of  King  of  Cyprus,  though  they  never  take  pos- 
session of  their  kingdom. 


A.D. 

1534-  Tlie  inhabitants  of  Geneva  rebel  against  Charles 
III.,  and  are  assisted  by  Francis  I.  of  France. 

1537,  Feb-  Francis  I.  claims  Piedmont  as  part  of  his 
hereditary  kingdom. 

1557,  Aug.  10.  Battle  of  St.  Quentin. 

1559,  April  2.  The  French  conquests  in  Savoy  are  re- 
stored by  the  treaty  of  C&teau-Cambresis  (q.r.). 

1564.  The  (ienevois  passes  to  the  house  of  Sa\oy. 

1601,  Jan.  17.  By  the  treaty  of  Lyons  the  rnarquisate 
of  Saluces  is  ceded  to  Savoy. 

1656,  Jan.  22.  Death  of  Thomas  Francis,  founder  of  the 
house  of  Savoy-Curignan. 

1659.  The  Oenevois  is  incorporated  with  Savoy. 

1703.  Victor  Amadeus  II.  declares  war  against  France 
and  Spain. 

1706,  Sej).  7.  The  French,  under  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and 

Marshal  Marsin,  are  defeated  by  Victor  Aniiideus 
II.  and  Prince  Eugene  at  the  battle  of  Turin, 
and  compelle  1  to  leave  Italy. 

1707,  March  13.  '1  he  treaty  of  Turin. 

1713,  April  n.  Savoy  is  recognized  as  an  independent 
state  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  and  Sicily  is 
annexed. 

1720.  By  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  ex- 
changes Sicily  for  Sardinia,  and  assumes  the  title 
Of  King  of  Sardinia  (q.  V.). 

1860.  Savey  and  Nice  are  ceded  to  France. 

RULERS   OF   SAVOY. 
A.D. 

1383.  Amadens  VII. 
1391.  Amadeus  VIII. 
1451.  Louis. 
[465.    Amadens  IX. 
1472.  Philibert  I. 
1482.  Charles  I. 
14-9.   diaries  II. 

1496.  Philip  II. 

1497.  Phiiibert  II. 
1504.  Charles  III. 

1553.   Emanuel  F'hilibert. 
1580.  Charles  Emanuel  I. 
1630.  Victor  Amadens  I. 
1637.  Francis  Hyacinth. 
idtf.   Charles  Emanuel  II. 
1675.  Victor  Amadens  II. 


1 020.  Berthold. 
13^7.   Humbert  I. 
I-.4H.   Amadous  I. 
1060.  Amadens  II. 
107.!.   Humbert  IF. 
1108.  Amadens  III. 
114*.   Humbert  111. 
1 1.-.-!.  Thoma.-. 
12.33.  Amudeus  IV. 
1253.  Boniface. 
Peter. 

bilipl. 

12X5.  Amadeus  V.,  the  Great. 
1323.  Edward. 
1329.  Aimon. 
1.34.5.  Amadeus  VI. 


(See  SARDINIA.) 

SAVOY  CONFERENCE,  between  the  Epis- 
copalians and  the  Presbyterians,  was  held 
at  the  Savoy  Palace  in  1661.  The  meeting, 
arranged  for  March  25,  was  put  off  till  April 
13.  The  conference  was  dissolved,  without 
coming  to  any  agreement,  July  25. 

SAVOY  PALACE  (London)  was  built  by 
Peter,  Earl  of  Savoy  and  Richmond,  in  1245. 
He  bestowed  it  upon  the  friars  of  Montjoy, 
from  whom  it  was  bought  by  Queen  Eleanor, 
wife  of  Henry  III.,  for  her  son  Edmund.  Bar] 
of  Lancaster.  John  II.,  King  of  France, 
resided  here,  when  a  prisoner  in  England,  in 
1357,  and  again  in  1363,  and  died  here  April 
8,  1364.  It  was  destroyed  by  Wat  Tyler,  May 
24,  1381,  and  was  restored  by  Henry  VII.,  who 
endowed  it,  in  1505,  as  the  hospital  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  for  the  relief  of  100  poor  people. 
Henry  VIII.  completed  the  building  and 
granted  the  hospital  a  charter,  July  5,  1513. 
Edward  VI.  (1547—1553)  suppressed  the  hos- 
pital, but  it  was  re-endowed  by  Queen  Mary 
(1553 — 1558).  The  sick  and  wounded  in  the 
Dutch  war  of  1666  were  lodged  in  the  Savoy. 
The  hospital,  dissolved  in  1702,  was  removed 
to  make  way  for  Waterloo  Bridge  and  the 
Strand  approaches  in  1819.  The  old  Savoy 
chapel,  which  formerly  possessed  the  right  of 
sanctuary,  repaired  in  1721,  and  restored  in 
1843,  was  burned  down  July  7,  1864.  It  was 
restored  and  reopened  for  public  service, 
Nov.  26,  1865. 


SAW 


SAXONY 


SAW.— According  to  Pliny,  the  saw  was 
invented  by  Daedalus,  an  Athenian,  who 
flourished  about  B.C.  1000.  Others  attribute 
the  invention  to  Talus,  the  nephew  of  Daedalus. 
S;iws  to  work  with  water-power,  first  intro- 
duced at  Augsburg  in  1322,  were  erected  in 
Madeira  in  1420,  at  Breslau  in  1427,  and  in 
Norway  about  1530.  The  Bishop  of  Ely, 
ambassador  from  Mary,  Queen  of  England,  to 
the  court  of  Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  he 
inspected  at  Lyons  in  1555.  The  attempts  to 
introduce  them  into  England  met  with  great 
opposition,  and  the  attempt  to  erect  one  near 
London,  in  1663,  had  to  be  abandoned.  When 
again  introduced,  in  1767  or  1768,  the  first  mill 
erected  at  Limehouse  was  destroyed  by  the 
mob.  The  damage  was  made  good  by  the 
Government,  and  a  new  one  erected. 

SAXA  RUBRA,  or  the  RED  ROCKS  (Battle). 
— Constantine  I.  defeated  his  rival  Maxentius 
at  this  place  on  the  river  Cremera,  about  nine 
miles  from  Rome,  Oct.  28,  312. 

SAXE-ALTENBURG  (Germany),  a  small 
duchy  on  the  northern  frontiers  of  the  Thurin- 
gian  forest,  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Oster- 
land,  and  appears  to  have  been  governed  by  the 
margraves  of  Meissen  from  a  very  early  period. 
After  undergoing  many  changes,  it  was  formed 
into  a  separate  principality  hi  1603.  The  house 
of  Altenburg  becoming  extinct  in  1672,  the 
greater  part  of  the  principality  fell  to  Ernest 
the  Pious,  Duke  of  Gotha,  and  from  this  period 
it  remained  in  the  Saxe-Gotha  family,  till  the 
decease  without  issue  of  Frederick  IV.,  in  Feb., 
1825,  when  by  a  compact  between  the  three 
junior  branches  of  the  house  of  Gotha  (Meinin- 
gen,  Hildburghausen,  and  Coburg),  the  Duke 
of  Hildburghausen  resigned  his  own  terri- 
tory to  Meiningen,  and  received  in  lieu  the 
duchy  of  Altenburg,  Nov.  15,  1826.  The  Duke 
of  Saxe-Altenburg  was  a  member  of  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  and  joined  the  Prussian 
alliance  Sep.  8,  1866. 

S  AXE -COBURG -GOTHA  (Germany),  for- 
merly dependent  upon  the  Emperor,  came  into 
possession  of  the  house  of  Meissen  in  1348,  and 
fell  to  the  house  of  Saxony  in  1428.  By  the 
treaty  of  Leipsic  in  1485,  it  was  allotted  to 
the  Ernestine  branch  of  that  family,  was 
made  a  separate  duchy  in  1542,  and  became 
an  independent  state  in  1640.  Ernest  left 
seven  sons,  who  reigned  jointly  from  1675  till 
1680,  when  they  partitioned  the  country  and 
formed  seven  new  lines.  That  of  Coburg  ex- 
pired, and  the  division  was  annexed  to  Saalf  eld, 
in  1699.  The  line  of  Eisenberg  having  become 
extinct,  its  possessions  were  united  to  Gotha 
in  1707.  Frederick  II.  introduced  the  right  of 
primogenitxire  into  Gotha  in  1710.  Gotha  was 
joined  to  Coburg,  and  Saalfeld  to  Meiningen, 
in  1826.  The  constitution  of  the  duchy  was 
reformed  by  Ernest  II.,  brother  of  Prince 
Albert,  in  1846.  Prince  Alfred  was  formally 
recognized  as  heir  Aug.  6,  1865.  It  joined  the 
Prussian  alliance  Sep.  8,  1866. 

SAXE-LAUENBURG.— (See  LAUENBURG.) 

SAXE-MEININGEN  (Germany),  originally  a 
portion  of  the  domains  of  the  counts  of  Henne- 
berg,  fell  to  Bernhard,  third  son  of  Ernest 
the  Pious  of  Gotha,  in  1680.  The  line  of  Co- 
burg became  extinct  in  1699,  a  part  of  its 


territory  was  adjudged  to  Meiningen  by  the 
Aulic  council  in  1723  ;  and  it  acquired  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  duchy  of  Hildburghausen  in 
1826.  It  formed  an  alliance  with  Prussia  Sep. 
8,  1866. 

SAXE  -  WEIMAR  -  EISENACH  (Germany) 
formerly  belonged  to  the  electorate  of  Saxony, 
and  was  apportioned  to  the  Ernestine  line,  in 
1485.  John  Frederick  I.  was  deposed  in  1547, 
and  Weimar  was  given  to  his  eldest  son,  the 
remaining  portion  being  awarded  to  the  second 
son  in  1566.  A  subdivision  took  place  in  1672  ; 
and  a  reunion  by  the  extinction  of  the  line  of 
Jena  in  1690,  and  that  of  Eisenach  in  1741.  The 
right  of  primogeniture  was  introduced  in  1719. 
Charles  Augustus  received  some  acquisition  of 
territory  and  the  title  of  Grand-duke  from  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  June  9,  1815.  Represen- 
tative government  was  introduced  in  1816.  It 
joined  the  Prussian  alliance  Sep.  8,  1866. 

SAXON  BLOOD  ORDER.— (See  BLOOD 
ORDER.) 

SAXONS — the  name  probably  derived  from 
saJis  or  sacks,  a  knife — are  first  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy  (139 — 161),  who  describes  them  as 
occupying  the  country  now  called  Holstein, 
together  with  three  islands  off  the  coast,  in 
140.  Their  descents  upon  the  eastern  shore  of 
England  became  so  frequent,  that  the  Roman 
emperor  appointed  an  officer,  who  afterwards 
received  the  title  of  ' '  Count  of  th  e  Saxon  shore, " 
in  286.  Eutropius  represents  them  in  alliance 
with  the  Franks  infesting  the  coast  of  Armorica 
and  Belgica  in  287.  A  horde  of  Saxons,  in  one 
of  their  predatory  excursions  to  the  coast  of 
Gaul,  was  almost  exterminated  by  the  Roman 
army  under  Valentinian  I.,  in  371.  Stilicho 
erected  several  fortifications  to  defend  Britain 
from  their  attacks  in  399.  A  large  body  under 
Hengist  and  Horsa  succeeded  in  forming  per- 
manent settlements  in  the  country  after  the 
departure  of  the  Romans  about  449.  (See  ANGLO- 
SAXONS.  )  Some  Saxons,  aided  by  the  Franks, 
conquered,  but  afterwards  abandoned,  the 
northern  part  of  Thuringia,  about  530.  The 
southernmost  part  was  made  tributary  to  the 
Franks  about  550.  Their  long  contest  with 
Charlemagne  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
treaty  of  Salz,  by  which  they  consented  to 
become  Christians,  and  were  put  upon  a  foot- 
ing of  equality  with  the  Franks,  803. 

SAXONY  (Germany),  invaded  by  Charle- 
magne, who  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  em- 
brace Christianity,  in  804,  was  made  a  duchy 
in  850.  Henry  I.  (the  Fowler),  elected  em- 
peror in  919,  was  the  first  of  the  Saxons  who 
obtained  that  distinction.  He  erected  the 
inargraviate  of  Meissen  in  922,  as  a  bulwark 
against  the  Slavonians,  and  so  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  kingdom.  The  family  of  Wettin, 
in  whom  the  oftice  has  become  hereditary, 
added  their  own  possessions  to  the  margraviate 
in  1130.  The  Emperor  Sigismund  invested 
Frederick  the  Warlike  with  the  electoral  title 
and  the  duchy  of  Saxony  in  1422.  Ernest  and 
Albert,  sons  of  Frederick  II.,  by  the  division 
of  the  country  at  their  father's  death,  founded 
the  two  lines  that  bear  their  names  in  1464. 
Frederick  III.  (1486 — 1525)  supported  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation  and  patronized  Luther. 
John  the  Constant  headed  the  Protestant 


SCACCARIUM 


[    882     ] 


SCEPTRE 


princes  at  the  diet  of  Spires  in  1529.  John 
Frederick  the  Magnanimous  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.,  and  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Miihlberg,  April  24,  1547.  He  was  deprived  of 
his  dignities,  which  were  transferred  to  his 
cousin  Maurice,  of  the  Albertine  line,  in  1548. 
John  George  I.  obtained  part  of  the  see  of 

'nrrg,    and    the    two   Lusatian    margra- 
viates   in    1635.     Frederick  the  Strong,    made 
King  of    Poland,  had   to  defend  his  territory 
against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  in  1697.     His 
son  Frederick   Augustus  II.  was  also  elected 
King  of  Poland  in  1733.     He  took  part  with 
[•'ranee  and  Prussia  in  the  war  of  the  A 
Succession  in  1740,  but  sided  with  the. 
in    the    Seven    Years'     war     1756 — 1763^.      A 
rising  of  the  peasantry  led  to  the  redress  of 
some  of  their  grievances  in  1790.     Having  sup- 
ported Prussia  against  France  for  some  time 
after  the  battle  of  Jena,  Frederick   A 
allied  himself  with  Napoleon   I.,  taking  the 
title  of  king,  by  treaty  Dec.  11, 1806,  and  becom- 

•  i  ember  of  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine. 
The  territory  was  nearly  doubled  by  «:  •  • 
sionsfrom  Austria  in  1809.  It  became  the  theatre 
of  the  struggles  wilh  Napoleon  I.  in  r 
the  king  was  . 

dominions  by  the  trea'y  of  peace  with  Prussia., 
signed  May  18,  1815.  \  new  CODStituti 

in  1831.     The  old 
by  the  diet  elected  in   1852.     The   IV 

iy  in  June  1866,  and  by  a  treaty 
signed  Oct.  21,  the  King  of  Sa<> 
pay  about  a.  million  and  a  half  stcrli 
ceded  the  fortress  of  Konigstein. 

RULERS   OF   SAXONY. 
DUKKS. 

Began  to  reign 


Begun  to  reign 

A.I). 

880.  Otho  I. 

912.   llcnrv  I.,  the  Fowler. 
936.  otiio  II. 
960.   Herman-Killing. 
973.   Hern.ird  I. 
1010.  Bern.ird  II. 


icfo.    Othn  IIT. 
107.3.    '*' 

haire. 

136.    Henry  It.,  tl 


Proud. 


1139.   Henry  III.,   the  l.ii.ii. 


1180.  Bernard  III. 
1213.  Albert  I. 
I26o.  Albert  If. 
1398.  Rodoli.h  I. 
1356.  Koiloli.li  II. 


ELECTORS. 

1370. 


I:I:M:STIXE  LINE. 
146'.  Kriiost. 
1486.  Frederick  III. 
1535.  John. 
IS33-  John  Frederick. 


1548.  Maurice. 
1553.  Augustus. 
1586.  Christian  I. 
1591.  Christian  II. 
ion.  John  Georgo  I. 
1656.  Jolm  George  II. 
1680.  John  George  ill. 


1464. 
1500- 
IS39- 

"541- 
ELECTORS. 
1691. 

1694. 


Wenceslau*. 

KlMlol|>h     III. 

All  en  tn. 

Fivderi.-k  I. 
l-re.'.erirk  II. 

ALBERXINE   LINE. 
Albert. 


Muurice. 


John  George  IV. 
Frederick  Augustus  I. 
Frederick      Augustus 

Frederick  Christinn. 
Frederick      Augustus 
III. 


KIXGS. 

1806.  Frederick  Augustus  I.  I  1836.  Frederick  Augustus  II 
1837.  Antony  Clement.  |  1854.  John. 

SCACCARIUM.— (See  EXCHEQUER.) 
SCALPING  appears  to  be  alluded  to  in  Psalm 
Ixviii.  21,  B.C.  1045,  and  according  to  Herodotus 
(Book  iv.  64)  was  practised  by  the  Scythians 


upon  their  enemies,  B.C.  678.  The  custom 
was  found  to  exist  among  the  Indians  of 
America  on  its  discovery,  in  1492. 
SCAM  AND  Ell.— (See  ILIUM.) 
S  ( :  A  X  D  A  L  U  M  M  A  G  N  A  T  U  M,  or  scandal 
against  peers,  judges,  or  other  officers  of  state, 
was  denned  with  its  penalties  by  2  Rich.  II.  c. 
5  (1378).  Although  this  statute  is  still  in  force, 
it  has  not  for  a  long  period  been  resorted  to, 
the  last  instance  being  that  of  the  Duke  of 
Richmond  against  Castcllom  in  1710. 

SCANDINAVIA,  or  SCAXIUA  Europe),  the 
ancientname  of  the  modern  Denmark,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  is  first  mentioned  by  Pliny  (23  — 
Aug.  24,  79),  who  speaks  of  it  as  an  island.  It 
native  land  of  the  Vikings  or  Sea  kings 
who  invaded  different  parts  of  Europe  in  the 
8th,  gth.and  ioth  centuries.  (Sen  DAM:S,  IH;\- 
: . '  IDAS,  NORMANDY,  NORTHMEN,  NORWAY, 
Su-i:i>;;x,  &c.)  The  monarchies  of  Sweden  and 
\or\vay  were  formed  by  a  combination  of 
numerous  small  sovereignties  in  the  i2th  and 
1 3th  centuries.  Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark, 
obtained  Sweden  by  conquest  and  Norway  by 
inheritance;  and  by  the  union  of  Calmar,  con- 
cluded July  12,  1397,  they  were  never  to  be 
led. 

I  A  HANTIA.— (Sfe  OEDENBURG.) 
SCARBOROUGH  (Yorkshire),  probably  of 
Saxon  origin,  the  name  signifying  a  fortified 
rock,  was  incorporated  by  Henry  II.  (1154—89). 
The  castle  was  built  in  1136.  Tostig,  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  having  failed  in  his  attempt 
to  effect  a  landing  on  the  isle  of  Thanct, 
arrived  here  in  1066.  Piers  Gaveston,  having 
been  besieged  by  the  barons  in  the  castle,  was 
obliged  to  surrender,  May  19,  1312.  The  town 
was  made  a  bonding  port  in  1841.  Christ's 
Church  was  erected  in  1828. 

">A'l'r,  the  oriental  kermes  dye,  was 
known  from  the  earliest  times.  The  dye, 
made  from  cochineal  and  tin,  was  accidentally 
discovered  in  1634.  A  bailiff  of  Shrews- 
bury, Thomas  Edwards,  refused,  on  religious 
-.  to  wear  robes  of  that  colour  in  1599. 
It  is  recorded  by  Julius  Ferretus  that  soldiers 
commonly  wore  a  short  red  sagum  to  conceal 
the  blood  from  their  wounds,  about  1550. 
SCAHLKT  FKYKU.—  (,Vr  FKVER.)  " 
SCKATT.K.—  Small  silver  coins  used  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  occupants  of  Britain  during  the 
6th  century,  probably  struck  before  the  con- 
version of  Ethclbert  in  597,  as  several  speci- 
mens exist  unstamped  with  the  cross.  The 
term  sceatta  was  used  by  the  Saxons  for  money 
in  general. 

SCEPTICS.— Socrates,  who  flourished  B.C. 
468— B.C.  399,  has  been  called  the  founder  of 
this  sect,  from  his  acknowledgment  that  "  all 
he  knew  was,  that  he  knew  nothing;" 
although  its  real  founder  was  Pyrrho  of  Elis, 
B.C.  340.  (See  PYRRHONISM.)  The  schools 
called  the  "latter  sceptics,"  originated  with 
./Enesidemus,  a  physician,  about  the  and  cen- 
tury. Of  modem  sceptics,  the  most  noted  are 
Montaigne  (1533 — 1592) ;  Glanvill,  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  (1636—80);  Peter  Baylo 
£1647 — 1706)  ;  and  David  Hume  (1711 — 1776). 
(See  RATIONALISM.) 

SCEPTRE,  originally  a  mere  walking-staff, 
came  to  be  the  symbol  of  sovereign  authority, 


SCHAFFHAUSEN 


SCHWE1DNITZ 


and  is  mentioned  by  the  patriarch  Jacob — 
"the  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah, 
&c." — when  imparting  counsels  to  his  sons 
(Gen.  xlix.  10),  B.C.  1689.  Achilles  swears  by 
his  staff  or  sceptre  (Iliad,  i.  246),  B.C.  1193. 
Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon,  was  always 
attended  by  300  sceptre-bearers,  B.C.  401.  It 
was  first  assumed  among  the  Romans  by  the 
elder  Tarquin,  B.C.  621.  The  sceptre  of  the 
Merovingian  kings  of  France,  in  448,  was  a 
golden  rod  the  same  height  as  the  monarch 
himself. 

SCHAFFHAUSEN  (Switzerland),  the  prin- 
cipal town  of  the  canton  of  the  same  name, 
originated  in  the  building  of  a  large  monas- 
tery in  the  neighbourhood  in  the  nth  century. 
It  was  walled  and  received  imperial  rank  in 
the  1 3th  century.  The  cathedral  was  founded 
in  1052.  Austria  acquired  possession  in  1330. 
It  recovered  its  independence,  and  joined  the 
Swiss  cantons  in  1415  ;  became  a  member  of  the 
confederation  in  1501,  and  of  the  new  league 
in  1815.  The  single  arch  bridge  across  the 
Rhine  was  burned  by  the  French  in  1799.  The 
constitution  of  the  canton  became  democratic 
in  1831.  It  was  revised  in  1834. 

SCHASBURG,  or  SCHASSBURG  (Battle).— 
The  Hungarian  insurgents,  commanded  by 
Bern,  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  under 
Gen.  Lliders,  at  this  town,  in  Transylvania, 
July  31,  1849. 

SCHAUM13URG.— (See  LIPPE.) 

SCHEHALLIEN  (Perthshire).— The  Royal 
Society  having  resolved,  in  1772,  to  make  some 
experiments  to  determine  the  mean  density 
of  the  earth,  Mason  selected  this  mountain 
for  the  purpose  in  1773.  Dr.  Maskelyne 
effected  the  measurements  between  June  30 
and  Oct.  24,  1774.  The  subsequent  calculations, 
entrusted  to  Dr.  C.  Hatton,  were  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  1778. 

SCHELDT  TOLLS.— The  navigation  of  the 
Scheldt  was  closed  by  the  i4th  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Miinster,  Jan.  30,  1648.  The  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  having  demanded  the  free  naviga- 
tion of  the  Scheldt  in  1784,  France  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  Dutch,  and  the  dispute  was  settled 
by  a  treaty  signed  at  Fontainebleau,  Nov.  8, 
Z7SS,  by  which  the  restriction  was  maintained. 
Regulations  were  made  by  the  Congress  at 
Vienna  in  1815,  and  a  treaty  signed  in  London, 
April  19,  1839,  settled  the  amount  of  toll, 
which  was  abolished,  compensation  being 
granted  Toy  another  treaty  signed  at  Brussels 
July  16,  1863. 

SCHELLENBERG  (Battle).— The  Duke  of 
Maryborough  drove  the  Bavarians  from  a  for- 
tification erected  by  them  on  this  eminence, 
near  Salzburg,  July  2,  1704. 

SCHEMNITZ  (Hungary).— In  consequence 
of  the  importance  of  its  mines,  yielding  3oolb. 
of  gold  and  43,400^.  of  silver  annually,  a 
mining  academy  was  founded  here  by  Maria 
Theresa,  in  1760.  It  must  not  be  confounded 
with  Chemnitz,  a  mining  town  in  Saxony. 

SCHENECTADY  (United  States) .  —  The 
inhabitants  of  this  town  of  New  York,  settled 
by  the  Dutch  in  1661,  were  massacred  by  the 
French  and  Indians  in  1690. 

SCHISM  ACT  (13  Anne,  c.  7,  1713),  requiring, 
from  those  desirous  of  exercising  the  profes- 


sion of  a  teacher,  a  licence  from  the  bishop, 
and  a  declaration  of  conformity  to  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  was  repealed  by  5  Geo.  I.  c.  4 

1  SCHISM  OF  THE  WEST.  —  (See  PAPAL 
SCHISM.) 

SCHLESTADT,  or  SCHELESTADT  (France), 
in  the  Bas-Rhin,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Elsebus,  destroyed  by  Attila.  Having 
been  restored  in  the  i3th  century,  it  became 
one  of  the  10  imperial  cities  of  Alsace,  was 
taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1632,  and  by  the 
French  in  1648. 

SCHLESWIG.— (See  SLESWIQ.) 

SCHMALKALD.— (See  SMALCALD.) 

SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY.— The  name 
given  to  the  philosophy  of  the  Schoolmen, 
which  took  its  rise  in  Europe  in  the  gth 
century,  lasted  till  the  i4th,  and  was  at  its 
height  in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries.  (See 
NOMINALISTS  AND  REALISTS,  MYSTICS,  SCOTISTS 
AND  THOMISTS,  &c.) 

SCHONBRUNN  (Peace),  between  Prance 
and  Austria,  was  signed  at  the  palace  of 
Schonbrunn,  near  Vienna,  Oct.  14,  1809,  and 
consisted  of  six  articles.  France  obtained 
possession  of  Trieste,  Carniola,  Friuli,  and 
several  other  places.  Russia,  Saxony,  and  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  gained  some 
advantages,  and  the  Tyrol  was  given  up  to 
Bavaria. 

SCHOOLS.  —  (See  [CHARITY  SCHOOLS,  EDU- 
CATION, GRAMMAR,  INDUSTRIAL,  AND  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS,  &c.) 

SCHUMLA,  or  SHUMLA  (Turkey),  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  in  1389.  The  Russian 
general  Rudiger,  who  had  intrenched  himself 
at  this  town,  July  20,  1828,  was  driven  from 
his  position  by  the  Turks,  under  Hussein  Pasha, 
Aug.  25.  The  Russians  defeated  the  Turks  in 
a  battle  fought  near  Schumla,  July  27,  1829. 

SCHWABACH  (Bavaria).  —  The  earliest 
Protestant  confession  was  drawn  up  here  by 
Luther,  in  Oct.,  1529,  and  its  articles  were 
adopted  by  the  Smalcald  League  in  1531.  The 
handsome  fountain  in  the  mai-ket-place  was 
erected  in  1716. 

SCHWARZBURG  (Germany).— A  party  of 
the  electors  assembled  here  and  chose  Gunther 
emperor,  in  opposition  to  Charles  IV.,  in  1347. 
The  town,  originally  dependent  upon  Saxony, 
purchased  its  independence  in  1699.  The 
two  reigning  families  of  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  are 
descended  from  the  two  sons  of  Gunther  IX., 
who  died  in  1552.  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
received  a  representative  constitution  in  1816, 
and  an  alliance  was  concluded  with  Prussia 
Sep.  8,  1866. 

SCHWEIDNITZ  (Prussia),  having  sustained 
several  sieges  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
was  fortified  by  Frederick  II.  in  1747  ;  taken 
by  the  Austrians,  after  a  siege  of  16  days, 
Nov.  12,  1757  ;  recovered  by  the  Prussians 
April  16,  1758  ;  and  carried  by  assault  by  the 
Austrian  marshal  Laudohn,  Oct.  i,  1761.  The 
Austrians,  under  Marshal  Daun,  were  attacked 
and  defeated  near  this  town  by  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia,  May  16,  1762.  In  this  battle 
the  Prussians  put  feathers  in  their  caps  to 
enable  their  Cossack  allies  to  distinguish  them 

3L    2 


SOHWEIZ 


[    884    ] 


SCOTISTS 


from  the  Austrians,  a  practice  since  gene- 
rally adopted  in  European  armies.  Frederick's 
campaign  in  Silesia  was  closed  by  the  sur- 
render of  its  garrison,  after  a  siege  of  64  days, 
Oct.  9,  1762.  It  was  captured  by  the  French 
in  Feb.,  1807. 

SCil  WEI  Z,  or  SCHWYZ  (Switzerland), which 
has  given  its  name  to  the  country,  declared 
its  independence  of  the  house  of  Austria  in 
Jan.,  1308.  It  had  a  dispute  with  Zurich 
respecting  the  county  of  Toggenburg  in  1436. 
The  French  defeated  the  Swiss  here  in  1799, 
and  the  Austrians  Aug.  14,  1799.  In  a  diet 
convoked  here  in  1802,  the  ancient  democratic 
constitution  was  re-established.  It  declared 
against  Napoleon  I.  Dec.  31,  1813,  and  joined 
the  Sonderbund  '/.  v.}  in  1844. 

SCII  Y  It  K M < >TES.— County-courts,  held  in 
English  shires,  twice  every  year,  by  the  bishop 
and  the  ealdorman  or  sheriff,  during  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period.  In  the  reign  of  Canute 
(1017 — 35)  the  Schyremotes  were  held  thrice  a 
year.  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  1065,  appointed 
the  Schyremote  to  be  held  12  times  a  year. 

SCIACCA  (Sicily,,  the  ancient  Thermse 
Selinuntife,  of  which  the  waters  are  men- 
tioned by  Strabo  B.C.  60 — A.D.  21).  (See  GRA- 
HAMK'S  I'SJ;ANI>.) 

SCIUA  ISI.KS  Cornwall,  known  to  the 
ancients  under  the  name  of  Cassite rides,  or 
Tin  Islands,  were  used  by  the  Romans  as  a 
place  of  banishment.  In  the  ioth  century 
they  were  annexed  to  the  English  crown  by 
Athelstan.  They  were  held  from  the  rime  of 
Elizabeth  till  1830  by  the  family  of  (lodolphin. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Royalists  in  the 
west,  in  1645,  they  afforded  shelter  to  Prince 
Charles.  They  were  fortified  in  1649  by  Sir 
John  Grenville,  the  Royalist,  who  converted 
the  rocks  into  a  stronghold  for  privateers,  and 
did  so  much  damage  to  the  trade  of  the 
Channel  that  the  Parliament  fitted  out  a 
powerful  fleet  under  1  Slake,  which  compelled 
Sir  John  to  surrender  in  June,  1651.  The 
fleet  under  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  was  wrecked 
off  these  islands,  Oct.  22,  1707,  when  upwards 
of  2,000  lives  were  lost.  They  were  declared 
to  belong  to  the  diocese  of  Exeter,  July  30, 
1838.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  the  Scilly 
Islands  July  26,  1865. 

SCINDE  (Hindostan)  was  occupied  by  the 
Aryan  nation  B.C.  1400,  and  they  possessed  the 
country  when  Alexander  III.  made  his  Indian 
expedition,  B.C.  326.  It  was  subdued  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  711,  and  held  by  the  caliphs 
till  conquered  for  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni  in 
1026.  The  Sumna  tribe  acquired  it  about 
1200.  They  were  supplanted  by  another  native 
tribe,  the  Sammao,  in  1340.  Shah  Beg  Arghun 
reduced  them  in  1541,  and  Akbar  brought  the 
country  under  Mongol  sway  in  1591.  The 
Kalhoras  threw  off  their  allegiance  to  Delhi 
in  1736,  and  that  of  the  kings  of  Cabul,  which 
they  had  previously  acknowledged,  was  alto- 
gether renounced  in  1813.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  English  and  annexed  March  24,  1843. 

SCIO  (^EgeanSea),  the  ancient  Chios  q.  v.), 
was  taken  in  the  early  part  of  the  i4th  cen- 
tury by  the  Turks,  who  massacred  the  inha- 
bitants. The  Genoese  seized  it  in  1346,  and 
retained  it  until  it  was  again  taken  by  the 


Turks  in  1566.  In  the  war  with  the  Greeks 
the  Turks  massacred  nearly  all  the  inhabi- 
tants, April  ii,  1822.  Out  of  a  population  of 
100,000,  only  10,000  are  said  to  have  escaped. 

SCOLDS.— (-See  CUCKING  STOOL.) 

SCONE  (Scotland).— A  monastery  founded 
at  a  very  early  period  was  replaced  by  an 
abbey  for  regular  canons  in  1115.  It  "was 
destroyed  by  the  mob  in  1559.  The  first  Scotch 
parliament  assembled  at  Scone  Feb.  9,  1292. 
Kdward  I., King  of  England,  brought  away,  in 
1296,  from  this  village,  near  Perth,  the  stone 
upon  which  for  many  ages  the  kings  of  Scot- 
land had  been  crowned,  and  placed  it  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  (See  CORONATION  S T<  >N  r.. ) 
Charles  II.  was  crowned  here,  Jan.  i,  1651. 

SCORPION,  a  kind  of  tube  for  firing  gun- 
powder, was  in  use  about  1440.  It  was  held 
in  the  hand,  and  called  by  the  English  hand- 
cannon,  or  hand-culverin,  and  was  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Flemings  in  1471. 

SCOTCH  BISHOPRICS.— Episcopacy  was 
abolished  in  Scotland  in  1561,  restored  in  1606, 
again  abolished  in  1639,  again  restored  in  1661, 
and  abolished  at  the  Revolution  in  1689,  when 
the  bishops  were  expelled.  Before  the  Revo- 
lution there  were  two  archbishoprics  and  12 
bishoprics  in  Scotland,  the  last,  that  of  Kdin- 
burgh,  having  been  founded  by  Charles  I.  in 
1633.  Though  the  Presbyterian  Church  was 
acknowledged  as  the  national  church  at  the 
Revolution,  some  of  the  old  Episcopalian 
bishoprics  have  been  revived.  There  are  now 
seven,  the  last  being  that  of  Argyle  and  the 
Isles,  re-established  Oct.,  1847. 

ARCHBISHOPS. 
A.D.  |  A.n. 

1477.  St.  Andrews.  |  1488.  Glasgow. 


360.  Isles. 

500.  Gallmvny. 

560.   Gliis_mv. 

800.  St.  Ainlrcxv 
1010.  Mortlncli. 
1066.  raiHiness. 
1115.  Moniy. 
1124.  Koss. 


BISHOPRICS. 

1130.  Dnnki'lcl. 

1139.    Aberdeen. 

1150.  Brecliin. 
1153.  Dunblane. 
II*K.   Orkney. 
1200.  Arjryle. 
1633.  Edinburgh. 


The  above  were  suppressed  at  the  Revo- 
lution, and  the  following  Sees  have  since  been 
erected : — 


1713.  Aberdeen  and  Orkney. 
1718.  Edinburgh. 
1727.  Dunkeld. 
1727.  Moray. 
17-51.   Hrechin. 
1731.  Dunblane. 
731.  Glasgow. 
' 


1743-  '•''.'>•• 
17*6.  Dunbl 
'  ' 


ane  and    Dun- 


1796.  Ross. 

1837.  Fife,    Dnnkeld,    and 
DvnNane. 

1837.  Glasgow    and    Gallo- 

way. 

1838.  Moray,      Koss,      and 

Caithness. 

1844.  St.      Andrews,     Dnn- 
keld,  and  Dunblane. 
1.847.  Argyle  and  the  Isles. 

(The  Sees  printed  in  Italics  have  either  been  suppressed 
or  merged  in  others.) 

SCOTCH  GUARDS.— (See  GUARDS.) 
SCOTISTS  AND  THOMISTS.— With  refer- 
ence to  these  parties,  who  long  divided  the 
schools,  Milman  (Lat.  Christ,  b.  xiv.  ch.  iii.) 
remarks,  "It  is  not  easy  to  define  in  what 
consisted  their  implacable,  unforgiven  points 
of  difference.  If  each  combatant  had  been 
compelled  rigidly  to  define  every  word  or 
term  which  he  employed,  concord  might  not 
perhaps  have  been  impossible;  but  words 


SCOTLAND 


[    885     ] 


SCOTLAND 


wore  their  warfare,  and  the  war  of  words  their 
business,  their  occupation,  their  glory.  The 
Conceptualism  or  Eclecticism  of  St.  Thomas 
(he  cannot  be  called  a  Nominalist)  admitted  so 
much  Realism  under  other  forms  of  speech  ; 
the  Realism  of  Duns  Scotus  was  so  absolutely 
a  Realism  of  words,  reality  was  with  him 
something  so  thin  and  unsubstantial;  the 
Augustinianism  of  St.  Thomas  was  so  guarded 
and  tempered  by  his  high  ethical  tone,  by  his 
assertion  of  the  loftiest  Christian  morality  ; 
the  Pelagianism  charged  against  Scotus  is  so 
purely  metaphysical,  so  balanced  by  his 
constant,  for  him  vehement,  vindication  of 
Divine  grace,  only  with  notions  peculiar  to  his 
philosophy,  of  its  mode  of  operation,  and  with 
almost  uutraceable  distinctions  as  to  its  mode 
of  influence,  that  nothing  less  than  the  invete- 
rate pugnacity  of  Scholastic  Teaching,  and 
the  rivalry  of  the  two  Orders,  could  have 
perpetuated  the  strife.  That  strife  was  no 
doubt  heightened  and  embittered  by  their  real 
differences,  which  touched  the  most  sensitive 
part  of  the  Mediaeval  Creed,  the  worship  of 
the  Virgin.  This  was  coldly  and  irreverently 
limited  by  the  refusal  of  the  Dominican  to 
acknowledge  her  Immaculate  Conception  and 
birth ;  wrought  to  a  height  above  all  former 
height  by  the  maintenance  of  that  tenet  in 
every  Franciscan  cloister,  by  every  Franciscaxi 
Theologian."  The  controversy  commenced 
about  1299,  an(i  the  Scotists  received  the 
name  as  followers  of  John  Duns  Scotus  (1265 
— Nov.  8,  1308),  and  the  Thomists  as  followers 
of  Thomas  Aquinas  (1224 — March  7,  1274), 
called  the  Angelic  Doctor. 

SCOTLAND.— The  ancient  Caledonia,  after- 
wards called  Scotia.  According  to  tradition, 
the  Scots  derive  their  origin  from  Gathelus, 
sou  of  the  Athenian  king  Cecrops,  who  married 
Scota,  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt,  and 
removed  with  his  family  into  Spam.  Here  he 
is  said  to  have  established  a  government  over 
a  nation  whom  he  called  Scots,  in  honour  of 
his  wife  Scota.  Under  his  descendants  the 
Scots  removed  into  Ireland,  and  subsequently 
into  the  northern  part  of  Albion.  War  after- 
wards broke  out  with  the  Picts  (q.  v.}.  Pliny 
(23 — Aug.  24,  79)  is  the  first  author  who  uses 
the  term  Caledonia,  and  the  name  Scotia, 
which  for  a  long  time  referred  exclusively  to 
Ireland,  was  about  the  gth  century  applied  to 
the  kingdom  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Picts 
and  Scots.  It  was  also  called  Scotia  Nova,  or 
New  Scotland. 


55.  The  Scots  assist  the  Britons  against  Julius  Cwsar. 
A.I). 

84.  Battle  of  Ardoch  (q.  v.). 

184.  The  Caledonians  are  repulsed  by  Ulpius  Marcellus. 
360.  The  Picts  and  Scots  invade  Britain. 
36*.  Theodosius  defeats  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
383.  Maximus  drives  the  1'icts  and  Scots  out  of  Britain. 
394.  Ninian,  a  Briton,  is  ordained  to  the  bishopric  of  the 

Southern  Picts  by  Pope  Sirieius. 
413-33.  Ninian  is  believed  to  have  preached  among  the 

Picts. 

445.  The  Britons  are  harassed  by  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
563.  St.  Colunibii  lands  in  Scotland. 
843  (about).  The    Picts    and    Scots    become  one    nation 

under  Kenneth  II. 
881.  The  Danes  ravage  Scotland. 
933.  Scotland  is  ravaged  by  Athelstan. 
1010.  Battle  of  Mortluch  (q.  v.). 
1031.  Scotland  is  invaded  by  Canute,  who  exacts  tribute. 


1040.  Duncan  I.  is  murdered  by  his  cousin  Macbeth  who 

usurps  the  crown. 

,  July  37.  Battle  of  Dunsinane  (q.  v.). 
'.  Macbeth  is  slain  at  Lanphananan. 
1061.  The  Scotch  invade  Northumberland. 
067.  Malcolm   III.    marries  Margaret,    sister  of   Edgar 
Atheling,  the  Saxon  heir  to  the  English  tliroue. 

093,  Nov.  13.  Battle  of  Alnvvick. 

094.  The  throne  is  usurped  by  Duncan  II ,  who  is  assassi- 

nated by  his  subjects  after  a  reign  of  about  six; 
months. 

136.  David  I.  captures  Alnwick. 

138,  Aug.  33.  David  I.  invades  Northumberland,  and  is 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Cuton  Moor,  or  North- 
allerton  (q. v.). 

1139.  By  the  treaty  of  Durham  the  entire  earldom  of 
Northumberland,  except  Newcastle  and  Bam- 
borough,  is  ceded  to  Scotland. 

174,  July  13.  William  I.,  or  tfie  l.ion,  is  made  prisoner 
by  the  English  at  Alnwick.— Dec.  By  the  treaty  of 
Falaise,  Henry  II.  agrees  to  liberate  him  on  con- 
dition of  his  paying  homage  to  England  for  his 
kingdom. 

1181.  Scotland  is  laid  under  a  papal  interdict. 
189.  Kichard  I.,  on  his  accession  to  the  English  throne 
releases  William  I.  from  his  feudal  subjection   on 
the  receipt  of  10,000  marks. 
363.  Haco  VI.,   of  Norway,   invades  Scotland — Oct    -5 

Battle  of  Largs  (q.  v.). 

1366.  The  Hebrides  (q.  v.)  are  ceded  to  the  Scotch,  who 
invade  the  Isle  of  Man  (q.  v.). 

1390,  Oct.   7.    Margaret,   the   maid  of  Norway,  dies   at 

Orkney  on  her  voyage  to  Scotland,  and  the  ques- 
tion of  the  succession  is  referred  to  Edward  I. 

1391,  June  3.    Eight  competitors  for  the   Scotch   crown 

assemble  at  Norham,  ami  submit  their  claims  to 

the   arbitration  of  Edward  I. — Aug.  3.    Twelve 

competitors  appear. 
393,  Nov.  30.    Edward  I.  decides  in    favour   of    John 

Baliol. 
1393-  John  Baliol  supports  his  claim  in  presence  of  the 

English  Parliament. 
1396-  John  Baliol  renounces  his  homage,  in  consequence  of 

which  he  is  dethroned  by  Edward  I.,  who  invades 

Scotland,   and  receives    the    submission  of    the 

Scotch  nobility. 

1397,  SeP-  I0>  Battle  of  Cambuskenneth  (q.  v.). 

1398,  July  33.  Battle  of  Falkirk  (q.v.). 

1303,  Feb.  34-  Sir  John  Comyu  and  Sir  Simon  Fraser 
defeat  an  English  army  near  Roslin. 

1305,  Aug.    33-     Execution    of    Sir  William  Wallace  at 

Smithfield. 

1306,  Jan.  39  or  Feb.  lo.  Murder  of  Sir  John  Comyn  by 

Robert  Bruce  at  Dumfries— March  35.  Bruce  is 
crowned  king,  as  Robert  I.,  at  Scone.— July  33, 
Aymer  de  Valence  defeats  the  Scotch  under 
Robert  1.,  who  quits  the  kingdom. 

1310,  Sep.  Edward  II.  invades  Scotland. 

1313,  Jan.  8.  Robert  I.  takes  Perth  from  the  English. 

1313,  March  6.  Roxburgh  Casile  is  taken  from  the  English 

—March  14.  Edinburgh  Castle  is  taken. 

1314,  June  34.  Battle  of  Bannockburn  (q.  v.). 

1318,  Oct.    14.  Death  of  Edward  Bruce  at  Dundalk    in 

Ireland. 
1330.  A   conspiracy  is  formed    against  the   king    by   his 

nephew,  the  Earl  of  Brechin,  and  others,  who  are 

detected  and  executed. 

1338,  March   17.    Peace    with  England  is  concluded   at 

Edinburgh.— May  4.  It  is  ratified  at  North, 
ampton  (q.  ».). 

1339,  June  7.  End  of  the  reign  of  Robert  I. 

1333.  Edward  III.  invades  Scotland. — Aug.  n.  The  battle 
of  Dupplin  Moor  (q.  v.).— Sep.  34-  Edward  Baliol 
is  crowned  at  Scone,  and  young  David  Bruce  is 
sent  to  France,  where  he  remains  for  nine  years, 
although  his  rival  only  enjoys  the  crown  for  three 
mouths. 

1333,  Julv  19.  Battle  of  Hali  Ion  Hill  (q.  v.), 

1336.  A  famine  desolates  Scotland. 

1341,  June  4.  David  II.  returns  tiom  France. 

1346,  Oct.  13.  Battle  of  Durham,  or  Neville's  Cross 
(q.  v.). 

'357,  Oct.  3    David  II.  is  released  qn  payment  of  100,000 

1363.  Death  of  Edward  Baliol,  the  last  of  the  familv  — 
Nov.  36.  David  II.  acknowledges  Edward  III. 
of  England  as  his  successor  in  the  event  ol  his 
decease  without  male  issue. 


SCOTLAND 


[    886    ] 


SCOTLAND 


A.I). 

1371,  Feb.  33.  Death  of  David  II.  without  an  heir. —March 
36.  The  Stuart  line  commences  by  the  coronation 
at  Scone  of  tliQ  nephew  of  David  II.  as  Robert  II. 

1388,  Aug.  10.  Battle  of  Chevy-  Chase  or  Otterburn  (q.  i\). 

140.3,  Sep.  14.  Buttle  of  Homi'ldon  Hill  (q.v.). 

1405,  March  30.  James,  only  son  of  Robert  III.,  is  made 

prisoner  by  the  English  off  Flamboroagh  Head. 

1406,  April  4.  Death  of  Robert  III.,  who  is  succeeded  by 

his  imprisoned  son,  .lames  I.,  under  the  regency 
of  the  Duke  of  Albany. 

1411,  July  34.  The  Highlanders,  under  Donald,  Lord  of 
the  Isles,  an:  defeated  by  the  Lowland  for.-;- •;  n{ 
the  Earl  of  Mar,  at  the  battle  of  Harlaw,  which 
establishes  the  superiority  of  the  Lowlands. 
St.  Andrew's  university  is  founded. 

1436.  A   treaty  is  concluded  with   Denmark,    by  which 

James  1.  agrees  to  pay  an  annual  sum  of  loo 
marks  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  Hebrides  and 
the  Isle  of  Man. 

1437,  Feb.   31.  James  I.  is  murdered  by  a  band  of  con- 

spirators, under  Sir  Robert  Graham. 
1453.  Shrove  Tuesday.    The  Karl  of  Douglas  is  murdered 

by  James  II.  at  Stirling  Castle,  and  civil  contests 

commence  between  the  king  and  his  nobles. 
1460,  Aug.  3.  James  II.  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh 

by  the  accidental  bursting  of  a  cannon. 
1488.  James    III.   is  killed  after  the  battle  of    Sauchie 

Burn  (q.  v.*),  near  Baunoekburn. 
1503,  Aug.   8.  Marriage   of  James  IV.  with  the  Princess 

Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII. 
1513,  Aug.    33.    .lames     IV.   invades    England. — Sep.    9. 

H.-itlle  of    Flodden  Field  (>/.  r.). 

1536,  June.   Buttles  of   Linlithgow  (q.  V.). 

1533.  James  Y.  banishes  the  Doiiglast'-,  in  consequence  of 
the  tvra  minus  treatment  received  by  him  from  his 
stepfather,  the  Karl  of  Angus. 

1533,  May  17.  James  V.  founds  the  Court  of  Session. 

1537,  July   17.  Lady  Glumis  is  burned  for  conspiring  to 

poison  .lames  V . 

iq.3,  Dec.  7.  Birth  of  Mary,  afterwards  known  as  the 
Queen  ,,f  Scots.— Dee.  14.  Death  of  James  V.,  her 
father,  whom  she  sin 

1543,  Jan.    36.  Imprisonment    <if  Cardinal   Beaton,  on    u 
charge  of  treason,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
refuse  to  perform  any  ee.-le>i 
.   -April    10.  He    is   liberated,    and  secures 
••:-sion  of  the  infant  queen's  person, 

1544-5.  .Scotland  ' n  Kni;lish  army-  under  the 

Karl  of  Hertford. 

154'-,  March  3K.  Execution  Of  George  Wisl;;n!  fi 
by  order  of  Cardinal  Beaton. — May  38, 
Beaton  is  assa>sinat.-d  at  St.  Andrew's. 

J547,  Sep.  10.  Battle  of  1'inl.ie. 

1546,  Aug.  7.  The  young  Queen  Maiy  is  removed  to 
France. 

1554,  April  3.  The  Queen  dowager,  Mary  of  • 
made  regent. 

155:\  Marriage  of  Queen  Mary  to  the  Fivneh  dauphin. 

1559,  May   31.    1'eace    is    concluded    with     England   nl 

Norham. — Oct.  31.  Deposition  of  the  queen- 
rcgent. 

1560,  June  10.  Death  of  the  queen-regent. — Aug.  An  act 

is   passed   abolishing  the  papal  power. — Dec.   5. 
Death  of  the  French  king  Francis  li. 
of  Queen  Marv. 

1561,  Aug.  19.    Queen  Mary  returns  to  Scotland. 

1563,  Revolt  and  death  of  the  Earl  of  Huntley. 

1564,  Elizabeth  proposes  the  Earl  of  Leicester  as  a  match 

for  Mary. 

1565,  July  39,  Sunday.  Mary  marries  her  cousin,  Henry 

.Stuart,  Lord  Darnley. 

1566,  March  9,  Saturday.  Murder  of  the  queen's  favourite, 

David  lli/.x,io,  by  Durnley  and  others.— June  19. 
Birth  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  Eng- 
land, in  Edinburgh  Castle. 

1567,  Feb.  10,  Monday.  Lord  Darnley,  the  king-consort,  is 

blown  up  by  gunpowder  at  Edinburgh. — April 
13.  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell,  is  tried  for 
the  king's  murder,  and  acquitted. — April  31. 
Bothwell  seizes  the  queen,  and  conveys  her  to 
Dunbar.— May  15.  They  are  married  at  Holyrood. 
— June  15,  Sunday.  Mary  is  made  prisoner  by  the 
confederate  lords  at  Carberry  Hill.— July  34.  She 
is  confiued  in  Lochleven  Castle,  and  compelled  to 
abdicate  iu  favour  of  her  son  James  VI. — July 
39  He  is  solemnly  crowned  at  Stirling.— Aug.  23. 
James  Stewart,  Earl  of  Murray,  is  declared 
regent.— Sop.  Bothwell  escapes  to  Norway. 


1568,  May  3.  Mary  escapes  from  Lochleven  Castle. — May 

13.  She  is  defeated  by  Murray  at  the  battle  of 
Langside. — May  17.  She  takes  refuge  in  Eng- 

1569,  The  rebellious  Earls  of  Northumberland  and  West- 

moreland seek  shelter  in  Scotland. 

1570,  Jan.  33.    Murder  of  the  regent  Murray  at  Linlith- 

gow, by  James  Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh. — 
July  13.  The  regency  is  conferred  upon  the  Earl 
of  Lennox. 

1571,  Sep.   4.  Lennox  is   assassinated  by   Capt.   Calder. 

The  Earl  of  Mar  is  elected  regent. 
1573,  Oct.    38.  Death   of  the   regent   Mar.— Nov.  34.    The 

Earl   of    Morton  is  made  regent.      John  Knox 

expires  at  Edinburgh. 
1578.  Janus    VI.   dismisses  the  regent,  and  assumes  the 

government  iu  person. 
1581,  June  3,  Friday.  Execution  of  the  ex-regent  Morton, 

for  implication  in  the  murder  of  Lord  Darnley. 
1583,  Aug.  23.  The  raid  of  Ruthven.     James  VI.  is  willed 

by  a  confederacy  of  the  Scottish  nobles,  under 

the  Earls  of  Mar  and  Cowrie,  at  Ruthven  Castle. 

— Sep.  38.  Death  of  George  Buchanan. 

1583,  June  37.  James  VI.  escapes  from  the  Ruthven  con- 

federacy. 

1584.  Trial  and  execution  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie. 

1586,  April.    A  treaty  is  concluded   between  James   VI. 

and  QIKCII  Elizabeth. —Aug.  8.  Mary,  Queen  of 
S.'ots.  is  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  participating 
in  Babyngton's  conspiracy.— Aug.  35.  Mary  is 
removed  to  Chartley,  under  the  custody  of  Sir 
Amias  1'auli  1.  —  ( >ct.  II.  Her  trial  enmine:ie:'S 
at  Foiheriugay  Castle,  Northamptonshire. — Oct. 
15.  It  is  adjourned.  —  Oct.  25.  It  is  resumed 
at  Westminster,  and  Mary  is  condemned  to 
death. 

1587,  Feb.   8.    Mary,   Queen  of    Scots,    is    beheaded    at 

Fotheriugav  : 

159}.  Jai::  -sa  rebellion  under  the  Earl  of 

Huutley. 

1600,  March  38.  Episcopacy  is  established  in  the  Scotch 
Church.— Aug.  5.  "Failure  of  the  Gowrie  con- 
spiracy. 

1603,  March  34.  James  VI.  is  proclaimed  King  of  Eng- 
land as  James  1. — April  5.  James  I.  leaves  Edin- 
burgh, and  arrives  in  London  May  36.— July  35. 
James  I.  is  crowned  King  of  England  at  West- 
minster. 

i6o5.  The  English  and  Scotch  parliaments  reject  a  pro- 
po,:il  for  union  between  the  two  nations. 

iGlo.  J. lines  J.  establishes  two  courts  of  high  commission 
in  Scotland. 

1617.  James  I.  revisits  Scotland. 

1633.  Charles  I.  visits  Scotland,  and  is  crowned  at  Holy- 
rood  (q.  v.). 

1637.  Charles    I.    fails  in   an   attempt   to  introduce  the 

Church    of  England  liturgy  into  Scotland.     (>Ve 

EDINBURGH.) 

1638.  March  I.  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  is  sub- 

1639.  The  Scotch  appeal  to  arms. — June  7.  Episcopacy  is 

aboli 

1641.  Charles  1.  again  visits  Scotland. 
1644.  An   army  of  20.000   Scots  enters  England  to  assist 

the  ruiHainentariaiu. 
id.;.;,   Sep.  13.   Battle  of   rhiiiph.augh  (q.  r.). 

1646,  May   5.  Charles   I.   takes   refuge   with    the    Scotch 

army. 

1647,  Jan.  30.  Charles  I.  is  surrendered  to  the  Round- 

heads for  £300,000. 

1648,  A  Scotch  force,  under  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  enters 

England  for  the  liberation  of  Charles  I.,  and  is 
defeated  by  Cromwell. 

1649,  March  9.  Execution  of  Hamilton. 

1650,  May  21.  Execution  of  the  Marquis  of  Montrose  at 

Edinburgh.— June  33.  Charles  II.  arrives  in 
Scotland. — July  32.  Cromwell  invades  Scotland. 

1651,  Jan.  1.  diaries   II.  is   crowned  at   Scone.— Sep.  3. 

Battle  of  Worcester  (q.  v.).  Scotland  is  declared 
to  be  united  with  the  English  commonwealth. 

i66t,  May  37.  Execution  of  the  Marquis  of  Argyle. 

1666.  The  Scottish  covenanters  resort  to  arms,  and  arc 
defeated  iu  a  battle  on  the  Pentland  Hills  (q.  v.). 

1669,  Oct.  19.  A  union  with  England  is  proposed  and 
abandoned. 

1678,  Jan.  The  "  Highland  Host,"  an  army  of  lo.ooc  men. 
chiefly  from  the  Highlands,  is  employed  by 
government  in  suppressing  conventicles. 


SCOTLAND 


[    887    ] 


SCULLABOGUE 


A.D. 

A.D.                                                              A.D. 

1679,  May  3.  Murder  of    James  Sharpe,  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrew's,  by  the  covenanters.  —  June  i.  The 

973.  Kenneth  III. 
994.  Constautine  IV. 

1349.  Alexander  III. 
1380.  Margaret. 

Covenanters  defeat  Claverhouse  at  Loudon  Hill. 

997.  Grimus. 

1292-  John  Baliol. 

(See  DKUMCLOG.)—  June  33.  They  are  defeated  at 
Bothwell  Bridge  (q.  v.). 

1003.  Malcolm  II. 
1033.  Duncan  I. 

1396.  Interregnum. 
1306.  Robert  I. 

1685.  A  rebellion  breaks  out  under  the  Earl  of  Argyle.  — 

1040.  Macbeth. 

1339.  David  II. 

June  30.  The  Earl  of  Argyle  is  executed. 
1687,  Feb.  13.  James  II.  abolishes  tests  and  penal  laws 

1056.  Malcolm     (Canmore) 

1333.  Edward  Baliol. 
1333.  David  II.,  again. 

throughout  Scotland. 

1093.  Donaid  (Bane)  VI. 

1371.  Robert  11. 

1689,  March  14.  Meeting  of  the  Scotch  convention,  which 

1095.  Duncan  II. 

1390.  Robert  III. 

accepts  William  and  Mary  and  abolishes  episco- 

1095. Donald  VI.,  again. 

1406.  James  I. 

pacy.     A  rebellion  in  favour  of  James  II.  breaks 

1096.  Edgar. 

1437.  James  II. 

out  under  John|Graham  of  Claverhouse.  —  July  37. 

1  107.  Alexander  I. 

1460.  James  III. 

He  is  killed  at  Killiecraiikie  (q.  •».). 

1:34.  David  I. 

1488.  James  IV. 

1692.  The  Glencoe  massacre  (q.  v.). 

1153.  Malcolm  IV. 

1513.  James  V. 

1707,  May  i.  The  legislative  union  of  England  and  Scot- 

1 166.  William    I.,    or    the 

1  54^.  Mary. 

land  is  completed  by  5  Anue,  c.  8. 

Lion. 

1567.  James  VI. 

1708.  A  French  squadron  in  favour  of  the  exiled  Stuarts 

1314.  Alexander  II. 

is  driven  from  the  Scottish  shores  by  Admiral 

Byng. 

(See  ENGLAND.) 

1715,  Sep.  6.  A  rebellion  in  favour  of  the  Stuarts  breaks 
out  under  the  Earl  of  Mar. — Nov.  Battles  of 
Preston  and  Sherriff-muir  (q.  v.).  The  disarma- 
ment of  the  Scotch  clans  is  ordered  by  I  Geo.  I. 
st.  3,  c.  54. 

1719,  June  10.  Battle  of  Glensheil. 

1734.  Numerous  riots  against  the  malt-tax. 

1736,  Sep.  7.    Cant.  Porteous  is  hanged  by  the  mob  at 

1740.  A  Jacobite  confederacy,  in  favour  of  the  Pretender, 
is  established. 

1745.  July  25.    The  young  Pretender  lands  at  Moidart. 

(See  ENGLAND.) 

1746.  The  Highland  costume  is  prohibited  by  19  Geo.  II. 

c-39- 

1747.  Abolition  of  hereditary  jurisdictions,  by  go  Geo.  II. 

c.  43. 

1778.  Lord  George  Gordon  forms  an  anti-Catholic  asso- 
ciation in  Scotland. 

1782.  The  Highland  costume  is  again  permitted  by  2,2, 
Geo.  III.  0.63. 

1793.  The  Scotch  National  Convention  is  organised. 

1796,  July  21.  Death  of  Robert  Burns. 

1797.  The  country  is  in  a  disturbed  state  on  account  of  the 

militia  act. 
1807,  Aug.  31.  Death  of  Henry  Benedict  Stuart,  cardinal 

Duke  of    York,    and    claimant    of    the   English 

crown   as   Henry  IX.    With  him  the  family  of 

the  Stuarts  becomes  extinct. 
1822.  George  IV.  visits  Scotland.     (See  EDINBURGH.) 

1842.  Queen  Victoria  visits  Scotland. 

1843.  Establishment  of  the  Free  Church  (q.v.). 

1853.  The  association  for  the  vindication  of  Scottish  rights 

is  founded  at  Edinburgh. 

1854,  July  31.  The  Scottish  Jury  Act  is  passed  (17  &  18 

Viet.  c.  59). 

1860,  Nov.  21.    The  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh  presents 

an  address  to  the  Kmjuvss  Eugenie. 

1861,  Oct.  23.  Prince  Albert  lays  the  foundation  stone  of 

the  new  General  Post-Office  and  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  of  Scotland. 

1862,  Oct.  13.  An  accident  on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 

Railway  causes  the  death  of  15  persons. 

1863,  March  31.  Freedom  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  pre- 

sented to  Lord  Palmerstou. 


KINGS   OF   SCOTLAND. 

A.D. 

A.n. 

403.  Fergus  II. 

721.  Mordacus. 

419.  Eugenius  II. 

730.  Etfinus. 

453.  Dongardus. 
457.  Constantine  I. 

761.  Eugenius  VIII. 
764.  Fergus  III. 

475.  Congallus  I. 

767.  Solvathius. 

501.  Goranus. 

787.  Achaius. 

535.   Eugenius  III. 
55-5.  Congallus  II. 

819.  Congallus  III. 
824.  Dougal. 

568.  Kinatellus. 

831.  Alpin. 

570.  Aidanus. 

834.  Kenneth  II. 

604.   Kenneth  I. 

854.  Donald  V. 

605.  Eugenius  IV. 

858.  Constantine  II. 

622.  Ferchardus  I. 

874.  Ethus. 

636.  Donald  IV. 

876.  Gregory. 

650.  Ferchardus  II. 

892.  Donald  VI. 

668.  Malduiiius. 

904.  Constantino  III. 

688.  Eugenius  V. 
692.  Eugenius  VI. 

944.  Malcolm  I. 
958.  Indulphus. 

703.  Amberkelethus. 

968.  Duff  us. 

704.  Eugenius  VII. 

973.  Cullenus. 

SCOTS  GREYS.— (See  DRAGOONS.) 
SCOTTISH    INDEPENDENTS.— (See    NEW 
INDEPENDENTS.) 

SCOTUSSA  (Thessaly).— The  inhabitants 
joined  the  other  towns  of  Thessaly  in  resisting 
the  march  of  Agesilaus  II.,  B.C.  394.  Alexander, 
Tyrant  of  Pherse,  seized  the  town  B.C.  367 ;  and 
in  its  neighbourhood  the  battles  of  Cynosce- 

SCBEW. — Archimedes  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented a  screw  for  facilitating  irrigation  in 
Egypt,  about  B.C.  250.  A  screw,  called  by  the 
Germans  a  water-screw,  was  invented  in  1 746, 
by  Andrew  Wirtz,  a  pewterer  at  Zurich.  A 
patent  was  obtained  in  1800  by  Maullin  for 
casting  screws,  and  in  1817  a  patent  was 
obtained  for  making  wire  screws. 

SCREW  PROPELLER.— A  screw  to  work  in 
water,  on  the  plan  of  a  windmill,  was  invented 
by  Robert  Hooke,  in  1680.  This  was  improved 
by  the  aquatic  propeller,  patented  by  Win. 
Lyttleton,  Nov.  u,  1794;  by  the  perpetual 
sculling  machine,  patented  by  Edward  Shorter, 
March  i,  1800 ;  by  an  invention  patented 
by  B.  Woodcroft,  Sep.  20,  1832 ;  and  by 
many  others.  F.  P.  Smith,  a  farmer  at 
Hendon,  took  out  a  patent  for  a  screw  propeller, 
May  31,  1836.  It  was  first  fitted  to  a  model 
boat  which  worked  on  a  pond  at  Hendon ;  and 
a  boat  of  six  tons  burden,  propelled  by  a  screw, 
was  exhibited  to  the  public  on  Paddington 
canal,  Nov.  i,  1836.  The  Admiralty,  wishing 
the  invention  to  be  tested  on  a  larger  scale, 
built  the  Archimedes,  of  237  tons  burden,  which 
was  launched  Oct.  18,  1838,  and  made  her  first 
trip  in  1839.  The  Rattier,  888  tons,  the  first 
screw  vessel  built  for  the  Royal  Navy,  was 
laid  down  at  Sheerness  in  1841,  and  launched 

SCRIBLERUS  CLUB  (London),  of  a  literary 
rather  than  a  political  character,  was  formed 
by  Dean  Swift  in  1714,  in  place  of  "The 
Brothers  Club."  Arbuthnot,  Bolingbroke,  Gay, 
Harley,  and  Pope  were  members. 

SCRIVENERS  (London)  were  incorporated 
in  1616. 

SCROFULA.— (See  KING'S  EVIL.) 

SCROPE'S  LNN  (London)  was  inhabited  by 
Serjeants  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III.  (1483-5). 
Little  is  known  of  its  history. 

SCULLABOGUE  MASSACRE.— During  the 
rebellion  in  Ireland,  184  Protestants,  men, 
women,  and  children,  were  forced  into  a  barn 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  rebels,  who  then  set 


SCULPTURE 


SEALED  LETTERS 


fire  to  it,  and  every  soul  perished,  June  5, 
1798. 

SCULPTURE.— The  inventor  of  this  art,  and 
indeed  the  nation  with  which  it  originated, 
are  alike  unknown.  Sculptured  monuments 
have  been  discovered  in  Egypt  of  as  early  a 
date  as  B.C.  1700,  and  the  art  was  brought  to 
its  greatest  perfection  in  that  country  about 
B.C.  1350.  The  Assyrian  school  of  sculpture 
ranks  next  to  the  Egyptian  in  point  of 
antiquity,  and  after  that  the  Etruscan.  The 
Greek  school  became  celebrated  in  the  yth 
century  B.C.,  and  attained  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion about  the  middle  of  the  sth  century  B.C., 
when  Pheidias,  or  Phidias,  Myron,  and  Poly- 
cletus  nourished.  Praxiteles,  who  lived  B.C. 
360,  and  introduced  statues  of  the  nude  female 
figure,  and  Cleomenes,  who  probably  nourished 
:ii  out,  B.C.  220,  are  among  the  most  celebrated 
Greek  sculptors.  The  reigns  of  Trajan,  Ha- 
drian, and  the  Antunincs  (98—180:  are  usually 
regarded  as  the  golden  age  of  Roman  sculpture, 
though  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  art  was 
practised  by  the  natives.  After  the  decline 
of  the  arts,  sculpture  remained  in  abeyance 
till  the  early  part  of  the  i3th  century,  when 
it  was  revived  by  Nicolo  Pisano.  Dona- 
tello  (1383 — Dec.  13,  1466) ;  Michael  Angclo, 
(1474— Feb.  17,  1564);  Roubiliac  (1695— Jan.  u, 
17621;  Thomas  Banks,  R.A.  (1735 — Feb.  2, 
1805)  ;  Joseph  Nollekens  (1737 — April  23,  1823)  ; 
liacon  (1740 — Aug.  7,  1795);  and  John 
Flax-man  (1755— Dec.  7,  1826)  arc  amongst  Hie 
most  celebrated  of  modern  sculptors.  (See 
Loi  VKK,  I'HOTO  Srrr/PTURE,  <fec.) 

SCUTAGE,  or  ESCUAGE,  a  pecuniary  pay- 
ment instead  of  personal  service,  assessed  at 
first  only  on  military  tenants  who  were  eccle- 
siastics, but  made  general  in  1159.  King  John, 
by  chapter  12  of  Magna  Charta  (1215),  con- 
sented that  in  future  no  scutagc  should  be 
imposed  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
council  of  the  kingdom.  This  clause  was 
omitted  by  Henry  III.  in  his  confirmation  of 
'.Ma;. Mia  ( 'harta  in  1225,  and  the  37th  clause  only 
provided  that  scutage  should  be  taken  as  it 
was  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  By  25  Edw.  I. 
c.  5  &  6  (1297"!,  it  was  enacted  that  no  ^outage 
should  be  taken  by  the  king  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  realm. 

SCUTARI  (Asiatic  Turkey),  the  ancient 
Chrysopolis,  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of 
Licinius  by  Constantino  I.  in  323.  The  Sultan 
Mahmoud's  barracks  wei-e  occupied  in  1854  by 
English  troops  on  their  march  to  the  Crimea. 
They  were  converted  into  an  hospital  for  the 
wounded  of  the  Allied  armies  Sep.  24,  1854, 
and  Miss  Nightingale  and  38  nurses  arrived 
Nov.  6.  A  monument  in  memory  of  those  that 
fell  in  the  Crimea  was  erected  in  1865. 

SCYLLA  (Italy).— A  fort  is  said  to  have  been 
erected  on  this  rock,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Straits  of  Messina,  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  by 
Anaxilas  II.  of  Rhegium  in  the  sth  century 
B.C.  The  whirlpool  of  Charybdis  was  in  the 
Straits  of  Messina ;  hence  the  reference  to  Scylla 
and  Charybdis  by  ancient  writers.  The  town, 
near  the  cape,  was  almost  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  Feb.  5,  1783.  Most  of  the  in- 
habitants, who,  with  the  aged  Prince  of  Scylla, 
had  sought  refuge  on  the  beach,  perished  from 


the  effects  of  another  shock  in  the  evening. 
The  French  took  Scylla  in  1806. 

SCYROS,  or  SCYRUS  (.Egean  Sea).— The 
original  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  Pelas- 
gians,  Carians,  and  Dolopians.  According  to 
tradition,  Theseus,  driven  from  Athens,  retired 
to  Scyros,  where  he  was  at  first  hospitably  re- 
.ceived,  though  he  was  afterwards  treacherously 
cast  into  the  sea.  The  Athenians  conquered 
the  island  and  recovered  the  bones  of  Theseus 
B.C.  469.  The  Macedonians  afterwards  obtained 
possession  of  the  island,  which  the  Romans 
compelled  them  to  restore  to  the  Athenians, 
B.C.  196. 

SCYTALE.— (See  CIPHER.) 

SCYTHIA.— Territory  in  the  eastern  half  of 
northern  Europe,  and  in  western  and  central 
Asia,  but  of  very  uncertain  extent,  was  in- 
habited by  the  Scythaj,  or  Scoloti,  who  invaded 
Media,  and  defeated  Cyaxares  B.C.  632,  and 
were  driven  out  soon  after  Darius  I.  invaded  the 
country,  B.C.  507.  Xenophon  and  the  10,000,  in 
their  retreat,  had  to  march  four  days  through 
it,  B.C.  400.  Alexander  III.  gained  a  success 
over  the  people  dwelling  between  the  Oxus 
and  the  Jaxartes,  B.C.  329.  They  merged  into 
tribes  of  various  names  soon  after  their  attack 
upon  the  King  of  Bosporus,  about  B.C.  63. 

S I ;  A ..  — The  Venetians  claimed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Adriatic  about  1400,  and  imposed  a  toll 
on  all  vessels  navigating  its  waters.  Austria 
resisted  this  claim  in  1508,  and  a  war  that 
lasted  20  years  ensued.  According  to  Selden, 
most  of  the  maritime  states  of  Europe  admitted 
the  claim  of  England  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
sens  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272 — 1307). 
lie 'Hand  acknowledged  it  by  the  treaty  of 
Bre.la,  July  10,  1667  (O.S.). 

SEA-FIGHTS.— (&e  INDEX.) 

Si:  YJj.— The  use  of  seals  is  very  ancient. 
Jezebel  sealed  the  orders  for  Naboth's  death 
with  the  king's  seal  (i  Kings  xxi.  8),  B.C.  899. 
The  first  sealed  charter  extant  is  that  of  Edward 
the  Confessor  for  the  foundation  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  in  1065.  The  impression  upon  all  lay- 
men's seals  until  1218  was  a  man  on  horseback. 
Only  archbishops  and  bishops  were  allowed, 
by  a  decree  dated  1237,  to  bear  on  their  seals 
their  title,  office,  dignity,  and  names.  In  1540 
it  was  ordered  that  all  deeds,  writs,  <fec.,  should 
]>e  signed  as  well  as  sealed.  (See  GREAT  SEAL, 
INTAGLIO,  <fec.) 

SEALED  LETTERS,  or  LETTRES  DE 
CACHET,  issued  by  the  kings  of  France,  and 
countersigned  by  a  secretary  of  state,  on  the 
authority  of  which  persons  were  suddenly 
seized  and  imprisoned,  were  not  frequently 
employed  until  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643 — 
1715).  Disraeli  (Curiosities  of  Lit.  iii.  196) 
says  :  "  Father  Joseph,  the  secret  agent  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  was  the  inventor  of  l<tti-f* 
de  cachet,  disguising  that  instrument  of  des- 
potism by  the  amusing  term  of  a  sealed  (<  //<  r." 
During  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Louis  XV. 
(1715 — 1774),  they  were  openly  sold  by  the 
mistress  of  one  of  that  monarch's  ministers. 
The  practice  afterwards  led  to  great  abuses. 
Michelet  says  that  Saint  Florentine  alone  gave 
away  50,000;  adding,  "they  were  the  object 
of  a  profitable  traffic ;  they  were  sold  to 
fathers  who  wanted  to  get  rid  of  their  sons, 


SEAL  ISLANDS 


SEDAN 


and  given  to  pretty  women  who  were  incon- 
venienced by  their  husbands."  They  were 
abolished  at  the  Revolution. 

SEAL  ISLANDS.— (-See  LOBOS.) 

SEA  SERJEANTS.— A  secret  association  of 
gentlemen  (Notes  and  Queries,  3rd  series,  i.), 
belonging  to  the  four  maritime  counties  of 
South  Wales,  formed  for  recreation  and  social 
intercourse,  has  been  traced  as  far  back  as  1726, 
when  an  old  society  appears  to  have  been 
revived.  They  held  an  annual  meeting  at  a 
seaport  town,  and  the  last  of  which  any  record 
remains  took  place  July  31,  1762.  Sir  R. 
Phillips,  Baron  Milford,  in  the  Irish  peerage, 
the  last  surviving  member  of  the  society,  died 
June  28,  1823. 

SEBASTE  (Pontus).— The  ancient  Cabira 
(q.v.),  made  a  city  by  Pompey,  who  named  it 
Diopolis,  afterwards  fell  under  the  sway  of 
Queen  Pythodoris,  widow  of  Polemo,  King  of 
Pontus  and  Bosporus,  whose  title  Augustus 
had  confirmed  B.C.  26.  Pythodoris  made  it  a 
royal  residence,  and  changed  its  name  to 
Sebaste,  which  is  equivalent  to  Augusta.  (See 
ANCYRA,  SAMARIA,  &c.) 

SEBASTIANISTS.— Sebastian,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, was  supposed  to  have  perished  with  his 
entire  army  at  the  battle  of  Alcazarquiver, 
in  Africa,  Aug.  4,  1578  ;  but  as  his  body  was 
never  identified,  an  opinion  prevailed  that 
he  had  escaped  from  the  field,  and  was  living 
in  captivity  among  the  Moors,  or  in  retirement 
in  his  own  kingdom.  In  consequence  of  this 
notion,  a  native  of  Alcazova,  of  low  birth  and 
vicious  character,  asserted,  in  1585,  that  he 
was  the  missing  monarch.  He  was  arrested, 
convicted  of  gross  imposture,  and  condemned 
to  the  galleys  for  life.  A  second,  claimant 
appeared  the  same  year,  in  the  person  of  a 
stonecutter,  named  Alvares,  who  was  made 
prisoner  and  hanged.  In  1594  Gabriel  de 
Spinosa  claimed  identity  with  the  lost  Sebas- 
tian. He  was  also  seized  and  publicly  executed. 
The  most  remarkable  of  the  pseudo-Sebastians 
was  a  person  who  asserted  his  claim  at  Venice 
in  1598,  and  who  exhibited,  in  manners  and 
features,  a  most  wonderful  resemblance  to  the 
king.  His  age  corresponded  with  that  of 
Sebastian,  his  body  exhibited  moles  and  other 
marks  which  the  king  was  known  to  have 
possessed,  and  he  related  circumstances  con- 
nected with  the  private  life  of  the  sovereign 
which  afforded  the  strongest  confirmation  of 
his  statements.  His  story  was,  that  after  the 
battle  he  had  returned  to  Portugal,  with  the 
intention  of  assuming  a  religious  life,  in 
expiation  of  the  distress  in  which  he  had 
involved  his  country  ;  but  the  fear  of  discovery 
had  induced  him  to  visit  Persia,  where  he  had 
long  been  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  shah. 
Notwithstanding  the  plausibility  of  this 
person's  tales,  and  the  interest  his  appear- 
ance excited,  his  ultimate  fate  is  unknown. 
The  strangest  fact  connected  with  the  story 
of  the  lost  sovereign  is,  that  the  belief  in 
his  re-appearance  existed  long  after  he  must 
naturally  have  died,  and  even  as  late  as  the 
present  century.  The  Sebastianists  have  been 
encouraged  in  their  superstition  by  numerous 
prophecies,  which  asserted  that  the  Hidden 
One,  or  the  Encoberlo,  was  concealed  in  an 


undiscovered  island,  and  that  his  return  might 
be  expected  about  1808. 

SEBASTIAN,  ST.  (Spain),  was  captured  by 
the  French  Aug.  19,  1719,  and  again  Aug.  4, 
1794,  when  the  guillotine  was  erected,  and 
many  priests  and  nobles  were  executed. 
Again  taken  by  the  French  in  1808,  it  was 
besieged  by  the  English,  under  Gen.  Graham, 
June  29,  1813.'  An  assault,  which  was  re- 
pulsed, took  place  July  24.  The  siege  was 
converted  into  a  blockade,  which  was  raised 
July  28.  The  siege  was  resumed  Aug.  26. 
The  town  was  captured  Aug.  31,  and  the 
castle  Sep.  8.  The  Carlists  were  defeated  here 
by  the  Queen's  forces,  Oct.  i,  1836. 

SEBASTOCRATOR.— This  title  of  honour 
was  introduced  by  Alexius  I.  Comnenus,  in 
1 08 1,  to  reward  the  piety  of  his  brother  Isaac 
without  giving  himself  an  equal. 

SEBASTOPOL  (Russia),  the  Tatar  Akhtiar, 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cherson,  was 
founded  by  Catherine  II.  in  1780.  The  docks 
and  other  important  works,  planned  by  Upton, 
at  one  time  assistant  to  Telf  ord,  and  carried  on 
by  him  for  nearly  30  years,  were  commenced 
about  1826.  The  land  defences  were  begun  in 
1837.  Its  siege  was  commenced  by  the  Allies 
during  the  Russian  war  (q.  v.),  Sep.  26,  1854; 
and  it  was  captured  Sep.  9,  1855.  The  fortifi- 
cations having  been  demolished,  the  town  was 
restored  to  Russia  July  12,  1856.  (See  MALAK- 
HOFF,  REDAN,  &c.) 

SEBASTOPOLIS  (Battle).  —  Justinian  II., 
having  broken  his  truce  with  the  Turks, 
collected  an  army  near  this  town,  on  the 
Phasis,  where  he  was  defeated  in  692. 

SECOND  or  NEW  ROME.— (See  BYZAN- 
TIUM.) 

SECOND  TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.— (See  TRIPLE 
ALLIANCE.) 

SECRETARY  OF  STATE.— This  title  occurs 
for  the  first  time  in  1253.  By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c. 
ii  (1535),  all  grants  passed  under  the  king's 
seal  were  to  be  first  delivered  to  the  principal 
secretary  of  state.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  there  were  two  secre- 
taries of  state.  The  number  has  varied  in 
different  reigns.  A  secretary  of  state  for  India 
was  added  in  1858,  which  makes  the  number 
five. 

SECRET  SOCIETIES.  —  (See  ASSASSINS, 
ROSICRUCIANS,  VEHMIC  or  FEHMIC  COURTS,  &c.) 

SECTIONS.— Paris,  at  that  time  in  21  dis- 
tricts, was,  by  an  ordinance  of  Louis  XVI., 
dated  April  13,  1789,  divided  into  60  arron- 
dissements.  The  constituent  assembly  pro- 
mulgated a  decree  for  a  fresh  division  into 
48  sections,  June  27,  1790.  These  sections 
wielded  a  dangerous  power  during  the  reign 
of  terror. 

SECULAR  CANONS.— (-See  CANONS,  Regular 
and  Secular.) 

SEDAN  (France),  only  a  hamlet  till  1424, 
for  many  years  the  capital  of  a  principality 
belonging  to  the  dukes  of  Bouillon,  was  for- 
feited to  the  crown  in  1642.  Near  this  town 
the  Count  of  Soissons,  who  perished  in  the 
encounter,  defeated  the  army  of  Richelieu  in 
1641.  Codeau  founded  the  first  cloth  manu- 
factory here  in  1646.  Mazarin  took  up  his 
abode  here  in  1652. 


SEDAN  CHAIRS 


[    890    ] 


SELINUS 


SEDAN  CHAIRS,  invented  at  Sedan,  in 
France,  whence  their  name,  were  first  used  in 
England  in  1581,  and  in  London  in  1623.  Sir 
Sanders  Duncombe  obtained  a  patent  in  1634, 
and  they  were  in  general  use  in  1649.  An  act 
was  passed  in  1711  limiting  the  number  of 
licensed  sedan  chairs  to  200.  It  was  increased 
to  400  iu  1726.  The  Princess  Amelia  went 
from  London  to  Bath  by  this  mode  of  convey- 
ance, April  13 — 19,  1728. 

SKI) I'] HUNT.— (See  ACTS  OF  SEDERUNT.) 
SEUGEMOOR  (Battle).— The  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth  was  defeated  on  this  plain,  near  Bridge- 
water,  by  the  Royal  troops,  under  the  Earl  of 
Faversham,  July  6,  1685  (O.S.).  Monmouth, 
who  was  taken  July  8,  and  conveyed  to  London 
July  13,  was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  Wed- 
nesday, July  15. 

SKIHTION.— (See  GAGGING  BILL.) 

SEEKERS.— This  sect,  which  received  this 

name  because  its  members  maintained  that 

the  true   Scripture  and  ordinances  for  which 

they  pretended  to  be  seeking  were  lost,  arose 

'  uul  in  1645. 

;S  I ;  !•;  \  A 1'  U TT  E  E.  —(See  CACHAR.  ) 
SEKKYVEAX,    HEFI.  —  (See    SUFFIDE    DY- 

K  E  ( !  E  I)  I  N,  S  E  G  E  D,   or  S  Z  E  G  E  D  I  N 
i  v  ,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  from 
the  1 6th  century  till  Sep.  2,  1686.     The  Hun- 
garians were  defeated  by  the   Austrians  in  a 
battle  here,  Aug.  4,  1849. 

.!>IX,  8EGED,  orSZEGEDIN  (Treaty). 
— The  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between 
Amurathll.  and  Ladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Poland 
and  Hungary,  was  concluded  at  this  town 
July  12,  1444.  A  truce  of  10  years  was  agreed 
upon,  but  it  only  lasted  10  weeks.  Cardinal 
Julian  declared  the  treaty  null  and  void,  be- 
cause it  had  been  made  without  the  consent  of 
the  Pope,  and  Christian  princes  he  declared 
were  not  bound  to  keep  faith  with  infidels. 

iSEGESTA    .Sicily,  also  called  Egesta,  said 

to  have  been  founded  by  a  band   of  Trojan 

settlers,  was  engaged  in  war  with  Selinus  B.C. 

580.     It  withstood  a  siege  from  Dionysius,  B.C. 

397.     Agathocles,  who  obtained  possession  by 

-••in.   B.C.    307,   put  the   citizens    to   the 

sword,    sold    their    women    and    children  as 

1 1  id  changed  its  name  to  Dicaeopolis. 

SEGESTAX  ; Asia.  -This  fertile  and  flour- 
ishing country,  now  called  Seistan,  containing 
many  large  cities  and  towns,  was  devastated 
by  Tamerlane  in  1383.  The  first  European 
i  livelier  who  penetrated  into  the  country  was 
George  Forster,  in  1788.  Capt.  Christie  tra- 
versed it  from  north  to  south  in  1810. 

SEGOULEE   Treaty).— (See  NEPAUL.) 

SEGOVIA  (Spain).  —  The  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  contains  one  of 
the  finest  cathedrals  in  Spain,  commenced  in 
1525.  Charles  I.,  then  Prince  of  Wales,  visited 
tlie  town  Sep.  13,  1623.  The  French  captured 
Segovia  in  1808,  and  occupied  it  until  1814. 

SEGRIM  or  SEGREVE  HALL.— (See  PEM- 
BROKE COLLEGE.) 

SE1DLICE  (Battle).— The  Poles  defeated  the 
Russians  at  this  village,  near  Warsaw,  April 
10,  1831.  They  captured  2  standards,  15  pieces 
of  cannon,  and  6,000  prisoners. 

SELA,  or  SELAH.— (SeeEDOM  and  PETEA.) 


SELBY  (Battle)  was  fought  at  this  town  in 
Yorkshire,  between  the  Royal  troops  under 
John  Bellasis,  governor  of  York,  and  the  Par- 
liamentarians, under  Lord  Fairfax,  April  n, 
1644.  The  former  was  made  prisoner,  and  his 
army  defeated. 

SELENIUM.  —  This  non-metallic  solid  ele- 
mentary body  was  discovered  in  1818  by  Ber- 
zelius. 

SELEUCIA  (Asia).— This  city  in  Syria,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  at  one  time  called  Coche, 
was  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  by 
Seleucus  (I.)  Nicator  (B.C.  312 — B.C.  280).  It 
was  taken  by  Alexander  and  Clarus,  the 
generals  of  Trajan,  in  117,  and  by  Severus  in 
198.  Councils  were  held  here  Dec.  25,  410, 
in  485,  and  in  576.  Seven  places  in  Asia  bore 
the  name  Seleucia. 

SELEUCIA  PIERIA  (Asia).— This  city  of 
Syria,  the  seaport  of  Antioch,  called  "  Rivers  of 
Water,"  according  to  Strabo,  was  founded  by 
Seleucus  (I.)  Nicator  (B.c.312 — 6.0.280).  Ptolemy 
III.  Kuergotes,  having  captured  it  during  his 
Syrian  expedition,  B.C.  245,  held  it  by  an 
Egyptian  garrison  until  Antiochus  the  Great, 
Qg  it  by  sea  and  by  land,  compelled  it 
to  surrender,  about  B.C.  220.  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas cmiKirked  from  this  port  on  their  first 
mission  to  Asia  Minor,  in  May,  44  Acts  xiii. 
.(  .  The  only  communication  between  the  city 
and  the  sea  was  by  means  of  an  extraordinary 
ion  through  the  solid  rock,  upwards  of 
20  feet  in  width  and  height,  and  1,088  yards 
long,  which  was  surveyed  by  Capt.  Allen  in 

1  SEr.EUCIA  TRACHEOTIS  (Asia).  —  This 
town  in  Cilicia,  represented  by  the  modern 
Selefkieh,  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I. )  Nicator 
(B.C.  312 — B.C.  280).  Under  the  Romans,  it  re- 
mained a  free  city  from  the  time  of  Augustus, 
in  14.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Xenarchns,  K.C. 
40,  and  of  Atheiianis  the  Peripatetic,  B.C.  30. 
The  Is.iurians  made  an  unsuccessful  attack 
upon  it  in  355.  A  council  was  held  here  Sep. 

8BLEUCIDJS.— This  sera  commenced  with 
the  conquest  of  Babykm  by  the  iSeleucidaj,  B.C. 

\    OF.) 

SELF  DENYING  ORDINANCE.— A  resolu- 
tion, advocated  by  Cromwell  and  the  Indepen- 
dents, that  during  the  war  no  member  of 
either  house  should  hold  any  office  or  com- 
mand, military  or  civil,  conferred  by  either 
house  of  Parliament,  or  any  authority  derived 
from  them,  passed  the  House  of  Commons, 
Monday,  Dec.  9,  1644  ;  and  an  ordinance  to 
this  effect  was  ordered  to  be  introduced.  It 
was  ]  nissed  Dec.  19,  and  sent  up  to  the  Lords, 
who  rejected  the  third  reading,  Jan.  13,  1645. 
After  much  controversy,  the  ordinance  was, 
with  certain  amendments,  agreed  to  by  the 
Lords,  April  3,  1645. 

SELGAE  (Battle).— Tribigild  the  Ostrogoth, 
having  rebelled  against  the  Eastern  empire, 
was  in  399  attacked  by  the  peasants  of  Pam- 
phylia,  in  this  narrow  pass,  and  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  his  bravest  troops. 

SML1XUS  (Asia).— Trajan  died  at  this  city 
in  Cilicia,  Aug.  8,  117. 

SELINUS  (Sicily)  was  founded  by  a  colony 
rom  Mcgara  about  B.C.  628.  The  inhabitants 


SELLASIA 


[    891     ] 


SENATE 


were  engaged  in  war  with  the  people  of 
Segesta  B.C.  580.  They  joined  the  Carthagi- 
nians B.C.  480,  assisted  the  Syracusans  to  eject 
Thrasybulus  B.C.  466,  and  were  again  at  war 
with  the  Segestans  B.C.  416.  The  latter,  having 
sought  aid  from  the  Carthaginians,  defeated 
the  people  of  Selinus  B.C.  410.  The  Carthagi- 
nians sent  an  army,  under  Hannibal,  and, 
after  a  siege  of  only  10  days,  the  city  was 
taken  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain, 
B.C.  409.  Hannibal  destroyed  the  walls,  but 
allowed  the  surviving  inhabitants  to  return 
and  occupy  it  as  tributaries  to  Carthage.  They 
took  part -with  Diouysius  in  his  war  against 
Carthage,  B.C.  397,  and  submitted  to  Pyrrhus 
B.C.  276.  Before  the  close  of  the  first  Punic 
war  the  Carthaginians  removed  all  the  inha- 
bitants of  Selinus  to  Lilybseum,  and  destroyed 
the  city. 

SELLASIA  (Battle).— Cleomenes  III.,  King 
of  Sparta,  was  defeated  near  this  ancient 
town  of  Laconia,  B.C.  221,  by  the  Achaean 
League,  under  Antigonus  Doson,  King  of 
Macedon.  This  victory  extinguished  the 
power  of  Sparta. 

StiLSEY  (Sussex).— Wilfrid,  Archbishop  of 
York,  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  near  this 
town,  in  680,  when  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced, and  a  bishopric  established.  It  was 
removed  to  Chichester  about  1078. 

SELTERS,  or  SELTZ  (Germany).  —  The 
spring  from  which  selters  or  seltzer  water  is 
obtained,  was  discovered  in  Lower  Selters, 
near  Limburg,  in  Nassau,  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. 

SELYMBRIA  (Turkey).  —  This  town  of 
Thrace,  the  modern  Silivri,  is  believed  to  have 
been  founded  by  a  colony  from  Megara,  about 
B.C.  662.  Alcibiades  received  pecuniary  aid 
from  the  inhabitants  B.C.  410,  and  took  the 
town  by  treachery  B.C.  408.  Xenophon  met 
Medosades,  the  envoy  of  Seuthes,  here,  B.C. 
400.  It  was  in  alliance  with  the  Athenians 
B.C.  351,  blockaded  by  Philip  II.  B.C.  343,  and 
captured  by  the  Turks,  after  a  vigorous  resist- 
ance, in  1453.  It  was  for  some  time  called 
Eudoxiopolis,  in  honour  of  Eudoxia,  the  wife 
of  Arcadiua  (383 — 408). 

SEMI-ARIANS.  —  Dissensions  commenced 
in  the  Arian  sect  in  321,  and  it  separated  into 
two  divisions  in  358.  The  Arians  maintained 
that  the  Son  of  God  was  unlike  the  Father ; 
the  Semi- Arians  refused  to  receive  the  Word 
substantially,  but  acknowledged  the  Son  of 
God  to  be  of  a  like  essence  or  substance  with 
the  Father.  From  this  they  were  called  Semi- 
Arians.  They  took  the  name  of  Macedonians 
from  Macedonius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 
expelled  in  360,  and  afterwards  that  of  Pueu- 
matoinachians. 

HEMINARA  (Battles).— A  body  of  Spaniards, 
sent  to  aid  the  King  of  Naples,  under  the 
command  of  Gonzalo  of  Cordova,  was  com- 
pletely defeated  at  this  place  in  Italy,  by  a 
small  body  of  French  and  Swiss,  under  Stuart 

d'Aubigny,  in  1495. The  Spanish  general 

Andrades  defeated  d'Aubigny  here  and  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  into  the  fortress  of  Angi- 
tola,  April  21,  1503.  Large  portions  of  the 
town  were  destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  1638 
and  1783. 


SEMI-NORMAN,  or  MIXED.— (See  GOTHIC 
ARCHITECTURE.) 

SEMI-PELAGIANS,  at  first  called  Massil- 
ians,  took  their  rise  in  428,  from  John  Cassian,  a 
pupil  of  Chrysostom,  at  Marseilles.  The  monks 
of  southern  Gaul,  including  Vincent,  had 
generally  adopted  the  tenets  by  434 ;  and 
their  doctrines  were  sanctioned  by  councils 
held  at  Aries  and  Lyons  in  475.  The  Council 
of  Orange,  July  3,  529,  established  the  Au- 
gustinian  doctrines  in  opposition  to  those  of 
the  Pelagians  and  Semi-Pelagians,  as  did  that 
of  Valencia  in  July  or  Aug.,  530 ;  and  Pope 
Boniface  II.  confirmed  the  decree  in  530. 

SEMPACH  (Battle).— Leopold,  Duke  of  Aus- 
tria, in  an  attempt  to  reduce  Lucerne  to  obedi- 
ence, is  said  to  have  been  defeated  at  this  town 
in  Switzerland,  by  the  Swiss,  July  9,  1386. 

SEMPACH  (Confederation),  between  some 
of  the  Swiss  cantons,  was  concluded  in  1393. 

SEMPER  BAD  EM.  — This  motto,  used  by 
Hen.  VII.  in  1485,  and  by  some  of  his  suc- 
cessors, was  substituted  for  Dieu  et  Mon  Droit, 
or  "  God  and  my  right,"  by  Queen  Anne  (1702 
— 14).  George  I.  restored  the  old  motto. 

SEMPRINGHAM.— (See  GILBERTINES.) 

SENATE.— That  of  Rome,  which  consisted 
at  first  of  ioo  members,  was  raised  by 
Tarquinius  Prisons  to  the  number  of  300. 
Tarquinius  Superbus  put  many  to  death,  and 
sent  some  of  them  into  exile.  The  principal 
plebeians  of  the  equestrian  order  were  ad- 
mitted, under  the  name  of  "  conscripti,"  after 
the  expulsion  of  Tarquiii,  B.C.  509.  Sylla  raised 
the  number  to  600,  B.C.  82,  and  Julius  Csesar  to 
900,  B.C.  59.  Augustus  purified  it,  and  reduced 
the  number  to  600,  taking  upon  himself  the  title 
of  "  prince  of  the  senate."  Severus  deprived  it 
of  all  legislative  as  well  as  executive  power, 
in  193.  Sosemias,  the  mother  of  Elagabalus 
(218 — 22),  having  sat  by  the  side  of  the  consuls 
and  subscribed  the  decrees  as  a  regular  mem- 
ber, a  law  was  afterwards  enacted  excluding 
women  for  ever  from  the  senate,  and  devoting 
to  the  infernal  gods  anybody  who  should 
violate  it.  Alexander  Severus  restored  its  lost 
dignity  and  authority  in  222.  The  senators 
met  in  the  temple  of  Castor,  according  to  an 
ancient  form  of  secrecy,  and  ratified  the 
election  of  the  two  Gordians,  once  more  assum- 
ing the  reins  of  government  in  238.  After  the 
death  of  the  Gordians,  they  elected  two  of 
their  own  body,  Maximus  and  Balbinus,  to  be 
joint  emperors,  July  9,  238.  A  decree  was 
issued  by  Gallienus  prohibiting  senators  from 
holding  any  military  employment,  or  even  ap- 
proaching the  camp  of  the  legions,  in  259.  It 
regained  its  most  important  prerogatives,  in 
275,  refusing  the  emperor's  request  to  nominate 
his  brother,  Florianus,  to  the  consulship. 
Diocletian  and  Maximian  I.  took  measures  to 
degrade  the  body  and  abolish  its  power,  getting 
up  imaginary  plots  against  its  most  illustrious 
members,  in  303.  At  a  full  meeting  of  the 
senate,  the  question  whether  paganism  or 
Christianity  should  be  the  religion  of  the  state, 
was  decided  in  favour  of  Christianity,  in  388. 
A  warm  discussion  took  place  in  488,  on  the 
demand  of  Alaric  II.,  the  Goth,  for  a  ransom, 
which  resulted  in  the  payment,  under  the 
name  of  a  subsidy,  of  4,000  pounds  of  gold. 


SEXEP 


[     892     ] 


SEPHARVAIM 


In  the  reigu  of  Justinian  I.,  about  553,  it 
seems  to  have  become  altogether  extinct.  It 
was  restored  in  1144. 

SEXEF  (Battles).— The  first,  in  which  neither 
side  gained  a  very  decided  advantage,  was 
fought  near  this  town,  in  Hainault,  between 
the  French,  commanded  by  Conde,  and  the 
allied  Spaniards  and  Dutch,  under  William, 
Prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  William  III.  of 

England  ,  Aug.  u,  1674. Moreau  defeated 

the  Austrians  near  the  same  place  in  1794. 

SKNFjGAL  (Africa),  the  name  given  to  a 
French  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  Senegal, 
in  Senegambia,  was  settled  by  them  in  1626. 
Two  forts  erected  by  the  Dutch  were  taken  by 
the  French  in  1678,  and  by  the  English  in 
1692.  They  were  retaken  in  1693  by  the 
French,  who  had  built  Fort  Louis  in  1692.  This 
fort,  commanding  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
surrendered  to  the  English,  April  22,  1758. 
Commodore  Keppel  took  possession  of  the 
island  of  Goree,  with  its  forts,  Dec.  29,  1758. 
Goree  was  restored  to  France,  the  English 
retaining  .St.  Louis,  by  the  treaty  signed  at 
Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763.  St.  Louis  was  taken  by 
the  French,  who  thereupon  abandoned  Goree, 
in  Jan.,  1779.  Sir  Edward  Hughes  seized 
and  garrisoned  Goree,  Aug.  8,  1799.  The 
whole  of  the  settlements  ceded  to  France  by 
the  treaty  signed  at  Versailles  Sep.  3,  1783, 
were  retaken  by  the  English  July  13,  1809. 
They  were  restored  to  France  in  1814,  though 
the  French  did  not  take  possession  until  1817. 

BENEGAMBIA  .Africa,  named  after  its 
rivers  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia,  said  to 
have  been  visited  by  llaiino,  the  Carthaginian 
general,  about  B.C.  260,  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  1444 — 1469.  Their  settlements 
were  neglected  after  the  discovery  of  the  route 
to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape  in  1497.  A 
settlement  was  formed  at  Senegal  by  the 
French  in  1626  (See  SKNKOAL,  and  Louis,  ST.), 
and  one  at  Gambia  by  the  English  in  1686.  A 
large  portion  of  the  country  was,  in  1817 — 1820, 
traversed  by  an  expedition  sent  out  by  the 
English  Government.  Explorations  were 
made  by  Laing  in  1822,  and  by  the  French 
travellers  Mollieii  in  1813,  and  Caillie"  in  1827. 

SEN  LAC  (Sussex),  supposed  to  be  the 
modern  Battle,  near  Hastings  (q.  v.}. 

SKXLIS  (France),  the  ancient  Augusto- 
magus  and  the  capital  of  the  Sylvanectes,  fell 
under  the  power  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in 
1414.  Charles  VII.  retook  it  in  1429.  The  army 
of  the  League  entered  this  town  in  1589,  and 
was  expelled  May  17.  Councils  were  held  here 
in  873 ;  July,  988 ;  Nov.  14,  1235 ;  in  1310 ; 
Oct.,  1315;  March  27,  1318  ;  and  April  n,  1326. 

SENL1S  (Treaties).— The  first,  between  Louis 
XI.  and  the  Duke  of  Britanny,  was  concluded 

at  this  town  March  22,  1473. The  second, 

between  Charles  VIII.  of  France  and  the  Em- 
l>emr  Maximilian  I.,  was  signed  May  23,  1493. 

SEXNAAIl  (Africa),  at  one  time  forming  a 
portion  of  Abyssinia  and  subsequently  of 
Nubia,  was  wrested  from  the  latter  by  a  family 
which  came  from  Soudan  about  the  i4th 
century.  The  vizier  appointed  to  transact 
business  possessed  himself  of  supreme  power 
about  1650.  The  country  was  conquered  by 
the  Pasha  of  Egypt  and  reduced  to  a  state  of 


vassalage  in  1820  —  22.  The  capital,  of  the 
same  name,  was  destroyed  during  the  invasion 
of  the  Egyptians  in  1822. 

SEXOXES,  a  Gaulish  nation  settled  on  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic,  laid  siege  to  Clusium 
B.C.  390,  and  afterwards  advancing  towards 
Rome,  defeated  the  Romans  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Allia  and  the  Tiber.  They  entered  Rome 
and  besieged  the  Capitol,  but,  withdrawing  to 
a  distance  of  eight  miles  from  the  city,  were 
defeated  by  Camillus.  In  a  second  attack 
upon  Rome  they  were  driven  off,  B.C.  367. 
From  that  time  they  made  repeated  attacks 
upon  Rome  until,  having  laid  siege  to  Arretium 
and  gained  a  victory  over  a  body  of  Roman 
troops,  they  were  routed  in  a  pitched  battle  by 
the  consul  Dolabella,  B.C.  283.  (See  VAUIMOMAN 
LAKE.)  Greece  was  invaded  by  them,  and 
Macedon  plundered,  B.C.  279.  They  were 
slaughtered  by  the  Greeks  near  the  banks  of 
the  Sperchius,  B.C.  278  ;  and  having  returned 
with  reinforcements,  suffered  severely  in  an 
engagement  with  Antigonus  Gonatas,  and  sued 
for  peace,  B.C.  277.  In  alliance  with  the  trans- 
alpine Gauls  they  invaded  the  Roman  territory, 
and,  quarrelling  over  the  division  of  the  booty, 
turned  their  arms  against  each  other,  B.C.  237. 
On  the  coast  of  J'isie  they  were  routed  by  the 
Unmans,  with  a  loss  of  40,000  men,  their  king 
Congolitauus  being  among  the  slain,  B.C.  225. 
Murcollus  completed  their  overthrow  at 
(  'lastidium,  where  their  king  Viridoinarus  fell, 

B.C.    222. 

SKXS'  (France),  the  ancient  Agendicuin, 
chief  town  of  the  Senones,  formed  the  winter 
quarters  of  Julian,  where  he  was  besieged  for 
30  days  by  the  Germans,  in  357.  Clovis  I.  seized 
it  in  486.  On  payment  of  a  ransom  by  Charles 
11.,  the  Northmen,  who  were  besieging  Paris, 
retired  to  this  town  in  886.  It  was  made  a 
bishopric  about  100.  The  country  of  which  it 
was  the  capital  was  united  to  the  French 
crown  about  1031.  Councils  were  held  in  601  ; 
in  846;  in  1048;  June  2,  1140;  in  1239;  Nov. 
15,  1252  ;  Oct.  24,  1256  ;  Oct.  26,  1269;  Sep.  25, 
1280  ;  May  22,  1320  ;  and  June  23,  1485.  Thomas 
Becket  retired  to  Sens  when  he  fled  from  Eng- 
land in  1164,  and  his  canonical  vestments  are 
still  exhibited.  It  was  taken  by  Henry  V.  of 
England  in  1420.  The  Protestants  were 
massacred  here  in  1562.  It  was  captured  by 


the  Allies  on  their  march  to  Paris  in  181 

g 
the   third    Samnite   war,    near    this    city    of 


SKXT1NUM  (Battle),  fought  B.C.  295, 


4. 
du 


Umbria,  when  the  united  forces  of  the  Sabines 
and  Gauls  were  defeated  by  the  Romans  under 
Quintus  Fabius,  and  the  younger  Decius.  The 
latter,  imitating  the  example  set  by  his  father 
at  the  battle  of  Vesuvius  (q.  v.},  when  the 
Romans  began  to  waver,  animated  them  to 
further  exertions  by  devoting  himself  to  the 
infernal  gods,  plunged  into  the  thickest  of  the 
fight,  which  is  sometimes  caUed  the  battle  of 
Umbria. 

SEPHARVAIM  (Asia),  supposed  to  be  Sip- 
para  of  the  Sun  in  Babylonia,  taken  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  I.,  King  of  Assyria,  about  B.C.  mo 
(2  Kings  xvii.  24).  There  were  two  cities 
bearing  the  name  Sippara,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  Euphrates.  The  other,  taken  at  the  same 
time,  was  called  Sippara  of  Anunit. 


SEPOYS 


893    ] 


SERPENT-WORSHIP 


SEPOYS  (from  the  Hindustani  sipahi,  sol- 
dier);  the  native  troops  of  the  East  India 
Company  were  so  called  in  1708.  Great  altera- 
tions were  made  in  their  constitution,  and  a 
larger  proportion  of  English  officers  introduced, 
in  1796.  A  serious  mutiny  broke  out  amongst 
them  at  Vellore  in  1806,  when  800  were  exe- 
cuted ;  at  Madras  in  1809;  at  Barrackpore,  the 
troops  refusing  to  march  to  the  Burmese  terri- 
tory, Nov.  i  and  2,  1824  ;  and  over  the  greater 
part  of  India  (q.  v.}  in  1857. 

SEPTA,  or  SEPTEM.— (See  CEITTA.) 

SEPTEMBER,  the  seventh  month  of  the 
Roman  year,  was  introduced  into  the  calendar 
by  Romulus  B.C.  753. 

SEPTEMBRISERS,  or  SEPTEMBRISTS.— 
After  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Verdun,  in 
1792,  reached  Paris,  an  indiscriminate  slaughter 
of  the  unfortunate  nobles  and  priests  confined 
in  the  Abbaye  (q.  r.)  and  other  prisons  of 
Paris  commenced.  It  was  continued  Sep.  3 — 7, 
and  the  perpetrators  of  the  massacre  were 
called  Septembrisers. 

SEPTENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS  were 
ordered  by  i  Geo.  I.  st.  2,  c.  38,  called  the  Sep- 
tennial Act  (1715).  A  motion  for  its  repeal  in 
the  House  of  Commons  was  negatived  by  247 
to  184,  March  13,  1734.  Mr.  Tennyson  D'Eyn- 
court's  motion  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  for 
its  repeal  was  rejected  by  96  to  87,  May  8,1837. 

SEPTIMANIA.— (See  LANGUEDOC.) 

SEPTINSULAR  REPUBLIC.—  (See  IONIAN 
ISLANDS.) 

SEPTUAGESIMA  SUNDAY.— The  Sundays 
previous  to  Lent  were  first  set  apart' for  the 
purposes  of  preparation  for  that  solemn  fast 
by  Pope  Gregory  I.,  the  Great  (590 — 604). 
The  first  Sunday  in  Lent  was  called  Quadra- 
gesima Sunday,  and,  reckoning  by  decades,  the 
Sunday  preceding  Quadragesima  was  called 
Quinquagesima,  the  second  Sexagesima,  and 
the  third  Septuagesima. 

SEPTUAGINT,  or  ALEXANDRINE  (from 
Alexandria,  where  it  was  made),  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  in  Greek,  was  undertaken  for 
the  benefit  of  the  captive  Jews  in  Egypt,  by 
order,  it  is  said,  of  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadelphus, 
about  B.C.  277  ;  but  there  is  much  uncertainty 
as  to  the  precise  time.  The  story  is  that  six 
interpreters  were  chosen  from  each  of  the  12 
tribes,  making  72,  and  that  the  task  was  ac- 
complished in  72  days ;  hence  the  name.  A 
f  ac-simile  of  the  Alexandrine  codex  was  edited 
by  the  Rev.  H.  II.  Baber  (1816—1820).  The 
Aldine  edition  was  published  at  Venice  in 
1518  ;  the  Grabe  edition  at  Oxford,  1707 — 1720; 
and  Holmes  and  Parson's  edition  at  Oxford, 
1798—1827.  The  Septuagint  version  of  the 
book  of  Daniel  was  supposed  to  have  been 
lost  till  it  was  discovered  and  published  at 
Rome  in  1772. 

SEPULCHRE.  — (-See  HOLY  SEPULCHRE, 
LAMPS,  <fcc.) 

SEQUANI.— This  Celtic  nation,  dwelling  in 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Arar  or  Saone,  their 
territory  extending  to  the  Jura  and  the  Rhine, 
defeated  their  neighbours,  the  JSdui,  B.C.  61, 
and  joined  the  other  tribes  in  the  attack  upon 
Julius  Caesar  before  Alesia,  B.C.  52.  They  de- 
feated Julius  Sabinus,  who  had  assumed  the 
title  of  Caesar  in  69. 


SEQUIN.— This  gold  coin  was  first  struck  at 
Venice  towards  the  end  of  the  i3th  cent\iry 

SERAP^UM,  or  SERAPION,  the  temple  of 
Serapis,  erected  at  Alexandria  by  Ptolemy  (I.) 
Soter,  surpassing  in  beauty  and  magnificence 
all  the  temples  of  the  world,  except  the  Capi- 
tol of  Rome,  received  the  image  of  the  god 
from  Pontus,  B.C.  284.  It  was  burned  in  181. 
That  portion  of  the  building  devoted  to  the 
immediate  service  of  the  god  was  destroyed 
by  Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  about 
391.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  640. 

SERFDOM.— A  capitulary  of  Charles  I.  the 
Bald  of  France,  in  864,  permitted  serfs  to  be 
redeemed  at  an  equitable  price.  Twenty-five 
thousand  serfs,  or  one-eleventh  of  the  popula- 
tion of  England,  were  registered  in  the  Domes- 
day Book  in  1086.  The  Emperor  Frederick 
II.  emancipated  all  those  on  his  own  estates 
in  1230,  and  those  in  Italy  became  free  early 
in  the  isth  century.  In  some  countries  of 
Germany  the  greater  part  had  acquired 
their  liberty  before  the  end  of  the  i3th 
century.  In  France,  Louis  X.  emancipated 
the  serfs  on  the  royal  domains,  on  payment 
of  a  composition,  in  1315.  An  edict  with 
the  same  object  was  issued  by  Philip  V. 
in  1318.  Predial  service  was  not  abolished 
in  all  parts  of  France  till  the  revolution 
of  1 789.  A  decree  for  its  gradual  abolition  in 
Denmark  was  issued  in  1766.  The  alteration 
in  the  land-tax  in  Austria  by  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,  to  effect  the  same  object,  was  made 
in  1782.  A  ukase  was  issued  by  Nicholas  I.  of 
Russia,  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
serfs,  April  14,  1842  ;  and  the  gradual  abolition 
of  serfdom  in  that  country  was  decreed  by 
Alexander  II.  in  1862. 

SERINGAPATAM  (Hindostan),  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  a  devotee  of  Vishnu,  in  1454, 
was  in  the  possession  of  Raj  Wadegar,  a  My- 
sore chief,  in  1610.  An  ineffectual  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Mahrattas  to  capture  it  in 
1697.  Hyder  Ali  made  it  the  seat  of  his  go- 
vernment in  1765,  and  having  been  attacked, 
the  city  paid  a  ransom  of  ,£150,000  in  1772.  It 
was  besieged  by  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1791  (See 
ARIKERA)  and  1792,  and  was  taken  by  the 
English,  under  Major-Gen.  Baird,  Tippoo 
Saib  being  killed,  May  4,  1799.  A  mutiny  was 
quelled  Aug.  23,  1809. 

SERJEANT-AT-LAW,  terviens  ad  legem,  was 
established  as  a  legal  degree,  when  the  pro- 
fessors of  law  formed  themselves  into  a  society 
about  1216. 

SERJEANT'S  INN  (London),  in  Chancery 
Lane,  was  called  Faryndon  Inn,  when  first 
occupied  by  Serjeants  in  1411,  the  name  hav- 
ing been  changed  to  Serjeant's  Inn  in  1484. 
Serjeant's  Inn  in  Fleet  Street  was  occupied  by 
Serjeants  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 61). 
(See  SCROPE'S  INN.) 

SERPENT-CHARMING,  referred  to  Psalm 
Iviii.  4  and  5,  Jer.  viii.  17,  and  in  other  pas- 
sages in  the  Bible,  is  still  practised  in  the  East. 

SERPENTINE.— (See  HYDE  PARK.) 

SERPENT-WORSHIP,  OBEAHISM,  or 
OPHIOLATREIA.— The  Rev.  John  Bathurst 
Deane,  in  his  treatise  on  the  "Worship  of  the 
Serpent,"  p.  357,  states  that  "in  every  known 


SERTORIAN   WAR 


[    894    ] 


SEVEN   BISHOPS 


country  of  the  ancient  world,  the  serpent 
formed  a  prominent  feature  in  the  ordinary 
worship,  and  made  no  inconsiderable  figure 
in  their  hagiographia,  entering  alike  into  le- 
gendary and  astronomical  mythology."  He 
traces  its  origin  from  the  traditions  connecting 
the  serpent  with  the  fall  of  man,  and  -asserts 
that  it  preceded  antediluvian  polytheism,  and 
originated  in  Babylonia,  whence  it  found  its 
way  into  Persia,  China,  Phoenicia,  Mexico, 
Britain,  Scandinavia,  Africa,  and  indeed  over 
the  entire  globe.  According  to  tradition,  it  was 
re-introduced  into  Egypt  after  the  Deluge  by 
Taautus  Thoth,  or  Hermes,  the  great  founder 
of  Egyptian  civilization.  (See  LITHUANIA, 
OPHITE,  Arc.  | 

SERTORIAN  WAR.— (See  CELTIBERIANS.) 
SERVANTS.— The  apparel  and  diet  of  ser- 
vants were  regulated  by  37  Edw.  III.  c.  8 
(1363).  By  5  Eliz.  c.  4  (1562),  servants  wore 
protected  from  sudden  discharge  <>r  prohibited 
from  sudden  desertion  of  their  situations,  by 
the  rule  that  a  quarter's  warning  might  be 
claimed  by  the  master  or  servant.  (See  MAS- 
TER AND  SERVANT.)  A  duty  was  imposed  upon 
male  servants  by  17  Geo.  III.  c.  39  (1777  ,  and 
other  acts,  which  were  repealed  by  25  ( !oi  >.  I  i  I . 
c.  43  (1785).  This  act  altered  the  then  existing 
duties  on  male  servants,  and  also  taxed  the 
employers  of  female  servants.  The  d 
female  servants  were  abolished  by  32  Geo.  III. 
c.  3  (1792).  Persons  employing  domestic  ser- 
vants are  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour  if  they 
neglect  to  supply  them  with  necessary  food, 
or  if  they  assault  them,  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  n 
(May  20,  10  .  ;:<>riir.us.) 

SERVIA  Europe  .—  The  Servi,  or  B 
tribe  of  Slavonians,  reci.ivud  some  land  south 
of  the  Danube  from  the  Emperor  Leo  VI.  in 
the  ioth  century.  The  Greeks  failed  in  an  at- 
tempt to  reduce  Servia  under  th 
the  nth  century.  The  Greeks,  who  penetrated 
into  Servia  in  order  to  re-establish  their 
dominion,  were  annihilated  in  1043.  Pope 
Honorius  III.  erected  Servia  into  an  indepen- 
dent kingdom  in  1217.  The  Servians,  Hun- 
garians, and  other  Christian  nations,  were 
defeated  in  the  plain  of  Cossova  in  Sep.,  1389, 
by  the  Turks,  who,  in  the  next  century,  re- 
duced the  whole  country  under  their  sway  ; 
and  it  remained  a  province  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  with  but  slight  interruption  until  1717. 
Austria,  having  conquered  part  of  Servia  in 
1718,  was  obliged  to  resign  it  in  1739.  Marshal 
Laudohn  retook  Belgrade  Oct.  8,  1 789.  Austria 
restored  it  to  the  Sultan  in  1791.  In  1805  the 
Servians  rose  against  the  Turks  and  expelled 
them.  The  Turks  regained  what  they  had 
lost  in  1813-14,  and  Servia  again  became  a 
pashalic.  Another  insurrection  broke  out  in 
1815,  when  the  country  secured  its  indepen- 
dence. By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  March  30,  1856, 
Servia  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 
Great  Powers.  The  succession  to  the  throne 
of  Servia  was  declared  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Obrenovitch  by  the  national  Skuptchina, 
Sep.  i,  1861.  A  dispute  with  the  Turks,  which 
broke  out  in  Belgrade  (q.  v.),  June  15,  1862, 
was  terminated  by  an  armistice,  June  18. 
Negotiations  were  subsequently  entered  into 
between  the  Porte  and  the  Powers  engaged  in 


the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1856,  by  which  the  Turks 
agreed  (Sep.  4)  to  evacuate  two  of  their  six  for- 
tresses in  Servia,  reserving  to  themselves  the 
right  of  holding  garrisons  in  Belgrade,  Fetis- 
lau,  Schabatz,  and  Semen dria. 

SERVILE  WARS.— The  slaves  in  Sicily  re- 
belled against  their  Roman  masters  and  com- 
menced the  first  Servile  war,  B.C.  134.  They 
proclaimed  Eunoiis,  a  Greek  of  Syria,  king, 
sacked  Henna,  and  defeated  the  Roman  armies. 
Messana  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  who  killed 
8,000  rebels,  crucifying  all  the  prisoners,  B.O. 
133.  Tauromenium  and  Henna  fell,  B.C.  332, 
and  Eunoiis  was  captured  and  cast  into  prison, 
where  he  died.  Cleon,  the  second  leader,  fell 
in  a  sally,  and  the  war  terminated  with  the 

complete  subjection  of  the  slaves,  B.C.  132. 

The  slaves  again  took  up  arms,  B.C.  104,  and 
elected  one  Salvius,  who  took  the  name  of 
Tryphoii,  king.  In  the  west,  Athenion,  who 
had  been  a  bandit  chief,  assumed  the  chief 
command,  and  on  the  death  of  Tryphon,  B.C. 
102,  succeeded  to  the  royal  title.  The  slaves 
gained  possession  of  the  whole  island.  Manias 
Aquilius  Nepos,  after  two  years  of  cruel  war- 
fare, reduced  the  island  to  subjection,  B.C.  99. 
There  were  other  servile  wars  in  the  Roman 
empiiv.  <>\.) 

SKSSION,  COURT  OF,  the  principal  tribu- 
nal of  civil  jurisdiction  in  Scotland,  was  con- 
stituted, established  by  .statute,  May  17,  1532, 
and  opened  in  1533,  being  based  upon  institu- 
tions of  a  much  earlier  date.  The  Court  of 
Session  was  separated  into  two  divisions  in 
1808,  the  lord  president  presiding  in  one,  and 
the  lord  justice  clerk  in  the  other.  (See  JURY 

SKTTLKMKNT.—  *V-t  ACT  of  SETTLEMENT.) 
SL'VARA.yBIAXS.-In  1675  a  book  was 
printed  in  England,  entitled  "  History  of  the 
Sevaiites,"  purporting  to  narrate  the  adven- 
tures of  one  Capt.  Siden,  or  Lidon,  a 
people  of  that  name,  inhabiting  an  unknown 
country  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  The  book  was, 
in  fact,  a  very  clever  romance,  and  f on  i ; 
basis  of  a  "Histoire  des  Scvarambes,"  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam,  in  3  vols.,  between  1677 
and  1679.  Both  works  have  attracted  consider- 
able attention  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  re- 
specting authorship,  the  English  edition  being 
ascribed  to  Denis  Vairaase  d'Alais,  Algernon 
Sidney,  and  Isaac  Vussius,  and  the  French, 
with  much  greater  certainty,  to  Denis  Vairasse 
d'Alais.  The  subject  of  the  authorship  was 
discussed  in  Notes  and  Queries,  vols.  iii.  &  iv. 

SEVEN  BISHOPS  (Trial  of ).— A  declaration 
for  liberty  of  conscience,  intended  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  was  issued  by  James  II.  in  Scotland, 
Feb.  12,  and  in  England,  April  4  and  27,  1687. 
The  king  issued  it  again,  April  25,  1688,  and, 
May  4,  ordered  it  to  be  i~ead  in  the  churches, 
May  20  and  May  27.  William  Saucroft  (1616 — 
Nov.  24,  1693),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury ; 
Thomas  Ken  (1637 — March  19,  1711!,  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells;  John  Lake,  Bishop  of 
Chichester;  William  Lloyd,  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph ;  Sir  Jonathan  Trelawny,  Bishop  of 
Bristol;  Francis  Turner  (died  Nov.  2,  1700), 
Bishop  of  Ely ;  and  Thomas  White,  Bishop  of 


SEVEN  CAPTAINS 


[    895    ] 


SEVERIANS 


Peterborough,  presented  a  petition  to  James 
II.,  praying  to  be  excused,  May  18,  were 
examined  by  the  council  and  committed  to 
the  Tower,  June  8,  were  admitted  to  bail 
June  15,  and  were  tried  June  29  and  30,  being 
acquitted  on  the  last-mentioned  day.  The 
verdict  was  received  with  great  popular 
rejoicing. 

SEVEN  CAPTAINS,  or  CHIEFS  (War).— 
According  to  the  legend,  Polynices,  having  been 
driven  out  of  Thebes,  obtained  the  aid  of 
Adrastus,  King  of  Argos,  and,  with  five  other 
chieftains,  made  an  attack  .upon  each  of  the 
seven  gates  of  Thebes,  B.C.  1225.  All  the 
chiefs,  with  the  exception  of  Adrastus,  were 
killed,  and  some  years  afterwards  the  sons  of 
the  chiefs,  led  by  Adrastus,  formed  another 
expedition  against  Thebes,  which  they  cap- 
tured. The  former  was  also  called  the  first 
Theban  war,  and  the  latter  the  war  of  the 
Epigoni,  or  Descendants.  These  expeditions 
were  celebrated  in  two  epic  poems  called  the 
Thebais  and  the  Epigoni. 

SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA,  addressed 
by  the  apo*tle  John  from  the  isle  of  Patmos 
in  96  (Revelation  i.  4,  &c.),  were, — i.  Ephesus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  founded  by  St.  Paul,  about 
65,  of  which  he  ordained  Timothy  first 
bishop;  2.  Smyrna,  settled  by  a  colony  of 
Ephesians,  the  first  bishop,  Polycarp,  having 
been  put  to  death  in  the  Stadium,  about  166  ; 
3.  Pergamus,  in  Mysia,  which  rose  into  impor- 
tance under  Lysimachus,  B.C.  283  ;  4.  Thyatira, 
in  Lydia,  which  existed  under  other  names 
prior  to  receiving  this  designation  from 
Seleucus  (I.)  Nicator,  about  B.C.  312.  Lydia,  a 
seller  of  purple,  converted  by  St.  Paul,  at 
Philippi,  in  48,  was  a  native  of  this  city  (Acts 
xvi.  14).  5.  Sardis,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Lydia.  The  two  Greek  servants  of  a  Turkish 
miller  were  the  only  remaining  representatives 
of  the  church  here  in  1826.  6.  Philadelphia, 
in  Lydia,  founded  by  Attains  Philadelphus, 
B.C.  159.  It  contained  24  churches,  mostly  in 
ruins,  in  1827  ;  and  7.  Laodicea,  in  Phrygia, 
called  Diospolis  and  Rhoas,  until  rebuilt  by 
Antiochus  Thcus,  and  named  after  his  wife, 
B.C.  260.  St.  Paul  mentions  the  church  here 
(Colossians  iv.  16),  in  62. 

SEVEN  DAYS  OF  RICHMOND.— (See 
CHICKAHOMINY.) 

SEVEN  DAYS'  or  SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAR.— 
The  name  given  to  the  campaign  in  1866,  be- 
tween Austria  and  Prussia  (q.  v.),  in  alliance 
with  Italy,  on  account  of  its  short  du- 
ration. 

SEVEN  DOLOURS,  or  SORROWS,  OF  THE 
VIRGIN  MARY.— This  feast,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  celebrated  the  Friday  before 
Palm  Sunday,  was  instituted  in  the  i4th 
century.  The  Seven  Dolours  are  i.  The  pre- 
diction of  Simeon  (Luke  ii.  34-5)  ;  2.  The 
flight  into  Egypt ;  3.  The  loss  of  the  infant 
Jesus  in  Jerusalem  ;  4.  The  sight  of  Jesus 
bearing  his  cross  to  Calvary ;  5.  The  sight  of 
Jesus  on  the  cross  ;  6.  The  sight  of  his  side 
being  pierced  by  a  lance  ;  and  7.  The  burial  of 
Jesus. 

SEVEN  JOYS  OF  THE  VIRGIN  MARY.— 
(See  FEASTS.) 

SEVENOAKS  (Kent).— The  grammar-school 


was  founded  in  1418,  by  Sir  William  de 
Sevenoke,  or  Sennocke.  Here,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  Jack  Cade  and  his  rebel  army 
defeated  the  royal  army,  iinder  Sir  Humphrey 
Stafford,  who  fell  in  the  action,  June  27,  1450. 
(See  CADE'S  INSURRECTION.)  A  school  for  poor 
children  was  founded  in  1675,  by  Lady  Mar- 
garet Boswell. 

SEVEN  PINES  (Battle).— The  Confederates, 
commanded  by  Gens.  Longstreet  and  Stuart, 
defeated  the  Federals  near  Richmond,  Satur- 
day, May  31,  1862.  The  Federals  were  45,000 
strong,  whilst  the  Confederates  could  only  bring 
30,000  men  into  the  field.  The  battle  received 
its  name  from  seven  solitary  pine-trees  at  the 
spot  where  the  fiercest  fighting  took  place. 

SEVEN  SACRAMENTS.— (See  SACRAMENT.) 

SEVEN  SAGES,  or  WISE  MEN.  — This 
title  was,  about  B.C.  600,  given  to  seven  sages 
of  Greece.  Ancient  writers  do  not  agree 
respecting  the  names  of  the  seven.  The  prin- 
cipal authorities  are  in  favour  of  Bias  (about 
B.C.  570),  Periander  (B.C.  625—6.0.  585),  Pitta- 
cus  (B.C.  652 — B.C.  569),  Thales  (B.C.  640 — B.C. 
550),  and  Solon  (B.C.  638—8.0.  558).  Chilo, 
Ephor  of  Sparta,  and  Cleobulus,  Tyrant  of 
Liiidus  in  Rhodes,  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  completed  the  list. 

SEVEN-SHILLING  PIECES.— Gold  coins  of 
this  value  were  first  issued  in  England,  Nov. 
29,  1797. 

SEVEN  SLEEPERS.— This  feast,  kept  July 
27,  was  introduced  in  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity. According  to  the  legend,  the  Emperor 
Decius  set  up  a  statue  in  Ephesus  in  250,  and 
issued  an  order  that  all  the  inhabitants  were 
to  worship  it.  Seven  youths  refused,  and 
took  refuge  in  a  cavern  in  a  neighbouring 
mountain.  Decius,  hearing  of  this,  ordered  all 
the  caverns  to  be  closed  up ;  and  when  this  one 
was  opened  by  accident  in  447,  the  youths 
were  found  sleeping.  Various  versions  of  this 
legend  exist  in  different  countries,  and  a 
similar  one  is  given  in  the  Koran.  The  festival 
of  the  Seven  Brothers,  martyrs,  is  July  10. 

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTIST.— A  name  given 
to  a  Baptist  sect  of  Sabbatarians  (q.  v.). 

SEVEN  UNITED  ISLANDS.— (See  IONIAN 
ISLANDS.) 

SEVEN  WONDERS.— (See  WONDERS  OF  THE 
WORLD.) 

SEVEN  YEARS' or  THIRD  SILESIAN  WAR, 
waged  in  Germany  by  Prussia,  in  alliance  with 
England  and  some  smaller  German  states, 
against  Austria,  in  alliance  with  France,  Russia, 
and  Sweden  (See  PRUSSIA),  commenced  with 
the  invasion  of  Saxony  by  Frederick  II.,  Aug. 
31,  1756.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  were 
signed  at  Hamburg  between  Prussia  and 
Sweden  April  7,  1762  ;  and  the  definitive  treaty 
was  concluded  May  22  ;  and  between  Prussia 
and  Russia  at  St.  Petersburg,  May  5,  1762.  The 
treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763,  between  England, 
France,  Portugal,  and  Spain,  was  followed  by 
the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  between  Austria 
and  Prussia,  Feb.  15,  1763.  Silesia  was  de- 
finitively ceded  to  Prussia,  which  from  this 
time  took  rank  as  the  fifth  great  European 
power. 

SEVERIANS. —These  Monophysites,  a  rem- 
nant of  the  Acephali,  received  this  name  from 


SEVERUS'  WALL 


[     896    ] 


SHAKESPEARE'S  WORKS 


Severus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  about  518,  whose 
followers  they  became.  They  held  a  conference 
with  the  Catholics  at  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople in  532,  and  many  of  them  renounced 
their  errors. 

SEVERUS'  WALL.— (See  HADRIAN'S  WALL.) 
SEVILLE  (Spain),  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  was  the  ancient  Hispalis. 
The  Romans  called  it  Romula,  to  which  J  ulius 
Caesar,  who  made  it  his  capital,  B.C.  45, 
added  Julia.  The  Goths  wrested  it  from  the 
Romans,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  Moors, 
who  called  it  Ishbilliah,  in  711.  Abderahman 
made  it  his  capital  in  756,  and  it  continued 
subjectto  his  dynasty  till  1031.  It  was  besieged, 
Aug.  20,  1247,  by  Ferdinand  III.,  King  of 
Castile,  and  taken  by  him  Nov.  23,  1248,  and 
he  made  it  his  capital.  (See  MADRID  and 
VALLADOLID.)  From  that  time  it  formed  a 
part  of  Castile,  until  the  whole  of  Spain  became 
one  kingdom.  The  cathedral,  occupying  the 
site  of  a  Moorish  mosque,  was  commenced  in 
1349,  and  opened  in  1519.  The  giralda,  a  lofty 
tower,  part  of  the  ancient  mosque,  and  built 
in  1196,  serves  as  a  belfry  to  the  cathedral. 
Councils  were  held  here  Nov.  4  and  5,  590,  and 
Nov.  13,  619.  Seville  was  greatly  injured  by 
an  earthquake  in  1395.  The  Inquisition  >/.  ,-. 
commenced  operations  at  Seville,  Jan.  2,  1481. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1502,  and  the 
exchange  erected  by  Philip  II.  in  1553.  A 
junta  was  formed  at  Seville  in  1808,  which 
issued  a  proclamation  against  N.ipoleon  I., 
June  6.  It  surrendered  to  the  French  Jan. 
31,  1810,  was  occupied  by  Soult  in  May,  1810, 
and  again  July  7,  1811.  Seville  was  bombarded 

'.atero,  July  21,  1848.     (See  ITALICA.) 
S  FA' RES  (France).— The  porcelain- works  of 
Vincennes  were  transferred  to  this  small  town 
on  the  Seine,  between  Paris  and  Versailles,  in 

T755- 

SEWERS.— The  remains  of  sewers  have  been 
discovered  in  the  ruins  of  the  great  palace  of 
lh i/  Assyrian  kings  at  Nimroud.  The  earliest 
known  to  the  classic  authors  were  those  by 
Pheax,  in  Sicily,  which  were  constructed  of 
freestone.  The  celebrated  Cloaca  Maxima,  or 
Great  Sewer  of  ancient  Rome,  said  to  have  been 
constructed  by  Tarquinius  Priscus  (B.C.  600), 
is  still  used  in  the  drainage  of  the  city.  Com- 
missioners of  sewers  were  first  appointed  by 
6  Hen.  VI.  c.  5  (1427),  and  their  authority  was 
regulated  and  defined  by  23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5 
(1531).  This  act,  after  having  been  continued 
by  3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  8  (1549),  and  13  Eliz.  c.  9 
(1570),  was  amended  by  3  <fc  4  Will.  IV.  c.  22 
(June  28,  1833;.  Facilities  for  the  more  useful 
application  of  sewage  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  are  given  by  28  &  29  Viet.  c.  75  (June 
29,  1865).  (See  DRAINAGE.) 

S  E  W I N  G-M  A  CHI  X  E  S.— Thimonnier  pa- 
tented a  sewing-machine  at  Paris  in  1831,  and 
Heilman  exhibited  an  embroidering  sewing- 
machine  in  1834.  The  first  machine  for  pro- 
ducing what  is  called  the  mail-bag  stitch  was 
invented  by  Walter  Hind,  of  New  York,  in 
1834.  Elias  Howe,  of  Massachusetts,  took  out 
a  patent  for  one  in  May,  1841.  It  was  greatly 
improved  by  Thomas,  of  London,  who  took  out 
a  patent  in  June,  1846.  Great  improvements 
have  been  effected  of  late  years  in  the  sewing- 


machine,  for  which  numerous  patents  have 
been  taken  out. 

SEXAGE.SIMA  SUNDAY.— (See  SEPTUAGE- 
SIMA  SUNDAY.) 

SEXTANT.— Newton  made  some  improve- 
ments on  the  old  instrument  used  for  taking 
altitudes  at  sea  in  1699.  (See  QUADRANT.) 

SEXTIL1S.— The  month  of  August  was  called 
by  the  Romans  Sextilis,  i.  e.,  the  sixth  montu 
from  March,  from  which  they  began  their 
computation.  It  was  changed  to  August  in 
honour  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  B.C.  8. 

SEYCHELLES  ISLANDS  (Indian  Ocean\ 
called  by  the  Portuguese  Mascarenhas,  and 
by  the  French  La  Bourdonnais,  afterwards 
changed  to  Seychelles,  discovered  by  Vasi-o 
de  Gania  in  1502,  were  explored  by  Lazarus 
Picault  in  1743.  A  French  colony  was  formed 
on  the  island  of  Malic,  the  largest  of  the  group, 
about  1768.  They  capitulated  to  the  English 
in  1794,  were  not  occupied  till  1810,  and  were 
formally  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  1815. 

SHAF^EITES,    or    SHAFIITES.— (See    SON- 

NITES.) 

SHAFTESBURY  (Dorsetshire^,  called  Shas- 
ton,  was  built  in  880  by  Alfred  the  Great,  who 
founded  a  monastery  in  887.  Two  mints  were 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Athelstan  (924 — 941). 
Canute  died  here  Nov.  12,  1035.  This  town 
\vas  made  the  see  of  a  suffragan  bishop  by 
Henry  VIII. ,  John  Bradley  being  consecrated 
first  bishop  Feb.  23,  1538.  The  town-hall  was 
built  in  1578. 

S 1 1 A  1 1 .1  !•;  1 1  A  X I  '< )  H  E  I  iindostan).— The  pro- 
vince and  town  formed  part  of  the  possessions 
of  the  Rohillas  previous  to  their  defeat  by  the 
English  in  1774,  when  Shahjchanpore  was 
transferred  to  Oudh.  It  was  ceded  to  tiie 
East-  India  Company  in  1801. 

SHAKESPEARE  FESTIVALS. —The  first 
great  festival  in  honour  of  Shakespeare,  called  ' 
the  jubilee,  projected  by  David  Garrick,  was 
celebrated  at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  Sep.  6 — 8, 
1769.  The  entertainment,  which  comprised  a 
public  breakfast  in  the  town-hall,  a  performance 
of  the  oratorio  of  Judith  in  the  church,  an  as- 
sembly, a  masquerade,  a  recitation  by  Garrick 
in  praise  of  Shakespeare,  a  display  of  fireworks, 
and  a  horse-race,  was  severely  ridiculed  by 
many  contemporary  writers.  A  similar  festival 
was  celebrated  in  Sep.,  1770,  and  April  23,  1830. 
(See  SHAKESPEARE  TERCENTENARY.) 

SHAKESPEARE'S  W  O  R  K  S.— William 
Shakespeare,  the  son  of  John  Shakespeare  and 
his  wife,  Mary  Arden,  was  born  at  Stratford- 
upon-Avon,  April  23,  1564,  and  baptized  April 
26.  He  married  Anne  Hathaway  in  1582,  and 
repaired  to  London  about  1586.  He  died  at 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  April  23,  1616,  and  was 
buried  in  the  chancel  of  Stratford  church, 
April  25.  The  first  collected  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  in  folio  in  1623 ;  the 
second  edition  in  1632  ;  the  third  in  1664  ;  and 
the  fourth  in  1685.  The  Shakesperian  forgeries 
were  executed  by  Samuel  William  Henry 
Ireland,  son  of  a  dealer  in  curiosities  in  Norfolk 
Street,  Strand.  He  first  conceived  the  idea  of 
committing  the  fraud  in  1795,  while  on  a  visit 
with  his  father  at  Stratford.  One  of  the  plays, 
"Vortigern,"  was  purchased  by  Sheridan  for 


SHAKESPEARE'S   WORKS 


[    897    ] 


SHEBA 


Drury  Lane,  and  produced,  with  John  Kemble 
as  Vortigern,  in  1796,  when  it  failed.  Ireland 
acknowledged  the  fraud,  and  exonerated  his 
father  from  any  participation  in  the  same,  in 
his  "Confessions,"  published  in  1805.  (See 
CONCORDANCE.  )  The  house  in  which  the  poet 
is  supposed  to  have  been  born  was  sold  by 
auction,  Sep.  16,  1847,  and  purchased  for 
^3,000,  by  an  association  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Two  amateur  performances  were  held 
at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  in  aid  of  the  pro- 
ject, in  May,  1848  ;  and  it  was  proposed  to 
establish  Mr.  James  Sheridan  Knowles  (1784 — 
Dec.  i,  1862)  in  the  office  of  curator;  but  this 
portion  of  the  plan  was  abandoned.  In  May, 
1856,  Mr.  John  Shakespear,  professor  of  Orien- 
tal languages  at  Addiscombe,  signified  his 
willingness  to  give  ,£2,500  for  the  purpose  of 
purchasing  and  pulling  down  the  contiguous 
houses,  to  remove  the  danger  of  fire  ;  and  the 
gift  was  accepted,  and  applied  as  proposed. 
This  gentleman,  who  was  not  related  to  the 
poet,  died  June  10,  1858. 


speare  was  unveiled  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 
The  chief  commemoration,  which  took  place  at 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  commenced  with  a  ban- 
quet in  a  pavilion  erected  for  the  purpose, 
Saturday,  April  23,  followed  by  a  display  of 
fireworks  in  the  evening.  Handel's  "Messiah" 
was  performed  Monday,  April  25.  An  excur- 
sion to  Charlecote  and  other  places  occupied  the 
morning,  and  "  Twelfth  Night"  was  performed 
n  the  evening,  Tuesday,  April  26.  A  reading 
"rom  Shakespeare  was  given  in  the  morning, 
and  "Romeo  and  Juliet "  and  "The  Comedy 
of  Errors"  were  performed  in  the  evening, Wed- 
nesday, April  27.  A  miscellaneous  concert 
was  given  in  the  morning,  and  "  As  You  Like 
ft "  was  performed  in  the  evening,  Thursday, 
April  28  ;  and  the  Tercentenary  terminated 
with  a  fancy  ball  in  the  pavilion,  Friday,  April 

29SHALDIRAN,  CALDERAN,  or  KALDE- 
ROON  (Battle).— Ishmael,  Shah  of  Persia,  was 
defeated  in  the  valley  of  Shaldiran,  in  Persia, 
by  Selim  I.,  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans,  Aug.  23, 


First 

SHAMKUCK,  used  by  tne  Druids  lor  curing 
diseases,  and  by  the  Irish  as  food,  is  said  to 

known 
edition. 

Written. 

Dramatic  Works. 

have  been  employed  to  symbolize  the  Trinity, 

by  St.  Patrick,  in  433. 

1633 
1623 

Uncertain 
Ditto 

All's  Well  that  Ends  Well. 
Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

SHAN  COUNTRY.—  (See  LAOS.) 
SHANGHAI,  or  SHANGHAE  (China).—  This 

1623 
1623 

IS99 
Uncertain 

As  You  Like  It. 
Comedy  of  Errors. 

city,  captured  by  the  English  June  iq,  1842, 
was  restored  to  the  Chinese  in  the  following 

1623 
1623 
1604 

1610 
1609  _ 

Coriolanus. 
Cymbeline. 
Hamlet. 

year.     It  was  captured  by  the  insurgents  Sep. 
7,  1853,  but  was  soon  after  recovered  by  the 

1600 
1623 

1603 
'597 
I59« 
1599 
1591 

Julius  Cwsar. 
King  Henry  IV.,  Pt.  I. 
King  Henry  IV.,  Pt  II. 
King  Henry  V. 
King  Henry  VI.,  Pt.  I. 

Imperialists.   The  Taepings  were  defeated  near 
this  city  by  the  united  English  and  French 
troops,  March  i,  1862. 
SHAPED  VERSES,  by  which  a  poem  was 

1623 

Uncertain 

King  Henry  VI.,  Pt.  II. 

made  to  assume  the  form  of  various  objects, 

1623 

Ditto 

King  Henry  VI.,  Pt.  III. 

as  altars,  bottles,  &c.,  were  invented  by  Sim- 

1623 

Ditto 

King  Henry  VIII. 

mias,  of  Rhodes,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  324. 

1623 
1608 

Ditto 
1606 

King  John. 
King  Lear. 

Shahin  Ghiray,  Khan  of  the  Crimea  in  the  i8th 

IS97 

1593 

King  Richard  II. 

century,  wrote  a  Turkish  ode  in  the  form  of  a 

1593 

King  Richard  III. 

circle  or  star. 

1598 

About  1590 

Love's  Labour's  Lost 

SHARPSBURG,  or  ANTIETAM  (Battle).— 

1623 

Uncertain 
Ditto 

Macbeth. 
Measure  for  Measure. 

The   Confederate  generals  Lee   and  Jackson, 

1600 

1594 

Merchant  of  Venice. 

having  united  their  forces  Sep.   16,   1862,  at- 

1603 
1600 
1600 

1593 

Merry  Wives  of  Windsor. 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream. 
Much  Ado  about  Nothing. 
Othello. 

tacked  the  Federals  under  McClellan,at  Sharps- 
burg,  near  Antietam  Creek,  Sep.  17.     The  en- 
gagement, which  lasted  from  sunrise  till  even- 

1609 

Uncertain 

Pericles. 

ing,  with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides,  termi- 

1591 

Romeo  and  Juliet. 

nated    without    decisive    results,    Gen.    Lee 

1623 
1623 
1623 

Uncertain 
Before  1611 
1610 

Taming  of  the  Shrew. 
Tempest. 
Timon  of  Athens. 

withdrawing  his    army,    and  recrossing  the 
Potomac  without  opposition.  The  Confederates 

J594 

Uncertain 

Titus  Andronicus. 

had  only  35,000  men    against   above   100,000 

1609 

Ditto 

Troilus  and  Cressida. 

Federals. 

1623 
1623 

1600 
About  1591 
1611 

Twelfth  Night. 
Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona. 
Winter's  Tale. 

SHARPSHOOTERS.—  The  name  by  which 
riflemen  were  formerly  known.      (See  CHAS- 

1023 

SEURS  DE  VlNCENNES.) 

MISCELLANEOUS    WOEKS. 

SHAWLS.  —  The  manufacture  of  shawls  ori- 

1600 

Uncertain 

A  Lover's  Complaint 

ginated  in  Cashmere,  whence  the  finest  kinds 

1599 

Ditto 

Passionate  Pilgrim. 

are  still  imported  ;  and  it  was  introduced  into 

l  Various) 

Sonnets. 

this  country  by  Barrow  <fe  Watson,  of  Norwich, 

1609 

X  times   I 

in  1784.     A  shawl-manufactory  was  established 

1593 

Ditto 

Lucrece. 

at  Paris  in   1802,   and  in   1805  the    Norwich 

JS94 

makers  succeeded  in  producing  an  article  en- 

SHAKESPEARE TERCENTENARY,  Satur- 

tirely wrought  at  the  loom,  the  pattern  having 
been  previously  embroidered  by  hand. 

day,   April  2^,  1864,  was  celebrated  in  many 

SHEBA  (Arabia).  —This  kingdom  of  southern 

parts  of   England.    An  oak  was  planted  on 
Primrose  Hill,  London,  and  a  statue  of  Shake- 

Arabia,  embracing  the  greater  part  of  Arabia 
Felix,  was  named  after  Sheba,  one  of  the  sons 

3M 

SHECHEM 


SHERBORNE 


of  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  28).  The  Queen  of  Sheba 
visited  Solomon  B.C.  990  (i  Kings  x.  i — 13). 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  called  the  people 
Sabaei,  or  Sabteans. 

SHECHEM,  or  SICHEM  (Palestine),  also 
called  Sychar,  Neapolis,  and  Nablus,  the  first 
city  in  Canaan  visited  by  Abraham,  and  the 
place  where  he  received  a  renewal  of  tlig 
promise  that  his  posterity  should  inherit  the 
land  (Gen.  xii.  6  <fe  7),  B.C.  1921,  was  appointed 
as  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7), 
B.C.  1444.  Joshua  assembled  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  and  delivered  to  them  his  valedictory 
address  here  (Josh.  xxiv.  i),  B.C.  1427.  Abi- 
nielech  was  elected  king  by  its  inhabitants 
(Judges  ix.  6),  B.C.  1235,  and  "all  Israel"  came 
there  to  make  Rehoboam  king  (i  Kings  xii.  i  , 
B.C.  975.  At  Jacob's  well,  near  this  city,  our 
Saviour  talked  with  the  woman  of  Samaria 
(John  iv.  5),  May  13,  27.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Justin  Martyr,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
2nd  century. 

SHEEP. — Cotswold  sheep  were  sent  by  Ed- 
ward IV.  to  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  and  John  II. 
of  Aragon,  in  1464.  Merino  sheep  (q.  v.)  were 
first  introduced  into  England  in  1788.  The 
Leicester  breed  of  sheep  first  came  into  notice 
in  1755,  and  in  1780  the  South  Downs  were  in- 
troduced. Chinese  sheep  were  introduced  into 
this  country  by  the  Acclimatisation  Society, 
in  Jan.,  1862,  and  gained  prizes  at  the  show  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  held  in  June. 
Great  mortality  was  occasioned  among  the 
sheep  flocks  of  the  west  of  England  in  1862, 
by  small-pox.  An  order  in  council,  issued 
Sep.  10,  for  the  prevention  of  the  di- 
the  slaughter  of  infected  animals,  led  to  its 
speedy  suppression.  (See  DOG.) 

SHEEPSHANKS  COLLECTION.— TMa  col- 
lection of  paintings,  which  embraces  many  of 
the  best  productions  of  Sir  Edwin  Laudsecr, 
Mulready,  Leslie,  and  other  English  artists, 
was  presented  to  the  English  people  by  John 
Sheepshanks,  Feb.  2,  1857,  and  has  been  de- 
posited in  the  gallery  erected  for  the  purpose 
at  South  Kensington  Museum. 

SIIKKUXESS  ..Kent..— A  fort  was  built  at 
this  place  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  mounting 
12  guns,  in  1667.  The  Dutch  entered  the  river 
TVIedway,  and  captured  this  fort,  July  10,  1667. 
(See  NORE,  Mutiny.)  The  docks,  formed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  (1660—87),  were  much  im- 
proved in  1815.  A  great  fire,  which  destroyed 
50  houses  and  much  property,  occurred  July 

3 ^HEFFIELD  (Yorkshire).— Early  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.  the  manor  of  Sheffield  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  family  of  De  Lovetot, 
who  built  a  bridge  over  the  Don,  and  formed 
the  nucleus  of  a  town.  The  castle  was  built 
in  1237,  and  Edward  I-  granted  the  town  a 
charter  to  hold  a  weekly  market  Nov.  12,  1296. 
Sheffield  was  noted  for  its  steel  manufactures 
in  the  i3th  century.  The  wooden  bridge  was 
replaced  by  one  of  stone  in  1485.  Cardinal 
Wolsey  was  detained  prisoner,  Nov.  8,  1530, 
and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  brought  to  Shef- 
field castle  in  1570.  The  Earl  of  Shrewsbury's 
hospital  was  built  in  1616,  and  in  1624  the 
cutlers  obtained  an  act  of  incorporation.  Shef- 
field castle  surrendered  to  the  Parliamentary 


army  Aug.  10,  1644.  It  was  demolished  by 
order  of  the  Long  Parliament,  April  23,  1648. 
The  town-hall  was  erected  in  1700,  and  St. 
Paul's  church  in  1720.  The  first  silk-mill, 
which  proved  a  failure,  was  erected  in  1758. 
The  first  bank  was  opened  in  1770,  and  a 
cotton-mill,  commenced  in  1792,  was  soon 
after  abandoned.  The  general  infirmary  was 
erected  in  1798,  the  Mechanics' Institute  was 
established  in  1832,  and  the  town  received 
its  charter  of  incorporation  as  a  municipal 
borough  Aug.  24,  1843.  The  railroad  to 
Manchester  was  opened  Dec.  22,  1845.  John 
Arthur  Roebuck,  whose  family  was  connected 
with  the  town,  was  first  returned  as  its  member 
in  May,  1849.  Sheffield  suffered  from  the  burst- 
ing of  the  Bradfield  reservoir  (q.  v.),  March  n, 
1864.  The  theatre  was  burned  down  March  25, 
1865. 

SHELBURNE  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  soon  after  the  death  of  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham,  which  occurred  Monday,  July  i, 
1782.  This  ministry,  gazetted  July  10,  was 
thus  constituted  : — 

TrcMsury  Earl  of  Slielburne. 

I  .on  I  Chancellor Lord  Tliurlow. 

President  of  the  Council Lord  Ciinulen. 

PriTJ  Bed    Dukr  of  l.rafton. 

lorof  Exchequer  ...Mr.  Pitt. 

{Lord      Grantham    and     Mr. 
Thomas  To\Mi>he'.id, 

rrciitccl       Baron        Kvdney 
March  4,  1783. 
Aflmirnltv  JViseount,        created         Karl 

Admlralt^    (     Kcppel  April  33, 178* 

Secretary  at  War  Sir  C.  Yonjrc,  Bart. 

Treasurer  of  the  Navy Mr.  Henry  JJundas. 

Ordnance Duke  of  Richmond. 

This  ministry  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of 
the  vote  of  censure  passed  on  the  peace  of  Ver- 
sailles, Feb.  21,  1783.  (See  COALITION  [NORTH 
AND  Fox]  ADMINISTRATION.) 

SHELL.— This  warlike  weapon,  at  first  called 
a  bomb  (<[.  v.},  came  into  general  use  in  the 
i7th  century.  The  Shrapnell  shell  was  in- 
vented by  Col.  Shrapnell  in  1808.  (See  ARGO- 
N-ACTS OF  ST.  NICHOLAS,  MORTARS,  <fcc.) 

SHELL  CAMEO.— (See  CAMKO.) 

SHENDY  (Nubia).— Little  is  known  of  this 

Elace,  formerly  of  much  importance.  It  was 
lid  waste  by  the  Egyptian  forces  in  1822. 

SHENE,  SCHEEN,  or  SHEEN.— (See  RICH- 
MOND.) 

SHEPHERD  KINGS.— (See  HYCSOS.) 

SHEPHERDS.— (See  FLAGELLANTS,  and  PAS- 
TOUREAUX.) 

SHEPPEY  (Kent).— This  island  was  ravaged 
by  the  Danes  in  832.  They  wintered  here  in 
851,  and  in  1052  it  was  plundered  by  Earl 
Godwin.  Queenborough  Castle  was  built  by 
Edward  III.  in  1340,  and  so  named  in  honour 
of  his  Queen  Philippa.  It  was  rebuilt  by  him 
in  1361,  William  of  Wykeham,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Winchester,  being  the  architect.  The  castle 
was  repaired  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1536.  The 
Long  Parliament  passed  an  ordinance  (July  16, 
1650)  for  the  sale  and  destruction  of  the  castle, 
which  was  soon  afterwards  demolished. 

SHERBORNE  (Bishopric).— This  town  in 
Dorsetshire  was  made  an  episcopal  see  in  705, 
by  Ilia,  King  of  Wessex.  In  accordance  with 
a  decree  that  several  bishops'  sees  should  be 


SHEEBORO 


[    899    ] 


SHIP-BUILDING 


removed  from  obscure  places  to  more  impor- 
tant towns,  the  bishopric  of  Sherborne  was 
transferred  to  Old  Sarum  in  1072.  (See  SARUM.) 
The  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1551. 

SHERBORO.— (See  LIBERIA.) 

SHERBURN  HOSPITAL.— (See  DURHAM.) 

SHERE  THURSDAY.  —  (See  MAUNDY 
THURSDAY.  ) 

SHERIFF  -MUIR  (Scotland).— The  Scotch 
rebel  army,  under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  was  at- 
tacked on  this  plain,  near  Dumblane,  by  the 
royal  troops,  under  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  Sunday, 
Nov.  13,  1715.  The  loss  was  nearly  equal  on 
both  sides,  and  no  advantage  was  gained  by 
either. 

SHERIFF,  SHIRE-REVE,  from  the  Saxon 
reafan,  to  levy,  to  seize,  was  appointed  by  Alfred 
the  Great  (871 — 901)  to  assist  the  alderman  and 
the  bishop  in  the  discharge  of  their  judicial 
functions  in  counties.  One  of  the  "Provisions 
of  Oxford,"  June  n,  1258,  required  that  the 
freeholders  should  have  the  privilege  of  elect- 
ing a  sheriff  annually.  This  privilege  appears 
to  have  been  confirmed  or  renewed  by  28  Edw. 
I.  c.  8  (1300).  In  making  the  periodical  circuit  of 
his  shire  the  sheriff  was  attended  by  the  nobles 
until  they  were  relieved  from  the  duty  by  52 
Hen.  III.  c.  10  (1267).  By  14  Edw.  III.  c.  7, 
it  was  enacted  that  he  should  be  "  ordained  on 
the  morrow  of  All  Souls,  Nov.  3,  by  the  chan- 
cellor, treasurer,  and  chief  baron  of  the  Exche- 
qiier"(i34i).  Although  the  sheriffs  are  now 
nominated  on  the  morrow  of  St.  Martin's  (Nov. 
12),  the  "pricking  "  takes  place  on  the  morrow 
of  the  Purification  (Feb.  3).  The  office  for 
Durham  was  hereditary  in  the  bishop  till  1836. 
By  i  Edw.  IV.  c.  2,  all  sheriffs  except  those  of 
London  were  forbidden  to  proceed  judicially 
(1461).  The  only  instance  of  a  female  sheriff  is 
that  of  Anne,  Countess  of  Pembroke,  who  on 
the  death  of  her  father,  the  Earl  of  Cumber- 
land, without  male  heirs,  in  1643,  succeeded  to 
the  office  in  Westmoreland  and  attended  the 
judges  to  Appleby.  (See  EXECUTIONS,  POULTRY 
COMPTER,  &c.) 

SHETLAND  ISLES.— (See  ORKNEY  ISLES.) 

SHIBBOLETH,  in  Hebrew  a  stream  or  flood, 
was  the  test  applied  by  the  Gileadites  to  the 
fugitive  Ephraimites.  When  required  to  utter 
the  word,  they  pronounced  it  Sibbpleth,  and 
were  put  to  death,  42,000  falling  victims  on 
that  occasion,  B.C.  1187  (Judges  xii.  6). 

SHIELD  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  part 
of  the  equipment  of  warriors,  Goliath  being 
preceded  by  "  one  bearing  a  shield  "  (i  Sam. 
xvii.  7)  in  his  contest  with  David,  B.C.  1063. 
The  Egyptian  sculptures  have  illustrations 
of  shields,  generally  about  half  as  broad  as 
they  are  long,  and  covered  with  bulls'  hides 
strengthened  with  metal  rims  and  studs. 
The  Assyrian  shields  were  remarkable  for  the 
variety  of  their  form  and  construction.  Large 
wicker  defences  named  gerrhas,  equalling  in 
height  the  warrior  by  whom  they  were  used, 
were  employed  by  archers  and  soldiers  en- 
gaged in  undermining  the  walls  of  besieged 
cities,  but  the  shields  most  in  use  were  of 
smaller  size,  circular,  and  generally  convex 
in  form,  being  frequently,  adorned  with  ele- 
gant inlaid  patterns,  and  armed  with  spikes. 
They  were  constructed  of  bronze,  iron,  silver, 


and  gold.  The  Greeks  used  large  circular  con- 
vex shields,  made  in  the  early  ages  of  wicker, 
or  wood,  protected  by  bulls'  hides  and  bound 
with  metal,  and  at  a  later  period  constructed 
entirely  of  metal,  and  frequently  adorned  with 
artistic  sculptures  and  devices.  The  Romans 
used  oblong  shields  curved  over  the  arm.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  used  leather  shields  with  iron 
rims.  Pointed  kite-shaped  shields,  common  in 
ancient  Sicily,  were  brought  into  England  by 
the  Normans  in  1066,  and  became,  under  various 
modifications,  the  most  usual  type  of  the 
shields  of  chivalry.  During  the  isth  and  i6th 
centuries  shields  commonly  had  an  indenture 
termed  a  bouche  cut  into  the  right-hand  top 
corner,  through  which  the  spear  of  the  knight 
was  passed  when  about  to  charge  an  adver- 
sary. 

SHIITES,  or  SECTARIES,  also  known  as 
the  sect  of  Ali,  the  followers  of  Ali  (cousin 
and  son-in-law  of  Mohammed),  are  called  by 
the  Sonnites,  or  Sunnites,  Shiites,  i.  e.  repro- 
bates. Ali  became  caliph  in  651,  and  reigned 
till  Jan.  21,  66 1,  when  he  was  assassinated. 
The  Sonnites  are  the  established  sect  in  Tur- 
key, and  the  Shiites  in  Persia  and  parts  of 
India.  Picart  enumerates  the  various  points 
of  difference  between  them.  They  were  aiter- 
wards  called  Fatimites.  (See  CARMATHIANS.) 

SHILLING,  or  TESTOON,  was  first  coined 
by  Henry  VII.  in  1504,  although  Pinkerton 
says  coins  of  that  name  were  struck  at  Ham- 
burg in  1407.  Henry  VIII.  caused  the  pound 
of  silver,  one-third  fine,  to  be  coined  into  48 
shillings  in  1547.  The  ministers  of  Edward  VI. 
produced  72  out  of  the  pound,  three-fourths 
being  alloy  (1547 — 1553).  It  was  first  com- 
pletely milled  in  1651. 

SHILOH.— (See  PITTSBURG  LANDING,  Battle.) 

SHIP.— (See  COCKLE,  Order.) 

SHIP-BUILDING.— This  art  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  Egypt,  whence  it  was  imported 
into  Greece  by  Danaus,  B.C.  1485.  The  Pho3- 
nicians  practised  it  at  an  early  date,  and  were 
the  first  people  who  ventured  on  long  sea- 
voyages.  Masts  and  sails  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  the  Athenian  mechanician 
Daedalus,  about  B.C.  1240,  and  triremes,  or 
galleys  with  three  banks  of  oars,  by  the 
Corinthians,  B.C.  786.  The  Romans  constructed 
three  classes  of  ships  :  the  naves  longce,  used 
in  war ;  the  naves  onerarice,  or  ships  of  burden, 
employed  in  commerce ;  and  the  naves  liburnce, 
vessels  of  great  speed,  which  served  as  dis- 
patch boats.  Oak  was  first  employed  in 
marine  architecture  by  the  Veneti.  Copper 
and  brass  fastenings  were  substituted  for  iron 
in  the  reign  of  Nero  (54 — 68),  and  caulking 
with  flax  and  sheathing  with  metal  were  also 
practised  at  the  same  time.  The  Danes  and 
Saxons  used  stout  single-masted  ships,  adorned 
at  the  prow  with  the  sculptured  head  of  some 
animal  as  an  ensign.  (See  NAVY,  ENGLISH.) 
Carracks,  an  important  class  of  large  vessels, 
are  first  mentioned  about  1449  >  and  lateen 
sails  were  used  in  small  ships  in  1483.  The 
3reat  Harry,  built  by  Henry  VII.  in  1488, 
aad  five  masts.  Port-holes  were  invented  in 
France  by  Descharges  about  the  year  1500, 
and  in  1572  sprit-sails  are  mentioned.  The 
first  three-decker  on  record  is  a  Spanish  vessel 

3M   2 


SHIP-MONEY 


[    900    1 


SHOES 


engaged  in  an  action  with.  Sir  Richard  Grcn- 
ville  off  the  Azores  in  1591.  The  Shipwrights1 
Company,  founded  in  1605,  was  incorporated 
by  royal  charter  in  May,  1612.  The  Sovereign 
of  the  Sen*,  launched  in  1637,  was  the  first 
English  three-decker  ;  and  the  Const  <nd  Wcr- 
•tcick,  built  in  1649,  the  first  English  frigate. 
The  earliest  English  work  on  ship-building  is 
"The  Invention  of  Shipping."  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  published  in  1650.  A  Society  for  the 
Improvement  of  Naval  Architecture  was  in- 
stituted in  1791;  and  in  1811  a  government 
school  of  naval  architecture  was  established 
at  Portsmouth  dockyard.  Steam-ships  (>/.  r. } 
were  first  constructed,  with  success,  in  1812. 
In  1833  and  1834  two  iron  steamers  were  built 
by  Fairbairn,  of  Manchester,  for  passenger 
traffic  on  the  Humber  ;  and  in  1836  iron  ship- 
building yards  were  opened  at  Mill-wall,  on  the 
Thames.  In  1837  the  General  Steam  Navigation 
Company  started  the  Hainliotc,  an  iron  vessel 
built  by  Laird,  of  Deptford,  and  the  material 
has  since  been  generally  adopted  in  the  con- 
struction of  ships.  A  series  of  experiments, 
instituted  by  the  Admiralty,  commenced  early 
in  1834,  and  iron  ships  have  since  been  con- 
structed for  the  royal  navy.  (See  ARMOUR- 
PLATED  SHIPS.  FLOATING  HATTKKIKS,  &c.) 

Kill  I'-M<  )XEY.--Kthelred  II.  ordered  a  fleet 
to  be  prepared  to  oppose  the  Danes  by  a  levy 
on  all  land  throughout  Kngland,  in  1008.  The 
impost  \v;is  also  collected  under  Elizabeth  in 
1588.  Under  Charles  I.  a  writ  from  the  council 
ordered  it  to  be  enforced  in  London  and  other 
seaport  towns  in  Oct.,  1635.  The  sum  thus 
raised  being  insufficient,  writs  were  issued  to 
all  counties  and  towns  alike,  and  the  judges 
supported  it  by  the  opinion  that  it  v,  B 
in  1636.  John  Ilainpdcn,  refusing  to  pay  i), 
was  cited  in  the  court  of  Exchequer,  when 
10  of  the  12  judges,  the  exceptions  being 
Croke  and  Hutton,  gave  judgment  for  the 
crown,  June  12, 1637.  A  bill  (if>  Charles  I.  c.  14) 
was  passed  in  Parliament,  annulling  this  judg- 
ment and  declaring  the  tax  illegal,  five  of  the 
judges  who  had  argued  in  favour  of  it  being 
imprisoned  in  1641. 

SHIPWRECKS.  — (See  ROYAL  NATIONAL 
LIFE-BOAT  INSTITUTION,  WRECKS,  &c.) 

SHIRAZ  (Persia^,  once  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  and  residence  of  the  Shahs,  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  in  697.  The  principal 
mosque  was  built  in  1226.  It  suffered  from 
earthquakes  in  1812  and  1824,  and  was  nearly 
destroyed  in  April,  1853. 

SHIRE.  —  (See  COUNTIES,  KNIGHTS  OF  THE 
SHIRE,  &c.) 

SHIRT.-  This  article  of  dress  was  in  general 
use  in  the  4th  century.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
wore  shirts  in  the  8th  century.  They  were 
embroidered  with  silk  and  gold  and  silver 
thread  in  the  i6th,  and  the  doublets  were 
greatly  shortened,  so  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  shirt  might  be  seen,  in  the  iyth  century. 

SIIIRVAN,  or  SHIRWAN  ;  Russia  in  Asia  .— 
This  province  formed  part  of  the  Armenian 
monarchy  until  the  6th  century,  when  it 
came  under  the  sway  of  Persia.  At  a  subse- 
quent period  it  recovered  its  independence, 
and  in  the  gth  century  passed  under  the  sway 
of  the  caliphs.  It  was  conquered  by  the 


Persians  in  1580,  ceded  by  them  to  Turkey  in 
1589,  restored  soon  after,  and  ceded  to  Russia 
in  1812.  It  was  divided  into  two  governments 
in  1847. 

SHOA,  or  SHOO  A  (Africa).— This  kingdom, 
in  Abyssinia,  has  been  visited  by  many  Euro- 
pean travellers.  Capt.  Baker  and  his  wife 
reached  Shoa  Jan.  13,  1864,  on  the  journey  for 
the  exploration  of  the  Nile. 

SHOEBLACKS.— -The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  cleaned  shoes  with  a  sponge,  and  the 
mediaeval  Europeans  by  washing.  Oil  and 
other  kinds  of  grease,  and  soap,  were  em- 
ployed as  preservatives  of  leather,  previous  to 
the  invention  of  blacking,  which  was  origi- 
nally composed  of  soot,  and  produced  no 
polish.  Owing  to  the  unpaved  condition  of 
the  streets,  shoeblacks  were  common  in 
London  during  the  i8th  century,  but  gra- 
dually became  extinct.  Charles  Knight  al- 
ludes to  "  the  la  ft  of  th  f  shoeblacks"  as  plying 
his  vocation  in  Fleet  Street  about  1820.  The 
existing  ragged  school  shoeblack  brigade  was 
founded  in  1851,  to  provide  for  the  foreign 
visitors  to  the  Great  Exhibition.  Five  boys 
were  sent  out  on  Monday,  March  31,  in  that 
year,  and  by  March  31,  1854,  256  boys  plied 
their  vocation  as  shoeblacks  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Ragged  School  Union. 

BHOEBURYNES8  rKsscx\— A  Danish  camp 
was  formed  here  in  895,  and  the  ground  was 
set  apart  as  ranges  for  the  use  and  practice  of 
art  illrry  by  25  <fc  26  Viet.  c.  36  (July  17,  1862). 

SHOEMAKERS  formed  a  separate  trade  in 
Egypt  as  early  as  B.  c.  1495.  Among  the 
they  wrought  in  stalls,  which  proved 
so  obstructive  to  the  streets  of  the  city,  that 
an  order  for  their  removal  was  issued  by 
Domitian  (81 — 96).  The  "  cobblers'  wax"  of 
the  present  day  was  employed  by  the  ancients, 
and  bristles  appear  to  have  been  substituted 
for  needles  at  least  as  early  as  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. St.  Crispin  and  his  brother  Crispinian, 
the  patron  saints  of  shoemakers,  according  ;<> 
the  old  legend,  became  converts  to  Christianity, 
and  travelled  through  France  and  Britain, 
supporting  themselves  by  making  shoes  for 
the  poor,  for  which  an  angel  supplied  them 
with  leather.  Their  day  is  Oct.  25,  and  they 
are  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  Eng- 
land in  the  3rd  century.  (See  CORD  WAIN  i:i;s.) 

SHOES. — The  ancients  usually  wore  sandals 
'•(].  i\),  which  are  mentioned  under  the  title 
of  buskins  and  cothurni,  and  were  often 
very  costly.  The  crescent  was  employed  as 
an  ornament  in  the  shoes  of  Romans  of 
exalted  rank,  who  appear  to  have  carried  on 
the  art  of  shoemaking  with  great  taste  and 
skill.  Only  one  instance  is  known  of  an  an- 
cient monument  exhibiting  shoes  with  sepa- 
rate heel-pieces.  The  custom  of  making  shoes 
right  and  left  was  common  in  classical  times. 
The  earliest  coverings  for  the  feet  used  by  the 
Britons  were  brogues  of  raw  cow-hide,  with 
the  hairy  side  turned  outward,  and  known  as 
<-* :<j'i<i ifi.v  ;  they  also  wore  a  species  of  buskin, 
called  the  bwutais,  or  butis.  The  Saxon  and 
Norman  shoes  mostly  covered  the  ankles,  and 
were  convenient  in  form  and  tasteful  in  ap- 
pearance ;  but  in  the  reign  of  William  II. 
(1087 — noo)  boots  and  shoes  with  peak  toes, 


SHOLAPORE 


[    901    ] 


SHREWSBURY  ADMIN. 


called  ocrea  rostrata,  were  introduced.  In  the 
time  of  Richard  II.  (1377 — 99)  the  peak-toed 
shoes  were  carried  to  such  an  excess  that  the 
toes  were  chained  to  the  knees  of  the  wearer, 
to  enable  him  to  walk  with  freedom.  This 
fashion  gave  way  to  the  opposite  extreme 
towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
(1461 — 83),  when^  shoes  with  extremely  broad 
toes  were  introduced  and  worn  till  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth.  Slashed  shoes  with  large  ro- 
settes were  then  introduced,  and  continued 
in  fashion  till  the  Puritans  obtained  the  as- 
cendancy. Philip  Stubbes  enumerates,  among 
the  excesses  of  the  gentry,  that  "they  have 
corked  shoes,  puisnets,  pantofles,  and  slippers  ; 
some  of  them  of  black  velvet,  some  of  white, 
some  of  green,  and  some  of  yellow ;  some  of 
Spanish  leather,  and  some  of  English,  stitched 
with  silk,  and  embroidered  with  gold  and 
silver  all  over  the  foot,  with  other  gewgaws 
innumerable."  Chopines,  or  Chapineys,  a  kind 
of  over-shoe  with  very  thick  soles,  were  intro- 
duced from  the  East  in  the  i7th  century,  and 
are  mentioned  by  Thomas  Coryate  (Crudities, 
1611),  as  forming  a  remarkable  part  of  Vene- 
tian female  attire,  and  as  being  "of  a  great 
height,  even  half  a  yard  high ;  and  by  how 
much  the  nobler  a  woman  is,  by  so  much  the 
higher  are  her  chapineys."  He  adds  that  the 
wearers  of  these  chopines  "are  assisted  and 
supported  either  by  men  or  woineti  when  they 
walk  abroad,  to  the  end  that  they  may  not 
fall."  Allusion  is  made  to  these  in  Hamlet 
(act  ii.  sc.  2),  who,  addressing  one  of  the 
players,  says,  "  Your  ladyship  is  nearer 
heaven  than  when  I  saw  you  last,  by  the 
altitude  of  a  chopine."  They  were  discon- 
tinued in  Venice  in  1670.  At  the  Restoration, 
an  ugly  shoe,  with  high  heels,  square  toes, 
and  enormous  stiff  ties,  which  stood  out  on 
both  sides  for  some  inches,  was  introduced ; 
and  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  (1689 — 1702) 
small  buckles  were  substituted  for  the  ties. 
At  this  period  the  fashion  of  colouring  the 
high  heels  red  became  general,  and  continued 
till  about  1790,  when  ladies  ran  into  the  other 
extreme,  and  adopted  shoes  without  raised 
heels.  Shoe-strings  were  substituted  for 
buckles  about  1800.  (See  BOOTS,  QUOITS,  &c.) 

SHOLAPORE  (Hindostan)  is  mentioned  in 
1478  as  one  of  the  principal  strongholds  of  the 
Bahmani  sovereigns.  Aurungzebe  took  it  in 
1685.  In  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  Jan.,  1818.  It  was 
formed  into  a  separate  collectorate  in  1838. 

SHOP-TAX.— A  scale  of  duties  on  all  shops 
except  those  occupied  by  bakers  was  prepared 
by  25  Geo.  III.  c.  30  (1785).  This  act  was  ex- 
plained and  amended  by  26  Geo.  III.  c.  9 
(1786),  and  the  duties  were  repealed  by  29  Geo. 
111.  c.  9(1789). 

SHORTER  CATECHISM.— (-See  CATECHISM.) 

SHORTHAND,  or  STENOGRAPHY.— 
Among  the  Greeks  its  invention  was  variously 
asciibed  to  Pythagoras  (B.C.  580  —  B.C.  507) 
and  to  Xenophon  (B.C.  444 — B.C.  357).  Ennius 
(B.C.  239 — B.C.  169),  the  Latin  poet,  is  also 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor.  It  is  likewise 
ascribed  to  Cicero  (B.C.  106 — 43),  who  certainly 
practised  it  and  taught  the  art  to  his  freednian 


Tiro,  the  oration  on  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline 
having  been  preserved  by  this  means,  B.C.  63. 
The  first  English  work  on  the  subject,  by  Dr. 
Timothy  Bright,  dedicated  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, appeared  in  1588.  Another,  by  Peter 
Bale,  was  published  in  1600.  The  first  regular 
alphabet  was  published  by  John  Willis  in 
1602.  Treatises  on  the  art,  by  Edmund  Willis, 
appeared  in  1618;  by  Witt  in  1630;  and  by 
Dix  in  1633.  Another,  by  Rich,  which  re- 
ceived the  commendation  of  John  Locke,  was 
issued  in  1654.  Mason's  system  was  published 
in  1682.  Thomas  Gurney's  system  was  pub- 
lished in  1753,  and  Dr.  Byrom's  was  completed 
in  1720.  Fifty  copies  for  his  friends  were 
printed  in  1749,  and  having  been  secured  by 
act  of  Parliament,  was  published  after  his 
death  in  1767.  Taylor's  system  appeared  in 
1786;  Mavor's  in  1789;  and  Lewis's  in  1815. 
Mr.  Isaac  Pitman's  system,  under  the  name 
of  phonography,  was  published  in  1837.  (See 
NOTARIES,  PUBLIC.) 

SHORT-LIVED  ADMINISTRATION.— (-See 
LONG-LIVED  ADMINISTRATION.) 

SHOT.— Stone  shot  was  employed  in  China 
as  early  as  757,  and  a  cannon  to  fire  square 
shot  was  tried  at  Bruges  in  1346.  Bullets  of 
iron,  lead,  brass,  and  stone  are  mentioned 
during  the  i4th  century.  The  method  of 
making  shot  by  pouring  melted  lead  from  a 
great  height  into  cold  water  was  invented 
about  1782  by  Watts,  a  plumber  of  Bristol. 
Red-hot  shot  was  used  by  the  English  with 
great  effect  against  the  Floating  Batteries 
(q.  v.)  at  Gibraltar  in  1782.  (See  CHAIN  SHOT.) 

SHREWSBURY.  — (See  HATELEY  FIELD, 
Battle.) 

SHREWSBURY  (Shropshire),  called  Peng- 
wern  by  the  Welsh,  is  a  very  ancient  town.  It 
was  taken  by  Llewelyn  in  1212.  The  statute 
of  Acton  Burnel  was  passed  at  a  Parliament 
held  here  by  Edward  I.,  Sep.  30,  1283.  The 
town  was  captured  by  the  Parliamentary  army 
in  1644.  The  statue  to  Lord  Clive  was  inau- 
gurated Jan.  18,  1860. 

SHREWSBURY  ADMINISTRATION.— Two 
days  previous  to  her  death  (July  29,  1714), 
Queen  Anne  appointed  Charles,  Duke  of 
Shrewsbury  (at  that  time  lord  chamberlain 
and  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland),  lord  high 
treasurer,  in  place  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  who 
had  been  compelled  to  resign,  July  27.  The 
Duke  of  Shrewsbury  was  the  last  to  hold  the 
office  of  Lord  High  Treasurer.  The  other 
members  of  the  Oxford  ministry  (See  HARLEY 
ADMINISTRATION)  remained  in  office.  No  sooner 
had  Queen  Anne  expired  (Aug.  i,  1714)  than, 
by  order  of  the  Elector  of  Brunswick,  the  fol- 
lowing 19  peers  were  appointed  under  the 
Regency  Bill  as  lords  justices  of  the  kingdom. 

The  Archbishop  of  York.          Earl  of  Anglesey. 

I)nke  of  Shrewsbury.  Earl  of  Carlisle. 

Duke  of  Somerset.  Earl  of  Nottingham. 

Duke  of  Bolton.  Earl  of  Abingdon. 

Duke  of  Devonshire.  Earl  of  Scarborough. 

Duke  of  Kent  Earl  of  Orford. 

Duke  of  Argyle.  Lord  Townshend. 

Duke  of  Montrose.  Lord  Halifax. 

Duke  of  Roxburgh.  Lord  Cowper. 
Earl  of  Pembroke. 

By  the  nth  clause  of   the  Regency  Act  the 


SHREWSBURY  SCHOOL 


[    902     1 


SIBYL 


administration  of  the  government  until  the 
sovereign  arrived  devolved  upon  the  following 
seven  great  officers  : — 

Tenison,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Lord  Harcourt,  Lord  Chancellor. 

Duke  of  Buckingham,  Lord  President. 

l)uke  of  Shrewsbury,  Lord  High  Treasurer. 

Earl  of  Dartmouth.  Privy  Seal. 

Earl  of  Strafford,  1  irst  Lord  of  Admiralty. 

Sir  Thomas  Parker,   afterwards    Lord   Parker,    Lord 

Chief  Justice. 

The  lords  of  the  regency  appointed  Joseph 
Addison  their  secretary,  Aug.  3.  Lord  Boling- 
broke  was  dismissed  by  order  of  George  I. ; 
and  three  of  the  lords  of  the  regency  went  to 
receive  his  seal  of  office  Aug.  31.  Lord  Town- 
shend  was  appointed  in  his  place  Sep.  1 7.  Lord 
Harcourt  was  removed  from  the  lord  chancel- 
lorship Sep.  19.  George  I.  entered  London 
Sep.  20.  Other  changes  were  made,  and  a 
ministry  was  formed  by  Lord  Halifax,  Oct.  5. 
(See  HALIFAX  ADMINISTRATION.) 

SHREWSBURY  SCHOOL,  founded  by  let- 
ters patent  of  Edward  VI.  in  1551,  was  not 
opened  till  1562.  Elizabeth  granted  a  new 
charter  in  1571.  By  an  indenture,  dated  Feb. 
ii,  1577,  a  constitution  was  granted,  and  great 
alterations  were  made  by  38  Geo.  III.  c.  68. 
(June  28,  1798). 

SHROVE-TUESDAY.  —  This  day  was  for- 
merly known  as  Fasguntide,  Fastingtide, 
Fastens,  or  Fastrnass,  from  its  having  been  a 
time  of  fasting,  and  Confession-Tuesday  be- 
cause it  was  a  day  on  which  it  was  customary 
for  Roman  Catholics  to  confess  themselves. 
The  custom  of  eating  pancakes  on  Shrove- 
Tuesday  originated  in  the  circumstance  that 
penitents  were  permitted  to  indulge  in  amuse- 
ments after  confession,  but  not  to  exceed  any 
of  the  usual  substitutes  for  flesh-meat  in  their 
re] cists.  In  1445  Simon  Eyer,  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  commenced  the  practice  of  giving  a 
pancake-feast  to  the  apprentices  of  the  city  on 
this  day,  and  the  custom  was  continued  by 
several  of  his  successors.  The  Monday  pre- 
ceding Shrove-Tuesday  was  vulgarly  known  as 
Collop-Monday,  from  a  peculiar  dish  which 
was  eaten  on  that  day.  (See  QUINQUAGESIMA 
SUNDAY.) 

SHUMLA.— (See  SCHUMLA.) 

SIAM  (Asia).— Ayuthia,  or  Yutliia,  the  old 
capital,  was  founded  in  1350.  The  Portuguese, 
after  the  conquest  of  Malacca,  established 
communications  with  Siam  in  1511.  Having 
been  subjected  by  the  Burmese,  it  recovered 
its  independence  about  the  close  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  Dutch  obtained  a  footing  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i7th  century.  The  first  Eng- 
lish vessel  visited  Ayuthia  in  1612.  Phaulkon, 
a  native  of  Cephalonia,  who  had  been  a  sailor 
on  board  English  vessels,  gained  considerable 
influence  with  the  king,  and  was  promoted  to 
an  important  office  about  the  end  of  the  ijth 
century.  He  persuaded  the  king  to  send  an 
embassy  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  it  reached  France 
in  1684.  The  embassy  also  visited  London, 
and  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
government  of  Charles  II.  in  1684.  A  French 
embassy  was  dispatched  with  the  view  of  con- 
verting the  king  to  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, in  1685  ;  and  another,  accompanied  by  a 
corps  of  500  soldiers,  in  1687.  The  French 


soldiers  having  been  put  in  possession  of  the 
fort  of  Bangkok,  by  Phaulkon,  a  revolution 
took  place.  The  king  was  dethroned,  the 
ministers  were  slain,  and  the  French  driven 
from  the  country  in  1690.  Bangkok  was  made 
the  capital  in  1760.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
Burmese,  who  captured  Ayuthia,  or  Yuthia, 
the  capital,  in  1766.  The  king  having  lost  his 
life,  a  Chinese  adventurer,  who  seized  upon 
supreme  power,  was  dispossessed  in  1782.  The 
Burmese  again  invaded  Siam  in  1786,  and  were 
repulsed.  They  returned  in  1792,  and  peace  was 
concluded  in  1793.  The  Marquis  of  Hastings, 
while  Governor-general  of  India,  endeavoured 
to  establish  commercial  relations  with  Siam  in 
1822,  but  with  little  success.  The  English  re- 
ceived its  support  in  their  war  with  the  Bur- 
mese in  1824,  and  negotiated  a  commercial 
treaty  in  1826.  Missionaries  have  laboured 
amongst  the  people  since  1828.  A  new  treaty 
was  concluded  with  England  by  Sir  John 
Bowring,  April  30,  1855,  and  it  was  ratified 
April  5,  1856.  Ambassadors  from  Siam  having 
arrived  at  Portsmouth,  Oct.  27,  1857,  Queen 
Victoria  held  a  court  for  their  reception,  Nov. 
1 6,  when  they  presented  letters  and  presents 
from  the  two  kings  of  the  country. 

SIAMESE  TWINS,  two  youths,  Chang  and 
Eng,  born  in  Siam  in  1811,  united  by  a  band  of 
flesh,  were  exhibited  in  America  in  1829,  in 
England,  and  in  parts  of  Europe  soon  after. 

SIBERIA  (Asia)  was  invaded  by  the  Mon- 
gols, who,  to  the  number  of  15,000  families, 
settled  in  1242.  Yermak  Timofeyew,  a 
Cossack,  crossed  the  Ural  and  made  consi- 
derable conquests  in  1579.  He  was  drowned 
in  the  Irtish  in  1584.  The  Russian  power 
gradually  extended,  and  the  city  of  Tomsk 
was  built  in  1604.  An  expedition  conquered 
the  Yakutes,  and  reached  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk 
in  1639.  The  nation  of  the  Buriates,  partly 
subdued  in  1620,  was  conquered  in  1658.  The 
town  of  Irkutsk  was  built  by  Iwan  Pochaboff 
in  1 66 1.  Disputes  with  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment, respecting  the  conquest  of  Da-Uria, 
were  settled  by  treaty  in  1689.  It  was 
confirmed  by  another,  which  fixed  the  bound- 
aries between  the  two  countries,  in  1727.  The 
Swedish  prisoners  taken  in  the  war  were  exiled 
to  Siberia  by  Peter  I.,  in  1710.  The  Russians 
explored  the  north-eastern  coasts  in  1790. 

SIBYL.— The  sibyl  of  Cumae  is  the  most 
famous  of  these  female  soothsayers.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  (B.C.  520),  "A  woman  of 
strange  appearance  presented  herself  to  King 
Tarquiiiius  Superbus,  offering  him  nine  books 
of  the  prophecies  of  the  Sibyl,  for  300  pieces  of 
gold.  The  offer  was  contemptuously  refused  ; 
whereupon  the  prophetess  burned  three  of  the 
books,  and  offering  the  remainder  for  the  same 
price,  these  were  again  scornfully  refused. 
The  Sibyl  then  retired,  and  having  burned 
three  other  books,  again  returned,  asking  the 
same  price  for  the  remaining  three.  The  king, 
much  amazed,  demanded  of  the  augurs  what 
he  should  do.  They  said  that  he  had  acted 
unwisely  in  refusing  them,  and  commanded 
him  by  all  means  to  purchase  the  remaining 
books.  The  sacred  volumes  were  put  into  a 
stone  chest,  which  was  deposited  under-ground 
in  the  Capitol,  and  two  persons,  called  the 


SICAMBRI 


[    903 


SICILY 


guardians  of  the  sacred  books,  were  appointed 
in  charge  of  them."  The  number  was  after- 
wards raised.  (See  QUJNDECEMVIKS. )  A  new 
collection  of  sibylline  verses  was  made  when 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  was  burned  down,  B.C. 
83.  They  were  again  burned  and  restored  in 
the  reign  of  Nero  (54 — 68).  A  proposal  was 
made  in  the  senate  to  consult  them  in  270.  The 
collection  was  burned  in  363,  and  again  in 
395.  A  complete  collection  was  published  at 
Amsterdam  in  1689.  Some  fragments,  dis- 
covered in  the  library  of  Milan,  were  published 
in  1817,  and  some  others  by  Struve  in  1818.  (See 
PESSINUS.) 

SICAMBRI.  —  This  German  tribe,  having 
retreated  before  Julius  Caesar,  returned  and 
gained  some  successes  over  the  Romans  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  B.C.  51.  Driven  across 
the  Rhine,  they  again  invaded  Gallia  Belgica, 
B.C.  1 6.  l)rusus  compelled  them  to  retire  into 
their  own  country  B.C.  10.  Tiberius  obtained 
considerable  success  against  them  B.C.  8. 
Marcus  Vinicius,  when  holding  command  in 
Germany,  was  attacked  by  them  in  the  year  i, 
and  they  joined  the  Prankish  confederation  in 
240. 

SICILIAN  VESPERS.— Charles  of  Anjou, 
brother  of  Louis  IX.,  King  of  France,  having 
seized  Sicily  by  virtue  of  a  grant  from  Pope 
Alexander  IV.,  the  natives  rose  against  the 
French  the  day  after  Easter,  March  30,  1282. 
The  massacre  which  ensued  commenced  at 
Palermo,  extended  to  Messina  and  other  parts 
of  the  island,  and  is  known  in  history  as  the 
Sicilian  Vespers. 

SICILY  (Mediterranean  Sea).  —  According 
to  tradition  this  island,  called  Thrinacria, 
Trinacria,  or  Trinacris,  in  consequence  of  its 
triangular  form,  was  originally  peopled  by 
the  Sicani,  Siceli,  or  Siculi,  a  people  whom 
Thucydides  regards  as  of  Iberian  extraction. 
It  received  the  name  of  Sicily  from  its  ancient 
inhabitants,  who  are  said  to  have  crossed  over 
from  Italy  about  B.C.  1293. 


735.  Naxos  is  founded  by  the  Carians. 

734.  The  Corinthians  found  Syracuse  (<?.  •».)• 

730.  Catana  and  Leontini,  or  Leontiuin,  are  founded. 

728.  Megara  (Hyblwan)  is  founded. 

690.  Gela  is  founded  by  the  Khodians  and  Cretans. 

599.  The  Syracusans  found  Camarina  (q.  v.). 

582.  A  colony  from  Gela  founds  Agrigeutum  (q.  v.). 

485.  Gelo,  or  Gelon  of  Gela,  takes  Syracuse,  and  makes 

it  the  most  important  city  of  Sicily. 
480-  -461.  Gelo  defeats  the  Carthaginians  under  Hamilcar, 

who  is  slain  at  Himera.     A  general  congress  is 

held  between  the  chief  Sicilian  cities. 
465.  The   tyrants    are    expelled    from    several  Sicilian 

cities. 
451.  Ducetius,    a  Sicilian  chief  in  the  interior  of   the 

island,   conspires  against  the  supremacy  of  the 

Greek  cities,  and  is  defeated  and  banished  by  the 

Syracusans. 
434.  A  peace  is  concluded  between  the  Greek  cities  in 

Sicily. 
415.  Sicily  is  invaded  by  the  Athenians,  who  fail  in  an 

attack  upon  Syracuse. 

414.  Syracuse  is  besieged  by  the  Athenians. 
413,  Sep.  2,1  or  22.  The  Athenian  army  surrenders. 
410.  The  Carthaginians  invade  Sicily. 
405.  Dionysius  I.  or  the  Elder,  of  Syracuse  concludes  a 

peace  with  the  Carthaginians,  on  terms   which 

leave  them  masters  of   the  greater  part  of    the 

island. 

399.  Dionysius  I.  renews  the  war. 
398.  The  Carthaginians,  who  are    defeated,  leave  the 

island. 


B.C. 

357.  Dion  revolts  against  Dionysius  II.,  or  the  Younger, 

and  takes  Syracuse. 
353.  Assassination  of  Dion. 
343.  The  Corinthian  general  Timoleon  expels  Dionysius 

II.,  and  restores  the  Greek  cities  to  freedom. 
317.  Agathocles  establishes  a  despotate  at  Syracuse. 
310.  Agathocles  is  defeated  by  the  Carthaginians  at 

Himera. 

389.  Death  of  Agathocles. 

378.  Sicily  is  invaded  by  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus. 
376.  Pyrrhus  is  compelled  to  return  to  Italy. 
364.  The  Romans    invade    Sicily,    which  becomes  the 

theatre  of  the  tirst  Punic  war. 
363.  Hieron  II.  of  Syracuse  forms  an  alliance  with  the 

Romans. 

362.  The  Komans  take  Agrigentum,  and  sell  the  inha- 
bitants into  slavery. 

341.  The  Carthaginians  are  defeated  in  a  sea-fight  off 
tiie  islands  of  the  ^Egates,  and  abandon  their 
Sicilian  possessions  to  the  Komans,  who  establish 
the  province  of  Sicily,  which  embraces  the  whole 
island,  excepting  Syracuse. 

315.  Hieronymus,  King  of  Syracuse,  abandons  the 
Komans,  and  concludes  an  alliance  with  the 
Carthaginians. 

312.  The  Romiius  take  Syracuse. 
310.  The  whole   ol   Sicily   is  formed  into   a   lionian 

province. 

134.  First  Servile  war  (q.  v.). 
104.  The  Second  Servile  war  (q.  v.). 
73 — 70.  Sicily  suffers  much  during  the  praetorship  of 

Verres,  who  is  publicly  accused  by  Cicero. 
49.  Julius  Caesar  wrests  Sicily  from  Pompey's  generals. 
43.  Sextus  Pompeius  seizes  Sicily. 
39.  Sextus  Pompeius  receives  Sicily  by  the  treaty  of 

Misenum. 

36.  Sextus  Pompeius  is  defeated  by  Agrippa  in  the  great 
sea-fight  of  Naulochus,  which  restores  Sicily  to 
the  lionian  empire. 
A.D. 

440.  The  Vandals,  under  Genseric,  ravage  Sicily. 
493.  Sicily  is  conquered  by  Theodoric,  the  Goth. 
535.  Belisarius  annexes  it  to  the  Eastern  empire. 
837.  Sicily  is  invaded  by  the  Saracens. 
878.  The  Saracens  take  Syracuse,  thereby  completing  the 

conquest  of  the  island. 
1061.  Sicily  is  invaded  and  subdued  by  the  Normans, 

under  Roger  Guiscard. 

1072.  Guiscard  takes  the  title  of  Count  of  Sicily. 
1130.  The  governments  of  Sicily  and  Naples  are  united 

by  Roger  II. 
1139.  Innocent  II.  invests  Roger  II.  with  the  sovereignty 

of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1194.  Sicily  is  ruled  by  Henry  VI.  of  Germany. 
1224-  The  Inquisition  (q.v.)  is  introduced. 
1366,  Feb.  26.  Battle  of  Grandella. 
1283-  The  "  Sicilian  Vespers  "  (q.v.). 
1303.  Sicily  is  invaded  by  Charles  of  Valois. 
1394.  The     Sicilian    barons    rebel    against    Mary    and 

Martin  I. 

1409.  Sicily  becomes  a  province  of  Aragon. 
1435.  Alphonso  I.,  of  Sicily  and  Aragou,  takes  possession 

of  Naples. 
1503.  Sicily,  Naples,  and  Spain  form  one  monarchy  under 

Ferdinand  II.  of  Spain. 

1513.  Palermo  (q.  v.)  is  made  the  capital  of  the  island.     •" 
1654.  An  unsuccessful  rebellion  under  the  Duke  of  Guise 

is  suppressed. 
1672.  Messina  (q.  v.)  revolts  against  Spanish  supremacy, 

and  is  assisted  by  the  French. 
1713.  Sicily  is  ceded  to  Victor  Amadous,  of  Savoy. 
1715.  The  Pope  endeavours  to  excite   a  revolt  against 
Victor  Amadeus,  on  the   part  of    his    Sicilian 
subjects. 
1730.  Victor  Amadeus  cedes  Sicily  to  the  Emperor  Charles 

VI.  in  exchange  for  Sardinia. 
1735,  July  3.  Don  Carlos  is  crowned  King  of  the  Two 

Sicilies,  at  Palermo,  by  the  title  of  Charles  III. 
1768.  The  Jesuits  are  expelled. 
1774.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed  in  Sicily. 
1806.  The  French  conquer  Naples  (q.  v.),  in  consequence 
of   which  Ferdinand  III.   removes  his  court  to 
Sicily. 

1808,  March  24.  Sicily  is  garrisoned  by  the  English. 
1810,  Sep.  18.  Joachim  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  fails  in  an 

attempt  to  take  Sicily. 

1813.  Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  English  ambassador, 
obtains  a  new  constitution  for  Sicily. 


SICYON 


[    904     3 


SIDON 


1815,  June  17.  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples  and  III.  of  Sicily 
returns  to  Naples  (q.  v.)  and  abolishes  the  Sicilian 
constitution.  He  reigns  as  Ferdiuuiid  I.  of  the 
Two  Sicilies. 

1817,  Nov.  Sicily  is  divided  into  intendnncies. 

1830.  The  Sicilians  revolt. 

1848,  Jan.  ix.  A  revolution  commences  at  Palermo  and 

other  places. — Jan.  18.  The  King  appoints  his 
brother,  Count  of  Aquila,  viceroy  of  Sicily. — 
Jan.  29.  A  new  constitution  is  promised. — Feb.* 
10.  A  constitution  is  published. — April  13.  The 
Sicilian  parliament  vote  the  deposition  of  the 
King.— July  11.  The  Duke  of  Genoa  is  elected 
King  of  Sicily.— July  15.  Ferdinand  II.  protests 
against  this  election. — Sep.  7.  Messina  is-  taken 
by  the  Neapolitans. 

1849,  Feb.  28.  Ferdinand  II.  grants  a  new  constitution  to 

the  Sicilians. — March  9.  It  is  rejected  by  the 
Sicilian  chambers,  which  order  every  Sicilian 
between  the  ages  of  1 8  and  30  years  to  join  the 
army. — April  2.  Catania  surrenders  to  the  Neapo- 
litans.—April  23.  They  take  Syracuse.— May  13. 
Palermo  falls  into  their  power. 

1853,  Feb.  Numerous  arrests  take  place  in  consequence 
of  a  political  agitation. 

1856,  Nov.  22.  An  unsuccessful  insurrection  breaks  out 
under  Baron  Bentivenga. 

1859,  June  25.  An   amnesty  is  published  in  favour  of  the 

exiled  Sicilians. 

1860,  April    4.    The    Sicilian    revolution    commences   at 

Palermo,  .Messina,  and  Catania. — April  31.  The 
Koyal  troops  burn  the  port  of  Cariui. — May  > 
Garibaldi  embarks  for  Sicily  at  lienoa.— May  10. 
He  lands  at  Marsala.— May  14.  He  assumes  the 
dictatorship  of  the  island  tit  the  name  of  King 
Victor  Emanm-1  1 1. --May  15.  lie  defeats  tl-e 
Kovalists  at  Calatafimi. — May  is.  (ieii.  I, an/a 
is  made  .Neapolitan  viceroy  iii  Sicilv.— May  27. 
Garibaldi  takes  Palermo.— May  2*.  The  bom- 
bardment of  Palermo  is  commenced  by  the 
Koyalists. — June  d.  Palermo  is  evacuated  by  the 
Neapolitan*.— July  l«.  Garibaldi  leaves  1'al.  n,i<>. 
—  July  2°.  Garibaldi  defeats  (ho  Kovalisls  at 
Mela /./o.— July  25.  The  Neapolitan  Wees  at 
Messina  retire  into  the  citadel. — Inly  28.  Gari- 
baldi occupies  Messina  and  concludes  a  truce  with 
the  Neapolitans,  who  agree  to  evacuate  Sicily, 
•with  the  exception  of  the  castle  of  Mo-in  i. 
— Aug.  3.  The  Sardinian  constitution  is  intro- 
duced into  Sicily. — Aug.  19.  Garibaldi  leaves 
Sicily  for  Italy. — Nov.  3.  The  results  of  the 
popular  voting"  for  and  against  annexation  to 
Sardinia  arc  published  :  432,054  dec-hire  in  favour 
of,  and  (,(,-  against,  the  proposition.  — Dec.  I. 
Victor  Kmanuul  11.  makes  his  public  entry  into 
Palermo. 

1861,  March  13.  The  citadel  of  Messina  surrenders  to  the 

Sardinian  general  Cialdini. 

1863,  Aug.  I.  Garibaldi  raises  an  insurrection  in  Sicily.— 
Aug.  20.  (iaribaldi  takes  possession  of  Catania. — 
Aug.  21.  The  government  proclaims  Sicily  in  a 
state-  of  siege.— Aug.  2*.  Gen. Cialdini  is  repulsed 
at  Keggio.— Aug.  29.  Garibaldi  is  defeated  and 

made  prisoner   at    Aspn. nte  (•?.  r.). — Oct.  5.  A 

decree  of  amnesty  is  issued  by  Victor  Emauuel  II. 

The  Rulers  of  Sicily  are  given  under  NAPLES 
(?•  v.). 

SICYON  (Greece),  also  called  ^Egialeia  and 
Mecone,  under  which  latter  name  it  has  been 
celebrated  as  "  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
blessed,"  is  said  to  have  been  founded  B.C.  2089. 
It  w.-is  conquered  by  Agamemnon  B.C.  1201, 
and,  having  become  a  Dorian  state,  joined  the 
Messenians  in  the  first  Messenian  war,  B.C. 
743.  It  became  subject  to  the  Orthagoridse 
about  B.C.  676.  The  Sicyons  sent  a  large  force 
to  aid  in  resisting  Xerxes,  B.C.  480.  The 
territory  was  invaded  by  the  Athenians  under 
Tolmides,  B.C.  456,  and  again  under  Pericles, 
B.C.  454.  It  assisted  the  Megarians  in  their 
revolt  against  Athens,  B.C.  445,  took  part  with 
Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  B.C.  431,  and 


aided  Brasidas  against  the  Athenians,  B.C.  424. 
In  union  with  Corinth  it  opposed  the  erection 
of  a  fortress  on  the  Achjwan  promontory  of 
Rhium,  B.C.  419.  A  revolution  took  place,  and 
an  oligarchy  was  formed  by  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians B.C.  417.  It  aided  Lacedsemon  in  thu  war 
against  Corinth,  B.C.  394,  and  against  Thebes, 
B.C.  371.  Epaminondas  compelled  it  to  juin 
the  Spartan  alliance,  B.C.  368  ;  and  in  the 
Lamiaii  war  it  took  part  with  the  Greeks 
against  Macedonia,  B.C.  323.  Alexander,  the 
son  of  Polysperchon,  having  obtained  posses- 
sion, was  murdered  B.C.  314,  and  his  wife 
Cratesipolis  betrayed  the  city  to  Ptolemy  B.C. 
308.  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  took  it  B.C.  303. 
Demetrius  removed  the  inhabitants  to  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Acropolis,  giving  it  the  name  of 
Demetrias,  which  it  soon,  however,  lost,  and 
Aratus,  having  delivered  it  from  the  tyrant 
Nicocles,  induced  the  inhabitants  to  join  the 
Achaean  league,  B.C.  251.  It  was  invaded  by 
Cleomenes  III.  B.C.  233,  by  the  JEtolians  B.C. 
221,  and  was  conquered  by  Rome,  B.C.  146. 
Under  the  Byzantine  empire  it  was  called 
Hellas,  and  the  inhabitants  llelladici.  It  con- 
tinued to  exist  till  the  6th  century.  (See 


SI  ItDIM  (Battle).—  The  first  battle  of  which 
any  record  exists  was  fought  in  this  plain, 
now  the  basin  of  the  Dead  Sea,  B.C.  2000. 
The  kings  of  the  five  cities  (the  Pentapolis  of 
the  Canaanites),  having  revolted  against  the 
uis  were  assailed  and  defeated  by 
Chedorlaomer  and  three  kings,  his  allies  (Gen. 
xiv.  i  —  n).  Abram,  with  a  small  band  of  fol- 
lowers, went  in  pursuit  and  rescued  Lot,  who 
had  been  earned  off,  and  all  the  spoil  (Gen. 
xiv.  12—  16). 

SID.N'KY  SUSSEX  COLLEGE  (Cambridge). 
—  Frances  Sidney,  second  wife  of  the  Earl  of 
Sussex,  bequeathed  by  will,  dated  Dec.  6,  1588, 
the  sum  of  .£5,000  to  found  a  college  for  a 
Master,  10  Fellows,  and  20  Scholars.  The 
bequest  not  being  sufficient,  only  seven  fellow- 
ships and  four  scholarships  were  established. 
Statutes  were  framed  in  1594.  The  first  stone 
of  the  building  was  laid  May  20,  1596,  and  it 
was  completed  in  three  years.  New  statutes 
were  sanctioned  by  the  Queen  in  Council, 
April  16,  1861. 

SIDON,  or  ZIDON  (Syria),  the  "city  of 
fishermen,"  the  modern  Saida,  deriving  its 
origin  and  name,  according  to  Josephus,  from 
the  first-born  son  of  Canaan,  was  founded 
about  B.C.  2750.  In  the  division  of  Canaan, 
B.C.  1444  (Josh.  xix.  24),  it  fell  to  the  share  of 
the  tribe  of  Asher,  although  it  was  never 
conquered  by  them,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
Phoenician  cities.  The  Sidonians  were  defeated 
by  the  King  of  Ascalon,  and  took  refuge  in 
Tyre,  B.C.  1210;  and  they  are  mentioned  as  the 
oppressors  of  Israel  (Judges  x.  12),  B.C.  1187. 
It  separated  from  Tyre  and  surrendered  to 
Shalrnanezer,  B.C.  728,  was  taken  by  Esar- 
haddon,  B.C.  680  ;  furnished  ships  for  the  fleet 
of  Xerxes,  B.C.  480  ;  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
revolt  against  Persia,  B.C.  352  ;  and  was  betrayed 
to  Artaxerxes  II.  (Ochus)  by  the  king,  Tennes, 
when  the  people  burned  the  city,  40,000  persons 
being  consumed  in  the  flames,  B.C.  351.  Having 
been  rebuilt,  it  submitted  to  Alexander  III.  (the 


SIEGES 


[    905    1 


SIKHS 


Great),  B.C.  333.  Ptolemy  annexed  it  to  his 
kingdom  after  the  death  of  Alexander  III.,  B.C. 
323  ;  but  it  was  taken  from  him  by  Antigoiius, 
B.C.  315.  With  the  rest  of  Syria  it  fell  under 
the  Roman  power,  B.C.  64  ;  and  was  deprived 
of  its  ancient  privileges  by  Augustus,  B.C.  20. 
It  was  invested  by  the  Crusaders,  in  1 108 ;  and 
taken  by  Baldwin  I.  in  1 1 1 1.  Having  been  cap- 
tured by  the  Saracens  in  1115,  it  was  recovered 
in  1197  by  the  Christians,  who  abandoned  it  in 
1291.  Commercial  relations  were  established 
with  France  in  1658  ;  the  French  holding  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  till  they  were  driven 
out  by  Jezzar  Pasha  in  1791.  It  was  bom- 
barded and  taken  by  Admiral  Napier,  Sep.  27, 
1840.  The  manufacture  of  glass  for  which  it 
was  renowned,  made  from  the  fine  sand  on  the 
coast  near  Mount  Carmel,  is  spoken  of  by 
Pliny.  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,  after  a  long 
residence  at  D'jouii,  eight  miles  from  the  town, 
died  June  23,  1839. 

SIEGES.— See  list  in  Index. 

SIENA,  or  SIENNA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Sena 
Julia,  was  probably  founded  by  Julius  Caesar 
about  B.C.  50.  It  was  a  bishop's  see  in  the  6th 
century.  Nicholas  II.  was  elected  Pope  at  a 
council  held  here,  Dec.  28, 1058.  It  sided  with 
the  Ghibelline  party  in  the  struggle  between 
the  Emperors  and  the  Popes,  and  their  militia, 
with  the  aid  of  auxiliaries,  defeated  the  Guelphs 
from  Florence  at  Monte  Aperto,  in  1258.  The 
intestine  dissensions  which  had  harassed  the 
republic  for  half  a  century  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  reformers,  to  the  number  of 
4,000,  in  1384.  It  was  visited  by  the  Emperor 
Sigismund  in  1432 ;  and  by  Pope  Pius  II.,  who 
attempted  to  heal  the  discord,  in  1 460.  Another 
revolution  took  place  hi  1482  ;  and  the  exiles  in 
returning  recovered  power  in  1487.  Pandolfo 
Petrucci  acquired  a  dictatorship,  which  he  held 
till  1512.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  imposed  a 
Spanish  garrison  upon  it  in  1547,  which  was 
driven  out  in  1552.  Duke  Cosmo  of  Florence 
uniting  his  troops  with  those  of  the  Emperor, 
the  Maremma  was  reduced  to  a  wilderness,  and 
the  town  was  starved  into  a  capitulation 
April  21,  1555.  Bestowed  by  Charles  V.  on  his 
son  Philip,  it  was  given  up  to  Cosmo,  and 
united  with  Tuscany  in  1557.  Pius  VI.  took 
refuge  here  Feb.  23, 1798.  The  cathedral,  with 
its  rich  marbles,  sculptures,  and  paintings, 
was  erected  in  the  nth,  i2th,  and  i3th  cen- 
turies, and  consecrated  by  Pope  Alexander  III. 
in  1 1 80.  The  university  was  founded  in  1203  ; 
the  Palazzo  Pubblico,  begun  in  1295,  was 
finished  in  1327 ;  the  Piazzo  del  Campo,  cele- 
brated by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio,"  contains 
the  Loggia  di  San  Paolo,  the  seat  of  a  com- 
mercial tribunal  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
Academy  of  St.  Luke  was  established  in  1355. 
The  Council  of  Pavia,  transferred  to  Sienna, 
June  22,  1423,  lasted  till  Feb.  26,  1424.  (See 
BASEL.) 

SIERRA  LEONE  (Africa).— Discovered 
by  Pedro  de  Cintra  in  1462,  chosen  for  the 
reception  of  negroes,  470  having  been  re- 
moved from  London  to  it,  was  settled  in  1787. 
It  was  attacked  and  burned  by  a  neighbour- 
ing chief  in  1789;  and  1,196  negroes  were 
removed  to  it  from  Nova  Scotia  in  1790.  It 
was  plundered  by  a  French  squadron  in  1794  ; 


received  an  addition  to  its  population  of  550 
Maroons,  who  were  transported  from  Jamaica 
in  1800;  and  was  made  an  English  colony  hi 
1808.  The  Isles  de  Loss  were  added  to  it  in 
1818.  On  the  disbanding  of  a  coloured  regi- 
ment in  the  West  Indies,  1,222  of  the  soldiers 
and  their  wives  were  settled  here  in  1819. 
The  slaves  captured  by  British  cruisers  have 
been  sent  here  since  1807.  Free  Town  was 
founded  in  1790.  Sir  Charles  Macarthy,  the 
governor  of  the  colony,  was  murdered  by  the 
Ashantees  at  the  time  engaged  in  hostilities 
with  the  Faiitee  tribes,  Jan  21,  1824.  It  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  1850. 

SIGNAL-FIRES.— (See  BEACONS.) 

SIGN-BOARDS  were  in  use  amongst  most 
ancient  nations.  Pliny  (23 — Aug.  24,  79)  says 
that  Lucius  Muminius  was  the  first  in  Rome 
who  put  a  picture  outside  of  a  house.  Several 
Roman  signs  were  found  in  the  ruins  of  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii.  Sign-boards  were  for 
some  time  used  by  most  trades,  not  as  at 
present  confined  to  inns.  Much  information 
on  the  subject  is  given  in  "The  History  of 
Sign-boards,"  Hotten,  1866.  Bonnell  Thornton 
held  an  exhibition  of  sign-boards  at  his  house 
in  Covent  Garden,  hi  1762,  and  announced  it 
as  the  "Exhibition  of  the  Society  of  Sign- 
Painters  of  all  the  curious  signs  to  be  met 
with  in  town  or  country." 

SIGNET.— (See  PRIVY  SEAL.) 

SIGN-MANUAL. —The  royal  sign-manual 
came  into  use  soon  after  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
(1377 — 99),  previous  to  which  time  the  kings  of 
England  employed  their  seals  to  attest  a  docu- 
ment. In  Germany,  Maximilian  introduced 
it  when  he  abolished  the  use  of  monograms  in 
1486.  Henry  the  Eighth's  hands  became  so 
swollen  that  he  could  not  write,  and  he  granted 
power  to  three  of  his  ministers,  Aug.  31,  1546, 
to  sign  all  the  royal  commissions  and  acts  of 
grace,  in  his  name.  Similar  authority  to  some 
of  his  council,  to  seal  with  his  signet,  and  put 
his  stamp  to  all  acts  to  which  the  king's  hand 
was  required,  was  granted  Oct.  16,  1546. 
During  the  illness  of  James  I.  a  number  of 
instruments  were  signed  by  his  stamp,  which 
was  in  the  keeping  of  the  Earl  of  Annandale, 
Oct.  28,  1624.  The  same  plan  was  resorted  to 
in  the  last  illness  of  George  IV.,  May  29,  1830. 

SIGNS.— (See  OMENS.) 

SIKHS.— Naiiak  (1469—1539)  was  their  first 
teacher,  and  founder  of  their  religion.  His 
descendants  continued  to  occupy  the  office  of 
guru,  and  to  disseminate  his  doctrines,  till  one 
of  their  number,  Har  Govind,  who  died  in  1645, 
taking  up  the  sword,  transformed  his  disciples 
into  a  nation  of  warriors.  Govind,  the  tenth 
leader,  who  developed  the  martial  character  of 
his  followers,  entered  upon  an  unsuccessful 
war  against  the  Mongol  emperor,  and  was 
murdered  in  1708.  After  suffering  much  per- 
secution, the  Sikhs  figured  prominently  in 
the  invasion  of  India  by  Nadir  Shah,  of 
Persia,  in  1739.  They  captured  Lahore  hi  1756  ; 
they  erected  several  forts  and  were  successful 
in  operations  against  the  Affghans  ;  but  were 
defeated  by  Ahmad  Shah,  with  a  loss  of  20,000 
men,  at  the  battle  of  Ghalu  Ghara,  in  1762. 
Lahore,  which  they  had  lost,  was  recovered, 
coins  were  struck,  and  they  separated  into 


SIKH  WAKS 


[    906    ] 


SILVER 


12  confederacies  in  1764.  A  treaty  between 
them  and  the  English,  precluding  Runjeet 
Singh  from  extending  his  territory  southward, 
and  establishing  friendly  relations,  was  signed 
April  25,  1809.  They  took  Mooltan  in  June, 
1818,  and  annexed  Cashmere  and  other  territory 
in  1819.  Having  defeated  the  Affghaiis  at 
Naushahra,  they  sacked  Peshawur,  March  14, 
1823.  The  tripartite  treaty,  which  led  to  the 
Affghaii  war  (q.  v.),  was  concluded  June  26, 
1838. 

SIKH  WARS.— The  first  Sikh  war  com- 
menced in  1845,  hostilities  having  been  pro- 
claimed Nov.  17.  The  battle  of  Moodkee,  Lord 
Gough  commanding  the  English,  was  fought 
Dec.  18,  1845.  The  battle  of  Sobraon,  in  which 
the  Sikhs  were  defeated,  closed  the  campaign, 
Feb.  10,  1846,  and  the  treaty  of  Lahore  was 

signed  March  9,  1846. The  murder  of  Mr. 

Agnew  and  Lieut.  Anderson,  April  18,  1848, 
led  to  the  second  Sikh  war,  brought  to  a  close 
by  the  battle  of  Goojerat,  which  lasted  from 
six  in  the  morning  till  four  in  the  afternoon, 
the  English  being  victorious,  Feb.  21,  1849. 
This  was  followed  by  the  annexation  of  the 
ruiijaub  [q.  v.),  March  29,  1849. 

SI  KIM  (Hindostaa).— A  portion  of  this 
country,  conquered  by  the  Xcpaulose,  and  by 
them  ceded  to  England  in  1815,  was  restored 
to  the  Rajah  of  Sikiru  by  treaty  executed  at 
Titalyah  in  Feb.,  1817.  The  Rajah  of  Sikim 
ceded  some  territory  at  Darjeeling,  or  Dorji- 
ling,  i.e..  the  "  Holy  Spot,"  where  the  English 
desired  to  establish  a  sanatorium  in  1835.  On 
account  of  depredations  by  the  Sikimese,  the 
English  in  1850  took  possession  of  the  whole 
of  the  country  ceded  in  1817.  Hostilities  broke 
out  in  1861.  Toomlong,  the  capital,  was  occu- 
pied March  9,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
March  28. 

SILESIA  (Prussia).— This  territory,  occupied 
by  the  Quadi  and  Lygii,  afterwards  formed 
part  of  Moravia  and  then  of  Bohemia,  and 
became  a  province  of  Poland  in  the  loth  cen- 
tury. It  was  divided  and  governed  by  three 
independent  princes  in  1163;  invaded  by  the 
Mongolians  in  1241  ;  by  John  of  Bohemia  in 
1327 ;  and  it  placed  itself  under  the  protection 
of  the  King  of  Bohemia  in  1459.  Mathias 
Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary,  took  possession 
of  Silesia,  and  extended  his  protection  to  the 
descendants  of  John  Huss,  in  1478.  It  fell  to 
the  house  of  Austria  in  1526.  Baner,  the 
Swedish  general,  entered  it  in  1639.  After  the 
battle  of  Molwitz,  April  10,  1741,  it  submitted 
to  Frederick  II.,  and  the  Austrians  having 
failed  in  their  efforts  to  recover  it  (See  SILESIAN 
WARS,  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  &c.),  ceded  it  to 
Prussia  by  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg  (q.  v.). 
Austria  refused  the  offer  of  Napoleon  I.  to 
receive  it  in  exchange  for  her  share  of  Poland 
in  1 806.  The  fortresses  having  been  all  reduced, 
Jerome  Buonaparte  was  made  governor  in 
1806 ;  and  it  was  restored  to  Prussia  by  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit,  July  7,  1807. 

SILESIAN  WARS.— Frederick  II.  of  Prussia 
having  occupied  Silesia  in  1 740,  Austria  waged 
a  war  for  its  recovery,  which  was  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  peace  of  which  the  preliminaries 
were  signed  at  Breslau  June  n,  the  definitive 
treaty  being  signed  at  Berlin  July  28,  1742, 


ceding  Silesia  to  Prussia.  This  was  called  the 

first  Silesian  war. The  second  commenced 

in  Aug.,  1744,  when,  in  consequence  of  certain 
negotiations  between  Austria  and  other  powers, 
Frederick  II.  marched  through  Saxony,  and 
invaded  Bohemia.  The  Austrians  attacked 
Hilesia,  and  by  the  end  of  1744  the  Prussians 
had  been  expelled.  This  war  was  terminated 
by  the  treaties  signed  at  Dresden  Dec.  25, 
1745. The  Seven  Years'  war  (q.  v.)  is  some- 
times called  the  third  Silesian  war. 

SILHOUETTE,  a  side  face  or  profile,  gene- 
rally cut  in  black  paper,  is  named  from 
Etienne  de  Silhouette  (1709 — Jan.  20,  1767), 
finance  minister  in  France  in  1757.  On  account 
of  his  parsimonious  ways,  he  was  frequently 
caricatured,  and  hence  arose  the  peculiar 
application  of  the  word. 

SIL1CIUM,  or  SILICON,  the  principal  con- 
stituent of  the  earth's  crust,  was  first  separated 
from  silica  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1823. 

SILISTRIA  (Turkey)  was  besieged  by  the 
Russians  in  1773,  and  threatened  by  Marshal 
Romanzoff  in  1774.  The  Russians  took  it 
June  23,  1810.  Gen.  Rosh  failed  to  take  it, 
after  a  siege  of  some  months'  duration,  in  1828. 
The  Russians  captured  it  June  30,  1829.  It 
was  invested  by  the  Russians  March  28,  1854. 
After  a  brave  defence,  during  which  the  fortl- 
ti cations  were  nearly  f  destroyed,  the  Turks 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege,  June  15, 
1854. 

SILK  was  cultivated  and  manufactured  by 
the  Chinese  as  early  as  B.C.  2000.  It  was 
woven  in  the  island  of  Cos  by  Painphilia  and 
her  maids,  B.C.  1000.  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — B.C. 
322)  is  the  first  Greek  writer  who  mentions  it. 
Two  Nestorian  monks  of  Persia  brought  some 
eggs  of  the  silkworm  from  China  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  taught  the  subjects  of  Justinian  I. 
the  art  of  rearing  them,  in  551.  The  art  was 
transferred  to  Sicily  by  Roger  II.  in  1146,  and 
to  Spain  by  the  Saracens  in  1253.  Artisans 
were  conveyed,  in  1521,  from  Milan  to  Lyons, 
by  Francis  I.,  to  commence  the  manufacture, 
and  the  artisans  of  Antwerp  who  took  refuge 
in  England  in  1585  introduced  it  there.  By  an 
act  passed  in  1542,  a  person  whose  wife  wore 
a  silk  dress  was  bound  to  find  a  charger  for 
government.  Silk  armour,  proof  against  bullet 
or  steel,  was  in  vogue  about  1660.  James  I. 
issued  circular  letters  recommending  the  sub- 
ject to  persons  of  influence  in  1608.  The  duty 
on  raw  and  thrown  silk  was  abolished  by  8  &  9 
Viet.  c.  12  (May  8,  1845).  The  silk-throwsters 
were  incorporated  in  1630,  and  the  silkmen  in 
1631.  (See  COVENTRY,  DERBY,  HAT,  SPITAL- 
FIELDS,  &c.) 

SILURES,  the  early  inhabitants  of  South 
Wales,  Herefordshire,  and  Monmouthshire, 
were  conquered  in  50  by  Ostorius  Scapula, 
and  their  king,  Caractacus,  was  treacherously 
given  up  to  the  Romans.  (See  MONMOUTH- 
SHIRE.) 

SILVER.  —  Abraham  paid  400  shekels  of 
silver  for  the  field  of  Ephron  for  a  burying- 
place  (Gen.  xxiii.  16),  B.C.  1860.  Silver  was  in- 
troduced into  Attica  by  Erichthonius,  about 
B.C.  1487.  It  was  wrought  into  lace  and  threads 
for  mixing  with  stuffs  by  the  Romans,  about 
170.  The  mines  of  Potosi  were  discovered  in 


SILVER  BOOK 


[    907    1 


SINOPE 


1545  ;  those  of  Kongsberg,  in  Norway,  in  1623 
those  of  Sierra  Almagrega,  in  Spain,  which  have 
proved  very  productive,  were  opened  in  1839; 
and  the  mines  of  Hiendelencina  in  1843. 
mass  of  the  native  metal,  weighing  154  lb., 
was  found  in  a  Chilian  mine  in  1850.  (See 
MINES.) 

SILVER  BOOK.— This  ancient  illuminated 
copy  of  the  gospels,  written  on  vellum,  and 
called  Argenteus  Codex  from  its  silver  letters 
is  supposed  to  be  a  fragment,  of  the  Mreso- 
Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  about 
360,  by  Ulphilas,  whom  Gibbon  terms  the 
bishop  and  apostle  of  the  Goths.  Afraid  of 
exciting  the  fierce  and  warlike  passions  of  his 
people,  he  suppressed  the  four  books  of  Kings. 
The  first  fragment  was  discovered  in  1587,  in 
the  library  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Wer- 
den,  in  Westphalia,  whence  it  was  removed  to 
Prague;  and  on  the  capture  of  that  city  in 
1648,  was  sent  as  a  present  to  Queen  Christina, 
of  Sweden.  Other  portions  of  the  Mceso- 
Gothic  Bible  were  found  in  the  library  at 
Wolf  enbiittel,  in  that  of  Mai,  at  Rome,  and  in 
other  places  ;  and  a  complete  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  in  1836 — 47.  The  manuscript 
was  ultimately  presented  to  the  university  of 
Upsal. 

SILVER,  CITY  OP.— (See  CHUQUISACA.) 

SILVER  COINAGE.— (See  COIN,  CROWN  AND 

HALF-CROWN,  FLORIN,  SHILLING,  &c.) 

SILVER,  RIVER  OF.— (See  PLATA,  LA.) 

SILVER  WIRE.  —  (See  GOLD  AND    SILVER 

WIRE  DRAWERS.) 

SILVESTRIANS.— (See  SYLVESTRIANS.) 
SIMNEL'S  CONSPIRACY.— Lambert 
Simnel,  born  in  1472,  said  to  have  been  an 
intelligent  youth,  was,  in  1846,  induced  by 
Richard  Simon,  a  priest,  to  personate  Edward 
Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Warwick.  Simnel  re- 
paired to  Ireland,  and  was  there  crowned  as 
Edward  VI.,  May  2,  1487.  Having  collected  an 
army,  he  landed  in  Lancashire  June  4.  The 
king's  army  defeated  his  forces  at  Stoke- 
upon-Trent,  near  Newark,  June  16,  when 
several  of  the  leaders  were  killed,  Simnel 
and  his  tutor  Richard  Simon  being  taken 
prisoners.  The  latter  was  imprisoned  for  the 
rest  of  his  life,  and  Simnel  became  first  a 
scullion  and  then  a  falconer  in  the  king's 
household. 

SIMOIS.— (See  ILIUM.) 

SIMON  LANS.  —  Simon  Magus  wished  to 
purchase  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
apostles  with  money  at  Samaria,  in  35  (Acts 
viii.  9 — 24).  He  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Rome 
in  42,  and  his  followers  were  called  Simonians. 
{See  SAINT  SIMONIANS.) 

SIMONY.— Gregory  I.,  in  596,  denounced 
the  practice  of  buying  and  selling  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  calling  it  the  heresy  of  Simon 
Magus,  or  Simony.  The  Council  of  Toledo,  in 
675,  enacted  canons  against  this  practice,  which 
increased  to  such  an  extent  in  the  Church, 
that  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  Jan.,  1047, 
acknowledged  that  if  the  laws  against  it  were 
strictly  eiiforced,  the  Church  would  be  de- 
prived of  nearly  all  its  pastors.  A  complete 
system  of  sale  of  ecclesiastical  offices  was 
organized  by  Boniface  IX.  in  1393.  By  44 
Geo.  III.  c.  43  (1803),  a  person  obtaining  orders 


S&6 
Will. 


by  money  forfeits  £10,  and  is  incapable  of 
preferment  for  seven  years  ;  and  the  persons 
giving  such  orders  forfeits  ,£40. 

SIMPLON  (Switzerland).— Napoleon  Buona- 
parte sent  an  agent  to  negotiate  with  the  re- 
public of  the  Valais,  for  the  establishment  of  a 
communication,  by  means  of  the  Simplon  pass, 
with  the  cis-alpine  republic,  in  1797.  (See 
ALPS.)  Napoleon's  engineers  commenced  the 
construction  of  the  famous  road  across  the 
Simplon  in  1802  ;  it  was  completed  in  1807. 
The  sovereignty  was  assumed  by  Napoleon  I. 
when  he  incorporated  the  Valais  republic  with 
the  French  empire,  Nov.  12,  1810.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Allies  in  1814.  The  hospice 
was  damaged  by  storms  in  1834, 1839,  and  1850. 
SIN.— (ySee  PELTJSIUM.) 

SINAI,  or  HOREB  (Arabia).— The  children 
of  Israel  arrived  at  this  mount  the  third  month 
after  their  flight  from  Egypt  (Exod.  xix.  i,  2), 
B.C.  1491,  and  Moses  received  the  command- 
ments here  (Exod.  xx.).  (See  CATHERINE.) 

SINCERITY  or  RED  EAGLE  ORDER.— (See 
EAGLE.) 

SINDE.— (See  SCINDE.) 
SINDHU.— (See  INDIA.) 

SINECURES  in  the  Church  are  regulated  by 
&  6  Will.  IV.  c.  30  (Aug.  21,  1835),  by  6  &  7 
"".  IV.  c.  67  (Aug.  13,  1836),  and  by  i  Viet, 
c.  71  (July  15,  1837). 
SINFONIA.— (See  OVERTURES.) 
SINGAPORE  (Straits  of  Singapore).— This 
island,  being  the  chief  portion  of  the  Straits 
Settlements,  was  annexed  by  the  Sultan  of 
Jahore  in  1811,  and  was  purchased  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1819.  A  treaty  for  its  cession  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Sultan  of  Jahore  in  1824.  Its 
chief  town,. of  the  same  name,  was  taken  by 
the  King  of  Java,  in  1252,  and  was  placed 
under  the  provincial  government  of  the  Straits 
Settlement  in  1826.  With  Malacca  and  Prince 
of  Wales'  Island,  it  was  constituted  a  separate 
government,  included  in  Bengal,  in  1851.  The 
institution  for  instruction  in  English,  Malay, 
and  Tamil,  was  founded  by  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  in  1823. 

SINGARA  (Babylonia).— At  this  town,  the 
modern  Sinjar,  the  Romans,  under  Constantius 
II.,  sustained  a  signal  defeat  from  the  Persians, 
commanded  by  Sapor  II.,  in  348.  The  town 
was  captured  and  the  fortifications  were  dis- 
mantled by  Sapor  II.  in  360. 

SINGIDUNUM  (Servia).— This  town,  the  site 
of  which  is  occupied  by  the  modern  Belgrade, 
captured  by  the  Huns  in  441,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Avars,  and  its  inhabitants  were  sold 
into  slavery,  in  the  6th  century. 
SINGING  ACROSTICS.— (See  ACROSTICS.) 
SINKING  FUND.— (See  NATIONAL  DEBT.) 
SINOPE  (Asia  Minor),  the  modern  Sinab 
or  Sinoub,  after  various  vicissitudes,  was  re- 
covered by  the  Milesians,  B.C.  632.  The  inhabi- 
tants assisted  Xenophon  and  his  force  on  their 
return  from  Persia,  B.C.  400.  It  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  Mithridates  IV.  of  Pontus, 
B.C.  220.  Pharnaces  I.  captured  it  B.C.  183, 
when  it  was  made  the  chief  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Pontus.  After  the  repulse  of  Mith- 
ridates VI.  (the  Great)  at  Cyzicus,  Lucullus 
obtained  possession  of  the  town,  and  put  the 
Pontian  garrison  to  the  sword,  B.C.  73.  It 


SINUESSA 


[    908    ] 


SIXTEEN,   COUNCIL  OF 


formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Trebizond  in  1204, 
was  captured  by  the  Sultan  Azeddin  in  1214, 
and  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  the  reign  of 
Mohammed  II.  in  1461.  It  was  treacherously 
bombarded,  and  the  Turkish  fleet  destroyed  by 
the  Russians,  Nov.  30,  1853. 

SINUESSA  (ItalyW The  Romans  planted  a 
colony  here  B.C.  296.  Hannibal  attacked  \t 
B.C.  217.  Its  ruins  are  shown  near  Mondragone. 

SION  (Switzerland),  the  ancient  Civitas 
Sedunorum,  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1798. 
The  castle  of  Tourbillon  was  built  in  1294. 

S1ON  COLLEGE  (London;,  organized  by  a 
mercer  of  the  city,  after  whom  it  was  called 
Bison's  Spital,  or  hospital,  in  1329,  was  dis- 
solved in  1539.  It  was  endowed  as  a  collegiate 
establishment  by  Dr.  Thomas  White,  Vicar  of 
St.  Dunstau  in  the  West,  in  1622,  built  in  1624, 
incorporated  in  1631,  and  received  a  charter 
from  Charles  II.  in  1664.  The  library  was 
founded  in  1635. 

SIPAH1S.— (See  SPAHIS.) 

SI  I'll*  )N  FORCE  PUMP.— (See  HYDRO- 
STATICS.) 

SIl'ONTUM,  or  SIPUS  (Italy),  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Uiorucd,  was  captured  by 
Alexander  I.,  King  of  Epirus,  B.C.  330.  A 
Roman  colony  was  settled  here  B.C.  194,  and  it 
was  deserted  B.C.  184.  Owing  to  the  malaria 
from  the  marshes,  the  population  was  re- 
moved by  Manfred,  afterwards  King  of  Naples, 
to  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  where  he 
built  the  city  of  Manfredonia,  at  first  called 
Novum  Sipontum,  in  1250. 

SIRINUGGER,  or  SERIN AGUR.— (See 
CABHMEBB. 

SIRIS  (Magna  Grjecia),  said  to  have  been 
culi mixed  from  Troy,  and  inhabited  by  the 
Chones,  the  native  (Enotrians  of  this  part  of 
Italy,  who  were  dispossessed  by  a  colony  of 
lonians  from  Colophon  between  B.C.  690  and 
B.C.  660.  Daruasus,  one  of  its  citizens,  was 
a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of 
Cleisthenes  of  Sicyon,  B.C.  580.  A  league  was 
formed  against  it,  B.C.  550,  by  the  Metapoii- 
tines,  Sybarites,  and  Crotoniats,  which  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  the  city.  At  the  time 
of  the  Persian  war,  B.C.  480,  the  Athenians 
thought  of  occupying  the  site  and  removing 
hither  with  their  wives  and  families.  A 
dispute  arose  regarding  the  right  of  pos- 
session, between  the  Athenians  and  the  Taren- 
tines,  which  was  compromised  by  a  joint 
settlement  on  the  territory  :  the  colony,  being 
afterwards  removed  to  a  distance  of  three 
miles,  founded  the  city  of  Heraclea,  about  B.C. 
432. 

SIRMIUM  (Illyricum)  rose  into  importance 
during  the  Roman  wars  against  the  Dacians 
and  other  Danubian  tribes,  B.C.  34 — A.D.  106. 
The  Emperor  Probus,  born  here  in  232,  was 
murdered  during  a  mutiny  of  his  troops,  Oct., 
282.  An  edict  was  issued  from  this  place  by 
Constantino  I.  against  the  exaction  of  heathen 
observances  from  Christians,  May  25,  323. 
The  first  council,  held  here  in  351,  deposed 
Photinus,  the  bishop,  for  Arianism.  At  the 
second  council,  in  357,  Hosius  was  induced  to 
subscribe  an  Arian  confession  of  faith.  A  third 
council  was  held  here  in  358.  The  formularies 
drawn  up  at  these  councils  were  known  as  the 


creeds  of  Sirmium.  The  inhabitants  acknow- 
ledged Julian  as  then-  sovereign  in  361.  It  was 
attacked  in  375  by  the  Quadi  and  Sarmatians, 
who  were  defeated  through  the  vigilance  of 
Probus,  the  praetorian  prefect.  Having  been 
taken  by  the  Bulgarians  in  502,  they  were  dis- 
possessed by  Theodoric  in  504.  The  city,  after 
a  siege  of  three  years'  duration,  capitulated  in 
590. 

SISAPON.— (See  ALMADEN.) 

SISTERS  OF  CHARITY,  or  GREY  SISTERS, 
a  religious  association  of  females  for  the 
assistance  of  the  sick  poor,  was  founded  by 
Vincent  de  Paul,  Chatillon-les-Dombes,  in  1617. 
In  1629  he  established  a  similar  society  at  Paris, 
where  he  was  shortly  joined  by  a  widow  named 
le  Gras,  who  formed  a  staff  of  nurses,  which 
received  the  sanction  of  Cardinal  de  Retz, 
under  the  title  of  "Servants  of  the  Poor," 
in  Jan.,  1655.  This  institution  was  the  origin 
of  the  celebrated  Sisters  of  Charity,  who  have 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  acts  of  bene- 
ficence. (See  RECULVER.) 

SISTERS  OF  ST.  GERVAIS,  called  also 
F1LLES-DIEU.— This  order  of  nuns  was 
founded  in  France  in  1300,  to  attend  the  sick 
in  the  hospital  of  St.  Gervais. 

SISTOVA  (Turkey).— A  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Austria  and  Turkey  was  signed  at  this 
town  in  IJulgaria,  Aug.  4,  1791.  It  surrendered 
to  the  Russians,  who  reduced  it  to  a 
ruins,  transporting  the  inhabitants,  20,000  in 
number,  across  the  Danube,  in  1812. 

SIT1I1EU,  or  S1TIIIU.— (Ste  OMKR,  ST.) 

SIX  ACTS. — A  name  given  to  six  measures 
for  the  prevention  of  seditious  meetings  and 
the  regulation  of  political  publications,  passed 

"VlX9' ARTICLES,    or    BLOODY   STATUTE, 

the  name  given  to  an  act  (31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14) 
passed  June  28,  1539.  It  was  enacted  for 
"  abolishing  diversity  of  opinions  in  certain 
articles  concerning  the  Christian  religion." 
The  six  articles  enforced  were  transubsiau- 
tiation,  communion  in  one  kind,  celibacy  of 
the  clergy,  vows  of  chastity,  private  masses, 
and  auricular  confession.  All  persons  denying 
the  first  were  to  be  punished  as  heretics,  and 
those  who  denied  any  of  the  remaining  five  as 
felons.  This  statute  was  repealed  in  1547. 

SIX  CLERKS,  officers  whojreceived  and  filed 
proceedings  in  Chancery,  and  performed  other 
duties,  the  number  being  limited  to  six  by 
12  Rich.  II.  (1388).  An  orderwas  made  limiting 
the  number  of  under-clerks  in  1596.  The  office 
was  altogether  a  sinecure  in  1630.  An  order 
was  made  for  dividing  the  fees  between  them 
and  the  under-clerks  in  1668.  The  office  was 
abolished  by  5  Viet.  c.  5  (Oct.  5,  1841). 

SIX-MILE  BRIDGE  (Clare).— An  election 
riot  took  place  here,  when  five  persons  were 
killed  by  the  military  and  several  wounded, 
July  22,  1852.  The  bills  of  indictment  against 
the  soldiers  were  ignored  by  the  grand  jury, 
Feb.  24,  1853. 

SIXTEEN  (COUNCIL  OF).— Formed  in  Paris 
in  1584,  the  city  being  divided  into  16  sections, 
each  having  its  leader.  They  organized  a  con- 
spiracy against  Henry  III.  in  1588,  and  ap- 
pointed a  supreme  council,  called  the  Council 
of  Union,  consisting  of  40  members.  Philip  II., 


SKINNERS 


[    909 


SLAVE-TRADE 


of  Spain,  intrigued  with  the  Council  of  Sixteen 
in  1589.  The  Council  of  Union  was  suppressed 
in  1590,  and  the  Council  of  Sixteen,  after  gain- 
ing a  perilous  ascendancy,  was  suppressed. 

SKINNERS.  —  (See  CABOCHIENS,  LEATHER, 
Ac.) 

SKINS. — God  made  coats  of  skins  for  Adam 
and  Eve  before  they  were  expelled  from  Eden 
(Gen.  iii.  21),  B.C.  4003.  They  appear  to  have 
been  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of 
Job,  B.C.  2130  (Job  ii.  4).  According  to 
Julius  Csesar,  the  ancient  Britons  were  clad  in 
skins,  B.C.  55. 

SKIPTON  (Yorkshire)  took  its  rise  from  the 
castle  built  by  Robert  de  Romille  about  1087. 
It  surrendered,  after  a  three  years'  siege  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  Dec.  22,  1645.  The 
fortifications,  destroyed  by  order  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1649,  were  afterwards  rebuilt  by  the 
Countess  of  Pembroke.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1548,  and  Christ's 
Church  was  erected  in  1838. 

SLAVERY.— Its  institution  is  referred  to 
the  "giants"  who  flourished  in  the  antedi- 
luvian period.  After  the  Deluge  it  was  de- 
nounced upon  Ham  and  Canaan  by  Noah, 
B.C.  2347  (Gen.  ix.  25 — 27),  and  it  appears  to 
have  prevailed  universally  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  B.C.  1920.  The  Levitical  laws  con- 
tain many  regulations  for  the  condition  of 
slaves,  and  draw  a  wide  distinction  between 
such  as  were  native  Jews  and  such  as  were 
acquired  from  other  nations  by  purchase  or 
conquest.  By  the  Roman  laws  creditors  exer- 
cised the  right  of  ownership  over  their 
debtors,  and  Tacitus  relates  that  the  ancient 
German  gamblers  frequently  staked  their 
liberty,  and  became  the  slaves  of  the  successful 
player.  Constantino  I.,  in  334,  passed  a  law 
prohibiting  the  separation  of  slave  families, 
and  made  the  murderer  of  a  slave  amenable  to 
the  same  penalties  as  that  of  a  free  man. 
(See  SERVILE  WARS.)  Slaves,  or  villeins,  were 
very  numerous  in  England  during  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period,  when  they  enjoyed  some  sort  of 
legal  protection.  If  a  master  struck  out  the 
eye  or  tooth  of  a  slave,  he  recovered  his 
freedom,  and  if  he  killed  him,  the  murder  was 
recompensed  by  a  fine.  (See  SERFDOM.)  Under 
the  Normans  the  slaves  exceeded  the  free 
tenants  in  number,  and  the  oppressive  manner 
in  which  they  were  treated  occasioned  many 
of  the  insurrections  of  the  period. 


1547.  By  I  Edw.  VI.  c.  3,  any  person  found  wandering 
and  unemployed  is  ordered  to  be  branded  with  a 
V,  and  to  be  made  a  slave  for  two  years.  The 
first  attempt  at  escape  renders  the  offender  liable 
to  be  branded  with  S,  and  to  become  a  slave  for 
life;  and  the  second  attempt  is  regarded  as  a 
capital  felony. 

1574.  Queen  Elizabeth  abolishes  serfdom  on  her  own 
estates. 

1660.  Personal  slavery  is  abolished  in  England  by  12, 
Charles  II.  c.  24. 

1671.  Slavery  is  adopted  in  Carolina. 

1685.  Louis  XIV.  publishes  t!.e  Black  Code,  for  the  regu- 
lation of  French  negro  slaves. 

1702.  Slavery  is  partially  abolished  in  Prussia, 

1716.  Negro  slavery  is  allowed  in  France. 

1740.  The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  imposes  a  penalty 
of  ,£100  on  any  one  convicted  of  teaching  slaves 
to  write. 

1766.  Slavery  is  abolished  in  Denmark. 


1773.  Granville  Sharpe  (1734  — July  6,  1813)  obtains  a 
judgment  in  favour  of  the  negro  Somerset,  in  the 
English  court  of  King's  Bench.  This  decision 
establishes  the  great  principle  that  a  slave  attains 
his  freedom  immediately  he  touches  British  soil. 

1780,  March  I.    An  act  for  the  gradual  extinction  of 

slavery  is  adopted  in  Pennsylvania. 

1781.  Slavery  is  abolished  in  Bohemia. 

1783.  Slavery  is  partially  abolished  in  Germany. 

1784.  The  legislatures  of  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut 

pass  acts  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery. 

1785.  Vassalage  is  abolished  in  Hungary. 

1787,  July  13.  The  territory,  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Ohio,  comprising  the  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  is  de- 
clared free  ground. 

1793.  The  French  abolish  slavery  in  Hayti  (q.  v.). 

1799.  The  legislature  of  New  York  commence  a  series  of 
acts  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery. 

1803.  Indiana  is  purchased  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, and  made  a  slave  state. 

1818.  Personal  slavery  is  abolished  in  Courland. 

1830.  The  United  States  congress  adopts  the  Missouri 
Compromise  (q.  ».). 

1823,  March.  Wilberforce  presents  a  petition  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery. 

1833,  Aug.  28.  Slavery  is  abolished  throughout  the  British 
empire  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  73,  which  takes  effect 
from  Aug.  I,  1834.  The  slave-owners  receive 
£20,000,000  as  compensation.  (See  EMANCI- 
PATION). 

1838,  Aug.  i.  Slavery  is  abolished  in  the  East  Indies. 

1840,  June.  An  international  congress  for  considering  the 
most  effectual  means  of  abolishing  slavery  meets 
at  London. 

1845.  Texas  is  admitted  into  the  United  States  as  a  slave 
state. 

1848.  Slavery  is  abolished  in  the  French  colonies. 

1850,  Aug.  Henry  Clay  passes  his  "  omnibus  measure," 
by  which  California  is  admitted  a  free  state  of 
the  union.— Sep.  18.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Bill 
(q.  f.)  is  passed,  for  recovering  runaway  negroes 
escaped  into  free  states. 

1854.  Nebraska  and  Kansas  are  erected  into  slaveholding 
territories  by  an  act  of  the  United  States  con- 
gress, which  ignores  the  Missouri  compromise. 

1859,  Oct.  17.  John  Brown  fails  in  an  attempted  negro 
insurrection,  at  Harper's  Ferry  (q.  v.)  against 
the  United  States  government. 

1861.  Serfdom  is  abolished  in  Russia. 

1863,  Feb.  2,1.  Capt.  Gordon  is  executed  at  New  York  for 
slavery  piracy. — April  3.  The  senate  of  the 
United  States  abolishes  slavery  in  the  district  of 
Columbia.— June  9.  Slavery  is  interdicted  in  all 
the  territories  of  the  United  States.— June  19. 
The  Federal  house  of  representatives  passes  a 
bill  for  confiscating  the  slaves  of  rebels. — Sep.  22. 
President  Lincoln  issues  a  proclamation  declaring 
the  emancipation  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  States 
that  should  be  still  in  rebellion  by  the  1st  of 
Jan.,  1863. 

1863,  Jan.  I.  President  Lincoln  publishes  a  second  pro- 
clamation, confirming  the  previous  manifesto  of 
Sep.  22,  1*62,  and  declaring  all  the  slaves  in  the 
states  of  Texas,  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Alabama, 
Florida,  Georgia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and 
parts  of  Louisiana  and  Virginia  as  free,  and 
under  the  military  protection  of  the  Union. — July 
I.  By  a  law  passed  Aug.  6,  1862,  slavery  is 
abolished  in  Surinam  or  Dutch  Guiana. 

SLAVES  TO  VIRTUE,  or  "  THE  ORDER 
OP  LADIES,"  was  instituted  in  Austria  in 
1662. 

SLAVE-TRADE.  —  Nimrod  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  first  dealer  in  slaves,  and 
Babylon  as  the  earliest  slave-market.  A  writer 
in  the  eighth  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica"  observes  (vol.  xx.  p.  319),  "  with 
other  abominable  customs,  the  traffic  in  men 
quickly  spread  from  Chaldsea  into  Egypt, 
Arabia,  and  over  all  the  East,  and  by  degrees 
found  its  way  into  every  known  region  under 
heaven."  The  Greeks  and  Romans  sold  their 


SLAVE-TRADE 


[    910    ] 


SLESWIG 


captives  into  slavery,  and  until  comparative 
recent  times  the  same  fate  awaited  all  prisone 
of  war  (q.  v.). 


651.  The  King  of  Ethiopia  undertakes  to  send  the  M. 

hammedans  of  Egypt  a  large  number  of  ueg 

slaves  annually, 
looo  (about).  Fairs  (q.  v.)  for  the  sale  of  slaves  are  held 

Germany. 
1103.  The  exportation  of  English  slaves  to  the  contine 

is  prohibited  by  a  council  held  at  London. 
1443.  An  association  is  formed  in  Portugal  for  the  prc 

secution   of  the    slave   trade.      Tea    slaves    ar 

brought  to  Seville  by  Gonzales. 
1495,  Feb.    34.    Columbus    sends    a  cargo  of    America 

Indian  slaves  to  Spain. 
1503,  Dec.  30.  Ferdinand  V.  and  Isabella  I.  authorize  tl 

Spanish    colonists    of    America    to    compel    tl 

native  Indians  to  work  for  them. 

1508.  African  slaves  are  imported  into  Spanish  America 
1563.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  the  first  English   slave-dealei 

commences  a  trade   between  Guinea  and   His 


paniola. 
Lfrici 


iGso.  African  slaves  are  imported  into  Virginia  by  th 

Dutch. 
1701.  Foundation  of  the  Assiento  (?.  r.)  or  Guinea  Com 

pany,  for  tlie  African  slave-trade. 
1713.  The  importation  of  slaves  is  prohibited  in  Massa 

chusetis. 
1763.  Anthony  Bcnezet,  a  Quaker,  publishes  a  work  o: 

the  abuses  of  the  slave-trade. 
1776.  The  first  motion  for  abolishing  the  trade  is  mado  ii 

theEn-lisli  Parlia inont. 
1787,  May.  The  Soeiety  for  the  Suppression  of  (]„.  Slav 

trade  is   founded  in  London,  by  William  Dillwv.. 

Granville  Sharp,  Thomas  Cliirkson.  and  Willi'an 

Wllberfona  • 

1789,  May  12.  VVilbcrforcedolivers.his  first  Parliamentar 

speech  against  the  .slave-trade. 
1794,  Feb.  5.   The.  rreneh  Convention  abolishes  the  Slave 

trade,  which  is  re.-tor.-d  during  the  Consulate. 

1807,  Mnre.h    23.  The    .slave-trade  is  in   the   dominions  o 

Great  lirilain  abolished  by  47  Geo.  III.  c.  36 
which  takes  effect  from  May  I. 

1808,  Jan.  I.  The  Importation  of  Africans  into  the  T'nitei 

States  is  prohibited  i>v  CongnM,  Ore  PKI  S8IA. 
I8ll,  May    14.  Tim    trade    in    slave.,    is   ,1,  dared    felony; 
punishable   by    14  years'  transportation,   or  fivi 
years'  imprisonment,  bv  51  Geo.  111.  c.  13. 

1814,  May  30.  A  treaty  for  the  extinction  of  the  trade  i> 

concluded  with  Krancit,  at  i'aris. — Aug.  13.  A 
similar  treaty  is  signed  with  the  Netherlands  a 
London. 

1815,  Mnreh  29.  Napoleon  I.  abolishes  the  slave-trade  ii 

Franco.— June  9.  The  representatives  of  Austria, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Prussia,  Kussin, 
Spain,  and  Sweden,  at  the  congress  of  Vienna 
record  their  desire  to  abolish  the  trade. 

1817,  July  38.  A  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  trade  i 
concluded  between  (treat  Britain  and  Portugal. — 
Sep.  33.  A  similar  treaty  is  signed  with  Spain  at 
Madrid.— Oct.  23.  Kadaina  I.,Kin-.,f  M,ub,p,srar, 
concludes  a  treaty  with  the  English  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  trade,  at  Tanuitave. 

1830.  The  United  States  congress  makes  it  piracy  to  en- 
gage iii  the  foreign  slave-trade. 

1334,  March  31.  The  conveyance  of  slaves  from  Africa  is 
made  piracy  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  17. 

1835,  Nov.  6.  A  treaty  for  suppressing  the  trade  is  con- 

cluded with  Sweden  at  Stockholm. 

1836,  Nov.  23.  An  abolition  treaty  is  signed  with  Brazil 

at  Uio  Janeiro. 

1833,  A  treaty  for  the  abolition  of  the  traffic  is  concluded 

with  France. 

1834,  July  26.  Denmark  agrees  to  abolish  the  trade  by  the 

treaty  of  Copenhagen. — Dec.  8.  A  similar  treaty 
is  concluded  with  Sardinia  at  Turin. 

1835,  June  38.  Spain  agrees  to  a  total  abolition  of  the 

trade,  on  her  part,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Madrid. 

1837,  Nov.   34.    Tuscany  unites  with  the  other  states  in 

the  efforts  for  its  suppression  by  the  treaty  of 
Florence. 

1838,  Feb.  14.  An  abolition  treaty  is  signed  bv  the  Kins 

of  Naples,  at  Naples. 

1839,  March  15.    The  republic  of  Venezuela  renounces 

the  traflie  by  the  treaty  of  Caracas. 

1840,  Sep.  35.  A  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  trade 

is  concluded  with  Bolivia  at  Sucre. 


1841,  Feb.  34.  A  similar  treaty  is  concluded  with  the 
Mexican  government  at  Mexico. 

1843,  Aug.  9.  The  United  States  government  signs  a 
treaty  at  Washington  for  the  suppression  of  the. 
African  slave-trade. 

1850,  Sep.  4.  The  Emperor  of  Brazil  publishes  a  decree 
making  the  importation  of  slaves  piracy. 

1853.  The  French  government  adopts  a  plan  of  free  negro 
emigration,  which  leads  to  the  forcible  abduc- 
tion of  the  negroes. 

1859,  Jan.  6.  The  French  government  abandons  the  free 
negro  emigration  system,  in  consequence  of  the 
abuses  revealed  in  the  affair  of  the  Charles  et 
Georges.  (See  PORTUGAL.) 

SLAVONIA  (Austria).  — After  undergoing 
numerous  vicissitudes,  the  Avars,  who  ob- 
tained possession  of  this  country  in  568,  were 
conquered  by  Charlemagne,  and  supplanted 
by  a  tribe  of  Slavonians  from  Dalmatia  about 
the  end  of  the  8th  century.  Cyril  and  Metho- 
dius, from  Byzantium,  visited  it  as  Christian 
missionaries  in  864.  A  large  portion  of  Sla- 
vonia  was  seized  by  the  Hungarians  about 
i  ioo.  This  led  to  a  struggle  with  the  Eastern 
empire,  and,  after  a  succession  of  fierce  con- 
tests, it  was  ceded  to  the  Hungarians  in  1165. 
The  Turks  made  themselves  masters  of  it  in 
1526,  it  was  wrested  from  them  in  1688,  and 
restored  to  Hungary  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz, 
Jan.  26,  1699.  The  military  frontier  was 
separated  from  Slavonia  in  1734.  Slavonia 
was  separated  from  Hungary  in  1848.  (See 

SLEEPLESS.— (See  AC<EMAT,E.) 

SLESWIG  (Denmark).— This  seaport  town, 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  the  same  name,  was 
i  place  of  some  note  as  early  as  the  gth  ccn- 
;ury,  and  remained  the  most  important  city 
in  the  kingdom  for  nearly  six  centuries.     It 
was    repeatedly  pillaged  and    devastated  in 
;he   1 2th    and    i3th    centuries,   and    suffered 
nuch  from  fire  and  violence  in  the  i4th  cen- 
;ury.     The  cathedral,  built  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury, contains  a  screen  before  the  altar,  ad- 
nirably  carved  in  wood  by  Hans  BrUggmann 
n  1521.     Councils  were  held  here  in  1061  and 
222.     The  silting  up  of  the  mouth  of  the  Sley 
n   the  beginning  of  the  i$th  century,  com- 
jined  with  the  rivalry  of  the  Holsteiners,  led 
o  its  gradual  decline.     It  was  taken  by  the 
Swedes  Aug.  10,  1814.    Sle.swig  was  summoned 
o  surrender  to  the  Austrian    and  Prussian 
irces  of  Marshal  Wrangel,  Jan.  31,   1864,  but 
as  held  on  behalf  of  Denmark  by  Gen.   de 
leza.     (See  DENMARK,  HOLSTEIN,  &c.) 
SLESWIG  (Duchy).— This  duchy,  originally 
art  of  Denmark,  was  detached  in  1085  in  favour 
f  Olaf,  brother  of  Canute  IV.,  and  was  be- 
towedupon  Canute,  nephew  of  King  Nicholas, 
1103.      Count    Gerhard    of    Holstein    and 
tomam  obtained  royal  rights  over  the  inha- 
itants  Aug.    15,    1326,   and    in    1386    it  was 
eded  by  Olaf  III.  to  Count  Gerhard  III.     In 
440  it  was  bestowed  upon  Adolphus,  Count 
r  Holstein,  and  with  his  territories  it  passed 
ito  the  possession  of  Denmark,  whose  king, 
hristian  I.,  assumed  the  title  of  duke  in  1464. 

1490  King  John  conferred  a  portion  on  his 
rother  Frederick,  and  in  1544  it  was  again 
ivided  by  Christian  III.  Part  of  the  duchy, 
inexed  to  Sweden  in  1658,  was  occupied  in 
14  by  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  to  whom  it 
as  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm, 


SLIDING  SCALE 


SMITHFIELD  CLUB 


June  14,  1720.  Christian  VIII.  issued  letters 
patent  asserting  his  right  to  the  duchy  of 
Sleswig,  July  8,  1846.  Sleswig  consequently 
participated  in  the  wars  of  1848  and  1864 
(See  DENMARK),  and  was  placed,  by  the  conven- 
tion of  Gastein  (q.  v.),  Aug.  14,  1865,  under 
the  administration  of  Prussia,  with  which  it 
was  formally  incorporated  by  patent  dated 
Jan.  12,  1867. 

SLIDING  SCALE.— (See  CORN  LAWS.) 

SLIGO  (Ireland),  chief  town  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  was  the  site  of  a  castle, 
built  by  Fitzgerald,  Earl  of  Kildare,  in  1242. 
Having  been  destroyed  by  the  natives,  it  was 
rebuilt  about  1300.  A  Dominican  monastery 
was  founded  in  1252.  Sligo  was  incorporated 
in  1613,  and  obtained  a  charter  of  the  staple 
in  1621.  The  English  army,  commanded  by  Sir 
Charles  Coote,  captured  it  in  the  rebellion  of 
1641.  It  took  the  side  of  James  II.,  was  oc- 
cupied for  William  III.  by  the  Enniskilleners, 
taken  by  Gen.  Sarsfield,  and  surrendered  to  the 
Earl  of  Granard  in  1688. 

SLING. — Among  the  Benjamites  who  went 
up  to  battle  against  Israel,  there  were  700  men, 
all  left-handed,  who  could  sling  stones  with 
great  precision  (Judges  xx.  16),  B.C.  1413.  With 
this  weapon  David  slew  the  Philistian  cham- 
pion Goliath,  B.C.  1063  (i  Sam.  xvii.  49).  Pliny 
ascribes  the  invention  to  the  Phoenicians,  and 
Vegetius  to  the  Balearic  islanders.  The  Greeks 
had  mounted  slingers,  and  sometimes  shot  fire- 
balls instead  of  stones.  There  is  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  ancient  Britons  used  a  sling 
made  of  wood.  It  was  a  formidable  weapon 
in  the  hands  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  Eng- 
lish slingers  preceded  the  army  and  opened  the 
battle. 

SLINGERS.— (See  FRONDEURS.) 

SLOANE  MUSEUM  (London)  was  formed  by 
the  celebrated  physician  and  naturalist  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  who  was  born  at  Killyleagh,  in 
Ireland,  April  16,  1660,  and  died  at  Chelsea 
Jan.  ii,  1753.  He  bequeathed  his  museum, 
which  had  cost  him  ^50,000,  to  the  public,  on 
condition  that  ^20,000  should  be  given  to  his 
family.  The  legacy  and  the  conditions  were 
accepted  by  26  Geo.  II.  c.  22  (1753),  and  from 
this  collection,  with  the  Cottonian  and  the  Har- 
leian,  the  British  Museum  (q.  v.}  had  its  origin. 

SLUYS,  or  L'ECLUSE  (Holland).— Hardi- 
canute  sailed  from  this  place  for  England,  to 
assume  the  crown,  on  the  death  of  Harold  I. 
(March  17,  1040),  and  landed  at  Sandwich 
June  17.  Edward  III.  defeated  the  French 
in  a  naval  engagement  off  the  port,  with  a  loss 
to  them  of  230  ships,  30,000  men,  and  two 
admirals,  June  24,  1340. 

SMALCALDIC  WAR,  waged  by  the  League 
of  Smalcald  in  defence  of  German  Protest- 
antism, commenced  with  the  capture  of  Fiissen 
on  the  Lech  by  Sebastian  Schertlin,  at  the  head 
of  the  troops  of  Ulm  and  Augsburg,  July  9, 
1546.  This,  the  first  religious  war  in  Germany, 
was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  peace  signed 
at  Passau,  July  31,  1552. 

SMALCALD,  or  SCHMALKALD  (League), 
was  formed  by  some  of  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany  for  mutual  defence  against  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  Dec.  31,  1530.  It  held 
meetings  in  1531,  when  others  joined  it,  and 


it  consisted  of  7  princes,  2  counts,  and  24 
cities.  A  threatened  invasion  of  Hungary 
by  the  Turks,  and  the  apprehension  that 
France  and  England  would  join  the  league, 
induced  the  Emperor  to  sign  a  treaty,  called 
the  Peace  of  Nuremberg,  in  July,  1532,  granting 
liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Protestants.  The 
confederates  held  another  meeting  Dec.  24, 
1535,  when  the  league  was  renewed  for  10  years. 
The  articles  of  guarantee,  drawn  up  by  Luther, 
were  subscribed  at  a  meeting  of  the  con 
federates  in  Feb.,  1537,  and  called  the  articles 
of  Smalcald.  The  league  was  again  renewed, 
and  its  objects  were  secured  by  the  treaty  of 
Passau  (q.  v.).  The  Roman  Catholics  formed 
the  Nuremberg  or  German  League  (q.  v.),  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Smalcald. 

