Full text of "A manual of home-making"

G4-0

BRYSON LIBRARY

Teachers College

120th Street, Morningside Heights
New York.

From the collection of the

7 n
z _ m

o rrelinger

i a

JUlbrary

San Francisco, California
2006

Ube IRurai

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ZTbe IRural /IDanuals

EDITED BY L. H.

MANUAL OF GARDENING Bailey

MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Harper

FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK Bailey

MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS Slingerland and Crosby

MANUAL OF WEEDS Georgia

THE PRUNING-MANUAL Bailey

MANUAL OF FRUIT DISEASES Hester and Whetzel

MANUAL OF MILK PRODUCTS Stocking

MANUAL OF VEGETABLE-GARDEN INSECTS Crosby

and Leonard

MANUAL OF TREE DISEASES Rarilcin
MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING Van Rensselaer, Rose,

and Canon
MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING Hedrick

PLATE I. Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country homes.

A Iff

MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

COMPILED BY

MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER
FLORA ROSE HELEN CANON

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS, NEW YORK COLLEGE
OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY

N*ro
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1920

Att rights reserved

,p,

BT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1919

STATEMENT BY THE EDITOR

HEREIN is brought together a collection of precepts and ad-
vice on the setting up and management of a home. The book
is written and compiled primarily for those women who are
managing households, not for those who are teaching or who
are students in the class-room. It has been the purpose to
bring together from many reliable sources the guiding rules
to be followed in making the home a place where the family
can live a thrifty and joyous life. It is compiled by those
who understand the subject and the situation.

Chapters on hygiene and sanitation were prepared by the
authors, but space would not allow of their inclusion. This
is a source of much regret, but the omission allowed a fuller
treatment to be retained in the remaining chapters.

The book is intended primarily for rural conditions. The
country home should receive as careful and considerate atten-
tion as the farm itself. The home is inseparable from the farm.
Yet, as the principles and practices of home-making are the
same in country and town, the book should actually meet the
needs of a wide range of people.

The Editor is glad to add a book in his series on the work
and welfare of women, and he hopes it will not be the last.
The woman's work and the man's work together make the
welfare of any people secure.

L. H. BAILEY.

CONTENTS

PART I
THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

THE MODERN HOUSE . . . ; . . >_ . . 1
Arrangement of the house . . . . ,-.-., 2

The farmhouse . . . . . '. -. . : , 7

Farmhouse planning . . . , . . . 8

Exterior design . . ... . . .21

Cost of building . . . v ..... .25

Suggestions for making alterations . . . '..., . 27

CHAPTER II

HOME FURNISHING . . . . .- . . . .29

Structural consideration of rooms . ..... 30

Color . . . . ... . . .45

Pattern . ... . . . . .51

Selection of furnishings . . . . 54

Furniture . . .. . . . . . . . 78

Arrangement of furnishings . . '. . . .92

Character of rooms expressed by furnishings .... 95

CHAPTER III

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN . . . . . . . 100

Use of the kitchen . . . ; . . . . 100

Exposure . . . . ... . . . 102

Size . . ..... . . . . .103

Doors ....'. . . . . .103

Windows . ... . . . . . . .104

Arrangement of equipment . . . . . . . 105

Discussion of plans . . ... . . , 110

vii

viii CONTENTS

PAGE

Pantries and closets

Interior finish . . . . ... 118

PART II
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER IV

CARE OP THE HOUSE . . . ... . . 121

Cellar. ". . , . * v V : . ... . .121

Kitchen . ... v . . . . . .122

Living-room and dining-room . . . ;r:-v ; . 123

Sleeping-rooms . " . . jr i . . 123

Bathroom . . . . . * . - . .- '^ . ' . 123

Suggestions for sweeping and dusting . ..''/. . 124

Repair kit . . . . ... '. . . 124

Some special directions for cleaning . . .' . i- . 125

CHAPTER V

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE .... 129

Measurements for commodities . . . . . .,-. . . 129

Temperature \ . . . . .; . . . .; . 131

Time . .... .... . . . . ' . - ] . . . 138

Measuring gas . ,.. .... . . ... . 143

Measuring electricity . . . . . ;' '"i^. .-, -' . 147

Measuring water. ....... . . . 151

Density of liquids . .- . . . >-'-,* 153

Kitchen measures :.. ' : ;- -. ' > ..,..; . 156

CHAPTER VI

HOUSEHOLD RECORDS . .. . ... ',,.,.' % , ... . 175

How to keep household records . . . ; , . _ . . , . 176

Household accounts . . . . . . ,. r . . 177

CHAPTER VII

HEAT AND LIGHT . . . . -. . . ... . , . 191

Care of fires . . . ^v y i . . 191

Radiation . . . . . 191

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

Comparative cost of various methods of heating . .192
Factors governing consumption of fuel and convenience of oper-
ation 193

Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace . - . . . 198

Advantages and disadvantages of various fuels . . . . 200

Lighting . . . . . . ... ; . . 200

CHAPTER VIII

STOVES AND COOKERS . . . . . ... . 207

CHAPTER IX

METHODS OP KEEPING FOODS COOL '.' " . . . . . 220

CHAPTER X

KITCHEN UTENSILS .' .' . . . . . . . . 225

Utensils best adapted to various cooking processes . . . 225

Special utensils and equipment . .- . . . . 228

Arrangement of utensils . . . . . . 230

How to prepare new utensils for use . .... 231

How to protect metals not in use . k . , ; " < " . . 232

Materials and their care . . .' . . . . 232

CHAPTER XI

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING . . , -. . ," . . 240

Table setting J ' .'/ , . ' > ' ,. 240

Table service ' \ \ . . ... . . 244

Some table manners and customs ' . . . . . 247

CHAPTER XII

THE LAUNDRY ., .. . . .- V . . 249

Fabrics . . . . 249

Water . ^ i . , . . . - . . 250

Soap . , . < V : 253

Starch . . ,,, ...-*. . . .257

Bluing . ... > * . . . 261

Washing . . . <- . % * - : . . . 261

X CONTENTS

PAGE

Bleaching . . i V . . . , ,, . 273

Ironing . . ... . . . , . 273

Equipment for the laundry ... . . . . 276

CHAPTER XIII

STAIN REMOVAL . . . . . . . , . 282

Methods for treatment of stains in general . , . . 284

Specific methods for individual stains . . . . 287

PART III
CLOTHING

CHAPTER XIV

TEXTILES . ... . 307

Cotton . . . , . . . . ... 307

Linen. . . . ^ . 312

Wool .315

Silk . . . . ' ..' . . . . 321

Artificial silk . . . . ' 324

Ramie .......... 325

Jute . 325

Tests for fabrics . . 326

Weave . , . . . . . . . 329

CHAPTER XV

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING. . . .... 330

Equipment for the sewing room . . . . . . 334

Preparation of materials ..... . 336

How to take measurements . . . . . . 338

Kinds of patterns , . . . . . 340

How to estimate the amount of material . . . . 342

How to place the pattern on the material .... . 344

How to mark a pattern for basting . . . . 348

How to cut a garment . . . . ... . 352

How to baste a simple garment . . . /. . . 353

Kinds of seams for garments . , . . . ., . . 358

CONTENTS xi

PAGE

How to make a foundation belt . . '....* . . 359

Fitting garments . ." . . * ' .- * 360

How to make a skirt even at the bottom . .... . . 363

How to keep bias seams from sagging . . '.-',. . 364

Suggestive finishes to be used by the home worker . . . 364

Suitable materials for various types of dresses and waists . . 369

Suggestions for economy in dress .... . 369

Making simple undergarments . . . . " 369

Clothing for children . . . . . i * . 381

Patching . . -. . 388

Cloth darning . . ... . . 389

Stocking darning. . . . . . 391

CHAPTER XVI

MILLINERY . . . . . . . . 393

How to select a hat . . . . ' . 393

Renovating materials . . . . . " . 400

Simple handmade trimmings. .... 404

PART IV
FOODS AND NUTRITION

CHAPTER XVII

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS . . . v . 407

Good foods for supplying the body's needs . ... . . 408

How to estimate the daily need of fuel . . 412

How to estimate the daily need of protein . . 414

How to estimate the daily need of lime, iron and phosphorus . 415

Some rules for planning meals . . 425

Food for the prospective mother . . . . . 433

Food for the nursing mother . ." . . .. 434

Formulas for infant feeding . , . . / 435

The part milk should play in the diet during growth . . 436

CHAPTER XVIII

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD .... . 438

Buying fresh or staple foodstuffs . . . . . 439

Buying canned foods . , ... . . . . 445

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIX

PAGE

FOOD FOR THE SICK f . . . . , . - .

. 455

Fluid diet . . . . . .-. . * - .

. . 455

Soft or semi-solid diet . .. . . .> ;

*- . 457

Light or convalescent diet . . . < :.

. . 458

Care and feeding for incipient colds ^ i . ,

. 458

Care and feeding for constipation . . , .*

. 459

Diet during a condition of intestinal putrefaction

. 461

Care and diet for indigestion . . . '.:

. 461

Diet in fever .......

. 462

Modified milk diets for typhoid fever

. 463

Food for tuberculosis patients . . .

.463

CHAPTER XX

BEVERAGES ........

. 465

Coffee ........

., . 465

Tea .

, . 468

Cocoa

. 470

Fruit juices. .......

. 472

CHAPTER XXI

BATTERS AND DOUGHS . ...

. 473

Classification .......

. 473

Ingredients . . . . .

. 474

Methods of mixing . ' . . .

. 478

Utensils for baking . ,

. 478

Filling the pans . . 'v .

479

Baking

479

CHAPTER XXII

CAKES . . . . . .. . ^

483

Cakes made with yeast -. - , .* '.'.-

. 483

Sponge cakes , ...

. 483

Butter cakes . ; .

. 484

Ingredients used in cakes . .<.....

.484

Cake fillings . :. . -..*:,., 4 ... v ..

.486

Cake frostings . . . . .. v .

, 486

CONTENTS xiii
CHAPTER XXIII

PAGE

PASTRY . . . ., . . . . .- . 490

Ingredients ...... , . . . . . . 490

Characteristics of good pastry . . .- .^1 . . 491

Directions for making plain pastry . . . . 492

Directions for making flaky pastry . . . . ' . 493

Directions for making puff pastry . ... ,. . . . 494

CHAPTER XXIV

YEAST BREAD . , . fjjfc .... 495

Ingredients. . **' ".-' '.'' .- . . . 495

Mixing and kneading . . . . *' v . . . 498

Fermentation . . . . . * . . . 499

Shaping dough . . . . . . 499

Proofing . . - . - . . . ,. . . . 499

Baking . v . . . . , .,; j , . - . .500

"Rope "in bread. .. ... '^ ,/ . . . 500

Recipes * . . 501

Salt-rising bread . i-A^L"^.? .!..'-'.- C 505

CHAPTER XXV

COOKING OP CEREALS . . . . . : . . . 506

CHAPTER XXVI

MEAT AND POULTRY . . . . . , . 510

Selection of meat by appearance . . U*' v . ^^

General rules for cooking . . . . V ' . . . 512

General directions for soup-making . ^. .,..,. ^ ^^

, Care of meat . . . . . ..." , . 516

Keeping meat .' .' . . .' . ; . " . . 519

Use of market trimmings and meat fat in cooking . .' . 519

Chickens and fowls " .'' . vS: ** * ^

CHAPTER XXVII

FISH AND OYSTERS . .' .' . ''"''". " . . . . 527

Fish . . . .- . ^ . ... . .527

Oysters . . . '-'^ ' .-' > . -. '^^. . .532

XIV

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXVIII

PAGE

. . .534

Tests for fresh eggs
Egg cookery . , . . ;

. 534
..-. . .535

CHAPTER XXIX

VEGETABLES . . . . . .
Care of vegetables in the home
Cooking of vegetables . .

"V . . 543
. 543
. 544

CHAPTER XXX

SAUCES . .

552

White sauce ......
Butter sauce ......
Brown sauces ......
Sauces thickened with egg ....
Sweet sauces ......

. 552
. 553
. ' . .553
. 553
. 561

CHAPTER XXXI
SALADS ........

. 563

Salad herbs. ......
Salad dressings ......

. 563
. 564

CHAPTER XXXII

DESSERTS ........
Fruits
Gelatin desserts ......
Whipped cream . . .
Junket .......
Frozen desserts ......

. 570
. 570
. 570
. 571
. 572
. 572

SUGAR COOKERY

CHAPTER XXXIII

CHAPTER XXXIV

FOOD PRESERVATION . . .

Preservation of food by low temperatures

576

579
581

CONTENTS xv

PAGE

Drying fruits and vegetables. . . . .... 588

Salting vegetables . . . . . ' . . . . 592

Canning . .... ' . . . 599

Preservation of meat . . . . . ; -. . 622

Sugar-cured hams, bacons, and tongues . . . . . 624

Brine salt pork . . . . . . . . . 626

Dry-cured pork . . . . . . . . . 626

Pickled pigs' feet. . . . . .'. . . 626

Head-cheese . " . . . . . . .- . 627

Lard . . . . . ... . . .627

Corned beef . . . ... . . 628

Dried beef . . . . . . . . . . 629

Pickled beef tongues . . . . 629

Hamburg steak . . . . . . . v . 630

Mixed sausage . . . . . . . . . . 630

Pork sausage . ~ . . . . . 630

ILLUSTRATIONS

PIG. PAGE

1. Floor plans of a small house . . . .. . . . '* 4

2. The first floor plan of a suburban house . . ... 5

3. A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor . 6

4. A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor. , '. v 7

5. A remodeled farmhouse, to illustrate step-saving . , .10

6. First floor plan, showing living area and working area. ;', : , . 12

7. Second floor plan, showing sleeping area ,..>*. . . 13

8. A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners . . ... 14

9. ?lan showing simplicity of living area . . . . . 15

10. Plan showing well-organized arrangement . . . t .17

11. A house planned for farm life and farm conditions . . . 20

12. A modest farm cottage of good design . . . . . 25

13. A typical low room in an old-fashioned cottage .-... . 32

14. The same type of low room as in Fig. 13 , . . . 32

15. A tall room of the late nineteenth-century type . . . 34

16. A typical modern living-room . . . .....' . 34

17. A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space . 36

18. Types of windows . . > . . . . . .38

19. A method of hanging two sets of curtains . . , . 56

20. Four methods of curtaining a double-hung window. , . , . 58

21. Two methods of curtaining a group of windows ... 60

22. Three arrangements of valance and curtain . .... . 64

23. Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim 67

24. A group of typical side chairs . . . . .-. . 79

25. Four good table forms for use in dining-room or library . . 80

26. Types of Colonial chairs . . . . . . . . 82

27. Comfortable arm-chairs for general use . . . , . . . 84

28. Three good forms of couches ... . . 86

29. Typical small tables of good form and finish . . , . 87

30. Good types of lamps . ... . . > .. . . 91

31. Arrangement of rugs in living room . : . . . 93

32. Arrangement of rugs in living rooms . . .. . . 96

33. Arrangement of furniture in a square dining-room ... 98

34. Arrangement of a large kitchen . .... ... 101

xvii

xviii ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

35. Arrangement of a farmhouse kitchen . . . . . Ill

36. Arrangement of a kitchen for a suburban house ; . .112

37. Plan showing kitchen arrangements . - T . .113

38. A complete and convenient kitchen for any house . . .114

39. The pass-pantry or serving-pantry . . . . .115

40. Comparison of scales for measuring temperature . . . 132

41. The index of a gas meter . . 143

42. Gas meter index reading 79,500 cubic feet .... 144

43. Dial of a watthour meter ....... 147

44. Dial of a watthour meter ....... 148

45. Ordinary form of water-meter dial ..... 151

46. Comparison of amount of light given by different gas lamps . 202

47. Comparison of amount of light given by different electric lamps 203

48. Cost of producing a given amount of light by various illumi-

nants at usual prices ....... 204

49. Diagram of a home-made fireless cooker .... 215

50. An iceless refrigerator ........ 222

51. Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator . . 223

52. Methods of folding underwear ...... 275

53. A method of folding sheets and tablecloths .... 276

54. Another method of folding sheets. ..... 277

55. A method of folding nightdresses and shirts .... 278

56. A sleeve-board 280

57. Cotton fibers, showing the characteristic twist . . . 308

58. Linen fibers, showing the characteristic nodes and longitudinal

striations . . .313

59. Wool fiber, showing the characteristic scales and the serrated

surface . . . . . . . . . 316

60. Silk fiber, showing the two minute filaments from the spinnerets

of the silk worm ........ 319

61. Method of shrinking fullness out of a garment . . . 336

62. Method of taking measurements ...... 338

63. Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern .... 342

64. Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern .... 343

65. Cutting and opening a shirt-waist pattern to throw in fullness . 344

66. Increasing or decreasing bust measure of a shirt-waist pattern . 345

67. Method of decreasing the size of a shirt-waist pattern . . 346

68. Method of lengthening a waist pattern for a very full bust or

round shoulders . . . . . . . 347

69. Method used in modeling garments over a flat pattern . . 348

ILLUSTRATIONS xk

PIG. PAGE

70. Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders . . ->;-"V' f -V . 349

71. Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern . .. .. .. . . 349

72. Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling effect ... . 350

73. Changing length or width of skirt pattern . > .' . : '... . 351

74. Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern '. r - f . . 351

75. Decreasing the size of the hips of a gored skirt pattern . . 352

76. Adjusting a skirt pattern for a person who has a prominent

abdomen or hips . ....... > . . . . 353

77. Another method of adjusting a gored skirt pattern for a figure

with prominent abdomen . . . . . . 354

78. Method of adding material to a gored skirt pattern . .- . 355

79. Designing narrow or full circular skirt pattern - ;.. . . 356

80. Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce . <.' . 357

81. Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress . 359

82. Combinations of simple embroidery stitches . . " . . 366

83. Set-in pocket . .368

84. Method of making a bound buttonhole . . . . . 370

85. Method of making an arrow . . . -,'.-. .371

86. Plain seam with edges overcast . . . ' .--. . . 374

87. Plain seams . . .... . .... . 374

88. French seam . . , ,. . . . . . 374

89. Hemmed fell . . . .'.'... .... .374

90. Overhanded or French fell . . , . . . . 374

91. Flannel fell . . . . . . / . . 374

92. Methods of finishing the bottom of drawers . % . " . 377

93. Methods of finishing the bottom of an underskirt . , . r ' . 377

94. Sateen underskirt with cotton-backed satin flounce finished with

scalloped facing . . ' . . . . . 377

95. Bound placket . . . . V ... . . 379

96. Bound and faced placket 379

97. Continuous bound and faced placket with fly. , . . 379

98. Two methods of making a hemmed placket . . . . 380

99. Methods of marking positions of buttonholes . . . 380

100. Methods of stranding buttonholes . . . . . 380

101. Buttonhole stitch . '. 380

102. Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, and coat . . 383

103. Suitable designs for dresses for children from three to five years 385

104. Suitable designs for dresses for children from six to ten years . 385

105. Suitable designs for dresses for children from ten to twelve

years . . . . . . .... 386

XX ILLUSTRATIONS

PIG. PAGfi

106. Suitable designs for dresses for children from twelve to sixteen

years . . . . . . . . . . . 387

107. Correct size of a crown, shown by the heavy line. . . .394

108. Incorrect size of crown. . . . . . . . 395

109. Correct placing of a hat, shown by the heavy line . . . 395

110. The prominent lines of the hat should harmonize with the lines

of the face . V. . . . , . '. . .396

111. Correct placing of a turban . . - . . . ' . . 396

112. The outline or decoration of a hat should not repeat or parallel

undesirable lines in the face . .. : . . . . 397

113. Decoration and structural lines of a hat V . . . 399

114. Simple decorations possible in straw trimming '. . . 404

115. Simple use of ribbon to decorate or change a crown slightly . 404

116. Stitches for folds, for sewing down facings, and for decoration . 405

117. French fold, used for decoration around crowns and brims . 406

118. Cuts of beef , .511

119. Cuts of mutton . . . '-. . ': . ; . Y : . 511

120. Cuts of pork . . . . . . . . . 512

121. Cellar ventilation . . . . ... . . 583

122. The storage trench . . 586

123. Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack .... 601

124. Commercial hot-water canning outfit for out-of-door work . 602

125. Steam cooker .- . . . ' . . v- . .603

126. Manner of testing a jar . . . . . . 605

127. Position of clamp during sterilization ..... 605

128. Position of clamp after sterilization . . 605

PLATES

PLATE

I. Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country

homes ........ Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

II. Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or country

home . . . . '..' , . . 24

III. A group of furnishings showing uncrowded arrangement and

unobtrusive background. A similar group showing how ob-
trusive background and crowded arrangement may obliter-
ate effect of even well-selected furnishings . . . 48

IV. Types of rugs with suitable pattern . . . .52
V. Types of textile pattern that may be used for upholstery or

hangings . . . . . . . " . . 62

VI. Good types of desks and sideboards . . ... . 70

VII. Types of furniture ugly in proportion, etc. . . . .76

VIII. A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools . . - - . 88

IX. Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture . . 94

X. A good kitchen arrangement . . . . . .104

XI. Shelves for materials to be stored. Utensils in which foods

may be cooked and served . . "... . .110

XII. Use of form in draping dresses before and after fitting . . 336

XIII. Draping a waist; a simple skirt with cascade effect on sides;

dress form used in draping ... . . . 344

XIV. Finishes for nightgowns . . ". . . . 376
XV. Simple and effective designs in small hats. Finishes for corset

covers . . . . . . . . . 400

XVI. Showing 100-calorie portions of some common foods . . 416

xxi

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

PART I
THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS

CHAPTER I
THE MODERN HOUSE

BY HELEN BINKERD YOUNG

A SOUND house plan is fundamental to the economics of the
home. A common impulse toward rational living has made it
necessary to simplify the paraphernalia of existence; to eliminate
useless tasks and trappings and to arrange the remaining neces-
sities into an orderly scheme of household life. The arrange-
ment of the modern house is a direct expression of this point of
view. The snug, compact dwellings of the present day are
eloquent records of the scientific trend in home-making.

Theoretically, the administration of a household under con-
servation methods implies a perfect dwelling one in which
there is an exact adjustment between the worker and the work-
place; where there is no friction between the housekeeping and
the house structure; where the interior space and equipment fit
perfectly the operations of the home. The gap that exists be-
tween an effective scheme of work and a poor arrangement of
space represents a permanent element of inconvenience or waste;
hence the value of a well-considered floor plan.

The comfort demanded by modern standards of living has
brought into the erection of the house many new materials,
many new trades and a great deal of fixed equipment in the
way of heating, plumbing, and lighting systems, hardwood

2 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

floors, and various types of built-in closets and furniture. The
modern house is accordingly a different and a more costly prod-
uct than the dwellings of our fathers. This increase in the cost
of a cubic foot of the house of to-day, together with the necessity
to build, heat, and maintain the home economically, has had a
marked effect on the size, shape, and arrangement of dwellings.
Small housekeeping units, square floor plans, small halls, con-
densed stair arrangements, compact kitchens, grouped chim-
neys, and grouped window treatments are the natural results of
straightforward planning to meet modern conditions. Intensive
housekeeping and intensive house-planning are the tendency of
the times.

AERANGEMENT OF THE HOUSE

The plan of the house must be above all a direct and business-
like arrangement. Every foot of space must be made to count,
must contribute either to the smoothness of the housework or
to the effectiveness of the whole interior. There should be no
waste nor stagnant space, no idle nor undefined areas.

The organization of the floor plan should fit the organization
of home activities. The three phases of daily life work, play,
and sleep suggest three divisions of space in the arrangement
of a dwelling, the living-rooms forming one group, the working
parts another, and the sleeping-rooms> another. Each of these
space groups is distinct in use, in arrangement, and in the char-
acter of its furnishings.

Communication between these parts is provided by means of
hall and stairs; in fact the starting point of any plan is a study
of its circulation or passage. The hall may, therefore, be con-
sidered as the kernel of the plan, the distributing center of space.

The arrangement of the living-rooms should be generous in
feeling. To this end, wide doorways, groups of windows, and
long vistas both indoors and out are essential. One large unit
for general family use and two or three smaller ones usually
comprise the living area of the modest house. Some variety
in the size, shape, and direction of the rooms is desirable in the
design of the living space. Combinations of oblong rooms of

THE MODERN HOUSE 3

different sizes placed at right angles to each other, or of oblong
and square rooms of different dimensions, make a more inter-
esting and more furnishable arrangement than a succession of
square rooms, which tend to repeat each other in character and
use. Generous window groups on long or important walls and
arrangements of single windows or pairs on short or unimportant
walls furnish a variety of outlook and lighting that is bound to
give life and animation to the whole interior.

In general the living-rooms in temperate climates should
occupy southerly exposures south, southeast, and south-
west unless such an arrangement is contradicted by the di-
rection of the view, prevailing winds, or other conditions of
the site. An east dining-room is especially to be desired, since
the morning sun on the breakfast table starts the day off
cheerily. Living-rooms southerly and working parts northerly
make a good complementary arrangement for using to advan-
tage the four exposures of a free-standing house.

Further discussion of the working arrangements, such as
kitchen, pantry, laundry, and the like, may be found on pages
99 to 119.

The sleeping-rooms must above all be private in location.
That means that each room must be entered directly from a
hall, not from another room. In a two-story house the privacy
of the sleeping-rooms is automatically assured by placing
them on the second floor. In a one-story arrangement a small
bedroom-hall must be deliberately provided in addition to
the entrance-hall.

The relative advantages of a one-floor or two-floor arrange-
ment for a private dwelling depend on a number of factors.
In general, the two-story house and the real bungalow, which
has all the rooms arranged on a single floor, are climatic ex-
pressions of housing for widely different localities. Each is
so normal for its own conditions that it becomes the prevalent
type of that place. The informal spread-out plan of the bunga-
low is normal for warm climates, where yard and grounds
form part of the daily life for a large part of the year and where
the buildings may be lightly constructed without cellars and

4 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

without heating systems. But when a dwelling must be ar-
ranged for year-round comfort in a locality of extreme heat
and cold, the supposed economy of a one-floor arrangement,
unless kept very small and compact, loses all point and de-

FIG. 1. Floor plans of a small house. The first floor plan shows a desirable
spaciousness of living area and adaptability of working parts. The second
floor plan shows an arrangement of four bedrooms, closets, and bath de-
veloped from a central hall.

feats its own end. Large cellar and roof areas, the need for
weather-tight construction and for an effective heating plant
soon eat up the supposed economy of cost.

There is, however, something to be said for the simpler
housekeeping of the one-floor arrangement. The ease with
which a servantless household may be comfortably maintained
when all the living arrangements are on a single floor, is re-
sponsible for the popularity of various forms of apartments,
flats, two-family dwellings, and even cottages with bedrooms
on the first floor. Most of these are, however, rented dwelling-
places and must not be confused with the type of house that
it is desirable to build and own as a permanent home.

THE MODERN HOUSE 5

The three arrangements shown in the accompanying illus-
trations are typical examples of houses planned for modern
conditions.

In Fig. 1 are shown both floor plans of a small house 26 by

FIG. 2. The first floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accomodation
of a family with little children.

30 feet. Here the spaciousness of the living area and the adapt-
ability of the working parts may be instantly noted. The
contrast in the size and shape of living- and dining-rooms,
together with the long vista through both rooms and porch to
the yard beyond, form a pleasing development of the space.
The stairway is screened from the front door and is arranged
in a separate stair-hall which serves also as passage to the coat-
room and the kitchen. Such an arrangement greatly assists
smooth and noiseless housekeeping. The second-floor plan
shows an arrangement of four rooms, closets, and bath de-
veloped from a central hall.

In Fig. 2 is shown the first-floor plan of a suburban house
designed for the accommodation of a family with little children.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The panel of space across the front, comprising living-room,
hall, and dining-room, is supplemented by a similar arrange-
ment of rooms in the rear, in the form of nursery and kitchen.
The front of the house can thus be kept in order while

FIG. 3. A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor. The living-rooms and
kitchen are grouped snugly together, and the bedrooms are grouped and
arranged to open from a retired hall.

the rear part is in use. The nursery is so located that it
can be watched by the worker in the kitchen, and the stairs
are very accessible. With such an arrangement properly
equipped, a mother could do her own work without exhaustion
or loss of time. The children's lunch could be served in the
nursery and the mother's couch and sewing materials would
always be ready. The nursery could later be transformed
into a study-room or library, or in case of illness into a down-
stairs bedroom, since toilet facilities are at hand. The house
also adjusts itself to hired help.

A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor is shown

THE MODERN HOUSE 7

in Fig. 3. The living-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly
together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open
from a retired hall. Such a plan is suitable for a one-floor
cottage arrangement in temperate climates. Another one-
floor arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.

FIG. 4. A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor, with a cellar beneath for
the furnace and for vegetable storage.

THE FARMHOUSE *

No building can be discussed intelligently apart from its
surroundings. The best placing of the farmhouse depends
on the location of the barns and other outbuildings. The rela-
tion of these buildings to one another and to such considerations
as sunlight, view, roadways, and garden should be carefully
studied. Obviously, a general farm scheme that unites into
one workable system lands, barns, and dwelling is the wisest
beginning for the development of any property. Eaich im-
provement will then take its place in the final scheme, and

* The remainder of this chapter is taken from Cornell Reading-Course
for the Farm Home, Bull. 39.

8 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

permanent economy will result. Owners of either old or new
farmsteads will profit by adhering to a simple and direct work-
ing plan for the farm grounds. The farmhouse is merely one
unit of the whole farmstead.

The practical value of a working plan can hardly be over-
estimated. The haphazard farm groups commonly seen bear
eloquent testimony to the futility of developing property with-
out plan. Failure to plan involves waste of money and labor;
it means a continuous process of tearing down, reconstructing,
and makeshift. Under all circumstances, hit-and-miss methods
of work have proved unfailingly wasteful. Organized farming
and organized housekeeping are the present tendency, and to
this end an organized arrangement is necessary. A well-planned
farmstead is more economical, more orderly, more beautiful,
and more salable than one which, like Topsy, "just growed."

FARMHOUSE PLANNING

A farmhouse is more difficult to plan than either a city or a
suburban dwelling, because it must provide for so many needs.
The city or the suburban house is merely a home; it is supple-
mented by an outside place of business and by outside markets.
The farmhouse, on the other hand, must be not only a home,
but also the business center and to a limited extent the store
and the market. This means that, planned as compactly as
may be, a farmhouse is necessarily larger in floor area than a
suburban house for the same family need be. Much thought
and planning are, therefore, required in order to arrange this
larger area in such a manner that wasteful methods of work
will be avoided.

Traditional types.

It may truly be said that the problem of the American farm-
house is still unsolved. For the building of new appropriate
farm dwellings, there is almost no precedent to guide one.
Most of the rural houses now standing are failures as farm-
houses because they were not planned for farm conditions.
In fact, many of them were not planned at all. They were

THE MODERN HOUSE 9

merely built, and built in about the following fashion: an
outer shell was constructed and roofed over, the inside was
divided into rooms, and somewhere a kitchen was attached.
If the house became too small, more rooms were added to fit
the growing needs of the family. With each addition to the
house, the kitchen retreated to the rear of the structure, where,
by its very distance from the living-rooms, it confined the
housewife to her post of duty. As the family decreased in
numbers and helpers became few, the front part of the house
was closed and home life was centered within the radius 6f
the kitchen and its activities.

Such of these old structures as are soundly built are worth
replanning and equipping with running water, electric light,
sound floors, and a good heating system. Alteration should
be undertaken only after the complete project has been worked
out on paper.

In Fig. 5 is illustrated a rambling plan of the traditional
farmhouse of the upright-and-wing type previously described.
The original and the remodeled arrangement are shown in A
and B, respectively. The main faults of the old plan, A, are
two: first, the plan is deficient in correctly located hall space;
second, the distance from the kitchen to the front of the house
is too great. Since a person must pass through one room in
order to reach another, the whole floor virtually becomes a
passageway. This condition destroys privacy, interrupts work,
and entails much extra cleaning. The correct amount of hall
area placed in the heart of the plan would give separate entrance
to each room and would save the whole house. Hall space
should be regarded as the developer of the plan. If the plan
is compactly arranged and the hall centrally placed, great
service may be obtained from even a small allowance of hall
space. The presence of five, six, or seven doors in a room in-
dicates poor hall-planning, and therefore poor house-planning.
It is well to remember that the number of doors in a room
diminishes in proportion to the excellence of the plan.

In plan B there is introduced enough central hall area to
give direct access to each of the rooms. The kitchen is placed

TttE REMODELED PLAN

OLD PLAN' A

THE MODERN HOUSE 11

centrally at the rear of this hallway. This brings the kitchen
nearer the living rooms and shortens all working distances.
If the distances from the center of the kitchen to the center
of each room in plans A and B are computed, it is found that
the remodeled plan saves an average distance of fifteen feet
a round trip over the old plan.

In the remodeled plan, such modern improvements as heat,
light, and running water have been added; closets also have
been provided. The whole plan is now arranged so as to en-
courage wholesome living.

Under the old plan the house contained two cellars, one
under the square upright and one under the kitchen, with an
un excavated area under the dining-room. A long journey
was thereby involved in going from one excavated part to the
'other. The new plan simplified this difficulty by excavating
under the dining-room. wing.

A study of new types.

Attention must now be focused on more economical arrange-
ments. The plan of any building is based primarily on its
needs. Broadly speaking, family life makes three demands on
a house plan: that it shall provide living area, working area,
and sleeping area. The living area includes such parts as
sitting-room, dining-room, library, office, and porch; the work-
ing area includes kitchen, pantry, laundry, hall, and stairs;
the sleeping area includes bedrooms and bath. It is the func-
tion of a good plan to organize these three elements into a
compact arrangement, allowing each requirement an area to
itself. Spaciousness must be expressed in the living area, com-
pactness in the working area, and privacy in the sleeping area.

The farm cottage shown in Figs. 6 and 7 aptly illustrates
these principles. Here is a compact plan with its three areas
clearly defined. In the living area a feeling of spaciousness
is obtained by the use of wide doorways and groups of windows
through which vistas are seen indoors and out. No interior,
however small in actual dimensions, need appear cramped
if long vistas are planned for. Good interior design is also

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

evident in Fig. 6. It is indicated by the balanced arrangement
of the structural parts of each room. On the rear wall of the
living-room is seen a central fireplace flanked by broad door-
ways of equal width, while the front wall opposite expands
into a generous bay window centrally placed, with built-in

-*\* >

, xj > \P* *//< - 'i i - ii 5

W^'^i i

? ELOOR^N;/;

PLAN

Fio. 6. First floor plan, showing living area and working area.

bookshelves to right and left. These features so unite as to
make of the living-room a composition at once so dignified,
so orderly, and so effective that little furniture is needed to
complete it. In the dining-room, balanced design is expressed
by the long flower-box, the bay window, and by the central door
on the opposite wall, flanked by diagonal corner features of

THE MODERN HOUSE

equal width. In general, diagonal corners should be avoided;
except where they are a practical necessity or where they are
deliberately used for reasons of design, as in Fig. 8.

Of the working area (Fig. 6), the kitchen, pantry, and stairs

BARNS ARE: IN -

THIS DIRECTFQN

FIG. 7. Second floor plan, showing sleeping area.

are the parts most constantly used by the woman of the house.
Hence they are compactly grouped and are placed next to the
living space. Woodroom and washroom are of intermittent
use to the housewife but of constant use to the farmer. Conse-
quently they are placed away from the living rooms in the
direction of driveway and barns.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 8. A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners used deliberately for
purpose of design.

The sleeping area provides one bathroom and three bed-
rooms, each of the latter with its closet. Their position on
the second floor renders them quiet and private.

Briefly stated, economy of plan is expressed in the grouped

THE MODERN HOUSE

SECOND FLOOR

FIG. 9. Plan showing simplicity of living area and com-
pleteness of working area.

chimney arrangement, in the condensed hall and stair arrange-
ment, and in the small kitchen. The kitchen arrangement is
weak, however, in some respects. It has only one outside wall
and is therefore lacking in cross-ventilation. Moreover, the

16 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

position of the door between dining-room and kitchen, being
in line with the kitchen range, would surely prove a nuisance
from considerations of sight, sound, and smell. It is unfor-
tunate, too, that the path of travel from the rear to the front
of the house leads through the kitchen.

In Fig. 9 is represented another well-planned farmhouse.
It is characterized chiefly by the simplicity of the living area
and by the completeness of the working area. Each area
occupies about one-half of the floor plan.

The living area is unique and spacious. Instead of two
separate rooms, each of which would be small, living-room
and dining-room are combined into one large apartment. A
group of three glass doors connects this generous living-room
with an unusual porch arrangement, called on the plan an
"arbored terrace." This terrace, which is cement-paved under
foot and vine-covered overhead, is in reality an open-air con-
tinuation of the living-room, which adds materially to the
comfort of the family in summer. Here meals may be served
while sunlight and garden are enjoyed. The position of window
groups on both ends of the large room creates a long, unbroken
vista, so that all the living space is appreciated all the time.

Centrally placed on the long outer wall of the living-room
is a fireplace alcove, or inglenook. This feature increases the
actual width of the room and provides two outdoor vistas in
new directions. Inglenooks, however, should be used with
great reserve unless they are generous in width and develop
naturally on the plan. Many times the excellence of an entire
plan is sacrificed to the use of a feature of this nature.

The completeness of the working area is best appreciated
by observing that each kind of work has its allotted place.
The kitchen is intended for cooking; the pantry, for food
storage; the pass pantry, for dishes; the woodroom, for fuel;
the hall and stairs, for passage; the two recessed porches gather
entrance to the house in a common passage that serves all
rooms.

The kitchen arrangement shown in Fig. 9 excels that in
Fig. 6 in at least three particulars. The introduction of a pass

I "

18 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

pantry serves to seclude the kitchen from the living-room;
good cross-ventilation takes place between the windows over
table and sink; and the path of travel from the rear porch to
the front of the house does not cross the kitchen.

In this house the laundry is located in the basement, which
stands out of ground on the kitchen corner. An outside door
enters the cellar on grade level.

The bedroom plan is compact, private, light, and airy.

Other plans may be analyzed in a similar manner, the strength
and the weakness of various arrangements noted, and a sense
of good planning acquired. The larger farmhouse shown in
Fig. 10 has been inserted for personal study on the part of
the readers. It represents a well-organized arrangement with
a new feature introduced in the rear a hired man's room
with separate stairs leading to it. The dignified, simple, and
well-designed exterior shown in Plate I, upper figure, will stim-
ulate the imagination and serve to make the plan more realistic.

It must not be supposed that the plans shown in Figs. 6, 8,
and 9 are perfect in every respect. No business office is in-
cluded and they contain fewer bedrooms than farmhouses of
the past have provided. It must be remembered that each
of these houses was designed for a particular family and for a
particular farm site, as all successful houses should be. Con-
sequently they are not intended as models to be copied, but
as illustrations of the principles of house-planning. If the
principles of planning are understood they may be applied,
whether to new work or to alterations.

In general, an intricate or confused plan is always a poor
one; the more carefully an arrangement is studied, the simpler
it should become. Briefly stated, the final test of a good plan
is its extreme simplicity. Starting at the main entrance, one
should be able to proceed mentally through the plan with ease
and comprehension. For the most part the walls should be
in continuous, straight lines and should show an absence of
jogs, angles, and diagonal corners. Windows may be grouped
or single, but should be disposed in an orderly manner with
relation both to interior and to exterior appearance.

THE MODERN HOUSE 19

The plans shown are a reasonable protest against the old
wasteful types of farm dwellings. Study of these plans will
serve to show in what respects the modern rural house should
differ from former arrangements. A living-room now com-
bines the unused parlor and the overused sitting-room for
general family life; an office where the farmer's business is
transacted is provided in a place convenient to roadway and
barn, but outside the path of housework travel; the kitchen
arrangement is compact and well organized; the downstairs
bedrooms open, not from other rooms, but from a private hall,
thus insuring quiet and privacy (Figs. 5 and 8) ; a bathroom is
provided on either the first or the second floor, according to
water pressure; if possible all the bedrooms are provided with
windows on two sides; the large hall with open stairs has given
way to a more condensed arrangement; a generous porch or
uncovered terrace is placed where it either commands the
best view or is most useful during the day; the family hearth
has literally returned in the living-room fireplace; and the
whole plan is so arranged that the rooms lived in most are the
sunniest.

A dwelling combining the above features is illustrated in
Fig. 11. Wisely studied and frankly arranged, without a foot
of waste room, this structure represents a type of farmhouse
that is economical to build, to heat, and to work. The stairs
for the whole house are contained in one vertical shaft; the
hall is reduced to a small area; an office is placed near the
roadway and away from the housewife's work, which is accom-
modated in a dining-room and kitchen combination; a man's
room is provided at the extreme end of the plan, away from
the family; a washroom is on the line of travel between the
back porch and the dining-room; and a spacious living-room,
nth fireplace and window groups, is located on a desirable
>rner. On the second floor, the stairs land centrally in a
square hall, which gives direct entrance to each of the four
bedrooms and to the bathroom; the bedrooms are provided
with good closets; light and ventilation are everywhere abun-
lant.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIRST FLOOR
PLAN.

5EXO/ND FLOOR

FIG. 11. A house planned for farm life and farm conditions.

Modern improvements.

The class of conveniences known as modern improvements
meaning thereby plumbing, heating, and lighting systems, the
installation of mechanical power to be used for pumps, wash-
ing machines, mangles, vacuum cleaners, and the like may
properly be discussed only by experts who have special knowl-
edge of them. The practical aspect of most of these improve-

THE MODERN HOUSE 21

ments has been widely discussed in books and pamphlets, so
that any householder may become informed before installing
such improvements in the home.

EXTERIOR DESIGN (PLATES I AND II)

In order to be a success, a country house must be in har-
mony with its environment. It should appear to have grown
on its site, and to be a normal expression of human life in nat-
ural surroundings. The house should be in tune with the color
and the contour of the landscape. Farm lands which are for
the most part flat or rolling, produce contours which are
strongly horizontal. Architecture that is appropriate to such
landscape should in general be low, broad, and snug. Tall
narrow structures are necessary in cities where land is costly
and are appropriate in rugged, cliffy countries where nature
is replete with vertical surfaces; but they are inappropriate
when standing free on a flat site.

Color scheme.

The setting of a rural house presupposes such natural scenery
as is composed of trees, shrubs, lawns, gardens, hills, rocks, and
streams. The color effect of the house must be in harmony
with this setting. Such colors as white, cream, grays, soft
greens, and browns of various shades will always harmonize
with nature. Red is bold unless partially screened by planting.
The use of brick is about the only reason for introducing a red
color scheme. Brick walls are broken in mass by jointing and
relieved by contrast at the openings, whereas a wooden house
painted red is distressing. When field stone, concrete, cement,
or brick is used, the color scheme is spontaneous, being, pro-
duced by the color of the materials selected; when wood is
employed, however, a surface color effect is applied by means
of stain or paint. This color scheme should be neither too
dull nor too bright. Cold grays and drabs are about as cheer-
less as red is aggressive. In general, when choosing paint
from samples, it is wise to select a color that is somewhat
softer than the effect desired. A small piece of gay color which

22 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

looks interesting in the hand, appears glaring and bold when
covering an entire house. Likewise, a cold, dead color appears
cheerless when used in mass.

The chief factor to be avoided in painting houses is an ef-
fect of patchiness. For example, in the case of a porch post
or column, the cap and the base should not be painted one
color and the shaft another. The whole porch should be one
idea. Cornices, brackets, and moldings should not be picked
out by color, as light and shade interpret them sufficiently.
Useless bric-a-brac and ornament that cannot be removed
should be subdued as much as possible in the color scheme.

Looked at as a picture, the windows and doors of a house
should appear as decorative accents, contrasting with the
background of wall. Windows especially are the eyes that
give expression to the architectural face of the dwelling. With
walls of a light color the windows naturally form a dark con-
trast; but if the walls are dark or dull in effect, the windows
may be enlivened by painting the sash a lighter or brighter
color and the blinds a clear shade of green, yellow-brown, or
other harmonious color. Doorways and entrances should
have dignified recognition in the color scheme.

General proportion.

The effectiveness of a house in the landscape depends not
at all on ornament, but on its structural shape and the color
produced through the use of building materials. Refined
proportions, simple roof lines, and interesting but not violent
contrasts between roof, walls, and openings, together with
the character and arrangement of windows and doors, are
the elements that combine to make of a country house an ex-
ample of true rural architecture.

It has been previously stated that the mass-proportion of a
house in the open country should be low and broad rather
than tall and narrow. This feeling of proportion depends not
so much on the actual height of the house from ground to
gable, as on the position of the eaves or the cornice line. When
the eaves line is low, the effect of the house is low; hence the

THE MODERN HOUSE 23

value of long roof lines in obtaining good proportions. If the
roof rafters are brought down to the level of the second floor,
a sound, practical, and attractive structure usually results.
It is desirable to include the porch under such a roof whenever
possible, since this simplifies the roofing system of the house
and unites house and porch into one contained design. While
long roof lines and recessed porches are not always desirable,
they have their charm and place.

Low eaves and a long roof line usually fit a farmhouse plan
very conveniently because such a treatment brings a smaller
second-floor plan than first-floor plan. This is exactly the
farmhouse requirement. The rooms under the roof may be
lighted and ventilated by means of generous dormers or gables.

It is commonly supposed that bedrooms located under a
sloping roof must necessarily be low and hot. This is not
true. The fact that some bedrooms so located have been stuffy
does not argue that all bedrooms need to be so; it implies
rather that there has been no cross-ventilation or that the
windows were placed so low as to leave a pocket of hot air
confined near the ceiling. An outlet for the hot air should be
furnished by windows placed high in the room. If the roof
pitch and dormer windows are studied to fit the height of the
second-floor rooms, a full second story with high or full-length
windows may be commodiously arranged under a long roof,
and the low parts may be used for closets.

Structural elements.

The windows of a dwelling, whether grouped or single,
should be similar in style and should show some kind of orderly
arrangement. In general, unity of design is preserved if the
tops of all windows on a floor are kept on the same level. Vari-
ations in window heights will thus occur between the floor
level and the sill. Oval windows, diamond-shaped windows,
and other fancy forms should be avoided. A miscellaneous
collection of windows jotted at different points over a building
robs it of dignity and composure. Window blinds and small
panes have a certain decorative value from the outside.

24 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

No country house is complete without a generous porch or
other feature that will form a center for outdoor family life.
A vine-covered arbor, a paved spot, or merely a shaded stretch
of lawn near the house may be made fully as livable as the
usual porch. The usual type of American porch, a covered
platform attached to the house, built high and dry, inclosed
by a railing, and reached by steps, has artificially confined
outdoor life to the house apart from yard and garden. If
comfort and beauty are both to be served, neither porch nor
garden should be sacrificed; they should rather be arranged
adjacently so that the lawn adjoins the porch and the vistas
down the garden paths are continuous with the main vistas
from the porch, or are related to views from the important
windows of the house. In other words, house and grounds
should be planned as one continuous design, using as a con-
necting link the porch.

The chief difficulty with a united porch and garden scheme
arises from the usual difference in height between the porch
floor and the yard level. These two levels may be brought near
together either by setting the house low on the ground and build-
ing areas around the cellar windows (Plate I), or by raising a
flat, graded terrace to within a step or two of the porch floor.
Both these schemes are frequently and successfully practiced,
and in no way prevent light and air from entering the cellar.

In order to be commodious, a porch should be room-shaped,
rather than long and narrow. A porch 10 to 12 feet wide and
14 to 20 feet long will give greater comfort than one 6 to 8
feet wide and extending around two sides of the house. Further-
more, a rectangular porch will not darken so much of the in-
terior as will one extending along the full length of the house.
If the porch occupies a sunny position, it may be shaded and
embowered by screening with latticework, over which vines
may be allowed to grow. A cement or brick floor is desirable
for porch use.

If an upstairs sleeping-porch is planned, the railing should be
built solidly from the floor for 2 or 3 feet, and the open part
above should be provided with window sash and awnings in

PLATE II. Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or
country home.

THE MODERN HOUSE 25

order that storms and early morning light may be excluded.
This arrangement can be made comfortable for year-round use.
Outside entrance doors should be sheltered by a hood on
brackets, by a portico, or by a porch (Fig. 12). It is usually de-
sirable to separate the living-porch from the main entrance.

FIG. 12. A modest farm cottage of good design.

Here, if anywhere, a little genuine design should be afforded.
A portal is an intimate feature and should express dignity, hos-
pitality, and beauty to all who enter. A natural-finish oak
door with plate glass panel can hardly be considered appro-
priate for a decorative doorway, because it is out of keeping,
both in material and color, with the remainder of the exterior.

COST OF BUILDING

The actual cost of building a given house is determined
largely by local conditions. The cost of labor, the cost of ma-

26 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

terials used, the distance of the new building from the base
of supplies, and the amount of hauling involved, are items
that vary with every enterprise. Thus no fixed price may be
quoted as to the cost of a given building, the year round and
in all localities. The reading public should, therefore, place
no faith in the building figures quoted in popular magazines.
They are misleading in the extreme; for they usually represent
either a set of conditions which have not been fully told or
which are so unusual that they may not be duplicated. In
general it may safely be said that a modest house of usual
construction may be built for considerably less money by rural
than by city labor.

One way of estimating the probable cost of a new house is
to compare it with another dwelling recently built in the local-
ity. If the size and cost of the house already built are known,
one may compute the average cost a cubic foot by dividing
the total cost by the number of cubic feet that the house con-
tains. If the house that is planned is to be of better grade
than the one figured on, it will cost more a cubic foot; if it is
simpler, it will cost less. A rough estimate may thus be reached
before the work is undertaken or is figured out by the con-
tractor.

With present standards of building it is likely that in no
locality can a house with modern improvements be erected for
less than sixteen cents a cubic foot, and that a modest house
need not exceed twenty-four cents a cubic foot unless fireproof
construction is used. An average cost of about eighteen cents
a cubic foot is probably fair for most country districts.

Much has been said and written about the present high cost
of building. It is true that a house of a given size to-day often
costs twice as much as one of the same size would have cost
twenty-five years ago; but this advance is due not alone to
the increased cost of labor and material, but also to similar
types of dwellings not being compared. A house equipped with
heat, running water, hardwood floors, many closets, and fre-
quently with electric light and built-in furniture is com-
pared with a mere weather-proof structure built with single

THE MODERN HOUSE 27.

floors, no closets, and few or no modern improvements. Many
more trades and much more equipment than formerly now
go into the building of a comfortable house. It is the amount
and the kind of equipment that increases the cost; a house
30 by 40 feet may be made to cost $3,000 or $10,000, according
to the beauty and finish of interior woodwork, floors, and
walls, the amount of plumbing, the number and kind of fixtures
selected, or the kind of heating plant installed.

SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING ALTERATIONS

Any person who expects to make alterations in a house
should begin to ponder improvements a long time in advance.
The first step should be an accurately measured record of the
present floor plans, drawn at a scale of one-quarter inch to the
foot. The exact size and position of walls, openings, closets,
chimneys, or other existing features should be located on these
drawings, which may then be studied by comparing them
with other good plans found in books and magazines. Tissue
paper or tracing paper may then be placed over the drawings
and alteration sketches freely made. A dozen arrangements
may thus be tried on paper, hung on the wall, and considered
at leisure. These plans should be supplemented by a building-
book in which one may keep measurements, written data, and
new ideas as they occur. In this book, clippings may be pasted
and sketches may be freely made. These plans and this book
correspond in a rude way to the architect's drawings and
specifications, and will serve to crystallize the alterations into
definite form.

Generations of building experience have shown that suc-
cessful results must be based on definite instructions. No
man's memory should be trusted for measurements or other
information, and verbal directions should not be given to
workmen. Building operations are exceedingly definite; walls
and openings when in place cannot be moved one inch in order
to suit a piece of furniture or to make way for an altered notion.
All these experimental ideas should be worked out on paper.

As the owner studies over alteration problems, the best

28 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

arrangement will at length take shape in his own mind. An
intelligible home-made drawing and an explicit written list of
his requirements may then be put in shape, so that the car-
penter or contractor can make a fairly accurate estimate of
the cost before work is begun. In order to obtain the best
results, the owner should read up, in reliable books, such sub-
jects as waterworks and heating systems and should freely
investigate catalogues of equipment.

When the contemplated alterations are extensive and there-
fore costly, or when a new house must be built, the work should
by all means be turned over to a good architect. Forceful
arrangement and good design require trained experience; an
attempt to get along without such professional help is false
economy. It is the architect's daily business to put building
requirements into buildable shape. Practical construction
is the basis of his design. Moreover, he is acquainted with
all the short cuts whereby efficient results may be obtained
quickly and permanently.

REFERENCES

King, F. H. Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables.

Lynde, Carleton. Home Waterworks.

Putnam, X. W. The Gasoline Engine on the Farm.

Roberts, Isaac Phillips. The Farmstead.

Schneider, N. H. Electric Light for the Farm.

Stickley, Gustav. Craftsman Homes.

White, Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and How to Build Them.

CHAPTER II
HOME FURNISHING

BY ANNETTE J. WARNER

THE home represents the most intimate environment of
the individual. No matter how unconscious of their surround-
ings persons may seem, their tastes and ideas are affected by
the things with which they live continually. Such being the
case, the woman who makes it her task to provide for her
family significant surroundings, thereby adds to the ordinary
experiences of life a real factor of education and enjoyment.

Any rules or discussion on furnishing the home must neces-
sarily be very general, and cannot be conclusive in deciding
individual problems. The most that can be done is to review
such features and considerations as enter into all questions
of home furnishing, hoping thereby to point the way to the
solution of the individual problem.

Even in the hands of an experienced person, matters of home
furnishing and of decoration require a slow and thoughtful
study. There are no shortcuts. No matter how long it takes
to make a decision in furnishing, the time spent in so doing
is insignificant when compared to the duration of the result.
On account of this permanence of furnishings, also, an in-
terior cannot afford to record passing fads, shams and imi-
tations, but should rather express lasting, sincere, and dignified
ideas.

The furnishings of the house should be consistent in character
with the structural interior. Beamed ceilings, rough plaster
walls, and sturdy woodwork are appropriate in a home of the
Craftsman style. Such an interior would be a suitable back-
ground for mission furniture; it would be incongruous in a house
of Colonial style, or as a setting for mahogany furniture.

30 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The house should appear as though it were planned through-
out by one person for one locality, one family, one purse. If
the house is in a southern latitude, comfort is expressed by
large spaces, long vistas, shadows, cool colors, light drapery,
few and light-weight rugs and light furniture. If the house
is in a northern climate or is used chiefly in winter, comfort is
expressed by a large fireplace, warm colorings, large rugs,
heavier and richer drapery, and some upholstered furniture.
In the city house, space and light are luxuries that must be
conserved by every possible means. In the country there are
fewer limitations of this sort, but there are varying conditions
in the environment of country houses that should influence their
treatment.

In general, simplicity of treatment in finish and furnishing
preserves the dignity of the house and is always in good taste.
An interior should also be fitted to its use in every part, should
appear consistent, genuine, and harmonious throughout. The
environment can thus be made to typify the qualities to which
a family aspires.

STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATION OF ROOMS

Size

The old ideal for a room was the largest, "squarest" room
possible for every use for a family room, bedroom, or kitchen.
Changed conditions of living and the increased cost of labor and
building material have reduced the size of the modern house.
According to the varied nature of their use, it is evident that
rooms should vary in size and in shape.

Living-room.

The living-room for the family should be the largest room in
the house, since it serves a greater variety of purposes and a
larger number of persons than any other room. The restful
effect of an appearance of ample space is one of its charms.
Sacrifice of spaciousness in other parts of the house may well
be made in order to provide a spacious living-room. The actual
size for a living-room is a matter allowing great variation, but

HOME FURNISHING 31

rooms varying from 14 to 16 feet in width and from 18 to 24
feet in length suggest good sizes.

Dining-room. :

The dining-room is also a gathering place for all the members
of the family. It, however, has but one center and serves only
one function. It may, therefore, well be considerably smaller
than the living-room. For the comfortable serving of the
meals, at least three feet should be allowed between the edge of
the table and the sideboard or any other furniture in the room.

Kitchen.

The kitchen should be small and compact in arrangement
and should not contain a foot of unnecessary space. A good
size for a kitchen in which the work is done by one person is
estimated to be from 100 to 150 square feet of space (page 102).

Bedrooms.

The bedroom of the modern house may be relatively small
because the convenience of built-in closets, of lighter types of
furniture, and of bathrooms makes a large size unnecessary.
In a bedroom, after sufficient space has been allowed for pur-
poses of ventilation, sleeping, dressing, and storage of clothes,
convenience is better served by compactness than by size.

Halls.

Halls are used to give direct access to all parts of the house.
After this purpose has been accomplished, space may appro-
priately be economized here in a home of moderate size.

Shape and proportion

Simple rectangular shapes for rooms are the natural outcome
of building conditions. Any extension or projection should be a
coherent structural feature and should be used only to satisfy
a need in the function of the room. A chimney seat, a recess
necessitated by a dormer window, an ingle nook when it works
out naturally on plan, are often reasonable features. A bay-
window built to add space or to improve the lighting conditions
of a room, if well designed may furnish an interesting decorative

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 13. A typical low room in an old-fashioned cottage, showing how even a
good horizontal arrangement of lines and furnishings decreases the ap-
parent height of the room.

Fio. 14. The same type of low room as in Fig. 13, showing how a vertical ar-
rangement of lines and furnishings tends to increase the apparent height
of the room.

HOME FURNISHING 33

feature both inside and outside the house. No excrescences or
protuberances should be built merely for the sake of original
or ornate effect.

An oblong is in general a more pleasing shape for a room than
is a square. A pleasing relation between the three dimensions
length, breadth, and height should if possible be maintained.
A room that is very long is not easily adapted to general uses
and is lacking in an effect of intimacy. A room that is too high
is wasteful of unused space, is hard to heat, and is unfriendly
in appearance. In a room in which all the dimensions are equal
or nearly equal, the shape is obvious at once; nothing is left
to the imagination, and the result is stupid and uninteresting.
However, a square may sometimes be the most convenient and
economical shape for a room. For a small dining-room with a
square or round dining table, a square may be both a conven-
ient and a fitting shape. An oblong in which one dimension is
perceptibly longer is much more pleasing than one in which
there is a doubt as to comparative dimensions. An excellent
proportion for an average room is one in which the width is
more than half and less than two-thirds the length.

In a house of moderate cost and size, it is not always possible
to plan so that each room is of ideal proportion. Persons must
often live in homes which they themselves have not built. In
such cases there are many devices by which the apparent pro-
portion may be improved.

Devices for changing apparent proportion (Figs. 13-16).

The eye naturally tends to follow any continuous line. By
establishing lines in any particular direction, therefore, that
direction is emphasized at the expense of the others.

Rooms that are too high may be made to appear lower by
introducing strong horizontal lines, for example:

1. By bringing the ceiling color down on the side wall. This
is successful only when the ceiling color is happily related in hue
and value to the side wall, and when its width corresponds to
the width of a moderate border 10 inches or 12 inches, in a
room of ordinary dimensions, say 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 15. A tall room of the late nineteenth century type showing a placing of
picture molding and a selection and arrangement of furnishings that tend
to decrease the apparent height of the room. Wall coverings of such dig-
nified pattern and harmonious color as are shown in Plate V, may some-
times be used above the molding with decorative effect. Note the relation
of the shapes of the pictures to the spaces.

Fio. 16. A typical modern living-room in which a group of casements and
built-in seat dominate the furnishing effect.

HOME FURNISHING 35

2. By using a molding at the intersection of side wall and
ceiling, and by making the picture-molding continuous with the
top of doors or windows.

3. By a wainscot or dado, the top of which is on a level with
the window-sills.

4. By using a valance in the window drapery, if this is con-
sistent with the style of the room and the other furnishings,
and by hanging all draperies so that the width of the opening
is emphasized.

5. By using furniture in which the horizontal lines dom-
inate, such as long low bookcases, davenports, sideboards, or
tables.

6. By using pictures which are horizontal oblongs in shape,
or by grouping several smaller pictures so that either the lower
or upper edges of their frames will establish continuous horizon-
tal lines.

Rooms that are too low may be made to appear higher by
emphasizing the vertical lines, for example :

1. By placing the picture-molding at the ceiling, leaving the
sidewall undivided.

2. By using vertically striped wall paper. Stripes should
always be of nearly the same color or value in order to be un-
obtrusive.

3. By using as long draperies as are consistent with the use
and structure of the room, and by hanging these in straight
folds and so arranging them as to make the openings high and
narrow in effect.

4. By the use of tall and narrow bookshelves, cabinets, and
other furniture.

5. By the use of pictures that are vertical oblongs, or by
grouping the pictures with each other or with pieces of furniture
so that the vertical is emphasized.

In a room that is square or is too short an oblong, emphasis
may be given to one dimension, for example:

1. By opening up a vista through a door or window, or by
planning interesting features in the furnishings in order to
emphasize the long axis of the room. A mirror may perform

Fio. 17. A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space. First group: A single
window in the middle of a short wall: a small double-hung window of bald design; a
generous double-hung window with pleasing wall space around it; an interesting and
well-placed casement. Second group: Two separate windows in a generous wall space:
a good arrangement both for distribution of light and for the placing of furniture; a
poor arrangement both for lighting and for furnishing. Third and fourth groups:
Pairs and groups of windows in a generous wall space: a fair arrangement for a pair
of double-hung windows, providing good light and good wall space; an interesting
group of casements, dominating the wall space and furnishing abundant light; a pleas-
ing group of double-hung windows; a pleasing arrangement of French windows. The
use of moldings in any case must be related to the proportion of the room and the
structural line of the openings.

HOME FURNISHING 37

a valuable office in adding to the apparent length of a room.
The French have understood this and have increased the ap-
parent size of dance-hall and dining-room by the skillful use
of many mirrors.

2. By placing the long dimension of a rug in the direction
to be emphasized. If the room is sufficiently large and the
other conditions warrant it, two narrow rugs so placed as to
emphasize the length of the room may be used.

3. By placing the long pieces of furniture in the direc-
tion to be emphasized. Seats or shelves may sometimes be
built in.

In rooms that are too long, the apparent width should be
increased and the apparent length diminished by every device
possible, for example:

1. By placing openings or important structural features
centrally on the long sides, thus breaking the length of the
room into two or more furnishing centers.

2. By using more than one rug, placed with the long edges
parallel to the short side of the room, in order to break up the
space and establish lines across the room.

3. By placing the long pieces of furniture or by grouping
furniture so that the width rather than the length of the room
is emphasized.

Location of windows and doors (Figs. 17, 18).

The location, style, and proportion of windows and doors
are structural considerations that affect every interior. The
amount and shapes of the remaining wall spaces after windows
and doors have been placed define the possibilities of the fur-
nishing scheme. It is, therefore, important to arrange windows
and doors in such a way as to leave usable wall spaces. These
spaces should be so pleasing in shape and proportion that
the bare room is in itself a design. Many doors in a room
are an evidence of poor planning. While there is no rule
about windows, an amount of window area equal to about
one-fourth the floor area will in general be found a reasonable
guide.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 18. A-B: Two types of bay windows. C: A well-placed group of high
casements. D-I: A study of six windows showing how the appearance of
the window is affected by the division of the glass.

HOME FURNISHING 39

Structural surfaces.

The structural surfaces of the room are walls, ceiling, and
floor.
Walls include plaster walls, windows, doors, and trim.

Plaster walls.

The usual finish for the walls of a dwelling is plaster. Plaster
may be rough or smooth. It may be left in the natural color,
painted, or papered.

1. Rough plaster: The irregularities in rough, or sand-finished,
plaster produce an effect of texture that makes such a wall
an attractive background. The natural color of rough plaster
varies according to the color of the sand used in mixing it.
Sometimes it is a pure gray, sometimes it is tinged with soft
tones of warm color. Powdered color may be mixed with the
plaster when it is wet, if the mason is sufficiently experienced
to handle it. Rough plaster should be applied by a skillful
workman in order to produce a uniform effect. Rough plaster
is rather harsh in texture and is not suitable in all rooms or
with all woods. It is more akin to hard woods like oak, waxed
or stained, than to mahogany or satinwood or painted woods.
It is incongruous with delicate or very luxurious hangings.
It is better in family rooms than in bedrooms or small rooms
in which hands come often in contact with the wall. If rough
plaster is spotted or discolored, it is not so easy to clean as
smooth plaster. If the discoloration is only on the surface,
it may be removed by pumice stone.

If it is desired to change the color of rough plastered walls,
oil paint is a very good medium; a coat of glue-size applied
before the paint will facilitate the work and will economize
the amount of paint.

2. Smooth plaster: Walls finished in smooth plaster present
an even flat surface, not so interesting as the rough plaster,
but with many advantages. It is easier to apply and is easily
cleaned. Smooth plaster should be painted or papered, since
its glaring white surface is a trying element in almost any
color scheme.

40 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

3. Smooth plaster painted (oil color or water color): Paint
has an advantage over paper in that any subtlety of tint or
tone may be obtained through skillful mixing, In general, in
the use of house paint, white will lighten any color and black
will darken any color; but in the case of the yellows, since black
paint tends to develop green shades in them, dark brown paint
should be substituted for the black. Oil color is more durable
than water color. Although oil paint is more expensive in the
beginning than water color, it is more economical in the end
for use in rooms that are constantly occupied, or on parts of
walls that are subject to the frequent contact of hands or fur-
niture, such as schoolrooms, nurseries, kitchens, or corridors.

Oil color sometimes has a disagreeable shine. This may be
avoided by adding turpentine or by flat finishing (pouncing
with a broad flat bristle brush). Oil colors may be obtained
already mixed, but they frequently vary from sample. A
better plan is to buy the ingredients and have them mixed
only a short tune before using. Different surfaces require
different proportions of paint, oil, turpentine, and the like.
An even tone throughout the room is always safe, but a very
attractive effect may be obtained by an uneven tone. For
example, the walls might be painted a gray blue and stippled
with a gray green. Such treatment produces an effect of at-
mosphere suggesting space. It should never be attempted
except by an experienced painter. Oil color is easily cleaned
by washing with soap and water.

Water color, or calcimine, has the advantage of being in-
expensive, and less skill is required in applying it. Water
color may be applied over other surfaces, such as paper, beaver-
board, or calcimine, but wall paper should not be put on over
calcimine as it is likely to strip off. Water color walls cannot
be washed but can be easily freshened by the application of a
second coat. Water color is the most common treatment for
ceilings even though the side walls may be painted or papered.

4. Paper or textiles: Smooth plastered walls are often cov-
ered with paper or a textile; this treatment is effective in many
furnishing schemes and is especially adaptable in old houses.

HOME FURNISHING 41

Wainscots.

Wainscoting treatments formed by chair-rail or paneling
of various heights suggest a variety of decorative effects which
are appropriate for important rooms, such as living-room,
dining-room, and hall. A paneled treatment of wood or of
moldings and plaster is dignified and effective, provided the
wall and window spaces will accommodate themselves to such
an arrangement. Obviously, panelled treatments can be
studied only in relation to the individual room.

Trim of walls.

The trim of the room may be thought of as part of the wall
or as a frame for an opening. If the room is small or the open-
ings many and not well placed, the trim should be subordinated
to the wall treatment. But if the room is of good size and the
windows and doors are well proportioned and well placed,
the trim will bear more emphasis.

Except in fireproof houses, a certain amount of woodwork
is needed to cover the bony joints of construction and to com-
plete the finish of the room. The same kind of wood and the
same finish should be used throughout the room, with the
possible exception of the floor. Since the woodwork furnishes
both a structural and a decorative element in the room, its
choice should be considered from both standpoints. The trim
covering the joints and framing doors and windows, should
be wide enough to look adequate for this service, but not so
heavy nor so ornate as to be obtrusive in the part it plays in
the background of the room. A good width for the trim for
the openings in average rooms is between 3^ and 5 inches.
Hard woods finished to show their character are excellent if
the grain is not too conspicuous. Quartered oak with its modest
grain and possibilities of finish is very fitting for the woodwork
of a room in which oak furniture is to be used.

Other woods, such as hard pine and cypress, are susceptible
to treatment that makes them very effective. Woods of an
inconspicuous grain, or cut so that the grain does not obtrude
itself, should be chosen for trim. A wood with a bold swirling

42 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

grain or with strong contrasts of light and dark is a poor choice
for interior work, for it is too restless and insistent to take its
place quietly in any decorative scheme. Fortunately, the item
of expense is a protection against the use of woods so aggres-
sive in color as mahogany, curly birch, and the like. Such
woods should be reserved for furniture.

The woodwork should play a definite part in the decorative
scheme of the room, harmonizing with the walls both in char-
acter and color. If the harmony cannot be secured by trans-
parent stains, the woodwork should be painted. In fact, in
many old or ready-made houses, paint for woodwork is the
only means of securing a harmonious interior.

Filler, stain, thin shellac, and wax are commonly used to se-
cure the transparent finish desirable for hard woods. Woods
with large or open grain, such as oak, chestnut, cypress, and
pine, require a filler to make a smooth even surface. This filler
may be kept the same color as the wood, or it may be stained
darker, or a very light whitish filler may be used. The effect
of this filler is to tone, to modify, or to emphasize the natural
markings of the wood. Woods with a close inconspicuous grain,
such as maple and birch, do not require a filler, but can be
toned by staining. Wax is a more pleasing finish for hardwoods
than is varnish, which should be used only on bathroom floors
or other places where durability is perhaps more important
than appearance. The soft dull finish of a waxed surface is more
appropriate to wood than the glaring shiny finish of varnish.

Paint is an opaque finish used to cover woods having an un-
pleasant or no visible grain. Such woods as soft pine, white
wood, and cypress are good foundations for painted woodwork.
By means of paint, any woodwork can be adjusted in color to
its surroundings. This flexibility of paint in relation to color
schemes is a strong recommendation in its favor for both old and
new work and for all types of rooms.

Doors.

Doors of good pattern in various woods may be obtained
ready-made in standard sizes. They should be of the same gen-

HOME FURNISHING 43

eral finish as the trim and other woodwork. Doors of uniform
height on each floor contribute to unity of effect. The width
may be varied for convenience.

Mantelpieces, cornices, and picture-moldings.

Any wood used in connection with such features as fireplaces
should be consistent in character and finish with the other
trim of the room. The mantel should be planned with and for
the room, not purchased ready-made and grafted upon it. Like-
wise any tile or brick facings used in the fireplace should har-
monize in texture and color with the entire decorative scheme.

A cornice of wood like the trim may mark the intersection
of ceiling and side wall and should of course be finished like the
other woodwork. A picture-molding marking this intersection
is an effective finish for low rooms or those of ordinary height.
A picture-molding so placed should be heavier than one lower
on the wall. In some cases, a second molding may be used on
the wall some distance below the one at the ceiling. This second
molding then becomes the picture-rail.

Ceiling.

The treatment of the ceiling should harmonize with the
finish of the walls and woodwork. Ordinarily the ceilings in
dwellings are finished with plaster. This lends itself through
the use of calcimine (water color paints), to any color scheme.
Paper is a less desirable finish for ceilings. If it must be used, as
sometimes happens in old houses where the ceiling has cracked
or become discolored, a plain tone should be chosen. If a
ceiling is cracked, canvas or burlap may be put over the old
plaster and then paint or calcimine applied to it.

Beamed ceilings produce an interesting structural and dec-
orative effect. The beams should preferably be finished like
the other woodwork in the room. If peculiar problems are
presented by the woodwork, the finish of the beams may be
considered only in relation to the ceiling. Beamed ceilings are
often found in houses of early colonial architecture. They are
also a feature of the new Craftsman houses. In the first case

44 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

they would usually be painted, since most of the woodwork is
painted; in the latter, they would be finished like the oak or
similar woods generally used.

Ceilings of wood, except in sheathed or paneled rooms,
are likely to look heavy and oppressive. In summer cottages
and in some parts of the country, rooms sheathed and ceiled
in yellow pine or cypress are often finished in the natural color
and varnished. Paint is the only antidote and should be used
on the ceiling at least, after " cutting" the varnish. White
metal ceilings are in line with the progress toward fireproof
construction. They cannot as yet be obtained in pleasing pat-
tern except for very large rooms, and even here their construc-
tion is unpleasantly obtrusive.

Floors.

Floors are made to be walked upon and are subject to hard
usage. They should, therefore, be durable. Floors cannot be
easily changed; therefore they should be permanent in material
and finish. Since they contribute to the color scheme of the
room, they should be finished accordingly. Floors continuous
in color as far as the eye can see have a unifying effect. Wood
is the material most used for floors. Wood that is hard, of in-
conspicuous grain, and responsive to color treatment should be
chosen. Well selected oak is probably the best. Maple and
birch are very durable, but light in color; hard pine is also
possible and relatively inexpensive. The matter of color and
finish can be regulated to some extent to suit the character of
wood selected and the color scheme of the room.

Hardwood floors should in general be finished like hardwood
trim, except that caution should be observed in attempting dark
stains, because all floors through usage tend to wear back to
the natural color of the wood. Since all wood floors tend to
darken in time, the rather light appearance of a new floor should
be endured with patience. If after a period of time the tone
of the floor still appears too light, it is easier to darken it slightly
than to remove a dark mussy stain. Furthermore, rugs can
always be relied on to remedy the color effect of the bare floor.

HOME FURNISHING 45

Softwood floors of pine, such as are often found in old houses,
can be finished by filling the spaces between the boards with
either a standard or home-made crack-filler and then applying
two or more coats of good hard paint, such as the ordinary deck
paint. Some housekeepers have had success with a crack-filler
made of flour paste into which a pulp of damp newspaper is
beaten. Under all conditions, however, a painted floor is a
compromise and will require frequent renewals.

COLOR

Color is more potent in creating the atmosphere of a house or
room than is any other influence. Harmonious color will cover
a multitude of sins in design, while no amount of good design
will atone for discordant color.

Color produces a distinct reaction on the human system;
it is cheering, depressing, irritating, or restful, as the case may
be. It is, therefore, of primary importance to understand the
right use of color in the home. Since the question of color is
involved in the finish of walls and of woodwork, it is the first
factor to be considered in the treatment of an interior.

Color has three generally recognizable characteristics: First,
that quality that gives it its general or popular name and dis-
tinguishes it from other colors as red from green, or yellow-
reds from purple-reds, yellow-greens from blue-greens, and the
like. This quality is named by the scientists, hue. Hues, or
colors, may in general be classed as warm or cool. Yellow,
orange, red, and colors strongly tinged with these, connected
as they are with ideas of sun and fire and blood, are the warm
colors. Blue, green, and violet, and colors strongly tinged with
these, associated in thought with cold and distant things like
ice, the sky, the woods, and purple hills, are the cool colors.

A second characteristic or quality of color is the strength
or brilliancy, termed by the scientists, chroma or intensity.
By this quality, a strong or bright color is distinguished from
a soft, dulled, or grayed color, as the red in the upper from
the red in the under side of an autumn leaf.

The third characteristic or quality is that which distinguishes

46 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

light from dark colors, termed by the scientists, value. A
popular term for light colors is tint; for dark colors, shade.

Recognized influences of color

Hue.

Colors in which there is a suggestion of yellow or orange or
red, the warm colors, such as tones of tan or buff or old gold
or brown or yellow-green, or the "warm grays," such as taupe
or "sand" or "mode" colors, are likely to produce a warmth
of atmosphere that makes them in general agreeable to live
with. These colors are likely also to harmonize with the wood-
work in the average house and to furnish a becoming back-
ground for the usual wood and willow furniture.

Red or reddish colors are too aggressive and insistent to be
used in large quantities. Red also tends to diminish the ap-
parent size of a room.

Yellow and yellowish colors are in general light, bright, and
cheerful in effect.

Blue or bluish colors, while they tend to increase the ap-
parent size of a room, are inclined to absorb the light and to
be forbidding if used in large quantities.

Green, which is a mixture of yellow and blue, and greenish
colors are in general quiet and restful in effect without being
depressing.

Violet is the color characteristic of mystery and shadow
and royalty, and should be avoided or used with great dis-
crimination in a home.

In general, colors composed of two or more colors, whether
of paint, of dye, or the interweaving of colored threads in a
fabric, are more interesting, more refined, and more atmos-
pheric in effect than the very evident reds and yellows and
blues.

Intensity or chroma.

Strong or bright colors are not appropriate for use in large
masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are too
insistent and aggressive and they do not easily harmonize

HOME FURNISHING 47

with the furnishings in the average home. These strong colors
may be used in small masses, such as a bouquet of flowers, books,
or a textile, to add a note of interest or to accent a color scheme.
Dulled or grayed colors are in general appropriate to use
in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they
are restful in effect and keep their place as background. A
greater variety of these grayed colors may be used harmo-
niously in the same room than would be possible with a com-
bination of bright colors.

Value.

Light colors in general tend to increase the apparent size
of a room, to make a room seem lighter, and to produce an
effect of daintiness, of cleanliness, and of cheer; they also are
more luminous and, therefore, very effective in artificial light.
Used to excess, or inappropriately, light color may produce
an effect of bareness or aloofness.

Dark colors in general tend to diminish the apparent size
of a room, to produce an effect of dignity or richness. Colors
that are too dark are likely to be oppressive or to produce an
effect of gloom or dinginess, and are very difficult to illuminate
by night. Middle values, that is, colors that are about half-
way between the extremes of light and dark, are in general
more appropriate for the furnishings in living-rooms. Strong
contrasts in light and dark, such as light woodwork with dark
walls, or dark woodwork with light walls, dark figures on a
light ground, or the opposite, produce a distracting and unrest-
ful effect.

Considerations governing color selection

From the foregoing discussion it follows that:

1. Southerly rooms with a superabundance of light and sun-
shine need in general cool and dark colors to temper the light.

2. Northerly rooms with no sunshine and too little light
need in general light, yellowish colors to introduce a feeling
of cheer and sunshine.

3. Rooms that are comfortably lighted and sufficiently
sunny are open to a variety of color treatments.

48 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

4. Rooms that are over-large and yet are comfortably lighted
may be given a more friendly aspect by the use of warm colors
that are medium dark.

5. In rooms that are too small and yet are comfortably
lighted, a feeling of space can be suggested by the use of light
or bluish colors.

6. In rooms in which the woodwork is already finished and
cannot be changed, the color scheme is within limits prede-
termined. From it walls and furnishings must take their cue.

7. Rooms that are comfortably large and light and with no
hampering conditions are open to a variety of color treatments.

8. The living-room adapted to many uses and many persons
should be more dignified and impersonal in color scheme than
the other rooms of the house. It should be more neutral in its
general scheme in order to be adaptable to a greater variety
of coloring in the smaller areas. Books, pictures, an open
fire, flower arrangements, and other changing and accidental
conditions inevitably bring many touches of brilliant and
varying color into the living-room.

9. A dining-room devoted to good cheer and used only for
short periods admits a livelier treatment. Sometimes dishes
that have a decided color may well give the keynote to the
color scheme.

10. Since the bedroom is for sleep and rest, even though it
is for personal use and allows a larger margin for individual
preference than do other rooms, nothing should take precedence
over those qualifications that fit it for its purpose. The white
bed, white towels, and light furniture characteristic of the
daintiness desirable in bedrooms, call for lighter colorings than
do the family rooms. For bedrooms used also for both study
and sitting-room, compromises must be made. The white
bed is no longer suitable; the bedroom takes on the functions
and, therefore, should assume the appearance of a living-room
as far as possible.

11. Since the bathroom should appear, as well as be, im-
maculate, all white or white with other light colors is most
suitable. White with yellow for a bathroom on the north side

HOME FURNISHING 49

of a house, white and blue or white and green for a sunny
bathroom, are good.

12. For the kitchen, light colors are cheerful and cleanly in
appearance. They have the added value of so diffusing the
light both by day and by night that there need be no dark
corners to work in.

It follows from all these manifest influences of color, that
the rooms to be treated should be examined as to exposure,
lighting, size, proportion, and use before determining the
color scheme.

Color for the whole interior

A uniform coloring for the walls of a series of connecting
rooms contributes to unity of effect. A sufficient variety in
effect may be secured by varying the color or pattern of dra-
peries and other furnishings in the different rooms.

It seldom happens that all the rooms on a floor have the
same exposure, or the same amount of light or the same use.
Every need may be considered and yet a friendly harmony
obtained by the use of closely related colors that may range
from light to dark in value and through a series of related hues.

The parts of the room as a background

The ceiling, the side wall, and the floor form the background
of the room against which all the furnishings and the occupants
of the room are seen. Like the frame of a picture, the back-
ground should be subordinate in color as well as in amount of
detail. This limitation, far from minimizing the importance
of the background, gives it an added distinction, and demands
for it the most careful consideration. The function of the back-
ground is to serve. While not obtruding itself, it should through
its color supply a pervading influence that may be felt like an
atmosphere. This province of the background is best filled, as
has been said in the discussion of color, by subdued warm
colors, not too dark, that harmonize with the more usual types
of furnishings and methods of lighting. (See Plate III.)

Ceiling, side walls, and floor are parts of one whole. They
should, therefore, be keyed to the same color. This important

50 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

point has often been disregarded. The ceilings have been made
white, the floors constructed of any convenient wood without
reference to its color; the color of the walls has been chosen with-
out reference to either floor or ceiling. In the distribution of
color values in the background, the old analogy, often repeated,
holds good : the side walls of a room correspond in value to the
middle distance in a landscape; the ceiling corresponds to the
sky which is lightest of the three; the floor to the ground, which
is the darkest. This is not a mere fancy. A very dark ceiling
or sky is threatening and oppressive in effect. The dark tones
of the ground contribute to an effect of stability and support
that are fundamental in a serviceable floor.

Walls and trim.

The wall color, being most in evidence as a background, cover-
ing a greater area than either ceiling or floor and serving as the
connecting link between these, should be the determining factor
in the selection of the color scheme and naturally would be
decided first. The color of the wall should be selected after a
diagnosis of such considerations as location, size, lighting and
use of the room, and the recognized influence of color already
discussed (pages 46 and 47). The color of ceiling, floor, and
woodwork would then be chosen in relation to it.

If the color of the trim, which is really a part of the wall,
has been determined first, the color of the wall should be related
to it. Golden oak, cypress, and mahogany furniture limit the
choice of the wall color to tones closely related to that of the
wood. If a householder is already supplied with furniture of a
decided character or color, the choice of color scheme is limited
in the same way. The furniture in such a case will determine the
color of the walls.

Woodwork painted to match the wall color increases the
apparent size of the room; it also renders less conspicuous ir-
regularities and poor design in doors and windows. Usually
the woodwork may well be made a tone lighter or a tone
darker than the wall. Paint for the woodwork in bedrooms
or any room with a light color scheme should be toned; a

HOME FURNISHING 51

cream or ivory tone is usually more gracious than a dead
white.

If it is necessary to finish the woodwork before the wall color
can be known, a neutral color is the only safe choice.

Ceiling.

While the ceiling should be keyed to the color of the side wall,
this should be done very carefully, since any light ceiling will
absorb some color from the side wall. The ordinary method of
lighting a room by windows placed in the side wall obviates to
a considerable degree the effect of a white ceiling. The light
strikes the side wall directly, leaving the ceiling inevitably much
darker than white. This should be kept in mind in selecting
the tint for the ceiling, lest it be too dark for the effective light-
ing of the room; and it should not be forgotten when a ceiling
color is extended to the side wall. In such a case the color that
comes on a side wall should be several tones darker in order to
appear of the same tone as the ceiling color.

Floors.

It is more difficult to regulate the color of wood floors than
that of ceiling or side wall, because while it is desirable to re-
late the color of the floor to the side wall, there is a distinct
limit to the range of color in wood floors. Floors are often too
light in value, but for practical reasons this cannot always be
avoided. Whatever has to be accepted in the color of the floor,
however, may fortunately be corrected by a good choice of rugs.

PATTERN (PLATES iv, v)

An exhaustive discussion of pattern would involve the whole
theory and practice of design, but the usual niistakes of the
home-maker in choosing wall paper, drapery, upholstery, and
rugs may be avoided by an understanding of what constitutes
good pattern and the kind of pattern appropriate for different
uses. On account of the constant influx of novelty goods that
tend to bewilder and confuse the purchaser, a fund of common
sense and a determination not to be sidetracked by passing
fads are necessary in order to make a wise selection.

52 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Characteristics of good pattern

The motifs employed for patterns are of two kinds: (1) ab-
stract or geometric forms which are simply harmonious shapes
so repeated as to make a pleasing pattern; for example, the
Greek key pattern; (2) concrete or nature forms " convention-
alized," or adapted to their use as pattern; for example, the
French fleur-de-lis.

The distinction of a design depends not on the origin of the
motif, but on its decorative treatment and color. The effective-
ness of a pattern as an element in house furnishing depends
on its adaptability in color and design to the service it is to
render in the room for which it is selected. A fabric with less
intrinsic merit than another in pattern and color may be the
better choice in some instances, by reason of its happier rela-
tion to the other furnishings in the room. By far the greater
number of motifs are taken from nature. Any nature motif
must be conventionalized, or adapted to its use as pattern, by
changing its form, size, or color, and arranging it in an orderly
way, keeping in mind not its origin from nature, but its purpose
as decoration. Any pretense at naturalistic modeling or shad-
ing should be very formal in character. That it is pattern and
not picture should never be lost sight of in judging a design for a
flat surface. Medallions, scrolls without beginning or end,
baskets of flowers or fruits, fluttering ribbons and bowknots,
are all absurd substitutes for real design.

The figures in a design are parts of one whole and should be
connected or related in some way. Widely separated motifs
tempt the eye to jump from one spot to another and provoke
one to count rows, and mentally rearrange the pattern. All
effect of restfulness is thereby lost. Patterns that cover the
ground well are in general better for furnishings than scattered
spots. Some patterns that would be objectionable on a flat
wall, however, may be used acceptably in drapery, since the
fullness of the folds rearranges the design.

One of the characteristics of a good design is its appropriate-
ness to the material in which it is developed. Patterns may be

PLATE IV. Types of rugs with suitable pattern, developed in line and in mass,
in self tones and in contrasting and vari-colored effects.

HOME FURNISHING 53

woven, embroidered, or printed stenciled, stamped, or stained
on a fabric. The pattern may appropriately declare the
material in which it is developed. Woven patterns should pref-
erably suggest warp and woof. The design in a rag carpet,
for example, naturally appears in stripes made by the woof,
which is much more prominent than the finer threads of the
warp. There is a great variety of patterns appropriate to printed
wall papers that may be selected in preference to those that
imitate leather or burlap or silk or oilcloth.

A pattern may be expressed in lines alone on a background
of another color, or it may be in masses or spots that are lighter
or darker or different in color from the background. In such
patterns the shapes rather than the details are important.
Sometimes the pattern is of masses that are broken up by a
variety of detail and color.

Pattern as used for walls and floors

Walls and floors are flat solid surfaces. Their effectiveness
and comeliness depend on this structural fact and this must be
borne in mind in the selection of pattern for them. Any varia-
tion of surface would impair the function of wall or floor. Any
suggestion by the pattern of such defects is manifestly out of
place. Wall patterns of trellises and vines, of realistic flowers
or fruit or landscape, of simulated columns, or of panels made
of pictured moldings should, therefore, be avoided. For the
same reasons, realistic flowers and animals are out of place in
pattern. The more realistic these motifs are, the poorer is the
design. Because the effect of solidity in walls and floor must
be maintained, the pattern should seem very flat.

Since both walls and floor are backgrounds, the pattern
should be unobtrusive in color and design. Fantastic ornament,
violent color, or strong contrasts of any sort are out of place
in a background.

Since walls are upright surfaces, stripes, if inconspicuous,
figures in which the vertical dominates or that are so arranged
as to give an up-and-down rather than a crosswise or diagonal
movement, are good types for wall pattern.

54 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Floors are horizontal surfaces that are viewed from every
direction. The pattern on the floor should, therefore, be effect-
ive from any angle. Goemetric or very conventional patterns
equally good from every point of view are the best choice for
floor coverings.

SELECTION OF FURNISHINGS

Wall coverings

A textile may be used to cover smooth plastered walls. All
sorts of materials that give the desired effect, from the cheap-
est to the most expensive, have been employed for this purpose.
Canvas, burlap, grasscloth, and other weaves of pleasing text-
ure are effective when appropriately used. None of these,
however, compares with paper in popularity as a wall covering.
Paper is comparatively inexpensive, is easily hung, is made in
an immense variety of colorings and pattern and a wide variety
of textures. Wall paper has an advantage over paint in that
the exact effect may be known before it is purchased, by ex-
perimenting with a roll of it in the very room and light in which
it is to be used. If there is cause for doubt, a plain paper should
be selected for walls. There are many plain papers of good color
from which to choose. The oatmeal textures probably offer
the most desirable and satisfactory coloring among the inex-
pensive papers. The silk-fibered papers, while more expensive,
compensate in color and quality for the greater investment of
money.

Another safe choice in paper is one nearly plain in effect but
the surface of which is broken by dots or dashes or splashes or
other slight variations that give a little " bloom" or vibration
of color. Paper with stripes that are not too wide or of too
conspicuous contrast are good, especially in low rooms. A
plain paper sometimes shows up too conspicuously the un-
evenness in old walls. In such a case a paper with a small con-
ventional figure, or one with a self-toned foliage pattern is
better. A paper with a good pattern may be very effective in
a hall or corridor or a room with few or no pictures and plain
draperies. It helps to furnish the room. A large-figured paper

HOME FURNISHING 55

in a small room is out of scale and makes the room look
smaller.

A figured wall-paper may be used as a frieze in a large room.
Such a frieze is generally more effective than one of the stock
border patterns, and is more easily adapted in width to varied
requirements. A figured frieze is often a decorative finish
above a high paneled wainscot.

A border of unobtrusive pattern and color may serve on oc-
casion to define an edge or emphasize a direction. But the idea
that every room must have a border because fashion so decrees
is absurd and unreasonable. Festoons of flowers and conspicu-
ous ornament of any sort that tend to draw the eyes upward
unpleasantly is out of place. In rooms of ordinary height,
borders should generally be omitted. They are the offspring of
the traditional cornice whose original office was to make the
division between ceiling and side wall. A picture-molding
placed at this intersection is an excellent finish in a low room
or one of ordinary height. If the room is too high, the ceil-
ing color may be brought down on the side wall and the
picture-molding placed at the intersection of ceiling and wall
colors.

Hangings for windows and doors (Figs. 19-23)
Hangings are useful to temper the light, to obstruct an un-
pleasing view, to preserve privacy, and to furnish a decora-
tive effect. Door draperies are used for the temporary separa-
tion of rooms or for decorative effect.

The types of window hangings are shades, curtains, and val-
ances.

The purpose of a shade is to regulate light and to secure
privacy; therefore, a shade should always be opaque. A glare
of color in a room through a shade of intense hue is sometimes
more trying than a flood of sunshine. Shades, being next to the
window, affect the exterior color scheme of the house and should
be chosen with this in mind. Shades need not on that account
be at variance with the interior coloring of the house, for a
neutral tone may be chosen that will not violate any color

FIG. 19. A method of hanging two sets of curtains in recessed windows.

HOME FURNISHING 57

scheme, or double-faced shades may be used. These are only a
little more expensive and may, if necessary, be colored to order.
In buying for a permanent home, it is economy to select shades
of a good quality.

Shades should be hung inside the trim as near the glass as
possible without interfering with the operation of the window.
If this is not possible, the shades should be hung near the inner
edge of the casing or window trim. Shades may be hung so as
to pull up from the bottom instead of down from the top. There
are also fixtures which make it possible to adjust the shade so
that it may cover any portion of the window at any time. These
adjustable shades are particularly desirable for schoolroom win-
dows exposed to direct sunlight for a large part of the day,
for kitchen windows on the south side of the house, and for
windows in any sunny workroom.

Besides shades and blinds that shut out the light, the windows
of most rooms need draperies to soften the hard lines of glass
and wood, to temper the light, to veil a view, to complete the
background of the room, and to add a decorative note in color
or pattern.

Each room presents an individual problem in curtains.
Harmony, simplicity, and suitability are the guiding thoughts
in the solution. Taste is more effective than money. With the
modern ideas of the home as a place in which lives are to be
lived, of rooms rationally furnished for everyday use, windows
swathed in festoons of draperies, sweeping the floor, harboring
dust, inviting germs, and excluding the air, have no place. The
much trimmed, festooned and lambrequined draperies are not
now much in use; their return should never be allowed. How-
ever rich the material used for draperies may be, they should
be simply made and so hung as to fall in straight folds. In a
case of doubt, the simplest solution of the problem of window
draperies should be accepted.

The choice in material ranges from filmy nets, transparent
gauzes, scrim, and muslin through soft silk and cotton fabrics,
linens and coarse canvas weaves, brocades, damask, and tapes-
try, velvets and velours; in color and design from one un-

FIG. 20. Four methods of curtaining a double-hung window: A, straight
curtains hung within the window trim. B, a half, or sash, curtain
often used for privacy. C, an inconsistent way of hanging drapery,
which could be remedied by raising the rod, and extending it to the
length of the top molding. D, a method of hanging curtains to cover
an ugly trim or to widen the window in effect.

HOME FURNISHING

broken neutral tone to the most complex variation of hues
and patterns; in price from a few cents to many dollars a yard.
Any fabric may be used, provided it is suitable. Effects in
design, color, texture, and pattern that harmonize with the
room and its furnishings are the distinguishing characteristics
of the most tasteful selections of hangings, rather than rich
and costly materials.

Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty wash-
able material is appropriate for a bedroom. Bright or gaily-
figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer
and occupied for only short periods, su.ch as a dining-room or a
porch sitting-room. Patterns and colors that are entertaining
in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For
rooms in constant use, or for rooms that should be reposeful
in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study,
near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential.

A city dwelling, close to the street and overshadowed by other
buildings, a country house situated on a hilltop, or in a valley,
or by the sea, or in a setting of open fields or gardens sur-
rounded by trees and shrubbery, present different problems
in window treatment. Velvets, damasks, and handsome linen
are appropriate for the city house, and the greater formality
and reserve which are its natural characteristics. An effect
of freshness is in keeping with the environment of the country
home. Cretonnes, chintzes, and printed linen with brighter
coloring than would be appropriate in the city home, are in
harmony with the birds and flowers and outdoor country.
Simple curtains of unbleached cotton for the small-paned
cottage window with its ledge of flowering plants suggest the
charm of the little house across the sea. For the house used
only in summer, curtains should of course be of washable
materials.

The lighting of the room is an important consideration in
selection of window draperies, If the room is poorly lighted,
thin draperies light in value, tending toward yellow the most
luminous color will be the most effective choice, provided it is
consistent with the color of the walls. If the room is too light

Fio. 21. Two methods of curtaining a group of windows.

HOME FURNISHING 61

and sunny, darker and cooler colors and heavier fabrics should
be used. Curtain material should never be chosen without
hanging a large sample in the window of the room in which it
is to be used, because the color effect is frequently quite dif-
ferent under transmitted light. Material with a black thread
is likely to look dull and dingy; a fabric woven with blue and
yellow threads becomes green when seen against the light.
The effect of artificial light on the draperies should also be
considered, since colors change surprisingly from their day-
time effects.

Valance is the term used for a short drapery hung at the
top of the window. It should preferably extend across the en-
tire curtain space, or in emergency cover only that space be-
tween the curtains. Valances are decoratively useful in fur-
nishing a continuation in color and line between curtains that
hang too far apart, or in emphasizing the shape of the window.
They may serve as a decorative connecting link between the
outside curtains at a group of windows, making it possible to
dispense with other drapery in the group. Valances emphasize
the horizontal in a room.

Portieres, or door draperies, sometimes serve in place of
doors in the openings between rooms where only a temporary
separation is required. They may serve also to soften the
lines of the trim, to cover an expanse of objectionable wood in
the doors, or to add a decorative note of color or pattern.
There is a wide variety of fabrics, to choose from. Generally
a heavy fabric hangs better and seems more appropriate in a
doorway than a light one, and a double-faced material is simpler
to make up. Manifestly, skeleton draperies composed of cords
and tassels, strings of beads and shells, are an absurd substi-
tute for a useful drapery. Door draperies may continue the
color of the walls, or, like the window drapery, may be of a
contrasting color. If the rooms connected by the opening
require different color treatment, the porti&re may be made
double. The same considerations regarding pattern that
guide the selection of window hangings are applicable to door
drapery.

62 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Color and pattern.

Color is of first importance in the decorative effect of window-
hangings. White curtains may be appropriate in a room with
white woodwork, white ceiling, and light walls, for they are
in such case in harmony with the general color scheme, but
they are not appropriate for rooms of darker color. Window-
hangings should generally harmonize in hue with the walls of
the room. If the hangings are of exactly the same color as
the side wall, the result is likely to be monotonous. But if
the room is small, the openings many, and the other furnishings
in strong color contrast to the walls, a close match in color
between walls and draperies may produce a most restful effect.
If the walls are plain and not covered with pictures and other
objects that attract undue attention, the draperies may be
stronger in color and more pronounced in pattern, constituting
the strong decorative note in the room. In general, provided
the colors are harmonious and the pattern not too pronounced,
it is safe to use striped or figured draperies with plain walls,
and plain draperies with walls that have a pattern. Figured
draperies may be used effectively with striped wall covering.
The best designs for drapery, as for wall covering, are those
that cover the ground and present no violent contrast in color
or pattern.

Window draperies may contribute largely to the color effects
described in rooms of different exposure, or of different locali-
ties. The warmth and light contained in soft tones of yellow
and orange can be counted on to counteract a feeling of cold
and gloom. Darker and cooler colors may be used when there
is much sun or heat.

Texture. -

Texture affects the adaptability of the hangings. Texture
is the quality of material made known to us originally, as its
name signifies, through touch, but by experience is equally
recognizable through sight. Words used to describe textures
are accordingly descriptive of feeling, such as rough, smooth,
hard, soft, velvety, silky, crepy, coarse, fine, firm, loose. Burlap,

HOME FURNISHING 63

for example, is rough and coarse compared with India silk.
Tightly woven linen is firm and hard in effect. Velvets and
velours are soft. Burlap, monk's cloth, canvas, and similar
textures are appropriate in rooms finished in rough plaster
with oak woodwork and mission furniture. Silk and satin or
mercerized fabrics are more appropriately used with wood of
such grain or texture as mahogany or satinwood or with painted
wood. Variations in texture produced by different weaves,
patterns, or colorings may give even inexpensive materials
so distinguished a quality as to make them appropriate for
use in very dignified surroundings. Some of the designs from
priceless tapestries in European museums have been printed
on linen and may thus be enjoyed at moderate cost.

Treatment as to number in one window.

Ordinarily one pair of curtains is sufficient to answer the
purpose of a window drapery. Especially in rooms with few
or very small windows, swathing with drapery should be avoided
since it produces a stuffy effect. Casement cloth, many of
the heavy nets, and sunfast materials, cretonnes, chintzes,
and printed linens are very effective when used as single hang-
ings. It is sometimes necessary to think of curtains as screens
to shut out the public or a disagreeable view. Curtains may
be so chosen as to perform this service and yet admit light.
Sash curtains hung across the lower half of the window are
the most natural answer to this problem. They are often use-
ful in a bathroom or kitchen.

Two sets of curtains are sometimes required for practical
or decorative reasons. For example, in windows near a street,
one set of curtains may shut out the gaze of passers-by while
admitting the light, and the other serve as a screen in the even-
ing and a decorative note at all times. In recessed windows,
such as are found in brick or stone houses, or in a bay window
or a group of windows, thin curtains may be used next the
glass, and heavier draperies harmoniously related to the side
wall may be hung on the trim and drawn to shut off the recess
or the whole window group when desired.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

\i\ IIP

a ==

===== ;

Fio. 22. Three arrangements of valance and curtain, the first
being the least desirable.

HOME FURNISHING 65

If two sets of curtains are used, one pair is hung next the
glass. These are called glass, or sometimes sash, curtains.
As the function of these is to cut out the view but admit the
light, they should be of thin material, such as net, plain lace,
scrim, gauze, thin silk, mercerized cotton, sunfast fabric, or
casement cloth. Such an inner curtain should be consistent
in texture with the outer drapery; for example, with velvet or
silk or any rich material, net of good quality or possibly mar-
quisette is a good choice. With linen or cretonne, scrim is
better. With cretonne or similar patterned hangings, the
inner curtains should match the ground in tone; white, if the
ground is white, cream or ecru if the ground is of that color;
otherwise, one is likely to look faded or discolored. In thin
materials, too coarse a mesh should be avoided on account
of shrinking; an even weave is more easily made up and hangs
better. These glass curtains soften the glare and are a pro-
tection for the heavier window draperies. They are always
in evidence on the outside of a house and should be selected
with this in mind. If all the glass curtains in the house are
alike, or if in the city those in the front of the house are alike,
a pleasing unity of effect from the outside is conserved.

The over, or outer, pair of curtains which is in more direct
relation with the walls of the room may be made of any of the
heavy materials already mentioned. This over-drapery may
be used to regulate the light during the day, and, by shutting
out the outside world, to give an effect of intimacy at night.
At any time it may furnish a decorative note in the room.

Hanging of draperies.

If the woodwork of the room has been so selected and finished
as to make of it a structural decorative feature, it should bear
somewhat the same relation to the draperies as a picture-frame
to a picture, outlining and defining that which is inclosed. In
this case the draperies, if there is only one set, should preferably
be hung inside the trim; if there are two sets, the outside one
would probably need to be hung on the trim, but should be
kept as near the inner edge as possible.

66 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Varying types of window construction require different
methods of hanging draperies. Often in the case of ready-
made dwellings, the wood is so disturbing in color or finish,
or the size and placing of the various openings in the room
are so unfortunate that it is necessary to cover the trim in
order to produce a good result. If all the windows in the room
are of the same size and the same kind and placed on the same
level, the problem is simple.

If there are two sets of curtains, the problem is varied only
by the sort of fixtures used. The question is more complex
when there are several varieties of windows in the room, with
doors requiring draperies besides. The most important or
dominant opening should in general indicate the treatment.

Casement or French windows that open out are compliant
to the same treatment and arrangement of draperies as double-
hung windows. . If casement windows open in, only one set
of curtains can be managed easily. These may be hung di-
rectly on the windows, and be confined by rods with rings
at both top and bottom. If a second set of .draperies is used
with such windows, the rod from which they are suspended
must reach from the outer edge of the trim or even beyond
this edge so as to free the curtains when the window is opened.

Draperies should always hang straight; fashion should never
be allowed to be a determining factor. When curtains are
looped back, disturbing lines at variance with the structural
features of the room are produced and simplicity is lost. If
it is desirable to draw curtains back, the folds may still hang
straight.

Curtains just long enough to escape the sill are appropriate
in most cases but if for any reason they must be hung to cover
the trim, they should cover sill and apron as well. Sometimes
when the design of the window contains a paneled space below,
long curtains just escaping the floor are more consistent with
the type of window than those of sill length.

Valances hung between curtains are appropriate only when
these curtains are not to be drawn; in such cases they should
be of the same fullness and should hang in the same sort of

HOME FURNISHING
A

FIG. 23. Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim.
A, a simple gathered valance; B, a simple type of formal fitted valance;
C, a type of valance in which the figure governs the method of hanging.

68 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

folds as the curtain. Valances should preferably be extended
across the whole window and should hang on a separate rod
in order not to interfere with the independent adjustment of
the curtains. The valance usually hangs from the same height
as the curtain; but in the case of a window with a transom,
the valance may, if the construction of the window allows,
hang from the top of the transom and fall only far enough to
cover comfortably the top of the curtains.

Portieres are hung in the same general way as curtains;
sometimes on the trim but more often between the door jambs.

Measuring draperies for windows and doors.

The space to be covered by the drapery should be measured
accurately. Every measurement should be taken with a
yardstick or four-foot rule. A tape-measure is liable to stretch.
A diagram of the window should be made and the measure-
ments indicated upon this.

Length.

The space that the curtain is to cover from the top of the
heading to the bottom of the hem when finished should be
determined. An allowance of 5 or 6 inches should be left for
" crawl" and for the making up of any unlined curtain that is
to have a shirred heading, a run for the rod, and a 2-inch hem
at the bottom. If the curtains are to be washed frequently,
and especially if they are of material with a coarse mesh, more
should be allowed for shrinkage. This extra length may be
disposed of by making three thicknesses in the hem. If sewed
by hand, the hem can be ripped easily and rehemmed after
washing. If there is no heading, only 4 inches need be allowed
for making. In estimating the quantity of material, allowance
must be made for the " repeat" of the pattern in matching
the design. Sometimes when there is a large design and con-
siderable waste, the parts cut out can be used in the valance.
If the pattern has a figure conspicuous in size or shape or color,
the drapery should be planned so that this figure comes at the
same distance from the top in both curtains of one window and

HOME FURNISHING 69

preferably in all the windows in the room. The drop in differ-
ent patterns varies from a few inches to several feet and is an
important consideration in measuring and cutting figured
materials.

Materials suitable for window drapery come in many widths,
from 31 inches to 52 inches or even 72 inches. For windows
of average width, 50-inch material may be used to good ad-
vantage if pattern and texture permit, by cutting it in two
lengthwise and making both curtains in the pair from one length
of drapery.

Width.

Window drapery should, theoretically, be sufficiently wide
to cover comfortably the whole window even if it is seldom
necessary to do this. The width of the whole space plus from
one-third to one-half the space to be covered, according to the
thickness of the material, furnishes an agreeable fullness.
When the curtains are purely decorative, as is sometimes the
case with the outer drapery, or when only one pair is used
with a valance in a group of windows, less fullness may be
sufficient.

Lining.

If the curtains are to be lined, allowance should be made
for the heading at the top and, ordinarily, for 2 inches to be
turned up at the bottom, that is, as much for making as in
the unlined curtain.

If the curtains are to be finished with a gimp or fringe, 1
inch is enough to allow for making, since in this case the lining
should come nearly to the edge.

For the lining, the same length should be allowed as for the
curtain, minus the width of the heading. If the material is
heavy, more must be allowed for the lining, since the outside
is likely to sag. If the outside is considerably heavier than
the lining, or if there is" a difference in the elasticity of the two
materials, the curtains should be sewed only at the top and
allowed to hang for two or three weeks before finishing. Fifty-

70 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

inch sateen suitable for lining curtains is to be found in the
upholstery departments.

Valances.

The ordinary valance of cretonne or thin material is gathered
or plaited and made with a heading. Such valances vary from
12 to 18 inches in vertical length, according to the size of the
window and the type of room, whether a bedroom or a living-
room. For short casement windows or for a bedroom, a valance
not more than 8 inches wide is sometimes very effective. The
width of the window space to be covered plus from one-third
to one-half its width should allow sufficient fullness for the
valance. If the valance is to be plaited, the length necessary
for each plait should be multiplied by the number of plaits
and added to the length of the rod, plus 2 inches for making.
For the heading, to the length of the finished valance should
be added the same allowance as for curtains, 4 inches for the
heading and run at the top, 1J^ inches for the hem at the
bottom. For a gathered valance in a window 3 feet wide,
one width of 52-inch material will allow sufficient fullness.
For a flat valance, the vertical width of the valance is measured
at the widest part, and 2 inches added for making. For the
horizontal length of such a valance, the width of the window
space to be covered is measured, or, in the case of a curved
rod, the length of the rod, and 2 inches added for making.
If there are plaits or pipes in such a valance, the amount re-
quired for each one must be calculated, and this added to the
length of the valance.

Portieres.

For portieres hung from a pole by rings, the space to be
covered by the hanging finished is that from the bottom of the
pole to within 2 inches of the floor. This space is required in
the interest both of cleanliness and appearance. For portieres
with a run for the rod, with or without heading, allowance
must be made as for curtains. Portieres often require lining,
in which case 3 inches in addition to the length when finished

HOME FURNISHING 71

should be allowed. Some materials "crawl" in use, but most
fabrics that are used for portieres are heavy and tend to
sag.

Making draperies.

Curtains.

Before cutting, the material should be studied carefully to
see whether there is any up and down, right and wrong side,
or matching of figures to be considered.

When possible one should cut by thread. In the case of some
cheap printed goods, this is not practicable, but such curtains
are likely to hang askew after they have been laundered.

In making curtains, a large table that one can walk around
should be used.

Glass curtains and any curtains made of thin textiles or
unlined may be finished at the top (1) with a hem or casing for
the rod, (2) with a heading and a run for the rod below the
hem, (3) with a hem and rings sewed on to the edge of the cur-
tain or with rings sewed on to the line of the hem so that they
are invisible. Curtains that are hung on rings are more easily
moved back and forth; but if the curtains need frequent laun-
dering, the rings may be troublesome.

Twice the diameter of the rod, or more, should be allowed
for the width of the run or casing, to provide for shrinking and
the easy adjustment of the curtains.

Thin curtains are better gathered or shirred.

Ample width for a heading in limp material is !}/ inches;
if the heading is wider, the folds lop over in an untidy way.
Two inches is not too wide a heading if the curtains are of a firm
material that stands up well.

For full length curtains for large windows, 3 inches is a good
width for the hem at the bottom. For glass curtains or curtains
of thin material, 2 inches is sufficient. The hem may be turned
in its full width, thus making three thicknesses of material.
In any case this gives firmness and weight that makes the cur-
tain hang well, and in the case of washable curtains furnishes
an opportunity to counteract the effect of shrinkage. Hem-

4T2 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

stitching or fagoting is an excellent finish for scrim or marquis-
ette, and it gives a touch of distinction to the curtain.

Curtains of chintz and some other materials may be turned
up on the right side, and an edge of gimp or a narrow fringe
may be sewed on. Attractive edgings for chintz are obtainable,
and when chintz curtains are used in living or other family
rooms, these gimps make an effective finish. In this case, the
width of the gimp is enough to allow at the bottom for making.
In general, the hemstitching or other finish of a curtain begins
at the top of the inside of the curtain and continues across the
lower edge. There is no reason why it should not be continued
up the outside edge, thus making the edges reversible.

Lined curtains.

Many materials used for the outer window drapery should be
lined, especially for windows subjected to the heat and glare of
the sun. Lining is often desirable even when there are glass
curtains, both for the protection of the material, if this is expen-
sive or likely to fade, and for the effect in the room. Some fab-
rics are much more effective when lined; others are much hand-
somer unlined. The pattern in cretonne, for example, comes out
much better when there is no lining, while in printed linens
the pattern is often almost obliterated and the ground looks
dense and dull if made up without a lining.

If the curtain to be lined has a heading, this should generally
be made by turning over the outside material at the top, es-
pecially if the heading is likely to fall over, or is of plaits which
are intended to turn over.

When curtains are to be lined, they should be placed face
down on the table. After cutting off the selvage, which is
otherwise likely to draw, the edges are turned in and basted
down. The lining should be basted on to the outside first at
the top, then across the curtain at frequent intervals throughout
the length of the curtain. The edges of the lining are then
turned in and basted to the outside, letting the edge of the lining
come to about */i6 inch from the edge of the outside. The
curtain is finished at the top, and if it is of heavy material,

HOME FURNISHING 73

allowed to hang for three weeks or more before finishing either
the sides or the bottom.

Valances.

The ordinary valance of cretonne or thin material is gathered
or plaited and made with a heading. Gathered valances are
made in the same way as gathered curtains. For plaited val-
ances, the box plait is generally used. The plaits may be very
near together or at some distance apart. The width of plaits
and spaces must be carefully estimated, and if the plaits are a
wide distance apart, this spacing must be determined with
great accuracy. In figured material, the figure often indicates
the best spacing. The plaits may be taken up like a tuck,
basted carefully, pressed to produce the boxplait, the basting
ripped out, and the valance allowed to hang free from the rod.
The casing for the rod is stitched to the back at the base of the
heading. The casing should be so wide that the outline of the
rod is not visible on the right side; or a flat tape may be sewed
on at the base of the heading and hooks attached to this.
Plaited valances are more formal and finished in appearance
than gathered or shirred valances. They should be measured
accurately, sewed firmly, pressed well, and hung straight.

The shaped valance made over buckram and with interlining
is suitable for the richest material, such as velvet, velour, or
damask, and for the most stately rooms. When such materials
are used, a professional can generally be employed to make them
up; therefore, only the simplest type of flat valance will be de-
scribed here. A simple shape should be chosen with few or no
curves. A pattern is cut from heavy paper and fitted carefully
to the window over the rod or other fixture to which it is to be
fastened. The heavy cotton or canvas lining is then cut. Can-
vas is better than buckram, because the latter is likely to crack
or become limp in damp weather. The canvas form is laid on
the table and the lining basted carefully on it, a little tighter
from left to right than the canvas, if the valance is to go on a
curved rod. The lining is laid on the goods on a table. If the
fabric is figured, the pattern should be studied carefully, to be

74 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

sure that the figures come in the right place. The goods should
be cut 1 inch larger all around than the lining. In basting
the outside to the stiffened lining, it should be as much looser
than the canvas as the lining is tighter, in order that the valance
may fit well around the curve of the rod.

Such a valance may be finished by a gimp or cord or other
slight finish. It may be hung from a %-inch board fastened to
the top of the trim, and projecting 3 or 4 inches from the wall.
The shaped valance is seldom required for home-made curtains.

Portieres.

Draperies for doors are made in the same general way as
those for windows. They are often of heavy material and are
sometimes lined. The purpose of the lining is often to furnish
a contrasting hanging for the room on the other side. When the
rod is fastened to the door jamb as high as possible, the run for
the hanging may conveniently be made at the top. If a heading
is desired, the rod should be placed lower. When portieres are
hung on the outside of the trim, a heading may be used or
not.

Portieres may be hung by rings, or by hooks. A French
heading, with French hooks, may be used on a portiere that is
to be hung on the trim. The French heading is made by taking
up three tucks or plaits which may be 3 / 4 inch in depth, or more
if the material is heavy. The plaits should be stitched across
2}^ or 3 inches from the top. The French hook is attached at
the bottom of the heading. The hook then fastens into the ring
which fits the rod.

Floor coverings

Only modern rugs of domestic or foreign manufacture will
be considered here, as the choice Oriental rugs are not within
the compass of the average purse and the ability to select these
wisely is acquired only by long study and experience.

The functions of either a carpet or rug are to protect the floor,
to obviate noise, to give warmth in both fact and effect,, and to
add a decorative note to the room. To protect the floor in
much-used rooms, rugs should cover the larger part of the floor.

HOME FURNISHING 75

If a number of small rugs are used, they should be placed where
the wear is greatest on lines of travel, before a fireplace, a
lounge, a bed, or a dresser. The term carpet will be used in
this connection to designate a fabric that covers the floor com-
pletely; the term rug, for a fabric not completely covering the
floor.

Carpets.

Carpets are not so popular at the present time as rugs; but
with the home-maker, fashion should not enter into the con-
sideration. A carpet with small figures or none, covering the
entire floor, tends to make a room look larger, and to unify the
color scheme; it contributes to the warmth and quiet of a room,
and in an old or cold house may serve to offset a poor floor.
A perfectly plain carpet usually called "filling" may be ob-
tained in ingrain and other weaves to cover the entire floor and
serve as a background for rugs. With a vacuum cleaner it
should be entirely possible to use carpets and be hygienic.

Rugs.

Rugs serve all the purposes of a carpet and are in general
much more easily cared for and more adaptable decoratiyely.
Even a large rug, when rolled on a pole, can be easily moved in
and out for- cleaning. For temporary homes, rugs are a wiser
investment than carpets because they are more easily adjusted
to different floor spaces.

Color, as in other furnishings, is the first point to consider
in the selection of a rug. The rug preferably should be of
about the same value as the floor, so that it may tone with it,'
making no severe or obtrusive contrast. In the case of a floor
that is too light but that may not be darkened, the lesser of
two evils is to compromise by choosing a rug considerably
darker than the floor. The floor is the base of the room, the
foundation on which the furniture rests, the background
against which it is seen. Colors relatively dark contribute to
an effect of solidity. In must be continually repeated that neu-
tral effects serve best as backgrounds. The safest coloring per-

76 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

haps is the one similar or analogous to the prevailing color of the
walls; but a complementary or contrasting color, if sufficiently
neutralized and if repeated elsewhere in the room, may be used
with excellent effect. A plain rug with a self -toned border is in
general a good choice.

If the rug is to be subjected to very hard wear, a pattern will
make the wear less evident. A rug with an unobtrusive pattern,
preferably with small geometric figures that "read" from every
direction, or a very conventional nature motif with no strong
contrasts in value, is likely to keep its place as a background
better than a rug with large pattern, medallions, or intricate
ostentatious border. Such rugs assert themselves at the ex-
pense of the other furnishings and tend to make the room seem
crowded. Realistic flowers or animals, trees or houses, are out
of place in pattern.

The best size and proportion for rugs is determined by the
room and its furnishings. In the average room, a relatively
large rug proportioned to the size and shape of the room is a
satisfactory choice. Between two and three feet, or in a very
large room even a wider margin, of bare floor may be left on
each edge; the rug thus answers every purpose of a rug, clears
the furniture, and is easily cared for. The size, number, and
placing of rugs should be studied in relation to the other fur-
nishings of the room, since they play an important part in the
whole design.

There is a wide variety of textures and weaves on the market.
It is impossible to suggest with any definiteness, the weave or
manufacture to buy. The texture or quality should above all
be appropriate to the room in which it is to be used; a rag rug
may be the best choice for a bedroom or even for a living-room
in a simply furnished country house. Heavy Wilton or Ax-
minsters or velvets with deep pile are too suggestive of luxury
to be used in modern simple homes. Since rugs are always to
be walked upon, they should above all be durable. A reliable
dealer who handles standard makes of rugs should be selected,
and his judgment trusted as to the wearing qualities of his
goods.

HOME FURNISHING 77

Linoleum.

For hard and continuous wear, such as on the floors of kitch-
ens, passages, and dining-rooms, on farms or for large families,
linoleum makes a very satisfactory covering. A good quality
of linoleum is about as durable as wood. Its pliability, elastic-
ity, and quietness especially recommend it for rooms in which
there is much walking or standing. Since it comes in wide
lengths, a linoleum door has practically no seams or joints to
catch the dirt and can, therefore, be considered a very sanitary
material. Battleship linoleum, plain brown in color, often
tones in acceptably with woodwork and furniture. A few other
good plain colors are procurable. For the kitchen, a modest
inlaid or a granite pattern is by many considered more cleanly
in appearance. A similar choice of pattern in light colors is
also appropriate for bathrooms.

A good grade of linoleum is not cheap, but its lasting qualities
repay the initial expense. Cheap grades are not in the long run
a good investment.

A linoleum floor should be laid by the firm from whom it is
purchased. The inconvenience attendant on the proper laying
of a linoleum floor must be borne patiently, because it must be
kept in the form of loose pieces until it has adjusted itself to the
flatness of the floor, the temperature of the room, and the space
which it is to fill.

Since the marks made by furniture show up badly on
a new linoleum, the pressure of heavy pieces should be re-
lieved by little blocks under the legs while the linoleum
is new; but as the surface becomes harder through care
and exposure, it will be found to stand better the necessary
wear.

Cork carpet.

Cork carpet, a floor covering similar to linoleum in wearing
qualities, but with more of a surface texture, can be ob-
tained in a number of plain tones. Like linoleum it can be
used pleasingly even in living-rooms as a background for
rugs.

78 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Wood-veneer carpet.

A wood-veneer carpet of inconspicuous pattern laid over an
old floor is also a very durable and satisfactory background
for rugs. Japanese matting of fine weave, though light in color
can be made to take the place of a bare wood floor especially
in bedrooms or rooms where white or light painted wood is
used.

Ingrain filling.

Ingrain filling or other plain carpets may also be used as a
background for rugs in the absence of a good wood floor.

FURNITURE (Plates VI-IX and Figs. 24-29).

Furniture is perhaps the most distinctive of all the movable
furnishings of the home. Well-made furniture is very durable
and should, therefore, be selected with the care which .perma-
nence calls for. Furniture of reliable workmanship and made
from choice material is rarely cheap, but is the best investment
in the end. If the family purse is limited, it is better to buy at
the start the few essential pieces and to add to these from time
to time. No article of furniture should be purchased unless
a need for it exists, and then the one that will best fill that need
should be sought for until it is found. At the time of purchase,
each article should be judged on its intrinsic merits and its
adaptability to the need and place that it is to fill.

The fundamental considerations in the selection of furniture
are three: the function or use of the article selected; its construc-
tion and design; and its relation to the room and other furnish-
ings.

Function.

The usefulness of a piece of furniture is paramount to every
other consideration. For example, a chair of whatever materials
constructed, is made to sit in. If it does not answer this use
comfortably, it is utterly unworthy as a seat. In its simplest
form a chair has a seat, legs, and back, but it is often developed
into forms with arms, rungs, rockers, and upholstery as well.

FIG. 24. A group of typical side chairs of substantial and pleasing form, and
of varied finish. From these, selections might be made for dining-room,
living-room, or hall.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 25. Four good table forms for use in dining-room or library.

Even the most elementary type should afford a seat wide enough
to accommodate the body comfortably, should have legs of a
height that allow the feet of the occupant to rest easily upon the
floor, and a back that accords with the curve of the spine. These
requirements would seem so obvious as not to need mention,
were it not so rare to find them all combined in one chair. Since
the adult members of a single family may vary greatly in height,

PLATE VI. Good types of desks and sideboards.

HOME FURNISHING 81

size, and proportion, no exact rule as to the measurements of
chairs can be formulated. In general, however, the seat of an
ordinary straight chair should measure from 15 to 20 inches
across the front and may be usually 2 or 3 inches narrower at
the back. In height the seat may be from 15 to 20 inches from
the floor, inclining slightly backwards. The lower the seat, the
greater should be its depth; and conversely, the higher the
seat, the more shallow its depth. The height of the back
from the seat may vary from 12 to 30 inches. Arms should be
of a height to support the arm of the occupant comfortably
about 10 inches usually from the seat. Rails or slats or ban-
nisters in the chair-back should be tested with reference to the
ribs and shoulder-blades of the user. Rungs are usually added
for strength, but a well-made chair may be quite adequate to
its purpose without them.

The varying purposes for which chairs are used are another
element in the decision. A sewing chair, a slipper chair, and
a nursery rocker are preferably low. A short-backed chair is
convenient for a dressing-table or for the kitchen. A chair for
lounging may be as deep and high-backed and as luxuriously
upholstered as the user fancies. No chair is good that is not
comfortable in service.

With a table also, the first thought of the buyer should be
its use. A dining-table, a table for the library, a sewing-table,
a table for bedroom, hall, or kitchen, each has a special service
to render and should be chosen with that service in mind. Every
table, however, should be stable.

A bureau, a chest, a sideboard, or any container should be
thought of in terms of the storage space afforded and facility of
access to that space; doors should open and shut easily; drawers
should run smoothly.

Construction and design.

The first requirements in construction are strength and du-
rability. These are essential elements also for efficient service.
Good furniture must be sincerely built from honest material,
should be designed for a definite purpose, and should avoid

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 26. Types of Colonial chairs, usually developed in mahogany or cherry,
which may be found in good reproductions. 1, 4 and 6, Chippendale; 2
and 3, Sheraton; 5, Hepplewhite.

superfluous ornament and shiny varnished finishes. The con-
struction of furniture should be evident; that is, the necessary
upright and horizontal elements should not be distorted by
curves and ornament that impair the function of the members.
Variations in contour, such as low flowing curves, should accord
with the main outlines. Of all the necessary pieces of furniture,
chairs and seats are the freest in form and may deviate farthest

HOME FURNISHING 83

from straight-line design. Curved lines and rolling contours
adjust themselves easily to the human form and are usually
more comfortable than the rigid lines of straight chairs. This
does not imply, however, that fantastic shapes are justifiable.

Since no piece of furniture is stronger than its weakest joint,
it is important to observe that all joints be strong and genuine
even though hidden. The legitimate use of screws, wedges,
and glue has brought about such sound and inconspicuous join-
ery that there is no longer any excuse for wobbly, insecure furni-
ture. In general, the tendency of modern furniture design is
toward easily movable forms such as metal beds, closets instead
of wardrobes, and various types of reed and willow furniture.

The parts of which furniture is composed should seem reason-
able for the function which they are to perform. The legs of
chairs and tables should not be heavy enough for porch posts
like those in some pieces of mission furniture, nor should they
be frail and "ladylike" as in the case of the little gilt parlor
chair.

The woods most used in modern furniture are ash, oak, ma-
hogany, walnut, and other woods finished to imitate these,
also pine and whitewood for painted pieces. Bird's-eye maple
and curly birch, being sport growths, should not be used as a
structural furniture wood. Of these woods, oak is heavy, durable,
susceptible to color modifications, easily kept in good condition,
of a sturdy character, appropriate to everyday conditions, and
not too expensive. Mahogany is durable, but needs much care,
is too "dressy" in appearance for the stress of modern daily
life, and is not so adaptable, except in its browner tones, to usual
color schemes. Contrary to the usual belief, there is no intrin-
sic merit in the fact that a piece of modern furniture is called
mahogany. Many of the best looking pieces are only birch
stained red, or if made of the genuine wood are often less at-
tractive than their birch substitutes. Only in antique pieces,
valuable because they are good and not because they are old,
and in modern copies or adaptations of fine design and finish,
is the real sentiment and beauty of mahogany preserved. In
general, oak is the most representative wood for modern furni-

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 27. Comfortable arm-chairs for general use.

ture, just as black walnut was the typical wood in our mothers'
day and mahogany in the day of our grandmothers.

The finish of all woods should be soft and dull, rubbed, not
varnished. A shiny polish is often used to hide blemishes in the
wood and is of a nature pertaining more to metals and to glass
than to wood.

PLATE VII. Types of furniture ugly in proportion, erratic in line, over-
decorated in finish, that should be avoided.

HOME FURNISHING 85

There is much good painted or enameled furniture. It lends
itself to charming and unusual color schemes. This finish
is especially appropriate with the light clean effects so suitable
in bedrooms in country homes, and in rooms with painted
trim.

Willow, because of its elasticity, is an excellent material
for seats, but not appropriate for tables, desks, beds and other
furniture forms in which firmness and smoothness are essential
qualities. Though not so durable as wood, willow is light in
weight, has unlimited color possibilities, and fits satisfactorily
into many varying types of furnishings. The simple designs
are always the best.

Upholstery.

Well-disposed springs and padding add much. to the comfort
of a lounge or chair, and a textile covering may contribute most
attractive notes to the color scheme of a room. Upholstered
chairs with a well-built frame that is frankly evident, are the
best choice. Fat-looking, dimpled, padded, buttoned, and
fringed upholstery should be avoided. Too often it covers weak
construction. Upholstery furnishes a good opportunity to
amalgamate the various colors in a room, such as the contrasting
colors of walls and hangings, or to emphasize one of these, or to
introduce new colors that will enliven an otherwise monotonous
room, or to distribute the color interests when there is too much
color massed on one side of a room, as sometimes results from a
series of door and window draperies.

For ordinary home use, plain, striped, or figured fabrics are
more appropriate than leather, which finds its best use in offices
and men's lounging rooms.

A slenderly built chair should not be upholstered in a large
figured, strong-colored fabric. A chair or any other furni-
ture may be excellent in design with no decoration. Any
decoration should be an integral part of the whole design, an
outgrowth of the construction, a refinement of the propor-
tions, or an emphasis of an essential element by a bit of
enrichment.

T f
i i

^M;

II I III I II 111 II I II I II I11J

FIG. 28. Three good forms of couches. Top, a willow davenport, comfortable,
reasonable in price, and easily moved. Center, a type of upholstered
davenport exceedingly comfortable but likely to be costly. Bottom, an
inexpensive box-couch arrangement that may be made both comfortable
and attractive by the use of good springs, upholstery, and cushions.

HOME FURNISHING

FIG. 29. Typical small tables of good form and finish from which a suitable
selection might be made for various types of living-room, bedroom, or
porch.

88 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Relation to other furnishings.

To secure a homogeneous result in house furnishing, the fit-
ness of each purchase should be thought of in relation to the room
in which it is to go and in relation to the other furnishings of
that room. As has been previously pointed out, the proportion
of furniture has a notable effect on the apparent proportion of
the room: very large pieces of furniture seem to crowd a small
room; very small pieces, unless grouped, appear dwarfed in a
large room.

Furniture should be selected of a material that will harmonize
with the woodwork. Oak is the best choice for a room finished
in oak or in the woods finished in a color similar to oak, as ash,
chestnut, or even cypress. The modern market produces such
a wide range of design in oak furniture of different finishes and
prices as fco make an appropriate choice for such a room com-
paratively simple.

Mahogany or painted or willow furniture affiliates better
than does oak with painted woodwork, especially if painted in
ivory or white or light tones. Oak and mahogany are so at vari-
ance in character and texture that they will not mix. Willow
and painted furniture affording great variety in form and color
will fit well together.

Pictures

Contrary to the usual belief, pictures are not indispensable
in a well-furnished room. If the wall spaces are not too large and
bare, if the walls are paneled or have an interesting covering,
or if the draperies in the room are noticeably decorative in color
or pattern, pictures may be superfluous.

However, if, as often happens in rooms with plain walls, a
problem is presented by large empty spaces, a wise use of good
pictures presents a solution. Such pictures being steady com-
panions should be selected for their intrinsic worth of subject,
color, and composition. Good photographs in brown or gray
tones of most of the world's masterpieces may be obtained for a
reasonable price. Some good color prints from both old and
new masters are also available. Even a group of magazine

PLATE VIII. A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools that are both
serviceable and decorative.

HOME FURNISHING 89

prints, similar in size and harmonious in color, may be a worthy
contribution to the decorative scheme of the room. These are
far better than amateur efforts with paints or crayon.

A good picture deserves a good frame. The frame serves
to protect the picture and to enhance its appearance, but should
never be so large, ornate or obtrusive as to assert itself at the
expense of the picture. A frame for a mirror may appropriately
be more decorative; the controlling thought in selecting such a
frame is its fitness to the wall and other furnishings. The width,
style, and color of the frame must be suited .to the picture.
Light pictures, like etchings and many water colors, look best
framed in light, delicate moldings, with or without a mat, as
the case may require. Photographs in gray or brown tones
stand a heavier, darker frame toned to accord with the picture.
Colored pictures often look well in gilt frames, but the gilt
should be dulled and, like the frame of wood, should be toned
to harmonize with the picture. If the frame alone does not
sufficiently isolate the picture, a mat of harmonizing color may
be used. Strong contrasts between frame, mat, and picture,
such as is frequently seen in photograph or engraving surrounded
by a white mat and black frame, should be avoided; they are too
assertive to take a place in any color scheme.

The size and proportion of pictures should be adjusted to
the wall spaces; a tall picture in a vertical space, a broad pic-
ture in a horizontal space, or a combination of these so ar-
ranged as to form groups of pleasing proportions. Pictures rec-
tangular in shape harmonize better with the structural masses
than round or oval pictures. Strong contrasts of color and value
between wall and picture tend to destroy the harmony between
the picture and its setting. Dark pictures on a light wall, light
pictures on a dark wall, assert themselves unduly. The general
tone of the picture should be related to that of the wall.

A few general points should be remembered in the hanging
of pictures. They should be hung flat against the wall, not
tilted out from it; they should be fastened securely to the wall
or suspended from the picture-molding by two parallel vertical
wires. The height of the pictures should be related to the

90 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

level of the eye, and in general either the tops or bottoms of
the frames should be at the same distance from the floor, unless
a picture appears better hung in relation to some piece of
furniture, such as a desk or bookcase. Pictures are often hung
too high.

Other furnishing accessories

While some small furnishings have a distinct use and may
introduce ' the one decorative note needed to complete the
scheme, safety, lies in restraint. These small things should
be selected with as much care as the larger furnishings. The
lesson of sacrificing heirlooms, mistaken purchases, and even
misfit gifts for the sake of the unity of the whole scheme should
be early learned. Constructive forms with lines that are
slightly curved for the sake of grace while the general direction
of support or economic outline is kept, are pleasing. Whatever
is added by way of ornament must follow or fit, not conceal,
this structural shape. Masses of decoration applied without re-
gard to the form, cheapen the appearance and confuse the
intent of the object.

In the choosing of a clock, a clearly marked dial and a support-
ing case of pleasing contour and form are the essential considera-
tions. The general design will vary according as the clock is
intended to stand on the mantel or the floor or to be affixed
to the wall.

The real function of a vase is to serve as a container for
flowers. The design of the vase should, therefore, anticipate
the flower, though it may be so distinguished in color and form
as to be by itself a decorative note in a room. The color or
decoration on the vase should not attempt to compete with
the flower.

Lamps are indispensable to comfort, whether oil, gas, or
electricity is used for illumination, and are one of the most
decorative and intimate features in a furnishing scheme. Three
elements enter into the design of lamps; the light, its shade,
and its support. The support should both be and appear
adequate for its use and should harmonize both in size and

HOME FURNISHING

shape with the shade. Broad bases or heavy bowls give stability
to the design of a lamp. Metal and pottery are eminently suit-
able materials for lamp standards. The height of the lamp and
the flare of the shade should be related to the space that is to
be lighted. Tall lamps with broad flaring shades illuminate
a large circle, while low lamps and snug shades confine the
light to small areas (Fig. 30).

In general, warm or yellowish tones for shades are more
genial and more in keeping with the idea of light than are cool
colors; they are also more becoming. Paper or parchment and

FIG. 30. Good types of lamps with substantial bases and attractive shades
that are serviceable in use.

fabrics are less stiff in material and more flexible in color scheme
than are glass and metal for shades. Complex shapes and
millinery treatment for shades should be avoided.

The waste-basket serves a humble but important Use. It
should be so made as to stand firmly, conceal its contents, and
be unobtrusive in color and design.

Sofa pillows are valuable if they are useful. Plain or figured
materials of agreeable texture, harmonizing with the general
coloring of the room, are more decorative than those elaborately
made.

The much-abused tidy has in a few cases a real use in pro-
tecting the backs of upholstered chairs from the hair; it should
be trim in outline, of washable material, of inconspicuous color,
and fastened securely in place.

92 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Mere curiosities should be kept in a closed cabinet or a
museum.

ARRANGEMENT OF FURNISHINGS (FIGS. 31-33)

The character of every room should be obvious at the moment
of entrance. It should be immediately evident whether the
room in question is used for a family gathering room, for literary
or social pursuits, a playroom, or a workroom. All parts of
the room should contribute to this simple and sustained im-
pression. It is for the moment a complete picture in which no
one object compels undue attention because of conspicuous
size, color, or decoration. Unity is the whole idea.

The contents of the room should show first of all, orderliness
of arrangement. The distribution of the furnishings should
be adjusted to the structural lines of the room; rugs parallel
with the walls of the room, draperies hanging in straight folds
in rectangular openings, tables, couches, bookcases, beds,
bureaus, and dressers following and fitting the available wall
spaces. Pictures, single or grouped, arranged with direct
relation to the furniture and to a continuous line of a given
height, table runners and books straight with the library table,
square lunch cloths and doilies straight with the edges of the
dining-table, all are manifestations of order in arrangement.
Diagonal lines introduced by curtains looped back, rugs askew
on the floor, furniture placed across the corners, or at oblique
angles to the wall, pictures hanging in steps, set at defiance the
rectangular lines of the room and disturb the sense of order.

The furnishings of the room should be so arranged as not
to crowd all the interest on one or two walls, leaving the other
parts of the room empty and dead. Instead, the interest should
be distributed throughout the room by a balanced arrangement.
For example, heavy features, such as a fireplace on one side
of the room, may be balanced by a long davenport on the oppo-
site side, with bookcase, table, and desk occupying end positions.

The next step is to consider the arrangement of furnishings
from the standpoint of convenience and use. The comfort of a
room depends on the grouping of the pieces that are to be used

FIG. 31. Top, a typical square living-room showing an
erratic but not unusual arrangement of rugs and
furniture. Bottom, the same room arranged in a
reasonable and orderly way.

94 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

together. Thus a generous living-room may provide a hearth
center, a reading center, a music center, and a sewing center if
the furnishings are properly grouped; or, in the case of a bed-
room, a bed, night table, and lamp might form one group, with
dresser, chair, and closet in another.

The arrangement of the furnishings depends very greatly
on the location of windows and doors. The good light necessary
for reading, writing, or sewing puts a premium on the positions
near the windows, for, while theoretically it is possible to see
in all parts of a comfortably lighted room, the direct light from
a window is the best for all kinds of close work. The furniture
grouping must, therefore, adjust itself to this requirement.
Desks arranged with a good light from the left side, the prin-
cipal reading seats within comfortable distance from the win-
dows, and adequate lamps or lighting fixtures provided where
most needed, insure satisfaction in this respect.

Care should also be taken to arrange furniture groups away
from drafts and paths of travel. Bookcases, cabinets, and the
like, may occupy odd bits of wall in locations where it is not
comfortable to sit.

Just as the form of a chair may be less rectangular than
other pieces of furniture, so its position in the furnishing scheme
is more free. The very use of chairs implies that they cannot
in general occupy fixed positions, with the exception perhaps
of an occasional upholstered or straight-backed chair. This
flexibility of chair arrangements introduces enough variety to
keep the room .from looking stiff. Nothing in the room is so
insignificant as to escape the need of thoughtful placing; vases,
clocks, lamps, and pictures, all are elements in the scheme.

Arrangement, however, is as much concerned with the elimi-
nation of superfluous features as with the proper disposal of
the essentials. Souvenirs, trinkets, and family photographs, no
matter what their personal significance, cheapen the effect
and lessen the dignity of rooms intended for general use.
A room is a good design only when nothing can be added
and nothing can be taken away without marring its com-
pleteness.

HOME FURNISHING 95

CHARACTER OF ROOMS EXPRESSED BY FURNISHINGS

The hall, living-room, dining-room, and library, if there is one,
represent one group of interests, and may be considered to form
the social, recreative, or living area of the house. The general
character of these rooms should be spacious and decorative in
effect. Though each unit of this group should have its own dis-
tinctive character, these living-rooms, on account of their inter-
relation and common use, should show some harmony in color
and treatment.

The hall is the threshold of the house. It serves as an intro-
duction. This first impression should be one of welcome and
dignity and, above all, of order. Good light, genial colors on
the walls and floor, a sense of free space for the passage of per-
sons, an ample provision for the necessary wraps and umbrellas
in a tidy and concealed form, are the essential characteristics
of a well-considered hall, regardless of its size. If a regular
coat closet is not provided in the hall, a generous rod with coat
hangers arranged in an angle behind curtain or screen is far
neater and more satisfactory than some form of mongrel hat
rack exposed to view.

The movable furnishings necessary to equip the hall of a
dwelling for its use are very few, a rug on the floor, carpet on the
stairs, a chair or seat, a well-lighted mirror, a clock perhaps,
and a small stand with drawers for gloves, time-tables, pad and
pencil, and other incidentals. Decorative touches may be intro-
duced by a figured wall paper, a potted plant, or a spray of
flowers.

The character of the modern living-room should unite the
dignity of the old-fashioned parlor and the genuine homely
qualities of the old-time sitting-room. The large living-room
of the modern house is an attempt to amalgamate into a single
space the interests formerly represented by separate rooms,
such as reception-room, music-room, parlor, sitting-room, and
library. Its character should accordingly represent dignity,
hospitality, comfort, and recreation. This room must be gen-
eral not personal, in its decoration and furnishing. Walls and

FIG. 32. Top, a room showing the effect in furnishing of one large rug, a
fireplace in the center of one long inside wall, and the other furnish-
ings well related to these. Bottom, a room showing a good arrange-
ment of two rugs; a fireplace in the short inside wall, and the furniture
well arranged in occupational centers.

PLATE IX. Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture that may be
developed in different woods suitable for rooms with varying finish..

HOME FURNISHING 97

rugs sufficiently neutral in color to form a good background,
harmonious furnishings adjusted to the space and suitably
arranged for the interests to be accommodated, and a method
of comfortable lighting both by day and by night are the essen-
tial considerations. The position of such structural pieces as
the fireplace and the location of the windows give the cue to the
general arrangement for the room.

The selection of the furnishings in each case will depend on
whether the main interests of the household are youthful or
mature, studious or musical, industrial or social.

One or two large rugs are more appropriate for the living-
room than a number of small ones. Small rugs in a living-
room are an aggravation, because of the tendency to slip about,
turn up at the corners, and give a scrappy appearance to a floor.

In general, a typical living-room for general family use should
include a fireplace, some form of lounge, bookshelves, a generous
table with lamp, a place to write, and plenty of comfortable
chairs. A piano or victrola, a sewing-table, small or folding
tables that can be moved around to serve a cup of tea or for
games and the like, may also be needed. Added to these are a
number of small furnishings that should be thoughtfully selected
to complete the comfort of the occupants as the room is used.
Footstools or hassocks, a dictionary-stand, lamps and candle-
sticks, a waste-basket, a neat wood-box or basket, a few pillows,
a vase or two for flowers, a clock, are all worthy adjuncts to the
family room. A place should also be provided for the quick dis-
posal of transient paraphernalia, such as father's newspaper,
mother's mending, and the children's toys.

The artificial lighting of the room should be adjusted to the
spaces that are used at night. A general diffusion of light over
the whole space can be provided most simply by some central
form of ceiling light. In addition to this, lamps will be needed
for reading or close work. The soft light of candles or the open
fire are sufficient when the room is used only for conversation.

The character of a dining-room should above all be cheerful.
Eastern windows admitting the morning sun, light colors on
the walls, plants or flowers, are a real aid to good digestion.

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

MALI-

HALL

ClOSVT

FIG. 33. Top, an effective and logical arrangement
of furniture in a square dining-room. Bottom,
a well-planned bedroom showing a serviceable
arrangement of dressing and sleeping equipment,
with plenty of free space for passage.

HOME FURNISHING 99

In contrast to the living-room, the dining-room has but one
function and therefore but one center of interest. The dec-
oration and furnishing of this room should focus on the idea
of the table in use. A dining-table capable of enlargement,
a rug perhaps, chairs, a serving-table, and a place to keep the
dishes, against an interestingly papered or paneled back-
ground, constitute the real requirements of the dining-room.
Anything provided in addition to this is purely by way of decora-
tion which implies that the added features must enhance the
general appearance. Clean linen white, cream, or gray
simple forms of knives, forks, and spoons, china with refined
outlines and restrained decorations, furnish a dining-room with
more distinction than an abundance of ornate furnishing.

Unlike the living area, the rooms of the sleeping area stand
each one by itself, a complete unit, both in furnishing and in
decoration. A sleeping-room should above all be personal in
its use, light, airy, and intimate in character. Sufficient window
space, light colored walls and woodwork, fresh looking curtains,
furniture stained or painted to accord with these, carry out this
idea. A clean comfortable bed, conveniences for dressing and
storage of clothes provided by dressing-table, bureau, chiffonier
and closet, a well-lighted mirror, a comfortable chair or two,
a bedside table, and rugs in the open spaces are the essentials.
Facilities for writing or sewing may also be needed. Whatever
accessories are introduced are of a personal nature.

Bed and dressing arrangements should be located with special
reference to good lighting both by day and by night. The bed
should be so placed as not to face the light, while the mirror
should be so placed that the person dressing is in full light.
Side lights are a particularly appropriate type for bedroom use.

The character, equipment, and use of the kitchen are discussed
in connection with its planning on pages 100 to 120.

CHAPTER III

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN*
BY HELEN BINKERD YOUNG

ANY home-maker should be able to plan a kitchen intelli-
gently. This means a kitchen that measures up to some stand-
ard tests on general essential points. The details are of small
moment when compared to such fundamental considerations
as the size of the kitchen, the amount of light and air, and the
general organization of the work. Too much or too little floor
space, too many doors, too few windows, and too little wall
space are basic matters that may break up the entire conven-
ience of the place, no matter how perfect the details of equip-
ment may be. Naturally, it is too late to begin to plan a kitchen
after it is built, for the structural conditions are then fixed
and the possibilities of arrangement are accordingly limited.
This is not meant to discourage the remodeling of old kitchens,
but merely to emphasize the importance of planning the kitchen
correctly at the start.

USE OF THE KITCHEN

Properly speaking, the kitchen is a scrupulously clean room
intended for operations connected with food materials, and for
this purpose only. It is not the province of the kitchen to pro-
vide space for eating, for washing and ironing clothes, for lava-
tory purposes, for removing boots, wraps, and overalls, or for
passageway from the back of the house to the front. For the
sake of cleanliness and speed, such activities should be provided
for elsewhere. It is poor logic and poor economy to plan for
such features as laundry tubs and cleaning closets in the kitchen,
for they are too unsanitary and too unrelated to food work to

* Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 108.
100

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN

101

have a place there. Moreover, in order to include the laundry
work, the kitchen must be made larger than it would otherwise
need to be. A separate room for laundry purposes should be
provided, either in the basement or, as in the case of the farm-
house, on the same floor as the kitchen and adjacent to it.

FIG. 34. A large kitchen, 14 by 18 feet, so rear-
ranged that food and laundry work are sepa-
rately grouped, while the stove is common to
both.

This room can also be used for the storage of cleaning mater-
ials and as a direct entrance into the main part of the house,
thereby eliminating constant passage through the kitchen.
Therefore, by taking out of the kitchen proper all operations
foreign to foods, a smaller and more convenient room may
be planned.

Even in altering an old house, this idea of planning the kitchen
proper for food work only, should be the guiding thought. Thus,
a large kitchen in which the family washing has been done

102 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

should be remodeled in such a way that all food work is grouped
at one end and laundry work and passage at the other end, with
the stove as the common piece of equipment between. If the
room is large enough for it, a thin partition wall may be used
to complete the division. This makes a more cleanly and more
economical arrangement than does the single large room with
the two kinds of work crossing each other. Such a kitchen al-
teration is shown in Fig. 34.

The same idea of grouping the food work in an alcove and
using the remainder of the space for another purpose can be
applied to a combination kitchen and dining-room, such as is
shown in Fig. 14. The compact kitchen end could be made light
and washable in character, and the dining-room end more like a
sitting-room, with passage through the room halfway between,
thus disturbing the comfort of neither part.

It is evident from the foregoing explanation that the intelligent
planning of a kitchen involves a number of side issues, which,
in the case of the farmhouse, unite to make of it a very complex
problem. If the kitchen is to become a compact, businesslike
compartment for one use only, the entire working arrangements
of the house must be thoroughly studied in order to make sure
that there is a definite place allotted to every need (Fig. 37) .

EXPOSURE

The location of the kitchen will of course depend on the re-
mainder of the house plan and on the location of the other rooms.
Theoretically, the best exposure and location for a kitchen is
toward the north, the northeast, or the northwest, with at
least two outer walls for light and air. This implies either a
corner location or a separate wing. South, southeast, and south-
west are less desirable exposures for a kitchen, because they are
likely to be hot and glaring and are usually hard to ventilate.
Furthermore, southern exposures are usually at a premium for
the more important living-rooms. If the arrangement is such
that the kitchen can have but a single exposure, it can still be
made a very comfortable one as regards light, air, and coolness,
if it faces north and is provided with plenty of windows; whereas,

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 103

a kitchen having but one outside wall, and that facing directly
south, is in the very worst situation from every viewpoint.

SIZE

The size of the kitchen is determined chiefly by the number
of workers and by the kind of fuel to be used for cooking. In
general it should always be large enough to accommodate
two workers in emergency, and yet at the same time as small
as convenience will allow.

A kitchen in which coal is to be used for fuel is normally
larger than one in which gas is to be used, because of the larger
size of the range, the need for a convenient supply of fuel, and
the fact that for reasons of comfort the other pieces of furniture
cannot be placed too near the stove. Years of experience in
planning, equipping, and using kitchens under conservational
methods, show that a gas-fuel kitchen with a pass pantry need
not exceed 150 square feet of floor space, and that a coal-fuel
kitchen, together with a pass and food pantry, ordinarily need
not exceed an area of 200 square feet of floor space. This area
may be arranged in such shapes as 9 by 12 feet, 10 by 12 feet,
10 by 13 or 14 feet, 11 by 11 feet, 11 by 12 or 13 feet, or 12 by 12
feet, for the kitchen proper, and 5 by 7, 8, 9, or 10 feet, or 6
by 6, 7, or 8 feet, for the pantry, according as these measure-
ments best fit into the plan for the remainder of the house. In
general, approximately square shapes for kitchens and pantries
are more convenient than are long, narrow ones. Eight feet
should be the minimum width for a kitchen.

Of course the areas given are merely guides to help determine
the probable amount of space needed for kitchen developments
and to serve as a sort of check on wasteful or crowded planning.
It is very easy to plan a kitchen that is too large; it is also pos-
sible to plan a kitchen that is too small, where freedom of motion
is cramped and where one tires of standing always in one place
or position.

DOORS

After the size and the location of the kitchen have been de-
termined, the placing of the openings is the next step to be con-

104 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

sidered. The subject of doors especially should be given the
most deliberate attention, for the inconvenience of many kitch-
ens can be traced back to the presence of too many or wrongly
placed doors.

It is evident that a kitchen should have as few doors as pos-
sible in order to avoid breaking up the wall space and to avoid
passage through the kitchen to different parts of the house.
Ordinarily, five or six doors are needed in connection with the
kitchen work: an outside door, a pantry door, a cellar door, a
door to the dining-room, and perhaps one leading to a rear stair-
way or hall. Fortunately, all these doors need not be located
in the kitchen proper. Different combinations can be arranged
whereby one door can be made to serve two or three purposes.
Thus, the cellar or the rear-stair door might open from a pantry
or from an outside entry, which might also contain the outside
door. Two or three doors of passage are all that are needed in
a well-planned kitchen. These should, as nearly as possible, be
arranged at one side, corner, or end, thus leaving a continuous
wall space in an alcove form for the arrangement of equipment.

WINDOWS

The function of a window is essentially, twofold to admit
light and air. Naturally that arrangement of windows will be
most reasonable which provides for the best diffusion of light
and the best ventilation with the least amount of glass space.
For, while it is poor economy to have too few windows, it is also
poor economy to have too many.

It has been found that for effective results, a sort of flexible
relation exists between the amount of window space to be used
and the size of the room to be lighted. Accordingly, the total
window area for a kitchen should in general be about 25 per
cent of the floor area. For example, a kitchen 11 by 11 feet,
having 121 square feet of floor area, should be provided with
about 30 square feet of window space, arranged on the two
outer walls. This space may be divided into two windows 3 by
5 feet each, or three windows 2}/ by 4 feet each, or three
windows 2 by 4^ feet each, as the case may require. The

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 105

necessary window space for any given kitchen may thus be
approximated.

Ordinarily, kitchen windows should be located as far apart as
possible. In the case of a corner exposure, they should be placed
near the partition walls rather than near the corner of the house.
This arrangement insures a strong diagonal sweep of air and
an even distribution of light. The tops of the windows should
be not more than a foot from the ceiling, so that the rising heat
and odors can easily escape. Broad, short windows, built high
from the floor, are an excellent type for kitchen use. The dis-
tance from the floor to the sill should be from three to four feet,
in order to allow for table space beneath the windows. While
not so picturesque as casements, double-hung windows are
usually the easier type to operate in a kitchen.

ARRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT

Having planned the kitchen that is structurally suited to its
use, further convenience depends on the selection and arrange-
ment of the furniture, or equipment. In this, as in the case of
any industry, the aim should be to do the most work in the
least time without friction and with the fewest workers.

The equipment should line the walls, leaving a free central
space for working. Theoretically, every change in working
level, whether of floor or table, and every gap between two
pieces of equipment, cause loss of efficiency; that is to say, the
more continuous the arrangement of equipment, the more con-
venient will be the work. Having dispensed with all unneces-
sary doors and deliberately preserved one or two continuous
wall spaces, the disposition of the equipment becomes an easy
matter. Indeed, it would be difficult to make a really incon-
venient work-place of a compact, well-lighted kitchen of limited
size, having few doors and generous wall spaces, such as has
been previously described. But in order to reach a standard
of maximum convenience, the work and the equipment should
be organized so that all things pertaining to a given operation
are grouped together.

The table, the stove, and the sink represent the three essen-

106

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

tial operations carried on in a kitchen: the preparation of the
food, the cooking of the food, and the cleaning-up process that
follows. This equipment and this work form the nucleus of
three operation centers: (1) the food center, (2) the heat center,
and (3) the water center. This organization is the basis of
convenient arrangement for every home kitchen, large or small,
whether it belongs to apartment, suburban home, or farmhouse.

1. The food center requires the following equipment:

a. Table space, from 8 to 12 square feet exclusive of sink-boards

b. Storage space

Ice-box

(1) For cold foods { Dumb-waiter

Food pantry

(Any or all of these)

Drawers and shelves

(In form of closet or cabinet)

(2) For dry supplies and
utensils needed in food
preparation

2. The heat center requires the following equipment:

a. Stove or range, from 2 by 3 feet to 2^ by 5 feet

Fuel box or bin, if coal or wood is to be used
Pan closet for utensils
Water boiler

b. Storage space. . .

3. The water center requires the following equipment:

a. Sink, 2 by 3 feet, more or less

b. Drain-board, 8 square feet or more part to right and part

to left of sink

Shelves and drawers
(In form of china closet and pan
closet)

c. Storage space for china
and utensils

The food center should, if possible, be located on an outer
wall, with the sink Bnd range centers on inside walls and with
light coming from the side. Ordinarily, the position of the
dining-room and the location of the main chimneys of the house
determine the general location of the sink and the range, re-
spectively. The sink should be near or next the dining-room
wall, so that meal service involves a short path of travel and
but one handling of dishes.

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 107

If possible, the food and water centers should be combined
into one arrangement, so that all the table space, such as the
table top, the cabinet shelf, and the drain-board, forms a con-
tinuous work shelf on the same level.

Ordinarily the stove or the range is the one piece of equip-
ment that should be set somewhat apart. It may even be
conveniently placed in a detached position on a separate wall
space, partly because the other work is more comfortable if
the stove is not too near, and partly because the design of
stoves is such that two or three sides must be accessible to the
worker.

The question is often asked whether movable or built-in
equipment is preferable. While the use of either sort can be
made entirely convenient in arrangement, there is much to
be said in favor of built-in equipment as far as cleanliness and
appearance are concerned. In the latter case, there are no
cracks behind or under the furniture, and, consequently, the
moving of heavy articles is unnecessary in cleaning. A table,
.a stove, and a cabinet, all separate and standing on legs or
casters, make the problem of a clean floor more difficult than
if the cabinet and the range were set directly on the floor and
the table space was supplied by drain-boards or a shelf. Also,
the appearance is simpler and more restful with the built-in
pieces. However, a satisfactory kitchen can be made by the use
of separate pieces.

Table space.

Extensive table space may be gained by providing generous
drain-boards to right and left of the sink, continuous with the
cabinet shelf. A movable table of the same height, mounted on
casters or, preferably, on small wheels, will prove a great step-
saver and will simplify the serving of meals. A double-deck
wheel tray would serve this purpose even better since it is
lighter to push about. All floors on a level and all table tops
on a level save many an accident in the kitchen. A work table
covered with zinc will give satisfaction for it is nonabsorbent
and is easily cleaned.

108 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Range.

The newer patterns of reliable ranges are simpler and less
ornate than those of the older stoves and require less care.

If a new kitchen is to be built, a separate ventilating flue may
be provided in addition to the smoke flue. This ventilating
flue, provided with a register inlet about four feet above the
stove top, will relieve the kitchen of odors and of excessive
heat, especially if a projecting metal hood is fastened over the
range for collecting the rising air.

The stove or range requires more care and makes more dirt
than any other feature in the kitchen. Fuel must be brought in
and ashes must be removed. Whatever can be done to simplify
the incoming and the outgoing of fuel will make for cleanliness
and for economy of labor. A generous temporary supply may
be stored either in a separate fuel compartment next to the
kitchen, or in a fuel box fitted with a doublerhinged cover and
built into the wall in such a way that it may be filled from
without and emptied from within. The actual arrangement in
any case will depend on whether wood or coal is burned and.
whether the main supply may be stored in or near the house.

Ashes may be emptied directly into an air-tight metal can in
the cellar. This is an easier and cleaner method than removing
them by hand. A can of a size that one man can handle easily
will probably not need to be emptied oftener than once a week.
Many of the newer ranges are already equipped for this method
of ash-disposal, but any stove may be so arranged if there is a
caieful workman at hand. The ash pan should first be removed
from the stove and a round hole cut through the bottom of the
ash compartment and through the floor below; a stovepipe is
then passed through these holes and is flanged over the bottom
of the ash pit of the stove. Two precautions must be observed
in this piece of work: first, the stovepipe which is to lead the
ashes into the cellar can must be provided with a damper
near the stove, in order to prevent an upward draught of air
from burning out the fire; second, a free air space of at least two
inches must be allowed all around the pipe where it passes
through the floor, consequently the floor hole must be cut at

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 109

least four inches larger than the pipe. This open space may be
filled with concrete or covered with an ordinary metal collar.
Measures should also be taken to make the ash can perfectly
safe. A container of hot ashes in a place not frequently visited,
such as the cellar, may prove a source of danger unless it is
surrounded by a wire cage or in some way protected so that rub-
bish, paper, kindling, or other combustible material can never
be thrown directly against it.

Sink and drain-boards.

A one-piece enameled iron sink, with high back, will prove
a satisfactory appliance. This sink should be large enough
to hold a dishpan conveniently. Dishwashing will be more
quickly accomplished with the double drain-board before
mentioned than if a single drain-board is used. Enameled
iron drain-boards are not advisable. They are more showy
than serviceable, for, besides being noisy, they are too small
to be useful and too hard to be safe for dishes. Suitable
drain-boards may be made of ash or of maple, or they may
be made of some other wood and covered with zinc. For
the purpose of shedding water, wooden drain-boards should be
grooved and zinc-covered boards should be provided with a
curbed or raised edge. Furthermore, a drain-board should
slope slightly toward the sink, on the rim of which it rests.
The resulting board level is about 1 inch above the sink level.

The construction of sink-boards requires the most careful
workmanship. The use of wood for draining purposes subjects
it to the severe test of being continually wet on one side only.
In order to avoid warping and splitting, therefore, a sink-board
should be thick, heavy, and well cleated on the underside. A
surface finish that will render the boards water-resisting should
be applied before they are put into use. Usually sink-boards
are varnished, but this finish water-marks, wears off, and on the
whole is less serviceable than a surface finished with wood filler,
followed with linseed oil.

The sink should be supported from the wall, rather than on
legs, and should be piped, if possible, through a partition wall

110 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

rather than through the floor. A sink should be set at a height
convenient for the worker 34 inches from the floor is a good
average height. The usual height of 30 inches to the top of the
rim is too low for most persons.

DISCUSSION OF PLANS (FIGS. 35~38)

The plan of a farmhouse kitchen that has been developed in
accordance with the principles of kitchen planning previously
described is shown in Fig. 35. It will be found to work out satis-
factorily on each of the essential matters of use, location, size,
number and location of doors, number and location of windows,
and organization of work. In this kitchen, coal or wood is
used for fuel, and the equipment is movable.

In Fig. 36 is shown the arrangement of a kitchen in a suburban
house. In this case, gas is used for fuel, and the equipment
is built in. This arrangement also will be found to stand the
test on the points essential to good planning.

The working area of a farmhouse is represented in Fig. 37, in
which the principles of kitchen planning are clearly expressed.
The relation of the kitchen to the dining-room, the porch,
the pantry, and the washroom, should first be noted, after which
size, location, openings, and general equipment may be studied.
This kitchen has a corner location on the plan, with the food
pantry and one wall exposed in a northerly direction. The
kitchen proper represents an area of 130 square feet and the
pantry an area of 45 square feet. The number of doors has been
reduced to two, which are placed adjacent so that travel from
the porch occurs around a corner and not across the working
center. The most direct passage from the barns lies through
the washroom, as should be the case. The windows of the kit-
chen, which are placed high, light the working area sufficiently
and provide good ventilation. Moreover, if it is needed, a com-
plete sweep of air may be obtained from end to end by opening
the two pantry doors, over either of which a transom may be
built. Both these doors are glazed, in order to afford light and
view. A fuel compartment is conveniently located for either
kitchen or washroom. An eating- porch, looking toward the

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN

111

garden and the sunset, occupies the corner angle between the
kitchen and the dining-room. The kitchen and the porch con-
nect with a Dutch door, so that outdoor meals are easily served.
Extra food and extra fuel are stored in the cellar, whence they
are delivered by a dumb-waiter, or lift.

FIG. 35. A farmhouse kitchen that demonstrates
the principles of sound planning.

The purpose of a washroom is to save the other parts of the
house. Here all dirty and occasional forms of work may be done.
The room is equipped for the family washing and ironing, and
stores such general cleaning apparatus as brooms, pails, and
vacuum cleaner. Here, also, men coming from the barn may
remove muddy boots and overalls, and may clean up before
going to the table. Such feeding pails for stock as are brought
to the house should be deposited here, not taken into the kitchen.

112

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Considering the nature of this room and its many uses, it should
be made as large as can be afforded, and should be provided,
if possible, with a cement floor and a painted wall so that splash-
ing will not injure it. The room shown in Fig. 37 is in reality

FIG. 36. A kitchen for a suburban house, developed in accord-
ance with the principles of good arrangement.

the old washhouse and woodshed, fitted more completely than
formerly, and is an important part of the plan.

PANTRIES AND CLOSETS

No part of the kitchen equipment has been so evaded in
planning as has accurate and systematic storage space. The
habit has been acquired of using every corner and tuck-away
place for a closet, the idea being that the more closets, the greater
would be the convenience. Too much or inaccessible storage
space invites slack housekeeping and is, therefore, more de-
structive to the general scheme than is too little closet room.

PLATE XI. (Above) Shelves of suitable size for the materials to be stored.

(Below) Utensils in which foods may be both cooked and served

casseroles and meat plank.

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN

113

Limited storage space compels one to organize, to eliminate,
and to arrange compactly, the general result thereby favoring
conservation. Only such storage space should be planned as

LIVING ROOM

FIG. 37. Plan in which principles of kitchen arrangement are clearly expressed.

is really needed to complete and assist the operation of the
kitchen.

There are three general types of storage space that may be
used in connection with the kitchen arrangements: (1) the
pantry, (2) the cupboard filled with shelves, and (3) the cabinet,
or dresser. Of these three, the pantry is by nature the most
capacious, the cupboard next, and the cabinet least. An analy-
sis of these three forms should enable one to plan intelligently
the storage space for an individual kitchen.

The pantry may be defined as an enlarged closet through

114

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

which one passes or into which one steps instead of merely
reaching. Its purpose is primarily to furnish more generous
storage space than is provided by the ordinary cupboard. There
are in general two types of pantries, the food pantry and the
pass pantry. The food pantry is intended primarily for the
storage of food supplies that must be kept cooler than the tem-

FIG. 38. A complete and convenient kitchen for any house.

perature of the kitchen. The pass or butler's pantry is used for
the storing of china and for the serving of meals. Often these
two pantries can be combined into one without breaking up the
organization of the work.

Whether a food pantry, or a pass pantry, or both, or a com-
bination of the two shall be planned for any given house, de-
pends on the conditions of that special case. In general, a food

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN

115

pantry is always needed when coal is used for cooking, because
the temperature of the kitchen then becomes so warm that
certain foods will not keep; whereas, when gas is used, the
temperature is likely to be fairly
cool and even, which often allows
for the food pantry to be replaced
by an ice-box, a dumb-waiter, or
both, placed directly in the kitchen.
If the ventilation of the room is
good, such an arrangement will re-
quire very little more ice a year
than the amount needed if the re-
frigerator were placed in a separate
entry or pantry or on an outer Fia. 39. the pass pantry or

DOrch serving-pantry, shown on

Al P M . i i plan in Fig. 38.

If the family is large, however,

or the house located at a distance from the markets, a food
pantry is almost necessary to store sufficient supplies. Often
one tier of shelves in the food pantry is reserved for utensils,
which makes a separate cupboard unnecessary. Owing to the
nature of its use, the food pantry should preferably be located
on a northerly outside wall and should be provided with a
window.

The pass pantry (Fig. 39) is for several reasons an almost
invaluable adjunct to the kitchen. Not only does it provide
closet space for china and aid the smooth serving of meals, but
it also shuts off the noise and the odors of the kitchen from the
remainder of the house. Owing to the nature of its use, the
pass pantry should be located on the partition wall between
the dining-room and the kitchen. It is of course desirable,
but not really necessary, to arrange the pass pantry so that it
touches the outer wall and is provided with a window. Where
this is impossible, an inside serving-pantry painted white and
lighted through a glass panel in the door leading to the
kitchen, will be found to be light and satisfactory (Figs. 35
and 36).

Sometimes in place of, or in addition to, the pass pantry, a

116 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

china closet opening both ways is built into the wall between
the dining-room and the kitchen (Fig. 37). Although con-
venient, this destroys the quieting effect of the pass pantry,
as it provides direct communication between the dining-room
and the kitchen, and danger of noise and odors. A simple and
direct arrangement for meal service is shown in Figs. 35 and 36,
where the pass pantry is used and there is a slide through to
the sink drain-board. In neither case are the dishes carried
across the kitchen; they are delivered, washed, and returned
within the shortest possible line of service.

Glass china closets and plate rails should be* used sparingly
in the design of the dining-room. The cupboard a closet
filled with shelves is a valuable place of storage for pans,
china, or supplies. If intelligently shelved, it can be made
almost as capacious as a small pantry.

The arrangement of shelving is perhaps the most important
feature in the planning of storage space. For the best results,
shelves should be designed only wide enough to hold com-
fortably one row of supplies, of whatever kind considered.
An arrangement of narrow shelves spaced close together will
prove to be more capacious, accessible, and easy to clean than
wide shelves spaced far apart. From every standpoint, deep
shelves are a great mistake, because one must then arrange
for two or three rows of materials in order to use the space.
It will be found that the area of comfortable reach is between
one and six feet from the floor, leaving about five feet of quickly
available space. For the sake of efficiency, this space should
be as compactly shelved as is feasible for the use intended. A
cupboard provided with one or two broad shelves below and a
series of narrower shelves above, will hold a large number of
articles, both effectively and accessibly displayed. A cupboard
with doors for pans, china, or supplies is ample if made from
10 to 15 inches deep; a series of open shelves, if made from 8
to 10 inches deep. Shelves as narrow as 6 inches are good for
single rows of dry supplies. From 7 to 10 inches between shelves
is a safe average distance for spacing; but in order to make
the most out of a given space, it is best to think out carefully

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 117

the materials that are to be stored, and to space the shelves
accordingly.

The kitchen cabinet, or dresser, brings a new element into
the storage arrangement. It introduces a work shelf at table
height, thereby dividing the storage into an upper and a lower
part. The deep under part may be arranged for either closet
or drawer space; the upper part may be arranged as a shallow
cupboard for supplies. The most valuable form of storage for
the lower section of a cabinet is an arrangement of -drawers,
for these pull out and expose their contents from the top so
that one need not stoop to reach them. From four to six well-
planned drawers will be adequate for the ordinary kitchen: a
broad, shallow drawer subdivided for small utensils, such as
knives, forks, spoons, egg-beaters, and the like; a deeper
drawer for kitchen linen, such as towels, clean cloths and
aprons; and two or three deep, narrow drawers, or bins,
for storing flour, sugars, and other dry supplies of a bulky
nature.

Appropriate drawer space for the pass pantry is about as
follows: a broad, shallow drawer with subdivisions for the
different kinds of table silver; one, two, or three broad, shallow
drawers for table linen; and a deep drawer for miscellaneous
needs, containing perhaps a compartment for string, one for
wrapping paper, and so on.

It should be realized from the foregoing discussion that the
cabinet, or dresser, is an appropriate form of storage only when
table space is needed also; that is, the emphasis is here placed
on the work shelf rather than on the storage capacity. To equip
a pantry, whose function is to furnish maximum storage space,
with closets of the dresser type is therefore a mistake, since
it furnishes an excess of table space at the expense of cupboard
room. An ordinary cupboard or a series of open shelves, sup-
plemented by a small table or work shelf with drawers below,
is a much more appropriate arrangement than to break up the
most valuable part of the storage space by the intrusion of a
work shelf. The cabinet form is chiefly valuable in the kitchen
proper.

118 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The subject of kitchen storage should not be dismissed with-
out emphasizing the usefulness of the dumb-waiter. This is
an almost indispensable convenience when a portion of the
cellar is used for food supplies. The dumb-waiter will carry
wood, coal, and food between floors, and is a great labor-saver.
With such an arrangement, a cold part of the cellar may be
substituted for the food pantry, even taking the place of an
ice-box satisfactorily. One trip a day to the cellar is enough
to keep the lift supplied.

INTERIOR FINISH

Any kitchen that is to give full satisfaction must be sound
in arrangement, sightly in appearance, and smooth in opera-
tion. Within reasonable limits, anything that can be devised
to enforce this triple standard, must be considered worthy of
trial. The demands of convenience will of course always come
first, thereby deciding matters of arrangement and of manage-
ment; but the less insistent needs for a work place that shall
be a fit and lovely spot, must also be met. A clean, level floor,
walls and furniture with smooth washable surfaces, and a pleas-
ing color scheme are elements that eliminate mental friction
and that add the touch of refinement which makes of any work
a joy.

Up to the present time, no perfect flooring that is cheap
enough for use in private homes has been evolved. The ma-
terials most available are wood and linoleum. Of the two,
linoleum is thought to be preferable, because it can be cemented
tight to the under floor, it is practically crackless, and it is
quiet and easy to walk on. Plain brown " battleship" linoleum
is a reliable, standard product, or a modest inlaid pattern may
be used instead. Experienced housekeepers claim that linoleum
with a pattern is both more attractive and easier to keep clean
than is the plain color. Although good linoleum is not a cheap
floor covering, its satisfactory and lasting nature commends
it in spite of its cost.

A maple or a beech floor of narrow boards is the next best
material. Yellow pine and oak are too open grained to make a

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 119

satisfactory floor for kitchen use. Maple and beech are both
light in color and do not make a very attractive floor under
hard use, but they can be scrubbed and kept clean. -A maple
floor should be finished by saturating it with hot linseed oil
for a number of hours; then all the extra oil should be thoroughly
wiped up. In this way, the wood is practically impregnated
against the absorption of grease.

Kitchen woodwork should be plain, with as few grooves and
moldings as possible. Wooden wainscotings in kitchen and
bathroom should never be used.

For the interior finish of the kitchen, nothing is comparable
to clean, light-colored paint for walls and woodwork. Warm
grays, buffs, and other soft, neutral tints may be used. Some-
times walls, woodwork, and furniture are all painted the same
color, thereby uniting the whole effect. Even ready-made
cabinets, tables, and refrigerators are far more attractive if
painted a light color.

A kitchen finished in stained oak or varnished pine, like the
remainder of the house, is unnecessarily monotonous. It
should be differentiated from the other rooms in color scheme
and general atmosphere. Light colors, mixed on a basis of
white, are not only cheering and restful to look at, but have
the further advantage of reflecting and distributing the light
so that there are no dark corners.

Such a room becomes also an easy and economical one to
light well at night. When gas or oil lamps are used, light
colors are positively invaluable in the kitchen. Each wall
then becomes in reality a huge reflecting surface, so that a given
amount of light is virtually used several times over. If an elec-
tric fixture for indirect lighting an inverted metal bowl is
placed centrally on a white ceiling, the entire kitchen is evenly
lighted so that there are neither heavy shadows nor dark cor-
ners to impede the work. Naturally, the lighter the general
color scheme, the less the current that will be needed. Light
colors may, therefore, be considered as having a practical, as
well as an aesthetic, value.

120 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

REFERENCES

Child, Georgie Boynton. The Efficient Kitchen. 1914.
Frederick, Christine. The New Housekeeping. 1913.
Goodnow, Ruby Ross, and Adams, Rayne. The Honest House. 1914.
White, Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. 1912.

PART II
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER IV
CARE OF THE HOUSE
BY HELEN KNOWLTON

FOR convenience as well as efficient work in housekeeping,
a schedule of regular daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly proc-
esses should be made out. Time can then be well planned, and
a routine established that simplifies the machinery of house-
keeping.

CELLAR

To keep the cellar in a sanitary condition, as much sunlight
as possible should be admitted. The windows should be made
as large as possible and be on opposite sides to insure cross-
ventilation. If the house is banked for the winter, dry clean
material should be used and the windows should not be covered.
If the cellar floor is of concrete and is proof against dampness,
it can be washed. The cellar walls should be whitewashed once
or twice a year. Whitewash is a disinfectant. If the cellar
walls admit moisture, it is recommended to wash them with a
dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (1 part acid and 5 parts
water) , and then apply a plaster of oil-mixed mortar.

A cellar containing a heating plant should be divided into
compartments. By constructing one of these compartments
with an insulating wall of hollow tile, a cool room for vegetables
may be secured. It is sometimes best to construct an outside
cellar for such storage (page 584).

121

122 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

KITCHEN

Sink.

A sink without running water is unjustifiable for the busy
housewife. A drain connection with a trap and a sanitary dis-
posal outside for wastes should be provided. The best kind of
sink and the proper height for placing it are discussed on page
108.

After each dishwashing, the sink should be washed with hot
soapy water, and the sink-trap flushed with a generous supply
of hot water. This trap must be cleaned occasionally with kero-
sene. At least one gallon of hot water should be poured down
and while the pipe is still warm, one-half cup of kerosene poured
in. This should stand for at least five minutes and then the
trap may be flushed with a second gallon of hot water. A solu-
tion of washing-soda should not be used since it tends to form
a hard soap with the grease and to stop up the pipe. Kerosene
forms no soap, but simply an emulsion.

The sink should be kept so far as possible for purposes con-
nected only with the preparation of food and the cleaning of
dishes.

Walls and woodwork.

Painted walls and woodwork are most easily cleaned. They
may be wiped with a broom covered with a soft cloth for fre-
quent cleaning. A long-handled brush is better than a broom.
Occasionally they may be scrubbed with a soft brush, warm
water and borax, and rinsed before being dried.

Floors.

Floor finishes best adapted for the kitchen are discussed on
page 117. A mop-wringer is a great convenience in the work of
mopping the kitchen floor.

Dishwashing.

Since the aim of dishwashing is to clean the dishes and to kill
the bacteria that may be present by the use of soapsuds and
scalding water, special care should be taken in case of ton-
silitis, colds, and other infectious diseases. Unless the dishes

CARE OF THE HOUSE 123

of the patient are boiled, the germs may infect the whole
family.

Kitchen towels and cups.

The roller towel for family use as well as the common drink-
ing-cup must be discarded, if the health of the family is to be
safeguarded.

Kitchen dresses.

Washable work dresses are the only kind suitable for wearing
in a kitchen. They have been proved to be economical of
both money and time. They may be made of various inexpen-
sive and satisfactory materials (page 368). Short sleeves and
turndown collars or no collars at all add to the comfort of the
worker. The design should be the simplest possible.

LIVING-ROOM AND DINING-ROOM

The window shades of the living-room and the dining-room
should be raised more than halfway to let in the sunshine,
and the windows should be opened frequently to air out and
to keep the temperature below 70 F.

SLEEPING-ROOMS

The ideal sleeping-room is the outdoor porch with only cur-
tains for protection. An indoor sleeping-room should have
simple furnishings. Unnecessary draperies collect dust and
exclude air and sunshine. The floor should be bare save for a
few small, easily cleaned rugs. The wall paper should be of a
soft restful color, either plain or with small inconspicuous figures.

An iron bed is better than a wooden one because it can be
more easily cleaned. A mattress is more healthful than a
feather bed, because the body is not so enveloped as to hinder
the escape of waste matter from the skin. The bed covering
should be warm but light. Several light-weight blankets or
comforts are better than fewer heavy ones.

BATHROOM

Absolute cleanliness and abundant ventilation are essential
in a sanitary bathroom. Kerosene applied with a special brush

124 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

or cloth to the bathtub, bowl, and toilet and washed off with
a good soap solution will solve most of the difficulties of cleaning.
All brushes or cloths used in cleaning the bathroom should be
thoroughly washed in clean soap-suds, rinsed in hot water,
and dried in the sunlight each time after being used. Occasional
flushing of the toilet with a strong solution of washing-soda is
desirable.

Faucets, door knobs, and all parts of the toilet ever touched
by the hands, as well as the usually cleaned parts, should be
washed occasionally with a solution of some good disinfectant,
such as creolin, lysol, or alcohol.

SUGGESTIONS FOR SWEEPING AND DUSTING

Dust should be avoided, since it irritates the throat and may
carry germs. If possible a vacuum sweeper should be used. If a
broom is used it should be dampened, or bits of moist paper
or some commercial substance for sweeping should be sprinkled
over the floor. In sweeping, short strokes should be taken
away from the person. Rugs which can be cleaned outdoors
are generally preferable to carpets.

Dustless mops and dustless dusters are sanitary labor-savers.
They can be made at home by dipping the mop or the duster in
a solution of some vegetable oil, such as linseed or cottonseed
oil, in gasoline or other solvent, about one tablespoon of oil to
one pint of gasoline being used. There should be no fire in the
room where the gasoline is used. The mop or duster should be
hung outdoors until the gasoline has evaporated. The oil will
be evenly distributed in this way. The duster may be washed
once or twice before it is necessary to redip it in the oil
solution.

REPAIR KIT

A well-stocked repair kit should be a part of the equipment
of every household. It should be placed in a convenient loca-
tion and should contain: hammer, screwdriver, plane, pliers,

CARE OF THE HOUSE 125

awl, oil-can, saw, soldering outfit, knife sharpener, twine, shears,
and such tacks, nails, screws, hooks, and wire as are most often
in demand.

SOME SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR CLEANING *

Cleaning closet

In every house there should be a cupboard or a closet set
aside for cleaning purposes, "with a place for everything and
everything in its place." The cleaning materials and apparatus
listed under the following directions are not expensive and
greatly simplify the cleaning problem. Shelves and racks should
be provided for holding all apparatus and materials needed,
and as far as possible labels should show where each brush,
broom, pail, or bottle is to be returned.

The following list of materials and utensils should be included
in the housekeeper's cleaning kit :

Cleaning materials

Alcohol Paraffin

Alum Rottenstone

Ammonia Salt

Bath brick Soap

Black lead Turpentine

Borax Vinegar

Furniture polish Washing-soda

Kerosene Wax (floor)

Light oil Whiting
Olive oil

Cleaning articles

Apron, stove Flannel, heavy

Carpet, piece old brussels Flannel, waxing

Chamois skin or leather Flannelette for dusters

Cheese-cloth Gloves, rubber

Cloth, scrub Mitt, for kerosene

Cloth, soft Waste, cotton (cotton waste may be bought

Flannel, canton at any hardware store)

* Mary Urie Watson. Rules for cleaning. Cornell Reading-Course for
the Farm Home, Bull. 23,

126 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Cleaning utensils

Boiler, for clothes Irons

Brush, closet Monkey wrench

Brush, cornice Mop, cloth

Brush, scrub Mop, string

Brush, soft Saucepans (old)

Brush, trap Scissors (for lamp)

Brush, weighted Step ladder

Brush, wire (for sink) Tub

Carpet sweeper Tub, fiber

Dauber Washboard

Dish-pans Whisk-broom

Funnels Wringer
Ironing tables

To clean lamps.

The apparatus necessary for cleaning lamp is an old news-
paper, the kerosene can, a damp flannelette duster, lamp scissors,
and a dry towel.

1. Carry the lamps to a sink, or to a table convenient to the sink.
2. Spread the paper and place everything on it. 3. Wash and dry the
lamp chimneys as if they were tumblers. 4. Open up the lamp burner,
screw up the wick, trim off all the char with the scissors, and screw down
the wick % inch below the brass. Round wicks must have the char rubbed
off with the duster. 5. Soap one corner of the duster and rub carefully
every part of the brass burner; if necessary, polish (see copper, page 232).
6. Fill each lamp nearly full of kerosene. See that the burner is properly
screwed on, and wipe the body of the lamp carefully. 7. Put on the chim-
neys and set the lamps in their places. 8. Wash the scissors and duster
and hang the duster to dry. Gather all trimmings in the paper and burn
both trimmings and paper. They are not safe to leave around.

To oil a kitchen stove.

1. Put a little light oil on a wad of cotton waste and rub it on all the
iron parts of the stove. 2. Rub it off with fresh waste, an old cloth, or
some crumpled paper. 3. Polish it with a dry flannelette or woolen cloth
until all oiliness is gone. 4. Burn the waste, old cloth, or paper because
oily waste and oily cloths are a frequent cause of fire through spontaneous
combustion. 5. Wash out the polishing cloth.

To clean a gas stove thoroughly.

This process requires the following apparatus : A stove apron,
a few old newspapers, a wire sink-brush, a monkey wrench ;

CARE OF THE HOUSE 127

whisk, dustpan and brush, a sink towel, several pieces of old
cloth, soap and washing-soda, and the oil bottle.

1. Put on the apron and spread the papers on the table. 2. Turn off
the gas at the main supply pipe with the monkey wrench. 3. Fill a large
dish-pan with strong, hot soap-suds, put into it to soak the dripping-pan
and rack and any movable nickel pieces of the stove. 4. Fill a tub half
full of strong, hot soda-water. Put the drop tray in the bottom to soak,
and on top of it put the top grates, doors, and all movable black parts of
the stove. 5. Brush out both ovens and all parts of the stove frame.
6. Wet one of the old cloths in hot water, rub it on the soap, and wash off
the stove. Dry it, if necessary, with an old cloth. Then oil the black parts
very lightly with the oil and polish it off thoroughly with another old dry
cloth. 7. Remove the pieces from the soda-water, rinse them in the sink
in fresh warm water, and scrub the doors and other black pieces with the
wire brush. Dry them off, oil and polish them, and put them back on the
stove. 8. Let the dirty water out of the sink, transfer the nickel pieces,
dripping-pan, and rack to the sink, pour in the soapy water, scrub the
pieces thoroughly, dry them with the sink towel, and return them to place.
9. Scrub, rinse, dry, and return to place the drop tray. 10. Oil the stove
after all the parts are put together. 11. Burn the old cloths and wash
the sink out carefully. It is especially necessary to be careful about burn-
ing oily cloths that are not washed after using, because they have been
known to take fire spontaneously and are therefore dangerous when tucked
into corners out of sight.

To dean windows.

A high stepladder, fiber tub, damp flannelette duster, scrub
cloth, soft linen towel, chamois leather, ammonia, and warm
water are necessary to clean windows.

1. Fill the tub half full of warm water and add a tablespoonful of am-
monia or a few drops of kerosene. 2. Carry the ladder to the window, roll
up the shade, and take it down. Unroll it on the floor or over a table,
then roll it up, dusting both sides as it rolls. Stand it aside, marking to
which window it belongs if more than one is being cleaned. 3. Dust the
window, especially the surrounding woodwork, with the damp flannelette
duster. 4. Wash the glass, especially corners, and dry with the linen towel.
5. Polish with the chamois leather. 6. Replace the shade, testing carefully,
and make sure the spring works properly. 7. Wash out the tub; towel,
cloth, and duster. Hang the cloths to dry and put everything else away.
8. If chamois leather is not available, use crumpled newspaper. 9. The
following mixture may be used instead of ammonia and water, but the
resulting white dust must be carefully wiped up: 1 tablespoonful pre-
cipitated whiting; 2 tablespoonfuls household ammonia.

128 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

To dean a piano case.

A bottle of olive oil, a bottle of alcohol, some new or perfectly
clean canton flannel, a perfectly clean chamois leather, and a
basin of water will be needed to clean a piano.

1. Wet a small piece of the flannel and drop on it a few drops of oil.
2. Rub, with the wet flannel, a small section of the case at a time, and
immediately rub it thoroughly with a dry piece of the flannel, before
proceeding to a fresh section. 3. Polish it finally with the chamois or a fresh
piece of the flannel. Rub with the grain of the wood, and breathe on it
occasionally to help remove any oiliness that may remain. A very little
flour rubbed with the grain of the wood will also help to remove oiliness,
but its use should not be necessary. 4. Wash the piano keys with a corner
of the flannel wet with alcohol. Be careful, however, to avoid touching
the wood with the alcohol, as it will ruin the varnish.

To wax a floor.

In waxing floors, the following apparatus is necessary: a
can of floor wax, a waxing flannel, a half yard of heavy flannel
or a piece of old brussels carpet, and a weighted brush.

1. The floor must be clean and free from dust. 2. If necessary, stand
the wax can in a dish of hot water in order to soften the wax. 3. Rub
the waxing flannel on the wax and put a very thin, even layer of wax on
the floor. It is better to rub along the boards than across. Start at the
corner farthest from the door, and do not step on the waxed part. 4. Put
away the wax and flannel, and keep off the floor for at least three hours.
The polishing can be done after standing an hour, but is more work.
5. Fold the piece of heavy flannel twice, making four layers, put it down
on the floor, put the weighted brush on it, and rub each board, with the
grain, until it shines. The piece of carpet makes an excellent substitute
for the flannel. The polishing can be done on the hands and knees without
a weighted brush, but is much harder work.

CHAPTER V
HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE

THE modern household should be equipped with well-selected
measuring appliances which can be intelligently used not only
to help standardize the daily housework and living conditions
in the home but also to insure and promote just dealing in the
community. The exact value of units used must be clearly
known. Since the use of the metric system (page 167) is for-
tunately becoming more widespread, future generations may
escape the problems arising from the vagueness and ambiguity
of the systems now in common use in this country.*

MEASUREMENTS FOR COMMODITIES

Measuring apparatus for household commodities should be
tested and sealed by the local sealer of weights and measures,
at the time of purchase.

Weighing scale.

A weighing scale should have a capacity of 10 to 30 pounds
or more, and should be graduated to 1 ounce or less. Among
good types on the market are the hanging-pan spring scale,
the counter beam scale, and the beam scale of the steelyard
type designed to hang from a bracket. The cheap scale in
which the commodity pan stands above the spring, is likely
to be inaccurate.

To use the scale properly, the following precautions should
be observed: (1) Handle it carefully, and keep it clean and dry.
(2) Keep it in balance. A properly constructed scale will rarely
get out of balance, but the proper way of adjusting a particular

* The following material in this chapter, with the exception of the tables
indicated, is condensed from Measurements for the Household, Circ. 55,
published by the Bur. of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce.

129

130 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

kind of scale should be learned. (3) Keep the eye squarely in
front of the point of the scale that is being read. (4) Do not
weigh a commodity in cardboard or other heavy covering with-
out weighing the covering separately and deducting its weight
from the total weight.

Liquid measures.

The supply of liquid measures should include a quart, a pint,
and a half-pint measure, and a 4-ounce glass graduate subdivided
to 1 dram or less for measuring small quantities of liquids and
determining the errors in larger quantities. The measures
should be cylindrical or conical with the top diameter smaller
than the bottom, and made of metal, enamelware, composition,
or similar and suitable material. They should be strong and
rigid enough to withstand ordinary usage.

To test the quantity of a liquid as delivered, the following
directions will be useful: Pour the liquid into the measure.
If it does not fill the measure, pour it out and fill the measure
with water to the same point that the purchased liquid reached.
This can be done by observing the wet ring left around the
measure. Then put a definite quantity of water into the gradu-
ate, and complete the filling of the measure. The difference
between the quantity of liquid remaining in the graduate and
the original quantity put in is the shortage. If the quantity
of liquid ordered more than fills the test measure, the check for
error is made on the last portion poured into the measure.

To avoid mistakes in reading cone graduates, it should be
noted that these are sometimes more finely subdivided at the
base than at the top.

A graduate should be held level in filling it or reading it.
It should be read at the main surface of the liquid, not at the
point to which the small amount of liquid creeps on the sides
of the glass.

Dry measures.

A nest of dry measures holding from J/2 bushel to 1 quart
may be necessary, although the growing tendency is to sell dry
commodities by weight. The weight of a bushel of certain

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 131

common dry commodities, as fixed by law in certain states, is
given on page 162. Dry measures should be of metal, or of
well-varnished wood with a metal band around the top, or of
some similar and suitable material. They should preferably
be cylindrical. If they are conical, the top diameter should
exceed the bottom diameter by an amount not greater than
10 per cent of the bottom diameter. The diameters should in
no case be less than the following:

For % bushel 13 3 /4 inches

For 1 peck lC 7 /s inches

For Y% peck 8*/2 inches

For two quarts 6 6 /8 inches

For 1 quart 5 3 /s inches

For 1 pint 4 inches

Length measure.

For measuring length, a yardstick and a tape 3 or 6 feet in
length are recommended.

TEMPERATURE

The following thermometers should be a part of the equip-
ment of every household :

Room-temperature thermometer.

To give a fair measure of the temperature of a room, a ther-
mometer should be placed about four feet from the floor, away
from a stove, radiator, or ventilation flue and not on an out-
side wall. Under certain conditions fifteen minutes or more may
be required to show the correct temperature if a thermometer
is moved.

Outdoor thermometer.

To indicate the real temperature of outdoor air as given in
the weather reports, a thermometer must be mounted in a
specially well ventilated house or box four feet from the ground
and so built as to shield the thermometer entirely from direct
sunlight. Nearly the same results may be secured by placing
a thermometer in an open shady place, possibly at the north of
a building, several feet away from the walls and four feet from
the ground.

132

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

257

110 AU1

D.vt 248

2^9

2)0

100 60

tir

212

167-

153

145 --

57 ~TJ

r B

OP'

3 '

77 '

=. 76

"* ji

Clinical thermometer.

The usual clinical thermometer is a " maxi-
mum" thermometer, that is, the mercury in
the stem registers the highest temperature
reached and does not return when the ther-
mometer is cooled, but must be shaken back
before another temperature can be measured.
For this reason the thermometer may be
removed from the mouth and read later.

The usual type of " lens-front" thermome-
ter is so made that the front of the glass tube
acts as a lens magnifying the width of the
mercury thread. To read such a thermome-
ter, it should be held in the hand and turned
until the mercury column suddenly appears
magnified to considerable width. This will
occur when the clear corner of the triangular
tube is directly in front. The reading can
then be made, remembering that the smallest
divisions of the scale are usually 0.2. The
mercury should then be shaken back into the
bulb by holding the thermometer firmly be-
tween thumb and forefinger, bulb outward,
and giving a few very brisk shakes from the
wrist, or with the arm, and then seeing that
the thermometer reads as low as 96 F. or
35. 5 C. The thermometer should never be
tapped against a hard substance, as this is
almost certain to break the bulb.

Bath thermometers.

Bath thermometers usually have their
scales printed on paper or milk glass contained
in a large glass tube which incloses the ther-
mometer capillary. They are often protected
by a wooden cage to prevent breakage. When
thus protected, it may take some time to ob-

p! G . 40. Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales for measuring tem-
perature.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 133

tain the real temperature of the water unless the thermometer
is kept moving. The temperatures in different parts of a tub of
water may differ many degrees unless the water has been well
mixed.

A bath thermometer should be read while it is in the water
because the readings will change very rapidly when the ther-
mometer is taken out of warm water.

Milk thermometers.

Milk thermometers are useful in measuring the temperature
of milk or cream, for the control of pasteurizing milk, churning
cream, whipping cream, and the like. These processes are best
carried out at definite temperatures. Some of these milk ther-
mometers are purposely made large and light so that they will
float, making their use more convenient.

Candy-making thermometers.

These thermometers are for use in making candies, boiling
sirups, and the like. The thermometer should not be too near
the bottom or the sides of the kettle, nor yet should it be at
the point where boiling is most violent. Some of the tempera-
tures at which boiling sirups should be removed from the fire
to make different kinds of candies, as well as other useful in-
formation as to temperature, are given in Table II.

A candy-making thermometer may be tested for accuracy
as follows: First find the boiling point for any altitude from
Table I (thus at 2,000 feet elevation the average temperature is
208 F. or 98 C.) ; then hold the thermometer with its bulb well
immersed in a dish of briskly boiling pure water, and read the
highest temperature reached. If this differs from that found in
the table, the thermometer is too high or too low by this dif-
ference.

Oven thermometers.

Various kinds of thermometers are used for reading oven
temperatures. One kind is placed in the oven door and has a
dial with a hand for indicating the temperatures. These ther-
mometers may not indicate the true temperature of the oven
because the door never becomes as hot as the remainder of the

134 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

oven, and often takes much longer in heating up. However,
since temperatures sometimes need not be known more accu-
rately than within 10 or 20 degrees, such thermometers are use-
ful and are more convenient than those which have to be hung
inside the oven. One kind of thermometer which reads up to
550 F., is made to screw into a special opening in the range.
It may be hung inside the oven, but in this case the door must be
opened or a window provided in order to read it.

Tests for thermometers.

Household thermometers from reliable makers are usually
correct to within 1 or 2 degrees at room temperature and below,
although sometimes they are several degrees in error.

Any thermometer which has 32 F. or C. on its scale may be
easily tested at this point by scraping a tumbler full of clear ice,
saturating this with ice-cold, pure water, and placing the ther-
mometer bulb in this mixture until it reads as low as it will
go. Clean snow saturated with water may also be used, but
if the snow is left dry it may be much colder than 32 F. If the
thermometer tested reads 32 F. or C., it is correct at this
point. If higher or lower than this, it is too high or too low by
the amount of the difference observed. Such a test is reliable
to a tenth of a degree if carefully made. .

For other temperatures there are no tests which are quite as
convenient or reliable as for the ice point. The steam point,
212 F. or 100 C., is used in the testing of thermometers in the
laboratory, but the steam temperature depends on the baro-
metric reading, which varies with the weather, and with the
altitude of the place where the water is boiled. For places
within 500 feet of sea level, the temperature shown by a ther-
mometer immersed in a steam bath over briskly boiling water,
or in the water itself if the same is pure, should be between
210 and 212 F., or between 99, and 100 C. For higher alti-
tudes the temperature will be lower, as may be seen from
Table I. The temperatures given in this table are averages only
and variations of 1 F. or 0.6. C. may take place from day to
day because of changes in the barometric pressure.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 135

If a tested clinical thermometer is at hand, a fairly accurate
test at about 100 F. may be made. A thermometer which is
correct at the ice point and at about 100 F. will probably be
correct at other temperatures. Clinical thermometers should
be tested by a competent testing laboratory, such as that at the
United States Bureau of Standards.

TABLE I. BOILING POINT OF WATER AND AVERAGE BAROMETER
READINGS FOR DIFFERENT ALTITUDES

Altitude

Temperature of steam

Corrected barometer
Average readings

Degrees F.

Degrees C.

Inches

Millimeters

Sea level . .

212.0
208.3
204.6
201.1
197.6
194.0

100.0
97.9
95.9
93.9
92.0
90.0

29.9
27.8
25.8
24.0
22.3
20.7

760
706
655
610
566
526

2000 feet

4000 feet

6000 feet .

8000 feet

10,000 feet

TABLE II. USEFUL TEMPERATURES

Degrees

Centi-

Fahren-

grade

heit

Mercury freezes . ...

Freezing cold storage . .

(18
I

+32

Water freezes

Danger of frost

-1-4

Household refrigerator, proper temperature

Churning . .

11
17

Gymnasium, or rooms where occupants are actively

engaged in physical work or exercise

Ripening of cream

Rooms where occupants are not exercising

20
21

68
70

Normal temperature of the human body determined by

thermometer under the tongue

98.6

Incubator temperature . ; . i

39.4

103

136

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE II. Continued

Degrees
Centi-
grade

Degrees
Fahren-
heit

High fever, temperature measured as above

40 6

105

Pasteurizing milk ... ...

145

Pasteurizing milk (flash process)

160

Water boils at normal pressure

100

212

Plain sugar sirups:
For sirup, 11 pounds to the gallon

For fondant candies . . .

104
[113

219
236

For fudge and other candies of like nature
For taffy and like hard candies to be pulled ....
For clear brittle candies, peanut brittle, etc
For almond and walnut brittle . . .

115
"115
149
154
157

240
240
300
310
315

Melting point of common soft solder

185

365

Oven temperatures for baking:
Custards, meringues, pies, puddings, etc

121

250

Sponge cake, bread, gingerbread, plain cake, an:'
cookies

177
177
[204

350
350
400

Parker House rolls, popovers, and biscuits
Biscuit and pastry. . ; . . ." . .

204
232
232

400
450
450

Melting point of lead

J287
327

550
621

Melting point of aluminum ..... .V. '.

659

1218

TABLE III. A TABLE OF TEMPERATURES *

Process

Degrees
Centigrade

Degrees
Fahrenheit

Freezing of fruit ices (temperature of
medium)

5 to 8

23 to 18

Freezing of water

Whipping of cream

3 to 10

37 to 50

Butter-making <

15 to 16

Raising of bread (temperature of
room)

26 to 40

79 to 104

* Williams, Anna W., and Gray, Cora E., Cooking Temperatures, Bull.
47^ Univ. of 111.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 137

TABLE III. Continued

Process

Degrees
Centigrade

Degrees
Fahrenheit

Cheese-making
Coagulation of albumin

37 to 60

(Depends upon acidity)
Begins 665 completes 71

98. 6 to 140
133 to 160

Simmering of water

82 to 99

180 to 210

Soft custards

82 to 84

179 to 183

Double boiler, top part
Boiling water at sea level
Jellies (boiling point of water 100 C.)
Sugar cookery (boiling point of water
100 C.)
Fondant

89 to 94
100
103

113

192 to 201
212
185

235

Fudge frosting boiled

111

232 ..

1 egg white to 1 cup sugar .
2 egg whites to 1 cup sugar
1 egg white to 1 cup of dark
brown sugar

113 to 115
117

125

235 to 239
243

257

1 egg white to % cup of dark
brown sugar, % cup
white

122

252

* Roasting of meat
Temperature of oven
First 15 minutes
Remainder of time

250
175

450
347

Temperature of meat interior
Rare done

46 5 to 60

115 7 to 140

Medium ...

60 to 70

140 to 158

Well done
Deep-fat frying. Temperature of fat
for
Uncooked foods

70 to 80
175 to 190

158 to 176
347 to 374

Cooked foods

185 to 205

365 to 401

Cold, wet, uncooked foods

190 to 195

374 to 383

Baking. Temperature of center of
oven for
Sponge cakes . . . ...

175 to 190

347 to 374

Angel food cakes

150 to 170

302 to 338

Souffles (surrounded by water)
Bread

200
180 to 220

392

356 to 428

* Sprague, Elizabeth, and Grindley, H. C., "A Precise Method of Roast-
ing Beef," Univ. of 111. Bull., Vol. IV, No. 19.

138

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE III. Continued

Process

Degrees
Centigrade

Degrees
Fahrenheit

Butter cakes
Loaf

190

374

Layer

210

410

Muffins
Parkerhouse rolls
Baked potatoes . .

220 to 235
235
235

428 to 455
455
455

Baking powder biscuit
Popovers
*Pastry

235 to 240
235 to 200
240

455 to 464
455 to 392
464

*Sprague, Elizabeth, "Studies of Methods in Food Preparation,"
Journal of Home Economics, Vol. Ill, No. 5, p. 446.

TIME

The usual clocks found in the home may be divided into
two classes, the mantel or wall clock type, which has a pendu-
lum, and the common alarm-clock type, in which the movement
is controlled by tlie vibrations of a balance wheel, as in a watch.
The second variety is quite portable and will usually run in any
position, but the pendulum clock must be kept fixed in an up-
right position and must be adjusted every time it is moved.

Moving a pendulum dock.

The pendulum clock usually has its pendulum suspended by a
thin flat spring, and to avoid breaking this spring when the
clock is to be moved from one place to another, it is best either
to unhook the bob from the pendulum rod or to secure the
pendulum tightly to the clock works or case so that it cannot
swing. In setting up such a clock after removal, it is necessary
to put the clock "in beat"; that is, to make the successive vi-
brations of the pendulum, or the time between successive ticks
of the clock, of equal length. This must be done by carefully
leveling the clock on its support, unless the clock is provided
with adjusting thumbscrews at the top of the pendulum by the
movement of which one way or the other it can be made to
beat uniformly.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 139

Setting a clock.

The setting of a pendulum clock is usually best done by turn-
ing the minute hand forward, several revolutions if necessary,
to bring the hour hand to the correct hour. If the clock does
not have a striking mechanism, the hour hand, which is usually
held on its slightly conical shaft by friction, may be moved
forward a sufficient number of hours, and the minute hand ad-
justed to the correct minute. As the hour hand may have be-
come loosened on its shaft by this procedure, however, it should
be pressed tightly into place after it is set correctly. In some
clocks with a striking mechanism, the minute hand should not
be moved backward across a striking point, although it can,
without injury, be moved back short distances in other parts
of the dial to set it correctly.

Regulating a clock.

Few clocks of either the pendulum or the alarm-clock type
are made with devices to compensate for changes in temperature,
and as these changes will alter the rate, it is desirable to keep
the clock in the part of a room where its temperature will be
most constant. Even with the best conditions in this respect,
it will be necessary to regulate the clock's rate frequently on
account of the changes of temperature with season 01 with the
conditions of heating or cooling of the room. A rise of tempera-
ture will lengthen the pendulum rod and make the clock run
more slowly. It will be necessary, therefore, to raise the pendu-
lum bob by turning the supporting nut, unless an adjustment
device is provided by which a contact point on the suspension
spring at the top of the pendulum can be changed. This is
done by turning a key to right or left in a small keyhole
in the face of the clock, usually near the upper part of the
dial. This has the effect of shortening or lengthening the
pendulum.

In the alarm-clock type, the regulation is done by moving
a small lever, usually at the back of the clock, which engages
with the hairspring on the balance wheel, and so decreases or
increases the effective length of the spring, thus controlling

140 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

the time of a vibration of the balance. The lever should be
moved toward the letter "S" when One wishes to make the
clock run more slowly and toward "F" when it should run
faster. The same rule applies in the regulation of a watch.

When regulating a pendulum clock by the key device, the
key should be turned overhand toward the letter "S" or "F,"
according as one wishes to make the clock run more slowly or
faster. If there are no indicating letters ("F" and "S") pro-
vided, the usual rule is to turn the key in the direction the
hands move to make it go faster or counterclockwise to make
it run more slowly.

The amount of movement required to correct the rate must
generally be found by trial. Thus, if the clock gains five min-
utes a day, and one turns the key of the regulator two revolu-
tions toward "S," or moves the lever of an alarm clock two
divisions toward "S," and the clock then loses three minutes
a day, one can obtain nearly zero rate by turning the key
three-quarters of a revolution back toward "F" or by mov-
ing the lever three-quarters of a division back toward "F."
In some pendulum clocks there may be some motion lost in
reversing the regulation, and this should be taken into account
in estimating the amount to move the regulator.

To correct the striking of a clock.

While some clocks of a more recent type have the hour and
minute pinions and the striking mechanism so geared together
that it is almost impossible for the clock to strike wrongly, this
frequently happens with other types of clocks. This difficulty
can be remedied easily in the latter case by several methods.
One method, which can be used in case the hour hand is held
in position on its shaft by friction only, is to move the hour
hand backward or forward an hour or more as may be neces-
sary to make the hour indicated by the clock-face agree with
the striking mechanism, pressing the hour hand tight on its
shaft afterwards, as described above. Then the clock should
be set to correct time by moving the minute hand around the
dial the necessary number of times, allowing the clock to strike

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 141

the full amount each time the hand passes the XII point before
approaching that point again. This method is especially con-
venient when the clock strikes one or two strokes less than it
should. When it strikes more strokes than it should, the
same method may be used, or the minute hand may be
turned ahead rapidly so that it will again pass through the XII
point while the clock is still striking for the previous hour. By
so doing the striking mechanism is not released to strike the
following hour, and thus an hour is gained in the face indica-
tion of the clock compared with the striking. This may be
repeated as many times as the number of strokes by which the
striking mechanism was in error. The clock may then be set to
correct time in the usual way, allowing it to strike the full
amount on each passage of the XII point, or the clock may
be stopped for as many hours as it is fast, until again it indi-
cates the correct hour, when it can be started and set correct
without the necessity of striking all the nine, ten, or eleven
hours that may have intervened.

Some clocks have a lever in the movement an extension of
the striking mechanism release arm or shaft which can be
moved up or down to release the striking mechanism and al-
low it to strike as many hours as are necessary to bring
it into agreement with the indication of the hands. Or, if a
special lever for the purpose is not provided, it is sometimes
easy, on opening the door to the works of the clock, to find
the release arm itself and by raising it accomplish the same
result.

Care of timepieces.

Precautions should be taken not only with clocks but also
with watches to keep them at a constant temperature if one
wishes to obtain the best results with them. If possible a watch
should be kept at nearly the same temperature at night as
during the day. The variations with the drop in temperature
at night will affect the rate of the alarm clock uncompensated
for temperature much more than that of a watch, which is usu-
ally compensated for high and low temperatures.

142 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The careful handling of a timepiece of the balance-wheel
type clock or watch is also important, because of the effect
on the adjustment and rate. All sudden changes of motion
should be avoided, and a fall is liable to bend some of the pivots
and seriously change the rate. The position in which it is
kept also makes a large difference in its rate, especially with
the unadjusted cheaper types. Both the watch and the clock
should best be kept in an upright position, both day and night,
as uniformity of practice is the chief essential. All timepieces
should, of course, be kept protected from dust and dirt. They
should be wound regularly. It is perhaps better to wind a
watch twice a day than once a day, if it is done regularly, and
the last part of the winding should be done slowly to avoid in-
jury to the mechanism.

An alarm clock.

An alarm clock may be made very useful in giving a warn-
ing of the necessity of inspecting a given process which other-
wise might be overlooked, and when food materials are fre-
quently spoiled in preparation from lack of attention, the use
of an alarm clock will soon save its cost.

In using the alarm feature of an alarm clock, the setting
mechanism should be turned in one direction only, for the
same reason as in the case of setting a clock with striking mech-
anism to correct time, to avoid locking or breaking the setting
device. Occasionally the indicating hand of the alarm will
not be placed correctly on its pinion and the alarm will sound
at a different time from that expected. This error will be a
constant one, however, and its amount having been once
learned, allowance may be made for it in setting the hand; or
a watch repairer can correct the fault very quickly. Many
alarm clocks have the dial for setting the alarm of very small
diameter, making it difficult accurately to set the hand. For
this use it is desirable to secure a clock with as large an alarm-
hand dial as possible, preferably one having the alarm hand
set on the central pinion with the hour and minute hands.
With such a clock the alarm can be set quite accurately

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 143

for giving a signal at short intervals and can be used to
give warnings of the time to inspect certain processes of the
kitchen, for the taking of medicine at regular intervals, and the
like.

MEASURING GAS

How to read a gas meter.

The index of an ordinary gas meter, which is similar to that
of an electric or a water meter, is shown in Fig. 41. The smal-

FIG. 41. The index of a gas meter. Each dial
is marked with the volume of gas passed a
revolution. The smaller top dial, which is
marked "Two Feet" inside of the circle, is
generally called the "testing circle" or " prov-
ing head" and is used principally in testing
the meter.

ler top dial, which is marked "Two feet" inside of the circle, is
generally called the "testing circle" or "proving head," and
is used principally in testing the meter. One revolution of
the hand of the testing circle indicates that 2 cubic feet of gas
have passed through the meter. In some meters one revolu-
tion of the hand of the testing circle represents more or less
than 2 cubic feet of gas and the testing circles are correspond-
ingly marked. The indication of the hand of the testing circle
is ignored in the ordinary reading of the meter.

Of the large dials the first one at the right is usually marked
"1 thousand." This means that during one complete revolu-
tion of the hand, 1000 cubic feet of gas has passed through the

144

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

meter. This dial is divided into ten equal parts so that the pas-
sage of the hand over each part indicates the passage of one-
tenth of 1000 cubic feet, or 100 cubic feet. For most meters,
it may be said of the other dials that the complete revolution
of each hand indicates the passage of ten times as much gas as
one revolution of the hand of the dial of next lower denomina-
tion (usually the one to the right). The figure representing
the number of cubic feet discharged during one revolution of
the hand is written over each dial. Thus if the first dial is

FIG. 42. Gas meter index reading 79,500 cubic
feet.

marked "1 thousand," the second dial will be marked "10
thousand," the third " 100 thousand/' and so on.
The reading of the index, as illustrated in Fig. 41 is as follows:

Reading of "1 thousand" dial 200 cubic feet

Reading of " 10 thousand" dial 5 000 " "

Reading of " 100 thousand" dial 30 000 " "

Complete reading of the meter 35 200 " "

It is not necessary to write down separately the reading of
each dial, but it is much shorter to set down from right to left
the figure last passed by the hand of each dial, commencing
with the dial of lowest denomination and then if the dial of
lowest denomination is marked "1 thousand" appending
two zeros to the resulting figures.

If a hand is very nearly over one of the figures on a dial, it
is impossible to tell without consulting the dial of next lower

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND T-HEIR USE 145

denomination whether the figure under the hand or that just
previously passed by the hand should be read. For example,
in Fig. 42 the hand of the "100 thousand " dial is over 8, and
considering this dial alone the reading might be taken as 8; but
it is seen that the reading of the "100 thousand" dial cannot
have reached 8, since the hand of the dial to the right (the
"10 thousand" dial) has not reached zero. The reading of
the "100 thousand" dial is therefore 7, and the correct reading
of the entire index is 79 500 cubic feet.

To satisfy one's self that the gas company does not make
a mistake in reading the meter, it is well for the consumer, oc-
casionally at least, to read his meter at as nearly as possible
the same time that the gas company reads it. Usually the gas
company's bill will state the meter readings on the dates be-
tween which the bill applies, so that checking meter readings
will be easy. If the meter readings are not given on the bill, the
consumer can determine what the amount of his bill should be
if he knows the meter readings and the price of gas a thousand
cubic feet. Should the consumer take one meter reading at
the proper time and then miss the next one or two, it is obvious
that he can still check up the gas bills by taking a reading at
the next convenient time when the company's reader calls, cal-
culating the cost of gas used between the dates of his readings
and comparing this cost with the sum of the amounts of the
bills rendered for gas between the same dates.

Cost of gas consumed an hour in appliances.

With only a little trouble one can determine the cost an hour
of operating a gas light, heater, or other gas-consuming ap-
pliance. To do this, one should have in operation the appli-
ance in question and all other gas appliances supplied through
this meter shut off. Then, by observing the "testing circle"
of the meter, the time in seconds required for 1, 2, or more
cubic feet of gas to pass should be determined. The number
of cubic feet of gas used an hour is then determined in the fol-
lowing manner: (1) Divide the number of cubic feet burned
during the test by the number of seconds, thus determining the

146 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

number of cubic feet of gas used a second, and (2) multiply
the result by 3600 (the number of seconds in an hour).