SMALL-POX,  or  VARIOLA,  is  supposed  to 
have  prevailed  in  China  and  Hindostan  for 
some  centuries  previous  to  its  introduction 
into  Europe.  The  first  authentic  account  of 
its  appearance  in  the  West  is  at  the  siege  of 
Mecca  by  the  Abyssinians,  in  572,  when  it 
committed  great  ravages  in  the  invading  army. 
It  spread  to  Alexandria,  and  was  first  described 
by  Ahron,  a  physician  of  that  city,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  7th  century.  The  Saracens 
carried  it  into  Europe  in  the  8th  century. 
Inoculation  (q.v.)  for  small-pox  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu, 
about  1721.  A  small-pox  hospital  was  estab- 
lished in  London  in  1746.  Dr  Jenner  dis- 
covered and  introduced  cow-pox  as  a  preven- 
tative  in  1796.  (See  VACCINATION.)  In  1862 
small-pox  proved  very  destructive  among 
sheep  (q.v.). 

SMASHER.— (See  CARRONADE.) 

SMITHFIELD  (London)  was  celebrated  as  a 
horse  and  cattle  fair  as  early  as  1174.  At  that 
time  it  was  an  open  space  used  for  recreation. 
Sir  William  Wallace  was  executed  here  St. 
Bartholomew's  eve  (Aug.  23),  1305.  Here  jousts 
were  held  by  Edward  III.  in  1357,  at  which 
the  kings  of  France  and  Scotland,  and  many 
noble  prisoners  taken  at  Poitiers,  were  present. 
William  Walworth  slew  Wat  Tyler  on  this 
spot,  Jun.  15,  1381.  A  grand  tournament 
was  held  here  by  Richard  II.  Sunday  after 
Michaelmas,  1390,  and  lasted  four.  days. 
Here  Margery  Jourdain  was  burned  in  1441, 
and  John  Rogers,  the  first  martyr  in  Queen 
Mary's  reign,  Feb.  4,  1555.  Smithfield  was 
paved  by  order  of  James  I.,  at  a  cost  of  ,£1,600, 
in  1614.  A  turbulent  meeting,  presided  over 
by  Henry  Hunt,  was  held  July  22,  1819.  Great 
military  preparations  were  made,  and  6,000 
special  constables  sworn  in  to  preserve  the 
peace  of  the  city  on  this  occasion.  Bartho- 
lomew fair,  once  one  of  the  leading  fairs  in 
England,  was  held  here  till  1855.  An  act  for 
closing  the  cattle-market  (14  &  15  Viet.  c.  61) 
was  passed  Aug.  i,  1851,  and  it  was  formally 
closed  June  n,  1855.  The  dead-meat  market 
(Newgate)  was  ordered  to  be  removed  to  the 
site  by  24  and  25  Viet.  c.  52  (June  7,  1861). 

SMITHFIELD  CLUB  (London).— This 
association,  for  encouraging  improvements  in 
the  breed  of  cattle,  <fec.,  was  established  in 
London  in  1798.  The  annual  cattle-show,  at 
first  held  in  premises  in  Goswell  Street,  and 
removed  to  the  Baker  Street  Bazaar  in  1840, 


SMITHICK 


SOAP 


has  been  transferred,  since  Dec.  6,  1862,  to  the 
Agricultural  Hall  (q.  v.}. 

SMITHICK.— (See  FALMOUTH.) 

SMOKE  FARTHINGS.— (See  HEARTH 
MONEY.  ^ 

SMOKE  NUISANCE.— An  act  of  Parliament, 
16  &  17  Viet.  c.  128,  was  passed  Aug.  20,  1853, 
to  abate  the  nuisance  arising  from  the  smoke 
of  furnaces  in  the  metropolis,  and  from  steam-* 
vessels  above  London  bridge.  It  was  amended 
by  19  &  20  Viet.  c.  107  (July  29,  1856),  which 
came  into  operation  Jan.  i,  1858.  The  act  was 
extended  to  Scotland  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  73  (Aug. 
25,  1857),  which  came  into  operation  A\ig.  i, 
1858,  and  was  amended  by  24  Viet.  c.  17,  June  7, 
1861.  The  system  has  been  extended  to  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom. 

SMOLENSKOW  (Russia),  the  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  is  mentioned 
in  Russian  annals  as  early  as  879.  It  sub- 
sequently became  an  independent  principality, 
and  was  ravaged  by  the  plague  in  the  i2th 
century,  when  42,000  of  its  inhabitants 
perished.  The  same  dreadful  scourge  destroyed 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  population  in  the  i4th 
century.  It  was  taken  by  the  Lithuanians  in 
1413,  and  was  afterwards  alternately  in  the 
hands  of  the  Poles  and  the  Russians  till  finally 
taken  by  the  latter  in  1654.  It  was  formally 
ceded  to  them  by  the  Poles  by  the  treaties  of 
1667  and  1686.  Smolenskow  was  attacked  1  >y  the 
French  under  Napoleon  I.,  Aug.  16  and  17,  1812. 
After  a  sanguinary  contest,  in  which  the 
French  lost  15,000  and  the  Russians  10,000 
men,  the  latter  remained  masters  of  the  city. 
The  French,  who  returned  to  the  attack  Aug. 
1 8,  found  the  city  deserted  and  in  ruins.  The 
Russian  general,  JJarclay  de  Tolly,  was  deprived 
of  his  command  for  having  given  up  this  holy 
city,  as  the  Russians  called  it,  without  a  pitched 
battle.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French  on  their 
disastrous  retreat  from  Moscow,  Nov.  9 — 17, 
1812.  On  leaving  they  blew  up  part  of  the 
ramparts.  Smolenskow  is  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  contains  two  cathedrals,  built  in 
the  1 2th  century. 

SMUGGLERS.— Numerous  statutes  were 
formerly  passed  against  smugglers.  By  19 
Gco.  II.  c.  34  (1736),  known  as  the  Smugglers' 
Act,  forcible  acts  of  smuggling  were  made 
felony  without  benefit  of  clergy.  All  previous 
acts  were  repealed,  and  the  laws  on  the  subject 
consolidated  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  108  (1826).  This 
and  several  subsequent  acts  were  superseded 
by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  53  (1834),  and  by  4  &  5  Will. 
IV.  c.  13  (1835). 

SMYRNA  (Asia  Minor),  according  to  Hero- 
dotus, was  first  colonized  by  the  vEolians, 
who  held  it  till  B.C.  688,  when,  through  the 
intrigues  of  some  exiles  from  Colophon,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Ionian  league,  of  which  it 
formed  the  i3th  city.  It  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  Sadyattes,  King  of  Lydia,  about 
B.C.  627,  and  remained  in  ruins  for  nearly  400 
years,  when  Antigonus  the  Great  founded  a 
new  city  near  the  site  of  the  old  one,  which 
became,  according  to  Strabo,  the  finest  in  Asia. 
It  was  one  of  the  seven  churches  mentioned 
Rev.  i.  Polycarp,  a  disciple  of  the  apostle 
John,  who  suffered  martyrdom  here  about  166, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop.  The  city, 


destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  178,  was  rebuilt 
by  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  (161 — 180). 
Smyrna  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Turkish 
pirate  at  the  end  of  the  nth  century,  and 
was  almost  destroyed  by  a  Greek  fleet. 
Having  been  rebuilt  by  the  Emperor  Alexius 
(I.)  Comnenus  (1081—1118),  it  was  soon  after- 
wards taken  by  the  Genoese,  and  by  the  Hos- 
pitallers in  1341.  Tamerlane  took  it  in  1402, 
and  erected  within  its  walls  a  tower  constructed 
of  stones  and  the  heads  of  his  enemies.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1424.  A  mas- 
sacre of  several  thousand  Greek  inhabitants  by 
the  Mohammedans  took  place  June  15,  1821,  and 
another  massacre  of  above  1,000  Christians 
occurred  Nov.  2,  1826,  and  following  days.  A 
fire,  which  destroyed  12,000  houses,  took  place 
in  July,  1841 ;  and  an  earthquake  caused  much 
damage  in  1846.  A  great  fire  occurred  Aug.  27, 
1860.  The  first  stone  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  of  St.  John  was  laid  Dec.  27,  1862. 

SNAKE  ISLAND,  or  ANGUILLA  (West  In- 
dies), came  into  the  possession  of  the  English 
about  1632,  and  was  colonized  by  them  in  1666. 
The  French,  having  ravaged  the  island  in  1796, 
re -embarked  on  the  approach  of  an  English 
frigate. 

SX  I'RZING  has  been  considered  as  an  omen 
from  the  most  ancient  times.  The  custom  of 
blessing  persons  when  they  sneeze  is  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  ancients,  though 
many  writers  affirm  that  it  originated  in  590, 
under  Pope  Gregory  I.  (the  Great),  when  a 
pestilence  occurred  at  Rome,  in  which  those 
who  sneezed  died,  whereupon  the  Pope  ap- 
pointed a  form  of  prayer  to  be  said  to  persons 
sneezing. 

SNIDER  GUN. —This  adaptation  of  the 
Enficld  musket,  patented  in  1862,  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  English  Government  in  1863,  and 
accepted  by  them  as  the  best  breech-loading 
weapon  for  the  army  in  1866.  Several  persons 
lay  claim  to  the  invention.  John  Poad  Drake, 
of  Cornwall,  submitted  drawings  to  the  War 
Office  of  a  weapon  on  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  the  Snider  Enfield  rifle  in  1835.  It 
appears  that  Mr.  Jacob  Snider  came  to  England 
in  March,  1859,  as  the  joint  agent  with  Mr. 
Kerr  for  the  Mont  Storm  Rifle.  He  took  out  a 
pritcnt  in  conjunction  with  M.  Schneider,  of 
Paris,  June  21,  1862,  and  another  for  his  own 
breech-loading  gun,  Nov.  5,  1864.  Jacob  Snider 
died  Oct.  25,  1866.  (See  NKKDLE  GUN.) 

SNOELAND,  or  SNOWLAND.— (See  ICE- 
LAND.) 

SNUFF-TAKING.— The  custom  of  taking 
snuff  appears  to  have  originated  in  Ireland 
soon  after  the  introduction  of  tobacco,  about 
1565.  Howell  (1594 — Nov.,  1666)  says  of  the 
custom  in  England,  "the  servant-maid  upon 
the  washing-block,  and  the  swain  upon  the 
ploughshare,  when  they  are  tired  with  labour, 
take  out  their  boxes  of  smutchin  and  draw  it 
into  their  nostrils  with  a  quill." 

SOANE  MUSEUM  (London)  was  formed  by 
Sir  John  Soane  (Sep.  10,  1753 — Jan.  20,  1837), 
the  architect,  who  obtained  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1833,  vesting  his  museum  in  trustees 
for  the  use  of  the  public. 

SOAP. — The  first  express  mention  of  soap 
occurs  in  Pliny  (23 — 79),  who  speaks  of  it  as  an 


SOBRAON 


SOCIETIES 


invention  of  the  Gauls.  An  excise  duty  on 
soap  of  id.  per  pound  was  first  imposed  in 
Great  Britain  in  1711.  It  was  raised  to  i£cZ. 
in  1713,  and  a  difference  was  made  between  hard 
and  soft  soap  in  1782,  the  former  being  rated 
at  z\d.  and  the  latter  at  if  cL  per  pound.  The 
duty  on  hard  soap  increased  to  %d.  in  1816.  It 
was  reduced  to  i^d.  per  pound  for  hard,  and 
id.  per  pound  for  soft,  May  31,  1833,  and  was 
abolished  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  39  (July  8,  1853). 
The  soap-makers  were  incorporated  in  1638. 
(See  ALKALIES,  GLYCERINE,  &c.) 

SOBRAON  (Battle),  fought  on  the  banks  of 
the  Sutlej,  near  the  village  Sobraon,  between 
the  Sikhs,  and  the  English  under  Lord  Gough, 
Feb.  10,  1846.  The  Sikhs  occupied  an  in- 
trenched camp,  defended  by  30,000  of  their  best 
troops  and  130  pieces  of  artillery.  They  were 
attacked  by  the  English  with  100  guns,  and 
after  a  most  obstinate  contest  were  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  10,000  men.  The  English  had 
320  killed  and  2,063  wounded. 

SOCCOLANTL— (See  AMEDIANS.) 

SOCIALISTS,  a  name  given  to  the  followers 
of  Robert  Owen,  the  founder  of  that  kind 
of  socialism  which  consists  in  a  general  com- 
munity of  goods.  Robert  Owen,  born  at 
Newton,  in  Montgomeryshire,  May  14,  1771, 
married  the  daughter  of  David  Dale,  a 
manufacturer  of  Glasgow,  in  1801,  and  soon 
afterwards  undertook  the  management  of  the 
extensive  manufactory  of  New  Lanark,  on 
the  Clyde.  Here  he  amassed  a  large  fortune, 
and  developed  his  theory  of  socialism.  He 
introduced  the  system  into  his  establishment 
at  New  Lanark,  which  he  left  in  1823,  and 
proceeded  to  North  America, where  he  founded 
the  settlement  of  New  Harmony,  in  Indiana, 
in  1824.  Here  he  endeavoured  to  carry  out 
his  system  ;  but  it  proved  a  failure,  and  he 
returned  to  England  in  1827.  At  the  invitation 
of  the  Mexican  government,  he  went  to 
Mexico  in  1828,  in  order  to  carry  out  his 
scheme,  but  nothing  was  done.  Socialist  or 
Communist  (q.  v.}  doctrines  have  prevailed 
more  or  less  since  the  French  revolution  of  1789. 

SOCIAL  LIFE.— (See  BRETHREN  OF  SOCIAL 
LIFE.) 

SOCIAL  MARSIAN,  or  MARSIC  WAR 
(Rome). — M.  Livius  Drusus  proposed  a  law  for 
investing  the  Italian  allies  with  the  privileges 
of  Roman  citizens  ;  but  it  was  strongly  op- 
posed by  the  senators,  the  knights,  and  the 
people,  and  Drusus  was  assassinated  B.C.  91. 
The  Italians  then  entered  into  a  secret  con- 
federacy, which  was  first  discovered  at  Asculum 
in  Picenum.  Q.  Servilius,  sent  to  punish  the 
offenders,  was  massacred,  with  all  the  other 
Roman  citizens  in  the  town,  B.C.  91.  The  Marsi, 
who  took  the  lead  (whence  the  name  Marsian 
or  Marsic  war),  the  Peligni,  the  Samnites,  the 
Lucani,  and  almost  every  nation  in  Italy, 
except  the  Latins,  Tuscans,  and  Umbrians, 
revolted  and  established  a  republic  in  opposi- 
tion to  that  of  Rome.  On  the  coinage  Italia 
was  substituted  for  Rome.  In  the  first 
campaign  the  Romans  met  with  some  severe 
losses.  Nola  was  taken  by  the  Samnites ;  the 
consul  P.  Rutilius  and  his  lieutenant  Q.  Csepio, 
were  defeated  and  slain,  and  many  cities  were 
captured.  On  the  other  hand,  Sylla  and 


Marius  obtained  a  great  victory  over  the  Marsi, 
and  L.  Csesar  defeated  the  Samnites.  Towards 
the  close  of  B.C.  91,  the  Umbri  and  the  Tuscans 
showed  signs  of  joining  the  allies,  but  this  was 
averted  by  the  Romans  passing  a  law  admitting 
all  the  Italians,  who  had  continued  faithful  to 
Rome,  to  the  rights  of  citizenship.  In  the 
second  campaign,  B.C.  90,  the  Romans  defeated 
the  Marsi,  and  induced  them,  together  with 
the  Vestiiii,  Peligni,  and  Marrucini,  to  make 
a  separate  peace.  Sylla,  the  Roman  general, 
destroyed  the  town  of  Stalise,  defeated  a 
large  army  near  Nola,  reduced  the  Hirpini 
to  subjection,  and  defeated  the  Samians. 
The  Romans  were  induced,  hearing  that 
Mithridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  intended  to 
aid  the  allies,  to  adopt  measures  of  conciliation, 
and  one  state  after  another  submitted  and 
received  the  gift  of  Roman  citizenship.  After 
the  close  of  this  campaign,  the  war  dwindled 
away,  until  it  was  brought  to  a  concnision, 
B.C.  88,  by  the  remainder  of  the  Italian  states 
receiving  the  concessions  they  required. 
During  this  war  300,000  men  were  slain. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE.— (See  NATIONAL  ASSOCIA- 
TION FOR  THE  PROMOTION  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.) 

SOCIAL*  WARS  (Greece).— The  first,  between 
the  Athenians  and  some  of  her  principal  con- 
federates, who  wished  to  throw  off  her  yoke, 
began  with  the  revolt  of  Chios,  Cos,  Rhodes, 
and  Byzantium,  about  midsummer,  B.C.  357. 
Chares  and  Chabrias,  the  Athenian  com- 
manders, laid  siege  to  Chios.  The  attack  on 
the  town  was  defeated  at  the  end  of  B.C.  357, 
and  the  allies  became  masters  of  the  sea. 
With  a  fleet  of  100  sail  they  ravaged  Lemnos 
and  Imbros,  and  laid  siege  to  Samos  B.C.  356. 
A  report  having  reached  Athens  that  the 
Persian  court  was  fitting  out  a  fleet  of  300 
galleys  to  co-operate  with  the  confederates, 
the  Athenians  were  induced  to  grant  a  peace, 
acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  allies, 

about  midsummer,  B.C.  355. The  second 

Social  war,  between  the  ^Etolian  and  the 
Achaean  leagues,  commenced  B.C.  220.  It  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  treaty  of  Naupactus, 

B.C.  217. 

SOCIETE  D'ENTRESOL.— (See  CLUBS, 
Foreign.) 

SOCIETIES.— By  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  112  (Aug. 
n,  1854),  provisions  were  made  "to  afford 
greater  facilities  for  the  establishment  of  in- 
stitutions for  the  promotion  of  literature  and 
science  and  the  fine  arts,  and  to  provide  for 
their  better  regulation."  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  principal  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Many  of  the  most 
important  are  described  under  their  titles  in 
the  alphabetical  arrangement. 

A.D. 

1834.  Abbotsford  Club. 

1795.  Abemethiaii  Society. 

1848.  Actuaries'  Institute. 

1843.  jElfric  Society. 

1788,  June  9.  African  Association. 

1837.  Agricultural  Society,  Yorkshire. 

1847.  Anglia-Christiana  Society. 

1573  (revived  1707).  Antiquarian  Society. 

1863.  Anthropological  Society. 

1843.  Archaeological  Association. 

1843.  Archaeological  Institute. 


War  of  the  Socii,  or  Allies. 
3 


SOCIETIES 


SOCIETIES 


A.D. 

1834.  Architects,  Royal  Institute  of  British. 

1848.  Architectural  Publication  Society. 
1838.  Art-Union  of  Ireliiiul. 

1837.  Art-Union  of  London. 

1849.  Arundel  Society. 

1838.  Ashmoleaii  Society,  Oxford. 
1833.  Bannatyne  Club. 

1801.  Belfast  Literary  Society. 

2836.  Botanical  Society  of  London. 

1833.  Bristol  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society. 

1850.  British  Meteorological  Society. 
1833.  British  Medical  Association. 

1843.  Calvin  Translation  Society. 

1846.  Cambrian  Archaeological  Association. 

1840.  Cambridge  Antiquarian  Society. 
1819.  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society. 
1838.  Camden  Society. 

1846.  Cavendish  Society. 

1844.  Caxton  Society. 

1847.  Celtic  Society. 

1841.  Chemical  Society  of  London. 

1843.  Chetham  Society. 

1703.  Christian  Knowledge,  Society  for  Promoting. 

1853.  Chronological  Institute  of  London. 

1844.  Decorative  Art  Society. 
1734.  Dilettanti  Society. 

1833.  Dublin  Geological  Society. 
1840.  Dublin  Microscop'ciil  Society. 
1838.  Dublin  Natural  History  Society. 

1843.  Dublin  University  Philosophical  Society. 
1846.  Ecclesiastical  Historv  Society. 
1838.  Ecdedologteal  Society. 

1836.  Edinburgh  Botanical  Society. 

1834.  Edinburgh  Geological  Society. 
1773.  Edinburgh  .luridieal  Society. 
1731.   Edinburgh  Medical  S, 

1848.  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Society. 
1771.  Edinburgh  Royal  Physical  Society. 
1783.  Edinburgh  lio\  al  Society. 

1837.  Electrical  Society  of    London. 
I8l».   Engineers,  1  nsti'tute  of  Civil. 

1835.  Engineers,  Institute  of  Civil  (Ireland). 

1854.  Kn'_:incers'  Society. 

1838.  English  Historical  Society. 
1834.  Entomological  Society. 
1850.  Epideijiiological  Society. 
1838.  Etching  Club. 

1843.  Ethnological  Society. 

1830.  Gaelic  Society  of  London. 

1857.  Genealogical  "and  Historical  Society. 

1830.  Geographical  Society. 

1807.   Geological  Societv  of   London. 
1856.  Glasgow  Archaeological  Society. 
1803.  Glasgow  Philosophical  Society. 
1850.  Halin.Miiann  Medical  Society. 
1846.  Hnkluyt  Society. 
1846.  Handel  Society. 

1845.  Hansard  Kuollys  Society. 


2-     ) 
1,     >  H 
on.) 


arveian  Society. 


183 
in  London. 

Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland. 
1859.  Homoeopathic  Society. 
1858.  Horological  Institute. 
1804.  Horticultural  Society. 
1833.  Hull  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 

1833.  Hull  lloyal  Institution. 
1819.  Hunterian  Society. 

1834.  Hunterian  Medical  Society  of  Edinburgh. 
1841.  Ireland,   Royal  Agricultural  Improvement  So- 

ciety. 

1840.  Irish  Archaeological  Society. 
1773.  Juridical  Society,  Edinburgh. 
1847.  Law  Amendment  Society. 

1837.  Law  (Incorporated)  Society. 

1818.  Leeds  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society. 

1835.  Leicester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 
1788.  Linnrcan  Society  of  London. 

1851.  Literature  and  Art,  Guild  of. 

1813.  Liverpool  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 

1838.  Liverpool  Polytechnic  Society. 
1847.  Liverpool  Royal  Institution. 
1806.  London  Institution. 

1841.  London  Philanthropic  Society. 
1838.  Maitland  Club. 

1838.  Manchester  Geological  Society. 

1781.  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 

1831.  Manchester  Natural  History  Society. 


1858.  Manx  Society. 

1773.  Medical  Society  of  London. 

1805.  Medico-Chirurgical  Society,  the  Royal. 

1831.  Meteorological  Society. 

1839.  Microscopical  Society. 

1857.  National     Association    for    the    Promotion    of 

Social  Science. 

1817.  National  School  Society. 
1860.  Naval  Architecture,  Institution  of. 
1813.  Newcastle  Antiquarian  Society. 
1793.  Newcastle  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 

1836.  Numismatic  Society. 

1858.  Obstetrical  Society. 
1856.  Odontological  Society. 

1837.  Ornithological  Society  of  London. 
1853.  Ossianic  Society,  Dublin. 

1838.  Oxford  Ashmolean  Society. 

1839.  Oxford  Architectural  Society. 

1804.  Painters  in  Water  Colours,  Society  of. 
1831.  Painters  in  Water  Colours,  Institute  of. 
I.--47.   Pidaxmtographical  Society. 

1805.  Palestine  Association  (merged  into  Royal  Geo- 

graphical Society). 

1840.  Parker  Society. 
1846.  Pathological  Society. 

1839.  Pen/ance    Natural    History    and    Antiquarian 

Society. 

1840.  Percy  Society. 

1784.  Perth  Literary  and  Antiquarian  Society. 

1841.  Pharmaceutical  Society. 
1853.  Philobiblon  Society. 
1843.   Philological  Society. 

1807.  Philomathic  Institution. 

1843.  Phonetic  Society. 

1853.  Photographic-  Society. 

1837.  Piscatorial  Society. 

1701.  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in   Foreign    Parts 
Society. 

1854.  Pure  Literature  Society. 
1813.  Plymouth  Institution. 
1858.  Pomological  Society. 

1844.  Ray  Society. 
Religious  Tract  Society. 

1813.  Roxburghe  Club. 
1768.  Royal  Academy. 

1833.   Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

1838.  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 
1833.  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

1830.  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

1839.  Royal  Botanical  Society. 

1845.  Royal  college  of  Chemistry. 

1523.   Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

1808.  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

1833.  Royal  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society. 

1830.  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

1814.  Royal  Geological  Society,  Cornwall. 
Royal  Humane  Society. 

1800.  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain. 

1785.  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

1831.  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts. 
1660  (incorporated  1663).  Royal  Society. 
1823.  Royal  Society  of  Literature. 
1808.  Russell  Institution. 

1830.  Scarborough  Philosophical  Society. 
1780.  Scotland,  Society  of  Antiquaries  of. 
1850.  Scotland,  Architectural  Institute  of. 

1840.  Shakespeare  Society. 

1833.  Sheffield  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 
1835.  Shropshire  and  North  Wales  Natural  History  and 

Antiquarian  Society. 

1838.  Smeatonian  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful   Knowledge. 

1703.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge. 
1753.  Society  of  Arts. 
1860.  Society  of  St.  Joseph. 

1839.  Spalding  Club. 

1843.  Spottiswoode  Society. 

1834.  Statistical  Society. 

1853.  Surrey  Archaeological  Society. 
1834.  Surtees  Society. 

1846.  Sussex  Archaeological  Society. 
1810.  Swedenborg  Society. 

1843.  Sydenham  Society. 

1859.  Sydenham  Society,  New. 

1844.  Syro-Egyptian  Society. 

1831.  United  Service  Institution. 
1846.  Venilam  Society. 

1865.  Victoria  Institute  or  Philosophical  Society. 


SOCIETY  OF  ARTS 


SOISSONS 


1808.  Werncrian  Society  (Edinburgh). 

1833.  Whitby  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 

1841.  Wodrow  Society. 

1833.  Worcestershire  Natural  History  Society. 

1837.  Yorkshire  Agricultural  Society. 

1838.  Yorkshire  Geological  Society. 
1823.  Yorkshire  Philosophical- Society. 
1826.  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
1801.  Zoological  Society  of  Ireland. 

(See  AGRICULTURAL,   BIBLE,  and  MISSIONARY 
SOCIETIES.) 

SOCIETY  OF  ARTS  (London),  for  the  en- 
couragement of  arts,  manufactures,  and  com- 
merce, was  founded  by  William  Shipley  in 
1753,  and  held  its  first  meeting  at  Rothmell's 
Coffee  House,  Covent  Garden,  March  29,  1754. 
The  Royal  Academy  Exhibition  was  held  for 
the  first  time  in  1760,  in  the  rooms  of  this 
society.  It  removed  to  its  present  building  in 
the  Adelphi,  Oct.  12,  1774. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS  (Pacific  Ocean).— This 
group  of  islands,  discovered  by  the  Spanish 
navigator  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Quiros,  in  1606, 
remained  unknown  to  the  rest  of  the  world 
till  visited  in  1767  by  Capt.  Wallis,  who, 
thinking  himself  the  first  discoverer,  gave 
Otaheite  (q.  v.),  or  Tahiti,  the  name  of  King 
George  Island.  Capt.  Cook  visited  the  group 
in  1769,  and  after  surveying  the  chief  island, 
and  discovering  several  others,  he  gave  to  the 
whole  the  name  of  Society  Islands,  in  honour 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Cook  again 
visited  them  in  1777.  Idolatry  was  abolished 
in  Otaheite  in  1816,  and  in  the  other  islands  a 
year  or  two  afterwards. 

SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRISTI- 
ANITY AMONG  THE  JEWS  (London)  was 
founded  in  1809.  ' 

SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRISTIAN 
KNOWLEDGE  was  founded  in  1698.  Dr. 
Thomas  Bray  (1656— Feb.  15,  1730)  was  instru- 
mental in  establishing  it. 

SOCINIANS,  also  called  Unitarians,  a  sect 
of  anti-Trinitarians,  founded  by  Laslius  So- 
cinus  (1525 — 1562)  and  his  nephew  Faustus 
Socinus  (Dec.  5,  1539 — March  3,  1604).  A 
society  of  Italian  Anti-Trinitarians  had  been 
formed  in  1546.  In  Poland  they  separated 
from  the  Protestant  churches  at  the  synod 
of  Pinkzow,  in  1563,  and  are  sometimes 
called  Pinkzovians.  The  chief  school  of  the 
Socinians  was  at  Racow,  or  Rakow,  in  Poland, 
where  they  obtained  the  grant  of  a  settle- 
ment. All  their  first  books  were  published 
here.  In  consequence  of  the  opposition  to 
Popery  of  some  of  the  Unitarian  students  in 
this  city,  a  law  was  passed  in  Warsaw  in  1638, 
enacting  that  the  academy  of  Rakow  should 
be  destroyed,  its  professors  banished,  the 
printing-house  of  the  Socinians  destroyed,  and 
their  churches  shut  up.  The  Socinians  were 
required  to  quit  Poland  within  three  years  by 
an  edict  issued  in  1658.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  igth  century  Socinian  doctrines  took  root 
in  the  Presbyterian  and  other  dissenting  con- 
gregations, and  had  gained  an  ascendancy  at 
Geneva  by  1817. 

SOCONUSCO  (Mexico),  formerly  belonging 
to  Guatemala,  was,  with  Chiapas,  the  depart- 
ment in  which  it  is  situated,  taken  by  Mexico 
in  1843. 


SOCOTRA  (Indian  Ocean).— This  island  was 
known  to  Ptolemy,  who  notices  it  under  the 
name  of  Dioscoridis  Insula,  about  the  middle 
of  the  2nd  century.  It  was  visited  by  the 
Portuguese  Fernandez  Perara,  in  1504,  and  was 
taken  possession  of  by  Albuquerque  in  1507. 
The  Portuguese  are  supposed  to  have  retired 
before  the  close  of  the  i6th  century,  when  it 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  Sultan  of  Kisseen. 
It  remained  undisturbed  till  1801,  when  the 
Wahabees  made  a  descent  on  the  northern 
coast,  and  laid  waste  a  part  of  it,  together  with 
the  town  of  Tarmarida.  Socotra  still  belongs 
to  the  Sultan  of  Kisseen,  but  the  government 
is  chiefly  delegated  to  one  of  the  principal 
inhabitants. 

SODIUM.  —  Duhamel  showed  that  potash 
and  soda  were  distinct  bodies  in  1736,  and 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  first  obtained  the  metal 
Sodium  in  1808. 

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH  (Palestine).— 
These  cities  were  destroyed,  on  account  of 
their  wickedness,  by  fire  from  heaven  (Gen. 
xix.  24,  25),  B.C.  1897.  The  only  persons  who 
escaped  were  Lot  and  his  two  daughters. 

SODOR  AND  MAN  (Bishopric).  —  This 
diocese,  originally  comprising  the  Ebuda,  the 
Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles,  and  the  Isle  of 
Man,  and  sometimes  called  the  Isles,  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Amphibalus,  who  sought 
an  asylum  in  the  Isle  of  Man  about  360.  Other 
authorities  state  that  Germanus  was  appointed 
the  first  bishop  of  the  Isles  by  St.  Patrick  in 
447- 

SOEST  (Prussia),  one  of  the  Hanseatic 
towns  in  the  province  of  Westphalia.  The 
cathedral  was  erected  in  the  nth  and  i2th 
centuries.  The  Wiesen-Kirche,  founded  in 
1314,  was  completed  in  the  i6th  century,  and 
restored  in  1850.  Sir  Peter  Lely,  painter  of 
the  beauties  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  was 
bora  here  in  1617. 

SOFFARIDES  DYNASTY,  so  called  from 
the  occupation  of  its  founder,  a  brazier,  sup- 
planted that  of  the  Taherites,  in  Persia,  in  872, 
and  terminated  in  902. 

SOGDIANA  (Asia).— This  ancient  country, 
between  the  rivers  Jaxartes  and  Oxus,  nearly 
corresponded  with  the  modem  Bokhara,  in 
Turkestan,  and  was  conquered  by  Alexander 
III.  B.C.  329.  The  Sogdians  suddenly  attacked 
the  fortresses  occupied  by  the  Macedonians, 
and  massacred  the  garrisons.  These  fortresses 
were  speedily  retaken  with  great  slaughter,  and 
the  revolt  was  suppressed.  They  again  revolted 
B.C.  328,  and  intrenched  themselves  in  their 
mountain  fastnesses.  Alexander  III.  besieged 
and  captured  the  strongest  of  these,  known  as 
the  Sogdian  Rock,  defended  by  30,000  men. 
Among  the  prisoners  was  the  King  of  Bactria's 
daughter,  whom  he  afterwards  married.  (See 
BOKHARA,  SAMARCAND,  <fec.) 

SOHO  THEATRE  (London),  called  Miss 
Kelly's  Theatre,  from  an  actress  who  managed 
it  for  some  time,  was  opened  Monday,  May 
25,  1840,  and  received  the  name  of  New 
Royalty  (q.  v.)  in  1861. 

SOISSONS  (France)  is  mentioned  by  Julius 
Caesar,  under  the  name  of  Noviodunum,  as  the 
capital  of  the  Suessones.  Under  the  Romans 
it  took  the  name  of  Augusta  Suessionum.  The 


SOLAR  TELESCOPE 


[    916    ] 


SOMBRERO 


Roman  general  Syagrius  was  defeated  here  by 
Clovis  I.  in  486,  when  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  Franks,  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Soissons 
in  the  6th  and  -jth  centuries.  Here  Childeric 
III.,  the  last  Merovingian  king,  was  deposed, 
and  Pepin  the  Short,  the  first  Carolingian  king, 
installed  in  752.  Charles  the  Simple  was  de- 
feated hei-e  by  the  troops  of  his  rival  Robert  I., 
in  922.  It  obtained  a  charter  in  1131.  Councils 
were  held  here  March  2,  744  ;  April  26,  853  ;  in 
861  ;  862  ;  Aug.  18,  866 ;  in  941  ;  about  1092  ; 
Jan.  6,  1115  ;  in  1122;  June  10,  1155  ;  in  March, 
1201  ;  and  July  n,  1455.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Armaguacs,  who  committed  great  excesses,  in 
1413  ;  and  it  suffered  much  in  the  religious 
wars  of  the  i6th  century,  and  in  the  troubles 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  (1610 — 
1643).  Its  famous  academy  was  founded  in 
1674.  A  congress  of  the  representatives  of 
France,  Spain,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  Northern  Powers,  was  opened  here  June 
19,  1728.  Soissons,  stormed  by  the  Russians, 
.Feb.  13,  1814,  was  evacuated  from  strategi- 
cal motives  the  same  day,  and  re-occupied 
by  the  French.  It  capitulated  to  the  Allies 
March  3,  1814,  was  unsuccessfully  assaulted 
by  the  French  March  5,  and  was  occupied  by 
Napoleon  I.  March  n. 

SOLAH  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TELESCOPE.— 
(See  PHOTO-HELIOGRAPH.) 

SOLA  li  SYSTEM,  discovered  and  taught  by 
Pythagoras  of  Samoa  (B.C.  580—8.0.  507),  was 
revived  by  Copernicus  in  his  great  work  pub- 
lished at  Nuremberg  in  1543.  Its  truth  was 
demonstrated  by  Newton  in  his  "  Principia," 
published  in  1687. 

SOLDIERS'  DAUGHTERS'  HOME  'London). 
— In  Aug.,  1857,  the  central  association  in  aid 
of  the  wives  and  families  of  soldiers  on  active 
service  during  the  Crimean  war  gave  their 
surplus  funds,  amounting  to  nearly  ,£13,000, 
to  this  institution,  distinguishing  the  gift  as 
the  Powys'  Endowment  Fund,  in  recognition 
of  the  services  of  their  secretary,  Major  Powys. 
The  institution,  erected  at  Hanip.stead,  was 
opened  by  Prince  Albert  June  18,  1858. 

SOLDIN  (Prussia),  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  in  1212,  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
Neumark,  a  division  of  Brandenburg. 

SOLE15AYr,  or  SOUTHWULD  BAY  (Sea- 
fight). — A  naval  engagement  took  place  in  this 
bay,  near  Lowestoft,  on  the  coast  of  Suffolk, 
between  the  Dutch  fleet  and  the  combined 
English  and  French  fleets,  May  28,  1672.  The 
Dutch  were  defeated,  after  a  severe  struggle, 
in  the  course  of  which  the  Royal  James,  having 
on  board  the  gallant  Earl  of  Sandwich,  who 
commanded  the  English  van,  caught  fire  and 
exploded. 

SOLEMN  LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT.— 
(See  COVENANTERS.) 

SOLERE  HALL.— (See  CLARE  COLLEGE.) 

SOLEURE,  or  SOLOTHURN  (Switzerland), 
the  capital  of  a  canton  of  the  same  name, 
anciently  called  Castrum  Solodurense,  was 
originally  a  Roman  station.  The  town  was 
besieged  for  10  weeks  without  success  by 
Duke  Leopold,  in  1318.  It  was  allied  with 
Berne,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Helvetic 
Confederacy  in  1481.  The  cathedral,  considered 
the  finest  in  Switzerland,  commenced  in  1762, 


was  finished  in  1772,  at  a  cost  of  ,£80,000. 
The  constitution  was  remodelled  in  1841. 

SOLFERINO  (Battle).  — At  this  village  of 
Lombardy,  the  Emperor  of  the  French  and 
the  King  of  Sardinia  gamed  a  victory  over  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  June  24,  1859.  Hostilities 
were  suspended  by  the  armistice  of  Villa 
Franca. 

SOLI  (Asia  Minor).  — This  town,  on  the 
coast  of  Cilicia,  founded  by  Argives  from 
Rhodes,  was  restored  by  Pompeius,  who 
peopled  it  with  the  pirates  he  had  captured, 
and  changed  its  name  to  Pompeiopolis  B.C.  66. 

SOLICITOR  -  GENERAL.  —  The  earliest 
holder  of  the  office  of  king's  solicitor  \\.is 
Richard  Fowler,  whose  patent  is  dated  March 
12,  1461. 

SOLIFIDIANS.  — This  name  was  given  to 
the  Aiitinomians,  a  sect  founded  by  John 
Agricola,  of  Eisleben,  between  1538  and  1540. 
They  held  that  faith  alone  is  sufficient  for 
salvation. 

SOLITARIES,  a  denomination  of  the  nuns 
of  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara,  instituted  by  Car- 
dinal Barberini  at  Farsa,  in  Italy,  in  1670.  The 
design  of  the  institute  was  that  the  inmates 
should  imitate  the  severe  penitent  life  of  St. 
Peter  of  Alcantara,  keep  continual  silence,  and 
employ  their  time  solely  in  spiritual  exercises. 

SOLOMON'S  ISLANDS  (Pacific),  also  called 
New  Georgia,  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniard 
Alvarode  Mendana,  in  1567.  They  were  visited 
by  Bougainville  in  1768,  by  Surville  in  1769, 
and  by  Lieut.  Shortland,  of  the  English  navy, 
in  1788. 

S<  >  I  ,< )MON'S  TEMPLE  (Jerusalem)  was  com- 
menced in  May,  B.C.  ion,  and  dedicated  B.C. 
1004.  It  was  plundered  by  Shishak,  King  of 
Egypt.  B.C.  972  or  970.  A  collection  of  silver 
for  its  restoration  was  made  by  Jehoash,  King 
of  Judah,  about  B.C.  856.  Aha/,  King  of  Judah, 
pillaged  it  to  hire  the  assistance  of  the  King 
of  Assyria,  profaned  it  by  the  erection  of  a 
heathen  altar,  and  ultimately  closed  it  en- 
tirely, B.C.  741 — 726.  Hezekiah,  his  son,  re- 
paired and  re-opened  it  B.C.  726 — 697.  Ma- 
nasseh  practised  heathen  rites  within  its 
precincts,  for  which  he  was  carried  away 
captive  by  the  King  of  Babylon,  B.C.  677.  It 
was  repaired  and  purified  by  Josiah,  B.C.  624. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  despoiled 
it  of  part  of  its  sacred  vessels  B.C.  605,  of  an- 
other portion  B.C.  598.  At  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem,  the  remainder  of  the  treasures  of 
the  temple  was  carried  off,  and  the  edifice 
itself  destroyed  by  fire,  B.C.  586. 

SOLWAY  MOSS  (Battle). —The  Scotch,  to 
the  number  of  10,000,  were  routed  at  this 
place,  in  Cumberland,  by  a  small  body  of  Eng- 
lish horse,  not  more  than  300  in  number,  under 
Dacre  and  Musgrave,  Nov.  25,  1542.  Above 
i,ooo  prisoners  were  taken. 

SOMBRERO  (Battle).— The  Spaniards,  under 
Morillo,  were  defeated  at  this  town  of  Vene- 
zuela, S.  America,  by  the  Venezuelans,  under 
Bolivar,  Feb.  16,  1818. 

SOMBRERO  (West  Indies).— Robert  Jeffery, 
a  seaman  on  board  the  Ulysses,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  several  acts  of  peculation,  was  put 
on  shore  on  this  island,  Dec.  13,  1807.  Capt. 
W.  Lake,  by  whose  orders  this  was  done,  was 


SOMERSET  HOUSE 


SOOLOO  ISLANDS 


tried  by  court-martial  at  Plymouth,  and  dis- 
missed the  navy,  Feb.  10,  1810.  Jeffery  was 
rescued  by  an  American  ship,  and  landed  in 
America. 

SOMERSET  HOUSE  (London).— Old  Somer- 
set House,  built  by  the  Protector  Somerset, 
uncle  of  Edward  VI.,  commenced  in  March, 
1547,  was  the  first  specimen  of  Italian  archi- 
tecture erected  in  this  country.  The  archi- 
tect is  supposed  to  have  been  J  ohn  of  Padua, 
an  Italian,  who  was  appointed  "  deviser  of  his 
Majesty's  buildings"  in  1544.  After  the  exe- 
cution of  Somerset,  Jan.  22,  1552,  Somerset 
House  came  into  possession  of  the  Crown  ; 
and  Edward  VI.  assigned  it  to  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  for  her  use  when  she  visited  the 
court.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  it  became  the 
residence  of  his  Queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  and 
he  commanded  it  to  be  called  Denmark  House 
in  1616.  Charles  I.  assigned  it  to  his  queen, 
Henrietta  Maria,  in  1626  ;  anda  chapel,  designed 
by  Inigo  Jones,  was  built  within  the  walls  in 
1632,  for  the  free  use  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  in  1685, 
it  became  the  residence  of  Catherine  of  Bra- 
ganca  ;  and  on  her  return  to  Portugal  in  1692, 
it  was  inhabited  by  some  of  the  nobility  and 
poorer  persons  about  the  court.  Buckingham 
House  was  settled  on  Queen  Charlotte,  in  lieu 
of  Somerset  House,  April  10,  1775.  The  old 
palace  .was  then  demolished  to  make  way  for 
the  present  edifice,  which  was  designed  by  Sir 
William  Chambers,  and  built  1776 — 1786.  Se- 
veral public  offices  were  moved  here  in  1778. 
The  whole  of  the  east  wing,  left  incomplete  by 
Sir  W.  Chambers,  was  finished  from  designs 
by  Sir  R.  Smirke  in  1829,  and  now  forms 
King's  College. 

SOMERS'  or  SUMMERS'  ISLANDS.  —  (See 
BERMUDAS.) 

SOMMA  (Italy).— Hannibal  gained  his  first 
victory  over  the  Romans  on  Italian  ground, 
near  this  town,  on  the  Ticino,  B.C.  218.  Scipio, 
who  commanded  the  latter,  was  wounded. 

SOMMERSHAUSEN  (Battle).— The  French, 
under  Turenne,  and  the  Swedes,  under  Wran- 
gel,  defeated  Maximilian,  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
at  this  place,  near  Augsburg,  May  7,  1648. 

SOMNAMBULISM.  — Natural  and  artificial 
somnambulism  was  known  to  the  ancients. 
Of  the  former,  Aristotle  (B.C.  384 — B.C.  322) 
says,  ' '  there  are  individuals  who  rise  in 
their  sleep  and  walk  about,  seeing  as  clear 
as  those  who  are  awake."  Artificial  som- 
nambulism is  said  to  have  been  practised 
by  the  Brahmins  and  Faquirs  of  India  at 
a  very  early  period.  Magnetic  somnambulism 
was  discovered  in  France  by  the  Marquis  de 
Puyseger,  May  8,  1784,  though  it  is  asserted 
that  Mesmer  was  acquainted  with  the  pheno- 
mena, and  that  they  were  witnessed  by  his 
disciples  in  Paris  in  1778.  A  well-authenti- 
cated case  of  a  lady,  aged  64,  who  had  an  ulce- 
rated cancer  of  the  right  breast,  of  several 
years'  standing,  removed  while  in  a  state  of 
magnetic  somnambulism,  was  communicated 
to  the  French  Academy  April  16,  1829. 

SOMNAUTH  GATES,  made  of  sandal  wood, 
were  carried  away  from  a  Hindoo  temple  at 
Somnauth  or  Samnauth-Putten,  as  a  trophy,  by 
Sultan  Mahmoud,  the  Mohammedan  conqueror 


of  India,  on  his  invasion  of  Goojerat,  about 
1025,  and  were  afterwards  placed  over  his 
tomb,  in  the  village  of  Rosa,  near  Ghizni. 
On  its  capture  by  the  English,  under  Geh. 
Nott,  Sep.  6,  1842,  the  gates  were  brought 
away  from  the  tomb  by  order  of  Lord  Ellen- 
borough,  and  were  conducted  with  great  pomp 
through  India,  and  restored  to  Goojerat. 

SONCINO  (Battle).  —  The  Milanese,  com- 
manded by  Francesco  Sforza,  defeated  the 
Venetians  near  this  town  in  Italy,  May  17, 
1431- 

SONDERBUND,  a  name  given  to  the  league 
formed  in  1846  by  the  seven  Roman  Catholic 
cantons  of  Switzerland  against  the  Federal 
diet,  which  had  decreed  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  diet  voted  the  Soiiderbund  ille- 
gal, July  20,  1847.  Freiburg,  their  stronghold, 
was  captured  Nov.  13,  Lucerne  Nov.  24,  and 
the  Sonderbund  was  dissolved. 

8ONGHAY  (Africa).— The  ruler  of  this  an- 
cient kingdom  embraced  Islam  in  the  nth 
century.  Timbuctoo  was  conquered  and  an- 
nexed 1468-9,  and  Songhay  became  a  pro- 
vince of  Morocco  in  1607. 

SONNET. —  The  invention  of  the  regular 
sonnet  of  14  lines  has  been  ascribed  to  Guido 
d'Arezzo  (1024),  the  inventor  of  a  musical 
scale.  Petrarch  (1304—1374)  first  raised  this 
form  of  poetry  into  repute,  though  Hallam 
denies  his  right  to  be  regarded  as  its  inventor. 
Shakespeare's  sonnets  were  published  in  1609, 
and  Milton's  about  1650. 

SONNITES,  or  SUNNITES.  —  The  name 
given  to  the  orthodox  Mohammedans,  who 
possess  the  Turkish  empire,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Shiites  (q.v.},  or  followers  of  the 
Caliph  Ali,  who  was  killed  by  three  fanatics 
in  661.  They  are  divided  into  four  sects,  the 
Hanefites,  the  Malekites,  Shafantes,  and  Han- 
balites^.  •».). 

SONORA  (N.  America),  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  the  Indian  word  Sonot,  signifying 
Senora,  was  inhabited,  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico  (q.  v.),  by  the 
Opata  Indians,  who  accorded  to  Cortes  and 
his  companions  a  hospitable  welcome.  Count 
Gaston  de  Raousset  Boulbon,  in  1852,  led  a 
filibustering  expedition  into  the  district  to 
seize  the  silver  mines  that  constitute  its  chief 
wealth.  He  occupied  the  capital,  Arispe,  and 
proclaimed  a  free  republic,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Mexican  forces  in  1853,  and  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  in  San  Francisco.  In  1854  he 
made  a  second  attempt,  which  terminated  in 
his  capture  and  execution  by  sentence  of  a 
Mexican  court-martial.  This  district,  together 
with  the  neighbouring  territory  of  Arizona 
(q.  v.),  has  since  1855  been  explored  by  Mowry, 
who  declares  it  to  abound  in  mineral  wealth 
of  almost  every  description. 

SONS  OF  THE  CLERGY.  —  (See  CLERGY, 
SONS  OF.) 

SONS  OF  HOMER.— (See  HOMERIDES.) 

SONS  OF  LIBERTY.— The  name  taken  by 
the  rebels  in  the  re  volt  of  1837  in  Canada  (q.v.) 

SOODAN.— (See  SOUDAN.) 

SOOFEE,  or  SOOFIDE.  —  (See  SUFFIDE 
DYNASTY.) 

SOOLOO,  or  SULU  ISLANDS  (East  Indian 
Archipelago). —  This  group  derived  its  name 


SOPHIA,  ST. 


[    918    ] 


SOUND  DUES 


from  Sooloo,  the  principal  island.  The  early 
history  of  the  Sooloos  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
They  assert  that  they  once  formed  a  part  of 
an  ancient  Bomean  empire  founded  by  the 
Chinese;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Magindanao, 
one  of  the  Philippine  islands,  contend  that 
they  were  formerly  subject  to  them.  From 
the  time  the  Spaniards  discovered  the  Phi- 
lippines in  1521,  they  have  been  frequently 
engaged  in  warfare  with  the  Sooloos.  The 
pirates  of  Sooloo  repulsed  an  attack  of  the 
Spaniards  in  1590.  The  Sultan  of  Sooloo  ceded 
Balambangan  (q.  v.],  one  of  the  group,  to  the 
English,  in  1762.  Assisted  by  the  Spaniards, 
liis  subjects  murdered  the  garrison  and  burned 
the  settlement,  Feb.  24,  1775.  It  was  re- 
established in  1803,  and  abandoned  in  1804. 
The  sultan  and  his  chiefs  were  formerly 
notorious  for  their  piracy,  and  kept  up  a  largo 
fleet  for  that  purpose.  Their  power  was 
destroyed  by  the  Spaniards  in  1851. 

SOPHIA,  ST.  (Constantinople).— A  church 
dedicated  by  Constantino  I.  to  St.  Sophia,  or 
the  Holy  Eternal  Wisdom,  built  011  the  site  of 
an  old  temple  of  Wisdom,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  404,  and  again  in  the  riots  caused  by  the 
Circus  factious  in  532.  Justinian  I.  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  new  edifice  in  the  same  year. 
Tin:  builders  were  Anthemius  of  Trulles  and 
Isidorus  of  Miletus.  Ten  thousand  workmen 
were  employed  in  its  erection.  Its  form  is 
that  of  a  Greek  cross  inscribed  inaquadraiurli.', 
243  feet  in  breadth  by  269  in  length.  The 
dome,  lighted  by  24  windows,  has  a  diameter 
of  115  feet,  and  rises  iSofeet  above  the  pave- 
ment. The  walls  are  <>f  brick,  with  a  crust  of 
marble.  Eight  columns  of  porphyry  from  the 
temple  of  the  sun,  and  eight  of  green  marble 
presented  by  the  city  of  Kphesus,  added  to  its 
splendours ;  and  at  the  lowest  computation  the 
whole  cost  is  estimated  at  a  million  sterling. 
It  was  consecrated  in  537.  An  earthquake 
having  in  557  overthrown  the  eastern  part  of 
the  dome,  it  was  restored,  and  the  church  re- 
dedicated  by  Justinian  I.  in  563.  It  was 
fortified  with  new  buttresses  byAndronicus  II. 
the  elder  in  1317,  and  was  converted  into  a 
mosque  by  Mohammed  II.  in  1453. 

SOPHISTS,  or  wise  men,  who  went  about 
Greece  discoursing  and  debating,  and  some- 
times educating  the  sons  of  noble  families. 
Socrates  (put  to  death  B.C.  399,  in  the  7oth 
year  of  his  age)  was  their  great  opponent. 
Protagoras  of  Abdera  (born  about  B.C.  470)  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  adopted  the 
11  un  e  of  sophist. 

SOPRON,  or  SOPRONY.— (See  OEDENBUBG, 
or  ODENBURG.) 

SORA  (Italy).— This  city  of  the  Volscians 
was  taken  by  the  Romans  B.C.  345.  It  joined 
the  Samnites  B.C.  315,  was  taken  by  the 
Romans  B.C.  313,  by  the  Samnites  B.C.  306,  and 
having  been  recaptured  by  the  Romans-  B.C. 
305,  it  received  4,000  Roman  colonists  B.C.  303. 

SORBONNE  (Paris).— This  celebrated  college 
was  founded  by  Robert  of  Sorbonne  (1201 — 
Aug.  15,  1274),  confessor  and  chaplain  to  Louis 
IX.,  for  the  use  of  poor  students  in  divinity,  in 
1253,  an(i  approved  by  Clement  IV.  in  1268.  It 
is  said  not  to  have  taken  the  name  of  Sorbonne 
till  the  i4th  century.  Cardinal  Richelieu  re- 


built it  in  1629,  and  added  a  chapel,  which  was 
begun  in  1635,  but  not  completed  till  1659. 
Printing  was  introduced  into  France,  at 
Paris,  by  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1469. 
They  supported  the  faction  of  the  Guises  in 
the  religious  wars  of  the  i6th  century,  and 
strongly  opposed  the  Reformation.  The  col- 
lege, suppressed  April  5,  1792,  was  restored  in 
1808. 

SORCERERS.— The  earliest  case  of  sorcery 
in  England  of  which  any  authentic  details 
exist,  is  that  of  John  of  Nottingham,  a  sor- 
cerer of  Coventry,  who  was  tried  for  an 
attempt  to  compass  the  death  of  Edward  II. 
in  1324.  Sorcery  was  frequently  used  as 
an  instrument  of  political  intrigue  in  the 
i4th  and  isth  centuries.  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
was  accused  of  sorcery  by  the  agents  of 
Philip  IV.  of  France,  in  1303,  and  the  king 
called  a  council  at  Paris  to  hear  witnesses 
and  pronounce  judgment,  but  the  Pope  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  the  council,  and  died, 
it  is  said,  from  the  effects  of  the  charge,  Oct. 
u.  The  acts  (33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8,  1541,  and 
i  James  I.  c.  12,  1603)  against  sorcerers  in 
England  were  repealed  by  9  Geo.  II.  c.  5 
(1735). 

SORTES  BIBLIC/E,  HOMERIC^!,  VIRGIL- 
IAX.K,  &c. — (See  BIBLIOMANCY.) 

SnTADIO  VKUSE.— (See  PAIJNDROMKS.) 

SOUDAN,  or  SOODAX  (Africa).— Beled  El 
Sudan,  "the  land  of  the  blacks,"  also  called 
Nigritia,  Central  Africa,  watered  by  the  Niger 
(q.  v.),  and  first  described  by  El  Bekri  in  the 
nth  century,  was  conquered  in  the  i3th 
century,  by  the  Susu  tribe,  who  founded 
Timbuctoo.  It  was  explored  by  Houghton 
in  1790.  He  died  in  1791.  Mungo  Parke 
added  much  to  the  knowledge  of  the  country, 
having  traversed  the  north-western  regions 
in  1796  and  1797.  Denham  and  Clapperton 
explored  the  central  parts  between  1822  and 
1826 ;  Caillie",  the  south-western  regions  in  1828; 
and  Richard  Lander  the  valley  of  the  Quarra 
in  1830.  (See  SACCATOO.) 

SOULAGKS  COLLECTION  OF  ITALIAN 
AKT  AND  WORKMANSHIP,  formed  by  M. 
Soulages,  of  Toulouse,  in  France,  having  been 
purchased  by  an  Englishman,  formed  part  of 
the  Art-Treasures  Exhibition  at  Manchester, 
in  1857. 

SOUND,  a  narrow  strait,  forming  one  of  the 
communications  between  the  Cattegat  and  the 
Baltic,  and  separating  the  Danish  island  of 
Zealand  from  the  coast  of  Sweden,  was  forced 
by  the  English  fleet,  under  Admirals  Parker 
and  Nelson,  March  30,  1801,  and  again  under 
Gambier,  in  Aug.,  1807. 

SOUND  DUES,  levied  by  the  King  of  Den- 
mark on  all  merchant  vessels  passing  through 
the  Sound,  were  first  imposed  in  1348,  for 
lighting  the  Sound  and  protecting  vessels  from 

£ 'rates.  England  agreed  to  pay  toll  by  treaty 
1450.  Sweden  was  exempted  from  the  toll 
by  the  treaty  of  1644;  but  this  privilege  was 
withdrawn  in  1720.  By  a  treaty  between 
Denmark,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Belgium, 
France,  Hanover,  Mecklenburg  -  Schwerin, 
Oldenburg,  the  Netherlands,  Prussia,  Russia, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  and  the  Hanseatic  cities, 
Bremen,  Lubeck,  and  Hamburg,  the  Sound 


SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA 


SOUTHERN  CONTINENT 


duties  were  abolished  March  14,  1857,  and  a 
compensation  of  ^3,386,258,  of  which  Great 
Britain's  share  was  .£1,125,206,  granted  to 
Denmark,  on  condition  of  maintaining  the 
lighthouses  and  superintending  the  pilotage. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.— Peter  I.  of  Russia 
constructed  a  deep-sea  sounding  apparatus, 
and  was  the  first  to  attempt  to  obtain  speci- 
mens of  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Soundings 
taken  by  Sir  J.  C.  Ross  in  the  Atlantic,  near  St. 
Helena,  Jan.  3,  1840,  showed  a  depth  of  2,425 
fathoms,  and  he  failed  to  obtain  soundings 
486  miles  from  the  island  of  Trinidad,  at  4,600 
fathoms,  or  27,600  feet,  June  3,  1840.  Lieut. 
Dayman,  of  H.M.S.  Cyclops,  sounded  the 
Atlantic  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland 
in  1857.  The  greatest  depth  was  about  2,500 
fathoms,  and  the  pressure  at  that  depth  nearly 
three  tons  to  the  square  inch. 

SOUTH  AMERICA.— Columbus  entered  the 
gulf  of  Paria  and  thus  discovered  South 
America,  in  1498,  and  Piuzon,  in  1500,  visited 
Brazil  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 
In  1515  the  La  Plata  was  discovered  by  Solis, 
and  in  1520  Magalhaens  reached  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  continent,  and  gave  his  name 
to  the  straits  which  separate  it  from  the  island 
of  Terra  del  Fuego.  Pascual  de  Andagoya 
explored  part  of  the  coast  of  Peru  in  1522 ; 
Orellana  sailed  down  the  Amazon  in  1541  ;  and 
Oxenham  made  further  discoveries  in  1575. 
Buenos  Ayres  and  other  Spanish  American 
states  declared  their  independence  in  1810,  and 
New  Granada,  Quito,  and  Venezuela  united  to 
form  the  republic  of  Colombia  in  1819.  (See 
AMAZON,  BRAZIL,  BUENOS  AYRES,  COLOMBIA, 
PERU,  PLATA,  LA,  TERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  VENE- 
ZUELA, «fec.) 

SOUTHAMPTON  (Hampshire),  forming  a 
county  of  itself,  anciently  called  Hamton,  or 
Hamtune.  The  date  of  its  foundation  is  un- 
known, but  it  probably  arose  on  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  military  station  of  Clausentum, 
situated  about  one  mile  to  the  north-east  of 
the  present  town.  The  Danes,  who  failed  in 
an  attack  in  837,  plundered  it  in  860,  and  again 
in  892.  Canute  occasionally  made  it  his  resi- 
dence, and  it  is  here  that  he  is  said  to  have 
administered  his  well-known  reproof  to  his 
courtiers,  by  showing  that  the  sea  would  not 
obey  his  royal  command.  Henry  II.  and  his 
queen  landed  here  on  their  return  from  France 
1111174.  The  town  was  sacked  and  destroyed 
by  an  allied  force  of  French,  Spanish,  and 
Genoese,  in  Oct.,  1338,  and  in  1339  the  forti- 
fications were  repaired  and  strengthened.  The 
castle— supposed  to  have  been  the  most  ancient 
of  the  Saxon  castles  in  England  —  was  re- 
built, and  the  fortifications  were  extended  by 
Richard  II.  (1377 — 99).  Philip  of  Spain  landed 
here  on  his  way  to  espouse  Queen  Mary 
in  1554.  The  fortifications  were  strengthened 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  (1547 — 53).  South- 
ampton was  first  incorporated,  by  charter, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (noo — 35),  but  the 
earliest  existing  charter,  which  is  simply  con- 
firmatory, is  that  of  Henry  II.  (1154 — 89). 
This  was  confirmed  by  Henry  VI.  (1422 — 61), 
who  erected  the  town  and  surrounding  district 
into  a  county  of  itself.  A  house  of  Grey  Friars 
was  founded  in  1240.  The  almshouses  in  St. 


Mary's  parish  were  built  in  1565,  the  charity 
school  in  1760,  and  Thorner's  almshouses  in 
1789.  The  barracks  were  enlarged  and  con- 
verted into  a  military  asylum  in  1816,  and  the 
public  dispensary  was  established  in  1823.  The 
royal  pier  was  opened  in  1833,  and  the  new 
docks  were  completed  in  1842.  Southampton 
was  made  the  packet-station  for  the  Madeira, 
West  Indian,  Mexican,  and  Mediterranean 
mails,  Sep.  28,  1843.  Tne  Hartley  Institution 
was  inaugurated  by  Lord  Palmerston,  Oct.  15, 
1862,  and  the  Loan  Exhibition  was  opened  in 
the  Institution  July  17,  1866. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.— Various  discoveries 
were  made  in  the  southern  parts  of  Australia 
by  the  Dutch  in  1627,  by  D'Entrecasteaux  in 
1792,  by  Grant  in  1800,  by  Flinders  in  1805, 
and  by  Sturt  and  Mitchell  in  1831.  A  company 
was  formed  for  its  colonization  in  1834,  under 
the  title  of  the  "  South  Australian  Colonization 
Commission,"  and  a  large  tract  of  land  was 
vested  in  them,  to  be  erected  into  a  colony  on 
the  Wakefield  system.  The  boundaries  of  the 
province  were  fixed  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  95 
(Aug.  15,  1834),  and  it  was  officially  proclaimed 
a  colony  by  the  first  governor,  Capt.  Hind- 
marsh,  Dec.  28,  1836.  The  Burra-Burra  copper 
mines  were  discovered  in  1843.  The  parlia- 
ment was  first  summoned  April  22,  1857,  and 
consists  of  two  chambers,  the  members  of 
which  are  elected  by  ballot,  for  three  years. 
( See  ADELAIDE.) 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  (United  Suites)  be- 
came a  distinct  province  on  the  division  of 
Carolina  (q.  v.}  in  1729,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  May  23,  1788.  (See  CONFEDERATE 
STATES.  ) 

SOUTHCOTTIAN  DELUSIONS.  —  Joanna 
Southcott,  a  fanatic,  was  born  in  Devonshire 
about  1750.  Commencing  life  as  a  servant 
in  a  Methodist  family,  she  afterwards  set  up 
for  a  prophetess,  and  in  1792  announced  her- 
self as  the  woman  in  Rev.  xii.  She  published 
her  prophecies  to  the  world,  and  her  followers 
amounted  to  100,000.  When  beyond  the  age 
of  60,  she  announced  that  she  should  be  the 
mother  of  a  second  Shiloh,  Oct.  19, 1814.  Her 
proselytes  in  great  numbers  assembled  round 
her  door  day  and  night  till  Oct.  19  passed 
away.  The  promised  Shiloh  did  not  appear, 
and  the  multitude  were  informed  that  the 
prophetess  had  fallen  into  a  trance.  She  died 
Dec.  27,  1814.  Her  followers  committed  a 
breach  of  the  peace  in  London,  Jan.  13,  1819. 
Four  Southcottian  congregations  are  returned 
in  the  census  for  1851. 

SOUTH-EASTERN  RAILWAY  was  incor- 
porated as  the  South-Eastern  and  Dover  (q.v.) 
by  6  Will.  IV.  c.  75  (June  21,  1836).  It  obtained 
powers  to  make  branches  to  Canterbury, 
Folkestone,  Margate,  and  Ramsgate  in  1844, 
to  Tunbridge  Wells  in  1845,  and  to  Hastings  in 
1846.  Numerous  lines  have  been  absorbed  and 
other  branches  made.  (See  CHARING  CROSS 
RAILWAY.  ) 

SOUTHERN  CONFEDERATION.  —  (See 
CONFEDERATE  STATES.) 

SOUTHERN  CONTINENT.— The  belief  in 
the  existence  of  a  continent  in  the  Antarctic 
regions,  which  has  been  styled  the  Terra 
Australis  incognita,  arose  from  the  reported 


SOUTH  KENSINGTON 


t    92°    1 


SPAHIS 


discovery  of  terra  firrna  by  Juan  Fernandez,  who 
sailed  from  the  coast  of  Chili  in  1576.  Alvaro 
de  Mendana  discovered  Solomon's  Islands  in 
1567,  but  failed  to  find  them  on"  a  second 
voyage  in  1595.  His  chief  pilot,  Pedro  Fer- 
nandez, sailed  in  quest  of  the  southern 
territory,  and  sighted  Pitcairn's  Island,  the 
New  Hebrides,  and  other  islands,  1605-6.  A 
ship  belonging  to  Rotterdam,  commanded* 
by  Dirk  Cherrits,  was  driven  southwards  as 
far  as  the  land  now  known  as  South  Shetland, 
in  1599.  Capt.  Cook  undertook  his  second 
voyage  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  there 
really  was  another  continent  in  those  seas, 
and  is  the  first  European  known  to  have  en- 
tered the  Antarctic  circle,  having  reached  the 
highest  latitude  Jan.  30,  1774.  He  found  no 
land,  however,  to  the  south  of  60°.  The 
South  Shetland  Islands  were  discovered  by 
William  Smith  in  1819,  and  Petra  Island  by 
Bellinghausen,  a  Russian,  in  Jan.,  1821.  Wed- 
dell  reached  three  degrees  farther  south  than 
Cook  in  1823.  Enderby's  Land  and  Graham's 
Land  were  found  by  Biscoe  in  1831  and  1832. 
A  French  expedition,  under  D'Urville,  ex- 
plored some  of  the  coasts  in  1837.  Balleny 
discovered  Sabrina  Land,  and  the  islands 
that  bear  his  name,  in  1839.  The  largest  tract 
of  coast  was  discovered  by  an  expedition 
fitted  out  by  the  United  States  government, 
under  Charles  Wilkes,  and  one  by  the  French 
government,  under  D'Urville,  in  1840.  An 
expedition  from  England,  under  Sir  James 
Clarke  Ross,  in  an  attempt  to  reach  the  south 
magnetic  pole,  discovered  Victoria  Land,  Jan. 
12,  1841.  Ross  in  1843  added  in  some  measure 
to  previous  discoveries. 

SOUTH  K  KNSI  XGT(  )X  MUSEUM  (London). 
— The  Museum  was  commenced,  in  connection 
with  the  Schools  of  Design,  in  1838,  and  was 
.  opened  to  the  public  at  Marlborough  House  in 
1851.  It  was  removed  to  South  Kensington 
in  Feb.,  1857,  and  opened  to  the  public  June 
24.  It  contains  collections  of  sculpture  and 
ornamental  art;  educational  collections;  ani- 
mal, mineral,  and  vegetable  productions ; 
original  statues  and  casts  by  British  artists  ; 
models  of  patented  inventions  ;  and  a  splendid 
collection  of  pictures,  bequeathed  to  the 
nation  by  Sheepshanks,  Vernon,  Turner,  and 
others.  It  also  contains  an  art  library.  Occa- 
sional evening  lectures  are  delivered  to  working 
men.  The  cartoons  were  removed  here  from 
Hampton  Court  in  1865,  and  the  Exhibition  of 
Portrait  Miniatures  was  opened  June  3,  1865. 
The  Intei-national  Horticultural  Congress  held 
its  first  meeting  here,  May  23,  1866.  (See 
NATIONAL  PORTRAIT  EXHIBITION.) 

SOUTH  METROPOLITAN  CEMETERY.— 
(See  NORWOOD.) 

SOUTH   SEA.— (See  PACIFIC  OCEAN.) 

SOUTH-SEA  COMPANY.— This  disastrous 
speculation,  also  called  the  South-Sea  Bubble 
or  Scheme,  commenced  Sep.  8,  1710.  The 
company,  established  by  9  Anne,  c.  15  (1710), 
was  incorporated  by  3  Geo.  I.  c.  9  (1716).  The 
famous  South-Sea  Act,  for  redeeming  the 
national  debt  (6  Geo.  I.  c.  4),  was  passed  April 
7,  1720;  and  the  directors,  by  the  promise 
of  large  dividends,  and  other  infamous  acts, 
raised  the  original  ^100  shares  to  the  enor- 


mous price  of  £1,050.  The  bubble  lasted  till 
Sep.  8,  when  the  stock  began  to  fall.  By 
Sep.  29  it  had  sunk  to  £150,  and  thousands  of 


states  were  seized,  and  other  measures  were 
taken  by  the  Government  to  afford  relief  to 
the  sufferers. 

SOUTH-SEA  FUND.  —  (See  CONSOLIDATED 
FUND.) 

SOUTHWARK  (London).— A  perpetual  right 
of  magistracy  was  granted  in  1327.  A  grant 
of  its  liberties  was  made  in  April,  1550,  to  the 
city,  together  with  estates  belonging  to  the 
monastery  of  Bermondsey,  and  property  in 
Newington,  St.  George's  Fields,  and  Lambeth 
Marsh,  on  payment  of  ,£647  28.  per  annum. 
An  act  having  passed  to  relieve  all  those 
debtors  under  .£50,  who  had  taken  refuge  in 
the  Mint,  some  thousands  of  them  left  their 
sanctuary  in  a  body,  July  1 6,  1723.  The  first 
stone  of  the  bridge  was  laid  by  Lord  Keith 
May  23,  1815,  and  it  was  opened  March  24, 
1819.  A  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  subject 
of  removing  the  toll,  April  26,  1841.  It  was 
opened  free  of  toll,  Nov.  8,  1864.  New  Snuth- 
wark  Street,  extending  from  High  Street, 
Southwark,  to  the  Blackfriars  Road,  was 
opened  Jan.  i,  1864.  Arrangements  for  the 
purchase  of  the  bridge  were  made  by  the 
Common  Council,  March  13,  1866.  (See  GLOBE 
THEATKK. 

SorTIIWoLD  BAY.— (See  SOLEBAY.) 

SOVEREIGN.— A  gold  coin  of  this  denomi- 
nation was  first  issued  of  the  value  of  22*., 
and  one  24th  part  of  the  weight  of  a  pound 
of  gold,  about  1489.  Sovereigns  were  coined 
at  208.  apiece,  and  half-sovereigns  at  ios.,  in 
1542.  The  sovereign  passed  for  24*.  in  1550, 
and  for  308.  in  1552.  By  56  Geo.  III.  (1816) 
it  was  provided  that  sovereigns  coined 
weighing  20  2i-parts  of  a  guinea  were  to  pass 
for  20*.  They  were  issued  July  i,  1817. 

80/OPETRA  (Syria)  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  the  Greek  Emperor  Theophilus 
in  838,  and  although  Motassem  interceded 
in  favour  of  the  town,  it  was  levelled  to 
the  ground. 

SPA  FIELDS  (London).— A  popular  meeting 
of  the  distressed  manufacturers  and  mecha- 
nics, to  get  up  a  petition  to  the  Prince  Regent, 
was  held  here,  Nov.  15,  1816.  It  was  followed 
by  another  meeting,  Dec.  2,  when,  after  some 
violent  speeches,  the  mob,  headed  by  a  man 
named  Watson,  marched  towards  the  city. 
On  their  way  they  broke  into  the  shop  of 
Beckwith,  a  gunsmith,  on  Snow  Hill,  and 
Platt,  who  interfered,  was  shot  at  and  wounded 
by  Watson.  The  rioters  spread  over  the  city, 
broke  into  the  gumnakers'  shops,  searching 
for  arms,  and  committed  much  injury  before 
the  military  succeeded  in  suppressing  the  riot. 
A  reward  of  .£500  was  offered  by  Government, 
and  £100  by  the  city,  for  the  apprehension  of 
Watson,  who  escaped  to  America.  One  of  the 
rioters,  named  Cashman,  was  hanged  opposite 
Beckwi th's  house  on  Snow  Hill,  March  12, 
1817. 

SPAHIS,  or  SIPAHIS.— A  succession  of  dis- 


SPAIN 


[    921     ] 


SPAIN 


astrous  defeats  of  the  Turkish  armies  by  the 
Austrians,  produced  a  revolt  of  the  Spahis,  or 
cavalry,  at  Constantinople,  in  1603.  Through 
the  intrigues  of  Hassan,  the  grand  vizier,  the 
Janissaries  were  induced  to  support  the  go- 
vernment, and  by  their  aid  the  revolt  was 
quelled.  The  sultan,  terrified  at  the  influence 
of  Hassan  over  the  Janissaries,  deposed  him 
from  his  office,  and  soon  afterwards  caused  him 
to  be  strangled. 

SPAIN.— The  Spanish  peninsula  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks  as  Iberia,  or  Hesperia, 
i.e.  The  Land  of  the  Evening  Star,  and  to  the 
Romans  under  the  name  of  Hispania. 

B.C. 

343.  Hasdrubal  founds  New  Carthage,  or  Carthagena 

(q.  t?.). 
331.  Assassination  of  Hasdrubal,   who  is  succeeded vby 

his  son  Hannibal. 
2i8.  Hannibal  takes  the  city  of  Saguntum.  (See  SECOND 

PUNIC    WAR.)    A    Koman  force,  under  Cneius 

Scipio,  invades  Spain. 
314.  The  Romans  take  Saguutum. 
213.  Defeat  and  death  of  Publius  and  Cneius  Scipio  in 

Spain. 

2io.  Scipio  Africanus  takes  Carthagena, 
206.  The  Carthaginians  are  expelled  from  Spain  by  the 

Romans. 
205.  Spain  is  divided   into  the  provinces  of  Hispania 

Citerior  and  Hispania   Ulterior,   or  Hither  and 

Further  Spain. 

195.  M.  Porcius  Cato  quells  a  revolt  in  Spain. 
179.  A  revolt  of  the  Celtiberians  (q.  v.)  is  suppressed  by 

Tiberius  Gracchus,  father  of  the  Gracchi. 
145.  The     Lusitanian     general    Viriathus    defeats     the 

Romans  in  Western   Spain.     (See    NUMANTINE 

WAK.) 

141.  Viriathus  obtains  a  treaty  from  the  Romans,  ac- 
knowledging the  independence  of  the  Lusita- 

nians. 

140.  Viriathus  is  murdered  by  the  Romans. 
104.  Spain  is  ravaged  by  Cimbrian  invaders,  who  are 

compelled  to  retire  by  the  Celtiberians. 
77.  The  Celtiberian  chieftain,  Sertorius,  rebels  against 

Sylla. 

73.  Sertorius  is  defeated  and  assassinated. 
60.  Julius  Caesar  gains  several  victories  in  Spain, 
55.  Pompeius  is  invested  with  the  government  of  the 

two  Spains. 

27.  Augustus  divides  Spain  into  three  provinces. 
25.  The  northern  tribes  of  the  Cantabri  and  Astures 

are  reduced  to  subjection  by  Augustus. 

251.  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into 

Spain. 

26o.  Spain   is  invaded  by  the  Franks  and  other  bar- 
barians. 
409.  Spain  is  invaded  by  the  Alani,  the  Suevi,  and  the 

Vandals. 
411.  Ataulphus,  or  Adolphus,  obtains  the   provinces  of 

Southern   Gaul   and  Spain,  and  establishes    the 

kingdom  of  the  Visigoths. 
417.  Peace  is  concluded  with  the  Romans. 
437.  The  Vandals  cross  over  into  Africa. 
451.  Theodoric  I.   conquers  the  Suevi,  and  takes  their 

king,  Bechlarius,  prisoner. 
466.  Euric  establishes  his  authority  over  the  whole  of 

Spain. 

560.  The  Suevi  in  Spain  renounce  Arianism. 
587.  Recared  I.  expels  the  Franks  from  Spain. 
613.  The  Jews  are  persecuted. 
711,  April  30.    The    Arabs   first  land  in   Spain. — July. 

Roderic  is  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Arabs  in  the 

battle  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera.    The  Arabs  seize 

Cordova. 
713.  Musa  passes  over  into  Spain. 

715.  Abdelasis,   son    of     Musa,    marries   Egilona,    the 

widow  of  Roderic. 

716.  The    Goth,     Pelayo,     establishes    an    independent 

monarchy  in  Asturias  (q.  v.). 

733.  The  Spanish  Saracens,  under  Abderahman,  are 
defeated  by  Charles  Martel  at  Tours. 

743.  Large  numbers  of  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Moham- 
medans enter  Spain. 


755.  Abderahman  I.  becomes  the  first  Mohammedan 
King  of  Cordova. 

760.  An  insurrection  against  Abderahman  I.  is  sup- 
pressed at  Toledo. 

763.  Count  Rodrigo  Fruelaz  asserts  the  independence  of 
Castile  (q.  r.). 

778.  Charlemagne  invades  Spain,  and  annexes  the 
Spanish  march  to  France. 

833.  A  rebellion  under  Abdalla  is  suppressed  at  Cor- 
dova. 

843.  Spain  and  Portugal  are  ravaged  by  the  Northmen. 

858.  Navarre  (q.  v.)  becomes  an  independent  state. 

864.  The  Saracens  recover  the  Spanish  march  from  the 
French. 

913.  The  seat  of  the  Christian  government  is  transferred 
from  Oviedo  to  Leon,  which  is  erected  into  a 
kingdom  by  Ordono  II. 

1019.  Yahye  Ben  Aly  introduces  a  large  tribe  of  Moors 
(q.  v.)  into  Spain. 

1036.  Sancho  founds  the  kingdom  of  Castile. 
1031.  The  Moors  establish  their  authority  in  Spain. 

1035.  The  kingdom  of  Aragon  (q.  v.)  commences  under 
Samiro  I. 

1037.  Union  of  Leon  and  Castile. 

1091.  The  Almoravides  establish  themselves  at  Cordova. 
1095.  Portugal  (q.v.)  is   erected  into    a  distinct   princi- 
pality. 
1099.  Death  of   Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Bivar,  the  celebrated 

Cid  Campeador. 

1139.  Alphonso  I.  founds  the  kingdom  of  Portugal. 
1 143.  The  Moors  rebel  against  their  rulers. 
1148.  The   Almohades   (q.  v.)  establish  their  dynasty  at 

Cordova. 
1338.  Foundation  of   the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada 

(q.  v.). 

1357.  Extinction  of  the  Almohades  dynasty. 
1374.  The  Merines  (q.  v.),  under  Abu  Juzef,  enter  Spain. 
1340.  Battle  of  Tarif  a. 
1388.  The  heir  first  receives  the  title  of  "Prince  of  the 

Asturias." 
1469,  Oct.  19.  Marriage  of  Ferdinand  (afterwards  II.)  of 

Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile. 
1474.  Ferdinand    and    Isabella    ascend    the    throne    of 

Castile. 

1478,  Nov.  i.  The  Inquisition  is  introduced  into  Castile. 

1479.  Ferdinand  II.  ascends  the  throne  of  Aragon,  which 

is  united  to  Castile. 

1483.  Oct.  17.  The  Inquisition  is  established  in  Spain. 

1484.  The  Turks  invade  Spain. 

1485.  A  conspiracy  against  the  Inquisition  breaks  out  in 

Aragou,  where  the  Inquisitor  Arbues  is  assassi- 
nated. 

1493,  Jan.  3.  Ferdinand  V.  and  Isabella  I.  make  their 
solemn  entry  into  Granada,  and  abolish  the 
empire  of  the  Moors  in  Spain. — March  30.  The 
Jews  are  expelled  from  Spain.— April  17.  Co- 
lumbus is  commissioned  to  explore  the  Western 
ocean. 

1493,  Jan.  19.  Treaty  of  Barcelona  (q.  v.). 

1495,  Jan.  it.  Death  of  Cardinal  Meudoza. 

1496,  Feb.  33.  Organization  of  the  Spanish  militia. 
1500.  A  rebellion  of  the  Moors  in  the  Alpuxarras  is  sup- 


1502.  The  Spanish  Moors  are  compelled  to  adopt  Chris- 

tianity, and  are  henceforth  known  as  Moriscoes. 

1503.  Naples  is  annexed  to  the  Spanish  crown.    Louis 

XII.  of  France  invades  Spain. 

1504.  Nov.   36.    Death   of  Queen   Isabella  I.,  whom  the 

Spaniards  regard  "as  the  most  truly  great  in 

their  line  of  princes." 
1506,  March  18.  Ferdinand  V.  takes  as  his  second  wife 

the  Princess  Germaine    of  Narbonue. — May  30. 

Death  of  Christopher  Columbus  at  Valladolid. 
1509,  May   16.  Cardinal  Ximenes  conducts  a  crusading 

army  against  the  African  Moors. 
1513.  Ferdinand  V.  conquers  Navarre,  and  annexes  it  to 

Spain. 

1515,  Dec.  2.  Gonzalo  de  Cordova,  the  "  Great  Captain," 

expires  at  Granada. 

1516,  Jan.  33.  Death  of  Ferdinand  V. 

1517,  Cardinal  Ximenes  assumes  the   sole  power. — Nov. 

8.  lie  dies. 

1519,  June  38.  Charles  I.  is  elected  emperor  as  Charles  V. 
1530.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Castile. 
1537.  An  insurrection  of  the  Moriscoes  is  suppressed. 
1554,  July  35.  The  marriage  of  Prince  Philip   of  Spain 

and  Queen  Mary  of  England  is  solemnized  at 


SPAIN 


[    922    ] 


SPAIN 


A.D. 

1556,  Jan.  16.  Charles  V.  abdicates  the   Spanish  throne 

in  favour  of  his  son,  Philip  II.— Sep.  5.  The 
Spaniards,  under  the  Duke  of  Alva,  invade  the 
Papal  States. 

1557,  June  7.  War  is  declared  against  France.— Aug.  10. 

The  French  are  defeated  at  St.  Quentiii.— Sep.  37. 
Alva  takes  Home,  and  receives  the  papal  abso- 
lution. 

1558,  Feb.    Pope   Paul   IV.   issues  a  bull   ordering    the 

Inquisition  to  suppress  Protestantism  in  Spain. — 
Sep.  31.  Death  of  Charles  V.  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Yuste  (7.  ».). 

1559,  April  3.  Treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (7. «.).— June 

34.  Philip  II.   marries  the  Princess  Elizabeth  or 
Isabella  of  France  by  proxy. 
1563,  Apiil  23.  Foundation  of  the  Escorial  (7.  v.). 

1566,  The  Dutch  Protestants  rebel  against  Spain. 

1567,  Aug.  The  Duke  of  Alva  enters  the  Netherlands. 

1568,  Jan.  18.  Arrest  of   Don   Curios,  eldest  son  of  Philip 

II.,  by  his  father.— July  24.  Don  Carlos  dies  in 
prison.  His  father  is  suspected  of  having 
poisoned  him. — Oct.  2-  Death  of  the  young  Queen 
Isabella.— Dec.  26.  The  Moriscoes,  under  Aben- 
Farax,  rebc  1  against  Philip  II. 

1569,  Dec.  29.  Don  John  of  Austria  takes  the  field  against 

the  Moriscoes. 

1570,  Nov.  ii.  Don  John,  having  suppressed  the  rebellion, 

resigns  his  command. 

1571,  May  24.    Spain  unites  with  Venice  and  the  Pope 

against  the  Turks. — June  6.  Don  John  of  Austria 
takes  the  command  of  the  Spanish  forces. — Oct. 
7.  N.mtl  battle  of  Lepanto  (//.  r.). 

1576.  Don   John   is  appointed    Spanish  'governor  of    the 

Netherlands. 

1577.  Philip  II.  declares  himself  protector  of  the  French 

Kcimaii  Catholic  league. 

1578.  Oct.    I.    Death  of   Don  .John  of  Austria. 

1580.  The  United  Provinces  renounce  their  allegiance  to 

Philip  II.     (,Sc«   lloLI.A.M).)     The   Duke  of  Aha 

conquers    Portugal,    which    is    annexed    to   the 

Spanish  crown. 

1582,  Jan.  12.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Alva. 
J5Sy.   Destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  (q.V.). 
1593.  Philip  II.  abolishes  the  free  constitution  of  Aragon. 
15'A   Ke]>.  13.    Death  of    Philip  II. 
1609,  April  9.    A  truce  of   12    venr.-t   is  concluded  with  the 

Dutch.     The  .Moris, s  are  expelled  bv  Philip  III. 

1616,  April  23.  Death  of  Miguel  de  Cervantes,  author  of 

"Don  Quixote." 
1631,  Aug.  War  is  renewed   with   Holland.    Philip   IV. 

abandons  the  reins  of  government  to  the  Count 

of  Olivare/. 
I'3I,  April  6.  Peace  of  Cherasco. 

1634.  War  against  France. 

1635.  The  Spaniards,  under  the  Cardinal  Infante,  invade 

France. 
1640.  The  Spaniard!  are  expelled  from  Portugal  by  John 

of  Braganca. 
1643.  Fall  of  Olharc/. 
1648.  Philip  IV.  renounces  his  right  to  Holland  by  the 

peace  of  Westphalia,  or  Minister. 
1655.  War  is  declared  against  England. 
i6.=;q.  Nov.  7.  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Peace  is  restored  with  England. 

:>.  17.  Death  of  Philip  IV.,  who  is  succeeded  by 

lis  infant  son,  Charles  II.,  under  the  regency  of 

his  mother,  the  Queen-dowager  Anue. 
1668,  Feb.  13   Treaty  of  Lisbon. 
1675.  The   king    attaius  his  majority,  and  abolishes  the 

regency. 

1690,  June  6.    Spain  joins  the  Grand  Alliance  against 

France. 

1691.  The  French  invade  Aragon. 
1694.  The  French  ravage  Catalonia. 

1697,  Sep.  10.  Peace  with  France  is  restored  by  the  treaty 

of  liyswick. 

1698,  Aug.  18.  The  first  Partition  Treaty  (7.  r.). 

1700,  Feb.  31.  The  second  Partition  Treaty  (7.  v.). — Nov.  I. 

Death  of  Charles  II.,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  He  is  succeeded  by  Philip  V., 
the  Bourbon,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  Duke 
of  Anjou. 

1701.  First  triple  alliance  (q.  v.).— Feb.  24.  An  alliance  is 

concluded  between  France,  Spain,  and  Mantua, 

at  Venice. 
1703,  May   15.    War  of    the   Spanish   Succession   (q.  v.) 

commences. 
1703,  May  16.  Portugal  joins  the  alliance  against  Spain. 


A.D. 

1704,  July  24.  The  English  take  Gibraltar  (q.  v.). 

1705,  June  3.  Lord  Peterborough  sails  from  Portsmouth, 

to  assume  the  English  command  in  Spain. — Oct. 

23.  Charles  of  Austria  is  acknowledged  king  at 

Barcelona. 
1707,  March     14.     Lord     Peterborough   is    recalled    and 

embarks  for  Italy. — April  25.  Battle  of  Almaiiza 

(q.  t).). 
1710.  Battle  of  Altncnara  (7.  v.). 

1713,  April  ii.  Philip  V.  cedes  Naples  to  Austria  by  the 

treaty  of  Utrecht. 

1714,  Sep.    12.    Capture    of    Barcelona    by  the  Bourbon 

forces,  under  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  which  termi- 
nates the  war  of  the  succession.— Nov.  5.  The 
Cortes  adopt  the  Salic  law  of  succession. 

1715,  Cardinal  Alberoni  is  made  minister. 
1719,  Dec.  5.  Fall  of  Cardinal  Alberoni. 

1724,  Jan.   4.  Abdication  of  Philip    V.  in   favour  of  his 

son  Louis. — Aug.  20.  Death  of    Louis,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  Philip  V.  resumes  the  govern- 
f          inent. 

1725,  April  30.  An  alliance  with  Austria  is  concluded  at 

Vienna. 

1729,  Nov.  9.  An  alliance  with  England  and  France  is 
concluded  at  Seville. 

1735,  July  3-  Don   Carlos,  son  of  Philip  V.,  is  crowned 

King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.     (.Sec  NAPLES.) 

1736.  War  is  declared  against.  I'orliigal. 

1739,  Oct.  23.  England  declares  war  against  Spain. 
1748,  Oct.    16.    Spain   accedes   to  the   treaty   of    Aix-la- 

Chapelle. 

1750,  Jan.  14.  Treaty  of  Madrid. 
1753.  Ferdinand  VI.  concludes  a  concordat  with  Benedict 

XIV. 
1763.  Spain  declares  war  against  England  and  Portugal, 

1763,  Feb.  10.   Peace  Proton-el  by  the  treaty  of  Paris". 

171.7,  April  2.  Expulsion  of   the  .It-suits. 

1771,  Jan.  3J.  Spain   cedes   the  Falkland  Isles  (7.  v.)  to 

England. 
1-75.  War  is  resumed  with  Portugal. 

1778,  March  31.  ihe  dispute-  with  Portugal  is  adjusted  by 

the  treaty  of  Pardo,  or  St.  Iltleldns... 

1779,  June    id.   \Var   is   dt.-clarcd   against   Great   Britain. 

The  Spanish  and  French  fleets  besiege  Gibraltar 

('/•  '••)• 
1783,  Sep.  3.  Great  Britain  cedes  the    Balearic   Isles   to 

Spain  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles. 
1785.  The  Pnilippine  Company  (7.  r.)  is  formed. 
1794.  Don   Manuel  tie  Godoy,  the  Queen's  paramour,  is 

made  prime  minister. 

1794,  Feb.  The  French  invade  Spain. 

1795,  July  .22.  Treaty  of  Basel,  Godoy  receives  the  title  of 

Prince  of  the'  Peace  in  consequence  of  his  share 
in  effecting  thi.,  treat  v. 

1796,  Oct.  n.  War  i>  < mieuced  against  England. 

179-,  Feb.  14.  Naval  battle  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  (q.  ?<.). 
i8co,  Oct.  i.  By  the  treaty  of  St.  lldefonso,  Spam  cedes 

Parma  to  the  French. 


,665,  *e. 


1801,  March  3.  War  is  declared  against  Portugal. — March 
21.  Treaty  of  Madrid  (7.  ».)  with  France. — Juno 
6.  It  is  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Badajos. 

1803,  March  35.  Peace  with  England  is  restored  by  the 

treaty  of  Amiens. 

1804,  Oct.   5.    The   English  intercept  and  capture    four 

Spanish  vessels  bearing  treasure. — Dec.  13.  Spain 
declares  war  against  England. 

unite  against 


Oct.  21.  Sea-fight  at  Trafalgar  (7.  pj. 
odov  inviti-stlle1  SpiUllarJsto 
Napoleon  I. 


Oct.  5.  Godc 


1807,  Oct.  18.  A  French  army  enters  Spain  en  route  for 

Portugal. — Oct.  27.  A  treaty  for  the  partition  of 
Portugal  is  signed  with  France  at  Fontainebleau. 
—Oct.  39.  Godoy  accuses  the  Prince  of  Asturias 
of  a  design  against  the  lives  of  the  King  and 
Queen. — Nov.  5.  The  Prince  is  reconciled  to  his 
parents. 

1808,  Jan.   14.   The   French  seize  the  frontier  forces  of 

Spain. — Feb.  37.  Napoleon  I.  demands  the  cession 
of  the  districts  north  of  the  Ebro,  in  exchange 
for  Portugal.— March  18.  A  revolution  breaks 
out  at  Aranjuez.  Fall  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
—March  19.  Charles  IV.  abdicates  in  favour  of 
Ferdinand  VII.— March  23.  The  French,  under 
Murat,  enter 'Madrid.— April  20.  Godoy  is  sent 
prisoner  to  Bayonne.— May  2.  The  Spaniards  rise 
at  Madrid  and  massacre  2co  French.  Murat  sup- 
presses the  insurrection  with  great  barbarity. 


SPAIN 


[    923    1 


SPAIN 


A.D. 

1808,  May  5.    Charles   IV.  again   renounces   the   crown, 

in  favour  of  Napoleon  I.—  May  6.  Abdication  of 
Ferdinand  VII.—  May  34.  A  revolutionary  junta 
is  established  in  the  Asturias.—  June  6.  Napoleon 
I.  confers  the  crown  on  his  brother  Joseph.— 
July  10.  Joseph  enters  Madrid.—  July  30.  He  is 
compelled  to  retire.—  Aug.  31.  Battle  of  Vimeira 
(q.  v.).—  Aug.  25.  The  Spanish  anny,  under  Cas- 
tanos,  enters  Madrid.—  Sep.  25.  A  central  junta  is 
established  at  Madrid.  —  Oct.  27.  The  patriot  army 
is  defeated  by  the  French  at  Logrono.—  Oct.  31. 
The  Spaniards,  under  Blake,  are  defeated  by  the 
French,  under  Lefebvre,  at  Durange.  —  Nov.  3. 
Napoleon  I.  takes  the  command  of  the  French 
army.—  Nov.  10.  The  Spaniards  sustain  a  severe 
defeat  from  Soult  at  the  battle  of  Burgos.  —  Nov. 
13.  Battle  of  Keynosa.—  Nov.  22.  Battle  of 
Tudela  (q.  v.).—  Dec.  4.  Napoleon  I.  takes  Madrid. 
—Dec.  22.  Napoleon  I.  quits  Madrid.—  Dec.  23. 
The  inhabitants  swear  fidelity  to  Joseph. 

1809,  Jan.   13.  The  Spaniards  sustain  a  severe  defeat  at 

Ucles.—  Jan.  16.  Battle  of  Corunna  (q.  ».).—  Jan. 
22.  Joseph  Buonaparte  returns  to  Madrid.  —  Jan. 
26.  Soult  takes  Ferrol.—  Feb.  17.  The  Spaniards 
are  defeated  by  St.  Cyr,  at  Igualada.—  Feb.  20. 
Saragossa  surrenders  to  the  French.  —  March  28. 
The  French  defeat  the  Spanish  loyalists  at  Me- 
dellin  and  Ciudad-Real.—  May  5.  Joseph  opens 
his  council  of  state  at  Madrid.—  May  12.  Sir  A. 
Wellesley  crosses  the  Douro  and  enters  Spain.  — 
May  23.  The  French,  under  Gen.  Sucliet,  are  de- 
feated by  Blake  at  Alcaniz.—  July  28.  Battle  of 
Talavera  (q.  v.).—  Aug.  31.  The  Spaniards  are 
defeated  at  Ahnonacid.—  Oct.  24.  They  defeat 
Gen.  Marchand  at  Tamanes.  —  Nov.  12.  Soultand 
Mortier  defeat  the  Spaniards  at  Ocana.—  Dec.  12. 
Gerona  surrenders  to  the  French.—  Dec.  16.  St. 
Cyr  defeats  the  Spaniards  at  Cai'daden.  —  Dec.  21. 


Battle  of  Molinos  del  Key. 

1810,  Jan.    27.     The    French    seize    Granada.—  Jan.    31. 

Seville  surrenders  to  the  French.—  April  21.  The 
French  take  Astorga.—  May  14.  Suchet  reduces 
Lerida.—  July  lo.  Ciuilad-Rodrigo  surrenders  to 
Massena.  —  Nov.  27-  Gen.  Musuier  defeats  the 
Spaniards  at  Uldecina. 

1811,  Jan.  23.  Death  of  the  Spanish  patriot  Romana.— 

Feb.  18.  Soult  defeats  the  Spanish  force  under 
Mendozabel  at  the  Geboro.—  March  5.  Battle  of 
Barossa  (q.  v.).—  May  5.  Battle  of  Fuentes  de 
Onoro.—  May  16.  Battle  of  Albuera  (q.  «.).—  June 
28.  Suchet  seizes  Tarragona.  —  July  15.  Joseph 
Buonaparte  returns  to  Madrid.—  Sep.  27.  Suchet 
takes  Murviedro.—  Dec.  12.  Soult  defeats  two 
Spanish  regiments  at  Lorca. 

1813,  Jan.  9.  Valencia-  surrenders  to  the  French.— 
Jan.  19.  Sir  A.  Wellesley  takes  Ciudad-Kodrigo. 
—Jan.  26.  Catalonia  is  declared  an  integral 

C:  of  France.—  April  6.  Sir  A.  Wellesley  storms 
ajos  (q.  ».).—  July  22.  Battle  of  Salamanca 
(q.  v.).—  Aug.  12.  The  English  enter  Madrid. 
—Sep.  22.  The  Cortes  invest  Sir  A.  Wellesley 
with  the  supreme  command  of  the  Spanish 
forces. 

1813,  April  13.  Defeat  of  the  French  at  Castella  (q.  v.).— 

June  21.  Battle  of  Vittoria  (q.  v.).—  July  28. 
Battle  of  the  Pyrenees.—  Aug.  31.  Sir  A.  Wel- 
lesley takes  St.  Sebastian.—  Oct.  7.  He  forces  the 
passage  of  the  Bidasoa  {?.".),  and  enters  France. 
—  Oct.  31.  Pampeluna  surrenders  to  the  English. 

1814,  May  14.    Ferdinand  VII.  is  solemnly  restored    at 

Madrid.—  Sep.  26.  Espoz  y  Mina  rebels  in 
Navarre. 

1815,  Sep.  18.  Gen.  Porlier  is  convicted  of  an  attempt  to 

restore  the  constitution.—  Oct.  3.  Gen.  Porlier  is 
hanged. 

1817,  Sep.  23-  A  treaty  with  Great  Britain  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  slave-trade  is  signed  at  Madrid. 

1819,  Jan.   20.     Death    of    the    ex-King    Charles    IV.— 

July  8.  A  military  insurrection  is  suppressed  at 
Cadiz. 

1820,  Jan.  i.  A  revolution  is  commenced  by  Raphael  y 

Nunez  del  Riego.  —  Feb.  21.  The  revolution  breaks 
out  at  Corunna.  —  Feb.  23.  It  extends  to  Ferrol.  — 
Feb.   24-    It  reaches   Saragossa.  —  March  8.   The 
King  swears  fidelity  to  the  constitution. 
1831,  Sep.  18.  Riego  is  arrested  for  conspiracy  at  Sara- 

1833,  July  7.  The  royal  guard  is  abolished  by  the  Cortes. 


1833,  Jan.  18.  The  French  ambassador  leaves  Madrid. — 
April  6.  The  French  invade  Spain. — April  17. 
The  French  occupy  Vittoria.— May  24.  The  French 
enter  Madrid. — June  II.  The  Cortes  depose  the 
King,  and  compel  him  to  retire  with  them  to 
Cadiz.— Aug.  31.  The  French  obtain  the  entire 
mastery  of  the  Peninsula. — Sep.  28.  Dissolution 
of  the  Cortes.— Oct.  I.  Restoration  of  Ferdinand 
VII.— Oct.  3.  The  French  occupy  Cadiz.— Nov.  7. 
Execution  of  Riego.— Nov.  13.  The  King  and 
Queen  return  to  Madrid. 

1826,  Nov.  28.  The  Spanish  government  disclaims  any 
connection  with  the  Portuguese  revolution. 

1828,  Sep.  24.  The  French  evacuate  Cadiz. 

1830,  March  29.  The  King  abolishes  the  Salic  law. 

1832,  Oct.  25.    The  Queen  is  made  regent,  and   a  new 

ministry  is  appointed. 

1833,  Jan.   4.    The    King    reassumes  the  government. — 

April  29.  Don  Carlos  asserts  his  right  to  the 
throne,  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  his  brother 
Ferdinand  VII.  without  male  issue.— Sep.  29. 
Death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  is  succeeded  by 
his  young  daughter  Isabella  II.,  under  the  re- 
gency of  her  mother,  the  queen-dowager  Chris- 
tina.— Oct.  4.  Don  Carlos  is  proclaimed  king  at 
Bilbao,  in  Biscay.— Oct.  17.  His  property  is  con- 
fiscated and  annexed  to  the  royal  treasure. — Oct. 

27.  The    Royalist   volunteers    are  disarmed   at 
Madrid. — Nov.  9.    Diplomatic  relations  are  dis- 
continued   with    Portugal.— Nov.    30.    Spain    is 
divided  into  43  provinces. — Dec.  30.  The  Carlists 
are  defeated  at  Los  Arcos  by  Gen.  Lorenzo. 

1834,  April  21.  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Portugal  form 

the  quadruple  alliance  with  Spain  for  establishing 
Isabella  II.  on  the  throne. — June  13.  Don  Carlos 
lands  in  England.— July  9.  Don  Carlos  returns  to 
Spain.— Aug.  30.  The  Spanish  nobles  vote  his 
exclusion  from  the  throne. — Oct  25.  The  Queen 
issues  a  decree  of  banishment  against  him. — 
Nov.  4.  Gen.  Mina  is  appointed  Royalist  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  Navarre. — Dec.  13.  He  defeats 
the  Carlists  at  Carascal. 

1835,  Jan.    18.  A  military  insurrection  is  suppressed  at 

Madrid. — April  22.  The  Carlist  leader,  Zumala- 
carreguy,  defeats  the  Royalists  under  Valdez  at 
Amescoaz. — June  3.  Villaf ranca  surrenders  to  tho 
Carlists. — June  25.  Zumalacarreguy  dies  of  a 
wound  received  at  Bilbao. 

1836,  May  28.  Passages  is  taken  from   the  Carlists    by 

the  English  under  Gen.  Evans. — July  6.  Oviedo 
surrenders  to  the  Carlists.— Aug.  I.  Defeat  of  tho 
Carlists  atlnigo.— Aug.  21.  Gen.  Tribarren  defeats 
them  atLodosa. — Sep.  17.  Gen.  Esparterois  made 
the  royalist  commander-in-chief. — Oct.  i.  Gen. 
Evans  defeats  the  Carlists  at  St.  Sebastian.— Nov. 

28.  The  Cortes  declare  Carlos  excluded  from  the 
succession. — Dec.   34.    Espartero   delivers  Bilbao 
from  the  Carlists. 

1837,  May  17.  Gen.  Evans  takes  Irun. — Sep.  4.   Martial 

law  is  proclaimed  in  Catalonia. 

1838,  Oct.  27.  Carlist  families  are  banished  from  Madrid. 

1839,  Feb.   21.   Don    Carlos   proclaims    Gen.    Maroto    a 

traitor.— Aug.  31.  The  Carlist  general,  Maroto, 
concludes  a  separate  peace  with  Espartero. — Sep. 
14.  Carlos  takes  refuge  in  France. 

1840,  May  28.  The  Royalists  take  Morella.— June  n.  The 

Queen,  with  the  court,  removes  to  Barcelona. — 
July  6.  The  Carlist  general,  Cabrera,  retires  into 
France,  where  he  is  arrested. — Aug.  22.  The 
Queen  removes  to  Valencia. — Aug.  25.  The 
English  evacuate  St.  Sebastian.— Sep.  I.  An 
insurrection  is  suppressed  at  Madrid. — Sep.  16. 
Espartero  is  made  prime  minister. — Oct.  3.  He 
makes  his  solemn  entry  into  Madrid. — Oct.  n. 
Abdication  of  the  queen- regent. — Oct.  28.  Isabella 
II.  returns  to  Madrid. — Dec.  29-  The  papal  nuncio 
is  expelled  by  Espartero. 

1841,  May.  8.  Espartero  is  declared  sole  regent  during  the 

Queen's  minority.  —  July  19.  The  ex  regent, 
Christina,  protests  against  the  regency. — Oct.  3. 
Gen.  O'Donnell  commences  an  insurrection  in  her 
favour  at  Pampeluna. — Oct.  8.  "An  insurrection 
under  Gen.  Diego  Leon,  against  Isabella  II.,  is 
suppressed  at  Madrid. — Oct.  15.  Execution  of 
Leon  at  Madrid. — Oct.  21.  O'Donnell  retreats  into 
France. — Oct.  26.  Espartero  abolishes  the  pension 
of  the  Queen-dowager. — Oct.  39.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  Basque  provinces  is  re-organized. 


SPAIN 


[    924    1 


SPAIN 


A.D. 

1841,  Nov.  9.  Execution  of  the  rebels  Borio  and  Go- 
bernado,  at  Madrid.—  Dec.  13.  An  amnesty  is 
proclaimed  in  favour  of  the  October  insurrection- 
ists. 

1843,  Nov.  13.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Barcelona.— 
Nov.  15.  The  troops  retire  within  the  citadel.  — 
Nov.  17.  A  revolutionary  junta  is  established.  — 
Dec.  4.  Barcelona  surrenders  to  Espartero. 

1843,  May  26.  A    revolution   breaks  out    at  Malaga.  — 

June  ii.  Valencia  revolts.—  June  12.  Barcelona 
again  rebels,  and  establishes  a  junta.  —  June 
2ft.  The  junta  places  Gen.  Serrano  at  the  head 
of  affairs.  —  June  39.  Serrano  declares  Espartero 
deprived  of  the  regency.  —  July  15.  Gen. 
Narvaez  enters  Madrid.  —  July  30.  The  ex- 
regent  Espartero  embarks  at  Cadiz  for  Eng- 
land. —  Aug.  16.  Espartero  is  deprived  of  all  his 
titles.  —  Aug.  30.  An  insurrection  is  suppressed  at 
Madrid.  —  Oct.  34.  Vigo  rises  in  insurrection.  — 
Nov.  8.  The  Queen  is  declared  of  age.—  Nov.  20. 
Barcelona  surrenders  to  the  Uoyalists. 

1844,  March  23.  The  Queen-dowager,  Christina,  returns 

to  Madrid.  —  Nov.  13.  An  insurrection  breaks  out 
under  Zurbano.  —  Nov.  15.  Gen.  Prim  is  sentenced 
to  16  years'  imprisonment. 

1845,  Jan.    31".     Execution    of    Zurbano.—  May    18.    Don 

Carlos  renounces  his  claim  to  the  Spanish  throne 
in  favour  of  his  son.—  Sep.  5.  An  attempted  in- 
surrection fails  at  Madrid. 

1846,  Aug.   28.    The   Queen  announces  her  intention  to 

accept  her  cousin  Francois  d'Assis.  Duke  of 
Cadiz,  as  her  husband.—  Sep.  13.  Don  Carlos 
escapes  from  France,  and  removes  t<>  London.  — 
Oct.  10.  Marriage  of  the  Queen.  Her  M.-II  -r.  the 
Infanta  Maria  Louisa,  is  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Montpensier.  —  Oct.  17.  An  amnesty  is  pronounced 
in  favour  of  political  offenders. 

1847,  May  4.  The  Queen's  life  is  attempted  by  La  Hiva.— 

May   21.   Kevoeatioii   of  the   sentence  of  exile  of 

lion  Manuel  deOodoy.—  June  23.  Execution  of  La 

Kiva.—  .Sep.  3.  Baldomero  Espartero,  Duke  of 
Victory,  is  restored  to  favour.  —  (Jet.  15.  The 
Queen-dowager,  Christina,  returns  to  Madrid. 

1848,  March  26.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Madrid.— 

May  6.  A  military  insurrection  is  suppressed 
«t  Madrid.—  May  17.  The  English  envoy.  Sir 
Henry  Lytton  Bulwer,  is  ordered  to  quit  Madrid 
in  4«  hours.  —  June  12.  Diplomatic  relations  are 
suspended  between  England  and  Spain. 

1850,  July  12.  The  Queen   gives  birth  to  a  son,  who  dies 

shortly  afterwards. 

1851,  Jan.    10.    Resignation   of    Gen.    Xarvaez.  —  Feb.   9. 

ning  of  the  .Madrid  and  Aranjue/.  railway.  — 
16.  A  concordat  is  signed  with  Koine.— 
Oct.  4.  Death  of  Don  Manuel  de  (  iod<  >y,  the  Prince  of 
Peace,  &c.,  at  1'aris.  —  Dec.  20.  Birth  of  a  princess. 
1853,  Feb.  2-  The  Queen's  life  is  attempted  at  Madrid  bv 
the  Franciscan  Martin  Merino.-  -Feb.  7.  lie  is 
executed.  —  Sep.  24.  Death  of  Gen.  Caslanos. 

1853,  Nov.  15.  A  treaty  for  the  protection  of  literary  pro- 

perty is  concluded  with  France. 

1854,  Jan.  5.   Birth  of  a   princess,    who  dies  in   a  few 

days.—  Jan.  17.  Marshal  O'Donnell,  (Jen.  Concha, 
and  others,  are  exiled  to  the  Canary  Islands.  — 
Feb.  20.  A  military  insurrection  breaks  out  at 
Saragossa.  —  Feb.  23-  The  Queen  declares  the 
whole  kingdom  in  a  state  of  siege.—  March  27. 
Death  of  the  Infant  Ferdinand  III.,  Duke  of 
I'arma.—  June  28.  Gen.  O'Dormcll  heads  a  mili- 
tary insurrection,  and  declares  Madrid  in  a  state 
of  siege.—  July  13.  The  military  revolt  at  .Sara- 
gossa. —  July  19.  The  Queen  places  Espartero  at 
tlie  head  of  affairs,  and  thereby  puts  an  end  to 
the  rebellion.  —  July  24.  The  Queen  publishes  an 
amnesty.  —  July  29.  Espartero  enters  Madrid.— 
Aug.  28.  The  Queen-mother  Christina  retires  into 
Portugal.—  Nov.  31.  Resignation  of  Espartero.  — 
Nov.  30.  He  resumes  otiice. 

1855,  Jan.  13.  A  new  constitution  is  proposed.—  Feb.  3. 

The  Cortes  decide  the  people  are  the  sole  source 
of  power.—  Feb.  8.  Liberty  of  worship  is  denied. 
—  Feb.  28.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  estab- 
lished by  law,  but  all  creeds  are  tolerated.  — 
March  10.  Death  of  Don  Carlos  at  Trieste.—  Nov. 
ii.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Saragossa. 

1856,  Jan.   7.  A  mutiny  breaks  out  among  the  national 

ilitia    at    Madrid.—  April     7.—  An   in 

Resignu- 


< Ipenin 
March 


mltia    at    Madrid.—  April     7.—  An   insurrection 
breaks  out    at   Valencia.  —  July   14. 


A.D. 

tion  of  the  Espartero  ministry,  which  is  suc- 
ceeded by  that  of  Gen.  O'Donnell.  Tumults  at 
Madrid.— July  16.  Order  is  restored  by  O'Don- 
nell. —  July  18.  Insurrections  break  out  at 
Barcelona.— July  23.  Gen.  Zapatero  quells  the 
insurrection. — Aug.  15.  The  national  militia  is 
abolished.— Oct.  13.  Resignation  of  the  O'Donncll 
administration.— Gen.  Narvaez  is  placed  at  tho 
head  of  affairs. — Dec.  3.  A  treaty,  defining  the 
frontier  line  between  Spain  and  France,  is  signed 
at  Bayonne. 

1857,  Oct-  2°-  A  new  ministry  is  formed  under  Admiral 

Armero. — Nov.  38.  Birth  of  the  Prince  of  As- 
turias,  heir  to  the  crown. 

1858,  Jan.    14.  Xavier  d'l>turiu  is  made  prime  minister. 

— July  I.  O'Donnell  is  again  placed  at  the  head 
of  affairs. — Sep.  30.  Barcelona  and  other  pro- 
vinces are  delivered  from  the  state  of  siege. — 
Dec.  I.  The  Queen  announces  her  intention  of 
joining  France  in  an  expedition  to  Cochhi- 
China. 

1859,  Aug.  25.  A  convention  is  concluded  with  the  Pope 

relative  to  the  goods  of  the  Church.— Oct.  22.  War 
is  declared  against  Morocco  (q.v.). — Nov.  3. 
Spain  and  the  Halearic  Isles  are  divided  into  five 
military  districts. 

1860,  March  29-  The  Queen  makes  peace  with  Morocco. — 

April  3.  Gen.  Ortega  proclaims  the  Count  of 
Montemolin,  eldest  son  of  the  late  Don  Carlos, 
king,  at  Tortosa,  but  his  own  troops  oppose  tin- 
rebellion,  and  compel  him  to  take  flight. — April 
^j.  Ortega  is  shot  at  Tortosa.  —April  21.  Arrest  of 
the  Count  of  Montemolin  and  of  his  brother.  Fer- 
dinand, near  Tortosa. — April  23.  The  Count  re- 
nounces his  right  to  the  throne. — April  26.  Peace 
is  definitely  concluded  with  Morocco. — May  2.  An 
amnestv  is  proclaimed  in  favour  of  political 
offenders.—  June  5.  Don  Juan,  of  Spain,  brother 
of  the  Count  of  Montemoliu,  publishes  a  decla- 
ration repudiating  his  brother's  renunciation  of 
his  royal  rights.— June  38.  The  Count  of  Montc- 
molin  and  Don  Ferdinand  annul  their  renun- 
ciation at  Cologne. — July  4.  The  Prince  Juan 
publishes  a  second  declaration  from  London. — 
Oct.  26.  Spain  protests  against  the  Sardinian 
invasion  of  the  territories  of  the  Pope,  and  recalls 
her  minister  from  Turin. 

1861,  Jan.    3.     Prince    Ferdinand  dies    at   Brunnsee,   in 

Styria.— Jan.  13.  Death  of  Prince  Charles.  Count 
of  Montemolin,  and  claimant  of  the  Spanish 
crown,  at  Trieste.  The  Countess  dies  the  same 
day. — Feb.  16.  In  consequence  of  the  death  of 
bis  brothers.  Don  Juan  publishes  a  third  mani- 
festo, in  which  he  claims  the  crown.— March  18. 
St.  Domingo  is  united  to  Spain.— May  20.  The 
Queen  ratifies  the  annexation  of  St.  Domingo. — 
June  17.  Spain  asserts  her  neutrality  in  the 
American  civil  war. — June  29.  An  insurrection 
breaks  out  in  Murcia. — July  4.  It  is  suppressed 
by  the  government. — Oct.  31.  Spain  joins  England 
and  France  in  signing  a  convention  at  London 
for  intervention  in  Mexico. — Nov.  23.  Gen.  Prim, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  expedition 
to  Mexico,  embarks  at  Alicante.  (Sec  Mi  \i<  <>.) 
—Nov.  36.  The  Italian  ambassador  quits  Madrid, 
in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  the  Spanish 
government  to  surrender  the  \. -apoli:an  archives. 

1863,  Jan.  8.    In  a  note   written   in  London,  Don    Juan 

de  Bourbon  acknowledges  the  authority  of 
Queen  Isabella,  and  renounces  all  right  to  the 
Spanish  throne. — Jan.  17.  A  new  ministry  is 
established  under  the  presidency  of  Marshal 
O'Donnell,  Duke  of  Tetuan.— Feb.  26.  Resignation 
of  the  O'Donnell  cabinet,— March  30.  Opening 
of  the  Bilbao  Tudebi  railway.— Aug.  18.  An 
insurrection  breaks  out  in  St.  Domingo.  (See 
HAYTI.) 

1864,  Jan.    15.    The  Cortes  reject  a  proposal  for  consti- 

tutional reform. — Jan.  17.  A  new  ministry  is 
formed  under  Arrazola.— Feb.  39.  The  Arrazola 
Cabinet  resigns,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  MOD 
administration. — April  14.  A  Spanish  squadron 
takes  possession  of  the  Chincha  Islands.  (See 
I'EliU.)— Sep.  Narvaez  resumes  office,  and  the 
Queen-mother  returns  to  Madrid. — Oct.  lo.  A 
commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  China. 

1865,  Feb.  3.  The   Chincha   Islands   are,   in   accordance 

with  a  treaty  signed  at  Cullao,  restored  to  Peru. 


SPAIN 


[    925    ] 


SPANISH  ARMADA 


A.I/. 

1865,  June  26.     The  new    kingdom   of    Italy  is    recog- 

nized by   Spain. — Sep.  Kupture   between  Spain 
and  Chili. 

1866,  Jan.  4.   Gen.  Prim's  insurrection.— Feb.   33.    Peru 

declares  war  against  Spain. 


BULERS   OF   SPAIN. 


(See  ARAGON,  CASTILE,  LEON,  and  NAVARRE.) 

VISIGOTIIIC   KINGS. 


A.D. 

411.  Adolphua. 
415.  Sigeric. 
415.  Wallia. 
430.  Theodored. 
451.  Thorismund. 
453.  Theodoric  I. 
466.  Euric. 
483.  Alaric. 
506.  Giselic. 
511.  Theodoric  II. 
522.  Amalaric. 
531.  Theudis. 

548.  TheudiseL 

549.  Agilan. 
554.  Athnagild  I. 
567.  Liuva  I. 
570.  Leovigild. 


A.D. 

587.  Recared  I. 
601.  Liuva  II. 
603.  Witteric. 
610.  Guudemar. 
613.  Sisebert. 
621.  Hecaredll. 
621.  Swintila. 
631.  Si.-ionaud. 
636.  Chintila. 
640.  Tttlga, 
643.  Cluiulaswind. 
649.  Kecuswind. 
673.  Waniba. 
680.  Ervigius. 
687.  Egica. 
701.  Witiza. 
'09,  Itoderic. 


INDEPENDENT  SUEVIC  KINGS. 
409.  Hermenric.  I  457.  Maldras. 

438.  Kechila.  460.  Frumarius. 

448.  Kechiarius.  |  464.  Kemismuna. 

INDEPENDENT  VANDALIC  KINGS. 
409.  Gunderic.  |  425.  Genseric. 


755.  Abderahman  I. 

787.  Hixem  I. 

796.  Alhakem  1. 

»2i.  Abderahman  II. 

852.  Mohammed  I. 

886.  Almondhir. 

888.  Abdalia, 

913.  Abderahman  III. 

961.  Alhakem  II. 

976.  Hixem  II. 
1012.  Suleyman. 
1015.  Ali  ben  Hamud. 
1017.  Abderahman  IV. 
lolS.  Alcassim. 
1033.  Abderahman  V. 
1023.  Mohammed  II. 
1036.  Hixem  III. 


OF  CORDOVA. 

1031.  Gehwar. 

1044.  Mohammed  III. 

1060.  Mohammed  IV. 

1069.  Mohammed  V. 

1094.  Yussef. 

1107.  Ali. 

1144.  Taxfin. 

1147.  Abdelmumen. 

1163.  Yussef  AbuYacub. 

1178.  Yacub  ben  Yussef . 

1199.  Mohammed  VI. 

1313.  Abu  Yacub. 

1333.  Abulmelic. 

1223.  Abdelwahid. 

1335.  Almamon. 

1335.  Abu  Ali. 


MOORISH  KINGS   OF  GRANADA. 


1238.  Mohammed  I. 
1373.  Mohan, med  II. 
1303.  Mohammed  III. 
1309.  Nassir  Abul  Giux. 
1313.  Ismail  I. 
1335.  Mohammed  IV. 
1333.  Yussef  I 
1354.  Mohammed  V. 
1359.  Ismail  II. 
3360.  Abu  Said. 
1391.  Yussef  II. 
1396.  Mohammed  VI. 
1408.  Yussef  III. 
1433.  Mohammed  VII. 


1427- 
1429. 

1433- 
H32- 

1445- 
1445- 
1454- 
1463. 

1483- 
1484. 


Mohammed  VIII. 
Mohammed          VII. 

(again). 
Yussef  IV. 
Mohammed  VII. 

(again). 

Mohammed  IX. 
Aben  Osmin. 
Mohammed  X. 
Muley       Ali       Abul 

Hassan. 
Abu  Abdalia. 
AbdaUa  el  Zagal. 


Spain  was  united  under  one  sceptre  by  Fer- 
dinand V.  in  1512. 


1512.  Ferdinand  V.  and 
Isabella  I. 

1516.  Charles  I.  (V.  of  Ger- 
many). 

1556.  Philip  II.. 

1598.  Philip  III. 

1631.  Philip  IV. 

1665.  Charles  II. 

1700.  Philip  V. 

1724.  Louis. 


1724.  Philip  V.  (again). 
1746.  Ferdinand  VI. 
1759.  Charles  III. 
1788.  Charles  IV. 
1808.  Ferdinand  VII. 
1808.  Joseph  Buonaparte. 
1813.  Ferdinand  VII. 


1833.  Isabell 


(again). 


SPAIN  (MT-A  of),  or  Spanish  ^Era,  founded  on 
the  Julian  calendar,  commenced  Jan.  i,  B.C.  38. 
It  was  adopted  in  Portugal,  Africa,  and  the 
south  of  France  ;  was  abolished  in  Catalonia  in 
1180,  in  Aragon  in  1350,  in  Valencia  in  1358,  in 
Castile  in  1393,  and  in  Portugal  in  1415  or 
1422. 

SPALATO  (Dalmatia),  or  S.  Palatium,  i.e, 
Salonse  Palatium,  the  palace  of  Salona,  cor- 
rupted into  Spalatro,  is  the  ancient  Salona, 
taken  by  Odoacer,  King  of  the  Heruli,  in  481. 
The  cathedral  was  built  about  650,  Giovanni 
of  Ravenna  being  the  first  bishop.  Councils 
were  held  here  about  870;  in  1059  or  1060; 
in  1069;  Nov.,  1075;  and  in  1185.  Captured 
by  the  Venetians  in  1125,  it  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Stephen  III.,  King  of  Hungary, 
in  1171.  Subsequently  it  passed  under  the 
sway  of  the  Venetians,  who  enclosed  the  town 
with  regular  curtains  and  bastions  in  1645.  A 
plague  raged  at  Spalato  in  1607.  The  French, 
by  order  of  Marshal  Marmont,  pulled  down  the 
castle  and  walls  in  1807.  It  was  taken  from 
the  French  by  the  Austrians,  Nov.  2,  1813. 
The  ruins  of  Diocletian's  palace  were  visited 
by  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  of  Austria  in  1815, 
when  he  assigned  a  fund  for  carrying  on  the 
excavations  and  the  formation  of  a  museum 

SPALDING  (Lincolnshire).— A  Benedictine 
monastery  existed  here  at  an  early  period,  and 
the  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1568. 

SPANDAU,  or  SPANDOW  (Prussia).— The 
citadel,  which  stands  on  an  island  in  the 
Havel,  was  commenced  in  1535  by  the  Elector 
Joachim  II.  It  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in 
1631,  and  was  restored  in  1634.  Spandau  was 
occupied  by  the  French  in  1806,  and  on  their 
retreat  from  Berlin,  March  2,  1813,  the  suburbs 
of  the  town  were  burned,  and  3,000  troops  were 
placed  in  the  fortress  by  Prince  Eugene.  It 
was  recaptured  by  the  Prussians,  April  26,  1813. 
The  church  of  St.  Nicholas  was  built  in  the 
1 2th  century. 

SPANISH  AMERICA.— In  1580  Brazil  passed 
under  the  rule  of  Spain,  to  which,  at  that  time, 
nearly  the  whole  of  South  America  belonged. 
The  colonies  one  by  one  threw  off  the  yoke 
of  the  mother  country,  and  the  Spanish 
possessions  now  consist  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico. 

SPANISH  ARMADA.— This  formidable 
naval  expedition,  collected  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  by  Philip  II.,  for  the  purpose  of  invad- 
ing England,  and  called  the  Invincible  Armada, 
sailed  from  the  Tagus  May  28,  29,  and  30,  1588 
(N.S.).  It  consisted  of  130  ships  of  war,  ranging 
from  300  to  1,200  tons  each,  and  a  large  fleet  of 
transports,  carrying  about  n,ooo  sailors,  in- 
cluding galley  slaves  ;  20,000  soldiers,  besides 
volunteers  and  priests;  and  3,165  pieces  of 
cannon.  The  armada,  having  been  damaged 
in  a  storm  off  Cape  Finisterre,  took  refuge 
in  various  ports,  .and  assembled  again  at  the 
Groyne  (Coranna),  whence  they  sailed  July  22 
(O.S.  12) ;  sighted  the  English  coast  Friday,  July 
29  (O.S.  19) ;  and  engaged  for  the  first  time 
with  the  English  fleet,  July  31  (O.S.  21),  when 
the  latter  were  victorious.  Several  of  the 
Spanish  ships  were  taken,  and  others  destroyed. 
Another  contest  with  a  similar  result  occurred 
Tuesday,  Aug.  2  (O.S.  July  23).  The  armada 


SPANISH  FURY 


[    926    ] 


SPARTA 


anchored  in  Calais  roads  Saturday  afternoon, 
Aug.  6  (O.S.  July  27).  Fire  ships  were  launched 
amongst  them  during  the  next  (Sunday)  night, 
at  which  the  Spaniards  were  so  much  alarmed 
that  they  cut  their  cables  and  put  to  sea  again, 
losing  several  ships.  Those  that  escaped  were 
closely  followed  by  the  English  squadrons, 
and  a  general  engagement  ensued  off  Grave- 
lines,  Monday  (Aug.  8),  when  Drake  and  his 
colleagues,  without  the  loss  of  a  single  vessel, 
and  not  100  men,  dispersed  the  mighty  arma- 
ment. Sixteen  Spanish  ships  were  destroyed, 
about  5,000  of  their  men  killed,  and  most  of 
the  vessels  that  escaped  destruction  were 
riddled  with  shot.  Their  commanders,  bent 
upon  returning  to  Spain,  felt  so  much  dread 
of  their  antagonists,  that  they  resolved  upon 
sailing  through  the  North  Sea,  and  round 
Scotland,  sooner  than  risk  another  encounter. 
Drake,  Frobisher,  Howard,  and  the  gallant 
seamen  of  that  age,  pressed  boldly  in  pursuit. 
"  There  was  never  anything,"  wrote  Drake  to 
Walsingham,  Aug.  10,  "  that  pleased  me  better 
than  seeing  the  enemy  flying  with  a  southerly 
wind  to  the  northward."  The  armada  suffered 
from  a  succession  of  storms  ;  and  in  one  that 
occurred  Sep.  2,  40  ships  were  driven  on  the 
Irish  coast,  and  nearly  every  soul  on  board 
these  vessels  perished.  Of  this  expedition, 
53  vessels,  in  a  shattered  and  worthless 
condition,  and  little  more  than  a  third  of  the 
army  sent  for  the  conquest  of  England,  re- 
turned to  Spain.  Elizabeth  raised  three  armies 
to  repel  the  invaders,  but  the  skill  and  heroism 
of  her  sailors,  aided  by  the  fury  of  the  elements, 
rendered  even  an  attempt  at  lauding  im- 
possible. 

SPANISH  FURY.— (See  ANTWERP.) 
SPANISH  MARRIAGES.— By  the  6th  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  n,  1713,  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  grandson 
to  Louis  XIV.,  on  taking  the  Spanish  crown, 
should  renounce  all  claim  to  the  French  crown, 
and  that  the  French  monarch  should  renounce 
all  claim  to  the  Spanish  crown,  which  was  to 
descend  to  certain  princes  of  the  male  line,  the 
possessor  of  the  French  throne  being  always 
excluded.  The  Salic  law,  excluding  females, 
was,  however,  set  aside,  and  France  and  Kng- 
land  formed,  with  Spain  and  Portugal,  April 
22,  1834,  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  which  placed 
Queen  Isabella  II.  on  the  throne.  Various 
projects  of  marriage,  both  for  the  Queen  and 
the  Infanta  Louisa,  were  entertained,  and  at 
length  they  were  united  at  the  same  altar  in 
the  palace,  the  Queen  to  the  Duke  of  Cadiz,  and 
the  Infanta  to  the  Duke  of  Montpensier,  Oct.  10, 
1846.  These  alliances,  contracted  in  violation 
of  treaties,  and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  English  Government,  caused  a  temporary 
estrangement  between  France  and  England 

SPANISH  SUCCESSION  WAR.— In  antici- 
pation of  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  a 
treaty  was  signed  Aug.  19,  1698,  by  England, 
the  Empire,  Holland,  France,  and  some 
smaller  states,  partitioning  his  dominions 
amongst  the  competitors  for  the  crown — the 
Electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria,  the  Dauphin  of 
France,  and  the  Archduke  Charles.  Charles  II. , 
however,  bequeathed,  by  will,  his  empire  to 
the  Electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria,  who  died  sud- 


denly, Feb.  6,  1699,  and  another  secret  partition 
treaty  was  signed  March  25,  1700.  Charles  II., 
by  advice  of  the  papal  court,  declared  Philip, 
Duke  of  Anjou,  his  sole  heir.  He  died  Oct.  21, 
1700  (O.S.).  The  new  monarch  having  been 
crowned  as  Philip  V.,  his  title  was  generally 
acknowledged,  except  by  the  Emperor  Leopold 
I.,  when  war  commenced  in  Italy,  and  the 
French  were  defeated  by  Prince  Eugene,  at 
Carpi,  in  Aug.,  1701.  England  and  Holland 
afterwards  joined  the  Emperor,  and  the  triple 
treaty  of  the  Grand  Alliance  was  signed  Sep.  7, 
1701.  Maryborough  was  despatched  to  Holland, 
and  war  was  declared  against  France  and  Spain 
on  the  same  day,  May  4,  1702,  at  the  Hague, 
Vienna,  and  London.  It  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht,  signed  by  France, 
Portugal,  Prussia,  Savoy,  the  United  Provinces, 
and  England,  March  31  (O.S.),  April  n  (N.S.), 
1713.  The  Emperor  acknowledged  Philip  V.  by 
the  peace  of  Radstadt,  signed  March  6,  1714 
(O.S.). 

HPAXISH-TOWN,  or  ST.  IAGO,  or  ST.  JAGO 
Di;  LA  FEGA  or  VEGA  (Jamaica),  the  capital 
of  the  island  when  captured  by  the  English 
from  the  Spaniards,  in  -May,  1665. 

SPARTA  (Greece). —The  city  of  Sparta,  or 
Lacedsemon,  the  capital  of  Laconia,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Lacedamion  and  his  wife 
Sparta,  subsequently  gave  its  name  to  the 
whole  district  of  which  it  was  the  capital.  Its 
early  chronology  is  mythical. 


B.C. 

1490.  Foundation  of  Sparta. 

1388.  The  marriage  of  Tynd.ireus,  King  of  Sparta,  with 

I.cda,  according  to  (Jrcek  invtlmloiiists. 
1228.  Abdiu:tii.n  of  !!<•], •!!  by  Theseus,  King  of  Attica. 
I2l(>.  Marriage  of  Helen  and  Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta. 
1314.  Abduction  of  Helen  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  King 

of  Troy. 

1194.  Commencement  of  theTrojnn  war.     (See  ILIUM.) 
I  17(1.  Mrnclans  and  Melon  return  to  Sparta. 
1104.  On  the  return  of  the  Heraclidac,  Sparta  is  seized  by 

Aristodcinus. 
lloo.  A  biarchy  is  established  in    Sparta,  under  Eurys- 

thenes  and  Procles,  sons  of  Aristodemus. 
869.  Sparta  is  the  scene  of  civil  wars. 
848.  War  commences  between  Charilaus,  of  Sparta,  and 

Polymnesta,  of  Arcadia. 
813.  Alcamenes,  King  of  Sparta,  wages  war  against  the 

Messenians. 

776.  legislation  of  Lycurgus. 
757.  Theopompus  introduces  the  Epliori  (q. ».). 
743.  The  Spartans  declare  war  against  the  Messenians. 

(SeeMKssi)NiAN  WAK.) 
730.  Einphaes,   King  of  the  Messenians,  falls  in  battle 

against  the  Spartans  at  Ithome. 
724.  The  Spartans  take   Ithome,  and  thereby  conclude 

the  first  Messenian  war. 
718.  War  is  carried  on  against  the  Argives. 
707.  The  Parthenias  and  the  inhabitants  of  Helos  fail  in 

an  attempt  against  the  Spartans. 
•700.  The  Spartans  tnko  Helos,  and  reduce  the  populace 

to  slavery.     (.See  HELOTS.) 

685.  Commencement  of  the  second  Messenian  war  (q.  v.). 
669.  The  Argives  defeat  the  Spartans  at  Hysiae. 
665.  The  trytnnopa-dia  are  celebrated  at  Sparta. 
560.  Tegea  becomes  an  ally  of  Sparta. 
547.  A  combat  takes  place  between  300  Argives    and 
300  Spartans,  only  two  Argives  and  one  Spartan 
being  left  alive.     Both   sides  claim  the  victory, 
and  a   battle  ensues,   in  which  the  Argives  are 
defeated. 

525.  The  Spartans  and  Samians  are  at  war. 
513.  The  Spartans  are  supreme  on  the  sea, 
505.  War  breaks  out  between  Sparta  and  Athens. 
491.  The  Spartans  refuse  the  Persian  demand  for  earth 

and  water. 
490,  Sep.  ii.  Battle  of  Marathon  (?.».). 


SPARTA 


[    927    ] 


SPEAKER 


.. 

483.  The  Greek  states  unite  to  resist  the  Persians. 

480.  Heroism  of  Leonidas,  King  of  Sparta,  and  his  300 


objects,  at  Thermopylae  (q.  v.) 

"  msanias, 
it  IMntoea  (q.  v.). 


479-  The  Spartans,  under  Pai: 


defeat  the  Persians 

the 


471.  Pausanias  is  starved  to  death  for   aspiring 

sovereignty. 
464.  Commencement  of  the  third  Messenian  war  (q.  v.), 

and  rebellion  of  the  Helots  (q.  v.).    The  Spartans 

are  assisted  by'the  Athenians  under  Cinion. 
461.  The  Athenian  auxiliaries  are  sent  back. 
457.  Buttle  of  Tanagra. 

454.  Sparta  unites  with  Macedon  against  Athens. 
445.  A  30  years'  truce  is  concluded  with  the  Athenians. 
433.  Another  congress  of  the  Peloponnesians  takes  place 

at  Sparta,  to  consider  the  advisability  of  making 

war  against  Athens. 

431.  Sparta  engages  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  (q.v). 
427.  Plataia  (q.  v.)  surrenders  to  the  Spartans. 
435.  Invasion  of  Attica  by  the  Spartans. 
421,  April  10.   A  truce  of    50  years  is   concluded  with 

Athens  (See  NlCIAS),  and  a  quarrel  commences 

with  Klis. 

430.  The  Helots  again  rebel. 
418,  June.  The  Spartans,  under  Agis,  defeat  the  Argives 

and  Mantineans  at  Mantinea  (q.  v.). 

414.  The  Spartans  assist  the  Syracusans  against  Athens. 
413.  The  Spartans  conclude  a  treaty  with  Persia. 
411.  Defeat  of  the  Spartans  off  Cynossema  (q.  v.). 
410.  Mindurus,   the   Spartan   admiral,   is  defeated  and 

slain  at  Cyzicus  (q.  v.). 
407.  The  Spartans,  under  Lysander,  defeat  the  Athenian 

force  of  Antiochus  in  a  sea-fight  at  Notium. 
406.  The  Athenians  defeat  the  Spartans  in  a  sea-fight  off 

Arginusa?. 
405.  The  Spartans  defeat  the  Athenians  at  jEgospotami 

(q.  v.). 
404.  The  Spartan  general  Lysander  takes  Athens,  and 

establishes  Spartan  supremacy  in  Greece. 
401.  War  is  undertaken   against  Elis  (q.  ».),    and  the 

Spartans  assist  Cyrus  in  Persia  (q.  v.). 
396.  Agesilaus  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  invades  Persia. 
395.  Corinth,  Athens,    Argos,    Boeotia,    Thessaly,    and 

Thebes  form  a  confederacy  against  Sparta.     (See 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.) 
394.  Defeat  of  the  allies  by  Sparta  at  Coronea   (q.  v.). 

The  Spartan^  are  defeated  by  the  Persians  and 

Athenians  on  the  Cnidus  (q.  v.). 
393.  Battle  of  Lechaeum  (q.  v.). 
391.  Invasion  of  Acarnania  (q.  v.). 
347.  Peace  of   Antalcidas  (q.v.)  brings  the  Corinthian 

war  to  a  close. 

383.  Sparta  engages  in  the  Olynthian  war  (q.  r.). 
378.  The    Athenians    and    Thebans    unite    against    the 

Spartans. 

374.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Athens. 
373.  The  Spartans  fail  in  an  expedition  against  Corcyra. 
371.  A    congress    is    held    at    Sparta.— June.  Peace  of 

Callias.— July.  Battle  of  Leuctra  (q.  v.). 
369.  Sparta  is  invaded  by  the  Thebans,  under  Epami- 

nondas. 

367.  The  Spartans  defeat  the  Arcadians. 
363,  June  27.  The  Thebans  defeat  the  Spartans  at  the 

second  battle  of  Mantinea  (q.  v.). 
353.  Sparta  carries  on  war  against  Megalopolis. 
344.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  subdues  Sparta. 
303.  The  Spartans  seize  Corcyra,  or  Corfu  (q.  v.). 
294.  Pyrrhus,   King  of    Epirus,  fails  in  an  attack  on 

Sparta. 

377.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Athens  and  Egypt. 
355.  The  Spartans  assist  the  Carthaginians. 
344.  Agis  IV.   endeavours  to  restore  the  laws  of  Ly- 

curgus. 

243.  Abdication  of  Leonidas  II. 
340.  Leonidas  II.  murders  Agis  IV.,  and  becomes  sole 

ruler  of  Sparta. 
236.  Cleomenes  III.  overcomes  the  Ephori,  and  restores 

the  code  of  Lycurgus. 

221.  Antigonus  Uoson,  King  of  Macedon,  defeats  Cleo- 
menes III.  in  the  battle  of  Sellasia.     The  Ephori 

are  murdered  by  the  Spartans. 
2l8.  Sparta  is  invaded  by  Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 
2io.  The  Ephori  are  abolished  by  Mechanidas. 
2o8.  Mechanidas  is  defeated  and  slain  at  Mantinea  by 

Philopcemen,  prastor  of  the  Achsean  league. 
2o6.  Nabis  usurps  the  sovereign  power  in  Macedon. 
195.  Sparta  is  fortified  by  the  tyrant  Nabis,  to  protect  it 

against  the  Komans. 


193.  Philopcemen  attacks  Sparta,  and  defeats  Nabis, 
who  is  slain  by  the  -(Etolians.  Sparta  joins  the 
Achamn  league. 

188.  Sparta  renounces  the  Achaean  league,  and  is  con- 
quered by  Philopcemen,  who  abolishes  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus. 

147.  Sparta  is  subdued  by  the  Romans,  under  Metellus. 
21.  Augustus  establishes  the  confederacy  of    the  free 

Laconian  cities. 
A.D. 

396.  Sparta  is  taken  by  Alaric  I. 
1248-  William,   Prince    of    Achai,    founds    Misithra,    or 

Mistra,  about  three  miles  from  ancient  Sparta. 
1263.  Misithra  is  ceded  to  Michael  VHI. 

SPARTACUS'S  INSURRECTION,  or  the 
WAR  OP  THE  GLADIATORS.— Spartacus,  a 
captain  of  Thracian  banditti,  having  been  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Romans,  was  reduced  to  slavery 
and  made  a  gladiator  at  Capua.  He  escaped, 
with  70  of  his  fellow-bondsmen,  and  took 
refuge  in  a  strong  position  on  Mount  Vesuvius, 
where  he  was  joined  by  a  number  of  slaves  and 
outlaws,  and  defeated  two  Roman  expeditions 
sent  against  him,  B.C.  73.  He  marched  into 
Cisalpine  Gaul  at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  B.C. 
72,  and  after  defeating  two  Roman  armies,  he 
ravaged  the  greater  part  of  the  province  of 
Italy,  and  retaliated  the  cruelties  of  the  Romans 
towards  the  gladiators,  by  making  a  number 
of  his  captives  fight  as  gladiators  round  the 
funeral  pile  of  one  of  his  commanders.  His 
successes  caused  such  terror  at  Rome,  that  M. 
Crassus,  the  praetor,  was  invested  with  full 
powers  to  put  down  the  insurrection,  and  he 
marched  against  him.  Spartacus  took  up  a 
position  in  a  peninsula  near  Rhegium,  where 
Crassus  enclosed  him  by  a  rampart  drawn  from 
sea  to  sea.  Spartacus,  after  several  desperate 
attacks,  forced  his  way  through  the  praetor's 
lines  and  endeavoured  to  make  his  escape  from 
Italy,  but  being  foiled  in  this,  he  turned  upon 
Crassus,  and  a  desperate  battle  ensued,  in 
which  Spartacus  and  most  of  his  followers  were 
killed.  The  prisoners,  to  the  number  of  6,000, 
were  hanged  or  crucified  along  the  road  leading 
from  Rome  to  Capua,  B.C.  71.  On  account  of 
the  number  of  slaves  engaged  in  this  contest, 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  Servile  war. 

SPEAKER  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS, 
described  as  having  "la  Parole  pour  la  Com- 
muuite,"  or  as  "Commune  Parlour,"  was  at 
first  chosen  by  the  House,  in  accordance  with 
the  previous  nomination  of  the  king.  Sir 
Thomas  Hungerford  in  1376  is  the  first  named 
as  speaker  in  the  Parliament  Roll.  Townsend 
(House  of  Commons,  p.  i.)  says  "the  office  is 
coeval  with  the  sittings  of  the  Commons 
apart  from  the  Lords."  The  speaker  is  elected 
by  the  Commons,  subject  to  the  royal  pleasure. 
Sir  John  Trevor  was  deprived  of  the  speaker- 
ship,  and  expelled  the  House,  March  12,  1695, 
for  having  accepted  a  gratuity  of  .£1,000  from 
the  city  of  London,  after  the  passing  of  the 
Orphans  Bill.  No  provisions  existed  for  sup- 
plying the  place  of  the  speaker  in  the  event 
of  his  unavoidable  absence  until  Aug.  4,  1853, 
when  it  was  resolved  that  in  such  a  case  his 
place  should  be  filled  by  the  chairman  of  ways 
and  means.  This  resolution  was  acted  upon 
for  the  first  time  May  7,  1855.  (In  the  follow- 
ing list  re-elections  are  not  recorded  unless 
another  appointment  intervenes.) 


SPEAKER 


[    928    ] 


SPEAKING-TRUMPET 


SPEAKERS. 
A.D. 

1260.  Peter  de  Montfort. 
1336.  William  Trussell. 
1333.  Sir  Henrv  Beaumont 

1376.  Sir  Thomas  Ilungerford. 

1377,  Oct.  13.  Peter  de  la  Mare. 
*3~°,  Oct.  22.  James  de  Pekeryng. 

1380,  Nov.  8.  Sir  John  Gildersburgh. 

1381,  Nov.  18.  Sir  Kichard  de  Waldsgrave. 
I383i  Feb.  23.  Sir  James  Pickering. 

1394,  Jan.  29.  John  Bussy. 
1399,  Oct.  14.  John  Cheyne,  who  is  replaced  on  account 
of  illness  by  John  Porewood. 

1401,  Jan.  22-  Arnold  Savage. 

1402,  Oct.  3.  Henry  de  Hedeford. 
1404,  Jim.  15.  Arnold  Savage. 
1401,  Oct.  7.   William  Sturmey. 

1406,  March  2-  John  Tibetot 

1407,  Oct.  25-  Thomas  Chaucer. 
I4t3,  Mny  15.  William  Stourton. 

1413,  June  3.  John  Dorewood. 

1414,  May  I.  Wautii-r  Hunger  ford. 

1414,  Nov.  20.  Thomas  Chaucer. 

1415,  Nov.  6.  Richard  Redman. 

1416,  March  18.  Sir  Walter  Beauehamp. 
I4'6,  Oct.  21.   Roger  Flour. 

1430,  Dec.  4.  Roger  Hunt. 

1431,  May  6.  Thomas  Chaucer. 

1431,  Dec.  3.  Richard  Banyard. 

1432,  Nov.  12.  Roger  Flour. 

1433,  <><•(.  21.  John  Ilussel. 

I4-S.   May  3.  Sir  Thomas  Wanton. 

1436,  Feb.  28.  Sir  Richard  Vurnon. 
1427,  Oct.  15.  John  Tvrrell. 

1430,  Sep.  33.  William  Alyngton. 

1431,  .Ian.  15.  John  Tyrrell. 

1432,  May  14.  John  Russel. 

1433,  July  II.  Roger  Hunt. 
1435,  Oct.  13.  John   Howe*. 

1437,  Jan.  23.  Sir  John  Tyrrell. 
1437,  March  19.  William  Boerley. 
1439,  Nov.  13.   William  Tresham. 
1445.   Feb.  36.  William  Hurley. 
1447,   '"'eh.  :3-  William  Tresham. 
144V,   Feb.  15.  John  Say. 

1449,  Nov.  8.  Sir  John  1'opham. 
I4.V,   Nov.  v-   William  oldliall. 

1453,  Marcli  8.    Thomas    Thorp,   who  is    committed    to 

prison  nt   tin-  instunce  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and 
\vas  afterwards  beheaded. 

1454,  Feb.  16.  Sir  Thomas  Charluton. 

1455,  July  II.  Sir  John  Weniok. 

1459,  Nov.  23.  Thomas  Treshum. 

1460,  Oct.  10.  John  i  .1 

1461,  Nov.  6.  Sir  James  Strangways. 

1463,  May  2.  John  Say  (afterwards  Sir  John  Say). 
1473,  Oct.  9.  William" Alyngton. 

1483,  Jan.  21.  JolmWode. 

1484,  Jan.  26.  William  Catesby. 

1485,  Nov.  8.  Thomas  l.ovell. 
1487,  Nov.  12.  John  Mordaunt. 

1489,  Jan.  14.   Sir  Thomas  Fit/.william. 
1491,  Oct.  18.  Richard  Einpson. 
1495,  Oct  15.  Robert  Drury. 
1497,  Jan.   I".  Thomas  I ngelfeld. 
1504,  Jan.  20.   Kilmnnd  Dudeley. 
1510,  Jan.  23.  Thomas  Ingelfeld. 
1513,   Feb.  5.   Sir  Robert  Shellield. 
1515,  Feb.  o.  Thomas  Xevile. 

1533,  April  18.   Sir  Thomas  More. 
1539,  Nov.  6.  Thomas  Audeley. 

1534,  Jan.  19.  Sir  Humphrey  Wingfield. 
1536,  June  II.  Robert  Rich. 

1539,  April  38.  Sir  Nicholas  Hare. 
1543,  Jan.  20.  Thomas  Moyle. 
1547,  Nov.  4.  Sir  John  Baker. 

1553,  March  2.  James  Diar. 
IS\3,   Oct.  5.  John  Pollard. 

1554,  April  6.  Robert  Brooke. 

1554,  Nov.  12.  Clement  Higham. 

1555,  Oct.  23.  John  Pollard. 
15.18,  Jan.  20.  William  Cordell. 
1559,  Jan.  35.  Sir  Thomas  (iargrave. 
156;,  Jan.  15.  Thomas  Wylliams. 
1566,  Sep.  30.  Richard  Ouslow. 

1571,  April  4.  Christopher  Wray. 

1572,  May   10.    Robert  Bell,    made  Chief   Baron  of    the 

Exchequer,  Jan.  24,  1577. 


A.D. 

1581,  Jan.  20.  John  Popham. 

1584,  Nov.  34.  John  Puckering. 

1589,  Feb.  6.  George  Snagg. 

'•593,  Feb.  22.  Edward  Coke. 

1597,  Oct.  30.  Christopher  Yelverton. 

1601,  Oct.  27.  John  Crooke. 

1603,  March  22.  Sir  Edward  Phillips. 

1614,  April  7.  Sir  Randolph  Crewe. 

1621,  Feb.  3.  Thomas  Richardson. 

1634,  FeD-  *'•  Thomas  Crewe. 

163'!,   Feb.  6.  Sir  Heneage  Finch. 

1638,  March  lo.  Sir  John  Finch. 

1640,  April  15.  John  Glanvill. 

1640,  Nov.  5.  William  Lenlhall. 

1653,  J'lly  5-  Francis  Rous. 

1654,  SeP-  4-  William  Lenthall. 

1656,  Sep.  17.  Sh  Thomas  Widdrington. 

1659,  Jan.  27.  Chaloner  Chute.— March  9.  Sir  Lislebono 

Long  acts  during  the  Speaker's  indisposition.— 
March  16.  Thomas  Bampfield  acts.  Sir  I.Mebono 
Long  being  indisposed. — April  15.  Thomas  Uainji- 
ficld  is  chosen  on  the  death  of  Chaloner  Chute. 

1660,  April  25.  Sir  Harbottle  Grimston. 

1661,  May  10.  Sir  Edward  Turner,  made  Chief  Baron  of 

the  Exchequer  in  1673. 

1673,  Feb.  4.  Sir  Job  Charltoii.— Feb.  18.  Edward  Seymour 
is  chosen  on  account  of  the  illness  of  Sir  Job 
Charlton. 

1678,  April  ii.  Sir  Robert  Sawyer  is  chosen  on  account 

of  the  illness  of  Edward  Seymour.— May  6. 
Edward  Seymour  resumes  his  post. 

1679,  March  6.  Serjeant.  Gregory,  chosen  by  the  Commons, 

is  rejected  by  Charles  II. — Marcli  15.  Serjeant 
Gregory  is  again  chosen.— March  17.  He  is  ac- 
cepted by  Charles  II. 

1680,  Oct.  22.   William  Williams. 
i6*s,  -May  19.   Sir  John  Trevor. 

n.  33.    Henry  I'owle. 

1690,  March  20.  Sir  John  Trevor. 

16  5,  March  12.  The  House  resolves  that  Sir  John  Trevor, 
Speaker  of  this  House,  receiving  a  gratuity  of 
1,000  guineas  from  the  City  of  London,  after  the 
p-issiug  of  the  Orphans  Bill,  is  guilty  of  a  high 
crime  and  misdemeanour. 

1695,  March  14.  Paul  Foley. 

1698,    Dee.  (,.    Si,-  Thomas  Littleton. 

1701,  Feb.  (,.   Robert  Hurley. 

r   5,  Oct  35.  John  Smith. 

OT.   16.   Sir  l.'ieli-ml  Onslow. 

1710,  Nov.  25.  William  Bromley. 

1714,  Feb.  1 6.  Sir  Thomas  Hanmer. 

1715,  March  17.   Hon.  Spencer  Compton. 
1728,  Jan.  23.   Arthur  Onslow. 

1761,   Nov.  3.  Sir  John  Cu-t,  Bart. 

1770,  Jan.  33.   Sir  Fletcher  Norton. 

1780,  Oct.  31.  Charles  Wolfran  Cornwall. 

1789,  Jan.  5.  Hon.  William  Wyndham  Grenville,  created 
M.-iroii  (ireiiville,  Nov.  35.  1790. 

1789,  June  5.  Henry  Addington,  created  Viscount  Sid- 
mouth,  Jan.  12,  1805. 

1801,  Feb.   n.  Sir  John  Mitford,  created  Baron   Redes- 

dale,  Feb.  15,  1802. 

1802,  Feb.  10.  Charles  Abbot,  created  Baron  Colchester, 

June  3,  1817. 

1817,  June  2.  Charles  Manners-Sutton,  created  Baron 
Bottesford  and  Viscount  Canterbury,  March  10, 

835,  Feb.  19.  James  Abercromby,  created  Baron  Dun- 

fermliue,  June  7,  1839. 
839,  May  27.   Charles  Shavv-Lefevre,  created  Viscount 

Eversley,  March  23,  1857. 
1857,  April  30.  John  Evelyn  Denison. 


SPEAKING-TRUMPET.— The  great  horn 
used  by  Alexander  III.  (B.C.  336 — 323)  to  as- 
semble his  army,  is  considered  by  some  to  be 
;he  oldest  speaking-trumpet  on  record.  A 
similar  instrument  was  also  known  to  the 
latives  of  Peru,  in  America,  in  1595.  The 
nvention  of  the  modern  speaking-trumpet  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Sir  Samuel  Morland  in 
1670,  though  Athanasius  Kircher,  a  Jesuit,  in 
;he  prefaee  to  his  "Phonurgia,"  published  in 
1673,  claimed  it  for  himself,  and  asserted  that 


SPEAR  AND  NAILS 


[    929 


SPIRIT 


he    had   described  the  trumpet   invented    in 
England  in  his  "  Musurgia,"  printed  in  1650. 

SPEAR  AND  NAILS.— (-See  FEASTS  AND 
FESTIVALS.  ) 

SPECIAL  CONSTABLES,  to  assist  in  pre- 
serving order,  may,  by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  41  (Oct. 
15,  1831)  and  by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  43  (Aug.  31, 
l835)>  he  sworn  in  by  any  two  justices  of  the 
peace,  if  a  tumult  or  riot  is  apprehended.  (See 
CHARTISTS.) 

SPECIAL  LICENCE.— By  25  Hen.  VIII.  c. 
21  (1534).  authority  was  given  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  to  grant  special  licences 
to  marry  couples  at  any  convenient  time  and 
place,  and  Archbishop  Seeker  made  a  regula- 
tion in  1759  that  these  licences  should  only  be 
issued  to  children  of  peers,  judges,  baronets, 
knights,  and  privy  councillors. 

SPECIES.— The  separate  creation  (Gen.  i. 
20—31  and  vi.  2 — 3^  and  immutability  of  each 
species  have  been  questioned  by  modern  writers, 
amongst  whom  may  be  mentioned  Lamarck 
(1744— Dec  18,  1829)  and  St.  Hilaire  (1772— June 
19,  1844).  *The  theory  of  Progressive  Develop- 
ment was  advocated  in  an  anonymoxis  work, 
"Vestiges  of  the  Natural  History  of  Creation," 
published  in  1844  ;  and  Darwin  explained  his 
theory  of  Natural  Selection,  in  his  book  "  On 
the  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of  Natural 
Selection,"  published  in  1859. 

SPECTACLES  were  first  used  about  the 
end  of  the  i3th  century.  Some  authorities 
are  of  opinion  that  the  idea  of  their  con- 
struction and  use  was  taken,  either  from  the 
writings  of  Alhazen,  who  lived  in  the  nth 
century,  or  of  Roger  Bacon,  who  died  about 
1292.  Othei-s  affirm  that  they  were  invented  by 
Sal  vino  Armati,  a  Florentine,  who  died  in  1317, 
and  that  the  invention  was  rendered  common 
by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence, 
about  1285.  Jordan  de  Rivalto,  in  a  sermon 
preached  in  1305,  calls  them  an  invention  of  20 
years  before.  The  spectacle-makers  were  in- 
corporated in  1629. 

SPECTATOR  was  commenced  March  i,  1711, 
and  continued  to  Dec.  6,  1712.  It  was  revived 
June  1 8,  1714,  and  terminated  Dec.  20.  Joseph 
Addison  (1672— June  17,  1719)  and  Sir  Richard 
Steele  (1671— Sep.  i,  1729)  were  the  principal 
contributors. 

SPECTRUM. — The  phenomenon  of  the  pris- 
matic spectrum,  although  well  known  to  phi- 
losophers, was  first  explained  by  Newton  about 
1700 ;  the  colours  into  which  he  found  the 
ray  of  light  divided  by  dispersion  being  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet. 
Similar  phenomena  are  observable  in  the  case 
of  diffraction,  the  laws  of  which  were  investi- 
gated by  Dr.  Young  in  1802,  and  by  Fresnel  in 
1821.  It  has  received  an  important  practical 
application  to  chemical  analysis,  by  which, 
amongst  other  discoveries,  Professors  Bunsen 
and  Kirchoff  showed,  in  1860,  that  the  solar 
atmosphere  contains  the  metals  potassium  and 
sodium. 

SPECULATIVE  PHILOSOPHY.— (See  PHI- 
LOSOPHY. ) 

SPHERES.— The  celestial  and  terrestrial 

f lobes  were  invented  by  Anaximander  (B.C. 
10 — B.C.  546).     The  armillary  sphere  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene 


(B.C.  276 — B.C.  194),  and  the  planetarium  was 
invented  by  Archimedes  (B.C.  287—8.0.  212). 

SPICE  ISLANDS.— (See  MOLUCCAS.) 

SPICES,  or  AROMATICS,  were  in  ancient 
times  brought  from  the  East.  The  atmosphere 
for  many  miles  round  Ceylon  is  impregnated 
with  the  odours  of  the  numerous  spices  grown 
in  the  island. 

SPIELBERG  (Moravia).— This  castle,  for- 
merly the  citadel  of  Briinn,  has,  since  its  for- 
tifications were  destroyed  by  the  French,  in 
1809,  been  converted  into  a  prison  for  state 
prisoners.  Gen.  Mack,  who  surrendered  Ulm 
to  the  French,  Oct.  20,  1805,  was  imprisoned 
here. 

SPINNING.— The  ancient  mode  of  spinning 
was  by  means  of  the  spindle  and  distaff. 
Areas,  King  of  Arcadia,  is  said  to  have  taught 
the  art  to  his  subjects  about  B.C.  1500  ;  and 
representations  of  it  are  found  among  the 
sculptures  of  the  early  Egyptian  tombs.  The 
spindle  and  distaff  were  superseded  in  Eng- 
land by  the  spinning-wheel,  invented  in  Nu- 
remberg in  1530,  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  (1509—47).  The  next  improvement 
in  the  art  was  the  invention  of  the  spinning- 
Jenny  by  James  Hargraves  in  1767.  This  was 
followed  by  the  introduction  of  the  spinning- 
frame  by  Arkwright,  who  obtained  his  first 
patent  July  3,  1769.  It  was  originally  worked 
by  horse-power,  but  this  was  found  too  expen- 
sive for  machinery  on  an  extensive  scale ;  and 
the  first  water  spinning-mill  was  erected  in 
1771  at  Cromford,  in  Derbyshire,  which  is 
styled  "the  nursing-place  of  the  factory,  opu- 
lence, and  power  of  Great  Britain."  The  next 
great  invention  was  the  mule-jenny,  which 
combined  the  drawing-roller  of  Arkwright  with 
he  jenny  of  Hargraves,  made  by  Crompton  in 
1775  ;  but  it  was  not  brought  into  general  use 
before  1786,  owing  to  its  interference  with  the 
patent  of  Arkwright.  Parliament  rewarded 
the  inventor  with  ,£5,000 ;  and  he  made  a  sur- 
vey of  the  cotton  manufactories  in  England  in 
1812,  when  he  found  between  four  and  five 
millions  of  spindles  at  work  on  his  system. 

SPIRES  (Bavaria),  in  German  Speyer,  or 
Speier,  called  Noviomagus  by  the  Romans, 
was  the  seat  of  the  superior  court  of  appeal 
for  the  Germanic  empire,  until  1689,  when  it 
was  removed  to  Wetzlar.  The  diet  of  the 
empire  was  frequently  held  here.  The  most 
important  of  these  was  that  which  assembled 
March  15,  1529,  when  a  protest  made  by  the 
Reformers,  April  19,  against  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Emperor,  procured  them  the 
name  of  Protestants.  It  was  taken  and  almost 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689,  previous  to 
which  the  town  had  five  suburbs  enclosed  within 
the  ramparts,  and  13  gates  and  64  towers 
protected  by  artillery.  The  cathedral,  which 
withstood  the  attempts  of  the  French,  was 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.  in  1030, 
and  completed  under  Henry  IV.  in  1061.  It  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  as  early  as  300.  Spires 
was  rebuilt  about  1699,  but  it  never  regained 
its  former  prosperity.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  Sep.  29,  1792,  and  again  Jan.  19,  1794. 

SPIRIT. — (See  BROTHERS  AND  SISTERS  OF  THE 
FREE  SPIRIT,  EXORCISTS,  HOLY  GHOST,  MACE- 
DONIANS, &c.) 

30 


SPIRIT-RAPPING 


[    930 


SPOTTSYLVANIA 


SPIRIT-RAPPING,    or    SPIRITUALISM.— 

Voltaire  notices  a  case  of  a  sentence  passed 
upon  some  monks  of  Orleans,  Feb.  18,  1535, 
for  having  resorted  to  spirit-rapping  for  the 
purpose  of  extorting  money.  An  account  of 
the  extraordinary  case  was  found  in  a  manu- 
script of  1770,  in  the  royal  library  of  the  King 
of  France.  Sir  Thomas  Tresham,  of  Rushton 
Hall,  near  Kettering,  Northamptonshire,  left  a 
letter  written  by  himself  about  1584,  in  which 
he  states  that  on  one  of  his  commitments 
for  recusancy,  being  in  an  old  lodge  near  his 
mansion,  "  I  usually  having  my  servants  here 
allowed  me  to  read  nightly  an  hour  to  me  after 
supper,  it  fortuned  that  Fulcis,  my  then  ser- 
vant, reading  in  the  Christian  Resolution,  in 
the  treatise  of  Proof  that  there  is  a  Go<i,  <tr., 
there  was  upon  a  wainscot  table  at  that  instant 
three  loud  knocks  (as  if  it  had  been  with  an 
iron  hammer)  given,  to  the  great  amazing  of 
me  and  my  two  servants,  FulchisaiidNilktoii." 
De  Foe,  referring  to  a  story  of  spirit-rapping 
in  Richard  Baxter's  "  Certainty  of  the  Worlds 
of  Spirits,  &c.,"  published  in  1691,  remarks  : 
"  What  in  nature  can  be  more  trivial  than  for 
a  spirit  to  employ  himself  in  knocking  on  a 
morning  at  the  wainscot  by  the  bed's  head  of 
a  man  who  got  drunk  over-night,  according 
to  the  way  that  such  things  are  ordinarily 
explained  ?  And  yet  I  shall  give  you  such 
a  relation  as  this,  that  not  even  the  most 
devout  and  precise  Presbyterian  will  offer  to 
call  in  question."  The  modern  spirit-rapping 
originated  in  the  state  of  New  York,  Ame- 
rica, in  the  family  of  John  D.  Fox,  in  March, 
1848. 

SPIRITS.— Distilled  spirits  were  first  used 
in  Europe  about  1150.  (See  DISTILLATION.)  In 
consequence  of  the  excessive  quantities  of 
ardent  spirits  drunk  by  the  English  working 
classes  in  the  reigns  of  George  I.  and  George 
II.,  a  duty  of  2o«.  a  gallon  was  imposed  on  all 
spirits  by  9  Geo.  II.  c.  23  (1736)  ;  but  as  this 
restriction  merely  increased  the  illicit  sale  of 
contraband  liquors,  the  duty  was  repealed  by 
16  Geo.  II.  c.  8  (1743).  The  chief  acts  relating 
to  the  duties  on  spirits  were  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  94 
(July  18,  1823),  regulating  the  duties  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland,  and  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  80  (June 
27,  1825),  which  referred  to  England.  The  dis- 
tillation of  spirits  from  mangold  wurzel  was 
permitted  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  74  (Aug.  i, 
1832)  ;  and  the  scale  of  duties  was  again  al- 
tered by  5  Viet.  sess.  2,  c.  25  (May  31,  1842). 
Spirits  of  wine  were  allowed  to  be  used  in  the 
arts  and  manufactures  free  of  duty  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  38  (June  26,  1855.  A  uniform  duty  of 
8s.  per  gallon  for  the  United  Kingdom  was 
imposed  by  21  Viet.  c.  15  (May  n,  1858],  and 
the  excise  regulations  relating  to  the  distilling, 
rectifying,  and  dealing  in  spirits,  were  amended 
and  consolidated  into  one  act  by  23  <fe  24  Viet, 
c.  114  (Aug.  28,  1860).  (See  LICENCES.) 

SPIRITUAL  FRANCISCANS.— (See  DOLCI- 

N1TES.) 

SPIRITUALISTS,  or  FRATICELLI,  called 
also  the  Zealous,  or  the  Spirituals,  formed  a 
portion  of  the  order  of  Franciscans,  who,  about 
1245,  under  the  name  of  Spiritualists,  advocatea 
the  strict  observance  of  the  rule  and  vow  of 
poverty,  which  had  been  one  of  their  funda- 


mental laws.  In  1282  they  had  become  an  in- 
fluential body,  and  were,  after  the  year  1294, 
subjected  to  great  persecution. 

SPIRITUALS  AND  SPIRITUAL  LIBER- 
TINES.—(See  LIBERTINES.) 

SPITALFIELDS  (London).— In  1235  Walter 
Brune  founded  the  priory  of  St.  Mary  Spittle, 
which  was  dissolved  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1534. 
At  the  north-east  corner  of  Spital  Square  for- 
merly stood  a  pulpit  for  open-air  preaching. 
Here  the  celebrated  Spital  sermons  on  Easter 
Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday,  were  de- 
livered. On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1685,  numbers  of  the 
Huguenots  driven  from  France  settled  in  Spi- 
talfields,  and  commenced  the  manufacture  of 
silk.  Riots  against  the  introduction  of  foreign 
silks  took  place  in  Spitalfields  Oct.  14,  1767, 
and  Oct.  7,  1769. 

SPITHEAD  (Hampshire).— This  famous  road- 
stead is  named  from  the  Spit,  a  sandbank  about 
three  miles  long,  between  Portsmouth  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  A  grand  naval  review  took 
place  in  presence  of  Queen  Victoria^  Aug.  n, 
1853.  Sir  Charles  Napier  arrived  at  Spithead, 
on  his  return  from  the  Baltic,  Dec.  17,  1854 ; 
and  another  grand  naval  review  took  place 
before  Queen  Victoria,  April  23,  1856.  (See 
NORE.) 

SPITSBERGEN  (Arctic  Ocean).— This  group 
of  islands,  observed  by  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby 
in  1553,  was  discovered  by  Barentz,  a  Dutch- 
navigator,  in  1596.  The  Dutch  commenced 
whale-fishing  in  1613.  The  King  of  Denmark 
sent  a  squadron  to  assert  his  exclusive  right  to 
the  island  of  this  name,  the  chief  of  the  group, 
in  1618,  but  afterwards  gave  up  the  point.  The 
South  Sea  Company  embarked  largely  in  whale- 
fishing  here  in  1724. 

BPOLETO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Spoletium, 
was  colonized  by  the  Romans  B.C.  240.  Hanni- 
bal was  repulsed  from  its  gates  B.C.  217,  and  it 
was  distinguished  for  its  fidelity  to  Rome  B.C. 
209.  A  battle  was  fought  beneath  its  walls 
between  Pompeius  and  Crassus,  in  which  the 
latter  was  defeated,  B.C.  82.  About  570  it  be- 
came the  seat  of  a  duchy  which  lasted  till  the 
1 2th  century.  It  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  in  1860. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION.  —  Nume- 
rous instances  of  what  is  called  spontaneous 
combustion  in  the  human  body  have  been 
recorded,  though  Professor  Liebig  contends 
that  it  is  absolutely  impossible.  Dr.  Lindsley 
has  compiled  a  table  from  the  "  Dictionnaire 
de  Me"decine,"  containing  19  cases,  the  first  of 
which  is  said  to  have  occurred  at  Copenhagen 
in  1692.  (See  GORLITZ  CASE.) 

SPORADES  (jEgean  Sea).— This  group  of 
islands  belongs  to  Turkey. 

SPORTS.— (See  BOOK  OF  SPORTS.) 

SPOTTSYLVANIA  (Battle).  — The  Federal 
army  in  Virginia  having  crossed  the  Rapidan. 
in  great  force,  May  5,  1864,  encountered  the 
Confederates  in  what  was  termed  the  Wilder- 
ness (q.  v.).  Though  Gen.  Lee  was  victorious 
in  this  battle,  he  was  compelled,  on  account  of 
the  small  numbers  he  could  oppose  to  the 
numerous  hosts  of  the  Federals,  to  retire  upon 
Spottsylvania,  May  8.  Some  skirmishing  took 
place  May  9,  and  the  battle  of  npottsylvania, 


SPREE 


STAMFORD 


commenced  May  10,  was  resumed  May  n.    On 
both  days  the  Confederates  were  victorious. 

SPREE.— (See  COLOGNE-SUR-SPKES.) 

SPRING.— (See  LENT.) 

SPRINGFIELD  (Battle).— The  Federals 
under  Gen.  Lyons  were  defeated  by  the  Con- 
federates at  Watson's  Creek,  near  Springfield, 
in  Missouri,  Aug.  10,  1861. 

SPRINGFIELD  (N.  America).— This  town 
of  Massachusetts  was  incorporated  in  1645. 

SPRING  GUNS.— (See  MAN-TRAPS.) 

SPRINGS  (Isle  of).— (See  JAMAICA.) 

SPRUNDEL.— (See  CARLSBAD.) 

SPURS  with  rowels  are  said  to  have  been 
invented  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216 — 
1272).  They  were  worn  on  foot  as  well  as 
on  horseback,  and  in  the  last  parliament  of 
Elizabeth,  in  1601,  the  speaker  ordered  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons  not  to  come 
with  spurs.  (See  GOLDEN  SPURS,  LORIMERS, 
&c.) 

SPURS  (Battle).— (See  GUINEGATE.) 

S.  S. — The  origin  of  this  collar  (q.  v.},  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  the  letter  S  in  gold,  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversy.  It  was 
adopted  by  Henry  IV.  in  1399. 

ST.— (See  SAINT,  SAN,  SANTA  or  ST.) 

STABAT  MATER  DOLOROSA.— This  cele- 
brated Latin  hymn,  performed  in  the  Romish 
churches  during  Holy  Week,  was  written  by 
a  monk  named  Jacopone  in  the  i4th  century. 
The  Bianchi  (q.  v.),  or  White  Penitents,  sang 
it  as  they  passed  through  Italy  in  1 399. 

STABILE  (Italy).— This  city  of 'Campania, 
captured  during  the  Social  war  by  the  Samnite 
general,  C.  Papius,  B.C.  go,  was  retaken  and 
destroyed  by  Sylla,  B.C.  89.  It  was  partially 
restored,  and  the  elder  Pliny  perished  in  a 
villa  here  during  the  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  in  79.  The  remains  of  the  second 
town  were  discovered  in  1750.  Castellamare 
is  built  near  its  site. 

STABROCK.— (See  BRITISH  GUIANA,  GEORGE 
TOWN,  *c.) 

STADE  DUES,  levied  by  the  Hanoverian 
government  on  vessels  and  goods  passing  up 
the  Elbe,  take  their  name  from  the  little  town 
of  Stade,  situated  on  the  Schwiiige,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Elbe  ;  and  they  were  first 
levied  by  the  archbishops  of  Bremen,  accord- 
ing to  a  grant  made  to  them  by  the  Emperor 
Conrad  II.,  in  1038.  By  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia, signed  at  Osnaburg,  Oct.  24,  1648, 
the  toll  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  In  1712  it 
passed,  with  the  duchy  of  Bremen,  into  the 
possession  of  Denmark ;  and  it  was  ceded 
to  Hanover  by  a  treaty  with  Denmark,  in 
1717,  and  by  a  further  treaty  with  Sweden 
in  1719.  George  II.,  as  Elector  of  Hanover, 
issued  a  proclamation  permitting  English 
vessels  to  proceed  directly  to  Hamburg,  with- 
out detention  at  Stade,  Dec.  i,  1736  ;  and  the 
dues  were  revised  and  amended,  according  to 
a  convention  signed  between  Hanover  and 
other  states  bordering  on  the  Elbe,  April  13, 
1844.  The  English  Government  proposed  the 
abolition  of  the  toll,  June  2,  1860,  on  terms 
approved  by  the  Hanoverian  administration, 
Hanover  receiving  .£3,000,000  as  compensation. 
The  Stade  dues,  which  were  abolished  July  i, 
1 86 1,  are  frequently  styled  the  Brunshausen 


tolls,  from  the  village  where  the  duties  were 
collected. 

STAFF.— (See  CROZIER.) 

STAFFARDA  (Battle).  —  Catinat,  at  the 
head  of  the  French  army,  defeated  Victor 
Amadeus,  of  Savoy,  at  this  place,  near  Saluzzo, 
Aug.  17,  1690. 

STAFF  COLLEGE  (Sandhurst).— The  first 
stone  of  this  college  was  laid  by  the  Duke  of 
Cambridge,  Dec.  14,  1859.  The  object  of  the 
institution  is  to  enable  military  officers  who 
have  served  a  probationary  course  of  regi- 
mental duties  to  qualify  themselves  for  pro- 
motion to  staff  appointments. 

STAFFORD  (Staffordshire),  the  ancient  Stad- 
ford  or  Stadeford,  to  which  St.  Bertlin,  son  of 
a  Mercian  king,  retired  in  705,  when  several 
houses  were  built,  which  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  present  town.  Ethelnelda,  Countess  of 
Mercia,  erected  a  castle  in  913.  A  priory  of 
Black  Canons  was  founded  in  1181.  King 
John  granted  the  town  its  first  charter  in  1207, 
and  it  has  exercised  the  elective  franchise 
since  1295.  The  grammar-school  was  rebuilt 
and  endowed  by  Edward  VI.  in  1550.  Noel's 
Almshouses  were  founded  in  1640.  A  drawn 
battle  was  fought  between  the  Royalist  and 
Parliamentary  troops  at  Hopton  Heath,  near 
this  town,  March  19,  1643.  Tne  County  In- 
firmary was  instituted  in  1766,  and  the  present 
building  erected  in  1772.  The  County  Lunatic 
Asylum  was  established  in  1818. 

STAGE-CARRIAGES,  or  COACHES,  were 
introduced  into  England  in  the  ijth  century. 
(See  COACH.)  Mail-coaches  (q.  v.)  were  intro- 
duced in  1784,  and  omnibuses  (q.  v),  which 
are  included  under  the  legal  term  of  stage- 
c<arriages,  in  1829.  The  duty  on  stage-car- 
riages was  first  imposed  by  5  &  6  Will.  &  Mary, 
c.  22  (1694).  The  number  of  passengers  to  be 
carried  in  such  vehicles,  and  the  measures  to 
be  taken  to  insure  their  safety,  were  regu- 
lated by  50  Geo.  III.  c.  48  (June  9,  1810). 
The  old  duties  were  repealed,  and  new  ones 
imposed,  by  55  Geo.  III.  c.  185  (July  n,  1815), 
and  the  laws  relating  to  the  subject  were 
consolidated  by  2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  120  (Aug.  16, 
1832),  which  was  amended  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  48  (Aug.  28,  1833).  They  were  again  amended 
by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  79  (Aug.  5,  1842). 

STALIMENE  (^Egean  Sea),  the  ancient 
Lemnos  (q.  v.),  was  taken  from  the  Eastern 
empire  by  the  Venetian  republic,  and  erected 
a  grand-duchy  in  favour  of  Philocole 
Navagier,  in  1207.  In  1478  it  was  ceded  to 
the  Turks,  from  whom  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Venetians  in  1656.  In  1657  it  was  again  taken 
by  the  Turks,  who  retained  possession. 

STAMBOUL.— (See  CONSTANTINOPLE.) 

STAMFORD  (Lincolnshire).— The  Picts  and 
Scots  were  defeated  here  by  the  Britons  and 
Saxons  in  449.  Edward  the  Elder  took  it  in 
922  from  the  Danes,  who  afterwards  regained 
possession.  Edmund  I.  recovered  it  in  942. 
The  Danes  again  obtained  possession  soon 
after,  and  held  it  till  1041.  The  monastery  of 
Grey  Friars  was  founded  in  1206  ;  St.  Michael's 
church  in  1230  ;  the  monastery  of  Black  Friars 
in  1241  ;  St.  George's  church  was  rebuilt  in 
450,  upon  the  site  of  a  much  older  edifice  ; 
St.  John's  was  founded  in  1450;  All  Saints 
302 


STAMP  ACT 


[    932    1 


STANNARY  COURTS 


about  1465  ;  and  Brown's  Hospital  in  1485. 
Radcliffe's  School  was  established  by  the  be- 
quest of  W.  Radcliffe,  who  died  in  1530;  the 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1548  ;  and  in 
1572  Lord  Burleigh  settled  a  number  of  Flemish 
Protestant  refugees,  who  introduced  the  art 
of  silk  and  serge  weaving.  The  town-hall 
was  rebuilt  in  1776,  and  the  girls'  national 
schools  were  founded  in  1815.  (See  BULL- 
BAITING,  LOOSE  COAT,  or  LOSE-COAT  FIELD,  &e.) 

STAMP  ACT,  "for  granting  and  applying 
certain  Stamp  Duties,  and  other  Duties  in  the 
British  Colonies  and  Plantations  in  America, 
&c.,"  5  Geo.  III.  c.  12  (March  22,  1765),  passed 
both  houses  of  Parliament,  with  scarcely  any 
discussion.  It  took  effect  from  Nov.  i,  1765, 
and  was  repealed  by  6  Geo.  III.  c.  n  (March 
18,  1766).  The  taxation  thus  levied  was 
less  than  ^100,000  per  annum.  Its  operations 
ceased  from  May  i,  1766,  and  a  bill  of  indem- 
nity for  those  who  had  incurred  penalties  was 
passed  June  6. 

STAMP  DUTIES.— By  22  &  23  Charles  II. 
c.  9  (1670),  certain  duties  were  imposed  on 
deeds  enrolled,  crown  grants,  and  law  pro- 
ceedings. Stamp  duties,  properly  so  called, 
were  introduced  into  this  country  from  Hol- 
land, and  wen;  first  imposed  by  5  Will.  A:  Mary, 
c.  21,  1694.  By  6  A:  7  Will.  III.  c.  6  (1694),  they 
were  granted  on  marriages,  births,  and  burials, 
and  by  8  Anne,  c.  9  (1709),  011  premiums  with 
apprentices.  Newspapers  were  first  taxed 
by  10  Anne,  c.  19  1712,.  Stamp  duties  were 
introduced  into  Ireland  in  1774.  Bills  of  ex- 
change and  notes  were  subjected  to  the  stamp 
laws  by  22  Geo.  III.  0.33  (1782),  and  patent 
medicines  by  23  Geo.  III.  c.  62  (1783).  All  the 
stain])  duties  were  repealed  by  44  Geo.  III.  e. 
98  (July  28,  1804),  which  was'  amended  by  4I; 
Geo.  III.  c.  149  (July  4,  1808).  Both  tin 
tutes  were  repealed  by  the  general  stamp  act, 
55  Geo.  III.  c.  184  (July  n,  1815  .  By  7^8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  s5  (July  2,  1827  ,  the  stamp  offices 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  consolidated, 
and  by  4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  60  (Aug.  13,  1834), 
the  boards  of  stamps  and  taxes  were  united. 
The  stamp  laws  were  amended  by  13  <fc  14 
Viet,  c.97  (Aug.  14,  1850)  ;  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  59 
(Aug.  4,  1853) ;  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  63  (Aug.  4, 
1853) ;  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  83  (Aug.  9,  1854  ;  and 
by  23  <fe  24  Viet.  c.  in  (Aug.  28,  1860). 

STANCHIO,  or  STANKO.— (See  Cos.) 

STANDARD  (Battle).— The  battle  of  Cutoii 
Moor,  or  Northallerton  (q.  v.},  fought  Aug.  22, 
1138,18  so  called  because  the  English  barons 
rallied  round  a  sacred  standard,  consisting  of 
a  ship's  mast  fixed  in  a  four-wheeled  vehicle, 
and  bearing  the  banners  of  St.  Peter  of  York, 
St.  John  of  Beverley,  and  St.  Wilfred  of 
Ripon,  surmounted  by  a  pyx  containing  the 
consecrated  host. 

STANDARD  FOR  GOLD  AND  SILVER.— 
The  appointment  of  a  fixed  standard  of  fine- 
ness for  the  precious  metals  is  very  ancient, 
as  the  method  of  testing  known  as  the  Trial 
of  the  Pyx  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1248  (See 
ASSAY),  and  by  25  Edw.  III.  c.  13  (1350)..  all 
coin  is  ordered  to  be  made  of  standard  metal. 
The  standard  was  regulated  by  12  Geo.  II. 
c.  26  (1739),  and  was  reduced,  as  far  as  gold 
wares  are  concerned,  by  38  Geo.  III.  c.  69 


(Jime  21,  1798),  and  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  96 
(Aug.  10,  1854).  Wedding-rings  are  exempted 
from  restrictions  as  to  standard  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  60  (July  23,  1855). 

STANDARDS  were,  first  used  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  carried  some  animal  at  the  end  of 
a  spear.  The  earlier  Greeks  set  up  a  piece  of 
armour  as  a  rallying  signal.  In  later  times  each 
state  assumed  some  distinctive  badge.  The 
earliest  standard  employed  by  the  Romans 
was  a  bundle  of  hay  fixed  to  a  pole  ;  but  in 
after  years  effigies  of  the  gods  and  emperors, 
and  of  animals  and  birds,  especially  of  the 
eagle,  were  adopted.  The  eagle  alone  was 
retained  after  B.C.  104.  The  barbarians  gene- 
rally used  the  figure  of  a  dragon,  and  this 
also  was  employed  by  the  Roman  legions 
during  the  Empire,  and  was  for  many  years 
the  chief  ensign  of  the  Western  empire,  and 
of  the  English  and  Norman  sovereigns.  (See 
BANNER,  EAGLE,  FLAG,  ORIFLAMME,  <fcc.) 

STANDARD  THKATRE  (London,  situated 
in  Shoreditch,  built  about  1854,  wtis  destroyed 
by  fire  Oct.  21,  1866. 

STAN  FORD  BRIDGE  (Battle).—  Tostig,  with 
an  army  of  English  and  Flemish,  and  his  ally 
Harold  III.  (llardrada  of  Norway,  with  a':i 
army  of  Norwegians,  were  defeated  at  this 
place,  on  the  river  Derwent,  in  Yorkshire,  by 
Harold  II.,  King  of  England,  Sep.  25,  1066. 
Tostig  and  Harold  III.  were  killed  in  the 
encounter. 

STANGOBRO  (Battle).—  Duke  Charles,  uncle 
of  Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland  and 
Sweden,  to  whom  the  administration  of  affairs 
in  the  latter  country  had  been  entrusted, 
usurped  sovereign  power,  and  defeated  the 
king  in  an  engagement  at  this  place,  in 
Sweden,  in  Sep.,  1598. 

STANHOPE,  or  GKRMAN  ADMINISTRA- 
TION, under  the  direction  of  James,  created 
Karl  Stanhope  April  7,  1718,  .and  the  Eail  of 
Sunderland,  was  formed  April  15,  1717.  In 
the  earlier  part  of  its  existence,  Earl  Stanhope 
was  first  lord  of  the  Treasury  and  chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  but  he  afterwards  resigned 
the  leadership  to  the  Earl  of  Sunderland.  The 
ministry  was  thus  constituted  :  — 


awards  Earl,   Stan- 


Exchequer 
Lord  Chancellor    ............  {^^per**8™*'*'       Ear'' 

Privy  Seal   ........................  Duke  of  Kinprston. 

Principal      Secretaries    of  fEarl      of     SmuU-rland    aiid 

State  ...........................  I    Joseph  Ad.lison. 


Secretary  at  War  ...............  Mr.  Cmu^s. 

lty    ........................  Earl  of  Berkeley. 


Ad 


Addison  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health, 
March  18,  1718,  and  the  Earl  of  Sunderland 
became  first  lord  of  the  Treasury  and  president 
of  the  council  March  20.  (See  SUNDERLAND 
ADMINISTRATION.) 

STANMORE  (Middlesex).  —  The  manor  of 
Stanmore  became  the  property  of  the  abbey  of 
St.  Albans  in  1221.  Archbishop  Boyle  was 
rector  of  Stanmore  from  1610  to  1618.  The 
church,  restored  in  1630,  was  consecrated  by 
Archbishop  Laud  July  16,  1632. 

STANNARY  COURTS  were  instituted  at  a 
very  remote  period,  for  the  convenience  of  the 


STAPLE 


C     933     1 


STATISTICS 


Cornish  tin-miners.  They  are  mentioned  in  a 
charter  granted  by  John  in  1201,  and  their  pri- 
vileges were  confirmed  by  Edward  III.  in  1359. 
The  last  of  their  assemblies  was  held  in  1752. 
Their  jurisdiction  was  regulated  by  16  Charles 
I.  c.  15  (1641),  and  the  courts  themselves  were 
remodelled  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  106  (Aug.  20, 
1836).  The  Stannary  laws  were  amended  by 
2  &  3  Viet.  c.  58  (Aug.  17,  1839),  and  by  18  &  19 
Viet.  c.  32  (June  15,  1855). 

STAPLE  was  regulated  by  27  Edw.  III.  st.  2 
(1353).  The  five  chief  or  staple  commodities 
of  the  kingdom  were  wool,  woolfells,*  leather, 
lead,  and  tin  (butter,  cheese,  and  cloth  were 
sometimes  added),  which  could  only  be  sold 
for- exportation  by  a  corporation  called  mer- 
chants of  the  Staple,  and  could  only  be  sent 
from  certain  towns  known  as  towns  of  the 
Staple.  These  towns  were  Bristol,  Caermar- 
theii,  Calais,!  Canterbury,  Chichester,  Cork, 
Drogheda,  Dublin,  Exeter,  Lincoln,  London, 
Middleburgh,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Norwich, 
Waterford,  and  York.  By  27  Edw.  III.  st.  2,  c.  3 
(i353)>  it  was  felony  for  any  but  authorized 
merchants  to  deal  in  Staple  goods.  The  staple 
was  the  subject  of  numerous  statutes. 

STAPLE  (Court  of).— By  28  Edw.  III.  st.  i, 
c.  7  (1354),  a  court  was  erected  in  every  town 
in  which  there  was  a  staple,  called  the  Court 
of  the  Mayor  of  the  Staple,  for  the  government 
of  the  merchants  residing  in  the  Staple. 

STAPLEDON  HALL.— (See  EXETER  COL- 
LEGE.) 

STAPLEHURST  (Kent].— The  South-Eastern 
Railway  tidal  express  train  ran  off  the  line  at 
this  place,  June  9,  1865,  when  10  persons 
were  killed  and  about  20  wounded. 

STAPLES  INN  (London).  —  This  inn  of 
chancery  was  formerly  a  frequent  resort  of 
wool-merchants,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
was  called  Staple  Hall.  Dugdale  states  that 
it  became  an  inn  of  chancery  in  or  before  the 
reign  of  Henry  V.  (1413 — 22) ;  but  it  did  not 
become  the  property  of  a  law  society  until 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509—47).  Crabb 
(Hist,  of  the  English  Law)  says  it  was  first 
held  by  lease  and  was  afterwards  granted  to 
the  society  of  Gray's  Inn. 

STAR.  —  John  II.  of  France  founded  an 
order  of  knighthood  of  the  Star  in  1350,  in 
imitation  of  the  English  order  of  the  garter 
(q.  v.}. 

STAR  BEARERS.— (See  BETHLEHEMITES.) 

STARCH  was  introduced  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1558 — 
1603).  Frow  Vander  Plasse  gave  lessons  in  the 
art  of  clear-starching  in  1594.  A  patent  was 
obtained  in  1796,  by  Lord  William  Murray,  for 
making  starch  from  horse-chestnuts,  and 
Wickham  obtained  a  patent  in  1824  for  making 
it  from  rice.  O.  Jones,  in  1840,  produced 
starch  from  rice  by  a  new  process,  and  in  1841 
Berger  took  out  a  patent  for  making  rice 
starch  by  the  action  of  an  alkaline  salt.  James 
Colmaii  obtained  a  patent  in  Dec.,  1841,  for 
making  starch  from  Indian  corn.  The  starch- 
makers  were  incorporated  in  1622. 


*  Sheep- skins, 
t  In  time  of  war  the  st 
and  MidcQeburgh. 


was  removed  from  Calais 


STAR  CHAMBER.— The  etymology  of  the 
name  of  this  celebrated  court  is  very  uncer- 
tain. Some  contend  that  the  chamber  where 
it  held  its  sittings  received  its  name  from  the 
starry  decorations  of  its  roof,  and  others  that 
Star  Chamber  is  a  corruption  of  "  Starrs  " 
Chamber ;  and  that  the  room  was  so  called 
because  it  was  used  as  a  repository  for  con 
tracts  made  with  Jews—"  Starrs"  being  the 
old  name  for  such  contracts.  Hallam  considers 
that  this  court  originated  in  the  Consiliurn 
Ordinarium,  which  had  been  the  subject  of 
numerous  statutes  from  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  (1327—77).  If  not  erected  it  was  at  any  rate 
remodelled  by  3  Hen.  VII.  c.  i  (1486).  Its  con- 
stitution and  authority  were  denned  more 
particularly  by  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20  (1529),  by 
which  the  president  of  the  council  was  made 
one  of  its  judges,  and  it  was  abolished  by  16 
Charles  I.  c.  10  (1640).  An  attempt  to  restore 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of  Star  Chamber 
was  made  without  success  in  1662 

STAR  OF  INDIA  (Order).— This  order  of 
knighthood  was  instituted  by  Queen  Victoria 
by  letters  patent  dated  Feb.  23,  1861.  It 
consists  of  20  knights,  exclusive  of  the  sove- 
reign. The  first  and  principal  knight,  and 
grand  master  of  the  order,  is  the  viceroy  and 
governor-general  of  India  for  the  time  being. 
The  first  investiture  of  this  order  was  held  by 
Queen  Victoria  at  Windsor  Castle,  Nov.  i,  1861. 

STARO WERSKL— (See  PHILIPPINS.  ) 

STARRY  CROSS.  — (-See  CROSS  or  STARRY 
CROSS.) 

STAR  OF  THE  SOUTH.— (See  DIAMOND.) 

STARYGROW.— (See  ALTMARK.) 

STATEN  ISLAND  (United  States),  about  n 
miles  S.W.  of  New  York,  was  occupied  by  the 
English  army,  under  Gen.  Howe,  July  9,  1776. 

STATE-PAPER  OFFICE.— This  office  was 
established  in  1578,  and  is  the  depository  of 
the  official  correspondence  of  the  country 
from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509—47).  An 
attempt  to  improve  the  catalogues  was  made 
in  1764,  and  in  1800  the  office  was  placed  under 
an  improved  system  of  management.  It  was 
joined  to  the  Public  Records  Office  in  1854. 
The  publication  of  the  calendar  of  State  Papers 
was  commenced  in  1857.  (See  MASTER  OR 
KEEPER  OF  THE  ROLLS  OF  CHANCERY.) 

STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.—  (See  PAPAL 
STATES.) 

STATES-GENERAL  OF  FRANCE.— 
(See  ETATS  GENERAUX,  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY, 
NOTABLES,  PARLIAMENT  (French),  ROUEN,  &c.) 

STATIONERS.— The  company  of  stationers 
or  text-writers  was  formed  into  a  guild  in 
1403,  and  received  their  first  charter  May  4, 
1557.  It  was  confirmed  by  Elizabeth  in  1558. 
The  entries  of  copies  commenced  in  1558,  and 
the  delivery  of  books  in  1662.  The  first  hall, 
in  Milk  Street,  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire 
of  1666.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1670. 

STATIONERY  OFFICE  (London)  was 
established  in  1786. 

STATISTICAL  SOC  IETY  (London)  was 
established  March  15,  1834. 

STATISTICS.— Hallam  (Literature  of  Europe, 
pt.  iv.  sec.  109)  states  that  "the  Italians  were 
the  first  who  laid  anything  like  a  foundation 
for  statistics  or  political  arithmetic."  They 


STATUES 


[    934    ] 


STEAM-GUN 


were  succeeded  by  the  English,  whose  earliest 
work  on  the  subject  is  Grauut's  "  Observations 
on  the  Bills  of  Mortality,"  published  in  1661. 
The  first  attempt  to  comprehend  all  the 
details  of  statistical  science  within  the  limits 
of  one  work  was  made  in  the  "  Statistical 
Account  of  Scotland,"  which  was  published  by 
Sir  John  Sinclair  in  1791.  In  1832  Lord  Auck- 
land and  Mr.  Poulett  Thompson  established  a 
statistical  office  in  connection  with  the  Board 
of  Trade  ;  and  in  1833  a  similar  department 
was  instituted  by  the  British  Association.  The 
Statistical  Society  of  London  was  founded 
March  15,  1834,  and  commenced  the  publication 
of  its  journal  in  May,  1838.  A  central  statistical 
commission  was  established  in  Belgium  by  a 
royal  decree,  in  Oct.,  1841 ;  and  international 
statistical  congresses  have  been  since  held 
under  its  auspices.  (See  INTERNATIONAL  STATIS- 
TICAL CoNCili! 

STATUES.— Phidias,  the  most  celebrated 
sculptor  of  ancient  times,  was  born  at  Athens 
about  B.C.  500.  The  first  statue  executed  by 
an  Englishman  was  that  of  Thomas  Sutton,  by 
Nicholas  Stone,  in  1615.  The  first  equestrian 
statue  erected  in  England  was  that  of  Charles  I. 
by  Le  Seur,  in  1678.  Public  statues  within  the 
metropolitan  police  district  were  placed  under 
the  control  of  the  commissioners  of  public 
works  and  buildings  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  33 
(July  10,  1854).  (See  IVOHY.) 

S  T  A  T  U  T  E  C  A  P.— By  19  Eliz.  c.  19  (1577), 
all  persons  above  the  age  of  six  (the  nobility 
excepted),  were  required  to  wear  on  Sundays 
and  holidays  woollen  caps  mad-j  in  Kngland. 
Rosalind  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  act  v.  sc.  2) 
says,  "  Better  wits  have  worn  plain  statute- 
caps."  The  act  was  repealed  39  Eliz.  c.  18  (1597^. 

STATUTES.— The  statutes  of  the  English 
Parliament  were  first  ordered  to  be  printed  in 
1483.  By  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  21  (June  10,  1850), 
provisions  were  made  for  shortening  the  lan- 
guage used  in  Parliamentary  statutes.  A  list 
of  all  the  statutes  referred  to  in  this  work  is 
given  in  the  Index.  .Vr  ACTS  <>K  I'AUUA.MKXT.) 

STKAKS.— (See  BEEF-STEAK  CLUB.) 

STEAM-CARRIAGE.— The  earliest  carriage 
propelled  by  steam,  invented  by  Theophilus 
Cugnot,  in  1763,  proved  a  failure.  In  1786 
William  Symington,  in  Scotland,  and  Oliver 
Evans,  in  North  America,  both  laboured  to 
introduce  steam-propelled  vehicles  on  common 
roads,  and  Trevithick  and  Vivian  patented  a 
steam-carriage  March  24,  1802.  Julius  Griffith's 
carriage  was  patented  in  1821,  the  experiments 
of  David  Gordon  commenced  in  1822,  and 
Goldsworthy  Gurney's  patent  was  taken  out 
May  14, 1825.  In  consequence  of  the  conflicting 
claims  of  different  inventors,  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  was  nominated,  which 
presented  a  report,  Oct.  12,  1831,  favourable  to 
the  introduction  of  steam-carriages  on  common 
roads.  In  1860  a  carriage,  invented  by  the 
Earl  of  Caithness,  attained  very  satisfactory 
results.  (See  LOCOMOTIVE,  RAILWAYS,  &c.) 

STEAM  FIRE-ENGINE.— (See FIRF.-ENGINE.X; 

STEAM-ENGINE,  &c.— Hero  of  Alexandria, 
writing  about  B.C.  120,  describes  some  appa- 
ratus in  which  motion  was  produced  by  the 
force  of  steam.  Smiles  (Lives  of  Boulton  and 
Watt,  eh.  i.)  remarks  that,  "  It  was  employed 


by  them  merely  as  a  toy,  or  as  a  means  of 
exciting  the  wonder  of  the  credulous."  A 
translation  of  Hero's  treatise  on  Pneumatics 
appeared  at  Bologna  in  1547.  The  Italian 
architect  Branca  imparted  a  rotatory  motion 
to  a  scries  of  \*heels  by  means  of  the  forcible 
emission  of  steam  from  an  orifice  in  a  boiler, 
in  1629.  The  first  work  in  which  steam  is 
scientifically  treated,  was  published  at  Basel 
by  John  Ziegler,  in  1769.  Dr.  Robison's  ex- 
periments on  the  temperature  and  elasticity 
of  steam  were  made  in  1778,  and  Dr.  Dalton 
published  a  valuable  series  of  discoveries  in 
1793.  Dr.  Darwin,  in  the  "  Botanic  Garden,"  of 
which  the  first  edition  appeared  in  1791,  wrote: 
"  Hoon  shall  thy  arm,  uuconquered  Steam !  afar 
Drag  the  slow  barge,  and  drive  the  rapid  car." 
A.D. 

1663.  The  Marquis  of  Worcester  constructs  a  rude  steam- 
engine,  which  he  describes  in  the  "Century  of 

Inventions." 

1682.  Dr.  Dionysius  Papin  invents  the  safety-valve. 
1690.  Dr.  Papin  invents  the  cylinder  and  piston. 
id' 15.    Mr.  Papin  suggests  an  atmospheric  steam-engine. 
1698,  July  25.  Capt.  Thomas  Savery  patents  un  invention 

for  raising  water  by  steam  power. 
1705.  Thomas  Xewcomeu  invents  an  engine. 
1-17.    Henry  Heighton  perfects  self-acting  valve-gear. 
1720.  Leupold  produces  the  first  idea  of  a  high-pressure 

engine. 
1759.  James  Watt  directs  his  attention  to  the  subject  of 

the  steam-engine. 
1765.  James  Watt  invents  the  con  i 
1769,  Jan.  5.   James  Watt  takes  out  his  first  patent. 
17-0.   .Smeatiin  improves  the  atmospheric-  engine. 
1774.   Watt  and  lio'ilion  commence  their  partnership. 
i  -   -,.   Watt's  patent  is  extended  for  25  years. 

.1   patents  tin-  crank  motion,  and  Hornblowcr 

invents  the  double-cylinder  engine. 
1-^4.   Watt  invents  the  parallel  motion. 
1785.  Watt  invents  the  governor  and  throttle-valve.  The 

oscillating  cylinder  is  invented  by  William  Mur- 

dock. 

1797.  Dr.  r.dnmnd  Cartwright  patents  the  metallic  piston. 
[599.  Matthew  Murray  proposes  the  slide-valve. 
1*02.  Trevithirk&  Vivian  invent  the  high-pressureengine. 
1804.  Arthur  Wo<>lf  improves  the  double-cylinder  engine. 
1X30.   Dakeyne  patents  the  first  disc  engine. 
1845.  George  Daniel  Uishopp  patents  his  disc  engine. 

(See  SCREW  PROPELLER.) 

>ST  i:  A  M-OUN.— Smiles  (Industrial  Biography 
ch.  x.)  says  :  "There  is  every  reason  to  believe 
—indeed  it  seems  clear — that  the  Romans  knew 
of  gunpowder,  though  they  only  used  it  for 
purposes  of  fireworks  ;  while  the  secret  of  the 
destructive  Greek  fire  has  been  lost  altogether. 
When  gunpowder  came  to  be  used  for  purposes 
of  war,  invention  busied  itself  upon  instruments 
of  destruction.  When  recently  examining  the 
Museum  of  the  Arsenal  at  Venice,  we  were 
surprised  to  find  numerous  weapons  of  the 
i5th  and  i6th  centuries  embodying  the  most 
recent  English  improvements  in  arms,  such  as 
revolving  pistols,  rifled  muskets,  and  breech- 
loading  cannon.  The  latter,  embodying  Sir 
W.  Armstrong's  modern  idea,  though  in  a  rude 
form,  had  been  fished  up  from  the  bottom  of 
the  Adriatic,  where  the  ship  armed  with  them 
had  been  sunk  hundreds  of  years  ago.  Even 
Perkins's  steam-gun  was  an  old  invention  re- 
vived by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  by  him 
attributed  to  Archimedes."  William  Murdock, 
by  experiments  made  in  1803,  suggested  the 
modern  steam-gun,  and  one  of  large  size,  steam 
being  used  instead  of  gunpowder,  was  invented 
by  Jacob  Perkins,  May  15,  1824,  but  it  proved 
of  little  use.  (See  ARTILLERY.) 


STEAM  HAMMER 


[    935    J 


STEELYARD 


STEAM  HAMMER.— A  patent  for  a  steam 
hammer  was  taken  out  by  James  Watt  in  1784 
and  another  by  William  Deverell  in  1806.  Th 
idea  was  carried  out  by  Messrs.  Nasmyth 
Gaskell,  and  Co.,  at  their  factory  near  Man 
Chester,  and  they  took  out  a  patent  June  9 
1842. 

STEAM  P L 0 U G H.— David  Ramsay  and 
Thomas  Wildgosse  took  out  a  patent  for  s 
machine  to  plough  land  without  horses  01 
oxen  in  1618;  Moore  patented  a  similar  in 
veiition  hi  1769  ;  and  Major  Pratt  patented  an 
ingenious  apparatus  in  1810.  Mr.  Heathcote, 
M.P.  for  Tiverton,  patented  the  first  steam 
plough  in  1832,  and  various  patents  have  since 
been  taken  out,  the  most  practical  and  usefu' 
machine  being  that  exhibited  at  Lincoln  by 
Fowler  in  1854. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION.— A  correspondent  to 
Notes  and  Queries  (3rd  series,  i.  p.  207)  shows 
that  the  story  claiming  for  Blaso  de  Garay 
the  credit  of  having  invented  steam,  because 
at  Barcelona,  in  1543,  he  propelled  a  boat  by 
means  of  "a large  kettle  of  boiling  water,"  is  a 
hoax.  An  examination  of  the  official  papers 
proved  that  the  propelling  power  was  oxen. 

1736,  Dec.   21.    Jonathan   Hulls  patents   a  machine  f< 
carrying  ships  out  of  harbour  against  wind  or 
tide,  or  in  a  calm,  by  means  of  steam. 

1752.  Daniel  Bernouilli  invents  a  screw  propeller,  to  be 
worked  by  steam. 

1770.  James  Watt  proposes  the  screw  propeller. 

1774.  The  Count  d'Auxiron  constructs  a  steamer,  which 

fails,  on  the  Seine. 

1775.  Ellicot  proposes  steam  navigation  in   the  United 

States. 
1778.  The  notorious  Thomas  Paine  suggests  steam  as  a 

means  of  propelling  vessels. 
1782.  A  steamboat  is  built  by  the  Marquis  de  Jouffroy, 

and  is  tried  on  the  Saoue  without  success. 
1785.  William  Murdock  invents  the  oscillating  cylinder. 

1787.  Miller  takes  out  a  patent  for  paddle-wheels. 

1788,  Oct.    14.  .Symington   and  Taylor's  engine  is  tried. 

Fitch  moves  a  vessel  by  steam  power  on  the 

Delaware,  N.  America. 
1790,  Dec.  26.  William  Symington,  in  conjunction  with 

Miller,   constructs    a   steamer,  which    attains  a 

speed  of  seven  miles  an  hour,  on  the  Forth  of 

Clyde  Canal. 
1801-3.  Symington,  employed  by  Lord  Dundas,  constructs 

the  Charlotte  Dundas,  "  the  first  practical  steam- 
boat." 
1807,  Oct.  3.  Robert  Fulton  establishes  the  Clermont,  as 

a  steam-packet  between  New  York  and  Albany. 

The  engines  were  furnished  by  Watt  and  Boul- 

ton. 
1812,  Jan.    18.    Henry  Bell    starts   the   Comet,  between 

Glasgow  and  Grei-nock. 
1815,  Jan.  23.  The  Margery  plies  between  London  and 

Gravesend,  and  is  the  first  Thames  steamer.    A 

steamboat  makes  the  passage  between  Glasgow 

and  Belfast. 
1817,  Oct.  14.  James  Watt,  Jun.,  crosses  the  Channel  in 

the  Caledonia,  and  ascends  the  Rhine. 
1819.  The   Savannah  steamer  crosses    from  America  to 

Liverpool. 

1823.  The  Comet  steamer  is  built  for  the  Royal  Navy. 
1825,  Aug.  16.  The  Enterprise  sails  from  Falmouth. — Dec. 

7.    The  Enterprise    reaches    Diamond    Harbour, 

Bengal. 
1829.  The  Curacoa  makes  two  voyages  between  Holland 

and  the  West  Indies. 

1836.  The  screw  propeller  is  patented  by  F.  P.  Smith. 
1838,  April  4.  The  Sirius  steam  packet  sails  from  London 

to  New  York,   accomplishing  the  voyage  in  17 

days.— April  7.  The  Great  Western  leaves  Bristol 

for  New  York,  performing  the  passage  in  15  days. 
1840.  Smith  constructs  the  Archimedes  screw  steamer. 
1843.  The  Messrs.  Ruthven,  of  Edinburgh,  introduce  the 

water-jet  system  of  steam  propelling.— July  19. 

Launch  of  the  Great  Britain. 


lt>45.  Screw  steamers  are  adopted  in  the  navy. 
1851,  Aug.  7.  Passing  of  the  Steam  Navigation  Act. 
1854,  May  i.  The  Great  Eastern  is  commenced  at  Millwall. 

1857,  Nov.   3.    The  launch  of    the   Great  Eastern  com- 

mences. 

1858,  Jan.  31.  The  Great  Eastern  is  launched. 

1859,  Sep.  14.  An  explosion  occurs  on  the  Great  Eastern 

and  10  men  are  killed.  The  English  Government 
orders  a  steam  valve  of  1,250  horse-power  to  be 
built. 

1860,  June.  Capt.  Cowper  Phipps  Coles  proposes  his  shot- 

proof  gun  shields  for  iron  steamers. — Dec.  29. 
Launch  of  the  iron -cased  screw  steamer  Warrior. 

STEARINE,  a  solid  transparent  substance, 
was  first  made  known  by  Chevreul  in  1823. 

STED1NGERS.— Heretics  thus  named  from  a 
district  in  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  where  they 
ere  most  numerous,  flourished  in  the  early 
part  of  the  i2th  century,  were  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire  Feb.  22,  1232,  and  were 
nearly  exterminated  in  1234  by  an  army  of 
40,000  crusaders.  They  refused  to  pay  tithes, 
and  were  charged  with  holding  various  absurd 
notions  by  their  papal  persecutors.  They  were 
also  called  Hallean  heretics,  from  a  town  of 
that  name  in  Swabia. 

STEEL.— One  kind,  called  stomoma  by  the 
Greeks,  and  another  ckalybs,  manufactured  by 
the  Chalybes,  were  in  use  in  the  time  of  Homer 
'  ).  962 — B.C.  927).  A  costly  description  of 
the  metal  was  the  ferrum  Indicum,  100  talents 
which  were  presented  to  Alexander  III.  in 
fndia,  B.C.  327.  Diodorus  describes  a  process 
followed  by  the  Celtiberians,  in  Spain,  for 
oxydizing  the  iron  to  make  steel,  which  was 
afterwards  forged  into  weapons,  B.C.  43.  Japan 
las  long  been  famed  for  the  quality  of  this 
metal,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sabres.  The 
method  of  hardening  by  immersion  in  water 
was  practised  in  the  nth  or  i2th  century. 
Oils  and  other  fluids  were  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  the  Archduke  Cosmo,  of  Tuscany,  en- 
oyingthe  credit  of  having  discovered  a  valuable 
>ne  in  1555.  The  art  of  converting  bar-iron 
nto  steel,  by  dipping  into  other  fused  iron,  is 
described  by  Reaumur,  about  1730,  although  it 
was  known  much  earlier.  Some  pieces,  under 
he  name  of  wootz,  were  sent  from  India  to  the 
loyal  Society  in  1795.  Damasked  steel,  a 
amous  quality,  was  early  obtained  from  the 
Levant.  Cast  steel  was  first  made  by  Hunts- 
man, at  Attercliffe,  Sheffield,  in  1770.  Faraday 
,nd  Stodart  published  a  series  of  experiments, 
howing  how  the  quality  might  be  improved 
>y  alloy  with  silver  and  other  metals,  in  1822. 
Heath,  who  spent  a  fortune  on  his  experiments, 
levised  a  mode  of  combining  carbon  with 
aanganese  to  produce  a  carburet,  by  which 
;ood  steel  was  made  from  English  iron,  in 
839.  Bessemer's  process  for  converting  pig- 
roii  into  malleable  iron,  and  that  again  into 
teel,  without  any  additional  consumption  of 
uel,  for  which  he  has  taken  out  several  patents, 
•as  announced  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  in  1856.  (See  IRON.) 

STEEL  PENS  were  first  brought  into  use 
bout  1803.  They  have  since  undergone  various 
tnprovements,  and  are  the  subject  of  numerous 
atents. 

STEELYARD  was  known  to  the  Romans 
nder  the  name  of  statera,  and  frequently 
lade  of  brass,  as  described  by  Vitruvius,  B.C. 


STEELYARD 


[    936    ] 


STICHOMANCY 


27.  From  the  manner  in  which  it  is  spoken  of 
in  a  tract  of  the  time,  it  seems  to  have  been 
little  known  in  England  in  1578.  Martins' 
"Index  Weighing-Machine"  and  many  other 
modifications  have  been  devised;  and'Hanin, 
a  Frenchman,  received  a  prize  from  the  Society 
of  Arts  for  one  in  1 790. 

STEELYARD,  or  STILLY ARD.— Foreign 
traders  settled  in  London  before  967,  and  the  • 
merchants  of  Cologne  had  a  factory  in  London 
in  1220,  According  to  some  authors,  a  company 
of  foreign  merchants,  which  had  been  formed 
in  1215,  received  special  privileges  from 
Henry  III.  in  1235.  The  merchants  of  the 
Hanse  Towns,  or  Hansards,  as  those  who 
formed  the  branch  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
established  in  London  in  1250,  were  called, 
received  peculiar  privileges  in  1259.  Edward  I. 
granted  the  Hansards  a  charter  in  1280,  which 
was  confirmed  by  Henry  V.  in  1413,  and  re- 
newed by  Edward  IV.  by  a  treaty  signed  in 
1474,  when  the  fee  simple  of  some  ground  and 
buildings  in  Thames  Street,  known  as  the 
Steel  Yard,  was  granted  to  them,  and  from 
that  time  they  received  the  name  of  merchants 
of  the  Steel  Yard.  Their  privileges,  confirmed 
by  19  Hen.  VII.  c.  23  (1504),  were  revoked  by 
Edward  VI.  in  1550,  restored  by  Queen  Mary 
in  1554,  and  abrogated  by  Elizabeth  in  1578. 
The  establishment  was  closed  and  the  Germans 
were  sent  away  in  1597.  ^'ne  Gildings  and 
site  were  sold  in  1853.  (See  MERCHANT  A  DVKN- 
TURKRS,  MERCHANTS,  <fec.) 

S  i  KKXKIRK,  or  STEIXKIRK  'Battle}.— At 
this  village,  in  Belgium,  William  1 1 1.  of  England 
was  defeated  by  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Luxemburg,  Aug.  3,  1692.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  battle  of  Enghien. 

NTELVIO  (Tyrol).— This  pass,  the  highest 
carriage  road  in  Europe,  was  completed  by 
the  Austrian  government  in  1828.  (See  LA 
PRESE.) 

STENCILLING,  or  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
PRINTING,  invented  about  1844,  has  boon 
greatly  improved  by  the  processes  of  Fargier, 
Pouncy,  and  Swan. 

STENOGRAPHY.— !See  SHORTHAND.) 

STEPHEN,  third  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of 
Blois,  and  Adela,  daughter  of  William  I.,  born 
about  1096,  was  crowned  King  of  England 
Thursday,  Dec.  26,  1135.  Stephen  married 
Matilda,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Boulogne,  by 
whom  he  had  three  sons  and  two  daughters. 
He  waged  a  long  war  against  the  Empress 
Maud  or  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  she 
having  claimed  the  crown.  She  was  recognized 
as  "Lady  of  England,"  at  a  council  held  at 
Winchester,  April  7, 1141.  The  war  was  brought 
to  a  close  by  the  treaty  of  Winchester,  signed 
Nov.  7,  1153,  which  provided  for  the  succession 
to  the  throne  of  her  son  Henry,  on  the  death 
of  Stephen,  which  occiirred  Oct.  25,  1154. 

STEPHEN'S  (ST.)  CHAPEL  (London),  built 
by  King  Stephen  about  1135,  and  rebuilt  by 
Edward  III.  in  1347,  was  granted  by  Edward 
VI.,  in  1547,  as  the  place  of  meeting  for  Parlia- 
ment. It  was  destroyed  by  fire  Oct.  16,  1834. 

STEREOMETER,  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  specific  gravity  of  liquid  and  other 
bodies,  was  invented  by  Say,  a  French  officer 
of  engineers,  in  1797. 


STEREOMONOSCOPE,  described  by  Claudet 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  for 
June,  1857,  and  April,  1858. 

STEREOSCOPE. -The  principle  on  which 
the  instrument  depends,  known  to  Euclid  B.C. 
300,  was  described  by  Galen  in  174.  Professor 
Wheatstone  read  a  treatise  before  the  Royal 
Society,  on  the  phenomena  of  binocular  vision, 
and  illustrated  his  theories  with  what  he  called 
the  "reflecting  stereoscope,"  in  1838.  Sir 
David  Brewster  explained  to  the  same  society 
the  principle  of  his  lenticular,  or  refracting 
stereoscope,  in  1843.  Duboscq,  of  Paris,  ma- 
nufactured one,  which,  with  a  set  of  daguerre- 
otypes, was  presented  to  Queen  Victoria  in 
1851. 

STEREOTROPE,  described  by  Shaw  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  for  Jan., 
1861. 

STEREOTYPE  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
in  Holland,  bibles  having  been  printed  at  Ley- 
den  from  stereotype  plates  in  1711.  The  art 
was,  however,  brought  to  perfection  in  this 
country.  A  mode  of  printing  from  stereotype 
plates  was  discovered  by  Ged,  of  Edinburgh,  in 
1725  ;  and  plates  for  bibles  and  prayer-books 
were  cast  at  Cambridge  in  1731.  Ged  returned 
to  Edinburgh  and  printed  an  edition  of  Sallust 
from  stereotype  plates  in  1739.  Earl  Stanhope 
introduced  it  into  London  in  1803.  Applegath 
obtained  a  patent  in  1818  for  improvements  in 
stereotype  plates.  It  was  first  used  for  news- 
papers  about  1857. 

STERLING.—  N«-e  MOSEY.) 

STKTI  l<  >>t  i  >l'E,  a  wooden  cylinder  used  by 
medical  men  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the 
lungs,  was  invented  by  Laennec,  of  Paris,  in 
1823. 

STETTIN'  'Prussia),  the  ancient  Sedinum, 
and  afterwards  Stettinum,  owes  its  origin  to  a 
Wendish  castle,  and  a  large  village  existed  here 
as  early  as  830.  A  Wendish  temple  was  de- 
stroyed and  rebuilt  several  times  during  the 
struggle  between  Christianity  and  Pa; 
and  was  finally  destroyed  on  the  triumph  of 
the  former  in  the  ijth  century.  A  treaty  of 
peace  was  concluded  at  Stettin,  in  1570,  be- 
tween Norway  and  Sweden,  the  principal  arti- 
cles being  that  John  III.,  King  of  Sweden, 
should  restore  his  Norwegian  conquests,  and 
that  Frederick  II.,  King  of  Norway,  should 
also  restore  his  conquests,  receiving,  however, 
Elfsburg  and  a  large  sum  of  money.  The 
ancient  castle  was  the  residence  of  the  dukes 
of  Pomerania  from  1515  to  1637,  when  the  line 
became  extinct.  Stettin,  with  the  rest  of  Po- 
merania, was  conquered  by  Russia  in  1713, 
and,  after  undergoing  various  changes,  was 
ceded  to  Prussia  in  1814. 

STEVENAGE.— (See  GUILD  OF  LITERATURE 
AND  ART.) 

STEWARD. — (See  LORD  HIGH  STEWARD  OP 
ENGLAND,  LORD  STEWARD  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD, 
&c.) 

STEYER  (Armistice),  concluded  after  the 
battle  of  Hohenlinden  (q.  v.},  between  Gen. 
Moreau  on  the  part  of  the  French,  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  on  that  of  the  Austrians,  at 
this  place  in  Austria,  Dec.  25,  1800. 

STICHOMANCY.— This  method  of  divina- 
tion, which  consisted  in  selecting  a  number  of 


STICKLASTADT 


[     937     1 


STOCKTON 


different  lines  from  a  poet,  mixing  them  in  an 
urn,  and  applying  particular  lines  taken  out  by 
hazard  to  the  circumstances  of  the  hour,  was 
popular  amongst  the  Romans. 

STICKLASTADT  (Battle).— Olaf  II.,  King  of 
Norway,  having  been  driven  from  his  throne 
by  Canute  the  Great,  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  this  battle,  fought  for  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom,  July  29,  1030. 

STILTON  CHEESE,  mentioned  as  early  as 
1720,  noticed  in  "  A  Tour  through  the  whole 
Island  of  Great  Britain,  by  a  gentleman,  1725," 
and  in  one  of  Pope's  satires,  writtenabout  1737, 
is  made  in  Leicestershire. 

STIPENDIARY  MAGISTRATES.— By  26  <k 
27  Viet.  c.  97  (July  28,  1863),  the  local  board  of 
any  city,  town,  or  borough  with  25,000  inhabi- 
tants and  upwards,  was  authorized  to  appoint 
Stipendiary  Magistrates. 

STIRLING  (Scotland).— The  earliest  charter, 
given  by  Alexander  I.,  is  dated  1119.  The 
castle,  of  the  early  history  of  which  nothing 
is  known,  was,  in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries, 
one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Scotland. 
(See  CAMBUSKENNETH.)  Edward  I.  took  it  in 
1304,  and  it  was  besieged  by  Robert  Bruce  in 
1313.  (See  PONTEFRACT.)  James  II.  stabbed 
the  Earl  of  Douglas  here  in  1452.  The  church, 
formerly  a  Franciscan  monastery,  was  founded 
by  James  IV.  in  1494.  James  VI.  was  crowned 
at  Stirling,  July  24,  1567.  The  Earl  of  Lennox 
was  murdered  in  the  castle,  Sep.  4,  1571. 
Go wan's  hospital  was  erected  in  1639.  The 
remnant  of  the  Scottish  army  having  retreated 
to  Stirling  after  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  Sep.  3, 
1650,  surrendered  to  Gen.  Monk,  Aug.  14,  1651. 
(See  MAR'S  INSURRECTION.)  The  Highlanders 
besieged  it  in  1745. 

STIRRUPS  were  not  used  before  the  6th 
century.  Hippocrates  and  Galen  speak  of  a 
disease  of  the  feet  and  ankles  from  suspension 
without  a  resting-place  when  riding. 

STOCKACH  (Battles).— The  Archduke 
Charles  defeated  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  at 
this  town  in  Baden,  and  compelled  them  to 

retreat  across  the  Rhine,  March  25,  1799. 

Gen.  Moreau  defeated  Gen.  Kray  here,  May  3, 
1800. 

STOCKHOLM  (Sweden),  sometimes  called 
the  Venice  of  the  North,  was  founded  by  Birger 
Jarl  about  1260.  Christian  I.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, was  crowned  here  in  1457.  (See  BRUNKE- 
BERG.)  John  II.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way, was  crowned  King  of  Sweden,  at  Stock- 
holm, in  1497.  It  was  strongly  fortified  and 
defended  by  Queen  Christina  against  the 
Swedish  insurgents,  from  Oct.  7,  1501,  to 
March  27, 1502  ;  and  a  still  more  heroic  defence 
was  made  by  Christina  Gyllenstierna,  in  1520, 
against  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  who  per- 
petrated what  has  been  called  the  Massacre 
of  Stockholm.  It  replaced  Upsala  as  the 
capital  of  Sweden  in  the  i7th  century.  The 
palace,  commenced  in  1697,  was  finished  in 
1753.  The  royal  library,  formed  in  1540,  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1697.  A  granite  obelisk 
was  erected  by  Gustavus  IV.  in  1793,  to  com- 
memorate the  zeal  and  fidelity  of  the  citizens 
in  the  war  against  Russia  from  1788  to  1790. 
A  revolution  took  place  at  Stockholm  March  13, 
1809,  when  Gustavus  IV.,  King  of  Sweden,  was 


deposed.     The   Jews  were   persecuted  here 

^STOCKHOLM  (Treaties).— Louis  XIV.  con- 
cluded a  treaty  here  against  the  Dutch,  April  14, 
1672.  It  was  for  three  years,  and  was  renewed  in 
April,  1675. A  treaty  of  peace  between  Den- 
mark and  Sweden  was  concluded  here  June  14, 

1720. By  another  treaty,  signed  here  March 

26,   1727,  Sweden  acceded  to  the  alliance   of 

Hanover  (q.  v.). With  Russia  was  signed 

March  3,  1813,  by  which  Sweden  bound  herself 
to  employ  a  body  of  30,000  men  to  act  with 
the  Russians  against  the  French  in  North 

Germany.  Another,     between    England, 

France,  and  Sweden,  was  concluded  Nov.  21, 

STOCKINGS,  not  known  to  the  Romans  till 
after  the  time  of  Hadrian,  138,  were  used  by 
the  Anglo-Saxons  in  the  8th  century,  and  made 
of  cloth  in  the  i2th  century.  The  ladies  of  the 
time  of  Edward  II.  wore  them  of  precisely  the 
modern  form.  Henry  VIII.  (1509 — 47)  wore 
silk  stockings.  A  Spanish  pair,  which  included 
breeches,  stockings,  and  shoes,  was  presented 
to  Edward  VI.  (1547—53)-  A  pair  of  knitted  silk 
stockings,  made  in  England,  was  presented 
in  1601  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  afterwards 
refused  to  wear  any  other  sort.  A  London 
apprentice  made  the  first  worsted  knitted 
stockings  in  England,  taking  the  hint  from 
a  pair  brought  from  Mantua  in  1564.  In 
France  young  men  of  fashion  wore  them  of 
different  patterns  upon  each  leg  in  the  i6th 
century.  (See  BLUE  STOCKING  CLUBS,  KNITTING, 
<fec.) 

STOCK-JOBBING  ACT.— By  7  Geo.  II.  c.  8 
(March  28,  1734),  provisions  were  made  for  the 
prevention  of  stock -jobbing,  and  by  10  Geo.  II. 
c.  8  (1737),  these  provisions  were  rendered 
perpetual. 

STOCKPORT  (Cheshire).— The  castle  was 
held  in  1173  by  Geoffrey  de  Costentyn  against 
Henry  II.  The  free  school  was  founded  in 
1487.  Stockport  was  taken  by  Prince  Rupert 
in  1644,  and  retaken  by  the  Parliamentarians, 
under  Leslie,  in  1645.  It  was  occupied  on  two 
occasions,  in  1745,  by  Prince  Charles-Edward, 
the  Pretender.  The  new  Mechanics'  Institution 
was  inaugurated  Sep.  22,  1862. 

STOCKS  are  mentioned  in  the  Statute  of 
Labourers  (q.  v.},  and  in  1376  the  Commons 
prayed  that  stocks  might  be  placed  in  every 
village.  It  was  enacted  by  7  Hen.  IV.  c.  17 
(1405),  that  every  village  and  town  should  have 
a  pair  of  stocks  ;  and  by  4  James  I.  c.  5  (1606), 
;hat  every  person  convicted  of  drunkenness 
should  be  fined  55.,  or  spend  six  hours  in 
the  stocks.  This  last  act  was  confirmed  by 
21  James  I.  c.  7  (1623). 

STOCKTON-ON-TEES  (Durham).— This  town 

supposed  to  have  received  its  first  charter 
:rom  King  John,  in  1201.  In  1310  Bishop  An- 
thony Beke  granted  a  weekly  market,  and  in 
1322  the  town  was  burned  and  plundered  by 
;he  Scotch,  who  held  the  castle  in  1644.  The 
Parliament  ordered  it  to  be  dismantled  in  1647, 
and  it  was  entirely  destroyed  in  1652.  The 
custom-house  was  transferred  from  Hartlepool 
to  Stockton  in  1680.  The  church,  commenced 
June  5,  1710,  upon  the  site  of  an  old  chapel 
dating  as  far  back  as  1234,  was  finished  and 


STOICS 


[    938    ] 


STORMY  CAPE 


consecrated  Aug.  21,  1712.  The  bridge  ovei 
the  Tees,  commenced  Aug.  23, 1 764,  was  tiiiishec 
iu  April,  1771.  The  Stockton  and  Darlington 
Hallway  was  opened  for  traffic  Sep.  25,  1825. 

STOICS.— The  disciples  of  Zeno,  a  Greek 
philosopher,  were  called  Stoics  because 
taught  iu  the  2roa,  or  porch.  Zeno  was  born 
at  Citiurn,  a  small  town  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  about  B.C.  357,  taught  at  Athens  is.c: 
299,  and  died  about  B.C.  263.  His  most 
celebrated  followers  are — Cleanthes  (B.C.  30x3 — 
B.C.  220),  Chrysippus  (B.C.  280 — B.C.  207',  and 
among  the  Romans  Seneca  (B.C.  6 — A.D.  65), 
Epictetus  (60 — 140),  and  the  Emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus  (121 — 180). 

STO  K K-  U  P(  )\-T KENT  (Staffordshire).— The 
old  church  of  St.  Peter  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  1291.  Lambert  Simnel  was  defeated  and 
made  prisoner  in  a  battle  fought  near  this 
town,  June  16,  1487.  The  completion  of  the 
Grand  Junction  Canal  to  Stoke  in  1777  led  to 
a  great  increase  in  the  trade.  The  first  news- 
paper published  in  this  town  appeared  Jan.  i, 
1809.  St.  Peter's  church  was  pulled  down  and  a 
new  one  erected  in  1829.  The  Wedgwood  statue 
was  unveiled  Feb.  24,  1863.  The  Prince  of 
Wales  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  a  new 
Infirmary  for  North  Staffordshire,  at  "  the 
Mount,"  near  Stoke,  June  25,  1866. 

STOLBOVA  (Russia).— A  treaty  of  peace, 
confirming  that  of  Wiburg,  was  .signed  at  this 
place,  near  St.  Petersburg,  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  Jan.  26,  1617.  Russia  surrendered  to 
Sweden  Ingria,  Carelia,  the  whole  country 
between  Ingria  and  Novgorod,  renounced  all 
claim  to  Livonia  and  Esthonia,  and  paid  a  large 
sum  of  money.  It  was  renewed  by  the  treaty 
of  Cardis  (q.  v.). 

STOLE.— The  office  of  groom  of  the  stole, 
who  was  first  lord  of  the  bedchamber  in  the 
king's  household,  was  abolished  in  1837. 

STONK.— The  Egyptians  chiefly  vised  granite 
in  their  buildings,  the  Assyrians  alabaster,  ami 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  marble.  The  ancient 
Britons  used  stone  in  their  remarkable 
Druidical  circles  (See  STONKHKNGE  ,  and  stone 
circular  towers  of  a  very  early  date  exist  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  During  the  Roman 
occupation  numerous  stone  edifices  were 
erected,  and  in  296  the  English  builders  are 
mentioned  as  the  most  skilful  masons  known. 
After  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  however, 
the  art  of  building  in  stone  declined,  until 
it  was  revived  by  Wilfred,  Bishop  of  York, 
and  Benedict  Biscop  in  674.  The  first  stone 
church  in  Scotland  was  erected  in  710.  A 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  kinds  of 
stone  most  suitable  for  building  purposes 
was  appointed  in  1839,  in  order  to  secure  good 
material  for  the  new  house  of  Parliament, 
but  the  result  has  not  proved  satisfactory. 
Frederick  Raiisome  patented  his  artificial  stone 
Oct.  22,  1844.  Hutchinson's  process  for  the 
preservation  of  stone  was  patented  in  1847, 
Barrett's  in  1851,  and  Daines's  in  April,  1856. 
F.  Ransome's  system  of  coating  stone  with  an 
insoluble  silicate  was  patented  Sep.  27,  1856. 
(See  BLARNEY -STONE,  CAABA,  CORONATION 
STONE,  CRYSTAL  STONE,  &c.) 

STONE,  or  C  ALC  UL US.— The  operation 
for  this  disease  ia  mentioned  by  Hippocrates 


(B.C.  460—6.0.  357).  (See  LITHOTOMY.)  Germain 
Collot,  a  French  surgeon,  performed  it  on  a 
criminal  at  Paris  in  1474.  The  present  method 
was  first  taught  at  Paris  by  Frere  Jacques 
in  1697.  The  operation  by  crushing  the  stone, 
called  lithotrity  (q.  v.),  was  first  proposed  in 
1812. 

STONEHENGE  (Wiltshire^,  on  Salisbury 
Plain,  is,  by  many  authorities,  believed  to  be 
the  remains  of  a  Druidical  temple.  Owing 
to  a  rapid  thaw,  three  of  the  large  stones, 
the  smallest  weighing  about  20  tons,  fell 
from  their  place,  Jan.  3,  1797.  Geoffrey  of 
Moninouth  states  that  it  was  erected  by 
Aurelius  Ambrosius  in  memory  of  460  Britons 
treacherously  slain  by  Hengist  near  this  spot 
in  450,  at  a  feast  given  by  Vortigem.  Polydore 
Virgil  says  the  Britons  erected  this  monument 
in  memory  of  Aurelius  Ambrosius.  Inigo 
Jones  believed  it  to  be  a  Roman  temple. 

"STONEWALL"  BRIGADE.— A  portion  of 
the  Confederate  army,  being  on  the  point  of 
yielding  to  superior  numbers  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run  or  Manassas  (//.  v.),  July 
21,  1861,  was  rallied  by  Gen.  Lee  with  the 
words,  "  There  is  Jackson  standing  like  a  stone 
wall.  Let  us  determine  to  die  here  and  we 
will  conquer,"  the  stand  which  was  accord- 
ingly made  resulting  in  the  complete  rout  of 
the  Federals.  The  brigade  of  Gen.  Thomas 
Jefferson  Jackson,  to  whose  example  the  vic- 
tory was  due,  received  the  sobriquet  of  the 
"Stonewall"  brigade,  and  its  general  that  of 
"Stonewall"  Jackson.  This  brave  officer  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  (q.  v.), 
May  3,  1863. 

STONEY  POINT  (N.  America),  taken  by  the 
Kngli.sh  June  i,  1779,  was  retaken  by  Wayne 
July  15.  The  latter  evacuated  the  fort  after 
having  destroyed  the  works,  and  it  was  again 
occupied  by  the  English. 

SToN  I  N( ;.      &  t  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.) 

STONY  CREEK  (Battle;.— The  English  de- 
feated the  United  States  forces  at  this  place  in 
Canada,  June  6,  1813. 

STOOL  OF  REPENTANCE.— A  low  stool 
formerly  placed  in  Scotch  churches  in  front  of 
the  pulpit,  on  which  persons  guilty  of  immoral 
conduct,  &c.,  sat  during  service,  or  stood  to 
receive  a  rebuke  from  the  pastor.  It  gradually 
fell  into  disuse  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century,  though  it  existed  in  others  at  the 
commencement  of  the  igth  century. 

JSTOU.MUNTKJKLI).      Set  PISCICULTURE.) 

STORMS. — The  earliest  attempt  to  arrive  at 
a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  law  of  storms 
was  made  by  Capt.  Langford,  who  published  a 
paper  on  the  West  Indian  hurricanes  in  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1698.  In  1743 
Don  Juan  de  Ulloa  described  the  rotary  storms 
of  the  Pacific,  and  in  1801  Col.  Capper  made 
some  observations  on  the  hurricanes  of  Malabar. 
William  Redfield,  of  New  York,  published  a 
valuable  paper  on  the  management  of  ships  in 
storms  and  the  use  of  the  barometer,  in  1831  ; 
and  in  1838  the  law  of  storms  was  established 
011  a  definite  scientific  basis  by  Lieut.  Col. 
William  Reid,  of  the  Royal  Engineers.  Henry 
Piddington's  publications  on  the  subject  com- 
menced in  1839.  (See  CYCLONE.) 

STORMY  CAPE.— (See  CAFE  or  GOOD  HOPE.) 


STORTHING 


[    939 


STRASBURG 


STORTHING,  or  Norwegian  Parliament, 
was  first  held  at  Bergen  by  Haco  V.,  in  1223. 
By  an  agreement  made  with  the  King  of 
Sweden,  the  two  crowns  were  united  May  17, 
1814.  Both  chambers  passed  a  motion  to 
abolish  hereditary  nobility  in  1815.  The  royal 
assent  was  refused,  but  the  chambers  carried 
their  point  in  1821. 

STOURBRIDGE  (Worcestershire).— The  free 
grammar-school,  at  which  Dr.  Johnson  was  a 
scholar  in  1726,  was  founded  by  Edward  VI. 
in  1551.  The  church  was  built  by  subscription 
in  1742.  A  riot  took  place  among  the  colliers 
Nov.  14,  1767,  when  they  compelled  the  farmers 
to  sell  their  corn  at  5.?.  a  bushel.  The  railway 
to  Dudley  was  opened  in  1852. 

STOVE. — The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
usually  employed  charcoal  braziers  for  heat- 
ing their  apartments.  The  first  important 
scientific  work  on  stoves  was  published  in 
France  by  Cardinal  Polignac,  in  1713.  Dr. 
Neil  Arnot  patented  his  stove  Nov.  14,  1821, 
and  William  Jeakes  patented  a  method  of  ap- 
plying a  ventilating  apparatus  to  the  Arnot 
stoves,  Oct.  22,  1838. 

STOW-ON-THE-WOLD  (Battle).— Lord 
Astley,  with  3,000  Cavaliers,  marching  from 
Worcester  to  join  Charles  I.  at  Oxford,  was 
defeated  at  this  place,  in  Gloucestershire,  by 
Col.  Morgan.  His  men  were  killed,  captured, 
or  dispersed,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner,  March 
22,  1646. 

STRAFFORDIANS.  —  Lord  Digby  and 
54  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
voted  against  the  bill  of  attainder  against  the 
Earl  of  Strafford,  April  21,  1641.  Their  names 
were  posted  in  the  streets  as  "  Straff ordiaus, 
who,  to  save  a  traitor,  would  betray  their 
country." 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS  (Straits  of 
Malacca). — The  name  given  to  the  settlements 
consisting  of  Malacca,  Penang  or  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  Province  Wellesley  and  Singapore, 
secured  to  Great  Britain  by  a  treaty  with  the 
Sultan  of  Jahore,  concluded  in  1824. 

STRALSUND  (Prussia),  founded  by  Jaromar 
I.,  Prince  of  Rilgeii,  in  1209,  became  a  free  im- 
perial town  and  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League  in  1242,  and  was  besieged  by  Wallen- 
stein,  who,  notwithstanding  his  boast  that  he 
would  "take  it  if  it  were  bound  to  heaven 
with  chains,"  had  to  abandon  the  attempt,  after 
losing  12,000  men,  in  1628.  Sweden  obtained 
possession  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24, 
1648.  It  was  captured,  after  a  bombardment, 
by  Frederick-William  of  Brandenburg  in  1678, 
and  was  restored  to  Sweden  in  1679.  Charles 
XII.,  on  his  return  to  Europe,  arrived  here 
Nov.  22,  1714.  It  surrendered  to  the  combined 
forces  of  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Saxony,  Dec. 
21,  1715,  and  was  restored  to  Sweden  in  1720. 
The  Prussian  general  Dohna  blockaded  the 
place,  but  left  to  follow  the  Russian  army,  in 
Feb.,  1758.  By  a  convention  with  Sweden, 
England  paid  ^50,000  to  put  it  in  a  state  of 
defence,  Oct.  3,  1805.  Gen.  Essen,  commander 
of  the  fortress,  attacked  and  defeated  the 
French  blockading  force  in  April,  1807.  The 
French  having  collected  an  overwhelming  army 
under  its  walls,  the  Swedish  monarch  listened 
to  the  entreaties  of  the  inhabitants  and  sur- 


rendered it,  Aug.  22.  Col.  Schill,  a  Prussian 
officer,  took  possession  in  1809.  The  French, 
under  Gen.  Gratien,  recovered  it  by  assault, 
Schill  falling  in  the  defence,  May  31.  Napoleon 
I.  seized  it,  with  all  the  ships  in  the  harbour, 
arming  them  as  privateers  against  the  com- 
merce of  England,  in  Jan.,  1812.  A  treaty  with 
Sweden  secured  to  England  the  right  of  an 
entrepot  in  the  harbour  for  20  years,  March  3, 
1813.  Stralsund  was  given  to  Prussia  in 
1815. 

STRAND  (London).— Henry  III.  granted  this 
important  thoroughfare  to  his  uncle,  Peter  of 
Savoy,  in  1245,  and  the  result  was  the  erection 
of  the  Savoy  Palace  (q.  v.).  The  Strand  was 
first  paved  in  1532.  Somerset  House  (q.  v.)  was 
commenced  in  1547 ;  Salisbury  House  was 
finished  in  1602,  and  pulled  down  in  1695  ;  and 
Northumberland  House  was  built  about  1605. 
The  Strand,  or  Waterloo  Bridge  (q.  v.},  was 
commenced  in  1811,  and  various  improvements 
in  the  road  were  authorized  by  the  Strand 
Improvement  Act,  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  77  (May  31, 
1826). 

STRAND  or  STRONDE  INN  (London), 
according  to  Crabb  (Hist,  of  English  Law),  an 
inn  of  chancery,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1509 — 47),  and  probably  long  before,  belonging 
to  the  Middle  Temple,  was  pulled  down  to 
make  room  for  Somerset  House. 

STRASBURG  (France),  the  ancient  Argen- 
toratum,  said  to  have  been  founded  B.C.  15, 
originally  a  town  of  the  Tribocci,  where  the 
Romans  had  a  manufactory  of  arms,  was  the 
scene  of  a  victory  gained  by  Julian  over  the 
Alemanni  in  357.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Alemanni  in  455,  and  after  the  victory  gained 
over  them  by  Clovis  I.,  in  496,  a  fort  called 
Strateburgum  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  city, 
which  had  been  reduced  to  rums.  It  was 
much  improved  after  the  foundation  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Etienne  by  Adelbert,  Duke  of 
Alsace,  in  718.  It  was  annexed  to  the  German 
empire  in  870.  Louis  II.  the  German  and 
Charles  I.  (the  Bald)  renewed  their  alliance 
here  in  842,  the  oath  taken  by  Charles  on  the 
occasion  being  the  most  ancient  existing 
specimen  of  the  Romance  language.  It  ob- 
tained important  privileges  from  the  Emperor 
Philip,  became  a  free  city  in  1205,  and 
formed,  with  other  cities  of  the  Rhine,  a 
league  to  protect  the  navigation  of  the  river  in 
1253.  Protestantism  having  gained  ground,  its 
adherents  obtained  a  number  of  the  churches 
in  1523.  The  library  was  established  in  1531, 
and  the  Protestant  university  in  1621.  The 
Protestant  academy  was  established  in  1803. 
A  contest  for  the  bishopric  took  place  between 
the  two  religious  parties  in  1593.  Louis  XIV. 
seized  the  city,  making  a  solemn  entry,  Oct. 
23,  1 68 1,  and  it  was  secured  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  Dreadful  atroci- 
ties were  perpetrated  by  the  mob  during  the 
revolution  in  1789,  and  still  greater  by  the 
Convention,  upon  the  inhabitants,  on  account 
of  a  Royalist  reaction  in  1793.  Moreau,  with 
his  army,  crossed  the  Rhine  near  Strasburg 
June  23,  1796.  Louis  Napoleon  was  foiled  in 
an  attempt  to  create  a  revolution  here,  Oct. 
29,  1836.  The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  was 
founded  in  1015,  and  completed  in  1439.  The 


STRATFORD 


[     94° 


STUCCO 


tower,  of  which  Erwiii  of  Steinbach  was  the 
architect,  was  completed  by  his  son  and  his 
daughter  after  his  death  in  1318.  A  famous 
clock,  constructed  in  1352,  was  restored  in 
1842.  The  statue  to  Gutenberg  was  erected 
in  1840.  (See  PRINTING.) 

ST  RATFORD-UPON-AVON  (Warwickshire) 
was  a  place  of  importance  as  early  as  700.  The 
long  stone  bridge  was  built  by  Sir  Hugh 
Clopton,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  in  1491,  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  The  free  grammar- 
school,  at  which  Shakespeare  was  a  pupil, 
was  founded  in  1482.  The  town-hall  was  built 
in  1768,  and  the  ancient  church  was  repaired  at 
considerable  cost  in  1840.  William  Shakespeare 
was  born  here  in  1564.  (See  SHAKKSI-KAKI: 
I -KSTIVAI.S  iind  TERCENTENARY,  and  SIIAKE- 
.SPKAUE'S  WORKS.) 

BTRATHCLUYD,  or  STRATHCLYDE.— 
This  kingdom,  between  the  Roman  walls, 
extending  from  Cumberland  to  the  Clyde, 
was  occupied  by  an  independent  British  tribe 
about  600.  It  was  ravaged  by  llalfdane,  a 
Northman,  in  875,  and  the  people  chose  Bd- 
ward  the  Elder  for  their  king  in  924.  It  was 
joined  to  Scotland  in  958,  separated  in  975, 
and  again  annexed  in  1124. 

STRATHFIELDSAY!  Hampshire.)— This 
estate,  near  Silchester,  was  purchased  for  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  by  the  English  nation  for 
the  sum  of  .£263, ooo,  Nov.  6,  1817. 

STRATTON  [Battle  .--The  L'oruishmen  who 
took  up  arms  for  Charles  I.  defeated  Henry 
(Jrey,  Karl  of  Stamford,  at  this  pl.-irr  in  Corn- 
wall, May  16,  1643.  The  Parliamentarians 
suffered  severely  in  the  battle. 

STRATUS  (Battle).  — The  Acarnanians  de- 
feated the  allied  Ambraciots  and  Laoedamo- 
nians  near  this  town  in  Acarnania,  B.C.  429. 

BTRAWBBRRY.— The  wood  or  wild  straw- 
berry is  indigenous.  The  vine  strawberry  was 
introduced  by  the  Romans  before  280,  the 
Tomato  from  South  America  in  1596,  the 
Oriental  from  the  Levant  in  1724,  and  the 
Chili  from  France  in  1727.  The  cultivation 
has  been  much  improved,  and  various  new 
kinds  have  of  late  years  been  produced. 

STRA\V1?KRRY  HILL  Surrey).—  This houso, 
at  Twickenham,  near  London,  was  built  by 
Mrs.  Chevenix,  who  let  it  to  Horace  Walpole, 
Earl  of  Orford,  in  May,  1747,  and  sold  it  to 
him  in  1748.  Walpole  commenced  his  im- 
provements for  converting  the  building  into  a 
miniature  Gothic  castle  in  1750,  and  esta Wished 
the  Strawberry  Hill  private  printing  press  in 
1757.  The  extensive  collection  of  articles  of 
taste  accumulated  here  by  Walpole  was  sold 
by  auction  in  April  and  May,  1842,  the  total 
proceeds  amounting  to  ,£29,615  8s.  gd.  Straw- 
berry Hill  was  completely  restored  by  Frances, 
Countess  of  Waldegrave,  in  1856. 

STREET  RAILWAYS  or  TRAMWAYS.— 
Stone  tramways  for  carriages  were  introduced 
in  the  Commercial  Road,  London,  in  1830,  and 
afterwards  in  many  other  streets.  Iron  tram- 
ways were  established  in  the  United  States 
and  introduced  at  Birkenhead  in  1860.  The  first 
London  line,  extending  from  the  Marble  Arch 
to  Bayswater,  was  opened  March  23,  1861  ;  the 
line  from  the  Victoria  station  to  Westminster 
Abbey  was  first  used  April  15  ;  and  the  line 


from  Westminster  Bridge  to  Keiinington  in  the 
same  year.  They  were  all  removed  in  1862. 

STRKL1TZ,  a  military  body  resembling  the 
Janissaries  of  Turkey,  was  instituted  by  Ivan 
IV.,  of  Russia,  about  1546.  They  revolted  in 
1682,  and  took  up  arms  in  favour  of  Sophia, 
step-sister  to  Peter  I.,  in  1689.  Having  re- 
belled again  in  1698,  Peter  I.  executed  some 
and  banished  others,  and  in  1 705  caused  the 
remnant  to  be  exterminated. 

STRIEGAU  ^Battle).— The  battle  of  Hohen- 
frieburg  (>/.  v.}  sometimes  goes  by  this  name. 

STRIKES. — The  practice  adopted  by  opera- 
tives of  endeavouring  to  compel  employers  to 
accede  to  their  demands  by  "  striking,"  or 
refusing  to  work,  was  introduced  by  the 
Trades'  Unions  (q.v.). 

A..D, 

1810.  About  30,000  spinners  remain  on  strike  in  Lancashire 
for  four  months,  and  return  to  work  at  reduced 
wages. 

1834,  March  18.  About  3,000  weavers  strike  at  Leeds. — 
April  27.  A  strike  among  the  journeymen  tailors 
of  London,  after  la>tiug  several  weeks,  is  termi- 
nal ed  by  the  acceptance  by  the  men  of  the 
masters'  terms.— Xov.  to  March  I,  1835.  The  Staf- 
fordshire potters  strike  for  wages,  and  obtain  an 
advance,  after  a  loss  of  .£37,000  in  wages  alone. 

1836,  Xov.  5.  The  operatives  at   Pie>ton    unite  in    un  un- 

availing strike,  which  continues  13  weeks,  and 
occasions  .1  total  loss  of  £107,196. 

1837,  April    8 — Aug.    5.     The    (Glasgow    cotton-spinners 

Strike  for  an  increase  of  wai:e>.  but  are  compelled 
bv  neccs>i;\  to  return  to  work  without  gaining 
their  object.  The  strike  occasioned  a  loss  of 
£194,540. 

1852.  A  strike  tukes  place  among  the  operative  engineers. 

i!-. 53,  .Iuly27— 3°-  Cab  strike  (7.  r. ). 

i*54,  ^'JV-  5 — April  30.  About  18,000  factory  hands  strike 
at  1'restoii,  which  incurs  a  total  loss  of  £628,216. 

1859,  Aug.  6.  The  London  builders  strike  in  favour  of  the 

nine  hours'  movement.— Oct.  31.  The  masons 
return  to  work.  The  total  loss  caused  by  this 
strike  was  1:446,875. 

1860.  The  Coventry  ribbon-weavers  remain  on  strike  for 

a   short   time,   in    consequence  of  the  increased 
introduction  of  French  ribbons. 
-  •  rikes  in  several  trades. 

STROM  150IJ  Sea-fight).—  De  Ruyter,  who 
w;is  defeated  by  Duquesne  off  this  island,  one 
of  the  Lipari  group,  in  1676,  died  of  a  wound 
received  in  the  action,  April  29. 

•STIIONDK  INN.— (&«  STRAND  INN.) 

8TBONGOII.— (5««  PETE.LIA.) 

STRONTIUM.— Strontia  was  discovered  by 

md  Klaproth  about  the  same   time  in 

1793.     Sir  Humphry  Davy  obtained  strontium, 

though  not  in  a  pure  state,  in  1807,  and  Bun- 

sen  and  Matthiessen  obtained  it  pure  in  1855. 

STRYCHNIA. -This  poison  was  discovered 
in  1818,  by  Pelletier  and  Caventou,  in  the  seed 
of  the  xh'iit'liii i!*  ii/nfi/ia  and  nux  vomicet, 
William  Palmer,  a  surgeon  of  Rugeley,  was 
executed  at  Stafford  June  14,  1856,  for  having 
poisoned  a  person  named  Cook  with  strychnia. 

STUART  (House  of).— James  I.  was  the  first 
sovereign  of  the  House  of  Stuart  who  sat  on 
the  English  throne.  The  line  closed  with 
Anne,  and  these  sovereigns  reigned,  excepting 
the  ii  years  of  the  Interregnum,  from  1603  to 
1714.  The  Stuart  Papers  were  purchased  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV.) 
in  1804.  (See  JACOBITES,  PRETENDERS,  &c.) 

STUCCO. — The  Greek  tombs  in  Asia  Minor 
were  embellished,  in  low  relief,  with  this 
composition.  It  was  employed  by  the  Romans 
for  temples,  floors,  walls,  and  also  for  covering 


STUDITJ! 


SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH 


columns  of  brick  to  imitate  marble,  and  has 
been  found  in  the  remains  of  ancient  British 
settlements. 

STUDIT^E.—  (See  ACCEMET.E.) 

STUGIA.— (See  JERSEY.) 

STUHLWEISSENBURG,  or  ALBA  REGIA 
(Hungary). — This  town,  built  on  the  site  of  the 
Roman  Floriani  in  the  nth  century,  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  was  the  place  of  corona- 
tion of  the  kings  of  Hungary  from  1027  to 
1527.  Maximilian  seized  it  Nov.  19,  1490. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  under  Soliman  I. 
in  1543,  retaken  by  the  Hungarians  in  1601, 
again  seized  by  the  Turks  in  1602,  recovered 
by  Leopold  I.  in  1688,  and  was  dismantled  in 
1702. 

STUHM.— Gustavus  II.  Adolphus,  King  of 
Sweden,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Poles, 
under  Sigismund,  at  this  town  in  Prussia,  in 
1628. 

STUTTGARD  (Wiirtemberg),  the  capital, 
first  mentioned  in  1229,  was  besieged  for  seven 
weeks  by  the  Emperor  Rodolph  I.  in  1286. 
The  counts  of  Wtirtemberg  fixed  their  resi- 
dence here  in  1320,  and  it  has  been  the  capital 
of  all  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Wiirtem- 
berg since  1482.  The  old  castle,  now  used  as 
government  offices,  was  built  in  1570.  The 
Standehaus,  where  the  parliament  meet,  was 
built  in  1580,  but  only  adapted  to  its  present 
purpose  in  1819.  The  new  palace,  commenced 
in  1746,  was  finished  in  1806.  The  Academy  of 
Painting  was  founded  in  1761.  The  sittings  of 
the  German  National  Assembly  were  trans- 
ferred to  this  town  from  Frankfort,  May  30, 
1849.  Alexander  II.  of  Russia  and  Napoleon 
III.  had  an  interview  here,  Sep.  25,  1857. 
The  foundation  stone  of  the  new  English  Pro- 
testant church  was  laid  in  1864,  and  it  was 
opened  Advent  Sunday,  1865. 

STYCAS.— These  small  coins,  usually  of 
brass,  but  occasionally  of  copper  and  silver, 
and  equal  in  value  to  half  a  fartm'ng,  were  first 
coined  by  the  kings  of  Northumbria,  about 
670,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  excellence  of 
their  workmanship. 

STYLE.— (See  NEW  STYLE  and  OLD  STYLE.) 

STYLITES,  or  SIMEON  STYLITES,  an- 
chorites who  took  up  their  abode  on  the  top 
of  various  columns  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  rose 
in  the  sth  century.  The  most  famous  was 
St.  Simeon  (with  whom,  according  to  some 
authors,  these  anchorites  originated),  who 
lived  37  years  on  the  tops  of  various  columns 
near  Antioch.  He  was  born  in  392,  and 
died  in  460.  His  disciple  Daniel  lived  on  a 
pillar  from  361  to  394.  They  existed  in  Syria 
as  late  as  the  i2th  century.  Some  of  these 
fanatics  were  called  Air  Martyrs,  Pillarists,  or 
Pillar  Saints. 

STYRIA  (Austria).— This  country,  consisting 
of  portions  of  Noricum  and  Pannonia,  after  vari- 
ous changes,  was  conquered  by  Charlemagne, 
and  annexed  to  Carinthia.  Styria  was  made 
a  mark  in  1030  or  1032,  and  became  a  duchy 
in  1180.  Otocar  II.,  of  Bohemia,  seized  it  in 
1262,  and  it  was  finally  annexed  to  Austria 
by  Rodolph  I.  (1273 — 91). 

SUBIACO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Sublaqueum, 
the  site  of  the  well-known  monastery  of  St. 
Benedict,  to  which  that  saint  retired  about  450. 


It  was  rebuilt  in  847.  The  celebrated  monas- 
tery of  Santa  Scholattsca  was  founded  in  the 
5th  century,  and  restored  in  981  by  the  Abbot 
Stefano.  The  lower  church  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Benedict  dates  from  1053,  the  upper 
from  1066,  and  the  cloisters  from  1235.  A 
printing  press  was  established  here  in  the 
1 5th  century, 

SUB-LAPSARIANS.— (See  CALVINISM.) 
SUBLIME  SOCIETY  OF  THE    STEAKS.— 
(See  BEEF-STEAK  CLUB.) 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH.— The  first  suc- 
cessful transmission  of  an  electric  discharge 
through  water  was  effected  by  Dr.  Watson, 
between  Westminster  and  Lambeth,  July  14, 
1747,  and  telegraphs  were  laid  across  the 
Rhine,  by  Werner  Siemens,  in  1848.  Charles 
V.  Walker  attached  two  miles  of  gutta-percha 
covered  wire  to  the  line  at  Folkestone,  and 
after  steaming  out  into  the  open  sea,  trans- 
mitted messages  to  London,  thus  proving  the 
practicability  of  submarine  telegraphy,  Jan. 
10,  1849.  Brett  laid  an  experimental  wire 
between  Dover  and  Calais,  Aug.  28,  1850 ;  and 
the  permanent  cable  was  laid  Sep.  27,  1851. 
The  line  from  Holyhead  to  Dublin  was  com- 
pleted June  i,  1852  ;  and  that  from  the  South 
Foreland  to  Osteiid,  May  4,  1853.  The  first 
line  of  any  length  was  from  Varna  to  Balaclava, 
which  was  laid  during  the  Crimean  war,  in 
1855,  and  established  communication  through 
a  distance  of  310  miles.  The  attempt  to  lay  the 
Atlantic  Telegraph  (q.  v.)  was  renewed  in  1866. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  several  Boards  of  Directors 
of  the  Companies  interested,  held  in  London, 
Aug.  21,  1865,  it  had  been  decided  to  attempt 
to  submerge  another  cable  by  the  side  of  the 
one  which  had  broken.  Great  preparations 
were  made  during  the  winter,  and  a  new 
cable  was  manufactured.  The  splice  with  the 
shore  end  (Ireland)  was  completed  July  13, 
1866,  and  at  3. 20  P.M.  the  Atlantic  Telegraph 
Cable  of  1866  "  commenced  to  pass  over  the 
V  wheel  of  the  great  cable  ship."  A  message 
was  sent  through  the  whole  cable,  without  the 
slightest  mistake,  at  the  rate  of  ij  words  per 
minute,  July  18.  On  Sunday,  July  22,  the 
Great  Eastern  was  about  30  miles  to  the  south- 
ward of  the  place  where  the  cable  parted, 
(Aug.  2, 1865,)  having  then  paid  out  1,213  miles. 
By  five  o'clock  on  Friday,  July  27,  the  cable 
was  completed  to  Heart's  Content,  Newfound- 
land. A  congratulatory  message  was  sent  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  President  Johnson,  Satur- 
day, July  28,  1866.  The  attempt  to  grapple  the 
cable  of  1865,  made  Aug.  10,  1866,  resulted  in 
failure  ;  but  after  sundry  efforts,  the  staff  on 
board  the  Medway  succeeded  in  grappling 
and  buoying  it,  Aug.  26.  It  was  buoyed  by 
those  on  board  the  Great  Eastern  Aug.  27,  and 
about  two  miles  of  the  old  cable  were  hoisted  on 
the  deck  of  that  vessel.  It  was  again  grap- 
pled and  buoyed  Sep.  i,  the  splice  was  made 
Sep.  2,  and  it  was  laid  to  Heart's  Content 
Sep.  8.  The  Great  Eastern  soon  after  sailed 
for  England,  and  reached  Liverpool  Sep.  19. 

SUBMARINE  CABLES. 
A.D. 

1850.  Dover  to  Calais. 

1 852.  Holyhead  to  Howth. 

1853.  Portpatrick  to  Donaghadee. 


SUBSIDIES 


[     942     I 


SUFFRAGAN  BISHOPS 


1853-55.  Orfordness  to  Holland  (four  cables). 
1854.  Sweden  to  Denmark. 
1854.  Corsica  to  Sardinia. 

1854.  Holyhead  to  llowth. 

1855.  Italy  to  Sicily. 
1855.  Varna  lo  Ualaclava. 
1855.  Balaclava  to  Eupatoria. 

1855.  Sardinia  to  Africa. 

1856.  Newfoundland  to  Cape  Breton. 

1856.  Prince  Edward's  Island  to  Xew  Brunswick. 

1857.  Norway  across  Fiords. 
1857.  Across  mouth  of  Danube. 

1857.  Across  Kivers  in  India  Mid  Ceylon. 
1857.  Varna  to  Constantinople. 

1857.  Sardinia  to  Boiia. 
18V.  Sardinia  to  Corfu. 

1858.  Italy  to  Sicily. 
1858.  England  to  Holland. 
1858.  England  to  Hanover. 

lanelles  to  Scio. 

1858.  England  to  Channel  Islands. 
!**,.<.    Ireland  to  Newfoundland. 

1859.  England  to  Heligoland  and  Denmark. 
1 850-  Scio  to  Smyrna. 

1859.  Syra  to  Athens. 

1859.  Sweden  to  Gothland. 

l^S'J.  Folkestone  to  Boulogne. 

1859.  Malta  to  Sicily. 

1859.   South  Australia  to  Tasmania. 

1859.  Sin.-apoiv  to  |!.-it;nia. 

1859.  Spain  to  Africa. 

luland  to  Jsle  of  Man. 
1859.   Sue/,  to  Aden. 
1859.   Liverpool  to  Holyhead. 
1859.  Syra  to  Candia. 

1859.  Candia  to  Alexandria. 

1860.  Aden  to  Kurrachee. 
1860.  France  to  Alg'eis. 
J86o.  Barcelona  to  Majorca. 

1860.  Minorca  to  Majorca. 
i>oi.  ntranto  to  Corfu. 

1861.  Toulon  to  Conlca. 
1861.  Malta  to  Alexandria. 
1861.  Beaehy  Head  to  Die].;.,-. 
1863.  Pembroke  to  \Vexiord. 

1863.  Lowestoft  t^llolland. 
I.-'.,;.  Sardinia  to  Sicily. 
1^64.  C'arthagena  to  Oran. 

1864.  Bassora  to  Currneliee. 

1865.  Atlantic  Cable  (1300  miles  immersed ;  recovered  in 

1866). 

1866.  Atlantic  Cable. 

(See  ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH,  TELEGRAPH,  <fec.) 