Example: It is observed that with a gas water-heater in operation, the
meter indicates the passage of 2 cubic feet of gas in 1 minute and 40 seconds.
Applying the above rule, 2 (cubic feet) is divided by 100 (seconds) (the
equivalent of 1 minute and 40 seconds), which gives T ^; T fs is multiplied
by 3600, giving T 2 o5, or 72. The water-heater is, therefore, using 72 cubic
feet of gas an hour.

Knowing the cost of 1000 cubic feet of gas, one can easily calculate the
cost an hour for gas used in the heater; for example, if gas were $1 for
1000 cubic feet, the 72 cubic feet would cost 72 times j^^ of $1, or 7.2
cents, which is the cost an hour for gas.

Causes of high bills for gas.

If a consumer's gas bill for a certain period greatly exceeds
that of the previous period, it is due to one or more of the fol-
lowing causes:

1. An increased consumption of gas. A careful considera-
tion of the use made of gas during the period covered by the
bill will very often reveal the fact that an unusual amount of
gas has been consumed. Baking, canning of fruit, entertain-
ing, the coming of long winter evenings, and the like are a
common cause of increased gas consumption resulting in
larger bills than usual. Leaks in the gas pipes of the house
may produce the same results.

2. An error of the gas company in reading the meter or in
office work. If the consumer reads his own meter and checks
the bill, the question as to whether this cause is operative can
be quickly ascertained.

3. A fast meter. If the two above causes apparently do
not exist, the consumer will naturally consider that his meter
is fast.

The best procedure for the consumer who thinks his meter
incorrect varies with the locality. Many of the larger cities
are provided with meter-inspection departments, under the
supervision of the city or state, and the consumer can have
his meter tested by this department. If his meter is found to
be fast in excess of the established tolerance, the company

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 147

usually pays the fee for the test and refunds to the consumer
a certain amount, depending on the magnitude of the error of
the meter and the probable length of time that the consumer
has been thereby overcharged. If the meter is found to be
within the tolerance, or "slow," the consumer usually pays
the fee (about $1), and may have to pay the gas company for
the probable amount he has been undercharged.

MEASURING ELECTRICITY

How to read an electric meter.

A view of the dials of a modern electric meter is given in
Fig. 43. The method of reading is similar to that for the dials

KILOWATT HOURS

FIG. 43. Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hands are correctly
set on their shafts. The reading is 538 kilowatt hours.

of a gas meter as explained on page 144. The reading in Fig. 43
is 538 kilowatt hours. In taking down these figures one should
read the dials from right to left; that is, in the reverse of the
usual order of writing numbers. The pointer on the dial at
the extreme right points to 8; the number 8 is written down as
the figure in the units place. The index of the next dial to the
left has passed the 3, but has not reached the 4, as shown by
the fact that the units' dial reads 8; the figure 3 is accordingly
written in the tens' place. The index of the third dial has passed
the 5, and this figure is to be written in the hundreds' place,
giving 538 kilowatt hours as the reading of the meter, since the
index of the dial at the extreme left has not reached the figure 1.
If the index hand of the second dial in Fig. 43 be turned
slightly so as to point to, or even slightly past, the figure 4, it
becomes more difficult to read the meter correctly, as a hasty

148 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

inspection may result in the reading being made as 548 kilo-
watt hours. However, the index of the units' dial standing on
the figure 8 shows that it has not quite completed a revolution,
and hence that the index of the second dial (if it is properly
set on its shaft) should be close to a division and about to reach
it. Hence, it should be read as having passed the 3 and not
having reached the 4. A view of a meter dial face having the

KILOWATT HOURS

FIG. 44. Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hand on the second
circle from the right is slightly in advance of its proper position on
its shaft. The reading is the same as in Fig. 43, namely, 538 kilowatt
hours, although at a glance it might be incorrectly read as 548 kilo-
watt hours.

second index to the left slightly displaced in this way is shown
in Fig. 44.

When one dial hand points to 9, special care must be taken
that the dial hand of the next higher dial is not read too high,
as it may appear to have reached the next number, but will
not have done so until the dial hand at 9 has come to 0. A sim-
ple illustration will make this clear. If the hour hand of a clock
points to 10, as closely as can be read, and if the clock had no
minute hand, the time would be read as 10 o'clock. If the min-
ute hand, however, is pointing to the figure 11, the time is
read as 9.55. Ten minutes later the hour hand may not have
moved perceptibly, but the time is now read as 10.05. Sim-
ilarly, in the electric meter, the reading of each dial must be
interpreted by noting the reading of the next dial to the right.

The dial hands on adjacent dials revolve in opposite direc-
tions; therefore, a reading should always be checked after being
written down, as it is easy to mistake the direction of rotation.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 149

Checking the watthour meter.

The electric meter may be checked approximately by the
householder without the use of electrical instruments. For this
purpose it is only necessary to note the reading of the meter,
then turn on a number of lamps and note the time in hours re-
quired to cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad-
vance one division. It is necessary to use lamps which are rated
in watts, as is done with most incandescent lamps now made.
If the meter is modern, it will have a dial marked " kilowatt
hours," and one division on the dial farthest to the right is
a kilowatt hour, which means 1000 watt hours. For example, if
10 lamps, each marked 25 watts, are lighted at a given time,
the rate of using electrical energy is 10x25 = 250 watts. In 4
hours these lamps will use 4x250 = 1000 watt hours, and this
should cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad-
vance one division. As it is not possible to read a single division
accurately, the lamps may be allowed to run until the index has
moved over several divisions. If more lamps can be turned on,
or larger lamps used, the time required for the test will be re-
duced.

The preceding test is approximate but will settle the question
of whether any large error exists in the meter. To make an ac-
curate test requires portable watt hour meters or other electrical
apparatus which is suitable for use only by meter inspectors.

It is desirable for the householder to read the meter at the
time it is read by the meter man, and to keep a record of the
readings and the dates, in order to have the means of checking
the bill rendered by the company.

When the bill for electric current seems unduly high, the meter
is often first suspected; in reality it is usually the last thing to
blame. Some of the reasons for higher bills are as follows :

1. Cloudy or rainy weather, requiring use of light in daylight
hours.

2. Additional lamps may have been installed, or small lamps
may have been replaced by larger ones.

3. Old dim lamps may be in use; in order to secure sufficient
illumination more of them must be lighted than would be nee-

150 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

essary if lamps in good condition were used. A dim lamp
takes practically as much current as a new one, and is very
wasteful to use. With lamps in good condition, the light will
not be efficiently produced if the electric company allows the vol-
tage to be low. In this connection it may be well to state that
the tungsten lamp has been improved in quality and reduced in
price to such an extent that no customer can afford to use carbon
lamps. Many householders cling to the use of carbon lamps
because they are usually supplied free. The folly of this course
may be realized from the following statement: The cost of a
lamp is reckoned in cents, but the cost of the energy to operate
it during its life is a matter of dollars. The energy cost for a
tungsten lamp is only about one-third that of the carbon lamp.

4. Lamps are sometimes left burning for days in attics,
closets, and other out-of-the-way places.

5. Electric laundry irons, toasters, or other heating devices
may have been placed in service or used more than in former
months. Motor-driven devices may have been installed. Many
devices which are operated through flexible cord from a lamp
socket take very much more power than any lamp which would
be used in the household. If is often erroneously believed that
because such devices can be operated from a socket they require
no more power than a lamp. The extent of this error may be
realized from the statement that a six-pound laundry iron takes
as much power as twenty tungsten lamps of about 20 candle-
power each.

6. Defective wiring may allow current to flow when no lights
or other devices are in use.

7. When electric elevators or electrically driven machinery is
used and not properly oiled and cared for, excessive friction
may result, with a corresponding waste of power and increase
in the bill for electric current.

8. An error may be made by the company's meter reader, so
that the bill rendered is too high or too low. If it is too high, the
bill for the following month will be low by the same amount, if
the meter is then read correctly, so that the consumer will not
usually lose anything in the end. When a minimum monthly

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 151

charge is made by the company, the consumer may lose. Hence,
if an error has apparently been made by the meter reader, the
company should be requested to investigate the matter and to
render a corrected bill if an error is found.

MEASURING WATER

How to read a water meter.

Meters for measuring water for domestic use are usually
graduated in cubic feet sometimes in gallons. One cubic foot

\0,OQo

FIG. 45. Ordinary form of water-meter dial. Reading
11,867 cubic feet.

is taken commercially as equal to 7J^ gallons. Hence, to re-
duce a meter reading in cubic feet to gallons, the number of
cubic feet should be multiplied by 7J^.

The ordinary form of dial is shown in Fig. 45. A special form
of register which is more convenient to read, is known as a
straight-line register and gives cubic feet or gallons directly.

152 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

In Fig. 45 the unit is cubic feet and is plainly marked on the dial.
If the unit were gallons, the method of reading would be the
same. The hands revolve around circles, each divided into ten
numbered divisions. The number on the outside of each circle
indicates the number of cubic feet for one complete revolution
of the hand. The divisions of the circles are numbered alter-
nately in the counter clockwise and clockwise direction. Thus,
the first dial (at the bottom) is marked 10 and one division
measures 1 cubic foot, the second 100 and one division measures
10 cubic feet, the next is marked 1000 and one division measures
100 cubic feet, and similarly for the remainder. The small dial
at the left measuring 1 cubic foot for a complete revolution is
disregarded in reading the meter, being used for test purposes.
One division of a circle is equal to a complete revolution of the
hand on the next lower circle. When a hand is between two
figures, the lesser is to be taken. If a hand is very near a figure,
whether that figure or the next lower is to be taken can be de-
termined by observing the hand in the next lower circle. Unless
the hand on this circle has reached or just passed 0, the lesser fig-
ure is to be taken. The best method of reading is from low to
high, that is, from right to left. For example, reading the dial
shown in Fig. 45 and setting down the figures successively from
right to left, there are 7 for units' place, 6 for tens' place, 8 for
hundreds' place, and 1 for thousands' place and for ten-
thousands' place, or 11,867 cubic feet.

The circles on different makes of dials may be differently lo-
cated on the dial, but the method of reading is the same as given.

In meters larger than those ordinarily used for household
measurement, the lowest graduated circle, the one marked 10,
corresponding to units' place in the reading, is sometimes omit-
ted, the lowest circle being then the one marked 100. In this
case the meter is read exactly as described above, and a zero
added in the units' place.

The dial after reading cannot be set back to zero. The record
is continuous. The amount of water which has passed through
the meter in a given time is, therefore, obtained by subtracting
the first reading from the last. For example, if the meter were

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 153

read the 30th day of June and again the 30th day of July, the
June reading is to be subtracted from that taken in July.

Using the water meter as a measuring appliance.

The amount of water required for a particular use for ex-
ample, in watering a lawn may be determined by first turning
off all other outlets and allowing the hose to run, reading the
meter at the beginning and end of the period and subtracting
the first reading from the second.

Since the meter can only register when water is passing
through, should the hands move when all outlets are closed,
water is being wasted through some leak. This can be most
easily detected by observing the circle marked "one foot," re-
ferred to above as being provided for purposes of test.

DENSITY OF LIQUIDS

A knowledge of the density or specific gravity of a liquid is
usually of value in the household only as an index of some other
physical property or quality of the liquid. For example, in the
preparation of sirups, jellies, and other food products of similar
nature, a measurement of specific gravity is a convenient means
of determining when the process of evaporation or "boiling
down" has been carried far enough. Also, the quality or fat-
content of milk may be determined by measuring its specific
gravity.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume of a
substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. Milk has
a specific gravity of 1.03, since the weight of any volume of
milk is 3 per cent more than that of an equal volume of water.
The densities given in Table IV are stated in grams to the cubic
centimeter, and are numerically the same as specific gravity in
terms of water at 4 C. as unity.

Determination of specific gravity.

The specific gravity of a liquid may be most readily deter-
mined by means of a small glass instrument known as the hy-.
drometer. This instrument floats in the liquid to be examined
and the specific gravity of the liquid is determined by noting the

154

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

point on the stem to which the instrument sinks in the liquid.
Since a floating body sinks in a liquid to such a point that the
weight of the liquid displaced by the body is equal to the weight
of the body, the hydrometer, when provided with a suitable
scale, indicates directly the specific gravity of the liquid.

Classes of hydrometers.

Hydrometers in general use may be divided into three classes
with reference to their indication: 1. Specific gravity hydrom-
eters; 2. per cent hydrometers; 3. arbitrary scale hydrometers.

Specific gravity hydrometers indicate the ratio of the weight
of a given volume of the substance to the weight of the same vol-
ume of some standard substance. The standard substance is
usually water at a definite temperature.

Per cent hydrometers indicate the percentage of a substance,
either by weight or by volume, in a mixture or solution of the
substance in water.

Arbitrary scale hydrometers indicate the concentration or
strength of a substance in terms of some arbitrarily defined scale.
Lactometers and Baume hydrometers are examples of this class.

TABLE IV. DENSITIES OF SOME HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS

Substance

Tempera-
lure in
degrees
centigrade

Density in
grams to the
cubic centi-
meter

Air. dry ...

20 (68 F.)

0.001205

Air (of 50 per cent humidity)

0.001195

Brine (5 parts by weight of salt in 100 parts of
of brine)

1.035

Brine (25 parts by weight of salt in 100 parts
brine) . .

1.191

Butter

0.86 to 0.87

Cider vinegar

1.013 to 1.015

Cream * (18 per cent butter fat)
Cream (40 per cent butter fat)
Gasoline

20
20

1.01
0.99
0.70 to 0.74

* Minimum butter-fat content for cream (definition of Bureau of Chem-
istry).

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 155

TABLE IV. Continued

Substance

Tempera-
ture in
degrees
centigrade

Density in
grams to the
cubic centi-
meter

Ice

0.92

Kerosene

78 to 82

Lard

Linseed oil

0.92 to 0.93

Milk

1 028 to 1 032

Olive oil

0.91

Sea water

1 023 to 1 025

Sirup, maple *

17.5

1.32 to 1.34

Tallow

91 to 97

Turpentine .

86 to 87

* The density of maple sirup varies from 1.32 with 35 per cent of water
to 1.34 with 32 per cent of water.

The hydrometer to be chosen for household use will depend
on the purpose for which it is intended, the degree of accuracy
required, and to some extent on the personal preference of the
user. The specific gravity hydrometer is recommended for
most purposes.

For use in making sirups, preserves, and the like, an instru-
ment indicating specific gravity in terms of water at 60 F., or
one reading in Baum6 degrees will be found convenient. The
hydrometer should have a range of about 1.00 to 1.50 in specific
gravity or 1 to 50 in Baume degrees, and should be so graduated
that the readings can be conveniently made.

Use of the hydrometer.

In using the hydrometer, a portion of the liquid whose specific
gravity is to be measured should be placed in a glass cylinder of
such a size that the hydrometer when placed in the cylinder will
be free to move up and down without coming in contact with the
walls of the vessel.

The liquid should be well stirred. For specially accurate
work, the temperature of the liquid should be observed by means
of a thermometer placed directly in the liquid; when the temper-

156 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ature has become fairly constant, the readings on the hydrom-
eter may be taken.

The eye should be placed on a level with the surface of the
liquid and the line where this surface appears to cut the stem
of the hydrometer should be taken as the reading of the hy-
drometer.

In case the liquid is not sufficiently transparent to allow the
scale of the hydrometer to be read through the liquid, the read-
ing cannot be made as indicated above. It is then necessary
to read as accurately as possible above the surface of the liquid.
If the readings in a dark-colored liquid are always made in the
same way, the resulting error will not be great, and successive
readings will be comparable.

Influence of temperature.

When the temperature of a liquid changes, its specific gravity
also changes and the indication of a hydrometer in the liquid will,
therefore, differ at different temperatures. All hydrometers
should be marked with the temperature at which they are
intended to be correct.

In actual practice, however, it is not always necessary that
the hydrometer be used at its standard temperature, but if
readings are to be compared, they must all be made at the same
temperature. For example, it may be found by experience that
a certain sirup has the proper consistency when cool, if the read-
ing on the hydrometer is 1.36 at 80 F. The standard tempera-
ture of the instrument may be 60 F., but if experience has
shown that a certain reading of the hydrometer at some other
temperature gives satisfactory results, it is not necessary to
wait for the liquid to cool to the standard temperature of the
instrument.

KITCHEN MEASURES

In the kitchen more accurate weights and measures are grad-
ually coming into common use, as the units used are becoming
better defined. Domestic science departments of schools and
colleges are largely responsible for this advance.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 157

The basis of the kitchen system of weights and measures is
the standard cup, a measure holding 8 fluid ounces that is,
one-half liquid pint and used to measure either dry or liquid
commodities. One of these cups, subdivided into thirds, fourths,
or both, should be procured, since the ordinary china cups vary
greatly in size. A special set of spoon measures (from one-
fourth teaspoonful up) will be found convenient, since ordinary
spoons also vary in size. Moreover, neither the ordinary cup or
spoon is adapted to measuring of fractions of their capacity.

The measures of capacity used in the kitchen are based on
the standard cup, as follows:

3 teaspoonfuls = 1 tablespoonful = 4 drams

4 tablespoonfuls = 34 cupful = 2 fluid ounces
}4 cupful = 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces

2 gills = 1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces

1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces = % pint

2 cupfuls =16 fluid ounces = 1 pint
16 fluid ounces = 1 pint

4 cupfuls = 1 quart

In the above all measures are level full. The equivalents
given will permit the use of the large glass graduate for measur-
ing liquids in cooking.

In Tables V to VIII are given equivalents of units commonly
used in cooking and for other household purposes.

158

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

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HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 159

TABLE VI. EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF CERTAIN FOODS *

Food

Measure of 1 pound

Measure of 1 ounce

Beverages:
Chocolate

51/3 cups, grated

1 square or 1/3 cup,

Cocoa

4 cups

grated
/< cup

Coffee

5 1/3 cups

51/3 tablespoons

Tea ....

Q^2 cups

Q^2 tablespoons

Water

2 cups

2 tablespoons

Bread stuffs:
Bread, white

16 slices, */2 inch thick

1 slice, ^2 inch thick

Bread crumbs
Crackers, graham . .
Crackers, oyster . . .
Crackers, soda
Saltines

4 cups
57 crackers
9 2/3 cups
49 crackers
124 crackers

Mcup
3^ crackers
2/3 cup
3+ crackers
7 crackers

Cereals:
Barley, pearl
Corn-meal, granu-
lated

2 1/8 cups
2% cups

2 tablespoons
2% tablespoons

Corn-starch

3 cups

3 tablespoons

Flour, graham
Flour, entire wheat .
Flour, white

4 cups
4 l /2 cups
4 cups

Mcup
1/3 cup
M cup

Hominy, or samp . .
Hominy grits
Macaroni
Oatmeal

2^2 cups
2Y 2 + cups
4^/2 cups
3+ cups

2% tablespoons
2^2+ tablespoons
l /i+ cup
3+ tablespoons

Oats, rolled

5}/2 cups

53^ tablespoons

Rice

2 cups

2 tablespoons

Whole wheat
Dairy products:
Cheese (American)
A P

2 1/3 cups
4 cups grated

2 1/3 tablespoons
J4 cup grated

Cream, 40% . ...

2 cups

2 tablespoons

Milk

2 cups

2 tablespoons

Eggs (whole) A. P.*. . .
Fats:
Butter

9
2 cups

^egg
2 tablespoons

Lard . . .

2 cups and 2 table-

spoons

2+ tablespoons

A. P. means as purchased; E. P. means edible portion.

160

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING
TABLE VI. Continued

Food

Measure of 1 pound

Measure of 1 ounce

Crisco

2 cups and 2 table-

Oil, olive
Oil, Wesson
Suet, beef

spoons
2 cups
2 cups
4 cups, ground

2 tablespoons
2 tablespoons
2 tablespoons
34 cup

Fruits, dried:
Apples, A. P. ...

7 cups

2/5 cup

Apricots
Currants, A. P
Dates, A. P
Figs

59 halves
3^ cups
68
24

4 halves
% cup

4M
1^

Prunes

40 to 60

3 to 4

Raisins

3 cups

3 tablespoons or 18

Fruits, fresh:
Apples, A. P

Bananas, A. P

3 apples, or 4 cups
diced
3 medium bananas

raisins

M apple, or 1/3 cup
diced
1/6 (scant) banana

Cranberries
Grapes, malaga. . . .
Grapefruit

4^ cups
120 grapes
1

1/3 cup
1Y2 grapes

Lemon juice

1 1/3 to 2 cups

2 tablespoons

Oranges

2 to 3

Gelatin

3^2 cups

3^/2 tablespoons

Meat:
Bacon, A. P.

30 slices

2 slices

Bacon, E. P
Nuts:
Almonds, A. P

40 slices
6 cups or 254 nuts

2^2 slices
2/5 cup or 16 nuts

Almonds, E. P
Peanuts, A. P.

3+ cups or 385 nuts
6 cups or 220 nuts

1/5 cup or 24 nuts
^2 cup or 15 nuts

Peanuts, E. P

21/8 cups

1/8 cup or 40 nuts

Peanuts, butter ....
Walnuts, A. P
Walnuts, E. P

Sugars :
Molasses
Sugar, granulated. . .
Sugar, powdered. . .
Sugar, brown

1^2 cups
5^ cups or 56 nuts
4+ cups or 240 average
meats

1 3/5 cups
2 cups
3 cups
3 cups

1 H tablespoons
3^ nuts

15 halves or % cup

1^2 tablespoons
2 tablespoons
3 tablespoons
3 tablespoons

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 161
TABLE VI. Continued

Food

Measure of 1 pound

Measure of 1 ounce

Tapioca, pearl

2}^ cups

1/8 -J- CUD

Minute

2^ cups

2/^ tablespoons

Vegetables, dried:
Beans, navy, A. P. .
Beans, lima ,

2+ cups
21/3 cups

2 tablespoons, or 1/8 cup
2+ tablespoons or 1/8 +

Lentils, A. P
Vegetables, fresh:
Beets A P

2 1/5 cups
2 medium beets

cup
2-J- tablespoons

1/8 beet

Cabbage, A. P

1/3 to /^ medium head

Carrots, A. P

or 5^ cups shredded
6^/2 carrots

% cup shredded
1/3 carrot

Celery, A. P

4 bunches

1 stalk

Onions, A. P
Parsnips, A. P
Potatoes, A. P
Potatoes, sweet,
A. P

6 to 8 medium
6 medium
2}^ medium

3 medium

% medium
1/3 parsnip
2 % tablespoons, dried

1/5 potato

Water. .

2 cups

2 tablespoons

TABLE VII. APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 OUNCE OF CERTAIN SPICES,
LEAVENING AGENTS, AND FLAVORING SUBSTANCES (Mary F. Henry)

Substance

Measure of 1 ounce

Allspice (whole)

% cup

Allspice (ground) ....

/4 cup

Baking powder

3 tablespoons

Celery seed .

3% tablespoons

Cinnamon

3% tablespoons

Cloves (whole)

4+ tablespoons

Cloves (ground) .

3% tablespoons

Cream of tartar

3 tablespoons

IVIustard seed

2j^ tablespoons

Mustard

4 5/8 tablespoons

Pepper (whole)

4 tablespoons

Pepper (ground)

41/3 tablespoons

Salt

l/^ tablespoons

Soda

2^ tablespoons

Vanilla

2 tablespoons

162

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

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166

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Apothecaries' Fluid Measure:

Apothecaries' Weight:

Avoirdupois Weight:

27 J| grains
16 drams
16 ounces
25 pounds

28 pounds

4 quarters

60 minims = 1 fluid dram

8 fluid drams = 1 fluid ounce

16 fluid ounces = 1 liquid pint
8 liquid pints = 1 gallon

(British measures differ from above)

20 grains = 1 scruple
3 scruples = 1 dram
8 drams

12 ounces

= 1 ounce
= 1 pound

= 1 dram

= 1 ounce

= 1 pound

= 1 short quarter

= 1 long quarter

= 1 hundredweight

20 hundredweight = 1 ton

Circular Measure:

Cubic Measure:

60 seconds
60 minutes
90 degrees
4 quadrants

= 1 minute

= 1 degree

= 1 quadrant

= 1 circle or circumference

1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard
144 cubic inches = 1 board foot
128 cubic feet = 1 cord
Dry Measure:

2 pints = 1 quart

8 quarts = 1 peck

4 pecks = 1 bushel

1 barrel (for fruit, vegetables, and other dry commodities) = 7056 cubic inches

105 dry quarts

Kitchen measures. See pages 157 and 158
Linear Measure:

12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5% yards = 1 rod or pole
40 rods = 1 furlong

8 furlongs = 1 statute mile (1760 yards, or 5280 feet)
3 miles .= 1 league
Linear Measures (special):

1000 mills = inch
72 points = inch
hand

surveyor's link
span
fathom
bolt (cloth)
furlong
nautical mile = 1 . 1516 statute miles

4 inches
7 . 92 inches
9 inches
6 feet
40 yards
10 chains
6080. 20 feet
Liquid Measure:

4 gills = 1 pint

2 pints = 1 quart

4 quarts = 1 gallon

31 % gallons = 1 barrel

2 barrels = 1 hogshead
Paper Measure:

For small papers the old measure is still in use:

24 sheets = 1 quire

20 quires = 1 ream (480 sheets)

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 167

TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Continued

For papers put up in cases, bundles, or frames the following measure is now used:
25 sheets = 1 quire
20 quires = 1 standard ream (500 sheets)

Square Measure:

Surveyor's Measure:

144 square inches = 1 square foot
9 square feet = 1 square yard
0M square yards
160 square rods

640 acres
36 square miles

1 square rod or perch
= 1 acre
= 1 square mile
= 1 township (6 miles square)

7 . 92 inches = 1 link (Gunter's or surveyor's)
100 links = 1 chain ( = 66 feet)
80 chains = 1 mile
Surveyor's Area Measure:

625 square links
16 (square) poles

10 square chains or 160 square rods
640 acres

Time Measure:

Troy Weight:

36 square miles

= 1 (square) pole or square rod

= 1 square chain (surveyor's)

= 1 acre

= 1 square mile

= 1 township

60 seconds
60 minutes
24 hours
7 days

365 days

366 days

= 1 minute
= 1 hour
= Iday
= 1 week
= 1 year
= 1 leap year

24 grains = 1 pennyweight

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce
12 ounces

Carat (for precious stones) = 200 milligrams,
term having many values in various countries.

Karat (fineness of gold) = 1/24 (by weight) gold. For example, 24 karats fine
gold; 18 karats fine = 18/24 pure gold.

= 1 pound (Troy)
The carat was formerly an ambiguous

pure

INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM

In the international metric system the fundamental unit is the meter the unit of length.
From this the units of capacity (liter) and of weight (gram) were derived. All other units
are the decimal subdivisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related;
e. g., for all practical purposes 1 cubic decimeter equals 1 liter and 1 liter of water weighs
1 kilogram. The metric tables are formed by combining the words "meter," "gram," and
"liter" with the six numerical prefixes, as in the following tables:

Prefixes

Meaning

Units

milli- =

one thousandth

0.001

1000

"meter" l for length

centi- =

one hundredth

.01

100

deci-

one tenth

Unit =

one

"gram" l for weight or mass

deka- =

ten

hecto- =

one hundred

100

kilo- =

one thousand

1000

"liter" l for capacity

1 One meter = 39.37 inches; 1 liter
ounce.

1.0567 liquid quarts; 1 gram = 0.035 avoirdupois

168

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM Continued

Units of Length

Units of Capacity

Units of Weight (or Mass)

millimeter = 0.001 meter
centimeter = .01
decimeter = .1
METER =1 *'
dekameter = 10
hectometer = 100
kilometer = 1000

milliliter = 0.001 li
centiliter = .01
deciliter = .1
LITER = 1
dekaliter = 10
hectoliter = 100
kiloliter = 1000

ter

milligram = 0.001 gra
centigram = .01
decigram = .1
GRAM = 1
dekagram = 10
hectogram = 100
kilogram = 1000

UNITS OF AREA

The table of areas is formed by squaring the length measures, as in our common system,
For land measure 10 meters square is called an "ARE" (meaning "area"). The side of
one are is about 33 feet. The hectare is 100 meters square, and, as its name indicates, is
100 ares, or about 2^ acres.

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 169

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CHAPTER VI
HOUSEHOLD RECORDS

BY EDITH FLEMING BRADFORD

The business of housekeeping needs its records, not only those
dealing directly with finances the whence and whither of the
income , but those showing such facts as the quantities of
staple supplies bought each season and the amounts remaining
on hand. These records should include tested recipes, varying
in quantity or cost from the originals, and such data as the
comparative cost of supplies, and the time required to carry on
different kinds of work in the routine of housekeeping. The
filing of correspondence helps to prevent the accumulation of
unimportant letters and acts as a reminder that replies are due.
It also gives latest addresses, thus replacing the address-book
which, of necessity, shows many alterations and is frequently
not up to date. Magazine and newspaper clippings become of
greater value when systematically arranged than when allowed
to accumulate in a desk drawer or when pasted in a scrapbook.
Many housekeepers try to preserve data of this nature by mem-
ory, dreading the thought of systematizing records to so great an
extent. Such organization, however, may be carried out gradu-
ally, beginning with the data most frequently used and extend-
ing to other subjects of interest.

The following list of subjects may suggest a classification of
household records: (1) accounts; (2) financial papers, such as
insurance policies; (3) inventories of furniture, linen, and the
like, with a separate card for each type of equipment, such as
chairs, sheets single, sheets double; (4) comparative cost of
foods having approximately the same value in the diet; (5)
stock of staple food supplies; (6) tested recipes; (7) dishes
suitable for each of the three meals, those quickly prepared being

175

176 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

listed separately; (8) household hints on laundry, dyeing, and
the like; (9) storage record; (10) time record for certain kinds of
household work, when no interruptions occur, valuable not only
to the woman who supervises the work of others, but to the
one who does her own housework; (11) medical and dental
record; (12) correspondence; (13) gift record, of special value
to those who send many gifts at Christmas; (14) plans for the
future, such as making gardens; (15) amateur photography.
Films may be classified according to place or subject. Prints
may be placed with films or separately under a similar classifi-
cation.

HOW TO KEEP HOUSEHOLD RECORDS

A small filing cabinet of pasteboard or wood, in which the
information is recorded on cards arranged according to the
classification chosen, may be used. The general headings
should be written or printed on cards known as guides, which are
of heavier paper than are those for the records and which have
on their upper edge a projection which serves to call attention
to the name of the subdivision written upon it. Both classes
of cards should be arranged alphabetically.

Cards 3 by 5 inches may be used for all records, although
they are rather small for recipes and accounts. Many house-
keepers use a card 4 by 6 inches for recipes and one that is
5 by 8 inches for accounts; but as far as possible the same size
should be used in order to avoid having many filing cases.

One cabinet of wood that will harmonize with the study desk
or table will be found very convenient. Such a cabinet of one
drawer, will accommodate several hundred cards. A desk, with
a drawer adapted to the purpose may be bought, or a drawer
of suitable depth may be subdivided so that the cards will fit it.
In buying a desk it is well to choose one in which the drawers
may be so subdivided as to conform to the standard sizes of cards
and papers. These sizes are 3 by 5 inches, 4 by 6 inches, 5
by 8 inches, and 8^/2 by 11 inches. The last size permits the
filing of papers such as clippings, receipted bills, and correspond-
ence in the manila folders generally used in offices, These

HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 177

manila folders may be classified in the same way as are the cards,
the topics treated being noted on the upper left-hand edge of
each. The names of the classifications, if there are several,
may be written or printed on large guides placed in front of
each section of folders.

HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS

The advantages of keeping household accounts include: (1)
an accurate knowledge of the use of the family income; (2) a
check on wasteful expenditures; (3) an encouragement to form
a proper relationship between the various classes of expendi-
tures; (4) an encouragement to save; (5) a protection against
paying a bill twice; (6) a settlement of disputes.

Equipment.

Equipment for keeping accounts may be of the most simple
kind. In the kitchen there should be a hanging hook file on
which to place delivery slips and bills to await entry in the ac-
counts. A small pad for memoranda, to which is attached a
pencil, is found to be a timesaver. Either a desk or a small table
with a drawer should be provided in the study or in the living-
room for keeping the necessary records, which include an ac-
count book and a check book. A filing case, with compart-
ments indexed alphabetically, serves to keep bills in order. If
it is possible to have the best equipment, a desk with a drawer
sufficiently large for the filing of papers, including not only
bills but correspondence, is desirable.

At least some equipment is necessary in order that there may
be a place for everything, a factor which contributes greatly
to the satisfaction, as well as to the profit derived.

Forms of keeping accounts.

Accounts may be kept in book form, either bound or loose
leaf, or on cards. The simplest method of keeping accounts
is one that records merely receipts and expenditures, each in its
own column, no entry being made for charged items until pay-
ment is made. For this purpose pages like form 1 (page 183)
are good, receipts being kept on the left-hand page and ex-

178 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

penditures on the right-hand page. A book in which the re-
ceipts are kept on the left half of the page and the expenditures
on the right half of the same page may be used, but such a book
generally does not allow sufficient space for all details of itemi-
zation. Some persons like to use a book with two columns at
the right-hand side of the page, one column for receipts and one
for expenditures, but with this form more care must be taken
to enter the figures in the proper column.

Such a record, however, gives merely the total income and
expense for any period of time without answering such questions
as the amount of bank balance, of cash balance, how much has
been paid for food during a certain period, how the expenditure
for food compares with that for rent, how much has been spent
for medical service, for wages, for recreation, for education, the
amount owed, to what extent the family has been supplied
with produce from the home farm or garden; or a question
of dietetic significance, such as how the expense for meat and
similar foods compares with that for fruit and vegetables.

In order to answer such questions, the expenditures must be
analyzed. In the type of account shown in form 1 (page 183),
such an analysis is difficult, and in a busy household the time
is lacking to accomplish it at the end of a month or a year.
If, therefore, it is agreed that little satisfaction is to be de-
rived from a mere list of daily expenditures, a type of account
that readily gives the desired information must be considered
(form 2, pages 184 and 185).

Expenditures may be divided under the headings shelter,
food, clothing, and miscellaneous, and as many subdivisions as
desired may be used under these headings. Under shelter, for
example, there may be rent, heat, light, wages and laundry,
furniture and furnishings. In case the house is occupied by the
owner, the rent column may be replaced by one in which are
recorded such items as repairs, taxes, and insurance. The head-
ing food may be subdivided into meat and eggs, milk and cream,
fruits and vegetables, groceries and miscellaneous items. Under
the heading clothing may be entered all the expenses for such
supplies for the family, or an account may be opened for each

HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 179

individual. Miscellaneous will include such items as education,
traveling expenses, medical services, allowances to children,
recreation, and benevolence.

In the foregoing types of accounts all cash is entered in the
receipts column; therefore, in order to prove the accuracy of the
record, the difference between receipts and expenditures must
agree with the sum of the bank balance, as shown by the check-
book, and the cash on hand. In the plan outlined in form 2
(pages 184 and 185), the totals of the columns showing the sub-
division of expenditures must agree with the total of the ex-
penditures column.

If the number of columns is too large to be accommodated on
one page, a separate page of columns may be ruled for each of
the divisions: cash account, charge account, produce, shelter,
food, clothing, and miscellaneous (form 3, pages 186 to 189).
This necessitates the entering of dates on the proper page of
subdivisions, as well as in the cash account, the charge account,
or the produce account. The ruling of pages in form 3 (pages
186 to 189) will explain this matter more fully.

As much detail as is desired may be given in the itemization
columns. More than one item may be written on each line,
if dates are inserted where there is a change. The charge ac-
counts of a household are generally with so few firms that either
of the forms shown on pages 184 and 187 may be used satis-
factorily. If the firms with whom charge accounts are kept are
numerous, however, it may be well to devote a separate page
to each firm.

If it is considered desirable to keep a separate record of the
bank account and the cash account, another subdivision may
be made as shown in form 3 (page 186). The advantage of
this method is that it serves as a test of the accuracy of the bank
book and the check book, and it also shows the state of the bank
account without reference to any other record.

The opening entry of a cash account must be " balance on
hand," the bank balance being shown in the deposits column,
and the cash balance in the receipts column. Later entries will
be as follows:

180 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Bank deposits in the deposits column.

Withdrawals from the bank in both the withdrawals and the receipts
columns.

Receipts for current use in the receipts column.

Expenditures, whether by. check or in cash, in the expenditures column,
as well as in the proper column on the page of the subdivision of expenditures.

Goods for which payment is not made, in the right-hand column of the
charge account and also on the proper page of subdivisions.

Payment of a charged item or items in the expenditures column, and in
the left-hand column of the charge account. In entering such items, ref-
erence should be made to the name of the firm and the date on which the
bill was rendered.

Receipt of produce, valued at current market rates, in the produce
account and on the proper page of subdivisions.

If an account such as that indicated in form 3 (pages 186 to
189) is to be kept, a loose-leaf account book may be used so
that additional sheets may be inserted where they are needed.
If a bound book is preferred and it is necessary to rule all the
sheets used, the book may be divided into portions, each of
which consists of a sufficient number of pages to accommodate
a year's records.

To balance accounts.

It is desirable that accounts be balanced at least once each
week in order that errors and omissions may be avoided. In
balancing accounts, totals of all columns may be inserted in
small pencil figures, which, if not erased, make it unnecessary to
repeat the addition at the end of the accounting period. A test
of the accuracy of such records is as follows:

Deposits minus withdrawals = bank balance

(This must agree with the check book and with the bank-book balance

minus the checks not yet presented.)
Receipts minus expenditures = cash on hand

Balance in the charge accounts = amount owing
Total of all subdivisions of expenditures = total of expenditures in the

cash account, plus produce, plus balance in the charge account.

To pass to a new page, the totals are entered at the foot of
the completed page and again at the top of the new page in the
corresponding columns, the word forward being written in the
itemization column on each page.

HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 181

To close accounts.

Accounts may be closed monthly or yearly according to
whether it is desired to compare the records of: (1) different
months of the same year; (2) corresponding months of different
years; or (3) yearly totals. At the end of each accounting period,
however, the old account should be closed by entering, preferably
in red ink, the bank balance in the withdrawals column and the
cash balance in the expenditures column of the cash account,
and by then obtaining the totals of all the columns. The same
balances should be carried forward to the deposits and the re-
ceipts columns, respectively, of the new account, as shown in
form 3.

Summaries for comparison.

Monthly or annual summaries may be arranged in the fol-
lowing form:

Income $

Expenditures:

Food $

Shelter $

Clothing $

Miscellaneous $

Total $

Balance $

Produce account .

As an example, on pages 183 to 189 are found entries neces-
sary to record the following facts in the three types of accounts :

On May 1, 1916, the bank balance was $285.46 and the cash balance
$17.64. Bought from A. B. Jones on account 6 pounds of butter at $.35 a
pound, $2.10; 2 bushels of potatoes at $1.00 a bushel, $2.00; 10 pounds of
sugar at $.08 a pound, $.80.

May 2, paid rent by check, $30.00; bought for cash from L. K. Harvey,
3 dozen eggs at $.22 a dozen, $.66; received check for $50.00 from F. A.
Brown for board and deposited it; received from J. Williams, salary, $30.00,
of which $20.00 was deposited and $10.00 retained in cash.

May 3, paid account of May 1 with A. B. Jones, $4.90.

May 5, bought 9 yards of dress goods at $1.25 a yard, $11.25; gathered
garden vegetables worth $.20 for home use; paid $2.00 for magazine sub-
scription to May 1, 1917.

182 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

By checking these accounts according to form 3, the following
results are obtained:

BANK ACCOUNT:

Deposits $355.46

Withdrawals 30.00

Balance $325.46

CASH ACCOUNT:

Receipts $57.64

Expenditures 48.81

Balance $ 8.83

TOTAL BALANCE $334.29

AMOUNT OWING . 00

PRODUCE.. $ .20

EXPENDITURES :

Shelter $ 30.00

Food 5.76

Clothing 11.25

Miscellaneous:

Education 2.00

Total $49.01

HOUSEHOLD RECORDS

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REFERENCES

Frederick, Christine. The New Housekeeping. 1913.
Pattison, Mary. Principles of Domestic Engineering. 1915.
Sheaffer, William Adam. Household Accounting and Economics. 1916.
Bradford, Edith Fleming. Household Accounts. Cornell Reading Course
for the Farm Home, Bull. 110. 1916.

CHAPTER VII

HEAT AND LIGHT

The enormous waste of fuel in the homes of this country is
coming to claim the attention of thoughtful householders. In
both the heating of dwellings and the cooking of food, careful
choice of equipment, intelligent operation, and forethought in
planning will go far toward saving one of the world's most
valuable commodities.

CARE OF FIRES

A few general rules for controlling heating and cooking fires
are as follows:

1. To increase the amount of heat, open drafts which let air into the
ash pit, and with soft coal and wood when fresh fuel has been added admit
some air by draft immediately over the fire to help burn the combustible
gases coming from the fresh fuel. For all fires burning without flame keep
this draft closed.

2. To decrease the amount of heat, close all drafts tight, being sure that
ash-pit door and drafts particularly are tight and that the ash pit itself is
free from air leaks; if this is not sufficient, open a check draft in the smoke
pipe never the one in the fire door or the door itself, as this practice is ex-
tremely wasteful of fuel.

3. To insure economy of fuel, see that all flues and surfaces which the
hot gases pass on their way to the chimney are cleaned every two or three
weeks.

4. Be very careful in the use of the damper which closes off the smoke
pipe, as such a damper is dangerous if closed too tight and can be left
wide open or taken out entirely provided the ash pit is tight and the above
directions are followed.

5. Keep the direct draft in a cooking stove or range closed except in hot
weather, or when starting a fire.

RADIATION *

Hot objects, like stoves and steam pipes, lose much of their
heat by radiation, and the blacker the object the more it will

* From U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55.
191

192

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

lose; hence, stoves and steam pipes should be black if they are
intended to give out heat, but hot-air pipes and cooking uten-
sils should be bright, for example tinned or nickeled, in order to
lose as little heat as possible. A stove nickel plated all over will
give out only about half as much heat as the same stove at the
same temperature if black.

A bright nickel or aluminum kettle will cool very much more
slowly than a black kettle. On a coal or wood stove or directly
over a coal or wood fire, a kettle is heated largely by heat radi-
ated from the stove or fire; therefore, if the bottom is black the
kettle will heat more rapidly than if bright. Over a gas, gaso-
line, or similar blue flame the condition of the bottom will not
make so much difference, since here most of the heat is received
by contact with the hot gases. The best kettle for general
use is, therefore, one with the bottom black and the remainder
polished, but for use on a gas stove it makes little difference
whether the bottom is black or not.

COMPARATIVE COST OF VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING

The ideal heating system is one that will give a uniform tem-
perature throughout the house, if desired. Furnaces are more
likely to produce this result than are stoves.

A stove seldom heats more than two rooms and often only
one. A "drum," or radiator, for utilizing otherwise wasted
heat, will remove the chili from an upstairs room but generally
will not give warmth enough for a sitting-room. The care of
several stoves is greater than that of one central plant.

TABLE X. COMPARISON BETWEEN STOVES AND HOT-AIR FURNACE

Method of
heating

Initial cost
including in-
stallation

Coal used dur-
ing one year

Number of
rooms heated

Temperature

Two stoves

Hot-air
furnace

$90, and
drums for
upper rooms,
$8
$100 to $150

12 to 14 tons
i of more ex-
pensive coal

8 to 12 tons

5
Sto 10

Uneven
Fairly even

HEAT ANT) LIGHT 193

A hot-air system is the cheapest system to install but the
most expensive in the amount of fuel used.

A steam system costs about twice as much as hot-air but it
requires less fuel.

A hot-water system costs about three times as much as hot-
air but requires less fuel than does either a hot-air or a steam
system.

FACTORS GOVERNING CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND CONVENIENCE
OF OPERATION *

Climate.

Variable weather and high winds make difficult the economi-
cal use of fuel and convenient operation.

Size and type of dwelling.

Fuel consumption varies with the size of the house, the number
of rooms heated, the thoroughness of construction, to a certain
extent the building material, and the distribution of the radia-
tors.

Location of dwelling.

A house standing alone on a hill requires much more heat than
one in a closely built row standing in a hollow.

Heating and ventilating system used.

Convenience of operation of any house-heating apparatus is
largely dependent on the system of heating and ventilation em-
ployed. The cost of heating will also depend, but to a less de-
gree, on the type of equipment. Fuel economy and convenience
are against a separate fire in each room unless the house is small
or only a small part of it is to be warmed, except in those locali-
ties where natural gas is available at low rates or the duration
of cold weather is brief. In comparatively few homes is any
special provision made for removing the foul air, leakage from
windows and doors being the usual reliance, particularly in a
house heated by a hot-air furnace. If an indirect steam or hot-

* Condensed from Saving Fuel in Heating a House. L. P. Breckenridge
and S. B. Flagg. Bur. of Mines, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Tech. Paper 97.

194 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

water system is installed, means of removing foul air are more
frequently provided, either by vent stacks leading into the attic
or through the roof, with register openings in different rooms, or
by open grates, the flues for which can be equipped with damp-
ers to regulate the removal of foul air. The system some-
times fails to work satisfactorily if provision is not made for the
escape of foul air from a room, as the fresh warm air will not con-
tinue to flow in unless an equal amount escapes. The first cost
of heating by the hot-air furnace is less than that of either the
steam or the hot-water system, but to maintain equal tempera-
ture conditions may require the burning of more fuel, whether
the furnace heats air taken from outdoors or reheats air al-
ready in the house. Evidently, reheating air will require less
fuel, and consequently less attention to the furnace, than heat-
ing fresh air, but the ventilation will not be good. In homes
heated by steam or hot water, the method of heating, whether
direct or indirect, and the provision, if any, for removing foul
air will affect the consumption of fuel, which will vary with the
percentage of the total radiation that is indirect and with the
amount of warm air removed through vent stacks or grates.
. A furnace-heating system maintains a less even temperature
because less heat is stored in it. In this respect, hot-water
heating has a distinct advantage over both steam and hot air
because the large quantity of water in the boiler, pipes, and
radiators can maintain the temperature throughout the house
for a considerable time after the fire dies down. In addition,
the maintenance of an even temperature in mild weather is
easier with the hot-water system because the temperature of
the water in the radiators, hence the amount of heat given off,
can be controlled within wide limits.

Size of boiler and furnace.

If to supply the necessary heat requires the consumption of
20 pounds of fuel an hour and the boiler or furnace is to keep
this up for eight hours without attention, it is evident that the
fire pot must be large enough to hold 160 pounds of fuel, and
in addition the quantity necessary to rekindle a fresh charge,

HEAT AND LIGHT 195

this quantity being ordinarily assumed to be 20 per cent of the
quantity of fuel in the fire pot after the firing, or in this case
40 pounds. Hence the fire pot must hold 200 pounds of fuel
and still leave space for combustion.

If anthracite coal, bituminous coal, and coke are available
and each has such heating value that 20 pounds of it will be
required an hour to supply heat, the fire-pot space occupied
by an eight-hour charge of each fuel may be figured by dividing
200 by the weight a cubic foot of each fuel, the space thus cal-
culated being approximately 3.6 cubic feet for anthracite,
4.0 cubic feet for bituminous coal, and 5.7 cubic feet for coke.
Therefore, if the fire pot were designed for anthracite, it would
hold coke enough for a firing period of approximately five hours
instead of eight.

Not only is the capacity of the fire pot important, but its
depth should receive consideration. If the full-rated load is
to be carried without attention to the fire for a minimum period
of eight hours, the depth of the fuel-bed should be at least
12 inches. A heater that is to burn coke should be designed
for a greater depth probably 24 inches on account of the
bulkiness of the fuel and the different combustion conditions
required for burning it satisfactorily. In fact, one of the largest
manufacturers of boilers for heating houses by steam or hot
water now designs such equipment for a fuel-bed 18 inches
deep when anthracite is to be used.

Regarding the necessary size of fire pot, another detail that
affects both economy and convenience of operation is the com-
bustion space above the fuel-bed. Any unburned combustible
gases that leave the fire pot are rapidly cooled in passing over
the heat-absorbing surfaces between the fire pot and the smoke
pipe, and their temperature is quickly brought below that nec-
essary for ignition. If either anthracite coal or coke is to be
burned, a relatively small combustion space above the fuel-
bed will be required because combustion takes place in or close
to the fuel-bed. If bituminous coal is to be used, however,
more space should be provided for burning the combustible
gases rising from the fuel-bed, or a considerable part of these

196 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

gases will escape unburned, the flue surfaces will become coated
with soot, 'and the heat losses will be large.

Another important detail, if bituminous coal is to be used,
is the cross section for the gas passages between the fire pot
and the smoke pipe. If the passages are not large enough, the
draft may be cut down by the accumulation of soot in the flues,
possibly to such an extent that the fire will go out. Also, if
bituminous coal is to be used, the flues should be of such size
and so arranged as to invite frequent and easy cleaning.

Obviously, if the heater is smaller than the proper size, fire
at shorter intervals will be necessary, drafts will have to be
kept open, and the temperature of the escaping gases will be
higher than if a heater of proper size is installed between
375 and 475 F. in ordinary winter weather., The inconven-
ience resulting from too large a boiler or furnace is less than
from one under size, but careful handling will be necessary to
control the fire satisfactorily in mild weather.

Each heater has a particular capacity at which its efficiency
is highest, but if the heater be properly designed, within a cer-
tain range of capacity the efficiency will be practically equal to
the maximum. The equipment selected should be one that dur-
ing most of the heating season will be operated within these lim-
its, but will take care of maximum demands for a short time.

Kind of fuel used.

The most desirable fuels are, as a rule, the most expensive.
It may be possible to burn some of the smaller sizes of anthra-
cite with the furnace or egg size and thus effect a saving. The
price a ton of these smaller sizes is less in proportion to their
calorific value because they are in less demand and they can
be used to advantage in banking the fire overnight or in carry-
ing a slow fire in moderate weather. Pea coal is probably the
best size for such use, but unfortunately it and the smaller
sizes are obtained with difficulty in many of the markets where
the larger, or domestic, sizes are sold.

Among the various kinds and grades of bituminous coal,
.the differences in fuel value and in their physical character-

HEAT AND LIGHT 197

istics are much greater than among anthracites, and for that
reason should receive especial attention. In every locality a
number of coals will be available and the most satisfactory
one in any particular case will usually have to be determined
by trial, unless the characteristics of each and the effects of
these are known.

Uniformity of size is a desirable characteristic, as it permits
easier control of the fire. This is particularly true of anthracite,
a mixture of sizes often accounting for poor results from a cer-
tain lot of coal. Sized or screened bituminous coal may be
bought for its greater convenience, even though its cost may
exceed that of lump coal or run-of-mine. In some localities
slack coal has been burned successfully, although it is believed
that this would not ordinarily be possible because of the strong
draft required.

Care of furnace.

The heater should receive regular attention, and if the de-
mands for heat are intelligently anticipated, as they ordinarily
can be, the house can be warmed with minimum trouble and
fuel. When the rooms become too warm, the fire should be
checked by stopping the admission of air under the grate and
decreasing the draft by opening the " check damper." If, as
often is done, the ash-pit damper or the ash-pit door be allowed
to remain open, and the draft reduced by opening the fire door,
the combustion of the fuel continues, although at a slower rate,
but the cold air entering the fire door chills the heater so that
little heat is realized from the coal.

Sometimes the draft is so strong that the difficulty of con-
trolling the fire is increased, especially when the demand for
heat is small or the fire is to be banked. To facilitate control
under such conditions, it is usually advisable to have, besides
the check damper, a plain damper in the smoke pipe. This
damper should fit the smoke pipe loosely and must never be en-
tirely closed; during most of the heating season it can be kept
partly closed, but during severe weather, when more heat is
required, it can be opened wide. Sometimes the draft may be

198 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

insufficient to burn the necessary quantity of the particular
fuel used. If such a condition is always noticed in severe
weather, the heater may be too small, the smoke pipe may be
choked or be poorly fitted to the heater or to the chimney, or
the chimney may be too small or be obstructed by soot or debris.

If the draft trouble proves to be due to leaky connections or
to obstructions, it can readily be corrected. If the heater or the
chimney is too small, the difficulties may be lessened either by
firing more frequently and keeping the fuel-bed thinner, or by
using larger coal, or fairly uniform size, in order that the air
may more easily flow through the fuel-bed. Conversely if the
draft is very strong, a smaller size of coal may possibly be used
to good advantage. Under no circumstances should the top of
the chimney be lower than the highest part of the roof, or a
current of air may be forced down the chimney and the base-
ment be filled with smoke when the wind blows in certain
directions. Similar trouble may be experienced if the chimney
is not as high as an adjoining building.

If the bottom of the ash pit is on a level with the floor, or
only a short distance below the grates, as is ordinarily the case,
ashes cannot be allowed to accumulate under the grates for
more than two days, or possibly more than one day, except in
moderate weather.

Brightly tinned hot-air furnace pipes often lose less heat
when bare than they do when covered with one or two layers of
asbestos paper, since the latter radiates heat so much more
readily than the bright tin as more than to balance the insulat-
ing effect of the thin asbestos covering. Of course if the pipes
were originally black, the covering would be useful, and if
the insulating material were thick enough ( 3 / 8 inch or more)
it would save heat even on bright tin pipes.*

SUGGESTIONS FOR FIRING AND CLEANING A FURNACE t

Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace that apply re-
gardless of the fuel used may be given as follows :

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55.

t L. P. Breckenridge and S. B. Flagg. U. S. Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 97.

HEAT AND LIGHT 199

The fire should be attended to regularly, and not left until
it has burned low and heat is needed throughout the house.
Often the need can be anticipated and by attention at the proper
time trouble can be avoided. In addition, economy of fuel
is more likely to be obtained by fairly uniform rates of burning
than by attempting to supply a large amount of heat in a short
period and then suddenly checking the fire.

The size of the coal fired should be as nearly uniform as pos-
sible. Using coal of uneven size prevents an even flow of air
through the fuel-bed and increases the tendency of the fire
to burn through in spots.

One should try to keep the fuel-bed free from air holes, as
they cause waste of fuel and may prevent the heater from main-
taining the desired temperature.

Excessive shaking of the grates should be avoided and thus
the amount of coal lost by falling into the ash pit reduced.
Ordinarily, the shaking of the grates should be stopped as soon as
bright particles begin to drop through or, under some conditions,
as soon as light from the fuel-bed begins to show in the ash pit.

When the demand for heat is urgent or the fire must be built
up quickly, the fuel-bed must be kept uniformly thick, but not
too thick, using the coarser part of the coal and all the draft
available. Air will then flow freely through the entire fuel-bed
and burn the coal at a maximum rate. Under such conditions,
the firings should be made at frequent intervals and small
charges used, so that the fresh fuel will only for a short time
chill the temperature of the fire pot. When heavy firings are
made the fresh fuel not only increases the resistance to flow of
air through the fuel-bed, so that the rate of combustion is low-
ered, but it acts as a cold blanket to screen the heating surfaces
from the radiant heat of the fuel-bed.

In mild weather it is well to leave on the grates a layer of
ashes under the active fuel-bed. This layer will increase the
resistance to the flow of air through the fuel-bed and facilitate
the maintenance of the low rate of combustion required in such
weather; also, it will cut off some of the grate surface.

Clinkers should be kept worked out of the fuel-bed, for they

200 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

obstruct the flow of air through it, clog the grates, and may break
the parts of shaking grates.

Heating surfaces, or flues as they are sometimes called if the
heater be a boiler, must be swept clean so that they will readily
absorb heat. Soot cuts down the heat-absorbing power of any
heating surface very rapidly, and, therefore, should not be al-
lowed to accumulate. Ashes should not be allowed to pile
up under the grates in the ash pit, for they will seal off the air
from part of the grate surface and may cause the grate-bars
to be burned and warped.

Coal as free from slate and ash as possible should be pur-
chased.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FUELS

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of various fuels
for residence heating have been mentioned. These and some
others are summarized in the table on page 201:

LIGHTING

Although electricity is in many ways the most desirable form
of artificial light, other lights may still have certain advantages.
The most effective use of any type of light should be studied for
both economic and hygienic reasons.

Types of lights and their care.

Candles.

The use of candles is now limited almost entirely to decora-
tive lighting. Candle light is expensive in comparison with
other lights.

Kerosene.

Kerosene gives a soft light that is easy on the eyes if it is
properly shaded by a slightly bluish chimney. The disadvan-
tages of kerosene lighting are the labor of cleaning and filling
the lamps, the odor and the vitiation of the air, and the danger
of explosion. Following are some suggestions for the care of
kerosene lamps:

HEAT AND LIGHT

201

TABLE XI. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP VARIOUS FUELS AND OF ELECTRICITY l

Fuel

Advantages

Disadvantages

Wood.

Anthracite. .

Bituminous coal

Subbituminous coal
and lignite.

Peat . .
Coke.

Oil,

Gas

Electricity..

(a) Cleanliness, (6) cheerful fire,
(c) quick increase of heat, (d)
cheap in some localities.

(a) Cleanliness, (6) easy control
of fire, (c) easier to realize heat
in coal than is the case with
other coals, (d) steady heat.

(a) Low price, (6) availability,
(c) high heat value (in the best
grades), (d) low percentage of

inert matter (in the best grades) .

(a) Relatively low price, (6)
availability (in some regions),
(c) responds quickly to opening
of drafts.

(a) In general, the same as for

wood.
(a) Cleanliness, (6) responds

quickly to opening of drafts, (c)

fairly high heat value.

(a) High heat value, (6) imme-
diate increase of heat, (c) clean-
liness, (d) small storage space
necessary.

(a) Ease of control, (6) cleanli-
ness, (c) convenience, (d) im-
mediate increase of heat.

(a) Every advantage

(a) Low fuel value, (6) large stor-
age space necessary, (c) labor in
preparation, (d) scarcity, (e) does
not hold fire long, (/) unsteady
heat.

(a) High price, (6) difficulty of ob-
taining, (c) slower response to
change of drafts.

(a) Dirty, (6) smoke produced, (c)
more attention to fire and furnace
necessary than with anthracite.

(a) Slakes and deteriorates on ex-
posure to air, (6) takes fire spon-
taneously in piles, (c) heat value
generally low, (d) heat in fuel dif-
ficult to realize, (e) fires do not
keep well, (/) gases generated
over fire pot sometimes burn in
smoke pipe, causing excessive
heating.

(a) Low heat value, (6) bulkiness.

(a) Bulkiness, (6) liability of fire
going out if not properly handled,
(c) fire requires rather frequent
attention unless fire pot is deep.

(a) High price, (6) difficulty of safe
storage.

(a) High price in many places,
(a) High price.

1 L. P. Breckenridge and S. B. Flagg. U. S. Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 97.

1. Fill lamps daily if they are in use. Do not fill them too full. 2. Keep
the wicks low when lamps are not lighted. 3. Do not turn the wicks low
when the lamps are lighted, because too little air is allowed for burning, and
ill-smelling gases are given off. 4. Blow out a lamp by a cross-wise motion
at the top. Do not blow into the chimney. A paper may be held at the
top on one side and a current of air directed against it. 5. Occasionally boil
the burners in a solution of washing-soda or in strong soapsuds.

Acetylene, air gas, and Blau gas.

Lighting by acetylene, air gas, or Blau gas is fairly common
in village and country homes. It is, however, in general more
expensive than the gas or electric light available in larger towns.
Acetylene gives a brilliant white light. Its greatest disadvan-
tage is the danger of explosion from careless handling. The
products of combustion are not given off in great amounts.

202

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Gas.

Mantles should always be used on gas burners, since they
give much more and a steadier light for a given amount of gas
than does an open flame (Fig. 46). The saving in gas will more
than pay for the lamp and mantles. The tubes of drop lights
and stoves should be handled carefully in order to prevent their
cracking and allowing gas to escape.

Electricity*

Of electric lamps three kinds are common in household

Inverted mantle Open flame Upright mantle

-20 CANDLEPOWER

FIG. 46.* Comparison of amount of light given by different gas lamps. Each
lamp is supposed to burn 5 cubic feet an hour, costing ^ cent if gas is
$1.00 a 1000 cubic feet. Note that the mantle lamp gives four or five times
as much light as the open flame. The inverted mantle gives more light
downward and less upward than the upright mantle.

use. These are the ordinary carbon, the metallized carbon
or "Gem," and the tungsten lamp. Nearly all of the last
kind sold in this country bear the trade name "Mazda."
All three kinds are commonly marked with the number of watts
(power) they take when used at the number of volts (electrical
pressure) also marked on the lamp. When electricity is paid
for at a certain rate a kilowatt hour, the cost of current for any
lamp is easily calculated. The kilowatt hour is 1000 watt hours,
and the number of watt hours used by any electrical device is
simply the watts times the number of hours burned. For ex-
ample, a 50-watt lamp in twenty hours uses 1,000 watt hours
or 1 kilowatt hour; at 10 cents a kilowatt hour current for such a
* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55.

HEAT AND LIGHT

203

lamp costs one-half cent an hour. This is true of any 50-watt
lamp without regard to the kind of filament it has. The amounts
of light produced by different kinds of filaments are, however,
decidedly different (Fig. 47) . If the voltage supplied is lower than
the lamps are intended for, the watts taken by the lamps are
reduced somewhat, but the light is reduced a great deal more.
The amount of light obtained from a given amount of electric

Gem

Tun

lamp

Carbon lamp

- EO CANDLEPOWE-R

FIG. 47. Comparison of amount of light given by different electric lamps.
For comparison a consumption of 50 watts is assumed, although tungsten
lamps are not usually made in this size. Fifty watts at 10 cents a kilo-
watt hour costs ^2 cen t an hour, and gives 12 to 16 candles in a carbon lamp
and 40 to 45 in a tungsten lamp. All lamps give different candle-power at
different angles. Each arrow in the figure is proportional to the candle-
power in its direction.

energy depends, therefore, on the voltage. Under fair conditions
the amount of light arid the corresponding cost for current (at
10 cents a kilowatt hour) would be about as follows:

TABLE XII

Kind of lamp

Candles per watt

Cost for 1,000
candle hours
in cents

Carbon .

0.25 to 0.33

30 to 40

Gem ....

About 0.40

Tungsten

0.80 to 1.00

10 to 12.5

From a 60-watt lamp, for example, the candle power obtained
is 15 to 20 for a carbon lamp, 24 for the Gem, and 56 for the
tungsten.

204 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Comparative cost of various common lights * (Fig. 48).

For the production of light a great variety of lamps are
available, and in some kinds remarkable inprovements have
been made in the last few years. These improvements have
made it possible in many cases either to improve the lighting
of the home without increasing the cost or to reduce the cost.

Candles

Kerosene flame ------

Kerosene Mantle ---fr
Gas Open Flame ---

Gas Mantle

Carbon Electric
"Gem" Electric.-

Tune/ten Electric p

o 5 io ^5 20 25 30 35 40
Cost ^"1000 candle -hours in cent*.

FIG. 48. Relative cost of producing a given amount of
light by various illuminants at usual prices. Costs
are based on the following prices: Candles, 12 cents a
pound; kerosene, 15 cents a gallon; gas, $1 for 1000
cubic feet; electricity 10 cents a kilowatt hour. The
solid lines represent cost of fuel or of current, the
shaded parts the cost of the mantles and bulbs. Where
prices are different from those given above, costs will
be correspondingly different.

The total economic gain which is made possible by doubling
the efficiency of production of light is almost incalculable. To
consider only one item, it has been estimated by good author-
ities that the liberal use of the newer lamps might reduce the
yearly consumption of coal in the United States by $8,000,000.
The general tendency has been, however, not to reduce the
amount of power used, but rather to use more light. The abil-
ity to produce so much more light without increasing the cost
has encouraged the development of methods of lighting in
which attention is given primarily to artistic appearance and

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55.

HEAT AND LIGHT 205

to the comfort of the user rather than to getting as much light
as possible out of a fixture.

The cost of lighting by any method depends to some extent
on local conditions, and the statements of cost given below will
apply only approximately in any particular case. The cost
will naturally depend on the candle power of lamps used and
the time the lamps burn. In order to make comparisons be-
tween different kinds of lamps, it is convenient to consider a
definite amount of lighting, which is obtained by multiplying
the candle power of the lamps burned by the number of hours
they burn. For example, 1,000 candle-hours of lighting may
be obtained by burning a 10-candle lamp 100 hours or a 50-
candle lamp 20 hours, but if the lamps are of the same kind
the cost will be about the same. Calculations of the cost of
producing 1,000 candle-hours by different lamps are sometimes
useful in choosing between lamps, but of course it does not
necessarily follow that the lamp for which this cost is lowest is
most economical for household use.

Methods of distributing light.

The three methods of lighting, direct, indirect, and semi-
indirect, are dependent for their efficiency on the type of shade
or reflector employed. By means of reflectors, light may be
concentrated on a small spot or spread out over a large area.

In the direct method of lighting, the light falls or is reflected
directly on the objects to be lighted. Although the maximum
amount of light is furnished by this method, the disadvantages
of a light that is too brilliant and concentrated are now recog-
nized. If a drop light is used for close work, it is advisable at
the same time to have another light for the general illumina-
tion of the room in order to prevent a strain on the eyes pro-
duced by the contrast of a small brilliantly lighted area in a
practically dark room.

In indirect lighting all the light is reflected upward by an
opaque reflector and returned to the room diffused generally
from the ceiling. This method is the most comfortable for the
eyes, but the most expensive.

206 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

In semi-indirect lighting a diffusing bowl allows some of the
light to pass through the bowl to the room and the remainder
to be thrown up to the ceiling. This is a good method for the
general illumination of a room.

CHAPTER VIII
STOVES AND COOKERS

Every kitchen should be equipped with a good range and
a fireless cooker. If a coal or a wood range is used in combi-
nation with a fireless cooker, the two should be near enough
together to prevent much loss of heat in transferring the food
from the range to the cooker. Sometimes the two pieces of
equipment are combined in gas or electric stoves, the oven
being insulated so that after it becomes thoroughly heated the
heat may be retained long enough to cook food without the
use of more fuel. Such stoves are more expensive than the or-
dinary type, but the saving of fuel throughout the lifetime of
the range would doubtless justify the increased cost in the be-
ginning.

A coal or wood stove which is used in winter for heating as
well as cooking should be supplemented by a kerosene stove
or some other kind that will help to keep the kitchen cool in
hot weather. With a kerosene stove and a fireless cooker, the
discomfort of a hot kitchen in summer and the waste of un-
necessary heat may be avoided.

Any kind of kitchen range should be as free from dirt-collect-
ing crevices and grooves as possible. In selecting, attention
should be paid to the possibilities of convenient and thorough
cleaning.

Kerosene, gas, and electric stoves are often built with the
oven at such a height that stooping is unnecessary. There is
no reason why such a location should not be better in every
way than the customary one which has been borrowed from
coal stoves. Ovens higher than the working surface of the
stove can be heated quite as efficiently with these fuels as when
placed below the main surface of the range. A good height for

207

208 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

working surfaces in a kitchen is 34 inches (page 110). This ap-
plies to cook stoves as well as to tables and sinks. It may be
necessary to raise the stove, on blocks to bring it to this level.
If a range is raised on feet, it should be at such a height that
the floor underneath can be reached easily for cleaning. It may
be set flat on the floor. Zinc or tiling is generally placed under
the stove, extending for 8 or 12 inches beyond the edge for
protection.

Drafts in kitchen stoves.

As soon as the fire has warmed the air in the stove, stove-'
pipe, and chimney, the heated air rises, forced up by the cooler
air from the room and from outside. Admitting air below the
fire box gives a draft and helps the fire to burn. Admitting
air through the opening in the stovepipe checks the draft by ad-
mitting cold air and by causing less air to pass through the stove.

The oven and the hot-water reservoir, if there is one, are
heated by opening a damper which allows the hot smoke from
the fire box to pass over the oven, under the hot-water reser-
voir, under the oven, then up behind the oven and into the
stovepipe.

Utensils for fuel-saving.

Special utensils are made for use on kerosene, gas, and elec-
tric stoves, which are so shaped as to make it possible to cook
two or three foods in as many utensils at one time over one
burner.

A pressure cooker cooks food in from one-third to one-
fourth the usual length of time. Although its initial cost is some-
what high, the amount of fuel that may be saved by its use
during a year greatly decreases this cost.

A steamer in which several kinds of food can be cooked at
the same time over one burner saves fuel if the meal is planned
to that end.

Selection of wood.

In general, the greater the dry weight of a non-resinous wood,
the more heat it will give out when burned. Woods having

STOVES AND COOKERS 209

high fuel values are osage orange, locust, hickory, oak, apple,
black birch, yellow birch, hard maple, beech, long-leaf pine, and
cherry. One cord of wood such as the above, weighing when dry
about 3,500 to 4,000 pounds, is required to equal the heating
value of one ton of coal. Of other woods, such as ash, black wal-
nut, short-leaf pine, hemlock, red gum, sycamore, or soft maple,
which weigh about 2,500 to 3,400 pounds a cord, it requires
about a cord and a half to equal one ton of coal, while of wood
such as Norway pine, cypress, basswood, spruce and white pine,
two cords weighing when air dry 2,000 to 2,500 pounds each
are required.

The available heat value of a cord of wood depends upon
the extent to which it has been dried. If the wood is green
part of the heat is taken up in evaporating the water.
Therefore the drier the wood, the greater is the available
heat.

A cord of wood occupies 128 cubic feet of space. If air spaces
between the sticks are large, if the sticks are of small diameter,
finely split, or twisted and knotty, or if the wood is loosely
stacked, less wood is secured in a cord. If necessary to burn
wood in a stove or furnace intended for coal, it may be done
by covering the grate partly with sheet iron in which holes
have been punched, or with fire brick, in order to reduce the
draft. If this is not done the wood is wasted by being con-
sumed too fast, producing a hot fire which may damage the
fire-box.

Hickory is generally first choice among the non-resinous
woods, because of the high fuel value to a unit volume of wood,
even burning, and lasting quality. White oak is next, followed
by black locust, hard maple, beech, birch, and " white ash."
The white pines have a relatively low heat value, but ignite
readily and give out a quick hot flame.

Kerosene stove.

Kerosene is obtained by distilling crude petroleum which con-
sists of a variety of inflammable liquids. The more volatile it
is, the more brilliant the light. Kerosene which can be heated

210 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

to 140 F. without yielding a vapor, will not take fire even if
the container is broken and oil spilled.

The following rules for operating a kerosene stove should be
observed: Select the best burners possible; do not blow directly
down on the flame but blow across it ; wash burners occasionally
in a little washing-soda and if wicks are kept clean, smoke may
be avoided; do not leave the burners with the flame turned
down; change the wicks when they become clogged with im-
purities; do not fill the kerosene lamp or stove near a fire or
burning lamp; burners should allow air to gain access to the
wicks to create a current to carry off products; air holes and
tubes should be free from dust and dirt; containers should be
kept nearly full but if too full the oil expands with the heat and
oozes out.

Coal range.

A coal range which has as much insulation as possible should
be selected to avoid waste of heat. Over 90 per cent of the heat
generated in the ordinary kitchen range is usually lost.

Ashes should be shaken down gently, leaving a thin layer of
half-burned coal in the bottom of the grate, or if the coal is
burned out, a thin layer of fresh coal may be placed upon the
bottom of the grate. Usually a half turn of the grate is suffi-
cient to shake down the ashes without shaking out any half-
burned coal.

In keeping a fire in a range, it is better to add a small amount
of coal each time and fire often. The bed of live coals should not
be entirely covered with coal but spaces should be left through
which enough heat can pass to fire the gases as they distill off
from the new coal ; gases that go up the chimney are lost.

The grates should be kept clean and clear of clinkers, and
caking of ashes and cinders at the bottom of the fire should be
avoided.

In kindling a fire, crumpled paper or shavings may be used,
across which kindling is laid in a way to provide air spaces;
a few pieces of hard wood are added to the kindling and a little
coal, followed by more later.

STOVES AND COOKERS 211

Gas range.

Gas-stove burners should be adjusted so that the blue-
green central part of the flame is about half the height of the
entire flame. If the flame is very long and is bright yellow in
parts, too little air is being admitted; if short and inclined to
make a slight roaring noise, there is too much air. In the latter
case the flame is liable to " strike back," under which condition
much carbon monoxide is formed. In all gas burners the vari-
ous openings should be kept clean. The amount of air supplied
to gas burners is usually adjusted by means of a small damper
or slide to be found at the base of the burner.

Insulated ovens.

It is estimated that 90 per cent of heat supplied for baking
in ovens is lost through the sides of the oven. A considerable
saving of heat can be effected by insulating the oven, as is done
in the case of most electric and some gas ovens. An ordinary
gas oven may be fairly well insulated by means of sheet as-
bestos cut to fit all the sides with the possible exception of the
one occupied by the door, and attached by wires to the corners
of the oven.

The so-called automatic cookstove, or insulated oven, has the
advantage over the ordinary fireless cooker of being still more eco-
nomical in regard to heat and labor and of eliminating an addi-
tional piece of equipment in the kitchen, because, as ordinarily
made, it has top burners also, and hence takes the place of the
usual range. In the commercial insulated oven, both the pre^-
liminary heating of the food and the complete cooking process are
accomplished; consequently, both the loss of heat occasioned by
transferring the food container from the stove to the cooker and
the labor of this motion are eliminated. Moreover, the walls of
the oven itself are heated and do not draw the heat from the
food. There are now on the market insulated ovens adapted to
the use of gas, electricity, and kerosene. The heat supply in
some of these ovens is controlled by a dial hand that may be
adjusted for the number of minutes for which the heat is re-
quired, at the end of which time the heat is cut off without

212

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XIII. GENERAL COOKING PROCESSES *

Method of
cooking

Definition

Coal or wood
range

Gas stove

(1) Dry heat
Broiling

Cooking slices or small pieces
of meat or fowl by hot air
from red-hot coals or flame.
Pan broiling: cooking on
heated metal.

Over bed of hot
coals.
In heated frying
pan on stove.

Under broiler of
gas oven.
In heated frying
pan.

(2) Roasting

Cooking large pieces or whole
carcass of meat or fowl by hot
air from open fire or in hot
oven. No water added.

In very hot oven.

Under broiler or
in very hot oven.

(3) Baking

Cooking meat, vegetables, or
batters and doughs by hot air
of oven.
Baking of batters on hot pan
or stone.

Oven of range.
Griddle on top of
stove.

Gas oven or grid-
dle on top of burn-
er.

(4) Toasting

Browning surface of flour
mixtures over fire.

Over bed of hot
coals or over heat
from metal top.

On heated metal
stand over burner
or under oven
broiler

(5) Browning

Heating of flour to brown in
the first or last period of cook-
ing of dredged meat or
crumbed dish.

In hot oven.

In hot oven or
under broiler.

(6) Moist heat
Boiling

Cooking by immersing in
water which is bubbling well.

In kettle on top
of stove.

In kettle over
burner.

(7) Simmering

Cooking in hot water that
slightly bubbles but does not

In kettle or pan
on stove or in
double boiler.

In kettle or pan
over small burn-
er. In double
boiler.

(8) Stewing

Long, slow cooking or sim-
mering of meat, fish, poultry.

In partly closed
kettle on back of
stove.

In partly closed
kettle over low bur-
ner.

(9) Steaming

Cooking in steam above boil-
ing water.

In steamer over
kettle on stove.

In steamer over
kettle on burner.

(10) Poaching

Cooking of eggs or egg mix-
tures in hot water boiling as
they are dropped into it and
simmering to cook.

In saucepan or
iron frying pan on
range.

In saucepan or
iron frying pan
over burner.

(11) Braising

Cooking of meat by a com-
bination of baking and stew-
ing. Bake in hot oven 15
minutes, add water and con-
tinue cooking.

Oven.

(12) In heated
fat
Frying

Cooking by immersing in hot
fat.

In frying kettle
on stove.

In frying kettle
over burner.

(13) Sauteing

Cooking in frying pan in
small amount of fat, searing
and turning often.

In frying pan on
stove.

In frying pan over
burner.

<14) Fricas-
seeing

Cooking of flesh food by
saut&ng and then stewing.

In frying pan on
stove.

In frying pan
over burner.

(15) Casserole
cooking

Fricasseeing in oven. Brown
in fat in frying pan, place in
covered earthenware or glass
dish and cook several hours
in oven.

Top of stove and
in slow oven.

* Anna M. East

STOVES AND COOKERS 213

TABLE XIII. GENERAL COOKINO PROCESSES Continued

Oil stove

Open fire

Fireless cooker

Pressure cooker

In heated frying
pan.

Before open fire
in fireplace.
Over open camp
fire.

(1)

In very hot oven.

On spits or crane
over open fire.

(2)

Oven or griddle
over burner.

Dutch oven or on
griddle over fire.

By means of heat-
ed stones.

(3)

On heated metal
stand over burner.

Held in wire rack
before open fire.

(4)

In hot oven.

(5)

In kettle over
burner.

In kettle sus-
pended over fire.

In kettle set on
heated stone.

(6)

In kettle or pan.
In double boiler.

In kettle or in
double boiler over
fire.

In kettle of cook-
er.

(7)

In partly closed
kettle over low
burner.

In closed kettle
on heated racks
in open fire.

Best use of fire-
less cooker.

(8)

In steamer over
kettle on burner.

In steamer over
kettle on open fire.

Pudding can, set
in boiling water.

Set in rack above (9)
water in pressure
cooker.

In saucepan or
iron frying pan
over burner.

(10)

Oven.

Dutch oven.

Brown first and
put in cooker.

Brown first and put(ll)
in cooker.

In frying kettle
over burner.

In suspended fry-
ing kettle.

(12)

In frying pan over
burner.

In frying pan
over fire.

(13)

In frying pan over
burner.

Brown in fat and
put in cooker.

Brown in fat and (14)
put in cooker.

Top of stove and
oven.

(15)

214 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

further attention. A large insulated oven, modeled somewhat
like an ordinary gas stove, is more expensive than is a fireless
cooker; but the cost of a moderate-sized range with an insu-
lated oven is practically the same as that of both a gas range and
a fireless cooker. This is a subject worthy of investigation by
one who is purchasing new kitchen equipment.

Fireless cookers*

The commercial fireless cooker costs more than does the
home-made one; on the other hand, it is likely to be more
durable, it seldom has any absorbent material exposed to the
odor and the steam from food, the cooking compartment can
be kept clean more easily, and it is frequently provided with a
ventilating valve or some such device that makes baking and
roasting possible. However, the home-made fireless cooker has
proved to be wholly satisfactory for such foods as cereals, vege-
tables, dried fruits, custards, fowls, and certain cuts of meat.

There is practically no danger of fire from a home-made
cooker unless very hot radiators are used. Since thermometers
are not used in the average home, and the radiators may be
heated to an unnecessarily high temperature, it seems safest
to advise against the use of radiators unless the insulator is not
inflammable. Under no conditions can a very hot radiator
above the food be safe, because it is too near the muslin of the
cushion. While baking is impossible without the use of radia-
tors, there are sufficient other processes for which the home-
made cooker may be used, to warrant the trouble and the small
cost of making one.

The cost of a home-made fireless cooker may range from
about $1.50 to $8.00 or more, depending on the materials used.
If several sizes of aluminum pails with clamps are bought for
food containers, the cost may equal that of a small commercial
cooker. In buying a fireless cooker the following points should
be considered ; insulation, exterior case, interior lining, cooking
utensils, vent valve, hot plates, locks and hinges, size, and cost.

* Canon, Helen, and Brewer, Lucile. The Fireless Cooker and Its Uses.
Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 95.

STOVES AND COOKERS

215

The following materials and utensils are needed for making
a fireless cooker (Fig. 49) :

For the case, or cabinet: A wooden box, a trunk, an ice box, a galvanized
iron ash-can, a wooden candy-bucket, or the like. Any kind of case that is
used should be provided with a tight-fitting cover. If an ordinary box is

FIG. 49. Diagram of a home-made fireless cooker.
A, outer case; B, cushion; C, cooking com-
partment; D, food container; E, packing
material.

used, it should be of sufficiently heavy material to permit the use of good
hinges and fastenings.

For the lining of the case: Sheet asbestos 1/8 inch thick, or heavy wrapping
paper.

For packing material: Ground cork, sawdust, excelsior, mineral wool,
paper torn in small pieces and crumpled, powdered asbestos, shavings, straw,
hay, wool, cotton batting, or some such non-conducting material. Mineral
wool and powdered asbestos are both good non-conductors of heat, and
they have the additional merit of not being inflammable; but they are
harder to work with than are the other materials. Gloves should be worn
by the person doing the packing, and care should be taken not to allow the
material to enter the nose and the mouth.

For the cooking compartment: A deep bucket or kettle of agate, galvanized
iron, or tin, of such a size that there may be a space of at least three inches
between the case and the top, the bottom, and the sides of the bucket.
This bucket or kettle should have a tight-fitting, flat cover. In place of a
bucket, two thicknesses of 1/16-inch sheet asbestos or heavy wrapping paper

216 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

may be shaped to form the cooking compartment; but a bucket is more
durable and can be kept in a more sanitary condition.

For the cooking utensil: A covered kettle or bucket of agate or aluminum,
of a size suitable for the amount of food ordinarily to be cooked in it. The
utensil should be durable, and free from crevices and seams in which particles
of food and harmful micro-organisms may lodge, and it should be supplied
with a tight-fitting cover that can be clamped down. Seamless aluminum
is perhaps most commonly used for this purpose. Special fireless-cooker
utensils can generally be obtained from a local hardware dealer or a firm
that manufactures fireless cookers.

For the collar to cover the packing material: A piece of zinc, cardboard,
sheet asbestos, or muslin, of such a shape as to fit the space between the
case and the bucket that serves as the cooking compartment. Zinc is good
for this purpose because it does not tear with constant use as do the other
materials, it can be washed, it does not rust, and it is not inflammable.

For the cushion: Heavy drilling, denim, or muslin.

For the hot plates, if desired: Flat stones, stove lids, or special soapstone or
metal'radiators. Most foods can be cooked without the use of hot plates or
radiators, but a higher temperature can be reached and a cooking tempera-
ture prolonged by their use. Hot plates should never be used unless the
cooker is packed with non-inflammable material, such as mineral wool or
asbestos.

Directions for making a fireless cooker are as follows:

(1) Line the case and its cover with sheet asbestos of 1/8 inch thickness.
(2) Pack into the bottom of the asbestos-lined case a layer at least 3 inches
deep of whatever packing material is to be used. (3) Place the bucket
that is to form the cooking compartment on the layer of packing material
in the bottom of the case. Pack the space between the case and the cooking
compartment closely with more of this material, filling the space to within
% inch from the top of the bucket. (4) Make a collar of any of the ma-
terials suggested, to cover the exposed surface of the packing material be-
tween the case and the cooking compartment. (5) Make a cushion of some
of the materials suggested, which when filled with the packing material
will be at least three inches thick, and will, as exactly as possible, fit into
the space between the top of the cooking compartment and the top of the
case. Cut from the material two pieces of the desired shape and size, and
put them together with a straight strip of the desired width, with extra
allowance for seams.

The interior of the fireless cooker should be kept absolutely
clean. It should be washed, dried, and sunned, if possible, each
time after being used. It should remain open for several hours
after use, and it should never be tightly closed when not in use.
The observance of these precautions prevents the food from

STOVES AND COOKERS 217

acquiring an unpleasant taste from odors or remnants of food
previously cooked.

For convenience, all equipment to be used in connection with
the cooker, such as hot plates, hooks, racks, and cooking uten-
sils, should be kept near the cooker. A shelf, a cupboard, or an
improvised cabinet made from a box may serve as a convenient
storage place.

The cooker itself should be placed near the stove, both to
prevent unnecessary loss of heat in transferring the food from
the stove to the cooker and to save labor on the part of the
worker.

The soapstone radiators, when not in use, may be kept warm
on the back of the stove or in the sun in order to reduce the
length of time required to bring them to the desired temperature
when they are needed.

The fireless cooker, like any other piece of equipment, should
be used intelligently in order that the best results may be ob-
tained. As previously stated, for certain cooking processes
and under certain conditions, it may be no more economical
in fuel, time, or labor, than is the ordinary range; therefore,
fireless cookery should be studied carefully by the housewife
in order that she may discover its best applications. A few
experiments with various kinds of foods, based on recipes
adapted to the use of a fireless cooker, are necessary in order
to give one the desired mastery.

The efficiency of insulation, the quantity of food, and the
rapidity of the transfer from the stove to the cooker, influence
the length of time required for the cooking. The temperature
to which the radiator is heated also determines to a certain
extent the length of time the food should remain in the cooker.
The period that gives the best results is more or less definite
for each food. However, since individual tastes differ, definite
statements in regard to the required time should be verified for
each household.

Care should be given to correct proportions, because there is
no opportunity for the evaporation of excess moisture in the
cooker.

218 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Foods, such as pancakes, that require rapid cooking over
a hot fire, are not well suited to the fireless-cooker method.
Biscuits may be baked successfully in the cooker, but since the
heat required to raise the radiators to the proper tempeiature
will bake the biscuits in an ordinary oven, there seems to be no
justification for its use in this case. However, for foods that
require long cooking in order to be made more palatable and
digestible, the fireless cooker is admirably suited. Cereals
such as rolled oats, cracked wheat, and hominy, give excel-
lent results when cooked in a sufficient quantity of water in
a fireless cooker (page 506). The tough cuts of meat, which
require long cooking at a low temperature in order to be made
palatable are good when properly cooked in a fireless cooker.
Steamed breads and puddings are well adapted to this method.

Hot beverages and sauces may be set aside in the cooker to be
kept hot for serving.

The use of the fireless cooker for canning fruits is recom-
mended by some. The juices of fruits may be satisfactorily
extracted for jelly-making. Various conditions, however, de-
termine the practicability of its use for this purpose.

As a means of enabling one to have warm water at hand
without keeping a fire, the fireless cooker is of use in homes
where there is no boiler connected with the range, and especi-
ally when the fuel used is coal or wood, which necessitates
building a fire.

Tables of proportions and time of cooking foods in a fireless
cooker are given in Table XIV on page 219.

Thermos bottles.

Thermos bottles may be used as miniature fireless cookers
for a small amount of cereal or other food requiring long, slow
cooking.

STOVES AND COOKERS

219

TABLE XIV. TIME-TABLE FOR USE WITH A FIRELESS COOKER

Food

Propor-
tion of
food to
water

Minutes
for boiling
on the stove

Hours
in the
cooker

Cereals:

Corn-meal 1 to 6

Cracked wheat 1 to 5

Cream-of-wheat 1 to 6

Farina 1 to 7

Hominy grits 1 to 5

Macaroni 1 to 4

Rice Ito4

Rolled oats 1 to 3

Vegetables:

Beans, dried (soaked and

cooked in the same water) 1 to 4

Beans, string 1 to 1

Cabbage 1 to 1

Carrots 1 to 1

Onions . 1 to 1

Potatoes 1 to 1

Dried fruits:

Apples Ito2

Apricots 1 to 2

Peaches 1 to 2

Prunes (soaked and cooked

in the same water) 1 to 2

Meats:

Beef, boiled

Beef, pot roast

Chicken, stewed

Ham, boiled

Mutton, leg or shoulder,

boiled

Mutton stew

Breads and puddings:

Brown bread

Cup custard, steamed ....
Suet pudding

15
30
30
20

20
10

30
30

6 or all
8 or all
2 or all

2 or all
8 or all
2

3 or all

night
night
night
night
night

night

6 or mora
2

2
2

4 or all night
4 or all night
4 or all night

4 or all night

3
5
3

6
4

5
1

CHAPTER IX
METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL

Some of the methods of keeping foods cool that were used by
primitive people are still resorted to, sometimes with certain
modifications. The use of vessels permitting evaporation, the
running water of streams, caves or holes in the ground, packing
with grasses, all have lent their principles to more elaborate
cooling methods and refrigerating systems of to-day.

Refrigerators.

Ordinary household refrigerators, even of the best make with
the best insulated walls, are by no means as effective in saving
ice as might be desired. Three points to consider in purchasing
a refrigerator are low temperature, dryness, and sanitation. The
low temperature is obtained by ice and proper insulation. The
ice compartment should be large enough to hold at least 50
or 75 pounds of ice and should be kept filled in order to avoid
a fluctuation in temperature which is favorable to the growth
of micro-organisms that cause food to spoil. The location of
the ice compartment at the side is thought to be better than
across the entire top. The door for icing is perhaps more con-
venient at the side than on the top. A rear icing-door can be
made at a very small additional cost; if the refrigerator is to be
placed where rear icing would eliminate much tracking across
floors, it is worth considering.

Insulation is accomplished by a dead air space between the
outside case and mineral felt, cork, asbestos, or whatever
insulating material is used. The wood should be of such a kind
that it will not warp. There should be no wood where water
can come in contact with it, since damp wood is an excellent
place for micro-organisms to lurk.

There should be a good circulation of air in order to keep the

220

METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL 221

atmosphere dry. The cold air from around the ice should go to
the bottom of the refrigerator and then travel to the top before
it again goes over the ice; the inside openings, therefore, should
be large enough at the bottom and the top to permit the free
passage of air.

To insure good sanitary conditions, the lining must be of such
material that the daily cleaning will be easy, and there must be
as few seams as possible to harbor germs. The material may
be galvanized iron, enamel, or porcelain. There is little differ-
ence in cost between galvanized iron and enamel; the enamel
is somewhat easier to clean that the galvanized iron and with
proper care wears very satisfactorily. Porcelain is perhaps in
many ways the most desirable but it is also the most expensive.
The drainpipe and shelves should be easily removable in order
that they may be cleaned frequently.

To make the best use of a refrigerator,* such foods as milk
and meat should be placed where they will be kept coldest;
generally near the place the air leaves the ice-chamber, or
directly under the ice. The doors should be opened seldom and
for as short a time as possible. The ice should not be covered
to prevent its melting, since only by melting can it keep food
cool.

Iceless refrigerator.

An iceless refrigerator depends for its efficiency on the cooling
effect of evaporating water. An open framework of shelves
is surrounded by a cloth kept moist by means of a large pan of
water on the top. A good current of air to evaporate the water
is essential. The refrigerator will work wherever the cloth will
dry readily, but it must be kept in a shady place since a low
temperature is the main object. A temperature of about 55 F.
can be maintained.

Directions for making an iceless refrigerator are as follows
(Figs. 50, 51):

Make a strong set of shelves open on four sides with a solid top and
bottom. Raise it on short legs. Screen this on three sides, and fit a

* U, S. Bur, Standards, Circ. 55.

222

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

screen door to the fourth side. The efficiency will be greater if the shelves
and the bottom are made of reinforced screening to allow freer circulation
of air.

Cover the four sides entirely with canton flannel, smooth side out, but-
toning it closely to the frame. This may be done easily by sewing buttons
on tape and tacking this tape firmly around the upper edge of the case on
three sides, also down each side of the framework next the door and on the
upper and outer edges of the door. Allow a flap of flannel to extend past

FIG. 50. An iceless refrigerator.

the outer edge of the door to be buttoned over on the framework. It
will be necessary to unbutton and button this flap when opening the case.
Make buttonholes in the flannel covering corresponding to the buttons on
the case. Around the top of the covering sew four flaps of canton flannel
a little narrower than each side of the case and large enough to extend up
over the top and dip into the pan of water. These will serve as wicks to
keep the entire surface of the flannel moist. If the refrigerator is to be
set on the porch, a pan must be placed underneath the refrigerator to
catch the water that drips down.

An extra flannel covering should be made for the case so that one may
be washed each week,

METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL

223

It is desirable, but not essential, to paint the case with enamel paint. A
non-rusting wire must be used for the screening.

The following dimensions are suggested, and the amount of material
required is indicated.

Height: 4 feet, 8 inches.

Base: 24 inches square.

Space between shelves: 11 inches.

o lo

o fo

I
o|

FIG. 51. Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator.
The buttonholes are placed to correspond with the buttons
on the framework.

Materials: 3 yards of 24-inch opal zinc screen wire, 1 pint of flat coat
white paint for first coat, 1 pint of white enamel paint for second coat,
50 feet of board % x 3 inches for frame and door, 16 feet of board 1 x 12
inches for 4 shelves, 4 feet of board 1 x 24 inches for top and bottom, 46
feet of screen molding, 2 hinges, 1 cabinet catch, 2% dozen white china
buttons, 10 yards of white cotton tape, nails, tacks, 13 yards of 30-inch
canton flannel (two covers).

Unglazed earthen vessels*

If the air is dry, evaporation is quite rapid even when water
is cool. Thus, when water is placed in a slightly porous un-
glazed earthen vessel, a small amount constantly niters to the
outside and evaporates, keeping the contents several degrees

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55.

224 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

cooler than the surrounding air. This device in various forms
has been used for hundreds and perhaps thousands of years.

Fireless cooker.

A fireless cooker (page 214) may be used for keeping foods
cool as well as hot, since proper insulation will keep the heat
out as well as in.

Thermos bottle.

A thermos bottle is a convenient way of keeping a small
amount of food cold. A wide-mouthed bottle can be used for
other foods than liquids.

CHAPTER X
KITCHEN UTENSILS *

While waiting for the day when labors-saving machinery will
be the rule instead of the exception, much can be done by selec-
tion, arrangement, and care of kitchen equipment to make
work easier and working hours shorter.

Kitchen utensils should not be selected at random to clutter
storage space. Only those articles that are used daily or at
least weekly should be given a place in the kitchen cupboards.
A housekeeper should weigh well the usefulness and the cost
of any article that is only seldom to be taken from the shelf.
The following considerations should be kept in mind in choosing
kitchen utensils: Whether the utensil is all that it is adver-
tised to be; whether it is durable, convenient to handle, well
balanced, of good weight for its purpose; whether a handle or
a bail is desirable; whether the cover is good for the purpose;
whether the lip of the utensil is on the proper side for use;
whether the utensil is easy to clean, free from seams and cor-
ners, free from rolled rims, rough edges, and grooves; whether
the utensil is of the proper size and shape for the amount and
kind of cooking to be done; whether it is a safe receptacle for
food.

UTENSILS BEST ADAPTED TO VARIOUS COOKING PROCESSES

Baking.

Cake. Tin, if well cared for (page 237), is the metal best
adapted for cake-making. It does not scorch, heats quickly
to the point at which the leavening agent in the cake becomes
effective, and responds rapidly to necessary regulation of tem-

* Adapted from " Choice and Care of Utensils " by Ida S. Harrington,
Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 27.

225

226 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

perature during baking. The round tin with a tube in the cen-
ter, known as an angel-cake tin, produces the most level and
evenly baked cake, owing to the heat reaching the center of the
cake as soon as any other part, and the "pull" between metal
and batter being more even at every point than in tins of
other construction. A plain round tin, not too deep, gives
the next best result; a square tin is next, while an oblong tin
requires very careful regulation of heat in order to produce a
well-baked cake.

Bread. The choice of utensils for bread baking lies between
tin and russia iron (a sheet iron treated by a process that orig-
inated in Russia, having a polished blue-black surface). Since
bread requires a hotter oven than does cake, the russia iron
pan should have first choice; it absorbs more heat than does
tin, is less affected by high temperature, and is more durable.

Pie. Experiments have shown that in baking the lower
crust of juicy pies, the best results are obtained by the use of
granite-ware plates, that old tin plates are next in order, while
perforated and wire plates come third.

Cookies. Cookies are best baked on russia iron sheets cut
to fit the oven, with heavy tin sheets as second choice. The
sheets are kept in better condition and produce more delicate
results if, instead of being greased with butter or lard, they
are warmed and rubbed very lightly with paraffin. If kept
scrupulously clean, they require no greasing.

Cooking of meats.

Roasts. Roasts require a high temperature at the start in
order to sear the surface; for this reason the best choice is a pan
of iron or high-grade granite ware. An oval pan can be more
carefully cleaned than one with sharp corners. There is less
danger, therefore, if this shape is chosen, that particles of fat
will adhere to the pan, grow rancid, and give an unpleasant
odor to the utensil and a taint to the food.

Pot roasts. The iron kettle with tight-fitting cover, called
also the "Dutch oven," best supplies the steady heat that a

KITCHEN UTENSILS 227

pot roast needs. Although a casserole may be used, or a bean
pot with waxed paper tied tightly over the top, in either of
these there is more evaporation than in the iron kettle and the
roast is, therefore, drier, although just as tender.

Meat stews. Since in stews more liquid is added than in pot
roasts, the casserole may well be used, or a shallow aluminum
or graniteware stewpan with close-fitting cover, straight sides,
and very short or loop-shaped handles. The long, slow cook-
ing may thus be done either in the oven or on top of the stove.
In brown stews, the meat is first sauteed in an iron pan in order
to give the desired color and flavor.

Stewing fruits or vegetables.

Aluminum, granite, and enamelware are equally good for
stewing fruits and vegetables. A wide, shallow type of sauce-
pan, with a well-fitting cover, should be selected for fruits and
for such vegetables as must be cooked in a small amount of
water; while a deep saucepan, without a cover, is best for the
cooking of strong-juiced vegetables that need a large amount of
water.

Sauteing.

A rather heavy iron or steel frying pan is best adapted for
this purpose. In a thin pan, or in one of graniteware, the fat
passes too soon from the temperature at which it forms the de-
sired golden-brown crust on the food to be cooked, to the point
where it begins to decompose and becomes irritating to the di-
gestive tract.

Frying.

For frying in deep fat an iron or steel frying kettle is best.
It may be bowl-shaped, or it may have straight sides. The
latter shape accommodates a greater number of articles at a
time, and is more convenient for use with a wire frying basket.
In using the bowl-shaped kettle, a long-handled skimmer may
be more convenient for removing the food. The kettle should
be deep, so that when it is two-thirds full of fat the food to be
cooked will be entirely immersed.

228 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Candy-making.

Professional confectioners use a copper kettle connected with
an apparatus that makes a partial vacuum in the kettle and
allows the sugar to boil at a lower temperature than the ordi-
nary boiling point, thus lessening the danger of scorching the
sugar. For the home candy-maker, aluminum is the best sub-
stitute for copper as a conductor of heat. Sirup boiled in an
aluminum kettle rarely scorches, and the smooth surface makes
it easy to keep the sides wiped free from sugar crystals as they
form.

Jelly-making.

Enamel or graniteware unless there is a defect in the enamel
finish makes the best utensil for jelly-making, because of the
ease with which it may be cleaned and the certainty that it
will not be affected by the acid of fruit juices.

SPECIAL UTENSILS AND EQUIPMENT

Knives.

The assortment of knives should include a bread knife,
butcher's knife, vegetable knife, a knife with a waved edge
for cutting fresh bread and cake, and a spatula. The most dur-
able knife is a hand-forged one in which the steel extends, flat
and unnarrowed, to the end of the handle, and is fastened to
it by rivets of steel, copper, or brass. Strength is lost if the
steel extends only half the length of the handle. In the cheapest
setting, known as the " twang," the steel is narrowed to a point,
pushed into the handle, and fastened by adhesion. This is the
kind of handle that is sure to come off at the most inconvenient
time. Handles of beech or birch wood wear best. Rubber
handles are unpractical because they shrink, swell, and burn.
Ivory, pearl, or bone handles are likely to blacken or become
loosened if they are put in water.

Egg-beaters.

Different types of egg-beaters are needed, according to the
consistency desired in the beaten whites. For all-round use,

KITCHEN UTENSILS 229

the dover egg-beater is a good choice because it works most
quickly. It is operated by turning a wheel, without being
lifted from the eggs to be beaten, and hence beats in compara-
tively little air and gives a fine, close texture. One should be
selected in which the cogs do not " interfere." The balloon-
shaped egg-whisk made of piano wire carries more air into
the moisture, and the flat wire beater gives the airiest texture
of all. Either of the latter types is preferable to the dover egg-
beater for angel cake, sponge cake, or meringues where light-
ness is more desirable than fineness of grain.

Spoons.

Spoons of hard wood should be used whenever possible;
they are lighter than metal ones, do not discolor the hand, make
less noise, and do not scratch metal surfaces. For basting
roasts, or whenever a specially strong spoon is needed, a tinned
iron spoon is good. Enamel spoons are not practical, as they
are likely to bend and crack the enamel.

Brushes.

If brushes are used in connection with food that is, for
greasing pans or for brushing rolls or pastry with butter, egg,
or milk they must be of a kind that can be cleaned with boil-
ing water. This is impossible if the bristles are glued in. The
bristles should be strong and pliable (Russia or Chinese bristles
are best) and should be bound to the handle with twine rather
than with metal. A shaving brush of badger hair is really better
adapted to the purpose than any brush specially designed.

Small wooden-backed brushes are indispensable for the proper
cleaning of vegetables, for brushing grated lemon rind from the
grater, and for many other purposes. A small poker heated red
hot can be used to mark on the backs of the brushes the pur-
poses for which they are to be used. A round pitcher- or bottle-
brush, and a long wire-handled trap-brush for the refrigerator,
are sanitary necessities.

Double boilers.

A double boiler should be selected with a lower part suffi-

230 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ciently large to hold a quantity of water that will not soon boil
away.

Paper.

Heavy absorbent brown paper, on a roller, such as is used in
meat markets, is a great kitchen help. In breading cutlets or
making croquettes, for example, the table or the rolling board
may be covered with paper and the bread crumbs emptied on it.
After the croquettes are breaded, the crumbs may be removed
and the same paper used for draining the croquettes when they
are fried. It may afterwards be folded up and burned, or given
as a titbit to the chickens, in either case saving the washing of a
mixture of egg and bread crumbs from the rolling board.

Waxed paper, so essential for putting up lunches, lining cake
tins, and covering food in the refrigerator, may also be obtained
on rollers or in sheets.

Covered paper pails, lined with waxed paper, are useful for
storing dry left-overs. Paper cups, plates, and napkins are a
welcome help in the picnic lunch or the grange supper. The
plates may be bought with linings, or " insets," which may be
replaced by clean ones for a second course. Folding paper cups
should be a part of every school lunch or traveler's outfit.

Fiber pails, washbowls, and tubs are useful because of their
lightness, and with careful handling they will last a long time.
Breaks in the finish may be mended by filling with a little putty,
covering this with a piece of stout cotton cloth, and holding the
whole together with oil paint to match the finish.

Wooden skewers and toothpicks.

For testing cake, wooden toothpicks are as good as broom
straws and much cleaner. Skewers are helpful in cleaning
corners, or, covered with several thicknesses of cheese-cloth,
in keeping free from crystals the sides of the saucepan in which
sugar is being boiled down.

ARRANGEMENT OF UTENSILS

The best-selected utensils may fail in usefulness if arranged
awkwardly. Although " stacking" is not the menace to kitchen

KITCHEN UTENSILS 231

utensils that it is to tableware, it calls for many unnecessary
motions, especially if the utensil sought is the lowest one in the
stack. Utensils in regular use are best hung on small brass
hooks in the wall, each article having a separate hook. They
should hang bottom side out, so as to protect the inside from
dust, and should be within easy reach of the hand. If there
is sufficient space for some definite system of arrangement
whereby, for example, the largest utensils hang at the left and
the utensils decrease in size toward the right it will improve
the appearance of the kitchen and make it possible to reach
mechanically the tool needed, without expending thought on
its whereabouts.

Whatever is kept in storage cupboards should be so arranged
as to be easy of access, easy to keep account of, easy to keep in
order, and easy to note the condition of. The average cupboard
shelves are too far apart. Shallow shelves that accommodate
only one or two rows of utensils, easily seen and reached, will
save many searchings (Plate XI). Covers are conveniently
stored behind ribs of wood nailed to available wall space or to
a cupboard door. Arrangement according to size will again be
found a great saving of time. A canvas or leather pocket,
divided off in a way similar to a traveler's case or shoe-bag, is
a convenient place for the cook's knives, each one slipping into
its own division and being safer and easier to find than when
in a kitchen drawer filled with miscellaneous articles.

HOW TO PREPARE NEW UTENSILS FOR USE

Iron, tin, and enamelware. It is a general custom to prepare
a new iron utensil for use, after thorough cleaning, by rubbing
unsalted fat over it and baking the fat in. The same treatment
is adapted to tin, for, while it destroys its shiny new appearance,
it protects the tin from rust and increases its capacity for hold-
ing heat. Another way is to coat the kettle with fat outside
and inside and allow it to stand for two days. It should then
be cleaned in a solution of washing-soda (page 235). Enamel-
ware is said to be protected from cracking and chipping if it
is well rubbed with fat before being used for the first time; the

232 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

fat, however, cannot be baked in as with tin and iron, since it
would not be absorbed but only burned fast to the glaze.

Glass. Tumblers, jars, and lamp chimneys may be tough-
ened by being placed in a kettle of cold water which is brought
gradually to the boiling point. After being boiled for a few
minutes they should be allowed to cool gradually in the water.

Machinery. Egg-beaters, ice cream freezers, and other
utensils in which there is friction between two parts, should be
carefully oiled before being used, the wheels turned until the
oil has reached every part, and all surplus oil wiped off before
the utensil is used for food.