SUBSIDIES,  or  duties  imposed  by  parlia- 
ment 011  certain  staple  commodities  in  addi- 
tion to  the  cattuniti  antiq't 
first  levied  by  Ethelred  II.,  to  defray  the 
expense  of  the  Danegelt,  in  991.  They  were 
also  demanded  by  William  I.  (1066 — 87).  By 
14  Edw.  III.  stat.  i,  c.  20  (1340),  the  Com- 
mons granted  liberal  subsidies  of  wool  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  French  wars,  and 
by  ii  Hen.  IV.  c.  7(1409^,  they  are  confounded 
with  the  ordinary  customs.  In  1588,  the 
parliament  made  the  unusually  large  grant  of 
two  subsidies  and  four-fifteenths,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Spanish  armada.  The  last  acts 
granting  subsidies  to  the  sovereign  were  15 
Charles  II.  cc.  9  and  19  (1663). 

SUCCADANA,  or  SACADINA  (Borneo).— 
The  chief  town  of  a  state  of  the  same  name, 
to  which  the  Dutch  began  to  trade  in  1604. 
Having  abandoned  their  factory  in  1623,  they 
joined  the  Sultan  of  Pontianak  in  fitting  out 
an  expedition  against  this  place,  which  they 
took  and  destroyed  in  1786. 

SUCCESSION.— (See  ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT, 
HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION,  <fec.) 

SUCCESSION  DUTY.— By  16  &  17  Viet.  c. 
51  (Aug.  4,  1853),  real  property  was  made 


subject  to  the  legacy  duty,  paid  011  succession 
to  every  kind  of  property.  This  act  was  to  be 
taken  to  have  come  into  operation  May  19, 

1  SUCCESSION  WARS.— The  right  of  suc- 
cession has  led  to  war  in  several  European 
states.  (See  POLAND,  POTATO  WAR,  SPANISH 
SUCCESSION  WAR,  &c.) 

SUCRE.— (See  CHUQUISACA.) 

SUDBURY  (Suffolk).— A  convent  of  Domi- 
nican friars  was  established  here  in  1272. 
The  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1491. 
The  town  received  its  first  charter  of  incor- 
poration from  Queen  Mary  in  1554.  It  was 
confirmed  by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  Sudlmry 
was  disfranchised  by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  53  (July  29, 
1844). 

SUKSSA  POMETIA  (Italy).— This  ancient 
city  of  Latium  fell  under  the  rule  of  the 
Volscians,  and  was  taken  by  the  Romans 
during  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus 
(B.C.  534 — B.C.  510).  It  is  said  to  have  revolted 
B.C.  503,  and  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the 
consul  P.  Servilius.  The  Pornptine  marshes 
are  named  from  it. 

S I '  KSS ION  KS,  or  SUESSONES.— Divitiacus, 
king  of  this  tribe,  ruled  over  Britain  B.C.  57, 
and  it  joined  the  Gallic  tribes  against  Julius 
r  B.C.  52.  (See  NEVERS.) 

S! '  KVI.— This  powerful  Gothic  tribe,  known 
to  the  Romans  as  early  as  B.C.  125,  invaded 
Gaul  B.C.  71,  and  were  defeated  and  driven 
across  the  Rhine  B.C.  53.  They  joined  Rada- 
gaisus  in  405,  and,  having  been  defeated, 
recrossed  the  Rhine  in  406.  (See  SWABIA.) 
They  entered  Spain  in  409,  and  founded  a 
kingdom.  Part  of  their  territory  was  wrested 
from  them  by  Wallia,  general  of  the  Goths,  in 
417,  and  other  parts  were  captured  by  the 
Vandals  in  429.  They  were  almost  extermin- 
ated by  the  Visigoths  in  a  great  battle  fought 
near  Astorga  in  456,  and  the  remnant  of  the 
tribe  was  incorporated  with  them  in  584.  The 
Suevi,  in  Spain,  became  Arians  in  469,  and 
gave  up  their  doctrines  about  559 — 69. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  — A  canal  connecting  the 
two  seas,  supposed  to  have  been  made  by 
Necho  B.C.  600,  and  restored  by  Trajan  early 
in  the  2nd  century,  was  blocked  up  by  sand 
in  767.  In  1852,  M.  de  Lesseps,  a  French  en- 
gineer, formed  the  idea  of  obtaining  funds  by 
means  of  a  joint-stock  company,  for  cutting 
a  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 
Having  received  a  firman  from  Mohammed 
Said  in  1854,  he  came  to  England  to  give 
information  on  the  scheme  in  1855.  The 
charter  of  concession  was  granted  by  the 
Viceroy  of  Egypt  Jan.  5,  1856.  The  sub- 
scription was  opened  in  Nov.,  1858,  and  the 
company  was  definitely  constituted  Jan.  5, 

1  SUFFIDE,  SEFI,  SOOFEE,  or  SEFFAVEAN 
DYNASTY,  founded  in  Persia  by  Ismael 
Shah,  descended  from  Ali,  cousin  and  son-in- 
law  of  Mohammed,  in  1502,  was  expelled  by 
Nadir  Shah  in  1736. 

SUFFOLK  (England)  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  East  Angles  in  570.  Alfred 
planted  a  colony  of  Danes  in  Suffolk  in  879. 
The  archdeaconry  was  erected  in  1127. 

SUFFRAGAN  BISHOPS,  before  the  Refor- 


SUGAR 


[    943 


SUMATRA 


mation,  consecrated  to  serve  in  the  absence  of 
the  diocesans  on  embassies,  were  established 
by  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14,  which  named  26  places 
as  their  nominal  seats,  in  1535.  This  act 
was  repealed  by  i  <fc  2  Philip  and  Mary,  c.  8 
(1555),  but  re-enacted  by  Elizabeth.  They 
are  named  as  ministering  holy  orders  in 
the  35th  canon  of  1603  ;  and  Charles  II.,  in 
his  Breda  declaration  (1660),  expressed  his 
intention  to  establish  them  in  every  diocese. 
A  catalogue  of  those  who  had  filled  the  offices 
in  England  was  drawn  up  by  \Vharton,  and 
published  in  Dr.  Pegge's  dissertation  on  bishops 
in  partibus  in  1784.  By  52  Geo.  III.  c.  62 
(1812),  the  consecration  of  coadjutors  in  Ireland 
was  authorized. 

SUGAR  was  called  by  the  Romans  mel  arun- 
dinaceum,  and  is  spoken  of  by  Pliny  in  72  as 
used  only  in  medicine.  It  was  not  known  in 
northern  Europe  as  an  article  of  food  till  about 
the  end  of  the  i  ith  century.  Probably  people 
were  only  acquainted  with  it  in  the  form  of 
sugar-candy,  which  is  mentioned  in  the  Alche- 
mia  of  Libavius  in  1595.  Margraaf  discovered 
it  in  beet-root  and  other  plants  in  1747  ;  and 
M.  Achard  for  the  Prussian  government  in 
1799.  Napoleon  I.  encouraged  the  cultivation 
of  the  beet-root  in  France,  with  a  view  of  in- 
juring the  colonial  trade  of  England,  and  he 
offered  a  premium  for  the  manufacture  of 
Bugar  from  this  plant,  March  25,  1812.  The 
first  tax  on  sugar  was  imposed  by  i  James  II. 
c.  4  (1685).  The  duties  on  British  and  foreign, 
and  free  and  slave-grown  sugar,  were  equalized 
by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  63  (Aug.  18,  1846),  regulated 
and  reduced  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  97  (Sep.  4, 
1848),  again  increased  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  21 
(May  25,  1855),  and  reduced  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c. 
6 1  (Aug.  25,  1857). 

SUGAR-CANE,  as  nourishing  in  India  and 
Arabia  Felix,  is  referred  to  by  Dioscorides 
about  54.  It  was  introduced  from  Asia  into 
Cyprus,  where  it  was  much  cultivated  in  1148. 
From  that  island  it  was  transplanted  about 
1420  to  Madeira,  whence  it  was  carried  to  the 
West  Indies  in  1506.  There  were  28  sugar- 
works  in  St.  Domingo  in  1518.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  cultivated  in  Spain  before  the  Moor- 
ish invasion  of  711. 

SUGAR-REFINING.-  The  Saracens  seem  to 
have  practised  the  boiling  down  of  the  juice 
of  the  cane,  to  produce  sugar,  in  Spain,  in 
the  8th  century.  In  Europe,  the  Venetians 
were  the  first  to  purify  the  raw  article,  the 
art  being  probably  derived  from  the  East. 
It  was  commenced  in  England  in  1544,  but 
at  that  time  sugar  could  be  procured  cheaper 
from  Antwerp.  Dresden  had  a  refinery  in 
1597.  Loaves  of  sugar  were  sold  in  this  island 
in  1329.  The  vacuum-pan  was  invented  by 
Howard  in  1812,  and  Dr.  Scoffern  introduced 
important  improvements  in  1849. 

SUHARUNPORE  (Hiiidostan).— On  the  dis- 
memberment of  the  Mongol  empire,  about 
1757,  this  town  was  given  to  a  Rohilla  chief, 
at  whose  death,  in  1785,  it  came  into  possession 
of  his  son,  and  subsequently  into  that  of 
Scindia,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1803.  A  botanic  garden  was  formed 
here  in  1817,  and  a  medical  garden  was  an- 
nexed to  it  in  1826. 


SUICIDE.— The  earliest  recorded  examples 
of  self-destruction  are  those  of  Samson,  B.C. 
1117,  and  of  Saul,  B.C.  1055.  Some  of  the  Greek 
philosophers  allowed  that  it  was  excusable  as 
a  last  resort,  while  others  condemned  it.  By 
the  laws  of  Thebes  and  Athens  the  bodies  of 
suicides  were  deprived  of  funeral  honours. 
The  first  instances  of  suicide  at  Rome  occurred 
during  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  (B.C.  618 
— 5781,  in  consequence  of  the  aversion  of  the 
soldiers  to  labour  in  the  construction  of  sewers. 
Even  women  had  recourse  to  it,  and  Seneca's 
wife  Paulina,  in  65,  declared  her  determina- 
tion to  die  with  her  husband.  Plutarch  (46 
— 120)  mentions  an  extraordinary  mania  for 
suicide  that  raged  at  one  time  among  the 
women  in  ancient  Miletus,  and  states  that  it 
was  at  length  checked  by  an  edict,  announcing 
that  in  future  the  bodies  of  those  who  de- 
stroyed themselves  should  be  dragged  naked 
through  the  streets  by  the  rope  with  which 
the  act  was  committed.  Sixty  people  com- 
mitted suicide  at  Rouen  in  1506,  and  no  less 
than  1,300  cases  of  self-destruction  occurred 
at  Versailles  in  1793.  The  old  practice  of 
burying  the  bodies  of  suicides  (with  a  stake 
through  them)  at  the  meeting  of  four  cross- 
roads, was  abolished  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  52 
(July  8,  1823),  which  ordered  that  in  such 
cases  the  interment  should  take  place  be- 
tween the  hours  of  9  and  12  at  night,  in  an 
ordinary  churchyard,  and  without  any  reli- 
gious ceremony. 

SUINDINUM.— (See  MANS,  LE.) 

SULE.— (See  KASHGAR.) 

SULMONA,  or  SOLMONA  (Italy).  —  This 
town  in  the  Abruzzi  was  sacked  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  the  8th  century.  Peter  Morone,  the 
hermit  pope  (Coelestine  V.),  retired  to  his  cell 
in  the  neighbourhood  on  his  abdication,  Dec. 
13,  1294.  (See  CCELESTINES.) 

SULPHUR  was  used  by  the  ancients  to 
purify  the  houses  of  the  guilty  and  the  un- 
fortunate ;  and  Pliny  (23 — Aug.  24,  79)  men- 
tions it  in  the  purification  of  wine.  The 
Sicilian  government  entered  into  a  contract 
with  Taix,  a  Frenchman,  by  which  he  re- 
ceived a  monopoly  of  the  extensive  mines 
there,  Aug.  i,  1838.  Through  the  interference 
of  the  English  Government,  this  monopoly 
was  abolished  in  July,  1840.  Compensation  to 
English  subjects  who  had  been  engaged  in  the 
trade  was  paid,  to  the  amount  of  ^65,610,  in 
Jan.,  1842. 

SUMATRA  (Indian  Archipelago).  —  This 
island  is  first  mentioned  by  Marco  Polo  in  the 
1 3th  century,  and  was  visited  by  Nicolo  >di 
Conti  in  1449.  The  Portuguese  landed  in  1509. 
The  Portuguese  shipping  in  the  harbour  of 
Acheen  was  destroyed  by  the  natives  in  1575, 
and  the  Portuguese  tried  to  get  possession  of 
the  town  in  1582,  but  were  defeated.  The 
Dutch  established  themselves  on  the  west 
coast  in  1600.  They  erected  another  factory 
at  Padang  in  1649,  and  a  third  factory  at  Palem- 
bang  in  1664.  The  English  established  a  colony 
at  Bencoolen  in  1683,  and  all  the  Dutch  pos- 
sessions, together  with  the  island  of  Java,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  1811.  They 
were  restored  in  1816.  The  Dutch  exchanged 
Malacca  and  some  settlements  in  Hindostan 


SUMMERHAUSEN 


[     944     1 


SUNDAY 


for  the  English  possessions  at  Bencoolen, 
March  17,  1824. 

SUMMERHAUSEN  (Battle).— Albert  of 
Brandenburg,  called  the  Wild,  was  defeated  by 
Duke  Maurice,  at  this  place,  in  Germany,  after 
a  hotly-contested  battle,  July  9,  1553.  Maurice 
died  of  his  wounds  two  days  afterwards. 

SUMMERS'  ISLANDS.— (See  BERMUDAS.) 

SUMTER,  FORT.— (-See  CHARLESTON.) 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS.— The  code  of  Lycur- 
gus,  B.C.  776,  contained  many  severe  enact- 
ments for  the  suppression  of  luxury  among 
the  Spartans,  and  the  Locrian  legislator  Zaleu- 
cus  passed  several  sumptuary  laws,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  prohibited  the  use  of 
pure  wine,  B.C.  450.  The  Lex  Orchia,  passed 
B.C.  181,  limited  the  number  of  guests  per- 
mitted at  the  feasts  of  the  Romans,  and  a 
law  for  restraining  the  expense  at  such  enter- 
tainments was  passed  by  the  consul  Fannius, 
B.c.  161.  Marcus  /Kmilius  Scaur  us  introduced 
a  severe  sumptuary  law  B.C.  115,  for  regulating 
the  diet  of  the  different  classes.  Julius  Caesar 
(B.C.  46 — 8.0.44)  endeavoured  to  restrain  excess 
both  in  dress  and  entertainments.  Numerous 
enactments  were  made  in  England  for  the 
suppression  of  extravagance,  especially  during 
the  reigns  of  Edward  III.,  Edward  IV.,  and 
Henry  VIII.,  1327—1547  (See  LUXURY,  &c.j, 
which  were  repealed  by  i  James  I.  c.  25  (1604). 
A  restriction  upon  the  number  of  dishes 
allowed  at  dinner,  imposed  by  10  Kdw.  III. 
st.  3  (1336),  was  repealed  by  19  <fc  20  Viet.  c.  64 
(July  21,  1856  ,  which  abolished  the  sumptuary 
laws. 

SUN.— Archimedes  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  287— 
B.C.  212,  endeavoured  to  measure  the  sun's 
diameter,  and  Hipparchus,  B.C.  164 — is.<  .  145, 
made  several  important  discoveries  respecting 
its  motion.  The  solar  apogee  was  discovered 
by  Albategnius  or  El  Batani,  in  8So.  Coper- 
nicus adopted  his  system  in  1507  (See  COPER- 
Mi'AN  SYSTKM),  and  Tycho  Brahe,  1546 — Oct. 
24,  1601,  taught  that  the  sun,  with  its  circum- 
revolving  planets,  moves  round  the  earth. 
The  solar  spots  were  observed  by  Galileo  in 
1611,  and  the  revolution  of  the  sun  round  its 
axis  was  discovered  in  1676.  The  phenomena 
known  as  Bailey's  Beads  were  first  observed  at 
the  eclipse  of  1733,  and  during  the  eclipse  of 
1860  Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue  obtained  two  ex- 
cellent photographs  of  the  sun's  disc.  (See 
ASTRONOMY,  ECLIPSE,  LION  AND  SUN,  &c.) 

SUNJ3UHY  Middlesex).  -  This  small  village, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  place  at  which  the  Iceni,  under 
Boadicea,  were  defeated  by  Suetonius  Paulinus, 
in  61.  The  church  was  erected  on  the  site  of  a 
more  ancient  edifice  in  1752. 

SUNCION  (Treaty),  signed  at  Suncion,  in  S. 
America,  July  17,  1852.  The  Argentine  Re- 
public recognized  the  independence  of  Para- 
guay, and  conceded  the  navigation  of  the 
Parana  to  that  state. 

SUNDA  ISLANDS  (Indian  Archipelago).— 
Sumatra,  visited  by  Nicolo  di  Coiiti  in  1449; 
Java,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1511  ; 
Borneo,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1518  ; 
Celebes,  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  the 
1 6th  century ;  form  what  are  termed  the 
Greater  Sunda  Islands.  The  Lesser  Sunda 


Islands  consist  of  the  chain  of  islands  extend- 
ing from  the  eastern  coast  of  Java  to  New 
Guinea,  or  Papua. 

SUNDAY,  or  SABBATH,  known  as  Dies 
Dominica,  or  the  Lord's  day  (Rev.  i.  10),  Dies 
I'c.  ii  ix,  or  day  of  bread,  and  Dies  Solis,  or  day 
of  the  sun.  The  Saxons  styled  it  <V< 
daeg,  whence  our  Sunday.  The  work  of  creatii  >n 
completed,  God  rested  on  the  seventh  day, 
which  He  blessed  and  sanctified  (Gen.  ii.  i — 3). 
Some  writers  contend  that  the  seventh  day 
was  first  set  apart  as  a  day  of  cessation  from 
labour  by  the  Levitical  law,  B.C.  1491,  though 
Exod.  xvi.  23  &  xx.  8 — u  seem  to  refer  to  an 
institution  then  in  existence.  The  subject  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversy.  The  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  held  on  the  last  day  of  the  week 
(Saturday),  in  commemoration  of  the  divine 
rest  after  the  six  days  of  creation.  The 
Christian  Sunday,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  which  was,  it  is  believed, 
set  apart  by  the  primitive  Christians  as  a  day 
of  religious  rejoicing,  in  memory  of  the  Lord's 
resurrection  and  appearance  to  his  disciples. 
In  the  Apostolic  Church  both  days  w< 
served,  as  perfectly  distinct  in  nature  and 
origin,  the  Sabbath  being  regarded  rather  as 
a  fast-day,  and  the.  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday, 
as  a  solemn  and  religious  festival.  The  Rev. 
.1.  A.  lli-sscy,  in  hi.s  "  Hampton  Lectures"  (Sun- 
day ;  its  Origin,  History,  and  Present  Obliga- 
tion), delivered  in  1860,  sums  up  his  im 
t  ions  as  follows  : — "  I  have  contended  that  the 
ancient  church  considered  it  to  be  a  day  of 
obligation,  quite  independently  of  any  con- 
in'xion  with  the  Sabbath,  on  purely  Christian 
grounds  ;  that  it  was  not  until  after  tbe  sth 
century  that  this  view  was  materially  im- 
paired ;  and  that  it  was  not  until  towards  the 
end  of  the  i6th  century  that  a  Sabbatarian 
origin  was  formally  proposed  instead."  By  29 
Charles  II.  c.  7  (1677),  known  as  the  Lord's 
day  Act,  all  labour  and  business  were  pro- 
hibited. Much  information  on  the  subject  is 
given  in  Hessey's  "  Hampton  Lectures"  (1860), 
and  Cox's  "Literature  of  the  Sabbath  Question  " 
(1865). 


252.  The  fourth  Council  of  Carthage  prohibits  fasting  on 

the  Lord's  'lay. 
321,  March  7.  Constuntine  I.  prohibits  labour  in  towns 

on  Sunday,  but  sanctions  it  in  husband  men. 
386.  Theodosius  the   Great  prohibits  public  shows  on 

Sunday. 

517.  The  derision  of  law  causes  on  Sunday  is  prohibited. 
538,  May  7.  The  third  Council  of  Orleans  recommends 

abstinence  from  rural  labours  on  Sunday. 
910.  The  Emperor  Leo  VI.  prohibits  agricultural  labour 

on  Sunday. 
940.  Athelstan  enforces  the   observance  of    Sunday  by 

severe  laws. 

1448.  The  holding  of  fairs  and  markets  on  Sunday  is  pro- 
hibited by  27  Hen.  VI.  c.  5. 
1554.  Sabbath  is,  according  to   the   elder  Disraeli,  first 

used  in  England  as  a  name  for  .Sunday. 
1595.  Dr.  Bound  publishes  a  work  rcdueing  Sabbatarian- 
ism to  a  system. 
1618.  Sunday  recreations  are  sanctioned  by  the  "  Book  of 

Sports  "  (q.  V.). 
1645.  Sports  and  pastimes  on  Sunday  are  prohibited  by 

i  Charles  I.  c.  i. 

1676.  By  the  act  for  the  better  observation  of  the  Lord's 
day  (29  Charles  II.  c.  7),  travelling  and  the  pursuit 
of  business  are  prohibited,  and  no  sales  are  per- 
mitted, except  that  of  milk. 


SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 


945 


SUNNITES 


1699-  The  sale  of  mackerel  on  Sunday  is  allowed  by  10 
&  ii  Will.  III.  c.  24- 

1781.  Fines  are  imposed  on  persons  who  open  houses  for 
entertainment  or  debates  and  charge  money  for 
admission,  or  who  advertise  entertainments  to 
take  place  on  Sunday,  by  21  Geo.  III.  c.  49. 

1793.  The  observance  of  the  Lord's  day  is  abolished  in 
France. 

1802.  Sunday  is  again  observed  in  France. 

1831.  The  London  Society  for  Promoting  the  Due  Obser- 
vance of  the  Lord's  Day  is  formed. 

1836,  July  28.  The  baking  and  sale  of  bread  on  Sunday 
is  regulated  by  6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  37. 

1848,  Aug.  14.  The  sale  of  beer  during  church  time  is 
prohibited  by  n  &  12  Viet.  c.  49. 

1854,  Dec.  22.  The  Pope  signs  a  bull  for  the  encourage- 

ment of  Sunday  observance  in  France. 
I^5S»  April  17.  Lord  Robert  Grosvenor  obtains  leave  in 

the   House  of  Commons  to  introduce  a  Sunday 

Trading  Bill  (q.  v.).  The  National  Sunday  League 

is  formed.— July  2.  The  bill  is  withdrawn. — Aug. 

14.  The  sale  of  beer  on  Sundays  is  regulated  by 

18  &  19  Viet.  c.  118  (Aug.  14,  1855). 
1858.  The  Cab  and  Omnibus  Men's  Sunday  Rest  Society  is 

established. 

(See  DOMINICAL  LETTER.) 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS.— In  '1699  a  Sunday 
school  was  established  by  the  Abbe  John 
Baptist  de  la  Salle  at  Paris ;  but  after  six 
years  it  was  abandoned.  The  Rev.  Theophilus 
Lindsey  established  a  Sunday  school  at  Cat- 
terick,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1763,  and  Miss  Ball 
commenced  a  similar  establishment  at  High 
Wycombe,  Bucks,  in  1769.  The  honour  of 
having  founded  the  Sunday-school  system  is 
awarded  to  Robert  Raikes,  of  Gloucester,  in 
1783.  The  Society  for  the  Support  and  En- 
couragement of  Sunday  Schools  was  formed  in 
1785,  and  the  Sunday  School  Union  in  1803.  A 
Sunday  school  existed  in  County  Down  in 
1770,  and  the  system  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  in  1809.  The  Sunday  schools  were  in- 
troduced into  Scotland  in  1786,  and  the  Gratis 
Sunday  school  originated  in  1797.  A  Sunday 
school  jubilee  was  held  at  the  Manufacturers' 
Piece  Hall,  Halifax,  May  21,  1861.  Eighty- 
seven  schools  were  represented,  and  36,000 
persons  attended.  An  international  conference 
on  the  subject  of  Sunday  schools  was  opened 
in  London  Sep.  2,  1862. 

SUNDAY-TRADING  BILL.— Lord  Robert 
Grosvenor  obtained  leave  in  the  House  of 
Commons  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  the  prevention 
of  Sunday  trading  in  the  metropolis,  April  17, 

1855.  The  second  reading  met  with  much  oppo- 
sition, but  was  agreed  to  without  a  division, 
May  3.     A  demonstration  against  the  measure 
was  made  in  Hyde  Park  (q.  v.},  Sunday,  June 
24  ;  and  another,  when  it  was  estimated  that 
100,000  persons  were  present,  July  i.     On  the 
same  day  a  meeting  was  held  in  Greenwich 
Park,  10,000  persons  being  present.     The  bill 
was  withdrawn  July  2. 

SUNDERLAND  (Durham).  —  A  monastery, 
founded  at  Monkwearrnouth,  in  674,  in  which 
the  venerable  Bede  was  educated,  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Danes  in  the  gth  century. 
Sunderland  is  first  mentioned  as  a  port  in  a 
charter  granted  by  Hugh  Pudsey,  Bishop  of 
Durham,  at  the  close  of  the  xath  century.  A 
fresh  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted  by 
Bishop  Morton  in  1634,  and  Charles  II.  granted 
another,  greatly  extending  the  privileges  of 
the  borough,  in  1661.  The  south  pier  was 


commenced  in  1723,  and  the  north  pier  in  1786. 
The  first  Sunderland  life-boat  was  constructed 
in  1799.  The  church  was  built  in  1719,  and 
the  iron  bridge  over  the  river  Wear,  com- 
menced Sep.  24,  1793,  was  finished  Aug.  9, 
1796.  The  exchange  was  opened  May  26,  1814, 
and  the  town  was  first  lighted  with  gas  March 
9,  1824.  Sunderland  docks  were  opened  in 
June,  1850,  and  the  bridge,  which  had  been 
widened  and  much  strengthened  and  improved, 
was  re-opened  in  1859.  The  Orphan  Asylum 
was  opened  in  1860. 

SUNDERLAND  ADMINISTRATION.  —  A 
modification  of  the  Stanhope  administration 
(q.  v.)  ensued  in  1718,  the  Earl  of  Sunderland 
becoming  first  lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  pre- 
sident of  the  Council,  March  20.  The  cabinet 
consisted  of : — 

First  Lord   of    the  Trea-) 

sury  and  President  of  the  V  Earl  of  Sunderland. 

Council ) 

Lord  Chancellor Earl  Cowper. 

Privy  Seal    Duke  of  Kingston. 

Principal     Secretaries    ofl  Earl     Stanhope     and     Mr. 

State J      Craggs. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ...Mr.  Aislabie. 

Secretary  at  War  Lord  Castecomer. 

Admiralty   Earl  of  Berkeley. 

Earl  Cowper  resigned  the  lord-chancellorship 
April  15,  1718,  and  the  great  seal  was  placed  in 
commission  until  May  12,  when  Lord  Parker 
was  raised  to  the  office.  The  Earl  of  Sunder- 
land retired  from  the  presidency  of  the  council 
Feb.  6,  1719,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Duke 
of  Kingston,  who  gave  up  the  office  of  privy 
seal,  which  the  Duke  of  Kent  received. 
Robert  Walpole  joined  the  ministry  as  pay- 
master-general, June  4,  and  the  Lord  Towns- 
hend  as  lord-president  of  the  council,  June  n, 
1720.  The  Duke  of  Kingston,  who  gave  up 
that  office,  superseded  the  Duke  of  Kent  as 
privy  seal.  Mr.  Aislabie  resigned  the  chan- 
cellorship of  the  exchequer  Jan.  23,  1721,  and 
Earl  Stanhope  died  Feb.  5,  1721.  Lord  Towns- 
hend  became  secretary  of  state  in  his  place, 
Feb.  8,  and,  March  4,  Lord  Carteret  succeeded 
Mr.  Craggs,  who  died  Feb.  16.  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
April  3,  1721.  (See  WALPOLE  [SECOND]  ADMIN- 
ISTRATION.) 

SUN-DIAL  was  in  use  among  the  Jews  as 
early  as  B.C.  713,  when  the  dial  of  Hezekiah 

ent  back  10  degrees,  in  answer  to  the  prayer 
of  Isaiah  (2  Kings,  xx.  u  ;  and  Isaiah,  xxxviii. 
8).  Pliny  (23 — Aug.  24,  79)  ascribes  the  inven- 
tion to  Anaximander(B.c.  610 — B.C.  547),  though 
it  had  been  long  known  to  the  Babylonians 
and  the  Egyptians,  and  says  that  the  first  dial 
at  Rome  was  set  up  by  Papirius  Cursor,  who 
had  taken  it  from  the  Samnites  B.C.  293.  The 
first  dial  constructed  at  Rome  was  in  B.C.  164, 
for  before  that  year  they  had  been  brought 
from  foreign  parts  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Plautus 
(B.C.  184)  they  were  common,  as  he  makes  one 
of  -his  characters  rail  at  their  frequency.  The 
adoption  of  the  sun-dial  as  an  ordinary  part 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture  dates  from  615, 
when  it  was  introduced  into  the  churches  of 
Burgundy. 

SUN-DRAWING.— (See  PHOTOGRAPHY.) 

SUNNITES.— (See  SONNITES.) 


SUN-PICTURES 


[    946    ] 


SURPRISE  PLOT 


SUN-PICTURES.— (See  PHOTOGRAPHY.) 
SUPERANNUATION  ACT.— By  22  Viet.  c. 
26  (April  19,  1859),  the  laws  concerning  super- 
annuations and  other  allowances '  to  persons 
having  hold  civil  offices  in  the  public  service 
were  amended. 

SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD.— For  1,000  years 
after  the  institution  of  this  sacrament,  common 
bread  was  used  in  its  celebration,  wafers  being 
introduced  about  the  nth  century.  Sometimes 
the  sacramental  wine  was  mixed  with  the  ink 
used  for  signing  documents,  to  add  to  the 
solemnity  of  the  signature.  The  earliest 
known  instance  of  this  custom  took  place  in 
645.  (See  COMMUNION  SERVICE.) 
SUPRA-LAPSAIUANS.— (See  CALVINISM.) 
SUPREMACY.— 6S«  ACT  OF  SUPREMACY.) 
SURAT  (Hindostan)  is  first  mentioned  in 
1530,  when  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
Portuguese.  The  English  obtained  permission 
to  establish  a  factory  here  in  1612,  and  all  the 
possessions  of  the  East  India  Company  were 
placed  under  the  council  of  Surat  in  1657.  It 
was  plundered  in  1664  by  the  Mahratta  chief 
Sevajee,  when  the  English  factory  was  de- 
fended with  success.  A  French  factory  was 
founded  in  1668.  The  seat  of  the  presidency 
was  transferred  to  Bombay  in  1686.  The 
English  captured  the  castle  of  Surat  in  1759, 
and  the  nabob  resigned  his  government  to 
them,  May  13,  1800.  The  English  church  was 
consecrated  by  Bishop  lleber  in  1825. 

8UBB8NE8  ('(inference ',  hold  at  this  vil- 
lage, near  Paris,  between  commissions  from  the 
League  and  from  Henry  IV.,  in  1593.  Henry 
IV.  abjured  Protestantism,  July  25. 

SURGE<  )NS  were  separated  from  the  barber- 
surgeons  (</.  r.  in  1745.  Their  privileges  were 
confirmed,  and  the  title  changed  to  that  of  the 

li'oyal  College  of  Surgeons  in  London,  in  1800. 
The  college  received  a  new  charter,  :md  its 
name  was  changed  to  the  "Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England,"  in  1844.  Power  to  hold 
examinations  and  grant  certificates  v. 
firmed  by  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  90,  stat.  48  (Aug.  a, 
1858).  This  statute  took  effect  from  Oct.  i, 
in  that  year.  The  hall  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields, 
erected  in  1800,  was  rebuilt  from  designs  by 
C.  Barry  iu  1836.  The  annual  cornmemoratory 
oration  is  delivered  Feb.  14. 

SURGERY  was  practised  with  considerable 
skill  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Hippocrates, 
of  the  school  of  Cos,  is  pre-eminent  for  the 
degree  of  advancement  to  which  he  brought 
the  art,  B.C.  400.  The  practice  of  dissecting 
the  human  subject  did  much  to  improve  it, 
and  was  commenced  by  Erasistratus,  at  Alex- 
andria, in  the  3rd  century.  It  was  long 
discountenanced  among  the  Romans,  who 
were  enjoined  by  public  edicts  to  follow  the 
good  old  plan  of  healing,  through  the  me- 
dium of  religious  incantation.  Asclepiades 
made  some  efforts  to  break  through  the  po- 
pular superstition,  B.C.  96.  Celsus  enjoyed 
considerable  celebrity  as  an  operator  about 
17.  Claudius  Galen,  of  Pergamus,  in  Asia 
Minor,  who  ultimately  settled  at  Rome,  at- 
tained great  eminence  (130 — 200).  It  was 
practised  by  the  Jews  on  those  of  their  own 
nation,  and  also  on  Christians  and  Moham- 
medans, in  the  i2th  century;  and  by  the 


monks,  against  whom  Pope  Innocent  II. 
launched  prohibitions,  threatening  them  with 
severe  penalties,  in  1139.  Pitard  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  at  Paris 
n  1271.  Vesalius  brought  the  light  of  anatomy 
to  bear  upon  it  in  1540,  and  Ambrose  Pare", 
surgeon  to  four  successive  kings  of  France, 
exerted  great  influence  upon  his  profession 
(1509 — 1590).  Wiseman,  sergeant-surgeon  to 
Charles  II.,  wrote  extensively  on  the  art  in 
1676  ;  and  Harvey  is  known  by  his  discoveries 
in  1628.  Other  distinguished  names  in  Eng- 
land are  Percival  Pott  (1713 — 1788) ;  John 
Hunter  (1728 — 1793) ;  Cheselden,  the  success- 
ful lithotomist  (1688— 1752) ;  Monro,  his  pupil 
(1697 — 1767};  Abernethy  (1764—1831);  and 
(1768—1841).  (See  MKDICINE.) 

SURINAM  South  America1!.— The  coast  of 
Dutch  Guiana,  on  which  the  colony  of  Suri- 
nam is  situated,  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  Aug.,  1498,  and  was  visited  by  Sir  W.  Ra- 
leigh in  1595.  Surinam  was  visited  by  the 
French  in  1640,  was  taken  by  the  English  in 
1650,  and  granted  by  charter  of  Charles  II.  to 
Lord  Willoughby  in  1652.  The  Dutch  wrested 
it  from  the  English  in  1667.  It  was  shortly 
afterwards  retaken,  but  was  ceded  to  the 
Dutch  in  1669.  By  the  peace  of  Westminster, 
signed  in  1674,  it  was  allotted  to  the  Dutch,  in 
'C  for  the  province  of  New  York. 
Coffee  was  planted  here  in  1718.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1799  ;  restored  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  March  25,  1802  ;  recaptured 
May  5,  1804 ;  and'again  restored  to  Holland  in 
1814. 

SURNAMES,  or  SIRNAMES.— The  former 
signifies  names  over  and  above  Christian 
nam'es  ;  and  the  latter,  names  derived  from 
a  sire  or  father.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
used  patronymic  appellations,  in  addition  to 
their  own  individual  names.  Camdeii  states 
that  surnames  first  became  fixed  in  France  in 
1000,  and  that  the  practice  of  distinguishing 
English  families  by  them  WHS  established 
after  the  Norman  conquest.  Hallam  says  they 
originated  in  the  nth  century,  when  "the 
nobility  began  to  add  the  names  of  their 
estates  to  their  own ;  or,  having  any  way 
acquired  a  distinctive  appellation,  transmitted 
it  to  their  posterity."  The  use  of  surnames 
in  a  few  instances  may  be  traced  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  ioth  century,  though  they  did 
not  become  general  till  the  isth.  The  ancient 
Scotch  prefix  Mac,  signifying  son,  and  the 
Irish  O',  or  grandson,  are  still  common.  The 
English  commoners  also  added  "son"  to  the 
father's  Christian  name,  and  thus  produced  a 
numerous  class  of  surnames.  (See  NAMES.) 

SURPLICE  became  an  ecclesiastical  vest- 
ment at  an  early  date,  and  was  probably 
derived  from  the  white  linen  ephod  of  the 
Jewish  priests.  The  custom  of  wearing 
white  garments  by  priests  is  mentioned  by 
St.  Jerome  as  early  as  376.  By  the  i2th  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Narbonne,  Nov.  i,  589,  the 
clergy  were  directed  not  to  take  off  the  alb 
(probably  at  that  time  the  same  with  the  sur- 
plice) till  after  mass.  The  word  surplice  was 
introduced  about  the  isth  century. 

SURPRISE  or  SURPRISING  PLOT.— (-See 
BYE  PLOT  and  MAIN  PLOT.) 


SURREY 


[    947 


SUTTEE 


SURREY  (England).— This  county  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sussex,  founded  by 
Ella  in  491.  It  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Wessex  in  725,  was  subsequently  conquered 
by  the  King  of  Mercia,  and  again  reverted  to 
Wessex,  under  Egbert,  in  823.  The  arch- 
deaconry of  Surrey  was  founded  about  1120, 
and  sheriffs  were  first  appointed  by  Henry  II., 
Oct.  23,  1154.  Thomas  Holland,  Earl  of  Kent, 
was  created  Duke  of  Surrey,  Sep.  29,  1397, 
but  the  title  was  forfeited  in  1400.  An  eccle- 
siastical commission  to  inquire  into  all  church 
matters  in  this  county  was  issued  by  Crom- 
well, Dec.  7,  1657. 

SURREY  THEATRE  (London).— The  Royal 
Circus  Theatre  received  the  name  of  the  Surrey 
Theatre  in  April  23,.  1810.  This  theatre  was 
burned  down  at  the  close  of  a  representation 
of  the  Christmas  pantomime,  Jan.  30,  1865, 
when,  owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  hour, 
no  lives  were  lost.  It  was  rebuilt  and  re- 
opened Dec.  26,  1865. 

SURREY  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  (Lon- 
don) were  established  in  1831  by  Cross,  who 
collected  the  menagerie  he  had  exhibited 
at  Exeter  Change  [q.  T.)  at  this  spot.  A 
company  purchased  the  gardens  in  1856,  and 
erected  a  large  building  called  the  Surrey 
Music  Hall,  opened  July  15,  1856.  It  was  en- 
gaged by  the  friends  of  Charles  Spurgeon  for 
preaching.  Upwards  of  9,000  persons  were 
attracted  here  Sunday,  Oct.  19,  1856,  and 
during  the  sermon  a  cry  of  fire  was  raised, 
which  created  a  general  panic.  Seven  persons 
lost  their  lives,  and  above  30  were  seriously 
injured.  It  was  burned  down  June  n,  1861. 

SURTEES  SOCIETY,  for  the  publication 
of  unedited  manuscripts  illustrative  of  the 
moral,  intellectual,  religious,  and  social  con- 
dition of  the  inhabitants  between  the  Hurnber 
and  the  Frith  of  Forth  on  the  east,  and  the 
Mersey  and  the  Clyde  on  the  west,  taking  its 
name  from  Robert  Suz-tees,  of  Mainforth,  was 
formed  in  1834. 

SUSA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Segusio,  capital 
of  the  Gaulish  King  Cottius,  became  tributary 
to  the  Romans  about  B.C.  65.  It  was  incor- 
porated with  the  empire  and  became  a  muni- 
cipal town  54 — 68,  and  was  burned  by  the 
Emperor  Frederick  I.  in  1174.  A  conference 
was  held  here  by  France,  Savoy,  and  Venice 
in  1624.  The  pass  was  forced  by  Louis  XIII. 
of  France,  who  defeated  the  Spaniards,  and, 
on  their  suing  for  peace,  a  treaty  was  signed 
here  1629,  Captured  by  the  French  marshal 
Catinat,  Nov.  12,  1690,  it  was  recovered  by 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  1691.  The  fortress  of 
La  Brunetta,  constructed  from  the  solid  rock 
by  Charles-Emanuel  III.,  was  destroyed  by 
the  French  in  1796. 

SUSA  (Persia)  is  supposed  to  have  existed 
as  early  as  B.C.  600.  It  was  the  capital  of 
Susiana  (q.  r.},  and  was  taken,  with  all  its 
treasures,  by  Alexander  III.,  B.C.  331.  The 
seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Babylon  to  Susa  B.C.  330.  Antigonus  took 
Susa.  B.C.  315. 

SUSIANA  (Persia).— Sennacherib  conquered 
this  extensive  province,  the  Elam  of  Scripture, 
in  southern  Asia  (B.C.  688 — B.C.  680).  A  cam- 
paign of  four  years'  duration,  was  waged 


j  between  Assyria  and  the  allied  Babylonians 
and  Susianiaiis,  Alexander  III.  captured  its 
capital,  Susa,  B.C.  331. 

SUSPENDING  POWER,  to  nullify. the  ope- 
ration of  any  statute,  was  claimed  by  Charles 
II.  as  inherent  in  him,  and  was  exercised  with 
the  professed  object  of  mitigating  the  rigours 
of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  Dec.  26,  1663;  and 
again  in  regard  to  the  penal  laws  against 
Nonconformists,  March  15,  1672. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES  of  chain  are  found 
in  China,  and  of  rope  in  Bhotanand  S.  America. 
A  suspension  bridge  was  proposed  for  crossing 
the  Rhine  in  1807,  and  one  for  the  Mersey,  at 
Runcorn  Gap,  in  1814.  The  Union  Bridge 
across  the  Tweed,  near  Berwick,  was  con- 
structed upon  the  improved  principles  of  Sir 
Samuel  Brown,  and  opened  in  1820.  Telford's 
suspension  bridge  across  the  Menai  Strait  was 
opened  Jan.  30,  1826.  The  first  erected  near 
London  was  at  Hammersmith,  commenced  in 
1825.  Hungerford  suspension  bridge,  designed 
by  I.  K.  Brunei,  was  opened  April  18,  and  for 
general  traffic,  May  i,  1845,  and  removed  in 
1862.  Chelsea  suspension  bridge  was  opened 
March  28,  1858.  A  suspension  bridge  of  steel 
was  erected  over  the  Danube  at  Vienna  in  1827 
and  1828  ;  and  an  iron  one  across  the  same 
river,  constructed  by  Tierney  Clark,  in  1849, 
is  considered  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
Lambeth  suspension  bridge  was  opened  Nov. 
n,  1862. 

SUSSEX  (England)  was  held  by  the  Regni 
at  the  Roman  invasion,  B.C.  55.  Ella,  witl}  his 
three  sons,  landed  and  commenced  to  found 
the  South  Saxon  kingdom,  in  477.  Having 
taken  Andreds-cester,  he  assumed  the  title  of 
king  in  491,  and  was  chosen  Bretwalda  in 
492.  Wilfred,  Archbishop  of  York,  introduced 
Christianity  about  680.  It  was  united  to 
Wessex  in  687. 

SUSSEX  COLLEGE.-(&e  SIDNEY  SUSSEX 

OLLEGE.) 

SUTLEJ  (Hindostan),  variously  called,  in 
ancient  times,  Hyphasis,  Hypasis,  Bibasis, 
Hypanis,  and  in  the  Sanscrit,  Satadru,  form- 
ng  the  limit  of  Alexander  the  Third's  march, 
B.C.  327,  where  he  erected  12  altars,  equal  to 
the  highest  fortifications  on  its  banks,  as 
monuments  of  his  victories,  and  to  define 
the  extent  of  his  empire.  (See  ALIWAL, 

SOBRAON,    &C.) 

SUTRI  (Italy),  the  ancient  Sutrium,  at 
one  time  an  Etruscan  city,  was  attacked  by 
the  Romans,  B.C.  391.  It  was  taken  by  them 
B.C.  390,  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
Etruscans,  and  on  the  same  day  recovered  by 
the  Romans,  B.C.  389.  It  received  a  Roman 
colony  B.C.  383.  The  Etruscans  again  besieged 
it,  and  were  defeated  in  an  engagement  under 
its  walls,  B.  c.  3 1 1 .  It  was  occupied  by  Agrippa 
at  the  outbreak  ef  the  Perusian  war,  B.C.  41. 
A  council  held  here  1046  affirmed  the  right  of 
the  emperor  to  nominate  to  the  Holy  See,  and 
deposed  three  rival  popes.  The  anti-pope 
Gregory  VIII.  was  besieged  here  by  Pope 
Callixtus  II.  in  ii2i,  taken  prisoner,  and  car- 
ried to  Rome  seated  on  a  camel,  with  his  face 
to  the  tail,  and  a  bristling  hog-skin  for  a  robe. 
Another  council  was  held  here  in  Jan.,  1059. 

SUTTEE,  meaning  in  the  Sanscrit  a  chaste 
3  P  2 


SUZDAL 


SWEDEN 


and  virtuous  wife,  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
act  of  self-immolation  on  the  husband's  fu- 
neral pile,  practised  by  the  Hindoo  women  in 
India.  It  is  spoken  of  by  writers  of  the  age  of 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great).  Diodorus  relates 
an  instance  B.C.  300.  A  regulation  passed 
by  the  governor-general,  Lord  W.  Beritinck,  in 
council,  Dec.  14,  1829,  declared  the  practice  of. 
burning  the  widows  of  Hindoos  illegal. 

SUZDAL,  or  SOUZDAL  (Russia).— This  pro- 
vince was  erected  into  a  distinct  principality 
by  Anrcj  in  1157,  and  was  conquered  by  the 
Golden  Horde  in  1238. 

SWABIA,  or  SUABIA  (Germany),  originally 
called  Alemannia,  took  its  present  name 
from  the  Suevi,  and  was  subdued  by  the 
Franks,  under  Clovis  I.,  in  496.  It  was  united 
to  Austrasia,  under  Sigebert  I.,  son  of  Clotaire 
I.,  in  561.  Christianity  was  introduced  by 
St.  Columba,  in  the  6th  century.  Charles  the 
Fat  obtained  it  as  part  of  his  kingdom  of  East 
France  in  876.  It  was  included  in  the  country 
of  Franconia  in  890,  and  erected  into  a  duchy 
in  916.  The  duchy  was  made  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen  (7.  v.), 
by  Henry  IV.  in  1081.  The  line  became 
extinct  on  the  execution  of  Conradin,  Oct.  29, 
1268.  Swabia  was  made  one  of  the  six  circles 
of  the  empire  in  1512. 

SWA  151  AN  LEAGUE,  or  the  GREAT  SWA- 
BIAN  LEAGUE,  to  put  down  private  wars 
and  maintain  the  public  peace,  was  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Emperor  Frederick 
III.  in  1488,  and,  together  with  the  trim] is  of 
the  empire,  made  such  a  demonstration  against 
Albert,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  as  reduced  him  to 
submission  and  brought  him  into  their  alliance, 
in  1492.  The  League  deprived  Ulrich  V.  of  Wlir- 
temberg  of  his  duchy,  for  breach  of  the  public 
peace,  in  1519,  and  sold  the  territory  to  Austria 
in  1520.  Its  army,  numbering  16,000  men, 
under  the  command  of  George  Truchsess, 
destroyed  several  castles  of  the  Franconian 
knights  in  1523.  The  peasants,  who  in  June, 
1524,  grew  refractory,  rose  in  insurrection 
against  the  nobles  in  1525.  After  several 
engagements,  they  were  crushed  by  the  army 
of  the  League,  united  with  the  troops  of  the 
Elector  Palatine,  at  Konigshofen,  June  2,  1525. 
The  League  effected  the  destruction  of  above 
140  strongholds  of  nobles  and  banditti,  from 
its  establishment  to  its  dissolution  in  1533. 
The  cities  of  Swabia  and  of  the  Rhine  entered 
into  a  confederation  against  the  Barons  in  1370, 
and  this  is  known  as  the  first  Swabiaii  League. 
This  was  the  germ  of  the  Great  Swabian 
League  in  the  next  century. 

SWAN  PAN.— (See  ABACUS,  CALCULATING 
MACHINE,  &c.) 

SWAN  RIVER.— (See  WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.) 

SWANS  were  only  allowed  to  be  kept  by 
possessors  of  freehold  lands  and  tenements 
valued  at  five  marks  per  annum,  free  of  charge, 
by  22  Edw.  IV.  c.  6  (1483).  By  u  Hen.  VII. 
c.  17  (1497),  the  taking  of  their  eggs  was 
prohibited. 

SWANSEA  (Glamorganshire),  called  Aber- 
taw  in  Welsh,  from  its  position  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Tawy,  was  made  a  corporate 
town  in  1835.  The  castle,  built  by  Henry 
Beaumont,  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  uoo,  was 


used  as  a  debtors'  prison  till  1859.  The  first 
copper- works  were  established  in  1719,  and 
the  first  cargo  of  foreign  ore  arrived  in  1827. 
An  act  was  passed  for  improving  the  harbour 
in  1791.  The  free  grammar-school  was  founded 
in  1682;  the  town-hall  in  1827;  the  market- 

Elace,  built  at  a  cost  of  ,£20,000,  was  opened 
i  1830;  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Chapel  was 
erected  in  1846  ;  the  new  fish-market  in  1847  ; 
the  Unitarian  Chapel  in  1847.  Tne  National 
Schools  were  opened  111,1848  ;  and  the  floating 
dock  was  constructed  in  1859. 

SWANWIC  (Sea-fight).  — Alfred  the  Great 
defeated  the  Danish  fleet  off  this  place,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  modern  Swansea,  in  877. 

SWEABORG,  or  SVEABORG  (Finland),  was 
built  by  Gustavus  I.  of  Sweden  (1523 — 60),  and 
burned  during  the  war  with  Russia  in  1728. 
Admiral  Greig  attacked  the  Swedes  in  the 
roads  off  the  town,  capturing  and  burning  the 
Gustavus  Adol/jhux,  of  68  guns,  whilst  the 
Russians  blockading  the  harbour  effectually 
prevented  the  egress  of  their  fleet,  in  1788.  It 
was  invested  by  the  Russians  in  the  first  week 
of  March,  and  surrendered  by  the  Swedish 
commander,  after  a  three  weeks'  siege,  with 
2,000  pieces  of  cannon  and  a  large  flotilla,  in 
1808.  Admirals  Dundas  and  Penaud  brought 
their  vessels  into  battle  array  before  it  Aug.  8, 
1855  ;  the  bombardment  commenced  in  the 
morning,  Aug.  9,  and,  after  destroying  a  great 
amount  of  property,  though  little  damage 
was  done  to  the  fortifications,  the  French  and 
English  fleets  returned  to  Nargen  Aug.  n. 

SW  EARING.— Swearing  on  the  Gospels  was 
introduced  about  528.  By  21  James  I.  c.  20 
(1623),  cursing  and  swearing  constitute  an 
offence  punishable  by  law,  and  a  series  of  fines 
may  be  imposed  on  offenders  by  19  Geo.  II.  c. 
21  (1746).  The  last-mentioned  act  contained  a 
clause  ordering  it  to  be  read  in  churches  four 
times  a  year.  This  provision  was  abolished  by 
4  Geo.  IV.  c.  31  (May  30,  1823).  By  the  second 
article  of  war,  22  Geo.  II.  c.  33  (1749),  seamen 
in  the  royal  navy  guilty  of  this  vice  are  liable 
to  trial  by  court-martial. 

SWEATING  SICKNESS,  or  SUDOR 
ANGLICUS,  first  appeared  in  the  army  of  the 
Earl  of  Richmond  on  its  landing  at  Milford 
Haven,  Aug.  7,  1485.  It  reached  London  Sep. 
21,  and  after  carrying  off  several  thousand 
victims,  ceased  in  Oct.  In  the  summers  of 
1506,  1517,  and  1528,  it  reappeared,  and  it 
again  broke  out  at  Shrewsbury,  where  it 
raged  from  April  to  Sep.,  1551,  and  spread 
over  the  whole  kingdom.  Holland,  Germany, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  part  of  Russia 
were  visited  by  it  between  1525  and  1530.  It 
broke  out  in  Amsterdam,  where  it  proved 
very  fatal,  Sep.  27,  1529.  Though  it  has  dis- 
appeared since  1551,  great  dread  of  its  return 
prevailed  in  1619. 

SWEDEN.— This  country  was  anciently  in- 
habited by  the  Gothoiies,  and  the  people,  like 
the  other  Scandinavian  nations,  regard  Odin 
as  the  author  of  their  civilization  : — 


B.C. 

•70.  Odin  is  said  to  have  arrived  in  the  North. 
A.D. 

813.  Christianity  is   introduced,   according    to  Swedish 
historians. 


SWEDEN 


t    949 


SWEDEN 


A.D. 

1000.  The  Swedes  and  Danes  defeat  Olaf  I.  of  Norway 

and  divide  his  kingdom  between  them. 

1001.  Olaf    Skotkonung  ascends  the  throne  and  estab- 

lishes Christianity. 

1379.  Valdemar  I.  is  compelled  to  abdicate. 
1319.  On  the  death  of  Haco  VII.  of  Norway,  the  sceptre 

of    that  kingdom    devolves    on  Magnus  II.    o: 

Swedes. 
1389.  Albert  I.  is  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Margaret 

of  Denmark. 
1397)  July  12.  Sweden  is  united  to  Denmark  and  Norway 

by  the  Union  of  Calmar. 
1439.  The  Swedes  depose  Eric  of  Pomerania. 
1448.  Sweden  recovers  her  independence  under  Charles 

Knutson. 
1470.  Sten  Sture  obtains  the  protectorate  of  Sweden. 

1476.  The  university  of  Upsal  is  founded  by  Sten  Sture. 

1477.  Christian  I.  of  Denmark  relinquishes  his  claim  to 

the  Swedish  throne. 
1481.  Sten  Sture,  administrator  of  Sweden,  opposes  John 

of  Denmark. 
1497,  Nov.  19.  Sweden  is  again  reduced  to  submission  by 

John  of  Denmark. 
1500,  Feb.  John  invades  Sweden  and  is  defeated  by  the 

insurgents,  at  the  battle  of  Meldorp,  with  the  loss 

of  1 1,000  men. 
1503.  Death  of  Sten  Sture. 
1517.  Sten  Sture   the  Younger  heads  the  Swedes,  who 

make  war  to  abolish  the  Union  of  Calmar. 

1530.  Christian   II.  of    Denmark  invades  Sweden,  kills 

Sten  Sture  the  Younger  in  battle  at  Bogesuud 
(q.  v.),  and  massacres  the  Swedish  nobility. 

1531,  May.  Gustavus  I.  (Vasa)  lands  at  Calmar  and  takes 

the  field  against  the  Danes,  at  the  head  of  3,000 

men. 
1 533.  Gustavus  I.  expels  the  Danes  and  is  called  to  the 

throne. 

1525.  Gustavus  I.  establishes  the  independence  of  Sweden. 
1527.  Gustavus  I.  establishes  Lutheranism. 
1529.  The  Romish  worship  is  formally  abolished. 
1533.  Christian    II.   of  Denmark  fails  in  an  attempt  to 

recover  Sweden. 
1514.  The  Swedish  crown  is  declared  hereditary. 

1566.  Eric  XIV.  assassinates  Nils  Sture. 

1567.  The  Swedes  invade  Norway. 

1568.  Eric  XIV.  is  compelled  to  abdicate  by  his  brother 

John,  Duke  of  Finland. 

1576.  John  III.  marries  the  Roman  Catholic  Princess 
Catherine  of  Poland,  and  becomes  involved  in 
religious  difficulties  with  his  subjects  in  conse- 
quence. 

-       1592.  Blgumimd  III.  of  Poland  succeeds  to  the  Swedish 
crown. 

1594.  Duke  Charles,  brother  of  John  III.,  compels  Sigis- 
mund  III.  to  quit  Sweden. 

1597.  Sigismund  III.  is  restored  by  the  diet  of  Arboga. 

1600.  The  States  refuse  their  allegiance  to  Sigismund  III., 
on  account  of  his  Roman  Catholic  tendencies. 

1638.  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus)  is  made  general  of  the 
Protestant  allies  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 

1629.  Gustavus  II.   agrees   to   a  six    years'    truce    with 

Poland.— Sep.  26.  Treaty  of  Lund  (q.  v.). 

1630,  June  24.  Gustavus  II.  invades  Germany  with  15,000 

men. 
1633,  Nov.  16.  Gustavus  II.  is  slain  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen 

1635.  The  truce  with  Poland  is  renewed  for  26  years. 

1636,  March  20.  An  alliance  against  Austria  is  concluded 

with  France  at  Wismar. 

1643.  War  is  commenced  with  Germany  and  Denmark. 
164$.  Sweden  is  raised  to  a  high  position  by  the  peace  of 

Westphalia. 

1654,  June  16.  Queen  Christina  abdicates  in  favour  of  her 

cousin  Charles  X.  (Gusiavus). 

1655.  Charles  X.  subjugates  Poland. 
1658.  Charles  X.  invades  Denmark. 

1660,  May  3.  Peace  with  Poland  is  restored  by  the  treaty 

of  Oliva  (,. ».). 
1668,  Jan.  13.  Sweden  unites  with  England  and  Holland 

against  France. 

1673.  April  14.  Sweden  withdraws  from  the  Triple  al- 

liance and  concludes  a  treaty  with  France  at 
Stockholm. 

1674.  Charles  XI.  invades  Brandenburg. 

1675.  War  is  commenced  with  Denmark. 
1677,  July  14.  Battle  of  Lanscrona  (q.  v.). 

1679,  Oct.  6.  Peace  with  Denmark  is  restored  by  the 
treaty  of  Lund. 


1680.  The  senate  is  deprived  of  its  legislative  power. 
1689,  April  19.  The  ex-queen  Christina  dies  at  Kome. 
1693.  An  act  is  passed  declaring  the  king's  authority 

absolute. 
1699.  TIle  Kings  of  Denmark  and  Poland  unite  with  the 

Czar  against  Sweden. 
1709,  Nov.  30.  Charles  XJI.  defeats  the  Russians  at  Narva 

'      (q.  t\). 

1701.  Charles  XII.  invades  Poland. 
1706,  Sep.  24  (O.  S.).  Peace  with  Poland  is  restored  by  the 

treaty  of  Alt-Hanstadt. 
1709,  July  8.  Battle  of  Poltava  (q.  p.).   Charles  XII.  takes 

refuge  at  Bender  (q.  v.). 

1714.  Charles  XII.  leaves  Bender  and  returns  to  Sweden. 
1716.  Charles  XII.  invades  Norway. 

1718,  Dec.  1 1.  Charles  XII.  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frede- 

rickshall  (q.v.). — He  is  succeeded  by  his  sister 
Ulrica  Eleauora,  who  restores  the  free  consti- 
tution. 

1719,  Jan.  26.  The  crown  is  declared  elective. — Nov.   20. 

Bremen  and  Verden  are  ceded  to  Hanover  by  the 
treaty  of  Stockholm. 

1730,  June  14.  The  peace  of  Stockholm  is  concluded  with 

Denmark. 
1721,  Aug.  30.  Treaty  of  Nystadt  (q.v.). 

1731.  The  East  India  Company  of  Sweden  is  formed  at 

Gottenberg. 

1738.  Rise  of  the  factions  of  the  Caps  and  Hats  (q.  v.). 

1739.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  is  founded  under  the 

presidency  of  Liuneeus. 
741,  Aug.  War  is  declared  against  Russia. 
743.  Frederickshamm  (q.  v.)  is  taken  by  the  Russians. 
1743,  Aug.  I7*(O.S.).  Treaty  of  Abo. 

1756.  Execution  of  Count  Brahe,   Baron  Horn,  and  six 

other  noblemen,  for  conspiring  to  restore  absolute 
monarchy. 

1757.  Sweden  takes  part  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  (q.  v.). 
1773,  Aug.  i.  The  senate  is  abolished. 

1788.  War  is  declared  against  liussia  and  Denmark. 

1789.  Many  nobles  are  imprisoned,  and  the  King  assumes 

the  sole  arbitration  of  peace  and  war. 
[790.  Gustavus  III.  destroys  Frederickshamm. — Aug.  14. 

1'eace  with  Russia  is  restored  by  treaty. 
[793,  March  16.  Gustavus  III.  is  shot  at  a  masquerade 

by  Count  Ankerstrom. — March  29.  Gustavus  III. 

dies.  . 

1803.  A  censorship  of  the  press  is  established. 
805.  Sweden  joins  England  and  Russia  against  France. 
[807.  The  Swedes  invade  Norway. 
80 j,  March   13.  (iustavus  IV.  is  deposed  by  his  uncle, 

the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  who  succeeds  as  Charles 

XIII. — June  6.  The  new  constitution  is  adopted. — 

Sep.  17.  Treaty  of  Frederickshamm  (q.  v.). 
810,  June    20.     The     Swedish     Government    prohibits 

intercourse  with    England. — Aug.   jji.     Marshal 

Bemadotte  is  declared  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden. 

— Sep  36.  The  royal  succession  is  settled  by  law. 

-•-Nov.  17.    Sweden  declares  war  against  Great 

Britain. 
813,  Jan.  9.  Napoleon   I.  seizes  Pomerania  and  Riige:i. 

— July   18.  Sweden  concludes  an  alliance  with 

Great  Britain  at  Orebro. 

813,  Sep.  5.  Denmark  declares  war  against  Sweden. 

814,  Jun.    14.    The    Swedes   capture  Holstein   (q.  v.). — 

Treaty  of  Kiel  (q.  v.). 

818,  Feb.  5.  Death  of  Charles  XHL,  who  is  succeeded 
by  Bemadotte,  under  the  title  of  Charles  John 
XIV. 

836,  May   18.  A  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation  is 

concluded  with  Great  Britain. 
827.  The  government  is  unpopular. 

837,  Feb.  7.  Death  of  the  ex-king  Gustavus  IV. 

844,  March  8.  Death  of  Charles  John  XIV.  (Bemadotte), 
who  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Oscar. 

854,  Jan.  2.   Sweden  announces   her  neutrality  in  the 

Eastern  question.— Dec.  23.  The  army  is  ordered^ 
to  be  placed  on  a  war  footing. 

855,  Nov.   31.  An   alliance  is  concluded  with  England 

and  France. 

857,  S^ix  n.  In  consequence  of  the  illness  of  King 
Oscar,  the  hereditary  prince  is  declared  regent  of 
the  kingdom 

859,  July  8.  Death  of  King  Oscar,  who  is  succeeded  by 

his  son  Charles  XV. 

860,  May  3.  Charles  XV.   and  his  queen,  Louisa,  nro 

solemnly  crowned  at  Stockholm. — May  31.  The 
laws  prohibiting  secession  from  the  established 
(Lutheran)  religion  are  abolished. 


SWEDENBORGIANS 


[    950    ] 


SWITZERLAND 


A.D. 

1663,  April  7.  The  Swedish  Government  addresses  the 
Russian  Government  on  the  Polish  question.— 
July  19.  The  Swdish  Government,  in  a  despatch 
addressed  to  the  English  and  French  Gn\cru- 
ments,  declare  <  that  it  may  be  compelled  to 
in  erveiie  in  the  war  between  Denmark  and  the 

1864,  Jan.  22.  Sweden  protests  against  the  occupation  of 

Sleswi-r  by  the  Austrians  and  Prussians. —.March. 
Popular  demonstrations  take  place  in  favour  of 
ftrk. — April.  Sweden  arms  both  by  sea  and 
land. — July  11.  Sweden  declares  in  favour  of 
neutrality,  and  warlike  preparation  - 
peiided. — July  30.  Many  restrictions  on  manufac- 
tures are  removed  by  proclamation.— Nov. .;.  The 
5oth  anniversary  of  the  union  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  is  celebrated.— Pee.  The  National  Scan- 
dinavian Society,  the  object  of  which 
a  confederation  between  the  three  Scandinavian 
powers,  is  formed  at  Stockholm. 

1865,  March   I.  The  commission   !tj:;>ninted  to  revise  the 

treaty   of  union   between    Sweden    and  Norway 
meeti  at  Stockholm. — Nov.  26.  Much  . 
prevails  at  Stockholm.— Dec.  4 — 8.  The  new  con- 
stitution is  adopted. 

1866,  Feb.  9.  The  treaty  of    commerce  concluded   with 

Franee  is  sanctioned  by  the  Diet,— June  22.  The 
last  Diet  assembled  under  the  old  law  of  1809  is 
Ived. 


"      KINGS   OF   SWEDEN. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

loot.  Olaf  Skotkoniinjr. 

1523.  Gustavus  I.  (Vasa). 

1026.  Edmund  <  < 

I'ifo.  Eric  XIV. 

;  mid  .Slemine. 

u  III. 

1056.  Stcnkie. 
1066.  Hnl.il  ;in. 

,  innd     III.,      of 
Poland. 

logo.  Ingo  1.,  tin 

1604.  Charles  IX. 

ii  12.  Philip. 

1611.  Gustavus   II.    (Adol- 

II  1*.    Ingo  II. 

phH»). 

1129.  Sw.'i'Ucr  I. 

1632.  Interregnum. 

1150.  Eric  X. 

1633.   Christina. 

rial  vn. 

ante. 

lf>S4.   Charles  X.,  Ciustavus. 
1660.  Chi.i" 

1192.  Swerker  II. 

1697.  Charles  XII. 

1210.   Krie  X!. 

1718.  Ulrica   Kleonora    and 

1220.  John  I. 

rid    "i  I!'--- 

1223-  Erie  XI  I. 

1350.  Interregnum  —  Birger 

1741.  Frederick,  alone. 

Jarl,  ; 
1251.  Valdema,-  I. 

1751.  Adolphus  Frederick. 
1771.  GustnviK  ill. 

_!111S    1. 

1290.  Birger  1  i. 

1792.  Gustavus  IV. 
1809.  Charles  XIII. 

...us  II. 

[8l&   Charl.'S     John    XIV., 

1365.  Albeit  I. 

(Bern;; 

1389.  Margaret  of  Norway. 

1844-  <  > 

(See  NORWAY.)     '     '  itijj.  Charles  XV. 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  named  after  Emanuel 
Swedenborg,  whose  name  was  Svedberg,  bom 
at  Stockholm,  Jan.  29,  1689,  and  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  29,  1772.  He  pretended  to  have 
immediate  intercourse  with  the  inhabitants  of 
the  invisible  world.  His  followers,  who  believe 
in  the  mission  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  to  pro- 
mulgate the  doctrines  of  the  New  Cimrch, 
signified  by  the  New  Jerusalem  in  the  Apo- 
calypse, numbered  five  persons  in  1783,  and 
had  increased  to  30  in  1787.  Their  first  public 
association  took  place  in  Great  Eastcheap  in 
1788.  The  Swedenborgian  Printing  Society 
was  established  in  1810,  and  the  Swedenbor- 
gian Missionary  and  Tract  Society  in  1821. 
(See  ALLEGORISTS,  MYSTICS,  &c.) 

SWEDISH  AMERICA  consists  of  the  island 
of  St.  Bartholomew  (g.  v.),  ceded  by  France  to 
Sweden  in  1784. 

SWEDISH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY  was 
formed  at  Gothenburg  in  1731. 

S  \VE.\K  A  S< ) UNI)  (Sea-fight).  —  The  Rus- 
sians, under  the  Prince  of  Nassau,  were 


defeated  in  this  bay  with  a  loss  of  4,500  men, 
by  Gustavus  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  July  9 
and  10,  1790. 

SWISS  GUARDS.— Dyer  (Europe,  vol.  i.  In- 
iys,  "In  the  course  of  the  i5th  century 
the  Swiss  began  to  adopt  the  singular  trade  of 
hiring  themselves  out  to  fight  the  battles  of 
foreigners."  The  Swiss  corps  in  France  was 
made  a  royal  guard  in  1616.  A  number  of 
them  were  murdered  by  the  mob  that  attacked 
.Marseilles  Oct.  6,  1789,  and  they  were  nearly 
exterminated  in  their  defence  of  the  Tuileries, 
Oct  10,  1792.  The  corps  was  reorganized  by 
Louis  XVIII.,  Sep.  i,  1815.  It  was  defeated 
during  the  three  days'  insurrection,  July  28, 
and  the  last  of  them  were  dismissed  at 
Valognes  by  Charles  X.  on  his  flight,  Aug.  10, 
1830. 

SWITIIIN'S  (ST.)  DAY.  —  The  saint,  who 
was  tutor  to  King  Kthelwulph,  and  King 
Alfred,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Rome,  was 
ordained  priest  by  llolmstan,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, in  830,  and  was  raised  to  the 
Winchester  in  852.  Mis  death  took  place  July 
2,  862.  He  was  buried,  by  his  own  request, 
in  the  churchyard  of  Winchester,  and  having- 
been  canonized  within  a  century,  the  monks 
wished  to  transfer  his  remains  to  the  cathe- 
dral, and  selected  July  15  for  that  purpose. 
The  proceeding  was  delayed  for  40  days  by 
rain,  and  hence  the  popular  tradition  con- 
nected with  his  day.  His  festival  in  the 
Roman  martyrology  is  July  2,  but  in  England 
it  was  July  15. 

SWITZERLAND  (Europe'    was,  in  ancient 
Inhabited    by    the     Helvetii,    a   Celtic 
i.cnplo,  and  from  them  it  received  the  name  of 
Helvetia.     The  Rh;  ne  parts 

of  the  country.  The  terms  Swiss  and  Switzer- 
!  land  came  into  use  about  1444,  after  the  expe- 
dition of  Charles  VII.  of  France.  The  story  of 
William  Tell  and  the  apple,  called  in  question 
in  the  i6th  century,  is  now  generally  dis- 
credited. The  legend  appears  to  be  an  imita- 
tion of  an  old  Danish  fable,  and  it  is  doubted 
whether  such  a  personage  as  William  Tell  ever 
existed.  But  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the 
native  accounts  of  occurrences  in  this  country 
during  the  i2th,  isth,  and  i4th  centuries. 

B.C. 

120.  The  country  is  inhabited  by  a  confederation  of  four 
Of  the  Hehelii. 

'  rini,  defeat  th 

consul  L.  Cassius  l.on;;inus,  on   the  banks  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva. 
61.  The  Helvetii  set  out  in  a  body  to  settle  in  the  fertile 

distiictsof  Gaul. 

58.  The  Romans,  under  Julius  Caesar,  defeat  the  Hel- 
vetii with  great  slaughter. 
A.r>. 
69.  An  insurrection  against  the  Romans  is  suppressed 

with  much  cruelty. 

450.  The  Burgundians  form  a  settlement  in   one  part, 
and  the  Alemanni  in  another  part  of  the  country, 
reducing  the  inhabitants  to  a  state  of  serfdom. 
534.  The   Franks   conquer  the    country,   and    establish 
Christianity,  which   had  been  introduced  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  domination. 
840.  It  is  divided  between  Louis  of  IJavaria  and  Lothaire 

I.,  Emperor  and  King  of  Italy. 
889.  Count  Rodolph  is  proclaimed  King  of  Burgundian 

Helvetia. 
1016.  It  is  bequeathed  to  the   Fmperor    Henry  II.    by 

Rodolph  III. 

1032.  The  whole  country  is  incorporaied  «  ith  the  German 
empire  under  Conrad  1 1 . 


SWITZERLAND 


SWORD 


1097.  Henry  IV.  appoints  Berthold  of  Zahringen  imperial 
warden. 

1364.  Rodolph  of  Habsburg,  by  various  inheritances 
becomes  one  of  the  most  powerful  lords. 

1373.  Rodolpli  is  elected  emperor,  and  rules  over  the 
country. 

1307,  Nov.  4.  The  leaders  of  the  cantons  of  Schwyz, 
U'ri,  and  Unterwalden  (the  Forest  Cantons)  are 
saidto  have  endeavoured  to  throw  off  the  Austrian 
yoke  and  to  have  formed  the  confederation  of 
Schwyz,  which  afterwards  gave  its  name  to  the 
whole  country.  This  is  the  year  to  which  the 
Tell  legend  is  referred. 

1315,  Nov.  15.  Battle  of  Morgarten. 

1333.  Lucerne  (q.  ».)  joins  the  Confederacy. 

1352.  Eight  cantons  form  a  perpetual  league,  the  origin  of 
the  Confederation. 

1386,  July  9.  Battle  of  Sempach  (q. ».). 

1388,  April  9.  Battle  of  Nafels. 

1389.  A  20  years'  truce  is  concluded  with  Austria. 
1415.  The  cantons  invade  and  divide  the  Aargau. 
I4i«.  Ticino  is  invaded  and  annexed. 

1436.  A  civil  war  breaks  out  between  Zurich  and  the 
cantons. 

1444.  Zurich  is  besieged  by  the  cantons.— Aug.  26.  A 
battle  takes  place  outside  the  walls  of  Basel  (See 
JACOB,  ST.),  between  the  troops  of  the  French 
King,  Charles  VII.,  under  the  dauphin  Louis, 
and  the  Swiss,  which  results  in  the  exter- 
mination of  the  latter.  It  is  followed  by  a 
truce. 

145?.  Sigismund,  Duke  of  Austria,  mortgages  to  Zurich 
the  town  of  Winterthur,  his  last  remaining  pos- 
session in  the  country. 

1470,  Aug.  13.  A  treaty  is  signed  at  Berne  with 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  against  Charles  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

1476,  March  z  or  3.  Battle  of  Granson. — June  33.   Battle 

of  Morat. 

1477,  Jan.   5.  Charles  of  Burgundy  is  killed   at  Nanci. 

The  states  of  Upper  Burgundy  purchase  peace 
by  payment  of  150,000  florins. 

1480.  Owing  to  the  disbanding  of  troops,  the  country  is 

in  such  a  lawless  condition,  that  nearly  1,500 
assassins  and  robbers  are  condemned  to  death. 

1481.  The  federal  constitution  of  eight  Swiss  cantons  is 

defined  and  regulated  by  the  covenant  of  Stanby. 
Freiburg  and  Soleure  are  admitted  into  the  con- 
federacy. 

1499.  Maximilian  I.  makes  peace  with  the  Swiss. 

1501.  Basel  and  Schaffhausen  join  the  confederation. 

1513.  The  admission  of  Appen/el  into  the  confederation 
completes  the  number  of  13  cantons.  The  Re- 
formed doctrines  begin  to  spread. 

1531,  May  5.  A  treaty  is  concluded  at  Berne  with  the 
French. 

1533.  Zurich  accepts  the  Reformed  faith. 

1531.  Some  cantons  adopt  the  Reformed  faith,  and  a  war 
takes  place.— Oct.  13.  Battle  of  Cappel,  at  which 
the  Reformers  are  defeated,  and  Zwinglius  is 
slain. 

1536.  Berne  annexes  the  Pays  de  Vaud. 

1648.  The  confederation  is  acknowledged  as  an  inde- 
pendent state  bv  the  treaty  of  \Vestphalia. 

17:3,  Aug.  The  third  religious  war  terminates  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  suing  for  peace,  which  is  con- 
cluded at  Aargau. 

1738.  A  new  constitution  is  adopted  at  Geneva. 

1793.  The  territory  of  Basel  is  invaded  and  annexed  bv 
the  French. 

1797.  Valtelina,   Chiavonna,   and  Bormio,   are    annexed 

by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  to  the  Cisalpine  re- 
public. 

1798.  Revolt  in  Berne. — April.    Geneva    is  annexed    to 

France. — April.  The  Helvetian  republic  is  estab- 
lished. 

1799.  The  French  are  driven  from  the  central  cantons 

by  the  Russians  and  Austrians.  Masseua  defeats 
the  Russians  at  Zurich. 

1800.  The  Helvetian  directory  is  suppressed. 

1801.  The  French  evacuate  Switzerland.    A  general  diet 

is  summoned  to  re-organize  the  constitution. 
1803.  A  general  insurrection  having  broken  out,  Napoleon 

I.  offers  his  assistance  to  restore  order. — Feb.  19. 

The  Act  of  Mediation  is  promulgated. 
1813.  The  Act  is  repudiated  by  the  Allied  powers,  whose 

armies  pass  through  the  country  on  their  march 

to  France  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 


acknowledged  by  the  congress  of  Vienna.— Aug. 

federal  compact  is    " 
deputies  at  Zurich. 


7.  A  new 


1815,  March  20.    The  Independence  of    the   country  is 
of  Vienna.-A.Ji 
signed  by  all  tl 

1830.  The  revision  of  the  constitution  is  effected  in  most 
of  tiie  cantons  peaceably.  In  others  it  is  at- 
tended with  popular  commotion  and  bloodshed. 

1834.  Commotions  are  caused  by  Polish,  German,  and 
Italian  refugees,  who  are  expelled  the  country. 

1839.  A  law  of  the  diet  comes  into  operation  to  establish 
a  system  of  education  independent  of  the  clergy. 
It  creates  much  excitement,  and  causes  the  dis- 
solution of  the  government  at  Zurich. 

1844.  A  proposition  from  Aargau,  for  (he  expulsion  of  the 

Jesuits,  brought  before  the  diet,  is  rejected. 

1845.  The  Free  Corps  invade  Lucerne.— April.  They  are 

defeated. 

1846.  The  Sonderbund  (q.  v.)   is    formed    by    the    seven 

Roman  Catholic  cantons,  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unterwalden,  Freiburg,  Zug,  and  Valais,  to 
defend  themselves  against  the  Free  Corps. 

1847.  July  20.  A  resolution  of  the  diet  declares  the  Son- 

derbund illegal. — July  29.  It  decrees  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits.— Sep.  3.  The  Souderbund  resist 
the  decree  of  the  diet.— Nov.  13.  Its  army  is  de- 
feated at  Freiburg. — Nov.  24.  Its  army  is  de- 
feated at  Lucerne.  The  struggle  ends  in  the 
submission  of  the  league,  the  suppression  of  the 
monasteries,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits. 

1848.  Sep.   13.  A  new   constitution  is  promulgated,   the 

basis  of  which  is  a  federal  assembly,  a  federal 
council,  and  a  federal  tribunal.  Both  chambers 
of  the  federal  assembly  select  Benie  as  the  federal 
city. 

1859,  March    14.    The    cantons    declare  their  neutrality 

on  the  Italian  question.— July  15.  The  federal 
council  suppresses  all  foreign  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction on  Swiss  territory. — July  30.  The  Swiss 
are  prohibited  from  enlisting  under  foreign 
governments. 

1860,  March  14.  The  cantons  protest  against  the  annex- 

ation of  Savoy  to  France. — March  30.  A  band  of 
from  50  to  So  persons,  leaving  Geneva  for 
Chablais,  are  arrested  by  Swiss  troops. — Oct.  12. 
The  French  ambassador  leaves  Berne. 

1861,  Aug.    18.  A  dispute  occurs  at  Ville-la-Grande  in 

consequence  of  the  arrest  of  two  French  subjects 
by  the  Swiss  authorities.— Oct.  27.  A  French  de- 
tachment enters  the  Swiss  portion  of  the  Vallee 
des  Dappes. 

1863,  Feb.  3.  An  international  commission  appointed  for 
the  settlement  of  the  Ville-la-Grande  difficulty, 
separates  without  having  effected  any  satisfactory 
result. — Dec.  8.  A  treaty  with  France  is  concluded 
at  Berne,  defining  the  frontier  of  the  Vall<5e  des 
Dappes. 

1863,  Feb.  20.  The    treaty  with  France   concluded    at 

Berne  (Dec.  8,  1862)  is  ratified. 

1864,  Aug.  8—33.  The  International  Congress  for  afford- 

ing relief  to  the  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle 
holds  its  second  meeting.  —  Sep.  24—38.  The 
treaty  of  commerce  concluded  with  France  is 
accepted  by  the  chambers. — Nov.  15.  The  federal 
council  proposes' the  formation  of  a  merchant 
navy  and  the  adoption  of  a  national  flag  on  the 
high  seas. 

(865,  Ju!y  10.  The  federal  council  proposes  a  revision  of 
the  constitution,  and  it  is  resolved  to  summon  an 
extraordinary  session  for  the  purpose.— Oct.  33. 
The  extraordinary  session  meets. — Nov.  19.  The 
extraordinary  session,  having  agreed  upon  nine 
propositions,  separates.  —  Dec.  23.  A  monetary 
convention  is  concluded  between  Belgium,  France, 
Italy,  and  Switzerland. 

[866,  Jan.  14.  The  Swiss  people  vote  on  the  nine  propo- 
sitions adopted  by  the  State  Council  and  the 
Federal  Council  for  a  revision  of  the  consti- 
tution, and  reject  all  but  the  3rd  and  the 
6th. —  June  13.  Troops  are  sent  to  the  Italian 
frontier. 

SWORD. — This  weapon,  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  was  straight,  and  frequently  had  both 
olade  and  hilt  inlaid  with  gold,  as  mentioned 
ay  Herodotus  (B.C.  484 — B.C.  408).  It  was  made 
of  brass  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  afterwards 


SWORD-BEARERS 


952    ] 


SYNDERCOMBE'S  PLOT 


of  iron.  The  right  to  wear  it  was  confined  to 
military  men  and  certain  magistrates,  under 
Augustus.  The  ancient  Britons  had  a  two- 
edged  sword,  and  brass  swords  have  been 
found  in  Wales.  The  claymore,  a  two-handed 
sword,  was  used  by  the  ancient  Highlanders. 
The  Toledo  blade  was  famed  in  Roman  times, 
but  is  surpassed  by  the  celebrity  of  that  of 
Damascus.  A  company  of  sword-cutlers  was 
incorporated  in  England  in  1689.  The  London 
sword-dealers  petitioned  the  Lords  of  the 
Treasury  for  permission  to  import  German 
swords,  duty  free,  on  account  of  the  bad 
quality  of  those  of  English  manufacture,  in 
1783.  This  stigma  on  our  skill  in  that  branch 
of  manufacture  was,  however,  entirely  removed 
by  Gill,  of  Birmingham,  in  1786.  Swords 
were  used  as  an  article  of  dress  in  England  at 
the  commencement  of  the  i8th  century;  and, 
after  falling  somewhat  into  disuse,  seem  to 
have  again  come  into  fashion  about  1790.  An 
order  was  issued  by  the  earl  marshal,  prohi- 
biting footmen  from  wearing  them,  Dec.  30 

I7S WORD-BEARERS,  called  knights  of  the 
sword,  or  brethren  sword-bearers,  formed  by 
Berthold,  Bishop  of  Lithuania,  about  1188, 
united  with  the  Teutonic  knights  for  the 
propagation  of  Christianity  in  Prussia,  in 
1237,  (See  CYPRUS,  Knights  of;  JA.MKS,  ST., 
Order.) 

S  Y  HA  IMS  Magna  Gnecia),  one  of  the  oldest 
of  the  Greek  colonies  in  this  part  of  Italy, 
founded  by  the  Acliii-ans  H.C.  720,  attained  the 
height  of  its  power  about  B.C.  580.  A  number 
of  the  leading  citizens,  having  been  driven 
from  the  town,  took  refuge  in  Crot<;na,  where- 
upon the  Sybarites  marched  against  Ui6  place 
with  an  army  of  300,000  men,  but  were  totally 
defeated,  the  victors  turning  the  course  of  the 
river  Crathis  through  their  city,  and  destroy- 
ing it,  B.C.  510.  An  attempt  ma/le  by  the  stir 
viving  inhabitants  to  establish  themselves  on 
the  site  was  defeated  by  the  Crotoniats,  B.C. 
452.  They  were  devoted  to  luxury, — hence 
the  modern  use  of  the  term  Sybarite. 

S Yi  'A  MORE-TREE.— Some  botanists  regard 
this  tree  as  indigenous  in  England  ;  but  others 
state  that  it  is  a  native  of  the  mountainous 
districts  of  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  It-ily. 
It  is  first  mentioned  as  an  object  of  culture  in 
this  country  in  1551  ;  and.  Gerard  alludes  to  it 
in  1597,  as  a  stranger,  much  used  in  gardens 
for  its  umbrageous  foliage.  The  sycamore  is 
a  species  of  maple  ;  and  experiments  for  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  sugar 
contained  in  its  sap  were  made  at  Cannon 
Park,  Stirlingshire,  March  7  and  8,  1818.  It 
was  found  that  116  parts  of  sap  yielded  one 
part  of  sugar. 

SY DEN HAM.— (See  CRYSTAL  PALACE.) 

SYDNEY  (New  South  Wales),  named  after 
Viscount  Sydney,  then  secretary  for  the  colonies, 
the  colony  founded  at  Botany  Bay,  Jan  26, 
1788,  having  been  soon  after  transferred  to  this 
site.  A  printing-press  and  the  Sydney  Gazette 
were  established  by  George  Howe,  March  5, 
1803.  The  plans  upon  which  the  town  is  built 
were  laid  down  in  1809.  A  legislative  council 
was  appointed  in  1829.  The  bishopric  of  Aus- 
tralia was  established  in  1836,  and  another  at 


Sydney  in  1847.  Sydney  was  incorporated  in 
1842,  and  transportation  to  New  South  Wales 
was  abolished  by  order  in  council,  Sep.  4,  1848. 
The  museum,  founded  in  1838,  was  incorporated 
in  1853;  and  its  university,  founded  in  1850, 
was  opened  Oct.  u,  1852.  A  branch  of  the 
royal  mint  was  established  here  in  May, 
1855.  By  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  54  (July  16,  1855),  a 
new  constitution  was  conferred,  and  it  was 
proclaimed  in  Nov.  St.  Philip's,  the  oldest 
chvirch  in  the  colony,  was  built  in  1798.  The 
Ko:uan  Catholic  cathedral  was  destroyed  by 
fire  June  29,  1865. 

SYDNEY  SUSSEX  COLLEGE.— (See  SID- 
NEY SrssEX  COLLEGE. } 

SYENE,  or  SEVKXEII  (Egypt).  —  This 
town,  the  modern  Assouan,  or  Eswan,  men- 
tioned by  Ezekiel  (xxix.  10  and  xxx.  6),  was 
celebrated  for  its  quarries.  Its  marble  was 
called  Syenite. 

SYLVESTRIANS,  SILVESTRIANS,  •  or 
SYLVESTER,  ST.  (Order).— This  order  of 
monks,  also  called  Sylvestrins,  was  founded 
by  Silvester,  who  retired  to  a  desert  place 
about  ten  leagues  from  hLs  native  place, 
Osimo,  in  1227.  After  living  there  in  solitude 
for  four  years,  he  was  induced  by  some  friends 
to  select  a  suitable  spot,  where  he  founded  a 
monastery  of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  called 
I, a  Gmtte,  in  1231.  The  monks  were  known  as 
the  congregation  of  Silvestrians,  or  the  order 
of  Monte  Fano,  that  being  the  nearest  town. 
It  was  approved  by  Innocent  IV.  in  1248.  Sil- 
;  icrwards  canonized,  died 
Nov.  26,  1267.  (See  VALLAMBHOSA.)  Gregory 
XVI.  founded  another  order  with  this  name 
in  1841.  (See  GOLDEN  SPURS.) 

SYMONMS'   INN    (London).  —  This   inn    of 

court,  in  Chancery  Lane,  is  supposed  to  derive 

u  from  Thomas  Symonds,  who  died  in 

June,  1621.     It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the 

oHiccs  of  the  masters  in  chancery. 

SYMPATHETIC  INK.— (See  INK.) 

SYNAGOGUE  (The  Great),  consisting  of 
120  members,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  by  Ezra  (B.C. 
457 — B.C.  444),  for  the  purpose  of  remodelling 
Jewish  institutions  (Neh.  viii.  13).  They 
completed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Simeon  (Luke  ii.  25 — 35)  was  one  of  the  last. 
Some  writers  deny  the 'existence  of  this  synod. 
(Set  SANHKDRIM. 

SYNAGOGUES,  Jewish  places  of  worship, 
are  of  uncertain  origin,  ascribed,  by  some,  to 
the  period  of  the  promulgation  of  the  cere- 
monial law,  B.C.  1491,  and  by  others  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  B.C. 
536.  Jerusalem  is  said  to  have  contained 
480. 

SYNCRETISTIC  CONTROVERSY  arose  in 
the  Lutheran  Church,  with  Busher's  attack,  in 
1639,  upon  Callixtus,  Professor  of  Divinity  at 
Helmstadt,  who,  in  1634,  maintained  that  that 
agreement  of  the  Catholic  Church  during  the 
first  five  centuries,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a 
rule  of  faith  second  only  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. Busher  denounced  Callixtus  as  a  secret 
Papist.  This  controversy  terminated  about 

1  SYNDERCOMBE'S  PLOT.— John  Synder- 
combe,  employed  by  Col.  Sexby  to  assassinate 


SYNOD 


[    953 


SYRIA 


Cromwell,  made  the  attempt  Jan.  19,  1657. 
He  was  tried  and  condemned  Feb.  9,  and  died 
in  prison  Feb.  13. 

SYNOD.— (See  CANONS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF 
ENGLAND,  COUNCIL,  &c.) 

SYRA  (.^Egean  Sea.),  the  ancient  Syros,  was 
noticed  by  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927)  for  its 
agricultural  wealth. 

SYRACUSE  (Sicily),  the  most  ancient  of 
the  Greek  colonies '  in  the  island,  was  founded 
by  the  Corinthians,  under  Archias,  B.C.  734. 

648.'  The  Myletidse  are  expelled. 

599.  A  colony  from  Syracuse  founds  Camarina  (q.  v.). 

552.  The  SyraooMUU  destroy  Camarina. 

486.  An  oligarchy  called  the  Geomori,  or  Gamori,  who 
had  usurped  the  government,  are  overthrown, 
and  they  withdraw  to  Casmenae. 

485.  Ge!on,  Despot  of  Gela,  restores  the  Geomori  or 
Gamori,  and  obtains  for  himself  the  supreme 
authority. 

478—467.  Hieron  patronizes  literature  and  the  arts. 

476.  Hieron  expels  the  inhabitants  from  Catania  (q.  e.), 
in  which  he  places  a  colony  from  Syracuse. 

466.  Thrasybulus,  his  brother,  is  expelled,  and  a  popular 
government  established. 

415.  During  the  Peloponuesian  war,  the  Athenians  form 
a  league  against  Syracuse,  which  they  besiege. 

414.  In  the  spring  the  Athenians  and  their  allies  lay 
siege  to  Syracuse.  The  Spartans  come  to  the 
aid  of  the  Syracusans. 

413,  Sep.  A  great  naval  battle  is  fought  between  the 
fleets  of  Athens  and  Syracuse,  the  latter  being 
assisted  by  the  Spartans.  The  Athenians  are 
completely  defeated,  all  their  ships  are  de- 
stroyed, about  30,000  men  are  killed,  and  10,000 
made  prisoners. 

405.  Dionysius  the  Elder,  taking  advantage  of  the 
popular  alarm  consequent  on  the  successes  of  the 
Carthaginians,  raises  himself  to  power,  and  soon 
after  concludes  a  peace  with  them. 

4°5— 387-  Dionysius  the  Elder  fortifies  the  town,  con- 
structs new  harbours,  and  increases  the  naval 
force. 

403.  Dionysius  the  Elder  captures  Catania. 

397.  War  is  commenced  against  Carthage.  A  pestilence 
breaks  out  in  the  camp  of  their  enemies,  whom 
the  Syracusans  defeat. 

384.  Dionysius  the  Elder  rules  over  the  greater  part  of 
Sicily  and  Magua  Grecia. 

367.  Dionysius  the  Elder  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Dio- 
nysius the  Younger. 

357.  In  the  absence  of  Dionysius  the  Younger,  Dion 
raises  an  insurrection. 

356.  Dion  obtains  complete  mastery  of  the  city,  and 
Dionysius  the  Younger  withdraws  to  Locri  (q.  v.). 

353.  Dion  is  assassinated. 

346.  Dionysius  the  Younger  again  becomes  master  of 
Syracuse. 

343.  Dionysius  the  Younger  is  again  expelled,  and 
Timoleon  wields  authority. 

339.  Defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  at  the  Crimisus  (q.  •».). 

338.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Carthage. 

336.  Timoleon  dies. 

317.  Agathocles  having  been  expelled,  returns  with  an 
army  of  mercenaries,  seizes  the  city,  and  is 
proclaimed  "autocrat." 

310.  The  Carthaginians  defeat  Agathocles  at  the  battle 
of  Hiinera  (q.  v.). 

301.  Agathocles  is  restored  and  shares  authority  with 
Dinocrates. 

289.  Agathocles  dies. 

27° — 216.  Hiero  II.  reigns  as  king,  concludes  a  treaty 
with  the  Romans,  and  raises  the  city  to  its 
highest  degree  of  wealth  and  splendour. 

215.  His  successor  Hieronymus,  who  breaks  with  Kome, 
is  assassinated. 

314.  The  siege  is  commenced  by  the  Roman  general 
Marcellus. 

212-  A  portion  of  the  city  is  taken  by  the  besiegers.  The 
Carthaginians  come  to  its  assistance,  but  after- 
wards abandon  it,  and  the  other  portion  sur- 
renders. The  magnificent  works  of  art  which 
are  carried  as  plunder  to  Rome  give  the  first 
impulse  to  the  love  of  Greek  art  among  the 
conquerors. 


B.C. 

21.  The  city  having  fallen  into  decay,  Augustus  en- 
deavours   to   restore    it    by    sending    a  Roman 
colony. 
A.D. 

535.  Syracuse  is  taken  from  the  Goths  by  Belisariug. 
669.  The  Saracens,  having  captured  it,  accept  a  ransom. 
878.  Syracuse  is  again  taken  by  the  Saracens,  after  a 
siege  of  nine  months.    The  inhabitants  are  put 
to  death,  and  the  city  is  burned. 
1088.  Count   Roger  of   Sicily  makes  himself  master  of 

Syracuse. 
1542.  With  other  towns  on  the  island,  Syracuse  is  nearly 

destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

1694.  The  eruption  of  .(Etna,  accompanied  by  an  earth- 
quake, commits  great  havoc. 

1798,  July  18.  Nelson,  after  his  unsuccessful  search  for 
the  French  fleet,  puts  into  the  port  for  water  and 
provisions,  and  is  joined  by  all  his  missing 
frigates. 

1848.  The  revolutionists  select  Syracuse   as   one  of    the 

seven  towns  in  which  military  camps  are  to  be 
formed. 

1849,  April  8.  Syracuse  surrenders  without  resistance  to 

the  Neapolitan  fleet. 
1860,  Sep.  2.  The  garrison  espouse  the  cause  of  Garibaldi. 

SYRIA  (Asia),  the  ancient  Aram,  or  the 
"low  land,"  in  opposition  to  Canaan  (q.  v.), 
derived  its  name  from  the  patriach  Aram 
(Gen.  x.  22).  The  appellation  Syria,  supposed 
to  be  an  abbreviation  of  Assyria,  is  first  em- 
ployed by  Herodotus  (B.C.  484 — B.C.  408). 


2010.  Persia  is  tributary  to  Syria. 

1921.  Abraham,  having  left  his  home  at  the  command  of 

God  (Gen.  xii.  I — 4),  arrives  in  Aram. 
1047.  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  sends  workmen,  and  they 

build  a  house  for  King  David  (2  Sam.  v.  1 1). 
1040.  David  wages  war  against  the  Syrians  and  subdues 

them  (z  Sam.  viii.). 
975.  The  country  recovers  its  independence   after  the 

death  of  Solomon. 
901.  The  Syrians  are  defeated  by  the  Israelites  (l  Kings 

xx.). 
893.  The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria  (2  Kings  vi.  24). 

el,  obtains  thr 


838-830.  Jehoash,  or  Joash,  King  of  Israel,  obtains  three 
important  victories  over  Benhadad  (2  Kings  xiii. 
25)- 

740.  Resin,  the  last  independent  ruler,  having  formed  an 
alliance  with  Israel  against  Judah,  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  King  of  Assyria,  takes  the  field,  slays 
Resin,  and  makes  the  country  a  dependency. 

604.  Syria,  for  some  time  a  province  of  Assyria,  and 
afterwards  seized  by  Pharaoh-Necho,  King  of 
Egypt,  is  captured  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

596.  Syria  is  conquered  by  the  Persians. 

333.  After  a  subjection  to  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
powers  of  three  centuries'  duration,  it  falls  under 
the  rule  of  Alexander  III.  by  his  victory  at 
Issus. 

323.  Seleucus  I.  (Nicator)  assumes  the  sovereignty, 
founding  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidse. 

301.  Seleucus  I.  (Nicator)  defeats  Antigonus  at  the  battle 
of  Ipsus. 

300.  Antioch  is  founded  as  the  capital. 

282.  Phrygia  is  annexed  to  Syria. 

280.  Seleucus  (I.)  Nicator  dies. 

246.  The  Egyptians  invade  Syria. 

198.  Syria  becomes  independent  of  Egypt. 

170.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  takes  Jerusalem. 

114.  The  kingdom  is  rent  by  dissensions,  and  Antiochus 
Cyzicenus,  brother    of    the    reigning    monarch, 
establishes  a  new  sovereignty  at  Damascus. 
65.  Antiochus  XIII.  is  defeated  by  Pompeius,  and  the 

country  subjected  to  the  Romans. 
64.  It  is  made  a  Roman  province. 
63.  A  great  number  of  the  cities  receive 
freedom  from  the  Romans. 


the  gift  of 

57.  Gabinius,  pro-consul,  restores  many  of   the  cities 

which  had  been  destroyed. 
47.  The  rights  which  had  been  granted  to  the  cities 

are  confirmed  by  Julius  CaBSar. 
A.D. 

6.  Judah  and  Samaria  are  added  to  the  province  of 
Syria. 


SYRIA 


[    954    ] 


TABLE  BAY 


117.  Under  the  Cuesars  it  flourishes  greatly,  and  the 
eastern  boundary  is  fixed  by  Hadrian  at  the 
Euphrates. 

258.  Syria  is  overrun  and  nearly  conquered  by  Sapor  I., 
King  of  IVr.-ia. 

361—264.  odi-iiiiihus  effects  its  deliverance. 

611.  The  1'ersiun  Chosroes  II.,  having  reduced  several 
other  towns,  takes  Antioch,  which  he  nearly 
destrov-. 

614.  Chosroes  II.  conquers  Palestine. 

622.  Ilcraclius  takes  the  field  against  Chosroes  II. 

627.  Heraclius  drives  him  aero*.-  tin-  Tigris. 

638.  Siroes,  the  son  of  Chosroes  II.,  makes  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Heracliiis,  one  of  its  conditions  being 
the  restoration  of  the  "true  cross." 

630.  Some  of  the  towns  of  Syria  are  taken  by  Mo- 
hammed. 

632.  His  successor,  Abu  Bekr,  summons  the  Arab  tribes 

to  its  invasion. 

633.  A  large  anny  having  responded  to  the  call,  siege  is 

laid  to  Damascus. 

634,  July  30.  Battle    of  Aiznadin  (q.v.).—  Aug.  23.  The 

(.reeks  are  again  defeated,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Yermak. 

635,  Jan.   Damascus    is   taken  after  an  obstinate    re- 

sistance. 

637.  Jerusalem    is    allowed    an    honourable    capitula- 

tion. 

638.  Aleppo  submits,  Antioch  pays  u  ransom  of  300,000 

of  gold,  and  Heraclius  Bee>  to  Constanti- 
nople, tearing  the  province  in  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens. 

661.    Damascus  is  made  the  seat  of   government. 
762.  The  seat  iif  government,  is  removed  to  Bagdad  by 

the  Abba>Mdcs. 

868.  The  Turkish  usurper  Ahmed  Kbn  e'  Tooloon  subdues 
the  province,   together    with    F.gvpt,    and    estali- 
lislies  the  Toiilooiiidcs  dynasty. 
902.  The  Canuatiiiaiis  ravage  Svria. 
906.  It  is  recovered  by  Caliph  .Moktafce. 
936.  It  is  subjected   by  Akslujd  Mohammed  Ebn  Tughg, 

another  usurper. 

969.  Moe/.  conquers  it  after  making  himself  master  of 
Kgypt,  and  founds  the  Fatimitc  dynasty,  witli 
CattO  l'ir  a  eapilal. 

1076.  Syria  is  invaded  by  the  Turks,  who  established  an 
"  independent  kingdom   under   the  princes   of  the 
house  of  ( >rtok. 
1096.  The  Caliph  Mostali  is  dispossessed  of  a  large  portion 

by  the  Crusaders. 

1099.  The  Christian  kingdom  Of  Jerusalem  is  established. 
1187.  Saladin    conquers    it,    and    founds    the    Kyoobite 

dynasty. 

1244.  The  Carismians  pillage  Syria. 
1254.    Kevolt  of   the  Ilaharite  Mamelukes. 
1260.  Damascus   is    recovered   by    Seifcd   Decn,  who   is 
afterwards  slain  in  an  invasion  of  the  Mongols. 

1400.  Syria  is  invaded  by  Tamerlane. 

1401,  Jan.  23.   Damascus  i>  sacked. 

1516.  The  Circassian  Mamelukes  are  overthrown  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  country  is  united  to  the  Ottoman 
rmpirv  by  Selim  1. 

1799,  Feb.  6.  Syria  is  invaded  by  Napoleon  Ituomipartc. — 
.May  JO,  Napoleon  IJunnaparte  retreats,  alter 
having  been  foiled  in  his  attempt  to  take  St. 
Jean  d'Aere. 

1831,  Dec.  9.  Ibrahim  Pasha  having  invaded  Syria  and 
taken  (i.i/.a,  attacks  Acre. 

1833,  April  15.  The  Sultan  declares  war  against  Mehemet 
Ali,  the  Viceroy  of  Kgypt,  who  had  refused  to 
withdraw  the  forces  under  command  of  his  s-m 
Ibrahim. — May  27.  Ibrahim  Pasha  reduces  Acre. 
— June  14.  Ibrahim  Pasha  takes  l> 
July  S.  Battle  of  Hems.— July  29.  l;ati!c  of 
Beilan  (</.  r.).— Aug.  I.  Ibrahim  I'a-ha  takes 
Antioch.— Dec.  21.  Battle  of  Koniah  (q.  ».). 

1833,  May  6.  France  and  England  interpose,  and  peace  is 
concluded. 

1839,  May.  Hostilities  are  renewed.— June  24.  Battle  of 

Ne/.ib  (q.  v.). — July  4.  The  Turkish  fleet  desert 
to  Mehemet  AH. 

1840,  July   15.    Kiighmd,   Austria,   Russia,    and 

conclude  a  treaty  to  enforce  the  submission  of 
Mehemet  to  Turkey. 

1841,  Jan.    u.  After  hostilities   of    some  duration,   and 

much  negotiation,  Mehemet  consents  to  give  up 
Syria,  and  receives  from  the  Sultan  the  heredi- 
tary government  of  Kg.vpt. 


1860,  May  28.  A  general  attack  is  made  upon  the  Maron- 
ites  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Beyrout  and  the 
Lebanon  by  the  Druses,  when  about  1, 200  persons 
are  massacred,  the  Turkish  soldiers  offering  no 
protection  to  the  unfortunate  victims. — June  31. 
Through  the  treacherous  conduct  of  the  governor 
of  Deir-el-Kamniar,  another  massacre 
ites  is  IK  rpetratcd  at  that  place.-  July  9.  Similar 
atrocities  are  perpetrated  at  Damascus. — July  14. 
A  body  of  2,000  Turkish  troops  set  out  from 
Beyrout  to  Damascus. — Aug.  3.  The  Turkish 
Government  professing  itself  incompetent  to 
put  down  the  outbreak,  u  convention  is  entered 
into  between  Kngluud,  Austria,  Russia,  France, 
and  Prussia,  to  restore  order.  Fuad  1'asha,  who 
is  invented  by  the  Sultan  with  plenary  powers  to 
execute  summary  vengeance  upon  the  assassins, 
sets  out  from  Constantinople.  167  | 
publicly  executed  at  Damascus  for  being  con- 
cerned" in  the,  massacres.  It  is  estimated  that 
about  12,000  persons  lost  their  lives,  200  of  whom 
v»  el--  priests.  1(13  villages,  2?o  churches,  and 
7  convents  were  also  destroyed. 

SYRIAN  CHURCH,  founded  in  the  ist 
century  (Acts  xi.  19  ,  was  visited  by  St.  Paul 
•Gal.  i.  21,  and  Acts  xv.  '41),  and  nourished  so 
greatly,  that  in  the  4th  century  it  consisted  of 
119  sees.  (See  DKUSKS,  JACOIHTES,  MAKONITKH, 
MONOIMIYSITKS,  NKSTOKIANS,  &c.) 

SYRIAN  .JACOBITES.-     >'«.  JACOBITES.) 

SYUu-.M.U'KDOMAX  ,KK.\,  called  also  the 
a;ra  of  the  Greeks,  the  sera  of  the  Seleucid*, 
and  the  sera  of  Alexander  (q.  r.),  is  the  second 
of  the  two  epochs  adopted  by  the  Greeks. 

SXK(JI-:i)KN.—  Set  SI.:.:KI>IN.) 

S/KNTA,  or  XENTA  ( Battle).— Prince  Eu- 
gene defeated  the  Turks  at  this  town  of  Hun- 
gary, on  the  Theiss,  Sep.  n,  1697.  The  Grand 
Vi/ier  Mustapha  Koprili  fell  in  the  encounter. 

SXISTOVA.— (See  SISTOVA.) 


T. 

TA  AXACH.— (See  MEGIPDO.) 

TA  BASCO  .Mexico  ,  the  capital  of  the  state 
of  Tabasco,  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the 
battle  of  Ceutla  </.  r.),  fought  .March  25,  1519. 

TABELLIONES.— (See  NOTARIES,  PUBLIC.) 

TABERNACLE.— Three  sacred  tabernacles 
are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament :— i.  The 
ante  Sinaitic  tabernacle,  which  was  probably 
the  dwelling  of  Moses,  and  was  placed  by  the 
camp  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  for  the 
transaction  of  public  business,  B.C.  1491.  2. 
The  Sinaitic  tabernacle,  which  was  set  up  on 
the  first  day  of  the  first  month  in  the  second 
year  after  leaving  Egypt,  B.C.  1489.  This  is 
pre-eminently  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv., 
xxxvi.,  &c.).  3.  The  Davidic  tabernacle, 
which  was  erected  by  David,  in  Jerusalem, 
B.C.  1045,  for  the  reception  of  the  ark,  while 
the  qld  tabernacle  remained  at  Gibeon,  as  the 

Slace  where  sacrifices  were  offered,  until  the 
ays  of  Solomon.     The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
Lev.  xxiii.   39 — 43)  was  instituted  B.C.  1490. 
(See  SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.) 

TABLE  BAY  (Atlantic  Ocean),  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  Africa,  was  discovered 
by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  in  1486. 


TABLES 


t    955    1 


TAILORS 


TABLES.— (See  ALPHONSINE  TABLES,  COVE- 
NANTERS, TWELVE  TABLES,  <fec.) 

TABLE  TURNING  and  MOVING  is  referred 
to  in  a  passage  in  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
(1.  xxix.  c.  i),  who  relates  that  two  magicians, 
Patritius  and  Hilarius,  were  brought  before  a 
court  of  justice  for  disseminating  prophecies 
injurious  to  the  Emperor  Valens,  in  370.  It 
was  first  performed  in  modern  times  by  two 
American  girls,  Margaret  and  Catherine  Fox, 
at  a  village  near  New  York,  in  1848.  (See 
SPIRIT-RAPPING.)  A  German  merchant  at  the 
latter  place  communicated  the  mystery  to  his 
brother,  in  Bremen,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
1853  it  had  become  a  mania  throughout 
Europe.  The  Rev.  N.  S.  Godfrey  ascribed  the 
phenomenon  to  Satanic  agency,  others  at- 
tributed it  to  electricity,  while  M.  Arago,  in 
France  (July,  1853),  and  Faraday,  and  others 
in  England,  considered  it  the  result  of  me- 
chanical force. 

TABORITES.— The  Hussites  (q.  v.)  in  1420 
separated  into  two  sects,  the  Calixtines  (q.  v. ) 
and  Taborites.  The  latter,  the  more  violent  sect, 
received  the  name  from  their  stronghold  on 
Mount  Tabor,  in  Bohemia,  which  they  fortified 
on  being  compelled  to  quit  Prague,  in  1420. 
Under  the  command  of  their  leader,  John 
Ziska,  they  demolished  monasteries,  burned 
the  priests  alive,  and  then  returned  to  Prague, 
May  20,  1420,  and  committed  great  destruction 
amongst  the  churches.  They  defeated  the 
Imperialists  near  Kolin,  Jan.  i,  1422,  and  again 
at  Deutschbrod,  Jan.  8,  which  town  they 
burned,  putting  all  tyie  inhabitants  to  the 
sword.  Their  leader,  Ziska,  died  Oct.  12, 1424. 
A  civil  war  broke  out  between  the  Taborites 
arid  Calixtines  in  1433,  and  the  latter,  aided  by 
the  Roman  Catholics,  stormed  and  drove  the 
Taborites  out  of  New  Prague  in  1434,  and  de- 
feated them  with  great  slaughter  at  Boeh- 
mischbrod,  or  Lippau  (q.  v.),  May  28,  1434. 
Their  leaders,  the  two  Procops,  fell  in  this 
battle,  and  two  days  after  10,000  prisoners, 
who  had  bee"n  promised  safety,  were  slain  in 
cold  blood.  The  Taborites,  who  rose  again, 
having  been  defeated  by  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  obtained  terms  by  the  treaty  of  Iglau 
(q.  v.},  July  5,  1436. 

TABRIZ,  or  TABREEZ  (Persia),  the 
ancient  Tauris,  was  made  the  capital  by  Tiri- 
dates  III.,  King  of  Armenia,  about  297,  and 
was  enlarged  by  Zobaidah,  wife  of  Haroun- 
al-Rashid,  in  791.  It  suffered  from  earth- 
quakes in  843  and  1040.  The  castle,  at  one 
time  a  mosque,  was  built  about  1250.  It  was 
taken  by  Tamerlane  in  1392,  by  the  Turks  early 
in  the  isth  century,  and  by  the  Persians  in 
1500.  The  Turks  seized  it  in  1618  and  in  1635, 
and  it  was  finally  recaptured  by  the  Persians 
in  1730.  In  the  earthquake  of  1727  no  less 
than  77,000  persons  are  said  to  have  perished. 

TACCAZY.-  (See  ABYSSINIA.) 

TACHKEND,  TACHKENT,  TASCHKENT, 
or  TASKEND  (Independent  Tartary).  —  This 
town,  the  capital  of  the  Khanate,  of  Khokan, 
or  Kokand,  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1854. 
They  retired,  but  took  it  again  June  27,  1865. 
The  Emir  of  Bokhara  recaptured  it  in  the 
autumn  of  1865. 

TADMOR,  or  THADMOR.— (See  PALMYRA.) 


TAEPINGS.— In  1850  Hung-sew-tseuen,  a 
man  of  humble  origin,  who  had  renounced 
idolatry,  and  formed  a  sect  called  God- 
worshippers,  pretended  that  he  had  received 
a  divine  commission  to  extirpate  the  Tartar 
dynasty.  This  pretender  assumed  the  name 
of  Tae-ping-wang,  or  Tien-wang,  and  declared 
his  intention  of  establishing  the  dynasty  of 
Tae-ping,  or  Universal  Peace.  The  accounts  of 
the  movement  are  confused  and  conflicting, 
but  it  is  said  that  Hung-sew-tseuen  claimed  to 
be  the  son  of  God.  The  Taepings,  who  com- 
menced hostilities  against  the  Imperialists, 
met  with  considerable  success,  capturing  Woo- 
chang  Jan.  12,  1853,  and  Nankin  March  19. 
Their  operations,  which  seem  to  have  been 
suspended  during  the  war  between  France 
and  England  and  China,  were  renewed  in 
1861,  and  they  captured  Ningpo  Dec.  9.  They 
were,  however,  defeated  March  i,  and  May  3 
and  21,  1862,  and  Ningpo  was  wrested  from 
them.  They  were  again  defeated  Oct.  23  and 
24,  and  in  1863  and  1864  they  sustained  so 
many  reverses  that  their  cause  had  become 
desperate.  They  were  defeated  with  great 
loss  in  Feb.,  1866. 

TAFFETY,  or  TAFFETA,  a  fine  smooth 
silken  stuff  used  in  the  i6th  century  for  various 
articles  of  dress,  and  considered  as  a  luxury. 
John  Tyce,  of  London,  brought  its  manufacture 
to  a  high  state  of  perfection  about  1571  or 

TAGANROG  (Russia).  —  This  seaport  was 
founded  by  Peter  I.  in  1697.  It  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  Turks,  by  treaty,  in  1711,  and 
restored  to  the  Russians,  and  rebuilt  by  them, 
in  1769.  Alexander  I.  died  here  Dec.  i,  1825, 
and  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Allied  fleet 
June  3,  1855. 

TAGINJil,  or  TADIN.E  (Battle).  —  Totila, 
King  of  the  Goths,  was  defeated  and  received 
a  mortal  wound  in  a  battle  fought  with  Narses 
at  this  place  in  Italy,  the  modem  Lentagio,  in 

July,  552. 

TAGLIAMENTO  (Battles).  —  The  French, 
under  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  defeated  the 
Austrians,  under  the  Archduke  Charles,  on  the 
banks  of  this  river,  in  Italy,  March  16,  1797. 
Massena  gained  another  battle  here  in  1805. 

TAGLIOCOZZO  (Battles).  —  The  French, 
under  Charles  of  Anjou,  defeated  Conradin, 
the  son  of  the  Emperor  Conrad  IV.,  at  this 
town  of  Naples,  founded  by  the  Ostrogoths  in 
the  sth  century,  Aug.  23,  1268. The  Bour- 
bon army  defeated  the  Sardinians  near  this 
town,  Jan.  15,  1861. 

TAHERITES.  —  This  dynasty,  founded  in 
the  province  of  Khorassan,  in  Persia,  by  the 
Mohammedan  general  Taher,  in  813,  was  sup- 
planted by  the  Soffarides  dynasty  in  872. 

TAHITI,  or  TAHITIAN  ISLANDS.  —  (See 
OTAHEITE,  SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  &c.) 

TAILLEBURG  (Battle).  —  Henry  III. 
of  England,  having  passed  over  to  France, 
advanced  against  this  town,  and  sustained 
a  defeat  from  Louis  IX.,  July  20,  1242. 

TAILORS,  among  the  Romans,  were  only 
required  for  mending,  as  the  toga  came  from 
the  loom  ready  for  use.  A  thimble,  similar  to 
that  now  in  use,  was  found  in  Herculaneum, 
destroyed  in  tho  Vcsuvian  eruption  in  79. 


TAI-WAN 


[    956    ] 


TANNENBURG 


Tailors  worked  cross-legged  upon  boards  in 
the  i4th  century.  (See  HAYMAKKET  THEATRE, 
STRIKES,  &c.) 

TAI-WAN.—  (See  FORMOSA.) 

TAKU  FORTS  (China),  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Peiho  river,  were  captured  by  an  Allied 
English  and  French  squadron,  Aug.  21,  1860. 

TALAVERA-DE-LA-REYNA  (Battle).  —  Sir 
Arthur  Welleslcy,  at  the  head  of  22,000  En'g- 
lish,  defeated  the  French,  45,000  strong,  under 
Marshals  \'ictor  and  Jourdan,  near  this  town, 
July  27  and  28,  1809. 

TALAVERA-DE-LA-REYNA  (Spain).—  This 
ancient  town  of  Spain,  called  by  the  Romans 
Ebora  Talabriga,  was  taken  by  the  Moors  in 
714,  and  again  taken  and  destroyed  by  them  in 
1109.  It  was  soon  rebuilt,  and  became  an 
appanage  of  the  queens  of  Spain.  Cuesta,  the 
Spanish  general,  was  left  in  command  of  the 
town,  but  he  abandoned  it,  together  with  the 
English  wounded,  on  the  approach  of  the 
French,  in  Aug.,  1809.  It  was  evacuated  by 
the  French  Aug.  15,  1812. 

TALBOTYPE,  the  name  given  to  the  calo- 
type  process  of  photography  on  paper,  dis- 
covered by  H.  P.  Talbot  in  1840,  and  patented 
by  him  in  Feb.,  1841. 

TALi  'A.  or  TALIKA.  —  (See  ITALICA.) 

TALENTS.—  (Ste-  ALL  THE  TALENTS  ADMINIS- 
TRATION. ) 

TALLOW-CHANDLERS  were  incorporated 
in  1463.  (>'»  CAMM.KS.) 

TALLY-OFFICE.—  The  Tally  Court  in  the 
Exchequer  derived  its  name  from  the  French 
taille,  or  tailler,  to  cut  or  notch.  A  tally  is 
a  piece  of  wood  written  upon  both  sides, 
containing  an  acquittance  for  money  received, 
which,  being  cleft  asunder  by  an  officer  of  the 
exchequer,  one  part  was  delivered  to  the  per- 
son who  had  paid  the  money,  and  the  other 
was  preserved  in  the  exchequer.  The  use  of 
tallies  was  abolished  by  2  ;  Goo.  III.  c.  82  (1782), 
but  the  old  tallies  were  preserved  in  the  ex- 
chequer, until  the  remodelling  of  that  office  by 


4  Will.  IV.  c.  15  May  22,  1834),  when  they  were 
ordered  to  be  destroyed.  They  were  accord- 
ingly used  to  heat  the  stoves  in  the  House  of 


from  having  been  burned  in  too  large  quanti- 
ties, of  the  fire  which  destroyed  the  two  houses 
of  Parliament,  Oct.  16,  1834. 

TA  LM  UD.—  The  Jews  divided  their  law  into 
written  and  unwritten  —  the  former  contained 
in  the  Pentateuch,  the  latter  handed  down 
orally,  until  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem, 
under  Hadrian,  in  135.  The  oral  law  is  an 
interpretation  of  the  written,  and  constitutes 
the  text  of  the  Talmud,  which  was  compiled 
by  the  rabbi  Judah  H:ikkadosh,  in  194  or  220, 
and  is  called  the  Mishna,  or  Second  Law.  A 
two-fold  commentary  was  added  to  it,  one 
called  the  Jerusalem  Gemara  \i.t.  supplement), 
composed  in  the  3rd  century,  and  the  other 
the  Babylonian  Gemara,  completed  in  500. 
The  Misha  was  published  at  Naples  in  1402, 
an  edition  in  six  volumes  appeared  at  Am- 
sterdam, 1698  —  1703,  and  an  English  transla- 
tion of  some  portions  appeared  in  London  in 
1843. 

TAMATAVE  (Madagascar).  —  The  French 
attacked  the  forts  at  this  town  Oct.  3,  1829, 


and  again,  in  alliance  with  the  English,  June 
17,  1845. 

TAMBOR  (Russia),  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name,  was  founded  in  1636. 

TAMIATH1S.— (See  DAMIETTA.) 

TA.MPICO,  or  SANTA  AN^A  DE  TAMAU- 
LIPAS  .Mexico),  founded  in  1824,  has  been 
several  times  taken  and  retaken  in  the  civil 
wars.  On  its  site  Santa  Anna  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  1820.  The  United  Status  army 
took  it  in  1846,  and  the  French  in  1862,  who 
retired  Jan.  13,  1863,  reoccupyiug  it  Aug.  n. 

TAMYN/K  vKubiea)  was  taken  by  the  Per- 
sians when  they  attacked  Eretria,  B.C.  490.  A 
great  victory  was  gained  here  by  the  Athenian 
general  Phocion,  over  Callias  of  Chalcis,  B.C. 

35°- 

TANAGRA  (Greece).— This  town  in  Bceotia, 
also  called  Ptemaiidria,  from  the  fertility  of 
its  neighbourhood,  was  the  scene  of  a  defeat 
of  the  Athenians,  by  the  Lacedtemouians,  B.C. 
457.  The  Athenians  invaded  the  country,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Boeotians, 
near  Tanagra,  B.C.  456  (See  (ENOPHYTA),  and 
again  B.C.  426.  Tanagra  continued  to  nourish 
in  the  6th  century. 

TANGIER  (Morocco).— This  seaport,  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Tingis,  became  a  Roman 
colony  and  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Tin- 
gitana  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
(41—54).  The  Portuguese,  who  were  defeated 
here  in  1437,  took  it  from  the  Moors  in  1471,  and 
it  was  ceded  by  them  to  the  English,  as  a  gift 
to  Charles  If.  on  his  marriage  with  Catharine 
of  l!raganoa,  May  20,  1662.  The  English,  who 
commenced  making  the*  mole  in  1663,  retained 
possession  till  1682.  It  was  almost  destroyed 
liy  an  earthquake  April  12,  1773;  was  ravaged 
by  the  plague  in  Sep.,  1818  ;  and  was  bom- 
barded by  the  French,  Aug.  6,  1844. 

TANGIER  HIVEK.— 1&<  NOVA  SCOTIA.) 

TANI8  (Egypt),  the  Zoau  of  the  Hebrews, 
built  seven  years  after  Hebron  (Numb.  xiii.  22), 
gave  its  name  to  two  dynasties  of  Egyptian 
kings. 

TANJOBE  (HindostanV  the  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Madras  pre- 
sidency, was  conquered  by  the  Mahratta  chief 
Vencajee  in  1675,  and  from  him  the  line  of 
rajahs  was  descended.  The  English  were  re- 
pulsed here  in  1749,  and  the  French  in  1758. 
It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  English  in 
1773.  The  Nabob  of  Arcot,  supported  by  the 
Madras  Government,  claimed  tribute  from 
Tanjore,  and  the  rajah  was  deposed ;  but  he 
,-as  restored  on  consenting  to  pay  tribute  and 
a  subsidy  for  an  English  force  in  Tanjore  in 
1781.  A  dispute  for  the  succession,  between 
Serfojee  and  Ameer  Sing,  was  decided  by  the 
English  in  favour  of  the  latter,  in  April,  1787. 
He  was,  however,  deposed,  and  Serfojee 
elevated  to  the  throne  in  1798.  The  new 
rajah  ceded  Tanjore  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany for  an  annual  subsidy,  Oct.  25,  1799, 
retaining  only  sovereign  authority  in  the  fort. 
He  died  in  1832,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Sevajee,  who  died  in  1855,  when  the  dignity  of 
Rajah  of  Trmjore  became  extinct. 

TANNENBURG  (Battle).  —  Ladislaus  V., 
King  of  Poland,  defeated  the  Teutonic  knights 
at  this  place,  in  Prussia,  July  15,  1410.  The 


TANNING 


[    957    1 


TARENTUM 


knights  lost,  it  is  said,  40,000  in  killed  and 
30,000  taken  prisoners. 

TANNING  is  mentioned  by  Moses.  In 
England  tanners  had  been  accustomed  to  keep 
hides  in  the  tan -pit  a  year  or  more ;  but 
owing  to  alterations  in  the  process  in  the  i6th 
century,  complaints  were  made  that  they  were 
tanned  in  three  weeks ;  and  in  consequence 
an  act  was  passed,  2^3  Edw.  VI.  c.  n  (1548), 
prohibiting  tanners  from  selling  hides  that  had 
not  been  nine  months  in  the  tan-pit.  Tanners 
were  prohibited  from  carrying  on  the  trade  of 
shoemakers  by  13  Rich.  II.  c.  12  (1389),  or  that 
of  curriers  by  i  Hen.  VII.  c.  5  (1485).  Butchers 
were  prevented  from  being  tanners  by  5  Eliz. 
c.  8  (1562).  All  restrictions  were  removed 
from  the  trade  by  n  Geo.  IV.  c.  16  (May  29, 
1830).  Great  improvements  were  introduced 
in  the  process  of  tanning  by  Seguin,  a  French 
chemist,  in  1795 ;  and  the  art  was  first  reduced 
to  scientific  principles  by  Sir  H.  Davy  in  1803. 
(See  LEATHER.) 

TANTALUM.— This  name  was  given  to  a 
supposed  new  metal  discovered  by  Eckeberg 
in  some  Swedish  minerals.  Dr.  Wollaston,  in 
1809,  proved  it  to  be  identical  with  the  metal 
discovered  in  1801  by  Hatchell  in  a  ferruginous 
mineral  from  N.  America,  and  called  colum- 
bium  (q.  v.). 

TAPESTRY.— The  invention  of  tapestry  has 
been  ascribed  to  Attalus  III.,  King  of  Per- 
gamus,  who  died  B.C.  133.  The  ordinary  kind 
of  tapestry  was  borrowed  from  the  Saracens, 
and  hence  the  early  manufacturers  in  France 
were  called  Sarazinois.  It  was  introduced 
there  about  the  gth  century,  and  was  made  for 
the  church  of  Auxerre  prior  to  840.  Poitiers 
was  noted  for  its  manufacture  as  early  as  1025. 
The  Flemings  were  celebrated  for  tapestry  from 
the  1 2th  century,  and  its  manufacture  attained 
its  highest  perfection  in  Flanders  in  the  isth 
century.  Tapestry  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land as  furniture  by  Eleanor,  wife  of  Prince 
Edward,  in  1255.  The  supply  came  principally 
from  the  continent.  Tapestry-weaving  was 
brought  into  England  by  William  Sheldon, 
late  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509 — 47),  and 
a  manufactory  was  set  up  at  Mortlake  by  Sir 
F.  Crane  in  1619.  It  was  for  the  use  of  this 
establishment  that  Charles  I.  purchased  the 
famous  cartoons  of  Raffaelle.  After  the  Re- 
storation, Charles  II.  endeavoured  to  revive 
the  manufacture,  but  without  success.  Henry 
IV.  of  France  re-established  the  manufacture 
of  tapestry  in  Paris  in  1597,  and  the  art  made 

f-eat  progress  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
IV.  (1643 — 1715).  (See  BAYEUX  and  GOBELIN 
TAPESTRY.) 

'TAPROBANE.—  (See  CEYLON.) 

TAR. — Becher,  a  German  chemist,  who  died 
in  London  in  1685,  was  the  first  to  propose 
the  making  of  coal-tar.  An  account  of  the 
manufacture  of  tar  from  a  blackish  stone  in 
Shropshire  was  given  by  the  inventor,  Martin 
Erie,  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions" 
published  in  May,  1697.  On  account  of  the 
inconvenience  caused  by  the  refusal  of  the 
Swedish  Tar  Company  to  supply  it,  excepting 
in  such  quantities  and  at  such  prices  as  they 
might  choose,  the  English  Parliament  offered 
bounties  for  its  importation  from  the  English 


colonies  in  N.  America  in  1 703 .  In  consequence 
of  the  American  war,  some  lamp-black  manu- 
facturers at  Bristol  turned  their  attention  to 
its  manufacture  from  pit-coal,  about  1779,  and 
Lord  Dundonald  obtained  a  patent  for  im- 
provements in  these  processes  in  1781. 

TARA  (Ireland).— At  this  place,  in  Meath, 
the  Irish  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Danes,  978.  The  Hill  of  Tara  was  in  ancient 
times  the  chief  seat  of  the  Irish  kings.  Here 
the  insurgent  Irish  were  defeated  by  the 
Royalists,  May  26,  1789  ;  and  here  a  monster 
meeting  of  the  "repealers,"  computed  at 
1,000,000  persons,  according  to  the  highest  cal- 
culation, and  250,000  according  to  the  lowest, 
was  held  by  O'Connell,  Aug.  15,  1843. 

TARANTO  (Italy).— This  town  occupies  the 
site  of  the  acropolis  or  citadel  of  the  ancient 
town  of  Tarentum  (q.  v.],  and  is  situated  on 
an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.  It  was 
founded  after  the  sacking  of  Tarentum  by  the 
Saracens  in  830,  was  taken  by  Robert  Guiscard 
in  1063,  and  from  that  time  it  formed  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  April,  1801. 

TARBES  (France),  anciently  called  Bigorra, 
was  the  capital  of  the  cduntry  of  Bigorre  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  bishopric  was  founded 
in  420.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
English  monarchs  as  part  of  the  dowry  of 
Queen  Eleanor  in  1152,  and  remained  under 
their  sway  for  300  years.  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  occasionally  resided  here.  The  French 
were  defeated  here  by  the  English,  March  20, 
1814. 

TARENTUM  (Italy)  was  founded  by  a  Spar- 
tan colony,  B.C.  708.  Of  its  early  history  little 
is  known.  The  forces  of  Tarentum  and  Rbe- 
gium  were  defeated  by  the  Messapians,  B.C. 
473.  It  received  a  code  of  laws  from  Archytas 
about  B.C.  400.  Soon  after  the  Tarentines, 
called  "the  Athenians  of  Italy,"  engaged  in  a 
war  with  the  Thuriaiis  to  prevent  their  occu- 
pying the  district  of  the  Siritis.  The  dispute 
was  settled  by  the  establishment  of  a  joint 
colony  named  Heraclea  in  the  contested 
territory.  A  war  with  their  neighbours,  the 
Lucaiiians,  caused  them  to  apply  to  Archi- 
damus,  King  of  Sparta,  for  assistance.  He 
landed  B.C.  346,  and  was  defeated  and  slain 
B.C.  338.  They  then  sought  the  aid  of  Alex- 
ander of  Epirus,  who  arrived  B.C.  332,  and, 
after  defeating  the  enemies  of  Tarentum, 
turned  against  his  allies  and  took  Heraclea. 
Alexander  died  B.C.  326,  and  the  Tarentines 
again  applied  to  Sparta  for  aid,  B.C.  305,  when 
Cleonymus  came  to  their  assistance,  and  com- 
pelled the  Lucanians  and  Messapians  to  sue 
for  peace.  The  Tarentines  made  a  treaty  with 
Rome,  by  which  vessels  of  that  nation  were 
not  permitted  to  enter  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum. 
It  was  violated  when  a  Roman  fleet  was  sent 
to  assist  the  Thurians,  B.C.  282.  The  Taren- 
tines attacked  the  fleet  and  destroyed  and 
captured  five  vessels,  and  then  took  Thurium 
and  expelled  the  Roman  garrison.  War  was 
declared  against  them  by  the  Romans  B.C.  281, 
and  the  Tarentines  applied  to  Pyrrhus,  King 
of  Epirus,  for  assistance.  Though  at  first 
successful,  he  was  at  last  defeated  by  Curius, 
and  withdrew  from  Italy  B.C.  274,  leaving  his 


TARGOWITZ  CONFED, 


[    958     ] 


TARSUS 


J,  Milo,  to  protect  Tarentum,  which 
surrendered  to  the  Romans  B.C.  272.  In  the 
second  Punic  war,  Tarentum  was  seized  by 
Hannibal,  B.C.  212.  The  citadel,  however,  held 
out,  and  the  Carthaginian  general,  who  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  take  it  by  storm,  blockaded 
it  for  two  years.  Fabius  came  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Romans,  took  the  city,  and  put 
the  Carthaginian  garrison  and  a  large  number 
of  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  B.C.  209. 
A  treaty  between  Marcus  Antonius  and  Octa- 
vius  Caesar,  concluded  at  Tarentum  B.C.  37, 
led  to  the  renewal  of  the  triumvirate  for  five 
years,  between  Marcus  Antonius,  Octavius 
Caesar,  and  Lepidus.  Tarentum,  taken  by 
Belisarius,  was  recaptured  by  Totila  in  549, 
and  continued  in  the  hands  qf  the  Goths  'till 
captured  by  Narses  in  553.  The  Lombards 
took  it  in  66^.  The  Saracens  landed  at  Taren- 
tum in  830. 

TARGOWITZ  CONFEDERATION  was 
formed  at  Targowitz,  in  Kiuv,  .May  14,  1792, 
by  five  Polish  nobles,  partisans  of  Russia, 
who  pretended  to  object  to  the  constitution 
of  May  3,  1791,  and  demanded  the  restoration 
of  the  constitution  of  1775.  They  were  in- 
stigated by  Catherine  II.,  and  on  the  exposure 
of  their  intrigues  took  refuge  in  Russia.  It 
furnished  a  pretext  for  the  second  partition 
<rf  Poland. 

TARIFA  'Spain  .—  The  Joza  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  the  Julia  Traduota,  or  Transdurta, 
of  the  Romans,  a  seaport  deriving  its  name 
from  Tarif  Ibn  .Malik,  who  landed  here  when 
sent  by  Musa,  the  Mussulman  emir,  to  recon- 
noitre before  his  invasion  from  Africa,  in  712. 
It,  was  taken  by  Sancho  IV.  in  1292,  and  was 
held  by  Alonzo  Perez  de  On/man  against  the 
Moors  in  1294.  He  would  not  surrender  it, 
though  they  threatened  to  behead  his  only 
son,  and  actually  c-arried  out  the  threat  before 
his  eyes.  The  kings  of  Castile  and  of  Portugal 
gained  a  g'-eat  victory  here  over  the  M<»>rs, 
Oct.  28,  1340,  when  the  latter  were  besieging 
the  town.  It  was  successfully  defei; 
i, 800  English  and  700  Spaniards  against  a 
French  force  13,000  strong,  from  Dec.  19,  1811, 
to  Jan.  4,  1812,  when  the  French  raised  the 
siege,  having  l»st  about  1,000  men.  The 
French  took  it  in  1823. 

T A  RIFF.  — These  duties  were  originally 
granted  for  the  use  of  the  king,  as  is  shown 
by  25  Edw.  I.  c.  7  (1296).  They  were  con- 
tained in  two  books  till  27  Geo.  III.  c.  13 
(1786),  when  all  the  duties  were  ordered  to  be 
paid  according  to  a  new  book  of  rates  an- 
nexed to  that  statute.  The  English  tariff 
has  undergone  several  important  alterations 
during  the  present  century.  It  was  much 
simplified,  and  the  duty  on  a  great  number 
of  articles  abolished,  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47 
(July  9,  1842),  by  8  Viet.  c.  12  (May  8,  1845),  by 
23  Viet.  c.  22  (May  15,  1860),  and  by  23  &  24 
Viet.  c.  no  (Aug.  28,  1860). 

TARPEIAN  ROCK  (Rome).— According  to 
the  legend,  Tarpeia,  the  daughter  of  the 
governor  of  the  citadel  of  Rome,  surren- 
dered it  to  the  Sabines,  who  were  advancing 
against  Romulus  (B.C.  722}  to  avenge  the 
abduction  of  the  Sabine  virgins — on  .con- 
dition of  receiving  the  gold  bracelets  they 


wore  upon  their  left  arms.  Titus  Tatius, 
the  Sabine  king,  to  punish  her  perfidy,  as  he 
entered  the  gates,  cast  not  only  his  bracelet, 
but  his  shield  upon  her.  This  example  was 
followed  by  his  soldiers,  and  Tarpeia  was 
crushed  to  death.  Tarpeia  was  buried  in  the 
capitol,  and  the  rock,  from  which  traitors  were 
afterwards  hurled,  received  her  name. 

TARQUINII  •.  Italy). —This  city  of  Etruria, 
of  which  the  site  is  occxipied  by  Corneto,  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  metropolis  of  the 
i  League.  The  inhabitants  joined  with 
the  Veientes  in  an  attempt  to  restore  the 
exiled  Tarquins,  B.C.  509,  ravaged  the  Roman 
territory  B.C.  398  and  B.C.  358,  and  defeated 
the  Romans  in  a  great  battle,  and  put  307  of 
the  prisoners  to  death  in  the  Forum.  The 
Romans,  in  revenge  for  this  massacre,  put  to 
death  in  their  Forum  358  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Tarquinii,  whom  they  had  captured  in  battle 
B.C.  358.  A  truce  of  40  years,  between  Rome 
and  Tarquinii,  was  concluded  B.C.  351.  After 
several  contests,  they  became  allies  of  Rome, 
and  were  admitted  to  full  rights  B.C.  90. 

TARRAGONA  Spain  was  originally  set- 
tled by  the  Phoenicians,  who  called  it  Tarchon, 
and  it  became  a  Roman  colony  under  the 
luunc  of  Tarraco,  during  the  second  Punic  war 
(B.C.  218 — B.C.  202),  when  it  was  enlarged  and 
fortified.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  a  pro- 
v  the  Emperor  Augustus,  was  taken  by 
the  Visigoths  in  467,  and  by  the  Moors  in  714. 
They  completely  destroyed  it,  and  it  remained 
in  ruins  for  four  centuries.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  464;  Nov.  6,  516;  May  i,  1230; 
April  r,.  1239;  .May  8,  1240;  May  13,  1242;  in 
1244;  May  i,  1247;  in  1248;  April  8,  1253: 
.March  22,  1282;  in  1294;  Feb.  22,  1305;  in 
1307  ;  and  Feb.  22,  1317.  The  town,  rebuilt 
in  the  beginning  of  the  i2th  century,  was 
taken  by  Alphonso  of  Arragon  in  1220,  sus- 
tained a  siege  during  the  revolt  of  Catalonia 
in  1640,  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1705, 
but  afterwards  abandoned  by  them,  and  was 
taken  by  the  French,  June  7,  1808,  an<< 
June  29,  1811.  The  English,  having  attempted 
to  retake  it  in  the  end  of  July,  1813,  raised  the 
.  ug.  17,  on  the  approach  of  the  Frcncli, 
under  Marshal  Suchet,  who  destroyed  the 
fortifications  Aug.  18.  It  surrendered 
French  in  the  Spanish  revolutionary  war  in 
June,  1823. 

TARSHISH,  or  THARSHTSH.— It  is  con- 
sidered probable  that  the  references  to 
Tarshish  in  tLe  Scriptures  point  to  two  dis- 
tinct emporiums,  one  situated  at  the  extre- 
mity of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  other  in 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Tartessus,  in  Spain,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  western,  and  Point, 
de  Galle,  in  Ceylon,  the  eastern  Tarshish.  The 
prophet  Ezekiel,  writing  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.,  describes  Tarshish  as  the  "Merchant  of 
Tyre  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of  all  riches." 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  gold  mines  (2  Chron. 
ix.  21.)  "The  ships  of  Tarshish"  ;'Smith's 
History  of  the  World,  vol.  ii.  ch.  xxiv) 
"doubtless  became,  like  our  East-India-men, 
a  generic  name  for  the  largest  ships  of  their 
commercial  marine." 

TARSUS  (Asia  Minor),  the  metropolis  of 
Cilicia,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Sar- 


TAETARIC  ACID 


t    959 


TAUROMENIUM 


danapalus,  B.C.  820.  Rawlinson  believes  it  to 
have  been  founded  by  Sennacherib,  King  of 
Assyria,  between  the  years  B.C.  688 — B.C.  680. 
It  was  a  great  and  flourishing  city  when  taken 
and  plundered  by  the  younger  Cyrus,  B.C.  401. 
Alexander  III.,  the  Great,  who  took  it  B.C. 
333,  was  detained  here  some  time  with  a 
dangerous  fever.  In  the  war  between  Caesar 
and  Pompeius  (B.C.  47),  Tarsus  sided  with  the 
former,  and  took  the  name  of  Juliopolis. 
Cleopatra  visited  Marcus  Antoiiius  here,  sail- 
ing up  the  Cydnus  in  great  state,  B.C.  41.  It 
was  made  a  free  city  by  Augustus.  The 
apostle  Paul,  bom  about  the  year  4  ("  Saul  of 
Tarsus,"  Acts  ix.  n,  and  xxi.  39),  was  a  native 
of  the  city.  It  was  seized  by  the  Saracens 
in  the  early  days  of  their  rule,  but  was  taken 
from  them,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  in 
the  second  half  of  the  loth  century.  Soon 
afterwards  it  was  restored  to  them,  and  has  re- 
mained under  their  sway  ever  since.  Councils 
were  held  here  in  Nov.,  431 ;  in  435  ;  and  1177. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  first  discovered  in  a 
separate  state  by  Scheele,  who  was  bom  at 
Stralsund,  in  Sweden,  Dec.  19,  1742,  and  died 
at  Kioping,  May  24,  1786.  Liebig  formed  tar- 
taric  acid  by  artificial  means  in  1859. 

TARTARS,  or  TATARS.— According  to 
Pritchard,  the  Tatars,  or  Tartars,  were  a  tribe 
nearly  allied  to  the  Mongols  in  race,  who  dwelt 
near  Lake  Bouyir,  to  the  eastward  of  Mongolia. 
They  were  among  the  first  to  fall  beneath  the 
Mongol  sway,  and  they  took  afterwards  so 
conspicuous  a  place  in  the  army  of  Zingis 
Khan,  that  their  name  became  synonymous 
with  that  of  the  Mongols.  Their  proper  name 
was  Tatars.  It  is  said  to  have  been  changed 
into  Tartar  in  consequence  of  an  expression  of 
Louis  IX.  (1226 — 70),  who,  when  the  devasta- 
tions of  Zingis  Khan  were  heard  of  with  horror 
in  western  Europe,  is  reported  to  have  ex- 
claimed, "  Erigat  nos,  mater,  coeleste  sola- 
tium, quia  si  proveniant  ipsi,  vel  nos  ipsos 
quos  vocamus  Tartaros  ad  suas  Tartareas  sedes, 
uiide  exierunt,  retrudemus,  vel  ipsi  nos  omnes 
ad  ccelum  advehant."  (See  ALANI,  CALMUCKS, 
COSSACKS,  MONGOLS,  &c.) 

TARTARY  (Asia).— This  tract  of  country, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Russia,  on  the  east 
by  China,  on  the  south  by  Affghanistan  and 
Persia,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Caspian  Sea, 
was  conquered  by  Toulun,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Khan  of  Tartary  about  405.  The 
name  of  Tartary  has  disappeared  from 
geography,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  is  called  Turkestan,  or  Turkistan. 
(See  SCYTHIA.) 

TARTESSUS.— (See  TARSHISH.) 

TASHKEND.— (See  TACHKEND.) 

TASMANIA  (Australia).— This  island,  for- 
merly called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  dis- 
covered by  Tasman,  Dec.  i,  1642,  and  named 
after  Van  Diemen,  the  governor  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  settlements.  The  coast  was  ex- 
plored by  Marion,  Furneaux,  Cook,  Brune, 
d'Entrecasteaux,  and  Kermandee,  between 
1772  and  1792,  and  the  island  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  English  for  a  penal  settle- 
ment, in  connection  with  the  penal  head- 
quarters at  Sydney,  in  Aug.,  1803.  Collins 
landed  with  a  party  of  convicts  Feb.  19,  1804, 


and  founded  Hobart  Town,  of  which  he  was 
the  first  governor.  He  died  in  1810.  It  be- 
came a  distinct  colony  in  1825.  The  bishopric 
of  Tasmania  was  founded  in  1842.  An  anti- 
transportation  society  was  formed  in  1851. 
Their  efforts  to  abolish  transportation  were 
successful  in  1853,  and  by  permission  of  Queen 
Victoria  its  name  was  changed  from  Van 
Diemen's  Land  to  Tasmania.  The  present 
system  of  self-government  was  established  in 
1855  and  1856.  Guano  was  found  on  the  islands 
in  the  neighbourhood  in  April,  1861. 
TATARS.— (See  TARTARS.) 
TATIANISTS.—  (See  ENCRATITES.) 
TATTERSALL'S  (London),  situated  near 
St.  George's  Hospital,  was  opened  in  1779,  by 
Richard  Tattersall,  who  died  in  1795.  The 
premises  were  required  for  improvements,  and 
a  new  establishment  at  Brompton  was  opened 
April  10,  1865. 

TAUNTON    (N.    America).— This    town    in 
Massachusetts  was  founded  in  1637. 

TAUNTON  (Somersetshire),  originally  called 
Tantun,  and  subsequently  Tawnton  and  Thone- 
ton,  from  its  situation  on  the  river  Thone,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Roman  station.  Ina, 
King  of  Wessex,  built  a  castle  here  in  700.  It 
was  destroyed  by  his  queen,  Ethelburga,  in 
722,  and  remained  in  ruins  till  the  reign  of 
William  I.,  when  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  bishops 
of  Winchester,  to  whom  the  town  and  manor 
were  granted.  A  priory  was  built  in  1127,  and 
a  leper-house  in  1269.  Taunton  was  taken  in 
1497  by  Perkin  Warbeck,  who  abandoned  it  on 
the  approach  of  the  Royal  troops.  Col.,  after- 
wards Admiral  Blake,  defended  it  against 
10,000  Royalists,  until  relieved  by  Fairfax,  in 
1645.  James,  Duke  of  Monmouth,  was  pjp- 
claimed  king  here,  June  20,  1685,  and  many  of 
his  followers  were  put  to  death  by  Gen.  Kirke, 
Aug.  27.  (See  *BLOODY  ASSIZES.)  A  charter-, 
granted  in  1627,  was  taken  away  at  the  Resto- 
ration (1660),  and  its  walls  were  razed  to  the 
ground  in  consequence  of  the  zeal  displayed 
by  the  inhabitants  for  the  Parliament.  The 
charter,  subsequently  restored,  was  forfeited 
in  1792.  Taunton  has  returned  two  members 
to  Parliament  since  1625.  The  church  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalen,  built  in  the  i4th  century,  was 
richly  decorated  by  Henry  VII.,  in  return  for 
the  support  given  by  the  town  to  the  Lancas- 
trian cause.  The  free  grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1522,  and  endowed  in  1554.  The 
almshouses  at  East  Gate  were  founded  in  1635  ; 
the  hospital  was  commenced  in  1809,  and 
opened  March  25,  1812  ;  and  the  eye  infirmary 
was  established  in  1816.  The  canal  between 
Taunton  and  Bridgewater,  projected  in  1811, 
added  much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  town. 
The  museum,  library,  &c.,  were  erected  in 
1821,  and  the  Taunton  and  Somerset  Institu- 
tion was  established  in  1823.  The  railway 
from  Bristol  to  Exeter  was  opened  as  far  as 
Taunton  in  July,  1842. 
TAURIC  CHERSONESE.— (See  CRIMEA.) 
TAURIS.— (See  BAZAAR,  TABRIZ,  &c.) 
TAUROMENIUM  (Sicily),  the  modern  Taor- 
mina,  was  founded  by  the  remaining  inhabi- 
tants of  Naxos,  who  were  driven  into  exile 
after  the  destruction  of  that  town  by  Diony- 
sius  I.,  B.C.  396.  It  was  ineffectually  besieged 


TAUSS 


[    960    ]' 


TEA 


by  Dionysius  I.,  B.C.  394,  and  submitted  to 
him  B.C.  392.  It  is  believed  to  have  become  a 
Greek  city  when  Andromachus,  father  of  the 
historian  Timseus,  having  collected  the  exiled 
Naxians  who  were  scattered  over  the  island, 
settled  them  here,  B.C.  358.  It  had  risen  to  a 
considerable  degree  of  opulence,  when  Timo- 
leon  landed,  B.C.  345,  and  was  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  Syracuse  shortly  after 
B.C.  278.  Having  passed  with  the  island  under 
Eoman  domination,  it  was  held  by  the  insur- 
gent slaves,  and  suffered  severely  B.C.  134 — 
132.  Sextus  Pompeius  made  it  one  of  his 
chief  strongholds  of  defence  against  Octavius 
Caesar,  and  gained  an  important  naval  victory 
over  him,  B.C.  36.  Octavius  Csesar  expelled 
its  former  inhabitants,  and  settled  a  Roman 
colony  in  their  place,  B.C.  35. 

TAUSS  (Battle).— The  Hussites  defeated  the 
Imperialists  near  this  town,  in  Bohemia,  Aug. 

TAVERNS.  —  Places  where  wine  was  sold 
can  be  traced  in  England  to  the  1 3th  century. 
At  first  no  eating  was  provided  at  taverns, 
wine  only  being  sold.  They  were  ordered  to 
be  closed  at  curfew  by  13  Edw.  I.  c.  5  (1284). 
The  oldest  tavern  in  London  is  said  to  have 
been  the  "Boar's  Head,"  in  Eastcheap,  where 
Shakespeare  represents  Prince  Henry  and  his 
dissolute  companions  indulging  in  their  revels, 
before  1413.  The  "White  Hart"  tavern,  in 
Bishopsgate  Street,  was  established  in  1480. 
The  number  was  limited  in  London  to  40,  and 
in  Westminster  to  three,  by  7  Edw.  VI.  c.  5 
(1^53),  in  consequence  of  complaints  having 
been  made  of  their  great  increase,  "  to  the 
hurt  and  debauching  of  the  morals  of  the 
people."  Taverns  were  first  licensed  in  1752. 

TAVIE'S  INN.— (See  THAVIE'S  INN.) 

TAVISTOCK  (Devonshire).— The  abbey  was 
founded  in  961.  It  has  returned  two  members 
to  the  House  of  Commons  since  1295.  Sir 
Francis  Drake  was  born  in  the  neighbourhood 
in  1545.  The  canal  was  completed  in  1817. 

TAVOY  (Burmah),  the  chief  town  of  the 
province  of  Tavoy,  in  Tenasserirn,  surrendered 
to  the  English  in  1824. 

TAXATION. — The  Greeks  and  Romans  pos- 
sessed systems  of  taxation  almost  as  compre- 
hensive and  varied  as  those  which  exist  at 
present.  On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire 
the  feudal  system  of  personal  service  was 
introduced.  The  modern  institution  of  taxes 
originated  in  the  practice  of  compounding  for 
fevidal  service  by  payments  of  money.  Immu- 
nity from  arbitrary  taxation  was  established 
by  25  Edw.  I.  cc.  5  <fc  6  (1297),  and  by  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  i  Will.  &  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  2  (1689). 
(See  CUSTOMS,  EXCISE,  INCOME  AND  PROPERTY 
TAX,  LAND  TAX,  STAMP  DUTIES,  &c.) 

TCHAD,  or  TSAD  (Africa).— This  lake,  in 
the  central  regions  of  the  continent,  120  miles 
in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  about  70, 
was  discovered  and  partly  explored  by  Clap- 
perton  and  Denham  in  1823.  Overweg  (who 
died  here  Sep.  27,  1852)  and  Barth  made 
fvirther  explorations  in  1851,  and  Dr.  Vogel 
in  1854. 

TCHERNAYA    (Battle).— The    Russians, 
under  Gen.   Liprancli,  were  defeated  by  the  [ 
French  and  Sardinians,  under  Marshal  Pelissier  I 


and  Gen.  della  Marmora,  on  the  banks  of  this 
river,  near  Sebastopol,  in  the  Crimea,  Aug.  16, 

1855- 

TCHERNIGOV,  or  CZERNIGOF  (Russia), 
capital  of  the  province  of  that  name,  the  oldest 
town  in  the  European  portion  of  the  empire, 
was  built  in  1024.  The  Tartars  took  it  in  1239, 
and  massacred  the  inhabitants. 

TCHESME  (Sea-fight).— The  Turkish  fleet 
was  destroyed  by  the  Russians,  near  this  small 
town,  of  Anatolia,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  July,  1770. 

TEA.— The  tea-plant,  supposed  to  be  indige- 
nous in  China,  according  to  their  writers,  was 
first  discovered  in  the  8th  century.  An  impost 
was  levied  011  tea  by  the  Emperor  Te-Tsang,  in 
781.  Japanese  writers  maintain  that  it  was 
brought  there  from  China  in  the  gth  century. 
The  culture  of  the  tea-plant  was  introduced 
into  Brazil  in  1815,  and  it  was  discovered  in 
India  in  1823.  (-See  ASSAM.)  It  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  in  1591,  and  was 
used  in  England,  on  rare  occasions,  some  years 
prior  to  1657,  and  sold  at  from  £6  to  £10  the 
pound.  Thomas  Garway,  the  first  English 
tea-dealer,  retailed  it  in  1657,  to  the  public,  in 
the  leaf,  at  from  155.  to  SQ.S.  the  pound,  and 
also  in  the  infusion.  (See  GARRAWAY'S  COFFEE 
HorsE.)  It  was  first  imported  by  the  East 
India  Company  in  1677,  when  they  received 
from  China  4,713  pounds,  which  glutted  the 
market  for  several  years.  Green  tea  was  first 
used  in  England  in  1715.  A  duty  of  8d.  per 
gallon  on  all  ready-made  tea  prepared  for  sale 
was  imposed  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  23  (1660),  and 
the  leaf  was  first  taxed  by  i  Will.  &  Maiy, 
sess.  2,  c.  6  (1689),  which  imposed  a  duty  of  5*'. 
per  pound,  and  5  per  cent,  on  the  value.  By 
xoGeo.  I.  c.  10  (1723),  the  duty  was  reduced  to 
45.  per  Ib.  ;  and  by  18  Geo.  II.  c.  26  (1745),  it 
was  again  reduced  to  is.  per  Ib.  and  £25  per 
cent,  on  the  value.  All  previous  duties  were 
repealed  by  24  Geo.  III.  sess.  2,  c.  38  (1784), 
which  effected  an  average  reduction  of  io6k 
per  cent,  by  imposing  a  window-tax.  The 
duty  was  nearly  doubled  by  35  Geo.  III.  c.  13 
'March  16,  1795)  ;  and  by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  53 
July  2,  1819),  it  was  raised  to  £96  per  cent, 
on  tea  worth  less  than  zs.  per  Ib.,  and  to  £100 
per  cent,  on  tea  above  that  price.  These 


id  valorem  duties  were  repealed  by  3  <fc  4  Will. 

833),  which  orde; 
after  April  22/1834,  rates  of  is.  6d.,  2.s.  zd.,  and 


IV.  c.  ioi  (Aug.  29,  1833),  which  ordered  that, 


3*.  per  Ib.  should  be  charged  on  teas,  according 
;o  the  quality.  This  arrangement  proving 
unsatisfactory,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  de- 
ciding the  quality  of  the  article,  an  equal  duty 
of  as.  id.  on  every  Ib.  of  tea  imported  was  im- 
posed by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  32  (Aug.  21,  1835). 
An  addition  of  5  per  cent,  was  imposed  by 
3  &  4  Viet.  c.  17  (June  19,  1840).  By  16  &  17 
Viet.  c.  106  (Aug.  20,  1853),  it  was  arranged 
hat  till  April  5,  1854,  the  duty  should  be 
s.  iod.  per  Ib. ;  that  it  should  then  remain 
t  is.  6d.  till  April  5,  1855,  when  it  was  to  be 
reduced  to  is.  -$d.  ;  and  after  April  5,  1856, 
;o  is.  per  Ib.  In  consequence  of  the  expenses 
intending  the  Russian  war,  these  provi- 
sions were  repealed  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  9 
March  16,  1855),  which  raised  the  duty  to 
•s.  6d. ;  and  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  21  (May  25, 
1855),  it  was  increased  to  is.  gd.  It  was 


TEARLESS  VICTORY 


[    961    ] 


TELEGRAPH 


reduced  to  is.  5^.  by  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  61  (Aug. 
25,  1857).  It  was  fixed  at  is.  per  Ib.  till  Aug. 
i,  1864,  by  26  Viet.  c.  22  (June  8,  1863),  and 
continued  at  the  same  till  Aug.  i,  1865,  by  27 
Viet.  c.  17  (May  13,  1864).  It  was  reduced  to 
6d.  per  Ib.  till  Aug.  i,  1866,  by  28  Viet.  c.  30 
(May  26,  1865),  and  continued  at  the  same  rate 
until  Aug.  i,  1867,  by  29  Viet.  c.  36  (July  u, 
1866). 

TEARLESS  VICTORY,  gained  by  the 
Spartans  under  Archidamus  over  the  Arca- 
dians and  Argives,  B.C.  367.  Thirlwall  (ch.  xl.) 
says,  ' '  Of  the  Lacedaemonians,  according  to 
the  report  which  Archidamus  sent  home,  not 
a  man  was  killed,  and  hence  the  engagement 
became  celebrated  as  the  Tearless  Battle."  The 
same  author  adds,  "  The  news  of  the  victory, 
which  would  once  have  made  but  little  impres- 
sion at  Sparta,  drew  tears  of  joy  from  Agesi- 
laus,  the  senators,  and  the  Ephors." 

TE  DEUM,  a  kind  of  hymn,  or  song  of 
thanks,  supposed  to  have  been  composed  by 
St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo  (395 — 430),  and 
St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (374—97),  is 
sung  in  the  Romish  Church  with  extraordinary 
pomp  and  solemnity  upon  the  gaining  of  a 
battle  or  other  happy  event.  Some  authorities 
contend  that  it  was  not  composed  till  the  end 
of  the  5th  century.  It  was  also  sung  in  Pro- 
testant churches  on  days  of  thanksgiving  for 
a  victory,  peace,  or  other  national  event.  A 
Te  Deum  was  performed  at  St.  Paul's  cathedral 
when  Queen  Anne  went  in  state  to  give  thanks 
for  the  victory  of  Blenheim  in  1704;  and  one 
was  performed  there,  with  vocal  and  instru- 
mental music,  on  the  thanksgiving  day  for  the 
battle  of  Rarnillies,  in  1706.  This  was  the  first 
time  an  instrumental  band  was  permitted  to 
accompany  the  voices  in  St.  Paul's.  Handel's 
Te  Deum  f  01  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  in  1743, 
and  Graun's  for  the  King  of  Prussia's  victory 
at  Kolin,  in  1757,  are  celebrated  compositions. 

TEDMOR.— (See  PALMYRA.) 

TEETH.— The  Mathematical  Jewel,  published 
in  1585,  contains  an  account  of  one  Sir  John 
Blagrave,  "who  caused  his  teeth  to  be  all 
drawne  out,  and  after  had  a  sett  of  ivory  teeth 
in  agayne."  Artificial  teeth  were  in  common 
use  in  England  in  1609.  (See  ODONTOLOGY.) 

TEETOTALLER.— This  term  was  first  used 
in  Sep.,  1833,  by  Richard  Turner,  a  working- 
man  of  Preston,  in  addressing  temperance 
meetings,  to  describe  his  thorough  abstinence 
from  intoxicating  beverages. 

TEFLI8,  or  TIFLIS  (Asia),  the  capital  of 
Georgia,  and  of  all  the  Transcaucasian  pro- 
vinces of  Russia,  was  built  by  Vachtang,  the 
founder  of  a  dynasty  which  ruled  from  the 
Euxine  to  the  Caspian  in  469.  It  was  taken  by 
Tamerlane  in  1386,  and  by  the  Turks  in  1576, 
and  again  in  1723.  Nadir  Shah  retook  it  in 
1734,  and  it  was  captured  and  destroyed  by 
Aga  Mohammed  in  1795.  The  Russians  became 
masters  of  it  in  1801.  It  was  devastated  by 
the  cholera  in  1830.  An  insurrection,  which 
was  soon  suppressed,  broke  out  June  27,  1865. 

TEGEA  (Greece),  one  of  the  most  powerful 
cities  of  Arcadia,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Tegeates,  a  son  of  Lycaon,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Homer  in  connection  with  the  siege 
of  Troy,  B.C.  1184.  The  Spartans  were  de- 


feated in  an  attempt  to  acquire  dominion  over 
it,  and  Charillus,  their  king,  and  all  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  army,  made  prisoners,  B.C.  850. 
It  submitted  to  Sparta  B.C.  560.  A  contingent 
of  500  men  fought  at  Thermopylae  B.C.  480,  and 
one  of  3,000  at  the  battle  of  Plataea,  B.C.  479. 
Leotychides,  King  of  Sparta,  found  refuge 
here  B.C.  469,  and  Pausanias  B.C.  394.  An  inde- 
cisive battle  was  fought  with  the  inhabitants 
of  Mantinea  B.C.  423.  In  the  Cleomenic  war  it 
was  taken  by  Antigonus  Doson,  and  annexed 
to  the  Achaean  League  B.C.  222.  It  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  Alaric  I.  about  400. 

TEGVRA  (Battle).  —  The  Thebans,  under 
Pelopidas,  gained  a  victory  over  the  Lacedae- 
monians at  this  village  of  Bceotia,  B.C.  375. 

TEHERAN,  or  TEHRAN  (Persia)-,  first 
noticed  in  the  i2th  century,  was,  till  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  century,  an  insignificant  town.  In 
the  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Rkages,  the  capital  of  the  Parthian  kings, 
where  Alexander  III.  halted  five  days  in  his 
pursuit  of  Darius  III.,  B.C.  330.  It  was  made 
the  metropolis  of  the  empire  by  Aga  Moham- 
med Khan  about  1790.  A  body  of  French 
engineers  was  sent  here  by  Napoleon  I.  in 
1807,  to  organize  the  military  resources  of 
Persia.  The  Russian  minister  was  assassinated 
here  Feb.  12,  1829.  A  cotton  factory  was 
established  in  1859. 

TEHERAN,  or  TEHRAN  (Treaties).  —  A 
preliminary  treaty  of  alliance  with  England 
was  concluded  here  March  12,  1809. A  defi- 
nitive treaty  of  alliance  with  England  was 

concluded  here  Nov.  25,  1814. A  treaty  of 

commerce  with  England  was  signed  here  Oct. 
28,  1841.  / 

TEIGN MOUTH  (Devonshire),  for  some 
time  an  insignificant  village,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  landing  place  of  the  Danes  in 
England  in  787.  It  contributed  seven  ships 
towards  the  expedition  against  Calais  in  1347. 
The  town,  burned  by  a  French  pirate  in 
1350,  was  plundered  in  July,  1690,  by  the 
French,  who  also  burned  116  houses,  with  a 
number  of  ships  and  small  craft  in  the  har- 
bour. Being  threatened  with  a  similar  attack 
in  1744,  the  inhabitants  obtained  permission 
to  erect  a  fort  on  the  beach  at  East  Teign- 
mouth.  A  market  and  fair  were  granted  the 
town  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216 — 72). 
The  school  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of 
poor  children  was  founded  in  1731.  The  quay 
was  constructed  in  1820. 

TELA.— (See  MEDINA  DE  Rio  SECO.) 

TELAMON  (Italy).— This  city  of  Etruria  is 
first  mentioned  B.C.  225,  as  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  by  the  Romans  of  the  Cisalpine  Gauls. 
Marius  landed  here  on  his  return  from  exile, 
B.C.  87.  It  was  in  existence  as  late  as  the  ith 
century,  but  from  this  time  all  trace  of  it  dis- 
appears till  the  1 4th  century,  when  a  castle 
was  built  on  its  site. 

TELEGRAPH.  —  The  word  telegraph, 
from  T»}Ae,  at  a  distance,  and  ypafa»,  I  write, 
signifies  any  method  of  communicating  intel- 
ligence to  a  distance  by  means  of  visible  sig- 
nals, and  was  brought  into  use  about  1793. 
The  ancients  employed  fire  and  flags  for  the 
purpose.  Polybius(B.c. 204 — 3.0.122) statesthat 
a  rude  system  of  telegraphy  had  been  invented 
3Q 


TELEPHONE 


[    962    ] 


TEMPLARS 


by  Cleoxenes  and  Democlitus,  and  improved 
by  himself.  The  Marquis  of  Worcester  de- 
scribes some  ingenious  telegraphic  inventions 
of  his  own  in  the  "  Century  of  Inventions"  in 
1663.  Dr.  Hooke  described  a  clever  plate  tele- 
graph, May  21,  1684,  but  no  practical  advantage 
was  taken  of  the  invention  until  Chappe, 
in  1793,  introduced  a  system  of  semaphore 
telegraphs  in  France.  In  1801  John  Boaz,  of 
Glasgow,  patented  a  nocturnal  telegraph.  In 
1806  a  new  plan  was  adopted,  and  in  1816  Sir 
Home  Popham  introduced  great  improve- 
ments. The  principle  of  these  telegraphs  was 
the  same  as  that  of  the  various  semaphore 
signals  employed  on  railways.  The  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  telegraphs  is  regulated 
by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  112  (July  28,  1863),  amended 
by  29  Viet.  c.  3  (March  6,  1866).  (See  ATLANTIC, 
Ku:<  TIUC,  and  SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPHS,  LATI- 
TUDE and  LONGITUDE,  CYC.) 

TKLKIM10XK  was  invented  by  Reis  in  1861. 

TKLKSCOl'K  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Zaeharias  Jansen,  an  optician  of  Middle- 
burg,  in  1590.  Another  account  assigns  the 
discovery  to  1610;  and  Hallam  states  that  the 
date  of  the  invention,  or  at  least  of  its  pub- 
licity, is  referred  beyond  dispute  to  1609. 
Others  ascribe  the  invention  to  Adrian  Metius, 
at  Alkmaar,  about  1607.  Galileo  heard  of  the 
discovery  while  at  Venice  in  May,  1609,  and 
from  the  description  constructed  an  instru- 
ment, with  which  he  discovered  the  four 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  Jan.  7—13,  1610,  and 
the  phases  of  Venus  ill  Sep.  The  astronomical 
telescope  was  greatly  improved  by  lluyghens 
about  1655.  James  Gregory  published  sug- 
gestions for  forming  a  telescope  on  a  new 
plan  in  1663.  Newton  made  one  on  this  prin- 
ciple, which  is  known  as  the  Gregorian  teles- 
cope, and  completed  his  reflecting  telescope  in 
1672.  The  latter  was  improved  by  L>r.  Jlooko 
in  1674,  and  by  Hadley  in  1718.  Achromatic 
telescopes  were  made  by  Chester  Moore  in 
1729.  Sir  William  Herschel  perfected  the  re- 
flecting telescope,  and  commenced  one  of  the 
Newtonian  kind  in  the  end  of  1783,  which  was 
finished  Aug.  28,  1789.  The  Dialytic  tel 
was  invented  by  Rodger  in  1828.  Lord  Uosse's 
monster  reflecting  telescope,  erected  at  Birr 
Castle,  near  Parsonstowu,  Ireland,  was  finished 
in  1844.  (See  ACHROMATIC  TELESCOPES,  MICRO- 
METER.) 

TELLERS.— (See  EXCHEQUER,  Tellers  of  the.) 

TELLURIUM,  a  scarce  metal  discovered  by 
Miiller,  of  Reichenstein,  in  Germany,  in  1782. 
Klaproth,  who,  about  1798,  ascertained  its  pro- 
perties more  minutely,  gave  it  the  name  it 
now  bears. 

TEMESWAR  (Hungary),  the  capital  of  the 
Banat,  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
ancient  Tibiscus,  to  which  Ovid  was  banished 
in  8.  It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Turks  in 
1552,  in  whose  possession  it  remained  till  1716, 
when  it  was  regained  by  Prince  Eugene,  and 
strongly  fortified.  It  was  ceded  to  Austria  by 
the  treaty  of  Passarowitz  (q.  v.),  July  21,  1718, 
and  incorporated  with  Hungary  in  1778.  The 
Hungarians  besieged  it  in  April,  1849;  but  it 
was  bravely  defended  by  Gen.  Rukawina  for 
107  days,  when  the  garrison  were  relieved  by 
Gen.  Haynau.  He  defeated  the  Hungarian 


army  in  a  well-contested  battle,  Aug.  10,  and 
entered  the  town  in  the  evening. 

TEMPE  (Greece),  the  ancient  name  of  a 
beautiful  valley  in  Thessaly,  between  Mounts 
Olympus  and  Ossa,  through  which  the  waters 
of  the  Peneius  force  their  way  into  the  sea. 
When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  B.C.  480,  the 
Greeks  sent  a  force  of  10,000  men  to  Tempo, 
to  defend  the  pass  against  the  Persians;  but 
having  learnt  that  there  was  another  pass 
across  Mount  Olympus  into  Thessaly,  they 
withdrew  to  Thermopylae  The  Romans,  under 
Q.  Marcius  Philippus,  dislodged  Perseus,  King 
of  Macedon,  from  a  position  here,  and  opened 
the  pass  i;.c.  169. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.— The  first 
society  on  the  principle  of  entire  abstinence 
from  spirits  was  established  at  Moreau,  in 
North  America,  in  1806.  The  next  was  the 
American  Temperance  Society,  founded  at 
Boston  Feb.  13,  1826.  A  thousand  societies 
were  in  existence  in  the  United  States  at  the 
end  of  1829.  A  society  was  founded  at  New 
Ross,  in  Wexford,  Ireland,  in  Aug.,  1829.  The 
Clasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Association  was 
formed  Nov.  12,  1829  ;  and  the  society  at  Brad- 
ford, in  Yorkshire,  in  Feb.,  1830.  The  British 
and  Foreign  Temperance  Society  was  organi/ed 
in  London  June  29,  1831,  by  which  time 
societies  had  been  formed  in  the  chief  towns 
throughout  the  kingdom.  The  Preston  society 
was  the  first  to  adopt  a  pledge  renouncing  "  all 
liquors  of  an  intoxicating  quality,"  in 

formed 


333.    The  British  Teetotal  Society 
i  London  in  1835,  and  this  was  i 


merged  into 


the  New  British  and  Foreign  Society  for  the 
Suppression  of  Intemperance,  Aug.  20,  1836. 
The  Sons  of  the  Phojnix,  a  teetotal  friendly 
society,  was  instituted  in  1839.  Old  paitial 
abstinence  societies  were  either  dissol 
joined  the  new  movement,  and  the  exertions 
of  the  Rev.  Father  Mathew  in  Ireland  in  1839, 
1840,  and  1841,  and  in  England  in  1843, 
impetus  to  the  movement.  The  parent  si  icie- 
ties  of  London  were  merged  in  the  National 
Temperance  Society  in  June,  1843.  The  Maine 
Liquor  law  in  America  was  passed  June  2, 
1851.  The  London  Temperance  League  was 
formed  in  July,  1851,  and  the  United  Kingdom 
Alliance,  for  the  legislative  suppression  of  the 
traffic  in  intoxicating  drinks,  was  founded  at, 
Manchester  June  i,  1853.  (See  TEETOTALLER.) 
TEMPLARS,  or  KNIGHTS  OF  THK 
TKMI'LK,  first  called  the  "  Poor  of  the  Holy 
City,"  and  then  "  Poor  Soldiers  of  the  Temple 
of  Solomon,"  abbreviated  into  Templars,  in- 
stituted for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  to  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  by  Baldwin  II.,  King  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  1118  or  1119,  were  established  on 
a  permanent  basis  by  Honorius  II.,  in  1128, 
and  Alexander  III.  authorized  priests  to  join 
as  chaplains  in  1162.  Jerusalem  was  the  head 
province  and  residence  of  the  grand  master 
till  1187,  Antioch  till  1191,  and  Acre  till  1217. 
The  Templars  took  refuge  in  the  town  of 
Limisso  or  Limesol,  in  Cyprus,  when  the 
Latin  power  was  destroyed  in  Palestine  in  1 192. 
Philip  IV.  of  France  assisted  Clement  V.  to 
the  papal  chair  in  1305,  on  the  understanding 
that  he  would  lend  him  his  aid  in  destroying 
the  order.  Jaques  de  Molay,  their  grand 


TEMPLE 


[    963 


TEN  VIRTUES 


master,  was  summoned  to  Europe  to  consult 
with  the  Pope  concerning  the  union  of  the 
Templars  and  Hospitallers  in  1306.  Grave 
accusations  were  made  against  them,  nearly 
all  the  knights  in  France,  including  De  Molay, 
were  seized  ;  and  their  stronghold  in  Paris  was 
taken  by  Philip  IV.,  Sep.  13,  1307.  The  knights 
of  England  were  thrown  into  prison  by 
K«l \vurd  II.  in  Dec.,  1309.  Pope  Clement  V. 
issued  a  bull  requiring  all  authorities  to  aid 
him  in  discovering  the  guilt  of  the  accused,  in 
Aug.,  1308;  and,  a  commission  of  ecclesiastics 
met  at  Paris  to  try  the  case  Aug.  7,  1309. 
Cruel  tortures  extracted  so-called  confessions 
from  the  accused  in  France,  many  of  whom 
were  condemned  to  the  flames  in  1309.  Fifty- 
four,  who  had  been  entrapped  by  Philip  IV.  into 
making  confessions,  and  afterwards  retracted, 
were  burned  in  a  field  behind  the  abbey  of 
St.  Antoine,  May  13,  1310.  Clement  V.,  in  a 
secret  consistory  at  Vienne,  abolished  the  order 
by  his  own  authority,  April  3,  1312.  The  bull 
was  formally  published  May  2.  On  a  small 
island  of  the  Seine,  near  the  site  occupied  by 
the  statue  of  Henry  IV.,  De  Molay,  grand 
master,  and  Guy,  grand  prior  of  Normandy, 
were  burned  to  death,  March  18,  1314.  Philip 
IV.  seized  most  of  their  property.  In  England 
their  landed  possessions  were  given  to  the 
Hospitallers  in  1311,  and  the  statute  authorizing 
the  transfer  was  passed  in  1323.  In  Portugal 
the  society  took  the  name  of  the  Order  of 
Christ.  In  Spain  their  property  was  given  to 
the  knights  of  Our  Lady  of  Montesa,  a  society 
founded  in  1317.  The  chief  seat  of  the  order 
in  England  was  the  Temple,  whither  they 
removed  from  Holbom  in  1185. 

TEMPLE  (London).— A  house  was  founded 
here  by  the  Knights  Templars  in  1185,  when 
the  church  was  commenced,  the  chancel  having 
been  consecrated  in  1240.  It  was  called  the 
New  Temple,  and  was  purchased  and  formed 
into  inns  of  court  after  the  suppression  of  the 
order  in  1311.  In  consequence  of  the  number 
of  students,  it  was  divided  into  the  Inner  and 
Middle  Temple  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1509 — 47).  The  Outer  Court  was  founded  in 
1560,  and  the  Middle  Temple  Hall  was  built 
in  1572.  The  library  was  founded  by  Robert 
Ashley  in  1641.  The  church  was  repaired  in 
1828.  The  new  library  of  the  Middle  Temple, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  ,£14,000,  from  designs  by 


H.  R.  Abraham,  was  opened  by  the 
of  Wales,  who  was,  on  the  occasion,  called  to 
the  bar  and  admitted  as  bencher,  Oct.  31,  1861. 
TEMPLE  BAR  (London)  was  erected  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  1670—1672.  The  first  head 
exhibited  on  Temple  Bar  was  that  of  Sir  T. 
Armstrong,  executed  for  his  share  in  the  Rye 
House  Plot,  in  1683.  The  last  is  said  to  have 
fallen  during  a  storm  in  1772.  A  petition  for 
the  removal  of  Temple  Bar  was  presented  by 
certain  merchants  and  others  of  the  city  of 
London  to  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation,  in 

TEMPLES.— The  classical  authors  state  that 
temples  originated  in  the  sepulchres  built  for 
the  dead,  and  that  they  were  first  erected  by 
the  Egyptians.  Constantino  I.  ordered  the 
destruction  of  the  heathen  temples  throughout 
the  Roman  empire  in  331.  (See  BAALBEC, 


DELPHI,  EPHESUS,  OLYMPIA,  PAGANS,  REASON, 
SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE,  TABERNACLE,  TRINCOMALEE, 
&c.). 

TENASSERIM  (Hindostan)  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Burmese  in  1793,  and  was 
ceded  to  the  English  by  the  treaty  of  Yanda- 
boo,  Feb.  24,  1826. 

TENB  Y  (Pembrokeshire)  was  built  by  Flemish 
settlers,  who  sought  refuge  from  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Low  Countries,  about  1108.  Its 
fortifications  were  strengthened  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588.  It 
was  garrisoned  for  Charles  I.  and  besieged  by 
the  Parliamentarian  forces  in  1643,  and  again 
in  1648.  A  new  fish-market  was  opened  in 
1847.  The  Albert  memorial  was  inaugurated 
Aug.  2,  1865. 

TENEDOS  <JEgean  Sea).— This  island,  off  the 
coast  of  Troas,  originally  called  Leucophrys, 
from  its  white  cliffs,  an  JEolian  settlement,  was 
sacked  by  Achilles  and  occupied  by  the  Greeks 
after  the  siege  of  Troy,  B.C.  1184.  It  became 
subject  to  Persia  B.C.  493,  and  siding  with 
Athens  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  paid  an 
annual  tribute  of  3,426  drachma  B.C.  431. 
The  Lacedemonians  invaded  it  B.C.  389.  The 
island  threw  off  the  Persian  yoke  about  B.C. 
331.  Justinian  I.  (527-65)  caused  granaries  to  be 
erected  to  receive  the  supplies  of  Egyptian  corn. 

TENERIFFE  (Canary  Isles),  said  to  have 
been  first  discovered  by  a  French  ship,  driven 
among  the  group  by  stress  of  weather,  about 
1330,  was  taken  formal  possession  of  for  the 
Spanish  crown  in  1461.  (See  SANTA  CRUZ.) 

TENISON  LIBRARY  (London).— Thomas 
Tenison,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1695 — 
1716),  having  in  1684  projected  a  free  public 
library  for  the  people  of  Westminster  and  its 
neighbourhood,  signed  a  deed  of  settlement 
for  that  purpose  in  1695.  The  endowment 
providing  only  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
librarian,  and  not  for  the  purchase  of  books, 
the  institution  declined  in  importance  on  the 
death  of  its  founder;  but  in  1835  a  committee 
was  appointed,  by  whom  it  has  been  restored. 
It  was  the  first  public  library  in  London. 

TEN  JURISDICTIONS.— (See  CADDEE 
LEAGUE.) 

TENNESSEE  (N.  America)  was  settled  about 
1750.  The  settlements  were  destroyed  by  the 
Cherokee  Indians,  then  possessors  of  the 
country,  in  1760.  They  were  in  great  part 
expelled  in  1780.  It  was  ceded  by  North 
Carolina  to  the  United  States  and  converted 
into  a  territory,  Aug.  14,  1790.  It  constituted 
a  state  in  1796.  The  original  constitution  was 
amended  in  1834.  It  joined  the  Confederate 
States  June  8,  1861. 

TENNIS  appears  to  have  been  imported 
from  France  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  game  was  revived  and  brought 
into  fashion  in  England  by  Charles  II.  (1660— 
85).  (See  FIVES,  PALLONE,  RACQUET,  &c.) 

TENOCHTITLAN.— (See  MEXICO.) 

TEN  TABLES.— (See  TWELVI;  TABLES.) 

TEN  THOUSAND.— (See  RETREAT  OF  THE 
TEN  THOUSAND.) 

T  E  N  T  H  S.  —  (See  QUEEN  ANNE'S  BOUNTY, 
TITHES,  &c.) 

TEN  VIRTUES  OF  OUR  LADY,  or  AN- 
NUNCIADA.— This  order  of  nuns  was  founded 
3  Q  2 


TEOS 


[    964    1 


TEUTONES 


by  Jeanne  of  Valois,  daughter  of  Louis  XI.  of 
France,  who,  born  in  1464,  was,  at  the  age  of 
12  years,  forced  by  her  father,  in  1476,  into  a 
marriage  with  her  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
by  whom  she  was  repudiated  on  account  of 
the  plainness  of  her  person,  on  his  accession  to 
the  French  crown  as  Louis  XII.  in  1498.  Re- 
ceiving from  her  husband  the  town  of  Botirges 
as  a  residence,  she  there  established  this  order, 
the  rules  of  which  had  been  confirmed  by 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  Feb.  14,  1501,  by  con- 
ferring the  veil  on  five  applicants,  Oct.  8,  1502. 
Jeanne  died  Feb.  4,  1505.  The  order  was 

E  laced  under  the  authority  of  the  Franciscans 
i  1514,  and  was  abolished  at  the  French 
Revolution.  (See  HEAVENLY  ANNUNCIATION.) 

TEOS  (Asia  Minor). — Founded  by  a  colony  of 
Minyse,  from  Orchomenus,  became  an  Ionian 
settlement,  and  on  its  capture  by  the  Persians, 
B.C.  480,  its  inhabitants  removed  to  Abdera,  in 
Thrace.  Near  this  city  the  Syrian  fleet  was 
defeated  by  the  allied  fleets  of  Rome  and 
Rhodes,  about  B.C.  197. 

TEPHRICE,  or  TEPHRICA  (Greece),  found- 
ed by  the  Paulicians  in  845,  was  destroyed  by 
Basil  I.  in  871. 

TERCEIRA  (Atlantic),  one  of  the  Azores,  was 
the  residence  of  Maria  II.,  Queen  of  Portugal. 
from  1829  to  1833,  during  the  Miguelite  civil 
war.  (SeeANGRA.) 

TERGOES.— (See  GOES.) 

T  EK  MONDE.— (See  DENDERMONBE.) 

TKROUANNE,  or  THEROUANNE  (France), 
taken  by  the  English  in  1380  and  1513,  was 
restored  to  France  in  1527.  Charles  V.,  who 
took  it  after  a  siege  of  two  months'  duration, 
demolished  the  fortifications  in  1553,  when  the 
bishopric  was  transferred  to  Boulogne.  It  was 
restored  in  1559. 

TERRACINA  Italy),  called  by  the  Volscians, 
its  ancient  inhabitants,  Anxur,  was  a  depen- 
dency of  Rome  B.C.  509.  It  was  taken  by  M. 
Fabius  Ambustus  B.C.  406.  The  Volscians 
recovered  it  B.C.  402.  It  was  re-captured  by 
the  Romans  B.C.  400,  and  a  colony  established 
B.C.  329.  The  town  was  occupied  by  the  troops 
of  Pompeius  in  the  civil  war  about  B.C.  50,  and 
by  those  of  Vespasian  in  69. 

TERRA  or  TIERRA  AUSTRALIS.  —  (See 
AUSTRALIA.) 

TERRA  or  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO  (S. 
America),  "the  land  of  fire,"  so  called  by 
Magalhaens,  from  the  number  of  watch-fires 
on  its  coast  by  night,  was  discovered  by  that 
navigator  in  1520.  Nine  Europeans,  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  crew  of  the  Allen  Gardiner, 
were  massacred  whilst  celebrating  divine 
service,  Sunday,  Nov.  6,  1859.  The  cook  alone 
escaped,  and  he  was  rescued  three  months 
afterwards. 

TERROR.  —  (See  INQUISITION,  REIGN  OF 
TERROR,  <fec.) 

TESCHEN  (Treaty).  —  Through  the  inter- 
vention of  France  and  Russia,  a  treaty  was 
concluded  at  this  place,  in  Upper  Silesia,  be- 
tween Austria  and  Prussia,  when  on  the  eve 
of  war,  May  13,  1779.  Austria  renounced  a 
claim  she  had  made  on  the  dominions  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  receiving  a  tract  of  terri- 
tory between  the  Danube,  the  Inn,  and  the 
Salza,  and  paying  compensation  to  Saxony. 


This  terminated  the  dispute  respecting  the 
Bavarian  succession. 

TKSSIX,  or  TESSINO.— (See  TICINO.) 

TESTAMENT.— (See  BIBLE,  CANON  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE, POLYGLOTT,  &C.) 

TEST  and  CORPORATION  ACTS  (25  Charles 
II.  c.  i  and  c.  2),  compelling  persons  holding 
office  to  take  the  sacrament  and  subscribe  a 
declaration  against  transubstantiation,*  were 
passed  March  29,  1673.  The  Duke  of  York, 
Lord  Clifford,  and  others,  resigned  their  posts. 
They  were  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  17  (May  9, 
1828).  A  test  act  was  framed  for  Scotland  by 
the  Duke  of  York  in  1681. 

TESTER,  TESTONE,  or  TESTOON.  —  Le 
Blanc  says,  coin  struck  in  France  by  Louis 
XII.  in  1513,  was  so  called  because  his  bust 
was  engraved  upon  it.  (See  COIN.)  A  procla- 
mation was  issued,  April  10,  1548,  calling 
them  in,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
counterfeits  in  circulation. 

TESTRY  (Battle).— Invited  by  the  exiled 
nobles,  Pepin  of  Heristal  marched  an  army 
into  the  Vermandois,  defeated  Thierry  III., 
King  of  Austrasia,  and  took  him  prisoner  in 

TESTUDO    and    TESTUDINES.  — (-See 

BATTKRING-RAM.) 

TMTRAPOLIS.— (&e  ANTIOCH.) 

TETRA  I'<  )UT.\  N  CON  FESSION.— (See  CON- 
KI:SSIO  TKTKAI-OMTAN  \.) 

TETTKNHAU.  I5attle\— A  force  of  West 
Saxons  and  Mercians,  sent  out  by  Edward  I. 
or  the  Elder,  against  the  Danes,  defeated 
them  at  this  place,  in  Staffordshire,  Aug.  6, 

9ITETUAN  (Morocco).— Was  taken  by  the 
Spaniards  Feb.  4,  1860,  and  a  battle  was  fought 
in  the  'neighbourhood,  March  23,  1860  (See 
GUAD-EL-KAS  ,  in  which,  after  an  obstinate 
resistance,  the  Moors  were  defeated  by  the 
Spaniards.  Tetuan  was  held  by  Spain  as 
security  for  payment  of  the  indemnity  agreed 
upon  by  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  April  27, 
1860.  The  claims  of  Spain  having  been  satisfied, 
the  garrison  was  withdrawn  in  1862. 

TEUSIN  Treaty).— The  Duke  of  Suderma- 
nia,  uncle  of  Sigismund  III.  of  Sweden  and 
Poland,  concluded  this  peace  with  the  Czar, 
Feodor  I.,  at  the  village  of  Teusin,  near  Narva, 
in  Russia,  May  18,  1595.  Esthoiiia  and  part 
of  Livonia,  with  Narva,  were  ceded  to  Sweden, 
Kexholm  and  Carelia  were  restored  to  Russia, 
and  arrangements  were  made  for  dividing  the 
tribute  paid  by  the  Laplanders. 

TEUTOBERG,  or  TEUTOBURG  (Battle).— 
Herman,  a  young  German  chief,  called  Ar- 
minius  by  Roman  writers,  attacked  the  legions 
of  Rome  in  this  forest,  the  modem  Hippische 
Wald,  near  Detmoldt,  in  the  year  9,  and  defeated 
them  with  great  loss.  P.  Quintilius  Varus, 
the  commander,  and  many  of  his  officers,  fell 
on  their  swords  to  avoid  being  made  prisoners, 
and  very  few  escaped. 

TEUTONES.— This  powerful  German  tribe, 
in  alliance  with  the  Cimbri,  advanced  into 
Illyria,  and  defeated  the  consul  Cn.  Papirius 
Carbo,  at  Noreia,  B.C.  113.  They  afterwards 
forced  their  way  into  Roman  Gaul,  and  de- 
feated Manlius  and  Scipio,  B.C.  105  ;  and  they 
invaded  Spain  B.C.  104.  On  their  retreat 


TEUTONIC  ORDER 


C    965    1 


THAMES  EMBANKMENT 


from  Spain,  they  were  met  by  the  Romans, 
under  Marius,  at  Aquse  Sextise,  the  modern 
Aix,  and  totally  defeated  B.C.  102. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER  took  its  rise  about 
1189,  during  the  crusades.  Frederick  of 
Swabia,  on  his  arrival  with  his  army  before 
Acre,  in  1191,  under  the  sanction  of  a  bull  of 
Pope  Coelestine  III.,  named  it  the  order  of  the 
German  House  of  the  Holy  Virgin  of  Jeru- 
salem. After  their  return  to  Germany,  they 
were,  in  1226,  invited  by  Conrad,  Duke  of 
Masovia,  to  assist  him  in  conquering  the 
heathen  Prussians,  and  a  bull  was  issued  em- 
powering them  to  do  so.  They  settled  in 
Poland  in  1233,  and  were  united  with  the 
Brethren  of  the  Sword  in  1237.  They  con- 
quered Prussia  in  1283  ;  but  insurrections 
afterwards  broke  out,  and  they  were  defeated 
by  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians  in  a  great  battle 
near  Tannenburg,  in  Germany,  July  15,  1410, 
when  the  grand  master  and  40,000  of  his  fol- 
lowers were  slain.  The  order,  dissolved  by  the 
peace  of  Cracow  in  1525,  was  abolished  by 
Napoleon  I.  in  1809.  (See  MAKIENBURG.) 

TEWKESBURY  (Battle).  —  The  Yorkists, 
commanded  by  Edward  IV.,  defeated  the  Lan- 
castrians in  a  field,  called  the  Bloody  Meadow, 
near  this  town,  Saturday,  May  4,  1471.  Queen 
Margaret  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  Duke  of 
Somerset  and  other  nobles  were  captured  and 
beheaded,  May  6. 

TEWKESBURY  (Gloucestershire). —A  mo- 
nastery was  founded  here  about  725.  A  charter, 
confirming  and  extending  the  privileges  of 
the  burgesses,  was  granted  by  Edward  III., 
Aug.  12,  1338.  Elizabeth  granted  a  charter  of 
incorporation  in  1574,  and  the  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1576.  This  town  suf- 
fered greatly  in  the  civil  wars,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Parliamentarians,  June  5,  1644. 
Its  present  charter  was  granted  by  William  III. 
in  1698.  The  town-hall  was  erected  in  1788, 
the  market-house  in  1789,  and  the  theatre 
in  1823. 

TEXAS  (N.  America). —A  French  colony 
that  had  established  itself  here  in  1687,  was 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1690.  'Both 
France  and  Spain  laid  claim  to  Texas,  and 
numerous  settlements  were  made  by  Americans 
between  1806  and  1816.  Texas  revolted  from 
Mexico  in  1832,  the  first  Texan  congress  having 
been  held  Oct.  3,  1836.  War  ensued,  in  which 
the  Mexicans  were  defeated.  The  United 
States  recognized  the  independence  of  Texas, 
March  3,  1837  ;  France,  Sep.  25,  1839 ;  and 
England  subscribed  a  treaty  with  Texas, 
Nov.  13,  1840.  Texas,  admitted  into  the  Union 
in  1845,  joined  the  Confederate  States  Feb.  i, 
1861. 

TEXEL  (German  Ocean).  —  Several  naval 
engagements  have  taken  place  off  this  island 
in  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  English  fleet,  under 
Monk,  gained  a  victory  here  over  the  Dutch, 
under  Van  Tromp,  who  fell  in  the  action, 
Aug.  9,  1653.  Another  was  fought  with  doubt- 
ful results  between  the  combined  fleets  of 
England  and  France  and  the  Dutch  in  1673.  & 
Dutch  fleet,  in  a  state  of  insubordination,  sur- 
rendered to  the  English  fleet  here,  Aug.  30, 
1799.  Part  of  Napoleon's  immense  army  for 
the  invasion  of  England  occupied  Texel  in 


Aug.,  1805.  The  sea  broke  down  the  dykes  of 
the  Texel,  and  laid  the  greater  portion  of  the 
island  under  water,  in  1825. 

TEXTS.— In  the  early  church  the  text  was 
most  commonly  taken  from  some  paragraph  of 
the  Psalms  or  Lessons.  Elfric,  afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  required  the  priest 
on  Sunday  to  explain  the  Gospel  of  the  day, 
the  Creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  about  957. 
Preaching  from  a  text  in  England  appears  to 
have  originated  in  1204,  with  Stephen  Langton, 
afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  though 
some  continued  to  preach  without  texts  as  late 
as  the  i  sth  century. 

TEXT- WRITERS.— (See  GRUB  STREET.) 

THADMOR.— (See  PALMYRA.) 

THALLIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  by 
Crookes  in  1861. 

THAMES  (England),  the  Roman  Tamesa  or 
Tamesis,  was  crossed  by  Julius  Csesar  after  he 
had  routed  the  Britons  under  their  King  Cas- 
sivellaunus,  B.C.  54.  The  Northmen  entered  it 
with  350  ships,  took  Canterbury  and  London 
by  storm,  and  were  afterwards  defeated  at 
Ockley  by  the  West  Saxons,  in  851.  The  first 
stone  bridge  across  the  river  was  commenced 
by  Peter  Colman  in  1176.  Extraordinary 
floods  occurred  in  1235  ;  Feb.  16,  1736  (when 
counsel  were  carried  out  of  Westminster  Hall 
to  their  carriages  in  boats);  June  4,  1767  (on 
which  occasion  the  water  reached  Kennington 
Common) ;  March  5,  1828  ;  Nov.  2,  1833  ;  and 
Jan.  29,  1834  (requiring  watermen  to  convey 
people  from  street  to  street).  The  conservancy 
from  Staines  to  Yenlade  was  assured  to  the 
city  of  London  in  1489.  It  was  frozen  over 
and  fairs  held  upon  the  ice  in  the  winters  of 
1683-4,  of  1739-4°)  an(i  of  1813-14.  Much 
damage  was  sustained  by  the  shipping  from 
the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  Jan.  26,  1829. 
Navigation  was  resumed  after  a  suspension  of 
several  weeks  from  the  ice,  Feb.  8,  1838.  A 
tunnel  from  Gravesend  to  Tilbury  Fort  was 
proposed  in  1798,  and  an  effort  made  to  carry 
it  into  execution  in  1801.  The  tunnel  at  Rother- 
hithe  was  opened  for  traffic  March  25,  1843. 
(See  THAMES  TUNNEL.)  By  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  47 
(Aug.  17,  1857),  the  conservancy  was  vested  in 
the  corporation  of  the  city  of  London.  It  came 
into  operation  Sep.  29,  1857,  and  was  amended 
by  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  113  (July  29,  1864).  The 
conservancy  of  the  Thames  and  the  Isis,  from 
Staines  to  Cricklade,  was  vested  in  the  con- 
servators of  the  Thames  by  the  Thames  Navi- 
gation Act  (29  &  30  Viet.  c.  89),  Aug.  6,  1866. 

THAMES  EMBANKMENT.  —  After  the 
Great  P'ire  of  1666,  Sir  C.  Wren  proposed  an 
embankment  from  the  Temple  to  the  Tower. 
Gwynne  recommended  the  construction  of 
quays  on  both  sides  of  the  river  in  his  "London 
and  Westminster  Improved,"  published  in  1767. 
The  corporation  obtained  powers  for  embank- 
ing a  small  portion  in  1767,  and  an  act  for  the 
erection  of  Adelphi  Terrace  was  passed  in 
1770.  Plans  for  the  embankment  of  the 
Thames  at  London  were  proposed  by  Sir  Fred- 
erick Trench,  in  1828.  A  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  was  appointed  to  consider 
the  expediency  of  erecting  an  embankment 
from  London  Bridge  to  Vauxhall,  March  27, 
1840,  and  with  that  object  a  survey  was  made, 


THAMES   TUNNEL 


[    966    ] 


THEATRES 


Nov.  8,  1841.  Another  plan  was  proposed  by 
John  Martin,  the  painter,  in  1856 ;  but  no 
measures  were  taken  for  carrying  the  work 
into  effect.  By  21  &  22  Viet.  c.  104  (Aug.  2, 
1858),  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  re- 
ceived power  to  construct  embankments  ;  and 
in  consequence  of  their  representations  a  par- 
liamentary committee  was  nominated  in  1860, 
to  consider  the  plans  proposed  by  different 
architects.  The  committee  held  their  first 
meeting  April  30,  1861,  and  presented  their 
report,  in  which  they  approved  of  the  design 
of  F.  W.  Sheilds,  July  2,  1861.  Provision 
was  made  for  embanking  the  north  side  of 
the  Thames,  from  Blackfriars  to  Westminster 
Bridge,  and  for  f orming  the  approaches  thereto, 
by  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  93  (Aug.  7,  1862).  By  26  & 
27  Viet.  c.  75  (July  28,  1863),  provision  was 
made  for  embanking  the  south  side  of  the 
Thames.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  em- 
bankment on  the  north  side  was  laid  July  8, 
1864,  and  that  of  the  south  side,  July  28, 
1866. 

THAMES  TUNNEL  (London)  was  designed 
by  Sir  M.  1.  Brunei  (1769— Dec.  12,  1849).  By 
4  &  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  156  (June  24,  1824),  a  com- 
pany was  empowered  to  make  and  maintain 
a  tunnel  under  the  Thames  from  Wapping, 
Middlesex,  to  Rotherhithc,  in  Surrey.  A  shaft 
was  sunk,  and  the  first  brick  laid,  March  2, 
1825.  The  river  broke  in  May  18,  1827,  544 
feet  of  the  tunnel  being  constructed.  The 
second  irruption  took  place  .Ian.  12,  1828,  when 
six  workmen  perished,  and  the  fifth  and  last 
irruption  happened  March  6,  1838.  The  tun- 
l  opened  for  passenger  traffic  March  25, 

T'ilANET  (Kcnt\  the  ancient  Tanatis  or 
Tanatos,  also  called  Rium,  at  which  the  Saxons 
under  Hengist  and  Jiorsa  first  landed  in  449. 
A  band  of  Danes  wintered  here  in  851.  They 
invaded  the  island  in  853 ;  in  the  autumn  of 
865;  in  980;  and  in  988;  when  they  burned 
a  nunnery  with  the  nuns,  the  clergy,  and 
people  who  had  taken  refuge  there.  Kthelred 

II.  levied  ail  army  to  give  the  Danes  1  tattle  in 
1002,  and  some   fled   to    the    Isle    of   Thanet, 
where  he  could  not  follow  them.     The  Danes 
again  landed  on  this  island  in  1009,  and  after 
committing  great  ravages  in  Kent,  retreated 
here  to  winter.     Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark, 
laid  the  Isle  of  Thanet  waste  in  ion.     Edward 

III.  ordered  the  island  to  be  fortified  in  1369. 
This  island  was  separated  from  the  mainland 
by  the  sea  until  1500. 

THANE,  or  TH  ANUS.— This  title  of  honour 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  indicating  probably 
the  possession  of  a  certain  amount  of  landed 
property,  gradually  fell  into  disuse  after  the 
Conquest,  in  1066.  In  Scotland  the  title  was 
recognized  till  near  the  end  of  the  isth  century. 
A  thane  of  Cawdor  is  mentioned  in  1492.  (See 
BARON.) 

THAL'SACUS,  or  THAPSACUM  (Syria),  the 
"Fatal  Ford,"  probably  theTiphsah  mentioned 
as  subject  to  Solomon,  B.C.  1014  (i  Kings  iv.  24). 
The  Euphrates  was  forded  here  by  the  army 
of  Cyrus  the  younger,  the  water  reaching  up  to 
the  waists  of  the  troops,  B.c.  401.  It  was  also 
crossed  by  Darius  111.  when  he  was  advancing 
against  Alexander  III.,  B.  c.  333,  and  by 


Alexander  III.  in  pursuit  of  Darius  III.  the 
same  year. 

THAPSUS  (Battle).— Julius  Csesar  defeated 
the  army  of  the  Pompeian  party  near  Thapsus, 
in  Africa,  Feb.  6,  B.C.  46.  Demass  is  supposed 
to  occupy  the  site  of  Thapsus. 

THASOS  (/Kgean  Sea,i.—  This  island  was  first 
inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians,  under  T! 
hence  its  name.  It  was  colonized  B.C,  720  or 
B.C.  708  by  settlers  from  Paros.  The  Thasians 
were  compelled  by  Darius  I.  to  pull  down 
their  fortifications  and  remove  their  ships  of 
war  to  Abdera,  B.C.  492.  Disputes  arose  be- 
tween the  Thasians  and  the  Athenians.  The 
latter,  having  defeated  the  Thasians  at  sea, 
B.C.  465,  laid  siege  to  their  city,  which,  after  a 
blockade  of  three  years'  duration,  was  taken, 
the  fortifications  were  razed,  and  the  Thasians 
compelled  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  mon. 
463.  Thasos,  which  had  submitted  to  Philip 
V.,  received  its  freedom  from  Koine  B.C.  197. 

THAVIE'S  or  TAVIK'S  INN  (Londm. 
great  antiquity.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
(1327 — 77)  it  belonged  to  John  Thavie,  from 
whose  will  it  appears  to  have  been  an  inn  for 
law-students  as  early  as  1347.  It  was  demised 
to  Lincoln's  Inn  about  1549. 

THEATIXES.  —  This  religious  order  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  by  John 
Peter  Caralfa,  Uishop  of  Theate,  or  Chieti,  in 
Naples,  in  1524,  was  constituted  by  a  brief 
from  Clement,  June  25.  Caraifa  was  after- 
wards pope,  under  the  title  of  Paul  IV. 
(1555 — 59).  Their  first  house  was  at  Rome.  Tho 
a  house  in  1'aris  ill  1644. 

THKATRKS.  —  The  earliest  dramatic  per- 
formances took  place  on  waggons  and  tempo- 
rary platforms,  and  there  is  no  record  of  a 
permanent  building  until  the  erection  of  the 
stone  theatre  in  the  temple  of  Dionysius,  at 
Athens,  B.C.  500.  The  finest  Greek  theatre 
was  that  erected  by  Polycletus,  at  Kpidaurus, 
about  B.C.  436.  A  temporary  theatre  built 
at  Rome  by  M.  J-lmilius  Seaurus,  B.C.  78, 

I  accommodation  for  80,000  sp<j<  : 
and  was  also  remarkable  for  the  splendour 
of  it's  decorations;  and  the  first  pen 
theatre  at  Rome  was  built  by  Pompeius, 
B.C  55  ;  it  afforded  accommodation  for  at  least 
20,000  persons,  and  Pliny  gives  the  number 
at  40,000.  The  theatre  of  Marcellus  was 
completed  by  Augustus  B.C.  u.  The  players 
and  the  leaders  of  the  theatrical  factious 
were  expelled  by  Tiberius  for  their  share  in  a 
riot  in  23.  The  mystery  plays  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  mostly  performed  in  temporary 
structures  in  the  open  air.  The  stage  for  this 
purpose  was  erected  at  Dunstable  in  1119. 
Stage  scenery  was  introduced  by  Balthasar 
Peruzzi,  of  Siena,  who  died  in  1536.  The 
earliest  theatrical  licence  was  granted  to  Bur- 
bage  and  others  in  1574,  and  the  first  public 
theatre  in  London  was  the  Blackfriars  (q.  v.), 
which  was  built  in  1576.  Knight,  referring  to 
the  year  1583,  remarks  (London,  v.  275),  "  The 
chief  London  theatres  at  that  period  were 
these  : — The  Theatre  especially  so  called  in 
Shoreditch,  and  the  Curtain  close  by  ;  Paris 
Garden,  Banksi.de,  chielly  used  as  a  I'M  u- 
Garden,  but  also  for  the  performance  of  plays, 
as  Dekker,  in  his  satire  upon  Jonson,  makes 


THEBAN    LEGION 


t    967    J 


THEODOLITE 


the  latter  say  he  had  played  Zulzimau  there  ; 
the  Blackfriurs,  Whitefriars,  Salisbury  Court ; 
Rose,  Hope,  Swan,  Newington,  Red  Bull ;  and 
Cockpit  or  Phoenix,  in  Drury  Lane.  Various 
places  of  minor  importance  were  also  dignified 
by  the  name  of  Theatre,  as  the  inn  yard  of 
the  Bel  Savage,  remarkable,  according  to 
Prynne,  for  the  visible  apparition  of  the  devil 
upon  the  stage  on  one  occasion,  during  Eliza- 
beth's reign."  These  were  suppressed  during 
the  interregnum.  In  1578  Palladio  built  a 
theatre  on  the  classic  model  at  Vicenza,  and 
in  1588  Scamozzi  attempted  to  revive  the  same 
system  at  Sabbionetta.  The  first  play-bill  was 
issued  from  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  April  8,  1663, 
and  announced  the  performance  of  the  "Hu- 
mourous Lieutenant,"  to  commence  at  three 
o'clock.  Theatres  are  regulated  by  6  &  7  Viet, 
c.  68  (Aug.  22,  1843).  (See  DRAMA.) 

THEBAN  LEGION,  in  the  service  of 
Maximian,  in  Gaul,  consisting  entirely  of 
Christians,  having,  according  to  the  story,  in 
286,  refused  to  march  forward  to  persecute  their 
brethren  in  the  faith,  were  twice  decimated 
at  the  spot  where  the  abbey  of  St.  Maurice 
was  afterwards  founded  in  honour  of  their 
leader.  Still  persisting  in  their  refusal,  the 
order  was  given  for  the  whole  band  to  be 
massacred,  and  they  laid  down  their  arms  and 
submitted  to  martyrdom.  Robertson  (Hist,  of 
the  Christian  Church,  b.  i.  ch.  7)  says  the 
story,  "although  extravagantly  fabulous,  may 
still  have  some  foundation  of  truth."  It  was 
first  published  in  the  sth  century. 
THEBAN  WAR.-  (See  SEVEN  CAPTAINS.) 
THEBES  (Italy)  was  founded,  according  to 
tradition,  by  a  colony  of  Phoenicians,  under 
Cadmus,  B.C.  1550  or  B.C.  1400.  They  were 
driven  out  by  the  Boeotians,  B.C.  1124.  Platfea, 
one  of  the  Boeotian  cities,  revolted  from  Thebes 
B.C.  510,  and  applied  for  help  to  Athens.  A 
war  ensued  between  Thebes  and  Athens,  in 
which  the  latter  was  victorious.  This  caused 
much  animosity  between  Thebes  and  Athens  ; 
and  in  the  Persian  war,  B.C.  480,  the  Thebans 
deserted  the  cause  of  Greece  and  fought 
against  the  Athenians  at  Platsea,  B.C.  479.  The 
Athenians  invaded  Bceotia,  and  established  a 
democratic  government  in  Thebes,  B.O.  456. 
(See  SEVEN  CAPTAINS,  War.)  The  aristocratic 
leaders  went  into  exile,  but  returned  B.C.  447, 
defeated  the  Athenians,  and  re-established  the 
former  government.  The  Thebans  were  allies 
of  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  B.C. 
431 — B.C.  404.  Sparta  having  claimed  supre- 
macy over  the  whole  of  Greece,  the  Thebans 
joined  the  Athenians,  B.C.  395.  The  peace  of 
Antalcidas  put  an  end  to  the  war,  B.C.  387, 
and  deprived  Thebes  of  her  supremacy  over 
Boeotia.  The  Spartans,  who  treacherously 
seized  the  citadel  of  Thebes  B.C.  382,  were 
defeated  at  Leuctra,  in  July,  B.C.  371  ;  and  the 
Thebans  regained  their  power  in  Greece.  In 
the  Sacred  war  (B.C.  357 — B.C.  346)  the  Thebans, 
supported  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  were 
opposed  to  Athens  and  Sparta.  Thebes  was 
razed  to  the  ground  by  Alexander  III.,  B.C. 
335,  after  which  it  never  again  formed  an  in- 
dependent state.  Cassander  restored  the  city 
B.C.  315,  and  it  was  taken  by  Demetrius  B.C. 
293,  and  again  B.C.  290.  The  Thebans  were 


defeated  in  an  attempt  to  expel  the  Bulgaria 
from    Greece    in    1040,    and    their    cit      w 


ns 

040,  and  teir  city  was 
plundered  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily  in  u46. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of 
Greece  during  the  ioth  and  nth  centuries. 

THEBES,  or  LUXOR  (Egypt).—  The  founda- 
tion of  this  city,  called  No  (Ezek.  xxx.  14—16, 
Jer.  xlvi.  25),  No-Amon  (Nahum  iii.  8),  and 
Diospolis  Magna,  by  the  Greeks,  was  ascribed 
by  the  Egyptians  to  Menes,  the  first  King  of 
Egypt,  B.C.  2717.  It  united  all  Egypt  under 
its  sway,  and  reached  its  greatest  splendour, 
having  100  gates,  "  as  sung  by  Homer,"  and 
20,000  war-chariots,  and  was  the  residence  of 
the  kings,  whose  tombs  are  still  extant,  B.C. 
1600.  It  was  captured  by  the  Persians  B.C.  525. 
Having  revolted,  it  was  taken,  after  a  three 
years'  siege,  by  Ptolemy  (VIII.)  Soter  II.,  or 
Lathyrus,  about  B.C.  87.  Strabo  visited  it,  with 
the  expedition  of  ^Elius  Gallus,  B.C.  24.  The 
city  began  to  decline  about  B.C.  800.  The  great 
tablet  of  Karnak  was  shown  and  expounded 
by  the  priests  to  Csesar  Germanicus  in  16.  The 
palace  of  the  Memnonium  contained  a  library, 
or  "  hall  of  books."  (See  KARNAC.) 

THEFT  was  forbidden  by  the  eighth  com- 
mandment in  the  decalogue,  delivered  to 
Moses  by  Jehovah  on  Mount  Sinai  (Exodus  xx. 
15).  By  the  civil  law  the  thief  was  required 
to  make  restitution  of  stolen  property  several 
fold,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  object,  or, 
failing  in  ability  to  do  so,  was  to  be  sold  into 
slavery  (Exodus  xxii.  1—4),  B.C.  1491.  The 
second  of  the  "Twelve  Tables"  of  Roman 
laws  treated  of  this  crime,  B.C.  450.  At  com- 
mon law,  in  former  times,  petty  theft  (i.  e.  not 
above  12  pence  in  value)  was  punished  by 

hipping  and  imprisonment,  and  grand  theft 
(i.  e.  over  12  pence  in  value)  by  death.  Both 
were  made  punishable  by  transportation  by 
4  Geo.  I.  c.  ii  (1717).  The  distinction  between 
the  two  was  abolished  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28 
(1827). 

THEISTS.—  (See  DEISTS.) 

THELLUSSON  ACT  (39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  98), 
passed  in  1800  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
testators  from  endeavouring  to  form  large 
fortunes  by  accumulating  the  interest  on  their 
property.  It  was  named  after  Peter  Isaac 
Thellusson,  a  London  merchant,  who  died 
July  21,  1797,  leaving  .£600,000  to  be  accu- 
mulated during  the  lives  of  his  three  sons  and 
their  sons,  and  when  these  were  dead  to  be 
inherited  by  the  eldest  great-grandson.  It 
gave  rise  to  considerable  litigation,  and  was 
established  by  a  decision  of  Lord  Loughborough 
in  1799,  confirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords  in 
1805.  The  last  grandson  died  in  1856,  and  a 
dispute  having  arisen,  decision  was  given,  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  in  favour  of  the  grandson 
)f  Thellusson's  eldest  son,  in  1859.  The  property 
landed  over,  instead  of  being  19  millions,  as 
aad  been  anticipated,  was  little  in  excess  of 
;he  original  ^600,000,  on  account  of  legal 
expenses,  losses,  and  mismanagement. 

THBMISTIAXS.—  (See  AGNOITES.) 

THEODOLITE,  first  mentioned  in  the  Pan- 
bometria  of  Thomas  Diggcs,  published  in  1571, 
was  first  used  in  the  survey  of  Zealand  made 
by  Bugge,  1762-8.  Ramsden  finished  his  the- 
odolite in  1787,  for  the  use  of  Gen.  Ray,  in  the 


THEODOSIA 


[    968    ] 


THESSALY 


great  trigonometrical  survey  of  England  and 
Wales.  (See  ASTROLABE,  JACOB'S  STAFF,  &c.) 

THEODOSIA,  or  FEODOSIA  (Crimea),  the 
modem  Caffa  (q.  v.},  named  by  Leucon,  King 
of  Bosporus  (B.C.  393 — B.C.  353),  after  his  wife 
Theodosia,  was  a  flourishing  colony.  It  was 
ruined  before  the  beginning  of  the  2nd  cen- 
tury. (.See  DUMBARTON.) 

THEODOSIAN  CODE.—  Theodosius  II.,  in 
429,  appointed  a  committee  of  eight  persons, 
at  the  head  of  whom  was  Antiochus,  to  form 
a  code  from  all  the  constitutions  and  laws 
which  had  been  promulgated  from  the  reign 
of  Constantino  I.  (323 — 37).  This  committee 
was  renewed  in  435,  and  the  code,  consisting 
of  16  books,  was  published  at  Constantinople, 
Feb.  15,  438. 

THEODOSIOPOLIS  (Asia).— This  city  of 
Armenia  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated 
near  the  spot  occupied  by  Erzeroum  (q.  v.). 

THEOLOGY.— The  word  was  first  employed 
in  its  present  signification  by  Peter  Abelard 
(1079 — April  21,  1142),  who  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled "Theologia  Christiana."  The  scholastic 
theology  was  founded  by  Roscelin  of  Com- 
piegne  about  noo  ;  and  public  schools  for  the 
study  of  the  science  were  established  in  Italy 
soon  after  1360.  Lord  Bacon's  system  of 
natural  theology  was  embodied  in  the  "De 
Augi Mentis  Scientiarurn,"  published  in  1623, 
and  Dr.  William  Paley's  "Natural  Theology" 
was  published  in  1802. 

TIIEOPHILANTHROPISTS.—  This  sect  of 
Natural  Religionists  sprang  up  during  the 
French  revolution,  about  1796.  They  opened 
four  temples  in  Paris,  where  a  sort  of  liturgy 
was  chanted,  and,  instead  of  an  altar,  they  had 
an  immense  basket  of  flowers  as  an  emblem  of 
the  creation.  Ldpaux,  one  of  the  first  five 
directors  in  France,  put  himself  at  their  head 
in  1797.  They  became  extinct  in  1802. 

THEOSOPHISTH,  or  FI  RE-P1I  I  I.o. 
SOPHERS.— This  sect  of  philosophers,  which 
rose  in  the  i6th  century,  followed  the  teaching 
of  Theophrastus  Paracelsus  (1493 — Sep.  24, 1541). 
They  attributed  very  little  to  human  reason 
and  reflection,  and  ascribed  everything  to 
experience  and  divine  illumination.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  i7th  century  considerable 
animosity  prevailed  between  the  Theosophists 
and  the  Peripatetics.  Great  numbers  of  the 
Theosophists  joined  the  Rosicrucians. 

THERA  (^Egean  Sea).— This  island,  which  is 
said  to  have  received  the  name  of  Calliste  when 
it  emerged  from  the  sea,  and  to  have  been 
first  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians,  was  colo- 
nized by  the  Lacedaemonians  and  the  Minyne, 
B.C.  1074,  under  Theras,  from  whom  it  was 
called  Thera.  Another  small  island  was 
thrown  up  by  a  submarine  volcano  near 
Thera,  in  726. 

THERAPEUT.E.— This  sect,  a  branch  of  the 
Essenes  (q.  v.),  arose  in  Egypt  in  the  ist  cen- 
tury. They  were  more  rigid  in  their  obser- 
vances and  frequented  solitudes. 

THERESA  (Order).— This  female  order  was 
founded  by  Theresa,  Queen  of  Bavaria,  Dec. 
12,  1827,  for  unmarried  noble  ladies  of  all 
Christian  sects. 

THERMIDORIANS.— A  name  given  to  a 
large  party  in  the  republican  convention  of 


France,  on  account  of  their  triumph  in  the 
counter-revolution  of  the  gth  Thermidor,  July 
27»  T795-  They  chose  Tallien  as  their  chief, 
endeavoured  to  put  a  stop  to  the  revolutionary 
passion  for  bloodshed,  and  opposed  the  con- 
stitution of  1795.  Their  power  soon  declined. 

THERMOMETER,  or  HEAT-MEASURER, 
was  invented  about  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th 
century,  though  some  ascribe  it  to  palileo, 
who  is  said  to  have  constructed  one  prior  to 
1597.  Santorio  of  Padua,  in  his  Commentaries 
on  Avicenna  (1629),  also  claims  the  invention. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  used  an  oil  thermometer  in 
1701.  Romer's  thermometer  was  known  all 
over  Europe  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury. The  centigrade  thermometer  used  in 
France  was  invented  by  Celsius,  a  Swedish 
astronomer,  in  1742.  A  self -registering  ther- 
mometer, filled  with  alcohol,  was  invented  in 
1782.  The  scale  generally  used  in  this  country 
was  invented  by  Fahrenheit  in  1724. 

THERMOPYLAE  (Greece).  —  This  narrow 
pass,  leading  from  Thessaly  into  Locris,  is 
celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  in  which 
Leonidas,  King  of  Sparta,  with  300  men, 
arrested  the  progress  of  the  whole  army  of 
the  Persians  until  they  found  another  path 
over  the  mountains,  Aug.  7 — 9,  B.C.  480.  The 
allied  army  of  the  Greeks  assembled  at  the 
pass  to  oppose  the  Gauls  under  Brennus,  B.C. 
279.  The  invaders  having  been  conducted 
across  the  mountains  by  the  same  path  the 
Persians  had  followed,  the  Greeks  retired  to 
their  ships.  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  forced  the 
fortifications,  which  had  been  made  by  the 
.Ktolians,  i;.c.  207.  Antiochus  III.  (the  Great) 
of  Syria,  when  at  war  with  the  Romans,  for- 
tified the  pass,  B.C.  191.  (See  AMPHICTYONIC 
COUNCIL.) 

TIIERMUM,  THERMUS,  or  THKUMA 
(Greece),  was,  on  account  of  its  strength,  con- 
sidered impregnable.  It  was  surprised,  B.C. 
218,  by  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  who  carried  off 
the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  spoil,  and 
destroyed  the  remainder.  A  few  years  later, 
the  /Etolians  having  sided  with  the  Romans, 
Philip  V.  again  surprised  Thermum,  B.C.  205, 
and  destroyed  everything  that  had  escaped 
his  former  invasion.  (See  ^ETOLTAN  Li 

TlIESPIyE  (Greece).— This  city  of  Bceotia 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Thespia, 
a  daughter  of  Asopus,  or  from  Thespius,  a  son 
of  Erechtheus,  who  migrated  from  Athens. 
It  was  burned  by  Xerxes  B.C.  479,  was  rebuilt, 
and  the  Thespians  fought  against  the  Athenians 
at  the  battle  of  Delium,  B.C.  424.  In  the  next 
year  the  Thebans  destroyed  the  walls  of 
Thespise.  An  ineffectual  attempt  was  made 
to  overthrow  the  government  B.C.  414.  The 
walls  were  again  destroyed  by  the  Thebans 

'  THESSALONIANS  (Epistles  to).— These  two 
epistles  were  written  at  Corinth  by  St.  Paul 
to  the  church  and  brethren  at  Thessalonica, 
about  52. 

THESSALONICA.— (&e  SALONICA.) 
THESSALY  (Greece).  —  The  Thessalians 
settled  in  this  country,  called  /Eolis,  which 
was  named  after  them,  B.C.  1124.  The  Athe- 
nians, who  invaded  the  country  under  the  com- 
mand of  Myronides,  B.C.  454,  were  compelled  to 


THETFORD 


[    969 


THIRTY   TYRANTS 


retreat.  The  Spartans  under  Brasidas  marched 
through  Thessaly  B.C.  424.  The  Thessalonians 
joined  the  Boeotians  against  the  Spai-tans  B.C. 
395.  Jason,  the  son  of  Lycophron,  was  elected 
Tagus  of  Thessaly  B.C.  374  ;  and  after  the  battle 
of  Leuctra,  B.C.  371,  the  Thebaiis  invited  him 
to  join  in  an  attack  upon  the  Spartan  camp  ; 
but  he  declined,  and  was  assassinated,  B.  c.  370. 
Pelopidas  invaded  Thessaly  B.C.  369,  and  again 
in  B.C.  368.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who 
marched  into  Thessaly  B.C.  353,  was  defeated 
and  driven  out.  He  returned,  and  Thessaly 
fell  entirely  under  his  rule,  B.C.  344.  Thessaly 
was  liberated  by  the  Romans  B.C.  197,  and  was 
made  a  Roman  province  B.C.  108. 

THETFORD  (Norfolk).— A  synod  was  held 
at  this  place,  the  Sitomagus  of  the  Romans, 
in  669.  The  Danes  wintered  here  in  866,  and 
sacked  the  town  in  870,  in  1004,  and  in  1010. 
Herfast  removed  the  bishopric  of  the  East 
Angles  from  Elmham  to  Thetford  in  1078, 
where  it  remained  till  1092,  when  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Norwich.  The  grammar-school  was 
founded  before  1328.  Thetford  was  made  the 
see  of  a  suffragan  bishopric  by  Henry  VIII., 
March  19,  1536.  Its  first  charter,  granted  by 
Elizabeth,  March  12,  1573,  was  renewed  by 
Charles  II.,  March  6,  1683. 

THIAR.— (See  ORIHUELA.) 

THIBET,  or  TIBET  (Central  Asia).— This 
extensive  region,  chiefly  comprised  within  the 
Chinese  empire,  was  first  erected  into  a  king- 
dom B.C.  313.  Buddhism  was  introduced  in 
407,  and  Thibet  was  compelled  to  pay  tribute 
to  China  in  821.  It  was  ravaged  by  the 
Mongols,  under  Zingis  Khan,  in  1206.  The 
easternmost  parts  of  Thibet  were  gradually 
conquered  by  the  Chinese  in  1125,  1362,  and 
1371,  and  the  whole  of  the  kingdom  was  made 
subject  to  them  in  1720.  The  Ghoorkhas  of 
Nepaul,  who  invaded  it  1790,  were  repulsed 
with  great  loss.  (See  LAMAISM.) 

THIEVES'  ISLANDS.  —  (See  LADRONE 
ISLANDS.  ) 

THIMBLE.— Bronze  thimbles,  similar  to 
those  in  use,  were  employed  by  the  ancients, 
and  thimbles  open  at  the  end  were  discovered 
in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  destroyed  in  79. 

THIRD  DERBY  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  soon  after  the  resignation  of  the  Russell 
(Second)  Administration,  June  26,  1866.  The 
ministerial  arrangements,  announced  July  9, 
were  as  follows :  — 

Treasury Earl  of  Derby. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Chelmsford. 

President  of  the  Council    ...  {DUctndoiUCkingham  "* 

Privy  Seal    Earl  of  Malmesbury. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ...Mr.  Disraeli. 

Home  Secretary Mr.  Walpole. 

Foreign  Secretary Lord  Stanley. 

Colonial  Secretary Earl  of  Carnarvon. 

Admiralty Sir  John  Fakington,  Bart. 

India Viscount  Crauborne. 

War  Gen.  Peel. 

Poor  Law  Board   Mr.  Hardy. 

Board  of  Trade Sir  Stafford  Xorthcote,  Bart. 

Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  Lord  Naas. 

Works  and  Public  Buildings  Lord  John  Manners. 

The  Marquis  of  Abercorn  was  made  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  Earl  of  Carnarvon, 
Viscount  Cranborne,  and  Gen.  Peel  resigned, 
March  2,  1867,  on  account  of  a  difference  of 


opinion  respecting  reform,  and  the  following 
arrangements  were  announced  March  8  : — 

President  of  the  Council Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Colonial  Secretary £>*»*»+*?£•  ™* 

Admiralty Mr.  Corry. 

India  Sir  Stafford  Northcote,  Bart. 

War Sir  John  Pakington,  Bart. 

Board  of  Trade  Duke  of  Richmond. 

THIRTY  (Battle  of  the).— In  135,  during  the 
contest  in  Britanny  between  the  houses  of 
De  Montfort  and  De  Blois,  Sir  Robert  de 
Beaumanoir,  governor  of  the  castle  of  Josselin, 
a  knight  belonging  to  the  latter  party,  appeared 
before  the  castle  of  Ploermel,  and  having  failed 
in  his  attempt  to  lure  the  garrison  out  to 
attack  him,  challenged  Bembro,  the  governor, 
to  come  out  with  two  or  three  knights  to  com- 
bat with  an  equal  number.  After  some  parley 
it  was  arranged  that  30  champions  of  each 
party  should  meet  at  the  Chene  de  Mi-Voie 
(Half-way  Oak),  between  the  castles  of  Jos- 
selin and  Ploermel,  Sunday,  March  27,  1351. 
The  encounter  accordingly  took  place.  Sir 
Robert  de  Beaumanoir's,  called  the  French 
,  consisted  of  nine  French  and  Breton 
ts,  and  21  Breton  squires,  whilst  Bembro 
had  20  Englishmen,  the  rest  being  Germans 
or  Bretons.  After  a  long  struggle,  Bembro 
and  eight  of  his  men  having  been  killed,  the 
others  surrendered. 

THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES.— Ten  articles  to 
establish  Christian  quietness  and  unity  were 
adopted  by  the  Reformed  Church  of  England 
in  1536.  Owing  to  their  unpopularity  they 
were  superseded,  in  1537,  by  a  formulary 
known  as  the  "  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man." 
In  1538  a  series  of  13  articles,  proposed  to 
Henry  VIII.  by  the  German  reformers,  was 
declined,  and  the  following  year  six  articles 
were  enforced  by  the  statute  known  as  the 
Bloody  Bill,  31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14  (1539).  In 
1551,  42  outlines  were  prepared,  and,  after 
several  modifications,  a  mandate  was  published 
for  their  subscription,  June  19,  1553.  During 
the  reign  of  Mary,  Gardiner  introduced  a 
series  of  15  articles  in  1555,  and  the  houses 
of  Convocation  four  articles  in  1558,  both  of 
which  systems  favoured  popery.  In  1559,  IX 
Protestant  articles  were  established,  and  in 
1563  the  42  articles  of  Edward  VI.  were  revised 
by  Convocation  and  reduced  in  number  to  39. 
In  1595  Archbishop  Whitgift  attempted  to  in- 
troduce a  system  of  Calvinistic  tenets  known 
as  the  Lambeth  articles  (q.  v.),  but  they  were 
immediately  suppressed  in  consequence  of  the 
royal  disapprobation.  A  separate  series  of 
104  articles  was  adopted  in  Ireland  in  1615, 
and  in  1635  the  Irish  Church  accepted  the  39 
English  articles.  In  1643  the  articles  were 
revised  by  the  assembly  of  divines,  and  in  1660 
and  1689  they  gave  rise  to  much  agitation. 

THIRTY  TYRANTS  (Athens).  —  When 
Athens  surrendered  to  Lysander,  B.C.  404, 
the  supreme  power  was  vested  in  30  persons 
chosen  by  the  Lacedamioniaiis.  Thrasybulus, 
who  had  been  sent  into  exile  by  them,  collected 
a  small  company  of  followers,  and,  after  gain- 
ing several  victories  over  the  troops,  drove  the 
"  thirty  "  from  Athens  B.C.  403. 

THIRTY   TYRANTS    (Rome).— During  the 


THIRTY   YEARS'  WAR 


[    970    3 


THRACE 


empire  a  series  of  usurpers  rose  and  fell  in 
rapid  succession,  248  —  268,  to  whom  this 
appellation  has  been  applied,  although,  ex- 
cluding women  and  children,  the  number  did 
not,  according  to  Gibbon,  exceed  19. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR  was  waged 
between  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics 
.of  Germany.  The  cruel  manner  in  whu:h  the 
Emperor  Mathias  treated  the  Protestants 
caused  a  revolt.  The  first  overt  act  of  hos- 
tility occurred  in  Bohemia.  The  two  royal 
ministers,  Slawata  and  Martinitz,  with  their 
secretary  Fabricius,  were  thrown  out  of  the 
window  of  the  council-house  at  Prague,  May 
23,  1618.  On  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Mathias,  the  insurgents  declared  the  throne 
vacant,  and  crowned  Frederick  V.  Elector- 
p:  Jut  mate,  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  England, 
at  Prague,  Nov.  4,  1619.  The  cause  of  Ferdi- 
nand il.,  Archduke  of  Austria,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  Mathias,  and  claimed  the 
Bohemian  crown,  was  espoused  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  princes,  while  those  of  the  Protestant 
states  took  the  side  of  Frederick.  The  Bava- 
rians, commanded  by  their  duke  and  the 
celebrated  Tilly,  defeated  the  Bohemians  at 
Prague,  Nov.  9,  1620.  The  struggle  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, signed  at  Mfmster  Oct.  24,  1648.  Tilly 
lost  liis  life  April  30,  1632,  and  Gustavus  II. 
(Adolphus)  Nov.  16,  1632,  in  battles  fought  in 
this  war. 

THISTLE  (Order),  also  called  the  Order  of 
St.  Andrew,  was  instituted,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  memory  of  a  battle  won  by  the 
Scotch  over  the  English,  by  the  aid  01  St. 
Andrew.  Others  ascribe  it  to  Achaius,  King 
of  Scotland,  787  or  812  ;  others  to  the  :<-ra  of 
Charles  VII.  (1422—61)  of  France.  It  was, 
however,  established  by  James  V.  in  1540, 
revived  by  James  II.,  of  England,  May  29, 
1687,  and  re-established  by  Queen  Anne,  Dec. 
31,  1703. 

'  THIBTLEWOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  —  (Sec 
CATO-STREKT  CONSPIRACY.) 

THOMAS,  ST.  —  (See  DANISH  AMERICA, 
GUIANA,  MORAVIAN  BRETHREN,  &c.) 

THOMAS'S  (ST.)  HOSPITAL  (London), 
founded  in  1213  by  Richard,  prior  of  Ber- 
mondsey,  was  purchased  at  the  dissolution  of 
the  religious  houses  by  the  citizens  of  London, 
and  opened  as  an  hospital  in  Nov.,  1552.  A 
large  part  of  the  edifice  was  rebuilt  in  1693, 
and  additions  were  made  in  1732.  The  north 
wing  was  completed  in  1836,  and  the  south 
wing  in  1842.  It  was  pulled  down  to  afford 
space  for  the  South-Eastern  Railway  in  1862, 
and  a  new  edifice  commenced  at  Stangate, 
opposite  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

THOMISTS.—  (See  MOLINISTS,  SCOTISTS,  &c.) 

THOMITES.— A  lunatic  named  John  Thorn, 
a  native  of  Cornwall,  who  resided  at  Can- 
terbury, assumed  the  name  of  Sir  William 
Courtenay,  professed  to  be  entitled  to  some  of 
the  finest  estates  in  Kent,  and  having  collected 
a  number  of  the  peasantry,  persuaded  them 
that  he  held  a  divine  commission,  May  28, 
1838.  They  marched  through  several  villages, 
and  with  an  increased  force  returned  to  Bos- 
scnden  farm  May  31,  where  Thorn  shot  a 
constable  who  had  come  to  take  him  into 


custody.  A  party  of  military  was  thereupon 
brought  from  Canterbury.  They  found  the 
madman  and  his  followers  sheltered  in  a 
sequestered  part  of  Bossenden  Wood.  As  they 
advanced,  Lieut.  Bennett,  of  the  4sth  regi- 
ment, was  shot  dead  by  the>-<,;-</;.v^/'/  prophet. 
The  soldiers  fired  a  volley,  when  Thorn  and  ten 
of  his  infatuated  followers  were  killed,  and  the 
mob  dispersed. 

THONON  (France).— This  ancient  town  of 
Savoy,  destroyed  by  the  Burgundians  in  the 
5th  century,  was  rebuilt  by  Rodolph  III.,  and 
again  destroyed  by  the  people  of  Berne  in  the 
i4th  century.  It  was  annexed  to  France  in 
1792,  restored  to  Sardinia  in  1815,  and  ceded  to 
France  in  r86o.  (S>/e  RIPAII.LE.) 

THORINUM,  THORIUM,  or  THORINA.— 
This  metallic  body  was  discovered  by  Berze- 
lius  in  1829. 

THORN  (Prussia)  was  founded  in  1231  by 
the  Teutonic  knights,  who  became  feudatories 
of  Poland  by  the  peace  of  Thorn,  concluded 
Oct.  19,  1466.  A  conference  was  held  here  be- 
tween the  Polish  Roman  Catholics  and  the 
Dissidents,  Oct. — Nov.  21,  1645.  Thorn  was 
taken  after  a  siege  of  four  months  by  diaries 
XII.  of  Sweden,  in  1703.  The  Protestants 
were  massacred  here  in  1724.  Thorn  fell  into 
the  possession  of  the  Prussians  in  1793,  and 
was  captured  by  the  French  tinder  Marshal 
Ney,  in  Nov.,  1806.  The  Poles,  in  alliance  with 
the  French,  defeated  the  Austrians  here  May 
14,  1809.  The  French  garrisoned  it  in  Jan., 
1813,  and  it  was  blockaded  by  the  Russians 
till  it  surrendered,  April  17,  1813.  Thorn  was 
ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815.  Nicholas  Copernicus 
(Feb.  19,  1473— May  24,  1543)  was  born  here, 
and  a  statue  to  his  memory  was  erected  in  the 
market-place  in  1853. 

THRACE  (Turkey),  the  modern  Roumelia, 

is   said  to  have  been  peopled  by  a  tribe  of 

'.ins.      The    authentic    history    of    the 

country  commences  with  the  formation  of  the 

Greek  settlements  in  the  6th  century  B.C. 

B.C. 

522.  The  Greeks  colonize  the  Thracian  Chersonese. 

513.  Darius  I.  invades  Thrac.-. 

508.  Thrace  is  tributary  to  Darius  I. 

493.  Thrace  is  reduced  to  subjection  by  the  Phoenicians. 

400.  Xerxes  crosses  over  tin;  Hellespont  into  Thrace  by 

means  of  a  bridge  of  boats. 

479.  The  Thracians  assist  the  Persians  at  Platrea. 
478.  The  Athenians  invade  the  Thracian  territory. 
437.  Amphipolis  is  founded  by  the  Athenians. 
429.  The  Tln-acian  leader  Sitalces,  .King  of  the  OdrystC, 

invades  Macedonia. 
399.  The  Thracians   assist   the    Spartans    against   the 

Persians. 

398.  Thrace  is  at  war  with  Macedonia. 
390.  The  Athenian  influence  is  predominant  in  Thrace. 
387.  By  the  peace  of  Antalcidas,   Sparta  acquires   the 

chief  power  in  Thrace. 

3?S.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  seizes  Amphipolis. 
357.  Cersobleptes,   Kinj;  of  Eastern  Thrace,   cedes  the 

Thracian  Chersonese  to  the  Athenians. 
343.  Philip   II.    renders  Cersobleptes  tributary    to  his 

power,   and    establishes    numerous    colonies   in 

Thrace. 

323.  Thrace  is  allotted  to  Lysimnchns. 
309.  He  founds  Lysimachia,  and  makes  it  his  capital. 
2«i.  Lysinmchus  is  defeated  and  slain  at  CorupwttOH  by 

Seleucus  of  Syria,  who  sci/.es  Thrace. 
279.  Thrace  is  invaded  by  the  Gauls  under  Brcnnus. 
247.  Ptolemy  (III.)  Euer  Lysimaehiu  and 

other  Thraoinii  cities  to  Kjrypt. 
2 IT.  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  invades  Thrace. 
205.  Philip  V.  sei/.es  l.ysimacliia. 


THRASYMENE 


THURLES 


B.C. 

2co.  Philip  V.  makes  himself  master  of  the  entire  south 

coast. 
196.  Philip  V.  is  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and  compelled 

to  relinquish  his  Thracian  conquests,  which  are 

seised  by  Autiochus  III.  (the  (iro:it)  of  Syria. 
188.  Antiochus  III.  abandons  Thrace  to  the  Romans. 
184.   Philip  V.  again  invades  Thrace. 
181.  Philip    V.    ascends    Mount    Haemus,    the    modern 

Balkan,  and  erects  altars  to  Jupiter  and  the  sun 

on  its  summit. 
171.  War  commences  between  Perseus  of  Macedon  and 

the  Romans,  for  the  supremacy  in  Thrace. 
84.  Sylla    carries     on    war     successfully    against    the 

Thracians. 
75.  C.  Scribonius  Curio  invades  Thrace  and  penetrates 

to  the  Danube. 
14.  The  Thracians,  under  Vologajsus,  rebel  against  the 

Romans. 
A.D. 
18.  Thrace  is  visited  by  Germanicus,  who  reforms  the 

administration. 

26.  A  conscription  system  is  introduced  into  Thrace. 

27.  Thrace  is  made  a  Roman  province. 
355.  Thrace  is  invaded  by  the  Goths. 

280.  Probus  establishes  100,000  liastarnte  in  Thrace. 

334.  Constantine  I.  colonizes  it  with  Sannatians. 

376.  Valens  permits  the  Goths  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

395.  It  is  ravaged  by  Alaric  I. 

447.  Attila  invades  Thrace. 

475.  It  is  devastated  by  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth. 

559.  The  Bulgarians  iiivade  Thrace. 

581.  The  Slavonians  ravage  Thrace. 
1321.  The  Turks  invade  Thrace. 
1356.  Thrace  is  seized  by  the  Turks. 

1453.  After  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  Thrace  is  an- 
nexed to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

THRASYMENE    or    TRASIMENE    LAKE 

(Battle). — Hannibal,  during  the  second  Punic 
war,  defeated  the  Roman  army,  commanded 
by  the  Consul  Flaminius,  in  a  narrow  pass  of 
the  Apennines,  with  only  one  outlet  towards 
Perusia,  near  the  Trasiuieiie  Lake,  B.C.  217. 
The  consul  himself  and  15,000  Romans  fell,  and 
the  rivulet  which  runs  into  the  lake  to  this 
day  bears  the  name  Sanguinetto.  The  modern 
spelling,  Thrasymeue,  is  not  found  in  the 
works  of  ancient  writers. 

THREATENING  LETTERS.— By  8.  Hen.  VI. 
c.  6  (1430),  the  sending  or  delivering  of  threat- 
ening letters  was  declared  high  treason,  and 
by  9  Geo.  I.  c.  22  (1722),  it  was  made  a  capital 
felony.  (See  BLACK  ACT.)  By  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  54 
(July  8,  1823),  the  sentence  was  commuted  to 
transportation  for  life,  or  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  seven  years.  This  act  was  repealed 
by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27,  s.  i  (June  21,  1827), 
and  further  provisions  were  enforced  by  10  & 
ii  Viet.  c.  66  (July  9,  1847). 

THREE  DENOMINATIONS.— The  Baptists, 
the  Congregatioiialists  or  Independents,  and 
the  Presbyterians  associated  under  the  name 
of  the  Three  Denominations  in  1727. 

THREE  HENRIES  (War  of  the).— The 
eighth  religious  war  in  France  (1586-89)  re- 
ceived this  name  from  its  three  leaders,  Henry 
HI.,  King  of  France,  Henry  of  Navarre  (after- 
wards Henry  IV.  of  France),  and  Henry,  Duke 
of  Guise.  The  three  Hemies  were  assassinated ; 
Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  by  Loignac  and  the 
King's  Body-guard,  Dec.  23,  1588  ;  Henry  III., 
of  France,  by  Jacques  Clement,  Aug.  2,  1589 ; 
and  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac,  May  14,  1610. 

THREE  KINGS.— The  Feast  of  the  Three 
Kings  was  kept  in  the  Middle  Ages  on  Twelfth 
Night,  in  honour  of  the  three  Magi  or  Wise 
Men  of  the  East,  who  brought  offerings  to  the 


infant  Jesus  (Matt.  ii.  1—12).  The  Preaching 
Friars  got  up  a  gorgeous  spectacle  on  the  sub- 
ject at  Milan  in  1336. 

THREE  KINGS'  ISLAND  (Pacific).— Tas- 
man  discovered  this  island  Jan.  5,  1643,  on  the 
day  of  the  Epiphany,  whence  its  name. 

THREE  AND  THREE-AND-A-HALF  PER 
CENTS.— (See  FUNDS.) 

THRESHING  MACHINE,  invented  in  1758 
by  a  farmer  of  Dumblane,  in  Perthshire,  was 
improved  by  Meikle,  a  millwright  of  Hadding- 
tonshire,  in  1786. 

THUMMIM.— (See  URIM  AND  THUMMIM.) 

THUNDERING  LEGION.— During  the  ex- 
pedition of  Marcus  Antoninus  against  the  Mar- 
comanni,  in  174,  a  Christian  legion  in  his  army 
are  said  to  have  prayed  for  rain,  whereupon  a 
plentiful  shower  descended.  At  the  same  time 
a  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning  threw  their 
enemies  into  confusion,  and  enabled  Antoninus 
to  obtain  a  decisive  victory.  The  legion  con- 
sequently received  the  name  of  the  thundering 
legion. 

THURGAU,  or  THURGOVIA  (Switzerland). 
— This  canton,  once  governed  by  its  own  counts, 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  house  of  Habs- 
burg  in  1264,  was  recovered  by  the  Swiss  in 
1460,  and  was  admitted  into  the  confederation 
as  a  distinct  state  in  1798.  It  received  a  con- 
stitution in  1831,  which  was  revised  in  1837. 

THURINGIA  (Germany).— This  kingdom  of 
Central  Germany,  founded  by  the  Thuringi, 
or  Doringi,  a  Gothic  tribe,  about  426,  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  by 
Thierry  I.,  in  530.  In  630  it  was  erected  into 
a  duchy,  and  in  843  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  German  kingdom.  It  was  again  made 
a  duchy  in  849,  and  in  1025  it  was,  with 
Hesse,  formed  into  a  landgraviate.  The  two 
countries  were  again  separated  in  1247,  and  in 
1439  Thuringia  was  added  to  Saxony.  By  the 
treaties  of  1814  and  1815,  it  was  annexed  to 
Prussia.  (See  MARBURG.) 

THURIUM,  orTHURII  (Italy),  was  founded 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Sybaris  by  some 
Sybarite  exiles,  B.C.  443.  The  Thurians  were 
defeated  by  the  Lucanians  in  a  great  battle 
near  Laiis,  B.C.  390,  when  above  10,000  were 
cut  to  pieces.  Thurium  joined  the  Carthagi- 
nians, and  again  returned  to  its  alliance  with 
Rome,  B.C.  213,  and  received  a  Roman  garri- 
son. Hannibal  gave  up  the  city  to  plunder 
B.C.  204,  having  first  removed  3,500  of  its  prin- 
cipal citizens  to  Crotona.  A  Roman  colony 
was  established  here  B.C.  194.  It  was  taken 
by  Spartacus,  and  subjected  to  a  heavy  fine, 
B.C.  72. 

THURLES  (Ireland).— In  the  loth  century  a 
battle  was  fought  at  this  place  in  Tipperary, 
between  the  Irish  and  the  Danes,  in  which  the 
former  were  victorioiis.  The  castle,  which  is 
of  ancient  date,  was  besieged  and  taken  in 
1208,  by  Hugh  de  Lacey.  A  monastery  of 
Carmelites  was  founded  in  1300.  St.  Patrick's 
college  was  erected  in  1836.  A  synod  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  clergy,  held  here  Aug.  22, 
1850,  under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Cullen,  de- 
clared against  the  Queen's  colleges,  and  recom- 
mended the  foundation  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
university.  The  statutes  of  the  synod  were 
published  Jan.  i,  1852. 


THUROT'S   EXPEDITION 


[    972    J 


TICONDEROGA 


THUROT'S  EXPEDITION.— Francis  Thurot, 
an  Irish  adventurer,  in  the  French  service, 
sailed  from  Dunkirk,  Oct.  5,  1759,  intending  to 
make  a  diversion  either  in  Scotland  or  Ireland. 
He  landed  at  Carrickfergus,  Feb.  21,  1760,  took 
the  town  after  a  short  blockade,  and  plundered 
it.  Having  sailed  from  Carrickfergus,  he  was 
pursued  by  Capt.  Elliot,  with  three  ships, 
who  came  up  with  him  in  the  Irish  Channel. 
An  engagement  ensued,  Feb.  28  ;  Thurot  fell 
covered  with  wounds,  and  his  ships  were 
taken. 

THURSDAY.-Aniong  all  the  ancient  na- 
tions of  northern  Europe,  the  fifth  day  of  the 
week  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  the  king  of 
heaven,  and  the  thunderer.  It  is  a  remark- 
able coincidence  that  in  the  Roman  week  the 
same  day  was  known  as  Dies  Jovis,  or  the  day 
of  Jupiter,  who  occupied,  in  classical  mytho- 
logy, the  same  position  as  was  assigned  to 
Thor  by  the  Teutons.  (See  MAUNDY  THURS- 
DAY.) 

THYATIRA  (Battle).—  Valens,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  gained  a  victory  over  his  rival  Pro- 
copius,  at  this  town  of  Lydia,  in  366.  (See 
SKVKX  CnriiriiKs  <>K  ASIA.) 

THYMBRA  (Battle)  was  gained  by  the  Per- 
sians, under  Cyrus  the  Elder,  over  Croesus, 
King  of  Lydia,  B.C.  548.  This  victory  made 
Cyrus  undisputed  master  of  Asia. 

TIARA. — The  first  crown,  or  regnum,  on  the 
episcopal  mitre  of  the  popes,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  gift  either  of  Constantine  I.  (323 — 
37),  or  of  Clovis  I.  (481—511).  ( 

TIBER  (Italy). — An  inundation  of  this  river 
is  said  to  have  swept  away  all  the  houses  and 
buildings  at  Rome,  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
city,  B.C.  241.  Others  took  place  B.C.  54  and 

B.C.  27.       Augustus    (B.C.     31 — A.D.     14)    first    111- 

stituted  magistrates  whose  duty  it  was  to 
restrain  the  river  within  duo  bounds,  and  pre- 
serve the  embankments,  Arc.  This  office  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  honourable  in  the 
state.  An  inundation  caused  such  serious 
damage  in  15,  that  it  was  proposed  in  the 
senate  to  diminish  the  waters  by  diverting 
some  of  the  chief  tributaries  of  the  stream. 
In  ancient  times  the  Tiber  was  occasionally 
frozen,  but  this  did  not  occur  often.  Livy 
notices  its  having  been  frozen  over  in  the 
extraordinary  winter  of  B.C.  398.  It  was  called 
the  "  Yellow  Tiber" — on  account  of  its  turbid 
waters— Rumon,  Thybris,  Tiberis,  and  Albula. 
(See  ALBA  LONGA.) 

TIBERIAS  (Battle).— Saladin  defeated  the 
Crusaders  under  Guy  of  Lusignan,  King  of 
Jerusalem,  at  this  city  of  Palestine,  July  3  and  4, 
1187.  Guy,  Marquis  of  Montferrat,  and  many 
of  the  chief  Christian  leaders  were  made  pri- 
soners, and  the  reputed  true  cross,  used  as  a 
standard  during  the  battle,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  Saladin  disgraced  his  victory 
by  the  massacre  in  cold  blood  of  230  knights 
of  St.  John,  who  were  among  the  prisoners. 

TIBERIAS  (Palestine).  —  This  town  of  Ga- 
lilee, on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tiberias,  was  built 
by  Herod  Antipas,  before  A.D.  39,  and  named 
in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  It  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Vespasian,  in  Aug., 
67  ;  but  sprang  up  again  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  Sep.  8,  70,  and  was  the 


seat  of  a  succession  of  Hebrew  judges  and 
doctors  till  the  4th  century.  Epiphanius, 
Bishop  of  Salamis,  in  367,  states  that  a  Hebrew 
translation  of  St.  John  and  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  was  kept  here.  The  modern  town, 
called  Tabarieh,  was  almost  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  Jan.  i,  1837. 

TIBESTE  (Battle).— The  Moors  defeated  the 
Romans  at  this  place,  the  modern  Tibesh,  in 
Algiers,  in  543,  when  the  eunuch  Solomon, 
the  governor  of  Africa,  was  killed. 

TIBET.— (See  THIBET.) 

TIBUR  (Italy).— This  town  of  Latium,  the 
site  of  which  is  occupied  by  Tivoli,  was  founded 
on  the  banks  of  the  Arno,  many  years  before 
Rome.  It  is  first  noticed  in  history  as  the 
place  to  which  M.  Claudius  retired  on  being 
exiled,  B.C.  446.  The  territory  was  devastated 
by  the  Romans  B.C.  350,  and  the  town  was 
taken  B.C.  335.  The  remains  of  some  ancient 
edifices  were  discovered  in  1778,  1826,  and 

1  TICINO  (Battles).— The  banks  of  this  river 
in  Italy,  the  ancient  Ticinus,  on  which  Pavia  is 
situated,  have  been  the  scene  of  several  battles, 
in  both  ancient  and  modem  times.  Here 
Hannibal  defeated  P.  Scipio  B.C.  218,  Aure- 
lian  the  Alemanni  in  270,  and  Constautius  II. 
Magnentius  in  352.  The  Austrians  crossed  the 
Tirino  April  26,  1859.  (See  PAVIA,  Battle.) 

TICINO,  TKSSIXO,  or  TKSSIN  (Switzer- 
land).— Before  the  time  of  the  Romans,  this 
canton  was  inhabited  by  the  Lepontii,  and 
other  aboriginal  tribes  of  mountaineers,  who 
were  subdued  by  the  Emperor  August  i. 
27— A.D.  14^.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Longo- 
bards  in  the  6th  century,  and  was 
quently  occupied  by  the  dukes  of  Milan,  the 
barons  of  Saxe  and  other  Rhaetian  lords,  till 
the  isth  century,  when  it  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  Switzerland,  confirmed  by  treaty 
April  10,  1503.  It  was  not  admitted  into  the 
S\vi>s  Confederation  till  1815.  Its  government 
underwent  a  considerable  modification  in 
June,  1830. 

Tl<  'I. NUM.— (See  PAVIA.) 

'I  It'KKTS  OK  LKAVE.— In  consequence  of 
the  difficulty  experienced  in  transporting 
felons,  the  Sovereign  was  empowered  by  16  di 
17  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  20,  1853;,  by  means  of  an 
order  in  writing  from  the  secretary  of  state,  to 
grant  licences — called  tickets  of  leave — to  con- 
victs under  sentence  of  transportation,  or 
penal  servitude,  to  be  at  large  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  These  licences  could  be  revoked  if 
necessary,  and  the  convict  apprehended  ami 
committed  to  prison  for  the  residue  of  his 
original  sentence.  The  act  was  amended  by 
20  <fe  21  Viet.  c.  3  (June  26,  1857),  and  by  27  & 
28  Viet.  c.  47  (July  25,  1864). 

TICONDEROGA  N.  America).— The  fortress 
of  Ticonderoga,  in  New  York,  was  built  by  the 
French  in  1755.  The  English,  under  Abcr- 
crombie,  assailed  it  unsuccessfully  July  8,  1758. 
It  was  taken  by  them,  under  Amherst,  July 
26,  1759.  The  revolted  Americans  surprised  it 
May  10,  1775,  and  they  evacuated  it  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  English,  under  Burgoyne,  July 
6,  1777.  Gen.  Lincoln  made  a  vain  attempt  to 
recover  it,  Sep.  13,  1777,  and  soon  after  the 
garrison  destroyed  their  cannon  and  with- 


TIDES 


973 


TIME 


drew  into  Canada.  The  English  occupied  it 
again  in  1780. 

TIDES.— The  earliest  author  who  notices  the 
tides  is  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927),  and  the 
first  who  says  anything  of  their  cause  is  Py- 
theas  of  Marseilles,  who  lived  about  the  time 
of  Alexander  III.,  B.C.  336 — 6.0.323.  (See  MOON.) 
The  theory  of  the  tides  was  first  explained 
by  Kepler  (1571— Nov.  15,  1630),  and  a  more 
complete  explanation  was  given  by  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  in  his  "  Principia,"  published  in  1687. 
It  was  still  further  improved  by  Bernouilli,Mac- 
laurin,  and  Euler,  in  their  treatises  written 
when  the  subject  was  proposed  as  a  prize  by 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1738. 

TIEN-TSIN  (China). —A  treaty  between 
England  and  China  was  concluded  at  this 
town,  by  Lord  Elgin,  June  26,  1858,  and 
at  the  same  time  separate  treaties  were  made 
by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  France,  Russia,  and 
the  United  States.  Tien-tsin  was  occupied  by 
the  French  and  English,  Aug.  23,  1860.  The 
English  consulate  was  established  Jan.  i,  1861. 
A  treaty  between  China  and  Prussia,  and  the 
Zollverein,  was  concluded  here  Sep.  2,  1861. 
The  allied  French  and  English  expedition  re- 
tired from  Tien-tsin  Oct.  15,  1861.  A  treaty 
between  Portugal  and  China  was  concluded 
here  Aug.  13,  1862,  and  another  between  China 
and  Spain,  Oct.  10,  1864. 

TIERRA,  &c.—(See  TERRA.) 

TIERS  ETAT,  or  THIRD  ESTATE,  the 
name  given  to  the  Commons  in  France.  They 
induced  Necker  to  have  the  number  of  their 
representatives  doubled  (made  equal  to  the 
other  orders,  the  Clergy  and  the  Nobles,  com- 
bined) by  royal  decree,  Dec.  27,  1788,  in  the 
Etats  Generaux,  summoned  to  meet  May  i, 
1 789.  This  concession  gave  them  the  power  to 
obstruct  all  legislation,  and  after  many  delays, 
they  carried  a  motion  that  the  Etats  Generaux 
should  be  called  the  National  Assembly  (q.  v. }, 
June  10,  1789. 

TIFERNUM  (Battle).— The  Romans  defeated 
the  Samnites  at  this  town  of  Umbria,  B.C. 

S5.  There  were  two  towns  of  the  name  in 
nbria,  the  one  called  Tifernum  Tiberinum, 
and  the  other  Tifernum  Metaurense.  Pliny 
the  Elder  (23 — Aug.  24,  79)  had  a  villa  at  the 
former. 

TIFLIS.— (See  TEFLIS.) 

TIGRANOCERTA  (Asia),  or  the  Fortress  of 
Tigranes,  the  capital  of  Armenia,  built  by 
Tigranes  I.  during  the  Mithridatic  war,  was 
besieged  by  the  Roman  consul  Lucullus,  and 
Tigranes  I.  marched  to  its  relief  with  an  army 
consisting  of  150,000  infantry,  17,000  heavy 
and  33,000  light  cavalry,  20,000  archers  and 
slingers,  besides  a  multitude  of  pioneers,  &c. 
Lucullus,  with  11,000  men,  defeated  this  host 
with  great  slaughter,  and  the  city  surrendered 

B.C.  70. 

TIGRIS  (Asiatic  Turkey).  —  Many  famous 
cities,  such  as  Nineveh,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon, 
Bagdad,  and  Mosul,  stood  upon  the  banks  of 
this  river,  the  name  of  which  signifies  the 
"arrowy"  stream,  which  joins  the  Euphrates 
at  Kurria.  The  dams  constructed  across  the 
stream  to  irrigate  the  country,  were  removed 
by  order  of  Alexander  III.  (B.C.  336 — B.C. 
323),  to  improve  the  navigation.  The  English 


steamer  Euphrates  ascended  the  Tigris  to 
within  20  miles  of  Mosulin  1838. 

TILBURY  (Essex).— The  fort  was  built  as 
a  block-house  by  Henry  VIII.  (1509 — 47),  and 
Elizabeth  lodged  here,  formed  a  camp,  and 
reviewed  the  troops,  on  the  apprehended 
Spanish  invasion,  in  1588.  It  was  regularly 
fortified  in  1677. 

TILES.— Marble  tiles  were  introduced  by 
Byzes  of  Naxos,  B.C.  620.  Wooden  tiles  were 
used  in  Rome  till  B.C.  284.  Tiles  were  first 
used  in  England  in  1246,  and  pantiles  were 
in  general  use  in  Europe  in  the  i5th  century. 
Decorative  paving-tiles  of  baked  pottery  were 
made  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  art  was  re- 
vived by  Minton,  and  employed  in  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Temple  Church,  London,  in  1842. 
Tiles  were  taxed  in  1784.  This  tax  was 
abolished  by  3  Will.  IV.  c.  n  (May  17,  1833). 
The  tilers  and  bricklayers  were  incorporated 
in  1508. 

TILSIT  (Prussia).— This  town,  on  the  river 
Niemen,  contains  a  castle,  buflt  in  1537.  It 
was  occupied  by  the  French,  June  20,  1807, 
and  is  celebrated  as  the  place  of  meeting 
between  Napoleon  I.  and  Alexander  I.  of  Russia 
on  the  "  Raft  of  Tilsit,"  June  25,  1807.  A  se- 
cond meeting  took  place  in  the  town  June  26, 
at  which  the  King  of  Prussia  was  present.  The 
peace  of  Tilsit  was  signed  here  between  France 
and  Russia,  July  7,  and  between  France  and 
Prussia,  July  9,  1807.  The  latter  treaty  was 
ratified  July  19.  Secret  treaties  were  also 
concluded  between  Napoleon  I.  and  Alexander 
II.,  one  of  which  provided  for  the  partition  of 
Europe  between  them. 

TILTS.— (-See  TOURNAMENTS.) 

TIMBER.— A  tax  was  laid  on  European  tim- 
ber, in  order  to  encourage  the  trade  of  British 
America,  in  1809.  When  the  timber  duties 
were  consolidated  by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  52  (July  2, 
1819),  European  timber  was  taxed  at  .£3  55. 
per  load.  This  duty  was  reduced  to  £2.  15.?. 
by  i  &  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  37  (May  28,  1821),  which 
imposed  an  additional  ios.  on  Canadian  tim- 
ber. Further  attempts  at  equalization  were 
made  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47  (July  9,  1842),  and  by 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  62  (Aug.  7,  1851).  Bethell's 
method  of  preserving  timber  by  means  of 
creosote  was  patented  in  1848.  (See  RAFTS.) 

TIMBUCTOO  (Africa).— This  town,  near  the 
border  of  the  desert  of  Sahara,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Mausa  Suleiman  in  1213, 
became  a  powerful  state,  and  was  seized  by 
the  rulers  of  Morocco  in  1396.  It  regained  its 
independence  about  1500,  was  again  subdued 
by  Morocco  in  1672,  and  remained  under  its 
sway  till  1727.  Since  that  time  it  has  been 
alternately  independent  and  subject  to  the 
neighbouring  states.  Laing  reached  Tim- 
buctoo  Aug.  18,  1826,  and  Dr.  Barth  Sep.  7, 
1853,  &nd  remained  till  July  12,  1854. 

TIME.— Pythagoras  (B.C.  580— B.C.  507)  main- 
tained that  time  was  a  substance.  Archytas, 
his  follower,  defined  it  as  a  continued  and  in- 
divisible flux  of  nows  or  instants,  B.C.  400. 
Locke  (1632  —  Oct.  28,  1704),  who  perhaps 
thought  more  profoundly  on  this  subject  than 
any  other  philosopher,  says,  "The  more  I  set 
myself  to  think  of  it,  the  less  I  understand 
it."  The  ancient  Egyptians  and  other  eastern 


TIMOTHY 


[     974     1 


TITHES 


nations  measured  time  by  means  of  an  instru- 
ment called  Clepsydra  (tj.  r.),  or  water-clock, 
the  principle  of  which  was  a  constant  dropping 
of  water  through  a  small  aperture  out  of  one 
vessel  into  another.  The  ancients  also  mea- 
sured time  by  means  of  the  hour-glass  and 
sun-dial.  The  Druids,  at  the  period  of  the 
Roman  invasion,  B.C.  55,  computed  their  time 
by  nights,  and  not  by  days,  and  measured*  it 
by  the  motions  of  the  moon.  (See  CLOCK, 
LATITUDE  and  LONGITUDE,  <tc.) 

TIMOTHY  (Epistles  to).— The  first  epistle  of 
the  apostle  Paul  to  Timothy  appears  to  have 
been  written  shortly  after  Paul  left  Ephesus 
to  go  into  Macedonia,  about  64.  The  second 
was  written  by  Paul  when  a  prisoner  at 
Rome,  according  to  Lardner,  in  May,  61,  and 
according  to  other  authorities  in  65. 

TIN.— This  metal,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
known,  is  mentioned  by  Moses  B.C.  1451  (Num. 
xxxi.  22  ,  and  was  imported  into  Tyre  from 
.Britain  as  early  as  B.C.  588.  (See  CASSITERIDES.) 
Spain  was  also  a  tin-producing  country  visited 
by  the  ancients.  The  Cornish  tin-mines  were 
worked  by  the  ancient  Britons  during  the 
Roman  occupation,  but  were  neglected  by  the 
•Saxons.  The  Norman  sovereigns  derived  im- 
mense profit  from  exporting  the  metal,  as 
during  their  reigns  England  was  the  only 
country  In  •which  it  was  found;  but  the  dis- 
covery of  tin-mines  in  Bohemia  in  1241  tended 
to  diminish  the  English  trade.  Edward  III. 
claimed  a  monopoly  of  the  tin-mines  of  Devon 
and  Cornwall,  May  10,  1338.  Mines  were  dis- 
covered at  Altenberg,  in  Saxony,  in  1458,  and 
in  Barbary  in  1640,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  importation  of  the  metal  into  this  country 
was  prohibited  by  a  proclamation  of  Charles  I. 
The  tin-mines  of  Banca  were  discovered  in 
1710,  and  their  produce  was  first  imported  into 
England  in  1787.  In  1665  an  attempt  was 
made  to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  tin- 

a';e  into  England  from  Germany,  where  it 
been  long  established,  and  in  1 68 1  some 
success  was  attained  by  Andrew  Yarranton. 
The  manufacture  was  established  about  1730, 
when  Pontypool  in  Monmouthshire  was  made 
its  chief  seat.  The  composition  known  as 
Britannia  metal,  of  which  tin  forms  the  prin- 
cipal ingredient,  was  first  made  at  Sheffield 
about  1770.  By  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  120  (Aug.  16, 
1838),  the  duties  were  fixed  at;  io.s\  per  hun- 
dredweight for  tin  ore,  and  15*.  for  the  manu- 
factured metal.  The  tin-plate  makers  were 
incorporated  in  1670.  (See  FARTHING,  MONEY, 
&c.) 

TINCHEBR  AY,  or  TINCHENBRAY  (Battle) . 
— Henry  I.  of  England  defeated  his  brother 
Robert  Curthose,  and  took  him  prisoner  before 
the  castle  of  Tinchebray,  in  Normandy,  Sep. 
28,  1106. 

TIXEIT.—  (See  PELUSIUM.) 

TINKERS.— (See  CARBONARI.) 

TINTERN  ABBEY  (Monmouthshire)  was 
founded  for  Cistercian  monks  by  Walter  de 
Clare  in  1131.  The  church  was  commenced  by 
Roger  de  Bigod,  Earl  of  Norfolk,  and  mass 
was  first  celebrated  within  it  in  1268.  The 
site,  granted  to  the  Earl  of  Worcester  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  1536,  is  the  property  of  the  Duke  of 
Beaufort. 


TIPPERARY  (Ireland)  was  formed  into  a 
county  by  King  John  in  1210.  Insurrectionary 
movements  occurred  in  1815,  and  food  riots  in 
1846.  The  militia  mutinied  July  7,  1856. 

TIPPERMUIR  (Battle).  — The  Marquis  of 
Montrose  defeated  the  Covenanters  under  Lord 
Elcho  at  this  village  near  Perth,  Sep.  i,  1644. 

TIRLEMONT  (Belgium).— This  town,  taken 
by  the  French  in  1635,  was  recovered  by  Marl- 
borough  July  18,  1705.  The  French  defeated 
the  Austrians  here  in  Nov.,  1792,  and  again 
March  16,  1793.  The  Belgian  army  under 
Leopold  I.  was  defeated  here  by  the  Dutch 
Aug.  n,  1831.  Leopold  I.  escaped  to  Malines. 
The  Gothic  church,  founded  towards  the  end 
of  the  isth,  was  rebuilt  in  the  isth  century. 

TITANIUM,  a  metal  first  discovered  by 
Gregor  in  the  grains  of  a  black  mineral  found 
in  the  bed  of  a  rivulet  in  Cornwall  in  1791. 
Klaproth  foxind  it  in  some  other  minerals  in 
1795,  and  gave  it  the  name  it  now  bears.  Its 
properties  were  first  determined  by  Wollaston 
in  1822. 

TITCHFIELD,  orTICHFIELD  (Hampshire). 
—The  marriage  of  Henry  VI.  with  Margaret  of 
Anjou  is  said  to  have  taken  place  here  April 
22,  1445.  Near  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  Titch- 
field  House,  erected  on  the  site  and  with  the 
materials  of  the  Pnemonstratensian  abbey, 
founded  in  1231.  In  this  mansion  Charles  1. 
took  refuge  after  making  his  escape  from 
Hampton  Court  in  1647.  The  free  school  for 
boys  and  girls  is  supported  by  a  fund  be- 
queathed by  Henry,  Earl  of  Southampton,  in 
1620. 

TIT  I  IKS,  or  TENTHS.  —  Abraham  gave 
Melchizcdek  tithes  of  all  the  spoil  he  had  taken 
from  the  live  kings,  B.C.  1913  (Gen.  xiv.  20),  and 
the  Levitical  law  ordered  the  Jews  to  set  apart 
a  tenth  of  all  their  goods  to  the  service  of  the 
Lord,  B.C.  1491  (Lev.  xxvii.  30 — 32).  The  right 
of  the  clergy  "to  live  by  the  Gospel"  (i  Cor. 
ix.  4—14)  was  maintained  in  the  Apostolic  age 
(Matt.  x.  10,  Luke  x.  7,  Romans  xv.  27,  &c.). 
Among  the  early  Christians,  the  payment  of 
tithes  was  regarded  as  a  matter  of  conscience, 
and  no  laws  were  passed  for  its  enforcement 
until  the  Council  of  Macon,  Oct.  23,  585.  The 
custom  of  devoting  a  tenth  part  of  all  property 
to  the  service  of  the  clergy  is  mentioned  in  the 
canons  of  Egbert,  Archbishop  of  York,  in  750, 
and  in  the  ordinances  of  the  Council  of  Cel- 
chyth  in  787.  In  794,  Offa,  King  of  Mercia, 
endowed  the  church  with  tithes  of  all  his  king- 
dom, and  Charlemagne  nun  le  several  laws 
regulating  their  payment  about  800.  The 
tithe  system  was  sanctioned  and  amended 
by  the  general  Lateran  council  of  1215.  By 
37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  (15451,  the  inhabitants  of 
London  were  ordered  to  pay  2$.  gd.  in  the 
pound  on  rent  as  tithes.  Numerous  amend- 
ments in  the  tithe  laws  were  made  by  2  &  3 
Edw.  VI.  c.  12  (1548^,  and  subsequent  statutes. 
Tithes  were  abolished  in  France  Aug.  4,  1789. 
By  the  Tithe  Commutation  Act,  6  &  7  Will.  J  V. 
c.  71  (Aug.  13,  1836),  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed to  effect  a  commutation  of  tithes  for  a 
rent-charge  based  upon  the  average  prices  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats  for  seven  years.  This 
act  was  amended  by  7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet. 
c.  69  (July  15,  1837),  by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  64  (Aug. 


TITLES 


[    975 


TOBOLSK 


4,  1838),  by  2  &  3  Viet.  c.  62  (Aug.  17,  1839),  by 
3  &  4  Viet.  c.  15  (June  4,  1840),  by  5  &  6  Viet, 
c.  54  (July  30,  1842),  by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  73 
(Aug.  26,  1846),  and  by  10  &  n  Viet.  c.  104 
(July  22,  1847). 

TITLES.— (See  NOBILITY,  PEERS,  &c.) 

TITUS  (Epistle).— The  date  of  Paul's  epistle 
to  Titus  has  been  a  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy, some  placing  it  as  early  as  52,  and 
others  as  late  as  65.  Prom  the  striking 
verbal  resemblances  between  it  and  the  first 
epistle  to  Timothy,  it  is  considered  probable 
that  they  were  written  about  the  same  time, 
i.  e.  in  -64.  (See  NICOPOLIS.) 

TIVERTON  (Devonshire),  anciently  called 
Twy-ford-ton  and  Two-ford-town,  from  its 
situation  between  the  rivers  Exe  and  Lowmaii, 
was  known  as  the  village  of  Twyford  as  early 
as  872,  and  had  a  market  and  three  annual 
fairs  in  1200.  The  wool  trade  was  introduced 
in  1353.  Its  prosperity  was  greatly  checked 
by  the  plague  in  1571,  and  the  town  was 
almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1598.  The  castle, 
erected  in  1106,  was  stormed  by  Fairfax  in 
1645,  and  afterwards  dismantled.  Almshouses 
were  founded  by  John  Greenway  in  1529,  by 
John  Walsden  in  1579,  and  by  George  Slee  in 
1613.  The  free  grammar-school  was  founded 
in  1604,  and  the  free  English  school  in  1611. 
A  charitable  fund  for  granting  immunities 
to  67  poor  persons  was  established  in  1697, 
and  the  charity  school  was  founded  in  1713. 
Tiverton  was  considered  the  chief  manufac- 
turing town  in  the  west  of  England  in  1612, 
about  which  time  a  second  conflagration  de- 
stroyed nearly  all  the  property  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. A  third  fire  destroyed  300  houses  in 
1731,  and  a  twelfth  part  of  the  population  was 
cut  off  by  an  epidemic  fever  in  1741.  The 
woollen  trade  was  destroyed  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Norwich  stuffs  in  1745,  and  this  was 
superseded  by  the  patent  net  manufacture  in 
1815.  The  lace  trade  was  introduced  in  1816. 
The  town-hall  and  corn-market  were  built  in 
1830. 

TIVOLL—  (See  TIBUR.) 

TLEMSEN,  or  TLEMCEN  (Africa),  the  capi- 
tal of  Oran,  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  many  Roman  remains  are  to  be  found  in 
its  vicinity.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  was 
destroyed  by  the  Dey  of  Algiers  as  a  punish- 
ment for  the  disaffection  of  its  inhabitants, 
about  1670.  The  French  took  it  Dec.  5,  1835, 
and  evacuated  it,  by  treaty  with  Abd-el-Kader, 
in  1837.  It  was  'T-gain  taken  by  the  French  in 
1842,  and  forms  part  of  their  colony  of  Algeria. 

TOBACCO.  —  The  use  of  this  plant  by  the 
American  Indians  was  first  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards,  at  Cuba,  in  Nov.,  1492,  when  two 
of  the  companions  of  Columbus  observed  the 
natives  puffing  smoke  from  their  mouths  and 
noses.  In  1494  the  Indian  habit  of  snuff  - 
taking  was  remarked  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
in  1503  the  natives  of  Paraguay  astonished 
them  by  chewing  the  weed  and  spitting  the 
juice  towards  them  as  a  mode  of  repelling 
their  invasion.  Oviedo  published  an  account 
of  the  use  of  the  weed  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Hispaniola  in  1526,  and  Francesco  Hernandez 
brought  some  plants  to  Europe  in  1560,  and 
presented  them  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Jean 


Nicot  presented  some  specimens  to  Catherine 
de  Medicis  of  France  in  1561,  and  from  him  the 
plant  received  its  scientific  name  of  Nicotiana. 
It  was  first  brought  to  England  by  Sir  John 
Hawkins  in  1565,  and  in  1586  Mr.  Ralph  Lane 
introduced  the  practice  of  smoking,  which  was 
adopted  and  rendered  fashionable  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  In  1598  Paul  Hentzner  visited  Eng- 
land, and,  speaking(  of  the  Bear  Gardens,  says, 
"  At  these  spectacle's,  and  everywhere  else,  the 
English  are  constantly  smoking  tobacco,"  and 
Dekker,  in  his  "  Satiro-mastix,"  printed  in 
1602,  mentions  smoking  as  a  habit  of  his  lady 
contemporaries.  In  1603  James  I.  published 
his  "  Counterblast  to  Tobacco,"  and  in  1604  he 
issued  a  proclamation  against  its  use,  and 
charged  a  duty  of  6s.  lod.  per  Ib.  on  all  that 
was  sold.  James  I.  published  a  second  docu- 
ment, prohibiting  its  importation  except  from 
British  colonies,  and  forbidding  its  culture  in 
England  or  Ireland,  and  Urban  VIII.  threat- 
ened to  excommunicate  all  persons  smoking 
in  church,  in  1624.  Tobacco  was  introduced 
into  Java  by  the  Dutch  in  1601,  into  Turkey  in 
1609,  was  conveyed  from  Brazil  to  India  in 
1617,  and  it  is  now  generally  used  in  the  east- 
ern hemisphere.  In  1634  Charles  I.  repeated 
the  prohibitions  of  his  father,  and  extended 
them  to  the  importation  of  tobacco  seed  ;  and 
in  1652  the  Long  Parliament  passed  an  act 
embodying  these  regulations,  which  were 
confirmed  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  34  (1660).  The 
manufacture  and  sale  of  tobacco  commenced 
at  Venice  in  1657.  Tobacco  was  long  a 
medium  for  payments  in  Virginia  and  other 
parts  of  America.  The  tobacco-pipe  makers 
were  incorporated  in  1663,  and  the  British 
Anti-Tobacco  Society  was  formed  in  1853. 
Cigars  are  first  mentioned  as  a  form  of  tobacco 
used  by  the  Indians  in  1699,  and  in  1796 
they  became  fashionable  at  Hamburg,  and 
were  thence  diffused  throughout  Europe.  The 
growth  of  tobacco  in  Ireland,  permitted  by 
19  Geo.  III.  c.  35  (1779),  was  again  prohibited 
by  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  13  (Aug.  23,  1831).  The 
first  duties  imposed  on  tobacco  by  act  of  Par- 
liament were  levied  by  i  James  II.  c.  4  (1685), 
and,  after  many  changes,  the  duties  on  foreign 
and  British  colonial  tobacco  were  equalized  at 
35.  per  Ib.  by  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47  (July  9,  1842). 
These  duties  were  reduced  by  26  Viet.  c.  7 
(March  27,  1863). 

TOBAGO  (Atlantic  Ocean),  called  the 
"  Melancholy  Isle,"  one  of  the  West  Indian 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1496,  was  first  colonized  by 
the  Dutch  in  1632.  They  were  expelled  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  having  returned  to  the  island, 
abandoned  it  in  1683.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  Oct.  18,  1748,  Tobago  was  declared 
neutral,  and  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10, 
1763,  it  was  assigned  to  Great  Britain.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1781,  and  was  ceded 
to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  1783.  The 
English  captured  it  in  1793,  and  again  July  17, 
1803,  and  it  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in  1814. 

TOBAK  (Battle).— (-See  BENDER.) 

TOBOLSK  (Asiatic  Russia),  the  capital  of  a 
government  of  the  same  name  in  Siberia, 
founded  by  the  Russians  in  1587,  was  made  a 


TOCKEMBURG 


[    976    ] 


TOLFA 


town  in  1643.  Many  of  the  Swedish  officers 
taken  at  the  battle  of  Poltava,  July  8,  1709, 
were  imprisoned  here.  Louis  XV.  of  France 
sent  the  Abbe  Chappe  d'Auteroche  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus  in  1756.  The  town  was 
almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1786. 

TOCKEMBURG,  TOCKENBURG,  or  TOG- 
ENBURG  (Switzerland),  formerly  inhabited  by 
the  Tugeni,  was  ruled  by  counts  until  1436, 
when  the  line  became  extinct,  and  the  terri- 
tory, after  a  struggle  called  the  first  war  of 
Tockemburg,  passed  to  the  barons  of  Rasen, 
who  in  1469  sold  it  to  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall. 
The  people  rebelled  in  1712,  and  the  struggle 
called  the  second  war  of  Tockemburg  com- 
menced, which  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
treaty  of  Aarau,  in  Aug.  The  county  was 
incorporated  with  the  canton  St.  Gall  in  1803. 
TOISON  D'OR,  or  GOLDEN  FLEECE  (q.  v.), 
was  the  name  of  the  order  instituted  at  Bruges 
by  Philip  III.  (the  Good)  of  Burgundy,  Jan.  10, 
1420. 

TOKAY  (Battle). -John  Zapolya,  whose 
brother  George  had  been  killed  in  the  battle 
of  Mohacs  (q.  v.),  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of 
Hungary  in  1526,  and  was  supported  by  Soli- 
man  I.,  Francis  I.,  and  Clement  VII.  Having 
been  saluted  king  (under  the  title  of  John)  at 
Tokay,  in  Sep.,  and  crowned  at  Stuhlweissen- 
burg,  Nov.  ii,  he  was  defeated  by  Ferdinand 
II.,  at  a  battle  fought  at  Tokay  in  Aug.,  1527. 
The  Turks,  however,  still  espoused  his  cause, 
and  he  was  again  crowned  at  Buda  in  Sep., 
1529.  Ferdinand  II.  concluded  a  truce  with 
him,  Jan.  31,  1531,  and  again  in  1538.  Zapolya 
died  July  21,  1540. 

TOKAY"  (Hungary).— This  town  of  Upper 
Hungary,  on  the  river  Theiss,  celebrated  for 
its  wines,  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Heg- 
yalla  hills.  They  are  planted  with  vines  which 
Bela  IV.  (1235 — 1270)  had  brought  into  Hungary 
by  Italian  colonists.  Tokay  was  taken  from 
the  Turks  in  1685.  The  town  was  formerly 
defended  by  a  castle,  which  was  demolished  in 
1705.  The  Magyars  were  drivsn  from  their 
position  here,  on  the  Theiss,  by  the  Cossacks, 
in  July,  1849. 

TOKENS. — The  use  of  private  tokens,  to 
supply  the  want  of  small  coin,  prevailed  in 
England  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  (1509 — 47).  The  issue  of  tokens  for  money 
by  inferior  traders  led  to  many  complaints  in 
.  1574.  The  different  taverns  issued  tokens. 
They  were  made  of  lead,  tin,  latten,  and 
leather,  and  caused  great  loss  to  the  poor,  as 
they  were  only  taken  at  the  shops  where  first 
issued.  (Sue  COPPER  COINAGE.)  Private  traders 
struck  farthing  tokens  in  lead  for  some  years 
prior  to  1613,  in  which  year  (May  19)  they  were 
abolished ;  and  all  traders'  tokens  were  pro- 
hibited by  royal  proclamation  in  1674.  Silver 
tokens  of  the  value  of  5*.  were  issued  by  the 
Bank  of  England  Jan.  i,  1798,  and  from  the 
scarcity  of  small  coin,  the  bank  again  issued  a 
large  quantity  of  silver  tokens  at  55.  6d.,  3.?., 
and  is.  6d.,  in  1811.  The  issue  of  gold  and 
silver  tokens,  except  by  the  banks  of  England 
and  Ireland,  was  prohibited  by  52  Geo.  III. 
c.  157  (July  29,  1812). 

TOLBIAC,  or  ZULPICH  (Battle).— On  this 
plain  of  Germany,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 


Cologne,  Clovis  I.,  King  of  the  Franks,  totally 
defeated  the  Alemanni,  in  496. 

TOLEDO  (Spain),  on  the  site  of  the  Toletum 
of  the  Romans,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  some  Jews  who  migrated  to  Spain  during 
the  period  of  the  second  temple  in  Jerusalem 
(finished  B.C.  515).  The  Romans  took  it  B.C. 
193.  Leovigild,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  made 
it  the  seat  of  his  empire  in  577.  It  was 
enlarged  and  surrounded  by  walls  by  King 
Waniba  in  the  7th  century,  and  was  taken  by 
the  Arabs  in  April,  712.  (See  MAGHAZUL, 
Battle.)  Alphonso  VI.  of  Leon,  and  I.  of  Castile, 
captured  it,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  May 
25,  1085,  and  built  an  outer  wall  to  the  town 
in  1109.  During  the  civil  wars  between  Peter 
I.  (the  Cruel)  and  his  bastard  brothers  (1354 
— 1369),  the  town  was  frequently  taken  and 
retaken,  and  the  inhabitants — chiefly  Jews  — " 
were  ill-treated.  Councils  were  held  here, 
Sep.  7,  400;  in  447;  May  17,  527;  in  581  or 
582;  589;  May  17,  597;  Oct.  23,  610  ;  Dec.  9, 
633;  Jan.  9,  636;  Jan.  9,  638;  in  646;  Jan., 
653;  Nov.  2,  655;  Dec.  i,  656;  Nov.  7,  675; 
Jan.  9 — 25,  68 1  ;  Nov.  4,  683  ;  Nov.  14 — 20,  684  ; 
May  ii,  688  ;  May  2,  693  ;  Nov.  9,  694  ;  in  701  ; 
Nov.  21,  1324;  May  19,  1339;  in  April,  1347; 
and  Oct.  i,  1355.  Toledo  was  celebrated  for  the 
manufacture  of  sword -blades  in  the  isth  and 
1 6th  centuries.  The  cathedral,  standing  on 
the  site  of  an  old  Moorish  mosque,  founded  by 
Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile,  in  1250,  was  com- 
pleted in  1492.  The  chapel,  called  Capilla 
Muzarabe,  because  mass  is  still  said  daily 
according  to  the  Muzarabic  ritual,  was  founded 
by  Cardinal  Ximenes  in  1510.  The  royal 
palace,  originally  built  by  King  Wamba  in  the 
7th  century,  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  (1519 — 1556).  The  convent 
and  church  of  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes  was 
erected  by  Ferdinand  V.  and  Isabella  I.  in 
1476,  and  the  manacles  and  fetters  worn  by  the 
Christian  captives  of  Granada  —  liberated  at 
the  taking  of  that  city  in  1492 — suspended  to 
the  outside  of  the  walls  of  this  building, 
remain  there  to  the  present  time.  The  found- 
ling hospital  of  Santa  Cruz  was  founded  by 
Cardinal  Mendoza  in  1494,  and  La  Inglesia  del 
Transito,  formerly  a  Jewish  synagogue,  built 
in  the  reign  of  Peter  I.  (1350 — 1369),  is  a 
curious  specimen  of  Saracenic  architecture. 
The  truce  of  Nice,  between  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I.,  was  converted  into  a  "perpetual 
peace,"  at  Toledo,  Jan.  10,  1539.  The  arms 
factory  was  erected  in  1788.  Toledo  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  Dec.,  1808,  and  evacuated  by 
them  in  1813. 

TOLENTINO  (Italy).— Alarmed  at  the  pro- 
gress of  the  French  arms  in  the  Papal  States, 
Pius  VI.  despatched  Cardinal  Mattei,  who,  at 
this  place,  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality, 
which  granted  to  the  conquerors  a  cession  of 
territory,  money  contributions,  together  with 
some  of  the  finest  works  of  art  in  the  world, 
Feb.  19,  1797.  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  having 
taken  up  arms  in  the  cause  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
defeated  here  by  the  Austrians,  May  3,  1815. 

TOLERATION.— (See  ACT  or  TOLERATION.) 

TOLFA  (Italy).— John  de  Castro,  convinced 
that  a  mineral,  fit  to  yield  alum,  was  to  be  had 
at  this  place,  instituted  experiments  which 


TOLLS 


[  977 


TORRE  DEL  GRECO 


proved  successful,  and  he  established  the  well- 
known  manufactory  about  1459. 

TOLLS.— (See  REBECCA  RIOTS,  ROADS,  SOUND 
DUES,  STADE  DUES,  TURNPIKES,  &c.) 

TOLOSA  (Battle).— The  Spaniards  defeated 
the  Caliph  Mohammed,  on  the  plain  called 
Las  Navas  de  Tolosa,  July  16,  1212. 

TOLOSA  (Spain).— The  Romans  established 
a  colony  here.  The  town,  occupied  by  the 
French  from  1808  to  1813,  was  captured  by 
the  English,  under  Sir  Thomas  Graham,  in 
July,  1813. 

TOLTECS.— (See  MEXICO.) 

TOMATO,  or  LOVE  APPLE,  was  introduced 
into  England  from  S.  America  in  1596. 

TOM  OF  BEDLAM'S  MEN.  —  (See  ABRA- 
HAM-MEN.) 

TONGA  (Pacific  Ocean),  also  called  Amster- 
dam Island  (fj.  v.),  is  the  chief  of  the  Friendly 
Isles.  Ten  English  missionaries,  sent  out 
by  the  London,  society,  lauded  in  1797.  (See 
FEEJEE  ISLES.) 

TONGRES  (Battles).— Culverins  are  said  to 
have  been  used  at  the  battle  fought  here, 

Oct.  9,  1468. On  the  road  between  Hasselt 

and  Tongres,  the  Belgians  were  defeated  by 
the  Dutch  troops,  under  the  command  of  Gen. 
Georges,  Aug.  8,  1831. 

TONGRES  (Belgium).— A  mineral  spring  in 
the  neighbourhood  was  known  in  the  time  of 
Pliny  the  Elder.  A  bishop's  see,  established 
here  in  97,  was  transferred  to  Maastricht  in 
383.  The  church,  said  to  be  the  first  dedicated 
to  the  Virgin  north  of  the  Alps,  was  built  in 
1240.  The  town  was  wrested  from  the  French 
by  the  Archduke  Charles  in  March,  1793,  and 
evacuated  by  the  Allies  July  15,  1794. 

TONGUES.— The  Confusion  of  Tongues  took 
place  at  Babel  about  B.C.  2247  (Gen.  xi.  9). 
The  miraculous  Gift  of  Tongues  (Mark  xvi. 
17  ;  Acts  ii.  i — 14,  &c.)  was  conferred  upon 
the  apostles  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost (May  26,  30).  (See  IRVINGITES.) 

TONNAGE.  —The  old  measurement,  still 
used  in  estimating  the  capacity  of  yachts,  was 
established  in  1710,  and  the  new  measurement 
employed  for  the  royal  and  commercial  navies, 
by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  55  (Aug.  28, 1833),  amended 
by  5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  56  (Aug.  31,  1835).  (See 

TUNNAGE  AND   POUNDAGE.) 

TONNINGEN  (Denmark)  was  surrendered  by 
Steenbock,  the  Swedish  general,  to  the  Danes, 
in  1712.  The  Holsteiners,  in  an  attempt  to 
take  it,  were  repulsed,  Sep.  30,  1850. 

TONQUIN  (Anam).— This  northern  province 
of  the  kingdom  of  Anam  was  under  the 
Chinese  yoke  from  112  to  968,  when  it  regained 
its  independence.  It  was  reconquered  by  the 
Chinese  in  1406,  was  under  native  dynasties 
from  1428  till  1788,  and  was  annexed  to  Cochin 
China  in  1802.  (See  CACHAO.) 

TONSURE,  first  adopted  by  monks  about 
the  4th  century,  was  soon  after  introduced 
amongst  the  clergy.  In  the  Romish  tonsure, 
called  "  the  tonsure  of  St.  Peter,"  the  crown 
as  well  as  the  back  of  the  head  was  shaved. 
Various  modes  have  been  adopted.  Martin  I. 
(649 — 55)  made  rules  for  it. 

TONTINE  was  so  called  from  Lorenzo  Tonti, 
a  Neapolitan,  who  professed  to  raise  loans  on 
life  annuities,  with  benefit  of  survivorship. 


The  first  was  opened  in  France  in  1653,  and 
another  was  tried  in  1689.  It  has  not  been 
often  adopted  in  England,  and  the  last  was  in 
1789. 

TOPLITZ  (Treaties).— The  alliance  of  Reich- 
enbach,  between  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia, 
June  27,  1813,  was  converted  into  a  definitive 
treaty  at  this  town  in  Bohemia,  Sep.  9,  1813. 
A  preliminary  treaty  between  Austria  and 
Great  Britain  was  signed  here  Oct.  3,  1813. 

TOOLOONIDES,  or  TOULUN  IDES. —This 
Egyptian  dynasty  reigned  from  868  to  905. 

TORCHES  (Battle).— Scipio  Cicala,  at  one 
time  Aga  of  the  Janissaries,  in  command  of  a 
Turkish  army  in  1583,  defeated  the  Persians  in 
a  nocturnal  encounter,  called  from  that  cir- 
cumstance the  "  Battle  of  the  Torches." 

TORDESILLAS  (Treaty). -By  a  bull  dated 
May  4,  1493,  Pope  Alexander  VI.  fixed  a  line 
of  demarcation  from  north  to  south,  passing 
ioo  leagues  to  the  west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape 
Verde,  dividing  the  New  World  between  Portu- 
gal and  Spain.  All  to  the  east  of  this  line  was 
assigned  to  Portugal,  and  all  to  the  west  to 
Spain.  This  settlement  did  not  satisfy  Por- 
tugal, and  after  much  negotiation  a  treaty  was 
concluded  at  this  town  in  Spain,  June  7,  1494, 
by  which  the  line  of  demarcation  was  removed 
370  leagues  to  the  west  of  Cape  Verde  islands. 

TORGAU  (Prussia).— The  league  entered  into 
at  Gotha  in  Feb.,  1526,  between  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse  and  the  Elector  of  Hesse,  to  support 
the  reformed  religion,  was  ratified  at  this  town 
in  Prussia,  March  4,  and  received  the  name  of 
the  League  of  Torgau.  Here  Luther  presented 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  with  the  leading  articles 
of  the  faith,  called  the  "Articles  of  Torgau," 
in  1530.  The  "  Book  of  Torgau,"  designed  to 
put  an  end  to  the  Crypto-Calvinistic  contro- 
versy, was  issued  in  1576.  An  ejectment  of 
divines  took  place  for  refusing  subscription  to 
the  Visitation  articles  of  Torgau  in  1592.  The 
Austrians,  who  captured  Torgau  in  1760,  were 
defeated  in  the  neighbourhood  by  the  Prus- 
sians, commanded  by  Frederick  II.,  Nov.  3, 
and  the  Prussians  entered  it  Nov.  4. 

TORONTO  (Canada),  formerly  called  York, 
was  surveyed  by  Governor  Simcoe  in  1793. 
The  first  houses  were  built  in  1794,  and  it  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  by  Sir  John  Col- 
borne,  and  received  its  present  name  in  1834. 
Papineau's  "Sons  of  Liberty"  were  defeated 
in  an  attempt  to  take  the  town,  Dec.  4,  1837, 
and  the  insurrection  was  suppressed  by  the 
militia  under  Sir  Francis  Head,  Jan.  5,  1838. 
West  Canada  was  separated  from  the  bishopric 
of  Quebec,  and  made  a  district  see,  in  1839; 
and  Ontario  was  separated  from  Toronto  in 
1861.  The  seat  of  government,  transferred 
from  Kingston  to  Toronto  in  1844,  was  re- 
moved to  Quebec  in  1856.  The  cathedral  church 
of  St.  George  was  burned  down  in  1849. 

TORPEDO,  for  producing  explosions  under 
the  water,  was  invented  by  Fulton  in  1812.  , 
A  similar  weapon  was  used  by  the  Russians  in 
1854,  and  by  the  Americans  in  the  war  against 
the  South,  1861—65. 

TORRE  DEL   GRECO   (Italy).— This  town 

at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius  existed  in  1324. 

It  suffered  during  the  eruption  of  1631,  and 

was  almost  destroyed  in  1795.    Having  been 

3* 


TORRES  STRAIT 


[    978     1 


TOULOUSE 


restored,  it  again  suffered  from  the  same  cause 
in  1804  and  1822,  and  was  again  destroyed 
Dec.  8,  1861. 

TORRES  STRAIT  (Pacific  Ocean),  sepa- 
rating Australia  from  Papua,  or  New  Guinea, 
was  discovered  by  Torres  in  June,  1606. 

TORRES  VEDRAS  (Portugal).— Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  commenced  his  famous  "lines"  neat 
this  town  in  Portugal  in  Dec.,  1809,  and  the 
whole  army  was  collected  within  them  Oct. 
15,  1810.  There  were  three  lines,  the  outer- 
most 29  miles  long,  extending  from  the  sea 
near  Torres  Vedras  to  Alhandra  on  the  Tagus, 
defended  by  forts  and  redoubts,  mounting  400 
pieces  of  artillery. 

TORTOLA  (West  Indies).— The  group  (Virgin 
Islands)  to  which  the  island  belongs  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1494.  A  band  of 
Dutch  bucaneers  who  settled  here  in  1648  were 
expelled  in  1666  by  the  English,  who  have 
since  kept  possession. 

TORTONA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Dertona,  a 
Roman  colony,  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  one  of 
the  chief  towns  in  that  part  in  14,  was  taken 
by  Frederick  I.  of  Germany  in  1155,  and  its 
fortifications  were  repaired  in  1156.  The  papal 
legate  captured  it  in  1323,  the  French  and 
Piedmontese  in  1735,  and  it  was  ceded  to  Sar- 
dinia by  the  treaty  of  Luxemburg,  June  6, 
1736.  It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  July  24, 
1745.  The  citadel,  built  by  Victor  Amadeus 
III.,  was  handed  over  to  the  French  general 
Meynier  in  June,  1796.  The  town,  after  a 
lengthened  siege,  surrendered  to  the  Russians 
Aug.  25,  1799.  West  of  the  town  is  the  plain 
of  Marengo,  where  the  Austrians  were  defeated 
by  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  June  14,  1800. 

TORTOSA  (Spain),  the  ancient  Dertosa,  is 
shown  to  have  been  a  Roman  colony  by  its 
coins,  some  of  which  bear  the  head  of  Julius 
Caesar,  B.C.  45.  Ten  large  barks  filled  with 
Mohammedan  troops  arrived  here  in  768.  The 
Wali  of  the  town,  having  rebelled,  issued  forth 
to  meet  the  royal  troops  that  were  sent  against 
him,  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter 
in  788.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Christians,  who 
were  attacked  by  the  Mohammedans  under 
Prince  Abderahman,  and  routed  in  809.  The 
harbour  was  repaired  in  944.  Tortosa  was 
captured  by  the  Genoese  in  1 148 ;  by  the  French 
under  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  July  u,  1708 ;  and 
again  under  Marshal  Suchet,  Jan.  2,  1811.  It 
was  held  by  the  French  till  April  23,  1814. 
The  Carlist  princes,  the  Count  de  Montemolin 
and  his  brother,  signed  an  act  here  renouncing 
their  claim  to  the  Spanish  throne,  April  23, 
1860.  It  was  revoked  by  another  act,  signed 
at  Cologne  June  1*5. 

TORTUGA,  or  TURK'S  ISLAND  (Atlantic 
Ocean),  one  of  the  Antilles,  long  a  haunt  of 
the  bucaneers,  was  taken  by  the  French,  June 
i,  1 764,  and  restored  the  same  year.  It  belongs 
to  VenezTiela. 

TORTUGAS  (Gulf  of  Mexico).— A  series  of 
keys  (a  corruption  of  "cayos")  or  rocky  islands 
on  the  coast  of  Florida,  long  infested  by  pirates 
and  smugglers,  received  the  name  of  Tortugas 
from  the  number  of  turtles  found  upon  them. 
There  are  10  chief  islets,  sometimes  called  the 
Dry  Tortugas. 

TORTURE   was    practised  upon    slaves  at 


Athens  B.C.  364,  and  among  the  Romans 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Cicero,  who  speaks  of 
it  as  an  established  practice,  B.C.  70.  It  first 
received  ecclesiastical  sanction  by  a  decree  of 
Innocent  IV.  in  1252.  Through  the  influence 
of  Clement  V.  a  number  of  Templars,  charged 
with  heresy  and  other  offences,  were  put  to 
the  torture  in  London  in  1310.  In  the  cities 
of  Germany  it  was  introduced  about  1500,  and 
continued  till  about  1750.  In  France  it  was 
abolished  in  1789.  It  was  abolished  in  Scot- 
land by  7  Anne,  c.  21,  s.  5  (1709).  (See  BOOT, 
INQUISITION,  RACK,  &c.) 

TORY. — Various  derivations  are  given  for  the 
terms  Tory  and  Whig,  first  applied  to  political 
parties  in  England  about  1679.  The  Court 
party  reproached  their  antagonists  with  affi- 
nity to  the  fanatics  in  Scotland,  known  by  the 
name  of  Whigs,  and  they  in  return,  pretending 
to  find  some  resemblance  between  the  Court 
party  and  the  popish  banditti  in  Ireland, 
called  them  Tories.  (See  CONSERVATIVES.) 

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE.— (See  TEMPERANCE 
SOCIETIES.) 

TOUL  (France),  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Leuci,  fortified  by  Valentinian  I.  in  375,  was 
made  a  bishopric  in  the  4th  century.  Thierry  ; 
defeated  Theodebert  of  Austrasia  in  a  battle 
fought  here  in  612.  Toul  became  an  imperial 
town,  and  was  ruled  by  its  own  bishops,  from 
1261.  A  council  was  held  at  Tusey,  in  this 
diocese,  Oct.  22— Nov.  7,  860.  The  cathedral, 
commenced  in  965,  was  finished  in  1496. 
Henry  II.  joined  it  to  France  in  1552  ;  Louis 
XIV.  fortified  it  in  1700;  and  the  Prussians 
besieged  it  in  1815. 

TOULON  (France^  the  Telo  Martius  of  the 
ancients,  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  889, 
was  again  taken  by  them  towards  the  close  of 
the  1 2th  century.  The  Constable  of  Bourbon 
took  it  in  1524,  and  Charles  V.  in  1526. 
The  Grosse-Tour,  commenced  by  Louis  XII. 
(1498 — 1515),  to  protect  it  from  the  Bar- 
bary  pirates,  was  completed  by  Francis  I. 
(1515 — 47).  Toulon  was  fortified  after  the 
plans  of  Vaubaii  by  Louis  XIV.  (1643 — 1715). 
Admiral  Parker  blockaded  the  French  fleet  in 
the  harbour  in  1694.  The  siege,  commenced 
by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Prince  Eugene,  was 
abandoned  Aug.  25,  1707.  A  Spanish  squad- 
ron left  the  harbour  to  attack  the  English 
Mediterranean  fleet,  under  Admirals  Matthews 
and  Lestock,  when  an  engagement  took  place, 
without  any  decisive  results,  Feb.  n,  1744. 
An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  upon  it  by 
Admiral  Boscaweii  in  1759.  During  the  Revo- 
lution its  inhabitants  handed  it  over  with  the 
port  to  the  English  admiral  Hood,  to  be  held 
for  the  French  monarchy,  Aug.  27,  1793.  It 
was  taken  by  the  republican  army  Dec.  19, 
when  the  artillery  was  directed  by  Napoleon 
Buonaparte.  The  Carbonari  raised  an  insur- 
rection here  in  1821. 

TOULOUSE  (France),  the  ancient  Tolosa, 
an  old  town  of  the  Volcse  Tectosages,  existed 
many  centuries  before  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans,  and  appears  to  have  had  some 
kind  of  alliance  with  them  when  it  was  plun- 
dered of  a  large  amount  of  treasure  by  Q.  Ser- 
vilius  Cajpio,  B.C.  106.  It  was  made  the  capital 
of  the  empire  by  the  Visigoths  in  419,  and  was 


TOURAINE 


TOURXAY 


captured  by  the  Franks,  under  Clovis  I.,  in 
508.  Zama,  the  Saracen,  was  defeated  here  by 
the  Duke  of  Aquitaiiie  in  721,  and  Charlemagne 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Aquitaine  in  781.  It  was  ruled  by  its  own 
counts  from  778  till  it  was  joined  to  France  in 
1271.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  French  parliament 
established  in  1302.  Henry  II.  of  England, 
claiming  the  county,  laid  siege  to  the  town, 
but  without  success,  in  1159.  Tne  inhabitants 
revolted,  refused  to  admit  Simon  de  Montfort, 
and  recalled  Count  Raymond  VI.,  in  1217.  De 
Montfort,  killed  under  the  walls  June  25, 1218, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Amaury,  who  ceded 
his  claims  on  the  city  to  Louis  VIII.  in  1224. 
Another  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  of  the 
town,  to  continue  for  five  years,  was  decreed 
by  the  Council  of  Bourges,  and  accepted  by 
Louis  VIII.,  in  1225.  A  council  held  here  pro- 
hibited laymen  from  reading  the  Scriptures, 
and  firmly  established  the  inquisition,  in  Nov., 
1229.  The  university  was  established  in  1229. 
The  bridge  across  the  Garonne  was  opened  in 
1600.  In  the  court  of  the  Capitol  the  Duke  of 
Montmorency  was  beheaded,  Oct.  30,  1632.  The 
academy  of  the  Floral  Games  was  instituted  in 
1323.  Councils  were  held  here  Sep.  13,  1056  ; 
about  1060;  in  1068;  1079;  1090;  about  Feb., 
1118;  July  8,  1119;  in  1161  ;  and  Nov.,  1229. 
A  French  garrison  occupied  it  in  1229.  Count 
Alphonso  having  died  childless,  the  county,  at 
that  time  the  richest  in  France,  fell  to  his 
nephew,  Philip  III.,  in  1271.  A  court  of 
minstrels  was  held  here  by  the  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster in  1381.  Jean  Galas,  a  Protestant  mer- 
chant, charged  with  murdering  his  son,  who 
had  committed  suicide,  was  broken  alive  upon 
the  wheel,  and  his  body  burned  to  ashes, 
March  9,  1762.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  de- 
feated the  French,  under  Marshal  Soult,  April 

10,  1814,  and  compelled  them  to  evacuate  the 
town  April   12.      Neither   general  was  then 
aware  that  Napoleon  I.  had  abdicated.      An 
armistice  was  signed  April  18.    The  powder- 
mills  exploded  April  16,  1816. 

TOURAINE  (France).  —  This  province,  of 
which  Tours  was  the  capital,  was  inhabited  by 
the  Turones,  and  was  captured  by  the  Visigoths 
in  480.  It  underwent  various  changes,  and 
passed  into  the  possession  of  England  in  1152  ; 
and  was  definitively  annexed  to  France  in 
1545.  (See  ABBEVILLE.) 

TOURKMANTCHAI,  TURKMANJAI,  or 
TURKMANSHAI  (Treaty).— A  treaty  of  peace 
between 'Persia  and  Russia  was  concluded  at 
this  place  in  Persia,  Feb.  22,  1828. 

TOURNAMENTS,  TILTS,  or  JOUSTS,  &c.— 
The  origin  of  these  warlike  games  has  been  re- 
ferred to  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  may 
be  traced,  as  far  back  as  the  Roman  period. 
They  revived  under  the  feudal  system  ;  and 
the  earliest  on  record  is  one  held  in  842,  at  the 
interview  between  Louis  of  Germany,  and 
Charles  I.  (the  Bald)  of  France,  at  Strasburg. 
The  Emperor  Henry  I.,  who  died  in  936,  was 
very  fond  of  this  species  of  amusement,  and 
made  several  laws  for  its  regulation.  Geoffrey 

11.  of  Britanny  was  killed  at  a  tournament  at 
Paris  Aug.   19,    1186.    Tournaments  were  in- 
troduced into  England  during   the  reign   of 
Stephen  (1135—54).     They  were  prohibited  by 


Henry  II.  (1154 — 89),  and  were  not  established 
in  this  country  until  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 
(1189 — 99).  Edward  III.  held  a  tournament 
at  Dartford  in  1330,  and  another  at  Windsor, 
Jan.  19,  1344,  soon  after  the  institution  of  the 
Order  of  the  Garter.  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
Duke  of  Suffolk  maintained  the  field  against 
all  comers  in  May,  1513,  and  Henry  II.  of 
France  lost  his  eye  in  a  tilt  with  Count  Mont- 
gomery, and  died  shortly  afterwards  of  the 
wound,  in  1559.  (See  CARROUSEL,  EGLINTON 
TOURNAMENT,  SMITHFIELD,  <fec.)  The  following 
are  the  great  German  tournaments : — 


A.D. 

930  or  938.  Magdeburg. 

943.  Rotenburg. 

948.  Constance. 

968  or  969.  Mersburg. 

984  or  996.  Brunswick. 
1030.  Treves. 
1042.  Halle. 
1080.  Augsburg. 
1119.  Gottingen. 
1165.  Zurich. 
1179.  Cologne. 
1198.  Nuremburg. 
1209.  Worms. 
1235.  Wiirzburg. 
1284.  llatisboii. 
1296.  Schweinfurth. 
1311.  Kavensburg. 
1337.  Ingellieim. 


A.D. 

1362  or  1363.  Bamberg. 

1374.  Eslingen. 

1392.  Schaffhausen. 

1396.  Katisbon. 

1403.  Darmstadt. 

1408.  Heilbronu. 

1412-  Katisbon. 

1436.  Stuttgardt. 

1439.  Landshut. 

1474  or  1479.  Wiirzburg. 

1480.  Mayence. 

1481.  Heidelberg. 
1484.  Stuttgardt. 

1484.  Ingolstadt. 

1485.  Ingelheim. 

1485  or  1486.  Bamberg. 
1487.  Ratisbon. 
1487.  Worms. 


TOURNAY  (Belgium).— This  city,  the  an- 
cient capital  of  the  Nervii,  and  known  under 
the  name  of  Tornacum,  was  seized  in  438  by 
the  Frankish  chieftain  Clodion.  In  880  it  was 
pillaged  by  the  Norsemen,  and  in  1192  it  was 
placed  under  the  protection  of  Philip  II.  It 
was  fortified  by  Philip  IV.  in  1295,  and  was 
seized  by  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  Sep.  29, 
1513.  The  proper  administration  of  justice 
in  the  conquered  towns  of  Terouanne  and 
Tournay  was  duly  provided  for  by  5  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  i  (1514).  Francis  I.  purchased  it  from 
Henry  VIII.  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  London 
in  Oct.,  1518.  It  was  taken  by  the  Count  of 
Nassau,  the  general  of  Charles  V.,  in  Dec., 
1521,  and  annexed  to  Spanish  Flanders. 
Charles  V.  ordered  a  Calvinist  preacher, 
Peter  du  Breuil,  to  be  burned  alive  at  a  slow 
fire  in  the  public  square,  Feb.  19,  1545.  In 
1581  the  Duke  of  Parma  suppressed  a  rebellion 
of  the  inhabitants  against  the  Spaniards. 
Louis  XIV.  captured  Tournay  in  1667,  and  re- 
united it  to  France  ;  but  in  1709  it  was  taken 
by  the  Allies  under  Prince  Eugene  and  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  April  n,  1713,  Tournay  was  ceded  to 
Austria.  The  Barrier  treaty,  signed  at  Ant- 
werp Nov.  15,  1715,  confided  the  custody  of  it 
to  the  Dutch,  who  were  soon  compelled  to 
evacuate  it.  Louis  XV.  seized  it  in  1745  (See 
FONTENOY,  Battle),  and  demolished  the  forti- 
fications ;  and  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Oct.  18,  1748,  restored  it  to  Austria.  It  was 
again  seized  by  the  French,  Nov.  8,  1792,  but 
was  retaken  by  the  Austrians  April  30,  1793. 
The  French,  under  Gens.  Souham  and  Daen- 
dels,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  series  of 
engagements  before  this  city,  May  n,  12,  and 
13,  1794.  The  Allies  won  a  battle  May  23.  (See 
PONT-A-CHIN.)  Gen.  Pichegru  seized  it  June 
30,  and  annexed  it  to  the  French  department 
3R  2 


TOURNIQUET 


[    980    ] 


TRACTARTANISM 


of  Jemmapes.  It  was  finally  relinquished  by 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 

TOURNIQUET  was  invented  by  Morel  in 
1674.  Young  described  a  similar  apparatus  in 
1679,  and  Petit  (1674 — 1750)  improved  it. 

TOURS  (Battles).  —  (See  POITIERS,  or  Poic- 
TIERS,  Battles.) 

TOURS  (France),  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Indre-et-Loire,  anciently  the  principal 
town  of  the  Turones  (See  TOURAINE),  and  called 
Csesarodunum,  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar  B.C. 
55,  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Visi- 
goths, from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Clovis  I.  in 
507.  The  Northmen  assailed  it  in  838  and  882. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Count  of  Blois 
about  the  middle  of  the  icth  century.  One  of 
his  successors  ceded  it  to  the  Count  of  Anjou 
in  the  nth  century,  from  whom  it  passed  by 
inheritance  to  Henry  of  England  in  1152,  and 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English  till 
finally  ceded  to  France  in  1259.  The  Stats 
Geueraux  met  here  in  1468,  1484,  and  1506. 
The  castle  of  Plessis  les  Tours  (q.  v.}  was  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  lost  half  of  its  inhabitants, 
and  nearly  all  its  trade,  by  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  Oct.  22,  1685  ;  and  from 
this  blow  it  never  completely  recovered.  The 
cathedral,  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the 
4th  century,  was  burned  down  in  the  6th,  re- 
built by  Gregory  of  Tours  (544 — 595),  and  again 
burned  in  the  i2th  century.  The  present 
building,  the  west  front  of  which  was  erected 
by  Henry  V.  of  England,  was  completed  in 
1550.  Councils  were  held  here  Nov.  7,  567  ;  in 
813  ;  in  841  ;  in  Dec.,  887  ;  in  1050 ;  in  1055  ;  in 
1060;  in  1096;  May  19,  1163;  June  10,  1236; 
in  1239;  Aug.  3,  1282;  and  in  Sep.,  1510.  The 
abbey  of  St.  Martin,  after  nourishing  for  12 
centuries,  was  destroyed  during  the  Revolu- 
tion in  1793.  The  town  suffered  severely  from 
an  inundation  in  June,  1856.  (See  PERONNE.) 

TOWCESTER  ( Northamptonshire).— This 
town,  formerly  styled  Tosseter,  is  very  ancient, 
and  was  a  place  of  great  strength  in  the  time 
of  the  Saxons.  The  Danes  failed  in  an  attack 
upon  it  in  917,  and  in  921  it  was  re-fortified 
by  Edward  the  Elder.  The  grammar-school 
was  founded  in  1552. 

TOWER  OF  LONDON.— According  to  a 
tradition,  for  which  there  is  little  authority, 
Julius  Caesar  (B.C.  54)  founded  this  famous 
citadel ;  but  no  part  of  the  existing  structure 
is  of  earlier  date  than  the  White  Tower,  which 
was  founded  by  William  I.  about  1078.  The 
Tower  was  first  vised  as  a  royal  palace  by 
Stephen  in  1140.  In  1235,  Frederick  II.  of 
Germany  presented  Henry  III.  with  three 
leopards,  which  were  deposited  here,  and 
formed  the  basis  of  the  celebrated  menagerie. 
The  regalia  were  also  removed  here  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216—72).  Col. 
Blood's  unsuccessful  attempt  to  steal  the 
crown  jewels  took  place  May  9,  1671.  The  last 
execution  on  Tower  Hill,  and  the  last  decapi- 
tation in  England,  was  that  of  Lord  Lovat, 
April  9,  1747.  The  Horse  Armoury  was  built 
in  1826,  the  menagerie  was  removed  in  Nov., 
1834,  and  the  Grand  Storehouse,  which  had 
been  founded  by  James  II.,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  Oct.  30,  1841.  The  moat  was  drained  and 
converted  into  a  garden  in  1843,  and  the  first 


stone  of  the  Waterloo  barracks  was  laid  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  June  14,  1845. 

TOWERS.— The  most  ancient  tower  on  record 
is  that  of  Babel,  built  soon  after  the  Flood  (B.C. 
2247),  and  generally  considered  to  be  identical 
with  the  tower  of  Belus  at  Babylon,  which, 
was  in  existence  in  the  time  of  Xerxes  I.  (B.C. 
485—8.0.  465^,  who  plundered  it  and  then  laid 
it  in  ruins.  Towers  were  added  to  churches  in 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  (768 — 814).  A  church 
is  mentioned  as  having  a  tower  in  837,  and  a 
chapel  was  built  for  the  Emperor  having  two 
towers  for  bells,  in  873.  The  round  towers 
of  Ireland,  the  origin  of  which  has  given  rise 
to  much  controversy,  were  erected  at  various 
periods  between  the  6th  and  the  i3th  centuries, 
and  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  built 
for  religious  purposes. 

TOWN.— The  ancient  Britons  had  no  walled 
towns  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  B.C. 
55.  Towns  were  answerable  for  felons'  goods  ; 
but  by  31  Edw.  III.  c.  3  (1357),  if  a  town  could 
allege  anything  in  discharge  of  itself,  and  by 
which  another  became  chargeable,  it  could  be 
heard,  and  right  administered.  When  a  mur- 
derer escaped  from  a  town,  it  was  liable  to  a 
penalty  by  3  Hen.  VII.  c.  i  (1487). 

TOWN  COUNCIL,  in  the  cities,  boroughs, 
and  towns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  is 
appointed  and  regulated  by  the  provisions  of 
the  .Municipal  Reform  Act  (q.  v). 

T< ) WNLEY  MARBLES,  a  collection  of  Greek 
and  Roman  sculpture,  Arc.,  formed  by  Charles 
Townley  in  Rome  between  1765  and  1772. 
After  his  death  (Jan.  3,  1805),  the  collection  of 
marbles  and  terracottas  was  exhibited  to  the 
public  in  the  Townley  Gallery  in  1807.  The 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  were  autho- 
rized to  purchase  them  for  .£20,000  by  45  Geo. 
III.  c.  127  (July  12,  1805^. 

TOWTON  ;  Battle).— This  decisive  battle  was 
fought  at  the  township  of  Towton,  near  Tad- 
caster,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  be- 
tween 40,000  Yorkists,  under  the  great  Earl 
of  Warwick,  and  60,000  Lancastrians,  under 
the  Duke  of  Somerset,  on  Palm  Sunday,  March 
29,  1461,  and  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
latter,  and  the  establishment  of  Edward  IV. 
on  the  English  throne.  It  is  supposed  that  no 
less  than  37,000  men  fell  in  this  encounter, 
which  lasted  from  nine  in  the  morning  till 
seven  in  the  evening.  Snow  fell  in  the  faces  of 
the  Lancastrians,  and  the  field  in  which  the 
battle  was  fought  is  still  called  Palm  Sunday 
Field. 

TOXOPHILITES.— The  Toxophilite  Society 
was  first  established  at  Leicester  House,  Lon- 
don, in  1781 ;  and  their  archery  meetings  were 
held  in  Bloomsbury  Fields.  They  removed  to 
Highbury  Barn  about  1826,  and  thence  to 
Bayswater. 

TRACTARIANISM.— This  movement  com- 
menced with  the  publication  of  the  Oxford 
tracts,  called  Tracts  for  the  Times,  in  1833,  and 
speedily  attracted  attention,  from  its  alleged 
Romish  tendencies.  In  1839  Dr.  Pusey,  He- 
brew Professor  at  Oxford,  addressed  a  letter 
on  the  subject  to  the  Bishop  of  Oxford, 
wherein  he  repudiated  this  imputation;  but 
the  secession  to  Rome  of  the  Rev.  John  Henry 
Newman,  one  of  the  authors  of  the  tracts,  in 


TRACT  SOCIETIES 


[    981 


TRAGEDY 


1845,  and  afterwards  of  many  other  members 
of  the  party,  proved  that  it  was  not  altoge- 
ther groundless.  A  meeting,  composed  of  the 
vice-chancellor,  heads  of  houses,  and  proctors, 
assembled  at  Oxford,  March  15,  1841,  and 
passed  a  resolution  condemning  these  tracts. 
The  receivers  of  this  system  are  known  as 
Anglo-Catholics,  Puseyites,  or  Tracturiaiis. 

TRACT  SOCIETIES.— The  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge  was  established 
in  London  in  1698 ;  the  Religious  Tract  Society 
in  1799;  the  Religious  Tract  Society  for  Ireland 
in  1814  ;  the  English  Monthly  Tract  Society  in 
1837 ;  and  the  Weekly  Tract  Society  in  1847. 

TRADE.— (See  BOARD  OF  TRADE  AND  PLAN- 
TATIONS, CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE,  COMPANIES, 
GUILDS,  &c.) 

TRADE  MUSEUMS  AND  SCHOOLS.— Bacon 
and  Descartes  propounded  the  idea  of  forming 
museums  of  industrial  produce,  &c. ;  but  the 
first  establishment  of  such  institutions  was 
effected  by  Jacques  Vaucanson,  wh«  died  Nov. 
21,  1782.  The  French  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et 
Metiers  was  established  in  1795,  and  in  1833 
the  system  of  trade  museums  was  intro- 
duced with  most  satisfactory  results  into 
Germany.  The  first  efforts  to  establish  any- 
thing of  the  kind  in  England,  made  in  1837, 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  Museum  of 
Economic  Geology.  The  Museum  of  Economic 
Botany  at  Kew  was  founded  in  1848,  and  the 
Museum  of  Practical  Geology  and  the  School 
of  Mines  in  1851.  The  balance  remaining  on 
hand  after  the  settlement  of  the  cash  account 
of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  was  devoted 
to  the  establishment  of  a  general  museum  of 
manufactures,  &c.,  which  was  placed  under 
the  control  of  the  department  of  Science  and 
Art,  and  incorporated  with  the  museum  at 
South  Kensington.  A  Museum  of  Irish  In- 
dustry was  established  at  Dublin  in  1845,  and 
the  Edinburgh  Scottish  Industrial  Museum 
was  founded  in  1853.  Facilities  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  these  institutions  were  afforded 
by  the  Public  Libraries  and  Museums  Act,  18  & 
19  Viet,  c  70  (July  30,  1855). 

TRADES'  UNIONS  were  illegal  until  the 
passing  of  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  129  (1825).  The  ar- 
rest of  two  members  of  a  trades'  union  caused 
a  riot  at  Oldham,  April  15,  1834,  when  the 
prisoners  were  rescued,  and  one  rioter  was 
shot.  A  meeting  of  25,000  trades'  unionists 
took  place  in  Copenhagen  Fields,  London,  to 
petition  for  the  pardon  of  the  Dorchester 
labourers,  April  21,  1834,  Attempts  weremadi 
in  1865  and  1866  to  employ  the  machinery 
of  these  associations  for  political  purposes. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  workmen 
formed  counter  or  non-union  associations,  in 
1 866,  in  order  to  protect  themselves  against  the 
tyranny  of  the  trades'  unions.  (See  STRIKES.) 

TRADtfCIANISM.  —  The  controversy 
whether  souls  were  derived  by  traduction  or 
created,  commenced  with  Tertullian(i6o — 240), 
who  maintained  the  former ;  and  it  was  warmly 
waged  during  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 

TRAEIS,  orTRAIS  (Battle).— The  Croto- 
niats  defeated  the  Sybarites  on  the  banks  of 
this  river,  in  Bruttium,  B.C.  510. 

TRAFALGAR  (Sea-fight).  —  Lord  Nelson's 
last  and  greatest  victory  over  the  combined 


fleets  of  France  and  Spain  was  gained  off  this 
cape  of  southern  Spain,  Oct.  21,  1805.  The 
English  fleet,  consisting  of  33  ships  of  the  line 
and  4  frigates,  was  divided  into  two  squadrons 
headed  by  Nelson  in  the  Victory,  and  Colling- 
wood  in  the  Royal  Sovereign.  The  French  fleet 
consisted  of  18  ships  of  the  line,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and  the  Spanish  force 
of  Admirals  Alava  and  Gravina  amounted  to 
15  vessels  of  the  line.  The  enemy  had  also 
five  frigates.  Immediately  before  the  action, 
Nelson  exhibited  the  ever-memorable  signal, 
"  England  expects  that  every  man  will  do  his 
duty,"  which  was  no  sooner  perceived  than 
enthusiastic  cheers  rose  from  the  entire  fleet. 
The  Victory  came  into  action  at  one  o'clock, 
and  was  engaging  the  Redoutable,  when  a  ball 
from  the  mizen-top  struck  Nelson  in  the  left 
shoulder  and  occasioned  the  wound  of  which 
he  died,  at  half -past  four  in  the  afternoon. 
Nineteen  of  the  enemy's  ships  surrendered 
during  the  battle,  and  one  was  sunk.  The 
remnant  of  their  fleet  was  encountered  by  Sir 
Richard  Strachan,  who  took  four  ships,  Nov.  4. 
TRAFALGAR  SQUARE  (London),  com- 
menced in  1829,  and  finished  in  1850,  cost  in 
granite  work  alone  upwards  of  ^10,000.  The 
fountains  were  erected  in  1845.  The  Nelson 
column  was  erected  Nov.  4,  1843.  Chartist 
riots  commenced  in  this  square  with  the 
destruction  of  the  hoarding  round  the  base  of 
Nelson's  monument,  March  6,  1848.  Land- 
seer's  lions  were  completed  in  Feb  1867 
TRAGABIGSANDA.—  (See  CAPE  ANNE.) 
TRAGEDY.— The  origin  of  tragedy  may  be 
traced  to  the  choral  songs  chanted  in  honour 
of  Bacchus,  at  the  convivial  meetings  of  the 
Greeks,  which  were  first  reduced  to  order  by 
Arion,  about  B.C.  620,  and  which  are  men- 
tioned as  describing  the  sorrows  of  the  god, 
and  hence  as  partaking  of  the  tragic  element, 
as  early  as  B.C.  600.  They  were  afterwards 
rendered  by  performers  disguised  as  Satyrs; 
hence  the  name  of  Tragedy,  the  Goat  Song. 
Thespis  added  a  single  actor  to  the  chorus,  B.C. 
535,  and  from  this  introduction  of  tragic  dia- 
logue is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  dramatic 
tragedy.  ^-Eschylus  (B.C.  525—8.0.  456)  gained 
the  first  prize  awarded  by  the  Greeks  for  this 
species  of  composition,  B.C.  484,  and  added  a 
second  actor  to  the  one  introduced  by  Thespis. 
Sophocles  (B.C.  495— B.C.  405)  made  his  first 
public  appearance  in  the  competition  of  6.0.468, 
in  which  he  contended  successfully  with  the 
veteran  dramatist  ^Eschylus  ;  and  B.C.  440  he 
produced  his  "Antigone,"  which  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the  Greek 
tragic  muse.  He  also  introduced  a  third 
speaker,  and  one  of  his  dramas,  the  "  (Edipus 
in  Colonus,"  which  was  not  performed  till 
after  its  author's  death,  required  a  company 
of  four  a  .-tors,  besides  the  chorus.  This  was 
regarded  as  a  most  daring  innovation.  Euri- 
pides (B.C.  480 — B.C.  406)  introduced  the  pro- 
logue, and  concluded  most  of  his  plays  by  the 
intervention  of  the  gods,  who  appeared  in 
the  sky  supported  by  machines,  and  arranged 
the  plot  by  supernatural  agency.  This  expe- 
dient, known  as  the  deus  ex  machind,  was 
made  the  vehicle  for  exhibiting  considerable 
ingenuity  of  stage  effect.  His  greatest  work 


TRAINING  SCHOOLS 


TRANSYLVANIA 


the  "Medea,"  was  produced  B.C.  431.  After 
the  death  of  Euripides,  tragedy  declined  in 
Greece,  and  in  Rome  it  never  attained  great 
excellence.  Livius  Andronicus,  who  nourished 
B.C.  240;  Nsevius,  B.C.  235;  and  Ennius,  B.C. 
239 — B.C.  169,  are  the  most  celebrated  Roman 
authors  who  attempted  tragedy.  Ten  tragedies 
have  been  ascribed  to  Seneca,  the  philosopher 
(2$ — 65) ;  and  although  their  authorship  is  dis-* 
puted,  and  the  works  are  very  defective  as 
dramas,  internal  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the 
supposition.  The  earliest  modern  tragedy 
was  the  "Rosmunda"  of  Rucellai,  written  in 
Italian,  and  performed  before  Leo  X.  at 
Florence  in  1515.  It  was  the  earliest  example 
of  blank  verse,  although  the  first  drama  of  the 
kind  performed  or  published  was  suggested 
by  Trissino's  MS.  tragedy  of  "  Sophonisba," 
which  was  published  in  1524.  Jodelle's  "Cle'o- 
patre,"  performed  in  1552,  is  the  first  French 
tragedy;  and  Sackvillc's  "  Gorboduc,"  which 
was  performed  at  Whitehall,  in  the  presence  of 
I.01i/abeth,  in  1562,  is  the  earliest  tragic  drama 
in  English.  (See  DRAMA,  SHAKESPEARE'S 
WORKS,  (fee.) 

TRAINING  SCHOOLS.— The  first  training 
school  was  established  by  the  Church  of 
England  National  Society  in  1811.  An  active 
movement  for  the  formation  of  these  schools 
was  made  by  that  society  in  1838,  and  41 
were  founded  throughout  the  country  by  1854. 

TRAJAN'S  IMU.AU,  or  COLUMN,  was 
erected  on  the  Forum  Trajani  at  Rome,  by 
the  architect  Apollodorus,  in  114,  to  com- 
memorate the  triumph  of  the  Emperor  Trajan 
over  the  Dacians.  The  column,  144  Roman 
feet  high,  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  monu- 
ments of  ancient  art  that  has  descended  to 
modern  times. 

TRAMWAYS.— (See  STREET  RAILWAYS.) 

TRANQUEBAR  ..Hin.loxtuii  .  —  The  D.mes 
formed  a  settlement  in  this  part  of  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast  in  1617,  and  it  was  ceded  to  them 
in  1620.  It  was  purchased  by  the  English, 
Feb.  22,  1845. 

TRANSALPINE  GAULS  entered  Italy  to 
assist  the  Cisalpine  Gauls,  B.C.  327,  and  were 
repulsed.  The  Romans  invaded  their  country 
and  founded  a  colony  B.C.  122,  and  conquered 
them  B.C.  51. 

TRANSFIGURATIO  N.— This  miraculous 
event  in  the  life  of  our  Saviour,  when  he 
took  Peter,  James,  and  John  up  into  a  high 
mountain,  supposed  to  be  Mount  Tabor,  and 
was  transfigured  before  them,  appearing  in 
his  glory  in  company  with  Moses  and  Elias 
(Matt.  xvii.  i — 9;  Mark  ix.  2 — 9,  &c.,  &c.),  is 
supposed  to  have  occurred  May  26,  29.  (See 
FEASTS  and  FESTIVALS.) 

TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD.— (See  BLOOD.) 

TRANSLATION.— The  patriarch  Enoch  was 
translated  to  heaven  for  his  piety  (Gen.  v.  24), 
B.C.  3017  ;  and  the  prophet  Elijah  was  trans- 
lated to  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire  (2  Kings 

'TRAN^MIGR  AT  ION. —(See  GYMNOSOPHIT.E, 
METEMPSYCHOSIS,  PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY, 
•fee.) 

TRANSPADANE  REPUBLIC.  —  Lombardy 
was  formed  into  a  republic  with  this  name  in 
1796.  It  wan  merged  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte 


in  the  Cisalpine  republic,  organized  by  him 
early  in  1797. 

TRANSPORT.  — (See  LAND  TRANSPORT 
CORPS.) 

TRANSPORTATION  derived  its  origin  from 
banishment,  which  was  first  introduced  by  39 
Eliz.  c.  4  (1596),  and  enacted  that  such  rogues 
as  were  dangerous  to  the  inferior  people 
should  be  banished  the  realm.  The  first 
statute  in  which  the  word  transportation  is 
used  is  13  &  14  Charles  II.  s.  23  (1662),  by 
which  justices  were  authorized  to  transport 
such  rogues,  vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars  as 
should  be  duly  convicted  and  adjudged  in- 
corrigible, to  any  of  the  English  plantations 
beyond  the  seas.  It  was  followed  by  18 
Charles  II.  c.  3  (1666),  which  gave  a  power  to 
the  judges,  at  their  discretion,  either  to 
execute  or  transport  to  America  for  life  the 
moss-troopers  of  Cumberland  and  Northum- 
berland. By  4  Geo.  I.  c.  2  (1717),  continued 
by  6  Geo.  «1.  c.  23  (1719),  this  mode  of  punish- 
ment was  brought  into  common  operation. 
By  these  statutes  the  courts  were  allowed 
a  discretionary  power  to  order  felons  to 
be  transported  to  America.  The  system  of 
transportation  to  the  American  colonies  lasted 
from  1718  to  the  commencement  of  the  war, 
in  1775.  The  great  accumulation  of  convicts 
in  1776  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
system  of  the  hulks,  by  16  Geo.  III.  c.  43. 
This  was  followed  by  19  Geo.  III.  c.  74 
(1778),  ordering  the  erection  of  penitentiaries. 
Transportation  was  resumed,  and  George 
III.,  by  two  orders  in  council,  dated  Dec. 
6,  1786,  fixed  upon  the  eastern  coast  of 
Australia,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  first 
band  of  convicts  left  England  in  May,  1787,  and 
founded  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales  in 
1788.  Return  from  transportation  was  pun- 
ishable with  death,  until  4*5  Will.  IV.  (1834) 
reduced  the  penalty  to  transportation  for  life. 
The  determination  of  the  Government  to  give 
up  transportation  to  Australia  was  announced 
in  Parliament  Feb.  10,  1853.  By  16  &  17  Viet, 
c.  99  (Aug.  20,  1853),  penal  servitude  (q.  r.  was 
substituted  for  transportation,  except  for  14 
years  or  for  life.  By  20  &  21  Viet.  c.  3  (June 
26,  1857),  persons  under  sentence  of  penal 
servitude  may  be  transported. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  the  supposed 
change  of  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  Eucharist  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,  was  maintained  by  Paschasius 
Radbert  in  the  gth  centuiy,  but  was  opposed 
by  Rhabanus  Maurus,  Ratramnus  or  Bertram- 
nus,  and  Scotus  Erigena.  It  was  supported  by 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  (999—1003).  The  doctrine 
was  established  under  the  term  transubstan- 
tiation  at  the  Lateran  council  in  1215,  con- 
firmed by  the  Council  of  Trent,  Jan.  18,  1562. 
It  was  one  of  the  articles  of  the  Romish  Church 
rejected  at  the  Reformation.  (See  CORPUS 
CHRISTI.) 

TRANSYLVANIA  (Austria),  the  most  eastern 
province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  known  to  the 
Romans  under  the  name  of  Dacia,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Hungarians  under  Stephen  I.  in 
1004.  Having  been  almost  depopulated,  it  was 
colonized  by  German  emigrants  in  1143.  Pro- 
testant refugees  from  all  parts  of  Germany 


TKAPPISTS 


[    983     J 


TREBIZOND 


settled  here  after  the  Reformation,  and  these 
were  augmented  when  the  Archbishop  of 
Salzburg  expelled  all  his  Protestant  subjects 
iu  1773.  John  Zapolya,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Turks,  made  it  an  independent  princi- 
pality in  1540.  The  Turks  made  it  tributary  to 
them  in  1552,  and  Leopold  I.  conquered  it  in 
1687.  The  Porte  was  compelled  "o  renounce 
its  supremacy  over  it  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz, 
Jan.  26,  1699,  when  it  was  united  to  Austria. 
It  was  erected  into  a  grand  principality  by  the 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  in  1765. 

TRAPPISTS.— The  first  abbey  of  La  Trappe, 
in  Normandy,  was  founded  by  Rotrou,  Count 
of  Perche,  hi  1140.  Its  revenues  were  greatly 
increased  in  1214,  and  it  continued  to  grow  in 
wealth  and  reputation  till  the  isth  century, 
when  it  was  held  in  commendam,  and  from 
that  time  its  domains  were  neglected,  and  the 
discipline  of  the  monks  was  relaxed.  They  had 
acquired  the  title  of  the  brigands  of  La  Trappe 
in  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century.  The  abbey 
was  bestowed  in  1636  on  Armand  Jean  le  Bou- 
thillier  de  Ranee",  who,  after  leading  a  most 
luxurious  life,  suddenly,  in  1662,  renounced 
the  world,  gave  up  his  rich  benefices,  and  re- 
tired to  La  Trappe.  He  established  a  new 
rule,  which  bound  the  community  to  strict 
silence,  hard  labour,  and  total  abstinence  from 
wine,  eggs,  fish,  and  all  seasoning  to  their 
simple  diet  of  bread  and  vegetables.  Ranee" 
died  Oct.  27,  1700,  and  the  abbey  continued  to 
flourish  till  the  revolution  of  1789,  when  it 
was  suppressed.  Some  of  the  Trappists  sought 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  but  returned  to  their 
dilapidated  monastery  on  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons  in  1815.  A  new  church  and 
monastery  were  built  and  consecrated  with 
great  pomp  Aug.  30,  1833. 

TRASIMENE.— (See  THRASYMENE.) 

TRAUTENAU  (Battle).-  In  which  the  Prus- 
sians defeated  the  Austrians,  after  an  obstinate 
engagement,  inflicting  a  loss  of  nearly  4,000 
men,  and  capturing  several  thousand  prisoners 
and  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores,  June 
28,  1866. 

TRAVANCORE  (Hindostan).-The  East 
India  Company  established  a  factory  at  An- 
jengo,  on  the  sea-coast  of  Travancore,  in  1673. 
Travancore  was  included  as  an  ally  of  the 
English  in  the  treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  My- 
sore in  1 784,  and  was  invaded  and  devastated 
in  1790  by  Tippoo  Sultan,  who  was  compelled 
by  the  English  to  restore  all  that  he  had  taken 
from  the  Rajah.  Treaties  of  alliance  between 
the  English  and  the  Rajah  were  made  in  1795 
and  1805.  In  consequence  of  some  disputes, 
the  English  subdued  the  province  in  1808-9, 
and  at  the  request  of  the  Rajah  left  a  resident 
to  manage  it.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
subvert  English  authority  was  made  in  1812, 
and  the  subsidiary  force  was  withdrawn  in 

1  TRAVELLERS'  CLUB  (London)  was 
founded  in  1815.  The  house,  built  in  1832,  was 
much  damaged  by  a  fire  Oct.  24,  1850. 

TRAVELLING  was  generally  performed,  in 
England,  on  horseback,  till  the  reign  of  Mary 
(1553 — 58),  when  a  kind  of  waggon  was  intro- 
duced. Elizabeth  (1558— ^603)  frequently  tra- 
velled on  state  occasions  seated  on  a  pillion 


behind  the  chancellor.  A  vehicle,  described 
as  the  "  Flying  Coach,"  commenced  running 
from  Oxford  to  London,  in  one  day,  in  1669; 
and  this  was  considered  a  most  extraordinary 
performance.  Flying  coaches  ran  three  times 
a  week  from  London  to  the  chief  towns  at  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1660 — 85). 
They  journeyed  about  50  miles  a  day  in  sum- 
mer, and  30  in  winter.  The  passengers  were 
seated  inside  the  coach,  it  being  too  perilous, 
from  the  frequent  accidents,  to  ride  on  the 
roof.  The  ordinary  fares  were  z\d.  the  mile 
in  summer,  and  more  in  winter.  The  coach 
between  Edinburgh  and  London  occupied  from 
12  to  14  days  on  the  journey  in  1763.  The 
greater  part  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the 
country  was  performed  by  pack-horses  until 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  Travelling 
was  completely  revolutionized  by  the  intro- 
duction of  railways  in  1830. 

TRAVENDAHL  (Treaty)  was  concluded  at 
the  castle  of  Travendahl,  in  Holstein,  between 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  and  Frederick  IV.  of 
Denmark,  Aug.  18,  1700. 

TREADMILL,  invented  by  Sir  William 
Cubitt,  was  introduced  into  English  prisons 
in  1817. 

TREASON.— This  crime  was  first  defined 
in  1350,  by  the  act  known  as  the  Statute  of 
Treasons  (25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  2).  Two  kinds 
of  treason  were  designated  in  it — viz.  petit 
treason  and  high  treason.  The  former  was  the 
murder  of  a  husband  by  his  wife,  or  a  mas'.er 
by  his  servant,  or  a  bishop  by  his  subordinate 
in  the  Church  ;  and  the  latter  consisted  in  an 
attack  upon  the  sovereign  as  the  political  head 
of  the  state.  Petit  treason  was  abolished  by 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  2  (June  27,  1828).  (See  HIGH 
TREASON,  IMPEACHMENT,  LORD  STEWARD  OF 
THE  HOUSEHOLD,  SANCTUARY,  &c.) 

TREASURER  OF  THE  CHAMBER,  an 
officer  of  the  royal  household,  first  appointed 
i  i  1541.  The  office  was  abolished  in  1782. 

TREATIES.— The  celebrated  commercial 
treaty  concluded  between  Rome  and  Carthage, 
B.C.  509,  is  the  earliest  example  of  a  formal 
international  treaty  extant.  The  first  treaty 
concluded  by  England  was  signed  with  the 
Dauphin,  Louis  of  France,  at  Kingston-upon- 
Thaines,  Sep.  n,  1217.  The  first  commercial 
treaty  was  concluded  between  Edward  I.  and 
Guy,  Earl  of  Flanders,  in  1274.  The  most 
important  treaties  will  be  found  under  their 
title,  or  under  the  name  of  the  places  where 
they  were  concluded.  See  list  in  Index,  under 
"Treaties." 

TREBIA,  or  TREBBIA  (Battles).  —  Near 
this  river  of  Italy  Hannibal  gained  his  first 
decisive  victory  over  the  Romans,  commanded 

by  the  Consul  Sempronius,  B.C.  218. The 

French,  under  Macdonald,  were  engaged  with 
the  Austrians  and  Russians,  under  Suwarrow, 
June  17,  18,  and  19,  1799.  Though  the  first 
day's  conflict  was  indecisive,  the  Allies  were 
ultimately  victorious,  and  Macdonald  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  having  lost  1 8,000  men. 

TREBIZOND  (Asia  Minor),  anciently  called 
Trapezus,  existed  in  the  time  of  Xenophon, 
who  halted  here  for  30  days  during  the 
memorable  retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  B.C. 
400.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  during  the 


TRECENTO 


t    984    1 


TREVISO 


A.D. 

1333— !332-  Manuel  II. 
I332-'34o.  Busilios. 
1340—1341.  Irene. 
1341—1342.  Anna      Ana    - 

choutlcm. 

1342—1344.  Joannes  III. 
I344-I349-  Michael 
1349— !39C-  Ak-xios  III. 
1300—1417.  Manuel  III. 
1417—1446.  Alexios  IV. 
1446—1458.  Joannes  IV., 

Kalojoannes. 
1458-1461.  David. 


Mithridatic  wars  (B.C.  88 — B.C.  63),  and  was  a 
large  and  flourishing  town  in  the  reign  of 
Valerian  (253 — 60).  Having  been  partially 
destroyed  by  the  Goths,  Justinian  I.  (527 — 65) 
restored  the  public  buildings.  Alexius  Coni- 
nenus  made  it  the  capital  of  an  independent 
principality  in  1204,  known  as  the  Empire  of 
Trebizond  ;  and  it  remained  in  the  hands  of 
his  descendants  till  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks  . 
in  1460. 

EMPERORS   OF  TREBIZOND. 
A.D. 
1204—1222.  AlexiosI.,Grand- 

Komnenos. 
1222—1235.  Andronikos    I., 

Ghidos. 
1235 — 1238.  Joannes          L, 

Axouchos. 
1238—1263.  Manuel   L,   the 

Great  Captain. 
1263—1266.  Andronikos  II. 
I2&6 — 1480.  Gr<» 
1280—1297.  Joannes  II. 
1285  Theodora. 

1297—1330.  Alexios  II. 
1330 — 1333.  Androiiikos  III. 

HRECENTO,  a  flourishing  period  of  Italian 
art  and  literature,  which  dates  from  the  birth 
of  Dante,  in  1265,  to  the  death  of  Boccaccio,  in 
1375.  These  two  authors,  with  Petrarch,  are 
termed  "  the  Triumvirate  of  the  Trecento." 

TREE  OF  LIBERTY.— It  is  a  common  prac- 
tice amongst  the  Republican  son  the  continent 
of  Europe  to  inaugurate  their  rule  by  planting 
trees  of  liberty.  The  first  was  planted  at  Paris 
by  the  Jacobins  in  1790,  and  others  during 
the  Great  Revolution  in  different  parts  of 
France.  The  custom,  suppressed  under  the 
empire  and  the  monarchy,  was  revived  in  July, 
1830,  and  in  1848.  Trees  of  liberty  were  planted 
in  different  Italian  towns  in  1848  and  1849. 

TREMENTINE.— (S«  LA  VI:XI.KK.) 

TIIHXT  (Austria,1  in  the  Tyrol,  anciently 
called  Tridentum,  was  a  Roman  colony,  and 
became  an  important  city  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
when  the  bishops  were  independent  princes, 
and  it  was  united  to  the  Tyrol  in  1363.  The 
cathedral  was  built  in  1212,  and  the  Church  of 
St.  Maria  Maggiore  occupies  the  site  of  the 
council-chamber,  where  the  Council  of  Trent 
met  (Dec.  13,  1545 — Dec.  3,  1563),  and  has  a 
painting,  with  portraits  of  all  the  members. 
Trent  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Napo- 
leon Buonaparte,  Sep.  5,  1796,  and  again  under 
Macdonald,  in  Jan.,  1801.  It  was  evacuated 
by  them  in  April,  1809,  and  they  were  repulsed 
in  an  attempt  upon  it  June  9,  1809.  The 
Bavarians  took  Trent  Oct.  17,  1809,  and  it  was 
retaken  by  the  Austrians  Oct.  31,  1813.  The 
tercentenary  jubilee  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
was  celebrated  in  this  city  June  20 — 29,  1863. 

TRENT  AFFAIR.— During  the  war  between 
the  United  and  the  Confederate  States  of 
America,  the  English  mail-steamer  Trent,  on 
her  passage  from  Havannah  to  St.  Thomas, 
was  boarded,  Nov.  8,  1861,  by  the  United  States 
war-steamer  San  Jacinto,  and  Messrs.  Slidell 
and  Mason,  the  Confederate  commissioners  to 
London  and  Paris,  were  taken  out.  Great 
indignation  was  felt  in  England  when  the  news 
of  this  outrage  arrived,  and  at  a  cabinet  coun- 
cil held  Nov.  29,  the  Government  resolved  upon 
demanding  the  immediate  restoration  of  the 


Confederate  commissioners  and  an  apology  for 
the  insult  to  the  English  flag.  Messrs.  Slidell 
and  .Mason  were  surrendered  to  Lord  Lyons, 
the  English  ambassador  at  Washington,  Dec. 
28,  1862,  and  they  reached  England  Jan.  29, 
1863. 

TRENTSCHIN  (Battle).— The  Hungarians 
were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  this  place, 
the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  in 
Hungary,  in  1708. 

TREPORT  (France).— This  seaport  town,  at 
a  short  distance  from  Eu,  the  landing  place  of 
William  II.  in  his  war  against  Robert  in  1090, 
was  attacked  by  the  English  in  1296,  1339, 
1340,  1433,  and  in  Aug.,  1523.  Once  a  flourish- 
ing town,  it  has  gradually  declined. 

TREVES,  or  TRIER  (Prussia  ,  the  capital  of 
a  government  of  the  same  name,  is  considered 
the  oldest  city  in  Germany.  According  to  an 
inscription  on  the  Red-house,  formerly  the 
town-hall,  it  was  built  1,300  years  before  Rome 
(B.C.  2053).  It  was  a  large  and  important 
town,  and  the  capital  of  the  Treviri,  at  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar's  expedition  into  Gaul, 
B.C.  58,  and  was  made  a  Roman  colony  by 
Augustus  (B.C.  27 — A.D.  14),  and  named 
Augusta  Trevirorum.  The  Emperor  Gallienus 
held  his  court  here  in  255,  and  Constantino  I. 
freqtiently  resided  here  between  306  and  337. 
It  was  stormed  and  pillaged  by  the  Alemanni 
in  355,  by  the  Franks  in  420,  and  by  Attila 
in  451.  Councils  were  held  here  in  385  ;  in 
927 ;  Sep.  6,  948 ;  Oct.  20,  1037 ;  March  i, 
1227;  in  1238;  April  28,  1310;  in  1337;  and 
April  26,  1423.  It  recovered  its  ancient  splen- 
dour under  the  Archbishop  of  Troves.  The 
church  of  St.  Simeon,  the  most  important 
Roman  monument  in  Germany,  was  probably 
built  between  314  and  322,  and  was  consecrated 
and  dedicated  to  St.  Simeon  in  the  nth  cen- 
tury. It  was  restored  by  the  Prussians,  and 
opened  July  23,  1817.  The  university,  founded 
in  1454,  greatly  enlarged  in  1722,  was  sup- 
pressed in  1794,  and  converted  by  the  French 
into  a  central  school.  The  church  of  Our 
Lady  was  built  between  1227  and  1248,  and 
the  ancient  electoral  palace  stands  on  the  site 
of  an  immense  Roman  edifice,  of  which  some 
fragments  still  remain,  said  to  have  been  the 
residence  of  Constantino  I.  The  English, 
under  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  took  it  in 
1704,  and  it  was  seized  Aug.  9,  1794,  by  the 
French,  to  whom  it  was  ceded  by  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  Feb.  9,  1801.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  Allies  in  1814,  and  was  ceded  to  Prussia 
by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  June  9,  1815.  The 
exhibition  of  the  "Holy  Coat"  (q.  r.),  in  the 
cathedral,  attracted  1,000,000  pilgrims  here  in 
1844,  and  caused  serious  religious  disputes, 
two  of  the  leaders  in  which  were  formally 
excommunicated  in  1845. 

TREVISO  (Italy),  anciently  called  Tarvi- 
siurn,  an  important  town  under  the  Goths 
and  Longobards,  was  the  native  place  of  Totila, 
the  last  King  of  the  Goths,  killed  in  552.  On 
the  destruction  of  the  neighbouring  town  of 
Spitergium  by  Rotharis,  King  of  the  Longo- 
bards, in  641,  the  inhabitants  took  refuge  here. 
It  was  the  capital  of  a  border  province  which 
extended  from  the  Alps  to  the  Adige,  under 
Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  became  an 


TRIA  JUNCTA  IN  UNO 


[    985    ]       TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY 


independent  municipal  community  in  the  nth 
century,  and  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  re- 
public of  Venice  in  1344.  The  Austrians  were 
defeated  here  by  the  French  in  Jan.,  1797,  and 
the  town  revolted  against  Venice  in  April  of 
the  same  year.  An  armistice  was  concluded 
here  between  the  French  and  the  Austrians, 
Jan.  10,  1801.  It  was  invested  by  the  Austrians 
June  10,  1848,  and  capitulated  to  them  with 
its  garrison  of  4,185  men,  June  13. 

TRIA  JUNCTA  IN  UNO,  the  motto  of  the 
knights  of  the  military  order  of  the  Bath, 
adopted  on  the  institution  of  the  order  by 
Henry  IV.  in  1399,  and  continued  when  the 
order  was  revived  by  George  I.,  May  18,  1725. 

TRIAL.— (See  ASSAY,  BURKING,  EXECUTIONS, 
FORGERY,  JURY,  SEVEN  BISHOPS,  &c.) 

TRIAL  BY  BATTEL,  or  ASSIZE  OF 
BATTEL.— This  mode  of  appeal,  so  prevalent 
in  Europe  under  the  feudal  system,  was  of 
gradual  growth,  and  extended  ultimately  to 
persons  of  every  class  and  to  nearly  all  cases, 
but  more  especially  to  those  of  murder  and 
treason.  It  was  introduced  into  England  from 
Normandy,  and  is  said  to  have  been  sub- 
stituted for  trial  by  ordeal  by  Henry  III.  in 
1218.  Michael  (VIII.)  Palasologus  prohibited 
judicial  combats  in  1260.  Louis  IX.  (1226 — 70) 
of  France  abolished  it  throughout  the  royal 
domains.  A  trial  by  battel  was  appointed 
in  England  under  the  sanction  of  the  judges 
of  the  court  of  Common  Pleas,  in  1571, 
when  Elizabeth  interfered  to  prevent  it.  A 
remarkable  case  led  to  its  abolition  in  this 
country.  Abraham  Thornton  having  been 
acquitted  at  the  Warwick  assizes,  Aug.  8, 
1817,  of  the  murder  of  Mary  Ashford,  her 
brother  William,  deeming  the  verdict  unsatis- 
factory, appealed  against  it.  On  being  placed 
at  the  bar  of  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  Nov. 
17,  1817,  the  accused  threw  down  his  glove  and 
challenged  the  accuser  to  mortal  combat.  The 
court  eventually  decided,  April  16,  1818,  in 
favour  of  the  legality  of  this  privilege,  however 
obsolete.  The  appellant  declined  the  combat 
oil  account  of  his  extreme  youth,  and  the 
prisoner  was  discharged.  The  law  was  repealed 
by  59  Geo.  III.  c.  46  (June  22,  1819). 

TRIANON  (France).— The  name  of  two 
palaces  at  Versailles,  the  one  called  the  Great 
Trianon,  built  by  Louis  XIV.  about  1676,  and 
the  other  the  Lesser  Trianon,  built  by  Louis 
XV.  (1715—74)- 

TRIARCHY.— (See  HEPTARCHY.) 
TRIBES.— (See  GALWAY.) 
TRIBUNES   OF    THE    PEOPLE.  —  Magis- 
trates of  Rome  chosen  from  among  the  plebs 
to  represent  the  people,  B.C.  494.     C.  Licinius 
and  L.  Albinus  were  the  first  two,  and  they 
created  three  colleagues.      The  number  was 
raised  to  10  B.C.  457. 

TRICHINOPOLY  (Hindostan),  the  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the  presidency 
of  Madras,  was  the  capital  of  a  Hindoo  princi- 
pality until  1732,  when  it  was  acquired  by  the 
Nabob  of  Arcot,  who  relinquished  it  to  the 
Mahrattas  in  1741.  It  was  taken  from  them 
by  Nizam-al-Mulk  in  1743,  and  was  besieged 
by  the  French  in  1757.  It  was  relieved  by  the 
rapid  march  of  an  English  force,  under  Capt. 
Calliaud,  May  26. 


TRIDENTINE  CATECHISM.  — (See  CATE- 
CHISM. 

TRIENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS  were  first 
established  by  16  Charles  I.e.  i  (Feb.  16,  1641). 
The  act  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing the  sovereign  from  postponing  at  will,  and 
frequently  indefinitely,  the  assembling  of  the 
parliament.  A  statute  of  Edward  III.  (1327— 
77),  providing  that  one  should  be  held  every 
year,  or  oftener  if  need  be,  had  long  fallen  into 
neglect.  The  chief  provisions  of  the  Triennial 
ict  were,  that  a  parliament  was  to  be  ipso 
f'acto  dissolved  when  it  had  lasted  three  years, 
and,  if  actually  sitting  at  the  time,  on  the  first 
adjournment  or  prorogation  ;  that  writs  for  a 
aew  parliament  were  to  be  issued  by  the  chan- 
cellor or  keeper  of  the  great  seal  within  three 
years  after  the  dissolution  of  the  last ;  in  case 
of  his  failure  to  perform  this  duty,  the  peers 
were  enjoined  to  meet  and  issue  writs  to  the 
sheriffs  ;  in  case  of  non-compliance  with  the 
law  on  the  part  of  the  peers,  the  duty  devolved 
upon  the  sheriffs  themselves  ;  and  in  case  of 
their  failure,  the  electors,  after  a  certain  in- 
terval, had  the  right  of  choosing  their  repre- 
sentatives ;  and  that  no  parliament  was  to  be 
dissolved  or  adjourned,  save  by  its  own  consent, 
in  less  than  50  days  from  the  commencement 
of  the  session.  This  statute  was  violated  by 
Cromwell  and  the  Long  Parliament,  and  was 
repealed  by  16  Charles  II.  c.  i  (April  6,  1664). 
Another  act  of  a  similar  character  (6  <fe  7  Will. 
&  Mary,  c.  2,  1694),  providing  that  a  parlia- 
ment should  be  held  at  least  once  every  three 
years,  and  that  no  parliament  should  last 
longer  than  three  years,  was  assented  to  with 
great  reluctance  by  William  III.,  Dec.  22,  1694; 
and  it  was  repealed  on  the  passing  of  the 
Septennial  Act  (q.  v.). 

TRIESTE  (Illyria),  the  principal  seaport  of 
the  Austrian  empire  on  the  Adriatic,  existed 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  is  called  by 
Pliny,  Tergeste.  It  passed  from  Venice  to 
Austria  in  1382.  It  was  a  place  of  no  impor- 
tance till  it  was  made  a  free  port,  in  1719.  Its 
privileges  were  greatly  extended  by  the  Em- 
press Maria  Theresa  in  1750.  The  town  was 
captured  by  the  French  March  22,  1 797  ;  again 
May  22,  1809  ;  and  was  ceded  to  Italy  by  the 
treaty  of  Schonbrunn,  Oct.  14,  1809.  The 
English  and  Austrians  took  it  Oct.  31,  1813; 
and  it  returned  to  the  dominion  of  Austria  in 
1814.  (See  OVERLAND  MAIL.) 

TRIFANUM  (Battle.).— The  Romans  defeated 
the  Latins  at  this  ancient  town  of  Italy,  B.C. 

33TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY.— The  first 
application  of  trigonometry  to  surveying  was 
made  by  Willebrod  Snell,  in  his  survey  of 
Holland,  commenced  in  1617.  The  first  govern- 
ment survey  in  Great  Britain  was  commenced 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  in  1747.  It  was 
stopped  by  the  war  of  1755,  and  the  map  was 
never  published.  The  next  undertaking  was 
begun  at  Hounslow  Heath  in  July,  1784.  The 
triangulatipn  was  commenced  in  1791.  A  base 
of  verification  was  measured  at  Salisbury  Plain 
in  1794  ;  at  King's  Sedgmoor,  in  Somersetshire, 
in  1798  ;  at  Misterton  Carr,  in  North  Lincoln- 
shire, in  iSoi ;  at  Rhuddlan  Marsh,  near  St. 
Asaph,  North  Wales,  in  1806  ;  and  the  survey 


TRILLECK'S   IXXS 


[    986    ] 


TRINITY   HALL 


of  nearly  all  England,  youth  Wales,  and  part 
of  Scotland,  was  completed  by  1809.  The  sur- 
vey was  stopped  by  the  war  from  1811  to  1816. 
It  was  recommenced  in  Scotland  in  1817  ;  and 
was  transferred  to  Ireland  in  1824,  the  principal 
triangulation  of  which  was  completed  by  1838 ; 
and  then  Great  Britain  was  again  taken  up. 
England,  with  the  exception  of  the  six  nor- 
thern counties  and  a  small  part  of  Scotland,* 
had  been  surveyed  on  a  scale  of  two  inches, 
and  engraved  on  a  scale  of  one  inch,  to  the 
mile  ;  but  the  survey  of  the  remainder  of  Eng- 
land, and  of  the  whole  of  Scotland,  was  ordered 
to  be  taken  on  the  Irish  scale  of  six  inches  to 
the  mile,  by  a  Treasury  minute,  Oct.  5,  1840. 
A  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  progress,  &c.,  of  the  survey,  Dec.  24, 
1857.  According  to  their  report  the  sums 
expended|iii  the  survey  up  to  March  31,  1858, 
were  : — England  and  Wales,  .£1,051,678  ;  Scot- 
land, ,£374,746;  and  Ireland,  .£979,166.  In  the 
estimates  for  1860-61,  ^90,000  were  required 
for  the  survey,  and  the  number  of  persons 
employed  upon  it  was  1,627. 

TKI  LLKCK'S  IXXS.— (See  XEW  INN  HALL.) 

TKI.M.MKUS.— A  political  party,  of  which 
Viscount  Halifax  was  the  chief,  contemptu- 
ously called  trimmers  by  the  Whigs  and 
Tories,  arose  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1660— 
85). 

TKIXOHlNIASrS,  a  disease  caused  by  the 
•i  on  the  human  muscle  of  a  minute 
worm,  prevailed  as  an  epidemic  in  Saxony  in 
1862,  at  Hettstildt  in  Oct.,  1863,  and  at  Cheek- 
to  waga,  Xew  York,  in  1864.  the  small  worm, 
the  Ti-if/iimi  x/iii-nlia,  was  discovered  by  Pro- 
fessor Owen  in  1835. 

TKINCOAIAIJIK  (Ceylon).— This  town  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  and  was  taken 
from  them  in  1639,  by  the  Dutch,  who  retained 
it  till  Jan.  ii,  1782,  when  it  was  raptured  by 
11 10  Knglish.  It  was  retaken  by  the  French 
admiral  Suffren,  Aug.  31.  Having  been  re- 
stored to  the  Dutch  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles 
in  1783,  the  English  retook  it,  after  a  - 
three  weeks,  Aug.  26,  1795;  and  it  was  ceded 
to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  March  25, 
1802.  The  celebrated  shrine,  "the  Temple  of 
a  Thousand  Columns,"  was  destroyed  by  the 
Portuguese. 

TRINIDAD  Atlantic  Ocean),  one  of  the 
West  India  islands,  discovered  by  Columbus 
July  31,  1498,  was  first  colonized  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1588.  It  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  1676,  but  almost  immediately  re- 
stored ;  and  it  was  taken  by  the  English  under 
Abefcrombie,  Feb.  13,  1797,  and  ceded  to  them 

liens,  March  25,  1802. 
HANS,     BRETHREN    OF    THE 
HOLY   TRINITY,   or  REDEMPTIONISTS.— 
(See  HOUNSLOW,  MATURINES,  &c.) 

TRIXITY.  —  This  term  was  first  used  by 
Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  to  express  the 
three  sacred  persons  in  the  Godhead,  about 
i  So.  The  first  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  was  made  in  the  Nicene  creed,  adopted 
in  325,  and  completed  at  the  second  general 
council  held  at  Constantinople  in  381.  The 
doctrine  was  more  fully  set  forth  in  the  creed 
"f  Athaiiasius,  framed  in  the  sth  century,  and 


by  the  treaty  of  Ami 
TRINITARIANS. 


so  named  before  670,  which  was  the  one 
adopted  by  the  Protestants  in  general  at  the 
Reformation.  Penalties  imposed  on  persons 
denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  by  9  <fo  10 
Will.  III.  c.  32  (1698),  were  removed  by  53  Geo. 
III.  c.  1 60  (1812).  The  festival  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  ordered  by  John  XXI.  or  XXII.  in 
1320,  was  generally  observed  about  1405.  (See 
FLEUR-DE-LYS,  ORATORIANS,  SHAMROCK,  <tc.) 

TRIXITY  COLLEGE  (Cambridge  was 
formed  of  several  smaller  collegiate  establish- 
ments, the  chief  of  which  were  Michael  House, 
dedicated  to  Michael  the  Archangel,  founded 
by  Hervey  de  Staunton,  chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  to  Edward  II.,  in  1324;  King's 
Hall,  founded  by  Edward  III.  in  1337  ;  and 
Phiswicke's  Hostle,  founded  by  William  Phis- 
wicke,  or  Fishwick,  in  1393.  Out  of  these 
three  institutions,  and  the  other  smaller  ones, 
Trinity  College  was  founded  by  Henry  V 1 1 1 . ,  1  >y 
charter  dated  Dec.  19,  1546.  He  endowed  it 
with  lands,  die.,  of  the  annual  value  of  .£1,300,  to 
maintain  a  master,  60  fellows,  40  scholars,  and 
10  almoners,  reserving  to  the  crown  the  right  of 
;•  the  master.  Queen  Mary  (1553—58) 
commenced  the  building  of  the  chapel,  and 
added  to  the  endowment  lands  to  the  value  of 
.£338  per  annum.  Elizabeth  provided  for  the 
completion  of  the  works  commenced  by  her 
sister,  by  letters  patent  dated  Dec.  14,  1560 

TRINITY  (JOLLKGK  (Oxford)  was  originally 
founded  by  Richard  de  Hoton,  Prior  of  I  >urham 
about  1290;  rebuilt  by  Bishop  llatficM  of  the 
same  see  ;  and  dissolved  by  Henry  VIII.  about 
1541.  Sir  Thomas  Pope  purchasea  the  site  and 
buildings  from  Dr.  Genr-v  Owen  and  William 
Martyn,  to  whom  they  had  been  granted  by 
Edward  VI.  in  1553,  and  founded  the  college 
for  a  president,  12  fellows,  and  eight  scho- 
lars, in  1554.  He  founded  four  additional 
scholarships  Sep.  10,  1557.  There  is  also  a 
scholarship  nearly  coeval  with  Sir  T.  Pope's 
foundation,  which  was  founded  by  his  relative 
Richard  Blount,  of  London.  An  exhibition, 
called  the  Unton  Pension,  was  given  by  Thomas 
Unton  in  1693  ;  another,  called  the  Tylney  Ex- 
hibition, was  given  by  Frederick  Tylney  in 
1720  ;  and  a  third,  for  the  advantage  of  super- 
annuate scholars  of  Winchester  College,  was 
founded  by  the  Rev.  Edward  Cobden  in  1784. 
The  hall  was  rebuilt  in  1618.  The  library, 
though  altered  at  various  times,  is  the  most 
ancient  part  of  the  college,  having  been  built 
in  1370.  The  chapel  was  founded  July  9,  1691. 
The  court  was  erected  from  the  designs  of  Sir 
C.  Wren,  the  north  side  having  been  completed 
in  1667,  the  west  side  in  1682,  and  the  .south 
side  in  1728. 

TRIXITY  HALL  (Cambridge)  was  founded 
for  the  study  of  the  canon  and  the  civil  law  by 
William  Bateman,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  in  1350, 
for  a  master,  three  fellows,  and  three  scholars. 
The  foundation  was  augmented  by  Simon 
Dalliiig  in  1443,  by  Dr  Hewke  in  1517,  by  Dr. 
Harvey  in  1584,  by  Dr.  Mouse  in  1586,  and  by 
other  benefactors.  The  college  was  further 
incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558 — 
1603),  and  was  governed  by  the  statutes  of  the 
founder  till  1860,  when  new  statutes  were 
enacted.  The  old  hall,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
in  the  university,  was  demolished  in  1742. 


TRINITY  HOUSE 


[    987    ] 


TRIUMPH 


TRINITY  HOUSE  (London).— This  society 
was  founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Spert,  comptroller 
of  the  navy  to  Henry  VIII.,  in  1515,  and  incor- 
porated by  that  king  in  the  same  year,  for  the 
promotion  of  commerce  and  navigation,  by 
licensing  and  regulating  pilots,  and  ordering 
and  erecting  beacons,  light-houses,  buoys,  &c. 
The  corporation  was  confirmed  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  its  privileges  and  possessions  by  letters 
patent  of  James  II.  (1685).  At  first  it  seems  to 
have  consisted  of  seamen  only,  but  now  noble- 
men and  gentlemen  are  amongst  its  members 
or  elder  brethren.  It  is  governed  by  a  master, 
four  wardens,  eight  assistants,  and  31  elder 
brothers.  By  52  Geo.  III.  c.  39  (April  20, 
1812),  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Trinity  House  was 
extended  to  light-houses  round  the  coast  of 
Ireland.  The  ancient  hall  of  the  corporation  at 
Deptford  was  pulled  down  in  1787,  and  the 
edifice  near  the  Tower,  commenced  Sep.  12, 
1793,  was  finished  two  years  afterwards. 

TRINITY  SUNDAY  is  the  Sunday  next  fol- 
lowing the  festival  of  Whitsuntide.  The  festival 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  first  ordained  to  be 
held  on  this  day  by  Pope  John  XXI.  or  XXII. 
in  1320. 

TRINOBANTES,  a  British  tribe  which  in- 
habited the  counties  of  Essex  and  Middlesex 
at  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar's  invasion  of 
Britain,  B.C.  55.  Their  prince,  Cassivelaunus, 
unsuccessfully  opposed  Caesar's  passage  of  the 
river  Stour,  B.C.  54;  and,  his  chief  town  being 
afterwards  taken,  the  tribe  submitted  to  the 
Romans.  Claudius  I.  defeated  them  in  43. 
They  joined  the  Iceni  under  Boadicea  in 
revolt,  and  destroyed  the  Roman  colonies  in 
their  own  country,  but  were  defeated  by 
Suetonius  Paulinus,  near  Sunbury,  on  the 
Thames,  in  61, 

TRINOVANTUM.— (See  LONDON.) 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE,  between  the  States- 
General  and  England,  against  France,  for  the 
protection  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  was 
ratified  Jan.  23,  1668.  Sweden  joined  the 
league  April  25,  and  it  then  became  known  as 

the  Triple  Alliance. Another,  called  the 

Second  Triple  Alliance,  between  England, 
France,  and  Holland,  to  oppose  the  designs  of 
Cardinal  Alberoni,  the  Spanish  minister,  was 
signed  by  the  English  and  French  Nov.  28, 
1716,  and  by  the  Dutch  at  the  Hague,  Jan.  4, 

1717. A  Triple  Alliance  between  Great 

Britain,  Russia,  and  Austria  was  concluded  at 
St.  Petersburg  (q.  v.),  Sep.  28,  1795.  (See 
GRAND  or  GREAT  ALLIANCE.  ) 

TRIPOLI,  or  TARABLUS  (Asia  Minor).— 
This  seaport  of  Syria,  the  capital  of  the 
pashalic  of  the  same  name,  was  taken  in  1 108 
by  the  Crusaders,  who  destroyed  the  rare  and 
valuable  library  of  Persian  and  Arabic  works, 
said  to  amount  to  100,000  volumes.  It  was 
founded  by  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Aradus  ;  hence 
the  name  Triple  City,  or  Three  Cities.  The 
Egyptians,  under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  defeated 
the  Turks  here  April  7,  1832  ;  and  the  govern- 
ment was  granted  to  Mehemet  Ali,  May  6, 
1833.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  in  Sep., 
1840. 

TRIPOLI,  or  TRIPOLIS  (Africa),  the  most 
easterly  of  the  Barbary  states,  became  a  Roman 
province  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage, 


B.C.  146.  The  three  cities  of  (Ea,  Leptis  Magna 
and  Sabrate  constituted  a  kind  of  federal 
union,  under  the  name  of  Tripolis  (Regio  Tripo- 
litana).  The  capital,  Tripoli,  is  identical  with 
the  ancient  city  of  OSa.  It  suffered  greatly  from 
the  tyranny  of  Count  Romanus  in  366;  was 
conquered  by  the  Vandals  in  the  sth  century ; 
and  rescued  by  Belisarius  in  534.  Tripoli  was 
taken  by  the  Saracens  in  638  ;  besieged  by  the 
Egyptians  in  877  and  in  1054  5  seized  by  Roger, 
King  of  Sicily,  in  1146;  and  retaken  in  1184 
by  the  Saracens,  who  retained  it  till  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1510.  It  was 
ceded  by  Charles  V.  to  the  knights  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem  in  1530;  and  was  conquered  by 
Simon,  basha  for  the  Sultan  Soliman  I.,  in  1551, 
and  became  a  Turkish  pashalic.  Dragut  (died 
in  1565),  the  corsair,  was  appointed  governor ; 
and  from  this  time  it  became  one  of  those 
piratical  powers  which  for  centuries  attacked 
the  ships  of  Christian  nations,  and  made  slaves 
of  their  prisoners.  The  first  treaty  between 
Tripoli  and  England  was  concluded  Oct.  18, 
1662.  Tripoli  was  bombarded  by  a  French  fleet 
in  1683.  Hamet  Caramandi,  a  Moorish  chief, 
treacherously  caused  300  Turkish  officers  to  be 
strangled,  and  the  garrison  to  be  destroyed,  in 
1703,  and  thus  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke. 
Yussuf,  the  last  basha  of  this  family,  was 
compelled  by  his  subjects  to  abdicate  in  1832  ; 
and  a  civil  war  ensued,  which  was  put  an  end 
to  by  a  Turkish  force  in  1835,  and  Tripoli  was 
restored  to  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the 
Turks.  Piracy  and  slavery  were  abolished  in 
1816.  Rebellions  occurred  in  1842  and  1844. 
Near  the  sea-gate  of  the  town  stands  a 
magnificent  triumphal  arch  erected  to  the 
Emperors  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  L.  Aure- 
lius  Verus,  in  164. 

TRIPOLITZA  (Greece)  is  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  the  three  towns  of  Tegea,  Mantinea, 
and  Pallantium,  and  was  probably  built  soon 
after  the  capture  of  the  last-named  city  by 
the  Turks  in  1458.  Before  the  Revolution, 
Tripolitza  was  the  capital  of  the  Morea  and 
the  seat  of  a  pasha.  It  was  stormed  by  the 
Greeks  Oct.  5,  1821,  and  9,000  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  all  ages  and  sexes  were  massacred  on 
that  and  the  following  day.  Ibrahim  Pasha 
retook  it  June  30,  1825,  and  razed  it  to  the 
ground,  in  retaliation  for  the  cruelties  per- 
petrated by  the  Greeks.  It  has  since  been 
rebuilt. 

TRIPOS.— (See  CAMBRIDGE.) 

TRIREMES,  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
vessels  of  war,  having  three  banks  of  oars, 
invented  by  Ameinocles  the  Corinthian,  B.C. 
700.  Other  authorities  say  they  were  invented 
B.C.  703.  They  were  first  built  by  the  Athenians 
at  the  instance  of  Themistocles,  B.C.  481,  and 
by  the  Romans  B.C.  260. 

TRITHEISTS,  a  sect  which  taught  that  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  were  three  co- 
equal distinct  Beings,  united  by  a  common 
will  and  purpose,  arose  in  the  6th  century. 
It  separated  into  Cononites  and  Philoponists 
so  called  from  the  names  of  the  leaders. 

TRIUMPH.— A  public  and  solemn  honour 
conferred  by  the  ancient  Romans  on  a  vic- 
torious general,  by  giving  him  a  magnificent 
entry  into  the  city,  is  said  to  have  originated 


TRIUMVIRATES 


TRUCE  OP  GOD 


in  the  reign  of  Romulus,  B.C.  753 — B.C.  715. 
The  triumph  of  the  consuls  Valerius  and 
Horatius,  B.C.  449,  refused  by  the  senate  but 
granted  by  a  vote  of  the  people,  was  the  first 
instance  of  a  triumph  without  the  authority 
of  the  senate.  The  triumph  of  Camillus,  for 
the  taking  of  Veii  after  a  siege  of  10  years, 
was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  B.C.  395. 
There  were  two  kinds  of  triumphs  :  the  great" 
called  the  triumph ;  and  the  lesser,  called  the 
ovation  (q.  v.}. 

TRIUMVIRATES,  so  called  from  the  number 
of  men,  three,  constituting  a  board  for  the 
management  of  some  public  business  among 
the  Romans,  one  of  which,  the  triumviri 
capitales,  for  inquiring  into  capital  offences, 
was  instituted  about  B.C.  292.  Julius  Caesar, 
Pompeius,  and  Crassus  formed  a  triumvirate 
for  carrying  on  the  government,  B.C.  60. 
Another  was  formed  by  Octavianus  Cpesar, 
Marcus  Antonius,  and  Lepidus,  and  after- 
wards sanctioned  by  a  senatus  consulturn, 
B.C.  43.  At  the  expiration  of  five  years  it 
was  prolonged  for  five  years  more,  B.C.  38. 
Augustus  deprived  Lepidus  of  his  power  B.C. 
36.  It  legally  expired  on  the  last  day  of  the 
year  B.C.  33.  One  was  appointed  at  Rome, 
consisting  of  Mazzini,  Armellini,  and  Safti, 
with  the  entire  executive  power  placed  in 
their  hands,  Feb.  27,  1849.  (See  TRECENTO.) 

Till VI UM.— (See  QUADRIVIUM.) 

TROAS.— (See  ILIUM.) 

TROBIT8CHAU  (Battle).  —  The  Prussians 
defeated  the  Austrians  here,  July  15,  1866,  and 
captured  16  guns. 

TROIA,  or  TROJA  (Battle).  -John,  Duke  of 
Anjou,  was  defeated  in  an  engagement  near 
this  town  in  Italy,  by  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of 
Naples,  Aug.  18,  1462. 

TROJA.— (See  ILIUM,  LATIUM,  &c.) 

TROM  PK.— .  See  BKLLOWS.) 

TRONDHJEM.—  See  DKOXTHKTM.) 

TRON,  or  TKONh,  ST.  Battles  .—The  Aus- 
trians were  defeated  at  this  town  in  Belgium, 

by  the  French,  in  1793. A  division  of  Gen. 

Maison's  force  was  also  defeated  here,  after  an 
obstinate  engagement,  by  the  Russians,  under 
Benkendorff  and  Chemicheff,  in  1814. 

TRON,  or  TROND,  ST.  (Belgium).— An  abbey 
was  founded  here  in  657.  The  town,  acquired 
by  the  bishops  of  Liege  in  1227,  was  taken  by 
Charles  the  Bold  in  1467.  The  assembly  which 
issued  the  Declaration  of  Independence  of  the 
Low  Countries  met  here  in  1566.  The  French 
took  it  in  171)4. 

TRONS  (Switzerland).— The  Swiss  are  said 
to  have  assembled  at  this  village  in  1400,  and 
formed  the  Caddee  League,  and  again  in  May, 
1424,  and  formed  the  Grey  League,  or  the 
League  of  the  Grisons. 

TROOP.— (See  CAVALRY.) 

TROPPAU  (Austria).  — A  congress  to  con- 
sider the  revolutionary  excitement  in  Europe 
— the  Emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  and 
the  King  of  Prussia,  being  present,  together 
with  representatives  from  France  and  England 
— was  opened  at  this  town  in  Austria,  Oct.  20, 
1820,  sat  till  Dec.,  and  was  re-opened  at  Lay- 
bach,  in  Styria,  Jan.  8,  1821. 

TROUBADOURS,  the  poets  of  the  Romance 
language,  or  Langue  d'Oc,  are  represented  in 


the  earliest  extant  specimens  of  that  literature 
by  the  songs  of  William,  Duke  of  Guienne, 
written  about  1096.  "  We  do  not,"  says 
Hallam,  "meet  with  any  other  troubadour 
till  after  the  middle  of  the  i2th  century." 
From  that  time  they  became  numerous. 
Having  turned  their  powers  of  satire  against 
the  hierarchy  during  the  persecutions  of  the 
Albigenses,  many  of  them  perished,  or  were 
compelled  to  make  their  escape,  and  the  art 
declined  about  the  end  of  the  i3th  century. 
The  magistrates  of  Toulouse  established  an 
academy  called  Del  Gai  Saber, —  of  the  Gay 
Science  (q.  v.),  with  the  object  of  reviving  it, 
and  held  the  first  meeting  of  an  annual  festi- 
val, "  Floral  Games,"  which  was  attended  by 
many  poets  from  various  parts  of  Languedoc, 
May  i,  1324. 

TROUVERES.— The  writers  of  romance  and 
poetry  in  the  French  provinces  north  of  the 
Loire  began  the  production  of  short  tales, 
known  as  the  "  Fabliaux,"  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  1 2th  century.  The  early  trouveres  were 
generally  attended  by  a  jongleur.  They  con- 
tinued to  make  their  appearance  down  to  the 
i4th  century.  The  period  most  prolific  in  this 
literature  was,  however,  from  1226  to  1270. 

TROY.—  (.sVe  ILIUM,  or  ILION.) 

TROY  (N.  America).— This  city  of  New  York, 
founded  bythe  Dutch ini752,  was  incorporated 
in  1801.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1862. 

TROYES  (France  ,  the  ancient  Augustobona, 
was  saved  from  Attila  through  the  address  of 
its  bishop,  St.  Loup,  in  441.  The  cathedral, 
founded  in  872,  was  rebuilt  in  the  istli  and 
1 6th  centuries.  The  Normans  plundered  and 
burned  it  in  889.  Troyes,  which  became  the 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Champagne  in  1019, 
was  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1415. 
Coimcils  were  held  here  in  429;  April  2,  1104  ; 
in  1107  ;  Jan.  13,  1128,  and  in  1103.  The  mar- 
riage of  Henry  V.  of  Knglaiid  with  Catherine  of 
France,  and  the  treaty  securing  the  succession 
of  Henry  to  the  crown  of  Charles  VI.,  were 
arranged  here  -May  21,  1420.  It  was  surren- 
dered by  the  English  to  Joan  of  Arc,  in  1429. 
It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1181  and  in 
1524.  By  a  royal  edict  the  French  Parliament 
was  banished  here  Aug.  15,  1787,  and  recalled 
Sep.  20.  Napoleon  I.  fell  back  upon  Troves 
after  his  defeat  by  the  Allies,  Feb.  2,  1814,  but 
withdrew  Feb.  6,  and  the  Allies  entering 
Feb.  7,  established  their  head-quarters.  Napo- 
leon I.  again  obtained  possession  of  the  town 
Feb.  23,  and  it  was  recaptured  by  the  Allies 
March  4. 

TROY  WEIGHT,  so  called  from  Troyes,  in 
France,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, is  mentioned  as  a  known  standard  in 
1414.  The  pound  did  not  take  the  name  till 
1495.  It  was  established  in  Scotland  in  1618. 

TRUCE. —  (-See  FLAG  OF  TRUCE,  HANGO, 
Oin-ssA,  <bc.) 

TRUCE  or  PEACE  OF  GOD.  —  This  cele- 
brated instrument  for  the  suspension  of  hos- 
tilities between  the  feudal  lords  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  dating  as  far  back  as  988,  at  first  extended 
to  all  the  festivals  of  the  Church,  and  then  to  the 
interval  between  Wednesday  evening  and  Mon- 
day morning,  or  from  Advent  to  Epiphany,  or 


TRUCK   SYSTEM 


[    989    1 


TUILERIES 


Quinquagesima  Sunday  to  Easter.  This  truce 
received  great  authority  from  a  vision  stated 
to  have  been  seen  by  a  bishop  of  Aquitaine  in 
1032,  when  an  angel  was  said  to  have  appeared 
and  delivered  a  written  document  enjoining 
men  to  cease  from  their  hostilities,  and 
become  reconciled.  It  was  confirmed  by  the 
Council  of  St.  Giles,  in  Languedoc,  Sep.  4, 
1042  ;  by  the  Council  of  Tuluje,  June  i,  1047  ; 
of  Narbonne  in  1054 ;  of  Gironne  in  1068 ;  of 
Troyes,  March  n,  1093;  of  Clermont,  Nov.  18 
— 28,  1095 ;  of  St.  Omer,  July  14,  1099,  and 
many  others;  but  in  consequence  of  its  in- 
efficiency, an  association  for  carrying  it  into 
effect  was  formed  about  the  end  of  the  i2th 
century,  under  the  title  of  the  Brotherhood  of 
God.  Louis  IX.  of  France  published  an  ordi- 
nance in  1245,  prohibiting  any  one  from  com- 
mencing a  quarrel  until  40  days  after  the 
commission  of  the  offence  he  wished  to  re- 
taliate. This  law,  which  was  known  as  the 
Royal  Truce,  was  confirmed  by  Philip  IV.  (the 

TRUCK9SYSTEM,  by  which  workmen  are 
paid  in  goods  instead  of  coin,  is  prohibited  by 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Oct.  15,  1831).  A  select 
committee  reported  to  Parliament  in  1842  that 
it  nourished  in  defiance  of  the  law. 

TRULLAN,  or  COUNCIL  IN  TRULLO.— 
(See  QUINI.SEXTUM  COUNCIL.) 

T  R  U  M  P  E  T  S.  —  The  invention  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  Tyrrhenians  as  well  as  to  the 
Egyptians,  but  they  were  not  used  at  the  siege 
of  Troy,  B.C.  1184,  although  spoken  of  by 
Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927).  Those  used  by  the 
Israelites  at  the  siege  of  Jericho,  B.C.  1451,  were 
made  of  rams'  horns  (Joshua  vi.  20).  The 
speaking-trumpet  appears  to  have  been  known 
to  the  aiicient  Greeks,  and  was  in  use  among 
the  Peruvians  in  1595.  Matthew  Paris  says 
that  trumpeters  preceded  King  Offa  of  Mercia 
in  all  his  progresses  (755 — 796).  The  Feast  of 
Trumpets  was  instituted  B.C.  1490  (Levit.  xxiii. 

TRUXILLO  (Central  America),  in  Hon- 
duras, founded  by  Las  Casas  in  1524,  was 
destroyed  by  the  Dutch  in  1643. 

TRUXILLO  (S.  America),  in  Peru,  founded 
by  Francisco  Pizarro,  and  named  after  his 
native  place,  in  1535. 

TRUXILLO  (S.  America).— This  town,  of 
Venezuela,  founded  in  1570,  was  taken  by  the 
bucaneers  in  1678.  Walker,  the  Filibuster,  was 
executed  here  Sep.  12,  1860. 

TRUXILLO,  or  TRUJILLO  (Spain),  existed 
in  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation,  and  was 
taken  by  the  Moors  in  1233.  Francis  Pizarro 
was  born  here  in  1475,  and  died  here  June  26, 

TUAM  (Bishopric).— This  Irish  diocese  was 
founded  by  St.  Jarlatto,  at  Cluain-fois,  near 
Tuam,  about  501.  In  1152  it  was  made  archi- 
episcopal,  under  Edan  O'Hoisin ;  and  in  1559 
it  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Mayo. 
The  see  of  Enachdune  was  annexed  to  Tuam 
in  1573,  and  Kilfenora  formed  part  of  the 
archbishopric  from  1661  to  1742.  Ardagh  was 
incorporated  with  Tuam  in  1742,  but  was  sepa- 
rated in  1839,  when  Tuam  ceased  to  be  a 
metropolitan  diocese.  By  the  Church  Tempo- 
ralities Act,  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  vAug.  14,  1833), 


the  sees  of  Killala  and  Achonry  were  ordered 
to  be  annexed  to  Tuam  on  their  next  voidance, 
which  occurred  in  1834. 

TUBINGEN  (Germany).— The  university  of 
this  town  of  Wurtemberg  was  founded  in  1477, 
and  the  library  was  added  in  1562.  From  the 
Reformation  till  1803,  Roman  Catholics  were 
excluded.  The  town-hall  was  built  in  1455  ; 
and  the  church  of  St.  George,  with  monuments 
of  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Wiirtemberg, 
was  erected  in  the  isth  century.  In  order  to 
conciliate  the  aristocracy,  Ulric,  Duke  of  Wiir- 
temberg, agreed  to  a  treaty  here  in  July,  1514, 
which  may  be  called  the  first  German  consti- 
tution, and  continued  to  be  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  duchy  till  1819.  The  French  took 
it  in  1688. 

TUBULAR  BRIDGES.— The  first  tube  of 
the  Britannia  bridge,  across  the  Menai  Strait, 
was  floated  and  raised  June  20,  1849.  It  was 
completed  at  a  cost  of  .£621,865,  and  opened 
March  5,  1850.  The  tubular  bridge  at  Conway, 
also  on  the  line  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead 
railway,  constructed  at  a  cost  of  £i  10,000,  was 
finished  in  1848.  One  at  Chepstow,  across  the 
Wye,  was  opened  in  1852.  The  first  stone  of 
the  Victoria  bridge,  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  in 
Canada,  was  laid  July  20,  1854,  and  the  first 
train  passed  over  it  Dec.  17,  1859.  Two  tubular 
bridges  on  the  line  of  the  Egyptian  railway, 
— one  crossing  the  Nile,  near  Benha,  the  other 
the  Karrimeen  canal, — were  commenced  in 
May,  1853,  and  completed  in  Oct.,  1855. 

TUCUMAN,  or  SAN  MIGUEL  DE  TUCU- 
MAN  (S.  America),  was  founded  in  1685.  The 
Spaniards  were  defeated  here  in  the  war  of 
independence  in  1812,  and  a  congress  of  the 
provinces  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  held  here  in  1816,  proclaimed  their 
independence. 

TUDELA  (Battle). —The  French,  under 
Lannes  and  Victor,  defeated  the  Spanish  forces 
of  Castanos  and  Palafox,  near  this  town  of 
Spain,  Nov.  23,  1808.  The  loss  of  the  Spaniards 
amounted  to  5,000  men  killed  and  wounded, 
and  but  for  the  delay  of  Marshal  Ney  in  quit- 
ting Soria,  their  entire  army  would  have  been 
cut  off.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
the  Ebro,  because  it  was  fought  on  the  banks 
of  that  river. 

TUDORS  reigned  in  England  from  1485  to 
1603.  (See  HENRY  VII.,  HENRY  VIII.,  ED- 
WARD VI.,  MARY,  and  ELIZABETH.) 

TUESDAY.— The  third  day  of  the  week  was 
dedicated  by  the  Saxons  to  their  god  Tuisco, 
respecting  whose  attributes  little  is  known. 
The  Romans  held  it  sacred  to  Mars,  and  called 
it  Dies  Martis.  (See  SHROVE  TUESDAY.) 

TUGENDBUND,  or  LEAGUE  OF  VIRTUE, 
formed  in  Prussia  by  Baron  Stein  about  1807. 
At  first  merely  an  association  of  literary  and 
scientific  men,  who  met  at  Konigsberg,  it 
became  about  1810  a  secret  society,  and  the 
members  pledged  themselves  to  free  Germany 
from  the  tyranny  of  Napoleon  I.  It  was  dis- 
solved in  1815. 

TUILERIES  (Paris).— A  small  house,  called 
the  Hotel  des  Tuileries,  from  the  tile  fields 
around  it,  existed  here  in  1342.  Francis  I. 
purchased  it  in  1518  for  his  mother,  and  Cathe- 
rine de  Medici  chose  it  for  the  site  of  a  new 


TULA 


[     990    ] 


TURCOPOLIEB 


palace  commenced  in  1564.  Louis  XIII. 
(1610 — 43),  who  completed  it,  made  it  his 
residence.  The  gardens,  commenced  in  1600, 
were  completed  by  Le  Notre  (1613 — 1700).  It 
was  captured  and  sacked  by  the  Paris  mob, 
Aug.  10,  1792,  and  again  July  28,  1830.  The 
insurrectionists  seized  it,  and  threw  the  furni- 
ture from  the  windows,  Feb.  24,  1848. 

TULA,  or  TOULA  (Russia),  capital  of  a  gp* 
vcrnment  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  in 
1509,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  imperial  manu- 
factory of  arms,  established  by  Peter  I.  in 
1712.  A  fire,  which  reduced  a  large  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  to  beggary,  occurred  in 

TULIP,  which  grows  wild  in  the  Levant, 
was  brought  in  seed  from  Constantinople,  or 
Cappadocia,  to  Augsburg,  in  1559,  and  had 
spread  all  over  Germany  by  1564.  It  was 
first  planted  in  Provence,  on  the  ground  of 
Peyresc,  in  1611.  From  Vienna  it  was  intro- 
duced into  England  about  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  tulip-tree  was  brought  from 
N.  America  to  Europe  about  1663. 

TULIP-MANIA  originated  in  Holland  in 
1637.  It  is  said  that  13,000  florins  were  paid 
for  a  single  bulb. 

TUMBREL.— (See  BAKER,  BREWERS,  CUCKING- 
STOOL,  &c.) 

TUMULTS.— (See  BLOOD,  Council  of.) 

TUNBRIDGE,  or  TONBRIUGE  (Kent).— The 
castle  dates  from  the  i3th  century,  and  the 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1553. 

TUNBRIDGE,  or  TOXKIUMGK  WKLI.S 
(Kent),  was  first  brought  into  notice  by  Dudley, 
Lord  North,  who  discovered  the  springs  in 
1606,  and  received  much  benefit  from  drinking 
the  waters. 

TUNGSTEN,  from  the  Swedish  tung  sten, 
heavy  stone,  was  first  obtained  in  a  pure 
metallic  state  in  1781. 

TUNIS  (Africa),  occupying  the  siteof  Carthage 
(q.  v.),  known  at  different  periods  as  Tunes 
and  Tuneta,  capital  of  the  regency  of  that 
name,  founded  either  by  the  Phoenicians  or 
by  native  Africans,  was  taken  by  the  Roman 
consul  Regulus  B.C.  256.  He  was  defeated  in 
the  plain  and  made  prisoner  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, B.C.  255.  The  mutinous  Carthaginian 
army  encamped  before  it  on  leaving  Sicca,  B.C. 
241.  The  Vandals,  who  acquired  it  in  439, 
were  dispossessed  by  Belisarius  in  533.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Greek  emperors  by  the  Mos- 
lems about  the  end  of  the  7th  century,  and 
after  having  been  governed  by  viceroys,  was 
made  the  capital  of  an  independent  state  by 
Abu-Ferez  in  1206.  An  expedition  to  put  down 
the  pirates  that  infested  it  was  undertaken  by 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  who  died  here  of  the 
plague,  Aug.  25,  1270.  The  pirate  Barbarossa, 
whom  the  Turkish  sultan  had  acknowledged 
chief  of  the  country,  deprived  the  ruler  of  his 
throne  in  1531.  He  was,  however,  restored, 
on  condition  of  being  a  tributary  prince,  by 
Charles  V.,  who  captured  Tunis  June  25,  1535. 
A  large  expedition,  fitted  out  at  Constan- 
tinople, reduced  it  in  1574.  Admiral  Blake 
destroyed  two  of  the  castles  with  artillery 
in  1655,  and  extorted  a  promise  that  English 
vessels  should  be  exempt  from  attack;  and 
with  a  similar  object  it  was  besieged  by  a 


French  fleet  in  1685-  A  bey  was  instituted  in 
1574,  and  he  was  replaced  by  a  dey  towards 
the  end  of  the  i7th  century.  The  European 
powers  enforced  from  Tunis  the  abolition  of 
Christian  slavery  in  1816.  The  bey  gave  his 
subjects  a  new  constitution  in  1860.  A  serious 
insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  Tunis  in 
April,  1864,  lasted  several  months. 

TUNNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.  — Tunnage 
was  a  duty  of  so  much  per  tun  on  all  wines  im- 
ported; and  poundage  was  a  duty  imposed  u/l. 
valorem,  at  the  rate  of  iid.  in  the  pound  on 
all  merchandise.  The  origin  of  this  tax,  the 
first  of  our  customs  duties,  raised,  according 
to  the  old  statutes,  "for  the  defence  of  the 
realm  and  the  safeguard  of  the  seas,"  is  un- 
known. It  was  imposed  with  the  consent  of 
the  Lords,  but  against  that  of  the  Commons, 
by  Edward  III.,  in  1348,  and  was  granted  for 
a  ti.Tm  of  two  years  to  Richard  II.  in  1381. 
It  was  first  levied  by  statute  by  12  Edw.  IV. 
c.  3  (1473).  Originally  granted  for  a  few  years, 
it  was  given  to  Henry  VI.  in  1453  for  the  term 
of  his  life.  It  formed  a  constant  subject  of 
dissension  between  Charles  I.  and  his  parlia- 
ments, and  was  granted  to  his  son  Charles  I 1. 
for  life,  June  24,  1660.  The  impost,  made  per- 
petual by  9  Anne,  c.  6  (1711),  by  i  Geo.  I.  c. 
12  (1715),  and  by  3  Geo.  I.  c.  7  (1717),  was 
abolished  by  27  Geo.  III.  c.  13  (1787). 

'I'l'NNKL.  Two  tunnels,  constructed  as  out- 
lets for  the  drainage  of  Lake  Copais  in  Greece, 
by  the  Minyae  of  Orchomenus,  at  a  period  of 
which  no  authentic  records  exist,  were  cleared 
of  obstructions  about  B.C.  330.  The  tunnel  at 
Samos,  by  Eupalinus  of  Megara,  nearly  a  mile 
in  length,  eight  feet  in  height  and  breadth, 
with  an  aqueduct  in  the  middle  30  feet  deep, 
was  cut  through  a  mountain  900  feet  high, 
about  B.C.  540.  The  Posilipo,  near  Naples, 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  v. 
cuted  about  14.  A  tunnel  three  miles  lorn*;, 
30  feet  in  height,  and  28  feet  wide,  conn 
Lake  Fucinus  with  the  river  Siris,  formed  by 
the  Emperor  Claudius  I.  in  52,  has  been  cleared 
out  by  the  Neapolitan  Government.  The  Hare- 
castle  tunnel,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  canal,  2,880 
yards  in  length,  12  feet  wide,  and  9  high, 
was  commenced  by  Brindley  in  1766.  It 
proved  too  small  for  the  traffic,  and  a  new  one, 
running  parallel  with  the  old,  was  constructed 
by  Telford  in  1822.  (See  ALPS,  Tunnel ;  THAMES 
TUNNEL,  <tc.) 

TURAN  (Asia).— The  name  given  by  the 
Persians  to  the  territory  to  the  north  of 
Persia,  and  sometimes  used  to  designate  Tur- 
kestan. The  people  were  called  the  Turani. 

TURCKHEIM  (Battle).— Turenne,  at  the 
head  of  the  French  army,  defeated  the  Impe- 
rialists, near  this  town,  Jan.  5,  1675,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  retire  from  Alsace. 

TURCOMANS,  or  TURKOMANS.— (See 
TURKEY.) 

TURCOPOLIER,  of  the  order  of  the  knights 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  third  dignity 
in  the  convent,  taking  its  name  from  the  Tur- 
copoles,  a  light  horse  used  by  the  Christians 
in  Palestine,  is  mentioned  in  a  diploma  of  the 
Hospitallers  in  1180.  One  was  established  in 
the  convent  at  Rhodes,  Giovanni  de  Buibralk 
being  the  first  known  English  knight  who 


TURIN 


TURKEY 


held  the  dignity,  in  1328.  The  last  Turcopolier 
of  England  was  Sir  Richard  Shelley,  who  is 
believed  to  have  died  at  Venice  about  1582. 

TURIN  (Italy),  the  ancient  Augusta  Tauri- 
norum,  was  burned  by  the  soldiers  of  Vitel- 
lius  during  the  civil  war  in  69.  On  a  plain 
near  this  city  Constantino  I.  defeated  Maxen- 
tius  in  312.  By  an  edict  of  Lothaire  I.,  schools 
were  ordered  to  be  established  here  in  829. 
Philip  I.  of  Savoy  fixed  his  residence  at  Turin 
in  1280,  and  Amadeus  VIII.  made  it  the  capital 
in  1418.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  arrived  here, 
after  breaking  through  the  allied  forces,  in 
1495.  It  was  captured  by  Francis  I.,  who 
had,  without  a  shadow  of  cause,  declared  war 
against  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  1536.  Charles 
Emanuel  I.  enlarged  it  in  1620,  and  further 
improvements  were  made  in  1673  and  in  1702. 
Prince  Thomas,  in  asserting  his  claim  to  the 
regency,  made  himself  master  of  the  city  in 
1639 ;  but  the  French,  xinderCount  d'Harcourt, 
compelled  him,  after  a  short  siege,  to  capitu- 
late in  1640.  The  Duke  de  la  Feuillade  in- 
vested it  with  ioo  battalions  and  140  pieces  of 
cannon  in  May.  Prince  Eugene  came  to  its 
relief,  and  an  engagement  took  place,  in  which 
the  French  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  5,000 
killed  and  7,000  prisoners,  Sep.  7,  1706.  The 
Allies  took  it  from  the  French  by  surprise  in 
1799.  It  was  again  given  up  to  the  French  June 
24,  1800,  and  was  surrendered  by  them  May 
30,  1814.  An  insurrection  took  place,  and  the 
Spanish  constitution  was  proclaimed,  March 
12,  1821  ;  the  royal  authority  was,  however, 
restored  April  12.  La  Gran  Madre  de  Dio, 
an  imitation  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  was 
erected  to  commemorate  the  restoration  of  the 
royal  family  in  1814.  The  university,  with  a 
library  of  above  100,000  volumes,  was  founded 
in  1412;  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1777; 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783  ;  and 
the  Waldensean  church  Dec.  15,  1853.  In  con- 
sequence of  political  disturbances  which  oc- 
curred among  the  students  at  Turin,  April  27, 
1864,  the  university  was  closed  for  some  time. 
The  treaty  between  France  and  Italy,  con- 
cluded Sep.  15,  1864,  arranged  for  the  removal 
of  the  Italian  Government  from  this  city  to 
Florence,  and  riots  occurred  in  consequence  of 
the  decision,  Sep.  21 — 23.  Another  insurrection 
occurred  Jan.  30,  1865,  and  the  Italian  Parlia- 
ment met  here  for  the  last  time  May  16.  (See 
FLORENCE.) 

TURIN  (Treaties).— Several  treaties  have 
been  concluded  at  this  city,  the  principal 
being  :— 


l»34,  Aug.   8.  With  England  and  France,  on  the   Slave 
Trade.— Dec.  8.  An  additional  article  is  signed. 

1840,  Oct.  29.  Of   friendship,  commerce,  and  navigation 

with  Uruguay. 

1841,  Sep.  6.  Of  navigation  with  Great  Britain. 
1843,  Jan.  24.  Of  navigation  with  the  Netherlands. 
1845,  Dec.  12.  Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  Russia. 
1847,  Aug.  18.  Of  friendship  and  commerce  with  New 

Granada. 

1849,  Sep.  24.    Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  Tus- 

cany. 

1850,  Dee.    17.     Of     commerce     and    navigation    with 

Portugal. 

1851,  Jan.     24.     Of    commerce    and    navigation     with 

Belgium. 

1852,  Fen.  14.  Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  France. 


TURKESTAN,  TURKISTAN,  or  INDE- 
PENDENT TARTARY  (Asia),  "the  country  of 
the  Turks,"  sometimes  called  Turan,  was  tra- 
versed by  Alexander  III.,  B.C.  331.  The  Grecian 
dynasty  of  Bactria  obtained  supreme  power 
over  the  greater  portion  about  B.C.  323.  They 
were  subverted  B.C.  120  by  the  Scythians,  who 
were  in  turn  subdued  by  the  Parthians  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  sera.  It 
was  visited  by  ambassadors  from  Justinian  I. 
in  559,  subdued  by  Timour  in  1383,  and  after- 
wards divided  into  several  smaller  states.  (See 
BOKHARA,  KOKAND,  TACHKEND,  &c.) 

TURKEY,  AND  TURKS.— Dr.  William 
Smith,  who  states  that  almost  all  the  nomad 
Asiatic  tribes  that  devastated  Europe  from  the 
4th  to  the  i2th  century  belonged  to  this  race, 
gives,  in  a  note  to  his  edition  of  Gibbon  (vol.  iii. 
ch.  xxvi.  p.  303),  the  following  as  the  principal 
divisions  of  the  Turks: — "i.  The  Ouigours, 
on  the  west  of  the  Mongol  frontier,  the  most 
anciently  civilized  tribe  of  the  Turkish  race. 
2.  Turks  of  the  Sandy  Desert,  conterminous 
with  Mongolia  and  Tibet.  3.  Turks  of  Khoten, 
Kashgar,  and  Yarkend,  conterminous  with 
Tibet.  4.  The  Kirghis,  in  Independent  Tartary. 
5.  The  Uzbeks,  the  Turks  of  Bokhara.  6.  The 
Turkomans  (See  WHITE  SHEEP),  inhabiting 
the  Persian  frontier  of  Independent  Tartary, 
from  Balk  to  the  Caspian.  7.  The  Osmanli, 
or  Ottoman  Turkg,  the  Turks  of  the  Turkish 
empire.  8.  The  Nogays,  dwelling  north  of 
the  Caucasus,  between  the  lower  Don  and 
the  lower  Volga.  9.  The  Turks  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire.  10.  The  isolated  Yakuts  of  the 
Lena."  This  learned  author  is  of  opinion 
that,  although  the  name  of  the  Turks  first 
became  known  in  Europe  in  the  6th  century, 
the  people  themselves  had  appeared  a  century 
earlier,  as  the  Huns  belonged  to  the  Turkish 
stock.  The  Turks  of  Mount  Altai,  or  the 
Golden  Mountain,  in  Tartary,  in  the  6th  century, 
worked  at  the  iron  forges,  and  were,  according 
to  Gibbon  (ch.  xlii.),  "the  most  despised 
portion  of  the  slaves  of  the  great  khan  of 
Geougen."  They  had  a  tradition  that  their 
leader,  Bertezena,  or  Berte-Scheno,  having 
distinguished  himself  in  wars  against  the 
neighbouring  tribes,  demanded  in  marriage 
the  daughter 'of  the  khan,  that  his  suit  was 
rejected  with  scorn,  and  that  he  afterwards 
married  a  princess  of  China,  and  in  a  great 
battle  defeated  the  nation  of  the  Geougen, 
establishing  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  who 

Eursued  their  career  of  aggression,  passing 
"om  Asia  into  Europe.  Having  subdued  the 
Avars,  with  whom  they  are  often  confounded, 
they  in  558  sent  an  embassy  to  Justinian  II. 
at  Constantinople.  An  alliance  was  concluded, 
and  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  was  taken 
by  the  Roman  minister  to  Mount  Altai.  They 
waged  war  against  the  Persians  and  the  Arabs, 
and  extended  their  dominions  as  far  as  China. 
The  Eastern  Turkomans  dwelling  on  the  shores 
of  the  Caspian,  who  quitted  their  native  seat 
in  the  loth  century,  about  1037  raised  Togrul 
Beg,  or  Bey,  the  grandson  of  Seljuk,  to  the 
throne,  and  he  founded  what  is  termed  the 
Seljukian  dynasty.  He  expelled  the  Ghizne- 
vides  from  the  Eastern  parts  of  Persia  in  1038, 
invaded  the  Roman  empire  in  1050,  entered 


TURKEY 


[    992     ] 


TURNPIKES 


Bagdad  in  triumph  in  1055,  and  overthrew  the 
dynasty  of  the  Bowides  (q.  v.)  in  1059.  Under 
Alp  Arslan  the  Turks  conquered  Armenia  and 
Georgia  (1065 — 68),  defeated  the  army  of  Ro- 
manus  IV.  in  Aug.,  1071,  and  afterwards  took 
the  emperor  prisoner.  Malek  Shah,  Alp  Arslan's 
successor  (he  died  in  1072),  made  further  con- 
quests both  in  Asia  and  in  Europe.  Asia 
Minor  was  subdued  between  1074  and  1084,  ancl 
Jerusalem  taken  in  1076,  where  the  Turks 
established  their  rule.  &.K  CRUSADES,  MOHAM- 
MEDANISM, SAKACKNS,  <i'c.  Makk  Shah  died  in 
1092.  The  vacant  throne  was  disputed  by  his 
brother  and  his  four  .sons,  and  a  treaty  for  the 
division  of  the  empire  was  concluded.  It  was 
reunited  for  a  short  time  by  Sandjar  (1116 — 
1157,  and  again  divided.  Finlay  (Hist,  of 
Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires,  vol.  ii.,  Appen- 
dix) gives  the  following  list  of  some  of  the 
principal  dynasties  : — 

SELJOUK   GRAND   SULTANS. 
A.D. 

1037 — 1063.  Togrulbeg,  grandson  of  Seljouk. 
1063 — 1073.  Alp  Arslnn,  nephew  of  Togrulbeg.  ' 
1073 — 1093.  Malekshah,  son  of  Alp  Arslan. 
1092—1104.  Harkiarok,  son  of  Malekshah. 
1104 — II 16.  Mohammed,  son  of  Malekshah. 
1116—1:57.   Bandjar,  SOU  Of  Malekshah. 
Sand  jar  is  called  by  U'llerbelot,  Moezzedin  Borhan  dit 
Sangiar. 

SELJOUK  SULTANS  OF  ROUM  OR   ICONIUM. 

Kout'ilmish,  grandson  of  Seljouk. 
1074—1085.  Suleiman,  son  of  Koiiltulinisli. 
1086 — 1091.  Alboalk&Mlm,  governor  of  \icaea. 
1093—1106.   Kilidy-Anilan  I.,  son  of  Sul.-iinan. 
1107—1117.  Malekshah,  sou  of  Kilidy-Arslau  I.,  called  by 

the  Greeks.  Saisan 

1117—1156.  Masotul  I.,  son  of  Kilidy-Arslan  I. 
1156—1193.  Kilidy-Arslan      II.      Divided      the      empire 

aimmt.'  his  ten  sons. 

1190 — uoo.l  Ga'iaseddin  Kaikhosrou  I.   at    Iconium. 
J<    Ljof— Mil.)       Kxpelled  by  Kokncddin. 
S.  1193—1203.  Hokneddin.  at  Tokat. 

1203—1305.  Azeddin  Kilidy-Arslan  III.,  son  of  Rok- 
neililin. 

3.  Mohieddin,  at  Angora. 

4.  Moa/.e.l.liii.  nt  Malatia. 

;.   Mo-lia'iaseddin.  at  Klbistan. 

6.  Xoureddin,  at  KaisaiVia. 

7.  Kotbecldin,  at  Sivas. 

8.  Barkiurok,  at  Niksar. 

9.  Sandjarshali,  at  Amasia. 
10.   Shajed.lin,  at  Ileraeleia. 

I2II— 1222.  Azeddin  Kuikous  1.,  son  of  Kaikhosrou  I.,  to 
whom  the  empire  of  Trebizond  was  tri- 
butary. 

1333— 1237-  Alaeddin  Kaikobad  I.,  son  of  Azeddin. 
Poisoned  by  his  son  and  successor. 

1337—1247.  Ga'iaseddin  Kaikhosrou  II.  Tributary  to  the 
Mongol*. 

1347—1361.  Azeddin  Kuikous  II.,  son  of  Kaikhosrou  II. 
Expelled,    and     returned     to    reign    with 
several  colleagues. 

1361—1367.  Eokneddiu  Kilidy-Arslan  IV..  son  of  Kaik- 
hosrou II.,  called  Kukratin  by  the  Greeks. 

1367—1376.  Gaiaseddin  Kaikhosrou  III.,  son  of  Kok- 
nccllin. 

1276—1283.  Masoud  II.,  son  of  Azeddin  Kaikous  II. 
Fled  to  Constantinople. 

1383—1307.  Alaeddin  III. 

In  the  meantime  the  tribe  of  the  Kayi,  which, 
led  by  Solunan  Shah,  had,  in  1234,  taken  refuge 
in  Armenia,  was  rfting  in  importance.  Soli- 
man  Shah,  who  resolved  to  return  to  his 
native  seat  in  Khorassan,  was  on  the  march 
drowned  in  crossing  the  Euphrates.  His  fol- 
lowers separated,  one  portion  continuing  the 
journey,  and  the  other  remaining  under  Erto- 


ghrul,  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Soliman  Shah. 
For  assistance  rendered  in  battle  against  the 
Mongols  to  the  Sultan  of  Koniah,  he  was  re- 
warded with  territory  near  Angora,  soon  in- 
creased by  other  acquisitions,  and  at  his  death 
in  1288  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Othman,  or 
Osman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
(q.  v.}. 

TURKEY  RED.— (See  DYEING.) 

TURKEYS  were  introduced  into  England 
from  America  about  1524,  and  served  up  at  a 
great  banquet  in  1555.  When  Charles  IX. 
passed  through  Amiens,  the  authorities  of  the 
town  made  him  a  present  of  a  dozen  in  1566  ; 
and  the  first  served  up  in  France  was  at  the 
wedding  dinner  of  that  monarch  in  1570.  They 
were  introduced  into  Germany  about  1530. 

TURKISH  BATHS,  also  called  Arabian, 
Eastern,  Moorish,  or  Roman  Baths,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  baths  used  by  the  ancients  Xce 
HATHS  ,  were  noticed  by  Mr.  David  Urquhart, 
in  his  "  Pillars  of  Hercules,"  published  in 
1850.  A  Turkish  bath  was  constructed  at  a 
Water  Cure  establishment  at  Blarney,  in 
Ireland,  in  1856,  and  another  at  Mr.  David 
Urquhart's  residence  at  Lytham,  in  1857. 
Several  private  baths  of  the  kind  were  made, 
and  the  first  public  Turkish  bath  was  opened 
in  London  in  1860. 

Ti:  K  K  .M  AXS  |  |  A  !.—(&«  TOURKMANTCHAI.) 

T!  KXAU  (Bohemia).  —  The  church  was 
built  in  1825.  See  POOLOO,  Mattle.) 

'1TISXKK  CnU.KiTIoX,  consisting  of  the 
works  of  Joseph  Mallord  William  Turner  (1775 
— Dec.  19,  1851),  were  by  him  bequeathed  to 
the  nation  on  condition  that  a  suitable  place 
should  be  provided  for  their  reception.  At 
first  exhibited  at  Marlborough  House,  and 
afterwards  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
they  were  removed  to  the  National  Gallery  in 
1861. 

TURNIIOUT  (Battle).— Prince  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  assisted  by  English  auxiliaries  under 
Sir  Francis  Vere,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Spaniards  here  early  in  1597. 

TUHNHOUT  (Belgium).— Founded  in  1209, 
by  Henry,  Duke  of  Brabant. 

TURNING.— This  art  is  very  ancient,  as  the 
lathe  (q.  r.}  was  in  use  as  early  as  B.C.  600,  and 
probably  much  earlier.  Sir  Mark  Isambard 
Brunei's  block  machinery  for  turning  ships' 
blocks  was  completed  in  1806,  and  occasioned 
a  saving  of  ,£24,000  the  first  year  it  was  brought 
into  operation.  The  Turners  were  incorporated 
in  1604. 

TURNPIKES,  TOLLS.— A  grant  of  a  penny 
for  every  waggon  passing  through  a  manor  in 
Gloucestershire  was  made  in  1267.  Edward 
III.  granted  permission  to  levy  a  toll  on 
vehicles  passing  along  the  road  from  t : 
pital  of  St.  Giles's  in  the  Fields  to  Temple  Bar 
in  1346,  and  another  on  all  goods  conveyed  by 
land  or  water  to  the  market  at  Westminster  in 
1353.  The  turnpike  system  was  established  in 
England  by  15  Charles  II.  c.  i  (1663),  which 
ordered  places  for  the  collection  of  toll  to  be 
established  011  the  roads  of  Hertfordshire, 
Cambridge,  and  Huntingdon.  It  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  whole  kingdom  by 
7  Geo.  III.  c.  40  (1767).  Twenty-seven  turn- 
pikes in  London  and  its  neighbourhood  were 


TURPENTINE-TREE 


993 


TUSCANY 


abolished  in  one  day  by  7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  24 
(June  14,  1827).  By  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  78  (July 
28,  1863),  which  came  into  operation  July  i, 
1864,  no  less  than  81  gates  and  bars  in  London 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Thames'were  abolished, 
and  many  others  have  since  been  removed. 
(See  REBECCA  RIOTS.) 

TURPENTINE-TREE  was  introduced  into 
England  from  Barbary  before  1656. 

TURRET  SHIPS.— (-See  CUPOLA  or  TURRET 
SHIPS.) 

TURTLE  was  introduced  into  England  as  an 
article  of  food  between  1740  and  1750.  It  had 
been  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  West  Indies 
long  before  that  time. 

TUSC ALOOSA  CRUISER.— The  Confederate 
cruiser  Alabama,  Ca.pt.  Semmes,  captured 
the  U.  S.  trading  vessel  Conrad,  off  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  June  21,  1863.  The  prize,  which 
carried  a  cargo  of  wool,  was  named  the  1'usca- 
loosa,  and  being  commissioned  as  a  ship  of 
war  in  the  Confederate  service,  accompanied 
the  Alabama  as  tender.  In  this  capacity 
she  entered  Simon's  Bay,  S.  Africa,  Aug.  8, 
and  was  acknowledged  by  the  colonial  autho- 
rities at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  as  a  lawful 
vessel  of  war.  The  United  States  consul  pro- 
tested against  this  proceeding,  Aug.  10,  alleging 
that  as  she  had  not  been  condemned  by  any 
prize  court,  and  still  carried  part  of  her  original 
cargo,  her  reception  constituted  a  breach  of 
neutrality  on  the  part  of  the  colonial  govern- 
ment. The  question  was  referred  to  the  law 
officers  of  the  crown,  who  reversed  the  decision 
of  the  attorney-general  at  the  Cape,  and 
ruled  that  the  Tuscaloosa  should  have  been 
detained  by  the  colonial  authorities  until  re- 
claimed by  her  original  owners.  This  opinion 
was  communicated  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle 
to  Sir  P.  Wodehouse,  governor  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  in  a  despatch  dated  Nov.  4,  and 
led  to  the  detention  of  the  vessel  on  her  return 
to  port,  Dec.  26.  Lieut.  Low,  the  officer  in 
command,  protested  against  this  act,  Dec.  28, 
and  the  governor  reported  what  had  taken 
place  to  the  home  authorities,  Jan.  n,  1864. 
Th^reply  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  was  con- 
tained in  two  despatches  bearing  date  March 
4  and  10,  which  directed  the  release  of  the 
Tuscaloosa,  with  a  warning  to  Capt.  Semmes 
not  to  bring  his  prizes  into  English  ports. 

TUSCAN  ORDER,  the  simplest  of  the  five 
orders  of  classical  architecture,  was  invented 
by  the  Romans  or  the  Etruscans  ;  whence  its 
name.  It  is  regarded  as  an  Italian  modifi- 
cation of  the  Doric  order. 

TUSCANY  (Italy),  the  ancient  Etruria  (q.v.), 
was  called  by  the  later  Latin  writers  Tuscia, 
and  its  inhabitants  Tusci,  gradually  corrupted 
into  Toscana,  or  Tuscany,  and  Tuscans. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  its  most  important 
cities,  such  as  Florence,  Lucca,  Pisa.  Pistoja, 
and  Siena  became  independent  republics  ;  but 
the  majority  were  absorbed  in  the  republic  of 
Florence,  which  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  by  Cosmo  de  Medici 
in  1569. 


568.  Tuscany 
Alboin. 


:  I.  establishes  his  winter  quarters  h 
annexed  to  the  Lombard  kingdc 


774-  Tuscany  is  incorporated  with  the  empire  of  Charle- 
magne. 

828.  Tuscany  is  erected  into  a  marquisate  under  Boni- 
face I. 

1081.  Henry  IV.  ravages  Tuscany. 

1115,  July  24.  Matilda,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  dies,  having 
bequeathed  her  territories  to  the  Pope. 

1169.  Tuscany  is  ceded  by  the  Guelphs  to  Frederick  I. 

1198.  Florence  (q.  v.)  becomes  an  independent  republic. 

1530,  Aug.  12-  Florence  surrenders  to  Charles  V. — Oct.  28. 
Alexander  de  Medici  is  made  governor  of 
Florence. 

1557.  Siena  (q.  v.)  is  annexed  to  Tuscany,  and  the  grand 
duchy  of  Tuscany  is  formed. 

1569,  Aug.  27.  Cosmo  de  Medici  is  made  Grand-duke  of 
Tuscany  by  a  Bull  of  Pius  V. 

1737.  The  Medici  family  becomes  extinct,  and  Tuscany  is 
conferred  upon  Francis  of  Lorraine. 

1782.  The  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  is  abolished. 

1796.  Tuscany  is  occupied  by  the  French. 

1801.  Ferdinand  III.  is  deposed  by  the  French,  who  erect 
Tuscany  into  the  kingdom  of  Etruria  (q.  v.). 

1807.  It  is  annexed  to  the  French  kingdom  of  Italy. 

1814.  Restoration  of  Ferdinand  III. 

1847,  Oct.  n.  Lucca  (q.  v.)  is  annexed  to  Tuscany. 

1848,  Feb.  15.  Leopold  II.  grants  a  free  constitution. 

1849,  Feb.  7.  The  Grand-duke  flees  from  Siena.  —  April 

12-  The  Grand-duke  is  recalled  by  his  subjects. 
— Sep.  24.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with 
Sardinia. 

1850,  Sep.  21.  The  constitution  of  1848  is  suspended. 

1851,  April  25.  A  concordat  is  signed  with  Rome. 

1852,  May  6.  The  constitution  of  1848  is  abolished. — June 

8.  Francesco  and  Rosa  Madiai  are  condemned  to 
four  and  a  half  and  three  and  a  half  years' 
imprisonment  respectively,  for  having  become 
Protestant  and  endeavoured  to  make  converts.  — 
Oct.  25.  A  deputation,  consisting  of  the  Earl  of 
Roden  and  other  English  and  European  Protes- 
tants, is  refused  an  audience  by  the  Grand-duke, 

1853,  March  17.  The  Madiai  are  set  at  liberty. 

1859,  April   27.    In  consequence  of    the  refusal   of    the 

Grand-duke  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  Sar- 
dinia, a  revolution  breaks  out  at  Florence,  and 
he  is  compelled  to  retreat  to  Bologna.  Victor 
Emanuel  II.  is  declared  dictator  of  Tuscany. — 
April  28.  The  Austrian  ambassador  quits  Florence. 
—April  30.  Victor  Emauuel  II.  accepts  the  com- 
mand of  the  Tuscan  forces,  but  declines  the  dic- 
tatorship.— May  ii.  The  government  is  vested  in 
the  Sardinian  commissary  Buoncompagni. — May 
20.  The  French  land  at  Leghorn. — May  23.  Prince 
Napoleon  assumes  the  command  of  the  French  at 
Leghorn. — May  25.  Tuscany  joins  France  and 
Sardinia  against  Austria. — July  13.  The  Tuscan 
ministry  protests  against  the  treaty  of  Villa- 
frauca. — July  31.  The  Grand-duke  Leopold  II. 
abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son  Ferdinand  IV.— 
Aug.  i.  Buoncompagni  resigns  his  functions  to 
the  council  of  ministers.— Aug.  II.  The  Tuscan 
national  constituent  assembly  meets  at  Florence. 
— Aug.  )6.  The  assembly  declares  the  Austro- 
Lorraine  dynasty  abolished,  and  votes  the  annex- 
ation of  Tuscany  to  Italy.— Aug.  2,0.  An  alliance 
is  concluded  between  Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena, 
and  the  Legations.— Sep.  3.  The  Tuscans  petition 
Victor  Emanuel  II.  in  favour  of  the  annexation 
of  Tuscany  to  his  kingdom. — Nov.  9.  The  as- 
sembly nominates  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy-Ca- 
rignan,  Regent  of  Tuscany. — Nov.  14.  He  declines 
the  office,  and  on  his  recommendation  it  is  con- 
ferred upon  Buoncompagiii.  —  Dec.  5.  Buon- 
compagni assumes  the  government. 

1860,  Jan.  27.  The  concordat  with  Rome  is  annulled.— 

March  16.  The  results  of  the  voting  in  favour  of 
annexation  to  Sardinia  are  published  as  follows: 
366,571  for  annexation;  14.925  for  a  separate 
kingdom. — March  22.  The  annexation  is  effected. 
—March  24.  Ferdinand  IV.  protests  from  Dresden 
against  the  annexation  of  his  states  to  Sardinia. 
— March  26.  The  Prince  of  Savoy-Carignan  is 
appointed  governor. 

1861,  Feb.  14.  Victor  Emanuel  II.  abolishes  the  adminis- 

trative autonomy  of  Tuscany.— March  26.  The 
ex-Grand-duke  Ferdinand  protests  against  Victor 
Emanuel's  assumption  of  the  title  of  King  of 
Italy. 


TUSCULUM 


[    994    1 


TYLER'S   INSURRECTION 


1865,  April  36.  Florence  is  formally  declared  the  capital 
of  Italy. 


RULERS     OF     TUSCANY. 

MAKQUISES   OF  TUSCIA. 

Began  to                                       Began  to 
Reign.                                          Keigii. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

838.  Boniface  I. 

961.  Hugh  the  Orea 

845.  Adalbert  I. 

ooi.  Adalbert  III. 

890.  Adalbert  II. 

014.  Regnier. 

917.  Guv. 

037.  Boniface  II. 

939.  Lambert. 

053.  Frederick. 

931.  Boson. 

054.  Beatriee. 

936.  Humbert. 

1076.  Matilda. 

Tuscany,  bequeathed  to  the  Holy  See  in  1115, 
afterwards  separated  into  numerous  small  in- 
dependent republics. 

DCKI'S  OF  SAXONY. 

1531.  Alexander  I.  ]  1537.  Cosmo  I. 

GRAND  DUKES   OF  TCS('\NV. 


1569.  Cosmo  I.  1723.  John  (Jaston. 

1574.  Francis  I.  1737-  Francis   II.    of    Lor- 

I5S-.   Kerdiimnd  I.  mine. 

1608.  Cosmo  II.  1765.  Leopold  I. 

1621.  Ferdinand  II.  1790.  Ferdinand  III. 

1670.  Cosmo  III. 

KINGS  OF  ETRURIA. 
1801.  Louis  I.  of  Parma. 
1803.  Louis  II. 

GRAND  DUCIIKSS    I'MiKR  Till-;    FRENCH  ITALIAN 
KINGDOM. 

1809.  Eliza  Buonaparte. 

i.iJAND  DUKES. 
1814.  Ferdinand  III.  (again). 

1x34.   Leopold  II. 
1859.  Ferdinand  IV. 

Tuscany  was  incorporated  with  the  Italian 
kingdom  of  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  March  22,  1860. 
TUSCULUM  (Italy,  was  founded,  according 
to  tradition,  by  Telegonus,  son  of  Ulysses  and 
Circe,  about  B.C.  1200.  Having  become  a 
dependency  of  Alba,  it  recovered  its  liberty 
about  B.C.  641.  It  supplied  a  contingent  to  the 
confederated  army  of  the  Latin  cities,  raised 
by  the  influence  of  the  exiled  Tarquinius, 
which  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  B.C.  498. 
(See  LAKE  REGILLUS,  Battle.)  It  was  attacked 
by  the  Volsci  and  the  ;Equi  B.C.  461,  and 
received  assistance  from  Rome  against  its 
assailants,  in  return  for  which  the  Tusculans 
aided  the  Romans  in  recovering  the  Capitol 
from  the  Sabines,  B.C.  458.  War  having  beer 
declared  against  it  by  the  Romans,  Camillus 
at  the  head  of  the  army,  on  entering  the  city, 
found  the  people  engaged  in  their  ordinary 
occupations,  and  received  a  most  friendly 
welcome  (a  proceeding  that  led  to  a  closer 
alliance  between  the  two  powers),  B.C.  378 
With  Roman  aid,  the  Latins,  who  had  besiegec 
it,  were  defeated,  B.C.  374.  It  suffered  severely 
from  the  Gauls  B.C.  357  ;  and  although  it  took 
part  with  the  Latins  against  the  Romans,  al 
the  close  of  the  war  was  treated  with  greai 
indulgence  by  the  victors,  B.C.  335.  For  severa 
centuries,  its  counts  held  so  much  power  ir 
Rome  that  they  could  almost  insure  the  eleva 
tion  of  their  own  nominee  to  the  papal  chair, 
Continued  contests  between  the  two  cities  ir 
the  i  ath  century  led  to  the  destruction  ol 
Tusculum,  according  to  Romualdus,  in  1168, 


during  the  pontificate  of  Alexander  III.  ;  or, 
^ccording  to  the  account  of  Richard  de  S. 
jermano,  by  the  German  Emperor  in  1191. 
See  FRASCATI.) 

TUTBURY  (Staffordshire)  was  the  place  of 
tnprisonment  selected  for  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
in  1568,  after  her  removal  from  Bolton.  Sho 
was  placed  in  the  castle,  under  charge  of  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury. 

TWELFTH-DAY.  —  The  feast  of  the  Epi- 
>hany  (q.  v.)  is  so  termed  because  it  is  cele- 
jrated  12  days  after  Christmas.  The  custom 
of  holding  feasts  on  this  day,  presided  over  by 
a  king  and  queen,  chosen  by  lot,  is  of  great 
antiquity,  and  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  relic 
of  the  classical  custom  of  appointing  a  rex 
.  Others  state  that  it  is  derived  from 
a  practice  among  the  Roman  children  of 
drawing  lots  with  beans,  to  see  who  should  be 
king;  and  as  an  old  mode  of  deciding  iho 
question  was  for  a  cake  to  be  made  containing 
i  bran  and  a  pea,  the  receivers  of  the  portions 
containing  these  being  selected  as  king  and 
queen,  this  supposition  receives  some  confir- 
mation; hence  it  is  called  the  Bean-King's 
Festival.  The  observance  of  Twelfth-day  and 
the  appointment  of  a  king  and  queen  arc 
common  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  In  1792  the 
French  National  Assembly  ordered  the  name 
of  the  day  to  be  changed  from  "  La  fete  de 
Uois  "  to  that  of  "La  fete  de  Sans-Culottcs." 

::i:  KINCS.) 

'I'  \V  K  I ,  V  K    T  A  B  L  E  S .  —  The    decemvirs 
appointed  at  Rome  B.C.  451,  drew  up  a  code 
of  civil    law,   whicli    was   engraved  upon  10 
tables  of    brass,   and   called  the   Ten    : 
Two  more  were  added  B.C.  450,  and  the  code 
received  the  name  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 
T\V()  SICILIES.— (See  GEORGE,  ST.,  NAPLES, 

Slfll.V,  &C.) 

T\V  V  FORD.— (See  TIVERTON.) 

TVANA  (Asia  Minor  ,  also  called  Thiana,  or 
Thyaua,  and  Thoana,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  a  Thracian  king,  became  a  Roman  colony 
under  Caracalla  1211 — 217).  Having  been  in- 
corporated with  the  kingdom  of  Palmyra,  it 
was  taken  by  Aurelian  in  272.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Turks  in  709. 

TYBURN  (London),  the  site  of  which  is 
said  to  be  occupied  by  No.  49,  Connaught 
Square,  was  the  old  place  of  execution  for 
felons,  and  was  used  for  this  purpose  as  early 
as  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  (1399—1413).  The 
first  dying  speeches,  <fcc.,  printed  in  England, 
were  speeches  of  malefactors  executed  here  in 
1624.  The  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  and 
Bradshaw  were  exposed  at  Tyburn  Jan.  30, 
1661.  The  last  execution  here  took  place 
Nov.  7,  1783.  Tyburn  Road,  first  mentioned 
in  1679,  and  referred  to  as  Tyburn  Lane  in  1686, 
is  the  modern  Oxford  Street.  By  10  &  n 
Will.  III.  c.  23,  s.  2  (1699),  prosecutors  who  had 
secured  a  capital  conviction  against  a  prisoner, 
obtained  what  was  called  a  Tyburn  Ticket, 
by  which  they  were  exempted  from  serving 
any  ward  or  parish  offices,  in  the  parish  in 
which  the  offence  had  been  perpetrated.  This 
statute  was  repealed  by  58  Geo.  III.  c.  70  (June 
3,  1818).  (See  EXECUTIONS.) 

TYLER'S  INSURRECTION.— (See  WAT 
TYLER'S  INSURRECTION.) 


TYNDARIS 


f    995 


TZURULUM 


TYNDARIS  (Sicily),  founded  by  Dionysius 
the  Elder  B.C.  395,  was  one  of  the  first  cities 
that  declared  for  Timoleon,  after  his  landing 
in  the  island,  B.C.  344.  A  naval  engagement 
took  place  off  the  coast,  B.C.  257,  between  the 
inhabitants  and  the  Romans,  under  C.  Atilius, 
without  any  decided  advantage  to  either  side. 
A  Carthaginian  garrison,  which  had  been 
forced  upon  it,  was  expelled,  and  an  alliance 
formed  with  Rome,  B.C.  254.  It  took  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  war  between  Sextus 
Pompeius  and  Octavius  Caesar,  B.C.  36. 
Although  its  site  is  now  deserted,  it  was  a 
considerable  place  as  late  as  the  4th  century. 

TYNEDALE  was  annexed  to  Northumber- 
land by  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  9  (1497),  on  account  of 
the  marauding  practices  of  the  inhabitants  in 
company  with  the  Scots. 

TYNEMOUTH  (Northumberland)  was 
destroyed  in  an  inroad  of  the  Danes,  under 
Healfden,  in  875.  The  peninsula  was  en- 
closed by  a  wall  and  ditch,  and  the  castle  was 
erected  under  William  I.  (1066—87).  The  castle 
was  taken  from  the  Royalists  by  the  Scotch 
forces  in  1644. 

TYPE-FOUNDING  originated  in  Germany, 
metal  types  having  been  substituted  for  the 
wooden  blocks  about  1452.  William  Caslon 
introduced  it  into  England  about  1720. 

TYPHUS.  —  (See  CATTLE  PLAGUE  and 
FEVER.) 

TYRE  (.Era  of).— This  sera  commenced  Oct. 
19,  B.C.  125. 

TYRE  (Phoenicia),  called  the  "rock-built" 
Tyre,  the  Tsor  of  the  Israelites,  called  by  its 
own  populace  Sor,  or  Sur,  said  to  have  been 
founded  as  early  as  B.C.  2750,  is  mentioned  in 
the  book  of  Joshua  as  one  of  the  boundaries 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  B.C.  1443  (Josh.  xix.  29). 
Tyre  received  a  large  accession  of  population 
in  consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Sido- 
nians  from  their  own  city  by  the  King  of 
Ascalon,  B.C.  1210,  and  some  authorities  regard 
this  as  the  origin  of  Tyre.  Hiram,  King  of 
Tyre,  assisted  Solomon  in  the  construction  of 
his  temple,  B.C.  ion  (i  Kings  v.  i — 12),  and 
the  city  successfully  resisted  a  five  years' 
siege  by  Shalmanaser,  King  of  Assyria,  B.C. 
721  —  B.C.  717,  or,  according  to  Rawlinson, 
B.C.  725 — B.C.  720.  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of 
Babylon,  laid  siege  to  Tyre  B.C.  598,  and 
maintained  the  attack  for  13  years,  during 
which  the  Tyrians  are  said  to  have  aban- 
doned their  old  city,  and  removed  to  this 
island  opposite,  where  they  founded  insular 
Tyre.  The  former  was  called  Old  and  the 
latter  New  Tyre.  The  precise  period  at  which 
this  poi-tion  of  the  city  was  established  is, 
however,  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  Cloth 
was  manufactured  at  Tyre  as  early  as  B.C.  588. 
Alexander  III.  took  Tyre  after  a  seven  months' 
siege  of  extraordinary  difficulty,  during  which 
he  constructed  a  mole  connecting  the  insular 
city  with  the  mainland,  in  July,  332  B.C. 
Antigonus,  King  of  Syria,  besieged  Tyre  B.C. 
315,  and  took  it  after  a  siege  of  15  months; 
and  it  was  treacherously  surrendered  to  Anti- 
ochus  III.  (the  Great),  by  Theodotus,  lieutenant 
of  Ptolemy  (IV.)  Philopater,  B.C.  218.  Tyre 
was  taken  from  the  Saracens  by  the  Crusaders, 
after  a  siege  of  five  months  and  a  half,  June  29, 


1123,  when  a  third  part  of  the  city  was 
bestowed  upon  the  Venetian  republic  for  its 
assistance  in  the  capture.  Saladin  sought  in 
vain  to  retake  it  in  1187,  and  it  was  seized  by 
Chalil,  Sultan  of  Cairo,  in  1291.  The  prosperity 
of  Tyre  was  not  finally  destroyed  until  the 
conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Turks  in  1516.  The 
Metalwilch,  a  sect  of  Shiites,  settled  here  in 
1766,  and  established  a  trade  in  grain  and 
tobacco.  Tyre  surrendered  to  the  allied  fleet 
in  1841.  A  bishop  of  Tyre  was  ordained  by  St. 
Peter.  Councils  were  held  here  in  335  and  518. 

TYRIAN  PURPLE.— (See  DYEING,  PURPLE, 
&c.) 

TYRNAU  (Hungary).  —  The  Austrians 
defeated  the  Hungarians  here  in  1705.  The 
Jesuit  university,  opened  Nov.  13,  1635,  was 
transferred  to  Pesth  in  1777. 

TYROL  (Austria).— This  province  of  Austria, 
which  was  originally  peopled  by  the  Rhsetians, 
after  many  changes  passed  into  the  possession 
of  Count  Berthold,  of  Andechs,  in  1180,  and 
was  ceded  to  the  house  of  Habsburg  in  1363. 
In  1602  it  was  conferred  upon  the  Archduke 
Maximilian,  and  in  1665  it  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  Austrian  empire.  By  the  peace  of 
Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805,  the  Tyrol  was  ceded 
to  Bavaria.  The  population  being  dissatisfied 
with  their  change  of  rulers,  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  April,  1809,  headed  by  the  pa- 
triotic innkeeper,  Andrew  Hofer.  Under  his 
leadership  the  Tyrolese  expelled  the  Bavarians, 
and  defeated  the  French  in  several  engage- 
ments, especially  in  the  two  battles  of  Berg 
and  Isel,  or  Innsprlick,  May  29  and  Aug.  12, 
1809.  The  last-mentioned  victory  resulted  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  the  Tyrol, 
and  the  occupation  of  Innsprilck  by  Hofer, 
Aug.  15.  Austria  resigned  all  the  advantages 
gained  by  the  insurgents,  by  the  treaty  of 
Schonbrunh,  or  Vienna,  Oct.  14,  1809,  by  which 
Bavaria  regained  her  ascendancy.  The  Tyro- 
lese refused  to  lay  down  their  arms,  from  an 
impression  that  the  treaty  was  invalid  ;  and 
the  war  continued  till  Dec.,  when  they  were 
subdued.  Hofer  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
French,  Jan.  20,  1810,  and  was  shot  at  Mantua 
Feb.  20.  The  Tyrol  was  retaken  by  Austria  in 
1814,  and  in  1848  an  insurrection  of  the  inha- 
bitants was  suppressed  by  Marshal  Radetzky. 
(See  INNSPRUCK.) 

TYRONE  (Ireland).  —  This  county,  in  the 
province  of  Ulster,  at  one  time  called  Tyr- 
Owen,  or  Tiroen,  was  the  territory  of  the 
O'Neills,  descendants  of  Neal  of  the  Nine 
Hostages,  King  of  Ireland.  It  was  divided 
amongst  Scotch  and  English  settlers,  called 
"planters,"  after  the  flight  of  the  Earl  of 
Tyrone  in  1607,  and  became  the  theatre  of 
civil  war  in  1641,  and  in  subsequent  years. 
(See  DERRY.) 

TYRRHENIA.—  (See  ETRURIA.) 

TZARSKOCELO  (Russia),  or  the  Emperor's 
village,  about  15  miles  from  St.  Petersburg,  was 
gradually  formed  around  the  palace  founded 
there  by  the  Czarina  Elizabeth  (1742—62). 

TZERNAGORA.— (See  MONTENEGRO.) 

TZURULUM  (Europe),  also  called.  Surallum, 
Syrallum,  and  Tirallum,  a  town  in  Thrace, 
between  Perinthus  and  Hadrianople,  is  known 
as  the  modern  Tchorlu  or  Tchurlu. 
3s  2 


UBEDA 


t    996    ] 


UMMERAPOORA 


u. 

UBEDA  (Spain),  built  by  the  Moors  from  the 
ruins  of  the  Roman  town  Bzetula  in  886,  was 
destroyed  in  1212  by  Alphonso  VIII.,  "  who," 
says  the  Moorish  Chronicler,  "did not  leave  a 
Moslem  alive  therein.  May  the  curse  of  Allah 
rest  upon  him !  "  Having  been  rebuilt,  it  was 
taken  by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1235. 

UBIQUARIANS,  or  UBIQUITARIANS,  so 
named  from  their  distinguishing  doctrine,  that 
the  body  of  Christ  is  everywhere,  were  the 
followers  of  John  Brentius,  or  Brentzen  (1499 — 
Sep.  ii,  1570),  a  Lutheran,  who  first  dissemin- 
ated his  views  in  his  "  Sententia  de  Libello 
Bullingeri,"  published  at  Tubingen  in  1561. 
James  Andrese  or  Andreas  (1528 — Jan.  7,  1590) 
held  the  same  opinion,  and  Brentius  published 
other  works  in  which  it  was  maintained. 

U  DDE  VALLA  (Battle).— The  Danes  defeated 
the  Swedes  at  this  town  of  Sweden,  in  1678. 

U  DEN  HELM.— (See  PHILIPPSBUBG.) 

UDINE  (Italy).  —  This  fortress  of  Venetia 
passed  under  Venetian  rule  in  1445,  and  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1797. 

UDONG  (Treaty),  between  Napoleon  III.  and 
the  Viceroy  of  Cambodia  (q.  v.),  was  signed  at 
this  town  in  Cambodia,  Aug.  u,  1863. 

UDVARDE,  or  UDWARD  (Hungary).  —A 
council  on  discipline  was  held  at  this  town  in 

I3l?GRI,  or  UNGRL— ( See  MAGYARS.) 

UJEIN.— (SeeOoJEiN.) 

UKRAINE  (Russia),  denoting,  in  Polish,  a 
frontier,  the  same  as  the  German  Mark,  and 
sometimes  called  Little  Russia,  was  in  pos- 
session of  the  Goths  in  268.  After  undergoing 
various  changes,  it  was  ceded  to  th'e  Cossacks 
in  1672.  Turkey,  having  asserted  some  claim 
to  the  territory,  abandoned  it  in  1681  in  favour 
of  Russia,  with  which  it  was  incorporated  in 
1772.  Charles  XII.,  on  his  invasion  of  Russia, 
traversed  it  in  order  to  effect  a  junction  with 
Mazeppa  in  1708.  It  was  crossed  by  the 
Emperor  Alexander  I.,  when  he  left  Warsaw 
on  his  southern  journey,  April  30,  1818.  An 
insurrection  which  broke  out  in  the  Ukraine 
April  25,  1831,  was  suppressed  May  26. 

ULEABORG  (Russia).— The  seaport  town  of 
Finland,  founded  in  1610,  taken  by  the  Russians 
in  1714,  and  restored  soon  after  to  Sweden,  was 
ceded  to  Russia  Sep.  17,  1809.  It  suffered 
from  a  fire  in  1822.  The  English  fleet  bom- 
barded it  in  June,  1854. 

ULIARUS  INSULA.—  (See  OLERON.) 

ULISIPPO.— (See  LISBON.) 

ULLOA,  ST.  JUAN  D'  (Mexico),  the  chief 
defence  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  last  fortress  held 
by  the  Spaniards  during  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence, was  taken  by  the  Mexicans  Nov.  18, 
1825.  The  fort  was  bombarded  Nov.  27,  1838, 
by  the  French'admiral  Baudin,  with  three  line- 
of-battle  ships,  one  frigate,  and  two  bomb- 
vessels  ;  and  in  four  hours  the  white  flag  was 
hoisted,  the  walls  having  been  reduced  to 
ruins. 

ULM  (Treaty),  signed  at  this  town  July  3, 
1620,  between  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II., 


supported  by  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  the  Kings 
of  Spain  and  of  Poland,  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
the  Pope,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  League  on 
the  one  part,  and  the  King  of  Bohemia  and 
the  princes  allied  with  him  in  the  Protestant 
Union  of  Germany,  on  the  other. 

ULM  (Wurtemberg).— An  imperial  diet  was 
held  here  to  terminate  the  wars  of  the  German 
nobles,  in  1165.  The  cathedral,  commenced  in 
1377,  was  completed  in  1494.  Ulm,  which 
became  a  free  and  imperial  city  in  1486,  was 
surprised  during  a  fog,  in  June,  1702,  and 
taken  by  Maximilian  Enmnuel,  Elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  then  declared  in  favour  of  the 
house  of  Bourbon.  The  Gallo-Bavarian  garri- 
son surrendered  to  Gen.  Thomgeu  in  1704, 
before  the  trenches  for  its  siege  were  opened. 
Moreau  fell  back  upon  Ulm  in  his  retreat,  Sep. 
27,  1796.  It  capitulated  to  Napoleon  I.  with 
its  Austrian  garrison  of  28,000  men,  under  Gen. 
Mack,  Oct.  20,  1805.  The  fortifications  were 
restored  by  the  confederation  in  1842. 

ULSTER  (Ireland),  one  of  the  provinces, 
was  partly  conquered  in  the  Anglo-Norman 
invasion  by  John  de  Coiircey,  who  assumed 
the  title  of  Earl  of  Ulster  in  1177.  Edward, 
brother  of  Robert  Bruce,  of  Scotland,  landed 
in  Ulster  with  an  army  in  1315. 

ULSTER  KING  OF  ARMS  was  appointed 
for  Ireland  Feb.  2,  1553. 

ULSTER  REBELLION.  —  Roger  More,  a 
gentleman  of  Kildare,  Sir  Phelim  O'Neil,  Lord 
Enniskillen,  and  other  native  Irish  chieftains, 
formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  purpose  of  sur- 
prising Dublin  castle,  and  causing  a  general 
rising  in  Ulster,  both  of  which  were  to  be 
effected  Oct.  23,  1641.  Though  the  former  mis- 
carried, the  rising  in  Ulster  took  place.  The 
country  was  devastated,  the  towns  were  cap- 
tured, and  many  of  the  new  settlers  put  to 
death.  The  revolt,  in  the  course  of  which 
many  thousands  of  lives  were  sacrificed,  was 
not  quelled  until  1649. 

ULSTER  SETTLEMENT.— James  I.  formed 
a  scheme  for  the  colonization  of  Ulster,  in 
1611.  The  lands  were  divided  into  lots  of 
1,000,  1,500,  and  2,000  acres,  and  only  English 
settlers  were  admitted.  The  order  of  baronets 
(q.  v.)  was  established  in  the  same  year,  to 
provide  a  fund  for  the  defence  of  the  new 
English  settlement  of  Ulster.  The  first  patent 
to  Nicholas  Bacon  bears  date  May  22,  1611. 

UMBRELLAS,  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  considered  an  evidence  of  rank,  and  also 
by  the  Romans.  Michael  Drayton,  in  one  of 
his  poems,  written  in  1630,  mentions  them  as 
fashionable  in  England.  Dr.  Jamieson,  who 
purchased  one  at  Paris,  is  said  to  have 
first  introduced  it  into  notice  in  Glasgow  in 
1 780.  The  first  carried  in  the  streets  of  Bristol 
was  in  1782.  Jonas  Han  way,  the  eastern  tra- 
veller, did  much  to  render  the  umbrella 
fashionable,  as  he  carried  one  in  the  streets  of 
London  about  1750,  though  it  was  considered 
a  mark  of  effeminacy. 

UMBRIA  (Battle).— The  Roman  victory  at 
Sentinum  (q.  v.)  sometimes  goes  by  this  name. 

UMMERAPOORA,  or  AMARAPORA  (Bur- 
ma!^, "the  city  of  the  immortals,"  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  March,  1810.  The  court 
was  removed  from  this  city  to  Ava  in  1822, 


UNCTION 


[    997 


UNITED   BRETHREN 


and  an  earthquake  laid  it  in  ruins  in  1839. 
Its  celebrated  temple,  with  250  columns, 
contains  a  colossal  bronze  image  of  Guadama, 
said  to  be  the  last  earthly  representative  of 
Buddha. 

UNCTION.— (See  EXTREME  UNCTION.) 

UNDERGROUND  RAILWAY.— The  name 
given  to  the  Metropolitan  Railway  (g.  v.),  a 
considerable  portion  of  which  passes  under  the 
streets  of  London. 

UNDERTAKERS.— Certain  members  of 
Parliament  who  professed  to  understand  the 
temper  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  to  faci- 
litate the  King's  dealings  with  it,  received  this 
name  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  about  1610.  In 
opening  Parliament,  James  I.  refers  to  them 
as  "a  strange  kind  of  beast  called  undertaker." 
Sir  Henry  Neville  was  their  leader. 

UNDERTAKERS,  or  UPHOLDERS,  were 
incorporated  in  1627. 

UNFORTUNATE  PEACE.  —  (See  CATEAC; 
CAMBRESIS.) 

UNHAPPY    ISLANDS.—  (See  DESVENTURA- 

DAS.) 

UNICORN.  —  Ctesias,  the  Greek  historian, 
describes  it  as  a  native  of  India,  B.C.  398. 
Aristotle  speaks  of  it  under  the  appellation  of 
the  Indian  ass,  B.C.  334.  Various  accounts  of 
this  fabled  animal  have  since  been  written. 
When  James  I.  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
England  in  1603,  he  adopted  the  figure  of  a 
unicorn  to  support  with  the  lion  the  royal 
arms,  the  supporters  of  the  Scottish  arms  being 
two  unicorns. 

UNIFORMITY.— (See  ACT  OF  UNIFORMITY.) 

UNIFORMS.— Harold  II.  clothed  his  soldiers 
in  leather  in  1066.  Louis  XIV.  of  France  gave 
a  uniform  to  his  troops  about  1662.  In  the 
English  navy,  uniforms  are  said  to  have  origi- 
nated with  Admiral  Mostyii  before  1757. 

UNIGENITUS.— The  bull  condemning  the 
doctrines  of  the  Jansenists,  so  called  because 
it  commences  with  this  word,  was  issued  by 
Pope  Clement  XL,  at  the  instance  of  Louis 
XIV.,  Sep.  8,  1713.  It  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Benedict  XIII.  in  1725,  was  made  national 
law  in  1730,  and  was  accepted  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  in  1739.  Beaumont,  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  in  1752,  ordained  that  no  dying 
person  should  be  allowed  to  receive  the  eucha- 
rist  unless  it  could  be  shown  that  he  adhered 
to  the  principles  of  this  bull.  Louis  XV.  issued 
a  declaration  Dec.  13,  1756,  that  though  it  was 
to  be  respected  it  was  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
rule  of  faith.  (See  ACCEPTANTS.) 

UNION.  —  (See  BRUSSELS,  the  Union  of  ; 
CALM\R  ;  EVANGELICAL  UNION  ;  FRANKFORT- 
ON-THE-MAINE  ;  HEILBROSN  ;  HENOTICON  ; 
REPEAL  OF  THE  UNION  ;  UTRECHT,  &c.) 

UNION. — Commissioners  were  appointed  (i 
James  I.  c.  2)  to  treat  with  Scotland  for  the 
union  of  the  two  countries,  in  1604.  Queen 
Anne,  who  in  her  first  speech  to  Parliament 
recommended  it,  March  n,  1702,  was  empow- 
ered to  appoint  commissioners  to  effect  the 
object  by  i  Anne,  c.  8.  They  came  to  terms 
July  22,  1706,  and  25  articles  were  drawn 
up  and  agreed  to.  The  Scottish  Parliament 
passed  the  act  Jan.  16,  1707,  and  in  the 
English  Parliament  a  bill  (6  Anne,  c.  n),  em- 
bodying the  treaty,  was  passed,  and  received 


the  royal  assent  March  6,  1707.  It  took  effect 
May  i.  The  united  kingdoms  were  named 
Great  Britain.  (See  UNION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 
AND  IRELAND.) 

UNION  CHARGEABILITY  ACT,  28  &  29 
Viet.  c.  79  (June  29,  1865),  provides  for  the 
better  distribution  of  the  charge  for  the  Relief 
of  the  Poor  in  Unions.  It  came  into  operation 
March  25,  1866. 

UNION  CLUB  (London)  was  founded  in 
1822.  The  House  was  erected  in  1824. 

UNION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRE- 
LAND was  alluded  to  by  George  III.  in  his 
speech  at  the  opening  of  Parliament,  Jan.  22, 
1800.  A  bill  (39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  47),  embody- 
ing articles  of  union,  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Pitt,  and  received  the  royal  assent  July  2,  1800. 
The  statute  (40  Geo.  III.  c.  38)  passed  the  Irish 
Parliament  June  13,  1800,  and  the  union  took 
effect  from  Jan.  i,  1801.  It  is  called  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

UNIONISTS.— (See  REPUBLICANS.) 

UNION  JACK,  a  national  flag  for  Great 
Britain,  composed  of  the  cross  of  St.  George 
and  the  saltire  of  St.  Andrew,  was  announced 
by  royal  proclamation,  April  12, 1606.  Having 
fallen  into  disuse,  it  was  revived  by  another 
proclamation,  July  28,  1707.  The  saltire  of  St. 
Patrick  was  added  Jan.  i,  1801. 

UNION  RELIEF  AID  ACT.— (See  COTTON 
FAMINE.) 

UNION  YACHT  CLUB  HOUSE  was  estab- 
lished at  Gravesend  by  a  limited  liability  com- 
pany in  1863. 

UNITARIANS  received  the  name  of  Soci- 
nians  (q.  v.)  from  Laelius  Socinus,  who  founded 
a  sect  in  Italy  in  1546,  and  were  established  as 
distinct  bodies  at  Pinkzow,  Rakow,  and  in 
several  parts  of  Transylvania,  in  1565.  They 
condemned  their  own  bishop,  Davidis,  as  a 
heretic,  and  cast  him  into  prison  in  1578. 
Faustus  Socinus  settled  their  disputes,  and 
introduced  uniformity  of  worship  amongst 
bhose  in  Poland  in  1592.  An  edict,  compelling 
them  to  quit  Poland  within  three  years,  was 
issued  in  1658.  Theophilus  Lindsey  left  the 
Dhurch  of  England  and  advocated  their  tenets 
in  1774.  In  the  Presbyterian  churches  their 
doctrines  spread  considerably  about  1795. 
Numerous  societies  were  formed  in  England 
and  the  United  States  for  the  propagation  of 
their  doctrines  in  1808.  An  act  (53  Geo.  III. 
c.  160)  was  passed  for  their  relief  July  21,  1813. 
The  first  National  Convention  of  the  Unitarians 
of  the  United  States  was  held  in  New  York, 
April  5,  1865.  (See  ALMOHADES.) 

UNITED  BRETHREN.— A  number  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren  (q.v.),  persecuted  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  clergy,  took  refuge  in  Saxony, 
where  they  received  a  grant  of  waste  land 
from  Count  Zinzendorf,  and  built  the  village 
of  Herrnhut,  "the  watch  of  the  Lord,"  in 
1722.  The  count  entered  the  clerical  profes- 
sion, and  was  ordained  bishop  of  the  church  at 
Lissa  in  1737.  Some  of  its  members  came  to 
England  in  1738 ;  and  Archbishop  Potter,  in- 
teresting himself  in  their  behalf,  induced  the 
legislature  to  pass  two  acts  (20  Geo.  II.  c.  44, 
1747  ;  and  22  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  1748)  to  relieve 
them  from  taking  oaths,  and  from  certain 
political  disabilities.  In  these  measures  they 


UNITED  GREEK  CHURCH 


[    998    ] 


UNITED  STATES 


were  acknowledged  to  be  "an  ancient  Pro- 
testant episcopal  church,  which  had  been 
countenanced  and  relieved  by  the  kings  of 
England,  his  majesty's  predecessors."  (See 
FARNOVIANS.) 

UNITED  GREEK  CHURCH  consists  of 
Christians  in  Austria,  Italy,  Poland,  and 
Russia,  who  have  not  separated  from  the 
Church  of  Rome,  though  they  are  in  commu- 
nion with  the  Greek  Church  and  observe  its 
ceremonies  and  discipline. 

UNITED  IRISHMEN  conceived  a  project 
for  establishing  an  independent  republic,  and 
were  formed  into  a  society  by  a  barrister 
named  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,  in- 1791.  An  in- 
vasion of  Ireland  by  the  French  was  arranged 
under  their  auspices  in  Dec.,  1796.  Tone,  who 
was  tried  and  convicted  Nov.  10,  1798,  com- 
mitted suicide  in  prison.  An  elaborate  report 
of  their  proceedings  was  prepared  by  a  secret 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and- 
printed  March  15,  1799. 

UNITED  PROVINCES  (Europe).  —  The 
deputies  of  the  five  provinces  of  Guelderland, 
Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  and  the  Frisian 
provinces,  assembled  at  Utrecht,  Jan.  23,  1579, 
and  signed  the  celebrated  treaty  or  union  of 
Utrecht,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Dutch 
republic.  They  renounced  their  allegiance  to 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  July  26,  1581.  Overysscl 
having  joined  it  in  1580,  and  Groningen  in 
1794,  it  formed  the  republic  of  the  Seven 
United  Provinces.  In  addition  to  these  pro- 
vinces, some  cities  were  admitted,  of  which 
the  chief  was  Ghent,  Feb.  4,  1579;  Antwerp, 
July  25,  1579;  and  Bruges,  Feb.  6,  1580.  It 
was  generally  called  Holland  (>/.  v.). 

UNITED  SERVICE  CLUB  (London)  was 
formed  in  1816.  The  house  was  erected  in 
1828.  (See  EAST  INDIAN  UNITED  SERVICE 
CLUB,  and  JUNIOR  UNITI.H  SUIVICE  CLUB.) 

UNITED  SERVICE  MUSEUM  (London), 
in  Whitehall,  was  established  in  1830.  The 
Journal  appeared  in  July,  1857. 

UXITKI)  STATKS  N".  America).—  Thirteen 
states,  forming  part  of  the  colonial  empire  of 
England,  effected  a  separation,  under  the  name 
of  the  United  States,  in  1776. 

A.D. 

1765,  March  22.  Passingof  the  Stamp  Act  (q.  «.).— Oct.  7. 

A  congress,  composed  of  delegates  from  the 
colonies,  assembles  at  New  York. — Oct.  25.  The 
delegates  from  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Rhode 
Island,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland, 
sign  a  declaration  of  union. — Nov.  i.  The  Stamp 
Act  comes  into  operation,  and  is  resisted  by  the 
colonists. 

1766,  March  18.  The  Stamp  Act  is  repealed. 

1767,  June  29.  By  n  Geo.  III.  c.  46,  tea,  glass,  paper,  &c., 

in  British  America  are  taxed. 

1768,  Jan.  20.  The  Massachusetts  assembly  petitions  George 

III.  against  the  measure.— Oct.  I.  An  English 
force  lands  at  Boston. 

1770,  March  5.  A  fatal   affray  takes  place  between  the 

English  soldiers  and  the  people  of  Boston. 

1771,  May  16.  About  1,500  North  Carolinian  rebels  are 

defeated  by  Governor  Tryon  at  Ahnansee. 

1773,  Dec.  16.  The  inhabitants  of  Boston  throw  342  chests 

of  the  taxed  tea  into  the  sea. 

1774,  March.  Boston  is  deprived  of  its  rights  as  a  port  by 

the  Boston  Port  Bill  (14  Geo.  III.  c.  19).— May  13. 
Gen.  Gage  arrives  at  Boston  as  governor.— Sep.  5. 
The  first  congress  assembles  at  Philadelphia. 

1775,  April  18.  The  first  conflict  takes  place  at  Lexington 

(See  CONCORD,  Battle).— May  10.  The  colonists 
seize  Ticonderoga  (7.  ?•.). 


A.D. 

1775,  May    25.    Reinforcements    from    England,    under 

Gens.  Howe,  Burgoyne,  and  Clinton,  arrive  at 
Boston. — June  15.  Washington  is  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army. — June  17.  Battle 
of  Bunker's  Hill  (q.v.).-Sep  lo.  Invasion  of 
Canada  (q.  v.). — Sep.  14.  A  blue  flag,  with  a 
crescent  in  the  right  corner,  is  adopted  as  the 
republican  flag  in  South  Carolina. 

1776,  March  17.  The  English  withdraw   from   Boston. — 

June  18.  The  rebels  are  expelled  from  Canada. — 
July  4.  Congress  adopts  the  "  Declaration  of 
Independence,"  which  is  signed  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  following  13  st;ii. 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Khode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Georgia. — Aug.  27.  The  Eng- 
lish gain  the  battle  of  Long  Island  (q.  v.). — 
Hep.  15.  The  English  occupy  New  York. — Oct. 
II — 13.  The  English  capture  a  rebel  squadron 
on  Lake  Champlain  (q.  v.).— Oct.  28.  Battle  of 
White  Plains  (q.  r.).— Nov.  16.  Fort  Washington 
is  seized  by  the  English.— Dec.  8.  The  Knglish 
take  Khode  Island.— Dec.  13.  Gen.  Lee  is  made 

C'  Mier    by  the    English.— Dec.    26.    Battle    of 
iton. 

1777,  Jan.  3.  Battle  of  Princeton.— July  31.  The  Marquis 

La  Fayette  having  arrived  with  other  French 
officers,  is  appointed  major-general  in  the  re- 
publican army.— Sep.  II.  Itattle  of  Brundywino 
(q.  v.).— Sep.  26.  Lord  Cornwallis  takes  Phila- 
delphia.— Oct.  4.  Battle  of  Germantowii  (q.  v.). — 
( let.  17.  Gen.  Bnrgoynu  surrenders  with  his  army 
at  Saratoga. — Nov.  15.  Articles  of  confederation 
are  adopted  by  theCongress. — Dec.  16.  France  ac- 
knowledges the  independence  of  the  United  States. 

1778,  Feb.  6.  Treaties  of  amity  and  commerce  are  con- 

eluded  witli  France  at  Paris. — June  18.  The  Eng- 
lish evacuate  Philadelphia.— Dec.  29.  Savannah 
i/.ed  by  the  F.nglish. 

1779,  March  3.  Defeat  of  the  rebels  at  Briar  Creek  (q.  v.). 

1780,  May  12.  Charleston   surrenders   to    the    English.— 

Aug.  16.  Battle  of  Camden  ('/.  i:). — Sep.  23. 
Arrest  of  Major  Andre.— Oct.  2.  Major  Andre  is 
unjustly  executed  as  a  spy. 

1781,  Jan.  17.  Battle  of  Cowpens. — March  15.  Cornwallis 

gain's  a  victory  at  Guildford.— Sep.  8.  Victory  of 
the  English  at  Kutavv  Springs  (?.».). — <  let.  19. 
Lord  Cornwallis,  with  a  force  of  7,073  men,  sur- 
renders at  Yorktown. 

1783,  Oct.  8.  Holland  acknowledges  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  the 
Hague. 

1783,  Jan.  20.  An  armistice  is  concluded  with  Great 
Britain. — Feb.  5.  The  independence  of  the  states 
is  acknowledged  by  Sweden;  I'M).  25,  by  Den- 
mark; March  24.  by  Spain.— Sep.  3.  Peace  with 
England  is  definitively  concluded  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris. — Nov.  25.  The  English  evacuate  New  York. 

1785,  June  i.  George  III.  receives  John  Adiims  as  the  first 

accredited  minister  from  the  United  States  to  the 
court  of  London. 

1786,  Insurrections  against  the  government  break  out  in 

Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

1787,  Sep.    17.  A   federal  constitution  is  proposed  by   a 

national  convention. 

1789,  April  14.  Washington  is  declared  first  president  of 
the  United  States. 

1791,  Feb.  18.  Vermont  is  admitted  into  the  Union.     The 

United  States  Bank  is  established  at  Philadelphia. 

1792,  June  i.  Kentucky  (q.v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 
1794.  Insurrectionary  movements  occur  in  Pennsylvania. 

— Nov.  19.  A  treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and 
navigation  is  concluded  with  Great  Britain  at 
London. 

1796,  Dec.  7.  Washington  resigns  the  presidency.    Ten- 

nessee (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1797,  July  7.  The  treaties  with  France  are  annulled. 

1799,  Dec.  14.  Death  of  Washington  at  Mount  Vernon, 

in  Virginia. 

1800.  The  seat  of  government  is  removed  from  Phila- 

delphia to  Washington.— Sep.  30.  A  convention 
with  France  is  concluded  at  Paris. 

1801,  June  14.  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold  dies  in  London. 

1802.  Ohio  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1803,  April  30.  Louisiana  (q.  v.)  is  purchased  from  the 

French  Government. 

1804.  The  district  of  Mobile  is  established. 


UNITED  STATES 


[    999    3 


UNITED  STATES 


A.D. 

1807,  Feb.  ig.  Aaron  Burr,  arrested  on  a  charge  of  con- 

spiracy, is  acquitted. — July  2,.  English  armed 
vessels  are  refused  admission  into  the  ports  of 
the  United  States. — Dec.  33.  A  general  emb&rgo 
is  imposed  by  the  United  States  Government. 

1808,  Jan.   i.  The  importation  of  African  slaves  is  pro- 

hibited by  Congress. 

1809,  March  I.  The  general  embargo  is  repealed. 

1810,  March  23.  Napoleon  I.  promulgates  the  Kambouillet 

decree,  which  prohibits  French  vessels  from 
entering  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  and 
orders  the  seizure  of  all  their  vessels  arriving  in 
French  waters.  —  Nov.  3.  Intercourse  recom- 
mences between  France  and  the  United  States. 
1813,  April  8.  Louisiana  is  admitted  into  the  Union. — June 
18.  War  is  declared  against  Great  Britain.— 
Aug.  15.  Gen.  Hull,  having  invaded  Canada  (q.v.) 
with  about  3,5oomen,  surrenders  to  the  English. — 
Aug.  IQ.  The  Guerriere  frigate  is  captured  by  the 
U.  8.  frigate  Constitution.— Oct.  13.  Victory  of 
the  English  at  Queenstown  (q.v.).— Oct.  18.  The 
U.S.  frigate  Wasp  takes  the  English  sloop  Frolic. 
—Oct.  25.  The  English  frigate  Macedonia  is  taken 
by  the  U.S.  frigate  United  States.— Dec.  29.  The 
Java  frigate  surrenders  to  the  U.S.  frigate  Con- 
stitution. 

1813,  Jan.   24.    Battle  of    Frenchtown   (q.  v.). — Feb.  25. 

Capture  of  the  English  sloop  Peacock  by  the  U.S. 
ship  Horn**.— April  37.  York,  Upper  Canada,  is 
captured  by  the  U.S.  army. — May  2-  The  English 
are  repulsed  at  Fort  Stepheuson. — June  I.  Capture 
of  the  U.S.  frigate  Chesapeake  by  Capt.  Broke 
of  the  Sltinnon.  (See  CHESAPEAKE.)— June  3. 
The  English  take  the  U.S.  vessels  Growler  and 
Eagle.  — June  6.  Battles  of  Stony  Creek  and 
Burlington  Heights  (q.v.).— June  22.  The  English 
are  defeated  onCrauey  Island. — Aug.  14.  Seizure 
of  the  U.S.  sloop  Argus  by  the  English  ship 
Pelican. — Sep.  lo.  Commodore  Perry,  U.S.  navy, 
captures  an  English  squadron  on  Lake  Erie. — 
Oct.  5.  Battle  of  the  Thames.— Nov.  11.  Battle  of 
Williamsburg. — Dec.  30.  The  English,  victorious 
at  Blackrock  (q.v.),  burn  Buffalo  (q.  v.). 

1814,  March  4.  The  English  are  defeated  at  Longwood. — 

March  28.  Surrender  of  the  U.S.  frigate  Essex  to 
H.  M.  ships  Phoebe  and  Cherub.— April  25-  Admiral 
Cochrane  declares  the  United  States  ports  in  a 
state  of  strict  blockade.— May  6.  The  English 
seize  Fort  Oswego. — July  3.  Fort  Erie  is  captured 
by  the  United  States  army.— July  5.  Battle  of 
Chippawa  (q.  v.). — July  25.  An  indecisive  action 
takes  place  at  Bridge\^ater. — Aug.  15.  The  Eng- 
lish fail  in  an  attempt  to  recover  Fort  Erie. — 
Aug.  24.  The  English,  victorious  at  Bladensburg 
(q.  v.),  seize  Washington,  where  they  burn  the 
Capitol  and  other  public  buildings. — Aug.  29. 
Alexandria  capitulates  to  the  English. — Sep.  II. 
Capture  of  an  English  squadron  on  Luke  Cham- 
plain  (q.  ».).— Sep.  13.  Defeat  of  the  U.S.  army 
at  Baltimore.— Dec.  24.  Peace  with  Great  Britain 
is  concluded  at  Ghent. 

1815,  Jan.  8.  Battle  of  New  Orleans.— Feb.  17.  Ratifica- 

tion of  the  treaty  of  Ghent. 

1816,  Dec.  1 1.  Indiana  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1817,  Mississippi  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1818,  Illinois  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1819,  March  3.  Alabama  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Arkansas  (q.  v.)  is  erected  into  a  separate  territory. 

1830,  Oct.   24.  Spain  cedes  Florida  (q.v.)  to  the   United 

States.  Maine  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 
Conveying  negroes  from  Africa  to  America  is 
declared  piracy. 

1831.  Missouri  (q.v.)   is   admitted  into  the  Union.     (See 

MISSOURI  COMPROMISE.) 

1833,  March  19.  The  United  States  Government  acknow- 

ledges the  independence  of  the  South  American 
governments. 

1834,  Aug.  13.  Gen.  La  Fayette  visits  the  United  States. 

1835,  May  28.  A  treaty  of    friendship   and  commerce   is 

concluded  with  Colombia.  —  Sep.  7.  Gen.  La 
Fayette  returns  to  France. 

1836,  April  36.  A  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  is  con- 

cluded with  Denmark. — July  4.  Death  of  the  ex- 
presidents  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson. — 
Nov.  3.  A  convention  is  concluded  with  Great 
Britain  for  indemnifying  the  sufferers  by  the 
war  of  1812—14. 
1848,  May  13.  A  new  and  protective  tariff  is  adopted. 


A.D. 

1830,  May  7.  A  trea 


concluded  with  Turkey.    The 


ports  are  again  opened  to  English  commerce. 

1831,  July  4.  Death  -of  the  ex-president  James  Monroe. 

(See  MOXROE  DOCTRINE.) 

1832,  July  14.  New  tariff  laws  are  passed.  A  commercial 

crisis  prevails  in  the  United  States. 

1835,  Sep.  Anti-negro  emancipation  riots  occur. 

1836,  April.  Arkansas  and  Michigan  (q.  v.)  are  admitted 

into  the  Union. 

1837,  Dec.  39.  The   U.S.  steamer  Caroline  is  burned  by 

Canadian  Royalists,  near  Schlosser,  for  having 
brought  assistance  to  the  rebels. 

1838,  Jan.  5.  The  president  prohibits  United  States  citizens 

from  aiding  Canadian  rebels  in  arms  against  the 
English  Government. 

1839,  Oct-  9-  T«e  United  States  Bank  suspends  payment 
1841,  Jan.    Alexander    M'Leod,   an  English  subject,  is 

arrested  in  New  York  state  on  a  charge  of  com- 
plicity in  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline. — Feb. 
A  true  bill  for  murder  and  arson  is  found  against 
him.— March  12.  The  English  minister  demands 
the  release  of  M'Leod.— April  4.  Death  of  Presi- 
dent Harrison  a  month  after  his  inauguration. — 
— Sep.  9.  A  party  of  Canadian  volunteers  cross 
the  New  York  frontier,  and  seize  and  carry  into 
Canada  Col.  Grogan,  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States. — Sep.  II.  Resignation  of  the  ministry,  in 
consequence  of  the  president's  exercise  of  his 
power  of  veto. — Sep.  25.  The  president  issues  a 
proclamation  against  "Hunters'  Lodges,"  or  any 
other  secret  societies  formed  for  the  annoyance 
of  the  Canadian  frontier.— Oct.  4.  The  trial  of 
M'Leod  is  commenced  at  Utica,  and  Col.  Grogan 
is  restored  to  the  U.S.  Government.  —  Oct.  12. 
M'Leod  is  acquitted. — Oct.  27.  The  brig  Creole 
sails  from  Hampton  Roads  for  New  Orleans  laden 
with  slaves  and  tobacco. — Nov.  7.  The  slaves  ob- 
tain the  mastery  of  the  Creole,  murder  their 
owner,  Mr.  Hewell,  wound  several  of  the  crew, 
and  steer  for  Nassau,  New  Providence. — Nov.  9. 
The  English  governor  of  Nassau  liberates  all  the 
slaves  excepting  those  concerned  in  the  murder 
and  mutiny. 

1843,  April  i.  Lord  Ashburton  arrives  at  New  York  on  a 
special  mission  from  the  English  Government— 
Aug.  9.  Signing  of  the  treaty  of  Washington, 
better  known  as  the  Ashburton  Treaty  (q.  v.),  by 
the  English  and  U.S.  plenipotentiaries.— Aug.  10. 
The  president  exercises  his  power  of  veto  in  the 
case  of  a  proposed  tariff  bill.— Aug.  30.  After 
undergoing  some  modifications,  the  tariff  act 
receives  the  president's  signature.— Sep.  30.  Lord 
Ashburton  arrives  in  England. 

1844,  April  13.  The  Texans  conclude  a  treaty  with  the 

United  States  requesting  annexation  to  the  Union. 
— June  37.  Joe  Smith,  the  prophet  of  the  Mor- 
monites  (q.  v.),  is  shot  by  the  mob. 

1845,  March  i.  Texas  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union.— 

March  3.  Florida  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the  Union. 
—June  4.  War  is  declared  against  the  United 
States  by  Mexico  (q.  v.). 

1846,  June  15.  A  treaty  for  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon 

boundary  question  is  concluded  with  Great 
Britain  at  Washington. — Aug.  4.  Iowa  (q.  v.)  is 
admitted  into  the  Union. — Aug.  33.  Gen.  Kearney 
announces  the  annexation  of  New  Mexico  to  the 
United  States. 

847.  The  United  States  army  gains  many  victories  in 
Mexico  (q.  v.). 

:848,  Feb.  3.  Upper  California  is  ceded  to  the  United 
States.— Feb.  31.  John  Quincy  Adams  is  seized 
wiih  a  fit  in  the  house  of  Congress. — Feb,  33. 
Mr.  Adams  dies.— May  19.  Peace  is  ratified  witu 
Mexico.  Wisconsin  (q.  v.)  is  admitted  into  the 
Union. 

1849,  March  3.  The  territory  of  Minnesota  (q.v.)  is  erected. 

—Aug.  II.  The  president  publishes  a  proclama- 
tion against  the  expedition  of  Gen.  Narciso  Lopez 
against  Cuba.— Sep.  15.  The  French  ambassador 
is  dismissed  from  Washington,  (tire  CRICKET.) 

1850,  April  19.  A  convention  for  the  establishment  of  a 

ship-canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Panama  is 
concluded  with  Great  Britain.  (See  BULWER- 
CLAYTOX  TREATY.)— May  17.  Gen.  Lopez,  who 
conducts  another  piratical  expedition  against 
Cuba  for  the  purpose  of  annexing  that  island 
to  the  U.S.,  is  repulsed  at  Cardenas  by  the 
Spanish  authorities. 


UNITED   STATES 


[    1000    ] 


UNITED   STATES 


1850,  July  9.    Death    of   the  president,  Gen.    Taylor. — 

Aug.  Henry  Clay  carries  the  "omnibus  measure," 
by  which  California  is  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  free  state,  and  the  Fugitive  Slave  Bill  is 
passed.  (See  CALIFORNIA  and  SLAVERY.)— 
Sep.  9.  New  Mexico  and  Utah  are  admitted  as 
territories. 

1851,  April  25.  The  president  issues  another  proclamation 

against  the  marauding  expeditions  directed, 
against  Cuba.— Aug.  13.  (Jen.  Lopez  effects 
another  landing  on  the  island. — Sep.  I.  Gen. 
Lopez  is  executed  by  the  garotte  at  Havana. — 
Sep.  14.  Dentil  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper. — Oct. 
2,2.  The  president  issues  a  proclamation  against  a 
projected  expedition  in  favour  of  the  Mexican 
insurgents. — Dec.  5.  Louis  Kossuth,  the  Hun- 
garian exile,  lands  at  New  York. — Dec.  34.  A 
destructive  fire  at  the  Capitol,  Washington, 
destroys  the  library  of  the  Congress,  and  many 
state  document*. 

1853,  May  26.  Sir  John  Pakington,  as  colonial  secretary, 
addresses  a  note  to  the  U.S.  Government  respect- 
ing tin;  encroachments  of  their  vessels  on  English 
fisheries.— Aug.  The  discovery  of  the  "Lone 
Star "  Society  (q.  t>.)  creates  some  sensation  in 
England.  An  expedition  is  despatched  to  Japan 
for  commercial  purposes. 

1853,  June  22.    The   Hungarian  Martin  Kossta,  a  citizen 

of  the  United  States,  is  seized  by  the  Austrian 
authorities  at  Smyrna  as  a  rebel,  in  consequence 
of  which  several"  Austrian  ollici.il-  are  assa»i- 
ntitcd  by  political  refugees. — rapt.  Ingrahain, 
I'.S.  corvette  */.  l.niiix,  demands  the  restoration 
of  Kossta.  who  i.s  afterwards  surrendered. — 
July  14.  Opening  of  the  New  York  exhibition. 
The  territory  of  Washington  is  erected. 

1854,  Feb.   3«.  The  U.S.  vessel   HI-,,-1;  J-,,^1,-  is  seized  by 

the  Spaniards  at  Cuba.  March  8.  A  commercial 
treaty  is  concluded  \vith  Japan.— April  28.  The 
United  Stales  Government  announces  its  neu- 
trality in  the  eastern  question. — June  7.  A  reci- 
procity treaty  with  British  America  is  concluded 
at  Washington.— June  34.  Anti-slaverv  riot-  take 
place  ut  Boston.— July  13.  Capt.  Holl'ins,  of  the 
Cyane  corvette,  bombards  Greytown  (q.  c.),  in 
Central  America.— July  23.  A  convention  relative 
to  the  rights  of  neutrals  is  concluded  with 
Kussia.  .Nebraska  and  Kansas  are  erected  into 
territories. 

1855,  April    12.  The  United   States  renounce  the   treaty 

concluded  with  Denmark  in  1836.— .Nov.  K.  A 
treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  is  concluded  with 
Switzerland. 

1856,  May  2   Charles  P.ird  Simmer  is  assaulted  by  Preston 

Brooks  in  the  Senate  House,  Washington,  for 
his  strong  expression  of  anti-slavery  principles. 
— May  2*.  Mr.  Ci-impton,  English  envoy  at  the 
United  States  Government,  is  ordered  by  the 
president  to  quit  Washington.— June  34.  The  pre- 
sident recognizes  the  filibuster  general  Walker 
as  president  of  Nicaragua.  —  -Nov.  4.  James 
Buchanan,  the  democratic,  or  pro-slavery  candi- 
date, is  elected  to  the  presidency,  after  a  Mvera 
contest  with  Col.  Fremont,  the  representative  of 
the  republican,  or  anti-slavery  party.— Dec.  16. 
The  ship  l\i'si>liiti:  is  formally  presented  to  Queen 
Victoria  by  the  United  States  Government. 

1857,  March  16.  Lord  Napier  is  Ireceived  by  the  president 

as  English  ambassador. — June  16.  Kiots  at  New 
York.— July  7.  A  treaty  with  Siam  is  concluded 
at  Bangkok.— Sep.  33.  Commencement  of  the 
religious  "revival"  (?.».).— Oct.  13.  The  banks 
of  New  York  suspend  payment. — Nov.  15.  A 
treaty  with  Nicaragua  is  concluded  at  Washing- 
ton. Several  filibustering  expeditions  are  sent 
against  the  Central  American  republics. 

1858,  Feb.  14.  The  U.S.  army  defeats  the  Mormons  in  an 

engagement  near  Eco-Cannians.  —  March  38. 
Nicaragua  places  herself  under  the  protection  of 
the  Union.— May  14.  Minnesota  is  admitted  a 
state  of  the  Union. — June  26.  The  U.S.  army 
enters  Utah,  the  Mormon  capital.  —  July  28. 
A  commercial  treaty  with  Japan  is  concluded 
at  Kanagawa.  —  Aug.  5.  Completion  of  the 
Atlantic  Telegraph  (q.  i\).  —  Oct.  30.  President 
Buchanan  cautions  the  people  not  to  participate 
in  a  projected  filibustering  expedition  against 
Nicaragua. 


1859,  Jan.  28.  William  Hickling  Prescott,  the  American 

historian,  dies  at  New  York.— Feb.  4.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  is  concluded  with  Paraguay.— Feb. 
12.  Oregon  (q.  v.)  is  erected  into  a  state  of  the 
Union.— July  27.  Gen.  Harncy  occupies  the  island 
of  San  Juan  in  the  name  of  the  United  States 
Government. — July  29.  Mr.  Ward  arrives  atPekiu 
as  U.S.  minister  to  the  Emperor  of  China. — Aug. 
16.  A  treaty  with  China  is  ratified  at  Peitang.— 
Oct.  7.  Walker's  filibusters  are  made  prisoners 
by  the  United  States  Government  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi. — Oct.  17.  A  negro  insurrection 
breaks  out  at  Harper's  Ferry  (q.v.).— Nov.  38. 
Death  of  Washington  Irving. 

1860,  Feb.    i.    Pennington  is  appointed  speaker  of    the 

chamber  of  representatives  after  a  contest. — 
March  5.  Congress  nominates  a  committee  of 
inquiry  into  the  means  employed  by  President 
Buchanan  to  secure  his  election,  and  into  the 
char. icier  of  his  administration.— March  38.  The 
president  protests  against  this  measure. — April 
23.  A  democratic  convention  to  secure  the  election 
of  Stephen  Douglas  as  president,  assembles  at 
Charleston. — May  9.  A  convention  of  unionists 
assembles  at  Baltimore,  and  proposes  John  Bell 
for  the  presidency.— May  14.  A  Japanese  em- 
bassy is  received  by  the  president  at  Washington. 
—May  16.  The  republican  convention  assembles 
at  Chicago,  and  nominates  Abraham  Lincoln  as 
candidate.— June  18.  A  second  democratic  con- 
vention meets  at  Baltimore,  and  separates  into 
two  sections,  the  northern  delegates  persisting  in 
their  nomination  of  Douglas,  while  the  southern 
seeeders  propose  John  Brcckinridgc. — Sep.  13. 
The  filibuster.  Gen.  Walker,  is  shot  at  Honduras. 
—Oct.  3.  The  Prince  of  Wales  is  received  bv  the 
president  at  Washington.— Nov.  6.  A.  Lincoln  is 
declared  president  elect,  and  political  agitation 
commence!)  in  the  southern  states. — Dec.  2O. 
South  Carolina  secedes  from  the  Union. — Dec. 
29.  Howell  Cobb,  Lewis  Cass,  and  John  B. 
Floyd  resign  their  appointments  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

1861,  Jan.  3.  President  Buchanan  refuses  to  withdraw 

the  federal  forces  from  Fort  Sumter,  Charles- 
ton, and  announces  his  intention  of  enforcing 
the  laws  of  the  Union  in  South  Carolina.— Jan. 
4.  A  general  fast  is  observed  on  account  of  the 
disaffection  of  the  southern  states.  —  Jan.  9. 
Mississippi  secedes  from  the  Union. — Jan.  lo. 
Florida  withdraws.— Jan.  n.  Alabama  secedes.— 
Jan.  19.  The  convention  of  Georgia  declares  that 
state  no  longer  part  of  the  Union.— Jan.  26. 
Louisiana  secedes. — Feb.  I.  Secession  of  Texas. 
— Feb.  9.  Delegates  from  the  seceded  states 
assemble  at  Montgomery,  and  adopt  a  consti- 
tution for  the  Confederated  States  of  America, 
of  which  Jefferson  Davis  is  declared  president. 
— Feb.  18.  Inauguration  of  J.  Davis  as  president 
of  the  confederation. — Feb.  27.  A  conference  for 
restoring  peace  terminates  its  sittings  at  Wash- 
ington.—March  2.  New  Mexico  is  admitted  as 
a  state  of  the  Union,  and  President  Buchanan, 
signs  the  Maine  tariff .  —  March  4.  Abraham 
Lincoln  is  inaugurated  president.— April  13.  The 
Confederates,  under  Gen  Beauregarcl,  attack  the 
Federals  in  Fort  Sumter,  and  compel  them  to 
surrender  after  a  bombardment  of  40  hours. — 
April  15.  President  Lincoln  arms  the  militia,  and 
grants  the  Confederates  a  delay  of  20  days  in 
which  to  consider  their  position. — April  17. 
Virginia  secedes.  — April  19.  President  Lincoln 
proclaims  the  southern  ports  in  a  state  of  block- 
ade.—April  30.  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  is  seized  by 
the  Confederates.— May  6.  Arkansas  leaves  the 
Union. — May  13.  The  Federals,  under  Gen.  Butler, 
occupy  Baltimore.— May  16.  President  Lincoln 
states  his  determination  to  cease  all  diplomatic 
relations  with  such  foreign  powers  as  acknow- 
ledge the  Confederates.  —  May  18.  Kentucky 
declares  itself  neutral. — May  23.  The  Federals 
enter  Virginia.— May  31.  Postal  communication 
ceases  between  the  northern  and  southern  states. — 
June  8.  Tennessee  secedes. — June  10.  The  Federals 
are  defeated  at  Great  Bethel.— June  18.  Battle 
of  Booneville.  —  July  5.  An  engagement  takes 
place  near  Carthage,  Missouri. — July  II.  Conflict 
at  Rich  Mountain. 


UNITED   STATES 


[       1001       ] 


UNITED   STATES 


1861,  July  20.  The  Confederate  Congress  assembles  at 
Richmond,  Virginia.— July  31.  Total  rout  of  the 
Federals  at  the  battle  of  Manassas  (?.».),  or 
Bull  Run.— Aug.  10.  Battle  of  Wilson's  Creek.— 
Aug.  16.  President  Lincoln  proclaims  Georgia, 
South  Carolina,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Ten- 
nessee, Alabama,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas, 
Mississippi,  and  Florida  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  and  interdicts  all  commercial  re- 
lations with  them.  —  Aug.  29.  Forts  Hatteras 
and  Clark  are  taken  by  the  Federals. — Sep.  30. 
The  Confederates  capture  Lexington.— Oct.  31. 
Defeat  of  the  Federals  at  Ball's  Bluff.— Nov.  7. 
The  Federals  occupy  Port  Royal,  South  Carolina. 
— Nov.  8.  Messrs.  Slidi:ll  and  Mason  are  taken 
from  the  English  mail  steamer  Trent.  (See  TRENT 
AFFAIR.) — Dec.  Congress  passes  a  vote  of  thanks 
to  Capt.  Wilkes  for  having  seized  Messrs.  Slidell 
and  Mason.— Dec.  4.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment refuses  to  join  England,  France,  and 
Spain  in  an  attempt  to  re-establish  order  in 
Mexico. — Dec.  23.  Lord  Lyons,  English  minister 
at  Washington,  demands  the  surrender  of  Mason 
and  Slidell.— Dec.  27.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment accedes  to  the  demand. — Dec.  36.  A  de- 
structive fire  breaks  out  at  the  government- 
stables,  Washington.— Dec.  30.  The  New  York 
bankers  suspend  cash  payments. 

1863,  Jan  39.  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell  arrive  in  Eng- 
land.—  Jan.  12.  Mr.  Edwin  Stanton^succeeds 
Mr.  Cameron  as  secretary  of  war.  — Man.  17. 
Death  of  ex-president  Tyler  at  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia.—Jan.  19.  Battle  of  Millsprings. — Feb.  16. 
Fort  Donelsonis  taken  by  the  Federals.— Feb.  21. 
Capt.  Gordon  is  executed  at  New  York  for 
slavery  and  piracy.  —  March  3.  Mr.  Secretary 
Seward  protests  against  the  European  interven- 
tion in  Mexico.— March  6.  Mr.  Lincoln,  in  his 
message  to  Congress,  proposes  apian  of  pecuniary 
assistance  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves 
in  such  states  as  should  adopt  an  abolition 
policy.— March  6—8.  Battle  of  Elkhom  or  Pea- 
Ridge.  —  March  8.  The  Confederate  iron-plated 
steam-ship  Merrimac  destroys  the  Federal  sail- 
ing frigates  Cumberland  and  Congress  in  Hamp- 
ton Roads.  —  March  9.  An  engagement  takes 
place  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Federal 
floating-battery  Monitor,  in  which  the  former  is 
compelled  to  retire.— March  10.  The  Confederates 
retire  from  Manassas  Junction,  or  Bull  Run. — 
April  3.  The  senate  abolishes  slavery  in  the  district 
of  Columbia.— April  6  and  7.  Two  severe  battles 
fought  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  near  Corinth, 
are  won  by  the  Confederates.— April  Ii.  Fort 
Pulaski,  on  the  Savannah,  surrenders  to  the 
Federals.— April  36.  The  Federal*  occupy  New 
Orleans.  — May  3.  The  Confederates  evacuate 
Yorktown.— May  5.  Battle  of  Williamsburg.— 
May  11.  The  Confederates  blow  up  the  Merrimac 
to  prevent  its  capture  by  the  enemy. — May  18. 
The  Federals  under  Gen.  Banks  are  defeated  at 
Winchester.— May  31  and  June  I.  The  battle  of 
Chickahominy  or  Fair  Oaks  (q.  v.). — June  6.  The 
Federals  seize  Memphis.— June  9.  The  senate 
decrees  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  all  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Union. — June  14.  The  Federals  are 
defeated  at  James  Island,  near  Charleston. — 
June  16.  The  Federals  are  defeated  at  Secession- 
ville,  on  the  river  James,  four  miles  from 
Charleston.— June  19.  The  Federal  House  of 
Representatives  decrees  the  confiscation  of  the 
slaves  of  rebels.— June  25.  The  conflict  at  White 
Oak  Swamp  commences  the  struggle  of  seven 
days  before  Richmond,  known  as  the  battles  of 
the  Chickahominy  (q.v.).  McClellan  is  com- 
pelled to  retreat  towards  the  James  River. — June 
37.  The  battle  of  Gaines  Mill.— June  28.  The 
Confederates  gain  the  battle  of  Peach  Orchard, 
and  occupy  White  House,  the  head-quarters  of 
Gen.  McClellan.— June  29.  The  battle  of  Savage's 
Station,  or  White  Oak  Swamp.— June  30.  The 
battle  of  James  River  or  Frazer's  Farm. — July  I. 
The  battle  of  Malvern  Hill,  after  which  the  Federals 
take  up  their  position  at  Harrison's  Bar. — July 
17.  Mr.  Lincoln  sanctions  a  bill  for  confiscating  the 
property  and  emancipating  the  slaves  of  all 
persons  who  should  continue  in  arms  against  the 
Union  for  60  days. 


Potomac  and  invade  Maryland.  —  Sep.  14. 
of  Hagerstown  or  South  Mountain.    Col. 


.. 

1863,  July  24.  Death  of  ex-president  Van  Buren.—  Aug. 

I.  The  Federal  treasury  issues  a  postage-stamp 
currency  of    eight  values,    ranging    from    I   to 
90  cents.  —  Aug.  4.  President  Lincoln  calls  for  a 
second  levy  of  300,000  men.—  Aug.  5.  The  Federals 
occupy   Baton    Rouge.—  Aug.    9.    The    Confede- 
rates, under  Gen.  Jackson,  defeat  Gen.  Banks 
at  Culpepper  Court  House,  or  Cedar  Mountain, 
Virginia.—  Aug.  16.  McClellan  abandons  his  posi- 
tion at  Harrison's  Bar.  —  Aug.  33.  The  Confede- 
rates   attack    Gen.    Pope    near    Rappahannock 
station,    and    compel    him    to    retreat    towards 
Warrenton.  —  Aug.  34.   The   Federals  are  driven 
from   Manassas  Junction.  —  Aug.  35.    Gen.   Pope 
is    defeated    at  Cattlets  Station.—  Aug.   39.   The 
Federal  general  Burnside  evacuates  Fredericks- 
burg.  —  Aug.    39    and    30.    The     second   battle 
of   Slanassas    Junction    (q.  t>.),    or  Bull    Run.  — 
Sep.  2.  The  Federals,  under  Gen.  Pope,  evacuate 
Centreville    and    retreat    towards    Washington. 
Pope  is  superseded  in  the  command  by  McClellau, 
and     is     sent    against     the    Indian     insurgents 
in    Minnesota.  —  Sep.    5  and  6.    The    Confede- 
rates, under  Gens.   Lee  and  Jackson,  cross  the 

Battle 
Miles, 

with  his  corps,  surrenders  to  the  Confederates  at 
Harper's  Ferry.  —  Sep.  15.  Battle  of  Middletown. 
—Sep.  17.  Battle  of  Antietam  Creek,  or  Sharps- 
burg.  (See  SHAKPSBUEG).  The  garrison  of  Mun- 
fordsville,  Kentucky,  surrenders  to  the  Con- 
federates. —  Sep.  18  and  19.  The  Confederates 
recross  the  Potomac  at  Shepherdstown.  —  Sep.  22. 
Mr.  Lincoln  issues  a  proclamation  declaring  all 
the  slaves  in  such  states  as  should  continue 
in  revolt  till  Jan.  I,  1863,  emancipated  from 
that  date.  —  Sep.  35.  The  governor  of  16  states 
of  the  Union  present  an  address  to  the  presi- 
dent approving  of  his  emancipation  proclama- 
tion. —  Oct.  3  —  5.  After  two  days  fighting,  Gen. 
Kosencrantz  defeats  the  Confederates  under  Gens. 
Price  and  Van  Dorn  at  Corinth.—  Oct.  5.  Gen. 
Van  Dorn  sustains  a  second  defeat  at  the  Hatchie. 
—Oct.  8  and  9.  Battle  of  Perrysville  or  Chaplin's 
Hills,  Kentucky.  —  Nov.  7.  Gen.  Burnside  succeeds 
McClellan  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac.—  Dec.  13.  Gen.  Lee  defeats  the 
Federals,  under  Burnside,  at  Fredericksburg 
(q.  ».).—  Dec.  14.  Gen.  Banks  takes  the  command 
of  the  department  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  New 
Orleans.  —  Dec.  15.  Bumside  recrosses  the  Rappa- 
hannock. —  Dec.  37.  Gen.  Sherman  lays  siege  to 
Vicksburg,  and  is  compelled  to  retire  afterseveral 
days'  fighting.—  Dec.  30.  The  Monitor  sinks  off 
Cape  Hatteras  during  a  storm.—  Dec.  31.  Com- 
mencement of  the  battle  of  Murfreesborough 
(q.  v.).  Western  Virginia  is  admitted  as  a  sepa- 
rate state  of  the  Union,  with  the  additional  name 
of  Kanawha  (q.  v.). 

1863,  Jan.  I.  President  Lincoln  publishes  a  proclamation 
confirming  his  manifesto  of  Sep.  22,  1863,  and  de- 
claring all  the  slaves  in  the  Confederate  States 
free,  and  under  the  military  protection  of  the 
United  States.  The  Confederates  recover  Gal- 
veston.  —  Jan.  3.  The  last  day  of  the  battle  of 
Murfreesborough  (q.  v.).  —  Jan.  9.  France  ad- 
dresses a  second  note  to  Washington,  suggesting 
bases  for  the  restoration  of  peace.  —  Jan.  10  and 

II.  The   Federals   take  Arkansas  Post,   with  a 
great  number  of  prisoners.  —  Jan.  27.  Gen.  Hooker 
succeeds  Gen.  Burnside  in  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  —  Jan.   31.  The   Confede- 
rates  attack  the    blockading    squadron    before 
Charleston  and  compel   it  to  retire.    The  local 
authorities    and     foreign    consuls    declare    the 
blockade  broken,  but  it   is  resumed  the    same 
day  by  a  portion  of  the  repulsed  fleet.  —  Feb.  6. 
Mr.  Seward  rejects  the  bases  of  peace  proposed 
in    the    French    letter  of    Jan.  9.—  Feb.    17.    A 
treaty  with  Liberia  is    concluded  at  London.  — 
April  7.  An  attack  upon  Charleston  by  Admiral 
Dupont    and    Gen.  Hunter  is  repulsed    by  the 
Confederates.—  April   16-17.    The    Federal  iron- 
clad fleet,  under   Commodore  Porter,  passes  the 
batteries  at  Vicksburg.—  April  20.  Gen.;,  Hooker 
crosses   the    Rappahannock  at   Fredericksburg, 
and  takes   up    his    position  near   Chancellors- 
ville. 


UNITED  STATES 


t    1002    ] 


UNITED  STATES 


1863,  April  30.  Gen.  Grant,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  Ten- 

l.mds  at  Brainsburg. — May  2 — 5.  The  Con- 
federates, under  Gen.  Lee,  are  victorious  at  the 
battle  of  Cliancellorsville  (q. ».),  also  called  the 
second  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  in  which  the 
Confederate  general,  T.  J.  Jackson,  known  as 
"  Stonewall"  Jackson,  receives  a  mortal  wound. — 
May  S-  Gen.  Hooker  retreats  across  the  Kappahan- 
nock.— May  9.  Death  of  Gen.  "  Stonewall  "  Jack- 
son.— May  l«  and  19.  The  Federals,  under  Graut 
and  Admiral  I'orr.-r,  attack  Vicksburg.— May  29. 
An  assault  upon  Vicksburg,  under  Gen.  Graut,  is 
repulsed  with  great  loss. — May  37.  Gen.  liaiiks 
commences  the  siege  of  the  Confederate  forts  at 
Port  Hudson,  Missi-sippi.—  June  14.  (leu.  Kwcll 
defeats  the  Federals,  under  Milroy,  at  Winchester, 
Virginia,  and  compels  them  to  retreat  towards 
Harper's  Ferry.  The  Confederate*  Occupy  Mar- 
tinsburg,  Virginia.— June  15.  They  sei/.e  Hagers- 
tovvn,  Maryland  ;  and  Greencastlc.  and  Chambcrs- 
burg,  Pennsylvania.  —  June  38.  Gen.  Mcnde 
supersedes  Gen.  Hooker  in  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.— July  1—3.  Battle  of 
Gettysburg  (q.  i'.). — July  4.  Vicksburg  surrenders 
to  Gen.  Grant,  after  a  .siege  of  nearly  two  months. 
— JulyS.  1'ort  Hudson  surrenders. — July  lo.  Gen. 
Gilmore  lands  on  Morris  Island,  Charleston 
harbour,  and  commences  operations  against  that 
city. — July  13  and  14.  Gen.  Lee  recrosses  the 
Potomac  and  i  liters  Virginia. — July  13 — 16.  liiots 
take  place  at  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  I'nioii 
cities,  in  consequence  of  the  enforcement  of  a 
conscription  decree.— July  17.  The  .V 
reopened  for  navigation.-- July  is.  Geu.  Gilmore 
is  repulsed  \\ith  great  Jos.-,  in  an  attack  on  Fort 
Wagner.— July  31.  Martial  law  is  proclaimed  in 
Kentucky. — Aug.  7.  Mr.  Lincoln  rejects  the 
demand  of  Governor  Seymour  for  file  suppres- 
sion of  the  conscription  in  tlie  State  of  New 
York.  The  Sioux  Indians  rebel  in  the  ueM.rn 
states. — Aug.  30.  Lawrence,  Kentucky,  is  sin-- 
prised and  sacked  by  the  Confederates.—  Aug.  31. 
Gen.  Gilmore  bombards  Charleston.  Gen.  Kosen- 
rnintz  crosses  the  i  p.  7.  The 

Federals  occupy  forts  Gregg  and  Wa^ii-r. 
Charleston. — Sep.  9.  Cumberland  Gap  is  surren- 
dered to  the  Federals  by  (Jen.  Frazio 
Gen.  Itosencrantz  occupies  Chattanooga. — Sep. 
15.  President  Lincoln  suspends  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act.— Sep.  19—30.  Battle  of  Chickamauga  Creek. 
— Oct.  9.  Gen.  Lee  crosses  the  Kapidan,  and 
resumes  his  former  position.— Oct.  23.  Mr.  Seward 
assures  the  French  Government  of  the  neutrality 
of  the  United  States  in  the  Mexican  question. — 
Oct.  37—39.  The  Contederati-s  are  driven  from 
their  position  on  Lookout  Valley  by  Gens.  Hooker 
and  Smith.  The  Confederates  are  successful  in  an 
attack  on  Kogersville.— Nov.  (>.  They  are  defeated 
at  Dn»p Mountain,  Tennessee.  'I  he  Federals  sei/.o 
Brownsville  and  Fort  Brown,  on  the  Kio  Grande, 
Texas. — Nov.  7.  The  Confederates  are  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  many  prisoners,  at  Kelly's  Ford, 
on  the  Kappahannock. — Nov.  14 — 17.  Gen.  Lon^- 
street  defeats  Gen.  Burnside  in  several  engage- 
ments, and  compels  him  to  seek  shelter  in  Knox- 
ville. — Nov.  23 — 26.  Battle  of  Chattanooga,  or 
Missionary  Kidge. — Nov.  24.  Lookout  Mountain  is 
evacuated  by  the  Confederates. — Nov.  26.  Gen. 
Meade  crosses  the  Kapidan. — Nov.  27.  A  division 
of  Gen.  Meade's  army  sustains  a  defeat  at  Ger- 
mania  Ford,  on  the  Uapidan. — Nov.  29.  The  Con- 
federates, under  Longstreet,  fail  in  a  desperate 
attempt  to  carry  Knoxville  (Tennessee)  by  storm. 
— Nov.  30.  (Jen.  Washburne  attacks  Fort  Espe- 
ranza,  on  the  bay  of  Matagorda,  Texas. — Dec.  I. 
The  army  of  the  Potomac  recrosses  the  Rapidan 
and  resumes  its  old  position  near  Brandy  Station. 
— Dec.  2.  Gen.  Hardee  succeeds  Gen.  Bragg 
in  the  command  of  the  Confederate  forces  in 
Georgia — Dec.  8.  Mr.  Lincoln  publishes  an  amnesty 
in  favour  of  all  separatists  who  shall  throw 
down  their  arms  and  swear  fidelity  to  the  Union. 
— Dec.  27.  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  is  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Confederate  forces 
in  Georgia. 

1864,  Feb.  6.  Gen.  Sedgwick  crosses  the  Rapidan.— Feb.  7. 

He  is  repulsed  and  driven  back  to  his  intrench- 
ments. 


1864,  Feb.  20.  The  Federals  in  Florida  sustain  a  severe 
defeat  at  the  Oulustre  railway  station,  or 
Ocean  Pond,  and  retreat  towards  Jackson- 
ville.—Feb.  27.  Gen.  Kilpatrick  and  Col.  Dahl- 
gren  cross  the  liapidan  with  5,000  cavalry. — 
March  i.  They  attack  Richmond';  but  am  driven 
back  with  considerable  loss.  —  March  3.  Gen. 
Sherman,  having  failed  in  an  expedition  against 
Mobile,  returns  to  Vicksburg.  Gen.  Grant  is 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces 
of  the  Union.— April  5.  The  Federal  House  of 
Representative*  resolves  that  the  United  States 
will  never  acknowledge  a  monarchy  established 
in  America  on  the  ruins  of  a  republic,  under  tlie 
auspices  of  a  European  power.  (See  MEXICO.) 
— April  8.  The  Federals,  under  Gen.  Sherman, 
are  defeated  atSabiue  Cross  K'oads.  Kirby  Smith 
defeats  the  Federals  at  Mansfield.  —  April  9. 
Banks  and  A.  J.  Smith  are  defeated  at  Pleasant 
Hill. — April  12.  Gen.  Forrest  storms  and  captures 
Fort  Pillow,  Kentucky,  killing  or  capturing  the 
entire  Federal  garrison,  including  man. 
—April  25.  Fonest  seizes  1'adiicah,  on' the  Ohio, 
Kentucky. — April  28.  The  Confederates  having 
entered  North  Carolina,  sei/.e  Plymouth  and  the 
adjacent  forts. — May  3.  Gens.  Lee  and  Long- 
street,  having  united  their  forces,  quit  their  in- 
trenchmeuts  at  Mine  Kan,  and  inarch  towards 
Fredericksburg. — May  4.  Gen.  Sherman,  trans- 
ferred from  Vicksburg  to  the  command  of  the 
in  Georgia,  attacks  Gen.  Johnston 
at  Chattanooga. — May  4.  The  army  of  the  Po- 
tomac, under  Gen.  Grant,  crosses  the  Kapiduu  in 
the  night  and  commences  the  campaign  of  Vir- 
ginia.—May  5  and  6.  The-  Federals  are  defeated 
in  the  Wilderness,  to  the  west  of  Cliancellorsville. 
(KIT  WluiKKMvvs,  Battle  of.)— May  10.  Gen. 
Stuart,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  Confede- 
rate cavalry,  i-  killed  in  an,  engagement  at  Yel- 
low Tavern. — May  lo — 12.  Battle  of  Spottsyl- 
vania  (q.  r.).— May  15.  Gen.  Siegel  is  defeated 
by  the  Confederates,  under  Breckenridue,  at 
Newmarkets-Ma?  16.  Gen.  lleannvard  defeats 
the  Federals  at  Drury's  Bluff.— Ma.v 
•Sherman  defeats  the  Confederates  at  Dallas, 
Georgia. — May  31.  The  Chicago  convention  votes 
the  Candidature  of  G,n.  Fremont  for  the  presi- 
dential election  to  take  place  tlie  following 
November. — June  3.  Lee  defeats  Grant  at  the 
battle  of  the  Chickahominy,  or  Cold  Harbour.— 
June  5.  Gen.  Hunter  defeats  Breckeuridge  at 
Piedmont,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  Western 
Virginia. — June  8.  Tlie  national  convention  of 
tint  republican,  party  assembled  at  Baltimore 
votes  the  candidature  of  President  Lincoln  for 
the  ensuing  elections. — June  13.  Gen.  Grant 
the  James  Kiver  and  marches  against 
Petersburg,  Virginia.— June  18.  After  several 
day.-'  lighting.  Grant  is  repulsed  in  two  assaults 
upon  the  works  at  Petersburg. — June  19.  Tlie 
Confederate  cruiser  Alabama,  Capt.  Srmiues.  is 
sunk  by  the  Federal  corvette,  Kt'rirsriffe,  within 
sight  of  tlie  port  of  Cherbourg.— June  27.  Sherman 
is  repulsed  by  Johnston  at  Kenesaw  Mountain. — 
June  28.  Gens.  Wilson  and  Kautz  are  defeated 
by  the  Confederates  at  Spottswood  Kiver,  near 
Petersburg. — July  3.  Johnston  abandons  Kenesaw 
Mountain  and  retires  towards  Atlanta.— July  16. 
President  Lincoln  issues  a  proclamation  calling 
for  500,000  volunteers  for  the  military  service. 
—July  30.  Hood  defeats  Sherman  at  Peach-tree 
Creek.  —  July  38.  An  indecisive  engagement 
takes  place  between  Sherman  and  Hood  near 
Atlanta.  —  July  30.  Gen.  Grant,  after  losing 
from  K,ooo  to  10,000  men,  in  an  assault  upon 
Petersburg,  is  compelled  to  retire  without  effecting 
his  object. — Aug.  34.  Franz  Mullcr,  the  murderer 
of  Mr.  Briggs,  is  arrested  on  his  arrival  at  New 
York.  —  Sep.  2.  Gen.  Sherman  takes  Atlanta, 
after  repeated  engagements.  —  Sep.  8.  Gen. 
M'Clellan  accepts  his  nomination  to  the  pre- 
sidency by  the  Chicago  convention,  but  ex- 
presses unpopular  opinion-  relative  to  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  war. — Oct  6.  The  Federal  war 
steamer  Wachuselts,  in  violation  of  tlie  law  of 
nations,  captures  the  Confederate  war  steamer 
Florida  in  the  port  of  Bahia. — Nov.  13.  Gen. 
Sherman  sets  out  on  his  raid  through  Georgia. — 


UNITED  STATES 


[     1003    ] 


UNIVERSITIES 


A.D. 

1864,  Dec.  6.  President  Lincoln    delivers  his  message  to 

Congress. — Dec.  20.  Gen.  Sherman  enters  Sa- 
vannah.—Dec.  24  and  25.  The  Federal  fleet  is 
repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  Wilmington. 

1865,  Jan.   15.  The   Federals  capture  Fort  Fisher,   Wil- 

mington.— Feb.  I.  Gen.  Lee  is  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Confederate  armies. — 
Feb.  3.  Meeting  at  Hampton  Koads  between 
President  Lincoln  and  the  Confederate  commis- 
sioners.—Feb.  17.  The  Confederates  retire  from 
Charleston. — March  4.  President  Lincoln's  second 
tenure  of  the  presidency  commences.— March  18. 
The  Confederate  Congress  adjourns. — March  25. 
Gen.  Lee  assails  the  Federal  lines  before  Peters- 
burg.—April  2.  The  Federals  assault  the  Con- 
federate lines.— April  3.  Petersburg  and  Rich- 
mond are  abandoned  by  the  Confederates.— April 
9.  Gen.  Lee  surrenders  near  Appomatox  Court 
House.— April  12.  The  Confederates  retire  from 
Mobile.— April  14.  President  Lincoln  is  shot  in 
Ford's  Theatre,  Washington.  Mr.  Seward  and 
his  son  are  wounded.— April  15.  President  Lincoln 
dies,  aiid  Vice-President  Johnson  is  sworn  in  as 
president— May  10.  Jefferson  Davis  is  captured  at 
Irwinsville.— May  26  Gen.  Kirby  Smith  surren- 
ders.— May  30.  President  Johnson  issues  an  am- 
nesty.— June  5.  Galveston,  Texas,  surrenders  to 
the  Federals. — July  7.  Three  men  and  one  woman 
are  executed  at  New  York  for  complicity  in  the 
murder  of  Mr.  Lincoln.— Nov.  9.  The  Confederate 
cruiser  Shenandoah  surrenders  to  the  English 
Government.— Dec.  I.  The  Habeas  Corpus  is  re- 
stored in  the  Federal  states.— Dec.  4.  President 
Johnson  delivers  his  message  to  Congress. 

1866,  Feb.  19.  The  Freedmeii's  Bureau  Bill  is  vetoed  by 

President  Johnson. — April  2.  President  Johnson 
issues  a  proclamation  declaring  "  that  the  insur- 
rection which  heretofore  existed  in  the  states  of 
Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia, Tennessee,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
Mississippi,  and  Florida  is  at  an  end,  and  hence- 
forth to  be  so  regarded.— April  7.  The  Senate 
overrule  President  Johnson's  veto  on  the  Civil 
Hights  Bill.— May  16.  The  bill  for  admitting 
Colorado  as  a  state  of  the  Union  is  vetoed  by 
President  Johnson.— May  31.  Fenian  raid  in 
Canada  from  the  United  States.  —  June  7. 
Another  Fenian  raid  on  Canada. — President  John- 
son issues  a  proclamation  against  the  Fenians. 
— July  27.  The  Atlantic  Telegraph  (q.  v.)  laid  to 
Heart's  Content.  (See  SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH.) 
— Sep.  3.  A  Kadical  Convention  assembles  at 
Philadelphia.— Dec.  3.  The  Congress  meets.— Dec. 
25.  The  Henrietta  arrives  at  Cowes,  winning  the 
ocean  yacht  race  for  90,000  dollars. 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  President  holds  the  office  for  a  terra  of 
four  years,  and  is  eligible  for  re-election  at  the 
expiration  of  that  period.  The  official  year 
commences  March  4. 


A.D. 

1789.  George  Washington. 
1797.  John  Adams. 
1801.  Thomas  Jefferson. 
1809.  James  Madison. 
1817.  James  Monroe. 
1825.  John  Quincy  Adams. 
1829.  Andrew  Jackson. 
1837.  Martin  Van  Buren. 
1841.  William  Henry  Harri- 
son. 


A.D. 

1841.  John  Tyler. 

1845.  James  Knox  Polk. 

1849.  Zachary  Taylor. 

1850.  Millard  Fillmore. 
1853.  Franklin  Pierce. 
1857.  James  Buchanan. 
1861.  Abraham  Lincoln. 
1865.  Andrew  Johnson. 


UNITED  UNIVERSITY  CLUB  (London) 
was  founded  in  1822. 

UNIVERSAL  ARITHMETIC.  —  (See 
ALGEBRA.) 

UNIVERSAL  EXHIBITION  (Paris).— 
Imperial  decrees  were  issued  Tuesday,  Feb.  21, 
1865,  appointing  commissioners  for  the  Uni- 


versal Exhibition  to  be  held  in  Paris  in  1867. 
The  Moniteur,  April  3,  1865,  announced  that 
several  governments,  especially  those  of 
England,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  the  Pontifical 
States,  Prussia,  and  Switzerland,  had  inti- 
mated their  intention  to  participate  in  the 
Exhibition.  The  English  commissioners  were 
appointed  May  2,  1865.  Prince  Napoleon 
resigned  the  presidency  May  27.  The  general 
regulations,  settled  J  uly  7,  were  sanctioned  by 
an  imperial  decree,  July  12,  1865  ;  when  it  was 
decided  to  open  the  Exhibition  April  i  and  to 
close  it  Oct.  31,  1867.  The  London  Exhibition 
of  1851  occupied  an  area  of  71,000  square 
yards,  and  cost  ,£300,000 ;  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1855  occupied  an  area  of  115,000  square 
yards,  and  cost  ^440,000  ;  the  London  Exhi- 
bition of  1862  occupied  an  area  of  120,000 
square  yards,  and  cost  ;£6oo,ooo ;  and  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1867  occupied  an  area  of  146,588 
square  yards,  and  cost  ^800,000.  • 

UNIVERSALISTS,  or  RESTORATIONISTS, 
who  held  the  doctrine  of  the  ultimate  salvation 
of  all  mankind,  existed  at  an  early  age  in  the 
Christian  Church.  The  doctrines  prevailed 
extensively  in  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries,  and 
were  condemned  at  the  Fifth  General  Council, 
at  Constantinople,  May  4 — June  2,  553.  They 
are  divided  into  Universalists,  Cameronites  or 
Hypothetical  Universalists,  and  Semi-Univer- 
salists.  Several  societies  were  formed  in  the 
United  States  in  1780.  The  United  States 
Universalist  Convention  met  at  Middletown 
Sep.  19,  1865.  At  their  General  Convention, 
held  at  Concord,  Tuesday,  Sep.  20,  1864, 
resolutions  in  support  of  the  war  against  the 
Southern  States  were  adopted  unanimously. 

UNIVERSAL  SUFFRAGE.— This  system  of 
voting  existed  in  the  republics  of  ancient 
Greece  and  in  Rome,  and  afforded  great 
facilities  for  corruption.  It  was  established  in 
France  in  1791,  and  was  abolished  on  the  fall 
of  the  empire.  It  formed  one  of  the  provisions 
of  Daniel  O'Connell's  Reform  Bill,  which  was 
rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons  May  28, 
1830,  and  it  was  adopted  by  the  Chartists  as 
the  first  point  in  their  charter  in  1838.  It  was 
again  established  in  France  March  5,  1848,  and 
was  modified  May  31, 1850.  It  was  adopted  by 
the  President,  Louis  Napoleon,  Dec.  2,  1851, 
and  again  for  the  election  of  deputies  by  the 
new  French  constitution,  Jan.  15,  1852.  The 
voting  of  the  Italian  states  for  and  against 
annexation  to  Sardinia  in  1860  was  also  by 
universal  suffrage. 

UNIVERSITIES.— The  ancient  Romans  ap- 
plied the  term  university  to  any  corporation 
of  traders  or  professional  men,  and  in  eccle- 
siastical language  it  was  used  to  denote  a 
number  of  churches  under  the  government  of 
one  archdeacon.  An  instance  of  this  employ- 
ment of  the  word  occurs  in  688.  Academically 
it  signifies  "a  universal  school,  in  which  are 
taught  all  branches  of  learning,  or  the  four 
faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  the 
arts,  and  in  which  degrees  are  conferred  in 
these  faculties."  The  universities  of  Cam- 
bridge, Dublin,  and  Oxford  each  return  two 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons.  By  24  & 
25  Viet.  c.  53  (Aug.  i,  1861),  electors  were 
allowed  to  record  their  votes  by  means  of 


UNIVERSITIES 


[     1004    ]        UNIVERSITY  EXAMINATIONS 


voting  papers.     The  university  system  of  edu- 
cation originated  in  the  schools  attached  to 

A.I). 

1714.  Cervera. 

A.I). 

1811.  Christiauia. 

the  churches  and  monasteries,  and  was  estab- 

1722. Dijon. 
1722.  Pau. 

1813.  Genoa. 
1816.  Ghent. 

lished  during  the  nth  century.     The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  most  important  universities,  some 

1737.  Camerino. 
1734.  Gottingen. 

1817.  Liege.     Cracow  is  re- 
established. 

now  extinct,  with  the  date  of  foundation  :  — 

1743.  Erlangen. 
1744.  Teneriffe. 

1824.  Corfu. 
1826.  London. 

A.D.                                                      A.D. 

1753.  Moscow. 

1836.  Munich  (formed  from 

774.  Pavia     (restored     in 

1479.  Copenhagen. 

1760.  Sassari. 

that  of  Landshul). 

1361). 

1479.  Lund. 

1769.  Nanci. 

1827.  llelsingfors       (trans- 

879. Oxford.  Is  mentioned 

1483.  Avila. 

1775.  Stuttgard. 

ferred  from  Abo). 

as  a,  university  in  a 

1483.  Majorca. 

1777.  Pesth. 

1829.  Petersburg,  St. 

deed  dated  1  190. 

14^4.  Aberdeen. 

1784.  Bonn. 

1831.  Durham. 

1109.  Cambridge.    A  school 

1503.  Seville. 

1784.  Lemberg. 

I«34-  Ben  m. 

is  said  to  have  been 

1503.  Wittenberg  (united  to 

1803.  Cazan. 

1*34.  Brussels. 

founded  in  635. 

Halle  in  1815). 

1803.  Charkov. 

1834.   Kiev. 

1116.  Bologna. 

1506.  Frankfort  -  on  -  the  - 

1803.  Kussia.     Several  uni- 

1834. Zurich. 

1169.  Paris. 

(  ider. 

versities  are  found- 

1836. Madrid. 

1196.  Montpellier. 

1508.  Alcalu  de  Hdnares. 

ed  this  year. 

:  liens. 

1300.  Salamanca. 

1530.  Toledo. 

1803.  Wilna. 

1841.  Barcelona  restored. 

1303.  Siena. 

1537.  Marburg. 

1810.  Berlin. 

1312.  Palencia. 

1537.  Olmutz. 

1231.  Padua. 

153-.  Granada. 

UNIVERSITY  BOAT  RACE,  rowed  on  the 

1234.  Naples. 
1329.  Toulouse. 
1246.  Angers. 

1533.  Santiago. 
'535-  Lausanne. 
J537-  Coimbra. 

Thames,  between  two  picked  crews  of  eight 
from  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and  Ox- 

1349. Piacenza, 

1542-  Elbing. 

ford,  was  first  contested  in  1829.    The  following 

1264.  Ferrara. 
1290.  Lisbon. 

1542.  Onate. 
1544.   Kiinigsberg. 

is  a  list  of  these  contests,  with  the  result  :  — 

I3yo.  Macerata. 

1547.  Gandia. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

1300.  Lerida. 

1547.  Jena. 

1829,  June  J9-  Oxford. 

1856,  March  15.  Cambridge. 

1300.  Lyons. 

1548.  Messina. 

1836,  June  17.  Cambridge. 

1857,  April  4.  oxford. 

1303.  Avignon. 

1548.  Kheims. 

1839,  Aprils.  Cambridge. 

1858,  March  47.  Cambridge, 

1303.  Home. 

1541).   Osuna. 

1840,  April  15.  Cambridge. 

1859,  April  15.  Oxford. 

1309.  Orleans. 

1550.  Osma. 

1841,  April  14.  Cambridge. 

1860,  March  31.  Cambridge. 

1310.  Murcia. 

1552.  Almagro. 

1842,  June  11.  Oxford. 

I86j,  Miireli  23.  Oxford. 

1320.  Perugia, 

1553-  M' 

1845,  March  15.  Cambridge. 

1862,  April  14.  oxford. 

1333.  Cahors. 

1554.  DUengen. 

1846,  April  3.  Cambridge. 

1^63,  March  38.  Oxford. 

1330.  Pisa. 

1562.    Douai. 

1849.  March  29.  Cambridge. 

1864,  .March  19.  Oxford. 

1339.  Grenoble. 

15-13.  I'iimijlouaEstulla. 

0.  15.  Oxford. 

1865,  April  8.  Oxford. 

1346.  Valladolid. 

IS!>>  Bacza. 

1852,  April  3.  Oxford. 

1866,  March  24.  Oxford. 

1348.  P.ague. 

15'S.  Milan. 

1854,  April  8.  Oxford. 

1349.  IVrpignan. 

labnrg. 

1354.   Huesra. 

1568.  Oril.uria. 

UNIVERSITY    CLUJ 

B.—  (See    JUNIOR    UNI- 

1364.  Cracow    (revived    in 
1817). 
1365.  Orange. 
1365.  Vienna. 

1573.   I'ont  a-.Mousson. 
157-:.  Tarragona. 
IS7S-  Leydni. 
1576.  Hclmstadt  (suppressed 

VERSITY  CLUB,  OXFORD  AND  CAMBRIDGE  CLUB, 
UNITED  UNIVERSITY  CLUB,  &c.) 
UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  (London),  founded 

1368.  Geneva. 

in  1809). 

in  1826  as  the  Univers 

tv  of  London,  became. 

13*.   Heidelberg. 
1388.  Cologne. 
1393.  Erfurt. 

1578.  Evora. 
1583.   Edinburgh. 
I58J   Eraneker. 

before  1831,  the  London  University  (q.  v.),  and 
was  incorporated  as  University  College  Nov.  28, 

1403.  Wurzburg. 

irats. 

1836. 

1409.  Aix. 

1586.  Quito. 

UNIVERSITY  COLL 

EGE  (Oxford),  said  to 

1409.  Leipsic. 

1591.  Dublin. 

have  been  founded  by 

Alfred  in  872.  was  en- 

1410.  Valencia, 
1411.  St.  Andrews. 

1604.  Oviedo. 
1607.  Giessen. 

dowed  by  William  of  Durham,  rector  of  Bishop- 

1412.  Turin. 

1607.  Weissenberg. 

wearmouth,  in   1253. 

The  first  statutes  are 

1419.  Rostock. 

1614.  Gniningen. 

dated  1280.     The  hall  w 

as  commenced  in  1640. 

1433.  Parma. 
1433.  Louvain. 
1423.  Luchente. 

1614.  Linfa. 
1621.  Kinteln      (suppressed 
in  1809). 

the  chapel  was  completed  in   1665,   and  the 
library  in  1669. 

1436.  Dole   (transferred    in 

1622.  Altorf. 

UNIVERSITY  COLL 

EGE  HOSPITAL  (Lon- 

1691  to  Besancon). 

1623.  Paderborn. 

don    \\-as  founded  in  1833. 