HOW TO PROTECT METALS NOT IN USE

If the house is to be closed for a time, or if for any other
reason utensils are to be set aside, all metals should be pro-
tected from dampness by a coating of vaseline, paraffin, or un-
salted fat of some kind.

MATERIALS AND THEIR CARE

The advantages and disadvantages of the various materials
used in kitchen utensils, together with their care, may be
summed up as follows:

Aluminum

Advantages:

1. The utensils are light.

2. They are generally seamless.

3. They hold the heat longer than do some of the other materials, even
though they are somewhat slow in heating.

4. They are durable.

5. Food is less likely to burn in utensils of aluminum than in those of some
other metals, and if it does burn, the kettle is generally more easily cleaned.

6. Aluminum utensils are generally made in good shapes.

7. Aluminum does not rust.

8. It does not chip.

Disadvantages :

1. Aluminum discolors easily.

2. It is expensive.

3. Acid foods should not be allowed to remain for any great length of
time in aluminum. So little aluminum is dissolved in cooking the ordinary

KITCHEN UTENSILS 233

acid foods, that its use for this purpose is no longer considered a bad prac-
tice.

General care:

1. Scour aluminum with only mild abrasives, such as whiting or bon
ami, since it is a soft metal and scratches easily. Steel wool may be used.

2. Wash aluminum with neutral soap and water, since an alkaline soap
or cleansing substance will attack the metal. Add a small amount of
ammonia water, and polish the utensil with whiting occasionally.

3. Remove dents with a wooden mallet.

4. Cook foods containing weak acids, such as sour milk, tart apples,
tomatoes, or weak vinegar in aluminum utensils to remove the tarnish that
appears with common use.

Special care:

~1. To remove burnt food, ,soak the kettle in hot water, use a wooden
spoon instead of metal to scrape it off, or if necessary boil water in the kettle.

2. The coarser abrasives may be used on bad stains, but the aluminum
will be scratched.

3. For a kettle in very bad condition, use an oxalic acid solution in the
proportion of 4 tablespoons of oxalic acid crystals (poison) to 1 gallon of
water. Allow the cold solution to stand in the kettle overnight, or boil
it in the kettle for not more than five minutes. Wash the kettle thoroughly
with soap and water before using it. Care must be exercised in hand-
ling the solution since it is a very poisonous substance.

Copper
Advantages:

1. Copper utensils are durable.

2. They are attractive in appearance.

3. Copper is an excellent conductor of heat.

Disadvantages :

1. Copper utensils are heavy.

2. They are expensive.

3. They are dangerous to use for cooking unless they are kept scrupu-
lously clean.

4. They require much cleaning.

5. Acid foods must not be allowed to stand in copper.

General care:

1. Copper utensils should be kept clean by thorough washing in hot

2. They must be kept bright, because the tarnish is easily soluble in
weak acids and forms a poisonous compound.

3. If not stained, copper is best brightened with rottenstone or tripoli
and sweet oil.

234 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Special care:

1. Wash the utensil with a solution of washing soda to remove grease.

2. Remove the tarnish from copper with a weak acid, such as oxalic,
cream of tartar, vinegar, lemon juice, or the acid of sour milk. The acid
should be completely rinsed off with water, and the utensil rubbed with
whiting, since any acid remaining on it will cause it to tarnish the more
quickly.

3. Scour the utensil with vinegar and salt. Wash it at once and polish
it with tripoli and sweet oil.

4. Use rottenstone and oil, and follow this with dry whiting, rottenstone,
or tripoli.

5. Use ammonia water, and wash it off thoroughly, since the compound
formed is poisonous.

Enamelware
Advantages:

1. Enamelware is light.

2. It is easily cleaned.

3. It radiates heat readily.

4. It is fairly durable.

5. It is not affected by food acids.

6. It has a clean, attractive appearance.
Disadvantages:

1. Enamelware must be handled almost as carefully as glass to prevent
chipping. Granite and enamelware are made by coating sheet iron or
steel utensils with an enamel or glaze.

2. It does not withstand sudden changes of temperature, such as being
placed over a direct flame that gives intense heat.

3. It cannot be used for strong alkalis.

4. Some cheap enamels contain lead compounds which are soluble in
vinegar and fruit acids and give rise to the danger of lead poisoning. A
simple test is to let a beaten egg stand in the utensil for a few minutes.
If it becomes discolored, lead is probably present.

General care:

1. Wash enamelware in hot soapsuds. Clean any seams with a wooden
toothpick or skewer.

2. Remove ordinary stains with sapolio or Dutch cleanser.

3. To remove food that has been burnt on, place a small amount of
fat in the dish, warm it gently, and scrape off the burned particles.

Special care:

If greasy food is so badly burned on an enamelware utensil that none of
the general methods of cleaning has any effect, strong acids may be used,
although enamelware should not be expected to be proof against them.
Place a few drops of 25 per cent sulphuric acid in the pan and add a few
drops of 25 per cent hydrochloric acid. Be exceedingly careful not to

KITCHEN UTENSILS 235

allow the acids to get on the hands or clothing. As soon as the acids begin
to fume, neutralize them by adding ammonia water, pour them off, wash
the utensil thoroughly, and flush the drainpipe well, rinsing it at last with
boiling water.

Iron and steel
Advantages:

1. Iron utensils are strong and durable.

2. They hold heat well.

3. They endure intense heat.

4. They are relatively inexpensive.

5. They become smooth with long use and are then not hard to clean.

6. They make an even heat possible and are consequently excellent for
frying. Russia iron is a good sheet iron for roasting and baking.

- Disadvantages:

1. Iron utensils should not be used for cooking acid foods.

2. They are heavy.

3. They rust readily.

General care:

1. Iron utensils must be kept smooth and free from rust, which means
that they must be kept dry.

2. Wash them thoroughly in hot soapsuds.

3. Use a wire dish cloth to remove food that has been burnt on.

4. To preserve the temper of steel knives, avoid the practice of heating
the blade on top of the stove in order to facilitate cutting fresh bread or
cake. Allowing hot water to run over the blade accomplishes the same
purpose without injury to the knife.

5. Never allow the cogs of an egg-beater or ice cream freezer to be cov-
ered with water, since they cannot be perfectly dried and therefore they
become roughened and clogged with rust.

Special cleaning:

1. To clean iron utensils thoroughly, boil them occasionally in a solution
of washing-soda made in the proportion of 6 quarts of cold water to 1 pound
of washing-soda, rinse them with boiling water, and dry them thoroughly
over heat before putting them away. Use some scouring powder after
rinsing them, if necessary.

2. If iron utensils are to be put away for some time they should be
coated with paraffin or unsalted fat.

3. If rust is not too thick it may be removed by scouring the utensil,
iron or steel, with bath brick or fine emery and rubbing it with kerosene or
by allowing kerosene to remain on it for some time to soften the rust and
then scouring it with bath brick.

4. If a utensil is badly rusted, apply dilute hydrochloric acid, add am-
monia water to neutralize the acid, wash the utensil, dry it, and oil it.

236 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

5. Scour steel knives with bath brick or some similar material after
they have been washed and rinsed but not wiped. Rest the knife blade
on a board, dip a moistened cork into the scouring powder, and apply it
to the blade, rubbing it until the stain has disappeared. Rinse the knife
thoroughly and wipe it dry.

Nickel
Advantages:

1. Nickel-plated utensils are durable.

2. They are easily kept clean and bright.

3. They do not rust.

Disadvantages:

1. Nickel-plated utensils are heavy.

2. They are expensive.
General care:

Wash nickel utensils in hot soapsuds and rinse them in very hot water.
Special care:

1. Polish nickel with a paste made of lard and whiting.

2. Apply whiting moistened with ammonia or alcohol, and polish the
utensil with soft cotton waste.

Pottery

Porcelain, stoneware, and earthenware have clay for a foundation, but
differ in appearance and quality according to the fineness of the clay used,
the kind of glaze applied, and the length of time taken for firing.

Advantages:

1. Pottery utensils are excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat,
such as slow baking.

2. They can be used for both cooking and serving food and therefore save
dishwashing.

3. The good grades are nonabsorbent.

4. Pottery utensils are comparatively cheap.

5. They are relatively durable.

6. They are easy to clean unless they are cracked.

Disadvantages:

Pottery utensils are not good for use over direct heat that is unsteady
or intense, such as on top of a stove.
General care:

1. Pottery utensils should be kept exceedingly clean.

2. If they are allowed to dry without being wiped, they should be
rinsed in very hot, clean water to prevent their becoming covered with a
thin film which in time spoils the glaze.

KITCHEN UTENSILS 237

Silver or plated silver

Advantages:

1. Silver is an excellent conductor of heat.

2. It does not tarnish readily.

1. Silver is too costly for ordinary use, although plated silver is used to
a limited extent in baking dishes and the like.

2. It becomes tarnished if sulphur is allowed to touch it.
General care:

Wash silver in hot soapy water, rinse it thoroughly in clear hot water,
and wipe it with a clean dry cloth.
Special care:

1. Use a brush in cleaning raised patterns.

2. To remove tarnish, use silver polish according to directions given
on the package, or use whiting moistened with alcohol, ammonia water, or
water. Rub in the paste, allow it to dry, and rub it off with a soft cloth,
chamois skin, or tissue paper. Scald the silver. This method gives a bur-
nished appearance.

3. Boil the silver until the tarnish is removed, in an enamel ware kettle
containing a piece of aluminum and a solution made of 1 teaspoon of salt,
1 teaspoon of either washing or baking soda, and 1 quart of water. Alum-
inum kettles of any value for cooking should not be used, since the process
corrodes them quickly. A piece of zinc is sometimes used in place of
aluminum, but it becomes corroded and inactive in a much shorter time.
This method gives a satin finish rather than the burnished appearance
obtained by an abrasive silver polish. This electrolytic method, however,
causes no loss of metal and requires less time. It may be desirable, there-
fore, to use the solution with aluminum as frequently as it is necessary to
remove tarnish, and the abrasive polish occasionally to restore the bur-
nished appearance.

Soapstone

Advantages:

Soapstone gives a good even heat for cake griddles.

Disadvantages :

Unless it is of excellent quality and is well cared for, it is likely to be too
absorbent to be sanitary.

General care:

Soapstone should be cleaned occasionally with soap and water, and
thoroughly dried. The pores should always be kept well filled with oil.

Tin
Advantages:

1. The utensils are light.

2. They are comparatively inexpensive.

238 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

3. They are attractive in appearance when new.

4. They are good conductors of heat; this allows food cooked in them
to become evenly heated.

5. The best grades of tinware are not corroded by water.

Disadvantages :

1. Tin does not endure intense heat, which makes it unsuitable for
frying and makes drying it by setting it on the stove a bad practice.

2. Scratches expose the steel and make rust possible. Therefore, metal
spoons and scrapers should not be used on tin.

3. Tin utensils are in general not good for cooking acid foods because
even the best tin is likely to be acted on by hot acid.

General care:

1. Wash tinware in hot suds made with neutral soap.

2. Use scouring powders if necessary to remove food that has been
burned on.

3. Do not scour tin to restore its brightness because the tarnish acts
as a protective coat and makes the utensil wear longer.

Special care:

Boil tin utensils for two or three minutes in a solution of washing-soda
made in the proportion of 6 quarts of cold water to 1 pound of washing-soda.

Wood

Advantages:

Wooden spoons are lighter than metal spoons and not so noisy, they do
not scratch saucepans, they do not discolor the hand, they are non-
conductors of heat.

Disadvantages :

1. Wooden utensils may become dented, rough, or darkened.

2. They are likely to be unsanitary and to take up odors because of
improper cleaning.

3. If wood is not well seasoned, it cracks and splinters easily.

General care:

1. Fine sand is better than soap for scrubbing wood because the alkali
in soap combines with wood to form a dark stain.

2. Never use hot water on wood.

3. Scrub wood with a circular motion, but rinse it and dry it with the
grain in order to leave the fibers flat.

4. Rub steak planks thoroughly with some food oil, until the wood
has absorbed all it will.

Special care:

1. To remove dents, put a wet pad of several thicknesses of cheese-cloth
or muslin on the dent and cover it with a hot iron. The steam will raise
the fibers of the wood much as it raises the pile of velvet.

KITCHEN UTENSILS 239

2. To smooth away a rough place, rub it with steel wool, following the
grain of the wood.

3. To restore the color of wood that has become darkened, use steel
wool and weak hydrochloric acid.

Zinc or galvanized iron
Advantages:

1. Zinc makes a good sanitary covering for table tops.

2. It does not become tarnished readily by action of the air.

3. It is rust-proof.

Disadvantages :

1. Zinc becomes tarnished by the action of damp air and is affected by
salt, which prevents its lasting well on the seashore.

2. It is acted on by acids.

3. It cannot be used for cooking utensils because it is affected by both
acids and alkalis.

General care:

Wash zinc with hot suds made of mild soap.

Special care:

1. Kerosene dissolves a film of grease and helps to remove inclosed dirt.

2. Bath brick may be used for food bins, in which case it would not be
desirable to use kerosene.

3. Scour zinc with a paste made of kerosene and baking soda, and rinse
it thoroughly with hot water.

4. Acids, such as vinegar, sulphuric acid in the proportion of one part of
acid to twelve parts of water, or alum and acetic acid may be used to
remove tarnish, but they eat into the zinc. The metal should be rinsed
thoroughly with hot water. The tarnish is likely to appear soon again.

CHAPTER XI

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING
BY FLORA ROSE

When an attempt is made to formalize any household prac-
tice, there is always the danger of red tape. Yet some formali-
ties, if based on a strong foundation of common sense, make life
more unselfish and delightful. A safeguard against useless for-
mality is to keep constantly in mind this fact every good rule
should have a good reason. When the rule is being applied,
the reason should be made to appear. If in any household no
good reason is forthcoming for the formal rule imposed, the
rule should be discarded. This is particularly true in table
setting and serving where mere formality may have developed
to such an extent as to obscure original good reasons for doing
things. Yet most of the fundamental rules in good table set-
ting are built on a sound foundation of reason.

TABLE SETTING

The table itself may be bare wood or it may be clothed in
finest linen or oilcloth. It should be clean.

For each person, 20 to 30 inches of lengthwise space should
be allowed, unless the table is round or square and seats only
four or eight persons. Less than 20 inches means uncomfort-
able crowding; more than 30 inches means difficulty in talking
across the distance.

Covering for the table

The reasons for covering a table with tablecloth, table-
square, runners, doilies, or napkins are: (1) to protect the sur-
face of the table; (2) to hide the surface of the table; (3) to in-
sure quieter service; (4) to reflect the light; (5) to improve the

240

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 241

appearance of the table. If any covering is used, it should be
clean. A rough, bare, clean table is better than soiled, rumpled
linen, no matter how fine and expensive.

A tablecloth may make a more homogeneous picture than
either doilies or runners, and its unbroken white surface re-
flects more light than a partly bare, dark table. There is no
other good reason, however, why doilies or runners may not
always be used in place of the larger cloth to protect the table.
Any rule such as using only a tablecloth at a formal dinner is
pure form. Doilies and runners have some great advantages.
Small pieces of linen are easy to wash, and if one is spotted it
alone may be washed. Furthermore, the table is easier to set
with doilies, particularly for a small family.

To set the table

If a tablecloth is to be used.

A tablecloth keeps clean and unmussed longer if a heavy
cotton or padded cloth, called a silencer or protection cloth or
"husher," is used under it, than if it is placed next to the table.
An old clean sheet may serve this purpose if no other cloth is
available. The table should first be covered with the silence
cloth, care being taken to arrange it so that it will not hang
below the tablecloth. The tablecloth is then stretched on the
table so that the center fold is uppermost and so that the cloth
hangs evenly on both sides and at both ends of the table. Care
should be taken to see that the cloth is straight. If possible to
prevent it, a cloth should not hang over the sides and ends much
more than 12 or 14 inches, since otherwise it will not clear the
seats of the chairs and will spoil the appearance of the table.
Furthermore, it is in the way at mealtime.

// doilies are used.

Doilies that are rectangular are better than round or square
ones, since they give a wider space for the arrangement of
silver and glasses on the table and are a better protection to it.
The doilies should first be arranged at one end and on one side
of the table. On the side one should try to space the doilies

242 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

so that they are equally distant from each other. Then, ex-
actly opposite these doilies, those to be used at the other end
and on the other side of the table should be placed. Doilies
should be placed so that one edge is about at the edge of the
table.

The individual cover.

The place arranged for each individual at the table is called
the cover. After the cloth or doilies have been placed, each
individual cover should be arranged. It is desirable, as a rule,
to place at the individual cover as much of the silver and china
as may add to the convenience of the meal. If, for example,
spoons are placed at the individual covers instead of in a holder,
considerable confusion may be prevented at mealtime.

Knives are placed at the right of the cover with the sharp
edge of the blade toward the plate. This is because the knife
is usually lifted with the right hand.

Forks are placed at the left of the cover with the tines up.
This is because the fork is lifted in the left hand when something
is being cut with the knife and fork. If only a fork is to be used,
a very good reason may be found for placing it at the right of the
plate. It is in general a good rule to try to keep a balance be-
tween the silver on each side of the cover, since all the silver on
one side makes a heavy-looking design.

Spoons may be placed at the right of the knife or in front of
the plate with handles toward the right hand. The knife and
fork nearest the plate should be far enough apart to permit the
largest plate used at the meal to be set between them without
pushing them out of place. They should not be spread unneces-
sarily far apart. All the silver in one group should be compactly
placed.

The glass may be placed at the tip of the knife and slightly
to the right. There is no reason why it should not be placed
at the tip of the fork and slightly to the left if preferred in that
place. The butter-plate may be placed at the tip of the fork
and slightly to the left. Butter-plate and glass may be made
to change places if preferred.

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 243

The napkin may be placed at the left of the forks, at the right
of the knives, in the center of the cover, or in front of the cover,
according to convenience. The napkins should be so placed
that the corners of each face the same way, if they have been
so ironed that this is possible.

The plate. If a plate is set at the individual cover before the
meal begins, it should be placed ^ to 1 inch from the edge of
the table. This is to prevent danger of tipping through any
thoughtless movement of the individual.

Relation of covers. All the glasses on one side of the table
should be in a straight line. The same is true for butter-plates,
silver, and napkins or other utensils. On looking down the
table, a straight line running from the center of one utensil
should strike the center of the next utensil of the same kind.
This makes a well-ordered, trim table. If each side of the table
has the same number of covers, the center of each cover on one
side should be exactly opposite the center of the cover on the
other side. The ends of the handles of all the silver used at the
covers should be J/2 to % inch from the edge of the table and
should be in a straight line. This is a basic principle of good
design.

General equipment.

There is a certain amount of general equipment which must
go on each table. This varies with the simplicity of the meal
and with the formality of the service. As formality decreases,
food is left to be served on the table.

If possible, salt-containers should be allowed for each two
persons and should be placed inconspicuously and within
reach of each.

If jelly or pickles are placed on the table, a dish of jelly at
one end and at one side of the table may balance a dish of pickles
at the other end and on the other side of the table. If spoons
or forks are placed for serving these, they should be placed
straight and parallel with the silver at the sides or ends of the
table, not on the bias.

A good general rule is not to cross any of the extra silver to

244 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

be used for serving and never to place it on a bias line. If, for
example, a small butter-spreader is used, it should be placed on
the butter-plate parallel to all the other silver, or placed next
to the other knives. The reason for straightness is good design.

As far as possible, silver for service should be arranged on the
main table or on a side table before the meal begins. This silver
may be placed on the right and left of the cover of the server
and in the same way and line as the remainder of the silver at
that cover.

If cups and saucers are put on the table before the meal, they
should be arranged in such a way as to facilitate the pouring of
the beverage and the passing of the cups. The handles of the
cups should all be in line and in a position for the server to take
hold of them most conveniently. Place should be left for the
pot and for cream and sugar servers, and these should be placed
in such a way as to facilitate service. The handle of the pot
should be toward the hand of the server.

After the table is set, the chairs may be arranged. They
should be in straight rows and sufficiently far from the table
to require but slight moving when the persons are seated.

Just before the meal, the glasses should be filled with cold
,water, the butter may be placed on the plates, and the bread
may be cut.

TABLE SERVICE

A few simple rules will greatly facilitate attractive and con-
venient serving. No attempt will be made here to discuss
service of the extremely formal type.

T.o pass food

Food should be passed at the left of the person sitting at
the table. This is because it is easier to reach across than around
with the right hand. The opposite procedure is more conven-
ient for left-handed persons.

When food is passed, the dish should be held close to the table
with the edge of the dish slightly over the edge of the plate of
the person to be served. This prevents accidents and is con-
venient for the person served.

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 245

A tray is not necessary for passing single vegetable dishes,
salad bowls, or platters. In fact, safer service results if the
serving dish rests on the palm and spread fingers of the left
hand. The hand should be protected with a folded napkin.
This leaves the right hand free to rearrange the spoon between
servings and to guard against possible movements of persons
at the table.

To place food

In general it may be more convenient to place food from
the right of the person served. This is because it can be
placed by the right hand. If it is more convenient to place from
the left, there is no reason against so doing. When a cup and
saucer are placed, the handles of the cup and the spoon should
be in a position most convenient for the user.

To remove dishes

In general it may be more convenient to remove dishes from
the right than from the left of the person served. They may
be removed from either side.

To serve food carved or served at the table

Semi-formal method.

It is more convenient for the carver if only one plate is placed
in front of him at a time. Hot plates should be kept on the side
table, one set in front of the carver, and a second held in the
left hand. The waitress should stand at the left of the carver,
unless he prefers the opposite side. When the plate in front of
the carver is filled, it is removed from the left with the right
hand, and a hot plate put in place with the left hand in order
to reduce interference with the carver. After placing the filled
plate, the waitress should secure a fresh plate from the side
table and return to the same position by the carver.

This method means slow service and should not be followed
unless the number to be served is few or there is more than one
waitress. It may be hurried by having the vegetables served
at the other end of the table. In this case, the plate must be
carried from the carver to the server and then placed at the

246 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

intended cover. If the vegetables, gravy, and bread are to
be passed, the following order may be observed: potatoes,
gravy, bread, other vegetables, condiment, such as jelly or
pickles.

Informal method.

For the informal method, all the plates are placed in front
of the carver. It is wisdom on the part of the carver, with this
type of service, to cut the entire number of portions before
beginning to serve.

After the plate is filled, the carver may pass it with his right
hand to the person at his left, or with his left hand to the per-
son at his right. In this order it is passed from one to the other
until it reaches its destination. The vegetables may be served
by the carver or by someone at the opposite end of the table.

Clearing the table for dessert

Semi-formal method.

The large general dishes should be removed first. The plates
are taken from the individual cover, and carried from the room,
one in each hand. Smaller equipment, such as salt and pepper
dishes, should be removed on a small tray. Nothing should be
left on the table which is not to be used for the remainder of
the meal. Glasses may be left, since many individuals prefer
water toward the close of a meal. The table is crumbed with
a clean folded napkin and plate, or with a crumb brush or knife
and tray. One should replace in an orderly way any silver or
glassware left for the last course.

Informal method.

The large general dishes should be removed first. The plates
are then taken from the individual covers, and one placed
carefully and quietly on top of the other. One should not at-
tempt to pile more than can be safely and quietly handled.
It saves time and effort to have a wheeled tray or a large tray
on the side table. Plates may then be carried two at a time
to this table, carefully stacked upon it, and all removed at
once. The dining table should then be crumbed.

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 247

SOME TABLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

The order of serving at a meal.

If little children are present, it is often desirable to serve them
first, since they eat slowly and must have their food made
ready for them. Older children need the experience of waiting.
In the' family, after the little children are served, the mother
is served, then the girls, and finally the boys.

If guests are present, they should be served first if the service
is informal; if, however, the service is semi-formal, they may
be served first or the hostess may be served first and the guests
next. There is good reason for this last rule since it enables
the hostess to set the pace in choice of silver, and in use of
equipment and food, and may prevent embarrassment on the
part of guests. If two guests are present, a man and a woman,
the woman should be served first; an older woman should be
served before a younger one.

At a dinner where both men and women are present, it facil-
itates service, after the hostess and guest of honor at her right are
served, to complete the serving on that side of the table before be-
ginning on the other. This is more practical though not so chiv-
alrous as the custom at formal meals of serving all women first.

Handling table equipment.

The fork functions as a spear, as a shovel, and as a pick. The
good workman learns to handle his tools in an efficient way.
When the fork functions as a spear to hold food on the plate,
there is only one way to hold it which is at once graceful and
altogether efficient. That is by resting the top end of the fork
in the palm of the hand, with the rounded part of the tines up
and the tip of the forefinger resting on the waist of the fork and
the base of the tines to steady it. When the fork is used as a
pick, it should be held in either hand in this same way. The food
is lifted on the tips of the tines, the hand always uppermost,
and carried to the mouth. When the fork is used as a shovel,
it is held with the rounded surface of the tines down to put
the bowl uppermost. The fork rests on the top of the curve
in the hand formed by the thumb and forefinger and is grasped

248 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

between the thumb on the body side and the forefinger away
from the body. Food is scooped up by this shovel and trans-
ferred by rotary motion of the wrist to the mouth.

The knife was first used to cut food and to transfer it to the
mouth. When the fork was introduced, the knife lost caste
as an implement for transporting food. Its only acceptable
use at present is to cut and spread. The knife is held in the
right hand in the same way as the fork in the left one.

Knife and fork. When the plate is passed back to the carver
for a second serving, the knife and fork should be placed to-
gether and sent along with the plate. This is because no other
place is so safe for them. At the close of a meal the knife and
fork should be placed close together on the plate, the knife at
the right, the fork at the left, and the handles facing the same
direction in which they were originally placed on the table.

The spoon is useful for mixing liquids and for transferring
soft foods from the plate to the mouth. The spoon should
never be left in a cup or high glass dish after its use as a stirrer
or feeding implement has ceased, since it gives a loose handle
which endangers the safety of the dish. With beverages, the
function of the spoon is as a stirrer and taster, and not as a
vehicle. This is because it is easier to sip a beverage quietly
from the cup than from the spoon.

Soup should be sipped from the side of the spoon. When,
however, a soup is full of solid substances, and if the spoon is
a soupspoon and not a tablespoon, it may be necessary to eat
the solid part of the soup from the tip of the spoon instead of
sipping it from the side.

Fork and spoon. With many desserts it is desirable to give
both a spoon and a fork. For example, if pie is served with
cream, both are needed. If baked apple or prunes are served,
the fork helps to steady the food on the plate while the soft
flesh is being removed from the core or seeds. This avoids the
removal of prune seeds from the mouth.

The glass. Before drinking, the lips should be wiped with
a napkin. Otherwise the number of sips may register them-
selves on the side of the glass.

CHAPTER XII

THE LAUNDRY *

BY FLORA ROSE

Washing has a threefold purpose: to remove dirt and thus
reopen the pores of the cloth, to dry the cloth so as to renew
its power of absorption; and to destroy any bacteria that may
be in it.

FABRICS

A first step toward gaining necessary knowledge of laundry
methods is to learn something of the nature of the fabrics to be
laundered and how they respond to the cleansing agents or
solvents generally used in the laundry (p. 305). The common
fibers used for clothing are of vegetable and animal origin. The
chief vegetable fibers are cotton and linen; the animal fibers,
wool and silk. Among the common laundry cleansing agents,
called reagents, are two classes of chemicals known as acids and
bases, or alkalis.

Even cold dilute mineral acids may seriously injure cotton
and linen if allowed to dry on the material. Fruit acids have
no action on cotton and linen unless allowed to dry and then
moistened and ironed dry. Dilute acid does not affect wool,
but it weakens silk.

Weak alkalis, such as dilute washing-soda solution, borax,
and soap, have little or no harmful action on cotton and linen,
but lye is more destructive. Dilute solutions of borax or a
mild soap, if only lukewarm, have but a slightly injurious ac-
tion on wool, but they weaken silk and destroy its luster.

* From Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 11.

249

250 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

WATER

Water is the natural solvent for much of the dirt that accu-
mulates on clothing; moreover, it acts as a carrier to rid the
clothing of all forms of dirt, both soluble and insoluble. A
water good for the laundry should be clean, soft, clear, odor-
less, free from discoloration, free from iron, free from organic
matter.

Hard and soft water.

The very characteristic its solvent power that renders
water valuable as a cleansing agent, or detergent, is the cause
of its greatest shortcomings; for water may pass over, or
through, soils that contain soluble substances of an undesirable
nature. The characteristic known as hardness, possessed by
some waters, is due to the presence of lime salts gathered in
the way described. Hard water is not the best for laundry
purposes, since lime salts decompose the soap used and form
in its place an insoluble lime soap, which collects as a curd on
the surface of the water. Such soap decomposition takes place
as long as any lime remains in the water and the cleansing, or de-
tergent, properties of soap are not in operation until every
bit of lime has combined with soap to form lime soap. By
leaving minute particles of lime soap in its pores, hard water is
said to weaken a fabric. If the available supply of water is
hard, then, the problem of the housekeeper is to find some
means of removing lime or of reducing its ill effects.

According to the nature of the lime salts present, water is
said to be either temporarily or permanently hard. Temporary
hardness is caused by the presence of carbonate of lime, and
such water may be softened by boiling. If the boiled water is
allowed to stand, the lime settles at the bottom of the receptacle
and the softened water may be drawn from the top of it. Per-
manent hardness is due to the presence of sulfate of lime or
magnesium. Boiling has no softening effect on permanently
hard water, but certain reagents are effective.

Another salt often very obnoxious in laundry water is iron.
Its presence, even in very small amounts, may give a yellow

THE LAUNDRY 251

tinge to clothing, owing to the deposit of minute particles of
iron-rust in the pores of the fabric.

Organic matter may be present in the water used for laundry
purposes, which causes clothing washed in it to become dan-
gerous to the wearer. It is very desirable in all the cited cases
to eliminate mischievous substances.

Materials for softening water.

A number of materials for softening water are on the market.
The cheapest and best of them are alkalis, known as washing-
soda, lye, borax, and ammonia. In softening water, the objec-
tion to the use of any chemical is the injury it may do to the
fabric.

Washing-soda (sodium carbonate) is the best alkali to soften
water for general household use, for, while effective in its action,
it is not so corrosive as to render its handling difficult or its
use unduly harmful, nor is it expensive. It should never be
used in its dry form, however, for it is an alkali sufficiently
strong to eat holes in a fabric if it is used in full strength, and
wherever a particle of the dry substance falls, a strong solution
is formed. Carelessness causes many of the complaints against
present-day laundry methods.

Lye (sodium hydroxide, or caustic soda) is an alkali of far greater
strength than washing-soda; one pound of lye being equal to
about twelve pounds of washing-soda, it should be used with
just so much the greater caution. It should never be used save
in solution and, as the solution deteriorates very rapidly on
exposure to air, if any quantity is made it should be kept in
bottles or jars tightly stoppered with rubber stoppers. The
compound formed by exposing lye to the action of air and water,
is washing-soda, so there is no advantage in using it. Lye is
much more difficult to handle, and its action is so much more
corrosive than is that of other alkalis that it is not ad-
visable to use it in the home laundry.

Borax (sodium biborate) is one of the mildest alkalis to use
in the laundry. This alkali is more expensive than either lye
or washing-soda and is not so vigorous in its action; but in

252 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

some instances it is greatly to be preferred. Washing-soda
and lye, unless thoroughly rinsed from clothing, have a tend-
ency to cause yellowing, particularly when starch is used after-
ward. Borax, on the other hand, has a tendency to whiten
fabrics and is added directly to starch, in order to give it good
color and to increase its clearness. When colored fabrics or
wools are to be washed in hard water, borax is one of the best
alkalis to use for softening the water.

Ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) is another good alkali for
softening water when it is not advisable to use stronger alkalis.
Ammonia is a very volatile substance, consequently it should
be used only when the laundry process is to be conducted
quickly. It is better and cheaper to purchase the full-strength
ammonia from a druggist and then dilute it, than to buy the
article known as household ammonia, which is of unknown
strength.

How to soften water.

Both permanently and temporarily hard water may be
softened by distillation, but that method involves apparatus
not practicable for the average home.

If water is temporarily hard, however, it may be softened
by being boiled, then allowed to stand until the lime settles.
The top water is afterward drawn off. Boiling water to soften
it is without doubt the best method if it softens the water suf-
ficiently, since no harmful chemicals are left in the water to
injure fabrics.

Either temporarily or permanently hard water may be
softened by adding lime or washing-soda to the water, then
allowing it to stand in open kegs for several days before its use.
The water should then be drawn from the top. If the water
is boiled after the addition of the softening agent, the time for
standing may be considerably lessened. Neither of the two
processes just described is much in use in the household, since
the time consumed by them is often considered unwarranted.
The more common method is to add washing-soda, lye, borax,
or ammonia at the time of washing. The addition of one of

THE LAUNDRY 253

those substances at that time prevents the action of the lime
on the soap. A good suds may thus quickly be obtained, but
it does not rid the water of the lime-soap curd which forms and
which, in part at least, becomes entangled in the pores of the
cloth. The entangled curd has a weakening action on the fabric
and gives it a close, filled-in appearance.

The only satisfactory method of getting rid of iron is to add
washing-soda to the water, then allowing the water to settle
for five or six days before using it. The top water is afterward
drawn off.

Water may be softened by any of the following methods:

1. For each gallon of water, use 2 tablespoons of a solution
made by dissolving 1 pound of washing-soda in 1 quart of boiling
water. The solution should be bottled and kept on hand, as
it is a useful cleansing agent, or detergent.

2. For each gallon of water use */4 tablespoon of lye dissolved
in 1 cup of water.

3. For each gallon of water use 1 tablespoon of borax dis-
solved in 1 cup of water.

If water is very hard, increase the amount of alkali used.

Organic matter.

Organic material may be precipitated by the use of alum in
the form of an alum-borax mixture. The sediment should be
allowed to settle and the water may then be drawn from the
top.

To remove organic matter, for each gallon of water 1 table-
spoon of a mixture made up of two-thirds borax and one-third
alum should be used. If the water is rich in organic matter,
more than 1 tablespoon of the mixture must be used. When
water is very scarce, alum is sometimes used to separate the
dirt from the water and the water is then filtered and used
again.

SOAP

A question often arises as to the advisability of using kitchen-
waste fats in making soap at home. While some house-
keepers may find such use an economy, the fact remains that

254 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

home-made soaps are generally poorly made and of inferior
quality. The inferiority of home-made soaps may have several
causes. The so-called cold process is usually followed in making
these soaps, and rarely is the union of the fat with the lye com-
plete. The fat used in home-made soap is often filled with
impurities and they are not always removed before the soap is
made. As the fat in kitchen waste varies greatly in composition,
it is impossible to give the exact amount of alkali required for
home-made soap. It is evident, then, that home-made soap
is likely to be filled with impurities and to be both greasy and
excessively caustic, "eating," because of the presence of free
fat and an undue amount of free alkali. For the benefit of
those housekeepers who wish to try its manufacture, however,
a formula is given on page 256.

Soap substitutes and accessories.

Soap is the best all-round cleansing agent to use in the laun-
dry, but there are other substances with similar cleansing prop-
erties that may be used with good results in its place :

In the leaves, stems, roots, or bark of some plants occurs a
soap-like substance that is closely allied to soap in its power to
remove dirt. Soap-bark (quillaia bark) is a familiar example of
this kind of cleansing agent. When powdered soap-bark is
put into water it gives a good lather, and it acts quickly and
effectively to remove dirt and stains.

Another substance with soap-like characteristics, but of
animal origin, is known as ox-bile, or ox-gall. Soap-bark and
ox-gall are doubtless well known to the housekeeper, for they
are often used to wash garments easily injured by the strong al-
kalis, for example, woolens, and fabrics printed in delicate colors.

Bran, rice, potatoes, and starch are frequently recommended
as good substitutes for soaps in washing delicate fabrics and
colors.

Various substances are used with soap to facilitate or acceler-
ate the washing process. Among them may be mentioned
lye, washing-soda, borax, and ammonia; turpentine, paraffin,
kerosene, and benzine; and fuller's earth.

THE LAUNDRY 255

Alkalis are often used in connection with soap, in excess of
the amount needed to soften hard water, to facilitate the re-
moval of dirt by their direct action on it. In many cases it
is a mistake to pursue such a course if the alkali used is lye. The
same objections may hold with washing-soda, but in lesser
degree. If the fabric is of such nature that limited amounts
of lye or washing-soda will not seriously injure it, a strong soap
will contain all the free lye that is safe to use. Borax and am-
monia are mild alkalis and may be very useful when the pres-
ence of some free alkali is needed and the effect of a strong soap
would be injurious. They are often utilized in connection with
a neutral or mild soap for washing flannels and delicately
colored fabrics.

Turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine are all valuable
aids to the laundress, for they exert a solvent action on matter
of a fatty nature and thus soften and loosen dirt, materially
facilitating the washing process. The disadvantage in the use of
these substances is, that clothing in the washing of which they
have been used may be insufficiently rinsed afterward and retain
the odor of them. Benzine is dangerous to handle because of its
inflammability, and cannot be used with very hot water because
it evaporates.

Fuller's earth is a valuable adjunct in cleaning, and is some-
times used partly to replace soap in the washing process when
the articles to be washed are in a very greasy condition and the
use of a strong soap is not sufficient, and when the use of a
strong alkali is not advisable.

Manufacturers have put on the market various soaps and
powders that have incorporated with them some one or more of
the above substances. Naphtha and borax soaps and soaps con-
taining fuller's earth give satisfaction. Good results may be
obtained at less cost by the use of soap and the accessory ma-
terial uncombined, though it may often be more convenient
.to use the manufactured article that is a combination of the two.

Washing powders are mixtures of soap and some alkali such
as lye, washing-soda, and borax, and may have incorporated
with them some one or more of the substances of the nature of

256 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

turpentine, paraffin, fuller's earth. In the case of the poorer
powders a " filler" is used, that is, a substance giving weight
to the powder and very properly considered an adulterant. The
best powders contain large amounts of soap and only small
amounts of alkali. A report is made of one of the poorer varie-
ties of washing powder containing only 10 per cent of soap.
Enough has been said in connection with the effect of alkalis
and their use to guide the housekeeper in her purchase and use
of these powders. There may be occasions when a washing
powder is desirable, but indiscriminate use of these strong cleans-
ing agents is inadvisable and should not be generally indulged in.

Directions and formulas.

Home-made soap:

1 pound can lye dissolved in 3 pints cold water

5 pounds fat melted, 1^ tablespoons borax, J^ cup ammonia

When lye mixture has cooled add it to fat, stir until as thick as honey,

pour into wooden or pasteboard boxes lined with oiled or waxed paper,

set away to harden.

Soap-bark:

1 pound soap-bark equals 2 pounds soft soap. Use in place of soap.
Bran:
1 cup bran
1 quart water

Boil ^2 hour. Strain, boil bran in a second quart water }/% hour. When
needed, reduce with warm water.

Potato water:

Grate two large-sized potatoes into 1 pint clean, clear, soft water.
Strain into 1 gallon water, let liquid settle. Pour off and use.

Soap solution for washing colored goods:

% pound mild or medium soap to 1 gallon water.

Soap solution for ordinary purposes:

1 bar ordinary washing soap

2 to 3 quarts water

Shave soap and put into saucepan with cold water. Heat gradually
until soap is dissolved (about 1 hour).

Soap solution for soaking clothes:
1 bar ordinary soap

3 gallons water

^ to 1 tablespoon turpentine
1 to 3 tablespoons ammonia,

THE LAUNDRY 257

Soap solution for washing much-soiled woolens and delicate colors:
% pound very mild or neutral soap
Y pound borax
3 quarts water.

Soap jelly with turpentine incorporated:

1 bar soap

1 quart water

1 teaspoon turpentine or kerosene.

A liquid for washing delicate fabrics and colors may be
made from laundry starch, grated potatoes, rice, flour, and the
like. The water in which rice has boiled may be saved and
utilized for the same purpose. The cleansing liquid after cook-
ing should be as thick as cream and should be diluted from one
to four times, according to the amount of dirt in the clothing.
Clothing should be rinsed in a more dilute solution, which
may be blued for white clothes.

STARCH

There is a twofold reason for the use of starch in laundry
operations: (1) the glazed surface of a starched garment keeps
clean longer than an unglazed, or unstarched, surface; (2) the.
increase in body of the starched garment gives it increased re-
sistance to moisture and some garments are considered corre-
spondingly more attractive in appearance. In the commercial
laundry and in those industries in which the finishing of fabrics
is a consideration, use is made, not of one kind of starch, but of
several, according to the nature of the work to be done.

The American housekeeper uses, as a rule, only cornstarch,
because of its cheapness and a lack of knowledge of the char-
acteristics of the other starches. The several varieties of starch
vary considerably in their ability to penetrate fabrics. The
reason for the use of rice starch with finer fabrics by those con-
sidered to do a superior grade of laundry work, is because of its
penetrative quality. It is said to penetrate the pores of a fabric
more completely than does any other starch and to give a finer,
smoother finish. Next to rice starch in penetrability comes
wheat starch. Cornstarch is the poorest of the three starches;
it has a tendency to lump and show starch spots after ironing.

258 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Rice starch gives a natural, pure white color to fabrics, while
cornstarch gives a yellow color, and wheat starch a color be-
tween the two. Since wheat starch and cornstarch are the
practical possibilities in the American household, further com-
parison will be between these two. When good color, smooth-
ness of surface, pliability, and fine finish are desired, wheat
starch gives the better results; moreover, it is said to hold up
better in damp climates. Cornstarch gives the greater stiffness,
or body, to a fabric.

According to the finish desired, advantage is taken of the
different characteristics of wheat starch and cornstarch. When
flexibility and finish are the main objects, wheat starch is used
alone; if stiffness is the chief consideration and finish may be
overlooked, cornstarch is used alone; when it is desirable to
combine stiffness with flexibility and good finish, a mixture of
cornstarch and wheat starch is used. There is no reason why
the use of wheat starch should not extend to the home laundry.

Various substances are used with starch to increase its pene-
trability and prevent it from sticking to the iron, as well as to
give pliability to the cloth, increase its body, and improve its
color. Of these substances may be mentioned borax, alum,
paraffin, wax, turpentine, kerosene, gum arabic, glue, and dex-
trin.

Borax increases the penetrability of starch and aids in pre-
venting it from sticking to the iron. Moreover, starch contain-
ing borax adds gloss to a garment, increases its whiteness, and
gives it greater body, together with more lasting stiffness, than
it would otherwise have.

Alum is used alone, or with borax, in starch to improve color,
to increase penetrability and pliability, and to thin the starch
mixture. When alum is cooked with a starch paste it causes the
paste to become thinner. " Cooking thin " with alum does not
affect the strength of the starch mixture and is an advantage
when a stiff starch is desirable and the thick mixture would be
inconvenient to handle. By the use of alum, starch may be
made thin without dilution. Alum has been objected to by some
persons as being somewhat injurious to fabrics.

THE LAUNDRY 259

Oily substances, such as wax, paraffin, turpentine, lard, or
butter, are used to add a smoothness, gloss, and finish, to pre-
vent the starch from sticking to the iron, and to aid in prevent-
ing the absorption of moisture.

Substances resembling glue, such as gum arabic and dextrin,
are used with starch to increase its stiffening power. They are
sometimes used alone when the white color of starch is con-
sidered a disadvantage in stiffening colored fabrics.

Directions for using starch, starch substitutes, and starch ac-
cessories:

In making starch, a naturally soft water is greatly to be de-
sired, but if the water furnished is hard it should be softened
with borax, not with washing-soda or lye, since these tend to
produce a yellow color with starch:

1. M cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, light, durable finish.

2. 34 cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives moderate body stiffness.

3. % cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, firm finish.

4. Yz cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives stiff body finish.

A mixture of the two starches may be varied, to produce any
desired result.

Directions for cooking starch:

Starch should first be mixed with a little cold water and then
stirred slowly into boiling water and cooked in accordance with
the following directions:

1. If wheat starch is used, cook slowly at least 25 or 30 minutes.

2. If cornstarch is used, cook slowly 15 to 20 minutes.

3. If a mixture of wheat starch and cornstarch is used, the wheat starch
should be added first and cooked 15 minutes. The cornstarch should then
be added and the mixture cooked 15 minutes longer. Stir the mixture fre-
quently, to prevent sticking and formation of a film.

Thorough cooking of starch is very desirable in laundry prac-
tice, for it increases the penetrability of the starch and decreases
its tendency to stick to the iron. If borax, lard, butter, kerosene,
or other like substance is used, it should be cooked with the
starch, to insure thorough mixing.

260 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Thick starch:

Yz cup starch, mixed with ^ cup cold water
1 quart boiling water
3^ to 1 level tablespoon borax

34 level tablespoon lard or butter or kerosene or turpentine; or J^-
inch-square wax or paraffin

Mix, and cook according to directions for cooking starch.

Thin starch:

% cup starch, mixed with % cup cold water

3 quarts boiling water

Other ingredients, same as for thick starch

Mix, cook according to directions for cooking starch.

Clear starch:

Dilute 3^2 cup thick starch with 1 quart hot water.

Clearstarch is used for thin muslins, infants' dresses, and the like.

Raw starch:

Same proportions as for thick starch.

Use borax but omit fatty substances.

Stir thoroughly before using.

Raw starch is often used with very thick or very thin goods, to increase
their stiffness. A fabric will take up a greater amount of starch in the
raw than in the cooked form. The desired stiffness is produced by the
cooking given the raw starch by the heat of the iron. The difficulty of
ironing is increased by using raw starch, for unless the ironer is skillful
the starch cooks on the iron and starch specks are then produced on the
clothes. Moreover, raw starch gives a less durable finish than does cooked
starch.

Rice starch:

% cup rice

1 quart boiling water

Wash rice, cook in water until very soft.

As water evaporates, add more to keep quantity up to 1 quart.

When cooked add another quart boiling water.

Strain, without squeezing, through double thickness of cheese-cloth or
through flannel. Use while hot. The most satisfactory starch for delicate
fabrics is rice starch, and it may be used in place of clear starch.

Glue for stiffening dark clothes:

12 ounces dark glue

1 quart water

Boil together until glue is dissolved, cool somewhat. Dip the garment
to be stiffened into glue and wipe off excess of glue with piece of black
cheese-cloth, sateen, or calico. After sprinkling, roll garment in black

THE LAUNDRY 261

cloth and iron on ironing board covered with black cloth. Any glue left
over may be saved and used again.

To increase stiffness:

1. Partly dry garment before starching.

2. Add 1 tablespoon powdered gum arabic reduced to liquid in % cup
boiling water, to the stiff starch mixture.

3. Use borax.

4. Add a small amount of glue to starch mixture.

5. Dry quickly.

Gum arabic as a starch substitute:

4 tablespoons pulverized gum arabic

1 pint cold water

3 tablespoons alcohol.

Put water and gum arabic in saucepan and set into saucepan containing
boiling water.

When dissolved, strain through cheese-cloth, cool, add alcohol, pour into
a bottle, cork, set away for use. The alcohol acts as a preservative 1 and
the mixture may be kept for any length of time.

BLUING

White fabrics have naturally a creamy tint, which may be
deepened to an unpleasant pale yellow by careless washing,
by insufficient rinsing, or by lack of exposure to the bleaching
influence of sunlight and fresh air. Bluing is used to hide the
yellow color, because blue and yellow are complementary colors
and when used together in proper proportions give the effect of
whiteness. Bluing is unwarrantably used to hide a yellowness
which comes from careless washing.

No one kind of bluing may be recommended to the house-
keeper. She must experiment for herself, choose one good
variety, and learn to use that one properly.

Sufficient bluing should be used to make a little of the bluing
water taken up in the cup of the hand show a pale sky-blue color.
More than that amount of bluing should not be needed. It is
always best to make a small amount of strong bluing in a bowl
of water, then draw from it to color the water in the tub.

WASHING

While Monday has long been chosen as the home day for
washing, there may be good reason to postpone the process

262 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

until Tuesday. Before washing day, clothing should be thor-
oughly gone over to discover rents and stains, carefully sorted,
and the white clothes put to soak. This preliminary work re-
quires time which it may be inconvenient to give on Saturday
and which may not be justified on Sunday.

The following outline is suggested for the preparation of
clothes for washing:

1. Sort the clothes according to kind:

a. White cotton and linen clothing
Table linen and clean towels
Bed and body linen
Handkerchiefs

Soiled towels and cloths.

b. Colored clothing.

c. Flannels.

2. Mend rents, except in stockings.

3. Remove stains (pages 282 to 306).

4. Put as many white clothes to soak as is practicable. Some colored
clothes having fast colors may be soaked if very much soiled.

The purpose of soaking soiled clothes before washing them
is to soften and separate the fibers of cloth in order to loosen
dirt. Water alone accomplishes this purpose to a great extent;
but the use of a soap solution, or a soap solution to which has
been added borax, ammonia, or other alkali, and turpentine,
kerosene, or benzine, makes the washing process both easier
and quicker.

It is well before beginning the washing to make a soap solu-
tion, as it gives a quick suds and is more easily handled, and
its use will, therefore, save time.

All the clothing should not be put to soak in the same tub.
If three tubs are available, table linen and clean towels should
be soaked in one, bed linen and body linen in a second, soiled
towels and cloths in a third. If only two tubs are available,
table linen and clean towels may be washed without prelim-
inary soaking. Soiled towels and cloths should always be
soaked before washing.

If colds have prevailed in a family, the handkerchiefs should
be put to soak in a solution of boric acid in a basin by them-

THE LAUNDRY 263

selves, and should be separately washed and boiled for twenty
minutes.

The garment to be soaked should be wet, the more soiled
part rubbed with soap solution, and that part folded in. Each
garment should be folded and rolled separately and packed
into the tub with the other garments. Folding and rolling
prevents the dirt in the soiled parts from spreading. The
clothes are then covered with warm soapy water, to which may
have been added an alkali such as borax or ammonia, and
an oily substance, perhaps turpentine, kerosene, or benzine.
Directions for making soap solutions are given on page 256.
The tub should be covered, and if possible the clothing allowed
to soak in it during several hours or overnight. If colored
clothes are to be soaked, they should be covered with warm
water or with water very slightly soapy. No alkali should be
used with the colored clothing.

No arbitrary order can be recommended for washing clothes,
but flannels, white goods, and colored goods should be washed
separately as the washing process differs somewhat for each case.

A few simple explanations may aid the houskeeper in solving
some of her problems. Heat tends to expand the threads of
the cloth, and the expansion aids in removing dirt caught be-
tween the threads. If the cloth is cooled during the washing
process, the thread contracts and the dirt is again entangled;
consequently, after the cloth has once been warmed, one of
the objects of the launderer should be to maintain an even or
a rising temperature. In the commercial laundry, an even
temperature is kept by turning the correct amount of steam
into the washing-machine. In the home laundrj^ boiling water
added from time to time will aid in keeping an even tempera-
ture. A. good suds is necessary in the washing process. As
the suds falls, that is, as it is used up by uniting with dirt, more
suds should be supplied by adding more soap or soap solution.
If insufficient soap is used, insoluble black specks are often left
on the clothing.

All utensils, receptacles, and apparatus should be immacu-
lately clean.

264 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Order of washing white linen and cotton clothes :

1. Put water on to heat.

2. Make soap solution.

3. Rinse clothes from water in which they have soaked.

4. Wash clothes in warm suds in following order:

a. Table linen and clean towels

b. Bed linen

c. Body linen

d. Handkerchiefs

e. Soiled towels and cloths

f. Stockings

5. Wash again in clean suds. Wring.

6. Boil in clean, slightly soapy water.

7. Rinse in clean, clear water. Wring.

8. Rinse in bluing water. Wring.

9. Starch.

10. Hang to dry.

11. Remove from line, dampen, and fold.

Directions for washing:

1. Have plenty of hot water before beginning the washing. If possible
the water should be soft; if it is not, soften it as directed on pages 252
and 253.

2. Make a soap solution; use one cake of soap to two or three quarts
of water.

3. Rinse the clothes from water in which they were soaked, removing
as much of the dirt as possible. Parts of the clothing that are very much
soiled should be rubbed a little and rinsed in fresh water before the gar-
ments are put into a tub or a washing-machine. The precaution of rinsing
saves wear and tear on the whole garment.

4. Pour warm water into tub or washing-machine; if the water is hard,
soften it with washing-soda solution or borax. Add enough soap solution
or soap to make a good suds. A tablespoon of turpentine, kerosene, or
benzine may be added to the washing water as well as to the water in which
clothing has soaked. Put in clothes to be washed. Rubbing is essential
for soiled garments. It may be accomplished in one of two ways: by
using the washboard and old-fashioned tub, or by using a washing-machine.
It is well to have a board for very soiled parts, such as hems and edges,
but the washing-machine is a great improvement on the older method.

Whenever the water becomes dirty, use fresh suds. Clothes cannot
be made clean without the use of plenty of water. Keep up a good suds
while washing, and add hot water from time to time. If a washing-machine
is used, do not put enough water in the machine to float the clothes; if
this is done, they will escape the mechanical action of the dasher and will

THE LAUNDRY 265

not be sufficiently rubbed. Clothes should be wrung from the wash water
through the wringer. The screws of the wringer should be adjusted to
bring its rolls close together and clothing should be folded so as to give
it an even thickness in passing through the wringer; for heavier garments
loosen the screws of the wringer. Fold in buttons and hooks and turn the
wringer slowly.

5. A second suds is generally necessary, though it may be omitted if
the clothing has been only slightly soiled. Shake out clothes wrung from
the first suds, look them over for soiled parts, turn them wrong side out,
and drop them into a second suds. Wash and wring them ready for boiling.

6. Clothes should be clean before they are boiled, as the boiling process
is intended not so much to remove visible dirt as to destroy germs and
purify the clothing as well as to whiten it. Boiling is omitted when a
naphtha soap is used, because the soap loses its effect in very hot water; it is
asserted that boiling is not needed because naphtha itself is a purifier.
Nevertheless, at least once a month, the clothing washed at other times
with naphtha soap should be boiled.

Fill the boiler half full of cold water; if the water is hard, soften it.
Add enough soap solution to make a light suds. Half fill the boiler with
clothes, wrung and shaken out from the last suds. Use plenty of water
and do not put too many clothes into the boiler. Bring the water very
gradually to the boiling point, and boil it for ten minutes.

Kerosene or turpentine is sometimes added to the boiler water to counter-
act the yellow color given clothing by the use of the dark resin soaps.
It is better to avoid kerosene and turpentine at this point if possible, because
clothing treated by them requires very thorough rinsing to remove the
odor. Each boilerful of clothes should be started with clean cold water.
Cloths or clothes containing lampblack or machine oil may be placed
in the hot water left in the boiler after the last clothes have been wrung
from it. Kerosene or turpentine should then be added, since they are the
solvents for such dirt.

7. Rinsing is an important part of the washing process, for if soap or
some of the strong alkalis are left in the cloth, they may be very detri-
mental in the bluing or starching process.

If water is hard, it should be softened for rinsing with either borax or
ammonia and not with washing-soda. The rinsing water should be hot.
The clothes should be slowly lifted with a clean stick from the boiler into
a dishpan, and drained or wrung and shaken before being put into the rinse
water. It is not always practicable to use more than one rinse water
before bluing the clothes, but better results are obtained when the clothes
are rinsed more than once. With some kinds of bluing, the presence of
soap or an alkali precipitates the blue as iron-rust. If the starch used is
not pure, and any lye or washing-soda or soap has been left in the cloth,
a yellow color is produced from the starch impurities by the action of those
alkalis. Wring the clothes from the rinsing water, and shake them out.

266 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

8. It is impossible to give any rule for the amount of bluing to use
or the depth of color to be decided on. Some fabrics, such as soft, loosely-
woven ones, absorb more bluing than others. The amount of bluing to be
used is a matter for experimentation by the launderer. Clothes should
not be allowed to stand in the bluing water, as they might become streaked.

If a ball bluing is used, tie it in a thick cloth, wet, and squeeze it into
a bowlful of hot water. Use a part of the resulting solution for bluing
the water. More of the bluing in the bowl should be added to the bluing
in the tub from time to time as the clothing takes it up. As some kinds
of bluing are in the form of minute particles, the bluing water should be
stirred each time before adding -clothes to it. After they are wrung,
unstarched clothes will then be ready for drying.

9. Make the starch according to directions on pages 259 to 261. Starch
those garments requiring thick starch first, because moisture from the
clothing gradually thins the starch, and a medium stiff, medium thin,
and thin starch gradually result.

Stiff starch: Collars, cuffs, shirt bosoms.

Medium stiff starch: Shirt waists, collars and cuffs, coarse lace curtains.

Medium thin starch: White petticoats, duck skirts, and some dresses.

Thin starch: Skirts and dresses when a stiff finish is not desired; shirt
waists.

Clear starch: Infants' dresses, fine laces, curtains, light-weight table linen
when it is desirable to give it some body.

Raw starch: Collars, cuffs, shirt bosoms when an extra stiffness is desired;
some light curtains.

The starch should be thoroughly worked into the cloth so as to distribute
it evenly through the threads of the fabric. Such working insures a smooth,
even stiffness and prevents starch spots in ironing. All garments starched
with boiled starch should be dried thoroughly before being dampened.
They should be dampened several hours before being ironed. If articles
are to be raw-starched, they should be thoroughly dried first. They are
then dipped into the raw starch and rubbed as for washing, squeezed dry,
and spread out on a clean sheet or cloth, but not one over the other. They
should cover only half the sheet. The other half of the sheet should
be folded over them. Then the sheet with its contents should be rolled
tightly and allowed to stand for two or three hours to insure even distri-
bution of moisture.

10. When possible the process of drying should accomplish more than
the mere removal of moisture. Clothing should be hung where it will be
freely exposed to the action of fresh air and sunshine. Such exposure puri-
fies and bleaches at the same time.

The launderer should be provided with a clothes-pin bag or, better still,
with a clothes-pin apron having a deep wide pocket.

When possible, lines should be taken down each week, but when they
cannot be, they should be well wiped with a damp cloth before hanging

THE LAUNDRY 267

up clothes. The clothes-pins should be clean. Each article should be
turned wrong side out and hung with the threads of the material straight;
the garment should be shaped as nearly as possible in its natural shape.
Avoid hanging pieces by corners, for thus hung they would be pulled out
of shape. Fasten garments by their bands when possible. Table linen,
bed linen, and towels should be well stretched and hung very straight;
the larger pieces should be pinned in at least four places, as it is nearly
impossible to iron properly a piece that has been improperly hung. Careful
hanging greatly reduces the labor of ironing. When the clothes are brought
in from the line, the clothes-pins should be put into the apron or basket
kept for that purpose and placed where they will be clean.

Starched pieces should not be allowed to freeze and should be removed
from the line as soon as dry. Long hanging reduces their stiffness. If
flannel underwear is properly stretched and hung, it may be folded and put
away without further treatment.

11. Clothes should be dampened some hours before being ironed,
because during the interval between moistening and ironing the moisture
becomes distributed evenly and does away with the necessity of using a
superfluous amount of water. The dampening is best done at night, but
only as many articles should be sprinkled as can be ironed next day, for
damp fabric will mildew if left wet for a few days, especially in hot weather.
Although clothes should be well dampened, they should not be drenched.
Very often, trouble in ironing starched pieces is owing to overwetting.
The starched part is soaked and made limp and sticky. A clean whisk-
broom kept for the purpose is the best thing to use for sprinkling clothes.
Some persons have used a toy sprinkling pot. There is, however, a danger
in its use, for it may rust and give rise to rust spots on clothing. Large
pieces should be sprinkled and folded separately. Small pieces may be
sprinkled and laid together before folding. Care should be taken to fold
and roll garments smoothly, since this aids in their ironing. The rolls of
dampened pieces should be packed closely in a basket lined with a clean
cloth and covered with a clean cloth.

Table linen and other linen should be made very damp, not wet. If
table linen is sprinkled with a mixture of one part alcohol and four parts
water, the result after ironing will be a slight stiffness resembling that of
new linen.

If an ironing machine is used, unstarched pieces may be removed from
the line while still damp and ironed immediately without the preliminary
sprinkling.

Washing colored clothing.

Colored goods require more careful treatment than do white
goods. The conditions that most affect the stability of colors
in fabrics are: long-continued action of water and soap; strong

268 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

alkalis or acids; strong sunlight, which is a powerful bleaching
agent and is used frequently for bleaching.

In washing colored clothing, the factors just enumerated
should be kept in mind. Colored clothing should not be soaked
for any length of time unless its color is known to be very
stable. Any soap used in the washing process should be a mild
soap in solution, or if the color of the goods to be washed is
very delicate the soap solution should be replaced by soap-
bark, bran, rice water, potato water, or cooked-starch water.
The washing process should be conducted quickly, and in water
not very hot. After washing, colored garments should be
turned inside out and hung in a very shady or dark place, and
should be taken in as soon as dry. Fading is more often due
to careless drying than to any fault in washing. Washing
powders and strong alkalis should never be used with colored
clothing. If the water needs softening, borax should be used.
If starch, bran, rice water, and the like, are substituted for
soap, the mixture should be employed as if it were soap-
suds.

In starching colored clothes, the starch should be rubbed
in thoroughly, and any excess of it wiped off; no difficulty will
then be experienced with white starch spots.

Sometimes a fabric shows a decided tendency to fade even
under the best washing conditions. It is always well if there
is any doubt about fading, to test a small piece of the cloth
before washing it. If the color fades, an attempt should
be made to set it. With most colors, the dyer uses chemical
substances which cause a firmer union between the color and
the cloth. Such substances are called mordants. The process
of making a color fast may sometimes satisfactorily be used by
the housekeeper to strengthen weak colors. The household
mordants are vinegar, brine, and sugar of lead, used in the fol-
lowing proportions:

To 1 gallon water add:

H cup mild vinegar; most effective for blues

2 cups salt; most effective for browns, blacks, and pinks

1 tablespoon sugar of lead (poison) ; most effective for lavenders.

THE LAUNDRY 269

Small pieces of cloth should be tested in each of the above
solutions and a choice made after the test. The cloth of which
the color is to be made fast should be left in the mordant solu-
tion overnight and may be left in for several days with good
results. It should be thoroughly dried before being washed.
Even with relatively strong colors, soaking a fabric overnight
in a brine solution before washing it for the first time may
render it far less susceptible to fading influences than it other-
wise would be. The effect of brine, however, is said not to be
lasting. Colored goods are often rinsed in a dilute salt solu-
tion just before being dried.

Washing woolens.

Strong soaps should never be used in washing woolens, nor
should soap be applied directly to the garment. The soap
should be used in solution. A great deal of stress is laid on
having the water used in washing flannels not much more than
lukewarm, for at a lukewarm temperature soap and water
have a less detrimental action on wool. It is even more im-
portant than the lukewarm water to have all the waters used
of the same .temperature, in order to avoid changes from hot
to cold water, or vice versa, as sudden changes in temperature
cause shrinkage.

To wash flannels, two receptacles should be used. Into one
of them water not too hot for the hand to bear comfortably
should be poured and enough soap solution made from a neu-
tral or mild soap or a wool soap added to make a good suds. If
the water is hard, or the clothing is very much soiled, a table-
spoon of borax or ammonia should be added for each gallon
of water used, the garment shaken or brushed free from
dust, and put into the water to soak for ten or fifteen min-
utes. Before beginning to wash the flannels, a second tub of
water should be prepared having the same or a slightly higher
temperature than that of the first. One garment should be
washed at a time by drawing it through the hands and wash-
ing it up and down in the water; rubbing should be avoided
if possible since this mats the fibers. The garments are passed

270 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

from the first to the second water; the second water should be a
suds if the first suds has not removed all the soil. They should
be rinsed free of soap in several waters, the temperature being
kept constant. They are then wrung through a loosely set
wringer. They should be turned wrong side out and hung
in a warm place, but not near a fire as heat will cause shrinkage.
When nearly dry, they should be turned. When drying they
must be shaped by pulling and stretching.

It is a mistake to ascribe all the shrinkage in woolen garments
to washing. The moisture, heat, and movements of the body
may cause a marked shrinkage.

If flannels are to be pressed, they should be allowed to dry
first and should then be covered with a slightly dampened
piece of cheese-cloth and ironed with a moderately hot iron.
The cheese-cloth draws up the fibers of the flannel, giving it
the fluffy appearance of a new garment. Underwear and woolen
stockings should be stretched into shape and should not be
ironed. For very soiled garments the soap formula given on
page 256 will be useful.

Blankets are washed in the same way as other woolen articles,
except that, because of their size, only two blankets or only
one pair of them is washed at a time, and fresh water is used
for each pair. After wringing, they may be stretched and dried
on curtain stretchers. If stretchers are not available, blankets
should hang on the line until perfectly dry, and occasionally
the water should be squeezed from the hanging ends. To press
them, they should be folded evenly and carefully and wrapped
in a sheet. They should be kept smooth and unwrinkled, a
flat board placed over them, weighted heavily and allowed to
remain thus for several days.

An excellent blanket wash may be made according to the
following formula: *

1 large cake neutral soap
3 quarts cold water

2 tablespoons borax
Y?. cup wood alcohol

* Laundering. L. Ray Balderston.

THE LAUNDRY 271

In using the above wash, the soap should be shaved into
the cold water, and heated at a low temperature until it is dis-
solved. It is then cooled and the borax added, mixed with the
alcohol. The mixture should be poured into wide-mouthed
jars, and kept air-tight. This quantity is sufficient for washing
two pah's of blankets.

Sweaters or loosely woven or knitted garments should be
washed as follows:

1. If the garment is silk, wool or cotton, follow the general directions
for the laundering of garments made of these fabrics. A woven garment
should be squeezed with the hands and lifted up and down in the water
rather than rubbed on a board.

2. Measure the length and width of the different parts of the garment
before wetting it. For example, in the case of a sweater, measure the
length of the front, the width of the front, the length of the back, and the
width of the back in several places, the length of the sleeve along the seam,
and the length of the shoulder.

3. Spread one or more clean sheets, folded several times, on a flat surface
such as a table, and place it where there is a good draft. Outdoors in
the sunshine is a good place, if the garment to be dried is not too delicate
in color. After the garment has been rinsed, place it with the back next
to the folded sheet. Bring the fronts together, and place the sleeves in a
nearly outstretched position.

4. After the garment has been placed as suggested, test the measure-
ments with those taken before it was wet. Stretch it until it gives the
correct measurements. If necessary, pin it into place.

5. When the garment is practically dry on the side exposed, turn it and
let it dry on the other, side. It may be necessary to turn the sweater several
times.

This method is much better than hanging the garment on a coat-hanger
after washing, because the size may be kept the same as before washing.

Washing silk.

Silk should be washed in much the same way as wool. While
it is not so strongly affected by soaps and alkalis as is wool, its
gloss is destroyed by the use of strong cleansing agents. The
delicacy of the fiber makes hard rubbing impossible, for it
breaks the fibers and destroys not only their durability but
also their silkiness. In wringing silk, it should be placed be-
tween dry towels or heavy cloths and put through a loosely ad-
justed wringer. It should be ironed on the wrong side while

272 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

still damp, with a moderately hot iron. Silk is very easily
scorched and, if the iron is too hot, the silk will be stiff. The
iron should be pushed back and forth with a wriggling motion
to give softness and pliability to the silk. It is often best to iron
silk under a cloth; to do so gives less body and a softer finish.
Ribbons, if of good quality, may be very successfully washed.
To iron them they should be covered with a dry cloth and the
iron moved frequently back and forth over the surface of the
cloth above them.

Washing laces.

It is often best to dry-clean fine laces, as they thicken slightly
in washing. To wash them, a warm neutral soap-solution
should be used to which has been added ammonia or borax.
The dirt is squeezed out by pressing the lace in the hands but
should not be rubbed; rubbing breaks the delicate threads. A
good way to wash fine lace is to baste it to strips of cheese-cloth,
being careful to catch down all its points. It should then be
put to soak overnight in warm soapy water containing a little
borax or ammonia. It should be washed by squeezing, then
rinsed free of soap. Old yellow lace may be bleached by stretch-
ing it, while wet, around a bottle, and standing it in the sun,
rewetting the lace occasionally. Javelle water may be used to
bleach lace. Lace may be stiffened by rinsing in a mixture of
two tablespoons of alcohol to one cup of water; by rinsing in
borax water, two tablespoons to a cup; or by using gum arabic,
one-eighth teaspoon to a cup of water. If a yellow color is
desired, the lace may be dipped in coffee or tea.

Black lace should be cleaned by squeezing it repeatedly in a
mixture of one cup of strong coffee and one tablespoon of
ammonia. It should be rinsed in gum arabic water made with
coffee, to give natural stiffness.

Lace curtains should be washed with as near an approach to
the care given to lace as is practicable. They should be clear-
starched, stretched, and pinned out on sheets, one curtain over
another. If available, it is better to use curtain-stretchers
than sheets, but if care is taken to square off the first curtain

THE LAUNDRY 273

and stretch it straight and even, good results may be obtained
by pinning the curtains to sheets.

BLEACHING

Occasionally, even in the household, it may be necessary to
supplement the natural bleaching process accomplished by
sunshine, fresh air, and green grass, by the use of chemicals.
If a garment has yellowed by age or by being packed away
with starch in it, it may be expedient to use a chemical bleach.

The best bleach to use is Javelle water, which should be made
as follows:

1 pound washing-soda

1 quart boiling water

% pound chloride of lime

2 quarts cold water.

Put soda in granite pan; add boiling water and stir until dissolved; let
cool.

Dissolve chloride of lime in cold water; let settle and pour the clear liquid
into the soda; let settle. Pour off clear liquid, bottle, and put away in
dark place.

Use, mixed with equal parts or more of water, and do not let the garments
stay in over % hour. Rinse thoroughly in several waters and lastly in dilute
ammonia water.

Moisture is necessary if clothes are to be bleached by the
action of the sun. After a garment dries, it should be made wet
again and hung out. It may be necessary to repeat the wetting
operation a number of times before the yellow tinge yields. It
is said that clothes are whitened if they are allowed to freeze
out of doors on the line. The reason given for the bleaching
action is that freezing causes the clothes to retain moisture,
hence the time of their bleaching is prolonged.

IRONING

For ironing, the following equipment should be provided: a
flat, firm, unwarped ironing-board or table, tightly covered with
a blanket and clean sheet, securely fastened underneath; clean
irons; an iron stand, which may well be a clean brick; two pieces
of old cloth for cleaning irons; a piece of paper folded several

274 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

times for testing irons; a piece of beeswax or paraffin tied in a
cloth, for keeping irons smooth; a bowl of water and a clean
cloth for moistening parts dried by exposure to air. A large
paper should be spread or a basket placed under the ironing-
board to receive the clothes while they are being ironed.

For ordinary ironing a good firm surface is desirable. A thin
woolen blanket and an outside linen cover are sufficient. For
embroideries or wool, a thick covering is better, because the
fabric should sink into a soft foundation to bring out the pattern
in one case and to give a soft finish in the other.

Method and order of ironing.

The following simple rules for ironing may be followed :

Iron first that part of the garment which, will be least mussed
by further handling or in which a little wrinkling will not seri-
ously interfere with good results.

If the garment is trimmed, iron laces and embroideries first,
as they dry out quickly because of their porous nature.

Leave as much of a garment folded as possible, to keep it
moist. Sometimes it may be convenient to lay a piece of damp-
ened cheese-cloth over any unironed part to keep it moist.
Figs. 52-55 give some of the methods of folding various garments.

The method and order of ironing various articles is some-
what as follows:

Night dresses: Embroidery; sleeves; yoke; body.

Drawers: Trimming; tucks; body; band.

Skirts: Ruffle; hem; body.

Shirt-waists: Cuffs; collar-band; sleeves; yoke; back; front.

Silk waists: Iron as a shirt waist on the wrong side while it is still damp.

Embroideries: Iron on wrong side on a soft foundation, to allow the
design to stand out.

Laces: Lay on a piece of flannel covered with a piece of cheese-cloth.
Iron on the wrong side, and pull out points with the tip of the iron. Lace
should be stretched and pinned out on a hard surface. Pull it out at
each point and catch it down with a pin; or stretch it and roll it on a
bottle.

Tablecloths: Use heavy irons, iron on both sides, iron partly dry on
the wrong side and complete the process on the right side, to bring out the
pattern. Fold the selvages together first. Fold all edges evenly, except

THE LAUNDRY

275

when folding the lengthwise folds in half. Draw the upper half back about
^2 inch in making the last fold, or that part will be pushed put of place,
giving an uneven edge. The same rule applies to sheets, napkins, handker-
chiefs, and the like. Tablecloths may be folded lengthwise twice and
then rolled to avoid creases.

Napkins, handkerchiefs, and towels: Iron and fold as for tablecloths.

Sheets: The hems of sheets must be smoothly ironed. It is a good plan
to iron only the hems when time is a consideration.

Flannels: Iron after laying a dampened cheese-cloth over them. If

FIG. 52. Methods of folding underwear.

they are not covered with a damp cloth, iron them on the wrong side;
have the iron only moderately hot.
.Pillowcases: Iron smooth.

Colored garments: Iron on the wrong side, when practicable, as to do so
prevents fading. Do not have irons too hot.

Silk garments: Iron on the wrong side; to do so prevents shininess.

After being ironed, each article should be hung on a frame
or clotheshorse to dry and air before it is put away. If hung

276 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

in a poorly ventilated room, the clothes will have a bad odor.

Sprinkling may not be necessary when an ironing-machine
is used for ironing, if the operator will remove the clothes from
the line just at the right time, that is, while they are still damp.
The process can be carried through so quickly that it is unneces-
sary to keep one garment damp while the other is being ironed.

EQUIPMENT FOR THE LAUNDRY

It is always best, when possible, to have a separate room for
laundry purposes. Much of the apparatus can then be made

FIG. 53. A method of folding sheets and tablecloths.

stationary and many little labor-saving conveniences devised.
Some dairy farms have running water, drains, power, steam,
and cement floors. It would be a simple matter on such a farm
to equip a small room in the barn with the necessary laundry
apparatus. Good lighting (page 201) and good ventilation
are quite as necessary in the laundry as in other parts of the
house. The floor and walls should be of such a nature that
they can be kept dry and clean with the least labor. Many
of the suggestions for the arrangement of kitchen equipment
(pages 104 to 109) are equally applicable to the laundry.

Hand-driven machines are effective labor-savers even though
to a somewhat smaller degree than those run by other power.
Washing-machines are now on the market with wringer at-
tached, which run by power. On many farms the gasoline en-
gine has already become a fixture for grinding corn, separating

THE LAUNDRY

277

milk, and the like. The same source of power might also be
used to run the washing-machine and turn the wringer. If
running water is brought to the barn, it should be continued to
the house, and, if the water-power is sufficient, a water motor
may be purchased that can be used for running the washing-
machine.

Washing-machine.

The home laundry should be equipped with a washing-ma-
chine and at least one stationary tub. If running water has not
yet been introduced into the
house and the barn, at least it
is possible to provide a drain for
the kitchen sink and the laundry
tub. This makes easier the
problem of getting rid of dirty
water.

Washing-machines in C 1 U d e FIG. 54. Another] method of folding

five types: (1) The Dolly type, sheets -

which cleans the clothes by agitation, (2) the friction type,
somewhat like double washboards; (3) the two-cylinder type,
which cleans the clothes by agitation; (4) the suction washers,
including the simple hand machines; (5) the cradle type which
rocks and throws the clothes from side to side. A washing-
machine should never be overloaded if it is to do good work;
and the process should not be unduly hurried. Clothes should
be removed carefully from the machine to prevent tearing.
Cheese-cloth or net bags for small pieces and fine materials save
trouble.

Ironing-machine.

The ironing-machine, or, as it is often called, the mangle, is
another device for making laundry work easier. It may suc-
cessfully take the place of the hand iron for a larger part of the
family ironing. There are two types of ironing-machines on the
market: (1) cold-roll ironing-machines, in which the rollers be-
tween which the garment passes are made of wood and are un-

278

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

heated, depending on their weight and pressure to remove
wrinkles; (2) hot-roll ironing-machines, in which one roll is
cold and is covered with a blanket and cloth, just as for an
ironing-board, and the other roll or concave plate is made of
smooth iron and is heated. The cold roll revolves against the
heated metal plate. This is the more economical and satisfac-
tory ironing-machine, although its original cost is greater. The

FIG. 55. A method of folding nightdresses and shirts.

hot-roll machine may be heated by gas, or gasoline by a slight
change involving a small expense. If power is available, the
machine may be run by power. The use of one of these machines
reduces greatly the time required to iron in the usual way.
Garments with gathers and sleeves cannot be thus ironed to
look perfectly smooth and well shaped, but all bed and table
linen, towels, handkerchiefs, stockings, such underwear as may
not require perfect smoothness, kitchen aprons and the like,
may be done successfully and satisfactorily.

Irons.

A number of irons are now on the market for summer use
when it is not desirable to have sufficient fire in the range to

THE LAUNDRY 279

heat the irons. Some of these are electric irons, gas irons, and
denatured-alcohol irons.

For general laundry purposes, one size of the ordinary sadiron
is sufficient, but it is advisable to put several irons into a well-
equipped laundry, to use for the various kinds of work
to be done. Among them should be heavy, medium heavy,
and small-pointed irons, the last for ironing ruffles and

A frequent cause of poor ironing is the condition of the irons.
They must be kept clean and free from rust to do good work.
New irons should be heated thoroughly and rubbed with wax
or grease before using. If irons are to be put away for any
length of time, they should be covered with a thin coating of
vaseline, clean grease, or paraffin, or wrapped in waxed paper.
If starch cooks on, it should be removed immediately with a
dull knife. If irons become dirty from careless use, or from being
left on the stove during the preparation of the meals, they
should be thoroughly washed with soap and water and care-
fully dried. To keep irons smooth while using them, they
should be rubbed with wax or paraffin and wiped immediately
with a clean cloth. They improve with wear, if they have good
treatment.

Tubs.

Although a washing-machine may be used, there should be one
or more tubs in a laundry. Stationary tubs are best, even
though running water is not available, for some simple method
of draining them can be devised. The tubs are best made of
porcelain, enameled iron, or alberine stone. White tubs are a
good background for bluing clothes. Wooden tubs may be
more cheaply constructed; but there is danger of the wooden
tub becoming unsanitary from careless handling.

A stationary tub should always be set with regard to the
height of the person who is to use it most. Many tubs are
set far too low and necessitate too much back bending on the
part of the operator.

If stationary tubs are not available, fiber tubs are the best

280 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

to buy for the laundry, as they are light and easy to care for.
Galvanized iron and wooden tubs are cheaper.

Laundry bench.

The laundry bench for holding tubs should be of the proper
height. Most benches are far too low, involving effort out of
proportion to the task to be accomplished.

Wringer.

A wringer should be a part of the laundry equipment, and the
best on the market is always the cheapest. After a wringer is
used, it should be carefully dried and the screws pressing the roll-
ers should be loosened. When not in use, it should be kept cov-

FIG. 56. A sleeve-board.

ered with a cloth to protect it from dust and dirt. The bearings
should be oiled occasionally. Oil dissolves rubber, and that
property of oil is taken advantage of in cleaning the rubber
rollers. They are carefully wiped with a little kerosene which
eats away a thin film of the rubber, exposing a fresh surface.
The operation should not be performed frequently, however,
and the oil should be carefully and completely removed im-
mediately after its use.

Ironing-board.

An ironing-board that has its broader end attached by hinges
to the wall is a great convenience, for then it is always in place
and can be put out of the way by folding up against the wall.

Ironing-blanket.

The ironing-blanket and sheet should be put on smoothly
and tacked securely under the board, using short brass-headed

THE LAUNDRY 281

tacks. It is a good plan to have a separate blanket and sheet
also, which fit the table used in the laundry, because a table
is a convenient place for ironing large pieces. The ironing
sheet should be kept clean.

Sleeve-board.

A sleeve-board (Fig. 56) is good not only for sleeves, but
for gathers and for small dresses. It is not difficult to manu-
facture at home.

Character of utensils.

As far as possible, all utensils that are to come in contact
with clothing or to contain material to be used on the clothing,
should be non-rustable. Tinware is not good for laundry use
because of the ease with which it rusts. The boiler should
have a copper bottom at least, and is best made entirely of
copper. It then conducts heat better and does not rust.

Other equipment and supplies.

The miscellaneous equipment necessary for efficient laundry
work is given in the following list :

Rubbing-board Laundry bags

Wooden spoon Clothes stick

Dipper Pail, enamel or fiber, for emptying

Dishpan, enamel water and carrying clothes

Tea kettle 2 saucepans, enamel, one for starch

Measuring cup and one for soap solution

Quart measure Iron stand

Iron holder Tablespoon

Teaspoon Case knife

Clothes basket Clothes-horse

Strainer for starch Scrubbing brushes

Beeswax or paraffin wrapped in Clothes-pin aprons, best made of

cloths to keep irons smooth ticking
Clothes-pins

REFERENCES

Balderston, L. Ray. Laundering.
Chambers, Mary D. A Guide to Laundry Work.

CHAPTER XIII
STAIN REMOVAL*

With some stains prompt treatment is necessary in order to
save the article in question from being ruined, and in most cases
it is desirable, since all stains are removed more easily when
fresh. Changes in the character of the stain, brought about
by drying, exposure to air, washing, ironing, or in other ways,
often make it necessary to use chemicals in removing old stains,
whereas in many cases much simpler methods are successful
if the stains are treated when fresh.

The nature of a stain should be known, if possible, before
its removal is attempted, since this determines the treatment
to be adopted. Moreover, if an unsuitable stain-remover is
used, the stain may be "set" so that its removal becomes dif-
ficult or even impossible. For example, if hot water, which
easily removes most fresh fruit stains, is applied to stains con-
taining protein, such as stains of milk, blood, eggs, or meat
juice, it coagulates the albumin in the fibers of the cloth
and makes it extremely difficult to remove. Similarly, soap,
which aids in the removal of grease spots, sets many fruit
stains.

The kind of fabric upon which the stain occurs also should
be known. The method of treatment adopted depends as much
on the nature, color, weave, finish, and weight of the fabric as
on the kind of stain. Cotton and linen are destroyed by strong

* This chapter contains almost the whole of Farmers' Bull. 861, Removal
of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles, by Harold L. Lang and Anna
H. Whittelsey of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. Since this bulletin is the report
of the most extensive and careful work on stain removal that has been
done for the benefit of housekeepers, it has been only slightly adapted for
reprinting here.

282

STAIN REMOVAL 283

acids and attacked to some extent even by weaker ones. Con-
centrated acids, therefore, should never be used in removing
stains from these fabrics, and when dilute acids are used they
should be neutralized afterwards with a suitable alkali or
removed by thorough rinsing; otherwise the acid may become
concentrated on drying and destroy the fibers. Generally
speaking, alkalis do not attack cotton or linen fabrics to the
extent that acids do. However, long-continued or repeated
exposure to alkalis, especially in hot solution, weakens the fi-
bers. The damage to fabrics resulting from the careless use of
strongly alkaline soaps, washing powders, washing-soda, or
lye, is well known to the housekeeper.

Wool and silk, being more delicate than cotton and linen, re-
quire more careful treatment. The use of very hot water must
be avoided, since it turns both wool and silk yellow, shrinks
wool, and weakens silk and injures its finish. These materials
also will not stand much rubbing, as this felts together the
wool fibers and results in a shrinking or thickening of the ma-
terial, while the silk fabrics, as a rule, are too delicate to stand
much rubbing without breaking or separating the fibers. Both
wool and silk are dissolved by strong alkalis and are injured
even by washing-soda or strongly alkaline soap. The only
alkalis which should be used in laundering or removing stains
from wool and silk are the milder ones like borax or dilute solu-
tions of ammonia. Acids, with the exception of nitric which
weakens and turns the fibers yellow, do not attack wool and
silk readily.

In general it is more difficult to remove stains from wool and
silk than from cotton or linen. In removing stains from ma-
terials made from two or more kinds of fibers, such as silk and
cotton mixtures, the effects of the stain-removers on all of the
fibers should be considered. No chemical should be used which
would injure the most delicate of the fibers present.

It is also much more difficult to remove stains from colored
than from white materials, for the reason that most of the
bleaching agents which must be used to remove persistent stains
are likely to destroy the color of the material as well.

284 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF STAINS IN GENERAL

The following paragraphs deal with methods and reagents
commonly used in the removal of a number of stains. To save
repetition, these are given here in detail and reference is made
to them in dealing with the particular stains in later pages.

Laundering.

Ordinary laundering, mentioned frequently as a method for
removing stains, should be done as follows: First, soak the
stained portion in cold or lukewarm water, rubbing the stain
with a neutral soap if necessary. Follow this by thorough
rinsing in clean water, after which the article may be laundered
as usual. This method should be used only for cotton and linen^
(white or fast colors) and the so-called wash silks and washable
woolens. If the materials are delicate, they should be sponged
according to the following directions.

Sponging.

Sponging is applicable to all fabrics, but especially to deli-
cate materials or colors which ordinary laundering might in-
jure. The stained article should be spread on a flat surface in
a good light, and beneath the stain a cloth folded into several
thicknesses or clean white blotting paper should be placed to
absorb the superfluous liquid. The pad must be changed for a
fresh one as soon as it becomes soiled. The sponging should be
done with a clean, soft lintless cloth (preferably of the same
material as that stained) and renewed as frequently as may be
necessary. The stained material should be laid with the wrong
side up and the water applied to the back, so that the foreign
substances can be washed from the fibers onto the pad without
having to pass through the material.

Application of chemicals.

Chemicals should not be used until water or laundering has
been tried, for they attack the fibers of the cloth as well as the
stain.

There are a few common chemicals which are necessary in
removing some stains, and these should be kept in every house-

STAIN REMOVAL 285

hold. A good plan is to have a small cupboard in the laundry
where these chemicals may be kept together with the utensils
used in applying them. As some of these chemicals are poison-
ous, they should not be kept in the family medicine cabinet or
pantry. Chemicals most commonly used in removing stains
are Javelle water (p. 273), potassium permanganate (solu-
tion), oxalic acid, ammonia water, hydrogen peroxide, French
chalk, and cream of tartar. These chemicals may be bought
at any drug store.

With these chemicals should be kept some of the utensils
used in applying them; such as a medium-sized bowl, a med-
icine-dropper, a glass rod with rounded ends, several pads of
cheese-cloth or old muslin, and a small sponge.

If the effect of the stain-remover on the fiber or color is not
known, it should be tried by applying a little to a sample or
to an unexposed portion of the goods. Sometimes it is best
to remove the stain even if some of the color is removed also,
for the color often may be restored by careful tinting.

One should work rapidly when using chemicals to remove
stains, so as to give them as little time as possible to act on
the textile fibers. Many brief applications of the chemicals,
with rinsing or neutralization after each application, are pref-
erable to the practice of allowing them to remain on the stain
for a long time. The stained portion of the garment should be
stretched over a bowl of clean water and the chemical applied
with a medicine-dropper. The chemicals may be rinsed out
quickly by dipping in the clean water. Another method is
to place the stained portion over a pad of folded cloth and ap-
ply the chemical with a glass rod. The rinsing or neutralizing
always must be thorough.

Javelle water may be used successfully in removing a num-
ber of stains, but should be applied only to uncolored cotton
or linen materials, since it bleaches colors and rots silk or wool.
In treating stains with Javelle water, the stained portion should
be stretched over a bowl filled with water and the Javelle water
applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper. The Javelle water
should not be allowed to remain in contact with the stain for

286 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

more than one minute and then oxalic-acid solution should be
applied to neutralize the Javelle water and the stain rinsed by
dipping in the bowl of water.

Commercial ink-removers are similar in action to Javelle
water and are very convenient for removing many stains be-
sides ink spots.

Potassium permanganate can be used in removing stains
from all white fabrics. It also may be used successfully upon
many colored materials, but should always be tried first on
an unexposed portion of the goods, to determine its effect on
the dye. It does not harm delicate fibers, provided it is used
with reasonable care. One should first remove as much of the
stain as possible by sponging or washing with cold water. The
permanganate should be prepared and used as follows: Dis-
solve 1 teaspoonful of the crystals in a pint of water and apply
a little of this to the stain with a medicine-dropper, a glass rod,
or a clean cork, and allow it to remain for about five minutes.
Remove any pink or brown stain left by the permanganate,
by applying one of the following chemicals: 1. Hydrogen per-
oxide, made slightly acid (if not already so) with oxalic acid.
One drop of the acid usually is enough to acidify 3 teaspoons
of the peroxide. 2. Oxalic acid in saturated solution or lemon
juice for cotton, linen, or silk. Hydrogen peroxide is more sat-
isfactory for wool. The treatment should be followed by thor-
ough rinsing. One or more repetitions of this treatment may
be necessary in the case of persistent stains.

Oxalic acid is poisonous and should be used carefully; the
bottle in which it is kept must be marked "Poison" and kept
out of the reach of children. To prepare a solution of oxalic
acid for use, as many of the crystals of the acid as possible
should be dissolved in a pint of lukewarm water. This should
be put into a bottle, stoppered tightly, and used as needed. This
solution may be applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper
or glass rod and after allowing it to remain for a few minutes
the garment should be rinsed thoroughly in clean water.

Hydrogen peroxide, as obtained for medicinal purposes, usu-
ally is made slightly acid, to give it better keeping quality.

STAIN REMOVAL 287

For use in removing stains a small amount of the peroxide should
be made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Since hydrogen per-
oxide affects the fiber also, in the case of cotton and linen ma-
terials, it must be followed by very careful rinsing. It may be
applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper, a glass rod, or
a clean cork, or the stain sponged with it. The method of
using it in neutralizing potassium permanganate is described
above.

SPECIFIC METHODS FOR INDIVIDUAL STAINS

In cases in which the nature of the stain is not known, it
should be attacked first by sponging with cold water, provided,
however, that the fabric would not be injured by water. If the
stain is not removed by cold or warm water, chemicals should
then be applied. Often the behavior of a stain, when treated
with cold water, will give some indication of its nature; for
example, a grease spot will not absorb water. Hot water should
be avoided in treating unknown stains until after other sub-
stances have been tried, since hot water will set many stains
and make their removal more difficult..

Adds.

With the exception of nitric acid, acids do not generally produce stains
upon white fabrics but often change or destroy the color of dyed materials.
However, cotton and linen fibers are destroyed readily by some acids,
especially by those of greater concentration or strength. Dilute acids
do not attack wool and silk fibers to any great extent unless they are
allowed to dry on the cloth and become concentrated, but they do some-
times affect the color of the fibers. It is essential, therefore, that acid
spots on textiles be neutralized at once by some alkaline solution. For
this purpose any one of the following should give good results:

1. Water. Rinse the spot several times in a large volume of water.
This treatment serves to stop any further action of the acid on the fabric,
but usually has no effect on any discoloration due to the acid.

2. An alkaline substance, such as washing-soda, ammonia, or borax.
Apply an alkali to the acid spot. The alkali forms a salt with the acid
and this must be removed later by rinsing or sponging with water. The
acid should be neutralized completely with the alkali or the discoloration
may reappear after a while. Either of the following alkalis may be used:
(a) Ammonia. If the spot is slight, neutralize it by holding it in the fumes
from an open bottle of strong ammonia. (6) Sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda). Sprinkle this on the stain on both sides, if possible moisten

288 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

with water, and allow to stand until the acid is neutralized (shown in
this case by the ceasing of the effervescence); and remove the excess by
rinsing with water.

Alkalis.

Dilute alkalis have little effect on cotton and linen, but strong alkalis
cause the fibers to swell and become yellow, and the cloth to contract.
The fiber, however, is not weakened unless the alkali is allowed to remain
a long time upon the cloth or to become very concentrated through evap-
oration. Wool and silk, on the other hand, are yellowed or destroyed by
strong alkalis even in dilute solutions. Even if the fiber is not affected
by the alkali, the color may be changed or destroyed. It is important,
therefore, to neutralize alkali spots at once. Any of the following agents
may be used:

1. Water. Rinse thoroughly. Frequently this is sufficient in the case
of such alkalis as washing-soda and ammonia.

2. A mild acid. Apply the acid with a cloth until the fabric changes
back to its original color, or until the stain is slightly acid as shown by
the odor or sour taste. Then rinse the fabric thoroughly in water. In
the case of colored goods it is helpful to rub the stain dry, using a piece
of the same material as the stained fabric, if possible. Use either of the
following mild acids:

(a) Lemon juice. Squeeze the juice on the stain. As long as the spot
remains alkaline the juice is a bright yellow in color, but when the spot
becomes acid the color disappears almost entirely. Apply the lemon juice
until this color change takes place.

(6) Vinegar. If the vinegar itself leaves a spot, remove it by sponging
with water/

Blood.

Any of the following agents may be used:

1. Cold or lukewarm water. Either soak the blood stains or rub them
in the water until they turn light brown in color; that is, until most of the
coloring matter is dissolved. Then wash the material in hot water, as
in the ordinary process of laundering. For stains on silk or wool, sponge in
cold or lukewarm water.

2. Soap (for washable materials). Rub the stained portions with soap
and place in cold water, either allowing them to stand in it until the stains
are loosened or bringing the water very slowly to the boiling point.

3. Ammonia (for washable materials). Use about 1 ounce (2 tablespoon-
fuls) of household ammonia to 1 gallon of water. Soak the stains in this
until they are loosened and then wash in the usual manner. For old
stains ammonia is somewhat more satisfactory than soap.

4. Hydrogen peroxide. Sponging with a little hydrogen peroxide often
will remove the last traces of blood stains after the main part has been

STAIN REMOVAL 289

removed as described in No. 1 above. This agent can be used on wool
and silk, provided it does not injure the color of the material.

5. Raw starch mixed with cold water to a paste is efficient for stains on
thick materials, such as flannel and blankets, which cannot conveniently
be soaked in water. Apply the paste thickly to the stain and brush it
away when it becomes dry. Repeat the application until the stain is
removed.

Bluing.

Three types of laundry bluing are in common use, namely, ultramarine,
Prussian, and aniline blues. Since they differ chemically, spots due to them
require different treatment. It is not difficult to determine to which type
a blue belongs, and methods for doing this are suggested in the following
paragraphs:

The commercial blues which come in balls or blocks with directions to
wrap them in a piece of flannel or other cloth and shake them about in
the water to be blued are generally ultramarine. To remove such stains,
the following procedure may be followed:

1. Cold water. Soak fresh stains or rinse them in an abundance of
cold water.

2. Soap and water. Wash the stains as in ordinary laundering, with
an abundance of soap, and rub thoroughly. This treatment will remove
stains which are not removed by soaking.

Liquid bluing, which is used commonly in the home laundry, usually is
a Prussian blue. It is greenish-blue in color and soluble in water. Clothes
are occasionally overblued with Prussian, as with other bluings, or may
become streaked with the bluing if it has not been mixed evenly with the
water. To overcome this condition the following treatment is recom-
mended:

1. Cold water. Rinse the stains in an abundance of cold water. This
is effective only for very fresh stains.

2. Boiling water. Boil the stained material for about half an hour,
or until the stains disappear.

Prussian blue is sometimes the cause of yellow discolorations or spots
upon white clothes. If the clothes are not rinsed free from strong soap,
washing-soda, or other alkali used in washing, before they are blued with
Prussian blue, the alkali remaining on the clothes precipitates ferric hy-
droxide from the bluing which is deposited upon the clothes. This is set
by subsequent drying and ironing, and is identical, chemically, with iron-
rust. For methods of removing these stains, see " iron rust " stains,
page 297.

The aniline or coal-tar blues probably are used less commonly in the
household than the other blues, but are employed frequently in commercial
laundries. They are sold usually in the form of small crystals or of a
powder having a dark blue or iridescent color and are soluble in water.
To remove aniline blues, one of the following methods should be used:

290 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

1 . Cold water. Soak the stained material for several hours or overnight.

2. Boiling water. Boil the stains for 15 minutes or until they disappear.

Butter.

Stains due to butter are essentially grease spots and should receive the
same treatment.

Candle wax (colored).

These stains consist of paraffin in which an organic dye is dissolved.
Remove the paraffin as completely as possible (page 300), and then dissolve
the coloring matter remaining in the fiber by sponging it with alcohol.
If a slight grease spot still remains, remove it by sponging with soap and
water.

Chocolate and cocoa.

For removing chocolate and cocoa stains the following agents are satis-
factory:

1. Soap and hot water (ordinary laundering; see page 284).

2; Borax and cold water. Sprinkle the stains with borax and soak
them in cold water, then rinse them thoroughly in boiling water. This
method is applicable only to stains on washable materials.

3. Lukewarm water. For stains on delicate fabrics, sponge with luke-
warm water.

Coffee.

Cream in the coffee sometimes necessitates the use of grease solvents in
addition to other reagents.

One of the following agents should be employed:

1. Soap and water. Fresh stains and most old ones on washable ma-
terials can be removed by ordinary laundering. A slight trace of the
stain sometimes remains in the case of very heavy or old stains. Drying
the material in the sun frequently helps to remove the last traces.

2. Potassium permanganate. Slight stains remaining after treatment
with soap and water can be removed with this agent.

3. Boiling water, poured en the stain from a height of 2 or 3 feet. This
is effective on stains which are not more than a few hours old.

4. Cold or lukewarm water. Sponge the stains from wool or silk ma-
terials. If a grease spot from cream remains after the spot has dried,
remove it by the use of grease solvents.

5. Damp cloths and a hot iron. Fairly good results are obtained in
removing small coffee stains from light-colored silk material by placing
the stain between clean, damp cloths and pressing the whole with a hot
iron.

Dye and running colors.

As the dyes of textiles differ greatly in chemical composition, different
methods must be tried, beginning with the simplest, until the stains
disappear. For washable materials, No. 1 may be tried.

STAIN REMOVAL 291

1. Cold or warm water and sunlight, for stains on washable materials.
Rinse the stains in water, or soak them (for 10 or 12 hours, if necessary),
and then dry them in the sun. Repeat the treatment if the stains are not
removed entirely by the first treatment. Spots on woolen and silk ma-
terials sometimes may be removed by soaking or washing in cold water.

2. Javelle water.

3. Potassium permanganate.

4. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia, for stains
on white silk or wool. Soak the stains in this solution until they disappear,
and then rinse thoroughly.

Egg.

Egg stains should be washed or sponged with cold or lukewarm water
before any hot water is applied. Sometimes a large part of the stain
hardens on the surface of the material and may be scraped off with a blunt
knife. ,.*.-

One of the following agents should be used to remove egg stains:

1. Cold water followed by hot water and soap, as in ordinary laun-
dering.

2. Cold water followed by a grease solvent. Allow the stained place to
dry after being sponged with cold water. Then apply the grease solvent
(pages 292 to 293).

Fly paper (sticky).

See "resinous substances," page 301. Turpentine and kerosene are
especially effective.

Fruits and berries (fresh).

Practically all fruit stains, when they are fresh and still moist, can be
removed with boiling or even warm water. After they have dried, they
become much more difficult to remove. The color of some materials may
be affected by the organic acids present in certain fruits like the grapefruit
and lemon. In such cases the color can generally be restored by the methods
used for acid stains.

The following agents are satisfactory for fruit or berry stains:

1. Boiling water, for white or fast-colored washable materials. Stretch
the stained material over a bowl or other vessel, holding it by a string or
an elastic band, if necessary, and pour boiling water upon it from a tea-
kettle held at a height of 3 or 4 feet so that the water strikes the stain with
some force. With some stains, especially those in which fruit pulp was
present, a little rubbing alternated with applications of boiling water is
helpful. A stain remaining after this treatment frequently can be bleached
by hanging the wet material in the sun to dry.

2. Warm water, for silk, wool, and other delicate materials. Sponge the
stains.

3. Lemon juice and sunlight. Stains remaining after treatment with

292 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

boiling water can often be bleached by moistening with lemon juice and
exposing to the bright sunlight.

4. Lemon juice or oxalic acid. A stain which turns blue or gray and
cannot be removed readily by boiling water sometimes can be loosened
by moistening with a little acid, which restores its original color and renders
it more easily soluble in the boiling water. If necessary, apply the acid
several times, alternating with boiling water.

5. Potassium permanganate (p. 286). Treat the stains first with boiling
water (see No. 1).

6. Javelle water (p. 285).

7. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Stains re-
maining on silk or wool (white or fast color) after sponging with warm
water frequently can be removed with a little hydrogen peroxide.

8. Warm water as in No. 2, followed by alcohol. Sponge the spots
(p. 284).-

Fruits and berries (cooked).

In many cases changes in cooking render the stains from cooked fruit
much easier to remove than those of fresh fruit. In fact, they often are
removed from a fabric by ordinary laundering. Stains from some cooked
fruits, however, especially the dark red and purple fruits and berries, such
as cranberries and black raspberries, are similar to the fresh fruit stains
in being set by alkaline substances.

One of the following agents should be employed:

1. Boiling water (see No. 1, under "fresh fruit stains ").

2. Warm water. Sponge delicate fabrics.

3. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This does not apply to the
dark-colored (red or purple) fruits and berries. Treat them in the same
way as fresh fruit.

Glue.

One of the following agents should be used in removing glue spots:

1. Water. Either soak the spot in warm water or, if small, sponge it.
Occasionally it is necessary to boil the stained material.

2. Vinegar. Sponge the spot or soak it in vinegar.

Grass and other fresh green foliage.

One of the following agents should be used in removing stains of this
character:

1. Hot water and soap, as in ordinary laundering. Remove the stain
mechanically, by thorough rubbing.

2. Grain or wood alcohol. Apply by sponging. This is especially useful
upon materials which laundering might injure.

Grease.

Sometimes it is possible to scrape or wipe much of the adhering grease
irom a stained material.

STAIN REMOVAL 293

One of the following agents should be used in removing grease spots:

1 . Warm water and soap, as in ordinary laundering. Grease spots usually
can be removed from washable materials in this way, provided care is
taken to rub the particular spot thoroughly. Soaps containing naphtha
or kerosene are efficient.

2. Absorbent substances blotting paper, fuller's earth, brown paper,
French chalk, powdered magnesia, or white talcum powder, for fine ma-
terials; cornmeal or salt, for carpets, rugs, and other coarse materials.
The use of absorbents generally is effective only on spots of grease or oil
unmixed with particles of dirt or metal. The advantages of using them
are that the fabric is not wet and there is no danger of leaving a ring, as
in the case of grease solvents. In using an absorbent, such as a clean blotter
or a piece of unglazed brown paper, lay it on each side of the stain and
apply a warm iron. The grease is melted and is absorbed by the paper.
To use the absorbent powders, lay the stained fabric upon a flat surface
and spread a layer of the absorbent over the stain and work it around
gently so as not to pull the fibers. As soon as it becomes gummy, shake
or brush it off and repeat the process until the bulk of the stain is removed.
Then apply another layer of the absorbent and allow it to remain over-
night, or longer if necessary. This removes all traces of the stain, and
in the case of slight stains the preliminary treatment is unnecessary. Then
dust or brush off the absorbent thoroughly. If it is not convenient to let
the stain stand overnight, place a layer of cloth or brown paper over the
absorbent and apply a warm (not hot) iron for several minutes. In the
case of stains made by solid fats, which must be melted before they can be
absorbed, the use of the warm iron is necessary.

3. Organic solvents. Chloroform, ether, and gasoline or naphtha. The
first is the safest to use, since it is not inflammable. It is a better solvent
of tarry substances than is ether or gasoline, and therefore more satisfactory
for general use. Gasoline and naphtha are obtained easily and are com-
paratively inexpensive, but they are very inflammable and likely to con-
tain impurities and to leave an odor in the cleaned fabric. Ether is ex-
pensive and inflammable, but it is clean, and usually it leaves no odor.
The greatest care should be taken in using inflammable solvents. It is
best to use them in a shady place out of doors, and if in the house by an
open window and away from all flames. Place a pad of clean cloth or a
white blotter beneath the stain and change it as soon as it becomes soiled.
Sponge the stain with a clean cloth, preferably a piece like the stained
material, moistened with the solvent. To prevent the spreading of the
grease and solvent, it is best to use small amounts of the solvent at a time
and to work from the outside of the spot toward the center. It is well also
to surround the stain with a ring of French chalk or any of the absorbents
mentioned in No. 2, and to rub the stain with a clean cloth until it is
thoroughly dry.

In removing grease spots which contain dirt or fine particles of metal,

294 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

more rubbing and a freer use of the solvent are necessary. It is best to
apply the solvent from the wrong side of the material, so that the particles
will be washed mechanically from the fibers onto the pad of cloth placed
underneath. If the spot does not yield to this treatment, immerse it in
a small bowl of the solvent and brush it gently with a small, soft brush.
The brushing serves to loosen the insoluble particles, which then fall to
the bottom of the bowl.

In general, when the stained place must be dipped in the solvent, it is
more satisfactory to immerse the whole article finally in clean solvent,
which prevents the formation of rings. If sufficient solvent is not at hand
for this, the ring usually can be removed by careful and patient sponging
with small quantities of fresh solvent, taking clean cloths, pads, or blotters,
as suggested above, and working from the wrong side of the material.

4. An absorbent (see No. 2) mixed with a solvent (see No. 3) in the form
of a thick paste. The white absorbents (French chalk or magnesia) are
most satisfactory. Spread the paste over the spot, leave it until thoroughly
dry, and brush it off. Repeat this treatment if necessary. The spreading
of the solvent and the formation of a ring will be avoided to a considerable
extent in this way. The method is especially useful for cleaning light-
colored unwashable materials, laces, and the like.

Gums.

See "resinous substances," page 301.

Ice cream.

One of the following agents may be employed in removing ice-cream
stains:

1. Soap and water as in ordinary laundering. Use this for wash ma-
terials in the case of stains in which no chocolate or highly colored fruit or
other substance is present.

2. Cool or lukewarm water, followed by agents used in removing grease
spots. Sponge the stains thoroughly with water. If, on drying, a grease
spot from the cream remains, remove it by any of the methods suggested
for "grease spots, 7 ' (page 292).

3. Agents suggested under "fruit and berries (fresh)," "fruit and berries
(cooked)," "coffee," "chocolate and cocoa," and the like, according to
the stain in question.

Indelible (copying) pencil marks.

The dye and the reagents used to remove such stains may vary with
different makes of pencils, but for those used in these experiments the
following reagents are satisfactory:

1. Alcohol (grain or wood). Soak the stains for a few minutes or until
they are dissolved. The graphite marks then remain, but can be removed
by washing with soap and water. The alcohol is effective also after these
stains have been washed and ironed.

STAIN REMOVAL 295

2. Javelle water. This destroys the dye. Remove the graphite either
before or after applying this agent by washing with soap and water.

Ink (India).

The treatment for removing India ink from textiles is the same as for
"ink (printing)" (p. 295).

Ink (marking}.

So-called "indelible" or "marking" inks are of two common types,
namely, that containing silver nitrate or other silver compound and that
with an organic dye, usually "aniline black," as its basis.

Silver nitrate ink may be known generally from the directions for its
use, which state that articles marked with it must be laid in the sun or
pressed with a warm iron before they are washed. This is to bring about
the precipitation of metallic silver, which gives the black or brown color
to the marks. Javelle water may be used to remove stains from silver
nitrate inks (p. 285). Apply this repeatedly until the color of the spot
disappears. Then soak the stained place in ammonia to remove the silver
chloride formed.

Aniline black ink may be known also from the directions for its use,
which generally state that the articles marked with it must not be ironed
until after they have been washed. Aniline black inks are remarkably
fast and it is practically impossible to remove them after they have once
become dry. The method given above for the removal of silver nitrate
ink stains is not effective in removing aniline black ink stains; neither
are satisfactory results obtained by trying most of the methods used for
ordinary writing ink stains.

Ink, black (printing).

One of the following agents should be used for removing printing-ink
stains:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Remove fresh stains by
applying an abundance of soap and rubbing thoroughly.

2. Lard, followed by soap and water, as in No. 1. Rub the stained place
with lard, and work it well into the fibers to loosen the stain.

Ink (writing).

For an ink spot of unknown composition, it is necessary to try various
agents, beginning always with the simplest and that least likely to injure
the fabric. One of the following agents may be utilized:

1. Absorbents: Cornmeal, salt, French chalk, fuller's earth, magnesia,
talcum powder, and the like. The application of such substances serves
to remove any ink not absorbed by the fibers and keeps the ink from
spreading. For a large ink spot, apply one of these substances before trying
other agents. Work the absorbent around with some blunt instrument
and renew it when it becomes soiled. When dry absorbent fails to take
up more ink, make it into a paste with water and continue the application.

296 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

2. Soap and water as in ordinary laundering.- This is satisfactory for
some types of school inks, which can be washed from fabrics; for carbon
inks, which are unaffected by chemicals and can be removed only mechan-
ically; and sometimes for the fresh stains of other inks.

3. Milk. Soak the stains for a day or two, if necessary, in milk, changing
the milk as often as it becomes discolored. This is effective for some stains.

The foregoing methods may be used safely on all washable fabrics.
If they fail to remove the spot, apply one of the chemicals mentioned
below:

4. Oxalic acid, saturated solution. Soak the stain for a few seconds,
then rinse in clear water, and finally in water to which a few drops of
ammonia have been added.

5. Potassium permanganate. This is satisfactory for stains upon many
delicate fabrics as well as on ordinary materials.

6. Javelle water.

7. Commercial ink-removers generally are satisfactory if the directions
furnished with them are followed and the excess of the substance is re-
moved by thorough rinsing in clean water.

8. Lemon juice. Keep the stain moistened and exposed to the sun.
For ink on carpet, first apply absorbents, as in No. 1; follow by repeated

applications of oxalic acid, as in No. 2, or potassium permanganate, as in
No. 5, or by rubbing with the cut surface of a lemon, squeezing on the
juice and rinsing between applications with a clean, wet cloth until no
more ink can be removed. Rub the spot then with a clean, dry cloth.
After the carpet is dry, brush up the nap with a stiff brush or a
cloth.

Iodine.

One of the following agents may be used in removing iodine stains from
unstarched materials:

1. Water. Wash the stain in an abundance of water or soak it for a
number of hours in cold water. These stains can be removed also by
wetting with water and drying in a warm place, such as over a radiator,
repeating this if necessary.

2. Ammonia. Sponge the stain with dilute ammonia.

3. Alcohol. Sponge the stain. This agent frequently can be used on
materials which water would injure.

4. Starch, prepared as for laundry purposes; for washable materials.
Immerse the stained place in the starch and boil; it first turns blue and
then disappears.

5. Flour, used in the same manner as starch.

For removing iodine stains from starched materials one of the following
agents may be employed:

1. Ammonia. Soak the stains in dilute ammonia until they dis-
appear.

2. Water. Boil the stained material for 5 or 10 minutes.

STAIN REMOVAL 297

Iron-rust.

For iron-rust stains on white washable materials one of the agents given
below should be used. In the case of colored materials, the effect of the
agent should be tried first on a sample or in an inconspicuous place.

1. Hydrochloric acid, made by diluting the strong acid with an equal
volume of water. Spread the stained place over a bowl of hot water and
apply the acid drop by drop until the stain turns bright yellow; then im-
merse at once in hot water and rinse thoroughly. Repeat the treatment,
if necessary. Add a little ammonia or borax to the last rinsing water to
neutralize any acid which may remain in the goods.

2. Oxalic acid, in saturated solution, used in the same way as hydrochloric
acid in No. 1. Or apply the crystals directly to the stain and moisten.

3. Cream of tartar. Boil the stained place in a solution of 4 teaspoon-
fuls to 1 pint of water, until the stain disappears. This agent, owing to
its cost, is practicable only for stains upon small articles which can be
immersed and boiled in a cup or two of solution, though it may be used
in the case of larger, articles by holding them above the solution in such a
way that only the stained portion is immersed.

4. Lemon juice. Spread the stained place over a vessel of actively
boiling water, and then squeeze lemon juice on the stain. After a few
minutes rinse the stain and repeat the process. This method is rather
slow but does not injure delicate white cotton or linen fabrics.

5. Lemon juice and salt. Sprinkle the stain with salt, moisten with lemon
juice, and place in the sun, adding more lemon juice if necessary.

6. Acid fruits or vegetables. Those mentioned below are satisfactory
and have the advantage of being found in the home garden or easily pur-
chased. Others cannot be used because their juices are so highly colored
as to leave stains themselves on the fabric. The use of lemon juice has
been described above.

(a) Rhubarb stalks. One stalk, cut up and boiled in one cup of water,
gives a solution strong enough to dissolve iron-rust. If the stalks have
highly colored skins peel them before using. Boil the stain in the solution
for 15 minutes or longer, if necessary.

(b) Begonia. Place several leaves, together with the stems, in a saucepan
with only enough water to keep them from burning. Boil the stain in the
infusion until it disappears.

(c) Pineapple. Cut up a round slice, about one-half inch in thickness,
and boil with enough water to keep it from burning. Boil the stains for
five minutes or until they disappear.

(d) Grapefruit. Use the pulp and juice from one-fourth of a fresh
grapefruit in the same way as the pineapple.

Lead foil.

One of the following agents may be employed for this purpose:
1. Soap and water, for washable materials. Use the soap freely and
rub the stain thoroughly. Sponge woolen materials.

298 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

2. Chloroform or other clean organic solvent. Immerse the stained
place in a small vessel of the solvent and brush gently with a small soft
brush or rub with a cloth.

Lead pencil.

The marks from lead pencils contain graphite, which is insoluble. The
methods of removing pencil marks from textiles are the same as for re-
moving lead foil marks. A soft eraser sometimes can be used successfully
in effacing the marks, especially upon stiff or starched materials.

Leather.

The following agents are satisfactory in some cases:

1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering. Use an abundance of
soap, with thorough rubbing.

2. Potassium permanganate (p. 286).

Lime (slacked).

To remove lime stains, allow the spots to dry, brush carefully, and treat
in the same way as alkali stains (p. 288).

Meat juice or gravy stains.

Stains from meat juice are similar to blood stains (page 288). Hot
water sets the stains and should not be used until the protein material
has been removed by cold water. Grease spots, which sometimes remain
after the remainder of the stain is removed, especially in the case of stains
from cooked meat, can be removed by the methods used for grease (p. 292).
In the case of gravies thickened with flour, it sometimes is necessary to
follow this treatment by one of the treatments recommended for "white
sauce" (p. 306).

Medicines.

If the nature of the medicine is known, the remover can be chosen
accordingly. If the nature of the medicine stain is not known, it is neces-
sary to try various agents until one is found which serves the purpose.

Each of the following agents is satisfactory in removing some medicine
stains:

1. Boiling water, poured on the stain from a considerable height, as for
fruit stains (p. 291).

2. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering.

3. Acids, such as hydrochloric or oxalic. Dilute solutions of these acids
sometimes are useful for stains containing metallic salts.

4. Alcohol. Sponge the stain with alcohol or soak it in alcohol.

5. Javelle water. This agent sometimes will bleach a stain that resists
treatment by other means.

Mildew.

One of the following agents may be used for the removal of mildew stains:
1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering. Very fresh stains can
be washed out. Drying in the sun helps to bleach the spots.

STAIN REMOVAL 299

2. Sour milk. Soak the stains overnight in sour milk and then place in
the sun without rinsing. Repeat the treatment several times if necessary.
Light stains can be removed in this way.

3. Lemon juice. Moisten the stains with lemon juice and allow them
to remain in the sun. This is effective in removing slight stains.

4. Javelle water. Use this agent for bleaching old stains.

5. Potassium permanganate. Use this agent upon old and persistent
stains.

Milk and cream.

One of the following agents should be used in removing spots from milk
and cream:

1. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by hot water and soap (ordinary
laundering), for stains on washable materials. For spots on other fabrics,
sponge with soapy water and then with clean water.

2. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by chloroform, gasoline, or some
other grease solvent. For fabrics which ordinary laundering would injure,
first sponge carefully with water, allow to dry, and then sponge with a
grease solvent.

Mucus.

To remove mucus stains, soak in ammonia water or in salt and water,
then wash with soap and cold water.

Mud.

Allow mud stains to dry and brush carefully before any other treatment
is used. Sometimes no other treatment is necessary.
The following agents are satisfactory:

1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering, for washable materials.

2. Alcohol. Sponge the stains with alcohol.

3. Water. Sponge the stains.

4. Cut raw potato. For black silks of firm weave, after brushing, rub
the spot with the potato. This leaves a thin film of starch on the surface
of the cloth, which can be brushed off when dry. This treatment is too
harsh for any but rather smooth, firm goods and leaves a spot on all but
black materials.

Paints and varnishes.

Before using any agent upon paint or varnish stains, it is best to scrape
off as much of the stain as possible from the surface of the material.

One of the following agents may be used for the removal of paint and
varnish stains, not including "alcohol stain," which is discussed separately:

1. Soap and water. Fresh stains, especially on washable materials, are
removed easily by carefully washing with plenty of soap. Older stains
sometimes can be removed in this way if they are first softened by rubbing
oil, lard, or butter into them thoroughly.

2. Turpentine. Sponge the stains with pure turpentine, or wash the

300 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

whole article in it, if the spots are large or scattered, and then rinse it
several times in fresh quantities of the solvent.

3. Turpentine and ammonia. Stains which are not fresh and yet have
not entirely hardened can be softened by moistening them with ammonia
and sprinkling them with a little turpentine. Roll the article up for 15
or 20 minutes, or soak it for several hours, if necessary, and then wash it
with warm water and soap.

4. Oil solvents, such as chloroform, applied in the same way as the tur-
pentine, are satisfactory (No. 2). Gasoline, kerosene, and alcohol are
less satisfactory.

5. Sodium carbonate or washing-soda (3 tablespoons to each gallon of
water). Boil the stains in this solution. The method is successful for
such materials as will stand the treatment.

None of these methods will remove extremely old stains.

In paint causing an alcohol stain, a pigment is suspended in alcohol
with small amounts of shellac and other resinous material. The methods
of removing it from fabrics differ somewhat from those for ordinary paint
stains. Treatment with turpentine alone or with other oil solvents, which
usually will remove ordinary paint stains, is ineffective. One of the fol-
lowing agents should be employed:

1. Soap and water for very fresh stains on washable materials.

2. Alcohol. If the stains are fresh, sponge them freely with alcohol.

3. Turpentine and ammonia for old stains.

4. Strong ammonia for old stains. Soak the stain for half an hour in
strong ammonia and then wash.

Paints, water color.

The following agent will be found satisfactory for removing stains made
by water color paints on materials not injured by water:

1. Soap and water. Wash the material in lukewarm or cold water with
soap, the stained portions being rubbed if necessary. Both fresh and old
stains can be removed in this way. This method is satisfactory in the case
of washable silks and woolens, as well as cotton or linen materials.

The following agents are fairly successful in removing these stains from
materials like finished silks, which would be injured by washing. Although
it is almost impossible to remove all traces of the stains, the appearance
of the spots may be improved greatly.

2. Gasoline. Dip the stained portion in gasoline and rub vigorously.

3. Glycerin and water. Sponge the stain with glycerin until the water
color is removed and then with lukewarm water to remove the glycerin. In
case a water ring is left, treat this as described under "water spots"
(page 306).

Paraffin or paraffin wax.

For removing the part of the stain which has penetrated the fiber,
use one of the following agents:

STAIN REMOVAL 301

1. Blotting paper or an absorbent powder and a warm iron (No. 2
under " grease").

2. Grease solvents. If a trace of the stain remains after treatment,
as in No. 1, sponge the stain carefully with a grease solvent (see No. 3
under " grease ").

For colored paraffin see " candle wax (colored)," page 290.

Perspiration.

While the perspiration from most of the body is acid, that from the
armpits is alkaline. For treating colors changed by this, see " alkali,"
page 288. The yellow stains sometimes caused upon white material
by perspiration are removed by the following agents :

1. Soap and water. Exposure to the sun helps to bleach the stained
material.

2. Javelle water.

3. Potassium permanganate.
Pitch.

See "resinous substances," below.

Resins and resinous substances.

One of the following solvents may be used: Turpentine, chloroform,
alcohol (grain or wood), ether, kerosene, gasoline, and water for water-
soluble gums, such as gum arabic. In each case sponge the stain or im-
merse it in the solvent and rub.

Salad-dressing.

Salad-dressings usually contain oil, vinegar (or lemon juice), and condi-
ments, and may contain egg or cream also. If egg or cream is present, hot
water must not be used. For discoloration due to the acid of the vinegar
or lemon juice, treat in the same way as acid stains (p. 287).

One of the following agents should be used for salad-dressing stains:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials. Sponge
delicate materials with lukewarm water, using soap if the material is not
harmed by it.

2. Grease solvents.

Scorch.

Scorch upon cotton and linen sometimes can be removed, if the fibers
are not actually burned. Wool and silk are disintegrated at a lower tem-
perature than cotton and linen and cannot be restored to their original
condition after being scorched.

For removing slight scorch stains from cotton and linen, use one of the
following agents:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This is sufficient to remove
very slight stains.

2. Water and sunlight. Wet the spot with water, or soap and water,
and expose to the sun for a day, or longer, if necessary. The scorch dis-
appears much more slowly if the material is not moistened before exposure.

302 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

3. Bread crust. Very slight scorch on the surface of materials which
are not especially delicate sometimes can be rubbed away with a bread
crust.

Shoe-dressings.

One of the following agents should be used in removing stains from the
black shoe polishes:

1. Soap and water for the pastes. If the stains are fresh, sponge or wash
them thoroughly with an abundance of soap (p. 284).

2. Turpentine only for the pastes containing turpentine this may be
detected by the odor. Immerse the stained places and rub gently in tur-
pentine.

3. Potassium permanganate or javelle water for stains from the black
liquid dressing. First remove as much of the stain as possible by sponging
or washing as in No. 1.

The common tan leather dressings consist either of a liquid cleaning
solution or a box of polishing wax, or both. The cleaning solution some-
times contains a considerable amount of free oxalic acid, which may weaken
a fabric seriously if allowed to remain long in contact with it. Sometimes
also water-soluble dyes are present and these make a much more per-
sistent stain on wool than on cotton. Use one of the following agents:

1. Soap and water, for stains upon cotton and linen (p. 284).

2. Alcohol. The stains on wool are removed more successfully by spong-
ing (p. 284) with alcohol, than with soap and water.

The stains produced by the polishing waxes usually may be removed by
one of the wax solvents (page 300).

For removing spots caused by white shoe pastes or liquids, use the
following agent:

Water. First sponge the spot (p. 284), and when dry, brush thoroughly
or rub in the direction of the weave with a piece of the same material.

Silver nitrate.

See "ink (marking)," page 295.

Soap.

When a material has not been rinsed sufficiently and is ironed with soap
still present in the fiber, stains sometimes appear which resemble iron-rust
stains, but usually are lighter yellow in color. Use the following for such
stains:

Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Bleaching in the sun helps to
remove stains which are especially persistent.

Soot.

Soot spots, being composed of fine particles of carbon, are insoluble
and must be removed from a fabric mechanically. Use one of the following
agents:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). First brush the stain, then
place on the stain absorbent powders, such as fuller's earth, French chalk,

STAIN REMOVAL 303

cornstarch, cornmeal, or salt, work them around until they become soiled,
and brush them away. Then wash or sponge the stain.

2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvents, for materials injured
by washing. First brush the stain lightly or treat it with absorbent
powder, as in No. 1, then immerse it in the solvent and rub gently, or
brush with a small, soft brush. For the treatment of rings caused by
organic solvents, see "grease," page 292.

Soup.

Stains from soup should be treated in the same way as those from white
sauces (page 306).

Stove-polish.

The following agents are fairly satisfactory:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Rub the soap thoroughly
on the stain. .

2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvent, for materials injured
by washing. Immerse the stain in the solvent and while immersed rub
it gently or brush it with a small soft brush.

Sugar sirups.

One of the following agents should be used in removing sugar sirup
stains:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials.

2. Sponging with clear water is satisfactory for other materials.

Tar, road oil, creosote oil, asphalt, asphalt paint, and the like.

The stains from these substances are grouped together because they
are somewhat similar in their chemical composition. In general, the same
solvents are used for all. The stains are rather difficult to remove from
textiles, especially from cotton, and after the oily or tarry part of the
spot has been removed, dark-colored organic or mineral impurities are
likely to remain.

One of the following agents may be used:

1. Turpentine. Sponge the stains or immerse them in turpentine, and
rub. The latter treatment is best if the fabric is not too delicate. For
stains on carpet, scrub with a cloth soaked in turpentine, changing to a
fresh cloth as soon as it becomes discolored, and continuing as long as
any color comes off.

2. Turpentine, as in No. 1, followed by thorough washing in soap and
hot water (p. 284).

3. Chloroform, applied in the same way as turpentine in No. 1 and No. 2.

4. Lard. Rub thoroughly into the stain, then wash in hot water and
soap. Repeat the treatment if necessary.

Tea.

One of the following agents should be employed in removing tea stains:

1. Borax, boiling water. If stains are on cotton or linen and not more

304 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

than a few days old, soak them in a borax solution (^ to 1 teaspoon to
1 cup of water) and then rinse in boiling water.

2. A strong soap solution, containing a half-inch cube of soap to each
cup of water. Boil the stained material in this solution. Stains 2 or 3
weeks old are removed successfully if they are on small articles of white
wash material which can be boiled in a small quantity of liquid.

3. Potassium permanganate, for stains which resist other reagents.

4. Javelle water for persistent stains. This is slightly less satisfactory
than the potassium permanganate.

5. Lemon juice and sunlight. Keep the stains moist with lemon juice
and expose them to the sun for a day or two. They will be practically
removed.

Tobacco.

One of the following agents may be utilized in removing tobacco-juice
stains:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Sponge materials which
cannot be washed. If a stain on washable materials cannot be completely
removed by washing, bleach it in the sun. Moistening it with lemon juice
makes it disappear more quickly.

2. Wood or grain alcohol. Traces of color remaining upon wool fabrics
after sponging with water can be removed sometimes by sponging with
alcohol.

3. Potassium permanganate, for stains which washing will not remove
(p. 286).

4. Javelle water, for stains which washing will not remove.

Tomato vine.

One of the following agents should be used in removing such stains:

1. Lemon juice and sunlight. First wash the stains carefully, then
moisten them with lemon juice and expose them to the sun for several
days if necessary. This is satisfactory for stains on white washable ma-
terials.

2. Alcohol (wood or grain). Sponge the stains with alcohol, which
removes the green part of the stain. Stains on wool or silk are practically
removed by this treatment.

3. Potassium permanganate. First wash the stains with soap and
water or sponge with alcohol.

4. Javelle water. First wash the stains with soap and water or sponge
with alcohol.

Turmeric.

Turmeric is a constituent of many pickles and of curry powder, to which
it is added for its yellow color and aromatic flavor. To remove such stains,
one of the following agents may be used:

1. Dilute ammonia. Remove fresh stains on white materials by soaking
in this reagent.

STAIN REMOVAL 305

2. Alcohol (grain or wood). Apply in the same way as No. 1. These
agents are very satisfactory on old stains.

3. Javelle water.

4. Potassium permanganate.

Varnish.

See " paint and varnish," page 299.

Vaseline.

One of the following reagents may be employed in removing vaseline
stains:

1. Turpentine. Sponge fresh stains with this agent. Old stains, even
those which have been washed and ironed, usually can be removed by
soaking in turpentine, if care is taken to immerse them completely.

2. Agents used in Nos. 2, 3, and 4, under "grease," page 292, for fresh
stains. Ordinary washing (No. 1, under "grease,") is not usually sufficient
to remove the stains.

Verdigris.

The blue-green tarnish on copper, brass, and bronze, consisting of basic
copper carbonate, is known commonly as verdigris. In removing it from
textiles use the following agents:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Stains that are merely on
the surface of the material can sometimes be removed in this way.

2. Dilute acids, such as vinegar, or lemon juice. Apply one of these to
the stain and rinse off as soon as it has dissolved the verdigris.

Vinegar.

See "acid," page 287.

Walnut, black.

Fresh stains, which are still moist, usually can be removed, provided
the material is strong enough to stand the treatment, but old stains or
stains on delicate fabrics in many cases cannot be removed by any of the
reagents tried.

The following reagents are satisfactory in some cases:

1. Concentrated soap solution, prepared by shaving about 1 cubic inch
of laundry soap into 1 pint of hot water and stirring until dissolved. Boil
the stain in this solution. This treatment is successful only with fresh
stains upon cotton or linen. In the case of week-old stains, a gray color
persists.

2. Soap solution as in No. 1, followed by bleaching with Javelle water.
This treatment is effective in removing the gray stains mentioned in No. 1,
in many instances.

3. Javelle water, diluted with an equal volume of hot water. Soak
the stained place for 1H hours in this solution, then rinse thoroughly,
treat with dilute oxalic acid, and rinse again. This is effective in removing
a week-old stain and the fibers of the material are not seriously injured.

306 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Soaking the stain in Javelle water of full strength, however, rots the
material.

Water spots.

Some silks and wools are spotted by water. This probably dissolves
some of the finishing or weighting substances present and on evaporating
these substances are deposited irregularly or in rings. A satisfactory
method for removing such spots is to dampen the entire material evenly
and press it while still damp. Either sponge the material carefully with
clean water or shake it in the steam from a briskly boiling teakettle until
it is thoroughly damp, then press it.

White sauces, cream soups, gruel, and the like.

These usually consist chiefly of milk and butter, thickened with flour.
Flavoring materials and vegetables, which may be added, do not as a rule
affect the character of the stain. The presence of the starch and gluten
of the flour makes it particularly hard to remove such stains from materials
that cannot be washed. Use one of the following agents for treating these
stains:

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering).

2. Hot water. Sponge the stains. Follow this by a grease solvent
when necessary.

Whitewash.

Whitewash stains should be treated in the same way as alkali stains
(page 288).

Wine.

See "fruit and berries (fresh), "page 291. When the stain is first made
sprinkle salt on it to keep it from spreading.

PART III
CLOTHING

CHAPTER XIV

TEXTILES *
BY BEULAH BLACKMORE

The word textile as used in this chapter is applied to the
common fibers and the woven goods produced from them. Since
the making of fabrics has been taken out of the home, the house-
wife's knowledge of materials has become very limited, while
the industry has been steadily advancing. In fact, the manu-
facturer can so disguise, substitute, and adulterate a textile
that even the expert may be deceived by the appearance. No
objection should be raised to any fiber that is suited to its pur-
pose; the point for contention is that the buyer frequently pays
for one kind of material and receives another. Textiles cannot
be standardized until the consumer is ready to train himself
through study, experience, and observation, to recognize good
materials and to demand a fair return for his money.

COTTON

Cotton has short, flat fibers with a spiral twist, character-
istics that give elasticity and the possibility of being spun into

* In this discussion are frequent quotations, as indicated, from Some
Points in Choosing Textiles, by Charlotte M. Gibbs (Baker), Univ. of 111.,
Bull. 15. Acknowledgment is also made for valuable suggestions from
The Study of Textiles, by Nellie Crooks in the Proceedings of the Lake
Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1908, and from Hints on Choosing
Textiles, by Bertha E. Titsworth, Bull. 45, in the Cornell Reading-Course
for the Farm Home.

307

308 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

fine thread (Fig. 57). The quality of cotton materials depends
on the strength of the fibers, the fineness or coarseness of the
material, the weave, the color and design, and the adultera-
tions.*

Adulteration.

Cotton, being the cheapest fiber, is not adulterated with
any other fiber when the material is to be sold as cotton cloth,

but it can be made to appear heavier
by the addition of mixtures called siz-
ing. Starches, gums, dextrin, glue,
china clay, as well as other ingredients
in varying proportions, constitute this
sizing which may add a large per-
centage to the weight of the cloth.
The spaces between the threads are
filled up, and a good finish is given to
the cloth, although the wearing quality
FIG. 57. Cotton fibers, show- is not improved. If present in large
Iwist. * h 6 ' Quantities, the cloth is greatly reduced

in weight and firmness after the first

washing. Adulterations of this kind can be detected by the feel-
ing, a large quantity imparting a harshness to the material.*

If material suspected of being heavily weighted or sized is
rubbed vigorously between the hands, the white chalky specks
of sizing may be seen on the hands. If the material is held up
and torn quickly, a small cloud of starch or sizing may be seen.
If very heavily starched material is touched by the tongue,
the starch may be tasted or a sticky spot left on the material.
In very thin fabrics the sizing may often be detected by hold-
ing the cloth up to the light, when the starch shows between
the threads. Washing or thoroughly boiling a sample in soda
water will show the amount of sizing present.

Another method of adulterating cotton is shown in certain
kinds of dotted swiss. A good swiss has thread dots woven or
embroidered in the cloth. These dots are generally woven
* Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

TEXTILES 309

with continuous threads on the back of the cloth; and in a later
process of finishing, the threads between the dots on the wrong
side of the material are sheared off, leaving only the threads
which catch through to make the dots on the right side. Oc-
casionally one finds a piece of swiss selling at the regular price,
on which the dots instead of being woven as just described
are merely dots of very stiff paste. In washing, these dots dis-
appear; or if they do not disappear entirely, they are made
brown from the heat of the iron.

Occasionally cotton cloth which has been on the market for
some time is weakened by the action of the chemicals used in
bleaching, dyeing, or in the sizing. This may be easily detected
by tearing the cloth.*

Mercerization.

Mercerized cotton is cloth produced by the action of a strong
alkali on cotton fiber rinsed under tension. The process of
mercerization is generally carried on while the fiber is still in
the yarn. Mercerized cotton is actually stronger than cotton
which has not been so treated. The characteristic twist of the
cotton fiber is taken out, and the cell-wall is thickened by con-
traction. The result is a stronger fiber, a long slender cylinder
which reflects the light, rather than a flat twisted, ribbon-like
filament. The cellulose of the fiber is changed into another
kind of chemical substance which has a much greater affinity
for dye substances; therefore, beautiful colorings may be found
in mercerized cotton materials.

The cost of producing a high grade of mercerized cotton, it
has been stated, is about three times that of unmercerized cot-
ton; consequently if a piece of this material is offered at a very
low price, it is well to test it for true mercerization before buy-
ing. This may be done by thoroughly washing a sample or ex-
posing it to friction and the weather. The gloss of properly
mercerized material will not disappear on hard wear or launder-
ing.

An imitation of mercerized cotton may be made by the action

* Opus tit.

310 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

of very heavy and very hot cylinders on ordinary cotton cloth.
This imitation will not withstand friction or laundering.

Standard cotton materials*

Standard cotton materials such as muslins, organdies, per-
cales, calicoes, and sheetings differ only in the weight of the
material, fineness of thread, hardness of twist, and method of
finish. Ginghams have the thread dyed before weaving and
fancy weaves are frequently used. Duck, denim, and some
other heavy materials have very hard twisted threads and are
frequently woven with a twill. Silkolene is a trade name for a
fine cotton cloth with a silky finish given after the cloth is
woven. Mercerized cottons make lustrous materials, such as
poplin, imitation pongee, and numerous attractive house-fur-
nishing materials. India linon is entirely cotton, as are outing
flannel and canton flannel. Many tussahs, voiles, and economy
linens and other materials with rather deceptive names are cot-
ton materials made to imitate silk, wool, or linen.

Uses of cotton materials.

Cotton fiber is covered by cotton wax, which serves as a pro-
tective coat and renders cotton material very slow in absorb-
ing water. For this reason, cotton dish-towels are unsatis-
factory. If a cloth to absorb moisture is desired, it must be
made of a fiber that is not water-repellent. In absorbent cotton
the wax has been removed.

Cotton is light in weight and inexpensive and affords a most
desirable fabric for general wear. It is especially desirable for
undergarments and house dresses, since it is not impaired by
frequent laundering. Starch is absorbed by the cotton fibers
as readily in the process of laundering as at the time of manu-
facture. It is, therefore, possible to keep the garments as fresh
as when new. Cotton fabrics shrink for the first few times that
they are laundered. The percentage of shrinkage varies with
the type of fiber and the method of manufacture of the material.
A loosely woven material will often shrink more than a closely
woven piece.

* Opus cit.

TEXTILES 311

Some of the more common cotton materials are as follows:

Sheeting should have round firm threads closely packed together with
the warp and filling threads equally balanced. Little sizing should be
used. Unbleached sheeting will give better wear than the bleached, be-
cause fewer chemicals are used in finishing it. It will become white in
time. It is used for bed coverings.

Long cloth is a soft, firm fabric with a close weave made of a fine grade
of cotton yarn of medium twist. The material is dull in finish and has a
rather fuzzy surface, making it undesirable for outer garments. It is
used for undergarments and aprons.

Cambric is a plain weave with a smooth surface on one side. There
are many grades of this material. Because of its smooth surface it sheds
the dust. It is a most desirable material for undergarments, aprons, waists,
and baby clothing.

Nainsook is a very soft, light cotton fabric with one surface slightly
calendered, or pressed with heavy hot cylinders to give a gloss. It may be
distinguished from cambric, long cloth, or batiste, because its construction
is not so firm nor its finish so smooth. It is used for infants' clothes, lingerie,
and undergarments.

Batiste is a sheer, lustrous cloth in white and dainty colors. . There is
often a mercerized thread introduced in the better grades. It is used for
waists, dresses, and baby clothes.

Canton flannel is a heavy cloth with twilled surface on one side and a
soft nap on the other. It is used for children's underwear because of warmth
and durability, and for linings in order to add warmth to other garments.

Flannelette is a soft cloth with a nap on both sides of the weave and with
figures printed on plain backgrounds. It is low in cost and launders easily.
It is used for nightgowns, underwear, and children's clothing. Because
flannelette is so popular for children's garments and because it is so in-
flammable, manufacturers have been working for a long time to find a
process whereby they may render this material permanently fire-proof
without injuring the feel or durability of the cloth or causing it to appear
damp or making it dusty. The process must not affect the colors or the
design that are woven into the cloth or dyed or printed upon it. After
many investigations, this permanent fire-proofing has been accomplished.

Calico is a cotton cloth with a design printed on one side. Calicoes
may be seen in almost any color. The colors are generally not fast and
will often run or fade when subjected to water. This material is usually
heavily sized. It is used for inexpensive dresses, aprons, and wrappers
because of its low cost, its durability, and the ease with which it is laundered.
Percale is much like calico, but much superior in quality.

Gingham has a plain weave with warp and woof of variously colored
threads that form plaids, checks, and stripes. It is used for dresses, aprons,
and shirts.

312 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Chambray is a staple fabric of many years' standing. It is a light-weight
single cloth that is always woven with a plain weave and always has a
white selvage. Its effect is that of a cloth woven with one color in the
warp and a white filling. It is used for dresses, men's shirts, and aprons.

Galatea is a heavy firm sateen weave with design printed on one side.
It is used for children's clothes, outing suits, and the like, when a cloth of
strength and durability is desired.

Cotton damask has very much the same appearance as linen damask
before it is washed. This excellent finish is brought about both by mer-
cerization and cloth finish. However, one who buys cotton damask de-
feats his own purpose in getting a material that will take a good polish
and retain its smoothness, from the very fact that the cotton fiber is short
and the ends of the fibers cannot be held in place as can the fewer ends of
the linen fibers. Therefore, after a few washings the cotton damask has
a fuzzy surface, it refuses to take or hold a polish, and it is very limp and
easily soiled. Cotton damask is used for tablecloths and doilies.

Velveteen is a material woven in imitation of velvet, but it is made
wholly of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits.

Other cotton materials are:

For dresses For household purposes

Albatrdss Lawn Awning

Bedford cord Linon Chintz

Buckram Mull Crash

Canvas Muslin Cretonne

Cheese-cloth Organdie Denim

Crdpe Percale Diaper

Crinoline Percaline Mummy

Dimity Pique Rep

Drill Poplin Scrim

Duck Sateen

Gauze Silesia

Khaki Tarlatan

LINEN

Linen was formerly the most important vegetable fiber,
and was commonly used for all household purposes. Of late
years it has been largely replaced by cotton, with which it may
be compared, although there are still uses for which linen is
demanded, and others for which linen is preferred to cotton.

The linen fiber is long, smooth, and quite lustrous (Fig. 58)
when spun into a thread. It is very strong and there are not so
many fuzzy ends as are found in cotton. Cloth made from it is
not only lustrous and rich-looking, but because of its smooth-

TEXTILES

313

ness stays clean longer than cotton. The snowy whiteness
of linen, obtained with some difficulty in bleaching, is quite per-
manent, and since the fiber takes dyes with difficulty and parts
with them quite readily, it also does not retain stains as per-
sistently as does cotton.*

Adulteration.

Linen is much more expensive than cotton, and when linen
prices are paid, linen should be received. Since the two fibers
are rather hard to distinguish, espe-
cially when heavily starched and given
a good finish, it is easy to deceive the
buyer. " Linen " collars are frequently
largely cotton, " linen" handkerchiefs
may not have a thread of linen, as is
apt to be the case with rather inex-
pensive embroidered handkerchiefs,
and table "linen" may be mercerized
cotton, cotton and linen, or even or-
dinary COtton. To distinguish linen FIG. 58. Linen fibers, show-

from cotton, the threads should be ex-
amined carefully; cotton is made up of
short fibers which project from the

surface of the thread, and become fuzzy when the thread is
rubbed between the fingers; when broken, cotton has a
tufted end, while the linen fibers break more unevenly and
leave a more pointed end. The linen thread should be stronger
than the cotton; it has more luster, and is usually more uneven.
Some kinds of linen have flat threads, but cotton is frequently
finished in imitation of flat-thread linen.f

Color.

Linen is more easily disintegrated than cotton, and therefore
does not withstand the action of boiling alkali solutions, bleach-
ing powder, and oxidizing agents. This characteristic together
with its slow reaction to dyestuff, makes it difficult to obtain

ing the characteristic
nodes and longitudinal
striations.

* Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

t Opus cit.

314 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

a fast color that will take hold of the fiber. Natural color and
white are, therefore, more likely to give complete satisfaction
than any applied color in linen fabrics.*

Sizing.

Linen always contains a certain amount of sizing, for the
yarn would become rough in the weaving if it were not so
treated. Often sizing is used to conceal imperfection, coarse
weaving, or the use of cotton or mercerized cotton fibers.

Selection.

Good linen yarn is round and twisted; if the yarn is loosely
twisted and flat, the material will not wear so well.

Linen fiber absorbs moisture readily; it is, therefore, very
suitable for towelings and for other materials that are used to
remove moisture from surfaces. Huck, an uneven weave giving
a good surface for the absorption of water, makes good towels,
and, decorated with designs in damask weave, may be very
handsome.

Many linens in plain weaves are available for clothing, or
embroidery, while the coarse Russian crashes are becoming
popular for decorative purposes. The texture of linen is such
that the heavier kinds hang well in folds, lie flat on a table,
and are very artistic for many purposes. The old test for iden-
tifying linen by moistening the finger and putting it under the
cloth is not always a sure one, since the moisture will not come
through a heavy linen, or one with much starch in it, and it
will come through a sheer, tightly twisted cotton. A better
test is to put a drop of olive oil on the cloth and press it between
blotting papers. The linen becomes more transparent than the
cotton. There is a peculiar leathery feeling about good table
linen, which cotton will not give, and the luster is different,
although this is difficult to describe.f

It is more difficult to choose medium-priced linen wisely than
to choose the finer and more expensive grades, because substitu-
tion for strong fiber and various finishes may be used to lower

* Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 45.
f Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

TEXTILES 315

the price while they maintain the appearance. Shoppers for
institutions as well as for the home are often lacking in ability
to judge and consequently buy towels and table linen which
will not give satisfactory wear. Without training, the only
safe procedure is to keep strictly to reliable firms rather than
to be attracted by what seem to be better values at lower
prices elsewhere. Many housekeepers prefer to buy the un-
bleached tablecloths and bleach them for themselves. There
is economy in this, because the chemical bleaching used almost
exclusively for medium grades, weakens the fiber. The quality
to be avoided is poorly spun, flat, rather thin yarn, heavily
sized, the cloth loosely woven and light in weight, sized and
beetled so that it looks substantial and glistening.*

Characteristics and uses of some common linen fabrics.

Butcher's linen is a heavy, coarse weave. It is used for skirts, waists,
and aprons.

Cambric is a fine, sheer material. It is used for dresses and handkerchiefs
because of its sheer texture.

Crash is a coarse material, the yarns being irregular in size and slightly
flattened. It is used for toweling, skirts, runners, and upholstery.

Damask is a fine satin weave with figured designs. It is used for table-
cloths, napkins, and towels.

Huckaback is an uneven weave with much of the filling showing. It is
used for toweling because of its rough surface which easily absorbs moisture
and causes a glow to the skin.

Handkerchief linen is a firm, even weave but a sheer material. It is used
for waists, handkerchiefs, and baby dresses.

WOOL

In point of quality wool belongs next to cotton, although in
price there is a long distance between them. A scaly structure
on the surface of wool (Fig. 59), especially marked in sheep's
wool, gives it virtues possessed by no other fiber. It is by rea-
son of these scales that wool mats together, that air is held in the
spaces of a woolen garment, that it absorbs a great amount of
moisture without seeming wet characteristics which all have

* Medium priced linens for institution and home. Mary Schenck
Woolman. Journal of Home Economics, 9:10:447-451.

316

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

their value in clothing. Elasticity, strength, and luster also
are attributes of wool, and the kink, more or less conspicuous,
aids in spinning and also in identifying the fiber. The finish
given to the best grades of woolen cloth makes them stand the
weather better than do other materials. There are a number of
fibers commonly classed as wools which vary somewhat from
sheep's wool. The more hair-like fibers from different goats
and the camel do not possess the felting quality of wool, but on
the other hand are more lustrous. Very attractive upholstery

fabrics are made of goats' hair. An-
gora goat hair is manufactured into
mohair as well as the various angora
knitted fabrics. Camel's hair has a
number of uses, and the public is more
or less familiar with alpaca from the
animal of that name. Wool fiber
alone may be spun a second time.

Loosely twisted threads, such as those

FIG. 59. Wc^Tfiber, showing in knitted fabrics or worsted goods,
the characteristic scales may be pulled to pieces and the fiber
and the serrated surface. spun aga j n e ither alone or in com-
bination with new wool or cotton, the product being known
as shoddy.*

As compared with other textile fibers, wool is light in weight
in proportion to its warmth. Wool absorbs moisture very
slowly. It retains drops of moisture on the outside fibers, and
the lustrous surface of these fibers often causes the drops to
slide off. Thus it actually sheds moisture. The durability of
materials made from wool is due to the elastic nature of the
fiber. Wools absorb dyestuffs readily and ordinarily retain
them in their original color during the full life of the fiber.
The felting, or matting, quality of wool is much increased by
treating the wool with acid or alkaline solutions or even with
boiling water. Such treatment softens the fiber and opens up
the scales to such an extent that, when the fabric is cooled or

* Charlotte Gibbs Baker. Seven Textile Fibers. Journal of Home
Economics, 8:3:144-147.

TEXTILES 317

dried, the fibers interlock more firmly than under ordinary
conditions.*

Adulteration.

Since the demand for woolen cloth far exceeds the supply of
new wool, there are many devices for making the supply go a
long way, and consequently many methods for deceiving the
buyer. The manufacturer seeks a material cheaper than the
fiber he wishes to adulterate, one which can be concealed readily.
Wool when combined with the cheaper cotton fiber makes a
material which wears well, but does not keep its shape as well
as all-wool cloth, is less warm, and should of course demand a
lower price than all-wool. Because of the felting property of
wool, it is quite possible to conceal a good deal of cotton under
the surface of the woolen cloth, and when the fibers are mixed
before the threads are spun, the task of detecting them becomes
doubly difficult.!

By the modern methods of manufacturing, cotton and wool
mixtures are becoming much more satisfactory, and for certain
types of garments, such as dresses and caps, where there is no
particular strain on any part, the mixture has proved satis-
factory. Only by combining fibers is the manufacturer able to
meet the great demand for material. For an outer suit and an
overcoat, nothing has been found more satisfactory than the
all-wool material.

The most reliable tests for a mixture of cotton and wool are
chemical or microscopic, but as these are not practicable for the
average buyer, others must be sought. Wool has luster and kinks;
the ends of the threads are stiff and look rather wiry. When a
sample is carried home, burning will serve to distinguish be-
tween the two. Wool burns slowly, chars, has an odor of burnt
feather, goes out easily, and leaves a crisp ash; cotton burns
quickly with a flame, with little odor, and leaves no ash. A
little practice in breaking the threads will help one to distin-
guish between the two; the difference is not one that can be
easily explained, but the experienced housewife knows it welLJ

* Univ, of 111., Bull 15, t Opus tit, J Opus tit.

318 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Woolens and worsteds.

Two classes of cloth are manufactured from wool: woolens
and worsteds. Woolens are made generally of short wool
carded and spun into yarn in which the fibers lie in all direc-
tions. This is woven into cloth, the surface of which usually is
heavily felted, as in flannel blankets, so that all of the inter-
sections of threads in weaving are covered. In materials of
this class the manufacturer has great opportunity to introduce
either shoddy or cotton, for the fibers may easily be covered by
surface felting.

Worsteds are made from longer staple wool, combed and
drawn until the fibers are parallel, then hard twisted. When
woven, the ends of the fibers do not project on the surface, and
the finish is not intended to cover the weave; hence it is more
difficult to adulterate unless entire cotton threads are woven
with the worsted, and these are more easily detected than either
a mixture of cotton and wool, or shoddy in woolen cloth. Com-
mon examples of woolens are flannel, broadcloth, and Venetian
cloth; of worsteds, serge, challie, men's suitings, and voile.
Mohair is a worsted cloth woven of the wool of the Angora goat,
with a warp usually of cotton or silk.*

It is economical to buy good worsted fabrics for the following
reasons: They are made from new, long, wool fibers and there-
fore make a strong fabric; they seldom contain shoddy; they
hold in place well when pressed; they are firmly woven and are
not easily frayed; they will endure constant wear for more than
one season and, if cared for, will look well as long as they last.

Shoddy*

As has been pointed out, the demand for woolen goods is so
much greater than the supply that it is necessary to resort to
various measures to increase the supply of cloth. One method
is to use the wool over and over again. Rags are bought up by
the rag-man, sold to the larger dealer, again to the "shoddy"
manufacturer, who cleans them, sorts them, tears them to
pieces, and uses the best all-wool rags to produce fibers, which

* Opus dt.

TEXTILES 319

are re-spun and again woven, either separately, if of very good
quality, or mixed with new wool or cotton. Such a material
is warm, looks well for a time, and has its place, but must not
be bought for new wool or demand the price of good woolen
cloth. This industry is enormous and shoddy is often found in
expensive novelty materials as well as in cheap "all-wool"
cloth. Because of the shortness of the fibers, it may be detected
readily when used alone, but in combination with good wool it
is more difficult to detect.

One class of shoddy consists of very short fibers, clippings
from the mills, which are worked into the surface of a felted
cloth after it is woven. These short fibers after a time work out,
and are found in the bottoms of coats and inside the linings,
leaving the surface of the cloth threadbare.

Characteristics and uses of some common woolen materials.

Albatross. A material of plain weave and rather open texture. On the
surface is a printed or impressed design giving a crdpe effect. It is used
for dresses.

Alpaca. A thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an animal
of the llama species. Since this fiber is hard to spin, it is generally combined
with a cotton or a silk warp. It is used for linings and dresses.

Astrakhan. A fabric with a curly, wavy surface resembling astrakhan
fleece. It is used for dress and coat trimming, such as collar and muff sets.

Bedford cord. A fine woolen cloth with ribs of different widths running
with the length. It is often all-wool, but the raised ribs are sometimes
padded with cotton. It is used for dresses.

Bolivia cloth. A close felted material, very thick but light in weight.
The surface is often wavy. It is used for suits and coats.

Brilliantine. A cloth resembling mohair, generally a plain weave with
a cotton or silk warp. It has a hard wiry feel. It is used for dresses and
linings for heavy coats and suits.

Broadcloth. A soft, closely woven material with a satin finish. The
surface is napped in the finishing process and then pressed down. The
best qualities are called satin broadcloth. It is used for dresses and suits.

Bunting. A plain, even thread weave of mohair, wool, or worsted.
It is used for flags.

Cashmere. Made from the hair of the cashmere goat. The surface is
twilled but rather uneven, since the yarn is very difficult to spin. It is
used for dresses and wraps.

Challis. A plain, even weave of soft texture. A challis design is always
printed. It is used for dresses, kimonos, and children's dresses.

320 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Cheviot. A stout woolen cloth woven with a rather shaggy surface. It
is used for. dresses, suits, and wraps.

Chinchilla. Heavy coating material with rough wavy surface.

Covert. Heavy twilled cloth generally in natural undyed shades. It
is used for suits and coats.

Felt. Fabric made by pressing a mass of wool fiber together. It is
used for padding, banners, and table-covers. '

Flannel. Coarse-threaded, loosely woven, light-weight fabric more or
less spongy and elastic. It is used for baby dresses and garments.

French flannel. A fine soft twill-woven variety dyed in solid colors,
also printed. It is used for dresses and waists.

Shaker flannel. A variety of white flannel finished with a nap. Cotton
warp and woolen filling. It is used for baby dresses.

Mackinaw. A very heavy blanket-like material used by lumbermen
and outdoor workers for overshirts and jackets.

Silk-warp flannel. A high-grade, pure variety of flannel woven with a
silk warp. It is used for infants' wear, shawls, and undergarments.

Baby flannel. A light-weight variety of flannel. It is used for children's
and infants' wear.

Gloria. Plain weave of silk and wool, or silk and cotton. It is used for
umbrella coverings.

Grenadine. An openwork net-like fabric in fancy designs. Woven of
silk wool, mohair, or cotton. It is used for dresses.

Henrietta. A twilled cashmere of light weight. It is used for dresses.

Homespun. A rough, loosely woven material. The yarns are often
quite uneven. It is used for men's and women's suitings and coatings.

Kersey. A felted satin-finish woolen fabric with a satin weave on the
back. It is used for overcoats.

Linsey woolsey. A coarse cloth of linen and wool. It is used for inex-
pensive skirts and dresses.

Melton. A thick heavy woolen fabric with a short nap. It generally
comes in black or dark blue. It is used for coats and suits.

Panama cloth. Woven of worsted yarn in a plain weave. A solid color
usually piece-dyed, or dyed after it is woven. It is used for dresses and
suits.

Prunella. A rich, satin-faced worsted fabric, usually in plain colors.
It is used for suits and dresses.

Serge. Worsted material with twill weave. This material comes in
many weights and qualities. It may be obtained in any color. It is used
for suits and dresses.

Sicilian. Heavy-weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. It is used
for dresses and linings.

Tartans. Plaids of various Scottish clans. They are worn as diagonal
scarfs.

Tweed. A soft, woolly, rough-finished woolen material. It is usually

TEXTILES

321

woven of yarns of two or more shades or colors. It is used for suits and
separate skirts.

Velour. A thick, soft, felted material. It is used for suits and coats.

Vicuna. A soft wool cloth with a teasled surface, resembling cheviot.
It is used for waists.

Voile. Material woven with a plain, even weave and a hard twisted
yarn. It is dyed in plain colors. It is used for dresses.

Whipcord. Whipcord is much like serge with a pronounced diagonal
line. It is used for suits and dresses.

Diagonal. A material with a serge weave. The diagonal effect is made
very prominent. It is used for suits, dresses and separate skirts.

Unfinished worsted. A fabric woven with yarn of little twist. The
twill effect of the weave is covered with loose fibers. This material is
very dense. It is used for suits and coats.

Finished worsted. Woven in much the same way as unfinished worsted
but with a much tighter twisted yarn. The weave may be distinctly seen.
It is not so dense as the unfinished worsted. It is used for suits and coats.

Zibeline. The better grades are woven with a worsted warp and camel's
hair filling. These long hairs from the filling spread over the surface.
It is used for suits.

SILK

Silk is commonly known as the fiber of luxury. It is the most
expensive to cultivate, the most beautiful, and the strongest
fiber. Since it is the most expensive to
buy, and the demand for it is so large,
the temptations to adulterate are also
naturally very great. The long,
strong, lustrous silk fiber which
bleaches and dyes beautifully, and is
fine as a spider's web is not to be du-
plicated (Fig. 60). The best grade, or
"reeled silk," is taken from the cocoon
in one continuous thread which may
be several hundred yards long. In
manufacturing reeled silk, many de-
fective cocoons are found in which
the fibers are not perfect or are broken.
The silk from these cocoons may be
treated like a short fiber and spun into threads varying in
strength according to the length of the fibers. This so-called

FIG. 60. Silk fiber, showing
the two minute filaments
from the spinnerets of
the silk worm and the
gum which at first holds
these two filaments to-
gether.

322 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

"spun" silk has not the high luster nor strength of "reeled"
silk, but is often used as warp with reeled silk filling, or in
imitation pongee, and back of satins, velvets, and in many other
ways.*

In the raw state, silk is sold by the pound. Three thousand
silkworms are required to spin one pound of silk, and one to
two pounds are required for a dress. When these figures are
considered, it will be seen why good silk must necessarily be
expensive. There is, however, a demand for a product at a
moderate price, and in order to satisfy it, the manufacturer
resorts to methods of adulteration.!

Adulteration.^

In olden times the price of silk was much greater than now,
but the material was much more durable. Silks which have been
laid away for a hundred years are still in fairly good condition.
At present silks are much cheaper, but the result is that when
they are put away, even for only a few months they may fall
into bits, and their wearing quality cannot be compared with
old silks. The reason for this change is not hard to find. The
cost of raw silk is about thirty times that of raw cotton and the
waste at least five times that of cotton. The manufacturer
must make up in some way if he is to sell silk at the prices de-
manded by the public.

Silk has a very great ability to absorb dyes and metallic
salts without apparently changing the quality of the material,
and since dyes and metallic salts are much cheaper than pure
silk, the manufacturer makes great use of these materials.
Loading is the common name for this process of treating silk,
and it is common practice to add 30 per cent of foreign material,
just the percentage lost by the silk when the gum is removed,
while it is possible to add 250 or even 300 per cent.

When one buys novelties and does not care how short their
life is to be, these heavily weighted silks answer the purpose very

* Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

f Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 45.

j Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

TEXTILES 323

well, but they are not durable. Practically no silk can be found
on the market entirely free from loading, but there is a great
difference in the amount present.

Another method of adulterating silk is with cotton and mer-
cerized cotton. The fibers are not spun together here as the
cotton and wool, but the threads of the two materials are woven
together. In satins, velvets, and brocades the cotton is entirely
covered by the silk threads on the surface, and appears as the
back of the cloth. In cheap silks a fine cotton thread sometimes
forms either warp or filling.

Pongee is a material made from the cocoon of the unculti-
vated silkworm; rajah, tussah, and other uneven, coarse mate-
rials are from the same source. These silks are very strong, but
do not have a high luster. Mercerized cotton looks quite silky
and is sometimes mixed with these silks, or a material of mer-
cerized cotton and spun silk may be sold for pongee, or even a
material entirely of mercerized cotton.

Characteristics and uses of some common silk fabrics.

Bengaline. Very similar to cotton rep. Woven entirely of silk but often
padded with wool or cotton. It is used for waists and dresses.

Brocade. A fabric woven with raised figures on a plain ground. Often
a combination of plush and satin weave. It is used for coats and dresses.

BrocateL A kind of brocade often having wool figures on a silk back-
ground. It is used for draperies and upholstering.

Chenille. Cloth woven with a soft fuzzy face. It is used for curtains.

Chiffon. A thin, transparent silk material with plain weave. It is used
for dress trimmings, fancy work, and millinery.

China silk. A plain woven, light-weight silk. The warp and filling
are evenly balanced. This silk may be obtained in any color. It is used
for gowns, waists, and underclothing.

Crepe de chine. A soft lustrous silk woven with tightly twisted threads.
The threads are so twisted and woven as to make a cr^pe. It may be ob-
tained in printed designs or plain. It is used for dresses, waists, and under-
garments.

Foulard. A plain silk cloth, very soft and highly finished. This silk
wears excellently. It is used for dresses.

India silk. Very similar to China silk. Originally woven in India.

Japanese silk. Similar to China and India silk.

Jersey cloth. This material is a soft knitted fabric in plain colors. It
is used for dresses, suits, and gloves.

324 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Meteor. Cre"pe de meteor is similar to crepe de chine in texture. Its
face is more satiny. It is used for waists and dresses.

Moire. A waved or watered effect produced on plain or ribbed silk.
It is used for dresses, trimmings, and linings.

Panne. A name applied to velvets when the pile is pressed down giving
a high luster. It is used for coats, evening dresses, and millinery.

Peau de soie. A heavy, soft-finished silk material. It is so woven that
fine close ribs may be seen running with the filling. Better grades are the
same on both sides. It is used for dresses and coats.

Plush. Long-piled fabric resembling velvet. It is used for wraps and
dresses.

Pongee. A soft plain unbleached washable silk. It is used for waists,
dresses, and coats.

Poplin. A ribbed material resembling cotton poplin. It is used for
dresses, waists, and suits.

Sarcenet. An open, plain, rather stiff silk resembling cotton mull. It
is used for hat linings.

Satin. A silk material with a very high finish caused by the floating
of silk threads over the surface. There are many qualities and variations
of this material. It is used for dresses, linings, and trimmings.

Taffeta. Taffeta is either plain or woven in lines so fine as to appear
perfectly plain. It may be obtained in a great number of ornamental
patterns such as fancy cords, plaids, and stripes, both printed and woven.
It is used for dresses, suits, and trimmings.

Tulle. Openwork silk net. It is used for draperies and evening
dresses.

Velvet. Material so woven that the surface is covered with projecting
fibers. The better qualities are made entirely of silk. It is used for dresses,
coats, and suits.

Velveteen. A material woven in imitation of velvet, but made wholly
of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits.

ARTIFICIAL SILK

For years chemists of America and Europe have endeavored
to make a fiber which would compare favorably with silk. A
number of so-called artificial silks have been made synthetically,
but each has lacked some desired characteristic. One has not
withstood moisture, another lacked strength, a third was not
sufficiently pliable, and so on. It is only recently that a satis-
factory fiber, which can be manufactured at a reasonable price,
has been developed. The artificial silk now commonly found on
the market is a collodian-like substance, made from cotton or
wool fiber, put through capillary tubes, hardened in the air and

TEXTILES 325

so treated that it will withstand moisture. This fiber may be
manufactured at a cost below that of pure silk, and has the
promise of a great future.*

The artificial, or fiber, silk is used in many knitted sweaters,
scarfs, dress braids, fancy ribbons and is combined with both
pure silk and cotton. It may always be detected by its bril-
liancy and stiffness. If the burning test is used, artificial silk
is found to burn with almost explosive rapidity. It also dis-
integrates if it comes in contact with water; but this deficiency
is being gradually overcome by science.

RAMIE

Ramie, a vegetable fiber of antiquity, has until very re-
cently been used almost exclusively in China and Japan. A
highly lustrous fiber, in this respect surpassing linen, and very
white, its use has been limited by the difficulty with which the
fiber is removed from the surrounding woody tissue. Ramie has
been used in combination with silk and cotton, its luster making
it hard to distinguish when woven with silk, and adding rich-
ness when combined with cotton. Japanese and Chinese em-
broideries on this material have been common in the markets for
some years, but only recently has ramie linen, by the piece,
been sold in this country. As methods for producing the fiber
are improved, more of it may be expected to appear on the
market, and the shortage of European linen due to the war may
give an impetus to the importation of ramie from the Orient.f

At present, ramie is combined with cotton or linen or used
alone in making dress materials.

JUTE

Jute, another vegetable fiber, is familiar in sacking, twine,
and door-mats, but it is not expected in finer materials. The
natural color of this fiber is somewhat darker than linen color,
it is harsh and coarse, yet it has considerable luster. In burlap
the fiber is used alone, while in monk's cloth it is combined with

* Baker, Charlotte Gibbs. Seven Textile Fibers. Journal of Home
Economics, 8:3:144-147.

t Journal of Home Economics, 8:3: 144-147.

326 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

cotton in a heavy material. In its natural color it adds a pleas-
ing tone to a more denim-like cotton and jute fabric, particu-
larly when the cotton is in soft tones.*

TESTS FOR FABRICS f

A general comparison of fabrics may be made, but this will
mean little even to the expert, since each class includes so great
a variety of fabrics which differ widely in appearance, feel, and
strength.

Feel

The feel of many fabrics very closely resembles that of the
raw fiber.

Cotton material: Unresponsive, soft, and inelastic. Cotton because of
its inelasticity crushes easily. It may be made to look and feel somewhat
like wool, but it always retains its inelastic characteristic.

Wool material: Springy, harsh, and elastic. The elasticity of wool is
one of its most desirable qualities. If a woolen garment becomes wrinkled,
many of the creases fall out if the garment is merely hung away. This
responsiveness is caused by its elasticity. If woolen material is combined
with much cotton or shoddy in either spinning or weaving, it loses much
of its elasticity.

Silk material: Smooth, cool, and very elastic. If silk is of good quality,
it is the most elastic material. For this reason, silk garments hung away
will look very smooth and fresh in a short time. Silk loses this quality
when adulterated with mercerized cotton or heavily weighted.

Linen material: Firm, stiff, smooth, cold, very inelastic, and leathery
if woven with a firm weave. The very inelastic quality of linen causes it to
crush readily and thus to require continual pressing. If adulterated with
cotton, it loses somewhat its firmness and smoothness.

Artificial silk material: Very smooth, wiry, and cold. Artificial silk
material is very unyielding. If combined with another fiber, it is much
more satisfactory.

Ramie: Firm and stiff. It resembles both linen and cotton. It does not
crush quite so easily as linen.

Strength.

No satisfactory comparison of the strength of different fabrics
can be made, since this depends on the size and quality of the

* Journal of Home Economics, 8:3:144-147.

t This material is condensed from Tests for Fabrics as discussed in
Dressmaking, by Jane Fales, published by Charles Scribner's Sons.

TEXTILES 327

yam and the kind and quality of the weave. The strength
of a fabric has much to do with its wearing quality, but there can
be no fixed standard. Each fabric should be sufficiently strong
for the purpose for which it is intended.

The warp and filling threads should be equally balanced
either in numbers or size of yarn. Dimity is an example of
unbalanced warp and filling; it is well known that after a few
washings, dimity breaks along the heavy threads. The weaving
should be well done with the threads closely enough woven to
give firmness and body to the cloth without any adulteration
and sizing.

The strength of the warp and the filling- threads may be
tested by breaking the threads after raveling. The size and
twist of the yarns should also be observed.

The threads should not slip out of place with a slight strain.
To test durability in this respect, two edges may be pinned to-
gether as for a common seam, and the material opened apart
and pulled on both sides of the pin. If the pin makes conspicu-
ous holes in the material, one may be sure the cloth cannot be
satisfactorily used for a garment that would have strain at the
seams.

Color.

Color is affected by various factors, chiefly by washing, boil-
ing, soap, hot irons, wear, friction, and exposure to sun and
air.

Cotton and linens must generally be tested for laundering.
A sample should be cut in two, and one-half kept fresh. The
other half should be subjected to vigorous soap and water
washing, dried, pressed, and then compared with the original
sample. The sample may be exposed to strong sunlight by
placing it outdoors for a few hours or days. Half of the sample
should be kept covered so that the degree of fading may be
observed.

Materials worn next to the skin should have sufficiently fast
color to withstand friction. They may be tested by vigorous
rubbing with a piece of clean white cloth.

328 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Burning.

Burning a small sample of cloth gives about the same result
as burning the fiber. The closeness of the weave may somewhat
retard the rapidity of the burning. This is one of the best and
most reliable tests for the housewife.

Cotton: Since cotton is cellulose, it burns like paper or wood. Cotton
material burns rapidly and with a steady yellow flame leaving a gray ash
without residue.

Wool: Wool burns much like hair, smouldering and becoming extin-
guished often. Woolen material leaves oily, gummy globules as a residue.

Silk: Since silk is an animal fiber, it burns much like wool, although
more rapidly, with a blue leaping flame. It leaves an oily, gummy globule.
Unless silk material is weighted, when burned it is similar to the silk fiber.
If the silk material is heavily weighted, the burned fabric leaves a shell-like
residue slightly smaller than the sample. This remaining shell is the
weighting which does not burn easily; it crumbles at the slightest touch.
More satisfactory than lighting a silk sample is to place the sample on a
tin dish and set it in a very hot oven. The silk will burji away leaving the
weighting in the shape of the original sample.

Linen: Since linen is a vegetable fiber, it burns in much the same way
as cotton. It is slightly less inflammable than cotton, because it has more
oil; it leaves about the same ash.

Union goods: In testing union goods, or materials made of several dif-
ferent fibers, the problem is more difficult. In this case the material is
frayed and both the warp and the filling tested separately. To carry the
test still further, both the warp and the filling threads may be untwisted
and the various fibers in each yarn tested.

Tearing.

The tearing of material will help to determine in a general
way the kind of fiber as well as the strength of the material.

Cotton material: Cotton material tears easily with a shrill sound. The
torn edges are fuzzy and have a tendency to curl.

Wool material: Wool material tears with a dull or muffled sound. The
ease with which the cloth tears depends on the weight of the yarn and the
weave. If cotton and wool are woven together, the kinds of fibers may
often be distinguished along the tear.

Plain silks: Plain silks tear with a rather clean edge and give a shrill
sound. If corded, the silk tears with difficulty if at all.

Linen: Linen tears with difficulty, leaving the ends of the broken threads
with long straight smooth fibers projecting. If cotton is present in a linen
fabric, it may often be distinguished along the torn edges.

TEXTILES 329

WEAVE*

The weave affects the appearance and often the wearing
quality of cloth. A close twill weave makes a firm, durable ma-
terial, while the loose basket weave gives quite a different effect
and is frequently lacking in firmness. The satin or sateen
weave makes a beautiful surface especially in linens or silks,
but may cover up defects in the hidden threads. Fancy weaves
in cotton novelties, in shirt-waist materials, and in fancy mulls,
often leave loose threads which become soiled easily and may not
be as attractive after washing. A cloth with a very heavy cross
thread or filling, and a very fine warp, or vice versa, may split
because of the great difference in the strength of the threads.

Sometimes figures are woven in such a way that when the
cloth is finished each figure has short ends of thread. For ex-
ample, in weaving madras curtain material, the filling thread
which makes the figure, jumps from one figure to another, and
after the material leaves the loom, the loose threads on the back
of the material are cut off. Often these short pieces wash out,
or the ends become rough and fuzzy looking.

* Univ. of 111., Bull. 15.

CHAPTER XV

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

BY BEULAH BLACKMORE

To the woman generally falls the responsibility of the wise
or unwise expenditure of that part of the family income ap-
portioned to clothing. Whether she spends wisely depends on
her knowledge of all phases of the clothing problem.

One of the first questions that arises is whether she shall buy
ready-made garments or buy the materials and make similar
garments at home. The conditions surrounding each individual
or family are so different as to make impossible an answer to
this question which will suit all cases. Probably skill, time, and
the limitation of one's purse are the most influential factors in
such a choice.

When selecting materials or garments, one should be able to
judge the durability, including the quality of the material,
their suitability to the occasion for which the garments are to be
worn and to the wearer, the becomingness of color and line, and
the price in relation to the clothing allowance from the income.

Clothes have the power to make persons feel comfortable and
at ease or to make them conspicuous and unhappy. This does
not mean that the costume need be new or old; it means that
it should be appropriate and becoming. It means adapting
the prevailing style to one's own type of figure and personality.
A person may be just as conspicuous in an ultra-fashionable
costume as in one that is very out-of-date; but either may be
adapted to conform with good taste, without a great expendi-
ture of time or money.

To be well dressed the woman who makes her own garments
must depend largely on familiarity with the principles of design,
a critical, discriminating, and thoughtful attitude toward cloth-

330

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 331

ing, common sense, skill in the manipulation of fabrics, in
draping, or in cutting cloth by a pattern, and knowledge of the
best equipment to be used. " Right dress is, therefore, that
which is fit for the station in life, and the work to be done in it,
and which is otherwise graceful, becoming, lasting, healthful and
easy; on occasion splendid; always as beautiful as possible."*

Dictates of fashion too often outweigh one's good judgment,
which in this case should have as a background the principles of
design. Clothing should interpret the personality of the wearer
and emphasize pleasing elements of face or figure rather than
exhibit the prevailing fashion, which often exaggerates defi-
ciencies instead of concealing them.

No costume can be artistic or picturesque, although it may
be considered fashionable, if it perverts the natural lines of the
figure. In good design it is generally possible to emphasize
the good points or lines of the figure and to make the less de-
sirable lines inconspicuous. This necessitates careful considera-
tion of the silhouette. Simplicity in silhouette, in line, in the
divisions of the costume made by line or dark and light, and in
decoration, cannot be overestimated. The search for greater
simplicity and for original detail are the two principles followed
by the greatest designers.

Of equal importance with line and the spaces formed by these
lines is the study of color, texture an extremely subtle surface
quality of a fabric often confused with color and dark and light
values (pages 45 to 47). This is a problem for each individ-
ual; it can not be studied too much. After deciding, then, on
the type of gown necessary for the occasion for which it is to be
worn, the following phases of costume design must be considered,
if the result is to be harmonious and beautiful: silhouette; line,
including space division and balance; dark and light spacing;
color; texture.

It is unwise to lay down hard and fast rules for the use of
suitable color in costumes for different types of persons, be-
cause general rules may have many exceptions. The following
table, however, may be suggestive.

* John Ruskin. Arrows of the Chace.

332

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ii
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MAKING OF CLOTHING

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TABLE XV. Coi

^ s s

Avoid if sallow. If
color in face, soft
yellow may be be-
coming

If rich color in face,
warm browns are
good. Use neutral
or grayish brown if
sallow

If complexion is pale,
red is usually very
becoming

Avoid pale pink. Rose
or flame pink is
good

Avoid violet, but
deeper purples may
be worn

I ;

334 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

EQUIPMENT FOR THE SEWING ROOM

Good equipment is necessary if the home worker is to turn
out good work with the least drain on her own strength. In
addition to the customary pieces of equipment, a floor cloth, a
dress form, a sleeve form, and pressing boards are almost neces-
sary conveniences.

A floor cloth is a large square of cloth or a sheet which may be
placed on the floor under the machine to catch ravelings and
cuttings. This cloth may then be folded around the base of the
machine at night and opened when work is resumed, or it may
be shaken.

A dress-form is almost indispensable, when good work and
time are considered. This may be obtained at' a department
store, or ordered directly from a manufacturer. A dress-form
is bought by size, the number corresponding to ready-made gar-
ments. A form one or two sizes too small should be selected
and padded out to the correct size. Only in this way is one
able to make a form showing individual measurements. A tight-
fitting lining must be made of some very heavy material, such
as unbleached muslin or drilling, and fitted on the person. The
normal armhole, neck, bust, waist and hip-line should be
marked. The lining should be made to extend about 10 inches
below the waist-line or to fit well down over the fullest part of
the body. This lining should then be placed on the form and
padded out with tissue paper, hair, or excelsior. The lining
should be overhanded firmly together in the back, from the top
of the collar to the bottom of the peplum. It is also desirable to
make a skirt for the figure which will fit tightly around the hips.

A sleeve board and a skirt board, well padded, are very use-
ful. It is also convenient to have a padded broom handle over
which seams may be pressed without marking the remainder of
the garment.

Sewing machine*

There are two types of sewing machine in use the auto-
matic, or single-thread, and the lock stitch, or two-thread

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of 111.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 335

machine. The single-thread machine makes a chain stitch,
which requires about a half more thread than the double-
thread machine. The stitch on the former is a very fine, pretty
one, and for thin cotton and linen materials it cannot be ex-
celled. The ends of the thread must be fastened to prevent
the stitching from ripping out. The two-thread machine, which
makes a lock stitch, has a greater variety of uses, as the tension
is adjustable to the material which is being used. The thread-
ing, operating, and oiling of the machine, and the use of the at-
tachments are all described in the instruction book which ac-
companies the machine. The following suggestions will be of
assistance to those who are unfamiliar with the' operation of the
lock stitch machine: (1) Practice treading until it can be done
easily and evenly; (2) practice stitching, first on paper before
the machine is threaded, then on material, either plain or striped;
(3) be able to remove the bobbin, thread it, and replace it,
and always draw up the bobbin thread before beginning to
stitch; (4) practice threading the machine, and then stitch
until good straight lines can be made; (5) to turn a corner,
have the needle at its lowest point and use it as a pivot; (6)
in removing the work from the machine, have the needle at
its highest point, raise the presser foot, and draw the material
back and to the left, cut the threads with the thread-cutter or
with scissors; (7) where there is no cross stitching, always
draw the ends of the threads to the wrong side and tie them; (8)
good stitching depends on several factors: (a) Correct length
of stitch: The length should conform, to the material. Heavy
cloth requires a longer stitch than does a thin material. The
length is regulated by a screw, (b) The tension: The tension
is also governed by the material. In a perfect tension the bobbin
and the spool threads lock in the center of the thickness of the
cloth. If the bobbin thread is drawn to the upper side of the
cloth as it lies in the machine, the tension is too tight; and if the
spool thread is drawn to the lower side, the tension is too loose.
The tension is regulated by a screw which turns either from
right to left, or from front to back, (c) The needle : The needle
should be the correct size to carry the thread which is being used.

336

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Be sure that the point is good, and that the needle is set cor-
rectly.

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS

Shrinking

Nearly all cottons and linens should be shrunken before being

made up. Probably the most satisfactory way is to place the

folded piece of material in a tub
of lukewarm water and to allow it
to remain in the water for about
one hour. The material must be
thoroughly wet, even to the inner-
most fold. The material should
then be removed from the water,
but not wrung, because wrinkles
will appear which will be difficult

FIG 6i.-Method of shrinking to press out. The greater the care

fullness out of a garment. By .,...;* . . ,

means of two or three gather- taken in hanging the material to
ing threads the material is dry, the easier it is to press later.

&>? The matoial should be hu "g with

the material, which is then the selvage as straight as possible,
pressed with a hot iron, it ft should be ironed just before it

is often necessary to repeat i i , . , -,

this process several times, becomes dry, great care being taken
If the material is to fit over to iron it with the warp and filling
a curved surface such as the t h re ads, or with strokes both par-

hip or the shoulder, a cushion ,, , , , , , , . , J

should be used in pressing. allel to the selvage and at right

angles to it. It is most important

to keep the warp and filling straight, to prevent difficulty in
placing a pattern on the grain of the material.

Sponging.

All woolen fabrics should be sponged to prevent shrinking
and water spotting. This is often done either in the store, at a
small cost a yard, or at the factory. In case it is necessary to
do the sponging at home, a large table covered with a soft
padding, over which is placed unbleached muslin, is better
than an ironing-board, as more surface may be covered at one
time. The covering must be held firmly in place to prevent

PLATE XII. Use of form jn draping dresses before and after fitting.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 337

wrinkles from marring the surface of the material. The material
is placed face down on the pressing table, a wet cloth is laid over
it, and a fairly hot iron is used. After enough pressing has been
done to make the material nearly dry, the cloth is removed and
a final pressing given directly on the wrong side of the material.
In double-width material the same plan may be followed if the
face of the cloth is folded in. The steam from the wet cloth
is generally sufficient to wet all the material unless it is very
heavy. Both sides of the double-width material should have a
final pressing. Only a small portion of the material should be
sponged and pressed at a time. If there is a nap, care must be
taken to press the material with the nap. The motion of the
iron is not a long sweep, but rather a slow motion of lifting and
placing the iron.

Occasionally material may be sponged on the wrong side with
a damp cloth, then hung over a door to dry. This is a more
simple process but often destroys the finish of the material,
giving it a slightly crepy appearance.

Pressing.

Pressing may be done in much the same way as sponging,
care being taken to lift and place the iron rather than to drag
it along. The iron will often leave a shiny mark if placed di-
rectly on the material; therefore, if it is necessary to press a
garment on the right side when it is being made, a cloth should
always be placed between the garment and the iron.

A sample of the material should always be tested for the
changing of color, when it is to be pressed.

A hot iron should never be used on silk, because it takes the
life out of the silk; a warm iron is better. It is often a good prac-
tice in pressing seams of silk garments, to invert the iron and
draw the seams over the iron. Velvets are very difficult to press
and are more satisfactory if steamed (page 402) .

When it is necessary to shrink out fullness at the top of a
sleeve or around the waist, an oval cushion is essential (Fig. 61).
A gathering thread must be run in the full part of the gar-
ment to hold the fullness in place. The cloth must then be

338 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

dampened, pressed, and dampened again until the fullness has
disappeared.

; -,''.; HOW TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS (FIG. 62)

Before using a commercial pattern it is best to test it to see
whether it is approximately the correct size. The following

FIG. 62. Method of taking measurements.

measurements should be taken and the pattern tested by several
of them. It is not necessary to test the pattern by all these
measurements, however, unless the figure is quite abnormal.
The commercial patterns are very well proportioned ; therefore,
if the pattern is correct in the length of the waist and the bust
measure, it will generally prove satisfactory. In the skirt the

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 339

test measurements used are the waist, the hip-line 6 inches below
the waist, and the length of the skirt in front.

Waist measurements:

Place a tapeline around the waist, and pin it securely. Adjust the tape-
line until it is as nearly parallel to the floor as possible, and at the normal
waist-line.

Bust measurement: Place the tapeline around the figure over the fullest
part of the bust. An easy measurement is taken for a shirt-waist and a
close measurement for a tight-fitting waist. Keep the tapeline rather high
under the arms and straight across the back.

Width of back: Measure the width of the back from armhole to armhole.
Divide the space between the base of the neck and the waist into fourths.
Measure the width of the back at approximately the first quarter division
below the base of the neck.

Width of front: Measure the width of the front 1^ to 2 inches below
the hollow at the base of the neck across the widest part of the chest from
armhole to armhole.

Waist: Take the measurement around the waist, keeping the tapeline
as nearly parallel to the floor as possible.

Length of back: From the bone at the base of the neck in the back
straight down to the lower edge of the tapeline around the waist.

Length of front: From the center of the hollow at the base of the neck
straight down to the base of the tapeline placed around the waist. This
is a rather loose measure.

Depth of dart: This measure is not often used except when testing or
drafting a tight-fitting lining. It is taken from the base of the neck at the
center front in a slanting line down to the point of the bust. It averages
from 8 to 9 inches.

Length of under-arm: Take this measure carefully. For the shirt-waist
one-half the length of the back may be used; but when a more careful
measurement is necessary, the tapeline is folded over a pencil and the pencil
slipped in under the arm and the measurement then taken to the bottom
of a tapeline which is around the waist. The shoulder must be in a normal
position with the arm lowered.

Neck or collar measurements:

Base of neck: This is a close measurement taken around the base of the
neck. It is better to have this measurement taken too small than too
large, because in the fitting of the waist the neck-line can easily be made
larger.

Top of neck: This is a close measurement around the top of the neck
just under the chin.

Height at back: From the base of the neck to the height required.

Height at front: From the base of the neck in front to the height re-
quired.

340 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Height at side: Take this measurement just back of the ear from the
base of the neck to the height required.

Armhole measurement: Take the measurement of the armhole where
the arm joins the body. The curve of the line is rather deep at the lower
front, and is a practically straight line in the back.

Sleeve measurements:

Length inside: Take this measurement along the inside of the arm
from the little muscle where the arm joins the body to the bone in the
wrist.

Length outside: From the point where the width of the back measure
ended, over the outside of the arm to the elbow. Then bend the elbow
and take the measure down to the bone in the wrist.

Size at elbow: Place the tape-measure around the elbow; bend the elbow,
and take the measurement rather closely over the point of the elbow.

Wrist size: Close the hand as though it were to slip through a small hole
with the thumb held in the palm. Take the measure then, very closely
over the knuckles and thumb.

Skirt measurements:

Waist: Take this measurement in the same way as for the waist.

Hip: The first hip measurement is generally taken 6 inches below the
waist-line. The second hip measurement is generally taken about 10
inches below the waist-line, or over the fullest part of the thigh. These
two measurements are parallel to each other and parallel to the floor.
There is generally a difference of 4 to 6 inches between them.

Length of front: From the waist-line to the floor, exactly at the center
front.

Length of side: From the waist-line to the floor, directly over the fullest
part of the hip. The tapeline should fall at right angles to the waist-line.

Length of back: From the waist-line to the floor, exactly at the center
back.

KINDS OF PATTERNS

Patterns may be made in two ways: by drafting and by
modeling. Drafting is impracticable for the average housewife
but invaluable for the professional worker, in that it develops
a fine feeling for line. Modeling is the ideal way in which to
obtain a pattern, since the lines can be adapted to each figure;
but ability to make patterns in this way comes only with long
experience in working with patterns and materials. The most
practical pattern for the average worker is the commercial
one. These patterns are being perfected from year to year.
It is now possible to obtain a pattern of almost any size to fit

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 341

the normal figure. Generally only slight alterations are neces-
sary.

How to buy a commercial pattern.

Only patterns of standard makes which contain very explicit
guide charts should be purchased. A waist pattern for a normal
figure should be bought by the bust size. If the bust should
be abnormally full, it is still necessary to buy the pattern by
the bust size and then make the required adjustments. A skirt
pattern should be purchased by the hip size, unless the waist
is large in proportion to the hips, in which case it should be
bought by the waist size.

Before opening a pattern, the directions on the outside of the
envelope should be read very carefully, seam allowances being
noted and also the marks that are used to indicate the correct
placing of the pattern. On opening the envelope, the pieces of
the pattern should be looked over and compared with the
guide chart. The pieces of the pattern to be used are then
selected, any others returned to the envelope.

How to test a commercial pattern.

Using the individual measurements, the pattern may be tested
for the size before placing it on the material. If it is necessary to
make many changes, it is best to alter the pattern, cut it in cam-
bric or unbleached muslin, and then try it on to see that all
the lines are right before cutting it in the material for the
garment.

To test the pattern, the back and front should be pinned
together along the line of the shoulder seams.

Using the individual measurements, the neck-line is then
tested. If it is large, it may be adjusted by raising the neck-
line slightly.

With the shoulder seam still pinned, the armhole is tested
and made approximately the correct size by raising or lowering
the waist under the arm and tapering the line to the normal arm-
hole. If this does not correct the fault, the under-arm seam may
be made deeper.

342

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Simple adjustments in commercial patterns.

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 63-80) will make clear
the ordinary adjustments necessary in commercial patterns.
For the abnormal figure, the garment must be modeled on the
figure after it is basted.

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE AMOUNT OF MATERIAL

No definite rules can be given for estimating the necessary
amount of material for a garment because of the many influene-

FIG. 63. Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern. The front and back of
the waist pattern are generally cut about 2 inches above the waist-line for
lengthening. For a figure that is very long from the shoulder to the lower
curve of the armhole, the pattern may be lengthened by cutting it from
the armhole to the center front. The shirt-waist sleeve may be length-
ened in two places if necessary, depending on whether the arm is long
from the shoulder to the elbow or from the elbow to the wrist. The sleeve
pattern is generally cut about 2 inches above or below the elbow line.

ing factors, such as fashion, finish, width, and design of the ma-
terial.

Pieces left from the cutting of the skirt and waist may gener-
ally be used for cutting the collars, cuffs, or any small decora-
tions. In' buying expensive material, it is always permissible
to take the pattern to the store and quickly place it on the
material to get an estimate of the amount necessary. If com-

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 343

mercial patterns are used, the amount of material necessary
for the making of the garment is generally stated on the out-
side of the envelope. This amount is often over-generous.
Experience soon teaches one the minimum amount of material
to buy for a garment.

For a skirt.

In estimating the amount of material necessary for a skirt,
one must first decide on the width of the bottom of the skirt.

FIG. 64. Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern. To
shorten the pattern a fold may be taken about 2
inches above the waist-line. To shorten the sleeve a
fold may be taken about 2 inches above or below the
line of the elbow depending on the proportion of the
arm.

In plain material, as many full lengths of the material will be
required as the number of times the measure of the width of
the cloth is contained in the measure of the width of the bottom
of the skirt. This is a very generous allowance, because often
in placing gores, especially on plain material with no up or
down, they may be fitted in so that much less material need
be used. It is often helpful in estimating the amount of ma-
terial needed, to place the pattern on a table in the position
for cutting material of a definite width.

For a waist.

In general, once the length of the front, measured from the
point of the shoulder nearest the base of the neck, to the waist-
line, and once the length of the back from the same point on

344 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

the shoulder to the waist-line, plus once or twice the outside
length of the sleeve, will give an idea of the amount of material
required.

HOW TO PLACE THE PATTERN ON THE MATERIAL

After the pattern has been altered and tested, or after it has
been cut in inexpensive material and modeled to the figure,

FIG. 65. Method of cutting and opening a shirt-waist pat-
tern to throw in fullness. This method of putting
more fullness into a shirt-waist pattern also increases
the length of the shoulder. The line of opening
should extend through about the center of the shoulder.
It is often necessary to increase the size of the arm-
hole to make it correspondingly larger. The sleeve
may be opened along the center.

it is ready to be placed for cutting on the material. A few
general rules are here given but there are many exceptions to
them.

1. Observe on the outside of the pattern envelope or on the guide chart
contained in the envelope, the allowance for seams. In the case of the
modeled pattern allow for seams, since the pattern has been cut apart
exactly on the line of basting. In case the seam allowances have not been
made, allow at least 3/8 inch on material which does not fray, and more
on material that frays badly. If the pattern has not been used before,
it is a wise precaution to make an allowance of at least 1 inch on all fitting
seams, such as the shoulder seam and the under-arm seam of the waist,
-and the seams of the skirt which fall over the fullest part of the body. In
making the extra allowance on the skirt seams, begin at the waist-line and
taper down to the original allowance at a point from 12 to 14 inches below
the hip-line.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

345

2. Spread the material out as much as possible, and place the entire
pattern on it, in order to determine the most economical way of cutting.
This is always advisable for economy in cutting, and if it is necessary to
piece the garment, the piecing may be planned to come in the least con-
spicuous place.

3. If the material is easily cut and does not slip when several thicknesses
are cut at one time, it may be folded end to end and most of the pieces
may be cut double. Care must

always be taken not to cut two
pieces for the same side. This
difficulty may be obviated by
placing the two right sides or
the two wrong sides of the ma-
terial together when cutting it.
Then, when the two pieces of
material are taken apart, one is
for the right side and the other
for the left. Folding the ma-
terial together is not always the
most economical scheme, for
often the parts of the pattern
may be fitted into irregular
places if cut singly.

4. Always place the largest
pieces of the pattern first with
the largest end of the pattern
toward the cut end of the
goods. This is economical be-
cause it leaves the irregularly
shaped pieces attached to the
large piece of the goods. Often

the smaller" pieces of the pattern may then be fitted into these irregular
pieces, which would be useless if detached.

5. Observe carefully the nap or design of the material, placing the
pattern so that the design runs in the same direction, on all the pieces.
The nap generally runs down, but velvet and velveteen are exceptions to
this rule. Different color effects are produced if the surface of the material
does not reflect the light in the same way.

6. A conspicuous design in the material, such as a plaid, must be identical
on the two sides of the garment to prevent destroying the balance or in-
troducing undesirable lines. Most important of all is keeping the grain of
the material identical on both sides of the garment; otherwise the set of
the garment will not be- bi-symmetric.

7. After the pattern has been placed in the most economical manner,
pin it carefully, trying not to lift the material and the pattern from the

FIG. 66. Method of increasing or decreas-
ing the bust measure of a shirt-waist
pattern without increasing the length of
the shoulder. The opening should ex-
tend from the bottom of the waist in a
straight line to the deepest curve of the
armhole. In the front it is often better
to make two slashes than to spread one
slash too far. This method of adjust-
ment necessitates lowering the armhole
and, if the second slash is made, slightly
lowering the tip of the shoulder near
the armhole.

346

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

table when pinning them. Do not use too many pins; they not only take
time to place, but they often make noticeable holes in the material, es-
pecially in silks.

8. The actual position of the pattern on the goods depends largely on
the pattern. When using a commercial pattern, read the directions
carefully, and then locate the indicating marks which show the lengthwise,
the crosswise, and the fold of the material. These indicating marks should
be followed carefully.

For using a modeled pattern, or a pattern without indicating
marks, the following guides are offered :

FIG. 67. Method of decreasing the size of a shirt-waist
pattern. Instead of cutting and spreading a pattern
as in Fig. 65, the size should be decreased by making
a fold in the pattern.

1. Lines of a simple pattern generally placed on the straight lengthwise
grain, or the lengthwise fold, of the material:
In a waist:

a. Center front

b. Center back
In a sleeve:

Along the outer fold when the seam edges are brought together. Any
sleeve after being basted should lie perfectly flat when folded.
In a yoke or collar:

a. Center front or center back of yoke or collar. The center back of a
waist yoke or collar is generally cut on the lengthwise fold, although often
the lower front edges are cut on the straight grain, causing a bias seam in
the center back.

b. In a skirt yoke there may be all sorts of combinations in cutting.
Probably the most successful way is to cut the material with the straight
grain in the center back and the center front, giving a bias seam over the

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

347

hip. Sagging may be disguised by making the yoke longer over the hip,
if this gives a becoming line. The bottom line of a skirt yoke must be
carefully considered with reference to the figure. Avoid allowing the
lower edge to fall in a straight line around the fullest part of the body.
Either an irregular yoke-line or the line joining a front or back panel is
generally more becoming.

In a cuff:

The direction of the grain of the material in the cuff depends greatly
on the design of the waist and of the material. For beauty of design, the
cuff is generally cut with
the lengthwise grain running
with the depth of the cuff;
for greater strength, how-
ever, the cuff is cut with
the lengthwise grain running
from fastening to fastening.

In a skirt:

a. Center of front panel.
Generally the front edge of
each succeeding gore, in order
that a straight edge may be
sewed to a bias edge. This
method will help to keep a
skirt from sagging. In skirts
of two gores the center of
each gore is often placed on
the straight lengthwise fold.

b. If a rounding or tube-
like effect is desired in a skirt

FIG. 68. Method of lengthening a waist pat-

of many gores, the center of

tern for a very full bust or round
ers. This method may be used on a shirt-
slight alteration of the

the material.

When great strength is desired, the lengthwise grain of the material is
always used. Skirt-bands, apron-bands, neck-bands, bands in all under-
garments, and cuffs, are cut with their longest measurement on the length-
wise grain of the material.

2. Lines of a simple pattern placed on the straight crosswise grain of
the material:

In a shirt-waist:

a. Width of the chest

b. Width of the back

c. Waist-line of the under-arm piece of a tight-fitting waist
In a sleeve:

Generally around the fullest part of the arm.

348

A MANUAL OP HOME-MAKING

In cuffs:

Depth of the cuff, when, the design of the waist requires it.

In yokes:

Depth of the yoke, when the design of the waist requires it.

In skirts:

Skirts are seldom made with a construction line falling on the crosswise
grain of the material. For children's dresses and for fancy silk dresses, a
skirt is occasionally made on the crosswise grain of the material. Chiffons,
georgette cr6pe, net, or voile, on which there is a beautiful selvage edge,
is often draped on the crosswise grain, and thus the making of a hem finish,
which is often cumbersome on very light-weight materials, is avoided.

HOW TO MARK A GARMENT FOR BASTING

After the pattern is placed, the seam allowance and other
necessary points should be marked by one of the suggested

methods. The points or
lines generally marked are:
(1) waist line; (2) seams
along the edge of a modeled
pattern, or along the indi-
cated line on a commercial
skirt or waist pattern; (3)
neck-line; (4) armhole; (5)
center front of waist and
skirt; (6) center back of
waist and skirt; (7) waist-
line of skirt; (8) hip-line;
(9) hem-line; (10) length-
wise center of sleeve; (11)
points indicating decora-
tions, plaits, tucks, and
-n, gathers: and (12) notches.

FIG. 69. Method used in modeling gar- & v

ments over aflat pattern. A, the

,, . .
Ihe notches tor the JOin-

paper pattern is pinned together at the j n g o f seams should be indi-

i-i j. i r AU ^l

cated b y a tack f thread

the or a chalk mark, never by
cutting the notch, since this
often ruins the final finish of a seam and does not allow for
an increase in the size of the garment, if this is necessary.

shoulder seam and the lines marked
showing the design to be followed; B,

the resulting waist designed on
original pattern.

FIG. 70. Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders. A, Altera-
tion necessary for very square shoulders. It is often
necessary to fit in the shoulder seam at the base of
the neck. This seam should slope very gradually
into the old shoulder seam at the tip of the shoulder.
This adjustment often necessitates the lowering of the
neck-line in both the back and the front. B, Altera-
tion necessary for very sloping shoulder. It is nec-
essary to take in the shoulder seam slightly at the
tip of the shoulder near the armhole. The new seam
should slope very gradually to the old shoulder seam
at the base of the neck. This alteration necessitates
lowering the armhole.

FIG. 71. Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern. A, Method of increasing a
sleeve pattern at the bottom. B, Method of adjusting a shirt-waist sleeve
pattern to make a close-fitting sleeve at the bottom without changing the
size at the top. A dart may be folded in the under side of the sleeve, taking
out the excess fullness. This dart should extend from the bottom of the
sleeve about to the elbow. The dart should fall nearer to the outside line of
the sleeve than to the seam. C, Method of decreasing the fullness in a
sleeve. To take fullness out of the top of a sleeve, fold a plait at the top
along the center line, and let this plait decrease to nothing as it approaches
the bottom of the sleeve.

350 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The tracing wheel marks two thicknesses of material at once
and is, therefore, a great convenience. It cannot be used on all
kinds of material, however, for on very thick material the per-

FIG. 72. Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling ef-
fect. The more nearly the neck-line of a collar ap-
proaches a circle, the flatter the collar will lie. The
curve for a collar should always be straightened
slightly to fit the back of the neck.

forations do not show, and on very soft material the markings
destroy the surface finish or threads.

Tailor's chalk may be bought at the notion counter of any
dry goods store. The chalk marks only one surface at a time,
and the marks may become obliterated before time to use them.
On some materials they are very difficult to erase.

Tailor's basting is a very satisfactory way of marking mate-
rials. It requires more time than the other methods, but is
more lasting and may be done through two thicknesses. A

FIG. 73. Changing length or width of skirt pattern. A, Method of lengthening.
The pattern may be cut at a point about opposite the knee, and spread
as desired. B, Method of shortening. The tuck may be taken in a pattern
about opposite the knee. If the pattern is simply folded up at the bottom
to shorten it, a great deal of fullness is removed. C, Method of increasing
the width of a skirt pattern.

FIG. 74. Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern. A, Method of in-
creasing the size of the waist and the hips of a gored skirt pattern. B,
Method of increasing the size of the waist without increasing the size of
the hips. C, Method of increasing the size of the hips without increasing
the waist size.

352

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

long double thread is taken to make this tacking. Along the line
which is to be marked, even basting stitches should be taken,
leaving a generous loop of thread between each stitch. The
pattern should be folded back when one is marking lines in-
dicated by perforations in the pattern. The two edges of the
.material should be separated and the threads cut halfway be-
tween the edges. This leaves
a marking line of stitches and
ends along both edges of the
material.

Tailor's tacks are made in
much the same way as tailor's
basting. At a point where a
mark is desired, n stitch about
J4 inch long is taken leaving
an end of thread. Over this
stitch another stitch should be
taken leaving a loop of thread.
The thread is then cut from
the material leaving another
end. The two pieces of ma-
terial are separated, and the
joining threads cut, leaving a
mark on each piece.

HOW TO CUT A GARMENT

_, In using a standard com-

FIG. 75. Method of decreasing the . , , . , , ,

size of the hips of a gored skirt mercial pattern on which the

pattern without decreasing the size seam allowance is made, the

material should be cut close to

the edge of the pattern. In using a modeled pattern, the mater-
ial may be cut at the correct distance from the seam markings,
a tapeline or cardboard measure being used to indicate the
distance until the eye becomes trained. If tailor tacking has
been used, the two pieces of the pattern should be pulled apart,
and the threads cut, care being taken not to shake the parts of
the garment and thus lose the marking threads. As soon as the

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

353

various parts are cut, they
are folded carefully to prevent
stretching the very bias edges.
When working on material that
stretches badly, it is often a
good plan to baste a piece of
selvage or tape along the more
bias edges, until that part is
permanently s*ewed. This is
true of the neck-line and arm-
hole of the waist, and also of
the center back and the waist-
line of the skirt.

HOW TO BASTE A SIMPLE
GARMENT

Too much basting is almost
worse than too little. It not
only pulls the material and FlG . 76 ._ Me thod of adjusting a skirt

makes it unyielding, but it is
very time-consuming. If pins
are skillfully placed, much of
the tiresome basting may be
omitted.

Holding the material with
seam-marking on seam-mark-
ing, the pins should be placed
at right angles to the line to be
made by the stitching. If pins
are so placed, the basting thread

pattern for a person who has a
prominent abdomen or hips. For
the former, the adjustment is made
on the gores toward the front; for
the latter, on the gores toward the
back. A small tuck of not more
than % inch is taken at the back
of the gore a few inches below the
hip-line and allowed to run to
nothing at the front of the gore.
It is necessary to straighten the
back edge of the gore after mak-
ing this adjustment. As this is
somewhat difficult, it is better if
made on the figure.

will not tangle around them,

and they are easily removed if the seam is to be stitched

on the machine without being basted.

General rules for basting.

1. In basting garments of any size, keep the work on a table or a lap-
board as much as possible. For very long seams, such as are in a skirt, the

354

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

basted edges will be much flatter if they are placed perfectly flat on a
table and kept so while being basted.

2. When basting two edges together, the worker should always keep
the more bias edge towards her.

3. When basting a gathered part to a straight edge, the worker should
always hold the gathered part towards her. If an especially good line on
the straight edge is desired, the work may be held with the straight piece
toward one, as is often done when basting in a sleeve.

4. In basting bias edges, such as the edge of a gore, start the basting
opposite the widest end of the gore, if possible. In this way, the hand will
not ravel or push off the warp threads.

To baste a shirt-waist or other simple waist.

1. Baste and stitch all flat decorations, such as tucks, plaits, and set-in
lace, before basting the seams.

2. Pin the seams before basting them, bringing together the correspond-

ing points, such as the waist-
lines and armholes- of each.
Whether the waist is basted with
the seams on the right or wrong
side depends on the kind of fin-
ished seam to be used. In the
case of a tight-fitting waist, the
seams are basted on the wrong
side in order that the lines in
the waist may be carefully ob-
served when the garment is tried

3. In basting together parts
of a simple waist, begin with the
under-arm seam. Pin the parts
together at the waist-line, keep
the tracing or tailor tacking of
the front and the back together,
and pin the seam to the armhole
and down to the bottom of the
peplum. Baste the seam from

FIG. 77. Another method of adjusting a
gored skirt pattern for a figure with
prominent abdomen.

the waist-line up to the armhole and from the waist-line down to the bottom
of the peplum, using an even basting stitch.

If a yoke is to be used, read the directions under section 4. Baste the
shoulder seams first and spread the garment out perfectly flat on the table.
Pin the yoke into place, and baste it. Then baste the under-arm seam as
already directed.

For a tight-fitting waist, pin the side-front seam from the waist-line up
toward the point of the bust, and from the shoulder seam down toward

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

355

the same point. This brings a slight fullness at the correct place over the
fullest part of the bust. Divide this fullness through a space of about
2 inches. Adjust the shoulder seams last in this type of waist.

4. Pin the shoulder seams together, first matching the markings of the
neck-line and then the armhole. Baste the seams, holding the back of the
waist toward you. It is often necessary to stretch the front slightly to fit

FIG. 78. Method of adding material to a gored skirt
pattern to form a tuck at the seam.

the back. This is desirable, since the waist will then naturally spring down
to fit the curve of the shoulder.

To baste sleeves.

For a shirt-waist sleeve, make the placket and apply it before basting
the sleeve. The placket is generally placed about 1 inch back of the center
fold, made by folding the sleeve along the seam. After the placket has
been placed and stitched, the seam of the sleeve is basted and stitched,
and the cuff is sewed on. In adjusting the gathers at the bottom of the
sleeve, leave the sleeve without gathers for a space of about 1 inch on each
side of the seam. Gather the sleeve to fit the cuff.

For a simple cuff or a French cuff, place the two right sides of the cuff

356

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

together, and stitch the cuff across the two ends and the bottom. Then
miter the corners to remove the excess material. Turn the cuff right side
out, crease it very sharply around the edge, and baste it perfectly flat.
Across the top turn in % inch toward the wrong side along both the right
and the wrong side of the cuff, and baste down this allowance. Fold the
cuff from end to end, and locate the center. One inch toward the end of
the cuff which is to be sewed to the back of the sleeve, place the seam of

FIG. 79. Designing narrow or full circular skirt pattern. A, Method of placing
a six-gore pattern for a slightly circular skirt with gathers at the waist-line.
In cutting a skirt of this kind, a seam may be placed in the center front,
center back, or over the hips, as desired. B, Method of placing a six-gore
pattern to make a circular skirt full at the bottom and fitting smoothly
at the waist-line and hips. The gores may be spread apart and uneven
amounts of fullness thus thrown in.

the sleeve. Insert the gathered sleeve between the upper edges of the cuff,
pinning the indicated points together. Pin the gathers toward the front
and the back of the cuff, adjusting them as suggested, and allowing the
placket of the sleeve to remain perfectly smooth. Baste the right side of
the cuff to the sleeve. Turn the sleeve to the wrong side, and baste the
inner side of the cuff in place 1/16 inch above the outside basting in order
that the, inside will be caught by the stitching from the right side. Stitch
entirely around the cuff 1/16 inch from the edge. Stitch again across the
top Y inch below the first row of stitching.

For a close-fitting sleeve finished with a facing, baste the sleeve and try
it on before stitching and finishing the bottom.

For a shirt sleeve, one similar to the sleeve of a man's shirt without gathers

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 357

at the top, baste the sleeve into the waist before either the seam of the
sleeve or the under-arm seam of the waist is joined. In this case the
placket may be applied before the sleeve is set in, but the cuff cannot be
placed.

To baste in a shirt-waist or a coat sleeve.

The following scheme of locating the sleeve proves satisfactory for
almost any type of sleeve. This is of course only a general rule, since all
sleeves must finally be adjusted to the person if they are to be truly artistic.

FIG. 80. Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce. Fit together the
gores of a six-gore skirt on top of a paper; trace around the lower edge of
the skirt, the center front, the center back, and across the skirt where the
flounce is. to be attached; remove the pattern and cut along the tracing;
from the bottom slash the flounce to within % inch of the top of the flounce,
and spread it apart as desired. This flounce is very circular unless it is
divided into sections, and if this is done, they should be so placed that a
straight edge falls on a bias edge as in a skirt.

1. Measure 1 inch back of the shoulder seam at the armhole. Using
this as the dividing point, fold the armhole in half. The point opposite
this first point is the point at which to place the seam of the sleeve.

2. Pin the seam of the sleeve in place.

3. Bring the shoulder seam of the waist down to the under-arm seam
of the waist, and fold the armhole flat. The two points thus located on
the sides of the armhole are the points between which the gathers of the
sleeve should be adjusted.

4. Pin the sleeve in place, working from the seam towards each of the
points located. Then pin the remainder of the sleeve, holding the fullness
easily between these two points. If there is too much fullness to pin in

358 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

place, gather it with one thread on the tracing, and a second thread slightly
below, or toward the cuff of the sleeve.

5. Adjust the gathers to fit the armhole, making the center of the sleeve
fall in a perfectly straight line from the highest point of the shoulder.
If the gathers are allowed to fall forward rather than backward, a slight cup
is formed in the front of the sleeve to fit over the point of the shoulder.

6. Pin and baste the entire sleeve in place.

To baste a collar or other decorations.

Baste all parts of the waist as far as possible, in order that they may be
ready to try on after this first basting, and thus avoid repeated fittings.

To baste a skirt.

Pin the hip-lines, waist-lines, and hem-lines of the gores together. Place
as many pins as necessary between these points. If it is necessary to baste
the skirt before trying it on, observe the general rules (page 353). If the
skirt is simple, it may be turned at this time on the line of the hem, and
the hem may be basted into place. This will give a better feeling when the
skirt is first tried on. At the placket extend the basting of the seam on each
side, in order that a good line for the fitting may be observed. The placket
is generally about 12 inches deep.

If a tuck opening is desired or a seam stitched on the outside, the gore
edge or center front of the skirt is generally turned toward the wrong side
on the line of marking, basted if necessary, and then pressed. The gore
to which this edge is to be sewed is then placed perfectly flat on the table
and the pressed edge of the first gore placed just to the line of marking on
the second gore. The waist-line, the hip-lines, and the hem-lines of the
gores must be made to coincide. Pin the gores carefully in place, and baste
them.

In basting darts in a skirt, begin at the point of the dart and work
toward the waist. Care must be taken to keep both sides of the dart
smooth. When observed on the right side, the dart should form a line at
right angles to the waist-line or a line with a slightly outward curve like
the curve of the body. Darts should not be cut open until after the fitting.

KINDS OF SEAMS FOR GARMENTS

Many kinds of seams are possible in the various types of gar-
ments, some practical and some decorative as well. In this
short discussion of the processes in dressmaking it will be im-
possible to explain how each kind of seam is made. In order
to recall the different types of seams the following outline is
made. The kind of seam to be used in making a garment should

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

359

be decided before the garment is basted together, in order to
avoid unnecessary basting.

For underwear and plain dresses: Plain seam; French seam; stitched fell;
hemmed fell; overhand fell.

For lingerie dresses and waists: French seam; hemmed fell; seam made
with entre-deux; standing fell; rolled seam.

For tailored wool or silk garments: French seam; stitched fell; welt seam;
double-stitched welt; cord seam; plain seam; slot seam; strapped seam;
lapped seam.

For silk and fine wool dresses: Plain seam; plain seam bound; plain seam
made, edges turned to wrong side and sewed together with running stitch;
piquot edge.