1430.  Barcelona. 

1623.  Salzburg. 

UNIVERSITY  DEGR 

EES.—  The  term  master 

1431.  Poitiers. 
1436.  Caen. 

1625.  Mantua. 
1626.  Cagliari. 

is  believed  to  be  the  oldest.     Eugenius  II.,  by 

1438.  Florence. 

1628.  Guatemala. 

the   34th  canon  of    a 

council  held  at  Rome 

1441.  Bordeaux. 

1445.  Catania. 
1446.  Gerona  or  Girona. 
1447.  Palermo. 
1451.  Glasgow. 
1454-  Treves. 

1632.  Dorpat. 
1634.  Utrecht 
1635.  Tyrnau    (removed  to 

I'esth  in  1777). 
1638.  Harvard  (Cambridge, 

I'.S.). 

Nov.   15,  826,  speaks  of   the  appointment  of 
masters  and  doctors.     This  was  confirmed  by 
a  decree  of  Leo  IV.  in  another  council  at  Rome, 
Dec.  8,  853.     Gregory  IX.  (1227  —  41)  is  said  to 
have  instituted  the  inferior  rank  of  bachelors. 

1454.  Valence. 
1456.  Greifswalde. 
1456.  Freiburg. 
1459.  Basel. 
1463.  Bourges. 

1640.  Abo     (transferred    to 
Helsingforsiui8a7). 
1645.  Tortosa. 
1647.  Bamberg. 
1648.  Hardenvyk. 

The  degrees  both  of  bachelor  and  of  master  of 
arts  were  conferred  at  Oxford  in  the  time  of 
Henry  III.  (1216  —  1272).    The  degrees  for  laws 
are  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  uni- 

1464. Nantes. 
1470—1490.  Buda  (between 
these  years). 
1473.  Ingoldstadt. 
1473.  Siguenza. 

1655.  Duisburg. 
1665.  Kiel. 
1671.  Urbino. 
1672.  Innsprilck. 
1676.  Besancon. 

versity  in  1149.      The  number  of  arts  in  the 
course,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  was  seven  ;  of 
which  three—  grammar,   logic,   rhetoric  —  con- 
stituted the  Trivium  ;  and  the  remaining  four 

1474.  Saragossa. 
1476.  Upsal,  or  Upsala. 
1477.  Mayence. 
1477.  Tubingen. 

1689.  Sigean. 
1694.  Halle  (united  to  Wit- 
tenberg in  1815). 
1703.  Brcslau. 

—  arithmetic,  astronomy,  geometry,  and  music 
—  the  Ouadrivium. 
UNIVERSITY    LOCAL    EXAMINATIONS. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON 


[    1005    ] 


URICONIUM 


— The  convocation  of  Oxford  University  passed 
a  statute  authorizing  Middle-Class  Examina- 
tions, June  1 8,  1857,  and  the  first  commenced 
at  Oxford  June  21,  1858.  A  similar  system, 
with  the  omission  of  the  title  of  Associate  in 
Arts,  conferred  by  Oxford  on  successful  candi- 
dates, was  adopted  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge Nov.  24,  1857,  and  the  first  examination 
was  held  there  in  Dec.,  1858.  It  was  resolved 
to  apply  the  svstem  to  girls  March  9,  1865. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON.— London 
University  (q.  v.},  on  its  foundation  in  1826, 
was  known  by  this  name.  The  University  of 
London,  a  government  institution  or  board  of 
examiners  for  conferring  degrees  on  graduates 
of  University  College  (q.v.),  &c.,  was  incor- 
porated by  letters  patent  of  William  IV., 
Nov.  28,  1836;  and  confirmed  by  a  charter  of 
Queen  Victoi-ia,  Dec.  5,  1837.  Originally  estab- 
lished at  Somerset  House,  it  was  removed 
to  Burlington  House,  where  new  buildings, 
according  to  designs  approved  by  government 
in  Aug.,  1866,  were  commenced. 

UNKIAR-SKELESSI  (Treaty),  between  Rus- 
sia and  Turkey,  was  signed  at  Constantinople 
July  8,  1833.  By  a  secret  article  the  straits  of 
the  Dardanelles  were  closed  against  all  foreign 
ships  of  war.  It  was  modified  in  Jan.,  1834. 
A  motion  for  its  production  in  the  House  of 
Commons  by  Lord  Dudley  Stuart,  who  charac- 
terized it  as  inimical  to  English  interests,  was 
agreed  to  Feb.  19,  1836. 
UNKNOWN  TONGUE.— (See  IRVINGITES.) 
UNLEARNED  PARLIAMENT.— The  parlia- 
ment held  by  Henry  IV.  at  Coventry,  Oct.  6, 
1404,  was  called  the  Illiterate,  Lack -learning, 
or  Unlearned  Parliament,  or  the  Parliament  of 
Dunces,  because  lawyers  were  excluded  from 
it.  Some  authorities  call  it  the  "  Laymen's 
Parliament,"  and  say  it  was  thus  named  by 
the  clergy  on  account  of  certain  designs  against 
them. 

UNLEAVENED  BREAD.— (See  PASSOVER.) 
UNREASON.— (See  ABBOT  OF  FOOLS.) 
UNSTABLE  PEACE.— (See  LONGJUMEAU.) 
UNTERWALDEN  (Switzerland)  formed  the 
two  separate  communities  of  Nidwalden  and 
Obwalden.  in  1150;  entered  into  a  temporary 
confederacy  with  Schwyz  and  Uri  in  Aug., 
1291  ;  took  part  in  the  insurrection  of  1307 ; 
and  was  recognized  as  one  canton  at  the  federal 
union,  Dec.  8,  1315. 

UPHOLDERS.— (See  UNDERTAKERS.) 
UPPER  BENCH.— (See  KING'S  [or  QUEEN'S] 
BENCH.) 

UPPER  LOUISIANA.— (See  MISSOURI.) 
UPSAL,  or  UPSALA  (Sweden),  was  taken 
by  Ivar  Vidfadme,  a  Danish  king,  who  united 
the  thrones  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  in  722 
From  this  town  the  kings  received  their  title 
till  1015.  It  was  created  an  archbishopric  in 
1164.  The  cathedral  was  built  between  1258 
and  1435  ;  the  university  was  founded  by  Sten 
Sture,  in  1476 ;  the  Botanical  Garden  in  1657 
and  the  Society  of  Sciences  was  instituted  in 
1719.  Six  miles  from  the  town  are  the  monas 
teries  where  the  kings  were  elected  from  1140 
to  1520. 

URAL    MOUNTAINS.— (See  DIAMOND,  and 
GOLD  MINES.) 

URANIUM  was  obtained  from  the  minera 


_  itchblende,  by  Klaproth,  who  named  the  new 
metal  after  the  planet  Uranus,  in  1789. 

URANUS.— (See  GEORGIUM  SIDUS,  PLANETS, 
&c.) 

URBANISTS.— (See  CLARE  or  CLAIRE,  ST., 
md  CLEMENTINES  AND  URBANISTS.) 

URBICUS  (Battles).— On  the  banks  of  this 
Spanish  river,  the  modern  Orbega,  Theodoric, 

ing  of  the  Visigoths,  defeated  and  almost 
annihilated  the  Suevi,  under  their  King  Re- 

chiarius,  in  456. The  Moorish  prince  Al- 

mondhir  was  defeated  near  its  banks  by 
Alphonso  III.,  King  of  Leon,  in  874,  but  with 
such  loss  to  himself  that,  according  to  the 
A.rab  chroniclers,  the  Christians  were  em- 
ployed during  more  than  1 1  days  in  burying 
;heir  dead. 

URBINO  (Italy),  the  ancient  Urbinum  Hor- 
;ense,  a  municipal  town  where  Fabius  Valens, 
the  general  of  Vitellius,  was  put  to  death  in 
69,  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Belisarius  in 
538,  and  became  the  capital  of  a  duchy  about 

320.  Caesar  Borgia  treacherously  obtained 
possession  by  requesting  the  duke,  as  a  friend, 
to  lend  him  his  artillery,  with  which  he  entered 
the  town  as  a  conqueror  in  1502.  Itwaswrested 
from  him  by  Pope  Julius  II.  in  1503.  Leo  X. 
captured  it  in  1516.  The  efforts  of  the  duke 
to  recover  it  in  1517  proved  ineffectual,  and 
Leo  X.  annexed  it  to  the  States  of  the  Church 
in  1519.  It  was  recovered  by  the  duke  in 
1522,  and  was  incorporated  with  the  Papal 
States  in  1632. 

URFAH.— (See  EDESSA.) 

URGEL  (Spain)  was  created  a  bishopric  in 
820.  A  council  was  held  here  in  799.  The 
town  was  captured  by  the  Moorish  king 
Abderahman  in  822,  by  the  French  in  1691,  and 
again  when  the  Duke  of  Berwick  commanded, 
Oct.  12,  1719.  After  a  few  days'  siege,  the 
Royalists  took  it  by  assault,  putting  the  greater 
part  of  the  garrison  to  the  sword,  June  21, 
1822.  Aregency,  which  professed  to  administer 
the  government  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII., 

as  formed  here  Sep.  14,  1822.  On  the  approach 
of  Mina,  the  regency  fled  from  the  town,  Nov. 

10.  (See  ANDORRA.) 
URGENGE.— (See  KHIVA.) 

UR,  or  HUR  (Chaldsea),  the  first  capital  of 
Chaldsea,  founded  B.C.  2234,  is  by  some  sup- 
posed to  be  Edessa,  the  modern  Orfah  or  Urfah, 
and  by  others  Mugheir,  a  city  lower  down  the 
Euphrates.  The  family  of  Terah  left  Ur 
(Gen.  xi.  31),  for  the  land  of  Canaan. 

URI  (Switzerland).— This  canton  was  one 
of  the  three  which  revolted  against  Austria, 
in  1307,  and  which  contracted  the  federal 
compact  of  Brunnen,  Dec.  8,  1315.  In  1775 
the  Val  Levantina  revolted  against  the  juris- 
diction of  Uri,  but  was  compelled  to  return  to 
its  allegiance. 

URICONIUM,  or  WROXETER  (Shropshire). 
— About  1700,  a  person  digging  in  a  field  at 
Wroxeter,  near  Shrewsbury,  discovered  a 
Roman  tessellated  pavement  and  other  in- 
teresting remains.  Further  discoveries  were 
afterwards  made,  but  no  systematic  plan  of 
exploration  was  adopted  until  a  committee  of 
excavation  was  appointed  at  Shrewsbury,  Nov. 

11,  1858.     Excavations  were  commenced  Feb. 
3,  1859 ;  and  the  result  was  the  discovery  of 


URIM  AND   THUMMIM 


[     1006    ] 


UTRAQUISTS 


the  ruins  of  the  Romcin  city  of  Uriconium, 
which  has  been  called,  in  consequence,  the 
British  Pompeii. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM,  commanded  by 
Jehovah  to  form  part  of  the  breastplate  of 
judgment  worn  by  the  Jewish  high  priest  on 
certain  occasions,  B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xxviii.  30). 
It  was  consulted  before  entering  upon  any 
important  enterprise,  as  by  David  when  he- 
inquired  if  he  should  go  up  against  any  of 
the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Sam.  ii.  i),  B.C.  1053. 
According  to  Josephus,  it  ceased  to  return 
responses  about  B.C.  no. 

URSULINE  NUNS,  founded  for  aiding  the 
poor,  and  instructing  females,  by  Angela  di 
Brescia,  about  1537.  The  order  took  its  name 
from  the  English  saint  Ursula  (flourished 
about  453),  when  the  institution  was  confirmed 
by  Pope  Paul  III.  in  1544.  Madame  de  Sainte 
Beuve  established  the  first  house  of  the  order 
at  Paris  in  1604. 

URSUS  (Order).— (See  BEAR.) 

URUGUAY,  or  BANDA  ORIENTAL  DEL 
URUGUAY  (S.  America),  formed  part  of  the 
vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayri-s,  under  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  occupied  by  Brazil  in  1815. 
A  war  between  the  two  countries  ensued  in 
1825.  A  settlement  was  effected,  by  which  a 
portion  of  Uruguay  was  erected  into  an  inde- 
pendent republic  in  1828;  and  a  constitution 
was  published  in  Aug.,  1830.  Ships  of  war 
were  sent  by  England  and  France  into  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  in  consequence  of  the  lawless 
state  of  the  country,  under  Rosas,  in  1845  ; 
and  Monte  Video  was  blockaded  by  the  English 
till  1848;  and  by  the  French  till  1849.  Ar- 
rangements were  made,  and  treaties  formed 
with  France  and  England  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  blockade;  but  after  the  withdrawal  of 
those  powers  the  war  was  renewed  with  Brazil 
(q.  v.),  and  prosecuted  till  1851.  Gen.  HOIVS, 
an  ex-President,  who  raised  the  standard  of 
insurrection  April  19,  1860,  was  defeated  at  Las 
Piedras,  Aug.  16,  1863.  War  having  broken  out 
between  Uruguay  and  Brazil,  in  Oct.,  1864,  Gen. 
Flores,  in  conjunction  with  a  Brazilian  army, 
entered  Monte  Video  Feb.  22,  1865,  and  acted 
as  provisional  President,  restoring  the  former 
treaties  with  Brazil.  A  treaty  of  alliance 
between  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Brazil, 
and  Uruguay,  against  Paraguay,  was  concluded 
at  Buenos  Ayres,  May  4,  1865.  The  Allies, 
under  Gen.  Flores,  defeated  the  Paraguayans 
Aug.  17,  1865,  and  occupied  Corrientes  Oct  26. 
Dr.  F.  A.  Vidal  was  elected  President  March  i, 
1866.  (See  MONTE  VIDEO.) 

URUP.— (See  KURILE  ISLES.) 

USBEG,  UZBEG,  or  UZBEK.— (See  KHIVA, 
TURKEY,  Ac.) 

USBEKISTAN.  -(See  BOKHARA.) 

USCUDAMA.— (See  HADRIANOPLE.) 

USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE.— The  Society  for 
the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  was  formed 
in  London  in  1825. 

USHANT  (Sea-fights).— An  engagement  took 
place  off  Ushant,  in  France,  July  27,  1778, 
between  the  English  fleet,  under  Admiral 
Keppel,  and  the  French,  under  d'Orvilliers. 
It  was  of  an  indecisive  chai-acter,  and  Keppel 

was  tried  by  court-martial. Off  the  island, 

Capt.  Williams,  of  the  Flora,  captured  the 


X/inijilte,  commanded  by  Chevalier  du  Remain, 

after  a  severe  struggle,  Aug.  10,  1780. Lord 

Howe  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  French 
fleet  off  the  coast,  June  i,  1794.  It  is  called 
Lord  Howe's  victory. 

USIPETES,  or  USIPI.— This  German  tribe, 
occupying  territory  to  the  north  of  the  Lippe, 
having  crossed  the  lower  Rhine,  were  treach- 
erously attacked  and  defeated  by  Julius  Caesar, 
B.C.  55.  Drusus  attacked  them  B.C.  12.  They 
opposed  the  progress  of  Germanicus  on  his 
return  from  the  country  of  the  Marsi,  in  14 ; 
and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Moguntiacuni, 
about  70.  A  detachment  of  the  nation  served 
in  the  Roman  army  in  Britain  in  83  ;  after 
which  their  name  disappears  from  history. 

USURY.— The  Jews  were  prohibited  by  the 
Mosaic  law  from  exacting  usury  from  those  of 
their  own  nation,  B.C.  1451  (Dent,  xxiii.  20'. 
In  Greece  it  was  not  regulated  by  law,  and 
ranged  from  TO  to  18  per  cent.  With  the 
Romans  the  legal  rate  was  12  per  cent.,  sena- 
tors being  allowed  to  recover  one  half  of  that 
rate  by  the  Theodosian  code,  in  438.  (.sVv 
INTERKST.)  By  2  <fe  3  Viet.  c.  37  (July  29,  1839), 
all  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes  not 
having  more  than  12  months  to  run,  and  all 
contracts  for  sums  above  ;£io,  were  exempted 
from  the  operation  of  the  usury  laws.  In 
France  the  rate  was  fixed  at  five  per  cent,  in 
1665 ;  but  the  laws  affecting  usury  were  abo- 
lished at  the  revolution  of  1789. 

UTAH  (N.  America)  was  acquired  by  the 
United  States  Government  from  Mexico, 
in  1848,  and  constituted  a  territory,  with 
Brigham  Young  as  governor,  Sep.  9,  1850. 
Previous  to  the  formal  transfer  in  1847,  the 
Mormonites  (q.v.)  had  established  the;. 
here.  A  force  was  despatched  against  them 
by  the  Federal  Government  in  1857.  Brigham 
Young  submitted  to  authority,  and  received 
them  peaceably  in  June,  1858.  [See  COLORADO, 
SALT  LAKE  CITY,  &c.) 

UTICA  (Africa'!  was  founded  by  the  Tyrians 
about  B.C.  1165,  and  is  mentioned  as  an  ally  of 
Carthage  B.C.  348.  Scipio  besieged  it  B.C.  204. 
At  the  close  of  the  third  Punic  war  it  con- 
cluded terms  with  the  Roman  conquerors, 
B.C.  146.  Curio  was  defeated  and  slain  near 
this  city  by  Varus  and  Juba,  B.C.  49.  Cato 
the  younger,  and  many  of  the  partisans  of 
Pompey  who  escaped  from  Pharsalia,  assem- 
bled here  B.C.  47.  Cato  formed  his  little 
Senate,  and  opposed  Julius  Caesar.  After  the 
battle  of  Thapsus  (q.  v.)  he  committed  suicide, 
April  9,  B.C.  46.  It  was  presented  by  Augustus 
with  the  Roman  civitas,  B.C.  31.  It  appears 
to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals 
about  439 ;  and,  after  undergoing  various 
vicissitudes,  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
about  700. 

UTILITARIANS.— On  account  of  the  pro- 
minence given  by  Jeremy  Bentham  (1748 — 
June  6,  1832),  in  his  philosophical  writings,  to 
the  principle  of  utility,  his  followers,  espe- 
cially by  continental  writers,  have  been 
termed  Utilitarians. 

UTRAQUISTS.  — The  Hussite  sect  the 
Calixtines  (q.  v.)  were,  in  1420,  also  called 
Utraquists,  because  they  received  the  Eucha- 
rist in  both  forms. 


UTRECHT 


[    1007    ] 


VAGRANTS 


UTRECHT  (Holland),  the  Trajectum  of  the 
Romans,  capital  of  the  province  of  that  name, 
is  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
in  138.  An  independent  bishopric  was  founded 
in  696,  and  it  was  made  an  archbishopric  in 
1559.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Martin,  built  in 
1382,  was  much  injured  by  a  storm  in  1674. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1634.  It 
entered  into  the  Dutch  confederation  in 
1579,  and  was  taken  in  1672  by  Louis  XIV., 
who  was  compelled  to  abandon  it  in  1673. 
A  provisional  synod  was  held  here  in  1763. 
The  French,  under  Gen.  Sulm,  occupied 
Utrecht  Jan.  17,  1795. 

UTRECHT  (Treaty),  which  closed  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  that  broke  out  in 
1701,  was  signed  at  Utrecht,  between  France, 
Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Portugal,  Savoy,  and 
the  States-General,  April  n,  1713  (N.S.).  Pre- 
liminaries between  France  and  England  had 
been  signed  at  Whitehall  as  early  as  Oct.  8 
(N.S.),  1711.  The  Congress  at  Utrecht  opened 
Jan.  29,  1712.  Spain  acceded  to  the  treaty 
July  13,  1713.  Gibraltar,  Minorca,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  St.  Christopher  were  ceded  to 
England ;  Hudson's  Bay  was  restored ;  and 
the  French  settlements  in  Newfoundland 
were  abandoned.  It  was  proclaimed  in  Lon- 
don May  15.  The  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  who 
refused  to  make  peace,  was  given  till  June  i 
to  accede  to  the  treaty.  His  forces  were  de- 
feated, and  conferences  were  opened  Nov.  26, 
which  resulted  in  the  peace  of  Rastadt,  con- 
firmed at  Baden  (q.  v.).  The  treaty  between 
Spain  and  Savoy  was  signed  Aug.  13,  1713  ; 
between  Spain  and  the  States -General  June 
26,  1714 ;  and  between  Spain  and  Portugal  in 
Feb.  6,  1715. 

UTRECHT  (Union  of).  —  The  Union  of 
Brussels  (q.  v.)  had  been  dissolved  in  1578, 
but  the  Prince  of  Orange  formed  another 
alliance  amongst  the  Protestant  provinces  in 
1579.  ft  "wa?  a  perpetual  union,  signed  Jan. 
23,  and  received  its  name  from  having  been 
proclaimed  at  Utrecht,  Jan.  29,  1579.  (See 
UNITED  PROVINCES.) 

UTTOXETER  (Battle).  —  The  Duke  of 
Hamilton  having  entered  Lancashire  with  a 
body  of  Scotch  troops,  in  support  of  the  cause 
of  Charles  I.,  was  defeated  near  Preston  by 
Cromwell,  who  pursued  him  to  this  town  in 
Staffordshire,  where  he  was  captured,  Aug. 
20,  1648. 

UXAMA.— (See  OSMA.) 

UXBRIDGE  (Middlesex). —Commissioners 
met  here  to  discuss  terms  of  peace  between 
Charles  I.  and  the  Parliament,  Jan.  30,  1645. 
The  Parliamentary  party  demanded  the  aboli- 
tion of  episcopacy  and  the  liturgy,  and  that  the 
absolute  control  of  the  army  and  navy  should 
be  vested  in  them.  These  conditions  were 
rejected  on  behalf  of  Charles  I.,  and  the  nego- 
tiations terminated  without  result,  Feb.  22. 

UXELLODUNUM  (France).— This  town  of 
the  Cadarci  was  the  scene  of  Julius  Caesar's 
last  great  military  exploit  in  Gaul.  It  was 
besieged  by  him,  and  only  surrendered  after 
a  desperate  resistance,  from  want  of  water, 
B.C.  51.  The  conqueror  sullied  his  victory  by 
causing  the  hands  of  all  the  fighting  men  left 
alive  to  be  cut  off. 


HZ,  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  south  of 
Arabia  Deserta,  is  mentioned  as  the  land 
where  the  patriarch  Job  lived  (Job  i.  i),  B.C. 
2130. 

UZES  (France).— This  town,  near  Nismes, 
was  taken  by  Clovis  I.  in  507.  It  became  a 
stronghold  of  the  Huguenots,  who  retained  it 
till  i629,.when  it  was  occupied  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  party,  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed. 


V. 

VACCINATION.  —  Dr.  Edward  Jenner's 
attention  was  first  directed  to  this  subject 
in  1768,  and  he  tried  it  on  a  boy  named 
Phipps  with  matter  procured  from  the  hand 
of  a  dairy-maid  who  had  contracted  cow-pox, 
May  14,  1796.  The  boy  was  inoculated  with 
small-pox  matter  by  way  of  experiment,  July 
i,  1796,  and  no  disease  followed.  The  practice 
of  vaccination  was  extended  by  3  &  4  Viet.  c. 
29  (July  23,  1840)  ;  amended  by  4  &  5  Viet.  c. 
24  (June  21,  1841),  which  provided  for  its  ex- 
tension to  the  poor  free  of  charge ;  and  it  was 
made  compulsory  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  100  (Aug. 
20,  1853).  It  was  made  compulsory  in  Ireland 
by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  52  (July  13,  1863),  and  in 
Scotland  by  26  &  27  Viet.  c.  108  (July  28,  1863). 
Jenner's  services  were  acknowledged  by  a 
grant  of  ,£10,000,  voted  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, June  3,  1802,  and  by  another  of  .£20,000 
in  1807.  The  Jennerian  Institution  was 
founded  in  1806,  and  the  National  Vaccine  in 
1809.  (See  INOCULATION,  SMALL-POX,  <fec.) 

VACCOLI  (Battle),  between  the  Pisans  and 
the  Luccans,  in  which  the  latter  were  de- 
feated, was  fought  in  1055. 

VADIMONIAN  LAKE  (Battles).  —  The 
Etruscans  were  defeated,  and  their  power  was 
first  broken,  near  this  lake,  in  Italy,  in  an 
engagement  with  the  Romans,  under  Q.  Fabius 

Maximus  Rullianus,  B.C.  310. In  a  second 

battle  fought  near  the  same  spot  the  Etrus- 
cans, in  alliance  with  the  Boii  and  other  Gauls, 
were  defeated  by  the  consul  P.  Cornelius 
Dolabella,  B.C.  283. 

VASTER  AS.— (See  WESTERAS.) 

VAGRANTS,  or  VAGABONDS.— This  class 
of  wanderers  is  referred  to  in  the  "  Statute  of 
Labourers"  (23  Edw.  III.  c.  i),  passed  in  1350. 
Numerous  penal  enactments  were  made  to 
prevent  the  increase  of  vagrancy.  By  i  &  2 
Edw.  VI.  c.  3  (1547),  any  person  who  had  offered 
them  work  which  they  refused,  was  authorized 
to  brand  them  on  the  breast  with  a  V,  hold 
them  in  slavery  for  two  years,  feed  them  dur- 
ing that  period  on  bread  and  water,  and  hire 
them  out  to  others.  Inoperative  from  its 
severity,  this  act  was  repealed  in  1549.  The 
privy  council  having  issued  circular  letters  to 
the  sheriffs  of  counties  to  apprehend  all  "vaga- 
bonds and  sturdy  beggars,  commonly  called 
Egyptians,"  13,000  were  taken  up  in  1569.  All 
previous  laws  on  the  subject  were  remodelled 
by  17  Geo.  II.  c.  5  (1743),  which  took  effect 
from  June  i,  1744,  distributing  them  into  the 
three  classes  of — idle  and  disorderly  persons, 


VAILA 


VALENCAY 


rogues  and  vagabonds,  and  incorrigible  rogues. 
In  the  category  of  rogues  and  vagabonds  this 
act  included,  "  all  common  players  of  Interlude, 
and  all  persons  who  shall  for  gain  perform  or 
cause  to  be  performed  any  Interlude,  Tragedy, 
Comedy,  Opera,  Play,  Farce,  or  other  enter- 
tainment of  the  stage  not  authorized  by  Law." 
The  law  is  regulated  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83  (June 
21,  1824),  amended  by  i  &  2  Viet.  c.  38  (July- 
27,  1838).  (See  FORTUNE-TELLERS,  HAWKERS 
AND  PEDLARS,  &c.) 

VAILA. — (See  AGNADEL,  or  AGNADELLO.) 

VAISON  (France),  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Vocontii,  was  made  a  bishopric  in  the  early 
church.  Councils  were  held  here  Nov.  13, 
442,  and  Nov.  5,  529. 

VAL.— (See  LAFFELDT.) 

VALAIS  (Switzerland),  having  been  con- 
quered by  the  Romans,  was  seized  by  the 
Jjurgundians  on  the  decline  of  the  empire. 
They  were  supplanted  by  the  Franks,  who 
engaged  in  a  civil  war  ;  and  the  lower  district 
was  subjected  by  the  upper  in  1475.  It  was 
allied  with  the  Cantons  in  1495,  and  became 
an  associated  state  in  1529.  The  two  districts 
were  formed  into  one  canton  in  1798.  Napo- 
leon Buonaparte  made  it  a  separate  republic 
in  1802,  and  united  it  to  the  French  empire 
Nov.  12,  1810.  It  became  part  of  the  new  con- 
federation, under  the  constitution  framed  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  May  27,  1815.  Several 
political  changes  of  a  democratic  character 
took  place  in  1830. 

VALDENSES,  or  WALDEN8E8,  also  called 
Vallenses,  Valdesii,  and  Vaudois,  Christians 
dwelling  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  who,  according 
to  the  best  authorities,  retained  their  faith 
unsullied  during  prevailing  corruption,  and 
formed  the  connecting  link  between  the  primi- 
tive church  of  the  ap:>stnli<-  age  and  the  re- 
formed church  of  modern  times.  They  occu- 
pied the  valleys  of  Lucerna,  Perosa,  and  San 
Martino,  in  Piedmont ;  and  their  ancestors 
are  said  to  have  possessed  an  ecclesiastical 
system  of  their  own  as  early  as  820.  Bishop 
Claude,  of  Turin,  who  advocated  these  prin- 
ciples in  the  gth  century,  protested  against 
iiu;i_;-<;  worship  and  other  Romish  practices; 
and  the  "  Chronique  de  St.  Troii,"  written  early 
in  the  1 2th  century,  notices  the  peculiar  views 
held  by  these  mountaineers.  A  confession  of 
their  faith,  bearing  date  1120,  is  extant;  and 
the  "  Nobla  Leyczoii,"  an  exposition  of  their 
principles,  was  written  in  noo.  Peter  Valdo, 
or  Waldo,  in  1170  formed  a  society  called  the 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  and  he  is  often  men- 
tioned as  the  founder  of  the  Valdenses,  though 
they  existed  some  time  before.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons  prohibited  the  followers  of 
Valdo  from  preaching  in  1178,  and  Valdo,  who 
took  refuge  in  Bohemia,  died  in  1197.  The 
Valdeuses  were  denounced  at  the  Council  of 
Verona,  Aug.  i— Nov.  4,  1184,  and  having  been 
excommunicated,  many  of  them  went  into 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  They  were 
ordered  by  Alphonso  II.  of  Aragon  to  depart 
out  of  his  dominions  in  1194,  and  their  first 
persecution  commenced  in  1207.  (See  ALBI- 
GENSES.)  A  colony  professing  their  tenets 
settled  in  Calabria,  and  founded  several  towns 
in  the  i4th  century.  Innocent  VIII.  ordered  a 


crusade  against  them  in  1487.  A  great  synod, 
composed  of  persons  holding  these  views,  was 
held  at  Angrogna,  in  Piedmont,  in  1532.  They 
were  massacred  by  order  of  Francis  I.  in  1545 
and  in  1546.  Instigated  by  the  Pope  and  the 
court  of  Spain,  Duke  Emanuel  Philibert  sent 
troops  into  their  quiet  valleys  in  Sep.,  1560, 
Neither  women  nor  children  were  spared,  and 
many,  taken  prisoners,  were  consigned  to  the 
flames.  Their  resistance  was,  however,  so 
successful  that  the  Duke  of  Savoy  made  peace 
with  them  and  granted  them  toleration  in 
June,  1561.  Charles  Emanuel  I.  guaranteed 
them  the  exercise  of  their  religion,  under 
certain  restrictions,  in  1603  and  in  1620 ;  and 
Charles  I.  of  England  sent  two  embassies  to 
intercede  for  them  in  1627  and  in  1629.  Another 
crusade  was  commenced  against  them  by 
Charles  Emanuel  II.  in  1655.  His  cruelties 
elicited  protests  from  several  European  states. 
Cromwell  induced  Louis  XIV.  to  mediate,  and 
an  amnesty  was  granted  in  Aug.,  1656.  Fresh 
persecutions  followed  in  1663  and  in  1664.  By 
the  advice  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  Victor 
Amadeus  II.  issued  an  edict  commanding 
them  to  abjure  their  tenets,  in  Jan.,  1686. 
Numbers  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  their 
property  was  confiscated  ;  others  were  thrown 
into  prison,  where  they  died ;  and  many 
families  migrated  into  Switzerland.  Eight 
hundred  of  these  exiles,  under  their  pastor, 
Henri  Amaud,  undertook  a  romantic  expe- 
dition to  their  native  valleys,  where  they 
arrived  Sep.  16,  1688.  In  return  for  their 
bravery  in  defending  the  passes  of  the  Alps 
against  the  French,  Victor  Amadeus  III.  of 
Sardinia,  in  June,  1794,  published  an  ordinance 
redressing  many  of  their  grievances.  They 
were  placed  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte  upon  an 
equal  footing  with  Roman  Catholics  in  1802 ; 
but  again  subjected  to  disabilities  by  their 
king  in  1814.  Charles  Felix,  however,  showed 
them  some  degree  of  indulgence  in  1821.  Per- 
mission was  granted  them  by  Victor  Emanuel 
II.  to  erect  a  church  at  Turin,  Dec.  15,  1853.  In 
1865,  Dr.  Todd  published  "The  Books  of  the 
Vaudois ;  the  Waldensian  Manuscripts  pre- 
served in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,"  long  supposed  to  have  been  lost. 

VALDIVIA  (Chili),  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  founded  by  Peter  de  Valdivia 
in  1551,  has  been  several  times  besieged.  Lord 
Cochrane  took  it  in  1820,  and  it  was  almost 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1837. 

VALEGGIO  (Battles).— Eugene  de  Beauhar- 
nais  defeated  the  Austrians,  under  Bellegarde, 

at  this  town  on  the  Mincio,  Feb.  8,  1814. • 

Charles  Albert  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians 
near  the  same  place  in  July,  1848. 

VALENCAY  (France).— Napoleon  I.  impri- 
soned Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain  in  the  palace 
at  this  town,  built  in  the  i6th  century,  May  9, 
1808.  An  attempt  to  liberate  him  was  made 
by  the  English  Government,  but  without  suc- 
cess, in  1810.  A  treaty  for  the  same  object 
was  concluded  between  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
royal  captive  Dec.  n,  1813.  Though  the  Cortes 
refused  to  ratify  the  treaty,  Ferdinand  VII. 
was  set  free,  and  arrived  in  Spain  March  19, 
1814.  Don  Carlos  (See  CARLISTS)  resided  here 
from  1840  to  1845. 


VALENCE 


[    1009    ] 


VALLAMBROSA 


VALENCE  (France).— Pius  VI.,  conveyed  to 
this  town  a  prisoner  by  the  French,  Axig.  19, 
died  here  Aug.  29,  1799.  Councils  were  held 
here,  July  12,  374 ;  May  23,  585  ;  Jan.  8,  855  ; 
in  890;  Sep.  30,  noo;  in  June,  1209;  and  Dec. 
5,  1248. 

VALENCIA  (Spain),  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  became  a  Roman  colony 
about  B.C.  138.  It  was  taken  and  destroyed 
by  Pompeius  about  B.C.  77.  Adolphus,  King  of 
the  Goths,  assailed  it  in  414.  Councils  were 
held  here  in  July  or  Aug.,  530,  and  Dec.  4,  546. 
The  Saracens,  who  obtained  possession  of  the 
province  by  treaty  with  Theodemir  of  Murcia 
in  713,  erected  it  into  a  kingdom  in  1009.  Fer- 
dinand I.  defeated  the  Moors  here  in  1064.  It 
was  taken  by  the  King  of  Toledo,  who  deposed 
its  sovereign  in  1065.  Prince  Alcadir  perished, 
with  his  Christian  allies,  in  defending  it  against 
the  Almoravides,  in  1092.  It  was  delivered 
from  the  Moors  by  the  Cid  in  1094,  on  which 
account  it  is  sometimes  called  Valencia  del  Cid. 
The  Moors  regained  possession  in  1099.  In- 
cursions were  made  into  the  province  by  the 
Christians  in  1224.  The  city  was  assailed  in 
1236  by  Gay  cum,  or  Gayuiis,  of  Aragon,  who 
captured  it  and  annexed  it  to  his  kingdom, 
Sep.  29,  1238.  The  province  was  incorporated 
with  Aragon  by  Alphonso  III.  (1285 — 91).  The 
Earl  of  Peterborough  seized  it  in  1705  ;  and  it 
was  recovered  for  Philip  V.  by  the  Duke  of  Ber- 
wick in  1707.  The  cathedral,  erected  on  the 
site  of  a  Roman  temple  and  a  Moorish  mosque 
in  1262,  received  additions  in  1482.  The  wall 
surrounding  the  city  was  built  by  Peter  IV.  in 
1356 ;  the  university  was  founded  in  1410 ;  and 
the  Lonja  de  Seda,  or  hall  of  silk,  was  built 
in  1482.  The  French,  who  failed  in  an  attack 
upon  it  in  1808,  succeeded  in  capturing  it 
Jan.  9,  1812.  They  abandoned  their  conquest 
in  June,  1813.  A  decree  issued  by  Ferdinand 
VII.  from  this  place  annulled  the  acts  of  the 
Cortes,  restoring  absolute  government  in  Spain, 
May  4,  1814.  An  insurrection,  caused  by  the 
imposition  of  a  coal-tax,  broke  out  Jan.  17, 
1817.  Another,  with  the  object  of  assassinating 
the  governor-general,  Elio,  suppressed  under 
circumstances  of  great  cruelty,  broke  out  Jan. 
21,  1819.  The  civil  war  was  carried  on  with 
great  fierceness  in  the  province  in  1836.  (See 
HOLY  BROTHERHOOD.) 

VALENCIA  (Venezuela),  founded  in  1555, 
was  burned  in  1814. 

VALENCIENNES  (France).— The  town  was 
gradually  formed  around  a  castle  erected  by 
the  early  kings  of  the  Franks.  It  fell  to 
Lothaire  in  842,  and  was  taken  by  Baldwin  IV., 
Count  of  Flanders,  in  1006.  It  suffered  from 
the  plague  in  1008  ;  was  besieged  by  Margaret 
of  Hainault  in  1254  ;  by  Louis  XI.  in  1477  ;  by 
Turenne  in  1656  ;  and  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1677.  It  was  confirmed  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  The  allied  troops, 
under  the  Duke  of  York  and  the  Prince  of 
Coburg,  captured  it,  after  an  heroic  defence 
extending  over  43  days,  July  28,  1793.  (See 
FAMAKS,  Battle.)  It  capitulated  to  the  French 
Aug.  27,  1794.  The  belfry  of  the  town-hall 
fell  in  1843.  A  statue  to  Froissart,  born  here 
in  1333,  was  erected  in  1856.  Since  1825  an 
annual  festival,  called  the  Incas,  consisting  of 


a  masquerade,  in  which  the  costumes  of  the 
ancient  Peruvians  prevail,  has  been  celebrated 
here. 

VALENTIA  (Britannia).— Theodosius,  father 
of  the  Emperor  Theodosius  I.  (378—95),  after 
defeating  the  Picts  and  Scots,  recovered  the 
country  between  the  walls  of  Agricola  and  of 
Severus,  and  in  368  formed  it  into  a  province, 
which  he  named  Valentia,  in  honour  of  the 
Emperor  Valentinian  I. 

VALENTINE'S  DAY,  Feb.  14,  "  a  Christian 
commutation,"  says  Fosbroke,  "of  the  cere- 
mony in  the  Lupercalia  (in  honour  of  Juno 
Februata),  in  which  the  names  of  young 
women  were  put  into  a  box,  from  which  they 
were  drawn  by  the  men  as  chance  directed. 
It  was  continued  by  ladies,  who  chose  knights 
for  a  twelvemonth,  mostly  during  carnival 
time."  The  earliest  known  poetical  valentines 
were  written  by  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
Oct.  25,  1415.  They  are  in  the  library  of  the 
British  Museum.  John  Lydgate  (1375—1460), 
in  a  poem  in  praise  of  Queen  Catherine, 
written  in  1440,  alludes  to  the  custom.  The 
saint  who  gives  name  to  the  day  was  martyred 
at  Rome  about  270. 

VALENTINIANS,  the  followers  of  Valen- 
tinus,  a  native  of  Egypt,  supposed  to  be  of 
Jewish  origin,  who  introduced  a  strange  com- 
pound of  Gnosticism  and  Judaism  at  Rome, 
about  140.  Valentinian  died  in  160.  Robert- 
son says  that  in  his  doctrines  he  appears  to 
have  borrowed  from  the  religions  of  Egypt 
and  of  Persia,  from  the  Cabala,  from  Plato, 
from  Pythagoras,  and  from  the  Hesiodic 
Theogony.  Mosheim  says  this  heresy  grew  to 
maturity  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  with 
wonderful  celerity  traversed  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Europe.  A  remnant  of  the  sect  existed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  jth  century. 

VALERY,  ST.  (France).— At  this  town,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Somme,  William  I.  is  said  to 
have  embarked,  Sep.  26,  1066,  for  the  invasion 
of  England. 

VALESIANS.-(See  EUNUCHS.) 

VALETTA.— (See  LA  VALETTA.) 

VALHALLA.— (See  WALHALLA.) 

VALKENBURG.— (See  NIMEGUEN.) 

VALLADOLID  (Spain),  the  Pintia  of  the 
Romans,  the  Belad  Walid  of  the  Moors,  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  was 
chosen  as  a  royal  residence  by  Juan  II.  of 
Aragon  in  the  isth  century,  and  Charles  V. 
transferred  the  court  here  from  Seville  in  1532. 
A  council  was  held  here  Aug.  2,  1322.  The 
university  was  founded  in  1346  ;  the  cathedral, 
commenced  in  1585,  is  unfinished.  One  of  its 
towers  fell  to  the  ground  in  1841.  Columbus 
died  at  Valladolid,  May  20,  1506.  Philip  II., 
who  was  born  here,  induced  Pope  Clement  VIII. 
to  raise  it  to  a  bishopric  in  1595.  A  French 
army  under  Dupont  occupied  it  in  Jan.,  1808. 
Having  been  driven  out  they  returned  June  12. 
The  Spaniards  captured  a  French  detachment 
here  in  1812,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  English 
June  4,  1813. 

VALLAMBROSA,  VALOMBROSA,  or 
VALLOMBROSA  (Italy).  —  This  celebrated 
abbey  in  the  Apennines,  in  the  diocese  of 
Fiesole,  was  founded  under  the  rule  of  St. 

3T 


VALLS 


[     1010    ] 


VANDALS 


Benedict,  by  John  Gualbert  (999 — 1073),  in 
1038,  and  was  approved  by  Pope  Alexander  II. 
in  1070.  New  buildings  were  erected  in  1673. 
The  order  of  monks  of  Vallambroaa  was  united 
with  the  Sylvostrians  (founded  in  1231)  in  1662, 
when  a  black  dress  was  adopted. 

VALLS  (Battles).— The  French,  commanded 
by  St.  Cyr,  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
Spanish  troops  at  this  town,  in  Catalonia,  Nov. 

1 8,  1809. Macdonald  was  defeated  here  by 

Sarsfield  in  1811. 

VALMY  (Battle).— The  Prussians  were  de- 
feated by  the  French,  under  Kellermann,  at 
this  town  in  France,  Sep.  20,  1792.  For  this 
success  Napoleon  I.  conferred  on  this  general 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Valtny,  in  1808. 

V ALOIS  (France).— The  county,  bestowed  by 
Philip  III.  of  France  on  his  second  son  Charles, 
in  1285,  fell  to  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  second 
son  of  Charles  V.  of  France,  in  1392.  On  the 
accession  to  the  throne  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
under  the  title  of  Louis  XII.,  in  1498,  it  was 
reunited  to  the  royal  domains.  The  title  of 
Duke  do  Valois  was  borne  by  the  Orleans 
family  till  1790.  The  House  of  Valois  reigned 
in  France  from  1328  till  1589. 

VALOll  BCCLESIASTldUB.-  This  report, 
made  according  to  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3  (1534), 
of  the  yearly  values  of  all  thu  post 
manors,  lands,  <fec.,  belonging  to  any  monas- 
tery, priory,  church,  <fcc.,  in  England  and 
Wales,  was  published  under  the  authority  of 
the  Commissioners  of  the  Public  Records,  in 
six  vols.  folio,  rSio — 34. 

VALPARAISO  (S.  America).  —  This  town, 
the  name  of  which  signifies  Valley  of  Paradise, 
the  principal  port  of  Chili,  suffered  severely 
from  earthquakes  in  1822,  1829,  and  April  2, 
1851.  It  was  devastated  by  fire  in  1843,  an(i 
April  4,  1862,  and  was  bombarded  by  the 
Spanish  fleet,  March  31,  1866. 

VALROMEY  (France',  the  ancient  Yallis 
Bomana,  belonged  for  many  years  to  the  counts 
of  Savoy,  and  was  ceded  to  France  in  1601.  It 
was  made  a  duchy  by  Louis  XIII.  (1610-43) 

VALTKLIXK  (I'taly).— This  small  district,  on 
the  Italian  side  of  the  Rhietian  Alps,  taken  by 
the  Orisons  in  1512,  and  ceded  to  them  in  1530, 
was  the  scene  of  the  cruel  massacre  of  the 
Protestants  by  the  Roman  Catholic  rebels, 
July  19,  1620.  The  French  resisted  the 
attempts  of  the  Spaniards  to  establish  their 
authority  here,  and  after  a  long  struggle  the 
territory  was  restored  to  the  Orisons  in  1639. 
(See  MoNfON.)  Napoleon  Buonaparte  annexed 
the  Valteline  to  the  Cisalpine  republic  Oct.  10, 
1797,  and  erected  it  into  the  department  of  the 
Adda,  in  the  French  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  1807. 
It  was  ceded  to  Austria  in  1814,  and  to  Italy 
in  1860. 

VALVASSOR,VAVASSOR,orVAVASSOUR. 
— Persons  holding  fiefs  not  immediately  under 
the  king,  but  under  some  intermediate  lord, 
and  having  subordinate  freeholders  under 
them,  existed  in  England,  Scotland,  France, 
Lombarcly,  and  Aragon,  and  are  twice  men- 
tioned in  Domesday  Book,  io£6.  A  writ  was 
issued  in  1220  to  the  sheriff  of  Wiltshire, 
directing  him  to  give  seisin  of  three  vavas- 
sories  to  the  persons  specified.  In  his  deed 
of  renunciation,  Sep.  29,  1399,  Richard  II. 


absolves,  amongst  others,  all  vavassors  from 
their  oath  of  allegiance.  It  was  proposed  to 
revive  the  name  in  the  new  dignity  created  by 
James  I.  in  1611.  It,  however,  took  that  of 
baronet.  (See  BARON.) 

VANADIUM.— This  metal  was  discovered  by 
Del  Rio  in  1801,  and  received  its  present  name 
from  Sefstrom  in  1830. 

VANCOUVER  ISLAND,  or  QUADRA  (N. 
America  \  was  supposed  to  form  part  of  the 
mainland  till  1789.  Capt.  Vancouver  visited  it 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  Quadra  and  Vancouver 
Island,  the  former  in  honour  of  the  Spanish 
commandant  at  Nootka  Sound,  in  1792.  It  was 
made  over  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  on 
condition  that  they  should  colonize  it,  in 
Aug.,  1848.  Gold  was  discovered  herein  1856. 
It  was  united  with  British  Columbia  by  29  & 
30  Viet.  c.  67  (Aug.  6,  1866). 

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  —  Capt.  Van- 
couver, ordered  by  the  British  Government  to 
proceed  to  Nootka  Sound  to  receive  a  formal 
cession  of  the  territory  from  Spain,  set  sail  in 
the  Dixcorery,  April  4,  1791,  accompanied  by 
Capt.  Broughton  in  the  ChatfiCtm,  a  small 
vessel  of  135  tons  burthen.  He  arrived  on  the 
coast  of  New  Albion  in  April,  1792.  On  the 
outward  voyage  he  surveyed  the  southern 
coast  of  New  Holland,  and  part  of  New  Zea- 
land, while  Brought  on  discovered  Chatham 
Islands.  Broughton  having  been  despatched 
home  with  intelligence  of  the  evasive  conduct 
of  the  Spaniards,  Vancouver  proceeded,  in 
Jan.,  1793,  to  winter  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
In  the  spring  he  resumed  the  survey  of  the 
American  coast,  and  returned  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  where  he  obtained  from  the  chiefs  a 
formal  cession  of  Owhyhce  to  Great  Britain, 
Feb.  25,  1794.  The  survey  of  the  north-west 
coast  of  America  was  completed  Aug.  22,  1794; 
and  he  entered  the  Shannon  on  his  return, 
Sep.  13,  1795,  having  lost  only  two  men  out 
of  both  crews.  The  narrative  of  his  labours, 
written  by  himself,  was  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion for  the  press  when  he  died,  May  10, 
175*. 

VANDALS,  a  Slavonic  or  a  Teutonic  tribe, 
inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Oder,  and  the  sea- 
coast  of  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg,  about 
250.  A  considerable  number  were  transported 
into  Britain  by  Probus  in  279.  With  the  Sar- 
matians  in  Hungary  they  formed  a  union  in 
331,  and  joined  the  forces  of  Radagaisus  for 
the  invasion  of  Italy  in  405.  Having  separated 
from  their  allies,  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Franks,  20,000  with  their  king  falling  on  the 
field  of  battle.  The  Alani  came  to  their  aid, 
and  they  marched  without  opposition  into  the 
provinces  of  Gaul,  Dec.  31,  405,  passed  on  to 
Spain  at  409,  renewed  their  attacks  in  411,  and 
established  themselves  in  the  south  in  420, 
and  over  the  whole  country  by  428.  From 
Spain,  at  the  invitation  of  Count  Boniface, 
they  passed  into  Africa  under  their  king  Gen- 
seric,  in  May,  429.  (See  HIPPO  REGIUS.)  After 
a  career  of  conquest  on  that  continent,  during 
which  they  embraced  Christianity,  Carthage 
fell  under  "their  victorious  arms,  Oct.  9,  439. 
Here  they  commenced  the  formation  of  a 
powerful  navy,  and  having  fitted  out  an  ex- 
pedition against  Rome,  they  landed  at  the 


VANDALUCIA 


[     ion     ] 


VATICAN 


mouth  of  the  Tiber,  and  sacked  the  capital  ot 
the  empire,  June  15 — 29,  455.  The  whole  of 
the  Mediterranean  coast  was  subjected  to 
their  piratical  depredations  between  461  and 
467.  Having  embraced  the  Arian  heresy  in 
530,  they  carried  on  a  cruel  persecution  against 
members  of  the  orthodox  faith.  They  were 
converted  from  Arianisrn,  and  their  rule  in 
Africa  destroyed  by  Belisarius,  who  was  de 
clared  sole  consul  Jan.  i,  535.  The  entire 
nation  had  disappeared  from  Africa  by  558. 

VANDAL  KINGS  OF  AFRICA. 
A.D. 

439.  Genseric. 

477.  Hunneric  (son  of  Genseric). 
484.  Guiultinnmd  (nephew  of  Hunneric). 
496.  Thrusimimd  (brother  of  Guiidamund). 
523.  Hilderic  (son  of  Hunneric). 

530.  Gelimer  (cousin  of  Hilderic,  and  last  of  the  Vandal 
kings). 

VANDALUCIA.— (-See  ANDALTJCIA.) 
VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND.— (See  TASMANIA.) 
VANE.— The  marble  tower  built  at  Athens  by 
AndronicusCyrrhestes  (about  B.C.  ioo)was  sur- 
mounted by  a  vane,  and  Varro  had  an  apparatus 
at  his  farm  to  indicate  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  B.C.  37.  A  costly  pillar  was  erected  at 
Constantinople  for  a  similar  purpose  in  the  8th 
century.  A  vane  in  the  form  of  a  horseman 
was  placed  on  the  top  of  a  tower  at  Hems,  in 
Syria,  in  1151.  In  Europe  vanes  are  mentioned 
as  early  as  the  gth  century.  In  France  none 
but  noblemen  were  allowed  to  have  them  on 
their  houses  in  the  i2th  century.  The  Danish 
fleet,  under  Sweyn,  in  1013,  carried  vanes  in 
the  shape  of  birds  or  dragons  at  their  mast- 
heads. 

VANNES  (France)  is  supposed  by  some  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Dariorigum,  the 
capital  of  the  Veneti,  whence  its  modern  ap- 
pellation. The  Bretons  still  call  it  Wenet  or 
Gueiiet.  A  council  was  held  here  in  465.  It  was 
besieged  by  Edward  III.  in  1342.  He  failed  in 
his  enterprise,  and  concluded  a  three  years' 
truce,  through  the  intervention  of  the  Pope's 
legate,  in  1343.  The  battle  of  Auray  (q.v.)  was 
fought  near  Vannes.  An  insurrection  of  pea- 
sants was  suppressed  by  the  national  guard 
with  great  slaughter  in  Feb.,  1790.  The  French 
emigrants,  under  the  Chevalier  de  Silz,  who 
attempted  to  take  Vannes  by  surprise,  were 
defeated  by  Gen.  Hoche  in  May,  1795.  A  tower 
in  the  centre  of  the  town  is  the  only  remaining 
vestige  of  the  Chateau  de  I'Hermine,  built  in 

1387- 

VANS.— (See  ADVERTISING  VANS.) 
VAN,  or  WAN  (Asiatic  Turkey).— Tradition 
refers  the  origin  of  this  town,  in  a  pachalic  of 
the  same  name  in  Armenia,  to  Semiramis,  and 
it  undoubtedly  exhibits  traces  of  extreme 
antiquity.  It  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt 
about  the  time  of  Alexander  III.,  by  an 
Armenian  prince  named  Wan,  from  whom  it 
is  named;  and  Valarsaces  I.  (B.C.  149—6.0.  127) 
made  it  the  strongest  place  in  his  dominions. 
It  was  taken  by  Togrul  Beg  in  1032,  by  Tamer- 
lane in  1392,  and  by  Abbas  the  Great  of  Persia 
in  1585.  In  1639  it  was  ceded  to  the  Ottoman 
empire.  M.  Schulz  examined  the  antiquities 
of  this  place  in  1827,  and  the  inscriptions  were 
copied  by  Layard  in  1850, 


VAPINCUM.— (See  GAP.) 
VARENNES  (France).  — Louis  XVI.,  his 
Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  and  their  two  chil- 
dren, were  arrested  at  this  town,  near  Verdun, 
on  their  flight  from  Paris,  during  the  night  of 
June  21,  1791. 

VARINAS,  or  BAJRINAS  (S.  America).— One 
of  the  Spanish  colonies  which  joined  the  con- 
federation of  Venezuela,  April  19,  1810,  formed 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards. 

VARNA  (European  Turkey),  near  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Odessus,  was  occupied  by  the 
Bulgarians  in  679,  and  plundered  by  them  in 
1193.  Ladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Hungary,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  a  battle  fought  here  with 
the  Turks,  commanded  by  Amurath  II.,  when 
10,000  Christians  fell,  Nov.  10,  1444.  The  Rus- 
sians, who  failed  in  an  attack  upon  it  in  1773, 
succeeded  in  capturing  it,  after  a  siege  of  three 
months,  Oct.  n,  1828.  It  was  restored  to  Tur- 
key Sep.  14,  1829.  A  council  of  war  was  held 
at  Varna  by  the  Turkish  minister  of  war,  Riza 
Pasha,  the  Turkish  generalissimo,  Omar  Pasha, 
and  the  Allied  generals  and  admirals,  May  18, 
1854.  The  troops  from  Scutari  and  other  places 
arrived  here  early  in  June,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  month  a  camp  of  60,000  English,  French, 
and  Turkish  soldiers  had  been  formed.  Sick- 
ness broke  out  in  Aug.  The  French  portion  of 
the  army  began  to  embark  for  the  Crimea 
Sep.  5,  the  English  Sep.  7,  and  the  combined 
fleets,  with  their  transports,  amounting  to  700 
vessels,  set  sail  Sep.  10. 

VARNISH.  —The  art  of  making  varnish  was 
brought  into  Europe  from  China  and  the  East 
during  the  i6th  century.  Dr.  Cattell  proposed 
certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  prepar- 
ing varnish  in  1860. 

VARNITZA.— (See  BENDER.) 

VASAG  (Battle).— John  Hunniades,  caUed 
"the  White  Knight,"  almost  annihilated  the 
Turkish  army  in  a  battle  fought  here  in  1442. 

VASCONES.— (See  GASCONY.) 

VASSALAGE.— (See  FEUDAL  SYSTEM,  SERF- 
DOM, SLAVERY,  &c.) 

VASSY  (France).— The  Duke  of  Guise  mas- 
sacred a  congregation  of  Huguenots  here, 
Sunday,  March  i,  1562.  This  outrage  preci- 
pitated the  religious  wars  in  France. 

VASVAR  (Treaty).— A  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween the  Emperor  and  the  Turks  was  con- 
cluded at  the  camp  of  Vasvar,  or  Eisenburg, 
Aug.  10,  1664,  a  few  days  after  the  victory  of 
St.  Gotthard  (q.  v.}. 

VATICAN  (Rome),  the  modern  II  Borgo, 
and  the  ancient  Mons  Vaticanus,  outside  the 
walls  of  ancient  Rome,  gave  name  to  the 
palace  which  was  commenced  near  the  church 
of  St.  Peter  by  Eugenius  III.  in  1146,  a  pile  of 
puildings  which  gradually  increased,  and  now 
forms  the  Papal  palace,  the  court  and  garden 
of  the  Belvidere,  the  library,  and  the  museum, 
regory  XI.  fixed  his  permanent  residence 
lere  in  1376.  It  continued  to  be  the  papal 
abode  till  Paul  III.  built  the  palace  on  the 
Quirinal  Mount  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  new  church  of  St.  Peter's  was 
projected  by  Nicolas  V.  in  1450;  but  no  pro- 
gress was  made  with  it  till  the  time  of  Julius 
[I.,  who  laid  the  foundation-stone  April  18, 
1506.  The  building  for  the  library,  formed  by 
3  T  2 


VAUCELLES 


[       1012      ] 


VELLETTII 


Nicolas  V.  in  1447,    was   built  by  Sixtus  V., 
1585—90.     (See  CONCLAVE.) 

VAUCELLES  (France).— A  treaty  between 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  Henry  II.  of  Prance, 
the  principal  clause  being  a  five  years'  tnice, 
was  signed  at  this  village,  near  Cambray,  Feb. 
5,  1556.  A  Cistercian  abbey  was  founded  here 
in  1132. 

VAUD  (Switzerland)  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Burgundy  in  888  ;  was  conquered 
by  Peter,  Count  of  Savoy,  and  annexed  to  his 
dominions  as  a  barony,  in  1263  ;  reverted  to 
AmadeusVI.in  1359;  and  having  been  parcelled 
out  into  a  number  of  petty  lordships  under  the 
name  of  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  was  conquered  and 
in  part  annexed  by  the  Bernese  in  1476.  They 
completed  its  subjugation  in  1536.  The  French 
Directory  demanded  that  it  should  be  made 
independent  of  Berne  in  1798.  It  was  consti- 
tuted a  sovereign  canton  by  Napoleon  I.  in 
1803  ;  and  entered  the  confederation  in  1815. 
A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1830. 

VAUDOIS,  the  inhabitants  of  three  valleys 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  in 
Piedmont,  formed  a  communion  separate  from 
the  Romish  Church  in  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity. They  have  been  called  the  persecuted 
Protestants  of  Savoy.  (See  VALDENSES,  or 
WALDENSES.) 

VAUXHALL  BRIDGE  (London).— This  iron 
bridge  was  commenced  May  g,  1811,  and  opened 
June  4,  1816. 

VAUXHALL  GARDENS  (London).— Fiilke 
de  Breaute"  built  a  hall  in  South  Lambeth, 
about  1282,  which  was  called  Fulke's  Hall, 
afterwards  corrupted  into  Faukeshall,  Foxhall, 
and  finally  Vauxhall.  The  gardens,  opened  in 
1661,  under  the  title  of  the  New  Spring  Gar- 
dens, were  notorious  for  the  licentiousness  of 
the  company  by  which  they  were  frequented 
during  the  Stuart  period.  Evelyn,  in  his  Diary 
(July  2,  1661),  speaks  of  having  visited  them. 
About  1712  they  appear  to  have  declined  in 
popularity.  They  were  purchased  by  Jona- 
than Tyers  and  re-opened  with  an  al  fresco 
entertainment,  June  7,  1732,  and  under  the 
management  of  the  new  proprietor  proved 
successful.  The  name  Spring  Gardens  was  not 
abandoned  till  1785,  and  the  firework  exhibi- 
tions, which  for  a  long  period  constituted  th 
chief  feature  of  the  place,  were  commenced  in 
1798.  Vauxhall  Gardens  were  sold  by  auction 
for  ^20,200,  Sep.  9,  1841.  They  were  closed 
July  25,  and  again  passed  under  the  hammer 
Aug.  20,  1859,  the  site  being  used  for  building 
purposes. 

VAVASSOR.—  (See  VALVASSOR.) 

VAVRIO  (Battle).— The  combined  Neapolitan 
and  Papal  armies  were  defeated  at  this  town 
of  Italy  by  Galeazzo  Visconti,  in  1324. 

VEDAS,  the  four  principal  sacred  books  of 
the  Hindoos,  ascribed  to  Brahma,  having  in  the 
course  of  time  become  scattered,  were  ar- 
ranged or  edited  by  a  sage  about  B.C.  3000. 
Such  is  the  native  tradition ;  but  these  writings 
are  generally  assigned  to  B.C.  1400  or  B.C.  1300. 
A  complete  edition  with  a  German  translation 
was  published  at  Berlin  in  1841.  One  of  the 
books  was  translated  into  French  by  Langlois 
in  1848 — 51,  and  into  English  by  Wilson  in 
1850. 


VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY.— (See  PHYSI- 
OLOGY.) 

VEGETABLE  SILK.— (-See  PTTLTT.) 
VEGETARIAN    SOCIETY  was    formed   in 

1  VEHLAU.— (See  WELATJ,  or  WEHLAU.) 

VEHMIC  or  FEHMIC  COURTS,  also  called 
the  Vehm-Gericht,  formed  a  secret  tribunal  of 
Westphalia,  which  received  the  name  Red 
Land  in  consequence.  Its  principal  seat  was 
in  the  town  of  Dortmund,  and  it  possessed 
ramifications  throughout  Germany.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  formed  on  account  of  the 
severe  laws  respecting  religion  enacted  by 
Charlemagne  in  800.  This  tribunal  reached  its 
greatest  prominence  in  the  i3th  century. 
Its  members,  who  were  bound  by  an  oath  of 
secrecy,  munbered  at  one  time  100,000  persons. 
It  continued  to  exercise  judicial  functions  till 
the  end  of  the  isth  century,  and  was  entirely 
suppressed  by  Charles  V.  in  1532. 

VEII  (Etruria).— The  Veientes,  or  Vei  en  tines, 
the  inhabitants  of  this  city,  on  the  river  Cre- 
mera,  are  first  mentioned  in  history  as  having 
been  engaged  in  hostilities  with  Romulus,  who 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  them,  and,  after 
exacting  severe  terms  from  the  vanquished, 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  for  100  years,  B.C. 
722.  War,  however,  again  broke  out  between 
them,  in  which  the  Romans  under  Tullus 
Hostilius  gained  the  mastery,  B.C.  673 — 641  ; 
and  a  similar  result  followed  hostilities  in  the 
reign  of  Ancus  Martius,  B.C.  641 — 617.  Under 
L.  Tarquinius,  Veii  was  again  vanquished,  to- 
gether with  ii  other  Etruscan  cities,  its  allies, 
a  success  which  the  victor  commemorated,  it 
is  said,  by  the  institution  of  the  12  lictors  and 
their  fasces,  B.C.  535 — 510.  Aided  by  a  great 
number  of  volunteers,  the  Veientes  again  took 
the  field  against  their  old  enemy,  and  a  drawn 
battle  ensued,  when  the  Romans  lost  their 
consul,  with  many  tribunes  and  centurions, 
B.C.  481.  The  Fabii,  having  offered  their  ser- 
vices to  the  state,  established  a  permanent 
camp  to  stop  the  marauding  expeditions  from 
Veii,  but  were  drawn  into  an  ambuscade  and 
slain,  July  16,  B.C.  477.  A  truce  of  40  years 
was  concluded  with  the  Veientes  by  the 
Romans  B.C.  474,  and  another  truce  for  20 
years  B.C.  425.  War  was  declared  against  them 
B.C.  406,  their  city  was  besieged  B.C.  405,  and 
after  a  siege,  which,  like  that'of  Troy,  lasted  10 
years,  it  was  taken  by  means  of  a  mine  by 
the  Romans,  who  slaughtered  or  sold  into 
slavery  the  inhabitants,  carried  off  the  image 
of  Juno,  the  tutelary  deity,  and  divided  the 
territory  amongst  Roman  citizens,  B.C.  396. 
After  the  burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  B.C. 
390,  it  was  proposed  to  convert  Veii  into  a  new 
capital.  From  this  period  Veii  gradually  fell 
into  decay,  and  seems  to  have  been  divided  by 
Julius  Csesar  among  his  soldiers,  B.C.  45.  The 
castle,  known  by  the  name  of  Isola  Farnese, 
was  built  on  the  south  side  of  the  city  in  the 
beginning  of  the  nth  century.  Many  relics 
of  Etruscan  art  have  been  found  in  the  niius. 

VELEZ.— (See  PENON  DE  VELEZ.) 

VELLETRI  (Italy),  the  ancient  Velitrse, 
included  within  the  limits  of  Latium,  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  the  consul  P.  Virginius, 
B.C.  494.  The  population  having  been  reduced 


VELLORE 


t    1013    J 


VENETIAN   REPUBLIC 


by  pestilence,  a  Roman  colony  was  sent,  B.C. 
492,  which  was  followed  by  another  settlement 
B.C.  404.  Velletri  was  taken  by  the  Romans 
in  consequence  of  a  revolt,  B.C.  380.  It  was 
occupied  by  Belisarius  in  538.  Near  the  town 
Carlo  Borbone  defeated  the  Austrians,  and  was 
proclaimed  King  of  Naples,  May  25,  1734.  The 
cathedral  of  San  Clemente  was  erected  in  1660, 
and  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  in  1353. 

VELLORE  (Hindostau).— Major  Lawrence 
wrested  this  fort  from  the  French,  July  8, 
1752.  During  the  wars  in  India,  it  was  fre- 
quently besieged.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  relieved  it 
by  a  brilliant  victory,  Sep.  27,  1781,  and  it 
was  selected  by  government  as  the  residence 
of  Tippoo's  family,  after  the  fall  of  Seringa- 
patam,  May  4,  1799.  A  mutiny  amongst  the 
native  troops  broke  out  here  July  10,  1806.  It 
was  speedily  suppressed,  and  800  of  them 
were  executed. 

VELOCASSES,  or  VELLOCASSES.  —  (See 
ROUEN.) 

VELOCIPEDE,  a  kind  of  vehicle  which  the 
occupant  moves  by  his  feet,  was  introduced  in 
1819. 

VELVET,  formerly  called  vellct,  is  men- 
tioned by  Joinville  in  1272  ;  and  in  the  will  of 
Richard  II.  in  1399.  Strutt  enumerates  many 
varieties  of  the  stuff  in  use  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  (1461 — 83).  Cotton  velvet  was 
first  made  in  England  in  1756.  Velvet  paper 
was  made  in  1634.  (See  PAPER.) 

VENAISSIN  (France).— This  county,  in  the 
south  of  France,  forming  part  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Vaucluse,  belonged  to  the  counts  of 
Aries  in  1054,  to  the  counts  of  Toulouse  in 
1125,  and  was  taken  by  the  army  sent  against 
the  Albigenses  in  1226.  Philip  the  Bold  took 
it  in  1271,  and  ceded  it  to  Pope  Gregory  X.  in 
1274.  It  was  definitively  annexed  to  France 

VENDEE  AND  VENDEANS.— (See  LA  VEN- 
DEE.) 

VENDOME  (France),  the  ancient  Vendo- 
cinum,  was  from  the  gth  century  the  capital  of 
a  county,  made  a  duchy  in  1515.  The  town 
was  taken  by  the  Protestants  in  1562  and 
1580. 

VENETI,  the  inhabitants  of  a  part  of  Gaul, 
called  Venetia  by  Julius  Caesar.  It  nearly 
corresponds  to  the  French  department  of 
Morbihan,  and  was  the  most  powerful  mari- 
time state  on  the  Atlantic.  The  Veneti  rose 
against  the  Romans,  and  sent  to  Britain  for 
assistance,  B.C.  57.  They  seized  two  Roman 
officers  as  hostages,  and  having  been  defeated 
in  a  naval  engagement,  surrendered  uncon- 
ditionally to  Julius  Csesar,  B.C.  56.  He  sold 
those  who  had  escaped  slaughter  into  slavery, 
and  put  to  death  all  the  members  of  the  state 
assembly. 

VENETIAN  REPUBLIC  (Europe).— This  re- 
public of  Northern  Italy  derives  its  name  from 
the  Veneti,  who  regarded  themselves  as  a  tribe 
of  Trojan  origin,  which  settled  at  the  head  of 
the  Adriatic  under  the  leadership  of  Antenor, 
and  dispossessed  the  Euganeaiis,  the  original 
possessors  of  the  soil.  (See  PADUA.)  Other- 
authorities  believe  them  to  be  a  branch  of  the 
Slavonian  race,  and  regard  the  name  Veneti, 
or  Veuedi,  as  a  corruption  of  the  German 


Wends,  which  was  applied  to  all  Slavonian 
tribes.  The  Venetian  territory  was  invaded 
by  the  Gauls  B.C.  349,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  repeated  encroachments  of  that  people, 
the  inhabitants  concluded  an  alliance  with 
the  Romans  B.C.  215.  Some  Gauls  who  at- 
tempted to  settle  here  B.C.  186  were  compelled 
to  return  to  their  own  country  by  the  Romans. 
The  Veneti  were  admitted  to  the  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens  about  B.C.  49.  Venetia  and 
Istria  were  afterwards  united  into  one  Roman 
province,  the  capital  of  which  was  Aquileia. 
The  city  of  Venice  was  founded  by  fugitives 
who  escaped  to  the  lagunes  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  their  own  cities  by  Attila,  421—452. 
In  this  manner  the  inhabitants  of  Aquileia 
founded  Grado  (q.v.),  and  the  Paduans  Venice, 
or  Veiiezia. 


A.D. 

453.  Completion  of   the  city,  and  establishment  of    a 

consular  government. 

457.  The  administration  is  entrusted  to  tribunes. 
520.  The  inhabitants  are  relieved  during  a  famine  by 

Theodoric  the  Great 
697,  March.    Jn    consequence    of    the    tyranny    of    the 

tribunes,  the  Venetians  elect  Paul  Luke  Anafesto 

of  Heraclea  to  conduct  the  government  as  doge. 
735.  The  Venetians    assist   the    Exarch    Eutychius    to 

recover  Havenna  from  the  Lombards. 
737.  The  doge  Orso  is  murdered  by  the  mob.    The  go- 
vernment is  vested  in  a  master  of  the  military. 
743.  Restoration  of  the  ducal  government  in  favour  of 

Diodato  Orso. 
778.  Giovanni   Galbaio  is  associated  with    his   father 

Maurizio  in  the  dogeship. 
797.  The  Doge   Galbaio  II.   murders  the  Patriarch    of 

Grado,   in  consequence  of    which   a    civil    war 

commences. 

804.  Banishment  of  the  Galbaii. 
809.  Pepin,  son  of  Charlemagne,  invades  Venice,  and  is 

defeated  in  the  battle  of  Albiola  (q.  v.). 

839.  The  body  of  St.  Mark  is  transferred  from  Alex- 

andria to  Venice. 

840.  The  Venetians  send  a  force  of  nearly  1 3,000  men  to 

assist  the  Eastern  empire  against  the  Saracens. 

855.  Pope  Benedict    III.   seeks    shelter    from  his  rival 

Anastasius  in  Venice. 

856.  The  Emperor  Louis  II.  visits  Venice. 
887.  Sea-fight  at  Mycole  (q.  v.). 

906.  Defeat  of  the  Huns  at  Albiola  (q.  r.). 

970.  The  tyrannical  and  licentious  Doge  Sanudo  IV.  is 

murdered  by  the  populace. 
978,  Sep.  i.   Abdication  of   Or 

retires  to  a  monastery. 
993,  July  19.  A  treaty  with  Otho  III.  is  concluded  at 

Mulhausen. 

997,  May  18.   On  the  invitation  of  the  inhabitants,  the 

Doge  Orseolo  II.   embarks  for  the  conquest  of 
Illyria  and  Dalmatia. 

998.  Orseolo  II.  assumes  the  title  of  Doge  of  Venice  and 

Dalmatia. 

1004,  Oct.  16.  The  Venetians  compel  the  Saracens  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Bari. 

1033.  The  principles  of  association  and  hereditary  suc- 
cession, in  reference  to  the  dojjoship,  are  abolished. 

1084,  Nov.  The  Venetians  are  defeated  by  Uobert  Guiscard 

in  a  sea-fight  off  Corfu. 

1085.  The  Emperor  Alexius  I.  acknowledges  the  Doge  of 

Venice  as  lord  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia. 
1094.  Institution  of  the  Magistrate  del  Proprio. 
1 101.  A  league  is  concluded  with  Hungary, 
llio,  Oct.  4.  The  Venetians  are  defeated  by  the  Paduans 

in  a  sea-fight  off  Brenta. 
1115,  Aug.  War  is  commenced  with  Hungary. 

1133,  June  39.  Tyre  surrenders  to  the  Doge. 

1134.  The  Venetians  sack  all  the  Ionian  Isles. 
1141.  Fano  is  annexed  to  the  Venetian  republic. 
1 143.  War  breaks  out  with  Padua. 

H4«.  Corfu  and  Sicily  arc  ravaged  by  the  Venetians. 

1154.  An  alliance  is  concluded  with  Sicily. 

1171,  Sep.  i.  Michiele  III.  embarks  with  a  large  fleet  for 

the  invasion  of  the  Eastern  empire.    The  plague 

breaks  out  among  his  crew. 


3lo  L,  the  Holy,   who 


VENETIAN  REPUBLIC 


[     1014    ] 


VENETIAN  REPUBLIC 


plague  rages  at  Venice.— May  27.  Assassinati 
Michielc  III.  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of 


A.D. 

1172.  The  plague 

of  Michi, 

his  enterprise  and  the  public  distress.  The  fund- 
ing system  is  established. 

1173.  The  Council  of  Forty  obtains  great  power. 
1174  Nov.  The  Venetians'raise  the  siege  of  Ancono. 
1170.  The   ceremony  of    Wedding  the  Adriatic  (q.  r.)  is 

instituted. 

1177,  March  23.  Pope  Alexander  III.  seeks  refuge  in 
Venice  from  the  power  of  Frederick  I.  (liar-' 
barossa).— May  26.  The  imperial  fleet,  assisted 
by  the  navies  of  Genoa  and  Anco:ia,  is  de- 
feated by  the  Venetians,  at  Salboro. — July  24. 
Frederick  I.  does  homage  to  Alexander  III.  at 
St.  Mark's. 

1192.  War  is  renewed  against  Pisa. 

1201,  Feb.  2~.    A    treaty   is  concluded  with    the  French 

barons  of  the  fifth  crusade,  by  which  the  Vene- 
tians agree  to  assist  the  crusaders  with  large  aids 
of  ships,  men,  and  horses,  in  return  for  about 
,£170,000. 

1202,  Nov.  18.  Capture  of  Zara  by  the  Venetians. 

1304,  April  9.  Constantinople  surrenders  to  the  Crusaders 
under  the  Doge  Daiidolo  and  the  Latin  leaders. — 
Aug.  12.  Candia  is  purchased  by  the  republic  for 
30  pounds'  weight  of  gold,  equal  to  about 
Jtlo,8oo. 

1205,  June  14.  Denth  of  the  Doge  Dandolo. 

1214-  The  Venetians  defeat  the  Genoese  in  the  naval 
battle  of  Trepani. 

1215.  Ithaca  becomes  subject  to  Venice. 

1224-  The  Venetians  obtain  Cephalonia. 

1239,  Sep.  5.  A  coalition  against  the  Emperor  Frederick 

II.  is  concluded  between  Venice  and  Pope  Gregory 

1240,  Aug.  Ferrara  surrenders  to  the  Venetians. 

1258,  June   25.  The  Venetians   defeat   the   Genoese  in  a 

sea-fight  off  St.  .lean  d'Aei-e. 
1263.  The   Genoese   sustain    a   defeat  from   the  Venetian 

fleet  off  Sette  Pozzi. 

1268,  June.  A  five  years'  truce  is  concluded  with  Genoa. 
I2"o.  Venice  assorts  her  sovereignty  over  the  Adriatic,  and 

declares  war  against  Bologna. 

1273,  Aug.  13.  Peace  is  concluded  with  the  Bolognesc. 
1284,  Dec.  4.  A  treaty  against  the  Saracens  is  oonolnded 

with  the  Pope. 
1289,  Aug.  28.  A  concordat  for  regulating  the  Inquisition 

at  Venice  is  concluded  with  the  Pope. 
1293.  War  recommences  with  Genoa. 

1296,  The  Venetians  in  Constantinople  are  massacred  by 

the  Genoese. 

1297,  -Tuty-  A  Venetian  fleet  attacks  Constantinople. 

1298,  Sep.  8.    The    Venetian   fleet    is    defeated    by    the 

Genoese  at  Curzola. 

1299,  May  2.S.  Perpetual  peace  between  Venice  and  Genoa 

is  concluded  at  Milan. 
1302,  Oct.  4.  Peace  with  the  Eastern  empire  is  concluded 

at  Constantinople. 
1304.  A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  Kngland. 

1309,  March  27.  Venice  is  excommunicated  for  assisting 

the  Ferrarese  against  the  Pope. 

1310,  June  15.  Failure  of  the  Quirini-Tiepolo  conspiracy. 

—July  10.  The  Council  of  Ten  is  instituted  as 'a 

temporary  committee. 
I335i  Ju'y  20.  The  Council  of  Ten  declare  themselves  a 

permanent  assembly. 
13365  May  28.  War  is  declared  against  the  family  of  La 

Bcala,  Lords  of  Verona,  Padua.  &c.— June  21.  An 

alliance  is  concluded  with  the  Florentines. 
1337,  Aug.  3.  The  Allies  capture  Padua. 
1339,  Jan.  24.    Venice  dictates  a  peace,  by  which  she 

acquires  Treviso. 
1346,  July  I.  Marino  Faliero  defeats  the  Hungarians  at 

Luca,  near  Zara. 
1348,  Aug.  5.  Peace  is  concluded  with  the  Hungarians. 

1353,  Feb.  13  and  14.  The  Venetians,  with  their  allies,  the 

Catalans,  are  defeated  by  the  Genoese  in  a  naval 
battle  off  the  Dardanelles. — Aug.  29.  Sea-fight 
of  Lojera  (q.  v.). 

1354,  Sep.   ii.    Marino  Faliero  is  elected  doge.— Nov.  4. 

Defeat  at  Portolongo  (q.  v.). 

JSSSi  April  2.  Michele  Steno  publishes  a  libel  on  the 
Dogaressa,  for  which  he  is  sentenced  to  eight 
weeks'  imprisonment  and  a  year's  exile. — April 
4.  The  Doge,  irritated  by  the  leniency  of  the 
sentence,  conspires  to  assassinate  all  the  pa- 
tricians, and  establish  a  despotate. — April  12. 
The  plot  is  revealed  by  Bertramo  di  Bergamo. 


been; 


!355,  APril     l6-    The  Doge   is  tried    and   condemned.— 

April   17.    He  is    executed. — April  %i.    Giovanni 

Gradenigo  is  elected  doge. 
1358,  Feb.  18.    A  treaty  is  conclude!  with  Louis   I.   of 

Hungary  and  other  princes,  by  which  the  republic 

surrenders  Dalmatia. 
1360,  May  2,1.  A  sumptuary  law  is  passed. 

1372,  Nov.  The  Venetians  invade  the  Paduan  territories. 

1373,  May  12.  They  are  defeated  by  the  Iliiup-ariuns  and 

Carrarese  at  Narvesa. — July  I.  Battle  of  Fossa- 
Nuova. — Sep.  22.  Peace  is  concluded. 

1375.  Hungary,  Genoa,  and  the  Currarese  form  a  league 
against  Venice. 

1378,  April  24.  War  is  declared  against  Genoa. —May  30. 

Victoiy  of  Porto  d'An/.o  (q.  v.). 

1379,  May  7.  The  Genoese  are  victorious  at  Tola  (7.  v.). — 

Aug.  16.  Chioggia,  or  Chioz/.a,  surrenders  to  the 
-••.—Aug.   24.    The  Genoese    lay    siege    to 
Venice,  which  is  defended  by  Vettor*  PlMuaL 

1380,  Jan.    i.    Carlo    Zeno  arrives  to  the  relief  of    tho 

capital  with  a  fleet  of  15  sail,  and  b  -sieges  the 
Genoese  in  Chioggia. — June  22.  The  Genoese 
surrender. — Aug.  15.  Death  of  Pisani. 

1381,  Aug.  8.  Peace  is  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Turin. 
1386.  Corfu  (q.  r.)  is  annexed. 

1403,  Oct.  7.  The  Genoese,  under  Marshal  lloueicault,  arc 

defeated  by  the  Venetian  fleet  of  Carlo  Zeno,  off 
Zonchio. 

1404,  June.  War  is  declared  against  Padua. 

1405,  July  16.  Verona  surrenders  to  the  republic.— Nov. 

19.  Padua  is  taken,  after  a  long  siege. 

1409,  June  9.  The  republic  again  acquires  Dalmatia  by 
:hase  from  the  King  of  .Naples,  mid  thus 
uncw  involved  in  another  war  with  Hungary. 

1413,  April  17.  A  five  vears'  truce  is  concluded. 

141*,  March  K.  Death  of  Carlo  Zeno. 

1420.  Istria  is  annexed. 

142,'.  Corinth  i.-t  annexed. 

1423.  Francesco  l-'oscari  becomes  doge. 

1425,  Dec.  3.  A  league  against  Milan  is  concluded  with 

Florence. 

1426,  April.  Saloniki  is  annexed. — Nov.  20.  Brescia  sur- 

r  inters  to  the  Venetians  and  Florentines. 

14^-.   ()et.  n.  Battle  of  Macalo  (q.v.). 

1428,  April  19.  Peace  is  concluded  with  Milan.— May  8. 
Bergamo  is  annexed  to  Venice. 

1430.   War  is  renewed. 

1433,  April  26.  Peace  is  again  concluded. 

1435.  War  commences  with  the  Turks. 

1437,  Aug.  I".  The  Kmperor  Sigismund  formally  invests 
the  republic  with  her  possessions  on  the  main- 
land, including  Treviso,  Padua,  Brescia,  Ber- 
gamo, &c. 

1441,  Nov.  20.  By  the  treaty  of  Cavriana,  Kavenna  is 
ceded  to  the  republic. 

1454,  April   5.  By  the   treaty   of    Lodi,   Venice  acquires 

Crcma,  Caravaggio,  Rivolta,  &c.— April  18.  '1  he 
Sultan  concedes  commercial  privileges  to  the 
republic. 

1455,  Aug.  30.  A  defensive  league  is  concluded  between 

Milan,  Florence,  and  the  Venetian  Republic. 
1457,  Oct.  24.  Deposition  of  the  Doge,  Francesco  Foscari. 

— Nov.  i.  He  dies,  as  is  supposed,  of  a  broken 

heart. 

1463.  War  is  declared  by  the  Turks.     (See  GUEECE.) 
1466.  The  Venetians  take  Athens. 

1477.  The  Turks  ravage  It.ily  and  approach  Venice. 

1478.  The   Turks    gain    several    battles.       Florence    and 

Venice  unite  against  the  Pope  nnd  Naples. 

1479.  Jan.   26.  Peace  is  concluded  with  the  Turks,  who 

obtain  Negropont,  Scutari,  Lemnos,  and  other 
eastern  possessions  of  the  republic. 

1483,  May  25-  Sixtus  IV.  excommunicates  the  Venetians. 

1484,  Aug.  7.  Peace  is  restored. 

1489,  Feb.  26.  The  republic  acquires  Cyprus. 

1493,  April  22-  A  league  is  concluded  between  Venice, 
Milan,  and  the  Pope. 

1495,  March  31.  A  league  against  Charles  VIII.  of  France 
is  concluded  at  Venice  between  the  Venetians, 
and  the  Emperor,  the  Pope,  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  the  Duke  of  Milan. 

1498.  War  recommences  with  the  Turks. 

1502,  Dec.  14.  Peace  is  restored  with  the  Turks,  and  the 
Venetians  obtain  the  formal  cession  of  Cepha- 
lonia. 

1504,  Sep.  22.  By  the  treaty  of  Blois  (7.  r.),  the  Venetian- 
Italian  possessions  are  divided  between  France, 
the  Emperor,  and  Julius  II. 


VENETIAN  SCHOOL 


[    1015    ] 


VENICE 


1508,  Feb.  War  is  commenced  against  the  Emperor. — 

— April  20.  A  three  years'  truce  is  signed. — Dec. 
lo.  The  league  of  Cambray  (q.  v.). 

1509,  April  i.  War  is  declared  by  France.— May  14.  Battle 

of  Agnadel  (q.  v.). — Dec.  31.  The  Venetian  fleet  is 

destroyed    by  the    French    land    batteries    near 

Ferrara. 

15:0.  The  Venetians  effect  a  reconciliation  with  Julius  II. 
1511,  Oct.  4.  Venice  unites  with  Julius  II.  and  the  King 

of  Spain  in  the  Holy  League  (q.  v.). 
1513,  March  14.  Tlio  Venetians  conclude  an  alliance  with 

Louis  XII. 
1516,  Aug.  13.  The  treaty  of  Noyon.— Dec.  4.  The  treaty  of 

Brussels. 
J523,  June  38.  The  Venetians  break  with  the  French  and 

make  an  alliance  with  the  Emperor. 
1536,  May  23.  Venice,  France,  Milan,  and  the  Pope  form 

the  League  of  Cognac  (q.  v.)  against  Charles  V. 
1538.  Venice   unites   with    the   Emperor    and    the    Pope 

against  the  Turks. 

1540,  Nov.    The  Venetians  conclude  a  humiliating  peace 

with  the  Turks. 

1541.  Protestant  doctrines  are  preached  at  Venice. 
1543.  The  Venetians  acquire  Marano  by  purchase. 

1570.  War  is  declared  against  the  Turks. 

1571,  Aug.  Cyprus  is  taken   by  the  Turks. — Oct.   7.  The 

sea-light  at  Lepanto  (q.  v.). 
J573i  March  15.  Peace  is  restored. 
1583.  A  revolution  is  effected  in  the  government. 
1606,  April   17.  Pope   Paul  V.    places    Venice   under  an 

interdict     The  Jesuits  are  expelled. 
1618.  Failure   of     the   conspiracy  of    Jacques    Pierre,   a 

French  pirate,  and  others,  the  incidents  of  which 

form  the   basis  of  Otway's  tragedy  of   "  Venice 

Preserved." 

1633.  Venice  and  Savoy  form  a  league  against  Austria. 
1645,  March.  War  is  declared  by  Turkey. 

1651,  July  10.  The  Turks  sustain  a  naval  defeat  off  Paros. 

1656,  June  36.  Sea-fight  in  the  Dardanelles.    The  Jesuits 

are  allowed  to  return. 

1657,  Jllly  !?•  Another  sea-fight  in  the  Dardanelles. 
1669,  Sep.  6.  Caudia  is  ceded  to  the  Turks,  after  a  siege  of 

34  years. 
1684.  War  is  again  declared  against  the  Turks.— Aug.   6. 

Santa-Maura  is  taken  by  the  Venetians. — Sep.  29. 

Prevesa  surrenders. 

1687.  The  Venetians  conquer  part  of  the  Morea  (q.  v.). 
1694,  Sep.   8.  Hcio,  taken  by  the  Venetians,   is  speedily 

abandoned. 

1699,  Jan.  26.  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (q.  v.). 
1715.  The  Turks  again  attack  the  Morea. 

1717,  Aug.  31.  The  Venetians  take  Leucadia. 

1718,  July  31.  Venice  relinquishes  her  Greek  possessions 

by  the  treaty  of  Passarowitz  (q.  v.). 

1733.  The  Venetian  territory  is  overrun  by  the  French  and 
Austrian  armies. 

1741.  The  Turks  compel  the  Venetians  to  pay  compen- 
sation for  alleged  grievances. 

1753.  A  treaty  is  concluded  with  the  Barbary  pirates. 

1774.  War  is  declared  against  Tunis. 

1791.  The  Venetians  refuse  to  recognize  the  French  re- 
public. 

1793,  Jan.  36.  The  Venetian  senate  recognizes  the  French 
republic. 

1796,  July  7.  The  French  Government  proposes  an  alliance 

with  Venice.— Aug.  37.  The  proposition  is  re- 
jected by  the  Venetians. 

1797.  The  French  occupy  the  Venetian  territory.     Insur- 

rections against  them  break  out  in  all  the  principal 
towns. — May  3.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  declares 
•war  against  the  republic. — May  12.  The  senate 
abdicates.— May  16.  The  French  occupy  Venice.— 
Oct.  17.  The  Venetian  republic  is  abolished  by  the 
treaty  of  Campo-Formio  (q.  v.). 

(See  VENICE.) 

VENETIAN '  SCHOOL.— (See  PAINTING.) 
VENEZUELA  (S.  America)  was  partly  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  partly  by 
Ojeda  and  Vespucci  in  1499.  Cumana  was 
settled  in  1523,  and  Coro  in  1527.  The  Dutch, 
took  possession  of .  the  island  of  Curacoa  in 

1634.  It  formed  a  part  of  the  government  of 
New  Granada  till   1731.     When  Napoleon    I. 


made  his  brother  Joseph  King  of  Spain  in  1808, 
it  still  adhered  to  the  old  dynasty,  but  asserted 
its  independence  in  1810,  and  returned  to  its 
allegiance  to  Spain  in  1 8 1 2 .  Bolivar  commenced 
his  struggles  to  liberate  it  from  the  mother 
country  in  1813,  and  this  was  effected  in  1823. 
It  joined  with  New  Granada  and  Quito  to  form 
the  republic  of  Colombia  in  1819,  and  the 
union  was  amicably  dissolved  in  1831.  The 
constitution  was  remodelled  in  1843,  and  Spain 
recognized  its  independence  by  treaty  signed 
at  Madrid,  March  30,  1845.  A  war  between 
the  native  population  and  the  whites,  which 
broke  out  in  1846,  lasted  till  1849.  Such  was 
the  state  of  its  finances,  that  the  expenditure 
for  1852-3  was  three  times  the  amount  of  the 
receipts.  Gen.  Paez  was  elected  president,  with 
dictatorial  power,  Sep.  8,  1861.  His  election 
was  followed  by  turmoils,  which  were  termi- 
nated by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Coche,  April 
23,  1863.  In  consequence  of  this  treaty  Paez 
retired  from  the  Presidency,  June  15,  and  the 
national  representatives  assembled  at  Vittona, 
and  elected  Gen.  Falcon  in  his  stead,  June  17. 
An  opposition  to  this  election  was  organized 
at  Porto-Cabello  by  Gen.  Leon,  but  the  insur- 
gents were  compelled  to  evacuate  that  town 
Oct.  4,  when  the  majority  of  them  surrendered 
to  the  government.  A  treaty  of  commerce 
with  Denmark  was  signed  Aug.  10.  The  Con- 
gress assembled  at  Caracas  re-elected  Gen. 
Falcon  president,  March  18,  1865,  and  on  his 
resignation  Vice-president  Blanco  succeeded 
him. 

VENICE  (Italy).— This  city  on  the  Adriatic, 
of  which  it  is  called  the  Queen,  was  founded 
by  refugees  from  Padua,  from  the  fury  of 
Attila,  between  421,  when  a  church  was 
established  in  the  Rialto  island,  and  452,  when 
a  consular  government  was  adopted.  The 
great  Campanile  was  commenced  in  902,  and 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Mark  was  founded  on  the 
site  of  an  earlier  edifice  in  977.  A  fire  which 
occurred  in  1 106  destroyed  the  greater  part  of 
the  city,  which  was  rebuilt  in  stone  and  marble. 
The  celebrated  columns  were  brought  from 
the  Holy  Land  in  1127,  and  were  erected  on 
their  present  site  about  1180.  The  bank  was 
established  in  1157.  The  bishopric  of  Venice 
was  founded  in  733.  Councils  were  held  here 
in  1040,  and  Aug.  14,  1177.  The  Inquisition 
was  established  in  1249;  a  medical  or  botanical 
garden  in  1333 ;  the  Lazaretto  in  1423 ;  and  the 
Bible  was  translated  into  Italian  here,  in  1471. 
A  fire  at  the  arsenal,  Sep.  13,  1569,  occasioned 
an  explosion,  which  laid  great  part  of  the  city 
in  ruins.  The  bridge  of  the  Rialto,  founded  in 
1588,  was  built  from  the  designs  of  Antonio 
da  Ponte.  The  Dogana  was  erected  in  1682. 
Venice,  occupied  by  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  was 
ceded  to  Austria  in  1797 ;  and  by  the  treaty  of 
Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805,  it  was  transferred  to 
the  French.  The  Academy  of  Arts  was  founded 
by  Napoleon  I.  in  1807.  On  the  dissolution  of 
the  French  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1814,  Venice 
was  ceded  to  Austria,  and  in  1830  it  was  de 
clared  a  free  port.  An  insurrection  commenced 
under  Daniel  Manin  March  22,  1848,  and  the 
republic  was  proclaimed.  It  was  besieged  in 
the  summer,  and  surrendered  Aug.  22,  1849. 
By  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  July  u,  1859, 


VENLO 


[    1016    ] 


VERDEN 


Venice  was  declared  part  of  the  Italian  con- 
federation subject  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria. 
Venice  and  the  territory  constituting  Venetia 
were  ceded  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  with  Austria  at 
Vienna,  Oct.  3,  1866,  and  the  city  was  delivered 
to  the  custody  of  the  municipal  authorities 
Oct.  19.  The  result  of  the  voting  was  announced 
Oct.  29  as  almost  unanimous  in  favour  of  annex- 
ation with  Italy.  A  decree  for  the  union  was 
signed  at  Turin  Nov.  4,  and  Victor  Emanuel  I. 
made  his  public  entry  into  Venice  Nov.  7. 

VENLO,  or  VENLOO  (Holland),  was  cap- 
tured by  Marlborough,  who  allowed  the  gam- 
son  to  leave  with  the  honours  of  war,  Sep.  23, 
1702.  The  French  general  Miranda  bombarded 
it  Feb.  ii,  1793.  It  was  invested  by  Gen. 
Moreau  Oct.  8,  and  it  surrendered  Oct.  26,  1794. 
It  was  ceded  to  France  in  1795,  restored  to  the 
Netherlands  in  1814,  seized  by  the  Belgians  in 
1830,  and  restored  to  Holland  in  1831. 

VENNER'S  INSURRECTION.  —  Thomas 
Venner,  a  wine-cooper  and  Anabaptist  preacher, 
headed  a  rising  of  about  80  of  his  followers  in 
London,  Jan.  6,  1661.  They  claimed  to  be  sub- 
jects of  the  fifth  monarchy  Christ  was,  they 
pretended,  about  to  establish  upon  earth.  They 
fought  desperately,  and  killed  several  of  the 
soldiers,  but  were  taken  prisoners.  The 
leader  and  16  others  were  hanged,  Jan.  19 
and  21. 

VENOSA  (Italy),  the  ancient  Venusia,  was 
captured  by  the  Roman  consul  L.  Postumius, 
B.C.  262.  T.  Varro  took  refuge  here  after  the 
defeat  at  Cannae,  Aug.  2,  B.C.  216. 

VENTILATION.— For  .some  time  no  means 
of  ventilation  existed  excepting  that  afforded 
by  the  doors  and  windows,  or  by  holes 
in  the  walls  and  ceilings.  Dr.  Desaguliers 
was  employed  in  1723  to  improve  the  ven- 
tilation of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in 
1734  he  invented  his  fan-ventilator.  In  1741 
Samuel  Sutton  was  ordered  by  Government 
to  fix  a  ventilator  of  his  own  invention  in  the 
Norwich  man-of-war.  Deacon  introduced  ven- 
tilation by  means  of  hot  air  in  1813  ;  and  a 
similar  plan  was  adopted  by  the  Marquis  of 
Chabannes  in  ventilating  the  London  theatres 
in  1816,  and  the  House  of  Commons  in  1820. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons by  fire  in  1834  a  temporary  building  was 
erected,  provided  with  extensive  ventilating 
apparatus  designed  by  Dr.  Reid,  whose  system 
possessed  many  advantages.  Dr.  Neil  Arnott's 
work  on  Warming  and  Ventilating  appeared  in 
1838,  and  directed  considerable  attention  to 
the  subject.  A  commission  to  examine  the 
laws  of  ventilation  was  appointed  in  1859,  at 
the  instance  of  the  Board  of  Health,  and  pre- 
sented a  report. 

VENTRILOQUISM.— Allusion  is  probably 
made  to  this  art  by  Isaiah  (xxix.  4)  :  "And 
thou  shalt  be  brought  down,  and  shalt  speak 
out  of  the  ground,  and  thy  speech  shall  be  low 
out  of  the  dust,  and  thy  voice  shall  be,  as  of 
one  that  hath  a  familiar  spirit,  out  of  the 
ground,  and  thy  speech  shall  whisper  out  of 
the  dust,"  B.C.  713.  It  was  practised  by  the 
Greeks,  and  by  most  ancient  nations,  and 
was  held  to  be  a  supernatural  gift.  In  modern 
times  it  is  known  to  have  been  made  use  of  to 


secure  certain  personal  advantages  by  Louis 
Brabant,  valet  to  Francis  I.  (1515 — 47). 
Baron  Mengen,  of  Vienna,  practised  the  art, 
and  produced  a  complete  illusion  on  his 
auditors,  about  1770;  and  M.  St.  Gille,  at 
Paris,  tested  his  own  powers  in  the  same  line 
before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1771. 

VENUS,  one  of  the  planets  known  to  the 
ancients,  its  occultation  of  Mercury  having 
been  observed  by  the  Egyptians  and  in  mo- 
dern times,  May  17,  1737.  The  phases  were 
discovered  by  Galileo  in  1611.  The  application 
of  her  transits  to  determine  the  sun's  distance 
was  first  pointed  out  by  Halley,  who  an- 
nounced those  of  1761  and  1769.  The  disturb- 
ing influences  of  this  planet  on  the  orbits  of 
the  earth  and  the  moon  were  investigated  by 
Airy,  and  published  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions"  for  1832. 

VERA  CRUZ  (Mexico)  was  built  about  the 
close  of  the  i6th  century.  The  island  on 
which  the  fortress  stands  was  first  visited  by 
Juan  de  Grinalva  in  1518.  Cortes  landed  an 
army  in  1519,  and  founded  a  t  >wn,  which  was 
taken  by  the  Bucaneers  in  1603  and  afterwards 
abandoned.  The  present  town  was  incor- 
porated hi  1615.  It  was  blockaded  by  the 
French  in  1838,  and  captured  by  the  Americans 
March  29,  1847.  Miramon  bombarded  it 
March  13,  1860,  and  the  allied  English,  French, 
ami  ^>i laniards  arrived  here  Jan.  7,  1862.  (See 
HI  i:r.\  CHARLOTTE'S  ISLANDS,  ULLOA,  &c.) 

VERBERIA  (France).  —  The  kings  of 
Ncustria  had  a  palace  here.  Councils  were 
held  in  753;  in  Aug.,  853;  Oct.  25,  863;  and 
April  24,  869. 

VERCELLI,  orVERCEIL  (Italy),  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name,  the  ancient 
Vercellse,  and  chief  city  of  the  Libici,  in  Gallia 
Cisalpiua,  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Campus  Raudius  (q.  v.},  or  Vercell.-e,  between 
the  Cimbri  and  the  Romans,  under  Marius, 
when  the  former  were  defeated,  July  30,  B.C. 
101.  It  became  a  somewhat  important  Roman 
nmnicipium,  after  the  time  of  Strain),  who 
described  it  as  only  an  unfortified  village,  in  14. 
In  the  neighbourhood  were  gold  mines  so 
considerable  that  it  was  prohibited  to  have 
more  than  5,000  men  employed  in  them,  a  law 
to  that  effect  being  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  72. 
Eusebius  was  bishop  of  the  see  in  the  4th 
century.  John  Scot's  book  on  the  Eucharist 
was  burned  by  a  council  held  here  Sep.  i,  1050. 
It  joined  the  league  of  Lombardy  against  the 
Emperor  Frederick  I.  in  1175,  and  became 
a  republic  in  the  isth  century.  A  treaty, 
brought  about  through  the  mediation  of  the 
Duchess  of  Savoy,  between  Venice  and  France, 
was  signed  at  Vercelli  Oct.  10,  1495.  The 
town  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1630, 
by  the  Duke  de  Vend&me  in  1704,  by  the 
Allies  in  1706 ;  and  the  French  incorporated  the 
province  with  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1801. 
The  cathedral,  with  a  library  containing  one  of 
the  most  ancient  copies  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Latin,  said  to  be  the  work  of  Eusebius, 
was  built  in  the  i6th  century.  It  was  assigned 
to  Sardinia  in  1814. 

VERDE.— (See  CAPE  VERDE.) 

VERDEN  (Hanover).— This  place  was  the 
scene  of  the  massacre  of  4,500  Saxon  rebels, 


VERDINGALE 


[    1017    ] 


VERSAILLES 


by  order  of  Charlemagne,  in  782.  In  1719  it 
was  ceded  to  the  Elector  of  Hanover  by 
Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark. 
VERDINGALE.— (See  FARDINGALE.  ) 
VERDUN  (France).— It  was  taken  by  Clovis 
I.  in  502,  and  by  a  treaty  entered  into  here,  a 
redistribution  of  empire  was  effected  between 
the  sons  of  Louis  I.  (le  Debonnaire),  Aug.  n, 
843.  Henry  II.  of  France  received  it  in  1552, 
on  condition  of  aiding  the  German  Protestant 
league,  and  it  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  1648.  The 
town  and  citadel  surrendered  to  the  Prus- 
sians Sep.  2,  1792.  Fourteen  beautiful  young 
women,  who  had  welcomed  the  Prussians 
with  garlands,  were  sent  by  the  French 
to  Paris,  where  they  were  guillotined  May 
28,  1794.  English  residents  and  travellers 
in  France,  on  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  were 
detained  here  by  Napoleon  I.,  May  22,  1803. 
Some  English  sailors  detained  in  this  manner, 
who  lent  important  aid  in  extinguishing  a  fire 
which  broke  out  in  the  town,  were  supplied 
with  money  by  Napoleon  I.  from  his  private 
purse,  and  sent  home  in  1805. 

VERB,    or   VEERE     (Holland),  formerly 
called  Campvere,  was  in  1304  the  scene  of  a 
victory  gained  by  Guyf  Count   of   Flanders, 
over     William,    Governor   of    Holland.      The 
Spaniards  were  expelled  in  1572. 
VERGE.—  (See  MARSHALSEA  COURT.) 
VERGILIA.— (See  MURCIA.) 
VERILY.-(&e  AMEN.) 
VERMAN DC-IS    (France)    was    made    a 
county    by    Charlemagne    (768 — 814)    for   his 
second  son  Pepin,  whose  descendants  possessed 
it  till  the  nth  century.     It  passed  by  marriage 
to  the  counts  of  Flanders  in  1156.     Philip  II. 
seized  it  in  1185,  and  incorporated  it  with 
France  in  1215. 

VERMONT  (N.  America),  so  called  from  its 
green  mountains  by  the  French,  who  settled 
here  in  1731.  They  ceded  it  to  the  English  in 
1763.  The  state  declared  itself  independent 
in  Jan.,  1777  ;  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Federal  Union  Feb.  18,  1791 ;  and  a  constitu- 
tion was  framed  in  1793. 

VERNEUIL  (Battle).— The  allied  French 
and  Scotch  were  completely  defeated  near  this 
town  in  France,  by  the  English,  under  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  Aug.  17,  1424. 

VERNEUIL  (France).— A  town  in  Perche, 
fortified  in  the  i2th  century  by  Henry  I.  of 
England,  was  frequently  assailed  during  the 
wars  between  France  and  England,  and  re 
mained  in  the  possession  of  the  English  till 
1449.  The  castle  of  Verneuil,  in  the  department 
of  the  Oise,  was  built  by  Henry  IV.,  who  made 
it  a  marquisate.  It  was  raised  to  a  duchy  by 
Louis  XIV  in  1682. 

VERNON  (France).— This  town,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Normandy,  several  times  as- 
sailed, was  ceded  to  France  in  1198.  The 
English  took  it  in  1419,  and  kept  possession 
until  1449. 

VERNON  GALLERY.— In  1847  Robert 
Vernon  presented  to  the  nation  his  collection 
of  162  modern  paintings  by  English  artists. 
In  1850  they  were  removed  from  the  cellars 
at  the  Royal  Academy,  Trafalgar  Square, 
where  they  had  been  previously  exhibited, 


to  Marlborough  House ;  and  in  1859  they  were 
transferred  to  South  Kensington  Museum. 

VERONA  (Italy),  under  the  Roman  domin- 
ion, became  a  colony  with  the  surname  of 
Augusta.  The  Emperor  Philip  lost  his  life 
here  in  249.  The  city,  walled  during  the  reign 
of  Gallienus,  in  265,  was  besieged  and  cap- 
tured by  Constantine  I.  in  312.  Odoacer  was 
defeated  by  Theodoric,  near  Verona,  Sep.  27,  489. 
The  city  was  captured  by  Charlemagne  in  774. 
Schools  were  established  by  Lothaire  I.  in  829. 
Louis  of  Aries,  defeated  here  by  Berenger  I., 
was  made  a  prisoner,  and  had  his  eyes  put  out 
in  905.  Berenger  I.,  who  had  received  the 
title  of  emperor  from  the  Pope,  was  assassin- 
ated by  the  inhabitants  in  924.  The  march 
was  ceded  to  Otho  I.  in  952.  The  Emperor 
Henry  III.  bestowed  it  upon  Guelph  III.  in 
1047.  A  large  portion  of  the  amphitheatre 
erected  by  the  Romans  was  overthrown  by  an 
earthquake  in  1184.  It  assumed  a  republican 
form  of  government  in  1107,  was  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  Padua  in  1141,  united  in  the 
league  formed  against  Frederick  I.  with  other 
towns  of  Lombardy  in  1164,  and  submitted  to 
Eccelino  da  Romano,  the  Ghibelline  leader,  in 
1227.  Delivered  from  his  tyranny,  it  chose  for 
its  podesta  Mastino  della  Scala  in  1262.  It 
was  seized  by  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti  in  1387, 
and  after  an  obstinate  resistance  surrendered 
to  Francesco  Carrara  in  1404.  After  a  siege 
which  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  a  state  of 
famine,  it  submitted  to  Venice,  July  16,  1405, 
and  delivered  up  its  keys  to  the  Emperor  Max- 
imilian I.  in  1509.  Maximilian  I.  mortgaged 
it  to  Louis  XII.  for  a  sum  of  money  in  1510. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and  restored 
to  Venice  by  the  peace  of  Brussels,  Dec.  4, 
1516.  The  confederate  armies  captured  it  in 
1745.  The  French  general-in-chief  established 
his  head-quarters  here,  June  3,  1796.  The 
people  rose  against  the  French  garrison  and 
massacred  them,  in  April,  1797,  and  this  is 
called  the  Vespers  of  Verona.  A  complete 
defeat  was  sustained  by  the  French  in  a  battle 
with  the  Austrians,  March  28,  29,  30,  1799. 
It  was  secured  to  Austria  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  A  European  congress  held 
here  decided  upon  the  evacuation  of  Piedmont 
and  Naples  by  the  Austrian  troops,  Dec.  14, 
1822.  Charles  Albert,"  King  of  Sardinia,  de- 
feated the  Austrians  here  May  6,  1848.  The 
Austrians  strengthened  its  fortifications,  and 
it  formed  one  of  the  celebrated  Quadrilateral 
ceded  to  Italy  by  the  treaty  signed  at  Vienna, 
Oct.  3,  1866.  Verona  was  delivered  to  the 
Italian  authorities  Oct.  16,  1866. 

VERSAILLES  (France).— A  lazar-house  was 
established  at  this  place  as  early  as  1350.  In 
1579,  Albert  de  Gondi,  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
purchased  an  estate  here,  which  was  bought 
by  Louis  XIII.  in  1632,  and  made  the  site  of 
a  royal  hunting  lodge.  In  1661  Louis  XIV. 
resolved  to  establish  his  court  at  Versailles, 
and  commenced  the  palace  and  gardens,  which 
were  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  occupied  in 
1672.  (See  TRIANON.)  Louis  XIV.  held  a 
carrousel  here  in  1664.  Versailles  became  the 
royal  residence  in  1681.  The  chapel  was  com- 
pleted in  1710,  and  the  theatre  in  1770.  Louis 
XVI.  summoned  the  fetats  Ge"ne"raux  to  meet 


VERSAILLES 


t     1018    ] 


VESUVIUS 


here  May  5,  1789,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution,  the  mob  attacked  Versailles 
and  compelled  the  royal  family  to  return  to  the 
Tuileries,  Oct.  5  and  6.  The  national  Museum, 
founded  by  Louis  Philippe,  was  inaugurated 
in  1837.  The  school  of  artillery  for  the  Impe- 
rial Guard  was  established  in  1856. 

VERSAILLES  (Treaties).— The  following  are 
the  most  important  alliances  and  treaties  con-' 
eluded  at  Versailles  : — 


A.D. 

1675,  April  25.  Of  alliance  between  France  and  Sweden. 
I7o'i,  March  9.   Of  alliance  between  France  and  Bavaria. 
1715,  April  3.  Of  alliance  between  Franre  and  Sweden. 
I739i  -Tin.  13.  Between  France  and  the  Kmperor. 
1744,  June  5.  Of  alliance  between  France  and  Prussia. 
1749,  Sep.  20.  Convention  with  Denmark. 
1756,  May  i.  Of  alliance  between  France  and  Austria. 
1783,  July  16.  A  convention  is  signed  between  France  and 
the  United  States. 

1783,  Sep.   3.  Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  France 

and  Spain  is  concluded  at  Versailles.  By  this 
treaty  the  French  recovered  Pondiclierry  and 
other  possessions  in  India,  anil  Trincomalee  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch.  The  preliminaries  were 
signed  at  Versailles,  Jan.  20. 

1784,  July   19.  A  secret  convention  between  France  and 

Sweden  is  signed  at  Versailles. 
1786,  Sep.  26.  Of  commerce  between  France  and  England. 


VERSE.— The  earliest  kind  of  verse  em- 
ployed in  Grecian  poetry  was  the  hexameter 
or  dactylic  metre,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  the  mythical  Pythoness  I'hemonoj, 
and  which  remained  the  standard  verse  for 
epic  poetry  throughout  the  classic  period.  The 
elegiac  metre,  produced  by  using  alternate 
hexameter  and  pentameter  verses,  originated 
about  the  beginning  of  the  jth  century  B.C. 
Arcbilochus,  who  flourished  B.C.  714—6.0.  67613 
the  reputed  inventor  of  Iambic  and  Trochaic 
verse,  and  Alcams,  B.C.  6n,  gave  his  name  to 
the  Alcaic  verse.  Arion  perfected  the  ancient 
Dithyrambic  metre,  which  had  been  previously 
employed  in  the  choral  songs  to  Bacchus  about 
B.C.  585.  Ifipponax,  who  nourished  B.C.  546 — 
B.C. 520,  introduced  a  modification  of  the  Iambic 
verse,  known  as  the  Choliambic  metre,  which 
was  specially  adapted  for  the  expression  of 
homely  sentiments.  The  Saturnian  verse,  the 
original  metre  of  the  Roman  poets,  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Etruscans.  The  ancient  Fes- 
cennine  verse  was  introduced  at  a  very  early 
period  in  Latium,  and  was  perverted  into  a 
vehicle  for  libel,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
was  prohibited  by  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  B.C.  450.  The  other  metres  of  the 
Romans  were  founded  on  those  of  the  Greeks. 
The  metres  of  the  moderns  were  chiefly  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  and  the  earliest  example 
of  verse  in  a  modern  language  is  a  fragmentary 
poem  of  Boethius  in  French,  which  has  been 
referred  to  1000.  (See  BLANK,  LEONINE,  and 
MACARONIC  VERSE.) 

VERSIFIERS.  —  (See  IMPROVISATORI  and 
POET  LAUREATE.) 

VERULAM,  VEROLAMIUM,  or  VERULA- 
MIUM  (Britannia).— On  the  site  of  this  town, 
taken  by  Julius  Caesar  in  May,  B.C.  54,  and 
afterwards  called  Old  Verulam,  the  modern 
St.  Albans  (q.  v.)  is  supposed  to  have  been 
built. 

VERVINS   (France).  —  Philip  II.   of   Spain 


concluded  a  treaty  at  this  town,  May  2,  1598, 
with  Henry  IV.  of  France,  restoring  all  the 
places  he  had  seized  during  the  war.  The 
Duke  of  Savoy  was  included  in  the  peace. 
Vervins,  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1653,  was 
recaptured  by  the  French  in  1654. 

VESERIS.  —  The  battle  of  Vesuvius  (q.  v.) 
was  said  to  have  been  fought  near  Veseris, 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  a  small  river  in 
Campania,  though  some  authorities  contend 
that  it  was  a  town. 

VESONTIO.—  (See  BESANQON.) 

VKSOUL  (France),  founded  in  the  gth  cen- 
tury, was  sacked  by  the  English  in  1360.  The 
Burgundians  defeated  the  French  here  March 
19,  1477,  and  the  town  suffered  from  the 
ravages  of  war  in  1595,  1636,  and  1644. 

VESPERS,  or  EVENING  SONG.  —  The 
evening  prayer  of  the  Romish  Church,  so 
named  from  Vesper,  the  evening  star,  is  men- 
tioned by  the  most  ancient  fathers,  and  was 
certainly  celebrated  in  the  eastern  churches 
during  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries.  (See  SICI- 
LIAN VESPERS,  VERONA,  &c.) 

VKSPRIM,  VESZPRIM,  or  WESPRIM 
(Hungary). — The  fortress,  often  besieged  by 
the  Turks,  was  seized  by  Soliman  I.  in  1552, 
was  recovered  from  ^:he  Turks  in  1598,  and 
was  dismantled  in  1702. 

VESTALS.  —  Virgin  priestesses  of  Vesta 
existed  in  Etruria  and  among  the  Sabines 
before  they  were  instituted  at  Rome.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  Romulus  and  Remus  were 
the  sons  of  the  vestal  Ilia,  who  was  compelled 
to  violate  her  oath  of  chastity,  and  punished 
by  being  buried  alive,  B.C.  770.  Numa  Pom- 
pilius  (B.C.  715 — B.C.  673)  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  order  at  Rome,  as  he  instituted 
four  virgin  priestesses  of  Vesta,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  minister  in  her  temple  and  to  watch, 
by  turns,  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar.  Two 
more  were  added  by  Tarquinius  Priscus  (B.C. 
616— B.C.  578),  or  by  Servius  Tullius  (B.C.  578 — 
B.C.  534).  The  law  of  Numa  inflicted  death  by 
stoning  on  vestals  guilty  of  incontinence  ;  but 
Tarquinius  Priscus  enforced  the  penalty  of 
burying  alive.  The  most  celebrated  instances 
of  the  infliction  of  this  penalty  were  those  of 
the  vestal  Opimia,  B.C.  481 ;  of  Urbinia,  B.C. 
470;  of  Misurtia,  B.C.  337  ;  Sextilia,  B.C.  273; 
and  Licinia,  who,  with  several  of  her  com- 
panions, was  convicted  of  incest,  B.C.  116.  In 
every  case  the  corrupter  of  a  vestal's  purity 
was  scourged  to  death.  Domitian  enforced  the 
laws  respecting  the  strict  manner  of  the  life 
of  the  vestals,  and  two  found  guilty  of  incon- 
tinence were  allowed  to  kill  themselves,  whilst 
a  third,  Cornelia,  was  buried  alive  in  91.  The 
vestals  were  abolished  by  Theodosius  I.  in  389. 
VESUNNA.— (See  PERIGUEUX.) 
VESUVIUS  (Battle).— The  armies  of  Latium 
and  Rome  met  on  the  banks  of  the  Veseris,  in 
the  plains  of  Campania,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  B.C.  340.  It  was  revealed  to  the 
Roman  consuls,  T.  Manlius  Torquatus  and 
P.  Decius  Mus,  in  a  dream  the  night  before 
the  battle,  that  the  gods  had  doomed  the 
general  on  one  side  and  the  army  on  the 
other,  and  in  the  morning  they  agreed  that 
in  case  either  wing  met  with  a  check,  the 
general  in  command  of  that  should  offer 


VESUVIUS 


[     1019    ] 


VICE-CHANCELLOR 


his  life  as  a  sacrifice.  The  left  beginning 
to  waver,  Decius  immediately  summoned  the 
chief  pontiff  Valerius,  and  having  repeated 
the  formula,  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
Latin  ai'my.  This  act  of  heroism  was  re- 
peated by  his  son,  P.  Decius  Mus,  at  Sentinum 
(q.  v.),  and  on  both  occasions  the  Romans  were 
victorious. 

VESUVIUS  (Naples).  — It  is  believed  that 
an  eruption  took  place  in  63,  when  but  little 
damage  was  done;  and  the  first  recorded  erup- 
tion took  place  Aug.  24,  79,  when  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii  (q.  v.)  were  overwhelmed,  and 
about  200,000  persons  perished,  amongst  whom 
was  Pliny  the  Elder,  who,  on  perceiving  the 
eruption,  had  repaired  to  Stabile  and  landed 
at  the  villa  of  his  friend  Pomponianus.  Other 
eruptions  of  less  violent  character  occurred  in 
203,  472,  512,  685,  993,  1036,  1049,  1139,  I3°6) 
and  1500.  An  eruption  which  burst  forth  Sep. 


1538,  resulted  in  the  formation  of  Monte 

up  by 
convulsions  to  a  height  of  413  feet  in  two 


20,  153* 

Nuovo. 


It  was  forced  up  by  subterranean 


days.  A  very  violent  eruption  took  place 
Dec.  17,  1631,  and  overwhelmed  Torre  del 
Greco  and  other  villages  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  besides  causing  the  death  of  18,000 
persons.  It  was  again  Active  Aug.  12,  1682, 
when  a  conical  projection  was  formed  in  the 
centre  of  the  great  crater,  which  was  nearly 
filled  up  by  a  succession  of  small  discharges  in 
1689.  A  series  of  violent  eruptions  commenced 
May  20,  and  continued  till  Aug.,  1707  ;  and  the 
ashes,  <fcc.,  were  thrown  with  much  violence 
upon  Naples,  where  they  produced  great  con- 
sternation, Aug.  2.  A  violent  eruption  took 
place  May  20,  1737,  and  the  mountain  com- 
menced pouring  forth  destructive  torrents  of 
lava,  &c.,  Oct.  25,  1751,  and  continued  active 
for  25  days,  during  which  time  the  central 
cone  sank,  leaving  an  immense  gap  in  its 
place.  Another  eruption  took  place  from  Aug. 
8  to  ii,  1779,  and  a  new  cone  was  thrown  up 
between  Oct.  12,  1784,  and  Dec.  20,  1785.  A 
violent  eruption,  which  raged  from  Feb.,  1793, 
till  Midsummer,  1794,  and  which  attained  its 
height  June  15,  1794,  poured  a  torrent  of  lava 
through  Torre  del  Greco,  where  the  cathedral 
and  several  churches,  with  most  of  the  houses, 
were  destroyed.  A  new  crater  opened  Sep.  4, 
1809,  and  the  mountain  continued  more  or  less 
active  for  about  four  years.  A  series  of  violent 
disturbances  commenced  Oct.  22,  1822,  during 
which  the  great  cone  fell  in,  and  torrents  of 
lava  were  poured  over  the  adjacent  country. 
The  village  of  Caposecco  was  overwhelmed  by 
an  eruption  in  Aug.,  1834.  The  volcano  com- 
menced violent  action  Feb.  6,  1850,  and  re- 
mained disturbed  till  the  end  of  the  month, 
during  which  time  a  tract  of  nine  square 
miles  was  covered  by  the  lava.  Eruptions 
took  place  May  i — 28,  1855  ;  a  grand  one  com- 
menced May  21,  1858,  and  continued  for  some 
weeks,  and  the  crater  again  fell  in.  The 
mountain  was  again  active  in  Aug.,  1859, 
and  a  series  of  violent  eruptions  commenced 
Dec.  8,  1 86 1,  and  caused  the  destruction  of 
Torre  del  Greco. 

VETERA.— (See  XANTEN.) 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE.— The  first  school 
for  the  study  of  this  branch  of  pathology  was 


established  at  Lyons  in  1761.  The  Veterinary 
College  of  London  was  founded  in  1702 

VEURNE.-(See  FURNES.) 

VEX1N  (France).  —  By  the  treaty  of  St. 
Clair-sur-Epte,  a  portion  of  this  county  was 
assigned  to  Normandy,  and .  called  Norman 
Vexiu.  It  was  reunited  to  France  in  1082. 

VEZELAY  (France).— Anabbey  was  founded 
at  this  town  in  868,  and  the  church  of  St.  Ma- 
delaine  was  consecrated  in  864.  St.  Bernard 
preached  the  second  crusade  here,  and  Louis 
VII.  took  the  cross  at  a  council  held  here  in 
1146. 

VIATICUM.— This  term  was  applied  to  the 
Eucharist  administered  to  persons  at  the  point 
of  death,  by  a  canon  in  the  first  general 
council  held  at  Nicsea,  June  19 — Aug.  25,  325. 
St.  Basil  (329 — Jan.  i,  379)  applied  it  to  the 
rite  of  baptism,  as  constituting  a  provision, 
for  the  journey  to  another  world. 

VIAZMA  (Russia).  —  A  treaty  between 
Ladislaus  VII.,  King  of  Poland,  and  the  Czar, 
Michael  Romanof,  was  signed  in  1634  at  this 
town,  long  an  appanage  of  the  princes  of 
Smolensko.  The  latter  renounced  all  claim 
to  Poland,  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland. 
The  Russians  defeated  the  French  at  this  town, 
the  greater  part  of  which  was  destroyed  by 
fire  Oct.  22,  1812. 

VIAZMA,  or  WIASMA  (Treaty),  between 
Poland  and  Russia,  was  signed  at  this  town  in 
Russia  June  15,  1634. 

VIBONA.— (See  MONTELONE.) 

VIBORG,  VYBORG,  WIBORG,  or  WYBORG 
(Finland). — This  city  of  European  Russia  was 
fortified  in  1293  by  Torkel  Knutson,  Regent  of 
Sweden,  and  became  the  capital  of  Carelia. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  Russians  in  1322,  in 
1359,  and  in  1496,  and  was  taken  by  Peter  I. 
in  1710.  By  the  peace  of  Nystadt,  Aug.  30, 
1721,  Viborg  was  definitely  ceded  to  Russia  by 
the  Swedes.  A  treaty  of  alliance  between 
Sweden  and  Russia  was  concluded  at  this 
place  Feb.  28,  1609.  A  severe  naval  engage- 
ment took  place  off  the  port,  between  the 
Russians  and  Swedes,  July  3,  1790,  when  the 
latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  nine  ships 
of  the  line  and  three  frigates,  besides  several 
smaller  vessels. 

VICE.— This  character  in  the  Mediaeval 
mystery  and  morality  plays  was  originally 
introduced  as  an  embodiment  of  vice,  and  is 
stated  by  Hallam  (Lit.  Hist.,  vol.  i.  part  i.  ch. 
viii.  p.  45)  "to  have  gradually  acquireda  human 
individuality,  in  which  he  came  very  near  to  our 
well-known  Punch.  The  devil  was  generally 
introduced  in  company  with  the  Vice,  and  had 
to  endure  many  blows  from  him."  He  was 
attired  in  a  long  jerkin,  and  wore  a  cap  with 
ass's  ears,  and  he  was  armed  with  a  thin 
wooden  dagger  with  which  to  belabour  the 
devil.  The  Vice  was  especially  popular  about 
the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  and  he 
ceased  to  be  in  fashion  at  the  end  of  the 
century. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR.  —  Authority  to  ap- 
point a  vice-chancellor  of  England,  a  judge  in 
equity,  was  given  by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  24  (March 
23, 1813^  and  Sir  Thomas  Plumer  was  appointed 
April  10.  By  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  5  (Oct.  5,  1841), 
two  additional  vice-chancellors  were  created. 


VICENZA 


[       I02O 


VICTORIA  INSTITUTE 


Certain  provisions  of  these  acts  were  repealed 
by  13  &  14  Viet.  c.  35,  s.  29  (July  15,  1850). 

VICENZA  (Italy),  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  and  the  ancient  Vicentia,  or 
Vicetia,  is  first  mentioned  as  having  its  limits 
fixed  by  the  proconsul  Sex.  Atilius  Saranus, 
B.C.  136 ;  and  afterwards  as  a  municipal  town, 
B.C.  43.  It  was  plundered  by  Alaric  I.  in  401, 
and  wasted  with  fire  and  sword  by  Attila,  in 
452.  It  joined  the  famous  Lombard  league 
against  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  in  1175  ;  was 
captured  by  Frederick  II.  in  1236,  and  seized 
by  Eccelino  da  Romano  in  1256.  It  afterwards 
fell  to  Alberico,  his  brother,  from  whose  tyranny 
it  was  delivered  by  Padua,  and  held  in  subjec- 
tion in  1269.  Alboin  and  Cane  della  Scala 
reduced  it  to  the  Ghibelline  cause  in  1311,  and 
Giaii  Galeazzo  Visconti  seized  it  after  murder- 
ing his  uncle,  in  1387.  Ceded  to  Venice  in  1403, 
it  surrendered  to  the  plenipotentiary  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  and  was  retaken  by 
the  Venetians  in  1509.  The  French  captured 
it,  and  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  Venice  in 
1510.  It  was  occupied  by  French  troops,  under 
Gen.  Victor,  April  28,  1797.  The  Austrians 
assailed  it  ineffectually  May  23,  1848;  and  it 
capitulated  to  Radetsky  after  a  severe  bom- 
bardment, June  ii,  1848. 

VICH,  or  VIC  D'OSONA  (Spain),  was  sacked 
by  the  Moors  in  713,  and  has  been,  frequently 
assailed.  The  French  defeated  the  Spaniards 
in  the  neighbourhood  in  1810  and  1823. 

VICHY  (France  was  taken  by  Charles  VII. 
in  1440.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
waters. 

VICKSBURG  (N.  America).— This  city  of  the 
U.  States,  the  capital  of  Warren  county,  Miss- 
issippi, was  be.sieged  by  the  Federals  under 
Gcii.  Grant  and  Admiral  Porter,  from  May  18 
to  July  4,  1863,  when  it  was  captured. 

VICTORIA,  daughter  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Kent,  and  the  Princess  Victoria  Maria  Louisa  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  born  May  24,  1819,  succeeded  to 
the  English  throne  on  the  death  of  William  IV., 
June  20,  1837  ;  was  proclaimed  queen  June  22 ; 
was  crowned  June  28,  1838 ;  and  married 
Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  Feb. 
10,  1840.  Four  sons  and  five  daughters  were 
born  of  this  marriage  : — i.  Victoria  Adelaide 
Mary  Louisa,  born  Nov.  21,  1840,  married  to 
Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  Jan.  25, 
1858.  2.  Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  born 
Nov.  9,  1841,  heir  apparent,  married  March  10, 
1 863,  Alexandra,  eldest  daughter  of  Christian, 
King  of  Denmark.  3.  Alice  Maud  Mary,  born 
April  25,  1843,  married  to  Prince  Louis  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  July  i,  1862.  4.  Alfred 
Ernest  Albert,  born  Aug.  6,  1844,  created  Duke 
of  Edinburgh,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  Earl  of  Ulster, 
May  24,  1866.  5.  Helena  Augusta  Victoria, 
born  May  25,  1846  ;  married,  July  5,  1866,  to 
Prince  Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonder- 
burg-Augustenburg.  6.  Louisa  Caroline  Al- 
berta, born  March  18, 1848.  7.  Arthur  William 
Patrick  Albert,  born  May  i,  1850.  8.  Leopold 
George  Duncan  Albert,  born  April  7,  1853 1 
and,  9.  Beatrice  Mary  Victoria  Feodore,  born 
April  14,  1857.  Prince  Albert  died,  after  a 
short  illness,  at  Windsor  Castle,  Dec.  14,  1861, 
and  was  buried  Dec.  23. 

VICTORIA  (Hong-Kong)  was   founded   by 


the  English  in  Aug.,  1841.    Its  bishopric  was 
formed  in  1849. 

VICTORIA  (S.  Australia).— A  settlement, 
made  at  Port  Philip  in  1803,  was  removed  to 
Hobart  Town  in  June,  1804.  Sir  Gordon 
Brewer  founded  a  town  at  Port  Victoria  in 
1831.  The  colony  of  South  Australia  was 
established  and  Adelaide  founded  in  1836. 
Capt.  King  discovered  the  Victoria  River  in 

1 838.  The  name  was  changed  from  Port  Philip 
to  Victoria  in   1839.     Gold  was  discovered  in 
Victoria  Aug.  8,  1850.     It  was  separated  from 
New  South  Wales  July  i,  1851,  and  the  Bal- 
larat  gold  field  was  discovered  in  Sep.     The 
Victoria   Exhibition  building  was   opened  at 
Melbourne  in  Oct.,  1854.     A  new  constitution 
was  proclaimed  Nov.  23,  1855.     The  first  par- 
liament under  the  new  constitution  assembled 
at  Melbourne  Nov.  21,  1856. 

GOVERNORS  OF  VICTORIA. 
A.D. 

1836,  Oct  i.  Capt.  Lonsdule,  as  Police  Magistrate,  arrives 
at  Melbourne  from  Sydney. 

1839,  Sep.   29.    Mr.    La  Trobe,   Superintendent    of    Tort 

1'hillip,  arrives. 

i«54,  June  t\.  Sir  Charles  Ilotham,  Governor  of  Victoria. 
1855,  Dec.  31.  Sir  Charles  Hotham  dies,  and  Major-Uen. 

Macarthur  officiates  as  Acting-Governor. 
1857,  Nov.  Sir  Henry  Barkly. 
1863,  Sep.  9.  Sir  Charles  It.  Darling. 

VICTORIA  (Vancouver  Island)  was  selected 
by  Governor  Davis  as  the  capital  in  1842. 

VICTORIA  BRIDGE  [Canada !.— This  iron 
railway  tubular  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence 
:;_Cned  by  Robert  Stephenson  and  Alex- 
ander M.  Ross.  The  first  portion  of  the  north 
abutment  coffer  dam  was  towed  into  its  place 
May  24,  1854,  and  the  first  stone  of  the  bridge 
was  laid  July  20.  The  stone  piers  sustained 
uninjured  the  violent  movement  of  the  ice  .Ian. 
855,  and  the  first  train  passed  over  the 
Dec.  17, 1859,  The  formal  inauguration 
by  the  Prince  of  Wales  took  place  Aug.  25, 1860. 
The  total  length  of  the  tubes  is  6,592  feet,  and 
of  the  bridge  9,144  feet,  or  nearly  two  miles. 
It  stands  60  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  is  composed  of  9,044  tons  of  iron, 
held  together  by  1,540,000  rivets.  The  iron- 
work was  all  completed  at  the  Canada  Works, 
Birkenhead.  The  spans  are  25  in  number, 
that  in  the  middle  being  330  feet. 

VICTORIA  CROSS,  for  distinguished  gal- 
lantry on  the  part  of  officers  or  privates 
in  the  army  and  navy,  was  established 
Feb.  5,  1856.  It  was  conferred  by  Queen 
Victoria  upon  48  military  men  and  14  be- 
longing to  the  royal  navy,  in  Hyde  Park, 
June  26,  1857.  Another  distribution  took 
place  on  Southsea  common,  to  men  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Crimea 
and  during  the  Indian  mutiny,  Aug.  2,  1858. 
Several  brave  men  have  received  the  decora- 
tion for  acts  of  gallantry  and  devotion. 

VICTORIA  DOCKS  (London)  were  opened 
Nov.  26,  1855. 

VICTORIA  INSTITUTE,  or  PHILOSO- 
PHICAL SOCIETY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 
(London),  formed  at  a  preliminary  meeting, 
held  June  16,  1865,  was  constituted  June  22. 
The  first  general  meeting  was  held  May  24, 
1866,  and  the  first  ordinary  meeting  June  6. 


bridge 


VICTORIA  LAND 


VIENNA 


VICTORIA  LAND  (Antarctic  Ocean),  seen  by 
Sir  James  Ross  Jan.  12,  1841,  was  believed  by 
him  to  be  the  mainland  of  the  Antarctic  con- 
tinent. 

VICTORIA  NYANZA.— (See  NILE.) 

VICTORIA  PARK  (London).— By  4  &  5 
Viet.  c.  27  (June  21,  1841),  the  commissioners 
of  Woods  and  Forests  were  empowered  to 
complete  the  sale  of  York  Hftuse  to  the  Duke 
of  Sutherland  for  £72,000,  and  to  lay  out  the 
money  in  the  purchase  of  about  290  acres  of  land 
at  Hackney  for  a  royal  park.  It  was  opened 
to  the  public  in  1845.  A  drinking  fountain, 
erected  in  this  park  at  a  cost  of  ,£5,000,  by 
Miss  Burdett  Coutts,  was  opened  June  28,  1862. 

VICTORIA  REGIA.— This  aquatic  plant, 
named  after  Queen  Victoria,  was  discovered  in 
the  river  Berbice,  in  Guiana,  by  Sir  Robert 
Schomburgk,  in  18^7. 

VICTORIA  THEATRE  (London),  at  first 
called  the  Coburg,  was  opened  in  1818.  A  false 
alarm  of  fire  was  raised,  and  16  people  were 
killed,  in  the  panic  caused  Dec.  27,  1858. 

VICTORY,  Nelson's  flag-ship  at  Trafalgar 
(q.  v.),  on  the  deck  of  which  he  received  his 
mortal  wound,  and  on  board  of  which  he  died, 
Oct.  21,  1805,  is  kept  at  Portsmouth,  where  it 
is  exhibited  to  visitors.  (See  AKDOCH,  Nico- 
POLIS,  RANGOON,  &c.) 

VICUS  JULII.— (See  AIRE.) 

VIC,  or  VIC-SUR-SEILLE  (France).— This 
town,  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Austrasia,  was  destroyed  by  the  Count  of  Bar 
in  1255.  Louis  XIII.  concluded  a  treaty  here 
with  Charles  III.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Jan.  6, 

1  VICTUALLERS.— By  12  Edw.  II.  c.  6  (1318), 
officers  of  cities  or  boroughs  were  prohibited 
from  selling  wine  or  victuals  during  their  time 
of  office.  The  regulation  of  the  provision- 
dealers  of  London  was  vested  in  the  mayor 
and  aldermen  by  31  Edw.  III.  c.  10  (1357),  and 
they  were  restrained  from  selling  their  goods 
at  exorbitant  prices  by  13  Rich.  II.  stat.  i,  c. 
8  (1389).  The  price  of  victuals  was  assessed 
and  taxed  by  3  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8  (1511).  It  was 
confined  within  certain  limits,  and  the  expor- 
tation of  provisions  without  a  licence  was  pro- 
hibited, by  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2  (1533).  Further 
restrictions  on  the  exportation  were  imposed 
by  i  <fe  2  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  5  (1554).  By  24  Geo. 
II.  c.  40  (1751),  called  the  Tippling  Act,  publi- 
cans could  not  recover  debts  for  spirits  under 
one  pound.  It  was  amended  by  28  Geo.  III.  c. 
46  (1755),  and  repealed  by  23  &  24  Viet.  c.  114 
(Aug.  28,  1860).  By  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  64  (July 
25,  1864),  all  public  houses  within  the  metro- 
politan police  district  are  to  be  closed  from  i 
to  4  A.M.  It  was  amended  by  28  &  29  Viet.  c. 
77  (June  29,  1865).  Public  houses  in  Scotland 
are  regulated  by  25  &  26  Viet.  c.  35  (July  17, 
1062).  The  permanent  fund  of  the  licensed 
victuallers  was  founded  in  1 794.  Their  school 
in  the-  Old  Kent  Road  was  instituted  in  1803, 
and  their  asylum  in  1827.  (See  ALE  and  BEER, 
LICENCES,  <fcc.) 

VICTUALLING  OFFICE.— The  victualling 
office,  erected  at  Deptford  in  1745,  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1749.  In  Aug.,  1785,  the  de- 
partment was  removed  from  Tower  Hill,  the 
clerks'  offices  being  transferred  to  Somerset 


House,  and  the  workshops  for  the  preparation 

of  provisions  to  Deptford.     The  Royal  Clarence 

Victualling-yard  was  transferred  from   Ports- 
mouth to  Gosport  in  1828. 
VIDASOA.— (See  BIDASOA.) 
VIENNA  (Austria).— This  city  is  supposed 

to  occupy  the  site  of  the  Roman  station  Vindo- 

boua,  or  Vendobona,  where  the  Emperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  died,  March  17,  180. 
A.D. 

791.  Vienna  is  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 
984.  Vienna  is  made  the  capital  of  the  margraviate  of 
Austria. 

1143.  The  modern  town  is  founded. 

1 151.  It  is  erected  into  a  city. 

1198.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls. 

1237.  Frederick  II.  erects  it  into  an  imperial  city. 

1367,  May  10.  A  council  is  held  against  the  injustice  and 
violence  committed  during  the  15  mouths  the 
imperial  throne  was  vacant. 

1377.  It  is  taken  by  Rodolph  of  Habsburg. 

1359.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen's  is  founded. 

1365.  The  university  is  founded. 

1448,  Feb.  17.  The  concordat  of  Aschaffenburg  is  con- 
cluded at  Vienna. 

1463.  The  Viennese  revolt  and  besiege  the  Emperor  Frede- 
rick III.  in  his  own  quarter  of  the  city. 

1477.  Mathias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary,  fails  in  an 
attempt  to  take  Vienna. 

1485.  Vienna  surrenders  to  Mathias  Corvinus. 

1529,  Sep.  36.  The  Turks,  under  Soliman  I.,  besiege 
Vienna.—!  'ct.  14.  They  are  compelled  to  retire. 

1619.  Vienna  is  attacked  by  the  Bohemians. 

1683,  July  14.  The  Turks  besiege  Vienna,  which  is  ably 
defended  by  Count  Stahremberg.— Sep.  13.  John 
Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  and  Charles,  l)uke  of 
Lorraine,  defeat  the  Turks,  who  retreat  in  con- 
fusion. 

1705.  The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  is  founded. 

1736.  An  Academy  of  Painting  is  formed. 

1785.  The  Josephine  Medical  Academy  is  founded. 

1805,  Nov.  13.  The  French  seize  Vienna, 

1809,  May  13.  Vienna  surrenders  to  Napoleon  I. 

1815,  March  13.  The  Allies  publish  the  declaration  of 
Vienna,  by  which  Napoleon  I.  is  outlawed.  (See 
VIENNA,  Congress.) 

1830.  Considerable  injury  is  caused  by  an  inundation  of 
the  Danube. 

1835.  An  exhibition  is  held  at  Vienna. 

1848,  March  13.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Vienna. — 
May  17.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  is  compelled 
to  quit  the  city. — Aug.  13.  The  Emperor  returns. 
— Oct.  6.  A  second  insurrection  breaks  out. — Oct. 
7.  The  Emperor  again  leaves  the  city. — Oct.  38. 
Vienna  is  bombarded  by  Jellachich  and  Win- 
dischgratz.— Oct.  31.  The  rebels  surrender. 

1853,  May  8.  Nicholas  I.  of  Kussia  visits  Vienna.— Sep.  30. 
Funeral  services  are  performed  in  honour  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington. 

1855,  March  15.  The  conference  on  the  Eastern  question 
commences. — April  24.  The  Conference  is  closed, 
and  the  war  between  Uussia  and  the  Western 
Powers  continues. — Aug.  18.  A  concordat  is  con- 
cluded at  Vienna. 

1857.  Strangers  are  permitted  to  enter  Vienna  without 

passports. — Sep.  The  international  statistical  con- 
gress assembles  here. 

1858.  The  fortifications  are  demolished  preparatory  to  the 

extension  of  the  city. 

1860,  March  5.  The  Reichsrath  is  re-established  by  patent. 
1863,  Feb.  13.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visits  the  Emperor  at 

Vienna. 

VIENNA(Conferences).— During  the  Russian 
war,  a  conference  of  the  representatives  of  the 
four  great  powers  assembled  at  Vienna,  for  the 
purpose  of  adjusting  the  question  pacifically, 
July  24,  1853.  The  congress  adopted  the  well- 
known  Vienna  note  July  31.  It  was  accepted 
by  Russia  Aug.  10,  but  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment demanded  some  alterations  Aug.  19, 
which  were  rejected  by  the  Czar  Sep.  7.  The 
result  was  the  declaration  of  war  by  Turkey, 


VIENNA 


[       1022       ] 


VIENNA 


Oct.  5.  The  congress  addressed  another  note 
to  the  Porte,  expressing  the  regret  of  the  great 
powers  at  the  war,  and  requesting  information 
on  the  conditions  011  which  Turkey  would  treat 
for  peace,  Dec.  5  ;  and  the  Turkish  Government, 
in  a  reply  dated  Dec.  31,  named  the  earliest 
possible  evacuation  of  the  principalities,  the 
renewal  of  treaties,  the  maintenance  of  the 
religious  privileges  of  all  communities,  and  a 
definite  regulation  of  the  Holy  Places,  as  the 
indispensable  grounds  of  negotiation.  These 
four  points  were  admitted  by  the  congress  Jan. 
13,  1854,  and  the  meeting  was  dissolved  Jan. 

16. Another  congress  assembled  March  15, 

1855,  was  composed  of  plenipotentiaries  from 
Great  Britain  (Lord  John  Russell  and  the  Earl 
of  Westmorland),  France,  Austria,  Turkey,  and 
Russia  (Prince  Gortschakoff).  After  agreeing 
on  the  questions  relative  to  the  principalities 
and  to  the  navigation  of  the  Danube,  a  dis- 
pute commenced  respecting  the  restriction  oJ 
Russian  power  in  the  Black  Sea,  which  re- 
sulted in  an  adjournment  of  the  congress, 
March  26.  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  and  Aali  Pasta 
arrived  at  Vienna  as  additional  ministers  April 
6,  and  negotiations  were  resumed  April  17 
Lord  John  Russell  withdrew  from  Vienna 
April  23,  in  consequence  of  the  dissatisfaction 
his  policy  had  created  in  England;  and  M. 
Drouyn  de  Lhuys  also  left  the  conference,  April 
27.  The  congress  terminal  ed  without  produc- 
ing any  satisfactory  results,  June  4. 

VIENNA  Congress).  The  first  congress  of 
Vienna  was  convened  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
May  30,  1814,  for  the  settlement  of  the  affairs 
of  Europe  after  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  I. 
The  day  appointed  for  the  opening  of  the  con- 
gress was  Aug.  i,  but  it  was  aflci  wards  re- 
solved that  the  meeting  should  be:  postponed 
till  Oct.  The  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  arrived  at 
Vienna  Sep.  17  ;  the  Kings  of  Denmark  and  of 
Wflrtemberg,  and  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Colmrg, 
Sep.  22  ;  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King 
of  Prussia,  Sep.  25  ;  the  King  of  Bavaria  and 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  Sep.  28  ;  the  Elector 
of  Hesse  and  the  Prince  of  Naasau-Weiburg, 
Sep.  30  ;  and  the  Grand-duke  of  Baden,.  Oct.  2. 
Besides  the  sovereign  princes,  the  congress 
was  composed  of  plenipotentiaries  from  the 
courts  of  Austria  (Prince  Metternich  and 
others),  Spain,  France  (Prince  Talleyrand,  <fcc.), 
Great  Britain  (Lord  Castlereagh,  and  after- 
wards the  Duke  of  Wellington,  with  others), 
Portugal,  Prussia,  Russia  (Count  Nesselrode, 
<fec.),  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  minor 
states.  The  first  official  declaration  of  the 
congress  was  issued  Oct.  8,  and  announced 
the  postponement  of  the  formal  opening  till 
Nov.  i,  when  business  commenced  under  the 
presidency  of  Prince  Metternich.  After  the 
return  of  Napoleon  I.  from  Elba,  the  con- 
gress published  a  declaration,  March  13,  1815, 
announcing  that  he  had  thereby  broken  all 
civil  and  social  ties,  and  had  rendered  him- 
self a  political  outlaw.  The  principal  arrange- 
ments of  the  congress  were  collected  in  one 
grand  act  of  121  articles,  which  was  signed 
by  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
France,  Portugal,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Sweden, 
June  9,  1815. 
VIENNA  (Treaties).— The  following  is  a  list 


of  the  most  important  treaties  that  have  been 
concluded  at  Vienna : — 


1606,  June  23.  The  Religions  Peace  of  Vienna.  between 
the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  and  the  Hungarian 
Protestants. 

1671,  Sep.  i.  A  secret  alliance  between  France  and  the 
Emperor  Leopold  I.  L- 

1689,  May  it.  An  fDiance  against  France  is  concluded 
by  England,  Holland,  and  the  F.mj  -cr<>r  Leo- 
pold 1. 

1700,  Nov.  16.  Treaty  of  the  Crown  (r>.  p.). 

1735,  April  30.  A  pi  :ii'i-  am!   an  alliance  are  concluded  at 

Vienna  by  Germany  and  Spain.  Spain  guaranteed 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Ccimany  agreed  t.> 
furnish  a  force  for  restoring  Gibraltar  to  .vpam, 
and  to  endeavour  to  restore  the  Stuarts  to  the 
English  tin-one. 

1726,  Aug.  6.  Of  alliance  between  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI.  and  Catherine  I.,  Empress  of  Russia. 

1-37.  Prussia  joins  the  alliance  of  Vienna. 

1731,  March  16.  A  treaty,  called  the  Second  Treaty  of 
Vienna,  is  concluded  between  Great  liritain, 
Germany,  and  Holland.  l.y  this  treaty  Great 
Uritain  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.— 
.Inly  22.  Spain  acceded  t<>  it. 

!735,  Oct.  3.  Preliminaries  of  peace  between  the  Emperor 
and  France  an 

1736,  April  15.  Spain  accedes  to  the  preliminaries  signed 

Oct.  3,  1735. 
1738,  Nov.   18.    A  definitive  peace  between   France  and 

Germany,    ealh  d    the   Third   Tivatv   of    Vienna. 

l!y  this  Treaty  Lorraine  is  ceded  to  France,  which 

agrees  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 
1757,  Oct.  30.  Maria  Tht-n-a  guarantees  the  possession  of 

Berg  and   .Inliers   to   the    Elector  Palatine,  by  a 

treaty  signed  at  Vienna. 
1791,  July  25.  An  alliance  between  the  Emperor  Leopold 

II.  ami  Prussia  is  signed. 
1800,  June  20.  Of  subsidies  between  England  and  Austria 

is  ratified  at  Vienna. 

1805,  Dec.  15.  Prussia  concludes  a  treaty  with  Austria. 
1809,  Oct.  14.   Peace   between  Napoleon   I.  and  Austria  is 
,  d  at  Sehoiibrunn.an  imperial    palace  in  the 

suburbs  of  Vienna.     Austria  cedes  1  laliii.-itia,  the 

Tyrol,    Ac.,    to   France,    ami    unites   with    I  . 

and    Russia,    in    their    prohibitory  system   with 

regard  to   England. 

1814,  Sep.   2«.    Convention    placing   Saxony    under    the 

control  of  Prussia. 

1815,  March    25.    Great     Britain.    Austria,    Russia,    and 

Prussia  conclude  an  alliance  at  Vienna. — Mai  eh 
27.  France  accedes  to  the  alliance.— May  31.  A 
tri  iity  is  concluded  between  Holland  on  one  side, 
and  Great  Britain,  Austria.  Prussia,  and  i 
on  the  other.  The  Allies  agree  to  an  extension  of 
the  Dutch  territories,  ami  declare  the,  house  of 
Orange  the  royal  family  of  Holland.— June  4. 
Denmark  cedes  Swedish  Pomerunia  and  Riigen 
to  Prussia  in  exchange  for  Lauenbcrg,  by  a 
treaty  concluded  between  the  two  pou  •• 
Vienna. — June  8.  An  act  vesting  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  German  states  in  a  general  diet  i.; 
signed  at  Vienna. — June  9.  The  general  cor.^; res 
treaty  is  signed.— Sep.  14.  A  convention  sicurin.".- 
the  duchies  of  Parma,  &c.,  to  the  Empress  Maria 
Louisa. 

13.  Of  commerce  end  navigation  with  Great 
italn. 

841,  June  16.  Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  Brazil. 

846,  July  so.  Of  commerce  and  navigation  with  Russia. 
—Nov.  6.  "With  Prussia  and  Russia,  for  the  an- 
nexation of  Cracow. 

849,  Dee.  24.  Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with 
Modena. 

864,  Oct.  30.  Peace  is  concluded  at  Vienna  between 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  Denmark,  the  latter  power 


I838)Ju,yj 


resigning  the  duchies  of  Holstein   am!   Slcswig. 

and  agreeing  to  pay  a  heavy  sum  of  money,  ami 

to   consent  to  a  ratification  of  the  frontier  of 

Jutland. 

3,  Dec.  16.  Of  commerce  with  England. 
5,  Jan.   4.  Ratifications  of  treaty  of  commerce  with 

England  are  exchanged  at  Vienna.— Oct.  3.  Peace 

between  Austria  and  Italy  is  concluded  at  Vienna. 

and  Austria  cedes  Venefia  and  the  (jundrilai>  ra! 


VIENNE 


[     1023    ] 


VINDELICIA 


VIENNE  (France),  the  ancient  Vienna  or 
Vienna  Allobrogum,  the  capital  of  the  Allo 
broges,  is  mentioned  by  Julius  Cajsar,  and  was 
a  very  important  city.  It  was  the  scene  of  a 
cruel  persecution  in  177.  Valentinian  II.  was 
assassinated  here  May  15,  392.  It  was  made 
the  capital  of  Burgundy  in  432.  The  Franks 
took  it  in  834,  and  Charles  the  Bald  in  871.  It 
again  became  the  capital  of  Burgundy  in  879 
but  was  replaced  by  Aries.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  German  and  French  princes  in  880, 
and  surrendered  to  Carloman  in  882.  Councils 
were  held  here  in  April,  870;  in  892;  Jan.  31 
1060;  Sep.  16,  1112;  in  1118;  in  1200;  and  Oct 
i,  1311 — April  3,  1312  (sometimes  called  the  fif- 
teenth general).  Servetus  escaped  from  prison 
here,  and  was  burned  in  effigy  June  17,  1553. 
A  Roman  temple  still  exists,  which  has  been 
converted  into  a  museum  ;  and  near  the  town 
is  a  pyramidal  monument  called  Pontius 
Pilate's  tomb.  It  was  annexed  to  France  in 

I4VIEW  OF  FRANK-PLEDGE.— (See  COURT 
LEET,  FRANK-PLEDGE,  &c.) 

VIGO  (Spain)  was  taken  and  burned  by  the 
expedition  under  Drake  and  Norris,  despatched 
by  Elizabeth  to  attempt  to  place  Don  Antonio 
on  the  throne  of  Portugal,  in  1589.  Sir  George 
Rooke  destroyed  a  fleet  of  Spanish  galleons  in 
its  harbour,  capturing  booty  that  was  estimated 
at  6,000,000  dollars,  Oct.  12, 1702.  Its  garrison 
surrendered  to  Lord  Cobham,  who  carried  off 
43  pieces  of  ordnance,  8,000  muskets,  2,000 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  and  a  number  of  slave 
sloops,  Oct.  10,  1719. 

VILLA  FRANCA  (Battle).— (See  LLERENA.) 

VILLA  FRANCA  (Italy).— This  small  port 
in  the  Mediterranean  was  purchased  Nov.  19, 
1858,  for  20  years,  by  a  Russian  company,  as  a 
station  for  steamboats,  and  was  almost  imme- 
diately occupied  by  two  Russian  ships  of  war. 
The  English  Government  opposed  this  transac- 
tion as  an  encroachment  on  the  part  of  Russia 
in  the  Mediterranean.  There  are  several  places 
with  this  name,  but  none  of  much  impor- 
tance. 

VILLA  FRANCA,  or  VILLE-FRANCHE 
(Italy). — This  town  was  founded  by  Charles  of 
Anjoti,  King  of  Naples,  during  the  i5th  cen- 
tury. A  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was  con- 
cluded here  between  the  emperors  of  France 
and  Austria,  July  n,  1859,  by  which  Austria 
abandoned  Lombardy  to  Sardinia.  (See 
ZURICH.) 

VILLAIN,  or  VILLEIN.— The  name  applied 
by  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Anglo-Normans  to 
their  slaves.  After  the  Conquest  in  1066,  there 
were  four  classes  of  slaves  in  England  :  villains 
in  gross,  who  were  the  absolute  property  of 
their  masters,  and  were  employed  in  the  most 
menial  offices ;  villains  regardant,  otherwise 
styled  praedial  slaves,  who  were  attached  to 
the  soil,  and  followed  the  occupation  of  hus- 
bandmen :  and  two  smaller  divisions,  known 
as  cottarii  and  bordarii.  The  method  for  the 
amercement  of  villains  is  prescribed  by  9  Hen. 
III.  c.  14  (1225),  and  their  performance  of 
homage  to  their  feudal  lords  was  regulated 
by  17  Edw.  II.  stat.  2  (1324).  By  25  Edw.  III. 
stat.  5,  c.  18  (1350),  a  lord  was  empowered 
to  seize  his  villain  notwithstanding  a  writ  of 


Libertate  probanda.     (See  FEUDAL  LAWS  and 
SLAVERY.  ) 

VILLA  DE  LA  PLATA.— (See  CHUQUISACA.) 
VILLA  VICIOSA  (Portugal).  — The  Portu- 
guese, assisted  by  Gen.   Schomberg  and  some 
English  troops,  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Villa 
Viciosa,  or  Montes  Claros,  in  1665. 

VILLA  VICIOSA  (Spain).— Marshal  Vendome 
defeated  Stahremberg,  thus  securing  the  crown 
of  Spain  to  Philip  V.,  at  this  village,  Dec.  9, 

VILLE  MARIE.— (See  MONTREAL.) 
VILLINGSHAUSEN  (Battle).— (See  KIRCH- 

DENKERN.) 

VILNA.-(£>eWiLNA.) 

VIMEIRA,  or  VIMIERO  (Battle).  —  Gen. 
Junot,  who  received  from  Napoleon  I.  the  title 
of  Due  d'Abrantes,  attacked  Sir  Arthur  Welles- 
ley  near  this  town,  Aug.  21,  1808.  The  French 
were  completely  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  14 
guns  and  many  prisoners. 

VIMORI  (Battle).— A  German  army,  raised  in 
the  cause  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  was  attacked 
at  this  town,  in  France,  by  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
and  dispersed,  Oct.  27,  1587. 

VINCENNES  (France).— Philip  II.  built  the 
castle  in  1183.  Philip  VI.  pulled  down  the 
old  castle,  and  commenced  another  in  1337. 
Henry  V.  of  England,  having  fallen  ill  at  Cor- 
beuil,  was  removed  to  the  Bois  de  Vincennes, 
where  he  expired,  Aug.  31,  1422.  Since  1472  it 
has  been  used  as  a  state  prison.  Here  the 
Prince  of  Conde"  was  confined  Jan.  18,  1650; 
the  Cardinal  de  Retz  Dec.  19,  1652  ;  and  Mira- 
beau  for  three  years  and  a  half.  The  castle 
was  attacked  by  a  Parisian  mob  Feb.  28,  1791. 
The  Duke  d'Enghien  was  shot  here  by  order  of 
Napoleon  I.,  at  i  A.M.,  March  22,  1804.  When 
the  Allies  appeared  before  it  in  1815,  the 
governor-general  Daurnenil  saved  it  by  threat- 
ening to  blow  it  up.  The  ministers  of  Charles  X. 
were  imprisoned  here  in  1830.  (See  CHASSEURS 
DE  VINCENNES.) 

VINCENT.-(See  CAPE  ST.  VINCENT.) 

VINCENTIANS,  or  VINCENTIAN  CON- 
GREGATION, a  name  applied  to  the  Lazarites 
'q.  v.},  from  their  founder,  Vincent  de  Paul, 
1576 — Sep.  27,  1660). 

VINCENT,  ST.  (West  Indies),  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1498.  Charles  II.  included  it 
with  the  Barbadoes  and  several  other  islands 
under  one  government,  in  1672  ;  the  French 
began  to  colonize  the  island  in  1714 ;  it  was 
ceded  to  England  in  1763  ;  captured  by  the 
French,  June  17,  1779;  and  restored  to  England 
'11  1783.  An  insurrection  of  the  Caribs  was  put 
down  Oct.  i,  1795.  Another,  aided  by  the 
French  republicans,  terminated  in  the  sur- 
ender  of  5,000  blacks  to  Gen.  Hunter.  They 
were  transported  to  the  island  of  Rattan  in 
^"ov.,  1796.  An  eruption  of  the  volcano  Souf- 
riere  took  place  in  1812. 

VINCY  (Battle).— Charles  Martel,  son  of 
Pepin  d'Heristal,  encountered  the  Neustrians 
inder  Ragenfred  at  this  place,  between  Arras 
and  Cambray,  May  21,  717,  and  gained  a  vic- 
'ory  which  made  him  master  of  Neustria. 

VINDELICIA  (Germany),  inhabited  by  a 
Celtic  tribe,  the  Vindelici,  was  conquered  by 
Fiberius,  and  many  of  the  people  were  trans- 
ported into  other  countries,  B.C.  15. 


VINDONISSA 


[    1024    ] 


VISEU 


VINDONISSA  (Switzerland).— The  2ist 
Roman  legion  was  in  71  stationed  at  this  strong 
fortress,  at  the  junction  of  the  three  Swiss 
rivers  which  fall  into  the  Rhine  above  Basel 
(Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World,  iii.  ch.  xxxviii.). 
It  was  the  seat  of  the  first  bishopric  in  this 
part  of  Europe,  afterwards  removed  to  Con- 
stance. The  Gauls  were  defeated  here  by 
Constantius  in  296.  The  city  was  ravaged  by 
the  Vandals,  by  the  Alenianni,  and  by  the 
Huns.  Childebert  II.  destroyed  it  in  the  6th 
century.  Gibbon  says:  "Within  the  ancient 
walls  of  Vindonissa,  the  castle  of  Habsburg, 
the  abbey  of  Koiiigsfeld,  and  the  town  of 
Bruck,  have  successively  arisen." 

VINEGAR  HILL  (Battle).— The  Irish  rebels 
were  defeated  at  Vinegar  Hill,  Wexford,  their 
principal  camp  or  station,  by  Gen.  Lake,  June 
21,  1798. 

VINE  and  VINE  DISEASE.— Noah  is  said 
to  have  planted  a  vineyard,  B.C.  2247  ( Gen.  ix. 
20).  It  is  supposed  that  the  culture  of  the 
vine  passed  from  Persia  into  Asia  Minor,  and 
thence  into  Greece  and  Southern  Europe  ;  and 
it  is  known  to  have  been  introduced  into 
France  by  the  Phocaean  founders  of  Marseilles, 
B.C.  600.  Vines  are  said  to  Lave  been  first 
brought  to  England  by  command  of  the  Em- 
peror Probus,  about  280,  the  year  its  culture 
was  introduced  into  Gaul;  and  the  Venerable 
Bede  speaks  of  vineyards  as  common  in  this 
country  in  731.  Vines  were  planted  at  Tokay, 
in  Hungary,  in  the  i^th  century.  They  were 
introduced  into  Madeira  about  1421,  and  were 
first  planted  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  the 
Dutch  in  1650.  The  Catawba  vine  of  America 
began  to  attract  attention  about  1826.  The 
vine  disease,  (K>/ii(ni  Tfc/.-eri,  first  appeared  in 
an  English  hothouse  in  1845.  In  1847  it  was 
noticed  in  France  ;  and  in  1851  its  destructive 
a  extended  to  Italy.  (See  HAMPTON 
COURT.) 

VINLAND.— (See  AMERICA.) 

VI XTX  KRS1  C<  )MPANY.— The  vintners,  con- 
stituting one  of  the  12  chief  companies  of  Lon- 
don, were  incorporated  by  Edward  III.  in  1365, 
confirmed  by  Henry  VI.  in  1436.  The  site  of 
their  hall  in  Thames  Street  was  granted  by 
Sir  John  Stodie  in  1357.  The  present  building 
is  of  modern  date. 

VIOL,  VIOLIN,  &c.— "Stringed  instruments 
played  with  a  bow,"  says  Engel  (The  Music  of 
the  Most  Ancient  Nations,  ch.  ii.)  "seem  to 
have  been  unknown  to  the  Assyrians,  as  well 
as  to  the  Hebrews  and  Egyptians.  It  is  true 
some  historians  mention  Hebrew  instruments 
played  with  a  bow,  but  they  have  in  translating 
apparently  mistaken  the  plectrum  for  a  bow. 
On  the  other  hand  there  are  indications  of  the 
existence  of  a  kind  of  violin  in  Asia  at  a  very 
remote  period.  M.  Sonnerat  tells  us  that  the 
Hindoos  maintain  that  the  ravanastrou,  one  of 
their  old  instruments  played  with  a  bow,  was 
invented  about  5,000  years  ago  by  Ravanen,  a 
mighty  king  in  Ceylon."  The  viol,  a  six- 
stringed  fretted  instrument  played  with  a 
bow,  was  in  use  as  early  as  the  8th  century, 
and  the  violin,  which  differs  in  having  only 
four  strings,  dates  from  about  the  same  period. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  violin  was  regarded 
as  a  vulgar  instrument  unworthy  the  attention 


of  musicians  of  refinement,  and  it  was  not  till 
the  Italian  Baltazarini  was  sent  as  a  leader'of  a 
band  of  violins  to  France,  for  the  gratification 
of  Catherine  de  Medici,  that  it  became  fashion- 
able. About  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century 
it  became  an  important  instrument  in  concerted 
pieces,  and  the  celebrated  violins  of  the  Amati 
family,  of  Cremona,  were  made  in  great  quan- 
tities as  early  as  1620.  Charles  II.  rendered 
the  violin  a  fashionable  instrument  in  England 
soon  after  his  restoration  in  1660.  Nicolo 
Paganini,  the  eminent  violinist,  who  was  born 
at  Genoa  in  1784,  visited  England  in  1831,  and 
died  at  Nice  May  27,  1840. 

VIRGIN.— (See  FEASTS,  GLORIOUS  VIRGIN, 
SEVEN  DOULOURS,  SEVEN  JOYS,  &c.} 
VIRGIN  (Black).— (See  CZENSTOCHAU.) 
VIRGINIA  (N.  America)  received  its  name 
from  Queen  Elizabeth.  (See  ROANOKE.)  The 
county,  at  first  called  Virginia,  has  since  been 
known  as  Carolina,  whilst  the  territory  to  the 
north  took  the  name  of  Virginia.  James  I. 
granted  the  southern  part  of  the  state  to  a  Lon- 
don company  by  letters  patent,  April  10,  1606  ; 
and  the  first  colonists,  105  in  number,  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  James  river,  calling  tho 
place  James  Town,  in  honour  of  the  king,  May 
13,  1607.  The  colony  was  recruited  by  fresh 
:ils,  who  arrived  with  Lord  Delaware  as 
governor,  June  10,  1610,  and  by  another  batch, 
under  Sir  Thomas  Gates,  in  Aug.,  1611.  (See 
LOTTERY.  )  A  constitution  was  granted  in  July, 
1621.  A  general  slaughter  of  the  settlers  was 
committed  March  22,  1622,  by  the  Indians,  who 
made  another  attempt,  in  which  they  only 
partially  succeeded,  April  18,  1644.  The  first 
constitution  was  adopted  for  legislative  pur- 
poses -Tune  29,  1776.  The  importation  of  slaves 
was  forbidden  by  the  state  legislature,  under 
heavy  penalties,  in  1778.  Its  constitution  was 
revised  in  1830.  Virginia  seceded  from  the 
United  States  April  17,  1861.  The  western 
]  >;  irtion  maintained  its  allegiance  to  the  Federal 
Government,  and  was  admitted  as  a  separate 
state  of  the  Union  by  the  name  of  Western 
Virginia,  or  Kanawha  (q.  v.},  Dec.  31,  1862. 
(See  KENTUCKY.) 

VIRGIN    ISLANDS    (Atlantic),   called    Las 
Virgincs,   in    honour   of    the  virgins    of   the 
Uomish  ritual,  by  Columbus,  who  discovered 
them  on  his  second  voyage,  in  1494.     Dutch 
bucaneers,   who    settled   in    Tortola  in   1648, 
were  expelled  by  the   English  in   1666.     St. 
Thomas's  was  settled  by  the  Danes  in  1672. 
St.  John's  was  also  appropriated  by  the  Danes, 
who  were  dispossessed  of  both  islands  by  tho 
English  in  1801 ;  they  were,  however,  restored 
in  1802.     This  group,  again  captured  by  the 
English  in  1807,  was  restored  to  Denmark  in 
1815.     Cholera  raged  in  1853  an(i  1%54-    A  new 
constitution  was  grunted  in  i8=;4. 
VIRGULA  DIVINA.— (See  DIVINING  ROD.) 
VIRTUE  (League  of).— (See  TUGENDBUND.) 
VISCONTI.— Members  of  this  family  wielded 
the  chief  power  in   Milan  from  1187  to  the 
death  of  Philip  Maria  Viscoiiti,  Aug.  13,  1447. 
VISCOUNT.— The  title,  created  by  patent, 
was  first  conferred  on  John,  Lord  Beaumont, 
accompanied  with  a  grant  of  lands  in  France, 
by  Henry  VI.,  Feb.  10,  1440. 
VISEU  (Portugal).— Alphonso  V.    of    Leon 


VISIGOTHS 


[    1025    ] 


VOLSCI 


was  killed  while  besieging  this  town,  in  1028. 
It  was  captured  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Castile  in 

VISIGOTHS,  or  THERVINGL— The  division 
of  the  Gothic  nation  into  the  Eastern  or  Ostro- 
goths (q.  v.),  and  Western  or  Visigoths,  took 
place  about  330.  The  Visigoths  assisted  Pro- 
copius  against  the  Romans  in  365.  Valens 
permitted  them  to  settle  south  of  the  Danube 
in  376,  and  they  tendered  their  submission  to 
the  Romans,  when  Theodosius  I.  granted  them 
permission  to  occupy  Thrace,  in  382.  They 
ravaged  Thessaly  in  395,  under  then-  leader 
Alaric  -I.,  whom  they  elected  king  in  398  ;  and 
they  invaded  Italy  in  400.  They  took  Rome 
Aug.  24,  410,  invaded  Gaul  in  412,  in  the  south 
of  which  they  established  a  kingdom  in  419. 
They  penetrated  into  Spain,  and  established  a 
monarchy  in  that  country  in  411.  Clovis  I. 
expelled  them  from  France  in  507,  and  the 
Moors  overthrew  their  power  in  Spain  in  711. 

VISITATION.— (-See  FEASTS.) 

VITEBSK.— (See  WITEPSK.) 

VITERBO  (Italy),  capital  of  a  legation  of 
the  same  name,  supposed  to  occupy  the  site 
of  the  Fanum  Voltumnse,  where  the  ancient 
Etruscans  held  their  confederate  assemblies, 
is  said  to  have  been  built  or  enclosed  by 
Desiderius,  the  last  of  the  Lombard  kings 
(757 — 774).  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  an  Englishman, 
compelled  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  (Barba- 
rossa)  to  hold  the  stirrup  of  his  mule  while  he 
dismounted  at  the  piazza  before  the  cathedral 
in  1155^  Having  maintained  its  independence 
as  a  free  municipality,  it  was  obliged  to 
submit  to  Rome  about  1200.  The  Romans 
marched  against  it  and  were  ignominiously 
defeated  by  the  Viterbans,  led  lay  the  Count 
of  Toulouse  and  the  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
in  1234.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1267, 
between  Charles  of  Anjou  and  Baldwin  II., 
who  had  fled  to  Italy  after  the  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople. Viterbo  was  captured  by  Ladislaus, 
King  of  Naples,  in  1413.  A  defensive  alliance 
was  also  formed  here  between  Pope  Leo  X. 
and  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  Oct.,  1515.  The 
town-hall  was  commenced  in  1264,  and  the 
episcopal  palace,  containing  the  great  hall, 
where  several  popes  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
elected,  was  built  in  the  isth  century.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  Prince  Henry,  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Cornwall,  was  murdered  at  the  high 
altar  of  the  cathedral  by  Guy,  fourth  son  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Evesham,  Aug.  4,  1265. 

VITL—  (See  FEEJEE  ISLANDS.) 

VITORIA  or  VITTORIA  (Spain),  founded  in 
581,  and  so  named  by  Sancho  VI.  of  Navarre, 
to  commemorate  a  victory  over  the  Moors, 
about  1 1 80,  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1808.  A  signal  victory  was  gained  here  by 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  over  the  French,  under 
the  command  of  Joseph  Buonaparte  and 
Jourdan,  June  21,  1813.  So  complete  was 
the  rout,  that  of  the  70,000  men  who 
marched  under  the  French  standard,  not 
one  remained  on  Spanish  soil  June  27.  (See 
CEUTLA.) 

VITRY  SUR  MARNE,  or  VITRY-LE- 
FRANCOIS  (France).— This  town,  formerly  a 
place  of  considerable  importance,  was  seized 


and  burned  by  Louis  VII.  in  1144,  when  1,300  of 
the  inhabitants  perished  from  fire  in  a  church. 
In  expiation  of  this  offence,  the  king  under- 
took the  second  crusade  in  1146.  Vitry,  after 
having  been  gradually  restored,  was  again  de- 
stroyed by  Charles  V.  in  1544,  in  consequence 
of  which  Francis  I.  founded  Vitry-le-Frangois, 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  original  town,  in 
1545.  It  was  seized  by  the  Allies  in  1814. 

VITUS'S  (ST.)  DANCE.-This  disease,  which 
occasionally  attacks  young  children,  prevailed 
as  an  epidemic  on  the  continent  of  Europe  in 
1374.  (See  DANCERS.)  „ 

VIVARIUM.— (See  AQUA  VIVARIUM.  ) 

VIZIER.— "Who  among  you  will  be  my 
vizier?0  (i.e.  burden-bearer)  asked  Mohammed 
among  40  of  his  followers  at  the  commence- 
ment of  his  career,  in  609.  Among  the  Turks 
the  office  of  grand  vizier  was  created  for 
Aladin,  the  brother  of  Orchan,  in  1326.  So 
precarious  was  their  position,  that  three  years 
and  a  half  was  the  average  tenure  of  the  office 
of  115  who  had  filled  it  down  to  1683. 

VLAARDINGEN.— (See  MACASSAR.) 

VLADIMIR,  WLADIMIR,  or  WOLODOMIR 
(Russia).— This  city,  founded  in  1158,  is  one  of 
the  jnost  ancient  in  Russia.  It  was  originally 
a  place  of  great  importance,  and,  until  1318, 
was  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Vladimir,  before  called  the  duchy  of 
Suzdal.  It  was  taken  by  the  Tartars  in  1257 
and  in  1410. 

VLADIMIR,  WLADIMIR,  or  WOLODOMIR, 
ST.  (Order).— This  Russian  military  order  was 
instituted  by  Catherine  II.  in  1782,  and  named 
after  Vladimir  I.  (980—1015). 

VLISSINGEN.— (See  FLUSHING.) 

VOCONIAN  LAW,  abolishing  the  right  of 
female  inheritance,  and  restricting  legacies  to 
women  to  the  sum  of  100,000  sesterces,  was 
enacted  at  Rome  B.C.  169. 

VODHENA'.— (See  EDESSA,  or  MGJE.) 

VOIRON  (Battle).— Clodomir,  having  killed 
Sigismund,  King  of  the  Burgundians,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  at  this  place,  on  the  Rhone, 
by  Gondemar,  the  brother  of  Sigismund,  who 
was  acknowledged  king  in  his  stead,  in  524. 

VOLCANO.— Monte  Nuovo,  a  Neapolitan 
volcano,  was  thrown  up  during  an  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  in  1538.  Jorullo,  in  Mexico,  sud- 
denly rose  to  a  height  of  1,600  feet  in  1759, 
and  has  remained  quiescent  ever  since  ;  and 
the  volcano  of  Izalco,  in  Central  America,  was 
thrown  up  Feb.  23,  1770,  and  has  since  been 
constantly  in  action.  Grahame's,  or  Hotham's, 
Island,  or  Ferdinandea,  a  volcanic  island  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  was  heaved  up  from  a 
depth  of  zoo  fathoms,  to  a  height  of  230  feet 
above  the  water,  July  31,  1831,  and  remained 
visible  for  three  months,  when  it  again  sank 
below  the  surface.  (See  ^ETNA,  HECLA,  VESU- 
VIUS, <tc.) 

VOLHYNIA,  or  WOLHYNIA  (Russia), 
formed  part  of  Poland  until  1793,  when  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  Russian  empire. 

VOLSCI,  a  branch  of  the  same  family  as  the 
Umbrians  and  Oscans,  inhabiting  a  portion  of 
ancient  Latium,  first  appear  in  Roman  history 
as  a  numerous  and  warlike  people,  whose 
capital  city,  Suessa  Pometia,  was  captured  by 
Tarquinius  Superbus  (B.C.  534 — B.C.  510).  An 
3u 


VOLSINII 


[   1026 


VOLUNTEERS 


army  sent  by  them  to  besiege  Rome  was 
completely  routed.  The  consuls  Virginius  and. 
Coriolaims  defeated  them  in  different  engage- 
ments, B.C.  493.  Coriolanusis  said  to  have  found 
refuge  with  them  after  his  banishment  from 
Rome,  and  to  have  led  them  against  the  Romans, 
who  were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  as  the 
city  was  about  to  be  invested  by  his  victorious 
troops,  B.C.  491 — B.C.  489.  Having*  leagued  with 
the  Mqai,  both  nations  were  defeated  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  431.  The  Romans  suffered  a 
defeat  from  them  B.C.  407.  Camillus  routed 
them  and  entered  their  capital,  B.C.  388  ;  and 
again  at  Satricum  he  took  their  camp  by  storm 
and  captured  a  great  number  of  prisoners, 
B.C.  381.  A  coalition  of  the  Volsci  and  the 
Latins  was  subdued  by  the  Romans  B.C.  377. 
Valerius  Corvus  defeated  them,  storming  and 
burning  the  town  of  Satricum,  B.C.  346.  The 
whole  of  the  Volscian  people  having  submitted 
to  Rome,  received  the  privilege  of  citizens 
before  B.C.  304. 

VOLSINil,  or  VULSINIL— The  inhabitants 
of  this  ancient  P^truriaii  city,  who  made  an  in- 
cursion into  Roman  territory  during  a  famine, 
B.C.  391,  were  defeated,  and  lost  5,000  in  pri- 
.suncrs,  and  were  finally  subjugated  by  the 
Romans  B.C.  280.  The  conquerors  razed  the 
city,  and  compelled  the  remaining  inhabitants 
to  migrate  to  another  spot. 

VOLTAIC  1MLK,  VOLTAIC  ELECTRICITY, 
or  GALVANISM  (</.».),  first  became  a  science 
by  Alessandro  Vulta's  publication  of  the  con- 
tact theory  of  galvanism  in  1793.  The  pile 
was  first  constructed  by  Voltain  1800,  and  has 
undergone  numerous  improvements  by  Grove, 
Bunsen,  and  other  men  of  science. 

VOLTKRRA  L  Italy),  on  the  site  of  Vola- 
terrae,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Ktrns- 
cari  cities,  olfered  a  brave  resistance  to  the 
consul  L.  Scipio  B.C.  298.  It  was  afterwards 
admitted  as  a  dependent  ally  of  Rome,  and 
furnished  supplies  for  the  fleet  of  Scipio  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  205.  It  opened 
its  gates  to  Sylla  after  a  two  yours'  blockade. 
B.C.  88.  Upon  the  fall  of  the  empire,  it  passed 
successively  under  the  power  of  the  Vandals 
and  the  Lombards.  The  latter  were  driven 
out  by  Charlemagne  in  the  8th  century.  Its 
palace  was  constructed  in  the  icth  century. 
The  town-hall,  with  its  museum  of  Etruscan 
remains,  the  most  valuable  in  Italy,  was  built 
1208 — 1257.  The  cathedral  was  built  about 
1254.  The  Florentines  obtained  possession  of 
Volterra  in  1361,  and  a  bed  of  alum  discovered 
near  the  city  was  claimed  by  the  Florentine 
Government  in  1472.  The  citadel  was  con- 
verted into  a  house  of  correction  in  1818. 

VOLTRI  (Italy)  was  occupied  by  the  allied 
Austrian  and  Sardinian  forces  in  1795.  A 
series  of  combats  between  them  and  the 
French,  extending  over  15  days,  took  place 
in  its  neighbourhood  in  April.  Both  sides 
suffered  severe  loss.  The  French,  under 
Massena,  sustained  a  complete  defeat  here 
from  the  Austrians,  commanded  by  Melas, 
April  1 8,  1800. 

VOLTURXO  (Battle).  —The  army  of ,  the 
King  of  Naples  was  defeated  on  the  banks 
of  this  river  in  Italy,  by  Garibaldi,  Oct. 
1860. 


VOLTURNUM.—  (See  CAPUA.) 
VOLUMOMETER.—  (Ste  HYDROMETER.) 
VOLUNTEERS.—  The  oldest  volunteer  corps 
connected    with    the    English    army    is    the 
Honourable  Artillery  Company,  first  raised  in 
1585,  and  restored  in  1610. 

A.IX 

1778.  Volunteer  regiments  for  service  in  the  American 

war  are  enrolled  in  some  of  the  chief   English 
cities. 

1779,  Oct.  13.  A  regiment  of  Irish  volunteers,  under  the 

Karl  of  Leinster,  masters  30,000  strong  at.  Dublin 

to   support  the    Parliament    in  demanding    In  e 

trade. 
1783.  The  Earl  of  Shelburne  proposes  the  formation  of 

volunteer  corps  as  a  protection  against  French 

invasion. 
1794,  March.    Volunteer  corps  are  raised  in  England  in 

consequence  of  threats  of  invasion  by  the  French 

republicans. 
1799,  June    4.    George    III.   reviews  upwards    of    8,000 

volunteers  in  Hyde  I'ark. 
1803.  Numerous  volunteer  corps,  enrolled  for  the  defence 


of  the  country  against  Napolecm  I.,  are  reg-l 

by  44  (ieo.  III.  c.  54.  —  Aug.   10.   The  volunteers 

receive  the  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons.  — 


Oct.  3'>.  George  III.  reviews  13,401  London  volun- 

teers in  Hyde  I'ark.—  i  let.  38.   George  111.  reviews 

14,67(1    Westminster,    Lambeth,    and    Southwark 

volunteer*. 
1804,  June  5.  The  volunteer  system  is  regulated  by  44 

Geo.  111.0.54. 
1853,  March  36.  The  Exeter  and  South  Devon  Volunteer 

Kiile  Battalion  is  formed. 
1853.  Aug.    3.     The    Victoria    Kifles    are   enrolled.     (Sc- 

liov.M,  NAV.U,  COAST  \  oi.r.vi  i:i;i!.s.) 

1859,  May  u.   The  Secretary  of  War  publishes  a  circular 

announcing  the  intended  establishment  of  volun- 
teer rille  corps  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of 
1803.  —  June.  Kitle  corps  are  formed  throughout 
the  I'nited  Kingdom.  —  Aug.  lo.  Rules  lorin.  d  by 

a  committee  of  volunteers  for  the  government  of 

rifle  corps  not  in  actual  service,  are  i^ued  by 
the  War  (  illicc.—  Nov.  The  National  Uiile  A«»O- 
ciatiou  is  formed  at  London  under  the  presidency 
of  Mr.  Sidney  (afterwards  Lord)  Herbert,  secre- 
tary for  war.  with  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince 
Albert  as  patrons. 

1860,  March   7.  Queen  Victoria  receives  3,500  officers  of 

volunteer  riHe  brigades  at  a  levee  at  St.  James's. 
(Sec  l''i.oi;.u,  11  ALL.  )—  June  33.  About  31,  coo 
volunteers  are  re\iewed  by  Queen  Vie|,.ria  in 
Hyde  I'ark.  —  July  3—  9.  The  first  meeting  of  the 
National  Kifle  Association  (<y.r.)  takes  place  on 
Wimbledon  Common.  Mr.  Edward  Ito.-s  irains 
the  first  pri/.e,  and  M.  Tiiorel,  of  lleneva,  distin- 
guishes himself.  (See  CRYSTAL  PALACE.)  —  July 
14.  A  sham  fight  of  the  London  volunteers  iii 
Camdeii  I'ark.  Chisclhurst.  —  Aug.  7.  Queen 
Victoria  reviews  the  Scotch  volunteers  in  the 
Queen's  Park.  Edinburgh.—  Sep.  I.  The  Karl  of 
Derby  reviewsabout  11,000  Lancashire  volunteers 
at  Knowslev. 

1861,  Feb.  16.  Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  resigns  the  presidency 

of  the  National  Kifle  Association.  —  April  i 
(Easter  Monday).  Volunteer  sham  fights  at 
Brighton,  Wimbledon,  &c.  —  July  4  —  13.  The 
second  meeting  of  the  National  Kifle  Association 
(7.  v.)  takes  place  at  Wimbledon,  when  the 
Qu.  en's  cup,  worth  £350,  is  won  by  Mr.  Jopling, 
of  the  South  Middlesex  corps.  Several  reviews 
are  held  in  different  parts  of  the  country  in  the 
autumn. 

1862,  April    31    (Easter  Monday).    Lord   Clyde    re\iews 

about  3o,coo  volunteers  at  Brighton.—  July  l  —  12. 
The  third  meeting  of  the  National  Kifle  Asso- 
ciation is  held  nt  Wimbledon. 

1863,  April  6.  A  grand  field-day  of  rifle  volunteers  tal.i 

place  at  Brighton.  —  July  7  —  18.  The  fourth  meet- 
ing of  the  National  Kifle  Association  is  held  at 
Wimbledon.—  July  31  Ky  36  and  37  Viet.  c.  65, 
the  acts  relating  to  the  Volunteer  Force  of  Great 
Britain  are  consolidated  and  amended. 

1864,  March  38.  The   annual   Easter  Monday   review  of 

the  metropolitan  rifle  corps  takes  place  in  Black- 
heath,  near  Guildford,  Surrey. 


VOR-PARLIAMENT 


[     1027    ] 


WAGER  OF  BATTEL 


1864,  May  28.  A  force  of  21,743  volunteers  is  reviewed  in 

Hyde  Park  by  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales.— 
July  12—22.  The  fifth  annual  meeting  of  the 
National  Hifle  Association  is  held  at  Wimbledon. 

1865,  April  17.    The  Easter    Monday    review    of    20,000 

volunteers  is  held  at  Brighton.— July  10—22.  The 
National  Kitle  Association  holds  its  sixth  annual 
meeting  at  Wimbledon.— July  29.  The  Berkshire 
and  the  metropolitan  volunteer  corps  are  reviewed 
in  the  Green  Park,  Windsor. — Dec.  2.  The  presen- 
tation of  prizes  to  the  London  Volunteer  Kifle 
Brigade  takes  place  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 

1866,  June  23.    The   volunteers    are    reviewed    in   Hyde 

Park. — July  9 — 21.  The  seventh  annual  meeting 
of  the  National  Kifle  Association  is  held  at 
Wimbledon.— Oct.  II.  The  English  volunteers  who 
visited  Belgium  to  take  part  in  the  Tir  National  are 
received  by  a  torchlight  procession.— Oct.  12—15. 
The  Belgian  Tir  National  is  held  at  Brussels. 

VOR-PARLIAMENT,  or  Preliminary 
Parliament,  the  name  given  to  the  assembly 
summoned  by  the  German  democrats  in  their 
proclamation  issued  at  Heidelberg,  March  8, 
1848.  It  was  opened  in  Paul's  Church,  Frank- 
fort, March  31. 

VOSSEM  (Treaty).— A  peace  was  concluded 
between  France  and  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg at  this  town  of  Brabant,  near  Louvain, 
June  16,  1673. 

VOSTITZA.— (See  ^GIUM.) 

VOTERS.— (-See  REGISTRATION  OF  VOTERS.) 

VOTING  PAPERS.— By  24  &  25  Viet.  c.  53 
(Aug.  i,  1861)  persons  having  the  right  to  vote 
in  the  election  of  members  for  the  universities, 
were  allowed  to  record  their  votes  by  means  of 
voting  papers.  The  new  system  was  first  tried 
at  Oxford,  in  the  general  election,  July,  1865. 

VOUGLE,  or  VOUILLE.— The  battle  fought 
n  507  near  Poitiers  (q.  v.),  in  which  Alaric  II. 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis  I.,  is  some- 
times named  after  this  place  in  the  vicinity. 

VOYAGES. — (See  CIRCUMNAVIGATION,  &c.) 

VRIESLAND.— (See  FRIESLAND.) 

VULCANI/E  INSULT.  —(See  LIPARI 
ISLANDS.) 

VULGATE,  the  name  given  to  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible  sanctioned  by  the 
Romish  Church.  I£  was  commenced  by  St. 
Jerome  about  385.  The  Gospels  were  com- 
pleted in  387,  and  the  Old. Testament  about  405. 
The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Vulgate  was  that 
of  Gutenberg,  published  at  Mentz  in  1462  ;  and 
an  attempt  to  restore  the  text  to  the  state  in 
which  it  was  left  by  Jerome  was  made  by 
Robert  Stephens  in  1528.  The  Council  of 
Trent  declared  the  Vulgate  authentic,  April 
8,  1546,  and  in  1589  an  edition  was  printed  at 
the  Vatican,  and  sanctioned  by  a  bull  of  Pope 
Sixhis  V.  This  edition  was  superseded  by 
another,  printed  by  order  of  Clement  VIII.  in 
1592  ;  and  this  is  the  version  still  used  by 
Roman  Catholics.  The  first  English  edition 
was  printed  at  Rouen  in  1635. 

VULTURNUM.-The  Romans  built  a  for- 
tress  during  the  Second  Punic  War  (B.C.  218  — 
B.C.  202),  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Vulturiius, 
and  established  a  magazine  of  corn  for  the  use 
of  the  army  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Capua  B.C. 
213.  It  received  a  colony  of  Roman  citizens 
B.C.  194,  and  again  under  Augustus  (B.C.  27 — 
A.D.  141.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  the  gth  century,  and  another  fortress 
was  built  near  its  site  in  the  i7th  century. 


w. 

WAAL  (Holland).— The  French,  who  drove 
in  the  advanced  posts  of  the  English  army  on 
the  banks  of  this  river,  Oct.  19,  1794,  were 
themselves  defeated  by  the  English  and 
Dutch  towards  the  end  of  the  same  month. 
The  river  was  crossed  by  the  French  on  the 
ice,  to  make  a  winter  campaign  in  Holland, 
Dec.  10,  and  they  were  driven  back  by  the 
English  and  the  Dutch  Dec.  30.  A  skirmish 
between  the  English,  under  Sir  Arthur  Welles- 
ley,  and  the  French,  took  place  here  Jan.  15, 

WACHAU,  or  WACKAU  (Battle).  —  Some 
severe  encounters  took  place  the  second  day 
of  the  battle  of  Leipsic  (q.  v.),  Oct.  18,  1813,  at 
this  village,  near  Leipsic. 

WACHTENDONK.— (See  BOMB.) 

WADHAM  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was  founded 
by  Nicholas  Wadham  and  Dorothy  his  wife, 
in  1613,  for  a  warden,  15  fellows,  15  scholars, 
2  chaplains,  and  2  clerks.  Dr.  Humphrey 
Hody  founded  10  exhibitions — four  for  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  and  six  for  the  study  of 
Greek — in  1706.  Richard  Warner  bequeathed 
an  exhibition  for  the  study  of  botany  in  1775. 
John  Goodridge  left  lands,  <fec.,  to  the  value  of 
£60  a  year  to  the  college,  Nov.  25,  1654 ;  and 
Lord  Wyiidham  bequeathed  £2,000  in  1745. 
The  Rev.  John  Wills,  in  1806,  bequeathed  ^90 
a  year  for  a  law  exhibition  to  a  fellow,  £18  a 
year  for  a  law  exhibition  to  a  scholar,  £90  a 
year  for  a  medical  exhibition  to  a  fellow,  and 
,£18  a  year  for  a  medical  exhibition  to  a  scholar, 
besides  bequests  to  a  fund  for  the  purchase  of 
livings.  The  chapel  was  consecrated  April  29, 
1613.  The  altar  was  paved  with  black  and 
white  marble  in  1677,  and  the  rest  of  the 
chapel  in  1678.  An  additional  building  was 
erected  on  the  south  side  of  the  college  in 

WADY  MUSA.— (See   PETRA.) 

WAFER.— The  bread  used  in  the  Eucharist 
by  the  Lutherans  and  the  Roman  Catholics, 
called  a  wafer,  in  the  shape  of  a  denarius, 
or  penny,  to  represent,  according  to  some, 
the  money  for  which  Jesus  was  betrayed, 
was  first  introduced  in  the  nth  century. 
Bernoldus,  in  his  "  De  Ordine  Romano," 
written  in  1089,  condemns  the  substitution  of 
the  wafer  for  bread. 

WAFERS.— The  oldest  seal  with  red  wafers, 
according  to  Beckmann,  is  dated  1624.  A 
writer  in  Notes  and  Queries  (ix.  410)  mentions 
a  letter,  dated  April,  1607,  in  his  possession, 
sealed  with  a  red  wafer.  Wafers  were  only 
used  by  private  persons  in  the  i7th  century. 
Their  use  on  public  seals  commenced  in  the 
1 8th  century. 

WAGER  OF  BATTEL.  —  The  decision  of 
suits  by  Wager  of  Battel,  vadiatio  duelli,  is 
said  to  have  originated  with  the  Burgundi, 
and  the  first  written  injunction  of  judiciary 
combats  is  found  in  the  laws  of  Gundebald  in 
501.  Kerr  (Student's  Blackstone,  Appendix) 
says,  "This  trial  was  introduced  into  England, 
among  other  Norman  customs,  by  William  the 
Conqueror;  but  was  only  used  in  three  cases, 
3  u  2 


WAGER  OF   LAW 


1028 


WAITS 


one  military,  one  criminal,  and  the  third  civil. 
The  first  in  the  court  of  chivalry  and  honour  ; 
the  second  in  appeals  of  felony  ;  and  the  third 
upon  issue  joined  in  a  writ  of  right,  formerly 
the  last  and  most  solemn  decision  of  real 
property."  It  was  the  only  decision  of  a  writ 
of  right  after  the  Conquest,  till  Henry  II. 
(1154 — 89)  established  the  grand  assize,  giving 
the  tenant  the  right  of  choosing  one  of  the 
two.  Ken*  adds,  "  The  last  trial  by  battel  that 
was  waged  in  the  court  of  common  pleas  at 
Westminster  (though  there  was  afterwards  one 
in  the  court  of  chivalry  in  1631,  and  another 
in  the  county  palatine  of  Durham  in  1638)  was 
in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
A.D.  1571,  as  reported  by  Sir  James  Dyer,  and 
was  held  in  Tothill  Fields,  Westminster,  '  non 
sine  magna  juris  consultorum  perturbatione,' 
saitli  Sir  Henry  Spelman,  who  was  himself  a 
witness  of  the  ceremony." 

WAGER  OF  LAW.— (See  JURY.) 

WAGES.— The  earliest  attempts  to  regulate 
the  price  of  labour  in  this  country  arose  in 
consequence  of  the  depopulation  occasioned, 
in  1346,  and  the  following  years,  by  the 
plague,  which  reduced  the  number  of  the 
working  class  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
supply  of  labour  proved  inadequate  to  the 
demand,  and  an  immediate  rise  of  wages  was 
the  result.  The  Statute  of  Labourers,  25  Edw. 
III.  st.  i.  (1350),  limited  the  rate.  (See 
LABOURERS,  dec. )  Further  regulations  were  im- 
posed by  13  Rich.  II.  c.  8  (1389),  by  23  Hen.  VI. 
c.  12  (1444),  and  by  n  Hen.  VII.  c.  2 
These  statutes  were  amended  by  5  Eli/,  c.  4 
(1562},  and  by  i  James  I.  c.  6  (1604),  which  eii- 
.  trusted  the  decision  of  disputes  respecting 
wages  to  justices,  sheriffs,  mayors,  &c.  This 
jurisdiction  was  abolished  by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  40 
(April  15,  1813).  By  i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  37 
(Oct.  15,  1831),  numerous  statutes  prohibiting 
the  payment  of  wages  in  goods  were  repealed, 
and  by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  io6(Aug.  i,  1849  ,  clerks 
and  servants  of  banknipts  are  entitled  to  at 
least  one  quarter's  wages  in  full,  provided 
the  amount  does  not  exceed  .£30.  The  follow- 
ing table,  from  Tooke's  "  History  of  Prices," 
vi.  389,  shows  the  average  daily  wages  of  agri- 
cultural labourers  in  England  during  certain 
periods  :— 

Wages 
A.T>.  per  Day. 

1701—1766  I2d. 

1767—1789  15,1. 

1767—1800  17^. 

1790—1803  zod. 

1804—1810  24^. 

1811  35** 

WAGGONS.  —  Pharaoh  sent  waggons  to 
convey  Jacob  and  his  family  from  Canaan  to 
Egypt,  B.C.  1706  (Gen.  xlv.  19),  and  some  rude 
vehicle  existed  among  all  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity, and  was  employed  for  agricultural 
purposes  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Long  wag- 
gons, for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and 
goods  from  London  to  some  of  the  principal 
provincial  towns,  were  started  in  1605,  but  did 
not  meet  with  much  success.  They  were  sup- 
planted by  waggon- coaches,  which  continued 
to  be  the  chief  means  of  conveyance  until  the 
establishment  of  stage-coaches  (q.  v.).  Wag- 


goners, or  common  carriers,  were  regulated  by 
3  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  12  (1691),  amended  by  21 
Geo.  II.  c.  28  (1748). 

WAGHORN'S  EXPRESS.— (See  OVERLAND 
MAIL.) 

WAGNER,  FORT.— (See  CHARLESTON.) 
WAGRAM  (Battle),  fought  at  this  village, 
near  Vienna,  between  the  French,  under 
Napoleon  I.,  and  the  Austrians,  under  the 
Archduke  Charles,  July  5  and  6,  1809.  Nearly 
1,000  large  guns  were  used  in  this  conflict, 
which,  indecisive  on  the  first  day,  resulted  in 
a  victory  for  the  French.  The  losses  on  both 
sides  were  very  great,  and  the  armistice  of 
Znaim  was  signed  July  n.  It  led  to  the 
peace  of  Schonbrunn  (q.  v.},  and  the  marriage 
of  Napoleon  I.  with  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Louisa. 

WAIIABEES,  or  WAHiBITES,  a  Moham- 
medan reforming  sect,  originated  by  A  IK  I  el 
Wahab,  in  Yemen,  about  1749.  They  made  a 
successful  campaign  against  Ghaleb,  the  Grand 
Sheik  of  Mecca,  in  1792  and  1793  ;  repelled  an 
attack  by  Soliman,  Pasha  of  Bagdad,  in  1 797  ; 
and  totally  destroyed,  a  Turkish  army  sent 
against  them  in  1801.  They  took  Mecca  and 
Medina  in  1803,  conquered  the  greater  part 
of  Arabia,  and  overran  Syria.  Mehemet  Ali 
sent  an  army  against  them,  which  they  de- 
feated near  Medina,  in  1812  ;  but  he  took  that 
town  soon  after.  The  Wahabees,  defeated  at 
Zohran,  were  victorious  at  Brissel,  in  1815, 
when  peace  was  concluded.  Ibrahim  Pasha 
made  war  upon  them  in  1816,  and  after  an 
obstinate  resistance,  drove  them  into  Derayeh 
in  1818,  which  he  took  in  Dec.,  and  sent 
Abdullah,  their  chief,  and  several  of  his  family, 
to  Constantinople,  where  they  were  beheaded. 
The  greater  part  of  the  territories  conquered 
by  the  Wahabees  fell  under  the  authority  of 
the  Pasha  of  Egypt;  but  they  gave  much 
trouble,  by  fomenting  insurrections,  in  1827, 
1834,  1838,  and  1839. 

WAllLSTATT  (Battles).  —  This  Prussian 
village,  near  Liegnitz,  was  the  scene  of  a  great 
victory  gained  by  the  Duke  of  Silesia,  over 

the    Mongol    Tartars,    in    1241.  Marshal 

Blucher  defeated  the  French  at  the  same 
place,  Aug.  26,  1813,  and  received,  in  conse- 
quence, the  title  of  Prince  of  Wahlstatt.  The 
latter  conflict  is  frequently  called  the  battle  of 
Katzbach  (q.  v.),  from  a  small  stream  that  runs 
through  the  plain  in  which  it  was  fought. 

WA1APU  (New  Zealand).— A  bishopric  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  England  was 
established  here  in  1859. 

WAIKATOES.— (See  NEW  ZEALAND.) 

WAISTCOAT.— This  term  originally  signified 
an  under-garment,  reaching  to  the  waist.  It 
afterwards  became  the  principal  male  garment, 
and  superseded  the  doublet ;  but  in  the  i7th 
century  it  resumed  its  original  form.  Pepys, 
in  1663,  mentions  seeing  the  queen  "  iii  a 
white  laced  waistcoat."  During  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  (1660 — 85),  gentlemen  wore  waist- 
coats reaching  to  the  knees,  and  this  fashion 
continued  till  about  1772,  when  the  members 
of  the  Macaroni  Club  (q.  v.}  introduced  short 
waistcoats. 

WAlTCHING.-(See  PEKIN.) 

WAITS,  or  WAKES.— In  former  times  each 


WAITZEN 


[       I02Q       ] 


WALES 


ward  in  the  city  of  London  had  its  company  of 
Waits,  who  attended  the  Lord  Mayor  011  public 
occasions,  and  whose  performances  were  not 
restricted  to  Christmas-tide,  as  at  present. 
There  were  companies  of  Waits  in  all  the 
principal  towns,  one  having  been  established 
at  Exeter  as  early  as  1400;  and  they  eiijuyed 
certain  privileges. 

WAITZEN  (Hungary). -The  Hungarian  in- 
surgents took  this  town  by  storm,  April  9, 
1849,  and  repulsed  the  Russians  with  great 
slaughter  July  15.  They  were  defeated,  July 
16,  by  the  Russians,  who  entered  the  town. 

WAKE.  —  The  name  given  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  a  festival  kept  on  the  day  of  the 
dedication  of  a  parish  church,  because  the 
people  watched  from  the  previous  night  till 
morning  in  the  church,  was  afterwards 
applied  to  any  holiday  in  the  county.  (See 
FAIRS.)  Wakes  were  regulated  by  an  act  of 
convention  in  1536;  were  suppressed  at  Exeter 
and  in  Somersetshire  in  1627  and  in  1631 ;  and 
though  temporarily  restored  by  the  Book  of 
Sports,  Oct.  18,  1633,  gradually  declined. 

WAKEFIELD  (Battles).  —  A  sanguinary 
battle  was  fought  at  Wakefield,  Dec.  30,  1460, 
between  the  Lancastrians  and  the  Yorkists,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated,  and  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  father  of  Edward  IV.,  was 

slain. The  Royalists  were  defeated  here  by 

Fairfax,  May  21,  1643. 

WAKEFIELD  (Yorkshire),  supposed  to  have 
existed  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  formed 
part  of  the  royal  demesne  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  (1043—66).  The  manor 
was  granted  by  Henry  I.,  about  1107,  to 
William,  Earl  Warren,  in  whose  family  it 
remained  till  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century, 
when  it  reverted  to  the  crown.  It  was  granted 
to  the  Earl  of  Holland  by  Charles  I.,  and  was 
purchased  by  the  Duke  of  Leeds  in  1700.  The 
parish  church  of  All  Saints  was  built  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216 — 72).  The  font  bears 
the  initials  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  date  is 
1611.  The  bridge  was  built  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  (1327 — 7?)-  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
1592.  The  Green-coat  school  was  established 
in  1707.  The  church  of  St.  John,  built  in 
1795,  was  made  parochial  in  1815.  The 
Court-house  was  erected  in  1806,  a  corn- 
exchaiige  in  1823,  and  a  more  commodious 
building  in  1837.  The  Literary  and  Philoso- 
phical Society  was  founded  in  1827  ;  the  Pro- 
prietary school  was  opened  in  1834 ;  and 
Trinity  church  was  built  in  1840.  The  town 
was  incorporated  in  1847.  A  motion  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  for  making  it  a 
separate  assize  town  for  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire  instead  of  Leeds,  was  rejected  Feb. 
19,  1864.  An  Art  Exhibition  was  held  here 
Aug.  30,  1865. 

WALCHEREN  EXPEDITION.— This  expe- 
dition, for  checking  the  growing  influence  of 
Napoleon  I.  in  Holland,  consisted  of  30,000 
men,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Chatham, 
brother  of  Mr.  Pitt.  Lord  Chatham  received 
his  instructions  July  1 6,  1809.  The  expedition, 
consisting  of  a  fleet  of  37  ships  of  the  line  and 
23  frigates,  besides  numerous  smaller  vessels, 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard  Strahan, 


left  England  July  28,  1809,  and  commenced 
the  disembarkation  in  Walcheren,  the  princi- 
pal island  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Zealand, 
and  at  Cadsaiid,  July  29.  Middleburg,  the 
chief  town  of  the  island,  and  Goes,  the  capital 
of  South  Beveland,  were  immediately  occu- 
pied, and  Balitz,  evacuated  by  the  French 
Aug.  2*  was  seized  Aug.  3.  Instead  of  pro- 
ceeding to  capture  Antwerp,  the  grand  object 
of  the  expedition,  Lord  Chatham  invested 
Flushing  (q.v.),  which  surrendered,  after  a 
igorous  bombardment,  Aug.  16.  In  the 
meantime,  the  French  forces,  no  longer  re- 
quired in  Germany,  on  account  of  the  peace 
with  Austria,  had  assembled  around  Antwerp, 
md  as  the  marsh  fever  of  the  Low  Countries 
began  to  appear  among  the  English  troops,  it 
was  decided,  in  the  beginning  of  Sep.,  to 
withdraw  into  the  island  of  Walcheren.  As 
the  mortality  continued  on  the  increase, 
orders  were  issued  for  the  evacuation  of  the 
island,  Nov.  23 ;  and  before  Christmas  the 
entire  force  had  re-embarked.  The  total 
number  of  deaths  during  the  occupation 
amounted  to  7,000,  and  the  sick  sent  home 
at  various  times  to  12,863.  Considerable  in- 
dignation having  been  felt  at  the  failure  of 
the  expedition,  a  select  committee  of  inquiry 

as  nominated  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
Feb.  6,  1810.  After  an  adjourned  debate,  four 
divisions  took  place,  March  30,  and  in  all  of 
these  ministers  had  a  majority.  In  the  fh-st 
Lord  Porchester's  resolution  was  rejected  by 
a  majority  of  48  (for,  227 ;  against,  275) ;  in 
the  second  Gen.  Crawford's  first  resolution 
was  carried  by  a  majority  of  40  (for,  272  ; 
against,  232) ;  in  the  third  an  amendment  by 
Mr.  Canning  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  51 
(for,  275  ;  against,  224) ;  and  in  the  fourth  Gen. 
Crawford's  last  resolution,  expressing  approval 
of  the  conduct  of  ministers,  was  carried  by  a 
majority  of  23  (for,  255  ;  against,  232). 

WALDECK  (Germany).  —  This  small  prin- 
cipality was  created  in  1682.  Its  first  prince 
was  George  Frederick  (1620 — 1692),  a  cele- 
brated imperial  general.  Prince  Christian 
iVugustus,  born  in  1744,  signalized  himself  in 
the  wars  against  the  French  during  the  Revo- 
lution, and  is  said  to  have  originated  the  plan 
of  the  successful  attack  on  the  French  lines  bf 
Weissenburg,  in  Alsace,  Oct.  13,  1793.  The 
Prince  of  Waldeck  granted  a  constitution  to 
his  subjects  in  Aug.,  1852.  It  seceded  from 
the  Germanic  Confederation  June  25,  1866,  and 
passed  under  the  rule  of  Prussia  by  a  treaty 
ratified  Sep.  8. 

WALDENSES.—  (See  VALDENSES.) 

WALES,  the  ancient  Cambria,  or  Britannia 
Septentrionalis,  or  Secunda,  was  a  distinct 
principality  before  the  invasion  of  Britain  by 
Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  55,  and  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence throughout  the  Roman,  Saxun,  and 
Danish  invasions.  The  modern  Welsh  are  said 
to  be  descendants  of  the  ancient  Britons,  who 
fled  to  the  fastnesses  of  Wales  in  order  to 
escape  from  the  Saxon  tyrants. 

A.D. 

50.  Ostorius  Scapula    attacks   the    Silures   (q.  •».),  and 
takes  their  king  Carucinms  prisoner. 

5-8.  Suetonius  Pauliuus  invad.  s  Wtili-s. 

60.  Christ  anity  is  said  to  have  been  first  preached  in 
Wales. 


WALES 


t     1030    ] 


WALES 


61.  Suetonius  Paulinus  takes  Mona,  or  Anglesey  (q.  v.). 
75-  Julius  Frontinus  conquers  the  Silures. 
78.  Julius  Agricola  invades  Wales  and  takes  Anglesey. 
429.  The  Welsh  Britons,  under  St.  Germanus,  defeat  the 
Saxons    at    Maes-Garmon.      (See    HALLELUJAH 
VICTORY.) 
443.  Caswallon  establishes  an  independent  monarchv  in 

North  Wales. 
445.  The  Britons  are  driven  into  the  mountainous  regions 

of  Wales  by  the  Picts  and  Scots. 

517.  Arthur,  elected  King  of  the  Britons  in  Wales,  com- 
mences war  against  the  Saxons. 
542.  Arthur  is  slain  at  Camelford  (q.  r.). 
560.  Maelgvvyn,  King  of  North  Wales,  is  acknowledged 

i  ni  by  the  minor  princes  of  the  country- 
603.  Ethelfrith,  King  of  North  umbria,  invades  Wales  and 

res  the  monks  of  Bangor-iscoed  (q.  v.). 
David  dies  in  Wales. 
610.  Tewdrick.  a  Welsh  chieftain,   defeats  Ceolwulph. 

King  of  W.  I 

640  (about).  Dyvnwal  Moelmud,  a  descendant  of  the 
British  settlers  in  Armorica,  accor.ling  to  ihc 
Welsh  triads,  is  recognized  as  King  of  the  Cymri 

676.  Cadwaliader  is  elected  King  of  the  Welsh  Britons. 

\pril  20.  C:idwallader  dies  at  Rome. 
776.  The  inhabitants  of  South  Wales  invade  Mereia. 
779.  Offa,  King  of  Mereia,  constructs  a  dyke  and  rarn- 

part   between    his    territories   and  "those    of  the 

Welsh.    (SeeOFF.v's  DYKK.) 
813.  The    western  parts   of    Wales  are   devastated    by 

Egbert 

823.  Second  battle  of  Camelford  (q.  r.). 
833.  The  Danes  land  in  Wales  and  conclude  an  alliance 

with  the  inhabitants  against  the  Saxons. 
840.  The  Mercian  prince  I'.enlire.l  ravages  North  Wales. 

lie  Danes  invade  South  V 
S77-  On   the   death    of    Kod.  rick    the    Great,    Wales   is 

divided   into   the    three   principalities    of    North 

Wales,  orGwyneth,  South  Wales,  or  Dyuevor,  and 

Powys. 

895.  Wales  Is  ravaged  by  the  Danes. 

900.   On    the    death    of    Mervyn.    Prince   of    Powys,    his 

kingdom  is  annexed  to  S^oiith  Wales. 
913.  The  Irish  invade  North  \\ 
915.  The  Danes  again  invade  Wal-'s. 
933-  Athelstan  invi.les  Wah's  ami  exacts  a  heavy  annual 

tribute. 
940.  Wales  is  reunited  into  one  kingdom  by  Howel  Dda 

the  (i 1.  Hit!  great  lawgiver. 

948.  On  his  death   it   is  again  divided  by  his  sons,  who 

commence  a  civil  war. 
952.  The  sons  of  Edwal  Vod  defeat  the  sons  of  Howel 

Dda  in  the  great  battle  of  Llanrwst. 
961.   Edgar  invades  North  Wales. 
969.  North  Wides  is  devastated  by  the  Danes. 
973.  Edgar  again  ravages  Wales. 
981.  Einion.  son  of  Owen,  King  of  South' Wales,  defeats 

the  Danes  in  a  great  battle  at  Llanwanoc. 
984.  Howel,  King  of  North  Wales,  invades  England  and 

falls  in  battle. 

990.   Edwin,  son  of  Einion,  invades  South  Wales. 
997.  Wales  is  again  invaded  by  the  Danes. 
1003.  ^Edan  ap  Blegored  usurps  the  sovereignty  of  North 

Wales. 
1015.  Llewchn  ap  Seisyllt  invades  North  Wales,  defeats 

and   slays  vEdan,  and  annexes   his  kingdom   to 

South  Wales. 

1020.    Rhun,  a  Scot  of  low  birth,  who  usurps  the  throne 
of  South  Wales,  being  supported  by  the  inhabi- 
tants, is  defeated  and  slain  by  Llew.Myn. 
IC2I.  Llewelyn  is  assassinated  by  the  sons  of  Edwin. 

1037.  lago,  King  of  North   Wales,  is  defeated   and  slain 

by  Gryffydh,  son  of  Llewelyn,  who  ascends  the 
throne  and  gains  a  victory  over  an  invading  army 
of  English  and  Danes  at'Crosford,  on  the  Severn. 

1038.  Gryffydh  defeats  Howel,  King  of  South  Wales,  in 

a  great   battle  fought  at  Pencadaer,  in   Caer- 

marthenshire. 
1042.  Howel,   Prince  of    South    Wales,  is  defeated  and 

slain  by  Gryffydh,  King  of  North  Wales,  on  the 

banks  of  theTowl. 

1055.  Harold,  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  invades  North  Wales. 
1063.  It   is   again    ravaged   bv    Harold    and   his  brother 

Tostig,   who   kill   Gryffydh,  and  exact  a  tribute 

from  the  people. 
1079.  William  1.  of  England  invades  Wales,  nnd  compels 

the  native  princes  to  take  the  oath  of  fealty. 


1087.  Rhys  ap  Tewdwr,  King  of  South  Wales,  defeats  a 
rebellion  of  the  sons  of  Bleddyn  ap  Cynvyn,  in 
the  battle  of  Lhechryd.  in  Radnorshire. 

T088.  The  Welsh  rebel  against  William  II. 

1091.  Wales  is  invaded  by  an  Englisn  army  under  Robert 
Fit/.hammon,  who  defeats  and  slays  Khys  ap 
Tewdwr  near  Brecknock. 

1094.  The  English  inhabitants  of  South  Wales  are  mas- 
sacred by  the  natives. 

1096.  Wales  is  invaded  by  a  laixrc  army  under  the  Earls 
of  Chester  and  Shrewsbury. 

Iiol.  Henry  I.  invades  Wales,  and  crushes  a  conspiracy 
of  the  native  princes. 

1108.  Owen,  son  of  Cadwgan  apBleddyn.  King  of  Powys, 

carries  off  Nest,  the  wife  of  Gerald,  governor  Of 
Pembroke  Castle. 

1109.  Strongbow,  Earl  of  Strigill.  sei/.es  Cardigan. 

1113.  Henry  I.    establishes  a  colony  of  Flemings  in  South 

Wales. 
r  114.  Wales  is  invaded  by  a  formidable  army  under  Henry 

I.  of  England,  Alexander  I.  of  Scotland,  and  the 

Earl  of   Pembroke. 
1 131.   Henry  I.  again  invades  V,  . 

1135.  On    the   death    of    Henry   I.    a  revolt  breaks    out 

under    Owen    Gwvncdh   and   his   brother   Cad- 
wallader. 

1136.  Ranulph,  Earl  of  Chester,  invades  Wales,  and  sus- 

tains a  severe  defeat  from  the  rebels. 

1150.  The  Earl  of  Chester  is  again  defeated  in  an  at- 
tempted invasion  ,,f  Wales. 

IIS5.  After  the  death  of  Stephen,  the  Flemish  mer- 
cenaries, who  formed  part  of  his  arm\ 

1157.  Henry  1 1.  invades  North  Wales,  and  c.mp.NOwcn 
Gwyncdh  to  do  I 

Il6o.  On  the  death  of  Madoc,  Prince  of  Powys,  his  king- 
dom is  divided  into  minor  principal 

1163.  Henry  II.  invades  South  Wales,  and  exacts  homage 

from  Khys  ap  Gryffydh. 

1164.  Rhys  a p  (ii-yffydh   rebels,   and  is   joined  by  all  the 

native  Welsh  princes. 

1169.  Death  of  Owen  Gwynedh,  Prince  of  North  Wales, 

who   is  succeeded"  by    his    son    David.      Another 

.    Madoc,   embarks   with   a    few   ships,  and   is 

(I  by  some  to  have  reached  America. 

117,'.  Dissolution  of  the  Welsh  confederacy  .-.-ainst  Henry 
II.,  who  makes  a  friendly  progress  through 

South   Wales. 

1177.  William  de  Bruce,  Lord  of  Brecknock,  in.! 

large    number    of   the    Welsh    nobility    at   Aber- 
gavcnny  Castle. 

1184.  The  children  of  the  slain  lords,  having  arrived  at 
years  of  maturity,  sack  Ahcrgavenny  and  Moil- 
mouth  castles,  and  murder  the  English  garri- 

It')5-    (.''MS  ap  Gryffydh  rebels  against  Richard  I. 

1196.  On  the  death  of  Khysap  Gryffydh,  King  of  South 
Wales,  his  kingdom  becomes  extinct,  though 
nominally  governed  by  his  descendants. 

1202.  A  treaty  of  peace  is  concluded  between  King  John 
and  the  Welsh. 

1204.  John  gives  his  natural  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth.  Prince  of  North  Wales. 

12,11.  John  invades  North  Wales,  and  compels  his  son-in- 
law  to  surrender  all  his  inland  territories,  and  to 
pay  heavy  tribute. 

1213.  Llewelyn  organizes  a  powerful  confederacy  against 
John,  and  sei/.es  the  English  castles  in  North 

Wales. 

1215.  The    English   barons   form   an  alliance   with    the 

AVclsh  princes. 

1318.  Llewelvn  does  homage  to  Henry  III.  at  Gloucester. 
1219.  The  Welsh  Flemings  revolt. 
1230.  Llewehn  ravages  the  English  possessions  in  South 

Wall-s. 

1338.  Henry   III.   invades  Wales,   and  concludes  a   dis- 
graceful peace. 
1333-  William,   Earl    of    Pembroke,   and    other   English 

lords,  rebel  against  Henry  III.,  and  conclude  an 

alliance  with  Llewelyn. 
1334.  William,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  is  made  prisoner  by  the 

English. 
240,  April  ii.  Death  of  Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth,  surnamed 

the  Great. 

244.  His  successor,  David,  rebels  against  Henry  III.,  and 

ravages  the  English  frontier. 

245,  Aug.   Henry  III.   invades   Wales  at  the  head  of  a 

powerful   army. 


WALES 


[     1031     ] 


WALES 


A.D. 

1346.  Death   of    David,  Prince  of    Wales,   vrho  is  suc- 
ceeded by  Llewelyn. 
1251.  The  English  laws  are  introduced. 

1355.  A  confederacy  of  Welsh  princes  against  the  English 

is  headed  by  Llewelyn  ap  Gryllydh,  who  recovers 
the  inland  territories  of  .North  Wale*. 

1356.  Llewelyn   defeats  an  English  army  in  a  battle  at 

Dinevawr. 
1:263.  Llewelvn  ravages  the  marches. 

1263.  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  III.,  invades  Wales. 

1264.  .Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  rebellious  barons  a.-.-i*t 

the  Welsh  against  Henry  III. 

1267.  On  the  death  of  De  Montfort,  Llewelyn  concludes 
a  treaty  with  Henry  III.  who  acknowledges  him 
Prince  of  Wales. 

1275.  Llewelyn  refuses  to  appear  at  the  Parliament  sum- 

moned at  Westminster. 

1276.  Eleanor  de  Montfort,    daughter    of    the    Karl    of 

Leicester,  and  affianced  bride  of  Llewelyn,  is 
made  prisoner  by  Edward  I.  while  on  her  way 
into  Wales  to  be  married.  Llewelyn  consequently 
breaks  out  into  open  rebellion. 

1377.  Edward  I.  encamps  on  Saltiiry  Marsh,  near  Chester, 

and  Llewelyn  retreats  to  Snowdon.  —  Nov.  A 
peace  is  concluded  at  Conway,  oil  terms  most 
humiliating  to  the  Welsh  prince. 

1378,  Oct.    13.    Marriage  of    Llewelyn  and  Eleanor    de 

Moutfort. 

1383,  Palm  Sunday.  A  general  insurrection  breaks  out  in 
Wales  under  Prince  David,  brother  of  Llewelyn. 
—March  22-  Prince  David  takes  Hawurden 
Castle.— June.  BBward  I.  invades  Wales.— Dec. 
II.  Llewelyn,  the  last  Welsh  prince  of  the  blood, 
is  defeated'  and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Port  Orewyu. 

1383,  June   31.    Prince   David,   brother   of    Llewelyn,"  is 

captured  by  the  English.— Sep.  30.  Prince  David, 
condemned  as  a  traitor,  is  executed. 

1384,  March  19.  The  statutes  of  Khuddlan  (13  Edw.  I.  c.  5), 

for  the  government  of  Wales,  are  enacted. — April 
25.  Edward's  eldest  son.  burn  in  Caernarvon 
Castle,  receives  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
the  homage  of  the  native  chieftains. 

1287.  Rhys  ap  Meredydh  rebels  against  Edward  I. 

1290.  He  is  made  prisoner  and  executed. 

1294.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  under  Madoc,  a  natural 

son  of  Llewelyn.— Xov.  n.  The  Welsh  defeat  the 
Karl  of  Lincoln  at  Denbigh. 

1295.  The  Welsh  are  subdued.     Madoc,  who  again  rebels, 

is  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  the  Tower. 

1315.  Another  rebellion  breaks  out  under  Llewelyn  ap 

Madoc. 

1316.  The  rebellion  is  suppressed. 

1354.  By  38  Edw.  III.  c.  2,  the  Marches  of  Wales  are 
annexed  to  the  English  crown. 

1399.  Richard  II.  lands  in  Wales  011  his  return  from  his 

Irish  expedition.  According  to  some  authorities, 
he  landed  at  Beaumaris  July  35,  and  according 
to  others,  at  Pembroke,  Aug.  13. 

1400.  Owen  Glendower,  or  Glendourdy,  rebels  in  Wales, 

assumes  the  royal  dignity,  and  imprisons  Lord 
Grey  and  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March. — 
Sep.  30.  He  burns  the  town  of  Kuthyn. — Xov.  30. 
Henry  IV.  offers  pardon  to  the  Welsh. 

1401.  Henry  IV.  invades  W:iles,  and  compels  Owen  Glen- 

dower  to  retreat  to  the  mountains. 

1403,  June  22.  Owen  Glendower  defeats  Sir  Edmund 
Mortimer. 

1403.  Owen  Glendower  assists  the  Percies  in  their  rebel- 
lion. (See  HATELEY  FIELD.) 

1405.  A  French  force  of  13,000  men,  which  has  landed  in 
Wales  to  assist  Owen  Glendower,  on  the  approach 
of  Henry  IV.,  re-embarks. 

1407.  Owen  Glendower  invades  England  and   threatens 

Worcester. 

1408.  Glendower  is  joined  by  the  Earl  of  Northumber- 

land.    (See  B KAMH AM  MOOR.) 

1415,  Sep.  2°.  Death  of  Owen  Glendower. 

1535.  By  37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  26,  Wales  is  united  to  England, 
English  laws  are  ordered  to  be  used,  and  a  com- 
mission is  appointed  for  dividing-  the  province 
into  counties. 

1543.  Wales  is  divided  into  13  counties  by  34  &  35  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  26. 

1797,  Feb.  22.  The  French  land  in  Cardigan  (ij.c). 

1830,  July  23.  The  separate  jurisdiction  of  the  Welsh 
courts  is  abolished  by  II  Geo.  IV.  &  I  Will.  IV. 
c.  -c. 

1843.  The  Rebecca  riots  (q.  r.). 


KULERS    OF    WALKS. 


A.D. 

340.  Cynedda  Wledig. 
3*9.  Einion  Yrth. 
443.  Caswalloii  Law-hir. 
SI7-  Maelgwn  Gwynedh. 
560.  Khun  ap  Maelgwyn. 
5*6.  Beli  ap  Khun. 
599.   I  ago  ap  15eli. 
603.  Cadvan  ap  lago 
030.  Cadwallon. 
676.  Cadwallader. 


NORTH  WALES, 

Anarawd. 
Edwal  Voel. 
Howel  Dha,  the  Good. 
lenav  and  lago. 
Howel  ap   lenav  and 

lago. 

Cadwallon  ap  lenav. 
Meredydd,    or    Mere- 

dith ap  Owen. 
Edwal  ap  Mcirig. 
vEdan  ap  Blegored. 
Llewelyn  ap  Seisyllt. 
lago  ap  Edwal. 
Gryffydh  ap  Llewelyn. 


A.D. 

703.  Edwal  Iwrch. 

730.  Roderick  Aloelwynoc. 

755.  Cynan  Tiiidaeihwy. 

817.  Mervyn  Vrych  and 
Essylt. 

843.  Rodri  Mawr,  or  Ro- 
derick the  Great. 

877.  Division  of  the  king- 
dom. 


OR  GWYNETH. 
1064.  Bleddyn  and  Rhiwal- 

'      Ion. 

1068.  Bleddyn,  alone. 
1073.  Trahaearn  ap  Caradoc. 
1079.  Gryffydh  ap  Cynan. 
1137.  Ovvain,       or       Uvveu 

(iuynedh. 
1169.  Dafydd,  or  David  ap 

Uwain. 
1194,  Llewelyn  aplorwerth, 

the  Great. 

1340.  Dafydd  ap  Llewelyn. 
1440.  Owen  and  Llewelyn. 
1354.  Llewelyn  ap  Gryffydh. 


SOUTH   WALES 
877.  Cadell. 

907.  Howel  Dha,  the  Good. 
94*.  ( )wi-n  ap  Ilowel. 
95*.  Icnaf  and  lago. 
966.  Owen  ap  Howel. 
987.  Meredydd  ap  Owen. 
998.  Llewelyn  ap  Seisyllt. 
C2I.   Hhydderch  ap  Jestyn. 
031.-  Howel  and  Meredydd. 
1032.  Howel,  alone. 
043.  Gryffydh  ap  Llewelyn. 


,    OR   DYNEVOR. 

1064.  Meredydd  ap  Owen. 
106*.  Caradoc  ap  Gryllydh. 
1069.   Rhydderch     ap     C;i- 

radoc. 

1073.  Rhys  ap  Owen. 
1077.  Rhys       ap      Tewdwr 

Mawr. 

1092.  Cadwgan  ap  Bleddyn. 
1116.  Gryffydh  ap  Rhys. 
1187.  Rhys  ap  Gryffydh. 


POWYS. 

877.  Merfyn,  or  Mervyn.         1031.  Bleddyn     and     Rhi- 
900.  Cadell. 
907.  Howel  Dha,  the  Good. 


.  ,  . 

948.  Edwin  and  Roderick. 
951.  Edwin,  alone. 
953.  lenaf  and  lago. 
973.  Meredydd  ap  Owen. 
998.  Llewelyn  ap  Seisyllt. 


al'lun. 

1068.  Bleddyn,  alone. 
1073.  Meredydd,    Cadwgan, 
and  lorwerth. 


1108.  Meredydd    and     Ca- 

dwgan. 

1  1  10.  Meredydd,  alone. 
1133.  Madoc  ap  Meredydd. 

(See  MARCHES,  &c.) 

WALES  (Princes  of,.—  Edward,  the  fourth 
son.  of  Edward  I.  and  Eleanor  of  Castile,  born 
at  Caernarvon,  April  25,  1284,  became  heir 
apparent  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Alphonso, 
in  Aug.,  1284,  and  had  a  grant  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Wales,  and  county  of  Chester,  by 
charter,  Feb.  7,  1301.  He  was  summoned  to 
Parliament  by  the  titles  of  Prince  of  Wales 
and  Earl  of  Chester,  June  2,  1302,  and  the 
eldest  son  of  the  sovereign  has  since  borne  the 
title.  Mary,  afterwards  queen,  is  said  to  have 
been  created  Princess  of  Wales. 


33° 


1366, 


PRINCES  OF  WALES. 

April  25-  Birth  of  Edward,  who  ascended  the  throne, 
Saturday,  July  8,  1307,  as  Edward  II.  (q.  v.). 

June  5.  Birth  of  Edward,  surnames  the  Black 
Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III.  and  Queen 
Philippa.  He  was  made  Duke  of  Cornu  all  March 
17,  1337,  an(1  1'fince  of  Wales  May  12,  1343,  and 
died  June  8,  1376. 

Feb.  Birth  of  Richard,  son  of  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  and  Joan  of  Kent.  He  was  made  Prince 
of  Wales  Nov.  20,  1376,  and  ascended  the  throne 
June  22,  1377,  as  Richard  II.  (q.  ».). 

Aug.  9.  Birth  of  Henry,  eldest  son  of  Henry  of 
Bolingbroke,  afterwards  Henry  IV.,  and  Mary  de 
Bohun.  He  was  made  Prince  of  Wales  Oct.  15, 
1399,  and  ascended  the  throne  March  31,  1413, 
as  Henry  V.  (,.  r.). 


WALHALLA 


r  1032  > 


WALLINGFORD 


1453,  Oct.  13.  Birth  of  Edward,  only  son  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Maririretof  Anjou.  He  was  made  Prince ol  Wales 
and  Karl  of  Chester  June  26,  1454,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  May  4  1471. 

1470,  Nov.  4.  Birth  of  Edward,  eldest  son  of  Kdw;<rd  IV. 
and  Elizabeth  CJrey.  lit-  was  made  1'rinceof  Wales 
and  Earl  of  Chester  June  2f<.  1471,  and  ascended 
the  throne  April  (),  1483.  as  Kdwnrd  V.  (//.  >:). 

1473.  Birth  of  Edward,  only  child  of  Ki.-hard,  Duke  of 
(ilonee-ter.  afterwards  Kichard  III.,  ami  Anne. 
He  was  made  1'rinccof  Wales  and  Karl  of  Chester 
Aug.  34,  1483.  and  died  April  9,  1484. 

1486,  Sep.  20.  Birth  of  Arthur,  eldest  son  of  Henry  VII. 
and  Elizabeth  of  York.  He  was  made  1'rince  of 
Wales  and  Earl  of  Chester  Dec.  I,  1489,  and  died 
April  2,  1502. 

1491,  June  28.  Birth  of  Henry,  second  son  of  Henry 
VII.  and  Elizabeth  of  York.  He  was  made 
Prince  of  Wales  and  Earl  of  Chester  Feb.  [8, 
1^03,  and  ascended  the  throne  April  23,  1509,  as 
Henry  VIII.  (7.  c.). 

1593,  Feb.  19.  Birth  of  Henry  Frederick,  eldest  son  of 
James  VI.  of  Scotland,  afterward-  James  I.  of 
England,  and  Anne  of  Denmark.  He  was  made 
I'rince  of  Wales  and  Earl  of  Chester  June  4,  16:0, 
and  died  Nov.  6,  1612. 

1600,  Nov.  19.  Birth  of  Charles,  second  son  of  James  VI.  of 
Scotland,  afterwards  James  I.  of  En-land,  and 
Anne  of  Denmark.  He  wasmade  Prince  of  Wales 
and  I'.arl  of  Chester  Nov.  4,  1616,  and  ascended 
the  throne  March  27,  16^5.  as  Charle<  I.  ("./.  r.). 

1630,  May  39.  Birth  of  Charles,  eldest  son  of  Charles  I.  and 
Henrietta  Maria  of  France.  He  was  made  I'rince 
of  Wales  in  1639,  and  ascended  the  throne  May  ji>, 
1660  (succeeded  Jan.  30,  164')),  as  Charles  II.  (i/.  r.  |. 

1683,  Oct.  30.  Birth  of  George,  only  son  of  George, 
F.lector  of  Hanover,  nt'terw  ;  i 

England,  and  Sophia  Dorothea,  lie  was  made 
I'rince  of  Wales  Sep.  i~.  1714,  and  ascended  the 
throne  June  I  I.  l~j~.  a-  (  teorge  I  '•  ('/•  ''•)• 

1707,  Jan.  20.  Birth  of  Frederick  l.onK  eldest  son  of 
George  II.  and  Wilhelmina  Caroline.  He  was 
mad,-  1'rineeof  Wales  and  Earl  of  Chester  Jan. 
8,  1729,  and  died  March  20,  1-51. 

1738,  May  24.  Birth  of  George  William  Frederick,  eldest 
son  of  Frederick,  I'rince  of  Wales,  and  Aiifrusta 
of  Siixe-Cnbiirtf.  He  wasmade  I'rince  of  Wales 
and  Earl  of  Chester  April  20,  1751,  and  ascended 
the  throne  Oct.  r^e  III.  (q.r.). 

1762,  An;;.  12.  liirth  of  Ceorjre  An-n-tus  Frederick,  eldest 
son  of  I  icorire  III.  and  Charlotte  Sophia  of  Meek 

lenbnr^-Stivlit/.      lie  uas  i le.  I'rince  of  Wales 

and  Earl  of  Chester  Aug.  19,  I~<>-',  and  ascended 
the  throne  Jan.  29,  1820,  as  George  IV.  (7.  r.). 

1841,  Nov.  9.  Birth  of  Albert  Edward,  eldest  son  of 
I'rinec  Albert  and  Queen  Victoria.  He  was  made 
Prince  Of  Wales  and  Earl  of  Chester  Dec.  8,  1841, 
and  Earl  of  Dublin  Jan.  17,  1850. 

WALHALLA,  or  VA  M  FALL  A.— This  edifice, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  Hall  or 
Woden,  the  paradise  of  the  Scandinavian 
mythology,  was  built  by  Louis  Charles,  Kin- 
of  Bavaria,  upon  a  hill  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Danube,  near  Ratisbon,  for  the  reception 
of  the  statues  and  memorials  of  the  great  men 
of  Germany.  It  was  commenced  Oct.  18,  1830, 
and  finished  and  inaugurated  Oct.  18,  1842. 

WALK  (Battle).  —  The  Russians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Swedes  at  this  town  in  Russia, 
June  19,  1657. 

WALLACHIA  (Europe)  formed  part  of 
Dacia,  when  it  was  conquered  and  colonized 
by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  in  106.  The  Walla- 
chians  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  descen- 
dants of  these  colonists.  They  were,  however, 
recalled  from  Dacia  when  that  kingdom  was 
ceded  to  the  Goths  by  the  Emperor  Aureliau, 
in  270.  This  name  belonged  to  some  people  in 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  in  the  gth 
century,  a  portion  of  whom  settled  north  of 
the  Danube  in  the  rath  century.  The  inha- 


bitants of  Dacia  were  nearly  exterminated  by 
the  Mongols  in  the  isth  century ;  and,  after 
they  had  withdrawn,  the  Wallachians  and 
other  foreign  colonists  settled  there,  and  were 
governed  by  their  own  princes,  who  were 
called  waiwodes,  voyades  or  hospodars,  or 
despots.  The  kings  of  Hungary  compelled 
them  to  pay  tribute  in  the  1 4th  century.  The 
Hungarians  exacted  tribute  in  1390.  The 
Turks  assailed  them  in  1391  and  1394,  devas- 
tated the  whole  country  in  1415,  and  obliged 
them  to  pay  an  annual  tribute.  Mohammed 
II.  led  an  army  into  Wallachia  in  1462.  They 
put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
Emperor  in  1608,  but  were  again  resigned  to 
Turkish  dominion  by  the  treaty  of  Carlowitx, 
Jan.  26,  1699.  The  country  suffered  from  civil 
war  and  the  pla^aie  in  the  beginning  of  the 
i7th  century,  and  the  western  part  was  eeded 
to  the  Emperor  by  the  treaty  of  I'assamwitz, 
July  21,  1718  ;  he  lost  it  again  in  1739.  Turkey 
covenanted  with  Russia  not  to  remove  the 
voyade  or  hospodar  for  the  space  of  seven 
years,  by  the  treaty  of  Jassy,  Jan.  9,  1792; 
and  further  stipulated  not  to  do  so  without 
the  consent  of  Russia,  Sen.  24,  1802.  T: 
French  influence,  the  Sultan  deposed  the  wai- 
wode,  without  the  knowledge  of  l\us-i 
30,  1807,  and,  iu  consequence,  a  Russian  army 
entered  Wallachia,  defeated  the  Turks,  and 
occupied  Bucharest,  in  Dec.,  1807.  They  re- 
mained in  the  country  until  it  was  formally 
annexed  to  Russia  by  an  imperial  ukase,  Jan. 
21,  1810.  It  was  restored  to  Turkey  by  the 
peace  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812.  A  re 
broke  out  in  Wallachia  in  1821.  The  princi- 
palities of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  were  united 
(See  DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES',  with  the  privi- 
lege of  self-government,  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Sultan,  by  a  convention  signed  by  the 
principal  European  powers  at  Paris,  Aug.  19, 
1858.  Col.  Alexander  John  Couxa  was  ap- 
pointed hospodar  ~\>y  the  electoral  assembly, 
Feb.  5,  1859.  By.  a  proclamation  made  at 
IM!  Bucharest  Dec.  23,  1861,  the  princi- 
palities of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  were  de- 
clared united  into  one  state  under  the  title  of 
Roumania,  or  Rumania  (//.  v.  . 

WALL  KITS  PLOT,  contrived  by  Edmund 
Waller,  the  poet,  to  deliver  London  into  the 
power  of  Charles  I.,  was  discovered  May  31, 
1643.  His  principal  confederates,  Tomkins, 
his  brother-in-law,  and  Chaloner,  a  wealthy 
citizen,  were  hanged,  July  5,  1643.  Waller, 
who  escaped  with  banishment  and  a  fine  of 
.£10,000,  was  an  exile  for  eight  years. 

WALLINGFORD  (Berkshire),  supposed  to 
have  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was 
taken  and  burned  by  the  Danes  in  1006.  In 
Domesday  Book  it  is  called  Walingeford,  and 
is  described  as  a  borough  with  276  houses. 
William  I.  received  the  homage  of  Archbishop 
Stigand  and  the  principal  nobles  here  in  1066. 
A  strong  castle  was  built  in  1067,  which  was 
held  for  the  Empress  Maud  in  the  civil  war 
with  Stephen,  who  unsuccessfully  besieged  it 
several  times.  It  was  taken  by  the  Parliamen- 
tarians in  1646,  and  the  castle  was  completely 
demolished  in  1653.  Wallingford  received  its 
first  charter  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (noo — 35), 
and  returned  two  members  to  Parliament 


WALLIS'S  VOYAGE 


[     1033    ] 


WALTON  CLUB 


from  1294  till  1832,  when  it  was  deprived 
of  one.  A  Benedictine  priory,  founded  here 
in  the  reign  of  William  I.,  was  suppressed  in 
1535.  St.  Leonard's  church,  much  damaged 
in  the  siege  of  1646,  was  afterwards  rebuilt. 
St.  Peter's,  also  ruined  in  the  same  siege,  was 
rebuilt  in  1769;  and  the  tower  was  erected  in 
1777.  The  free  school  was  founded  in  1659, 
the  almshouses  in  1681,  and  a  school  for  20 
boys  and  30  girls  was  established  in  1819. 

WALLIS'S  VOYAGE.— Capt.  Wallis  sailed 
from  Plymouth  in  the  Dolphin,  Aug.  22,  1766  ; 
visited  Tahiti,  which  he  named  King  George's 
Island,  June  19,  1767;  reached  Batavia  ISov. 
30,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Feb.  4,  1768,  and 
returned  to  the  Downs  May  20,  1768;  having 
accomplished  the  circumnavigation  of  the 
globe  in  one  year  and  nine  months. 

WALLOONS,  the  name  given  to  the  ancient 
Celtic  inhabitants  of  Flanders,  and  also  to  the 
Flemish  refugees  who  settled  in  England  in 
consequence  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Duke 
of  Alva,  in  1568.  A  Walloon  church  was  es- 
tablished in  Threadneedle  Street,  London,  in 
the  building  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Anthony, 
once  a  Jews'  synagogue,  erected  in  1231.  This 
building  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of 
1666,  and  the  Walloons  erected  their  present 
church.  About  50  Walloons  who  wrought  and 
dyed  fine  woollen  cloths  were  brought  over 
to  instruct  the  English  in  their  manufacture, 
May  4,  1668.  The  country  occupied  by  the 
Walloons  nearly  corresponds  to  Belgium. 

WALLS.— The  great  wall  in  Egypt,  to  prevent 
the  incursions  of  the  Syrians  and  Arabians, 
was  built  by  Sesostris.  The  ancient  cities  of 
Greece  were  surrounded  by  massive  walls  in 
the  time  of  Homer  (B.C.  962 — B.C.  927).  The 
great  wall  of  China  was  completed  about  B.C. 
211  ;  Cadsar's  wall,  between  Geneva  and  Mount 
Jura,  B.C.  58;  and  the  long  wall  of  Constan- 
tinople in  507.  (See  AGRICOLA'S  WALL,  HA- 
DRIAN'S WALL,  ROMAN  WALLS,  <fcc.) 

WALMER  CASTLE  (Kent)  was  erected  by 
Henry  VIII.  for  the  defence  of  the  coast  in 
1539.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  died  here  Sep. 
14,  1852. 

WALNUT-TREE  was  cultivated  in  Europe  by 
the  Romans,  B.C.  37.  The  common  walnut  was 
brought  from  France  in  1562,  and  the  black 
walnut-tree  was  introduced  into  England  from 
N.  America  before  1629. 

WALPOLE  ADMINISTRATIONS.— Robert 
Walpole  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  Oct. 
10,  1715.  The  other  members  of  the  minis- 
try remained  the  same  as  in  the  Halifax  and 
Carlisle  administrations  (q.v.),  the  Earl  of 
Lincoln  being  appointed  paymaster-general  in 
place  of  Mr.  Walpole,  Oct.  17,  and  Joseph 
Addison  one  of  the  commissioners  for  trade 
and  plantations,  Dec.  15,  1715.  The  Earl  of 
Nottingham,  president  of  the  council,  resigned 
Feb.  28,  1716.  The  Duke  of  Argyle  was  re- 
moved from  all  his  offices  June  30  ;  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council  July  6 ;  Lord  Townshend  resigned  Dec. 
ii ;  and  the  Duke  of  Kingston  was  made  lord 
privy  seal,  in  place  of  the  Earl  of  Sunderland, 
Dec.  14,  1716.  This  administration  was  dis- 
solved April  10,  1717.  (See  STANHOPE  or  GER- 


MAN ADMINISTRATION.) Walpole's    second 

administration,  formed  April  4,  1721,  on  the 
dissolution  of  the  Sunderland  administration, 
was  thus  constituted  : — 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury)  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  created 

and    Chancellor  of    theV      Earl    of     Orford    Feb.    6, 

Exchequer   j      1743. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Parker. 

I'rcsidi.'iit  of  the  Council Lord  Carleton. 

Privy  Seal   Duke  of  Kingston. 

Principal     Secretaries    of)  Viscount     Townshend    and 

State J     Lord  Carteret. 

Admiralty    Earl  of  Berkeley. 

Secretary  at  War  Mr.  Treby. 

Ordnance Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Lord  Parker,  created  Earl  of  Macclesfield, 
resigned  the  lord-chancellorship  Jan.  4,  1725, 
and  his  office  was  filled  by  Lord  King,  June  i. 
He  resigned  in  Nov.,  1733,  and  was  succeeded, 
Nov.  29,  by  Lord  Talbot,  who  died  Feb.  14,1737; 
and  Lord  Hardwicke  was  appointed  Feb.  21. 
The  Duke  of  Devonshire,  who  succeeded  Lord 
Carleton  as  president  of  the  council,  March  27, 
1725,  was  followed  by  Lord  Trevor,  May  8, 
1730,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl  of 
Wilmington,  Dec.  31,  1730.  Lord  Trevor  be- 
came privy  seal  March  n,  1726,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Earl  of  Wilmington  May  8, 
1730.  The  Duke  of  Devonshire  took  the  office 
June  12,  1731  ;  Viscount  Lonsdale  May  5, 1733; 
the  Earl  of  Godolphin  in  May,  1735  ;  and  Lord 
Hervey,  April  7,  1740.  Lord  Carteret  was 
succeeded  as  one  of  the  principal  secretaries 
of  state  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  April  14, 
1724  ;  and  Viscount  Townshend  was  replaced 
by  Lord  Harrington,  June  27,  1730.  The  Earl 
of  Berkeley  was  succeeded  at  the  Admiralty, 
Aug.  2,  1727,  by  Viscount  Torrington,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Sir  Charles  Wager,  Jan.  25,  1733. 
The  office  of  secretary  at  war  was  filled  by  Mr. 
Henry  Pelham,  from  April  i,  1724  ;  by  Sir  W. 
Strickland,  Bart.,  from  Jan.  1 1, 1730 ;  and  by  Sir 
W.  Yonge,  Bart.,  from  May  9,  1735.  The  Earl  of 
Cadogan  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
at  the  Ordnance,  July  i,  1722.  He  was  re- 
placed by  the  Duke  of  Argyle  July  i,  1725; 
and  the  Duke  of  Montagu  took  the  office  July 
i,  1740.  Sir  Robert  Walpole  resigned  Feb.  3, 
1742,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Orford  Feb.  6. 
(See  WILMINGTON  ADMINISTRATION.) 

WALTHAM  ABBEY,  or  HOLY  CROSS 
(Essex),  originally  founded  in  the  reign  of 
Canute,  derives  its  name  from  the  celebrated 
abbey  founded  by  Harold,  son  of  Earl  Godwin, 
in  1062.  This  abbey,  of  which  a  few  remains 
are  left,  had  a  yearly  revenue  of  ,£1,079  I2S-  ld- 
when  it  was  surrendered  to  Henry  VIII., 
March  23,  1540.  The  church,  formerly  the 
nave  of  the  church  of  the  monastery,  has  an 
embattled  tower  bearing  the  date  of  1558. 
The  Government  gunpowder-mills  were  estab- 
lished at  Waltham  Abbey  in  1787.  Explosions 
occurred  April  25,  1801,  with  a  loss  of  nine 
lives;  Jan.  16,  1810,  with  a  loss  of  six  lives  ; 
Nov.  27,  1811,  with  a  loss  of  seven  lives  ;  April 
13,  1843,  with  a  loss  of  seven  lives  ;  and  May 
27,  1861,  by  which  one  man  lost  his  life,  and 
several  received  severe  injuries. 

WALTON  AND  COTTON  CLUB  (London) 
was  formed  for  lovers  of  the  gentle  art  by  Sir 
Henry  Ellis,  Mr.  Michael  Bland,  &c.,  March 
19,  1817.  It  was  re-organized  March  26,  1840. 
The  motto  is  "  Dum  capimus  capimur." 


WALTZ 


t     1034    1 


WAR-CHARIOT 


WALTZ. — This  dance,  of  German  origin,  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1813. 

WANADING,  or  WANNATING.— (See  WAN- 
TAGE.) 

WAXDEWASH  (Hindostan).— This  town  in 
the  Carnatic,  attacked  by  the  English  without 
success  in  Sep.,  1759,  was  taken  by  Col.  Coote 
after  a  siege  of  three  days,  Nov.  29.  M.  Lally 
afterwards  made  considerable  efforts  to  take 
it,  and  a  great  battle  was  fought  between  his 
French  force  and  the  English  army  under 
Coote,  July  22,  1760.  The  English  forces  com- 
prised 1,700  Europeans  and  3,000  Sepoys,  and 
the  French,  2,200  Europeans  and  10,000  Sepoys ; 
but,  in  spite  of  their  superior  numbers,  the 
French  sustained  a  severe  defeat,  and  were 
compelled  to  retreat  to  Pondicherry. 

WANDSWORTH  .Surrey)  is  called  Wande- 
fordo  and  Wendleforde  in  Domesday  Book 
(1086).  All  Saints  church  was  restored  in 
1780.  A  bridge  over  the  Wandle,  built  by 
order  of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  July,  1602,  was 
rebuilt  in  1757.  The  first  Presbyterian  presby- 
tery met  here  Nov.  20,  1572.  Garratt,  a  hamlet 
within  this  parish,  was  formerly  the  scene  of 
a  mock  election  on  the  meeting  of  every  new 
parliament.  This  was  made  famous  In 
farce  of  "  The  Mayor  of  Garratt,"  brought  out 
'in  1763.  The  new  church  of  St.  Anne's  was 
founded  in  1824. 

W A \TAGH  Berkshire).— Alfred  the  Great 
was  born  at  this  town,  then  called  \Vannating, 
or  Wanading,  111849.  The  i-oooth  anniversary 
of  this  event  was  celebrated  here  by  a  public 
banquet,  Oct.  25,  1849. 

WAR.—  N.r    I;ATIU;S,    EfaomxtoUBfl    and   M.\- 
ZARFNS,    LANCASTRIANS  AND  YORKISTS,  LOVKRS 
|  War  of  the),    MJ:SSI:MAN    WAB8, 
WAI:,  I'c.Nir  WARS,  SKA-KICUTS,  S':I;VILK  WARS, 
SKVKN  DAYS'  WAR,  E  WAR,  BOOIXL 

WARS,  TiiiRTv  YEARS'  WAR,  <bc.,  &c.) 

WARBECK'8  [N8UBRECTION.— -Pi 
Perkiii  Warbeck,  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
John  Osbeck,  or  Olbeck,  a  converted  Jew  of 
Tournay,  was  a  godson  of  Edward  IV.,  and  a 
young  man  of  great  personal  attractions  and 
good  manners.  He  was  instructed  by  Mar- 
garet, dowager  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  and 
sister  of  Edward  IV.,  to  pass  himself  off  as 
the  young  Duke  of  York,  who  was  supposed 
to  have  been  murdered  in  the  Tower  by 
Richard  III.  She  first  sent  him  to  Portugal, 
where  he  remained  for  a  year ;  but  on  the 
commencement  of  war  between  France  and 
England,  in  1492,  she  despatched  him  to 
Ireland,  where  he  was  received  with  welcome 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Cork.  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  next  invited  him  to  his  court,  and 
received  him  as  the  young  duke  and  the  right- 
ful heir  to  the  English  crown  ;  but  when 
peace  became  probable  he  dismissed  him, 
Nov.  3.  Perkin  repaired  to  Flanders,  where 
his  cause  was  openly  espoused  by  the  dowager 
Margaret,  who  acknowledged  him  as  her 
nephew,  and  gave  him  the  cognomen  of  the 
White  Rose  of  England.  Intelligence  of  these 
events  reached  England  early  in  1493,  and  was 
eagerly  believed  by  many  who  were  discon- 
tented with  the  government  of  Henry  VII.  A 
conspiracy  in  favour  of  Perkin  was  formed  by 
the  Lord  Chamberlain,  Sir  William  Stanlev, 


Sir  Robert  Clifford,  and  others.  Henry  VII. 
sent  spies  into  Flanders,  who  obtained  a 
knowledge  of  Warbeck's  antecedents,  and  by 
dint  of  bribes  he  induced  Clifford  to  betray 
his  companions  and  to  reveal  all  he  knew  of 
the  conspiracy.  Sir  Simon  Mountford,  Sir 
Thomas  Thwaites,  and  Robert  Ratcliff  were 
immediately  executed  ;  but  the  others  p 
a  commutation  of  sentence.  Sir  William 
Stanley  was  executed  Feb.  16,  1495.  Warbeck, 
who  attempted  to  laud  at  Deal  July  3,  1495, 
was  repulsed,  and  169  of  his  adherents,  made 
prisoners,  were  hanged  by  order  of  the 
king.  Having  subsequently  besieged  Water- 
ford,  in  Ireland,  he  was  compelled  to  tiee 
by  Sir  Edward  Poynings,  July  23.  After  this 
failure  he  again  retired  to  Flanders,  where 
he  remained  till  March,  1496,  when  he 
visited  Scotland,  and  was  favourably  received 
by  James  IV.,  who  gave  him  in  marriage  his 
kinswoman,  the  Lady  Catherine  Cordon,  and 
invaded  the  northern  counties  of  England  in 
his  behalf.  A  war  breaking  out  in  consequence 
between  the  two  countries,  Warbeck  was 
to  retire  to  Ireland  July  26,  1497, 
and  subsequently  to  Whitsand  Hay,  Cornwall, 
where  he  landed  Sep.  7,  and  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  a  large  body  of  Cornish 

He  retired  to  Taunt  on  Sep.  20. 
Having  been  apprised  of  the  approach  of  Lord 
Daubcney  with  a  numerous  army,  he  fled 
during  the  night  to  the  sanctuary  of  Beaulieu, 
in  Hampshire,  Sep.  21.  His  wife.  Lady  Cathe- 
rine Gordon,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Koyal 
troops,  and  became  an  attendant  on  the  queen. 
Warbeck  surrendered  to  Henry  VII.  Oct.  5, 
and  was  led  in  triumph  through  London 
Nov.  27.  He  was  kept  prisoner  in  the 
royal  palace,  and  afterwards  in  the  Tower, 
whence  he  escaped  June  8,  14^0,  and  took 
shelter  with  the  prior  of  Shene.  He  again 
surrendered  on  the  promise  that  his  life  should 

i,  and  was  exhibited  in  the  s(. 
Westminster  Hall,  June  14,  and  the  following 
day  in  Cheapside ;  after  which  he  was  once 
more  removed  to  the  Tower.  Here  he  formed 
an  intimacy  with  his  fellow-prisoner,  the 
young  Earl  of  Warwick,  son  of  ' 
Duke  of  Clarence,  with  whom  he  planned  an 
escape  and  a  renewal  of  his  claims.  The 
attempt  failed,  Aug.  2,  1499,  and  Warbeck 
was  tried  at  Westminster  Hall  Nov.  16,  and 
hanged  Nov.  23.  Warwick  was  tried  Nov.  21, 
and  executed  Nov.  28.  The  account  of  Perkin 
'Piers  or  Peter)  Warbeck's  parentage  is  derived 
from  his  enemies.  By  some  authorities  he  is 
believed  to  have  been,  if  not  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  at  any  rate  a  son  of  Edward  IV. 

WARBURG  (Battle).  —  The  French  were 
defeated  by  the  English  and  their  allies, 
under  the  Prince  of  Brunswick,  at  this  town, 
in  Westphalia,  Aug.  7,  1760. 

WAR-CHARIOT,  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Ninus,  King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  2059,  is  men- 
tioned Exod.  xiv.  7  (B.C.  1491):  Josh. 
(B.C.  1444) ;  i  Sam.  xiii.  5  (B.C.  1093) ;  and 
in  other  passages  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Cassivelaunus,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
ancient  Britons,  had  4,000  war-chariots  in  his 
army,  B.C.  54.  The  Chinese  used  chariots  of 
war  armed  with  cannon  in  1453. 


WARDEN  OF  THE  MARCHES         [     1035    ] 


WARTBURG 


WARDEN   OF   THE    MARCHES.— (See 

CUMBERLAND.) 

WARDENS  OF  THE  PEACE.— (See  CON- 
SERVATORS.) 

WARDS  AND  LIVERIES  (Court  of).— This 
court,  erected  by  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  46  (1540), 
was  abolished  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  24  (1660). 

WAREHAM  (Dorsetshire)  existed  in  the 
time  of  the  Britons,  and,  subsequently  occupied 
by  the  Romans,  was  taken  in  800  by  the 
Danes,  when  the  inhabitants  were  massacred, 
and  the  town  was  reduced  to  ruins  in  876.  It 
was  again  ravaged  by  them  in  998.  The  castle 
and  town  were  seized  for  the  Empress  Maud 
in  1138,  and  were  retaken  and  burned  by 
Stephen.  The  town,  almost  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1762,  was  completely  rebuilt  within  two 
years.  A  priory  was  founded  here  in  the  gth 
century. 

WAR  OFFICE.— The  department  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  was  established  in  1666,  for 
the  management  of  the  finance  business  of 
the  army.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  War 
was  made  a-  distinct  office  during  the  Russian 
War,  and  the  announcement  of  the  change  was 
made  in  the  House  of  Lords  June  9,  1854. 
The  office  of  Secretary  at  War  was  abolished, 
and  its  duties  transferred  to  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  War,  by  26  Viet.  c.  12  (May  4,  1863;. 

WARRANTS.— (See  GENERAL  WARRANTS.) 

WARRINGTON  (Lancashire)  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Roman  station  in  79.  After  its 
occupation  by  the  Saxons  it  obtained  the 
name  of  Weriiigton,  from  the  Saxon  wering,  a 
fortification,  and  tun,  a  town,  from  which 
its  present  name  is  derived.  It  was  besieged 
and  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians  in  May 
or  June,  1643.  Gen.  Lambert  defeated  the 
Scots  here  in  1648,  and  Charles  II.  repulsed 
the  Parliamentarians  in  1651.  The  bridge 
was  cut  down  to  intercept  the  passage  of 
the  Jacobite  army  under  Charles  Edward, 
and  part  of  the  rebel  force  captured  it  in  1745. 
The  Duke  of  Cumberland  passed  through  the 
town  in  his  march  to  the  north  in  1746.  A 
wooden  bridge,  erected  in  the  end  of  the  i4th 
century,  was  replaced  by  a  bridge  of  stone  by 
Thomas,  first  Earl  of  Derby,  in  compliment 
to  Henry  VII.,  on  his  visit  to  Latham  and 
Knowsley,  in  1496.  A  new  bridge  of  wood  on 
stone  piers  was  erected  in  1812.  The  parish 
church  of  St.  Helen's  is  of  Saxon  origin,  and 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  The 
tower  was  rebuilt  in  1696.  The  free  grammar- 
school  was  founded  in  1526;  the  Blue-coat 
school  in  1677  ;  the  subscription  library  was 
established  in  1758,  the  dispensary  in  1810, 
and  a  building  was  erected  for  it  in  1818.  The 
town-hall  was  built  in  1820. 

WARSAW  (Battles).— The  Poles  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  Swedes  in  a  battle  which 

lasted  three  days,  in  1656. The  Russian 

and  Prussian  troops  were  beaten  by  the  Polish 
guards  and  the  populace  in  the  town,  April 
17,  1794.  The  Poles  under  Kosciusko  were 
defeated  by  the  Russians,  Oct.  4,  1794,  and 
again  with  a  loss  of  10,000  slain,  and  9,000  in 
prisoners,  at  Praga,  near  Warsaw,  Nov.  4, 

1794. In  the  battle  between  the  Poles  and 

the  Russians  at  the  village  of  Grochow,  near 
Warsaw,  Feb.  19  and  20,  1831,  the  former  were 


victorious;  and  in  the  contest  at  the  suburb 
of  Praga,  Feb.  24  and  25,  1831,  the  result  was 

indecisive. The  Poles,  who  gained  a  victory 

over  the  Russians  at  Warsaw,  March  31,  1831, 
were  defeated  by  them  here  in  a  great  battle 
Sep.  6  and  7,  1831. 

WARSAW  (Poland),  the  principal  city  of 
Russian  Poland,  became  the  capital  of  Poland 
in  1609 ;  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  the 
middle  of  the  i7th  century,  and  was  retaken 
by  the  Poles  in  1656;  but  before  the  end  of  the 
year  the  Swedes  wrested  it  from  them,  and 
destroyed  the  fortifications.  It  was  taken  by 
Charles  XII.  in  1703.  The  Poles  rose  against 
the  Russians  and  expelled  them  April  17, 
1794.  The  Prussians  assailed  it  unsuccessfully 
in  July  and  Aug.,  and  it  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  with  great  slaughter,  Nov.  9,  1794. 
The  Russians  retired  Nov.  28,  1806,  and  it  was 
occupied  by  the  French  Nov.  30.  Napoleon  I. 
arrived  Dec.  18,  1806,  and  received  embassies 
from  Turkey  and  Persia  in  the  beginning  of 
March,  1807.  It  was  captured  by  the  Austrians 
April  23,  1809,  and  was  retaken  by  the  Poles 
June  i.  Napoleon  I.  arrived  here  on  his  retreat 
from  Russia,  Dec.  10,  1812.  It  was  evacuated 
by  the  Austrians  in  the  beginning  of  Feb., 
1813,  and  was  occupied  by  the  Russians.  A 
royal  palace  was  built  by  Sigismund  III.  (1587 
— 1632).  The  church  of  the  Holy  Cross  was 
erected  in  1696,  the  Liitheran  churchin  1781,  the 
church  of  St.  Alexander  in  1814,  and  the  Domi- 
nican church  in  1823.  The  Polish  insurrection 
broke  out  Nov.  29,  1830,  and  the  Russian  grand- 
duke  Constantine  having  retired  from  the  city 
Nov.  30,  a  provisional  government  was  formed. 
The  Polish  army  retreated  to  Warsaw  after  the 
battle  of  Praga,  Feb.  24  and  25,  1831.  The 
prisons  were  broken  into  and  all  the  state 
prisoners,  Russian  prisoners  and  others,  were 
murdered  by  the  mob,  Aug.  15  and  16.  The 
Russians  captured  it  after  a  sanguinary  battle, 
which  lasted  two  days,  Sep.  8.  A  strong 
citadel  was  erected  by  them  after  the  close  of 
the  revolution.  The  university  was  abolished 
in  1834,  and  the  library  of  150,000  volumes  and 
other  valuable  collections  were  removed  to  St. 
Petersburg.  The  Emperors  of  Austria  and 
Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  met  here 
Oct.  2,  1853.  Alexander  II.  visited  Warsaw 
Sep.  7,  1857.  The  Emperors  of  Austria  and  of 
Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  met  here  Oct. 
22 — 26,  1860.  Disturbances  broke  out  Feb.  25, 
1861.  The  Poles  rose  against  the  conscription 
Jan.  22,  1863.  (See  POLAND.)  An  imperial 
rescript  for  the  establishment  of  a  Russian 
university  was  issued  Sep.  n,  1864. 

WARSAW  (Treaties).— An  alliance  between 
Sweden  and  Poland,  was  signed  here,  Nov.  18, 

1705. A  convention  relative  to  the  trade  of 

the  Polish  provinces  was  concluded  at  Warsaw, 

March  22,  1817. A  treaty  between  Russia  and 

Prussia  for  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection 
was  signed  here,  Feb.  8,  1863. 

WAKTBURG  (Saxe-Weimar).—  Luther  was 
conveyed  for  safety  to  this  castle,  near  Eise- 
nach, after  leaving  Worms,  April  26,  1521. 
It  was  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  land- 
graves of  Thuringia.  Luther,  under  the  name 
of  Junker  George  (Squire  George),  and  pro- 
tected by  the  Elector  Frederick,  spent  several 


WARWICK 


[    1036 


WATER  AVIARY 


months  in  this  retreat,  where  he  commenced 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  German. 

WARWICK  (Warwickshire),  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a  town  of  importance  prior  to 
the  Roman  invasion,  having  been  destroyed  by 
the  Danes,  was  restored,  and  a  fort  erected  by 
Ethelfleda,  daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great,  in 
913.  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  it  on  her  way  to 
Kenilworth  Castle  in  1575.  More  than  half 
the  town  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire 
in  1694,  and  it  was  rebuilt  by  a  national  contri- 
bution, which  amounted  to  ^110,000,  of  which 
Queen  Anne  gave  ^1,000.  William  III.  visited 
it  in  1695.  Its  earliest  charter  dates  from 
1260,  but  it  was  not  regularly  incorporated  till 
1553.  Warwick  Castle  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Ethelfleda  (913),  but  no 
authentic  trace  of  the  original  building  re- 
mains. Caesar's  Tower,  built  at  least  700  years 
ago,  and  Guy's  Tower,  built  in  1394,  are  both 
in  good  preservation.  St.  Mary's  church,  which 
stands  on  the  site  of  an  older  structure,  was 
built  in  the  i4th  century.  Having  been  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1694,  it  was  rebuilt  in  1704. 
The  tower,  130  feet  high,  was  designed  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren.  The  Beauchamp  chapel 
was  erected  in  1464. 

WASH-HOUSES.— {&«  PUBLIC  BATHS  AND 
WASH-HOUSES.) 

WASHINGTON  (N.  America),  surveyed  and 
laid  out  by  three  commissioners  in  1791,  was 
founded  by  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of 
the  Capitol,  Hep.  18,  1793.  The  seat  of  the 
federal  government  was  transferred  from  Phila- 
delphia to  this  place  in  1800,  and  the  president 
and  the  other  chief  officers  of  the  government 
have  since  resided  here.  It  was  captured  by 
a  small  English  force  under  Ross,  Aug.  24, 
1814,  and  a  proposition  to  ransom  the  public 
buildings  having  been  rejected  by  the  authori- 
ties, they  were  fired,  and  the  English  with- 
drew Aug.  25.  The  Capitol,  commenced  in 
1793,  was  finished  in  1827,  at  a  cost  of  ;£4oo,ooo. 
Columbian  College  was  incorporated  by  Con- 
gress in  1821.  The  Smithsonian  Institute  was 
organized  by  act  of  Congress  in  1846.  A  de- 
structive fire,  in  which  part  of  the  Capitol 
and  the  whole  of  the  library  were  destroyed, 
occurred  Dec.  24,  1851.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
visited  the  President  here  in  Oct.,  1860.  Pre- 
sident Lincoln  was  assassinated  in  Ford's 
Theatre,  Washington,  April  14,  1865. 

WASHINGTON  (Treaties).— Numerous 
treaties  have  been  signed  at  this  city,  the 
principal,  with  Great  Britain,  being  one  re- 
lating to  the  Oregon  Boundary,  concluded 
June  15,  1846,  and  another,  entitled  the  Reci- 
procity Treaty,  for  regulating  the  trade  with 
Canada,  concluded  by  Lord  Elgin,  June  7,  1854. 

WASHINGTON  TERRITORY  (N.  America). 
— This  territory  of  the  United  States  was 
organized  in  1853.  Extensive  gold  mines  were 
discovered  in  1861. 

WASSAIL  BOWL.— The  term  wassail  is  de- 
rived from  the  Anglo-Saxon  was-hcal,  "  be  in 
health,"  and  the  wassail  bowl  was  compounded 
of  ale,  nutmeg,  sugar,  toast,  and  roasted  crabs 
or  apples,  which  formed  an  aggregate,  some- 
times called  lamb's  wool.  The  custom  of  was- 
sailing on  New  Year's  eve  is  derived  by  some 
antiquaries  from  the  presentation  of  amoving 


cup  to  Vortigern  by  Rowena,  in  499;  but 
others  assert,  and  with  greater  probability, 
that  it  is  of  earlier  origin. 

WASTE  LANDS  were  first  inclosed  in  Eng- 
land in  order  to  promote  agriculture,  in  1547. 
This  caused  an  insurrection  in  various  parts  of 
the  country  in  June,  July,  and  Aug.,  1549. 
(See  KET'S  INSURRECTION.)  Inclosures  of  com- 
mons and  waste  lands  are  generally  made  by 
local  statutes,  which  are  regulated  by  the 
General  Inclosure  Act,  41  Geo.  III.  c.  109 
(1800),  amended  by  i  <fe  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  23  (1821). 

WATCH  (London)  was  established  in  accor- 
dance with  an  order  issued  by  Henry  III.  in 
1253.  The  duty  was  performed  by  the  citizens 
themselves,  and  they  had  stately  processions 
yearly.  Henry  VIII.  came  into  the  city  dis- 
guised as  a  yeoman  of  the  guard  to  see  this 
nocturnal  pomp,  on  the  eve  of  St.  John,  1510, 
and  was  so  well  pleased  that  he  brought  his 
queen,  attended  by  the  principal  nobility, 
into  Cheapside  to  see  it  on  the  eve  of  St. 
Peter  following.  The  cavalcade  of  the  city 
watch  was  abolished,  and  a  stated  watch  ap- 
pointed at  the  charge  of  each  ward,  in  the 
summer  of  1570.  An  armed  watch  of  the 
inhabitants  of  London  during  the  civil  war 
was  appointed  by  the  common  council  Oct.  2, 
1643.  The  regulation  of  the  city  watch  was 
rested  in  the  common  council  by  10  Geo.  II. 
(1736).  The  watch  of  London  was  superseded 
by  the  police  by  ioGeo  IV.  c.  44  (June  19,  1829). 

WATCH  KltS.       (Sto    ArcKMKT.K.) 

W  A'IV  I  IKS  are  said  to  have  been  first  in- 
vented at  Nuremberg,  in  Germany,  towards 
the  end  of  the  isth  century.  Robert  I.,  King 
of  Scotland  (1306 — 29),  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  Wiitch.  The  earliest  known  watch, 
bearing  the  date  of  1541,  was  in  Sir  Ashton 
Lever's  museum.  Watches  wen;  common  in 
France  before  1544.  Henry  VIII.  is  said  to 
have  had  a  watch;  and  one,  set  in  an  armlet, 
was  presented  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1572. 
They  were  not  in  general  request  in  Kn-land 
till  the  end  of  her  reign.  The  invention  of 
spring  watches  has  been  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hookc, 
and  by  some  to  Huyghens,  about  1658.  The 
anchor  escapement  was  invented  by  Clement, 
a  London  clockmaker,  in  1680,  and  the  hori- 
zontal watch  by  Graham  in  1724.  Repeaters 
were  invented  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and 
the  smallest  one  of  this  kind  ever  known — it 
was  the  size  of  a  silver  twopence,  and  its 
weight  that  of  a  sixpence— was  made  by 
Arnold  for  Geo.  III.,  and  was  presented  to 
him  on  his  birthday,  June  4,  1764.  The  duties 
on  wrought  gold  and  silver  watch-cases  were 
abolished  by  38  Geo.  III.  c.  24  (March  9,  1798). 
(See  CHRONOMETER.) 

WATCHET  (Somersetshire),  anciently  called 
Weced-poort,  was  plundered  by  the  Danes  in 
886.  Having  been  defeated  in  the  vicinity  in 
918,  they  took  and  plundered  the  town  in  988. 
The  pier,  erected  by  the  Wyndham  family,  was 
repaired  previously  to  1740. 

WATER.— The  composition  of  water  was 
discovered  by  Henry  Cavendish  in  1784.  (>'"' 
A 1 1 1  •  i :  i )  i  -UTS,  1 1  OLY  WATER,  HYDROS:  LTICB,  NILE, 
ORDEALS,  SCREW,  <frc.) 

WATER  AVIARY,  or  WATER  SHOW. -(See 
AQUAVIVAKIUM.) 


WATER-BELLOWS 


f     1037 


WATERLOO 


WATER-BELLOWS.— (See  BELLOWS.) 
WATER-CLOCK.— (See  CLEPSYDRA.) 
WATER-COLOURS.— All  the  ancient  modes 
of  painting,  such  as  fresco-painting  (q.  v.),  &c., 
were  systems  of  water-colour ;  but  the  existing 
mode  of  water-colour  painting  did  not  become 
a  popular  branch  of  art  until  about  the  latter 
part  of    the   i8th  century.      The   Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-Colours  was  instituted  Nov. 
30,  1804,  and  the  New  Society  in  1832.     Both 
these   associations  hold    annual    exhibitions. 
Paul  Sandby  (1732 — Nov.  9, 1809),  Thomas  Girtin 
(1773 — 1802),   Joseph  Mallord  William  Turner 
(1775 — Dec.  19,  1851),  and  Samuel  Prout  (1783 — 
Feb.  10,  1852),  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of 
the  art  of  water-colour  painting. 
WATER  CURE.— (See  HYDROPATHY.) 
WATERFORD   (Bishopric)  was  established 
in  1096,  and  received  the   see  of  Lismore  in 
1363.     The  united  sees  were  ordered  to  be  an- 
nexed to  Cashel  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37  (Aug. 
14,  1833),  and  this  was  effected  on  the  death  of 
.Bishop  Bourke. 

WATERFORD  (Ireland),  capital  of  the 
county  of  Waterford,  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Danes  about  850.  A  council  is 
said  to  have  been  held  here  in  1158.  The 
account  of  it  coincides  with  that  given  of  a 
council  at  Armagh  in  1171.  Strongbow,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  took  it  by  assault  in  1170. 
Henry  II.  landed  here  on  his  invasion  of 
Ireland,  Oct.  18,  1171.  King  John  granted 
its  first  charter,  and  resided  here  for  some 
months,  in  1210.  The  citizens,  led  by  the 
mayor,  were  defeated  by  the  Poers  and 
O'Driscolls  in  1368.  Waterford  was  visited 
by  Richard  II.  Oct.  2,  1394,  and  again  when 
he  went  to  redress  some  disorders  conse- 
quent on  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  March, 
who  had  fallen  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives, 
June  i,  1399.  The  motto  of  the  city,  "  Urbs 
intacta  manet,"  was  bestowed  upon  it  in  conse- 
quence of  having  successfully  resisted  Perkin 
Warbeck  in  1495.  It  resisted  a  siege  by  Crom- 
well in  1649,  and  submitted  to  Ireton  in  1650. 
It  sided  with  James  II.,  who  embarked  here 
for  France,  after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne, 
July  i,  1690.  Gen.  Kirke  compelled  it  to  sur- 
render July  25,  1690.  Some  refugees  from 
Geneva  endeavoured  to  establish  a  colony  in 
1783.  The  cathedral,  founded  in  1076,  has 
been  since  altogether  rebuilt.  The  chamber 
of  commerce  was  incorporated  in  1815. 
WATER-GAS.— (See  GAS.) 
WATER-GLASS,  or  OIL  OF  FLINT.— Stereo- 
chromy,  or  the  process  of  painting  with  this 
mixture,  which  is  a  soluble  alkaline  silicate, 
was  invented  by  Dr.  Johann  N.  Von  Fuchs, 
who  published  an  account  of  it  in  1825.  It 
was  employed  by  Maclise  and  Herbert,  in  the 


frescoes  at  the  new  palace  of  Westminster.  In 
1840  Professor  F.  Kuhlmann,  of  Lille,  directed 
his  attention  to  the  material,  with  a  view  to 
its  employment  as  a  preservative  for  stone  ; 
and  in  1859  a  translation  of  a  report  on  its 
application  to  the  fine  arts  was  privately 
printed  by  order  of  Prince  Albert.  F.  Ran- 
some  maintains  that  Kuhlmann's  process  is 
the  same  as  his  own  inventions  for  preserving 
stone,  and  claims  the  merit  of  priority.  (See 
STONE.) 

WATER  CUE UX.— (See  GUEUX.) 
WATERKLOOF  (Cape  of  Good  Hope).— The 
camp  of  the  Caffre  chief  Macomo,  at  this  place, 
was  destroyed  by  an  expedition  under  Major- 
Gen.  Somerset,  Oct.  16,  1851. 

WATERLOO  (Battle).— The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough  forced  the  French  lines  near  Tirlemont, 
July  18,  1705,  and  Marshal  Villeroy  retired  in 
haste.  The  French  ariny  then  took  post  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Waterloo,  their  line 
extending  from  Overische,  near  Soignies,  to 
Neerische,  so  as  to  cover  Brussels  and  Louvain. 
Marlborough  drew  up  his  army  in  order  of 
battle  before  the  enemy,  Aug.  18,  but  the 
Dutch  refused  to  allow  their  troops  to  act, 
and  this  opportunity  of  defeating  the  French 
before  they  had  recovered  from  their  panic 

was  lost. The  great  battle  which  secured  the 

final  defeat  of  Napoleon  I.  commenced  near 
Waterloo,  in  Belgium,  at  half -past  u  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  Sunday  June  18,  1815,  by  an  attack 
of  the  French,  under  Prince  Jerome,  upon  the 
Castle  of  Hougoumont,  which  was  set  on  fire 
about  two  o'clock.  The  French  cavalry,  under 
Ney,  was  repeatedly  driven  back  by  the  English 
infantry,  but  the  farm  of  La  Haye  Sainte  was 
compelled  to  surrender,  owing  to  the  scanty 
ammunition  of  its  brave  defenders.  Late  in 
the  afternoon,  Marshal  Blucher  arrived  with 
the  Prussian  army,  and  attacked  the  French 
right  flank.  The  grand  attack  of  the  Imperial 
Guard  commenced  at  a  quarter  past  seven, 
and  was  defeated  by  the  English  foot-guards, 
under  Major-Gen.  Maitland.  Just  as  the  sun 
sank  below  the  horizon,  Wellington  gave  the 
order  for  the  whole  of  the  English  line  to  ad- 
vance, which  occasioned  a  panic  and  general 
flight  in  the  French  army.  The  Old  Guard, 
which  at  first  stood  firm,  yielded  to  the  attack 
of  Adam's  brigade  and  the  Osnaburg  battalion 
of  Col.  Halket ;  and  at  half -past  eight  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  relinquished  the  pursuit 
and  returned  to  the  village  of  Waterloo. 
At  the  village  of  Genappe  he  met  Blucher, 
who  continued  the  pursuit.  The  following 
table,  taken  from  Capt.  Siborne's  history  of 
the  Waterloo  campaign,  shows  the  effective 
force  of  the  Allied  army  in  this  memorable 
battle  :— 


Infantry. 

Cavalry. 

Artillery. 

Total  Men. 

Guns. 

British 

15  181 

5  843 

2,967 

•78 

3,301 

1,997 

520 

5,834 

18 

Hanoverians  .   . 

Jo  258 

497 

465 

4586 

866 

16 

Nassauers     

3880 

2880 

17  784 

T  t  1 

49  608 

12  408 

5645 

67  661 

*56 

WATERLOO  BRIDGE 


[     1038     ]        WAT  TYLER'S  INSURRECTION 


The  Dutch-Belgian  forces  acted  with  great 
lukewarmness,  and  were  of  but  slight  service 
during  the  battle.  The  Prussian  forces  engaged 
amounted  to  41,283  infantry,  8,858  cavalry, 
and  1,803  artillery,  making  a  total  of  51,944 
men,  with  104  guns.  The  effective  French  army 
consisted  of  47,579  infantry,  13,792  cavalry, 
and  7,529  artillery,  forming  a  force  of  68,900 
men,  with  246  guns.  The  following  table  shows 
the  English  loss  : — 


Killed. 

Missing. 

Wounded. 

Total. 

CHirris     
Men  

Total 

85 
r,334 

5^1 

365 

4o64 

460 
6,480 

i,4i9 

592 

4,929. 

6,940 

Among  the  killed  were  Gens.  Sir  William 
Ppnsoiiby  and  Sir  Thomas  Picton,  who  fell 
pierced  by  a  musket-ball  at  the  beginning  of 
the  battle.  Lord  Ux  bridge,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Uxbridge  and  Marquis  of  Anglesey  (1768 — 
April  29,  1854),  and  Lord  Fitzroy  Homo-set, 
afterwards  Lord  Raglan  ^1788 — June  28,  1855), 
were  both  severely  wounded.  The  total  loss 
of  the  Allies  exceeded  $2,000  men ;  and  the 
French  are  said  to  have  lost  no  less  than  40,000 
men.  The  battle  was  called  by  the  Prussians 
the  battle  of  La  IMle  Alliance,  and  by  the 
French  the  battle  of  Mont  St.  Jean.  It  has 
received  its  Knglish  name  from  the  adjoining 
village  of  Waterloo,  where  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington fixed  his  head-quarters,  and  reposed 
after  the  fatigues  of  the  dav. 

WAT  Kit  U><>  lilMlHJK  London'.—  The  first 
stone  was  laid  Oct.  n,  1811,  and  the  bridge 
was  opened  to  the  public  June  18,  1817.  It 
was  built  by  John  Itemiie,  at  a  cost  of  upwards 
of  a  million  sterling.  The  toll  for  foot  pas- 
sengers was  reduced  from  a  penny  to  a  half- 
penny, Feb.  29,  1841.  A  committee  of  thc^ 
House  of  Commons  was  appointed  to  considei 
the  expediency  of  abolishing  the  toll,  April 
26,  1841. 

WATERMEN  were  incorporated  in  1556. 
(^<i  DOGGEX'S  COAT  AND  BADGE.; 

WATL'HMILL.— (.w  MILL. 

WATERSPOUT.— These  remarkable  meteor- 
!  phenomena  are  regarded  as  belonging 
to  the  same  class  as  thc  moving  sand-pillars 
of  the  desert,  but  their  cause  and  nature  are 
imperfectly  understood.  One  burst  in  Lanca- 
shire in  1718,  and  caused  considerable  d 
Another,  at  Brackenthwaite,  in  Cumberland, 
Sep.  9,  1760,  tore  away  the  gravel  and  soil  from 
a  field.  A  great  waterspout  descended  upon 
Dungavell  Hill,  in  Scotland,  July  2,  1768,  and 
made  an  opening  about  24  yards  broad  and 
three  feet  deep.  A  similar  phenomenon  oc- 
curred at  Clapham  Common,  during  a  vio- 
lent thunderstorm,  June  18,  1782;  and  at 
He,  where  it  flooded  several  cellars  to 
the  depth  of  four  feet,  July  14,  1798.  One 
burst  over  the  Wheal  Abraham  and  Creuve 
mines,  in  Cornwall,  in  Nov.,  1806,  and  choked 
up  the  shaft,  causing  the  death  of  several 
miners  and  considerable  destruction  of  pro- 
perty. Another,  consisting  of  a  torrent  of 
water  nearly  six  feet  in  diameter,  descended 


upon  the  town  of  Silkstone,  in  Yorkshire, 
May  9,  1807,  and  several  of  the  inhabitants  were 
drowned.  The  appearance  of  the  temporary 
island  Sabrina,  in  the  Azores,  Jan.  12,  1811, 
was  attended  with  numerous  waterspouts 
and  volcanic  phenomena.  A  waterspout  of 
very  destructive  character  overwhelmed  the 
village  of  Kingscourt,  county  Cavan,  Ireland, 
Sep.  12,  1838  ;  and  much  injury  was  occasioned 
in  Provence,  France,  by  one,  May  30,  1841.  A 
ship  struck  by  one  near  Gozo,  Oct.  14,  1850, 
foundered,  and  all  on  board  perished,  with  the 
exception  of  one  man.  The  island  of  Sicily 
was  visited  by  two  waterspouts,  attended  by 
a  hurricane,  Dec. '8,  1851.  Five  vessels  were 
sunk  in  Tunis  harbour  by  a  waterspout,  Nov. 
18,  1855.  Major  Sherwill  made  numerous  ob- 
servations on  waterspouts  in  India,  where  they 
arc  frequent.  One  which  fell  at  Dum-Dum, 
Icutta,  Oct.  7,  1859,  measured  1,500  feet 
in  height,  and  covered  half  a  square  mile  with 
about  six  inches  of  water. 

WATER  TOFANA,  or  AQUA  TOFANA,  so 
named  from  its  inventor,  Tofana,  the  secret 
poisoner,  an  Italian  woman,  who  resided  at 
Palermo,  and  afterwards  at  Naples,  about  the 
middle  of  the  i7th  century.  Many  1m 
Menly  at  Rome  in  1569,  and  8U 
having  been  excited,  a  society  of  young  wives 
was  discovered.  An  old  woman  named  Spara 
was  the  president,  and  she  supplied  them  with 
small  phials,  bearing  the  inscription  "Mam/a 
of  St.  Nicholas  of  Barri,"  by  the  use  of  which 
husbands  wore  removed.  Spara  and  four  oil iers 
were  executed  ;  and  Tofana,  who  manufactured 
the  poison,  was  dragged  from  a  monastery 
where  she  had  taken  sanctuary,  and  put  to  the 
torture.  She  confessed  to  having  been  instru- 
mental in  the  deaths  of  600  persons. 

WAT! L'R'S  <; L U B  ( London  . -  This  celebrated 
club,  at  which  the  favourite  game  was  Macao, 
established  in  1807,  was  dissolved  in  1819. 

WATLIXG  STREET.—  ,SVe  ROADS.) 

WATTIGNIES  Battle),  fought  at  this  village 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Maubeuge,  between 
the  Austrians,  under  the  Prince  of  Coburg,  and 
the  French,  commanded  by  Gen.  ,}<• 
commenced  in  an  affair  between  the  outposts 
near  Avcsnes,  Oct.  14,  1793.  It  resulted  in  the 
triumph  of  the  republican  army,  after  a  loss 

on  each  side  of  about  3,000  men,  Oct.  16. 

The  French  defeated  the  outposts  of  the  Aus- 
trian army  here,  April  21,  1794. 

VvAT  TYLER'S  INSURRECTION.— One  of 
the  collectors  of  the  poll  or  capitation  tax, 
imposed  by  the  Parliament  held  at  North- 
ampton, Nov.  5,  1380,  who  had  insulted  the 
daughter  of  a  man  called  Wat  the  Tyler,  at 
Deptford,  was  killed  by  her  father  on  the  spot, 
early  in  June,  1381.  A  rising  ensued,  and  the 
insurgents  met  on  Blackheath,  June  12.  They 
proceeded  to  London,  burned  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster's  palace,  and  committed  many  atro- 
cities, June  13.  The  Tower  was  seized;  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  Sir  Robert 
Hales  were  executed  by  them,  June  14.  They 
destroyed  the  Savoy  palace,  the  Archbi 
Canterbury's  palace,  and  the  priory  of  St. 
John's,  Clerkenwcll.  Some  of  the  authorities 
met  them  in  Smithfield,  June  15,  and  whilst 
they  were  parleying  with  Richard  II.,  their 


WAVE- LINE 


[     1039    ] 


WEEPERS 


leader,  Wat,  was  killed  by  William  Wai  worth, 
the  lord  mayor.  A  body  of  armed  men,  under 
Sir  Robert  Knollys,  suddenly  attacked  the 
malcontents,  who  were  quickly  dispersed. 

WAVE-LINE  PRINCIPLE.— The  system  of 
building  ships  with  contours  scientifically 
adapted  to  the  curves  of  the  waves  of  the  sea 
was  originated  by  Scott  Russell,  who  com- 
menced a  series  of  experiments  011  the  subject 
in  1834.  His  theory  attracted  considerable 
attention,  and  in  1836  the  British  Association 
appointed  a  Committee  on  Waves,  who  pre- 
sented their  first  report  in  1837,  and  continued 
their  labours  for  several  years.  The  victory  of 
the  United  States  schooner  America  over  Mr. 
R.  Stephenson's  iron  yacht  Titania,in  the  nice 
of  Aug.  28,  1851,  established  the  superiority  of 
the  principle,  which  has  since  been  applied  in 
the  Gn-af  /;>'.-/./•/'  and  other  vessels. 

WAVERLEY  (Surrey).— The  first  Cistercian 
abbey  erected  in  England  was  founded  at  this 
place  near  Faniham,  by  Dr.  Gifford,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  in  1128.  The  church  was  conse- 
crated by  Nicholas  of  Ely,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, in  1278. 

WAVRE  (Battle).— The  Prussians,  under 
Thielmann,  engaged  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Grouchy,  at  this  place,  in  Belgium,  and  pre- 
vented them  from  joining  Napoleon  I.  at  Water- 
loo, June  18,  1815.  The  battle  lasted  from  four 
o'clock  till  midnight,  and  was  renewed  by 
Thielmann,  June  19.  Grouchy  received  orders 
to  retire  upon  Namur,  which  he  reached 
June  20. 

WAWZ,  or  WAWER  (Battle).— The  advanced 
guard  of  the  Russians,  under  Gen.  Geismar, 
was  attacked  at  this  place,  in  Poland,  by  the 
Poles,  and  forced  to  fall  back  upon  Dembe- 
Wielkie.  Here  the  Poles  routed  them,  after 
fighting  from  five  in  the  afternoon  till  ten  at 
night,  March  31,  1831. 

WAX. — The  ancients  used  wax  for  torches, 
for  covering  the  tablets  on  which  they  wrote, 
for  encaustic  painting,  for  sealing,  and  for 
modelling.  Pliny  (23 — 79)  states  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  wealthy  Romans  to  preserve 
waxen  effigies  of  their  dead  relatives,  which 
were  exhibited  on  occasions  of  great  interest, 
and  were  borne  in  procession  in  the  funerals 
of  distinguished  members  of  their  family. 
Apuleius,  writing  in  the  2nd  century,  men- 
tions wax  candles.  The  Wax  Chandlers'  com- 
pany of  London  was  incorporated  in  1484. 
Sealing-wax,  or  Spanish  wax,  has  been  found 
on  documents  dated  1574  and  1620.  Gaetano 
Giulio  Zumbo  (1656—1701)  introduced  the  art 
of  preparing  anatomical  models  in  wax.  The 
wax-tree  was  imported  into  England  from 
China  in  1794.  A  new  kind  of  wax-producing 
insect  was  described  in  1857  as  inhabiting 
China,  where  its  wax  is  used  for  candles, 
which  are  said  to  be  much  superior  to  ordinary 
wax  tapers.  Provisions  for  the  regulation  of 
the  wax-trade  were  made  by  n  Hen.  VI.  c. 
12  (1433),  and  by  23  Eliz.  c.  8  (1581).  The 
duties  on  imported  wax  were  repealed  by  8  & 
q  Viet.  c.  12  (May  8,  1845). 
WAY-MEASURER.— (See  ODOMETER.) 
WEATHERCOCK.— (See  VANE.) 
WEAVING.— A  writer  in  the  "English 
Cyclopaedia  "  (Arts,  viii.  797)  remarks  : — "  In 


all  probability  weaving  was  practised  before 
spinning ;  that  is,  the  combination  of  reeds, 
strips  of  leather,  or  rude  fibres  into  a  material 
for  dross,  by  a  process  analogous  to  that  of 
weaving,  preceded  the  practice  of  spinning 
yarn  from  a  congeries  of  elementary  fibres." 
It  was  practised  in  Egypt,  in  China,  and  in 
India  at  least  as  early  as  B.C.  2000.  The 
Scriptxires  contain  similes  drawn  from  the 
art  of  weaving,  and  it  is  referred  to  in  the 
Homeric  poems  and  other  early  classical 
works.  .Weavers  settled  in  England  in  1132 
and  1331,  were  incorporated  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  (noo — 35;,  and  were  much  encour- 
aged by  Edward  III.  (See  CALICO,  CLOTH,  COT- 
TON, LINEN,  LOOM,  SILK,  WOOLLEN  TRADE,  &c.) 

WEDDING  OF  THE  ADRIATIC.— An  annual 
ceremony  performed  on  Ascension  Day  by  the 
Doge  of  Venice,  who  went  with  much  pomp 
and  ceremony  in  the  Bucentaur,  or  state  barge, 
attended  by  the  nobility  and  foreign  ambas- 
sadors, and  dropped  his  ring  into  the  water. 
This  strange  ceremony,  denoting  the  supre- 
macy of  Venice,  was  instituted  in  1176,  under 
the  following  circumstances  : — In  that  year, 
the  Doge,  Sebastiano  Ziaiii,  defeated  the  com- 
bined fleets  of  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Ancona,  under 
the  command  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  the 
First's  son,  Otho,  who  was  made  prisoner  and 
carried  to  Venice.  On  the  return  of  the  vic- 
torious fleet,  Pope  Alexander  III.,  at  that  time 
a  fugitive  at  Venice,  presented  Ziani  with  his 
ring,  authorizing  him  and  his  successors  to 
proclaim  their  right  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Adriatic,  and  to  subject  it  to  the  rule  of 
Venice,  as  a  wife  is  subjected  to  that  of  her 
husband. 

WEDDING  RING.— (See  GOLD,  RINGS,  &c.) 

WEDGE  -  SHAPED  CHARACTER.  —  (See 
CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.) 

WEDGWOOD  WARE,  invented  by  Josiah 
Wedgwood,  of  Bursle'n  (q.  v.),  potter  to  Queen 
Charlotte,  was  patented  in  1762.  His  imitation 
of  the  Portland  vase,  50  copies  of  which 
were  produced  and  sold  at  50  guineas  each, 
was  executed  in  1787. 

WEDNESDAY  received  its  name  from  the 
ancient  Saxons,  who  called  it  Wodnes-daeg,  or 
Woden's  day,  after  their  conversion  to  Christi- 
anity, about  785.  It  was  appointed  a  fast-day 
by  the  primitive  church,  on  account  of  its 
having  been  the  day  on  which  our  Saviour  was 
betrayed. 

WEDNESDAY  CLUBS  (London).— One  was 
held  at  the  Globe,  in  Friday  Street,  during  the 
1 7th  century,  and  another  at  the  Globe  Tavern 
in  Fleet  Street,  of  which  Oliver  Goldsmith  was 
a  member,  in  the  i8th  century. 

WEEK.— According  to  Dion  Cassius  (155— 
229),  this  division  of  time  was  first  made  by 
the  Egyptians,  from  whom  other  nation's 
borrowed  it.  The  Jews  had  a  week  of  days, 
reckoned  from  sabbath  to  sabbath  ;  a  week  of 
years,  consisting  of  seven  years ;  and  a  week 
of  seven  times  seven  years,  reckoned  from  one 
jubilee  to  another.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans  the  week  was  unknown.  It  was 
only  gradually  introduced  with  Christianity, 
under  the  later  Emperors. 

WEEKS  (Feast  of).— (See  PENTECOST.) 

WEEPERS.— (See  PENANCE.) 


WEIGHTS 


1040    ]      WELLINGTON  ADMINISTRATION 


WEIGHTS.— A  national  standard  of  weight 
was  first  established  in  England  in  1197,  and 
a  uniformity  of  weight  throughout  the  king- 
dom was  ordered  by  9  Hen.  III.  c.  25  (1225!. 
By  51  Hen.  III.  st.  i,  c.  3  (1266),  an  English 
penny,  weighing  32  wheat  corns  from  the 
midst  of  the  ear,  was  made  the  standard 
weight.  The  weight  of  the  pound  (q.  v.)  was 
regulated  by  31  Edw.  I.  c.  i  (1303) ;  and  a  uni- 
formity of  weight  throughout  the  realm  was 
enforced  by  27  Edw.  III.  st.  2,  c.  10(1353).  By 
8  Hen.  VI.  c.  5  (1429),  every  city  was  ordered  to 
have  a  common  balance  and  weights,  for  the 
free  use  of  the  inhabitants.  Standard  weights 
of  brass  were  ordered  to  be  made  and  sent  to 
every  city  and  borough  by  7  Jlen.  VII.  c.  4 
(1490),  which  act  was  extended  and  confirmed 
by  ii  Hen.  VII.  c.  4  (1494  .  Avoirdupois  (7.  r.) 
weight  is  first  mentioned  in  24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3 
(1532),  where  it  is  ordered  to  be  used  in  the 
sale  of  butchers'  meat.  Uniformity  of  weights 
and  measures  was  again  enjoined  by  16  Charles 
I.  c.  IQ  (1648).  The  House  of  Commons  ap- 
pointed committees  in  1758,  1759,  and  1790,  to 
examine  the  best  means  of  securing  an  accurate 
standard  of  weights  and  measures.  By  35 
Geo.  III.  c.  102  (June  22,  1795),  the  justices  at 
quarter  sessions  were  empowered  to  appoint 
examiners  of  weights  and  scales  ;  and  in  1814 
Parliament  appointed  another  committee  to 
consider  the  question  of  standard.  The 
Prince  Regent  instituted  a  commission  for  the 
same  purpose  in  1819,  which  presented  reports 
in  1819,  in  1820,  and  in  1821.  Their  labours  led 
to  the  passing  of  the  act  5  Gco.  IV.  c.  74  (June 
17, 1824  ,  for  establishing  uniformity  of  weights 
and  measures.  This  was  amended  by  4  <fc  5 
Will.  IV.  c.  49  (Aug.  13,  1834),  and  both  acts 
were  repealed  and  new  regulations  established 
by  5  <fc  6  Will.  IV.  c.  63  (Sep.  9,  1835).  Troy 
weight  is  ordered  to  be  used  in  sales  of 
bullion  and  precious  stones  by  16  &  17  Viet.  c. 
29  (June  14,  1853).  Further  provisions  for 
legalizing  and  preserving  the  standard  were 
made  by  18  &  19  Viet.  c.  72  (July  30,  1855), 
and  22  &  23  Viet.  c.  56  (Aug.  13,  1859).  (See 

MEASURES,    Ml.TIMC  S>,  STEM,    (tc. ) 

\Vi;i.MAR  (Germany,  capital  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach  (//.  r.),  was 
taken  by  the  French  Oct.  14,  1806.  The 
Emperors  Alexander  I.  of  Russia  and  Napoleon 
I.  were  entertained  here  by  the  Grand-duke, 
Oct.  6—14,  1808.  Otho  II.  held  a  diet  here 
in  975.  Destructive  fires  occurred  in  1299, 
in  1424,  in  1618,  and  in  1774,  and  the  town  was 
almost  destroyed  by  an  inundation  in  1613. 
The  city  church  was  built  in  1400,  the  academy 
of  painting  was  founded  in  1781,  the  court 
theatre  in  1825,  and  the  Falk's  Institution,  for 
public  education,  in  1829.  The  colossal  bronze 
statue  to  Herder  (1744 — Dec.  18,  1803)  was 
erected  Aug.  25,  1850.  The  Emperors  of 
Austria  and  of  Russia  met  here  Oct.  i,  1857. 

WKIXSHKUG  (Battle). -Duke  Guelph  III. 
was  defeated  here  in  defending  his  castle  in 
Swabia  against  the  Emperor  Conrad  III.  in 
1140.  The  Ghibelline  and  Guelph  factions 
originated  at  this  battle. 

WEISS  EM  BERG  (Battle).— Mathias  Cor- 
viiuis,  King  of  Hungary,  defeated  the  Turks  at 
this  town  of  Transylvania,  in  1479. 


WEISSEMBURG,  or  WEISSENBURG 
(Alsace).  —  Dagobert  I.  (628—38)  founded  an 
abbey  here,  and  the  town  was  gradually  formed 
around  it.  In  1247  it  was  made  a  free  city,  was 
annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswiek 
in  1697,  and  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists  in 
1744.  Wiirmser  forced  the  French  lines  at  this 
place  Oct.  13,  1793.  It  was  recovered  by  the 
French  Dec.  27.  (See  STUHL-WEISSENBURG.) 

WELAU,  WEIILAU,  or  VEHLAU  (Treaty), 
was  concluded  Sep.  19,  1657,  between  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  Poland,  at  this 
town,  in  Silesia,  founded  in  1636  by  the  Teu- 
tonic knights.  It  recognized  the  independence 
of  Brandenburg. 

WELFARE.— (See  PUBLIC  GOOD,  PUBLIC 
WELFARE,  A:c.) 

WKLLKSLEY.—  (See  PROVINCE  WELLESLEY, 
STK.MTS  SETTLEMENTS,  itc.) 

WELLINGTON    (New   Zealand).— The  first 
settlement  was  made  in  1840,  and  it  became  ,-i 
bishopric  in   1858.     The  seat  of   government 
was  transferred  to  this  town  Dec.  24,  i.' 
the  assembly  met  here  for  the  first  time  July 

25 WE L  L I N GT 0 N  (Somersetshire).  —  The 
manor,  bestowed  upon  Asser,  Bishop  of 
Sherborne,  by  Alfi-ed  the  (ireat,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  diocese  of  Wells  in  910.  It 
occurs  us  "  Walintonc "'  in  Domesday  Book  in 
1086.  From  it  the  Duke  of  Wellington  received 
his  title,  May  3,  1814.  A  lofty  column  was 
erected  on  Blackdown  Hill  by  public  subscrip- 
tion to  commeiiionitt:  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

WELLINGTn.N  ADMINISTRATION  was 
formed  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Goderich 
administration  >/.  r.  ,  .Ian.  8,  1828.  The  cabi- 
net was  thus  constituted:— 

Treasury  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Lord  Chancellor Lord  Lyudhurst 

Piesideutof  the  Council I  ail  liathiirst. 

,...•       c     i  /Lord,    created    Earl,    Ellen- 

•  1     borough  Oct.  24,  1844. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer  ...Mr.  Meiirv  (Joulburn. 

Home  Secretary Sir  Robert  1'ecl,  Hart. 

Koreipi  Secretary Karl  of   Dudley. 

'  Secretary    Mr.  William  Uuskisson. 

lioard  of  Control  Viscount  Melville. 

Secretary  at  War  Vi-coiint  I'almcrstoii. 

Duchv  of   Lancaster Karl  of  Aberdeen. 

Hatter  Of  the  Mint   Mr.. I.  C.  Merries. 

Treasurer  of  the  Navy  and  I 

President   of  the.  lioard  \  Mr.  Charles  Grant. 

of  Trade  j 

Mr.  Huskissoii  resigned  May  20,  and  his  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  Earl  of  Dudley, 
Lord  Palmerston,  and  Mr.  Charles  Grant. 
Their  places  were  supplied  as  follows  : — 

Foreign  Secretary Karl  of  Aberdeen. 

Colonial  Secretary Sir  (icorgu  Murray. 

Treasurer  of  the  Navy  and  I 

I 'resident  of  the   Board'-  Mr.  W.  V.  Fitzgerald. 

of  Trade  j 

The  secretary  at  war,  Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  and 
the  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  .Mr. 
Charles  Arbuthnot,  did  not  receive  seats  in 
the  cabinet.  The  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  re- 
mained lord  high  admiral  on  the  formation  of 
the  ministry,  resigned  office  Aug.  12,  1828, 
when  Lord  Melville  left  the  Board  of  Control 
and  became  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and 
Lord  Ellenborough  went  to  the  Board  of 


WELLINGTON  ARCADE 


[     1041     ] 


WESTERN  EMPIRE 


Control.  Earl  Rosslyn  became  privy  seal  June 
4,  1829,  Lord  Ellenborough  retaining  only  the 
Board  of  Control.  Parliament  was  dissolved 
July  24,  1830.  The  new  parliament  met  Oct. 
26,  and  William  IV.  delivered  his  first  speech 
from  the  throne  Nov.  2.  Ministers  were  de- 
feated by  a  majority  of  233  to  204,  on  a  motion 
for  a  select  committee  on  the  civil  list,  Nov. 
15,  and  their  resignation  was  annovmced  in 
both  houses  of  Parliament  Nov.  16.  (See  GREY 
ADMINISTRATION.  ) 

WELLINGTON  ARCADE.— (See  EXETER 
CHANGE.) 

WELLINGTON  COLLEGE  (Hampshire),  for 
the  support  and  education  of  the  orphan 
children  of  soldiers,  was  erected  at  Sandhurst 
in  memory  of  the  illustrious  duke  whose  name 
it  bears,  the  funds  for  the  purpose— upwards 
of  .£109,000 — having  been  raised  by  private 
subscription.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid 
Monday,  June  2.  1836,  by  Queen  Victoria,  who 
also  performed  '  the  inauguration  ceremony, 
Saturday,  Jan.  29,  1859. 

WELLS.— The  art  of  boring  wells  was  prac- 
tised in  the  East  at  least  4,000  years  ago. 
Abraham's  servant  encountered  Rebekah  at  a 
well,  B.C.  1859  (Gen.  xxiv.).  Danaus  is  stated 
by  Pliny  the  Elder  (23— Aug.  24,  79)  to  have 
introduced  wells  into  Greece  from  Egypt  about 
B.C.  1500.  The  superstitious  veneration  of 
wells  and  fountains  was  prohibited  by  Athel- 
stan  in  960,  and  the  immemorial  custom  of 
decorating  wells  with  garlands  and  flowers  on 
Holy  Thursday,  or  at  Whitsuntide,  is  still 
preserved  at  Tissington,  Wirksworth,  and 
other  villages  in  Derbyshire. 

WELLS  (Somersetshire).— This  city  and 
borough  originated  in  a  collegiate  church 
founded  by  Ina,  King  of  Wessex,  towards  the 
end  of  the  7th  century;  became  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric  in  909  (See  BATH  AND  WELLS)  ;  and 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  cathedral, 
which  was  founded  by  Bishop  Wulfhelm,  or 
Wyffeline  (923 — 928),  and  restored  or  refounded 
by  Bishop  Joceline  (1206—44).  The  two  west 
towers  were  added  about  the.  end  of  the  i4th 
century.  The  Vicar's  Close  was  founded  by 
Walter  de  Hull,  sub-dean,  in  1335,  and  was 
much  enlarged  by  Ralph  de  Salopia  in  1348. 
Bishop  Beckington  erected  a  cross  in  1450, 
which  was  replaced  by  another  in  1780.  (See 
EXETER,  Bishopric.) 

WELSH  BISHOPRICS.— (See  ENGLISH  AND 
WELSH  BISHOPRICS.) 

WENDS  are  by  some  authorities  believed  to 
be  descendants  of  the  Venedse  or  Venedi,  who 
inhabited  European  Sarmatia.  Tacitus  (61 — 
117)  was  undecided  whether  to  call  them 
Germans  or  Sarmatians.  They  are  a  branch  of 
the  Slavonic  race,  and  they  settled  in  different 
parts  of  Germany  in  the  6th  century.  (See 
CARNIOLA,  CROATIA,  POMERANIA,  <fec.) 

WENLOCK  (Shropshire).  — The  abbey  was 
founded  by  Millburga,  a  relative  of  the  kings  of 
Mercia,  about  680.  The  ruins  are  of  the  isth 
century.  It  was  the  first  town  in  England 
which  received  a  charter  of  incorporation 
expressly  conferring  the  right  to  return  mem- 
bers to  the  House  of  Commons.  This  privilege 
was  granted  by  Edward  IV.  (1461 — 83). 

WERBEN  (Prussia),   built  on  the  ruins  of 


the  ancient  Castellum  Vari,  was  taken  by  the 
Swedes  in  1631,  by  the  Imperialists  in  1636, 
and  recaptured  by  the  Swedes  the  same  year. 
It  passed  into  the  possession  of  Brandenburg 
in  1640. 

WERELA  (Treaty)  was  concluded  between 
Russia  and  Sweden  at  this  place  in  Russia, 
Aug.  14,  1790. 

WESEL  (Prussia)  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1672,  and  Sep.  24,  1806.  (See  PRESBYTE- 

RIANISM.) 

WESLEYANS.  —  (See  METHODISTS.) 

WESPRIM.— (See  VESPRIM.) 

WESSEX  (England),  or  the  kingdom  of  the 
West  Saxons,  was  founded  by  Cerdic  in  519. 
Kent  was  joined  to  it  in  824. 

WEST  (Schism  of  the).— (See  PAPAL  SCHISM.) 

WESTBOORNE  CLUB.— (See  DEVONSHIRE 
CLUB.) 

WESTBURY.— (&e  BRIBERY.) 

WEST  COWES  (Isle  of  Wight).— A  castle  was 
erected  here  by  Henry  VIII.  (1509—47)  for  the 
protection  of  the  coast  against  invasion.  The 
Royal  Yacht  squadron  made  it  their  rendezvous 
June  i,  1815. 

WESTERAS,  or  V^ESTERAS  (Sweden).— A 
diet  was  held  here  in  1542.  The  cathedral 
contains  the  tomb  of  Eric  XIV.  (1560 — 68). 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA,  or  SWAN  RIVER 
(Australia),  comprising  nearly  one-fourth  of 
the  entire  continent,  was  established  under 
the  name  of  the  Swan  River  settlement,  in 
Aug.,  1829.  By  March,  1830,  about  2,000  settlers 
had  arrived.  An  extensive  bed  of  coal  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  Van  Sommer  in  1847.  At 
the  request  of  the  colonists,  convicts  were 
sent  out  to  supply  the  labour  market  in  1849. 
The  colony  received  a  representative  constitu- 
tion Aug.  5,  1850.  Messrs.  Panter,  Harding, 
and  Goldwyer  were  murdered  by  the  natives 
during  an  exploring  expedition,  Nov.  13,  1864. 
(See  FREEMANTLE,  PERTH,  &c.) 

WESTERN  CHURCH  was  also  called  the 
Latin  or  Roman  Church.  Milman  (Lat.  Christ, 
vol.  ii.  book  iv.  ch.  ix.,  p.  203)  remarks  :  "  In 
the  8th  century  Rome  suddenly,  as  it  were, 
burst  the  bonds  of  her  connection  with  the 
older  state  of  things,  disjoined  herself  for  ever 
from  the  effete  and  hopeless  East,  and  placed 
herself  at  the  head  of  the  rude  as  yet,  and 
dimly  descried  and  remote,  but  more  promis- 
ing and  vigorous  civilization  of  the  West.  The 
Byzantine  empire  became  a  separate  world, 
Greek  Christianity  a  separate  religion.  The 
West,  after  some  struggle,  created  its  own 
empire :  its  natives  formed  an  independent 
system,  either  of  warring  or  of  confederate 
nations.  Latin  Christianity  was  the  life,  the 
principle  of  union,  of  all  the  West ;  its  centre, 
papal  Rome."  Differences  of  opinion  between 
the  Church  of  Rome  and  the  Church  at  Con- 
stantinople (See  GREEK  CHURCH)  existed  from  a 
very  early  period.  The  Arian  controversy  in 
the  4th  century ;  the  disputes  concerning  the 
Filioque  in  the  6th  century ;  the  Monothelite 
controversy  in  the  7th  century ;  and  the  Icono- 
clast controversy  early  in  the  8th  century, 
paved  the  way  for  the  final  separation  which 
occurred  in  876.  (See  POPE,  ROMAN  CATHOLICS, 
ROME,  &c.) 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.- The  division  of  the 
3* 

\ 


WESTERN  ISLES 


[     1042    J 


WESTMINSTER 


Roman  territory  into  the  Eastern  and  Western 
em] tires,  first  effected  by  Valentinian  I.  in  364, 
was  completed  by  Arcadius  and  Honorius  in 
395- 

A.D. 
378,  May.  The  Alemnnni  invade  the  Western  empire  and 

arc   deflated   by  Gratian,   near   Argenturiu,   or 

Colmar,  in  Alsace. 
383,  Aug.  25.  Gratian  isa-Missinatcd  at  Lyons  by Andra- 

.yatliin.-..  general  of  the  usurper  Muxiuius. 

387.  Maxiuius  invades  Italv  and  expels  Valentinian  II., 

who  is  ;ifteru;ml.  assisted  l.v  TlieoJi, sills  I. 

388.  Maximo*,  defeated  byTheodoetac  L  at  Aquilela,  is 

beheaded  by  the  army. 

393,  May  15.  Argobastes  the  Frank  murders  Yali'iitiuiau 

[I.,  and  DestoWB  the  purple  upon  the  rhetorician 
Kugenius. 

394,  Sep.  6.  'J'heodosius  I.  defeats  aud  beheads  Kupenius 

on    (he    plains    .>!   Aquileia.     .\ 
eapture   by  suieMe,  and   tlie    twoempii 
united  under  Theo<l,,>ius  I.,  or  the  Creat. 

395,  Jan.  17.   Death   of  Tlieodn-ius  I.,  whose  dominions 

are  an'.-iin  divided,  the  \Vestern  empire  falling  to 
his  youngest    s..n    lliiii.iriMs.    :i^vd    11     , 

iicy  of  his  uuele  Stilieho. 
400.  Aliirie  I.  invades  Italy. 

403.  Alaric  I.  expels  Honorius  from  Milan. — March  29. 

Ahirie  I.  MiMaius  a  x'vere  defeat  from  Stilieho  at 
Pollentie 

404.  Hoi.orius   eelebmtes  a    pompous  triumjili  at  Koine. 

and  removes  his  eoiirt  to  liaveiinn. 
406.  Rada^'aisns  inv  nil  .'I  of  an  immense 

army  of  (,enii;m   barbarians,   and  i>  • 

Stilieho. 
408    Auir-  23.  Execution  of  Stilieho.    Alaric  I.   besieges 

409.  The  (loths  and  Komans  elect  Attains  emperor,  who 

is  degraded  by  Alaric  I. 

410,  AUJJ:.    J4-   The  sack    of     Koit.e    by    tlie    (,, 

.      Alaric  I.  dies  at  Conseiitia. 

413.  A  I-  led  between  Hcmorius  and  Adol- 

plnis,  Kinir  of  the  Goths. 

423.  On  the  death  of  Honorius,  his  throne  is  usurped  by 
the  state  .secretary,  John. 

431.  A  rebellion  in  Africa  under  Honiface  is  m\ 

451.   The  Huns  under  Atlila  invade  the'  Western  empire. 

455,  March  16.  Yalentiuiun  111.  is  :i--a~-;n.-ited  by  the 
partisans  of  the  senator  Maximns,  whose  u  ife  In- 
had  si-diii-ed.-  June  12.  The  Vandals  under  Gen- 
serie  invade  Italy  at  tin- invitation  of  the  Kuipivss 

Budoxia,  widow  of  Valentinian  ill.,  and  wife  of 

Maxiuius.     Maximusis  .stoned  to  death  by  the  in- 
furiated Koniaus. 
461.  Majorian   is   deposed  by    Hicimer,    sreuernl    of  the 

barbarians.   \\  ho  elevates   Libia.-,   Severus  to  the 

throne,  and  governs  in  his  name. 
467,  April    12.  On  the  death  of   l.ibius  Scverus,  Leo  I.  of 

Constantinople  confers  the  Western  empire  upon 

Anthemius. 

.Jo.  Death  of  Ricimer. 
476.  Odoaeer  takes   Komi-  and   compels  Aujrustulus   to 

abdicate,  thus  terminating  the  Western  empire. 


EMPERORS   OF   THE 


and 


Began  to  re i urn. 

-/,.!.    Valentinian  I. 

367.  Valentinian       I. 
Gratian. 

375.   Gratian     and     Valen- 
tinian II. 

383.  Valentinian  II.  alone. 

392.   Kup-nius. 

394.  Theodosius  I.,    or    the 

Ghreat 

395.  Honorius. 
423.  John. 


liefjiin  to  reii'ii. 
4-i.S.   Valentinian  III. 
455.  Maximus. 
455.  Avitus. 

dan. 

461.  Libius  Severn.-,. 
407.  Anthemius. 
4-.'.   Olybrius. 

473.  Glycerins. 

474.  Julius  N'epos. 

475.  Romulus,    called    Au- 

gustulus. 


WESTERN    ISLES.  —  (See   AZORES  and 
HEBRIDES.) 

WESTERN  VIRGINIA.— (See  KANAWHA.) 
WEST  FRANCE.— (See  NEUSTRIA.) 
WEST  I'KIHSLAND.-OS'ee  FRIESLAND.) 
WEST  HARTLEPOOL  (Durham),foundedby 


Ralph  Ward  Jackson,  the  railway  speculator, 
in  1847,  when  the  harbour  was  commenced. 

\YKST   INDIA   DOCKS. 

WKST    1XDIKS,    or  COLUMBIAN  ARCHI- 
PELAGO   (Atlantic     Ocean  .     .Most    of    these 
islands   were   discovered  by   Columbus,    who 
first  sighted  American  land  at  Sun  Salvador, 
one  of  the  Bahamas,  Oct.  n,  1492,  and  are  con- 
sequently termed  the  Columbian  Archil 
Columbus  called  them  the  West  Indies,  1 11 
he  believed  that  he  had  simply  discovered  a 
western  passage  to   Hindustan  ;   and   for  the 
same  reason  the  name  was  originally  applied  to 
the  whole  of  America.   (>- 
BAHAMA    ISLANDS,    CAKIIU;I:I:    INLANDS,    CUBA, 

DoMlNCO    [ST.],    GUADALOUPE,  JAMAICA,    PoilTO 

Kim,  TKINIDAD,  &c.) 

WEST  LOTHIAN,  or  LINLITHGOW  (Scot- 
land).— This  county  consists  of  a  portion  of 
the  district  known  as  the  Lothians. 

WKSTMEATH  (Ireland  originally  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aleath  ;  was  included 
in  the  county  palatine  granted  by  Henry  II. 
to  Hugh  de  Lacy  in  1173:  was  separated  from 

ith  in  1543  5  an(i  Longford  was  >  !< 
from   it  in   1569.     The   abbey  of  .MultifiTiian, 
near  Tristernagh,  was  in  i  i  in  of  the 

Franciscan  friars  till  1641,  notwithstanding 
the  suppression  of  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII. 
An  old  Danish  fort  at  Ballymore  was  fortified 
by  the  reljels  and  held  in  the  wars  of  1641  and 

1  WESTM1NSTKH  Bishoprie).-IIenry  VIII. 
erected  this  .see  by  letters  patent  dated  Dec.  17, 
1540,  and  appointed  Thomas  Thirlby  the  first 
Tliirlby  resigned,  March  29,  1550, 
when  the  see  was  dissolved  and  reunited  to 
London  by  LMward  VI.  Pius  IX. 's  bull  for 
esta))lishing  a  Human  Catholic  hierarchy  in 
Great  Britain,  dated  Sep.  30,  1850,  < 
Westminster  into  an  archbishopric  under  Car- 
dinal Wiseman,  who  Issued  his  first  pastoral 
Letter  Oct.  7.  >'«  NK\V  WKSTMIN 

WKST.MINSTKK  (Middlesex).— This  city, 
which  now  joins  London,  was  formerly  known 
as  Thorney  Isle,  and  received  its  present, 
name  from  the  Benedictine  monastery 
bert.  (>Vc  WESTMINSTU:  Ar,i:i:v.)  Counc-ils 
were  held  at  Westminster  in  1102;  Jan.  13, 
1126;  Sep.  9,  1126;  Dec.  7, 1141;  May  26,  1162; 
in  1173  ;  and  April  29,  1229.  The  Westminster 
Hospital  was  founded  in  1719.  (See  HOSPITALS.) 

WKSTMINSTER  (Statutes  of).— Tin- 
Edw.  I.)  contains  51  chapters,  and  was 
at  Westminster  April  25,  1275.     'i 
statute  of  Merchants  (13  Fdw.  I.  ,  confirming 
the  statute  of  Acton  Bumel  (q.  r. 
by  the  Parliament  assembled  at 
March  25,  1285.     The  name  of  Third  81 
of  Westminster  was  given  to  some  statutes  (18 
Edw.  I.)  passed  at  a  Parliament  assembled  at 
Westminster  July  8,  1 290.     (See  ASSIZE  COURTS, 
ATTORNKY,  i 

WESTMINSTER  (Treaties).— One  was  con- 
cluded between  Henry  VII 1.  and  Francis  I. 
April  30,  1527.  It  provided  for  carrying  on  the 
war  in  the  Netherlands  against  the  Emperor, 
the  liberation  of  the  French  princes,  and  the 
payment  of  the  debt  due  to  England.  Henry 
VIII.  renounced  his  claim  to  the  French  throne, 
on  condition  of  receiving  a  pension  of  50,000 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY        [     1043    ]  WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL 


gold  crowns.  It  was  modified  by  anothe 
treaty  signed  May  29.  Wolsey  went  to  France 
in  July,  and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Amiens 
Aug.  1 8.  This  confirmed  and  extended  the, 

treaty    of    Westminster. A    treaty    with 

France  was  concluded  at  Westminster  Feb.  3 

1659. Another  was  concluded  herewith  Hoi 

land,  Fob.  19,  1674. An  alliance  was  formoc 

here  with  Prussia,  Nov.  29,  1742. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  —  According  to 
tradition,  St.  Peter  visited  Britain  in  65,  and 
founded  a  church  on  Thorney  Isle,  which 
was  the  origin  of  Westminster  Abbey.  An 
other  account  is  that  it  occupies  the  site  oJ 
a  Roman  temple  of  Apollo,  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  during  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
Pius  (138 — 161) ;  but  110  authentic  record  places 
its  erection  earlier  than  about  604,  when 
Sebert,  King  of  Essex,  embraced  Christianity, 
and  founded  a  church  in  honour  of  God  and 
St.  Peter,  to  the  west  of  London.  This  church, 
having  fallen  into  decay,  was  restored  by 
Edgar,  soon  after  his  accession,  in  957,  at  the 
request  of  St.  Dunstan.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Edward  the  Confessor  between  1050  and  Dec. 
28,  1065,  when  the  minster  was  consecrated. 
Edward  the  Confessor  was  buried  in  the 
abbey,  Jan.  6,  1066,  in  which  since  his  reign 
the  majority  of  English  sovereigns  have  been 
crowned.  Henry  III.  commenced  the  erection 
of  additional  buildings  May  16,  1220,  and  con- 
tinued the  enlargement  until  nearly  the  end 
of  his  long  reign,  the  new  abbey  being  opened 
Oct.  13,  1269.  (SeeCovENT  GARDEN.)  Edward 
I.  deposited  the  Scotch  coronation  stone  and 
other  trophies  of  the  Scottish  kingdom  in  the 
abbey  in  1297  ;  and  it  was  partially  destroyed 
by  fire  March  29,  1298.  A  murder  was  com- 
mitted in  the  church  Aug.  n,  1378,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  it  was  closed  for  four  months. 
The  great  western  window  was  set  up  in  1490. 
The  beautiful  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  was 
founded  by  that  sovereign  Jan.  24,  1503,  and 
on  his  death  in  1509  became  his  place  of 
Sepulture.  Henry  VIII.  dissolved  the  abbey 
Jan.  16,  1540,  and  restored  it  as  a  cathedral 
church  Dec.  17.  'See  WESTMINSTER,  Bishopric.) 
Queen  Mary  refounded  the  monastery  of  West- 
minster Sep.  7,  1556.  Elizabeth  again  removed 
the  monks  July  12,  1559,  and  made  the  abbey 
a  collegiate  church  for  a  dean  and  12  prebends, 
May  21,  1560.  The  puritan  parliament  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  demolish  all  monu- 
ments of  superstition  and  idolatry  in  this 
church,  April  24,  1643,  and  it  is  said  to  have 
been  used  as  a  military  barrack  the  same 
year.  The  House  of  Commons  voted  a  sum 
of  money  for  the  repair  and  restoration  of 
Westminster  Abbey  in  1697,  and  employed 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
posed reparation.  The  erection  of  the  west 
front  was  commenced  in  1715,  the  great  rose 
window  was  finished  in  1722,  and  the  towers 
were  completed  in  1735.  A  fire  which  broke 
out  in  the  roof  of  the  tower  July  9,  1803,  did 
serious  injury  to  the  woodwork  of  the  choir. 
Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel  was  restored 
between  1809  and  1822  by  Benjamin  Wyatt. 
Another  fire  occurred  April  27,  1829,  but  was 
extinguished  before  it  had  done  much  damage. 
The  woodwork  of  the  choir  was  restored  in 


1847.  Evening  services  were  first  celebrated 
in  Westminster  Abbey  Jan.  3,  1858.  The 
Sooth  anniversary  of  its  foundation  was  cele- 
brated Dec.  28,  1865. 

WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY.  —  (See 
ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES.) 

WESTMINSTER  BRIDGE  (London).— The 
first  bridge  at  Westminster,  founded  Jan.  29, 
J739>  was  built  from  the  designs  of  Charles 
Labelye,  a  Swiss.  It  was  opened  Nov.  18, 
1750,  and  consisted  of  15  arches,  containing, 
according  to  the  architect's  report,  twice  the 
amount  of  stone  used  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
It  was  first  lighted  by  gas  Dec.  31,  1813. 
Owing  to  the  sinking  of  the  piles,  the  bridge 
was  closed  to  carriages  Aug.  15,  1846,  and  to 
foot-passengers  Aug.  27 ;  and  it  was  lightened 
of  much  of  its  stonework  and  reduced  in 
height  before  it  was  reopened.  These  mea- 
sures having  proved  ineffectual,  a  local  act  of 
Parliament  was  passed  in  1850  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  temporaiy  bridge,  but  was  not 
carried  into  effect.  By  16  &  17  Viet.  c.  46 
(Aug.  4,  1853),  the  management  of  the  bridge 
was  transferred  to  the  Commissioners  of 
Works  and  Public  Buildings,  who  were 
authorized  to  remove  it  and  erect  a  new 
one.  The  design  of  Thomas  Page  was 
accepted  ;  and  in  May,  1854,  the  works  com- 
menced, under  an  agreement  that  they 
were  to  be  completed  in  three  years.  Owing 
to  the  proposal  to  erect  new  government 
offices  at  Westminster,  and  the  consequent 
alterations  of  plan  that  might  be  necessary, 
they  were  suspended,  March  20,  1856.  They 
were  resumed  in  1857,  and  a  portion  of  the 
bridge  was  opened  for  carriage  traffic  in  1860. 
The  expense  of  the  bridge  up  to  July,  1861, 
was  .£316,936,  and  a  further  outlay  of  £60,692 
was  voted  by  Parliament.  It  consists  of  seven 
iron  arches,  and  is  990  feet  long  and  85  wide. 
It  was  formally  opened  throughout  May  24, 
1862.  The  better  regulation  of  the  traffic 
was  secured  by  27  &  28  Viet.  c.  88  (July  29, 
1864). 

WESTMINSTER  CHESS  CLUB  (London) 
was  formed  in  1866. 

WESTMINSTER  CLUB  (London)  was 
minded  in  1851  or  1852,  on  the  dissolution  of 
the  Alfred  Club  (q.  v.). 

WESTMINSTER  CONFESSION.— The  name 
given  to  the  Confession  of  Faith,  drawn  up  in 
1643  by  the  Assembly  of  Divines  (q.  v.).  It 

as  approved  by  the  Scotch  Kirk  in  1649. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL  (London),  said  to 
)e,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  hall  of 
ustice  at  Padua,  the  largest  room  in  Europe 
vhich  is  not  supported  by  pillars,  was  founded 
by  William  II.  in  1097.  In  1224  it  was 
made  the  permanent  seat  of  the  English  law 
3ourts,  and  in  1397  it  was  repaired  by  Richard 
I.  A  fire,  which  broke  out  Feb.  20,  1631,  was 
hecked  before  it  had  time  to  extend  its  ra- 
•ages.  The  hall  was  repaired  at  a  cost  of 
£13,000  in  1802. 

WESTMINSTER  SCHOOL,  or  ST.  PETER'S 
COLLEGE  (London).— Henry  VIII.  founded  an 
iducational  establishment  in  connection  with 
he  abbey  of  Westminster  about  1540.  A 
>chool  had  been  attached  to  the  abbey  at  a 
nuch  earlier  period.  It  was  re-established  by 
3x  2 


WESTMORLAND 


[    1044    ] 


WHEELBARROW 


Queen  Elizabeth  in  /s6o.  The  dormitory  was 
built  by  the  Earl  of  Burlington  in  1722. 
William  Caraden,  the  antiquary,  was  master  of 
this  school  from  1593  to  1599,  and  Dr.  Richard 
Busby  from  1638  to  1695. 

WESTMORLAND  (England),  partly  occu- 
pied by  the  Brigantines,  was  comprised  in  the 
Maxima  C&sariensis  of  the  Romans,  after  the 
subjugation  of  South  Britain,  about  204,  and, 
was  conquered  by  the  Angles  of  Northumbria 
about  685.  William  I.  divided  it  between  two 
of  his  vassals  in  1068.  Having  long  been  an 
object  of  contention  between  England  and 
Scotland,  the  King  of  Scotland,  in  considera- 
tion of  a  grant  of  lands  in  Cumberland  and 
Northumberland,  abandoned  his  claim  to  the 
county  in  1237. 

W  E  8  T  P  11  ALI  A  (Germany).—  The  ancient 
duchy  of  Westphalia  was  separated  from 
western  Saxony  by  Frederick  I.  in  1180.  In 
1613  Prussia  obtained  possession  of  part  of  the 
country,  and  in  1801  it  was  ceded  to  the  Duke 
of  Hesse  -  Darmstadt.  Napoleon  I.  erected 
Westphalia  into  a  kingdom,  under  his  brother 
Jerome,  Aug.  18,  1806.  (See  CASSEL.)  Bruns- 
wick- Wolfeiibiittel,  llesse-Casscl,  ami 
burg  were  annexed  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
July  9,  1807;  and  Hanover,  .March  16,  1810. 
This  kingdom  came  to  an  end  after  the  battle 
of  Leipsic,  Oct.  16,  18,  and  19,  1813;  and  the 
different  provinces  were  restored  to  their 
former  possessors  in  1813  —  14. 

\VKSTIMIAUA  ri>eaties;.—  Thename  Public 
Peace  of  Westphalia  was  given  to  a  compact 
made  in  1371,  between  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.  and  the  states  of  the  empire,  for  maintain- 
ing the  peace  of  Germany.  -  The  nan 
of  Westphalia  was  given  to  two  treaties 
terminating  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  the  first 
between  the  Emperor  and  Sweden,  signed  at 
Osnaburg,  Aug.  6,  1648,  and  the  second  between 
the  Emperor  and  France,  signed  at  Minister, 
Oct.  24,1648.  The  negotiations  for  this  peace 
commenced  at  Minister,  where  the  Congress 
held  its  first  meeting  in  July,  1643,  and  settled 
the  preliminaries  in  Jan.,  1647.  France  was 
confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Alsace,  and 
other  territory.  Sweden  attained  Pomerania, 
Riigen,  Bremen,  and  Verden;  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  Provinces  and  of 
Switzerland  was  recognized.  Spain  con- 
tinued the  war  against  France,  until  it  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

WEST  POINT  (United  States).—  The  first 
settlement  was  made  here  May  17,  1723.  The 
United  States  Government  purchased  the  land 
Sep.  10,  1790,  and  forts  were  erected.  The 
military  school,  established  in  1794,  in  accor- 
dance with  a  recommendation  made  by  a 
committee  in  Oct.,  1776,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1796.  It  was  reopened  March  16,  1802. 
The  new  barracks  for  cadets  were  completed 
in  1851,  and  the  mess  hall  was  opened  in  1852. 


WEXFORD   (Ireland),    chief    town 


n  1852. 
of    th 


county  of  the  same  name,  was  founded  by 
the  Danes,  and  surrendered  to  Fitzstephen, 
the  English  adventurer,  in  1169.  The  abbey 
was  founded  about  1190.  A  council  was  held 
here  in  1240.  The  town  obtained  a  charter 
in  1318.  A  parliament  was  held  here  by 


the  Earl  of  Desmond  in  1463.  James  I.  con- 
firmed and  extended  its  charter  in  1608.  The 
town  was  seized  by  the  insurgents,  who 
received  their  principal  foreign  supplies  at  its 
port,  in  1641.  Cromwell  having  reduced  it, 
military  execution  was  inflicted  upon  the 
inhabitants  in  1649.  It  was  garrisoned  by 
the  troops  of  William  III.  in  1689,  and  was 
taken  by  the  rebels  in  1798. 

W  MY  MOUTH  (Dorsetshire^,  an  important 
commercial  place  in  the  i4th  century,  was 
united  with  the  borough  of  Melcombe  Regis 
in  1571.  Ralph  Allen,  of  Bath,  brought  it 
into  repute  as  a  bathing-place  about  1763. 
George  III.  paid  his  first  visit  July  16,  1789. 
A  naval /We  and  Dutch  fair  were  got  up  for  the 
entertainment  of  George  III.  and  his  Queen, 
Sep.  29,  1804. 

WHALEBONE.— Bracton  and  Britton,  who 
flourished  during  the  i3th  century,  state  that 
it  was  an  ancient  feudal  right  of  the  Queen  of 
England  to  claim  the  tail  of  every  whale 
caught  on  the  British  coast ;  but  the  < 
mention  of  whalebone,  which  is  contained  in 
the  head  of  the  animal,  occurs  in  1593,  when 
some  English  sailors  brought  a  large  number 
of  fins,  as  the  pieces  of  baleen  an>.  erron< 
called,  from  Cape  Breton.  A  riding-whip  of 
whalebone,  possessed  by  Queen  Eli 
(1558—1603),  is  mentioned  as  a  valuable  article. 
The  first  instance  of  the  bone  being  systema 
tic-ally  sought  for  as  an  article  of  commerce 
occurs  in  1617.  Bygcfc  loWill.  III.  c.  23(1698), 
the  importation  of  ready-cut  whalebone  was 
prohibited.  Laurence  Kortwright  patented  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  preparation  of  this 
useful  material  in  March,  1841.  (See  UYCUO- 

METER.) 

WIIALK -FISHKRY,  practised  by  the  Nor- 
wegians as  early  as  887,  was  systematically 
]  pursued  as  a  calling  by  the  Biscayans  during 
the  i2th,  i3th,  and  i4th  centuries.  By  17 
Edw.  II.  c.  ii  (1324',  the  king  was  entitled 
to  all  whales  and  great  sturgeons  taken  in 
British  seas;  and  in  1388  Edward  III.  rewarded 
Peter  Bayune  for  his  expense  in  providing  a 
fleet  for  the  royal  use,  by  granting  him  a  tax 
of  £6  on  every  whale  carried  into  the  ; 
Biarritz.  The  Dutch  ascertained  that  whales 
existed  in  large  quantities  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Spitsbergen  in  1596.  In  1611  the  first 
English  whaling  expedition  sailed  from  Hull, 
which  remained  for  a  long  period  the  centre  of 
the  P^nglish  whale-fishery.  In  1614  the  Dutch 
trade  was  monopolized  by  a  single  company, 
but  in  1642  it  was  thrown  open.  The  American 
whale-fishery  commenced  in  1690,  and  that  of 
the  English  South  Sea  Company  in  1724.  The 
harpoon-gun  was  invented  in  1731.  Several 
acts  of  Parliament  have  been  passed  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  whale-fisheries,  the  chief 
being  22  Geo.  II.  c.  45  (1749).  Louis  XVI.  re- 
vived the  French  fishery  in  1784.  Owing  to 
the  decreasing  demand  for  whale  oils,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  use  of  gas  and  the  scarcity  of 
fish,  the  whaling  trade  is  declining. 

WHEAT.— (See  BREAD,  CORN,  CORN  LAWS, 
Ac.) 

WHEELBARROW  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Blaise  Pascal,  the  geometrician 
(1623—62). 


WHEEL-LOCK 


[     1045    ] 


WHITEHALL 


WHEEL-LOCK.— (See    FIRE-ARMS,    PISTOL, 

&c.) 

WHEELS. — The  first  wheels  were,  doubtless, 
plain  disks  of  wood,  probably  composed  of 
segments  of  the  circular  boles  of  trees.  The 
custom  of  using  an  iron  tire  was  practised  by 
the  Romans,  and  wheels  made  entirely  of 
metal  were  sometimes  employed  in  classic 
war-chariots.  The  wheel  has  been  variously 
applied  by  different  nations  as  an  instrument 
of  punishment.  The  Greeks  bound  the  cri- 
minal to  the  circumference,  and  whirled  him 
round  until  death  was  the  result.  Breaking 
on  the  wheel  was  introduced  into  Germany, 
and  was  legally  adopted  in  France  by  Francis  I. 
in  1534. 

WHEELWRIGHTS  (London)  were  incorpo- 
rated in  1670. 

WHIG.— (-See  TORY.) 

WHIG  CLUB  (London),  founded  in  1789  as 
a  centre  of  union  for  Whig  politicians.     The 
Duke   of  Leinster,   the  Earls  of   Charlemont 
and  of  Moira,  and  Messrs.  Curran  and  Grattan, 
were  members.    The  "  Whig  Club,  or  Sketch 
of  Modern  Patriotism,"  appeared  in  1794. 
WHIPPERS.— (See  FLAGELLANTS.) 
WHIPPING.— (See  FLOGGING,  GAROTTE,  PER- 
JURY, WOMAN,  &c.) 
WHIRLICOTES.— (See  CARRIAGES.) 
WHIRLWIND.— (See  CYCLONE  and  STORMS.) 
WHIST.— This  game  at  cards  originated  in 
England,   and    is    mentioned    as    a    common 
pastime   in   1680,   though    little    science  was 
shown  in  playing  it  till  about  1730,  when  it  was 
studied  by  a  card-party  that  met  at  the  Crown 
coffee-house,  in  Bedford  Row.     Hoyle's  treatise 
appeared  in  1743,  and  he  taught  the  game  at 
a  guinea  a  lesson.     It  is  said  to  have  been 
called  Whist,  or  Hist,  because  silence  is  indis- 
pensable, and  was  formerly  called  Whisk. 

WHITBY  (Yorkshire)  probably  took  its  rise 
from  the  abbey  founded  by  Oswy,  King  of 
Northumbria,  in  658.  A  council  was  held  here 
in  664.  The  abbey  and  town,  destroyed  by  the 
Danes  about  867,  were  restored  after  the  Nor- 
<tman  conquest.  The  alum-works  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood raised  the  port  to  some  distinction 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558—1603),  and 
the  docks  were  commenced  in  1730.  The 
chapel  of  ease  was  erected  in  1788.  The  central 
tower  of  the  abbey  ruins  fell  in  1830. 

WHITEBAIT.— Pennant,  in  "British  Zoo- 
logy" (vol.  iii.  p.  371),  published  in  1776,  re 
marks : — "  During  the  month  of  July  there 
appear  in  the  Thames,  near  Blackwall  and 
Greenwich,  innumerable  multitudes  of  small 
fish,  which  are  known  to  the  Londoners  by  the 
name  of  whitebait.  They  are  esteemed  very 
delicious  when  fried  with  fine  flour,  and  occa- 
sion during  the  season  a  vast  resort  of  the 
lower  order  of  epicures  to  the  taverns  con- 
tiguous to  the  places  they  are  taken  at.' 
Yarrell,  in  1828,  showed  that  the  whitebait  is 
a  distinct  species ;  and  a  writer  in  the  "  Popular 
Science  Review"  for  July,  1865,  thus  sums  up 
his  views  : — ' '  The  whitebait  belongs,  like  the 
shad,  herring,  sardine,  anchovy,  and  sprat,  to 
the  great  family  of  abdominal-soft-finned  fishes 
known  as  Clupeidce.  It  comes  under  the  genus 
Clupea,  of  which  the  shad  is  C.  alosa;  bu 
since  it  has  now  to  be  regarded  as  a  separate 


pecies,  it  has  received  the  specific  appellation 
f  alba;  hence,  when  fully  titled,  it  is  styled 
7lupea  alba.  In  France  it  is  called  blanquette, 
and  is  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  coasts 
f  Picardy  and  Normandy,  as  well  as  in  the 
Northern  Ocean."  Six  dishes  of  whitebait  are 
nentioned  in  the  funeral  feast  of  Thomas 
5utton,  May  28,  1612. 

WHITEBAIT  D  I  NNERS.-The  annual 
ministerial  whitebait  dinner  is  said  to  have 
riginated  about  1721,  when  Capt.  Perry 
ra,s  employed  in  repairing  Dagenham  Reach, 
in  Essex,  and  a  body  of  parliamentary  com- 
missioners was  appointed  to  superintend  his 
abours.  These  gentlemen  held  a  board  meeting 
ivery  year  at  the  Reach  House,  and  concluded 
heir  business  proceedings  by  a  fish  dinner,  to 
which,  on  one  occasion,  they  invited  the  great 
ommoner  William  Pitt.  The  experiment 
iroved  very  successful',  and  became  a  pre- 
edent  for  a  similar  annual  festival,  which  was 
jfterwards  removed  to  Greenwich.  According 
:o  another  account  it  originated  with  Sir 
Robert  Preston,  M.P.  for  Dover,  who  had  a 
cottage  on  the  banks  of  Dagenham  Reach,  to 
which  he  often  invited  Mr.  George  Rose,  of 
;he  Treasury.  Mr.  Pitt  was  asked  to  join  the 
small  circle,  and  others  were  afterwards  in- 
vited. 

WHITE-BOYS,  or  BOUGHALEEN  BAWINS, 
derive  the  name  from  the  white  shirt  which 
;hey  wore  over  their  drgss  during  their  depre- 
dations. The  society  was  formed  in  Ireland  in 
Jet.,  1761,  and  in  1762  a  military  force  under 
Liord  Drogheda  was  sent  for  its  suppression. 
Father  Nicholas  Sheehy,  one  of  their  most 
violent  leaders,  was  executed  at  Clonmel, 
March  15,  1766.  In  1786  another  Roman 
Catholic  party  appeared,  known  as  the  Right- 
ooys,  who  also  proved  very  dangerous.  The 
White-boys  were  again  in  insurrection  in  1822, 
when  they  committed  many  shocking  out- 


CANONS.—  (See    PR^MONSTRATEN- 

SIANS.) 

WHITE   CROSS   STREET  PRISON 

(London)  was  built  in  1813  —  15. 

WHITEFRIARS  (London).—  This  precinct, 
situated  between  Fleet  Street  and  the  Thames, 
derived  its  name  from  the  White  Friars'  church 
of  the  Carmelites,  founded  by  Sir  Richard 
Grey  in  1241.  Called  Alsatia,  it  was  one  of  the 
most  notorious  of  the  old  London  sanctuaries, 
and  was  the  resort  of  the  lowest  dregs  ,of 
society.  Its  privileges  as  a  sanctuary  (q.  v.) 
were  confirmed  and  enlarged  by  a  special 
charter  in  1608. 

WHITEFRIARS  THEATRE  (London),  built 
about  1580,  was  pulled  down  in  1613.  Salis- 
bury Court  Theatre,  erected  near  the  original 
site  in  1629,  was  destroyed  by  the  Puritans 
March  24,  1649;  and  the  Duke's  Theatre,  in 
Dorset  Gardens,  which  supplied  the  place  of 
the  two  former  edifices,  was  opened  Nov.  9, 
1671,  and  removed  soon  after  1720. 

WHITEHALL  (London).—  The  first  palace 
on  the  site  of  the  modern  Whitehall  was  erected 
by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  the  celebrated  Chamber- 
lain of  King  John,  and  Chief  Justiciary  of 
England  under  Henry  III.,  who  bequeathed  it 
on  his  death,  in  1243,  to  the  convent  of  the 


WHITEHALL  CLUB 


[     1046    ] 


WHITTINGTON   CLUB 


Black  Friars  in  Holborn.  In  1248  it  was  pur- 
chased by  Walter  de  Gray,  Archbishop  of  York, 
who  made  it  the  town  palace  of  that  see,  on 
which  account  it  was  called  York  Place.  Its 
magnificence  was  greatly  increased  by  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  who  resigned  it  to  Henry  VIII.  by  a 
charter  dated  Feb.  7,  1530,  when  its  name  was 
changed  to  Whitehall,  and  the  building  became, 
the  royal  palace  of  the  English  sovereigns. 
The  old  banqueting-house  was  destroyed  by 
fire  Tuesday,  Jan.  12,  1619,  and  the  present 
edifice,  commenced  by  Inigo  Jones,  June  i, 
1619,  was  completed  March  31,  1622.  The  ceil- 
ing was  pidnted  abroad  by  Rubens  in  1635. 
Whitehall  was  the  scene  of  the  execution  of 
Charles  I.,  Jan.  30,  1649.  The  scaffold  was 
erected  in  the  street,  and,  according  to  some 
contemporary  authors,  a  passage  was  opened 
through  the  wall  of  the  palace  for  the  egress 
of  the  king.  Grinling  Gibbons'  statue  of 
James  II.  was  erected  Dec.  31,  1686.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  old  palace  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  fire  which  broke  out  April  10, 
1691 ;  and  it  was  completely  destroyed  by  a  fire 
which  commenced  Tuesday,  Jan.  4,  1698,  and 
lasted  17  hours.  The  banqueting-house  was 
converted  into  a  chapel  by  George  I.  in  1724, 
and  Holbein's  Gate  was  removed  to  make  room 
for  Parliament  Street  in  Aug.,  1759.  The 
facade  of  the  Treasury,  Whitehall,  opposite 
the  banqueting-houae,  was  erected  by  Sir 
Charles  Barry  in  1847. 

WHITEHALL  CLUB  (London)  was  opened 
in  1866. 

WHITE  HATS.— The  name  given  to  some 
extreme  democrats  who  formed  a  party  at 
Ghent,  in  1377.  Headed  by  Hyons,  they  re- 
volted against  Count  Louis"  in  1378,  and  took 
Bruges.  Hyons  was  poisoned  at  Damme  in 
1378,  and  through  the  mediation  of  Philip  II., 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  peace  was  concluded  in 
Dec.,  1379.  The  struggle,  renewed  in  1380, 
was  not  terminated  until  Philip  II.  of  Bur- 
gundy obtained  power  in  1384. 

W 1 1  IT  K 1 1 A  V  E  X  i  Cumberland)  consisted  of  a 
few  fishermen's  huts  in  1566.  It  was  attacked 
by  the  pirate  Paul  Jones  in  1778. 

WHITE   HUNS.     [Se<  NKITIIALITES.) 

WHITE   LAND.— (See  KORDOFAN. 

W  !  I  I  T  K  M  O  N  K  S.— (See  BKRNARDINES, 
BRIDEWELL,  etc.* 

WHITE  NEGROES.— (See  ALBINOS.) 

W II ITE  OAK  SWAMP.— (See  CHICKAHOMINY, 
Battles.) 

WHITE  PENITENTS.— (See  BIANCHI.) 

WHITE  PLAINS  Battle;.— The  Americans 
were  defeated  at  this  place,  near  New  York, 
by  the  English,  under  Gen.  Howe,  Oct.  28, 
1776. 

WHITE  ROSE.  — (See  LANCASTRIANS  AND 
YORKISTS.  ) 

WHITES.— (See  BIANCHI  AND  NERI  ) 

WHITE'S  CHOCOLATE  HOUSE  (London), 
in  St.  James's  Street,  was  bumed  down  April 
28,  1733.  (See  ARTHUR'S  CLUB.) 

WHITE'S  CLUB  (London),  originally  estab- 
lished at  White's  Chocolate  House  in  1698, 
removed  after  the  fire,  April  28,  1733,  and 
to  another  house  in  St.  James's  Street  in 

WHITE  SHEEP.— A  tribe  of  Turkomans,  so 


called  from  the  figure  on  their  banner,  led  by 
their  chief  Azan  Hasoun,  acquired  possession 
of  Western  Persia  in  1468,  and  were  conquered 
by  Shah  Ismail  in  1502. 

WHITE  TOWER.— This  most  celebrated 
portion  of  the  Tower  of  London  (q.  c.)  svas 
erected  by  William  I.  about  1078,  and  de- 
signed by  Gundulph,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
-a  ires  116  feet  by  96,  and  is  92  feet  in 
height. 

WHITE  WORKS.— (See  RUSSIAN  WAR.) 

WHITFIELDITES,  or  LADY  HUNTING- 
DON'S CONNECTION,  the  followers  of  the 
Rev.  George  Whitfield,  or  Whitefield,  who  was 
born  at  the  Bell  inn,  Gloucester,  Dec.  16,  1714. 
Having  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  as 
a  servitor,  in  1732,  he  formed  an  intimacy 
with  the  brothers  John  and  Charles  Wesley. 
In  1736  he  was  ordained  a  deacon.  In  Dect, 
1737,  he  accompanied  the  Wesleys  on  a  mis- 
sionary tour  to  Georgia ;  and  in  1738  he  re- 
turned for  the  purpose  of  being  admitted  to 
priest's  orders,  and  to  collect  funds  for  the 
support  of  the  religious  efforts  being  made  in 
America.  During  this  visit  the  orthodox 
clergy  excluded  him  from  their  pulpits,  and  he 
commenced  preaching  in  the  open  air  to  the 
Bristol  colliers.  In  Aug.,  17  19,  lie  returned  to 
,  where  he  remained  two  years.  On 
his  return  he  separated  from  the  Wesleys,  in 
consequence  of  their  rejection  of  Calvinism, 
and  in  June,  1741,  his  admirers  built  him  a 
large  temporary  shed  in  Moorfields,  which  he 
called  the  Tabernacle.  In  Aug.,  1744,  he  made 
a  third  voyage  to  America,  where  he  remained 
nearly  four  years,  after  which  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  at 
whose  suggestion  the  Tabernacle  was  rebuilt, 
and  opened  in  June,  1755.  The  Tabernacle  in 
the  Tottenham  Court  Road  was  opened  in 
Nov.,  1756;  and  in  1767  l.ady  Huntingdon 
established  a  college  for  the  education  of  young 
ministers  in  the  doctrines  of  Calvinistic  Me- 
thodism at  Trevecca,  in  South  Wales.  Whit- 
field  went  on  several  preaching  excursions 
through  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  He 
made  seven  voyages  to  America,  and  died  at 
Newbury,  in  New  England,  Sep.  30,  1770.  The 
first  ordination  of  Whitfieldite  ministers  took 
place  in  1783,  when  the  connection  seceded 
from  the  Church  of  England,  of  which,  how- 
ever, it  retained  the  forms  and  most  of  the  doc- 
trines, the  chief  difference  being  the  absence 
of  episcopacy.  Rules  for  the  government  of 
the  sect  were  prepared  in  1785.  The  Countess 
of  Huntingdon,  from  whom  the  followers  of 
Whitfield  derive  the  name  by  which  they  are 
best  known,  died  June  17,  1791. 

WHITSUNTIDE.— The  feast  of  Whitsunday, 
or  Whitesunday,  is  celebrated  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  as  commemorative  of  the  day 
of  Pentecost  (?.•».),  on  which  the  apostles 
received  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  was  devoted  in 
the  primitive  Church  to  the  solemnization 
of  baptisms,  and  derives  its  name  from  the 
white  linen  with  which  the  recipients  of  that 
ordinance  were  clad.  (See  TRINITY  SCXDAV.) 

WHITTINGTON  CLUB  (London),  founded 
in  1847,  was  at  first  held  at  the  Crown  and 
Anchor  Tavern.  The  house  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1854. 


WHITTINGTON  COLLEGE        [     1047 


WIGHT,  ISLE  OF 


WHITTINGTON  COLLEGE  (London),  or 
God's  House,  was  originally  founded  on  College 
Hill,  Thames  Street,  by  the  will  of  Sir  Richard 
Whittington,  in  1421,  for  the  maintenance  of 
29  free  mercers  of  London  and  30  out-pen- 
sioners. It  was  removed  to  Highgate  in  1808. 

WHYDA,  or  WHYDDA1L— (See  DAHOMEY.) 

WIASMA.— (See  VIAZMA.) 

WIBBANDUNE  (Battle).— Ceawlin,  King  of 
Wessex,  defeated  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent, 
at  this  place,  supposed  to  be  Wimbledon,  in 
568. 

WIBORG.— (See  VIBORG.) 

WICHNOR.— (See  DUNMOW.) 

WICK.— (See  NAMPTWICH.) 

W I C  K  E  R  -  W  O  R  K.— (See  BASKET-MAKING, 
HELMETS,  NAVY,  &c.) 

WICKLIFFITES.— (See  WYCLIFFITES. ) 

WICKLOW  (Ireland),  the  chief  town  of  the 
county  of  that  name,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  naval  station  of  the  Danes,  is  built  on  the 
site  of  a  castle  erected  by  the  Anglo-Norman 
invader  Maurice  Fitzgerald,  about  1169.  A 
Franciscan  friary,  the  ruins  of  which  remain, 
was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (1216 
— 72).  The  town,  burned  by  the  Irish  in  1310, 
was  fortified  by  Fitzwilliam  in  1375.  Its  cor- 
porate rights  were  confirmed  by  a  charter  of 
James  I.  in  1613.  The  church  of  the  Wicklow 
union  has  a  tower  and  a  copper  cupola,  erected 
in  1777.  Gold  was  discovered  in  this  county 

WIDDIN  (Turkey),  taken  from  the  Turks 
by  John  Humiiades,  the  Hungarian  captain- 
general,  in  1454,  was  captured  by  Prince 
Louis  of  Baden  in  1689,  and  was  recovered 
by  the  vizier  Mustapha  Koproli  in  1690.  It' 
was  invested  in  1737  by  the  Austrians,  who 
soon  abandoned  the  siege  ;  and  it  was  threat- 
ened and  abandoned  in  1790.  The  pasha, 
Osman-Paswan-Ogli,  revolted  and  declared 
himself  independent  in  1792.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  greatly  strengthened  by  the  Turks 
in  1853  aild  in  1854. 

WIDOW.— (See  MAJDEN.) 

WIDOWS  AND  WIDOWERS.— It  appears  to 
have  been  customary  in  the  East  for  a  man 
to  marry  the  widow  of  his  deceased  brother, 
in  the  event  of  his  dying  childless,  as  early 
as  B.C.  1727,  when  Onan  married  the  wife  of 
his  brother  Er  (Gen.  xxxviii.  8} ;  and  it  was 
afterwards  made  a  law  by  Moses,  B.C.  1451 
(Deut.  xxv.  5 — 10).  Kindness  to  widows 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  good  deeds 
required  from  the  Jews.  Their  rights  were 
regulated  in  England  by  9  Hen.  III.  c.  7 
(1225);  and  by  22  &  23  Charles  II.  c.  10 
(1670),  the  widow  of  an  intestate  husband 
received  half  of  his  personal  property,  unless 
she  had  children  by  him  surviving,  in  which 
case  her  portion  was  one-third.  By  6  &  7 
Will.  III.  c.  6  (1695),  various  taxes  were 
imposed  upon  childless  widowers,  according 
to  their  rank  in  life,  the  rates  being  the 
same  as  were  demanded  from  bachelors  (q.  v.). 
The  Widows'  Fund,  for  the  widows  of  Protes- 
tant dissenting  ministers,  was  established  in 
T733>  ^ne  Widows'  Friend  Society  in  1808,  and 
the  Society  for  the  Relief  of  Distressed  Widows 
in  1823.  The  Hindoo  custom  of  sutteeism,  or 
burning  the  widow  with  the  body  of  her  dead 


husband,  which  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is 
referred  to  by  the  Greek  writers  of  the  age  of 
Alexander  III.,  was  declared  illegal  by  the 
governor-general,  Lord  William  Bentinck,  Dec. 
14,  1829.  (See  DOWER.) 

WIESBADEN,  or  WISBADEN  (Germany), 
believed  to  be  the  Aquae  Mattiacse  or  Fontes 
Mattiaci  of  the  Romans,  besame  the  residence 
of  the  dukes  of  Nassau  in  1820.  In  compliance 
with  popular  demand,  feudal  rights  were 
abolished  March  6,  1848.  The  Greek  chapel 
was  erected  by  the  duke,  with  a  statue  to  his 
wife,  in  1855.  The  English  church  was  dedi- 
cated and  opened  Aug.  2,  1865. 

WIESLOCH  (Battle).  —  The  allied  army, 
under  Count  Mansfeldt,  defeated  the  Impe- 
rialists, commanded  by  Tilly,  at  this  place  in 
Baden,  April  29,  1622. 

WIGAN  (Lancashire)  received  a  royal 
charter  in  1246,  and  returned  members  to 
Parliament  in  1295.  The  Earl  of  Derby  was 
defeated  here  by  the  Parliamentarian  colonel 
Robert  Lilburne,  Aug.  25,  1651.  It  was 
visited  by  the  Pretender  on  his  southward 
march  in  1745.  The  town-hall  was  built  in 
1720,  St.  George's  Church  in  1781,  the  Com- 
mercial Hall  in  1816,  and  St.  Catherine's 
Church  in  1841.  Five  men  were  killed,  and 
several  injured,  by  the  falling  of  the  shaft  of 
the  Douglas  Bank  Colliery,  Jan.  4,  1865  ;  and 
30  men  and  boys  were  killed  by  an  explo- 
sion of  fire  damp  at  the  Highbrook  Colliery, 
Tuesday,  Jan.  23,  1866.  (See  COTTON  FAMINE.) 

WIGHT,  ISLE  OF  (Hampshire).  —  This 
island,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Vecta  or 
Vectis,  and  to  the  ancient  Britons  as  Guith 
or  Guict,  conquered  by  Titus  Vespasian,  in 
43,  was  seized  by  Cerdic,  King  of  Wessex,  in 
530.  Wulfhere,  King  of  Mercia,  subdued  it  in 
661  ;  but  in  686  it  was  reunited  to  Wessex  by 
Ceadwalla,  who  compelled  the  inhabitants  to 
embrace  Christianity,  and  disgraced  his  victory 
by  many  acts  of  cruelty.  The  Danes  took  it 
in  787,  during  their  first  invasion  of  Britain, 
and  converted  it  into  a  magazine  for  the  spoils 
taken  from  the  Saxons.  They  frequently 
ravaged  the  island,  especially  in  897,  in  998, 
in  looi,  and  in  1048.  In  1052  it  was  devastated 
by  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  in  revenge  for  his 
banishment  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  in 
1066  it  was  invaded  by  Tostig,  Earl  of  North- 
umberland, at  the  instigation  of  William  I. 
Edward  I.  purchased  the  island  in  1293,  and 
in  1340  it  was  attacked  by  the  French,  who 
were  driven  to  their  ships  by  the  islanders. 
They  returned  in  1377,  and  committed  great 
devastations  ;  but  failed  in  an  attempted  siege 
of  Carisbrook  Castle,  which  was  gallantly 
defended  by  Sir  Hugh  Tyrrel.  In  1445  Henry 
VI.  crowned  Henry  Beauchamp,  Duke  of  War- 
wick, King  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  dignity 
was  merely  titular,  and  conveyed  no  regal 
authority ;  and  on  the  duke'^  death  without 
issue,  soon  after  his  coronation,  the  title  was 
discontinued.  In  1545  the  French  made 
another  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  island  : 
this  was  the  last  foreign  invasion.  The  Isle  of 
Wight  suffered  considerably  during  the  civil 
wars  of  Charles  I.,  who  was  imprisoned  at 
Carisbrook  Castle  (q.  v.).  In  1671  Charles  II. 
visited  the  island  :  and  it  is  a  favourite  resort 


WIGMORE 


[     1048    ] 


WILLS 


of  Queen  Victoria.  (See  OSBOKNE  HOUSE.)  The 
house  of  industry,  for  the  indigent  poor  of 
the  island,  was  established  in  1770.  Parkhurst 
prison,  founded  as  a  military  hospital  and 
barracks  in  1778,  received  its  first  convicts 
Dec.  26,  1838.  The  salary  of  ^1,300  per  annum, 
formerly  attached  to  the  governorship  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  ceaspd  in  1841. 
WIGMORE.— (Set  MORTIMER'S  CROSS.) 
WIGS.— The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans were  familiar  with  the  use  of  wigs, 
either  covering  the  whole  head,  or  merely 
the  front,  and  made  of  wool,  goats'  hair,  and 
other  materials.  Periwigs  were  introduced 
nt  Rome  during  the  imperial  sera.  Wigs  are 
said  to  have  been  first  worn  in  England  during 
the  reign  of  Stephen  (1135 — 54).  Long  periwigs 
were  introduced  in  France  about  1529,  and  in 
1595  it  was  unsafe  for  children  to  walk  out 
alone  in  this  country,  lest  they  should  be 
robbed  of  their  hair  for  the  wig-makers. 
Ladies'  wigs  are  mentioned  in  1608.  Charles  II. 
introduced  enormous  perukes,  which  it  was 
fashionable  to  comb  in  public,  as  mentioned 
by  Killigrew  in  1663.  Wigs  with  large  toupees 
are  first  alluded  to  in  1731,  and  were  rendered 
popular  by  the  Macaroni  Club  in  1772.  After 
undergoing  various  modifications,  the  fashion 
of  wearing  wigs  in  preference  to  the  natural 
hair  was  abandoned  about  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century.  See  !L\n;. 

WILDKKNLSS  ISatlle  of  the  was  fought 
at  this  place  in  Virginia,  between  the  Con- 
federates, commanded  by  Gen.  Lee,  and  the 
Federals,  under  Gen.  (Irani,  May  5  and  6,  1864. 
In  spite  of  the  overwhelming  numbers  brought 
against  him,  Gen.  Lee  maintained  his  ground 
on  the  first  day,  and  drove  Grant's  hosts  before 
him  in  contusion  »n  the  second.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  smallncss  of  the  forces  under 
his  command,  Gen.  Lee  gradually  retired  upon 
Spottsylvania  (</.  r.  ,  .May  7  and  8. 
WILD  GUEUX.or  BEGGARS.— (&«GuEUX.) 
WILLIAM  THE  FIRST,  the  illegitimate 
son  of  Robert  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was 
born  at  Falaise  about  1024.  He  succeeded  his 
father 'as  William  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  in 
1035,  and  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  Bald- 
win V.,  Count  of  Flanders,  in  1054.  They  had 
four  sons  and  five  or  six  daughters.  Robert, 
the  eldest,  born  in  1056,  was  surnamed  Curt- 
hose,  and  became  Duke  of  Normandy  in  1087. 
His  brother,  Henry  I.  of  England,  waged  war 
against  him  (See  TINCHEBRAY),  and  imprisoned 
him  in  Cardiff  Castle,  where  he  died  Feb.  10, 
1135.  Of  William  the  First's  other  children, 
William  (See  WILLIAM  II.)  and  Henry  (See 
HENRY  I.)  became  kings  of  England.  Richard 
died  young ;  and  of  his  daughters,  Cecilia, 
Adeliza,  Matilda,  Constance,  Adela,  and  pro- 
bably Gundred,  but  little  is  known.  William 
I.,  having  laid  claim  to  the  English  crown, 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  defeated  Harold 
II.  at  the  battle  of  Hastings  (q.  v.),  Oct.  14, 
1066,  and  was  crowned  at  Westminster  Dec. 
25.  His  queen,  Matilda,  arrived  in  England 
in  1068,  and  was  crowned  on  Whit  Sunday, 
May  ii.  She  died  Nov.  2,  1083,  and  was  buried 
at  Caen.  William  I.  died  at  Rouen  Sep.  8  or  9, 
1087,  and  was  buried  at  Caen.  He  was  sur- 
named the  Conqueror. 


WILLIAM  THE  SECOND,  the  third  son 
of  William  I.  and  his  wife  Matilda,  was  born 
about  1060 ;  succeeded  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  was  crowned  Sunday,  Sep.  26, 
1087.  He  was  killed  in  the  New  Forest,  Aug. 
2,  1 100,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester.  Wil- 
liam II.,  who  never  married,  was  surnamed 
llufus,  from  the  colour  of  his  hair. 

WILLIAM  THE  THIRD  and  MARY  THE 
SECOND.— William  III.,  son  of  William  II., 
stadtholder  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  ana 
Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  was 
born  at  the  Hague,  Nov.  4,  1650.  He  was 
made  stadtholder  of  Holland  and  Zealand  in 
July,  1672.  William  married  Mary,  daughter 
of  James,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II. 
of  England,  Nov.  4,  1677.  At  the  Revolution 
the  crown  was  offered  by  the  Convention  to 
William  and  Mary,  who  became  king  and 
queen  of  England,  Feb.  13,  1689,  and  were 
crowned  April  n.  They  reigned  jointly  until 
the  death  of  Mary,  which  took  place  Dec.  28, 
1694.  She  was  buried  at  Westminster,  March 
5,  1695.  William  III.  died  at  Kensington, 
March  8,  1702,  and  was  buried  at  Westminster 
April  12.  William  and  Mary  left  no  children. 

WILLIAM  THE  FOURTH,  Duke  of 
Clarence,  the  third  son  of  George  III.,  was 
born  Aug.  21,  1765.  He  married  the  princess 
Amelia  Adelaide  Theresa  of  Saxe-Meiningen, 
July  ii,  1818,  and  succeeded  his  brother, 
George  IV.,  as  King  of  Kngland,  June  26, 
1830.  The  coronation  took  place  Sep.  8,  1831. 
William  IV.  died  at  Windsor,  June  20,  1837, 
and  was  buried  there  July  8.  His  queen, 
who  survived  him,  died  Dec.  2,  1849.  They 
had  but  one  child,  a  daughter  (born  March  27, 
1819  ,  who  died  in  infancy. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY.-This  vessel,  ply- 
ing regularly  between  Bristol  and  Wateiford, 
struck  on  the  rocks  called  the  Willoys,  near 
the  Holmes  lighthouse,  about  n  o'clock  at 
night,  Oct.  26,  1817,  and  sank  in  a  quarter  of 
an  hour.  Sixty  persons  were  on  board,  and 
only  nine  were  saved.  They  escaped  in  a  boat 
and  landed  a  few  miles  from  Cardiff. 

WILLIAMSBURG  (N.  America).— This  city, 
between  the  York  and  James  rivers,  founded 
in  1699,  was  the  seat  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment. It  remained  the  capital  of  Virginia  till 
1779.  Battles  were  fought  here  Nov.  n,  1813, 
and  May  5,  1862. 

WILLS.  —  Testamentary  arrangements  of 
property  were  made  in  the  earliest  ages,  and 
appear  to  be  referred  to  by  Moses,  who  states 
that  Jacob  bequeathed  to  Joseph  a  portion 
above  his  brethren,  B.C.  1689  (Gen.  xlviii.  22). 
Solon  is  said  to  have  introduced  wills  into 
Greece,  B.C.  594  ;  and  they  were  first  regulated 
at  Rome  by  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
B.C.  450.  Codicils  were  introduced  by  Tre- 
batius  Testa,  B.C.  31.  Roman  wills  were  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  in  Latin  until  439,  when 
they  were  allowed  to  be  in  Greek ;  and  the 
practice  of  making  wills  was  established  by  the 
Romans  among  the  Teutonic  nations.  Lands 
were  devisable  by  wills  in  this  countiy  before 
the  Conquest ;  and  the  privilege  of  making 
wills  was  specially  sanctioned  by  Henry  I.  in 
1 1 oo.  Richard  II.  made  a  will  in  1399,  which 
is  regarded  as  the  first  royal  will  on  record, 


WILMINGTON 


[    1049    ] 


WINCHESTER 


though  it  is  asserted  that  similar  -documents 
were  prepared  by  previous  sovereigns.  Testa- 
mentary power  of  freehold  land  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Statute  of  Wills,  32  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  i  (1540),  which  was  explained  and  confirmed 
ty  34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5  (1543).  By  29 
Charles  II.  c.  3,  s.  5  (1676),  wills  of  land  are 
required  to  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  tes- 
tator, and  attested  and  subscribed  by  three  or 
four  witnesses.  The  royal  power  to  make 
wills  is  defined  by  39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  88,  s.  10 
(July  28,  1800).  The  laws  respecting  wills  and 
testaments  were  amended  and  consolidated  by 
7  Will.  IV.  and  i  Viet.  c.  26  (July  3,  1837),  which 
was  amended  by  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  24  (June  17, 
1852).  (See  EXECUTORS,  MORTMAIN,  PRERO- 
GATIVE COURT,  PROBATE  COURT,  THELUSSON 
ACT,  &c.) 

WILMINGTON  (U.  States).—  This  seaport 
town  of  Delaware  was  attacked  Dec.  24  and  25, 
1864,  by  the  Federals,  who  were  compelled  to 
retreat.  They  returned  and  effected  its  cap- 
ture Feb.  22,  1865.  (See  FORT  FISHER.) 

WILMINGTON  ADMINISTRATION.  —The 
Earl  of  Wilmington  succeeded  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Feb.  16, 
1742.  The  cabinet  was  thus  constituted  :— 

Treasury  ...........................  Earl  of  Wilmington. 

Lord  Chancellor  ..................  Lord  Hardvvicke. 

President  of  the  Council  ......  Earl  of  Harrington. 

Privy  Seal    ........................  Lord  Gower. 

Chancellor  of  Exchequer   ...Mr.,  afterwards  Lord  Sandys. 
Principal     Secretaries     of  )  Duke     of     Newcastle      and 
State  ...........................  (     Lord  Carteret. 


Ordnance  ...........................  Duke  of  Argyle. 

The  Earl  of  Wilmington  died  July  26,   1743, 
and  a  new  ministry  was  formed  by  Mr.  Pel- 
ham.     (See  PELHAM  ADMINISTRATION.) 
WILNA,  or  VILNA  (Russia),  is  the  capital 


of  a  government  of  the  same  name.  A  treaty 
by  which  Gothard  Kettler,  last  grand  master 
of  the  Livonian  knights,  ceded  Livonia  to 
Poland,  was  signed  here  in  1561.  Protestants 
were  admitted  to  equal  privileges  with  Roman 
Catholics  by  the  diet  assembled  at  Vilna  in 
1563.  A  truce  between  Russia  and  Poland 
was  agreed  to  here  in  1656.  The  university 
was  founded  in  1803.  The  town  was  occupied 
by  Napoleon  I.  on  his  march  to  Moscow,  June 
28,  1812  ;  and  the  remnant  of  his  army,  on 
their  return  in  Dec.,  were  driven  out  by  the 

WILTON  (Wiltshire^,  formerly  capital  of 
the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Wessex,  was  the  scene 
of  a  victory  gained  over  the  Danes  by  Alfred, 
in  871.  It  was  plundered  and  burned  by  the 
Danes  in  1003.  By  the  dismemberment  of 
Sherborne,  in  909,  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  which  was  reunited  to  Sherborne  in 
1058.  A  new  church  was  erected  in  1844.  (£>ee 
ELLANDUNE,  Battle.) 

WIMBLEDON.—  (See  NATIONAL  RIFLE  ASSO- 
CIATION, VOLUNTEERS,  WIBBANDUNE,  &c.) 

WIMPFEN  (Battle).  —  Tilly  defeated  the 
Margrave  of  Baden  at  this  town  in  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  May  6,  1622. 

WINCHELSEA  (Sussex).—  It  is  not  known 
whether  this  town  existed  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  though  it  is  mentioned  as  an  im- 
portant place  under  the  Saxons.  Under  the 


Norman  sovereigns,  Winchelsea  became  one 
of  the  chief  ports  for  communication  with 
France,  and  it  was  added  to  the  Cinque  Ports 
(q.  v.)  March  27,  1191.  Much  injury  was  done 
to  the  town  by  sevei-e  storms  and  inundations 
in  1236,  and  Oct.  i,  1250 ;  and  in  1266  it  was 
almost  ruined  by  the  severity  with  which 
Prince  Edward  suppressed  the  frequent  pira- 
cies of  which  the  inhabitants  were  guilty. 
The  old  town  was  finally  destroyed  by  an  in- 
undation in  1287,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
king  granted  a  charter  for  the  erection  of  a 
new  port  in  the  adjacent  manor  of  Iham. 
Edward  III.  and  the  Black  Prince  defeated 
the  Spanish  in  a  sea-fight  off  the  modern  town 
of  Winchelsea,  Aug.  29,  1350.  The  town  was 
burned  by  the  French  in  1377,  and  March  15, 
1380.  In  1404  the  walls  were  repaired,  and  in 
1449  the  French  again  landed,  and  burned  the 
place.  Camber  Castle,  two  miles  north-east 
of  Winchelsea,  was  built  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1539.  In  1582  the  town  is  mentioned  as  already 
in  a  state  of  decay,  and  it  has  lost  all  trace  of 
its  former  importance.  The  manufacture  of 
cambric  was  introduced  in  1761. 

WINCHESTER  (Bishopric).  —  Birinus  was 
appointed  first  bishop  of  the  West  Saxons  at 
Dorchester,  by  Cynegils,  King  of  Wessex,  in 
635.  In  650  the  diocese  was  divided  into  two 
sees,  one  of  which  was  fixed  at  Winchester, 
and  in  676  the  sees  were  re-united  and  settled 
in  Winchester.  In  705  another  division  oc- 
curred, part  of  the  diocese  being  erected  into 
a  new  bishopric  at  Sherborne  (q.  v.),  and  the 
remainder  being  entrusted  to  Daniel,  who  thus 
became  the  first  bishop  of  Winchester. 

WINCHESTER  (Hampshire),  the  Venta  Bel- 
garum  of  the  Romans.  The  origin  of  this 
city  was  attributed  by  tradition  to  Ludor 
Rous  Hudibras,  King  of  the  Britons,  B.C.  892, 
and  there  is  sufficient  reason  for  believing  that 
it  really  was  founded  by  the  first  Celtic  in- 
habitants of  the  island,  by  whom  it  was  called 
Caer  Gwent,  or  White  City.  It  subsequently 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Belgae,  by  whom 
it  was  occupied  at  the  period  of  Julius  Caesar's 
invasion,  B.C.  55.  The  Christian  king  Lucius, 
who  flourished  in  181,  is  reported  to  have 
erected  a  church  or  cathedral  at  Winchester, 
which  was  destroyed  during  the  persecution 
of  304,  but  was  afterwards  rebuilt.  In  516  the 
city  was  taken  by  Cerdic,  who  converted  the 
church  into  a  temple  of  the  Saxon  gods,  and 
in  519  erected  the  city  into  the  capital  of  his 
new  kingdom  of  Wessex,  under  the  name  of _ 
Winchester.  Cynegils  founded  the  cathedral ' 
in  635,  and  it  was  consecrated  by  St.  Birinus, 
apostle  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  their  first 
bishop,  in  648.  Egbert  erected  Winchester 
into  the  capital  of  England  in  827,  and  it 
maintained  the  distinction  throughout  the 
Saxon  period.  In  871  the  Danes  ravaged  the 
city  and  massacred  the  inhabitants.  It  was 
restored  by  Alfred  the  Great  (871—901).  St. 
Ethelwold  completed  ,  a  restoration  of  the 
cathedral  in  980;  and  in  1013  the  city  surren- 
dered to  Sweyn.  William  I.  founded  the 
castle  before  1070,  and  in  1079  Bishop  Walkelin 
commenced  the  rebuilding  of  the  cathedral, 
which  was  completed  in  1093.  Councils  were 
held  at  Winchester  in  Nov.,  855 ;  in  968  or  975 ; 


WINCHESTER  BUSHEL 


[     1050    ] 


WINDSOR 


in  1021;  in  1070  ;  April  i,  1076;  Aug.  25,  1139; 
and  April  7,  1141.      Winchester  attained  its 

ratest  prosperity  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
(noo — 35).  Several  kings  were  crowned 
here  (See  CORONATION),  and  it  was  generally 
the  meeting  place  of  the  Parliament,  when  it 
extended  a  mile  in  every  direction  beyond  its  | 
present  limits.  The  hospital  of  St.  Cross  was  - 
founded  in  1132  by  Henry  de  Blois,  Bishop  of 
the  diocese,  and  Wolvesey  Castle  in  1138.  The 
treaty  of  Winchester,  between  Stephen  and 
Matilda,  was  signed  Nov.  7,  1153.  (.-• 
STABLE,  ENGLAND,  &c.)  The  selection  of  Lon- 
don us  the  capital  of  England  in  1156,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII. 
in  1536  and  1539,  caused  the  decline  of  tiiis 
city.  It  was  taken  by  Oliver  Cromwell  in 
Sep.,  1645,  and  was  much  favoured  by  Charles 
II.,  who  founded  a  royal  palace,  which  was 
intended  to  be  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
March  23,  1683,  but  which  was  discontinued 
on  the  death  of  the  king.  The  cathedral  was 
renovated  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne, 
and  the  guildhall  was  founded  in  1711.  The 
unfinished  palace  of  Charles  II.  was  converted 
into  military  barracks  in  1810.  The  old  city 
cross,  erected  in  the  i$th  century,  was  restored 
in  1866. 

WIXCIIKSTKH  UrSIIKL.— (See  BVSIIKL.) 

WIXCHKSTKU  SCHOOL. --St.  Mary  College 
of  Winchester  was  founded  in  connection  with 
New  College,  Oxford,  by  William  of  Wykeham 
(William  Long  ,  bishop  of  the  diocese,  in  1387. 
The  charter  is  dated  Oct.,  1382.  The  building, 
commenced  March  26,  1387,  was  completed  in 
1393.  A  school  existed  at  Winchester  at  a 
much  earlier  period. 

WIMHXG-Ul'  ACTS,  to  facilitate  the  dis- 
solution of  joint-stock  companies  and  other 
partnerships,  were  amended  by  n  &  12  Viet. 
c.  45  (Aug.  14,  1848  .  This  act  was  amended 
by  12  &  13  Viet.  c.  108  lAug.  i,  1849).  Those 
acts  were  repealed,  and  the  laws  regarding 
such  associations  remodelled,  by  19  <fo  20  Viet. 
c.  47  (July  14,  1856),  which  was  amended  by 
20  &  21  Viet.  c.  14  (July  13,  1857).  Another 
act  (25  &  26  Viet.  c.  89)  was  passed  Aug.  7, 
1862.  It  came  into  operation  Nov.  2. 

WINDMILLS,  of  oriental  origin,  are  said  to 
have  been  used  in  Hungary  before  718.  They 
were  introduced  into  England  and  France 
about  1040,  and  were  used  for  drainage  pur- 
poses in  Holland  soon  after  1408.  The  earliest 
windmills  were  constructed  to  turn  completely 
round,  the  movable  top  being  a  Flemish  im- 
provement of  the  1 6th  century. 

WINDOWS.— The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans  seldom  used  windows  in  their  houses 
and  temples,  the  principal  rooms  of  which 
were  mostly  lighted  from  above.  Those  that 
did  exist  were  small,  being  originally  mere 
openings  in  the  wall,  closed  by  shutters. 
Sometimes  they  were  covered  with  lattice  or 
network,  and  sometimes  by  plates  or  trans- 
parent stone.  Glass  windows  were  found  at 
Pompeii,  which  was  overwhelmed  in  79,  and 
were  reinvented  about  the  3rd  century,  and 
introduced  into  England  by  Benedict  Biscop 
in  674.  (See  GLASS.)  The  form  of  the  windows 
is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
Gothic  architecture.  Windows  were  first  taxed 


in  this  country  by  6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  18  (1695). 
The  duty  was  increased  by  20  Geo.  II.  c.  3 
(1746),  amended  by  21  Geo.  II.  c.  10  (1748^,  and 
further  increased  by  the  Tea-commutation 
Act,  24  Geo.  HI.  sess.  2,  c.  38  (1784).  It  was 
again  raised  by  37  Geo.  III.  c.  105  (July  19, 


1797);  by  42600.    III.   c.  34   (April  15,    1802); 
Jim 

1823), 

and  was  repealed  by  14  &  15  Viet.  c.  36  (July 


aiid  by  48  Geo.  III.  c.  55  (J'uiie  i,  1808).    It  was 
reduced  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  n  (March  19, 


24,  1851). 

WINDS.— The  existence  of  the  trade  winds 
was  first  ascertained  by  Columbus  at  the  end 
of  the  isth  century,  and  they  were  first  cor- 
rectly explained  on  scientific  principles  by 
George  Hadley  in  the  "  Philosophical  Tran- 
sactions" for  1735.  (See  STI>. 

WINDSOR  (Berkshire)  derives  its  name 
from  the  Saxon  town  of  Windlcshora,  which 
was  situated  about,  two  miles  from  the  present 
town,  and  was  granted  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (1043 — 66)  to  the  monks  of  Westminster. 
William  I.  received  it  in  exchange  for  Woken- 
dune,  in  Essex,  soon  after  his  accession  in 
1066,  and  commenced  the  erection  of  the 
castle,  where  he  held  his  court  at  Whitsuntide, 
1070.  A  council  was  held  at  Windsor  April  26, 
1114.  The  fortifications  and  buildings  were 
much  extended  by  Henry  I.  (noo — 35),  and  in 
1216  King  John  successfully  defended  the 
castle  against  the  barons.  Henry  III.  founded 
a  chapel,  the  original  of  St.  George's  chapel,  in 
1240.  Edward  I.  erected  the  town  into  a  free 
Id  trough  in  1276,  and  the  chapel  was  refounded 
by  Ivlward  III.,  who  obtained  a  papal  bull 
sanctioning  the  act,  Nov.  30,  1351.  Tin 
monarch  caused  William  of  Wykeham  tore- 
build  the  castle  about  1360,  and  made  it  the 
scat  of  his  newly -founded  order  of  the  Garter 
Edward.  IV.  commenced  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  chapel  in  1474,  which  was  continued 
by  succeeding  sovereigns  until  it  was  com- 
pleted by  Henry  VIII.  (1509—47).  Parliaments 
were  frequently  held  here.  Elizabeth  con- 
structed the  terrace,  and  in  1572  erected  the 
gate  on  the  hill  next  the  town;  and  a  new 
gallery  and  banqueting-house  were  added  soon 
after  1576.  The  park  and  forest  were  surveyed 
in  1605,  and  various  improvements  were  made 
by  Charles  I.  in  1635.  The  chapel  was  entered 
by  a  Parliamentary  force  Oct.  23,  1642,  and  was 
afterwards  much  injured  by  the  Puritans  ;  and 
the  castle  was  the  prison  of  Charles  I.  (5.  v.) 
from  Dec.  22,  1648,  to  Jan.  19,  1649.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  made  several  improvements 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  who  refaced 
the  terrace  with  stone  in  1676,  and  erected  an 
equestrian  statue  of  himself  in  1680.  The 
Queen's  Walk  was  formed  in  1707,  and  the 
drive  along  the  Long  Walk  in  1710.  The 
Queen's  Lodge  was  completed  in  1782,  and  the 
interior  of  St.  George's  chapel  was  newly 
decorated  in  1787.  The  royal  vault  was  con- 
structed in  1810.  George  IV.  laid  the  first 
stone  of  several  important  alterations  Aug. 
12,  1824,  and  resumed  his  residence  in  the 
improved  building  Dec.  9,  1828.  The  royal 
stables  were  erected  in  1839,  at  a  cost  of 
£70,000.  A  fire  which  broke  out  in  the  Prince 
of  Wales's  Tower,  March  19,  1853,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  heat  of  the  flues,  was  quenched 


WINDSOR 


[    1051    ] 


WISCONSIN 


without  causing  much  damage.  Prince  Albert 
died  at  Windsor  Castle,  Saturday,  Dec.  14, 1861, 
and  his  body  was  temporarily  placed  in  the 
vaults  of  St.  George's  chapel.  (See  ALBERT 
MAUSOLEUM.)  The  Royal  Free  and  Industrial 
Schools  were  inaugurated  April  21,  1862.  (See 
POOR  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR.) 

WINDSOR  (Treaty).— The  treaty  between 
Henry  VIII.  and  the  Emperor,  signed  at 
Bruges,  was  ratified  at  Windsor  in  June,  1522. 

WINDWARD  ISLANDS.— (See  ANTILLES,  or 
CARIBBEE  ISLANDS,  <fcc.) 

WINE.— Noah  made  wine  B.C.  2347  (Gen.  ix. 
20—21),  and  commentators  believe  that  the 
art  was  known  to  the  antediluvians.  The 
Egyptians  ascribed  the  invention  to  Osiris, 
whose  worship  was  instituted  about  B.C.  2100  ; 
and  the  Chinese  state  that  rice  wine  was 
manufactured  by  their  king  Ching  Noung  B.C. 
1998.  The  Greeks  and  other  classical  nations 
regarded  Bacchus,  or  Dionysius,  who  was 
reputed  to  have  flourished  about  B.C.  1457,  as 
the  earliest  wine-maker.  The  Jews  esteemed 
the  wines  of  Lebanon  and  Helbon  ;  the  Greeks 
those  of  Lesbos,  Chios,  and  the  other  islands 
of  the  archipelago  ;  and  the  Romans  the  cele- 
brated Falemian  and  Cccuban.  Ancient  people 
mixed  their  wine  with  sea-water,  asafcetida, 
and  tar,  and  exhibited  great  discrimination 
in  their  preference  of  the  vintages  of  certain 
years.  The  production  of  wine  commenced  in 
France  soon  after  B.C.  600,  when  the  culture  of 
the  vine  (q.  v.)  was  introduced  at  Marseilles. 
Provence,  Dauphiny,  Languedoc,  and  Au- 
'  vergne  were  celebrated  for  their  vintage  as 
early  as  B.C.  120.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
and  Saxons,  wine  was  made  in  England  ;  but 
the  manufacture  gradually  declined,  and, 
about  1154,  the  importation  of  wine  from 
Bordeaux  commenced.  Hippoci-as,  a  mix- 
ture of  wine  and  spices,  was  much  admired 
during  the  Plantagenet  period.  Wine  was 
exported  from  Madeira  before  1460,  and 
Ratafie  wine  was  introduced  into  France  from 
Italy  in  1533.  Sack,  or  sherry,  from  Xeres  in 
Spain,  Canary,  and  Malaga  were  the  popular 
wines  of  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries.  The 
wines  of  Portugal  were  first  imported  about 
1600,  and  Champagne  (q.  v.}  came  into  use  in 
the  1 8th  century.  The  art  of  making  raisin 
wine  was  introduced  into  this  country  in 
1635,  and  port  came  into  use  about  1690.  The 
practice  of  importing  this  wine  qualified  with 
brandy  commenced  in  1715,  and  led  to  many 
abuses  in  the  wine-trade,  which  were  much 
increased  by  the  monopoly  established  in 
favour  of  the  Oporto  company,  Sep.  10,  1756. 
The  Catawba  wine  of  the  United  States  came 
into  notice  about  1826.  Unsuccessful  attempts 
to  introduce  Masdew  as  a  substitute  for  port 
were  made  in  1832.  The  original  Oporto  com- 
pany, abolished  by  Don  Pedro  in  1833,  was 
re-established  April  7,  1838.  It  was  finally 
abolished  in  Oct.,  1852.  Australian  wine  of 
excellent  quality  received  medals  from  the 
Society  of  Arts  in  1856.  Many  statutes  have 
been  enacted  for  regulating  the  duties  on 
wine,  one  of  the  earliest  of  which  is  7  Hen. 
VII.  c.  8  (1490).  Wine-dealers  were  compelled 
to  take  out  a  licence  by  12  Charles  II.  c.  25 
[1660].  The  policy  of  taxing  French  wines  at 


(ff.  * 
Frei 


a  higher  rate  than  the  wines  of  other  countries 
was  commenced  by  4  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  5  (1692), 
when  an  additional  duty  of  £8  per  tun  was 
imposed.  This  differential  duty  was  increased 
by  subsequent  acts,  and  was  rendered  per- 
manent in  1703  by  the  Methuen  treaty 
William  Pitt  reduced  the  duties  on 
nch  wines  nearly  one-half,  and  on  other 
wines  nearly  a  third,  by  26  Geo.  III.  c.  59 
(1786).  They  were  again  increased  ios.  6d. 
per  gallon  on  French  wines,  and  6s.  id.  on 
Spanish  and  Portuguese,  by  36  Geo.  III.  c. 
123  (May  19,  1796).  Mr.  Robinson,  afterwards 
Lord  Ripon,  reduced  them  to  js.  3^.  and 
45.  lod.  per  gallon  on  French  and  other  foreign 
wines,  and  23.  5^.  on  the  produce  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  104  (July  5, 
1825) ;  and  by  the  Equalization  Act,  i  &  2  Will. 
IV.  c.  30  (Oct.  5,  1831),  all  foreign  wines  were 
rated  at  s«.  6d.  per  gallon,  and  Cape  wines  at 
2S.  gd.  By  the  commercial  treaty  concluded 
with  France  Jan.  23,  1860,  the  duties  on  wines 
were  reduced  to  35.  per  gallon  until  Jan.  i, 
1 86 1,  when  a  scale  of  is.,  is.  6d.,  and  2S.  per 
gallon,  according  to  the  amount  of  proof  spirit 
contained  in  the  wine,  and  of  33.  per  gallon  on 

ine  in  bottles,  came  into  operation.  Wine 
licences  were  granted  to  refreshment-houses  by 
23  Viet.  c.  27  (June  14,  1860).  (See  GAUGING, 
HEIDELBERG,  &c.) 

WINTERTHUR  (Switzerland),  for  some 
time  a  free  and  an  imperial  city,  has  belonged 
to  Zurich  since  1467. 

WINWIDFIELD  (Battle).— Penda,  King  of 
Mercia,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  this  place, 
near  Leeds,  by  Oswy,  King  of  Northumber- 
land, in  655. 

WIPPEDSFLEET  (Battle).— Hengist,  the 
Saxon,  gained  his  first  victory  over  the  Britons, 
led  by  Vortimer,  in  466.  He  named  the  field 
after  Wipped,  one  of  his  principal  officers,  who 
fell  in  the  engagement. 

WIRE  was  originally  formed  by  hammering 
the  metal  on  an  anvil,  and  its  manufacture  by 
drawing  is  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Augs- 
burg in  1351,  and  in  that  of  Nuremberg  in 
1360.  A  large  drawing-machine  driven  by 
water,  believed  to  have  been  the  invention 
of  a  person  named  Rodolph,  was  constructed 
at  Nuremberg  about  1400.  Anthony  Fournier, 
a  Frenchman,  improved  the  art  in  1570.  Fine 
gold  and  silver  wire,  for  spinning  round  silk 
and  for  weaving,  was  made  by  Frederick  Held 
at  Nuremberg  in  1592,  and  after  the  patent  for 
securing  his  -process  had  been  several  times 
renewed,  it  was  converted  into  a  fief  for  the 
heirs  male  of  the  family,  Sep.  26,  1622.  In 
England,  wire  was  manufactured  by  the  hand 
till  the  art  of  drawing  it  was  introdxiced  by 
foreigners  in  1565.  The  first  flatting-mill  was 
erected  at  Sheen,  near  Richmond,  by  a  Dutch- 
man, in  1663.  (See  GOLD  AND  SILVER  WIRE 
DRAWERS,  PINS,  ROPE-MAKING,  SCREW,  <fec.) 

WIRTEMBERG.— (See  WURTEMBERG.) 

WISCONSIN  (U.  States)  was  visited  by  the 
French  about  1660,  and  continued  nominally 
in  their  possession  till  ceded  to  England  in 
1763.  It  was  erected  into  a  territorial  govern- 
ment in  1836,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a  state  in  1848.  Its  constitution  was  confirmed 
by  a  popular  convention  in  April,  1848. 


WISMAR 


[    1052    ] 


WITHAM 


WISMAR  (Germany).— An  alliance  between 
France  and  Sweden  against  Austria  was  con- 
cluded at  this  town  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
March  20,  1636.  The  town,  founded  in  1229, 
was  granted  to  Sweden  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, Oct.  24,  1648,  and  purchased  from 
Sweden  by  Schwerin  for  1,200,000  dollars,  in 

1  WISSEHRAD  (Battle).— The  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  having  abandoned  the  siege  of  Prague, 
held  by  the  Hussites,  was  attacked  at  this 
place,  in  the  vicinity,  by  Ziska,  their  leader, 
and  totally  defeated,  July  14,  1420. 

WITCHCRAFT.—  The  Mosaic  law  enjoined 
death  as  the  penalty  of  witchcraft,  B.C.  1491 
(Exod.  xxii.  18)  ;  but  commentators  are  of 
opinion  that  the  offence  thus  denounced  was 
united  with  idolatry  and  also  with  the  crime 
of  poisoning.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  witch 
is  that  of  Endor,  whom  Saul  employed  to  raise 
the  spirit  of  Samuel,  B.C.  1055  (i  Sam.  xxviii. 
7 — 25).  Dr.  Mackay,  in  his  "  Memoirs  of 
Extraordinary  Popular  Delusions,"  says : — 
"Europe,  for  a  period  of  two  centuries  and 
a  half,  brooded  upon  the  idea,  not  only  that 
parted  spirits  walked  the  earth  to  meddle  in 
the  affairs  of  men,  but  that  men  had  power 
to  summon  evil  spirits  to  their  aid,  to  work 

woe  upon  their  fellows Thousands 

upon  thousands  of  unhappy  persons  fell  vic- 
tims to  this  cruel  and  absurd  delusion.  In 
many  cities  of  Germany,  the  average  number 
of  executions  for  this  pretended  crime  was 
600  annually,  or  two  every  day,  if  we  leave 
out  the  Sundays,  wThen  it  is  to  be  supposed 
that  even  this  madness  refrained  from  its 
work." 


1234-  Tne  Stedingers,  a  tribe  of  Frieslanders,  are  exter- 
minated by  order  of  the  Pope  and  Frederick  II. 
of  Germany,  as  a  nation  of  witches. 

1307.  The  Templars  are  suppressed  throughout  France  on 
a  charge  of  sorcery. 

1431,  May  30.  Joan  of  Arc  is  burnedat  Kouen  as  a  witch. 

<»<•   lit   KMNti    ALIVK.) 

1440.  Gilles  de  Ketz,  a  marshal  of  France,  is  burned  for 
sorcery.  Assisted  by  an  English  and  an  Italian 
sorcerer,  he  was  in  the  habit  of 
children  to  the  demons  in  order  to  obtain  gold 
and  power,  and  the  bones  of  140  children  were 
found  in  his  ensiles. 

1459.  The  Valdenses  are  persecuted  at  Arras  as  witches. 

1487.  Two   old  women   are  burned   at   Constance,   on  a 

charge  of  having  raised  a  .storm  which  had  oc- 
casioned much  loss  of  property. 

1488.  Innocent  VIII.  issues  a  bull   appointing  Inquisitors 

for  the  suppression  of  witchcraft. 
1494.  Alexander   VI.    nominates    a   commission    against 

witches. 

1515.  About  500  persons  are  burned  in  Geneva.as  witches. 
1521.  Leo  X.  issues  a  commission. 
1524.  A  thousand  victims  to  the  witch  mania  perish  at 

Como. 
1541.  Witchcraft  employed  against  the  lives  of  others  is 

declared  felony  in  England,  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8. 

1561.  Five  women  are  burned  at  Verneuil  011  a  charge  of 

having  changed  themselves  into  cats. 

1562.  All  witchcraft  is  declared  a  crime  of  the  highest 

magnitude  by  5  Eliz.  c.  16. 

1571.  Trois  Echelles  is  burned  at  Paris,  for  having,  on  his 
own  confession,  sold  himself  to  the  devil.  Tins 
man  stated  that  he  bad  1,200  accomplices,  and 
accused  many  persons,  who  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted. 

!573i  Jan.  18.  Gilles  Garnier  is  condemned  to  be  burned 
at  D61e,  as  a  loup-garou,  or  man-wolf,  in  which 
capacity  he  was  accused  of  cannibalism. 


593,  April  7.  Execution  .of  the  Warbois  witches,  an  old 
woman  and  her  husband  and  daughter,  for 
witchcraft.  Their  property  was  confiscated.  ;i 
portion  being  devoted  to  endow  an  annual  lecture 
by  A  doctor  of  (Queen's  College,  (.'ambriii-v,  on 
the  enormity  of  witchcraft.  This  lecture  \va> 
delivered  as  late  as  1718. 

597.  James  VI.  of  Scotland  publishes  his  work  on 
Uamionologie  ut  Edinburgh. 

1604.  Further  measures  are  taken  for  suppressing  witch- 
craft by  i  or  2  James  I.  c.  12. 

617.  The  marechale  d'Ancre  suffers  at  Paris  in  conse- 
quc-iice  of  the  machinations  of  Mary  de  Medici, 
who  is  afraid  of  losing  her  influence  over  tho 
mind  of  Louis  XII  I. 

634.  The  Lancashire  witches,  viz.,  eight  people,  are  exe- 
cuted on  the  evidence  of  the  boy  Kobinson, 
resident  at  I'endle  Forot,  Lancashire. 

1644.  Matthew  Hopkins,   the  witch-finder  general,  flou- 
rishes. 
652.  The   last  execution    for  witchcraft  in    Protestant 

Switzerland  takes  place  at  Geneva. 

654.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  forbids  the  torture  of 
supposed  witches,  and  denounces  the  swimming 
test  as  unjust  and  cruel. 

1664.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  condemns  two  women  to  the 
slake  as  witches. 

1669.  In  Sweden  supposed  witches  are  cruelly  treated. 

1692.  A  cruel  persecution  of  supposed  witches  takes  place 
in  New  England. 

1716.  A  woman  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine  years,  are 
hanged  at  Huntingdon  for  selling  thci'r  souls  to 
Satan.  This  is  the  last  judicial  execution  in 
England  for  witchcraft. 

I722-  The  last  execution  for  witchcraft  in  Scotland  takes 
place. 

1736.  The  capital  sentence  against  witchcraft  is  abolished 
bygGeo.  II.  c.  5. 

1749.  A  cruel  persecution  of  supposed  witches  takes  place 
at  WOnbdrg,  in  Germany. 

1751,  July  30.  An  old  woman  named  Osborne  is  drowned 
at  Tring  by  the  people  as  u  witch.  (See  MAGIC.) 


W1TENAGEMOT,  or  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE 

WISH  MKN.  This  was  the  great  council  of 
our  Anglo-Saxon  kings.  Instances  of  its 
meeting  are  recorded  in  the  reign  of  Ina, 
Kin-'  of  Wcssex  (688—727.  King  Alfred 
(871 — 901)  ordained  that  it  should  meet  twice 
in  the  year,  or  oftener  if  needful;  and  Edward 
the  Elder  held  one  at,  Exeter  in  qi8.  The 
witenagemot  outlawed  the  family  of  Godwin, 
Earl  of  Kent,  in  1043,  and  restored  them  in 

IOWITENAGEMOT  CLUB  (London^  assembled 
at  the  Chapter  Coffee  House,  in  Paternoster 
Row,  in  the  i8th  century.  It  was  the  favourite 
resort  of  publishers,  booksellers,  critics,  and 
literary  hacks.  The  Chapter  Coffee  House  was 
converted  into  a  tavern  in  1854. 

\\1TKPSK,  or  VITEBSK  (Russia).  —  The 
Russians,  to  the  number  of  80,000,  under 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  retreated  to  this  place  in 
Russia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dwina,  July 
25,  1812.  They  broke  up  their  camp  within 
sight  of  the  French  army,  and  commenced 
their  march  towards  Smolenskow,  to  effect 
a  junction  with  Bagration,  July  27.  The 
French,  having  taken  possession,  were  driven 
out  by  Wittgenstein,  Nov.  7.  An  engagement 
between  the  troops  in  its  neighbourhood, 
resulting  in  a  loss  on  each  side  of  3,000  men, 
proved  rather  favourable  to  the  Russians, 
Nov.  14,  1812. 

WITHAM  (Essex),  believed  to  have  been  a 
Roman  station,  was  fortified  by  Edward  the 
Elder  in  913. 


WITNESSES 


[     1053 


WOMAN 


WITNESSES.— By  the  law  of  Moses,  two,  at 
least,  were  required  to  establish  a  question  of 
fact.  A  false  witness  was  to  suffer  the  punish- 
ment due  to  the  offence  of  which  he  made 
accusation  (Deut.  xix.  15  —  19),  B.C.  1451. 
Amongst  the  Romans  and  some  other  nations, 
it  was  the  custom  to  cuff  witnesses  and  pull 
their  ears,  in  order  to  make  them  remember 
their  evidence.  Witnesses  were  seldom  called 
at  trials  in  this  country,  the  jurors  usually 
deciding  from  their  own  knowledge  of  the 
prisoner,  and  of  the  facts  of  the  case.  The 
first  traces  of  the  present  practice  in  that 
respect  occur  about  1349.  It  was  fully  estab- 
lished by  the  middle  of  the  isth  century.  By 
the  ancient  practice  of  most  European  coun- 
tries, the  evidence  of  women  was  inadmissible  ; 
and  in  Switzerland,  as  late  as  1824,  the  testi- 
mony of  fcwo  women  was  only  considered 
equivalent  to  that  of  one  man.  Disqualifica- 
tion arising  from  criminal  conviction  was 
removed  by  Lord  Denman's  act  (6  &  7  Viet, 
c.  85),  Aug.  22,  1843.  By  16  <fe  17  Viet,  c,  83 
(Aug.  20,  1853),  husbands  and  wives  are  com- 
pellable  to  give  evidence  for  or  against  each 
other,  except  in  criminal  cases. 

WITSAND,  or  WISSANT  (France).— Believed 
to  be  the  Portus  Itius  whence  Julius  Caesar 
sailed  for  the  invasion  of  Britain,  B.C.  55.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  near  Cape  Grisnez, 
between  Calais  and  Boulogne.  Other  authori- 
ties say  Julius  Csesar  sailed  from  Gesoriacum, 
now  Boulogne,  Aug.  25,  B.C.  55. 

WITTEKINDSBURG  (Hanover)  was  made 
a  bishopric  by  Charlemagne  in  783.  Osnaburg 
is  supposed  to  occupy  its  site. 

WITTELSBACH  (Germany).— A  castle  was 
built  at  this  place  in  Bavaria,  near  Augsburg, 
in  i TOO.  It  was  destroyed  in  1208. 

WITTENBERG  (Prussia).— The  capitulation 
of  Wittenberg,  between  John  Frederick, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Charles  V.,  was  signed 
May  19,  1547,  and  the  town  surrendered  May 

20.  It  surrendered  to  the  Imperial  army  Aug. 

21,  1759,  and  having  been  bombarded  by  the 
Imperialists,  capitulated  Oct.  14,  1760.      The 
French  took  possession,   making  it   a  dep6t 
for  ammunition  and  provisions,  in  Oct.,  1806. 
It  refused  to  surrender  on  the  summons  of 
Col.  Schill  in  1809  ;  was  besieged  Sep.  15,  1813 
by  the  Allies,  who  were  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege  in  Oct.    Again  besieged  by  the  Allies,  it 
was  taken  by  assault  Jan.  15,   1814,  and  was 
ceded  to  Prussia  May  18,  1815.  The  university, 
in  which   Luther  and   Melancthou  held  pro- 
fessorships,  was    established    in    1502.      The 
university  of    Halle   (q.  v.)  was  incorporated 
with  it  in  1815.     The  colossal  statue  of  Luther 
in  the  market-place  was  erected  in  1821.     (See 
CONSISTORY,  KIRCHENTAG,  LUTHERANS,  &c.) 

WITTSTOCK  (Battle).— The  Imperial  troops, 
commanded  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  were 
attacked  and  routed  by  the  Swedes,  under 
Gen.  Baner,  at  this  place  in  Brandenburg, 
Sep.  24,  1636.  Five  thousand  Austrians  and 
Saxons  fell  on  the  field,  7,000  were  taken 
prisoners,  and  an  immense  amount  of  ammu- 
nition and  baggage  was  captured. 

WOBURN  (England).— This  town  of  Bed- 
fordshire was  gradually  formed  around  the 
Cistercian  abbey  founded  in  1145.  Its  site 


was  granted  to  Lord  Russell  by  Edward  VI. 
n  1547.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  fh-e  in 
1724.  Woburn  Abbey  was  rebuilt  in  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century.  The  market- 
louse  was  rebuilt  in  1830. 
WOLFENBUTTEL  (Brunswick).— The 
rds  of  Wolfenbuttel  had  a  castle  here  at  an 
early  period,  and  it  was  the  ducal  palace  from 
1283  to  1754.  The  library  was  founded  in  1558. 
Sear  the  town  Guebriant  defeated  the  Impe- 
rialists in  1641.  A  monument  has  been 
erected  to  Lessing,  who  was  appointed  libra- 
rian here  in  1770,  and  died  Feb.  15,  1781.  (See 
BRUNSWICK  -  WOLFENBUTXEL,  SILVER  BOOK, 
&c.) 

WOLF  FESTIVAL.— (See  LUPERCALIA.) 
WOLF  MADNESS.— (See  LYCANTHROPIA.) 
WOLLIN   (Prussia).— This  seaport  town  of 
Stettin  was  in  a  flourishing  condition  as  early 
as  776.     It  received  the  inhabitants  of  Wineta, 
on  the  destruction  of  that  place  in  805,  and  the 
bishopric   was  founded    by  Otho,   Bishop  of 
Bamberg  in  1125.     Vlademar  I.  of  Denmark 
destroyed  Wollin  in  1177. 

WOLODOMIR.— (See  VLADIMIR.) 
WOLVERHAMPTON  (Staffordshire)  was 
called  Wulfrune's  Hampton,  from  Wulfruna, 
sister  of  King  Edgar,  who  founded  a  monas- 
tery here  in  996.  It  became  a  collegiate  church 
with  a  dean  and  prebendaries,  was  annexed 
to  Windsor  by  Edward  IV.  (1461—83),  and 
abolished  in  1846.  It  received  a  charter  of 
incorporation  in  1847.  The  free  grammar-school 
was  founded  by  Sir  Stephen  Jenyns  in  1513, 
and  the  Bluecoat-school  about  1710.  St.  John's 
church  was  erected  in  1755;  St.  George's 
church  in  1830  ;  and  the  South  Staffordshire 
Hospital,  at  a  cost  of  ^18,000,.  in  1848.  The 
cemetery  was  opened  in  1851 ;  and  the  Orphan 
Asylum  was  built  at  a  cost  of  ,£9,000,  in  1854. 
Queen  Victoria  unveiled  the  statue  of  Prince 
Albert  Nov.  30,  1866. 

WOLVES  were  so  numerous  in  some  parts 
of  England  that  a  retreat  for  passing  travellers 
was  erected  at  a  place  called  Flixton,  in  the 
reign  of  Athelstan  (925 — 940).  They  were 
nearly  extirpated  in  the  reign  of  King  Edgar 
(957 — 75)i  wno  imposed  an  annual  tribute  of 
300  wolves'  heads  upon  Ludwal,  Prince  of 
Wales.  Sir  Evan  Cameron  killed  the  last 
seen  in  Scotland  in  1680.  They  were  extir- 
pated in  Ireland  about  1710.  (See  GEORGIA, 
JANUARY,  &c.) 

WOMAN.— From  the  circumstance  that  the 
chapters  of  the  Bible  which  treat  of  the 
incidents  immediately  after  the  Fall  contain 
scarcely  any  allusion  to  women,  it  has  bfeen 
inferred  that  the  female  character  was  then 
held  in  very  low  estimation.  Among  the 
pastoral  nations  of  the  primitive  ages,  women 
tended  the  flocks  and  herds,  drew  water,  and 
performed  other  menial  offices.  The  Egyptians 
treated  women  with  considerable  kindness, 
and  employed  them  in  weaving  and  spinning  ; 
and  the  Jewish  law,  though  severe  in  the  case  of 
female  offences,  afforded  them  ample  protec- 
tion, and  assigned  them  an  important  position 
in  the  national  and  social  economy.  Smith 
(Smaller  Dictionary  of  the  Bible),  referring  to 
the  position  of  woman  in  the  Hebrew  common- 
wealth, and  contrasting  it  with  that  which  she 


WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD 


1054    -] 


WOODS 


generally  occupies  amongst  Eastern  nations, 
remarks,  —  "Rebekah  travelled  on  a  cainel 
with  her  face  unveiled,  until  she  came  into  the 
presence  of  her  affianced  (Gen.  xxiv.  64-5) ; 
Jacob  saluted  Rachel  with  a  kiss  in  the 
presence  of  the  shepherds  (Gen.  xxix.  n). 
Women  played  no  inconsiderable  part  in  public 
celebrations  (Exod.  xv.  20^1 ;  Judg.  xi.  34).  The 
odes  of  Deborah  (Judg.  v.),  and  of  Hannah 
(i  Sam.  ii.  i,  &c.),  exhibit  a  degree  of  intel- 
lectual cultivation  which  is  in  itself  a  proof 
of  the  position  of  the  sex  in  that  period. 
Women  occasionally  held  public  offices,  par- 
ticularly that  of  prophetess,  or  inspired  teacher 
(Exod.  xv.  20;  Judg.  iv.  4;  2  Kings  xxii.  14; 
Neh.  vi.  14  ;  Luke  ii.  36;.  The  manage- 
ment of  household  affairs  devolved  mainly  on 
the  women.  The  value  of  a  virtuous  and 
active  housewife  forms  a  frequent  topic  in 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  (xi.  16 ;  xii.  4  ;  xiv.  i ; 
xxxi.  io  ;  Arc.'."  Among  the  Greeks  women 
were  secluded  in  private  apartments,  and 
were  compelled  to  wear  a  veil  when  out  of 
doors.  The  Romans  treated  women  with 
great  consideration,  entrusting  to  them  the 
education  of  the  young  and  the  control  of 
their  household  affairs  ;  but  in  the  latter  days 
of  the  Republic  and  of  the  Empire,  when 
morals  became  corrupt,  measures  were  taken 
for  their  restraint.  Thus  the  Lt.i;  Ot>/,<r/  im- 
'imptuary  restrictions;  Augustus  (B.C. 
27  —  A.I).  14  would  not  allow  them  to  be 
present  at  the  public  games  ;  and  by  a  law 
iu  222,  they  were  formally  excluded 
from  the  senate.  The  ancient  derma!' 
a  very  high  position  to  the  female  B€ 
Tacitus  ,oi  — 117  commemorates  the  ex* 
of  character  which  their  women  exhibited. 
During  the  Dark  Ages  the  female  lot  was  of 
course  a  hard  one,  the  right  of  free  choice  in 
marriage  and  the  advantages  of  education 
being  totally  denied  them.  The  romantic 
chivalry  of  the  nth  and  following  centuries 
introduced  a  better  order  of  things,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  that  recognition  of  female 
rights  and  respect  for  female  excellence  which 
are  at  once  the  most  powerful  agent  and  the 
clearest  evidence  of  modern  civilization.  The 
public  whipping  of  women  was  abolished  by 
57  Geo.  III.  c.  75  (July  7,  1817),  and  the  pun- 
ishment was  altogether  prohibited  in  the  case 
of  female  offenders  by  i  Geo.  IV.  c.  57  (July 
15,  1820).  By  5  &  6  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  io,  1842), 
the  employment  of  women  in  mines  was 
declared  illegal.  A  woman's  conference  was 
held  at  Leipsic  in  Oct.,  1865.  (See  AMAZONS, 
HOSPITALS,  LADY,  MAKHIA.';!:,  SENATE,  &c.) 

WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD.— The  seven 
wonders  of  the  world  were, — the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes  (q.  v.) ;  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
('/.  v,  ;  the  tomb  of  Mausolus  (See  MAUSOLEUM)  ; 
the  Pyramids  ^/.  v.  ;  the  lighthouse  on  the 
Pharos  (q.  r.);  the  hanging  gardens,  con- 
structed at  Babylon  by  Queen  Semiramis 
about  B.C.  1250;  and  the  colossal  statue  of 
Jupiter  Olympus,  made  of  ivory  and  gold,  by 
Phidias  (B.C.  490 — B.C.  432). 

WOODCUTS.  —  The  ancient  Egyptians 
practised  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  an  impression  upon  soft 
clay,  and  it  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and 


Romans.  In  China  woodcuts  were  used  about 
the  i2th  century  B.C.  The  earliest  in  Europe 
were  probably  executed  at  Nuremberg  about 
1340,  and  seem  to  have  been  applied  to  the 
production  of  playing-cards.  The  first  wood- 
cut with  a  date  (1423)  represents  St.  Chris- 
topher carrying  our  Saviour  across  a  river  on 
his  shoulders.  The  Psalter,  printed  by 
and  Scho3ffer,  at  Mentz,  in  1457,  contains 
initial  letters  engraved  in  wood.  Caxton  vised 
wood  engravings  in  England  about  1476.  The 
improvement  known  as  "cross-hatching" 
was  shown  in  a  work  printed  at  Mentz  in 
1486.  In  Germany  woodcuts  were  much  used 
for  illustrating  books,  although  the  style  of 
workmanship  became  much  deteriorated 
between  1545  and  1580.  Papillon  published 
his  "  History  of  Wood  Engraving  "  in  1723. 


.S<,    KNUKAVINC  and  EN<;KAVIX<I  ON  WOOD.) 
WooDKN  PAVEMENT.-- {&«  ROAD 
WOOD  MAKTKX.    {See  GBNNKT.  Order  oil 
WOODS   AND    FORESTS. —  The  de 

lands  of    the  crown,  t<  ,•/•/!    dominical 
whence  is  derived  one  branch  of  the  ordinary 

revenue  of  the  sovereign,  were  either  n 
to  the  crown  at  the  original  distribution  of 
landed  property,  or  came  to  it  afterwards  in 
various  ways.  William  III.  (1689 — 1702)  had 
so  reduced  their  extent  by  the  exercise  of  his 
power  of  alienation,  that  a  civil  list  was 

i>y  which   Queen  Anno,  in   1702,  placed 

i    Die   disposal   of  the  Parliament,  in 
return  for  ,£700,000  a  year    i  Anne,  s.  i,  c.  7), 

imilar  arrangement  was  made  at  the 
commencement  of  each  succeeding  reign.    The 
office  of    surveyor-general    of    his    maj 
works  was  created  by  46  Geo.  III.  c.  142  (1805), 
and  altered  by  50  Geo.  III.  c.  65  (June  9,  1810). 

::srs.) 
WOOD'S     HALFPENCE.  —  (See    DRAPIER 

WOODSTOCK  (Oxfordshire).— This  ancient 
town  derives  its  name  from  the  forests  by 
which  it  was  surrounded,  and  was  a  place  of 
considerable  importance  during  the  Saxon 
period.  Ethelred  I.  (866 — 871)  is  said  to  have 
held  a  parliament  at  Woodstock  ;  and  it  is 
believed  that  Alfred  the  Great  (871-901) 
resided  here  while  engaged  in  his  translation 
of  Boethius.  Henry  I.  (noo — 35),  who  resided 
much  at  this  town,  formed  the  first  park  here 
in  ii23,>and  held  a  curia  April  io,  1132;  and  it 
was  the" scene  of  Henry  II. 's  amour  with  the 
fair  Rosamond  Clifford  in  1154.  (See  ROSA- 
MOND'S BOWER.  )  The  same  monarch  received 
the  homage  of  Malcolm  IV.  of  Scotland  at  Wood- 
stock in  1164.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  was 
born  at  Woodstock  June  15,  1330.  The  town 
received  its  first  charter  from  Henry  VI.  in 
1453,  and  was  the  prison  of  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  in  1555.  In  1649  the  Rump  Parlia- 
ment appointed  a  commission  for  .surveying 
the  royal  property  at  Woodstock.  Blenheim 
Palace,  the  magnificent  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  was  erected  at  Woodstock  by 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh  in  1705,  and  was  presented 
to  the  duke  by  the  nation.  The  town-hall  was 
built  from  the  designs  of  Sir  William  Cham- 


WOOD  STREET  COMPTER 


[     1055     ] 


WORCESTER 


bers  in  1766,  and  the  parish  church  was  re- 
stored in  1785.  A  fire,  which  destroyed  the 
Titian  Gallery  at  Blenheim  Palace,  broke  out 
Feb.  5,  1861. 

WOOD  STREET  COMPTER.— (See  POULTRY 
COMPTER.) 

WOOL-COMBERS.— The  septennial  festival 
to  their  patron  St.  Blase  was  celebrated  at 
Bradford  with  great  rejoicing,  Feb.  3,  1825. 
This  saint,  who  holds  a  place  in  the  Church  of 
England  calendar,  was  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  in 
Armenia,  and  was  tormented  with  iron  combs 
and  martyred  under  Licinius  in  316. 

WOOLER  (Northumberland).— The  battles 
of  Hedgley  Moor  (<?.  v.)  and  Homildon  Hill 
(7.  r.  were  fought  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
this  town. 

WOOLLEN  TRADE  AND  MANUFAC- 
TURE.— The  woollen  manufacture  is  stated  to 
have  originated  in  Babylonia.  The  fable  of 
Jason  and  the  Golden  Fleece  points  to  its 
existence  in  Greece  as  early  as  B.C.  1263,  and 
it  had  attained  great  excellence  in  Tyre  B.C. 
588.  Moses  prohibited  the  Jews  from  wearing 
clothes  woven  of  wool  and  linen  together,  B.C. 
1451  (Deut.  xxii.  n).  England  has  been  cele- 
brated for  its  woollen  goods  from  the  earliest 
periods,  and  Winchester  was  noted  for  its 
woollen  manufactures  during  the  Roman  occu- 
pation. It  is  said  to  have  been  practised  in 
France  as  early  as  960.  The  worsted  manufac- 
ture was  established  at  Worstead,  in  Norfolk, 
by  a  colony  of  Flemish  settlers,  in  1327 ; 
and  Edward  III.  greatly  encouraged  the 
woollen  trade  by  receiving  John  Kemp,  and  70 
families  of  Walloon  weavers,  from  Flanders,  in 
1331.  The  exportation  was  first  prohibited  by 
ii  Edw.  III.  c.  i  (1337).  Many  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods  were  in- 
troduced by  refugees  from  Holland  in  1420, 
and  English  sheep  were  exported  to  Spain  in 
1464.  The  mart  of  English  cloths  was  estab- 
lished at  Calais  in  1493.  A  large  number  of 
woollen  workers  from  France  and  Flanders 
settled  in  England  in  1563,  and  further 
measures  were  taken  for  the  prohibition  of 
the  export  of  wool.  Several  English  manu- 
facturers emigrated,  and  established  an  im- 
portant trade  at  Leyden  and  Alkmaar  in  1636. 
In  order  to  encourage  the  woollen  trade  of 
England,  it  was  ordered  by  18  Charles  II.  c.  4 
(1666),  that  all  corpses  should  be  buried  in 
woollen  shrouds.  (See  BURIAL.)  The  exporta- 
tion of  English  wool  was  again  prohibited, 
and  the  importation  of  Irish  wool  into  this 
country  was  permitted,  by  7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  18 
(1696).  The  first  machine  for  spinning  wool 
was  invented  by  John  Wyatt  about  1733. 
Lewis  Paul's  carding-machine  was  patented 
Aug.  30,  1748,  and  Hargreaves  made  his  first 
spinning-jenny  in  1767.  Arkwright's  machine 
was  invented  about  1768.  The  first  importa- 
tion of  wool  into  England  took  place  in  1770, 
and  merino  sheep  (q.v.)  were  first  brought 
into  the  country  in  1788.  Dr.  Edmund  Cart- 
wright's  combing-machine  was  patented  in 
1792,  and  in  consequence  of  the  number  of 
wool-combers  thus  thrown  out  of  employment, 
measures  were  adopted  by  35  Geo.  III.  c.  124 
(June  26,  1795),  for  enabling  them  to  exercise 
other  trades.  Alpaca  sheep  were  first  ex- 


hibited in  this  country  in  1811.  (See  ALPACA.) 
Several  teazling-machines,  composed  of  me- 
tallic wires,  were  patented  in  France  in  1818. 
All  the  acts  prohibiting  the  exportation  of 
wool  were  repealed  by  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  47  (June  3, 
1824).  John  Platt's  combing-machine  was 
patented  in  Nov.,  1827,  James  Noble's  in  Feb., 
1834,  and  Ross's  improvements  March  13,  1851. 
Customs  duties  on  wool  are  mentioned  by  51 
Hen.  III.  st.  5,  c.  6  (1266).  A  tax  was  imposed 
on  exported  woollen  goods  by  12  Charles  II. 
c.  4  (1660).  It1  was  removed  by  n  &  12  Will. 
III.  c.  20  (1700).  (See  CLOTH,  KNITTING, 
STAPLE,  &c.) 

WOOLWICH  (Kent).— The  dockyard  was 
established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1509 — 47).  The  Henry  Grace  d  Dieu,  the 
largest  ship  of  the  period,  named  after  Henry 
VIII.,  built  here  in  1515,  was  burned  in  1553. 
The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  of  100  guns,  called  the 
Golden  Devil  by  the  Dutch,  was  also  built  here 
in  1637.  The  arsenal  was  established  in  1716  ; 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  was  founded  in 
1719;  and  the  present  building  was  erected 
from  the  plans  of  Sir  Jeffrey  \Vyatville,  at  a 
cost  of  ^150,000,  in  1805.  The  church  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalen  was  built  in  1740,  and  St. 
John's  church  in  1840.  The  Royal  Laboratory 
was  formed  early  in  the  igth  century. 

WORCESTER  (Battle).— Charles  II.  was 
crowned  at  Scone,  in  Scotland,  Jan.  i,  1651, 
and  marched  into  England  from  Stirling  July 
31,  with  an  army  of  14,000  men,  arriving  at 
Worcester  Aug.  22.  He  was  pursued  by  Crom- 
well, who  defeated  his  army  near  Worcester, 
Wednesday,  Sep.  3,  1651  (O.S.).  The  king 
escaped  in  disguise,  and  after  several  hair- 
breadth escapes,  arrived  at  Fecamp  Oct.  16. 
Many  of  his  followers  were  sold  as  slaves,  and 
sent  to  Africa  and  America,  some  of  them 
being  compelled  to  work  in  the  mines  of 
Guinea.  (See  BOSCOBEL.) 

WORCESTER  (Bishopric).— This  diocese 
was  separated  from  Lichfield  about  680.  -  By 
an  order  in  council  of  Dec.  22,  1836,  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Coventry  was  transferred  from 
Coventry  and  Lichfield  to  Worcester,  and  the 
parish  of  Shenington,  in  Gloucestershire,  was 
also  annexed  to  it,  July  19,  1837.  Gloucester 
(q.  v.)  was  separated  from  Worcester  by  charter, 

WORCESTER  (Worcestershire),  the  chief 
town  of  the  county,  founded  by  the  Saxons  in 
680,  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  and  rebuilt 
in  894.  It  was  plundered  by  Hardicanute  in 
1041.  The  barons  of  Hereford  occupied  it  to 
quell  a  conspiracy  against  William  I.  in  1074. 
Bernard  Neumarck  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
take  it  in  1088.  It  was  plundered  by  the 
troops  of  Henry  III.  in  1216,  on  account  of  a 
revolt  of  the  inhabitants.  A  grand  tourna- 
ment held  here  in  1225  drew  down  upon  the 
j  ousters  an  excommunication  from  Bishop 
Blois.  A  council  was  held  here  July  26,  1240. 
The  city  was  captured  by  the  rebel  barons  in 
1263.  In  the  civil  wars  it  was  taken  by  Prince 
Rupert,  who  defeated  a  party  of  Parliamen- 
tary horse  under  Col.  Sandys,  Sep.  25,  1642. 
The  Earl  of  Essex  recovered  it  the  same  year. 
Charles  II.  entered  the  city  Aug.  22,  1651,  and 
Cromwell  stormed  the  forts  and  defeated  the 


WORCESTER  COLLEGE 


[     1056    ] 


WRECKS 


Royalists  Sep.  3.  Cromwell's  troops  stabled 
their  horses  in  the  cathedral.  The  last  of  the 
six  gates  of  the  city  was  removed  in  1787. 
The  cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Oswald 
in  983,  and  by  Bishop  Wulfstan  in  1084.  It 
was  repaired  and  reconsecrated  in  Jan.,  1281, 
and  underwent  alterations  and  repairs  in  1830. 
The  bridge  across  the  Severn  was  built  in 
1780.  The  remains  of  a  Franciscan  monastery 
were  removed  in  1823.  (See  PORCELAIN.) 

WORCESTER  COLLEGE  (Oxford)  was 
founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Cookes,  Bart.,  in  1714. 
The  chapel,  hall,  and  library  were  commenced 
in  1720.  The  new  buildings  011  the  north  side 
of  the  inner  court  were  completed  in  1776, 
and  the  hall  in  1784. 

WORKHOUSE.— By  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  25 
(1536),  the  able-bodied  poor  were  directed  to 
be  kept  to  constant  labour.  Edward  VI. 
founded  the  royal  hospital  of  Bridewell  in 
1553,  for  the  punishment  and  employment  of 
the  vigorous  and  idle.  By  43  Eliz.  c.  2  (1601), 
work  was  ordered  to  be  provided  by  the  over- 
seers for  the  poor.  By  59  Geo.  III.  c.  12  (1819), 
known  as  Sturges  Bonnie's  act,  parishes  were 
empowered  to  enlarge  or  build  workhouses 
where  none  existed  before.  Their  government 
was  vested  in  a  board  of  guardians,  subject  to 
the  control  of  the  Poor  Law  Board,  by  4  &  5 
Will.  IV.  c.  76  (Aug.  14,  1834). 

WORKING  MKN'S  CLUBS  AND  DESTI- 
TUTES.—A  Working  Men's  Society  for  Mutual 
Improvement  was  formed  in  Yeovil  in  1842, 
and  a  Working  Men's  Institute  at  Cheltenham 
in  1849.  Similar  institutions  have  since  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  at  the  meeting  of  the  Social  Science  Con- 
gress, held  at  Dublin  in  1861,  a  paper  on  this 
subject  by  the  Rev.  H.  Solly  was  read.  The 
Working  Men's  Club  and  Institute  Union  was 
formed  June  14,  1862.  A  conference  to  discuss 
various  questions  connected  with  these  useful 
institutions  was  held  at  the  Whittington  Club 
May  10—12,  1864. 

WORKING  MKX'S  COLLEGE  (London),  in 
Red  Lion  Square,  was  opened  Oct.  30,  18^4. 

WORKING  MKNS  INDUSTRIAL  EXHI- 
BITIONS.—  See  INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS.) 

WORKINGTON  (England).— Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  landed  here  May  16,  1568.  The  parish 
church  was  rebuilt  in  1760,  and  the  chapel  of 
ease  erected  in  1825. 

WORKSHOPS.— (See  NATIONAL  WORKSHOPS.) 

WORLD.— (See  CIRCUMNAVIGATION,  CREA- 
TION OF  THE  WORLD,  &c.) 

WORMS  (Hdict  of).— This  document,  drawn 
up  by  Alexander,  the  papal  legate,  Sunday, 
May  26,  1521,  declared  Luther  a  heretic,  and 
decreed  that  whoever  sheltered  him,  printed 
or  published  his  books,  or  bought  or  read 
them,  should  be  outlawed.  It  was  antedated 
May  8,  in  order  that  it  might  appear  to  have 
the  sanction  of  all  present  at  the  diet  at 
Worms,  whereas  several  had  left  before  it  was 
prepared.  The  diet  of  Nuremberg  in  1523, 
and  again  in  1524,  ordered  the  edict  of  Worms 
to  be  enforced,  and  demanded  a  general 
council.  The  diet  of  Spires,  in  1529,  ordered 
it  to  be  strictly  enforced  in  countries  in  which 
it  had  been  received.  (See  AUGSBURG  DIET, 
PROTESTANTS,  &c.) 


WORMS  (Germany,  occupying  the  site  of 
the  Roman  Borbetomagus,  or  Augusta  Van 
gionum,  was  plundered  by  the  Alemanni  in 
354,  and  destroyed  by  Attila  in  451.  Clovis  I. 
rebuilt  it  about  475.  The  legislative  assemblies 
of  Charlemagne,  called  Mni  L«<II  r  from  the 
month  when  they  met,  were  held  here.  A 
council  elected  Leo  IX.  pope  in  Dec.,  1048,  and 
another  deposed  Gregory  VII.  in  Jan.,  1076. 
By  a  concordat  between  Henry  V.  and  Callix- 
tns  II.,  signed  at  another  council  here  Sep.  8, 
1 122,  the  Emperor  lost  some  of  his  control 
over  ecclesiastical  appointments.  The  cathe- 
dral, commenced  in  the  8th  century,  was  com- 
pleted in  1 1 10.  Councils  were  held  here  in  Lent, 
858  ;  May  16,  868  ;  in  Dec.,  1048  ;  in  Jan.,  1076  ; 
Sep.  8,  1122  ;  in  April,  1127  ;  and  at  Pentecost, 
1153.  The  marriage  of  Isabella,  sister  of 
Henry  III.  of  England,  with  Frederick  II., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  was  solemnized  here 
July  20,  1235.  The  Emperor  Adolphus  of 
Nassau  was  slain  at  Rosenthal,  between  Worms 
and  Spiers,  in  an  engagement  with  Albert  of 
Austria,  July  2,  1298.  Diets  were  frequently 
held  here,  and  at  one  in  1495,  the  Landfriede 
(q.  v.),  a  perpetual  public  peace,  was  estab- 
lished. Luther  appeared  before  the  diet  here 
April  17,  1521,  and  was  exeonmmnieated  April 
'.-,.  1 1 e  quitted  Worms  April  26.  (&e  \Y.\i ;T- 
BURG.)  By  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  Worms  was 
burned  in  1689.  George  II.  of  England  fixed  his 
head-quarters  in  the  episcopal  palace  Aug.  27, 
1743.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  French,  under 
in  Oct.,  i7<>2,  and  again  in  1793. 

WORSTED  acquired  its  name  from  the 
town  of  Worstead,  in  Norfolk,  where  a  settle- 
ment of  Flemings  introduced  woollen  manu- 
factures in  1327.  The  trade  was  remove.  1  to 
Norwich  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  (1377—99). 

WORTH  I  LS  The  Nine)  are  Joshua,  Gideon, 
Samson,  David,  Judas  Maccabseus,  Alexander 
the  Great,  Julius  Caesar,  Charlemagne,  and 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Authorities  are  not 
agreed  respecting  the  last  mentioned.  Richard 
or  Robert  Burton  (an  assumed  name  for  Nath. 
Crouch),  in  his  "  Hist,  of  the  Nine  Worthies," 
published  in  1687,  gives  three  Gentiles,  viz., 
Hector,  Alexander  the  Great,  and  Julius 
Caesar;  three  Jews,  viz.,  Joshua,  David,  and 
Judas  Maccaba-us  ;  and  three  Christians,  viz., 
Arthur,  Charlemagne,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
Shakespeare  (Love's  Labour's  Lost,  act  v.  sc.  2) 
introduces  only  five  in  the  pageant  of  the  Nine 
Worthies,  viz.,  Pompey,  Alexander,  Judas 
Maccabseus,  Hercules,  and  Hector.  Richard 
Johnson  published  the  "Nine  Worthies  of 
London  "  in  1592.  Thomas  Heywood,  in  1640, 
published  "The  Exemplary  Lives  and  Memor- 
able Acts  of  Nine  the  most  Worthy  Women 
of  the  World."  This  author  enumerates  them 
thus, —three  Jewesses,  viz.,  Deborah,  Judith, 
and  Esther;  three  Gentiles,  viz.,  Boadicea,  I 'en 
thisilsea,  and  Artemisia ;  and  three  Christians, 
viz.,  Elphleda,  Margaret,  Queen  of  Henry  VI., 
and  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England. 

WO UNDING.— (See  MAIMING.) 

WRECKS.— Among  the  early  Greeks  and 
Romans,  shipwrecked  mariners,  of  whatever 
nation,  were  regarded  as  enemies,  and  as  such 
were  usually  put  to  death  or  sold  into  slavery  ; 
but  the  Pandects  (q.  v.),  published  in  Dec.,  533, 


WRIT 


[     1057    ] 


WURTEMBERG 


made  the  murder  of  them  a  capital  crime, 
and  imposed  severe  penalties  on  thefts  from 
wrecks.  On  the  subversion  of  the  Roman 
power,  the  old  barbarous  customs  were  re- 
stored, and  the  majority  of  such  as  suffered 
shipwreck  were  doomed  to  a  life  of  slavery. 
Goods  washed  on  shore  were  adjudged  to 
belong  to  the  king  or  to  the  lord  of  the  manor  ; 
and  it  was  no  uncommon  circumstance  for 
pilots  and  landowners  to  enter  into  collusion, 
whereby  ships  were  purposely  run  ashore  for 
the  sake  of  their  plunder ;  and  the  sailors 
barbarously  murdered  on  the  beach  to  prevent 
the  assertion  of  their  rights.  The  Oleron  Laws 
(q.  v.)  enacted  that  in  such  case  the  pilot 
should  suffer  as  a  robber  ;  that  the  lord  should 
be  bound  in  the  centre  of  his  house,  which 
was  to  be  ignited  at  its  four  corners,  and  be 
left  to  perish  ;  and  that  common  wreckers, 
after  being  half-drowned  in  the  sea,  should 
suffer  death  by  stoning.  The  English  law  re- 
garded wrecks  as  royal  property.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  I.  (1100—35)  it  was  enacted 
that  when  any  passenger  or  seaman  survived 
the  loss  of  the  ship,  it  should  not  be  regarded 
as  a  wreck  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
(1216 — 72)  it  was  ruled  that  goods  so  marked 
as  to  be  clearly  identified  might  be  recovered 
by  their  owners  within  a  year  and  a  day  after 
the  wreck.  By  27  Edw.  III.  c.  13  (1353),  goods 
washed  ashore  from  wrecks  were  to  be  de- 
livered to  the  merchants,  who  were  to  pay 
a  reasonable  salvage  for  their  preservation. 
These  regulations  proved  ineffectual,  and 
wrecking  continued  oil  the  English  coasts 
until  a  comparatively  recent  period.  By  12 
Anne,  stat.  2,  c.  18  (1713),  the  chief  authorities 
of  seaside  towns  were  ordered  to  assist  ships 
in  distress  under  forfeiture  of  £100  ;  and  by 
26  Geo.  III.  c.  19  (1785),  the  prevention  of 
the  escape  of  shipwrecked  persons,  the  wound- 
ing of  such  as  had  reached  the  shore,  or  the 
exhibition  of  false  lights  in  order  to  decoy 
vessels  into  danger,  were  made  capital  felonies. 
The  laws  relating  to  shipwrecks  were  con- 
solidated by  9  &  10  Viet.  c.  99  (Aug.  28,  1846), 
and  by  17  &  18  Viet.  c.  104  (Aug.  10,  1854).  A 
list  of  disasters  at  sea  will  be  found  in  the 
index,  under  "Wrecks."  (See  LIGHTHOUSE, 
ROYAL  NATIONAL  LIFEBOAT  INSTITUTION,  &c.) 

WRIT  DE  rLERETICO  COMBURENDO,  con- 
signing heretics  to  the  flames,  is  said  to  be  as 
ancient  as  the  common  law  itself.  By  5  Rich. 
II.  st.  2,  c.  5  (1381),  unlicensed  preachers  or 
Lollards  were  ordered  to  be  imprisoned  till 
they  justified  themselves  "according  to  the 
law  and  reason  of  Holy  Church ; "  and  by  2 
Hen.  IV.  c.  15  (1401),  persons  accused  of 
heretical  opinions  were  to  be  burned  unless 
they  recanted.  A  similar  act  was  passed  in 
Scotland  in  1425.  It  was  abolished  by  29 
Charles  II.  c.  9,  s.  i  (1676).  (See  HERETICS, 
PARLIAMENT,  &c.) 

WRITING.— Some  traditions  attribute  the 
origin  of  writing  to  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam, 
and  others  to  Enoch.  It  was  most  probably 
known  in  the  antediluvian  period.  The  remains 
of  the  Chaldaean  temple  towers  have  inscrip- 
tions which  show  that  the  art  of  writing  was 
known  to  that  nation.  Other  authorities  con- 
sider the  system  of  hieroglyphics  (q.v.),  which 


was  invented  by  Athotes,  or  Thoth,  about  B.C. 
2122,  as  the  most  ancient  mode  of  writing.  It 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  Exod. 
xvii.  14.  According  to  the  legend  related  by 
Pliny  (vii.  56),  Cadmus  carried  a  knowledge  of 
letters  from  Phoenicia  to  Greece,  B.C.  1550.  The 
Pelasgi  are  said  to  have  introduced  writing  into 
Italy  about  B.C.  1476.  The  Romans  practised 
running-hand  as  early  as  the  4th  century,  and 
introduced  a  knowledge  of  writing  into  their 
provinces ;  but  it  was  not  much  known  in 
Britain  until  the  end  of  the  6th  century. 
Writing  became'  an  ordinary  branch  of  edu- 
cation during  the  i4th  century.  (See  ALPHA- 
BET, CALIGRAPHY,  and  ILLUMINATION.) 

WROEITES,  or  CHRISTIAN  ISRAELITES, 
called  Beardies,  from  wearing  their  hair  un- 
cut and  unshaven,  are  the  followers  of  John 
Wroe,  who  died  at  Collingwood,  Melbourne, 
Australia,  Feb.  6,  1863.  According  to  a  com- 
munication in  Notes  and  Queries  (3rd  Series, 
vol.  v.  p.  493),  they  arose  about  1823,  and  are 
"zealous  and  incessant  street  preachers  of  an 
incoherent  and  unintelligible  doctrine,  appa- 
rently compounded  of  Judaism,  Christianity, 
and  the  principles  of  the  Adamites  of  Muus- 
ter."  Their  manual  is  "  The  Life  and  Journal 
of  John  Wroe,  with  Divine  Communications  to 
him  :  being  the  Visitation  of  the  Spirit  of  God 
to  warn  Mankind  that  the  Day  of  the  Lord  is 
at  hand,  &c.  2  Vols.  Printed  for  the  Trustees 
of  the  Society  by  W.  Deane.  1859." 
WROXETER.— (See  URICONIUM.) 
WURTEMBERG,  or  WIRTEMBERG 
(Germany)  was  overrun  in  the  4th  century 
by  the  Alemanni,  who  occupied  that  part 
afterwards  called  Swabia,  and  were  con- 
quered by  the  Franks  under  Clovis  I.  in  496. 
Eberhard  V.,  called  the  Bearded  and  the 
Pious,  was  created  duke  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  July  21,  1494.  It  underwent 
various  vicissitudes  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  and  the  peace  of  Westphalia  restored  the 
reigning  family,  Oct.  24,  1648.  It  was  entered 
by  the  armies  of  France,  when  the  duke  pur- 
chased peace  by  the  payment  of  8,000,000  of 
francs  and  the  cession  of  territory,  Feb.  9, 
i  So  i.  It  was  raised  to  an  electorate  by  the 
German  diet  in  1803,  and  the  elector  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  Jan.  i,  1806.  Censorship  of 
the  press  was  abolished  March  i,  1848.  Na- 
tional assemblies,  convoked  to  revise  the 
constitution  of  Sep.  25,  1819,  were  dissolved 
without  effecting  their  object  in  1849  and 
1850.  A  treaty  was  concluded  with  Prussia 
Aug.  13,  1866. 


LIST  OF  PRINCES  OF  WURTEMBERG. 
COUNTS. 
A.D. 

1393.  Eberhard  III. 
1417.  Eberhard  IV. 


1250  (about).  Ulric  I. 

1265.  Eberhard  I.,  the  Il- 
lustrious. 

1335.  Ulric  II. 

1344-61.  Eberhard  II.  with 
Ulric  III.  hisbrother 


1419-41-^8 


SEPARATION   INTO   TWO   COUNTIES. 

AT  UKACH. 
1441.  Louis  I. 
1450.  Louis  II. 
1457-95.  EberhaidV. 


AT  NEUFFEX  (.STUTTGARD). 
1441.  Ulric  IV. 
1490-96.  Eberhard  VI. 


WURTZCHEN 


[     1058    ] 


WYCLIPPITES 


1495.  Eberlnrd 


(First 


Duke). 

1496.  Eberliard  VI.  (or  II.) 
149*.   Uric  V.  (as  Duke). 
1S>G.   Christopher. 
1568.  Louis,  tlie  Pious. 
1593.  Frederick    of    Mont- 

1608.  John  Frederick. 


1806.  Frederick  I.  (the  same 
us  Frederick  II.) 


1628.  Eberhard  III. 

16-4.    \Villiain  I.ouis. 
1^,77.    ]•  InTluinl  Lnuis. 

1733.  Charles  Alexander. 
1737.  Cbai 

1795.  Frederick  1. 
1797—1806.  Frederick  II. 


I8i6.  William. 
1864.  Charles  I. 


WURTZCHEN  (Germany).— A  battle  be- 
tween the  French  army,  under  Napoleon  I., 
and  that  of  the  Allies,  commanded  by  the 
sovereigns  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  was  fought 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  town,  in  B 
May  19,  1813.  A  general  engagement,  at  the 
village  of  Bautzen  (</.  v.)  terminated  favour- 
ably for  the  French,  May  21,  and  the  conflict 
having  been  renewed  at  Wurtzchen,  the  Allies 
were  forced  to  retire,  May  22. 

\Vi;i:/lii;i{<!  Battle).  The  Prussians  de- 
feated the  Bavarians  near  this  place  in  Bavaria 
July  26,  1866. 

WUBZBUBG  (Havana).— St.   Kilian 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom   here  in 
it  was  created  a  bishopric  in  741.     The  Km- 
peror    Henry    II.,    wishing   to    found  another 
bishopric  at  I  Jam  berg  in  1006,  was  opposed  by 
the  bishop  of  this  city.     The  Duke  of  Bavaria 
(lit  in  1086.     A  council  was  held  here 
in    1080.      A    confederation    <>f    the 
Catholic  princes  of   Germany  met    here,  and 
elected   Maximilian,    Duke   of    Bavaria,  their 
leader,   in   1610.     The  cathedral,    foui 
the  8th  century,  \\ 

much  altered  in  1240.  The  Xeuiniinster 
church  was  founded  in  the  nth  century,  and 
the  Marieii-Khvhe  WHS  built  between  1377 
and  1479.  The  university,  established  in 
1403,  was  renewed  in  1582.  The  royal, 
formerly  the  episcopal  palace,  was  built 
between  1720  and  1744.  The  town,  taken  by 
the  Swedes  under  Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus)  in 
1630,  and  by  the  French  in  1793,  was  sur- 
rendered by  the  prince  bishop  to  the  French, 
July  25,  1796.  Under  Jourdan  they  sustained 
a  severe  defeat  from  the  Archduke  Charles 
in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  place  after 
wards  surrendered  to  the  Austrians,  Sep.  3, 
1796.  It  was  besieged  by  the  French  in  1800  ; 
secularized  and  ceded  to  Bavaria  Feb.  5,  1803  ; 
surrendered  to  the  Allies  March  21,  1814;  and 
restored  to  Bavaria  in  1815.  A  general  meeting 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Associations  of  Germany 
met  here  Sep.  13 — 15, 1864.  The  town  was  bom- 
barded by  the  Prussians  after  the  battle  of 
Wurzburg  (q.  <•.),  July  27,  1866,  and  an  armis- 
tice was  concluded  here  Aug.  i . 

WURZEX,  orWUBTZEN  (Germany).— The 
cathedral  at  this  town  of  Saxony,  founded  in 
1114,  was  restored  in  1818.  The  bishop's  see 
was  annexed  to  Leipsic  in  1661. 

WYATT'S  INSURRECTION.— Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  a  Kentish  gentleman,  joined  with 
others,  in  Nov.,  1553,  to  prevent  the  marriage 
of  Queen  Mary  with  Philip  of  Spain.  The 


Duke  of  Suffolk,  who  joined  him,  failed  in 
an  attempt  to  raise  troops  in  Leicester  Jan. 
29,  1554,  and  was  soon  after  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower.  Wyatt  collected  about  2,000 
followers,  and  fortified  himself  at  Rochester, 
Jan.  26,  and  a  number  of  the  troops  brought 
by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  to  attack  him  went 
over  to  his  side  Jan.  29.  He  reached  Dept  fi  ml 
Feb.  i,  and  entered  Southwark,  plundered  the 
palace  of  the  Bishop  of  Winchester,  but  could 
not  effect  the  passage  of  London  Bridj •• 
3.  Having  withdrawn  from  Southwark  Feb.  6, 
he  marched  to  Kingston,  and,  crossing  the 
Thames  there,  reached  London  Feb.  7.  Num- 
bers of  his  followers  deserted,  and  lie  sur- 
rendered, after  a  skirmish  at  Temple  Bar,  to 
Sir  Maurice  Berkeley.  He  was  conveyed  to 
the  Tower,  pleaded  guilty  to  his  indictment 
March  15,  and  was  beheaded  April  n.  About 
50  of  his  followers  were  executed  between 
Feb.  13  and  26.  Upwards  of  400  were  brought 
with  halters  round  their  necks  to  the  Queen 
Marv  at  Westminster,  Feb.  20,  and  set  at 
liberty. 

WYBORG.— (£*  VIBORO.) 
WYCLIFF1TKS,  or  WICKLIFFITFS,  llu: 
followers  of  John  Wycliffe,  Fellow  of  Merton, 
born  in  1324,  known  as  the  Kvan 
Doctor,  were  also  called  Gospellers.  Wyclitfo 
denounced  the  avarice  of  ecclesiastics  in  a 
treatise  entitled  "The  Last  Age  of  the 
Church,"'  published  in  1356;  took  part  with 
the  university  of  Oxford  against  the  Mendi- 
cants in  1360 ;  and  supported  Edward  111.  in 
1370  in  refusing  to  pay  the  tribute  pr 
to  the  Pope  by  King  John.  Wyclitfe  . 
Home  in  i  ^74,  as  one  of  the  seven  anib: 
appointed  to  confer  with  the  Papal  Commis- 
sioners respecting  the  grievances  in  the 
English  Church,  and  the  meeting  took  place 
i'iic  monks  having  selected  KJ 
propositions  from  his  sermons  and  lectures, 
founded  upon  them  a  charge  of  heresy, 
which  they  sent  to  Rome  in  1376,  and 
Gregory  XL  issued  a  bull  ordering  him  to 
be  imprisoned  and  brought  to  trial  ;  and 
Wycliffe  appeared  before  the  commissioners, 
Feb.  19,  1377.  He  established  a  society  of 
itinerant  preachers,  called  Lollards  (q.  r.),  in 
1379,  undertook  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
(q.  v.)  into  Knglish  in  1380,  and  opposed  the 
doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  in  1381,  for 
which  he  was  censured  by  the  Chancellor  of 
Oxford.  By  5  Rich.  II.  st.  2,  c.  5  (1381),  un- 
licensed preachers  or  Lollards  were  ordered 
to  be  imprisoned  until  they  justified  them- 
selves "according  to  the  law  and  reason  of 
Holy  Church."  Some  of  his  opinions  were 
condemned  as  heretical  by  Courtenay,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  at  a  council  held  in 
London  in  May  1382.  Wycliffe  quitted  Oxford, 
and  retired  to  the  rectory  of  Lutterworth, 
which  had  been  given  him  in  1376.  Here 
he  translated  the  Bible,  and  died  Dec.  31, 
1384.  His  doctrines,were  condemned  by  coun- 
cils in  London  Feb.  19,  1397,  and  July  23,  1408, 
and  a  papal  bull  issued  in  1409  ordered  his 
writings  to  be  seized,  and  all  persons  who 

Professed  the  heretical  opinions  to  be  tried, 
he  Wycliffites  were   severely   persecuted   in 
1414,  and  the  Council  of  Constance  condemned 


WYE 


[     1059    ] 


XLMKXA 


Wycliffe's  writings,  and  ordered  his  remains 
to  be  dug  up  and  scattered  on  the  dunghill, 
May  2,  1415.  Reginald  Pecock,  Bishop  of 
Chichester,  was  in  1458  deposed  for  holding 
these  opinions.  The  work  thus  commenced 
in  England  was  continued  in  Germany. 
Jerome  of  Prague  returned  to  his  native  city 
from  Oxford,  and  in  1402  began  to  spread  the 
views  of  Wycliffe,  which  were  formally  con- 
demned by  the  university  of  Prague  in  1404. 
About  this  time  John  Huss,  preacher  at  the 
Bethlehem  Chapel,  at  Prague,  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  and 
began  to  advocate  his  opinions.  Sbinko,  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  burned  the  writings  of  Wy- 
cliffe in  1410,  and  denounced  John  Huss  to  the 
Pope  as  one  of  his  followers.  The  attempts  to 
silence  Huss  proved  ineffectual,  and  in  1414 
he  repaired  to  Constance,  under  a  safe  conduct 
from  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  to  appear  before 
the  general  council  there.  In  spite  of  the 
protection  promised,  he  was  arrested  Nov.  28, 
1414,  tried,  and  condemned  to  be  burned,  the 
sentence  being  executed  July  7,  1415.  Jerome 
of  Prague,  alarmed  at  the  fate  of  his  associate, 
said  to  have  recanted  Sep.  23,  1415,  revoked 
his  forced  recantation  May  30,  1416,  and  was 
also  burned  alive.  (See  HUSSITES.) 

WYE.  —A  massive  iron  bridge  was  built  over 
this  river  at  Chepstow  in  1816,  and  a  tubular 
bridge  for  the  South  Wales  Railway,  erected 
by  I.  K.  Brunei,  was  finished  April  2,  1852. 

WYNDHAM  CLUB  (London)  was  founded 
by  Lord  Nugent,  and  named  after  Sir  William 
Wyndham  (1687 — June  17,  1740),  who  once 
resided  in  the  house. 

WYOMING  (N.  America)  was  attacked  and 
destroyed  by  a  party  of  Americans,  assisted 
by  a  number  of  Indians,  under  Col.  Butler,  in 
July,  1778.  The  incident  forms  the  subject  of 
Campbell's  well-known  poem. 


X. 


XALAPA,  or  JALAPA  (Mexico),  the  chief 
town  of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  the  inhabitants  of  Vera 
Cruz.  The  old  church  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Cortes  (1520 — 47).  The  creeping 
plant  Jalap  grows  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
receives  its  name  from  this  place.  Bustaments 
published  what  was  called  the  plan  of  Xalapa 
against  the  President  Guerrero,  Dec.  4,  1829. 

XANTEN,  or  SANTEN  (Germany).  —  This 
town  in  Prussia,  near  Cleves,  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  Castra  Vetera,  or  Vetera, 
formed  by  Germanicus,  about  14,  and  captured 
by  Civilis  in  69.  The  Romans  defeated  Civilis 
here  later  in  the  year.  The  treaty  which  ter- 
minated the  war  respecting  the  succession  of 
Juliers  was  concluded  at  this  place  in  1614.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1672. 

XANTHIAN  MARBLES,  consisting  of 
sculptural  remains  ranging  from  B.C.  545,  dis- 


covered in  the  mines  of  Xanthus  by  Sir  Charles 
Fellowes,  were  brought  to  England  in  1842-3. 
They  are  deposited  in  the  Lycian  Gallery  at 
the  British  Museum. 

XANTHICA.-  This  festival,  observed  during 
the  month  Xanthicus,  the  6th  of  the  Mace- 
donian year,  corresponding  to  April,  was  the 
annual  occasion  for  the  lustration  or  purifica- 
tion of  the  Macedonian  army,  and  comprised 
a  sham  fight  and  other  solemnities. 

XANTHUS  (Asia  Minor),  the  capital  of 
Lycia,  was  besieged  by  Harpagus  B.C.  545,  in 
the  reign  of  Cyrus  the  Elder,  when  the  inha- 
bitants perished,  with  all  that  they  possessed, 
in  the  ruins  of  their  city.  It  was  rebuilt,  and 
during  the  Roman  civil  war  was  taken  by 
Brutus,  B.C.  42.  The  inhabitants,  who  refused 
to  submit,  perished  in  the  flames.  The  village 
of  Koonik  stands  near  the  site. 

XATIVA,  or  JATIVA  (Spain).— The  ancient 
Saetabis,  or  Setabis,  taken  from  the  Almora- 
vides  by  Abu  Abdeluielik  in  1145,  surrendered 
to  James  I.  of  Aragon  in  1246.  It  received 
the  name  of  Jativa  for  opposing  Philip  V., 
by  whose  army  it  was  taken  and  destroyed 
in  1707.  It  was  rebuilt  under  the  name  of 
San  Felipe. 

XEXODOCHIA.— (See  INFIRMARIES.) 

XENYLAMINE.— (See  ANILINE.) 

XERES  (Battle).— A  Saracen  army  of  90,000 
or  100,000  men  encountered  the  Christians 
near  Xeres,  or  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  in  Spain, 
and,  after  several  minor  skirmishes,  a  grand 
engagement  took  place,  in  which  Roderick 
was  slain,  and  his  Visigothic  kingdom  de- 
stroyed, July  19—26,  711. 

XERES,  or  JEREZ,  DE  LA  FRONTERA 
( Spain  ,  from  which  sherry  derives  its  name, 
was  taken  by  Alphonso  X.,  in  1254.  He  sub- 
dued a  revolt  of  its  inhabitants  in  1263. 

XERXES'  EXPEDITION.  —  The  Persian 
monarch,  having  resolved  to  subdue  Greece, 
commenced  his  preparations  B.C.  483.  Three 
years  were  occupied  in  collecting  troops  and 
provisions.  A  canal  was  ordered  to  be  cut 
through  Mount  Athos  for  the  passage  of  the 
ships,  and  a  bridge  for  the  army  to  be  thrown 
across  the  Hellespont.  This  immense  army, 
amounting,  according  to  Herodotus,  to 
,800,000  men,  set  out  from  Sardis,  where  it 
had  wintered,  B.C.  480.  Various  cities  sub- 
mitted to  the  invader.  The  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae was  defended  by  Leonidas  and  300 
Spartans,  who  perished  to  a  man,  Aug.  7 — 9, 
B.C.  480.  Bceotia  and  Attica  were  ravaged, 
Athens  was  sacked,  and  Delphos  attacked. 
The  Persians,  victorious  after  a  severe  contest 
at  Artemisium  (q.  v.),  were  defeated  at  Salamis 
'q.  v.}  in  Dec.,  B.C.  480.  Xerxes  I.  retreated 
into  Asia,  leaving  his  army  under  the  command 
of  Mardonius,  who  was  defeated  in  Sep.,  B.C. 
479,  at  Platsea  (q.v.}  and  at  Mycale  (q.v.},  on 
;he  same  day.  Mardonius  fell  at  Plataea,  and 
Xerxes  I.  was  assassinated  by  Artabanus  B.C. 
465- 

XI  MEN  A  (Spain)  was  taken  from  the 
Moors  in  1456,  by  Don  Henry,  who  put  all  the 
"nhabitants  to  the  sword. The  French,  com- 
manded by  Regnier,  were  defeated  near  this 
:own  by  the  Spaniards  under  Ballasteros, 
Sep.  10,  1811. 

3Y2 


YACHTING 


t     1060    ] 


YELLOW  FEVER 


Y. 

YACHTING  became  popular  in  England 
early  in  the  zytli  century.  Phineas  Pett  built 
a  yacht  for  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  in  1604. 
The  Royal  Cork  Club,  originally  called  the. 
Cork  Harbour  Water  Club,  the  oldest  yacht 
club  in  the  kingdom,  was  established  before 
1720.  The  yacht  club  founded  in  1815  received 
the  name  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron  in  1833. 
The  Royal  Thames  Yacht  Club  was  founded 
in  1823.  The  yacht  race  across  the  Atlantic 
for  90,000  dollars  was  won  by  the  11 
which  reached  Cowes  Dec.  25,  1866,  having 
made  the  passage  from  New  York  in  14  days 
4  hours. 

YAFFA.— (See  JAFFA.) 

VALE  COLLEGE.— (-See  NEW  HAVEN.) 

YAM).— (See  AIJALON.) 

YAM.— (See  CHINESE  YAM.) 

Y  AND  ABO  0  (Bui-man).— A  treaty  was 
signed  at  this  town  at  the  close  of  the  first 
Burmese  war,  Feb.  24,  1826.  Assam,  Arracan, 
Tavoy,  Mergui,  and  Tenasserim  were  ceded  to 
England,  and  the  Burmese  agreed  to  pay  one 
crore  of  rupees. 

YANKEI1;.— This  term,  applied  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  is  considered  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  Indian  pronunciation  of 
"  English."  They  called  them  Yenghees,  and 
the  term  Yankee  was  applied  to  the  people  of 
:  .'-land  about  1775. 

YARD.— Sir  Henry  Spelman  (1562—1641) 
says  that  a  new  standard  of  longitudinal 
measure  was  ascertained  by  Henry  I.  1 100 — 35), 
who  commanded  that  the  ancient  ell  should  be 
made  of  the  exact  length  of  his  own  arm. 

Y  ARK  AND,  or  YAKKIA.Nti  ,  China).— This 
town  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  the  capital  of 
Kashgar  till  the  i7th  century,  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Chinese  in  1757. 

YARMOUTH,  or  GREAT  YARMOUTH 
(Norfolk),  was,  according  to  Domesday  Book, 
a  royal  demesne  in  1086.  A  charter  of  Henry 
III.  gave  permission  to  fortify  the  town,  which 
was  done  by  constructing  a  moat,  and  a  wall 
with  10  gates  and  16  towers.  It  was  made  one 
of  the  chief  naval  stations  in  1294,  and  is  men- 
tioned as  a  great  seat  of  the  herring  fishery  in 
1357.  The  town  was  attacked  by  the  insurgents 
during  Ket's  rebellion  in  1549.  A  fortress  with 
four  towers  was  erected  in  anticipation  of  the 
Spanish  invasion  in  1588.  William  III.,  on  his 
return  from  Holland,  landed  here  Oct.  18,  1692. 
St.  Nicholas's  church  was  founded  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 2th  century,  St.  George's,was  built 
in  1716,  and  St.  Peter's  in  1833.  Nelson's  monu- 
ment, 140  feet  high,  was  erected  in  1817.  The 
suspension  bridge  across  the  Yare  gave  way, 
and  79  persons  were  drowned,  May  2,  1845. 
(See  CERDICSORE.) 

YARRA-YARRA.— (See  MELBOURNE.) 

Y  ASSY.— (See  JASSY.) 

YATAH.— (See  PARAGUAY.'* 

YEAR.— Nicolas  (the  Chronology  of  History) 
remarks:  "  The  days  on  which  the  year  com- 
menced in  most  countries  have  been  as  follow  : 
— Christmas-day,  the  2sth  of  December;  the 
day  of  the  Circumcision,  the  ist  of  January  ; 


the  day  of  the  Conception,  the  25th  of  March  ; 
and  Easter-day,  the  day  of  the  resurrection  of 
our  Lord.  .In  England,  in  the  7th,  and  so  late 
as  the  1 3th  century,  the  year  was  reckoned 
from  Christmas-day  ;  but  in  the  i2th  century, 
the  Anglican  church  began  the  year  on  the 
25th  of  March  ;  which  practice  was  also  adopted 
by  civilians  in  the  i4th  century.  This  style 
continued  until  the  reformation  of  the  calendar 
by  24  Geo.  II.  c.  23  (1751),  by  which  the  legal 
year  was  ordered  to  commence  on  the  ist  of 
January,  in  1752.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
two  calculations  have  generally  existed  in 
England  for  the  commencement  of  the  year ; 
viz. — i.  The  Historical  year,  which  has,  for  a 
very  long  time,  begun  on  the  ist  of  January  ; 
and  2.  the  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Legal  year, 
which  was  used  by  the  Church,  and  in  all 
public  instruments,  until  the  end  of  the  i3th 
century,  began  at  Christinas.  In  and  after  the 
1 4th  century,  it  commenced  on  the  25th  of 
March,  and  so  continued  until  the  ist  of 
January,  1752."  This  led  to  great  confusion. 
Charles  I.  is  said  by  those  authorities  who  use 
the  Historical  year  to  have  been  beheaded 
Jan.  30,  1649,  whilst  by  those  writers  who 
computed  by  the  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  or 
year,  the  date  is  assigned  to  Jan.  30,  1648.  The 
date  of  any  event  that  happened  between 
Jan.  i  and  March  25  was,  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion,  frequently  written  thus  : — 

8)  i.e.,    the    Civil,     Ecclesiastical, 
January  30,  164 — -      ami  I.rtral  \car. 

9)  i.e.,  the  Historical  year. 

or 

January  30,  1648-9. 

The  lower  or  last  figure  always  indicates  the 
year  according  to  the  system  of  computation 
now  in  use.  See  Ni:w  STYLI-:  and  OLD  STYLE.) 
YEAST,  or  UOAVEN,  was  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  bread  as  early  as  B.C.  1897 
(Geu.  xix.  3  .  The  absence  of  leaven  consti- 
tuted the  peculiarity  of  the  bread  used  in  the 
r  B.C.  1491  (Exod.  xii.  15) ;  and  it  was 
always  omitted  in  bread  intended  for  imme- 
diate use.  The  Faculty  of  Medicine  of  Paris 
reported  against  the  use  of  yeast,  as  preju- 
dicial to  health,  March  24,  1688. 
sYEDT)O.—(See  JEDDO.) 
YEKATERINBURG.— (See  EKATERINBURG.) 
Y  ML  LOW  FEVER.  — The  history  of  this 
scourge  of  the  southern  parts  of  North 
America  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Dr.  Bas- 
combe,  in  his  treatise  on  the  ' '  Nature  and 
Cause  of  Yellow  Fever,"  denies  that  it  is  of 
modern  origin,  and  states  that  it  raged  in 
Spain  as  early  as  B.C.  noo.  He  also  regards 
the  pestilence  which  ravaged  England  in  664 
as  the  true  yellow  fever ;  and  he  mentions  a 
deadly  outbreak  of  the  same  disease  which 
occurred  in  the  fleet  of  Sir  Thomas  Gates  and 
Sir  George  Somers  during  its  voyage  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1608.  It  appears  that  an  epidemic 
fever  of  fatal  character  raged  in  the  Antilles 
in  1635,  and  that  somewhat  similar  diseases 
appeared  at  Martiiiico  in  1655,  at  St.  Lucia  in 
1665,  and  in  Brazil  in  1685;  and  it  is  asserted 
by  some  that  these  attacks  were  recur- 
rences of  the  tropical  yellow  fever.  Other 
authors  state  that  it  originated  in  Siam,  and 


YEMBO 


[     1061    ] 


YORK 


tliat  it  was  carried  thence  by  the  French  to 
the  West  Indies  in  1690.  In  1699  it  first  ap- 
peared at  Philadelphia,  which  has  since  been 
one  of  its  chief  seats.  It  broke  out  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1728,  at  New  York  in 
1791,  at  Newhaven  in  1794,  and  at  Boston  in 
1798  ;  and  it  has  frequently  renewed  its  visita- 
tions in  these  and  other  large  cities  of  the 
United  States.  In  1800  it  raged  with  great 
violence  at  Cadiz,  and  devastated  Spain  for 
four  years ;  and  in  1804  it  raged  in  Italy. 
Gibraltar,  violently  attacked  in  1810,  has  been 
the  seen*  of  frequent  visitations. 

YEMBO  (Arabia).— An  expedition  against 
the  Wahabees  of  this  place  was  despatched  by 
Mehemet  Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  in  Aug.,  1811. 

YEMEN'  (Arabia  Felix).— The  expedition  of 
JElius  Gallus,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  (B.C. 
31 — A.D.  14)  is  by  some  authorities  supposed  to 
have  penetrated  as  far  as  this  region,  which 
was  restored  to  the  Homerites  and  made  tri- 
butary to  Persia  in  570.  A  brother  of  Saladin 
conquered  it,  and  established  the  dynasty  of 
the  Curds,  or  Ayoubites,  in  1173.  It  was 
taken  by  the  lieutenant  of  Soliman  I.  in  1538, 
and  again  by  Selim  II.  in  1568.  The  Turks 
were  expelled  from  Yemen  in  1630.  Abou 
Nokta  plundered  a  number  of  its  towns  in 
1804. 

YENIKALE  (Sea  of  Azoff).— The  straits  of 
Yenikale  were  forced  by  the  allied  fleets,  May 
25>  I8s5-  Above  15,000,000  roubles  have  been 
expended  upon  the  fortifications  since  the 
close  of  the  Russian  war  (q.  r.). 

YENITSCHIR.— (See  LARISSA.) 

YEOMANRY.— The  yeomen  of  the  Middle 
Ages  constituted  the  great  body  of  farmers 
and  small  freeholders.  Hallam  terms  them 
"a  very  numerous  and  respectable  body, 
some  occupying  their  own  estates,  some  those 
of  landlords." 

YEOMEN  OF  THE  GUARD.  —  Henry  VII. 
in  1485  founded  the  yeomen  of  the  guard 
(vulgarly  called  "beef -eaters,"  a  corruption  of 
buffetiers,  from  their  having  been  stationed  at 
the  buffet,  or  sideboard,  during  state  banquets), 
for  50  men  upwards  of  six  feet  in  height  and  a 
captain.  The  number  was,  however,  speedily 
raised  to  about  200;  but  no  settled  standard 
existed  till  1668,  when  Charles  II.  fixed  it 
at  ioo,  of  whom  six  were  called  yeomen- 
hangers,  because  it  was  their  business  to 
superintend  the  hanging  of  the  tapestry  in 
the  royal  apartments ;  and  two  yeomen-bed- 
goers,  because  to  them  was  entrusted  the 
arrangements  of  the  beds  during  royal  pro- 
gresses. The  offices  of  lieutenant  and  ensign 
of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard  were  also  added  in 
1668. 

YEOMANRY  CAVALRY.  —  Volunteer 
cavalry  corps,  formed  by  the  yeomen  of 
England  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
France  in  1793,  increased  considerably  in 
number,  when  Mr.  Dundas  recommended  the 
enrolment  of  volunteers  in  1797. 

YERBA  BUENA.— (See  SAN  FRANCISCO.) 

YERMUK  (Battle).  -The  Emperor  Hera- 
clius  was  totally  routed  by  the  Saracens  after 
a  bloody  engagement  on  the  banks  of  this 
Syrian  stream  (the  Hieromax),  Aug.  23,  634. 

YESSO,  or  YESO  (Japan \-This  island, 


discovered  by  Jerome  de  Angelis  in  1620,  was 
visited  by  the  Dutch  in  1643,  and  by  the 
Russians  in  1739.  Krusenstern  explored  its 
coasts  in  1804. 

YE\V-TREE.— The  wood  of  this  tree  was 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  bows  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  were  also 
acquainted  with  the  poisonous  nature  of  the 
juices  of  the  yew.  The  custom  of  planting 
the  tree  in  churchyards  is  variously  explained 
as  a  remnant  of  Druidical  superstition  ;  as  a 
means  of  sheltering  the  church  from  winds, 
&c. ;  as  affording  a  supply  of  the  evergreens 
so  frequently  used  by  our  forefathers  in 
ecclesiastical  festivals  ;  and  for  the  sake  of 
the  wood,  which  was  the  best  adapted  for 
making  bows.  Caxton,  in  his  "  Directory  for 
the  Festivals,"  published  in  1483,  refers  to  the 
yew  as  a  substitute  used  in  England  for  palms 
on  Palm  Sunday  (7.  v.).  Shakespeare,  in  the 
comedy  of  "Twelfth  Night"  (act  ii.  sc.  4), 
written  in  1600,  alludes  to  "My  shroud  of 
white,  stuck  all  with  yew."  The  custom  of 
clipping  the  yew  into  fantastic  forms  as  a 
garden  tree  prevailed  between  the  reigns  of 
Charles  I.  and  William  III.  (1625—89).  The 
Canada  or  North  American  yew  was  introduced 
into  this  country  in  iSoo. 

YEZD.— (See  GUEBRES.) 

YEZDEGIRD,  or  PERSIAN  jERA,  com- 
menced on  the  accession  of  Yezdegird  III.  to 
the  throne  of  Persia,  June  16,  632.  The  error 
in  the  calendar  was  rectified  by  Sultan  Jela- 
ledin  in  1075. 

YOKE. — Yokes  of  iron  are  mentioned  by 
Moses  B.C.  1451  (Deut.  xxviii.  48),  and  it  is 
believed  that  such  were  actually'  used  by 
slaves  during  the  Scriptural  period.  The' 
ancients  regarded  it  as  a  symbol  of  slavery, 
and  it  was  customary  for  vanquished  armies 
to  pass  under  a  yoke,  formed  like  a  gallows, 
of  two  upright  spears,  and  a  third  fixed 
transversely  at  top.  The  Samnites  exacted 
this  mark  of  submission  from  the  Romans 
after  their  victory  at  the  Caudine  Forks, 
B.C.  321 ;  and  were  themselves  compelled  to 
undergo  the  same  humiliation  B.C.  307  and 

'YOKOHAMA  (Japan).  —  The  English 
embassy  at  Jeddo  was  removed  to  this  town 
June  25,  1862.  Major  Baldwin  and  Lieut.  Bird 
were  treacherously  murdered,  whilst  on  an 
excursion  to  the  temple  of  Kamakura,  about 
17  miles  from  this  port,  Nov.  20,  1864.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  native  town,  and  about  one-sixth 
of  the  foreign  settlement,  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  Nov.  26,  1866. 

YORK  (Archbishopric).— St.  Lucius,  King 
of  the  Britons,  is  said  to  have  established  an 
archbishopric  at  York  as  early  as  180.  The 
names  of  only  four  of  the  ancient  bishops  are 
recorded,  and  the  see  became  extinct.  It  was 
revived  by  Edwin,  King  of  Northumbria, 
about  622,  and  conferred  upon  Paulinus  April 
27,  627.  On  the  death  of  this  primate,  the 
Northumbrians  relapsed  into  idolatry,  and  the 
see  remained  vacant  until  664,  from  which 
year  the  succession  remains  vin broken.  The 
see  of  Lindisfarne,  merged  in  that  of  York  in 
664,  was  again  separated  in  678.  The  supre- 
macy of  Canterbury  to  York  was  decreed  by 


YORK  , 


[    1062    ] 


YORK 


the  Anglican  council  of  1072.  The  metropo- 
litan see  of  York  originally  exercised  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  Scotch  bishops  ;  but  this  power 
was  abolished  in  1466.  By  an  order  in  council 
Aug.  21,  1837,  the  entire  county  of  Nottingham 
was  separated  from  York,  and  annexed  to 
Canterbury.  The  province  comprises  the  sees 
of  York,  Carlisle,  Chester,  Durham,  Man-* 
Chester,  Ripon,  and  Sodor  and  Man. 

ARCHBISHOPS   OF   YORK. 


A.D. 

627.  Paulinus. 

664.  Cearlda. 

667.  Wilfred  I. 

673.  Bosa. 

705.  John  of  Beverley. 

718.  Wilfred  II. 

733.   Egbert. 

767.  Etlielbert,  or  Coena. 

780.  Eanbald  I. 

796.  Eimbiild  II. 

6l2.  Wulfsius. 

831.  Wimundus. 


A.D. 

854.  Wul  f  here. 

900.  Ethelbald. 

Redewud. 

</7>    Wul>t:in   I. 

956.  Oscytel. 

972.  Ethel vvoldus. 

972.  Oswald. 

993.  Aldulfus,  or  Eadulf. 
ico.!.   Wulstan  11. 
1023.  ^Elfric  1'uttuc. 
1051.  Kiusige,  or  Kinsius. 


1060,  Dec.   25.  Adred.    Also  held  Worcester,   which    he 

resigned  in  1061. 

1070,  May  23.  Thomas  I..  Canon  of  li'iyeiix. 
lioo.  Gerard.     Translated  from  Hereford. 
1109,   June  27.   Thomas    II.,    Bishop    elect    of    London, 

before  consecration  was  removed  to  this  WC. 
III4,  Aug.  I>  Thurstan. 
1144,  Sep.  20.  William,  a  kinsman  of  Kin;;  Ste|)hen,  was 

deprived  by  (he  1'ope  ill  114-.  I  Henry  de  C,,illi 
was  elected,  lint  rejected  by  the  I'opc;  William 
Fit/hcrbert  was  then  chosen,  but  a!.*,  rejected; 
and  liilarv,  Bishop  of  Chiclicster.  was  next 
elected  bv  the  greater  part,  of  the  chapter.) 
1147,  Dec.  7.  Henry  Murd-ic. 

1153.  William  Fii/.herhcrt,  who  had  been  before  elected, 

WHS  restored.  . 

1154,  Oct.  10.  Rngcrnf  Bishopsbridge. 
Il8l — 119!.   Interregnum. 

1191,  Aug.  18.  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  natural  son  of  King 

Henry  II. 
1312 — 16.  Interregnum.     Simon  de  Langton  was  elected, 

but  set  aside  bv  the  I'ojie. 
1316,  May     27.      Walter    de     Cray.      Translated     from 

Worcester. 

1 255,  Oct.  i.  Sewall  de  Bovill. 
1258,  July  25.  Godfrey  dc  Ludham. 
1365.  William    de    Langton,   alias    De    Uuderfield,  was 

elected,  and    had  the  royal   assent,   but  was  set 

aside  by  the  Pope,  who  gave  it  to  Bonaventurc,  a 

Friar  Minor,  but  he  soon  afterwards  resigned. 
1?66,  Oct.  15.  Walter  Giffurd.    Translated  from  Bath  and 

Wells. 

1279,  June  22.  William  Wickwnne. 
1285,   Oct.  29.  John  I.e  Komaync. 
1296,  May  7.   Henry  de  Newerke. 
1299,  Nov.  12.  Thomas  de  Corbrigge. 
1304,  Dec.  4.  William  Grcnfeld. 
1316,  Jan.  21.  William  de  Melton. 
1340,  May  2.  William  le  Zouch. 

1354,  Sep.  8.  John  Tliorcshy.    Translated  from  Worcester. 
1374,  April  3.  Alexander  Neville,  banished  in  1387. 
1388,  Aprils-  Thomas  Fit/.-Alan  (or  Arundel).  Translated 
from   Ely.      He  was  translated   to   Canterbury, 

Sep.  25,  1396. 

1396,  Oct.  5.  Robert  Waldby.  Translated  from  Chichestor. 
1398,  June  2.  Richard  Scrope.    Translated  from  Lichfield 

and  Coventry.    Beheaded  June  8,  1405. 
1407,  Oct.  7.  Henry  Bowet     Translated  from  Bath  and 

Wells. 
1424,  May  24.  Richard  Fleming.  Translated  from  Lincoln, 

but  the  king,  and  dean,  and  chapter  disapproving 

of  his  promotion,  he  returned  to  his  see. 
1426,  April  8.  John  Kemp.     Translated  from  London. 
1452,  July  21.  William  Booth.    Translated  from  Lichfield 

and  Coventry. 

1465,  June  17.  George  Nevill.    Translated  from  Exeter. 
1476,  Sep.  i.  Lawrence  Booth.   Translated  from  Durham. 
1480,  Sep.  3.    Thomas  Scott,  or  Rotherham.    Translated 

from  Lincoln. 


A.D. 

1501,  April  12.  Thomas  Savage.  Translated  from  London. 
1508    Sep.  2o.  Christopher  Bainbrigge.     Translated  from 

Durham. 

1514,  Sep.  5.  Thomas  Wolsey.     Translated  from  Lincoln. 
1531,  Oct.  30.   Edward  I,ce. 
1545,  Jan.  10.  Robert  Holgate.  Translated  from  Llandaff. 

Deprived  March  23,  1553. 

1555,  March  26.  Nicolas  Heath.  Translated  from  Worces- 
ter. Deprived  circa  1558.  William  May,  Dean  of 

St.   Paul's,  elected,  but  died  Aug.  8,  1560,  before 

confirmation. 
1561,  Jan.  27.     Thomas    Young.      Translated    from    St. 

David's. 
1570,  April    n.    Edmund    OrlndaO.      Translated    from 

London.     He  was  appointed  to  Canterbury  Jan. 

10,  1576. 

J577,  -Tan.  27.  Edwyn  Sandys.     Translated  from  London. 
1589.  Feb.  i.  John  Piers,     translated  from  Salisbury. 
1595,  March.     Matthew     Huttoii     I.       Translated     from 

Durham. 

1606,  July  26.  Tobias  Matthew.  Translated  from  Durham. 
1628,  June    26.     George    Montoigne.       Translated    from 

Durham. 

t6_>S,   Nov.  j»i.  Samuel  Harsnet.  Translated  from  Norwich. 
1632,  Feb.   28.    Richard  Neyle.     Translated   from   Wiu- 

1041,   lice.  4!  John  Williams.     Translated  from  Lincoln. 
1650 — 60.  Interregnum. 

ia.  Accepted   Frew-en.     Translated  from  Lich- 

tield  and  Coventry. 

1664,   April  28.    Richard  Sterne.  Translated  from  Carlisle. 
\(,-:,.  .Inly  26.  John  Dolben.     Translated  from  Rochester. 

a  am. 

iiifvi,  Nov.  28.  Thomas  Lamplugh.  Translated  from 
Exeter. 

1691,  July  5.  John  Sharp. 

1714,   Feb.  a&  Sir  William  Dawes,  Bart.   Translated  from 

Chester. 

1724,  Nov.  20.  Lancelot  Blackburn.  Translated  from 
Exeter. 

1743,  April  6.  Thomas  Herring.  Translated  from  Bangor. 

Translated  to  Canterbury  1747. 

1747,  Nov.  25.  Matthew  Hutlon  II.  Translated  from 
Itangiir.  Translated  to  Canterbury  March  29, 

i"7,  April  29.  John  Gilbert.     Translated  from  Salisbury. 
1761,  Oct.   5.    Hon.    l.'obert    Hay    Drummond.     Translated 
from  Salisbury. 
.     8.     William     Markham.     Translated     from 

Chester. 

1807,  Nov.  26.  Hon.  Edward  Venables-Vernon.  Trans- 
lated from  Carlisle. 

1847,  Xov.  15.  Thomas  Musgrave.  Translated  from 
Hereford. 

1860,  June.  Charles  Thomas  Longley.  Translated  from 
Durham.  Translated  to  Canterbury  Oct.  21,  1862. 

1862,  Dec.  5.  William  Thompson.  Translated  from 
Gloucester  and  Bristol. 

YORK  (England),  the  Roman  Eboracum, 
the  Altera  Roma,  belonged  originally  to  the 
Brigantes,  and  was  made  a  Roman  station 
about  79.  The  Emperor  Septimius  Severus 
died  here  Feb.  4,  211  ;  and  Constantius  I., 
Chloms,  July  25,  306.  A  Danish  force  cap- 
tured the  city  in  867,  and  occupied  it  in  869. 
The  inhabitants  made  a  treaty  with  Ethel- 
fleda,  sister  of  Edward  the  Elder,  in  918.  A 
witenagemot  was  held  here  by  Edgar  in  966. 
The  castle  was  taken  by  the  Norwegians, 
Sunday,  Sep.  24,  1066.  It  was  seized  by 
Edgar  Atheling,  and  the  garrison  of  3,000 
persons  put  to  the  sword,  in  1069.  A  massacre 
of  the  Jews  took  place  March  17,  1190,  when 
upwards  of  1,000  were  put  to  death,  and 
many  who  were  besieged  in  the  castle 
destroyed  themselves.  It  was  besieged  in 
1216  by  the  insurgent  barons,  when  the  in- 
habitants paid  a  ransom  of  1,000  marks.  The 
marriage  of  Alexander  II.  of  Scotland,  and 
Joan,  sister  of  Henry  III.,  was  celebrated 
here  June  25,  1221 ;  and  that  of  Alexander  III. 


YORK 


[     1063    ] 


YUCATAN 


of  Scotland,  and  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry 
III.,  Dec.  26,  1251.  A  parliament  was  sum- 
moned to  meet  at  York  by  Edward  I.  in  1298. 
The  courts  of  King's  Bench  and  Exchequer 
were  removed  to  this  city  in  1299,  where  they 
remained  for  seven  years.  Edward  II.  made  it 
his  head-quarters  in  1311,  and  in  the  cathedral 
Edward  III.  married  Philippa  of  Hainault, 
Jan.  24,  1328.  A  pestilence  carried  off  n,ooo  of 
the  inhabitants  in  1390.  Councils  were  held 
here  June  14  or  15,  1195  ;  in  1363;  in  1-444  ;  and 
April  26,  1466.  Its  first  charter  was  granted 
by  Henry  II.  (1154 — 89),  and  the  title  of  lord 
was  given  to  the  mayor  by  Richard  II.  in 
1389.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Lancastrians 
in  1460.  On  the  suppression  of  monasteries 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  1536,  an  insurrection  took 
place,  styled  the  "  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  " 
(7.  /•.  ,  when  the  insurgents  entered  the  city, 
and  compelled  the  archbishop  to  join  them. 
Conferences  before  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and 
the  Earl  of  Sussex  were  held  here  in  1568,  to 
inquire  into  the  charges  against  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots.  Charles  I.  visited  York  011  his  way 
to  Scotland  in  1633  ;  and  a  treaty,  called  the 
Pacification  of  York,  was  concluded  with  the 
Scottish  commissioners,  June  18,  1639.  The 
king  summoned  the  peers  to  meet  him  here 
Sep.  24,  1640 ;  and  again,  when  he  took  a 
solemn  pledge  to  exercise  a  legal  government, 
June  13,  1642.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Par- 
liamentary army,  and  surrendered  after  the 
defeat  of  Prince  Rupert  at  Marston  Moor, 
July  1 6,  1644.  The  Parliamentary  generals 
Fairfax  and  Monk  occupied  it  in  1659.  A 
meeting  of  the  gentry  was  held  at  York, 
and  ,£40,000  subscribed  for  the  suppression 
of  the  rebellion,  Sep.  24,  1745.  Eleven  of  the 
rebels  were  executed  here  in  1746.  A  petition 
respecting  extravagance  and  abuse  in  the 
expenditure  of  the  public  money,  adopted  at 
a  monster  meeting,  was  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment Feb.  8,  1780.  The  Guildhall  was  erected 
in  1446,  and  the  church  of  St.  Michael-le- 
Belfrey  was  built  in  1545.  St.  Olave,  Marygate, 
was  raised  in  1732,  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
abbey  that  was  founded  on  the  spot  by 
Siward,  Earl  of  Northumbria.  St.  Peter's 
school  was  founded  by  Queen  Mary  in  1557, 
and  the  Blue-coat  boys'  school  was  established 
in  1705.  The  mansion-house  was  built  in  1726, 
and  the  assembly-room  in  1736.  The  county 
hospital  was  endowed  by  Lady  Hastings  in 
1 749,  and  the  retreat  for  lunatics  was  erected 
by  the  Quakers  in  1796.  Fourteen  of  the 
rioters  termed  Luddites  were  executed  here 
Jan.  10,  1813.  The  building  of  the  Philoso- 
phical Society  was  opened  in  1830.  A  grand 
banquet  was  given  in  the  Guildhall  by  the 
lord  mayor  to  Prince  Albert,  the  lord  mayor 
of  London,  and  the  chief  municipal  officers  in 
the  kingdom,  Oct.  25,  1850.  Lenthal  Bridge, 
which  fell  Sep.  27,  1861,  when  five  persons 
were  killed,  was  reopened  in  1863.  The 
National  Association  for  the  Promotion  of 
Social  Science  met  here  Sep.  22 — 29,  1864.  A 
Fine  Art  and  Industrial  Exhibition  was 
opened  July  24,  1866,  and  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Wales  visited  the  city  (Aug.  9-^11) 
and  inaugurated  the  memorial  to  Prince 
Albert,  Aug.  10.  (See  HOUSE-RACING,  Ac  ) 


YORK  (Upper  Canada).— The  name  of  this 
town  was  changed  to  Toronto  (q.  v.]  in  1834. 

YORKISTS.  —  (See  LANCASTRIANS  AND 
YORKISTS.) 

YORK  MINSTER,  founded  by  Edwin,  King 
of  Northumberland,  in  627,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  April  23,  741.  A  new  church  was  built 
during  the  episcopate  of  Ethelbert,  who  was 
elected  to  the  see  in  767.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Archbishop  Thomas,  who  came  to  the  see  in 
070,  and  was  burned  down  in  1137.  Of  the 
present  building  the  nave  was  founded  by 
John  le  Romayne,  the  archbishop,  in  1291. 
The  edifice  was  completed  by  Archbishop 
Melton  about  1331.  Archbishop  Thoresby 
rebuilt  the  choir  in  1361  ;  and  the  central 
tower  was  taken  down  in  1370,  and  rebuilt 
soon  afterwards.  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic, 
set  fire  to  the  cathedral  Feb.  2,  1829.  Another 
conflagration  ensued,  through  the  carelessness 
of  a  workman  who  left  his  candle  burning  in 
the  clock-tower,  May  20,  1840. 

YORK  MISSAL.— Perhaps  the  only  perfect 
copy  of  this  ritual  is  that  preserved  in  the 
library  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
bearing  the  title,  ' '  Missale  ad  usum  Ecclesise 
Eboracum,  sumptibus  Fraiicisci  Regnault, 
Parisiis,  A.D.  1533." 

YORK  TOWN  (N.  America).— Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  on  taking  the  command  in  Virginia, 
concentrated  his  forces  here,  Aug.  22,  1781. 
The  rebel  batteries  were  opened  upon  it 
Oct.  9,  and  Cornwallis  surrendered  Oct.  19. 
The  Confederates  evacuated  it  May  3,  1862. 

YPRES,  or  YPEREN  (Belgium),  took  its 
rise  from  a  fortress  which  was  built  by  a 
count  of  Flanders  in  960.  The  town,  taken  by 
Louis  VI.  in  1128,  by  Philip  II.  in  1213,  and 
by  Philip  IV.  in  1297,  was  enlarged  and  walled 
by  Philip  II.  the  Bold  in  1388.  It  suffered  from 
the  plague  in  1490  and  1552.  The  bishopric  of 
Terouanne,  removed  here  by  Paul  IV.  in  1559, 
has  since  been  suppressed.  (See  JANSENLSTS.) 
The  Spaniards  wrested  it  from  the  inhabitants, 
who  had  revolted,  in  1649,  and  it  was  taken 
by  the  English  and  French  in  1658.  The 
French  captured  it  in  1678  and  in  1744,  bom- 
barded it  ineffectually  in  1793,  and  reduced  it 
after  a  13  days'  siege,  June  17,  1794.  It  was 
restored  to  Holland  in  1815.  Linen,  called 
"  diaper,"  was  originally  made  here,  taking  its 
name  from  a  mispronunciation  of  d'Yperen. 

YTTRIUM  was  discovered  in  the  state  of 
oxide  called  yttria,  by  Professor  Gadolin,  of  , 
Ytterby,  in  Sweden,  in  1794.     The  metal,  of  a 
dark    grey    colour,    was    first    procured    by 
Wohler  in  1828. 

YUCATAN  (Mexico)  was  discovered  by 
Hernandez  Cordova  in  1517,  and  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards,  under  Bernal  Diaz,  in  1522. 
It  remained  subject  to  Spain  till  the  declara- 
tion of  independence  in  1813.  The  change  of 
the  federal  into  a  central  government  in 
Mexico  in  1835  raised  a  spirit  of  discontent  in 
this  state.  This  led  to  a  repudiation  of  the 
central  power  in  1839  ;  and  after  a  lengthened 
contest  the  establishment  of  its  independence 
in  1841.  The  ruins  of  many  extensive  cities 
have  been  discovered.  They  were  described 
by  the  traveller  Stephens  in  1838  and  184?. 
!  After  the  capture  of  Carnpeachy  by  the  French 


YUSTE 


[     1064    ] 


ZANTE 


in  Jan.,  1864,  Yucatan  declared  in  favour  of 
the  Imperialists. 

YUSTE  (Spain).— This  celebrated  monastery 
of  the  order  of  St.  Jerome,  founded  by  two 
hermits  from  Placentia,  in  1404,  and  confirmed 
by  a  papal  bull  in  1408,  is  named,  according  to 
some  authorities,  after  a  small  stream,  and 
according  to  others  after  one  Saint  Yuste, 
Justus,  or  Just.  It  is  remarkable  as  the 
retreat  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  after  his 
abdication,  Jan.  i(>,  1556.  lie  arrived  Wed- 
nesday, Feb.  3,  1557,  and  died  Sep.  21,  1558. 
The  monastery  was,  in  consequence,  honoured 
with  the  title  of  royal.  Its  privileges  were 
confirmed  in  1562  by  Philip  II.,  who  sojourned 
here  for  two  days  in  1570.  It  was  repaired  by 
Philip  IV.  in  i6;8;  and  was  pillaged  and 
burned  by  a  party  of  Soult's  foragers,  Aug.  9, 
1809.  The  destruction  thus  commenced  was 
continued  by  the  church  reformers  of 
wlio  stole  what  the  French  had  spared,  July 
4,  1821,  and  was  completed  by  the  monastic 
sequestrations  of  1835. 

YUTIIIA,  or  AYUTHIA.— (Set-  I 

YVERDUN"  (Switzerland  .  -Conrad  of  Zanr- 
ingen  built  a  castle  at  this  place,  the  ancient 
Bbr'edunum,  or  Ebumdunum,  in  the  i2th 
century.  It  passed  from  the  kings  of  Bur- 
gundy into  the  possession  of  the  dukes  of 
Z;eringen,  and  they  resigned  it  to  Savoy  in 
1259.  The  Swiss  hold  it  from  1475  to  1478, 
when  it  again  pushed  t"  Savoy,  from  which  it 
was  wrested  by  Berne  in  1536.  Pestaloz/.i 
established  his  school  in  the  old  castle  in  1805. 

YV !•;'!'(  >T  (France)  was  at  one  time  the 
capital  of  a  lordship,  the  chiefs  of  which  were 

called  kings  of  Yvi-tot.    According  to  Robert 

(iaguin,  this  distinction  was  granted  by 
Clotaire  I.  in  534  ;  but  this  account  is  not- 
red  authentic.  The  title  is  believed  to 
have  originated  in  the  second  half  of  the  i4th 
century. 

YVRKS,  or  IVIIY  France,  belonged  to 
Raoul,  half -brother  of  Richard  I.,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  who  built  a  strong  fortress,  round 
which  the  town  sprang  up,  0.43 — 99". 
de  Beaumont,  who  had  received  the  d 
from  William  the  Bastard,  founded  the  liene- 
dictine  monastery  in  1071.  Henry  I.  of  Eng- 
land threw  a  garrison  into  the  castle  in  1119. 
An  interview  took  place  near  the  1i>\vn 
between  Henry  II.  of  England  and  Louis  VII. 
of  France  in  1176.  The  upper  town  was  taken 
by  the  English,  under  Talbot,  in  1418,  and  by 
the  Duke  of  Bedford  in  1424.  It  was  re- 
covered by  the  French  in  1449.  (See  IVBY. 
Battle.)  * 


Z  A AX  1) AM.  —  [See  SAARDAM. ) 

'A  \  A  T  U  II  A  Algeria).  —  An  insurrection 
against  the  French  having  broken  out  at  this 
town  in  1849,  ^  was  taken  and  destroyed, 
Nov.  26. 

ZAB  (Battle).— Merwan  II.,  the  i4th  and 
last  caliph  of  the  Ommiades,  was  defeated 


in  750,  in  a  sanguinary  conflict  on  the  banks 
of  this  river,  in  Assyria,  by  the  Abbassides, 
who  established  their  dynasty.  Merwan  II. 
took  refuge  in  a  mosque  at  Busir,  in  Egypt, 
where  he  was  slain  Feb.  10,  750.  (See  DABAN. 
Battle.) 

ZACYNTIIUS.—  (See  SAGUNTUM,  ZANTE.) 

ZADIKI.M. -(,*«  CHASIDIM.; 

ZADOCK  i  Battle).  —  The  insurgent  Hun- 
garians collected  by  Bertzeny  were  defeated 
at  this  place,  on  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  by 
the  Austrian  general  Seckingen,  Jan.  22,  1710. 

Z^ERINGEN,  or  ZAHRINGEN.— Berthold 
I.,  Count  of  Zseringen,  took  the  title  of  duke 
in  1052,  and  possessed  Carinthia  and  the 
march  of  Verona  from  1058  till  1073.  The 
elder  line  divided  into  two  branches  in  1152, 
the  first  becoming  extinct  in  1218,  and  the 
second  in  1439.  '^c  castle  of  Z;eringen  is  in 
id  duchy  of  Baden. 

ZAGRAB  .Uattle  .— Charles  Martcl,  having 
entered  Hungary  to  claim  the  crown,  was 
defeated  by  Andrew  III.  in  an  engagement  at 
this  place,  in  1292. 

/A  IRK.      See  CONGO.} 

Z  A  LACC  A  Uaitlo  .—The  Ahnoravides  of 
Africa  defeated  Alphonso  VI.  in  this  plain, 
near  Badajos,  Oct.  2  and  3,  1086. 

ZAMA      Battle).— Scipio    Africanus,    at  the 
>f     the     Roman    army,   defeated    the 
Carthaginians   under  Hannibal,  on  the  plain 
of    Zama,    according   to   sonic    authorities    ill 
the  spring,  and  according  to  others   Oct.  19, 
B.C.    202.      So  complete   was  the   defeat  that 
20,000  Carthaginians  were  killed,  and  20,000 
mad'.:    prisoners.       A    parallel    between    this 
battle,  which   brought   the  second   Punic  war 
to    a  cl'>se,    and    that    of     Waterloo,  h,, 
drawn  bv  Dr.  Arnold  (Rome,  iii.  62),  by 
;  Decisive  Battlesof  the  World,  p.  127 , and  other 
writers.        Hannibal    had    contended    I 
Rome  for  17,  and  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
England  for  16,    years   when  the   final   blow 
ruck. 

Z  A  M  A    (Xurnidia),    at  one    time   st 
fortified,   and    the  residence  of   the    a 
kings  of    the  country,  was  ceded  to  Numidia 
after    the    capture    of    Carthage,     B.C.     146. 
Metellus   failed  in   an  attempt   to   capture  it 
B.C.  109.     It  refused  admittance  to  Juba  when 
a  fugitive  from  Julius  C;esar,  after  the  battle 
of  Thapsus,  B.C.  46.     Its  ruins  have  been  dis- 
covered near  Jama. 

Z  A  M  O  R  A  (Battle).  —  Alphonso  the  Great 
defeated  the  Moors  in  a  great  battle  near 
Zamora,  in  Spain,  in  901. 

ZAMORA  Spain).— Alphonso  I.  wrested  this 
town  from  the  .Moors  in  748.  It  was  retaken 
and  nearly  destroyed  by  Almansor  in  985,  and 
recovered  by  the  Cid  in  1093.  Sancho  II.  of 
Castile  was  assassinated  here  in  1072. 

ZA.MOSZ  (Poland).— This  town,  founded  by 
Zamosky  in  1588,  belonged  to  Austria  from 
1722  to  1809.  The  Russians  were  foiled  in 
their  attempts  to  capture  it  in  1813.  It  fell 
into  their  po\ver  in  1814. 

ZAMZUMMIMS.— This  race  of  giants,  also 
called  Rephaim,  is  mentioned  Dent.  ii.  20. 

Z  ANCLE.  —(See  Mr  .-si 

Z  A  N  T  E  (Ionian  Islands  ,  the  ancient  Za- 
cynthus,  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Achaeans 


ZANZALBENB 


[    1065    ] 


ZINC 


about  B.C.  1390.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked 
by  the  Lacedaemonians  B.C.  430,  assisted  the 
Syracusan  expedition  of  Dion  against  Diony- 
sius,  B.C.  357,  and  was  taken  by  the  Roman 
praetor  Valerius  B.C.  211.  Philip  V.  of  Macedon, 
having  obtained  possession,  restored  it  to  the 
Romans  B.C.  191.  The  town  suffered  from  an 
earthquake  in  Oct.,  1841.  The  pitch-wells  of 
the  island,  which  still  exist,  are  described  by 
Herodotus  and  Pliny. 

ZANZALEENS.  —  The  followers  of  Jacob 
Zanzalus,  better  known  as  Baradseus,  who 
died  in  578,  were  so  called.  (See  JACOBITES.) 

ZANZIBAR  (Africa;.— This  island  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  Albuquerque  in 
I5°3- 

ZARA  -Austria)  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Jadera,  the  capital  of  Libuniia,  in 
Illyria.  It  became  a  Roman  colony  under 
Augustus,  B.C.  27 — A.D.  14.  Under  the 
name  of  Diodora  it  paid  a  tribute  of  no 
pieces  of  gold  to  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  Slavonic  princes  by 
Basil  I.  (867 — 886;.  Zara  afterwards  became 
the  capital  of  Dalmatia.  Having  revolted 
from  Venice,  and  implored  the  aid  of  Hun- 
gary, it  was  besieged  by  the  French  and 
Venetian  crusaders,  and  yielded  after  a  five 
days' resistance,  Nov.  18,  1202. 

ZARIASPA.— (See  BACTRA.) 

ZAR.MIZEGETHUSA,  or  ZERMIGETHUSA. 
—  ,s>  i  SARMIZEGETHUSA.) 

ZARUAZ  Spain  .--This  town  in  Guipuzcoa, 
on  the  sea  coast,  near  St.  Sebastian,  became 
a  fashionable  watering  place  about  1850.  The 
castle  was  erected  in  the  i6th  century. 

ZATMAR  (Treaty).— A  convention  by  which 
peace  was  restored  to  Hungary, — the  Empe- 
ror, Joseph  I.,  granting  a  general  amnesty, 
restitution  of  confiscated  property,  liberation 
of  prisoners,  and  the  exercise  of  the  Pro 
testant  religion, — was  signed  in  Jan.,  1711. 

ZEALAND  (Holland).— The  islands  com- 
posing this  province  were  first  united  under 
one  government  by  Florence  V.  in  1256.  In 
1304  Zealand  was  seized  by  Guy  of  Flanders, 
who  was,  however,  speedily  expelled  ;  and  in 
1579  it  participated  in  the  celebrated  Union  of 
Utrecht.  Under  the  French  domination,  from 
1810  to  1814,  Zealand  formed  the  department 
of  Bouches-de-1'Escaut. 

ZEALAND,  or  SIELAND  (Denmark).— This 
island  was  formerly  of  great  importance  as  a 
resort  for  the  fleets  for  which  Denmark  was 
so  justly  famous.  Its  castle  of  Wordingborg 
was  founded  by  Valdemar  I.  in  1166. 

ZEBU  (Philippines).— This  island  of  the 
group  was  discovered  by  Magalhaens,  in  1521. 
He  was  murdered  by  the  natives  here,  April  26. 

ZECHARIAH  (Book  of),  the  nth  in 
order  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  written  by 
Zechariah,  the  son  of  Berechiah,  the  son  of 
Iddo,  the  prophet,  about  B.  c.  520. 

ZEEBURG.— (See  RAMMEKENS.) 

ZEGRIS.— [See  ABENCERRAGES.) 

ZEILAN.— (See  CEYLON.! 

ZEIRITES,  also  called  ZEGRIS,  a  Moorish 
tribe  and  dynasty,  became  independent  of  the 
Fatimites  in  972.  The  Almoravides  overthrew 
this  dynasty  in  1050. 

ZEITZ  (Battle).— Rodolph,  Duke  of  Swabia, 


having  accepted  the  crown  of  Germany,  and 
having  been  recognized  by  the  Pope,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 
at  this  place,  near  Merseburg,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Elster,  in  Germany,  Oct.  15,  1080. 

ZELA  (Asia  Minor),  said  to  have  been  built 
on  a  mound  constructed  by  Semiramis,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  by  Pompeius  about 
B.  c.  66.  Julius  Caesar  defeated  Pharnaces 
here  B.  c.  47,  and  recovered  the  province  of 
Pontus ;  on  which  occasion  he  is  said  to  have 
sent  his  laconic  despatch  to  Rome,  "Veni, 
vidi,  vici." 

ZELL,  ZELLE,  or  CELLE  (Hanover).— This 
town  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  1369.  The 
castle,  built  in  1485,  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the 
prison  of  the  unfortunate  Caroline  Matilda, 
Queen  of  Denmark  and  sister  of  George  III., 
who  was  immured  here  on  a  false  charge 
of  incontinence.  (See  DENMARK.)  She  was 
arrested  at  Copenhagen  Jan.  16,  1772,  and 
immediately  conveyed  to  the  castle  of  Cronen- 
burg,  whence  she  was  removed  to  this  place 
on  the  intercession  of  her  brother,  the  King  of 
England,  May  30.  After  living  in  retirement 
for  three  years,  she  died  May  to,  1775,  in  her 
24th  year,  and  was  interred  in  the  sepulchre 
of  her  maternal  ancestors,  the  dukes  of  Zell. 
A  treaty  between  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
Germany,  Spain,  and  Holland,  was  concluded 
at  Zell  June  20,  1674,  and  another,  between 
Brunswick  and  Sweden,  Feb.  5,  1679. 

ZENDECAN  (Battle).— The  Ghiznevides were 
defeated  by  the  Turkomans  at  this  place,  in 
Khorassan,  and  the  dynasty  of  the  shepherd 
kings  founded  in  Persia,  in  1038. 

ZENO.— The  Stoics  (q.v.)  were  sometimes 
called  the  sect  of  Zeno  from  their  founder. 

ZENTA.— (See  SZENTA.) 

ZEPHANIAH  (Book  of),  the  ninth  in  order 
of  the  minor  prophets,  was  written  by  Zepha- 
niah,  the  son  of  Cush,  the  son  of  Gedaliah, 
the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hizkiah,  about 
B.C.  627. 

ZEPHYRIA.— (See  HALICARNASSUS.) 

ZERBI.— (See  GERBI.) 

ZERNAGORA.— (See  MONTENEGRO.) 

ZETUNIUM  (Battle).— The  Emperor  Basil 
II.  defeated  the  army  of  Samuel,  King  of  Bul- 
garia, at  this  place,  July  29,  1014.  The  victor 
took  15,000  prisoners,  whose  eyes  he  ordered 
to  be  put  out,  leaving  only  a  single  eye  to  one 
man  in  every  100,  to  enable  them  to  regain 
their  homes.  On  hearing  of  this  infamous 
outrage,  Samuel  fell  senseless  to  the  ground, 
and  expired  two  days  after. 

ZINC  was  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  Romans, 
or  Arabians,  although  the  ore  calamine  was 
probably  employed  in  making  brass  in  the 
5th  century.  Albertus  Magnus,  in  the  i3th 
century,  showed  that  furnace  calamine  might 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  This  application 
was  also  pointed  out  by  Erasmus  Ebener,  of 
Nuremberg,  about  1548.  Artificial  white 
vitriol  was  an  article  of  commerce  about 
1570,  before  it  was  known  that  it  was  pro- 
cured from  zinc.  The  name  zinc  first  occurs 
in  Paracelsus,  who  described  it  in  1530.  Hen- 
kel  procured  it  from  calamine,  and  published 
his  success  in  1741.  In  England  it  was  pro- 
bably manufactured  in  that  way  as  early  as 


ZION 


[     1066    ] 


ZULLICHAU 


1737.  Works  for  its  manufacture  were  estab- 
lished at  Bristol  by  Champion  in  1743.  The 
greater  part  of  the  metal  used  in  Europe  was 
brought  from  the  East  Indies,  the  Commercial 
Company  of  the  Netherlands  having  sold  nearly 
1,000,000  Ib.  between  1775  and  1779. 

ZION.— The  hill  at  Jerusalem  on  which  the 
temple  stood  was  called  Mount  Zion.  A  fortress^ 
erected  here  by  the  Syrians,  was  captured  and 
destroyed  in  May,  B.C.  142.  (See  MORMUNITES.) 

ZIPANGU.— (See  JAPAN.  ; 

ZIRCONIUM.— This  rare  metal,  which  has 
resisted  all  attempts  at  fusion,  was  discovered 
by  Berzelius  in  1824. 

ZNAIM,  or  ZNAYM  (Armistice),  concluded 
at  this  place  between  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  July  n,  1809, 
a  few  days  after  the  battle  of  Wagram.  It 
led  to  the  peace  of  Schonbrunn. 

ZXAIM,  or  ZNAYM  (Austria). —The  Em- 
peror Sigismund  died  at  this  town,  in  Moravia, 
Dec.  9,  1437.  A  drawn  battle  between  the 
French  and  the  Austrians  was  fought  here, 
July  10,  1809. 

ZOBAH.— (See  NISIBIS.) 

ZODIAC.— It  is  believed  that  the  ancient 
Babylonians  divided  the  zodiac  into  12  signs, 
distinguished  by  the  names  of  different  ani- 
miiLs  ;  and  a  similar  arrangement  was  adopted 
by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Orientals. 
Anaximander  of  Miletus  is  said  to  have  con- 
structed a  dial  representing  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  about  B.C.  600,  and  Aratus,  who  \vn.tc 
an  astronomical  poem  about  B.C.  270,  describes 
the  zodiac.  The  practice  of  decorating  ceil  ings, 
&c.,  with  representations  of  the  zodiacal  si^ns, 
was  common  in  ancient  Egypt  and  Rome.  The 
phenomenon  of  the  zodiacal  light  was  first 
observed  by  Descartes  and  Childrey,  and  was 
named  by  the  elder  Cassini  in  1683.  It  was 
first  observed  in  England  in  Essex,  by  Der- 
hain,  April  3,  1707. 

ZOLLERN.— (See  HOHENZOLLERN.) 

ZOLLVEREIX,  or  CUSTOMS  UNION.— 
The  idea  of  a  uniform  system  of  customs  for 
the  German  states,  first  suggested  at  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815,  was  acted  upon  by 
the  government  of  Prussia,  which  abolished 
all  distinctions  of  customs  throughout  its 
territories,  May  26,  1818,  and  invited  other 
governments  to  unite  for  a  similar  purpose. 
The  invitation  was  generally  accepted,  and  the 
result  was  the  formation  of  the  Zollverein,  or 
customs  union  of  the  German  states,  by  a 
treaty  signed  March  22,  1833.  Saxony  joined 
the  union  March  30,  Thuringia  May  n,  and 
the  uniformity  of  customs  thus  introduced 
commenced  Jan.  i,  1834.  Treaties  of  com- 
merce between  Austria  and  the  Zollverein, 
and  Italy  and  the  Zollverein,  were  signed 
Dec.  31,  1865. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  (London),  in  the 
Regent's  Park,  were  laid  out  in  1825,  and  the 
Zoological  Gardens  in  the  Surrey  Gardens  in 
1831.  The  latter  were  converted  to  other 
purposes  in  1856. 

ZOOLOGICAL  SOCIETY.— The  Zoological 
Society  of  London  was  founded  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  and  other 
eminent  men,  in  1826.  The  Cuvierian  Society 
r>f  Paris  was  instituted  in  1738. 


ZOOLOGY.— Aristotle  wrote  his  "  History 
of  Animals"  about  B.C.  334.  The  first  Eu- 
ropean work  in  any  department  of  this  science 
worthy  of  notice  is  Turner's  "History  of 
Birds,"  published  at  Cologne  in  1548.  Conrad 
Gesner's  "  History  of  Animals,"  considered  hy 
Cuvier  as  the  basis  of  modern  zoology,  was 
published  between  1551  and  1587.  A  history 
of  fishes  in  Latin,  from  the  pen  of  Belon,  the 
traveller,  appeared  in  1553.  Ichthyology  was 
treated  of  by  Rondelet  in  1554-5,  and  by  Salviani 
1554-8.  Aldrovandus,  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Bologna,  produced  a  work  on  the 
subject  in  13  volumes,  nine  of  which  were 
published  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
1605.  The  last,  on  cloven-hoofed  quadrupeds, 
appeared  in  1642.  The  animals  of  Brazil  were 
described  by  Marcgraf  in  1648.  Jonston,  a 
Pole,  produced  a  natural  history  1648—1652. 
A  work  on  insects,  by  MoufTet,  an  English 
physician,  appeared  in  1634.  Ray,  the  first 
zoologist  who  made  use  of  comparative  ana- 
tomy, wrote  on  the  subject  in  various  depart- 
ments between  1676  and  1693.  Swammerdam, 
a  Dutch  naturalist,  published  a  general  history 
of  insects  in  1669.  Baron  Cuvier,  conjointly 
with  M.  Geoffrey,  issued  a  new  classifi- 
cation of  mammiferous  animals  in  1797, 
and  published  his  "Animal  Kingdom"  in 
1817.  (See  LINN^EAX  SYSTEM  and  NATURAL 
HISTORY.) 

ZORNDORF  (Battle).— The  Russians,  50,000 
strong,  commanded  by  Marshal  Fermor,  were 
attacked,  Aug.  25,  1758,  at  this  village  in 
Prussia,  by  the  Prussians  under  Frederick  II. 
The  Russians  lost  nearly  20,000  and  the  Prus- 
sians 12,000  men,  and  no  decisive  advantage 
was  achieved  on  either  side. 

ZOUAVES.— A  Kabyle  or  primitive  Berber 
people,  inhabiting  a  mountainous  district 
between  Bougie  and  Dellis,  in  Algeria,  known 
as  the  Gaouaoua,  or  D'Ait-Gaoua,  are  also 
called  Zouaouas  ;  whence  the  term  Zouave. 
Max  Mailer  says  they  are  called  Shawi  in 
Algiers,  that  is,  Nomads  ;  and  that  at  Tunis 
the  name  has  been  corrupted  to  Suav  ;  whence 
the  French  Zouave.  The  lieutenant-general  of 
police  attached  to  the  French  expedition  to 
Algeria  addressed  a  communication  to  Marshal 
Bourmont  containing  an  offer  of  an  auxiliary 
corps  of  2,000  of  these  people,  Aug.  14,  1830. 
The  offer  was  accepted,  and  a  decree  issued  for 
its  formation  Oct.  i,  1830.  A  royal  ordinance 
divided  them  into  two  battalions,  composed  of 
four  companies  of  indigenes  and  two  of  French, 
Dec.  5,  1835.  Gradually  the  enlistment  of 
natives  ceased  ;  and  the  force  consists  almost 
exclusively  of  Frenchmen. 

ZUG  (Switzerland),  the  smallest  of  the 
cantons,  joined  the  confederation  in  1352, 
became  a  member  of  the  new  confederacy 
in  1815,  and  formed  one  of  the  seven  Roman 
Catholic  cantons  which  associated,  under  the 
name  of  the  Sonderbund,  against  the  Free 
Corps  in  1 846.  The  arsenal  contains  the  banner 
borne  by  Peter  Kollin,  who  fell  fighting  against 
the  Milanese  in  1422. 

ZULLICHAU  ( Battle \  —The  Prussians, 
under  Gen.  Wedel,  were  defeated  by  the 
Russians,  with  a  loss  of  9,000  men,  near  this 
IMWM  of  Prussia,  July  23,  1759. 


ZULPTCH 


[     1067    ] 


ZYP 


ZULP1CH. — The  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  battle  of  Tolbiac  (q.  v.}. 

ZULU  CAFFRES.— (See  NATAL.) 

ZURICH  (Switzerland),  capital  of  the  can- 
ton, and  an  ancient  Roman  station,  was 
burned  by  the  Helvetii  when  about  to  invade 
Gaul,  B.C.  61.  The  Alemanni  rebuilt  it  in  256. 
It  received  the  jus  monetce  from  Charles  the 
Bald,  and  was  walled  under  Otho  I.  Arnold  of 
Brescia  found  refuge  herein  1140,  when  he  fled 
from  Italy  on  a  charge  of  heresy.  The  canton 
joined  the  confederation  in  1351,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  1436  in  a  civil  war  with  the  other 
cantons,  which  besieged  it  in  1444.  Peace  was 
concluded  between  them  in  1446.  The  town  of 
Winterthur  was  mortgaged  to  the  canton  in 
1452.  The  reformed  faith  was  adopted  in  1523, 
and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  replaced  by  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  1525.  The 
French  general  Massena  retreated  from  the 
town,  leaving  it  in  the  hands  of  the  Aus- 
trians,  June  5,  1799.  He  defeated  the  Russian 
general  Korsakoff,  when  the  celebrated 
Lavater,  wishing  to  act  as  a  minister  of  peace, 
stepped  between  the  combatants,  and  fell  dead 
in  the  street,  Sep.  26.  The  Protestant  pastors 
of  the  town,  opposed  to  the  system  of  education 
independent  of  the  clergy,  put  themselves  at 
the  head  of  a  body  of  peasants,  and  effected 
the  dissolution  of  the  government  in  1839. 
The  Mtinsterhoff ,  or  cathedral,  in  the  Byzantine 
style,  was  built  in  the  nth  century;  the 
Frauenmtinster,  formerly  a  nunnery,  was 
founded  in  the  isth  century;  and  the  uni- 
versity, an  ancient  convent,  in  1834. 

ZURICH  (Treaty).— Plenipotentiaries  from 
Austria,  France,  and  Sardinia,  for  the  definite 
settlement  of  the  preliminary  treaty  of  Villa- 
franca  (q.  v.),  assembled  at  Zurich  Aug.  8,  1859, 
and  concluded  a  definite  treaty  Nov.  10,  which 
was  ratified  Nov.  21.  By  this  treaty,  the 
whole  of  Lombardy,  except  Peschiera  and 
Mantua,  was  ceded  by  Austria  to  France,  on 
condition  that  it  should  immediately  be  trans- 
ferred to  Sardinia,  and  a  perpetual  peace  was 
established  between  the  three  contracting 
powers. 

ZUTPHEN  (Holland).— This  fortified  town 
was  acquired  with  the  province  of  Guelder- 
land,  in  which  it  is  situated,  by  Charles  I. 
(the  Bold),  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1472.  Sir 
Philip  Sydney  received  a  mortal  wound,  in  a 
skirmish  under  its  walls,  when  his  uncle,  the 
Earl  of  Leicester,  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  take  it,  Sep.  22.  1586.  He  died 
Oct.  16. 


ZUYDER  ZEE,  or  SOUTH  SEA  (Holland), 
originally  a  lake  known  by  the  name  of  Flevo, 
was  enlarged  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea, 
which  separated  Holland  from  Friesland  in 
1234.  A  body  of  French  cavalry  and  artillery 
crossed  it  upon  the  ice  in  1794,  when  the  novel 
enterprise  was  executed  of  the  capture  of  a 
fleet  by  a  land  force,  a  portion  of  the  Dutch 
navy  having  been  frozen  in  at  the  Texel.  The 
Dutch  fleet  surrendered  to  the  English  admi- 
ral Mitchell  here,  Aug.  30,  1799. 

ZWICKAU  (Saxony).  —  The  fine  Gothic 
church  at  this  place  was  commenced  in  1453. 
The  followers  of  Carlstadt  (1483—060.  24, 
1541)  ;  of  Storch,  a  clothier  of  Wittenberg;  of 
Thomas  Mvinzer,  who  died  in  1525 ;  and  of  other 
Anabaptists,  were  in  1522  called  Zwickau  pro- 
phets. 

ZWINGLIANS,  the  followers  of  Ulrich 
Zwingli,  or  Zwinglius,  who  was  born  at  Wil- 
denhausen,  in  the  county  of  Toggenburg,  in 
the  Swiss  canton  of  St.  Gall,  Jan.  i,  1484,  was 
ordained  priest  in  1506,  and  appointed  to  the 
parish  of  Glarus,  where  he  preached  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  The 
court  of  Rome  charged  him  with  heresy,  and 
threatened  him  and  his  disciples  with  ex- 
communication, when  he  opposed  the  sale  of 
indulgences  as  preacher  to  the  monastery  of 
Einsiedlen,  an  appointment  which  he  received 
in  1516.  Zwinglius  was  appointed,  in  1517,  to 
a  vacancy  in  the  cathedral  of  Zurich.  The 
Zwinglians  formed  a  majority  in  the  two 
great  councils  at  Zurich,  in  Jan.  and  Oct., 
1523.  They  ordered  the  removal  of  all  images 
and  ornaments  from  churches  in  1524,  and  put 
an  end  to  the  celebration  of  the  mass  in  Jan., 
1525.  The  popish  cantons  having  sent  a  force 
against  them,  defeated  them  at  Cappel  (q.  v.), 
where  Zwinglius  himself  led  them  to  the  field 
and  fell,  mortally  wounded,  Oct.  12,  1531. 

ZWITTAU  (Battle).— The  Prussians  defeated 
the  Austrians,  and  captured  a  large  provision 
train  at  this  place,  in  Moravia,  Monday,  July 
9,  1866. 

ZWOLLE  (Holland),  merely  a  village  till 
1233,  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1580. 
The  Dutch  recovered  it  the  same  year,  and  it 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  1672,  and  again 
Jan.  31,  1795.  The  Russians  occupied  it  Nov. 
12,  1813.  It  was  much  injured  in  1825  by  an 
inundation  of  the  river  Yssel. 

ZYP  (Battle).— Sir  Ralph  .Abercrombie  re- 
pulsed an  attack  of  16,000  French,  under  Dan- 
daels,  at  this  place,  also  called  Zuyper-Sluys, 
in  Holland,  Sep.  9,  1799. 


[For  ADDENDA  and  CORRIGENDA,  mostly  of  Occurrences  that  have  taken  place  whilst 
this  Edition  was  printing,  see  pp.  n  14 — 1 1 1 6.] 


SUPPLEMENTARY    INDEX 


SUBJECTS  NOT   INCLUDED  IN  THE  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT. 


The  Index  does  not  contain  every  reference  that  is  made  in  the  book  to  a  subject  or  person,  but  only  the  most  important.  Thus 
Attila  occurs  a  great  many  times,  but  only  one.  reference  is  given,  to  p.  4990,  describing  the  people  over  whom  he  ruled,  and 
the  length  of  his  reign.  When  several  references  are  given  under  a  word,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  all  refer  to  the  same 
subject.  Thus,  under  Augusta,  the  first  reference,  p.  489,  is  to  the  sea-fight  off  Augusta,  in  Sicily,  in  which  De  liuyter  lost 
his  life,  April  29,  1676;  the  second  reference,  p.  5870,  is  to  Augusta,  the  name  given  to  London  by  the  Romans;  the 
thinl  reference,  p.  820,  is  to  Augusta,  the  title  conferred  upon  the  wives  of  the  Roman  Emperors  ;  and  the  fourth  reference, 
p.  889,  is  to  Augusta,  as  the  equivalent  ofthe  name  Sebaste.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  names  of  persons.  Thus,  the 
first  and  second  references  to  Augustine,  St.,  pp.  1150  and  308,  are  to  St.  Augustine  the  Apostle  of  England,  who  was  the 
first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  consecrated  in  597;  and  the  third  reference,  p.  3831,  is  to  St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
who  lived  354 — Aug.  38,  430. 

The  Italic  letter  a  after  the  figures  indicates  the  Second  Column  of  the  page  to  which  reference  is  made. 


AAOHEX,  29 

Acad^mie     de     Peinture     et 

Adversaries  of  the  Spirit,  616 

Aerius,  31 

Abacinaire,  153 

Sculpture,  514 

Advocate-general,  456 

-Mscesdune,  830 

Abares,  498 

Academie  des  Sciences,  514 

Adze  axe,  1050 

JEschines,  51 

Ab:iris,  7ooo 

Academic  des  Sciences  Morales 

JEu,  720,  267 

-flSschylus,  338,  9810 

Abbas-Ben-Abul-Motalleb,  20 
Abbate-i  .Milites,  30 

et  Politiques,  514 
Academy  of  Ancient  Music,  276 

-*Jg'£e  357",  6150- 
yEgean  Sea  (Duchy),  6930 

^Esculapius,  644 
j-'Kscrnia,  5310 

Abberbury,  4560 

Academy  del  Gai  Saber,  9880 

^'Kuialeia,  904 

^son,  720 

Abbot-counts,  4 

Aca  Nada,  2020 

^gialeus,  4^*^ 

JEsop,  393 

Abbot  of  Unreason,  4 

Acaman,  100 

^Emilius  Paulus,  380 

JEs  Uxorium,  848 

Abdullah  Ben  Yassim,  43 
Abdalmelik,  670 

Accad,  230 
Acca-Larentia,  31 

jEmona,  567 
^Enaria,  5210 

jEthalia,  3630 
^Etius,  202 

Abd-el-Kader,    38,    380,     47, 

Accho,  130 

jfcneas,  31,  533,  565 

Aetius,  21 

4160,638 

Accoucheurs,  6580 

^Etna  (city).  223 

Abd-el-mumen,  43,  800 

Achad-Chaoin,  13 

Abraham,  70 

African  Forts,  2690 

Abd-el-  Rahman,  1930 

Achad-Conair,  13 

Abyssinian,  9,  6780 

Agamemnon,  73 

Abd-el-Wahab,  10280 

Achelous,  182,  5730 

Acfiatic  or  Actian,  140 

Agamemnon,  The,  93,  930 

Abelard,  Peter,  968 
Abelians,  5 

Achillei  (Armour  Plated),  77 
Achilles  Statue,  5000 

A.D.  (Anno  Domini),  300,  580 
A.II.  (Anno  Hegiroj),2oa,  4800 

Agapenor,  69 

Agatl.ocles,  487,  953 

Aberbrothock,  5050 

Achilles,  The,  393 

Alexander,  36 

Agendicum,  8930 

Aberconwy,  2830 
Abercrombie,       Sir     R.,      36, 

Achmeta,  3540 
Achurch,  178 

A.M.  (Anno  Mundi),  300 
Antioch,  6l 

Agennum,  353 
Agenor,  7730 

2030 

Acincum,  l8t 

Armenian,  76 

Agesilaus,  11,  155 

Aberdare,  3630 

Ackerman,  Mr.  R.,  8080 

Ascension,  833 

Aggerhaus,  6800 

Abergavenny,  10300 

Acquoi,  529 

A.U.C.    (Anno    Urbis    Con- 

Aggregate  Fund,  3800 

Abernethy,  Dr.  9460 

Acrisius,  564 

ditas),  200 

Aghabo,  7330 

Aberrigines,  7 

Acron  of  Agrigentum,  370 

Augustan.  98 

Agilulph,  1270 

Abertaw,  948 

Acs,  150 

Cwsars,  1920 

Aginani,  28 

Abila,  6 

Acta  Sanctorum,  1560 

Caliyuga,  300,  197 

Agincourt  (Armour-plated),  77 

Abococket,  10 

Act  of  Faith,  1030 

Christian,  348 

Agion-oros,  677 

Abraham,  1850,  353,  384,  3610, 

Actia  (Festival),  708 

Diocletian,  339 

Aglar,  660 

533",  534 
Abrincatse,  1050 

Act  of  Mediation,  I,  4330 
Adafoodia,  34 

Egyptian,  3620 
French  Republican,  689 

Agnew,  Mr.  Vans,  6730 
Agricola,  John,  6oa,  98 

Abi-uz/.o,  3510 
Absalom,  534 
Absconding     Debtors'    Arrest 

Adalbert,  St.,  8110 
Adamantine  Spar,  391(1 
Adams,  John,  9980,  999 

Gelalaean,  434 
Greeks,  36 
Hegira,  4800 

Agricola,  Julius,  173,  1030 
Agricola  of  Saxony,  148,  1590, 
6610 

Act,  5050 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  9990 

Jewish,  533«r 

Agrippa,  66 

Abstainers,  80,  3700 
Abu  Bekar  Ben  Omar,  43 

Adams,  Mr.,  900,  6950,  7810 
Adderley,  Mr.,  147 

Lydian,  612 
Maccabees,  615 

Agrippina,  8490 
Ahab,  1060,  533 

Abubeker,  670,  1960 

Addison,  Joseph,  929 

Martyrs,  200,  329,  637 

Ahaz,  87,  880 

Abul  Abbas,  30 
Abu  Moslem,  30 

Adelaide,  Queen,  375,  5910 
Adelie  land,  590 

Menes,  6480 
Metonic,  6530 

Ahlen,  438 
Ahmed  Khan,  330 

Ab.ma,  ,o 

Adjutators,  26        « 

Mundane  of  Alexandria,678o 

Ailbe,  St.,  370 

Abu  Obeidah,  350 

Admirable  Crichton,  5620 

Nabonassar,  6820 

Ain-Beda,  38 

Abu  Shahrein,  330 

Ad  Murum,  698 

Olympiads,  200,  4580,  735 

Aird's  Moss,  301 

Abyss  of  Waters,  7080 

Adonijah,  534 

Persian,  10610 

Airedale  Independent  College, 

Acacius  Luscus,  10 

Adoni-zedec,  143 

Salivaban,  507 

5060 

Acacius,    Patriarch    of    Con- 

Adrastus, 4580 

Seleucida;,  8900 

Air-martyrs,  941 

stantinople,  10 

Adria,  180 

Spain,  300,  9350 

Airy,  900 

Academic  Francaise,  414,  514 

Adrianopolis,  695 

Syro-Macedonian,  9540 

Ajax,  839,  868 

Academic   des  Inscriptions  et 

Adult  Schools,  360 

Tyre,  995 

Akbah,  194 

Belles-Lettres,  514 

Adversaries  of  Mary,  368 

Vicramadilya,  200                       Akbar,  230,  400,  1300,  507 

*  For  the  convenience  of  the  Reader  the  Lists  are  printed  in  the  Index,  and  some  of   the  subjects  given  in  these  Lists 
necessarily  occur  in  the  Alphabetical  arrangement. 