HOW TO MAKE A FOUNDATION BELT

For a dress or a skirt with a raised waist-line, a ribbed belting
or a cambric belting stiffened with stays of featherbone should

FIG. 81. Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress. Two
end finishes are shown.

be used. This belting should be as wide as the distance above
the waist-line at which the line of the skirt is desired to appear.
If the belt is wide, it may be fitted with darts (Fig. 81). The
darts may extend from one edge of the belting to the other,
the greater depth, about ^ inch, being in the center of the belt-
ing, if one wishes the belt to extend slightly below the waist-
line. Or the dart may be taken deep at the top and allowed to
taper to nothing at the bottom, if the entire belt is to drop below
the waist-line. These darts should be on the side of the belt
placed next to the body. The ends of the belting are then
turned in and a sufficient number of hooks and eyes sewed on to

360 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

hold the belt in good position. The hooks should be sewed to
the right-hand end of the belt and on the wrong side, the bill
of the hook being set */i6 inch back from the end of the belting.
The eyes should extend beyond the edge of the belting at the
left-hand end the same distance that the hooks are slipped
back. The two ends of the belt will exactly meet when it is
hooked. The unfinished ends of the belting and the stitching
holding the hooks and eyes in place is covered with a piece of
taffeta seam-binding (Fig. 81); or if there is any excess material
on each end it may be folded back }^ inch on the outside;
then the folded edge should be brought up under the bill of the
hook on one end and over the loop of the eyes on the other end
and hemmed into place. This last method of finishing the belt
is very substantial but makes a much thicker finish. The center
front, the center back, and the sides of the belt should then be
marked with colored thread in order to facilitate adjusting the
garment on the figure.

FITTING GARMENTS (PLATES XII AND XIII)

Two fittings for a simple garment, such as a house-dress, a
plain shirt-waist, or a skirt, should be sufficient, if the garment
has been properly prepared and the fitting is carefully done.
Generally it is not necessary to fit more than the right side of a
simple garment unless there is a great difference between the
right and left sides of the figure. Too much fitting destroys the
crisp freshness of new material.

To be properly prepared for the first fitting, a dress should
have the seams basted, the sleeves basted into place, and the
following markings or bastings, placed:

On the skirt: (1) Placket; (2) hem-line of the skirt, if possible; (3) center
front; (4) center back; (5) hip-line, 6 inches below the waist-line; (6) waist-
line, either raised or normal.

On the belt: (1) Center front; (2) center back.

On the waist: (1) Center front; (2) center back; (3) neck-line; (4) arm-
hole line, if the sleeve is not basted in; (5) waist-line; (6) two gathering
threads at the waist-line, one ^ inch below the other.

On the sleeve: (1) Finished length; (2) two gathering threads in the
bottom of the sleeve, one on the tracing and one ^ inch below the tracing;

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 361

and gathering threads should also appear in the top of the sleeve between
the indicated places; (3) line of finishing at the arm-hole of the waist;
(4) the point of the elbow in a tight-fitting sleeve.

With these marks it should be very easy to adjust the waist
and the skirt to the figure.

Directions for fitting a shirt-waist or a house-dress.

Place the fitted or made belt on the figure, being sure that the center
back is at the center back of the figure.

Settle the waist well to the figure, and pin it at the center front exactly
on the indicating lines.

Turn the shoulder and under-arm seams toward the front.

Make a general survey of the waist before proceeding further.

If the shoulders of the figure are very square or very sloping, alterations
will probably be necessary (Fig. 70). If the shoulders are very square,
the waist is likely to be lifted too much at the point of the shoulder, causing
wrinkles across the waist. To correct this defect, take the shoulder seam
deeper near the neck (Fig. 70), and cut away the surplus material. This
may make the neck too small. If so, cut the neck-line larger by slashing
it slightly until the correct size is obtained.

If the shoulders are very sloping, the waist drops at the end of the
shoulder causing wrinkles from the neck to the armhole. To correct this
defect, take up the shoulder seam at the point of the shoulder (Fig. 70).
Then enlarge the armhole by cutting away the material under the arm.
Taper it both in the front and back to the normal armhole. The shoulder
seam should be about 1 inch back of the highest point of the shoulder. If
this seam is too far back, it will narrow the back of the waist; if too far
forward, it will give the shoulders a rounded appearance. A yoke-line
should drop well forward from the normal shoulder-line. This adjustment
depends entirely on the figure fitted.

In general, the collar-line should run in a good curve from the bone at
the base of the neck in the back to above the two small bones at the front
of the neck. Keep the neck-line close to the neck and rather high at the
side just under the ear, unless the neck is very short, in which case, the
side of the neck-line may be lowered slightly to give more length.

If the neck-line is too large, take up the shoulder seam. The fullness
must never be taken out in the center front by lapping. This would cause
the grain of the material to slope downward toward the center front.
In a tight-fitting lining a dart is sometimes taken in the center front, to
make the neck-line smaller and to take out extra fullness over the chest.
Taking up the shoulder seams may necessitate lowering the armhole.

The under-arm seam should appear to be a continuation of the shoulder
seam and should fall from the center under-arm straight down to the waist-
line. If it is desired to narrow the appearance of the back width at the

362 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

waist-line, the under-arm seam may be slanted slightly toward the
back.

Adjust the fullness around the waist-line next. Pin the waist to a stif-
fened belt if it is to be a part of a dress, or to a non-elastic tape, if it is to
be a separate garment. In either case the adjusting is about the same.
Pin the center back of the waist to the center back of the belting at either
the normal waist-line or the raised waist-line, depending on whether a
skirt is to be made or not. Locate the under-arm seams, and pin them to
the belting. Pin the center front of the waist to the center front of the
belt. Draw the gathering threads tight, and adjust the fullness. To most
figures a slight blousing is becoming. As far as possible, keep the lines
made by the gathering at right angles to the waist-line. This gives the
figure a straight appearance.

If the waist is too tight over the bust, it may be made slightly larger by
letting out the under-arm seam; or in case the waist is being fitted in
practice material, fullness at the bust may be allowed as shown in Figs.
65 and 66.

The armhole line is one of the most important lines in the waist. From
the point of the shoulder, the line should drop almost straight to the front
muscle of the arm. The line then curves to fit the underarm as closely as is
comfortable and forms a nearly straight line along the armhole at the back.

The greater amount of fullness in the sleeve should fall over the shoulder
bone which in most cases is from % to 1 % inches in front of the shoulder
seam. The straight lengthwise grain of the material should fall straight
down from the highest point of the shoulder. If the sleeve is too large or
too small, it should be changed at the seam. Observe the length of the
sleeve, and try on the cuff. If the sleeve puffs slightly at the back even
when the elbow is bent, take the seam in the sleeve deeper, but not the seam
of the waist.

If a collar-band is to be used, it should be tried on at this time.

A shirt-waist should fit loosely but smoothly. Overfittirig takes away
from the informal grace and style of the waist. After a plain shirt-waist
has been satisfactorily adjusted, an excellent plan is to rip it apart and
either cut a new pattern or correct the old one from it. If this is done,
much difficult fitting may be avoided at another time.

After the waist has been fitted and before the sleeve has been removed,
mark both the sleeve and the waist so that they will go together again
without difficulty. Mark on the belt the points at which the under-arm
seams fall, and also the line of the waist.

Re-baste the sleeve, finish the waist as nearly as possible at the bottom,
and again baste it into the waist. Baste the collar-band into place, or if
a fancy collar is to be used, baste it together, and try it on at the next
fitting. Pin the waist again to the foundation belt.

Place the waist on the figure, and make any final adjustments.

Try the skirt on at this time. Place it on the figure right side out, and

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 363

adjust it to the figure. Pin the center front of the skirt to the center front
of the belting, and the center back of the skirt to the center back of the
belting. The lines of all darts and gores may be more easily observed if
the skirt is right side out, although the fitting is made more difficult.
Pin up the skirt exactly on the indicated lines of the placket. Only the
right side of the skirt need be fitted, but the whole skirt should be pinned
to the foundation belt.

After adjusting the skirt to the foundation belt, take a general survey
of the skirt, noting the lines of the gores. The skirt should fit smoothly
from the waist-line to the hip-line, and below the hip it should fall in
straight lines. All dart and seam lines should be at right angles to the
line of the waist. The skirt should not stand out from the figure in one
place more than in another. If this should be the case, turn to the illus-
trations of pattern adjusting (Figs. 74-77), and alter the skirt as there

The hip-line and the line at the bottom of the skirt should be parallel
to each other and to the floor. In the case of a figure with prominent hips,
the skirt may stand out at the sides. This may often be remedied by
dropping the skirt slightly from the waist-line over the hip.

Simple fitting may be done by increasing or decreasing the depth of the
seams; however, care must be taken to keep all lines of folds, placket, seams,
or darts at right angles to the waist-line.

After the skirt has been fitted satisfactorily, always straighten both the
hip-line and the finishing line at the bottom of the skirt.

Observe the waist-line very carefully to see that the waist blouses suffi-
ciently for the arms to be raised easily, and also that the line made by
the joining of the waist and the skirt is becoming. The waist-line should
either be parallel to the floor or dip slightly in front.

Remove the garment from the figure, and mark all alterations and lines
necessary for the second adjustment of the garment. Finish the waist
except perhaps the final adjustment of some decoration, and fasten it to
the foundation belt. Rebaste the skirt and finish the placket, and again
baste it to the foundation belt.

Try on the garment for the final fitting. Adjust any decoration, such
as collar, belt, or pockets. Note all lines, and turn the garment at the
bottom. Finish the garment, without further fitting.

HOW TO MAKE A SKIRT EVEN AT THE BOTTOM

The following ways of making a skirt even at the bottom are
suggested :

1. Put the skirt on, and place a yardstick perpendicular to the floor
and close to the body. Mark the skirt at the top of the yardstick. Turn
around, keeping the yardstick at the same distance from the body, and
mark points around the skirt at the top of the yardstick. This gives a

364 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING,

line parallel to the floor. Spread the skirt out on a table, and measure
down at right angles to this line the correct number of inches to make
the skirt the desired length.

2. Chalk the end of a yardstick or ruler. Open the lower drawer of a
dresser far enough to hold the stick, and keep the stick as nearly parallel
to the floor as possible. Walk up to the end of the stick, and turn slowly
letting the chalked end of the stick mark the skirt. Spread the skirt on a
table, and measure down from this chalked line the correct number of
niches to make the skirt the desired length.

HOW TO KEEP BIAS SEAMS PROM SAGGING

After a skirt has been basted and stitched, it is well to allow it
to hang for a number of days in order to sag as much as it will.
It may then be hemmed, and it will stay even for some time.
If seams are stayed with a very firm piece of material, such as
tape or selvage, they may creep up, or the bias material at
each side of the seam may sag down. Better than to use a
straight edge, is to use a binding on a different bias from that
of the seam. This will keep the seam from sagging, but it will
be sufficiently elastic to make a graceful seam.

SUGGESTIVE FINISHES TO BE USED BY THE HOME WORKER

Cuffs and collars.

The material in the cuffs and the collar should be the same,
and both the cuffs and the collar should have the same general
shape. For example, if the corners are rounded on the collar
the same type of corner should appear on the cuffs. The best
shape for the opening of the collar and the best outline depend
entirely on the figure and the shape of the face.

The cuffs and collar may be made of a texture contrasting
with that of the dress but of a color harmonizing with it. A
garment is always more interesting if some contrast is intro-
duced. The possible combinations of textures and colors with
a gown depend to a great extent on the personality of the wearer.
For example, one person may look well in white linen collars
and cuffs on a blue serge dress, while another person who may
be less tailored in appearance or whose complexion may be less
clear, finds it necessary to wear georgette collars and cuffs
to prevent the transition from the dress to the collar to the com-

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 365

plexion from being too pronounced. Therefore, the smallest
part of decoration must be studied in relation to the person who
is to wear the garment.

Some suggestive combinations of materials are as follows:

To be used with wool:

1. Georgette crepe will keep the gown all in a suede-like texture if
combined with a dull material such as serge. It is a most becoming texture,
because the light of its surface is broken up, and it is thin enough to allow
the color of a dark gown to be seen through it, thus producing a gradual
transition from the gown to the complexion. This is true of any of the
thin materials.

2. Chiffon is more appropriate than Georgette cre"pe, for formal ma-
terials such as broadcloth; it is more formal but not so universally
becoming.

3. Wash satin. The texture of wash satin causes it to reflect the light
in large masses, and in itself it is very attractive. Since it is of a rather
heavy texture, it makes a harsh contrast between the dress, the collar,
and the complexion. It should be studied carefully with the gown and
the person who is to wear it, before being chosen.

4. Organdie or swiss is a little more crisp than Georgette cr6pe and not
so universally becoming. It gives a very fresh appearance to almost any
wool gown excepting those made of the more formal materials, such as
broadcloth.

5. Voile or handkerchief linen.

6. Linen or pique. Either linen or pique" is very becoming to some
persons but makes so harsh a contrast with the complexion that it is not
becoming to all.

7. Novelty materials such as cretonne and suede, should be studied
carefully before being combined with the average dress.

8. Broadcloth and serge. Woolen materials such as broadcloth and
serge make interesting collars but add to the warmth of the garment.

To be used with silks:

I. Georgette crepe. 2. Chiffon. 3. Panne velvet. 4. Bolting cloth.
5. Organdie. 6. Net.

To be used with cottons and linens:

1. Linen. 2. Pique. 3. Poplin. 4. Voile. 5. Plain gingham or chambray,
with plaid material.

Suggestive edge finishes for cuffs and cottars:

1. Machine hemstitching or piquot. 2. Bias binding. 3. Hem turned
to right side and held in place by a simple embroidery stitch (Fig. 82).
4. Hand scalloping. 5. Scalloped hem. 6. Scalloped facing. 7. Rolled
hem made with colored threads. 8. Very small crocheted edge. 9. Footing.

366

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

10. Bermuda fagoting. 11. Hemstitching. 12. Wide facing of contrasting
material. 13. Decorative machine stitching.

Waist-line finishes.

The following waist-line finishes may be used for the top of
the skirt when it is sewed over the waist on the foundation belt.

FIG. 82. Combinations of simple embroidery stitches to
be used in decorating collars, cuffs, aprons, and dresses.

1. The skirt may be turned % inch to the wrong side and basted along
the waist-line. It is then stitched 1/8 inch below the edge.

2. If an outside belt is to be used with the dress, the unfinished edge of
the skirt may be placed on the waist-line and stitched into place. Taffeta
seam-binding is then stitched over the unfinished edges.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 367

3. The skirt may be finished with an inserted cord or piping of the same
or a contrasting texture. In using piping or cord finishes, care must be
taken not to create an unbecoming line or introduce too many definite lines.
Color and texture must be considered.

Finishes for the bottom of the skirt.

The following finishes may be used for the bottom of skirts,
overskirts, or flounces :

1. Hem. The skirt may be hemmed by hand or on the machine. In
wool or silk it is generally preferable to have the hem slip-stitched into
place.

2. Hem with one turning. The raw edge of the material may be catch-
stitched into place and covered with Prussian binding. Any surplus full-
ness may be shrunken out, gathered, or placed in darts which must fall
at right angles to the line of stitching. This kind of hem is often used in
material which does not fray easily.

3. Fancy hem. The hem may be turned to the right side and finished
with a cord or piping; it may be held in place by decorative machine
stitching; or it may be scalloped.

4. Facing or false hem.

5. Bindings of various widths.

6. Machine hemstitching.

7. Piping or cording.

Simple designs in embroidery.

Simple designs is embroidery suitable for finishing cuffs and
collars, holding hems in place, and decorating belts and pockets
are shown in Fig. 82.

Set-in pocket.

The set-in pocket, suitable for shirt-waists, sport skirts,
and middy blouses, is shown in Fig. 83.

Bound buttonholes.

Bound buttonholes also have their decorative value and are
shown in Fig. 84.

Arrows.

If it is desired to use arrows, the making may be seen from
Fig. 85.

368

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

fto. 83. Set-in pocket. The binding piece must be made twice as long as the
desired depth of the pocket, plus the amount of material to be used in the
binding. This may be of a contrasting color or material, or a small piece
of color, enough to bind the cut, may be placed between the garment and
the pocket lining, stitched into place, and later fastened to the lining.
A, Marking the garment for the pocket. B, Marking, basting, and stitch-

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 369

SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF DRESSES AND WAISTS

For house-dresses: Gingham, chambray, linen, poplin, cre"pe.

For business or street dresses: Serge, poplin, gabardine, fine twilled ma-
terial, dull satin.

For formal dresses: Broadcloth, velvet, crepe de chine, satin, messaline,
taffeta, charmeuse, chiffon, georgette cre'pe, cre'pe meteor.

For afternoon dresses: Batiste, swiss, voile, dimity, novelty material,
linen, crepe de chine, pussy willow taffeta, cre^pe meteor, challis, nun's
veiling, wool cr6pe, henrietta.

For shirt-waists: Tub silk, heavy china silk, habutai, madras, flannel,
linen.

For fancy waists: Handkerchief linen, voile, batiste, georgette cr^pe,
soft taffeta, chiffon.

SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMY IN DRESS

It will be found economical to select one color for a season
and choose garments that will harmonize. A definite portion
of the income should be set aside for clothing and this amount
should not be exceeded.

It is economy to buy the very best possible material. Fewer
clothes may be bought if necessary, but the material and texture
should be good. Well-made garments that are bought are
expensive; garments of equal quality can be made at home
more cheaply, if a woman is skillful and if her time is not more
valuable spent in some other way.

MAKING SIMPLE UNDERGARMENTS (jULIA GLEASON)

When making or buying undergarments, the points to con-
sider are simplicity and durability of materials and design,

ing the lining into place. The right side of the lining is placed to the right
side of the garment, then basted and stitched. It is often better to taper
the corners in stitching, if the material is at all heavy. C, Right side of
garment. The lining is pulled through to the wrong side and adjusted as
in the bound buttonhole. The upper and lower edges of the pocket should
be basted to hold the material in place. D, The pocket is stitched on the
machine close to the edge of the garment along the two ends and across
the lower side. E, The lower end of the pocket is brought to the upper end
on the wrong side of the garment and the two sides and ends stitched
together and overcasted. F, The garment is turned to the right side, and
the top of the pocket stitched across to correspond with the other stitching.
Arrows may be used at the ends of the pockets to cover any fulling of the
cloth.

A
t= _.

~ "~ - .

E:
._ ___^ !

C i

V ' " ' *

FIG. 84. Method of making a bound
buttonhole, which may be used
also for decoration. A, Marking
the line for the buttonhole. B,
Basting the binding directly over
the mark for the hole. The right
side of the binding is placed to the
right side of the material. This
binding may be cut on the bias
or straight, about 1 inch longer
than the hole and about 1 inch
wide. C, Stitching firmly around
the mark for the hole, about !/8
inch above and below the line of

II II

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 371

with special reference to their laundering qualities. Cheap
trimming is not in good taste, nor does it wear well. Trimmings

FIG. 85. Method of making an arrow, a suitable finish for the ends of seams
darts, plaits, bound buttonholes and set-in pockets.

of the same material as the undergarment save expense and
produce attractive results.

Materials suitable for undergarments

Muslin: Heavy, firm cotton material of plain weave; very durable.

Longcloth: Firm, closely-woven cotton material with slightly fuzzy sur-
face; finer than muslin, very durable, but difficult to work on by
hand.

Cambric: Light-weight, plain cotton material of varying degrees of fine-
ness; soft, smooth finish; wears and launders well.

Nainsook: Sheer, light-weight cotton material, loosely woven, of varying
degrees of fineness; plain weave or crossbar; suitable for fine underwear.

Crpe: Soft, crinkled cotton material; ironing unnecessary.

Rippleette: Soft cotton material with plain and crinkled stripes; ironing
unnecessary.

Gingham: Colored cotton material, striped, checked, or plain; suitable
for underskirts to wear with dark dresses.

Sateen: Soft, smooth-finished cotton material, white or colored, with
twill weave; looks somewhat like satin.

Silk: Skinner's satin (silk or cotton back), lining satins, taffeta, crpe-de-
chine, and the like; used chiefly for underskirts to be worn with wool and
silk dresses.

Flannel: Cotton or wool; used for warm underskirts and nightgowns.

Linen: Handkerchief linen or linen lawn; sheer, cool material; makes
dainty garments but creases and wrinkles easily.

marking. D, The buttonhole is cut along the line of marking through
the facing and the garment. At the ends the material is cut diagonally
towards each corner, as close to the stitching as possible. E, Wrong side
of garment. Pull the binding through, the ends first, letting them form
an inverted plait just opposite the cut, leaving only a roll at the ends on
the right side. Adjust the sides of the binding so that the two edges just
fill the buttonhole. F, Turn in the binding and hem or slipstitch it into
place, taking great care not to catch through to the right side. G, Finished
buttonhole. Careful pressing is necessary after each step.

372 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Trimings suitable for undergarments
Trimmings should correspond in fineness with the material

on which they are placed; they should be simple in design and

sparingly used. A very little good lace is far better than a great

deal of cheap lace.
Laces (edges, insertions, beadings). The following laces are

satisfactory for undergarments:

1. Valenciennes, or "Val," a fine cotton lace made by hand and imitated
by machine. It may be made with a round mesh, German Val; a diamond
mesh, French Val; or a square mesh, Fillet Val. Valenciennes laces are
suitable for nainsook or fine linen undergarments, but they do not wear
very well when used with heavier materials. In general, round and diamond
mesh laces wear better than do square mesh laces.

2. Cluny, a linen lace made by hand and imitated by machine, varying
in fineness of thread and design. Cluny laces are suitable for nainsook,
linen, and cambric undergarments; the heavier qualities may be used on
heavier materials. They are very durable.

3. Torchon, a linen lace made by hand and machine, suitable for all
kinds of undergarments and very durable.

4. Crochet, a handmade lace of cotton or linen thread of varying de-
grees of fineness. Certain typical patterns made in Ireland are called Irish
crochet. Crocheted laces are suitable for fine undergarments when made
of fine thread and in dainty design. Clumsy, coarse yokes and edges of
poor design are unattractive, particularly when seen through sheer outer
garments; they are too rough to be comfortable when used on a nightgown.

5. Fillet, a square-mesh, linen, handmade lace, imitated by machine.
It is suitable for fine undergarments.

6. Footing, a net trimming with finished edges like insertion. It is
suitable for casings on fine underwear.

Tatting is a hand trimming made with a shuttle from thread
of varying degrees of fineness. It is an attractive trimming for
simple undergarments.

Embroideries (edges, insertions, beadings). Embroideries of
various kinds are suitable for any type of undergarment. Entre-
deux is a seam beading.

Bias bands, bindings, and facings. Plain, inexpensive, dur-
able trimming may be made of bias bands, bindings and facings.

Braid. Featherstitched finishing braid or scalloped braid
makes a simple, effective trimming for plain undergarments.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 373

Hand embroidery. French embroidery, or satin stitch, and
decorative stitches, such as featherstitching, chainstitching,
and the like, may be used oh fine linen or nainsook undergar-
ments when time is not an object.

Machine hemstitching. Machine hemstitching is effective
for sewing in yokes, holding gathers in place, and the like. It
is done at most sewing machine agencies for a small price a
yard.

Construction of undergarments

Before making undergarments, a good commercial pattern
of the correct size should be bought, and the amount of material
that the pattern directs purchased. The directions should be
read carefully, and the garment cut accordingly. The gar-
ment must be basted and fitted carefully, because patterns are
not exactly correct for every type of figure.

Seams suitable for undergarments.

The following kinds of seams are suitable for undergarments:

1. Plain seam (Figs. 86, 87), the joining of two edges with one row |
of stitching. The edges may be finished by overcasting them together or '
separate, by binding them together or separate, or by turnjng them under
and stitching them.

2. French seam (Fig. 88), a seam within a seam. A narrow seam is
sewed on the right side of the garment, then turned to the wrong side,
and a second stitching made just far enough from the edge to conceal the
raw edges of the first seam.

3. Fell or felled seam, a flat, smooth seam. There are various kinds of
fells:

A hemmed fell (Fig. 89) may be used in handmade garments. A plain
seam is made on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than
the other, and the wider edge is creased over the narrower. The seam is
then laid flat and the folded edge hemmed down to the material.

A stitched fell is a tailored seam. A plain seam is sewed on the right side.
One edge is trimmed narrower than the other. The seam is laid flat and
basted and stitched down to the material.

A flannel fell (Fig. 91) is used in flannel garments. A plain seam is
sewed on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than the other.
The seam is laid flat and the raw edge catch-stitched down to the material.

A standing fell is used to sew a gathered edge to a plain edge. The
gathered edge is first sewed to the plain edge in a plain seam on the wrong

374

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FIG. 86. Plain seam with edges overcast. FIG. 87. Plain seams. Left, pinked

edges; right, bound edges.

FIG. 88. French seam.

FIG. 89. Hemmed fell.

FIG. 90. Overhanded or French fell.

FIG. 91. Flannel fell.

side of the material, the plain edge extending beyond the gathered edge
and the line of stitching coming on the line of gathering. A narrow fold
is made on the plain edge and folded a second time so that the first folded
edge just covers the line of stitching. It is then basted and hemmed or
stitched into place.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 375

Uses of seams on undergarments.

Undergarments may be made with various kinds of seams:
For a corset-cover or combination, the under-arm and shoulder
seams may be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams;
for drawers and bloomers, the seams of the leg and crotch may
be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams; for a night-
gown, the under-arm seam and the seam of the sleeve may be
hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams, the armhole
seam may be a plain seam bound, .or seam beading may be
used with a standing fell and French seam, or a stitched fell
may be used in men's nightshirts; for a white cotton underskirt,
a stitched fell or a French seam may be used; for a sateen or
silk underskirt, a stitched fell, or a French seam may be used,
or the edges of a plain seam may be overcast, bound, or opened,
turned under, and stitched; for a flannel underskirt, a flannel
fell may be used, or a plain seam may be opened and each
edge catch-stitched down to the garment.

Top finishes for corset-cover , combination, or gown. (Plates
XIV and XV).

The fullness at the top of corset-covers, combinations, or
gowns may be arranged by:

1. Gathering, (a). The neck may be finished with embroidery ribbon
beading, and lace edge, the gathers set into the beading with a standing
fell (page 373), and the lace whipped to the beading by hand, (b) The
edge may be gathered twice, and finished with featherstitched finishing
braid and lace edge or tatting, or with bias facing or binding which may
be featherstitched by hand. (c) The neck may be finished in either of
the ways just suggested without being gathered. It may be drawn up
with tape or ribbon, (d) The edge of the garment may be rolled and
gathered and whipped to lace beading and edge, (e) Wide lace edge
may be appliqued to the garment on the line of the gathering, and fin-
ished with seam beading and a casing of either batiste or footing for
ribbon.

2. Hand tucks. Hand tucks 1/16 inch wide and 2% to 3 inches long
may be used in several groups or in one large group. Featherstitching,
chainstitching, and lazy daisies may be used in simple designs between
the groups of tucks. The neck may be finished with: (a) a French hem,
embroidery, beading, and lace edge, (b) embroidery edging used as a
facing and edge, (c) lace beading and edge, and lace insertion appliqued

376 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

in a simple design, (d) a bias fold or finishing braid, (e) a wide lace edge
applique"d to give a yoke effect, with a casing of footing or batiste, and
entre-deux used between the casing and the lace.

3. Machine tucks. The same finishes may be used with machine tucks
as with hand tucks, machine stitching taking the place of hand work
wherever possible.

4. Smocking. Several rows of smocking may be used around the neck,
or the smocking may be made in groups. The garment may be finished
at the neck as for gathering.

5. Shirring. Several rows of gathering may be put in about % inch
apart and the lines of gathering featherstitched or chainstitched with
crochet cotton. Machine hemstitching may be used to make the gathers
secure. The garment may be finished at the top as for gathering.

6. Eyelets. Eyelets may be embroidered at intervals about Y^ or %
inch below the neck line, and the fullness drawn up by a ribbon. The
garment may be finished at the top with scalloping and French embroidery,
or it may be rolled and have lace whipped to the edge.

7. Yokes. Fullness may be set into yokes with entre-deux, machine
hemstitching, insertion, or beading. The neck of the yoke may be finished
in any of the ways suggested, without fullness.

Finishes for nightgown with high neck and long sleeves.

A nightgown with a high neck and long sleeves may have the
fullness set into a yoke, which may be decorated with tucks,
featherstitching, and the like. The neck may be finished with
a small collar having a featherstitched hem. The placket or
front closing should be about 12 inches long. The sleeves may
be gathered into a band at the wrist.

A shaped band may be used around the neck and down the
front closing, and the sleeves may be gathered into a band. A
small collar may be finished with a narrow ruffle of embroidery
and cuffs made to correspond.

Finishes for lower edges of drawers (Fig. 92).

The lower edges of drawers may be finished with a narrow
hem and lace edge; a narrow hem, insertion, and edge; a wider
hem, with lace insertion set in above the hem; a featherstitched
or fagoted hem, shaped or plain; a scalloped finishing braid;
tucks and lace or a hem; a shaped facing; a casing for ribbon
to be drawn up like bloomers; ruffles of embroidery edge or of

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

377

FIG. 92. Methods of finishing the bottom of
drawers. Left, simple embroidery ruffle set
on with seam binding; right, ruffle with
featherstitched hem and lace edge.

FIG. 93. Methods of finishing the bottom of
an underskirt. Left, tucked flounce; right,
tucked flounce with embroidery edge.

FIG. 94. Sateen under-
skirt with cotton-
backed satin flounce
finished with scal-
loped facing.

the material finished in any of the ways just suggested, applied
with seam beading or a tuck finish.

Finishes for bottom of underskirt (Figs. 93, 94).

For the bottom of a white cotton or gingham underskirt
without a flounce or a dust ruffle, the following finishes may be
used: a plain hem, a shaped hem or facing, tucks and a hem,
scalloped finishing braid, a hem and rickrack trimming, a hem
and heavy lace edge, hand scalloping.

378 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

For the bottom of a silk or sateen underskirt without a flounce
or a dust ruffle, the following finishes may be used : a plain hem,
a shaped hem or facing, tucks and a hem, hand scalloping.

For a flannel underskirt without a flounce or a dust ruffle, a
featherstitched hem or hand scalloping may be used.

An underskirt with a flounce should have the flounce set on
the skirt with beading or a tuck or a felled seam.

A white cotton underskirt with a straight gathered flounce
may be finished with an insertion and hem, a scalloped hem with
featherstitching, a shaped facing, insertion and edge, rows of
lace edge sewed together, tucks and a hem, embroidery flounc-
ing, tucks and embroidery edging, hand scalloping, a net flounce
with bias bands of gingham.

A white cotton underskirt with a circular flounce may be
finished with a plain circular flounce finished at the bottom
with lace edge and insertion, or with sections or panels joined
with insertion or entre-deux, scalloped or straight at the bottom.

A silk or sateen underskirt with a straight gathered flounce
may be finished with a plain hem, tucks and a hem, a scalloped
hem or facing, hand scalloping, or an accordion- or knife-plaited
flounce with a hem.

A silk or sateen underskirt with a bias flounce may be finished
with a bias strip which is finished with a hem, with one bias
ruffle sewed to another, or with one bias ruffle trimmed with
several small ruffles or puffings.

An underskirt may be finished with both a flounce and a dust
ruffle. A dust ruffle 3 or 4 inches wide may be used on a white
cotton skirt or a silk or sateen skirt; or if desired, the bottom
of the skirt may be finished with a hem instead of a dust ruffle.
The dust ruffle may be finished at the bottom with a narrow
hem or with rickrack or finishing braid, and the bottom of the
flounce finished to correspond with it.

Finishes for waist-line.

A corset-cover may be gathered into a straight band cut
lengthwise of the material. A circular peplum may be set into
the lower edge of the band.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

379

For a combination, the corset-cover may be gathered into a
straight band cut lengthwise of the material, and the drawers
set into the lower edge of the band.

Drawers may be finished with a straight band cut length-
wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish,
or with a yoke.

FIG. 95. Bound placket.

FIG. 96. Bound and faced
placket.

FIG. 97. Continuous bound
and faced placket with fly.

An underskirt may be finished with a straight band cut length-
wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish,
or with a yoke.

Plackets and closings for undergarments.
A corset-cover may have a plait 3 / 4 to 7 /s inch wide on the
right side for buttonholes, and a hem 5 /s to 3 / 4 inch wide on the

380

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

- P

FIG. 98. Two methods of making a hemmed placket.

FIG. 99. Methods of
marking positions of
buttonholes.

FIG. 100. A and B, Meth-
ods of stranding but-
tonholes; C, overcast- FIG. 101. A, Button-
ing a buttonhole. hole stitch; B, but-
tonhole with fan
and bar; C, double-
bar buttonhole.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 381

left side for buttons; or it may have a plait and fly for button-
holes on the right side and a hem for buttons on the left side.

Open drawers may be finished with bias facings. Closed or
circular drawers may be finished with a continuous bound
placket (Fig. 95), a continuous bound and faced placket (Fig.
96), or a continuous bound and faced placket with a fly (Fig. 97).

An underskirt may be finished with a continuous bound
placket, a continuous bound and faced placket, a continuous
bound and faced placket with a fly or a hemmed placket (Fig. 98).

Fastenings for undergarments (Figs. 99-101).

Buttonholes and buttons are the best fastenings for most
undergarments because they launder well, wear well, and may
be an interesting part of the design of the closing of a garment.

Single-bar buttonholes are fan-shaped at one end and have a
bar finish at the other. They are generally used where there is
a strain; the button rests in the fan-shaped, or rounded, end of
the buttonhole.

Double-bar buttonholes have the bar finish at both ends.
They are generally placed vertically in the garment and are
used where there is not much strain and where the button slips
up and down in the buttonhole.

To sew on buttons, the stitches should be taken over a pin
placed on the top of the button. The pin should then be re-
moved and the thread wound several times around the stitches
between the button and the garment to make a thread neck or
shank which holds the button up from the material, making room
for the buttonhole and giving the fastening greater strength.

CLOTHING FOR CHILDREN (BY JULIA GLEASON)

The children's garments described in this chapter are chosen
because of simplicity and durability of design and material,
and economy of time and money in making them.

In making or selecting garments for children of any age the
following points should be considered :

1. Hygiene. The garment should be such that it can be
easily cleansed, it should not restrict body development in any

382 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

way, and it should be light in weight in order not to tire the
child. If it is an undergarment, it should be knitted or loosely
woven to allow for evaporation of the body moisture and thus
keep the skin dry and clean. If it is an outside garment, it
should be such that it will keep out the cold air and hold in the
body warmth.

2. Suitability of design and material. Garments for children
should be easily made, easily laundered, attractive in line and
color, durable, and suitable to the child's environment and ac-
tivities.

3. Economy. The garment should be the most satisfactory
one that can be obtained for the expenditure of the given amount
of time, energy, and money.

Materials suitable for infants ' clothing.

Materials that are suitable for infants' clothing are as follows:

For a nightgown: nainsook, cotton flannel, wool flannel, and wool and
cotton flannel.

For a petticoat: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen, cotton flannel,
wool flannel, and cotton and wool flannel.

For a slip: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen.

For a dress: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen, and fine dimity.

For a sack: flannel, challis, cashmere, henrietta cloth. A sack may
also be knitted or crocheted.

For a coat: challis, cashmere, henrietta cloth, or corded silk; china silk
for linings.

For a bonnet: batiste, handkerchief linen, and silk materials of various
kinds.

For a kimono: flannel and challis.

Suggestions for making and decorating infants ' clothing.

Infants' garments are most suitable and appropriate when
made of fine materials by hand and with very little trimming.
The very narrow laces J4 to J/ inch wide fine tatting, tiny
embroidery beadings, featherstitching, fagoting, hemstitching,
and simple French embroidery may be used for decoration.

A nightgown may be made kimono style or with set-in sleeves.
The seams should be hemmed fells; and the hem should be
made by hand. The neck and sleeves should be finished with

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

383

bias facing for tape, and they may be featherstitched. A
hemmed placket may be used.

Petticoats are generally made on an underwaist, the neck and
armhole of which may be finished inconspicuously with a tiny
hem or narrow lace edge. The seams on the white petticoat
may be hemmed fells or French seams; on the flannel petticoat,
flannel fells. The bottom of the white petticoat may be fin-
ished with lace insertion and edge, lace edge alone, a ruffle of
fine embroidery of dainty design, or a featherstitched or hem-
stitched hem. The bottom of the flannel petticoat may be
finished with a featherstitched hem, hand scalloping, or cro-
cheting.

A simple slip (Fig. 102) is most serviceable for constant
wear. It may be made kimono style or with set-in sleeves. The

FIG. 102. Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip,
and coat.

seams may be hemmed fells or French seams. The hem may be
plain, hemstitched, or featherstitched, and the placket hemmed.
Tiny embroidery beading and tatting or fine linen lace may
be used for neck and sleeves. A few tiny tucks, shirring, or
smocking may be used if fullness is desired.

A few dresses a little more elaborate (Fig. 102) than the slip
may be made for occasional wear. The seams may be hemmed
fells, or French seams, or they may be joined with seam beading.
The hem may be hemstitched, featherstitched, or fagoted in

384 A MANUAL' OF HOME-MAKING

a straight line; or it may be featherstitched, chainstitched, or
fagoted in scalloped or Greek key design ; a lace edge or lace in-
sertion and edge may be used. The entire skirt may be made
of fine embroidery of dainty design. The placket may be
hemmed. The neck and sleeves may be finished with lace or em-
broidery beading, and lace edge or tatting. The sleeves may be
set in with seam beading. A round, square, or shaped yoke
may be set in with seam beading and decorated with feather-
stitching, fagoting, or French embroidery in simple design. A
yoke effect may be secured by means of groups of hand tucks
alternating with a simple embroidery stitch such as feather-
stitching, or by smocking or shirring.

The sack may be made kimono style, and the edges finished
with hand scalloping, crochet, or ribbon binding.

The coat (Fig. 102) may be cut with a large cape collar and
may be very plain or decorated with simple embroidery or
featherstitching.

The bonnet may be cut with a flange to turn from the face,
and decorated with tiny ruffles of lace, rows of featherstitching
and hand tucks, or a lace edge whipped to a scalloped edge.
The same decoration may be used on a bonnet without a
flange.

A kimono may be made with hemmed fell or French seams,
and finished around the neck and down the front with a shaped
facing which may be secured with featherstitching or chain-
stitching in one of the dainty shades of blue or pink; or it may
be bound with ribbon which may be secured with feather-
stitching or chainstitching.

Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from three
to five years of age.

The one-piece dress hanging free from a yoke or very short
waist, or belted in with a loose belt in a long-waisted effect is
a good style for the child from three to five years of age (Fig.
103). The following materials are suitable:

For rompers: kindergarten cloth, chambray, gingham, galatea, percale.
For dresses with bloomers to match: kindergarten cloth, chambray,

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

385

gingham, galatea, poplin, madras, percale, dimity, Swiss, batiste, voile,
India linon, and the like.

Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from six
to ten years of age.

FIG. 103. Suitable designs for dresses for children from
three to five years.

The simple one-piece dress with a belt is a satisfactory style
for children from six to ten years of age (Fig. 104). The wool
dress may be worn with a washable guimpe in order to keep it

FIG. 104. Suitable designs for dresses for children from six
to ten years.

fresh and clean (Fig. 104) . The following materials are suit-
able:

For dresses: kindergarten cloth, galatea, pique, percale, chambray,
gingham, poplin, madras, Indian head, dimity, voile, India linon, batiste,

386

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

and the like. Wool challis, Henrietta cloth, albatross, and cashmere are
serviceable light-weight woolen materials suitable for winter wear when
the laundry problem makes the wearing of wash dresses throughout the
year impracticable.

For bloomers: If possible, the bloomers should be of the same material
as the dress. Sateen may be used for bloomers with wool dresses.

. Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from ten
to twelve years of age.
The washable middy blouse with the cloth skirt (Fig. 105)

FIG.

105. Suitable designs for dresses
children from ten to twelve years.

and sateen bloomers is a satisfactory combination for the school
frock; or the middy, skirt, and bloomers may be made of the
same cotton material. The straight plaited skirt is a good
design. The one-piece dress in gingham or galatea is also satis-
factory (Fig. 105).

Knit underwaist and drawers or knit union suits have been
found by many to be the most satisfactory undergarments for
children from three to twelve years of age. The bloomers may

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING

387

be made on a waist or may fasten on the underwaist. The fol-
lowing materials are suitable :

For a middy blouse: middy twill, galatea, poplin, Indian head, khaki,
linen, serge.

For a skirt: Any of the materials suggested for a middy blouse, or
gabardine, rep, or wool suitings of various kinds.

For a dress: Gingham, chambray, percale, galatea, pique, poplin, cotton
gabardine, voile, batiste, and the like.

For bloomers: Any of the materials suggested for a dress or skirt, or
sateen black, white, or colored.

FIG. 106. Suitable designs for dresses for children
from twelve to sixteen years.

Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from twelve
to sixteen years of age.

A middy blouse and skirt or a middy dress may be made of
any of the materials suggested for younger girls. The same ma-
terial may also be used for a wash dress. Suggestive designs
are shown in Fig. 106. .

A school dress or a street dress of serge, wool poplin, gabar-

388 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

dine, whipcord, 'tweed, or homespun is suitable and practical
for a girl of this age.

PATCHING *

Patching is the art of repairing or restoring worn places in
garments and household articles. In order to make the patch
as inconspicuous and as strong as possible, several things should
be observed. All of the worn or torn part should be cut away,
making the hole either square or oblong. Sometimes round
patches are made, but they are more difficult. If possible, a
piece of the material which is as worn or as faded as the gar-
ment should be used, thus making it less conspicuous. To fade a
piece of new cloth, it should be dampened and laid in the sun.
When the material is figured, the pattern in the patch should
match that in the garment. If there is a nap, it should run in
the same direction on both patch and garment. Warp and woof
threads should match also.

There are two kinds of patches, hemmed and overhand, and
one must use judgment as to which to use in repairing articles.

Hemmed, or set-on, patch.

The hemmed patch is the stronger and is used on garments and
articles which are often laundered or are subjected to hard wear.
Hence it is used on household linens, undergarments, and
aprons. The directions for making it follow:

(1) Cut a square or oblong patch large enough to cover completely (at
least 1 inch beyond) the worn place in the garment. If a sampler is used
for practice, make a tear such as might be torn in a garment. (2) After
matching the figures, crease from diagonally opposite corners on both
garment and patch to obtain the centers. (3) Turn in the edges of the
patch to the right side slightly less than % inch. Crease or baste down.
(4) Place the right side of the patch to the under side of the opening with
the centers over one another, and the figures in the patch and the garment
exactly matched. (5) Baste into position. (6) Hem with fine hemming
stitches. (7) Cut away all the torn portion of the garment, making the
shape of this opening conform to the shape of the patch, and allowing at
least 5/8 inch between the edges of the patch and the opening. (8) Make
cuts on the diagonal creases 34 inch deep. (9) Turn in the edges slightly

* Ext. Ore. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of 111.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 389

less than ^ inch, following a thread of the material. If the material is a
plaid or a stripe, turn on the edge of a stripe, never through the middle of
one. Also the patch will be less conspicuous if the turning is on a dark
rather than on a light stripe. (10) Baste into position, using great care
to have stripes or figures match exactly. (11) Hem with fine hemming
stitches. (12) Remove the bastings, dampen and press.

Overhand, or set-in, patch.

The overhand patch is less conspicuous, so it is used more
often for outer clothing. It is less serviceable, for it is joined
to the opening with only one seam, and the corners are held by
a single thread. It is made in the following way:

(1) Cut a square or oblong piece large enough to cover completely the
worn place. (2) After matching the pattern, crease from diagonally opposite
corners in both garment and patch to obtain the centers. (3) Turn in
the edges of the patch l /i inch, on the wrong side of the material, turning
on the warp and woof threads. (4) Lay the wrong side of the patch to the
right side of the garment with centers and figures matched. (5) Baste
with short stitches very close to the turned edges. (6) Beginning a little
distance from one corner, overhand the edge of the patch to the garment
with close, shallow overhanding stitches. Be very careful at the corners
not to take the stitches too deep, as this will cause the corners to be puck-
ered, or to catch in the two middle thicknesses. (7) Continue overhanding
around the four sides. (8) Remove the basting. (9) On the wrong side,
cut diagonally from the center of the hole in the garment to the four ex-
treme corners of the patch. (10) Crease the seams open on the overhand-
ing. (11) Trim the edges until they are parallel to the edges of the patch
and % inch wide. (12) Cut off the corners of the patch diagonally, so
that they do not overlap. (13) Overcast separately, with short over-
casting stitches, the edges of the seams.

CLOTH DARNING*

Darning is the repairing of cloth by the weaving in of threads
to replace torn or worn warp and woof threads. Knitted fabrics,
also, are mended in this way. Darning is a less conspicuous
method of repairing than patching, although on garments which
are subjected to very hard wear or to much laundering, it is not
so satisfactory. In woolen garments darning is usually pref-
erable to patching, since it is less bulky and woolen clothes are
not so often laundered. .

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of 111.

390 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

To make the darn as inconspicuous as possible, a raveling of
the material is used, or if this is not strong enough, a silk thread
is split into thirds, and one of these strands is used. When only
one set of threads has been severed, whether it be warp or woof,
this set alone needs to be supplied. If both warp and woof are
broken, they must both be woven in. The stitch which is used
is a short, loose running stitch, and, as far as possible, the darn-
ing is done on the wrong side. The edges of the tear must be
neatly joined together by passing over and under them in the
alternate rows of sewing. The distance which the stitches are
carried outside the tear depends on the strength of the surround-
ing material. If it is very much worn, the darning must be
made to cover the thin places. To form a guide for the darning
stitches, a basting thread should be run just outside the area
to be darned.

The three forms of tears which most often occur are straight,
diagonal, and three-cornered, or hedge. Sometimes there is a
hole which is too large for ordinary darning, and it can be re-
paired best by placing a patch underneath and darning the edges
down over it. The method of repairing these tears follows:

Straight tear. The tear may be across either warp or woof threads, so
the missing ones should be woven in. Start the running stitches as far
above the cut, and carry them as far beyond, as it is necessary, in order
to reinforce the worn part. When the tear is reached, pass over and under
the two edges in alternating rows, so that they are firmly held together.
Be very careful not to draw the threads too tightly as this will cause a
puckered appearance.

Bias or diagonal tear. In a bias or diagonal tear both the warp and woof
threads are severed, and so they must be supplied. The running stitches
should follow the warp and woof threads of the cloth, not placed at right
angles to the cut. The warp threads should be put in first as far beyond
the tear as necessary, and the woof threads then woven in. The woof
threads may be laid farther apart than the warp. As this tear is on the
bias, care must be used not to stretch it.

Three-cornered or hedge tear. In the three-cornered tear, also, both the
warp and the woof threads are severed, but not often on the bias. The
darning is first done following the warp threads from one end to the corner,
then the woof threads are replaced in the same manner. At the corner,
there will be a square darn where the supplied Varp and woof threads should
be interlaced.

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 391

Large hole or worn place. Cut a piece of the cloth large enough to cover
the hole or worn place, and to extend far enough beyond to reinforce it.
If the material is figured or has a nap, it should be matched. Baste the
right side of this patch to the wrong side of the garment with the warp
and the woof threads matching. On the right side darn over the raw
edges, without turning them under. If the ragged edges are not entirely
trimmed away, the unevenness of the edges will make the darned place
less conspicuous. Do not carry the running stitches across the patch if it
is a large one. The edges of the patch on the wrong side may be sewed
down with long hemming stitches.

STOCKING DARNING*

A hole in a stocking is repaired by a woven darn. In place
of being woven in a loom as cloth is, stockinet is made on a
knitting machine and consists of a series of interlocked loops of
a continuous thread or yarn. In darning, the loose loops should
be caught to prevent further raveling.

Method of stocking darning.

Guide line for the stitches. As a guide line for the work, outline with bast-
ing the space to be darned. Make the darn diamond-shaped, large enough
to reinforce all the weakened part surrounding the hole.

Materials to be used. Use darning cotton to match the color and the
size of the yarn in the stocking. For the average weight stocking, except
thin lisle and silk, two strands of the ordinary four-ply darning cotton is
used. Use a needle which is just large enough to carry the thread, and
do not knot the thread. If the hole is too large to hold over the first two
fingers of the left hand, a darning-ball may be placed inside of the stocking.
Be very careful in using a darner, however, not to stretch the edges of the
hole.

Lengthwise darning stitches. Darning is done on the right side of the
stocking. Start at the right side of the hole just inside the basting which
serves as a guide line. Put in first the lengthwise stitches (those parallel
to the ribs in the stocking), using short, running stitches. In turning
from one row of stitches to the next, loops must be left in the darning
cotton to allow for the possible stretching of the stocking and the shrinkage
due to washing. When the hole is reached, take up on the needle the
loose loop at the edge to strengthen the darn and carry the thread across
the hole, taking up the loop opposite. Continue until the inclosed area
is filled with these lengthwise stitches.

Crosswise darning stitches. Start in the same manner from the top
putting in crosswise stitches. Interweave these stitches with the length-

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of IU.

392 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

wise ones, and when the hole is reached weave the woof threads over and
under alternate warp threads. In the next row, pass under the threads
which were passed over in the preceding row. Continue until the space
is completely filled. The finished darn should be smooth so that it will
be comfortable on the foot.

REFERENCES

Baldt, Laura I. Clothing for Women. J. P. Lippincott Co.
Fales, Jane. Dressmaking. Charles Scribner's Sons.

CHAPTER XVI

MILLINERY
BY BEULAH BLACKMORE

HATS should be analyzed, and the peculiar defects of every
unsatisfactory hat should be exactly noted. In this way a
group of principles may be mastered, which should be followed
regardless of the season's vagaries in shape and trimming.

HOW TO SELECT A HAT

No definite statement can be made as to what should or
should not be worn. In selecting a hat, the arrangement of the
hair, the shape of the face and its coloring, the relation of the
hat to the head and of the head to the whole figure must be
considered.

Proportion and balance.

Of first consideration in the study of hats is the relation both
of the hat to the head and of the head, including the hat, to the
entire figure. Since the figure may be seen from all sides, the
hat should look well, not only from the direct front view, but
from every possible point of view. In general, the crown and
the brim should be in good proportion to each other, and
the hat should be in proportion to the head and to the whole
figure.

To make broad shoulders appear less broad, the crown of
the hat should be fairly high, while the brim should be fairly
wide in order to balance the hips. This is but a single example of
the relation of the hat to the figure. A hat that is too large
gives a top-heavy appearance and thus disturbs the proportions
of the human figure. A sufficient sense of balance is inherent
in the average person to guide her judgment in selecting a hat,

393

394

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

if she studies in a long mirror its relation to her full-length
figure.

Small hats, such as toques and turbans, should be carefully
related to the head, and therefore, set securely and squarely
on the head. Nothing has a more misfit appearance than a
toque so large that is seems to be burdensome, or so small
that it seems to be insecurely perched on the head. The toque
generally should not be worn by a person with a large face or
with high color, because it tends to emphasize both feature and
color. It is designed for a person of delicate features and moder-

FIG. 107. Correct size of a crown, shown by the heavy line.

ately pallid complexion. The hair should show slightly around
the face.

A hat with a brim sets the face somewhat in the shadow and
retires any unduly prominent features. If it is desired to lessen
the prominence of a single feature, an interesting color or line
of construction may be so arranged as to divide the attention
called to the feature. As an example, for a face with a promi-
nent nose, trimming that tends to lengthen the line from the nose
to the back of the hat should be avoided. Instead, the interest-
ing spot on the hat should be placed at the front or the side
front in order to break the line and divide the center of interest.

The test for the correct size of the crown is that it shall be
neither less than the width of the face, nor greater than the con-
tour of the hair (Fig. 107). If the hair is puffed considerably

MILLINERY

395

at the sides, an elongated crown placed crosswise cpi the hat

may be used.

The crown should not be set so low on the head that the eye-
brows, which give the dark contrast to

the face, are covered. The hat should

be large enough and low enough, to give

the appearance of being firmly placed

on the head, not perched on the hair

(Figs. 108, 109). The crown should be

placed squarely on the head; if a tilted

effect is desired, it may be accomplished

by tilting the brim only (Fig. 110).

In general, the front line of the crown FJQ 108 ._ Incorr ; ct si , e of

should continue the line of the forehead

(Figs. 107-109). At the back, the line

should not extend beyond the hair. If

the hair extends far beyond the head,

the back line of the crown should fall

between the contour of the hair and

the head. In no case should the back line of the crown fall in-
side the line of the head. The tarn o'shanter crown should bear at

its base the same relation to the head as should any other crown.

A turban should be placed well on
the head, not allowed to hang off at
the back (Fig. Ill), and thus destroy
the balance of the whole figure.

Brims are intended as a protection for
the eyes, but they are usually extended
at the sides and the back for balance.
The brim of a hat should not under

FIG. 109. Correct placing any circumstances extend beyond the
of a hat, shown by the snO ulders. A brim may be tilted in

heavy line. . . *

any becoming way if the balance of the

hat is not destroyed or if the balance is restored by the use of
trimming. A brim should not be so drooping that the eye-
brows are covered, or so upturned that a becoming shadow for
the face is lost.

crown. The crown
should be sufficiently
large to be set well
down on the head;
otherwise, the hat may
appear to be insecurely
placed as here shown.

396

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Hats of straw and other light-weight textures may be larger
than those of velvet and other heavy materials. A hat that is
light in color always has the effect of being larger than a dark
one of the same size. If a dark hat is
desired and dark colors are unbecoming,
-;"," 1 the hat may be faced with a light color.

Line and form.

Already exaggerated features or un-
desirable lines of the face should not
be accented by a pronounced repetition
of the direction of these lines in the
FIG. no. The prominent hat. For example, if there are heavy
harmoni^ 6 wTth^the downward lines about the mouth, the
lines of the face, if it brim of the hat should not repeat these
is desirable to have ij nes (j^ 112 ). Again, if the eyes slant

the brim tilted it may ,1,1 V -,1

be bent as desired, U P toward the outer corner, a hat with
but the crown should an abrupt upward curve of the brim

be kept squarely on ghould not be wom The effect

the head. . J

be neutralized by the use of opposing

lines. The opposition, however, must not be carried too far,
because entire lack of harmony in line will produce the same
effect as does strong parallelism of line.

A person with a square face needs an
irregular brim, because a straight brim
only emphasizes by contrast the angles
of the face. A round face or one of
regular features requires the opposite
treatment from the square face. A
severe, straight brim or upstanding
crown may be worn in this case. An
oval face needs a curved, irregular line.
Rather long curves are most suitable.

In order to be practicable, these
suggestions necessitate that the hair
be arranged to suit the face. Moreover, when buying a hat,
one should be sure that it does not require a special arrange-

FIG. 111. Correct placing
of a turban shown by
the heavy line.

MILLINERY 397

rnent of the hair to suit it; the hat should suit the customary
arrangement of the hair. A softening line of hair should
always come between the harsh edge of the hat and the fore-
head. From time to time extreme forms of hair-dressing come
into vogue. A beautiful face may or may not be affected by
them, but the peculiar types must avoid extremes in shape,
whether in area or contour. Neither the round nor the narrow

FIG. 112. The outline or decoration of a hat should
not repeat or parallel undesirable lines in the face.
Similarity of line may accentuate either good or
bad lines.

face should have the hair drawn back from the temples. The
long oval head needs to have the hair done low in the back,
while the person with a round face may wear the hair high.

At its best, the hair grows around the face in a graceful line;
but when this line is not attractive, the hair may be arranged to
supply the deficiency. There is a legitimate use for false hair,
if it serves to beautify the proportions and the contour of the
head or to create fine surfaces, such as soft waving effects. Any
arrangement of the hair that does not tend to augment the at-
tractiveness of the face, such as extreme changes of contour,
or fussy, kinky effects, is poor design and is in bad taste. For
short, broad faces, both round and square, the form as a whole
should be built high, as against wide, in shape. The hair should

398 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

not be pressed close to the temples. The hair should not be
brought low but should be kept away from the forehead except at
the corners where the short oblique lines suggest softness of con-
tour against the face. The square-faced person needs rounding
contours in the hair-dressing; the round face needs crisp reverse
curves in contour to counteract the round suggestions elsewhere.

For long, thin faces, the hair should be arranged to make the
head appear as broad as possible, care being taken not to create
too great a contrast, however, between the width of the hair
and of the face, lest the hair serve merely as a frame to em-
phasize, rather than correct, the narrowness. The hair should
be brought low both horizontally and obliquely. The space left
between the oblique side lines, however, should not be too nar-
row. This would only emphasize t % he length of the face by in-
troducing a long vertical line. The hair should never be piled
high over a long, thin face.

The face that is more or less triangular needs the same treat-
ment as the square face. This type should avoid oblique lines
that are produced by parting the hair in the middle, because
this repeats in exaggerated form the lower shape of the face.
The head should not be unduly broadened in such a way as to
create an extreme triangular shape.

Color.

Color is discussed on pages 45 to 47. It may be said here,
however, that in selecting a hat one should be sure that it is in
harmony with the other outer garments with which it is to be
worn. In general, if the costume is striking in color, a hat of
neutral tone, especially white or black, furnishes a desirable
contrast; while if the costume is somber, a bright touch of
color in the hat is most interesting. A hat is seldom satisfac-
tory when it is of the same color, value, and texture as the cos-
tume. A contrast in value, if not in color, is always to be desired.

Trimming.

The foregoing discussion of the principles of design applies
also to the trimming of hats. The following suggestions apply

MILLINERY

399

to that considered in relation to the entire costume and the
wearer, not as an isolated article of clothing.

The function of trimming, in addition to its decorative value,
is to effect slight changes that may add to the becomingness
of hats. Trimming should
aid in emphasizing the A
good points of the face
and hair of the wearer
and should mitigate any
unfortunate elements. By
the addition of a bow, a
feather, or other orna-
ment, the lines of a hat
may be changed and
adapted to the wearer.

Trimming should be so
placed that it gives the
impression of being rightly
distributed. Color must
be reckoned with when
balance is being con-
sidered: a small bit of in-
tense color may balance a
larger mass of a more
subdued color. The pre-
vailing fashion may pre-
sent difficulties, but no
fashion should undermine
good judgment.

There should be one
general direction of line
and a center of interest to which all trimming should appear to
converge or to be subordinate (Fig. 113). Cross lines in trim-
ming should be avoided. More than one point of interest, unless
these points are perfectly balanced, produces a confused appear-
ance and causes the eye to jump from one spot to another. The
center of interest in the trimming should not be so conspicuous

FIG. 113. The decoration should strengthen
the structural lines of the hat. There
should be but one center of interest and
all decoration should appear to converge
to that point (A and J5). Some con-
trast in line is always interesting (B).
The proportion of space covered by the
decoration should have an interesting
relation to the uncovered surface (B
and C).

400 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

in color or size as to detract from the face, which after all is the
picture for which the hat serves as the frame.

If the hat is too heavily trimmed in the back, there is a tend-
ency to bend the head and shoulders forward in an effort to
balance the trimming. If it is too heavily trimmed in front,
it gives the undesirable appearance of pitching forward, or
creates a tendency to place the hat too far back on the head.
This is likely to make the most graceful line unbecoming and
disturbs the balance of the figure. Hats with the bulk of the
trimming at one side may appear to be burdensome.

RENOVATING MATERIALS

When looking over an old stockof hats, the home worker finds
that brims change in shape more slowly than do crowns. Crowns
may often be remodeled, however, by the use of ribbon or silk.
Trimming may sometimes be so placed that it changes the line
of the crown and gives the effect of a different shape. Good ma-
terials should never be thrown away.

Storing.

At the end of each season when hats are to be stored for an-
other season, they should be examined carefully. Hats to be
used in the same way at another time should be well dusted and
spots that might tempt moths should be removed (page 283).
The hats should be wrapped carefully.

If the hat is not to be used in its original shape again, it
should be ripped apart. Any wire should be rolled and ribbons
and velvet cleaned. All covered wire should be saved, since
it is not always easy to obtain a piece of wire when needed.
If millinery material is cleaned and rolled instead of folded it
may offer a much greater suggestion for remodeling than when
it is soiled and crushed.

The frame material is not often good enough to be used again,
but if it is in fair condition it may be improved by dampen-
ing and repressing. Good pieces may be saved for making
buckles, backs for ribbon decorations, or for piecing out another
frame.

PLATE XV. Top, simple and effective designs in small hats. Bottom, finishes
for corset covers.

MILLINERY 401

Straws.

If straw braid on a hat is faded, the hat may be ripped apart
and the braid dyed and sewed into a new shape. Several good
color liquids that dye the straw instantly and finish it in one
operation are now on the market. Sometimes an old hat that
has faded and lost its stiffness may be freshened for another
season with a coating of color liquid. Brushing with alcohol
will often brighten a black straw hat.

A straw hat may be bleached by being exposed in a closed
chamber to the fumes of burning sulfur. An old flour barrel
is often used for this purpose by milliners. The sulfur is
ignited on a fire shovel or a metal dish placed on the ground.
The hat, which has been sponged well in water, is hung in the
barrel, and the barrel is turned over the burning sulfur for
a few hours.

To clean leghorns, panamas, milans, and other fine straws,
a solution of oxalic acid may be used in the proportion of one
teaspoon of oxalic acid to one pint of water. The straw should be
brushed thoroughly and rinsed immediately in clear hot water.
As much moisture as possible should be wiped off, and the hat
hung to dry in the heat or fresh air. When it is nearly dry,
it should be pressed in shape with a hot iron, muslin being placed
between the iron and the hat. If a mushroom shape is desired,
the hat should be held with the crown up during the pressing,
and the brim should be stretched slightly while being pressed,
bit by bit. If a flat brim is desired, the hat should be pressed
flat on the edge of a table, the crown being allowed to come
below the table top. Afterwards it should be laid flat on the
table, weights should be placed on the brim, and it should be left
until it is perfectly dry. Crowns should be pressed with a small
iron on the inside. A sleeve-board is very convenient for this
pressing. A white straw that has been sun-burned may be
made yellow by being placed for a few moments in a strong solu-
tion of soda and water. The hat should then be shaken to
remove the water and pressed under a thin cloth until it is
dry.

402 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Flowers.

Flowers may be trimmed along the edges and retouched with
water color paints or oil paints mixed with gasoline. Flowers
made of silk, muslin, sateen, or velvet can be freshened by being
shaken gently over a steaming cloth.

Ribbons.

Ribbons may be cleaned with gasoline or washed with soap
and water. If they are to be washed, they should be stretched
on a clean table, scrubbed with a soft brush dipped in neutral
soapsuds and rinsed in clear water. In the rinsing, the ribbon
should be kept smooth and straight, and the water should be
pressed out by running the hand down the ribbon. The ribbon
should then be stretched on the table again and allowed to dry.
Ribbons washed in this way need only a slight pressing with a
warm iron.

Velvet.

Velvet may be cleaned by being sprinkled thoroughly with
magnesia or cornmeal and allowed to stand for twenty-four
hours. It should then be brushed with a soft brush. A second
application of the cleaning agent may be necessary.

Another way of cleaning velvet is to steam it. This also re-
moves any folds. A hot iron is placed so that it rests on the
handle, and the base is covered with a wet cloth. The velvet
is then passed over the iron, the wrong side of it being held next
the wet cloth. In this way the steam is forced up through the
pile. As the steam is passing through, the velvet should be
brushed gently with a soft brush.

Laces.

Laces should be washed according to the directions given on
page 272. Ecru lace may be washed in the same way as white
lace, but it should be rinsed in a weak infusion of tea or coffee.
Gold or silver lace may be freshened by brushing it with alco-
hol or gasoline.

MILLINERY 403

Feathers.

Feathers may be washed satisfactorily in a good suds of
white soap and water. The feather should be drawn through the
hand from the stem to the tip with a regular stroke. It should
then be dried by shaking it in the air. Before being curled, it
should be steamed by being held with the back toward the
steam from the spout of a teakettle. The feather should not
be allowed to become wet. While it is damp, the stem may be
shaped in any desired way. The feather should be held with the
right side up. It is then curled by having three or four fibers
at a time drawn over a dull knife, with a quick downward and
inward curving stroke. Work should progress from the large
end toward the tip.

Veils.

Veils may be washed in warm soapsuds in the same way as
laces are washed. Black veils should be rinsed finally in a strong
infusion of black tea to which gum arabic has been added in the
proportion of two teaspoons of powdered gum arabic to one
pint of water. Veils should be stretched in shape, pinned, and
dried.

Chiffon.

Chiffon should be washed in a light suds in lukewarm water.
It should not be rubbed, but shaken and squeezed lightly in the
suds. It should be stretched to dry, and when nearly dry should
be pressed with a warm iron on the wrong side.

Chiffon may also be washed in pure alcohol and stretched to
dry.

White felt.

A white felt hat can be cleaned satisfactorily with cornmeal
or magnesia. The hat is covered with the substance, and left
for two days. The meal or powder is then brushed off. It
may be necessary to repeat this process.

Art gum removes spots that are not of long standing.

404

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

SIMPLE HANDMADE TRIMMINGS

The ability to trim a hat artistically is a gift. The placing of
trimming should be practiced before a mirror and the general
principles of design thus studied. Ideas may always be ob-
tained from magazines. Pleasing color combinations in pic-
tures and in nature are often the origin of good effects in

FIG. 115. Simple use of ribbon to
decorate or change a crown
slightly. The ribbon may be
held in place by a basting stitch
FIG. 114. Simple decorations possible in of worsted or silk thread in a
straw trimming. contrasting color.

hats and costumes. Examples of simple hats are shown in
Plate XV.

Trimming should always be sewed with as few stitches as
possible in order to avoid a stiff appearance. Large pins can
often be used to advantage. Milliners' glue may be used in-
stead of stitches for holding the fabrics of trimmings in
place.

Buckles.

Effective buckles can be made by first cutting a shape in
buckram and covering it with shirred ribbon, silk, or velvet.
The buckles may be padded slightly with sheet wadding
and wound with a lacquered braid. Two such buckles may
be placed back to back, inclosing the edge of a plaited
ribbon.

MILLINERY

405

Lace straw.

Lace straw may be plaited and sewed to the edge of a straight
strip for trimming (Fig. 114). The edge of lace straw may be
drawn up to make a series of loops (Fig. 114).

Ribbons.

There is a wide range in the variety of ribbons. Vegetable
silk ribbons are very satisfactory, because they hold their color
better than do those made of real silk, and they keep their shape

FIG. 116. Stitches for folds, for sewing
down facings, and for decoration.
A, catch stitch; B, lacing stitch'
, saddler's stitch.

better. They are woven as a heavy grosgrain ribbon or with
long, overshot threads.

The whole crown may be covered with horizontal rows of
ribbon, or vertical rows may extend from the tip of the crown
to the brim (Fig. 115).

Folds.

Folds made of velvet have many uses. They are more easily
manipulated if made on the true bias than with the grain of the
material. For the simple milliner's fold (Fig. 116), the velvet
is cut twice the desired width of the finished fold. The raw
edges are brought together and held with a saddler's stitch or

406 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

a catch-stitch. The stitches should not be drawn so tight that
they will show on the right side.

The French fold (Fig. 117) is slightly more decorative than
the milliner's fold. A strip is cut three times as wide as the
finished width. One-third of the strip is folded up to the wrong

FIG. 117. French fold, used for decoration
around crowns and brims

side. The other edge is folded in and brought down to meet the
first edge. The strip is then folded once more on the line where
the two edges meet. It is sewed in place with a slip-stitch.
Care must be taken not to pull the thread so close that a dent
is made in the edge of the velvet.

The fold must be kept even. A stitch taken through the fold
will cause it to twist. Measures for the length of folds are taken
in the same way as for bindings, in order that the joining may
be made first.

Bows.

In general a bow is much more effective when tied than when
cut and sewed. In making bows, one should always work from
side to side, and should always bring the end of the ribbon
through the knot in the direction in which the end was lying
before the knot was made.

REFERENCES

Hammond, Edith Gary. Industrial Drawing for Girls. 1912.
Ytisuf, Anna Ben. The Art of Millinery. 1909.

PART IV
FOODS AND NUTRITION

CHAPTER XVII

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS

BY FLORA ROSE

ANY person who has to choose the food that he is to eat him- 1
self or that is to nourish others should know at least a few simple/
principles of food selection. Food is too important in human)
welfare to be chosen in a haphazard way. Fortunately, recent
scientific work on foods has done much to make it comparatively
easy to acquire at least a practical simple working knowledge
of food values.

The daily meals must supply three things :

1. Fuel. The body must be kept warm, and it must have
some source of energy for the work which it must do. The
greater the amount of work which the body has to do, the greater
is its need for fuel. If the food does not supply sufficient fuel
to do the work of the body, some of the body's tissue will be
burned as fuel. If too much fuel food is eaten, the body may
store some as fat or it may become upset by it.

2. Building materials. All the tissues of the body muscles,
nerves, bones, blood-cells must receive a constant supply of
those substances from which they are built. Children cannot
grow without a liberal suppty of building materials, and the
tissues of grown persons will deteriorate if they are not furnished
with sufficient building material to keep them in good repair.

3. Body regulating substances. The body not only needs
fuel and building material, but it must also be supplied with
substances which regulate its various activities and keep its

407

408 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

machinery in good running order. These regulating substances
are necessary to make the fuel burn normally, to help set the
building materials in place, to aid in eliminating the wastes of
the body, to enable the body to grow, and to keep its machinery
running at all. If no foods were included to supply body-
regulating substances in the daily meals, the body would soon
become damaged.

GOOD FOODS FOR SUPPLYING THE BODY'S NEEDS

To supply these three needs of the body, different foods are
necessary. The housewife should know the function of the
various food materials in order to make up a balanced and
healthful ration.

Fuel foods

Foods rich in starch.

These foods should supply most of the body's energy, because
starch is the cheapest and most abundant of all fuel foods, and
furthermore the body can use more of this fuel than any other
without danger of injury. All the starch eaten is changed to a
form of sugar called glucose, before it reaches the blood stream.
This change occurs slowly, and under normal condition the
machinery of the body is amply able to handle and transport to
the tissues the small amounts of sugar produced at any one time.

The starch-rich foods are : Cereals and cereal foods of various
kinds, such as breakfast foods oatmeal, cornmeal, wheat, rice,
rye, barley and breads; macaroni, tapioca, and other manu-
factured foods; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils;
vegetables rich in starch, such as the potato and the dasheen.

Foods rich in fat.

These foods should supply a part of the day's energy. Fat
seems to be necessary for two reasons : because it helps to regu-
late the rate at which food passes along the digestive tract;
and because certain fats are carriers of a body-regulating sub-
stance necessary for growth. Children particularly need this
type of fat.

Fat-rich foods which carry growth-promoting substances are:

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 409

milk, cream, butter, eggs, cod-liver oil, meat fat, to a certain
extent, and fat in soybeans.

Other fat-rich foods are: bacon, lard, drippings, fat meats,
vegetable oils or food rich in oils.

Foods rich in sugar.

Foods containing much sugar may furnish a part of the day's
energy. Sugar as such is not an altogether necessary food,
though it is very desirable because it adds palatability to the
day's meals and it is a quick fuel. It is not entirely necessary,
since all the starch eaten is gradually changed to a form of
sugar, glucose, before it reaches the blood. Large quantities
of sugar eaten at one time may seriously damage the body,
since its machinery is not adequate to care for large amounts
at one time. Little children receive all the sugar that is neces-
sary for them if they have a quart of milk a day. If more
sugar than is contained in one quart of milk is used, it should
be diluted with other foods and should not be used as candy
except occasionally as a dessert. Large quantities of sugar may
be injurious both to adults and to children. Foods containing
sugar are more wholesome than sugar as such.

Foods rich in sugar are: milk, sweet fruits and vegetables,
honey, molasses, sirups, sugar as such, preserves, desserts, candy.

Foods rich in protein.

Protein foods must always furnish a part of the day's energy,
from 10 to 15 per cent, not because the protein is needed for the
energy which it furnishes but because it has value as building
material for the body. The energy which it gives is a by-
product. Although protein gives energy, it should not be used
as a main source of fuel, since it is more scarce and, therefore,
more expensive than other fuels, and large amounts may over-
tax the powers of the body to care for it.

Building foods

There are many building materials needed by the body.
Four of these play most conspicuous parts and should be con-
sidered in planning the day's meals.

410 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Protein.

Protein is a name given to a large variety of substances in
foods. Casein in milk, albumin in egg, rnilk, and meat, gluten
in wheat, are illustrations of types of protein. Protein is a sub-
stance necessary to the building of all living parts of the body.

All proteins have not the same value. Some are much in-
ferior to others as tissue builders, and in some foods the pro-
teins are of such poor quality that they cannot build tissue until
a food containing a better quality of protein is combined with
them.

Some of the day's protein should be supplied by animal foods,
as these contain the best quality of protein. Animal foods used
for their protein may replace one another and will supplement
the poor quality of less valuable protein foods. Animal foods
that are valuable sources of protein are milk, eggs, cheese, and
meat.

Much of the remainder of the protein may be supplied by cer-
tain plant foods. None of the foods here listed, with the excep-
tion of the soybean and the peanut, may be regarded as com-
plete substitutes for an animal food, since they contain an
inferior quality of protein. Some animal food should be used
with them to improve the quality of their protein. Plant
foods that may be used to supply part of the day's protein are :
cereals of various kinds, such as breakfast foods, breads, mac-
aroni; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils; and
nuts.

A part of the day's protein should be supplied by fruits and
vegetables. The quantity of the protein supplied by vegetables
is small, but it helps to improve the quality of proteins from
plant foods mentioned above.

Lime.

Lime is a necessary building material. Many dietaries are
low in this substance. If it is not supplied in sufficient amounts,
the bony structures of the body suffer and the welfare of other
tissues is also interfered with. It is possible that the hard
water of many localities helps to protect the body against the

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 411

nutritive disaster of a lime-poor diet. This should not be
depended on, however, Many children, and adults also, suffer
from poor teeth because of a lack of lime in the diet.

The most valuable lime foods are: milk, the cheapest lime
food (a glass of milk contains more lime than a glass of saturated
solution of lime); cheese; and eggs.

Next in lime value are leaves and stems of plants, such as
spinach, Swiss chard, lettuce, celery, onions, cabbage. The dis-
advantage of using these latter foods as a main source of lime
is that they are too bulky to be eaten in the needed amounts.

Iron.

Iron is a necessary building material. An iron-poor diet
means a poor quality of blood, weakened tissues, and a run-
down body. Many dietaries are poor in iron.

The most valuable iron foods are: green vegetables, the most
valuable source; fruits and vegetables in general; breakfast
foods and breads made from meals which include the whole
cereal grain, the cheapest source; eggs, which are excellent but
expensive; meat, rich in iron, but the value of its iron has been
questioned.

Phosphorus.

Phosphorus is a necessary building material. If enough
animal food, whole cereal grains, and legumes are used in the
dietary, it will not lack phosphorus.

Foods that are best to supply phosphorus are: milk, eggs,
meat, breakfast foods and bread made from the whole grain,
dried peas, beans, and lentils.

Regulating foods

Just as much attention should be paid to selecting body-
regulating foods as to fuel and building foods. Fortunately
there is an overlapping of all three of these needs, and a single
food often supplies several.

Regulating foods should be selected from each of the follow-
ing groups : Foods containing laxative substances, as fruits and
vegetables, breakfast foods and breads made from the whole

412 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

grain; foods containing needed salts, acids or flavors, as fruits
and vegetables; foods containing two unknown factors, which
have been called vitamines and growth-promoting factors,
both of which are necessary for health and for growth.

Growth-promoting factors

The first unknown factor, or vitamine, essential for growth
and health, often called the fat-soluble growth-promoting sub-
stance, is found, in amounts sufficient for human needs, dis-
solved in the fat of certain foods such as milk, butter, cream,
eggs, meat (if enough of it is eaten), cod-liver oil, soybeans. The
following foods contain this unknown substance, or vitamine,
in amounts which will help; they are too bulky to be used as its
main source by the human being, but as a class they are the
main source of this important substance in the diet of most of
the domestic animals: leaves and stems of plants, such as spin-
ach, Swiss chard, dandelion greens, cabbage, onion, celery.

The second unknown factor, or vitamine, essential for health
and growth is soluble in water and is found in amounts sufficient
for human needs in milk, eggs, breakfast foods and breads made
from the whole cereal grain, peas, beans, and lentils. In fact,
this substance is found in practically all naturally occurring
foods. It is often called the water-soluble growth-promoting
substance.

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF FUEL

It is not possible in any simple way to estimate the daily fuel
need with entire accuracy. The approximate fuel need may be
easily estimated, however. To do this, it is necessary to have
some understanding of the unit which measures the energy
value of foods. Many units of measure are familiar to the
average person: the ounce and pound as units of weight, the
pint and quart as units of volume, the inch and foot and yard
as units of distance, the degree as a unit of temperature. These
units are used again and again until the mind remembers the
approximate amounts they measure. The same must be true
of the unit of measure for the fuel value of foods. It is a basis

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 413

by which one may compare one food with another and with
which one may measure the individual fuel needs.

The unit of measure for the fuel value of foods is the calorie.
If a given portion of food has a fuel value of 100 calories and in a
day 2,000 calories are needed, one immediately begins to ap-
praise the fuel value of that food. For all practical purposes the
following tables are very serviceable in giving an approximate
estimate of daily fuel needs.

The average adult person spends about the following amounts
of energy under stated conditions :

Asleep }4 calorie an hour for each

pound of body weight

Sitting (reading, sewing, knitting) 3/5 calorie an hour for each

pound of body weight

Standing % calorie an hour for each

pound of body weight

Light exercise (dish-washing, cooking for
small family, bed-making, sewing by foot
power, walking at moderate pace on level

road) . 1 calorie an hour for each

pound of body weight
Moderate exercise (cooking for large family,
sweeping, ironing, scrubbing by hand,
work of carpenters, meat carvers, house

workers) 1J4 to \Y^ calories an hour for

each pound of body weight
Active exercise (cooking for large groups,
ironing and scrubbing with heavy imple-
ments, work of farmers, masons, black-
smiths) 1% to 2 calories an hour for

each pound of body weight.
Severe exercise (heavy muscular exercise,
such as that done by lumbermen, ex-
cavators, and stevedores) 3 or more calories an hour

for each pound of body weight

414 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The average child spends about the following amounts of
energy:

Calories a
pound each day

For first 3 months 45-50

For second 3 months 40-45

For third 3 months : 40

For fourth 3 months 35-40

For 2d year 40

For 3rd and 4th years 35-40

For 5th year 35-37

For 6th year 34-35

For 7th year 32-34

For 8th year 30-35

For 10th to 12th years 28-32

For 12th to 14th years 25-30

For 14th to 17th years '. 20-25

A simple way of estimating adult needs is as follows :

The average adult spends:

Calories a
pound each day

At complete rest 14-16

Light exercise 16-18

Moderate exercise 18-20

Hard exercise 20-23

The 100-calorie portion is the short cut in dietary calculations.
With the knowledge of 100-calorie portions of common foods,
it is very simple to estimate the fuel value of a given meal or of
a day's meals. Plate XVI and Tables XVI to XXI will be of
service in learning to make this estimate.

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF PROTEIN

The average daily allowance of protein may be estimated in
two ways. Both have disadvantages as well as good points.

One way of estimating the protein allowance is on the basis
of the actual amount of protein needed in a day. The average
adult probably needs daily about 2 or 3 ounces of protein. Or
to state the matter in a more accurate way, the protein in the
day's meals should furnish daily 2 to 2}/2 calories for each pound

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 415

of body weight. If animal proteins are generously represented,
the lesser amount may be adequate. For economy not more than
one-third of the total protein in the adult diet should be furnished
by animal foods. Less than this may be used. One egg, one glass
of milk, and an ounce of cheese or a small piece of meat, give
a liberal amount of animal protein in a day. Less than this
may be sufficient. If plant proteins predominate largely, the
greater amount may be needed. About one-third of the daily
protein should be taken from the cereal grains wheat, corn,
rye, oats, rice, barley. After the allowances for animal and
cereal proteins have been made, the remainder of the protein
may come from nuts, legumes, and fruits and vegetables. If
wise combinations of animal and plant proteins are made, the
amount needed will probably lie between the two extremes.

Another way of estimating the protein allowance is on the
basis of the proportion of total calories which protein should
furnish. The average adult should receive daily from protein
10 to 15 per cent of the total calories in his food. If plant pro-
teins predominate, 15 per cent of the total calories should be
furnished by protein. If the number of calories needed is great
because of much exercise, only 10 per cent, or even less, of the
total calories need be furnished by protein.

The tables of 100-calorie portions (Tables XVI-XXI) may be
used in estimating the amount of protein food that is required
to meet the needs of the body, since one column states the
number of calories a given food supplies in the form of protein.

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF LIME, IRON AND

PHOSPHORUS

It is more difficult to estimate the daily need for lime, iron,
and phosphorus than for energy and protein. Yet these are no
less important than energy and protein, and some quantita-
tive estimates have been made.

In general, however, if liberal amounts of foods that contain
lime, iron, and phosphorus are included in the daily meals, it is
unnecessary to make any quantitative estimates. The following
figures are given as a matter of interest and general information:

416

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Average family per capita allowance of lime a day 0.70 to 1.0 grams

Average family per capita allowance of iron a day 0.13 to .15 grams

Average family per capita allowance of phosphorus a day 2.75 to 3.0 grams

TABLE XVI. IOO-CALORIE PORTION OF FOODS RICH IN STARCH 1

Food materials

Approximate
measure of
100-calorie
portion

Number
of
calories
furnished

protein

Weight
in
ounces
as
bought

Beans, dried
Bread
Average white

2 tablespoonf uls
Slice 1x3x3 inches

26.1
14.0

1.0
.3

Whole wheat
Corn
Starch

Slice 1x3x3 inches
3 tablespoonf uls

15.8
0.0

.4
.0

Meal

3 tablespoonf uls

10.4

Flakes

1J4 cupfuls

6.1

Hominy

3 tablespoonf uls

9.4

Puffed :
Macaroni

1 l /i cupfuls

y cupful

6.0

14.8

.0
.0

Oats, rolled
Peas, dried

1/3 cupful, scant ....
2 tablespoonf uls

16.1

27.7

.9
1.0

Potatoes
White -.

1 medium

10.6

5.3

Sweet

1 small

5.8

3.6

Rice
Polished
Puffed

2 tablespoonf uls
1 1/3 cupfuls

9.1
9.1

.0
.0

Wheat
Cracked
Shredded

2 ^tablespoonf uls. . .
1 biscuit

12.3
14.0

.0
.0

Puffed

1 2/3 cupfuls

15.0

Wheat flour
Patent

l /i cupful

12.7

1.0

Entire

}/ cupful

15.4

1.0

Graham

% cupful, scant

12.7

1.0

1 Some of the measurements in Tables XVI to XX were made by Miriam
Birdseye, while others were compiled from various sources including Feed-
ing the Family, by Mary Swartz Rose. The other data in these tables
are based on the table of 100-calorie portions in Food Products, by Henry
C. Sherman.

.PLATE XVI. Showing 100-calorie portions of some common foods. Top, reading from
left to right: 1 and 2, whey; 3, evaporated milk; 4, condensed milk (sweetened); 5 and o.
skimmed-milk; 7, whole milk; 8, 18-per-cent cream; 9, 40-per-cent cream. Center, reading
from back to front: spinach, cream, olive oil, peanut butter, butter, lard, cocoa, chocolate,
potato, shredded codfish, egg, gelatin, Cheddar cheese, navy beans, rolled pats, bread,
crackers, shredded wheat, macaroni, wheat flour, rhubarb, molasses, cranberries oranges,
onions, carrots, lettuce, bananas, prunes, dates, raisins, sugar. Bottom, KXVcalone por-
tions of foods, raw and cooked. .Sugar has not been added to the foods ordinarily requiring
it Foods in rows 1 and 3 are cooked; those in rows 2 and 4 are raw. Reading from back
to front: gelatin, cornmeal, tapioca, macaroni, rolled oats, cream of wheat, navy beans,
spinach, rhubarb, cranberries, onions, apples, prunes, hma beans.

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS

417

TABLE XVII. 100-CALORiE PORTIONS or FOODS RICH IN SUGAR

Food materials

Approximate
measure of
100-calorie
portion

Number
of
calories
furnished
by
protein

Weight
in
ounces
as
bought

Apples fresh

1 large

2.6

7.5

Bananas

1 medium

5.3

5.5

Dates

4 large

2.4

1.1

Figs, dried
Grapes

1 1 A large.
Medium bunch

5.4
5.4

1.1
4.9

Honey

1 tablespoonful

1.1

Lemons

3 large

9.0

11.4

Molasses
Oranges
Peaches
Prunes

\]/2 tablespoonf uls . . .
1 very large
3 large
4 large

3.3
6.2

6.8

2.8

1.2
9.5
10.5
1.4

Raisins

J4 cupful

3.0

1.1

Strawberries

1 1/3 cupfuls

10.2

9.5

Sugar
Granulated

Lump jl. . .

2 tablespoonf uls,
scant
3^2 lumps

0.0
0.0

.9
.9

418

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XVIII. 100-CALORiE PORTIONS OF SUCCULENT VEGETABLES

Food materials

Approximate
measure of
100-calorie
portions

Number
of
calories
furnished
by
protein

Weight
in
ounces
as
bought

Beets
Cabbage

3 medium
34 medium head ....

13.9
20 3

9.6
13 3

Carrots

3 medium

9 7

10 1

Celery

4 cupfuls of 24-mch
pieces

23 7

Chard, Swiss

33 5

9 2

Cucumbers
Lettuce

2 large
2 large heads

18.4
25.1

23.5
22 3

Onions

3 medium

13 2

Parsnips
Peas
Fresh shelled
Canned
Rhubarb

1 % medium

% cupful
% cupful, drained . . .
4 cupfuls of 1-inch

9.9

28.0
26.1

6.8

6.4
6.4

pieces

10 4

25 2

Spinach, edible portion . . .
Squash

2 quarts, approxi-
mately

35.2
12 2

14.8
15 6

Tomatoes
Fresh

4 small . . .

15 8

15 5

Canned
Turnips

1% cupfuls
2 cupfuls of J^-inch
cubes

21.2
13.2

15.6
12.9

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS

419

TABLE XIX. 100-CALORiE PORTIONS OP FOODS RICH IN FAT

Food materials

Approximate
measure of
100-calorie
portions

Number
of
calories
furnished
by
protein

Weight
in
ounces
as
bought

Bacon
Raw

2 thin slices

6.7

Cooked

4 thin slices

Butter

1 tablespoonful

Chocolate, unsweetened . .
Cocoa

14 square
3 tablespoonfuls

8.4
17.4

Cream 18 5 per cent

1^ cupful

5 1

1 8

Cream 40 per cent

11/3 tablespoonfuls.

2.3

Lard

1 tablespoonful, scant

0.0

Oil
Olive

1 tablespoonful, scant

0.0

Cottonseed .

1 tablespoonful, scant

0.0

Corn

1 tablespoonful, scant

0.0

Peanut

1 tablespoonful, scant

0.0

Olives

6 to 8

1 5

1.6

Peanut butter

11/5 tablespoonfuls .

19.4

Walnuts, shelled California

8 to 16 nuts

10.4

420

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XX. 100-CALORiE PORTIONS OF FOODS RICH IN PROTEIN

Food materials ,

Approximate
measure of
100-calorie
portions

Number
of
calories
furnished
by
protein

Weight
in
ounces
as
bought

Beef, lean round
Cheese
Dairy (cheddar)

1-inch cube

54.5
24 2

2.5

Cottage
Chickens, broilers
Codfish
Salted

1/3 cupful

76.2
79.6

97 3

3.2
5.5

4 4

Dressed fresh

7 6

Eggs in shell
Fowls .

1 very large or 11/3
average

36.2
34 5

2.7
2 1

Ham
Smoked

29 7

1 5

Fresh lean

1 6

Lamb
Fore quarter

24 2

1 4

Hind quarter

31 4

1 7

Milk
Whole

2/3 cupful scant

5 1

Skimmed

11/8 cupfuls

9 6

Salmon
Canned

J/2 cupful, scant

44 5

2 4

Fresh

43.3

2.5

Veal, lean

54 1

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS

421

TABLE XXI. TABLE OP 100 FOOD UNITS

Name of food

"Portion" contain-
ing 100 food units
(approx.)

Wt. of 100
calories (oz.)

Calories
furnished
by protein

Cooked Meats
Beef, round, boiled (fat)

Small serving

1.30

Beef, round, boiled (lean)

Large serving

2.20

Beef round boiled (med.)

Small serving

1 60

Beef, 5th rib, roasted
Beef 5th rib roasted,

Half serving
Small serving

.65
1 20

12
25

Beef, 5th rib, roasted,

Very small serving

.88

Beef, ribs, boiled,

Small serving

1 10

Beef ribs boiled

Very small serving

Calves'-foot jelly

4 00

Chicken canned

One thin slice

Lamb chops, boiled av

One small chop

.96

Lamb, leg, roasted ...

Ord. serving

1 80

Mutton, leg, boiled

Large serving

1.20

Pork, ham, boiled (fat),

Small serving

Pork ham boiled,

Ord, serving

1 10

Pork, ham, roasted (fat)
Pork, ham, roasted (lean),

Small serving
Small serving

.96
1 20

19
33

Turkey as purchased canned
Veal, leg, boiled
Uncooked Meats, Edible Portion
Beef, loin, av. (lean)
Beef loin, av. (fat)

Small serving
Large serving

Ord. serving

.99
2.40

1.80
1 10

23
73

40
22

Beef, loin, porterhouse steak, av
Beef, loin, sirloin steak, av

Small steak
Small steak

1.30
1 40

32
31

1 80

Beef, round, lean, av

Ord. serving

2 20

Beef, tongue, av

Ord. serving

2 20

Beef, juice
Chickens (broilers) av

Large serving

14.00
3.20

78
79

Clams, r'nd in shell, av
Cod (whole)

12 to 16

7.40
4 90

56
95

Goose (young) av

Half serving

Halibut steaks, av

Ord. serving

2 80

Liver (veal) , av

Two sm. servings

2 80

Lobster (whole) , av
Mackerel (Span.), whole, av
Mutton leg, hind, lean, av
Oysters in shell, av

Two servings
Ord. serving
Ord. serving
One dozen

4.10
2.00
1.80
6 80

78
50
41
49

Pork, loin, chops, av

Pork, ham, lean, av
Pork, bacon, med. fat, av

Small serving

1.30
53

Salmon (Cal.), av

Small serving

1 50

Shad, whole, av

Ord. serving

2 10

Trout, brook, whole, av .

Two small servings

3 60

Turkey, av
Vegetables
Artichokes, av., canned
Asparagus, av., canned . .

Two small servings

1.20

15.00
19 00

14
33

Asparagus, av., cooked

7 19

Beans, baked, canned
Beans, lima, canned

Small side dish

2.66
4 44

Beans, string, cooked

Five servings

16 66

Beets, edible portion, cooked

Three servings

8 70

Cabbage, edible portion

11 00

Carrots, edible portion, fresh
Carrots, cooked ...

7.60
5 81

10
10

Cauliflower, as purchased
Celery, edible portion
Corn, sweet, cooked . .

One aide dish

11.00
19.00
3 50

23
24
IS

Irving Fisher, The Journal of the American Medical Association, 48:16.

422 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XXI. TABLE OP 100 FOOD UNITS Cont'd.

Name of food

"Portion" contain-
ing 100 food units
(approx.)

Wt. of 100
calories (oz.

Calories
furnished
by protein

Cucumbers, edible portion

20 00

Eggplant, edible portion
Lentils, cooked

12.00
3 15

17
27

Lettuce, edible portion .
Mushrooms, as purchased

18.00
7 60

25
31

Onions, fresh, edible portion

7 10

Onions, cooked

Two large servings

8 40

Parsnips edible portion

5 30

Parsnips, cooked
Peas green, canned

5.84
6 30

10
25

Peas, green, cooked
Potatoes baked

One serving

3.00
3 05

23
|j

Potatoes, boiled
Potatoes, mashed, (creamed)

One large sized
One serving

3.62
3 14

11
10

Potatoes, steamed

One serving

3 57

Potatoes, chips

One-half serving

Potatoes, sweet, cooked
Pumpkins, edible portion

Half av. potato

1.70
13 00

6
15

Radishes, as purchased

17 00

Rhubarb, edible portion .

15 00

Spinach, cooked

Two ord. servings

6 10

Squash, edible portion
Succotash, canned

Ord. serving

7.40
3 50

12
15

Tomatoes, fresh as purchased .

Four av. servings

15 00

Tomatoes canned

15 20

Turnips, edible portion
Vegetable oysters

Two large servings

8.70
9 62

13
10

Fruits (Dried)
Apples as purchased

1 20

Apricots as purchased

1 24

Dates, edible portion

Three large

Dates as purchased
Figs edible portion

One large

1.10
1 10

2
5

Prunes, edible portion
Prunes as purchased

Three large

1.14
1 35

3
3

Raisins, edible portion
Raisins as purchased

1.00
1 10

3
3

Fruits (Fresh or Cooked)
Apples as purchased

Two apples

7 30

Apples, baked

3.30

Apples, sauce
Apricots, edible portion .'

Ord. serving

3.90
5.92

Apricots, cooked
Bananas, edible portion

Large serving
One large

4.61
3.50

6
5

Blackberries

5 90

Blueberries

4 60

Blueberries, canned
Cantaloupe

Half ord. serving

5.80
8 60

Cherries, edible portion
Cranberries as purchased

4.40
7 50

5
3

Grapes as purchased, av

4.80

Grape fruit .

7 57

Grape juice, small glass

4.20

Gooseberries

9 20

7 57

Lemon juice

8 77

5 18

Olives, ripe

About seven

1.31

Oranges as purchased, av

One very large
Large glass

9.40
6 62

Peaches as purchased, av

Three ordinary

10.00

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS

423

TABLE XXI. TABLE OF 100 FOOD UNITS Confd.

Name of food

"Portion" contain-
ing 100 food units
(approx.)

Wt. of 100
calories (oz.)

Calories'
furnished
by protein

Peaches, sauce

Ord. serving

4 78

Peaches, juice

4 80

Pears

One large

5 40

Pears, sauce

3 98

Pineapples, edible portion, av

8 00

Raspberries, black

5 18

Raspberries, red

6 29

Strawberries, av. . .

Two servings

9 10

Watermelon, av

27.00

Dairy Products
Butter, ordinary pat

Buttermilk

^2 glasses

9 70

Cheese, Am. pale

Cheese, cottage

4 cubic in.

3 12

76*

Cheese, full cream

Cheese, Neufchatel

% cubic in.

1 05

Cheese, Swiss

^2 cubic in.

Cheese, pineapple

J^2 cubic in.

.72

Cream
Kumyss

% ord. glass

1.70
6 70

5
21

Milk, condensed, sweetened

1 06

Milk, condensed, unsweetened
Milk, skimmed

1H glass

2.05
9 40

24
37

Milk, whole

Small glass

4 90

Whey

Two glasses

13.00

Cakes, Pastry, Puddings, and Desserts
Cake, chocolate layer

Cake, gingerbread

^2 ord. sq. piece

Cake, sponge

Custard, caramel

2 51

Custard, milk
Custard tapioca

Ord. cup

4.29
2 45

26
9

Doughnuts _

Half a doughnut

Lady fingers

Macaroons

Pie, apple

1 30

Pie, cream

One-fourth piece

1 10

Pie, custard
Pie, lemon

One-third piece

1.90
1 35

9
g

Pie, mince
Pie, squash

One-fourth piece
One-third piece

1.20
1 90

8
10

Pudding, apple sage

3 02

Pudding, brown betty
Pudding, cream rice

Half ord. serving

2.00
2 65

7
3

Pudding, Indian meal
Pudding, apple tapioca
Tapioca, cooked

Half ord. serving
Small serving
Ord. serving

2.00
2.80
3 85

12
1
I

Sweets and Pickles
Catchup, tomato, av

6 00

Honey

Four teaspoons

1 05

Marmalade, orange

1 00

Molasses cane

1 20

Olives, green, edible portion
Olives, ripe, edible portion

5-7 olives
5-7 olives

1.10
1 -30

1
2

Pickles, mixed
Sugar, granulated . . .

14.60

Sugar, maple ....

spoons or 1 ]/% lumps
Four teaspoons

.86
1 03

Sirup, maple

Four teaspoons

1 20

Nuts, Edible Portion
Almonds, av

Eight to fifteen

.53

424

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XXL TABLE OP 100 FOOD UNITS Con'td.

Name of food

' ' Portion ' ' contain-
ing 100 food units
(approx.)

Wt. of 100

calories (oz.)

Calories
furnished
by protein

Beechnuts

Three ord. size

Ten nuts

Thirteen, double
About eight
About eighty
About six

Ord. thick slice
Small square
Ord. thick slice
Ord. cereal dish

Two crackers
Two crackers
Large serving

Ord. serving
\Yi serving

Ord. cereal dish
Ord. cereal dish
One large roll
One biscuit

Four tablespoons
Size of thick slice
of bread

One large egg
Six whites
Two yolks

Very large plate
Two plates

Two plates
Half a square

.52

.49
.50
.57
1.40
.48
.47
.62
.46
.56
.48

1.50
1.30
1.30
.97
.96
.92
.82
.81
4.20
.96
3.85
5.60
.86
.98
3.10
.94
1.20
.94
.97
.96
.96

.97

.81

2.10
6.40
.94
3.30
13 ."DO
5.40
6.30
29.00
8.25
.56
.69
1.60

13
10
16
4
10
9
9
20
6
22
10

9
12
13
11
10
9
9.5
11
11
15
14
18
11
9
10
8
12
13
12
15
15

12
9

32
100
17

16
85
17
8
17
5

Brazil-nuts
Butternuts

Cocoanuts
Chestnuts, fresh, av
Filberts, av

Hickory-nuts
Peanuts

Pecans, polished

Walnuts, California
Cereals
Bread, brown, av
Bread corn (johnny cake), av

Bread, white, homemade
Corn flakes, toasted

Cornmeal, granular, av

Cornmeal, unbolted, av

Crackers, graham

Crackers, oatmeal
Hominy, cooked

Macaroni, av
Macaroni, cooked

Oatmeal, boiled

Rice, uncooked
Rice, boiled

Rice, flakes
Rolls Vienna, av

Shredded wheat
Spaghetti, av

Wheat flour, ent. wheat, av
Wheat flour, graham, av
Wheat flour, patent, family, and straight,
grade, spring wheat av
Zweibach

Miscellaneous
Eggs, hen's, boiled
Eggs hen's whites

Eggs, hen's, yolks
Omelet

Soup, beef, av
Soup, bean, av

Soup, cream of celery
Consomme

Clam chowder
Chocolate, bitter
Cocoa

Ice cream (Phila.)

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 425

SOME RULES FOR PLANNING MEALS

The balanced dietary.

To balance the dietary means to supply in the meals of each
day, in a form best suited to the individual, enough energy for
the day's activities, all the substances needed to build the tissues
bone, muscle, nerve, blood and those substances which keep
the body in good working order.

The choice of foods.

The main part of the meals of each day should consist of
simply prepared, mild-flavored, non-stimulating, and easily
digested foods. Well-cooked cereals, thoroughly baked, sweet-
flavored bread, potatoes, milk, eggs, fresh, succulent vegetables
and fruits should constitute the background of the dietary.
Meats and meat soups, candies, preserves, desserts, cakes and
other sweets, rich sauces, pickles, and condiments should be
used in moderation to give color and interest to the dietary;
they should not furnish the bulk of the food at any one meal.

Milk should be used liberally in order to replace a part of the
meat in the average dietary, and because, of all foods, it is
richest in lime. Milk is the cheapest animal food; and since
some animal food is necessary, milk should be the first to be
considered. It has building materials which are of special
value for constructing young human tissue. No other food con-
tains as much lime. It is also the most important source of two
necessary growth-promoting factors (page 412). It tends to
hold in check abnormal changes in the intestine. It is mild
in flavor and lends itself to a variety of uses. When it under-
goes normal souring, it still is of value and may be used in many
ways.

If possible, provision should be made to supply each child in
the family with a quart of clean, wholesome milk eveiy day.
A pint of milk for each adult is desirable if the meat consump-
tion is low. If it is impossible to supply as much milk as this
for both children and adults, the children should receive a pint
of milk each, while the amount for the adults may be reduced
to a cupful apiece. If the milk supply for the family must be

426 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

reduced still further, the milk should be given to the children,
since the adults can eat coarser foods. Less than a pint of milk
a day for each child is a very small allowance and is likely to
result in some form of malnutrition. No milk at all for the
child means, without doubt, malnutrition, unless knowledge
and skill are combined in planning a correct and much more
expensive dietary.

If it is impossible to obtain whole-milk, skim-milk is better
than no milk, even for little children, although the child on a
skim-milk diet will not grow so normally as one fed on whole-
milk. The milk may be used as a beverage, or it may be cooked
in various ways. The correct amount, not the form in which it
is used, is the important point. If the family must economize,
the amount of butter may be reduced, but the amount of milk
should at the same time be increased to insure the correct total
of the fat-soluble growth-promoting factor.

Clean, sweet, skim-milk is as valuable as whole-milk for its
supply of lime, its good type of protein, its water-soluble growth-
promoting factor and for a part of its fat-soluble growth-pro-
moting factor. Skim-milk has a lower energy value than does
whole-milk because of the loss of its fat. Half of its fat-soluble
growth-promoting factor is lost with the fat; therefore, skim-
milk has not the same growth-promoting power as whole-milk,
although it still contains growth-promoting properties. For
this reason, children should have whole-milk instead of skim-
milk.

Buttermilk has the same food value as skim-milk. Some
persons digest buttermilk more easily than skim-milk because
the casein is clotted by the acid in the milk. It is believed that
when the casein of milk is clotted before it reaches the stomach,
either by natural souring or by the addition of orange, lemon,
or other fruit juice or junket, it does not form the large firm
clots sometimes formed in the case of sweet milk. The nutri-
tive value of the milk is unchanged, and the clotting may make
the milk more easily digested by some persons.

Cottage cheese, made of the curd of milk, is a valuable food.
It contains most of the protein of the whole-milk and is a good

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 427

source of this important building material. It contains a part
of the lime and the phosphorus of the whole-milk, and part of
the growth-promoting factors, though little can be said as yet
concerning the comparative amounts of these substances present
in it. As a protein food, it is a valuable meat substitute.

Whey also has nutritive value and should never be discarded.
It contains the water-soluble, and a small part of the fat-soluble,
growth-promoting factors, much of the lime, part of the phos-
phorus, and it may contain most of the carbohydrate of the
original milk. It should find many uses in the dietary in the
form of breads and cakes, gelatin desserts, frozen desserts, and
pudding sauces.

The American Cheddar, or cream, cheese made from whole-
milk contains both the protein and the fat of the milk. Pound
for pound, cheese is considerably richer than meat in both pro-
tein and fat. Cheese is rich not only in protein and fat but also
in lime, phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances. When
cheese is served as a meat-saver, that is, cooked in combination
with other foods, it is generally easily digested; it is probably
the serving of cheese with pie at the end of a hearty meal that
has given it the undeserved name of being difficult to digest.

Cream, as well as the butter and ice cream made from it,
has a definite place in the daily food because of growth-promot-
ing substances and the high energy value of the fat. The sour-
ing of cream does not change its nutritive value any more than
does the souring of milk. One pound of butter is equivalent
to five quarts of milk in energy value; but counting the proteins,
lime, and growth-promoting factors that milk contains, three
quarts of milk will give as much total food as a pound of butter.
It is said that not only should three quarts of milk be used in
place of every pound of butter given up, but when a pound of
butter costs more than the three quarts of milk, it is wise
economy to use the milk instead of the butter. In a family
where there are three or more little children, no money should
be spent for a pound of butter or of meat until after an allow-
ance has been made for three quarts of milk.

Butter substitutes are made up more or less of vegetable

428 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

oils, which give energy but which do not contain the necessary
growth-promoting factors of butter-fat. Beef-fat contains a
small amount of the fat-soluble growth-promoting factor; but
even when beef -fat is used in the making of butter substitutes,
the quantity of it and of the small amount of butter added,
varies so greatly that the butter substitute should not be al-
lowed wholly to replace butter in children's food. Butter sub-
stitutes in which vegetable oils are the only fat, are entirely
lacking in this growth-promoting factor. If butter substitutes
are used, extra milk is necessary in order to keep up the supply
of these essential growth-promoting factors.

Boiling is believed to increase the ease of digestion of milk by
preventing the formation of large firm curds in the stomach.
Brief boiling is thought not to injure seriously the value of
either of the growth-promoting factors. Boiled milk seems in
the case of many persons to have a constipating effect, which
may be offset by the use of fruit juices. This may be found to
explain the cause and cure of scurvy. Boiled milk has all
the energy value of fresh milk. Boiling does not seem to affect
the value of the protein sufficiently to be of any serious dis-
advantage. Any injury to the value of the protein by boiling
is probably due, in part at least, to the coagulation of the al-
bumen of the milk. Increasing the amount of milk fed, if milk
is the only food, seems to correct any damage which might be
produced by boiling, either on the protein or on the growth-
promoting factors.

If, as occasionally happens, milk reacts on the individual as a
poison, a special study should be made in order to include in
the dietary foods other than milk that are rich in lime. Many
times, however, a dislike for milk may be confused with inabil-
ity to use it. If it is merely distaste that prevents its use, milk
may be included in the dietary by being cooked with other
foods. Eggs will replace milk, if it is impossible to use the latter.
Milk is a valuable substitute for meat.

Eggs should be used as long as they can be afforded. When
possible, one egg a day should be used for each child in the family,
and, if available, one or two for each adult. The children and

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 429

women of the family should have the eggs first, since they need
the most iron. If the cost of eggs makes their use impossible,
thought should be given to increasing the use of other foods
that are rich in iron. The cheapest of these are breakfast
foods or breads made from the whole cereal grain. Frequently
it is objected that milk and eggs cause biliousness. If this hap-
pens, it is in most cases due not to the use of milk and eggs,
but rather to the absence of fruits and vegetables in the dietary.
Eggs are not only valuable sources of iron, they are also rich in
lime, rich in both of the unknown substances (so-called vita-
mines) necessary for growth and health, and the protein of eggs
is of the efficient type. Eggs may be used to replace meat or
milk.

Meat is not a necessary food if other animal foods are used
in the dietary. Its greatest advantage over other animal foods
is its palatability. Meat in the diet of little children is always
questionable. The protein of meat is very subject to putre-
faction, and the digestive tract of the child is particularly sus-
ceptible to this condition. The protein of meat is a valuable type
but not necessary if milk, cheese, or eggs replace it. Meat con-
tains stimulating substances not desirable for the normal child.
It has a high iron content, but the susceptibility of meat to
putrefaction may often destroy its value as a carrier of iron.
Iron may often be introduced better in the diet through other
foods. Meat lacks lime and has a much more limited quantity
of the growth-promoting substance that is carried by certain
fats than has either milk or eggs. It contains the second growth-
promoting substance (page 412). The protein substitutes for
meat are milk, cheese, eggs, and to a lesser extent soybeans
and peanuts. Other legumes are not good meat substitutes
unless used with milk, cheese, or eggs.

Fruits and vegetables should be used liberally in the dietary,
for they are among nature's best body-cleansing and regulating
agents. They furnish substances which stimulate the activity
of the intestine, neutralize the harmful acids produced by the
tissues, and keep both intestine and blood in good condition.
Fruits stimulate digestion and are appetizing additions to the

430 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

day's food. Complaint is often made that at certain seasons
fruit and vegetables are too expensive to be used liberally.
However, their value is not comparable to the loss of efficiency
resulting from a diet that lacks natural laxatives and iron.
When apples are cheap they should be baked or made into apple-
sauce and should be canned for use during a season of scarcity.
Carrots, beets, turnips, cabbage, onions, and parsnips are cheap
at a time when other vegetables are expensive, and if carefully
prepared they are easily digested; they not only give variety
to the dietary, but also furnish the much-needed vegetable
material.

A diet enriched by fruits and vegetables has a tendency to
prevent or correct anaemia, to prevent constipation and its
attendant ills, and to improve general health conditions in that
it increases the amount of iron furnished to the blood and helps
to prevent a putrefactive condition in the intestine. The
leaves and stems of plants are particularly valuable additions
to the dietary in that they supply lime and fat-soluble growth-
promoting substances.

Those cereals and cereal foods that contain the larger part
of the grain should be given preference in the dietary. While
such a cereal food as white flour retains all the original energy-
yielding ingredients and most of the protein, it has lost in the
milling process the substances occurring in the outer layers,
which stimulate the activity of the intestines, which help in
such body functions as bone-building and the formation of red
blood corpuscles, and one of which promotes growth.

White bread is entirely wholesome if thought is given to in-
cluding in the meals, in forms other than bread, the substances
lost by the flour during the milling process. This may be ac-
complished by using fruits and vegetables for their laxative
properties, milk for its lime and growth-promoting substances,
and eggs for their iron. The proteins in the cereal grains are
not of the efficient type and must be supplemented in the diet
with animal proteins. Cereal grains also lack both lime and
the growth-promoting substance soluble in fat.

Sweets in the dietary are unquestionably desirable, but they

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 431

should be served in such a manner as not to reduce the appetite
for other foods and not to satisfy the appetite with sweet foods
only. Fruits and vegetables, simple desserts of various kinds,
jam with bread at the close of the meal, and candy occasionally
in place of other desserts, are the best ways of using sugar.
The craving for sugar between meals generally indicates a
badly controlled appetite or a poorly fed individual; or it may
be the outcome of some diseased condition of the body.

Candy or other sweet foods eaten between meals result in
poor appetite. Sugar is an abundant source of energy, is easily
digested and absorbed, and rightly used it has its place in the
dietary. It lacks altogether any building foods, and, if used
in large quantities, is very irritating to the mucous membrane.
Therefore, it should not be eaten to the exclusion of other foods.
The candy-fed child, refusing as it does other foods at meal-
times, is very likely to have poor, decayed teeth, weak bones,
flabby muscles, and a disordered stomach. The rule should be
to use sugar with other foods and at the close of the meal.

Enough water should be consumed each day to maintain the
body in a clean, wholesome condition. It is just as necessary
to bathe the body inside as outside. Many cases of serious
bodily disorder are directly traceable to neglect of the needs
of the body for water. Constipation is frequently the result
of insufficient water in the dietary.

The dietary should be planned to meet the needs of all mem-
bers of the family. The main part of the meal may be made suit-
able for all, and to this the foods especially needed by each in-
dividual may be added. Little children should not eat all foods
that are allowable for adults, nor should the grown members of
the family be limited to the same simplicity of diet as the chil-
dren, for children have undeveloped digestive organs that will
be overtaxed by heavy foods. The strength of food in the diet
of the child should be increased only as the muscles of digestion
strengthen and develop. Foods that are too strong overtax
the immature digestive tract, and foods that are too weak fail
to develop it.

Persons working hard outdoors eat more food than those

432 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

whose work is of a light, indoor character. Not only are they
able to digest easily foods that are rated as difficult to digest,
but they may actually need food that will require at least mod-
erate work on the part of the digestive tract. They may have a
disagreeable feeling of hunger, even when sufficiently fed, if the
food consumed does not "stay by" them for a certain period
of time. Just the reverse is true of the indoor worker who uses
his muscles but little. These facts are often overlooked, and
frequently the entire dietary is shaped -to the needs of one
member of the family. Hard muscular work increases the need
for energy-producing foods but does not materially affect the
need for other types of food.

Examples of desirable food combinations

Some simple combinations will serve to show how few foods
may be put together and yet answer all requirements.

Menu I

Whole-wheat bread

Whole-milk

Prunes

A dietary must be built on broad lines even if it is simple,
and care must be taken not to err by a simplicity which excludes
any needed food constituent.

There are many persons who have acquired a distaste for
milk unless it is served in some cooked form. When this is the
case and when warm food is desired, a meal but little less simple
than the one just suggested may be prepared by making the
"hearty dish" a vegetable cream soup. Such soups, which are
easy to make, nutritious, and very delicious if well cooked and
seasoned, are too little used in the family dietary.

Menu II

Cream of potato soup, or any vegetable soup having a milk

foundation
Bread and butter
Fruit or a succulent vegetable

Any one of the following combinations makes a well-balanced
meal if sufficient amounts of the food are consumed. This does

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 433

not indicate that they are ideal for all conditions. Babies,
small children, and persons who have a weakened digestive
system would not be given baked beans and brown bread, or
bread and cheese.

Menu III Menu IV

Eggs Oatmeal, with sugar and thin

Bread and butter cream or whole-milk

Fruit or some vegetable Fruit

Menu V Menu VI

Baked soybeans Bread and cheese

Brown bread Onions

Cabbage salad with
egg dressing

Menu VII
Meat

Bread and butter
Green vegetables

While the food combinations just given theoretically answer
all dietary requirements, they may not be practical in those cases
in which food habits of long standing lead the individual to
demand a greater variety. The appetite accustomed to stronger
fare might pall if stimulated only with such simple mixtures.

A basis for more elaborate menus is as follows:

Menu VIII

Cream soup

Bread and butter

Meat

Potatoes

Cabbage

Baked apples and cream

FOOD FOR THE PROSPECTIVE MOTHER

The woman's food needs are very little increased during the
first months of the growth of the child. Even if the appetite
is small and trouble is experienced with nausea, the actual
growth of the child is so little as not to be seriously effective
at this time, in most cases. During the later months of preg-
nancy the increase in food needs of the mother are still compar-
atively small, probably not more than 15 to 20 per cent above

434 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

normal. This does not mean that the food for the prospective
mother is unimportant. It is highly important that she should
have an adequate and well-balanced dietary. She needs it to
keep her efficiency and to produce an efficient child. It should
be her problem to maintain a normally efficient diet, increasing
it toward the close of the period.

Foods needed by the prospective mother are: (1) Milk. From
a pint to a quart of milk a day should be used to supply lime,
efficient protein, and the two growth-essential substances.
(2) Cereals made from the whole grain should be used to supply
energy, protein, and iron, and to increase the laxative substances
in the diet. (3) Fruits and vegetables. To give flavor, needed
salts, lime, iron, and laxative substances, fruits and vegetables
are essential. Green vegetables are especially valuable for the
iron that they supply. (4) Meat or eggs or cheese. Once a
day meat, eggs, and cheese may be used, -although they are not
needed if the mother receives fully a quart of milk. (5) Bread
and butter. The dietary may be completed with bread and
butter. It is of especial importance that the diet of the pro-
spective mother should be laxative if she has any tendency to
constipation.

FOOD FOR THE NURSING MOTHER

The food need of the nursing mother is increased in proportion
to the amount of milk she produces and the child consumes. It
has been estimated that her food needs are increased as follows :
For the first 3 months about 90 calories for each pound of the

baby's weight
For the second 3 months about 85 calories for each pound of the

baby's weight
For the third 3 months about 80 calories for each pound of the

baby's weight
For the fourth 3 months about 70 calories for each pound of the

baby's weight.

This means a marked increase in the mother's energy needs.
For example, if the baby weighs 10 pounds when it is a month
old, the mother must increase the calorie value of her diet 10

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 435

times 90 calories, or about 900 calories. A quart of milk, an
egg, two pieces of bread, and an extra allowance of vegetables
will accomplish this.

The mother's diet must supply not only more energy but also
more protein of good quality, more lime, more phosphorus,
more iron, and more of the two essential unknown growth-
promoting substances, or so-called vitamines. If the diet of
the mother does not supply efficient food, she cannot manufac-
ture sufficient milk of good quality to meet the needs of the baby.

Two of the best foods to increase the amount of protein, lime,
phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances in the diet are
milk and eggs. Eggs give in addition considerable iron.

The diet of the nursing mother should be laxative, and con-
sequently fruits, mild-flavored vegetables, and breakfast foods
and breads made from the whole cereal grain should play an
important part. There is no truth in the old superstition that
fruits in the diet of the mother produce colic in the baby.

FORMULAS FOR INFANT FEEDING

If a baby cannot be fed by its own mother, the next best
thing is the milk of some other animal. A study of the food
needs (pages 407 to 412) will soon show why milk is practi-
cally an essential food for little children. The following sim-
ple formulas may be of service to mothers who are unable to
nurse their own babies.

First week

First day : 1 to 2 ounces of Water every 4 hours.

Second to fourth days: Mix 3 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 2
teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings.

Fifth to seventh days: Mix 4 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 3
teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings.

First week to third month

Mix 5 ounces of milk, 9 to 11 ounces of water, and 3 tablespoons of milk-
sugar, and divide the mixture into six or seven feedings. Gradually increase
the amounts until at the end of the period the mixture contains about 16
ounces of milk, 14 to 18 ounces of water, and 4}/ tablespoons of milk-sugar.

Third month to sixth month

Mix 16 ounces of milk, 14 to 18 ounces of water, and 4^ tablespoons of
milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into five or six feedings. Gradually

436 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

increase the amounts until at the close of the period the mixture contains
about 24 ounces of milk, 9 to 13 ounces of water, and 4^ tablespoons of
milk-sugar.

Sixth month to ninth month

Mix 24 ounces of milk, 9 to 13 ounces of water, and 4^ tablespoons of
milk-sugar. Divide this mixture into five feedings. Gradually increase
the amounts until at the end of this period the mixture contains 30 ounces
of milk, 8 ounces of water, and 3 tablespoons of milk-sugar. Cook 2 or
3 tablespoons of barley flour with the water used in the mixture.

Midway between the two morning feedings give 1 to 2 tablespoons of
strained, diluted orange juice.

Ninth month to twelfth month

Mix 30 ounces of milk, 6 to 8 ounces of barley gruel, and 3 tablespoons
of milk-sugar. Divide this amount into five feedings. Give 1 to 2 table-
spoons of strained orange or prune juice between the two morning feedings.
Gradually increase the milk until at the close of the period the child is re-
ceiving a quart of milk and a pint of barley gruel. Increase the amount of
orange juice to 3 tablespoons. Half of a soft-cooked egg may be fed at this
time. A piece of stale or twice-baked bread may be given the child to chew.

THE PART MILK SHOULD PLAY IN THE DIET DURING GROWTH

Food for a child 12 to 18 months old

Breakfast: 6 to 8 ounces of warm milk; 1 or 2 tablespoons of thoroughly
cooked, strained cereal with top milk.

Mid-morning lunch: 6 to 8 ounces of warm milk; piece of twice-baked
bread.

Dinner: 6 to 8 ounces of warm milk; thin piece of crisp toast or twice-
baked bread; slightly cooked egg.

Mid-afternoon lunch: 2 or 3 tablespoons of orange juice or other mild
fruit juice.

Supper: 6 to 8 ounces of milk; 1 or 2 tablespoons of thoroughly cooked,
strained cereal with top milk.

Type of meals for children 18 months to 2 years old

Breakfast (6:30-7:30 A. M.) : Warm milk with lightly buttered bread; or
cereal with thin cream, glass of warm milk; or lightly cooked egg, lightly
buttered bread, glass of warm milk.

Mid-morning meal (10 A. M.): Glass of milk with slice of bread.

Dinner (1-2 P. M.): Mashed potato with dish gravy, bread and milk,
very small serving baked apple or prune pulp; or lightly cooked egg, bread
and milk, small serving baked apple or prune; or mashed spinach, carrots,
or similar vegetable, bread and milk, small serving very simple junket or
rice pudding or similar simple dessert.

Mid-afternoon meal: tablespoon of orange juice or scraped apple.

Supper (5-6 P. M.): Bread and milk or milk toast.

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 437

Although the child may be at the family table from about the
third year, he should not be allowed the freedom of the family
dietary. It is far better for the child to learn that certain foods
are not for his consumption. There is no better lesson in self-
control or temperance than the one that may be taught in this
simple way.

Type of meals for children 2 to 4 years old

Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, or lightly
cooked egg with toast and milk.

Mid-morning meal (10-11 A. M.): Bread and milk.

Dinner: Lightly cooked egg, buttered baked potato, bread, milk, stewed
fruit; or mashed vegetables, such as spinach, puree of peas, or carrots,
bread, milk, light pudding, such as rice or bread pudding or junket, or
occasionally a simple ice cream; or bread and milk, baked potato and one
other vegetable, small serving of pudding.

Supper (5-6 P. M.) : Bread and butter, milk; or cereal mush and milk; or
bread and milk, and stewed prunes or apple-sauce.

Type of meals for children 4 to 8 years old

Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Stewed fruit; cereal with whole milk or thin
cream, bread and milk; an egg may be added to this meal.

Mid-morning meal: Milk with thin slice of bread and butter.

Dinner (12-1 P. M.) : Lightly cooked egg, spinach or peas or beans well
mashed, baked potato or boiled -rice, stewed fruit or light pudding.

Supper: Well-cooked cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, stewed fruit;
or lightly cooked egg, bread and butter, milk to drink, baked apple.

Type of meals for children from 8 to 12 years old

Breakfast: Cereal with thin cream; eggs, poached, boiled, or scrambled;
milk with bread and butter; fruit may be eaten at this meal.

Mid-morning meal: Glass of milk and a cracker.

Dinner: Small piece of steak or roast, fish or chicken; potato, rightly
cooked cabbage or other vegetable; bread and butter and milk; some simple
dessert, such as custard, bread and jelly, or fruit.

Supper: Eggs or cream soup or milk toast, bread and butter, milk,
stewed fruit or bread and jelly.

Type of meals for boys and girls 12 to 16 years old

Breakfast: Stewed or fresh fruit; well-cooked cereal with thin cream or
whole milk; bread and butter; milk or cocoa; eggs, if available.

Luncheon or supper: Scalloped hominy and cheese; bread and butter;
milk or cocoa; fruit, raw or cooked.

Dinner: Small serving of meat (a meat substitute may be used); mashed,
baked, boiled or creamed potatoes; a liberal serving of some succulent
vegetable, bread and butter; milk; a simple dessert.

CHAPTER XVIII

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD
BY ANNA HUTSTN

THE housewife has the duty and privilege of spending for food
on an average of about 30 or 40 per cent of the family income.
Hers is the tremendous responsibility of seeing that the family
is supplied with food necessary for its growth and maintenance
at its highest efficiency. Good buying is based on knowledge.
This knowledge may be obtained only through practice and
study. The housewife should, therefore, be alert and quick to
seize every opportunity to know more of the production, the
marketing, the nutritive value, and the cost of the vast number
of articles which she has to buy. She is expected to be expert
in the buying of not only one article, but hundreds. She has
an unlimited field for study.

A good buyer plans for the present and for the future. She
carefully considers the material in the storerooms, ice-boxes,
and gardens, and plans to buy only that which will supplement
or enable her to use the food already on hand. The next step
is to visit the markets. The good buyer rarely telephones.
The exceptions to this rule would be an emergency call or the
buying of standard products, such as sugar, cereals, spices, or
known brands of goods.

The housewife uses the senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell
in her final judgment of food. It is quite as essential that she
should use the same senses in buying food. To do this it is
necessary that she should go to market. For buying commodi-
ties it might be well to have the following points in mind: A
definite amount should be ordered in pounds or definite meas-
ure; the unit price of the commodity should be ascertained;
correct scales and measures should be used and the full amount

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 439

paid for delivered. To check the measures and weights, cor-
rect scales and measures should be a part of every kitchen
equipment (page 129).

BUYING FRESH OR STAPLE FOODSTUFFS

Kind of food.

The kind of food which the buyer seeks is based on the family's
standard of living. Such as may quite properly be bought by
those who can afford it, may not be at all suitable for those with
a smaller income.

In order to choose wisely between two or more foods, the
housewife should know the nutritive value, the proportion of
edible and non-edible material, and the cost. This knowledge
comes only through study and comparison.

Grade of food.

After the buyer has decided on the kind of food to buy, the
next step is to select the grade best suited to individual needs.
To be able to judge of grades, it is necessary to know the stand-
ard products, or to know the qualities that enhance and the
qualities that decrease the value of the food.

In the case of fresh fruits and vegetables, the standard prod-
uct should be well-matured, sound, free from blemish, uniform
in size and shape, of good color, fresh, clean, and well packed.
Most of these qualities may be determined by the eye, some by
the touch, and others by the odor and the taste. Among grades,
as among foods themselves, there are differences in nutritive
value, in proportion of edible and non-edible material, and in
cost. These differences may be determined only by study and
comparison. Selection of meat is discussed on page 510, and
canned foods on page 445.

Up to the present time, most food has been graded from the
point of view of the producer rather than of the consumer.
Few foods have been graded and labeled so that the consumer
and the merchant can talk on the same basis. Until this is
done, it will be difficult for the housewife to buy intelligently.
She should, however, read carefully the labels on all packages

440

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

showing the net weights and the composition of the con-
tents.

Amount to be bought.

After the kind and grade of food have been decided on, it is
next necessary to determine the definite amount to buy, which
depends primarily on such factors as the following : The amount
allowed for one person (this amount is the basis of good buying
and if properly estimated insures enough food for all and elimi-
nates to a great degree the problem of left-over food [see Table
XXII] ) ; the number to be fed; the number of times the food is
to be served; the keeping qualities of the food (the amount
bought should be small enough to prevent depreciation); the
available storage facilities; the amount of money available to in-
vest (interest on the money invested in food should be added to
the cost of the food) ; the terms of contract ; the relative advan-

TABLE XXII. SERVINGS OF VEGETABLES IN ONE POUND

Vegetable

Approximate size
of serving

Number servings
in one pound

Asparagus

/4 cup

B6ans dry

J^ cup

8-9

Beans string . . .

]/2 CUp

Beets

^ cup

4-5

Cabbage

% cup

Carrots

/^ cup

4-5

Cauliflower

%cup

Celery

]/2 CUp

Onions

H cup

Parsnips

J^ cup

Potatoes

% cup

Salsify

Yi cup

Brussels sprouts

3^ cup

5-6

Spinach

H cup

Souash summer

/^ cup

1-2

Squash, winter
Sweet potatoes

Yz cup
1 potato

2-3

3-4

Swiss chard

/^ cup

3-4

Tomatoes

Yz cup

3-4

Turnips

Yz cup

4-5

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD

441

tages of buying in large quantities; the season of the year (it is
best to buy large amounts of food for storage when the new crops
come in; this is especially true of dried fruits and many grain
products, which come on the market but once a year) ; the cost.

Bulk or unit package.

When the amount to be bought has been determined, the
housewife must decide whether to buy in bulk or package, and,
if in package, the size of the unit. It is generally cheaper to buy
in bulk than in package. (See Table XXIII.) The package
costs more because of the container and the labor involved in
packing and handling. The package, on the other hand, has
the merit of being air-tight and dirt-proof. For these and other
reasons it is preferred by some persons. It is possible, however,
for the grocer to keep food in bulk in a satisfactory and sanitary
condition. Buying in bulk usually necessitates storage in moist-

TABLE XXIII. COMPARISON OP COST OF FOOD BOUGHT IN PACKAGE

AND IN BULK

Food

Cost of
package

Weight or measure
of contents of
package

Amount obtainable
in bulk for the
same money

Bacon

$ 50

9 ounces

13 . 3 ounces

Cocoa

.38

16 ounces

30.4 ounces

Cocoanut

3 5 ounces

5 75 ounces

Codfish

.24

16 ounces

20 ounces

Coffee

16 ounces

17 5 ounces

Crackers (soda)
Crackers (graham)
Ginger snaps

.05

.10
.05

24 crackers
33 crackers
5 ounces

35 crackers
48 crackers
8 ounces

Ginger

075

4 ounces

6 ounces

Macaroni

.10

12.5 ounces

16 ounces

Peanut butter
Peas (a can)
Raisins

.30
.18
135

20 ounces
2 cups
15 ounces

27 ounces
4 cups cooked
16 ounces

Rolled oats
Saltines

.13
15

20 ounces
45 crackers

23 ounces
96 crackers

Starch

.09

16 ounces

19.5 ounces

Tapioca

16 ounces

19 ounces

Vinegar

.24

1 quart

2 quarts.

442

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ure and vermin-proof receptacles. Such receptacles accumu-
late in every household and should be saved for this purpose.

Units of sale.

Most commodities are sold by the pound. The tendency is
to increase the number thus sold, since the pound is an exact

TABLE XXIV. UNITS IN WHICH VEGETABLES ARE SOLD IN NEW YORK

STATE

Vegetable

Unit

Asparagus

Beans, string

Beans, lima

Beets

Brussels sprouts

Cabbage

Cabbage, Chinese

Cauliflower

Carrots

Celery

Corn

Cress

Cucumbers

Eggplant

Horse-radish root

Kale

Kohlrabi

Leeks

Lettuce

Mushrooms

Onions

Parsley

Parsnips

Peas

Peppers

Potatoes

Pumpkin

Radishes

Romaine

Squash

Tomatoes

Turnips

Salsify (vegetable oyster)

Bunch varies from ^ to 2 1 A pounds

Pound; 25-pound hamper

Pound in pod; quarts when shelled

Pound; bunch

Quart

Pound

Pound; crate; hamper

Pound; bunch

Bunch, 12 stalks in a bunch

Dozen ears

Pound

Piece; dozen; hamper

Piece; crate; hamper

Pound

Head; dozen heads

Pound

Bunch; dozen bunches

Pound

Bushel measure

Piece; dozen; barrel

Pound

Piece

Bunch; dozen bunches

Pound

Pound; standard Y^ bushel crate

Pound

Bunch; dozen bunches

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD

443

TABLE XXV. UNITS IN WHICH FRUITS ARE SOLD IN NEW YORK STATE

Fruit

Unit

Apples

Apricots. . . .
Bananas. . .

Berries

Cantaloupes .
Cranberries .
Grape fruit .

Grapes

Lemons. . . .
Oranges. . . .
Peaches ....

Pears

Pineapples. .
Plums. . . . .
Quinces ....
Rhubarb . . .
Watermelon .

Pound; standard barrel (3 bushels)

California crate, 22 pounds

Pound

Quart; crate of 32 quarts

Pound; crate according to size

Pound; 100 pounds in a barrel

Piece; box of from 46 to 96 grapefruit

Pound

Dozen; box of from 300 to 360 lemons

Dozen; box of from 96 to 250 oranges

Pound; standard }/% bushel peach basket

Pound

Piece; case

Standard }/?. bushel basket

By measure

Pound

Piece

measure, whereas the bunch or basket or other container is too
often unstandardized. (See Tables XXIV and XXV.)

Price.

The price to pay depends on market conditions. The market
and crop conditions may be learned by a study of the market
reports in the daily newspapers. These prices, however, are
generally wholesale prices, and since the latter are not always
reflected in the retail market, they serve only as a guide. Local
crop and local market conditions may be such as either to lower
or raise the retail price. In order to obtain the best price, it is
necessary for the housewife to study the prices at the local stores
and then, if possible, compare them with prices of some out-of-
town firm.

Where to buy.

The question of where to buy may be settled by buying where
the maximum value can be obtained for the minimum price.
This place can be determined by a study of markets. It is al-
ways advisable to know the sanitary conditions surrounding the

444

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

production and marketing of the products. There is also to be
considered the factor of discounts, generally based on the amount
bought, the time and place of delivery, and the delivery charges.
When buying from out of town, it is necessary to consider the
cost of freight and cartage. Cheapness does not always mean
good quality or full weight. Every food at a reduced price is
offered for one of two reasons: because the market is over-
supplied; or because the owner is afraid to risk further deprecia-
tion. In most cases this depreciation has already set in, and it is
unwise to buy such food unless it can be used immediately. If
the dealer is selling goods below the market price, the goods are
generally below the market standards. Only an expert can
know a bargain.

Inspection of goods on delivery.

On arrival at the house, goods should be opened and examined
as to grade and condition. If not acceptable, they should be
returned at once. The goods should be checked with the in-
voice for quantity and weight, price of units, and total costs. The
invoice should be filed to check with the weekly or monthly bill.

Records.

In the case of staples, it is often desirable to keep a stock

STOCK RECORD SUGAR

Date

Amount
(Pounds)

Price a
pound

(Dollars)

Total
cost
(Dollars)

Inventory
(Pounds)

Yearly con-
sumption
(Pounds)

1916

8/17

.09

.45

8/28

.08

.80

9/5

.05

1.25

9/20

.07^

1.14

1917

2/10

.05

2.50

4/15

.05

1.25

130

7.39

9/7

112

9/21

100

.09

9.00

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 445

record. The form of record as here suggested for sugar enables
one to tell at a glance the date, the amount bought, and the
price paid for the article in question. The housekeeper has in
these stock cards a basis on which to buy for the coming year.
In case no other records (page 177) are kept, it is desirable to
include the name of the firm from whom the goods were bought.

Storage.

The proper storing of food is very important, because only
by having good storage conditions can there be profit in buying
in large quantities. It is desirable to have cool, dry, and well-
ventilated store-rooms (page 583). Fresh vegetables, fresh
fruits, and dried vegetables and fruits should be kept in such a
storeroom, and should be so packed as to allow free circulation
of air. The exceptions to this rule are sweet potatoes, which
should be stored in a dry, warm place, and bananas, which
should never be allowed to chill since this causes them to
blacken. Staples, such as cereals, flours, sugars, and other dry
products should be kept in dry, moderately cool, well-ventilated
storage. Meat, fish, butter, and milk may be kept at a lower
temperature, 36 F., or lower.

Low temperature and lack of moisture both tend to retard
the growth of micro-organisms that cause spoilage. Most
storage foods should be well matured before being stored and
should be looked over at certain intervals for the removal of
any decayed or spoiled portions.

BUYING CANNED FOODS*

Grading fruits and vegetables for canning.

Before one can distinguish the relative values of market
grades of canned goods, it is necessary to know how these are
determined by the packer. For fruits and vegetables the lines
of quality determination are much the same and as follows :

* The following discussion of canned foods is condensed from Canned
Foods, Fruits and Vegetables, by Florence R. Corbett, Tech. Education
Bull. 18, Teachers College, Columbia University.

446 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Locality in which the fruit or vegetable is grown. Naturally
the fruits and vegetables produced in sections where expert
gardening or fruit-raising prevails and which naturally favor
such crops, will be superior in quality. Of the most common and
widely used, those grown in the northern states are superior in
texture and flavor to those grown in the South, and because of
the firmer texture " stand up" better in packing.

Size of the fruit or vegetable. The larger the fruit, provided it
is uniform and good in other respects, the higher it will be graded.
The smaller vegetables are graded highest, since they are gen-
erally younger and tenderer, juicier, and sweeter.

Flavor is an important factor to the consumer, but does not
take precedence of size, texture, and color in grading either
fruits or vegetables, because the buyer is generally influenced
by the handsome appearance of fruits or the delicate appear-
ance of immature vegetables which may be quite lacking in
flavor. The public's preference is taken into consideration,
and fine-flavored products, not notable for size or color, may
be graded lower than those of pleasing appearance and infer-
ior flavor. A striking illustration of this is found in the pref-
erence for very small peas which consist principally of skins,
water, and a little sugar. Because of public preference, these
are graded higher than the larger peas of rich flavor and higher
nutritive value.

Texture. 'Fine texture is a characteristic of high-grade fruits
and vegetables. Tough peas and beans, fibrous okra and as-
paragus are graded low.

Color. The natural color of the product when at its best
is the standard of the high-grade pack. Unfortunately, the
attempt to emulate nature has been overdone by some packers
to the point where most of the public have come to regard cop-
per-greened peas and beans as superior to those of nature's
green. Now that the law requires that the facts regarding the
use of coloring matter be stated on the package, the public is in a
position to choose between the natural and the artificial, the safe
and the possibly harmful. Fortunately, it is the fancy grades
of vegetables which receive the copper treatment, such as the

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 447

very small peas and beans in which the nutritive value is low and
the price prohibitively high to the average buyer. Even when
the natural color of the vegetable after cooking is the standard
sought, grading of the product is still done on color lines. Peas
that have an occasional yellow one in the lot are graded lower
than those uniformly green, while if many are yellowish the lot
is graded lower still. String beans containing an occasional
brown or rusty pod are graded lower than those uniformly
green.

Form, whole or cut. The fruit or vegetable of suitable size
which is sufficiently perfect free from bruise and spots of de-
cay to can whole is of the highest grade, provided it grades
high on other points. Those cut in halves grade next highest,
such as peaches, apricots, r pears, and apples, and those in slices
next, such as sliced peaches. Smaller pieces, sometimes re-
ferred to as chips, grade lower yet. Pineapple slices afford the
highest grade in that fruit, the chunks and cubes grading next
and the chipped, grated, and crushed pineapple respectively
lower.

Preparation; peeled, unpeeled, pitted, cored. Those fruits
which are improved by peeling are left unpeeled only in the
lowest grades. The same is true of pitting and coring, except
when the fruit is handsome in appearance but unsound at the
pit or core.

Medium of packing. Fruits packed in water are of the lowest
grade and generally known as "pie" fruit. Those packed in
sirups are graded according to the density of the sirup, 35 to
40 sirup being used for preserves, such as strawberries, 30 to
34 for fancy peaches, plums and other fruit for table sauce;
25 to 28 for high-grade fruits for table sauce; 20 to 25 for a
still less rich grade of table sauce, and 10 to 20 for very light
sirup suitable only on sweet fruits or those to which more sugar
will be added in preparation for the table. Juicy vegetables such
as tomatoes are now by law required to be packed in their own
juice. Other vegetables must be packed in as little water as is
necessary to immerse them completely. A little salt and sugar
are allowed in the liquid.

448 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Trade terms.

"Pie fruit" is the lowest class of fruit. In peaches there are
two grades, the unpeeled and the peeled, the latter bringing the
higher price.

The " standard " grade of fruit ranks next. It has the lightest
sirup and consists of the relatively inferior fruits in size, color,
flavor, and texture.

" Extra standard," " extra," and "fancy" are terms applied
to grades increasingly good. If fruits grade high as to variety,
color, size, flavor, texture, and are packed in heavy sirup, they
will be graded as Fancy, and fruits less good will fall into the
other group grades according to the degree in which they ap-
proximate the grade called Fancy, and according to the weight
of sirup used. That it is quite impossible under this system to
depend on the term Fancy representing the same quality of
fruit year after year is easily seen, for the crops yielded of various
fruits are seldom of the same standard in successive years. The
same is true of any grade. In a good year the trade known as
Standard may prove better than the Extra Standard in a poor
year. This makes for uncertainty on the part of the purchaser,
and any buyer of large quantities of canned goods finds it nec-
essary to see the contents of tins selected as samples and to order
according to sample as well as by grade and trade name. The
small buyer is at a great disadvantage in being unable to do
this.

The trade terms for grades of vegetables are in general the
same as for fruits. The poorest of southern-grown produce and
the trimmings of northern-grown are graded below standard.
In tomatoes these sub-standard grades are sometimes known as
"pulp" and "puree." In peas they are known as "seconds"
and "soaked." This last term refers to peas that have grown
too hard for canning purposes, but have been soaked in water
from twelve to thirty-six hours and then canned.

Quality of canned goods.

On opening the can the volume of the contents in relation
to the capacity of the can should be noted. The contents should

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 449

fill the can; any considerable space between the top of the can
and the surface of the contents should count against the grade
of the product.

Any excess of liquid, that is, more than is necessary to im-
merse the solids, lowers the grade of the package.

The presence of any foreign material such as drops of solder
or bits of paper, which indicate careless methods in packing,
should be looked for.

Peas. In canned peas, a very cloudy or starchy liquid prob-
ably indicates that the peas have been "soaked." This would
be confirmed by the peas being mealy, large, and with skins
easily loosened in the can. Since peas are graded according to
size, those known as " sifted," whatever the size, are higher in
price than the unsifted, sometimes known as "the run of the
garden." A large number of yellowish peas in a can indicates
inferior quality and flavor.

String beans. The smaller string beans, less than two inches
in length, are high priced and more decorative than nutritious.
Those over three inches in length are coarse. Those between
two and three inches are generally satisfactory. The "cut"
beans are cheaper but not uniformly good in flavor and texture.

Lima beans. The smaller lima beans, bush limas, are higher
in price and generally of a better color than the large beans,
pole limas.

Corn. Canned corn that is very milky or full of liquid may
be sweet, but it does not grade so high as the dry packs and
does not keep so well.

Okra. Young okra is tender and the pods are canned whole.
This brings a better price than the older pods which are cut
before being packed.

Spinach. Good spinach is packed whole, that is, the leaves
are not cut. The chopped packs lack the fresh flavor of the
other and their quality is less certain.

Tomatoes. Tomatoes "hand packed" and "cold packed"
are put whole into the cans while raw and steamed, so that they
are cooked in their own juice. If any additional juice is re-
quired to fill the crevices, it is supposed to be tomato juice.

450 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Tomatoes so packed are superior to those cooked before the
cans are filled, and will be found practically whole when the can
is opened.

Fruits. All large fruits are more expensive in tins than are
small fruits, because the tins are more solidly filled with the
latter and more portions can be served from a tin of given size.
Of the large fruits canned whole or in halves, neither the largest
nor the smallest are the most economical investment, but rather
the medium size. This is because portions are made by the
piece rather than the spoonful and the very large pieces are few
to the tin, while the very small necessitate two or more pieces
being served to the portion. Large fruits bought in the cut-
form, for example, peach slices, peach chips, and pineapple
chips, are most economical of all, for the same reason that small
fruits are economical.

Safe and unsafe tin cans.

"Sanitary" cans. Until the last few years it was the general
custom to seal tin cans by soldering. It was inevitable that
some small portion of the solder should be exposed to the action
of the contents of the can, and frequently drops of solder were
lost among the contents of the can. The " sanitary" can is now
used by the best packers. In this can the food is hermetically
sealed without the use of solder by a clever mechanical device
which folds and compresses the overlapping edges of the top and
sides of the can. Such cans are stamped "Sanitary" on one
end, and the consumer should discriminate in their favor for
his own safety and to encourage the use of the best methods in
packing.

Lacquer-lined cans. To prevent the undesirable reaction be-
tween acid fruits and vegetables and the metal of the cans, all
tins employed for packing foods of strongly acid character
should be lacquer-lined by a heat-resisting varnish. This is
especially important since the cost of tin has advanced and the
tin covering of sheet metal used for the manufacture of cans has
become very thin.

Rusted cans. Cans rusted on the exterior are not evidence

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 451

of deteriorating contents, but cans rusted on the interior may
have an undesirable effect on the food. Experience shows that
soldered cans are often so rusted at the soldered end.

"Swells." Imperfectly sterilized foods often produce gas,
which bulges the ends of cans and sometimes causes the can to
burst. This is more likely to occur in the case of those foods
that contain the least acid and are most difficult to sterilize,
such as corn. Reputable distributors will accept such goods,
known as " swells," if the swelling has occurred within a time
limit set at the date of sale, and will reimburse the buyer to the
amount of the bill. It is difficult for the small buyer to return
such packages to the retail dealer for credit unless he can prove
that he has had the goods but a short time and has kept them in
a cool place. Quantities of swelled cans are returned constantly
to packers and distributors, and unscrupulous handlers of such
goods are known to have returned them to the market by the
process of puncturing the can along the side to allow the escape
of gas, then re-heating, re-sealing, and re-labeling. Such prac-
tice may be detected on opening the can by the presence of the
punctured and soldered spot. Needless to say the use of food
so processed is most unsafe.

Labels and trade names or brands.

The interests of the consumer necessitate that the label
shall declare the name of the packing company, the place of
packing, the weight of contents, the amount of liquid, the me-
dium of the pack (water or sirup), the grade of the product,
and the name and address of the distributors or jobbers. All
this should appear whether the goods are packed in the state
where they are sold or in another state. The date when packed
should be stamped in the tin, as the word ''sanitary" now is in
some cans.

In order that the statement regarding grade of goods may not
be misleading, it is necessary that trade names of grades have
uniform significance for packers and that the use of the uni-
form grading methods and nomenclature be required by law.
At present only experience enables one to know just how good

452 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

is the "best" grade of any given packer's product. All "best"
grades are not now by any means equal. If the definitions of the
grades are printed in fine type on the label, it is helpful to the
buyer. The consumer might be aided further by the color of
the label declaring the grade of the package contents. Thus a
white label might be used for products of the highest grade, and
red, blue, green, yellow in the order of decreasing quality. The
business of determining grades would necessarily be an annual
matter, and could probably best -be done by a joint-committee
representing the producers, the packing interests, and the
Federal government.

Quantity value.

Among dealers the sizes of packages of canned goods are
designated by terms that refer to weight expressed in pounds.
The common sizes or capacities are 1, 2, 2J/^, 3, and 10 pounds,
and are briefly designated as Is, 2s, 2}^s, 3s, and 10s. Doubtless
at some time in the past the packages contained the weight of
food indicated by the numerals assigned to the cans. But keen
competition and the demand for low-priced articles have gradu-
ally shrunk the capacity of the cans, while the descriptive nu-
merals have remained unchanged. Thus a can known as No. 2
size may actually weigh 1 pound and 6 ounces. A No. 3 can
generally weighs about 2 pounds and 8 ounces. A No. 10 can
is above the average if it weighs 8 pounds.

It may be that no harm is done to distributors and large
buyers when every one understands the situation and no one
is deceived. But the average retail "buyer not only has not this
knowledge of conditions but does not even know whether he is
buying by weight or measure. To him canned peas are graded
as 25-cent cans, 22-cent cans, 20-cent cans and 18-cent cans.
When he chooses the larger of two cans at the same price, he
does not know whether it is the heavier can. If it is the heavier,
he does not know until he opens it whether the extra weight is
due to an excess of liquid, or solidity of pack, or excessive weight
of tin can and solder. Such buying is of course absurdly ex-
travagant.

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD

453

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454 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Suggestions for the consumer.

In buying canned goods, one should not choose the cans be-
cause of the pictures on the labels.

One should not hesitate to require of the dealer as much in-
formation regarding the quantity and quality of canned food
as regarding a purchase of food in any other form.

Influence should be used to obtain legislation that will re-
quire uniform standards for all packers in all states; uniform
laws regarding labeling for all packers in all states; and labels
declaring accurately the quality and quantity of the contents
of the can, and giving the weight of solid materials and the
measure of liquid.

REFERENCES

U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bull., 203.
U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Chem., Circ. 54, Analysis of Canned Peas and

Beans.
U. S. Dept. of Commerce and Labor: Census Bull, on Manufactures, 1902.

Bull. 61, Census of Manufactures, 1905.

CHAPTER XIX

FOOD FOR THE SICK

BY FLORA. ROSE

ONLY such directions for feeding the sick will be given as may
be of service in minor illnesses treated without the advice of a
physician or as may aid in carrying out the directions of a phy-
sician in more serious illnesses.

In all sickness the diet should be a matter of some considera-
tion. A change from the comparative activity of health to the
comparative passivity of most cases of sickness means in itself
a readjustment of dietary habits. Many disorders are caused
partly by diet and are in turn much affected by dietary changes.
Colds, constipation, indigestion, and some cases of fever are of
this nature.

Sick persons need as much energy as well ones who live under
the same conditions. Moreover, fever patients are using up
considerably more energy than well persons. Nevertheless,
at the beginning of any illness which may have been affected
by food eaten, it is generally desirable to rest the digestive
tract by a day or more of fasting and by several days of moder-
ate diet. If there is prospect of a protracted illness, a fasting
period is usually limited to one day. If the illness is brief and
particularly if food aggravates it, the fasting period may be ex-
tended over two or even three days, depending on the response
and vigor of the patient.

FLUID DIET

Generally illness means that the body is below par and cannot
stand the strain of even normal conditions. This necessitates
reducing all kinds of work which the individual would normally

455

456

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

do. The digestive organs, as well as other parts of the body,
must have rest. The food should therefore be reduced in total
amount and should be of a kind that is readily digested and
absorbed. Foods in a fluid or soft condition meet this require-
ment most satisfactorily. They are dilute and have as a rule a
rather low food value. A fluid diet has in general a food value
lower than actual body needs. This is desirable in most cases
in which rest for the digestive organs is of prime importance.
A fluid diet may be so constituted, however, as to meet actual
food needs. The food value of the fluid diet must depend on
the condition and needs of the patient.

TABLE XXVII. FOODS FOR A FLUID DIET

Kind of food

Qualifications as food
for the sick

Proportions
for making

Comparative
fuel value

Broths, clear soups, beef tea . .

Agreeable to taste,
stimulating, com-
forting. Good as
carriers of extra nu-
trition, such as ce-
reals and eggs. Low
in food value.

1 cup gives
25 calories

Milk

tein food. Expen-
sive.

gives J^ cup juice

50 calories

Cereal gruels

room food. Has all-
round nutritive
value. Is a good
carrier of other nu-
trients, such as eggs,
cereals, sugar, cream

150 calories

Eggs

and assimilation are
poor. Rapidly di-
gested and absorbed.
Easily enriched. If
cereal dextrinized,
easy way of increas-
ing nutritive value
because the amount
of cereal in gruel
can be increased.

Valuable to increase

1 qt. water
2 ounces cereal to
1 qt. water
1 ounce cereal to
1 qt. milk
2 ounces cereal to
1 qt. milk
6 ounces dextrin-
ized cereal to 1
qt. water
6 ounces dextrin-
ized cereal to 1
qt. milk

25 calories
1 cup gives
50 calories
1 cup gives
175 calories
1 cup gives
200 calories
1 cup gives
600-800
calories
1 cup gives
750-900
calories
1 egg gives

nutritive value of
other foods, such as
eggnogs, egg with
fruit juice, egg with
broth or gruel. A
valuable all-round
food.

60 to 100
calories
1 egg white
gives 13 to
14 calories
1 egg yolk
gives 77 to
86 calories

FOOD FOR THE SICK 457

A typical meal plan for a temporary fluid diet having low food
value.

The following diet is low in calorie value and must be in-
creased as soon as possible. Food should be given every two
hours.

1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk or ^ cup coffee with ^
cup milk.

2nd meal: Fruit juice with egg (^ cup fruit juice, 1 to 4 teaspoons sugar,
1 egg white, % cup water).

3rd meal : 1 cup broth or beef tea.

4th meal : 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk.

5th meal: % cup fruit juice diluted with % cup water.

6th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk.

7th meal: 1 cup broth.

8th meal: % cup milk mixed with 1 egg and sweetened with 1 teaspoon
sugar.

9th meal: 1 cup broth or beef tea.

A typical meal plan for a fluid diet for a lasting illness.

The following diet may be planned approximately to meet the
food needs of the patient. If the illness is to be of long duration,
this is necessary. Food should be given every two hours.

1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk.
2nd meal: 1 cup cocoa or milk flavored with coffee.
3rd meal: Albuminized fruit juice (% cup fruit juice, 1 to 3 teaspoons
sugar, 1 egg, J^ cup water).

4th meal: Cream soup, with egg added.

5th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel flavored with beef extract.

6th meal: 1 cup milk flavored with orange juice.

7th meal: 1 cup albuminized fruit juice.

8th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel.

9th meal: 1 eggnog.

SOFT OR SEMI-SOLID DIET

Many sick persons thrive better on a soft diet than on a
fluid one. This is particularly true for those persons who dis-
like milk. A soft diet is the first step after the fluid diet and
may, if necessary, replace it.

Foods for a soft or semi-solid diet are : Toast made with milk,
cream, water, or beef juice; custards, whips, junket, gelatins,

458 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

soft puddings; omelets, soft-cooked eggs; thoroughly cooked,
strained cereals.

LIGHT OB CONVALESCENT DIET

Light diet should be given in convalescence following the
fluid and soft diets, and in those cases not needing special
dietary consideration. It is the normal diet for the passive
condition of the resting or inactive person. The nature of the
light diet must depend on the nature of the disease and the
vigor of the patient. In general the following food would be
included. Three meals a day are given in a light diet.

Foods for light diet are: Fruits: fruit juices or cooked fruits.
Cereal foods: well-cooked cereals, strained if necessary; rice and
macaroni; thin dry toast. Vegetables: fresh spinach; celery;
strained peas; potatoes, baked, boiled, or mashed. In some
cases vegetables must be omitted altogether, as in acute in-
digestion; in others they should be included. Fats: butter,
thin cream. Meats: not more than one small serving a day of
broiled chop or steak; meat broths. Milk: plain, in eggnog,
in cream soups, in simple desserts. Eggs: soft-cooked, omelets,
souffles, custards. Simple desserts; custards, junket, ice cream,
gelatin desserts, cooked fruits or cereal puddings.

CARE AND FEEDING FOR INCIPIENT COLDS

If colds are recognized and treated at the very beginning,
they may generally be controlled soon. They are most often
the result of fatigue, overeating, and a run-down condition,
and can be suppressed by rest and careful diet. As soon as a
person feels any symptoms of cold, the following treatment is
recommended :

1. A mild cathartic. An effective cathartic if taken on an empty stomach
is composed of 1 slightly rounding teaspoon of salt (7 grams), to 1 quart
of water. The entire amount should be taken. On rising in the morning
is the best time, since the stomach is then normally empty.

2. A period of fasting. Eat no food except water and a little fruit juice
for 24 hours, or until the cold has been broken.

3. Water. Drink % glass of water every hour or half hour during the
day. A little lemon juice may make this easier to drink.

FOOD FOR THE SICK 459

4. Rest. Stay at home for at least 24 hours, and rest and sleep as much
as possible during that time in a well-ventilated but comfortably warm
room. Avoid drafts and changes in temperature.

5. Food. When the cold begins to yield, as it will in most cases in 12 to
24 hours, break the fast with a light meal of milk toast. Begin then with
a light laxative diet of low fuel value. Fruits and mild vegetables, fruit
juices, crisp toast, and well-cooked cereals, lightly cooked eggs, milk, milk
soups or gruels.

CARE AND FEEDING FOR CONSTIPATION

Many serious illnesses may be caused by chronic constipa-
tion. Liver, kidneys, pancreas, and even the heart may be-
come damaged by continued absorption of the poisonous prod-
ucts of a clogged intestine. It is always dangerous to allow
a chronic condition to become established in which day after
day intestinal wastes accumulate. They may ferment or putrefy
and produce poisons which damage the body seriously.

Use of drugs.

Whereas it is probably better to empty the intestines with
some medicine rather than to retain the waste material, this is
nevertheless a poor makeshift. The continued use of laxative
drugs is certainly not advisable. If a person suffers from chronic
constipation, every effort should be made to locate the cause and
to correct the difficulty. The cathartic should be used as an
emergency measure only.

Use of salt water.

Perhaps the simplest and least harmful way of cleaning out
the intestine of an adult is by the use of what is known as a
physiological salt solution 1 slightly rounding teaspoon of
salt (7 grams) to 1 quart of warm water. The entire quart
may be necessary, and it should be taken on an empty stomach.
One-half hour or more before breakfast satisfies this condition.
Slightly more or less salt may be needed in some cases to make
this solution effective.

Causes of constipation.

Constipation is in many cases due to the following conditions:

460 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

failure to establish regularity in emptying the intestines; lack
of proper exercise; wrong diet; and insufficient water. Its cure,
in these cases, must be: taking time to cultivate the habit of
emptying the intestine at a regular hour each day; exercising
in such a way as to strengthen the abdominal muscles (rapid
walking is good for this); following a laxative diet; drinking
more water.

Laxative foods.

Laxative foods include most fruits and vegetables, and cereal
foods and breads containing the whole of the cereal grain. Bran
is inadvisable if a finer meal will accomplish the result. Con-
tinued use of over-coarse foods is unwise.

Hygienic treatment and diet for constipation.
The following treatment is recommended for persons suffer-
ing from constipation :

Before breakfast: On rising drink two glasses 01 water, or take the salt
solution suggested on page 459. Take light exercise for several minutes to
strengthen the abdominal muscles.

Breakfast: Stewed prunes, or figs, or other fruit; oatmeal, or other whole
cereal, and milk; eggs, if desired; graham, or whole wheat, or oatmeal
bread; water to drink, if desired.

Between breakfast and lunch or dinner: Soon after breakfast make the
beginning of establishing the habit of emptying the intestines daily at
this hour. Allow 20 to 30 minutes for this purpose, if necessary. Drink
one or two glasses of water. Take a brisk walk.

Dinner: Meat, or meat substitute; potatoes; a liberal serving of boiled
onions or cabbage or some succulent vegetable; bread made from whole-
cereal meal; two glasses of water to drink; stewed fruit or graham pudding
or some fruit dessert.

Between dinner and supper: Drink one or two glasses of water; take some
brisk exercise; if hungry, eat some fruit but nothing else.

Lunch or supper: Macaroni and cheese or a cream soup or similar dish;
some coarse bread; fruit salad; oatmeal cookies; two glasses of water to
drink.

After supper: Allow a short period of brisk exercise; eat an apple, orange,
or other fruit, if hungry, but no other food; drink one glass of water during
the evening.

FOOD FOR THE SICK 461

DIET DURING A CONDITION OF INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION

A number of causes may contribute to a condition of intes-
tinal putrefaction. It is generally, though not always, associ-
ated with constipation. Since putrefaction means decomposi-
tion of the proteins and the consequent production of abnormal,
easily absorbed, but detrimental, products, efforts should be
made to conquer the condition as soon as possible.

The diet must be regulated to eliminate a part of the total
protein but particularly to reduce those proteins most subject
to putrefation, namely, meat and eggs. The animal protein
included may be in the form of milk or mild American (Cheddar)
cheese. Foods that check putrefaction by fermenting slightly
should be given. These are in general, fruits and vegetables.
If constipation exists, it must be corrected. Drinking water
liberally helps to reduce intestinal putrefaction. If the condi-
tion is acute, a day of fasting, with salt solution (page 459)
to cleanse the intestine, followed by a light laxative diet with
eggs or meat eliminated, may be advisable.

CARE AND DIET FOR INDIGESTION

By indigestion is meant a more or less acute irritation of the
digestive tract. It may be caused by fatigue, worry, rapid eat-
ing, wrong foods, too much food, badly prepared foods, too little
exercise, overwork, eating when weary, or a run-down condition.
Its treatment consists in eliminating the cause and relieving
the difficulty.

Rest of body, mind, and digestive tract are often necessary.
A moderate amount of outdoor exercise, combined with changes
in diet, improvement in sleeping hours, and proper regulation of
all habits is important in helping to overcome indigestion.

If indigestion is chronic, the meals should be limited to three
simple, easily digested meals daily (see light diet, page 458), and
nothing eaten between meals. Any habit of constipation must
be corrected by right regulation of diet. Fatty and over-sweet
foods must be avoided and one should determine whether any
special foods are causes of the difficulty, and avoid them. If
indigestion is acute, to fast with complete rest for a day or two

462 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

is the best procedure. If this seems a severe program, small
amounts of fruit juice or clear meat broth may be used several
times a day during this time. When food is resumed, a limited
fluid diet should be followed for two or three days (see fluid
diet, page 455) and gradually changed into a light diet. Under-
feeding should be the rule until the digestive organs have re-
sumed their balance.

DIET IN FEVEK

The old adage, "stuff a cold and starve a fever" has been
completely reversed. Colds are now starved, while fevers are
starved only long enough to rest the digestive organs. There-
after effort is made to supply sufficient food to keep the body
from any considerable loss of tissue. This is particularly well
illustrated in the modern treatment for typhoid fever.

General directions for feeding fever patients.

1. Rest the digestive tract for a day or longer by a reduction of total
food. Gradually increase the amount of food.

2. At all times give only those foods which are readily digested and ab-
sorbed. A fluid diet may be best.

3. Give a small quantity of liquid very frequently since thirst is great
at this time and should be relieved.

4. Give food in small quantities at frequent intervals, from 1^ to 2
hours. The outline of a fluid diet of high fuel value (page 456) will give
some idea of the needs of fever patients and ways of meeting these needs.

Foods which may be used in fever.

1. Milk may be used up to 1^ to 2 quarts a day. It may be modified
by diluting it with water, or by adding cooked cereal, cream, milk-sugar,
egg, or malted milk. Its taste may be modified by adding beef extract,
cocoa, coffee, or tea.

2. Clear soups such as broths, beef tea, and beef juice may be used.

3. Eggs. Fresh eggs may be used up to 4 or sometimes 6 a day. They
may be fed raw, in milk or fruit juice, or they may be very slightly cooked.

4. Cream may be used in moderate quantities, and must be used with
caution since fat is likely to overtax the digestive organs.

5. Sugar. The best sugar is milk-sugar, since it is only slightly sweet.
Up to 6 or 8 ounces may be used daily.

6. Cereals. Well-cooked cereals may be steamed and given in milk as
gruels.

FOOD FOR THE SICK 463

7. Soft toast may be used in those cases in which difficulty is experienced
with a fluid diet.

Diet for typhoid fever.

A diet high in fuel value is now used for typhoid patients,
the condition of the patient governing the amount of food given.
The following modified milk diets illustrate high calorie pos-
sibilities of a simple fluid diet.

MODIFIED MILK DIETS FOB TYPHOID FEVER *

Calories

For 1000 calories a day:

Milk, 1000 c. c. (1 quart) 700

Cream, 50 c. c. (1-2/3 oz.) 100

Lactose, 50 gm. (1-2/3 oz.) 200

This furnishes eight feedings, each containing:

Milk, 120 c. c. (4 oz.) 80

Cream, 8 gm. (2 dr.) 15

Lactose, 6 gm. (1*^ dr.) 24

For 2000 calories a day:

Milk, 1500 c. c. (\ 1 A quarts) 1000

Cream, 240 c. c. (8 oz.) 500

Lactose, 125 gm. (4 oz.) 500

This furnishes seven feedings, each containing:

Milk, 210 c. c. (7 oz.) 140

Cream, 30 c. c. (1 oz.) ' 60

Lactose, 18 gm. (4% dr.) 72

For 3000 calories a day:

Milk, 1500 c. c. (1 1 A quarts) 1000

Cream, 480 c. c. (1 pint) 1000

Lactose, 250 gm. (8 oz.) 1000

This furnishes eight feedings, each containing:

Milk, 180 c. c. (6 oz.) 120

Cream, 60 c. c. (2 oz.) 120

Lactose, 30 gm. (1 oz.) 120

FOOD FOR TUBERCULOSIS PATIENTS

Tuberculosis is almost always accompanied by fever. Un-
fortunately lack of appetite may be associated with the in-
creased food need that is due to fever and wasting tissue. The
problem is, therefore, threefold: (1) to increase the appetite

* Coleman, American Journal of Medical Sciences, January, 1912.

464 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

by fresh air and mild exercise; (2) to plan a diet which is easily
digested and which will meet the increased food needs at the
same time; and (3) to build the body by rest. Liberal use of
milk, eggs, cream, butter, green vegetables, fruits, and whole
cereal grains is desirable. Fats are especially needed, since
they have a high fuel value for a limited bulk. Cream, butter,
whole-milk cheese, vegetable oils, cod-liver oil, bacon, and meat-
fats of various kinds are useful. The real problem is to provide
a tempting, well-balanced, high calorie, easily digested diet.

CHAPTER XX
BEVERAGES

BY FRANCES VINTON WARD

COFFEE and tea have no nutritive value aside from the cream
and sugar that may be served in them as beverages. Cocoa
and chocolate contain starch and fat and consequently are real
foods; moreover, they are generally made with milk, which
gives them added nutritive value.

COFFEE

The standard kinds of coffee include Mocha, Java, Mara-
caibo, Santos, Rio, and Bogota.

Adulteration.

Adulterants are seldom found in coffee that is unground, or in
the whole berry. Ground coffee is sometimes adulterated with
cereal or chicory root. A mild coffee is improved by the addi-
tion of dried chicory root, roasted. Unadulterated ground
coffee should be free from dust and chaff. When a teaspoon
of ground coffee is stirred into a half glass of cold water, there
should be little discoloration of the water and few grains should
sink to the bottom.

Care.

Coffee gives best results when bought in the whole grain and
ground just before using. If bought ground, it must be kept
in an air-tight container which is never left with the cover off.
To freshen a stale or weak coffee, the grounds should be stirred
in a hot frying pan until they are well dried but not scorched.

Composition.

The substances found in coffee include: caffein, a mild stimu-
lant; volatile oils, which give flavor and odor; coloring matter,

465

466 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

developed in roasting; and tannin, present only in very small
quantities, except in the chaff.

Development of flavors.

Bitterness is brought out by boiling. It is also dependent on
the proportion of coffee used. The roasted flavor is brought
out by fresh roasting and quick making. The aroma from the
volatile oils is brought out by slow heating without boiling or
the escape of steam.

Directions for making.

Weak, medium, or strong coffee may be made according to
the following proportions:

Weak coffee: 1 level tablespoon of ground coffee to 1 measuring-cup of
water (^ pint).

Medium coffee: 1 rounding or 2 level tablespoons of ground coffee to
1 measuring-cup of water.

Strong coffee: 3 level tablespoons of ground coffee to 1 measuring-cup
of water.

Some of the more common method's of making coffee are as
follows:

1. Cold-water process. Use coffee ground medium fine. Pour the cold
water over the coffee, cover it carefully, and plug the spout. Heat the
coffee very slowly to the boiling point, and boil it gently for not more than
3 minutes. Settle it by pouring in a little cold water slowly. Set the pot
in a warm place for 8 minutes to allow the grounds to settle and the flavor
to ripen. Serve the coffee without further delay.

2. Hot-water process. Use coffee ground medium fine. Pour boiling
water over the coffee and proceed as in the cold water process.

3. Quick cold-water process. Use coffee ground medium fine. Pour
about one-fourth of the cold water over the coffee, heat it slowly to the
boiling point; then add the remainder of the water boiling hot, set the pot
in a warm place for the flavor to ripen, and serve the coffee promptly after
8 minutes.

4. Large-quantity process. Tie the coffee, ground fine, loosely in a muslin
bag, allowing space equal to the bulk of the coffee for swelling. Drop the
bag in the kettle of cold water, ,heat the water to the boiling point, and
boil it for not more than 3 minutes. Remove the bag, allow the coffee to
stand for 8 minutes, and serve it when needed. Be sure that the coffee
does not boil while it is being kept hot, and that it is covered.

5. Percolator process. Use powdered coffee. Heat the water, pour it

BEVERAGES 467

through the grounds in the percolator, and continue heating it for about
5 minutes. Serve it at once.

6. French drip coffee. Use powdered coffee. Pour the boiling water
through the grounds, reheat the liquid, and pour it through a second time.
If a very strong coffee is desired, this process may be repeated.

7. Cafe au lait (coffee with milk). Two methods are commonly used:
(a) Use coffee ground very fine. Add cold milk instead of water. Heat it
slowly to a temperature just under the boiling point, strain it, and serve
it at once. Another method is: (b) Use coffee ground medium fine. Add
one-fourth the usual amount of water. Heat this slowly to the boiling
point, strain it, and add hot milk to make up the other three-fourths of
liquid.

8. Iced coffee. Make coffee by any of the methods suggested, pour it
off the grounds at once, chill it, and serve it when desired. The best results
will be obtained from cafe au lait poured over chopped ice.

Clearing the liquid.

It is necessary to clear the liquid only when the grounds are
steeped in the water loose, not inclosed in a bag. The following
methods may be used:

1. Egg-white: (a) Add an egg-white to the* dry grounds; stir the mixture
well. Use the cold-water or the quick cold-water method of brewing. Add
a beaten egg-white to a pound of freshly ground coffee, mix it well, spread it
out to dry; then put it in a tight container till it is used. This treatment
will also aid in preserving the strength of the coffee. Use the straight cold-
water process for this coffee, and soak the grounds for a few minutes in
the water first if possible. Coffee so prepared should never be put in a
percolator, since it clogs the sieve. Strength of flavor cannot be obtained
if the hot-water method is used, (c) Add 1 raw eggshell to each pint of
water, and make coffee by the cold-water process.

2. Sifting. A coffee which gives much trouble from muddiness may be
sifted dry through a strainer, the coarse part used for boiled coffee and
the fine part for drip or percolator coffee.

3. Cold water. Remove the coffee from the fire as soon as it is cooked;
pour slowly into it a small quantity of cold water, not more than % cup to
2 cups of the beverage, and set it aside to settle.

4. Hot coffee. Pour out a little of the coffee into a cup; return the clear
part of this to the pot through the spout. Repeat this process two or
three times till no grounds appear in the cup. Allow it to stand for a few
minutes to settle.

Coffee-pots and their care.

Pots for boiled coffee are best made of agate or aluminum.
.Tin pots of good quality give satisfaction until the tin wears

468 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

off on the inside. An aluminum pot is the most durable. Agate
pots should be boiled in a soda solution once a week and tin
or aluminum pots in mild soapsuds; any seams or grooves
should be carefully wiped afterward, and a rag string run through
the spout.

TEA

Teas may be classified as follows: 1. Black tea: tea that has
been fermented in the process of drying; it is supposed to con-
tain less active tannin than green tea. 2. Oolong: tea that
has been partly fermented in drying and is midway in color and
quality between black and green tea. 3. Green tea: tea that
has been promptly dried with care taken to preserve the natural
green color. This tea is supposed to contain more active tannin
than do the other varieties. Formerly it was sometimes colored
with copper.

The best known kinds of tea are given in the following classi-
fication:

From China From India From Japan

1. Green 1. Black Green

a. Gunpowder a. Assam a. Pan-fired

b. Imperial b. Darjiling b. Basket-fired

c. Young hyson 2. Green

d. Hyson From Ceylon From Formosa

2. Black 1. Black Oolong

a. Congou 2. Green

b. Souchong

c. Scented

3. Oolong

Grades.

There are six grades of tea, standardized as follows:

1. Flowery pekoe: tip of the stem and buds. This grade

seldom reaches this country. 2. Orange pekoe: first open leaf.

3. Pekoe: second leaf. 4. First souchong : third leaf . 5. Second

Souchong: fourth leaf. 6. Congou: fifth leaf.

How to judge tea leaves.

Dry fresh tea leaves should be free from dust, broken bits,

BEVERAGES 469

and stems. When the leaves are steeped, they may be judged
by their size; the smaller leaves are best. Tea that consists of
leaves that are very much broken, or that has many stems or
midribs in proportion to the remainder of the leaf, is of low
grade. However, tea containing many midribs may be satis-
factory and inexpensive.

Storage.

The container used for tea should be of metal or glass, and
should be air and water-tight.

Composition.

Tea contains: tannin, a bitter astringent substance; aromatic
oils, substances that furnish the spicy taste and odor; and thein,
(caffein), a mild stimulant.

Directions for brewing.

The aims in properly brewing tea are: 1. To extract the aro-
matic oils but to prevent their escape from the liquid. The best
temperature for this result is just under the boiling point; the
best time, 3 minutes. 2. To extract the thein. The best tem-
perature is just under the boiling point. 3. To prevent the ex-
traction of tannin. Tannin is extracted by boiling or by con-
tinued steeping (over 3 minutes) .

One level teaspoon of tea should be used for each cup of
water. Any of the following methods may be used :

1. Heat the teapot, drop into it the tea, and pour the freshly boiling
water over this. Steep the tea in a warm place for just 3 minutes; do not
allow it to boil. Pour the beverage off the grounds immediately, and serve
it hot. A tea-cosy, or quilted cover which fits the teapot, helps to keep
the tea hot.

2. Place the tea in a large tea-ball or tie it in a muslin bag. Put this
in the pot, and proceed according to Method 1. Remove the ball at the
end of 3 minutes.

3. Place % teaspoon of tea in a silver tea-ball, previously heated. Lay
this in a serving cup, and pour boiling water over it. Steep it for just 3
minutes; then remove the ball. Replace the leaves with fresh ones before
brewing a second cup. This method is generally unsatisfactory from the
standpoint of quality.

470 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

4. Russian tea, for serving a large quantity. Measure out the tea in
the proportion of 1 cup to sixty servings. Pour over this in a hot covered
kettle 3 quarts of boiling water, and steep the tea for 3 minutes. Pour the
liquid off the leaves, set it in a warm place, and dilute it as needed, using
one part of tea to three parts of hot water.

5. Iced tea. Any of the following methods may be used: (a) Brew fresh
tea using more tea in proportion to water than for hot tea. Fill tumblers
half full of cracked ice, place a slice of lemon and 2 teaspoons of sugar on
top, and pour the hot tea over this. Serve the tea as soon as it is chilled,
(b) Cool tea, and chill it either by the addition of cracked ice or by placing
it where it will be cold. Dissolve the sugar in the tea before cooling it,
or add a sirup, (c) Pour cold water over the tea leaves, and let them soak
for several hours.

6. Tea punch. Tea that is to be used as a foundation for fruit punch
should be made in the proportion of 1 V^ teaspoons of tea to 1 cup of water.
To make the punch, use cold tea in place of one-fourth to one-half of the
water, according to the flavor desired. The use of tea of approximately
the same color as the fruit juice is best; a dark tea may be used to color
the liquid. Test the tea for clouding before using it.

Clouding.

Some teas, expecially some black kinds, cloud on cooling
and standing. Re-heating will clear them temporarily, but these
teas are not suited for serving as iced teas or in punches. To
test a tea for clouding, it should be brewed and the liquid allowed
to stand overnight at room temperature. Clouding is not an
indication of inferior quality.

Points in judging the beverage.

In judging tea, the color, the taste, the flavor, the pungency,
and the body must be considered.

Serving.

Black tea is generally best suited for serving with cream and
sugar because of its color and flavor. Green teas are generally
served plain or with lemon and sugar.

COCOA

Cocoa is found on the market in the following forms : 1 . Cocoa
nibs: chocolate beans, cracked. 2. Chocolate cake: chocolate

BEVERAGES 471

beans ground fine and pressed. 3. Cocoa-shells: the thin
inner shells of the cocoa bean, cracked off. Very little nutri-
ment is contained in them. 4. Cocoa: chocolate from which
some of the fat (cocoa butter) has been removed.

Composition.

Chocolate and cocoa contain fat, starch, tannin and theo-
bromine, which is similar to caffein but much milder in its effects.
The fat-content of chocolate is much higher than that of
cocoa.

Directions for making.

1. Chocolate nibs: Use % cup of nibs to 3 cups of water. Pour the
boiling water over the nibs, steep them gently, without boiling, for 2 hours.
Strain the beverage, and serve it with cream and sugar.

2. Cocoa-shells: Use from ^ to 1 cup of shells to 4 cups of water. Sim-
mer the mixture for 2 hours, strain it, and serve it with cream and sugar.

3. Chocolate: Use YL ounce of chocolate, H cup of water, YL cup of milk,
2 teaspoons of sugar, and salt. Melt the chocolate in a double boiler, add
the sugar, the salt and the water. Heat the mixture to the boiling point,
letting it bubble well. Add the milk, and set it in the double boiler to
heat. When it is hot, beat it with an egg-beater till the top is covered with
a fine froth. This will prevent the formation of a film. To make a some-
what heavier beverage, add from ^ to 1 teaspoon of cornstarch mixed
with the sugar.

4. Cocoa, (a) Thin cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of
sugar, salt, and add H cup of hot water, stirring the mixture to a smooth
paste. Boil the mixture at least two minutes. Add Yi cup of milk, and
heat the mixture in a double boiler. Beat it with a Dover egg-beater till
the top is covered with fine bubbles, to prevent the formation of a film,
(b) Thickened cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of sugar,
salt, YL teaspoon of cornstarch, a little cinnamon, and Yi cup of water,
stirring the mixture to a smooth paste. Boil it till it thickens, add ^ cup
milk, and place the mixture in a double boiler to heat. Beat it with an
egg-beater to prevent the formation of a film, (c) Cocoa paste (prepared
cocoa.) Mix 2 cups of cocoa, 3 cups of sugar, and 3 cups of hot water,
and stir this to a smooth paste. Place the mixture in a double boiler, and
simmer it for 2 hours. Keep the paste in a cool place and use it as needed.
To use the paste, heat 1 cup of milk in a double boiler, and stir into it 1
tablespoon of the paste, (d) Iced chocolate and cocoa. Chill cocoa, and
pour it over cracked ice in tumblers. Serve it with whipped cream on
top.

472 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

FRUIT JUICES

BY MIRIAM BIRDSEYE

The principal charm of a fruit drink lies in the smooth blend-
ing of the various flavors. Unless the fruit juices have been
well sweetened before bottling (page 6 19), -the needed sugar
should be supplied in the form of a sugar sirup; otherwise the
juices and the sugar must be mixed and allowed to stand to-
gether for several hours before being served. For the sirup,
1 cupful of sugar should be allowed for each cupful of water,
and the mixture boiled for about 10 minutes. It saves time and
fuel to make a quart or so of this sirup at a time and bottle it
boiling hot in sterilized pint jars for subsequent use.

A small amount of some strongly acid juice should always be
added to the fruit drink to give it the proper degree of acidity.
The juice of rhubarb or barberries is sufficiently sour to take
the place of lemon juice for this purpose. Orange juice may be
substituted for lemon juice by adding to it a small quantity
of cider vinegar.

Enough of the sugar sirup should be added to the fruit juices
to sweeten them, enough acid juice to contribute the desired
zest, and the whole diluted to taste with shaved ice or with ice
water.

Green tea makes a good foundation for a fruit punch.

Well-scrubbed skins of pineapples, oranges, and lemons may
be covered with water, a little sugar added, and the mixture
allowed to stand for several hours to draw out the flavoring
matter. This thin juice may be used immediately to make
fruit drinks.

CHAPTER XXI

BATTERS AND DOUGHS

BY MARY F. HENRY

WHEN flour and liquid are mixed in such proportions that the
resulting mixture can be beaten, it is called a batter. When the
mixture is so thick that it cannot be beaten, but must be made
smooth by kneading, it is called a dough. The essential in-
gredients of batters and doughs are flour, liquid, and leavening.
Shortening, eggs, sugar, and salt are not essential but they con-
tribute to flavor and texture. " Light breads" can be made
from wheat flour because it contains certain materials which
when moistened form a sticky elastic substance called gluten.
When a mixture containing gluten is heated, the moisture and
the air which may be incorporated, expand and stretch the
gluten. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the gluten
hardens and forms a framework surrounding whatever other
ingredients are contained in the loaf. However, it is not safe
to rely solely on the expansion of the moisture or whatever air
happens to be present in the mixture, either as the result of
beating a plain batter or of adding well-beaten eggs. In most
batters and doughs a gas which expands on heating is intro-
duced by means of the growth of yeasts or by chemical leaven-
ing agents. This gas acts more powerfully than does air or
steam because it is more abundant. Yeast doughs are discussed
in Chapter XXIV.

CLASSIFICATION

Pour batters. Mixtures of about equal parts of flour and
liquid, such as those used in making popovers and pancakes,
are called pour batters because they can be poured.

Drop batters. Mixtures of about two parts of flour to one

473

474 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

part of liquid, such as those used for muffins and cakes, are
called drop batters, because they drop from a spoon.

Soft doughs. Mixtures of about three parts of flour to one
part of liquid, such as biscuits, are called soft doughs.

Stiff doughs. Mixtures of about four parts of flour to one
part of liquid, such as yeast bread, are called stiff doughs. (See
Chapter XXIV.)

INGREDIENTS

Flour.

A good grade of flour should be used for all doughs and batters
(p. 495). Pastry flour is better than bread flour for quick-
bread mixtures and cake, since it gives a more tender product
than does bread flour. Pastry flour may be made at home ac-
cording to the suggestions on page 490. When other flours are
substituted for wheat flour in a recipe, it should be on the
basis of weight, since there is much variation in measure.

Liquid.

Sweet or sour milk, sweet or sour buttermilk, sweet or sour
cream, whey, molasses, water, potato water, rice water, and
various other liquids may be used in doughs and batters. Sour
milk, sour cream, sour buttermilk, whey, and molasses require
soda to neutralize their acid (p. 475) . Sour milk gives a texture
that is slightly more tender than that produced with sweet
milk. Both eggs and fat serve as part of the liquid. An average-
sized egg may be regarded as supplying two tablespoons of
liquid; fat may be regarded as entirely liquid. This fact must
be taken into consideration if changes are made in a standard
recipe. If cream is used, its fat-content must be considered
(p. 477).

Soda.

When baking soda comes in contact with an acid in the pres-
ence of moisture, it liberates a gas called carbon dioxide. The
acid may be cream of tartar, or such acids as are contained in
sour milk or molasses. The amount of soda to be used is de-

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 475

termined by the amount of sour milk used and its degree of
acidity, and not by the amount of flour as is the case when
baking powder is used. Soda may be added in two ways: (1)
It may be stirred into the milk, in which case it does not act so
decidedly as a leavening agent, but serves to sweeten the milk.
In the process some of the gas is liberated and the leavening
power is lost to such an extent that it generally becomes neces-
sary to use baking powder as additional leavening agent.
(2) The soda may be sifted with the flour, in which case the
gas is liberated chiefly during the baking process. When it is
added in this way, no additional baking powder is used if the
milk is sufficiently sour to require soda in such amount as to
give a proportion of Y% teaspoon of soda to 1 cup of flour.

No absolute statement can be made, however, as to the cor-
rect amounts of soda to use, since sour milk and molasses differ
greatly in their degree of acidity. In general it may be said that
from 14: to % teaspoon of soda should be used for each cup of
sour milk, and more nearly Y^ teaspoon should be used for each
cup of molasses. Experience in cooking with sour milk and soda
will best teach correct amounts to use. If soda is added to the
milk, the taste may serve as a guide for determining correct
amounts, a brackish taste indicating that too much soda has
been used, a sour taste indicating that too little has been used.
Tests may be made with red and blue litmus paper: if, after
the soda has been added, blue litmus paper turns red, the
amount of soda has been insufficient to neutralize the acid; if
red litmus paper turns blue, too much has been added. If
neither red nor blue litmus paper changes color, the acid of the
milk has been just neutralized.

Instead of using soda alone as a leavening agent when sour
milk or molasses is used as the liquid, some persons choose to
use baking powder also in the proportion of 1 teaspoon of bak-
ing powder to 1 cup of flour. This is advisable especially if the
milk is only slightly sour, and the amount of soda required to
neutralize the acid is not sufficient to furnish enough gas to
make the mixture light. If eggs are used in the mixture, baking
powder is not so necessary.

476 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Baking powder.

Baking powder is a mixture of soda and an acid which will
yield a gas when liquid is added. The acid constituent varies
with the type of the baking powder. It may be an acid tar-
trate, a phosphate, or an aluminum salt. Most commercial
baking powders contain a third ingredient, starch, which ab-
sorbs moisture and so prevents any premature reaction between
the soda and the acid. All baking powders, whether home-
made or commercial, should be kept in a closely covered
jar.

Baking powder is generally used in a mixture in which sweet
milk is used as the liquid. Two teaspoons of baking powder
will leaven one cup of flour if no eggs are used. If eggs are used,
'the total amount of the baking powder may be decreased %
teaspoon for each egg used.

It is possible to make baking powder at home by combining
cream of tartar and soda in the correct proportions. It is not,
however, entirely practicable, because of the difficulty in being
accurate in measuring and thorough in mixing. The correct
proportion, by measure, to combine is 2J^ parts of cream of
tartar to 1 part of baking soda and % part of cornstarch; or
by weight, 2 2 /i parts of cream of tartar, to 1 part of soda and
}/2 part of cornstarch. The ingredients should be very care-
fully measured and thoroughly mixed by sifting.

Yeast.

Yeast is discussed under yeast breads, page 497.

Eggs.

Eggs give firmness of texture, lightness, and richness to bat-
ters and doughs. Also they act as a leavening agent by entrap-
ping air as they are beaten. When heated, the albumen, like the
gluten of wheat flour, hardens and helps to form a framework
to hold up the other ingredients. The tendency is opposite
to that of fat, since eggs tend to bind together the ingredients,
and fat tends to separate them. Preserved eggs that have a
good flavor and odor may be used. One egg may be considered

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 477

the equivalent of J/ teaspoon of baking powder in leavening
power.

Shortening.

Fats, such as butter, butter substitutes, lard, lard substitutes,
tried-out meat fats, chicken fat, and olive and cottonseed oils,
are used for shortening. Fat makes the texture of batters and
doughs more close-grained and more tender than they would
otherwise be. It also improves the flavor in most cases. Mut-
ton fat may be used satisfactorily under certain conditions
(page 521). Fat necessitates the use of more leavening, since
it oils the particles of flour and makes it easy for the gas to
escape. A cake made with a small amount of fat will be porous
and will dry out quickly. Too much fat will make the cake
heavy and cause it to crumble. If melted fat is added to a cake
batter, it should not be hot, since hot fat is likely to make a cake
tough, coarse-grained, and heavy.

Since fats vary in their water-content, proper substitution
cannot be made by using equivalent amounts.

One cup of butter is equivalent to : 1 cup of lard or lard sub-
stitute minus 2 tablespoons; 1 cup of chicken fat; 1 cup of
cottonseed or olive oil minus 2 tablespoons.

If cream is used in place of milk, the fat-content must be
allowed for in measuring the shortening. One cup of 18 per cent
cream is equivalent to % cup of milk plus 3 3/2 tablespoons of
fat. One cup of 40 per cent cream is equivalent to J^ cup of
milk plus 7 J^ tablespoons of fat.

Sugar.

Sugar gives flavor to a mixture. It also acts as a liquid. A
fine granulated sugar gives a better texture than does a coarse
sugar. Powdered sugar is sometimes used for a very close-
grained cake. If either powdered or brown sugar is used in
place of granulated, the substitution should be made by weight,
not measure. Molasses is used in some recipes for part of the
sugar as well as part of the liquid. Corn sirup may be used in
the same way; however, to give sufficient sweetness it should

478 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

generally be combined with some sugar or molasses. Too
much sugar results in a heavy, coarse-grained texture, or a
gummy product.

METHODS OF MINING

The method of combining the ingredients in flour mixtures is
determined somewhat by the ingredients, and there is no hard
and fast rule to be followed. However, experience has shown
that the following methods give good results :

Method of mixing batters.

The following method may be used in making griddle cakes,
popovers, and muffins. Even cake may be mixed in this way
with excellent results. 1. Mix and sift the dry ingredients.
2. Add the milk to the beaten egg, and stir this mixture into
the dry ingredients. 3. Add the melted butter and beat the
mixture well.

Method of mixing doughs.

Biscuits and pie crust are best made by the following method :

1. Mix and sift the dry ingredients. 2. Cut the shortening

into the dry materials with two knives, or mix it lightly with

the finger tips. 3. Add the liquid, mixing it in with the knives

and stirring the mixture as little as possible.

Method of mixing cakes.

Cake is generally mixed by the following method, if a cake-
mixer is not used.

1. Sift together the flour, the baking powder, and the salt.
2. Work the butter with a spoon until it becomes soft and
creamy. 3. Add the sugar gradually, creaming it with the
butter. 4. Add the well-beaten egg-yolks. 5. Add the milk
and the flour in thirds or fourths, alternately. 6. Fold in the
well-beaten egg-whites.

UTENSILS FOR BAKING

Kinds.

Popovers are best if baked in iron or pottery. Tin may be
used, but it is not so satisfactory. Iron baking pans should be
heated before the batter is poured into them.

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 479

Muffins may be baked in either iron or tin baking pans.

Cake is best baked in tins. The tube pan allows a current
of hot air to rise through the center of the cake, and hence pro-
motes even baking. A broad, shallow pan generally gives a
lighter, drier cake than does a deep narrow pan.

Biscuits may be baked on tin or on Russia iron sheets.

Preparation.

The baking pans should be greased before the ingredients are
combined. The fat should be melted, and applied to the pans
with a soft piece of paper, a swab, or a brush kept for the pur-
pose. The product may often be prevented from sticking by
lightly sprinkling the greased pan with flour, inverting it, and
tapping it to remove any excess.

FILLING THE PANS

A pan should never be filled more than two-thirds full of
batter. When a cake batter is put into the pan, it should be
brought up against the sides by using a spoon or spatula, so that
before baking the center of the cake may be lower than the
sides.

BAKING

The pan should be placed on the lower grate of the gas-oven
and on the floor of the oven of a coal range so that the greatest
amount of heat will reach it from underneath and force it to
rise to its fullest capacity before the crust is formed on top.

The oven door should not be opened during the first ten
minutes of the baking process. When it is opened, it should be
closed gently, since a sudden jar or draft may cause the mixture
to fall. If a mixture is baking unevenly, it may be turned in
the oven before the top crust begins to harden; if it is turned
after the crust is formed, the cake may fall and will not rise
again.

The stages in baking are as follows: The mixture begins to
rise; it continues to rise and begins to brown in spots; it rises
in the center and browns over the top; it settles to a level and
shrinks from the sides of the pan.

480 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Oven temperatures.

A correct oven temperature is very important in baking. The
correct temperature depends on the size of the loaf and the con-
stituents used in the mixture.

The following classification of temperatures for baking vari-
ous mixtures is suggested : *

1. Slow oven (250 to 350 F.), for custards and meringues.

2. Moderate oven (350 to 400 F.), for bread, gingerbread, plain cake,
cookies, all molasses mixtures.

3. Hot oven (400 to 450 F.), for Parkerhouse rolls, and popovers. In
baking popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first
ten minutes.

4. Very hot oven (450 to 550 F.), for pastry. After the first six min-
utes the temperature should be lowered to "hot."

Sponge cake should be baked in an oven with a temperature
between "slow" and "moderate."

Baking powder biscuits should be baked in an oven with a
temperature between "hot" and "very hot."

The following tests for oven temperatures may be used:
1. When glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes

TABLE XXVIII. TIME-TABLE FOR BAKING BATTERS AND DOUGHS

Mixture

Time required
(minutes')

Biscuits, baking powder or soda

10 to 15

Rolls, raised

10 to 20

Bread yeast

45 to 60

Cake, layer. ...

15 to 30

Cake, loaf

35 to 60

5 to 10

Corn cake, thick

30 to 40

Muffins baking powder

20 to 25

Popovers . .

40 to 50

Tarts

10 to 12

Pies . .

30 to 60

* May B. Van Arsdale. Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Tempera-
atures for Cookery Processes, Tech. Education Bull. 22, published by
Teachers College, Columbia Univ.

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 481

brown in five minutes, the oven is moderate (350 to 400 F.) ;
2. when glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes dark
brown in five minutes, the oven is hot; 3. experience will make
the hand a fairly reliable tester for oven temperatures; 4. an
oven thermometer is essential in learning to bake with the mini-
mum of failures.

Tests for determining when breads and cakes are done.

Any of the following tests may be used to determine when a
mixture is done: 1. When the color is a rich golden brown; 2.
when the mixture shrinks away from the sides of the pan; 3.
when the sides of the pan sizzle when touched with a damp
finger; 4. when a clean toothpick inserted comes out free from
any particles of the mixture; 5. when a cake springs back if
pressed gently on top.

482

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

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CHAPTER XXII
CAKES

CAKES may be divided into three classes: cakes made with
yeast, sponge cakes, and butter cakes, or cakes made with
shortening.

CAKES MADE WITH YEAST

The points which are essential for success in bread-making
(page 495) should be observed in mixing cakes lightened with
yeast. Since sugar, butter, and eggs have a tendency to retard
fermentation, they should be added either to the light sponge
or to the light dough. Brioche and raised doughnuts are ex-
amples of cakes made with yeast.

SPONGE CAKES

Sponge cakes are really a variation of a souffle or puffy ome-
let. They are made without fat. They may be leavened with
eggs alone, or with baking powder and eggs. Plain sponge
cakes, choux paste, lady-fingers, macaroons and meringues are
examples of this type of cake. Sponge cakes should never be
cut with a knife. They should be broken or separated with
two forks by placing the backs of the tines together and gently
pulling the cake apart.

Method of mixing.

(1) Separate the whites of the eggs from the yolks; (2) beat the yolks
until they are thick and lemon-colored, scraping them down from the sides
with a spatula to prevent their drying on the bowl; (3) add the sifted sugar
gradually, beating the mixture constantly; (4) add the flavoring, if it is to
be used; (5) beat the whites until they will stay in the bowl when it is
inverted, that is, until they are stiff but not dry; (6) fold the whites quickly
into the first mixture, until they are not visible in large amounts; (7) sift
the salt and the flour several times. If baking powder is used, sift it with
the flour and the salt; (8) fold the dry ingredients carefully into the mix-

483

484 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

ture. It should not be beaten, because the air bubbles that make the cake
light may thus be broken, but it should be cut and folded until no dry
flour is visible.

Method of baking.

The pans for sponge cake should be perfectly clean. They
should not be greased. The pans should be filled according to
the directions on page 479. Sponge cakes should be baked in a
slow oven from 1 to 1J/2 hours. When the cake is done it will
begin to shrink from the sides of the pan, and it will rebound
when pressed lightly on top with the finger. Sponge cakes
should not be removed from the pan until cold. The pan should
be inverted on a cake-rack and the cake should be allowed to
cool gradually in a place that is free from a draft.

BUTTER CAKES

Recipes for butter cakes call for various proportions of ma-
terials. Results produced by such variations are discussed
briefly on pages 474 to 477. With a fair understanding of the
possibilities of substituting one material for another, cake re-
cipes may be varied to make the best use of the materials on
hand or to produce the desired result in lightness or richness.
Formulas that are good to use as a basis for substitution are
given on page 482. Because of the difference in grades of flour,
it is difficult to give the exact amount of flour required to pro-
duce the best result. Butter cakes include cup cakes, pound
cakes, cookies, and wafers. They may be plain or may contain
fruit or nuts. Directions for mixing and baking butter cakes
are given on pages 478 and 479. Directions for filling the pans
are given on page 479.

INGREDIENTS USED IN CAKES

A discussion of the essential materials used in cakes is given
on pages 474 to 477. Following are suggestions on certain ac-
cessory materials.*

* Mills, Katherine H. Making Cake. Part I. Cornell Reading-Course
for the Farm Home, Bull. 73.

CAKES 485

Several types of fruit are commonly used in' making cake;
first, dried fruits and candied fruits, such as currants, raisins,
citron, cherries, pineapple; second, fresh raw fruits, such as
blueberries, and cherries; third, cooked fruit pulp, such as apple-
sauce and blackberry jam. As a general rule it may be said that
when fruit is used in making cake, the batter will need to be
stiffer than for ordinary cake, the stiffness depending on the
weight of the pieces of the fruit to be held in place. A
cake dough containing raisins will need to be stiffer than one
containing blueberries, and a cake dough containing blueberries
will need to be stiffer than one made with apple-sauce or jam.
The presence of particles of dried fruit increases the difficulties
in baking cake, as fruit scorches easily and some of the fruit
will be at the surface of the cake. Rich fruit cakes should,
therefore, be baked in a very slow oven. This not only prevents
scorching, but also improves the flavor, since the fruit flavor
blends with that of the other ingredients.

Chocolate contains a hard fat which adds richness to cake,
but which tends to make it stiff as it dries out or if the cake is
kept in a very cold place. Chocolate cake that is made with
sour milk and soda is usually softer and darker in color than
that made with sweet milk and baking powder. Chocolate
contains starch which thickens the batter, so that less flour is
needed for chocolate cake than for white cake. Alkali darkens a
chocolate mixture, and a little soda added to the melted choco-
late before putting it into the batter will not only darken the
cake, but also neutralize any free fatty acid in the chocolate
and help to make the cake light. The large amount of soda in
some recipes for chocolate cake serves the same purpose.

Cocoa should be substituted for chocolate by weight instead
of by measure. In manufacturing cocoa nearly all of the fat
has been removed from it, so that cakes made by substituting
cocoa in a recipe calling for chocolate are likely to be bready
unless a small quantity of additional fat is added (the equivalent
of about J/2 tablespoonful of butter for each ounce, or J4 CU P-
ful, of cocoa used) .

Nuts are lighter than fruit and are not likely to settle to the

486 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

bottom of the tin; therefore they do not need to be floured.
They contain fat, and, when added to rich cake, the amount
of fat in the recipe should be decreased in proportion to the
richness added by the nuts. From 1 to 1^ tablespoonfuls less
of fat to each cupful of nuts is usually sufficient. A good method
of preparing nuts for cake is to grind them through the coarse
knife of the food chopper. When English walnuts or other
nut meats are bought already shelled, they should be washed and
dried in the oven before being used.

Cakes made of good materials require no additional flavoring.
If flavoring is desired, fresh fruit juices or other fresh flavors are
preferable to commercial extracts.

CAKE FILLINGS

A layer cake should be arranged if possible in such a way that
the bottom of the layers will receive the filling, because the
bottom is more porous than the top and consequently takes the
filling better. Fillings may be classified as cream fillings,
fruit fillings, and pastes.

CAKE FROSTINGS

A cake may be merely dusted over the top with powdered
sugar and the layers put together with a cream filling. The
sugar will stick to the cake better if the white of an egg or fruit
jelly has been brushed over the top first. Fruit or nuts, and
sugar may be sprinkled over the top of a cake before it is baked.

Frostings which are made of sugar and liquid and which com-
pletely cover the surface of a cake, may be either cooked or
uncooked. Various kinds of sugar may be used, and nuts or
fruit if desired. Uncooked frost ings should be made of confec-
tioner's sugar. The sugar should always be sifted. The rules
for sugar cookery (page 576) should be followed in making
cooked frosting.

For cutting a frosted cake, a knife dipped in boiling water
should be used in order to prevent breaking the frosting.

In frosting a layer cake, it has been found helpful to pin a
strip of glazed paper about an inch higher than the cake around

CAKES 487

it. This will serve as a retainer when the frosting is poured on
the cake. After the frosting has set, the strip of paper should
be removed, using a thin-bladed knife that has been wet in
hot water.

Boiled frostings*

In making boiled frosting, just as in making cake, it is
possible to vary the amounts of ingredients used in propor-
tion to the time of cooking. There are three ingredients
essential to the making of any so-called boiled frosting, water,
sugar, and white of egg. Cream of tartar may be used
with good effect, for it gives the frosting a creamy consist-
ency, but if none is at hand the same effect may be produced
by substituting vinegar or by increasing the amount of water
and thus prolonging the time of cooking. When the amount
of white of egg used in a recipe is increased, the temperature
to which the sugar solution is cooked should be increased.

Recipe

1 cup sugar 1/16 teaspoon cream of tartar

% cup water White of 1 egg

This is the old standard recipe and it makes a rather dense,
sweet frosting. The addition of another egg-white will make a
more fluffy frosting. Since eggs vary in size, r / 6 cup of white of
egg may be used to give a definite result. This recipe will make
sufficient frosting for the top of a cake about nine inches in
diameter.

Method I.

Dissolve the sugar and cream of tartar in the water over the heat,
stirring the mixture only until the sugar is dissolved. If one egg is to be
used, let the sugar mixture boil until it reaches the soft-ball stage (238 F.),
or until it forms threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a
fork. If two eggs are to be used, boil the sugar mixture until it reaches
a higher temperature, about 244 F., the hard-ball stage. Do not move
the dish or stir the sirup during the remainder of the period of cooking.
Cover the pan during the first few minutes that the sugar solution is

* Mills, Katherine H. Making Cake. Part II. Cornell Reading-Course
for the Farm Home, Bull. 75.)

488 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

boiling, so that steam may collect on the sides of the pan. This will help
to prevent the formation of large crystals that would cause the sirup to
crystallize in coarse grains and that would spoil the texture of the frosting.
After removing the cover of the pan, insert the candy thermometer and
wash from the sides of the pan any crystals that may form, using a brush
or cloth that has been wet with cold water. When the sirup is cooked,
pour it slowly on the beaten white of the egg, using a Dover egg-beater
and beating continually while pouring. Continue beating until the frost-
ing is cooled and is stiff enough to spread on the cake and remain in place.
If the mixture does not thicken properly, it may be cooked again by
Method II, twice-cooked frosting.

Method II.

Dissolve the sugar in the water and boil the mixture without stirring
until it reaches the hard-ball stage (246 F.), or until the sirup when
dropped from a spoon will form a long thread with short threads branching
from the main one. Remove the sirup carefully from the fire, and allow
it to cool while the whites of the eggs are being beaten until they are stiff
and dry. They should be beaten in the upper part of the double boiler,
as this will save utensils, materials, and time. Pour the sirup slowly
over the beaten whites of the eggs, beating the mixture as long as possible
with a Dover egg-beater and after that with a spoon, until the mixture is
light and stiff. Set the dish containing the frosting over hot water, and
allow the mixture to cook. Beat it constantly until it is light and fluffy,
rises slightly in the pan, and as it is stirred begins to give a slight scraping
sound against the sides of the dish. This scraping sound may be learned
only through experience, but it is easily detected. Remove the dish of
frosting at once from the hot water. If the frosting is cooked too long
over the hot water it will be granular. The frosting will probably be stiff
enough to spread at once; if it is not, stir it until it has reached the proper
consistency. This frosting may be piled on a cake to any desired thickness,
or it may be used in a tube to make ornamental frosting. When it is
properly made this frosting will be very light, fine grained, soft and springy.
After it has been spread on a cake, it will form a thin crust on top and will
keep moist and soft underneath for several days. This method makes a
frosting known as twice-cooked.

Variations.

1. Allow a thin layer of melted sweet chocolate to flow over the top of
the frosting after it has been spread on the cake and a thin crust has
formed on the top.

2. Brown or maple sugar may be substituted for white sugar. The sirup
must be boiled to a higher temperature (240 F.) before the mixture will
reach the soft-ball stage.

3. Use M cup of dark-colored strained honey and % cup of granulated
sugar, or use Yz cup light-colored strained honey and Yz cup granulated

CAKES 489

sugar. Add 3 tablespoons of water, and boil the mixture until it reaches
the soft-ball stage (240 F.), or until it begins to form threads when some
of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. Add the sirup to the white of
egg in the manner described in Method I. This frosting stiffens but does
not grain, and should be spread on the cake immediately before using.

4. Freshly grated cocoanut may be liberally sprinkled on the top of a
cake immediately after the frosting has been spread on it.

5. Chocolate frosting may be made by Recipe I for boiled frosting by
adding 2 squares (2 ounces) of chocolate to the sugar and water mixture
before it has been cooked. The directions given under Method I may be
followed. Another method is to add melted chocolate to the white frosting
after it has been beaten and is stiff enough to spread. The amount of
chocolate may be varied to suit the individual taste.

6. One-half cup of chopped nuts, figs, raisins, dates, or any combination
of nuts and these fruits, may be added to the frosting just before spreading
it on the cake.

CHAPTER XXIII
PASTRY

BY WINIFRED MOSES AND LUCILE BREWER

PASTRY is a shortened dough, a mixture of flour, shortening,
and liquid put together in different ways, according to the pur-
pose for which it is to be used. Three kinds are in common
use: (1) Plain pastry, in which the shortening is worked into
the flour by cutting or chopping; (2) puff pastry, in which the
shortening is worked into the paste by folding and rolling;
(3) flaky pastry, in which the shortening is worked into the
flour by a combination of these two methods.

INGREDIENTS

Flour.

Pastry flour, made from winter wheat, makes the best pastry.
It differs from ordinary bread flour made from spring wheat
in that it contains less gluten and more starch; it is softer, whiter,
and more velvety. One of the best tests for winter wheat flour
is that it easily retains the impress of the fingers, while spring
wheat flour tends to fall apart as quickly as the pressure is
removed.

Bread flour may be made to approximate pastry flour in
effect by substituting two tablespoons of cornstarch for two
tablespoons of flour in each cup.

Liquid.

Water is used as the liquid in making pastry. It should be as
nearly ice cold as possible, except when beef drippings and warm
water are used. To make pastry tender, the smallest possible
amount of water that will hold the ingredients together is used.
The actual amount depends on the water-absorbing quality of

490

PASTRY 491

the flour, and on the amount of fat used the more fat, the less
moisture required.

Fat.

The following kinds of fat may be used : butter, oleomargar-
ine, vegetable fat, lard, lard substitutes, beef drippings, chicken
fat, and suet. When suet is used, it is melted over boiling water
and stirred while hot into the flour. The paste is then kneaded
and rolled into a rather thick sheet and shaped in a mold. The
effects of the various fats are as follows: lard: a soft, tender
crust; cottolene: a soft, tender crust, slightly darker in color
than if lard is used ; vegetable oils : a less flaky crust and darker
in color than if lard is used; suet: a more compact and firm
crust than if lard is used. It has been found by experiment
that more butter than lard is required and more lard than lard
substitute, and that less shortening is needed when pastry flour
is used than when bread flour is employed.

For 1 cup of bread flour one should use: YS cup of lard; */3
cup plus 1 tablespoon of butter; x / 3 cup minus 1 tablespoon of
lard substitute.

For I cup of pastry flour one should use: J cup of lard; %
cup plus 2 / 3 tablespoon of butter; J4 CU P minus 4 /s tablespoon
of lard substitute.

Lard makes the tenderer crust, but butter gives the better
flavor. For equivalent measures of various fats see page 477.

Baking powder.

Baking powder may be used to help leaven the crust, in the
proportion of J4 teaspoon to 1 cup of flour. Usually the only
leavening agents used in pastry are the air and water which ex-
pand when heated.

Salt. :

If an unsalted fat is used, salt should be added in the pro-
portion of Y teaspoon of salt to 1 cup of flour.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PASTRY

Lightness depends on the amount of air incorporated, on the
expansion of that air, and on the presence of baking powder.

492 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

If the materials used are cold and the manipulation is carried on
in a cold room, or if the paste is chilled by being placed in a re-
frigerator, the expansion of the inclosed air is greater during the
baking process.

Flakiness results when the ingredients are so mixed as to make
layers. To accomplish this, fat is not thoroughly mixed into
the dry ingredients, but is left in pieces by being cut in with a
knife or rubbed in with a spoon.

Tenderness depends on the relative amounts of fat and water
used and on the manipulation. The more fat and the less water
used, within limits, the tenderer will be the crust. Handling
the paste develops elasticity by developing gluten, and so makes
a tough crust. If the fingers are used to mix the fat with the
flour, the heat of the fingers melts the fat and causes it to act as
liquid; thus more flour is required, which tends to make a tough
paste.

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PLAIN PASTRY

Recipe for plain pastry.

1 cup flour % teaspoon salt

M-l/3 cup shortening Water

(1) Mix the flour and salt; (2) cut in the fat, and add only enough water
to hold the ingredients together; (3) turn the mixture onto a slightly floured
board and turn it with a spatula to cover it evenly with flour; (4) if two
crusts are to be made, cut the paste in two portions and roll them sep-
arately and lightly with a rolling-pin, using motions outward from the cen-
ter; (5) keep the dough as nearly the desired shape and as uniform in
thickness as possible, roll it until the paste is very thin; (6) after each few
rolling motions, loosen the dough from the board to prevent sticking.

One-crust pie.

Place the crust in the pie pan, being careful that it is smooth, but not
at all stretched. A perforated pan of tin or agate ware is best. The pan
should never be greased. With scissors cut around the edges, leaving a
margin of about % inch. Turn this slightly under, and press it into fancy
edges with the fingers. Fill the crust, and bake it in a moderate oven for
40 minutes. Fillings for one-crust pies are made with milk and egg founda-
tions, such as custard, cream, and pumpkin, or from cooked fruit, such
as apple-sauce. These liquid fillings are likely to soak into the pie crust
during the process of baking, making a soggy crust. This may be avoided
by brushing over the crust with white of egg and placing the unfilled crust

PASTRY 493

in a hot oven long enough to coagulate the egg-white, thus forming a
coating to prevent the filling from soaking into the crust. Or instead of
heating the crust in the oven, the filling may be heated separately to such
a temperature that on adding it to the crust it will coagulate the white of
egg.

Crust baked vrithout filling.

The crust is sometimes baked first and then filled with a cooked filling.
Many persons prefer this kind of pie since the crust is crisp and well baked.
Invert a pie plate, cover the outside with pastry, fit it carefully to the
plate, and press the edge well to the edge of the plate. Trim the edge
if necessary, set the pie plate on a tin sheet to prevent the edge of the
paste from touching the floor of the oven. Prick the crust well with a
fork, and bake it from 12 to 15 minutes, or until it is thoroughly baked.
Slip the crust from the outside of the pan, and put it in place as an under
crust. Use any cooked filling, and place over the top strips or figures of
baked pastry, or a meringue.

Two-crust pie.

The lower crust is placed in the pie pan as for a one-crust pie, but in
this case the edges should be cut close and evenly with a knife. The
flavored filling is then added. The upper crust should be rolled rather
thick, brushed with butter, and lightly sprinkled with flour. Slits should
be cut in the crust to allow for the escape of steam. The edges of the
lower crust are then moistened with water and the upper crust laid over
the pie, care again being taken not to stretch the crust. The edges then
are cut and pressed firmly together into a fancy shape with the fingers or
a fork. Allow water to run over the top of the crust to make a flaky finish.
If a shiny finish is preferred, brush over the top with a mixture of slightly
beaten white of egg and water, without buttering and flouring the top.
If the filling is of a juicy type, a paper tube inserted in one of the slits in
the crust will allow the steam to escape readily and prevent the juice from
running out. Bake the pie in a moderate oven (page 480) for 40 minutes.

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING FLAKY PASTRY

Flaky pastry made half of washed butter and half of other
shortening is used for pie crusts, turnovers, cheese straws, and
tarts.

Recipe for flaky pastry.

3 cups flour ]/2 cup shortening

]/2 teaspoon salt J^ cup washed butter

3/8 to M cup water

(1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and free from milk; (2) sift the
flour and salt twice; (3) cut the }/?, cup shortening into the flour with a

494 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

knife; (4) add cold water gradually, mixing it with a knife to a paste as
for plain pastry; it must not be sticky; (5) knead it slightly; (6) cover it,
and set it in a cool place for 5 minutes; (7) pat it with a rolling-pin, and
roll it out into a rectangular sheet; (8) spread half the butter on half
the surface and fold, press down the edges so that no air nor butter can
escape, then spread the remainder of the butter on half again and fold,
pinching the edges tightly together; (9) set it in a cool place again for 5
minutes; (10) roll the pastry two or three times, allowing it to cool be-
tween each turn; (11) roll it out to 1/8 inch thickness, and bake it in a hot
oven (page 480).

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PUFF PASTRY

Puff paste is used when pastry of great flakiness and lightness
is desired, as in patty shells, tarts, fruit rolls, tea cakes, Floren-
tine meringues, and the like.

Recipe for puff pastry.

1 pound washed butter
\Yi pounds pastry flour
1 cup ice water

(1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and squeeze out all the liquid;
(2) separate the butter into six parts; (3) take out H pound of the flour;
(4) cut one piece of butter into the pound of flour, add ice water* and
mix the ingredients into a paste with as little handling as possible; (5)
knead the dough until it is smooth and elastic, cover it, set it in a cool
place for 5 minutes; (6) roll the paste, outward from the center, into a rec-
tangular piece; (7) place one piece of the butter on one-half the surface,
fold the pastry over, and pinch down the edges to keep in the air; (8) fold
the right edge two-thirds of the way back, fold the left edge back over
this, pinch down the edges again so that no air or butter can escape, cover
the paste, and let it stand in a cool place for 5 minutes; (9) roll it out into
another rectangle, and repeat the former process with the next pat of
butter, being sure to press the edges each time to keep in both the air and
the butter; (10) repeat this process until all pats of butter have been
used; each time before rolling the paste, turn it halfway round in order
to roll from another side, and always roll from you; (11) after the
final rolling, the paste must be chilled on ice or in a very cool place for
an hour or two; (12) bake it in a hot oven (page 480) with the heat coming
from below, and set it on the floor of even a gas oven for the first 5 minutes.