THE   MAXUAL  OF  DATES. 


Akhtiar,  8890 

ALLIANCES  —  (continued). 

Altai  Mount,  9910 

Ansayrii,  590 

Alalia,  350 

Augsburg  League,  98 

Altena,  45 

Anseim,  147/7 

Alamoot,  85 

Austria,   Great  Britain,  and     Alube,  444 

Anson,  Lord,  too 

Alans,  300 

France,  102 

Alva,  Duke  of,  1520,  180 

Anspach,  129 

Alarcon,  49 

Auximite  Alliance  with  Jus- 

Alvarado, 2 

Antakieh,  61 

Alard,  G.,  170 

tinian,  1050 

Alvarez,  46,  6550 

Antanavarivo,  617 

Al:iric,25,«9,  9t,92a,292,459,85o 

Bavaria  and  France,  1270 

Alvertine,  7130 

Antenor,  1013 

AlaM-o.  John,  300 

Brazil  and  Uruguay,  720 

Alvinzi,  71,  1950 

Anthemn 

Alava,  124 
Alb,  9460 

Cadi  lee  League,  1910 
Cadiz  and  Rome,  192 

Amalek,  450 

Amarapora,  186,  9960 

Anthesteria,  349 
Authon,  243 

Alba,  31 

Cambray  League,  1980 

Amaury  of  Belie,  450 

Antidicomarianites,  268 

Albana.  324 
Alban,  St.,  310,  1920 
Albans,  St.,  2030 

Catholic  League,  223,  8450 
Clementine  League,  257 
Cognac  League,  265 

Ainazonius,  318 
Ambassadors'  Club,  2960 
Ambraciots,  II,  47 

Antigonea,  630,  7060 
Antigone 
Antigonus  Gonatus,  920 

Albany,  49 

Columbia  and  Buenos  Ayres, 

Ambrose,  St.,  470,  60 

Antigonu- 

Alba  Regia,  941 

269 

Amerciament,  470 

Anliochia  Callirh. 

Albatnegius,  944 
Albemarle,  2160 
Albemarle,  Duke  of,  426 

Columbia  and  Mexico,  269 
Confederation     of      Central 
America,  8700 

Ainesbnry,  4820 
Amherst,  Lord,  2430 
Amidi,  50 

Antiochia  Margiana,  1^1 

Antiochia  Mygdoi 
Antipholus,  741 

Alberoni,  Cardinal,  9220 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 

Amiral,  170 

Anti-popery  liiots,  452 

Albert  the  Bear,  1400,  166 

Amir,  or  Emir,  170 

Antisthenes,  3090 

Albert  Nvanza,  709 
Albert,  Prince,   310,  158,  163, 

France  and  Hritanny,  175 
Fiirsteu  Bund,  426 

Amiternum,  660 
Ammon,  500 

Antoinette,  Marie,   414/7,   415, 

IOIIO 

2610,  343,  3740,  3750,  1020, 

Geneva       and       the       S\\is.~ 

Ammonium,  7200 

Antonelli,  Cnrdin 

10510 
Albert  of  Saxony,  1  130 

Cantons,  4350 
Germanic  (  'on  It-deration,  440 

Ammonius  Saee.-is,  .W/7,  69=; 
Amorian  Dynasty,  3530 

Antoninus  Pius,  (• 
Antoninus,  Wall  of,  27 

Albenus  Magnus,  330,  104 

German  League,  7190 

Amos,  2060 

Autonius     Marcus,    14/7,    849, 

Albert  Victor,  Prince,  376 

(Men  League,  444 

Ampe,  660 

8490,  852 

Albiga,  32 
Albon,  316/7,  317 

Grand  or  Great  A  lliance,455a 
Hanover  League,  81  in 

Ampere,  4290 
Amphilmlus,  9150 

Antony,  St.,  30,  520 
Antunuacum,  55« 

Alboin,  660,  138,  194 

Hansa  League,  4740 

Amphictyons,  3200 

Anviti,  Col.,  752 

Alboni,  Mdme.,  727 

llanseatic  League,  474/7 

Am)ihilocliians,  I  I 

Anxur,  964 

Albula,  31 
Albuquerque,  2620,  800 

Heidelberg  League,  4800 
Holy  Alliance,  4900 

Amphitheatre  Riding  HonM,8o 

Ampurius,  8550 

Apellcs,  741 
A])hrodite,  3100 

Alcmus,  1018 

Holy  League,  257,  265 

Aim-on.  360 

Apiarius,  640 

Alcaic  Verse,  1018 
Alcala,  2750 

Holy  Leagues  (various),  491 

Holy  1'iiion. 

Amselft-ld,  292 
Amsteldam,  52 

Apis.  047/7 
Apollinaris,  63,  6130 

Alcibiades,  92,  3200 

Italian  League.  524 

Amstel  liiver,  52 

Apollodorns,  741 

Alcmajon,  92 

League     of      the     German 

Amur  River,  51 

Apollonia,  790,  310 

Alcock,  Sir  R.,  530 
Aleuinns.  53,  2l6a 

Princes,  4260 
League  of  the  Grisons,  1910 

Anacapri,  21  Io 
Anaeharsis.  1350 

Apostolical  Canons,  341/7 
Apostolici.  (.4 

Aldersgate,  5900 

Leagues  (various),  568 

Anacreoii,  53 

Apostoolians,  428 

Aldgate,  5900 

League,  The,  8450 

Anadol,  S4 

Apostoul,  Samuel,  428 

Alilhelm,  St.,  869 

Of  Virtue,  9890 

Anagni,  6lo 

Apotacdoi,  64 

Aldini,  4290 
Aldrovandus  of  Bologna,  3780 

Lombard  Leagues,  587 
Marbacli  League.  139/7.631 

Anakim,  444 
Anana*, 

A  ppius  Claudius,  66.  .-  . 
Applegarth,  Mr.,  8080 

Aldus  Manutius,  34,  808 

Marienburg  League.  6320 

Anaris,  7600 

Apprentieii  m\  legc.m,  122 

Ale-founder,  340 

Nuremberg  League.  7190 

Anaxngoras,  96/1 

Appropriate 

Alessio,  581 

Poor  Conrad  Leapi   . 

Anaxandrides,  338                         '•  Aprigius,  1330 

Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  99 

Protestant  League,  4800 

Anaximander,    90,   6300,   746,    Apse,  232 

Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  680, 

Public  Good  League,  815 

929                                                Apuleiua,  S3 

133,  5220 
Alexander  V.,  Pope,  29 

lihenisli   Lea^i: 

Rhine,  Confederation  of  the, 

Anaximcnes,  90,  94,  5160 

Anbar,  7630 

Apuli,  650 
Aqu«e  CumaniE,  ill 

Alexander  of  Paris,  37 

2770 

Anchorets.  52 

Aqua-  MattiacK,  10470 

Alexandra,  Princess  of  Wales, 
323,  375a 
Alexandrine,  893 

Roman  Catholic  League,845o 

Sabiue  I.eagii. 
Santa    Hcrmandad    League, 

Ancore.  7060 
Alien-.  D',  Mareohale,  10520 
Andagoya,  Pascual  de,  767 

Aqua-  Sextiae,  280,  433 
Aqua?  Solis,  1250 
Aquamarine.  141-7 

Alexandrine  Version,  893 

4900 

Andegavia,  56 

Aquarium,  66 

Alfarabius,  371 
Alfousine  Tables,  44,  670 
Alfort,  763 
Alfred  the  Great,  6,  115,  3590, 
372,  3830,  6920,  1034 
"  Alfred,  "Masque  of,  8580 

Schweiz  Confederacy,  884 
1  Triple,  8890 
Sempaeh  (  'on  federal  ion,  8910 
Smalcald  League,  911 
Swal.ian,  948 
Ten  Jurisdietions.League  of. 

Andematunnuin,  5620,  580 
Anderson,  Lieut.,  5080,  6720 
Andrew,  James,  996 
Anilredslea,  1730 
Andr6,  Major.  9980 
Androniei,  3530 

Aqua  Vila-.  t66 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  104,  3830 
Arabian  Baths,  9920 
Arabian  Gulf,  8300 
Arabici,  670 
Aradus,  987 

Alfred,  Prince,  3760,  4600,  5900 

19.0 

Andi-onicus,  Livius,  338,8460, 

Arago,  M.,  31  ro,  4160,  728 

Algarve,  800 

Theban  and  Athenian,  93 

982 

Ara  Jovis,  68 

Algha,  4570 

Torgau  League,  9770 

Angel,  -i- 

Aram,  2020,651,9530 

AJhandra,  9*8- 

Triple  Alliance,  4700 

Michael,  888 

Ararat,  74,  321 

Alice,  Princess,  375/7 
AH  Pasha,  5280 

Tugenbund,  9890 
Utrecht,  Union  of,  1007 

Anghiari,  277 
Anglesea,  Isle  of,  56 

Aratus,  no,  12 

Arau.-ii),  7280 

Alisum.  390 

Allmen,  35 

Angleseaville.  453/7 

Arbalist,  3010 

Allahsher.  771/7 

Al  Madain,  304 

Anglo-Catholics,  981 

Arbil,  680 

Allen,  Henry,  41 

Almagro,  2,  2490 

Angon,  4040 

Arbroath,  5050 

Allen,  Mr.,  803 

Al  Mailla,  800 

Angora  Goat,  The,  2010 

Arcachon,  7780 

Alleyn,  E.,  345 

Almanach  de  Gotha,  4=530 

Angotimois,  560 

Areas,  69,  9290 

All-Hallow,  40       | 

Almansor,  89 

Angria,  5070 

Arcesilaus.  666 

ALLI  AircKS  :—  * 

Al  Mansur,  670,  90,  I  ioo 

Anjou,  Duke  of,  620 

Archagatbus,644 

Aarau,  I 

Almohedes,  43 

Annam,  53 

Archbishop  Islands,  158 

Achsean  League,  Ho 

Almonaught,  42 

Annandale,  823 

Archduke,  345 

j^tolian  League,  22 

Almoon-heed,  42 

Annat,  5* 

Archedon,  21 

Amboise  League,  47 
Ancient  German  Diet,  4850 

Aln,  430 
Alombrados,  504 

Anne  of  Bohemia,  8390 
Anne  of  Cleves,  483 

Archigenes,  52 
Archilochus,  3790,  502,  1018 

Apuleian  League,  8480 
Argentine  Confederation.  72 

Alompra,  186,  8270 
Alp  Arslan,  4380 

Annecy,  435 
Anne  of  Denmark,  15 

Archimandrites.  30 
Archimedes,  187,437,  5OI.f)4?". 

Argentine  Confederation  and 

Alphonso  VI.  of  Portugal.  57 

Anne  Hyde,  528 

8870,  9290,  944 

Buenos  Ayres,  182 

Alphonso  X.  of  Castile,  90 

Anne's,  St.,  422 

Archimedes  steamer.  887/7.  935 

Argos,  League,  73 

Alpimis,  Prosper.  264-1 

Aimiinghov  Forts.  2440                  Archipelago    of    St.    Laztraa, 

Athens,  Egypt,  and  Sparta, 

Alreton.  7130 

Ansarevs.  si),;                                               772a 

92a                                                Al  Saffali,  2u 

Ansarians.  >y<7                                     Archipelago  of  Vera  <  Yu/..  SKa 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


Archyta.s,  21,  104 
Ardreans,  97 

Arvirngus,  173 
As  (Roman),  385 

ASSASSINATIONS—  (continued) 
Frederick  William  IV.  (at- 

ASSASSINATIONS— (continued) 
Sena,  2380 

Arden,  Mary,  8960 
Ardoates,  75 
Ardobrica,  2910 
Ardsrutli,  335 
Ardstraw,  325 

Ascanius,  300,  523 
Aschaffeiiburg,  2760,814,  10310 
Ascherslebeu,  824 
A>i-lepiiides,  644 
Asellius,  1520 

tempted),  85,  8120. 
George  III.  (attempted),  840, 
374,  47° 
Giles  (by  Francis  I.),  1750 
Gloucester,  Duke  of,  3730 

Sennacherib,  870 
Sertorius,  3360,  931 
Servius  Tullius,  8470 
fSharpe,  Archbishop,  887 
Sigebert  I.,  413 

Arelas,  74 

Ashburnham  House,  393«,  299 

Goviud  Cliunder,  191 

Smerdis,  311 

Arelate,  74,  740 
Arenaria,  3310 

A.-hburton,  Lord,  83 
Ashdown,  860 

Gratian,  Emperor,  613 
Greece,  Queen  of,  85 

Spain,  Queen  of  (attempted), 

85,  934 

Areometer,  501 
Aretinus,  79 

Ashendou,  Bucks,  830 
Ashering,  158 

Guise,  Duke  of,  840,  414,971 
Guttika,  3380 

Spencer,  Major,  5590 
Stanislaus,  St.,  7870 

Aretinus,  Guide,  680 

Aslnnuic,  Julias,  830 

Hajee,    Mohammed    Khan, 

Timophanes,  3870 

Ashtoreth,  ic6 

136 

Tumanbeg,  637 

Arezzo,  Guiclo  d',  431 

Asiente,  83 

Harold   II.,   King  of    Den- 

Valentinian III.,  1042 

Aijrand  Lamp,  5600 

Asiento,  86 

mark,  322 

Victor    Emanuel    ,11.    (at- 

Argentoratum, 6390 

Aske,  Robert,  7760 

Hasdrubal,  931 

tempted),  85 

Argo,  733 

ASSASSINATIONS  :  — 

Henry  III.  of  France,  840, 

Victoria,     Queen      (various 

Avgyle,  Marquis  of,  358,  6330 
Argyle,  Earl  of,  6220 

Albert  I.,  441 
Alexander  II.  (of  Macedou), 

3590,  414,  971 
Henry  I  V.  of  France,  840,  971 

attempts),    85,    3740,  375, 
419 

Aries,  1260 

6150 

Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  840, 

Wallenstein,44l 

Ariobarzanes,  3H 

Alexander  II.   (of    Russia), 

4J4i  97i 

William      I.,      Prince      of 

Arion,  1018 

attempted,  863 

Heuskm,  Mr.,  530 

Orange,  320,  4880 

Ariosto,  41 

Alexander  V.(Macedon),6i5a 

Hieronymus,  5730 

William  I.  of   Prussia   (at- 

Arispe, 917 

Alexius  IV.,  3530 

Hipparchus,  93 

tempted),  85 

Aristagoras,  5I« 
Aristarchus,  673 

Ali,  543 
Alice  von  Poelgest,  4880 

Ibrahim,  529 
Inez  de  Castro,  3650 

William  III.  of  England  (at- 
tempted), 85 

Aristeas,  144,  279 
Aristides,  630,  92,  459 

Amelia,    Queen    of     Greece 
(attempted),  460 

Isabella  II.  of   Spain    (at- 
tempted), 85,  934 

Wills  Family,  831 
Xerxes  I.   705 

Aristippus  of  Gyrene,  310 
Aristophanes,  yjca,  338 
Aristotle,    13,   54,  90,   94,   366, 

Arbues,  92  in 
Archelaus,  615^ 
Ariarathes  1.,  3il 

Ivan  VI.,  8610 
James  I.  of  Hayti,  479 
James  I.  of  Scotland,  886 

Yarapolk  I.,  8600 
York,  Duke  of,  3720 
Assembly  of    the   Wise  Men, 

383<*»  763",  773 

Ariarathes  VI.,  311 

Jason,  7710 

10520 

Aristoxeuus,  680 

Ariarathes  VII.,  311 

John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of 

Asses,  Feast  of,  409 

Arius,  21,  73,  159<» 
Aikary,  730 

Artaxerxes  III.,  765 
Austria,   Emperor    of    (at- 

Burgundy, 185,  4130 
Ladislaus  III.,  498 

Asshur,  7090 
Asshur-idauui-pal,  88,  89,  1070 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  393«, 

tempted),  1030. 

Lamberg,  Count,  768 

Assisi,  4180 

9290 

Baldwin,  Major,  530 

Lennox,  Earl  of,  886a 

Assistance,  4300 

Armati,  Salvino,  929 

Beaton,  Cardinal,  886 

Leo  II.,  Emperor,  353 

Assouan,  9530 

Armidale,  2690 

Becket,  Thomas,  373 

Lesko  the  White,  7870 

Astacus,  148,  7070 

Armiger,  382 

Berenger,  10170 

Lincoln,  President,  85 

Astarte,  106 

Armillary  Sphere,  939 
Arminius,  James,  76,  760,  451, 
8340 

Berg,  Count  (attempted),  789 
Bird,  Lieut.,  530 
Bismarck,    Count  Von    (at- 

Llewelvn, 1030 
Louis  XIV.  of  France  (at- 
tempted), 840,  4140 

Asti,  89 
Astigi,  355« 
Aston  Park,  147 

Armlets,  165 

tempted),  8130 

Louis  Philippe   (various  at- 

Astor, 6530,  7300 

Armstadt,  777 

Bolivia,    President    of    (at- 

tempts), 4150,  416 

Astoria,  7300 

Armstrong,  Johnnie,  6760 

tempted),  1560 

Lyell,  Dr.,  754 

Asturia,  87 

Armstrong,   Sir  W.,   77,   8i«, 

Buckingham,  Duke  of,  840, 

Lysanias,  6 

Asturica  Augusta,  89 

468 

373« 

Marat,  840,  415 

Astyages,  6430 

Arnaud,  Henri,  10080 
Arnaud,  St.,  Marshal,  380,  42, 

Burgundy,  Duke  of,  671 
Burton,  Major,  556 

Mariamne,  .5340 

Masaniullo,  6»5 

Atahualpa,  767 
Atbara,  709 

4160,  8630 

Cscsur,  Julius,  849 

Maximin,  66a 

Athabasca  River,  6i6a 

Arndt,  4410 

Camarussa,  Marquis  of,  8760 

Medici,  Julian  de,  406 

Athalia,  1060 

Arnold,  Benedict,  99811 

Canterbury,  Archbishop    of 

Michele  III.,  1014 

Athanasius,  St.,  90,  69*1,  91 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  78 

(by  the  Danes),  308,  314 

Murray,  Earl  of,  886a 

Athelney,  314,  373 

Arnold,  Rev.  Dr.,  8580 

Capo  d'Istrias,  Count,  687 

Naga,  339 

Athenaeus,  8170 

Arnoldus  de  Villa  Nova,  330 

Caracalla,  217 

Napoleon  I.  (attempted),  415 

Athens  and  Thebes,  Lord  of, 

Arnott,  Dr.  Neil,  131*1,  loio 

Chilperic,  185 

Napoleon    III.  (various   at- 

930 

Arpaia,  3340 
Arpi,  4070 

Chilperic  I.,  413 
Chosroes  II.,  7650 

tempts),  85,  4160,417,  417*1 
Norbury,  Lord,  518 

Athesis,  i6a 
Athlone  Castle,  853 

Arrah,  3380 

Clarence,  Duke  of,  3730 

Odoaeer,  5330 

Athos,  Mount,  120,  677 

Arrechis,  138 

Claudius,  849 

O'Neill,  5i7a 

Athotes,  486,  10570 

Arrow  Lorcha,  309,  3440 

Cleopatra's  Brother(Ptolemy 

Orange,  Prince  of,  330,  4880 

Athy,  John  de,  170 

Arrow  Makers'  Company,4o4a 

XIII.),  362 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  185,  4130 

Atlixco,  3530 

Arrows,  - 

Coligny,  Admiral,  133 

Orso,  Doge,  10130 

Atossa,  573 

Arsen-er-Rum,  3810 

C<  I'stantine,     Grand    Duke 

Paris,  Archbishop  of,  85,  417 

Atria,  180 

Arsenites,  790 

(attempted),  7880 

Parma,  Duke  of,  85       ' 

Atterbury,  Bishop,  5360,  567 

Arsenius,  79 

Coriolanus,  8470 

Paul  I.  of  Russia,  85,  86ia 

Attila,  4990 

Arsinarium  Pr.,  310 

Da,  7 

I'ekah,  533*1 

Attleborough,  2500 

Arsingham,  353 
Arsinoe,  Labyrinth  of,  558 

Dankirche,  530 
Darius  III.,  7650 

Perceval,  Mr.,  85,  3740 
Philip  II.  (Macedon),  35701, 

Attornatus  Regis,  95 
Atures,  380 

Arsouf,  7^a 

D'Aumale,  Due  (attempted), 

6i5« 

Atys,  31 

Arsuf,  790 

416 

Philip  of  Swabia,  4400 

Auasis,  730 

Arsur,  790 

De  Berri,  Duke,  4150 

Pizarro,  578,  767 

Aubert,  480 

Arta,  470 

Dlmtu  Sena,  339 

Poppsua,  8490 

Auca  (See  of),  1840 

Artaxerxes,  197,  534 

D'Huart,  Capt.,  6560 

Premislaus,  787*1 

Auch,  433 

Artemis,  379 

Duffus,  King,  4100 

Prince   Regent  (attempted), 

Audseans,  960 

Artemisia,  573,  640*1 

Edmund  the  Elder,  373 

374" 

Audteus,  60,  960 

Artemon,  73 
Artevelde,  Van,  J.  and  P.,  443 

Edward  II.,  3600,  3730 
Edward    the    Martyr,   840, 

Prytanis,  1610 
Ptolemy  XIII.,  362 

Audley,  Lord.  1530,  4030 
Audran,  Gerard.  378 

Arthur,   King,  3000,  389,  433, 
,         5540,  1030 

3860,  373 
Edward  V.,  3730 

Richard  II.,  3730,  8390 
Richardson,  Mr.,  530 

Augusta,  489,  587*1,  820,  889 
Augustales,  98 

Arthur,  Prince,  "76a,  6090 
Articles  of  the  Church,  250 
Articles  of  War,  693 

Edwin  (attempted),  174 
Eric  VI.,  333 
Eucratides  I.,  109 

Robert  I.  of  Normandy,  713 
Romulus,  8470 
Rosamond,  8520 

Augustan  Ages,  5680 
Augusta  Pretoria,  63 
Augusta  Suessionum,  9150: 

Artificial  Stone,  938 

Kvil-Merodach,  108 

Rossi,  Count,  851 

Augusta  Taurinorum,  991 

Artists,  8550 

Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples,  85 

Sancho  II.,  220*1 

Augusta        Veromanduorum, 

Artotyritse,  338 

Francis  Joseph,  Emperor  of 

Sanghatissa,  329 

8210 

Arundel  Library.  177 

Austria,  85 

Sbigniew,  7870 

Augusta  Vindelicorum,  970 

1072 


THE   MANUAL   OF  DATES. 


Augustenburg,  Prince  Chris- 

Baker, H.,  mo 

Basil,  St.,  520,  59,  120,  1330 

BATTLES—  (co»thm,'<n. 

tian,  98,  3321 

Baker,  Sir  8.,  709 

Basil,  Valentine,  600 

Andematnnnum,  5^0 

Augustenburg,  Prince  Frede- 

Bakkcr, 2ooa 

Basra.  135 

Andcrnaeh,  550 

rick,  980 

Bala,  360 

Ba-ing  House,  134 

Andredslea,  1730 

Augustine,  St.,  USa,  208,  3830 
Augustine,  St.,  Pupils  of,  539 
AugustoboD 

Balard,  M.,  530 

P.alliastro,  Il8 
Balboa,  Vasco  Xunez  de,  480 

Basle,  1230 
Bass,  990,  too,  135 
Bassianus,  369 

Angora,  z,(»i 
Angostura,  655 

Anjou.  ^~<i 

AugaBtodarus,  138 

Augustomagus,  893 

Baldermus,  530 

Baldon,  175 

Bastidas,  480 
Bastions,  4110 

Annan,  ,=,•-< 
Anneau,  580 

Augustoneinuturn,  258 

Baldred,  St.,  135 

Batavi,  1250 

Antietam.  >-')-rt 

Augustaritnm,  5780 

Baldus,  1460 

Bath  King  at  Amis,  548 

Aiithicl,.  6.     ' 

is,  8490 

Balduinl.,  130 

Bathurst,  Lake,  looa 

Antoine,  St..  (nn 

Aula    Kegia,    or    Kegis,    860, 

Baldwin  III.,  830 

Buthyauy,  Count,  4980 

Antrim 

2720,  5500 

Baleen,  10440 

Baton  Khun,  22^a,  4500 

Antunnacuin,  550 

Aurelianum,  7310 

Baliol,  50,  113,673,  8850 

Battle  Abbey  Register,  130 

Antwei  i 

Aunri,  527 

Balistarius,  730 

Battle  of  the  Nations,  5700 

Aqua-  Sextia;,  280,440 

Aurungzebe,   1330,   !57<»,   5°7, 

Balitz,  10390 

liA'i  Tl,i;s  :  — 

Aqnila,  660 

5070 

Balize,  1340 

Aarhus,  to 

Aquileia,  660 

Aussig,  500 

Balkan,  677 

Abancay,  2 

Aragua,  68 

Austerborne,  733 
Austin  Canons,  980 

Balla.  1430 
Ballurd,  J.,  1  08 

Abbassabad,  30 
Abensberg,  5 

Aranie,  68 
Ara/.ua,  680 

Austin.  Captain,  710,  4300 

Itallymoru  Fort,  10430 

AlH-okuta,  5 

Arbela,  680 

Austin  Friars,  980 

Balmerino,  Lord,  374 

Aboukir,  70 

Arcadio]iolis,  69 

Auteri,  853 

Baltasarini,  7260 

Abrutinn,  4110 

Arcis-sur-Aube,  71 

Autcuil,  502 
Autochthones,  7 

Baltimore,  Lord,  49,  6370,  699 

Maine.  Cardinal  de  la,  5404 

Acbatalbacar,  II 
Achelous,  183 

Arcola.  "i 
Ardennes,  715'; 

Autolycus,  90 

Bambilona,  745, 

Aclea,  13 

Ardoch,  72 

Autona,  714 

Jiamburg,  1140 

Acs,  150 

Argaum,  73 

Autoperipatetikos,  3330 

Bambyce,  486 

Acz.  150 

Argentarin,  72,  1043 

Autricum,  2360 

Hampton,  1290 

Adda,  150 

Aricla, 

Auvergne,  4330 

Hampton,  Kev.  J.,  115 

Adige,  160 

Arikera,  730 

Auximites,  1050 

Buncroft,  Bishop,  115 

Ad  Lantnlas,  566 

Arkary,  730 

Avul.  1  1  1 

Bandinel,  Kev.  J.,  115 

yKeesdunc.  -3,1 

Ark  low,  74 

Avari,  102 

Banishment,  9840 

Aghriin.  97 

Arnec,  68 

Avuricum,  1630 

B:mja,  115 

Aginc.iurt,  36 

.-.  78 

Avarino,  6910,  8170 

Bank  Annuities,  436 

Agnadcl,  36 

Aroyodcs  Molinos,  650 

Ave  Bell,  1040 

Bank  Charter  Act,  lift,  5060 

Agnmdello,  26 

Avq'ues,  780 

Aventine,  Mount,  848 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  4800,  857 

Agi-a,  260 

Ari-ctiiim,  433,8480 

Aveiitinus,  31 

Bunks,  'llh.m.,-. 

Aibar,  28 

Arsool 

Avesucs,  10380 

Bapchild,  1300 

Aijalon,  280 

Aivoiif,  790 

Avicenna,  644 

Baptismal  Regeneration,  452^ 

Aiii-Bcda,  38 

Anal 

Avila,  4<ji",  10040 

Baptistery,  1170,  408 

Aird'>  M 

Arsur 

Avocatt,  751* 

liaradaMis,  Jacob,  5360 

a 

Artaxata,  80 

Awal,  in 

Barban  V 

Ascolon,  BM 

Aycsha,  2000 

liar^ai-.i-i.-a,  090 

Ai/.nadin,  290 

AseliMlienburg,  8:4 

Ayoubite  Dynasty,  1061 

B.-n-barv  Hill,  139 

Ajalon.  *)„ 

Asooll 

Ayuthia,  903 
Azote,  7100 

!!arl>arv  Mer.-liants,  049.-* 
Barberim  Vase,  798 

Ajnadin.  290 
Ai  b:il/.ikh,  290 

Ascidnm,  HI.  8480 
Ashdmvn.  *l>a 

Aztlun,  106 

Harbour,  John,  7860 

A'ar. 

Aslidu-i 

Ban-ins.  1180 

Ail.ans.  St.,  ya. 

Ashend 

BAAL  GAD,  1060 

Barclay,  Kev.  J.,  1390 

Albi,.l  1 

Aspern.  H4a 

Babacus,  696 

Barde.>anes,  119 

Albtiera.  3^0 

Asproinonte,  840 

Babd-Dagh,  Mountain,  3530 

Bardnev,  119 

All.uf.Tii,  33 

Assandi 

Babbage,  C.,  195 

Banlsey,  305 

Alcanle,  923 

Assaj 

Baber,  220,  191 

11  Bare-armed  Fenians,"  398 

Alcantara.  33 

Assent 

Babylonian  Gemnra,  956 
Babylonish   Captivity   of    the 

'-  7'3 
Barc-fnotcd  Carmelites,  316 

Alcazar,  33 
Alcazar  do  Sol,  800 

Aston. 

Popedom,  .^7 

Barents/,  William,  71 

Alca/.anjuiver,  33,  889 

Astorga,  89,  9430 

Babyngton,  Anthony,  108,  373 

Barile,  3520 

Alcoraza,  330 

Asunden  Lake,  goa 

Baccancelde,  1300 

liar-iron,  9350 

AldenhoN  en,  34 

Athenri 

Baccliidae,  2870 

Barkers,  School  of  the,  3090 

Aldcrne,  980 

Alhcrton  Moor,  93 

Bacchus,  1080 

Harlaatn,  130 

Ale].  p.),  35a 

Atbesis.  [6fl 

Bachelor  of  Arts,  10040 
Bach's  Concerts,  376 
Bach  Society,  276 

Barnabas,  St.,  61,310 
Barnabas,   St.,   Church,   Pim- 
lico,  590 

':ria,  350 
Alexandria,  36 
Alford,  3;a 

Atlanta,  93 
Atra,  94 
Atra-,  94 

Buck,  710 

Barnard,  Lyonel,  1300 

Alwsiras,  380 

Atiisberg,  940 

Bacon,  John,  888 

Barn-bisliop,  1640 

Albania.  39 

Atlberi"  1 

Bacon,  Lord,  49,  95,  950,  373" 

Barnes,  Dame,  560 

Aliwal.  3,')" 

Aubin  du  Cormier,  St.,  960 

Bacon,  Nicholas,  121 

Hurneveldt,  John,  4880 

Alj'ibarota,  390 

:;.li.97 

Bacon,  Roger,  13.  333,  6300 

Barocheli 

Alli-rsheim,  410 

Aughrim,  97 

Bactria,  [09 

Baroir,  75 

Allia.  410 

Aukleurn,  98a 

Baculi-annales,  42 

Baronctcss,  I2t 

Allifnj.  410,  8480 

Auray.  99 

Badagrv,  ^^ 

Ban-asters,  132 

Allyghur,  410 

Au«dg,  500 

Baden   Baden,  1090,  1IO 

Burri,  Mde.  du,  4140 

Ahna,4Io 

Austerlitz,  99 

Badcii-D'irlnch,  1090,  llo 

Barrow,  24 

Almanza,  420 

Avaine,  104 

Badges,  873 

Barrow,  11.,  1780 

Almcnara,  430 

A  vein,  104 

Ba-tula,  996 

Burrowists,  178 

Almonacid,  43,  933 

Axarqnia,  1050 

Baffin,  W.,  710,  no 

Barrow,  Sir  J.,  1220 

Almorah,  43 

Avncuclio,  lo^a 

Bagistanus  Mons,  133 

Barr,  St.,  288 

Alney,  43 

Avbar,  38 

Bagnes,  42^1 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  71,  4960 

Alnwick,  430,  8850 

Avlesford,  1050 

Bagnio,  Newgate  Street.  589 
Bagnolensians,  mo 

Barsunias,  696 
Barth,  Dr.,  24,  7080 

Alresford,  44 
Altaku,  440 

A/incour,  26 
Badajos,  109 

Bahia.  167,  841 

Bartholerus,  145 

Altcnkirchen,  45 

Baddesdown  Hill,  1090 

Bahrein,  2150 

Bartholomew,  630,  76 

Alton,  45 

Badon  Mount,  1090 

Bahr-Yoosuf,  3030 

Bashi  Islands,  1230 

Amand,  St.,  46 

I'.a.-za,  Iio 

Balms,  322 
Bail  ('otirt,  5480 
Baily's  Beads,  356 

Basileus,  548 
Basilian  Dvnastv,  3530 

Basiliurde,  124    " 

Amberg,  460 
Amblef,  47 
Amescoaz,  9230 

Bagdad,.  Iio 

Baibout.  HI 
Baker's  Creek,  333 

Bajazet,  560,  1830,  4590 

Basilides,  134,380,448 

Anaquito,  530 

Balaclava,  113 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1073 


BATTLES—  (continued). 
Balarath,  7650 

BATTLES  —  (continued). 
Black  Rock,  150 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Campen,  303 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Cidin,  7870 

Balbastro,  118 

Black  Water,  1500 

Campillo,  303 

Citate,  354 

Baldon,  175 

Bladensburg,  1500 

Campo  Malo,  303 

Ciudad  Beal,  933 

Ballinamuck,  1130 

Bleneau,  1510 

Campona,  30301 

Ciudad  Bodrigo,  2540 

Ball's  Bun,  627 
Ball's  Bluff,  5690 

Blenheim,  137,  1510 
Blindheim,  1510 

Campus  Baudius,  3034 
Cane  Hill,  2040 

Civita  Castellana,  255 
Civitella  Del  Fronto,  355 

Ballyhoe,  114 

Bloreheath,  153 

Cannaj,  204 

Clastidium,  3560,  8480 

Ballynahinch,  114 

Blue's  Gap,  1530 

Canopus,  207 

Clavijo,  3560 

Baltimore,  1140,999 

Blue  Springs,  1530 

Canosa,  2070 

Cleobury,  257 

Bameean,  H4« 

Bober,  154 

Canusium,  2070 

Clermont  Ferrand,  358 

Bamfleet,  114,  314 
Bampton,  1290 

Bochetta,  1540 
Boehmischbrod,  580(1 

Cape  Girardeau,  3090 
Cappel,  311 

Clifton  Moor,  2580 
Clissau,  3580 

Banbury,  115,  139 

Bogesund,  QIO 

Cappiano,  311 

Clontarf,  259 

Bandah,  509 

Bojaca,  156 

Capri,  2iia 

Clusium,  8480 

Bankee,  509 

Bonn,  158 

Capua,  311  a 

Clyst,  St.  Mary's,  361 

Bannockburn,  117 

Bononia,  158,  163 

Carabobo,  313 

Coal  Harbour,  3610 

Baphason,  1170 
Barbary  Hill,  139 

Booneville,  1590 
Bordeaux,  160 

Carascal,  9230 
Carberry  Hill,  3130 

Cocherel,  3630 
Colin,  5550 

Barbastro,  118 

Borodino,  i6oa 

Carcano,  213 

Colline  Gate,  873 

Barbati,  4593 

Borough-bridge,  1600 

Carcassonne,  313 

Colmar,  368 

Bares,  801 

Borrisow,  161 

Carchemish,  213 

Cologne,  368a 

Barcelona,  1180 

Bosworth  Field,  163 

Cardaden,  933 

Comorn,  375 

Barletta,  130 

Bothwell  Bridge,  l63a 

Carita,  3140 

Concord,  2760 

Barnet,  1300 

Boulogne,  163 

Carlow,  315 

Cond6,  2760 

Barossa,  1310 

Bouvines,  164 

Carpenisi,  4590 

Cond6-sur-Escaut,  3760 

Barricades,  131  a 

Bovines,  164 

Carpi,  317 

Conjeveram,  379 

Barriers,  133 

Bowyer  Fort,  164 

Carrhas,  317 

Consarbruck  379 

Barry,  350 

Boxtel,  1640 

Carrick's  Ford,  3170 

Corbach,  386 

Bar-sur-Aube,  118 

Boyaca,  156 

Cartagena,  318 

Corbisdale,  386 

Basel,  951 

Boyne,  1640 

Carthagena,  218 

Corinth,  387,  387(1 

Basientello,  I23« 

Bradock  Down,  1650 

Carthage,  U.S.,  3180 

Coronea,  3390,  390 

Basing,  134 

Brailow,  166 

Casilinum,  3190 

Cortenuova,  391 

Bassano,  1340 

Bramham  Moor,  166 

Cassano,  3190 

Corticella,  3910 

Bassorah,  135 

Brandy  Station,  166 

Castel-Bolognese,  330 

Coruches,  801 

Baton  Rouge,  1260 

Brandy-  wine,  1  66 

Castel  Fidardo,  330 

Corunna,  2910 

Battin,  137 
Battlefield,  4770 
Bauge\  57« 

Brankirka,  166 
Breed's  Hill,  1833 
Breitenfeld,  168 

Castella,  320 
Castelnaudary,  220a 
Castelnuovo,  2200 

Corupedium,  31001 
Corwen,  393 
Corygaum,  393 

Bautzen,  1370 

Bremulle,  i68a 

C'istiglione,  3300 

Cossova,  393 

Bayazid,  138,  8630 

Brenneville,  l68a 

Castillejos,  331 

Courtrai,  395 

Baylen,  1380 

Brentford,  l68a 

Castillon,  331 

Coutras,  39505 

Bayonne,  1380 
Beaden-Head,  13901 

Breslau,  169 
Brest  Litevski,  l8oa 

Castlebar,  221  a 
Castro  d'Airo,  8ooa 

Coutreras,  655 
Coverpauk,  2960 

Beandune,  1390  " 
Beaver  Dam,  1300 

Briar  Creek,  170 
Bridgewater,  203,  999 

Catalaunian  Plain,  32la 
Cattlet's  Station,  looia 

Cowpens,  9980 
Crampton's  Gap,  297 

Bebriacum,  131 

Brienne,  173,  813 

Caviniano,  335 

Craney  Island,  999 

Beder,  131 

Brieux,  St.,  175 

Cawnpore,  325 

Cranon,  397 

Bedcanford,  131 
Bedriacum,  (31 

Brignais,  173 
Brihuega,  173 

Cecryphalea,  2250 
Cedar  Creek,  336 

Craon,  297 
Craonne,  397,  813 

Behistun,  133 
Behmus  Heights,  133 

Brissel,  10380 
Broni,  1770 

Cedar  Mountain,  336,  looia 
Cephisus,  22701 

Cravant,  29701 
Crawford  Prairie,  2970 

Beilan,  1330 
Belchite,  133(1 

Brotfeld,  178 
Brunanburg,  1780 

Cerdicsford,  328 
Cerdicsore,  228 

Crayford,  29701 
Creccanford,  3970 

Belgrade,  1340 
Bellair,  135 

Brundisium,  179 
Brundusium,  179 

Ceremola,  338 
Ceret,  338 

Crecy,  398 
Cremera,  3980 

Belmont,  136 

Brunkeberg,  179 

Cerignola,  338 

Cremona,  2980 

Benevento,  138 

Brunswick,  179 

Cerisoles,  338 

Cressy,  398 

Beneventum,  138,  84°a 

Brusten,  i8oa 

Cerro  Gorda,  3380 

CreVant,  2970 

Bennington,  139 
Bensington,  139 
Bentonville,i39 

Brzesc  Litewski,  i8oa 
Bueno  Vista,  655 
Bulgneville,  1830 

Ceutla,  3380 
Cezimbra,  2291 
Chacabuco,  341  a 

Creveldt,  2990* 
Crimisus,  300 
Croix  de  Vic,  5660 

Beora,  509 

Buljanak,  1820 

Chasronea,  3390 

Cropredy  Bridge,  301 

Beran-birig,  139 

Bull,  or  Bull's  Bun,  637 

Chalgrove,  3300 

Crosford,  1030 

Beresina,  1390 

Bunker's  Hill,  1830 

Chalons-sur-Marne,  23oa 

Cross-keys,  30101 

Berg,  9950 

Burford,  184 

Champion's  Hill,  333 

Crown  Point,  303 

Bergen,  140 

B  urgos,  933 

Chancellorsville,  333 

Cuaspud,  6990 

Bergerac,  1400 
Berlin,  1400 

Burkersdorf,  185^,  813 
Burlington  Heights,  186 

Charles  City,  3340 
Charleston,  335,  335« 

Culloden,  305 
Culm,  305 

Bersinikia,  1410 

Busaco,  188 

Charmouth,  2350 

CulpepperCourtHouse,loola 

Beth-Horon,  380,  143 

Busra,  135 

Chartres,  3360,  7150 

Cumso,  3050 

Bethshemesh,  533 

Buttington,  189 

Chattanooga,  3373 

Cunaxa,  306 

Bethune,  1430 

Butuntum,  1480 

Chebrelsse,  3370 

Cunersdorf,  3060,  813 

Beverwyk,  1430 

Buxar,  189 

Chester,  2400 

Curtatone,  3070 

Beylau,  1430 

Cabira,  19001 

Chesterfield,  2400 

Custoza,  3080,  5870 

Bey  rout,  3630 

Cadesia,  1910 

Chevy  Chase,  7340 

CUstrin,  557 

Beziers,  143 
Biberach,  144 

Cajazzo,  685a 
Calatanazor,  573 

Chiari,  2400 
Chickahominy,  341 

Cuton  Moor,  7130,  885,  933 
Cynoscephala?,  3090 

Bicocca,  1450 

Calderan,  8970 

Chickamauga,  341 

Cyropedium,  3100 

Bidasoa,  146 
Bielawesch,  4500 

Caldiero,  1950 
Callinicum,  197 

Chillianwallah,  3410 
Chippawa,  345" 

Cythera,  3100 
Czaslau,  3100 

Big  Bethel,  457 
Big  Harrison  Creek,  146 

Calpee,  1970 
Cambray,  19801 

ChizS,  24601 
Chizey,  3460 

Daban,  311 
Dadur,  3110 

Birmingham,  147 

Cambuskenneth,  2oo 

Chlum,  867 

Dainstadt,3l3 

Bithoor,  500 

Camden,  300 

Choczim,  347 

Dallas,  313,  10030 

Bitonto,  1480 

Camel,  3ooa 

Chotyn,  347 

Damoko,  7360 

Black  Forest,  149 

Camelford,  3Ooa 

Chrysopolis,  850,  888 

Danesmore,  115 

Blackheath,  1490 

Camelon,  5540 

Chupas,  34901 

Danewirke,  3140 

Black  Biver,  150 

Campbell's  Station,  2oia 

CibaUs,  3500 

Dannevirke,  3140 

THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


BATTLES—  (continued). 
Dannewerke,  3140 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Emendingen,  369 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Fredericia,  4210 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Guastalla,  466 

Darik,  3150 

Emesa,  360 

Fredericksburg,  4310 

Da  ven  try,  3160; 
Decimus,  3180 
Deeg,  319 
Degsastan,  3190 
Deggtan,  3190  • 
Delhi,  320 
Delium,  3200 
Dembewielkie,  33,1 
Denain,  3310 
Denis,  St.,  3310 
Dennewitz,  324 
Deorham,  324 
Dervenekai,  4!>9a 

Emissa,  369 
Emmetsville,  370 
Engen,  3710 
Englefield,  377 
Enkioping,  378 
Enniskillen,  378 
Enorore,  378 
Ensisheim,  3780 
Entzheim,  3780 
Eschendun,  383 
Espierres,  791 
Espinosa,  382 
Espinosa-de-los-Monteros, 

Frederickstein,  4310 
Fredericktown,  433 
Freiberg,  4330,  813 
Frelique,  566 
Frenchtown,  433 
Frethern,  399 
Freyburg,  43301 
Friedberg,  4330 
Friedland,  4330 
Friedliugen,  4330 
Front  Royal,  4340 
Fuente  Cantos,  435 
Fuentes  de  Onoro,  425 

Guildford,  9980 
Guinegate,  4670 
Gujerat,  4510 
Gundamuck,  468 
Guzerat,  4510 
Hadrianople,  470 
Hagerstown,  looiat 
Haguenau,  471 
Hagulstadt,  486 
Haliartus,  4710 
Halidon  Hill,  4710 
Halidown  Hill,  4710 
Halle,  473 

Dessau,  3250 
Dettingen,  3350 
Deutsclibrod,  500 

383 
Estjuiros,  693 
Esseck,  3820 

Fulford,  4250 
Fulton,  4250 
Furruckabad,  4360 

Hallelujah  Victory,  473 
Halys,  473*7 
Hanau,  473 

Devizes,  3250 
Diamond,  319 

Diersheim,  33701 
Dijon,  328 

Essendine  86a 
Essling,  847 
Kstanzuela,  6560 
Estremoz,  383 
Eszek,  3820 

Furth,  4360 
Futehgunge,  437 
Futti.'ghur,  437 
Futtehpur,  509 
Futty-ghur,  437 

Hanover  Court-House,  4743 
1  1  aria  w,  475,  886 
Harrisonburg,  476 
Harwich,  476« 
Hastenbeck,  477 

Dinevawr,  1031 
Djevan-Boulak  3310 
Dobro,  33  1  a 
Dobrynitchi,  333 

Etampes,  383 
Ethandune,  3830 
Etoges,  384 
Eupatorla,  385 

Gadara,  4270 
Gadebusch,  4370 
Games'*  Mill,  24r,  36la 
Gainsborough,  4270 

Hastings,  477 
Hatcher's  Run,  477 
Hateley  Field,  4770 

Hawksnest,  479 

Dol,  333 

Eurymedon,  385 

(Jais,  42701 

Hebron  480 

Don,  8600 
Donabew,  3340 
Donato,  St.,  6320; 
Donauwerth,  3340 
Doncaster,  3340; 
Dormans,  335 
Dorogobush,  335 

Eustace,  St.,  303,  3850 
Eutaw  Springs,  38Sa 
Evesham,  386 
Evora,  386,  801 
Evreux,  3630 
Exiles,  393 
EyUiu,  393 

(iaito,  4270 
Gambolo,  877 
Gamonal,  431 
Garigliano,  431*1 
Gateshoad  Fell,  4320 
Giiugamela,  68a 

Hedgecote  Field,  3570 
Hedgeley  Moor,  4800 
Heiligerlee,  4800 
Helga,  48! 
Helsingborg,  4810 
Hems,  #9,  954 

Dorylwum,  3350 
Dorystolon,  86oa 
Drabcscus,  337 
Dranesville,  339 

Fabriano,  St.,  393 
Faenza,  393 
Fair  Oaks,  341 
Fair,  The,  579 

IJilow^sfa 
Geboro,  923 

(iemuiiers,  43401 

Hengstone  Hill,  483 
Hennersdorf,  8na 
Henry  Springs,  483 

Dresden,  339 
Drenx,  3400 
Droop  Mountain,  341 
Drumclog,  341  a 
Drury's  Bluff,  10030 

FalkKiping,  3940 
Falkirk,  3040 
Falkirk  Muir,  V)±a 
FalliiiW  Water,  395 
Kainurs,  395* 

I.emblours.  4340 

pla,  436,  8790 
Gerberoi,  439 
Gergovia,  4390; 
Germano,  San,  440 

Hermannstadt,  4840 
Ilermondeville,  713 
Ilerrera,  4840 
I  Ion-ings,  4840 
Ilexham,  486 

Dumblane,  345a 
Duna,  346 
Dunbar,  346 
Dunblane,  3450 
Dundalk,346 
Dunes,  346 
Dimgan-hil!,  3460 
Dunsinane,  347 
Diippel,  347 

Pane,  3950 
Farmville,  396 
Farnham,  396 
Faughard,  397 
Kaventia,  3930 

Fayetteville,  397 
Fehrbellin,  3970 
Fere-Champeuoise,  3980 

Germantown,  440 
Gerscheim,  814 
Gettysburg,  443 
Giants,  6320 
Giessen,  444 
Gntors.  445 
Gitsehin,  445 
Giurgevo,  445,  863*1 
Gladsmore  Heath,  1300 

Heyliger  Lee,  4800 
Ilimera,  487 
Hobklrk'i  Hill,  2000 
Hochkirchen,  4870,  813 

Hochst,  4870 
Hochstadt,  4870 
Hohenburg,  4870; 
Hohenfrieburg,  4870,  8na 
Hohenlinden,  4870 

Duppeln,  347 
Dupplin  Moor,  3470 
Diiren,  3470 

Fermo,  3980 
Ferozeshah,  3980 
Fethanlea,  399 

Glenlivet,  447 
Gdduli;>,  4480 

Gmdlmim,  434 

Hollabriinn,  488 
Holly  Springs,  48901 
Holm,  490 

Durham,  34^ 
Durostolc,  86oa 
DUrrenstein,  34«a 
Dussindale,  3480 
Dutlingen,  349 
Dwina,  346 

Ealla's  ffill,  3670 
Ebbsdorf,  71511 

Fisher's  Hill,  4030 
Five  Forks,  403 
Fladenheim,  403 
Flensborg,  4040 
Fleurus,  4040 
Flodden  Field,  405 
Florida,  4060 
Foggia,  4o7a 

Gc.iio,  449 
Goldsborough,  451 
Golovtchiv,  451 
Goojerat,  4510,  816 
Goolnabad,  766 
Gorey,  4530 
Gosselies,  4530 
Gotthard,  St.,  454 
Grafton,  455 

Homildon  Hill,  4930 
Horns,  493 
Hondschoote,  493 
Hopton  Heath,  9310 
Horatii  and  Curiatii,  4930 
Horncastle,  494 
Huarina,  4960 
Huningen,  499*7. 
Huntly  Hill,  4990 

Ebersberg,  3540 
Ebora,  386 

Fokshani,  408 
Fontaine  Francaise,  4080 

Grampians,  73 
Gran,  4550 

Hydaspes,  5ooa 
Hysiaj,  5010 

Ebro,  9890 
Ecija,355a 
Eckmiihl,  3550 
Ecnomus,  356 
Eco-Cannians,  looo 
Edessa,  357 
Edgecote,  3570 
Edgehill,  3570 
Ehrenbreitstein,  363 
El  Arish.  3630. 
Elatea,  61501 
Elchingen,  364 
Eleasa,  364 
El  Embudo,  655 
Elizabetpol,  367a 
Elkhorn,  3670 
Ellamlune,  3670 

Fontenai,  4080 
Fontenay,  4080 
Fontenoy,  4080 
Fords,  713 
Forlimpopoli,  4100 
Formigny,  4100 
Fornovo,  4100 
Fort  Detroit,  4100 
Fort  Erie,  4100 
Fort  Fisher,  411 
Fort  Pillow,  411 
Forum  Trebonii,  4110 
Fossalta,  413 
Fossano,  413 
Fossa  Nuova,  70140 
Foughard  Tagher,  397 
Fraga,  4130 

Grandella.  524,  9030 
Granicus,  4560 
Granson,  4560; 
Gran  th  am,  4560 
Gravelines,  457 
Gravesend,  457 
Great  Bedwyn,  1390 
Great  Bethel,  457 
Greenbriar,  4610 
Griswoldville,  4640 
Grochow,  4640,  788 
Grodno,  464 
Groll,  465 
Gross-  Beeren,  465 
Gross-gorschen,  on 
Gross-Jagerndorf,  465,  713*7, 
813 

Ibrail,  1  66 
Iconium,  503 
Idomene,  5030 
Idstedt,  5030 
Igualada,  923 
11  Monte  d'Asdrubale,  6520 
Immse,  505 
Indore,  5100 
Ingour,  513 

Inniskillen,  378 
Inkermann,  513,  864 
Innsbriick,  513/1 
Innspriick,  5130,  9950 
Inverlochy,  5150 
Ipsus,  517 
Iran,  521 

Ellendune,  3670 

Franca  villa,  4120: 

Giiadalete,  4650?. 

El  Mansoorah,  6290 

Frankenhausen,  419 

Guad-Kl-ltas,  4650 

Ts'-l    oo*      ^ 

Elster,  368 
Eltekeh,  44-7 

Frankenmarkt,  419 
F.-austadt,  4313 

Gualdras,  4650 
Gualteras,  4650 

Iscrnia,  53ia 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1075 


B  ATTLES—  (continued). 

BATTLES—  (contin  urd). 

BATTLES—  (continued). 

BATTLKS  —  (continued). 

Issus,  5220 

Krefeld,  2991,  5560 

Loudoii  Hill,  606 

Melun,  6470 

Ithome,  9260 

Krotzka,  5560 

Louvain,  6o6a 

Memel,  708 

luka,  5# 
/Ivry,  526 
Jacob,  St.,  5260 

Kulm,  305 
Kunnersdorf,  3060 
Kunnoj,  5420 

Lowositz,  6070,  813 
Luca,  IOI4 
Lucania,  608 

Meretun,  6500 
Merida,  650 
Merseburg,  6500 

Jaen,  527 

Konnouj  ,  5420 

Lucena,  6o8a 

Merton,  6500 

Jaffa,  527 

Kunobitza,  5560 

Lucerne,  9510 

Metaurus,  6530 

Jalula,  5270 

Kurekdere,  8630 

Lucignano,  6c8a 

Metidja,  38 

James  Island,  1001 

Kustrin,  557 

Lucknow,  600 

Middletown,  zooia 

Jankowitz,  529 
Janowitz,  529 

La  Belle  Alliance,  1038 
La  ben  to,  5570 

Lugdunum,  6090 
Luna,  6090 

Mies,  6580 
Milazzo,  6450 

Jarnac,  53° 

Ladocea,  12,  5580 

Lund,  610 

Millesimo,  661 

Jaucourt,  5300 

Laffeldt,  559 

Lunden,  610 

Milliduse.  661 

Jayca,  7360 

La  Fratta,  559 

Luneburg  Heath,  7150 

Mill  Springs,  661 

Jean  de  Luz,  St.,  531 

Lagensalza,  814 

Lutter,  6  u 

Mincio,  6610 

Jefferson,  5310 

Laghonat,  380 

Liitzen,  6ll 

Minden,  6610,  813 

Jemmapes,  5310 

Lake  Regillus,  5590 

Luzzara,  612 

Minsk,  788 

Jena,  5310 
Jergeaux,  5310 

Lake  Thrasymene,  8480 
La  Molinella,  5600 

Lyons,  613 
Macalo,  6140 

Misdon,  6630 
Missionary  Ridge,  664 

Jicin,  445 

Landen,  562 

Maciejovice,  6160 

Missunde,  665 

Johannisberg,  536 

Landshut,  562 

Maciewice,  6160 

Miyani,  645 

Johnston,  5360 
John's  Town,  ,St.,  5360 

Landskrona,  563 
Laufanan,  563 

Madonna  DeH'Olmo,  6170 
Mreander,  619 

Mizpeh,  773 
Mockern,  666 

Juan  del  Sur,  San,  707 

Langside,  5620,  8860 

Maes  Garmon,  1030 

Modena,  666a 

Jiiterbock,  541 

Lanphanan,  563 

Magenta,  620 

Modon,  6660 

Kagul,  5410 

Lanscrona,  563 

Maghazul,  620 

Mohacs,  6660 

Kainly,  5410 

Lansdown,  563 

Magnano,  6210 

Mc.hacz,  6660 

Kaiserslautern,  5410 
Kalderoon,  735,  8970 

Laon,  5630,  813 
La  Prese,  5630 

Magnesia,  6310,  629 
Maharajpore,  622 

Mohammerah,  7660 
Mohilef,  667 

Kaleb  Medina,  543' 

Largs,  564 

Maida,  6220 

Mohilow,  667 

Kalisch,  542 

La  Roche  Abeille,  564 

Maidstone,  623 

Mohr,  4980           , 

Kalisz,  542 

La  Roche  Darien,  564 

Maipu,  624 

Molinos  del  Rey,  923 

Kalka,  543 

La  Rothiere,  564 

Malakhoff,  625 

Molwitz,  6670 

Kandsag,  3670 

La  Rouliere,  566 

Malegnano,  6320 

Monacacy  River,  668 

Kanoje,  5430 
Kapolna,  5420 

Laswaree,  564 
Lauffen,  5650 

Malo-Jaroslawitz,  626 
Malplaquet,  626 

Moncontour,  668 
Mondovi,  6680 

Kappel,  211 

Laiis,  9710 

Malserhevde,  626 

Mons  en  Puella,  3010,  6690 

Karita,  2140 

Lautern,  5410 

Malsheraid,  4640,  626 

Montebello,  670 

Katzbaeh,  5430,  813 

Lautulae,  566,  8480 

Malvern  Hill,  341,  loot 

Moiiteloro,  6700 

Kearneysville,  5430 

Laval,  5660 

Mamelon,  6260 

Moutenotte,  6700 

KelLs,  517 
Kelly's  Ford,  5430 

Lavis,  5660 
Lawfeld,  559 

Manassas,  627 
Manissa,  629 

Monte  Olmo.  0700 
Montereau,  0700 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  544 
Kennet,  544 

Lazaro,  St.,  5670 
Lech,  8260 

Mans,  566    * 
Mansurah,  6290 

Monterev,  671 
Monies  Claros,  8000,  10230 

Kennyree,  6720 

Lechamm,  569 

Mantinea,  12,  630 

Monte  Suello,  671 

Kerbester,  286 

Leek,  8260 

Mantineia,  630 

Montfaucon,  7150 

Keresztes,  5440 

Ledos,  569 

Maracaibo,  269,  6300 

Montiel,  6710 

Kesseldorf  ,  545,  8110 

Leeds,  10510 

Maracaybo,  6300 

Montiglio,  6710 

Kew-heeu-heu  ferry,  2440 
Khaluli,  5450 
Khargaudede,  735 
Khart,  5450 

Leesburg  Heights,  5690 
Legnano,  5700 
Leipsic,  5700,  571 
Lens,  5710 

Marathon,  631 
Marchfeld,  6310 
Mardia,  6310 
Marengo,  633 

Monti  jo,  8000 
Montlhery,  6710,  815 
Montmirail,  6710 
Mont  St.  Jean,  1038 

Khoi,  5450 

Leszna,  5810 

Mareshah,  3830 

Moodkee,  6720,  816 

Khooshab,  7660 
Kholin,  5550 

•    Leucopetra,  13,  573 
Leuctra,  573 

Margus,  632 
Marienwerder,  6320 

Mook,  6720 
Mooker  Heath,  6720 

Khotin,  247 

Leuthen,  573 

Marignano,  6320 

Morat,  6730 

Kilcullen,  5460 

Lewes,  5730 

Mark  Duren,  3470 

Morgarten,  674 

Kildare,  5460 

Lexington,  5730 

Marouga,  6340 

Morgurn,  633 

Killiecrankie,  547 
Kilmalloch,  5470 

Lhechryd,  10300 
Liege,  576 

Marsaglia,  6350 
Marsaille,  6350 

Moron,  783 
Mortara,  675 

Kilrush,  5470 

Liegnitz,  576 

Marston  Moor,  6360 

Mortimer's  Cross,  6750 

Kilsyth,  5470 

Liesna,  5810 

Martinesti,  6360 

Mortlach,  6750 

Kinburn,  5470 

Lignitz,  576 

Mary's  Clyst,  St.,  261 

Moskirch,  6760 

Kintrishi,  5510 

Ligny,  577 

Maserfeld,  734 

Moskowa,  1600,  6760 

Kircbdenkern,  5510 

Lilybwum,  3180,  5770 

Masourah,  6290,  638 

Motta,  6760 

Kirchholm,  5510 

Lincelles,  579 

Matamoras,  6390,  6560 

Mount  Algidus,  848 

Kiri-Kiri,  7060 

Lincoln,  579 

Matchin,  6390 

Mount  Gilboa,  371,  677 

Kis,  5510 
Kissingen,  814 

Lingonum  Civitas,  580 
Linlithgow,  580 

Mathes,  5660 
Maupertuis,  787 

Mount  Ohud,  733 
Mount  Seir,  538 

Klagenfurt,  552 

Lioppo,  5800 

Maxen,  812 

Mudki,  6730 

Klausenburg,  552 

Lippau,  5800 

Maypu,  624 

Muhlberg,  678 

Klum,  867 

Lissa,  573,  5810 

Mechanicsville,  241 

Muhldorf,  678 

Kokand,  5550 

Llandewyer,  584 

Medellin,  643,  923 

MUnchengratz,  814 

Kolin,  5550,  813 

Llanrwst,  1030 

Medina,  10280 

Munda,  678 

Kollin,  5550 

Llanwanoc,  1030 

Medina  de  Rio  Seco,  6440 

Mundisore,  6780 

Komorn,  275 
Koniah,  503,  55,0 

Llerena,  5840,  8000 
Loano,  5840 

Mediolanum,  6440 
Meeanee,  645 

Muret,  6790 
Murfreesborough,  680 

Konigsgratz,  867 

Lobositz,  6070 

Megiddo,  532.  645 

Murgum,  633 

Konigshofen,  5550 

Lodi,  5850 

Mehudpore,  645 

Mursa,  680 

Koslov,  385 

Lodosa,  9230 

Meissen,  6450 

Mursia,  680 

Kostainizza,  7360 

Logrono,  586 

Melazzo,  6450 

Murtem,  6730 

Kotara,  509 

Lonato,  5870 

Meldorp,  949 

Muta,  6800 

Kotriah,  556 

Long  Island,  594 

Melignano.  6330 

Mutah,  6800 

Kotzim,  247 

Longwood,  203,  5940,  999 

Melitena,  6460 

Mutina,  68oa 

Kouleftscha,  556,  736 

Loose  Coat,  595 

Melitene,  6460 

Mutinum,  6800 

Kousadac,  5s6 

Lorca,  923 

Mellingen,  6460 

Mycale,  68  1 

Krajova,  5500 

Los  Arcos,  9230 

Melrichstadt,  647 

Mvlse,  68  1 

Krasnoi,  5560 

Lose  Coat  Field,  595 

Melton  Mowbray,  647 

Myriokephalon,  68ia 

1076 


THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


BATTLES—  (continued). 
Nachod,  814 

BATTLES  —  (continued). 
Otford,  7340 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Quebec,  820 

BATTLES—  (continued). 
Santa  Lucia,  874 

Nacolia,  682a 

Otterburn,  7340 

Queenstown,  821 

Santa  Rosa,  8700 

Naefels,  682a 

Oudenarde,  737 

Quentin,  St.,  8210, 

Saone,  4810 

NUfels,  682a,  951 

Oulart,  7371 

Quesnoy,  8210 

Saragossa,  8750 

Nagpore,  683 
Naissus,  683,  8400 

Oulustre,  10020 
Ourique,  7370 

Quiberon,  2470,  823 
Quistello,  823 

Sardes,  878 
Sardis,  878 

Najara,  221,  586 

Oversee,  323 

Raab,  8230 

Sarno,  8780 

Namptwich,  6830 

Pagaham  Mew,  1860 

Rackebull,  323 

Satricum,  1026 

Namur,  6830 

Pakoza,  4980 

Radcot  Bridge,  824 

Saulcourt,  7150 

Nanci,  185,  684 

Palencia,  7420 

Ragusa,  8240 

Saumur,  8790 

Nantwich,  6830 

Palestro,  7430 

Rain,  8260 

Savage's  Station,  241,  loot 

Narva,  6870 

Palmyra,  745 

Rakowitz,  8260 

Savenay,  566,  8790 

Narvesa,  ioi4q 

Palo  Alto,  655 

Ramillies,  827 

Savo,  880 

Naseby,  6870 

Pandosia,  70,  7450,  8483 

Ramnuggur.  827 

Savona,  880 

Nashville,  6870 

Paneeput,  746 

Kamonde,  509 

Saxa  Rubra,  881 

Naushahra,  006 

Panium,  746 

Rampur-Kupia,  509 

Seliasbm-g,  883 

Navarette,  586 

Panius,  746 

Raphia,  3610,  8270 

Schassburg,  4980,  883 

Neerwinden,  694. 

Panormus,  746 

Hapikh,  3610,  8270 

Schumla,  736,  8830 

Neon,773a 

Parma,  752 

Rassova,  8630 

Schweidnitz.  883/1 

Neresheim,  6950 

Parret,  752 

Ratlienau,  828 

Schweiz,  884 

Nerwinden,  694 

Pasargadse,  753 

Kathenow,  828 

Sehwvz,  884 

Nesbit  Moore,  6950 

Patay,  4130,  7533 

Ratliiiiines,  828 

Scutari,  888 

Neu-Kolin,  5550 

Patna,  754 

Raucoux,  8280 

Sebastian,  St.,  8890,  9230 

Neuss,  6960 

Patochin,  754 

Ravenna,  8280 

Sebastopuli.-., 

Neva,  6960 

Pattana,  754 

Redan,  8300 

Sedan,  8890 

Nevahend,  697 
Neville's  Cross,  348 

Pavia,  756 
Peak's  Station.  4740 

Redecot  Bridge,  824 
Redhina,  8300 

Sedgemoor,  669,  890 

Sep'd,  890 

Newburn,  6970 
Newbury,  6970 

Pea  Ridge,  3670 
Peiho,  759/1 

Red  Kocks,  881 
Reiehenbach,  812,  834 

Sefredin,  498a,  890 
Sri.  l)ie«,  890 

Newmarket,  10020 

Pelekanon,  760 

K"nic>tra,835 

Selby,  8900 

New  Orleans,  700 

Pemaneon,  761 

Bepbidlm,  45a,  835 

Belgae,  8goa 

Newtown  Butler,  7050 

Pen,  762 

Rethel,  836 

Selliisia,  6510,  891 

Nezib,  7060 

Pencadaer,  1030 

ReMiosn,  923 

Semimira,  891 

Nicasa,  7060 

Pentland  Hills,  762 

Rheinfeld,  8380 

Nice,  7060 

Peonna,  762 

Rheinfelden,  8380 

Senef,  892 

Nicopolis,  3530,  708 

Pered,  7620 

Rhoda,  852^1 

Senlis,  414 

Niemen,  708 

Perekop,  762/1 

Rich  Mountain,  loooa 

Si-ntinuni,  384/1,  8480,  8920 

Nile,  7o8n 
Nimeguen,  7°9<J 

Perigueux,  763 
Perugia,  7670 

Rieti,  685/1,  840 
liiiiienaiit,  8403 

Seven  Oaks,  8950 
Seven  I'ines,  8950 

Nineveh,  7090 

Perusia,  7670 

Rimnik,  636/1 

Shaldiran,735,  8970 

Nisch,  7100 

Petelia,  7680 

Ringmere,  8400 

Shanjrlme,  §970 

Nissa,  7100 

I'eterswalde,  7690 

Rivoli,  8420 

Shanghai,  8970 

Nive,  7100 

Peterwaradin,  770 

Roccasecca,  843/1 

Sharpsburg,  8970 

Nivelle,  7100 

IVterwanlein,  770 

Rocour,  8280 

Sheriff  -muir,  899 

Njmejen,  7090 
Nocera,  711 
Nola,  9130 

Petherton,  762 
Petilia,  7680 
Pfaffendorf,  771 

Rocoux,  828a 
Rocroy,  8440 
Roderic's  Town,  254/1 

Shiblai,  766 
Shumla,  736,  8830 
Siddini,9o4a 

Norden,  712 
Nordlingen,  713 

Pharsalia,  771 
Philiphaugh,  772 

Rohilcund,  845       ' 
Rolica,  845 

Silistria,  9060 
Siloa,  6550 

Noreia,  7120 

Philippi,  772 

Romainville,  845/1 

Singara,  9070 

Noreja,  7120 

Philippsburg,  7720 

Romhany,  852 

Siniiiiini,  9080 

Norkitten,  7120 

Piave,8Si 

Roncesvalles,  852 

Sin,,  lenskow,  86JS.9I3 

Northallerton,  714 
Northampton,  714 
Norwich,  7160 

Pinchacha,  767 

I'ines,  8950 

Pinkie,  7770,  886 

Ronda,  8520 
Rorica,  845 
Rosas,  8520 

Snbraon,  913 
Soissons,  916 
Solaion,  7650 

Nottingham,  717 
Novara,  5870,  7170,  877 

Pinnasens  778 
Pirn  a,  778 

Rosbach,  623,  853 
Rosebec,  623,  «53 

Bolferino.  9160 
Solway  Moss,  9160 

Novi,  7180 

Pisa,  778 

Rosenthal,  105601 

Sombrero,  gi6a 

Noviomagns,  7090 

1'ittslmrg,  7790 

Rosetta,  8530 

Somma,  917 

Noyon,  1680 

1'ittsburg  Lauding,  780,  loot 

Roslin,  8850 

Sommershausen,  917 

Nymejren    *7OQa 

Plassey,  7820 

llnss,   854 

Soncino,  9170 

Obidos,  721 

Platsea,  7820 

Rossbach,  623,  812,  853 

Sonderbygaard,  323 

Ocana,'72l 

Plocsko,  7870 

Rothweil,  854/1 

Southampton,  314 

Ockley,  7210 
Ocotepeque,  87oa 
Odenburg,  7220 

Plowcze,  785 
Pocloc,  786 
Poitiers,  787 

Roundway  Down,  855 
Roveredo,  8550 
Rumersheim,  859 

Spnleto,   9300 

Sp^ttsvlvaiiia,  9300 
Springfield,  931 

Oedenburg,  722a 

Pollalore,  789/1 

Rymenants,  8400 

Spurs,  295,  4670 

CEnophyta,  7220 

Pollentia,  7890 

Saulfeld,  8640 

Stall  arda,  9310 

Oglio,  723 
Ohud,  Mount,  723 
Olanege,  430 
Olney,  43 

Poltava.  790 
Pont-k-Chin,  791 
Portland,  314,  798 
Porto  Novo,  7980 

Saatz,  865 
Saaz,  865 
Sacket's  Harbour,  203 
Sacriportus,  866a 

Stamford,  9310 
Standard,  932 
Stanford  Bridge,  3140,  9320 
Stiinpobro,  932/1 

Olot,  725 

Port  Orewyn,  1031 

Sadowa,  867 

Stcenkirk,  936 

Olpae,  n,  725 

Posen,  802 

Sagras,  585,  8670 

Steinkirk,  936 

Oltenitza,  725 
Olympia,  725 

Praga,  788,  805 
Prague,  805 

Saigon,  8670 
Salamanca,  868 

Sticklastadt,  937 
Stockach,  937 

Omer,  St.,  7250 
Opslo,  7270 

Prescott,  8o6a 
Preston,  807 

Salankenmn,  4980,  868a 
Salban,  868a 

Stoke-upon  -Trent,  907,  938 
Stony  Creek,  203,  9380 

Orange,  7280 

Preston  Pans,  807 

Salices,  869 

Stow-on-the-Wold,  939 

Orbazzano,  6350 
Orbega,  10050 

Princeton,  8070,  9980 
Prome,  810 

Salzburg,  871 
Sambre  River,  6950 

Strasburg,  9390 
Stratton,  940 

Orleans,  731/1,  733 

Pskov,  8140 

Samos,  8720 

Stratus,  47,  940 

Orsova,  733 

Pskow,  8140 

Sampford  Courtenay,  8720 

Striegau,  4870,  9400 

Orthes,  733 

Pultava,  790 

Samus,  8720 

Stuhm,  941 

Orthez,  733 
Ostrolenka,  734,  788 
Ostrowno,  734 
Oswestry,  734 

Pultusk,  816 
Pydna,  616,  817 
Pyramids,  8170 
Quatre  Bras,  8iga 

Sandberg,  323 
Sandwich,  873 
San  Juan  del  Sur,  707 
San  Pedro,  6560 

Suck,  3I4 
Smldoosam,  6720 
Sukoro,  4980 
Sultamah,  766 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1077 


BATTLES  —  (continued). 

BATTLES  —  (continued). 

BATTLES  —  (continued). 

Bear  Island,  3390 

Summerhausen,  944 

Trasimene,  971 

Warrington,  1035 

Beam,  1930 

Sunbury,  944 

Trautenau,  983 

Warsaw,  1035 

Beatification,  307 

Sutri,  9470 
Sviaga,  8600 

Trebbia,  983 
Trebia,  9830 

Water-kloof  Hills,  193 
Waterloo,  10370 

Beaton,  Cardinal,  886 
Beatrice  of  Portugal,  89 

Szegedin,  4980,  890 

Trenton,  9980 

Wattignies,  10380 

Beatrice,  Princess,  3760 

Szenta,  9540 

Trentschin,  9840 

Wavre,  1039 

Beauchamp,  Baron,  131 

Szikszo,  4980 

Treviso,  985 

Wawer,  1039 

Beauge,  570 

Taafna,  38 

Trifanum,  9850 

Wawz,  788,  1039 

Beaumaris,  1031 

Tabasco,  9540 

Tripoli,  987 

Wearmoutli,  314 

Beaumonts,  360 

Tacamburo,  6560 

Trobitschau,  988 

Weinsberg,  4430,  1040 

Beaumont,  Sir  George,  6890 

Taccazy,  9 

Troia,  988 

Weissemberg,  1040 

Beau  Nash,  126 

Tadinae,  9553 

Troja,  988 

Weissemburg,  10400 

Bekupoire,  136 

Taginse,  5330,  9550 

Trond,  St.,  988 

Weissenburg,  10400 

Bebba,  1140 

Tagliacozzo,  9550 
Tagliamento,  955a 
Tailleburg,  9550 

Tron,  St.,  988 
Tschota-Udeypur,  509 
Tse-kee,  344 

White  Oak  Swamp,  341,  looi 
White  Plains,  1046 
Wibbadune,  1047 

Bebriacum,  131 
Beckenham,  1300 
Becket,  St.  (Brotherhood   of), 

Talavera,  956 

Tudela,  9890 

Wielhoi,  323 

649 

Tamanes,  933 

Turckheim,  9900 

Wiesloch,  10470 

Becket,    Thomas,    1050,    373, 

Tamojanat,  38 
Tamynaj,  9560 

Turin,  991 
Turnhout,  9930 

Wigan,  10470 
Wigmore,  6750 

6710,  7910 
Beckford,  Wm.,  4080 

Tanagra,  927,  9560 

Tusculum,  994 

Wilderness,  1048 

Becquerel,  4290 

Tangier,  800,  956 

Tyrnau.  9950 

Williamsburg,      303,      looi, 

Bedcanford,  131 

Tanis,  6290 

Ucles,  933 

10480 

Bedlam's  Men,  70 

Tannenburg,  9560 

Uddevalla,  996 

Wilua,  788,  1049 

Beecroft,  Capt.,  139 

Tara,  314,  9570 

Uldecina,  933 

Wilson's  Creek,  looi 

Beefeaters,  1061 

Tarablus,  987 
Tarbes,  9570 

Umbria,  8930,  9960 
Urbicus,  10050 

Wilton,  1049 
Wimbledon,  1047 

Bega,  St.,  1310 
Begging  Friars,  648 

Tarifa,  958 
Tarqui,  767 

Uttoxeter,  1007 
Vaccoli,  10070 

Wimpfen,  1049 
Winchester,  U.S.,  loot 

Beguards,  1330 
Beguttae,  1320 

Tarragona,  9580 

Vadimonian     Lake,     8480, 

Winvvidfield,  10510 

Behmen,  Jacob.  133 

Tauss,  960 
Tchernaya,  960 

10070 
Vaila,  36 

Wippedsfleet,  10510 
Wissehrad,  1053 

Behring,  Vitus,  710,  133,  7140 
Beighton,  Henry,  9340 

Tearless  Victory,  961 
Tegyra,  9610 

Val,  559 
Valeggio,  10080 

Witepsk,  10520 
Wittstock,  1053 

Beit-laham,  143 
Beke,  Dr.,  9 

Tela,  6440 
Telamon,  9610 

Valencia,  1009 
Vails,  1010 

Wodensfield,  314 
Worcester,  10550 

Bektashis,  335 
Belad  Walid,  10090 

Temeswar,  963 

Valmy,  1010 

Worms,  10560 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  4300 

Testry,  9640 

Varna,  10110 

Wiirtzchen,  1058 

Beled  el  Sudan,  9180 

Tettenhall,  9640 
Tetuan,  675,  9640 

Vasag,  735,  10110 
Vassilef,  7680 

Wurzburg,  1058 
Xeres,  931,  10590 

Belem  (Brazil),  748 
Belfort,  133 

Teutoburg,  9040 
Tewkesbury,  965 
Thames,  999 

Vavrio,  1013 
Veere,  1017 
Veile,  333 

Ximena,  10590 
Xiquilpan,  6560 
Yaffa,  527 

Belgica  Secunda,838 
Believers,  3480 
Belin,  146^ 

Thapsus,  849,  9660 

Velletri,  10130 

Yanijuco,  6560 

Belisarius,   33,  380,    104,   113, 

Thermopylae,  9680 

Vellore,  10130 

Yatah,  7480 

197,  850,  8500,  ion 

Thirty,  Battle  of  the,  9690 

Venusia,  8480 

Yauacocha,  767 

Bell,  Andrew,  360 

Thorn,  788,  9700 

Verceil,  10:60 

Yermuk,  1061 

Belle  Repaire,  136 

Thrasimene,  8483,  971 

Vercellse,  10160 

Yvres,  1064 

Be«eropAon(armour-plated),  77 

Thrasymene,  8480,  971 

Vere,  1017 

Zab,  1064 

Bellerophon,  H.M.S.,4i5o,  8430 

Thurles,  9710 

Verneuil,  1017 

Zadock,  1064 

Bell,  Henry,  935 

Thurium,  9710 

Verona,  10170 

Zagrab,  1064 

Bell,  John,  10000 

Thyatira,  973 

Veseris,  10180 

Zalacca,  1064 

Belles  Lettres,  514 

Thymbra,  765,  973 

Vesoul,  10180 

Zama,  1064 

Bellingham,  J.,  3740,  390,  7630 

Tiberias,  532,  973 

Vesuvius,  10180 

Zamora,  1064 

Bellot,  Lieut.,  135,  4300 

Tibeste,  673,  9730 

Viazma,  10190 

Zara,  1065 

Bellovacum,  1300 

Ticino,  2180,  8480 

Vic  d'Osona,  1030 

Zaragoza,  8750 

Bellovesus,  44 

Ticinus,  3180,  8480 

Vich,  1030 

Zeitz,  1065 

Beloi  Gorod,  676 

Tifernum,  973 

Vidasoa,  146,  933 

Zela,  10650 

Belshazzar,  108,  534 

Tigranocerta,  973 

Vigenne,  7150 

Zelichow,  788 

Belus,  136 

Tina,  1550 

Villa  Franca,  5840,  1033 

Zendecan,  10650 

Belvidere,  10110 

Tinchebray,  974 

Villaponca,  8oia 

Zenta,  9540 

Belzoni,  139,  3310,  3630 

Tinchenbray,  7  :  3,  974 

Villa  Viciosa,  8000,  10330 

Zetunium,  10650 

Bern,  Gen.,  736 

Tingo,  767 
Tippermuir,  9740 
Tirlemont,  9740 

Villingshausen,  5510 
Vilna,  788,  1049 
Vimeria,  10330 

Znaim,  1066 
Znaym,  1066 
Zohran,  10383 

Benalcasar,  Sebastian,  833 
Benchor,  1150 
Benedek,  Field  Marshal,  867 

Tlemsen,  38 

Vimiero,  10330 

Zorndorf,  557,  813,  10660 

Benedict  College,  3900 

Tobak,  1360 

Viniori,  10330 

Zullichau,  813,  10660 

Benediction,  8650 

Tokay,  976 

Vincy,  10331 

Zulpich,  976 

Benedict,  St.,  30,  1350,  1360, 

Tolbiac.  976 

Vindonissa,  433,  1034 

Zurich,  1067 

10090 

Toledo,  620 

Vinegar  Hill,  1034 

Zutphen,  1067 

Benedictus,  5010 

Tolentino,  9760 

Vitebsk,  10530 

Zvvittau,  10670 

Beneventum,  138 

Tolosa,  977,  979 
Toluca,  6560 

Vitoria,  1035 
Vittoria,  1035 

Zvp,  10670 
Baiihin,  Gaspar,  8030 

Benezet,  Anthony,  910 
Ben-hadad,  88 

Tongres,  977 
Tonningen,  977 

Voiron,  10350 
Voltri,  1036 

Baumgarten,  M.,  84 
Baumholder,  5750 

Ben  Musa,  Mohammed,  370 
Bennet,  St.,  1360 

Torches,  9770 

Volturno,  5340,  1036 

Baunugger,  5000 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  3830 

Torgau,  9773 

Vougle,  787,  1037 

Bawd,  Peter,  81 

Bentinck,  Lord  William,  5090, 

Torres  Vedras,  Sola 

Vouille,  1037 

Bawn  Fleet,  319 

9030 

Tortona,  978 

Waal,  10370 

Baxter,  George,  8o8a 

Bentley,  Richard,  4610 

Tortosa,  978 

Wachau,  10370 

Bayard,  130 

Benyowski,  Count,  617 

Toul,  9780 

Wackau,  10370 

Bayer's  Maps,  90 

Beora,  509 

Toulouse,  979 

Wagram,  10380 

Bayle,  Peter,  8820 

Beranger,  417 

Tournay,  791,  9790 

Wahlstatt,  10380 

Bazaine,  Gen.,  656,  6560 

Berbers,  118,  5410 

Tours,  787 

Waitzen,  1039 

Bazyges,  370 

Berbir,  4540 

Towl,  1030 

Wakefleld,  1039 

Beaconites,  819 

Berea,  350 

Towton,  9800 
Traeis,  631,  981 

Walk,  1032 
Wandewash,  1034 

Bean  King's  Festival,  9940 
Beardies,  10570 

Berengaria  of  Navarre,  8390 
Berengarius,  1390 

Trais,  981 

Warburg,  10340 

Bear  Garden,  183 

Berenger,  570 

1078 


THE   MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Berenice,  310 

Blacking,  9000 

Bonney,  101 

Breton  Club,  2600 

Beresford,  Lord,  320,  33 
Berghem,  Van  Louis,  3260 

"  Black  Joke,"  The,  244 
Black  Mountains,  674 

Boodh,  343 
Book  of  Mormon,  6740 

Brett,  9410 
Brewster,  Sir  David,  176,  738, 

Bergomum,  140 

Berkeley  Castle,  3720 

Blackpool,  614 
Black  Prince,  398,  432,  5020 

Book,  The,  144 
Book  of  Torgau,  9770 

936o 
Brian  Boru,  259,  679 

Berkeley,  Dr,  260 

Black    Prince    (armour-plated 

Boot,  Boetius  de,  3260 

Bricklayers,  275 

Berkeley  Suit,  2330 

ship),  77 

Bora,  Catherine  von,  611 

Bride-bush,  170 

Bermu.de/,  Juan,  141 

Black  Scribe,  7350 

Borbetomagus,  10560 

Bride-stake,  170 

Bernadotte,  334,  9490 
Bernard,  Dr.,  733 

Blacksmiths,  2750 
Black  Virgin,  Worship  of    31  fr 

Borde,  Andrew,  6500 
Border  Marriages,  4630 

Bride-wain,  170 
Bridget,  St,  170 

Bernard,  St.,  141,  2550,  10190 
Bernard,    St.,    and    St.    Mar- 

Blaeuw,  William  Jansen,  809 
Blair,  Capt,  168 

Border  Service,  306 
Borgo-Saii-Sepolcro,  3510 

Brie,  231 
Brieg,  6670 

garet's      College,      Cam- 

Blake,  Admiral,  3360,  337,  798 

Bornholm,  322 

Brigantes,  173 

ridge,  8300 

Blake,  Gen,  1330 

Boroughstoness,  1370 

Briggs,  Henry,  586 

Beraburg  (Anhalt),  57 
Berneron,  Gen.,  la 

Blakely,  Capt,  810 
Blake,  W,  3340 

Borowlaski,  349 
Borussi,  8110 

Brighthelmstone,  173 
Bright,  Mr,  of  Essex,  290 

Bernicia,  3190 

Blanchard,  1130 

Borzivoi,  155 

Brigo,  King,  1650 

Burnouilli,  Daniel,  Sola,  6430, 

Blanche  of  Navarre,  260 

Boscobel  Tracts,  161 

Brilliants,  355 

935 

Blanche  Nef,  The,  1190 

Boso,  Count,  740 

Brimstone  Hill,  249 

Berosus,  870 
Bcrothui,  1410 

Blanket,  The  Brothers,  151 
Blanques,  6050 

Bospor,  545,  7400 
Boston  Port  Bill,  998 

Brindley,  J,  513 
Brinvilliers,    Marchioness    of 

BiTte-Scheno,  9910 

Blanquette,  10450 

Botalli,  53 

400,  787 

Bertezena,  9910 

Blase,  St.,  1055 

Bothwell,  Earl  of,  886 

Brisbane  Kiver,  1000 

Berthelet,  Thomas,  8081 

Blazonry,  4830 

Bottcher,  J.  F,  3390 

Brisgau,  no 

Berthevillu,  3370 

Blenheim  Palace,  1510,  10540 

Boucan,  1800 

Brissotins,  445 

Berilin,  St.,  9310 

Blenkingen,  333 

Boucicault,  D,  89 

Britain,  Lesser,  760 

Berwick,  Duke  of,  420,  119 
Berzelius,  228 

Ble.ssed  Hats.  4-7 
Blensed  Marieof  Eton  College, 

Bougainville,  164,  1900,  230 
Boiighalccn  liavvins,  10450 

Britain's  Burse,  1870 
Britannia  Metal,  974 

Bessemer,  Henry,  520,  9350 
Bestamis,  325 

384 
Blesum,  153 

Boughton,  208 
Bonillon,  Godfrey  of.  532,  532o 

Britannia  Secunda,  10290 
Britannia          Septcnuionalis, 

Betheneourt,  330,  1430,  304 
Iteth-Kliumri,  8710 

Bligh,  Capt,  19,  990,  1670,  681 
Block-books,  378 

Boulton,  Matthew,  147,   2fc>5u, 
774 

10290 
Britamiicus  Claudius,  173 

Buttertoii,  15,  3380 

Blockheads  (Academy),  loo 

Bound,  Dr,  62 

British  Concerts,  276 

Bcidah  Spa,  717 

Blois,  Bishop  of   Lincoln,   115 

Bourbon,  James  de,  172 

British  and  Foreign  Musicians' 

Bewick,  Thos,  378 

Blois,  Henry  of,  640 

Bourgeois  Gallery,  3450 

Society,  276 

Beylerbey,  3300 

Blondin,  304,  7060 

Bourgec-lea-Batiu,  163 

British  Musicians  (Society  of), 

Bezantine,  1890 

Blood-bath*.  1520 

Bourguignons.  740 

276 

Bhore  Gaut,  5090 

Blood,  Col,  833,  980 

Boursa,  180,  811 

British  Pompeii,  1006 

Bias,  8950 

Bloody  Meadow,  965 

Bowide  Dynasty,  993 

Brivatcs  Portus,  169 

Bibars,  61,  830 
Bibasis,  9470 

Bloody  Queen  Mary,  637 
Bloody  Statute,  9080 

Bowie  Knife,  838 
Bowring,  Sir  J,  115 

Brixellum,  131 
Brixen,  3070 

Bible  Christians,  6530 

Blot-monath,  718 

Bows  and  Arrows,  70 

lirixia,  1680 

"Bibliographer's       Manual," 

Blucher,  Marshal,  97,  5700,813 

l!o\\  vers'  Company,  4040 

Broad  Axe,  1050 

1450 

Blue-  bottle,  1530 

Boy  Crusade,  777 

Broadcloth,  3590 

Bibliographic  Instructive,  1450 

Blue  Cloaks  and  Gowns,  65 

Hover,  4790 

Broadgates  Hall,  761 

''  Bibliothi-ea  Britanniea,"l45a 
"Bibliotheca         Uuiversalis," 

Blue-coat  School,  340 
Blue  Mantle,  4830 

Boyle,  Hon.  R,  1640,  365 
Bnzzaris,  Marco.  4590 

Broad  Gunge,  "j-j 
Hro.id  Pieces,  4490 

I45<* 

Bine  .Mountains,  looo 

Bralmnciones,  1640 

Brocage,  1770 

Bibrax,  5633 

Blue  Kivcr 

Brabant,  Duke  de,  134,  1340 

Brocour,  1770 

BieliU,  Ji8 
Bigastro,  3180 
Big  Ben,  4960 

Boadic.ea,  310,  2000 
Board  of  Works,  3370 
Boarii,  1880 

Bracara  Augusta,  1650 
Bradley,  900,  5760 
Brae-mar       (Aberdeenshire), 

Broggers,  1770 
Broglio.  Duke  of,  140 
Broke,  Capt,  340 

Big  Bethel,  457 

Boar's  Head  Tavern,  060 

6360 

Bromwycham,  147 

Bight  of  Benin,  24 

U.K.  Vista,  764 

Brahe,  9490 

Brook,  Robert,  568 

Bigorra,  9570 

Bolmdilla,  F,  480 

Brahma,  1013 

Brooke,  Sir  James,  1600,  558, 

Bigorre,  9570 

Bobbi,.,  7760 

Braidwood,  Mr,  590 

876 

Bijyangur,  113 

Bob  Booty,  1320 

Braidwoocl,  Mr.  Thomas,  317 

Brotherhood  of  God,  989 

Bilberry  Reservoir  490 

Boccaccio,  524 

Bramah,  Il6,  501,  585 

Brotherhood    of     St.    George, 

Bilbilis,  1940 

Boccanegro,  Simon,  436 

Brancaleone,  8500 

5170 

Billault,  M,  4170 

Bockelsohn,  John,  -,411 

Brandt,  790,  214,  774 

Brotherhood    of    St.    Thomas 

Billen,  T,  53 

Bndeiintein,  Andreas,  831 

Brandwine,  166 

Becket,  649 

Bingium,  1460 

Bodli-v,  SirT,  1540 

Bran,  or  the  Sieve  (Academy), 

Brougham,  Lord,  3300 

Binnenhof,  4700 

Bodolph,  St.,  1610 

100 

Broussa,  180 

Biorgas,  1630 

Bccotian  Migration,  30 

Bray,  Dr.  Thomas,  915 

Brown,  Archbishop,  530,  831 

Bird  Islands,  233 
Bird  Seers,  4760 
Birkbeck,  Dr,  6420 

Bogarmitae,  155 
Bogdania,  667 
Bogdo  Lama,  560 

Braziers,  2120,  275 
Bread  and  Cheese  Land,  146 
Bread  Street,  1670 

Brown  Bakers'  Company,  mo 
Browne,  R,  178 
Brown,  John,  476,  9090 

Birs  Nimroud,  161 

Bogle,  Paul,  5270 

Break-Bone  Fever,  3210 

Brown  University,  811 

Biru,  767 
Biscay,  124 

Bogue  Forts,  154,  244 

Bohemian  Book  of  Order,  806 

Breaking  on  the  Wheel,  1045 
Breckinridge,  icooo 

Brown,  William,  5830 
Bruce,  1050 

Biscoe,  Capt,  16 

Bonnie,  J,  133 

Brecon   Independent   College, 

Bruce,  Edward,  1330,  1410,346 

Biscop,  Benedict,  446 
Bishopsgate,  5900 
Bishop's  llatfield,  4770 
Bishops  in  Partibus,  8450 
Bismarck,    Count     Von,     103, 

Boia,  7770 
Bois  de  Vincennes,  10230 
Bolan  Pass,  136 
Boleyn,  Queen  Anne,  373,  483 
Bolingbroke,  Henry,  839 

5060 
Bredalbane,  447 
Breed's  Hill,  1830 
Bremgarten,  I 
Brendan,  St.,  359 

Bruce,  Robert,  8850 
Brue,  24 
Brugie,  171 
Brundusium,  179 
Brune,  160 

4330,  813.  8130,  814 

Bolingbroke,    Viscount,  4330, 

Brennus,  410 

Brune,  Gen,  140 

Bissextile,  568 

475« 

Brentius,  John,  996 

Brunei,  I.  K,  835 

Bissexws  Dies,  5680 

Bolivar,  213,  10150 

Brentzen,  John,  996 

Brunei,  Sir  M.  I,  966,  9930 

Bithoor,  509 

Bolland,  J,  1560 

Brescia,  Angela  di,  1006 

Brunfels,  Otto,  163,  6900 

Bituriges,  1630 

Bolonia,  163 

Brest  Litevski,  1800 

Brunnen,  10050 

Bivar,  Rodrigo  Diaz  de,  9310 
Black  Amid,  337 

Bolton,  396,  9940 
Bombards,  81 

Bretagne,  1740 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Lot, 

Bruno,  165,  319 
Bruno,  Giordano,  7460 

Black  Brunswickers,  3170 

Bombazine,  7160 

1690 

Brunshausen  Tolls.  031 

Black  Code,  909 
Blackdown     Hill    (Somerset- 

Bonacca, 480 
Bonelli,  3650 

Brethren  of  Good  Will,  1690 
Brethren  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 

Brutus,  Marcus,  849 
Bruxelles,  180 

shire),  10400 

Bonenham,  343 

986 

Bryanites,  6530 

Black,  Dr,  4790 

Bonhomme,  Jacques,  527 

Brethren    of    Our     Lady    of 

Bucentaur,  10390 

Black,  George,  585 

Bonna,  158 

Mount  Olivet,  7340 

Buchan,  710 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1079 


Buchanan,  President,  930,  377, 

1000,  10000 

Buchan,  Mrs.  E.,  181 

Cadarci,  1007 
Cadiaskers,  3300 
Cadmeis,  1540 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  113,  235a, 
Campbell,  Thomas,  593 

Carrier,  J.  B.,  341,  7183 
Carr,  Rev.  W.  Howell,  6890 
Carrum,  3350 

Bucket  Fever,  3210 
Buckingham      House,     Cam- 
bridge, 6190 
Buckingham  House,  London, 

Cadmus,  44,  1540,  4580 
Caduga,  3840 
Cttdwallader,  1030 
Caer  Colun,  2660 

Campbelton,  2080 
Campian  the  Jesuit,  373 
Campus  Malduli,  198 
Campus  Martius  (Home),  327 

Car-Standard,  403 
Carta  de  Logu,  8760 
Carte  the  Historian,  567 
Carteret,  990,  4230,  700 

181 

Caer  Dyke,  3030 

Camulodunum,  3ooa 

Cartesian  Philosophy,  773 

Buckles,  901 

Caer-Gwent,  10490 

Canale,  8340 

Carthagh,  St.,  5810       ' 

Buckowina,  311 
Buffalo,  U.S.,  150 

Caer-Isc,  391 
Caerlaverock  Castle,  2140 

Cancelli,  233 
Cancellieri,  1430 

Cartier,  Jacques,  480,  49,  3030, 
673 

Buffetiers,  1061 

Caer  Meguaid,  6320 

Canduce,  Queen,  90 

Carts  of  War,  318 

Buffon,  437 

Caer-Kydh,  391 

Candeish,  5450 

Cartwright,  3930 

Bug,  722 

Casalpin,  1520 

Candelabrum,  3040 

Cartwright,  Thomas,  18 

Bugoaud,  Marshal,  380 

Cecsarea  Augusta,  8750 

Candiotes,  304              , 

Casale,  414 

Bugia,  38 

Csesarean  Operation,  6580 

Canissa,  5420 

Casaubon,  1540 

Bulla,  1820 
Bull-dog,  H.M.S.,  2090 
Bull,  Dr.  John,  688 

Cresar,  Julius,   510,  97,   1060, 
163",  173,  i95a,  3i7«.  849 
Caesaroburgus,  239 

Canna,  2040 
Canning,  lit.  Hn.  George,  3040, 
3740,  436 

Cash  gar,  543 
Caskets,  The,  34 
Caslon,  William,  8080 

Bull  Hunning,  183 

Caesarodunum,  9«o 

Canning's  Corn  Bill,  389 

Caspatyrus,  3190 

Bunarbashi,  504 

Cwsaromagus,  1303 

Canning,  Viscount,  5090 

Caspiria,  3190 

Bunbury,  214 

Cresar's  Wall,  1033 

Canopy  Farthing,  8300 

Cassander,  930 

Bunder  Abbas,  451 

Cahera,  1930 

Canrobert,  Gen.,  864 

Cassandria,  8030 

Bundscbuh,  758 

Caillie,  24 

Cantaber.  199 

Cassian,  John,  30 

Bunhill  Fields,  221 

Cainians,  1930 

Cantara  (river),  4130 

Cassids,  3940 

Bunsen,  1920,  3650 

Caithness,  Earl  of,  934 

Cantata,  68oa 

Cassini,  13,  900,  7810 

Bunyan,  John,  41,  131 

Caius  Marius,  380 

Canusium,  307 

Cassius,  Sp.,  37 

Buonaparte  Island,  163 
Buonaparte,  Joseph,  685 

Cajazzo,  6850 
Cajetan,  Cardinal,  6100 

Canute,  109,  373 
Cape  Augustine,  i66a 

Cassivelaunus,  3ooa,  987 
Cass,  Lewis,  icooa 

Buonarroti,    Michael    Angelo, 
7410 

Calanus,  469 
Calas,  148,  979 

Capella,  333 
Cape  Northumberland,  100 

Casteggio,  3560 
Castel-a-Mare,  230 

Buoncompagni,  9930 
Buononcini,  7260 

Calatanazor,  573 
Calchutense,  5750 

Cape  Nothing,  3030 
Cape  St.  James,  263 

Castel  Giubileo,  3990 
Castellio,  501 

Burburs,  3300 

Calcuith,  338 

Capetus,  31 

Castellum  Vari,  10410 

Burckhantt,  3310,770 

Calculus,  938 

Capitalis  Justicarius,  5480 

Castelnau,  Pierre  de,  5130 

Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  3740 

Caldarium,  1950 

Capitoline  Hill,  2100 

Castillos,  32CO 

Burdigala,  160 

Calduraii.  3I2O 

Capitolinus,  37,  848 

Castle  of  the  Legion,  193 

Burglau,  I 

Calderani  8970 

Capo  d'Istriiis,  Count,  4590,  460 

Castra  Vetera,  1059 

Burgonet,  4810 

Calderon,  2700 

Caposecco,  1019 

Castri,  331 

Burgoyne,  Gen.,  133,  876,  9980 

Caldora  Jacopo,  66a 

Caprese,  211 

Castriot,  George,  31 

Burgundians,  740 

Cale,  7270 

Capsa,  3330 

Castrum  Novum,  7370 

Burhampore,  509 

Caledonia      (armour  -  plated 

Capsingmoon,  344 

Castrum  Solodurense,  916 

Buriates,  9033 

ship),  77 

Captain  General,  4340 

Casween,  319 

Burke,  Edmund,  374,  508 

Calem,  7370 

Captains  of  Liberty,  436 

Catalani,  Madame,  7260,  727 

Burke,  It.,  loia 

Cales,  848 

Capys,  31 

Catalans,  2270             v 

Burke,  William,  185* 

Caleti,  196 

Caracalla,  1360,  8490 

Catamarca,  720 

Burlington  House,  858,  1005 
Burnel  Acton,  15 

Caligula,  66,  ill 
Calippus  of  Cyzicus,  1960 

Caracciolo,  Prince,  685 
Caractacus,  173,  9060 

Catana,  222 
Catch  Club,  376 

Burnes,  Sir  A.,  33o 
Burnett,  Mr.,  i86a 

Calisthenes,  6150 
Calixtus,  G.,  197 

Caraffa,  John  Peter,  9660 
Caramandi,  Hamet,  9870 

Catelauni,  2300 
Catesby,  Robert,  4680 

Burney  MSS.,  177 

Callicrates,  7520 

Caramania,  7340 

Cathari,  32,  ino,  3330 

Buniey  Prize,  200 

Callicratidas,  730 

Caranus,  4580,  615 

Catherine  of  Arragon,  483 

Burns,  Koliert,  887 

Callinicus,  461 

Carapanatuba  River,  70 

Catherine  of  Bragunca,  3730 

Burra-Burra  Mines,  385,  9190 

Callipolis,  439,  638 

Carbonic  Acid,  6610 

Catherine-wheel,  333 

Burton,  Capt.  R.,  240 

Calliste,  968 

Carcaso,  313 

Cathern,  193 

Bury,  293 

Callistians,  755 

Cardaillac,  Chevalier,  81 

Cathorn,  193 

Busby,  Kichard,  Dr.,  1044 
Busento,  River,  393 

Callot,  Jaques,  314 
Calneh,  230 

Cardan,  370,  38,  317,  501 
Cardan's  Rule,  38 

Catilina,  223 
Catinat,  Marshal,  217 

Buskins,  9000 

Caloric,  4790 

Cardinal  Abbots,  4 

Cato  the  Censor,  8460 

Busra,  125 

Calotte,  1970 

Cardinal  College,  348 

Cat-o'-nine-tails,  405 

Buss,  or  Box,  l88a 

Calpetus,  31 

Carding  Machine,  1055 

Catropitffi,  360 

Butis,  76oa 

Calton  Hill,  3580 

Carduchi,  5560 

Cattarus,  333« 

Butis  (a  kind  of  shoe),  900*1 

Calvinists,  198 

Carea,  34101 

Cattegat,  9180 

Butler,  Samuel,  879 

Calvin,    John,    53,    198,   8050, 

Caredigion,  313 

Cattle  Market  (Islington),  3 

Butuntum,  1480 

831 

Caretta,  261 

Cattle-mills,  6600 

Buxa,  1430 

Calycadnus  River,  4400 

Carey,  Dr.  Henry,  688 

Cattle  Show  (Smithfield  Club), 

Bwutais,  9000 

Calypso,  The,  3970 

Cariay,  6760 

270 

Bycoket,  ia 

Camaldoli,  198 

Caribs,  2130 

Caucasus,  8620 

Bylot,  Capt.,  Tin 

Camaldolites,  198 

Carignan,  Prince,  686 

Caudium,  3340 

Byng,  Admiral,  374 

Camars,  2600 

Carliopolis,  3750 

Caulaincourt,  337,  3370 

Byrom,  John,  3790 

Camber  Castle,  10490 

Carloman,  40 

Caulonia,  5850,  621,  8670 

Byron,  Commodore,  353,  345) 

Camboricum,  199 

Carlstadt,  831,  866 

Cavaignac,  Gen.,  416,  4160,  417, 

Byron,  Lord,  343,  3740,  6640 

Camboritum,  199 
Cambridge,  Duchess  of,  377 

Carmath,  3150; 
Carmelitesses,  316 

6900 
Cavalieri,  6480 

Byrsa,  318 
Bytown,  7340 

Cambridge,  Duke  of,  377 
Cambridge,  Princess  Mary  of, 

Carmen,  3750 
Camifices,  1880 

Cavalli,  Major,  8ia,  168 
Cavendish,  94,  365 

Byzas,  1890 

377 

Caroburgum,  339 

Cavendish,  Capt.,  49 

Camden  Town,  London,  589 
Camden,  William,  3000 

Carolana,  3160 
Caroline  Islands,  "]ooa 

Cavendish,    Theological  •  Col- 
lege, 5060 

CABALLINUM,  3300 

Cam,  Diego,  330 

Caroline,  Queen,  320,  3200,  374, 

Cavilham,  90 

Cabbala,  1900 
Cabillonuin,  3300 

Camelon,  5540 
Camelopard,  4440 

3740,  438,  4380,  6040 
Caroline,  Steamer,  9990 

Cavour,  Count,  5240,535,  8510, 

877,  «77« 

Cabiri,  68  la 

Camerinum,  301 

Caroline,  The,  930 

Caxamalca,  767 

Cabot,  John,  TOO,  480,  2o3a  699 

Cameron,  Capt.,  9 

Carols,  3480 

Caxton,  William,  340,  4500,  808 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  48,  71,  4060, 

Cameron,  John,  201 

Carolus,  5260 

Cayos,  978 

497,  SSI",  783i  863a 

Cameron,  Richard,  301 

Caron,  Lt.-Col.,  133 

Cazal,  Gen.,  Sola 

Cabral,  1660,  800 

Camoens,  6ioa 

Carpenters,  375 

Cebenna,  3280 

Cabreus,  St.,  367 

Campbell,  34 

Carpocrates,  217 

Cecilian  Society,  276 

Ca  da  Mosto,  23a 

Campbell,  Capt  ,  447 

Carracks,  8990 

Cecrops,  910,  940,  426,  4580 

io8o 


THE   MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Celchyth,  5750 
Celestial  Empire,  3420 

Charta  Bombycina,  7470 
Charta  de  Foresta,  410 

Church  Discipline  Act,  2570 
Churchficld,  834 

Clodion,  50 
Clodoald,  St.,  3590 

Celle,  10650 

Charter  of  Arras,  3110 

Church  Keeves,  2500 

Clossynge,  259 

Cellier,  Mrs.,  643 

Charter,  People's,  236 

Church  Wakes,  3700 

Cloth  of  Gold,  400 

Celsius,  9680 

Charter  Kolls,  2350 

Chuttannuttee,  1380 

Cloth  Hall,  Leeds,  569 

Celsus,  53,  54,  946 
Cemetery  Hill,  443 

Charybdis,  888 
Chasquis,  2940 

Cialdini,  Gen.,  4270,  8510 
Cibber,  Colley,  1320,  7860 

Clotilde    of   Savoy,    Princess, 
417 

Cenchrea,  317,  8460 

Chassalu,  22o 

Cicero,    Marcus    Tullius,    179, 

Clouet,  Jeannet,  7410 

Censors,  2830 

Chatham,  Lord,  237,  374 

8460,  849 

Clovis  I.,  35,  66a,  413 

Centreville,  637 

Chut-huant,  2470 

Cid    Campeador,    1840,    2650, 

Clown,  533 

Centum  Cellse,  355 

Chatillon,  6130 

1009 

Cluain-fois,  989 

Centuriators,  630 

Chatti,  334 

Cigars,  9750 

Club-ball,  3990 

Centurione,  I2a 

Chaturanga,  340 

Cimabue,  Giovanni,  741 

CLUBS:— 

Cephallenia,  3370,  874 
Ophren,  8170 
(Vphrenes,  8170 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  786,  7860 
Chauliac,  Guy  de,  644 
Chazars,  252,  300 

Ciminus,  Lake,  351 
Cimmerian  Bosphorug,  106 
"  Cimmeriitn  Gloom,"  351 

Abbotsford,  40 
Albion,  320 
Alfred,  370 

Cerasus,  2390 

Ch.-dorlaomer,  2300,  4430 

Cincinnatus,  200,  410,  8470 

Alpine,  44 

Cerchi,  144 

Cheektowaga,  986 

Cincinnaluses,  251 

Ambassadors',  3960 

Cerdo,  228 

Cheke,  W.,  53 

Cintra,  Pedro  de,  230 

Architects',  700 

Cerdon,  338 

Chelc-hethe,  238 

Circassian  Dynasty,  160 

Army  and  Navy,  770 

Cereales,  iga 

Chekhev,  338 

Cireensian  (lames,  84"a 

Arthur's,  80 

Cerigo,  3100 

Chelcith,  338 

Circle  (S(|uaring  the),  8i8a 

Aruiidel,  83 

Cerinthus,  62,  328,  66  1 

Chemi,  361 

Circus  Flaminius,  3530 

Arundel  Yacht,  857 

Cervantes,  33,  553,  5730 

Chemical  Abacus,  i 

Circus  Maximus,  353 

Atheneeum,  910 

Cerynea,  I  la 

Chemists,  8530 

Circus  Theatre,  856 

Bannatyne,  1  1  7 

Cessart,  M.,  339 

Chemnitz,  653 

Circutores,  26a 

Beef-Steak,  1310 

Chablais,  9510 

Clienab  River,  3410,  8l6 

Cirrhasan  War,  4580,  866 

Blue  Stocking,  1530 

Chacabuco,  3410 

Chennapatauam,  6170 

Cirta,  381 

Boodles's,  1580 

Chadwick,  Mr.  Edwin,  874 

Chain  mail,  77 

Cheops,  361,  HI  -a 
Cherchfelle,  834 

Cissa,  6,  341 
City  of  David,  532 

Breton,  536 
Brilliants,  355 

Chairs,  890 

Cherdorlaomer,  3300,  4430 

City  of  Silver,  2490 

Brookes's,  178 

Chalcean  festival,  4580 

Chereburgum,  339 

City  of  the  Tribes,  430 

Brothers',  178 

Chalmers,  Dr.,  432 

Cherokees,  714 

City  of  Victory,  708 

Brunswick,  1790 

Chakmer,  Sir  T.,  45 
Chalus-Chabrol,  579 

Cherrits,  Dirk,  920 
Chersonesus,  City  of,  681 

Ciudad  de  los  Keyes,  578 
Ciudad  de  Victoria,  3470 

Burford,  184 
Calves'-Head,  198 

Chalybes,  9350 

Cheselden,  Dr.,  9460 

Civitas  Episcoporum,  738 

Carlton,  3150 

Chalybon,  3300 

Cheshunt  Independent  College, 

Civitas      Palas      Pracnestina, 

Cavendish,  235 

Chalybs,  9350 
Chambers,  Mr.,  114 
Chiimbers,  Sir  \V.,  71 

5°6« 
Chesney,  107 
Chester  Inn,  5130 

8040 
Civitas  Sedunorum,  908 
Claire,  St.,  Order  of,  256 

Chapter  Coffee  House,  10520 
Chess,  London,  3400 
City,  3540 

Chambord,  Count  de,  4160 

Chester  Mysteries,  338,  683 

Clameur  de  Hiiro,  497 

Civil,  2540 

Chambre  de  1'EdSt,  7510 
Chambre  des  F>nciuetes,  7510 
Chambre  des  Plaids,  7510 

Chest,  The,  2360 
Cheth,  4870 
Chetham  Library,  575,  6270 

Clapperton,    Capt.,    24,    7080, 
8650 
Clarendon,  Lord,  3730 

Civil  Service,  355 
Clergy,  2570 
Clifford-Street,  2580 

Chambre  des  Kequetes,  75  1  a 

Chevalier  de  St.'George,  807 

Clarichord,  2560 

Club  des  Feuillants,  3600 

Chambre  Koyale,  7510 
Champalain,  3030 

Chevrenil,  Mons.,  448 
Chevreuse,  799 

(  larimontium,  258 
Clarionet,  2560 

Club  of  Kings,  548 
Club,  The,  260 

Champerty,  2^la 

Chiapas,  915 

Clarisses,  Order  of,  256 

Cocoa-Tree,  264 

Champlitte,  W.,  120 

Chiavt'iina,  4640 

darken-Well,  2i8 

Coffee  Club,  854 

Champs  Elys^es,  7490 
Chancellor,  Richard,  690,  715, 

Chicbeley,     Archbishop,    400, 
1  1  80,  2080 

Clarkes-Well,  258 
Clarkson,  Thomas,  910 

Cogers',  265 
Conservative,  380 

8630 

Chichemecs,  6540 

Clarus,  Mons.,  258 

Cordeliers,  280 

Chandlers,  275,  956,  1039 
Chandos,  Sir  J.,  99 

Childersley,  490 
Child.  Mr.,  1160 

Claudia,  5520 
Claudius,  163 

Cord-wearers,  286 
Cosmopolitan,  293; 

Changarnier,  Gen.,  416 

Child  Pilgrimages,  777 

Claudius  Civilis,  125<t 

Coterie,  2920 

Chang-Kuh,  353 

Chilmad,  230 

Claudiopolis,  5530 

Cotton,  10330 

Chanker,  7080 
Chapineys,  90! 

Chilo,  8950 
Chiloe,  7670 

Clausentum,  919 
Claverhouse,     Lord     Dundee, 

Coventry,  2960 
Crockford's,  3000 

Chapoo,  244 

Chimpanzee,  4530 

7840 

Des  Feuillants,  3600 

Chapter-House,  Westminster, 
4960 

Chin-keang-foo,  344 
Chiozsa,  3450 

Clavius,  90 
Clay,  Mr.,  665 

Devonshire,  336 
East  Indian  United  Service, 

Charcoal-burners,  3130 
Charegites,  543 
Chares  de  Lindos,  370 

Chiropast,  586 
Chiusi  Labyrinth,  558 
Chladni,  13,385 

Claymore,  953 
Clayton  Tunnel,  3750 
Cleanthes,  938 

354« 
Eccentrics,  355 
Egerton,  361 

Charford,  338 

Chlum,  867 

Cleche,  113 

Erectheum,  381 

Charlecote,  8970 

Choliambus,  503 

Cleisthenes,  734 

Essex  Head  Club,  383 

Charlemagne,    39,    103,    4400, 

Cholin,  556 

Clemandot,  1040 

Feuillants,  2600 

5330,  8500 

Choo,  343 

Cleobulus,  8950 

Four-in-Hand,  4130 

Charlesburg,  3030 

Chopines,  901 

Cleombrotus,  155 

Garrick,  4310 

Charles  IV.,  Spain,  5,  680,  923 
Charles  V.  (Emperor),  40,  29, 
970,  104,  9310,  933,  1064 
Charles  X.  of  France,  5,  4150 

Choral  Fund,  376 
Chorus,  3370 
Chosroes  I.,  350 
Chosroes  II.,  54,  55,  363 

Cleomenes  III.,  12,  891,  937 

Cleopatra's  Needle,  7200 
Cleostratus,  309 

George's,  4370 
Glee,  376 
Goosetree's,  4510 
Grafton,  455 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  346, 

Chotyn,  347 

Clergy  Reserves,  303 

Grand  Orange,  179^ 

9490 

Chou,  chou,  2470 

Clerici,  3570 

Green  Ribbon,  551 

Charles  Albert,  5,  877 
Charles  the  Bald,  550,  570 

Chrestians,  2480 
Christian  Israelites,  10570 

Clerk-Ale,  340 
Clerk  of  the  Cheque,  339 

Gresham,  4630 
Grillion's,  464 

Charles  de  Blois,  99 

Christina,   Queen  of  Sweden, 

Clerke,  Capt.,  710 

Guards',  466 

Charles     et    Georges.    Slaver, 

4a 

Clerks  of  St.  Paul,  1300 

Hampden,  473 

8010,  9100 

Christodins,  248 

Clermont  (Count  of),  330 

Hell-Fire,  481 

Charles  Martel,  67,  413 
Charles,  Messrs.,  1130 

Chronicle  of  Alexandria,  830 
Chronographs,  349 

Clerus,  2570 
Cletus,  St.,  3010 

Ivy  Lane,  536 
Jacobin,  3600,  536 

Charlotte    Dundas,     Steamer, 

Chrysippus,  938 

Clevum,  4470 

Jockey,  536 

935 

Chrygostom,  St.,  60,  144.  =536 

Clifton  Hoc,  3590 

Johnson,  260 

Charlotte,  Princess,  3740 
Charlotte  Queen,  374,  374a,  438 

Chulkhurst,  E.  &  M.,  146' 
Chulm,  485 

Clipped  Coin,  366 
Clitus,  6150 

Junior  Athenaeum,  5390 
Junior  Carlton,  5390 

Charlynch,  35 

Chur,  4380 

Cliulius,  3: 

Junior  United  Service,  5390 

Charops,  93 

Church-Ale,  340 

Clive,  Lord,  68,  71,  1490,  195, 

Junior  University,  5390 

Charran,  475 

Church  Dance,  3130 

3450,  5070 

King,  548 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1081 


Cl>uii^  —  (continued). 

Cock-pit,  Drury  Lane,  5880 

Conciliation,  Courts  of,  680 

Corduba,  3860 

King  of  Clubs,  548 

Cocos  Islands,  5430 

Concilium,  294 

Cord-  Wearers,  386 

Kings,  548 

Code  Civil  des  Francais,  3640 

"  Concordantise  Morales,"  2760 

Cordyene,  5560 

King's  Head,  5500 

Code-Frederick,  813 

Concord  (Formula  of),  4100 

Corfinium,  7600 

Kit-Cat,  552 

Codex  Canonum,  3050 

Concord  of  Salamanca,  868 

Corinffius,  389,  391 

La  Court  de  bone  Compagnie, 
260 
Law  Society,  5660 

Cod  Fish  Party,  541 
Cod  and  Hook  Factions,  541 
Codicils,  10480 

Conde,  410,   1510,   1630,  3400, 
414,  530,  10330 
Condenser,  9340 

Corinium,  3530 
Corinthes,  307 
Corio,  434 

Liberty,  859 
Literary,  260 

Codrus,  71,  910 
Coeken,  3630 

Condivicnum,  684 
Condivincum,  684 

Coriolanus,  388,  8470 
Coriospiti,  8220 

London  Yacht,  857 

Coenobites,  198 

Conembrica,  3650 

Cornaro,  Lewis,  593            v 

Macaroni,  3400,  6140 
Maitland,  624 

Colbert,  414,  448 
Coldbath  Fields,  8090 

Confederation  of  La  Plata,  783 
Conferences,  Isle  of,  394 

Cornette,  3070 
Cornouailles,  135,  713 

Marlborough,  6330 
Marylebone  Cricket,  3990 

Cold-water  Cure,  501 
Colechurch,  Peter  of,  591 

Confession  of  the  Assembly  of 
Divines,  86,  3980 

Coruwallis,   Lord,    115,   1380, 
508,  8930 

Medincnham,  6440       ' 

Colenso,  Dr.,  267 

Confession  of  the  Four  Towns, 

Coro,  1015 

Melodists',  276 
Mermaid,  650 

Colepepper,  William,  5440 
Colerado,  370 

378 
Confessions,  2980 

Coroplastes,  3330 
Corporation  and  Test  Repeal 

Metropolitan,  654 
Montrouge,  673 
National,  689 

Coles,  Capt.,  9350 
Colet,  Dean,  756 
Colhuans,  1  06 

Confession  Tuesday,  903 
Confessor    to    the    Sovereign, 
258 

Act,  330 
Corps  Legislatif,  324 
Corpus  Christi,  Feast  of,  397 

Naval  and  Military,  691 

Coligny,    49,   133,   1660,   4390, 

Confluentes,  262 

Corpus  Juris  Cauonici,  3050 

Naval,  Military,  and  County 

677 

Confrarie  de  la  Passion,  338 

Corregio,  7410 

Service,  691 

Collectors  of  Canons,  3800 

Confucius,  243 

Corrientes,  730 

New  City,  6980 

College  of  Justice,  3930 

Congiaria,  6050 

Corse,  Gen.,  93 

New  Reform,  833 
October,  7310 
Orange,  The  Grand,  1790 
Oriental,  731 

Colleges  of  Piety,  7760 
College  of  St.  Bernard,  8300 
Collette,  Dean,  756 
Colline  Gate,  873 

Congreve,  Sir  W.,  168,  3780,  844 
Conimbrica,  2650 
Conlaeth,  St.,  5460 
Conolly,  Capt.,  156 

Cortereal,  49,  3030 
Cortes,    Fernando,    480,    Io6, 
6540,  655 
Corupedium,  3100 

Oxford     and     Cambridge, 

Collingwood,  Lord,  9810 

Conon,  92,  261 

Corybantes,  6810 

7380 

Collinson,  Capt.,  710,  430 

Couonites,  9870 

Corythus,  2910 

Parthenon,  7530 

Collop  Monday,  903 

Conrad  (barque),  30 

Cosin's  Hall  (Durham),  3480 

Phoenix,  774 

Collyrides,  368 

Conradin  of  Swabia,  4400 

Coslin,  556 

Prince  of  Wales  Yacht,  808 

Colman,  Mrs.,  15 

Conscience    (Keeper    of    the 

Cossium,  393 

Public  Schools,  8150 

Colman,  St.,  360 

King's),  596 

Coste,  Mons.,  740 

Quekett,  658 

Colm's  Inch,  St.,  5050 

Conscripti,  8910 

Coster,  Lawrence,  808 

Raleigh,  837 
Keform,  833 

Colonia  Agrippina,  368,  4400 
Colonia  del  Sacramento,  8670 

Conseils  de  Prud'hommes,  680 
Consentia,  292 

Cothen  (Anhalt),  57 
Cothurni,  9000 

Reunion,  3600 

Colonization  Society,  574 

Concilium  Ordinarium,  9330 

Cotrone,  303 

Rota,  854 
Round,   Catch,rand   Canon, 

Colonna,  Prospero,  1453 
Colon,  The,  816 

Constant-Warwick,  693,  900 
Constantine  I.  (the  Great),  150, 

Cotsvvold  Sheep,  898 
Cottei-eau,  Jean,  3470 

376 

Colosvar,  5520 

56,  190,  2000,  301,  557 

Cotton  Club,  10330 

Roxburghe,  8550 
Royal  Cork  Yacht,  1060 
Royal  London  Yacht,  857 

Colt,  Col.  Samuel,  838 
Columba,  St.,  30,   305,  5050, 

Constantine  of  Mananalis,  755 
Constantius,  890,  853 
Constitutional        Information 

Cotton,  Sir  R.  B.,  3930 
Cotton  Velvet,  1013 
Coulan,  8330 

Royal  Naval,  857 

Columbia  College,  706 

(Society  of),  2900 

Coulomb,  6310 

Roval  Society,  858 
Royal  Thames  Yacht,  1060 
Rump  Steak,  859 

Columbian  Archipelago,  10430 
Columbian  College,  1036 
Columbian  Press,  8080 

Constructive  treason,  940 
Consubstantiation,  8290 
Consular  Guard,  505 

Council  of  Education,  360 
Council  of  Forty,  1014 
Council  of  Ten,  1014 

Savoir  Vivre,  1580 

Columbine,  H.M.S.,  3440 

Consumption,  4950 

Council  of  Union,  909 

Scriblerus,  8870 

Columbite,  7600 

Contades,  140 

COUNCILS:— 

Smithfield,  9110 
Societe  d'Entresol,  3600 
The  Club,  260 

Columbus,  Christopher,  48,480, 
6oa,  313,  3270,  3040,  3150, 
334,    463,  493,    632,    6720, 

Conte  Crayons,  2970 
Continents,  3700 
Conti,  Prince,  350,  1630 

Aachen,  39 
Abingdon,  3590 
African,  240 

Travellers',  983 

6760,  745,  7980,  9460,  10090 

Contra-Remonstrants,  451 

Agda,  25 

Union,  9970 

Columna,  163 

Conventicle  Act,  383 

Agde,  25 

Union  Yacht,  9970 

Comani,  88 

Conventuals,  721 

Aix,  29 

United  Service,  998 
United  University,  1003 
Walton  and  Cotton,  10330 

Comayagua,  128,  493,  6760 
Combe,  George,  7740 
Combermere,  Lord,  1430 

Conversations,  4920 
Conversations-Lexicon,  371 
Converts  (House  of),  8450 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  29 
Albi,  33 
Albon,  317 

Wednesday,  10390 
Westbourne,  326 

Combing  Machine,  1055 
Comes,  294 

Conveyance,  5680 
Convocation  Book,  331 

Alexandria,  360 
Ancyra,  55 

Westminster,  10430 

Comet,  The,  935 

Convulsionaries,  2830 

Angers,  50 

Westminster  Chess,  10430 
Whig,  1045 

Comitia  Centuriata,  8470 
Cornitia  Tributa,  4110 

Conwy,  2830 
Cooch  Behar,  143 

Angouleme,  57 
Antioch,  61 

White  Conduit  Cricket,  3990 
Whitehall,  1046 

Commercial  Docks,  332,  854 
Commissioners  of  Woods  and 

Cook,  Capt.,  19,  350,  52,  990, 
100,   1620,  3480,  371,   478, 

Aquileia,  660 
Arabia,  070 

White's,  1046 

Forests,  4090 

7010,  8300 

Aries,  74 

Whittington,  10460 

Committee  of  Council  on  Edu- 

Coomassie, 34 

Astorga,  89 

Witenagemot,  10530 

cation,  360 

Co-operator,  The,  2840 

Autun,  104 

Wyndham  Club,  1059 

Common  Lodging-IIouses  Act, 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  looo 

Avignon,  105 

Cluniacensians,  2600 

874 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley,  9460 

Baccancelde,  1300 

Clusium  Labyrinth,  558 

Communal  Militia,  511 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  71,  2450,  618, 

Bamberg,  1140 

Coal  Tar,  957 

Commune  Parlour,  9270 

7890 

Barcelona,  IiQ 

Coat,  491 

Comogra,  767 

Copais  Lake,  9900 

Ban,  130 

Cobbett,  William,  396 

Comonfort,  Gen.,  656 

Copenhagen  Fields,  654,  981 

Basel,  1330 

Cobblers,  2860 

Comoro,  6410 

Copenhagen  House,  2900 

Basle,  1330 

Cobblers'  Wax,  9000 

Company  of  a  Hundred  Asso- 

Copernicus, Nicholas,  90,  285, 

Becancelde,  1300 

Cobden,  Mr.,  376 

ciates,  2020 

9700 

Benevento,  138 

Cobham,  Lord,  3720,  5860,  634 
Coburg  Theatre,  1031 

Company  of  the  Indies,  567 
Composite,  8450 

dope,  Sir  John,  807 
Coptic  Church,  90 

Bergamo,  140 
Berkhampstead,  1400 

Cocceius,  2620 

Compter,  804 

Coram,  Capt.,  413 

Blood,  1530 

Coche,  8900 

Comptroller  of  the  Navy,  693 

Corbeuil,  10230 

Bologna,  157 

Cochrane,  Lord,  1340 

Compurgators,  540 

Dorbinian,  St.,  4230 

Bordeaux,  1  60 

Cockburn  Island,  427 

Comum  Novum,  375 

3orcyra  Nigra,  3070 

Bourges,  1630 

Cockburn,  Sir  G.,  170 

Comyn,  Sir  John,  8850 

Corday,  Charlotte,  415 

Braga,  1650 

Cocking,  Mr.,  748 

Conception,  505 

Cordoba,  3860 

Breslau,  169 

Cockney  School,  364 

Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  376 

Cordova,  Hernandez,  480,  302, 

Brixen,  2070 

Cock-pit,  363 

Concerts  Spirituels,  376 

10630 

Buda,  1810 

4  A 


1082 


THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


COUNCILS—  (continued). 

CO  UNCl  LS—  ;  continued). 

Countof  the  Saxon  Shore,  8810 

Cumherland,    Duke   of,   3070, 

Burgos.  1840 

Padua,  74  <i 

County    Representation,    373, 

4080,  7280 

>,  1920 

Palencia,  7420 

75° 

Cuneo,  279 

Cairo,  194 

Palermo,  743 

Courcy,  De,  John,  3170,  350 

Cunio,  The  Two,  378 

Calcuith,  338 

Pampeltiiiii,  7450 

Court  of  Augmentation  of  the 

Cunningham,  1000 

Cambrai,  1980 
Cambray,  ig*a 

Pamplona,  74^0 
Paris,  749 

King's  Revenues,  97 
Court  de  Bone  Compagnie,  36o 

Cunt  Dynasty,  1061 
Cure  of  Souls,  137,  785 

Carthage,  3180 
Chalcedon,  330 

Pavia,  7560 
Pergamus,  294,  763 

Court  of  Chivalry,  3460,  350 
Courteen,  Sir  W.,  118 

Curetes,  31 
Curia    Regis  ad   Scaccarium, 

Chalous-sur-Saone,  2300 
Chelsea,  580,  238 

Perpignan,  7640 
Pisa,  7780 

Courtenay,  Sir  William,  970 
Court  of  the  German  Empire, 

3860 
Curia  Militam,  600 

Cirencester,  2530 

Poissy,  787 

5°5 

Curling,  471 

Clarendon,  2560 

Poitiers,  787 

Coutts,  Miss  Burdett,  215 

Currie,  Capt.,  looa 

Clermont,  358 

Prague,  8050 

Coutumier  de  Xormaudie,  3990 

Curtius,  M.,  848 

Cliff,  3590 

(,>uicrey-sur-Oise,  185,  833 

Couvre-feu,  307 

Curules,  190 

Clifton  Hoo,  3590,  360 

Quinisextum,  8320 

Couza,  Prince,  855 

Curzolari,  5730 

Cloveshoo,  2590 

Ratisbon,  828 

Cove  of  Cork,  821 

Cuscatlan,  8700 

Coblentz,  363 

Ravenna,  839 

Coventry,  Sir  J.,  2960 

Cush,  80 

Cologne,  3680 

Reai  ling,  839 

Coverdale,  Miles,  145 

Custodes  Regni,  8320 

Compiegne,  3750 

Uegensburg,  828 

Covilham,  230 

Customs  Union,  1066 

Constance,  281 

Reims,  838,  83*0 

Cowel,  no 

Cutha,  4330 

Constantinople,38io,282,383o 

Itennes,  835 

Cowley,  Lord,  1030 

Cuthulf,  1050 

Cracow,  2960 

Rhcims,  838,  8380 

Cowpens  (battle),  9980 

C'nton  Moor,  8850,  933 

Cyprus,  310 

Ki-a,  8400 

Cowper,  8080 

Cwen,  830 

Diamper,  327 

Rimini,  8400 

Cox,  Fort,  193 

Cyaxures,  880,  6430 

Dijon,  328 
KM,  379 

Rimnik,  8400 

47,  *47a 

Coxwell,  94,  1  14 
Commel  Cross,  650 

Cycle  of  the  Moon,  4500 
Cy.  Inns,  363 

Etampes,  383 

Rouen,  8540 

Crabtree,  900 

Cylinder,  9340 

Ferrara,  399 

Salamim 

Crakeys  of  War,  800 

Cvllene,  817 

Florence,  4050 

Salisbiu 

Cranach,  Lucas,  8080 

Cylon,  93 

Forcheim,  409 

Salon;'. 

Craney  Island,  999 

Cymbri,  351 

Frankfort  -  on  -  the  -  Maine. 

Salzburg,  fcTi 

Cranfield,  Thomas,  -^4 

Cymon,  93 

Sardica,  876 
Sinimnr,  8790 

Crank  Motion,  9340 
Cranmcr.      Archbishop,     3O5«, 

Cynegik  King,  129,,,  174 
Cynewiilph,  139,  174 

Gangr-i,  226,  431 

Selencia,  to,  8900 

3080,  373,  633 

Cynosarges,  3090 

Gaza,  434 
General  Councils,  4340 

Selencia  Tracheotis,  8900 

Selllis,  893 

•  larcus,  125,  129 
Craven  Stakes,  7000 

Cynthus,  3200 
Cyparissia,  8730 

Gerona,  443 

Sens,  8920 

Crawley,  Lt.-Col.,  2970 

Cyperus  I'apyrus,  747 

GironiK 

Siena,  905 

Creccanford,  2970 

Cyprus,  King  of,   8oa 

Grado,  455 
Hatfield,  4770 
Hertford,  4840 

Sienna,  905 
Sirmich,  590 
Sirmium,  908 

Cremlialum,  5350 
Crenid«s,  772 
Creole,  brig,  9990 

Cypselian  Dxnasi 
Cyreian  Greeks,  Return  of  the, 
836 

Hippo  Regius,  487 
Iconium,  5020 

Sleswig,  gioa 
Soissons,  916 

Creon,  93 
Crescent    Water,    Harrogate, 

Cvriacus,  70 
Cyrillus  Lucaris,  360 

Jerusalem,  =533 

Spalatro.  9.-;,, 

476 

Cymos,  391 

Kiersy,  i 
Laon,  5630 

St.  GIN  - 
Sutri,  947« 

11,4560 
Crete,  Labyrinth  of.  558 

Cyrus  the  Elder,  530,  107,  108, 
534,  6380 

Lateran,  5640 

Tarragon 

Criehtr  James,  5630 

Cyrus,  the  Younger,  38 

Lausanne,  5650 

Tar.sn-. 

CriniTartary. 

Czarina,  3100 

Lavaur,  566 

•>',  76 

cristofori,  Hartolommeo,  7750 

Czaroxvitz,  3100 

Leon,  572 

Toledo,  9760 

Croch,  517 

Czartoryski,  Prince  Adam,  788 

Limoges,  5780 

Toulon- 

Crocus,  867 

Czernigof,  9600 

Linda,  19 

Trent. 

Croesus,  530,  613 

Linlithgow,  580 

Treves,  9840 

Croinc'done,  3030 

DACICUS,  3110 

Lisienx,  v'-i" 
London,  588,  5880 

Trier,  984 
Troyes,  9880 

Croixdc  Vic,  5660 
Croker,  J.  W.,  1350,  380 

Dactvli,  530 
Da'dalus,  881 

Lyons,  613 

Trullai,. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  2930 

Damionologie,  10530 

Macon,  19,  6160 

Trnllo,  In,  8221 

Cromwell,  124,  i4i«,  342,  373«, 

Dagcnham  Reach,  10450 

Madrid,  6180 
Mainz,  641 

Tuluje,  980 
Tnsey,  9780 

4370,  5150,517.," 
Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex,  339, 

Dagobas,  2280 
Dagobert,  3310,  413,  418 

Mantaille.  t'j^ja 
Mantua,  6300 

Udvarde,  996 

Cromwell's  Bible,  145,  8080 

Daguerre,  Mons.,  31  1^,339,  774 
D'Alt-Gaoua,  10600 

Mayence,  641 
Meanx,  642,, 
Meliteiia,  6460 

Udward,  996 
Urgel,  10050 
Vaison,  1008 

Cronenberg  Castle,  368 
Crosford  (battle),  1030 
Crosiers,  3010 

Dale.  David,  700 
D'Alembert.  371,  6420 
Dalgarno, 

Melitene,  6430 

Valence,  1009 

Cross  Matching,  10540 

Dalhousie,  Lord,  5090 

Mel  mi,  6470 

Valencia,  1009 

Cross.  St.,  Hospital,  1050 

Dalkey,  551 

Mentz,  641 

Valladolid,  10090 

Cross  Tarric,  497 

Dalmaticus,  313 

Merton,  6500 

Vannes,  Ho,  Ion 

Croton  Aqueduct,  660,  706 

Dalminium,  313 

Mi-tz,  6540 
Milan,  659 

Venice,  10150 
Verbena,  10160 

Croune,  56 
Crowland,  3030 

Dalston,  3190 
Dalton,  Dr.,  94 

Milevis,  640,  660 

Verceil,  10160 

Crown  of  St.  Mary,  633 

Dambrod,  Game  of,  339 

Montpellier.  trj 

Vercelli,  10160 

Crozier,  Capt.,  431 

Dame,  559 

Mopseustia.  6730 
Nantes,  684 

Vczclay,  10190 
Vienna,  lojto 

Crumn,  King,  1410 
Crustumium,  303 

Damianus,  313 

Damocrates,  665 

Naples,  6860 
Narbonne,  687 

Vienne,  435,  1023 
Waterford,  1037 

Cryptse,  22  10 
Crypto  -  Calvinistio      Contro- 

Damoko, 7360 
Dampier,  Capt.,  990,  loo,  134^, 

Neo-Cresarea,  695 

Westminster,  10430 

versy,  9770 

313 

Nicea,  7060 

Wexford,  1044 

Ctesias,  870 

Pan,  3210 

Nimcs,  7100 

Whitby,  1045 

Ctesibicaj  inachi 

Panaus,  73 

Nismeg,  7100 

Winchester,  10490,  1050 

Ctesibius,  2570,  501,  7300 

Dance  Macabre,  3130 

Noyon,  7180 

Windsor,  10500 

Ciiaspud,  6990 

Dando,  2780 

Orange,  317,  7380,8050 

Worcester,  10550 

Cuddapa,  618 

Dandolo.  Doge,  1014 

Orebro,  7300 

Worms,  10560 

Cuenca,  6670 

Dandy  Fever,  3210 

Orleans,  317 
Osnabriick,  7330 
Osnaburg,  7330 
Oxford,  738 
Paderborn,  740 

Wnrxburg,  1058 
York,  1063 
Counterblast  to  Tobacco,  9750 
Counters,  150 
Countess,  350 

Cugnot,  Theophilus,  934 
Cuir  bonilli,  4810 
Cularo,  463 
Culpepper  Court  House,  1001-; 
Cumans,  The,  543,'667 

Dane  Money,  3130 

Danirerfield,  (142 
D.Uliel. 

Daniel,  Samuel. 

Dannevirke,  3140 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1083 


Dante  Aligheri,  41,   144,  406, 

Demotic  Hieroglyphics,  486 

Disraeli,  The  Right  Hon.  B., 

Ducatoon,  343 

524 

Denbigh,  1031 

3240,  832,  969 

Du  Chaillu,  34,  4530 

Danton,  386,  415,  834 

Denham,  24 

Distaff's,  St.,  Day,  3300 

Duchy  of  the  -<Egean  868,6930 

Danubius  Kiver,  3140 

Denmark  House,  London,  917 

Distillers,  2750 

Duckworth,  Sir  T.,  315 

Danum,  3340 
Danvers,  757 

Dennie,  Brigadier,  1140 
Denys  le  Petit,  580 

Ditchliug  Common,  429(1 
Dithyrambic  metre,  1018 

Dudley,  Lord,  373 
Dudley,  Sir  II.,  3430 

Danvers,  Col.,  7840 

Deoghir,  3360 

Divico,  4810 

Duke  of    Exeter's    Daughter, 

Danville,  3770 

Dephlogisticated  Air,  7390 

Divitiacus,  173,  9420 

8230 

Darazi,  3410 
Dar-Fur,  556 
Dargan,  W.,  343,  Sl8a 
Darics,  449 

Depth  of  the  sea,  919 
Deraveh,  10280 
Derby,  Lord,  293,  2930,  324,  5°4, 
969 

Divodurum,  6540 
Divaleh,  1070 
Djeab  Ibn-Dirhem,  556 
Djebileh,  590 

Duke's  Theatre,  5790,  10450 
Dulcinus,  64 
Dulot,  164 
Du  Moulin,  104 

Dariorigum,  I  oil 

Dertona,  978 

D'joun,  905 

Dumouriez,  180 

Darius  I.,  459,  615,  7660 

Dertosa,  978 

Dneiper,  722 

Dunblane,  3450 

Dark  Ages,  565,  5680 
D'Arlandes,  Marquis,  1130 

De  Ruyter,  2090,  337,  489 
Derwentwater,  Earl  of,  3730 

Dniester,  4990 
Doab,  508 

Duncan,  24 
Duncan,  Admiral,  303 

Darling,  Grace,  410 

Desaguliers,  Dr.,  1016 

Dobrizhoffer,  60 

Dunces,  Parliament  of,  2960 

Darnley,  Lord,  358,  886 

Desborough,  242 

Dobrudscha,  8630 

Dumlas,  Admiral,  114,  864 

D'Aubrai,  Margaret,  787 
Daunians,  650 
Da-Uria.  9030 

Descartes,  38,  94,  437 
Desi.leri,  84 
»Des  Marteaux,  G.,  3770 

Docetes,  333 
Dockwra,  William,  803 
Dodd,  Mr.  H.,  3380 

Dundonald,  Earl,  1240 
Dunfermline,  3450 
Dungansby  Head,  5360 

Davenant,  Sir  W.,  3380,  7860 
David,  5!,  91,  3120,  444,  534 
David  of  Dinant,  46 

Desmoulins,  286 
De  Solis,  7830 
De  Sousa,  Martin  Alphonso,  841 

Dogana,  10150 
Dogget,  T.,  333 
Dogmatic  School,  644 

Dunleary,  551 
Dunsginne,  5810 
Duns  Scotus,  885 

David-Gregorians,  3160 
Davidis,  Bishop,  9970 

Despensers,  310 
Dessalines,  479 

Dohelnitz,  867 
Doitkin,  333 

Dunstan,  St.,  53,  136 
Dupuis,  34 

David,  St.,  3160,  1030 
Davies,  Sir  John,  130 

Destiny  (Stone  of),  290 
Detroit,  Fort,  4100 

Dola  Sequanorum,  333 
Dolcino,  333 

Duraba,  330 
Durer,  Albert,  3770,  3830 

Davis,  Capt,  John,  49,  71,8180 

Deucalion's  Deluge,  321 

Doles,  640 

Durinum,  335 

Davis,   Jefferson,  2770,  loooo, 
1003 

Deus  ex  Machina,  9810 
Deutsehbrod,  500,  955 

Dollond,  J.,  13 
Dolly's  Brae,  843 

Durnovaria,  335 
Durocortorum,  838 

Davis,  Sir  J.  F.,  2430 

De  Verde  Islands,  210 

Dolon,  3700,  3370 

Durostole,  8600 

Davis's  Land,  353 

Devereux,  R.,  Earl  of  Essex, 

Dolours,  Seven,  895 

Durovernum,  308 

Davis's  Quadrant,  109 

3820 

Domino;,  559 

Dust,  Gold,  4490 

Davoust,  Marshal,  97 

Devi  lie,  450 

Dominica    in    Albis    Sunday, 

Dusty-Foot  Courts,  394,"  7760 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  330,  40, 

De  Witt,  John,  loo 

6070 

Duyphen,  Yacht,  990 

160,  1600,  365,  4290,  63Ia, 

Dey,  39 

Dominick,  St.,  1330,  334 

Dwarf,  The,  693 

763,  8030,  867 

Dhatu  Sena,  229 

Domitilla,  7640 

Dwina,  346 

Dawson,  Jemmv,  544 
Day,  Mr.,  of  Wapping,  304 

Dholpore,  449 
Diabolicum       Parliamentum, 

Domnoc,  347 
Don,  8600 

Dyaks,  876 
Dyaz,  Fernandez,  230 

Deacon,  Dr.,  8650 

2960 

Donatello,  888 

Dyers'  Company,  3490 

Dead  Sea,  458,  9040 
Dead  Weight  Annuity,  436 

Dialytic  Telescope,  962 
Diamond  Microscope,  6570 

Donati,  The,  144 
Donatus,  3340 

Dyke,  1  190 

Dykryng,  79 

Dearborn,  Fort,  3400 
De  Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez,  480 

Diamonds,  Nine  of,  3070 
Diaper,  10630 

Don  Carlos,  685,  9330 
Don  Cossacks,  293 

Dyme,  no 
Dymoke,  Family  of,  233 

Debir,  143 

Diaz,  Bishop,  263 

Donizetti,  737 

Dymphna,  434 

De  Coucy,  79 
Decapitation,  210 
Decebalus,  311,  3110 
Deceleian  War,  459 
Decennaries,  42t 

Diaz,  330,  2090,  233,  10630 
Dibio,  328 
Di  Borgo,  L.  P.,  370 
Dibutades,  666 
Dicasarchia,  817 

Don  John,  of  Austria,  923 
Donne,  Dr.,  3790 
Do-Nothing  Kings,  3930 
Don  Pedro,  1330,  1650,  167 
Don  Quixote,  553 

Dynevor,  1030 
D'Yperen,  10630 
Dyrrachium,  3470 

EALDORMAN,  34 

Decian  Persecution,  30,  7640 
Decima,  530 
Declaration  of  Independence, 

Dicaopolis,  890 
Dictionnaire    de    la    Conver- 
sation, 371 

Dooars,  143 
Dordrecht,  3350 
Doringi,  The,  9710 

Earlswood,  5°3a 
Eastern  Mark,  103 
East  France,  1010 

9980 
Decree  of  Fontainebleau,  283, 
408 

Diderot,  371 
Dido,  Queen,  318 
Diebitsch,  Gen.,  788 

Dorystolon,  8600 
Dost  Mohammed,  320,  1140 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles,  856 
Eastre,  353 

Decumanorum  Colon  ia,  687 
De  Falsa  Moneta  Statute,  266, 

Diego  Cam,  230,  560 
Dies  Dominica,  9440 

Double  ryals,  4490 
Double   Stanners   Lighthouse, 

Ebbsdorf,  7150 
Eblana,  343 

6680 
Deerhound,  The,  30 
Defence,  77 
Defoe,  Daniel,  5370,  8790 
De  Foix,  Princess,  1520 
Defterdars,  3300 

Dies  Jovis,  973 
Dies  Martis,  9890 
Dies  Panis,  9440 
Dies  Solis,  9440 
Differential  Calculus,  4070 
Dillwyn,  William,  910 

614 

Doublet,  49 
Doughtie,  T.,  3370 
Douglas,  Stephen,  loooa 
Dounganes,  The,  245 
D.owgate,  5900 

Ebora  Talabriga,  956 
Ebredunum,  1064 
Ebudse,  The,  480,  9150 
Eburodunum,  1064 
Eburones,  The,  578 

De  Gonneville,  Capt.,  990 
De  Haven,  710 
Dei  Gratia,  4540 
Delamotte,  530 

Dimity,  2930,  313 
Dinevawr,  1031 
Dinis,  Fernandez,  210 
Diocles,  644 

Dowlah,  1490 
Draco,  92,  4580 
Di-acones,  337 
Dragon,  9320 

Ebu  Sina,  644 
Ecclesia,  250 
Eckenforde,  323 
Ecole  Royale  de  Chant,  3800 

De  la  Rue,  Mr.  Warren,  673 
Delhi,  King  of,  320,  509 
Deligny,  Gen.,  380 
Delia  Marmora,  Gen.,  141,  877 

Diocletian,  Aa,  23,  1260,  850 
Diodora,  1065 
Diodorus  Siculus,  309 
Diogenes,  3090 

Dragut,  9870 
Drake,  Sir  F.,  49,  1750 
Drayton,  Michael,  37,  9960 
Dreyse,  N.,  694 

Ecuyer,  382 
Edan,  St.,  3980 
Eden,  Mr.,  143 
EDICTS  :— 

Dell  'Olmo  (battle),  6170 

Diogenes  Laertius,  lo 

Dripping,  1670 

Amboise,  47 

Delmenhorst,  322,  7230 
De  Luci,  850 

Diomedes,  7430 

Droitwich,  870 
Dromones,  4280 

Arabian,  670 
Edict  of  Union,  483" 

De  Luzarches,  50 

Dionysius  Exiguus,  580 

Drummond,     Capt.     Thomas, 

Henoticon,     or     Edict     of 

Demass,  9660 
Demeter,  3660 

Dionysius    of    Syracuse,    322, 
953 

578 
Drummond  Light,  578 

Union,  483 
Nantes,  3570 

Demetrias,  9040 

Diophantus,  370 

Drummossie  Moor,  305 

Nemours,  695 

Demetrius,  920,  861 
Demiurge,  727 
Democritus,  6600 

Dioptrics,  738 
Dioscorides,  53,  162,  6900 
Dioscoridis  lusula,  9150 

Drusus,  1460 
Dryden,  John,  1580,  7260,  7860 
Dry  Tortugas,  978 

Orleans,  733 
Perpetual,  3570,  764 
Restitution,  8350 

De  Molav,  Jacques,  9620,  963 

Dioscuri,  560 

Dryusa,  8730 

Romorantin,  853 

De  Montfort,  Jane,  483 

Diphthe>ite,  32Qa 

Duacum,  3350 

Sirniium,  908 

De  Montfort,  32,  1310,  386,482, 

Diruvianus,  4460 

Duarchy,  483 

Theodoric,  3570 

544 

Discus,  823 

Du  Barry,  Madame,  337 

Union,  Edict  of,  483 

Demosthenes,  92,  920,  6150,  772, 

Diseases  Prevention  Act,  874 

Dubris,  336 

Edington,  3830 

817 

Ducale,  6380 

Edmurd,  St.,  1870 

1084 


THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Edonians,  The,  510 

Edreiieh,  470 

Epicurus,  9  1,  3790 
Kpigoni,  (War  of)  895 

F.\  filing  Song,  10180 
"  Ever  Joyce,"  5170 

Fastens,  903 
Fastingtide,  903 

Edris,  3590 
Edwin  a  burgh,  3570 
Egede,  Hans,  4610 

Kpiphanius,  53 
Epipolaj,  8190 
Episkope,  451 

Evian.  4350 
Evil-Merodach,  108,  534 
Ewel-cum-Cnddington,  7110 

Fasti  I'ni'iiestini,  8040 
Father  of  Equity,  3800 

Egesta,  890 

Epiton,  137 

Exceptores.  -17 

Father  of  History,  487 

Egg  Plant,  435 

Eporedia,  8680 

Exiguus,  Diouysius,  580 

Father  of  his  People,  784 

Egipeios,  670 
Eglinton,  Earl  of,  168 

Equality,  5360 
Equestrian  Art,  494 

Exilles,  5300 
Exmouth,  Lord,  39 

Fatima,  370 
Faukeslmll,  1013 

Egmont,  Count,  180 

Erasistratus,  54,  644,  946 

Exiling,  700 

Faustianum,  3940 

Egmont  Island,  8300 

Erasmus,  63 

Exosmose,  3710 

Faust,  John,  8080 

Eu-vptian  Hall,  London,  589 
Egyptians,  469,  10070 
Egyptns,  3610 

Erastus,  3800 
Eratosthenes,  3190 
Erebus,  Floating  Battery,  405 

Exposition,  393 
Extraordinary  Tribunal,  8370 
Extempore  Versifiers,  5050 

Faventia,  3930 
Fawkcs,  Guv,  4680 
Fe.  Santa.  874*1 

Eichhorn,  838 

Erebus  and  Terror,  4190,  430, 

Eyder,  River,  363 

Feast  of  Asses,  338,  409 

Einbech,  413 

4300 

Evoobite  Dynasty,  954 

Feast  of  Fools,  4 

Eird  Houses,  776 

Erech,  3-50 

Eyre,  101 

Feast  of  the  Invention  of  the 

Eisenberg,  88  1 

Eiscnburg,  lolla 

Eretria,  3840 

s,  170 

Eyre,  Governor,  5370,  538 
Ezion-geber,  3590 

Cross,  301 
Feast  of    Unleavened    Bread, 

Ejmiadzin,  3810 

Erichthonius,  910,  4750 

753 

Elagabalus,  369 
Elatea,  6150 

Eric  Upsi,  48 
Erigena,    John    Scotus,   7460, 

FABER,  104 

Fabiola,  St.,  4950,  5110 

Feast  of  Weeks,  763 
Bark,  768 

Elbe,  The,  473 
Flborou-  School,  8580 
FJccsaites,  364 

9830 
Eii,  517 
Erie,  Fort,  4100 

Fa  bins.  Maximus,  741 
Fabliaux,  9880 

Faganus.  St.,  7550 

Februa,  397^ 
Fehmic  Courts,  10130 

Feliba,  772 

Elea,  364 

Erin,  517 

Faire  liipaille,  ^43 

Felicitas  Julia,  581 

Eleanor,  Queen,  2330 
Elect,  3480 
Elcmcns  d'Artillerie,  380 

Erixias,  93 
Ermine,  5530 
Erotic  Poetry,  4330 

Fairfax,  .Sir  Thomas,  316 
Fair  Rosamond,  8530 
Faithly,  421 

Felton,  John 

Female  Sheriff,  899 
IVnelon,  1930,1980 

Elena,  ia8 

Erouad,  3810 

Falkland,  Lord,  699 

Fenii,  398 

Eleusis,  3660 

Erpes,  381 

Falmouth  (U.S.),  798 

Fenton,  Miss,  15,  1330 

Elfsburg,  9360 

Krpesford,  381 

Fcnwick,  49 

Elgin,  Lord,  2440,  376,  $09,  5090 

Erpingham,  595 

Family  of   Love,  35 

Ferdinand    I.    of    Austria,   5, 

El  Iladir,  940 

F.rvsipelas,  7800 

FA.M  i  NKS  :  — 

1030,  1030 

Elijah,  523 
Eliocroca,  595 

Esarhaddou,  1070,  Io8 
Esau,  534 

B.-lgium,  134 
1  1<  ir-'ai,  50*0 

Ferdinandea,  10250 
Ferdinand  V.  and   Isabella  I. 

Elisha,  523 
Elissa,  Queen,  218 
Elizabeth,  Madame,  415 

Escobar,  330 
.  888 
Esiiidiau,  9000 

Bohemia,  1550 
Cappado 

China,  7800 

I29,  93  1  a,  935 

Ferdusi,  7650                 , 
Ferentiuo,  3980 

Kli/.abcth  Castle  (-Jersey),  481 

Esk,  539 

Ferentum,  4090 

Elkington,  Messrs.,  366 
Ella,  169^7,  1730,  174 
Elliott,  Capt.,  3430 
Ellipse,  279 
El  Mehedi,  43 
Elmham,  Bishopric,  3520 

Eskdale,  4560 
Esopas,  551 
Espartcro,  Gen.,  146,  9230,  934, 

9340 
Espierres,  791 
Espringals,  81 

Dresden,  3390 

ii  Empire,  3530 
Egypt,  3610 
1111,314 
Europe,  7800 
France,  414,  4140 

Fergus,  King,  290,  887 
Fcrmicr-  ' 
Fernandez,  Dinis,  330 
Fernandez,  Juan,  5370 
Feroe  Islam 
Ferrari,  Ludovieo,  38 

Elmo.  St..  Castle,  636a 
Elpliege,  St.,  308 
Elpliinstone  College,  1570 

Esprit,  Saint,  491 
Fsquiros,  693 
EsM-nians,  3830 

Goojerat,  4510 

India,  509 
Ireland    518 

Ferrarius,  1040,  130 
Ferrars,  George,  399 
Fcrrerius,  1040 

Else,  Bee  of,  4860 

i  •'!•!  of,  93,  106,  373 

J  ud;va,  SSS 

Ferrers,  William  de  (Earl  of 

Klson's  Spital,  908 

Esterha/.v,  Count,  417 

Kh.tndesii,  5450 

Derby),  157 

F.ltham,  5540 

Estland,  3*3 

I^evden  5730 

Ferreti,  Cardinal  (Pius   IX.), 

El-Uksur,  61  10 

Eszek,  3830 

London.  7800  "781 

8500 

Elxai,  364 
F.matliia,  8690 
Embroiderers'  Company,  369 
Emden,  3680 
Emerita  Augusta,  650 
Emigres,  369 

I'taples,  383 
Ktlielbald,  13,  174 
Ethelfrith,  115(1,  '74« 
F.thehviilpli,   1.1,  174 
Etna,  Floating  Battery,  405 
Euclid,  379,  6480 

-.6540 
Midnap..re,  6580 
Orissa,  7310 

Persia,  766 

Poland,  781,  788 

Ferrnm  Indicuin,  9350 
1  .•-.eenniiie  Metres,  8460,  1018 
Fessel,  469 
Fete  de  la  Federation,  3310 
Fete  de  Rois.  004^ 
Fetede  Sans  Culottes,  9940 

Eniims,  6650 
Emissa,  369 

Eucratides,  109 
Euctemon,  90 

Rome,  8470,  848 

Kollell.  ^^fl 

Fibonacci,  L.,  370,  670 
Fie  lite,  7460 

Emma,  Queen,  4780 
Emmett,  Robert,  3430,  3890 
Empedocles,  364 

F.udamidas,  7350 
Eude  Island,  4060 
Eudoxiopolis,  891                       « 

Russia,  781 
Sardinia,  8760 
Scotland,  8850 

Fidei  Defensor,  319 
Field  Abbots,  4 
Field  of  the  Angles,  377 

Empson,  373 
Empyreal  Air,  7390 

lai-aneaii-,  The,  IOI3 
Eugene,  Prince,  350,  1420,1510, 

Venice,  10130 
Fanagoria,  864 

Field.  Cyrus,  93 
Fielding,  Henry,  581,  718,  789 

Encoberto,  889 
Enghien,  Duke  of,  3710,  10230 
"  Englishe  Mercurie,"  702 
Engli>h  Linen  Company,  580 

1770,  317,  3160,  770 
Fil-eiiie,  Empress,  4100,  4170 
Kugubiue  Tables,  385 
Eulalia,  St.,  650 

Fan  Crests,  4810 
Fancy  Gun,  4010 
Fantees,  58 
Fantoccini,  8160 

Field  of  May,  400 
Field  of  Mourning,  4133 
Fiery  Cross,  497 
Fieschi,  400,  416 

English  Ordinal,  3740 
Engrossers,  4640 

Euler,  13,  6420 
Eumolpias,  7720 

Fanum  Fortunie,  3950 
Fanupi  Jovis,  3950 

Figurini,  The,  9500 
Filarmonici,  376 

Engrossing,  4090 
Enlightened  Men,  504 

Eumolpus,  4580  - 
Eunan,  St.,  838 

Fanum  Voltuiniiffi,  IO35 
Fan  Ventilator,  1016 

*'ili.  775 
Filioque,  130,491 

Enniskillen  Dragoons,  378 
Ennius,  338,  8460,  983 
Enoch,  City  of,  4110 

Eunornius,  385 
Euplionia,  104 
F.ni)honon,  385 

Faquirs,  917 
Faraday,    Professor,  366,  430, 
6310 

Filles  Dieu,  9080 
Filles  du  Saint  Sacrament,  799 
Filmer,  Sir  R.,  331 

Enterprise  (Armour-Plated),  77 

Euphrates,  88 

"Farewell  to  Flesh,"  316 

Fin,  398 

Enterprise,  430,  4300 

Fu,M,lis,338 

Fame  Islands,  410 

Finale,  8760 

Entire,  7970 
Entre  Rois,  730 
Eoles,  the  Jester,  353 

Euripides,  338 
Eusebius,  130,    670,  144,  355, 
385«,  637,  10160 

Farnovius,  396 
Farnovvski,  Stanislaus,  396 
Farrant,  60 

Fingal,  398 
Finian,  St.,  13,  259,  643 

Eostre,  353 

Eutin,  490 

Farren,  Miss,  15 

Finiguerra,  3770 

Epakto,  5730 
Epaminondas,  459,  630 
Ephetae,  Court  of,  6790 

Eutyches,  3850 
Evagrius,  355 
Evander,  533 

Farsa,  9160 
Farthingale,  3950 
Faryndou  Inn,  8930 

Finnart,  462 
Finnbnr,  388 
Finsbury  Archers,  70 

Ephraim,-St,,  4950 
Ephthalites,  6950 
Epicharmus,  338 

Evangelical  Quakers,  819 
Evans,  Gen.,  176 
Evasius,  89 

Fas,  3990 
Fasces,  10130 
Fasguutide,  903 

Fionie,  4350 
Fiorenzo,  St.,  C75« 
Firando,  Port  of,  529",  53° 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1085 


Fire-measurer,  8170 

FlRES—  (continued). 

FlKES—  (continued). 

FlKES  —  (continued). 

Fire  Ordeal,  7390 
Fire-Philosophers,  8530 

Cork,  288 
Cosliu,  556 

Holyrood,  493 
Houses  of  Parliament,  4960 

Paul's,  St.,  Cathedral  (Lon- 
don), 5880,  7550 

FUSES  :— 

Covent  Garden  Theatre,  296 

Inverness,  515*1 

Pera,  7620 

Aalborg,  I 

Cowdry  House,  Sussex,  6580 

James's,  St.,  Palace,  5380 

Peterborough,  768*1 

Aarhus,  I 

Cracow,  397 

Janina,  5280 

Petersburg,  St.,  7690 

Abo,  7 
Advocate's   Library,    Edin- 
burgh, 190 

Crannoge  of  Loughinsholin, 
297 
Crediton,  298 

Jassy,  5300 
Jedburgh  Abbey,  531 
Jerusalem,  532*7,  9160 

Petersburg  (U.S.),  769 
PhUippopolis,  7730 
Pirna,  778 

Alcantara,  33 

Crema,  2980 

Joannina,  S28a 

Plataea,  7830 

Aldermanbury,  London,  589*1 
Alexandrian  Library,  37 
Amazon,  Steam  Ship,  46 
Amsterdam  Town-hall,  53 
Antwerp,  63*1 

Crowland  Abbey,  3020 
Croyland  Abbev,  3020 
Custom-House,"  Dublin,  308 
Custom-House,  London,  308 
Cuzco,  309 

John's,  St.;  Newfoundland, 

Katharine  Docks,  St.,  543 
Kensal  Green  Cemetery,  544 
King's,    or   Queen's,   Bench 

Plymouth  Dockyard,  7850 
Plymouth  Theatre,  7850 
Portland  (U.S.),  798 
Port  Louis,  7980 
Port  Republicain,  799 

Archangel,  690 

David's,  St.,  3160. 

Prison,  550 

Portsmouth,  799ff 

Argyle  Rooms,  773 
Armagh,  740 

Delhi,  320 
Delphi  (Temple),  3200 

Kingston  (Jamaica),  551 
Kirkton,  298 

Portsmouth  (U.S.),  7990 
Posen,  803 

Asaph,  St.,  Cathedral,  83*1 

Deptford,  324 

Klagenfurt,  553 

Presburg,  806 

Ascalou,  830 

Derby  Town-hall,  3240 

Komorn,  375 

Quebec,  830 

Ashburnham  House,  393*1 

Derry,  593 

Konigsberg,  555a 

Queen's  Bazaar,  129 

Astley's  Amphitheatre,  89 

Dieppe,  3370 

Koslin,  556 

Queen's  Bench  Prison,  550 

Athens,  93 

Dijon,  338 

Kremlin,  5560 

Rajmahal,  8360 

Austin  Friars  Church,  5900 

Dixmude,  331*1 

Landau,  561  a 

Rennes,  835 

Balasore,  1130 

Dizier,  St.,  3310 

Lateran  PalacCj  5640 

Revel,  836a 

Bamberg,  114*1 

Doctors'  Commons,  3330 

Leghorn,  570 

Richmond,  840 

Barnum's  Museum,  706 
Bath  Theatre,  136 

Doncaster,  3340 
Dordrecht,  3350 

Leipsic,  571 
Leith,  358 

Richmond  (U.S.),  840 
Riga,  840 

Bayeux,  1380 

Dorpat,  335 

Liegnitz,  576 

Rome,  848,  849,  8490 

Beal's  Wharf,  5900 

Dorpt,  335 

Lignitz,  576 

Rotherhithe,  854 

Belfast,  133*1,  134 

Dort,  3350 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  579 

Rotterdam,  8540 

Bergen,  140 

Dover,  336 

Lisburn,  581 

Rouen,  855 

Berne,  141 

Dresden,  339*1 

Lisieux,  581 

Royal   Brunswick    Theatre, 

Beziers,  143 

Drury  Lane  Theatre,  3410 

Liverpool,  583,  5830 

London,  180 

Billingsgate,  1460 

Dublin,  343,  3430 

London,  373*1,  588,  588a,  589, 

Royal    Exchange,    London, 

Birmingham,  147 

Dumfries,  346 

5890,  590,  5900 

5890,  8560  4 

Bishopsgate-street,  London, 

Dunkirk,  346*1 

London  Bridge,  591,  5910 

Russell  Institution,  London, 

589 

Eddystone  Lighthouse,  3560 

London  (Canada),  5870 

860 

Blenheim  Palace,  1055 
Bloomsbury,  590 

Edinburgh,  358,  3580,  359 
Eimbeck,  363 

Londonderry  Town-hall,  593 
Lowestoft,  6070 

Salem  (U.S.),  868a 
Baiters'  Hall,  London,  870*1 

Bombay,  1570 

Eisleben  3630 

Lyceum  Theatre,  613 

Saluces,  8~oi 

Bordeaux,  160 
Brechin,  167*1 

Elgin,  367 
Ephesus,  379,  485 

Lyons,  613 
Madras,  618 

Saluzzo,  8700 
Salzburg,  871 

Brest,  169 

Erlangen,  3810 

Madrid,  6180 

San  Carlo  Theatre,  Naples, 

Bridewell,  1700 
Bridgewater  House,  Barbi- 

Exeter,  391*1 
Fleet  Prison,  404 

Mahommed's  Tomb,  6440 
Manchester,    Queen's    The- 

686a 
Santiago,  875 

-.   can,  589 

Fondi,  408 

atre,  6270 

Savannah,  8790 

Brighton,  173 

Fowey,  4120 

Manchester  Theatre  Royal, 

Saville  House,  -goa 

British     Museum,    Binders' 

Foy,  4120 

628 

Savoy  Chapel,  8»oa 

Shops,  177 

Frankenhausen,  419 

Manilla,  629 

Serapseum,   at    Alexandria, 

Bruges,  1780 
Brunswick  Theatre,  180 

Fredericksborg,  4210 
Furth,  4360 

Marlborough  House,  590*1 
Marseilles,  636 

37,  8930 
Sheen  Palace,  840 

Brussels,  180 

Gaillon  (Monastery),  4370 

Medina,  644n 

Sheerness,  898 

Bury  St.  Edmunds,  187 

Gateshead,  4320 

Melton-Mowbray,  647 

Sherburn  Hospital,  348 

Cachao,  191 

Genoa,  436 

Memel,  6470 

Sleswig,  9100 

Cairo,  194 

George  Town,  438*1 

Meiidoza,  648 

Smvrna,  913*1 

Calmar,  197,  1970 
Camberwell  Church,  1980 
Campden  House,  590 

Gibbon's  Tennis  Court  Thea- 
tre, 444 
Claris,  4450 

Mitau,  665*1 
Mittau,  6650 
Montreal,  673 

Solomon's  Temple,532a,9i6a 
Sophia,  St.  (Constantinople), 
918 

Canterbury,  208 
Canton,  208*1,  209 

Glarus,  4450 
Glasgow,  445,  4450 

Moscow,  676 
Munich,  67=1*1 

Staffarda,  Abbey  of,  8700 
St.    Anne's    Church,   Lime- 

Capitol,  Rome,  2loa 

Glastonbury,  446$ 

Naas,  6820 

house,  5890 

Capitol,  Washington,  looo 

Globe  Theatre,  447 

Nantes,  684 

St.     Martin's     Hall,     Long 

Capua,  2iia 
Carlisle,  3140,  315 

Gloucester,  4470 
Goodman's   Fields  Theatre, 

Nantucket,  6840 
Naples,  686a 

Acre,  590,  637 
St.   Paul's    Church,    Covent 

Carlscrona,  315*1 

4510 

Neisse,  6940 

Garden,  396 

Carlstad,3isa 

Gordon      Riot     Incendiary 

New  Brunswick,  6970 

St.  Paul's,  London,  588*1 

Cashel,  2190 
Cavan,  335 
Chambery,      Theatre      and 
Town-hall,  231 

Fires,  London,  452;  4520 
Goree,  453*1 
Gothenburg,  4530 
Gran,  455*1 

Newcastle,  6980 
Newgate,  699 
Newmarket,  7000 
Newry,  7010 

St.  Sophia  Cathedral,  253<» 
St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  West- 
minster, 4960,  936 
Stationers'     Hall,     London, 

Charleston,  235 

Grantham,  456*1 

New  York,  706 

9330 

Charlestown,  3350 
Chartres,  2360 
Chester  Town-hall  and  Ex- 
change, 3400 

Gravesend,  457 
Great  Fire  of  London,  3730, 
5880 
Great  Harry,  at  Woolvvich, 

Northampton,  714 
Norwich,  7160 
Nottingham  Castle,  7170 
Novgorod,  718 

Stockholm,  937 
Stockton-on-Tees,  9370 
Sydney,  9520 
Temple  of  Diana,  379,  485 

Chichester,  241 
Christ  Church  College,  248 

693 
Greenwich  Hospital,  4620 

Odeon  (Paris),  7490 
Old  Palace  of  Westminster, 

Tiverton,  975 
Tobolsk,  976 

Christiania,  248 
Clare    College,    Cambridge, 

Grodno,  4640 
Guildhall,  London,  467 

4960 
Omagh,  725*1 

Tooley  Street,  London,  590 
Toronto,   St.   George's,   Ca- 

256 

Haberdashers'    Hall,    4690, 

Opslo,  248,  7270 

thedral,  9770 

Cologne  Cathedral,  2680 

590*1 

Orel,  7300 

Tours,  980 

Columbus,  3700 

Haddington,  470 

Oviedo,  738 

Tower  of  London,  5890,  980 

Como,  375 

Hamburg,  473 

Pantheon  (London),  7460 

Travellers'  Club,  983 

Comorn,  275 

Harrow-on-the-Hill,  476 

Paternoster  Row,  590 

Troyes,  9880 

Constantinople,  28l*z,  737 

Harvard  College,  4760 

Patrick,        St.,      Cathedra] 

Troy  (U.S.),  9880 

Copenhagen,  3840 

Hatfield,  4770 

(Dublin),  7540 

Tula,  990 

Cordova,  286 

Havana,  4770 

Paul,   St.,    Church,   Rome, 

Uleaborg,  996 

Corinth,  287*1 

Holy  Places,  4910 

8so<j 

Ummerapoora,  996 

io36 


THE   MANUAL   OF   DATES. 


FlKES  —  (continiieil). 
University  Hall,  Cambridge, 

Formiaj,  4370 
Forsyth,  Kev.  A.  J.,  4010,  7630 

Fremy,  1040 
French  Guiana,  235a 

Garde  Mobile,  466 
Gardeners'  Coni)>any,275o,43lo 

356 

Fort  Andrew,  49 

Freres-pontifes,  1700 

Garibaldi,  840,  1940,3110,333, 

Valparaiso,  loio 
Venice,  10150 

Fort  Brown,  1002 
Fort  Chipewyan,  430 

Freyberg,  4230 
Freyburg,  433 

376,  5240,  525,  9°4 
Garnet,  Henry,  4680 

Verdun,  1017 
Victualling  Office,  Deptford, 
1031 

Fort  Dauphin,  617 
Fort  Donelson,  loot 
Fort  Dubus,  748 

Friberg,  423 
Frieclrichstadt,  4230 
Friends  of  the  Constitution,  526 

Gamier,  Gilles,  1053 
Garratt  (Mayor  of),  1034 
Garrick,     David,     246,     3410, 

Wareham,  1035 
Warwick,  1036 

Forte,  H.M.S.,  167,  841 
Fort  Elizabeth,  4520 

Friends  of  Liberty  and  Equa- 
lity, 5360 

Garway,  Thomas,  4310,  9600 

Washington,  1000,  1001 

Fort  George,  Guernsey,  769 

Friends,  Society  of,  819 

Garza,  Gen.,  655 

Weimar,  1040 

Fort  Louis,  893 

Friga,  4330 

Garzas,  Las,  6a 

Westminster  Abbey,  1043 
Westminster  Hall,  10430 

Fort  Oswego,  734,  999 
Fort  Penthievre,  833 

Frigate,  693 
Frisian  Provinces,  998 

Gascoigne,  Judge,  549,  550 
Gascoyne  River,  lol 

Westminster  Palaee,  4960 

Fort  Pulaski,  lool 

Frisii,  434 

Gassendi,  90,  6490 

West  Point  Military  School, 
1044 

Fort  Regent,  481 
Fort  Royal,  411 

Fri  /Jar,  4340 
Frobisher,  Sir  Martin,  49,  71, 

Gaston  de  Foix,  157,  i6-Vi 
Gaston  of  Orleans,  1420 

Whitehall,  1046 
White's    Chocolate     House, 

Fort  St.  Elmo,  685 
Fort  Stephenson,  999 

4340 
Froebel,  Frederick,  5470 

Gath  534 
Gathelus,  2890 

1046 

Fort  St.  Julien,  8530 

Froissart,  133,  305,  1009 

Gaulos,  4540 

Wilton,  1049 

Fort  Trinidad,  853 

Frontlet,  775 

Gaunt,  John  of,  136,  1400 

Winchelsea,  10490 

Fortross,  4110 

Frost  Fair,  589 

Gautama,  i8la 

Windsor  Castle,  10500 

Fortunate  Islands,  3030 

Frost,  John,  701 

Gautiers,  4330 

Woburn,  10530 

Fort  Washington,  9980 

Frumentius,  9,  1050 

Gavay,  Blasco  de,  935 

Wood-street,  5900 

Forum  Calcarium,  409 

Frv.  .Mrs.  Elizabeth,  699,  809 

Gavazzi,  430 

Yassy,  5300 

Forum  Julii,  433 

Fu'ad  Pasha,  9540 

Gavestone,  Piers,  3730 

York,  3I4« 

Forum  Lepidi,  833 

Fuage,  4790 

Gayoum  of  Aragon,  1009 

York  Minster,  10630 

Forum  Livii,  410 

Fu-choo,  409 

Gay,  John,  133,  1330,  393 

Fire-worshippers,  466 
Firnium  Picenum,  3980 

Forum  Neronis,  409 
Foscari,  Francesco,  10140 

Fuente-rabia,  4o8a 
Fueros,  The,  68 

(Say-Lussae,  160,  1600,366 
Gaymis,  1009 

Firoua,  6950 
Fish,  4300,  5030 
Fish-Culture,  Artificial,  7780 
Fisher,  Fort,  411 

Fo.-sa  \uova  (battle),  10140 
Foss  Hvke,  3030 
Foss.  E.,  95,  373,  596 
Fosse,  The,  843 

Fukieou,  345 
Fnlginium,  408 
Fulke's  Hall,  1013 
Fuller,  Rev.  T.,  65,  355 

Gazeta,  703 
Geaut  Balloon,  The,  114 
Gebal  Tarik,  444 
Geber,  330 

Fisher,  liishop,  373,  846 

FossiN.  4  •/MI,  743 

Fulnek,  674 

Ged,  8080 

Fish  Hooks,  541 

Foster,  Benjamin,  8080 

Fulton,  9770 

Geffrard.  President,  479 

Fitz-Ehvvue.  Henry,  6o3 

Foueqtiet,  5300 

Funchal,  4350 

Geffrey,  Villehan' 

Fitz-Empress,  483.1 

Poolepotat,  617, 

Fundi,  408 

Geinsfleisch,  John,  808 

I''il/.gerald,  Lord  Edward,  3420 

Four  Branches,  8180 

Fungtien-foo,  677 

Gelanor,  73 

Fit/Stephen,  113,  1390 
Fitz-  William  Museum,  199 

Four  Courts,  3420 
Four    Hundred,    Government 

Funghwa,  344 
Furca,  439 

Gelasius,  740 
Gel<  lei-land,  466 

Fiumicino,  85811 

of,  92 

Furcula?  Caudinsc,  3240 

(Selon,  38,953 

Five  Articles,  The,  760 

Fourier,  275 

Furneanx.  ('apt.,  19,  990 

Gemara,  956 

Five  Churehe*,  4260 

Fourth  Macedonia,  760 

I'',,,-,,.  II.  .M.S.,  3440 

<  lemma  Frisins,  3490 

Five  per  Ceuts  ,  436 
Flamborough  Head,  1730 

Fowke,  Capt.,  515 
Fox,  C.  J.,  350,  374,  436 

Fusil,  4010 
Fustians,  3930 

Geiiaburn,  7310 
Genevan  Bible,  145 

Flammock,  Thomas,  4030 

Fox,  George,  819 

Fust,  John,  808 

Genevifeve,  St.,  749 

Flamsteed  House,  4630 

Foxhall,  1013 

Futtehpur,  509 

Genseric,  23,  1011 

Flap-dragon,  5050 
Flat-bush  (battle),  594 

Fox.  John  D.,  930 
Fox,  Margaret  and  Catherine, 

Fyen,  4250 
Fyrd,  The,  660 

Gentilhomme,  4360 
Gentilis,  4360 

Flavius,  27 

9S5 

Gentlemen  Pensioners,  4360 

Flaxman,  John,  888 

Fox's  Libel  Bill,  574 

GABARET,  130 

Gelina,  4350 

Fleece  (Golden),  720,  4500 

Fox,  Steam  Yacht,  430,  431 

i  Kiver,  4530 

Geoffrey  I.,  175,  1750 

Fleet,  5950,  6930,  693 

Fov,  4130 

Gaboto,  John,  48 

Geoffrey  II..  175,  1750 

Flemings,  404 

Fragment  School,  834 

Gitetano.  990 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  830,308 

.Vlihustier,  401 
Flinders,  9901,  100,  1000 

Franciade,  837 
Francis  II.  (I.  of  Austria),  99, 

Ga.^r,  Col.,  134 
Gagliano,  7360 

Geomori,  The,  953 
Geordy  Lai 

Flint  Guns,  4010 

1030,  1030 

Gaian,  4370 

George  I.,  King  of  Greece,  930, 

Floating-mills,  66  1 

Franeisca,  1050,  127,  4°4a 

Galatz,  438 

4600,  461 

Floods  (See  Inundations) 
Floral  Games,  9880 
Floralia,  4050 

Franciscopolis,  4770 
Francis,  Sir  Philip,  540 
Francis,  St.,  4180 

Galba  Belgica,  134 
Galego,  830 
Galen,  54,  644,  946 

George  III.'s  Library,  177 
George  of  Cappadocia,  4370 
George  Griswold,  The,  393 

Florentia,  4050 
Flores,  Gen.,  183 

Frank  Almoign,  1470 
Franke,  A.  H.,  7330 

Galerius,  850 
Gale's  Process,  4680 

George,  Prince,  376 
George,  Prince  of  Denmark,58, 

Floriani,  941 

Franklin  College  (Pennsylva- 

Galgacus, 173 

580 

Florid  Gothic,  4530 

nia),  561 

Galileo,   13,  90,  379,  SOT,  534, 

George,  St  (Brotherhood),5i7o 

Florinus,  4060 
Floyd  Gun,  The,  8lo 

Franklin,  Dr.  Benjamin,  365 
Franklin,  Lady,  4300 

6430,  66oa,  7810,  963,  loioa 
Gall,  'Dr.,  7740 

George's,  St.,  Fields,  453 
George's,  St.,  Hall,  Liverpool, 

Fludd,  R.,  57 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  710,  4190, 

Gallia  Cispadana,  753 

5830 

Fluids,  501,  5010 

4380 

Gallia  Xarbonensis,  60 

George's,  St.  (Inn),  700 

Flying  Coach,  9830 

Fraser,  Simon,  Lord  Lovat,6o7o 

Gallo-Graecia,  438 

George's,  St.,  in  the  East,  590 

Fo,  343 

Fratercali,  4310 

Galvani,  366,  4290 

Georgey,  Gen.,  150,  4980 

Foederati,  454 

Frazer  River,  1760 

Galway,  Earl  of,  33,  420,  1090, 

Georgia  Augusta,  454 

Foix,  Counts  of,  550 

Frazer's  Farm,  1001 

868 

Gerard,  Balthazar,  4880 

Follis  Pugillatorius,  744 
Fontes  Mattiacw,  10470 

Frea,  4330 
Frederichstadt,  3330 

Gama,    Vasco    de,    230,     196, 
3090,  507,  6770 

Gerbert,  670 
Gergovia  Boiorum,  677 

Fontes  Mattiaci,  10470 

Frederick  II.,  of  Prussia,  813, 

Gambier,  Lord,  1240 

Gerlach,  Gen.  de,  3230 

Fools'  Fair,  409 

814,  8140 

Gambolo,  877 

German  Administration,  9330 

Foota  Jallo,  34 
Foot  Guards,  466 

Fredericksbnrg,  5^0 
Fredericks  Oord,  756 

Gamekeepers,  4300 
Gaming,  430 

German  Hospital,  4950 
German    House  of    the  Holy 

Footprints,  5030 

Frederick     William     IV.,     of 

Gammar      Gurton's     Needle, 

Virgin  of  Jerusalem,  965 

Foot-soldiers,  511 

Prussia,  813,  8140 

3700 

Germanicus,  971 

Forbes,  Professor,  743 

Free  Alms,  1470 

Gamori,  953 

German  League,  7190 

Forcalquier,  8100 

Free  British  Fishery  Corpora- 

Gangeland, C.  de,  64 

German  Silver,  7070 

Forconio,  660 

tion,  4030 

('San  jain,  347 

German  Union,  504 

Fords,  The  (battle),  713 

Free  Grace,  529 

Gansana,  351 

Germanus,  St.,  473,  1030 

Forentum,  4000 
Forey,  Gen.,  6550,  656' 

Free  Negro  Emigration,  9100 
Free  Reed,  4750 

Gaouaoua,  10660 
Garamantes,  3990 

Geronymites,  486 
Gerrhas,  899 

Formentera,  1130 

Free  Town,  9050 

Gardarsholrn,  503 

Gerscheim  (battle),  814 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1087 


Gersovia,  443 

Gorbomannus,  456a 

Grijalva,  480,  196 

Haerlem,  4690 

Gervais,  St.  (Sisters  of)  go8a 

Gordium,  452 

Grimaldi,  668 

Hafursfiord,  7150 

Gervais,  St.,  Monastery,  630 

Gordon,  Capt.,  9090 

Grime's  Dyke,  27 

Hapir,  67 

Gery,  St.,  180 

Gordon,  George  W.,  5270 

Grindall,Archbishop,i3lo,3o8a 

Hagiographia,  894 

Gesner,  1450,  1620,  733 

Gordon,  Lady  Catherine,  10340 

Grinnell,  Mr.,  4200 

Hahnemaun,  Samuel,  4930 

Gesoriactun,  163 

Gordon,  Lord  George,  374,  452, 

Grisi,  Giulia,  727 

Haik,  75 

Getanos,  670 

45*i 

Grocers,  64 

HairhumbO,  191 

Ghsilu  Gharn  (battle),  9050 

Gordyene,  5560 

Grocyn,  William,  461 

Hair  hygrometer,  5010 

Ghika,  Prince,  6670 

Gorinehem,  4510 

Groom  of  the  Stole,  605 

Haiti,  479 

Ghiljies,  191 

Gorizia  (See  of),  66a 

Gros,  Baron,  2440 

Hakkadosh,  Judah,  956 

Ghoor,  5420 
Ghoorkhas,  The,  695,  969 
Ghuznee,  4430 

Goroduia,  The,  550 
Gortschakoff,  Prince,788o,862a 
Gotarzes,  133 

Grosmont,  4560 
Grosvenor,  Lord  Robert,  945 
Grotius,  Hugo,  320 

Hakluyt,  Richard,  4710 
Haldaiie,  Robert,  700 
Haldanites,  700 

Gia-long,  363 

Goth  Alania,  22ia 

Grove's  battery,  430 

Hales,  2490 

Gianibelli,  F.,  5110 

Gothones,  9480 

Grueber,  84 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  5491,  10530 

Gibbet,  429 

Gottltmd,  4530 

Gruet,  James,  5740 

Hale,  Warren  Stormes,  697 

Gibbon,  566 

Gottorp,  4900 

Gruithuisen,  582 

Half-farthings,  396 

Gifford!  William,  3300,  8190 

Gough,  Lord,  2410,  244,  3980, 
5080,  622,  913 

Gryme,  458 
Guad  ilaruaca,  465 

Half-groats,  4640 
Half-guineas,  4670 

Gilbert,  Dr.,  365 
Gilbert,  Sir  H.,  49 

Gour,  4330 
Gournay,  M.  de,  3560 

Guadiana,  3470 
Guage,  825,  8250 

Half-nobles,  4490 
Half-pistoles,  4490 

Gilbert,  St.,  4440 
Gilda  Theutonicorum,  4670 

Govindpore,  1380 
Gowrie,  Earl  of,  4540,  886a 

Guahon,  4650 
Guanaca,  128 

Halia,  8690 
Hallam,  377,  583 

Gil  Goncalez  de  Avila,  480 

Gracchus,  Caius,  849 

Guannga,  480 

Halland,  322 

Gilianez,  230 

Gracchus,  Tiberius,  849 

Guanches,  The,  204 

Hallean  Heretics,  9350 

Gillray,  314 
Ginkell,  Gen.,  97 

Grace  (Pilgrimage  of),  7760 
Grseca  Fides,  7630 

Guardian.  8320 
Gudule,  St.,  Cathedral,  180 

Halley,  Dr.,  900,  271,  2?ia 
Hall  of  Woden,  1032 

Gioja,  Flavio,  450,  6320 

Grahame's  Island,  10250 

Guebriant,  Marshalless  of,  460 

Hamathites,  The,  88 

Giotto  di  Bondone,  7410 

Graham,  Sir  T.,  140 

Gueldre,  434 

Hamelin,  Admiral,  4170,864 

Girard,  Albert,  38 

Granada  (Antilles),  463 

Guenet,  loll 

Hamilcar,  218,  35,50 

Girona,  4420 

Granby,  Marquis  of,  5510 

Guericke,  Otto  von,  280,  365 

Hamilcar  Barcas,  1180,  3180 

Gironne,  989 
Gistin,  Thomas,  1037 

Grande  Chambre,  400,  7510 
Grandella  (battle),  524,  9030 

Guerinets,  504 
Guesclin,    Bertrand    du,    99, 

Hamilton,    James,    of    Both- 
"     wellhaugh,  8860 

Glaislu-r,  Mr.,  94,  114 

Grandmontin  Limosin,  456 

2620,  3280,  422,  630,  6470 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  831 

Glamis,  Lady,  886 

Grandpont,  4550 

Guict,  10470 

Hamilton,  Sir  W.,  3830,  586 

Glamorganshire  Canal,  313 

Grand  Remonstrance,  8340 

Guidalhichara,  465 

Hamilton,  SirW.'s,  Collection, 

Glanvill,  8820 

Grannouum,  4560 

Guigo,  219 

177 

Glarus,  4450 

Grantabricsir,  199 

Guild  of  the  Glorious  Trinity, 

Hamlet,  Prince  of   Denmark, 

Glas,  John,  446 

Grant,  Capt,  240 

324 

322,  368,  897 

Glass  Sellers,  4460 

Grant,  Gen.,  65,  136,  1002,  10020 

Guillotin,  Joseph  Ignace,  4670 

Hammon,  W.,  910 

Glass  Staining,  4460 

Grant,  Sir  Francis,  856 

Guilsborough,  468 

Hampden,   John,   2300,    3730, 

Glendower,  Owen,  3720,  1031 
Glenshiel  (battle),  8«7 

Grasse,  60 
Grasse,  Count  de,  125 

Guinea  Company,  240 
Guiness,  W.,  343,  7540 

900 
Hampstead  Hill,  1390 

Glevum,  4470 

Gratian,  91,  2050 

Guion,  Madame,  822 

Hampton     Court     Labyrinth, 

Gloucester  King-at-Anns,  548 

Gratianopolis,  463 

Guipuzcoa,  124 

558 

Glovers'  Company,  4470 

Gravesham,  457 

Guiscard,  Robert,  31,  450,  I2o, 

Hamstead,  A.,  l8a 

Glilckaburg,  4900 

Great  Ball,  744 

138,  1940,  4110 

1  1  am  ton,  919 

Glycina,  4470 

Great  Bed  of  Ware,  1310 

Guiscard,  Roger,  2070,  9030 

Hamtune,  714,  919 

Glycinum,  4470 

Great  Bell  of  Moscow,  676 

Guise,  Duke  of,  1210,  123,  152, 

Hand  Cannon,  401,  8840 

Glyptography,  360 

Great  Bible,  145,  8o8a 

4130     / 

Handel  Festival,  304,  4730 

Goat  Song,  9810 

Great  Bridge  of  Belfast,  1330 

Guisnes,  4670 

Handel,     George      Frederick, 

Gobat,  Dr.,  8a,  10 

Great  City,  645 

Guith,  10470 

7260,  729 

Godama,  i8ia,  2280 
Godfrey  of  BouiUon,  820,  86a, 

Great  Harry,  693,  8990 
Greathed,  Gen.,  260,  410 

Guizot,  1560,  2460,  416 
Guntoor,  508 

Hand  Grenades,  463 
Hand-mills,  66co 

3°3 

Great  Marisehal,  350 

Gur,  538 

Hand  Tennis,  403,  8230 

Godf  rey,Sir  Eclmundbury,373a 

Great  Marlow,  873 

Gurg-i-stan,  4380 

Haug-Chow-Foo,  474 

Godthaab,  4610 
Godoy,  Don  Manuel  de,  9220 

Great  Master   of    the    King's 
House,  605 

Gurj-i-stan,  4380 
Gurney,Goldsvvorthy,  1810,934 

Hanging  Gardens,  1054 
Hannibal,   44,    66,    148,    3040, 

God's  House,  1047 

Great  Mogul,  6680 

Gurney,  Thomas,  9010 

3l8a,  7070 

God's  Port,  453 

Great  Mountain,  5460 

Gust,  250 

Hanno,  190,  73,  218 

Godwin,  Earl,  165,  7700 

Great  Plague  of  London,  58811, 

Gustavus  I.,Vasa,  1,831,949,950 

Hansards,  4740,  936 

Goethe,  4410 

781 

Gustavus    II.,   Adolphus,    69, 

Hanson,  J.,  694 

Goez,  Father,  84 

Great  Privilege,  456 

8260,  949 

Hanway,  Jonas,  9960 

Goff,  451 

Great  Sanhedrim,  873*1 

Gustavus  IV.  of   Sweden,  5, 

Hapsburg,  4690 

Golden  Age,  5680 
Golden  Bible,  6740 
Golden  Chain  Tree,  558 

Great  Schism  of  the  West,  747 
Great  Synagogue,  9520 
Great  Tom  of  Lincoln,  579 

9490,  950 
Gutenberg,  John,  808 
Guthlac,  bell,  1350 

Harchgoun,  38 
Harderwyk,  1004 
Hardicanute,  373,  3760 

Golden  Hind  Ship,  324 

Great  Wall  of  China,  243,  1033 

Guthrum,  314 

Hardinge,  Viscount,  5090 

Golden  Mountain,  9910 

Greaves,  77 

Guyana,  467 

Hardwicke,  Capt.,  84 

Goltischmidt,  7810,  782        . 

Grecians,  481 

Guyenne,  467 

Hardy,  374 

Golgotha,  677 
Goliath,  77,  444,  534 

Green  Coat  School,  5880 
Green  Hats,  477 

Guyon,  Abbe,  46 
Guyon,  Madame,  823 

Harecastle  Tunnel,  9900 
Harefleot,  475 

Golo,  291 

Greenland  Dock,  854 

Guy,  Thomas,  4680 

Hares,  4300 

Gomarus,  Francis,  451 

Greiz  Reuss,  836 

Guzman  el  Bueno,  8oa 

Har  Govind,  9050 

Gomez,  Fernando,  231 

Gregorian  Chant,  680 

Gvvynedh,  Owen,  10300 

Hargraves,  101,  9290 

Gomez,  Lorenzo  de,  160 
Gomorrah,  9150 
Gonatas.  6150 

Gregory,  the  Brothers,lol,loia 
Gregory  the  Great,  60 
Gregory  of  St.  Vincent,  8l8a 

Gymnopsedia,  9260 
Gymnosophists,  469 
Gyn,  113 

Hargreave,  149,  2930 
Harleian  Miscellany,  475 
Harley,  Right  Hon.  R.,  475 

Goncalvez,  230 

Grenawic,  462 

Harmensen,  James,  76 

Gondar,  80 

Grenville  Library,  177 

HAAN,  G.  A.  de,  428 

Harmony  New  (U.S.),  913 

Gondy,  Jerome  de,  2591 

Gresham,   Sir  Thomas,   1870, 

Hachette,  Jeanne,  1300 

Haro  (Clameur  de),  497 

"  Gone  to  Jericho,"  5310 

4630,  8560 

Hackney,  1021 

Harotm-al-Rashid,  670 

Gonfalone  Society,  338 

Greville    Collection  of  Mine- 

Hackney Independent  Semi- 

Harquebuss, 78 

Gonneville,  Capt.  de,  990 

rals,  177 

nary,  5060 

Harran,  217 

Gonzaga,  Gen.,  55 

Grey,  Capt.,  looa,  lot 

Hadfleld,  374,  470 

Harriott,  J.,  38 

Gon/aga,  House  of,  630,  6300 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  373,  5280 

Hadlcv,  George,  963 

Harrison,    James,  2490,  2580, 

Gonzalo  de  Cordova,  9210 
Good  Tidings,  453 
Goolnabad  (battle),  766 

Grey  Sisters,  9080 
Grice,  Miss,  1  130 
Gridiron,  The,  455 

Hadley,  John,  8180 
Hadrian,   630,   143,    173,    459, 
4700,  8490 

565 
Harrison's  Bar,  1001 
Harris,  Sir  W.  C.  Harris,  9 

io88 


THE  MANUAL  OP  DATES. 


Harris,  Sir  W.  Snow,  577 

Hermondeville,  713 

Holle,  Valley  of,  149 

Hoyle  on  Whist,  1045 

Hartley  Institution,  9190 

Hernande/,,  Francesco,  975 

Holloxvav  Xew  Prison,  8090 

Huancavelica,823 

Hartog,  loo 

Hero  of  Alexandria,  412,  501, 

Holwell,  Mr.,  1490 

11  ube.r,  1310 

Hartstein,  Capt,  4200 

934 

Holy  Bracelet,  165 

lludderstield,490 

Harvey,  William,  54,  1520,408 

Hero  and  Leander,  8a 

Holy  City,  309,  6740 

Hudibras,  208 

Harz,  827,  8520 
llasdrubal,  110,6520 

Herod  Agrippa,  6 
Herod  the   Great,  6,  427,  5340, 

Holy  Cross,  1033(1 
Holy  House,  605 

Hudibras,  Butler's,  879 
Hudson,  Capt.,  49,  710,   705(1, 

Hashem,  20 
Haslar  Hospital,  453 
Hassan-ben-Saiiib,  85 
Hastings,  Warren,  2490,   263, 

Herodotus,  8-70,  459,  487 
Hcrophilus,  644 
Herriek.  K.,  3790 

Holy  Jesus  (Oratory  of),  729 
Holy  Lion,  4800 
Holy  Mountain,  677 
Holy  Office,  5130 

7140 
Hudson,  Godfrey,  349 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  497 
Hugh,  Count  of  Paris,  67,  413 

Hatnekl's  Hall  (Durham),  3480 

Berschel,  439 

Hersehel,  Sir  J.,  140 

Holy  Orthodox  Greek  Church, 

461 

Hugh  le  Despencer,  121 
Hug-ues,  4970 

Hathaway,  Anne,  8960 

Herschel,     Sir     W.,   900,   439, 

Holy  Roman  Catholic  League, 

Hulks,  9820 

Hatton,  Sir  C.,  3130 

4790,6930,  7810,  963 

8450 

Hulls,  Jonathan,  935 

Haiiy,  Valentine,  152,  8080 

Hertsek,  485 

Holy  Saviour.  Nuns  of,  173 

llulse,  Key.  J.,  497« 

Havelock,   Sir  H.,  450,   2250, 

HcMod,  4580 

Holy    Sepulchre,    Church  of, 

lluinayun,  2490 

5°9 
Havcr-du-pois  weight,  1880 

Hesperia,  931 
Hegychiitte,  120 

Holy  Thursday,  83(i 

Humbolt,  660,  366,  4650 
Hume,  David,  7890,  8820 

Havilah,  67,  449 

Heteria,  The,  4590 

Holy  Trinity,  Brethren  of,  986 

Hume,  Joseph,  375 

Hawarden  Castle,  1031 

Heth,  4870 

Holy  Trinity,  Festival  of,  397 

Humphrey  Bohun,  980 

Hawkubit 

HetNtadt,  986 

Homberg,  160 

llundolaxve,  496 

Hawke,  Admiral,  135,  8310 

Hexamilium,  614 

Homer,  70,  1320,126,2450,  5°4, 

Hundred  Associates,  Company 

Hawkins,  49,  1660 

Hexapla,  1440 

7860 

of,  2020 

Haydn,  Joseph,  6800,  739 
Ilavnaii,  lien.,  5890 

Hexarchv,  4*3 
Heyn,  Admiral,  4880 

Homei  icao,  Sortes,  1450 
Homiliarium  of  Charlemagne, 

Ilungerford  Family,  246 
Hung-sexv-tseuen,  955(1 

lla"/,ael,  880 

lleyw<>od.  John,  515 

4920 

Huninguo,  7780 

Hearers,  761 
Heath,  116 

He/.ekiah,  King,  1070,  538 
Ihcksit. 

Homoousians,  4920 
Hompesch,  Ferdinand,  6260 

llunniades.  l,34«,  498,  5520 
Huns  of  Paunonia,  1040 

Heat-measurer,  9680 
Hebrus,  470 

Hidalgo,  .Miguel,  655 
Iliel.  the  Bethelite,  53:0 

Hon.  Artillery  Company,  10260 
Honoring,  850 

Hunter,  54 
Hunters'''  Lodges,  9990 

Hccadcinus,  IO 

HiendeleneiiiM  .Mines,  007 

Honoruru,  493 

Hunt,  Henry,  7(11; 

Hi.'chingen,  488 
llecla  Strait,  427 

Hieratic  Hieroglyphics,  486 
Hierax,  486 

Honour,  Court  of,  3430 
Honour  (Defenders  of),  536 

Huntingdon's.   Lady,  Connec- 
tion, 10460 

lli-clur  (Armour-plated),  77 

Ilieromax,  1061 

Honour  of  the  Flag-,  403 

Hunt,  Robert,  4070 

Hegel.  7460 

llieron,  953 

Honour  (Legion  of),  570 

Hunt.  K.,  Hev.,49o 

llcinsius,  489 

Iliero-Mlyma.  532 

Honour  (.Maids  of),  622O 

llurr  Singh,  695 

Heldingus,  Mich  nel,  98 
Helen,  4580,  9260 
Helena.   Princess,  980,  3760 

Helen's,  St.,  7990 

llieu.  St.,  4760 

High  Almoner,  596 

Highbury,  532 
High  Chancellor,  =596 

Hood,  (ien.,  93 
Hood's  Island,  6340 
Hooghley,  1380,  195 
llooke.  Dr.,  457 

Huruk,  230 
Huscarles,  770 
Huskisson,   Mr.    Wm.   (M.P.), 

374(7 

Helicore,  7060 

IliL-h  Constable,  600 

Hooker.  Sir  \V.  J.,  545 

Hussein  Pasha,  1330 

Helidorus,  846 

High  Ilarrogate,  476 

Hook,  K.,  280 

Huss,  John,  1550,  281,  500,  831 

Heliogabalus,  369 

Highland  Ho.t. 

Hooks,  541 

Hiitchinson,  John,  500 

Hellography,  774 

Ilelladici.  The,  9040 

Highway  Robbery,  843 
lli^li  \Vycombe,  873 

Hook,  T.  E.,  3790 

Hooper,  7ia 

Huyghens,    90-7,     2490,    2580 
642(1,  78 

Hellas,  4580 
Hellcporus,  621 

Hilarion,  30,  530 
Hilary.  Bishop  of  Aries,  91 

Hooper,  Bishop,  373,632 
Hoorn,  Cape,  2090 

Utjnrinth,  H.M.S.,  344 
Hyde,  Anne,  58 

Hclmhitin,  596 
Helortts,  631 

Hildburghausen,  88  1 
Hill,  Lord,  380,  7100 

llii/ie.  The,  393 
Hope  Theatre,  967 

Hyder  AM,  113,  196,  3030,  5070 
508,  618 

llelos.  4810 

Ilimerius,  117,1 

Hopkins.  Matthew,  10530 

Hydrocianic  acid,  8140 

Helvetia,  95<*i 

Ilindmarsh,  Capt.,  9190 

Hopton  Heath,  9310 

Hydnmtum,  7340 

Helvetia*,  371,  673 
Hely,  101 

Ilindmarsh,  Lake,  IOI 
Hindoo  Science,  The,  670 

Hopton,  Lord,  82 
Horace,  7860,  8460 

Hydrus,  7340 
llxksos,  500 

Hem))holme,  242 

Ilymcra,  7730 

llengi>t.  56,   1730,776 

Hipparchus,  90,  3190,944 

Horeb,  9070 

llyons,  1046 

Henna,  8940 

Hippocras,  1051 

Horim,  The,  770 

H.ypanis,  9470 

Henneber; 

llippocratean  School,  644 

Hormuz,  732 

Hypapante,  304 

Hennepin,  Father,  7060 
Hennersdorf  (balii 

Hippocrates,   437,    644,    6930, 
946 

Horn,  Count,  180 
Hornemann,  24 

llypasis,  947a 
Hv|iatius,  431 

Ili'iii-ii'ltn  Yacht,  1003,  1060 
Henry  VIII.'s  Primer,  5820 

Hipponax,  1018 
Hipponium,  ^^a,  6700 

Home  Tooke,  2900 
Horrox,  ooa 

Hyperbola,  279 
Hyperion,  7813 

Henry  of  Blois,  640 
Il<-nri/-<frace-{t-I)ieu,  693,10550 

Hirpini,  II 
Ilispalis,  896 

Horsa,  56,  106,177^ 
Horse  Grenadier  Guards,  466 

Hyphasis,  9470 
Hyrcanus,  John,  5340 

Hepburn,      James,      Earl      of 

Hist,  1045 

Horsemonger       Lane      Gaol, 

Bothwell,  886 

Ilistria,  523 

8090 

IAGO  de  la  Fega,  St.,  9260 

ITcphmstife  Instila,  5800 

Ilistrio-Mastix,  3380,  3730,574 

Horses  (Isle  of),  506 

latinum,  642 

Hephsestos  (Temple),  6470 

Hlocf-dig,  559 

Hosiers,  4690 

Ibn  Nason,  8on 

Heracleon,  4830 

Hlyd  Monath,  631 

llospitia,  5130 

Ibrahim  I'asha,  130,  61,  1330 

Heraclius,  290,  54,  7090 

Hoadley,  Bishop,  1150 

Hostels,  5130 

1420,  6910 

Heraclitus,  5160 

Hobbes,  910,  331 

Hot  Air,  1016 

Ichaboe  Island,  4650 

Herbanum,  733 

llobson.  Lieut.,  421 

Hotel  des  Invalides,  7490 

Ichnusa,  876 

Herbert,  Admiral  (Lord  Tor- 

Hocbelaga  (Canada),  48(1,  672 

Hotham's  Island,  455 

Ictis,  657 

rington),  1  170 
Herbert    of    Cherbury,    Lord, 
3190,  4320 

Ho.lson,  Lieut.,  330 
Hod-tho,  ^ 
Hoe's  Printing  Machine,  8080 

Hotspur,  4770 
Hnutrhers,  The,  5170 
Houghton,  34 

Ida,  1140,  1730,1740 
Idaci  Dactyli,  4580,  725 
Iden,  Alexander,  1910 

llorc'damis,  St.,  7670 
Hercules,  484 

Hofer,  Andrew,  9950 
Hofmann,  Dr.,  57 

Hoiigoumont,  10370 
"  Houmont,"  3970 

Identic  Note,  8630 
Idunum,  539 

Herdeby,    Lincolnshire,    2330, 

Hogarth,  W.,  314,  346 

llou>e  of  Correction,  8090 

lerland,  517 

301,  484 

Hogs  in  Armour,  551 

Household,  5950,  605,  8560 

lerne,  320,  517      ' 

Ileregeld,  6920 

llohain,  143 

Hovell,  1000 

I  ham,  10490 

Heroes,  476 

Hohenlohe,  854 

Howard,  Henry,  Earl  of  Sur- 

Ikenild Street,  843 

Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh, 

Hokodate,  4710 

rey,  151 

Ikeri,  Rajahs  of,  131 

358 

Holagon  Khan,  30,  85 

Howard,  John,  3390 

Iknield  Street,  843 

Hermann  II.,  1090 

Ilolbeach  House,  4680 

Howard,     Queen     Catherine, 

11  Borgo,  lot  10 

Hermin  Street,  843 
Hermits,  520 

Holbein.    Hans,  3130,  378,  741(1 
Holcroft,  Thomas,  647 

Howard,  Thos.,  Earl  of  Arun- 

!.  497 
Ilergetes,  The,  497 

Hermits  of  St.  Damien,  2640 

Holinshed,  95,  153 

del,  83 

IHa,  31 

Hermits  of  St  Francis,  66» 

Holkar,  1430,4260,508,5080,5100 

Howell,  James,  487 

Ilion,  5030 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1089 


11  Khaseebee,  590 
ni-groanded  peaco,  594 
llliberis,367 
llligigarna  Mountain,  3^3 

IXSUKKECTIONS—  (continued) 
Cobler's,  7840 
Coimbra,  801 
Colombia,  369 

IXSUBKECTIOXS—  (continued) 
Prague,  1550 
Praguerie,  La,  4130 

(^uito,  823 

1  x  i;  XUATIONS—  (continued). 
Melbourne,  6450 
Mexico,  City  of,  655 
Middle    Level   Drain  (Nor-. 

Illiterate  Parliament,  1005 

Corcyra,  3870 

Rennes,  835 

folk),  3750 

"  Illusory  Science,"  890 

Cordova,  9310 

Right  Boys,  5170 

Mobile,  666 

lllyricum,  5040 

Corsica,  291,  436 

Kio  Janeiro,  841 

Montreal,  673 

Image  Breakers,  503 
Imleach  lubhair,  370 

Corunna,  923 
Cracow,  7880 

Rochelle,  8440 
Rome,  8500,  851 

Naples,  6850 
Neva,  6960 

Immortals  (City  oJ),  9960 

Dominica,  334 

Saldanha,  Duke  of,  8010 

Poland,  788 

Jmperator,  370 

Dresden,  339 

Saragossa,  924 

Prome,  8:0 

Imperial,  68a 
Imperial  Institute,  514 
Imperialists,  646(1 
Impropriator,  650 

Druses,  313,  3410 
Ebora,  386 
Egyptian,  361,  363 

Kmmett's,  3430,  518 

Sardinia,  876,  877 
Savoy,  877 
Servia,  894 
Sicily,  6850,  9030,  904 

Retford,  East,  8350 
Rhone,  416 
Rotterdam,  8543 
Tiber,  972 

Inacliidiu.  73 

Epirotes,  380 

Somersetshire,  777 

Winchelsea,  10490 

Inaehus,  73,  4580 

Evora,  386 

Spartacus,  849,  9270 

INVASIONS:  — 

Ina,  King,  340,  174,  294 
Incas,  Festival  of  the,  1009 

Fanshawe's,  in  Essex,  383 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  4000 

Steelboys,  5170 
Stenko-Radzin,  861 

Aargau,  I 
Acarnania,  loo,  6150 

Inclosure  Act,  General,  10360 

Fitz-Arnulph,  784 

St.  Petersburg,  8610 

./Equi,  300 

In  Cwnd  Domini,  183 

Flanders,  4030 

Swiss,  950 

Africa,  33 

Incori  uptibles,  290? 
Indelible  Ink,  512 

Florence,  406,  9930 
Galicia,  4380 

Tapac  Amaru,  767 
Tenis,  961 

Alani,  300 
Albania,  31 

Independent  .Methodists,  6=;3a 

Geneva,  4350,  88oa 

Tipperary,  518 

Alemanni,  35 

Index  Weighing  Machine,  936 

Genoa,  436,  877 

Toledo,  9210 

Algeria,  38 

Indian  Archipelago,  62^ 

Ghent,  443 

Tunis,  9900 

Allahabad,  400 

Indian  College  (Royal),"856o 

Gottingen,  454 

Turin,  525,  991 

Allmen,  35 

Indian    Umpire,    Steam-ship, 

Greece,  460,  4600 

Tyrol,  9950 

Allobroges  (Land  of,  by  the 

430 

Grenoble,  463 

Ukraine,  996 

Romans),  433 

Indian  ink,  513 
Indoctorum      Parliamentum, 
2960 
Indus,  The,  507 

Hayti,  4790 
Hedui,  190 
Hermandad,  in  Valencia,  490 
Hertsek,  485 

Valencia,  924,  1009 
Van  Artevelde,  443 
Venice,  10150 
Venner's,  1016 

Anatolia,  530 
Angles,  56 
Aquitaine,  67 
Aragon,  922 

Ingleneld,  Capt.,  135,  431 

Herzegovina,  485,  7360 

Vienna,  10210 

Arcadia,  69 

Ingulphus,  1350,  1990 

Hesse-Cassel,  485 

Vigo,  934 

Armenia,  750,  503 

Inigo  Jones,  117 

Holland,  4890 

Wales,  1031 

Asia,  6680 

Inis-Cathay,  547 

Hugh,  Count  of  Paris,  413 

Warbeck's,  1034 

Assyria,  880,  6430 

Inner  Barrister,  I32o 

Hussite,  805 

Warsaw,  788,  10350 

Attica,  92 

Innisfallen  Abbey,  547 

Italy  (Central),  5240 

Wat  Tyler,  3730,  1038(1 

Babylonia,  88,  88  a,  1070 

Innocent  III.  (Pope),  32 

Jacquerie,  4130,  527 

Whiteboys,  10450 

Bactria,  6150 

Insects,  10660 

Jamaica.  5270 

White  Hats,  4030 

Bernicia,  174 

Insensate  Academy,  loa 

Janissaries,  3813 

White  Russia,  S63 

Bhotan,  1430 

Insignia,  832 

Jews,  5340 

Wyatt's,  1058 

Bosotia,  155 

Instauratio  Magna,  7180 
Institution  of  a  Christian  Man, 

Judah,  5380 
Judas  Maccabeus,  5340 

York,  7760,  1063 
Zaatcha,  1064 

Bohemia,  155,  7870 
Bombay,  1570 

,  9690 

Ket's,  545 

Intcramna,  8390 

Brazil,  1660,  167 

Institut  National,  514 

Kiel,  546 

Interment  Act,  337 

Britain,  173,  1730,  314,  517, 

Institut  National  de  Musique, 

3800 

La  Vended,  415,  566 
Lisbon,  581,801 

INUNDATIONS  :  — 
Adige,  160 

Britanny,  175,  713 

Insubres,  The,  6440 

Lithuania,  5830 

Arelas,  740 

Bulgaria,  182,  735 

Insularum  Proviucia,  2450 

Lollard,  3720 

Arelate,  740 

Burgundy,  1840 

Insurrection  Act,  107 

Lyons,  613,  6130 

Aries,  740 

Burmah,  186 

IN8TJKBBCTIONS  :— 

Mackerel,  Dr.,  7840 

Belgium,  134 

Byzantine  Empire,  3530 

Aargau,  I 

Madrid,  6l8a,  923^,  924 

Belper,  136 

Calabria,  194,  1940 

^Edui,  190 

Maillotins,  623,  749<* 

Bradfield    Reservoir,    Shef- 

Canada, 203 

jEgium,  20 

Malaga,  924 

field  (Bursting  of),  165 

Castile,  23°a,  221 

Affghan,  22O 

Mar's,  3730,  636 

Cai-Fong-Fou,  1930 

Catalonia,  22ia 

Agrigentum,  28 

Maryland,  6370 

Calcutta,  195 

Caj.sar's  Invasion  of  Britain, 

Albania,  31,  736 

Massachusetts,  9980 

Canton,  3080 

*73 

Algeria,  38 

Meaou-tsze,  243" 

Coblentz,  363 

Ceylon,  2280,  339 

Aranjuez,  680,  9220 
Argovia,  I,  4410 

Messina,  652 
Mexican  Indians,  655 

Coringa,  387 
Cork,  388 

Chaldsea,  88  3300 
China,  343,  6680 

Asturias,  900 

Mexico,  655,  6550 

Coventry,  3960 

Chios,  3450 

Athens,  930 

Milan,  6590 

Dantzic,  3140 

Cilicia,  3500 

Baden,  no,  824   . 

Minos,  Province  of,  167 

Deluge  of  Ogyges,  4580 

Cimbri,  251 

Barcelona,  1180,  934 

Moldavia,  667 

Deluge,  The,  331 

Circassia,  253 

Barefeet,  713 
Berbice,  139 

Morea,  460 
Moriscoes,  9310 

Deucalion's  Deluge,  4580 
Derwent,  136 

Corsica,  291 
Courland,  2940 

Berlin,  1400,  8130 
Bombay  (Mutiny  of  Troops), 

Morocco,  675 
Moscow,  676 
Miinzer's,  in  Thuringia,  419 

Dordrecht,  3350 
Dort,  335o 
East  Ketford,  8350 

Crimea,  300 
Cuba,  3040 
Cumse,  3050 

Bosnia,  i6r 

Negro,  476,  I  oooo 

Edessa,  357 

Dacia,3ii 

Boughaleen  Bawins,  10450 

Neufchatel,  8120 

Egypt,  362 

Daghistan,  31  1  a 

Bragauca,  8ol 

New  Hampshire,  9980 

Kphesus,  379 

Danish  Invasion  of  Britain, 

Breslau,  813 

Normandy,  713 

Flanders,  4030 

314 

Brussels,  134,  180 

Nu-pieds,  or  Barefeet,  713 

France,  South  of,  417 

Denmark,  322,  323 

Cabul  or  Cabool,  191 

O'Doherty,  Sir  Cahir,  7840 

Germany,  441 

Doris,  7730 

Cade's     Insurrection,    1910, 

Oporto,  7270 

Hamburg,  473 

East  Anglia,  314 

3720 
Cadiz,  193 

Orleans,  7310 
Owen  Glendower's,  3730 

Holland,  441,  488,  4890 
Holmfirth,  490 

Egypt,  1070,  108,  36:0,  362, 
3620 

Caffre,  193 

Paris,  4150,  416,  750 

Inverness,  516 

Elean,  367 

Calabria,  6850 

Parma,  752 

Jutland,  3220 

England,  373,  713,  1031 

Canada,  303 

Pernambuco,  167 

Kaifong,  1930 

Epirus,  380 

Candiotes,  204 
Carbonari,  The,  6850 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  7760 
Poland,  7880,  862 

Khartoum,  5450 
Leyden,  5730 

Ethiopia,  36:0,  383 
Etruria,  384,  433 

Carlsruhe,  2  'So 

Portugal,  Northern  Parts  of, 

Loire  River,  414,  416 

Flanders,  4880,  713 

Castilian,  321,  9310 
.Catalonia,  2210 

801 
Posen,  803 

Lyons,  6130 
Mason,  6160 

France,  3730,  4130,  4400,  813 
Galatia,  438 

Caucasus,  863 

Pouch,  Capt.,  7840 

Manchester,  6270 

Galicia,  4380 

4  B 

logo 


THE  MANUAL   OF  DATES. 


INVASIONS—  (continued). 
Gaul,  433,  4330,  44oa,  818,1025 
Georgia,  4380 

Irish   Tenant   Right  League, 
5180 
Irkutsk,  9020 

Jeejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamsetjee,  792 
Jeff  erics,  1130 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  999,  1003 

Juliopolis,  959 
Julius  Agricola,  173 
Julius  Caesar,  173,  336.  849 

Germany,  440,  44001 
Greece,  1820,  433,  459,  459" 

Irrawaddy,  810 
[rrelagh,  547 

Jeffreys  (Judge),  153 
Jehan  Shah,  766 

Jung  Bahndoor,  509,  695 
Junker,  George,  10350 

Holland,  488,489 

Irtish,  9020 

Jehoiachim,  1070,  1590,  5380 

Junot,  1330 

Holstein,  490 

Irving,  Rev.  Edward,  521 

Jehoiada,  1060,  538 

Jupur,5o7 

Hungary,  102,  498,  4980,  7870 

Irving,  Washington,  loooa 

Jejunator,  John,  761 

Jura,  893 

Illyria,  251,  353«,  6150,  9640 

Isaac  I.,  3530,  354 

Jellachich,    Ban  of     Croatia, 

Jurisdictions,  Ten  (League  of), 

India,  507,  5070,  766 

suac  11.,  69,  3530,  354 

49*0,  1  02  1  a 

1910 

Ingria,  512,  7870 
Ireland,  517 

saac,  77,  534 
saacs  of  Holland,  The,  330 

Jenkinson,  A.,  84,  8630 
Jeuner,  Dr.,  163,  9110,  10070 

Jussuf  Zeri,  380 
Justinian    I.,    920,    1050,   353, 

Isuuria,  5210 
Israel,  880,  522,  522O 

sateha,  8630 
saurian  Dynasty,  3530,  52IO 

Jephthah,  51,  534 
Jerex,  de  la  Frontera.  10590 

353«,  354 
Justinian  II.,  3530,  354 

Italy,  380,  433,  4400,  523,  5230, 

senberg,  Mr.,  9 

Jerome  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 

Justin  Martyr,  630,  n"o,  3700, 

524,  735,  8480 

sondone,  52IO 

1'rince,  417 

453 

Jndoa,  88a,  5340,  538 

sfahan,  522 

Jerome  of  Prague,  1059 

Juvavum,  871 

Jutland,  3220,  541 

shbilliah,  896 

Jerome,  St.,  1440 

Juvenal,  7200,  8460 

Kabylia,  5410 

shniacl,  67 

Jerusalem  Gemara,  956 

Kauai,  478 

sis,  361,  6470,  68lo 

Jessop,  Mr.  William,  825 

KAI5RABI,  88 

Kharasm,  5450 

sla,  5773 

Jestours,  663 

Kaer  Lud,  5870 

Khiva,  5450 

Islav,  7670 

Jettons,  150 

Kaianite  Dynasty,  7640 

Khornssun,  5450 

Isle  of  Faisans,8r7o 

Jeu  Trompe,  5350 

Kai-Khosru,  -65 

Kurdistan,  88,  5560 

Isle  of  Horses,  506 

Jezebel,  600,  1060 

Kai  Koba 

Macedonia,^,  615,  6150,616 

Isles  fir   Loss,  9050 

Jezreel,  677 

Kaiuinaratli,  7(4/1 

Malwah,  6260 
Mauretania,  64oa 

Isle  of  Springs,  5_'7n 
IsmiM'lians,  85 

Jidda,  3310 
Joachim  of  Fiore,  5350 

Kajar  Dynasty,  766 
Kalumdv,  24 

Mercia,  314 

Ismid,  7070 

Joachims-Thai,  3330 

Kalahari,  24 

Mesopotamia,  651 

Isohi  Farnese,  10120 

Joan  of  Arc,  2450,  2750,  4130, 

Kalambu,  269 

Moravia,  155,  6731 

8540 

Kalderoon,  8970 

Morocco,  6740,  675 
Naples,  4130,  498,  6840 
Newhaven,  6990 

Italia,  5-'3-  9'3 
"  Italinn  City,"  The.  =523 
Italian  Industrial  Exhibition, 

Joanna,  7930 

Joanpore,  5350 
Joan  Sanderson,  Dance,  308 

Kali'.,  i 
Kamehameha  I.,  478.  47^/1 
Kai.iehain.'-ha  II.,  i'fl. 

Normandy,  713 

406 

.lobson.  24 

Kanu'hameha  III.,  4-   - 

Northumberland,  314 

Italian  League,  524,  568 

.loch.'bed,  74 

Kanii'-hameha  IV.,  4780 

Norway,  322,  716,  9490 

Italus,  523 

Joculatores,  663 

Kamehameha  V.,  4780 

Padua,  10140 

Ithome,  9260 

Jo.U'lle,  982 

Kaminietz,  542 

Palestine,  88,  88a 

Itinerant  Justices,  540 

John  II.  of  Aragon.  260 

Kane,  Dr.,  710,  4200 

Pannoiiia,  498 

Itinera  I'ieta,  7700 

John  IV.,  Diikeof  Al.-ncon,  35 

Kanliari,  Caves  of,  870 

Persia,  643a,  7640,  76Sa,  850, 

Inn-bide,  Augustin  dc,  655 

John  of  Austria,  Don,  922 

Kara  Amid,  337 

927 

Iva-lush  I.  ,89 

John  the  Baptist,  3820 

Kara  Yusef,  lioo 

Phoenicia,  7730 

Iva-lush  II.,  89 

John  l.-isruris,  153 

Kardis,  2130 

Phrygia,  7740 

Iva-lush  III.,  89 

John  of  Levden,  520,  679 

Kartoffel-Kreig,  8030 

Pisa,  367 

Iva-lush  IV.,  880,  89 

John  Lou-,'  St.,  8l8 

Kasehan,  3510 

Poland,  7870,  812,  86la 

Ivi/a,  1  120 

John  of  Nottingham,  9180 

Katie,  Lieut,  von,  8110 

Pomerania,  8na 

Ivory  Bedsteads,  131 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  1310,260, 

Kayi,  992 

Pnrtland,  Isle  of,  798 

Ivrea,  8680 

3-7" 

Kay.an,  2250 

Prussia,  6810,8110,  812 

Izalco,  10250 

Johnson,  Henry,  586,  8080 

Xeartage,  The,  30,  2390,  10020 

Kohilcund,  845 
Koman  Empire,  818 

JACCA,  526 

Johnson.  President,  1003 
John's,   St.,   Wood,    Indepen- 

Ke..| Cape,  2090 
Keelwa,  822. 

Rome,  433,  8490 

.lack,  or  John  Cade,  1490,  1910 

dent  College,  5060 

Keeper  of  the  Crossbows,  730 

Rousillon,  8550 

•  laeknian,  ('apt.,  71 

Joktan,  67 

Keepers  of  the  Sea-coast,  170 

Russia,  4150,  8600,  861,  862 

Jackson,    (Jen.    "  Stonewall," 

Jonesborough,  93 

Keivin,  St.,  4450 

Sardinia,  876,  8760 
Saxony,  8810 

232a,  627,  9380,  1002 
Jacob,  1170,  3500,  3680,  534 

Jones.  Inigo,  71,  296 
Jones,  sir  W.,  I8ia,  5620 

Kellett,  Capt.,  420,  4200,  421 
Kellymount  Gaiif,'.  =;i-/i 

Schleswig-Holstein,  323 
Scotland,  314,  3720,  716,  885, 

JMob.  Gen.,  509 
Jacobi,  Professor,  365 

Jonson.  Ben,  3790,  7860 
Jopling,  Mr.,  10260 

Kellv's.  Miss,  Theatre,  701 
Kelts,  22601 

8850,  886 

Jacobite  Church,  90 

Jorullo,  Mount,  10250 

Kemble,  John,  897 

Scythia,  8880 
Siiiin,  186,9020 
Sicily,  218,  903,  9030 

Jacob's  Well,  898 
Jscoodonon,  7 
Jacopone,  931 

Joseph.  3610,  3680,  534 
Josephine,      Empreu,     4150, 
6250 

Kempelen,  Baron  de,  104 
Kendals,  5430 
Kenery  (Caves),  870 

Sicyon,  904 

.1  icqimrd,  Joseph  Marie,  527 

Joseph  of  Arimathea,  176 

Kemmire,  Viscount,  3730 

Silesia,  8  r  2,  906 

Jadera,  1065 

Josephus,  63,  471 

Kennedy,  lot,  135,  420 

Spain,  2180,  6740,  921,  9210, 
922,  933a 

Jahore,  9070,  939 
Jafoa,  736" 

Jossdin,  9690 
Jotham,  393 

Keniiyree,  6720 
Kent,  Constance.  8430 

Sparta,  927 

Jalapa,  1059 

.loud  pore,  7250 

Kent,  Duchess  of,  3750 

Sweden,  949 

James  I.  of  Aragon,  310 

Jouffroy,  Marquis  do,  935 

Kent,  Duke  of,  3740,  1020 

Syria,  88a,  3610,   7650,  953, 

James  of  Avenues,  790 

Jourdain,  Margery,  91  1« 

Kentigern,  820,  3050 

954 

James,  Capt,  710 

Jourdan,  Marshal,  460,  4040 

Kent's  Directory,  3290 

Thrace,  6150,9700,971 
Venetian  Territory,  10130 

James,  St.,  630,  528 
Janetland,  322 

Joye's  Isaye,  145 
Joys  (Seven),  397 

Kepler,  90,  279,  437,  7*8>  828a 
Ker,  107 

Wales,  10290,  1030,  10300 

Jannequin,  24 

Joza,  958 

Keresoun,  2390 

Inverleitli,  571 

Jans.'ii,  Cornelius,  529 

Juarez,  6550,  656,  6560 

Kerman,  735 

Invincible  Armada,  9250 

Jnnsen,  /acharias,  6570,  962 

.Tuba,  849 

Kermes,  8820 

Ionian  War,  459 

Japhet,  593 

Jubal.  47  So.  680 

Keslien,  Commissioner,  244 

Iphitus,  725 
Iquon  Amlaq,  80 

.lapliia,  142 
.laquett,  R.,  526 

Judai/.ing  Christians,  5380 
Judas  the  Gaulonite,  4280 

Ketesh,  4870 
Khan  Khaliel  Bazaar,  129 

ran,  7640 

Jardin  des  Plantes,  162 

Judas  Iscariot,  630 

Kharasm.  5450 

reland,       Samuel       William 
Henry,  8960,  897 

Jarlatto,  81,989 
Jason,  720 

Judas  Maccabeus,  51,534-7,5350 
Judica     Civitatis     London!*, 

Khargandede,  735 

Kharizmians,  The,  2140 

renteus,  228 

Jassiorum  Municipium,  5300 

275 

Khatti,  The,  88 

renodia  Gratulatoria,  19 

.1  itiva,  10590 

Judiciiim  Dei,  7290 

Khaurezm,  5450 

reton,  5170,  5780 
risb  Brigade,  5780 

Jauer,  787 
Jaulnais,  La,  5590 

Jugurtha,  539,  849 
Jaliacmn,  5390 

Khelat,  5430 
Khishtabad,  546 

Irish     Fishery     Commission, 

Jave  la  Grande,  990 

Julia,  Felicitas,  581 

Khooshab,  7660 

4020 

Jaws'  Harp,  5350 

Julian,  850,  852 

Khozors,  8600 

Irish  Linen,  5790 

Jayca,  7360 

Julian  Calendar,  1950 

Kial-Arnes,  2090 

"Irish     People,"    Newspaper, 

Jealousv  Offering,  729/7 

Julia  Traducta,  958 

Kiaran.  St.,  7330 

393 

Jean,  Mont  St.,  1038 

.luliers,  1390,  5390 

Ki-1  Canal,  363 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1091 


Kiev,  546 

Ladies'  Peace,  199 

Lattakoo,  24 

Lesser  Triumph,  7370 

Killigrew,  T.,  3380,  3410 
Kilmarnock,  Lord,  374 

Ladkah,  5580 
Ladles,  816 

Laud,  Archbishop,  3890,  3730 
Laudonia,  6050 

Leto,  63 
Letters  from  the  Pope,  6380 

Kineton,  3570 

Lady    Huntingdon's    Connec- 

Lauretta, 605 

Lettres  de  Cachet,  414,  8880 

King  George  Island,  915 

tion,  10460 

Laurium,  663 

Leucas,  573 

Kings  (City  of  the),  578 

Lady  Nancy,  The,  3060 

Laus  Pompeia,  5850 

Leucophrys,  9630 

King's  Hall,  Cambridge,  9860 
King's  Lynn,  6130 

Lsevinus,  38 
Lafayette,  4150,  9980,  999 

Lautern,  5410 
Lautrec,  1450 

Levant  Company,  5730,  6490 
Levels,  The,  10 

King's  (or  Queen's)  Advocate, 

La  Fontaine,  393 

Lavici,  848 

Lever,  Mr.  J.  O.,  430 

595 

"  La  France,  Rome,  etl'Italie," 

Lavinium,  533 

Lever,  Sir  Ashton,  5730 

King's  (or  Queen's)  Conscience 

8511 

Lavoisier,  2380,  3260 

Le  Verrier,  M.,  900,  6950,  7810 

Keeper,  5950,  596 

Laghonat,  380 

Lavolta,  The,  7890 

Lewis,  Sir  G.  C.,  3750 

King's  Theatre,  831 

Lagidae  Dynasty,  3630 

Law,  John,  567 

Lex  ^Emilia,  337 

Kingston-upon-Hull,  4970 
King's  Versifier,  786 

Lagrange,  13,  643^1 
La  Haye  Sainte,  10370 

Lawrence,  Sir  Henry,  509 
Lawrence,  Sir  J.,  509,  5090 

Lex  Canuleia,  848 
Lex  Cassia,  114 

King's  Well,  3380 

Laing,  24 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  856 

Lex  de  Aventino  Publicando, 

Kiptchak,  5510 

Laisne,  Jeanne,  1300 

Law,  Rev.  W.,  133 

5030 

Kipzak,  5510 
Kircher,  Athanasius,  13,  9380 
Kirghis,  The,  9910 

La  Joliette  Harbour,  636 
Lake  Champlain,  7830,  999 
Lake  Erie,  999 

Lay  Appropriators,  650 
Layard,  107,6760,7090 
Layer,  Christopher,  184,  567 

Lex  de  Maritaudis  Ordinibus, 
Lex  Frisionum,  4340 

Kiri  Kiri,  7060 

Lake,  Lord,  410   1430,  4360 

Lazarus,  St.,  Islands,  5580 

Lex  Gabbiana,  114 

Kirkby,  791 
Kirke,  Gen.,  9590 

Laki,  The,  88 
Laknaouty,  4330 

Lazica,  5670 
Lazone  Bay,  867 

Lexicon  Technicum,  371 
Lex  Julia,  1080,  6340 

Kirke,  Sir  D.,  3030 

Lally,  5070,  618 

Leaden  Farthings,  396 

Lex  Julia  Agraria,  3110,  608 

Kirkstall  Abbey,  569 

Lamacum,  560 

League  of  Virtue,  9890 

Lex  Ogulina,  8480 

Kirns,  1060 
Kishon,  River,  1060 

Lamb-ale,  340 
Lamballe,  Princesse  de,  4140 

Leake,  It.,  308 
Leake,  Sir  John,  444 

Lex  Oppia,  8480 
Lex  Orchia,  944 

Kisseen,  9150 

Lambe,  Dr.,  8410 

Leander,  80 

Lexovii,  581 

Klapka,  499 

Lambert,  D.,  390 

Lear  (King),  5700 

Lex  Papinia,  114 

Kniebiss  Pass,  149 
Knighten  Guild,  4670 

Lamb's  Wool,  1036 
Lameca,  560 

Least  Brethren,  662 
Leather  Currency,  272 

Lex  Papia-Poppaea,  331,  6340 
Lex  Poetelia  Papiria,  116 

Knights  of  the  Chapel,  793 
Knights  Hospitallers,  130,495 
Knights  of  the  Sword,  953 

Lamoriciere,  Gen.,  55,  330,4160, 
8510 
Lamotte,  Madame,  337 

Leaven,  10600 
Le  Blond,  J.  C.,  3770 
L'Ecluse,  911 

Lex  Porcia,  8480 
Lex  Publilia,  8470 
Lex  Remmia,  no 

Knights  of  the  Temple,  9630 
Kniphausen,  7230 
Knippenouhl  Rock,  450 
Knout,  Punishment  of  the,86oa 

Lampeter  Brethren,  5600 
Lamphier,  Mr.  J.  C.,  837 
Lana  Coacta,  3970 
La  Navidad,  Fort,  48 

Leda,  9260 
Ledyard,  John,  24,  708 
Lee  Boo,  Prince,  854 
Leech,  John,  214 

Lex  Roscia  Othonis,  3800 
Lex  Sempronia,  3800 
Ley  bourne,  Sir  W.   170 
Leyden,  John  of,  079 

Knowsley,  1035 

Lancarote,  330 

Lee,  Gen.,  65,  9300,  loolo,  1003, 

Leyden  Phial,  365 

Knox,  John,  550,  358,  831,  8860 
Knutson,  Charles,  949 

Lancashire  Independent  Col- 
lege, 5060 

IO020 

Leet-ale,  340 

Lhechryd,  10300 
Liakhow,  5580 

Kobold,  362 

Lancashire  Witches,  10530 

Leeward  Isles,  2130 

Liamone,  391 

Kola,  8630 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  360,  5610, 

Lefray,  101 

Libeny,  1030 

Kolaschin,  7360 

6680 

Legations,  The,  851 

Liber  Albus,  34,  65,  ilia,  n8a, 

Kolberg,  2660 

Lance-men,  563 

Legio,  573 

307 

Kolobeng,  24 

Land  Defence,  5630 

Legnago,  8180 

Liber  Feudorum,  3990 

Komorn,  275 

Land  and  Emigration  Board, 

Leibnitz,  1460,  195 

"  Liberte,  Fraternite,  Egalite," 

Konig,  Mons.,  8080 

3690 

Leichardt,  Dr.,  101 

4160 

Kooch  Behar.  2830 

Lander,  24 

Leinster,  See  of,  3980 

Libici,  The,  10160 

Koonik,  10590 

Landor,  101 

Leipsic  Interim,  5140 

Licinian  Rogations,  848 

Kosack,  293 

Land  of  Riches,  8700 

Lekeyo  Islands,  5940 

Licinius  Stolo,  C.,  37 

Kosala,  737 

Landsborough,  1010 

Leleges,  379,  5580 

Lictors,  10120 

Kosciusko,  397,  6160,  788 

Lane,  Ralph,  9750 

Lelewel,  789 

Lidoric,  280 

Kossta,  Martin,  looo 

Lanfranc,  980 

Lcly,  Sir  Peter,  9150 

Lidun,  614 

Kossuth,  4980,  499,  736 
Kostamizza,  7360 
Kothen,  57  '  W 

Langensalza  (battle),  814 
Langford,  Capt.,  9380 
Langiewicz,  103,  7880,  789 

Le  Mane,  6230 
Lemnos,  Labyrinth  of,  558 
Lemovica,  5780 

Lieber,  T.,  3800 
Lieou-Kieou  Islands,  5940 

Ko-tow,  2430 

Langone,  580 

Lemovices,  5780 

Ligeris,  5860' 

Koung-Ming,  8oa 

Langton,  Stephen,  3080,  6300, 

Leneea,  329 

Liger  River,  5860 

Krain,  316 

9650 

Leney,  Bishops  of,  13 

Ligures,  4350,  577 

Krapf,  9 

Langue  d'Oil,  563 

Lennox,  Lord  W.,  8060 

Li  Kong,  243 

Kremsier,  7340 
Krusenstern,  84 

Langue  d'Oui,  563 
Lanii,  The,  1880 

Le  Notre,  990 
Lentagio,  9550 

LUKouang-pi,  800 
Lille,  Rouget  de,  6350 

Kuban,  3040 
Kublai  Khan,  343 

Lannes,  Marshal,  840,  488 
Lansdowne  MSS.,  177 

Lentia,  580 
Leofgar,  Bishop,  357 

Lillius,  90 
Lily,  H.M.S.,  2090 

Kugler,  Rev.  C.,  80 

Lanzknechte,  563 

Leonard,  Father,  313 

Limesol,  8390,  9620 

Kulurin868      '  I03/a 

La  Perouse,  100 

Leonard's,  St.,  College,  550 

Limpo,  2430 

Kumaon,  5430 
Kunnoj.  5430 

Laplace,  900 
Lapsed,  The,  7170 

Leonidas,  937 
Leopold  I.  of  Belgium,  134,  1340, 

Linacre,  Thomas,  644 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  277,   loot, 

Kunnouj,  5420 
Kusan,  136 
Kymmene,  River,  7 
Kymry,  3090 

La  Pucelle,  764 
Larlstan,  766 
La  Roche  jaquelein,  566 
La  Rochetta,  3410 

183,  1800 
Leopoldirier  Verein,  810 
Leopold,  Prince,  3760 
"  Le  Petit  Caporal,"  5850 

looio,   1003,    10030,    1003, 
1036 
Linda,  19 
Lindau,  378 

Kyrle,  John,  8533 

Larrak,  230 

Lepidum,  833 

Lind,  Dr.,  168 

LA  BELLE  ALLIANCE,  1038 

Larsa,  330 
Lartius,  Titus,  3270 

Le  Prince,  66,  3770 
Leptis  Magna,  9870 

Linden  Tree,  578 
Lindsey,  Rev.  Theophilus,  945, 

Labelye,  Charles,  10430 
Laborosoarchod,  108 

Lascaris,  Theodore,  79,  354 
Laserian,  St.,  5700 

Lesage,  M.,  3650 
Lesch.58io 

9970 
Lindus,  8950 

La  Bourdonnais,  8960 

La  Sorbonne,  7490 

Le  Seur,  2330 

Linen  Armourers,  6490 

Labourers,  Statute  of,  80,  5570 

Las  Piedras,  1006 

Lesko  V.,  7870,  789 

Lingayets,  336 

Labouring    Classes     Lodging 

Las.sell,  M.,  7810 

Usko  VI.,  789 

Lingen,  8na 

Houses  Act,  874 

Lasus  of  Hermione,  680 

Leslie's  Choir,  376 

Linnaeus,  1630,  3780,  580 

La  Brunetta  Fortress,  947 

Las  Virgines  Islands,  10240 

Leslie,  Sir  John,  4790 

Lintz,  580 

Lack    Learning    Parliament, 

Latham,  Dr.,  586 

Lesser  Antilles,  600 

Lipa,  867 

1005 

Latimer,  Bishop,  373,  633,  738 

Lesser  Britain,  760 

Liparenses,  5800 

Laconica,  5580 

Latin  Church,  10410 

Lesser  Oasis,  7300 

Liparus,  5800 

Lactora,  569 
Ladakiyeh,  564 

Latinus,  31,  523,  565 
Latin  War,  848,  872 

Lesser  Office,  633 
Lesser  Sanhedrim,  8730 

Lithuanian  Knights,  8360 
Little  Horned  Parliament,  5830 

1092 


THE   MANUAL  OP  DATES. 


Little  Rome,  868 

Luca,  1014 

McNaghten,  Sir  W.,  330 

Mantchoo  Tartar  Dynasty,  243 

Little  Russia,  293 

Lucan,  8461,  8490 

Macquuire,  Governor,  iooo 

Mantegna,  Andrea,  3770 

Liverpool  I'laius,  looa 

Lucas  de  Burgo,  159 

Macrcady,  Mr.  William,  706 

Maiitimini,  125 

Livingston,  Dr.,  24,  240,  7060 

Lucas  of  Leydeu,  378 

Mackworth,  Dr.,  1201 

Manubalista,  113 

Livius  Aiulronicus,  338 

Lueerin,  6080 

Madiai,  Francesco  and  Rosa, 

Manukau,  7330 

Livonian  Knights,  1049 
Livy,  8490 

Luchente,  1004 

Lucia,  Feast  of  St.,  369 

Madiuna,  6360 

Manuzio,  Aldo.  34 
Mau-wolf,  1053          , 

Lluurwst,  1030 

Lucia  Pacioli  di  Borgo,  37« 

Madison,  Bishop.  490 

Marac,  Castle  of,  1380 

Llanwanoc,  1030 

Lucie,  St.,  6080 

Madras  System,  668a 

Maracanda,  8714 

Llyn  din,  5870 

Lucilius,  846a 

Madyn,  Al,  617 

Maraldi,  13 

Loaf  Mass,  5600 

Lueilhi,  8490 

Masad-monath,  5390 

Mnrano,  1015 

Loando,  5840 
Lobositz,  6070 

Lucius,  King  of  the  Britons,  6 
Lucius,  St.,  173,  10610 

Maecenas,  8490 
Magalhaens,   Ferdinand,  480, 

Marat,  386,  415 
Marbeck,  John,  680 

Lobsinger,  Hnns,  1350 

Lucius  Vanini,  910 

160,619,790 

Marbury,  870 

Lochaber  Axe,  1050 

Lucknouti,  433a 

Magindamio,  6610 

Marcetiu,  Gen.,  45 

Loch  Katrine  Waterworks,  446 

T                 »•          Q  .- 

Lucretia,  8470 

Mn.-istrato  tli-1  Proprio,  10130 

Marcellus,  8230 

Locke,  John,  2160 

Lucretius,  910 

Magmitum,  Scandalum,  882a 

March  of  Aucona,  55 

Lodomeria,  8300 

Lucullus,  431 

Magnentius,  680 

Marchand,  M.,  263 

Logier,  John  Bernard,  586 

Lud,  5870 

Magnes,  6210 

Marche-en-Famine,  764 

Logu,  Carta  do,  8760 

Ludgate,  sgoa 

Magnus  III.,  560 

Marches,    Lord    Warden    of, 

Loidis,  569 

Ludi  Sceuiei,  848 

Magnus  Albertus,  330 

3°6 

Lokman,  393 

Ltidi  Troj.mi,  504 

Maguelonne,  6710 

March  King  at  Arms,  7130 

Lollards'  Tower,  560 

Ludlow,  Sir  '"..  232 

Maguire,  7la 

Mardanus,  71*0 

Lollard,  Walter. 

Lud-town,  587(1 

Ma  '.-us.  Simon,  448 

Marcion,  338,  6310 

Lollius  Urbicus,  27,  173 

Lugdunuin,  613     t 

Mahabliarata  Poem,  368 

Marcus  Aurelius,  630 

Jx)mbard  Code,  3990 

Lugdunum  Bativorum,  5730 

Maha<lia,8oa       . 

Marcius  Rutilus,  3270 

Lombards,  757 
Lombe,  J.,  3340 

Lugdunus,  613 
Luigny,  Bishops  of,  13 

Maharattas,  633 
Malie,  8960 

Mardonius,  92 
Maremma,  The,  905 

Lomellina,  7760 

Luke,  St.,  15 

Mahesura,  68l« 

Mareschal,  636 

Londinium  Augusta,  5870 

Luke,  .St.,  Society  of,  loo 

Mahnioiid  Canal,  3620 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  4820 

London  and  Dover  Railway, 

Luliya,  88a 

Mahnioiut  of  Ghu/.ii"f,  507 

Mar-aret,  St.,  College,  H2OO 

336 
"  London  Gazette,"  702 

Lulli,  Baptist,  7260 
Lullv,  Raymond,  330 

Mahmoud,  Sultan,  400 
Maia.  641 

.Margarita  Phil<lr-.,pl.;. 
Maria  Louisa,  153 

London.  Hoval,  Yui-ht  Club,  857 

Lunardi.  I13« 

Mni   Lager,  10560 

Mariainne,  5340 

Longer  Catechism,  232o 
Longford,  10420 
Longovicus,  561 
Long  Kobe,  605 

Lunar  Maps,  67;; 
Lunar  Societv,  774 
Luneburg  Ueath,  7152 
Luni,  6090 

Maillard,  Madame,  8290 
Maine  Tariff,  loooa 
Mainland,  Island,  7900 
Maiuteuiiu  Aqueduct,  660 

Marianna  Islands,  5^9 
Maria,  St.    de    la  Meljorado, 
Cm.  vent,  6130 
Maria  Theresa,  169 

Long,  Thos.,  170 

Lusa,  8580 

Maiutenon,  Madame  de,  310, 

Maridunnm.  \.*)Zn 

Long  Waggons,  217 

Lusace,  8660 

414 

Marie  Amclii'.  (n. 

Look-Out  Valley,  1002 

Lugo,  8580 

Maisoor,  68la 

Marie  Antoinette,  327,  4140 

l.cipailnssa,  5600 

Lutetia,  749 

Maitland,  Sir  F.,  3430 

Marin,  280 

Lopez,     Gen.     Xarciso,    3040, 

Luther,  Martin,  970,  3630,  381, 

Maierit,  6180 

Manners'    Royal    Benevolent 

Lord  GYyrfe  (armour-plate  '!),  ~~ 

6ioa,  806,  8ioa,  831,  866, 
10350 

Major,  Dr.  J.  I).,  376 

Major  Gne.-ia,  621 

Society,  857 
Marino  Fnlicro,  1014 

Lord  Howe's  Victory,  Ioo6a 

Lutter  worth,  10580 

Makanna.  193 

Murinus,  633 

Lord  of  the  Navigation,  &c.,  of 

Lutwidirc,  Capt.,  710 

Malaeca,  6340 

Marion,  loo 

Ariibia,  <>->i 

Luxembourg.  1'alais  de,  7490 

Malathiah.  6460 

Marionettes,  8l6a 

Lord  Privy  Seal,  8090 

Luzon  Island,  7720 

Maiden,  6500 

Maritz,  81 

Lords   of    the    Congregation, 

Lyeaonl 

Maldiva  Atoll,  6250 

Maritzburg,  267 

2780 

Lyriaii  (James.  4580 

Malebranche,  7_r< 

Marius,  Caius,  859 

Lord's  Supper,  946 
Lord  H'nnii'n  (inm-elnd),  77 

Lvcurgus,  1080,  4580,  944 
Lvgii,  The,  906 

Mal.-diva  Islands.  f<^ 
Malik  e  Meidan,  81 

Mark,  63! 
Market  Bosworth,  162 

Lord  Warden  of  the  Marches, 

Lyndhurst,  Lord,  376 

Malli,  6730 

Market  llarborough,  6870 

306,  361 

Lyons,  sir  Edmund,  864 

Mallorca,  624 

Miirkham,  Sir  CritKn,  8^7 

Lord  of  the  World,  539 

Lysander,  92 

Mahnesbury,  Lord,  3240,  5770, 

Marlborough,   Duke    of,    620, 

Lorenzo,  St.,  383 

Lysimachus,  148,  6l^,  9700 

969 

970,    1510,   i^s. 

Loretto,  605 
Lose-coat  Field  (battle),  595 

MACADAM,  John  London,  6140 

Mai  mesbury.  Will  of,  65,  1350 
Malmutius  llunwullo,  5660 

3210,  373«,  626,  827,  10370 
Marleberg,  6330 

Lntharingia,  60513 

Macaronics,  614^ 

Malpighi,  Dr.,  1620,  487,  644, 

.Marlowe,  151 

Lothair-regne,  6050 
Louis  I.,  67 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  414 

Macarthy,  .Sir  Charles,  83 
Macartin. 
Macartney,  Lord,  2430 

77=!o 
Malte  Brun,  4360 
M.-uncrtina,  637 

Marmion,  Family  of.  3310 
Marmora  (Sea  of),  810 
Marocco,  675 

Louis  XV.  of  France,  41  }a 

Maeaulav.  Lord,  3750 

Maiuertium,  7270 

Maron,  John,  634 

Louis  XVI.  of  France,  4140 

Macbeth,  8850 

Mamertus,  5810 

Mars,  7810 

Louisa,  I'rincess.  ,",-(><•< 
Louis  Charles  of  Bavaria,  5 

Macelesfield,  Countess  of,  3310 

Macdoiinlds  of  Gleiieoe,  447 

Maiuista,  6730 
Manautia,  572 

Marsa  Alia,  6^0 
Marsir  \\ 

Louise  of  Bourbon,  I3I« 
Louis  (Orders),  554 

Macedonian  Dvnastv,  ^S3'« 
Ma  ionian  Wars,  8480,849 

Manhy,  (;apt.,  5760 
Mancenion,  6270 

Martel,  Charles.  47,  lolo,  1930, 
3680,  3i6«,  ^23 

Louis  Philippe,  5,  1630,  4150, 

.Marriloiuus,  (>[(} 

MauoeMr 

Martens,  Thierrv,  4^1 

416,  6990 
Louis,  St.,  24 

Macham.  Robert,  6170 
Machiavelli,  910,  277,616 

Manchester  Cottons,  2930 
Manco  Capac,  309 

Martial.  379';.  8460 
Martial  Dance,  6(170 

Louis,  St.  (Bay  of),  6o'ri 
Louis  William  of  Had;  n,  Ilo 

Machico  Island.  6170 

Maehina-  Ctesibiea',  *l6 

Mancunion,  6270 
Mandubratius,  336 

Martilmas,  637 
Martin,  John,  966 

Loul6,  Marquis  of,  8oia,  802 

Maehin,  Robert,  6170 

Manes,  6280 

Martin,  Jonathan,  10630 

Loupgarou,  1053 

Mackay  Gun,  The,  81 

Manfred,  6840 

Martinsburg,  1003 

Loup,  St.,  9880 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  C>i6a 

Manhattan  Island,  7050 

Martin,  Sir  T.  B.,  170 

Lovat,  Lord,  374 

Mackenzie,  Sir  George,  4^00 

Mani,  6280 

Martin,  St.,  30 

Love  Apple,  977 

Mackerel,  945 

Manica,  230 

Martin'-,  St.,  Bird,  ('^7 

Love  Rings,  84  [ 

Mack,  Gen.,  149,  9290 

Manichseus,  62^0 

Martin's,  St.,  l> 

Love-singers,  (>dzn 

Macklin,  Charles,  5930 

Manicola,  62  5a 

Martin's,  St.,  Hood,  233 

"  Loves  of  Mars  and  Venus," 

M'Leod,  Alexander,  9090 

Manigceastre,  6270 

Martlniere,  The,  1950 

The,  1130 

M'Clellan,  Gen.,  loot,  loolo 

Manin,  Daniel,  10150 

Martinique,  636(1 

Lowdham,  Mr.,  53 

M'Cllntock,    Capt.,    710,    430, 

Manna    of    St.    Nicholas     of 

Martins,  631 

Lower  Lorraine,  165 

42oa,  421 

Barn,  10380 

Martlemass,  637 

Lower  Navarre,  6910 
Lower  Palatinate,  743 

M'Clure,  Capt.,  710,  430 
M'Dougal,  186 

Man  of  Ross,  853^ 
Mausart  Roof,  629™ 

Marv  de  Boliun,  4820 
Mary-le-Bow,  St.,  7 

Loxa,  sB6a 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  533 

McKinlay,  lot  a                               Mansfield,  Lord,  453 
McMahon,  Marshal,  380               Mansfield,  Sir  W.,  5090 

Mary  of  Burgundy,  8i« 
Mary  d'Este,  548 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1093 


Mary    Queen    of    Scots,    108, 

Medwig,  622a 

Messalina,  8490 

Mitcliell,  John,  343,  518.  5183 

3450,  412,  585,    769,    886, 
8860,  9940 
Mary's,  St.,  College,  Aberdeen, 

Meeching,  6990 
Meeting  of  Robbers,  5650 
Megarian  Philosophy,  773 

Messis,  6730 
Metalwilch,  The,  9950 
Metellinum,  643 

Mitchell,  Sir  Francis,  669 
Mithridates  I.,  7910 
Mithridates  II.,  7910 

55<* 

Megasthenes,  754 

Metellus,  79,  3180 

Mithridates  III.,  7910 

Mary,  St.,  the  Glorious,  447 

Mehemet  AH,  3620,  736 

Metheglin,  340 

Mithridates  IV.,  7910 

Mary,  St.,  Spittle,  0300 

Mcherdatea,  133 

Metidja,  38 

Mithridates  V.,  79,0 

Masano,  5920 

Mehun,  7630 

Metius,  Adrian,  963 

Mithridates    VI.,     l6ia,    665, 

Mascarenhas,  8960 

Meiland,  679 

Meton,  90,  19617,  45oa,  653*1 

6650,  79'a 

Maschal,  L.,  65 
Maadew,  1051 
Maserfeld,  734 

Mejia,  Gen.,  6=;6 
Mejillones,  The  Islands,  3410 
Mejorado,  Maria  de  la,  6130 

Metropolis     Interments    Act, 
Metssex,  The,  555 

Mithridates,  Achemenides,l6ia 
Mitred  Abbots,  4 
Mitre,  Gen.,  184 

Masinissa,  719 

Melamphilus,  8730 

Metternich,  Prince,  io3a 

Mizpeh,  773 

Maskelyne,  Dr.,  43*1 
Mason   and    Slidell,    Messrs., 

Melampus,  4580 
Melancholy  Isle,  9750 

Mettis,  6540 
Mettius,  31 

Mizraim,  361,  3610 
Mnemoteclmy,  6650 

37Sa,  loot 

Melancthon,  Philip,  970,  441, 

Mevelevis,  The,  335 

Moawiyah,  735*1 

Masques,  638 

8100 

Mewar,  733 

Mocquard,  M.,  4170 

Mass;,  Ducale,  638(7 

Melanesian  Isles,  664 

Meyerbeer,  737 

Model  Lodging  Houses,  5890 

BCaseanleflo,  450,  685 

Mel  Arundinaceum,  943 

Mezzofanti,    Joseph    Caspar, 

Model  Prison,  809*1 

Massena,  940,  1240,  188,  488 

Melchizedck,  533,  807*7 

563 

Moeris  Lake,  361 

Massilia,  32,  433 

Melcombe  Regis,  10440 

Miba,  6580 

Mcesia  Inferior,  183 

Massowa,  >iti 
Muster  of  Arts,  10043 

Meldorp  (battle),  949 
Meletius,  6460 

Michael  Aiigelo,  54,  71,  7410 
Michael  Angelo   Merighi    da, 

Moeso-Gothie,  907 
Moguls,  6680 

Matter-General   of    the  Ord- 

Melissus, 364 

3I3a 

Moguntiacum,  641 

nance,  730 
Master  of  Hungary,  7530 

Melita,  636 
Mellitus,  5870 

Michael    House,    Cambridge, 
9860 

Mohammed  I.,  735,  737 
Mohammed  II.,  930,  735 

M  ii  -lei-singers,  6450 

Mellon,  Miss,  15 

Michael  Palaeologus,  790,  153, 

Mohammed  III.,  7350,  737 

Masts,  8990 

Mell,  St.,  710 

3530 

Mohammed  IV.,  7350,  737 

Matchlock,  838 

Melodunum,  6470 

Michael's,  St.,  Peru,  767 

Mohammed  V.,  7350,  737 

Mathematicians,  89*1 
Mathew,  Father,  2»8,  9630 

Melown,  1860 
Melphi,  646a 

Michell,  Admiral,  1170 
Mida,  6580 

Mohammed  VI.,  737 
Mohammed,  67,  67*1,  131,  6430, 

Mathurins,  640 

Melville  Island,  looa 

Middleburg  Island,  3780 

6660,667 

Matignon,  668 

Melville,  Lord,  374 

MiddJeton  (Kent),  661 

Mohammed  Ben  Aballah,  43 

Matilda,  1190,  1280 
Matilda  of  Denmark,  10650 

Memnon,  361*1 
Memory,  Artificial,  6650 

Middleton,  Sir  Hugh,  523,  701 
Midletun,  661 

Mohammed  Ben  Hixi-ni,  1  1 
Mohammed  Ben  Muxa,  370 

Matisco,  6i6a 

Menagerie,  The  (Tower),  980 

Mid-Lothian,  6050 

Mohammed   Shah    Bahmiani, 

Matronalia,  540 

Menages,  183 

Midsummer-Ale,  340 

81 

Mattabesick,  658 

Menahem,  87,  5230 

Mieroslawski,  7880 

Mohammerah,  7660 

Miittliiiis,  631 
Matthias,  Emperor,  4430,  970 

Menai  Bridge,  3390,  648 
Menander,  338 

Miesrob,  76 
Miguel,  Don,  80  1,  Sola 

Mohawks,  667 
Moidart,  374,  887 

Matthioli,  Count,  5300 

Mendana,  Alvaro  de,  930 

Miguel,  San,  780 

Mokrowena,  867 

Matueof,  A.  A.,  460 

Mendana  Islands,  6340 

Mikado.  The,  5290 

Moldau,  The,  805 

Maulevrier,  880 

Mendelssohn,  Felix  Barlholdy, 

Milah,66o 

Moliere,  370*1 

Maunds,  640 
Mnupertuis,  goa 

Mendoza,  Antonio  de,  767 

Milazzo  (battle),  645*1 
Mildmay,  Sir  W.,  3680 

Molina,  Louis,  6670 
Molinos,  Michael,  833 

Maurice,  Prince,  3910,  488*1 
Maurice,  St.  (Knights  of),  843 

Mendoza,  Cardinal,  9210 
Mendoza,  Pedro  de,  1810,  655, 

Milestones,  8430 
Military  Club,  691 

Moll,  13 
Mombaca,  668 

Maurienne,  880 
Mauritania,  640(1 

Menehuis,  4580,  9360 

Military  College,  16,  8560 
Military    (Master    General   of 

Mombaz,  230,  668 
Momoro,  Madame,  829*1 

Maurus,  llhabanus,  9830 

Menevia,  3160 

the),  6380 

Mompesson,  Sir  Giles,  669 

Mausolus,  4710,  6400 

Menilmontant,  2 

Military  Mines,  663a 

Moncada,  or  Moncade,  Castle 

Maxen  (battle).  813 

Menippean  Satires,  879 

Military  Road,  8480 

of,  130,  733 

Maxima  Ceesariensis,  1044 

Menno,  6480 

Military  Tribunes,  3830 

Monda,  678 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexi- 

Menorca, 662a 

Militz,  6ri 

Mondini,  644 

co,  656,  6s6a 
Maximinus,  641 

Men  (Poor,  of  Lyons),  1008 
Mensis,  6730 

Mill  bank  Penitentiary,  809*1 
Milled  Money,  266 

Mondragone,  908 
Moneyers,  The,  663 

May  Fair,  589,  641 

Mentelin.  John,  3c8 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  s?6,  789/1 

Mongwy,  668a 

Mayflower,   Ship,  3090,    6380, 

Mercarah,  2840 

Milman,  450,  91,  1360,  137,  355 

Monitor,  Steam  Raft,  3060,1001 

7000,  777 
Mayor  of  Garratt,  1034 

Mercator,  Gerard,  6300,  649 
Mercenaries,  6600 

Milo,  647 
Miltiades,  631 

Monkchester,  698 
Monk,  Gen.,  1410,  426,  6830 

Ma  vow,  644 
Maypu,  624 

Merchants  (Statute  of),  15 
Mercu'rius  Britannicus,  703 

Milton,  John,  3730,  748 
Milton  Street,  London,  465 

Monks  of  St.  Francis,  645 
Monkwearmouth,  945 

Maznriii,  Bible.  808 

Mercurius  Caledonius,  The,358, 

Milyas,  613 

Monmouih,  Duke  of,  3730,  530, 

Mu/arin,  Cardinal,  414,  726a 

7020 

Mimi,  663    , 

669,  890 

Mazenderan,  766 

Mercurius    Politicus,   19,   S71, 

Mimiirnrdevorde,  6"9 

Monmoutli,  Geoffrey  of,  146 

Mazeppa,  861 

7020 

Mina,  Xavier,  6=0 

Monocheros,  494 

Mead,  340 

Mercury,  Subchloride  of,  1970 

Mineral  Soda,  450 

Monceci  Portus,  668 

Meagher,  343,  518 

Mcvnnc'.  904 

Mercy,  Gen.,  410 

Meregatf,  633 

Ming  Dynasty,  343,  345 
.Mini,'-,  M.,  663 

Monroe,    James,    6690,    9990, 
1003 

Medallions,  7740 

Meretnn,  6500 

Miningerode,  679 

Mons  Martis,  6710 

Meddestane,  6220 

Meridian,  833 

MinorNs      '    'J 

Mous  Sacer,  8470 

Medeah,  38 

Meritoria,  4950 

Minor  Friars,  4180,  6620 

Mofts  Vaticanus,  lotto 

Medeltune,  647 
Medeshamstede,  768*1 

Mermaid  Inn,  260 
Mermnada:  Dynasty,  613 

Minos,  361,  395 
Minotaur,  77,  255 

Montague  House,  177 
Montague,  Lady  Mary  Wort- 

Mediation  (Act  of),  i,  951 

Merodach-iddin-nkhi,  88,  108 

Minot,  Lawrence.  7860 

ley,  5130 

Medici,  Alexander  de,  9930 

Merodach-sum-adin,  1070,  108 

Minsk  (battle),  788 

Montaigne,  883*1 

Medici,    Cosmo    de,  400,  644, 

Merodach-Baladan,  1070,  108 

Minyse,  The,  7290 

Montalembert,  Count  de,  417 

Meropis,  393 

Mirabeau,  4140 

Montanus,  2220,  670 

Lorenzo  de,  162,  406, 

Menimac     (Steamer),     3060, 

Mirabell  a,  7560 

Montanus,  Arias,  5630 

524,  6440 

1001 

Miramon,  Gen..  6550,  10160 

Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  S^o 

Medici,  Marie  de,  2680 

Merulo,  Claudio,  7260 

Mishawum,  335*1 

Monteagle,  Lord,  4683 

Medici,  Silvester  de,  4050,  644 

Merut,  645 

Mishna,  The,  956 

Monte  Aperto  (battle),  905 

Medinet-Alrm.  70 
Mediolanmn,  386,  8670 
Mediomatrici,  The.  6549 

Merv,  651 
Merwan  11.,  20 
Alesched  AH,  645 

Misithru,  674,  9370 
Misletoe,  665 
Misogonus,  3700 

Monte  Cavello,  8ci 
Monte  Fpomeo,  5310 
Monte  Fano.  9520 

Medoacus,  The,  7400 

Mesmer,     Friedrich     Anton., 

Mississippi  Scheme,  414,  567 

Montefiore,  Sir  Moses,  =^5 

Medon,  93 
Medontidse,  71 
Medwegestan,  622« 

651,917 
Mespiln.  6760 
Mesr,  301 

Mistra,  674 
Mistress  of  the  Robes,  605,  8431 
Mitchell,  icoa,  101 

Monte  del  Grano,  798 
Monte  Nuovo,  10353 
Monte  Santo,  677 

THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Monies  Claros   (battle),  8000, 

Murat,     Joachim,      140,    685, 

Naushahra,  906 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  George,  563 

10230 

9030 

Naval  Club,  Royal,  857 

Niemete,  861 

Montfaucon,  42 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick,  4490 

Navalc  Thuriorum,  859 

Nienfei,  245 

Montfort,  Count  de,  99 
Montfort,  Simon  de,  3720,  979 

Murdoch,  432,  9340 
Murgum  (battle),  632 

Naval  Paymasters,  757 
Navas  de  Tolosa  (battle),  977 

Niepce,  Nicephorus,  774 
Nigell  Ruffus,  850 

Montgolfier,  1  130,  501 

Murner,  Thos.,  214 

Naves  Liburnas,  8990 

Nightingale,    Miss    Florence, 

Montgomery,  Gen.,  203 

Murphy,  Michael,  74 

Naves  Long«,  8990 

7080 

Monti  jo  (battle),  8000 
Montijo,  Eugenie  de,  4161 

Murray,  24 
Murray,  Matthew,  9340 

Naves  Onerariae,  8990 
Naxus  693 

Night  Refuges,  8240 
Nikolaiev,  7070 

Montjoy,  8800 

Murray  River,  loco 

N  a  zana,  590 

Nil,  The,  311 

Montmorency,  Duke  of,  979 

Murray,  Robert,  803 

Neander,  J.  A.  W.,  355 

Nimes,  710 

Montone,  Braccio  da,  660 

Murrumbidgee  River,  looo 

Nebuchadnezzar,     870,     1070, 

Nimrod,  87,  230,  7090 

Mont  Orgeuil  Castle,  5310 
Montpensier,  Duke  de.  91,  924 

Mursia,  680 
Murtem  (battle),  6730 

108,  313,  5320 
Necker,  4140 

Ninian,  1730,  885 
Ninus,  870 

Montrose,  Earl  of,    980,   358, 
8860 

Musceas,  1450 
Musde  Napoleon,  607 

Nee-e-gata,  531 
Negus,  Col.  Francis,  6940 

Nisch,  710 
Nischandschi,  The,  3300 

Mont  St.  Jean  (battle),  1038 

Museums  (Trade),  981 

Neill,  Gen.,  1360 

Nisibin,  710 

Moolraj,  6720,  673 

Musical  Institute,  276 

Neitching,  7590 

Nitiobriges,  The,  350 

Moore,  C.,  13 
Moore's  Almanack,  43 

Musical    Society    of    London, 
276 

Nekio,  245 
Nelson  Column,  9810 

No,  9670 
No  Ammon,  9670 

Moore,  Sir  J.,  2910 

Musical  Union,  276 

Nelson,    Lord,    198,    374,    436, 

Noblemen    and    Gentlemen's 

Moore,  T.,  53,  3790 
Moorgate.  London,  5900 
Moorish  Baths,  9920 
Moph,  6470 

Musicians'  Company,  6800 
Musselburgh,  7770 
Mute,  7^90 
Mutual'System,  6680 

709,  8740,  98i,98ia 
Nemausus,  710 
Nemetacum,  780 
Nemetocenna,  780 

Catch  Club,  376 
Nocera  del  Pagani,  711 
Noddy,  Game  of,  2990 
Noel's  Catechism,  22^a 

Mopsits,  6730 
Moray,  Earl,  58 
Moreau,   Gen.,    150,    63,    144, 

Mycerinus,  8170 
Mydde.ltoii,  Sir  Hugh,  522,  701 
Mvgdonia,  615 

Nemours,  Duke  de,  134 
Neocastro,  6910 
Neokastoro,  6910 

Niietians,  755 
Noetus,  755 
Nogav  Tartars,  9910 

149,  1510,  339,  369 

Myl.-tidrc,  953 

Nron,   775a 

Noir,  Rouge  et,  855 

Morell,  52 

Myron,  888 

Neoptolemus,  380 

Nollekens,  Joseph,  888 

Morelos,  655 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  8460 

Nopher,  230 

More,  Sir  T.,  373,  700,  846 
Morgum  (battle),  632 

NAAMAN,  522 
Nabitthffians,  The,  770 

Nerbudda  Territory,  879 
Neriulissar,  1  08 

Norbertines,  804 
Norbert,  St.,  63 

Morigia,  Jacopo,  I2O 
Morison,  Robert,  1620 

Nabopolassar,  88*7,  1070,313 
Nabulus,  6830,  6930 

Nerio  Acciaiuoli,  930 
Neri,  Philip,  729 

Nordstrand,  761 
Norhani,  8850 

Morland,  Sir  Samuel,  9280 
Mornv,  Due  de,  4170 

Nachod  (battle),  814 
Na.hr.  M.,  114 

Nero,  459,  823,8490,  8510 
Neroiiia,  823 

Normanby,  Marquis  of,  376 
Normand,  Robert,  633 

Moron  (battle),  783 

Naildod,  502 

Ncs~elrode,  Count,  8620 

Norris,  24 

Morone,  Peter,  40 
Morphia,  675 

Nadir  Shah,  22*i,  136,  191,  330 

Xa-vins,  338,  8460 

Nestorius,  6950 
Neuffen,  10570 

Norsemen,  715 
North  Aufonton,  714 

Morris  Dance,  6740 

Xa'iri,  The,  88 

Nenin'ark,  7120 

North  Elmham,  7160 

Morse,  Professor,  366 
Mortara,  Edgar,  675 

Xakshibendis,  The,  325 
Namnetes,  The,  684 

Neville,  Sir  Henry,  997 

New  Albion,  49    " 

North,  Sir  Dudley,  7890 
Northstead,  242 

Mortella  Bay,  6750 
Mosandcr,  56^1,  6520 
Mosar,  A.,  694 

Namtow,  Fort,  3440 
Nanak,  9050 
Xana  Sahib,  2250,  437,  509 

New  ars.  The,  695 
New  Bordeaux,  7480 
Newcastle,  Duke  of,  376 

Northumberland,  995 
Northumberland,      Duke    of, 
376,  5900 

Moschopulus,  Emnnuel,  6200 

Nangaukl 

New  College,  Aberdeen,  550 

Northumberland,  Earl  of,  162, 

Moses,  ben,  900,  131,  2«2a,  3960, 

Xannetes,  The,  684 

Newcomeii,  Thomas,  9340 

166 

435,  534 

Napier,  Admiral,  114,801,8630 

New    Connection     Methodists, 

Northumberland  Fishery  So- 

Moshelm,  355 

Napier,   liaron  of  Merchiston, 

6530 

eietv,  4020 

Mosquitia,  6760 

586,  6840 

New  Exeter  Change,  3910 

Northumberland,  H.M.S.,  4150 

Mosse,  Dr.  Bartholomew,  6120 

Napier,  Gen.  Sir  Charles,  5080 

Newman,   Rev.   John   Iletirv, 

Northumberland  House  (Lou- 

Mother  of  Cities,  113 

Xapier,  Lord,  3430 

9800 

don).  9390 

Motion  (Perpetual),  764 

Napoleon  I.,  5,  44,  680,  71,  980, 

Newmarket,  U.S.,  10020 

North-  West  Company,  497 

Motions.  8160 

99,    1090,   1270,  129,  1400, 

New  (  Irsova,  733 

Northwich,  870 

Moultan,  6720 

1600,  172,  180,  3630,    393. 

New    Palace  of  Westminster, 

Norwich  Crape,  717 

Mountain,  The,  6690 

4040,  415,  4150,    416,  481, 

496a 

Notitia  Irnperii,  329 

Mount  Algidus,  848 

524,  524**,  57°o,  585'»,  594", 

New     Platonists,    School     of, 

Xotizie  Scritte,  702 

Mount  Altai,  9910 

8500 

355« 

Notre  Dame,  Paris,  749 

Mount  Gerizim,  8710 

Napoleon  III.,  380,  1020,  163, 

New  Port  Glasgow,  7970 

Nott,  Gen.,  220,  191 

Mount  Leucas,  875 
Mount  Olivet,  7241 

416,  4160,    417,  4170,  418, 
4180,  4720,  6880 

New  Prague,  955 
New  Reform  Club,  833 

Novatian,  7170 
Novesium,  6960 

Mount  Parnes,  775 

Napoleon  Island,  163 

New  Rome,  190,  3810 

Mount  St.  Michael,  6570 

Napoleon,  Prince,  380,  417 

New  Ross,  V53*i 

Novus  Portus,  864 

Mount  Tabor,  982 

Napper  Tandy,  James,    4720, 

New   Sarum,  869 

Nowell's  Catechism,  1580 

Mourzouk,  24 

New  Scotland,  885 

Nuceria,  711 

Mowrv.  Mr.,  730 
Mozart,  6800 
Mozul,  6760 
Muckle,  John,  533 

Xarasiiigha  Augady,  5310 
Narbo  Martins,  433,  687 
Nargen,  9480 
Narraganset  Indians,  8380 

NYwski,  6960 
New  Spain,  1420 
New  Spring  Gardens,  IOI3 
New  St.  Andrew,  3150 

Nuestra  Seiiora  de  la  Paz,  757 
Nueva  Isabella,  3330 
Nuisances  Removal  Act,  719 
Numa  Pompilius,  8470,  8510 

Mud  River,  665 

Narvae/.,  Gen.,  924,  9240 

New  Temple,  963 

Numitor,  31 

Mugaster,  6160 

Narvesa,  10140 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  249,  4070, 

Nun  Cape,  7110 

Muggleton,  Lodowicke,  6770 

Nash,  Beau,  136,  6380 

457,  6420,  7050,  728 

Nuncomar,  5070 

Magheir,  10050 

Nasmyth,  935 

Newtown,  1990 

Nunez  Tristan,  73 

Muinechan,  668 

Nathan,  Rabbi,  1440 

New  Ulster,  128 

Nunez  Vela,  53*1 

Mukden,  677 
Muksoosabud,  6730 

Nathy,  13 
National  Choral  Society,  276 

New  Westminster  Bridge,  10430 
New  Zealand  Company,  706 

Nupieds,  The,  713 
Nurnberg,  "7190 

Mulda,  The,  824 

National    Legislative    Assem- 

Ney, Marshal,  188,  324,  4150 

Nurses,  7080 

Muller,  42 

bly,  6880 

Ngami,  Lake,  24 

Ntisair,  590 

Muller,  Franz,  $<)ca,  440,  10020 

National   Loyal  Repeal  Asso- 

Niagara, The,  93,  930 

Nushirvan  (King),  6l 

Multiplication,  330 
Mummius,  12,  287*7,  741 

ciation,  835 
National  Sanatorium  for  Con- 

Nicephorus Phocas,  61,  304 
Nicholas    I.    of    Russia,    862, 

Nux  Vomica,  9400 
Nuyt's  Land,  loo 

MUnchcngrat/.  (battle),  814 

sumption,  164 

8620,  863,  864 

Nyassa,  Lake,  240,  72° 

Munchin,  St.,  578 

National  Temperance  Society, 

Nicholas,  Henry,  25 

Nymegeu,  7090 

Mundinus,  54 

9620 

Nicolas  V.,  Pope,  10110 

Mungo  Park,  24 

Nations,    Expedition    of    the, 

Nicolas  of  Antioch,  7070 

OATKS.  TtTfS,  3730,  7930 

Mnngo,  St.,  4450 

33°" 

Nicolas,  Sir  H.,  126,2490 

Obeahism,  8930 

Munroe,  114 

Natural  Selection,  929 

Nicotiana,  975-1 

Ober  Neustadt,  220 

Miinzer,  Thomas,  5.30 

Naumkeag  (Massachusetts),  49 

Nidwalden,  1005 

Obligado,  Point,  783 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1095 


O'Brien,  Smith,  343,  518,  5180 
Obstinates  (Academy),  loa 
Obwalden,  1005 

Ortega,  Gen.,  656,  9340 
Orthagorkte.  The,  904 
Orthodoxy,  Festival  of,  397 

Paley,  William,  Dr.,  3830,  968 
Palimbothra,  754 
Palissy  Bernard,  3500 

Patres,  The,  7540 
Patroclus,  1220 
Patronymics,  9460 

Oca  (Bishopric),  1840 

Ortvgia,  3200 

Pallantia,  7420 

Pattana,  754 

Occamists,  711 
Ocean  (Armour-Plated),  77 

Osaca,  5310 
Osbeck,  John,  1034 

Pallas  (armour-plated),  77 
Pallium,  340 

Pan,  10040 
Paul  of  jEgina,  644 

O'Conoell,  Daniel,  134,  3430, 

Osboni,  Lieut.,  4200 

Palmer,  E.,  366 

Paul  the  Hermit,  St.,  520 

343?  5l8,  575a,  835 

Oscans,  The,  10251 

Palmer,  John,  623 

Paulianists,  755 

Ocotepeque,  8700 

Oscillating  Cylinder,  935 

Palmerston,   Lord,   1650,   375, 

Paulinians,  755 

Ocrea  Rostrata,  901 

Osculatorium,  757 

375",  376 

Pauliiius,  690,  1350,  654,  711, 

Octapla,  1440 

Osculum  Pacis,  553 

Palmer,   William,    3900,    787, 

1063 

Octave  of  Christmas,  7°5« 

Osiander,  7330 

9400 

Paul  Jones,  3170 

Odonathus,  954 

Osiris,  361,  0810 

Palmosa,  7531 

Paul,  Lewis,  9080 

Odenburg,  7220 
Odin,  28901,  322,  9480 

Osman,  734,1,  737 
Osmanli,  The,  9910 

Palm  Play,  403 
Palmyra  (North  America),  6740 

Paul  of  Samosata,  755 
Paul's,   St.,  Church,  Knights- 

Odoacer,  533(2,  730,  850 

Osnabriick,  7330 

Palus  Maeotis,  106 

bridge,  590 

Odo,  Archbishop,  308 

Os.suna,  685 

Pamphylia,  84 

Paul,  St.,  61,  930,    310,    379, 

Odo  le  Petit,  850 

Osterland,  881 

Pamplona,  745 

438,  8490 

O'Donnell,  Geu.  9230,  924,  9240 

Ostracology,  276 

Panaitolicon,  22 

Paulus,  ^Emilius,  380,  5740 

<Ea,  9870 

Ostreich,  103 

Panathenroa,  913 

Paulus,  Dr.,  838 

(Enotrus,  4580,  523,  733o 

Osuna,  1004 

Pancair,  391 

Paul,  Vincent  de,  5670 

Offu,  139.  174,  1740,  8500 

Oswald's  Law,  343 

Pancakes,  903 

Pausanias,  1330,  7830 

Oglasa,  6700 
Ogyges,  1540,  4580 
(  igvu-cs'  Deluge,  321 

Oswaldstree,  734 
Osvvell,  24 
Otago  Settlement,  7060 

Pandulph,  58,  373 

I'.-uiiC.rus,  .Mount,  45o 
Pannage  (Right  of),  6980 

Pavilion,  173 
Paxo,  749 
Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  458 

Oldium  Tuckeri,  1034 

Othman,  1170,  370,  7340,  737 

Pannartz,  808 

Pays  de  Vaud,  1013 

Oigh-Magh,  7250 
Oil  Creek,  7700 
Oil  of  Flint,  1037 
Oil  Painting,  7410 

Otho  I.   of  Greece,    92a,   460, 
4600,  461 
Otho  Krumpe,  900 
Otho,  Marcus,  131 

Pantalogia,  The,  371 
Pantiles,  9730 
Pantomimic  dances,  3130 
Panva,  186 

Peabody,  Mr.,  590,  590*,  757 
Peace  Congress  at  Paris,  416 
Peace  of  God,  9880 
Peace  River,  1760 

Oinga,  237 

Otho  de  la  Koche,  920 

Paoli,  Gen.,  39  1 

Pecquet,  Dr.,  644 

Oise,  The,  8310 

Ottocar  II..  102,  1550 

Papeline,  794 

Pecuarii,  1880 

Ojeda,  480,  1015 

Ottoman  Club,  837 

Papia,  7560 

Pedro  I.,  330 

Oland,  7220 

Ouchy,  342 

Pa])in,  Dr.,  9340 

Pedro  of  Aragon,  33 

Olbeck,  John,  1034 

Oudeney.  24 

Papists,  7110,  846 

Pedro  de  Cintra,  230 

Olbia,  876 

Oudewater,  760 

Parabola,  379 

Pedro,  Don,  57,  8000,  801 

Old  Cairo,  709 
Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  5860 

Oudinot,  Marshal,  851 
Oudjenar,  770 

Paracelsus,  Theophrastus,  330, 
790,  3830 

Pedro  de  Valdivia,  875 
Peel's  Corn  Importation  Bill, 

Old  Faith  Men,  7730 

Ouigours,  The,  9910 

Paramatta,  731 

289 

Old  Grog,  465 

"  Our     Lady     of     Montesa," 

Pare",  Ambrose,  53 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  600,  116,  375, 

Oldham,  981 
Old  Melrose,  3«f 

Order  of,  963 
Outer  Barrister,  1220 

Paria,  Gulf,  480 
Parian  Chronicle,  7380 

Peel?  Sir  William,  509 

Old  Navarino,  6910 

Outram,  Benjamin,  835 

Paris,  4580 

Peel  Sound,  135 

Old  Sarum,  869 

Outram  Roads,  835 

Parisii,  The,  749 

Pelagius,  760 

Old  Somerset  House,  917 

Outram,  Sir  James,  45*1,  509 

Paris,    Matthew,    1320,  1363, 

Pelasgus,  69 

Old  St.  Paul's,  7550 

Ouzain,  Chateau  d',  53oa 

1420 

Pelissier,  Marshal,  380,  3110, 

Old  Testament,  144 

Ovens  River,  looa 

Parker,   Archbishop  of   Can- 

417,4170 

Old  Trafford,  628 

Overweg,  34 

terbury,  610,  3080 

Pellene.  iro 

Old  Verulam,  1018 
Oleg,  86oa 

Overyssel,  705,  998 
Ovid,  8460,  8490 

Parker,  Capt.  Hyde,  100 
Parker,  Richard,  7130 

Pell  Mell,  744 
Pelopidas,  3090 

Olinda,  167,  764 

Owen,  Bishop  of   Evreux,  130 

Parke,  Sir  James,  759 

Pelops,  4580,  7600 

Olisipo,  581 
Olympias,  817 

Owen  Glendower,  820,  3720, 
1031 

Park,  Mungo,  34,  7080 
Parliament  of  Dunces,  1005 

Pelouze,  105 
Pembroke  Castle,  483 

Omar  I.,  360 
Omar  Pasha,  31,  loua 

Owen,  John,  205 
Owen,  Professor,  723 

Parliaments  of  the  Champ  de 
'  Mars,  400 

Penalties,  741 
Pencadaer  (battle),  10300 

Ommaney,  Capt.,  4200 

Owen,  Robert,  375,  4750,  5110, 

Parliament,  The  Long,  86 

Penda,  5680 

Omme  Schanze,  756 

700,  738,  913 

Parliamentum       Diabolicum, 

Penderell,  W.,  161 

Omnibus  Measure,  9090 

Owens,  Gen.,  looa 

2960 

Penelope,  H.M.S.,  1900 

Ornri,  87ia 

Owerkirke,  Gen.,  10 

Parliamentum       Indoctorum, 

Penge  Park,  304 

Onate,  1004 

Oxenham,  49 

2960 

Pengwern,  9010 

O'Neill,  114,  1330 
O'Neill's  Revolt,  5170,  9950 

Oxford  Street,  9940 
Oxley,  Lieut.,  looa 

Parliamentum         Reipublicrc 
Angliaj,  859 

Penitentiaries,  9830 
Peun,  William,  49,  7610,  7710, 

Onomasticon,  3270 

Oxnaford,  738 

Parma,  Duke  of,  630,  140 

819 

Ootakavnund,  726 

Oxus,  The,  8710 

Parmegiano,  3830 

Penny,  Capt.,  4300 

Oputa  Indians,  9170 

Ozene,  726 

Parmenio,  6150 

Penny  Steamboats,  5890 

Opheltes,  6940 

Ozoana,  726 

Parr,  Queen  Catherine,  373, 

Pens,  9350 

Ophiolatreia,  8930 

483 

Pensagni,  6990 

()|.hit,.-s,  737 

PACHOMIUS,  St.,  30,  668,  7190 

Parr,  Samuel,  4610 

Pensioners,  14 

Opotiki,  7060,  741 

Pacification  of  Ghent,  443 

Parthenia,  8720 

Pentarchy,  483 

Oppeln,  6670,  828 
Opportune,  St.  (Hospital),  333 

Pack-horses,  9830 
Pacta  Conventa,  330* 

Parry,  710,  1220 
Parus,  752 

Penthievre  Fort,  833 
Pentonville  Model  Prison,  8090 

Optatus,  240 

Padang,  9430 

Pascal,  94,  I2o«,  195,  10440 

People  (Father  of  the),  784 

Orange,  Prince  of,  960 
Orbega,  The,  10050 
Orcelis,  7310 

Paducah,  10020 
Pagannlia,  2480 
Paganini,  Nicolo,  10240 

Paskiewitch,  Prince,  390,  in, 
8630 
Pasquino.  753 

People's  Charter,  336,  3740 
Pepin.  King,  330,  67,  413,  418, 
8500 

Orcan,  Emir,  1480,  7340,  737 

Page,  Mr.  Thomas,  10430 

Passargadae,  753 

Pepuza,  3333,  763 

Order  of  Communion,  2740 

Paget,  Mr.,  3390 

Passengers'  Act,  3690 

Popys,  15 

Order  of  Sempringham,  4440 
Orgetorix,  4810 
Oribasius,  644 

Paginus,  1441 
Pagratides,  Dynasty  of    the, 

75a 

Passion  Sunday,  745 
Passir,  1600 
Paston  Letters,  7010 

1'crcussion  Caps,  4010 
Perdiccas,  31  1 
Pergamo,  736 

Oriental  Plague,  780 

Pailee  Maille,  744 

Pataliputra,  754 

Pergolese,  7360 

Oriental     Translation     Com- 

Paine, Thomas,  935 

Patan  Empire,  330 

Periander,  8950 

mittee,  84 

Paisiello,  7260 

Patans,  The,  726 

Pericles,  52,  92 

Origen,  41,  I44a 

Paix  des  Dames,  199 

Patavium,  7400 

Periwigs,  1048 

Orixa,  7310 

Pakrama  Bahn,  329 

Paterini,  32,  7530 

Perkins,  Jacob,  9340 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  960,  4150 

Talamas,  120,  742 

Paternosters,  1290,  8520 

Perkin,  W.,  57 

Ormond,  Duke  of,  8310 

Palatine,  Mount,  833,  8470 

Paterson,  W.,  II5«,  3150,  747« 

Pernow,  764 

Orpheus,  91  a,  4580 
Orsini,  Felici,  417,  733 

Paleo  Avarino,  6910 
Paleopoli,  630 

Patino,  7530 
Pan-as,  754 

Peromi,  7600 
Perpetual  Peace,  7340 

iog6 


•i'HE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Perron,  410 

Philoponists,  9870 

Plebs  Santi  Marini  cum  Ca 

Poerio,  Baron,  6850 

Perrysville  (battle),  looia 

Philosophie.il    Society  (Edin 

tello,  633 

Point  Alcatraz,  480 

Perseus,  73,  135,  8«3 

burgh),  858 

Pleonnel,  9690 

Pole  Axe,  Io5<7 

Persian  J£r&,  io6ia 

Philtra,  773 

Pliny,  54,  99,   1480,  163,  690 

Pole,  Cardinal,  373 

Persiirny,  Count,  417 

1'hippsburg,  6230 

8460,  1019 

Policinella,  816 

Persi  us,  8460 
Persius,  879 

Phipps,  Capt.,  710 
Phipps,  Sir  \V.,  203 

Plockso  (.battle),  7870 
Plotinus,  695 

Polignac  Administration,  4150 
Polignac,  Prince,  415/7 

Pert,  sir  T.,  202a 

Phiswicke's     Hostle,     Cam 

PLOTS  AND  CONSPIRACIES  :— 

Poliorcetes,  Demetrius,  6150 

Perugino,  7670 
Perukes,  1048 
Perusia,  7670 
Ferusian  War,  849 
Peruzzi,  Baldassari,  9660 

bridge,  9860 
Phlogi.stieati.-d  air,  7100 
Phocion,  92/1 
Phii-nix  1'iirk,  Dublin,  342 

Phonetic  Hieroglyphics,  486 

Assassination  Plot,  85 
Aveiro,  Duke  of,  8ooa 
Baboeuf's  Conspiracy,  107 
Babyngton's       Conspiracy 
108 

Political  Unien,  147 
Politiques,  7890 
Pollock,  Gen.,  22a,  191 
Polly  Penchum,  1320 
Polo,   Marco,   83/1,  243,   6160, 

Postal,  Col.,  862 

Phoroneus,  7^a,  45^/7 

Berlin    (Democratic     Plot 

6320 

Pe.stalozzi,  Johann   llu.iurii-1 
768/7,  1064 
Post  Houses,  8iga 

Photogenic  Gas,  432/7 
Photographic  Printing,  936 
Phrynichus,  337<J 

8120 
Bicetre  (alleged)  Conspiracy 
US" 

Polotzk,  790 
Polycarp,  637,  grz 
1'olycletus,  888,  966 

Peta,  7360 
Pet,  dipt.,  71 
Peter  of  !i!uis,  1990 

Plitha,  361 
Pia,  7750 
Pianoforte   Quartet    Associa- 

Blood, Col.,  7840 
Bolingbroke,  784 
Bomilcar's.  318 

Polygnotus,  741 
Polyhymnian  Choir,  276 
1'oinare,  Queen,  734/7 

Peterborough,  Lord,  119,  9220 
1009 

tion,  276 
Pianori.  41617 

Braga,  Archbishop  of,  800 
Bye  Plot,  189/1 

Pomfret  Marbles,  7380 
Po  More,  6900 

Peter  Cassovius,  1060 
I'f.'T  tlie  Cruel,  432 

:'Mia    IV,  7870 

Piave,  'Hie  (battle),  851 

Campian's,  7840 
Catiline's    Conspiracy,    223 

Pompadour,  Madame,  414/7 
Pompeius   Cncus,   or   Pompcy 

Peter  the   Great,   2430,    3110 

1'iazzi,  900 

849 

the  Great,  161/1,  849 

3630,  370,  861,  8610 
Peter  &e  Hermit,  303 
Peter  House  (Cambridge  X  76gc 
J'eter  Morone,  40,  264(1 
Peter  Port,   St.,  769 

i'ib-eorn,  494 
Pieanl,  150 
I'ichegru,  Gen.,  1640 
Pie-Xie  Soci-ty,  The,   '.'I 
iMetavi,  787. 

Cato-street  Conspiracy,  223/1 
Charegites,  543 
Colocotroni's,  460 
Council  of  Sixteen,  9080 
Danvers,  Col.,  7*4^ 

Pompeius.  Sextus.  779 
Ponce  de  Leon,  480,  406^ 
Poneropolis.  —^a 
Poniatou-ski,  788 
I'ons  JEMi,  69  s 

Peter's,     St.,     of    Alcantara 

I'ict  

Despard's  Plot,  3250 

Pont  a  Moussin,  1004 

Nuns  of,  9160 

I'ietor,  Fabi'is,  8460 

Dudley's  Conspiracy,  343/1 

Pontia,  7910 

Peter's,   St.,   Cathedra!, 

Piddhif,'ton,  Mr.  Henrv,  9380 

Kleanofc,  Queen,  784 

Pontine  Marshes,  337/7,  791 

Peter's,    St.,  Chair,    Festival, 
8180 

1'ie.dniont  (I'.S.),  10020 
Pie-Powder  Coin: 
Fieri,  733 

Bsoea  Conapiracy,  3840 

Fieschi  Conspiracy,  400 
Fiesco  Conspiracy,  400/1 

Pontypool,  974 

Poor  of  the  Holy  City,  9620 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  1008 

Peter.  St.,  8490 

i'i.-ria,  «9oo 

First     Cowrie    Conspiracy 

Poor  (Servants  of  the),  9080 

Peter,  St.,  637,  1043 
Peter,  St.  ;iil  Viueula,  5600 

l,  *I,  160 
1'iia  Paganica,  409 

824/1 
Fitzgerald,  Lord  E.,  518 

Poor  Soldiers  of  the   Temple, 
9620 

Peterwaradio,  770 
Petiou,  4790 

I'etl'M   Island,  920 

Pilatre.le  Uo/.icr,  113/1 
Pilgrin.                             e,  131 
'illarists,  941 

Fit/gerald,  Lord  T.,  5170 
Fra/.c'i-,  Simon,  7840 
Georges'  (Cadoudul),  4370 

Pope,  Alexander,  246,  3790 
I'ope  Julius,  Game  of,  7930 
Pope's  Decretals,  9! 

Petrarch,  Francisco,  524,  674,7, 

•mars  of  Sand,  1038 

f  u-r.ird,  784/1 

Pope's  Merchants,  2240 

8500 

•1111011,983 

(iloueester.  Duke  of,  78ja 

Popliam,  Sir  Home.  210 

Petrilmrgtis,  7680 
Petrocorii,  The,  763 

•ilpay,  393 
Mm,  Lieut.,  4200 

•  lowrie's,  Earl  of,  4540,  S66u 
Guiseard's,  7840 

Popilia,  426 
Poplieans,  815 

Pctronii; 

'iueha. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  4680 

Populicans,  815 

Petrucei,  ottavio  de,  6080 
Peiiratians,  650 

'inkzovians,  777-1 
•intia,  10090 

Hanno's  Conspiracy,  218 
Isabella,  Queen,  784 

"orcaro,  Stephen,  8500 
'oreelain  Tower. 

Peyraud,  55 

'in/on,  4X77.  139,  166/7 

Jacobite,  5260 

'orcellos,  Diego,  1840 

Fling.  98 

'ions    Schools  (Brethren  of), 

Jacques  Pierre,  1015 

Dorchester,  7990 

Pha-arians,  1260. 

775° 

Karegites,  543 

'orlier,  Gen.,  923 

Phieax,  896 

Mpe-rolls,  830 

Lambert,  Simnel,  7«4a 

'orphyrius  Optatianus,  130 

Phaidms,  393 

'iplee,  1380 

Layer's,  567 

'orphyry,  695 

Phaganus,  4460 

'iquet,  776 

Lopez,  Koderigo,  7840 

'orson,  Richard,  37v«,  4610 

Phaim,  30 
Phantasmagoria,  6203 

Mrain.  142 
•iriel,  M.,  609/1 

I.volis,  6l3 

Main  Plot,  6230 

•orr,  799 
'orta,  824 

Phanlnstie  System,  332 

Msani.  Yi'ttore,  7870,  10140 

Malet'g,  625 

Porta,  Baptista,  53 

PhariE,  lia 

'isano.  Nieol,.,  888 

Meal  Tub,  643 

'ort  Cornwallis,  55 

Pharaoh,  5320 

'isatello,  The,  8580 

Mowbray,  Robert,  784 

Porte,  Antoinette    Bourignon 

Pharmacopeia,  771 

'ivuinnn,  768 

Murena,  8490 

de  la,  164 

Pharnaces,  l6la 

'isisiratus,  92 

Gates'  Popish  Plot,  3730 

'ort  Famine,  753« 

Phasis,  The,  8890 

'istorium,  7780 

Orsini  Conspiracy,  417,  7323 

'ort  Hudson,  1002          > 

Pheax,  896 

'itman,  Mr.  Isaac,  901/1 

Papineau's  Conspiracy,  203 

'ort  Lincoln,  looo 

Pheidon.  190,  73,  2650 

'ittaciiis,  3410,  8952 

Pa/./.i,  757 

'ortgrave,  6oia 

Phidias,  526,  725,  888,  934 

'itt's  Hridge,  1490 

Pichegru's,  776 

'ortgreve,  6010 

Philctus  of  Cos,  349 
Philip  I.  (Macedon),  616 
Philip  II.  (Macedou),  6i;/7,  616 

>itt.    William,   374,     426,  779, 
77')//.  807 
•itv.V.ssa,  8768 

Popish  (various),  7930 
Quirini-Tiepolo,  1014 
Haid  of  Ruthven,  8240 

Portholes,  8990 
Portico,  7970 
'ort  Orewyn  (battle),  1031 

Philip  11.  of  Spain 

'ius  IX.,  Pope,  793/7,8500,  851, 

Raleigh,    Sir  Walter,   784/7, 

'orto  Santo,  230 

Pliilip    III.    (Maeedon),    6150, 

8510 

827 

'ortpatrick,  7310 

616 

Mzarro,   Francisco,  48/1,  309, 

Robert,  Duke  of  Xormandy, 

ortuguese   Industrial    Exlii- 

Philip    IV.    (Maeedon),    6150, 

356a,  767 

784 

bition,  802 

616 

Mx.an-o,  Gtonzalo,  530,  767 

Rye  House,  3730,  8640 

ortus  Cale,  "2"« 

Philip   V.     (Maeedon),    615™, 

'lace  of  Fountains,  772 

Salcede's,  8680 

'ortus  Herculis  Monoeci,  668 

616 

lace-men,  14 

Simnel,  Lambert,  7840,  907 

'ortus  Itius,  1053 

Philip  V.  of  Spain,  420 

laeidlas,  6 

Story,  Dr,,  784a 

'ortus  Romanns,  734 

Philip  Augustus,  67 

Maids,  2590 

Suffolk,  Duke  of,  7840 

ortus  Rutupen.-:  1 

Phillip,  Capt,,  100 

lanetarium.  9290 

Surprise  Plot,  1890 

'ort  Victoria,  10200 

Philip  Commines,  78,  91 

lanctoids,  7810 

Syndercombe's,  473,  9520 

'ort  Wine,  1051 

Philip  Egalite,  415       ' 

Mantatiotis.  Hoard  of,  154 

Thistlewood's,  970 

'orus,  6150 

I'liir.p1(evil1e,  38 

las  .Newvdd,  3000 

Throgmorton's,  7840 

ji-nsses,  8l!0 

Philip  of  Maeedon,  6530 

Mate  Armour,  77 

Waller's,  7840,  10320 

osilipo,  The.  0900 

Philistm,  7720 

lato,  92 

lough,  935 

'o.-si'ssion  Island,  7oia 

Philo,  63 
Philocrates,  170 
Philo-Judams,  41,  695 

lat.mir  Philosophy,  773 
lantns,  2700,  338,  846/1 
laytoills,  967 

iMowden,  Mr.,  9 
liicker,  Professor,  4690 
lutarch,  2290 

'ostal  Districts,  590 
ost  Office  Directory,  3290 
otanion  of  Alexandria,  3550 

Philolo-Uts,  774 
Philopcemen,  12 

lavers'  SeourL'ft,  3380 
leasant  Hill  (battle),  1002,0 

lymoutli  Dock,  326 
neumatochians,  616 

otemkin,  Prince,  363^ 
otion,  773 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1097 


Potter,  Archbishop,  9970 

Ptolemy,  90,  144,  5340,  8i8a 

Rapp,  George  and  -Frederick, 

REBELLIONS—  (continued). 

Pottinger,  Sir  Henry,  344 

Ptolemy  Physcon,  36 

47  5" 

Fitzgerald's,  Lord  Thomas, 

Pott,  Perceval,  9460 
Pourzan,  75" 

Public  Weal,  107,  278 
Public  Health  Act,  874 

Rasen,  976 
Rassam,  Mr.,  9 

Fitzinaurice,  5170 

Power,  Tyrone,  8060 
Powhatan  River,  538 

Public  Records  Office,  9330 
Publilia  Lex,  8470 

Ratae,  5700 
Ratafie  Wine,  1051 

Flammock's,  4030 
Florence  (Revolutions),  406 

Powys,  886 

Publius  Sulpicius,  190 

Ratlierius,  60 

Gauls,  433 

Powvs  Endowment  Fund,  916 
Poynings,  Sir  Edward,   5170, 

7510,  10340 
Poynings's  Law,  3400 

Puente  de  don  Guarray,  719 
Puerto  Bello,  79801 
Puerto  de  Isabel,  3980 
Puerto  Rico,  7980 

Rathlone,  335 
Rattan  (Island),  10230 
Rattier,  Steamer,  8771 
Ravaillac,  414 

Ghent,  443 
Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  784 
Great  Rebellion,  7840 
Grenadines,  463 

Pranestines,  410 

Pues,  7700 

Raven,      Standard     of      the 

Guatemala,  466 

Prsetorium,  804 

Pursers,  757 

Danes,  117,  403 

Hampsicora's,  876 

•  Praxeas,  7540 

Pul,  87,  880 

Ravi  River,  816 

Hayti,  479 

Praxiteles,  3700,  888 

Pulcinella,  816 

Rawlinson,   Sir  II.,    88,    107, 

Hedui,  190 

Praying  Ladies,  1330 

Pullen,  Capt.,  710,  4200 

108,  133,  3°6 

Helots,  48x0 

Prebendary,  307 
Preetz,  8050 

Purbach,  42 
Purcell,  7360 

Ray,  3780,  733 
Raymundo  Berenger,  1180 

Hereward  de  Walle,  784 
Herispoes  Nephew,  175 

Preference,  Game  of,  8i8a 

Purgation,  739 

Raynal,  371 

Huguenots,  414 

Preissnitz,  Vincent,  455,  501 
Preliminary  Parliament,  1037 
Pr<5  Montre,  804 

Pusey,  Dr.,  331,  9800 
Pusheng,  191 
Pye,  Henry  James,  7863 

Headings  (Penny),  761 
Real  Collegio  di  Musica,  2800 
Rebecca,  166 

Hungarian,  1030,  4980 
Hungarian  Protestants,  4980 
Huntley,  Earl  of,  886 

Prenzlau,  806 

Pygmalion,  318 

REBELLIONS  :  — 

Hussites,  1550 

Prerogative  (Roval),  85*0 
Prescott,    William    Hickling, 
66a,  890,  loooa 
Preservative,  A.,  775 

Pyrrho  of  Elis,  81701,  8820 
Pyrrhus,  47,  66,  83,  138,  380 
Pythagoras,  13,  90,   960,  746, 
8170 

Abbasides,  3a 
Abdalla's,  9210 
Absalom,  534 
Achillaus,  363 

Indian  Mutinv,  375 
Ionian,  765 
Ireland,  374,  517 
Jamaica  (Negroes),  5370 

Pressburg,  806 

Pytho,  321 

^Edui,  190 

Janissaries    (Revolt),    28101, 

Pressova,  379 

Python,  The,  818 

jEmilianus,  363 

735° 

Pretender,  The,  374 

African,  33,  1043 

Jews,  363,  535 

Price,  Dr.,  330 

QUADRA  ISLANDS,  loioa 

Albanian,  460 

Jovinus,  Revolt  of,  4330 

Pride,  Col.,  3730,  807 

Quadratus,  630 

Albans,  31 

Jutlanders,  I 

Priestley,  Dr.,  910,   94,   2380, 

Quasstores  Classici,  819 

Ali  Bey's,  3630 

Kabbeljauwen,  488,  4880 

501,  7390 

Quastores  Parricidii,  819 

Ali  Pasha,  736 

Leitrim,  5710 

Prime  Minister,  170 

Quarra,  9180 

Ambiani,  46^ 

Levellers,  7840 

Prim,   Gen.,    331,  6550,  9340, 

Quarrels,  3010 

American,  374,  998 

Liburnia,  5750 

935 

Quartodeeimarians,  97 

Appenzel,  64« 

Lisbon     (Military     Revolt), 

Primitive  Methodists,  65301 

Quedah,  811 

Arundel's,  7840 

§81 

Primstaffs,  42 

Q'ueenborough  Castle,  8980 

Asshur-danin-pal,  88a 

Llewelyn  s,  1031 

Primstaries,  43 

Queen  of  the  East,  745 

Assura,  88 

Lombardy,  5870 

Primstocks,  43 

Queen's  House,  181 

Athens,  920 

Lovat,  Lord,  607 

Prince  Abbots,  4 

Quesnay,  F.,  3560,  775 

Audley's,  97 

Magi.  6300 

Prince  Albert  (armour-plated), 

77 

Quesnel,  1  1 
Quietists,  I3o 

Babylon,  1070 
Barrackpore,  1210 

Majorca,  634 
Malta,  6360 

Prince,  Brother,  25 

Quilca,  7670 

Batavi,  44001 

Mamelukes,  637 

Prince  Charles  Edward,  807 

Quintilia,  823 

Bergamo,  140 

Mar,  Earl  of,  887 

Prince       Consort       (armour- 

Quintus  Catulus,  160 

Berne,  9510 

Maroons,  Jamaica,  5370,  634 

plated),  77 

Quintus  Curtius.  351 

Bhurtpore,  1430 

Martinique,  637 

Prince   Imperial   of   France, 

417,  418 

Quirinal,  The,  iclio 
Quiros,  Pedro  Fernandez  di, 

Bombay,  Mutiny  at,  1570 
Brabant,  165 

Mazeppa's,  861 
Medes,  870 

Prince's  Club,  827 
Prince  of  the  Senate,  8910 

363,  700 
Qummukh,  88 

Bretons,  175 
Britons,  Revolt  of  the,   173, 

Mehemet  Ali'  3630,  736 

Prince  of  Wales  (vessel),  167 

Messeniau,  6510 

Princess  Royal,  375.  37617 
Principals   et   Capitalis  Con- 

RACE  OF  ALDERNEY,  34 
Racow,Qi5 

Bulgarian,  1820,  3530 
Byzantium,  9130 

Milan,  659 
Mithridates     Achemenides, 

siliarius,  8o6a 

Raeulf  Ceastre,  830 

Cabul  (Revolt),  330 

1610 

Principato  Citra,  8680 

Radagaisus,  1042 

California,  1962 

Mitylene,66sa 

Principia,  The,  900  7050 

Radbert,  Paschasius,  8920 

Carnutes,  316 

Mohammed  Ali,  3621 

Prior,  M/  3*90 

Radcliffe,  Dr.  John,  8aja 

Cawnpore,  335 

Monmouth,  Duke  of,  373a 

Priscilian,  809 

Radetsky,  Marshal,  4270,  9950 

Ceylon,  3390 

669 

Prismatic  Spectrum,  929 

Rae,  Dr.  710,  420 

Chaves,  Marquis  de,  801 

Montenegrin,  6700 

Privy  Council  Register,  8090 

Rsetia,  838 

Chios,  9131 

Moors,  673 

Prize  Fight,  8150 

Raffles,  Sir  Stamford,  13 

Circassia  (Revolt),  253 

Moriscoes,  92? 

Procas,  31 
Proclus,  60,  187,  695 
Procopius,  7001,  6*20 

Ragenfroy,  47 
Raglan,  Lord,  43,  375,  864 
Ragoba,  6330 

Claverhouse's,  7840 
Conyers,  St.  J.,  7843 
Corcyra,  387 

Moschian,  88 
Nacolia,  6820 
Napoli-di-Romania,  4600 

Procureurs  Generaux,  7510 

Ragotski,  Francis,  4980 

Cos,  9130 

Nerac,  6950 

Prodicus,  150 

Riihere,  133 

Cossack,  86  1 

Nominee,'  175 

Professional  Poets,  1190 

Rainbow,  The  (steamer),  900 

Cufa,  305 

O'Brien,  Smith,  518 

Profile,  9062 

Raikes,  Mr.  R.,  945 

Cumana,  3050 

O'Doherty,  5170 

Prologue,  981 

Rainulfe  II.,  67 

Cyrus,  6430 

Odrysse,  723 

Propositions  of  Pistoja,  77  9 
Proseleni,  69 

Rainulph,  105 
Raisins  de  Corinthe,  ^07 

Dalmatia  (Revolt),  313 
De  Montfort,  Simon,  3720 

O'Neill,  5170 
Oporto,  Garrison  of,  8000 

Protagoras,  918 
Protector  of  the  Realm,  8330 

Raisin  Wine,  1051      "      ' 
Rakos,  Field  of,  768 

Dinapore  (Military  Revolt), 
3380 

Oran  (Province  of),  Revolt. 

4170 

Protectorate,  5150 

Rakow,  915 

Dion,  9030 

O'Reilly's,  335 

Protestant  Flail,  551 

Raleigh,  Sir  W.,  49.  106,  I7<;a, 

Don  Alphonso,  800 

Ortega's,  9340 

Protet,  Admiral,  245 

1780,  624,  837,  843 

Dublin,  34301 

Ostrogoths,  5330 

Proudhon,  375,4170 
Prout,  Samuel,  1037 

Ralph    Roister  Dois'.cr,   3700, 
338 

Dum-Dum  (Mutinv),  3450 
Durham,  3470 

Ottacar  II.,  103 
Owen  Glendower,  1031 

Providence,  H.M.S.,  243.1 

Ramayana  (Poem),  368 

Elagabalus,  8490 

Palermo,  743 

Provincial  States,  3220 

Rameau,  7360 

Exeter,  391 

Pans,  7490 

Provisions  of  Oxford,  6170 

Ramirs,  I,  68 

Falisci,  8480 

Pegu,  1  86 

Prusa  ad  Olvmpum,  Sii 

Ramon  Castilla,  Gen.,  767 

Fanshaw's  Rebellion,  3830 

Penruddock's,  762 

Prusias,  148,  14801 

Randolph,  Sir  Thomas,  803 

Ferrara,  3980 

Percies,  The,  f.j,n 

Prynne,  William,  3730 

Rantzau,  331 

Fidenaean,  848 

Pharisees,  5340 

Psalters,  8140 
Pskov,  8(4« 

Raoul,  4130 
Raphael  dTrbino.  54,  2IQ,  74Ia 

Fir-l?olgs,  517 
Fitzgerald's,  Lord  Edward, 

Piacenza,  7751 
Picard's,  775", 

Psomfca.  io6a                               '  Rapidan,  The,  9300  " 

Piers  Gaveslon,  37217 

1098 


THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


REBELLIONS  —  (continued). 

Reichstadt,  Due  de,  4150 

RIOTS—  (continued). 

Rollo,  175,  2360,  322,  7120,  713 

Piattoa,,  967 

Reid,  Col.  William,  9380 

Gordon,  Lord  George,  453 

Romain,  1130 

Plebeian,  784 

Reid,  Dr.,  1016 

Grenoble,  463 

Roma  la  Chica,  868 

Pompeii,  7900 

Reimarus,  828 

Haymarket  Theatre,  479 

Romana,  923 

Porto  Rico,  7980 
Portuguese,  8000 

Reiters,  779 
Religious  Tract  Society,  981 

Hyde  Park,  375,  5°oa 
Kilkenny.  5180,  5460 

Roman  Bath?,  9920 
Roman   Catholic  Association, 

Potideo;,  615,  8030 

Remi,  St.,  838 

Lancashire,  561 

846 

Prague,  8050 

Remus,  31,  98 

Limerick,  5780 

Roman  Catholic  Board,  518 

Prussian,  81  1  a 

Rene,   "the  good  king,"  570, 

Lisbon,  8000,  801 

Roman  Catholic  Defeir 

Pugatcheff,  8610 

1820,  22la,  811 

Liverpool,  5830 

sociation,  846 

Rhodes,  9130 
Rhys  ap  Meredydh,  1031 
Rightboys,  785 
Rio  Janeiro,  841 
Royalists,  French,  415 
Russia  (Military  Revolt),  862 
Salar,  766 

Rennie,  Mr.  John,  5910,  1038  * 
Repeal  Agitation,  518 
Repeaters,  10360 
Republic  of  Babine,  1060 
Reschid  Pasha,  7360 
Research  (armour-plated),  77 
Resen,  87 
Reservation,       Ecclesiastical, 

London,  3740,  590 
Luddite,  3740,  609 
Lyons,  613 
Manchester,  6270,  628 
Maryland,  63717 
Merthvr  Tvdvil,  6500 
Middleton  (Lancashire),  658 
Montreal,  672 

Roman  Church,  10410 
Romandiola,  8450 
Romania,  855 
Romanis,  Johannes  de,  582 
Romanoff  Dynasty,  861 
Roman  Notation,  328 
Romany  Dialect,  469 
Rome-scot,  769,  8590 

Salassi,  8680 

7570 

Hug-House,  8410 

Rom-feoh,  769 

Sallentines,  8690 

Resistance  (armour-plated),  77 

Newcastle     and     Ormond, 

Romula,  896 

Samnite,  873 

Resolute,  Ship,  4200 

8410 

Romulus,  31,  98,  3800,  523,  823, 

Sarmatian  Slaves,  850 

Respublica  Binepsis,  1060 

Newport,  701 

8470 

Sardinian,  876 

Restonitionists,  10030 

Newtonbarry,  7050 

Ronge,  Johannes.  547/7 

Sbigmew,  7870 

Resurrection,  The,  8660 

New  York,  706,  1003 

Rooke,  Admiral  Sir  G.,  2090, 

Sepoy,  893 
Servian  (Revolt),  3533 

Return  of  the  Cyreian  Greeks, 
836 

"  No  Popery,"  453 
Oporto,  7370 

6240 
Rorica  (battle),  845 

Sevajee,  507 

Retz,  Marshal,  135 

O.  P.  Riots,  7370 

Rosa,  9170 

Shah  Jehan,  507 

"  Revised  Code."  The,  360 

Paris,  4150 

Rosamond's  Pond,  5280 

Siamese  Revolt,  186,  9030 

Revolutionary  Baths,  7180 

Peterloo,  769 

Roscell,  968 

Sicily,  904 

Revnard  the  Fox,  645/1 

1'orteous,  358,  797 

Rosciliona,  855 

Sidonian,  765 

Reynold*,  sir  Joshua.  260,  856 

Preston,  807 

Roseau,  334 

Sioux  Indians,  1003 

Raynosa  (battle),  923 

Rebecca,  8290 

Roseukreu/,  Christian,  8530 

Sogdian,  9150 

Rhages,  501 

Reform   (in  Midland  Coun- 

Rosenthal, 10560 

Spah  is,  Q3on 

Rhegium  Julium,  433,  9570 

ties),  3740 

Rose's  Act. 

Stafford,  Sir  Thos.,  784/7 

Rhium,  9040 

Rome,  851 

Rose,  Sir  H.,  509 

Steelboys',  7840 

Rhodes,  Knights  of,  495 

Surheverell's,  373/1,  8650 

Rose  Theatre.  01,7 

Strelitzes,  861,  9400 

Rhodt;z,  8440 

ShuwnYld  (Glasgow),  445/1 

Roslin  (battle!. 

Suliot,  4590 

Rhodos,  839 

Six  Mile  Bridge,  9080 

-ile,  547 

Swiss  Revolt  from  Austria, 

Rhoxolani,  860 

Spa  Fields,  3740,  9300 

Ross,  Edward,  10260 

102 

Rhvddlan,  839 

Spitallields,  9300 

Ross,  Gen.,  114 

Tae-Ping,  244" 

Rial.  «,4 

Stourbridge,  939 

Ros.,iino,  859 

Taher,  7650 

Rialto,  320,  10150 

Thorn's,  208,  843 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clarke,    590, 

Tela,  88 

Ribcliester,  807 

Thresher's,  518 

420 

Ten  Tribes,  534 
Texan,  965 

Rice  Wine,  1051 
Rich,  107,  1320 

Tipperary  (Food),  518 
Turin,  525,  991 

Ross.  Sir  John,  71/7,  1590 
Unit  tt'inans,  Cigar  Ship,  2500 

Thebes  (Revolt),  363 

Richardson,  24 

Warsaw,  78s,  7880 

Rosse,  Lord,  ox;//,  062 

Trihigild,  8900 

Richardson,  Sir  John,  710,  420 

Ritchie,  24 

Rossi,  Count,  851 

Tripoli,  9870 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,  414 

Ritter,  4290 

Rossini,  727 

Richer,  ooo 

Riums  Gate,  82? 

Rotherham  Independent  Col- 

Ulster, 9960 
United  States,  998 

Riches  (Land  of),  8700 

Riclmian,  I'n.fessor,  365 

River,  J.,  333/1 

River  of  Silver,  783 

lege,  5060 
Rotheric,  890 

Valencia,  924 

Rich  Mountain,  loooa 

-  Rivers  of  Waters,"  8900 

Rothschild,  42 

Valentinian,  3530 

Richter,  G.,  133 

Rivinus,  1621 

Rotomagus,  8540 

Velletri,  1013 

Rieimer,  Count,  1042 

Rizzio  492  886 

Rottciihurg,  4*5/1 

Viennese,  10310 

Ride    of    the   Six    Hundred, 

Robert  Curthose.  1048 

Rotte  River,  8540 

Vindex,  8490 

112 

Robert.  M.,  1130 

Roubilliac,  888 

Wallachia,  1033 

Ridley,  Bishop,  633 

Robertson.  1120 

Rougemont  Castle,  391 

Walthof,  Earl,  784 

Rien/i.  Coladi,  743,8500 

Robervai.  Bi.de,  40,  30*0,8430 

Roule,  2, 

Warwick,  Earl  of,  3720 

Rigodunum,  807 

Robespierre,  415,  834 

Round  Down  Cliff,  365 

Welsh,  10300 

Rlngsbroech,  John,  683,  966 

Robinson,  John,  700 

Roupell,  W.,  410 

Welsh  Flemings,  10300 

Rinteln,  1004 

Robinson's  Act,  2880 

Roiis-ird,  Pierre,  37 

Recife,  764 
Red  Cross,  855 
Red  Eagle  (Order),  350 
Red  Hot  Shot,  9010 
Red  Book  of  the  Exchequer, 
333* 

RIOTS  :  — 

Antigua,  600 
Anti-.Vegro,  9990,  looo 
Anti-Popery,        Edinburgh, 

Belfast,  1330,  134,5180 

Robson's  Forgeries,  304 
Roccha,  45,  3570 
Roche  Abbev.  ^4 
Rochester,  Earlof,  37Q/1 
Rock  Alum,  45 

Routiers,  1640 
Rouvray,  8550 
Rowcna,  1036 
Row,..  .Nicholas,  7863 
Rowlandson,  214 
Row.  SirT.,  290 

Redficld,  William,  938/1 

Birmingham,  147 

Roek  Day,  330/1 

Roxana,  6l=;a 

Red  Laird.  10  u  •/, 

Blanketeers,  151 

Rocket,     Locomotive    Engine, 

Roxolani,  860 

Redman.  Bishop,  830 

1  fed  riff,  854 

Boston  (U.S.),  162,  looo,  1002 
Bottle,  1620  (Bottle  Conju- 

Rockingham, 797 

Royal  African  Company.  24/r 
Royal  Alfred  (armour-plated), 

Red  Rocks  (battle),  881 

ror) 

Rock  Oil,  7700 

77 

Redstone  Hill,  773 

Bradford,  1650 

Rocour,  8280 

Royal  Bank  of  Scotland,  116 

Reeve,  John,  6770 

Bristol,  1720 

Rocoux,  8280 

Roval  Bible,  145 

Refah,  8270 
Reformatio     Legum    Ecclesi- 
asticarum,  205/1 

Brussels,  134,  1  80 
Burdett,  3740 
Canton,  244 

Roderic  (Archbishop),  42 
Rodger,  Lieut,  540 
Rodney,  Admiral,  2090 

Royal   College    of     Surgeons, 
Royal  Cork  Club,  1060 

Reformatories'  Exhibition,  370 
Regency  Theatre,  821 

Chartist  of  1848,981 
"Clear  the  Causeway,"  358 

Roe,  101 
Roebuck,  John  Arthur,  8980 

Royal  Exchangers,  il6a 
Royal  Funiily,  List  of, 

Regent  Street,  589 

Dean  Forest,  31  7/1 

Roemer,  900 

"  Victoria,"  1030 

Reginum,  828 

Dublin,  3420 

Roeskild,  8530 

Royal    Fishery    of    England, 

Regiomoiitanus,  42 

Dublin  Theatre,  3420 

Rojrer  of  Sicily,  920 

4020 

Registrar-General,  874 

Durham,  348 

Rogers,  John,  327,  633 

Royalist  Fends.  2I3« 

Registration  Act,  146/1 

Edinburgh.  358,  3580 

Rogersville.  IOO2 

Roval   Jeuneriau    Institution, 

Regium  Lepidi,  833 
Regnler  of  Anjou,  570 

Evil  May-  Day,  386 
Exeter,  3910 

Rohan,  Cardinal  de,  327 
Rokehy,  SirT..  166-1 

10070 
Roval  Mint,  Il6a 

Regiilbium,  830 
Rcgulus,  218 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  4000 
Galway,  430,  5180 

Roland,  Madame,  415 
Rolf,  7121 

/,'.://///  Ofik,  77 
Royal  Pharmaceutical  Society 

Rehoboth,  87 

Geneva,  4350 

Rollin,  Chancellor,  1300 

77- 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1099 


Royal      Sovereign      (armour- 
plated),  77 

Salisbury  House,  9390 
Sallust,   Caius  Crispus,    8460, 

Scauderbeg,  31 
Scandia,  8830 

SEA-FIGHTS—  (continued) 
Colberg,  3660 

Royal    Thames    Yacht    Club, 

8490 

Scania,  333 

Copenhagen,  3840 

1060 

Salmantica,  868 

Scaurus,    Marcus     ./Emilius, 

Corfu,  387 

Royal  Truce,  989 

Saloiiiki,  8690 

9660 

Cumso,  3050 

lioyal  Yacht  Squadron,  10410, 
1060 

Salta,  730 
Salters4  Hall,  870 

Sceaux,  1310 
Schabatz,  8940 

Curzola,  3070,  1014 
Curzolari,  5730 

Rozier,  1130 

Salt  Fishmongers,  4030 

Schamaki.  3510 

Cynossema,  3090 

Ruatan,  138 

Salt-Money,  384 

Schamyl,  8620 

Cyzicus,  3100 

Ruhriis,  P.  P.,  3680 

Salt,  Mr..  8a 

Scharf,  George,  638,  690 

Dardanelles,  315 

Rucellai,  983 
Radio,  733 

Saluces,  8700 
Salvador  Vidal,  The,  3410 

Scheele,  2460,  448 
Scheeler,  130 

Dogger-bank,  333 
Dover,  3360 

Rudolstadt,  8330 

Salvator's,  St.,  College,  550 

Scheen,  8980 

Downs,  337 

Rufaji,  325       ' 

Samoan  Islands,  6930 

Schelestadt,  8830 

Drepanuin,  339 

Ruicou,  Antonio  del,  7410 

Samson,  4330,  534 

Schelhorn,  1350 

Ecnomus,  356 

Rumford,  Count,  857 
Rumkhorff,  Professor,  365 

Samuel,  534 
Samus,  8730 

Schelling,  Frederick,  7460 
Schimmelpeuninck,  489 

Ephesus,  379 
Eryx,  38IO 

Runic  Characters,  859 

Sanatorium,  906 

Schleiz,  836 

Eurymedon,  385 

Runjoor  Singh,  390 
Ruustocks,  43 

Sancta  Maria  de  Arcubus,  70 
San  Carlos,  6a 

Schleswig-Holstein,       Prince 
William,  4600 

Ferrol,  399 
Frejus,  423 

Rupert,  Prince,  657 
Rupert's  Island,  8070 
Rlippell,  Dr.,  9 

Sancta  Sophia,  350 
Sancto  Caro,  Hugo  de,  1440 
Sandaliotis,  876 

Schlosser,  9990 
Schoeffer,  Peter,  808 
Scholastic  Theology,  968 

Frontignan,  4340 
Gibraltar,  444 
Granville,  4560 

Ruric,  the  Norman,  86oa 

Sandal  Wood,  917 

Schomburg,  Marshal,  135 

Gravelines,  457 

Ruscino,  855 

Sandby,  Paul,  1037 

Schonbein,  Professor,  468 

Hafursaord,  7150 

Rusicade,  773 
Ruscianum,  859 
Russell,  Earl,  348,  355,  746" 
Russell,  Lord  W.,  3730,  5790 

Sandeman,  Robert,  446 
Sandon  Priory,  383 
Sand  Pillars,  1038 
Sandy  Point,  646 

School  of  Design,  325 
School  of  Musketry,  5010 
Schrceter,  C.  A.,  7750 
Schwanhard,  H.,  3830 

Hango,  474 
Harwich,  477 
Hasunfiord,  477 
Havre  de  Grace,  478 

Russell,  Scott,  Sola,  1039 

Sanguinetto,  971 

Schwartz,  Barthold,  468 

Helder,  4800 

Rutherford,  Dr.,  710       ' 
Ruthyn,  1031 

San  Lorenzo,  66a 
San  Luis,  720 

Schvrartzenburg,  Prince,  339, 

57°a 

Heligoland,  3230,  481 
Himera,  8480 

Ruthven  Castle,  8340 

San  Miguel,  780 

Schwyz  Confederacy,  884 

Jean  d'Acre,  St.,  1014 

Rutilius,  M.,  3370 

Sansonate,  8700 

Scindia,  38,  850 

Kinsale,  551 

Rutland,  Duke  of,  436 
Ruzzante,  7460 
Ryknield  Street,  843 

Sans  Souci,  Palace  of,  8030 
Santauder,  Gen.,  690 
Santa  Anna,  Gen.,  655,  6550 

Scione,  783 
Scipio  Africantts,  3180,  931 
Scipio  Ferreo,  370 

Kioge,  55ia 
Laaland,  557 
Lade,  5580 

Rymer,  780 

Santa  Casa,  605 

Scipio  Nasica,  156 

Lagos,  559 

Santa,  Port  of,  480 

Scipio  the  Younger,  no 

La  Hogue,  5590 

Santa  Rosa  (battle),  8703 

Scolopini,  7750 

Lepanto,  5730 

SAAVEDRA,  990 

Santa  Scholastiea,  9410 

Scoloti,  8880 

Lmghiera,  580 

S:ili:tism,  8a 

Santen,  1059 

Scorpion  (armour-plated),  77 

Lissa,  5810 

Sabellius,  865 

Santiago  de  Leon  de  Caracas, 

Scorpions,  401 

Logera,  5860 

Sabine  Cross  Roads   (battle), 

313 

Scota,  885  * 

Lolland,  557 

10030 

Santorio,  9680 

Scotch  National  Convention, 

Loire,  5860 

Sabooa,  719 
Sabrate,  9870 

Sanutus,  Marino,  731 
Saoue,  The,  893 

887 
Scotia,  517 

Lucocisterna,  8760 
Malaga,  6240 

Sabus,  865 

Sapaudia,  880 

Scott,  Louis,  303 

Melora,  647 

Sacadina,  943 

Saphit,  3530 

Scott,  Sir  W.,  40,  188 

Meloria.  647 

Sacatoo,  34 

Sappho,  3800,  573 

Scribonius  Curis,  510 

Melos,  647 

Saccas,  A.,  3550 

Sapor,  50 

Scrivelsby  Family,  233 

Memphis,  648 

Sacheverell,  Dr.   Henry,   589, 

Saracus,  88a 

Scull-cap,  209 

Mitylene,  6650 

8650 

Sarazinois,  957          . 

Scutifer,  383 

Mycole,  681 

Sachs,  Hans,  371,  6450 
Sack,  1051 

Sarcophagus,  7980 
Sardanapalus,  870,  88a 

Scyrus,  88Sa 
Scythse,  The,  8880 

Mylse,  681 
Myonnesus,  68la 

Sackville's  "  Gorboduc,"  983 

Sardes,  878 

Seabury,Rev.  S.,  490 

Naulochus,  9030 

Sackville,  Sir  George,  453 

Sardus,  876 

SEA-FIGHTS  :— 

Navarino,  6910 

Sacramento  River,  1960 

Sargon,  78  88a,  1070,  6430 

Abydos,  8a 

Naxos,  6930 

Sacred  City,  486 

Sarmatse,  878 

Actium,  140 

Negapatam,  694 

Sacred  Mountain,  The,  8470 

Sarmaticus,  878 

Agates,  190 

Nile,  709 

Sacred  Stone  of  Mecca,  190 

Sarrebriick,  8640 

jEgosoptami,  30 

North  Foreland,  715 

Sacrifice    of     One     Hundred 

Sarrelouis,  865 

Alabama,  390 

Notium,  937 

Oxen,  480 

Sart,  878 

Aland  Isles,  30 

Olbia,  876 

Sacrovir,  1450 

Sasbach,  871 

Aleria,  350 

Ortegal  Cape,  733 

Sadler,  W.,  1130 

Satadru,  9470 

Algesiras,  380 

Pallene,  7430 

Sadoc,  866a 
Sasmund  Sigfusson,  3560 
Saetabis,  10590 

Satara,  Rajah  of,  1330,  633O 
Satriano  (See  of),  3010 
Satricum,  1036 

Arginusse,  730,  937 
Artemisium,  80 
Bantry  Bay,  1170 

Paros,  1015 
Passaro,  Cape,  753 
Pola,  7870   P     7M 

Safety  Valve,  9340 

Saturn,  533 

Barfleur,  1  190 

Portland,  798 

Saffron  Waldeu,  867 

Saturnian  Ballads,  7860,  8460, 

Basque  Roads,  1340 

Porto  d'Anzo,  7980 

Saga,  3460 
Sague,  80 

1018 
Saturnian  Hill,  3100 

Basseterre,  125 
Beachy-head,  129 

Portolongo,  7980 
Portsmouth,  7990' 

Saguntus,  8670 

Siitiiniinus,  448 

Belleisle,  135 

Quiberon  Bay,  8310 

Saheb  ud  Deen,  507 

Satyrs,  9810 

Brenta,  10130 

Sagoiie  Bay,  867 

Saida,  9040 

Saul,  165,  373,  534,  694 

Brest,  169 

Salamis,  868 

Sails,  8990 

Saunders,  710 

Cabrita  Point,  191 

Salboro,  1014 

Saint-Cyran,  M.,  60 

Saunderson,  Mrs.  M.,  15 

Cagliari,  8760 

Saldanha  Bay,  8680 

Sainte  'Beuve,    Madame    de, 

Saussure,  Horace  de,  670 

Camperdown,  203 

Santa  Cruz,  8740 

1006 

Savery,  Capt.  Thomas,  9340 

Cape  Finisterre,  3090 

Sapienza,  875 

Saint  Giles,  989 

Savo,  880 

Cape  St.  Vincent,  3090            , 

Sette  Pozzi,  1014 

Saladin,  790,  830,  533 

Savonarola,  406,  831 

Cecryphalae,  3350 

Sluys,  477 

Salboro,  1014 
Saldanha,  Duke  of,  Sola 

Savoy-Carignan,  Prince,  9930 
Sawtre,  William,  3730,  5860 

Champlain,  332 
Chesapeake  and    Shannon, 

Solebay,  916 
Southwold  Bay,  916 

Sale,  Gen.,  330 

Saxe,  Marshal,  620,  180,  4080 

2400 

Sphacteria,  875 

Sale,  Lady,  230,  191 

Saxon  Chronicle,  377 

Chesmeh,  3400 

Stromboli,  9400 

Salentines,  8690 

Saxon  Shore,  Count  of  the, 

Chioggia,  3450 

Swanwic,  948 

Salernum,  7750,  868a 

8810 

Chiozza,  2450 

Sweaborg,  9480 

Salisbury  Court  Theatre,  70450 

Scandalous    Chronicle,    The, 

Chnmphee,  344 

Swenka  Sound,  950 

Salisbury,  Earl  of,  1530,  164                i86a                                       i      Coalloon,  344 

Tauromenium,  960 

THE   MANUAL  OP  DATES. 


SEA-  FIGHTS—  (continued). 

Severus,  Arch  of,  8490 

SIEGES  —  (continued). 

tinny.*—  (continued). 

Tchesme,  7350,  9600 

Seymour,  Lord,  373 

Ahwaz,  28 

Banbury,  115 

Teos,  964 

<evmour,    Queen    Jane,    373, 

Aire,  380 

Bangalore,  115 

Texel,  965 

-483 

Aix,  380 

Barbastro,  118 

Toulon,  9780 

Seymour,  Sir  Michael,  2440 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  39 

Barca,  1181 

Trafalgar,  981 

Sextus  Empiricus,  8170 

Akermann,  290 

Barcelona,  118 

Trepani,  1014 

Sforza,  Duke,  3v(, 

Akhalzikh,  290 

Bareilly,  liga 

Tvndaris,  9940 
Ushant,  1006 

Shadwell,  Thomas,  7860 
Shafutes,  8960 

Alba  de  Tonnes,  31 
Albayda,  310 

Barfleur,  1190 
Ban,  120 

Viborg,  10190 

Shaftesbury,  Lord,  423'J 

Alcantara,  33 

Barletta,  I2o 

Vikia,  716 

Shah  Alum,  400 

Alencon,  35 

Baroach,  1300 

Winchelsea,  10490 

Shah  Shooja,  22a,  191 

Aleppo,  35 

Basel,  1230 

Windsor  Castle,  10500 
Wyborg,  1006 
Zonchio,  10140 

Shakespeare,    130,   323,  3730, 
8960,  897,  8070,  940 
Shakespear,  John,  897 

Alessandria,  35:1 
Alexandria,  36 
Alexandria  (U.S.),  360 

Basing  House,  124 
Bassein,  1241 
Bassorah,  125 

Zuyder  Zee,  965 
Sea-Kings,  The,  8830 

Shalmaneser,  87,  88,  880,  89, 
1070 

Algesiras,  380 
Algiers,  380 

Bastia,  135 
Batavia,  I2?a 

Sealing-wax,  1039 

Sham  Abraham,  To,  70 

Albania,  39 

Batnear,   \J>:i 

Sea  Province,  7910 

Shamas-Iva,  88a,  89,  1070 

Alhambra,  39 

Bayonne,  1380 

Searesbyrig,  8780 

Slmmas-Vul,  88 

Alid,  39 

Baza,  139 

Seater,  879 

Shan  Country,  5630 

Alise,  390 

Beauvais,  1300 

Sebastian,  King  of  Portugal, 

33,  675,  800,  889 

Shannon,  Frigate,  240,  999 
Shuimrec  Island,  180 

Alkmaar,  40 
Allahabad,  400 

Bedford  Castle,  131 
Bednore,  131 

Sebastopol  Committee,  375 

Seeehia,The,  833 

Sharpe,  Cranville,  9090 
Sharpe,  James.  Archbishop  of 

Allifre,  410 
Allyghur,  410 

Befort,  133 
Bejapore,  1330 

Bechem,  8710 

St.  Andrews,  887 

Almarez,  430 

Belem,  1330 

Second  Law,  956 

Shaston,  8960 

Almeida,  430 

Belfast,  1330 

Secret  Poisoners,  10380 

Sheba,  Queen  of,  2O,  534,  898 

Almeria,  420 

Bel  fort,  134 

Sectaries,  8990 
Sedinum,  9360 

Sheehv.  Kev.  Nicholas,  900 
Slice.  Sir  Martin  A.,  856 

Almorah,  43 
Alnwick,  430 

Belgrade,  1340,  894 
Belize,  1340 

Sedunorum,  Civitas,  908 

Sh  i,  *4o 

Alost,  430 

Bellegarde,  135 

Seti.  9430 
Segantii,  561 
Segarelli,  G.,  64 

Sheepshanks,  John.  fv 
"Sheffield  Thwvtel,"  30^-1 
Sheikh-el-Jebelz,  85 

Alsen,  443 
Alum-Bugh,  45 
Amalphi,  45" 

Bender,  1360 
BeneveiitO,  138 
Beiieventum,  138 

Segodunum,  8440 

Sheil,  Richard  Lalor,  5i8« 

Amand,  St.,  46 

Bcrgen-op-Zoom,  143 

Segreve  Hall,  761 

Sheld.mian  Theatre,  356 

Ainl.racia,  47 

Berlin,  1400 

Segusio,  947 

Shcmhmm,  186 

Amid,  50 

Berne,  141 

Seistan,  890 

Shemsiss,  The,  325 

Amiens,  50 

Berwick-on-Tweed,  1410 

Sejanus,  8490 

Shenandoah,      steamer,     376, 

Amoy,  5' 

Besnncon,  1410 

Selefkieh,  booo 

1003 

Am])hipolis,  510 

Bethar,  143 

Seleucus  Xicator,  34,  35a,  63. 

Shene,  3600 

Amsterdam,  53 

Bethune,  1430 

953° 

Shepherds.  7530 

Anapa,  53« 

Bevrout,  1430 

Seljouk  Sultans,  9920 

Shepherdstown,  loolo 

Ancona,  54 

Bezabde,  143 

Seljukian  dynasty,  9910 

Sheridan,   It.   B.,  3740,   379^. 

Ancyra,  58 

Be/.iers,  143 

Selkirk,  Alexander,  5370 

436 

Angar,  570 

Bhurtpore,  1430 

Seltz,  891 

Sherman,  Gen.,  10020 

Angers,  56 

Bielgorod,  7680 

Semaphore  signals,  963 

Sherry,  1051 

Angouleme,  56 

Bilbao,  146 

Semendria,  894*1 
Semiramis,  133,  3540,  385 

Shibhii  (buttle),  766 
Sliillibeer,  Mr.,  736 

Antibes,  60 
Antioch,  61 

Birmingham,  U7 
Bois-le-Duc,  156 

Semi-Universalists,  10030 

Shire-man,  294 

Antium,  63 

Bologna,  156 

Semmes,  Capt.,  30 
Sena  Julia,  905 
Seneca,  3830,  8460,  8490 
Senefclder,  Alois,  583 

Shire-reve,  899 
Shirkapore,  230 
Shirwan,  900 
Shooa,  9000 

Antwerp,  620 
Aquileia,  660 
Arcot,  71 
Ardee,  73 

Bolsover,  157 
Bomaraund,  157 
Bombay,  157 
Bonn,  158 

Senhouse,  Sir  Le  Fleming,  344 

Shooter's  Hill,  1290 

Aries,  74 

Bordeaux,  160 

Sennacherib,  870,  880,89,  1070, 

Shorncliffe,  4090 

Arnheim,  78 

Bouchan,  ro2o 

i°9,  532,  53a 
Separatists,  33 
Septem,  2280 

Short.  Dr.,  16 
Shrapnell  Shell,  89^0 
Shrewsbury  Statute,  15 

Arras,  780 
Arrctium,  79 
Arundel,  83 

Bouillon.  l(>2>i 
Boulogne,  163 
Bourges,  1630,  164 

Septembrists,  893 

Shuiski,  Andrew,  86l 

Arzilla,  830 

Bovianum.  164 

Sepulchre  of  the  Martyrs,  44« 
Serapomm,  37 

Shuites,  The,  88 
Shur,  67 

Ascalon,  820 
Asculum  Picenum,  83 

Bowyer  Fort,  164 
Braga,  1650 

Scrapion,  644,  8930 

Shuttlecock,  13? 

Ashdod,  83 

Bratnspantium,  i66« 

Serbs,  The,  894 

Sicaiii,  903 

Asta,  89 

Breda,  1670 

Serene  Highness,  4860 

Sicca,  990 

Astorga,  89 

Bremen,  1680 

Serinagur,  908 

Sichem,  898 

Astracan,  890 

Brescia,  1680 

Serrano,  Gen.,  924 
Sortorius,  2260 

Siculi,  The,  587,  9-3      - 
Siderographio  Process,  no 

Athens,  910,  930 
Athlone,  93 

Breslau,  169 
Brest,  169 

Sertuerner,  40 

Sidonius,  98 

Atra,  94 

Bridgewatcr,  171 

Servants  of  the  Poor,  9080 

Sicgen,  Louis  von,  657 

Aufidena,  97 

Briel.  1710 

Servetus,  Michael,  1520,  iy8, 

SIEGES  :  — 

Augsburg,  970 

Bristol,  1720 

ServiHus'  Rullus,  37 

Aalborg,  I 
Aath,  10 

Auximum,  104 
Ava,  104 

Bruges,  1780 
Brundisium,  179 

Sesostris,  3610,  4360 
Setabis,  10590 

Abbassabad,  30 
Aberdeen,  50 

Aversa,  105 
Avranches,  105 

Brunn,  179 
Brussels,  1  80 

Setantii,  The,  561 
Sette  Pozzi,  1014 

Abo,  7 
Abomey,  7 

Aylesbury,  105 
Azotus,  106 

Bucharest,  181 
Buda,  181 

Seven  Chiefs,   War  of,  4580, 

Acre,  130 

Baalbac,  1060 

Buenos  Ayres,  1810 

895 
Seven  Dials,  London,  589 

Acropolis,  130 
Aden,  160 

Badaca,  109 
Babylon,  107,  6150 

Buffalo  Town,  183 
Burgos,  1840 

Seven    Joys    of     the    Virgin, 

Aduatici,  180 

Badajos,  109 

Bushire,  i88a 

Feast  of,  397 

Aeth,  10 

Bagdad,  1  10 

Busra,  125 

Seven  Sorrows  of  the  Virgin 

JEgates,  9030 

Bahtz,  in 

Byzantium,  1890 

Mary,  895 

^Egina,  190 

Bakhtchisarai,  86  1 

Cadiz,  193 

Seventh-Day  Baptists,  865 
Seven  Weeks'  War,  895 

Agen,  350 
Agra,  26a 

Balambangan,  ilia 
Baltimore,  1140 

Cadsand,  193 
Caen,  192 

Seven  Wise  Men  of   Greece, 

Agrigentum,  38 

Bamberg,  1140 

Caernarvon  CasUo,  1920 

4580,  8950 

Ahmedabad,  28 

Bamborough,  1140 

Caffa,  1920 

Severn,  58 

Ahmeduugger,  38 

Bamfleet,  1  141* 

Ca.uliari,  193 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


S  I  EG  ES—  (continued). 

SIEGES—  (continued). 

SIEGES—  (continued). 

SIEGES—  (continued). 

Cahors,  1930 
Cai  -long-fern,  1930 

Coni,  379 
Conjeveram,  379 

El-Uksur,  6na 
Elvas,  368 

Gravelines,  457 
Groningen,  465 

Calais,  1940 

Constantina,  38,  381 

Embden,  3680 

Gross  Glogau,  447 

Calatrnva,  195 

Constantinople,    381,    3810, 

Embrun,  369 

Grosswardein,  465 

Calcutta,  1490,  195 
Calicut,  196 

353,  353« 
Conway  Castle,  3830 

Emden,  368 
Eperies,  379 

Guulior,  4650 
Guerande,  4660 

Callao,  197 
Callinghur,  197 

Copenhagen,  384 
Cordova,  2860 

Epidanmus,  3470 
Epidaurus,  3790 

Guns,  4680 
Gwalior,  4650 

Callipolis,  638 

Corfu,  287 

Erfurt,  38! 

Haarlem,  4690 

Calpee,  1970 
Calvi,  198 

Corinthj  387 
Cork,  388 

Erivan,  381 
Erivvan,  -581 

Hadrianople,  470 
Haerlem,  4690 

Cambray,  1980 

Cotta,  2920 

Eryx,  3810 

Hanau,  4730 

Cambridge,  199 

Courtrai,  395 

Erzeroum,  3810 

Harchgoun,  38 

Camelodunum,  3000 

Covelong,  20S'3' 

Escorial,  383 

Harfleur,  475 

Campeachy,  203 

'    Cracow,  2960 

Essequibo,  3830 

Hatras,  4770 

Canariore,  3030 

Crangauore,  307 

Eustatius,  St.,  3850 

Havana,  4770 

Candia,  304,  1015 

Crema,  3980 

Evora,  386 

Havre  de  Grace,  478 

Canosa,  207 

Crotona,  303 

Evreux,  386 

Hebron,  480 

Canossa,  3070 

Crustumeria,  3030 

Exeter,  391 

Heidelberg,  4800 

Canterbury,  3070 

Crustumerium,  3030 

Faenza,  3930 

Heilbronn,  4800 

Canton,  3080 

Crustumium,  303*1 

Faesulae,  3930 

Heligoland,  481 

Cape  Girardeau,  3^90 

Ctesiphon,  304 

Fairfax  Court-House,  3931 

Hennebou,  483 

Cape  Town,  310 

Cuddalore,  3040 

Fair  Oaks,  394 

Herat,  4830 

Caravaggio,  313 

Cumoe,  3050 

Falerii,  3940 

Hereford,  484 

Carical,  3130 

Cumberland  Gap,  306 

Famagosta,  305 

Hippo  Regius,  487 

Carignan,  314 
Carisbrook     Castle,     3140, 

Cuneo,  379 
Curzola,  3070 

Farnham,  396 
Feldkirch,  3970 

Honfleur,  493 
Huningen,  4990 

10470 

Custoza,  3080 

Ferrara,  3980 

Huy,  500 

Carlaverock,  31401 

Ciistriu,  557 

Ferrol,  399 

Hyderabad,  5000 

Carlisle,  215 

Civttack,  3080 

Fidenaa,  3990 

Iconium,  5030 

Carlow,  315 

Cuxar,  309 

Figueras,  4000 

Ilium,  5030 

Carmagnola,  3150 
Caroor,  3160 

Cuxhaven,  309 
Cuzco,  309 

Fishguard,  4030 
Florence,  4050 

Ingoldstadt,  513 
Innsbruck,  5130 

Carrickfergus,  217 

Czenstochau,  311 

Flushing,  4070 

Innspruck,  5130 

Carthagena,  3i8a 

Damascus,  3130,  6150 

Foix,  4070 

Irwan,  381 

Cashel,  3190 

Damietta,  313 

Fontaine  L'EvSque,  4080 

Ismail,  523 

Casilinum,  3iga 

Damme,  313 

Fontarabia,  4080 

Jaen,  537 

Cassel,  330 

Dantzic,  3140 

Fontenay-le-Comte,  4080 

Jaffa,  537 

Cattaro,  3330 

Dara,  315 

Forenza,  4090 

Jaicza,  5270 

Caudebec-les-Elbceuf,  334« 

Dartmouth,  316' 

Fort  Augustus,  4100 

Jean  d'Acre,  St.,  130 

Cawnpore,  325 

Decella,  318 

Fort  Detroit,  4100 

Jedda,  3310 

Cazan,  2350 

Deeg,  319 

Fort  Erie,  4100,  411 

Jelalabad,  5310 

Ceuta,  2280,  800 

Delhi,  330 

Fort  Fisher,  411 

Jericho,  5310 

Chalcedon,  230 

Demmin,  331 

Fort  George,  203 

Jerusalem,  303,   3030,    533, 

Chalus,  3300 
Charabery,  231 
Chandernagore,  3320 
Chandore,  233 

Dendermoude,  3310 
Derry,  593 
Detroit,  3350 
Devizes,  3350 

Fort  Pillow,  411 
Fort  Pitt,  '41  1 
Fougeres,  413 
Frederickshall,  4310 

532«,  534«,  535 
Jidda,  3310 
Jotapata,  5370 
Kabrabi,  88 

•Chai-leroi,  2340 

Dewangiri,  336 

Frederickshamm,  4211 

Kamineieck,  543 

Charleston,  235 

Dharwar,  336 

Frederickstein  Castle,  4310 

Kaminietz,  543 

Chartres,  3360 

Diarbekir,  337 

Fritzlar,  4340 

Kandahar,  543 

Chepstovv  Castle,  23Sa 

Dieppe,  3370 

Frizlar,  4340 

Kanoje,  5430 

Cherbourg,  or  Cherburg,  339 

Diest,  3270 

Funf-Kirchen,  4360 

Kars,  543 

Chester,  2400 

Dinan,  3280 

Furnes,  4360 

Kehl,  5430 

Chilian,  Castle  of,  343 

Dinant,  3280 

Gaeta,  4370 

Kelat,  5430 

Chingleput,  3450 

Dindigul,  3380 

Galacz,  438 

Kenilworth  Castle,  544 

Chin-Hae,  3450 

Diospolis,  339 

Galatz,  438 

Khotin,  347 

Ching-Keang-Foo,  34501 
Chinsura,  2450 
Chioggia,  2450,  10140 

Diu,  3300 
Dizier,  St.,  3310 
Djidda,  3310 

Galveston,  430 
Galway,  430 
Gamala,  430 

Kief,  7680 
Kilkenny,  5460 
Kilnmllock,  547 

Chios,  9130 
Chiozza,  2450,  10140 
Chippawa,  345« 

Dole,  333 
Domingo,  St.,  3330 
Donelson,  Fort,  3340 

Gap,  43  [ 
Gaza,  433,  6150 
Genoa,  436 

Kinsale,  5510 
King's  Lynn,  6l3a 
Knoxville,  555 

Chippenham,  346 

Douai,  3350 

Germano,  San,  440 

Kokand,  555 

Chitore,  246 

Dover  Castle,  336 

Gerona,  443 

Kolberg,  266a 

Chittledrog,  346 

Dowlatabad,  3360 

Ghent,  443 

Komorn,  375 

Chittoor,  346 

Dresden,  339 

Gibraltar,  444 

Konigstein,  5550 

Choczim,  347 

Dreux,  3400 

Girona,  443 

Kotah,  556 

Chotyn,  347 
Christopher's,  St.,  3480 

Drogheda,  3400 
Drontheim,  341 

Giurgevo,  445 
Glatz,  4460 

Kotzim,  247 
Kunnoj,  5430 

Chumpaneer,  2490 
Cireneester,  3530 
Cirrha,  2530 
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  254« 

Dublin,  343 
Dumbarton  Castle,  34*50 
Dundalk,  346 
Dundee,  340 

Glogaw,  447,  7870 
Gloucester,  4470 
Gliickstadt,  4470 
Goa,  4480 

Kunnouj,  5430 
Kurrachee,  557 
KUstrin,  557 
Kweilin,  2440 

Clermont  Ferrand,  258 

Dunkirk,  3460 

Goes,  4480 

Lagosta,  5590 

Clusium,  2600 

Durazzo,  3470 

Gohud,  449 

La  Mothe,  1570,  5600 

Coburg  Castle,  3630 

Dusseldorf,  3480 

Gomphi,  451 

La  Motte,  5600 

Cockermoutu,  364 

Duval's  Bluff,  349 

Gorcum,  4510 

Landau,  5610 

Coel,  2640 
Coimbatore,  265 

Dilren,  3470 
Dyrrachium,  3470 

Gorinchem,  4510 
Gorkum,  4510 

Landrecy,  563 
Latham  House,  5640 

Coimbra,  2650 
Colberg,  2660 
Colchester  Castle,  266a 

Ebora,  386 
Edinburgh,  3570,  358 
Edinburgh  Castle,  3570,  358 

Gothenburg,  4530 
Gottenborg,  4533 
Gottingen,  454 

La  Valetta,  566 
Laybach,  567 
Leicester,  570 

Colombo,  369 

Egesta,  890 

Gradisca,  4540 

Le  Mans,  6390 

Como,  275 

Ehrenbreitstein,  3630 

Grado,  455 

Leon,  573 

Comorn,  275 

Elbing,  3630 

Granada,  455a 

Lepanto,  5730 

Compiegne,  27o» 
Conde,  3760 

Elizabetopol,  3670 
El  Mina,  3680 

Graudenz,  457 
Grave,  457 

Lerida,  5730 
Leyden,  5730 

THE   MANUAL    OP   DATES. 


SIEGES—  (continued). 

SIEGES  —  (continued). 

SIEGES  —  (continued). 

S  i  EG  ES  —  (continued). 

Liege,  576 

Naarden,  683 

Privas,  8090 

Sutrium,  9470 

Lille,  577° 

Namur,  683 

Pskow,  8140 

Sveaborg,  9480 

Lilybaeum,  5770 

Nantes,  684 

Puebla,6s6 

Sweaborg,  9480 

Limburg,  578 

Naples,  6860 

Puy  Guillaume,  8l 

Syracuse,  903 

Limerick,  578 

Napoli,  687 

Pydna,  817 

Tachkend,  955 

Liiidisfarne,  490 

Narbonne,  687 

Pylus,  817 

Tachkent,  955 

Lisbon,  581 

Naumburg,  691 

Quebec,  203,  830 

Tan  j  ore,  9560 

Lisle,  5770 

Naupactus,  691 

Quentin,  St.,  8310 

Tarentum,  9570 

Lismore,  5810 

Narva,  687* 

Quesnoy,  81,  8310 

Tarifa,  958 

Lissa,  5810 

Nararino,  6910 

Quiloa,  833 

Tarragona,  9580 

Liverpool,  583 

Negapatam,  694 

Quimper,  8330 

Taschkent,  1563,  955 

Locri,  5850 

Negropont,  6940 

Radstadt,  834 

Taskend,  955 

Loja,  5860 

Neisse,  6940 

Ramnuggur,  827 

Taunton,  9590 

Londonderry,  593 

Neuhausel,  696 

Ramoraiitin,  853 

Tauromeiiium,  9590 

Longwy,  5940 

New  Aqnileia,  455 

Rangoon,  8370 

Temeswar,  963 

Lorca,  595 
Louisbourg,    or    Louisburg, 

Newcastle,  6980 
New  Orleans,  7000 

Rastadt,  824 
Ratisbon,  8280 

Tenby,  9630 
Tergoes,  4480 

209.  606 
Louviers,  6060 
Loxa,  5860 
Lucca,  608 

Nias-Bek,  1560 
Nicaea,  303 
Nice,  707 
Niebla,  708 

Ravenna,  8280 
Reggio,  833 
Rennes,  «35 
Rhegium,  833 

Torouanne,  964 
Thasos,  9660 
Thebes,  967 
Therouanne,  964 

Lucena,  6080 

Nimeguen,  7090 

Rheims,  8380 

Thorn,  9700 

Lucknow,  609 

Ningpo,  710 

Rhodes,  839 

Thuuars,  566 

Luneville,  610 

Niort,  710 

Rhuddlan,  839 

Thurles  Castle,  9710 

Luxemburg,  6na 

Nisibis,  710 

Richmond,  U.S.,  840 

Tigranocerta,  973 

Luxor,  6  1  10,  9670 
Lyme  Regis,  6130 

Nocera,  711 
Noreia,  7130 

Ripon,  8420 
Rochelle,  6430 

Tlneh,76oa 
Toledo,  9760 

Lynn  Hegis,  6120 
Lyons,  613 

Nottingham,  717 
Oczakow,  7.21  « 

Rochester  Castle,  844 
Rome,  3070,  4400,  850,  8500, 

Tijnningen,  977 
Tortomi,  978 

Lysimachia,  614 

CEuiadae,  7220 

851 

Tortosa,  978 

Maastricht,  614 
Madonna  Dele  Ohno,  6170 

oiniiitz,  724a 
Olvnthus,  6150 

Romorantin,  81,  853 
Rosas,  853 

Toul,  9780 
Toulon,  9780 

Madras,  618 

Onore,  736 

Rotterdam,  8540 

Toulouse,  979 

Madura,  619 

Oporto,  7270 

I.'u'.R'll,  8540 

Treviso,  985 

Maestricht,  614 
Magdeburg,  630 
Malaga,  6240 

(  h-],  -ans,  732 
Ostend,  7330 
Otchakof,  7210 

Roxburg  Castle,  8550 
Ruscia,  859 

Kustrhuk,  864 

Trichinopoly,  9^5 
Trincomalee,  986 
Tripoli,  9870 

Malines,  6250 

Oudenarde,  637 

.Saarbruck,  8640 

Trondhjem,  341 

Malta,  6260 

Oxford,  738 

Saguntum,  816,  8670 

Troy,  5030 

Mamers,  637 

Saguutus,  8670 

Tunis,  990 

Mangalore,  6280 

Palajpolis  742 

Salamanca,  868 

Turin,  991 

Mannheim,  629 

Palmyra,  745,  850 

Salerno,  8680 

Tusculum,  994 

Mans,  Le,  639 

Pampeluna,  7450 

Salona,  8690 

Tyre,  6  1  50,  .995 

Mantua,  630 

Panormus,  8480 

Salnnic-a,  8690 

Ulm,  9960 

Marburg,  631 
Marmande,  634 

Paris,  7150 
Pavia,  756 

Saloniki,  8690 
Samaria,  880,  5330,  8710 

Urbino,  10050 
Urgel,  10050 

Martaban,  1860 

Pegu,  7590 

Samos,  873 

Utica,  3180,  10060 

Mascara,  38,  638 

Pekin,  7590 

Sangnla,  6150 

Uxellodunum,  1007 

Massalia,  6350 

Pelusium,  7600 

S,m  Salvador,  871 

Uzes,  10070 

Maubeuge,  640 

Pembroke  Castle,  761 

Sautander,  8740 

Valdivia,  10080 

Mayence,  641 

Peromi,  7600 

Saragossa,  8750 

Valencia,  1009 

Mechlin,  6250 

Peniscola.  ~(,\n 

Sardica,  876 

Valenciennes,  1009 

Mediolanum,  6440 

Perekop,  Fort,  7630 

SarrebrUck,  8640 

Valladolid,  10090 

Megalopolis,  645 

Perinthus,  7630 

Saumur,  879 

Vannes,  ion 

Melos,  647 

Peronne,  764 

Savandroog,  8790 

Vania,  loiio 

Meluii,  6470 

Perth,  7660 

Scarborough  Castle,  882a 

Veii,  10130 

Mende,  648 

Perugia,  7670 

Schweidnitz,  8830 

Velletri,  10130 

Menehould,  St.,  6480 

Peschiera,  768 

Sebastian.  St.,  8890 

Vellore,  1013 

Mentz,  641 

Pesth,  768 

Sebastopol,  8890 

Venice,  10140,  Ioi5a 

Mesolonghi,  6640 

Petelia,  7680 

Srgcsta,  890 

Venlo,  1016 

Messina,  653 
Methone,  6150,  6530 

Peterwardein,  770 
Petra,  770 

Seleucia  Pieria,  8900 
Seleucia  Tracheotis,  8900 

Vera  Cruz,  6550 
Verona,  1017 

Metz,  6540 

Petropaulovski,  7700 

Selinus,  891 

Vesprim,  10180 

Meulan,  654 
Mezieres,  657 

Pevensey  Castle,  7700 
Pharos,  771 

Sens,  8930 
Seringapatam,  8930 

Vcszprim,  10180 
Viborg,  10190 

Middleburg,  658 

Pharsalus,  771 

Seville,  896 

Vicenza,  1030 

Milan,  659 

Philippopolis,  7720 

Sheffield  Castle,  898 

Vicksburg,  10010,  1030 

Minorca,  66za 

Philipsburg,  7730 

Sidon,  905 

Vienna,  441,  10310 

Mirandola,  663^ 

Phocaea,  7730 

Siena,  905 

Vienne,  1033 

Missolonghi,  4590 

Piacenza,  7750 

Silistria,  8630,  9060 

Viseu,  1035 

Modena,  666 

Pisa,  778 

Sin,  7600 

Volterra,  1036 

Monmouth  Castle,  66Bo 

Pistoia,  7780 

Sinope,  908 

Vyborg,  10190 

Mons,  6690 
Montargis,  670 

Pistoja,  7780 
Plataea,  7830 

Sirmium,  9080 
Skipton  Castle,  909 

Wachtendonk,  1570 
Wallingford,  10330 

Montauban,  670 

Plymouth,  7850 

Sleswig,  9100 

Wandewash,  1034 

Monte  Cassino,  6700 

Podolsk,  543 

Sogdian  Rock,  6150 

Warrington,  1035 

Monte  Video,  671 

Poictiers,  787 

Soissons,  9160 

Warsaw.  813,  10350 

Monza,  6690 

Poitiers,  787 

Soleure,  916 

Waterford,  1037 

Mooltan,  6720 
Morella,  674 

Poltava,  790 
Pomfret  Castle,  791 

Solothurn,  916 
Sozopetra,  9300 

Wesprim,  10180 
Wiborg,  10190 

Morocco,  075 
Moscow,  676 

Pondicherry,  791 
Pontefract,  791 

Spalatro,  9350 
Stirling  Castle,  937 

Widdin,  1047 
Windsor  Castle,  10300 

Motya,  742a 

Pontoise,  7910 

Stockholm,  937 

Wittenberg,  1053 

Mundisore,  6780 
Munster,  679 
Murviedro,  680 
Mutina,  6800 
Mycenao,  681 

Port  Hudson,  1003 
Potidsea,  7600,  8030 
Prague,  805,  8050 
Presburg,  806 
Pressova,  379 

Stockport,  9370 
Stralsund.  939 
Stuttgard,  941 
Sulmona,  9430 
Sutri,  9470 

Wurzburg,  1058 
Wyborg,  10190 
Xanthus,  10590 
Yaffa,  537 
York,  10620,  1063 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


1103 


SIEGES—  (continued). 

Society  of  Friends,  819 

Stadeford,  9310 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

York  Town,  10630 

Socinus,  Lselius,  915,  9970 

Stadford,  9310 

17  Edw.  II.  st.  i,  8570 

Yperen,  10630 

Socrates,  93,  3200,  459,   8830, 

Stafford,  Lord,  3730 

17  Edw.  II.  gt.  3,  1033 

Ypres,  10630 

918 

Stage  Coaches,  261 

Edward  III. 

Zacynthus,  8670 

Socrates  Scholasticus,  355 

Stahl,  Ernest,  338* 

2  Edw   III.  c.  3,  7390 

Zara,  1065 

Soho  Bazaar,  139 

Stalire,  9130 

3  Edw  III.  c.  15,  394 

Zaragoza,  8750 

Soho  Factory,  147,  366,  433 

Stambul,  3810 

5  Edw  III.  c.  5,  394 

Zidon,  905 

Soignies.  10370 

Stamenti,  8760 

9  Edw  III.  c.  3,  150 

Sieland,  1065 

8okoto,86sa 

Stunby,  951 

9  Edw  III.  c.  4,  150 

Siemens,  Werner,  9410 

Solar  Spots,  815 

Stanchio,  293 

9  Edw  III.  st.  i,  c.  5,  3860, 

Sienpi  Tartars,  6950 

Solfatara,  The,  817 

Standard-bearer    of    Justice, 

739" 

Sierra  Almagrega,  907 
Sigean,  10040 
Sigibert,  1740,  1990 
Sigismund  Augustus,  1060 

Soliman  I.,  iico,  737 
Soliman  II.,  670 
Solis,  Juan  Dias  de,  480,  7830 
Solmona,  9430 

4513 
Stanhope,  Gen.,  430 
Stanhope,  Lady  Hester,  905 
Stanhope  Press,  8080 

9  Edw.  III.  st.  3,  c.  I,  783 
10  Edw.  III.  st.  3,  6na,  944 
II  Edw.  III.  c.  i,  1055 
14  Edw.  III.  c.  7,  899 

Siguenza,  1004 

Solomon,  20,  534,  9160 

Stanislaus,  St.,  788 

14  Edw.  III.  c.  16,  710 

"  Sikunder,"  3190 

Solon,  93,  337,  8950 

Stanko,  293 

14  Edw.  III.  st.  I,  c.  10,  809 

Silchester,  i)4o 

Somerset,  Lord  Protector,  373, 

Stanley,  Lord,  3240,  969 

14  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  13,  1880 

Silicon,  9060 
Silivri,  891 

917 
Somer's  Town,  London,  509 

Stanley,  Sir  William,  163,  1034 
Starigow,  45 

14  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  30,  943 
15  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  5,  866 

Silla,  34 

Somerville,  240 

Statera,  9350 

30  Edw.  III.  c.  3,  7390 

Siloa  (battle),  6550 

Sondenhauaen,  8830 

Statius,  338,  8460 

33  Edw.  III.  c.  i,  10070 

Simeonites,  450 

Sons  of  the  Phoenix,  3910 

STATUTES  :— 

33  Edw.  III.  c.  5,  80,  530 

Simeon,  St.,  941 

Sooloo  Pirates,  7720,  918 

Henry  III. 

33  Edw.  III.  c.  7,  793 

Simeon  Stvlites,  941 

Sophia,  Princess,  4740 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  13,  86* 

35  Edw.  II  I.  c.  3,  4090 

Simnel,  Lambert,  343 

Sophia,  St.,  3810 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  13,  1310 

35  Edw.  III.  c.  13,  933 

Simonides,  44,  3790 

Sophocles,  460,  338 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  14,  470,  1033 

35  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  5570 

Simonides  the  Younger,  6650 

Soprony,  7220 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  15,  1700 

35  Edw.  III.  St.  I,  c.  3,  8oa, 

Simonis,  6480 

Sor,  995 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  as,  1880,  1040 

6900 

Simon  Justus,  144 

9  Hen.  III.  c.  36,  676 

25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  a,  940, 

Simon  Magus,  180,  448,  907 
Simon,  Niger,  83 

Sorbonne,  Robert,  7490,  918 
Soria,  9890 

9  Hen.  III.  st.  I,  c.  25,  1880 
31  Hen.  III.,  5680 

4860,  6790,  820 
25  Edw.  III.  st.  S,  c.  18,  1033 

Simon's  Bay,  993 
Simon,  St.,  375 

Sorrows  (Seven),  895 
Sortes  Biblicse,  1450 

43  Hen.  III.,  395 
51  Hen.  III.  st.  i,  340,  860, 

25  Edw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  23,  587 
25  Edw.  III.  st.  6,  137,  148, 

Simon  Zelotes,  173 
Simpson,  710 

Sortes  Virgilianse,  1450 
Sorviodunum,  8780 

5680,  1040 
51  Hen.  III.  st.  5,  c.  6,  10550 

811 
27  Edw.  III.,  6490 

Simpson,  Dr.,  346(1 

Sosigenes,  1950 

51  Hen.  III.  st.  6,  180,  1690 

37  Edw.  III.  c.  13,  1057 

Simpson  River,  1760 
Sinab,  9070 

Sossa  River,  5810 
Sostratus  of  Cnidus,  771 

53  Hen.  III.  c.  10,  395,  899 
53  Hen.  III.  c.  22,  423 

27  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  j,  8040 
37  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  3,  513 

Siuigaglia,  8510 

Sothic  Cycle,  3630 

55  Hen.  III.  st.  i,  c.  3,  895 

37  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  8,  4330 

Sinjar,  9070 

Soubeiran,  3460 

Edward  I. 

27  Edw.  III.  st.  2,  1730,  933 

Sinoub,  9070 

Soulouque,  370,  4790 

3  Edw.  I.,  290,  308 

37  Edw.  III.  st.  3,  c.  3,  933 

Siogoon,  5390 
Sipp.-n-a,  8930 
Sipus,  908 

Soult,  Marshal,  1090,  2910,  399, 
416,  431,  7100 
Southcott,  Joanna,  9190 

3  Edw.  I.  c.  6,  470 
3  Edw.  I.  c.  9,  497 
3  Edw.  I.  c.  13,  8270 

27  Edw.  III.  st.  3,  c.  10,  1040 
38  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  7,  933 
38  Edw.  III.  c.  3,  1031 

Siricius,  1170 

South  Down  Sheep,  898 

3  Edw.  I.  c.  15,  in 

38  Edw.  III.  c.  5,  530 

Sirnames,  9460 

Sonthev,  Robert,  7860 

3  Edw.  I.  c.  25,  2310 

31  Edw.  III.  c.  3,  9800 

Sisapon,42 

South  Shetland,  920 

3  Edw.  I.  c.  51,  860 

31  Edw.  III.  c.  10,  io3i 

Sisyphus,  523 

South  Town,  785 

7  Edw.  I.  st.  2,  676 

31  Edw.  III.  c.  13,  640 

Sit  hin,  Monastery  of  ,  30 

Souzdnl,  948 

II  Edw.  I.  s.  13,  65 

31  Edw.  III.  st.  I,  c.  II,  170 

Sitka,  8630 

Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  693,  900, 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  5,  1031 

31  Edw.  III.  st.  i,  c.  13,  386 

Sitomagus,  969 

10550 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  I,  497 

3880 

Sixteen-string  Jack,  3890 

Spalding,  W.,  170 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  4,  497 

31  Edw.  III.  st.  2,  4840 

Sixtus  V.,  66 

Spandow,  9250 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  5,  600 

34  Edw.  III.  c.  i,  3803,  5400 

Skelton,  John,  786 
Skinners'  Well,  258 

Spanish  Triumvirate,  524 
Spanish  Wax,  1039 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  10430 
13  Edw.  I.  c.  10,  940 

34  Edw.  III.  c.  10,  800 
34  Edw.  III.  c.  30,  2880 

Slaughter-houses,  3 
Slave  Kings,  816 
Sleepy  Academy,  ico 

Spara,  10380 
Spartacus.  7680,  9370 
Speaking  Head,  104 

13  Edw.  I.  c.  30,  710 
13  Edw.  I.  c.  34,  368,  8370 
13  Edw.  I.  c.  49,  2ya 

36  Edw.  III.  c.  15,  5660 
37  Edw.  III.  c.  8,  3400,  6no, 
894 

Slevesholm,  2600 
Slidell    and    Mason,    Messrs., 

Speier,  9290 
Speke,  Capt.,  240,  7080 

13  Edw.  I.  st.  I,  c.  19,  17 
13  Edw.  I.  st.  I,  c.  39,  7390 

Richard  II. 
2  Rich.  II.  c.  4,  8c6o 

984,  9840,  i  ooi 

Spener,  Philip  James,  7760 

13  Edw.  I.  st.  i,  c.  3°   860, 

2  Rich.  II.  c.  5,8820 

Slide-valve,  9340 

Spenser,  Edmund,  41,  786 

710 

3  Rich.  II.  c.  3,  137,  1460 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  911 

Spenser,  Mr.,  366 

13  Edw.  I.  st.  i,  c.  34,  7190 

4  Rich.  II.  c.  i,  733 

Slocum,  Gen.,  93 
Smeaton,  1350,  361,  331,  3560, 

Sperchius,  8920 
Speusippus,  10 

13  Edw.  I.  st.  2,  c.  5,  843 
13  Edw.  I.  st.  2,  c.  6,  3800 

5  Rich.  II.,  6490 
5  Rich.  II.  st.   2,  c.  4,  184, 

934a 
Smirke,  Sir  R..  396 

Sphacteria,  875 
Sphinx,  The,  104 

13  Edw.  I.  st.  5,  398 
14  Edw.  I.,  639 

5  Rich.  II,  st.  2,  c.  5,  5860, 

Smith,  Adam,  3830,  4220,  7890 

Spielmnn,  or  Spilman,  Sir  J., 

25  tdw.  I.  c.  I,  4090 

1057,  10580 

Smith,  Dr.  Southwood,  874 

3150 

25  Edw.  I.  c.  5,  888 

7  Rich.  II.  c.  ia,  137 

Smith,  Joseph,  6740 
Smith  O'Brien,  359 

Spin-gardas,  3010 
Spinning-frame,  2930 

25  Edw.      c.  6,  888,  960 
25  Edw.    .  c.  7,  958 

7  Rich.  II.  c.  15,  3310 
8  Rich.  II.  c.  4,  830 

Smith,  Sir  Harry,  390 
Smith,  Sir  Sidney,  130 
Smithsonian  Institute,  1036 

Spinning  Jenny,  3930 
Spinosa,  Gabriel  de,  889 
Spinoza,  910,  7460 

25  Edw.      c.  9,  352 
25  Edw.      c.  14,  470 
27  Edw.    .,  266 

8  Rich.  II.  c.  5,  600 
13  Rich.  II.  c.  5,  65 
13  Rich.  II.  c.  6,  124 

Smith,  William,  437,  9910 
Sin  ogre,  169 

Spiritualism,  930 
Spiritual  Libertines,  5740 

37  Edw.      st.  i,  c.  3,  in 
38  Edw.    .  c.  5,  5480 

12  Rich.  II.  c.  7,  132,  793 
13  Rich.  II.  c.  13,  719 

Smutchin,  9130 

Spitergium,  9840 

38  Edw.    .  c.  7,  253 

13  Rich.  II.  c.  8,  1028 

Smyth,   Bishop    of    Lichfield. 

Spit,  The,  9300 

38  Edw.    .0.8,899 

13  Rich.  II.  c.  12,  957 

1660 

Spoletium,  9300 

28  Edw.    .0.11,2310 

13  Rich.  II.  st.  i,  c.  2.  2460 

Snell,  Willebrod,  576 
Snider,  Mr.,  9120 

Spring  Gardens,  lo'2 
Springhill    Independent    Col- 

28 Edw.    .  c.  30,  850 
38  Edw.    .  st.  3,  c.  3,  636 

13  Rich.  II.  st.  I,  c-3,  636 
13  Rich.  II.  st.  I,  c.  8,  Sen, 

Snorro  Sturleson,  3560 

lege,  5060 

31  Edw.    .  c.  i,  804,  1040 

IO3O,  IO28 

Snowland,  9130 
Soane,  Sir  John,  1  16,  9130 

Spurius  Borius,  27 
Sparius  Thorius,  27 

33  Edw.    .st.6,  130 
Edward  II. 

13  Rich.  II.  st.  I,  c.  13,  4300 
15  Rich.  II.  c.  5,  676 

Soarez,  84 

Spurzeim,  Dr.,  7740 

13  Edw.  II.  c.  6,  1031 

15  Rich.  II.  c.  6,  792 

Sobieski,  John,  441,  5300,  788, 

Squaring  the  Circle,  8180 

17  Edw.  II.  c.  10,  610 

IS  Rich.  II.  c.  12,  433 

7890,  I03IO 

Stabledon  Hall,  Oxford,  3910 

17  Edw.  II.  c.  n,  10440 

16  Rich.  II.  c.  4,  5820 

Societe  Malisset,  740 

Stadacona,  820 

17  Edw.  II.  c.  19,  610 

16  Rich.  II.  c.  5,  8040 

THE  MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


STATUTES—  (continued) 

STATUTES  —(continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

17  Kich.  II.  c.  8,  *4i 

21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5,  170 

37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4,  233 

23  Eliz.  c.  8,  180 

20  Kich.  II.  c.  2,  5820 

21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  785 

37  Hen.  VIII.  c.8,  4940 

23  Eliz.  c.  9,  5860,  1039 

Henry  IV. 

21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2o,  9330 

37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9,  5140 

27  Eliz.  c.  i,  689 

3  Hen.  IV.  c.  15,  5860,  1057 

21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  31,  7690 

37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  974 

37  Eliz.  c.  2,  846 

2  Hen.  IV.  c.  23,  636 

22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5,  1700 

37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16,  561 

27  Eliz.  c.  8,  64  . 

4  Hen.  IV.  c.  12,  307 

22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9,  156,7860 

Edward  VI. 

27  Eliz.  c.  10,  5110 

4  Hen.  IV.  c,  18,  940 

22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10,  469 

I  Edw.  VI.  c,  3,  909 

27  Eliz.  c.  II,  5710 

5  Hen.  IV.  c.   4,   330,   678, 

32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  132,  793 

I  Edw.  VI.  c.  12,  140,  156, 

37  Eliz.  c.  13,  497 

5830 

23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  I,  790 

810 

31  Eliz.  c.  I,  3880 

6  Hen.  IV.  c.  I,  58 

33  Hen.  VIII.  0.4,340 

I  Edw.  VI.  c.  14,  233 

31  Eliz.  c.  5,  5110 

7  Hen.  IV.  c.  17,  65,  937° 

23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  5,  896 

i  &  2  Edw.  VI.  c.  3,  10070 

31  Eliz.  c.  7,  2920 

II  Hen.  IV.  c.  2,  513 

23  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20,  58 

3  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  i,  140, 

35  Eliz.  c.  i,  7,  283 

II  Hen.  IV.  c.  7,  942 

24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3,  1880,  1040 

2740,7110 

35  Eliz.  c.  2,  846 

13  Hen.  IV.  c.  3,  5820 

24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4,  4030,  404, 

3  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  3,  803 

35  Eliz.  c.  6,  642 

13  Hen.  IV.  c.  7,  841 
Henry  V. 

2  H  fii.  V.  st  I,  c.2,  4690 

483 
24  Hen.  VIII.  c.  lo,  3020 
34  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  640,  3800, 

3  &  3  Kdw.  VI.  c.  n,9V7 
3&3Edw.  VI.  c.  12,9740 
3&3  Edw.  VI.  o,  13,  353 

35  Eliz.  c.  7,  132 
39  Eliz.  c.  4,  479,  663 
39  Eliz.  c.  18,934 

2  Hen.  V.  st.  I,  c.  8,  841 
3  Hen.  V.  c.  i,  333 

3190,  355 
34  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16.  2 

3  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  15,  800, 
557" 

43  Eliz.  c.  i,  7370 
43  Eliz.  c.  2,  792,  1056 

4  Hen.  V.  c.  7,  573 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i,  1880 

3  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  19,  5710 

43  Eliz.  o.  4,  234 

Henry  VI. 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2,  1021 

3  &  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  21,  635 

43  Eliz.  c.  12,  SMa 

3  Hen.  VI.  c.  I,  4220 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4.4020 

3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  5,  841 

43  Eliz.  c,  13,  1490 

6  Hen.  VI.  c.  5,  896 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14,  484 

3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  8,  896 

43  Eliz.  c.  14,  87 

8  Hen.  VI.,  6490 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15,   1590 

3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  10,  5040 

James  I. 

8  Hen.  VI.  c,  5,  1040 
8  Hen.  VI.  c.  6,  971 
8  Hen.   VI.  c.  7,  3640,  422, 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19,  64*1,  70, 
2050,  2830,  3190,  806 
25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  30,  58,  148, 

3  &4  Edw.  VI.  c.  11,2050 
3  &  4  Edw.  VI.  c.  16,  132 
4  &  5  Edw.  VI.  c.  25,  34« 

i  James  I.  c.  2,  997 
I  James  I.  c.  4,  846 
I  James  I.  c.  6,  1028 

55* 

2780 

5&6Edw.  VI.  c.  i,  140 

I  James  I.  c.  12,  918,  10520 

8  Hen.  VI.  0.11,64 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21,  250,  330, 

5&6  Edw.  VI.  c.  11,3360 

I  James  I.  c.  18,  180 

10  Hen.  VI.  c.  2,  555 

3930,  560.  929 

5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  14,  4090 

4  James  I.  c.  25,  4930 

II  Hen.  VI.  c.  13,  1039 

25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  23,  22O 

5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  16,  7220 

I  James  I.  c.  26,  873 

15  Hen.  VI.  c.  2,  3880 

26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i,  14,  250 

5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  30,  5140 

2  James  I.  c.  14,  279« 

18  Hen.  VI.  e.  16,  642 

26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3,  58,  550, 

5  &  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  25,  5750 

2  James  I.  c.  31,  780 

30  Hen.  VI.  c.  5,  5130 

820,  1010 

7  Edw.  VI.  c.  <,  960 

3  James  I.  c.  4,  41 

20  Hen.  VI.  c.  9,  759 

26  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,3780,873 

7  Edw.  VI.  c.  7,  87 

3  James  I.  c.  15,  2790 

33  Hen.  VI.  c.  12,  5570,  1028 

»6  Hen.  VIIL  a  14,  943 

7  Edw.  VI.  c.  17,  348 

3  James  I.  c.  31,  151 

37  Hen.  VI.  c.  5,  394i  633", 

27  Hen.  VIII.  0.4,778,  873 

Mary. 

4  James  I.  c.  5,  3410,  9370 

9440 

37  Hen.  VIII.  r 

i  Mary,  sess.  3,  c.  2,  140 

21  James  I.  c.  3,  669 

31  Hen.  VI.  c.  4,  77« 

37  Hen.  VIII.  P.  9,  I8NI 

I  Mary,  se>s.  2,  c.  6,  266 

21  James  I.  c.  7,  3410,  9370  . 

Edward  IV. 

27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  lo,  5680 

I  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  10,  97 

21  James  I.  c.  19,  1160 

I  Kdw.  IV.  c.  2,  295,  899 

27  Hen.  VIII.c.  n. 

I  Mary,  sess.  3,  c.  I,  820 

21  James  I.  c.  20,  9480 

3  Edw.  IV.  c.  2,  3880 

27  Hen.  VI  I  I.e. 

I  Mary,  sess.  3,  c.  3,  348 

21  James  I.  c.  27,  511 

3  Edw.  IV.  a  4,  558 

27  Hen.  VIII.  p.  15.   2050 

I    Mary,   sess.  3,  c.   4,   605, 

21  James  I.  c.  38,  7,  124 

3  Edw.  IV.  c.  5,  3400 

27  Hen.  VIM.  c. 

4  Edw.  IV.  c.  8,  4930 

27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19,  873 

I  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  8,  2050 

i  Charles  I.  c.  I,  9440 

8  Edw.  IV.  c.  2,  5820 

27  Hen.  VIII.    c.   24,   3500, 

I  &  2   I'hil.   &   Mary,  c.   2, 

3   Charles   I.  C.  I,  146,  236, 

13  Edw.  IV.  0.3,990 
17  Edw.  IV.  e.  2,  394, 
17  Eilw.  IV.  c.  3,  259 

749-  E 
27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  35,  132,  792, 
1056 

3400,355 
I  &  2  I'hil.  &  Mary,  c.  4,  469 
I  &2  Phil.  &  Marv,  c.  5,  IO2I 

6360,  8570 
16  Charles  I.  c.  I,  9850 
16  Charles  I.  c.  6,  657 

17  Edw.  IV.  c.  8,  259 

37   Hen.   VIII.    c.   26,   6340, 

I  &  2  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  8,  140, 

16  Charles  I.  c.  10,8000,9330 

32  Edw.  IV.  c.  i,  3400 

640,  2830,  676,  943 

16  Charles  1.  c.  11,4860 

22  Edw.  IV.  c.  6,  948 

37  Han.  VIII.  c.  27,  97 

3  &  3  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  4,  58 

16   Charles   I.  c.   14,  3730, 

Richard  III. 

27  Hen.  VIII.c.  28,  30 

2  &  3  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  8,  843 

900 

I    Kich.  III.  C.  2,  1380 

28  Hen.  VIII.  C.  I,  1370 

3  &  3  Phil.  &  Marv,  c.  9,  5750 

16  Charles  I.  c.  15,  933 

I  Kich.  III.  c.  3,  in 

28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15,  778 

3   &  3  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  11, 

16  Charles  I.  c.  19,  1040 

I  Kich.  Ill  c.  9,  159 

31  Hell.  VIII.  0.2,  4300 

2590 

16  Charles  I.  c.  20,  553 

I  Kich.  III.  c.  12,  530 

31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8,  810 

3  &  3  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  20,  561 

16  Charles  I.  c.  37,  148 

Henry  VII. 
I  Hen.  VII.  c.  5,  957 

31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10,  148,  8050 
31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13,  30,  5050 

3  &  4  Phil.  &  Mary,  c.  2,  5500 
Elizabeth. 

Charles  II. 
II  Charles  II.  c.  9,943 

Sllen.  VII.  e,  i,  9371,  9800 

31  Hen.  VIII.C.  14,373,9080, 

I  Eliz.  c.  I,  1401,    640,   2050, 

II  Charles  II.  c.  19,  942 

Sllen.VII.  c.  3,  ill 
3Hen.  VII.  c.  5,  5140 

9690 
32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  I,  1049 

2830,  355,  484,  4860,  676 
I  Eliz.  c.  2,  140 

13  Charles  II.  c.  4,  723,  10550 
13  Charles  II.  c.  11,403 

3  Hen.  VII.  c,  14,  605 
4  Hen.  VII.  c.  13,  1370 

32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9,  2310 
32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  873 

I  Eliz.  c.  4,  58,  970,  8300 
5  Eliz.  c.  i,  8040 

12  Charles   II.   c.   18,  4440, 
6920 

4  Hen.  VII.  c.  24,  401 
4  &  5  Hen.  VII.  c.  3,  2 

V  lien.  VIII.  c.  24,  4950 
33  II  en.  VIII.  0.39,  605,8560 

5  Eliz.  c.  4,  65,  80(T,  5570,  894 
5  Eliz.  c.  5,  5710,  692 

12  Charles  II.  c.  22,  i  no 
12  Charles  II.  c.  23,.",: 

7  Hen.  VII.  c.  4,  1040 
7  Hen.  VII.  c.  8,  1051 

V  Hen.  VIII   c.  40,64,775 
33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  42,  1180 

5  Eliz.  c.  8,  957 
5  Eliz.  c.  9,  7630 

12  Charles  II.  c.  34. 
3360,  389,  553,  817,  8560, 

II  Hen.  VII.  c.  2,  341 
II  Hen.  VII.  c.  4,  642,  1040 

33  Hen.  VIII.c.  43,  54 
33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  46,  1035 

5  Eliz.  c.  14,  410 
5  Eliz.  c.  16,  906 

laCharfM  II.  c.  25,  575a- 

II  Hen.  VII.  c.  9,  995 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i,  395 

5  Eliz.  c.  18,  458,  596,  6oia 

1051 

II  Hen.  VII.  c.  10,  1380 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  8,  918,7,  1052 

K,  Eliz.  c.  20,  469 

13  Charles  II.  0.34,9750 

n  Hen.  VII.  c.  12,4100 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  9,   164,  259, 

8  Eliz.  c.  2,  79 

12   Charles  II.  c.   35,  8020, 

II  Hen.  VII.  o.  17,  753,  948 
ii  lien.  VII.  c.  22,  5570,  1028 

334Hen.5VIII.  c.  1  1,  1880 

8  Eliz.  c.  13,  1290 
8  Eliz.  c.  15,  3020 

803 
1  3  Charles  II.  c.  I,  8040 

II  Hen.  VII.  c.  25,  7630 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  605,  636 

13  Eliz.  c.  2,  2(>a,  1820 

13  Charles  II.  0.3,721 

ii  Hen.  VII.  c.  36,  8560 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15,  873 

13  Eliz.  c.  7,  n6« 

13  Charles  II  o.  6,  66co 

12  Hen.  VII.  c.  5,  l88a,  643 

33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  25,  6900 

13  Eliz.  c.  8,  5140 

13  Charles  II.  st.  I,  c.  2,  M8 

19  Hen.  VII.  c.  7,  679 
Henry  VIII. 
3  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2,  64 
3  lien.  VIII.  0.8,  1021 
3  Hen.  VIlI.c.  11,775 

34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  0.3,87 
34  &  35  Hen.  VI  II.  0.4,1160 
34&35  Hen.  VIII.  .  . 
34  &  35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  26,  433«, 
1031 

13  Eliz.  c.  9,  896 
13  Eliz.  c.  19,  3400 
13  Eliz.  c.  29,  1990,  7380 
14  Eliz.  P.  5,  132 
18  Eliz.  c.  5,  5"o 

13  Charles  II.  st  I,  e. 

13  Charles  11.  st.  I.  P.   15.  ~2[ 
13  Charles  II.  st.  2,  ' 

13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  3,  6600 

4  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2,  137",  6790, 

3S  Hen.  VIIT.  c.  3,  319 

18  Eliz.  c.  8,  8270 

13  &  14  Charles   II.  P.  4,  14^. 

866a 
6  Hen.  VIII.  c.  6,  4690 
14  &  15  Hen.  VlII.c.  5,775 
21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  2,  873 

35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  6,  --~« 
35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  S*4" 
35  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16,  2050 
37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i,  3080 

18  Eliz.  c.  12,  710 
19  Eliz.  c,  19,  934 
33  Eliz.  c.  i,  846 
23  Eliz.  c.  5,  520 

3'7a,  33°,  373«t 
13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  1C,  2420 
13  &  14  Charles  II.  c. 
13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  12,63:0 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  22,  6760 
13  &  14  Charles  II.  c.  33,9820 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  3,  4860 
7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  6,  1850 

I  Geo.  I.  stat.  3,  c.  5,  841 
I  Geo.  I.  stat.  3,  c.  35,  693 

34  Geo.  II.  c.  23,  7230 
24  Geo.  II.  c.  40,  1021 

13  &    14   Charles   II.   s.   36, 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  18,  1055 

i  Geo.  I.  stat.  3,  c.  38,  751, 

34  Geo.  II.  c.  48,  657 

586o 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  25,  250 

893 

35  Geo.  II.  c.  29,  390 

15  Charles  II.  c.  I,  9930 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  27,  689 

i  Geo.    .  stat.  3,  c.  51,  14 

36  Geo.  II.  0.33,177,  475,9" 

15  Charles  II.  c.  4,  6600 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  34,  23 

I  Geo.    .  stat.  3,  c.  54,  887 

36  Geo.  I  I.e.  33,  117,404,635 

15  Charles  II.  s.  i,  c.  5,  770 

7  &  8  Will.  III.  c.  37,  676 

3  Geo.   .  e.  7,  9900 

30  Geo.  II.  c.  34,  395 

15  Charles  II.  c.  7,  2880 

8  Will.  III.  c.  8,  783 

3  Geo.    .  c.  9,  930 

30  Geo.  II.  c.  25,  6600 

15  Charles  II.  c.  9,  942 

8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  20,   1080, 

4  Geo.    .  c.  3,  9830 

31  Geo.  II.  c.  22,  723 

15  Charles  II.  c.  II,  5750 
15  Charles  II.  c.  15,  390 

1470   1850 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  31,  568a 

4  Geo.    .  c.  ii,  9670 
4  Geo.    .  c.  18,  234 

31  Geo.  II.  c.  26,  0600 
31  Geo.  II.  0.42,  1480 

15  Charles  II.  c.  19,  942 
16  Charles  II.  c.  i,  843,  9850 

8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  33,  1880 
8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  36,  366 

5  Geo.    .  c.  4,  8830 
5  GfO.    .  c.  6,  7110 

George  III. 
2  Geo.  III.  c.  20,  6600 

16  Charles  II.  c.  4,  283 

8  &  9  Will.  III.  c.  27,  440, 

5  Geo.    .  c.  27,  8oa 

4  Geo.  III.  c.  18,  234 

16  Charles  II.  c.  7,  4300 

589 

6  Geo.    .  c.  4,  920 

4  Geo.  III.  c.  24,  4190 

16  &  17  Charles  II.  c.  i,  2830 

9  Will.  III.,  6490 

6  Geo.    .  c.  18,  i8oa 

5  Geo.  III.  c.  13,  933 

17  Charles  II.  c.  3,  403 

9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  7,  403 

6  Geo.    .  c.  23,  9820 

6  Geo.  III.  c.  Ii,  933 

17  &  18  Charles  II.  c.  6,  140 

9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  15,  680 

7  Geo.    .  c.  I,  9200 

6  Geo.  III.  c.  53,  6a 

18  Charles  II.  c.  3,  6760,  9830 

9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  33,  10440 

7  Geo.    .  c.  2,  9200 

7  Geo.  III.  c.  7.  3680 

18  Charles  II.  c.  4,  1850 

9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  37,  479, 

7  Geo.    .  c.  7,  196 

7  Geo.  III.  c.  38,  3770 

19  Charles  II.  c.  3,  5880 
2o  Charles  II.  c.  3,  3170 

873 
9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  33,  151, 

8  Geo.    .  c.  6,  23,  7630 
8  Geo.    .  c.  33,  410,  971 

7  Geo.  III.  c.  40,  9930 
7  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  199 

22  Charles  II.  c.  i,  283 

4840 

8  Geo.    .  c.  34,  778 

7  Geo.  III.  c.  46,  998 

22  Charles  1  1.  e.  8,  1880,  2880 

9  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  45,  1620, 

9  Geo.    .  c.  18,  7110 

9  Geo.  III.  c.  39,  663 

33  &  33  Charles  II.  c.  1,3960, 

4460 

9  Geo.    .  c.  33,  590,  1480 

10  Geo.  III.  c.  16,  3640 

633 

10  &  ii  Will.  III.  c.  14,  1460 

10  Geo.    .  c.  3,  650 

10  Geo.  III.  c.  18,  3330 

32  &  33  Charles  II.  c.  9,  933 

10  &  ii  Will.  III.  c.  18,  4460 

10  Geo.    .  c.  10,  9600 

10  Geo.  III.  c.  39,  643 

32  &  23  Charles  II.  c.  lo,  1047 

lo&n  Will.  III.  c.  23,9940 

ii  Geo.    .  c.  7,  3500 

10  Geo.  III.  c.  50,  79 

33  &  23  Charles  II.  c.  25,  4300 
35  Charles  II.  c.  I,  9640 
35  Charles  II.  c.  3,  190,  330, 
3730,  846,  9640 
39  Charles  II.  c.  3,  1049 
39  Charles  II.  c.  7,6330,9440 
39  Charles  II.  c.  9,  187,  484, 
J°57 

II  Will.  III.  c.  24,945 
ii  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  7,778 
II  &  12  Will.  III.  c.  20,  10550 
12  &  13  Will.   III.  c.  2,  14, 

4740,  505,  749 

12  &  13  Will.  III.C.4,850 
13  &  13  Will.  III.  c.  7,  3930 
13  Will.  III.  c  5,  3090 

13  Geo.  I.  c.  39,  505 
13  Geo.    .  c.  30,  1480 
13  Geo.  I.  c.  33,  no 
George  II. 
2  Goo.  II.  c.  35,  7630 
2  Geo.  II.  c.  38,  4100,  5750 
3  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  8450 
4  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  5660,  830 

12  Geo.  III.  c.  11,857 
12  Geo.  III.  c.  20,  780,  7590 
12  Geo.  III.  c.  61,  468 
13  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  2880 
13  Geo.  III.  c.  52,  850 
14  Geo.  III.  o.  19,  998 
14  Geo.  III.  c.  58,  555 
14  Geo.  III.  c.  72,  196 

30  Charles  II.  st.  i,  c.  3,  1850 

13  Will.  III.  c.  6,  60 

4  <;<-,>.  ii.  c.  38,835 

15  Geo.  III.  c.  32,  2920 

30  Charles  II.  st.  3,  c.  i,  403, 

Anne. 

5  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  1  160 

15  Geo.  III.  c.  37,  3500 

846 

i  Anne,  c.  3,  366 

6  Geo.  II.  c.  7,  3360 

16  Geo.  III.  c.  6,  7150 

31  Charles  II.  c.  2,  111,4690, 
8040 

I  Anne,  c.  7,  763,  10540 
I  Anne,  c.  8,  997 

6  Geo.  II.  c.  37,  6760 
7  Geo.  II.  c.  8,  9370 

16  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  9820 
17  Geo.  III.  c.  29,  180 

33  Charles  II.  c.  I,  1850 
James  II. 

i  Anne,  st.  l,  e.  9,  850 
3  &  3  Anne,  c.  4,  8330 

8  Geo.  II.  c.  6,  8330 
8  Geo.  II.  c.  13,  3770 

17  Geo.  III.  c.  39,  894 
17  Geo.  III.  c.  50,  960,  5750 

i  James  II.  c.  4,  943,  9750 

3  &  3  Anne,  c.  n,  830 

8  Geo.  II.  c.  16,  497 

17  Geo.  III.  c.  57,  377 

William  &  Marv. 
i  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  3,  sess.  2, 

3  &  4  Anne,  c.  10.  483 
4  Anne,  c.  6,  3090 

9  Geo.  II.  c.  4,  196 
9  Geo.  II.  c.  5,  918 

17  Geo.  III.  c.  71,  8580 
19  Geo.  III.  c.  35,  975« 

960 

4  Anne,  c.  8,  14 

9  Geo.  11.  c.  30,  577 

19  Geo.  III.  c.  44,  66oa 

I  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  5,  681 
I  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  6,  2890 

4  Anne,  c.  14,  1710 
4  &  5  Anne,  c.  20,  3560,  6040 

9  Geo.  II.  c.  23.  444«,  93° 
9  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  676 

19  Geo.  III.  c.  51,  5750 
19  Geo.  III.  c.  56,  960 

Will.  &  Mary,  c.  8,  41 
Will.  &  Mary,  c.  12,  2880 

5  Anne,  c.  5,  140 
5  Anne,  c.  6,  1370 

10  Geo.  II.  c.  8,  9370 
10  Geo.  II.  c.  28,  132,  3380, 

19  Geo.  III.  c.  70,  5050 
19  Geo.  III.  c.  74,  9820 

Will.  &  Mary,  c.   18,  283, 

5  Anne,  c.  7,  140 

575a 

21  Geo.  III.  c.  49,  945 

330,  403,  8300,  846 
Will.  &  Mary,  c.  21,  3080 

5  Anne,  c.  8,  7510,  887 
5  Anne,  c.  30,  3930 

10  Geo.  II.  c.  32,  662 
ii  Geo.  II.  c.  22,4450 

22  Geo.  III.  c.  33,  932 
33  Geo.  III.  c.  41,  3640 

Will.  &  Marv,  c.  27,  631 

6  Anne,  c.  7,  14,  140,  3390, 

12  Geo.  II.  c.  26,  932 

32  Geo.  III.  c.  45,  383 

Will.   &  Mary,  c.  30,  662, 

8090 

12  Geo.  II.  c.  27,  739« 

33  Geo.  III.  c.  63,  887 

678 

6  Anne,  c.  1  1,  3880,  4570,  997 

13  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  1580 

33  Geo.  III.  c.  77,  4950 

I  Will.  &  Mary,  st.  i,  c.  1  8, 

6  Anne,  c.  26,  387,  3880 

13  Geo.  II.  c.  19,  4300,  4940 

32  Geo.  III.  c.  »2,  154,  6390, 

140,  283,  7110 
I   Will.  &  Mary,  st.  2,  c.  2, 

6  Anne,  c.  35,  8330 
6  Anne,  c.  37,  390 

13  Geo.  II.  c.  34,  133 
15  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  610 

a38Geo.  III.  c.  15,  349« 

1380,  146,   330,  770,  8570, 

2  Will.  &  Marv,  c.  6,  295 
3,  Will.  &  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  4, 

6  Anne,  c.  41,  6040 
7  Anne,  c.  12,  460,79 
7  Anne,  c.  20,  8330 
7  Anne,  c.  21,  9780 

16  Geo.  II.  c.  8,930 
16  Geo.  II.  c.  31,  809 
17  Geo.  II.  c.  5,   133,   4110, 
10070 

23  Geo.  III.  c.  38,  395 
33  Geo.  III.  c.  49,  8390 
23  Geo.  III.  c.  51,  469 
23  Geo.  III.  c.  62,  932 

733 
3  Will.  &  Marv,  c.  12,  10280 

8  Anne,  c.  9,  2040,  932 
8  Anne,  c.  12,  650 

17  Geo.  II.  c.  39,  577 
18  Geo.  II.  c.  15,  1180 

33  Geo.  III.  c.  67,  1670 
23  Geo.  III.  c.  82,  956 

3  &  4  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  9,  1370 
4  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  I,  562 

8  Anne,  c.  14,  835 
8  Anne,  c.  19,  1580,  2850 

18  Geo.  II-  c.  1  7,  7150 
18  Geo.  II.  c.  26,  9600 

34  Geo.  III.  c.  7,  8390 
24  Geo.  III.  c.  30,  850 

4  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  5,  905 
4  &  5  Will.  &  Mary,   c.   18, 

4&'s  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  24, 

9  Anne,  c.  6,  5680,  9900 
9  Anne,  c.  10,  8020,  803 
9  Anne,  c.  14,  43oa 
9  Anne,  c.  15,  87,  920 

19  Geo.  II.  c.  12,4460 
19  Geo.  II.  c.  21,  9480 
19  Geo.  II.  c.  28,  422 
19  Geo.  II.  c.  34,  912 

34  Geo.  III.  c.  34,  170 
34  Geo.  III.  c.  35,  158 
34  Geo.  III.  c.  31,  4940 
34  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  4300 

5  WUL  &  Mary,  c.  7,  3090 

9  Anne,  c.  18,  860 
9  Anne,  c.  21,  650 

19  Geo.  II.  c.  39,  887 
20  Geo.  II.  c.  3,  10500 

34  Geo.  III.  c.  53,  783 
34  Geo.  III.  sess.  3,  c.  25,  154 

5  Will.  &  Marv,  c.  21,  932 

9  Anne,  c.  23,  420,  7830 

30  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  505 

34  Geo.  III.   sess.   2,   c.  38, 

5  &  6  Will.  &  Mary,  c.  33, 
9310 

9  Anne,  c.  26,  1460 
10  Anne,  c.  2,  140 

30  Geo.  II.  c.  43,  1410 
20  Geo.  II.  c.  43,  256,  2940 

9600,  10500 
34  Geo.  III.  sess.  3,  c.  41, 

6  Will.  &  Mary,  c.   3,   751, 

10  Anne,  c.  6,  87 

2o  Geo.  II.  c.  44,  9970 

575" 

9850 

10  Anne,  c.  19,   19,  702,  932, 

30  Geo.  II.  c.  52,  51,  1480 

35  Geo.  III.  c.  30,  ool 

William  III. 

12  Anne,  st.  2,  c.  12,  307 

31  Geo.  II.  c.  10,  904 

25  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  894 

6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  6,   1080, 

12  Anne,  st.  3,  c.  16,  4250, 

21  Geo.  II.  c.  38,  10380 

2^Geo.  III.  c.  50,  4300 

1470,  631,  8330,  932,  1047 

5140 

33  Geo.  II.  c.  30,  9970 

25  Geo.  III.  c.  51,  803 

6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  14,  1370 
6  &  7  Will.  III.  c.  18,  1630, 

13  Anne,  sess.  3,  c.  18,  1057 
12  Anne,  st.  3,  e.  33,  133 

33  Geo.  II.  c.  33,  395,  693, 
9480 

35  Geo.  III.  c.  53,  97 
25  Geo.  III.  c.  75,  1670 

4460,  1058 

13  Anne,  c.  7,  883 

23  Geo.  II.  c.  45,  10440 

26  Geo.  III.  c.  Q,  901 

7  Will.  III.  c.  3,  940 

George  I. 

33  Geo.  II.  c.  46,  23 

26  Geo.  III.  c.  19,  1057 

7  Will.  III.  c.  18,  4960 

I  Geo.  I.  c.  13,  9900 

23  Geo.  II.  c.  ii,  764 

36  Geo.  III.  c.  35,  256 

7&8  Will.  III.  c.  I,  266 

i  Geo.  I.  e.  14,  66oa 

23  Geo.  II.  c.  13,  8oa 

26  Geo.  III.  c.  49,  763 

no6 


THE  MANUAL   OF  DATES. 


STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

ST  AT  UTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

26  Geo.  III.  c.  59,  10510 
26  Geo.  III.  c.  107,  66oa 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  no,  4840 
48  Geo.  III.  c.  141,  86 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  74,  130,  860,  87, 
804,  1040 

i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  6390, 
989,  1038 

27Geo.  III.  c.  13,308,958 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  149,635,932 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83,  132,  4110, 

I  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  41,  28f,  939 

28  Geo.  III.  0.46,  1021 

49  (ieo.  HI.  0.98,  3500 

1008 

i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  4",  77 

29  Geo.  III.  c.  9,  901,  9900 

49  Geo.  III.  c.  120,  6600 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  97,  8oa 

I  &2  Will.  IV.  0.56,  Il6o 

29  Geo.  III.  c.  68,  5750 

50  Geo.  III.  c.  41,  479 

6  Geo.  IV.  o.  16,  1160,  3780 

I  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  87 

30  Geo.  III.  c.  48,  187 

50  Geo.  HI.  0.48,  9310 

6  Geo.  IV.  c.  49,  778 

2  Will.  IV.  c.  i,  4090 

31  Geo.  III.  c.  4,  2880 
31  Geo.  III.  c.  25,  8390 

o.  III.  c.  65,  4090,  10540 
50  Geo.  III.  c.  109,  77         , 

6  Geo.  IV.  0.50,  456,  540 
6  Geo.  IV.  c.  60,  606 

2  Will.  IV.  c.  26,  97 
2  Will.  IV.  o.  34,  266 

31  Geo.  III.  0.32,60,7,846 
32  GCO.  III.  c.  3,  894 

51  Geo.  III.  c.  13,  910 

51   Geo.   111.  c.   124,  5050 

6  Geo.  IV.  c.  78,  5670,  8190 
6  Geo.  IV.  c.  79,  516 

2  Will.  IV.  0.39,565 
2  Will.  IV.  c.  45,  3640,  8330 

33  Geo.  III.  c.  56,  6390 

5-!  Gco.   III.  0.39,987 

6  Geo.  IV.  c.  80,  930 

2  Will.  IV.  c.  49,  few 

32  Gi-o.  III.  c.  60,  574 
33  Geo.  HI.  c.  4,  39 

53  Geo.  1  1  1.  0.62,  943 
53  Geo.  III.  c.  143,  7830 

6  (ieo.  IV.  c.  91,  I8oa 
6  Geo.  IV.  c.  104,  1051 

2  Will.  IV.  c.  53,  810 
2  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  3880 

33  Gea  III.  c.  53,  154 

53  Geo.  III.  c.  146,  8330 

6  Geo.  IV.  c.  105,  543 

2&3Will.  IV.  c.  19,3480 

33  Geo.  1  1  I.e.  54,  1370,4*4 

;j  Geo.  III.  c.  157,  976 

6  Geo.  IV.  c  108,912 

2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  45,  833 

33  Geo.  III.  c.  66,  573 
34  Geo.  HI.  c.  ii,  1670 
34  GCO.  HI.  c.  82,  39 
35  Geo.  III.  c.  13,  960/1 

53  Geo.  111.0.34,596,  10190 
53  Geo.  III.  c.  40,  8oa,  1038 
53  Geo.  III.  c.  103,  514 
53  Geo.  III.  c.  115,  401 

6  Geo.  IV.  c.  125,7770 
6  Geo.  IV.  0.129,981 
7  GC,.  IV.  0.46,  537 
7  Gco.  IV.  e.  57,514 

2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  3«7 
3&3\Vill.  IV.  0.62,  4940 
2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  65,  832 
3  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  68,  4300 

35  Geo.  111.  c.  49,471 

53  Geo.  III.  c.  141,  59 

7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64,  mo 

2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  71,  540 

35  Geo.  III.  e.  55,  8290 
35  Geo.  III.  c.  102,  1040 

53  Geo.  III.  c.  149,  307 
III.  c.  155,3540 

I  V.  c.  77,  9391 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  1  8,  630 

2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  930 
2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  75,  540, 

35  Geo.  111.  c.  134,  1055 

53  Geo.  III.  c.  160,  140,  151, 

7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  24,  5890, 

6790 

3'  >  Gco.  111.  e.  7,  447™ 
36  Geo.  III.  e.  *.  4_i7« 

.  III.  c.  96,650 

993 
7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27,   1370, 

2&3  Will.  IV.  0.88,51  8,  568, 

833 

36  Geo.  III.  c.  - 

51  Geo.  III.  c.  1  08,  1850 

il*>i,  497,  498,971 

3  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  93,  3190, 

11  I.e.  83,307 

=4  Geo.  III.  C.  145,940 

7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28,780,  790, 

806 

36  Geo.  III.  c.   123,  Io5I«t 

30  i  too.  III.  c.  124.  332a 
37  G,-o.  III.  0.3,6600 

54  Geo.  III.  c.  146,4860 
54  Geo.  III.  c.  i 

,S5  Geo.  III.  c. 

7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  79,  1840, 
39.3<*,  395,  663,  7390,  8430, 

2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  99,  97 
2&3W111.  IV.  c.  1,5,846 
2  &  3  Will.  IV.  c.  1  6,  3290 

37  GCO.  III.  c.  105,  10500 

111.  C.  1  08,    259 

HI.  c.  42,  540 
55  Gco.  III.  o.  - 

7  &  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30,  171,  6160 

2&3Will.  IV.  0.120,9310 
;  Will.  IV.  c.  123,  410 

§8  Geo.  III.  c.  24,  10360 

o.  IV.  c.  31,  498 

3  Will.  IV.  e.  II,973« 

38  Gco.  III.  C.  40,259 

55  Geo.  III.  e. 

•o.  IV.  0.55,805 

3  Will.  IV.  c.  15,  3380 

III.  c.  60,  562 
38  Gco.  HI.  c.  68,902 

55  Geo.   III.  c.  184, 

'.  IV.  c.  70,651 
7&8  Geo.  IV.  c.  71,  5050 

'ill.  IV.  0.9,701 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  13,563 

38  Geo.  111.0.69,  933 

55  Geo.  III.  c.  185,9310 

9  Geo.    IV.   c.   17,  330,   679, 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  2.'. 

B.  III.  c.  13,  506 
39  Geo.  III.  c.  79,4220,808 

39  &  40  Gco.  III.  c.  47,  yj-a 

III.  c.  99,  367 

9640 
9  GCO.  IV.  c.  18,3270 
1  V.  c.  22,  3640 

3&4  Will.  IV.  0.23,  '9 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27,  3940,  835 
3&4WilI.  IV.c.37,  13,  710, 

39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  67,  520, 

III.  c.  loo,  4690 

9  Geo.  IV.  03.    540,  2570, 

2190,259,260,279,288,325, 

759 
39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  77,  662 
39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  88,  820, 

111.  c.  19,  4220 
.  II  I.e.  75,405.  1054 
~  Gco.  III.  c.  99.  307,  715 
III.  c.  105,  880    * 

2960,  3890,  636,  6790,  8270 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  32,  23 

9  Gco.  IV.  C.  40,6090 

9  Gco.  IV.  c.  42,  1710 

337.  34i,  342,  368,  398,  5190, 
5460,  547,  733,1,  848 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  39,  4960 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41,  640, 

39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  93,  4860 
39  &  40  G«o.  III.  c.  98,  9671 
39  &  40  Geo.  III.  c.  99,  757 

57  Geo.  III.  c.  130,  880 
58  Geo.  III.  c.  20,  7150 
58  Geo.  III.  c.  70,  994a 

9  GCO.  IV.  c.  54,  1370 

9  Gco.  IV.  C.  58,409 

9  Geo.  IV  c.  59,  364<» 

3190,  539,  806,  8090 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  43,  680,  540 
3&4WU1.  IV.  0.48,  9310 

40  Gco.  III.  c.  4,8 

59  Geo.  III.  c.  7,  3080 

9  Geo.  IV.  c.  60,  289 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  52,  3260 

40  Gco.  Ill.e.  ., 

59  Geo.  III.  c.  12,  1056 

9  Gco.  IV.  c.  61,5750 

3&4W1I1.  IV.  0.53,912 

40  Geo.  III.  c.'39,  3«8o 
41  Geo.  III.  c.  15,  227 

59  Geo.  III.  c.  35,  540 

9  Geo.  IV.  c.  66,  565 
9  Geo.  IV.  c.  92,  8800 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  6920 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  55,  977 

41    (no.    111.0.52,283 

5<;  Geo.  ill.  <•.  j 

10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7,  6a,  140,  3680, 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  57,  430 

41  GCO.  III.  0.76,  573 

59  Geo.  III.  c.  5 

518,679,846 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  73,  3680, 

41  Geo.  III.  c.  79,  717 

59  Geo.  III.  c.  69,  409 

10  Geo.  IV.  c.  8,  432 

9090 

41  Geo.  III.  c.  100,8 
41  Geo.  III.  c.  107,  2850 

60  Gea  III.  c.  6,  4270 
60  Geo.  III.  c.  8,  151,  574 

10  Geo.  IV.  c.  35,  651 
10  Geo.  IV.  c.  44,  789,  10360 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  3780 
3&  4  Will.  IV.  c.  76  &  77, 

41  Geo.  III.  c.  109,  10360 

Georee  IV. 

10  Geo.  IV.  c.  47,  77 

679 

43  Geo.  111.  c.  34,  10500 

i  GCO.  IV.  c.  57,  405,  1054 

10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7,  518 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  85,  360, 

43  Geo.  III.  c.  42,  506 
43  Geo.  III.  0.73,3930 

I  Geo.  IV.  c.  116,469 
IV.  c.  119,  514 

II  (ieo.  IV.  C.  16,5680,957 

1  1  Geo.  IV.  0.17,626 

3540,  6180 
3&4WUI.  IV.  0.94,639 

43  Geo.  III.  c.  90,  66oa 

\  i  Gco.  IV.  c.  2,  7i5a 

II  Geo.  IV.  &  I   Will.  IV.  c. 

3&4Will.  IV.  0.99,  3070 

42  Geo.  III.  c.  106,  3640 

&  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  23,  10360 

66,  410 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  101,  9600 

4.;  Geo.  III.  c.  116,  562 

&  3  Geo.  IV.  c.  28,  35 

11  Gco.  IV.  &  I  Will.  IV.  c. 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  103,  3930 

43  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  io8a 
43  Geo.  III.  c.  58,  nn 

&  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  33,  6090 
&  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  37,  9730 

70,  3880,  5480,  1031 
II  Geo.  IV.  &  i  Will.  IV.  c. 

3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  105,  3360 
3  &  4  Will.  IV.  c.  too,  940 

43  Geo.  III.  c.  119,  237 

I  &  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  47,  4550 

73,  3880,  410 

4  Will.  IV.  c.  1,3932 

43  Geo.  III.  c.  132,  506 

2  Geo.  IV.  c.  16,  5680 

William  IV. 

4  Will.  IV.  c.  15,  3880,  956 

44  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  907 

3  Geo.  IV.  c.  1  8,  626 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  2,  8320 

4  Will.  IV.  c.  36,  2270 

44  Geo.  III.  c.  54,  10260 

3  Geo.  IV.  c.  60,  2880 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  17,  196 

4  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  401 

44  Geo.  III.  c.  98,  933 

3  Geo.  IV.  c.  75,  635 

i  Will.  IV.  c.  25,  2540 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  13,  913 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  15,  506 

3  Geo.  IV.  c.  88,  86 

i  Will.  IV.  c.  51,  34«,  3090 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  15,  3880 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  30,  960 

3  Geo.  IV.  c.  1  14,  4300 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  58,  3080 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  19,  496a 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  71,  86 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  n,  10500 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  64,  340 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  26,  6790 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  89,  8290 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  14,  77 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  7830 

4&  5  Will-IV.c.  49*  1880,1040 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  101,  676 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  17,  635 

i  Will.  IV.  c.  69,  540 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  60,  932 

45  Geo.  III.  c.  127,  9800 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  9480 

I  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  640,  2400, 

4  &  5  Will.   IV.  c.  76,  369, 

46  Geo.  III.  c.  65,  506 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  50,  5910 

5480,  8190 

7920,  1056 

46  Geo.  III.  c.  133,  5050 
46  Geo.  III.  c.  143,  10540 
47  Geo.  III.  c.  36,910 
47  Geo.  III.  c.  14,  3640 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  53,  370,  9430 
4  Geo.  IV.  c.  54,  971 
4  Geo.  IV.  0.64,  431,  809 
4  Geo.  IV.  0.76,  117,635 

i  Will.  IV.  c.  73,  574 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  13,  9750 
i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  16,  2610 
I  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  17,  6010 

4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  90,  5190 
4  &  5  Will.  IV.  c.  95,  9190 
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  24,  806 
5&6Will.  IV.  c.  39,  1160 

47  Geo.  III.  c.  54,  77 

4  Geo.  IV.  c.  94,  930 

i  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  19,  2040 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  30,  9070 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  43,  3330 

4  &  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  156,  966 

I  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  22,  470,  479, 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  32,  ; 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  5=;,  10500 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  17,  910 

753 

5  £6  Will.  IV.  0.3-.  ^o 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  96,  6oqa 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  47,  10550 

1  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  30,  10510 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  38,  809 

48  Geo.  III.  c.  104,  7770 

5  Geo.  IV.  c.  52,  850 

i  &  2  Will.  IV.  0.32,4300 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  43,  381.  920 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  53,  3693 

3  &  4  Viet.  c.  72,  635 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  38,  1360 

14  &  15  Viet    c.  36,   4960, 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  23 

3  &  4  Viet.  c.  77,  4550 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  48,  82,  606 

10500 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  56,  977 

3  &  4  Viet.  c.  85,  2420 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  54,  273 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  43,  471 

5&6Will.IV.  0.59,1390,183, 

3  &  4  Viet.  c.  86,  2570 

9  &  10  Viet  c.  57,  8250 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  50,  874 

2630,  303 
5&6  Will.  IV.  0.62,764 

3  &  4  Viet  c.  97,  825 
3  &  4  Viet.  c.  108,  679 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  59,  535 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  62,  324 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  53,  5050 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  60,  3550,  7460, 

5&6Will.  IV.  0.63,642,1040 
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  65,  569 
5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  184,  SH, 

3  &4  Viet  c.  113,3170,355 
4  Viet.  c.  22,  1370 
4  &  5  Viet.  c.  22,  759 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  63,  943 
9  &  10  Viet  c.  66,  7923 
9&  10  Viet  c.  71,  458 

846 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  61,  654,  9110 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  62,  9730 

679 

4  &  5  Viet.  c.  34,  10070 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  73,  975 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  64,  8250 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  81,  8660 

4  &  5  Viet.  c.  37,  1021 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  74,  815,  874 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  70,  2800 

5  &  6  Will.  IV.  c.  83,  753 

4  &  5  Viet.  c.  39,  355,  820 

9  Viet.  c.  76,  65 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  76,  6980 

6  Will.  IV.  c.  4,  866a 

4  &  5  Viet.  c.  56,  2100,  8370, 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  84,  6090 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  77,  1260 

6  Will.  IV.  c.  14,  n6a 

841 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  87,  815 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  79.  6920 

6  Will.  IV.  c.  19,  348,  7430 

5  Viet.  c.  5,  3860,  9080 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  93,  3170 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  83,  640,  605, 

6  Will.  IV.  c.  75,  oioa 

5  Viet.  c.  14,  289 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  95,  2790,  394, 

6900 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  29,  3420 

5  Viet  c.  23,  636 

3940 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  89,  227 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  30,  3890,  6790 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  33,  182 
6&7  Will.  IV.  c-37,  i8a,86a, 
945 

5  Viet.  sess.  2,  c.  25,  930 
5  &  6  Viet  c.  5,  10190 
5  &  6  Viet.  c.  22,  550 
5  &  6  Viet  c.  35,  506 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  96,  874 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  99,  1057 
9&  10  Viet.  c.  105,8350 
10  Viet.  c.  37,  475 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  90,  649 
14  &  15  Viet.  c.  loo,  i8a,  764 
15  Viet  c.  9,  310 
15  Viet.  e.  12,  515 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  59,  342a 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  38,  5400,  8190 

10  Viet.  c.  29,  3930 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  12,  377a 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  606 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  39,  3930 

10  &  ii  Viet  c.  29,  3930 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  20,  506 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  67,  9070 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  45,  2850,  3380 

10  &  II  Viet.  0.34,874 

15  &  16  Viet  c.  24,  1049 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  71,  974<z 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  47,  850,  259, 

10  &  1  1  Viet  c.  37,  378 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  29,  544 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77,  70,  355 

404,  444</,  958,  9730,  9750 

10  &  ii  Viet.  c.  43,  6090 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  31,  511 

6&  7  Will.  IV.  0.85,3300,635 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  86,  1460,  635, 

5  &  6  Viet  c.  u,  975 
5  &  6  Viet  c.  56,  850 

10  &  i    Viet  c.  61,  874 
10  &  I    Viet  c.  66,  971 

15  &  16  Viet  c.  44,  753 
15  &  16  Viet  c.  50,  66oa 

833a 

5  &  6  Viet  c.  70,  9310 

10  &  i    Viet  c.  78,  537 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  52,  269 

6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  97,  723 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  102,  3640 
6  &  7  Will.  IV.  c.  1  06,  4570, 

5  &  6  Viet  c.  99,  368,  662, 
i°54 
5  &  6  Viet.  c.  loo,  386 

10  &  i    Viet.  c.  82,  405 
10  &  I    Viet.  c.  83,  390 
10  &  i    Viet.  c.  104,  975 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  54,  294 
15  &  16  Viet  c.  56,  771 
15  &  16  Viet.  c.  72,  7060 

933 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  103,  4-730 

10  &  ii   Viet   c.   108,  1150, 

15  &  16  Viet  c.  76,  ma 

7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet.  c.  9,  663 

5  &  6  Viet.  c.  107,  3690 

3-7,  627 

15  &  16  Viet  c.  77,  1160 

7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet  c.  26,  1049 

5  <fe  6  Viet.  c.  116,514 

10  &  1  1  Viet.  c.  109,  7930 

15  &  16  Viet  c.  80,  6390 

7  Will.  IV.  c.  59,  3770 

5  &6  Viet.  c.  122,  1160 

II&I3  Viet.  0.8,506 

15  &  1  6  Viet.  c.  83,  7530 

7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet.  c.  69,  9740 
7  Will.  IV.  &  i  Viet.  c.  84,  410 

6  Viet.  c.  18,  8330 
6&7  Viet.  c.  65,  2-6 

1  1  &  1  2  Viet.  c.  29,  4300 
ii  &  12  Viet.  c.  45,  537,  1050 

15  &  16  Viet.  c.  85,  337 
15  &  16  Viet.  c.  86,  3320 

7Will.IV.&iVict.c.87,843« 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  68,  967 

ii  &  12  Viet.  c.  49,  945 

15  &  1  6  Viet.  c.  87,  2320,  596 

7  Will.  IV.  &  I  Viet.  o.  88,  778 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  73,  940 

ii  &  12  Viet.  0.63,  154,874 

16  Viet.  c.  31,  303 

7  Will.  IV.  &  I  Viet  c.  91,  780, 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  74,  77 

11  &  12  Viet.  c.  78,  640 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  29,  1040 

841 

6  &  7  Viet,  c.  79,  7390 

ii  &  12  Viet.  0.94,  7700 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  33,  19,  190, 

Victoria. 

6  &  7  Viet  c.  83,  290 

ii  &  12  Viet.  c.  97,  943 

470,  726 

i  Viet.  c.  2,  2540 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  85,  1053 

Ii  &  13  Viet  c.  98,  3640,  770 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  34,  506 

I  Viet.  c.  20,  58 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  90,  717 

ii  &  12  Viet  c.  102,  1260 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  39,  913 

I  Viet.  c.  32,  635,  8330 

6  &  7  Viet.  c.  96,  319,  574 

II  &  12  Viet  c.  107,  2240 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  41,  874 

I  Viet.  c.  26,  250 

7  Viet.  c.  2,  4860 

II  &  12  Viet.  c.  no,  7920 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  45,  880 

I  Viet.  c.  32,  803 

7  Viet.  c.  15,  3930 

ii  &I2  Viet.  c.  123,  7!9i  874 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  46,  10430 

i  Viet.  c.  33,  803 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  13,  377« 

12  Viet.  e.  I,  389 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  47,  1260 

I  Viet.  c.  34,  803 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  15,  393«t 

13  &  13  Viet.  c.  3,  719 

I6&I7  Viet.  0.48,266 

I  Viet.  c.  35,  4190,  803 
I  Viet.  c.  36,  803 
I  Viet  c.  38,  86a,  133 

7  &  8  Viet  c.  34,  4050 
7  &  8  Viet.  c.  32,  1  16 
7  &  8  Viet.  c.  38,  3640 

13  &  13  Viet.  c.  29,  6920 
13  &  13  Viet  c.  77,  3700 
13  &  13  Viet  c.  92,  2630 

l6&  17  Viet.  c.  49,  269 
1  6  &  17  Viet.  c.  51,  5690,  943 
l6&  17  Viet  c.  54,  259 

i  Viet.  c.  46,  639 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  53,  9420 

13  &  13  Viet.  c.  101,  394,  605, 

16  &  17  Viet.  e.  59,  8290,  933 

I  Viet.  c.  49,  626 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  59,  7500 

7410 

1  6  &  17  Viet  c.  63,  19,  932 

I  Viet.  c.  66,  263*7,  303 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  66,  390 

13  &  13  Viet.  c.  103,  7930 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  67^  409 

i  Viet  c.  71,  907*1 

7  &  8  Viet  c.  76,  319 

12  &   13   Viet.   c.   1  06,  1  1  60, 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  70,  610 

I  Viet.  c.  76,  803 
i  Viet  c.  85,  623 
I  Viet  c.  86,  1841 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  83,  880 
7  &  8  Viet  c.  96,  514 
7  &  8  Viet.  c.  97,  334 

3783,  i°28 
12  &  13  Viet.  c.  108,  537,  1050 
12  &  13  Viet.  c.  109,  7700 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  73,  857 
16  &  17  Viet.  c.  63,  1053 
16  &  17  Vict^.  90,  86 

I  &  2  Viet.  c.  20,  820 

7  &  8  Viet  c.  102,  8300,  846 

12  &  13  Viet  c.  in,  719 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  95,  3541,  5080 

I  &  2  Viet.  c.  38,  1008 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  103,  3640 

13  Viet.  c.  2,  518,  810 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  97,  6090 

i  &  2  Viet.  c.  56,  518,  7930 

7  &  8  Viet.  c.  1  10,  537 

13  Viet.  c.  23,  394 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  98,  2320 

I  &  2  Viet.  c.  59,  515 

7&8  Viet.  c.  113,  176,537 

13  &  14  Viet  c.  9,  170 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  99,  790,  761, 

i  &  2  Viet.  c.  64,  9740 

8  Viet.  c.  7,  3610 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  21,  934 

9820 

I  &  2  Viet.  c.  77,  23 

8  Viet.  c.  13,  404,  6800,  958 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  26,  778 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  100,  10070 

i  &  2  Viet.  c.  79,  753 

8  Viet.  c.  15,  960 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  33,  257 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  lor,  5740 

i  &  2  Viet.  c.  86,  541 

8  Viet.  c.  16,  2800 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  35,  1020 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  102,  266 

I  &  2  Viet.  c.  94,  970,  830 

8  Viet  c.  1  8,  2800,  5610 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  37,  405 

1  6  &  17  Viet  c.  1  06,  9600 

i  &  2  Viet.  c.  98,  623,  825 

8  Viet  c.  97,  234 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  52,  227 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  107,  308,  468, 

I  &  3  Viet  c.  106,  137,  307,  785 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  4,  506 

73  &  14  Viet.  c.  54,  3930 

8580 

I  &  3  Viet.  c.  no,  5051,  651 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  6,  4460 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  60,  383 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  119,  1420,  4300 

2  Viet.  c.  98,  623 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  12,  9060,  1039 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  61,  294 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  127,  470 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  12,  808 
3&3  Viet.  c.  24,  170 

8&9  Viet  c.  1  6,  537 
8  &  9  Viet  c.  20,  2800,  835 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  64,  171 
13  &  14  Viet.  c.  65,  5740 

l6&  17  Viet.  c.  128,  913 
16  &  17  Viet  c.  129,  7770 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  37,  10060 

S&gVict.  0.25,6410 

13  &  14  Viet  c.  93,  648^ 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  131,6923 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  45,  835 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  29,  3930 

13  &  14  Viet  c.  97,  932 

16  &  17  Viet  c.  133,  66ca 

2,  &  3  Viet.  c.  47,  3330,  4300, 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  37,  "6 

13  &  14  Viet.  0.98,137 

16  &  17  Viet.  c.  134,  227 

789 
3  &  3  Viet.  c.  49,  307 

8  &  9  Viet  c.  66,  821 
8  &  9  Viet.  c.  76,  65,  5690 

13  &  14  Viet.  c.  104,  286 
13  &  14  Viet.  c.  115,  2840 

16  &  17  Viet  c    137,  234 
17  Viet  c.  1,86 

2  &  3  Viet  c.  52,  4190,  803 

8  &  9  Viet  c.  83,  7920 

14  Viet.  c.  n,  650 

17  Viet.  c.  16,  294 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  58,  933 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  90,  263 

14  Viet.  c.  13,  790 

1  7  Viet  c.  35,511 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  62,  975 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  106,  5680 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  n,  894 

17  &  1  8  Viet  c.  5,  6920    | 

2  &  3  Viet.  c.  80,  7380 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  109,  164,  4300 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  12,  506 

17  &  18  Viet.  c.  10,  506 

3  &  3  Viet.  c.  93,  6600 

8  &  9  Viet.  c.  126,  6090 

14  &  15  Viet.  c.  19,  79,  1840, 

17  &  18  Viet  c.  13,  6600 

3  &  4  Viet.  c.  15,  975 
3  &  4  Viet.  c.  17,  9600 

9  &  10  Viet.  c.  17,  679 
9  &  10  Viet.  c.  23,  389 

8350 
14  &  15  Viet,  c.  28,  874 

17  &  18  Viet.  c.  31,  8250 
17  &  18  Viet.  c.  33,  934 

3  &  4  Viet,  c.  29.  5'3",  i°°"« 

9  &  10  Viet,  c.  25,  79,  633 

14  &  15  Viet  c.  34,  874 

17  &  1  8  Viet.  c.  36,  8330 

no8 


THE   MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


STATUTES  —(continued). 

STATUTES—  (continued). 

STATUTES  —  (continued). 

Stepheuson,  George,  585,  835 

17  &  18  Viet.  c.  38,  4300 
17  &  1  8  Vict.  c.  59,  887 
17  &  18  Vict.  c.  60,  3320 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  47,  9650 
20  &  21  Viet.  0.48,  511 
30  &  31  Vict.  c.  49,  537 

34  &  25  Vict.  c.  83,  3480 
34  &  25  Viet.  c.  95,  1840 
34  &  25  Vict.  c.  96,  79,  1840, 

Stephenson,  Kobert,  1740 
Stephen,  St.,  637 
Stephen's,   St.,  Chapel,  West- 

17 &  18  Vict.  c.  80,  8330 

30  &  21  Vict.  c.  54,  176,  4210 

395 

minster,  4960 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  81,  3910,  6190, 

20&21  Vict.  c.  60,  1160 

24  &  25  Vict.  c.  97,  79 

Stephens,  Alexander,  3770 

6500,  6980,  731,  7380,  821 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  61,  943 

24  &  45  Viet.  c.  100,  79 

Stephens,  Miss,  ,5 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  83,  146;,  932 

2o  &  21  Vict.  c.  72,  7890 

44  it  45  Vict.  c.  109,  8690 

Stephens,  .lames,  398 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  85,  86 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  73,  912 

24*25  Vict.  c.  112,  147 

Stcivoehioiuy,  1037 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  86,  35,  541, 

20  &  21  Viet.  c.  70,  234 

44  it  45  Vict.  c.  129,  8570 

S|e~ichonis,  3800 

83[ 

20  &  21  Viet.  e.  77,   170,  294, 

24  it  25  Vict.  c.  134,1160,514 

stettinum,  9360 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  87,  227 

'.0,810 

25  Viet.  c.  23,  7830 

Steviuus,  6430 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  90,  59,  426, 
5140 

20  &  31  Vict.  c.  8  1,  227 
20  &  41  Vict,  c.  8t,  34  v» 

25  &  26  Vict.  c.  35,  1031 
35  &  36  Vict.  c.  36,  9000 

Stewart,  Dugald,  3830 
Stewart,  James,  Earl  of  Mur- 

17 &  1  8  Vict.  c.  95,  154 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  85,  19,  3310, 

25  &  36  Vict.  c.  59,  3320 

ray,  886 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  96,  850,  7830, 

6480,  806 

25  &  26  Vict.  c.  63,  6930 

stibbs,  44 

9320 

21  Viet.  c.  15,  930 

25  &  26  Vict.  c.  66,  7700 

Stifel,  38 

17  &  1  8  Vict.  c.  99,  343,  9730 
17  &  18  Vict.  c.  102,  491 

21  Vict.  c.  16,  859 
21  Vict.  c.  20,  239 

25  &26  Viet.c.  87,  511 
25  &  46  Viet.  c.  89,  537,  1050 

Stilicho,  7890,  1042 
Stilliiifrneet,  1530 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  104,  540,  6920, 

21  Vict.  c.  26,3750 

35  &  36  Vict.  c.  93,966 

Btillyard,  936 

777",  i°57 

21  Vict.  c.  85,  4100 

35  &  26  Vict.  c.  97,  8690 

Stirling,  Capt.,  1000 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  112,  9130 

21  &  24  Viet.  c.  26,  4960 

25  &  26  Vict.  c.  114,  4300 

•'i  mongers,  4030 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  117,  371 

21  it  44  Vict.  C.  27,   2320 

25  &  26  Vict.  c.  223,  4570 

Stoddart,  Col.,  156 

17  .t  IS  Vict.  c.  119,  1160 

41  \  U  Viet.  e.  48,  60,41 

36  Vict.  c.  13,  1035 

Ston  ia,  9350 

17  it  18  Vict.  c.  132,  361 

21  &  24  Vict.  e.  49,3750,  5330 

26  Vict.  c.  14,  8030 

Stone  of  Destiny,  290 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  125,680 

2i  &  22  Vict.  c.  60,  537 

26  Viet,  c.  23,  506,  961 

Stopek,  530 

17  &  18  Vict.  c.  221,  654 

21  &  22  Vict.  c.  72,  371,  563 

36  Vict.  c.  35,  880 

Stork,  S 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  9,  9600 

21  &  22  Vict.  C.  77,  5680 

36  &  37  Vict.  c.  38,  1510 

Storks,  Sir  H.,  5270 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  30,  506 

2!  &  22  Viet.  C.  87,   291 

36  &  37  Vict.  c.  40,  1  1  10 

sionmmttield,  7780 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  21,  943 
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  27,  704 

21  &  22  Viet.  0.89,  6090 
31  &  33  Viet.  c.  90,  3400,  644, 

26  &  27  Viet.  c.  51,  753 
Viotc.  65,  10260 

Stormy  Cape,  2090 
Stow,  14(1'*.  I5'...  u>7« 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  32,933 

946 

36  &  27  Vict.  c.  67,  4630 

Btow'g  Survey,  5880 

18  &  19  Viet.  c.  38,930 

31  &  2,2  Vict.  c.  91,  537 

26&37  Viet.  ,. 

Stralio,  310,  55,   109 

18  &  19  Viet.  c.  41,  319 

21  &  22  Vict.  C.  96,  371 

26  &  27  Viet.  e.  - 

Straeliaii,    Sir    Kiehard,    9810, 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  43,  250 

31  &  33  Vict.  e.  97,   154 

26  &  27  Viet.  c.  90,  8330 

1029 

1  8  &  19  Vict.  c.  48,  252 
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  54,  </54a 

21  &  33  Vict.  c.  98,  154,  *74 
41  it  34  Viet.  e.  99,  17' 

26  &  37  Viet.  c.  9 
26  it  27  Viet.  c.  108,  10070 

Strada,  1570 
Straff  ord,  Earl  of,  3730 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  S 

21  &  32  Vict.  c.  loi,  424 

26  &  27  Viet.c.  112,964 

Strateburgum,  9390 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  60,  850,  9320 

21  &  22  Vict.  c.  104,  3370,  654, 

26  &  27  Vict.  c.  117,874 

Strathclvde,  940 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  63,  2*4",  444 

Viet.  c.  124,40 

Street  orderlies,  5890 

18  &  19  Vict,  c.  ' 
18  &  19  Viet.  c.  68,  227 

21  it  33  Viet,  C.lo6,154,354a, 

510 

27  Viet.  c.  9,  626 
2-  Viet.  e.  18,506 

Strickla,,, 
Stroii^oli,  7680 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  70,  5740,  981 

31  &  22  Viet.  c.  108,  3310 

Vict.  c.  37,  2420 

Strutt,  W.  G.  &  J.,  136,  3240, 

18  it  19  Viet.  e. 

44  Viet.  <•.  46,  946 

27  &  28  Viet.  c.  47.  761,  9720 

393° 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  91.  f>  )^n 

l8  &  19  Viet.  e.  g 

44  Viet.  e.  47,  7830 
22  &  23  Vict.  c.  5,  3290 

27  &  38  Vict.  c.  - 

27  it    -                                      14,   1021 

Strype,  33,  H6a 

Str/elrcki,    101 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  97,  3080,  723 
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  100,  6600 

22  &  23  Viet.  e. 
22  &  23  Viet.  .  .  ] 

27  it  4-   Viet.  e.   B8,   (043d 

Vict.  e.  95.  3170 

Stuart,  101,  10  10 
Stuart,  Arabella,  1890 

18  it  19  Viet.  c.  101,  740 
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  1  06,  6600 

22  &  23  ViCt  ' 
23  &  33  Vict.  c.  40,  693,  8350, 

37  &  28  Vict.  c.  98,  1510 
-    e,  113,9650 

Stuart  Papers,  9400 

Stilbbs,  2| 

18  &  19  Vict  c.  116,  719,  874 

27  &  38  Vict.  c.  116,  5900,654 

Studioe  (Monks),  13 

IS  &  19  Vict.  e.  MM,  35,  945 

Vict.  c.  42,  8350 

Stu-ia,  5310 

18  &  19  Viet.  e.  119,  753 
18  &  19  Vict.  c.  120,  3370,  654 

22  &  33  Viet.  c.  56,  1040 
22  &  33  Viet.  e.  57,  494 

Vict.  c.  322,  654 
28  Viet.  c.  3,  5100 

Sink,  -ley.  Dr.,   1040 
Stnr-v.-,  l!oiirni-'s  Act,  1056 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  121,  874 

22  &  23  Vict.  c.  6l,  3310 

28  Vict.  c.  32,  4840 

Sturt,  Capt.,  1000 

18  &  19  Viet.  e.    144,  434 

22  &  23  Vict.  c.  137,  786 

t  o.  30,  5060,  961 

Suav,  10660 

18  &  19  Viet.  e.   14".   7-5 

23  Vict.  c.  8,  1510 

4*  Met.  c.  34,  654 

Suarii. 

J8  &  19  Viet.  c.  138,  227 

23  Vict.  c.  11,3790 

38  Vict.  c.  49,  5660 

Sul.  lai|Ufum,  941 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  132,  5570 

33  Vict.  c.  14,  506 

Vicr.  0.50,3320 

Succadana,  1600 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  133,  537 

33  Vict.  c.  18,  8190 

38  &  29  Viet.  c.  60,  3320 

Suchet,  Marshal,  33,  I33« 

18  &  19  Vict.  c.  2,  7893 
19  &  20  Vict.  c.  3,  7380 

23  Viet.  c.  21,  757 
23  Vict.  c.  22,  3500,  361,  958 

28  &  29  Vict.  c.  66,  626 

Sucre,  250 
Sudor  Anglicanus,  7800,  9480 

19  &  20  Viet,  e. 

19  &  20  Vict.  c.  38,  3930 

23    Vict.    c.    27,   575a,   833, 
10510 

38  &  29  Vict.  c.  77,  832,  1031 
28  &  29  Vict.  c.  79,  9970 

Suessa  1'ometia,  IO25" 
Suetonius  Paulinus,  56,  2000, 

19  &  20  Vict.  c.  47,  537,  1050 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  58,  434 

28  &  29  Vict.  c.  90,  4010 

10290 

19  &  20  Viet.  c.  54.  45'  > 
19  &  20  Vict.  e.  - 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  63,  5330 
23  &  24  Viet.  e.  77,  719,  874 

28  &  29  Vict.  c.  99,  294 
28*29  Viet.c.  121,8690 

Suevi,  56 
Sutlidc  dynasty,  766 

19  &  20  Vict.  c.  58,  8330 
I9&30  Vict.  0.64,  469,  6110, 

23  &  24  Viet.  0.78,  1510 
23  &  24  Vict.  c.  92,  4840 

28  it  29  Vict.  c.  119,  2240 
29  Vict.  c.  3,  962 

Suindinum,  6290 
Suliman  Ben  Alkahem,  II 

944 

23  &  34  Vict.  c.  107,  833 

29  Vict.  c.  36,  961 

Siilmona,  660 

19  &  30  Viet.  c.  68,  337 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  108,  511 

29  &  30  Vict.  c.  89,  9650 

Sulu  Islands.  9170 

19  &  30  Viet.  c.  69,  7890 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  110,958 

39  &  30  Vict.  c.  99.  874 

Sumbajee,  266 

19  &  30  Vict.  c.  79,  1160 
19  &  20  Vict.  c.  80,  86 

23  &  24  "Viet.  c.  111,933 
23  &  24  Vict.  c.  112,  319 

30  Vict.  c.  67,  10100 
Statute  of  Acton  Burnel,  9010 

Summers'  Islands.  141,917 
Sumner,  Charles  Bird,  1000 

19  &  20  Vict.  c.  83,  263,  8570 
19  &  30  Vict.  c.  86,  3070 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  114,  930,  1021 
23  &  24  Vict.  c.  116,  290 

Statute  of  Labourers,  10070 
Statute  of  Merlon,  3730 

Sumter,  The,  30 
Sumian-daeg,  9440 

19  &  30  Vict.  c  96,  4630 

23  &  24  Vict.  c,  135,  432 

Statute  of  Merchants,  15 

Sunnites,  9170 

19  &  30  Vict.  c.  loo,  537 

23  &  24  Viet.  0.137,880 

.Statute  of  I'ses,  5680 

Supralapsarian  doctrine,  760 

19  &  30  Vict.  c.  107,  913 

23  &  24  Vict.  c.  146,  433 

Statute   of   Westminster,  940, 

Surallum,  9950 

19  &  20  Vict.  c.  108,  294 
19  &  30  Vict.  c.  115,  148 
19  &  30  Vict.  c.  119,  635 
19  &  20  Vict.  c.  120,  3780 
20  Vict.  c.  6,  506 

23  &  24  Viet,  c.  151,  663 
33  &  34  Vict.  c.  168,  458 
24  Vict,  0.9,  234 
24  Viet.  c.  20,  506,  7470 
24  &  25  Vict.  C.  14,  8020 

in 

Staunton,  Sir  G.,  3430 
Stavel,  47 
Ste.-im  Fire-Engine,  4010 
Stedlinprers,  1053 

Suratissa,  King,  228a 
Surrey,  Earl  of,  373,  7860 
Surrey  Music  Hall,  590 
Surveyor-General  of   his  Ma- 
jesty's Works,  10543 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  I,  252,  6090 

24  &  25  Vict.  c.  52,  9110 

Steed,  Mr.,  9340 

Susa.  1.33 

20  &  21  Vict.    c.  3,  790,  761, 

34  &  25  Vict.   e,   53,   10030. 

Steele,  Sir  Kichard,  929 

Susarion.  2701,  3370 

9720,  9820                                          1037 

Steelyard  Merchants,  275,  4670 

Susiana,  109 

20  &  21  Vict.  c.  14,  537,  10,0    !      24  &  25  Vict.  c.  61,  874 

Steno,  Michele,  1014 

Suso,  Henry,  683 

30  &  2t  Vict.  c.  19.  1160    "            34  &  25  Vict.  c.  75,  679 

Sten  Sture,  900 

Sutlej  River,  816 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


nog 


Sutrium,  9470 

Tarquinii,  289 

THEATRES  :  — 

Theodore,  King,  9 

Sutteeism,  5080 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  3100 

Adelphi,  i6a 

Theodoric,  18 

Sutton,  785 

Tarraco,  2210 

Alexandra,  36 

Theodosius,  91,  98 

Button,  Mr.  Samuel,  1016 

Tarraconensis,  68 

Aquila,  66n 

Theodotion,  1440 

Sutton,  Sir  H.,  l66a 

Tartaglia,  370 

Astley's,  89 

Theophilus,  15,  60,  986 

Sutton,  Thomas.  236 

Tarvisium,  9840 

Astley's  (Dublin),  3420 

Theophori,  2480 

Suwarrow,   Marshal.   350,  44, 

Taschkent,  1560 

Bath,  126 

Theophrastus,  640,  162,  6900 

230,  788 
Swammerdam,  3780 

Tasman,  990,  100,  3970,  4230, 
706.  959 

Blackburn,  149 
Blackfriars,  1490 

Theopompus,  3790 
Theraputae,  3820 

Swan-pan,  730,  ,  95 

Tasso,  Toniuato,  41,  524 

Britannia,  1740 

Therma,  9680 

Swan's  Feather,  280 

Tatar  Akhtiar,  8890 

Brunswick,  17901 

Thermae  Selinuntise,  884 

Swedenborg,  Kinanuel,  41,  950 

Tatars,  959 

Carlo  Felice  (Genoa),  436 

Thermum,  22 

Sweer's  Islands,  looa 

Tate,  Nahum,  7860,  8140 

City  of  London,  2540 

Thernius,  9680 

Sweet  Principle  of  Oils,  448 

Tatian.  3700 

Cockpit,  967 

Therouanne,  964 

Sweyne's  Feather,  1380 

Tnlianists,  3700 

Colchester,  3660 

Thei'vingi,  1025 

Swevnheym,  Conrad,  808 

Tauler,  John,  683 

Covent  Garden,  296 

Theseus,  4580 

Swift,  Uean,  339,  3790 
Swine's  Feather,  1280 

Tauric  Chersonese,  300 
Tauris,  129 

Curtain.  3070 
Davenant's,  3380 

Thespis,  92,  3370 
Thessalus,  644 

Sybarites,  952 

"Tavern  Bilkers,"  The,  1130 

Dorset  Gardens,  3350,  10450 

Thiana,  9940 

Sycliar,  898 

Taverner's  Bible,  145 

Dover,  336 

Thiar,  7310 

Sydney,  Algernon,  37301 

Tavies  Inn,  9660 

Drury  Lane,  3410 

Thierry,  I.,  lota 

Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  309 

'1'awntoii,  9590 

Dublin,  342,  343<i 

Thiers,  M..  4160 

Sydney  Gazette,  looa 
Sydney,  Sir  Philip,  1067 
Sveuc,  8190 
Sylla,  40,  920,  3800,  849,  866a 
Sylvaticus,  162 

Taxandria,  421 
Taylor,  J.,  341,  looo 
Taylors  and  Linen  Armourers, 
6490 
Tchar,  3100 

Edinburgh,  358 
English  Opera  House,  377 
Fortune,  5880 
Garrick,  4310 
Gibbon's  Tennis  Court  Thea- 

Thieves' Islands,  5580 
Thinite  dynasty,  361 
Third  Estate,  973 
Thistlewood,  A.,  2230,  390,  970 
Thoana,  9940 

Sylvester  I.,  41,  670 

Tchili,  2410 

tre,  444 

Thomas,  St.,  630 

Symington,  William,  934 

Tchorlu,  9950 

Glasgow  (various),  4450,  446 

Thomists,  8840 

Symmachus,  1440 
Syncletica,  St.,  7190 
Syndereomb,  John,  9520 
Synod  of  Westminster,  117 

Tchurlu,  99:50 
Teazling  Machines,  1055 
Tectosages,  55,  9780 
Tegea,  9870 

Globe,  447 
Goodman  s  Fields,  4510 
Grecian,  4580 
Hampton  Court,  473 

Thompson  River,  1760 
Thompson,  Rev.  T.,  240 
Thomson,  230,  24 
Thoneton,  9590 

Syrallum,  9950 

T.-vaU-s,  961 

Hanover,  474 

Thor,  972 

Syros,  953 

Tel  a,  6440 

Haymarket,  479 

Thorium,  9700 

Telei;(.nus,  994 

Herculaneum,  484 

Thorina,  9700 

Telford,    Mr.     Thomas,    1950, 

Her  Majesty's,  Haymarket, 

Thorne,  R.,  71 

TAAFXA,  38 
Tabard,  340 

Tellfwniiam,  9500 

7?7 
Hope,  967 

Thorney  Island,  10420 
Thornton,  Abraham,  985 

Tabarieh,  972*1 

Telo  Martius,  97801 

James's,  St.,  5280 

Thorough  Bass,  6800      " 

Tabelliones,  717 

Telutias,  7250 

Kelly's,  Miss,  9150 

Thracian  Samos,  87201 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  397 

Temple  of  Apis,  6470 

La  Pergola  (Florence),  406 

Thrasybulus,  92,  953 

Tabreez.  955 

Temple  of  Proteus,  6470 

Leeds,  569 

Thrinacria,  903 

Tabula  Pacis.  757 

Temple  of  Ptah,  6470 

Lincoln's    Inn  Fields,  3380, 

Throttle  Valve,  9340 

Tacitus,  8460 

Temple      of       a      Thousand 

579« 

Thucydides,  154 

Tacoodonon,  312 

Columns,  986 

Liverpool,  583 

Thunder,  Floating  Battery,  405 

Tacoutchetesse  Kiver,  4210 
Tadmor,  745 

Temple  (Solomon's),  533 
Temple  Bar,  5880 

Lyceum,  612 
Marylebone,  6370; 

Thunderbolt,  Floating  Battery, 
405 

Tae-ping  Rebellion,  2440 
Taffeta,  9550 

Ten,  Government  of  the,  920; 
Ten  Jurisdictions,  League  of, 

Mew  Holborn,  700 
New   Royal  Brunswick  (See 

Thurgovia,  8710 
Thurii,  620,  972 

Taff  Railway,  213 

1910 

Brunswick). 

Thurot,  2170 

Tahitian  Islands,  439,  915 

Tend  a,  24 

New  Royalty,  701 

Thwaites,  Sir  J.,  654 

Tai-wan,  4100 

Tenison,  Archbishop,  9631 

New  Westminster  (Astley's), 

Thyatira,  895 

Taku  Forts,  2440 
Talbot,  Fox,  774,  956 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  7860 
Tenochtitlan,  106,  6540 

89 
Nottingham,  7170 

Th,rea,73 
Tibiscus,  962 

Talbot,  Lord,  157 

Tenorio,  33 

Old  Royalty,  7230 

Tichfield,  9740 

Talika,  956 

Tenths,  9740 

Olympic,  725 

Ticinum,  7560 

Talleyrand,  138,  231,  327,  416 

Tephrice,  755 

Opera    House,    Haymarket, 

Tien-tsin.  2440 

Tallis,  60 

Tercel  ra,  106,  801 

727 

Tierra  del  Amerigo,  48 

Talus,  327,  5641 

Terceira,  Duke  of,  801,  Sola 

Paris  Garden,  9660 

Tiei-ra  Australis,  700 

Taman.  864 

Terence,  338,  8460 

Pavilion,  7560 

Tiger,   war  -steamer,  150,  723 

Tameorwerth,  785 

Tergeste,  9850 

Phoenix,  967 

8630 

Tamerlane,  220,  560   1060,  no, 
507,  668« 

Termonde,  3310 
Terra   Australis    del    Espiritu 

Plymouth,  785 
Prince  of  Wales's,  821 

Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  87,  88,  107, 
1070 

Tamesa,  9650 

S  incto,  990 

Princess's,  80701 

Tiglathi-Nin,  1070 

TamesN,  9650 

Terra  Australis  Incognita,  990, 

Queen's,  821 

Tisanes,  75 

Tamiathis,  313 

9190 

Queen's  (Edinburgh),  359 

Tillotson,  Archbishop,  4710 

Tanaite  dynasty,  3610 

Terra  di  Lavoro,  3010 

Red  Bull,  967 

Tilly,  Marshal,  8360 

Tanatis,  966 

Teitullian,  981 

Regency,  821 

Timoleon,  3870,  953 

Tanatos,  966 

Terror,  Floating  Battery',  405 

Richmond,  Surrey,  840 

Timothy,  St.,  379 

Tanchelin.  150,  62 

Tertullian,  117 

Ripon,  8420 

Timour,  191,  243,  330 

Tancred,  63 

Teschen,  118 

Rose,  967 

Tindal,  M.,  4230 

Tandemus,  150 

Tesho-lama,  560 

Royal  Circus,  856,  947 

Tiueh,  760* 

Tangchow,  2440 
Tanner,  Bishop,  119 
Tanquelin,  62 

Tessera;,  327 
Testa.  Trebatius,  104801 
Testone,  9640 

Royalty,  858 
Sadler's  Wells,  8660 
Salisbury    Court,  5880,  967, 

Tin  Farthings,  396 
Tingis,  9560 
Tingris,  9560 

Tantalum,  270 
Tantia  Topee,  509 

Testoon,  8990,  9640 
Testudo,  1260 

10450 
Soho,  70  r,  9153 

Tin  Islands,  884 
Tiphsah,  966 

Tantun,  959(1 

Tetrapolis,  61 

Standard,  9320 

Tippoo   Saib,    1130,    115,   131, 

Tanzimat,  31 

Tetzel,  5100 

Surrey,  947 

297,  5o8 

Taormina,  9590 

Tezcuco.  Lake,  106 

Swan,  967 

Tirallum,  9950 

Taper  Axe,  1050 

Tezzah  Tree,  3090 

Victoria,  1021 

Tirhakah,  40 

Taprobane,  238o 

Thaddeus,  630,  76 

Whitefriars,  967,  10450 

Tiridates,  750 

Tarablus,  987 

Thadmor,  745 

Thecla,  360 

Tiroen,  9950 

Tarbagatai,  245 
Tarentum,  620 
Tai-if  Ibn  Malik,  958 

Thales  of  Miletus,  46(1,  90,  950, 
S^S,  437,  5i6a,  673,  8950 
Thanus,  966 

Theists,  31901 
Themison,  644 
Themistocles,  73,92,2631,6210, 

Tiryns,  823 
Tirynthus,  823 
Tissington,  1041 

Tarik-ben-Zeyad,  383 

Thapsacum,  966 

817 

Tithe  Bill  (Irish),  650 

Tarpeia,  958                                     Tharshish,  9580 

Theodon  I,  1270 

Tithe  Commutation  Act,  974^1 

THE   MANUAL  OF  DATES. 


Tithe  Composition  Act  (Irish), 

TREATIES—  (continued). 

TREATIES—  (continued). 

TREATIES—  (continual  }. 

65a 

Allahabad,  40 

Cologne-sur-Spree,  2680 

Intercursus     Magnus,     649, 

Titian,  7410 

Almazan,  430 

Colombo,  269 

8670 

Titus,  4380,  5320,  8490 
Titus  Lartius,  3270 

Almeria,  420 
Almorah,  5430 

Comayagua,  6760 
Connaus,  278 

Interim  Treaty,  5140 
Itchingford,  5250 

Titus  Quinctius,  459 

Altmark,  45 

Constance,  281 

Japan,  530 

Tlerasen,  38 
Toga,  3390 

Alt-Kanstiidt,  45 
Amboise  League,  47 

Constantinople,  281 
Conway,  1030 

Jassy,  5300 
Jeddo,  53  1 

Togarmali,  75 

America,  1800 

Copenhagen,  2840 

Jonkiipiiig,  5370 

Togenburg,  976 
Toland,  J.,  4330 

Amiens,  50 
Amsterdam,  53 

Copyrights,  515 
Costa  Hica,  2920 

-  .11,  2920 
Judenburg,  539 

Toleration  Act,  283,  8160 
Toletum,  9760 

Amurath,  3530 
Ancenis,  540 

Cracow,  8iia 
Crespy,  2990 

Kainardji,  557 
Kalisch,  542,  812 

Tolosa,  9780 
Toltecs,  6540 
Tom  of  Bedlam's  Men,  70 

Andelot,  413 
AndruMow,  550 
Annobon,  580 

Crotoy,  302 
Crown,  302 
Curacoa,  3060 

Kanagawa,  542,  looo 
Khyrpore,  546 
Kiel,  541,  546 

Tomsk,  9020 

Antalcidas,  590 

Cutch,  3080 

Kingston-on  Thames,  9830 

Tom  Thumb,  349 
Tomkins  and  Chaloner,  10320 

Antwerp,  620 
Aranjuez,  68 

Darmstadt,  3150 

lirfinitive  Peace,  319 

Kl.'in-Sclinellendorf,  5520 
Kloster  Seyvern,  5520 

Tonbridge  Wells.  990 
Tone,  Theobald  Wolf,  518,  998 
Tonga  Tabu,  ;3 
Tongan  Islands,  4231 

Ardres,  72 
Armed  Neutrality,  75 
Arras,  780 
Asliburton,  83 

Deogaum,  324 
Dinapoor,  695 
Dobran,  3310 
Dover,  336 

Klum  (See  Sadowa). 
Komeuburg,  556 
Koiali,  556 
Kutschouk    Kainardji,    252, 

Tongkoo  Bay,  244 

Assiento,  86 

Dresden,  3390 

557 

Tongso  Penlow,  143 
Tonic  Sol-fa  Association,  276 

-iii-g,  98 
Ausiria   and   Great    Britain 

Dunse,  347 
Durham,  8850 

Labiau,  5570 
l..-i  .l.-iubiitis,  5590 

Tonson,  1580 

(Commerce),  1020 

Edinburgh,  359 

l.avbach,  567 

Tonti,  Lorenzo,  977 
Tooke,  Home,  2900 

Badajoz,  1090 

Baden,  no 

Einsiedeln,  363 
El  Arish,  3630 

-Mies,  &c..  568 
l.c  ("atcau,  222O 

Tooloonides  dynasty,  36? 

lia-nalo,  Iica 

Elbing,  3630 

L.-ipsic,  57  1 

Topaze,  H.M.S.,  2430 

.1  Liman,  114 

Klsinor,  368 

Leo  ben, 

Toprak-Kali,  736 
Topsham  Canal,  3910 

Bangkok,  1000 

liarceloiiH,  119 

Krivau,  7350 
Krzeroum,  3810 

Lewe«,  5730 
Liebau,  5570 

Torcellus,  731 

Barenwald,  119 

Kstaples,  383 

Limerick,  578 

Torgan,  Tlie,  1973 

Baroda,  I2oa 

Kvra  mo  nte,  386 

Lisbon,  581 

Torismond  (King),  300 

Harrier  Treaties,  122 

Falaise,  885a 

Litvatorok,  5820 

Tornacus,  9790 

Bartenstein.  123 

Falc/.i 

l.odi,  5850 

Torpedo,  36* 

Bui.  \alde,  1230 

Family  Compact,  3950 

London,  5900,  591 

Torquatus,  Manlius,  848 

Basel,  1230 

I'Vrrara,  39^0 

Loiigjumeau,  5940 

Toniuemada,  5130 

Bas>cin,  1240 

Flanders,  4033 

Loo.  5^4 

Turrit,  99or 

Bayonn 

Fl-is,  404 

Loudun,  606 

Torricelli,  94,  1200,  501 

Beckascog,  1300 

Florence,  406 

Louviers,  607 

Toningtoa,  Karl  of,  129 

Bcl-rade,  1340 

Folembral,  406 

Li,l,,-l;k,  608 

Tonn.u-.-i  Inland,  l8oa 

.if,  1400 

1-oli^no,  408 

Lublin,  608 

Toscana,  993 

Berlin,  1400 

Fontalnebleao,  408 

Lucerne,  6o8a 

i-.  980 

Herwick-on-Tweed,  1410 

France-  and  Belgium,  417 

Lucon,  609 

.,  984,1 

Bhm-tiiorc,  143 

France  and   England  (com- 

Lund,  610 

Tour  de  Burbard,  lo 

Miau-rossa,  1430 

111.  •!•<•,•),  417 

Lmnlen,  610 

Tour  de  Carduan,  5760 

Blois,  1520 

Franci-  and  Monaco,  417 

Luueville,  6roa 

Tour  de  Koussillon,  855 
Tournelle  Civile,  7510 

Bocea  Ti-ris,  2440 
l!oorliaii]iore,  508 

•lid  Ku.-.-ia.  417 
France   and   Sardinia,    417, 

Lvons,  6130 
Madrid,  6180 

Tournelle  Criminelle,  7510 

Bordeaux,  160 

4170 

Ma  lines.  6350 

Toussant  Loarertore,  334 

Boulogne,  163 

.  i'i  irt-on-the  Maine,  419 

Malmo,  6250 

Toutin,  Jean,  370 
Tower  of  Bar,  1820 

Bovad'ji-K.-uv,  1640,  8630 

•.i.  1680 

Fredericksborg,  4210 
I'lvd.-nckshamm,  4210 

Managua.  6760,  707 
.Mat.  galore.  ' 

Townlev,  Charles.  9800 

Breda.  1671 

Fr.-tville,  4230 

Marcoussis,63la 

Town.,:,,,!,  liev.G.,355 

Breslan,  169 

1  rcyr,  4230 

Marienburg,  6320 

Townsend,  Kev.  H.,  5 

Breti-ny,  1690 

"•  425 

Maur.  St.,  6400 

Townsend.  Kev.  J.,  317 

Broem>l>ro,  177^ 

Friedwald,  4230 

Jleaux,  643a 

Townshend.  Lord,  122 

Bromsebroe,  1770 

FursUTl)imd  Alliance,  4260 

Mechlin,  6250 

Towns   Improvement    Clauses 

Brugi-s.  [78(1 

l-'iis-cn,  427 

Memel,  6470 

Act,  874 
''Trans  fur  the  Times,"  9800 

Brundusiuin,  179 
Brussels,  10150 

(lalatz,  428 
i;.-i-.ti-in.  4320 

Methuen,  6530 
Mexico  (various),  6560 

Trade  Winds  10500 

Bucharest,  I8[ 

l.i-nrva.  435 

Milan,  6590 

Tramblgwnda,  409 

Huciins   A\  res,  1810 

(iiTinain,  St.,  4390 

Miscnum,  6630 

Trajan.  Arch  of,  138 
Trajan,  Kinperor,  94,  8900 

Bulwer-Clayton,  1830,  2560 
Cadan,  1910 

(iermano,  San,  440 
Ghent,  4430 

.Mo  n  von,  668 
Monte  Bello,  577,  670 

Trajan's  Column,  8490 

Cai'ii,  192 

Glogau,  447 

Montenegro,  6700 

Trajectum,  614,  1007 

Calmar,  197 

Qondar,  9 

Moore,  673 

Tram  Koiuls,  825 

Cambray,  199 

Gorcum,  4510 

Moscow,7676 

Trangpon,  245 

Campe,  201  a 

(iorincliem,  451^ 

Mulhausen,  10130 

Trani.  1  20 
Transalpine  Gaul,  433 

Campo-Formio,  ZQt 
Cardis,  2130 

<iuadalupe  Hidalgo,  6550 
Gueraude,  4660 

Muudesore.  5100 

Muu  ich,678o 

Transfiguration,  Feast  of  the, 

Carlo  witz,  215 

Gulistan,  468 

Minister.  l-<j 

397 

Casa  Lanzi,  219 

Hadrianople,  470 

Muscat,  680 

Transjurone,  Burgundy,  740 

Cateau-Cambresis,  222a 

Hague,  4700 

Xankin,  209,  684 

Transoxiana.  156 

Ciivriana,  10140 

Halle,  472 

Naples,  6780 

Transpadane  Republic,  254 

('.•]]<•,  10652 

Hanover,  4740 

Naumberg,  691 

Trapezita  Marcianus,  6310 

('(•/.inibra,2290 

Hawaii,  478,  4780 

Naupaclns,  23,691,9130 

Trapezus,  9830 

Cliambord,  231 

Heilbronn,  4800 

e,8ia 

Tit  BATIKS:  — 

Chaumont,  237^ 

Helsin^borg,  4810 

Nerac,  6950 

Aarau,  I 

Cliierasco,  2390 

Herrenhausen,  4840 

Nerchinsk.  6950 

Aarguu,  i 

Chunar,  3490 

Hohenlinden,  4870 

Neuritzur,  2190 

Abbeville,  3 

Chunarghur,  2490 

Homum-Chae,  244 

New  Granada,  699 

Abo,  7 

Cintra,  252 

Honolulu,  494 

Nice,  707 

Abrantes,  70 
Abyssinia,  9 

Clair-sur-Epte,  7120 
Clarendon-Dallas,  2560 

Hubertsburg,  1020,  497 
Hue,  497  s 

Nicias,  7070 
Niemetz,  861 

Aix-la-Chapellc.  v> 

Closter-Seven,  259 

Iglau,  5030 

Niemeguen,  700*1 

Akermann,  290 

fochc,  lcl5«r 

lldefenso,  St.,  5030 

\ikolsburg,  7080 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


TREATIES—  (continued). 

TREATIES  —  (continued). 

Tsar,  3100 

Ursus,  St.,  1  29ft 

Nipchoo,  6950 

Truce,  9880 

Tscherkask,  393 

Urukn,  90,  2300 

Nisibis,  710 

Turin,  88oa 

Tsikee,  244 

Urup  Island,  557 

Nismes,  710 

Turkmanshai,  766,  979 

Tsor,  995 

Urville,  D',  59* 

Northampton,  290,  7140 

Udong,  996 

Tubal  Cain,  520,  653 

Usbekistan,  156 

Noyon,  7180 

Ulm,  990 

Tuckey,  24 

Uscudama,  473 

Nuremberg,  7190 

Unkiar  Skelessi,  1005 

Tucuman,  710 

Usher,  18,  910,  355 

Nymphenburg,  720 

Utrecht,  1007 

Tuisco,  9890 

Usipi,  10060 

Nyetadt,  720 

Vasvar,  101  la 

Tula,  106 

Usum  Cassim,  noo 

Oleron,  724 
Oliva,  7340 

Vaucelles,  1013 
Vehlau,  10400 

Tulipomania,  4880 
Tumbez  (Peru),  480 

Utah,  6740 
Utile  Island,  128 

Olivenza,  7340 

Vercelli,  1016 

Tumbrel,  180,  nio,  3040 

Utter  Barrister,  1220 

Olmiitz,  7240 

Verdun,  1017 

Tunes,  990 

Uvira,  240 

Orebro,  7300 

Versailles,  1018 

Tuneta,  990 

Uxama,  7330 

Orvieto.  733 

Vervins,  10180 

Turan,  9910 

Uzbeg,  1006 

Pacifications,  -40 

Viazma,  10190 

Turcoman  dynasty,  766 

Uzziah,  800,  83,  87 

Paix  aux  Dames,  199 

Viborg,  10190 

Turenne,  Marshal,  3460,  8210, 

Parana,  7480 

Vic-sur-Seille,  IO2I 

871 

VACUUM  PAN  943    ; 

Paraguayan,  7480 

Vienna,  10220 

Turgot,  4140 

Vadakat,  109 

Pardo.  7480 

Villafranca,  5240,  11050,  1033 

Turkey  Company,  6490 

Vadiatio  Duelli,  10270 

Paris,  750,  8620 

Vilna,  10230 

Turkey  Red,  3490 

Yn'strnis,  10440 

Pursdorf,  7530 
Partition  Treaties,  7520 

Viterbo,  1025 
Vossem,  1027 

Turkomans,  9910 

Turk's  Island,  978 

Vagabonds,  10070 

Vaidar,  252O 

Passarowitz,  753 

Viborg,  10190 

Turner,  Richard,  9920 

xnid.'s'.i,  1008 

Passau,  753 

Warsaw,  10350 

Turner,  Sharon,  44,  ill 

VuteiitJa,Lord,8a 

Peace  of  Clement  IX.,  7570 

Washington,  1036 

Turnverein,  93 

Valcntia,  93 

Peace  of  God,  9880 

Welau,  10400 

Tuscaloosa,  steam-ship,  993 

Valdivia,  68a 

Peace  of  Religion,  757 

Wereloe,  8610,  10410 

Tuscia,  3840,  993 

Vale  of  Honey,  259 

Pecquigny,  758 

Westminster,  489,  706,  10430 

Twelve  Brethren,  6350 

Valentine,  Basil,  603 

Pensagni,  6990 

Westphalia,  1044 

Twelve  Tables,  Law  of  the, 

Valentine,  St.,  10090 

Peitang,  loooa 

Wiasma,  861,  10190 

116 

Valentinus,  119,  448 

Pekin,  244 

Wiborg,  10190 

Two-  ford  -ton,  975 

Valery,  St.;  137 

Peronne,  764 

Wilna,  861 

Tvvyford,  975 

Valesians,  385 

Petersburg,  St.,  7690 

Winchester,  1050 

Twy-ford-ton,  975 

Valiant  (armour-plated).  77 

Peter.swalde,  7690 

Wismar,  1052 

Tycho  Brahe,  90 

Vallenses,  1008 

Poischewitz,  787 

Windsor,  1051 

Tycoon,  5290 

Valley  of  Paradise,  1010 

Poitiers,  1400 

Wursterhausen,  8na 

Tyler,  Wat,    1490,   560,   7890, 

Vallis  Romana,  io;o 

Pondieherry,  508,  791 

Wyborg,  10190  . 

10380 

Valombrosa,  10090 

Poonah,  1830,  793 

Yandaboo,  9630,  1060 

Tyndale,  145 

Van  Beek,  13 

Poorundnh,  7920 

Zatmar,  1065 

Tyrian  Purple,  3490 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John,  727 

Prague,  8050 

Zell,  10650 

Tyrnau,  533 

Van  Buren,  President,  10010 

Presburg,  806 

Zurich,  1030,  5340 

Tyr-Owen,  9950 

Vancouver,  Capt.,  100,  loioa 

Prutli,  3940 

Trenck,  Baron,  620 

Tyrrel,  Walter,  6980 

Vandalucia,  55 

Pyrenees,  8170 
Quadruple  Alliance,  8i8a 

Trente  et  Quarante,  855 
Trent,  steamer,  984 

Tvrrhrnia,  3840 
Tyuniie  District,  193 

Van  der  Berg,  106 
Van  Eyck,  Hubert,  7410 

Kadstndt,  834 

Tresham,  Sir  Thomas,  930 

Tyzibus,  Joannes,  770 

Van  Eyck,  John,  723 

Kastadt,  824 

Trevethick,  Richard.  585,  934 

Tzernagora,  6700 

Van  Hattem,  Pontian,  4770 

Ratisbon,  8280 
Reciprocity  Treaty,  8290 

Trevor,  Sir  John,  9270 
Trial  of  the  Pyx,  933 

UBII,  433 

Van  Helmont,  330 
Van  Leyden,  7410 

Keichenbach,  834 

Triangulation,  9850 

Ubiquitarians,  996 

Van  Noort,  1600 

Religious  Peace,  7570 

Triarchy,  483 

Udenheim,  7730 

Van  Poelgeest,  Alice,  4880 

Rendsburg,  835 

Triballi,  40 

Udine,  See  of,  66a 

Vans  Agnew,  Mr.,  5080 

Rocroy,  8440 

Tribocci,  939 

Udo,  960 

Van   Tromp,    Admiral,    3360, 

Roskild,  8530 

Tribouian,  63 

Uffa,  3530 

4800,  4880,  489,  798 

Ruel,  8580 

Trichina  Spiralis,  986 

Ugri,  622 

Vapincum,  431 

Rysvvick,  8640 

Tridentine  Catechism,  332O 

Ujein,  726 

Variola,  911 

Saalfeld,  8640 

Tridentum,  984 

Uliarus  Insula,  724 

Varnitza,  1360 

Saint   Clair-sur-Epte,   7150, 

Triennial  Act,  9850 

rii.-ippo,  581 

Varro,  Marcus,  19601 

10190 
Salamanca,  868 

Triers,  9840 
Trillc-ck's  Inns,  700 

Ulloa,  480 
Ulphilas,  859 

Vasates,  129 
Vascones,  4330 

Schonbrunn,  8830 

Tri-Milchi,  641 

Ulric,  St.,  3060 

Vasco  Nunez,  480 

Seenaputtee,  1910 

Trinacria,  903 

Ulsig,  310 

Vavrio,  1012 

Segedin,  890 

Trine  Immersion,  1170 

Ulysses,  70,  5250 

Vauban,  Mareschal,  133,  4110 

Segoulee,  695,  890 

Trinitarians,  640 

Uncuth,  350 

Vaucanson,  Jacques,  104 

Senlis,  893 

Trinovantum,  146,  5870 

Unction,  348 

Vaudois,  1008 

Sistova,  9080 

Triple  Crown,  303 

"  Unfortunate  Peace,"  3230 

Vauquelin,  249 

Stettin,  9360 

Triremes,  2870,  8990 

Ungri,  639 

Vaz,  Tristam,  230 

Stockholm,  9370 

Trissino,  982 

Unhappy  Islands,  3250 

Vecta,  10473 

Stolbova,  2130,  861,  938 

Tristam  Vaz,  230 

Unigenitus  (Bull),  11 

Vectis,  10470 

Suncion,  944 

Tristan,  Nuno,  1500 

United  Associate  Synod,  1840 

Veere,  1017 

Susa,  947 

Tritaja,  no 

United  Brethren,  674 

Vega,  Lope  de,  2700 

Szegedin,  890 

Triumvirate  of   the  Trecento, 

United  Irishmen,  517 

Vegetable  Silk,  816 

Taafna,  38 

984 

United  Principalities,  3140 

Vegetius,  800 

Tamatave,  617 
Teheran,  9610 

Triumviri  Capitales,  8480 
Trivium,  8180,  10040 

University  Hall,  256 
Unlearned  Parliament,  751 

Vehm-Gericht,  10130 
Veientes,  10130 

Teschen,  064 

Trois  Echelles,  1053 

Unreason,  Abbot  of,  4 

Vela,  Cape,  480 

Teusin,  9640 

Trompe,  The,  1350 

Unverdorben,  57 

Velasquez,  480 

Thorn,  9700. 

Tron  Church,  Glasgow,  4450 

Uphilas,  1440 

Velia,  660 

Tien-tsin,  6140,  973 

Trondhjem,  341 

Upper  Bench,  5480 

Velitraa,  10120 

Tilsit,  9730 

Trons,  1910 

Upper  Zab,  311 

Vellet,  1013 

Tlemsen,  975 

Troop,  225 

Upsi,  Eric,  48 

Velvet  Paper,  1013 

Tolentino,  9760 
Tordesillas,  9770 

Trotman,  540 
Trotter,  24 

Ur,  230 
Ural  Mountains,  3260 

Venaissim,  105 
Vendobona,  10210 

Tourkmantchai,  6830,  864 

Troughton,  Edward,  679 

Urbanists,  257 

Vendocinum,  1013 

Travendahl,  9830 

Troy,  New,  5870 

Urbinum,  Hortense,  10050 

Venedw,  1041 

Trente,  1750 
Treviso,  985 

Troy  Weight,  895 
Trumpets,  Feast  of,  397 

Uriah  the  Hititte,  4870 
Urquiza,  Gen.,  183 

Venerable  Bede,  33,  1140,  1150, 

117,  1440,317,333 

Triple  Alliance,  987 
Troyes,  9880 

Tryphon,  1410 
Tsad,  34 

Ure,  Dr.,  4290 
Ursula,  St.,  no 

Veneti,  760,  2390,  1013 
"  Veni,  Vidi,  Vici,"  10650 

THE   MANUAL   OF  DATES. 


"  Venice  of  the  North,"  937 

A'iti  Islands,  3970 

Waterloo  Barracks,  9800 

AVhitgift,  18 

Venlo,  1570 

Vitruvius,  700 

Water-show,  66 

AVhiting,  4460 

Vernier,  Thomas,  520,  1016 

"  A'ittoria/  990 

Watson,  Dr.,  3650 

AVhitington,  Sir  Richard,  568 

Venta  Belgarum,  10490 

Vittoria  (ship),  253 

Watson,  J.,  786 

Whitlev,  Capt.  J.,  694 

Venta  Icenorum,  7160 

A'itus's  Dance,  St.,  7800 

Watt,  44        ' 

AVhitney,  Kli,  2930 

Veimsiu,  1016 
Verceil.  10160 

A'ivian,  Andrew,  82? 

Vlaar  ingen,  6140      " 

AVatt,  James,    147,  1950,    462, 
934«,  935 

AVhitsun-ale,  340 
Whitworth,  M'r.,  810,  341 

Vercellao,  10160 

A'lamingh,  loo 

AA'avcrlcv,  141 

AVhvda.  312 

Verdngetortx,  390,  196 

Verdingale,  3950 
Vergilia,  6790 

Vlissin-cn.  4070 
VocaJ  .-society,  276 
Vogchveide-Walther  yon  der, 

AVaverley  Abbey,  396 
AVax    Chandlers'     Company, 
1039 

Wiblingen,  4430 

AVibnrites,  8190 
AVichnor,  347 

Vermandou,  4:3 

6620 

AA'avmouth,  710 

AVick.  6830 

'Vcrmelaiid,  7150 
Vermillions,  2930 

Voghera.  7760 
To/,,,.,.  (H.M.S),244 

AVeaver,  Mr.  J.,  113 
Webb,  Lieut..  84 

AVicked  Bible,  145 
Wicker-work,  124 

Vermnyden,  24 

Volaterra,  1026 

AVeber,  Carl  Von,  7260 

Wickhain,  lol 

Vermandois,  Duke  of,  5200 

Volkner,  Kev.  C.,  7060 

AVebster.  Daniel.  *3 

Wicquefort,  460 

Vernet,  Horace,  4170 

A'olncy,  1060 

AVeei-d-poort,  10360 

Widow,  The,  63*1 

Vernon   Admiral    1130 

-us,  971 

AVcddel,  Capt.,  590 

AVidows'  Fund,  1047 

Vermin,  Mr.  Robert,  634,6890, 
1017 

Volta,  A.,  365,  4290,  1026 
Volturnum,  2IIo 

AVedgwood  Institute,  1870 
AVt-dgwood,  Josiah,  1870,3840, 

Wijayo,  2280 
Wilberi'orce,  AVilliam,  9090 

Verolanium,  1018 

Von  Edels,  loo 

10390 

AV'ilderspin,  Mr.  Samuel,  360 

Verraz/.ano,  480 

A'on    Fuchs,   Dr.   Johann   N., 

Week-.  Feast  of,  397 

Wild  Gueux,  4660 

Verres.  9030 
Verulauium,  1018 

i°37 

A'onollcs.    -C 

\\eishaiipt,  Adam,  504 
Wclle.slcy  Islands,  looo 

Wilfred,  640,  891 

AVilkcs,  Capt.,  1001 

Vesalius,  54 
Vesontio,  1410 

A'ortigern,  1730,  1036 

Vos'itza,  20 

Wellington  Arcade,  3910 
Wellington,  Duke  of,  420,  850, 

AVilkes  J.,  1050,  3430,  374,  435, 
7140 

A'espasiaii,   4370,  430,  8490 
A'espcrs  of  A'erona,  10170 

A'idgaris  Purgatio,  7290 
Vnlsciniiins,  1026 

1090,   146,   i64«. 

4260,  531,  5890,  71   a. 

AA^ilkins,  Bishop,  21 
AVilkins,  Bishop,  1130 

Vespucci,    Amerigo,  48,   1660, 
395,  1015 

A'ulture'.s  Xest  Fort,  85 
A'ulturnium,  848 

\    978,   979,    1033, 
10370    .. 

AVilkiiiMin    (,<),i 
AVilliam  I..  ,,f   Pnu 

Vesimna,  763 

A'yborg,  10190 

AVelliuirton  Equestrian  Statue. 

AVilliam  III.,  King,  97 

A'eurne,  4260 

5000 

AVilliam  of   Co!,^ 

Via  TKmilia,  730,4030 

AVAAL.The,   1250 

il.,53 

AVilliam  of   Wykehaiu,  6980 

A'ia  Appia,  2210,  8420 
A'ia  Flaminia,  730,4030 

AVachtendonk,  1570 
AVady  Mm 

Welsera,  212 

AVelsh  Calvinistic    Methodists, 

AVilliam     the    Conqueror,  630, 
10090 

Vicar.s-  Apostolic,  8450 
Vicary.  Thomas,  54 

AVager  of  Law,  540 
,  m-Coach,  2170,  1038 

r,lc,  1034 

AVilliam  the  Lion,  430 

Williams,  186 

Vicciitia,  1020 

AVa-horn,  Lieut.,  7370 

AVends,  7900 

AVilliams,  (Jen.,  1260,543 

Vicctia,  1020 

AV-iifar,  67 

Weliet,    1011 

Williams.    Itog,  , 

Vic,,  I'.neas.  719 

Waiwodcs,  10320 

Wen-levdale,  Lord,  759 

Willis,  Joht 

A'ictor  Amadeus,  40,  60,  876 

Wahabites,  10280 

Wen/.cl'.  94 

Will'in-hbv.      Sir     Hugh,    71, 

Victor  Emanuel  L.  -— 

AValcher,  Bishop,  348 

AVeriivlon,  1035 

1  V,  9300 

Victor  r.manuel  II.,  99^0 

AValdcnses,  looo 

AVesley,  John,  653 

AVills.  AV.,  loto 

Victor,  Marshal,  1210,643 

Walingeford,  10320 

AVesleyan  Association,  6530 

Winchester  Bushel,  T88o 

Victoria, 

AValentone,  10400 

\Vesleyan  Mi-llnxlistg,  653 

AVinchcstcr.  Manpiis  of,  124 

Victoria  College  (Jersey),  532 
Victoria  Falls,  24 
Victoria   Land,  920 

AValker.  den.,  707,  937 
AValker.    I: 
AVallacc,    Sir    AVilliam,    3720, 

AVesprim,  10180 
AVcst.  Benjamin,  856 
Westburv,    Lord     Chancellor, 

AVindham,  Gun.,  2250 
AVindich,  281 
Windischgratc,  10210 

Victoria  Nvany.a,  240,  7080 

JO,  9110 

359"  ',  376,  369 

Windlcshora.  10500 

Victoria  Rifles, 
Victoria  Tower,  Westminster, 
4960 

AVallen-tein.  Albrccht,  2250.643 
Waller.  Ivlmund,  7840,  10321 

WalHa, 

Wester  i  .. 
WeMcrbcch  Sloot,  756 
AVcstcrn  Australia,  icoo,  lot 

Windsor.  Military  Knights  of, 
AVindward  Islands.  2130 

Vicus  Julii,  280 

AValliiigford  House,  18 

Western  Independent  College, 

AV'inter,  Thomas,  4680 

Vidason,  146 
Vidi.  50 

AVallis.  ('apt, 
AVallis.  Dr..  31-.  n4_>«,  1033 

5060 

AV,  stern  Islands,  106,  480 

AVinterbottom,  ^4 
Winwi,  •:. 

Vienna  Allobrogum,  1023 

Walpolc,  Horace,  940 

AVestmiuster   Assembly,  Con- 

Wirksuorth, 1041 

Vievra,  167 

AY'-ilnole.  Sir  !{.,  1320 

fession  of,  86 

\Visenian,       Cardinal,       7460, 

A'iir'evano,  7760 

AValsiiigham,  ic.8 

AA'harton,  'I'homas,  7860 

10420 

Viet  a,  F.,  38 

AValter  de  Brienue,  2140 

Whately,  Archbishop,  586 

Wishart,  George,  886 

View  of  Frank-Pledge,  2940 
Villa  de  la  Plata.  241x1        ' 
Villa  Nova,  A.  de,  330 

Walthcof,  Earl,  2100 
Walton,  I/.aac.  560 
AValton's  Polvglott,  145,  1580 

AVheatstonc.    Professor,    2580, 
3640,  366,  8140 
AVhewcl),  AV.,  3830,  6420 

Wissant,  1053 
Witcnagemot,  64 
\Vitherings,  Thomas,  8020 

Villairagnon.  Chevalier,  49 
Villa  Muni,  -hen,  6780 

AValworth,  AVilliam,  124,1039 
Wan,  lot  i 

AVhippers,  4030 
Whirlieotes,  217 

Ifircn,  (armour-plated),  77 
AVladimir,  10250 

Villarica,  6>v, 

AVanading,  370 

Whisk,  1045 

Woad,  340 

Villars,  Marshal.  970,  1620 
Villerov.  Marshal,  827,  10370 
Villehardoin,  <!.,  120 

AVandeforde,  1034 
AVannaring.  370,  1034 
Warbeck,     Perkin,     130,    388, 

AVhitchurch,  250 
AVhite  Bakers'  Company,  mo 

AVhitebov  Otitrai 

AATodnes-day,  10390 
Wolfe,  Gen.,  203,  820 
AVolff,  Dr.,  156 

Villejuif,  2 

3170,  1034 

White  Brethren,  1430 

AVolf  Festival,  6100 

Ville  Marie,  672 

Warbois  AVitches,  10520 

AVhite  Canons,  804 

AVolfius,  s6 

Vincentian          Congregation, 

AVarburton.  Eliot,  46 

AVhite  Chamber,  AVestminster. 

Wolf  Madness,  612 

10230 

AVardcns,  2800 

4960 

Wolf-monath,  5290 

Vinci.  Leonardo  da,  54,  7410 

War  of  the  Gladiators,  9270 

AVhite  <'ity,  1340 

AVohler,  4^0 

Vindelicia,  ,2-,, 

AArar  of  the  Lovers,  4040 

AVhitefriars.  44,1 

AVolhynia,  10250 

Vindobona.  10210 

Warrwr*  7? 

AVhite  Hart  Tavern,  960 

Wollaston,  Dr.,  4290,  7430,  839 

Vinegar  Bible,  145 

AVarton,  Thomas,  7860 

Wliitehead,  AV.,  7860 

AVolsey,  Cardinal,  248,  373,  473, 

Vinlnnd,  48 
Violin,  1024 

Wrmvick,  Earl  of,  300 
AVarwick,  Earl  of,  1200 

Whitchouse,  Mr.,  93 
AA'liiti-  Huns,  6950 

5700,  1043 
Woochang,  2440 

Virgil.  550.  179,  218,  234,  504, 

Was-hal,  1036 

AVTiite  Land,  The,  555 

\Vood.  ('apt.,  710 

(,-.8460 
Virgilius.  I!i-hop,6lo 

Washington,  George,  706,  806, 
9980 

AVhite  Longtown,  300 
AVhite  Monks,  141 

AVoodstock  J'ark,  "500 
AVoodville.  Lord,  960 

Virginia 

AVatcr-aviary,  66 

AVhite  Penitents,  1430 

AVoolsthorpe,  7050 

Vir-ida  Divina,  331 

AVatchers,  13 

White  (.makers,  819 

Woolsti.-i.  T.,  4220 

Viridornarus,  8933 

Wat  Tyler,  124 

AVhite  Kiver,  7080 

\Voosung,  244 

Visi-onti  Family,  659 
Visigoths,  660,68,74,  4530 
\  isitation,  Feast  of  the,  397 

Water-bellows,  1350 
AVatcr-clocks,  257 
AVater-cure,  501 

AVhites  and  Blacks,  1430 
AVhite  Sunday,  10460 
White  Town,  676 

Wootton,  1510 

AVootz.  9350 
AA'oroester,    Marquis     of,    764, 

Vitellius,  A.,  131 

Water-gas,  4320 

AVhitfield,    Kev.    George,  589, 

934° 

Vitiges,  850 

Water  Gueux,  467 

653,  10460 

Wordsworth.  AVilliam,  7860 

SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX. 


1113 


Working    Classes   Exhibition, 

Wulfrune's  Hampton,  10530 

York,  Duke  of,  46,  140,  1640 

Zenghis  Khan,  507 

North  London,  270 

Wyatt,  John,  1055 

York  Place,  1046 

Zeno,  Emperor,  lo 

Working    Classes    Exhibition, 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  373 

Yoruba,  5 

Zeno,  364 

East  London,  370 

Wyborg,  10190 

Young,  Anthony,  688 

Zeno,  Carlo,  10140 

Worsing.  Andrew,  691,  8o8a 

Wycliffe,  John,  1440,  145,  381, 

Young,  Brigham,  6740 

Zenobia,  369 

Worstead,  10560 

831,  10580 

Young,  Robert,  8300 

Zenodorus,  6 

WRECKS:— 
Amazon,  46 

Wykeham,  William  of,  6980 
Wyk  of  Myton,  4970 

Young  Italy  Party,  5340 
Young  Pretender,  374 

Zerbst  (Anhalt),  57 
Zermigethusa,  1065 

Amphion,  51 
Ainphitrite,  510 

Wynkyu  de  Worde,  43 

Yperen,  10630 
Yrala,  Martinez  de,  49 

Zeinagora,  6700 
Zerubbabel,  534 

Antelope,  760 
Austria,  1030 

XAVIER,  FRANCIS,  531 
Xenarchus,  8900 

Yuen  dynasty,  243 
Yussef  Ben  Taxnn,  43 

Zetland  Isles,  -7010 
Zeus,  63,  309,  613 

Birkenhead,  147 

Xenodochia,  5110 

Yusuf,  1330 

Zeuxis,  741 

Blanche  Nef,  1190 

Xenophanes,  364,  7460 

Yutachan,  480 

Zhehol,  3430 

Bulldog,  3090 
Canadian,  3030 

Xenophon,  92 
Xenylamine,  57 

Yuthia,  903 
Yuyao,  344 

Ziani,  S.,  10390 
Zidon,  9040 

Connaught,  379 

Xerxes,  8a,  550,  770,  93,  1870, 

Ziegler,  John,  9340 

Forfarshire,  410 
Kent,  544« 

459.  677,  8o8 
Ximenes,  Cardinal,  3750,673, 

ZAATCHA,  380 
Zaandam,  8640 

Zielas,  148 
Zimbao,  330 

La  Meduse,  73 

692,  790 

Zab  River,  88 

Zimisce,  5350 

Mary  Kose,  81,  168 

Zacharias,  Antony,  130 

7.i,,-is  Khan,  320,  156,  668a 

Mars,  6360: 
Ocean  Monarch,  7310 

YAFFA,  537 
Yahu-bid,  78 

Ziicynthus,  8670,  10640 
Zadoc,  866a 

Zinzendorf,  Count,  674 
Zion,  City  of,  Missouri,  6740 

Orion,  7310 
Orpheus,  7330 
Pacific,  740 

Yukutes,  9030,  9910 
Yale  College,  6990 
Yalo,  28a 

/across,  88a 
Zaire  River,  378 
Zaleucus,  585 

Zipangu,  539* 
ZijiM'tes,  148 
Ziska,  .lohn.  150,  955 

Pandora,  68  1 

Yarkiting,  1060 

Zamfleccari,  1130 

Znaym,  1066 

President,  8060 

Va>.--y,  5300 

Xaiii/.unnnims,  51 

Zobah,  710 

Queen  Victoria,  821 

Yeh,  Commissioner,  309 

Zancle,  6510 

Zodiacal  Light,  1066 

Rothesay  Castle,  854 

Yellow  Hats,  477 

Zanzalee,  Jacob,  1065 

Zoliern,  488 

Koval  Adelaide,  856 

Yeddo,  531 

Zapolya,  John,  976 

Zoroaster,  750,  6300 

Royal  Charter,  856 

Yengliees,  1060 

Zaragoza,  8750 

Zopah,  710 

Royal  George,  7990,  8560 
Sarah  Sands,  8750 

Yemkale,  Straits  of,  106 
Yenitschir,  564 

Zarco,  230 
Zariaspa,  109 

Zosimus,  640,  1250 
Zouaouas,  10660 

Victory,  34 

Yenlade,  9650 

Xarmi/ethusa,  8780 

Zouga  River,  34 

William  and  Mary,  10480 

Yeomen  Bedgoers  &  Hangers, 

Zeachen,  loo 

Zuiuglius,  Ulrich,  831 

Wren,  Sir  C.,  71,  238,  473,6730, 
755 

1061 
Yerb,  Buena,  8730 

Zealous  (armour-plated),  77 
Zealous,  The,  930 

Zuloaga,  6550 
Zulu  Caffres,  688 

Wroxeter,  100501 

Yermak  Timofeyew,  9030 

Zebu  Island,  7730 

Zumalacarreguy,  9330 

Wulfred,  70,  476 

Yezd,  466 

Zedekiah,  5330,  5380 

Zumpanco,  106 

Wulfruna,  10530 

Yird  Houses,  766 

Zegris,  5 

Zurbano,  934 

4  E 


ADDENDA. 


In  consequence  of  the  labour  involved  in  passing  an  edition  of  this  work  through  the  press— more 
man  a  year  having  been  required  for  that  purpose—a  table  of  the  more  important  events  of 
the  intervening  period  is  appended. 

1866,  March  31.  TheSpanish  squadron,  af  ter  having  for  a  con- 
siderable nme  Mo,.k,de,l  the  allied  fleets  of  Peru  and 
(  lull  to  the  gulf  of  Anceed.a;,! 
and   bombards   that    city— April   14.    The  s. 
quits  Valparaiso,  and  the  blockade  ii 

1866,  Oct4.  The  new  town-hall  at  'Hartlepoo]   is  opened.- 
Bee.  3.   Demonstration    of   the  tn  ' 
favour  of  Beform  is  held  In  the  grounds  of  i 
^feF"?^^?60,-12^^  Explosions  al 


AUSTRALIA. 

it  floods  prevail— Oct.  24.  The  Intercolonia 
Exlubition  of  Victoria  is  opened  at  Melbourne. 

AUSTRIA. 

1866,  Jan.  i    A  general  amnesty  is  issued  to  those  condemned 
<"    the  Xombardo- Venetian   Kingdom.  — Feb   o     \ 

'"'st';  :-L.- Feb.  14.  The 

.unnesty  ,,i  Jan.  i  is  extended  to  the  Tyrol— Feb  ->7 
"."I  '  rt  l.o  the  diet  of  I 

which  Issiimmoned  I 

common  wtl,  ,  .,  ,.,„„ 

!'"'"'     '  :,.       I  For 

1  ."    •"•  -p.  Tie 

Emperor   issues  an  order  direetin-  that   the   whole 

Austrian  an, 

lishm-nt.       Diplomatic    r 

resum 

<"»>'""  ">    Mi-    arm,. 

ria  and  Italy    i 

aV  '"Quad 

}',ll;" "  pireTwitl 

the  exception  of  that  of  Hungary,  meet—Oct  27    Ai 

attempt  is  m   , 

—  .>ov.     ,aron\oii   Ueu   t  is  appointe  I  Minister  of  th. 
',  Diet   is 

demands 

;e  abolition  oi  the  military  frontier,  and  • 
porationof  Dalmatia  with  the  Croatian  Kingdom.- 
•Uec-  \°-   ™*   ratifications  of  the  treaty  ot 
TH,_    T  withFra, 

i»7,  Jan.  a.  Aa  imperial  ,,,1  dissolving   th, 

diets  of  Bohemia,  Dalmatia,  Oalicia.  an  I  Lod 
- .    Austria    below   .and 

£rllx!l  rinthia,  Carniola.  the  itukowiua 

Moravia.  Silesia,  the  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  [stria,  en™, 
anclGradiska;  and  or  I,  , -in,  ,  r  „•  thes,- 

and  convoking  an  ertraordlna 
Vienna  for  Feb.  25.— F  b.  c  •• 

inhip,  and    I'.aron    \oU   Uenst  snce. 

/i'i.1      Au  lml>eriil  rescript,   read   in  both   Hou •"•.•• 
of  the  Diet  at  Pesth,  restores  the  Hun^-rian  Oonsti 
tution     The  Constitutional  Reichsral 
to  meet  in  Vienna,  March   18— Feb.   24.  A  ro 
script  is  read  in  the  Hungarian  Diet,  appointing  a 
new  mini.,). 

March.  An  Imperial  decree  is  published,  constituting 
as  a  special  ministry  the  deinnment  of  public  wor- 
ship and  education  of  the  former  Minister  of  State. 

April  23.    The  Austro  Italian    treaty  is    signed   at 
Florence— April  24.  An  imperial  decree  re-esta 
toe  "Hungarian  body-guari"— May  14.  The  Ministry 
of  Police  id  abolished. 

1866,  Aug.  Both  Bavarian  Chambers  approve  the  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  with  Prussia—Dec.  12.  Retirement 
«t  Baron  von  der  Pfordteu  from  the  Ministry  of 
Foreign  Affairs. 

1866,  Oct.  12-16.  The  Grand  Tir  National  is  held  at  Brussels, 
and  about  1,000  English  volunteeis  attend.— Dec.  A 
royal  decree  is  published,  appointing  a  committee  to 
inquire  into  the  state  of  the  organization  of  the  army, 
and  its  adequacy  for  national  defence. 

IH&7,  *eb  Serious  disturbances  occur  in  the  mining  districts 
of  Belgium,  owing  to  the  distress  produced  by  a 
strike  among  the  operatives— April  25.  The  Marriage 
of  the  Count  of  Flanders  with  the  Princess  Hoheri- 
mllern  is  celebrated  at  the  Church  of.  St..  Hedwig, 
Berlin.— May  6.  Inauguration  of  the  Belgian  Public 
Works  Company  by  the  King  and  Queen 


ollicrios.  near  1',,-trnsley,  Yorkshire. 

' 
fordshire     Coal     and     Iron     Company's     pn- 

rtle-under-Lyne,  many  live.,  b 

—Dec.   ;..    A   lire   Iveaks  out   in   the  Cr\st:il    I 'ala.ee, 
and  destroys  a  lar-v  portion  of  the  e;ist"rn  win-'. 
,  Jan  5.  The  old  parish  elmreh  of  St.  .1 
(  rr.ydon.   is  destroyed   by  tire— Jan 

teris  inaugurated.— Feb 

opens   Parliament   in   person.— Feb.   11.    The 
Eeform  League  hold  iu- Agricultural 

Hall,  Islington.— The  Fenians  fail  in  an  attempt  to 
seize  Chester— Feb.  .  of  \Vales  gives 

birth  to  a  daughter  at  MarUxirouirh 
5— 6.  Fenian  outbreaks  o:-eu  rat  Dublin 

and  other  places  tnli 

idfonl.  Yorks!  \,,ri]  „. 

The  grand  jury  at  Eh.  fnal Court  throw 

out  the  hills  of  indi<.tinent  against  Col.  \elsonand 
Lieut.Brandfortheireondnet  In  the  Jamaica  rebellion. 
r-AnrJ  i'.  oxford  wins  the  university  boat  race  b\ 
A],ril  14.  Princess  Christian  of  Schles- 
wig  Holstem,  third  daughter  of  the  Queen, 
birth  to  a  son  at  AVi.  (Jrand 

Volunteer  Review  at  Dover— May  6.    The   Reform 

hold  a  meeting  in  M\.I 
law.      '  i-hterof  th.-  Pi 

is  chr 
May.   Mr.  Walpole  resigns  the  Hume  Seeivt,-u-yship. 

EGYPT. 

1867,  Jan.  30.  The  Viceroy  is  invested  with  the  Grand  Cross 
of  the  Bath,  in  the  name  of  the  Queen,  by  Lord 
Clarence  Paget,  at  Cairo. 

1866,  Oct.  Marshal  Randou,   Minister  of   War,  presents  his 

report  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  army  to  the 
Emperor,  who  gives  his  approval  thereof. 

1867,  Jan.   Deaths    of    M.    Victor    Cousin,    M.  Ingres,    and 

Middle.  Georges.  The  railway  between  Boul" 
Calais  is  opened— Jan.  19.  An  important  decree  of 
the  Emperor  to  the  Minister  of  State  relative  to 
the  extension  of  liberal  principles  of  government, 
granting  greater  freedom  of  discussion  to  the  Corps 
Legislatlf  and  Senate,  and  removing  some  of  tin- 
existing  restrictions  from  the  Press,  appears  in  the 
Monttewr.  The  Ministry  resign.  M.  Ronher  retains 
his  functions  as  Minister  of  State,  and  is  appointed 
Minister  of  Finance  in  place  of  M.  Fould.  Marshal 
Niel  becomes  Minister  of  War,  vice  Marshal  Rand.-n. 
—  Keb.  14.  The  Chambers  are  opened  by  the  Emperor 
in  person.— April  i.  TheUniveral  Exhibition  is  opened 
by  the  Emperor.— April.  Count  Walewski  resigns  ii  s 
post  as  President  of  the  Corps  Legislator.  M.  Schnei- 
der, Vice-President,  is  appointed  to  succeed  him  :  is 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  senator.— May  ii.  The 
Prince  of  Wales  arrives  at  Paiis. 
GREECE. 

866,  Dec.  22.  The  National  Assembly  at  Athens  is  opened. 

867,  Jan.  Anew  ministry  is  formed  "under  the  presidency  of 


ADDENDA. 


HAYTI. 

1866,  Sep.  18.  An  explosion  at  the  arsenal  of  Port-au-Prince. 

HESSE-DARMSTADT. 
1866,    Sep.  3.    Peace  is  concluded  with  Prussia    at  Berlin. 

Prussia  by  this  treaty  obtains  about  20  square  miles 
of  territory,  with  60  inhabitants.  Upper  Hesse  be- 
comes part  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  and 
the  navigation  tolls  in  the  Rhine  and  Maine  are  abo- 
lished.—Oct.  7.  The  Grand  Duke  issues  a  decree  dis- 
solving the  estates. 

HOLLAND. 

1866,  Sep.  17.  Opening  of  the  Dutch  Chambers  by  the  King.— 
Oct.  i.  The  Second  Chamber  is  dissolved  by  royal 
decree. — Nov.  19.  The  Dutch  Chambers  are  opened 
by  commission. 

INDIA. 

1866.  A  famine  prevails  in  Bengal  and  certain  portions  of  the 

Madras  Presidency,  causing  severe  suffering.— Axig. 
Great  floods  occur  in  Sciiide.— Sep.  8.  The  Soldiers1 
Industrial  Exhibition  is  opened  at  Poonah  by  Sir 
Bartle  Frere.  —  Nov.  20.  The  Right  Hon.  Seymour 
Fitzgerald  is  appointed  to  the  governorship  of  Bom- 
bay. 

IRELAND. 

1867,  March  5—6.  Fenian  outbreaks  occur  at  Tallaght,  near 

Dublin,  and  other  places,  and  numerous  arrests  are 
made.— Trial  and  condemnation  of  one  of  the  leaders, 
named  Burke. 

ITALY. 

1866,  Aug.  25.     A  treaty  of   commerce  between  Italy  and 

Japan  is  signed.— Nov.  5.  A  royal  decree  is  issued 
declaring  that  the  provinces  of  Venetia  henceforth 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.— Nov. 
7.  King  Victor  Emanuel  I.  makes  his  public  entry 
into  Venice.— Dec.  15.  The  Italian  Parliament  is 
opened  by  the  King  in  person. 

1867,  Jan.  The  Senate  decide  to  impeach  Admiral  Persano, 

on  the  charge  of  disobedience  to  orders.— Feb.  13. 
The  Chambers  are  dissolved  on  account  of  the  defeat 
.  of  the  Ministry.  A  new  Ministry  is  formed,  with 
Baron  Ricasoli  as  President  and  Minister  of  the 
Interior.— March  22.  Parliament  is  opened  by  the 
King  in  person.— April  4.  The  Ministry  resign,  and  a 
new  one  is  formed  under  the  Presidency  of  Signer 
Rattazzi.— April  15.  The  Senate,  sitting  as  a  High 
Court  of  Justice,  find  Admiral  Persano  guilty  of  dis- 
obedience, incapacity,  and  negligence,  and  condemn 
him  to  be  degraded  from  the  rank  of  admiral,  to 
retire  from  the  service,  and  to  pay  the  costs  of  the 

LUXEMBURG. 

1867,  March.  Rumours  in  circulation  respecting  negotiations 
between  the  King  of  Holland  and  the  Emperor  of 
the  French  for  the  cession  of  Luxemburg.  The 
question  is  sulnnitled  to  a  conference  of  the  Great 
Powers. — May  9.  The  Conference  meets  in  London 
for  the  first  time.-  May  n.  A  treaty  is  signed  declar- 
ing the  Duehy  neutral  territory,  the  fortress  to  be 
demolished  and  evacuated  by  the  Prussian  troops. 
The  relations  between  Luxemburg  and  Limburg  were 
dissolved,  the  latter  henceforth  forming  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Holland. — May  17.  The  King  of  Prussia 
signs  the  Treaty.— May  18.  Napoleon  III.  signs  the 
Treaty. 

NASSAU. 

1866,  Oct.  8.  The  annexation  of  the  Duchy  to  Prussia  is  pro- 
claimed at  Wiesbaden. 

NEW  ZEALAND. 

1866,  July  3.  The  fourth  Parliament  of  New  Zealand  opened 
at  Wellington.    Oct.  Great  floods  prevail. 
OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 

1866,  Sep.  The  Greek  population  in  Crete  rise  against  the 

Turks. 

1867,  Feb.  A  new  ministry  is  formed,  of  which  Aali  Pacha 

becomes  Grand  Vizier. 

POLAND. 

1866,  Oct.  8.  The  railway  between  Warsaw  and  Terespol  is 

opened  as  far  as  Siedlice. 

1867,  March.  Th«  Polish  Reichsrath  is  abolished,  and  all  legis- 

lative q  uestions  in  Poland  submitted  to  the  Imperial 
Chancery. 

PORTUGAL. 

1867,  Jan  2.  The  King  opens  the  Cortes  in  person. — March. 
Popular  tumults  take  place  at  Oporto,   which  are 
suppressed,  without  loss  of  life,  by  the  military. 
PRUSSIA. 

i856,  Dec.  15.  The  Conference  of  German  Plenipotentiaries, 
as  to  a  new  North  German  Constitution,  is  com- 
menced at  Berlin.— Dec.  24.  The  law  for  the  incorpo- 
ration of  Bcbleswig-Holstein  is  signed  by  the  King. 

1867,  Jan.  19.  The  festival  in  celebration  of  the  King's  coro- 
nation takes  place  at  Berlin.— Feb.  4.  The  Upper 
House  approves  the  bill  authorizing  a  loan  of 
24,000,000  thalers,  for  the  construction  of  railways.— 


1867,  Feb.  9.  The  King  closes  the  Diet.  The  draught 
of  the  new  constitution  for  North  Germany  is 
settled  by  the  Plenipotentiaries.— Feb.  24.  The  first 
Parliament  of  the  North  German  Confederation  is 
opened  by  the  King  in  person,'  Dr.  Simson  being 
elected  President.  —  April  17.  The  North  German 
Parliament  is  closed  by  the  King  in  person.— April 
29.  The  King  opens  an  Extraordinary  Session  of  the 
Prussian  Diet. 

RUSSIA. 

1866,  Oct.  The  Emperor  issues  a  manifesto  announcing  the 

betrothal  of  the  Czarowitch,  and  conferring  upon 
Princess  Dagmar  the  title  of  Imperial  Highness. 

1867,  Jan.  An  imperial  decree  is  issued,  closing  the  Provin- 

cial Estates  assembled  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  the 
ground  that  they  have  adopted  an  attitude  hostile  to 
the  Government. — April  10.  A  treaty  is  concluded 
with  the  United  States  for  the  sale  of  Russian- 
America.  This  territory  contains  480,000  square 
miles  north  of  the  parallel  of  54  deg.  40  min.  of  north 
latitude,  and  west  of  the  I4ist  degree  of  longitude. 
SCOTLAND. 

1866,  Sep.  20.  The  Prince  of  Wales  unveils  the  marble  statue 

of  the  Queen  at  Aberdeen.— Oct.  16.  The  Aberdeen 
New  Waterworks  are  opened  by  the  Queen. 
SPAIN. 

1867,  Jan.    The  Cortes  are  dissolved,   and   fresh    elections 

ordered. — Feb.  A  royal  decree  is  issued  ordering  the 
reorganization  of  the  clergy  and  parishes,  and  estab- 
lishing new  episcopal  districts  in  conformity  with 
the  Concordat  of  1861.— The  Infante  Don  Henriijuez 
is  deprived,  by  a  royal  decree,  of  all  the  grades, 
titles,  offices,  &c.,  held  by  him.— March.  The  Prize 
Court  at  Cadiz  declares  the  capture  of  the  Queen 
Victoria  by  the  Spanish  cruiser  illegal,  and  the  deci- 
sion is  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  State.— May  i. 
The  Duchess  de  Montpensier  gives  birth  to  a  son. — 
May.  The  Marquis  de  Miraflores,  President  of  the 
Senate,  resigns,  and  Senor  Sejas  is  appointed  in  his 
place. 

SWEDEN. 

1867,  Jan.  19.    The  Chambers  are  opened. 
UNITED  STATES. 

1866,  Aug.  An  explosion  occurs  in  the  Kerosene  oil  dock,  New 

York,  by  which  13  lives  are  lost  and  20,000  barrels  of 
oil  consumed. 

1867,  Jan.  8.  The  House  of  Representatives  pass  a  resolution 

for  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  The 
President  vetoes  the  Negro  Suffrage  Bill.-Feb.  Con- 
gress abolishes  the  American  Legation  at  Rome.— 
March.  Congress  passes  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Pea- 
body  f< >r  1 , i sVi  ft  s  t  o  the  American  people.  The  Win- 
ter Garden  Theatre  is  burned  down.— April  10.  1J 
Senate  agree  to  the  treaty  with  Russia  for  the  pur- 
chase of  Russian- America.— May  10.  The  Govern- 
ment orders  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  reference  to 
Mr.  Davis  to  be  obeyed.-May  13.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  Richmond  releases  Mr.  Davis  on  bail  to  appear  in 
November.— May  15.  A  riot  occurs  at  Mobile,  and 
several  persons  are  killed. 

"LONDON." 

London,  steamship,  belonging  to  Messrs.  Money,  Wigram. 
and  Sons,  launched  in  1864.  foundered  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  Jan.  n,  1866,  on  the  voyage  from  London 
to  Melbourne.  This  vessel  left  the  London  Docks 
Dec.  28,  1865,  and  encountered  a  series  of  gales, 
in  which  she  was  so  much  damaged,  that  an 
attempt  was  made  to  return  to  Plymouth,  Jan.  10. 
Such  was  her  disabled  condition,  Cart.  Martin  an- 
nounced to  the  passengers  and  crew,  Thursday,  Jan. 
ii,  that  no  hope  of  saving  her  remained.  Mr.  Green- 
hill,  the  chief  engineer,  accompanied  by  18  persons, 
embarked  in  an  open  boat  about  10  A.M.,  and  the 
steamer  sank  just  after  they  had  left.  They  were 
picked  up,  Jan.  12,  by  the  Adrianople,  and  reached 
England,  being  the  only  persons  saved  out  of  a  total 
crew  and  passengers  of  239  persons.  Mr.  Gustavus  V. 
Brooke,  the  tragedian,  was  a  passenger. 
REFORM  BILL. 

1867,  Feb.  ii.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  (Mr.  Disraeli) 
makes  a  statement  respecting  Parliamentary  Reform. 
— Feb.  25.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  moves 
that  the  House  of  Commons  resolve  itself  into  a 
committee  of  the  whole  House  011  the  Act  2*3  Will. 
IV.,  and  introduces  various  resolutions.— March  rS. 
The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  introduces  a  bill 
further  to  amend  the  law  for  regulating  the  represen- 
tation of  the  people  in  Parliament. — March  26.  The 
bill  is  read  a  second  time.— April  8.  The  House  goes 
into  committee.— April  12.  The  amendment  to  the 
bill,  proposed  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  is  rejected  by  a 
majority  of  22  votes,  the  numbers  being,  for  288 ; 
against  310. — May  13.  The  Scotch  Bill  is  introduced. 


111(3 


CORRIGENDA. 


Subject. 

hi 

For 

Read 

Subject. 

iii 

For 

Read 

Abbot  of  Huy. 
Abo  

4 

7 

I 
i 

Icolumnkill    .    . 
Eric  X.      ... 

Icolmkill. 
Eric  IX. 

Hyslse.    .    .    . 
Ilium  .... 

501  1  1 
504  1 

Hyslse  

Hysize. 

Achaia     .    .    . 

12 

14 

Duron      .... 

Dosou. 

last  line 

1865.    .    .    i    .    . 

1864. 

Acyron     .    .    . 
Additional  Act 

IS 
16 

i 
3 

place  
March  2—  June  27 

palace. 
March  20  —  June 

Ireland    .    .    . 

last  line 

28. 

but  one 

Kealis     . 

Kenlis. 

Aix  

28 

4 

Sextia     .... 

Sextise. 

Kangrah  .    .    . 

542      2     S 

1846     

1849. 

Alessandria.    . 

35 

18 

concluded    .    .    . 

concluded    June 

King    George's 

16. 

or    Nootka 

Almacks  .    .    . 

Aliuaden.     .     . 

42 
42 

8 
3 

1714  

Sisapore       .     .     . 

1764- 

Sis.-ii.on. 

Sound    .    . 

548     I     2 

548  I  II 

Australia*  .    .    . 
after    "  survey,  " 

North  America. 

Alt-Raustildt  . 

& 

There  is   but    one    treaty    of   Alt- 

Kanst;i.lt,  the   serond   mentioned 

insert  

King  George's,  or 
a  Sound, 

in   this   article 

being  the  treaty 

Australia,    was 

of  Baotadt  (9.  «. 

. 

discovered    by 

Anomceans  .    . 

59 

i 

ANOMtEANS    .    . 

AXOM.KANS. 

Vancouver     in 

Asralon      .      .      . 

82 

14 

1157  

1153. 

1792. 

Assize  of  Battel 
Babine     .    .    . 

107 

2 
21 

r.    .    .    . 
.... 

BATTEL. 

Calottists. 

Knighthood     . 

554    i  64 

1708  Neighbourly 
Love  (Austria)  . 

Omit  this. 

Baden  .... 

no 

4 

Alt-Ranstildt  .    . 

Rastadt. 

La  Jaulnais     . 

559 

^ 

Feb.  20    .    .    .    . 

April  20. 

Bartholomew's 

Laodicea  .     .     . 

fo 

90    

9C  —  97 

Day       .     .     . 

I'.iMiriacum  .     . 

123 
131 

10 

6 

Aug.  12    .... 
April  17  .... 

Aug.  24. 
April  16. 

Library    .    .    . 
Lisbon      .    .    . 

1 

13 

Albert  V.    .    .    . 

Albert  III. 

Bhotiin     .    .    . 

143 

3 

1722      

1772. 

last 

wo 

Bihliomancy    . 
Blinding.    .    . 

145 
152 

i? 

i 

.     .     .     . 
Duncange    .    .    . 

Musams. 
Diu-iinge. 

Lochleven 

lin 

s      This  exhibition  was  at  Oporto. 

Blood   (Council 

Castle    .     .     . 

585 

6 

June  16   .    .    .    . 

June  15. 

of)     .... 
Boii  

i53 

155 

8 
7 

June  2     .... 

Vadimoman    .     . 

June  5. 

Vadimonian. 

Marriage.    .    . 
Mart  e]  ],i 

635 

33 

2  Geo.  III.  c.  2    . 

2  Geo.  III.  c.  ii. 

Britannia     .    . 

173 

I7Q 

Ninias     .... 

lO?! 

Ninhm. 

Towers  .    .    . 

636 

I 

Dungeness  .    .    . 

Dungeness      and 

Mortella 

Buenos  Ayres  . 
Burford  Club  . 

Cardinal  .     .     . 

18? 
184 
213 

17 

i 

and  Buenos  Ayres 

1722  .      . 

at  Buenos  Ayres. 
723. 
June  28. 

Mining     .    .    . 
Music  .    .    .    . 

662 
680 

10 

16 

Sazzana  .... 
1728     

Sarzana. 

1720. 

May  7  

Carrickfergua  . 

Carthage  .    .    . 

217 
218 

\ 

Feb.  28    .... 

-    .... 

Feb.  21. 
B.C.  509. 

Newspapers 

704 

55 

"  first  daily  evening  paper  merged 
in  Albion  "  refers  to  Star. 

Cherbourg   .    . 

239 

1409     

1419. 

Numantine 

Colliery   .    .    . 
Colony     .    .    . 
Common  Pleas 
Copernicau 

268 
269 
272 

i 

1239     
1579  Moluccas  .    . 
aula  regia  .    .    . 

SSK 

aula  reyis. 

War.    .    .    . 
Oregon     .    .    . 
Paleatrin*   .    . 
Persia.    .    .     . 

710 
730 

3 

22 

4 

21 

B.C.  153   .... 
June  12  .... 
1799  
Aug.  27    .... 

B.C.  143. 
June  15. 
1779. 
Aug.  23. 

System  .    .    . 
Danes  .... 

Dissenters    .    . 

285 

330 

16 
3 

May  2  
Stamford  Bridge 
1567      

May  24. 
Stanford  Bridge. 

1564. 

Pheras.    .    .    . 

Planets    .    .    . 
Poltava    .    .    . 

771 
781 
790 

II 

6 
7 

B.C.I9I    .... 
1455     
June  15   .... 

B.C.  197. 
1655. 
July  8. 

Dungeness   .    . 

East  Angles 

346 
352 

I 

Martello.     .     .     . 

955 

MorteRa. 

870. 

Population  .    . 

795 

71,188 

Edicts  .... 
England  .    .    . 

357 
372 

3 

Salvianus    .    .     . 
1358      

Salvinus. 

1258. 

Prague     .    .    . 
Prussia    .    .    . 

805 
812 

8 
13 

July  31    .... 
Nov.  4     .... 

J^ilyS!,  1648. 

Nov.  5. 

t*         ... 

3/2 

ii 

Aug.  24    .... 

A  iv,'.  23. 

,,          ... 

812 

69 

July  7     •    .    - 

July  9. 

,, 

61 

1689     

1683. 

Pydna.     .    .    . 

817 

6 

B.C.  358    .    .    .    ' 

B.C.  357. 

Evoramonte     . 

386 

2 

May  29    .... 

Reichenbach    . 

834 

July  27    .     .    .    ' 

June  27. 

Flanders  .    .    . 

404 

I 

1364     

OB*. 

Russell  Ad- 

Georgia   .    .    . 

<!'>nuany       .     . 

438 

7 
33 

Alp  Arsan  .    .    . 
Dec.  3  

Alp  Arslan. 
Dec.  31. 

ministration 

860 
last 

me 

June  25  .    ... 

June  26. 

Gladiators    .    . 
Grafenberg  .     . 

455 

9 

i 

B.C.  75.     .     .     . 
Prieslmitz  .    .    . 

Priessuitz. 

Russia.    .    .    . 

861 

last 

me 

Greece.    .    .    . 

459 

B.C.  405    .... 

K.C.  404. 

but 

ix 

July  9     .... 

July  7. 

Greek  Church  '. 
Halle    .... 
Hastings 

472 

3 

i 

7 

B.C.  380    .... 
Stamford'  Bridge 

B.C.  383-B.C.  379- 

League. 
Stanford  Bridge. 

Savoy  Palace 
Sehweiz    .    .    . 
Syria   .... 

Tract  Societies 

884 

£ 

9 

24 
^ 

May  24    .... 
184=;     
Yermak.    .    .     . 
1699 

June  14. 

1846. 
Yermuk. 
1698. 

Henry  V.'    '.    '. 
HesseHomburg 

485 

4 
6 

March  21     .    .    . 
Meissenberg    .    . 

March  21,  1413. 
Meissenheim. 

Triremes  .    .    . 
Turkey     .    .    . 

987 
992 

4 

22 

B.C.  780     .... 
1038      

B.C.  700. 

1037- 

Holy      Roman 

992 

23 

1072            .     . 

1073- 

Empire     .    . 

492    i    9 

983—1002.    .    .    . 

996-1002. 

*  There  are  two  places  of  this  name, 
the  article  refers  to  the  first-mentioned. 

one  in  Vancouver's  Island,  and  the 

other  in 

Australia.     The  former  portion  of 

\Voodfall  and  Kinder,  Printers,  Milford  Lane,  Strand,  London,  W.C. 


OVERDUE. 

MAR  171935 


____========:==^ 

T~~   263ep'Wtt       ^jow,or