Puff pastry when baked should be eight times as thick as
when put into the oven. It is very rich and has a surface that is
light, flaky, and rather shiny.

CHAPTER XXIV
YEAST BREAD

BY CLARIBEL NYE

THE making of yeast bread has a certain fascination because
success depends largely on the proper control of living organ-
isms, or yeasts. If dough is left for too long or is kept too warm,
the yeast plants become weakened ; then the bacteria that may
be present grow and produce an acid, making the bread sour.
The milk is scalded in order to kill any bacteria present. Proper
baking of bread kills all bacteria, yeasts, and molds, and insures
its keeping, if it is carefully handled and stored afterwards.

INGREDIENTS

The essential ingredients for yeast bread are flour, yeast,
liquid, and salt. Other ingredients often added for flavor,
texture, or keeping quality are sugar, shortening, and potatoes.
In place of the customary wheat, corn, barley, oats, rice, po-
tatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used.
In place of some of the wheat ordinarily used, corn, barley,
oats, rice, potatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used.

The cereals may be ground and added with the flour, or they
may be cooked to a mush before they are added to the batter.

Flour.

The best bread flour is called strong flour and is made from
hard spring wheat. This wheat is grown in the Dakotas, Min-
nesota, a part of Iowa, Nebraska, northern Kansas, northern
Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. A strong winter wheat
is grown in a limited number of states, notably Kansas. A
strong bread flour is slightly granular, has a creamy color, and
gives bread of maximum volume.

- 495

496 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Wheat and rye flours are particularly adapted to bread-mak-
ing because they contain materials which, when moistened, form
an elastic substance, called gluten. The gluten expands with
the pressure of heated gases in baking and forms a framework
surrounding the other ingredients. A good yeast bread generally
contains some wheat or rye flour, although other cereals can well
be used to a certain extent.

The present complex standardized process of milling wheat
is the result of a gradual remarkable development which began
in the days when women were millers, the mill consisting of
two stones between which the grain was ground. The patent,
or roller, process now used produces a flour different in color,
composition, and bread-making qualities. Although wheat
milled by the roller process yields a flour that gives a white loaf
and consequently makes its appeal to the eye, the flour contains
less of the entire wheat kernel than that produced by the other
method.

The patent reduction, or roller, process is so named because
the wheat is reduced to flour by being put through a series of
steel rollers. The wheat is first cleaned, and then gradually
reduced to flour as it passes through a series of steel rollers,
each pair adjusted to give a finer product than the preceding.
As the wheat passes through each set of rollers, a little of it is
reduced to flour and the remainder is called middlings. The
middlings are then carried through the next roller; each time
the result is flour and middlings. The bran cannot be reduced
to flour but is flattened by the steel rollers and separated from
the flour. The quality of the flour that results from the blend-
ing of the flours obtained from the different rollers depends on
the skill of the miller.

Flour is sometimes said to be 80 per cent patent. This
usually means that 80 per cent of the flour obtained from the
wheat in the different stages of milling has been blended for
market. The term " patent " flour came into use when the roller,
or patent, milling process was introduced; its meaning at the
present time is not uniform throughout the country.

Graham, from whom graham flour received its name, believed

YEAST BREAD 497

that the entire wheat kernel should be used for food and de-
veloped a milling process by which all the kernel, with the excep-
tion of the outer inedible coats, was used. At the present time,
most graham flour is made by combining bran and white flour.

Whole-wheat flour does not contain so large a percentage of
the entire wheat kernel as does graham. However, graham,
because of its coarseness, may be irritating to the digestive tract
of some persons.

White flour contains less of the wheat kernel than does either
whole-wheat or graham.

Yeast.

Yeasts are very small plants, having a diameter of about
3/1000 inch. In bread-making, yeast serves two functions:
(1) by its action on the sugar of the flour it forms carbon di-
oxide gas, which makes the dough light; (2) it gives the char-
acteristic flavor which is found in bread only when yeast is
used.

Before yeast was sold commercially, women used to obtain
it by exposing batter to the air for several hours. The difficulty
with this method was that various yeast plants, as well as other
organisms present in the air, might enter, whereas only one
type of yeast is best for bread-making. Thus the flavor of the
bread was not always desirable. Old-fashioned liquid yeast,
or potato yeast, represents the housekeeper's method. The
yeasts grow and multiply rapidly in potato water to which
salt and sugar have been added. This mixture is then kept in
a cool place until needed for bread-making. The disadvan-
tage of liquid yeast is that other yeasts and organisms find
their way into the mixture and may give the bread a peculiar
flavor.

For the commercial product, one form of yeast is grown under
very carefully standardized conditions. The yeasts are mixed
with cornmeal and the mixture pressed into cakes and dried;
or the yeasts are mixed with starch or tapioca flour, pressed
into cakes, and sold in the form of compressed yeast. In the
dried form they will keep in fairly good condition for months;

498 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

compressed yeast keeps for only a few days, but the yeast is
much more active than it is in the dry cakes and, therefore,
bread can be made more quickly from it.

Liquid.

The liquid used in bread-making may be water, whole milk,
skimmed milk, whey, potato water, rice water, or the like.
Increased nutritive value, as well as better flavor and texture,
are points in favor of using milk in some of its forms instead
of water.

MIXING AND KNEADING

Milk for making bread is scalded in order to kill any organ-
isms that might develop under the favorable conditions offered
and thus give the bread a bad flavor.

The best temperature for the growth of yeast is 75 to 90
F. Below 40 to 60 F. yeast will not grow. It is killed at 140
F. Therefore, the liquid is cooled until it is lukewarm before
the yeast is added.

Sponge method.

For the sponge method of mixing bread, sufficient flour is
used to make a batter. This is 1J^ cups of flour to 1 cup of
liquid. The mixture is set aside until the surface is covered with
bubbles. Sufficient flour to make a dough is then added. The
sponge method is followed frequently when dry yeast is used.
Yeast plants grow rapidly in a thin batter, and as they are not
in an active state in dry yeast cakes, the batter makes possible
a quick growth of yeast. With compressed yeast the sponge
method is unnecessary.

Straight-dough method.

For the straight-dough method, sufficient flour to make a
dough is added as soon as the yeast has been added to the
liquid. The dough is removed to a floured board and is kneaded
until it is smooth and elastic, and until it will not stick to an
unfloured board. Kneading is for the purpose of thoroughly

YEAST BREAD 499

mixing all the ingredients, developing the elasticity of the gluten,
and incorporating air into the dough.

Mixing bread by a machine.

If three or more loaves of bread are being made, a bread-
mixer saves time and labor. If the correct proportion of flour
to liquid is used, and the mixing is continued until the dough is
smooth and elastic, the same result will be obtained by machine-
mixing as with equal care by hand-mixing. Frequently too
much flour is used. This causes slow rising, and if the dough
is made into loaves before the rising is complete, the resulting
bread will be compact and inferior in other respects.

FERMENTATION

The rising of dough until it goes into the pan is called fer-
mentation. The best temperature for the growth of yeast is
80 to 87 F.

If a strong or good grade of bread flour is used, the dough
should treble its original size in the first rising. If a weak or
poor grade of flour is used, the dough will only double its original
size.

The texture and the flavor of bread is improved by a second
rising of the dough. The dough should increase its original size
by only one-half during the second rising.

SHAPING DOUGH

No flour should be used in molding loaves. The dough is
molded by folding the sides under several times. It is placed
in a greased tin with the crease on the bottom. The tins
should be only half filled with the dough.

PROOFING

The rising in the pan is called "proofing."

This rising can be more rapid than in fermentation. Com-
mercially, loaves are proofed at a temperature about 10 above
that of fermentation.

500 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

BAKING

Loaves are ready to be baked when they have doubled their
original size.

The baking temperature depends somewhat on the amount of
sugar and shortening used in the dough. With an increase in
sugar and shortening, there should be a decrease in temperature.
The best temperature for plain bread dough is from 380 to
400 F. Loaves weighing 1J/2 pounds should be baked from
50 to 60 minutes at from 380 to 400 F.

A uniform temperature during the entire baking period gives
good results, although many authorities believe the tempera-
ture should be increased after the first 15 minutes. Dough
should rise, or spring, during the first 5 minutes it is in the oven.
At the end of 15 minutes it should begin to brown, and as baking
continues the bread should draw away from the sides of the tin
and brown on all sides.

If a soft, shiny crust is desired, the loaves should be greased
5 minutes before baking is completed.

Bread should be removed from the pans as soon as it is taken
from the oven. The loaves should be cooled quickly, in cir-
culating air and not covered.

A condition in bread that causes considerable trouble and
financial loss in bakeries and occasionally in home baking is
called "ropiness," and the bread is known as "ropy bread."
Such bread for several hours after baking looks, smells, and
tastes like any well-made bread; then there quickly develops
a most disagreeable odor. When the loaf is broken, the interior
is slimy, sticky, and stringy. Such bread, of course, is not fit
for food.

"Rope" is the result of the action of a form of bacteria which,
if present, is found in the flour. It develops only in very hot
weather. The organism chiefly responsible for ropiness is said
to be generally distributed in the soil. The best flours may be
infected, and it is impossible in buying flour to know whether
the organism is present.

YEAST BREAD 501

When the difficulty is found, all utensils and containers used
for flour, bread-making, or storing bread should be sterilized
by boiling. In making bread from the remainder of the flour
on hand or from additional flour of the same brand bought
during the hot weather, vinegar should be added to the liquid
in the proportion of two per cent of the amount of flour, or
about 1 tablespoon to each pound of flour. In all other respects
the bread should be made in the usual way. The bread will
not have as good a bloom as under normal conditions, but
otherwise it is not inferior.

RECIPES

White bread (2 loaves)

2 tablespoons sugar brown or granulated honey, molasses, or corn
sirup. (The sugar may be omitted.)

2 tablespoons any kind of shortening. (The shortening may be omitted.)

1]/2 teaspoons salt

2^ cups liquid water, scalded milk, rice water, or whey

^ to 2 cakes dry or compressed yeast, or 2/3 to 2 cups potato yeast

6 to 8 cups white bread flour

The amount of flour varies slightly. A smaller quantity of good bread
flour than of poor, is required. If the flour is damp, more must be used
than if it is dry. The shortening and the sugar may be omitted. If the
bread is to be made in 8 hours, only % cake of dry or compressed yeast
or 2/3 cup of liquid yeast need be used. If the bread is to be made in 4
hours or less, 2 cakes of dry or compressed yeast or 2 cups of liquid yeast
are needed.

General directions for mixing and baking bread

(1) Add the hot scalded milk or other liquid to the sugar, the salt, and
the shortening; (2) when this is lukewarm, add the yeast, which has been
softened in a small amount of lukewarm water (this water is included in
the amount of liquid given in the recipe) ; (3) add one-half the amount of
flour called for in the recipe; beat the mixture well and add the remainder
of the flour slowly until the dough is stiff enough to knead; (4) knead the
dough, using as little flour as possible on the board, and adding only-
enough flour to keep the dough from sticking; continue kneading until
the dough is smooth and will form a ball that does not flatten out when
it stands on the board; when the dough does not stick to the board,
on which there is no flour, it has been sufficiently kneaded; (5) moisten
the top of the dough with water or fat to prevent a crust forming on it,
cover the dough with a towel, and set it aside to rise in a warm place at a
temperature of about 85 to 90 F.; (6) when the dough has risen until it is

502 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

twice its original size, work it down by folding the sides under four times;
(7) cover the dough again, and allow it to rise until it has increased its size
by one-half; (8) shape the dough into loaves, and place them in greased
pans, filling the pans about half full; (9) allow the loaves to rise until they
are double in bulk when the dough will begin to follow the shape of the
pans; (10) bake the loaves for 50 to 60 minutes in a moderate oven at
a temperature from 380 to 400 F.; the bread should begin to brown
at the end of 15 minutes; (11) remove the bread from the pans at once,
and place the loaves where they will cool quickly; do not cover the bread
while it is hot; (12) if a soft, shiny crust is desired, grease the crust 5 min-
utes before the baking is completed.

Variations

For variation in kind of bread, use the recipes and directions for making
white bread, substituting, according to the following suggestions, other
flour or cereals for part of the white flour. The substitutes may be used
in larger proportions than are here indicated, but the loaves will not be so
light or so similar to white bread.

Entire wheat bread: 6 cups entire wheat flour, 2 cups white bread flour.
Follow the general directions.

Graham bread: 6 cups graham flour, 2 cups white bread flour. Follow
the general directions.

Rolled oats bread (not kneaded): 1J^ cups rolled oats, 5^ cups white
bread flour. Pour boiling milk or other liquid over the oats, the salt, and
the sugar. When the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast. Add the flour,
and beat the dough well. When it has doubled in bulk, beat it well. Turn
it into greased bread tins. When it has doubled in bulk, bake it for 1
hour. Generally molasses or brown sugar is used instead of granulated
sugar.

Rolled oats bread (kneaded) : 2 cups rolled oats, 6 cups white bread flour.
Add the boiling liquid to the rolled oats, the salt, the sugar, and the shorten-
ing; when the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast. Then add the flour,
knead the dough, and proceed according to the general directions.

Rice bread: 2 cups cooked rice, rice water for liquid, 3 cups graham flour,
5% cups white bread flour. Boil % cup of rice in 2 quarts of unsalted
water for from 15 to 20 minutes. Drain the rice, and dry it somewhat.
Follow the general directions.

Wheat bread (breadcrumbs): 2 cups breadcrumbs, 5^ cups white
bread flour. Add the boiling liquid to the breadcrumbs, sugar, shortening,
and salt. When the mixture is lukewarm, follow the general directions.

Wheat bread (home-ground wheat): 4 cups home-ground wheat, 4 to
4J^ cups white bread flour. Follow the general directions.

Potato flour bread: 2 cups potato flour, 5^ cups white bread flour.
Follow the general directions.

Rye bread: 3 cups rye flour, 4^ cups white bread flour. Follow the

YEAST BREAD

503

general directions. Since the dough is soft and sticky, it is difficult to
knead; but do not let this tempt you to add more white flour.

Barley bread: 4^ cups home-ground barley meal, 4 3/6 cups white bread
flour. Follow the general directions. One cup of barley makes 1% cups
of barley meal.

Corn bread: 2 cups cornflour, 7 cups white bread flour. Follow the
general directions.

Combination yeast breads (3 loaves).*

Directions for making these combination breads follow the recipes.

WHITE BREAD (Basic recipe)
13 cups flour
2 tablespoons corn sirup
5 teaspoons salt
2 cakes compressed yeast

1 quart water

CORN BREAD
8 cups flour

\ l /2 cups cornmeal, uncooked
5 teaspoons salt

2 tablespoons corn sirup
2 cakes compressed yeast
5 cups water

ROLLED OATS BREAD
8 cups flour

2^ cups rolled oats, uncooked
2 tablespoons molasses
5 teaspoons salt
2 cakes compressed yeast
5 cups water

RICE BREAD
8 cups flour

1 cup rice, uncooked

2 tablespoons corn sirup
5 teaspoons salt

2 cakes compressed yeast
5 cups water

POTATO BREAD
8 cups flour

2 pounds, or \Y^ quarts potatoes,
uncooked, diced

7 teaspoons salt

2 tablespoons corn sirup
2 cakes compressed yeast

4 cups water

BEAN BREAD

8 cups flour

1 cup beans, uncooked

2 tablespoons corn sirup

5 teaspoons salt

2 cakes compressed yeast
5 cups water

BARLEY BREAD

7 cups flour

1 cup barley, uncooked

2 tablespoons molasses
5 teaspoons salt

2 cakes compressed yeast
5 cups water

BREADCRUMB BREAD

8 cups flour

4 cups breadcrumbs

2 tablespoons molasses

5 teaspoons salt

2 cakes compressed yeast

4 cups water (or milk and water)

(1) To prepare the substitute, soak beans or barley overnight, drain off
the water, measure it, and add sufficient water to make 1 quart, then cook
the beans or barley in this until they are soft; cook the cereal in 1 quart of
* Charles Taylor.

504 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

the water called for in the recipe and the potato in 3 cups until it is soft;
mash the potato; grind the bread in a chopper, adding 3 cups of lukewarm
water; (2) combine the hot mush or mashed potato or breadcrumbs, the
salt, ajad the sweetening, stirring the mixture often enough to avoid the
formation of any film, until it has cooled to blood heat; (3) when it is luke-
warm, add the yeast which has been softened in 1 cup of water, reducing
the yeast one-half, and increasing the salt one-fourth if the bread is set
overnight; (4) add the flour, and knead the dough thoroughly, using as
little flour on the board as possible; (5) let the dough rise for 3^ hours,
or until it has doubled in bulk at the approximate temperature of 75 F.;
(6) work it down, and let it rise again for 1^ hours, or until it has in-
creased its size by one-half; (7) mold it, place it in pans, and let it rise
until it has almost doubled in bulk; (8) bake the loaves for 50 to 60 min-
utes in a moderately hot oven, or at a temperature of 360 to 400 F.;
(9) remove the bread from the pans at once, and cool it quickly.

On account of the reduced amount of gluten in these breads, they must
be molded and handled with great care.

Wheatless yeast breads. *

Quick rising seems to give best results with wheatless yeast breads.
Therefore, a .larger proportion of yeast is used than is necessary when the
dough is allowed to rise overnight.

The best loaf is made from dough which is so soft that it must be stirred,
not kneaded.

Only part of the flour should be added at the beginning. When the
sponge has risen for about 20 minutes, it should be beaten or stirred thor-
oughly; then the remaining flour should be added and the dough turned
into the pan. It should be allowed to rise in the pan for about 30 minutes,
or until it rounds up slightly. These doughs never double in bulk in the
rising as do wheat doughs.

Small loaves made from these heavy cereals are likely to have a better
shape and texture than large ones, although one loaf may be made from
the recipes given.

Slow baking gives the best results. From \}^ to l]/z hours in a fairly
slow oven is the time recommended.

Barley, oat and rice flour bread (2 small loaves).

1% cups barley flour 2 teaspoons salt

^ cup rice flour 1 tablespoon corn sirup

\Y^ cups ground rolled oats 1 cake compressed yeast

1 cup milk M CU P lukewarm water

Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the
salt and sirup. When the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast, then the
barley flour and rice flour, sifted. Beat the dough well, and allow it to
rise until it is light. Add the sifted oat flour, and turn the mixture into

* Lucile Brewer.

YEAST BREAD 505

greased pans. Allow it to rise for 20 or 30 minutes, and bal?fe it in a mod-
erate oven from 1 to 1*4 hours.

Barley and rice bread (2 small loaves).
4 cups barley flour 1 tablespoon corn^girup

1 cup boiled rice 1 cake compressed yeagt ,

1 cup milk M cup lukewarm water

2 teaspoons salt

Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the
sirup and salt. When the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast.

SALT-RISING BREAD

An old-fashioned bread, the making of which is almost a lost
art to-day, is called salt-rising bread. No yeast is used. Gas
from a certain type of bacteria found in cornmeal is the leaven-
ing agent. Dough made from freshly ground cornmeal rises
much more rapidly than that from old cornmeal; in fact, failure
generally results unless fresh cornmeal is used.

The bread is handled in the same way as yeast-raised bread,
except that the entire process can be carried on at a somewhat
higher temperature than is possible with yeast bread.

The odor of salt-rising bread during fermentation and proofing
is characteristic. No other dough is like it.

Salt-rising bread is finer in texture than yeast bread, and some
persons believe it is more easily digested.

Recipe for salt-rising bread (3 loaves).

(1) In the evening make a mush of 2 tablespoons of cornmeal and about H
cup of scalded milk. Keep it in a warm place overnight. (2) In the morning
mix together 1 cup lukewarm water, K teaspoon salt, H teaspoon soda, 1 %
cups flour, cornmeal mush. (3) Cover the mixture, and place the dish in
warm water until the mixture is light. (4) To 2 cups lukewarm water add
2 teaspoons of salt and 3 cups of flour. Add to this the cornmeal leavening
mixture. Allow the mixture to rise until it is light. Then add sufficient
flour to make a dough. Knead it until it is smooth, make it into loaves,
place it in tins, and allow it to rise until it is double in bulk. Bake it
according to the general directions.

CHAPTER XXV

COOKING OF CEREALS

BY MARY F. HENRY

CEREALS in general are a cheap source of energy but there are
wide differences in the cost of the various cereals themselves.
Rolled oats, the whole-wheat grain, and cornmeal are, under
ordinary conditions, the cheapest energy-yielding foods. The
ready-to-eat and the partly cooked cereals are from two to ten
times as expensive as the raw cereals. Attention given to the
proper cooking of the raw cereals and to simple variations in
serving them will, therefore, help to keep the food bills low,
while at the same time the family is provided with a nutritious
and appetizing food.

Proportion of cereal and water.

No rule for the proportion of cereal and water can be given
that will apply to all kinds of cereals, or that will give a con-
sistency which will satisfy every taste. The kind of cereal,
the method of manufacture, and the method of cooking affect
the amount of water that should be used. Cereal cooked in a
fireless cooker requires less water than that cooked in a double
boiler because there is less evaporation. Cereal cooked in a
double boiler requires less water than that cooked directly over
the fire, for the same reason. The table here given suggests
proportions of water and cereal that may be used. Modifica-
tion may be made to suit the taste.

The proportion of salt should be % to 1 teaspoon for every
cup of water.

Time required for cooking cereals.

Cereals require long, slow cooking to make them palatable
and digestible. Just as the various cereals call for different

506

COOKING OF CEREALS 507

proportions of water, so they require different lengths of time
for cooking. The whole grains and the ground grains contain-
ing large amounts of cellulose, such as whole-wheat, oatmeal,
or Ralston's breakfast food, require a longer time for cooking
than the grains that naturally or because of the process of manu-
facture contain less cellulose, such as rice or cream of wheat.
The time of cooking may be reduced considerably by soaking
the cereal for several hours, or even as long as overnight, to
soften the cellulose. This soaking may be especially desirable
in the case of whole cereals. Since the cereal in this way absorbs
a considerable amount of water, an equal amount should be
deducted from that used in cooking the cereal.

Utensils for cooking cereals.

A fireless cooker is particularly well adapted for cooking
cereals, since it gives the desirable long, slow cooking and makes
possible a saving in attention and fuel. A double boiler is the
next most convenient utensil. Cereals may be cooked directly
over the fire if the temperature is kept low, but since there is a
tendency to shorten the time of cooking because of the attention
required to prevent burning, this method is in general not
recommended. Even if stirred, cereal cooked in this way is
likely to stick to the kettle and make it difficult to wash.

Directions for cooking cereals in a double boiler.

(1) Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling point in the upper
part of a double boiler; (2) when the water is boiling vigorously, sprinkle
the dry cereal into it slowly in order not to stop the boiling, as this will
prevent lumping; (3) stir the cereal only slightly to prevent sticking and
allow it to boil from 5 to 10 minutes, or until it thickens; (4) cover the
container, and place it over the lower part of the double boiler, which is
filled one-third full with boiling water; (5) cook the cereal for the required
length of time, keeping the water in the lower part of the double boiler
constantly boiling.

Directions for cooking cereals in a fireless cooker.

(1) Cook the cereal in the fireless cooker container over direct heat for
5 or 10 minutes according to the directions just given for the use of a
double boiler; (2) when the cereal has boiled 5 or 10 minutes, cover the
container and place it as quickly as possible in the fireless cooker and

508

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

allow it to remain overnight. If a hot soapstone is used, 4 or 5 hours'
cooking may be sufficient. If necessary, reheat the cereal over direct
heat or in a container of boiling water before serving it.

TABLE XXX. COOKING OP CEREALS

Kind of cereal

Measure
(cups)

Amount of
water 1
(cups)

Time of Cooking

Over direct
heat
(minutes)

Double
boiler
(hours)

Fireless
cooker

Amount
after
cooking
(cups)

Petti John's
Rolled oats

1
1

2 to 2^
2 to 2 l / 2
4 to 5
4 to 5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3^ to 5

5 to 10
5 to 10
3 to 5
3 to 5
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10
5 to 10

3
3
1
1

2 to 3
6 to 8
3
6
6 to 8
5 to 6
1 to 2
3

Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight
Overnight

2 scant
2
4 scant
4 scant
4 scant
3M
4 scant
3^
3^2 scant
4
4 scant
4^

Cream of wheat . . .
Farina
Cornmeal

Entire grain wheat.
Ralston's

Oatmeal

Hominy grits
Samp

Wheatena
Rice

1 If the fireless cooker is used, from
given in this table.

to ^ cup less water should be added than is

Variations in cooking and serving breakfast cereals.

Cereals may be cooked in milk, or in a combination of milk
and water. Slightly more milk is necessary than when water
alone is used. The use of milk in cooking cereals offers a way
of increasing the milk-content of a meal and makes the dish
more nutritious. Figs or raisins may be chopped fine and stirred
in a few minutes before serving. Bananas, berries, or other
fruit may be served with the cereal. Combinations of two or
more kinds of cereals are good for variety.

Uses for left-over cereals.

Left-over cereals may be served in various ways. The cereal
may be poured into individual molds and served as pudding
with fruit sauce or cream. Dates, figs, or other fruit may be
added before it is molded. If the cereal is sufficiently stiff,
it may be molded in a loaf, sliced, browned in a small amount of
fat, and served with sirup or tomato sauce. Left-over cereal
may be used for a part of the flour in muffins, pancakes, or other
breads, and in scalloped dishes or croquettes.

COOKING OF CEREALS 509

How to pop corn*

For good results in popping, the main requisites are good corn
and a good hot fire. In popping, certain precautions may be
observed to good advantage. Too much pop-corn should not
be taken at one time, not more than enough barely to cover the
bottom of the popper one kernel deep. The popper should be
held high enough above the fire or heat to keep from burning
the kernels or scorching them too quickly. The right degree
of heat for best results in popping should make good corn begin
to pop in \y<i minutes. This should give the maximum volume
increase in popping. If it begins to pop in less time or if a large
quantity of corn is put into the popper, it will not pop up so
crisp and flaky. If it takes much longer for the popping to be-
gin, the heat is probably not great enough or the pop-corn is
of poor quality, or there may be other interfering causes, such
as drafts of cold air.

To preserve the snowy whiteness of the popped kernels, the
flame must be kept from striking them. This can be done by
placing a plate of iron or a stove lid between the corn and
the fire if a wire popper is used or by using a pan popper if
popping directly over a flame.

If the pop-corn is in first-class condition and the heat properly
applied, 1 pint of unpopped corn should give 15 to 20 pints of
popped corn.

* Hartley, C. P., and Willier, J. G. Farmers' Bull. 553. U. S. Dept. of
Agr.

CHAPTER XXVI

MEAT AND POULTRY

BY LUCILE BREWER

ALTHOUGH meat is not a necessity in the diet (page 410),
the estimate is that in the United States about one-third of the
total expenditure of money for food is for meat. This country
shows the highest per capita consumption. Doubtless one of the
reasons for this large consumption is that meat has an appetiz-
ing flavor and is easily cooked, especially the tender cuts. Amer-
ican cooks have not yet acquired the skill of European and
Oriental cooks in flavoring foods, nor do they, under ordinary
conditions, devote sufficient time and thought to the prepara-
tion of meat-substitute dishes. However, with the rising cost
of meat, more attention is being paid to the tough, and conse-
quently, cheaper, cuts and to the complete utilization of all
meat bought.

SELECTION OF MEAT BY APPEARANCE

Beef should be firm and fine-grained in texture. It should
have a bright red color and be well mottled with fat. The
fat of beef should be firm and of a yellowish color. Suet
should be dry and should crumble readily. For cuts of beef, see
Fig. 118.

Veal should be of a pinkish color. The fat should be firm and
white.

Mutton should be a bright pink color and fine-grained. The
fat of mutton should be hard and flaky. The outside skin
should come off easily. For cuts of mutton, see Fig. 1 19.

Lamb. The bones of lamb are reddish in color while those
of mutton are white.

510

MEAT AND POULTRY

511

Pork. The skin of pork should be white and clear. The
flesh should be of a pinkish tint. For cuts of pork see Fig. 120.

FIG. 118. Cuts of beef.

FIG. 119. Cuts of mutton.

Poultry. Chickens should have soft feet, a smooth skin, and
soft cartilage at the end of the breast bone. An abundance of
pin feathers indicates a young bird. Long hairs indicate age.

512

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

The feet of fowls are hard and dry, with coarse scales. The
cartilage at the end of the breast bone has become ossified. A

good turkey should be plump; its
legs should be smooth, and the car-
tilage at the end of the breast bone
should be soft and pliable. (Page
524).

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING

Meat is cooked to soften connect-
ive tissue, to develop flavor, to im-
prove appearance, and to destroy
bacteria or other organisms.

The cuts of meat may be divided
into two classes, the tough and the
tender. Although the tough cuts
are as nutritious as the tender and
are cheaper, more skill and ingenuity
are required to make them palatable.

Both nutritive material and flavor
are retained in meat by searing over
the surface at the beginning of the
cooking period. This may be done
by plunging it into boiling water or
hot fat, or by placing it in a hot oven
or over an open fire as in broiling,
thus using direct heat.

Tender cuts.

Only the tender cuts should be
cooked with dry heat. After the
meat has been quickly seared with
intense heat to retain the juices/the

temperature should be lowered dur-
Jutsofpork. ing the remainder of the cook i ng .

Even the tenderest cuts of meat may be toughened by cooking
at too high a temperature. The tender cuts are fine grained
and require less time for cooking than do the tough cuts.

MEAT AND POULTRY 513

Broiling and roasting, which develop a fine flavor, can be
used only for tender cuts. The best cuts for broiling are porter-
house, sirloin, cross cut of rump steak, and the second and third
cuts from the top of the round. Porterhouse and sirloin steaks
are the most expensive because of the loss of bone and fat.
Round steaks are juicy, but they have a coarser fiber and are
not so tender as porterhouse and sirloin.

Steaks should be cut at least one inch thick; they may be as
thick as two or three inches.

Most of the fat on steaks should be tried out, clarified, and
used for shortening.

The best cuts for roasting are the middle of the sirloin, the
back of the rump, and the first three ribs. The tip of the sir-
loin and the back of the rump make large roasts that are more
economical than the sirloin. Rib roasts contain more fat
and are somewhat cheaper than other roasts.

Tough cuts.

The tough cuts are the ones containing muscles which the
animal has used most actively and include the shin, knuckle,
and round of the leg, the neck, and the shoulder.

Methods of making tough meats tender are chopping, adding
fat, marinating with oil and vinegar, long slow cooking in moist
heat at a low temperature, and breaking the fibers by pounding
them with a sharp instrument. Tough cuts of meat require
long, slow cooking to be made tender and palatable. Tough
ends of the tender cuts, such as porterhouse steak, should be
cut off and specially cooked in such a way that they can be
utilized, instead of being cooked in the same way as the tender
part and then discarded because of their toughness. If it is
desired to extract some of the nutritive material and flavor for
soup, sauce, or gravy, the meat should be put into cold water and
heated slowly. Tough cuts that are to be used for stew may be
cut in small pieces and browned before the long, slow cooking,
if this browned flavor is liked. Meat cooked for a stew may be
drained, rolled in egg and buttered crumbs, and browned for
variety. The broth may be thickened and served as gravy.

514 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Swiss steak

\Y^ pounds round steak, J^-l cup flour

1^ to 2 inches thick 3 slices bacon

1 small onion Salt and pepper

Pound the flour into both sides of the piece of steak. Cook the bacon
and sliced onion until brown. Add the meat, brown each side, and add
water or tomato juice barely to cover the steak. Cover and simmer it
on the stove or place it in the oven. When it is half done, season with salt
and pepper.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR SOUP-MAKING

Soups may be classified as follows : Soups with stock, as bouil-
lon, brown stock, white stock, consomme, lamb stock; soups
without stock, as cream soups, purees, bisques; and chowders.
Only soups with stock will be considered here. Cream soups
have white sauce as a basis (page 552). Since the purpose in
making soup is to draw out as much food substance and flavor-
ing material as possible, the bones or meat should be placed in
cold water and should be heated slowly.

Bones are likely to be better utilized if a receptacle is kept for
soup materials only; then every few days the soup kettle may
be placed on the stove. If the soup kettle is always kept on
the stove and especially if the amount of material is large, as in
the case of hotel soup kettles, there is danger of food poisoning
because the repeated heating and cooling of the meat and broth
furnishes excellent conditions for the growth of certain harmful
microorganisms. If sparingly used, fresh pork and ham bones
make good additions to soup. If there is a small amount of
soup stock on hand, it may be used with the water from boiled
potatoes, rice, celery, and the like, to make a delicious soup.
Soup stock may be used in white sauce or brown sauce to im-
prove the flavor.

If clear soup is wished, only bones should be used, because
meat would have to be strained out and would probably be
wasted. Meat that has been used for making soup has lost its
flavor but not its nutritive qualities; consequently, if a house-
keeper wishes to be thrifty, she will boil the soup meat for a
shorter time, or until it is tender, and serve it with the soup.

MEAT AND POULTRY 515

A soup made in this way with the addition of rice, pearl bar-
ley, macaroni, or vegetables makes an appetizing luncheon
dish.

Bouillon

4 pounds of meat without bone l / teaspoon pepper

4 pints cold water % teaspoon sweet herbs

1^2 teaspoons salt Bay leaf

10-12 peppercorns 1^ tablespoons each of carrot,

4 cloves onion, celery

1 cup canned tomato, if desired

To make bouillon : (1 ) Use a kettle with a tight-fitting cover to keep in the
flavors; (2) wipe the meat with a damp cloth; (3) trim off undesirable por-
tions; (4) cut in small pieces; (5) place the meat in the kettle; (6) cover it
with cold water and allow it to stand % hour; (7) bring it to the simmering
point, 180 F., and cook it for 5 or 6 hours, never allowing the soup to
boil; (8) add the vegetables and seasonings 1 hour before serving; (9)
strain off the liquid and set it away uncovered to cool.

Brown soup stock

6 pounds shin of beef 1 sprig marjoram

3 quarts cold water 3 sprigs parsley

K teaspoon peppercorns Carrots

6 cloves Turnips % cup of each cut

H bay leaf Onion in dice

3 sprigs thyme Celery

1 tablespoon salt

To make brown soup stock: (1) Wipe the beef; (2) cut the lean meat in
cubes; (3) brown one-third of it in a frying pan in marrow from the marrow
bones; (4) put the remaining two-thirds with the bone and fat in the soup
kettle; (5) let it stand for 30 minutes; (6) add the browned meat, and heat
it gradually to the boiling point; (7) remove the scum; (8) cover the
kettle and cook the meat slowly for 6 hours; (9) add the vegetables 1 hour
before it is done; (10) strain the stock; (11) cool it as quickly as possible;
(12) clarify it.

White soup stock

4 pounds of knuckle of veal 1 large stalk celery

1 pound lean beef % teaspoon peppercorns

2 quarts boiling water % bay leaf

6 slices carrot 2 sprigs thyme

1 onion 2 cloves

Follow the directions for bouillon.

516 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

TABLE XXXI. MEATS FOR SOUP AND BROTH

Meat

Weight in

pounds

Shin soup bones

1-4

Hind shank soup bones

1-5

Knuckle soup bone

3-7

Oxtail

1-2

Beef neck
Beef shoulder clod

1-3

1-2

Beef round .....

1-2

Shoulder of mutton

1-2

Neck of mutton

1-2

Shanks of mutton

CARE OF MEAT

Meat should be removed from the wrapping paper as soon
as it comes from the market, since the paper absorbs some of the
juices.

Before meat is cooked, it should be wiped with a cloth wrung
out of cold water. It should never be allowed to stand in a pan
of cold water, since the juices are in this way drawn out.

Meat must be kept cool in a refrigerator, a cool cellar, a
spring-house or a well. It must also be carefully protected
from flies.

Since broth offers excellent conditions for the growth of bac-
teria, it should be drained off meat that is to be kept for any
length of time before being served.

If conditions for keeping meat are very unfavorable, it may
be dipped into a large quantity of boiling water. This does not
seriously affect its flavor, and it tends to prevent the meat from
spoiling. Veal and pork may be partly cooked before being
stored.

When canned meats are opened, they spoil more quickly
perhaps than fresh meats; therefore, they should be consumed
with as little delay as possible. Under no circumstances should
they be left in a tin can after it is opened.

MEAT AND POULTRY

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518

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

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MEAT AND POULTRY 519

KEEPING MEAT *

After slaughtering, the meat undergoes several changes.
Immediately after being killed, the flesh, especially in young
and well-nourished animals, is juicy and tender. On account
of the clotting of the myosin, after a short time rigor mortis
ensues and the meat becomes stiff and hard. In the third stage
to which the meat soon passes, it becomes again soft and tender,
owing in part to the action of lactic acid on the sarcolemma and
connective tissue. This process should not, however, be al-
lowed to go too far, or the meat will become "high" and have
a disagreeable odor and flavor.

This development of the lactic acid rendering the meat tender,
is called "ripening 7 ' of the meat. Refrigeration retards this
process, hence meats can be kept fresh for a considerable time
at a low temperature (below 40 F.) . The experiments by P. F.
Trowbridge,f show that as long as the amount of lactic acid
continues to increase, the meat appears to be improving in
quality. At a certain stage, however, basic bodies begin to
separate, which neutralize the lactic acid and thus cause a de-
crease in the amount of this free acid. The meat is still edible
after this decrease has begun, but whenever enough basic
bodies are liberated to neutralize the lactic acid, the meat has
then reached a stage of incipient putrefaction and is no longer
fit for food.

Game is often allowed to "hang" until the changes of de-
composition are well marked and in this condition it is highly
relished by epicures.

USE OF MARKET TRIMMINGS AND MEAT FAT IN COOKING {

Market trimmings vary with the customs of the locality and
the character of the cuts bought, but it is certain that a saving
can be made if the trimmings are brought home and used in
cooking or for other purposes.

* Bailey, E. H. S. The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products.
f Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta.

j Usher, Susannah. Waste of Meat in the Home. Part II. Cornell
Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 109.

520 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

After being tried out and clarified, all sweet suet from market
and home trimmings of beef and mutton, drippings from roasts,
bacon fat, fresh pork fat, and sausage fat can be combined or
used singly in cooking. For frying croquettes, breaded chops,
French fried potatoes, and the like, a mixture of various fats,
such as beef, mutton, and bacon, is excellent. The cracklings
from tried-out suet are good for shortening in corn cakes and
suet puddings.

In buying suet separately, it should be remembered that
fats from all parts of the animal do not melt at the same tem-
perature. For example, cod suet melts at a lower temperature
and is, therefore, a softer fat than is kidney suet For some
kinds of cooking the softer fat is much to be preferred.

In general, fats are almost completely digested, although ex-
periments indicate that fats with low melting points, such as
butter and olive oil, are digested more completely than those
with high melting points, such as mutton fat and beef fat.

Temperature of cooking.

More important, however, than the kind of fat eaten, is the
method of treatment of fat in the process of cooking. Fat foods
that are badly cooked or other foods that are poorly cooked in
fat are often unsuspected sources of digestive troubles. Over-
heating fat, that is, heating it to the point where blue smoke
is visible, causes decomposition with the formation of substances
that are irritating to the digestive tract. It is suggested that
the absorption of certain of these materials into the blood stream
may cause disturbances more far-reaching than is yet known.

On the other hand, cooking food in fat at too low a tempera-
ture is not without ill effects, as it causes the fat to be soaked
up and the food to be covered with layers of fat; this retards
the action of the digestive juices and causes delay in the reason-
ably prompt passage of food from the stomach.

Flavor and hardness.

Two objections are usually offered to the utilization in cook-
ing processes of the harder fats, such as beef and mutton,

MEAT AND POULTRY 521

namely, the flavor and the hardness. The hardness may be
overcome by mixing them with softer fats, such as lard and cot-
tonseed oil. The flavor may be modified by careful rendering
and by disguising it as in savory fat.

Various combinations of fats may be used; for example, one
part of bacon fat and two parts of mutton fat, one part of lard
or fresh pork drippings and two parts of mutton fat, one part
of sausage fat and two parts of mutton fat. Many housekeepers
say that they do not have time to mix the fats together in ac-
curate proportions; they therefore mix their hard and soft
fats in any amounts that happen to be at hand, generally with
good results. Of course, such a mixture is softer than either
mutton or beef fat alone.

If the harder fats are used for shortening, they must be kept
in a warm place for some time before they are used, in order
that they may become soft; otherwise, extra time and strength
are expended in order to work them into the flour for biscuits
and pastry and to cream the shortening and sugar for cake.
Under any circumstances, it seems a little more difficult to work
them into the flour than is the case with butter. In ginger
cookies and gingerbread, where the shortening is melted before
it is added, this difficulty is not apparent.

If other fats are substituted for butter, salt must be added to
take the place of the salt in the butter.

Mutton fat.

Mutton fat combined with the softer fats is most satisfactory
for all kinds of biscuits, muffins, and cakes that are to be served
hot, or at least on the same day on which they are baked.
The " furry" feeling in the mouth that comes from eating
hard fats is less noticeable if the products are eaten with hot
drinks or fruit sauces. Lemon juice added for part of the liquid
in cakes also lessens this "furry" feeling.

Mutton fat is excellent in all cases in which a small amount
of shortening is used and when spices and molasses help to
mask the mutton flavor. In cakes made with mutton fat,
vanilla and chocolate are successful flavors. Cakes do not have

522 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING '

so fine a grain and do not keep so well when they are made with
mutton fat as when they are made with butter.

Certainly mutton fat can be utilized to a greater extent than
is generally thought. If handled skillfully in the preparation,
the products are not only satisfactory but excellent.

Tests for the use of mutton fat gave the following results : *
" It would make for economy if mutton fat were more com-
monly used in the kitchen. For this reason, tests were made of
different ways of modifying the flavor so that the mutton fat
might be more generally used in cooking. The most satisfac-
tory method found was to mix some leaf lard with the suet and
render with milk. The suet and leaf lard mixture was finely
divided by passing it through a meat grinder, and was heated in
a double boiler with about one-half of its weight of whole milk.
The fat was quickly released from the tissues, and, when al-
lowed to cool, formed a cake on the surface of the liquid, which
was easily removed. Mutton suet and leaf lard, fresh and of
good quality, 'tried out' in this way, possessed little, if any,
of the characteristic mutton odor and flavor. The best results
were obtained with a mixture of two parts of mutton suet and
one of leaf lard, finely ground, rendered with whole milk in pro-
portion of one-half pint to two pounds of the mixed mutton and
lard. This fat had an exceptionally good odor and flavor, which
it retained when kept for weeks in an ordinary refrigerator.
It was also of good color and texture, being softer than the mut-
ton fat alone, owing to the milk fat and lard which it contained.
If such fats are rendered in an open kettle, a moderate heat
is desirable, since they 'burn out ' very readily. Rendering in a
double boiler is much more convenient. In numerous tests,
such fat proved satisfactory either alone or with a little butter
for use in cooking vegetables and for other purposes."

Clarified fat.

Various methods are used to clarify' fat. A pinch of baking
soda whitens the fat and also helps to keep it sweet. Baking

* Langworthy, C. F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Mutton and its Value in
the Diet. Farmers' Bull. 526, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

MEAT AND POULTRY 523

soda is used to whiten lard in the proportion of about 1^ ounces
to 100 pounds of lard. It is stirred into the hot lard after the
cracklings are strained out.

The following directions may be found useful in clarifying fat:*
"Excepting when the purpose of clarifying fat is to remove
flavors, a good method to follow is to pour boiling water over the
fat, to boil thoroughly, and then to set it away to cool. The
cold fat may be removed in a solid cake and any impurities
clinging to it may be scraped off, as they will be found at the
bottom of the layer. By repeating this process two or three
times a cake of clean, white fat may be obtained. "

"A slight burned taste or similar objectionable flavors often
can be removed from fat by means of potatoes. After melting
the fat, put into it thick slices of raw potatoes; heat gradually.
When the fat ceases to bubble and the potatoes are brown,
strain through a cloth placed in a wire strainer."

Savory fat.\

"Savory fat may be easily prepared. For each pound of the
carefully rendered mutton fat, allow an onion, a sour apple,
and a teaspoonful of ground thyme or mixed herbs tied up in a
small piece of cloth. Cook these in the fat, at a low temperature
in the oven or on top of the stove, until the onion and apple
are thoroughly browned. Then strain off the fat, which will be
found well seasoned and may be used in place of butter or other
savory fat for seasoning or for warming of potatoes, cooking
vegetables, and in other ways. Winter or Hubbard squash
cooked in the mutton fat until it is brown was also found in this
laboratory to impart a savory flavor. The savoriness produced
by the use of fruits and vegetables in this way seems to be due
to the solution in the fat of specific flavoring bodies present in
the fruits, vegetables, or herbs, and to the fat taking up some
of the caramelized carbohydrate formed when the fruit or vege-
table browns."

* Langworthy, C. F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Economical Use of Meat
in the Home. Farmers' Bull. 391, U. S. Dept. Agr.
f Farmers' Bull. 526.

524 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

CHICKENS AND FOWLS (FRANCES VINTON WARD)

Chickens have soft, smooth legs and feet, a soft flexible
breast bone, pin feathers, few hairs, a tender skin, and they are
lean.

Fowls have hard scaly feet, a hard breast bone, long hairs,
a tough, thick skin, and the intestines are surrounded by fat.

Dressing and cleaning poultry.

Poultry must be prepared for cooking by careful cleaning
and dressing. The following directions may be carried out:

Pick out all stray pin feathers. Singe the bird by holding it over a
flame until the hairs are burned off. Slip the point of the wings behind
the shoulder blades, to give steadiness to the body while working with it.
Cut off the head, push back the skin, and cut the neck close to the body.
Through the neck opening, loosen the crop from the skin which surrounds
it. If the crop is full, lift it and cut the tube connecting it with the giz-
zard, reaching down between the breast bones as far as possible. An empty
crop, loosened from the breast skin, may be drawn out with the intestines.
If dressing a fowl, cut a lengthwise slit about one inch long in the skin of
the leg just below the leg joint. Insert a skewer, and pick up the white
tendons, one at a time, pulling each away from the hip toward the foot
until it breaks loose. When all are loosened, cut around the leg through
the skin just below the joint, bend the joint backward till it breaks, and
cut through the cords to remove the leg. Cut a lengthwise slit through
the skin and fat at the rear just below the breast bone and toward the
vent. Cut around the vent. With the fowl lying on its back, insert the
hand in this opening, passing it over the intestines, between them and
the breast bone. Press the hand forward until the heart can be felt,
curving the fingers around the internal organs including the heart; pull
strongly, holding the fowl in place with the other hand, until the organs
are drawn out. Slip the heart from its sack, and cut it free from its blood
vessels. Cut the intestine close to the gizzard. Cut across the white
tendon on one side of this, being very careful not to cut the inner lining,
and turn the outer muscular coat inside out, away from the inner coat with
its contents intact. With a sharp knife peel off the interlining, and cut
away the outer tendons. Cut away the liver in two lobes, discarding the
part discolored by the gall bladder. Be careful not to cut the latter.
Should this occur, every part of the meat which has been touched by it
must be cut away, after carefully washing the knife which cut it. The
bitter taste is very persistent. Find the lungs, attached to the ribs on the
upper side of the body near the head, and remove them carefully. A small
amount left will cause discoloration and give an unpleasant flavor. Re-

MEAT AND POULTRY 525

move the very dark glands lying in hollows close to the backbone near
the tail. Wipe the bird thoroughly, inside and out.

Cooking poultry.

Chicken may be stuffed and roasted, but fowl should be
stewed slowly for a long time, preferably in a fireless cooker.

To roast chicken. Make a stuffing of dried breadcrumbs, moistened
with as much milk as it will absorb and seasoned as desired with 1 table-
spoon of butter, Y^ teaspoon of salt, a little pepper, and sage or poultry
seasoning to each cup of crumbs. Fill the crop region about two-thirds
full, and tie the end of the skin of the neck. Fill the body region about
two-thirds full, and fasten the opening by sticking tooth picks across it
through both flaps of the skin, then lacing string across the tooth picks.
Insert two long skewers through the chicken, one just beneath the legs,
the other through the wings (now released from their position behind the
shoulder blades) and the breast. Tie the legs together, and draw them
down by means of the string to the tail, continuing the string to fasten
around the skewers and the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and
wind them around the skewers under the wings, tying them together over
the back. Note that there is no string across the breast, and a fowl served
breast side up, with the string removed, shows no mark of the string.
Place the chicken in a covered roasting pan with a little water in the bot-
tom. If the chicken is not very fat, butter or oil the skin, sprinkle it with
salt, pepper, and flour, and bake it from 1 to 1^ hours in a moderately
hot oven. Wash the breast, gizzard, neck, and liver. Stew them in suffi-
cient water to cover them, adding the liver after cooking the others an
hour.

To stew chicken. If chicken is to be cut up before being cooked, as in
stewing, the dressing is much simplified. After cutting the lengthwise
slit into the abdominal cavity, bend out the leg and cut the skin between
it and the body, following the outline of the thigh up to the hip bone.
The leg will separate from the body and when bent far enough back, the
hip joint will break and the leg may be cut free. When both legs have
been removed, lay them skin down and feel for the joint between the thigh
and "drum stick." Cut across this through the tendon and break the
joint, separating the two parts by cutting through the flesh. Cut from the
mid point of the slit in the abdomen through the thin muscle which under-
lay the hip straight to the hip joint. Bend back the back of the chicken,
breaking the backbone near this point. The organs may now easily be
removed as before. Lift the wing, and cut from the under side up, dis-
locating the bone to find the joint. Note the cartilaginous joints in the
ribs at each side, and cut through these regions to the shoulder, to separate
the back from the breast, dislocating the shoulder blade from the breast
bone at the forward end and cutting the two apart. Remove the lungs

526 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

and glands. Wipe the fowl as before. Cook the giblets separately. Add
enough boiling water just to cover the fowl, simmer it 15 minutes, add 1
tablespoon of salt, and place it in a fireless cooker for 5 or 6 hours. Re-
move it and if not yet tender, reheat it and cook it again. To serve meat
cooked in this way, thicken the gravy and make dumplings, serving the
meat in the gravy; or remove the meat, saute it, and serve the thickened
gravy separately. The meat may be removed from the bones and skin
and ground. The liquor may be cleared, well seasoned, and thickened
with gelatin, using 1 tablespoon of gelatin to 1 pint of liquor. Stir in the
meat as the gelatin begins to thicken, and serve it in slices, cold.

CHAPTER XXVII
FISH AND OYSTERS
BY WINIFRED MQSES

FISH is an excellent animal food. Many kinds of sea fish
that have heretofore not been used are, through the efforts of
the United States Bureau of Fisheries, coming into the markets.
This is an economic policy, since fish is one animal food in the
production of which food that might otherwise be used for
human beings is not needed. Facilities for packing and shipping
fish have been so improved within the last few years that it is
now possible for almost all inland communities to obtain good
sea fish. Some kind of fresh water fish is almost always avail-
able inland.

FISH

Fish may be divided into two classes according to the
amount of fat contained in their flesh: (1) white fish, or fish with
flesh that contains little oil, the fat being secreted in the liver
to this class belong cod, haddock, halibut, turbot, flounder,
trout, whitefish, smelts, perch; (2) oily fish, or fish in which
the fat is distributed throughout the flesh to this class belong
salmon, eels, mackerel, bluefish, swordfish, shad, herring, cusk.

Selection and care offish

The freshness of fish may be determined as follows: (1) The
flesh should be firm; (2) the eyes should be bright and bulging;
(3) the gills should be red; (4) when placed in fresh water the
fish should sink, not float.

To care for fish properly, it should be cleaned and drawn im-
mediately, wiped dry, and kept on ice with the skin down,
avoiding contact with other foods. Frozen fish may be thawed

527

528 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

by placing it in cold water. Salt fish should always be soaked
in cold water, skin side up.

Preparation of fish for cooking

To prepare a fish for cooking it must be cleaned, skinned and
boned.

To clean a fish the scales should be removed by scraping the
fish from the tail to the head with a small sharp knife, and the
fins removed by making an incision as close as possible to each
side of the fin. The tail should then be cut off. If the fish is to
be baked, the head and tail are left on, but the eyes removed.
The body is opened by cutting from the gills along the front to
the tail, the entrails removed, the inside cleaned, scraped, and
washed out with cold water, and the fish then wiped dry.

To skin a fish the fins should be removed and the skin slit
along the back and around the head and tail. The hand should
be dipped in salt to keep it from slipping. The skin is then loos-
ened below the head and drawn from the head down to the tail
on one side of the body and then drawn from the other side of
the body.

To bone a fish it should first be cleaned and skinned as di-
rected. One should then begin at the tail and with a sharp knife
under the flesh close to the backbone follow the bone its entire
length, making as clean a cut as possible. This removes the
flesh from one side of the fish. The fish may then be turned and
the flesh removed from the other side, and any small bones that
remain may be picked out.

Methods of cooking fish

Boiled fish.

To boil small whole fish: (1) Clean the fish, leaving the head, tail, and fins,
but removing the eyes; (2) weigh it; (3) place it on a rack in a fish kettle
or coil it in a frying basket, and place it in an iron kettle; (4) cover it with
warm water (Boiling water causes the flesh to contract and crack; cold
water draws out the juices. Salmon, however, must be plunged in boiling
water to preserve the color) ; (5) for each 2 quarts of water add 1 teaspoon
of salt and 1 tablespoon of vinegar or lemon juice; (6) bring the water
quickly to the boiling point; (7) simmer the fish until it is done, allowing
from 5 to 8 minutes to the pound according to the thickness of the flesh;

FISH AND OYSTERS

529

or cook it until the flesh will separate from the bones; (8) drain it; (9) re-
move it to a folded napkin on a hot platter; (10) garnish it with parsley
and lemon.

To boil pieces offish cut from a large fish: (1) Clean the fish; (2) wrap it
in a piece of cheese-cloth and tie it; (3) proceed as in boiling whole fish.

Court bouillon is used for boiling fresh water fish that have little flavor.
Brown in 1 tablespoon of fat, 1 chopped carrot, 1 chopped onion, 1 stalk
of celery; add 2 quarts of hot water, 1 cup vinegar, 3 peppercorns, 3 cloves,
1 bay leaf, 1 teaspoon salt and any fish trimmings; strain the liquid before
putting the fish into it.

TABLE XXXIV. FISH THAT MAY BE BOILED, AND SAUCES, GARNISHES,
AND VEGETABLES SUITABLE FOR EACH

Fish

Sauce

Garnish

Vegetables

Haddock

Egg

Parsley, cress

Potato balls

Salmon

Tartar

Cress

Asparagus, carrots

Hollandaise

Lemon

French beans

Egg

Parsley

Rice

Halibut

Bechamel

Cress

Potato croquettes

Hollandaise

Parsley

Tomatoes, green salad

Cod

Butter

Mashed potatoes

Caper .

Carrots

Shrimp

Turnips

Oyster

Beets, greens

Mackerel

Caper

Parsley

Flounder

Bechamel

Chopped parsley

Carrots, turnips

Trout

Horse-radish

Sole. .......

Bechamel

Carrots, spinach

Baked fish.

To bake whole dry fish: (1) Clean the fish, leaving the head and tail on,
but removing the eyes; (2) stuff the fish with any fish stuffing desired;
(3) sew up the fish; (4) place the fish on a greased rack or fish sheet in a
fish pan or if these are not obtainable, place buttered strips of cheese-cloth
under the fish, by means of which the fish may be lifted from the pan with-
out being broken; (5) truss the fish in the shape of the letter S, doing
this by a means of a long skewer thrust through it from head to tail;
(6) cut three gashes on each side of the fish; (7) insert a thin slice of salt
pork in each gash; (8) dust the fish with salt and pepper; (9) sprinkle it
with flour; (10) put it in a hot oven, and bake it, allowing 15 minutes for
each pound; (11) baste it frequently; (12) remove the fish to a hot platter;
(13) remove the slices of pork; (14) fill the gashes with parsley; (15) gar-

530

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

nish the fish with lemon; (16) strain the fat to be used as a foundation for
sauce.

To bake fat fish: Proceed as for dry fish, but omit the pork.

TABLE XXXV. FISH THAT MAY BE BAKED WHOLE, AND SAUCES,
GARNISHES, AND VEGETABLES SUITABLE FOR EACH

Fish

Sauce

Garnish

Vegetable

Haddock

Drawn butter

Lemon

Mashed potatoes

Bluefish

Egg
Hollandaise
Shrimp

Parsley
Potato balls

Cod

Oyster

Lemon
Parsley
Cucumber

Mackerel

Lemon

Shad

Lemon juice

Tomatoes

Mashed potatoes

Sea bass . .

Tomato

Lemon
Parsley

Tomatoes

Tile fish

Maitre d'hotel

Parsley

Weak fish

Lemon juice

To bake cutlets and filets: (1) Wipe the fish dry; (2) dust it with salt
and pepper; (3) season it with lemon juice, if desired; (4) sprinkle it with
bits of butter; (5) add }/% cup of water or other liquid; (6) place the fish in
a hot oven allowing from 5 to 8 minutes for each pound, according to the
thickness of the fish.

TABLE XXXVI. FISH THAT MAY BE BAKED IN STEAKS, CUTLETS, OR
FILLETS, WITH SAUCES, GARNISHES AND VEGETABLES SUITABLE FOR
EACH

Fish

Sauce

Garnish

Vegetables

Halibut

Hollandaise

Puree of peas

Potato balls

Haddock

Tomato
Brown
Oyster

Tomatoes
Oysters
Lemon

Onions

Salmon

Bernaise

Parsley

Flounder

Bercy

Shrimps
Sifted egg yolk

Green peas, potatoes

Cusk

Lemon juice

Horse mackerel . .
Tile

Lemon juice
Tomato

FISH AND OYSTERS

531

To broil fish whole: (1) Clean the fish; (2) split large fish down the back,
but do not split small fieh; (3) if desired, remove the head and the tail;

(4) brush the fish with melted butter or oil seasoned with salt and pepper;

(5) place the fish, flesh side down on a well-greased broiler; (6) cook it for
from 10 to 20 minutes according to the thickness of the fish, turning it often;
(7) if the fish is thick, place the dripping pan under the broiler, and baste
the fish with butter once or twice during the cooking and finish the cooking
in the oven; (8) carefully separate the fish from the broiler, and slide it on
to a hot platter; (9) spread it with maitre d'hdtel butter.

To broil slices of fish: (1) Cut the fish into slices 1 inch thick; (2) wipe
it dry; (3) season it, and proceed as in the case of broiled whole fish.

TABLE XXXVII. FISH THAT MAY BE BROILED, WITH SAUCES, GAR-
NISHES, AND VEGETABLES SUITABLE FOR EACH

Fish

Sauce

Garnish

Vegetables

Cusk

Bluefish
Horse mackerel . .
Trout

Lemon

French fried po-

Cod

Melted butter

Parsley, lemon

tatoes
Boiled potatoes,

Halibut
Tile fish

Tomato
Butter

Parsley

carrots, green
peas, beans,
beets, spinach
Peas, beans,
beets, spinach

Mackerel
Scrod
Shad

MaJtre d'hotel
Maitre d'hotel

Lemon, cucumber
Radishes, parsley

Mashed potato
Duchess potato

Smelts
Sword fish

Shad roe

Bechamel
Cucumber,
horse-radish
Mattre d'hotel

Lemon quarters

Pompano

Fricassee of
clams

Potato

Sauted fish.

To saute fish steaks: (1) Clean the steaks; (2) wipe them dry; (3) season
them with pepper and salt; (4) dip them in granulated cornmeal; (5) try
out slices of salt pork; (6) remove the scraps of pork; (7) saut6 the steaks
in the fat, until they are a delicate brown on both sides.

532 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Fried fish.

To fry small whole fish and fillets offish: (1) Clean the fish; (2) wash it;
(3) dry it; (4) season it with pepper and salt; () roll it in flour; (6) roll
it in egg; (7) roll it in breadcrumbs; (8) put in a frying basket; (9) dip it
in deep hot fat (175 C.), and cook it for 60 seconds or until the fish is a
delicate brown color; (10) drain it; (11) remove it to soft paper for further
draining; (12) serve it on a folded napkin.

Carving fish

To carve a baked or boiled fish, a silver knife and fork should
be used. The head of the fish should first be removed and then
the length of the back cut down as close as possible to the bone,
the nearer half of the fish being cut in thick slices. When all the
flesh is removed from one side, the platter or the fish should be
turned and the flesh removed from the other side.

OYSTERS

Oysters are among the most commonly used of the shell
fish. The bivalves, including oysters, mussels, clams, and scal-
lops, have white flesh and are easily digested. The crustaceans,
including lobsters, crabs, and shrimps, have red flesh and are
more difficult to digest than are the fish of white flesh.

Oysters are in season from September to May. They are
wholesome but not so palatable during the other months. Al-
though oysters are not very nutritious, they have a place in the
diet since they serve as appetizers. The tough muscle and gills
are not as easily digested as the remainder of the body. When
these are removed, as they often are before cooking, the oyster
is said to be bearded.

Selection and preparation of oysters

Only fresh oysters should be selected. Oysters are now trans-
ported in containers surrounded by ice. Preservatives are not
used. When possible, oysters should be bought in the shell.

To open an oyster shell one should first wash the shells thor-
oughly with a brush and plenty of water. A thin flat knife
may then be pushed under the upper valve, the muscle that
holds it in the shell cut, and the upper shell or valve, raised and
lifted off.

FISH AND OYSTERS 533

To clean the oysters after they have been opened, they should
be placed in a colander, the colander placed over a bowl and
cold water poured over the oysters, using J^ cup of water to 1
quart of oysters. E?ch oyster should be examined carefully,
and any bits of shell removed. The liquor is then poured off
carefully, and reserved for use in sauces.

Methods of serving oysters

Oysters may be served either raw or cooked. When raw they
are served generally on the half shell, in cocktails, or with
vinegar sauce. When cooked, they may be roasted, panned,
broiled, sauted, fried, served in sauces, scalloped, served in
stews, in pastry cups, in croustades, or bread cases.

To serve oysters on the half shell.

(1) Use small varieties, such as blue points; (2) serve the oysters raw
only when they are perfectly fresh; (3) open the oysters; (4) clean them;
(5) chill them; (6) arrange a bed of cracked ice on each plate; (7) arrange
from four to six of the deeper valves on this ice bed having the valve side
toward the center of the plate; (8) place a chilled oyster on each shell;
(9) in the center of the plate, place a quarter of a lemon on a sprig of pars-
ley; (10) serve the oysters with salt, pepper, cayenne, horse-radish, tabasco
sauce, or tomato catsup.

Oyster cocktail.

(1) Clean and chill oysters, allowing five oysters for each person to be
served; (2) use tomato catsup or mix the following ingredients for sauce
(to serve twelve persons) :

1 tablespoon horse-radish 5 tablespoons lemon juice
J4 teaspoon tabasco 3 tablespoons tomato catsup

2 tablespoons vinegar l^t teaspoon salt

3 tablespoons Worcestershire.

(3) Place five oysters in a sherbet cup or sherry glass; grapefruit shells,
lemon shells, tomato cups, green pepper cups, or cups of tomato jelly set
in beds of ice may be used instead of sherbet cups; (4) add 1 tablespoon of
the sauce.

Cooking of oysters.

(1) Oysters require very little cooking; (2) put them over the fire in
their own liquor; (3) remove them as soon as they are plump, or the gills
become curled, for longer cooking makes them tough; (4) cracker crumbs
are better than breadcrumbs for mixing with oysters.

CHAPTER XXVIII

EGGS
BY WINIFRED MOSES

EGGS are one of the best meat substitutes, since they furnish
animal protein and are easily prepared for the table. Moreover,
they are especially valuable in the diet because of their high
iron-content. Methods of preparing eggs are practically un-
limited for almost any course in a menu.

In keeping eggs and in using them economically, the following
suggestions may be useful:

Eggs should be kept in a cool dry place; they should always
be washed just before being used; left-over egg-whites should
be kept in a cool place in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks
may be beaten and kept in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks
may be dropped whole into hot water, cooked until they are
solid, and set aside to serve in soup; cooked egg-yolk may be
rubbed through a sieve as a garnish for a salad, or for the top
of a dish of cream toast or of meat warmed in a sauce; the
clean shells from uncooked eggs may be used to settle coffee,
or to aid in clarifying fat or soups.

All egg dishes should be rinsed with cold water before they
are washed. Hot water hardens albumen.

TESTS FOR FRESH EGGS

The following tests may be used to determine whether eggs
are fresh: (1) The shell of a fresh egg is rough, not smooth
and shiny; (2) a reasonably fresh egg will sink in salt water
made by dissolving 1 / s cup of salt in 1 quart of water while a
stale egg will float; (3) when an egg is candled, that is, held
against an opening in a shield around a bright light, a fresh
egg will appear clear inside and the air cell will not be larger

534

EGGS 535

than a nickel; (4) a fresh egg makes no sound when it is
shaken.

EGG COOKERY

Beating eggs.

To beat well, eggs should be cold and fresh. A few grains
of salt added to the whites may hasten the process. In pre-
paring egg-white for beating, one should be careful to have it
free from every particle of yolk. If a close texture is desired,
the Dover egg-beater should be used; it should rest lightly on
the bottom of the bowl and the beating should be slow at
first. If a loose texture is desired, a confectioner's whisk
should be used; or, for a still looser texture, a flat egg-beater.
Egg-whites are beaten stiff when the impression made by the
beater is retained; they are beaten dry when the gloss has dis-
appeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten.

For thickening. When eggs are added to thicken a mixture,
they should be beaten only until the whites and the yolks are
well mixed, or until a spoonful of the mixture can be taken up
and held in the spoon.

For leavening. When eggs are added to insure lightness,
the yolks and whites should be beaten separately; the yolks
until thick and lemon colored, and the whites until stiff, that is,
until the dish containing the beaten egg can be tipped upside
down without losing the egg white.

Eggs cooked in the shell.

(1) Cover the eggs with boiling water, and cover the kettle; (2) remove
the kettle from direct heat; (3) for a soft-cooked egg, allow the egg to
stand in the hot water for 4 to 7 minutes; for a medium-cooked egg, 7 to
10 minutes; for a hard-cooked egg, from 45 to 50 minutes.

Poached eggs.

Method I: (1) Place in a shallow pan as many muffin rings as there are
eggs to poach; (2) turn in enough boiling water to cover the rings; (3) when
the water boils break an egg into each' ring; (4) remove the pan from direct
heat, and let the eggs remain in the water until the whites are jelly-like and
translucent (from 10 to 15 minutes); (5) remove the eggs in the rings to a
serving dish, with a skimmer or pancake turner; (6) remove the muffin
rings; (7) season the eggs with salt and pepper; (8) garnish them with
parsley, if desired.

536 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Method II: (1) Add a dash of salt to the white of an egg; (2) beat the
white to a froth; (3) put it in a shallow dish or in a glass; (4) drop the un-
broken yolk in the center; (5) set the dish in a pan of boiling water; (6)
cover the dish, and let the egg cook for 2 minutes.

Method III (French poached eggs, used for garnishes) : (1) Fill a deep
saucepan nearly full of water; (2) add 1 teaspoon of salt and 1 tablespoon
of vinegar to 1 quart of water; (3) when the water is boiling violently,
crack the shell of the egg, and holding it close to the water, drop the con-
tents quickly where the water is boiling hardest; (4) when the egg is firm,
remove it with a skimmer, draining off the water.

Shirred eggs.

(1) Butter individual baking dishes; (2) break an egg into each dish;
(3) sprinkle salt on the whites but not on the yolks; (4) place the dishes in
a shallow pan of hot water, and place the pan on the shelf in a slow oven;

(5) baste the yolks with a little melted butter, while they are cooking;

(6) cook the eggs until the white is set.

Variations: (1) Place chopped chicken, ham, mushrooms, or tomato
pure"e in the bottom of the dish, before the egg is added; (2) serve the eggs
on toast, broiled ham, minced meat, or stewed kidneys; (3) pour over the
top cream, Bechamel or tomato sauce. (See Sauces, page 552).

Fried eggs.

(1) Place a little fat in a very clean frying pan; (2) when it bubbles,
crack the shells, and drop in the eggs; (3) cook the eggs at a moderate
temperature until the white is set. If hard-cooked eggs are desired, turn
them and cook them on the other side.

Scrambled eggs.

(1) Beat the eggs lightly with a fork, just enough to break them; (2) to
4 eggs, add 2 tablespoons of milk, ^ teaspoon of salt, and a dash of pepper;
(3) put Yz tablespoon of fat in the top of a double boiler; (4) turn in the
eggs; (5) cook them, over hot water, stirring them constantly until they
begin to thicken; (6) remove the double boiler from the fire, and continue
to stir the eggs until they are of the proper consistency.

Variations: (1) When the double boiler is removed from the fire, add a
teaspoon of chopped parsley, or a little tomato sauce or pulp, or minced
chicken, ham, bacon, or mushrooms; (2) garnish the eggs with croutons
or parsley.

Omelets.

French omelet: (1) Scour the omelet pan with salt and vinegar, and wipe
it; (2) just before using the pan, scour it with salt; (3) beat the eggs just
enough to break them (12 revolutions with a Dover beater) ; (4) to 3 eggs,
add Y^ teaspoon of salt, a dash of pepper, and H> teaspoon of butter broken
into small bits, adding a teaspoon of milk or not as desired; (5) heat the
pan; (6) grease the pan with ^ teaspoon of fat; (7) turn in the eggs; (8)

EGGS 537

with a fork break the cooked surface quickly, in several places around the
edge, or press the egg away from the sides, letting the uncooked part run
under; (9) when the egg is cooked, but still quite soft on top, lift the pan
on one side, slip a knife under the omelet, and carefully fold it through the
center; (10) let it cook a moment to thicken any of the egg that has run
out; (11) place a hot dish over the pan, and invert the two in such a way
that the omelet will fall in the proper place; (12) press it into good shape;
(13) garnish it with parsley and serve at once.

Variations: (1) Sprinkle a little finely chopped parsley over the top;
(2) turn tomato, Bechamel, or mushroom sauce on the dish around the
omelet; sprinkle the top with chopped mushrooms, if mushroom sauce is
used; (3) spread the omelet with chopped ham, oysters, or chicken before
folding it, and serve it with a sauce; (4) spread the omelet with creamed
peas or other vegetable before turning it, and serve it with white sauce;
(5) spread the omelet with jelly or jam before folding it.

Puffy omelet: (1) Beat the whites of the eggs until they are dry (page 535) ;
(2) beat the yolks until they are thick and lemon-colored; (3) add 3 table-
spoons of water, % teaspoon of salt, and a dash of pepper for each 3 yolks,
and mix the ingredients thoroughly; (4) turn the mixture over the beaten
whites; (5) cut and fold the whites into the yolk mixture; (6) turn the
mixture into a hot buttered pan; (7) cook it for 2 minutes over moderate
heat; (8) set it in the oven to cook the top slightly; (9) when a knife thrust
into the center comes out nearly clean, remove the omelet from the oven,
cut it across the center of the top at right angles to the handle, fold the part
nearest the handle over the other part, and turn it on to a hot platter.

Variations: (1) To 3 egg-yolks, add the grated rind of 1 orange, 3 table-
spoons of orange juice, and 3 tablespoons of powdered sugar, garnishing
the omelet with sliced oranges and powdered sugar (this is a good chafing-
dish recipe); (2) add 2 tablespoons of maraschino juice and l / 3 cup of
chopped maraschino cherries to the beaten yolks, and garnish the omelet
with strawberry jam and cherries.

Omelet with a starchy foundation: (1) Make 1 cup of medium white sauce
(page 552); (2) stir into this the yolks of 5 eggs; (3) fold in the stiffly
beaten whites of the eggs; (4) melt 1 tablespoon of butter in an omelet pan;
(5) pour in the mixture, and cook it in the same way as a puffy omelet.

Variations: (1) Finely chopped ham, chicken, parboiled oysters, or
mushrooms, may be added with the white sauce to the yolks of eggs; (2) 1
cup of grated pineapple, 1 teaspoon of lemon juice, and ^ cup of sugar,
may be added to the yolks; (3) oranges or strawberries may take the place
of pineapple, the amount of sugar depending on the acidity of the fruit.

Firm custards.

Baked custard: (1) Allow from 4 to 6 eggs or 6 egg-yolks, % cup of sugar,
Y teaspoon of salt, and a few gratings of nutmeg, to 1 quart of milk;
(2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs slightly, and add the salt and the

538 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

sugar; (4) stir the scalded milk slowly into the mixture; (5) turn the mix-
ture into a pudding dish or individual cups; (6) grate a little nutmeg over
the top; (7) set the dish in a pan of hot water, and bake it in a moderate
oven; (8) test it by running a knife into the center. If the knife comes out
clean, the custard is done.

Variations: (1) To each quart of milk, add YL cup of caramel; (2) use
left-over cocoa instead of milk; (3) to each quart of milk, add 3 ounces of
melted chocolate.

Molded custard: For a custard firm enough to turn from a mold, use 2
eggs to each cup of milk.

Royal custard: For a custard that is cut in slices and served as a garnish
use 1 egg to 1 tablespoon of rnilk.

Liquid custards.

Soft custard: (1) Allow 4 whole eggs or the yolks of 6 eggs, YL cup of
sugar, % teaspoon of salt, and % teaspoon of vanilla to each quart of milk
(if eggs are scarce, substitute Y^ tablespoon of cornstarch for 1 egg-yolk) ;
(2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs slightly and add the sugar and the
salt; (4) stir the scalded milk slowly into the mixture; (5) cook the custard
slowly in a double boiler, stirring it constantly, until it thickens and coats
the spoon; (6) if the custard curdles, beat it with a Dover egg-beater;
(7) add the flavoring; (8) cover the custard with a perforated tin until it
is served, to prevent a film from forming.

Variations: (1) Just before removing the custard from the heat, fold
in the whites of the eggs beaten until they are foamy; (2) caramel, coffee,
or chocolate may be added to the milk before it is added to the eggs.

Uses of liquid custard: (1) Pour the custard over alternate layers of stale
cake and sliced peaches, pears, bananas, or oranges; (2) pour the custard
over sliced fruit. Garnish the dish with sliced bananas, dates, or nut meats.

English custard (for filling cream puffs and Eclairs) : (1) Allow for each
pint of milk, 2 eggs or 4 egg-yolks, ^ cup of flour, % cup of sugar, YL tea-
spoon of vanilla, and J^ teaspoon of salt; (2) mix and sift the dry ingre-
dients; (3) slowly add the hot milk to them, stirring the mixture constantly;
(4) cook the mixture until it boils; (5) cool it, stirring it constantly for 15
minutes; (6) add the egg-yolks, or eggs, and stir it until the egg is cooked.
It may be necessary to return it to the heat.

Variations: (1) % cup of black coffee may be substituted for K cup of
milk; (2) 1 ounce of chocolate cooked with 2 tablespoons each of sugar and
water may be added to the milk.

Souffles.

Plain souffle: For 4 eggs, allow 1 cup of sugar and the juice and rind of
1 lemon, or its equivalent in liquid and other flavoring; (2) beat the yolks
until they are thick; (3) add the sugar gradually, and continue beating;
(4) add the lemon rind and juice; (5) cut and fold in the stiffly beaten
whites; (6) turn the mixture into a buttered baking-dish set in a pan of

539

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540 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

hot water, and bake it from 35 to 40 minutes; (7) serve the souffle at once,
with or without sauce.

Fruit souffle: (1) For the whites of 3 eggs, allow % of a cup of fruit pulp,
drained and passed through a sieve, sugar as needed, and a few grains of
salt; (2) heat the fruit pulp, and sweeten it; (3) beat the egg whites until
they are stiff; (4) add the fruit pulp, sugar, and salt to them, and continue
beating; (5) turn the mixture into buttered molds, filling them three-fourths
full; (6) set the molds in a pan of hot water, and bake the souffle in a
moderate oven until it is firm; (7) serve it with or without sauce or
whipped cream.

Vegetable souffle: (1) Allow 3 eggs and 1 cup of vegetable pulp, rubbed
through a sieve to 1 cup of thick white sauce; (2) beat the yolks until they
are thick; (3) add them to the thick white sauce; (4) add the vegetables;
(5) beat the whites until they are stiff; (6) fold them into the other mix-
ture; (7) add the seasoning; (8) turn the mixture into a buttered baking-
dish set in a pan of hot water, and cook it in a moderate oven until it is set.

Custard souffle (for the main dish or dessert): (1) Allow 4 eggs, J^ cup
of sugar if the souffle is to be used for dessert, and J^ teaspoon of salt, to 1
cup of thick white sauce; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick; (3) add
the beaten yolks and the sugar to the white sauce; (4) beat the whites until
they are stiff; (5) fold them into the other mixture; (6) turn the mixture
into a buttered baking-dish, and set it in a pan of hot water; (7) bake it for
about 35 minutes in a moderate oven; (8) serve it at once with creamy or
foamy sauce (see Sauces, page 560).

Fondues are made in the same manner as souffles, milk with breadcrumbs
being used instead of a white sauce. They are not so light as souffles. Both
fondues and souffles should be baked by being set in a pan of hot water and
placed in a moderate oven.

Meringues.

Meringues for pies and garnishes for desserts: (1) Allow 1 tablespoon of
sugar to 1 egg-white; (2) chill the egg-whites; (3) add a pinch of salt to
them; (4) beat them with an egg-whisk until they are stiff; (5) add the
sugar gradually, and continue beating until the sugar is thoroughly dis-
solved; (6) add flavoring as desired; (7) cook the meringue in a very slow
oven for about 15 minutes, increasing the heat somewhat toward the end
of the period, if necessary, to brown the meringue.

Snow eggs: (1) Allow 1 ounce of sugar (2 tablespoons) to 1 ounce of egg-
white (2 tablespoons); (2) beat the whites until they are nearly dry; (3)
continue beating, and add half of the sugar gradually; (4) when the mix-
ture is very firm, fold in the other half of the sugar; (5) dip a tablespoon in
boiling water, fill it with meringue, and shape the meringue in the form of
an egg; (6) remove the spoonfuls of meringue to a pan of gently simmering
water, and let it stand where the water will keep hot; (7) poach the me-
ringue until it is firm throughout; this requires from 10 to 14 minutes.

White
sauce

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542 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Snow eggs may be poached in milk, and the milk may be used afterwards
in making custards.

Meringues for desserts: (1) Allow 1 pound (2 cups) of sugar and ^
teaspoon of salt to 3^ pound (1 cup) of fresh egg-whites; (2) chill the egg-
whites; (3) add the salt; (4) beat them slowly at first, but faster as they
grow stiff; (5) add 2 tablespoons of sugar and beat it in thoroughly; (6) add
2 tablespoons of sugar twice again, and continue beating until the mixture
can be cut clean with a knife; (7) add the remainder of the sugar, folding
it into the mass lightly and smoothly; (8) tack a piece of damp paper on
a board 1 inch thick; (9) drop the mixture in spoonfuls on the paper, giving
each spoonful an oval, or egg shape; (10) dust them with granulated sugar;
(11) set them in a very slow oven to dry; (12) at the end increase the heat
to brown them delicately, the baking requiring from % to 1 hour; (13)
when they are baked, lift them from the paper, and take out the uncooked
centers, returning the shells to the oven to dry out; (14) when the shells
are cold, fill them with whipped cream, ice cream, or water ice; (15) serve
the meringues at once.

Italian meringue. Italian meringue is used for icing cakes and as a
sauce. Directions for making it are given on page 488.

Variations: (1) Substitute % cup of grated pineapple juice and pulp for
the water; (2) to 2 egg-whites, allow 1 pound of maple sugar cut into bits,
and % CU P f water in place of the granulated sugar and the water; (3) add
2 ounces of melted chocolate to the sirup when it reaches the thread stage.

CHAPTER XXIX
VEGETABLES

BY LUCILE BREWER

ALTHOUGH by means of proper storage, vegetables can be
kept beyond their season, the price of products held in this way
is necessarily higher than of those bought in season. Therefore,
the general rule should be to use vegetables when they are in
season (page 550).

Vegetables may be classified as follows according to the parts
of the plants used :

Tubers. Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes.

Roots. Beets, carrots, parsnips, radishes, sweet potatoes,
salsify, and turnips.

Bulbs. Garlic, onions, shallots.

Stems. Asparagus, celery, chives.

Leaves. Brussels sprouts, beet greens, cabbage, dandelion,
lettuce, sorrel, spinach, water cress.

Flowers. Cauliflower.

Fruit. Beans, corn, cucumbers, okra, eggplant, peaa, lentils,
squash, tomatoes.

CARE OF VEGETABLES IN THE HOME

Summer, or green, vegetables should be cooked as soon as
possible after being gathered. If they must be kept, they should
be spread on the floor of a cool, dry, well-ventilated cellar, or
placed in the ice chest. Lettuce should be sprinkled with cold
water, and wrapped in heavy paper or cloth. If vegetables are
wilted, they may be freshened by standing in cold water. Vege-
tables containing sugar lose some of the sweetness by standing.
Corn and peas lose their flavor more quickly in this way than
any others.

543

544 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Winter vegetables should be stored in a cool dry place. Po-
tatoes, carrots, and turnips should be kept in barrels or bins
in order that as much air as possible may be excluded. Squashes
should be spread apart in such a way that they will not touch
one another. They should be watched carefully and when
dark spots appear, should be cooked at once. Further directions
are given on page 584.

Canned vegetables should be emptied from the can as soon
as they are opened, turned into a bowl, and allowed to stand for
at least one hour before being used, in order that the flavor may
be improved by contact with the air.

Dried vegetables should be soaked in cold water overnight
and cooked in the same water, more being added, if necessary.

COOKING OF VEGETABLES

Vegetables may be classified according to flavor into those
with strong juices, and those with mild juices.

Strong-juiced vegetables.

Strong-juiced vegetables, such as cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
cabbage, onions, and turnips, should be washed in cold water
and cooked until they are just tender, in boiling water in an
uncovered kettle to allow the volatile oils to pass off in the
steam. In this way the flavor is made more delicate, and the
color is kept better. If strong-juiced vegetables are over-cooked,
they become dark in color, strong in flavor, and may produce
digestive disturbances.

Mild-juiced vegetables.

Vegetables with mild juices, which include the greater number,
should be washed in cold water and cooked in boiling water in a
kettle with the cover ajar until they are soft.

Salt.

If salt is added to the water in which vegetables are cooked,
the flavor and color will be improved. Less mineral matter is
dissolved out in cooking when salt is added at the beginning
of the period than at the end. If the vegetables are wilted and

VEGETABLES 545

likely to be tough, it may be better to add the salt just as they
are done.

Soda.

The use of soda in cooking vegetables is a questionable prac-
tice if it is employed in a larger amount than is necessary just
to neutralize any acid of the vegetable and thus prevent loss
of color in cooking. If used in this small amount, it accomplishes
the purpose and does not make the vegetable water unfit for
use in soups and sauces. It is thought that the vitamines of
vegetables may be destroyed if heated in an alkaline solution;
therefore, only a very small amount of soda should be used. For
soaking and cooking dried legumes, however, % teaspoon of
soda is recommended for each quart of water, to soften the
water and the skins.

Blanching.

Vegetables may be made more delicate in flavor if they are
blanched. To blanch vegetables, they should be covered with
boiling water and allowed to boil for 5 minutes. They may then
be drained, rinsed in cold water, and cooked as usual. Since
blanching causes a loss of a certain amount of the food sub-
stance, it is not recommended.

Losses in cooking vegetables.

Boiling vegetables is a wasteful method of cooking them unless
all the water is used in some way, such as in soups or sauces.
Much of the nutrutive value, especially the mineral substances,
is dissolved out by the water. In the average well-planned
dietary, vegetables and fruits are depended on to furnish much
of the mineral needed by the body; even though they may
seem high in price compared with certain other foods, an effort
is made to procure them. Therefore, a loss of these important
mineral substances iron, phosphorus, calcium, and mag-
nesium through careless cooking should be avoided. The loss
of iron in boiling spinach, for example, has been found to be as
great as 50 per cent under certain conditions. The per-
centage of loss is increased by paring the vegetables or cutting

546 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

them in small pieces and thus exposing more surface, be-
fore cooking them, and also by putting them on to cook in cold
water.

If vegetables are to be boiled, therefore, plans should be made
for using the water in which they are cooked. Unless all the
water is to be used, they should be cooked with the skins on,
they should not be cut in small pieces, and they should be put
on to cook in boiling water.

Steaming vegetables effects a great saving over boiling them.
However, the most economical method of cooking those vege-
tables that allow it, is to bake them.

VEGETABLES

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CHAPTER XXX

SAUCES
BY WINIFRED MOSES

SAUCES are relied on in cookery as a basis for soups, cro-
quettes, souffle's, certain desserts, such as cornstarch pudding,
and as a means of making other foods more palatable or more
nutritious. The few types of simple sauces can be varied almost
without limit by the imaginative cook.

WHITE SAUCE

Thin sauce

Up to % or I tablespoon fat

2^ or 1 tablespoon flour

1 cup milk

Seasoning

Medium thick sauce
Up to 2 tablespoons fat

1% to 2^> tablespoons flour

1 cup milk

Seasoning

Thick sauce

Up to 3 or 4 tablespoons fat

3 or 4 tablespoons flour

1 cup milk

Seasoning

Method I.

(1) Melt the fat in the top of a double boiler; (2) when the fat bubbles,
remove the kettle from the heat, add the thickening agent, stirring the
mixture until it is smooth; (3) add the cold liquid, return the mixture to
the fire, and stir it constantly until it boils; (4) add the seasoning.

In this method nearly as much fat as flour should be used.

Method II.

(1) Scald the liquid in the top of a double boiler; (2) mix the thickening
agent with a small amount of cold liquid, beat it free from all lumps

552

SAUCES 553

and thin it to the consistency of thin cream; (3) add this paste gradually
to the scalded liquid, stirring the sauce constantly until it boils; (4) add
the fat and the seasoning.

Fat may be omitted in this method, or varying amounts may be used.

If a large quantity of sauce is to be made, Method II is recom-
mended because of the shorter time required. If the sauce
is not to be used immediately, it may be kept hot over hot water.
It should be kept covered to prevent a film forming on the sur-
face. If lumps appear, due to a faulty method of making, they
may be removed by beating the sauce with an egg-beater or by
straining it.

BUTTER SAUCE

Method of making: (1) Melt half of the butter; (2) add the flour and
seasonings; (3) stir the mixture over the fire until it bubbles; (4) remove
it from the fire; (5) add the hot water gradually; (6) return the mixture to
the fire and boil it, stirring it constantly; (7) add the remaining butter in
small pieces.

BROWN SAUCES

Method of making: (1) Melt the butter in a saucepan; (2) add the flour
and stir the mixture until it bubbles; (3) remove the mixture from the
fire, and add the liquid gradually, stirring constantly to prevent lumps
from forming; (4) return the sauce to the fire, and stir it until it boils;
(5) brown stock, browned flour, kitchen bouquet, Worcestershire sauce,
or caramel may be used to give a brown color; (6) when vegetables and
herbs are used as flavoring, cut them very fine, cook them in the butter
until they are a russet brown, strain the sauce before using it; (7) when
raw mushrooms are used, peel them and clean them, simmer them in
water until they are tender, or saute them in butter; (8) when olives are
used, cover them with boiling water, let them simmer for an hour, cut
them from the seeds.

SAUCES THICKENED WITH EGG

Method of making: (1) Wash ^ cup of butter and put in a bowl; to wash
butter, cover it with cold water and wash it with a wooden spoon until it is
free from water and salt; (2) divide the butter into three parts; (3) put one
piece in a saucepan with the unbeaten yolks of eggs and the lemon juice;
(4) place the saucepan in hot water; (5) stir the mixture in the saucepan
constantly until the butter is melted; (6) add the second piece of butter
and continue the stirring; (7) add the third piece of butter and continue
the stirring; (8) add the liquid and the other ingredients gradually, stirring
the sauce constantly until it thickens.

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In all sweet sauces except hard sauce, corn sirup, maple sirup, or honey
may be substituted for all or part of the sugar with slight adjustment.

SWEET SAUCES

Sweet sauces thickened with starchy material.

Method of making: (1) Mix the sugar and the cornstarch; (2) add the
hot liquid gradually; (3) cook the mixture, stirring it constantly until it
thickens; (4) continue the cooking over hot water until the uncooked
flavor of the thickening agent can no longer be detected; (5) add any
flavoring material that is to be used.

Sweet sauces thickened with egg.

Method of making: For sauces in which butter and sugar do not form the
basis: (1) Beat the egg slightly; (2) add the milk, hot or cold; (3) add the
sugar and the salt; (4) mix the ingredients thoroughly; (5) cook the mix-
ture over hot water, stirring it constantly until it coats the spoon; (6) add
any flavoring material that is to be used; (7) if the sauce curdles, beat it
thoroughly with a Dover egg-beater.

For sauces in which butter and sugar form the basis: (1) Cream the
butter; (2) add the sugar; (3) add the egg, well-beaten; (4) add the liquid
gradually; (5) cook the mixture over hot water until it is creamy, stirring
it constantly; (6) add any flavoring material that is to be used.

For sauces thickened with beaten egg whites: Add the egg whites to
the other ingredients, which are cooked or uncooked as necessary, and
beat the sauce until the ingredients are well combined.

Sirup sauces.

Method of making: Combine the sugar and the water, and put the mix-
ture over the heat; stir it until the sugar is dissolved; boil it without stirring
it until it forms a good thread when dropped from a spoon; add the flavor-
ing or crushed fruit.

TABLE L. SIRUP SAUCES

Sauce

Ingredients

Use

Sirup

3 tbsp. boiling water, 2 cups

Plain puddings, pan-

Strawberry

sugar, 1 tsp. butter, fruit
juice for desired flavor
% cup boiling water, % cup
sugar, 1 quart strawberries
put through a sieve

cakes

Blanc mange, cottage
pudding

562

A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Solid sauces.

Method of making: (1) Cream the butter; (2) add the sugar gradually;
(3) add the other ingredients, working them well into the mixture; (4)
place the sauce on ice to harden.

TABLE LI. SOLID SAUCES

Sauce

Ingredients

Use

Hard, I

% cup butter 1 cup sugar

Puddings

Hard, II

vanilla
3^ cup butter, 1 egg yolk, 1

Puddings

Hard, III

Strawberry

cup sugar, vanilla
}4 cup butter, 1 egg white, 1
cup sugar, vanilla
1/3 cup butter 1 egg white

Puddings
Boiled rice

Cocoanut

1 cup powdered sugar, 2/3
cup strawberry pulp
}/2 cup butter 2 egg yolks

Suet pudding plain

2 egg whites, 1 cup grated
cocoanut, 1 cup sugar

pudding, steamed
pudding, hot rice pud-
ding, hot tapioca pud-
ding

CHAPTER XXXI

SALADS
BY MIRIAM BIRDSEYE

THE word salad is derived from the Latin salatus, meaning
salted. The original salad probably consisted of crisp leaf or
stem vegetables dressed with salt. With the passage of years,
the meaning of the term has been expanded to include any
food or combination of foods served with an acid-bearing
dressing, provided it is accompanied by some crisp salad-green
as an important part of the dish itself or as a conspicuous
garnish. The typical salad, however, remains a dish of crisp
salad greens with some very simple dressing, sometimes only
oil and salt.

Salads offer a palatable and attractive way of disposing of
small quantities of choice left-over vegetables, fruits, or meats,
and of introducing fruits and vegetables into the daily meals,
especially green leaf-vegetables, which are known to be excel-
lent sources of food-iron. Salads lend a strong color note,
pleasantly acid flavor, and succulence to the menu. Probably
no other type of dish solves as many of the menu-maker's
problems as does salad; and this is the real secret of its popu-
larity.

SALAD HERBS

To season salads and dressings.

The following herbs, except capers, may easily be grown in
the home garden. For directions for cultivating them, see
Bailey's " Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture."

Capers: Used as a garnish for meat and fish salads, mixed with the salad
itself, or chopped and added with other chopped seasonings to mayonnaise
dressing. Capers are the buds of a shrub which is cultivated in European

563

564 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

countries bordering the Mediterranean; they are generally pickled in vine-
gar and sold in small bottles.

Chervil: Chopped like parsley, sprinkled over endive or fish salads, or
used to make chervil vinegar.

Chives: Chopped and sprinkled over potato or meat salads, or added to
salad dressings. They are a small plant of the onion family and grow wild
in many parts of the country. Cultivated chives may sometimes be bought
growing in flat wooden boxes; they are slender onion-like leaves.

Garlic: The bulb or "clove" is sometimes used to rub the bottom of the
salad bowl, but more frequently to prepare a chapon for green salads. A
chapon is a thin piece of bread crust, about 1 inch wide and 2 inches long,
sprinkled with salt and rubbed with a crushed clove of garlic. It is placed
in the bottom of the salad bowl before the salad is put in, and remains
during the mixing, but is removed before the salad is served.

Nasturtium: The flowers are used as a garnish; the leaves and young
buds are chopped to give flavor. Sometimes young seeds are chopped and
added to mayonnaise dressing with other chopped seasonings.

Onion: The cut side of an onion may be rubbed over the bowl before
the salad is put in to give a slight onion flavor to a green salad. Oil for
dressings to be used with vegetables, meat, or fish is sometimes flavored
by allowing a slice of onion or a little onion pulp to lie in.it for a few hours;
onion juice may be added to the dressing itself if desired.

Parsley: Chopped fine and used with other chopped seasonings in both
French and Mayonnaise dressings.

Sage: Chopped and used with meat salads.

Spearmint: Chopped and sprinkled over cold lamb salad; or used for
flavoring vinegar to be served with lamb salad.

Sweet basil: Used with fish and shell-fish.

Tarragon: Chopped and sprinkled over salads, or used to make tarragon
vinegar. Tarragon has a delicate flavor resembling that of anise.

Seasons for salad greens.

Spring: Lettuce (curly, Boston head, or Romaine varieties), water cress,
upland or winter cress (charlock), black or white mustard, peppergrass,
wild chives, young radish and turnip tops, sorrel, blanched dandelions,
corn-salad (lamb's salad or fetticus), blanched wild chicory (succory).

Summer: Lettuce, water cress, sorrel, cabbage, nasturtium stems and
young buds, endive (late summer).

Autumn: Lettuce, sorrel, endive, cabbage, celery.

Winter: Lettuce, French endive (witloof chicory), endive, cabbage,
celery.

SALAD DRESSINGS

The apparently infinite number of salad dressings may read-
ily be reduced to a few well-recognized types. These types with

SALADS 565

their best-known modifications are listed below in the order
of their simplicity. It is believed that this classification will
prove more suggestive than a large number of specific recipes.

Salt.

Suitable for a green salad.

Sdti and oil.

Suitable for a green salad or for tomatoes.

Vinegar, sugar, and water.

Suitable for a green salad or for tomatoes.

Lemon juice, sugar, and water.

Suitable for a green salad, for tomatoes, or for fruit. Children are likely
to enjoy this dressing.

Recipe.

Strained juice of 1 lemon, 1 teaspoon powdered sugar

An equal quantity of cold water Salt

French dressing.

The most extensively used dressing; suitable for green salads, vegetable
salads, fruit salads, egg, fish, or meat salads, although as a rule a thicker
dressing is preferred for the last three.

Recipe.

3 tablespoons oil M to % teaspoon salt

1 tablespoon vinegar 1/8 teaspoon pepper

or lemon juice Dash of cayenne pepper

Mix the ingredients thoroughly, either by beating them with a fork till
well thickened, or by shaking them in a jar or glass-stoppered bottle. If
French dressing is made in quantity in a bottle, the amount needed may
be poured out, and the remainder may be stored in a cold place for sub-
sequent use. The dressing should be thoroughly shaken before it is used
a second time. Special bottles for French dressing are now on the market.

Variations of French dressing.

1. Add }4 teaspoon of onion juice. 2. Add 1 teaspoon made mustard or
24 teaspoon ground mustard. 3. Use Y teaspoon paprika (Hungarian red
pepper) instead of black pepper. 4. Add from % to % teaspoon of pow-
dered sugar. 5. For fruit salads, use lemon juice, orange juice, or grape-
fruit juice in place of the vinegar, and add J^ teaspoon or more of powdered
sugar. 6. To make a sharper tasting dressing, use a larger proportion of
vinegar and more salt. 7. Use vinegar flavored with tarragon or with
chervil. 8. To secure a slight flavor of strong herbs, crush a few of the
fresh leaves in a mortar, and soak them in a little oil, which may then
be pressed out and added to the dressing. Herbs may be used as follows:

566 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

Summer savory or thyme in a green salad to be served with poultry; mint
in a salad to be served with lamb or mutton or on a lamb or mutton salad;
sweet marjoram or sage in a salad served with geese or ducks; sweet basil
in a salad of fish or clams; caraway, balm, or chervil may also be used.
9. Add chopped parsley, chives, capers, or green peppers. 10. Add the
finely chopped white of a hard-cooked egg, or the yolk put through a sieve.
11. Add chutney sauce, catchup, or Chile sauce. 12. Add tabasco or Wor-
cestershire sauce. 13. Add cheese, such as grated Cheddar, crumbled
Roquefort, or grated Parmesan. 14. Add curry powder.

Cream dressing.

Two standard recipes for cream dressings are as follows:
Sour cream dressing (for cold boiled vegetables and tomatoes)

1 cup thick sour cream (not too old)

2 teaspoons vinegar 1 teaspoon sugar

1 teaspoon salt Dash of cayenne or % teaspoon

Juice % lemon paprika

Beat the ingredients together thoroughly.
Sweet cream dressing (for vegetable or fruit salads)

3^ cup heavy cream Y teaspoon salt

3 tablespoons vinegar Cayenne pepper or }/ teaspoon

paprika

Beat the cream until it is stiff; add the seasonings; add the vinegar
slowly, and continue to beat until the ingredients are well blended. For
tomato salads and meats, fold in 2 tablespoons of grated horse-radish root.

Mayonnaise dressing.

Suitable for egg salad, fish or meat salad, and for fruit or vegetable salad,
although French dressing is often preferred for the last two.

Recipe.

1 cup oil 2/3 teaspoon powdered sugar,
Yolk of 1 egg if desired

2 tablespoons vinegar 2/3 teaspoon salt

or lemon juice 2/3 teaspoon mustard

Few grains cayenne

If onion flavor is desired, rub a bowl with a freshly cut onion or a clove
of garlic. Put in the seasonings, and mix them well. Add the entire
amount of acid, then add the egg yolk and beat the mixture well. Add
the oil, at first by tablespoons and later in larger quantities, beating the
mixture with a Dover egg-beater after each addition. When all the oil
has been used, add any further necessary seasonings, and beat the mixture
thoroughly. Cover the bowl with an earthen dish, and keep it in a cool
place until it is needed.

SALADS 567

By adding the acid before the oil, the egg is partially curdled or thick-
ened, and the oil may be added more rapidly than by the older method.

Mayonnaise may be prevented from separating, and the quantity may
be increased without materially altering the flavor, by stirring into it,
after it is mixed, from 1/3 to % its bulk of hot cornstarch paste, made in
the following way:

2 tablespoons cornstarch 1/3 cup boiling water

1/3 cup vinegar

Add the vinegar to the cornstarch in an enamel saucepan, stirring the
mixture until it is smooth. Add the boiling water, bring the mixture to
the boiling point, and simmer it gently for 5 minutes. Cool it slightly, and
beat the desired quantity into the mayonnaise, which will become thicker
and lighter in color. Chill the dressing before using it.

This starch-paste binding is good for modifying the excessive oily flavor,
to which some persons object. It may also be used to conceal the flavor
of cottonseed, corn, or peanut oil for persons who have become accustomed
to olive oil.

Variations in mayonnaise dressing.

1. The number of raw egg-yolks in the original dressing may be in-
creased, or part of the yolks used may be raw and the other part hard-
cooked and pressed through a sieve. When several egg-yolks are used,
somewhat less oil will be required, and the dressing will be stiff enough
for whipped cream or the stiffly beaten white of egg to be added to it just
before it is used. Extra salt and other seasoning should be added as
required. When hard-cooked yolks are substituted entirely for raw yolks,
the result is called Remoulade sauce. 2. For Potato Mayonnaise use the
inside of a small freshly baked potato in place of egg-yolks. Remove it,
mash it, and add:

1 teaspoon mustard 1 tablespoon vinegar

1 teaspoon salt 1 teaspoon powered

Dash of cayenne pepper sugar, if desired %

Force the mixture through a fine sieve, and add 1 tablespoon of vinegar
and 2/3 cup of oil by tablespoons, as in standard mayonnaise. 3. Use thick,
slightly soured cream in place of a part of the oil. 4. Use melted butter
in place of a part of the oil. 5. For fruit salads, use powdered sugar, omit
the mustard and pepper, and use lemon juice in place of vinegar. 6. For
White Mayonnaise, use a smaller quantity of egg-yolk; substitute lemon
juice which whitens the dressing for vinegar. Beat in whipped cream
or stiffly beaten egg-whites just before using the dressing. 7. For Green
Mayonnaise, add juice pressed from fresh leaves of spinach, parsley,
tarragon, or other salad herbs. A combination of two parts of water
cress and one part of parsley is particularly good. -Break the greens in
pieces, pound them in a mortar until they are thoroughly macerated; then

568 A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING

squeeze out the juice through cheese-cloth. Artificial vegetable coloring
may also be used. 8. For Red Mayonnaise, color the dressing with lobster
or pimentos rubbed through a fine sieve, or with cooked beet juice, highly
colored fruit juice, or artificial vegetable colorings. 9. For Horse-radish
Mayonnaise, to be used with meat and fish salads, add about 3 tablespoons
of grated horse-radish, or the same amount of prepared horse-radish. In
the latter case, squeeze out the vinegar in which the horse-radish was
packed, and use it instead of the plain vinegar in the dressing. 10. For
meat, fish, or shell-fish salads, to 1 cup of mayonnaise add 2 tablespoons
each of olives and finely chopped pickles. 11. For Mayonnaise Tartare
or Sauce Tartare, to be used with, fish and shell-fish salads, fried fish,
scallops, and soft-shell crabs, add onion juice or finely chopped onions and
finely chopped cucumber pickles, capers, parsley, and olives. 12. To 1 cup
of mayonnaise, add 1 % tablespoons of chutney and stir the mixture until
it is thoroughly blended.

Cooked salad dressings.

Boiled dressing (for vegetable and fruit salads, and for salmon salad).

Recipe I

Yolks of 3 eggs % teaspoon paprika

1/3 cup sugar ^ teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon mustard 1 cup vinegar

Whipped cream

Beat the eggs slightly, and add to them the other ingredients in the
order given. Cook the mixture in a double boiler, stirring it constantly
until it is smooth and thick. This dressing will keep for a long time in a
cold place. When ready to use the dressing, mix it with equal parts of
whipped cream. A variation pineapple dressing for fruit salads may be
made as follows:

2 eggs 1}4 tablespoons butter
6 tablespoons pineapple juice Salt

3 tablespoons sugar Whipped cream

Recipe II.

4 tablespoons sugar 1^ cups milk

2^6 teaspoons mustard 3 tablespoons melted butter

2 teaspoons salt % cup vinegar

1^ tablespoons flour 2 eggs, slightly beaten

Cayenne pepper

Mix the dry ingredients and blend with them Y cup of milk. Heat the
remainder of the milk to the boiling point, add the butter, thicken it with
the first mixture, and boil this for 2 minutes. Cool the mixture slightly,
add the vinegar gradually, and pour this hot liquid cautiously over the
slightly beaten egg, stirring it constantly. Cook the dressing over hot

SALADS 569

water until it thickens. Cool it immediately in order to prevent curdling,
and pour it into a scalded glass jar. This recipe makes more than a pint
of rather mild dressing, which will keep for a long time in a cold place.

No whipped cream need be added to the dressing.

For lobster, tuna-fish, or meat salad, omit the sugar and reduce
the milk to 1 cup; add 2 extra tablespoons of butter, and a little more
vinegar. Thus modified the dressing has somewhat the consistency of
real mayonnaise, and is more palatable with meat salads and with lobster
and tuna-fish salads than is the sweetened form. For fruit salads, omit
the mustard and the butter, and replace the milk with thin cream.

Bacon dressing.

Use the fat left from cooking bacon or smoked ham. Heat it, and strain
it through fine cheese-cloth, if there is much sediment. Use two parts
of fat to one part of vinegar, thicken it slightly with flour and water well
blended, and cook the mixture for a few minutes to remove the- raw taste
of the flour. This dressing is generally served hot on dandelion, cabbage,
and other green salads. It is a good salad dressing for use on camping trips.

CHAPTER XXXII
DESSERTS

BY WINIFRED MOSES

IN planning a well-balanced meal the dessert must be con-
sidered, because if it is used at all it plays a part in the nutritive
scheme of the meal. It may be as simple as fresh fruit or as
complex as plum pudding, and the correct choice determines the
success of the' meal both in nutritive value and in palatability